[
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Bovidae",
        "text": "Dairy products such as milk, butter, ghee, yoghurt, buttermilk and cheese are manufactured largely from domestic cattle, though the milk of sheep, goat, yak, and buffalo is also used in some parts of the world and for gourmet products. For example, buffalo milk is used to make mozzarella in Italy and \"gulab jamun\" dessert in India, while sheep milk is used to make blue Roquefort cheese in France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "The goal of cheese making is to control the spoiling of milk into cheese. The milk is traditionally from a cow, goat, sheep or buffalo, although, in theory, cheese could be made from the milk of any mammal. Cow's milk is most commonly used worldwide. The cheesemaker's goal is a consistent product with specific characteristics (appearance, aroma, taste, texture). The process used to make a Camembert will be similar to, but not quite the same as, that used to make Cheddar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goat",
        "text": "Goat milk naturally has small, well-emulsified fat globules, which means the cream remains suspended in the milk, instead of rising to the top, as in raw cow milk; therefore, it does not need to be homogenized. Indeed, if the milk is to be used to make cheese, homogenization is not recommended, as this changes the structure of the milk, affecting the culture's ability to coagulate the milk and the final quality and yield of cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Cheese is a dairy product usually made from the milk of cows, buffalo, goats or sheep."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk",
        "text": "Aside from cattle, many kinds of livestock provide milk used by humans for dairy products. These animals include water buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, donkey, horse, reindeer and yak. The first four respectively produced about 11%, 2%, 1.4% and 0.2% of all milk worldwide in 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Montb\u00e9liarde",
        "text": "The animals are red pied with white heads and short horns, and of dairy type. Mature cows weigh and stand about tall at the withers, and mature bulls weigh . The milk is particularly well suited to cheesemaking because of a high frequency of kappa casein BB variants, giving higher yields of cheese. Being of less extreme dairy type than modern Holsteins, the cows have lower milk yields, but better longevity and fertility and lower cell counts in the milk, indicating lower mastitis incidence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Cheese is a dairy product produced in wide ranges of flavors, textures and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, or sheep. During production, the milk is usually acidified and the enzymes of either rennet or bacterial enzymes with similar activity are added to cause the casein to coagulate. The solid curds are then separated from the liquid whey and pressed into finished cheese. Some cheeses have aromatic molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Animal husbandry",
        "text": "Although all mammals produce milk to nourish their young, the cow is predominantly used throughout the world to produce milk and milk products for human consumption. Other animals used to a lesser extent for this purpose include sheep, goats, camels, buffaloes, yaks, reindeer, horses and donkeys."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue cheese",
        "text": "First, raw milk (either from cattle, goats or sheep) is mixed and pasteurized at for 15 seconds. Then, acidification occurs: a starter culture, such as \"Streptococcus lactis,\" is added in order to change lactose to lactic acid, thus changing the acidity of the milk and turning it from liquid to solid. The next step is coagulation, where rennet, a mixture of rennin and other material found in the stomach lining of a calf is added to solidify the milk further. Following this, thick curds are cut typically with a knife to encourage the release of liquid or whey. The smaller the curds are cut, the thicker and harder the resulting cheese will become."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dairy",
        "text": "Cheese is another product made from milk. Whole milk is reacted to form curds that can be compressed, processed and stored to form cheese. In countries where milk is legally allowed to be processed without pasteurization, a wide range of cheeses can be made using the bacteria found naturally in the milk. In most other countries, the range of cheeses is smaller and the use of artificial cheese curing is greater. Whey is also the byproduct of this process. Some people with lactose intolerance are surprisingly able to eat certain types of cheese. This is because some traditionally made hard cheeses, and soft ripened cheeses may create less reaction than the equivalent amount of milk because of the processes involved. Fermentation and higher fat content contribute to lesser amounts of lactose. Traditionally made Emmental or Cheddar might contain 10% of the lactose found in whole milk. In addition, the aging methods of traditional cheeses (sometimes over two years) reduce their lactose content to practically nothing. Commercial cheeses, however, are often manufactured by processes that do not have the same lactose-reducing properties. Ageing of some cheeses is governed by regulations; in other cases there is no quantitative indication of degree of ageing and concomitant lactose reduction, and lactose content is not usually indicated on labels."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of goat cheeses",
        "text": "Goat cheese is produced using goat milk, the milk of domestic goats. Goat milk is commonly used to make cultured dairy products, including cheese. Myriad goat milk cheeses are produced around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "Although the common perception of cheese today is made from cow's milk, goat's milk was actually the preferred base of ancient cheesemakers, due to the fact that goats are smaller animals than cows. This meant that goats required less food and were easier to transport and herd. Moreover, goats can breed any time of the year as opposed to sheep, who also produce milk, but mating season only came around during fall and winter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goat cheese",
        "text": "Cow's milk and goat's milk have similar overall fat contents. However, the higher proportion of medium-chain fatty acids such as caproic and caprylic in goat's milk contributes to the characteristic tart flavor of goat's milk cheese. (These fatty acids take their name from the Latin for \"goat\": \"capra\".) It also has a lower lactose content than cow's milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheddar cheese",
        "text": "During the manufacture of cheddar cheese, the curds and whey are separated using rennet, an enzyme complex normally produced from the stomachs of newborn calves (in vegetarian or kosher cheeses, bacterial, yeast or mould-derived chymosin is used)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dairy cattle",
        "text": "Whey protein makes up about 20% of milk\u2019s protein composition and is separated from the casein (80% of milk\u2019s protein make up) during the process of curdling cheese. This protein is commonly used in protein bars, beverages and concentrated powder, due to its high quality amino acid profile. It contains levels of both essential amino acids as well as branched that are above those of soy, meat, and wheat. \"Diafiltered\" milk is a process of ultrafiltration of the fluid milk to separate lactose and water from the casein and whey proteins. This process allows for more efficiency in cheese making and gives the potential to produce low-carb dairy products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Casein",
        "text": "Cheese consists of proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, or sheep. It is produced by coagulation that is caused by destabilization of the casein micelle, which begins the processes of fractionation and selective concentration. Typically, the milk is acidified and then coagulated by the addition of rennet, containing a proteolytic enzyme known as rennin; traditionally obtained from the stomachs of calves, but currently produced more often from genetically modified microorganisms. The solids are then separated and pressed into final form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint-Nectaire",
        "text": "The next stage of the production is the picking up of the grains, which fall and are gathered to the tank bottom. Then, the operator removes the whey that makes up for 80% of the initial volume of milk. The milk serum or milk permeate is later given to the cows, spread in the fields. It can also be collected by some dairy industries that extract cream from it, turn it into powder to feed the calves, or use it in the elaboration of other food products, such as chocolate and pre-packaged-meals. Once drained, the bits of renneted milk are pressed for the first time into their mould using a machine. The compressed cheese is called \"tome\". The \"tome\" is then wrapped into linen, a little casein stamp (oval or square) is put on top of it, and the cheese is salted (with some brine). Next it is put into a press for 12 to 24 hours. The next step is called \"ressuyage\" (lit. \"re-wiping\"), when the cheese is unwrapped, and stored in a cold room, at , with between 40% to 60% relative humidity. Farmers and dairy producers can allow the \u201ctome\u201d to mature, or sell to cheese aging specialists."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "For preservation purposes, cheese-making may have begun by the pressing and salting of curdled milk. Animal skins and inflated internal organs already provided storage vessels for a range of foodstuffs. Curdling milk in an animal's stomach made solid and better-textured curds, which could easily have led to the conscious addition of rennet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camel milk",
        "text": "Cheese from camel milk is more difficult to make than cheese from the milk of other dairy animals. In camel-herding communities, camel milk cheeses use spontaneous fermentation or lactic fermentation to achieve a sour curd; in camel farming in Sudan, the Rashaida tribe use this method to store surplus milk in the rainy season, pulverising the dried curds and adding water for consumption in the dry season, and in Mongolia, camel milk is consumed as a product at various stages of the curd-making process. However, the milk does not coagulate easily and bovine rennet fails to coagulate the milk effectively. Developing less wasteful uses of the milk, the FAO commissioned Professor J.P. Ramet of the \u00c9cole Nationale Sup\u00e9rieure d'Agronomie et des Industries Alimentaires (ENSAIA), who was able to produce curdling by the addition of calcium phosphate and vegetable rennet in the 1990s. The cheese produced from this process has low levels of cholesterol and is easy to digest, even for the lactose intolerant. The European-style cheese, marketed under the name Caravane, was created through collaboration between Mauritanian camel milk dairy Tiviski, the FAO, and Ramet. It is claimed to be the only camel milk cheese in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "For a few cheeses, the milk is curdled by adding acids such as vinegar or lemon juice. Most cheeses are acidified to a lesser degree by bacteria, which turn milk sugars into lactic acid, then the addition of rennet completes the curdling. Vegetarian alternatives to rennet are available; most are produced by fermentation of the fungus \"Mucor miehei\", but others have been extracted from various species of the \"Cynara\" thistle family. Cheesemakers near a dairy region may benefit from fresher, lower-priced milk, and lower shipping costs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clostridium tyrobutyricum",
        "text": "\"Clostridium tyrobutyricum\" spores present in raw milk ferments lactate causing the \"late-blowing\" defect in high-pH cheeses such as Emmentaler, Gouda or Edammer. Even low spore densities of this anaerobe in milk used for cheese production can bring about this phenomenon, if the growth conditions are suitable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sheep milk cheese",
        "text": "Though sheep's milk may be drunk in fresh form, today it is used predominantly in cheese and yogurt making. Well-known cheeses made from sheep milk include the Feta of Bulgaria and Greece, Roquefort of France, Manchego from Spain, the Pecorino Romano (the Italian word for sheep is \"pecore\") and Ricotta of Italy. Yogurts, especially some forms of strained yogurt, may also be made from sheep milk. Many of these products are now often made with cow's milk, especially when produced outside their country of origin. It takes between 2 weeks to 2\u20133 months up to two years for the cheeses to fully ripen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "Cheese is made by bringing milk (possibly pasteurised) in the cheese vat to a temperature required to promote the growth of the bacteria that feed on lactose and thus ferment the lactose into lactic acid. These bacteria in the milk may be wild, as is the case with unpasteurised milk, added from a culture, frozen or freeze dried concentrate of starter bacteria. Bacteria which produce only lactic acid during fermentation are homofermentative; those that also produce lactic acid and other compounds such as carbon dioxide, alcohol, aldehydes and ketones are heterofermentative. Fermentation using homofermentative bacteria is important in the production of cheeses such as Cheddar, where a clean, acid flavour is required. For cheeses such as Emmental the use of heterofermentative bacteria is necessary to produce the compounds that give characteristic fruity flavours and, importantly, the gas that results in the formation of bubbles in the cheese ('eye holes')."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk",
        "text": "In many cultures, especially in the West, humans continue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other mammals (especially cattle, goats and sheep) as a food product. Initially, the ability to digest milk was limited to children as adults did not produce lactase, an enzyme necessary for digesting the lactose in milk. People therefore converted milk to curd, cheese and other products to reduce the levels of lactose. Thousands of years ago, a chance mutation spread in human populations in northwestern Europe that enabled the production of lactase in adulthood. This mutation allowed milk to be used as a new source of nutrition which could sustain populations when other food sources failed. Milk is processed into a variety of products such as cream, butter, yogurt, kefir, ice cream, and cheese. Modern industrial processes use milk to produce casein, whey protein, lactose, condensed milk, powdered milk, and many other food-additives and industrial products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Types of cheese",
        "text": "The best known cheeses of the type, all made from cow's milk, include the Swiss Emmental, Gruy\u00e8re and Appenzeller, as well as the French Beaufort and Comt\u00e9 (from the Jura Mountains, near the Alps). Both countries have many other traditional varieties, as do the Alpine regions of Austria (Alpk\u00e4se) and Italy (Asiago), though these have not achieved the same degree of intercontinental fame. Most global modern production is industrial, and usually made in rectangular blocks, and by wrapping in plastic no rind is allowed to form. Historical production was all with \"raw\" milk, although the periods of high heat in making largely controlled unwelcome bacteria, but modern production may use thermized or pasteurized milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Old Gloucester",
        "text": "The average milk yield is about per lactation; some cows may give up to . Lactation lasts close to 300 days. The milk has an average butterfat content of 3.9%, with 3.3% protein and 4.6% lactose, and is suitable for cheese-making. It is used to make both Single Gloucester and Stinking Bishop cheeses. Under European Union legislation, Single Gloucester had Protected Designation of Origin status, which required that the cheese be made in Gloucestershire, and either did or did not require that the milk used be from Gloucester cows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bondost",
        "text": "This cow's-milk cheese is cylindrical in shape, about across and high. After the milk (either raw or pasteurized) is curdled, heated, cut, salted, stirred, pressed into forms, and immersed into brine for a day or two, the new cheese is ripened for six to eight weeks. Sometimes bondost is spiced with cumin or caraway seeds, which are incorporated into the curd just before it is molded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abondance cattle",
        "text": "Their milk is rich in both fat and protein, with a good balance between the two. The milk is traditionally used to produce Appellation d'Origine Contr\u00f4l\u00e9e (AOC) cheese such as the reblochon, abondance, tome des Bauges and the beaufort. Typical milk production is 5700\u00a0kg per lactation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk allergy",
        "text": "Milk from other mammalian species (goat, sheep, etc.) should not be used as a substitute for cow's milk, as milk proteins from other mammals are often cross-reactive. Nevertheless, some people with cow's milk allergy can tolerate goat's or sheep's milk, and vice versa. Milk from camels, pigs, reindeer, horses, and donkeys may also be tolerated in some cases. Probiotic products have been tested, and some found to contain milk proteins which were not always indicated on the labels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Annatto",
        "text": "In cheese, the yellow and orange hues naturally vary throughout the year as the cow's feed changed: in the summer, with fresh grass and its natural carotene content, the milk produced would have a natural orange tint, as would the cheese made from it, while at other times of the year, the tint would be greatly reduced. As the pigment is carried in the cream, skimming the milk, which some farmers did to make butter or to sell it separately, the lesser-quality cheese from such milk would be white."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goat milk",
        "text": "Goat milk naturally has small, well-emulsified fat globules, which means the cream will stay in suspension for a longer period of time than cows milk; therefore, it does not need to be homogenized. Eventually, the cream will rise to the top over a period of a few days. Indeed, if the milk is to be used to make cheese, homogenization is not recommended, as this changes the structure of the milk, affecting the culture's ability to coagulate the milk and the final quality and yield of cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "Cheesemaking may have originated from nomadic herdsmen who stored milk in vessels made from sheep's and goats' stomachs. Because their stomach linings contains a mix of lactic acid, bacteria as milk contaminants and rennet, the milk would ferment and coagulate. A product reminiscent of yogurt would have been produced, which through gentle agitation and the separation of curds from whey would have resulted in the production of cheese; the cheese being essentially a concentration of the major milk protein, casein, and milk fat. The whey proteins, other major milk proteins, and lactose are all removed in the cheese whey. Another theory is offered by David Asher, who wrote that the origins actually lie within the \"sloppy milk bucket in later European culture, it having gone unwashed and containing all of the necessary bacteria to facilitate the ecology of cheese\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Some hard cheeses are then heated to temperatures in the range of . This forces more whey from the cut curd. It also changes the taste of the finished cheese, affecting both the bacterial culture and the milk chemistry. Cheeses that are heated to the higher temperatures are usually made with thermophilic starter bacteria that survive this step\u2014either \"Lactobacilli\" or \"Streptococci\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sheep milk",
        "text": "Sheep milk is extremely high in fat and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and has a high level of solids, as compared to other milks. This makes it very suitable for cheese-making. In particular, sheep's milk produces much more cheese than the same amount of cow's milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rennet",
        "text": "Rennet has traditionally been used to separate milk into solid curds and liquid whey, used in the production of cheeses. Rennet from calves is becoming less and less common for this use, to the point that less than 5% of cheese in the world is made using animal rennet today. Most cheese is now made using chymosin derived from bacterial sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Buffalo mozzarella",
        "text": "To produce of cheese, a cheese maker requires of cow milk but only of buffalo milk. Producing 1\u00a0kg of butter requires of cow milk but only of buffalo milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "In 2014, world production of cheese from whole cow milk was 18.7 million tonnes, with the United States accounting for 29% (5.4\u00a0million tonnes) of the world total followed by Germany, France and Italy as major producers (table)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allauch",
        "text": "One family who converted to agriculture produce different goat cheeses and fresh or refined raw milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Raw milk",
        "text": "A number of cheeses are produced with raw milk although local statutes vary regarding what if any health precautions must be followed such as aging cheese for a certain amount of time. A large proportion of the US population eats several different cheeses made with raw milk, including aged gouda."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u0160ar cheese",
        "text": "In the traditional way of production sheep milk was retained in its original temperature and not pasteurized. Later, in the more modern way the milk was pasteurized before used for cheese production. After pasteurization, the milk gets a dose of yeast which needs which is required for the fermentation process. Again, in the traditional method this yeast was taken from sheep gallstone whereas nowadays it is bought ready to use. After fermentation, the milk is poured into a diaper and compressed to release the liquid Whey remains of the fermentation process. The milk (or pre-cheese) stays in the diaper until it gains a strong and solid state and also starts to change its color from white to light yellow. After that, the cheese is taken out and stays for a few days on racks, in closed door places with low temperature. Finally, it is broken down in pieces (by hand), salted water with Dill is prepared and both are stacked into plastic jars for shipping. An interesting fact is that even the type of wood used in constructing the racks affects the aroma and quality of the cheese. For example, one type of wood which is known to be neutral, doesn't impact the aroma of the cheese and is used most to construct those racks is called \"Pinus peuce\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "A required step in cheesemaking is separating the milk into solid curds and liquid whey. Usually this is done by acidifying (souring) the milk and adding rennet. The acidification can be accomplished directly by the addition of an acid, such as vinegar, in a few cases (paneer, queso fresco). More commonly starter bacteria are employed instead which convert milk sugars into lactic acid. The same bacteria (and the enzymes they produce) also play a large role in the eventual flavor of aged cheeses. Most cheeses are made with starter bacteria from the \"Lactococcus\", \"Lactobacillus\", or \"Streptococcus\" genera. Swiss starter cultures also include \"Propionibacter shermani\", which produces carbon dioxide gas bubbles during aging, giving Swiss cheese or Emmental its holes (called \"eyes\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kefir",
        "text": "Kefir grains will ferment the milk from most mammals and will continue to grow in such milk. Typical animal milks used include cow, goat, and sheep, each with varying organoleptic (flavor, aroma, and texture) and nutritional qualities. Raw milk has been traditionally used."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of sheep milk cheeses",
        "text": "This is a list of sheep milk cheeses. Sheep milk cheese is prepared from sheep milk (or ewe's milk), the milk of domestic sheep. The milk is commonly used to make cultured dairy products, such as cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pig milk",
        "text": "Pig milk\n--Description.\n--Difficulty in milking pigs.\n--Human uses.\n----Cheese.\n----Health and beauty.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dairy",
        "text": "Milk production is irregular, depending on cow biology. Producers must adjust the mix of milk which is sold in liquid form vs. processed foods (such as butter and cheese) depending on changing supply and demand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cream cheese",
        "text": "Cream cheese is easy to make at home, and many methods and recipes are used. Consistent, reliable, commercial manufacture is more difficult. Normally, protein molecules in milk have a negative surface charge, which keeps milk in a liquid state; the molecules act as surfactants, forming micelles around the particles of fat and keeping them in emulsion. Lactic acid bacteria are added to pasteurized and homogenized milk. During the fermentation around , the pH of the milk decreases (it becomes more acidic). Amino acids at the surface of the proteins begin losing charge and become neutral, turning the fat micelles from hydrophilic to hydrophobic state and causing the liquid to coagulate. If the bacteria are left in the milk too long, the pH lowers further, the micelles attain a positive charge, and the mixture returns to liquid form. The key, then, is to kill the bacteria by heating the mixture to at the moment the cheese is at the isoelectric point, meaning the state at which half the ionizable surface amino acids of the proteins are positively charged and half are negative."
      },
      {
        "title": "Br\u00e2nz\u0103 de vaci",
        "text": "Fresh milk is kept at room temperature 22-23\u00b0 for about 36 hours until it becomes sour and it coagulates, the fatty content rises to the top of the milk. The top layer is a dairy product named sm\u00e2nt\u00e2n\u0103, comparable to cr\u00e8me fra\u00eeche. After collecting the fatty layer, the rest of the milk can be mixed vigorously and consumed as kefir. To make the cow cheese, the soured milk is heated gently not exceeding 50\u00b0C, until the whey separates at the edges, the milk is caught in the middle and the fatty content floats on the surface. The content is gently mixed to incorporate the fat into the large pieces of cheese forming in the middle. The slightly cooled composition will be strained through a cheesecloth or a gauze. With the whey strained, the cheese in the gauze retains a spherical shape. It is soft, white and crumbly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goat farming",
        "text": "Goats produce about 2% of the world's total annual milk supply. Some goats are bred specifically for milk. Unprocessed goat milk has small, well-emulsified fat globules, which means the cream remains suspended in the milk instead of rising to the top, as in unprocessed cow milk; therefore, it does not need to be homogenized. Indeed, if goat milk is to be used to make cheese, homogenization is not recommended, as this changes the structure of the milk, affecting the culture's ability to coagulate the milk and the final quality and yield of cheese. Dairy goats in their peak milk production (generally around the third or fourth lactation cycle) average\u2014\u2014of milk production daily\u2014roughly \u2014during a ten-month lactation, producing more just after freshening and gradually dropping in production toward the end of their lactation. The milk generally averages 3.5% butterfat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rushan cheese",
        "text": "Freshly made cows\u2019 milk curds are pulled and stretched into thin sheets, wrapped around long bamboo sticks and hung up until yellow and leather dry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goat",
        "text": "Goat milk is commonly processed into cheese, butter, ice cream, yogurt, \"cajeta\" and other products. Goat cheese is known as \"fromage de ch\u00e8vre\" (\"goat cheese\") in France. Some varieties include Rocamadour and Montrachet. Goat butter is white because goats produce milk with the yellow beta-carotene converted to a colorless form of vitamin A. Goat milk has less cholesterol than cow's milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk Link",
        "text": "Milk Link\n--History.\n--Products.\n----Cheeses.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sheep",
        "text": "Though sheep's milk may be drunk rarely in fresh form, today it is used predominantly in cheese and yogurt making. Sheep have only two teats, and produce a far smaller volume of milk than cows. However, as sheep's milk contains far more fat, solids, and minerals than cow's milk, it is ideal for the cheese-making process. It also resists contamination during cooling better because of its much higher calcium content. Well-known cheeses made from sheep milk include the Feta of Bulgaria and Greece, Roquefort of France, Manchego from Spain, the Pecorino Romano (the Italian word for sheep is \"pecore\") and Ricotta of Italy. Yogurts, especially some forms of strained yogurt, may also be made from sheep milk. Many of these products are now often made with cow's milk, especially when produced outside their country of origin. Sheep milk contains 4.8% lactose, which may affect those who are intolerant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Animal husbandry",
        "text": "In many communities, milk production is only part of the purpose of keeping an animal which may also be used as a beast of burden or to draw a plough, or for the production of fibre, meat and leather, with the dung being used for fuel or for the improvement of soil fertility. Sheep and goats may be favoured for dairy production in climates and conditions that do not suit dairy cows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sheep milk cheese",
        "text": "Sheep have only two teats, and produce a far smaller volume of milk than cows. However, as sheep's milk contains far more fat, solids, and minerals than cow's milk, it is ideal for the cheese-making process. It also resists contamination during cooling better because of its much higher calcium content. Sheep milk contains 4.8% lactose, more lactose than cow milk, and is therefore not an alternative for people who are lactose intolerant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegan cheese",
        "text": "From 2018 to 2020, several new companies were founded to make animal-free cheese, including New Culture, Change Foods, Legendairy Foods, and Better Dairy. Some use genetically engineered yeast to synthesize cow milk proteins without the use of cows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cas\u00edn cheese",
        "text": "The milk used must come from suppliers who are registered with the regulating council. The cows must have fed on local, natural foodstuffs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rennet",
        "text": "Vegan alternatives to cheese are manufactured without using animal milk but instead use soy, wheat, rice or cashew. These can be coagulated with acid using sources such as vinegar or lemon juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sheep milk",
        "text": "Sheep's milk (or ewes' milk) is the milk of domestic sheep. It is commonly used to make cultured dairy products such as cheese. Some of the most popular sheep cheeses include feta (Greece), ricotta (Italy), and Roquefort (France)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Curd",
        "text": "Curd is obtained by coagulating milk in a sequential process called curdling. It can be a final dairy product or the first stage in cheesemaking. The coagulation can be caused by adding rennet or any edible acidic substance such as lemon juice or vinegar, and then allowing it to coagulate. The increased acidity causes the milk proteins (casein) to tangle into solid masses, or \"curds\". Milk that has been left to sour (raw milk alone or pasteurized milk with added lactic acid bacteria) will also naturally produce curds, and sour milk cheeses are produced this way. Producing cheese curds is one of the first steps in cheesemaking; the curds are pressed and drained to varying amounts for different styles of cheese and different secondary agents (molds for blue cheeses, etc.) are introduced before the desired aging finishes the cheese. The remaining liquid, which contains only whey proteins, is the whey. In cow's milk, 90 percent of the proteins are caseins. Curds can be used in baking or may be consumed as a snack."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morlacco",
        "text": "The local Burlina cows - a breed that is at risk of extinction - produced the milk used for this cheese. The Burlina cow is small and hardy and has a piebald black and white coat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flor de Gu\u00eda cheese",
        "text": "The milk is provided by sheep which are kept on open terrain, free to move to new pastures within the designated geographical area. Their food is largely wild plants and grass supplemented by concentrates when necessary. The cows are kept stabled for most of the year but when conditions are favourable they are tethered in open pasture. The goats are grazed on fenced land within the specified area and gathered in at night. The animals may be milked mechanically or manually. The former are conditions of the Spanish Denomination of Origin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goat milk",
        "text": "Goat milk is commonly processed into cheese, butter, ice cream, yogurt, \"cajeta\" and other products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegan cheese",
        "text": "The main ingredients are nuts, soy milk, and soy yogurt. Common plant-based proteins or vegetable proteins used in vegan cheeses are derived from edible sources of protein, such as soybeans, almond, and their milk. Food scientists use a \"blend of gums, protein, solids, and fats\" to create the mouthfeel and melt of dairy cheese since the ones made with nuts do not melt due to the solid base on which they are composed. One vegan cheese product aims to solve this difficulty by making cheese with casein produced by yeast rather than by cows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bra cheese",
        "text": "The cheese may use either unpasteurized or pasteurized milk, often entirely cow's milk, but goat's or sheep's milk may be added in small amounts. It may be served as a soft or hard cheese, depending on the length of aging, from at least forty five days for soft cheese, to six months for hard cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Manufacture of cheddar cheese",
        "text": "In general, the milk is raw milk (whole or 3.3%). The milk must be \"ripened\" before adding in the rennet. The term \"ripening\" means allowing the lactic acid bacteria (LAB) to turn lactose into lactic acid, which lowers the pH of the solution, greatly aiding in the coagulation of the milk. This is vital for the production of cheese curds that are later formed into Cheddar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pig milk",
        "text": "Cheese produced from pig milk has been described as having a concentrated and intensified flavour of pig milk. Chef Edward Lee prepared a ricotta cheese from pig milk, which he described as \"delicious\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sheep milk",
        "text": "Sheep milk cheeses include the feta of Greece, Roquefort of France, Manchego of Spain; Serra da Estrela from Portugal; pecorino Romano (the Italian word for sheep is \"pecora\"), pecorino Sardo, and ricotta of Italy; Pag cheese of Croatia; \u0120bejna of Malta; and Gomolya of Hungary; and Bryndza (\"Slovensk\u00e1 bryndza\" from Slovakia, br\u00e2nza de burduf from Romania and \"Bryndza Podhala\u0144ska\" from Poland)."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States raw milk debate",
        "text": "The Raw Milk Cheesemakers Association hold that cheese produced from raw milk have distinctive complexity and depth of flavor absent from pasteurized-milk cheeses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wagasi",
        "text": "The cow's milk is warmed. It is then stirred with a leaf from a fromagier or any other acidic substance. The milk begins to curdle, after, the curds are removed and then pressed into round cheese wheels. These are then dipped into a red wax that is made from another leaf to aid in preservation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gubbeen Farmhouse Cheese",
        "text": "All milk used for the cheese comes from their own herd of dairy cows, which is a mixture of several breeds; British Friesian, Simmenthal, Jersey, and Kerry. The milk is stored in vats to which starter culture and rennet are added, causing the milk to set. This is then cut and stirred until the curds develop. The cheese is developed in curing rooms where the rind is washed daily. This is an important part of the process as the washing gives rise to the distinctive surface bloom and develops the characteristic flavours. The cheese develops deeper flavours as it matures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dromedary",
        "text": "The acidity of dromedary milk stored at increases at a slower rate than that of cow milk. Though the preparation of butter from dromedary milk is difficult, it is produced in small amounts by nomads, optimized at 22.5% fat in the cream. In 2001, the ability of dromedary milk to form curd was studied; coagulation did not show curd formation, and had a pH of 4.4. It was much different from curd produced from cow milk, and had a fragile, heterogeneous composition probably composed of casein flakes. Nevertheless, cheese and other dairy products can be made from camel milk. A study found bovine calf rennet could be used to coagulate dromedary milk. A special factory has been set up in Nouakchott to pasteurise and make cheese from camel milk. Mystical beliefs surround the use of camel milk in some places; for example, it may be used as an aphrodisiac in Ethiopia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Faisselle",
        "text": "The cheese is traditionally made from raw milk from cows, goats, or sheep, and is between and on average."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camembert",
        "text": "The cheese is made by inoculating warmed cow milk with mesophilic bacteria, then adding rennet and allowing the mixture to coagulate. The curd is then cut into roughly 1\u00a0cm (1/2 inch) cubes, salted, and transferred to low cylindrical camembert molds. The molds are turned every six to twelve hours to allow the whey to drain evenly from the cut curds; after 48 hours, each mold contains a flat, cylindrical, solid cheese mass weighing generally 250 grams (about 9 oz). At this point the fresh cheese is hard, crumbly, and bland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lactose intolerance",
        "text": "The rise of dairy and producing dairy related products from cow milk alone, varies across different regions of the world, aside from genetic predisposition. The process of turning milk into cheese dates back earlier than 5200 BC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sheep milk cheese",
        "text": "Sheep milk cheese is a cheese prepared from sheep milk. Well-known cheeses made from sheep milk include the Feta of Greece, Roquefort of France, Manchego from Spain, the Pecorino Romano and Ricotta of Italy. Yogurts, especially some forms of strained yogurt, may also be made from sheep milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Messinese goat",
        "text": "The milk yield per lactation of the Messinese is for primiparous, for secondiparous, and for pluriparous, nannies. The milk averages 5.83% fat and 4.13% protein, and is used mostly to make caprino and mixed-milk cheeses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dairy product",
        "text": "Cheese, produced by coagulating milk, separating curds from whey, and letting it ripen, generally with bacteria, and sometimes also with certain molds.\n* Custard, thickened with eggs\n* Imitation custard, thickened with starch\n*Ice cream, slowly frozen cream, milk, flavors and emulsifying additives (dairy ice cream)\n*Gelato, slowly frozen milk and water, lesser fat than ice cream\n*Ice milk, low-fat version of ice cream\n*Frozen custard\n*Frozen yogurt, yogurt with emulsifiers"
      },
      {
        "title": "Food pyramid (nutrition)",
        "text": "Dairy products are produced from the milk of mammals, usually but not exclusively cattle. They include milk, yogurt and cheese. Milk and its derivative products are a rich source of dietary calcium and also provide protein, phosphorus, vitamin A, and vitamin D. However, many dairy products are high in saturated fat and cholesterol compared to vegetables, fruits and whole grains, which is why skimmed products are available as an alternative."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk & Cheese",
        "text": "Milk & Cheese\n--Publication history.\n--Ancillary products.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rennet",
        "text": "Because of the limited availability of mammalian stomachs for rennet production, cheese makers have sought other ways to coagulate milk since at least Roman times. The many sources of enzymes that can be a substitute for animal rennet range from plants and fungi to microbial sources. Cheeses produced from any of these varieties of rennet are suitable for lactovegetarians. Fermentation-produced chymosin is used more often in industrial cheesemaking in North America and Europe today because it is less expensive than animal rennet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food and drink prohibitions",
        "text": "Although eating the stomach of a goat, cow, sheep, or buffalo might be taboo, ancient cheesemaking techniques utilize stomachs (which contain rennet) for turning milk into cheese, a potentially taboo process. Newer techniques for making cheese include a chemical process with artificial rennet. This means that the \"process\" by which cheese is made (and not the cheese itself) is a factor in determining whether it is forbidden or allowed by strict vegetarians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mallorca cheese",
        "text": "The milk is coagulated by animal rennet when the milk is 30-35\u00b0C (86-95\u00b0F) and for a period not less than 30 minutes. The curd is cut mechanically with horizontal and vertical lyres until the curd is reduced to pieces of less than 20mm (inches) to facilitate drainage of the whey. The curd is then placed in moulds inside a linen or cotton lining, within the mould it is subjected to a pressure of between 2 and 6\u00a0kg/cm2. for at least 3 hours. The pressed cheeses are then salted in a brine bath for at least 18 hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Types of cheese",
        "text": "Some cheeses are categorized by the source of the milk used to produce them or by the added fat content of the milk from which they are produced. While most of the world's commercially available cheese is made from cow's milk, many parts of the world also produce cheese from goats and sheep. Examples include Roquefort (produced in France) and Pecorino (produced in Italy) from ewe's milk. One farm in Sweden also produces cheese from moose's milk. Sometimes cheeses marketed under the same name are made from milk of different species\u2014feta cheeses, for example, are made from sheep's milk in Greece."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegan cheese",
        "text": "Plant-based proteins or vegetable proteins are derived from edible sources of protein, such as soybeans and their milk. The manufacturing process of fermentation is often in use to replicate dairy cheese texture and flavor, as well. It is made with a different process from that used in dairy cheeses, as the proteins in plant-based milk reacts differently to culturing agents and do not coagulate as the traditional cheese does. It must be aged with other methods, as ambient temperature and humidity monitoring, and culturing agents, such as rejuvelac, nondairy yogurt, or kombucha, which are not recommended to use due to the risks involved in the fermentation process, and kefir grains that are recommended but not very used at present. If these processes are not carried out properly, with good hygiene and correct fermentation methods, the product can carry pathogens, such as \"Salmonella\", \"Listeria\", \"E. coli\", and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prescins\u00eaua cheese",
        "text": "While in the past it was obtained through the processing of whey, now it is obtained starting from whole milk. 2 liters of milk are let resting in a pot for 48 hours. Afterwards, 500ml of such milk are put in another pot and heated to 40-50\u00b0C, rennet is added (about 5g). The two milk pots are joined and let rest for 4 more hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Particle aggregation",
        "text": "Cheese making. The key step in cheese production is the separation of the milk into solid curds and liquid whey. This separation is achieved by inducing the aggregation processes between casein micelles by acidifying the milk or adding rennet. The acidification neutralizes the carboxylate groups on the micelles and induces the aggregation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fungus",
        "text": "Certain types of cheeses require inoculation of milk curds with fungal species that impart a unique flavor and texture to the cheese. Examples include the blue color in cheeses such as Stilton or Roquefort, which are made by inoculation with \"Penicillium roqueforti\". Molds used in cheese production are non-toxic and are thus safe for human consumption; however, mycotoxins (e.g., aflatoxins, roquefortine C, patulin, or others) may accumulate because of growth of other fungi during cheese ripening or storage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Over a thousand types of cheese exist and are currently produced in various countries. Their styles, textures and flavors depend on the origin of the milk (including the animal's diet), whether they have been pasteurized, the butterfat content, the bacteria and mold, the processing, and how long they have been aged for. Herbs, spices, or wood smoke may be used as flavoring agents. The yellow to red color of many cheeses is produced by adding annatto. Other ingredients may be added to some cheeses, such as black pepper, garlic, chives or cranberries. A cheesemonger, or specialist seller of cheeses, may have expertise with selecting the cheeses, purchasing, receiving, storing and ripening them."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c9poisses",
        "text": "At the first stage of manufacture, the whole milk is heated to around with the coagulation lasting for at least 16 hours. The fragile curds are drained in moulds, and the whey is then allowed to run off. Around 48 hours later the cheese is removed, salted, and placed on racks to dry; once dry, it is moved to cellars to mature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ossau-Iraty",
        "text": "Production techniques are very much in the essence of old world methods whereby the sheep still graze mountain pastures. The milk must come from the breeds Basco-b\u00e9arnaise, , or . This is an uncooked cheese made through pressing. When offered as a farm-produced cheese (known as \"fromage fermier\", \"fromage de ferme\" or \"produit fermier\") the AOC regulations stipulate that only raw, unpasteurized milk be used.\n* 3,067 tonnes (in 2003)\n* 60 producers (in 2003)\n* 8 manufacturers: private industries and cooperatives (in 1998)\n* 2,045 milk producers (in 1998)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gamalost",
        "text": "To make Gamalost, lactic starter is added to skimmed cow's milk, causing it to sour. After several days of souring, the milk is slowly heated, before the curds are separated and pressed into forms. After removal from the forms, mold is introduced onto the surface of the cheese, either by exposure to the wooden walls of the form that is only used for Gammalost, or rubbed on by hand in the traditional method. The cheese is then allowed to cure for four to five weeks. The ripening happens from outside inwards, so the center might be lighter than the parts near the exterior."
      },
      {
        "title": "Delle Langhe",
        "text": "The milk is used in Toma di Murazzano, a DOP cheese made with sheep's milk or a mixture of sheep's and cow's milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sheep milk",
        "text": "In the U.S., the most common dairy breeds are the East Friesian and the Lacaune. Meat or wool breeds do not produce as much milk as dairy breeds, but may produce enough for small amounts of cheese and other products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colby cheese",
        "text": "The manufacturing process for Colby is similar to that of cheddar cheese, except that the mixture does not go through the cheddaring process. Cow's milk that has been standardized to a protein\u2013fat ratio of 0.96 undergoes pasteurization and is stored at while the starter \"Lactococcus lactis\" (subspecies \"lactis\" and/or \"cremoris\") is added. After an hour, of annatto, a coloring agent, and of diluted rennet are added per of milk. The mixture is left to set for 15 to 30 minutes. The curd is then cut and cooked at until the pH of the whey is about 6.2 to 6.3."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camel",
        "text": "Camel milk can readily be made into yogurt, but can only be made into butter if it is soured first, churned, and a clarifying agent is then added. Until recently, camel milk could not be made into camel cheese because rennet was unable to coagulate the milk proteins to allow the collection of curds. Developing less wasteful uses of the milk, the FAO commissioned Professor J.P. Ramet of the \u00c9cole Nationale Sup\u00e9rieure d'Agronomie et des Industries Alimentaires, who was able to produce curdling by the addition of calcium phosphate and vegetable rennet in the 1990s. The cheese produced from this process has low levels of cholesterol and is easy to digest, even for the lactose intolerant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Harding",
        "text": "His dictum was 'Cheese is not made in the field, nor in the byre, nor even in the cow, it is made in the dairy'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dairy",
        "text": "In earlier times, whey or milk serum was considered to be a waste product and it was, mostly, fed to pigs as a convenient means of disposal. Beginning about 1950, and mostly since about 1980, lactose and many other products, mainly food additives, are made from both casein and cheese whey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Young's Jersey Dairy",
        "text": "They maintain a herd of approximately 50 Jersey cows; the milk from the cows is used to produce their cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "V\u00e4sterbotten cheese",
        "text": "It is a hard cow's milk cheese with tiny eyes or holes and a firm and granular texture. As in Cheddar cheese, the curd is heated, cut, and stirred before the cheese is moulded and aged. Strong in flavour, its taste is described as somewhat like Parmesan cheese, salty, but with more bitter notes. It is light yellow in colour and has a fat content of 31%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cacioricotta",
        "text": "To manufacture the cheese filtered milk is heated up until it reaches its boiling point; the liquid is then left to cool until it reaches a temperature of 38-40\u00b0, rennet is then added. Due to the liquid reaching a temperature close to 90\u00b0 whilst reaching its boiling point curd as well as casein andalbumin are integrated within the liquid, unlike ricotta where whey becomes a by-product."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Aside from cow's milk, what other animal milk is used in making cheese?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Other sources of milk for cheese include goats and sheep's milk.",
      "The milk from buffalo, goats, and sheep in addition to cows  milk are more commonly used to make cheese."
    ],
    "topic": "Cheese",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Types of cheese:19",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Types of cheese",
          "Source of milk"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some cheeses are categorized by the source of the milk used to produce them or by the added fat content of the milk from which they are produced. While most of the world's commercially available cheese is made from cow's milk, many parts of the world also produce cheese from goats and sheep. Examples include Roquefort (produced in France) and Pecorino (produced in Italy) from ewe's milk. One farm in Sweden also produces cheese from moose's milk. Sometimes cheeses marketed under the same name are made from milk of different species\u2014feta cheeses, for example, are made from sheep's milk in Greece."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Cheese:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cheese"
        ],
        "ctx": "Cheese is a dairy product produced in wide ranges of flavors, textures and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, or sheep. During production, the milk is usually acidified and the enzymes of either rennet or bacterial enzymes with similar activity are added to cause the casein to coagulate. The solid curds are then separated from the liquid whey and pressed into finished cheese. Some cheeses have aromatic molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Vegan cheese",
        "text": "The main ingredients are nuts, soy milk, and soy yogurt. Common plant-based proteins or vegetable proteins used in vegan cheeses are derived from edible sources of protein, such as soybeans, almond, and their milk. Food scientists use a \"blend of gums, protein, solids, and fats\" to create the mouthfeel and melt of dairy cheese since the ones made with nuts do not melt due to the solid base on which they are composed. One vegan cheese product aims to solve this difficulty by making cheese with casein produced by yeast rather than by cows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Curdling",
        "text": "Milk and soy milk are curdled intentionally to make cheese and tofu by the addition of enzymes (typically rennet), acids (including lemon juice), or various salts (magnesium chloride, calcium chloride, or gypsum); the curds are then pressed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Cheese is a dairy product usually made from the milk of cows, buffalo, goats or sheep."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u0120bejna",
        "text": "The cheese is available both from pasteurised and unpasteurised milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy milk",
        "text": "In many countries, soy milk is used in vegan and vegetarian food products and as a replacement for cow's milk in many recipes. Soy milk is also used in making imitation dairy products such as soy yogurt, soy cream, soy kefir and soy-based cheese analogues. It is also used as an ingredient for making milkshakes, pancakes, smoothies, bread, mayonnaise, and baked goods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goat",
        "text": "Goat milk naturally has small, well-emulsified fat globules, which means the cream remains suspended in the milk, instead of rising to the top, as in raw cow milk; therefore, it does not need to be homogenized. Indeed, if the milk is to be used to make cheese, homogenization is not recommended, as this changes the structure of the milk, affecting the culture's ability to coagulate the milk and the final quality and yield of cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rennet",
        "text": "Vegan alternatives to cheese are manufactured without using animal milk but instead use soy, wheat, rice or cashew. These can be coagulated with acid using sources such as vinegar or lemon juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dairy",
        "text": "Cheese is another product made from milk. Whole milk is reacted to form curds that can be compressed, processed and stored to form cheese. In countries where milk is legally allowed to be processed without pasteurization, a wide range of cheeses can be made using the bacteria found naturally in the milk. In most other countries, the range of cheeses is smaller and the use of artificial cheese curing is greater. Whey is also the byproduct of this process. Some people with lactose intolerance are surprisingly able to eat certain types of cheese. This is because some traditionally made hard cheeses, and soft ripened cheeses may create less reaction than the equivalent amount of milk because of the processes involved. Fermentation and higher fat content contribute to lesser amounts of lactose. Traditionally made Emmental or Cheddar might contain 10% of the lactose found in whole milk. In addition, the aging methods of traditional cheeses (sometimes over two years) reduce their lactose content to practically nothing. Commercial cheeses, however, are often manufactured by processes that do not have the same lactose-reducing properties. Ageing of some cheeses is governed by regulations; in other cases there is no quantitative indication of degree of ageing and concomitant lactose reduction, and lactose content is not usually indicated on labels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy milk",
        "text": "Soya milk is also used in making imitation dairy products such as soy yogurt, soy cream, soy kefir and soy-based cheese analogues. It is also used as an ingredient for making milkshakes, pancakes, smoothies, bread, mayonnaise, and baked goods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegan cheese",
        "text": "Later homemade vegan cheeses were made from soy flour, margarine, and yeast extract. With harder margarine, this can produce a hard vegan cheese that can be sliced; softer margarine produces a softer, spreadable cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy milk",
        "text": "In the European Union, \"milk\" by law refers exclusively to \"the normal mammary secretion obtained from one or more milkings without either addition thereto or extraction therefrom\". Only cow's milk is allowed to be named \"milk\" on packaging, and any other milks must state the name of the respective animal: for example, \"goat milk\" or \"sheep milk\". The naming of soy drink as soy milk became subject of a 2017 court case before the Court of Justice of the European Union after a German consumer protection group filed an unfair competition complaint about a company describing its soya and tofu products as 'milk' or 'cheese'. The Court of Justice ruled that such designations cannot be legally used for purely plant-based products and that additions indicating the plant origin of the products (\"soy\" milk) does not influence that prohibition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "The goal of cheese making is to control the spoiling of milk into cheese. The milk is traditionally from a cow, goat, sheep or buffalo, although, in theory, cheese could be made from the milk of any mammal. Cow's milk is most commonly used worldwide. The cheesemaker's goal is a consistent product with specific characteristics (appearance, aroma, taste, texture). The process used to make a Camembert will be similar to, but not quite the same as, that used to make Cheddar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegan cheese",
        "text": "Vegan cheese can be made with components derived from vegetables, such as proteins, fats and milks (plant milks). It also can be made from seeds, such as sesame, sunflower, nuts (cashew, pine nut, peanuts, almond) and soybeans; other ingredients are coconut oil, nutritional yeast, tapioca, rice, potatoes and spices."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of goat cheeses",
        "text": "Goat cheese is produced using goat milk, the milk of domestic goats. Goat milk is commonly used to make cultured dairy products, including cheese. Myriad goat milk cheeses are produced around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rushan cheese",
        "text": "Freshly made cows\u2019 milk curds are pulled and stretched into thin sheets, wrapped around long bamboo sticks and hung up until yellow and leather dry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camel",
        "text": "Camel milk can readily be made into yogurt, but can only be made into butter if it is soured first, churned, and a clarifying agent is then added. Until recently, camel milk could not be made into camel cheese because rennet was unable to coagulate the milk proteins to allow the collection of curds. Developing less wasteful uses of the milk, the FAO commissioned Professor J.P. Ramet of the \u00c9cole Nationale Sup\u00e9rieure d'Agronomie et des Industries Alimentaires, who was able to produce curdling by the addition of calcium phosphate and vegetable rennet in the 1990s. The cheese produced from this process has low levels of cholesterol and is easy to digest, even for the lactose intolerant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bovidae",
        "text": "Dairy products such as milk, butter, ghee, yoghurt, buttermilk and cheese are manufactured largely from domestic cattle, though the milk of sheep, goat, yak, and buffalo is also used in some parts of the world and for gourmet products. For example, buffalo milk is used to make mozzarella in Italy and \"gulab jamun\" dessert in India, while sheep milk is used to make blue Roquefort cheese in France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese analogue",
        "text": "Vegan cheese may be made from soybeans, rice, almonds, nutritional yeast and other non-dairy ingredients. It is aimed at vegans and others wanting to avoid animal products, for moral, environmental, religious or health reasons, including lactose intolerance or a desire to avoid cholesterol. Vegan cheeses may be lower in fat compared to dairy cheese, are cholesterol-free and are often a source of soy protein and isoflavones. Many have calcium added. Several brands melt similarly to dairy cheese, while others stay mostly firm, or melt only when grated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goat milk",
        "text": "Goat milk naturally has small, well-emulsified fat globules, which means the cream will stay in suspension for a longer period of time than cows milk; therefore, it does not need to be homogenized. Eventually, the cream will rise to the top over a period of a few days. Indeed, if the milk is to be used to make cheese, homogenization is not recommended, as this changes the structure of the milk, affecting the culture's ability to coagulate the milk and the final quality and yield of cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goat cheese",
        "text": "Goat cheese softens when exposed to heat, although it does not melt in the same way many cow cheeses do. Firmer goat cheeses with rinds are sometimes baked in an oven to create a softer, more viscous texture.\n* Rubing is a fresh goat cheese from Yunnan Province, resembling the Indian paneer, a cow's cheese.\n* Shosha \u2013 a pungent cheese and staple food in Tibetan cuisine of the Tibet Autonomous Region that is often made from animals suited to the climate such as goat and yak.\n* Yagi Cheese is a goat cheese made in Japan. Yagi is the Japanese word for goat.\n* Labneh is a goat, cow or sheep yogurt cheese consumed in many parts of the world including the Eastern Mediterranean. It is often eaten with olive oil, olives, zaatar and fresh vegetables on flatbread for breakfast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Cheese is a dairy product produced in wide ranges of flavors, textures and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, or sheep. During production, the milk is usually acidified and the enzymes of either rennet or bacterial enzymes with similar activity are added to cause the casein to coagulate. The solid curds are then separated from the liquid whey and pressed into finished cheese. Some cheeses have aromatic molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegan cheese",
        "text": "Plant-based proteins or vegetable proteins are derived from edible sources of protein, such as soybeans and their milk. The manufacturing process of fermentation is often in use to replicate dairy cheese texture and flavor, as well. It is made with a different process from that used in dairy cheeses, as the proteins in plant-based milk reacts differently to culturing agents and do not coagulate as the traditional cheese does. It must be aged with other methods, as ambient temperature and humidity monitoring, and culturing agents, such as rejuvelac, nondairy yogurt, or kombucha, which are not recommended to use due to the risks involved in the fermentation process, and kefir grains that are recommended but not very used at present. If these processes are not carried out properly, with good hygiene and correct fermentation methods, the product can carry pathogens, such as \"Salmonella\", \"Listeria\", \"E. coli\", and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Rennet derived from animal slaughter, and thus cheese made with animal-derived rennet, is not vegetarian. Most widely available vegetarian cheeses are made using rennet produced by fermentation of the fungus \"Mucor miehei\". Vegans and other dairy-avoiding vegetarians do not eat conventional cheese, but some vegetable-based cheese substitutes (soy or almond) are used as substitutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States raw milk debate",
        "text": "The Raw Milk Cheesemakers Association hold that cheese produced from raw milk have distinctive complexity and depth of flavor absent from pasteurized-milk cheeses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "Cheesemaking may have originated from nomadic herdsmen who stored milk in vessels made from sheep's and goats' stomachs. Because their stomach linings contains a mix of lactic acid, bacteria as milk contaminants and rennet, the milk would ferment and coagulate. A product reminiscent of yogurt would have been produced, which through gentle agitation and the separation of curds from whey would have resulted in the production of cheese; the cheese being essentially a concentration of the major milk protein, casein, and milk fat. The whey proteins, other major milk proteins, and lactose are all removed in the cheese whey. Another theory is offered by David Asher, who wrote that the origins actually lie within the \"sloppy milk bucket in later European culture, it having gone unwashed and containing all of the necessary bacteria to facilitate the ecology of cheese\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "Although the common perception of cheese today is made from cow's milk, goat's milk was actually the preferred base of ancient cheesemakers, due to the fact that goats are smaller animals than cows. This meant that goats required less food and were easier to transport and herd. Moreover, goats can breed any time of the year as opposed to sheep, who also produce milk, but mating season only came around during fall and winter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Cheese is rarely found in Southeast and East Asian cuisines, presumably for historical reasons as dairy farming has historically been rare in these regions, due in part to low rates of lactose persistence. However, Asian sentiment against cheese is not universal. Paneer (pronounced [p\u0259ni\u02d0r]) is a fresh cheese common in the Indian subcontinent. It is an unaged, non-melting soft cheese made by curdling milk with a fruit- or vegetable-derived acid, such as lemon juice. Its acid-set form, (cheese curd) before pressing, is called chhena. In Nepal, the Dairy Development Corporation commercially manufactures cheese made from yak milk and a hard cheese made from either cow or yak milk known as chhurpi. The national dish of Bhutan, ema datshi, is made from homemade yak or mare milk cheese and hot peppers. In Yunnan, China, several ethnic minority groups produce Rushan and Rubing from cow's milk. Cheese consumption may be increasing in China, with annual sales doubling from 1996 to 2003 (to a still small 30 million U.S. dollars a year). Certain kinds of Chinese preserved bean curd are sometimes misleadingly referred to in English as \"Chinese cheese\" because of their texture and strong flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soybean",
        "text": "Soybeans can be processed to produce a texture and appearance similar to many other foods. For example, soybeans are the primary ingredient in many dairy product substitutes (e.g., soy milk, margarine, soy ice cream, soy yogurt, soy cheese, and soy cream cheese) and meat alternatives (e.g. veggie burgers). These substitutes are readily available in most supermarkets. Soy milk does not naturally contain significant amounts of digestible calcium. Many manufacturers of soy milk sell calcium-enriched products, as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue cheese",
        "text": "First, raw milk (either from cattle, goats or sheep) is mixed and pasteurized at for 15 seconds. Then, acidification occurs: a starter culture, such as \"Streptococcus lactis,\" is added in order to change lactose to lactic acid, thus changing the acidity of the milk and turning it from liquid to solid. The next step is coagulation, where rennet, a mixture of rennin and other material found in the stomach lining of a calf is added to solidify the milk further. Following this, thick curds are cut typically with a knife to encourage the release of liquid or whey. The smaller the curds are cut, the thicker and harder the resulting cheese will become."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "For a few cheeses, the milk is curdled by adding acids such as vinegar or lemon juice. Most cheeses are acidified to a lesser degree by bacteria, which turn milk sugars into lactic acid, then the addition of rennet completes the curdling. Vegetarian alternatives to rennet are available; most are produced by fermentation of the fungus \"Mucor miehei\", but others have been extracted from various species of the \"Cynara\" thistle family. Cheesemakers near a dairy region may benefit from fresher, lower-priced milk, and lower shipping costs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Urdh\u00eb",
        "text": "Urdh\u00eb is traditionally made from whey of sheep, goat or cow milk. the unsalted cheese is produced by warming the whey resulting from the draining of any type of cheese. Later, it is formed into molds to the shape of variant geometric shapes and sizes, The paste is finely grained, silky and smooth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bra cheese",
        "text": "The cheese may use either unpasteurized or pasteurized milk, often entirely cow's milk, but goat's or sheep's milk may be added in small amounts. It may be served as a soft or hard cheese, depending on the length of aging, from at least forty five days for soft cheese, to six months for hard cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Some hard cheeses are then heated to temperatures in the range of . This forces more whey from the cut curd. It also changes the taste of the finished cheese, affecting both the bacterial culture and the milk chemistry. Cheeses that are heated to the higher temperatures are usually made with thermophilic starter bacteria that survive this step\u2014either \"Lactobacilli\" or \"Streptococci\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Casein",
        "text": "Cheese consists of proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, or sheep. It is produced by coagulation that is caused by destabilization of the casein micelle, which begins the processes of fractionation and selective concentration. Typically, the milk is acidified and then coagulated by the addition of rennet, containing a proteolytic enzyme known as rennin; traditionally obtained from the stomachs of calves, but currently produced more often from genetically modified microorganisms. The solids are then separated and pressed into final form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy yogurt",
        "text": "Soy yogurt may have a slight beany soy taste when made directly from freshly prepared soy milk, but this is less pronounced in shop-bought soy yogurt and in soy yogurt made from commercial soy milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Veganism",
        "text": "Butter and margarine can be replaced with alternate vegan products. Vegan cheeses are made from seeds, such as sesame and sunflower; nuts, such as cashew, pine nut, and almond; and soybeans, coconut oil, nutritional yeast, tapioca, and rice, among other ingredients; and can replicate the meltability of dairy cheese. Nutritional yeast is a common substitute for the taste of cheese in vegan recipes. Cheese substitutes can be made at home, including from nuts, such as cashews. Yoghurt and cream products can be replaced with plant-based products such as soy yoghurt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegan cheese",
        "text": "From 2018 to 2020, several new companies were founded to make animal-free cheese, including New Culture, Change Foods, Legendairy Foods, and Better Dairy. Some use genetically engineered yeast to synthesize cow milk proteins without the use of cows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk Link",
        "text": "Milk Link\n--History.\n--Products.\n----Cheeses.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Allauch",
        "text": "One family who converted to agriculture produce different goat cheeses and fresh or refined raw milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of sheep milk cheeses",
        "text": "This is a list of sheep milk cheeses. Sheep milk cheese is prepared from sheep milk (or ewe's milk), the milk of domestic sheep. The milk is commonly used to make cultured dairy products, such as cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Raw milk",
        "text": "A number of cheeses are produced with raw milk although local statutes vary regarding what if any health precautions must be followed such as aging cheese for a certain amount of time. A large proportion of the US population eats several different cheeses made with raw milk, including aged gouda."
      },
      {
        "title": "Types of cheese",
        "text": "Some cheeses are categorized by the source of the milk used to produce them or by the added fat content of the milk from which they are produced. While most of the world's commercially available cheese is made from cow's milk, many parts of the world also produce cheese from goats and sheep. Examples include Roquefort (produced in France) and Pecorino (produced in Italy) from ewe's milk. One farm in Sweden also produces cheese from moose's milk. Sometimes cheeses marketed under the same name are made from milk of different species\u2014feta cheeses, for example, are made from sheep's milk in Greece."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clostridium tyrobutyricum",
        "text": "\"Clostridium tyrobutyricum\" spores present in raw milk ferments lactate causing the \"late-blowing\" defect in high-pH cheeses such as Emmentaler, Gouda or Edammer. Even low spore densities of this anaerobe in milk used for cheese production can bring about this phenomenon, if the growth conditions are suitable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegan cheese",
        "text": "Non-dairy cheese originated in China in the 16th century and was made with fermented tofu or whole soy."
      },
      {
        "title": "So (dairy product)",
        "text": "The production sites known to date include Ajifu in Settsu (current Higashiyodogawa-ku in Osaka). \"So\" is made by solidifying layers of milk skin. The flavor is light, similar to that of cottage cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food pyramid (nutrition)",
        "text": "Dairy products are produced from the milk of mammals, usually but not exclusively cattle. They include milk, yogurt and cheese. Milk and its derivative products are a rich source of dietary calcium and also provide protein, phosphorus, vitamin A, and vitamin D. However, many dairy products are high in saturated fat and cholesterol compared to vegetables, fruits and whole grains, which is why skimmed products are available as an alternative."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk allergy",
        "text": "Milk from other mammalian species (goat, sheep, etc.) should not be used as a substitute for cow's milk, as milk proteins from other mammals are often cross-reactive. Nevertheless, some people with cow's milk allergy can tolerate goat's or sheep's milk, and vice versa. Milk from camels, pigs, reindeer, horses, and donkeys may also be tolerated in some cases. Probiotic products have been tested, and some found to contain milk proteins which were not always indicated on the labels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Plant milk",
        "text": "Plant milks can be made from:\n*Grains: barley, fonio, maize, millet, oat, rice, rye, sorghum, teff, triticale, spelt, wheat\n*Pseudocereals: amaranth, buckwheat, quinoa\n*Legumes: lupin, pea, peanut, soy\n*Nuts: almond, brazil, cashew, hazelnut, macadamia, pecan, pistachio, walnut\n*Seeds: chia seed, flax seed, hemp seed, pumpkin seed, sesame seed, sunflower seed\n*Other: coconut (fruit; drupe), potato (tuber), tiger nut (tuber)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fermented bean curd",
        "text": "Both tofu and cheese are made from curds obtained from the coagulation of soy milk and dairy milk respectively. However, soybean curds are formed from the chemical destabilization of the micelles (using calcium sulfate, magnesium sulfate, etc.) allowing protein bonding while cheese curds are created from the enzymatic (rennet) hydrolysis of casein into para-casein. The bean curds are then simply pressed to produce tofu and thus bland and highly perishable, like unaged cheese, while fermented bean curd, like aged cheese, is ripened with microorganisms and thus flavorful and long-lasting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chreese",
        "text": "Similar soy cheeses are also available from European manufacturers.\n*Chreese - Manufacturer Homepage"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheddar cheese",
        "text": "During the manufacture of cheddar cheese, the curds and whey are separated using rennet, an enzyme complex normally produced from the stomachs of newborn calves (in vegetarian or kosher cheeses, bacterial, yeast or mould-derived chymosin is used)."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u0160ar cheese",
        "text": "In the traditional way of production sheep milk was retained in its original temperature and not pasteurized. Later, in the more modern way the milk was pasteurized before used for cheese production. After pasteurization, the milk gets a dose of yeast which needs which is required for the fermentation process. Again, in the traditional method this yeast was taken from sheep gallstone whereas nowadays it is bought ready to use. After fermentation, the milk is poured into a diaper and compressed to release the liquid Whey remains of the fermentation process. The milk (or pre-cheese) stays in the diaper until it gains a strong and solid state and also starts to change its color from white to light yellow. After that, the cheese is taken out and stays for a few days on racks, in closed door places with low temperature. Finally, it is broken down in pieces (by hand), salted water with Dill is prepared and both are stacked into plastic jars for shipping. An interesting fact is that even the type of wood used in constructing the racks affects the aroma and quality of the cheese. For example, one type of wood which is known to be neutral, doesn't impact the aroma of the cheese and is used most to construct those racks is called \"Pinus peuce\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prescins\u00eaua cheese",
        "text": "It is obtained through the process of acidification of milk: from it is derived a sour milk product, which is let rest in plastic or glass containers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "Cheese is made by bringing milk (possibly pasteurised) in the cheese vat to a temperature required to promote the growth of the bacteria that feed on lactose and thus ferment the lactose into lactic acid. These bacteria in the milk may be wild, as is the case with unpasteurised milk, added from a culture, frozen or freeze dried concentrate of starter bacteria. Bacteria which produce only lactic acid during fermentation are homofermentative; those that also produce lactic acid and other compounds such as carbon dioxide, alcohol, aldehydes and ketones are heterofermentative. Fermentation using homofermentative bacteria is important in the production of cheeses such as Cheddar, where a clean, acid flavour is required. For cheeses such as Emmental the use of heterofermentative bacteria is necessary to produce the compounds that give characteristic fruity flavours and, importantly, the gas that results in the formation of bubbles in the cheese ('eye holes')."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of sheep milk cheeses",
        "text": "List of sheep milk cheeses\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Camel milk",
        "text": "Cheese from camel milk is more difficult to make than cheese from the milk of other dairy animals. In camel-herding communities, camel milk cheeses use spontaneous fermentation or lactic fermentation to achieve a sour curd; in camel farming in Sudan, the Rashaida tribe use this method to store surplus milk in the rainy season, pulverising the dried curds and adding water for consumption in the dry season, and in Mongolia, camel milk is consumed as a product at various stages of the curd-making process. However, the milk does not coagulate easily and bovine rennet fails to coagulate the milk effectively. Developing less wasteful uses of the milk, the FAO commissioned Professor J.P. Ramet of the \u00c9cole Nationale Sup\u00e9rieure d'Agronomie et des Industries Alimentaires (ENSAIA), who was able to produce curdling by the addition of calcium phosphate and vegetable rennet in the 1990s. The cheese produced from this process has low levels of cholesterol and is easy to digest, even for the lactose intolerant. The European-style cheese, marketed under the name Caravane, was created through collaboration between Mauritanian camel milk dairy Tiviski, the FAO, and Ramet. It is claimed to be the only camel milk cheese in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Faisselle",
        "text": "The cheese is traditionally made from raw milk from cows, goats, or sheep, and is between and on average."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sheep milk cheese",
        "text": "Hungary"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dairy cattle",
        "text": "Whey protein makes up about 20% of milk\u2019s protein composition and is separated from the casein (80% of milk\u2019s protein make up) during the process of curdling cheese. This protein is commonly used in protein bars, beverages and concentrated powder, due to its high quality amino acid profile. It contains levels of both essential amino acids as well as branched that are above those of soy, meat, and wheat. \"Diafiltered\" milk is a process of ultrafiltration of the fluid milk to separate lactose and water from the casein and whey proteins. This process allows for more efficiency in cheese making and gives the potential to produce low-carb dairy products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Types of cheese",
        "text": "The best known cheeses of the type, all made from cow's milk, include the Swiss Emmental, Gruy\u00e8re and Appenzeller, as well as the French Beaufort and Comt\u00e9 (from the Jura Mountains, near the Alps). Both countries have many other traditional varieties, as do the Alpine regions of Austria (Alpk\u00e4se) and Italy (Asiago), though these have not achieved the same degree of intercontinental fame. Most global modern production is industrial, and usually made in rectangular blocks, and by wrapping in plastic no rind is allowed to form. Historical production was all with \"raw\" milk, although the periods of high heat in making largely controlled unwelcome bacteria, but modern production may use thermized or pasteurized milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food and drink prohibitions",
        "text": "Although eating the stomach of a goat, cow, sheep, or buffalo might be taboo, ancient cheesemaking techniques utilize stomachs (which contain rennet) for turning milk into cheese, a potentially taboo process. Newer techniques for making cheese include a chemical process with artificial rennet. This means that the \"process\" by which cheese is made (and not the cheese itself) is a factor in determining whether it is forbidden or allowed by strict vegetarians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sheep milk cheese",
        "text": "Sheep milk cheese is a cheese prepared from sheep milk. Well-known cheeses made from sheep milk include the Feta of Greece, Roquefort of France, Manchego from Spain, the Pecorino Romano and Ricotta of Italy. Yogurts, especially some forms of strained yogurt, may also be made from sheep milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fl\u00f8temysost",
        "text": "Fl\u00f8temysost or Fl\u00f8ytemysost is a type of brunost or brown cheese made from cow's milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goat farming",
        "text": "Goats produce about 2% of the world's total annual milk supply. Some goats are bred specifically for milk. Unprocessed goat milk has small, well-emulsified fat globules, which means the cream remains suspended in the milk instead of rising to the top, as in unprocessed cow milk; therefore, it does not need to be homogenized. Indeed, if goat milk is to be used to make cheese, homogenization is not recommended, as this changes the structure of the milk, affecting the culture's ability to coagulate the milk and the final quality and yield of cheese. Dairy goats in their peak milk production (generally around the third or fourth lactation cycle) average\u2014\u2014of milk production daily\u2014roughly \u2014during a ten-month lactation, producing more just after freshening and gradually dropping in production toward the end of their lactation. The milk generally averages 3.5% butterfat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "In 2014, world production of cheese from whole cow milk was 18.7 million tonnes, with the United States accounting for 29% (5.4\u00a0million tonnes) of the world total followed by Germany, France and Italy as major producers (table)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "A required step in cheesemaking is separating the milk into solid curds and liquid whey. Usually this is done by acidifying (souring) the milk and adding rennet. The acidification can be accomplished directly by the addition of an acid, such as vinegar, in a few cases (paneer, queso fresco). More commonly starter bacteria are employed instead which convert milk sugars into lactic acid. The same bacteria (and the enzymes they produce) also play a large role in the eventual flavor of aged cheeses. Most cheeses are made with starter bacteria from the \"Lactococcus\", \"Lactobacillus\", or \"Streptococcus\" genera. Swiss starter cultures also include \"Propionibacter shermani\", which produces carbon dioxide gas bubbles during aging, giving Swiss cheese or Emmental its holes (called \"eyes\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goat cheese",
        "text": "Cow's milk and goat's milk have similar overall fat contents. However, the higher proportion of medium-chain fatty acids such as caproic and caprylic in goat's milk contributes to the characteristic tart flavor of goat's milk cheese. (These fatty acids take their name from the Latin for \"goat\": \"capra\".) It also has a lower lactose content than cow's milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy milk",
        "text": "Soy milk is made from whole soybeans or full-fat soy flour. The dry beans are soaked in water for a minimum of three hours up to overnight depending on the temperature of the water. The rehydrated beans then undergo wet grinding with enough added water to give the desired solids content to the final product which has a protein content of 1\u20134%, depending on the method of production. The ratio of water to beans on a weight basis is 10:1 for traditional soy milk. The resulting slurry or pur\u00e9e is brought to a boil to improve its taste properties (see \"Soy odor\" below), by heat inactivating soybean trypsin inhibitor, and to sterilize the product. Heating at or near the boiling point is continued for a period of time, 15\u201320 minutes, followed by the removal of insoluble residues (soy pulp fiber) by straining/filtration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk substitute",
        "text": "Soy milk is made from soybeans and contains about the same amount of protein as dairy milk. When enriched by the manufacturer, it may be a source of calcium and vitamin D and some B vitamins such as B12; however, this is not in all brands of soy milk. According to one study, soy protein may be a substitution for animal protein to prevent and control chronic kidney disease. Peanut milk and Pea milk made from yellow pea protein are two other legume-based beverages that can serve as alternatives to soy milk. Pea milk would be the least allergenic of the three."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chhena",
        "text": "The consistency of the finished cheese product has been shown to differ depending on the method utilised to create the cheese. Levels of milk fats under 4% create 'hard and rubbery' Chhena, whilst levels over 5% result in greasy properties in the products created from it. Buffalo milk in the production process of chhena on average tends to create a larger amount of the cheese product compared to cows milk. However, if it is not mixed with cow's milk the result is often 'hard, chewy, rubbery', with an 'uneven texture'. It is also possible to produce Chhena with soy milk, with favourable results achieved in a blend with 75% cows milk added. Milk composition and milking season also have a significant impact on the quality of the chhena produced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dairy",
        "text": "Milk production is irregular, depending on cow biology. Producers must adjust the mix of milk which is sold in liquid form vs. processed foods (such as butter and cheese) depending on changing supply and demand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dean Foods",
        "text": "Silk brand soy milk was made using organic soybeans until early 2009, when Dean Foods switched to conventional soybeans while maintaining the same UPC barcodes and prices on the Silk products and replacing the word \u201corganic\u201d with \u201cnatural\u201d on the product's packaging, prompting the Cornucopia Institute to file complaints that the company had not properly notified retailers or consumers."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of cheeses",
        "text": "This is a list of cheeses by place of origin. Cheese is a milk-based food that is produced in wide-ranging flavors, textures, and forms. Hundreds of types of cheese from various countries are produced. Their styles, textures and flavors depend on the origin of the milk (including the animal's diet), whether they have been pasteurized, the butterfat content, the bacteria and mold, the processing, and aging."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flor de Gu\u00eda cheese",
        "text": "The milk is provided by sheep which are kept on open terrain, free to move to new pastures within the designated geographical area. Their food is largely wild plants and grass supplemented by concentrates when necessary. The cows are kept stabled for most of the year but when conditions are favourable they are tethered in open pasture. The goats are grazed on fenced land within the specified area and gathered in at night. The animals may be milked mechanically or manually. The former are conditions of the Spanish Denomination of Origin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sheep milk cheese",
        "text": "Sheep have only two teats, and produce a far smaller volume of milk than cows. However, as sheep's milk contains far more fat, solids, and minerals than cow's milk, it is ideal for the cheese-making process. It also resists contamination during cooling better because of its much higher calcium content. Sheep milk contains 4.8% lactose, more lactose than cow milk, and is therefore not an alternative for people who are lactose intolerant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sheep milk cheese",
        "text": "Though sheep's milk may be drunk in fresh form, today it is used predominantly in cheese and yogurt making. Well-known cheeses made from sheep milk include the Feta of Bulgaria and Greece, Roquefort of France, Manchego from Spain, the Pecorino Romano (the Italian word for sheep is \"pecore\") and Ricotta of Italy. Yogurts, especially some forms of strained yogurt, may also be made from sheep milk. Many of these products are now often made with cow's milk, especially when produced outside their country of origin. It takes between 2 weeks to 2\u20133 months up to two years for the cheeses to fully ripen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Urd\u0103",
        "text": "Urda is made from whey of sheep, goat or cow milk. Urd\u0103 is produced by heating the whey resulting from the draining of any type of cheese. It is often made into molds to the shape of a half sphere. The paste is finely grained, silky and palatable. It contains 18 grams of protein per 100 grams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy milk",
        "text": "Soybeans, and soy milk in particular, contain phytic acid, which may act as a chelating agent and inhibit mineral absorption, especially for diets already low in minerals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gamalost",
        "text": "To make Gamalost, lactic starter is added to skimmed cow's milk, causing it to sour. After several days of souring, the milk is slowly heated, before the curds are separated and pressed into forms. After removal from the forms, mold is introduced onto the surface of the cheese, either by exposure to the wooden walls of the form that is only used for Gammalost, or rubbed on by hand in the traditional method. The cheese is then allowed to cure for four to five weeks. The ripening happens from outside inwards, so the center might be lighter than the parts near the exterior."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy milk",
        "text": "Using soybeans to make milk instead of raising cows is ecologically advantageous. Cows require much more energy to produce milk, since the farmer must feed the animal, which can consume up to of food in dry matter basis and of water a day, producing an average of of milk a day. Legumes, including the soybean plant, also replenish the nitrogen content of the soil in which they are grown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Annatto",
        "text": "In cheese, the yellow and orange hues naturally vary throughout the year as the cow's feed changed: in the summer, with fresh grass and its natural carotene content, the milk produced would have a natural orange tint, as would the cheese made from it, while at other times of the year, the tint would be greatly reduced. As the pigment is carried in the cream, skimming the milk, which some farmers did to make butter or to sell it separately, the lesser-quality cheese from such milk would be white."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "For preservation purposes, cheese-making may have begun by the pressing and salting of curdled milk. Animal skins and inflated internal organs already provided storage vessels for a range of foodstuffs. Curdling milk in an animal's stomach made solid and better-textured curds, which could easily have led to the conscious addition of rennet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy milk",
        "text": "The issue and preference of soy odor also affects products made from soymilk, especially tofu. See ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lactose intolerance",
        "text": "The rise of dairy and producing dairy related products from cow milk alone, varies across different regions of the world, aside from genetic predisposition. The process of turning milk into cheese dates back earlier than 5200 BC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Requeij\u00e3o",
        "text": "About 11\u00a0kg of cheese is obtained from 100\u00a0kg of skim milk and 3.4\u00a0kg of cream. Composition varies, but a typical cheese can contain 55\u201370% water, 8\u201320% fat, and 16\u201320.5% protein."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camembert",
        "text": "The cheese is made by inoculating warmed cow milk with mesophilic bacteria, then adding rennet and allowing the mixture to coagulate. The curd is then cut into roughly 1\u00a0cm (1/2 inch) cubes, salted, and transferred to low cylindrical camembert molds. The molds are turned every six to twelve hours to allow the whey to drain evenly from the cut curds; after 48 hours, each mold contains a flat, cylindrical, solid cheese mass weighing generally 250 grams (about 9 oz). At this point the fresh cheese is hard, crumbly, and bland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cream cheese",
        "text": "Cream cheese is easy to make at home, and many methods and recipes are used. Consistent, reliable, commercial manufacture is more difficult. Normally, protein molecules in milk have a negative surface charge, which keeps milk in a liquid state; the molecules act as surfactants, forming micelles around the particles of fat and keeping them in emulsion. Lactic acid bacteria are added to pasteurized and homogenized milk. During the fermentation around , the pH of the milk decreases (it becomes more acidic). Amino acids at the surface of the proteins begin losing charge and become neutral, turning the fat micelles from hydrophilic to hydrophobic state and causing the liquid to coagulate. If the bacteria are left in the milk too long, the pH lowers further, the micelles attain a positive charge, and the mixture returns to liquid form. The key, then, is to kill the bacteria by heating the mixture to at the moment the cheese is at the isoelectric point, meaning the state at which half the ionizable surface amino acids of the proteins are positively charged and half are negative."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goat",
        "text": "Goat milk is commonly processed into cheese, butter, ice cream, yogurt, \"cajeta\" and other products. Goat cheese is known as \"fromage de ch\u00e8vre\" (\"goat cheese\") in France. Some varieties include Rocamadour and Montrachet. Goat butter is white because goats produce milk with the yellow beta-carotene converted to a colorless form of vitamin A. Goat milk has less cholesterol than cow's milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goat cheese",
        "text": "Goat cheese, or chevre ( or ; from the French word for \"goat\"), is cheese made from goat's milk. Goat cheese is made in a wide variety of styles, from soft fresh cheese to hard aged cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Head cheese",
        "text": "Korea: In Korean cuisine, a similar dish, \"pyeonyuk\" (\ud3b8\uc721), is made by pressing meat, usually from the head of the pig. It is eaten as \"anju\" (dishes associated with alcoholic beverages) or used for \"janchi\" (\uc794\uce58, for feast or banquet)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dairy product",
        "text": "Milk is produced after optional homogenization or pasteurization, in several grades after standardization of the fat level, and possible addition of the bacteria \"Streptococcus lactis\" and \"Leuconostoc citrovorum\". Milk can be broken down into several different categories based on type of product produced, including cream, butter, cheese, infant formula, and yogurt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk allergy",
        "text": "Six major allergenic proteins from cow's milk have been identified: \u03b1s1-, \u03b1s2-, \u03b2-, and \u03ba-casein from casein proteins and \u03b1-lactalbumin and \u03b2-lactoglobulin from whey proteins. There is some cross-reactivity with soy protein, particularly in non-IgE mediated allergy. Heat can reduce allergenic potential, so dairy ingredients in baked goods may be less likely to trigger a reaction than milk or cheese. For milk allergy, non-IgE-mediated responses are more common than IgE-mediated. The former can manifest as atopic dermatitis and gastrointestinal symptoms, especially in infants and young children. Some will display both, so that a child could react to an oral food challenge with respiratory symptoms and hives (skin rash), followed a day or two later with a flare up of atopic dermatitis and gastrointestinal symptoms, including chronic diarrhea, blood in the stools, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), constipation, chronic vomiting and colic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chaource cheese",
        "text": "Regulations currently allow both pasteurised or unpasteurised milk to be used during manufacture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haymilk",
        "text": "The milk can only be produced from animals that received mainly hay (winter) and \"fresh grass, leguminous plants and foliage\" in summer, but also roughage like green rapeseed, green maize, green rye and fodder beets is permitted. For a maximum of 25%, also cereal crops (wheat, oats, rye, etc.) and beans, field peas, lupins, oleaginous fruits. Products like sewage sludge, fallen fruit, urea and potatoes can not be used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shaanxi University of Science and Technology",
        "text": "Soybean Milk Products Introduction"
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk",
        "text": "Aside from cattle, many kinds of livestock provide milk used by humans for dairy products. These animals include water buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, donkey, horse, reindeer and yak. The first four respectively produced about 11%, 2%, 1.4% and 0.2% of all milk worldwide in 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy yogurt",
        "text": "Plant-based milks have different structures and components than dairy milk. Though they can be used to make many products similar to those made from dairy, there are differences in taste and texture. For example, \"soy, almond, [and] coconut yogurts do not have the same delicate and smooth structure that conventional yogurts have.\" Since plant-based milks do not contain lactose (the food of \"Streptococcus thermophilus\" and \"Lactobacillus bulgaricus\"), plant-based yogurts usually contain different bacterial strains than a dairy yogurt, such as \"Lactobacillus casei\", \"Lactobacillus rhamnosus\", and \"Bifidobacterium bifidum\". Plant-based yogurts also vary considerably in their nutrition and ingredients, and may contain gums, stabilizers, high-intensity sweeteners, and artificial colors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ultra-high-temperature processing",
        "text": "UHT milk's protein structure is different from that of pasteurized milk, which prevents it from separating in cheese making."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy milk",
        "text": "Traditional Asian soymilk has a \"beany\" odor, partly of hexanal, considered disagreeable by most Westerners. This is caused by the lipooxygenase (LOX) in the soy oxidizing the fat in the beans. Rehydrating the beans allows the reaction to proceed with the oxygen gas dissolved in soaking water. To eliminate the odor, one can either disable the LOX enzyme with heat or remove the oxygen dissolved in the water. The former can be achieved by soaking beans in hot water (a \"hot grind\"), skipping the soak entirely, or blanching the soy in water or steam first. The latter can be achieve by a variety of chemical means, such as adding glucose and glucose oxidase to consume the oxygen. The soybean cultivar also influences the odor and a mutant cultivar lacking LOX completely has been produced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sheep",
        "text": "Though sheep's milk may be drunk rarely in fresh form, today it is used predominantly in cheese and yogurt making. Sheep have only two teats, and produce a far smaller volume of milk than cows. However, as sheep's milk contains far more fat, solids, and minerals than cow's milk, it is ideal for the cheese-making process. It also resists contamination during cooling better because of its much higher calcium content. Well-known cheeses made from sheep milk include the Feta of Bulgaria and Greece, Roquefort of France, Manchego from Spain, the Pecorino Romano (the Italian word for sheep is \"pecore\") and Ricotta of Italy. Yogurts, especially some forms of strained yogurt, may also be made from sheep milk. Many of these products are now often made with cow's milk, especially when produced outside their country of origin. Sheep milk contains 4.8% lactose, which may affect those who are intolerant."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Aside from cow's milk, what other animal milk is used in making cheese?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Other sources of milk for cheese include goats and sheep's milk."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can cheese be made from soy milk?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Yes,  the main ingredients are nuts, soy milk, and soy yogurt. Common plant-based proteins or vegetable proteins used in vegan cheeses are derived from edible sources of protein, such as soybeans.",
      "Certainly!  In fact an entire category of cheese analogues, vegan cheese, is made of the main ingredients nuts, soy milk, and soy yogurt."
    ],
    "topic": "Cheese",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Vegan cheese:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vegan cheese",
          "Ingredients"
        ],
        "ctx": "The main ingredients are nuts, soy milk, and soy yogurt. Common plant-based proteins or vegetable proteins used in vegan cheeses are derived from edible sources of protein, such as soybeans, almond, and their milk. Food scientists use a \"blend of gums, protein, solids, and fats\" to create the mouthfeel and melt of dairy cheese since the ones made with nuts do not melt due to the solid base on which they are composed. One vegan cheese product aims to solve this difficulty by making cheese with casein produced by yeast rather than by cows."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Vegan cheese:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vegan cheese",
          "Ingredients"
        ],
        "ctx": "The main ingredients are nuts, soy milk, and soy yogurt. Common plant-based proteins or vegetable proteins used in vegan cheeses are derived from edible sources of protein, such as soybeans, almond, and their milk. Food scientists use a \"blend of gums, protein, solids, and fats\" to create the mouthfeel and melt of dairy cheese since the ones made with nuts do not melt due to the solid base on which they are composed. One vegan cheese product aims to solve this difficulty by making cheese with casein produced by yeast rather than by cows."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Vegan cheese:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vegan cheese"
        ],
        "ctx": "Vegan cheese is a category of non-dairy, plant-based cheese analogues. Vegan cheeses range from soft fresh cheeses to aged and cultured hard grateable cheeses like plant-based Parmesan. The defining characteristic of vegan cheese is the exclusion of \"all\" animal products."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "The production of cheese predates recorded history, beginning well over 7,000 years ago. Humans likely developed cheese and other dairy foods by accident, as a result of storing and transporting milk in bladders made of ruminants' stomachs, as their inherent supply of rennet would encourage curdling. There is no conclusive evidence indicating where cheese-making originated, possibly Europe, or Central Asia, the Middle East, or the Sahara."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "The 1860s saw the beginnings of mass-produced rennet, and by the turn of the century scientists were producing pure microbial cultures. Before then, bacteria in cheesemaking had come from the environment or from recycling an earlier batch's whey; the pure cultures meant a more standardized cheese could be produced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Cheese is an ancient food whose origins predate recorded history. There is no conclusive evidence indicating where cheesemaking originated, whether in Europe, Central Asia or the Middle East. Earliest proposed dates for the origin of cheesemaking range from around 8000 BCE, when sheep were first domesticated. Since animal skins and inflated internal organs have, since ancient times, provided storage vessels for a range of foodstuffs, it is probable that the process of cheese making was discovered accidentally by storing milk in a container made from the stomach of an animal, resulting in the milk being turned to curd and whey by the rennet from the stomach. There is a legend\u2014with variations\u2014about the discovery of cheese by an Arab trader who used this method of storing milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Cheesemaking may have begun independently of this by the pressing and salting of curdled milk to preserve it. Observation that the effect of making cheese in an animal stomach gave more solid and better-textured curds may have led to the deliberate addition of rennet. Early archeological evidence of Egyptian cheese has been found in Egyptian tomb murals, dating to about 2000 BCE. A 2018 scientific paper stated that the world's oldest cheese, dating to approximately 1200 BCE (3200 years before present), was found in ancient Egyptian tombs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegan cheese",
        "text": "The main ingredients are nuts, soy milk, and soy yogurt. Common plant-based proteins or vegetable proteins used in vegan cheeses are derived from edible sources of protein, such as soybeans, almond, and their milk. Food scientists use a \"blend of gums, protein, solids, and fats\" to create the mouthfeel and melt of dairy cheese since the ones made with nuts do not melt due to the solid base on which they are composed. One vegan cheese product aims to solve this difficulty by making cheese with casein produced by yeast rather than by cows."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "For preservation purposes, cheese-making may have begun by the pressing and salting of curdled milk. Animal skins and inflated internal organs already provided storage vessels for a range of foodstuffs. Curdling milk in an animal's stomach made solid and better-textured curds, which could easily have led to the conscious addition of rennet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "The first factory for the industrial production of cheese opened in Switzerland in 1815, but large-scale production first found real success in the United States. Credit usually goes to Jesse Williams, a dairy farmer from Rome, New York, who in 1851 started making cheese in an assembly-line fashion using the milk from neighboring farms. Within decades, hundreds of such dairy associations existed."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "The first factory for the industrial production of cheese opened in Switzerland in 1815. However, the large-scale production found real success in the United States. Credit goes to Jesse Williams, a dairy farmer from Rome, New York. Williams began making cheese in an assembly-line fashion using the milk from neighbouring farms in 1851. Within decades, hundreds of dairy associations existed."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "Mass-produced rennet began in the 1860s. By the turn of the century, scientists were producing pure microbial cultures. Previously, bacteria in cheese was derived from the environment or from recycling an earlier batch's whey. Pure cultures meant a standardized cheese could be produced. The mass production of cheese made it readily available to the poorer classes. Therefore, simple cost-effective storage solutions for cheese gained popularity. Ceramic cheese dishes, or cheese bells, became one of the most common ways to prolong the life of cheese in the home. It remained popular in most households until the introduction of the home refrigerator in 1913."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "The earliest written evidence of cheese () is the Sumerian cuneiform texts of Third Dynasty of Ur, dated at the early second millennium BC. The earliest cheeses were sour and salty and similar in texture to rustic cottage cheese or present-day feta. In Late Bronze Age Minoan-Mycenaean Crete, Linear B tablets recorded the inventorying of cheese, (Mycenaean Greek in Linear B: , \"tu-ro\"; later Greek: ) flocks and shepherds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegan cheese",
        "text": "Later homemade vegan cheeses were made from soy flour, margarine, and yeast extract. With harder margarine, this can produce a hard vegan cheese that can be sliced; softer margarine produces a softer, spreadable cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "The earliest evidence of cheesemaking in the archaeological record dates back to 5500 BCE and is found in what is now Kuyavia, Poland, where strainers coated with milk-fat molecules have been found."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "The earliest cheeses were likely quite sour and salty, similar in texture to rustic cottage cheese or feta, a crumbly, flavorful Greek cheese. Cheese produced in Europe, where climates are cooler than the Middle East, required less salt for preservation. With less salt and acidity, the cheese became a suitable environment for useful microbes and molds, giving aged cheeses their respective flavors. The earliest ever discovered preserved cheese was found in the Taklamakan Desert in Xinjiang, China, dating back as early as 1615 BCE (3600 years before present)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegan cheese",
        "text": "Non-dairy cheese originated in China in the 16th century and was made with fermented tofu or whole soy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegan cheese",
        "text": "The product became commercially available around the 1970s or 1980s. These initial products were lower in quality than dairy cheese or today's vegan cheese, with a waxy, chalky or plastic-like texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cream cheese",
        "text": "Around 1873 William A. Lawrence, a dairyman in Chester, New York, was the first to mass-produce cream cheese. In 1872, he purchased a Neufch\u00e2tel factory. By adding cream to the process, he developed a richer cheese that he called \u201ccream cheese\u201d. In 1877 Lawrence created the first brand of cream cheese: its logo was a silhouette of a cow followed by the words \"Neufchatel & Cream Cheese\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "The earliest direct evidence of cheesemaking is now being found in clay sieves (holed pottery) over seven thousand years old, for example in Kujawy, Poland, and the Dalmatian coast in Croatia, the latter with dried remains which chemical analysis suggests was cheese. Shards of holed pottery were also found in Urnfield pile-dwellings on Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland and are hypothesized to be cheese-strainers; they date back to 6,000 BCE (8,000 years ago)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wisconsin cheese",
        "text": "Soon, dairy farms sprang up around Wisconsin, and farmers began producing cheese to preserve excess milk. In 1841, Anne Pickett established Wisconsin's first commercial cheese factory, using milk from neighbors' cows. A century later, Wisconsin was home to more than 1,500 cheese factories, which produced more than 500 million pounds of cheese per year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "Cheesemaking may have originated from nomadic herdsmen who stored milk in vessels made from sheep's and goats' stomachs. Because their stomach linings contains a mix of lactic acid, bacteria as milk contaminants and rennet, the milk would ferment and coagulate. A product reminiscent of yogurt would have been produced, which through gentle agitation and the separation of curds from whey would have resulted in the production of cheese; the cheese being essentially a concentration of the major milk protein, casein, and milk fat. The whey proteins, other major milk proteins, and lactose are all removed in the cheese whey. Another theory is offered by David Asher, who wrote that the origins actually lie within the \"sloppy milk bucket in later European culture, it having gone unwashed and containing all of the necessary bacteria to facilitate the ecology of cheese\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camembert",
        "text": "The origin of the cheese known today as Camembert is more likely to rest with the beginnings of the industrialization of the cheesemaking process at the end of the 19th century. In 1890, an engineer, M. Ridel, devised the wooden box that was used to carry the cheese and helped to send it for longer distances, in particular to America, where it became very popular. These boxes are still used today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegan cheese",
        "text": "From 2018 to 2020, several new companies were founded to make animal-free cheese, including New Culture, Change Foods, Legendairy Foods, and Better Dairy. Some use genetically engineered yeast to synthesize cow milk proteins without the use of cows."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "By Roman times, cheese-making was a mature art and common food group. Columella's \"De Re Rustica\" (circa 65 CE) details a cheese-making process involving rennet coagulation, pressing of the curd, salting, and aging. Pliny's \"Natural History\" (77 CE) devotes two chapters (XI, 96\u201397) to the diversity of cheeses enjoyed by Romans of the early Empire. He stated that the best cheeses came from \"pagi\" near N\u00eemes, and were identifiable as Loz\u00e8re and G\u00e9vaudan and had to be eaten fresh."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian cheese",
        "text": "Canadian cheeses were almost entirely farm-made until 1864 when an American, Harvey Farrington started buying Canadian milk in commercial quantities necessary for industrial cheese making. The first commercial factory \"The Pioneer\" was set up in Norwich, Ontario, in 1864."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cottage cheese",
        "text": "The first American cheese factory opened in 1868, beginning the wholesale cheese industry. Popularity in the United States of industrial cheese in general increased greatly at the end of the 19th century; by the turn of the century, farm production of cheese had become significant."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "History of cheese\n--Earliest origins.\n--Ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome.\n--Post-Roman Europe.\n--Americas.\n--Asia.\n--Modern.\n----Mass production.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "Ancient Greek mythology credited Aristaeus with the discovery of cheese. Homer's \"Odyssey\" (late 8th century BC) describes the Cyclops producing and storing sheep's and goat's milk and cheese:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cottage cheese",
        "text": "Cheese is thought to have originated in the Middle East around 5,000 BC. Evidence of cheese can be found in a band of carvings on the walls of an ancient Mesopotamian temple that date back to 3,000 BC. The ancient carvings show the process in which the civilization created a cheese-like substance, using salt and milk to create a salty sour curd mixture believed to be somewhat similar to today's cottage cheese. As Rome expanded its empire, they spread the knowledge of cheese, discovering many new forms of it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sura Kees",
        "text": "The production of sour milk cheese has been known for around 7,000 years. By accident, the Sumerians discovered that leftover milk thickens and forms a solid mass with time. Thus, the first sour milk cheese was created. The knowledge of sour milk cheese production was spread by the Romans throughout Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "An Arab legend attributes the discovery of cheese to an Arab trader who used this method of storing milk. However, cheese was already well known among the Sumerians."
      },
      {
        "title": "James L. Kraft",
        "text": "By 1914, J.L. Kraft & Bros. Company, which later became Kraft Foods Inc opened its first cheese manufacturing plant in Stockton, Illinois. Kraft developed a process, patented in 1916, for pasteurizing cheese so that it would resist spoiling and could be shipped long distances. The company grew quickly, expanding into Canada in 1919. Kraft saw a large increase in business during World War I when the United States government provided cheese in tins to their armed forces."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "Cheese-making was known in Europe at the earliest level of Hellenic myth. According to Pliny the Elder, cheese became a sophisticated enterprise at the start of the ancient Rome era. During the ancient Rome era, valued foreign cheeses were transported to Rome to satisfy the tastes of the social elite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegan cheese",
        "text": "Vegan cheese can be made with components derived from vegetables, such as proteins, fats and milks (plant milks). It also can be made from seeds, such as sesame, sunflower, nuts (cashew, pine nut, peanuts, almond) and soybeans; other ingredients are coconut oil, nutritional yeast, tapioca, rice, potatoes and spices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Processed cheese",
        "text": "In 1916, Canadian James L. Kraft applied for the first U.S. patent for a method of making processed cheese. Kraft Foods Inc. developed the first commercially available, shelf-stable, sliced processed cheese; it was introduced in 1950. The first commercially available individually wrapped cheese slices were introduced in the U.S. by Clearfield Cheese Co. in 1956. These forms of processed cheese have become ubiquitous in U.S. households ever since, most notably used for cheeseburgers and grilled cheese sandwiches because of its ability to cook evenly, distribute/stretch smoothly, and resist congealing, unlike traditional cheddar cheeses. Competitors lobbied unsuccessfully to require processed cheese be labeled \"embalmed cheese\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cheese",
        "text": "After patenting a new method for manufacturing processed cheese in 1916, James L. Kraft began marketing it in the late 1910s, and the term \"American cheese\" rapidly began to refer to the processed variety instead of the traditional but more expensive cheddars also made and sold in the U.S."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "Factory-made cheese overtook traditional cheese-making during the World War II era. Since then, factories have been the source of most cheese in America and Europe. Today, Americans buy more processed cheese than \"real\", factory-made cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colby cheese",
        "text": "In 1882, Ambrose and Susan Steinwand established a cheese factory near Colby, Wisconsin, on a site they had purchased five years before. The Steinwands' son Joseph developed the cheese at the factory in 1885 when he was handling a batch of cheddar cheese and washed the curd with cold water. There are differing accounts on whether the creation was intentional. According to some sources, Joseph had attended a cheesemaking course and was specifically interested in developing a new type of cheese; according to others, he neglected to drain the excess moisture after adding cold water and accidentally discovered the result. The resulting cheese, which was moister than cheddar, was named after the nearby city and quickly became popular because it did not involve the complicated cheddaring process."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "Since the European colonization of the Americas, local cheeses have been developed across both North and South America. Mass-produced cheese has become quite common, replacing hand-made and/or local cheeses even more in the United States than in Europe. Recently{{when?|date=July 2021}}, more people in the US have been making farmstead (or farmhouse) and artisan cheeses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cottage cheese",
        "text": "A popular story on the origin of cheese was taken from Homer's \"Odyssey\", in which the poet describes how the Cyclops Polyphemus made cheese by storing milk in animal stomachs. The enzymes from the stomach would have induced a coagulation process separating the curds from the milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "Most cheeses were initially recorded in the late Middle Ages. Cheddar was recorded since the 1100s, Parmesan (Parmigiano Reggiano) was founded in 1597, Gouda in 1697, and Camembert in 1791. Cheeses diversified in Europe with locales developing their own traditions and products when Romanized populations encountered unfamiliar neighbors with their own cheese-making traditions. As long-distance trade collapsed, only travelers encountered unfamiliar cheeses. Charlemagne's first encounter with an edible rind white cheese forms one of the constructed anecdotes of Notker's \"Life\" of the Emperor. Cheese-making in manor and monastery intensified local characteristics imparted by local bacterial flora while the identification of monks with cheese is sustained through modern marketing labels. This also led to a diversity of cheese types. Today, Britain has 15 protected cheeses from approximately 40 types listed by the British Cheese Board. The British Cheese Board claims a total number of about 700 different products (including similar cheeses produced by different companies). France has 50 protected cheeses, Italy 52, and Spain 26. Italy has at least 400 cheeses. Meanwhile, the advancement of cheese art in Europe was slow during the centuries after Rome's fall. It became a staple of long-distance commerce, was disregarded as peasant fare, inappropriate on a noble table, and even harmful to one's health through the Middle Ages."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of cheeses",
        "text": "Cheese is an ancient food whose origins predate recorded history. There is no conclusive evidence indicating where cheesemaking originated, either in Europe, Central Asia or the Middle East, but the practice had spread within Europe prior to Roman times and, according to Pliny the Elder, had become a sophisticated enterprise by the time the Roman Empire came into existence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegan cheese",
        "text": "In the early 1990s, the only brand of vegan cheese available in the United States was Soymage. Since then, the number and types (e.g., mozzarella, cheddar, etc.) of widely available vegan cheeses have diversified. Also, soy-free options have since been explored. In the 1990s, vegan cheese sometimes cost twice as much as dairy cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Processed cheese",
        "text": "Processed cheese was first developed in Switzerland in 1911, when Walter Gerber and Fritz Stettler, seeking a cheese with longer shelf life and influenced by cheese sauces such as those used in fondue, added sodium citrate to melted Emmentaler cheese and found that the emulsified cheese sauce could be re-cooled into a solid again. Shortly after, in 1916, Canadian-American businessman James L. Kraft applied for the first U.S. patent covering a new method of processing cheese, which halted the maturation process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Ancient Greek mythology credited Aristaeus with the discovery of cheese. Homer's \"Odyssey\" (8th century BCE) describes the Cyclops making and storing sheep's and goats' milk cheese (translation by Samuel Butler):"
      },
      {
        "title": "American cheese",
        "text": "British colonists made cheddar cheese soon after their arrival in North America. By 1790, American-made cheddars were being exported back to England. According to Robert Carlton Brown, author of \"The Complete Book of Cheese\", what was known in America as \"yellow cheese\" or \"store cheese\" was known as American cheddar or \"Yankee cheddar\" back in England. The \"Oxford English Dictionary\" lists the first known usage of \"American cheese\" as occurring in the Frankfort, Kentucky, newspaper \"The Guardian of Freedom\" in 1804."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "Hard salted cheese is likely to have accompanied dairying from the outset. It is the only form in which milk can be kept in a hot climate. Dairying existed around 4,000 BC in the grasslands of the Sahara. Cheese produced in Europe, where climates are cooler than in the Middle East, required less salt for preservation. With less salt and acidity, the cheese became a suitable environment for useful microbes and molds, giving aged cheeses their pronounced and interesting flavors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Denmark, Wisconsin",
        "text": "In 1896, Hans Beyer built the first cheese factory in the village. The factory employed two people, and handled between 7,500 and 8,000 pounds of milk per day. In 1899, Beyer sold the cheese factory, as well as his general store, because of his failing health."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cellular agriculture",
        "text": "On March 24, 1990, the FDA approved a bacterium that had been genetically engineered to produce rennet, making it the first genetically engineered product for food. Rennet is a mixture of enzymes that turns milk into curds and whey in cheese making. Traditionally, rennet is extracted from the inner lining of the fourth stomach of calves. Today, cheese making processes use rennet enzymes from genetically engineered bacteria, fungi, or yeasts because they are unadulterated, more consistent, and less expensive than animal-derived rennet."
      },
      {
        "title": "British scientists (meme)",
        "text": "Typical news about \"\" [\"Britanskiye uchyonyye\", \"British scientists\"] report that they:\n* found out that people start lying as early as at 6 years old\n* debunked the myth that mice love cheese\n* invented non-stick bubble gum\n* designed an ideal sandwich\n* developed a universal vaccine\n* etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "In 1546, \"The Proverbs of John Heywood\" claimed \"the moon is made of a greene cheese\" (\"Greene\" is referred to being new or unaged). Variations on this sentiment were long repeated and NASA exploited this myth for an April Fools' Day spoof announcement in 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "Preserved cheese dating from 1615 BC was found in the Taklamakan Desert in Xinjiang, China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian cheese",
        "text": "Following a wheat midge outbreak in Canada in the mid-nineteenth century, farmers in the province of Ontario began to convert to dairy farming in large numbers, and cheddar cheese was their main exportable product (before electric refrigeration was invented), even being exported back to the cheese's country of origin, England. In one year, 1867, the year of Canadian Confederation, 200 cheese factories were established in Ontario alone. In 1881, \u00c9douard-Andr\u00e9 Barnard created North America's first cheese-making school in Saint-Denis-De La Bouteillerie, Qu\u00e9bec. A dairy school (Canada's first) opened in 1892 in Saint-Hyacinthe, Qu\u00e9bec, and in 1901, produced experimental Canadian versions of Camembert and Feta. By the turn of the twentieth century, there were 1,242 cheddar factories in Ontario, and cheddar had become Canada's second largest export behind timber. Cheddar exports totalled in 1904, but by 2012, Canada was a net importer of cheese, and a manufactured cheese product \"Kraft Dinner\" macaroni and cheese had become Canada's most popular grocery product and \"de facto\" national dish. James Lewis Kraft grew up on a dairy farm in Ontario, before moving to Chicago. As writer Sarah Champman writes, \"Although we cannot wholly lay the decline of cheese craft in Canada at the feet of James Lewis Kraft, it did correspond with the rise of Kraft's processed cheese empire.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "Archaeological evidence for making cheese in Egypt goes back about 5,000 years. In 2018, archeologists from Cairo University and the University of Catania reported the discovery of the oldest known cheese from Egypt. Discovered in the Saqqara necropolis, it is around 3200 years old. Earlier, remains identified as cheese were found in the funeral meal in an Egyptian tomb dating around 2900 BC. Visual evidence of Egyptian cheesemaking was found in Egyptian tomb murals in approximately 2000 BC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "One of the ancient cheesemakers' earliest tools for cheesemaking, cheese molds or strainers, can be found throughout Europe, dating back to the Bronze Age. Baskets were used to separate the cheese curds, but as technology advanced, these cheese molds would be made of wood or pottery. The cheesemakers placed the cheese curds inside of the mold, secured the mold with a lid, then added pressure to separate the whey, which would drain out from the holes in the mold. The more whey that was drained, the less moisture retained in the cheese. Less moisture meant that the cheese would be more firm. In Ireland, some cheeses ranged from a dry and hard cheese (mullahawn) to a semi-liquid cheese (mills\u00e9n)."
      },
      {
        "title": "B\u00e9al Organic Cheese",
        "text": "Kate Carmody began making cheese in 1987, after her mother presented her with a gift consisting of a cheese press and a book on making cheese. In 1997, she began the process of converting to organic production. She achieved full organic status in 2000, becoming the first organically produced Irish Cheddar cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk & Cheese",
        "text": "Cheese began as an in-joke involving two friends of Dorkin who were sometimes called the \"cheesy\" Garcia sisters. He continued drawing little cheeses that would eventually become \"Cheese\" on cocktail napkins at clubs during the mid to late 1980s. One night, at a restaurant, Dorkin scribbled a little Milk character next to the cheese drawing, with the pair hitch-hiking and holding beers in their hands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Quebec",
        "text": "Quebec has produced cheese for centuries. Most of the first cheeses were soft cheeses, but after the Conquest of New France, hard cheese began to be created as well. The first cheese-making school in North America was established in Saint-Denis-de-Kamouraska in 1893. It was at this moment that the monks of La Trappe of Oka began to produce the famous Oka cheese. Today there are over 700 different cheeses in Quebec."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jules Bel",
        "text": "In 1865, Bel started his cheese company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neufch\u00e2tel cheese",
        "text": "In 1872, William Lawrence, a New York dairyman of the township of Chester, created the first American cream cheese as the result of adding cream to a traditional recipe for Neufch\u00e2tel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "Although the common perception of cheese today is made from cow's milk, goat's milk was actually the preferred base of ancient cheesemakers, due to the fact that goats are smaller animals than cows. This meant that goats required less food and were easier to transport and herd. Moreover, goats can breed any time of the year as opposed to sheep, who also produce milk, but mating season only came around during fall and winter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lactose intolerance",
        "text": "The rise of dairy and producing dairy related products from cow milk alone, varies across different regions of the world, aside from genetic predisposition. The process of turning milk into cheese dates back earlier than 5200 BC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tzfat cheese",
        "text": "The cheese began to be produced in 1840 at HaMeiri Dairy, established in the home of Meir Arzoni (later HaMeiri), who immigrated from Persia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese analogue",
        "text": "Vegan cheese may be made from soybeans, rice, almonds, nutritional yeast and other non-dairy ingredients. It is aimed at vegans and others wanting to avoid animal products, for moral, environmental, religious or health reasons, including lactose intolerance or a desire to avoid cholesterol. Vegan cheeses may be lower in fat compared to dairy cheese, are cholesterol-free and are often a source of soy protein and isoflavones. Many have calcium added. Several brands melt similarly to dairy cheese, while others stay mostly firm, or melt only when grated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camembert",
        "text": "Camembert was reputedly first made in 1791 by Marie Harel, a farmer from Normandy, following advice from a priest who came from Brie. She is credited with having refined a previously existing cheese recipe from the Pays d'Auge region and having launched it into the wider world. She passed her secrets on to her daughter, whose husband, Victor Paynel, presented one of his wife's best cheeses to Napoleon III, who gave to it his royal seal of approval."
      },
      {
        "title": "Li Shizeng",
        "text": "Li and the factory engineers developed and patented equipment for producing soymilk and beancurd, including the world's first soymilk patents. Shurtleff and Aoyagi comment that their 1912 patent was \"packed with original ideas, including various French-style cheeses and the world's first industrial soy protein isolate, called Sojalithe, after its counterpart, Galalith, made from milk protein.\" Li claimed that Sojalithe could also be used as a substitute for ivory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asiago cheese",
        "text": "Sheep started being replaced by cattle around 1500 a.d. as a consequence of the modernization of breeding techniques (especially thanks to the passage from the exploitation of the pasture to the care of the cut lawns); only in the 19th Century did bovine milk replace that of sheep in this region's cheeses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "As Romanized populations encountered unfamiliar newly settled neighbors, bringing their own cheese-making traditions, their own flocks and their own unrelated words for \"cheese\", cheeses in Europe diversified further, with various locales developing their own distinctive traditions and products. As long-distance trade collapsed, only travelers would encounter unfamiliar cheeses: Charlemagne's first encounter with a white cheese that had an edible rind forms one of the constructed anecdotes of Notker's \"Life\" of the Emperor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Rennet derived from animal slaughter, and thus cheese made with animal-derived rennet, is not vegetarian. Most widely available vegetarian cheeses are made using rennet produced by fermentation of the fungus \"Mucor miehei\". Vegans and other dairy-avoiding vegetarians do not eat conventional cheese, but some vegetable-based cheese substitutes (soy or almond) are used as substitutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marin French Cheese Company",
        "text": "Early antecedents of the company may go back as far as 1854, although historical records from that era are sketchy. Other accounts state that a local woman named Clara Steele roped wild Spanish cattle in the area to make cheese starting in 1857."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quartirolo Lombardo",
        "text": "The beginning of its production dates back to the 10th century. Its production was seasonal, the cheese was made at the end of the summer with the milk of cows that had eaten \"\" (\"grass of the fourth\"), that is the grass that had grown again after the third cut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Manufacture of cheddar cheese",
        "text": "When calf-rennet grew scarce in the 1960s, scientists developed a synthesized type of chymosin by fermenting certain bacteria or fungi (microbial rennet), but this also was not useful for all types of cheese-making. A solution using recombinant-gene (GMO microbial rennet) technology was developed and approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 1990. This splices the calf-gene for producing chymosin into the genes of certain bacteria, yeasts or fungi, producing pure chymosin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheshire inventions, innovations and firsts",
        "text": "Cheshire Cheese \u2014 there are conflicting accounts of Cheshire Cheese being mentioned in the Domesday Book, and so the first county cheese, or, along with Shropshire Cheese, recorded much later in 1580."
      },
      {
        "title": "Technological and industrial history of Canada",
        "text": "The dairy industry with its associated techniques took root in Canada in the 1860s. The process for the factory production of cheese was developed by Jesse Williams in New York in 1851. The first Canadian cheese factory was built in Oxford County, Ontario in 1864 and was followed by a factory in Dunham, Quebec in 1865. By 1873, Canada was home to about 200 cheese factories. The first creamery of note was built at Helena, Quebec in 1873, while in 1883, the first Canadian producer of condensed milk began operation in Truro, Nova Scotia. The large scale home delivery of milk began in Toronto, Ottawa and Montreal in 1900."
      },
      {
        "title": "Olomouck\u00e9 tvar\u016f\u017eky",
        "text": "The first written mention of this cheese is from 1452. In 1583, the name \"tvar\u016f\u017eky\" appeared for the first time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegan cheese",
        "text": "Plant-based proteins or vegetable proteins are derived from edible sources of protein, such as soybeans and their milk. The manufacturing process of fermentation is often in use to replicate dairy cheese texture and flavor, as well. It is made with a different process from that used in dairy cheeses, as the proteins in plant-based milk reacts differently to culturing agents and do not coagulate as the traditional cheese does. It must be aged with other methods, as ambient temperature and humidity monitoring, and culturing agents, such as rejuvelac, nondairy yogurt, or kombucha, which are not recommended to use due to the risks involved in the fermentation process, and kefir grains that are recommended but not very used at present. If these processes are not carried out properly, with good hygiene and correct fermentation methods, the product can carry pathogens, such as \"Salmonella\", \"Listeria\", \"E. coli\", and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Feta",
        "text": "Cheese made from sheep and goat milk has been common in the Eastern Mediterranean since ancient times. In Bronze Age Canaan, cheese was perhaps among the salted foods shipped by sea in ceramic jars and so rennet-coagulated white cheeses similar to feta may have been shipped in brine, but there is no direct evidence for this. In Greece, the earliest documented reference to cheese production dates back to the 8th century BC and the technology used to make cheese from sheep-goat milk is similar to the technology used by Greek shepherds today to produce feta. In the \"Odyssey\", Homer describes how Polyphemus makes cheese though he says nothing about brining; indeed, Polyphemus stored and dried it in wicker racks, perhaps resulting, according to Paul S. Kindstedt, in a rinded cheese similar to modern pecorino and caprino rather than feta. E. M. Antifantakis and G. Moatsou, on the other hand, find that Polyphemus' cheese was \"undoubtedly the ancestor of modern Feta\". Origins aside, however, cheese produced from sheep-goat milk was a common food in ancient Greece and an integral component of later Greek gastronomy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rome, New York",
        "text": "In 1851, Jesse Williams founded the first cheese factory in the United States at Rome. Williams also developed the process used today for large-scale cheese manufacturing. During the later 19th century, there were numerous dairy farms in the area and throughout the Mohawk Valley. Many shipped their milk and cheese to customers in New York City."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Harvey Kellogg",
        "text": "In addition to developing imitation meats variously made from nuts, grains, and soy, Kellogg also developed the first acidophilus soy milk, which was patented in 1934."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camembert",
        "text": "The cheese is made by inoculating warmed cow milk with mesophilic bacteria, then adding rennet and allowing the mixture to coagulate. The curd is then cut into roughly 1\u00a0cm (1/2 inch) cubes, salted, and transferred to low cylindrical camembert molds. The molds are turned every six to twelve hours to allow the whey to drain evenly from the cut curds; after 48 hours, each mold contains a flat, cylindrical, solid cheese mass weighing generally 250 grams (about 9 oz). At this point the fresh cheese is hard, crumbly, and bland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caciocavallo",
        "text": "Apparently caciocavallo was mentioned the first time around 500 BC by Hippocrates, emphasising the \"Greeks' cleverness in making cheese\". Columella in his classic treatise on agriculture, \"De re rustica\" (35\u201345 CE), described precisely the methods used in its preparation, making it one of the oldest known cheeses in the world. Types of cheese with names similar to \"caciocavallo\" are common throughout the Balkans and Southern Italy (Eastern Mediterranean)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hanne Nielsen",
        "text": "Some sources such as \"The Oxford Companion to Cheese\" say that Nielsen invented Havarti cheese, while the \"Dansk Biografisk Leksikon\" states that the current Havarti is not based on her cheesemaking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegan cheese",
        "text": "Vegan cheese\n--History.\n--Market.\n--Labeling.\n--Ingredients.\n--Nutrition.\n--Production.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jay and Joy",
        "text": "The company was started in Paris in 2014 by Mary Iriarte J\u00e4hnke, a vegan and former fashion employee with a French-Venezuelan background, and her German partner Eric J\u00e4hnke, also a vegan and an engineer by education. Mary J\u00e4hnke took lessons from a master cheesemaker, saying the company defends the craft of cheesemaking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "The goal of cheese making is to control the spoiling of milk into cheese. The milk is traditionally from a cow, goat, sheep or buffalo, although, in theory, cheese could be made from the milk of any mammal. Cow's milk is most commonly used worldwide. The cheesemaker's goal is a consistent product with specific characteristics (appearance, aroma, taste, texture). The process used to make a Camembert will be similar to, but not quite the same as, that used to make Cheddar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egyptian cheese",
        "text": "The manufacture of cheese is depicted in murals in Egyptian tombs from 2,000 BC. Two alabaster jars found at Saqqara, dating from the First Dynasty of Egypt, contained cheese. These were placed in the tomb about 3,000 BC. They were likely fresh cheeses coagulated with acid or a combination of acid and heat. An earlier tomb, that of King Hor-Aha may also have contained cheese which, based on the hieroglyphic inscriptions on the two jars, appear to be from Upper and Lower Egypt. The pots are similar to those used today when preparing \"mish\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dairylea (cheese)",
        "text": "Dairylea triangles were first introduced in 1950."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheeseburger",
        "text": "Adding cheese to hamburgers became popular in 1920. There are several competing claims as to who created the first cheeseburger. Lionel Sternberger is reputed to have introduced the cheeseburger in 1924 at the age of 16. He was working as a fry cook at his father's Pasadena, California sandwich shop, \"The Rite Spot\", and \"experimentally dropped a slab of American cheese on a sizzling hamburger.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Tyramine",
        "text": "The first signs of this effect were discovered by a British pharmacist who noticed that his wife, who at the time was on MAOI medication, had severe headaches when eating cheese. For this reason, it is still called the \"cheese effect\" or \"cheese crisis,\" although other foods can cause the same problem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pikauba (cheese)",
        "text": "The Lehmann Cheese Factory has been in existence since 2001. It is from the recipe, scribbled on a piece of paper by his mother from Jura, Switzerland, that Jacob Lehman makes the first cheeses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marie Harel",
        "text": "Marie Harel did make Camembert cheese, according to local custom. She initiated a dynasty of entrepreneurial cheese makers who produced Camembert cheese on a large scale, notably her grandson Cyrille Paynel, born in 1817, who created a cheese factory in the commune of Le Mesnil-Mauger in Calvados."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wisconsin dairy industry",
        "text": "Wisconsin has been making cheese since the start of its dairy industry. In the 19th century, much of the milk was made into cheese, because it kept longer than milk or butter. In the latter half of the 19th century, cheese production moved from the farms to specialized factories, resulting in higher quality cheese. In 1921, Wisconsin became the first state to grade cheese by its quality. As of 2020, Wisconsin produces 26% of all cheese in the US, totaling of cheese in the last year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wisconsin dairy industry",
        "text": "Colby cheese was one of the first cheeses invented in the United States, in 1885. It is similar to cheddar, but is processed differently, giving it a unique texture and higher moisture content. The cheese was invented by Joseph Steinwand, and was named after the township of their cheese factory, Colby, Wisconsin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neufch\u00e2tel cheese",
        "text": "In 1880 Isidore Lefebvre, a farmer, constructed a dairy in Nesle-Hodeng, where he could mould and ripen cheese curds made by farmers in the surrounding area. Among Lefebvre's distributors were stores such as Harrods."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c9poisses",
        "text": "Although popular at the start of the twentieth century, with over 300 farms manufacturing the cheese, production had all but died out by the end of the Second World War. This resulted from the loss of a significant portion of the male population, leaving the women to work the fields, which in turn led to the neglect of the local dairy businesses and cheese-making."
      },
      {
        "title": "Turrialba cheese",
        "text": "Production started in the 1870s when a Spanish family headed by Lucas Vargas came from La Mancha and settled in the region of Santa Cruz, in Turrialba, to start producing cheese with the recipes they brought from their homeland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk Link",
        "text": "Milk Link\n--History.\n--Products.\n----Cheeses.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jarlsberg cheese",
        "text": "Modern Jarlsberg cheese was developed in 1956 by Ole Martin Ystgaard of the Dairy Institute at the Agricultural University of Norway. Ystgaard's interest was sparked by the thesis of a dairy sciences student, Per Sakshaug, on the cheese historically made in Vestfold. It was named for a Norwegian nobleman, Count Wedel Jarlsberg, who owned land near Oslo in an area where an earlier version of the cheese was produced in the early 1800s, or for the eponymous county. The recipe was developed from formulae originating with Swiss cheesemakers who moved to Norway at that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Cheesemaking was widespread by the 8th Century BCE, as the technical vocabulary associated with it is included in \"The Odyssey\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Harding",
        "text": "The Victoria County History of Somerset says: \"In 1856 the Joseph Harding system of cheese-making was made public as the result of a deputation of Scotchmen coming south to investigate the originators of the system. To Mrs Harding, Marksbury, and her nephew, Joseph Harding, of Compton Dando, is due the institution of a definite procedure in cheese-making for mere rule of thumb. For twenty years the Harding system was the model, though nearly every maker had his or her variations in detail. The main feature, as we view it now, was the insistence on absolute cleanliness. The milkers were not allowed to bring the milk in direct from the farmyard. They had to pour it into a receiver outside the dairy wall, whence by means of a pipe it was conveyed inside to the cheese tub... [Here follows details of the method \u2013 R.D.R]. this was founded the real Cheddar cheese of modern commerce. The name of Harding must go down with it for all time. It will be noticed that he did not use either the acidimeter or sour whey, but he lifted the make out of the old ruts of mere practical chance and introduced to it the more definite methods of science. Indeed, he must be rightly termed the first scientific instructor in Cheddar cheese-making\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Annatto",
        "text": "The earliest known documentation of annatto\u2019s use in cheese is in a 1743 Dutch volume \"Huishoudelyk Woordboek\" (\"Household Word Book\"), according to American scientist Paul Kindstedt of the University of Vermont. Other historical documents from the period confirm that using annatto (then called \"orleaan\" or \"orleans\") to color cheese was being done by the mid-18th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cottage cheese",
        "text": "After the First World War, cottage cheese quickly became more popular. of cottage cheese was produced in 1919 (out of of cheese in general in 1920), but by 1928, was manufactured. Consumption peaked in the United States in the 1970s when dieting became popular and some $1.3 billion of it was sold per year, but in the 1980s yogurt became more popular and sales dropped considerably further in the 2000s."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Aside from cow's milk, what other animal milk is used in making cheese?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Other sources of milk for cheese include goats and sheep's milk."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can cheese be made from soy milk?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes,  the main ingredients are nuts, soy milk, and soy yogurt. Common plant-based proteins or vegetable proteins used in vegan cheeses are derived from edible sources of protein, such as soybeans."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did people first start making cheese?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The production of cheese predates recorded history, beginning well over 7,000 years ago. There is no conclusive evidence indicating where cheese-making originated, possibly Europe, or Central Asia, the Middle East, or the Sahara."
    ],
    "topic": "Cheese",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "History of cheese:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "History of cheese"
        ],
        "ctx": "The production of cheese predates recorded history, beginning well over 7,000 years ago. Humans likely developed cheese and other dairy foods by accident, as a result of storing and transporting milk in bladders made of ruminants' stomachs, as their inherent supply of rennet would encourage curdling. There is no conclusive evidence indicating where cheese-making originated, possibly Europe, or Central Asia, the Middle East, or the Sahara."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "Hard salted cheese is likely to have accompanied dairying from the outset. It is the only form in which milk can be kept in a hot climate. Dairying existed around 4,000 BC in the grasslands of the Sahara. Cheese produced in Europe, where climates are cooler than in the Middle East, required less salt for preservation. With less salt and acidity, the cheese became a suitable environment for useful microbes and molds, giving aged cheeses their pronounced and interesting flavors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "At refrigerator temperatures, the fat in a piece of cheese is as hard as unsoftened butter, and its protein structure is stiff as well. Flavor and odor compounds are less easily liberated when cold. For improvements in flavor and texture, it is widely advised that cheeses be allowed to warm up to room temperature before eating. If the cheese is further warmed, to , the fats will begin to \"sweat out\" as they go beyond soft to fully liquid."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "Mass-produced rennet began in the 1860s. By the turn of the century, scientists were producing pure microbial cultures. Previously, bacteria in cheese was derived from the environment or from recycling an earlier batch's whey. Pure cultures meant a standardized cheese could be produced. The mass production of cheese made it readily available to the poorer classes. Therefore, simple cost-effective storage solutions for cheese gained popularity. Ceramic cheese dishes, or cheese bells, became one of the most common ways to prolong the life of cheese in the home. It remained popular in most households until the introduction of the home refrigerator in 1913."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "The earliest cheeses were likely quite sour and salty, similar in texture to rustic cottage cheese or feta, a crumbly, flavorful Greek cheese. Cheese produced in Europe, where climates are cooler than the Middle East, required less salt for preservation. With less salt and acidity, the cheese became a suitable environment for useful microbes and molds, giving aged cheeses their respective flavors. The earliest ever discovered preserved cheese was found in the Taklamakan Desert in Xinjiang, China, dating back as early as 1615 BCE (3600 years before present)."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "The production of cheese predates recorded history, beginning well over 7,000 years ago. Humans likely developed cheese and other dairy foods by accident, as a result of storing and transporting milk in bladders made of ruminants' stomachs, as their inherent supply of rennet would encourage curdling. There is no conclusive evidence indicating where cheese-making originated, possibly Europe, or Central Asia, the Middle East, or the Sahara."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "For preservation purposes, cheese-making may have begun by the pressing and salting of curdled milk. Animal skins and inflated internal organs already provided storage vessels for a range of foodstuffs. Curdling milk in an animal's stomach made solid and better-textured curds, which could easily have led to the conscious addition of rennet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese ripening",
        "text": "Cheese ripening was not always the highly industrialised process it is today; in the past, cellars and caves were used to ripen cheeses instead of the current highly regulated process involving machinery and biochemistry. Some cheeses still are made using more historical methods, such as the blue cheese Roquefort, which is required to be ripened in designated caves in south-western France. However, with the invention of refrigeration in the 20th century, the process evolved considerably, and is much more efficient at producing a consistent quality of cheese, at a faster pace, and a lower cost (depending on the type of cheese)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Feta",
        "text": "After the dry-salting of the cheese is complete, aging or maturation in brine (a 7% salt in water solution) takes several weeks at room temperature and a further minimum of 2 months in a refrigerated high-humidity environment\u2014as before, either in wooden barrels or metal vessels, depending on the producer (the more traditional barrel aging is said to impart a unique flavour). The containers are then shipped to supermarkets where the cheese is cut and sold directly from the container; alternatively blocks of standardized weight are packaged in sealed plastic cups with some brine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bleu des Causses",
        "text": "Upon arriving at the maturing cellar, the cheeses are then brushed or washed and wiped. They are then perforated: this operation promotes internal ventilation of the cheese and allows harmonious development of mold. The cheese is then stored on racks in cellars naturally temperature controlled by fleurine. Between production and refinement, preparation should take at least 70 days. Before selling, refrigeration is not part of the refinement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Cheese is an ancient food whose origins predate recorded history. There is no conclusive evidence indicating where cheesemaking originated, whether in Europe, Central Asia or the Middle East. Earliest proposed dates for the origin of cheesemaking range from around 8000 BCE, when sheep were first domesticated. Since animal skins and inflated internal organs have, since ancient times, provided storage vessels for a range of foodstuffs, it is probable that the process of cheese making was discovered accidentally by storing milk in a container made from the stomach of an animal, resulting in the milk being turned to curd and whey by the rennet from the stomach. There is a legend\u2014with variations\u2014about the discovery of cheese by an Arab trader who used this method of storing milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cream cheese",
        "text": "Inaccurate timing of the heating can produce inferior or unsalable cheese due to variations in flavor and texture. Cream cheese has a higher fat content than other cheeses, and fat repels water, which tends to separate from the cheese; this can be avoided in commercial production by adding stabilizers such as guar or carob gums to prolong its shelf life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Types of cheese",
        "text": "The main factor in categorizing these cheeses is age. Fresh cheeses without additional preservatives can spoil in a matter of days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheddar cheese",
        "text": "\"Cheddaring\" refers to an additional step in the production of Cheddar cheese where, after heating, the curd is kneaded with salt, cut into cubes to drain the whey, and then stacked and turned. Strong, extra-mature Cheddar, sometimes called vintage, needs to be matured for 15 months or more. The cheese is kept at a constant temperature, often requiring special facilities. As with other hard cheese varieties produced worldwide, caves provide an ideal environment for maturing cheese; still, today, some Cheddar cheese is matured in the caves at Wookey Hole and Cheddar Gorge. Additionally, some versions of Cheddar cheese are smoked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Cheese is valued for its portability, long shelf life, and high content of fat, protein, calcium, and phosphorus. Cheese is more compact and has a longer shelf life than milk, although how long a cheese will keep depends on the type of cheese. Hard cheeses, such as Parmesan, last longer than soft cheeses, such as Brie or goat's milk cheese. The long storage life of some cheeses, especially when encased in a protective rind, allows selling when markets are favorable. Vacuum packaging of block-shaped cheeses and gas-flushing of plastic bags with mixtures of carbon dioxide and nitrogen are used for storage and mass distribution of cheeses in the 21st century."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cheese",
        "text": "Traditional cheese is ground, combined with emulsifying agents and other ingredients, mixed and heated until it forms a \"melted homogeneous\" mixture. To pasteurize it, the cheese mixture must be heated to a temperature of at least for a minimum of 30 seconds. Composition requirements of processed American cheese control the percentage of milkfat, moisture, salt and pH value in the final product, along with specifications for flavor, body and texture, color, and meltability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Cheesemaking may have begun independently of this by the pressing and salting of curdled milk to preserve it. Observation that the effect of making cheese in an animal stomach gave more solid and better-textured curds may have led to the deliberate addition of rennet. Early archeological evidence of Egyptian cheese has been found in Egyptian tomb murals, dating to about 2000 BCE. A 2018 scientific paper stated that the world's oldest cheese, dating to approximately 1200 BCE (3200 years before present), was found in ancient Egyptian tombs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Some hard cheeses are then heated to temperatures in the range of . This forces more whey from the cut curd. It also changes the taste of the finished cheese, affecting both the bacterial culture and the milk chemistry. Cheeses that are heated to the higher temperatures are usually made with thermophilic starter bacteria that survive this step\u2014either \"Lactobacilli\" or \"Streptococci\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Some cheeses have additional bacteria or molds intentionally introduced before or during aging. In traditional cheesemaking, these microbes might be already present in the aging room; they are simply allowed to settle and grow on the stored cheeses. More often today, prepared cultures are used, giving more consistent results and putting fewer constraints on the environment where the cheese ages. These cheeses include soft ripened cheeses such as Brie and Camembert, blue cheeses such as Roquefort, Stilton, Gorgonzola, and rind-washed cheeses such as Limburger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "The 1860s saw the beginnings of mass-produced rennet, and by the turn of the century scientists were producing pure microbial cultures. Before then, bacteria in cheesemaking had come from the environment or from recycling an earlier batch's whey; the pure cultures meant a more standardized cheese could be produced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint-Nectaire",
        "text": "The next stage of the production is the picking up of the grains, which fall and are gathered to the tank bottom. Then, the operator removes the whey that makes up for 80% of the initial volume of milk. The milk serum or milk permeate is later given to the cows, spread in the fields. It can also be collected by some dairy industries that extract cream from it, turn it into powder to feed the calves, or use it in the elaboration of other food products, such as chocolate and pre-packaged-meals. Once drained, the bits of renneted milk are pressed for the first time into their mould using a machine. The compressed cheese is called \"tome\". The \"tome\" is then wrapped into linen, a little casein stamp (oval or square) is put on top of it, and the cheese is salted (with some brine). Next it is put into a press for 12 to 24 hours. The next step is called \"ressuyage\" (lit. \"re-wiping\"), when the cheese is unwrapped, and stored in a cold room, at , with between 40% to 60% relative humidity. Farmers and dairy producers can allow the \u201ctome\u201d to mature, or sell to cheese aging specialists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward William Coon",
        "text": "His method explicitly excluded pasteurization, which kills all bacteria and therefore allows cheese to last for much longer when stored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "A required step in cheesemaking is separating the milk into solid curds and liquid whey. Usually this is done by acidifying (souring) the milk and adding rennet. The acidification can be accomplished directly by the addition of an acid, such as vinegar, in a few cases (paneer, queso fresco). More commonly starter bacteria are employed instead which convert milk sugars into lactic acid. The same bacteria (and the enzymes they produce) also play a large role in the eventual flavor of aged cheeses. Most cheeses are made with starter bacteria from the \"Lactococcus\", \"Lactobacillus\", or \"Streptococcus\" genera. Swiss starter cultures also include \"Propionibacter shermani\", which produces carbon dioxide gas bubbles during aging, giving Swiss cheese or Emmental its holes (called \"eyes\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "An Arab legend attributes the discovery of cheese to an Arab trader who used this method of storing milk. However, cheese was already well known among the Sumerians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kraft Foods Inc.",
        "text": "In 1915, the company had invented pasteurized processed cheese that did not need refrigeration, thus giving a longer shelf life than conventional cheese. The process was patented in 1916 and about six million pounds of the product were sold to the U.S. Army for military rations during World War I."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brie",
        "text": "Brie, like Camembert and Cirrus, is a soft cheese. Its softness allows the rapid widespread growth of bacteria and moulds if the cheese is not stored correctly. It is recommended that soft cheeses such as brie be kept refrigerated. The optimal storage temperature for brie is or even lower. The cheese should be kept in a tightly sealed container or plastic wrap to avoid contact with moisture and food-spoilage bacteria which will reduce the shelf life and freshness of the product. Cheese producers specify a \"best before date\", and say that the quality of the cheese will degrade beyond then. Cheese with blue or green mould may not be safe to eat; the mould may also have spread invisibly to apparently unaffected parts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abbaye de Tami\u00e9",
        "text": "Cheeses are aged in the vaulted cellars of the abbey where the temperature is maintained at , with high humidity. They will be turned manually every other day. To maintain the crust and encourage the development of the mould on the surface, the cheeses are again bathed in brine and then rubbed and returned to the shelves to mature. The mould is naturally present in the cellar. When they have attained their optimum maturity, they are packed and labeled by hand. The label conveys important manufacturing information and the best-before date (about 45 days after packing)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Processed cheese",
        "text": "Processed cheese was first developed in Switzerland in 1911, when Walter Gerber and Fritz Stettler, seeking a cheese with longer shelf life and influenced by cheese sauces such as those used in fondue, added sodium citrate to melted Emmentaler cheese and found that the emulsified cheese sauce could be re-cooled into a solid again. Shortly after, in 1916, Canadian-American businessman James L. Kraft applied for the first U.S. patent covering a new method of processing cheese, which halted the maturation process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "Cheese is made by bringing milk (possibly pasteurised) in the cheese vat to a temperature required to promote the growth of the bacteria that feed on lactose and thus ferment the lactose into lactic acid. These bacteria in the milk may be wild, as is the case with unpasteurised milk, added from a culture, frozen or freeze dried concentrate of starter bacteria. Bacteria which produce only lactic acid during fermentation are homofermentative; those that also produce lactic acid and other compounds such as carbon dioxide, alcohol, aldehydes and ketones are heterofermentative. Fermentation using homofermentative bacteria is important in the production of cheeses such as Cheddar, where a clean, acid flavour is required. For cheeses such as Emmental the use of heterofermentative bacteria is necessary to produce the compounds that give characteristic fruity flavours and, importantly, the gas that results in the formation of bubbles in the cheese ('eye holes')."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "Cheesemaking may have originated from nomadic herdsmen who stored milk in vessels made from sheep's and goats' stomachs. Because their stomach linings contains a mix of lactic acid, bacteria as milk contaminants and rennet, the milk would ferment and coagulate. A product reminiscent of yogurt would have been produced, which through gentle agitation and the separation of curds from whey would have resulted in the production of cheese; the cheese being essentially a concentration of the major milk protein, casein, and milk fat. The whey proteins, other major milk proteins, and lactose are all removed in the cheese whey. Another theory is offered by David Asher, who wrote that the origins actually lie within the \"sloppy milk bucket in later European culture, it having gone unwashed and containing all of the necessary bacteria to facilitate the ecology of cheese\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "Factory-made cheese overtook traditional cheese-making during the World War II era. Since then, factories have been the source of most cheese in America and Europe. Today, Americans buy more processed cheese than \"real\", factory-made cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Industrial microbiology",
        "text": "Cheese was produced as a way to preserve the nutrients obtained from milk, through fermentation thus elongating the shelf-life of the product."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "Preserved cheese dating from 1615 BC was found in the Taklamakan Desert in Xinjiang, China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bulk tank",
        "text": "Generic temperature for milk storage is 3 to 4\u00b0C. For raw milk cheese manufacturing, it would be advisable to keep the milk at 12\u00b0C, as milk characteristics will be kept in a better state."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beecher's Handmade Cheese",
        "text": "At the Beecher's facility, their process for cheese manufacturing is multi-staged. Thousands of gallons of milk are hose-fed from delivery trucks into the manufacturing area, where it is heated to complete the pasteurization of the milk. The heated milk is processed into a stainless steel trough, and the temperature further increased, while the first live cheese cultures and rennet, a coagulant, are added to the developing mixture. According to Amir Rosenblatt, a cheesemaker at Beecher's, the heating and cheese temperatures used in their cooking process are tightly controlled through the sustainable technology of steam power. \"A variation of half a degree [in the pasteurization process] can change the flavor of the cheese,\" he said. Cheesemakers use stainless steel \"rakes\" to then gather the milk mixture, before allowing it to settle briefly, at which point the cheese is cut repeatedly by hand until it achieves a yogurt-like texture and substance. This process is repeated often, until a desired consistency is reached. The mixture is then drawn away to a new trough where most of the remaining water and whey is drained from the cheese. While the whey is continually pulled from the cheese, cheesemakers constantly separate the cheese by hand into smaller and small stacks of cheese curds, which form as the whey is removed. To complete the curding, a large amount of salt is added to cure the cheese and draw still more whey from it. The curds are finally cut into portions, filled into cheese molds, stacked on top of each other, and the remaining excess moisture is forced from the cheese with a constant of pressure for at least 24 hours, before the finished cheese is stored to age. For every 10 pounds (10 kilograms) of milk and whey, Beecher's will typically create 1 pound (1 kilogram) of finished cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Above room temperatures, most hard cheeses melt. Rennet-curdled cheeses have a gel-like protein matrix that is broken down by heat. When enough protein bonds are broken, the cheese itself turns from a solid to a viscous liquid. Soft, high-moisture cheeses will melt at around , while hard, low-moisture cheeses such as Parmesan remain solid until they reach about . Acid-set cheeses, including halloumi, paneer, some whey cheeses and many varieties of fresh goat cheese, have a protein structure that remains intact at high temperatures. When cooked, these cheeses just get firmer as water evaporates."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u0160ar cheese",
        "text": "In the traditional way of production sheep milk was retained in its original temperature and not pasteurized. Later, in the more modern way the milk was pasteurized before used for cheese production. After pasteurization, the milk gets a dose of yeast which needs which is required for the fermentation process. Again, in the traditional method this yeast was taken from sheep gallstone whereas nowadays it is bought ready to use. After fermentation, the milk is poured into a diaper and compressed to release the liquid Whey remains of the fermentation process. The milk (or pre-cheese) stays in the diaper until it gains a strong and solid state and also starts to change its color from white to light yellow. After that, the cheese is taken out and stays for a few days on racks, in closed door places with low temperature. Finally, it is broken down in pieces (by hand), salted water with Dill is prepared and both are stacked into plastic jars for shipping. An interesting fact is that even the type of wood used in constructing the racks affects the aroma and quality of the cheese. For example, one type of wood which is known to be neutral, doesn't impact the aroma of the cheese and is used most to construct those racks is called \"Pinus peuce\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "History of cheese\n--Earliest origins.\n--Ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome.\n--Post-Roman Europe.\n--Americas.\n--Asia.\n--Modern.\n----Mass production.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward William Coon",
        "text": "Coon claimed that \"unparaffined cheese shrinks in weight very considerably as it is held for the purpose of ripening in a room or chamber set aside for that purpose, due to the contained moisture evaporating through the cheese rind\" and determined that the moisture percentage of rooms for cheese ripening should be maintained at near the saturation point of the cheese. He further noted that paraffined cheeses are practically hermetically sealed and therefore do not ripen as rapidly as if they had not been paraffined."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c9poisses",
        "text": "In 1991, the cheese was awarded \"appellation d'origine contr\u00f4l\u00e9e\" (AOC) status, which states that the manufacture must follow the following rules:\n* The milk's coagulation must be performed by lactic acid and continue for 16 hours.\n* The curd must be cut roughly as opposed to being broken.\n* After drainage, only dry salt may be used."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Cheese",
        "text": "The Cheese\n--History.\n--Format.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of cheeses",
        "text": "Some types of cheese were either developed in various locales independently (usually as un-aged products from the beginning stages of dairy processing and cheesemaking), or are not actually cheese products. Examples include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Berner Alpk\u00e4se",
        "text": "The cheese must be made no later than 18 hours after milking. As a rule, the chilled evening milk is partly skimmed to produce a fat content of at least 45% in the final product. This is then mixed with the morning milk. The milk is heated to and cultured bacteria from the region are added along with the rennet. After 30 minutes, the curds are cut with a cheese-harp into pinhead-sized grains. The curds and whey are then heated to which shrinks the curds and kills any unwanted bacteria. The curds are packed into a cheese-mould and pressed for 15 hours, after which time the cheese-loaf is soaked in brine for 24 hours. The cheeses, in rounds of at least , are aged at a humidity of over 85% and the rind is brushed regularly with brine. The initial ripening period occurs on-site and later the cheese is aged in the cellars of cheesemongers and dairies."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cheese",
        "text": "According to the Standards of Identity for Dairy Products, part of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), to be labeled \"American cheese\" a processed cheese is required to be manufactured from cheddar cheese, colby cheese, washed curd cheese, or granular cheese, or any mixture of two or more of these. The CFR also includes regulations for the manufacturing of processed American cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "Ancient Greek mythology credited Aristaeus with the discovery of cheese. Homer's \"Odyssey\" (late 8th century BC) describes the Cyclops producing and storing sheep's and goat's milk and cheese:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Over a thousand types of cheese exist and are currently produced in various countries. Their styles, textures and flavors depend on the origin of the milk (including the animal's diet), whether they have been pasteurized, the butterfat content, the bacteria and mold, the processing, and how long they have been aged for. Herbs, spices, or wood smoke may be used as flavoring agents. The yellow to red color of many cheeses is produced by adding annatto. Other ingredients may be added to some cheeses, such as black pepper, garlic, chives or cranberries. A cheesemonger, or specialist seller of cheeses, may have expertise with selecting the cheeses, purchasing, receiving, storing and ripening them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "Once the cheese curd is judged to be ready, the cheese whey must be released. As with many foods the presence of water and the bacteria in it encourages decomposition. To prevent such decomposition it is necessary to remove most of the water (whey) from the cheese milk, and hence cheese curd, to make a partial dehydration of the curd. There are several ways to separate the curd from the whey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Munster cheese",
        "text": "The cheese's crust must be washed regularly. It is matured in damp cellars for five weeks for the smaller formats (roughly 300 g) and up to 2 to 3 months for the larger ones (about 1500 g). During this period, the rind is periodically washed with brine. The added moisture helps the development of bacteria that gives this cheese its particular taste and color.\n* Quality control is maintained in storage, packaging and labeling (called \"etiquetage\"). The cheese, now round with a fat content of 45% in dry matter, has a diameter between 12 and , and a thickness between and . Normally it is sold unwrapped on a straw bed, but for export it may be wrapped in cellophane or clear plastic. The cheese should have a slick shiny brick-colored or orange rind, with apparent moisture on it; a semi-soft body; a very strong and penetrating odor; and a very strong taste. Defects can be an unripened body (crumbly), a broken rind, too salty or too old and overdone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sulguni",
        "text": "The cheddared mass is then diced into pieces 1 to 3 centimeters long. They are heated to 60-80\u00a0\u00b0C in a rotating mixer, either directly or with added whey or brine. Plasticizing of raw mass takes five to seven minutes. Direct dry plasticizing yields fatter, drier cheese with superior taste. Plasticized cheese mass is then cooled, drained of whey and shaped by hand. Shaped cheeses are cured in cold (8-12\u00a0\u00b0C), mildly acidic brine for 6 to 48 hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Factory-made cheese overtook traditional cheesemaking in the World War II era, and factories have been the source of most cheese in America and Europe ever since. By 2012, cheese is one of the most shoplifted items from supermarkets worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gruy\u00e8re cheese",
        "text": "According to the AOC, the cellars to mature a Swiss Gruy\u00e8re must have a climate close to that of a natural cave. This means that the humidity should be between 94% and 98%. If the humidity is lower, the cheese dries out. If the humidity is too high, the cheese does not mature and becomes smeary and gluey. The temperature of the caves should be between . This relatively high temperature is required for excellent-quality cheese. Lower-quality cheeses result from temperatures between . The lower the temperature is, the less the cheese matures, resulting in a texture that is harder and more crumbly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "One of the ancient cheesemakers' earliest tools for cheesemaking, cheese molds or strainers, can be found throughout Europe, dating back to the Bronze Age. Baskets were used to separate the cheese curds, but as technology advanced, these cheese molds would be made of wood or pottery. The cheesemakers placed the cheese curds inside of the mold, secured the mold with a lid, then added pressure to separate the whey, which would drain out from the holes in the mold. The more whey that was drained, the less moisture retained in the cheese. Less moisture meant that the cheese would be more firm. In Ireland, some cheeses ranged from a dry and hard cheese (mullahawn) to a semi-liquid cheese (mills\u00e9n)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Manufacture of cheddar cheese",
        "text": "When all of the curd is milled, salt must be added. The amount of salt varies, but it will be between 1% and 3% by weight. The salt must be mixed thoroughly. Salt helps remove some of the whey from the cheese, which lowers moisture content, adds to the flavour of the cheese, and will also stop the cheese from becoming too acidic, which imparts a bitter taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of cheeses",
        "text": "Cheese is an ancient food whose origins predate recorded history. There is no conclusive evidence indicating where cheesemaking originated, either in Europe, Central Asia or the Middle East, but the practice had spread within Europe prior to Roman times and, according to Pliny the Elder, had become a sophisticated enterprise by the time the Roman Empire came into existence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parmesan",
        "text": "The cheese is put into a stainless steel, round form that is pulled tight with a spring-powered buckle so the cheese retains its wheel shape. After a day or two, the buckle is released and a plastic belt imprinted numerous times with the Parmigiano Reggiano name, the plant's number, and month and year of production is put around the cheese and the metal form is buckled tight again. The imprints take hold on the rind of the cheese in about a day and the wheel is then put into a brine bath to absorb salt for 20\u201325 days. After brining, the wheels are then transferred to the aging rooms in the plant for 12 months. Each cheese is placed on wooden shelves that can be 24 cheeses high by 90 cheeses long or 2160 total wheels per aisle. Each cheese and the shelf underneath it is then cleaned manually or robotically every seven days. The cheese is also turned at this time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egyptian cuisine",
        "text": "Cheese is thought to have originated in the Middle East. Two alabaster jars found at Saqqara, dating from the First Dynasty of Egypt, contained cheese. These were placed in the tomb about 3,000 BC. They were likely fresh cheeses coagulated with acid or a combination of acid and heat. An earlier tomb, that of King Hor-Aha, may also have contained cheese which, based on the hieroglyphic inscriptions on the two jars, appears to be from Upper and Lower Egypt. The pots are similar to those used today when preparing \"mish\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Some fresh cheeses are curdled only by acidity, but most cheeses also use rennet. Rennet sets the cheese into a strong and rubbery gel compared to the fragile curds produced by acidic coagulation alone. It also allows curdling at a lower acidity\u2014important because flavor-making bacteria are inhibited in high-acidity environments. In general, softer, smaller, fresher cheeses are curdled with a greater proportion of acid to rennet than harder, larger, longer-aged varieties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese ripening",
        "text": "In contrast to cheddaring, making cheeses like Camembert requires a more gentle treatment of the curd. It is carefully transferred to cheese hoops and the whey is allowed to drain from the curd by gravity, generally overnight. The cheese curds are then removed from the hoops to be brined by immersion in a saturated salt solution. This is because the amount of salt has a large effect on the rate of proteolysis in the cheese, stopping the bacteria from growing. If white-mould spores have not been added to the cheese milk, the cheese maker applies them to the cheese either by spraying the cheese with a suspension of mould spores in water, or by immersing the cheese in a bath containing spores of, e.g., \"Penicillium candida\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thermization",
        "text": "Thermization, also spelled thermisation, is a method of sanitizing raw milk with low heat. \"Thermization is a generic description of a range of subpasteurization heat treatments (57 to 68\u00b0C \u00d7 10 to 20 s) that markedly reduce the number of spoilage bacteria in milk with minimal heat damage.\" The process is not used on other food products, and is similar to pasteurization but uses lower temperatures, allowing the milk product to retain more of its original taste. In Europe, there is a distinction between cheeses made of thermized milk and raw-milk cheeses. However, the United States' Food and Drug Administration (FDA) places the same regulations on all unpasteurized cheeses. As a result, cheeses from thermized milk must be aged for 60 days or more before being sold in the United States, the same restriction placed on raw-milk cheeses by the FDA."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "The earliest direct evidence of cheesemaking is now being found in clay sieves (holed pottery) over seven thousand years old, for example in Kujawy, Poland, and the Dalmatian coast in Croatia, the latter with dried remains which chemical analysis suggests was cheese. Shards of holed pottery were also found in Urnfield pile-dwellings on Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland and are hypothesized to be cheese-strainers; they date back to 6,000 BCE (8,000 years ago)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Acid-set cheese",
        "text": "Cheeses can be classified according to a variety of features including ripening characteristics, special processing techniques (such as cheddaring) or method of coagulation. Acid-setting is a method of coagulation that accounts for around 25% of cheese production. These are generally fresh cheeses like cottage cheese, queso blanco, quark and cream cheese. The other 75%, which includes almost all ripened cheeses, are rennet cheeses."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "Until its modern spread along with European culture, cheese was most common by far in Europe, and the Middle East and North Africa. It was unheard of or far less common in sub-Saharan Africa, the rest of Asia, and pre-colonization Americas. Although cheese is still less prominent in local cuisines outside of Europe, the Middle East, and the Americas, most cheeses have become popular worldwide through the spread of European and Euro-American empires and culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Harding",
        "text": "His dictum was 'Cheese is not made in the field, nor in the byre, nor even in the cow, it is made in the dairy'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "Cheesemaking (or caseiculture) is the craft of making cheese. The production of cheese, like many other food preservation processes, allows the nutritional and economic value of a food material, in this case milk, to be preserved in concentrated form. Cheesemaking allows the production of the cheese with diverse flavors and consistencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue cheese",
        "text": "In the first phase of production, a \"Penicillium roqueforti\" inoculum is prepared prior to the actual production of blue cheese. Multiple methods can be used to achieve this. However, all methods involve the use of a freeze-dried \"Penicillium roqueforti\" culture. Although \"Penicillium roqueforti\" can be found naturally, cheese producers nowadays use commercially manufactured \"Penicillium roqueforti.\" First, \"Penicillium roqueforti\" is washed from a pure culture agar plants which is later frozen. Through the freeze drying process, water from the frozen state is evaporated without the transition through the liquid state (sublimation). This retains the value of the culture and is activated upon the addition of water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fourme de Montbrison",
        "text": "The cheese must be aged for at least 28 days, though more often it is left for around 8 weeks. Around of milk are used to make each cheese. By regulation the cheese may only be manufactured in any of 33 \"communes\" of the Monts du Forez in the departments of"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "Most cheeses were initially recorded in the late Middle Ages. Cheddar was recorded since the 1100s, Parmesan (Parmigiano Reggiano) was founded in 1597, Gouda in 1697, and Camembert in 1791. Cheeses diversified in Europe with locales developing their own traditions and products when Romanized populations encountered unfamiliar neighbors with their own cheese-making traditions. As long-distance trade collapsed, only travelers encountered unfamiliar cheeses. Charlemagne's first encounter with an edible rind white cheese forms one of the constructed anecdotes of Notker's \"Life\" of the Emperor. Cheese-making in manor and monastery intensified local characteristics imparted by local bacterial flora while the identification of monks with cheese is sustained through modern marketing labels. This also led to a diversity of cheese types. Today, Britain has 15 protected cheeses from approximately 40 types listed by the British Cheese Board. The British Cheese Board claims a total number of about 700 different products (including similar cheeses produced by different companies). France has 50 protected cheeses, Italy 52, and Spain 26. Italy has at least 400 cheeses. Meanwhile, the advancement of cheese art in Europe was slow during the centuries after Rome's fall. It became a staple of long-distance commerce, was disregarded as peasant fare, inappropriate on a noble table, and even harmful to one's health through the Middle Ages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "In contrast to cheddaring, making cheeses like Camembert requires a more gentle treatment of the curd. It is carefully transferred to cheese hoops and the whey is allowed to drain from the curd by gravity, generally overnight. The cheese curds are then removed from the hoops to be brined by immersion in a saturated salt solution. The salt absorption stops bacteria growing, as with Cheddar. If white mould spores have not been added to the cheese milk it is applied to the cheese either by spraying the cheese with a suspension of mould spores in water or by immersing the cheese in a bath containing spores of, e.g., \"Penicillium candida\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Processed cheese",
        "text": "Because processed cheese does not separate when melted, it is used as an ingredient in a variety of dishes. Unlike some unprocessed cheeses, heating does not alter its taste or texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Swiss-type cheeses",
        "text": "Alpine cheeses are made to be aged, typically at least for a few months, but often much more. The cows reached the high slopes by about May, and remained until about October. Often they moved in stages as the snow retreated. The highest \"alpage\" suitable for grazing is at around . Cheese was made during this period, and mostly stored before bringing down in autumn. Often the same cows and herders made a different kind of cheese from winter milk, and protected varieties may require summer (or winter) milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Processed cheese",
        "text": "In the United States, processed cheese is defined, categorized, and regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations Title 21, Section 133 (\"Cheeses and Cheese-Related Products\"). Pasteurized process cheese can be made from a single cheese, or a blend of several cheeses. Cream, milk fat, water, salt, color, and spices may also be added. The mixture is heated with an emulsifier, poured into a mold, and allowed to cool. The definitions include:\n* Pasteurized process cheese, which is made from one or more cheeses (excluding certain cheeses such as cream cheese and cottage cheese, but including American cheese). In the final product, moisture must not be more than 41 percent of the weight, and fat content not less than 49 percent.\n* Pasteurized process cheese food, which is made from one or more of the cheeses available for pasteurized process cheese composing not less than 51 percent of the final weight, mixed with one or more optional dairy ingredients such as fluid milk or whey, and which may contain one or more specified optional non-dairy ingredients. The final solid form must be less than 44 percent moisture and have a fat content greater than 23 percent.\n* Pasteurized process cheese spread, which is made similarly to pasteurized process cheese food but must be spreadable at . Moisture must be between 44 and 60 percent of the total weight, and fat content greater than 20 percent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eyes (cheese)",
        "text": "The CO2 so produced accumulates at weak points in the curd, where it forms the bubbles that become the cheese's eyes. Not all CO2 is so trapped: in an cheese, about 20 L CO2 remain in the eyes, while 60 L remain dissolved in the cheese mass and 40 L are lost from the cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c9poisses",
        "text": "At the first stage of manufacture, the whole milk is heated to around with the coagulation lasting for at least 16 hours. The fragile curds are drained in moulds, and the whey is then allowed to run off. Around 48 hours later the cheese is removed, salted, and placed on racks to dry; once dry, it is moved to cellars to mature."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "By Roman times, cheese-making was a mature art and common food group. Columella's \"De Re Rustica\" (circa 65 CE) details a cheese-making process involving rennet coagulation, pressing of the curd, salting, and aging. Pliny's \"Natural History\" (77 CE) devotes two chapters (XI, 96\u201397) to the diversity of cheeses enjoyed by Romans of the early Empire. He stated that the best cheeses came from \"pagi\" near N\u00eemes, and were identifiable as Loz\u00e8re and G\u00e9vaudan and had to be eaten fresh."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poutine",
        "text": "Freshness and juiciness of the curds is essential. Air and moisture seep out of the curds over time, altering their acidity level. This causes proteins to lose their elasticity, and the curds to lose their complex texture and characteristic squeaky sound when chewed. The curds should be less than a day old, which requires proximity to a dairy. While Montreal is from a cheese plant in Mirabel, restaurants and specialty cheese shops outside of dairy regions may be unable to sell enough curds to justify the expense of daily deliveries. Furthermore, Canadian food safety practices require curds to be refrigerated within 24\u00a0hours, which suppresses the properties of their texture. This has resulted in \"poutineries\" which specialize in the dish; busy poutineries may use of curds per day. Poutineries which are too distant from dairies may make their own cheese curds on site, in batches every few hours, to ensure a fresh and steady supply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egyptian cheese",
        "text": "The manufacture of cheese is depicted in murals in Egyptian tombs from 2,000 BC. Two alabaster jars found at Saqqara, dating from the First Dynasty of Egypt, contained cheese. These were placed in the tomb about 3,000 BC. They were likely fresh cheeses coagulated with acid or a combination of acid and heat. An earlier tomb, that of King Hor-Aha may also have contained cheese which, based on the hieroglyphic inscriptions on the two jars, appear to be from Upper and Lower Egypt. The pots are similar to those used today when preparing \"mish\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fungus",
        "text": "Certain types of cheeses require inoculation of milk curds with fungal species that impart a unique flavor and texture to the cheese. Examples include the blue color in cheeses such as Stilton or Roquefort, which are made by inoculation with \"Penicillium roqueforti\". Molds used in cheese production are non-toxic and are thus safe for human consumption; however, mycotoxins (e.g., aflatoxins, roquefortine C, patulin, or others) may accumulate because of growth of other fungi during cheese ripening or storage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Afuega'l pitu",
        "text": "Depending on the length of time the cheese has been aged it can be:"
      },
      {
        "title": "I Am the Cheese",
        "text": "WorldCat libraries report holding Danish (1986), Catalan (1987), Spanish (1998), Chinese, Polish, Serbian and Korean-language editions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Majorero",
        "text": "After milking, lamb rennet is added and after an hour a curdle develops. This curdle must be beaten and drained to remove the whey. The cheese is then heavily pressed and shaped. Dry salt is rubbed on the top. The cheese must be aired for several days before it can be eaten, or it can be set in dry rooms to age. After ageing, the cheese can be rubbed with oil or gofio to prevent excessive drying and give it different tastes and textures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese sauce",
        "text": "The industrial preparation and processing of liquid cheese sauces typically involve the shredding of bulk cheese products which is then placed en masse into a large processing container along with various dry ingredients and emulsifying salts. The mixture is agitated to create a slurry, and is then aseptically treated using various machines to heat and sterilize the product and make it pourable, after which sterile bottles, jars or cans are filled with the product. Such aseptically processed cheese sauces are typically shelf-stable, requiring no refrigeration until opened."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward William Coon",
        "text": "The patent describes a method \"to provide a process for the ripening of cheese through the agency of humidified air at certain temperatures supplied to the cheese ripening chamber\". The common methods of ripening cheese at the time involved storing cheese covered in paraffin wax at temperatures between 40 and 80 degrees Fahrenheit through the means of artificial refrigeration using ammonia gas or carbon dioxide gas pumped through pipes within the room. This method dehumidified the air and drew the moisture from the cheese creating a finished product that was dry and crumbly. The ageing process took a long time and often produced rind rot, spoiling the cheese. Coon's processes, being of much shorter duration, eliminated both the dryness and rind rot in the finished product, producing a cheese in which the lactic bacilli were cultivated to the highest degree, providing for better digestion of the cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "In making Cheddar (or many other hard cheeses) the curd is cut into small cubes and the temperature is raised to approximately to 'scald' the curd particles. Syneresis occurs and cheese whey is expressed from the particles. The Cheddar curds and whey are often transferred from the cheese vat to a cooling table which contains screens that allow the whey to drain, but which trap the curd. The curd is cut using long, blunt knives and 'blocked' (stacked, cut and turned) by the cheesemaker to promote the release of cheese whey in a process known as 'cheddaring'. During this process the acidity of the curd increases to a desired level. The curd is then milled into ribbon shaped pieces and salt is mixed into it to arrest acid development. The salted green cheese curd is put into cheese moulds lined with cheesecloths and pressed overnight to allow the curd particles to bind together. The pressed blocks of cheese are then removed from the cheese moulds and are either bound with muslin-like cloth, or waxed or vacuum packed in plastic bags to be stored for maturation. Vacuum packing removes oxygen and prevents mould (fungal) growth during maturation, which depending on the wanted final product may be a desirable characteristic or not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burgos",
        "text": "Burgos is blessed with a moderate climate and this fresh cheese was able to be conserved there without the need for curing of more than 10 days. With the improvement of aseptic industrial production processes this can be extended to about 30 days at a cool 6\u00a0\u00b0C. Its production reaches 35,000 tons annually."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "The earliest written evidence of cheese () is the Sumerian cuneiform texts of Third Dynasty of Ur, dated at the early second millennium BC. The earliest cheeses were sour and salty and similar in texture to rustic cottage cheese or present-day feta. In Late Bronze Age Minoan-Mycenaean Crete, Linear B tablets recorded the inventorying of cheese, (Mycenaean Greek in Linear B: , \"tu-ro\"; later Greek: ) flocks and shepherds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese!",
        "text": "Cheese!\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Processed cheese",
        "text": "Owing to its highly mechanized (i.e., assembly line) methods of production, and additive ingredients (e.g., oils, salts, or colors), some softer varieties of processed cheese cannot legally be labeled as actual \"cheese\" in many countries, even those in which slightly harder varieties can be. Such products tend to be classified as \"cheese food\", \"cheese spread\", or \"cheese product\" (depending primarily on the amount of cheese, moisture, and milkfat present in the final product)."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "The first factory for the industrial production of cheese opened in Switzerland in 1815. However, the large-scale production found real success in the United States. Credit goes to Jesse Williams, a dairy farmer from Rome, New York. Williams began making cheese in an assembly-line fashion using the milk from neighbouring farms in 1851. Within decades, hundreds of dairy associations existed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Salt has roles in cheese besides adding a salty flavor. It preserves cheese from spoiling, draws moisture from the curd, and firms cheese's texture in an interaction with its proteins. Some cheeses are salted from the outside with dry salt or brine washes. Most cheeses have the salt mixed directly into the curds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "At this point, the cheese has set into a very moist gel. Some soft cheeses are now essentially complete: they are drained, salted, and packaged. For most of the rest, the curd is cut into small cubes. This allows water to drain from the individual pieces of curd."
      },
      {
        "title": "Murcian cheese",
        "text": "For fresh cheese the milk is curdled at 32\u201335\u00b0C (90-93\u00b0F) for 30\u201345 minutes. The curd is then cut to grain of and the temperature is raised a further 3\u20135\u00b0C (37-41\u00b0F). The curd is then worked a little to make a soft consistency and transferred to moulds. The moulds have an interior pattern of rushes (Sp: \"plieta\") which transfers to the exterior of the fresh cheeses. The cheese is pressed lightly and for short duration and then salted by immersion in brine for 10 hours, drained and kept at a maximum temperature of 4\u00b0C (39\u00b0F) until sold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue cheese",
        "text": "Under the regulation of the Canadian Food Inspection Agency, it requires manufacturers to produce blue cheese with a maximum of 47 percent moisture, and minimum of 27 percent milk fat. Salt is allowed to be used as a preservative; however, the amount of the salt or combination of salts shall not exceed 200 parts per million of the milk and milk products used to make the cheese. Other than that the regulation of Canadian Food Inspection Agency does not limit producers to use bacterial cultures to aid further ripening and\u00a0flavoring preparations other than cheese flavoring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "Some cheeses may be deliberately left to ferment from naturally airborne spores and bacteria; this approach generally leads to a less consistent product but one that is valuable in a niche market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Processed cheese",
        "text": "In 1916, Canadian James L. Kraft applied for the first U.S. patent for a method of making processed cheese. Kraft Foods Inc. developed the first commercially available, shelf-stable, sliced processed cheese; it was introduced in 1950. The first commercially available individually wrapped cheese slices were introduced in the U.S. by Clearfield Cheese Co. in 1956. These forms of processed cheese have become ubiquitous in U.S. households ever since, most notably used for cheeseburgers and grilled cheese sandwiches because of its ability to cook evenly, distribute/stretch smoothly, and resist congealing, unlike traditional cheddar cheeses. Competitors lobbied unsuccessfully to require processed cheese be labeled \"embalmed cheese\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tup\u00ed",
        "text": "Following the preparation process the jar is covered and kept in a cool and dry place for a minimum of two months during which the cheese ferments, reaching the desired consistency. Some households add olive oil to the cheese in the jar after fermentation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Cheese\n--Etymology.\n--History.\n----Origins.\n----Ancient Greece and Rome.\n----Post-Roman Europe.\n----Modern era.\n--Production.\n----Consumption.\n--Processing.\n----Curdling.\n----Curd processing.\n----Ripening.\n--Types.\n--Cooking and eating.\n----Cheeseboard.\n--Nutrition and health.\n----Cardiovascular disease.\n----Pasteurization.\n--Cultural attitudes.\n----Odorous cheeses.\n----Effect on sleep.\n----Figurative expressions.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egyptian cheese",
        "text": "According to the medieval philosopher Al-Isra'ili, in his day there were three types of cheese: \"a moist fresh cheese which was consumed on the same day or close to it; there was an old dry cheese; and there was a medium one in between.\" The first would have been unripened cheese made locally from sour milk, which may or may not have been salted. The old dry cheeses would have often been imported, and were cheeses ripened by rennet enzymes or bacteria. The nature of the \"medium\" cheese is less certain, and may have referred to preserved fresh cheeses, evaporated milk or cheese similar to Indian paneer, where the addition of vegetable juices makes the milk coagulate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "The first factory for the industrial production of cheese opened in Switzerland in 1815, but large-scale production first found real success in the United States. Credit usually goes to Jesse Williams, a dairy farmer from Rome, New York, who in 1851 started making cheese in an assembly-line fashion using the milk from neighboring farms. Within decades, hundreds of such dairy associations existed."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of cheeses",
        "text": "In this list, types of cheeses are included; brand names are only included if they apply to a distinct variety of cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grated cheese",
        "text": "Grated cheese is cheese that has been grated. Typically, aged hard cheeses are used. Cheese can be grated by hand using a hand grater, and can be bought already grated. Commercial grated cheeses are often blends of cheeses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Here document",
        "text": "shop_type = \"CHEESE\""
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Aside from cow's milk, what other animal milk is used in making cheese?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Other sources of milk for cheese include goats and sheep's milk."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can cheese be made from soy milk?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes,  the main ingredients are nuts, soy milk, and soy yogurt. Common plant-based proteins or vegetable proteins used in vegan cheeses are derived from edible sources of protein, such as soybeans."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did people first start making cheese?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The production of cheese predates recorded history, beginning well over 7,000 years ago. There is no conclusive evidence indicating where cheese-making originated, possibly Europe, or Central Asia, the Middle East, or the Sahara."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Do all cheeses need to be refrigerated?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "There's the Edam cheese which is a semi-hard cheese that does not spoil, only hardens."
    ],
    "topic": "Cheese",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Edam cheese:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Edam cheese"
        ],
        "ctx": "Edam (, ) is a semi-hard cheese that originated in the Netherlands, and is named after the town of Edam in the province of North Holland. Edam is traditionally sold in flat-ended spheres with a pale yellow interior and a coat, or rind, of red paraffin wax. Edam ages and travels well, and does not spoil; it only hardens. These qualities (among others) made it the world's most popular cheese between the 14th and 18th centuries, both at sea and in remote colonies."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "National health organizations, such as the American Heart Association, Association of UK Dietitians, British National Health Service, and Mayo Clinic, among others, recommend that cheese consumption be minimized, replaced in snacks and meals by plant foods, or restricted to low-fat cheeses to reduce caloric intake and blood levels of HDL fat, which is a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. There is no high-quality clinical evidence that cheese consumption lowers the risk of cardiovascular diseases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "At refrigerator temperatures, the fat in a piece of cheese is as hard as unsoftened butter, and its protein structure is stiff as well. Flavor and odor compounds are less easily liberated when cold. For improvements in flavor and texture, it is widely advised that cheeses be allowed to warm up to room temperature before eating. If the cheese is further warmed, to , the fats will begin to \"sweat out\" as they go beyond soft to fully liquid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Some hard cheeses are then heated to temperatures in the range of . This forces more whey from the cut curd. It also changes the taste of the finished cheese, affecting both the bacterial culture and the milk chemistry. Cheeses that are heated to the higher temperatures are usually made with thermophilic starter bacteria that survive this step\u2014either \"Lactobacilli\" or \"Streptococci\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Cheese\n--Etymology.\n--History.\n----Origins.\n----Ancient Greece and Rome.\n----Post-Roman Europe.\n----Modern era.\n--Production.\n----Consumption.\n--Processing.\n----Curdling.\n----Curd processing.\n----Ripening.\n--Types.\n--Cooking and eating.\n----Cheeseboard.\n--Nutrition and health.\n----Cardiovascular disease.\n----Pasteurization.\n--Cultural attitudes.\n----Odorous cheeses.\n----Effect on sleep.\n----Figurative expressions.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Scientists have debated how cheese might affect sleep. There is some evidence that the tryptophan in cheese can be sleep-inducing, as it is a hormone that reduces stress and stabilizes nerve cells. The high levels of calcium in cheese facilitate the use of tryptophan in the body to produce melatonin, which induces sleep. An antithetical folk belief that cheese eaten close to bedtime can cause nightmares may have arisen from the Charles Dickens novella \"A Christmas Carol\", in which Ebenezer Scrooge attributes his visions of Jacob Marley to the cheese he ate. This belief can also be found in folklore that predates this story. The theory has been disproven multiple times, although night cheese may cause vivid dreams or otherwise disrupt sleep due to its high saturated fat content, according to studies by the British Cheese Board. Other studies indicate it may actually make people dream less."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cream cheese",
        "text": "Inaccurate timing of the heating can produce inferior or unsalable cheese due to variations in flavor and texture. Cream cheese has a higher fat content than other cheeses, and fat repels water, which tends to separate from the cheese; this can be avoided in commercial production by adding stabilizers such as guar or carob gums to prolong its shelf life."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Neil Jenkins",
        "text": "One of Neil Jenkins's major study areas was work looking at the beneficial effect that eating cheese has on tooth decay. During the Second World War, he was involved in studies to determine the amount of chalk which would have to be added to the bread in Britain, in order to avoid calcium deficiency in the population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Cheese is valued for its portability, long shelf life, and high content of fat, protein, calcium, and phosphorus. Cheese is more compact and has a longer shelf life than milk, although how long a cheese will keep depends on the type of cheese. Hard cheeses, such as Parmesan, last longer than soft cheeses, such as Brie or goat's milk cheese. The long storage life of some cheeses, especially when encased in a protective rind, allows selling when markets are favorable. Vacuum packaging of block-shaped cheeses and gas-flushing of plastic bags with mixtures of carbon dioxide and nitrogen are used for storage and mass distribution of cheeses in the 21st century."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "For preservation purposes, cheese-making may have begun by the pressing and salting of curdled milk. Animal skins and inflated internal organs already provided storage vessels for a range of foodstuffs. Curdling milk in an animal's stomach made solid and better-textured curds, which could easily have led to the conscious addition of rennet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eyes (cheese)",
        "text": "The CO2 so produced accumulates at weak points in the curd, where it forms the bubbles that become the cheese's eyes. Not all CO2 is so trapped: in an cheese, about 20 L CO2 remain in the eyes, while 60 L remain dissolved in the cheese mass and 40 L are lost from the cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geotrichum candidum",
        "text": "\"G. candidum\" can be used commercially to inoculate wash-rinds and bloomy rind cheeses. Cultures can be added to milk, brine or sprayed onto cheese surface. The optimum pH range for growth on cheese ranges from 4.4 to 6.7. The fungus colonizes nearly the entire surface of the cheese during the early stages of ripening. It is found on soft cheeses like Camembert cheese and semi-hard cheese Saint-Nectaire and Reblochon. For the Camembert cheese the fungi grows on the outside of the cheese forming a rind. The fungus is responsible for the uniform, white, velvety coat on Saint-Marcellin cheese. Lipases and proteases from \"G. candidum\" release fatty acids and peptides that provide the cheese with distinctive flavors. \"G. candidum\" reduces the bitterness in Camembert cheese through the activity of the aminopeptidases that hydrolyze low molecular weight hydrophobic peptides. Aminopeptidases also contributes an aroma in traditional Norman Camembert. The fungus also neutralizes the curd by catabolizing lactic acid produced by bacteria. \"G. candidum\" prepares the cheese for colonization of other acid sensitive bacteria such as \"Brevibacterium\". The fungus inhibits growth of the bacteria \"Listeria monocytogenes\". Commercial strains of \"G. candidum\" are available for cheese ripening."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk allergy",
        "text": "Dairy allergy was one of the earliest food allergies to be recorded. An ancient Greek medical text attributed to the doctor Hippocrates (\u2009460 \u2013 370 BC) notes in the context of a description of how some foods are harmful to certain individuals but not others, \"...cheese does not harm all men alike; some can eat their fill of it without the slightest hurt, nay, those it agrees with are wonderfully strengthened thereby. Others come off badly.\" The text attempts to explain the reaction to the cheese in terms of Hippocratic humorism, stating that some constitutions are naturally \"hostile to cheese, and [are] roused and stirred to action under its influence.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "A number of food safety agencies around the world have warned of the risks of raw-milk cheeses. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration states that soft raw-milk cheeses can cause \"serious infectious diseases including listeriosis, brucellosis, salmonellosis and tuberculosis\". It is U.S. law since 1944 that all raw-milk cheeses (including imports since 1951) must be aged at least 60\u00a0days. Australia has a wide ban on raw-milk cheeses as well, though in recent years exceptions have been made for Swiss Gruy\u00e8re, Emmental and Sbrinz, and for French Roquefort. There is a trend for cheeses to be pasteurized even when not required by law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fungus",
        "text": "Certain types of cheeses require inoculation of milk curds with fungal species that impart a unique flavor and texture to the cheese. Examples include the blue color in cheeses such as Stilton or Roquefort, which are made by inoculation with \"Penicillium roqueforti\". Molds used in cheese production are non-toxic and are thus safe for human consumption; however, mycotoxins (e.g., aflatoxins, roquefortine C, patulin, or others) may accumulate because of growth of other fungi during cheese ripening or storage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheeses of Mexico",
        "text": "Most \u201cfresh\u201d cheeses, unlike aged cheeses held for weeks or months, are aged for only days. This is not enough time to change the pH of the cheese enough to kill any harmful bacteria that may have been in the (unpasteurized) milk at the beginning of the process. The use of raw milk has led to a number of instances of food-borne disease linked to cheese, especially unaged, \u201cfresh\u201d cheeses. Cases of tuberculosis, listeriosis, and other diseases linked to cheese made in Mexico have led to strong restrictions against bringing the same across the US border or along with air travelers entering US airports. The most problematic cheeses have been \"panela, asadero, queso blanco\", and \"ranchero\", as these are not aged and are often made with unpasteurized milk. In 2008, the Diario de la Federacion published the Norma Mexicana project, with one of its purposes being the better sanitary control of the cheeses produced in the country. One of its major provisions is the prohibition against cheeses made with raw milk. However, critics state pasteurization is not the only way to guard against food-borne illnesses, and the process kills beneficial bacteria that affect the cheeses\u2019 taste and health benefits of the cheese with the loss of live culture and enzymes. This is especially true of aged cheeses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fried cheese",
        "text": "A significant amount of oil is absorbed into cheese when it is fried, and the frying of cheeses adds advanced lipid end products and dicarbonyls to advanced glycation end-products that are already present in cheeses. The advanced lipid end products are generated in a chemical reaction that occurs when the oil is intermingled with the proteins in cheeses. Furthermore, most cheeses are salty. As such, fried cheese has been described as an unhealthy dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easy Cheese",
        "text": "Water plays a multitude of functions in Easy Cheese. First, it allows for more stable emulsion, serving as a medium for the hydrophilic moieties of chelating salts. More specially, chelating salts bind calcium ions to hydrate proteins and create a more uniform spread. Water also provides the moisture content needed in processed cheese spreads to achieve the desired texture. Excessive water, however, can result in a lack of viscosity resulting in a cheese spread that has more liquid than solid properties after passing through the plastic extruder. The addition of too much water may likewise increase the product's susceptibility to microbial growth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Pregnant women may face an additional risk from cheese; the U.S. Centers for Disease Control has warned pregnant women against eating soft-ripened cheeses and blue-veined cheeses, due to the listeria risk, which can cause miscarriage or harm the fetus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Cheesemaking may have begun independently of this by the pressing and salting of curdled milk to preserve it. Observation that the effect of making cheese in an animal stomach gave more solid and better-textured curds may have led to the deliberate addition of rennet. Early archeological evidence of Egyptian cheese has been found in Egyptian tomb murals, dating to about 2000 BCE. A 2018 scientific paper stated that the world's oldest cheese, dating to approximately 1200 BCE (3200 years before present), was found in ancient Egyptian tombs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Government cheese",
        "text": "Government cheese has become a symbol for American innovation and industrialization, but the nutritional value of the cheese has been in question. It has been argued that people in poverty, such as those entitled to government cheese, are more likely to become obese. Between 1988 and 1994, those individuals below the poverty line had an obesity rate of 29.2 percent. The Food Security Act of 1985 (the 1985 farm bill) attempted to reduce milk production, but has been labeled as a \"hodgepodge of misdirected political compromise.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Most cheeses achieve their final shape when the curds are pressed into a mold or form. The harder the cheese, the more pressure is applied. The pressure drives out moisture\u2014the molds are designed to allow water to escape\u2014and unifies the curds into a single solid body."
      },
      {
        "title": "Types of cheese",
        "text": "The main factor in categorizing these cheeses is age. Fresh cheeses without additional preservatives can spoil in a matter of days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "Before the age of pasteurization, cheesemakers knew that certain cheeses can cause constipation or kidney stones, so they advised their customers to supplement these side effects by eating in moderation along with other foods and consuming walnuts, almonds, or horseradish."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States raw milk debate",
        "text": "The FDA considers hard, aged cheese, such as parmesan and cheddar, made from raw milk to be generally safe for consumption; soft cheese made from raw milk is considered unsafe. These types of cheese are currently legally sold if aged for 60 days or more. Over this period, the salt and acid characteristics of aging cheese generally eliminate the growth of pathogenic bacteria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fried cheese",
        "text": "Fried cheese\n--History.\n--Dishes.\n--Commercial production.\n--Health concerns.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tyramine",
        "text": "Most processed cheeses do not contain enough tyramine to cause hypertensive effects, although some aged cheeses (such as Stilton) do."
      },
      {
        "title": "Government cheese",
        "text": "The distribution of government cheese was claimed to not have an adverse effect on commercially available cheeses, as the government was required to purchase dairy products like cheese to keep the commercial companies afloat. The government could then sell or give the cheese away to foreign countries. At the time of Ronald Reagan's signing of the Agriculture and Food Act of 1981, the cheese stockpile equaled to more than 2\u00a0lb (1\u00a0kg) of cheese for each person living in the United States. The first dispersals of Government cheese were frequently moldy."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c9poisses",
        "text": "Although popular at the start of the twentieth century, with over 300 farms manufacturing the cheese, production had all but died out by the end of the Second World War. This resulted from the loss of a significant portion of the male population, leaving the women to work the fields, which in turn led to the neglect of the local dairy businesses and cheese-making."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "The nutritional value of cheese varies widely. Cottage cheese may consist of 4% fat and 11% protein while some whey cheeses are 15% fat and 11% protein, and triple-cr\u00e8me cheeses are 36% fat and 7% protein. In general, cheese is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of calcium, protein, phosphorus, sodium and saturated fat. A 28-gram (one ounce) serving of cheddar cheese contains about of protein and 202 milligrams of calcium. Nutritionally, cheese is essentially concentrated milk, but altered by the culturing and aging processes: it takes about of milk to provide that much protein, and to equal the calcium, though values for water-soluble vitamins and minerals can vary widely."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "Most cheeses were initially recorded in the late Middle Ages. Cheddar was recorded since the 1100s, Parmesan (Parmigiano Reggiano) was founded in 1597, Gouda in 1697, and Camembert in 1791. Cheeses diversified in Europe with locales developing their own traditions and products when Romanized populations encountered unfamiliar neighbors with their own cheese-making traditions. As long-distance trade collapsed, only travelers encountered unfamiliar cheeses. Charlemagne's first encounter with an edible rind white cheese forms one of the constructed anecdotes of Notker's \"Life\" of the Emperor. Cheese-making in manor and monastery intensified local characteristics imparted by local bacterial flora while the identification of monks with cheese is sustained through modern marketing labels. This also led to a diversity of cheese types. Today, Britain has 15 protected cheeses from approximately 40 types listed by the British Cheese Board. The British Cheese Board claims a total number of about 700 different products (including similar cheeses produced by different companies). France has 50 protected cheeses, Italy 52, and Spain 26. Italy has at least 400 cheeses. Meanwhile, the advancement of cheese art in Europe was slow during the centuries after Rome's fall. It became a staple of long-distance commerce, was disregarded as peasant fare, inappropriate on a noble table, and even harmful to one's health through the Middle Ages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Obesity in the United States",
        "text": "Food consumption has increased over time. Annual per capita consumption of cheese was in 1909; in 2000; the average person consumed of carbohydrates daily in 1970; in 2000; of fats and oils in 1909; in 2000. In 1977, 18% of an average person's food was consumed outside the home; in 1996, this had risen to 32%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese ripening",
        "text": "In contrast to cheddaring, making cheeses like Camembert requires a more gentle treatment of the curd. It is carefully transferred to cheese hoops and the whey is allowed to drain from the curd by gravity, generally overnight. The cheese curds are then removed from the hoops to be brined by immersion in a saturated salt solution. This is because the amount of salt has a large effect on the rate of proteolysis in the cheese, stopping the bacteria from growing. If white-mould spores have not been added to the cheese milk, the cheese maker applies them to the cheese either by spraying the cheese with a suspension of mould spores in water, or by immersing the cheese in a bath containing spores of, e.g., \"Penicillium candida\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Harding",
        "text": "His dictum was 'Cheese is not made in the field, nor in the byre, nor even in the cow, it is made in the dairy'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Cheese is a dairy product produced in wide ranges of flavors, textures and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, or sheep. During production, the milk is usually acidified and the enzymes of either rennet or bacterial enzymes with similar activity are added to cause the casein to coagulate. The solid curds are then separated from the liquid whey and pressed into finished cheese. Some cheeses have aromatic molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward William Coon",
        "text": "Coon claimed that \"unparaffined cheese shrinks in weight very considerably as it is held for the purpose of ripening in a room or chamber set aside for that purpose, due to the contained moisture evaporating through the cheese rind\" and determined that the moisture percentage of rooms for cheese ripening should be maintained at near the saturation point of the cheese. He further noted that paraffined cheeses are practically hermetically sealed and therefore do not ripen as rapidly as if they had not been paraffined."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese ripening",
        "text": "The process of cheese ripening affects the taste of the final product. If the product is not ripened, the resulting cheese is tasteless, and so all cheese is ripened except for fresh cheeses. Different factors define taste in cheese, including casein, fat, brine and many other elements. Brine, for example, mixes with saliva, delivering the flavour of the cheese to the taste buds and determining the cheese's moistness. Many of these elements are specific to the type of cheese. For instance, proline is more abundant in Emmental than in any other type of cheese and gives the cheese its much sweeter taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tyramine",
        "text": "The first signs of this effect were discovered by a British pharmacist who noticed that his wife, who at the time was on MAOI medication, had severe headaches when eating cheese. For this reason, it is still called the \"cheese effect\" or \"cheese crisis,\" although other foods can cause the same problem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dry matter",
        "text": "Cheese contains both dry matter and water. The dry matter in cheese contains proteins, butterfat, minerals, and lactose (milk sugar), although little lactose survives fermentation when the cheese is made. A cheese's fat content is expressed as the percentage of fat in the cheese's dry matter (abbreviated FDM or FiDM), which excludes the cheese's water content. For example, if a cheese is 50% water (and, therefore, 50% dry matter) and has 25% fat, its fat content would be 50% fat in dry matter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dairy salt",
        "text": "Dairy salt has been used in the preparation of cheeses. Its use can add flavor to cheeses, and it tends to reduce the water content in cheeses, which can influence the ripening process. The use of impure dairy salt can make cheeses bitter in flavor, reducing their value. The use of too much salt in cheese can adversely affect its flavor, resulting in a product with a mealy and dry texture that is slow to ripen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "A newborn cheese is usually salty yet bland in flavor and, for harder varieties, rubbery in texture. These qualities are sometimes enjoyed\u2014cheese curds are eaten on their own\u2014but normally cheeses are left to rest under controlled conditions. This aging period (also called ripening, or, from the French, \"affinage\") lasts from a few days to several years. As a cheese ages, microbes and enzymes transform texture and intensify flavor. This transformation is largely a result of the breakdown of casein proteins and milkfat into a complex mix of amino acids, amines, and fatty acids."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Other techniques influence a cheese's texture and flavor. Some examples are :\n* Stretching: (Mozzarella, Provolone) The curd is stretched and kneaded in hot water, developing a stringy, fibrous body.\n* Cheddaring: (Cheddar, other English cheeses) The cut curd is repeatedly piled up, pushing more moisture away. The curd is also mixed (or \"milled\") for a long time, taking the sharp edges off the cut curd pieces and influencing the final product's texture.\n* Washing: (Edam, Gouda, Colby) The curd is washed in warm water, lowering its acidity and making for a milder-tasting cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "As its temperature continues to rise, cheese will brown and eventually burn. Browned, partially burned cheese has a particular distinct flavor of its own and is frequently used in cooking (e.g., sprinkling atop items before baking them)."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "Mass-produced rennet began in the 1860s. By the turn of the century, scientists were producing pure microbial cultures. Previously, bacteria in cheese was derived from the environment or from recycling an earlier batch's whey. Pure cultures meant a standardized cheese could be produced. The mass production of cheese made it readily available to the poorer classes. Therefore, simple cost-effective storage solutions for cheese gained popularity. Ceramic cheese dishes, or cheese bells, became one of the most common ways to prolong the life of cheese in the home. It remained popular in most households until the introduction of the home refrigerator in 1913."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Although cheese is a vital source of nutrition in many regions of the world and it is extensively consumed in others, its use is not universal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Some cheeses have additional bacteria or molds intentionally introduced before or during aging. In traditional cheesemaking, these microbes might be already present in the aging room; they are simply allowed to settle and grow on the stored cheeses. More often today, prepared cultures are used, giving more consistent results and putting fewer constraints on the environment where the cheese ages. These cheeses include soft ripened cheeses such as Brie and Camembert, blue cheeses such as Roquefort, Stilton, Gorgonzola, and rind-washed cheeses such as Limburger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Patrick Rance",
        "text": "The food writer Egon Ronay credits Rance with \"the almost single-handed creation of the British farm cheese industry \u2013 far beyond the tiny, pre-war cottage industry \u2013 through advising, encouraging, pleading, coaxing, writing and broadcasting without any financial reward \u2013 a singular act of selflessness\". He campaigned for the use of unpasteurised milk in cheeses, and argued that unpasteurised cheese had acidity levels that prevented the growth of harmful bacteria such as listeria. When a scandal erupted about a listeria outbreak that killed some 30 people and was initially blamed on unpasteurised cheese, Rance made much of the fact that the infected cheese had been made from pasteurised milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Swiss-type cheeses",
        "text": "According to the \"Historia Augusta\", the Roman emperor Antoninus Pius fell ill and died in 161 after eating a large quantity of \"Alpine cheese\" (\"cum Alpinum caseum in cena edisset avidius\") at Lorium, near Rome. What the character of this cheese was is impossible to say, but it was evidently capable of being transported several hundred miles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Even in cultures with long cheese traditions, consumers may perceive some cheeses that are especially pungent-smelling, or mold-bearing varieties such as Limburger or Roquefort, as unpalatable. Such cheeses are an acquired taste because they are processed using molds or microbiological cultures, allowing odor and flavor molecules to resemble those in rotten foods. One author stated: \"An aversion to the odor of decay has the obvious biological value of steering us away from possible food poisoning, so it is no wonder that an animal food that gives off whiffs of shoes and soil and the stable takes some getting used to.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward William Coon",
        "text": "His method explicitly excluded pasteurization, which kills all bacteria and therefore allows cheese to last for much longer when stored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "The earliest cheeses were likely quite sour and salty, similar in texture to rustic cottage cheese or feta, a crumbly, flavorful Greek cheese. Cheese produced in Europe, where climates are cooler than the Middle East, required less salt for preservation. With less salt and acidity, the cheese became a suitable environment for useful microbes and molds, giving aged cheeses their respective flavors. The earliest ever discovered preserved cheese was found in the Taklamakan Desert in Xinjiang, China, dating back as early as 1615 BCE (3600 years before present)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue cheese",
        "text": "\"Penicillium roqueforti\", responsible for the greenish blue moldy aspect of blue cheese, produces several mycotoxins. While mycotoxins like roquefortine, isofumigaclavine A, mycophenolic acid and ferrichrome are present at low levels, penicillic acid and PR toxin are unstable in the cheese. Because of the instability of PR toxin and lack of optimal environmental conditions (temperature, aeration) for the production of PR toxin and roquefortine, health hazards due to \"Penicillium roqueforti\" metabolites are considerably reduced. Additionally, mycotoxin contamination occurs at low levels and large quantities of cheese are rarely consumed, suggesting that hazard to human health is unlikely."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "By taking the cheese through a series of maturation stages where temperature and relative humidity are carefully controlled, allowing the surface mould to grow and the mould-ripening of the cheese by fungi to occur. Mould-ripened cheeses ripen very quickly compared to hard cheeses (weeks against months or years). This is because the fungi used are biochemically very active when compared with starter bacteria. Some cheeses are surface-ripened by moulds, such as Camembert and Brie, some are ripened internally, such as Stilton, which is pierced with stainless steel wires, to admit air to promote mould spore germination and growth, as with \"Penicillium roqueforti\". Surface ripening of some cheeses, such as Saint-Nectaire, may also be influenced by yeasts which contribute flavour and coat texture. Others are allowed to develop bacterial surface growths which give characteristic colours and appearances, e.g. by the growth of \"Brevibacterium linens\" which gives an orange coat to cheeses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hafnia (bacterium)",
        "text": "Since 1979, studies of French cheese have led to the identification of correlations between \"Hafnia alvei\" growth and chemical parameters during cheese manufacturing. Several researchers estimated that the level of \"H. alvei\" reaches 107 CFU/g at the end of ripening process and showed that its growth curve is closely linked to an increase in pH. Similarly, Mounier \"et al.\" determined a \"H. alvei\" content of about 109 CFU/g in a model smear cheese (soft cheese)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edam cheese",
        "text": "Most \"young\" Edam cheese sold in stores has a very mild flavour, slightly salty or nutty, and almost no smell when compared to other cheeses. As the cheese ages, its flavour sharpens, and it becomes firmer. Edam may have as little as 28% fat in dry matter. Modern Edam is softer than other cheeses, such as Cheddar cheese, due to its low fat content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dairy",
        "text": "Cheese is another product made from milk. Whole milk is reacted to form curds that can be compressed, processed and stored to form cheese. In countries where milk is legally allowed to be processed without pasteurization, a wide range of cheeses can be made using the bacteria found naturally in the milk. In most other countries, the range of cheeses is smaller and the use of artificial cheese curing is greater. Whey is also the byproduct of this process. Some people with lactose intolerance are surprisingly able to eat certain types of cheese. This is because some traditionally made hard cheeses, and soft ripened cheeses may create less reaction than the equivalent amount of milk because of the processes involved. Fermentation and higher fat content contribute to lesser amounts of lactose. Traditionally made Emmental or Cheddar might contain 10% of the lactose found in whole milk. In addition, the aging methods of traditional cheeses (sometimes over two years) reduce their lactose content to practically nothing. Commercial cheeses, however, are often manufactured by processes that do not have the same lactose-reducing properties. Ageing of some cheeses is governed by regulations; in other cases there is no quantitative indication of degree of ageing and concomitant lactose reduction, and lactose content is not usually indicated on labels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fried cheese",
        "text": "In Brazil, the chronic consumption of fried cheese has been demonstrated to be one of the dietary risk factors associated with oral cancer incident rates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese ripening",
        "text": "Ripening is influenced by a variety of factors, ranging from the microflora to the curd, and others. The enzymatic process is the most crucial process for all cheeses, although bacteria plays a role in many varieties. The most important agents in this process include the following elements:\n* Rennet, or a substitute for rennet\n* starter bacteria and associated enzymes\n* milk enzymes\n* second starter bacteria and associated enzymes\n* non-starter bacteria"
      },
      {
        "title": "Colby cheese",
        "text": "The higher moisture content of Colby compared to cheddar leads to a weak body and it does not keep its quality for as long. It often develops a bitter taste and becomes extremely soft after 100 days, and is typically recommended to be consumed within three months. Foodborne bacteria including \"Listeria monocytogenes\", \"Staphylococcus aureus\", and \"Salmonella\" are more likely to grow in cheeses with a moisture content greater than 50% than in hard or semi-hard cheeses like Colby."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese!",
        "text": "Cheese!\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk and meat in Jewish law",
        "text": "Rashi stated that meat leaves a fatty residue in the throat and on the palate and Maimonides noted that meat stuck between the teeth might not degrade for several hours. Feivel Cohen maintained that hard cheese leaves a lingering taste in the mouth. Generally, rabbinic literature considers the collective impact of each of these issues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Propionibacterium freudenreichii",
        "text": "The products of this fermentation contribute to the nutty and sweet flavors of the cheese, and the carbon dioxide byproduct is responsible for forming the holes, or \"eyes\" in the cheese. Cheesemakers control the size of the holes by changing the acidity, temperature, and curing time of the mixture. An estimated one billion living cells of \"P. freudenreichii\" are present in one gram of Emmental. In contrast to most lactic acid bacteria, this bacterium mainly breaks down lipids, forming free fatty acids. Recent research has focused on possible benefits incurred from consuming \"P. freudenreichii\", which are thought to cleanse the gastrointestinal tract. \"P. freudenreichii\" has also been suggested to possibly lower the incidence of colon cancer. This mutualistic relationship is unusual in propionibacteria, which are largely commensal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Salt has roles in cheese besides adding a salty flavor. It preserves cheese from spoiling, draws moisture from the curd, and firms cheese's texture in an interaction with its proteins. Some cheeses are salted from the outside with dry salt or brine washes. Most cheeses have the salt mixed directly into the curds."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "Hard salted cheese is likely to have accompanied dairying from the outset. It is the only form in which milk can be kept in a hot climate. Dairying existed around 4,000 BC in the grasslands of the Sahara. Cheese produced in Europe, where climates are cooler than in the Middle East, required less salt for preservation. With less salt and acidity, the cheese became a suitable environment for useful microbes and molds, giving aged cheeses their pronounced and interesting flavors."
      },
      {
        "title": "2007 in the United States",
        "text": "Lack of cheese"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese sandwich",
        "text": "Cheese sandwich\n--Variants.\n--Popularity.\n--Health warnings.\n--Research.\n--History.\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Industrial microbiology",
        "text": "Cheese was produced as a way to preserve the nutrients obtained from milk, through fermentation thus elongating the shelf-life of the product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese (recreational drug)",
        "text": "\"Newsweek\" posted an article about Cheese, titled \"Stopping a Kid Killer,\" in 2007. Jack Schafer, a columnist for \"Slate\", criticized the \"Newsweek\" article; Schafer believes that the Newsweek article does not adequately explain the process of creating Cheese and did not use scientists as sources. Jane C. Maxwell, a senior research scientist of the Gulf Coast Addiction Technology Transfer Center at The University of Texas at Austin, stated in \"\u201cCheese\u201d Heroin: Status as of May 2, 2007\" that she believes that the effect of Cheese could increase due to media reporting aspects such as \"unsubstantiated numbers\" and \"sensationalistic emphasis\" regarding \"new highs\" and \"schoolboy drugs,\" leading to copycat outbreaks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mithaecus",
        "text": "The addition of cheese seems to have been a controversial matter; Archestratus is quoted as warning his readers that Syracusan cooks spoil good fish by adding cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Artisan cheese",
        "text": "The artisanal cheesemaking process can be quite extensive and resembles modern chemistry in many aspects. Many different factors affect a finished artisanal cheese product; these include, but are not limited to, what species of grass is consumed by the cattle that provided the milk source, any sudden changes of heat, and any loss of cultivated yeast, or changes in barometric pressure. These factors to an extent are different from large commercial cheesemakers, and affect artisanal cheese more heavily."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Harding",
        "text": "Joseph Harding described good cheese as: \"close and firm in texture, yet mellow in character or quality; it is rich with a tendency to melt in the mouth, the flavour full and fine, approaching to that of a hazlenut\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Some fresh cheeses are curdled only by acidity, but most cheeses also use rennet. Rennet sets the cheese into a strong and rubbery gel compared to the fragile curds produced by acidic coagulation alone. It also allows curdling at a lower acidity\u2014important because flavor-making bacteria are inhibited in high-acidity environments. In general, softer, smaller, fresher cheeses are curdled with a greater proportion of acid to rennet than harder, larger, longer-aged varieties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cream cheese",
        "text": "Cream cheese is easy to make at home, and many methods and recipes are used. Consistent, reliable, commercial manufacture is more difficult. Normally, protein molecules in milk have a negative surface charge, which keeps milk in a liquid state; the molecules act as surfactants, forming micelles around the particles of fat and keeping them in emulsion. Lactic acid bacteria are added to pasteurized and homogenized milk. During the fermentation around , the pH of the milk decreases (it becomes more acidic). Amino acids at the surface of the proteins begin losing charge and become neutral, turning the fat micelles from hydrophilic to hydrophobic state and causing the liquid to coagulate. If the bacteria are left in the milk too long, the pH lowers further, the micelles attain a positive charge, and the mixture returns to liquid form. The key, then, is to kill the bacteria by heating the mixture to at the moment the cheese is at the isoelectric point, meaning the state at which half the ionizable surface amino acids of the proteins are positively charged and half are negative."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brunost",
        "text": "To what extent brunost is healthy has been the subject of some controversy in Norway. Brunost contains high amounts of calcium, proteins and vitamin B, as well as Iodine, which is beneficial. It also does not, as other cheeses do, contain salt. It used to contain significant amounts of iron because it was traditionally made in iron pots. In fact, when modern production methods with aluminium pans were introduced by the Norwegian dairy co-operative, the government was worried that it would significantly reduce iron intake in the general population, and ordered iron to be added to the cheese. Modern brunost does not contain significant amounts of iron."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "But from whichever it is made, whether from oats, barley or wheat, it harms the head and the stomach, it causes bad breath and ruins the teeth, it fills the stomach with bad fumes, and as a result anyone who drinks it along with wine becomes drunk quickly; but it does have the property of facilitating urination and makes one's flesh white and smooth."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "The production of cheese predates recorded history, beginning well over 7,000 years ago. Humans likely developed cheese and other dairy foods by accident, as a result of storing and transporting milk in bladders made of ruminants' stomachs, as their inherent supply of rennet would encourage curdling. There is no conclusive evidence indicating where cheese-making originated, possibly Europe, or Central Asia, the Middle East, or the Sahara."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese ripening",
        "text": "Each of these factors affects the cheese-ripening process differently, and has been the subject of much research. It is important for manufacturers to understand how each of these elements work, so that they are able to maintain the quality of the cheese while producing the cheese at an acceptable investment of time and cost. These agents contribute to the three primary reactions that define cheese ripening: glycolysis, proteolysis, and lipolysis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheshire Mammoth Cheese",
        "text": "Given the political landscape of the time, there was a fear that the more Republican Jefferson, considered an \"infidel of the French Revolutionary school,\" would harm the religious interests of the citizenry, and that \"the altars of New England would be demolished, and all their religious institutions would be swept away by an inrushing and irresistible flood of French infidelity.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese ripening",
        "text": "In Swiss-type cheeses, the eyes form as a result of the activity of propionic acid bacteria (\"propionibacteria\"), notably \"Propionibacterium freudenreichii\" subsp. \"shermanii\". In Dutch-type cheeses, the CO2 that forms the eyes results from the metabolisation of citrate by citrate-positive (\"Cit+\") strains of lactococci."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barbara Gilmour",
        "text": "In the long maturing stage Dunlop cheese loses very considerably in weight, which made dealers impatient to get it off their hands; and it was usually therefore retailed before it was ripe, and at an inferior price."
      },
      {
        "title": "Raw milk",
        "text": "A number of cheeses are produced with raw milk although local statutes vary regarding what if any health precautions must be followed such as aging cheese for a certain amount of time. A large proportion of the US population eats several different cheeses made with raw milk, including aged gouda."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "The 1860s saw the beginnings of mass-produced rennet, and by the turn of the century scientists were producing pure microbial cultures. Before then, bacteria in cheesemaking had come from the environment or from recycling an earlier batch's whey; the pure cultures meant a more standardized cheese could be produced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "A required step in cheesemaking is separating the milk into solid curds and liquid whey. Usually this is done by acidifying (souring) the milk and adding rennet. The acidification can be accomplished directly by the addition of an acid, such as vinegar, in a few cases (paneer, queso fresco). More commonly starter bacteria are employed instead which convert milk sugars into lactic acid. The same bacteria (and the enzymes they produce) also play a large role in the eventual flavor of aged cheeses. Most cheeses are made with starter bacteria from the \"Lactococcus\", \"Lactobacillus\", or \"Streptococcus\" genera. Swiss starter cultures also include \"Propionibacter shermani\", which produces carbon dioxide gas bubbles during aging, giving Swiss cheese or Emmental its holes (called \"eyes\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eyes (cheese)",
        "text": "In Swiss-type cheeses, the eyes form as a result of the activity of propionic acid bacteria (\"propionibacteria\"), notably \"Propionibacterium freudenreichii\" subsp. \"shermanii\". These bacteria transform lactic acid into propionic acid and carbon dioxide, according to the formula:\n:3 Lactate \u2192 2 Propionate + Acetate + CO2 + H2O"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "In contrast to cheddaring, making cheeses like Camembert requires a more gentle treatment of the curd. It is carefully transferred to cheese hoops and the whey is allowed to drain from the curd by gravity, generally overnight. The cheese curds are then removed from the hoops to be brined by immersion in a saturated salt solution. The salt absorption stops bacteria growing, as with Cheddar. If white mould spores have not been added to the cheese milk it is applied to the cheese either by spraying the cheese with a suspension of mould spores in water or by immersing the cheese in a bath containing spores of, e.g., \"Penicillium candida\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clostridium tyrobutyricum",
        "text": "\"Clostridium tyrobutyricum\" spores present in raw milk ferments lactate causing the \"late-blowing\" defect in high-pH cheeses such as Emmentaler, Gouda or Edammer. Even low spore densities of this anaerobe in milk used for cheese production can bring about this phenomenon, if the growth conditions are suitable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Artisan cheese",
        "text": "This statement caused concern among those involved in the artisanal cheesemaking process, and consumers who enjoy such cheeses. It was feared this direction as stated by the FDA would harm local American cheesemakers, but also affect cheeses that follow the same practices that are imported from other nations. Many groups including the American Cheese Society, a nonprofit trade association which promotes and supports American cheeses, created a letter on June 10, 2014, arguing against the FDA stance on using wooden surfaces to ripen cheese. The American Cheese Society stressed their stance on strict safety standards during the American cheesemaking process. Additionally, they commented on how such a ruling would affect the non-manufactured cheese industry, affecting the U.S. consumer's ability to access a multitude of different cheeses, including those created locally or abroad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Napolact",
        "text": "At \u0162aga, Cluj County, in a natural cave from the Middle Ages, in microbiological conditions that are unique in the world. The rock of the cave and the Brevibacterium linens bacteria which developed in it, the constant temperature and humidity, act on the cheeses produced here."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hafnia (bacterium)",
        "text": "In conclusion\",\" abundant levels of \"Hafnia alvei\" can be found in raw milk cheese and it plays a large role in cheese aromatisation due to its impact on acidity and capacity to produce free amino-acids."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easy Cheese",
        "text": "Whey products in processed cheese spreads increases the viscosity of the overall product due to the \u201cintermolecular interactions between adjacent protein molecules with the formation of weak transient networks\u201d formed from the conglomerate cheese mass. The protein concentration within the cheese matrix is directly proportional to the viscosity of the solution due to their interactions with hydrated protein molecules. Therefore, the continuous phase of the oil-in-water emulsion has a greater contribution to the viscosity of the cheese product over than the discontinuous phase."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c9poisses",
        "text": "In 1991, the cheese was awarded \"appellation d'origine contr\u00f4l\u00e9e\" (AOC) status, which states that the manufacture must follow the following rules:\n* The milk's coagulation must be performed by lactic acid and continue for 16 hours.\n* The curd must be cut roughly as opposed to being broken.\n* After drainage, only dry salt may be used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Above room temperatures, most hard cheeses melt. Rennet-curdled cheeses have a gel-like protein matrix that is broken down by heat. When enough protein bonds are broken, the cheese itself turns from a solid to a viscous liquid. Soft, high-moisture cheeses will melt at around , while hard, low-moisture cheeses such as Parmesan remain solid until they reach about . Acid-set cheeses, including halloumi, paneer, some whey cheeses and many varieties of fresh goat cheese, have a protein structure that remains intact at high temperatures. When cooked, these cheeses just get firmer as water evaporates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese sandwich",
        "text": "In 2012, Action on Salt campaigned for cheese sandwiches to come with a health warning. The group reported, that the high quantities of salt, contained in the main ingredients of a cheese sandwich, could lead to children consuming an excessive amount. In response, the Dairy Council said that it was wrong to say that cheese sandwiches are not good for you. Action on Salt later withdrew the press release, citing an error."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mimolette",
        "text": "In 2013, the Food and Drug Administration detained about a ton of the cheese, putting further imports to the United States on hold. This was because the cheese mites could cause an allergic reaction if consumed in large quantities. The FDA stated that the cheese was above the standard of six mites per cubic inch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barbara Gilmour",
        "text": "Most sources, e.g. Dobie state that \"Barbara's Gilmours cheese press can still be seen today at The Hill\", however the cheese press here is dated 1760 and she died in 1732. The design of the press, with a heavy lintel stone having a screwed shaft passing through it attached to a frame, allowed the dead weight of the stone to be lowered onto the cheese progressively, improving the overall drainage of the whey and the firming up of the curd."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fresh food",
        "text": "Dairy products are fresh and will spoil quickly. Thus, fresh cheese is cheese which has not been dried or salted for aging. Sour cream may be considered \"fresh\" (cr\u00e8me fra\u00eeche)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Cheese may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Swiss cheese (North America)",
        "text": "Three types of bacteria are used in the production of Swiss cheese: \"Streptococcus salivarius\" subspecies \"thermophilus\" (also known as \"Streptococcus thermophilus\"), \"Lactobacillus\" (\"Lactobacillus helveticus\" or \"Lactobacillus delbrueckii\" subspecies \"bulgaricus\"), and \"Propionibacterium\" (\"Propionibacterium freudenreichii\" subspecies \"shermani\"). In a late stage of cheese production, the propionibacteria consume the lactic acid excreted by the other bacteria and release acetate, propionic acid, and carbon dioxide gas. The carbon dioxide slowly forms the bubbles that develop the \"eyes\". The acetate and propionic acid give Swiss its nutty and sweet flavor. A hypothesis proposed by Swiss researchers in 2015 notes that particulate matter may also play a role in the holes' development and that modern sanitation eliminated debris such as hay dust in the milk played a role in reduced hole size in Swiss cheeses, or even \"blind cheese\". Historically, the holes were seen as a sign of imperfection and cheese makers originally tried to avoid them by pressing during production -the holes only became an identifier of the cheese in modern times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Types of cheese",
        "text": "Hard cheeses\u2014grating cheeses such as Grana Padano, Parmesan or Pecorino\u2014are quite firmly packed into large forms and aged for months or years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colony cheese",
        "text": "There can be a formation of small white mold in its external part, but that does not affect the quality of the product. This problem can be solved by storing it in environments of low relative humidity. Usually this cheese is consumed accompanied by red wines, or it can also be used for cooking, especially in pizzas, lasagnas and other pastas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Will Studd",
        "text": "After the Imported Food Inspection Program (IFIP) refused to test the cheese for compliance, Studd appealed to the Administrative Appeals Tribunal. It took 21 months before the court reached a decision, but during the delay Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) changed the dairy regulations to allow the production and sale of hard-cooked cheeses made from raw milk. (Amendment P 296)"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Aside from cow's milk, what other animal milk is used in making cheese?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Other sources of milk for cheese include goats and sheep's milk."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can cheese be made from soy milk?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes,  the main ingredients are nuts, soy milk, and soy yogurt. Common plant-based proteins or vegetable proteins used in vegan cheeses are derived from edible sources of protein, such as soybeans."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did people first start making cheese?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The production of cheese predates recorded history, beginning well over 7,000 years ago. There is no conclusive evidence indicating where cheese-making originated, possibly Europe, or Central Asia, the Middle East, or the Sahara."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Do all cheeses need to be refrigerated?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There's the Edam cheese which is a semi-hard cheese that does not spoil, only hardens."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the effects of cheese on health?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "National health organizations like the American Heart Association among others recommend cheese consumption be minimized to reduce factors for cardiovascular diseases. Raw-milk cheeses may cause infectious diseases as well if not aged enough and pregnant women may face extra risks due to listeria risk from soft-ripened cheeses and blue-veined cheeses.",
      "National health organizations, such as the American Heart Association, Association of UK Dietitians, British National Health Service, and Mayo Clinic, among others, recommend that cheese consumption be minimized, replaced in snacks and meals by plant foods, or restricted to low-fat cheeses to reduce caloric intake and blood levels of HDL fat, which is a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases."
    ],
    "topic": "Cheese",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Cheese:42",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cheese",
          "Nutrition and health",
          "Cardiovascular disease"
        ],
        "ctx": "National health organizations, such as the American Heart Association, Association of UK Dietitians, British National Health Service, and Mayo Clinic, among others, recommend that cheese consumption be minimized, replaced in snacks and meals by plant foods, or restricted to low-fat cheeses to reduce caloric intake and blood levels of HDL fat, which is a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. There is no high-quality clinical evidence that cheese consumption lowers the risk of cardiovascular diseases."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Cheese:43",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cheese",
          "Nutrition and health",
          "Pasteurization"
        ],
        "ctx": "A number of food safety agencies around the world have warned of the risks of raw-milk cheeses. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration states that soft raw-milk cheeses can cause \"serious infectious diseases including listeriosis, brucellosis, salmonellosis and tuberculosis\". It is U.S. law since 1944 that all raw-milk cheeses (including imports since 1951) must be aged at least 60\u00a0days. Australia has a wide ban on raw-milk cheeses as well, though in recent years exceptions have been made for Swiss Gruy\u00e8re, Emmental and Sbrinz, and for French Roquefort. There is a trend for cheeses to be pasteurized even when not required by law."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Cheese:44",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cheese",
          "Nutrition and health",
          "Pasteurization"
        ],
        "ctx": "Pregnant women may face an additional risk from cheese; the U.S. Centers for Disease Control has warned pregnant women against eating soft-ripened cheeses and blue-veined cheeses, due to the listeria risk, which can cause miscarriage or harm the fetus."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Cheese:42",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cheese",
          "Nutrition and health",
          "Cardiovascular disease"
        ],
        "ctx": "National health organizations, such as the American Heart Association, Association of UK Dietitians, British National Health Service, and Mayo Clinic, among others, recommend that cheese consumption be minimized, replaced in snacks and meals by plant foods, or restricted to low-fat cheeses to reduce caloric intake and blood levels of HDL fat, which is a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. There is no high-quality clinical evidence that cheese consumption lowers the risk of cardiovascular diseases."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "American cheese",
        "text": "Traditional cheese is ground, combined with emulsifying agents and other ingredients, mixed and heated until it forms a \"melted homogeneous\" mixture. To pasteurize it, the cheese mixture must be heated to a temperature of at least for a minimum of 30 seconds. Composition requirements of processed American cheese control the percentage of milkfat, moisture, salt and pH value in the final product, along with specifications for flavor, body and texture, color, and meltability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese spread",
        "text": "Pasteurized process cheese spread is a pasteurized processed cheese product prepared using one or more cheeses, additional ingredients and sometimes food additives such as emulsifiers (e.g. potassium phosphate and tartrate) and food stabilizers to limit product separation (e.g. carrageenan and xanthan gum). Cream, milkfat, sweeteners, water, salt, various seasonings and artificial color are sometimes used as ingredients. In the United States, the amount of cheese products used in pasteurized process cheese spread must be at least 51 percent, must contain at least 20 percent milkfat, and the moisture content must be between 44 percent to 60 percent, not exceeding 60 percent. Pasteurized process cheese spread is prepared by heating the ingredients and then pouring the mixture into various molds and containers to cool and become solid. After cooling occurs, the product is then packaged."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward William Coon",
        "text": "His method explicitly excluded pasteurization, which kills all bacteria and therefore allows cheese to last for much longer when stored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beecher's Handmade Cheese",
        "text": "At the Beecher's facility, their process for cheese manufacturing is multi-staged. Thousands of gallons of milk are hose-fed from delivery trucks into the manufacturing area, where it is heated to complete the pasteurization of the milk. The heated milk is processed into a stainless steel trough, and the temperature further increased, while the first live cheese cultures and rennet, a coagulant, are added to the developing mixture. According to Amir Rosenblatt, a cheesemaker at Beecher's, the heating and cheese temperatures used in their cooking process are tightly controlled through the sustainable technology of steam power. \"A variation of half a degree [in the pasteurization process] can change the flavor of the cheese,\" he said. Cheesemakers use stainless steel \"rakes\" to then gather the milk mixture, before allowing it to settle briefly, at which point the cheese is cut repeatedly by hand until it achieves a yogurt-like texture and substance. This process is repeated often, until a desired consistency is reached. The mixture is then drawn away to a new trough where most of the remaining water and whey is drained from the cheese. While the whey is continually pulled from the cheese, cheesemakers constantly separate the cheese by hand into smaller and small stacks of cheese curds, which form as the whey is removed. To complete the curding, a large amount of salt is added to cure the cheese and draw still more whey from it. The curds are finally cut into portions, filled into cheese molds, stacked on top of each other, and the remaining excess moisture is forced from the cheese with a constant of pressure for at least 24 hours, before the finished cheese is stored to age. For every 10 pounds (10 kilograms) of milk and whey, Beecher's will typically create 1 pound (1 kilogram) of finished cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue cheese",
        "text": "First, raw milk (either from cattle, goats or sheep) is mixed and pasteurized at for 15 seconds. Then, acidification occurs: a starter culture, such as \"Streptococcus lactis,\" is added in order to change lactose to lactic acid, thus changing the acidity of the milk and turning it from liquid to solid. The next step is coagulation, where rennet, a mixture of rennin and other material found in the stomach lining of a calf is added to solidify the milk further. Following this, thick curds are cut typically with a knife to encourage the release of liquid or whey. The smaller the curds are cut, the thicker and harder the resulting cheese will become."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteurization",
        "text": "According to the Centers for Disease Control, between 1998 and 2011, 79% of dairy-related disease outbreaks in the United States were due to raw milk or cheese products. They report 148 outbreaks and 2,384 illnesses (with 284 requiring hospitalization), as well as two deaths due to raw milk or cheese products during the same time period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "Before the age of pasteurization, cheesemakers knew that certain cheeses can cause constipation or kidney stones, so they advised their customers to supplement these side effects by eating in moderation along with other foods and consuming walnuts, almonds, or horseradish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flash pasteurization",
        "text": "Flash pasteurization, also called \"high-temperature short-time\" (HTST) processing, is a method of heat pasteurization of perishable beverages like fruit and vegetable juices, beer, wine, and some dairy products such as milk. Compared with other pasteurization processes, it maintains color and flavor better, but some cheeses were found to have varying responses to the process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Svecia",
        "text": "Svecia is produced in a fashion typical to many semi-hard cheeses. Milk is pasteurized to then cooled to around . Rennet is added to coagulate the milk into curds and lactic acid enzymes are added to replace enzymes and bacteria killed during pasteurization. The curd is cut, stirred, and slowly drained, then heated back up to a temperature near to drive off more moisture. After salt is added, the curds are packed into moulds, loosely enough to leave the air pockets which make up Svecia's tiny holes. After a soak in brine, bringing the total salt content of the cheese to 1.0\u20131.5 percent by weight, the cheese is aged in a dry environment for at least two months \u2014 sometimes up to more than a year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Some hard cheeses are then heated to temperatures in the range of . This forces more whey from the cut curd. It also changes the taste of the finished cheese, affecting both the bacterial culture and the milk chemistry. Cheeses that are heated to the higher temperatures are usually made with thermophilic starter bacteria that survive this step\u2014either \"Lactobacilli\" or \"Streptococci\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u0160ar cheese",
        "text": "In the traditional way of production sheep milk was retained in its original temperature and not pasteurized. Later, in the more modern way the milk was pasteurized before used for cheese production. After pasteurization, the milk gets a dose of yeast which needs which is required for the fermentation process. Again, in the traditional method this yeast was taken from sheep gallstone whereas nowadays it is bought ready to use. After fermentation, the milk is poured into a diaper and compressed to release the liquid Whey remains of the fermentation process. The milk (or pre-cheese) stays in the diaper until it gains a strong and solid state and also starts to change its color from white to light yellow. After that, the cheese is taken out and stays for a few days on racks, in closed door places with low temperature. Finally, it is broken down in pieces (by hand), salted water with Dill is prepared and both are stacked into plastic jars for shipping. An interesting fact is that even the type of wood used in constructing the racks affects the aroma and quality of the cheese. For example, one type of wood which is known to be neutral, doesn't impact the aroma of the cheese and is used most to construct those racks is called \"Pinus peuce\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese ripening",
        "text": "In contrast to cheddaring, making cheeses like Camembert requires a more gentle treatment of the curd. It is carefully transferred to cheese hoops and the whey is allowed to drain from the curd by gravity, generally overnight. The cheese curds are then removed from the hoops to be brined by immersion in a saturated salt solution. This is because the amount of salt has a large effect on the rate of proteolysis in the cheese, stopping the bacteria from growing. If white-mould spores have not been added to the cheese milk, the cheese maker applies them to the cheese either by spraying the cheese with a suspension of mould spores in water, or by immersing the cheese in a bath containing spores of, e.g., \"Penicillium candida\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint-Nectaire",
        "text": "The next stage of the production is the picking up of the grains, which fall and are gathered to the tank bottom. Then, the operator removes the whey that makes up for 80% of the initial volume of milk. The milk serum or milk permeate is later given to the cows, spread in the fields. It can also be collected by some dairy industries that extract cream from it, turn it into powder to feed the calves, or use it in the elaboration of other food products, such as chocolate and pre-packaged-meals. Once drained, the bits of renneted milk are pressed for the first time into their mould using a machine. The compressed cheese is called \"tome\". The \"tome\" is then wrapped into linen, a little casein stamp (oval or square) is put on top of it, and the cheese is salted (with some brine). Next it is put into a press for 12 to 24 hours. The next step is called \"ressuyage\" (lit. \"re-wiping\"), when the cheese is unwrapped, and stored in a cold room, at , with between 40% to 60% relative humidity. Farmers and dairy producers can allow the \u201ctome\u201d to mature, or sell to cheese aging specialists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dairy cattle",
        "text": "Pasteurization is the process of heating milk to a high enough temperature for a short period of time to kill the microbes in the milk and increase keep time and decrease spoilage time. By killing the microbes, decreasing the transmission of infection, and elimination of enzymes the quality of the milk and the shelf life increases. Pasteurization is either completed at for thirty minutes or a flash pasteurization is completed for 15 seconds at . By-products of milk include butterfat, cream, curds, and whey. Butterfat is the main lipid in milk. The cream contains 18\u201340% butterfat. The industry can be divided into 2 market territories; fluid milk and industrialized milk such as yogurt, cheeses, and ice cream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sulguni",
        "text": "The cheddared mass is then diced into pieces 1 to 3 centimeters long. They are heated to 60-80\u00a0\u00b0C in a rotating mixer, either directly or with added whey or brine. Plasticizing of raw mass takes five to seven minutes. Direct dry plasticizing yields fatter, drier cheese with superior taste. Plasticized cheese mass is then cooled, drained of whey and shaped by hand. Shaped cheeses are cured in cold (8-12\u00a0\u00b0C), mildly acidic brine for 6 to 48 hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteurization",
        "text": "Pasteurization\n--History.\n----Milk.\n----Medical equipment.\n--Pasteurization process.\n----Equipment.\n----Verification.\n------Efficacy against pathogenic bacteria.\n----Double pasteurization.\n--Effects on nutritional and sensory characteristics of foods.\n----Milk.\n----Sensory effects.\n--Novel pasteurization methods.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "A required step in cheesemaking is separating the milk into solid curds and liquid whey. Usually this is done by acidifying (souring) the milk and adding rennet. The acidification can be accomplished directly by the addition of an acid, such as vinegar, in a few cases (paneer, queso fresco). More commonly starter bacteria are employed instead which convert milk sugars into lactic acid. The same bacteria (and the enzymes they produce) also play a large role in the eventual flavor of aged cheeses. Most cheeses are made with starter bacteria from the \"Lactococcus\", \"Lactobacillus\", or \"Streptococcus\" genera. Swiss starter cultures also include \"Propionibacter shermani\", which produces carbon dioxide gas bubbles during aging, giving Swiss cheese or Emmental its holes (called \"eyes\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese analogue",
        "text": "One variant of pasteurized processed cheese dairy products is, according to a hospitality industry source, designed to melt well on pizza, while remaining chewy; this has been described as \"artificial cheesy substance that's much quicker and cheaper to produce than the real thing\". In many cases the dairy fat required for anything described as cheese is replaced by cheaper vegetable oil and additives; this is not illegal if not described as cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palmito cheese",
        "text": "Raw milk is first collected from the cow. The milk undergoes pasteurization by warming the milk to 50 to 55 degrees Celsius for 30 minutes with constant agitation. It is then cooled to 35 to 37 degrees Celsius. The milk then undergoes fermentation and curdling. The next step is the cutting of the curd, and afterwards it rests for 45 to 60 minutes. Then, after the whey is drained, the curd is kneaded. It is shaped by manually rolling it and cooling it in cold water to give it its characteristic shape. Next, the cheese is then rolled, salted, and molded. Finally, it is packaged and stored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Cheese\n--Etymology.\n--History.\n----Origins.\n----Ancient Greece and Rome.\n----Post-Roman Europe.\n----Modern era.\n--Production.\n----Consumption.\n--Processing.\n----Curdling.\n----Curd processing.\n----Ripening.\n--Types.\n--Cooking and eating.\n----Cheeseboard.\n--Nutrition and health.\n----Cardiovascular disease.\n----Pasteurization.\n--Cultural attitudes.\n----Odorous cheeses.\n----Effect on sleep.\n----Figurative expressions.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maredsous cheese",
        "text": "The cheese is lightly pressed, then washed in brine to create the firm, orange crust and pungent aroma. Each cheese is washed by hand every two days, starting with the older cheeses. The water used for the washing of the older cheeses picks up the appropriate bacteria which are then transferred to the younger cheeses when the same water is used for washing these. The maturing process in the cellar takes place over 22 days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese ripening",
        "text": "Ripening is influenced by a variety of factors, ranging from the microflora to the curd, and others. The enzymatic process is the most crucial process for all cheeses, although bacteria plays a role in many varieties. The most important agents in this process include the following elements:\n* Rennet, or a substitute for rennet\n* starter bacteria and associated enzymes\n* milk enzymes\n* second starter bacteria and associated enzymes\n* non-starter bacteria"
      },
      {
        "title": "Thermization",
        "text": "Thermization, also spelled thermisation, is a method of sanitizing raw milk with low heat. \"Thermization is a generic description of a range of subpasteurization heat treatments (57 to 68\u00b0C \u00d7 10 to 20 s) that markedly reduce the number of spoilage bacteria in milk with minimal heat damage.\" The process is not used on other food products, and is similar to pasteurization but uses lower temperatures, allowing the milk product to retain more of its original taste. In Europe, there is a distinction between cheeses made of thermized milk and raw-milk cheeses. However, the United States' Food and Drug Administration (FDA) places the same regulations on all unpasteurized cheeses. As a result, cheeses from thermized milk must be aged for 60 days or more before being sold in the United States, the same restriction placed on raw-milk cheeses by the FDA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese ripening",
        "text": "Cheese ripening, alternatively cheese maturation or affinage, is a process in cheesemaking. It is responsible for the distinct flavour of cheese, and through the modification of \"ripening agents\", determines the features that define many different varieties of cheeses, such as taste, texture, and body. The process is \"characterized by a series of complex physical, chemical and microbiological changes\" that incorporates the agents of \"bacteria and enzymes of the milk, lactic culture, rennet, lipases, added moulds or yeasts, and environmental contaminants\". The majority of cheese is ripened, except for fresh cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c9poisses",
        "text": "Each cheese is rinsed up to three times per week in a mixture of water and marc, and brushed by hand to spread the bacteria evenly over the surface. The yeast and fermenting agents produce the distinctive orange-red exterior, as it develops over a period of around six weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c9poisses",
        "text": "At the first stage of manufacture, the whole milk is heated to around with the coagulation lasting for at least 16 hours. The fragile curds are drained in moulds, and the whey is then allowed to run off. Around 48 hours later the cheese is removed, salted, and placed on racks to dry; once dry, it is moved to cellars to mature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Processed cheese",
        "text": "In the United States, processed cheese is defined, categorized, and regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations Title 21, Section 133 (\"Cheeses and Cheese-Related Products\"). Pasteurized process cheese can be made from a single cheese, or a blend of several cheeses. Cream, milk fat, water, salt, color, and spices may also be added. The mixture is heated with an emulsifier, poured into a mold, and allowed to cool. The definitions include:\n* Pasteurized process cheese, which is made from one or more cheeses (excluding certain cheeses such as cream cheese and cottage cheese, but including American cheese). In the final product, moisture must not be more than 41 percent of the weight, and fat content not less than 49 percent.\n* Pasteurized process cheese food, which is made from one or more of the cheeses available for pasteurized process cheese composing not less than 51 percent of the final weight, mixed with one or more optional dairy ingredients such as fluid milk or whey, and which may contain one or more specified optional non-dairy ingredients. The final solid form must be less than 44 percent moisture and have a fat content greater than 23 percent.\n* Pasteurized process cheese spread, which is made similarly to pasteurized process cheese food but must be spreadable at . Moisture must be between 44 and 60 percent of the total weight, and fat content greater than 20 percent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Particle aggregation",
        "text": "Cheese making. The key step in cheese production is the separation of the milk into solid curds and liquid whey. This separation is achieved by inducing the aggregation processes between casein micelles by acidifying the milk or adding rennet. The acidification neutralizes the carboxylate groups on the micelles and induces the aggregation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "Cheese is made by bringing milk (possibly pasteurised) in the cheese vat to a temperature required to promote the growth of the bacteria that feed on lactose and thus ferment the lactose into lactic acid. These bacteria in the milk may be wild, as is the case with unpasteurised milk, added from a culture, frozen or freeze dried concentrate of starter bacteria. Bacteria which produce only lactic acid during fermentation are homofermentative; those that also produce lactic acid and other compounds such as carbon dioxide, alcohol, aldehydes and ketones are heterofermentative. Fermentation using homofermentative bacteria is important in the production of cheeses such as Cheddar, where a clean, acid flavour is required. For cheeses such as Emmental the use of heterofermentative bacteria is necessary to produce the compounds that give characteristic fruity flavours and, importantly, the gas that results in the formation of bubbles in the cheese ('eye holes')."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteurization",
        "text": "The process was named after the French microbiologist, Louis Pasteur, whose research in the 1860s demonstrated that thermal processing would deactivate unwanted microorganisms in wine. Spoilage enzymes are also inactivated during pasteurization. Today, pasteurization is used widely in the dairy industry and other food processing industries to achieve food preservation and food safety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese ripening",
        "text": "Cheese ripening was not always the highly industrialised process it is today; in the past, cellars and caves were used to ripen cheeses instead of the current highly regulated process involving machinery and biochemistry. Some cheeses still are made using more historical methods, such as the blue cheese Roquefort, which is required to be ripened in designated caves in south-western France. However, with the invention of refrigeration in the 20th century, the process evolved considerably, and is much more efficient at producing a consistent quality of cheese, at a faster pace, and a lower cost (depending on the type of cheese)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Picodon",
        "text": "Cheeses labelled with \"affinage m\u00e9thode Dieulefit\" (after the commune of Dieulefit) indicates that the affinage included hand-washing the surface of the cheese with water, following which the cheese is left to mature in covered earthenware jars for at least a month."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese spread",
        "text": "Cheese spread is a soft spreadable cheese or processed cheese product. Various additional ingredients are sometimes used, such as multiple cheeses, fruits, vegetables and meats, and many types of cheese spreads exist. Pasteurized process cheese spread is a type of cheese spread prepared using pasteurized processed cheese and other ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese spread",
        "text": "Cheese spread\n--Overview.\n--Varieties.\n----United States.\n----Pasteurized process cheese spread.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Idiazabal cheese",
        "text": "The curdle is cut in order to obtain rice-size grains, and then reheated to . In the case of coagulation at higher temperatures, the reheating temperature can reach . The reheated and shrunken paste dehydrates and is placed in molds where it may or may not be seasoned before pressing. Salting of the cheese is performed by rubbing the rind with dry salt or immersing the cheese in highly salted water for 24 hours. Finally, the cheeses are aged under cold and humid conditions avoiding mold, for at least two months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food preservation",
        "text": "Pasteurization is a process for preservation of liquid food. It was originally applied to combat the souring of young local wines. Today, the process is mainly applied to dairy products. In this method, milk is heated at about for 15\u201330 seconds to kill the bacteria present in it and cooling it quickly to to prevent the remaining bacteria from growing. The milk is then stored in sterilized bottles or pouches in cold places. This method was invented by Louis Pasteur, a French chemist, in 1862."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laguiole cheese",
        "text": "The Tome weighs and is distinguished by a bull sign and its name stamped on the rind, as well as by an aluminum identification plaque. Its production process starts with renneting before the curd is pressed in two consecutive stages. Maturing takes at least six months and may be as long as twelve months. The rind is natural and thick, the straw-colored paste supple and firm, and the texture rich and creamy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ladotyri Mytilinis",
        "text": "The official designation for this hard table cheese notes the following production method: \"The milk is coagulated with added rennet at 32-34 deg C in 30 minutes. The curd is then broken up and reheated to 45 deg C. Most of the whey is then removed and the curds are pressed in the bottom of the vat to form a compact mass. This is cut into pieces weighing between 5 and 7 kilos. The pieces are then placed on a bench and cut again to their final cheese size. They are then placed in special moulds, firmly pressed by hand, salted and taken to a ripening room where they remain for not less than 3 months.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese ripening",
        "text": "After the initial manufacturing process of the cheese is done, the cheese ripening process occurs. This process is especially important, since it defines the flavour and texture of the cheese, which differentiates the many varieties. Duration is dependent on the type of cheese and the desired quality, and typically ranges from \"three weeks to two or more years\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fourme de Montbrison",
        "text": "The curd is salted and placed into a mould before being removed and placed on racks made from spruce wood. The cheese is then turned by hand, ninety degrees at a time, over a period of twelve hours. The cheese is injected with \"penicillium roqueforti\" spores, and later injected with air to form pockets in the p\u00e2te to encourage spore development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "In contrast to cheddaring, making cheeses like Camembert requires a more gentle treatment of the curd. It is carefully transferred to cheese hoops and the whey is allowed to drain from the curd by gravity, generally overnight. The cheese curds are then removed from the hoops to be brined by immersion in a saturated salt solution. The salt absorption stops bacteria growing, as with Cheddar. If white mould spores have not been added to the cheese milk it is applied to the cheese either by spraying the cheese with a suspension of mould spores in water or by immersing the cheese in a bath containing spores of, e.g., \"Penicillium candida\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "By taking the cheese through a series of maturation stages where temperature and relative humidity are carefully controlled, allowing the surface mould to grow and the mould-ripening of the cheese by fungi to occur. Mould-ripened cheeses ripen very quickly compared to hard cheeses (weeks against months or years). This is because the fungi used are biochemically very active when compared with starter bacteria. Some cheeses are surface-ripened by moulds, such as Camembert and Brie, some are ripened internally, such as Stilton, which is pierced with stainless steel wires, to admit air to promote mould spore germination and growth, as with \"Penicillium roqueforti\". Surface ripening of some cheeses, such as Saint-Nectaire, may also be influenced by yeasts which contribute flavour and coat texture. Others are allowed to develop bacterial surface growths which give characteristic colours and appearances, e.g. by the growth of \"Brevibacterium linens\" which gives an orange coat to cheeses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue cheese",
        "text": "In the first phase of production, a \"Penicillium roqueforti\" inoculum is prepared prior to the actual production of blue cheese. Multiple methods can be used to achieve this. However, all methods involve the use of a freeze-dried \"Penicillium roqueforti\" culture. Although \"Penicillium roqueforti\" can be found naturally, cheese producers nowadays use commercially manufactured \"Penicillium roqueforti.\" First, \"Penicillium roqueforti\" is washed from a pure culture agar plants which is later frozen. Through the freeze drying process, water from the frozen state is evaporated without the transition through the liquid state (sublimation). This retains the value of the culture and is activated upon the addition of water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Granular cheese",
        "text": "Although granular cheese can be created using any method that achieves the designated standard for physical and chemical properties, there is one method that is generally used. First, the milk or cream may be warmed and treated with hydrogen peroxide and catalase, producing water and oxygen gas. Then, a lactic acid-producing bacterial culture is added, and the product is treated with clotting enzymes to form a semisolid mass. This mass is cut, stirred, and heated to separate the curd and the whey. Increasing the amount of time between cutting and heating will increase both the final moisture content and the milkfat content of the cheese, thereby increasing the yield. There follows an alternating cycle of draining of the whey and stirring. After most of the whey has been drained, the curd is salted, drained, and pressed into the desired form. The remaining product may be cured if the original dairy products were not pasteurized. A common method of curing is to dry the cheese on racks for about a week, then to wax it and place it in coolers until the time of consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camembert",
        "text": "The cheese is made by inoculating warmed cow milk with mesophilic bacteria, then adding rennet and allowing the mixture to coagulate. The curd is then cut into roughly 1\u00a0cm (1/2 inch) cubes, salted, and transferred to low cylindrical camembert molds. The molds are turned every six to twelve hours to allow the whey to drain evenly from the cut curds; after 48 hours, each mold contains a flat, cylindrical, solid cheese mass weighing generally 250 grams (about 9 oz). At this point the fresh cheese is hard, crumbly, and bland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint-Nectaire",
        "text": "After each milking, and once the milk is pasteurised, rennet is added to the milk and renneted for a period of 30 to 40 minutes, whether it is an industrial or farmstead cheese. The curd obtained is then uncurdled with a \"lyre\", an instrument made of metal. The milk is uncurdled in order to obtain bits of renneted cheese about the size of wheat grains."
      },
      {
        "title": "Majorero",
        "text": "After milking, lamb rennet is added and after an hour a curdle develops. This curdle must be beaten and drained to remove the whey. The cheese is then heavily pressed and shaped. Dry salt is rubbed on the top. The cheese must be aired for several days before it can be eaten, or it can be set in dry rooms to age. After ageing, the cheese can be rubbed with oil or gofio to prevent excessive drying and give it different tastes and textures."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of cheese",
        "text": "For preservation purposes, cheese-making may have begun by the pressing and salting of curdled milk. Animal skins and inflated internal organs already provided storage vessels for a range of foodstuffs. Curdling milk in an animal's stomach made solid and better-textured curds, which could easily have led to the conscious addition of rennet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "During the fermentation process, once sufficient lactic acid has been developed, rennet is added to cause the casein to precipitate. Rennet contains the enzyme chymosin which converts \u03ba-casein to para-\u03ba-caseinate (the main component of cheese curd, which is a salt of one fragment of the casein) and glycomacropeptide, which is lost in the cheese whey. As the curd is formed, milk fat is trapped in a casein matrix. After adding the rennet, the cheese milk is left to form curds over a period of time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheeses of Mexico",
        "text": "Most \u201cfresh\u201d cheeses, unlike aged cheeses held for weeks or months, are aged for only days. This is not enough time to change the pH of the cheese enough to kill any harmful bacteria that may have been in the (unpasteurized) milk at the beginning of the process. The use of raw milk has led to a number of instances of food-borne disease linked to cheese, especially unaged, \u201cfresh\u201d cheeses. Cases of tuberculosis, listeriosis, and other diseases linked to cheese made in Mexico have led to strong restrictions against bringing the same across the US border or along with air travelers entering US airports. The most problematic cheeses have been \"panela, asadero, queso blanco\", and \"ranchero\", as these are not aged and are often made with unpasteurized milk. In 2008, the Diario de la Federacion published the Norma Mexicana project, with one of its purposes being the better sanitary control of the cheeses produced in the country. One of its major provisions is the prohibition against cheeses made with raw milk. However, critics state pasteurization is not the only way to guard against food-borne illnesses, and the process kills beneficial bacteria that affect the cheeses\u2019 taste and health benefits of the cheese with the loss of live culture and enzymes. This is especially true of aged cheeses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bleu des Causses",
        "text": "Upon arriving at the maturing cellar, the cheeses are then brushed or washed and wiped. They are then perforated: this operation promotes internal ventilation of the cheese and allows harmonious development of mold. The cheese is then stored on racks in cellars naturally temperature controlled by fleurine. Between production and refinement, preparation should take at least 70 days. Before selling, refrigeration is not part of the refinement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "The 1860s saw the beginnings of mass-produced rennet, and by the turn of the century scientists were producing pure microbial cultures. Before then, bacteria in cheesemaking had come from the environment or from recycling an earlier batch's whey; the pure cultures meant a more standardized cheese could be produced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tzfat cheese",
        "text": "The cheese has an elastic texture and low fat content. The milk is pasteurized at a low , which preserves the food proteins. Trimming is based largely on the action of enzymes contained in a special ferment and on calcium chloride rather than on the action of lactic acid. The fermentation is quick, about an hour. After the separation of most of the whey, the cheese is stored for several hours in straw or plastic baskets to drain the remaining whey and to form its round shape."
      },
      {
        "title": "Berner Alpk\u00e4se",
        "text": "The cheese must be made no later than 18 hours after milking. As a rule, the chilled evening milk is partly skimmed to produce a fat content of at least 45% in the final product. This is then mixed with the morning milk. The milk is heated to and cultured bacteria from the region are added along with the rennet. After 30 minutes, the curds are cut with a cheese-harp into pinhead-sized grains. The curds and whey are then heated to which shrinks the curds and kills any unwanted bacteria. The curds are packed into a cheese-mould and pressed for 15 hours, after which time the cheese-loaf is soaked in brine for 24 hours. The cheeses, in rounds of at least , are aged at a humidity of over 85% and the rind is brushed regularly with brine. The initial ripening period occurs on-site and later the cheese is aged in the cellars of cheesemongers and dairies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Manufacture of cheddar cheese",
        "text": "In general, the milk is raw milk (whole or 3.3%). The milk must be \"ripened\" before adding in the rennet. The term \"ripening\" means allowing the lactic acid bacteria (LAB) to turn lactose into lactic acid, which lowers the pH of the solution, greatly aiding in the coagulation of the milk. This is vital for the production of cheese curds that are later formed into Cheddar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteurization",
        "text": "The process is intended to destroy or deactivate organisms and enzymes that contribute to spoilage or risk of disease, including vegetative bacteria, but not bacterial spores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easy Cheese",
        "text": "Water plays a multitude of functions in Easy Cheese. First, it allows for more stable emulsion, serving as a medium for the hydrophilic moieties of chelating salts. More specially, chelating salts bind calcium ions to hydrate proteins and create a more uniform spread. Water also provides the moisture content needed in processed cheese spreads to achieve the desired texture. Excessive water, however, can result in a lack of viscosity resulting in a cheese spread that has more liquid than solid properties after passing through the plastic extruder. The addition of too much water may likewise increase the product's susceptibility to microbial growth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "Cheesemaking (or caseiculture) is the craft of making cheese. The production of cheese, like many other food preservation processes, allows the nutritional and economic value of a food material, in this case milk, to be preserved in concentrated form. Cheesemaking allows the production of the cheese with diverse flavors and consistencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fourme de Montbrison",
        "text": "The finished cheese is a minimum of 50% fat, and although the majority of production uses pasteurised milk, the growing artisanal manufacturers are using unpasteurized milk. The total production in 2005 was 495 tons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cream cheese",
        "text": "Cream cheese is easy to make at home, and many methods and recipes are used. Consistent, reliable, commercial manufacture is more difficult. Normally, protein molecules in milk have a negative surface charge, which keeps milk in a liquid state; the molecules act as surfactants, forming micelles around the particles of fat and keeping them in emulsion. Lactic acid bacteria are added to pasteurized and homogenized milk. During the fermentation around , the pH of the milk decreases (it becomes more acidic). Amino acids at the surface of the proteins begin losing charge and become neutral, turning the fat micelles from hydrophilic to hydrophobic state and causing the liquid to coagulate. If the bacteria are left in the milk too long, the pH lowers further, the micelles attain a positive charge, and the mixture returns to liquid form. The key, then, is to kill the bacteria by heating the mixture to at the moment the cheese is at the isoelectric point, meaning the state at which half the ionizable surface amino acids of the proteins are positively charged and half are negative."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Cheese is a dairy product produced in wide ranges of flavors, textures and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, or sheep. During production, the milk is usually acidified and the enzymes of either rennet or bacterial enzymes with similar activity are added to cause the casein to coagulate. The solid curds are then separated from the liquid whey and pressed into finished cheese. Some cheeses have aromatic molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Puzzone di Moena",
        "text": "During the first weeks, the cheeses are turned over and wetted twice a week with warm, slightly salted water; subsequently, the treatment is carried out once a week until the end of the maturing process (from 3 to 8 months) in a cool, humid environment. In this way a patina is formed that envelops the cheese, favors the fermentation of the paste and forms an unctuous coating on the rind."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese ripening",
        "text": "Each of these factors affects the cheese-ripening process differently, and has been the subject of much research. It is important for manufacturers to understand how each of these elements work, so that they are able to maintain the quality of the cheese while producing the cheese at an acceptable investment of time and cost. These agents contribute to the three primary reactions that define cheese ripening: glycolysis, proteolysis, and lipolysis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Processed cheese",
        "text": "Processed cheese (also known as process cheese, prepared cheese, cheese product, or plastic cheese) is a food product made from cheese and unfermented dairy ingredients mixed with emulsifiers. Additional ingredients, such as vegetable oils, salt, food coloring, or sugar may be included. As a result, many flavors, colors, and textures of processed cheese exist. Processed cheese typically contains around 50 to 60% traditional cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteurization",
        "text": "Pasteurization or pasteurisation is a process in which packaged and non-packaged foods (such as milk and fruit juices) are treated with mild heat, usually to less than , to eliminate pathogens and extend shelf life."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c9poisses",
        "text": "In 1991, the cheese was awarded \"appellation d'origine contr\u00f4l\u00e9e\" (AOC) status, which states that the manufacture must follow the following rules:\n* The milk's coagulation must be performed by lactic acid and continue for 16 hours.\n* The curd must be cut roughly as opposed to being broken.\n* After drainage, only dry salt may be used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward William Coon",
        "text": "The patent describes a method \"to provide a process for the ripening of cheese through the agency of humidified air at certain temperatures supplied to the cheese ripening chamber\". The common methods of ripening cheese at the time involved storing cheese covered in paraffin wax at temperatures between 40 and 80 degrees Fahrenheit through the means of artificial refrigeration using ammonia gas or carbon dioxide gas pumped through pipes within the room. This method dehumidified the air and drew the moisture from the cheese creating a finished product that was dry and crumbly. The ageing process took a long time and often produced rind rot, spoiling the cheese. Coon's processes, being of much shorter duration, eliminated both the dryness and rind rot in the finished product, producing a cheese in which the lactic bacilli were cultivated to the highest degree, providing for better digestion of the cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "In making Cheddar (or many other hard cheeses) the curd is cut into small cubes and the temperature is raised to approximately to 'scald' the curd particles. Syneresis occurs and cheese whey is expressed from the particles. The Cheddar curds and whey are often transferred from the cheese vat to a cooling table which contains screens that allow the whey to drain, but which trap the curd. The curd is cut using long, blunt knives and 'blocked' (stacked, cut and turned) by the cheesemaker to promote the release of cheese whey in a process known as 'cheddaring'. During this process the acidity of the curd increases to a desired level. The curd is then milled into ribbon shaped pieces and salt is mixed into it to arrest acid development. The salted green cheese curd is put into cheese moulds lined with cheesecloths and pressed overnight to allow the curd particles to bind together. The pressed blocks of cheese are then removed from the cheese moulds and are either bound with muslin-like cloth, or waxed or vacuum packed in plastic bags to be stored for maturation. Vacuum packing removes oxygen and prevents mould (fungal) growth during maturation, which depending on the wanted final product may be a desirable characteristic or not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dairy",
        "text": "Cheese is another product made from milk. Whole milk is reacted to form curds that can be compressed, processed and stored to form cheese. In countries where milk is legally allowed to be processed without pasteurization, a wide range of cheeses can be made using the bacteria found naturally in the milk. In most other countries, the range of cheeses is smaller and the use of artificial cheese curing is greater. Whey is also the byproduct of this process. Some people with lactose intolerance are surprisingly able to eat certain types of cheese. This is because some traditionally made hard cheeses, and soft ripened cheeses may create less reaction than the equivalent amount of milk because of the processes involved. Fermentation and higher fat content contribute to lesser amounts of lactose. Traditionally made Emmental or Cheddar might contain 10% of the lactose found in whole milk. In addition, the aging methods of traditional cheeses (sometimes over two years) reduce their lactose content to practically nothing. Commercial cheeses, however, are often manufactured by processes that do not have the same lactose-reducing properties. Ageing of some cheeses is governed by regulations; in other cases there is no quantitative indication of degree of ageing and concomitant lactose reduction, and lactose content is not usually indicated on labels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "A number of food safety agencies around the world have warned of the risks of raw-milk cheeses. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration states that soft raw-milk cheeses can cause \"serious infectious diseases including listeriosis, brucellosis, salmonellosis and tuberculosis\". It is U.S. law since 1944 that all raw-milk cheeses (including imports since 1951) must be aged at least 60\u00a0days. Australia has a wide ban on raw-milk cheeses as well, though in recent years exceptions have been made for Swiss Gruy\u00e8re, Emmental and Sbrinz, and for French Roquefort. There is a trend for cheeses to be pasteurized even when not required by law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheesemaking",
        "text": "Once the cheese curd is judged to be ready, the cheese whey must be released. As with many foods the presence of water and the bacteria in it encourages decomposition. To prevent such decomposition it is necessary to remove most of the water (whey) from the cheese milk, and hence cheese curd, to make a partial dehydration of the curd. There are several ways to separate the curd from the whey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Queijo do Pico",
        "text": "This cured cheese is produced from cow milk, from a slow coagulation process that takes 20 to 30 days. The cheese is produced in cylinders, in sizes ranging from to in diameter and heights of to , while weights average to . Its fat content ranges from between 45% and 49%, and it is considered a fatty cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroilles cheese",
        "text": "The curd is shaped and salted before being removed from its mould and placed in a ventilated drying area for around ten days during which time a gentle light coating of bacteria develops. The cheese is then brushed and washed and cellared for at least five weeks, though periods of up to four months are not uncommon. During this time, it is turned and brushed at regular intervals to remove the natural white mould to allow its red bacteria to change the rind from yellow to red."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bleu des Causses",
        "text": "Cheese making can be done in all of the defined area. Cow's milk, specifically, is whole and full of rennet. The operation takes place with hot milk (30 to 33\u00a0\u00b0C) at the same time as the seeding of spores from the Penicillium roqueforti mushroom, the mold responsible for the blue forms. These spores are from selected strains in the refining area. Under the action of the rennet, the milk coagulates. The curd is then sliced and then brewed. The grains are then become rounded and let out the whey. Draining can then be done on perforated molds. It is promoted by inverting the cheese. At demolding, the cheese is salted with dry salt (not soaking in brine). Work at the dairy then completes and the cheeses are shipped to the maturing cellar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Acid-set cheese",
        "text": "Traditional cottage cheese can be made without any coagulating enzymes, though modern processing techniques often use such enzymes to increase yield and reduce processing times. These methods produce a milder and sweeter flavored cheese then the traditional method. Rennet is also sometimes used in the processing of other fresh, soft cheeses like fromage frais, but it is not an essential ingredient and these cheeses can be produced by traditional methods without rennet or other enzymes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese ripening",
        "text": "In Swiss-type cheeses, the eyes form as a result of the activity of propionic acid bacteria (\"propionibacteria\"), notably \"Propionibacterium freudenreichii\" subsp. \"shermanii\". In Dutch-type cheeses, the CO2 that forms the eyes results from the metabolisation of citrate by citrate-positive (\"Cit+\") strains of lactococci."
      },
      {
        "title": "Raw milk",
        "text": "Raw milk cheeses make up about 18 per cent of France's total cheese production, and are considered far superior to cheeses made from pasteurised milk. Many French cuisine traditionalists consider pasteurized cheeses almost a sacrilege. Many traditional French cheeses have solely been made from raw milk for hundreds of years. Unpasteurised cheese in France is the major source of staphylococcal food poisoning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Casein",
        "text": "Cheese consists of proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, or sheep. It is produced by coagulation that is caused by destabilization of the casein micelle, which begins the processes of fractionation and selective concentration. Typically, the milk is acidified and then coagulated by the addition of rennet, containing a proteolytic enzyme known as rennin; traditionally obtained from the stomachs of calves, but currently produced more often from genetically modified microorganisms. The solids are then separated and pressed into final form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese ripening",
        "text": "By taking the cheese through a series of maturation stages where temperature and relative humidity are carefully controlled, the cheese maker allows the surface mould to grow and the mould ripening of the cheese by fungi to occur. Mould-ripened cheeses ripen faster than hard cheeses, in weeks as opposed to the typical months or even years. This is because the fungi used are more biochemically active than the starter bacteria. Where the ripening occurs is largely dependent on the type of cheese: some cheeses are surface-ripened by moulds, such as Camembert and Brie; and some are ripened internally, such as Stilton. Surface ripening of some cheeses, such as Saint-Nectaire cheese, may also be influenced by yeasts which contribute flavour and coat texture. Others are allowed by the cheesemaker to develop bacterial surface growths which give characteristic colours and appearances. The growth of \"Brevibacterium linens\", for example, creates an orange coat to cheeses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paucilactobacillus wasatchensis",
        "text": "Paucilactobacillus wasatchensis is a species of heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria (LAB). It is a non-starter LAB that was first isolated from aged Cheddar cheese showing gas defects from three different continents. The growth of \"P. wasatchensis\" is accelerated when ripening cheese is supplemented with ribose and galactose and incubated at elevated temperature (12 \u00b0C versus 6 \u00b0C). \"P. wasatchensis\" can be controlled by pasteurization, but post-pasteurization sources of contamination must be controlled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mallorca cheese",
        "text": "The milk is coagulated by animal rennet when the milk is 30-35\u00b0C (86-95\u00b0F) and for a period not less than 30 minutes. The curd is cut mechanically with horizontal and vertical lyres until the curd is reduced to pieces of less than 20mm (inches) to facilitate drainage of the whey. The curd is then placed in moulds inside a linen or cotton lining, within the mould it is subjected to a pressure of between 2 and 6\u00a0kg/cm2. for at least 3 hours. The pressed cheeses are then salted in a brine bath for at least 18 hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk",
        "text": "Pasteurization of cow's milk initially destroys any potential pathogens and increases the shelf life, but eventually results in spoilage that makes it unsuitable for consumption. This causes it to assume an unpleasant odor, and the milk is deemed non-consumable due to unpleasant taste and an increased risk of food poisoning. In raw milk, the presence of lactic acid-producing bacteria, under suitable conditions, ferments the lactose present to lactic acid. The increasing acidity in turn prevents the growth of other organisms, or slows their growth significantly. During pasteurization, however, these lactic acid bacteria are mostly destroyed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sour cream",
        "text": "During the pasteurization process, temperatures are raised past the point where all the particles in the system are stable. When cream is heated to temperatures above 70\u00a0\u00b0C, there is denaturation of whey proteins. To avoid phase separation brought on by the increased surface area, the fat globules readily bind with the denatured \u03b2-lactoglobulin. The adsorption of the denatured whey proteins (and whey proteins that bound with casein micelles) increases the number of structural components in the product; the texture of sour cream can be partly attributed to this. The denaturation of whey proteins is also known for increasing the strength of the cross-linking within the cream system, due to the formation of whey protein polymers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parmesan",
        "text": "The cheese is put into a stainless steel, round form that is pulled tight with a spring-powered buckle so the cheese retains its wheel shape. After a day or two, the buckle is released and a plastic belt imprinted numerous times with the Parmigiano Reggiano name, the plant's number, and month and year of production is put around the cheese and the metal form is buckled tight again. The imprints take hold on the rind of the cheese in about a day and the wheel is then put into a brine bath to absorb salt for 20\u201325 days. After brining, the wheels are then transferred to the aging rooms in the plant for 12 months. Each cheese is placed on wooden shelves that can be 24 cheeses high by 90 cheeses long or 2160 total wheels per aisle. Each cheese and the shelf underneath it is then cleaned manually or robotically every seven days. The cheese is also turned at this time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Cheesemaking may have begun independently of this by the pressing and salting of curdled milk to preserve it. Observation that the effect of making cheese in an animal stomach gave more solid and better-textured curds may have led to the deliberate addition of rennet. Early archeological evidence of Egyptian cheese has been found in Egyptian tomb murals, dating to about 2000 BCE. A 2018 scientific paper stated that the world's oldest cheese, dating to approximately 1200 BCE (3200 years before present), was found in ancient Egyptian tombs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pic\u00f3n Bejes-Tresviso",
        "text": "A mixture of cow's, sheep's and goat's milk is used in its production (although not necessarily from Bejes or Tresviso). The curd is created using a precise dose of rennet and cut into hazelnut-sized pieces, which are then drained and allowed to dry. The curd pieces are placed loosely in the mould, allowing sufficient air to circulate and initiate the growth of penicillium spores. The cheese is then salted and left for an initial drying and curing period of between 12 and 18 days, at a temperature between ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Acid-set cheese",
        "text": "When making soft acid-set cheese using bacteria, the coagulum results from production of lactic acid by the starter microorganisms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Enzyme-modified cheese",
        "text": "EMCs are used in paste or dry form, and are added to foods at dosages of around 1-2% or up to 5% to provide a cheesy flavour. They are usually 10-30 times as intense in flavour as natural cheeses, but have a different taste profile from the original cheese. The enzyme treatment can improve the performance of processed cheese processes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abgereifter",
        "text": "The process to make this cheese is described in detail here."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Over a thousand types of cheese exist and are currently produced in various countries. Their styles, textures and flavors depend on the origin of the milk (including the animal's diet), whether they have been pasteurized, the butterfat content, the bacteria and mold, the processing, and how long they have been aged for. Herbs, spices, or wood smoke may be used as flavoring agents. The yellow to red color of many cheeses is produced by adding annatto. Other ingredients may be added to some cheeses, such as black pepper, garlic, chives or cranberries. A cheesemonger, or specialist seller of cheeses, may have expertise with selecting the cheeses, purchasing, receiving, storing and ripening them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Most cheeses achieve their final shape when the curds are pressed into a mold or form. The harder the cheese, the more pressure is applied. The pressure drives out moisture\u2014the molds are designed to allow water to escape\u2014and unifies the curds into a single solid body."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colby cheese",
        "text": "The manufacturing process for Colby is similar to that of cheddar cheese, except that the mixture does not go through the cheddaring process. Cow's milk that has been standardized to a protein\u2013fat ratio of 0.96 undergoes pasteurization and is stored at while the starter \"Lactococcus lactis\" (subspecies \"lactis\" and/or \"cremoris\") is added. After an hour, of annatto, a coloring agent, and of diluted rennet are added per of milk. The mixture is left to set for 15 to 30 minutes. The curd is then cut and cooked at until the pH of the whey is about 6.2 to 6.3."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue cheese",
        "text": "Salt, sugar or both are added to autoclaved, homogenized milk via a sterile solution. This mixture is then inoculated with \"Penicillium roqueforti\". This solution is first incubated for three to four days at . More salt and/or sugar is added and then aerobic incubation is continued for an additional one to two days. Alternatively, sterilized, homogenized milk and reconstituted non-fat solids or whey solids are mixed with sterile salt to create a fermentation medium. A spore-rich \"Penicillium roqueforti\" culture is then added. Next, modified milk fat is added which consists of milk fat with calf pre-gastric esterase. This solution is prepared in advance by an enzyme hydrolysis of a milk fat emulsion. The addition of modified milk fat stimulates a progressive release of free fatty acids via lipase action which is essential for rapid flavor development in blue cheese. This inoculum produced by either methods is later added to the cheese curds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alpujarra cheese",
        "text": "Made from fresh milk which is aromatic and high in fats, the milk is pasteurised if used for fresh cheese but left raw if used for cured cheese. The milk is curdled with rennet from young goats which gives the best result and gives the final cheese the best possible qualities. The milk is heated to 30-32\u00a0\u00b0C and the rennet is added. The coagulation takes between 30 and 45 minutes but can sometimes take up to two hours. The curd is then cut with a so-called lyre into pieces about the size of a pea or bean to facilitate the draining of the whey. It is left to rest for a few minutes before the moulding process where the curd is put into baskets, in old times made of rushes but nowadays made of more hygienic plastic. These baskets have, on their inner surface, the imprints that will show on the rind of the cheese. After 48 hours of pressing they are salted by being placed in an 18% brine at a temperature of 12-14\u00a0\u00b0C for about 24 hours. The cheeses are then placed in ventilated, high-humidity rooms at 10-12\u00a0\u00b0C to mature. The fresh cheese can be eaten within 60 days but the mature cheese must remain for at least 60 days and sometimes may be left for up to 4 months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easy Cheese",
        "text": "Whey products in processed cheese spreads increases the viscosity of the overall product due to the \u201cintermolecular interactions between adjacent protein molecules with the formation of weak transient networks\u201d formed from the conglomerate cheese mass. The protein concentration within the cheese matrix is directly proportional to the viscosity of the solution due to their interactions with hydrated protein molecules. Therefore, the continuous phase of the oil-in-water emulsion has a greater contribution to the viscosity of the cheese product over than the discontinuous phase."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gamalost",
        "text": "To make Gamalost, lactic starter is added to skimmed cow's milk, causing it to sour. After several days of souring, the milk is slowly heated, before the curds are separated and pressed into forms. After removal from the forms, mold is introduced onto the surface of the cheese, either by exposure to the wooden walls of the form that is only used for Gammalost, or rubbed on by hand in the traditional method. The cheese is then allowed to cure for four to five weeks. The ripening happens from outside inwards, so the center might be lighter than the parts near the exterior."
      },
      {
        "title": "Processed cheese",
        "text": "The use of emulsifiers in processed cheese results in a product that melts without separating when cooked; with prolonged heating, some traditional cheeses (especially cheddar and mozzarella) separate into a lumpy, molten protein gel and liquid fat combination. The emulsifiers (typically sodium phosphate, potassium phosphate, tartrate, or citrate) reduce the tendency for tiny fat globules in the cheese to coalesce and pool on the surface."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese curd",
        "text": "Cheese curds are made from fresh pasteurized milk in the process of creating cheese when bacterial culture and rennet are added to clot the milk. After the milk clots it is then cut into cubes; the result is a mixture of whey and curd. This mixture is then cooked and pressed to release the whey from the curd, creating the final product of cheese curd."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cheese",
        "text": "Because its manufacturing process differs from traditional cheeses, federal laws mandate that it be labeled as \"process American cheese\" if made from combining more than one cheese or \"process American cheese food\" if it contains at least 51% cheese but other specific dairy ingredients such as cream, milk, skim milk, buttermilk, cheese whey, or albumin from cheese whey are added. Products that have other added ingredients, such as Kraft Singles that contain milk protein concentrate, use legally unregulated terms such as \"pasteurized prepared cheese product\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese ripening",
        "text": "The process of cheese ripening affects the taste of the final product. If the product is not ripened, the resulting cheese is tasteless, and so all cheese is ripened except for fresh cheeses. Different factors define taste in cheese, including casein, fat, brine and many other elements. Brine, for example, mixes with saliva, delivering the flavour of the cheese to the taste buds and determining the cheese's moistness. Many of these elements are specific to the type of cheese. For instance, proline is more abundant in Emmental than in any other type of cheese and gives the cheese its much sweeter taste."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Aside from cow's milk, what other animal milk is used in making cheese?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Other sources of milk for cheese include goats and sheep's milk."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can cheese be made from soy milk?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes,  the main ingredients are nuts, soy milk, and soy yogurt. Common plant-based proteins or vegetable proteins used in vegan cheeses are derived from edible sources of protein, such as soybeans."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did people first start making cheese?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The production of cheese predates recorded history, beginning well over 7,000 years ago. There is no conclusive evidence indicating where cheese-making originated, possibly Europe, or Central Asia, the Middle East, or the Sahara."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Do all cheeses need to be refrigerated?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There's the Edam cheese which is a semi-hard cheese that does not spoil, only hardens."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the effects of cheese on health?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "National health organizations like the American Heart Association among others recommend cheese consumption be minimized to reduce factors for cardiovascular diseases. Raw-milk cheeses may cause infectious diseases as well if not aged enough and pregnant women may face extra risks due to listeria risk from soft-ripened cheeses and blue-veined cheeses."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the process of pasteurization for cheese?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I'm not sure about cheese specifically, but cheese is made from milk, and milk is pasteurized by treating it with mild heat, usually to less than 100 degrees Celsius.",
      "Pasteurization or pasteurisation is a process in which packaged and non-packaged foods (such as milk and fruit juices) are treated with mild heat, usually to less than 100 \u00b0C (212 \u00b0F), to eliminate pathogens and extend shelf life. The process is intended to destroy or deactivate organisms and enzymes that contribute to spoilage or risk of disease, including vegetative bacteria, but not bacterial spores."
    ],
    "topic": "Cheese",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Cheese:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cheese"
        ],
        "ctx": "Cheese is a dairy product produced in wide ranges of flavors, textures and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, or sheep. During production, the milk is usually acidified and the enzymes of either rennet or bacterial enzymes with similar activity are added to cause the casein to coagulate. The solid curds are then separated from the liquid whey and pressed into finished cheese. Some cheeses have aromatic molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pasteurization:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pasteurization"
        ],
        "ctx": "Pasteurization or pasteurisation is a process in which packaged and non-packaged foods (such as milk and fruit juices) are treated with mild heat, usually to less than , to eliminate pathogens and extend shelf life."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pasteurization:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pasteurization"
        ],
        "ctx": "Pasteurization or pasteurisation is a process in which packaged and non-packaged foods (such as milk and fruit juices) are treated with mild heat, usually to less than , to eliminate pathogens and extend shelf life."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "NHL players Riley Cote and Darren McCarty have been outspoken regarding their personal experience using cannabis and the medical benefits it has provided them. Cote co-founded an organization called Athletes for Care which advocates for athletes on issues of health and safety including the use of cannabis as medicine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Dunn (runner)",
        "text": "Dunn also promotes the use of cannabis for athletes, believing the stigma historically attached to cannabis users is unfounded.\u00a0 He knows from personal experience that CBD, in particular, is vital in relieving both mental stress and physical pain after training and competitive events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ross Rebagliati",
        "text": "Rebagliati stated in a 2015 interview that he believes cannabis is a performance-enhancing drug, as it \"puts you in the moment\" and \"you get in a zone where you can give it a 110%\". He has touted the benefits of CBD in particular, noting its anti-inflammatory properties and that it \"has a calming effect reducing stress and anxiety which are two more realities of being an athlete\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Calls for eliminating cannabis testing have come from the perspective of better pain management and reducing usage of opioids. Athletes such as Eugene Monroe and Derrick Morgan have called for further investigation into its potential for treating and preventing concussions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "A 2014 medical review found that almost 28% of college athletes in the United States self reported using cannabis in the past year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "A medical review found that \"cannabis consumption was found to be highest among athletes seeking the high risk and excitement of competing in extreme sports\", listing skateboarding as a specific example. The first cannabis related suspension for skateboarding occurred in 2019, of a competitor in run-ups to the 2020 Summer Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In January 2020, MMA fighter Elias Theodorou became the first North American athlete to receive a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) for the use of cannabis, granted by the British Columbia Athletic Commission. In May 2021 he received the first such exemption in the U.S., granted by the Colorado Combative Sports Commission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA), cannabis is reported to be a banned substance that the league tests and penalizes players for. WNBA player Sue Bird has served as an \"athlete ambassador\" for a cannabidiol (CBD) startup company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Cannabis and sports\n--World Anti-Doping Agency.\n--College and youth sports.\n--Individual sports.\n----American football.\n----Association football.\n----Baseball.\n----Basketball.\n----Cricket.\n----Diving.\n----Golf.\n----Hockey.\n----Mixed martial arts.\n----Motorsport.\n----Rugby football.\n----Skateboarding.\n----Snowboarding.\n----Sumo.\n----Swimming.\n----Track and field.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Elias Theodorou",
        "text": "Theodorou is a proud medical cannabis activist and received a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) from the British Columbia Athletic Commission in January 2020, making him the first professional athlete in North America to be sanctioned to utilize cannabis in-sport. In May 2021 he received a second such exemption from the Colorado Combative Sports Commission, making him the first professional athlete to receive a TUE in the United States. Theodorou uses cannabis to treat the pain and discomfort from bilateral neuropathy, a nerve condition resulting from an accident that broke his hand in two places and fractured it in four."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2011, an American national team diver was suspended for a year after testing positive for cannabis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Todd Herremans",
        "text": "Herremans is an advocate for the medical use of cannabis, which he says can help reduce addiction to opioids among NFL players. Herremans says he found cannabis to be an effective pain reliever while playing in the NFL, prior to failing a drug test and discontinuing its use during his second season. Herremans is a member of Athletes for Care, a group that advocates for athletes on various issues of health and safety including the use of cannabis as medicine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2018, running back Mike James petitioned the NFL for a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) to the league's ban on cannabis use. James cited a previous addiction to opioid drugs and argued that he should be allowed to use cannabis for pain relief instead. The petition was subsequently denied."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2016, the NFL announced the formation of a committee to study issues of pain management among players, including the use of cannabis as medicine. In June 2021, the NFL announced that it would award $1 million in funding for such research. In February 2022 the NFL announced the awarding of two grants for cannabis research, one of which would additionally investigate its benefits in treating concussions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derrick Morgan (American football)",
        "text": "Morgan has spoken publicly about the medicinal properties of cannabis that he believes could benefit NFL players, particularly in treating and preventing the serious brain injuries and diseases that have afflicted many players. Morgan has called on the NFL to conduct research on the neuroprotective benefits of cannabis, as part of the league's stated commitment to making player health and safety issues a top priority. Morgan has also donated money to help fund medical cannabis research."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2018, Coleman Bentley of \"Golf Digest\" investigated the effects of cannabis on golfers and summarized:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "The National Basketball Association (NBA) suspended random drug testing for cannabis during the COVID-19 pandemic, initially instituting the policy during the 2020 NBA Bubble and then extending it through the 2020\u201321 and 2021\u201322 NBA seasons. Commissioner Adam Silver stated: \"We decided that, given all the things that were happening in society, given all the pressures and stress that players were under, that we didn't need to act as Big Brother right now.\" Previously Silver had stated that he was \"very interested in the science when it comes to medical marijuana\" and that he does not see cannabis use as an ethical or moral issue. He also noted in 2018 that multiple players have told him that cannabis helps them deal with their anxiety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medical cannabis in the United States",
        "text": "Eugene Monroe, Derrick Morgan, Kyle Turley, and Jim McMahon are among a group of NFL players that have advocated for allowing the use of cannabis in the league, as a treatment option for concussions and a pain reliever that can reduce reliance on addictive opioid drugs. NBA head coach Steve Kerr has also voiced support for the medical use of cannabis in professional sports."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "A pamphlet produced by the United States Department of Justice in the 1990s for youth sports coaches admonished them to \"Explain that marijuana is illegal and that the athlete can be arrested or suspended from school and sports for using it\", and listed several deleterious physical and psychological effects of marijuana including \"decreased stamina, weight gain, and reduced muscle strength.. . [l]aziness, lack of motivation, loss of control, and poor decisionmaking\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eben Britton",
        "text": "Britton revealed in a September 2016 interview with the \"New York Post\" that he used cannabis before three of the NFL games he played in. Britton says that in addition to relieving the pain of his injuries, cannabis also improved his mental concentration on the football field, and that the games he played after using were some of his best performances. Britton also estimated that over 50 percent of current players use cannabis and that the number could be as high as 75 percent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "There is no scientific consensus regarding the performance-enhancing effects of cannabis, with one 2018 paper reporting \"there is no evidence for cannabis use as a performance-enhancing drug\". Other reasons cited for banning its use include an increased risk of injury in-competition and the view that users of cannabis are not good role models."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "USA Track & Field (USATF) said \"the merit of the World Anti-Doping Agency rules related to THC should be reevaluated\" after the ban of Sha'Carri Richardson from the 2020 Summer Olympics (held in 2021). The U.S. White House spokesperson, Jen Psaki concurred, saying \"maybe we should take another look at\" the rules for athletes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In July 2019, UFC announced a partnership with Aurora Cannabis to conduct research on the effectiveness of CBD in areas of wound care, recovery, pain, and inflammation, using UFC fighters as test subjects. In 2020 it was announced that the partnership had been terminated, however."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "NFL players who are entrepreneurs in the cannabis industry include Calvin Johnson, Rob Sims, Marshawn Lynch, Tiki Barber, Kyle Turley, Jordan Reed, Marvin Washington, and Ricky Williams. Johnson and Sims, who are business partners, announced a partnership with Harvard University in 2019 to study the effects of cannabis on chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) and its benefits in managing pain. They also announced a six-figure donation to the International Phytomedicines and Medical Cannabis Institute at Harvard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "The use of cannabis by athletes has been banned by many sports commissions. However, some have relaxed their policies as societal attitudes towards its use have shifted. The prohibition \"is one of the most controversial issues in anti-doping\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Testing for cannabis by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) began when it instituted a comprehensive drug testing program in 1986. Initially a 15\u00a0ng/mL threshold was established and any positive test resulted in a full-season suspension. In 2013 the threshold was lowered to 5\u00a0ng/mL while the penalty was relaxed to a half-season suspension. The threshold was then raised to 15\u00a0ng/mL in 2017, 35\u00a0ng/mL in 2019, and 150\u00a0ng/mL in 2022. Also in 2022 the NCAA Committee on Competitive Safeguards and Medical Aspects of Sports (CSMAS) recommended a relaxed penalty structure for divisions to adopt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim McMahon",
        "text": "McMahon uses cannabis to treat the chronic pain and arthritis that he suffers from as a result of his football career. He calls cannabis a \"godsend\" that allowed him to eliminate his painkiller habit which he says included 100 Percocet pills a month. McMahon has been active in speaking about his experience using cannabis, serving as spokesperson for the Cannabis Sports Policy Project and a member of the Gridiron Cannabis Coalition along with several other former NFL players. McMahon appeared in a TV ad supporting cannabis legalization in the state of Arizona."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In July 2021, the Nevada State Athletic Commission voted to stop punishing fighters for cannabis use. UFC fighter Nick Diaz received a five year suspension from the commission in 2015 for repeat cannabis violations, though the suspension was later reduced to a year and a half."
      },
      {
        "title": "Riley Cote",
        "text": "During his time in the NHL, Cote used cannabis as a natural pain-reliever and alternative to addictive pharmaceutical drugs. After retiring, Cote co-founded Athletes for Care, a group that advocates for athletes on issues of health and safety including the use of cannabis as medicine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) player Megan Rapinoe has served as an \"athlete ambassador\" for a CBD startup company. Scottish club Hamilton Academical attracted attention in 2018 when they were sponsored by a local company which also involved the renaming of their ground as the \"Hope CBD Stadium\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordan Reed",
        "text": "Reed says cannabis helped him deal with pain during his football career, and that he is pursuing business opportunities in the cannabis industry following his retirement from football. He further explained his decision in a USA Today op-ed, stating: \"I want to broker change in how cannabis is perceived, how it's prescribed, how it's researched, how it's accessed, and how it can bring about lasting change for Americans from all walks of life\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "The NCAA conducts cannabis testing for bowl and championship games, while performance-enhancing drugs are tested for more frequently through a year-round testing program. Many schools also conduct testing in addition to the testing that the NCAA conducts. A 2015 investigation by the Associated Press found that 23 of 57 schools analyzed had reduced penalties for cannabis use since 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2017, NBA player Al Harrington conducted an interview with former commissioner David Stern regarding the topic of cannabis use by players. Stern told Harrington during the interview: \"I'm now at the point where personally I think [cannabis] probably should be removed from the banned list. You've persuaded me.\" NBA head coach Steve Kerr has also expressed support for allowing the use of cannabis in professional sports."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2019, Robert Garrigus became the first professional golfer suspended for testing positive for cannabis. He has openly criticized the PGA Tour's cannabis policy. In October 2019, Matt Every was suspended for the same reason. In 2020, \"The New York Times\" said PGA Tour and Champions Tour players \"have become more vocal about using CBD to treat their ailments since the compound was removed from banned substances list in 2018\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "NBA players that are entrepreneurs in the cannabis industry or that have entered into business partnerships include Kevin Durant, Allen Iverson, Al Harrington, Shawn Kemp, Cliff Robinson, Larry Hughes, Chris Webber, Isiah Thomas, Ben Wallace, Dwyane Wade, Carmelo Anthony, John Wall, John Salley, and Paul Pierce. Iverson announced a partnership with Harrington's company Viola Brands in 2021. In addition to collaborating on various business initiatives, the pair announced they would engage in educational efforts to reduce the stigma surrounding cannabis use. Durant announced a separate partnership in 2021 with the company Weedmaps to \"deconstruct the negative stereotypes associated with cannabis while elevating the conversation around the plant's potential for athlete wellness and recovery\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In January 2021, the United States Anti-Doping Agency and Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) announced a change to the drug testing that USADA conducts for the UFC. Under the new policy, fighters will no longer be punished for cannabis use except in cases where \"further evidence demonstrates the substance was taken for performance-enhancing purposes such as alleviating pain or anxiety\". Jeff Novitzky, senior vice president of athlete health and performance for the UFC, said clear signs of intoxication would need to be present such as \"bloodshot eyes, they smell like marijuana, they're slurring or a far-off gaze\". Prior to the change a 180 ng/mL threshold was set in place but it was determined that this could not be definitively said to indicate intoxication. The change had no effect on the fact that the testing policies of state agencies such as the Nevada State Athletic Commission still apply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "According to a 2013 article by \"The Denver Post\", the National Hockey League (NHL) was alone among the big four North American professional sports leagues (NFL, NBA, MLB, and NHL) in not punishing players for cannabis use. Though cannabis was still tested for according to the article, a positive test could only result in a referral for treatment by the players union or a possible punishment \"in house\" by individual teams. The policy was first instituted in 1996 according to NHL deputy commissioner Bill Daly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "During the early 2000s, former Dallas Cowboys center Mark Stepnoski served as president of the Texas chapter of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws. His activism caused his high school alma mater, Cathedral Preparatory School, to cancel his induction into the school's athletic hall of fame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike James (American football)",
        "text": "James is an advocate for the medical use of cannabis, which he says can help reduce addiction to opioids among NFL players. James says cannabis helped him overcome his own painkiller addiction while recovering from a severe ankle injury sustained in 2013. In 2018, after failing a drug test the previous year, James filed a therapeutic use exemption (TUE) with the NFL to allow him to use cannabis. The petition was later denied, but James' attorney said that discussion with league officials was ongoing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kyle Turley",
        "text": "Turley uses cannabis to treat the neurological issues that he suffers from post-NFL career. He credits cannabis with greatly improving his quality of life and even saving his life, after previously relying on numerous prescription medications with side effects that he says almost drove him to suicide. Turley completely eliminated his use of pharmaceuticals \u2013 including psychiatric and pain-killing drugs \u2013 beginning in early 2015 when he went cold turkey and switched to cannabis only. He has been active in speaking about his personal experience using cannabis, and in 2015 founded the Gridiron Cannabis Coalition to help advance policy change regarding the use of cannabis in professional sports. The organization is also involved with medical cannabis research, commencing a study in 2016 to examine the effectiveness of cannabis in treating chronic pain and depression."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "WADA relaxed its policy towards cannabis in 2013, increasing from 15\u00a0ng/mL to 150\u00a0ng/mL the level of THC metabolite allowed in urine before an athlete is considered to have failed a drug test. Said WADA Director of Communications Julie Masse: \"We wanted to focus on the athletes that abuse the substance in competition. This should exclude cases where marijuana is not used in competition.\" The 150\u00a0ng/mL threshold also allows for a 180\u00a0ng/mL \"Decision Limit\" to be used to account for any uncertainties in measurement above a certain level of confidence. According to WADA statistics, the percentage of failed drug tests for cannabis use dropped from 9.0% in 2012 to 2.4% in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 1999, the England national rugby union team captain Lawrence Dallaglio was investigated by the Rugby Football Union over claims he had smoked cannabis whilst on a rugby tour as well as dealing drugs. He was later stripped of the captaincy as a result."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Ham",
        "text": "In 2017, Ham became an advocate of medical marijuana, having studied the benefits of relieving symptoms related to playing football, and wants the NFL to soften their stance on the use of marijuana in general. Ham felt inspired after seeing the cognitive decline of contemporary Nick Buoniconti, as well as other current and former players including former teammate Mike Webster, despite Ham himself being healthy. Ham also believes medical marijuana would help counter the ongoing opioid epidemic affecting society as a whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "NBA players that have advocated for the legalization of cannabis include Harrington, Cliff Robinson, and Oscar Robertson. Harrington appeared in a video ad to endorse California's Proposition 64 in 2016. Robertson appeared in a TV ad endorsing an Ohio ballot measure to legalize cannabis in 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2019, \"High Times\" published tips for \"toking up and teeing off\". \"Golf Magazine\" published \"5 reasons why a golfer could benefit from using CBD\" in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In July 2021, second division wrestler Takagenji was announced to have failed a test for cannabis. An investigation found that Takagenji, who was already on a warning for an unrelated prior matter, had smoked cannabis on at eight occasions, and he was dismissed by the JSA on July 30."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franz Stauder",
        "text": "In 2007, he tested positive for a metabolite of cannabis, from a sample given during qualifying in Halle. The International Tennis Federation ruled that Stauder had \"no intent\" to \"enhance his sporting performance\" through taking the drug. As a result, discretion was exercised and he received only a two-month suspension, as well as forfeiting relevant ranking points and prize money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ross Rebagliati",
        "text": "In January 2018, Ross and his business partner Patrick Smyth founded Legacy Brands by Ross Rebagliati, which promotes healthy living and finding that athlete in us all through everyday family-friendly products. Focusing on CBD products, Ross stated: \"Canadians are opening up more and more to cannabis, and many older people are really understanding as to the benefits of CBD; which is used to treat medical conditions like epilepsy. It is gaining favor among athletes and the public alike. Unlike other extracts, CBD is not psychoactive and is used for sleep regulation, inflammation, and anxiety. We are excited. We feel the rest of the country will adopt a healthy use of cannabis in the coming years.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In March 2020, the National Football League (NFL) changed its policy regarding cannabis after signing a new collective bargaining agreement with the National Football League Players Association (NFLPA). The agreement stipulated that positive tests would no longer result in a suspension and that players would only be suspended for missing multiple tests or refusing treatment. It also shortened the timeframe for which players would be tested from four months to two weeks, and raised the threshold for a positive test from 35\u00a0ng/mL of THC metabolite to 150 (prior to 2014 the threshold was set at 15). Running back Ricky Williams is among the players that have been suspended under the league's old policy, failing multiple tests that led him to miss the entire 2004 and 2006 seasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ruth Blackburn",
        "text": "Outside of her sports career, she has worked as a researcher. Her work has included research into the use of medical cannabis for children with epilepsy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Dunn (runner)",
        "text": "America's Marathon Man continues to advocate for the legalization of cannabis and how it may positively impact veterans and aging Baby Boomers.\u00a0 Dunn believes in the potential of medicinal cannabis to help treat conditions such PTSD, arthritis, and more."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "A gold medal in men's snowboarding was temporarily rescinded at the 1998 Winter Olympics after Canadian Ross Rebagliati tested positive for cannabis use. A drug test showed that he had 17.8\u00a0ng/mL of THC metabolite in his system, slightly higher than the 15\u00a0ng/mL threshold used by the International Ski Federation. The IOC executive board voted 3\u20132 to disqualify him from competition on February 11, 1998, which the Canadian Olympic Association immediately appealed. Rebagliati maintained his innocence and said that he had tested positive due to exposure to secondhand smoke. On February 13 an appeals court ruled in Rebagliati's favor, due to the fact that cannabis had not been officially banned by the IOC yet (it was banned shortly thereafter in April) and therefore the IOC had no authority to strip the medal. No charges were filed against Rebagliati after he was questioned by Japanese police for seven hours regarding the matter. He was put on the No Fly List and banned from entering the United States, however, which prevented him from participating in future competitions such as the X Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rob Gronkowski",
        "text": "In August 2019, Gronkowski credited cannabidiol (CBD) oil, the non-psychoactive component of cannabis plants, for making him pain-free for the first time in a decade, and has advocated sports governing bodies to allow players to use it for pain management."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In May 2021, the Florida State Boxing Commission announced that it would stop testing fighters for cannabis use, based on the recommendation of the Association of Boxing Commissions medical advisory committee and following the lead of the new policy announced by UFC and USADA earlier in the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boo Williams",
        "text": "Williams uses cannabis to treat the chronic pain and neurological problems that have resulted from his football career. As a member of the Gridiron Cannabis Coalition he has been active in speaking about his experience using cannabis as medicine and advocating for the NFL to change its policy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leonard Marshall",
        "text": "Marshall has spoken publicly in support of cannabis as an effective treatment option for mitigating the symptoms of head trauma-related health issues. He also says it can serve as a safer alternative to the pain-relieving opioid drugs that many NFL players become addicted to. Marshall has stated that the NFL should make allowances for the use of cannabis products as a medical treatment for players."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2016, Eugene Monroe and Derrick Morgan became the first active NFL players to publicly challenge the league's policy of suspending players for cannabis use. A number of retired players have also advocated for the change, including Jim McMahon, Jake Plummer, Kyle Turley, Nate Jackson, Eben Britton, Leonard Marshall, Marvin Washington, Todd Herremans, Boo Williams, and Ricky Williams. In 2016, several of these active and retired players signed a letter penned by Doctors for Cannabis Regulation requesting that the NFL change its policy regarding cannabis. Reasons that have been cited in advocating for the change include the potential use of cannabis as a neuroprotectant, its use for pain relief as an opioid alternative, and the hypocrisy of the league promoting the use of alcohol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nate Jackson",
        "text": "Jackson is a board member of Athletes for Care, a group that advocates for athletes on various issues of health and safety including the use of cannabis as medicine. Through Athletes for Care, Jackson co-hosts the \"Caveman Poet Society\" podcast along with Eben Britton. Jackson is also a member of the Gridiron Cannabis Coalition, which advocates for the NFL to change its cannabis policy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Cannabis was on the list of drugs of abuse until the 2019\u20132020 offseason, when THC and CBD were removed. Players will still be tested for synthetic cannabinoids, and are still subject to disciplinary action if they are caught using cannabis, for possession, or driving under the influence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabidiol",
        "text": "Cannabidiol has been used by professional and amateur athletes across disciplines and countries, with the World Anti-Doping Agency removing CBD from its banned substances list. The United States Anti-Doping Agency and United Kingdom-Anti-Doping Agency do not have anti-CBD policies, with the latter stating that, \"CBD is not currently listed on the World Anti-Doping Agency Prohibited List. As a result, it is permitted to use in sport, though the intended benefits are unclear and not backed by clinical evidence. All other cannabinoids (including but not limited to cannabis, hashish, marijuana, and THC) are prohibited in-competition. The intention of the regulations is to prohibit cannabinoids that activate the same receptors in the brain as activated by THC.\" In 2019, the cannabis manufacturer, Canopy Growth, acquired majority ownership of BioSteel Sports Nutrition, which is developing CBD products under endorsement by numerous professional athletes. The National Hockey League Alumni Association began a project with Canopy Growth to determine if CBD or other cannabis products might improve neurological symptoms and quality of life in head-injured players. Numerous professional athletes use CBD, primarily for treating pain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derrick Morgan (American football)",
        "text": "Morgan is a board member of Athletes for Care, a group that advocates for athletes on various issues of health and safety including the use of cannabis as medicine. Morgan is also co-chair of the Doctors for Cannabis Regulation NFL steering committee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sha'Carri Richardson",
        "text": "Richardson stated that she took the drug to cope with the pressure of qualifying for the Olympics while mourning the recent death of her biological mother. Her suspension was criticized by many individuals and organizations in favor of liberalizing cannabis policies, including NORML, members of the Congressional Cannabis Caucus, and other members of Congress. U.S. President Joe Biden also suggested that drug testing rules governing athletes could be changed. USADA responded to the criticism by pointing out that as a signatory to the World Anti-Doping Code, it has an obligation to enforce it in the United States. Furthermore, they stated that changing those rules might be problematic, as the vast majority of world\u2019s nation states consider consuming marijuana a criminal offense. In response to the controversy, in September 2021, the World Anti-Doping Agency announced that it would conduct a review regarding the prohibited status of cannabis. Cannabis has remained a prohibited drug for Olympic athletes since 1999, though in 2013 the World Anti-Doping Agency increased the level of THC metabolite allowed from 15\u00a0ng/mL to 150\u00a0ng/mL."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eugene Monroe",
        "text": "Monroe has been an outspoken advocate for removing cannabis from the list of banned substances in the NFL. Monroe has pointed to the heavy use of addictive opioid drugs in the league and says players should not be punished for choosing a safer alternative that could help them better manage their pain. Monroe has also cited the neuroprotective properties of cannabis that could help treat and prevent the serious brain injuries and diseases that are well-documented among NFL players. Monroe has contributed funding to medical cannabis research and started a website to promote his views. He has also penned a personal essay on the subject."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karen Hills (footballer)",
        "text": "In January 2000 Hills and Mill Hill team mate Laura Burns tested positive for cannabis in a random drug test carried out by The Football Association. Both received six-month suspensions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Major League Baseball (MLB) began testing players in Minor League Baseball (MiLB) for performance-enhancing substances and drugs of abuse in 2001. Testing for MLB players began in 2003 after MLB and the MLB Players Association agreed to it through collective bargaining. However, MLB players were only tested for cannabis if there was \"reasonable cause\" to do so, or if it was mandated by a drug treatment program."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eben Britton",
        "text": "Britton is a board member of Athletes for Care, a group that advocates for athletes on various issues of health and safety including the use of cannabis as medicine. Through Athletes for Care, Britton co-hosts the \"Caveman Poet Society\" podcast along with Nate Jackson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "The F\u00e9d\u00e9ration Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), the sanctioning body for global motorsport, including Formula One, has banned drivers for cannabis use. The FIA follows WADA protocol. As of 2021, cannabinoids are listed by WADA as prohibited in-competition, except CBD, which is specifically exempted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ross Rebagliati",
        "text": "Since the 1998 Olympics, Rebagliati has become an outspoken advocate and entrepreneur for cannabis. He has also been involved in multimillion-dollar real estate development projects throughout British Columbia, as well as residential construction. Rebagliati was the subject of full-page coverage in the July 14, 2008, edition of \"Sports Illustrated\", which profiled his life since his Olympic win."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "While touring New Zealand in 1996\u20131997, a restaurant in Christchurch accused Phil Tufnell of smoking cannabis in their bathroom. As the restaurant had a reputation for making up stories about celebrities, the English team's management agreed with Tufnell's denials. Paul Smith retired in 1997 and acknowledged using cannabis; despite his retirement, the ECB suspended him for 22 months. In 2001, five South African players, Roger Telemachus, Andr\u00e9 Nel, Paul Adams, Justin Kemp, and Herschelle Gibbs, were caught smoking it at a party. They were fined R10,000. Dermot Reeve revealed that he was addicted to cocaine in 2005, and also acknowledged that he had used cannabis during the 1990s while he was an active player, but said that he never used it during the cricket season. In May 2005, Keith Piper of the Warwickshire County Cricket Club was suspended for the remainder of the season for cannabis. Also in 2005, an Australian cricket team from Inverloch provided chocolate cupcakes to a team from Nerrina and did not inform them that they contained cannabis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herb (company)",
        "text": "Herb produces Game Changers, a video series about former and current professional athletes that use cannabis in their daily lives to show that cannabis is for achievers. The series has featured former NFL players Marvin Washington, Eben Britton, Grant Mattos, Jim McMahon and Leonard Marshall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike James (American football)",
        "text": "James was featured in the CNN documentary \"Weed 4\" discussing his use of cannabis as an alternate pain reliever and his push for the NFL to allow its use. James is also a co-chair of the Doctors for Cannabis Regulation NFL steering committee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Berry (athlete)",
        "text": "A native of Seattle, Washington, Berry attended Rainier Beach High School. In 2010 he received a three-month ban after testing positive for cannabis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eben Britton",
        "text": "Britton is an advocate for removing cannabis from the list of banned substances in the NFL. Britton says he used cannabis as a preferred method of pain management during his football career, and has cited the health risks associated with pharmaceutical painkillers as a reason why players should not be punished for choosing a natural alternative. Britton is a member of the Gridiron Cannabis Coalition, a group that advocates for the NFL to change its policy on cannabis. He is also a member of the Doctors for Cannabis Regulation NFL steering committee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Angela Bryan",
        "text": "In other notable work, Bryan and her collaborators surveyed cannabis users living in states with full legal access to find out whether cannabis use shortly before and/or after exercise affects enjoyment of and motivation to exercise. The researchers were specifically interested in comparing users who consumed cannabis shortly before or after exercise (co-users) with those who did not. They designed a simple questionnaire that asked people general questions about themselves, their marijuana use, and working out. Almost 82% of participants reported that they used cannabis around the time of their workouts. These individuals tended to be younger and more often male than those who did not use marijuana in conjunction with exercise. After controlling for these differences, co-users reported engaging in more minutes of exercise per week than non-users, while also reporting greater enjoyment of exercise and increased motivation to exercise. The study did not look at which kind of cannabis (edibles, smoked flower, etc.) people use alongside exercise, however, more research is already in the works at CU Boulder, comparing the activity levels of older adults who use cannabis with those who do not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andreas Strand (footballer)",
        "text": "In 2005 Strand failed a doping test for cannabis, but as he explained that he probably ingested it from a chocolate cake at a party, he was cleared from a doping charge by the Norwegian Confederation of Sports."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2017, former New York Jets defensive end Marvin Washington was part of a lawsuit filed against Attorney General Jeff Sessions, challenging the classification of cannabis as a Schedule I drug and citing the racist origins of cannabis laws as a reason why its prohibition is unconstitutional. Following the lawsuit's dismissal, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to take up the case in October 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ross Rebagliati",
        "text": "Two months after the drug testing incident, in April 1998, the IOC officially banned cannabis use. \"The New York Times\" dubbed the decision \"the Ross Rebagliati Rule\". In 2013 the THC metabolite limit for Olympic athletes was raised to 150 ng/mL, so as to only detect current intoxication."
      },
      {
        "title": "Todd Herremans",
        "text": "Todd Herremans\n--College career.\n--Professional career.\n----Philadelphia Eagles.\n----Indianapolis Colts.\n--Medical cannabis advocacy.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Alexander Walke",
        "text": "He competed for Germany at the FIFA World Youth Championship 2003, but tested positive for tetrahydrocannabinol, the active chemical in marijuana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Angela Bryan",
        "text": "Bryan's research on cannabis is not easily obtainable because Marijuana remains fully illegal at the federal level, and strict federal access policies tie the hands of researchers Bryan hopes to start filling the research gap on the topic as it gains popularity. In order for Bryan to get much needed data on the topic, she is not able to be present during participants consumption. The only way she can study effects is by using a mobile lab and asking participants to come outside to the van for tests of how its active ingredients, called cannabinoids, have affected them. The van is helping to facilitate several studies; among them are the effects of various cannabis products on anxiety, pain, inflammation, sleep, health and mood. Bryan hopes to study cannabis and metabolism, including its effects on the body's response to insulin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derrick Morgan (American football)",
        "text": "In November 2016, the NFL Player's Association announced the formation of a committee to study issues of pain management among players, including the use of cannabis as treatment. Morgan was named as a founding member of the committee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eugene Monroe",
        "text": "In November 2016, the NFL Player's Association announced the formation of a committee to study issues of pain management among players, including the use of cannabis as treatment. Monroe was named as a founding member of the committee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In February 2009, a photograph of Michael Phelps using a bong went viral; this resulted in a three-month suspension by USA Swimming and the loss of his sponsorship with the Kellogg Company. Phelps admitted that the photo, which was taken at a party at the University of South Carolina, was authentic. He publicly apologized, saying his behavior was \"inappropriate\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "WADA's policy towards cannabis came under scrutiny in 2021 following the banning of U.S. track and field athlete Sha'Carri Richardson from the Tokyo Summer Olympics. The suspension was criticized by U.S. Representatives Barbara Lee, Earl Blumenauer, and 16 other members of Congress who wrote that the policy was \"outdated and restrictive\" and that the United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) and WADA should \"re-evaluate its criteria and decision to include cannabis, specifically tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) as a prohibited substance\". USADA wrote to Representatives Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez and Jamie Raskin agreeing that \"Ms. Richardson's exclusion from the Tokyo Olympic Games is a heartbreaking situation and that the World Anti-Doping Agency's rules concerning marijuana must change\". It also noted that as a signatory to the World Anti-Doping Code, USADA has an obligation to enforce the rules regarding cannabis use, and that changing the rules might be problematic as the vast majority of countries still criminalize the drug. The Office of National Drug Control Policy stated that it would meet with WADA to \"gather additional information on its cannabis policies\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Following the 1998 Tour de France doping scandal, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) convened the First World Conference on Doping in Lausanne, Switzerland, in February 1999. From this conference the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) was formed in November 1999 to \"lead a collaborative worldwide movement for doping-free sport\" through activities such as \"scientific research, education, and development of anti-doping capacities\". In 2004, WADA published the World Anti-Doping Code and included cannabis among the substances prohibited by the code. As of 2021, there are more than 700 sports organization that adhere to the code; these include the International Olympic Committee, International Paralympic Committee, national anti-doping agencies, and various professional sports leagues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In March 2021, UFC announced a five year agreement with Love Hemp to name it the Official Global CBD Partner of UFC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bob Arum",
        "text": "Arum appeared as corrupt DEA agent, \"Stokes\", in the 1975 film, \"The Marijuana Affair\", at the behest of his friend, Jamaican-born boxing promoter, filmmaker, bookie, and horse-racing aficionado Lucien Chen (June 6, 1928 \u2013 December 16, 2015); has advocated for the decriminalization of cannabis; and, in a 2017 interview, stated that he had started smoking it in 1966, declaring, \"Cannabis is good for you! It's these damn people during the Nixon administration that really put cannabis into the position where it was a drug like heroin and cocaine and that was wrong\" and adding that \"in a lot of ways, marijuana is better for the athlete as pain medication than the drugs.\u201d In a 2017 \"VICE\" interview (which erroneously reports film producer Chen as Shen); Arum was also quoted as saying, \"I think the NFL is gonna revise its policy on marijuana and I think everybody should. It was the Nixon administration that demonized marijuana, to the real harm of a lot of people, particularly people who have terminal cancer. Marijuana can be a very therapeutic thing.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Velter",
        "text": "Velter tested positive for cannabis in 2006 and was subsequently handed a 3-month ban from sports. In 2011 he tested positive for cannabis again, and as it was his second anti-doping rule violation he received a 21-month ban."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nate Jackson",
        "text": "Jackson has called on the NFL to remove cannabis from its list of banned substances, citing the pain-relieving capabilities of the drug as well as its neuroprotective properties. During his NFL career Jackson used cannabis as a preferred alternative to opioid painkillers which he sought to avoid as much as possible. Jackson has spoken out on the NFL's policy towards cannabis in various media, including the \"New York Times\" opinion page, \"CBS This Morning\", and an episode of HBO's \"Real Sports\" examining cannabis use in the NFL."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicholas Delpopolo",
        "text": "On August 6, 2012, Delpopolo was expelled from the Olympics by the IOC after he tested positive for cannabis. Upon exiting the games, Delpopolo stated the positive test result was caused by \"inadvertent consumption of food that I did not realize had been baked with marijuana, before I left for the Olympic Games.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Elias Theodorou",
        "text": "Elias Michael Theodorou (born May 31, 1988) is a Canadian mixed martial artist of Greek descent. He competed for the UFC in the Middleweight division where he was ranked 13th until his release, and won \"\". He became the first professional athlete to receive a Therapeutic Use Exemption for cannabis in North America in January 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "David Murray, who played cricket in the 1970s, said after his career that he used cannabis \"before and after the day's play, but never in the breaks \u2013 you can't do that\". Ian Botham was suspended for 63 days by the England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB) in 1986 after he admitted in an interview that he had smoked cannabis. Wasim Akram, Waqar Younis, Aqib Javed, and Mushtaq Ahmed of the Pakistani national cricket team were arrested in Grenada in April 1993 for possession of cannabis. In 1995, Stephen Fleming was caught and admitted to smoking with teammates Matthew Hart and Dion Nash while on tour at their hotel. They were suspended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jaysuma Saidy Ndure",
        "text": "In 2007, Saidy became the subject of a doping case. On 8 August, the IAAF reported that Saidy Jaysuna (\"sic\") had tested positive for cannabis in an in-competition test on 28 June 2007 in Luzern, Switzerland. Saidy had competed in the \"Spitzenleichathletik\" EAA meeting there in both sprints events, running in 10.26 and 20.41 seconds respectively. Being a first violation, the only sanctions imposed on Saidy were disqualification from the competition in question as well as a public warning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jaron Johnson",
        "text": "On May 15, 2017, it was revealed by the Australian Sports Anti-Doping Authority (ASADA) that Johnson was sanctioned for a breach of the WADA Anti-Doping Code after testing positive for cannabis. He was tested as part of regular in-competition testing while with the Perth Wildcats after a game against the New Zealand Breakers in November 2016. As a result, Johnson was deemed ineligible to participate in any WADA sanctioned sport from March 24 to June 24, 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "NCAA banned substances",
        "text": "Marijuana, also known as cannabis, is a euphoriant and hallucinogenic drug prepared from the dried leaves of the strong-smelling plant \"Cannabis sativa\". Marijuana is a commonly used drug, legal in many states."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derrick Morgan (American football)",
        "text": "During a 2017 game against the Houston Texans, Morgan wore a pair of cannabis-themed cleats as part of the NFL's \"My Cause, My Cleats\" campaign. The cleats promoted Realm of Caring Foundation, a non-profit organization supporting medical cannabis research."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spannabis",
        "text": "\"Sports Illustrated\" described the event as \"part trade show, part research conference and 100% festival of copious cannabis consumption\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In September 2021, WADA announced that it would conduct a review to determine whether cannabis should remain on the list of prohibited substances. A press release stated: \"Following receipt of requests from a number of stakeholders, the [Executive Committee] endorsed the decision of the List Expert Advisory Group to initiate in 2022 a scientific review of the status of cannabis. Cannabis is currently prohibited in competition and will continue to be in 2022.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Liam Messam",
        "text": "Throughout his professional athlete career Liam developed a preference for natural alternative health options to relieve both physical pain and mental challenges high-profile athletes experience. After witnessing the detrimental effect conventional pain relief and mental health medication has on close friends and family, Liam founded Ora CBD alongside Teddy Stanaway in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mark Brayshaw",
        "text": "Post AFL involvement he has started a company specializing in medicinal cannabis and has some high profile ex AFL clients who have reduced or eliminated pain with the medically prescribed product."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some athletes that have called for further investigation into the benefits of cannabis?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Both Eugene Monroe and Derrick Morgan of the NFL have called for investigation into the benefits of cannabis for the treatment and prevention of concussions, while they and a number of other players have signed a letter requesting the NFL change its cannabis policies, citing its use a neuroprotectant and an opioid alternative. NHL players Riley Cote and Darren McCarty have also been outspoken about the medical benefits of cannabis, and The New York Times reported in 2020 that several members of the PGA Tour have become vocal about using CBD to treat ailments."
    ],
    "topic": "Cannabis and sports",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Cannabis and sports:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cannabis and sports"
        ],
        "ctx": "Calls for eliminating cannabis testing have come from the perspective of better pain management and reducing usage of opioids. Athletes such as Eugene Monroe and Derrick Morgan have called for further investigation into its potential for treating and preventing concussions."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Cannabis and sports:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cannabis and sports",
          "Individual sports",
          "Hockey"
        ],
        "ctx": "NHL players Riley Cote and Darren McCarty have been outspoken regarding their personal experience using cannabis and the medical benefits it has provided them. Cote co-founded an organization called Athletes for Care which advocates for athletes on issues of health and safety including the use of cannabis as medicine."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Cannabis and sports:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cannabis and sports",
          "Individual sports",
          "American football"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2016, Eugene Monroe and Derrick Morgan became the first active NFL players to publicly challenge the league's policy of suspending players for cannabis use. A number of retired players have also advocated for the change, including Jim McMahon, Jake Plummer, Kyle Turley, Nate Jackson, Eben Britton, Leonard Marshall, Marvin Washington, Todd Herremans, Boo Williams, and Ricky Williams. In 2016, several of these active and retired players signed a letter penned by Doctors for Cannabis Regulation requesting that the NFL change its policy regarding cannabis. Reasons that have been cited in advocating for the change include the potential use of cannabis as a neuroprotectant, its use for pain relief as an opioid alternative, and the hypocrisy of the league promoting the use of alcohol."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Cannabis and sports:32",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cannabis and sports",
          "Individual sports",
          "Golf"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2019, Robert Garrigus became the first professional golfer suspended for testing positive for cannabis. He has openly criticized the PGA Tour's cannabis policy. In October 2019, Matt Every was suspended for the same reason. In 2020, \"The New York Times\" said PGA Tour and Champions Tour players \"have become more vocal about using CBD to treat their ailments since the compound was removed from banned substances list in 2018\"."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2019, Robert Garrigus became the first professional golfer suspended for testing positive for cannabis. He has openly criticized the PGA Tour's cannabis policy. In October 2019, Matt Every was suspended for the same reason. In 2020, \"The New York Times\" said PGA Tour and Champions Tour players \"have become more vocal about using CBD to treat their ailments since the compound was removed from banned substances list in 2018\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "The National Basketball Association (NBA) suspended random drug testing for cannabis during the COVID-19 pandemic, initially instituting the policy during the 2020 NBA Bubble and then extending it through the 2020\u201321 and 2021\u201322 NBA seasons. Commissioner Adam Silver stated: \"We decided that, given all the things that were happening in society, given all the pressures and stress that players were under, that we didn't need to act as Big Brother right now.\" Previously Silver had stated that he was \"very interested in the science when it comes to medical marijuana\" and that he does not see cannabis use as an ethical or moral issue. He also noted in 2018 that multiple players have told him that cannabis helps them deal with their anxiety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2018, running back Mike James petitioned the NFL for a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) to the league's ban on cannabis use. James cited a previous addiction to opioid drugs and argued that he should be allowed to use cannabis for pain relief instead. The petition was subsequently denied."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2017, NBA player Al Harrington conducted an interview with former commissioner David Stern regarding the topic of cannabis use by players. Stern told Harrington during the interview: \"I'm now at the point where personally I think [cannabis] probably should be removed from the banned list. You've persuaded me.\" NBA head coach Steve Kerr has also expressed support for allowing the use of cannabis in professional sports."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In July 2021, the Nevada State Athletic Commission voted to stop punishing fighters for cannabis use. UFC fighter Nick Diaz received a five year suspension from the commission in 2015 for repeat cannabis violations, though the suspension was later reduced to a year and a half."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "The use of cannabis by athletes has been banned by many sports commissions. However, some have relaxed their policies as societal attitudes towards its use have shifted. The prohibition \"is one of the most controversial issues in anti-doping\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "According to a 2013 article by \"The Denver Post\", the National Hockey League (NHL) was alone among the big four North American professional sports leagues (NFL, NBA, MLB, and NHL) in not punishing players for cannabis use. Though cannabis was still tested for according to the article, a positive test could only result in a referral for treatment by the players union or a possible punishment \"in house\" by individual teams. The policy was first instituted in 1996 according to NHL deputy commissioner Bill Daly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA), cannabis is reported to be a banned substance that the league tests and penalizes players for. WNBA player Sue Bird has served as an \"athlete ambassador\" for a cannabidiol (CBD) startup company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In May 2021, the Florida State Boxing Commission announced that it would stop testing fighters for cannabis use, based on the recommendation of the Association of Boxing Commissions medical advisory committee and following the lead of the new policy announced by UFC and USADA earlier in the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Calls for eliminating cannabis testing have come from the perspective of better pain management and reducing usage of opioids. Athletes such as Eugene Monroe and Derrick Morgan have called for further investigation into its potential for treating and preventing concussions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2016, Eugene Monroe and Derrick Morgan became the first active NFL players to publicly challenge the league's policy of suspending players for cannabis use. A number of retired players have also advocated for the change, including Jim McMahon, Jake Plummer, Kyle Turley, Nate Jackson, Eben Britton, Leonard Marshall, Marvin Washington, Todd Herremans, Boo Williams, and Ricky Williams. In 2016, several of these active and retired players signed a letter penned by Doctors for Cannabis Regulation requesting that the NFL change its policy regarding cannabis. Reasons that have been cited in advocating for the change include the potential use of cannabis as a neuroprotectant, its use for pain relief as an opioid alternative, and the hypocrisy of the league promoting the use of alcohol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "WADA's policy towards cannabis came under scrutiny in 2021 following the banning of U.S. track and field athlete Sha'Carri Richardson from the Tokyo Summer Olympics. The suspension was criticized by U.S. Representatives Barbara Lee, Earl Blumenauer, and 16 other members of Congress who wrote that the policy was \"outdated and restrictive\" and that the United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) and WADA should \"re-evaluate its criteria and decision to include cannabis, specifically tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) as a prohibited substance\". USADA wrote to Representatives Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez and Jamie Raskin agreeing that \"Ms. Richardson's exclusion from the Tokyo Olympic Games is a heartbreaking situation and that the World Anti-Doping Agency's rules concerning marijuana must change\". It also noted that as a signatory to the World Anti-Doping Code, USADA has an obligation to enforce the rules regarding cannabis use, and that changing the rules might be problematic as the vast majority of countries still criminalize the drug. The Office of National Drug Control Policy stated that it would meet with WADA to \"gather additional information on its cannabis policies\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "The F\u00e9d\u00e9ration Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), the sanctioning body for global motorsport, including Formula One, has banned drivers for cannabis use. The FIA follows WADA protocol. As of 2021, cannabinoids are listed by WADA as prohibited in-competition, except CBD, which is specifically exempted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabidiol",
        "text": "Cannabidiol has been used by professional and amateur athletes across disciplines and countries, with the World Anti-Doping Agency removing CBD from its banned substances list. The United States Anti-Doping Agency and United Kingdom-Anti-Doping Agency do not have anti-CBD policies, with the latter stating that, \"CBD is not currently listed on the World Anti-Doping Agency Prohibited List. As a result, it is permitted to use in sport, though the intended benefits are unclear and not backed by clinical evidence. All other cannabinoids (including but not limited to cannabis, hashish, marijuana, and THC) are prohibited in-competition. The intention of the regulations is to prohibit cannabinoids that activate the same receptors in the brain as activated by THC.\" In 2019, the cannabis manufacturer, Canopy Growth, acquired majority ownership of BioSteel Sports Nutrition, which is developing CBD products under endorsement by numerous professional athletes. The National Hockey League Alumni Association began a project with Canopy Growth to determine if CBD or other cannabis products might improve neurological symptoms and quality of life in head-injured players. Numerous professional athletes use CBD, primarily for treating pain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "USA Track & Field (USATF) said \"the merit of the World Anti-Doping Agency rules related to THC should be reevaluated\" after the ban of Sha'Carri Richardson from the 2020 Summer Olympics (held in 2021). The U.S. White House spokesperson, Jen Psaki concurred, saying \"maybe we should take another look at\" the rules for athletes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "There is no scientific consensus regarding the performance-enhancing effects of cannabis, with one 2018 paper reporting \"there is no evidence for cannabis use as a performance-enhancing drug\". Other reasons cited for banning its use include an increased risk of injury in-competition and the view that users of cannabis are not good role models."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Testing for cannabis by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) began when it instituted a comprehensive drug testing program in 1986. Initially a 15\u00a0ng/mL threshold was established and any positive test resulted in a full-season suspension. In 2013 the threshold was lowered to 5\u00a0ng/mL while the penalty was relaxed to a half-season suspension. The threshold was then raised to 15\u00a0ng/mL in 2017, 35\u00a0ng/mL in 2019, and 150\u00a0ng/mL in 2022. Also in 2022 the NCAA Committee on Competitive Safeguards and Medical Aspects of Sports (CSMAS) recommended a relaxed penalty structure for divisions to adopt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "NHL players Riley Cote and Darren McCarty have been outspoken regarding their personal experience using cannabis and the medical benefits it has provided them. Cote co-founded an organization called Athletes for Care which advocates for athletes on issues of health and safety including the use of cannabis as medicine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In September 2021, WADA announced that it would conduct a review to determine whether cannabis should remain on the list of prohibited substances. A press release stated: \"Following receipt of requests from a number of stakeholders, the [Executive Committee] endorsed the decision of the List Expert Advisory Group to initiate in 2022 a scientific review of the status of cannabis. Cannabis is currently prohibited in competition and will continue to be in 2022.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "A gold medal in men's snowboarding was temporarily rescinded at the 1998 Winter Olympics after Canadian Ross Rebagliati tested positive for cannabis use. A drug test showed that he had 17.8\u00a0ng/mL of THC metabolite in his system, slightly higher than the 15\u00a0ng/mL threshold used by the International Ski Federation. The IOC executive board voted 3\u20132 to disqualify him from competition on February 11, 1998, which the Canadian Olympic Association immediately appealed. Rebagliati maintained his innocence and said that he had tested positive due to exposure to secondhand smoke. On February 13 an appeals court ruled in Rebagliati's favor, due to the fact that cannabis had not been officially banned by the IOC yet (it was banned shortly thereafter in April) and therefore the IOC had no authority to strip the medal. No charges were filed against Rebagliati after he was questioned by Japanese police for seven hours regarding the matter. He was put on the No Fly List and banned from entering the United States, however, which prevented him from participating in future competitions such as the X Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Cannabis was on the list of drugs of abuse until the 2019\u20132020 offseason, when THC and CBD were removed. Players will still be tested for synthetic cannabinoids, and are still subject to disciplinary action if they are caught using cannabis, for possession, or driving under the influence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eugene Monroe",
        "text": "Monroe has been an outspoken advocate for removing cannabis from the list of banned substances in the NFL. Monroe has pointed to the heavy use of addictive opioid drugs in the league and says players should not be punished for choosing a safer alternative that could help them better manage their pain. Monroe has also cited the neuroprotective properties of cannabis that could help treat and prevent the serious brain injuries and diseases that are well-documented among NFL players. Monroe has contributed funding to medical cannabis research and started a website to promote his views. He has also penned a personal essay on the subject."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eben Britton",
        "text": "Britton is an advocate for removing cannabis from the list of banned substances in the NFL. Britton says he used cannabis as a preferred method of pain management during his football career, and has cited the health risks associated with pharmaceutical painkillers as a reason why players should not be punished for choosing a natural alternative. Britton is a member of the Gridiron Cannabis Coalition, a group that advocates for the NFL to change its policy on cannabis. He is also a member of the Doctors for Cannabis Regulation NFL steering committee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In March 2020, the National Football League (NFL) changed its policy regarding cannabis after signing a new collective bargaining agreement with the National Football League Players Association (NFLPA). The agreement stipulated that positive tests would no longer result in a suspension and that players would only be suspended for missing multiple tests or refusing treatment. It also shortened the timeframe for which players would be tested from four months to two weeks, and raised the threshold for a positive test from 35\u00a0ng/mL of THC metabolite to 150 (prior to 2014 the threshold was set at 15). Running back Ricky Williams is among the players that have been suspended under the league's old policy, failing multiple tests that led him to miss the entire 2004 and 2006 seasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Dunn (runner)",
        "text": "Dunn also promotes the use of cannabis for athletes, believing the stigma historically attached to cannabis users is unfounded.\u00a0 He knows from personal experience that CBD, in particular, is vital in relieving both mental stress and physical pain after training and competitive events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2011, an American national team diver was suspended for a year after testing positive for cannabis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "A medical review found that \"cannabis consumption was found to be highest among athletes seeking the high risk and excitement of competing in extreme sports\", listing skateboarding as a specific example. The first cannabis related suspension for skateboarding occurred in 2019, of a competitor in run-ups to the 2020 Summer Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2017, former New York Jets defensive end Marvin Washington was part of a lawsuit filed against Attorney General Jeff Sessions, challenging the classification of cannabis as a Schedule I drug and citing the racist origins of cannabis laws as a reason why its prohibition is unconstitutional. Following the lawsuit's dismissal, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to take up the case in October 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "A pamphlet produced by the United States Department of Justice in the 1990s for youth sports coaches admonished them to \"Explain that marijuana is illegal and that the athlete can be arrested or suspended from school and sports for using it\", and listed several deleterious physical and psychological effects of marijuana including \"decreased stamina, weight gain, and reduced muscle strength.. . [l]aziness, lack of motivation, loss of control, and poor decisionmaking\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) player Megan Rapinoe has served as an \"athlete ambassador\" for a CBD startup company. Scottish club Hamilton Academical attracted attention in 2018 when they were sponsored by a local company which also involved the renaming of their ground as the \"Hope CBD Stadium\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Following the 1998 Tour de France doping scandal, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) convened the First World Conference on Doping in Lausanne, Switzerland, in February 1999. From this conference the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) was formed in November 1999 to \"lead a collaborative worldwide movement for doping-free sport\" through activities such as \"scientific research, education, and development of anti-doping capacities\". In 2004, WADA published the World Anti-Doping Code and included cannabis among the substances prohibited by the code. As of 2021, there are more than 700 sports organization that adhere to the code; these include the International Olympic Committee, International Paralympic Committee, national anti-doping agencies, and various professional sports leagues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medical cannabis in the United States",
        "text": "Eugene Monroe, Derrick Morgan, Kyle Turley, and Jim McMahon are among a group of NFL players that have advocated for allowing the use of cannabis in the league, as a treatment option for concussions and a pain reliever that can reduce reliance on addictive opioid drugs. NBA head coach Steve Kerr has also voiced support for the medical use of cannabis in professional sports."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In January 2021, the United States Anti-Doping Agency and Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) announced a change to the drug testing that USADA conducts for the UFC. Under the new policy, fighters will no longer be punished for cannabis use except in cases where \"further evidence demonstrates the substance was taken for performance-enhancing purposes such as alleviating pain or anxiety\". Jeff Novitzky, senior vice president of athlete health and performance for the UFC, said clear signs of intoxication would need to be present such as \"bloodshot eyes, they smell like marijuana, they're slurring or a far-off gaze\". Prior to the change a 180 ng/mL threshold was set in place but it was determined that this could not be definitively said to indicate intoxication. The change had no effect on the fact that the testing policies of state agencies such as the Nevada State Athletic Commission still apply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In January 2020, MMA fighter Elias Theodorou became the first North American athlete to receive a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) for the use of cannabis, granted by the British Columbia Athletic Commission. In May 2021 he received the first such exemption in the U.S., granted by the Colorado Combative Sports Commission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctors for Cannabis Regulation",
        "text": "As part of its initiative to change cannabis policy in the National Football League, DFCR working in conjunction with former NFL running back Mike James filed the first therapeutic use exemption with the league in May 2018, though it was ultimately denied. In April 2020 the NFL changed its policy regarding cannabis after signing a new collective bargaining agreement with the National Football League Players Association, decreasing but not eliminating penalties for players."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 1999, the England national rugby union team captain Lawrence Dallaglio was investigated by the Rugby Football Union over claims he had smoked cannabis whilst on a rugby tour as well as dealing drugs. He was later stripped of the captaincy as a result."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "WADA relaxed its policy towards cannabis in 2013, increasing from 15\u00a0ng/mL to 150\u00a0ng/mL the level of THC metabolite allowed in urine before an athlete is considered to have failed a drug test. Said WADA Director of Communications Julie Masse: \"We wanted to focus on the athletes that abuse the substance in competition. This should exclude cases where marijuana is not used in competition.\" The 150\u00a0ng/mL threshold also allows for a 180\u00a0ng/mL \"Decision Limit\" to be used to account for any uncertainties in measurement above a certain level of confidence. According to WADA statistics, the percentage of failed drug tests for cannabis use dropped from 9.0% in 2012 to 2.4% in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Al Harrington",
        "text": "In October 2017, Harrington interviewed former NBA commissioner David Stern regarding cannabis use by players. Stern told Harrington during the interview: \"I'm now at the point where personally I think [cannabis] probably should be removed from the banned list. You've persuaded me.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sha'Carri Richardson",
        "text": "Richardson stated that she took the drug to cope with the pressure of qualifying for the Olympics while mourning the recent death of her biological mother. Her suspension was criticized by many individuals and organizations in favor of liberalizing cannabis policies, including NORML, members of the Congressional Cannabis Caucus, and other members of Congress. U.S. President Joe Biden also suggested that drug testing rules governing athletes could be changed. USADA responded to the criticism by pointing out that as a signatory to the World Anti-Doping Code, it has an obligation to enforce it in the United States. Furthermore, they stated that changing those rules might be problematic, as the vast majority of world\u2019s nation states consider consuming marijuana a criminal offense. In response to the controversy, in September 2021, the World Anti-Doping Agency announced that it would conduct a review regarding the prohibited status of cannabis. Cannabis has remained a prohibited drug for Olympic athletes since 1999, though in 2013 the World Anti-Doping Agency increased the level of THC metabolite allowed from 15\u00a0ng/mL to 150\u00a0ng/mL."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nate Jackson",
        "text": "Jackson has called on the NFL to remove cannabis from its list of banned substances, citing the pain-relieving capabilities of the drug as well as its neuroprotective properties. During his NFL career Jackson used cannabis as a preferred alternative to opioid painkillers which he sought to avoid as much as possible. Jackson has spoken out on the NFL's policy towards cannabis in various media, including the \"New York Times\" opinion page, \"CBS This Morning\", and an episode of HBO's \"Real Sports\" examining cannabis use in the NFL."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "During the early 2000s, former Dallas Cowboys center Mark Stepnoski served as president of the Texas chapter of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws. His activism caused his high school alma mater, Cathedral Preparatory School, to cancel his induction into the school's athletic hall of fame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Cannabis and sports\n--World Anti-Doping Agency.\n--College and youth sports.\n--Individual sports.\n----American football.\n----Association football.\n----Baseball.\n----Basketball.\n----Cricket.\n----Diving.\n----Golf.\n----Hockey.\n----Mixed martial arts.\n----Motorsport.\n----Rugby football.\n----Skateboarding.\n----Snowboarding.\n----Sumo.\n----Swimming.\n----Track and field.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim McMahon",
        "text": "McMahon uses cannabis to treat the chronic pain and arthritis that he suffers from as a result of his football career. He calls cannabis a \"godsend\" that allowed him to eliminate his painkiller habit which he says included 100 Percocet pills a month. McMahon has been active in speaking about his experience using cannabis, serving as spokesperson for the Cannabis Sports Policy Project and a member of the Gridiron Cannabis Coalition along with several other former NFL players. McMahon appeared in a TV ad supporting cannabis legalization in the state of Arizona."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2017, NASCAR ordered a team to remove a sponsorship decal for a cannabis company. As of the 2021 season, NASCAR allows sponsorship from CBD companies on the condition that advertised products contain less than .3% THC. The first CBD-sponsored NASCAR event was held in 2021, the Pocono Organics CBD 325 at Pocono Raceway."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2019, \"High Times\" published tips for \"toking up and teeing off\". \"Golf Magazine\" published \"5 reasons why a golfer could benefit from using CBD\" in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2016, the NFL announced the formation of a committee to study issues of pain management among players, including the use of cannabis as medicine. In June 2021, the NFL announced that it would award $1 million in funding for such research. In February 2022 the NFL announced the awarding of two grants for cannabis research, one of which would additionally investigate its benefits in treating concussions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elias Theodorou",
        "text": "Theodorou is a proud medical cannabis activist and received a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) from the British Columbia Athletic Commission in January 2020, making him the first professional athlete in North America to be sanctioned to utilize cannabis in-sport. In May 2021 he received a second such exemption from the Colorado Combative Sports Commission, making him the first professional athlete to receive a TUE in the United States. Theodorou uses cannabis to treat the pain and discomfort from bilateral neuropathy, a nerve condition resulting from an accident that broke his hand in two places and fractured it in four."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "David Murray, who played cricket in the 1970s, said after his career that he used cannabis \"before and after the day's play, but never in the breaks \u2013 you can't do that\". Ian Botham was suspended for 63 days by the England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB) in 1986 after he admitted in an interview that he had smoked cannabis. Wasim Akram, Waqar Younis, Aqib Javed, and Mushtaq Ahmed of the Pakistani national cricket team were arrested in Grenada in April 1993 for possession of cannabis. In 1995, Stephen Fleming was caught and admitted to smoking with teammates Matthew Hart and Dion Nash while on tour at their hotel. They were suspended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "While touring New Zealand in 1996\u20131997, a restaurant in Christchurch accused Phil Tufnell of smoking cannabis in their bathroom. As the restaurant had a reputation for making up stories about celebrities, the English team's management agreed with Tufnell's denials. Paul Smith retired in 1997 and acknowledged using cannabis; despite his retirement, the ECB suspended him for 22 months. In 2001, five South African players, Roger Telemachus, Andr\u00e9 Nel, Paul Adams, Justin Kemp, and Herschelle Gibbs, were caught smoking it at a party. They were fined R10,000. Dermot Reeve revealed that he was addicted to cocaine in 2005, and also acknowledged that he had used cannabis during the 1990s while he was an active player, but said that he never used it during the cricket season. In May 2005, Keith Piper of the Warwickshire County Cricket Club was suspended for the remainder of the season for cannabis. Also in 2005, an Australian cricket team from Inverloch provided chocolate cupcakes to a team from Nerrina and did not inform them that they contained cannabis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gary Havelock",
        "text": "Havelock was banned for the entire 1989 season after he tested positive for cannabis at the British League Riders' Championship meeting in 1988."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike James (American football)",
        "text": "James is an advocate for the medical use of cannabis, which he says can help reduce addiction to opioids among NFL players. James says cannabis helped him overcome his own painkiller addiction while recovering from a severe ankle injury sustained in 2013. In 2018, after failing a drug test the previous year, James filed a therapeutic use exemption (TUE) with the NFL to allow him to use cannabis. The petition was later denied, but James' attorney said that discussion with league officials was ongoing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In July 2019, UFC announced a partnership with Aurora Cannabis to conduct research on the effectiveness of CBD in areas of wound care, recovery, pain, and inflammation, using UFC fighters as test subjects. In 2020 it was announced that the partnership had been terminated, however."
      },
      {
        "title": "NCAA banned substances",
        "text": "Marijuana, also known as cannabis, is a euphoriant and hallucinogenic drug prepared from the dried leaves of the strong-smelling plant \"Cannabis sativa\". Marijuana is a commonly used drug, legal in many states."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "The NCAA conducts cannabis testing for bowl and championship games, while performance-enhancing drugs are tested for more frequently through a year-round testing program. Many schools also conduct testing in addition to the testing that the NCAA conducts. A 2015 investigation by the Associated Press found that 23 of 57 schools analyzed had reduced penalties for cannabis use since 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In July 2021, second division wrestler Takagenji was announced to have failed a test for cannabis. An investigation found that Takagenji, who was already on a warning for an unrelated prior matter, had smoked cannabis on at eight occasions, and he was dismissed by the JSA on July 30."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "A 2014 medical review found that almost 28% of college athletes in the United States self reported using cannabis in the past year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Craig Trindall",
        "text": "In 2006, The National Rugby League's Anti-Doping tribunal imposed a 12-week suspended sentence on Craig Trindall for cannabis use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2018, Coleman Bentley of \"Golf Digest\" investigated the effects of cannabis on golfers and summarized:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "NBA players that have advocated for the legalization of cannabis include Harrington, Cliff Robinson, and Oscar Robertson. Harrington appeared in a video ad to endorse California's Proposition 64 in 2016. Robertson appeared in a TV ad endorsing an Ohio ballot measure to legalize cannabis in 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franz Stauder",
        "text": "In 2007, he tested positive for a metabolite of cannabis, from a sample given during qualifying in Halle. The International Tennis Federation ruled that Stauder had \"no intent\" to \"enhance his sporting performance\" through taking the drug. As a result, discretion was exercised and he received only a two-month suspension, as well as forfeiting relevant ranking points and prize money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Velter",
        "text": "Velter tested positive for cannabis in 2006 and was subsequently handed a 3-month ban from sports. In 2011 he tested positive for cannabis again, and as it was his second anti-doping rule violation he received a 21-month ban."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ross Rebagliati",
        "text": "Two months after the drug testing incident, in April 1998, the IOC officially banned cannabis use. \"The New York Times\" dubbed the decision \"the Ross Rebagliati Rule\". In 2013 the THC metabolite limit for Olympic athletes was raised to 150 ng/mL, so as to only detect current intoxication."
      },
      {
        "title": "Todd Herremans",
        "text": "Herremans is an advocate for the medical use of cannabis, which he says can help reduce addiction to opioids among NFL players. Herremans says he found cannabis to be an effective pain reliever while playing in the NFL, prior to failing a drug test and discontinuing its use during his second season. Herremans is a member of Athletes for Care, a group that advocates for athletes on various issues of health and safety including the use of cannabis as medicine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ross Rebagliati",
        "text": "Rebagliati stated in a 2015 interview that he believes cannabis is a performance-enhancing drug, as it \"puts you in the moment\" and \"you get in a zone where you can give it a 110%\". He has touted the benefits of CBD in particular, noting its anti-inflammatory properties and that it \"has a calming effect reducing stress and anxiety which are two more realities of being an athlete\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steve Berke",
        "text": "Off the show, Berke tried to return to the tennis tour with drug prescriptions and spinal injections, but experienced side effects that made him turn to marijuana as a pain reliever and obtain a license from California to smoke medical cannabis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim McMahon",
        "text": "In November 2016, McMahon was among the signatories of an open letter addressed to the NFL, urging a change in the league's policy towards cannabis. The letter was penned by Doctors for Cannabis Regulation and signed by several other NFL players. McMahon is also a member of the Doctors for Cannabis Regulation NFL steering committee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordan Reed",
        "text": "Reed says cannabis helped him deal with pain during his football career, and that he is pursuing business opportunities in the cannabis industry following his retirement from football. He further explained his decision in a USA Today op-ed, stating: \"I want to broker change in how cannabis is perceived, how it's prescribed, how it's researched, how it's accessed, and how it can bring about lasting change for Americans from all walks of life\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Removal of cannabis from Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act",
        "text": "The Controlled Substances Act also provides for a rulemaking process by which the United States Attorney General can reschedule cannabis administratively. These proceedings represent the only means of legalizing medical cannabis without an act of Congress. Rescheduling supporters have often cited the lengthy petition review process as a reason why cannabis is still illegal. The first petition took 22 years to review, the second took 7 years, the third was denied 9 years later. A 2013 petition by two state governors is still pending."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cedar Rapids Silver Bullets",
        "text": "Lewis Lloyd, who was banned from playing in the National Basketball Association (NBA) due to a violation of their drug policy, sought a court injunction in 1988 to allow him to play in the CBA after his contract with the Cedar Rapids Silver Bullets was rejected by CBA commissioner Jay Ramsdell. Lloyd had been participating in the league's rehabilitation program and qualified for reinstatement on March 19. 1989, but through his lawyer challenged the legality of the CBA's drug policy. On December 21, 1988 Linn County, Iowa District Judge William Thomas ruled that the CBA had a right to bar players who had a history of drug use. Ramsdell testified at the hearing that the CBA did not test for cannabis during their drug screenings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ross Rebagliati",
        "text": "In January 2018, Ross and his business partner Patrick Smyth founded Legacy Brands by Ross Rebagliati, which promotes healthy living and finding that athlete in us all through everyday family-friendly products. Focusing on CBD products, Ross stated: \"Canadians are opening up more and more to cannabis, and many older people are really understanding as to the benefits of CBD; which is used to treat medical conditions like epilepsy. It is gaining favor among athletes and the public alike. Unlike other extracts, CBD is not psychoactive and is used for sleep regulation, inflammation, and anxiety. We are excited. We feel the rest of the country will adopt a healthy use of cannabis in the coming years.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Riley Cote",
        "text": "During his time in the NHL, Cote used cannabis as a natural pain-reliever and alternative to addictive pharmaceutical drugs. After retiring, Cote co-founded Athletes for Care, a group that advocates for athletes on issues of health and safety including the use of cannabis as medicine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kyle Turley",
        "text": "Turley uses cannabis to treat the neurological issues that he suffers from post-NFL career. He credits cannabis with greatly improving his quality of life and even saving his life, after previously relying on numerous prescription medications with side effects that he says almost drove him to suicide. Turley completely eliminated his use of pharmaceuticals \u2013 including psychiatric and pain-killing drugs \u2013 beginning in early 2015 when he went cold turkey and switched to cannabis only. He has been active in speaking about his personal experience using cannabis, and in 2015 founded the Gridiron Cannabis Coalition to help advance policy change regarding the use of cannabis in professional sports. The organization is also involved with medical cannabis research, commencing a study in 2016 to examine the effectiveness of cannabis in treating chronic pain and depression."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jaron Johnson",
        "text": "On May 15, 2017, it was revealed by the Australian Sports Anti-Doping Authority (ASADA) that Johnson was sanctioned for a breach of the WADA Anti-Doping Code after testing positive for cannabis. He was tested as part of regular in-competition testing while with the Perth Wildcats after a game against the New Zealand Breakers in November 2016. As a result, Johnson was deemed ineligible to participate in any WADA sanctioned sport from March 24 to June 24, 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derrick Morgan (American football)",
        "text": "Morgan has spoken publicly about the medicinal properties of cannabis that he believes could benefit NFL players, particularly in treating and preventing the serious brain injuries and diseases that have afflicted many players. Morgan has called on the NFL to conduct research on the neuroprotective benefits of cannabis, as part of the league's stated commitment to making player health and safety issues a top priority. Morgan has also donated money to help fund medical cannabis research."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "NBA players that are entrepreneurs in the cannabis industry or that have entered into business partnerships include Kevin Durant, Allen Iverson, Al Harrington, Shawn Kemp, Cliff Robinson, Larry Hughes, Chris Webber, Isiah Thomas, Ben Wallace, Dwyane Wade, Carmelo Anthony, John Wall, John Salley, and Paul Pierce. Iverson announced a partnership with Harrington's company Viola Brands in 2021. In addition to collaborating on various business initiatives, the pair announced they would engage in educational efforts to reduce the stigma surrounding cannabis use. Durant announced a separate partnership in 2021 with the company Weedmaps to \"deconstruct the negative stereotypes associated with cannabis while elevating the conversation around the plant's potential for athlete wellness and recovery\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eben Britton",
        "text": "Britton revealed in a September 2016 interview with the \"New York Post\" that he used cannabis before three of the NFL games he played in. Britton says that in addition to relieving the pain of his injuries, cannabis also improved his mental concentration on the football field, and that the games he played after using were some of his best performances. Britton also estimated that over 50 percent of current players use cannabis and that the number could be as high as 75 percent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pete Sessions",
        "text": "Sessions opposed allowing states to determine their own policies regarding the legality of cannabis and the regulation of legal cannabis markets. As chair of the House Rules Committee, he repeatedly stifled proposed amendments relaxing federal laws against cannabis, including one that would have allowed medical marijuana access to veterans in states where the drug is legal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leonard Marshall",
        "text": "Marshall has spoken publicly in support of cannabis as an effective treatment option for mitigating the symptoms of head trauma-related health issues. He also says it can serve as a safer alternative to the pain-relieving opioid drugs that many NFL players become addicted to. Marshall has stated that the NFL should make allowances for the use of cannabis products as a medical treatment for players."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dion Nash",
        "text": "On the 1995 tour to South Africa, Nash was suspended for smoking cannabis along with future captain Stephen Fleming and team-mate Matthew Hart."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tim Pickett",
        "text": "After five games he was suspended for doping (cannabis), but on September 2006 returned to Rimini after the disqualification."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nate Diaz",
        "text": "At the UFC 202 post-fight press conference, Diaz violated the USADA rule by smoking CBD, Cannabidiol, vape pen within four hours after a fight. He was not sanctioned as CBD is not considered a PED. USADA changed their rules and lifted CBD from the banned list not long after."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nevada State Athletic Commission",
        "text": "On September 14, 2015, UFC Fighter Nick Diaz was suspended for 5 years and fined $165,000. The commission relied on a single positive cannabinoid urinalysis result, out of three tests taken within a few hours of each other. Of the tests, the two returning negative results were the only two conducted by a WADA approved lab. Diaz, a medical marijuana patient, has since received widespread support from the MMA community; fans and fighters alike. The vast majority of reactions have condemned the commission, looking at a number of factors including: the drug-testing process, the ignoring of the evidence by the commission and the overly harsh, arguably personally-motivated punishment levied. Nick Diaz and his lawyers plan to appeal the decision via Judicial Review."
      },
      {
        "title": "Removal of cannabis from Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act",
        "text": "In May 2017, following a resolution adopted at the 2016 annual convention to support cannabis to treat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), the American Legion petitioned the White House for a meeting to discuss rescheduling or descheduling cannabis and allowing it to be used medically."
      },
      {
        "title": "XFL (2020)",
        "text": "The XFL discourages political gestures by players during games such as, for example, taking a knee in protest. McMahon also planned to forbid any player with a criminal record from participating. Commissioner Oliver Luck later walked back the latter decision, noting that the policy had not yet been finalized, and stated in April 2019 that it would allow its teams to sign Johnny Manziel, who was convicted of domestic violence in 2016. Manziel nonetheless was excluded from the inaugural draft and player allocations, with the league later stating that it had \"no interest\" in him. Felony convictions are still a disqualification. McMahon justified his intentions by stating that the XFL would be \"evaluating a player based on many things, including the quality of human being they are\", and that \"people don't want social and political issues coming into play when they are trying to be entertained\". He suggested that players who wish to express political opinions should do so on their time. Luck stated in October 2018 that the ban on protesting during the national anthem would be written into player contracts as a condition of employment and that the stipulation was McMahon's idea; Luck agreed that the league aimed to be as non-political as possible. Players are not barred from using cannabis, as the league will not test for the drug."
      },
      {
        "title": "Removal of cannabis from Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act",
        "text": "On December 17, 2009, Rev. Bryan A. Krumm, CNP, filed a rescheduling petition for Cannabis with the DEA arguing that \"because marijuana does not have the abuse potential for placement in Schedule I of the CSA, and because marijuana now has accepted medical use in 13 states, and because the DEA's own Administrative Law Judge has already determined that marijuana is safe for use under medical supervision, the federal definition for a schedule I controlled substance, 21 U.S.C. \u00a7 812(b)(1)(A)-(C), no longer applies to marijuana and federal law must be amended to reflect these changes.\" Krumm demanded an expedited ruling in order to protect his health and welfare, as well as that of all citizens of United States who may benefit from this safe and effective medication."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Major League Baseball (MLB) began testing players in Minor League Baseball (MiLB) for performance-enhancing substances and drugs of abuse in 2001. Testing for MLB players began in 2003 after MLB and the MLB Players Association agreed to it through collective bargaining. However, MLB players were only tested for cannabis if there was \"reasonable cause\" to do so, or if it was mandated by a drug treatment program."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Beginning in August 2008, a cannabis scandal resulted in four \"sekitori\" ranked sumo wrestlers, Wakanoh\u014d, Roh\u014d, Hakurozan and Wakakirin, being dismissed from professional sumo, and the chairman of the Japan Sumo Association (JSA), Kitanoumi Toshimitsu, resigned his post. It was the first case in which active wrestlers have been dismissed from sumo. After that, the JSA added rules that any retirement package for dismissed members would be reduced or denied, and that those who use illegal drugs would be dismissed without benefits. According to \"The Japan Times\", it was the largest sports scandal of drugs that Japan had ever seen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lars Arvid Nilsen",
        "text": "Nilsen was tested for and found to be using banned substances in 1987 and 1992, which led to a lifetime ban from organized sports. In 2004 he was pardoned and is free to participate in organized sports and competitions in any other sports than shot put. He may not participate in competitions which qualify for national or international championships."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Irving (American football)",
        "text": "Following his indefinite suspension from the NFL in March 2019, Irving became an activist for cannabis. He opened a cannabis business with a focus on CBD-related products. Irving co-founded his own cannabis advocacy magazine called Cannabis Passport with John Scannell who originally invented the Worlds First Rolling paper magazine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Removal of cannabis from Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act",
        "text": "The challengers, Super Bowl champion Marvin Washington; Dean Bortell (parent of underage medical cannabis patient Alexis Bortell); U.S. Army veteran Jos\u00e9 Bel\u00e9n; Sebastien Cotte (parent of underage medical cannabis patient Jagger Cotte); and the Cannabis Cultural Association, originally sued the U.S. federal government, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) and its administrator, and then Attorney General Jeff Sessions, back in 2017. They argued that cannabis\u2019 Schedule I status under the Controlled Substances Act (CSA) represented a risk to patients\u2019 health and perpetuated economic inequities in the U.S."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jason C. Gallion",
        "text": "Gallion opposes legalizing recreational marijuana, preferring to wait and see what comes from states like Colorado as test cases. However, he has expressed interest in looking into how farmers could get involved in industrial hemp for medicinal use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tom Corbett",
        "text": "Corbett is against both the decriminalization of cannabis for recreational use and the legalization of medical cannabis. He believes cannabis to be a \"gateway drug that creates all of the drug problems we see in the United States.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicholas Delpopolo",
        "text": "On August 6, 2012, Delpopolo was expelled from the Olympics by the IOC after he tested positive for cannabis. Upon exiting the games, Delpopolo stated the positive test result was caused by \"inadvertent consumption of food that I did not realize had been baked with marijuana, before I left for the Olympic Games.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Legalization of non-medical cannabis in the United States",
        "text": "At the federal level, cannabis remains prohibited for any use under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970. The Justice Department has generally not enforced federal law in states that have legalized recreational cannabis, however. In December 2020, a bill to remove cannabis from the Controlled Substances Act was passed by the U.S. House but was not voted on by the Senate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Removal of cannabis from Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act",
        "text": "In the summer of 1986, the DEA administrator initiated public hearings on cannabis rescheduling. The hearings lasted two years, involving many witnesses and thousands of pages of documentation. On September 6, 1988, DEA Chief Administrative Law Judge Francis L. Young ruled that cannabis did not meet the legal criteria of a Schedule I prohibited drug and should be reclassified. He declared that cannabis in its natural form is \"one of the safest therapeutically active substances known to man. (T)he provisions of the (Controlled Substances) Act permit and require the transfer of marijuana from Schedule I to Schedule II\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Removal of cannabis from Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act",
        "text": "Then-DEA Administrator John Lawn overruled Young's determination. Lawn said he decided against rescheduling cannabis based on testimony and comments from numerous medical doctors who had conducted detailed research and were widely considered experts in their respective fields. Later Administrators agreed. \"Those who insist that marijuana has medical uses would serve society better by promoting or sponsoring more legitimate research,\" former DEA Administrator Robert Bonner opined in 1992. This statement was quoted by the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS) in its membership drives."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States Anti-Doping Agency",
        "text": "In January 2021, USADA announced that UFC fighters would no longer be punished for cannabis use except in extreme cases where clear signs of intoxication were present at the time of a fight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steve Knight (politician)",
        "text": "Knight had a \"C\" rating from NORML regarding his voting record on cannabis-related matters. Knight says he has never smoked marijuana. He believes that cannabis should be removed as a Schedule I drug and be reclassified as a Schedule 3 drug, due to its medicinal use. Knight believes legalization should be up to individual states, yet it should remain illegal federally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medical cannabis in the United States",
        "text": "The National Conference of State Legislatures, National League of Cities, and U.S. Conference of Mayors have all called for cannabis to be removed from the list of Schedule I drugs. The National Association of Counties has called on Congress to \"enact legislation that promotes the principles of federalism and local control of cannabis businesses ... under state law\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medical cannabis in the United States",
        "text": "At the federal level, cannabis remains a prohibited substance by way of the Controlled Substances Act of 1970. Under the CSA, the Drug Enforcement Administration classifies cannabis as a Schedule I drug, determined to have a high potential for abuse and no accepted medical use \u2013 thereby prohibiting its use for any purpose. The Justice Department has enforced this policy through various means, including criminal prosecutions, civil asset forfeiture, and paramilitary-style raids targeting medical cannabis providers, and various penalties threatened or initiated against other individuals involved in state-legal medical cannabis activities (doctors, landlords, state officials and employees). In December 2014, however, the Rohrabacher\u2013Farr amendment was signed into law, prohibiting the Justice Department from spending funds to interfere with the implementation of state medical cannabis laws."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some athletes that have called for further investigation into the benefits of cannabis?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Both Eugene Monroe and Derrick Morgan of the NFL have called for investigation into the benefits of cannabis for the treatment and prevention of concussions, while they and a number of other players have signed a letter requesting the NFL change its cannabis policies, citing its use a neuroprotectant and an opioid alternative. NHL players Riley Cote and Darren McCarty have also been outspoken about the medical benefits of cannabis, and The New York Times reported in 2020 that several members of the PGA Tour have become vocal about using CBD to treat ailments."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why was cannabis banned by many sport commissions?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "There is no scientific consensus regarding the performance-enhancing effects of cannabis, but other reasons cited for banning its use include an increased risk of injury in-competition and the view that users of cannabis are not good role models.",
      "Cannabis prohibition \"is one of the most controversial issues in anti-doping\" but reasons cited for banning its use include an increased risk of injury in-competition and the view that users of cannabis are not good role models. Calls for eliminating cannabis testing have come from the perspective of better pain management and reducing usage of opioids."
    ],
    "topic": "Cannabis and sports",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Cannabis and sports:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cannabis and sports"
        ],
        "ctx": "There is no scientific consensus regarding the performance-enhancing effects of cannabis, with one 2018 paper reporting \"there is no evidence for cannabis use as a performance-enhancing drug\". Other reasons cited for banning its use include an increased risk of injury in-competition and the view that users of cannabis are not good role models."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Cannabis and sports:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cannabis and sports"
        ],
        "ctx": "There is no scientific consensus regarding the performance-enhancing effects of cannabis, with one 2018 paper reporting \"there is no evidence for cannabis use as a performance-enhancing drug\". Other reasons cited for banning its use include an increased risk of injury in-competition and the view that users of cannabis are not good role models."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Cannabis and sports:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cannabis and sports"
        ],
        "ctx": "The use of cannabis by athletes has been banned by many sports commissions. However, some have relaxed their policies as societal attitudes towards its use have shifted. The prohibition \"is one of the most controversial issues in anti-doping\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Cannabis and sports:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cannabis and sports"
        ],
        "ctx": "Calls for eliminating cannabis testing have come from the perspective of better pain management and reducing usage of opioids. Athletes such as Eugene Monroe and Derrick Morgan have called for further investigation into its potential for treating and preventing concussions."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "There is no scientific consensus regarding the performance-enhancing effects of cannabis, with one 2018 paper reporting \"there is no evidence for cannabis use as a performance-enhancing drug\". Other reasons cited for banning its use include an increased risk of injury in-competition and the view that users of cannabis are not good role models."
      },
      {
        "title": "Effects of cannabis",
        "text": "A 2012 meta-analysis found that acute cannabis use increased the risk of an automobile crash. An extensive 2013 review of 66 studies regarding crash risk and drug use found that cannabis was associated with minor, but not statistically significant increased odds of injury or fatal accident."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "A medical review found that \"cannabis consumption was found to be highest among athletes seeking the high risk and excitement of competing in extreme sports\", listing skateboarding as a specific example. The first cannabis related suspension for skateboarding occurred in 2019, of a competitor in run-ups to the 2020 Summer Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Calls for eliminating cannabis testing have come from the perspective of better pain management and reducing usage of opioids. Athletes such as Eugene Monroe and Derrick Morgan have called for further investigation into its potential for treating and preventing concussions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis use and trauma",
        "text": "Individuals who have traumatic experiences have been found to have increased overall cannabis use and higher instances of cannabis use disorder (CUD), suggestive of problematic cannabis use. \u00a0For example, Veterans who identify as medicinal users have been shown to have a higher association with combat exposure, trauma related symptoms, and arousal when cued to situations, as well as overall cannabis use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "A pamphlet produced by the United States Department of Justice in the 1990s for youth sports coaches admonished them to \"Explain that marijuana is illegal and that the athlete can be arrested or suspended from school and sports for using it\", and listed several deleterious physical and psychological effects of marijuana including \"decreased stamina, weight gain, and reduced muscle strength.. . [l]aziness, lack of motivation, loss of control, and poor decisionmaking\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis use and trauma",
        "text": "Cannabis use and trauma is the contribution that trauma plays in promoting the use and potential abuse of cannabis. Conversely, cannabis use has been associated with the intensity of trauma and PTSD symptoms. While evidence of efficacious use of cannabis is growing in novelty, it is not currently recommended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lobes of the brain",
        "text": "Damage can result from lesions or tumors that have been surgically removed, and traumatic brain injuries (TBI) experienced from a severe hit to the head causing damage to the brain from swelling. Most often a TBI is experienced within a person\u2019s childhood from playing competitive sports or an accident from normal play. Having a traumatic brain injury can increase your chances of developing neurological psychiatric problems and abusing substances, such as cannabis, is known to be a risk factor in developing symptoms associated with schizophrenia (Jain, & Srivastava, 2017). Jain, & Srivastava, (2017) found that the schizophrenia symptoms (hearing voices, talking to people who were not there, etc.) worsened after the usage of cannabis, suggesting that a TBI from childhood can enhance a development of psychosis due to the changes seen in the white matter within the frontal-temporal areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis use and trauma",
        "text": "In women military veterans, a higher proportion of cannabis users who had experienced childhood and adult sexual trauma, had higher levels Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) diagnosis when compared to those with no drug use.\u00a0 \u00a0When controlling for PTSD symptoms and demographic factors, regular cannabis use was still significantly related to sexual trauma. For sexual minority women, have indicated higher cannabis use, coping motives, and post-traumatic stress symptoms than heterosexual women. This may suggest that for women, trauma symptoms may be more severe for those who belong to a minority status, and the necessity to cope is often met by increasing cannabis use. These findings corroborate the idea that increased cannabis use can also be driven by minority stress, which has also been related to increased trauma."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harm reduction",
        "text": "Specific harms associated with cannabis include increased accident-rate while driving under intoxication, dependence, psychosis, detrimental psychosocial outcomes for adolescents who use substances, and respiratory disease. Some safer cannabis usage campaigns including the UKCIA (United Kingdom Cannabis Internet Activists) encourage methods of consumption shown to cause less physical damage to a person's body, including oral (eating) consumption, vaporization, the usage of bongs which cool and to some extent filters the smoke, and smoking the cannabis without mixing it with tobacco."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roach (smoking)",
        "text": "In many poorer European countries it is common to add tobacco into a joint, as a means of preserving cannabis. There are several risks associated with this practice due to the increased exposure to toxic carcinogenic materials versus alternative methods of cannabis consumption such as edibles and vaporising. It is estimated that a single joint could cause as much damage as 2.5\u20135 cigarettes. The consumption of combusted properties of a substance will often form toxic and carcinogenic compounds. Researchers have noted that for cannabis \u201cthis include brain changes that are thought to impair cognitive functioning, particularly in adolescents\u201d."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medical cannabis research",
        "text": "There is no good evidence that cannabis use helps reduce the risk of getting cancer. Whether smoking cannabis increases cancer risk in general is difficult to establish since it is often smoked mixed with tobaccoa known carcinogenand this complicates research. Cannabis use is linked to an increased risk of a type of testicular cancer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spots (cannabis)",
        "text": "A 1998 joint submission by the Royal Society and the Academy of Medical Science on the recreational and medical use of marijuana expressed concern about the use and dissemination of the \"hot knives\" technique. The submission speculated that increasing use of methods of smoking that enable massive inhalation (and therefore higher intake of cannabinoids) may lead to an increase in incidents of short-term cannabis-related mental disturbance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medical cannabis",
        "text": "A 2007 meta analysis concluded that cannabis use reduced the average age of onset of psychosis by 2.7 years relative to non-cannabis use. A 2005 meta analysis concluded that adolescent use of cannabis increases the risk of psychosis, and that the risk is dose-related. A 2004 literature review on the subject concluded that cannabis use is associated with a two-fold increase in the risk of psychosis, but that cannabis use is \"neither necessary nor sufficient\" to cause psychosis. A French review from 2009 came to a conclusion that cannabis use, particularly that before age 15, was a factor in the development of schizophrenic disorders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2018, running back Mike James petitioned the NFL for a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) to the league's ban on cannabis use. James cited a previous addiction to opioid drugs and argued that he should be allowed to use cannabis for pain relief instead. The petition was subsequently denied."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In July 2021, the Nevada State Athletic Commission voted to stop punishing fighters for cannabis use. UFC fighter Nick Diaz received a five year suspension from the commission in 2015 for repeat cannabis violations, though the suspension was later reduced to a year and a half."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Dunn (runner)",
        "text": "Dunn also promotes the use of cannabis for athletes, believing the stigma historically attached to cannabis users is unfounded.\u00a0 He knows from personal experience that CBD, in particular, is vital in relieving both mental stress and physical pain after training and competitive events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Testing for cannabis by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) began when it instituted a comprehensive drug testing program in 1986. Initially a 15\u00a0ng/mL threshold was established and any positive test resulted in a full-season suspension. In 2013 the threshold was lowered to 5\u00a0ng/mL while the penalty was relaxed to a half-season suspension. The threshold was then raised to 15\u00a0ng/mL in 2017, 35\u00a0ng/mL in 2019, and 150\u00a0ng/mL in 2022. Also in 2022 the NCAA Committee on Competitive Safeguards and Medical Aspects of Sports (CSMAS) recommended a relaxed penalty structure for divisions to adopt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and impaired driving",
        "text": "An extensive 2013 review of 66 studies regarding crash risk and drug use found that cannabis was associated with minor, but not statistically significant increased odds of injury or fatal accident. The estimated fatal crash odds for cannabis (1.26) were lower than: opiates (1.68), antianxiety medications (2.30), zopiclone (sleep medicine) (2.60), cocaine (2.96), and amphetamines (5.17). The estimated injury odds for cannabis (1.10) were lower than: antihistamines (1.12), penicillin (1.12), antianxiety meds (1.17), antidepressants (1.35), antiasthmatics (1.31), zopiclone (sleep medicine) (1.42), cocaine (1.66), and opiates (1.91). The study concluded: \"By and large, the increase in the risk of accident involvement associated with the use of drugs must be regarded as modest...Compared to the huge increase in accident risk associated with alcohol, as well as the high accident rate among young drivers, the increases in risk associated with the use of drugs are surprisingly small.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Cannabis was on the list of drugs of abuse until the 2019\u20132020 offseason, when THC and CBD were removed. Players will still be tested for synthetic cannabinoids, and are still subject to disciplinary action if they are caught using cannabis, for possession, or driving under the influence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis (drug)",
        "text": "Legalization has increased the rates at which children are exposed to cannabis, particularly from edibles. Children are at risk for encephalopathy, hypotension, respiratory depression severe enough to require ventilation, somnolence and coma."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "A 2014 medical review found that almost 28% of college athletes in the United States self reported using cannabis in the past year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2019, Robert Garrigus became the first professional golfer suspended for testing positive for cannabis. He has openly criticized the PGA Tour's cannabis policy. In October 2019, Matt Every was suspended for the same reason. In 2020, \"The New York Times\" said PGA Tour and Champions Tour players \"have become more vocal about using CBD to treat their ailments since the compound was removed from banned substances list in 2018\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In January 2021, the United States Anti-Doping Agency and Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) announced a change to the drug testing that USADA conducts for the UFC. Under the new policy, fighters will no longer be punished for cannabis use except in cases where \"further evidence demonstrates the substance was taken for performance-enhancing purposes such as alleviating pain or anxiety\". Jeff Novitzky, senior vice president of athlete health and performance for the UFC, said clear signs of intoxication would need to be present such as \"bloodshot eyes, they smell like marijuana, they're slurring or a far-off gaze\". Prior to the change a 180 ng/mL threshold was set in place but it was determined that this could not be definitively said to indicate intoxication. The change had no effect on the fact that the testing policies of state agencies such as the Nevada State Athletic Commission still apply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "The use of cannabis by athletes has been banned by many sports commissions. However, some have relaxed their policies as societal attitudes towards its use have shifted. The prohibition \"is one of the most controversial issues in anti-doping\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eben Britton",
        "text": "Britton revealed in a September 2016 interview with the \"New York Post\" that he used cannabis before three of the NFL games he played in. Britton says that in addition to relieving the pain of his injuries, cannabis also improved his mental concentration on the football field, and that the games he played after using were some of his best performances. Britton also estimated that over 50 percent of current players use cannabis and that the number could be as high as 75 percent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Long-term effects of cannabis",
        "text": "The acute effects of cannabis use in humans include a dose-dependent increase in heart rate, typically accompanied by a mild increase in blood pressure while lying down and postural hypotension - a drop in blood pressure when standing up. These effects may vary depending on the relative concentration of the many different cannabinoids that can affect the cardiovascular function, such as cannabigerol. Smoking cannabis decreases exercise tolerance. Cardiovascular effects may not lead to serious health issues for the majority of young, healthy users; on the contrary, heart attack, that is myocardial infarction, stroke, and other adverse cardiovascular events, have occurred in association with its use. Cannabis use by people with cardiovascular disease poses a health risk because it can lead to increased cardiac work, increased catecholamine levels, and impaired blood oxygen carrying capacity due to the production of carboxyhemoglobin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "WADA relaxed its policy towards cannabis in 2013, increasing from 15\u00a0ng/mL to 150\u00a0ng/mL the level of THC metabolite allowed in urine before an athlete is considered to have failed a drug test. Said WADA Director of Communications Julie Masse: \"We wanted to focus on the athletes that abuse the substance in competition. This should exclude cases where marijuana is not used in competition.\" The 150\u00a0ng/mL threshold also allows for a 180\u00a0ng/mL \"Decision Limit\" to be used to account for any uncertainties in measurement above a certain level of confidence. According to WADA statistics, the percentage of failed drug tests for cannabis use dropped from 9.0% in 2012 to 2.4% in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 New Zealand cannabis referendum",
        "text": "Concerns were also been raised that if more people start smoking it, this might lead to more road accidents and workplace injuries. Research in New Zealand showed that regular cannabis users have ten times the risk of car crash injuries or death compared to non-users, with another study showing that more than half of drivers causing a crash had drugs in their system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and impaired driving",
        "text": "While several studies have shown increased risk associated with cannabis use by drivers, other studies have not found increased risk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In July 2021, second division wrestler Takagenji was announced to have failed a test for cannabis. An investigation found that Takagenji, who was already on a warning for an unrelated prior matter, had smoked cannabis on at eight occasions, and he was dismissed by the JSA on July 30."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robin Murray",
        "text": "Robin Murray and colleagues were among the first to demonstrate that prolonged heavy abuse of cannabis can contribute to the onset of psychosis, and that starting early before 15 years and using high potency cannabis (e.g. skunk) particularly increase the risk. Currently, they are researching why some people are especially vulnerable to this drug while most develop no problems. In 2009 Murray had a public disagreement with David Nutt in the pages of \"The Guardian\" about the dangers of cannabis in triggering psychosis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis (drug)",
        "text": "Emergency room (ER) admissions associated with cannabis use rose significantly from 2012 to 2016; adolescents from age 12-17 had the highest risk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Schizophrenia",
        "text": "Cannabis-use may be a contributory factor in the development of schizophrenia, potentially increasing the risk of the disease in those who are already at risk. The increased risk may require the presence of certain genes within an individual. Its use is associated with doubling the rate. The use of more potent strains of cannabis having a high level of its active ingredient tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), increases the risk further. One of these strains is well known as skunk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Occupational health concerns of cannabis use",
        "text": "FECA prohibits employees from receiving compensation when the injury \u201cwas proximately\u2026 caused by the intoxication by\u2026 illegal drugs.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2019, \"High Times\" published tips for \"toking up and teeing off\". \"Golf Magazine\" published \"5 reasons why a golfer could benefit from using CBD\" in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "According to a 2013 article by \"The Denver Post\", the National Hockey League (NHL) was alone among the big four North American professional sports leagues (NFL, NBA, MLB, and NHL) in not punishing players for cannabis use. Though cannabis was still tested for according to the article, a positive test could only result in a referral for treatment by the players union or a possible punishment \"in house\" by individual teams. The policy was first instituted in 1996 according to NHL deputy commissioner Bill Daly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Effects of cannabis",
        "text": "Cannabis is suspected of being a potential contributory factor or direct cause of sudden death, due to the strain it can place on the cardiovascular system, or because of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis use and trauma",
        "text": "High use of cannabis has been associated with coping motives in medicinal cannabis users with PTSD symptoms. In a longitudinal study of American female twins, trauma and psychological symptoms were significant predictors for cannabis initiation and cannabis use disorder (CUD). Individuals with higher levels of life-threatening events, injury, or experiences of death were also more likely to initiate cannabis use during the emerging adulthood phase, with sexual abuse predicting cannabis use initiation before the age of 15 in African American women. In European-American women, sexual and physical abuse, as well as major depressive disorder (MDD) predicted age of cannabis initiation, with development of a CUD being predicting more specifically by MDD and physical abuse. Those with sexual trauma who initiate cannabis use prior to the age of 16, are also more likely to develop psychosis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Effects of cannabis",
        "text": "Some of the short-term physical effects of cannabis use include increased heart rate, dry mouth, reddening of the eyes (congestion of the conjunctival blood vessels), a reduction in intra-ocular pressure, muscle relaxation and a sensation of cold or hot hands and feet and / or flushed face."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "The National Basketball Association (NBA) suspended random drug testing for cannabis during the COVID-19 pandemic, initially instituting the policy during the 2020 NBA Bubble and then extending it through the 2020\u201321 and 2021\u201322 NBA seasons. Commissioner Adam Silver stated: \"We decided that, given all the things that were happening in society, given all the pressures and stress that players were under, that we didn't need to act as Big Brother right now.\" Previously Silver had stated that he was \"very interested in the science when it comes to medical marijuana\" and that he does not see cannabis use as an ethical or moral issue. He also noted in 2018 that multiple players have told him that cannabis helps them deal with their anxiety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Effects of cannabis",
        "text": "Long-term cannabis users are at risk for developing cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS), characterized by recurrent bouts of intense vomiting. The mechanism behind CHS is poorly understood and is contrary to the antiemetic properties of cannabis and cannabinoids. Of those who went to the emergency department (ED) with recurrent vomiting in one institution in the United States from 2005 to 2010, about 6% had the condition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Todd Herremans",
        "text": "Herremans is an advocate for the medical use of cannabis, which he says can help reduce addiction to opioids among NFL players. Herremans says he found cannabis to be an effective pain reliever while playing in the NFL, prior to failing a drug test and discontinuing its use during his second season. Herremans is a member of Athletes for Care, a group that advocates for athletes on various issues of health and safety including the use of cannabis as medicine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis (drug)",
        "text": "At an epidemiological level, a dose\u2013response relationship exists between cannabis use and increased risk of psychosis and earlier onset of psychosis. Although the epidemiological association is robust, evidence to prove a causal relationship is lacking. But a biological causal pathway is plausible, especially if there is a genetic predisposition to mental illness, in which case cannabis may be a trigger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franz Stauder",
        "text": "In 2007, he tested positive for a metabolite of cannabis, from a sample given during qualifying in Halle. The International Tennis Federation ruled that Stauder had \"no intent\" to \"enhance his sporting performance\" through taking the drug. As a result, discretion was exercised and he received only a two-month suspension, as well as forfeiting relevant ranking points and prize money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2011, an American national team diver was suspended for a year after testing positive for cannabis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian National Task Force on Cannabis",
        "text": "Recent research has indicated that adolescent cannabis use is associated with increased misuse as an adult, as well as long-term cognitive implications and psychiatric problems. This may be because the endocannabinoid system is directly involved in adolescent brain development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legalization of non-medical cannabis in the United States",
        "text": "Studies conducted following the legalization of cannabis in Washington and Colorado show that driving under the effects of marijuana increases a driver's likelihood of getting in accident by 100% in comparison to sober drivers. They also suggest that increased use will lead to higher workplace accidents, with employees who tested positive for cannabis being 55% more likely to get in an accident, and 85% more likely to get injured on the job."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in New Zealand",
        "text": "A 25-year longitudinal study of \"1000 Christchurch born young people between the ages of 15\u201325\" called the \"Christchurch Health and Development Study\" found that over two thirds of the cohort had used cannabis at least once by the age of 21 with 5% of the cohort having used cannabis more than 400 times. The study concluded that \"regular or heavy cannabis use was associated with an increased risk of using other illicit drugs, abusing or becoming dependent upon other illicit drugs, and using a wider variety of other illicit drugs\". The lead author of the study, David Fergusson, stated:\n: Our research shows the regular use of cannabis increases the risks that young people will try other illicit drugs. What's not clear are the underlying processes that lead to this association. Understanding these processes is critical to how we view cannabis.\n: If the association arises because using cannabis increases contact with illegal drug markets, this is a ground for the decriminalisation or legalisation of cannabis. If, however, the association arises because using cannabis encourages young people to experiment with other illicit drugs the results could be seen as supporting the prohibition of cannabis use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Effects of cannabis",
        "text": "A 2008 study by the National Institutes of Health Biomedical Research Centre in Baltimore found that heavy, chronic smoking of marijuana (138 joints per week) changed blood proteins associated with heart disease and stroke."
      },
      {
        "title": "Effects of cannabis",
        "text": "Researchers from the University of California, San Diego School of Medicine failed to show substantial, systemic neurological effects from long-term recreational use of cannabis. Their findings were published in the July 2003 issue of the \"Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society\". The research team, headed by Dr Igor Grant, found that cannabis use did affect perception, but did not cause permanent brain damage. Researchers looked at data from 15 previously published controlled studies involving 704 long-term cannabis users and 484 nonusers. The results showed long-term cannabis use was only marginally harmful on the memory and learning. Other functions such as reaction time, attention, language, reasoning ability, perceptual and motor skills were unaffected. The observed effects on memory and learning, they said, showed long-term cannabis use caused \"selective memory defects\", but that the impact was \"of a very small magnitude\". A study at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine showed that very heavy use of marijuana is associated with decrements in neurocognitive performance even after 28 days of abstinence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian National Task Force on Cannabis",
        "text": "The other \u201cmajor possible\u201d risks of chronic use found by the NTFC were:\n* Cancers of the oral cavity (pharynx and oesophagus)\n* Lowered cognitive skills leading to reduced educational and occupational performance in adolescents\n* Birth defects if cannabis is used during pregnancy (effects in pregnancy)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In July 2019, UFC announced a partnership with Aurora Cannabis to conduct research on the effectiveness of CBD in areas of wound care, recovery, pain, and inflammation, using UFC fighters as test subjects. In 2020 it was announced that the partnership had been terminated, however."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis use and trauma",
        "text": "Cannabis use and trauma\n--Frequency and intensity of symptoms.\n--Trauma as a motive.\n--Viability and use of cannabis as treatment.\n----Emotion regulation and anxiety symptoms.\n------Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).\n------Cannabinol (CBD).\n----Sleep.\n------Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).\n------Cannabinol (CBD).\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabidiol",
        "text": "Cannabidiol has been used by professional and amateur athletes across disciplines and countries, with the World Anti-Doping Agency removing CBD from its banned substances list. The United States Anti-Doping Agency and United Kingdom-Anti-Doping Agency do not have anti-CBD policies, with the latter stating that, \"CBD is not currently listed on the World Anti-Doping Agency Prohibited List. As a result, it is permitted to use in sport, though the intended benefits are unclear and not backed by clinical evidence. All other cannabinoids (including but not limited to cannabis, hashish, marijuana, and THC) are prohibited in-competition. The intention of the regulations is to prohibit cannabinoids that activate the same receptors in the brain as activated by THC.\" In 2019, the cannabis manufacturer, Canopy Growth, acquired majority ownership of BioSteel Sports Nutrition, which is developing CBD products under endorsement by numerous professional athletes. The National Hockey League Alumni Association began a project with Canopy Growth to determine if CBD or other cannabis products might improve neurological symptoms and quality of life in head-injured players. Numerous professional athletes use CBD, primarily for treating pain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steve Berke",
        "text": "Off the show, Berke tried to return to the tennis tour with drug prescriptions and spinal injections, but experienced side effects that made him turn to marijuana as a pain reliever and obtain a license from California to smoke medical cannabis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Minors and the legality of cannabis",
        "text": "Medical cannabis is used for children with severe illnesses such as cancer and epilepsy. The use of cannabis relieves the pain and is seen as a \u201chealthier\u201d alternative because it is less addictive than drugs such as morphine and Oxycontin. Other pain-relieving medicines that are opioids tend to cause nausea and vomiting, while cannabis reduces these side effects. Because of this, many advocates argue that if opioids are acceptable to treat a minor\u2019s pain, then cannabis should be as well. As cannabis consumption among minors has increased, the rate at which they consume alcohol and smoke cigarettes has decreased dramatically."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "NHL players Riley Cote and Darren McCarty have been outspoken regarding their personal experience using cannabis and the medical benefits it has provided them. Cote co-founded an organization called Athletes for Care which advocates for athletes on issues of health and safety including the use of cannabis as medicine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ross Rebagliati",
        "text": "Rebagliati stated in a 2015 interview that he believes cannabis is a performance-enhancing drug, as it \"puts you in the moment\" and \"you get in a zone where you can give it a 110%\". He has touted the benefits of CBD in particular, noting its anti-inflammatory properties and that it \"has a calming effect reducing stress and anxiety which are two more realities of being an athlete\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis use disorder",
        "text": "Cannabis addiction is often due to prolonged and increasing use of the drug. Increasing the strength of the cannabis taken and an increasing use of more effective methods of delivery often increase the progression of cannabis dependency. It can also be caused by being prone to becoming addicted to substances, which can either be genetically or environmentally acquired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medical cannabis",
        "text": "Short-term use increases the risk of minor and major adverse effects. Common side effects include dizziness, feeling tired, vomiting, and hallucinations. Long-term effects of cannabis are not clear. Concerns include memory and cognition problems, risk of addiction, schizophrenia in young people, and the risk of children taking it by accident."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis (drug)",
        "text": "The gateway hypothesis states that cannabis use increases the probability of trying \"harder\" drugs. The hypothesis has been hotly debated as it is regarded by some as the primary rationale for the United States prohibition on cannabis use. A Pew Research Center poll found that political opposition to marijuana use was significantly associated with concerns about the health effects and whether legalization would increase marijuana use by children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis (drug)",
        "text": "A reduced quality of life is associated with heavy cannabis use, although the relationship is inconsistent and weaker than for tobacco and other substances. The direction of cause and effect, however, is unclear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wayne Denis Hall",
        "text": "In 2014 Hall published a review that examined the adverse effects of cannabis. This review included studies from the previous 20 years. He concluded that driving while cannabis-impaired approximately doubles the risk of a car crash. He also concluded that when used regularly in adolescence the risk of school-leaving and \"of cognitive impairment and psychoses in adulthood\" was doubled. The review reported that about 1 in 11 (9%) of regular marijuana users develop dependence. Hall told LiveScience that \"The perception that cannabis is a safe drug is a mistaken reaction to a past history of exaggeration of its health risks.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis use disorder",
        "text": "The endocannabinoid system is directly involved in adolescent brain development. Adolescent cannabis users are therefore particularly vulnerable to the potential adverse effects of cannabis use. Adolescent cannabis use is associated with increased cannabis misuse as an adult, issues with memory and concentration, long-term cognitive complications, and poor psychiatric outcomes including social anxiety, suicidality and addiction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2018, Coleman Bentley of \"Golf Digest\" investigated the effects of cannabis on golfers and summarized:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "The NCAA conducts cannabis testing for bowl and championship games, while performance-enhancing drugs are tested for more frequently through a year-round testing program. Many schools also conduct testing in addition to the testing that the NCAA conducts. A 2015 investigation by the Associated Press found that 23 of 57 schools analyzed had reduced penalties for cannabis use since 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Testicular cancer",
        "text": "Higher rates of testicular cancer in Western nations have been linked to the use of cannabis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis (drug)",
        "text": "There is concern that cannabis may contribute to cardiovascular disease, but as of 2018, evidence of this relationship was unclear. Research in these events is complicated because cannabis is often used in conjunction with tobacco, and drugs such as alcohol and cocaine that are known to have cardiovascular risk factors. Smoking cannabis has also been shown to increase the risk of myocardial infarction by 4.8 times for the 60 minutes after consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Cannabis and sports\n--World Anti-Doping Agency.\n--College and youth sports.\n--Individual sports.\n----American football.\n----Association football.\n----Baseball.\n----Basketball.\n----Cricket.\n----Diving.\n----Golf.\n----Hockey.\n----Mixed martial arts.\n----Motorsport.\n----Rugby football.\n----Skateboarding.\n----Snowboarding.\n----Sumo.\n----Swimming.\n----Track and field.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "A gold medal in men's snowboarding was temporarily rescinded at the 1998 Winter Olympics after Canadian Ross Rebagliati tested positive for cannabis use. A drug test showed that he had 17.8\u00a0ng/mL of THC metabolite in his system, slightly higher than the 15\u00a0ng/mL threshold used by the International Ski Federation. The IOC executive board voted 3\u20132 to disqualify him from competition on February 11, 1998, which the Canadian Olympic Association immediately appealed. Rebagliati maintained his innocence and said that he had tested positive due to exposure to secondhand smoke. On February 13 an appeals court ruled in Rebagliati's favor, due to the fact that cannabis had not been officially banned by the IOC yet (it was banned shortly thereafter in April) and therefore the IOC had no authority to strip the medal. No charges were filed against Rebagliati after he was questioned by Japanese police for seven hours regarding the matter. He was put on the No Fly List and banned from entering the United States, however, which prevented him from participating in future competitions such as the X Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike James (American football)",
        "text": "James is an advocate for the medical use of cannabis, which he says can help reduce addiction to opioids among NFL players. James says cannabis helped him overcome his own painkiller addiction while recovering from a severe ankle injury sustained in 2013. In 2018, after failing a drug test the previous year, James filed a therapeutic use exemption (TUE) with the NFL to allow him to use cannabis. The petition was later denied, but James' attorney said that discussion with league officials was ongoing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA), cannabis is reported to be a banned substance that the league tests and penalizes players for. WNBA player Sue Bird has served as an \"athlete ambassador\" for a cannabidiol (CBD) startup company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Long-term effects of cannabis",
        "text": "No fatal overdoses associated with cannabis use have ever been reported. Due to the small number of studies that have been conducted, the evidence is insufficient to show a long-term elevated risk of mortality from any cause. Motor vehicle accidents, suicide, and possible respiratory and brain cancers are all of interest to many researchers, but no studies have been able to show a consistent increase in mortality from these causes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis use disorder",
        "text": "The main factors in Australia, for example, related to a heightened risk for developing problems with cannabis use include frequent use at a young age; personal maladjustment; emotional distress; poor parenting; school drop-out; affiliation with drug-using peers; moving away from home at an early age; daily cigarette smoking; and ready access to cannabis. The researchers concluded there is emerging evidence that positive experiences to early cannabis use are a significant predictor of late dependence and that genetic predisposition plays a role in the development of problematic use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medical cannabis in the United States",
        "text": "Eugene Monroe, Derrick Morgan, Kyle Turley, and Jim McMahon are among a group of NFL players that have advocated for allowing the use of cannabis in the league, as a treatment option for concussions and a pain reliever that can reduce reliance on addictive opioid drugs. NBA head coach Steve Kerr has also voiced support for the medical use of cannabis in professional sports."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis use disorder",
        "text": "Certain factors are considered to heighten the risk of developing cannabis dependence and longitudinal studies over a number of years have enabled researchers to track aspects of social and psychological development concurrently with cannabis use. Increasing evidence is being shown for the elevation of associated problems by the frequency and age at which cannabis is used, with young and frequent users being at most risk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Effects of cannabis",
        "text": "A 2000 study by researchers at Boston's Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard School of Public Health found that a middle age person's risk of heart attack rises nearly fivefold in the first hour after smoking marijuana, \"roughly the same risk seen within an hour of sexual activity\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In May 2021, the Florida State Boxing Commission announced that it would stop testing fighters for cannabis use, based on the recommendation of the Association of Boxing Commissions medical advisory committee and following the lead of the new policy announced by UFC and USADA earlier in the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and impaired driving",
        "text": "Some users seem to be able to perform risk compensation by driving slower or other behaviors, and some users appear to develop a physiological tolerance, making determining a standard impairment dose difficult. A 2010 study found \"cannabis and alcohol acutely impair several driving\u2010related skills in a dose\u2010related fashion, but the effects of cannabis vary more between individuals because of tolerance, differences in smoking technique, and different absorptions of THC\". A 2014 study found \"no correlation between degree of impairment and THCA-A blood concentration\". Because of these findings, some safety organizations have advocated that police use behavioral impairment tests instead of metabolite testing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Long-term effects of cannabis",
        "text": "In one 2013 review, the authors concluded long-term cannabis use \"increases the risk of psychosis in people with certain genetic or environmental vulnerabilities\", but does not cause psychosis. Important predisposing factors were genetic liability, childhood trauma and urban upbringing. Another review that same year concluded that cannabis use may cause permanent psychological disorders in some users such as cognitive impairment, anxiety, paranoia, and increased risks of psychosis. Key predisposing variables included age of first exposure, frequency of use, the potency of the cannabis used, and individual susceptibility. Nevertheless, some researchers maintain there exists \"a strong association between schizophrenia and cannabis use...\", while cannabis use alone does not predict the transition to subsequent psychiatric illness. Many factors are involved, including genetics, environment, time period of initiation and duration of cannabis use, underlying psychiatric pathology that preceded drug use, and combined use of other psychoactive drugs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and impaired driving",
        "text": "In the largest and most precisely controlled study of its kind carried out by the U.S. Department of Transportation\u2019s National Highway Traffic Safety Administration to research the risks of cannabis and driving, it was found that other \"studies that measure the presence of THC in the drivers' blood or oral fluid, rather than relying on self-report tend to have much lower (or no) elevated crash risk estimates. Likewise better controlled studies have found lower (or no) elevated crash risk estimates\". The study found that \"after adjusting for age, gender, race and alcohol use, drivers who tested positive for marijuana were no more likely to crash than those who had not used any drugs or alcohol prior to driving\". The study however cautions that \"these results do not indicate that drug use by drivers is risk-free.\" A 2012 British Medical Journal meta-analysis indicated that \"drivers who consume cannabis within three hours of driving are nearly twice as likely to cause a vehicle collision as those who are not under the influence of drugs or alcohol\" and found that acute cannabis use increased the risk of an automobile crash."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elias Theodorou",
        "text": "Theodorou is a proud medical cannabis activist and received a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) from the British Columbia Athletic Commission in January 2020, making him the first professional athlete in North America to be sanctioned to utilize cannabis in-sport. In May 2021 he received a second such exemption from the Colorado Combative Sports Commission, making him the first professional athlete to receive a TUE in the United States. Theodorou uses cannabis to treat the pain and discomfort from bilateral neuropathy, a nerve condition resulting from an accident that broke his hand in two places and fractured it in four."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis (drug)",
        "text": "Cannabis use is associated with increased recruitment of task-related areas, such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, which is thought to reflect compensatory activity due to reduced processing efficiency. Cannabis use is also associated with downregulation of CB1 receptors. The magnitude of down regulation is associated with cumulative cannabis exposure, and is reversed after one month of abstinence. There is limited evidence that chronic cannabis use can reduce levels of glutamate metabolites in the human brain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Effects of cannabis",
        "text": "While several studies have shown increased risk associated with cannabis use by drivers, other studies have not found increased risk. Cannabis usage has been shown in some studies to have a negative effect on driving ability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paraquat",
        "text": "Whether any injury came about due to the inhalation of paraquat-contaminated marijuana is uncertain. A 1995 study found that \"no lung or other injury in cannabis users has ever been attributed to paraquat contamination\". Also a United States Environmental Protection Agency manual states: \"... toxic effects caused by this mechanism have been either very rare or nonexistent. Most paraquat that contaminates cannabis is pyrolyzed during smoking to dipyridyl, which is a product of combustion of the leaf material itself (including cannabis) and presents little toxic hazard.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2016, Eugene Monroe and Derrick Morgan became the first active NFL players to publicly challenge the league's policy of suspending players for cannabis use. A number of retired players have also advocated for the change, including Jim McMahon, Jake Plummer, Kyle Turley, Nate Jackson, Eben Britton, Leonard Marshall, Marvin Washington, Todd Herremans, Boo Williams, and Ricky Williams. In 2016, several of these active and retired players signed a letter penned by Doctors for Cannabis Regulation requesting that the NFL change its policy regarding cannabis. Reasons that have been cited in advocating for the change include the potential use of cannabis as a neuroprotectant, its use for pain relief as an opioid alternative, and the hypocrisy of the league promoting the use of alcohol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Effects of cannabis",
        "text": "There is evidence that long-term use of cannabis increases the risk of psychosis, regardless of confounding factors, and particularly for people who have genetic risk factors. A 2019 meta-analysis found that 34% of people with cannabis-induced psychosis transitioned to schizophrenia. This was found to be comparatively higher than hallucinogens (26%) and amphetamines (22%)."
      },
      {
        "title": "420 (cannabis culture)",
        "text": "Despite two studies reporting a supposed increase in the risk of fatal motor vehicle crashes on April 20, further investigation and analysis found the evidence did not support such claims."
      },
      {
        "title": "Long-term effects of cannabis",
        "text": "A 2013 literature review said that exposure to cannabis was \"associated with diseases of the liver (particularly with co-existing hepatitis C), lungs, heart, and vasculature\". The authors cautioned that \"evidence is needed, and further research should be considered, to prove causal associations of marijuana with many physical health conditions\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Occupational health concerns of cannabis use",
        "text": "Cannabis is currently the most commonly used illicit drug in the world and one of the earliest plants cultivated by humans. Early evidence of cannabis use in medicine has been found in China and India for religious and medicinal uses. Archaeological research shows early civilization cultivation of hemp in India to create a variety of products from ropes, textiles and paper. In countries, such as Nepal and China, cannabis seeds are still used today both as a pharmaceutical as well as a food enhancer. Lack of concentration, impaired learning and memory, alterations in thought formation, expression and sedation have been associated with cannabis use. Physiological signs include tachycardia, dilated pupils with injected conjunctiva, dry mouth and increased appetite Studies have also confirmed that impairment is related on a dose response relationship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legal history of cannabis in Canada",
        "text": "During the 1980s, Gallup polls indicated that cannabis use was stabilizing; this may have been because of the penalties and the changing opinion of the public toward a less permissive attitude that objected more strenuously to the marijuana-based lifestyle. However, cannabis use increased significantly during the 1990s. For example, statistics for Ontario between 1996 and 2000 indicated that use among 18-29 year olds increased from 18% to 28%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yannick Noah",
        "text": "He notably admitted using marijuana prior to matches in 1981, saying that amphetamines were the real problem in tennis as they were performance-enhancing drugs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis (drug)",
        "text": "The short term effects of cannabis can be altered if it has been laced with opioid drugs such as heroin or fentanyl. The added drugs are meant to enhance the psychoactive properties, add to its weight, and increase profitability, despite the increased danger of overdose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome",
        "text": "Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS) is recurrent nausea, vomiting, and cramping abdominal pain that sometimes occurs due to prolonged, high-dose cannabis use. These symptoms may be relieved temporarily by taking a hot shower or bath. Complications may include kidney failure and electrolyte problems, and the condition can be fatal if not properly managed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Long-term effects of cannabis",
        "text": "In 2016 a meta-analysis was published on associations studies covering a range of dosing habits, again showing that cannabis use is associated with a significantly increased risk of psychosis, and alleged that a dose\u2013response relationship exists between the level of cannabis use and risk of psychosis. The risk was increased 4-fold with daily use, though the analysis was not adequate to establish a causal link. Another 2016 meta-analysis found that cannabis use only predicted transition to psychosis among those who met the criteria for abuse of or dependence on the drug."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis (drug)",
        "text": "Heavy, long-term exposure to marijuana may have physical, mental, behavioral and social health consequences. It may be \"associated with diseases of the liver (particularly with co-existing hepatitis C), lungs, heart, and vasculature\". A 2014 review found that while cannabis use may be less harmful than alcohol use, the recommendation to substitute it for problematic drinking was premature without further study. Various surveys conducted between 2015 and 2019 found that many users of cannabis substitute it for prescription drugs (including opioids), alcohol, and tobacco; most of those who used it in place of alcohol or tobacco either reduced or stopped their intake of the latter substances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis",
        "text": "Short-term use increases both minor and major adverse effects. Common side effects include dizziness, feeling tired, vomiting, and hallucinations. Long-term effects of cannabis are not clear. Concerns including memory and cognition problems, risk of addiction, schizophrenia in young people, and the risk of children taking it by accident."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis (drug)",
        "text": "Cannabis is suspected of being a potential, and under-reported, contributory factor or direct cause in cases of sudden death, due to the strain it can place on the cardiovascular system. Multiple deaths have been attributed to cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome."
      },
      {
        "title": "David M. Fergusson",
        "text": "One study using data from the study found that cannabis use was associated with a number of adverse outcomes, including cannabis dependence and the use of other illicit drugs."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some athletes that have called for further investigation into the benefits of cannabis?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Both Eugene Monroe and Derrick Morgan of the NFL have called for investigation into the benefits of cannabis for the treatment and prevention of concussions, while they and a number of other players have signed a letter requesting the NFL change its cannabis policies, citing its use a neuroprotectant and an opioid alternative. NHL players Riley Cote and Darren McCarty have also been outspoken about the medical benefits of cannabis, and The New York Times reported in 2020 that several members of the PGA Tour have become vocal about using CBD to treat ailments."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why was cannabis banned by many sport commissions?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Cannabis prohibition \"is one of the most controversial issues in anti-doping\" but reasons cited for banning its use include an increased risk of injury in-competition and the view that users of cannabis are not good role models. Calls for eliminating cannabis testing have come from the perspective of better pain management and reducing usage of opioids."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why would cannabis use cause an increased risk of injury?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I could not find an explanation for that, but another reason why it has been banned is because athletes smoking it will be seen as bad role models."
    ],
    "topic": "Cannabis and sports",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Cannabis and sports:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cannabis and sports"
        ],
        "ctx": "There is no scientific consensus regarding the performance-enhancing effects of cannabis, with one 2018 paper reporting \"there is no evidence for cannabis use as a performance-enhancing drug\". Other reasons cited for banning its use include an increased risk of injury in-competition and the view that users of cannabis are not good role models."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In July 2021, the Nevada State Athletic Commission voted to stop punishing fighters for cannabis use. UFC fighter Nick Diaz received a five year suspension from the commission in 2015 for repeat cannabis violations, though the suspension was later reduced to a year and a half."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Testing for cannabis by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) began when it instituted a comprehensive drug testing program in 1986. Initially a 15\u00a0ng/mL threshold was established and any positive test resulted in a full-season suspension. In 2013 the threshold was lowered to 5\u00a0ng/mL while the penalty was relaxed to a half-season suspension. The threshold was then raised to 15\u00a0ng/mL in 2017, 35\u00a0ng/mL in 2019, and 150\u00a0ng/mL in 2022. Also in 2022 the NCAA Committee on Competitive Safeguards and Medical Aspects of Sports (CSMAS) recommended a relaxed penalty structure for divisions to adopt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "The use of cannabis by athletes has been banned by many sports commissions. However, some have relaxed their policies as societal attitudes towards its use have shifted. The prohibition \"is one of the most controversial issues in anti-doping\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "According to a 2013 article by \"The Denver Post\", the National Hockey League (NHL) was alone among the big four North American professional sports leagues (NFL, NBA, MLB, and NHL) in not punishing players for cannabis use. Though cannabis was still tested for according to the article, a positive test could only result in a referral for treatment by the players union or a possible punishment \"in house\" by individual teams. The policy was first instituted in 1996 according to NHL deputy commissioner Bill Daly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "A pamphlet produced by the United States Department of Justice in the 1990s for youth sports coaches admonished them to \"Explain that marijuana is illegal and that the athlete can be arrested or suspended from school and sports for using it\", and listed several deleterious physical and psychological effects of marijuana including \"decreased stamina, weight gain, and reduced muscle strength.. . [l]aziness, lack of motivation, loss of control, and poor decisionmaking\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In January 2021, the United States Anti-Doping Agency and Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) announced a change to the drug testing that USADA conducts for the UFC. Under the new policy, fighters will no longer be punished for cannabis use except in cases where \"further evidence demonstrates the substance was taken for performance-enhancing purposes such as alleviating pain or anxiety\". Jeff Novitzky, senior vice president of athlete health and performance for the UFC, said clear signs of intoxication would need to be present such as \"bloodshot eyes, they smell like marijuana, they're slurring or a far-off gaze\". Prior to the change a 180 ng/mL threshold was set in place but it was determined that this could not be definitively said to indicate intoxication. The change had no effect on the fact that the testing policies of state agencies such as the Nevada State Athletic Commission still apply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "The National Basketball Association (NBA) suspended random drug testing for cannabis during the COVID-19 pandemic, initially instituting the policy during the 2020 NBA Bubble and then extending it through the 2020\u201321 and 2021\u201322 NBA seasons. Commissioner Adam Silver stated: \"We decided that, given all the things that were happening in society, given all the pressures and stress that players were under, that we didn't need to act as Big Brother right now.\" Previously Silver had stated that he was \"very interested in the science when it comes to medical marijuana\" and that he does not see cannabis use as an ethical or moral issue. He also noted in 2018 that multiple players have told him that cannabis helps them deal with their anxiety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "A medical review found that \"cannabis consumption was found to be highest among athletes seeking the high risk and excitement of competing in extreme sports\", listing skateboarding as a specific example. The first cannabis related suspension for skateboarding occurred in 2019, of a competitor in run-ups to the 2020 Summer Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2011, an American national team diver was suspended for a year after testing positive for cannabis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Cannabis was on the list of drugs of abuse until the 2019\u20132020 offseason, when THC and CBD were removed. Players will still be tested for synthetic cannabinoids, and are still subject to disciplinary action if they are caught using cannabis, for possession, or driving under the influence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Craig Trindall",
        "text": "In 2006, The National Rugby League's Anti-Doping tribunal imposed a 12-week suspended sentence on Craig Trindall for cannabis use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "A gold medal in men's snowboarding was temporarily rescinded at the 1998 Winter Olympics after Canadian Ross Rebagliati tested positive for cannabis use. A drug test showed that he had 17.8\u00a0ng/mL of THC metabolite in his system, slightly higher than the 15\u00a0ng/mL threshold used by the International Ski Federation. The IOC executive board voted 3\u20132 to disqualify him from competition on February 11, 1998, which the Canadian Olympic Association immediately appealed. Rebagliati maintained his innocence and said that he had tested positive due to exposure to secondhand smoke. On February 13 an appeals court ruled in Rebagliati's favor, due to the fact that cannabis had not been officially banned by the IOC yet (it was banned shortly thereafter in April) and therefore the IOC had no authority to strip the medal. No charges were filed against Rebagliati after he was questioned by Japanese police for seven hours regarding the matter. He was put on the No Fly List and banned from entering the United States, however, which prevented him from participating in future competitions such as the X Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "USA Track & Field (USATF) said \"the merit of the World Anti-Doping Agency rules related to THC should be reevaluated\" after the ban of Sha'Carri Richardson from the 2020 Summer Olympics (held in 2021). The U.S. White House spokesperson, Jen Psaki concurred, saying \"maybe we should take another look at\" the rules for athletes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA), cannabis is reported to be a banned substance that the league tests and penalizes players for. WNBA player Sue Bird has served as an \"athlete ambassador\" for a cannabidiol (CBD) startup company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doping in the United States",
        "text": "Players who test positive for Marijuana will be subject to the following penalties.\n#First violation: Player will be required to enter the Marijuana Program\n#Second violation: Player will be subject to a $25,000 fine and re-entry into the Marijuana Program\n#Third violation: Player will be suspended for five games and re-entry into the Marijuana Program.\n#Fourth or subsequent violations: Player will be suspended for five games longer than the player's immediately preceding suspension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In July 2021, second division wrestler Takagenji was announced to have failed a test for cannabis. An investigation found that Takagenji, who was already on a warning for an unrelated prior matter, had smoked cannabis on at eight occasions, and he was dismissed by the JSA on July 30."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "The F\u00e9d\u00e9ration Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), the sanctioning body for global motorsport, including Formula One, has banned drivers for cannabis use. The FIA follows WADA protocol. As of 2021, cannabinoids are listed by WADA as prohibited in-competition, except CBD, which is specifically exempted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In May 2021, the Florida State Boxing Commission announced that it would stop testing fighters for cannabis use, based on the recommendation of the Association of Boxing Commissions medical advisory committee and following the lead of the new policy announced by UFC and USADA earlier in the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "WADA relaxed its policy towards cannabis in 2013, increasing from 15\u00a0ng/mL to 150\u00a0ng/mL the level of THC metabolite allowed in urine before an athlete is considered to have failed a drug test. Said WADA Director of Communications Julie Masse: \"We wanted to focus on the athletes that abuse the substance in competition. This should exclude cases where marijuana is not used in competition.\" The 150\u00a0ng/mL threshold also allows for a 180\u00a0ng/mL \"Decision Limit\" to be used to account for any uncertainties in measurement above a certain level of confidence. According to WADA statistics, the percentage of failed drug tests for cannabis use dropped from 9.0% in 2012 to 2.4% in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "There is no scientific consensus regarding the performance-enhancing effects of cannabis, with one 2018 paper reporting \"there is no evidence for cannabis use as a performance-enhancing drug\". Other reasons cited for banning its use include an increased risk of injury in-competition and the view that users of cannabis are not good role models."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In March 2020, the National Football League (NFL) changed its policy regarding cannabis after signing a new collective bargaining agreement with the National Football League Players Association (NFLPA). The agreement stipulated that positive tests would no longer result in a suspension and that players would only be suspended for missing multiple tests or refusing treatment. It also shortened the timeframe for which players would be tested from four months to two weeks, and raised the threshold for a positive test from 35\u00a0ng/mL of THC metabolite to 150 (prior to 2014 the threshold was set at 15). Running back Ricky Williams is among the players that have been suspended under the league's old policy, failing multiple tests that led him to miss the entire 2004 and 2006 seasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis (drug)",
        "text": "Penalties for illegal recreational use ranges from confiscation or small fines to jail time and even death. In some countries citizens can be punished if they have used the drug in another country, including Singapore and South Korea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2018, running back Mike James petitioned the NFL for a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) to the league's ban on cannabis use. James cited a previous addiction to opioid drugs and argued that he should be allowed to use cannabis for pain relief instead. The petition was subsequently denied."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "While touring New Zealand in 1996\u20131997, a restaurant in Christchurch accused Phil Tufnell of smoking cannabis in their bathroom. As the restaurant had a reputation for making up stories about celebrities, the English team's management agreed with Tufnell's denials. Paul Smith retired in 1997 and acknowledged using cannabis; despite his retirement, the ECB suspended him for 22 months. In 2001, five South African players, Roger Telemachus, Andr\u00e9 Nel, Paul Adams, Justin Kemp, and Herschelle Gibbs, were caught smoking it at a party. They were fined R10,000. Dermot Reeve revealed that he was addicted to cocaine in 2005, and also acknowledged that he had used cannabis during the 1990s while he was an active player, but said that he never used it during the cricket season. In May 2005, Keith Piper of the Warwickshire County Cricket Club was suspended for the remainder of the season for cannabis. Also in 2005, an Australian cricket team from Inverloch provided chocolate cupcakes to a team from Nerrina and did not inform them that they contained cannabis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2019, Robert Garrigus became the first professional golfer suspended for testing positive for cannabis. He has openly criticized the PGA Tour's cannabis policy. In October 2019, Matt Every was suspended for the same reason. In 2020, \"The New York Times\" said PGA Tour and Champions Tour players \"have become more vocal about using CBD to treat their ailments since the compound was removed from banned substances list in 2018\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Australia",
        "text": "In SA the maximum penalty for \"possession of any piece of equipment for use in connection with the smoking, consumption or administration of a controlled drug\" is a fine of up to $2000 or imprisonment for up to 2 years or both."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franz Stauder",
        "text": "In 2007, he tested positive for a metabolite of cannabis, from a sample given during qualifying in Halle. The International Tennis Federation ruled that Stauder had \"no intent\" to \"enhance his sporting performance\" through taking the drug. As a result, discretion was exercised and he received only a two-month suspension, as well as forfeiting relevant ranking points and prize money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Cannabis and sports\n--World Anti-Doping Agency.\n--College and youth sports.\n--Individual sports.\n----American football.\n----Association football.\n----Baseball.\n----Basketball.\n----Cricket.\n----Diving.\n----Golf.\n----Hockey.\n----Mixed martial arts.\n----Motorsport.\n----Rugby football.\n----Skateboarding.\n----Snowboarding.\n----Sumo.\n----Swimming.\n----Track and field.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 1999, the England national rugby union team captain Lawrence Dallaglio was investigated by the Rugby Football Union over claims he had smoked cannabis whilst on a rugby tour as well as dealing drugs. He was later stripped of the captaincy as a result."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "David Murray, who played cricket in the 1970s, said after his career that he used cannabis \"before and after the day's play, but never in the breaks \u2013 you can't do that\". Ian Botham was suspended for 63 days by the England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB) in 1986 after he admitted in an interview that he had smoked cannabis. Wasim Akram, Waqar Younis, Aqib Javed, and Mushtaq Ahmed of the Pakistani national cricket team were arrested in Grenada in April 1993 for possession of cannabis. In 1995, Stephen Fleming was caught and admitted to smoking with teammates Matthew Hart and Dion Nash while on tour at their hotel. They were suspended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ross Rebagliati",
        "text": "Two months after the drug testing incident, in April 1998, the IOC officially banned cannabis use. \"The New York Times\" dubbed the decision \"the Ross Rebagliati Rule\". In 2013 the THC metabolite limit for Olympic athletes was raised to 150 ng/mL, so as to only detect current intoxication."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "The NCAA conducts cannabis testing for bowl and championship games, while performance-enhancing drugs are tested for more frequently through a year-round testing program. Many schools also conduct testing in addition to the testing that the NCAA conducts. A 2015 investigation by the Associated Press found that 23 of 57 schools analyzed had reduced penalties for cannabis use since 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Peru",
        "text": "Cultivation, production or sale is punished with 8 to 15 years in prison."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "WADA's policy towards cannabis came under scrutiny in 2021 following the banning of U.S. track and field athlete Sha'Carri Richardson from the Tokyo Summer Olympics. The suspension was criticized by U.S. Representatives Barbara Lee, Earl Blumenauer, and 16 other members of Congress who wrote that the policy was \"outdated and restrictive\" and that the United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) and WADA should \"re-evaluate its criteria and decision to include cannabis, specifically tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) as a prohibited substance\". USADA wrote to Representatives Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez and Jamie Raskin agreeing that \"Ms. Richardson's exclusion from the Tokyo Olympic Games is a heartbreaking situation and that the World Anti-Doping Agency's rules concerning marijuana must change\". It also noted that as a signatory to the World Anti-Doping Code, USADA has an obligation to enforce the rules regarding cannabis use, and that changing the rules might be problematic as the vast majority of countries still criminalize the drug. The Office of National Drug Control Policy stated that it would meet with WADA to \"gather additional information on its cannabis policies\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In January 2020, MMA fighter Elias Theodorou became the first North American athlete to receive a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) for the use of cannabis, granted by the British Columbia Athletic Commission. In May 2021 he received the first such exemption in the U.S., granted by the Colorado Combative Sports Commission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in New Zealand",
        "text": "Cannabis use is controlled by the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975. Possession of any amount of cannabis is illegal. The maximum penalty for possession of cannabis is imprisonment for a term not exceeding three months or a $500 fine, although section 7(2) of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975 contains a rebuttable presumption against imprisonment in respect of possession offences in respect of class C controlled drugs, which include cannabis. Cultivation of cannabis carries a maximum penalty of seven years' imprisonment. Selling cannabis, offering to sell or supplying cannabis to a person under the age of 18 years carries a maximum penalty of eight years' imprisonment. Cannabis oil and hashish are defined as class B drugs, and those convicted of manufacturing or supplying face a maximum penalty of 14 years' imprisonment. Possession of a class-B controlled drug carries a maximum sentence of up to three months' imprisonment or a fine not exceeding $500."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Velter",
        "text": "Velter tested positive for cannabis in 2006 and was subsequently handed a 3-month ban from sports. In 2011 he tested positive for cannabis again, and as it was his second anti-doping rule violation he received a 21-month ban."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2017, NBA player Al Harrington conducted an interview with former commissioner David Stern regarding the topic of cannabis use by players. Stern told Harrington during the interview: \"I'm now at the point where personally I think [cannabis] probably should be removed from the banned list. You've persuaded me.\" NBA head coach Steve Kerr has also expressed support for allowing the use of cannabis in professional sports."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States Anti-Doping Agency",
        "text": "In January 2021, USADA announced that UFC fighters would no longer be punished for cannabis use except in extreme cases where clear signs of intoxication were present at the time of a fight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in South Korea",
        "text": "Despite the reform, recreational cannabis remains strictly forbidden by the law. A violation is punishable by up to five years in prison or a fine of up to 50 million won, about $42,556 USD (as of November, 2021)."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Granger (footballer)",
        "text": "In 2003 Granger was finally sentenced to jail after being found guilty of knowingly having cannabis in his possession for the purpose of selling it after 17\u00a0kg of cannabis had been found by police in his home. He was sentenced to four years and three months imprisonment. Granger had three previous convictions for cannabis offences in 1991, 1998 and 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "NCAA banned substances",
        "text": "Marijuana, also known as cannabis, is a euphoriant and hallucinogenic drug prepared from the dried leaves of the strong-smelling plant \"Cannabis sativa\". Marijuana is a commonly used drug, legal in many states."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sha'Carri Richardson",
        "text": "Richardson stated that she took the drug to cope with the pressure of qualifying for the Olympics while mourning the recent death of her biological mother. Her suspension was criticized by many individuals and organizations in favor of liberalizing cannabis policies, including NORML, members of the Congressional Cannabis Caucus, and other members of Congress. U.S. President Joe Biden also suggested that drug testing rules governing athletes could be changed. USADA responded to the criticism by pointing out that as a signatory to the World Anti-Doping Code, it has an obligation to enforce it in the United States. Furthermore, they stated that changing those rules might be problematic, as the vast majority of world\u2019s nation states consider consuming marijuana a criminal offense. In response to the controversy, in September 2021, the World Anti-Doping Agency announced that it would conduct a review regarding the prohibited status of cannabis. Cannabis has remained a prohibited drug for Olympic athletes since 1999, though in 2013 the World Anti-Doping Agency increased the level of THC metabolite allowed from 15\u00a0ng/mL to 150\u00a0ng/mL."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandatory sentencing",
        "text": "Mandatory sentencing and increased punishment were enacted when the United States Congress passed the Boggs Act of 1951. The acts made a first time cannabis possession offense a minimum of two to ten years with a fine up to $20,000; however, in 1970, the United States Congress repealed mandatory penalties for cannabis offenses. With the passage of the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 Congress enacted different mandatory minimum sentences for drugs, including marijuana.\n* 1st Offense: 2\u20135 years.\n* 2nd Offense: 5\u201310 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Switzerland",
        "text": "Since 28 September 2012, the possession of less than 10 grams of cannabis is no longer a criminal infringement, but is still punished by a 100 Swiss francs flat fine. Professional cannabis trade, as well as the possession of a quantity of cannabis that can affect the health of a large number of people (4\u00a0kg of hashish, according to the Federal Court), are punished by one to three years of imprisonment that can be augmented with a fine."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 New Zealand cannabis referendum",
        "text": "Possession of any amount of recreational cannabis is illegal in New Zealand. Cannabis use is controlled under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975 and the maximum sentence for possession of cannabis is 3 months' imprisonment or a $500 fine; although there is a preference against imprisonment. The presumption of supply threshold is 28 grams or 100 joints; above this threshold it is presumed any cannabis possessed is for supply. Cultivation of cannabis carries a maximum penalty of 7 years' imprisonment, while dealing of cannabis carries a maximum penalty of 8 years' imprisonment. Per the tariff case \"R v Terewi\" [1999], cultivating cannabis for personal use warrants a community sentence or, if there are aggravating factors, a short-term prison sentence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jonny Dymond",
        "text": "In 2008 Dymond was fined \u00a3230 for possession of cannabis, after a search at an airport in Vilnius found two grams of the drug among his clothes. Dymond admitted to purchasing cannabis at a nightclub, but claimed he packed it into his suitcase inadvertently."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Brunei",
        "text": "Possession of a pipe or any other equipment used to smoke cannabis is illegal and is punishable by a maximum sentence of 3 years in prison, and a USD$10,000 fine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stephen Hihetah",
        "text": "In December 2019, he was banned from all sport for four years \u2013 from 12 June 2019 until 11 June 2023 after failing a drugs test. Hihetah was initially charged with a breach of World Rugby regulation 21.2.1: \u201cPresence of a prohibited substance or its metabolites or markers in a player\u2019s sample.\u201d. Hihetah provided a urine sample following a training session on 21 February 2019, which were positive for the prohibited substances Stanozolol metabolites, Metandienone metabolite and Tamoxifen metabolite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Calls for eliminating cannabis testing have come from the perspective of better pain management and reducing usage of opioids. Athletes such as Eugene Monroe and Derrick Morgan have called for further investigation into its potential for treating and preventing concussions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Japan",
        "text": "Penalties for violations of Japan's cannabis laws are among the strictest in the world. Possession of cannabis carries a penalty of up to five years imprisonment, while possession for the purpose of trafficking carries a penalty of up to seven years imprisonment and a fine of . Cultivation and importation carry a penalty of up to seven years imprisonment, while cultivation and importation for the purpose of trafficking carries a penalty of up to ten years imprisonment and a fine of"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mehrullah Lassi",
        "text": "He and his fellow countryman Faisal Karim were banned for life for failing the cannabis drugs test during the South Asian Games in Sri Lanka."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Florida",
        "text": "In November 2015, Broward County commissioners approved by a unanimous vote a plan to allow civil citations to be issued for possession of up to 20 grams of cannabis. The penalty was set at $100 for a first offense, $250 for a second, and $500 for a third."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis rights",
        "text": "The use of cannabis for recreational purposes is prohibited in most countries; however, many have adopted a policy of decriminalization to make simple possession a non-criminal offense (often similar to a minor traffic violation). Others have much more severe penalties such as some Asian and Middle Eastern countries where possession of even small amounts is punished by imprisonment for several years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elias Theodorou",
        "text": "Theodorou is a proud medical cannabis activist and received a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) from the British Columbia Athletic Commission in January 2020, making him the first professional athlete in North America to be sanctioned to utilize cannabis in-sport. In May 2021 he received a second such exemption from the Colorado Combative Sports Commission, making him the first professional athlete to receive a TUE in the United States. Theodorou uses cannabis to treat the pain and discomfort from bilateral neuropathy, a nerve condition resulting from an accident that broke his hand in two places and fractured it in four."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gary Havelock",
        "text": "Havelock was banned for the entire 1989 season after he tested positive for cannabis at the British League Riders' Championship meeting in 1988."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Switzerland",
        "text": "The penalties imposed in practice also vary among cantons to a certain degree. The 2007 penalty guidelines adopted by the Bernese Judges' Association provide as follows:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "NHL players Riley Cote and Darren McCarty have been outspoken regarding their personal experience using cannabis and the medical benefits it has provided them. Cote co-founded an organization called Athletes for Care which advocates for athletes on issues of health and safety including the use of cannabis as medicine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herschelle Gibbs",
        "text": "In 2001, Gibbs was fined along with several teammates for smoking marijuana during that year's tour of the West Indies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "During the early 2000s, former Dallas Cowboys center Mark Stepnoski served as president of the Texas chapter of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws. His activism caused his high school alma mater, Cathedral Preparatory School, to cancel his induction into the school's athletic hall of fame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Japan",
        "text": "There have been several high-profile arrests and scandals relating to the possession or use of cannabis by public figures. In 1980, English musician Paul McCartney was detained in a Japanese prison for nine days after cannabis was found in his luggage at Tokyo's Narita International Airport. The 2008 sumo cannabis scandal resulted in the expulsion of four professional sumo wrestlers from the sport, and was described by \"The Japan Times\" as the largest drug-related sporting scandal in Japanese history. In 2009, professional rugby player Christian Loamanu of Toshiba Brave Lupus Tokyo was indefinitely suspended from the Japan Rugby Football Union after testing positive for cannabis in a random drug test. In 2017, actress Saya Takagi was sentenced to a three-year suspended sentence for possession of cannabis; she subsequently retired from acting to become a cannabis legalization activist. Actor and idol Junnosuke Taguchi was sentenced to a two-year suspended sentence for possession of cannabis in 2019, while actor Yusuke Iseya was sentenced to a three-year suspended sentence for possession of cannabis in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nevada State Athletic Commission",
        "text": "On September 14, 2015, UFC Fighter Nick Diaz was suspended for 5 years and fined $165,000. The commission relied on a single positive cannabinoid urinalysis result, out of three tests taken within a few hours of each other. Of the tests, the two returning negative results were the only two conducted by a WADA approved lab. Diaz, a medical marijuana patient, has since received widespread support from the MMA community; fans and fighters alike. The vast majority of reactions have condemned the commission, looking at a number of factors including: the drug-testing process, the ignoring of the evidence by the commission and the overly harsh, arguably personally-motivated punishment levied. Nick Diaz and his lawyers plan to appeal the decision via Judicial Review."
      },
      {
        "title": "AFL Tribunal",
        "text": "The Match Review Panel also assesses a variety of offences for which players are fined but not suspended, including wrestling, negligent contact with an umpire, making an obscene gesture, etc. As for physical offences, there is a standardised table of penalties, which depend upon the nature of the offence, and any prior similar offences; \"e.g.\" a player's second wrestling offence attracts double the penalty of his first. As for physical offences, a player can accept his penalty with an early guilty plea, receiving a 25% reduction in his fine, or he may contest it and risk the full penalty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Norway",
        "text": "Up to 15 g is considered an amount for personal use, and is punished with a fine in the case of first-time offenders; possessing more is punished more harshly. Repeat offenders or dealers can face prison charges. The type of fine given for drug offences are of the more serious category, and will appear on a criminal record. Young first-time offenders are routinely compelled to consent to regular supervised drug testing to avoid prosecution. Up to 1 kg is punished with up to 2 years in prison. If the amount is larger, the limit is 10 years. Amounts over 80 kg are punished with sentences of 3 to 15 years, and in very serious cases up to 21 years is permitted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Australia",
        "text": "In QLD the maximum penalty for \"possessing things for use in connection with the administration, consumption or smoking of a dangerous drug\" carries penalties of up to two years imprisonment"
      },
      {
        "title": "Legal history of cannabis in the United States",
        "text": "Mandatory sentencing and increased punishment were enacted when the United States Congress passed the Boggs Act of 1952 and the Narcotics Control Act of 1956. The acts made a first-time cannabis possession offense a minimum of two to ten years with a fine up to $20,000; however, in 1970 Congress repealed mandatory penalties for cannabis offenses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabidiol",
        "text": "Cannabidiol has been used by professional and amateur athletes across disciplines and countries, with the World Anti-Doping Agency removing CBD from its banned substances list. The United States Anti-Doping Agency and United Kingdom-Anti-Doping Agency do not have anti-CBD policies, with the latter stating that, \"CBD is not currently listed on the World Anti-Doping Agency Prohibited List. As a result, it is permitted to use in sport, though the intended benefits are unclear and not backed by clinical evidence. All other cannabinoids (including but not limited to cannabis, hashish, marijuana, and THC) are prohibited in-competition. The intention of the regulations is to prohibit cannabinoids that activate the same receptors in the brain as activated by THC.\" In 2019, the cannabis manufacturer, Canopy Growth, acquired majority ownership of BioSteel Sports Nutrition, which is developing CBD products under endorsement by numerous professional athletes. The National Hockey League Alumni Association began a project with Canopy Growth to determine if CBD or other cannabis products might improve neurological symptoms and quality of life in head-injured players. Numerous professional athletes use CBD, primarily for treating pain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "A 2014 medical review found that almost 28% of college athletes in the United States self reported using cannabis in the past year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Australia",
        "text": "In the NT the maximum penalty for \"possession of things for administering dangerous drugs\" is a fine of up to 50 penalty units or imprisonment for a term of six months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Julie Coulaud",
        "text": "Following her athletics ban, she received a suspended jail sentence of six months and a fine of \u20ac2000 for possession of restricted substances, after her cache of EPO, growth hormones and insulin was found. She responded to the court that she had obtained the substances through a Spanish doctor in Valencia. Coulaud retired from the sport internationally and focused on opening a clothes business."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In February 2009, a photograph of Michael Phelps using a bong went viral; this resulted in a three-month suspension by USA Swimming and the loss of his sponsorship with the Kellogg Company. Phelps admitted that the photo, which was taken at a party at the University of South Carolina, was authentic. He publicly apologized, saying his behavior was \"inappropriate\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jaron Johnson",
        "text": "On May 15, 2017, it was revealed by the Australian Sports Anti-Doping Authority (ASADA) that Johnson was sanctioned for a breach of the WADA Anti-Doping Code after testing positive for cannabis. He was tested as part of regular in-competition testing while with the Perth Wildcats after a game against the New Zealand Breakers in November 2016. As a result, Johnson was deemed ineligible to participate in any WADA sanctioned sport from March 24 to June 24, 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Brunei",
        "text": "Cultivating cannabis is illegal according to the Misuse of Drugs Act (2013), with the maximum punishment being 20 years in prison and/or a USD$40,000 fine and the minimum sentence is 3 years in prison and/or a USD$5,000 fine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Australia",
        "text": "In NSW the maximum penalty for possession of \"equipment for administration of drugs\" is a fine of up to 20 penalty units or imprisonment for a term of two years."
      },
      {
        "title": "THC Ministry",
        "text": "A judge in Colorado ruled that a man's belief that marijuana was a sacrament did not rise to the level of religion and ordered him to pay $450 in fines and costs and serve 15 hours of community service as a sentence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Andorra",
        "text": "The trafficking of cannabis can be punished by up to two years in prison and fines totally double the value of the drug. Individual use of cannabis or similar in a public space may be punished by arrest, or by fines up to 600 Euros."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2016, Eugene Monroe and Derrick Morgan became the first active NFL players to publicly challenge the league's policy of suspending players for cannabis use. A number of retired players have also advocated for the change, including Jim McMahon, Jake Plummer, Kyle Turley, Nate Jackson, Eben Britton, Leonard Marshall, Marvin Washington, Todd Herremans, Boo Williams, and Ricky Williams. In 2016, several of these active and retired players signed a letter penned by Doctors for Cannabis Regulation requesting that the NFL change its policy regarding cannabis. Reasons that have been cited in advocating for the change include the potential use of cannabis as a neuroprotectant, its use for pain relief as an opioid alternative, and the hypocrisy of the league promoting the use of alcohol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Israel",
        "text": "Under current rules, citizens caught using cannabis in public for the first and second times cannot be arrested if they have no previous record of cannabis use, but may face fines of 1000 NIS (approximately $310) the first time, and 2000 NIS (approximately $620) the second time; the money collected from these fines is used to support education and rehabilitation programs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Australia",
        "text": "In TAS the maximum penalty for \"possessing thing used for administration of controlled drug\" is a fine of up to 50 penalty units."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Brunei",
        "text": "Possession and use of cannabis and its resin is strictly prohibited in Brunei, both obtaining maximum sentences of 10 years and/or a USD$20,000 fine."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Zuckerman (politician)",
        "text": "In January 2014, Zuckerman introduced legislation that would allow for recreational sale and use of cannabis. If passed it would allow for possession of up to two ounces of cannabis, and the cultivation of up to 3 plants for anyone 21 and over. It would also have the penalty for underage consumption of cannabis be the same as the current penalty for underage drinking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Alberta",
        "text": "The minimum age for recreational use of marijuana is 18 (the same age one can purchase alcohol and tobacco and is the age of majority). Those under that age will not be allowed to enter retail cannabis stores (even if with an adult) and there is a zero-tolerance policy for minors purchasing, possessing, or consuming marijuana. Minors caught not in compliance with the zero-tolerance policy will face penalties but the severity of those penalties depends on how many ounces are on their person. Youth who possess 5 grams or less will not be charged criminally but will be subject to other disciplinary actions such as seizure of the cannabis, notification of parents or guardians, and possible fines. Those who possess more than 5 grams can be charged under the Youth Criminal Justice Act and will face additional sanctions. Those who provide marijuana to persons under 18 can be punished by receiving a $5,000 fine and/or up to 14 years in jail. The restriction on minors is for recreational marijuana, there may be exceptions for prescribed medical marijuana use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in the Czech Republic",
        "text": "Possession of up to 10 grams of dry cannabis for personal use, or cultivation of up to five plants, is classed as a civil offence under laws enacted in 2010 (via a non incrimination decree, 467/2009 Coll.). On conviction, a fine of up to 15,000CZK can be imposed, but fines are typically much lower. Cannabis is easy to obtain at concerts and in bars. However, cannabis remains illegal, and possession of larger amounts can lead to a jail sentence of one year. Trafficking is a criminal offence, with the minimum penalty set at two years imprisonment and maximum penalty set at 18 years imprisonment, though sentences of 10\u201318 years are only imposed in extreme cases. A suspended sentence or other alternative punishment is usually imposed in the case of minor trafficking that does not generate a significant income."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Australia",
        "text": "Adults in the Northern Territory under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1990 persons found in possession of up to 50 g of cannabis, one gram of hash oil, 10 g of hash or cannabis seed/s, or two non-hydroponic plants can be fined A$200 with 28 days to expiate at an officers discretion or face a penalty of a fine of up to 50 penalty units or A$7.750 in court, in the NT, one penalty unit equates to A155.00. Possession in a public place faces a penalty of up to two years imprisonment. Cultivation in front of a child can face a penalty of life in prison. The maximum penalty for trafficking of a commercial quantity is up to 25 years imprisonment, for less than a commercial quantity is up to 2 years imprisonment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Todd Carney",
        "text": "Whereby Carney would have to:\n*Stand-down from training and matches for the rest of the season.\n*To go on an alcohol ban until the end of 2012.\n*Undergo counselling.\n*Complete a community service programme.\n*To also pay a $20,000 fine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Beginning in August 2008, a cannabis scandal resulted in four \"sekitori\" ranked sumo wrestlers, Wakanoh\u014d, Roh\u014d, Hakurozan and Wakakirin, being dismissed from professional sumo, and the chairman of the Japan Sumo Association (JSA), Kitanoumi Toshimitsu, resigned his post. It was the first case in which active wrestlers have been dismissed from sumo. After that, the JSA added rules that any retirement package for dismissed members would be reduced or denied, and that those who use illegal drugs would be dismissed without benefits. According to \"The Japan Times\", it was the largest sports scandal of drugs that Japan had ever seen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis (drug)",
        "text": "Since the beginning of the 20th century, most countries have enacted laws against the cultivation, possession or transfer of cannabis. These laws have had an adverse effect on cannabis cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where handling of cannabis is legal or licensed. Many jurisdictions have lessened the penalties for possession of small quantities of cannabis so that it is punished by confiscation and sometimes a fine, rather than imprisonment, focusing more on those who traffic the drug on the black market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pat Lundvall",
        "text": "In 2015, she sentenced Nick Diaz to a 5-year ban from MMA for testing positive for cannabis after her initial suggestion of a lifetime ban was overruled by the rest of the commissioners. The Diaz ruling was overturned on appeal and Lundvall was accused of \"animosity\" towards Diaz. In 2016, she sentenced Conor McGregor to 50 hours community service, a $150,000 fine and required him to shoot an anti-bullying video after getting involved in a fracas with his UFC 202 opponent Nate Diaz at a press conference with both sides throwing water bottles at each other. This came after the Attorney General of Nevada suggested a $25,000 fine and 25 hours community service, with Lundvall justifying her decision by saying McGregor \"...needed to be humbled\". In response, McGregor said he would not fight in Nevada again. Later that year, Governor Brian Sandoval elected not to reappoint Lundvall to the commission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Brazil",
        "text": "Selling, transportation, and trafficking of drugs are considered criminal acts and are punished with 5 to 15 years in prison and a significant fine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in New Zealand",
        "text": "Anyone caught in possession of at least of cannabis or 100 cannabis joints is presumed to be a supplier, unless the defendant can prove they are not. In \"R v Hansen\" [2007], a majority of the Supreme Court held that this presumption was inconsistent with section 25(c) of the Bill of Rights Act because it violates the right to be considered innocent until proven guilty. They also held that it was not a justified limitation under section 5 of that Act, but the presumption remains effective regardless of this inconsistency. Cannabis is a class C drug, of which the penalty for dealing can result in a maximum prison sentence of eight years under the Act. There have been many public campaigns to decriminalise cannabis but so far none have succeeded. It is generally accepted that the usage rate is high and possession in small quantities may not often be prosecuted. In some cases first offences may result in a formal warning and confiscation by police."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Saudi Arabia",
        "text": "The use and possession of cannabis is strictly illegal in the country of Saudi Arabia. Use and possession for personal use of any kind of recreational drugs is most of the time punishable by imprisonment if caught. For foreign citizens, there would generally be more leniency. Imprisonment for personal use of cannabis could go up to 1 to 6 months in prison with or without whippings for first time offenders. Imprisonment for drug dealing can range between 2 and 10 years in prison with whippings. Repeated dealing and or smuggling of large amounts of drugs usually result in harsher time in prison or can even include the death penalty, although recent executions are very rare. Foreigners who use cannabis could be deported."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Florida",
        "text": "In May 2016, Orlando city council approved by a 4\u20133 vote a plan to allow civil citations to be issued for possession of up to 20 grams of cannabis. The penalty was set at $100 for a first offense and $200 for a second. As an alternative, eight hours of drug education or community service can be substituted. The program went into effect in October 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "2008 sumo cannabis scandal",
        "text": "On September 11, he filed a suit against the JSA for dismissing him and applied for provisional disposition, insisting that his penalty was much heavier than previous cases of misconduct in sumo. On September 29, he hold a press conference and claimed that \"I was forcibly handed money to fight unfair bouts.\" He also insists that other wrestlers and coaches were smoking cannabis but they were not being punished. According to Doreen Simmons, a sumo commentator for NHK, it would seem that nobody expect such turn of events. Wakanoh\u014d's lawyer said that he did not know about it until the day before and he was sorry that he couldn't stop it. Simmons also said, \"It looks to me as if Wakanoho has nothing to lose and is looking to get 10 million yen in damages out of the JSA.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Rotson Kilambe",
        "text": "In September 2001, he was suspended for 6 months from international football since he tested positive for cannabis use, following a World Cup qualifier against Cameroon. Kilambe was the first African player to be banned by FIFA on doping related charges. The ban denied him the chance of playing at the African Nations Cup Finals in Mali.\n*List of sportspeople sanctioned for doping offences"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stephen Abrams",
        "text": "The advertisement went on to present medical sources asserting the harmlessness of cannabis, and recommended a five-point plan:\n# The government should permit and encourage research into all aspects of cannabis use, including its medical applications.\n# Allowing the smoking of cannabis on private premises should no longer constitute an offence.\n# Cannabis should be taken off the dangerous drugs list and controlled, rather than prohibited, by a new ad hoc instrument.\n# Possession of cannabis should either be legally permitted or at most be considered a misdemeanour, punishable by a fine of not more than \u00a310 for a first offence and not more than \u00a325 for any subsequent offence.\n# All persons now imprisoned for possession of cannabis or for allowing cannabis to be smoked on private premises should have their sentences commuted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Umpire abuse",
        "text": "In the criminal justice system, some jurisdictions mandate more severe penalties when a person commits a crime against a sports official immediately prior to, during, or immediately following any athletic contest in which the umpire, referee, or judge is participating in an official capacity. For instance, in the State of California, Section 243.8 of the Penal Code specifies that Battery against a sports official shall result in a fine that does not exceed more than $2000, or imprisonment with the sentence not exceeding one year. Battery against a sports official has more severe penalties than simple battery against a civilian, as in Section 243. California's maximum incarceration penalty for Battery on a Sports Official is twice as lengthy as the maximum sentence for Simple Battery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of France",
        "text": "The possession, sale and use of cannabis (predominantly Moroccan hashish) is illegal in France. Since 1 March 1994, the penalties for cannabis use are from two months to a year and/or a fine, while possession, cultivation or trafficking of the drug can be punished much more severely, up to ten years. According to a 1992 survey by SOFRES, 4.7\u00a0million French people ages 12\u201344 have smoked cannabis at least once in their lives."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Leaupepe",
        "text": "After his playing career, Leaupepe worked as a truck driver. He is married and has a daughter. In 2016 he was fined NZ $ 1,550 for possession of cannabis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Florida",
        "text": "In March 2016, Tampa city council approved by a 5\u20131 vote a plan to allow civil citations to be issued for possession of up to 20 grams of cannabis. The penalty was set at $75 for a first offense, $150 for a second, and $300 for a third."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicholas Delpopolo",
        "text": "On August 6, 2012, Delpopolo was expelled from the Olympics by the IOC after he tested positive for cannabis. Upon exiting the games, Delpopolo stated the positive test result was caused by \"inadvertent consumption of food that I did not realize had been baked with marijuana, before I left for the Olympic Games.\""
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some athletes that have called for further investigation into the benefits of cannabis?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Both Eugene Monroe and Derrick Morgan of the NFL have called for investigation into the benefits of cannabis for the treatment and prevention of concussions, while they and a number of other players have signed a letter requesting the NFL change its cannabis policies, citing its use a neuroprotectant and an opioid alternative. NHL players Riley Cote and Darren McCarty have also been outspoken about the medical benefits of cannabis, and The New York Times reported in 2020 that several members of the PGA Tour have become vocal about using CBD to treat ailments."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why was cannabis banned by many sport commissions?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Cannabis prohibition \"is one of the most controversial issues in anti-doping\" but reasons cited for banning its use include an increased risk of injury in-competition and the view that users of cannabis are not good role models. Calls for eliminating cannabis testing have come from the perspective of better pain management and reducing usage of opioids."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why would cannabis use cause an increased risk of injury?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I could not find an explanation for that, but another reason why it has been banned is because athletes smoking it will be seen as bad role models."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the penalty imposed by many sport commissions for using cannabis?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "It depends on the sport. Would you like to know how it's treated in American football, Association football, baseball, or basketball?"
    ],
    "topic": "Cannabis and sports",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Cannabis and sports:12",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cannabis and sports",
          "Individual sports",
          "American football"
        ],
        "ctx": "In March 2020, the National Football League (NFL) changed its policy regarding cannabis after signing a new collective bargaining agreement with the National Football League Players Association (NFLPA). The agreement stipulated that positive tests would no longer result in a suspension and that players would only be suspended for missing multiple tests or refusing treatment. It also shortened the timeframe for which players would be tested from four months to two weeks, and raised the threshold for a positive test from 35\u00a0ng/mL of THC metabolite to 150 (prior to 2014 the threshold was set at 15). Running back Ricky Williams is among the players that have been suspended under the league's old policy, failing multiple tests that led him to miss the entire 2004 and 2006 seasons."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Cannabis and sports:19",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cannabis and sports",
          "Individual sports",
          "Association football"
        ],
        "ctx": "National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) player Megan Rapinoe has served as an \"athlete ambassador\" for a CBD startup company. Scottish club Hamilton Academical attracted attention in 2018 when they were sponsored by a local company which also involved the renaming of their ground as the \"Hope CBD Stadium\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Cannabis and sports:20",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cannabis and sports",
          "Individual sports",
          "Baseball"
        ],
        "ctx": "Major League Baseball (MLB) began testing players in Minor League Baseball (MiLB) for performance-enhancing substances and drugs of abuse in 2001. Testing for MLB players began in 2003 after MLB and the MLB Players Association agreed to it through collective bargaining. However, MLB players were only tested for cannabis if there was \"reasonable cause\" to do so, or if it was mandated by a drug treatment program."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Cannabis and sports:22",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cannabis and sports",
          "Individual sports",
          "Basketball"
        ],
        "ctx": "The National Basketball Association (NBA) suspended random drug testing for cannabis during the COVID-19 pandemic, initially instituting the policy during the 2020 NBA Bubble and then extending it through the 2020\u201321 and 2021\u201322 NBA seasons. Commissioner Adam Silver stated: \"We decided that, given all the things that were happening in society, given all the pressures and stress that players were under, that we didn't need to act as Big Brother right now.\" Previously Silver had stated that he was \"very interested in the science when it comes to medical marijuana\" and that he does not see cannabis use as an ethical or moral issue. He also noted in 2018 that multiple players have told him that cannabis helps them deal with their anxiety."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Testing for cannabis by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) began when it instituted a comprehensive drug testing program in 1986. Initially a 15\u00a0ng/mL threshold was established and any positive test resulted in a full-season suspension. In 2013 the threshold was lowered to 5\u00a0ng/mL while the penalty was relaxed to a half-season suspension. The threshold was then raised to 15\u00a0ng/mL in 2017, 35\u00a0ng/mL in 2019, and 150\u00a0ng/mL in 2022. Also in 2022 the NCAA Committee on Competitive Safeguards and Medical Aspects of Sports (CSMAS) recommended a relaxed penalty structure for divisions to adopt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "A pamphlet produced by the United States Department of Justice in the 1990s for youth sports coaches admonished them to \"Explain that marijuana is illegal and that the athlete can be arrested or suspended from school and sports for using it\", and listed several deleterious physical and psychological effects of marijuana including \"decreased stamina, weight gain, and reduced muscle strength.. . [l]aziness, lack of motivation, loss of control, and poor decisionmaking\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Cannabis and sports\n--World Anti-Doping Agency.\n--College and youth sports.\n--Individual sports.\n----American football.\n----Association football.\n----Baseball.\n----Basketball.\n----Cricket.\n----Diving.\n----Golf.\n----Hockey.\n----Mixed martial arts.\n----Motorsport.\n----Rugby football.\n----Skateboarding.\n----Snowboarding.\n----Sumo.\n----Swimming.\n----Track and field.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "According to a 2013 article by \"The Denver Post\", the National Hockey League (NHL) was alone among the big four North American professional sports leagues (NFL, NBA, MLB, and NHL) in not punishing players for cannabis use. Though cannabis was still tested for according to the article, a positive test could only result in a referral for treatment by the players union or a possible punishment \"in house\" by individual teams. The policy was first instituted in 1996 according to NHL deputy commissioner Bill Daly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In July 2021, the Nevada State Athletic Commission voted to stop punishing fighters for cannabis use. UFC fighter Nick Diaz received a five year suspension from the commission in 2015 for repeat cannabis violations, though the suspension was later reduced to a year and a half."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "The NCAA conducts cannabis testing for bowl and championship games, while performance-enhancing drugs are tested for more frequently through a year-round testing program. Many schools also conduct testing in addition to the testing that the NCAA conducts. A 2015 investigation by the Associated Press found that 23 of 57 schools analyzed had reduced penalties for cannabis use since 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "The use of cannabis by athletes has been banned by many sports commissions. However, some have relaxed their policies as societal attitudes towards its use have shifted. The prohibition \"is one of the most controversial issues in anti-doping\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In March 2020, the National Football League (NFL) changed its policy regarding cannabis after signing a new collective bargaining agreement with the National Football League Players Association (NFLPA). The agreement stipulated that positive tests would no longer result in a suspension and that players would only be suspended for missing multiple tests or refusing treatment. It also shortened the timeframe for which players would be tested from four months to two weeks, and raised the threshold for a positive test from 35\u00a0ng/mL of THC metabolite to 150 (prior to 2014 the threshold was set at 15). Running back Ricky Williams is among the players that have been suspended under the league's old policy, failing multiple tests that led him to miss the entire 2004 and 2006 seasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Cannabis was on the list of drugs of abuse until the 2019\u20132020 offseason, when THC and CBD were removed. Players will still be tested for synthetic cannabinoids, and are still subject to disciplinary action if they are caught using cannabis, for possession, or driving under the influence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA), cannabis is reported to be a banned substance that the league tests and penalizes players for. WNBA player Sue Bird has served as an \"athlete ambassador\" for a cannabidiol (CBD) startup company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2011, an American national team diver was suspended for a year after testing positive for cannabis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "The National Basketball Association (NBA) suspended random drug testing for cannabis during the COVID-19 pandemic, initially instituting the policy during the 2020 NBA Bubble and then extending it through the 2020\u201321 and 2021\u201322 NBA seasons. Commissioner Adam Silver stated: \"We decided that, given all the things that were happening in society, given all the pressures and stress that players were under, that we didn't need to act as Big Brother right now.\" Previously Silver had stated that he was \"very interested in the science when it comes to medical marijuana\" and that he does not see cannabis use as an ethical or moral issue. He also noted in 2018 that multiple players have told him that cannabis helps them deal with their anxiety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "The F\u00e9d\u00e9ration Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), the sanctioning body for global motorsport, including Formula One, has banned drivers for cannabis use. The FIA follows WADA protocol. As of 2021, cannabinoids are listed by WADA as prohibited in-competition, except CBD, which is specifically exempted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Craig Trindall",
        "text": "In 2006, The National Rugby League's Anti-Doping tribunal imposed a 12-week suspended sentence on Craig Trindall for cannabis use."
      },
      {
        "title": "NCAA banned substances",
        "text": "Marijuana, also known as cannabis, is a euphoriant and hallucinogenic drug prepared from the dried leaves of the strong-smelling plant \"Cannabis sativa\". Marijuana is a commonly used drug, legal in many states."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2018, running back Mike James petitioned the NFL for a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) to the league's ban on cannabis use. James cited a previous addiction to opioid drugs and argued that he should be allowed to use cannabis for pain relief instead. The petition was subsequently denied."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In May 2021, the Florida State Boxing Commission announced that it would stop testing fighters for cannabis use, based on the recommendation of the Association of Boxing Commissions medical advisory committee and following the lead of the new policy announced by UFC and USADA earlier in the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "A medical review found that \"cannabis consumption was found to be highest among athletes seeking the high risk and excitement of competing in extreme sports\", listing skateboarding as a specific example. The first cannabis related suspension for skateboarding occurred in 2019, of a competitor in run-ups to the 2020 Summer Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 1999, the England national rugby union team captain Lawrence Dallaglio was investigated by the Rugby Football Union over claims he had smoked cannabis whilst on a rugby tour as well as dealing drugs. He was later stripped of the captaincy as a result."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doping in the United States",
        "text": "Players who test positive for Marijuana will be subject to the following penalties.\n#First violation: Player will be required to enter the Marijuana Program\n#Second violation: Player will be subject to a $25,000 fine and re-entry into the Marijuana Program\n#Third violation: Player will be suspended for five games and re-entry into the Marijuana Program.\n#Fourth or subsequent violations: Player will be suspended for five games longer than the player's immediately preceding suspension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "During the early 2000s, former Dallas Cowboys center Mark Stepnoski served as president of the Texas chapter of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws. His activism caused his high school alma mater, Cathedral Preparatory School, to cancel his induction into the school's athletic hall of fame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In January 2021, the United States Anti-Doping Agency and Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) announced a change to the drug testing that USADA conducts for the UFC. Under the new policy, fighters will no longer be punished for cannabis use except in cases where \"further evidence demonstrates the substance was taken for performance-enhancing purposes such as alleviating pain or anxiety\". Jeff Novitzky, senior vice president of athlete health and performance for the UFC, said clear signs of intoxication would need to be present such as \"bloodshot eyes, they smell like marijuana, they're slurring or a far-off gaze\". Prior to the change a 180 ng/mL threshold was set in place but it was determined that this could not be definitively said to indicate intoxication. The change had no effect on the fact that the testing policies of state agencies such as the Nevada State Athletic Commission still apply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In July 2021, second division wrestler Takagenji was announced to have failed a test for cannabis. An investigation found that Takagenji, who was already on a warning for an unrelated prior matter, had smoked cannabis on at eight occasions, and he was dismissed by the JSA on July 30."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "A 2014 medical review found that almost 28% of college athletes in the United States self reported using cannabis in the past year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "While touring New Zealand in 1996\u20131997, a restaurant in Christchurch accused Phil Tufnell of smoking cannabis in their bathroom. As the restaurant had a reputation for making up stories about celebrities, the English team's management agreed with Tufnell's denials. Paul Smith retired in 1997 and acknowledged using cannabis; despite his retirement, the ECB suspended him for 22 months. In 2001, five South African players, Roger Telemachus, Andr\u00e9 Nel, Paul Adams, Justin Kemp, and Herschelle Gibbs, were caught smoking it at a party. They were fined R10,000. Dermot Reeve revealed that he was addicted to cocaine in 2005, and also acknowledged that he had used cannabis during the 1990s while he was an active player, but said that he never used it during the cricket season. In May 2005, Keith Piper of the Warwickshire County Cricket Club was suspended for the remainder of the season for cannabis. Also in 2005, an Australian cricket team from Inverloch provided chocolate cupcakes to a team from Nerrina and did not inform them that they contained cannabis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "USA Track & Field (USATF) said \"the merit of the World Anti-Doping Agency rules related to THC should be reevaluated\" after the ban of Sha'Carri Richardson from the 2020 Summer Olympics (held in 2021). The U.S. White House spokesperson, Jen Psaki concurred, saying \"maybe we should take another look at\" the rules for athletes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penalty (gridiron football)",
        "text": "In gridiron football, a penalty is a sanction called against a team for a violation of the rules, called a foul. Officials initially signal penalties by tossing a bright yellow (American football) or orange (Canadian football) colored penalty flag onto the field toward or at the spot of a foul."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2017, NBA player Al Harrington conducted an interview with former commissioner David Stern regarding the topic of cannabis use by players. Stern told Harrington during the interview: \"I'm now at the point where personally I think [cannabis] probably should be removed from the banned list. You've persuaded me.\" NBA head coach Steve Kerr has also expressed support for allowing the use of cannabis in professional sports."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2019, Robert Garrigus became the first professional golfer suspended for testing positive for cannabis. He has openly criticized the PGA Tour's cannabis policy. In October 2019, Matt Every was suspended for the same reason. In 2020, \"The New York Times\" said PGA Tour and Champions Tour players \"have become more vocal about using CBD to treat their ailments since the compound was removed from banned substances list in 2018\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In January 2020, MMA fighter Elias Theodorou became the first North American athlete to receive a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) for the use of cannabis, granted by the British Columbia Athletic Commission. In May 2021 he received the first such exemption in the U.S., granted by the Colorado Combative Sports Commission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis (drug)",
        "text": "Penalties for illegal recreational use ranges from confiscation or small fines to jail time and even death. In some countries citizens can be punished if they have used the drug in another country, including Singapore and South Korea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Offside (American football)",
        "text": "The penalty for violation remains 5 yards at most levels of professional and amateur play."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comparison of association football and futsal",
        "text": "In futsal, the first penalty mark is analogous to the penalty mark in football and is 6 metres from the midpoint of the goalposts."
      },
      {
        "title": "AFL Tribunal",
        "text": "The Match Review Panel also assesses a variety of offences for which players are fined but not suspended, including wrestling, negligent contact with an umpire, making an obscene gesture, etc. As for physical offences, there is a standardised table of penalties, which depend upon the nature of the offence, and any prior similar offences; \"e.g.\" a player's second wrestling offence attracts double the penalty of his first. As for physical offences, a player can accept his penalty with an early guilty plea, receiving a 25% reduction in his fine, or he may contest it and risk the full penalty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Australia",
        "text": "In SA the maximum penalty for \"possession of any piece of equipment for use in connection with the smoking, consumption or administration of a controlled drug\" is a fine of up to $2000 or imprisonment for up to 2 years or both."
      },
      {
        "title": "1993 NCAA Division I-A football season",
        "text": "The Sunshine Classic was no longer sponsored by Blockbuster Entertainment, and was now known as the Carquest Bowl.\n* The distance between the hashmarks was narrowed from 53 feet, 4 inches (the same as high school football, with the exception of Texas, which is the same as College Football at 40 feet) to 40 feet (the standard used by the National Football League through the 1971 season). This cut down on severe angles for kickers who attempted short field goals, although angles would still be far greater than those encountered by kickers in the NFL, where the hashmarks are the same width as the goalposts, 18 feet, 6 inches.\n*The \"fumblerooski\" play is outlawed as intentional fumbles are now illegal.\n*Players who are bleeding or have open wounds are required to leave the game until the bleeding is stopped and the wound treated.\n*The loss of down penalty associated with offensive pass interference has been deleted. The yardage penalty remains at 15 yards.\n*Officials are instructed to flag players for unsportsmanlike conduct (15 yards) for actions on the field that are prolonged, excessive, or meant to bring attention to themselves (such as the \"Heisman pose\" and the firing of six-shooters).\n*On kickoffs, at least four players must be lined up on either side of the kicker.\n*All balls must be made of leather. Composite and rubber balls were outlawed."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Granger (footballer)",
        "text": "In 2003 Granger was finally sentenced to jail after being found guilty of knowingly having cannabis in his possession for the purpose of selling it after 17\u00a0kg of cannabis had been found by police in his home. He was sentenced to four years and three months imprisonment. Granger had three previous convictions for cannabis offences in 1991, 1998 and 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States Anti-Doping Agency",
        "text": "In January 2021, USADA announced that UFC fighters would no longer be punished for cannabis use except in extreme cases where clear signs of intoxication were present at the time of a fight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2016, the NFL announced the formation of a committee to study issues of pain management among players, including the use of cannabis as medicine. In June 2021, the NFL announced that it would award $1 million in funding for such research. In February 2022 the NFL announced the awarding of two grants for cannabis research, one of which would additionally investigate its benefits in treating concussions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "WADA relaxed its policy towards cannabis in 2013, increasing from 15\u00a0ng/mL to 150\u00a0ng/mL the level of THC metabolite allowed in urine before an athlete is considered to have failed a drug test. Said WADA Director of Communications Julie Masse: \"We wanted to focus on the athletes that abuse the substance in competition. This should exclude cases where marijuana is not used in competition.\" The 150\u00a0ng/mL threshold also allows for a 180\u00a0ng/mL \"Decision Limit\" to be used to account for any uncertainties in measurement above a certain level of confidence. According to WADA statistics, the percentage of failed drug tests for cannabis use dropped from 9.0% in 2012 to 2.4% in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "David Murray, who played cricket in the 1970s, said after his career that he used cannabis \"before and after the day's play, but never in the breaks \u2013 you can't do that\". Ian Botham was suspended for 63 days by the England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB) in 1986 after he admitted in an interview that he had smoked cannabis. Wasim Akram, Waqar Younis, Aqib Javed, and Mushtaq Ahmed of the Pakistani national cricket team were arrested in Grenada in April 1993 for possession of cannabis. In 1995, Stephen Fleming was caught and admitted to smoking with teammates Matthew Hart and Dion Nash while on tour at their hotel. They were suspended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comparison of association football and futsal",
        "text": "In football, the penalty kick is taken at a spot inside the centre of the Penalty Area 12 yards from the goal, called the penalty mark."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2017, former New York Jets defensive end Marvin Washington was part of a lawsuit filed against Attorney General Jeff Sessions, challenging the classification of cannabis as a Schedule I drug and citing the racist origins of cannabis laws as a reason why its prohibition is unconstitutional. Following the lawsuit's dismissal, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to take up the case in October 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Calls for eliminating cannabis testing have come from the perspective of better pain management and reducing usage of opioids. Athletes such as Eugene Monroe and Derrick Morgan have called for further investigation into its potential for treating and preventing concussions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bam Morris",
        "text": "Morris has become more well known for his off-field legal troubles than his football prowess. On June 27, 1996, Morris pleaded guilty to felony possession of marijuana in a plea bargain deal in front of a Rockwall County, Texas judge. Police testified that they found 6 pounds of marijuana during a traffic stop. He was fined $7,000 and sentenced to 200 hours of community service and six years' probation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Armstrong (footballer, born 1971)",
        "text": "In March 1995, Armstrong tested positive for cannabis, becoming the first Premier League player to fail a drug test, and was banned for four matches. \"The Independent\" sports writer Glenn Moore criticised The FA for punishing Armstrong despite not taking action against Dennis Wise and Vinnie Jones for recent violent offences, adding that cannabis was extremely unlikely to have aided his performance. Armstrong finished the season on 18 goals, not enough to save the Eagles from relegation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Peru",
        "text": "Cultivation, production or sale is punished with 8 to 15 years in prison."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penalty kick (association football)",
        "text": "The table below shows the punishments specified by the laws for offences involving handling the ball or physical contact, between 1890 and 1903:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2018, Coleman Bentley of \"Golf Digest\" investigated the effects of cannabis on golfers and summarized:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Association football",
        "text": "Sanctions for such infractions may be levied on individuals or on to clubs as a whole. Penalties may include fines, points deductions (in league competitions) or even expulsion from competitions. For example, the English Football League deduct 12 points from any team that enters financial administration. Among other administrative sanctions are penalties against game forfeiture. Teams that had forfeited a game or had been forfeited against would be awarded a technical loss or win."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) player Megan Rapinoe has served as an \"athlete ambassador\" for a CBD startup company. Scottish club Hamilton Academical attracted attention in 2018 when they were sponsored by a local company which also involved the renaming of their ground as the \"Hope CBD Stadium\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penalty (gridiron football)",
        "text": "The following are general types of penalty enforcement. Specific rules will vary depending on the league, conference, and/or level of football."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Flag Football League",
        "text": "American Flag Football League\n--Rules.\n----Penalties.\n--History.\n--Media coverage.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctors for Cannabis Regulation",
        "text": "As part of its initiative to change cannabis policy in the National Football League, DFCR working in conjunction with former NFL running back Mike James filed the first therapeutic use exemption with the league in May 2018, though it was ultimately denied. In April 2020 the NFL changed its policy regarding cannabis after signing a new collective bargaining agreement with the National Football League Players Association, decreasing but not eliminating penalties for players."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandatory sentencing",
        "text": "Mandatory sentencing and increased punishment were enacted when the United States Congress passed the Boggs Act of 1951. The acts made a first time cannabis possession offense a minimum of two to ten years with a fine up to $20,000; however, in 1970, the United States Congress repealed mandatory penalties for cannabis offenses. With the passage of the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 Congress enacted different mandatory minimum sentences for drugs, including marijuana.\n* 1st Offense: 2\u20135 years.\n* 2nd Offense: 5\u201310 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penalty (sports manufacturer)",
        "text": "The company manufactures mainly association football equipment such as kit uniforms and balls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penalty (gridiron football)",
        "text": "It is a common misconception that the term \"penalty\" is used to refer both to an infraction and the penal consequence of that infraction. A \"foul\" is a rule infraction (e.g. offensive holding) for which a \"penalty\" (e.g. move back 10 yards) is assessed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "A gold medal in men's snowboarding was temporarily rescinded at the 1998 Winter Olympics after Canadian Ross Rebagliati tested positive for cannabis use. A drug test showed that he had 17.8\u00a0ng/mL of THC metabolite in his system, slightly higher than the 15\u00a0ng/mL threshold used by the International Ski Federation. The IOC executive board voted 3\u20132 to disqualify him from competition on February 11, 1998, which the Canadian Olympic Association immediately appealed. Rebagliati maintained his innocence and said that he had tested positive due to exposure to secondhand smoke. On February 13 an appeals court ruled in Rebagliati's favor, due to the fact that cannabis had not been officially banned by the IOC yet (it was banned shortly thereafter in April) and therefore the IOC had no authority to strip the medal. No charges were filed against Rebagliati after he was questioned by Japanese police for seven hours regarding the matter. He was put on the No Fly List and banned from entering the United States, however, which prevented him from participating in future competitions such as the X Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penalty shoot-out (association football)",
        "text": "As part of a trial to reduce a potential first-mover advantage, the IFAB sanctioned in March 2017 to test a different sequence of taking penalties, known as \"ABBA\", that mirrors the serving sequence in a tennis tiebreak (team A kicks first, team B kicks second):\n;Original sequence\n:AB AB AB AB AB (sudden death starts) AB AB AB etc.\n;Trial sequence\n:AB BA AB BA AB (sudden death starts) BA AB BA etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eben Britton",
        "text": "Britton is an advocate for removing cannabis from the list of banned substances in the NFL. Britton says he used cannabis as a preferred method of pain management during his football career, and has cited the health risks associated with pharmaceutical painkillers as a reason why players should not be punished for choosing a natural alternative. Britton is a member of the Gridiron Cannabis Coalition, a group that advocates for the NFL to change its policy on cannabis. He is also a member of the Doctors for Cannabis Regulation NFL steering committee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Smoking in association football",
        "text": "Smoking in association football\n--History.\n--Bans.\n--Post-bans.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Block in the back",
        "text": "The signal for this penalty is the ref holding his right arm out as to show a pushing motion and the left arm under the wrist of the right arm, both moving simultaneously showing the foul on the play."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Australia",
        "text": "In TAS the maximum penalty for \"possessing thing used for administration of controlled drug\" is a fine of up to 50 penalty units."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "NHL players Riley Cote and Darren McCarty have been outspoken regarding their personal experience using cannabis and the medical benefits it has provided them. Cote co-founded an organization called Athletes for Care which advocates for athletes on issues of health and safety including the use of cannabis as medicine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In September 2021, WADA announced that it would conduct a review to determine whether cannabis should remain on the list of prohibited substances. A press release stated: \"Following receipt of requests from a number of stakeholders, the [Executive Committee] endorsed the decision of the List Expert Advisory Group to initiate in 2022 a scientific review of the status of cannabis. Cannabis is currently prohibited in competition and will continue to be in 2022.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Penalty (sports manufacturer)",
        "text": "Penalty (sports manufacturer)\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "WADA's policy towards cannabis came under scrutiny in 2021 following the banning of U.S. track and field athlete Sha'Carri Richardson from the Tokyo Summer Olympics. The suspension was criticized by U.S. Representatives Barbara Lee, Earl Blumenauer, and 16 other members of Congress who wrote that the policy was \"outdated and restrictive\" and that the United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) and WADA should \"re-evaluate its criteria and decision to include cannabis, specifically tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) as a prohibited substance\". USADA wrote to Representatives Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez and Jamie Raskin agreeing that \"Ms. Richardson's exclusion from the Tokyo Olympic Games is a heartbreaking situation and that the World Anti-Doping Agency's rules concerning marijuana must change\". It also noted that as a signatory to the World Anti-Doping Code, USADA has an obligation to enforce the rules regarding cannabis use, and that changing the rules might be problematic as the vast majority of countries still criminalize the drug. The Office of National Drug Control Policy stated that it would meet with WADA to \"gather additional information on its cannabis policies\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in New Zealand",
        "text": "Cannabis use is controlled by the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975. Possession of any amount of cannabis is illegal. The maximum penalty for possession of cannabis is imprisonment for a term not exceeding three months or a $500 fine, although section 7(2) of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975 contains a rebuttable presumption against imprisonment in respect of possession offences in respect of class C controlled drugs, which include cannabis. Cultivation of cannabis carries a maximum penalty of seven years' imprisonment. Selling cannabis, offering to sell or supplying cannabis to a person under the age of 18 years carries a maximum penalty of eight years' imprisonment. Cannabis oil and hashish are defined as class B drugs, and those convicted of manufacturing or supplying face a maximum penalty of 14 years' imprisonment. Possession of a class-B controlled drug carries a maximum sentence of up to three months' imprisonment or a fine not exceeding $500."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "There is no scientific consensus regarding the performance-enhancing effects of cannabis, with one 2018 paper reporting \"there is no evidence for cannabis use as a performance-enhancing drug\". Other reasons cited for banning its use include an increased risk of injury in-competition and the view that users of cannabis are not good role models."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2016, Eugene Monroe and Derrick Morgan became the first active NFL players to publicly challenge the league's policy of suspending players for cannabis use. A number of retired players have also advocated for the change, including Jim McMahon, Jake Plummer, Kyle Turley, Nate Jackson, Eben Britton, Leonard Marshall, Marvin Washington, Todd Herremans, Boo Williams, and Ricky Williams. In 2016, several of these active and retired players signed a letter penned by Doctors for Cannabis Regulation requesting that the NFL change its policy regarding cannabis. Reasons that have been cited in advocating for the change include the potential use of cannabis as a neuroprotectant, its use for pain relief as an opioid alternative, and the hypocrisy of the league promoting the use of alcohol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Purrel Fr\u00e4nkel",
        "text": "In March 2009 he was suspended for a month by the Royal Dutch Football Association (KNVB) after testing positive on smoking cannabis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doping in American football",
        "text": "The use of anabolic steroids and performance-enhancing drugs in American football is officially prohibited by virtually every sanctioning body."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Switzerland",
        "text": "The penalties imposed in practice also vary among cantons to a certain degree. The 2007 penalty guidelines adopted by the Bernese Judges' Association provide as follows:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Franz Stauder",
        "text": "In 2007, he tested positive for a metabolite of cannabis, from a sample given during qualifying in Halle. The International Tennis Federation ruled that Stauder had \"no intent\" to \"enhance his sporting performance\" through taking the drug. As a result, discretion was exercised and he received only a two-month suspension, as well as forfeiting relevant ranking points and prize money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Helping the runner",
        "text": "The penalty in college and high school was later reduced to 10 yards, and finally 5 yards. The NFL and CFL continued with the foul as 10 yards. In 2005, the National Football League made the penalty only for pulling and carrying, removing the flag in cases of pushing. The NCAA followed in 2013. Pushing still remains illegal in high school games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penalty (gridiron football)",
        "text": "Penalties were originally signaled using whistles or horns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Turkey",
        "text": "Consuming any drug (personal use or not) is illegal and requires juridical process. Possessing, purchasing or receiving any illegal drug, including Cannabis, is punishable by 1\u20132 years in prison; there is also the option of treatment and/or probation for up to three years. If users refuse treatment or do not comply with probation requirements, the courts can decide on sentencing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doping in American football",
        "text": "Players are notified usually after practice via a note on their chair next to their locker that they are required to complete a drug test. Any failure or refusal to complete the test will be treated as a positive result, and the athlete will be given the full punishment as if they were tested positive. The athletes then have limited time to complete the test to be eligible to play the next week and so forth. The athlete will then urinate into a cup and that will be sent to an official testing facility to deem if the athlete is clean or is tested positive for an illegal substance. After all testing is completed, the athlete and club manager are notified of the results. If the test indicates that the athlete has taken performance enhancing drugs, both individuals are notified of the imposed sanctions. Players can be tested either at a team facility or if the team is away they can be tested at the nearest NFL testing station."
      },
      {
        "title": "Circle rules football",
        "text": "A penalty may also be called on a player for holding the ball. The penalty for holding is an indirect free kick for the opposing team from the spot of the violation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legal history of cannabis in the United States",
        "text": "During the Reagan administration the Sentencing Reform Act provisions of the Comprehensive Crime Control Act of 1984 created the Sentencing Commission, which established mandatory sentencing guidelines. The Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 reinstated mandatory prison sentences, including large scale cannabis distribution. Later an amendment created a three-strikes law, which created mandatory 25-years imprisonment for repeated serious crimes \u2013 including certain drug offenses \u2013 and allowed the death penalty to be used against \"drug kingpins\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rotson Kilambe",
        "text": "In September 2001, he was suspended for 6 months from international football since he tested positive for cannabis use, following a World Cup qualifier against Cameroon. Kilambe was the first African player to be banned by FIFA on doping related charges. The ban denied him the chance of playing at the African Nations Cup Finals in Mali.\n*List of sportspeople sanctioned for doping offences"
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Velter",
        "text": "Velter tested positive for cannabis in 2006 and was subsequently handed a 3-month ban from sports. In 2011 he tested positive for cannabis again, and as it was his second anti-doping rule violation he received a 21-month ban."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derrick Morgan (American football)",
        "text": "In November 2016, the NFL Player's Association announced the formation of a committee to study issues of pain management among players, including the use of cannabis as treatment. Morgan was named as a founding member of the committee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ejection (sports)",
        "text": "Ejection (sports)\n--Conditions.\n----Basketball.\n------Disqualification.\n----Baseball.\n----American football.\n------Professional football.\n------College football.\n------High school football.\n----Association football.\n----Rugby.\n----Cricket.\n------Bowlers.\n----Ice hockey.\n----Water polo.\n----Field lacrosse.\n----Motorsport.\n--Additional penalties.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Karen Hills (footballer)",
        "text": "In January 2000 Hills and Mill Hill team mate Laura Burns tested positive for cannabis in a random drug test carried out by The Football Association. Both received six-month suspensions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legal history of cannabis in the United States",
        "text": "Mandatory sentencing and increased punishment were enacted when the United States Congress passed the Boggs Act of 1952 and the Narcotics Control Act of 1956. The acts made a first-time cannabis possession offense a minimum of two to ten years with a fine up to $20,000; however, in 1970 Congress repealed mandatory penalties for cannabis offenses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Todd Carney",
        "text": "Whereby Carney would have to:\n*Stand-down from training and matches for the rest of the season.\n*To go on an alcohol ban until the end of 2012.\n*Undergo counselling.\n*Complete a community service programme.\n*To also pay a $20,000 fine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jos\u00e9 Ortiz (basketball)",
        "text": "Despite his success in sports, Ortiz went through financial troubles, after he retired from playing professional club basketball. In 2011, he was arrested for the possession of 218 marijuana plants. He was sentenced to six months in prison."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Berry (athlete)",
        "text": "A native of Seattle, Washington, Berry attended Rainier Beach High School. In 2010 he received a three-month ban after testing positive for cannabis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ejection (sports)",
        "text": "Rules of the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS) state any player or team official that receives two unsportsmanlike conduct penalties in the same game is automatically disqualified."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian football",
        "text": "Penalties may occur before a play starts (such as offside), during the play (such as holding), or in a dead-ball situation (such as unsportsmanlike conduct)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Japan",
        "text": "There have been several high-profile arrests and scandals relating to the possession or use of cannabis by public figures. In 1980, English musician Paul McCartney was detained in a Japanese prison for nine days after cannabis was found in his luggage at Tokyo's Narita International Airport. The 2008 sumo cannabis scandal resulted in the expulsion of four professional sumo wrestlers from the sport, and was described by \"The Japan Times\" as the largest drug-related sporting scandal in Japanese history. In 2009, professional rugby player Christian Loamanu of Toshiba Brave Lupus Tokyo was indefinitely suspended from the Japan Rugby Football Union after testing positive for cannabis in a random drug test. In 2017, actress Saya Takagi was sentenced to a three-year suspended sentence for possession of cannabis; she subsequently retired from acting to become a cannabis legalization activist. Actor and idol Junnosuke Taguchi was sentenced to a two-year suspended sentence for possession of cannabis in 2019, while actor Yusuke Iseya was sentenced to a three-year suspended sentence for possession of cannabis in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Florida",
        "text": "In November 2015, Broward County commissioners approved by a unanimous vote a plan to allow civil citations to be issued for possession of up to 20 grams of cannabis. The penalty was set at $100 for a first offense, $250 for a second, and $500 for a third."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis rights",
        "text": "The use of cannabis for recreational purposes is prohibited in most countries; however, many have adopted a policy of decriminalization to make simple possession a non-criminal offense (often similar to a minor traffic violation). Others have much more severe penalties such as some Asian and Middle Eastern countries where possession of even small amounts is punished by imprisonment for several years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Florida",
        "text": "In May 2016, Orlando city council approved by a 4\u20133 vote a plan to allow civil citations to be issued for possession of up to 20 grams of cannabis. The penalty was set at $100 for a first offense and $200 for a second. As an alternative, eight hours of drug education or community service can be substituted. The program went into effect in October 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis rights",
        "text": "Anti-cannabis laws include civil infractions and fines, imprisonment, and even the death penalty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spannabis",
        "text": "\"Sports Illustrated\" described the event as \"part trade show, part research conference and 100% festival of copious cannabis consumption\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike James (American football)",
        "text": "James is an advocate for the medical use of cannabis, which he says can help reduce addiction to opioids among NFL players. James says cannabis helped him overcome his own painkiller addiction while recovering from a severe ankle injury sustained in 2013. In 2018, after failing a drug test the previous year, James filed a therapeutic use exemption (TUE) with the NFL to allow him to use cannabis. The petition was later denied, but James' attorney said that discussion with league officials was ongoing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penalty flag",
        "text": "The flag is colored orange in Canadian football. NFL penalty flags were colored white until 1965, when the color was changed to yellow. Penalty flags in college football were red until the 1970s, before also being changed to yellow. To mark field position after a change in possession, such as after an interception or punt, a small bean bag is used to mark where the change of possession took place. These bean bags are typically black, blue, or white; other colors such as orange have occasionally been used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comparison of Gaelic football and Australian rules football",
        "text": "In Australian rules, penalties available (in increasing order of severity) are:\n*free kicks (loss of possession)\n*distance penalties (often in multiples of 15, 25 or 50 metres)\n*ordering off (similar to a yellow card in association football [soccer], not used in the Australian Football League)\n*reporting (to be sent to a tribunal post-match for suspension from future matches and/or paying a fine)"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some athletes that have called for further investigation into the benefits of cannabis?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Both Eugene Monroe and Derrick Morgan of the NFL have called for investigation into the benefits of cannabis for the treatment and prevention of concussions, while they and a number of other players have signed a letter requesting the NFL change its cannabis policies, citing its use a neuroprotectant and an opioid alternative. NHL players Riley Cote and Darren McCarty have also been outspoken about the medical benefits of cannabis, and The New York Times reported in 2020 that several members of the PGA Tour have become vocal about using CBD to treat ailments."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why was cannabis banned by many sport commissions?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Cannabis prohibition \"is one of the most controversial issues in anti-doping\" but reasons cited for banning its use include an increased risk of injury in-competition and the view that users of cannabis are not good role models. Calls for eliminating cannabis testing have come from the perspective of better pain management and reducing usage of opioids."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why would cannabis use cause an increased risk of injury?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I could not find an explanation for that, but another reason why it has been banned is because athletes smoking it will be seen as bad role models."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the penalty imposed by many sport commissions for using cannabis?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It depends on the sport. Would you like to know how it's treated in American football, Association football, baseball, or basketball?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about Association football, thank you."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) player Megan Rapinoe has served as an \"athlete ambassador\" for a CBD startup company.[70] Scottish club Hamilton Academical attracted attention in 2018 when they were sponsored by a local company which also involved the renaming of their ground as the Hope CBD Stadium.",
      "National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) player Megan Rapinoe has served as an \"athlete ambassador\" for a CBD startup company.[70] Scottish club Hamilton Academical attracted attention in 2018 when they were sponsored by a local company which also involved the renaming of their ground as the Hope CBD Stadium."
    ],
    "topic": "Cannabis and sports",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Cannabis and sports:19",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cannabis and sports",
          "Individual sports",
          "Association football"
        ],
        "ctx": "National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) player Megan Rapinoe has served as an \"athlete ambassador\" for a CBD startup company. Scottish club Hamilton Academical attracted attention in 2018 when they were sponsored by a local company which also involved the renaming of their ground as the \"Hope CBD Stadium\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Cannabis and sports:19",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cannabis and sports",
          "Individual sports",
          "Association football"
        ],
        "ctx": "National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) player Megan Rapinoe has served as an \"athlete ambassador\" for a CBD startup company. Scottish club Hamilton Academical attracted attention in 2018 when they were sponsored by a local company which also involved the renaming of their ground as the \"Hope CBD Stadium\"."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) player Megan Rapinoe has served as an \"athlete ambassador\" for a CBD startup company. Scottish club Hamilton Academical attracted attention in 2018 when they were sponsored by a local company which also involved the renaming of their ground as the \"Hope CBD Stadium\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA), cannabis is reported to be a banned substance that the league tests and penalizes players for. WNBA player Sue Bird has served as an \"athlete ambassador\" for a cannabidiol (CBD) startup company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ross Rebagliati",
        "text": "Rebagliati stated in a 2015 interview that he believes cannabis is a performance-enhancing drug, as it \"puts you in the moment\" and \"you get in a zone where you can give it a 110%\". He has touted the benefits of CBD in particular, noting its anti-inflammatory properties and that it \"has a calming effect reducing stress and anxiety which are two more realities of being an athlete\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Dunn (runner)",
        "text": "Dunn also promotes the use of cannabis for athletes, believing the stigma historically attached to cannabis users is unfounded.\u00a0 He knows from personal experience that CBD, in particular, is vital in relieving both mental stress and physical pain after training and competitive events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "NHL players Riley Cote and Darren McCarty have been outspoken regarding their personal experience using cannabis and the medical benefits it has provided them. Cote co-founded an organization called Athletes for Care which advocates for athletes on issues of health and safety including the use of cannabis as medicine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ross Rebagliati",
        "text": "In January 2018, Ross and his business partner Patrick Smyth founded Legacy Brands by Ross Rebagliati, which promotes healthy living and finding that athlete in us all through everyday family-friendly products. Focusing on CBD products, Ross stated: \"Canadians are opening up more and more to cannabis, and many older people are really understanding as to the benefits of CBD; which is used to treat medical conditions like epilepsy. It is gaining favor among athletes and the public alike. Unlike other extracts, CBD is not psychoactive and is used for sleep regulation, inflammation, and anxiety. We are excited. We feel the rest of the country will adopt a healthy use of cannabis in the coming years.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2019, Robert Garrigus became the first professional golfer suspended for testing positive for cannabis. He has openly criticized the PGA Tour's cannabis policy. In October 2019, Matt Every was suspended for the same reason. In 2020, \"The New York Times\" said PGA Tour and Champions Tour players \"have become more vocal about using CBD to treat their ailments since the compound was removed from banned substances list in 2018\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sydney CBD FC",
        "text": "Sydney CBD FC is an amateur association football club based in Sydney CBD, New South Wales, Australia. The club was formed in 2014 as Team CBD, but changed their name after just one season. The club currently competes in the Eastern Suburbs Football Association (ESFA)."
      },
      {
        "title": "CB Ciudad de Valladolid",
        "text": "On 28 July 2020, Ciudad de Valladolid agreed collaboration terms with local association football club Real Valladolid and started to use their name, colors and crest.\n*Brico D\u00e9p\u00f4t Ciudad de Valladolid 2015\u20132016\n*Comercial Ulsa Ciudad de Valladolid 2016\u20132017\n*Carramimbre CBC Valladolid 2017\u20132020\n*Real Valladolid Baloncesto 2020\u2013present\n*Frank Bartley (born 1994), basketball player for Ironi Ness Ziona of the Israeli Basketball Premier League\n*I\u00f1aki Mart\u00edn 2015\u20132016\n*Paco Garc\u00eda 2016\u20132019\n*Hugo L\u00f3pez 2019\u2013present\n*LEB Oro: (1)\n**2020"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sydney CBD FC",
        "text": "Sydney CBD FC\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabidiol",
        "text": "Cannabidiol has been used by professional and amateur athletes across disciplines and countries, with the World Anti-Doping Agency removing CBD from its banned substances list. The United States Anti-Doping Agency and United Kingdom-Anti-Doping Agency do not have anti-CBD policies, with the latter stating that, \"CBD is not currently listed on the World Anti-Doping Agency Prohibited List. As a result, it is permitted to use in sport, though the intended benefits are unclear and not backed by clinical evidence. All other cannabinoids (including but not limited to cannabis, hashish, marijuana, and THC) are prohibited in-competition. The intention of the regulations is to prohibit cannabinoids that activate the same receptors in the brain as activated by THC.\" In 2019, the cannabis manufacturer, Canopy Growth, acquired majority ownership of BioSteel Sports Nutrition, which is developing CBD products under endorsement by numerous professional athletes. The National Hockey League Alumni Association began a project with Canopy Growth to determine if CBD or other cannabis products might improve neurological symptoms and quality of life in head-injured players. Numerous professional athletes use CBD, primarily for treating pain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Liam Messam",
        "text": "Throughout his professional athlete career Liam developed a preference for natural alternative health options to relieve both physical pain and mental challenges high-profile athletes experience. After witnessing the detrimental effect conventional pain relief and mental health medication has on close friends and family, Liam founded Ora CBD alongside Teddy Stanaway in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In July 2019, UFC announced a partnership with Aurora Cannabis to conduct research on the effectiveness of CBD in areas of wound care, recovery, pain, and inflammation, using UFC fighters as test subjects. In 2020 it was announced that the partnership had been terminated, however."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In March 2021, UFC announced a five year agreement with Love Hemp to name it the Official Global CBD Partner of UFC."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Douglas Park",
        "text": "In July 2016 it was announced that as part of a \u00a3750,000 sponsorship deal, New Douglas Park would be renamed the \"SuperSeal Stadium\" after a deal was agreed with Glasgow-based home improvements company SuperSeal. In July 2018 it became the \"Hope CBD Stadium\" following another sponsorship deal with a firm providing cannabidol products owned by the club's chief executive Colin McGowan. In July 2019 it changed again to the \"Fountain of Youth Stadium\" in another sponsorship deal worth \u00a3750,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Craig Trindall",
        "text": "In 2006, The National Rugby League's Anti-Doping tribunal imposed a 12-week suspended sentence on Craig Trindall for cannabis use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Cannabis and sports\n--World Anti-Doping Agency.\n--College and youth sports.\n--Individual sports.\n----American football.\n----Association football.\n----Baseball.\n----Basketball.\n----Cricket.\n----Diving.\n----Golf.\n----Hockey.\n----Mixed martial arts.\n----Motorsport.\n----Rugby football.\n----Skateboarding.\n----Snowboarding.\n----Sumo.\n----Swimming.\n----Track and field.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Torneio dos Campe\u00f5es da CBD",
        "text": "Torneio dos Campe\u00f5es da CBD was a Brazilian football competition held in 1969 with the objective of qualifying a team for the 1970 Copa Libertadores. Gr\u00eamio Maring\u00e1 was declared as the champions after Botafogo forfeited the final after CBD decided not to have Brazilian teams competing in the 1970 Copa Libertadores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "NBA players that are entrepreneurs in the cannabis industry or that have entered into business partnerships include Kevin Durant, Allen Iverson, Al Harrington, Shawn Kemp, Cliff Robinson, Larry Hughes, Chris Webber, Isiah Thomas, Ben Wallace, Dwyane Wade, Carmelo Anthony, John Wall, John Salley, and Paul Pierce. Iverson announced a partnership with Harrington's company Viola Brands in 2021. In addition to collaborating on various business initiatives, the pair announced they would engage in educational efforts to reduce the stigma surrounding cannabis use. Durant announced a separate partnership in 2021 with the company Weedmaps to \"deconstruct the negative stereotypes associated with cannabis while elevating the conversation around the plant's potential for athlete wellness and recovery\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mineir\u00e3o",
        "text": "At the end of the 1940s, journalist Canor Sim\u00f5es Coelho achieved with CBD the inclusion of Belo Horizonte as one of the venues of 1950 FIFA World Cup. For this, the council would have to build a stadium at the height of the event. Official agreement was signed by mayor Otac\u00edlio Negr\u00e3o de Lima and the president of the CBD, Rivad\u00e1via Correa Meyer. The modest club Sete de Setembro was in charge of commanding the works of the new field."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2019, \"High Times\" published tips for \"toking up and teeing off\". \"Golf Magazine\" published \"5 reasons why a golfer could benefit from using CBD\" in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ross Rebagliati",
        "text": "Since the 1998 Olympics, Rebagliati has become an outspoken advocate and entrepreneur for cannabis. He has also been involved in multimillion-dollar real estate development projects throughout British Columbia, as well as residential construction. Rebagliati was the subject of full-page coverage in the July 14, 2008, edition of \"Sports Illustrated\", which profiled his life since his Olympic win."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sydney CBD FC",
        "text": "They joined the Eastern Suburbs Football Association from the 2016 season onwards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "The F\u00e9d\u00e9ration Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), the sanctioning body for global motorsport, including Formula One, has banned drivers for cannabis use. The FIA follows WADA protocol. As of 2021, cannabinoids are listed by WADA as prohibited in-competition, except CBD, which is specifically exempted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 1999, the England national rugby union team captain Lawrence Dallaglio was investigated by the Rugby Football Union over claims he had smoked cannabis whilst on a rugby tour as well as dealing drugs. He was later stripped of the captaincy as a result."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In January 2020, MMA fighter Elias Theodorou became the first North American athlete to receive a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) for the use of cannabis, granted by the British Columbia Athletic Commission. In May 2021 he received the first such exemption in the U.S., granted by the Colorado Combative Sports Commission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gold Coast Arena",
        "text": "The prospective CBD site is serviced by two light rail stations, Nerang Street to the east (500 metres away) and Queen Street to the west (800 metres away), which connects to the Queensland Rail City network allowing passengers to travel to the Brisbane CBD. The site is also serviced by bus stations in the same locations as well as stops in the north on Johnston Street and Nerang Street to the south."
      },
      {
        "title": "CSyD Trist\u00e1n Su\u00e1rez",
        "text": "Apart from football, other sports practised at the institution are basketball, women's field hockey, roller skating and taekwondo."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Irving (American football)",
        "text": "Following his indefinite suspension from the NFL in March 2019, Irving became an activist for cannabis. He opened a cannabis business with a focus on CBD-related products. Irving co-founded his own cannabis advocacy magazine called Cannabis Passport with John Scannell who originally invented the Worlds First Rolling paper magazine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "While touring New Zealand in 1996\u20131997, a restaurant in Christchurch accused Phil Tufnell of smoking cannabis in their bathroom. As the restaurant had a reputation for making up stories about celebrities, the English team's management agreed with Tufnell's denials. Paul Smith retired in 1997 and acknowledged using cannabis; despite his retirement, the ECB suspended him for 22 months. In 2001, five South African players, Roger Telemachus, Andr\u00e9 Nel, Paul Adams, Justin Kemp, and Herschelle Gibbs, were caught smoking it at a party. They were fined R10,000. Dermot Reeve revealed that he was addicted to cocaine in 2005, and also acknowledged that he had used cannabis during the 1990s while he was an active player, but said that he never used it during the cricket season. In May 2005, Keith Piper of the Warwickshire County Cricket Club was suspended for the remainder of the season for cannabis. Also in 2005, an Australian cricket team from Inverloch provided chocolate cupcakes to a team from Nerrina and did not inform them that they contained cannabis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis in Australia",
        "text": "The Who Are We Hurting Team.\n* On 20 April 2019 activists moved in a 9 metre tall cannabis sculpture at Sydney's iconic Martin Place to ignite discussion around the legality of cannabis. The sculpture was titled Who are we really hurting and was removed by police later that day.\n* On 20 April 2018 activists teamed up with the hemp health and innovation expo and placed cannabis plants over Sydney CBD, the stunt made national headlines with the organizers being interviewed on network tens breakfast tv show Studio 10.\n* On 20 April 2017 activists set up a Hydroponic grow room in a store window in the heart of Sydney. Police attended the premises to investigate and found that the plants were artificial and the instillation was allowed to stay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karen Hills (footballer)",
        "text": "In January 2000 Hills and Mill Hill team mate Laura Burns tested positive for cannabis in a random drug test carried out by The Football Association. Both received six-month suspensions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Braedyn Crowley",
        "text": "Braedyn Crowley (born 10 October 1996) is an Australian professional soccer player who plays as a striker for Maitland FC in the National Premier Leagues Northern NSW."
      },
      {
        "title": "CB Valladolid",
        "text": "All LEB Oro First Team"
      },
      {
        "title": "BioSteel Sports Nutrition",
        "text": "In October 2019, it was announced that Canopy Growth, a Canadian cannabis producer had acquired a 72% stake in BioSteel, paving the way to introduce CBD-infused BioSteel products to the market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aodh\u00e1n \u00d3 R\u00edord\u00e1in",
        "text": "\u00d3 Riord\u00e1in is an advocate for legalisation of cannabis. In 2017, he called for cannabis to be legalised, in order to \"cut the knees from under drug gangs\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jobe Watson",
        "text": "In June 2019, Watson participated in the Big Freeze at the 'G alongside several former AFL footballers and Australian sportspeople to raise money for the Cure for MND Foundation."
      },
      {
        "title": "CB Ciudad de Valladolid",
        "text": "In 2020, when the team was leading the LEB Oro, the season was curtailed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the club was awarded with the promotion to Liga ACB but did not fulfill the requirements for joining the league."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bloemfontein",
        "text": "Buildings in the CBD also host smaller upstart colleges, which come and go. Such colleges catch the overflow from public institutions and late enrolments, or learners whose high school achievement may fall short of various entry requirements. This list may vary from year to year:\n*ATTI\n* Jeppe College\n* Rostec College\n* Hatfield\n* iZululethu\n* St Ignatious\n* intec college\n* Boston college\n*Loch Logan Waterfront Mall\n* Mimosa Mall\n* Middestad Centre\n* Northridge Mall\n* Preller Walk Mall\n* Fleurdal Mall\n* Lemo Mall\n* Twin City Mall\n* Bloem Plaza\n* Central Park Mall and bus terminal\n* Brandwag Centre\n* Southern Life Centre\n* Sanlam Plaza\n* Nethan's Mall\n* Dan Pienaar Mall\n* Bloemgate Centre\n* Pretty Gardens Lifestyle Centre\n* Kenworth Centre\n* College Square Centre\n* Victorian Square Centre\n* Preller Plein\n* Botshabelo mall\n* Reizis Square\n* Showgate Centre"
      },
      {
        "title": "CBV Binnenland",
        "text": "CBV Binnenland\n--Honours.\n----Women's team.\n----Men's team.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "The National Basketball Association (NBA) suspended random drug testing for cannabis during the COVID-19 pandemic, initially instituting the policy during the 2020 NBA Bubble and then extending it through the 2020\u201321 and 2021\u201322 NBA seasons. Commissioner Adam Silver stated: \"We decided that, given all the things that were happening in society, given all the pressures and stress that players were under, that we didn't need to act as Big Brother right now.\" Previously Silver had stated that he was \"very interested in the science when it comes to medical marijuana\" and that he does not see cannabis use as an ethical or moral issue. He also noted in 2018 that multiple players have told him that cannabis helps them deal with their anxiety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Riley Cote",
        "text": "During his time in the NHL, Cote used cannabis as a natural pain-reliever and alternative to addictive pharmaceutical drugs. After retiring, Cote co-founded Athletes for Care, a group that advocates for athletes on issues of health and safety including the use of cannabis as medicine."
      },
      {
        "title": "CB Ciudad de Valladolid",
        "text": "LEB Plata MVP"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2018, running back Mike James petitioned the NFL for a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) to the league's ban on cannabis use. James cited a previous addiction to opioid drugs and argued that he should be allowed to use cannabis for pain relief instead. The petition was subsequently denied."
      },
      {
        "title": "ES Marks Athletics Field",
        "text": "A stop on the CBD and South East Light Rail is named after the venue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "Cannabis was on the list of drugs of abuse until the 2019\u20132020 offseason, when THC and CBD were removed. Players will still be tested for synthetic cannabinoids, and are still subject to disciplinary action if they are caught using cannabis, for possession, or driving under the influence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Angharad James (footballer)",
        "text": "Individual"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "USA Track & Field (USATF) said \"the merit of the World Anti-Doping Agency rules related to THC should be reevaluated\" after the ban of Sha'Carri Richardson from the 2020 Summer Olympics (held in 2021). The U.S. White House spokesperson, Jen Psaki concurred, saying \"maybe we should take another look at\" the rules for athletes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sport Club do Recife",
        "text": "In football, the club has won six CBD/CBF titles, including three national and three regional. Its greatest achievements are winning the 1987 Brazilian Championship and 2008 Copa do Brasil. \u21b5In addition to professional football, the club also participates in women's football and Olympic sports, such as rowing, swimming, hockey, basketball, futsal, volleyball, table tennis, taekwondo, judo and athletics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Torneio dos Campe\u00f5es da CBD",
        "text": "Torneio dos Campe\u00f5es da CBD\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "CBR Brave",
        "text": "11 November 2016, The CBR Brave were announced as a finalist in the inaugural 2016 CBR Sport Awards under the category of \"Minister for Sport and Recreation's Award for Innovation\" alongside Tennis ACT, Ginninderra Athletics Club and Touch Football ACT. 9 December 2016, The Brave missed out on winning the minister's inaugural award for innovation as Ginninderra Athletics Club was announced the winner."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "In 2017, NBA player Al Harrington conducted an interview with former commissioner David Stern regarding the topic of cannabis use by players. Stern told Harrington during the interview: \"I'm now at the point where personally I think [cannabis] probably should be removed from the banned list. You've persuaded me.\" NBA head coach Steve Kerr has also expressed support for allowing the use of cannabis in professional sports."
      },
      {
        "title": "Megan Rapinoe",
        "text": "During the 2015 World Cup, she stood in silence for the national anthem. She spoke out about the use of stadiums with artificial turf, its first use in a senior women's or men's World Cup tournament."
      },
      {
        "title": "Busnago",
        "text": "The men's football team, called Acd Busnago plays in the first category championship (2018-2019)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis Cup",
        "text": "House of the Great Gardener - CBD Rene"
      },
      {
        "title": "2015 Australia women's national soccer team strike",
        "text": "On 8 September 2015, the players announced that they would not be attending the camp after negotiations with Football Federation Australia over a new CBA broke down. The players' union, the Professional Footballers Australia, released a statement saying that: \"Following the expiration of the Matildas CBA, the players are under no contractual obligation to undertake any Matildas related activities. FFA has failed to recognise the significant sacrifices the Matildas players are forced to make in playing for their country.\" The players equally announced that they would be striking until they received better pay and working conditions. The key demands of the players were:\n#For the CBA to contain basic minimum standards, such as setting the level of commitment expected from the players in accordance with the pay they receive;\n#Equal pay;\n#Increases in spending on air travel, accommodation and benefits;\n#Better development opportunities for youth players."
      },
      {
        "title": "Football West",
        "text": "In May 2019, Liberal-National Coalition Prime Minister Scott Morrison pledged $16.25 million towards a State Football Centre at Maniana Reserve, Queens Park, Cannington."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian Sports Brain Bank",
        "text": "In 2020, the bank identified CTE in the brain of Australian rules football hall of fame member Polly Farmer. Jacinda Barclay was the first contact sportswoman in Australia to donate her brain to the Australian Sports Brain Bank. Barclay was found dead at her Perth home on 12 October 2020. Her death was implied to have been a suicide. In 2021 researchers uncovered neurological degradation to her cerebral white matter, similar to that found in the brains of American footballers. Damage of this type is thought to be the result of repetitive head injury from contact sports and is linked to an increased risk of suicide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brazilian Ice Sports Federation",
        "text": "The Brazilian Ice Sports Federation (, CBDG) was founded by Eric Maleson, Brazil's first bobsled athlete. The CBDG was established in 1996 and affiliated to the Brazilian Olympic Committee in 1999. The federation qualified 7 athletes for the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah (5 bobsled athletes and 2 luge athletes) and a 4-man bobsled team for the 2006 Winter Olympics in Torino."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rob Gronkowski",
        "text": "In August 2019, Gronkowski credited cannabidiol (CBD) oil, the non-psychoactive component of cannabis plants, for making him pain-free for the first time in a decade, and has advocated sports governing bodies to allow players to use it for pain management."
      },
      {
        "title": "CB Valladolid",
        "text": "In 2015, the club was dissolved due to financial problems. It was replaced by the CB Ciudad de Valladolid, immediately created by the former player Mike Hansen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "NBA players that have advocated for the legalization of cannabis include Harrington, Cliff Robinson, and Oscar Robertson. Harrington appeared in a video ad to endorse California's Proposition 64 in 2016. Robertson appeared in a TV ad endorsing an Ohio ballot measure to legalize cannabis in 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lindela Repatriation Centre",
        "text": "The ANC Women's League has shares in the centre."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glenn Docherty",
        "text": "In the months following his election, Docherty was prominent in the South Australian and Australian Press with announcements and interviews regarding his keen interest on expanding employment opportunities in Playford, promoting the new SCT Rail Terminal, and promoting a study into the potential renewal of the suburbs of Elizabeth. Docherty also aims to make Elizabeth the second CBD of Adelaide. In February 2014, the council under his leadership released an expression of interest for the first stage of CBD development. Docherty also secured over 15 million dollars from the Federal Government and the University of Adelaide in building the Stretton Centre. This centre provides job training and research and development in new and emerging industries. The centre also comprises a community space."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "NFL players who are entrepreneurs in the cannabis industry include Calvin Johnson, Rob Sims, Marshawn Lynch, Tiki Barber, Kyle Turley, Jordan Reed, Marvin Washington, and Ricky Williams. Johnson and Sims, who are business partners, announced a partnership with Harvard University in 2019 to study the effects of cannabis on chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) and its benefits in managing pain. They also announced a six-figure donation to the International Phytomedicines and Medical Cannabis Institute at Harvard."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c1lvaro Zamith",
        "text": "\u00c1lvaro Zamith was a Brazilian sports administrator, who was the first president of the Brazilian Football Confederation, then called CBD (\"Confedera\u00e7\u00e3o Brasileira de Desportos\", or Brazilian Sports Confederation), from 20 November 1915 until 4 November 1916."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Expendables (American band)",
        "text": "The Expendables have expanded their brand into cannabis when they started a boutique company called ExpendaFarms. They developed their own marijuana strain, \"ExpendaBerry\", which is as their song \"Keef Bowl For Two\" describes it with \"frosty purple nugs\". The product line includes CBD sublingual tinctures with all the flower farming grown organically and without the use of pesticides.\n*Geoff Weers \u2013 Lead Vocals, Guitar (1997\u2013present)\n*Raul Bianchi \u2013 Lead Guitar (1997\u2013present)\n*Adam Patterson \u2013 Drums, Vocals (1997\u2013present)\n*Ryan DeMars \u2013 Bass (2000\u2013present)"
      },
      {
        "title": "CBR Brave",
        "text": "26 August 2016, ACT Labor made the announcement as part of their 2016 election campaign that they would pledge to build a new ice sports centre in the south of Canberra as part of a $23.3m four-year plan to upgrade sporting facilities territory wide if re-elected. This policy announcement was made in response to the ACT Indoor Sports Facilities Report commissioned by the government earlier in the year. Initially $75,000 would be spent in conjunction with the Ice Sports Federation on a community consultation program to determine what the community feels is needed and where exactly the facility should be located. Ice Hockey ACT (IHACT) welcomed the commitment announcement by the ACT Government to building a new ice sports facility with IHACT's president, Allan McLean, commenting \"We are very excited at the thought of playing ice hockey in a new, larger facility with the potential to grow our sport,\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "2015 Australia women's national soccer team strike",
        "text": "In 2019, a new collective bargaining agreement was signed between Professional Footballers Australia and the Football Federation Australia. The new CBA guaranteed equal split of all commercial revenues between the men's and women's national teams and a number of improvements to working conditions to bring the women's standards equal to the men's, including allowing business class for international travel, increased coaching support, and better parental leave policies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jason Cadee",
        "text": "Cadee was born and raised in the Sydney suburb of Greenacre. He attended Westfields Sports High School in the nearby suburb of Fairfield West, where he earned Hall of Fame status for basketball. He grew up playing for the Bankstown Bruins junior program."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cloey Uddenberg",
        "text": "In 2020, she began attending the University of Guelph, playing for the women's soccer team. In her rookie season in 2021 (the 2020 season was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic), she was OUA and U Sports Rookie of the Year, OUA West Player of the Year, and was named to the Second Team All-Canadian and U Sports All-Rookie team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Keishen Bean",
        "text": "Bean is also playing with CBU Capers of the CIS. In 2009, he was selected to the 2009 AUS first team all-star. Keishen earned PDL 1st Team All conference honours in 2011 for a stand out season with the Hogges. Keishen continued his success into the 2011 Cape Breton CIS season earning CIS Athlete of the week honors."
      },
      {
        "title": "CBD and South East Light Rail",
        "text": "]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stephen Blunden",
        "text": "Stephen Blunden\n--Playing career.\n----Youth career.\n----University career.\n----CBR Brave.\n--Personal.\n--Awards and honours.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gympie Memorial Park",
        "text": "In 2013, the Gympie Regional Council proposed the construction of a $22.7 million levee to protect the CBD area (including the Memorial Park) from future flooding. However, the proposal relies on obtaining state and federal funding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ida Guehai",
        "text": "In mid-August 2018, Guehai was diagnosed with cardiovascular deficiencies, which prevent her from playing high-level football. At the time, she was about to sign with RCD Espanyol. However, she did not retire."
      },
      {
        "title": "U.C. AlbinoLeffe",
        "text": "U.C. AlbinoLeffe\n--History.\n--Stadium and colors.\n--Honours.\n----Domestic.\n--Notable former players.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Clenbuterol",
        "text": "In 2015, two players from the Collingwood Football Club in Australia were delisted from the club and accepted two-year bans from all sport in Australia after testing positive to the substance, which they believe may have been in a contaminated illicit drug they consumed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karri McMahon",
        "text": "McMahon began her hockey with Arana Ascot Hockey Club. Once moved to South Australia, she played for Berri Hockey Club in the Riverland before moving to Adelaide to play for the Adelaide Peas. Once in Perth with the national team, McMahon has been drafted to YMCC, Fremantle HC, Suburban Lions and is now with Northcoast Raiders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brazilian Sports Confederation",
        "text": "The Brazilian Sports Confederation (Portuguese: \"Confedera\u00e7\u00e3o Brasileira de Desportos\"), also known by the acronym CBD, was the main sports confederation of Brazil, competent in the matter of tennis, athletics, swimming, water polo, handball, football, and any sporting activity not belonging to a self-standing institution. Football played a prominent role since the statute stated that it constituted \"the basic and essential sport of the Confedera\u00e7\u00e3o Brasileira de Desportos\". The CBD was born to overcome the contrasts between the \" Federa\u00e7\u00e3o Brasileira de Futebol \" (FBF) and the \" Federa\u00e7\u00e3o Brasileira de Sports \" (FBS), the two bodies that competed for hegemony in the organization of football in the country, an expression of the State of Sao Paulo and State of Rio de Janeiro football movement respectively. The establishment of the CBD led to the extinction of the two state entities on 21 June 1916, and in the same year, there was affiliation to the South American Football Confederation. On 20 May 1923, it obtained affiliation to the FIFA. The Confederation also represented most of the Brazilian states in the sports sector. Today dissolved, in terms of football, its attributions and functions have been conferred on the \" Confedera\u00e7\u00e3o Brasileira de Futebol \" (CBF), built in 1979."
      },
      {
        "title": "CB Ciudad de Valladolid",
        "text": "CB Ciudad de Valladolid was founded in June 2015 by the former American-Spanish retired player Mike Hansen with the aim to replace CB Valladolid, the main club of the city, which was dissolved at the end of the 2014\u201315 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surrey, British Columbia",
        "text": "In a case study of Toronto completed by Pierre Filion, he claims that while transit and natural area conservation are successful at achieving their respective immediate objectives, they \"do not modify metropolitan-wide relations between transportation and land use...in a fashion that is consistent with smart growth\". Filion identifies that the largest obstacles are NIMBY reactions from the public and the limited finances from the public sector.\n* Carolyn Arends, singer-songwriter and author\n* Karan Aujla, singer, songwriter and rapper\n* Harry Bains, politician\n* Nuvraj Bassi, professional football player\n* Jagrup Brar, politician\n* Jean-Luc Bilodeau, actor\n* Margaret Bridgman, politician\n* Lisa Brokop, singer\n* Laurent Brossoit, professional hockey goaltender\n* Chuck Cadman, politician\n* Dona Cadman, Member of Parliament and widow of Chuck Cadman\n* Gulzar Singh Cheema, physician and politician\n* Jasbir Singh Cheema, politician\n* Eleanor Collins, jazz singer, TV host and civic leader\n* Ryan D'Arcy, neuroscientist researcher\n* Narima dela Cruz, politician\n* Baltej Singh Dhillon, first Royal Canadian Mounted Police officer allowed to wear a turban\n* Ranj Dhaliwal, author\n* Sukh Dhaliwal, politician\n* Brenden Dillon, professional hockey player\n* Emmalyn Estrada, singer, songwriter, actress and sister of Elise Estrada\n* Elise Estrada, singer, songwriter, actress and sister of Emmalyn Estrada\n* Kevin Falcon, politician\n* Peter Fassbender, politician\n* Colin Fraser, professional ice hockey player\n* Curtis Fraser, professional ice hockey player\n* Gurmant Grewal, politician\n* Nina Grewal, politician\n* Scott Hannan, professional hockey player\n* Dave Hayer, politician\n* Kamal Heer, Punjabi singer\n* Russ Hiebert, politician\n* Jacob Hoggard, lead singer of Hedley\n* Britt Irvin, actress, singer, voice-over artist\n* Daniel Igali, 2000 Olympic gold medalist for freestyle wrestling\n* Mark Janssens, professional hockey player\n* Tristan Jarry, professional hockey goaltender\n* Jujhar Khaira, professional hockey player\n* Sydney Leroux, professional soccer player\n* Adam Loewen, first baseman/outfielder under minor-league contract for the Toronto Blue Jays\n* Harbhajan Mann, Punjabi singer\n* Alen Marcina, Professional soccer player and coach\n* Laura Mennell, actress\n* Tyler Joe Miller, country singer, songwriter, and humanitarian\n* Victoria Moors, Canadian gymnast at the 2012 Summer Olympics\n* Gary Nylund, professional hockey player\n* Shallon Olsen, Olympic artistic gymnast\n* Missy Peregrym, actress and former fashion model\n* Penny Priddy, politician\n* Michael Rasmussen (ice hockey) NHL player for the Detroit Red Wings\n* Paul Rodgers, vocalist with Free and Bad Company\n* Gordon Rice, artist\n* Jasbir Sandhu, politician\n* Linus Sebastian, videographer; CEO of Linus Media Group\n* Geroy Simon, professional football player\n* Jinny Sims, politician\n* Lauren Southern, internet personality, writer, and political activist\n* Kalib Starnes, professional mixed martial artist\n* Heather Stilwell, politician and activist\n* John Tenta, professional wrestler nicknamed \"Earthquake\"\n* Aaron Voros, professional hockey player\n* Manmohan Waris, Punjabi singer\n* Nolan Watson, businessman, philanthropist, and humanitarian\n* Dianne Watts, politician; first female Mayor of Surrey"
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the cannabis industry",
        "text": "On April 5, Podemos Cann\u00e1bico submitted a parliamentary proposal for cannabis clubs to be deemed \"essential services\". ConFAC, \"Confederaci\u00f3n de federaciones de asociaciones cann\u00e1bicas de Espa\u00f1a\", submitted to the parliamentary groups a \"guide of good practices\" for the reopening of cannabis clubs. The protocols proposed include the use of masks, staff partitions, social distancing, capacity guidelines, reduced hours, limited stays/visits, or take-out only."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dylan Collard",
        "text": "Collard was born in the Sydney suburb of Randwick, New South Wales, and moved to Parklea at a young age. He began playing football at age four, and his first football club was Quakers Hill Tigers."
      },
      {
        "title": "CB Avenida",
        "text": "Perfumer\u00edas Avenida Baloncesto formerly C.B. Halc\u00f3n Viajes, is a women's professional basketball team based in Salamanca, Spain. The team currently plays in the Liga Femenina de Baloncesto."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conner Duthie",
        "text": "Duthie signed for Stenhousemuir in June 2018, and he left the club at the end of the 2018\u201319 season. Duthie tested positive for having taken cannabis in a drug test taken after a League One match against Stranraer on 16 March 2019. He was subsequently banned from all competitive sport for two years. After completing his ban, Duthie joined Scottish League One side Dumbarton in March 2021 scoring his first goal for the club against former side Forfar Athletic in April 2021. He extended his deal with the Sons at the end of the campaign, having impressed new manager Stephen Farrell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camanachd Association",
        "text": "Not held in 2020 due to Covid-19 not possible to be played in 2021 but back in 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oviedo CB",
        "text": "Oviedo CB\n--History.\n----First years.\n----Playing in LEB Plata.\n----2013\u2013present: growing in LEB Oro.\n--Sponsorship naming.\n--Trophies and awards.\n----Individual awards.\n--Individual records.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sydney CBD FC",
        "text": "The 2015 season saw a change in home ground to the Domain Fields, adjacent to the Royal Botanic Gardens. They entered into the preliminary rounds of the 2015 FFA Cup, and in their only game were defeated 0\u20133 in the Fourth Round by Woonona FC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camden, New South Wales",
        "text": "However, on 17 May 2021, it was announced that A-League team Macarthur FC had acquired of the planning grounds to construct a football precinct to house the team's future W-League squad, as well as the National Premier Leagues NSW squads.\n*Steven Bradbury, short track speed skater who won Australia's first Winter Olympics gold medal\n* Rob Hirst, drummer with the band Midnight Oil\n* John Macarthur, father of the Australian wool industry\n* Dustin Martin, Australian rules footballer ()\n* Mat Mladin, world motorcycle champion\n* Professor Graeme Clark, inventor of the Bionic Ear\n* Hugh McCrae, Australian poet, biographer, illustrator\n* James Francis Dwyer (1874\u20131952), author\n* Francis Arthur Macarthur-Onslow (1875\u20131938), grazier and businessman\n* James William Macarthur-Onslow (1867\u20131946), soldier, grazier and politician\n* Chloe Esposito, modern pentathlon competitor who won the gold medal in the 2016 Rio olympics\n* Amy Harrison, association football player (Sydney FC and Washington Spirit)\n* Elizabeth Ralston, association football player at Sydney FC.\n* Garry Rush, racing driver\n* [CC-By-SA]\n* Camden Council website"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ferrol CB",
        "text": "In July 2015 the club announced that would dissolve its senior team, playing only in youth leagues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabis and sports",
        "text": "WADA relaxed its policy towards cannabis in 2013, increasing from 15\u00a0ng/mL to 150\u00a0ng/mL the level of THC metabolite allowed in urine before an athlete is considered to have failed a drug test. Said WADA Director of Communications Julie Masse: \"We wanted to focus on the athletes that abuse the substance in competition. This should exclude cases where marijuana is not used in competition.\" The 150\u00a0ng/mL threshold also allows for a 180\u00a0ng/mL \"Decision Limit\" to be used to account for any uncertainties in measurement above a certain level of confidence. According to WADA statistics, the percentage of failed drug tests for cannabis use dropped from 9.0% in 2012 to 2.4% in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australia national wheelchair rugby team",
        "text": "Men - Ryan Scott (0.5), Nazim Erdem (0.5), Garry Croker (1.0), Peter Harding (1.5), Bryce Alman (2.0), Brett Boylan (2.0), Kevin Kersnovske (2.0), Grant Boxall (2.5), Steve Porter (2.5), Patrick Ryan (2.5), George Hucks (3.0), Brad Dubberley (3.5)"
      },
      {
        "title": "2016 Copa do Nordeste",
        "text": "Source:CBF"
      },
      {
        "title": "2016 Copa do Nordeste",
        "text": "Source:CBF"
      },
      {
        "title": "2016 Copa do Nordeste",
        "text": "Source:CBF"
      },
      {
        "title": "2016 Copa do Nordeste",
        "text": "Source:CBF"
      },
      {
        "title": "2016 Copa do Nordeste",
        "text": "Source:CBF"
      },
      {
        "title": "Football Far North Coast",
        "text": "Golden Boot\n* Premier League (Female) - Tracy Want (Maclean) - ?\n* Premier League (Male) - Matthew Olley (Goonellabah) - 31 goals\n* Open (Female) - Sheree McGrath (Nimbin United) - ?\n* Open (Male) - Rohan Coe (Casino) - ?"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jacob Collard",
        "text": "Before playing for Perth Glory, Collard worked as a plumber."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some athletes that have called for further investigation into the benefits of cannabis?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Both Eugene Monroe and Derrick Morgan of the NFL have called for investigation into the benefits of cannabis for the treatment and prevention of concussions, while they and a number of other players have signed a letter requesting the NFL change its cannabis policies, citing its use a neuroprotectant and an opioid alternative. NHL players Riley Cote and Darren McCarty have also been outspoken about the medical benefits of cannabis, and The New York Times reported in 2020 that several members of the PGA Tour have become vocal about using CBD to treat ailments."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why was cannabis banned by many sport commissions?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Cannabis prohibition \"is one of the most controversial issues in anti-doping\" but reasons cited for banning its use include an increased risk of injury in-competition and the view that users of cannabis are not good role models. Calls for eliminating cannabis testing have come from the perspective of better pain management and reducing usage of opioids."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why would cannabis use cause an increased risk of injury?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I could not find an explanation for that, but another reason why it has been banned is because athletes smoking it will be seen as bad role models."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the penalty imposed by many sport commissions for using cannabis?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It depends on the sport. Would you like to know how it's treated in American football, Association football, baseball, or basketball?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about Association football, thank you."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) player Megan Rapinoe has served as an \"athlete ambassador\" for a CBD startup company.[70] Scottish club Hamilton Academical attracted attention in 2018 when they were sponsored by a local company which also involved the renaming of their ground as the Hope CBD Stadium."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any other athletes besides Megan Rapinoe that are involved in the CBD industry."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "On January 11, 2022, NASCAR team Richard Childress Racing announced a sponsorship deal with 3CHI, I also found that in March 2021 UFC announced a five year agreement with Love Hemp to name it the Official Global CBD Partner of UFC, and The first CBD-sponsored NASCAR event was held in 2021, the Pocono Organics CBD 325 at Pocono Raceway.",
      "Yes, in January 2013, Ross Rebagliati (Olympic Gold winning Canadian snowboarder) and his business partner, Patrick Smyth, launched Ross' Gold, a medical marijuana business; in April 2015, Ross launched his own line of glassware and expanded his brand into over 100 stores across Canada, and branched out into hemp CBD edibles.  Focusing on CBD products, Ross stated: \"Canadians are opening up more and more to cannabis, and many older people are really understanding as to the benefits of CBD; which is used to treat medical conditions like epilepsy. \""
    ],
    "topic": "Cannabis and sports",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Cannabis and sports:38",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cannabis and sports",
          "Individual sports",
          "Mixed martial arts"
        ],
        "ctx": "In March 2021, UFC announced a five year agreement with Love Hemp to name it the Official Global CBD Partner of UFC."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Cannabis and sports:43",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cannabis and sports",
          "Individual sports",
          "Motorsport"
        ],
        "ctx": "On January 11, 2022, NASCAR team Richard Childress Racing announced a sponsorship deal with 3CHI. \"RACER\" referred to the deal as \"the first hemp-based consumer brand sponsorship across all major professional sports.\" The branding consists of only the company name. The company logo, which features a cannabis leaf, was not approved by NASCAR following a lengthy process which involved testing the product at a NASCAR-approved lab to ensure compliance with the 2018 United States farm bill."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Cannabis and sports:42",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cannabis and sports",
          "Individual sports",
          "Motorsport"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2017, NASCAR ordered a team to remove a sponsorship decal for a cannabis company. As of the 2021 season, NASCAR allows sponsorship from CBD companies on the condition that advertised products contain less than .3% THC. The first CBD-sponsored NASCAR event was held in 2021, the Pocono Organics CBD 325 at Pocono Raceway."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ross Rebagliati:11",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ross Rebagliati",
          "Activities after snowboarding",
          "Cannabis industry"
        ],
        "ctx": "In January 2013, Rebagliati and his business partner, Patrick Smyth, launched Ross' Gold, a medical marijuana business. Ross' Gold's primary focus remains on establishing a brand in Canada and gaining a foothold in the industry under the federal government's new regulations. Under the new Marijuana for Medical Purposes Regulations, cannabis would be treated as any other narcotic used for medical purposes, enabling patients to acquire products as needed based on a health care practitioner's prescription."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ross Rebagliati:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ross Rebagliati",
          "Activities after snowboarding",
          "Cannabis industry"
        ],
        "ctx": "In April 2015, Ross launched his own line of glassware and expanded his brand into over 100 stores across Canada, and branched out into hemp CBD edibles. In December 2017, R Gold Enterprises Inc. bought the Ross' Gold Trademark and focused on building franchised stores under the new legalization of cannabis laws in Canada."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ross Rebagliati:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ross Rebagliati",
          "Activities after snowboarding",
          "Cannabis industry"
        ],
        "ctx": "In January 2018, Ross and his business partner Patrick Smyth founded Legacy Brands by Ross Rebagliati, which promotes healthy living and finding that athlete in us all through everyday family-friendly products. Focusing on CBD products, Ross stated: \"Canadians are opening up more and more to cannabis, and many older people are really understanding as to the benefits of CBD; which is used to treat medical conditions like epilepsy. It is gaining favor among athletes and the public alike. Unlike other extracts, CBD is not psychoactive and is used for sleep regulation, inflammation, and anxiety. We are excited. We feel the rest of the country will adopt a healthy use of cannabis in the coming years.\""
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ross Rebagliati:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ross Rebagliati"
        ],
        "ctx": "Ross Rebagliati (born July 14, 1971) is a Canadian snowboarder who won a gold medal in the men's giant slalom event at the 1998 Winter Olympics. The International Olympic Committee initially stripped him of the medal due to a failed drug test for cannabis use, but was overruled by an appeals court two days later, resulting in the medal being restored. Since retiring from snowboarding, Rebagliati has become an entrepreneur in the cannabis industry."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Monday Night Miracle (ice hockey)",
        "text": "The goal came after seven minutes and thirty seconds had already passed in the overtime period. It is considered to be one of the most memorable victories in Blues history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "As in several previous games, the U.S. team fell behind early. Vladimir Krutov deflected a slap shot by Alexei Kasatonov past U.S. goaltender Jim Craig at the 9:12 mark to give the Soviets a 1\u20130 lead. At the 14:03 mark, Buzz Schneider scored for the United States on a 50-foot shot from the left board to tie the game. The Soviets struck again when Sergei Makarov scored with 17:34 gone. With his team down 2\u20131, Craig improved his play, turning away many Soviet shots before the U.S. team had another shot on goal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "After the gold medal-securing victory over Finland, the players received a congratulatory phone call from President Jimmy Carter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "As his team ran all over the ice in celebration, Herb Brooks sprinted back to the locker room and cried. In the locker room afterwards, players spontaneously broke into a chorus of \"God Bless America\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Needing to defeat Finland to secure the gold medal, Team USA faced a 2\u20131 deficit at the end of the second period. According to Mike Eruzione, coming into the dressing room for the second intermission, Brooks turned to his players, looked at them, and said, \"If you lose this game, you'll take it to your fucking graves.\" He then walked towards the locker room door, paused, looked over his shoulder, and said to them again, \"Your fucking graves.\" Team USA came back in the third period to defeat Finland 4\u20132."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Malden also remarked with disapproval that Brooks could've ventured an occasional smile during one of the less intense games. Malden also wondered how, after working hard over the course of seven months that Brooks could have simply walked away after his team clinched the improbable victory against the Soviet team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Al Michaels",
        "text": "In 1980, an unheralded group of college ice hockey players from the United States won the gold medal at the Olympic Winter Games. The medal round match on February 22\u2014which, contrary to popular belief, did not yet assure the team of the gold medal\u2014was of particular interest, as it was played against a heavily favored professional squad from the Soviet Union, and was in front of an incredibly excited pro-American crowd in Lake Placid, New York. Michaels's memorable broadcast of this game, including his interjection\u2014\"Do you believe in miracles? YES!\"\u2014as time expired on the 4\u20133 U.S. victory, earned the game the media nickname of \"The Miracle on Ice\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim Fox (ice hockey)",
        "text": "Fox played a critical role in the tying goal during the stunning Miracle on Manchester game against Edmonton in the 1982 playoffs, by stripping scoring superstar Wayne Gretzky of the puck in the dying moments of the third period before sending it to defenseman Mark Hardy whose point shot was blocked but pounced on by Steve Bozek who swatted the puck past Oilers goaltender Grant Fuhr to even the score at 5-5 after Los Angeles had trailed 5-0 after two periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "Miracle is a 2004 American sports film about the United States men's ice hockey team, led by head coach Herb Brooks, portrayed by Kurt Russell, who won the gold medal in the 1980 Winter Olympics. The American team's victory over the heavily favored Soviet professionals in the medal round was dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\". \"Miracle\" was directed by Gavin O'Connor and written by Eric Guggenheim and Mike Rich. It was released on February 20, 2004, where it grossed $64.5 million on a $28 million budget and received positive reviews, with Russell's performance garnering the most praise from critics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "For the first game in the medal round, the United States played the Soviets. Finishing the first period tied at 2\u20132, and the Soviets leading 3\u20132 following the second, the U.S. team scored two more goals to take their first lead midway in the third and final period, then held on and won\u00a04\u20133. Two days later, the U.S. won the gold medal by beating Finland in their final game. The Soviet Union took the silver medal by beating Sweden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Miracle on Ice is a 1981 American sports docudrama about the United States men's national ice hockey team, led by head coach Herb Brooks (played by Karl Malden), that won the gold medal in the 1980 Winter Olympics. The USA team's victory over the heavily favored Soviet team in the medal round was dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\". The film premiered on March 1, 1981, as an installment of \"The ABC Sunday Night Movie\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In the group stage, both the Soviet and U.S. teams were unbeaten; the U.S. achieved several surprising results, including a 2\u20132 draw against Sweden, and a 7\u20133 upset victory over second-place favorite Czechoslovakia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The victory became one of the most iconic moments of the Games and in U.S. sports. Equally well-known was the television call of the final seconds of the game by Al Michaels for ABC, in which he declared: \"Do you believe in miracles? YES!\" In 1999, \"Sports Illustrated\" named the \"Miracle on Ice\" the top sports moment of the 20th century. As part of its centennial celebration in 2008, the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) named the \"Miracle on Ice\" as the best international ice hockey story of the past 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boston University Terriers men's ice hockey",
        "text": "Eruzione scored the famous winning goal against the Soviets with 10 minutes remaining, and Craig made 36 saves to preserve the 4\u20133 victory. Silk, who assisted on the United States' second and third goals, was mentioned in sportscast Al Michaels' final call: \"Eleven seconds, you've got ten seconds, the countdown going on right now! Morrow, up to Silk. Five seconds left in the game. Do you believe in miracles? Yes!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In the waning seconds of the first period, Dave Christian fired a slap shot on Tretiak from away. The Soviet goalie saved the shot but misplayed the rebound, which bounced out some in front of him. Mark Johnson sliced between the two defenders, found the loose puck, and fired it past a diving Tretiak to tie the score with one second left in the period. Confusion reigned immediately after as the game clock showed 0:00 since it could not be stopped in time after Johnson's goal. Referee Karl-Gustav Kaisla ruled that one second would be put back on the clock and the usual center ice faceoff would take place before the first intermission could begin. A lengthy delay followed as most of the Soviet team had already proceeded down the tunnel to their locker room. Eventually, three Soviet skaters along with backup goaltender Myshkin took the ice for the final faceoff. The first period ended with the game tied 2\u20132."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boston University Terriers men's ice hockey",
        "text": "O'Callahan, who had injured his left knee in an exhibition match, returned for the famous \"Miracle on Ice\" game and in his first seconds on the ice, delivered a massive hit on a Soviet player that turned the puck over to the Americans near the Soviet defensive zone. The hit caught the Soviets off guard and set up a goal scored by William \"Buzz\" Schneider to tie the game at 1\u20131."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vladimir Myshkin",
        "text": "After Tretiak gave up two goals in the first period of the famous \"Miracle on Ice\" game versus the USA in the medal round of the 1980 Winter Olympics, Tikhonov replaced him with Myshkin. He faced only 2 shots in the second period, and stopped them both, but gave up 2 goals in the third scored by Americans Mark Johnson and Mike Eruzione. Team USA won the game 4-3 and went on to capture the gold medal with the Soviets taking the silver."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In the Soviet locker room, Tikhonov singled out first-line players Tretiak, Kharlamov, Petrov, and Mikhailov, and told each of them, \"This is your loss!\" Two days after the Miracle on Ice, the Soviet team defeated Sweden 9\u20132, winning the silver medal. The Soviet players were so upset at their loss that they did not turn in their silver medals to get their names inscribed on them, as is custom. The result stunned the Soviet Union and its news media."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monday Night Miracle (ice hockey)",
        "text": "The clock dipped under two minutes remaining in the game as the Blues still searched for the game-tying goal. With only 1:17 remaining, they shot the puck behind Calgary's net from the neutral zone. As Calgary defenseman Jamie Macoun brought the puck from behind the net, he didn't notice that Paslawski was right behind him. Stealing the puck at the side of net, Paslawski flung a quick shot from a terrible angle that caught goalie Mike Vernon off guard. The puck went in the net, and with near-pandemonium in the Arena, the Blues burned the remaining time on the clock to force overtime."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The \"Miracle on Ice\" was an ice hockey game during the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York. It was played between the hosting United States and the Soviet Union on February 22, 1980, during the medal round of the men's hockey tournament. Though the Soviet Union was a four-time defending gold medalist and heavily favored, the United States upset them and won 4\u20133."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "The story of the United States men's national hockey team's gold medal victory at the 1980 Winter Olympics was retold in \"Miracle\", starring Kurt Russell as Herb Brooks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Vladimir Krutov was sent to the penalty box at the 6:47 mark of the third period for high-sticking. The Americans, who had managed only two shots on Myshkin in 27\u00a0minutes, had a power play and a rare offensive opportunity. Myshkin stopped a Mike Ramsey shot, then U.S. team captain Mike Eruzione fired a shot wide. Late in the power play, Dave Silk was advancing into the Soviet zone when Valeri Vasiliev knocked him to the ice. The puck slid to Mark Johnson. Johnson fired off a shot that went under Myshkin and into the net at the 8:39 mark, as the power play was ending, tying the game at 3. Only a couple of shifts later, Mark Pavelich passed to Eruzione, who was left undefended in the high slot. Eruzione, who had just come onto the ice, fired a shot past Myshkin, who was screened by Vasili Pervukhin. This goal gave Team USA a 4\u20133 lead, its first of the game, with exactly 10\u00a0minutes remaining to play."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "After the team list is finally posted, the team plays some exhibition games in Europe, where they post a respectable record (winning eight and only losing two games). But just as they are feeling great about their performance, they play the Minnesota North Stars and realize that their skills could still use improvement; furthermore, they recognize that beating the powerful Soviet Union team, who won the gold medal at the past four Olympic Games, will be a tremendous challenge. For their last exhibition game before the Olympics, they play against the Soviet Union at Madison Square Garden. Brooks realizes that this particular game will prove whether his team is ready to compete for the gold medal. The Soviets annihilate them by the score of 10\u20133, but newly installed captain Mike Eruzione refuses to let the team's spirit slide. In their opening game against the favored Swedish team, the United States is down two goals to one with less than a minute remaining in the game. Brooks pulls his goalie and the U.S. ties the game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "The film concludes with actual footage of the U.S. hockey team members receiving their medals, along with descriptions narrated by ABC Sports broadcaster Al Michaels of their accomplishments after the 1980 Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alexander Khavanov",
        "text": "Khavanov scored two goals, including the game-tying goal with less than 30 seconds remaining in regulation, for the Blues in their victorious \"Wednesday Night Miracle\" game where the Blues were trailing 5-0 to the Toronto maple Leafs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monday Night Miracle (ice hockey)",
        "text": "The Monday Night Miracle was the 1986 Stanley Cup playoff game between the Calgary Flames and the St. Louis Blues that was played on May 12, 1986. The game's notability stems from the Blues' overcoming a three-goal deficit with 12 minutes remaining in the third period, and their subsequent game-winning goal in overtime scored by Doug Wickenheiser."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Brooks wanted his team to play on lines lasting 40 seconds or less to stay energized by the third period. He instructed team physician George Nagobads to track ice time for the players, who later joked that he never saw the game since he was focused on his stopwatch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 1980 Winter Olympics",
        "text": "The victory became one of the most iconic moments of the Games and in U.S. sports. Equally well-known was the television call of the final seconds of the game by Al Michaels for ABC, in which he declared: \"Do you believe in miracles?! YES!\" In 1999, \"Sports Illustrated\" named the \"Miracle on Ice\" the top sports moment of the 20th century. As part of its centennial celebration in 2008, the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) named the \"Miracle on Ice\" as the best international ice hockey story of the past 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The U.S. and Russia played each other in a round-robin game at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. The game was tied 2\u20132 after overtime before the Americans prevailed in an eight-round shootout, with T.J. Oshie scoring on 4 of 6 attempts for the United States. The match has been dubbed by some as the \"Marathon on Ice\" due to its length. Both teams, however, failed to win a medal; the Americans finished fourth (losing to Canada in the semifinals), while the Russians placed fifth (losing to Finland in the quarterfinals)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "In overtime, the Kings almost met with immediate disaster. A bouncing puck was shot in from centre ice toward Kings' goalie Lessard, and he had trouble handling it cleanly. The puck began to slide out in front of the Kings' net. Lessard, fearing that the Oilers would regain possession of the puck, decided to leave his goal crease and chase the puck down. He went into a slide, but in doing so, he collided with Oiler Glenn Anderson about 40 feet in front of the Kings' net and the puck moved even farther out of his reach. By this time, Mark Messier had skated into the Kings' zone and took the puck on his backhand. With Lessard out of the net, Messier had an opportunity to score the winning goal into the open net. The Kings' Mark Hardy scrambled to get in front of the net as Messier unleashed a backhand shot. Unfortunately for Messier, the puck rolled off the end of his stick blade, and the shot sailed harmlessly to the right of the Kings' net. The Kings covered the puck behind their own net. Lessard had quickly skated back to his net as the Kings were covering the puck, and he leaned on the crossbar with his head down."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "The Kings' crowd was electrified at the scoring of the tying goal; the roar from the stands would continue for several minutes. The Kings on the ice formed a joyous group around Bozek, all of them tired, but ecstatic. The Oiler players on the ice, by contrast, were in disbelief, and lying down on the ice. Goaltender Fuhr had dropped to one knee and hung his head in disappointment. All that was left of regulation time was a faceoff at center ice. The last five seconds quickly elapsed, and the teams headed to their respective locker rooms to prepare for their second consecutive overtime game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Sportscaster Al Michaels, who was calling the game on ABC along with former Montreal Canadiens goaltender Ken Dryden, picked up on the countdown in his broadcast, and delivered his famous call:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In Olympic group play, the Americans surprised many observers with their physical, cohesive play. In their first game, on February 12 against favored Sweden, Team USA earned a dramatic 2\u20132 draw by scoring with 27 seconds left after pulling goalie Jim Craig for an extra attacker. Then came a stunning 7\u20133 victory over Czechoslovakia, who were a favorite for the silver medal. With its two toughest games in the group phase out of the way, the U.S. team reeled off three more wins, beating Norway 5\u20131, Romania 7\u20132, and West Germany 4\u20132 to go 4\u20130\u20131 and advance to the medal round from its group, along with\u00a0Sweden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bill Baker (ice hockey, born 1956)",
        "text": "Baker is best known for being a member of the Miracle on Ice 1980 U.S. Olympic Hockey Team that won the Gold Medal in Lake Placid, NY. Specifically, he is known for scoring the tying goal as the extra skater in the final minute forcing a 2\u20132 tie with Sweden in the opening game. This tie allowed the team to eventually advance to the medal round. Baker's jersey from the famed \"Miracle On Ice\" is on display at the Smithsonian in Washington, D.C., U.S. along with a stick autographed by all the members of the team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "During the broadcast wrap-up after the game, ABC Olympic sports anchor Jim McKay compared the American victory over the Soviet professionals to a group of Canadian college football players defeating the Pittsburgh Steelers (the recent Super Bowl champions and at the height of their dynasty)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "Early in the third period, with both teams at four skaters per side, the Kings gained possession of the puck in the neutral zone and tried an attack on the Oiler net. The Kings had a two-on-one with Dionne and Larry Murphy, but Dionne's setup pass was missed by Murphy, and the puck went toward the right wing boards. The Kings were able to regain control of the puck, and tried to set up another attack in the Oiler zone, when Dionne again obtained possession of the puck at the right point. Dionne sent a pass toward the left wing, where the puck ricocheted softly off of the boards and on to the stick of Jay Wells. Wells skated in from the left point, noticed Taylor was obstructing the sight line of Oiler goalie Fuhr, and took a shot from 30 feet out that went through the legs of Taylor and into the right side of the net past Fuhr at 2:36 to put the Kings on the scoreboard. The score now stood at 5-1."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "Later in the second period, both teams were playing with three skaters per side due to penalties. The Oilers' defenseman Risto Siltanen skated the puck through center ice and into the Kings' zone. The Oilers maintained control with sharp passing, but after an Oiler shot went wide of the net, the Kings' defender Mark Hardy appeared to have control of the puck. Gretzky swooped in behind the net and deftly stole the puck away. He then sent a quick pass over to Siltanen who one-timed a shot toward the net that seemed to zoom past Lessard into the net; it ricocheted against the end boards and around to the left side of the Kings' zone. The goal light was turned on by the goal judge, so play was stopped as the referees convened. It was determined that Siltanen's shot went through the net, and replays later confirmed it. The Oilers had increased their lead to 4-0."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "With a capacity of 8,500, the arena was packed. The home crowd waved U.S. flags and sang patriotic songs such as \"God Bless America\". Before the game, Brooks read his players a statement he had written out on a piece of paper, telling them that \"You were born to be a player. You were meant to be here. This moment is yours.\" Brooks believed they could win and later said, \"The Russians were ready to cut their own throats. But we had to get to the point to be ready to pick up the knife and hand it to them. So the morning of the game I called the team together and told them, 'It's meant to be. This is your moment and it's going to happen.' It's kind of corny and I could see them thinking, 'Here goes Herb again...' But I believed it.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "Soon after the Hardy goal, the Kings' three-minute power play began. There was an anxious moment for the Kings, as Oiler forward Pat Hughes gained a loose puck at center ice and had a clean breakaway. Hughes skated in alone on King goalie Lessard and took a low shot, but Lessard was able to block it. There was a small rebound for Hughes, but by the time Hughes regained the puck, he was too close to Lessard and didn't have time to shoot. All Hughes could do was knock the puck into Lessard's waiting glove, and Lessard covered the puck to stop play."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "As the 1980 Winter Olympics begins, the Americans trail Sweden 2\u20131 in the first game. Brooks fires up the team during an intermission by throwing a table and accuses McClanahan, who suffered a relatively minor leg injury, of quitting. McClanahan ends up playing despite his injury, which inspires the team. Bill Baker (Nick Postle) scores a goal with only 27 seconds remaining in the third period for a dramatic 2\u20132 tie. They then follow up with a 7\u20133 win over heavily favored Czechoslovakia. As the Olympics continue, the team defeats Norway, Romania, and West Germany to earn a spot in the medal round. The Americans are considered overwhelming underdogs to the Soviets in the first medal round game. The game begins and the Soviets score the first goal. Then O'Callahan, having healed enough from his injury, enters the game for the first time. He makes an immediate impact by heavily checking Vladimir Krutov on a play that leads to a goal by Buzz Schneider (Billy Schneider). The Soviets score again to retake the lead. In the final seconds, Soviet goalie Vladislav Tretiak stops a long shot by Dave Christian (Stephen Kovalcik), but Mark Johnson (Eric Peter-Kaiser) gets the rebound and scores with less than one second left in the period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ken Morrow",
        "text": "In the 1981 TV movie about the 1980 gold medal-winning U.S. Hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\", he is played by Scott Feraco."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The Soviets, trailing for the first time in the game, attacked ferociously. Moments after Eruzione's goal, Maltsev fired a shot which ricocheted off the right goal post. As the minutes wound down, Brooks kept repeating to his players, \"Play your game. Play your game.\" Instead of going into a defensive crouch, the United States continued to play offense, even getting off a few more shots on goal. The Soviets began to shoot wildly, and Sergei Starikov admitted that \"we were panicking.\" As the clock ticked down below a minute, the Soviets got the puck back into the American zone, and Mikhailov passed to Vladimir Petrov, who shot wide. The Americans fully expected Tikhonov to pull the goalie in the waning seconds. To their surprise, Myshkin stayed in the game. Starikov later explained that \"We never did six-on-five,\" not even in practice, because \"Tikhonov just didn't believe in it.\" Craig kicked away a Petrov slap shot with 33\u00a0seconds left. Kharlamov fired the puck back in as the clock ticked below 20\u00a0seconds. A wild scramble for the puck ensued, ending when Johnson found it and passed it to Ken Morrow. As the U.S. team tried to clear the zone (move the puck over the blue line, which they did with seven seconds remaining), the crowd began to count down the seconds left."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim Craig (ice hockey)",
        "text": "Craig played a key role in one of the landmark moments in United States sports history, as the goalie for the United States in the Miracle on Ice, when the 1980 U.S. Olympic hockey team defeated the favored Soviet Olympic hockey team, which was led by greats including Boris Mikhailov and Vladislav Tretiak. In that game, Craig stopped 36 of 39 shots from the Soviet team. His composure was evident in the final moments of the game and allowed the underdog U.S. team to protect their one-goal lead and win 4\u20133. The American Flag that Craig draped over his shoulders after the upset is now displayed at the Sports Museum of America in New York City. Two days later, he again led the U.S. to victory, 4\u20132 victory over Finland, clinching the gold medal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In the other group, the Soviets stormed through their opposition undefeated, often by grossly lopsided scores. They defeated Japan 16\u20130, the Netherlands 17\u20134, Poland 8\u20131, Finland 4\u20132, and Canada 6\u20134 to easily qualify for the next round, although both the Finns and the Canadians gave the Soviets tough games for two periods. In the end, the Soviet Union and Finland advanced from their group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "During the four-on-four situation, Kings forward Steve Bozek gained possession of the puck at center ice. Bozek skated into the Oiler zone on the left wing, then quickly moved to his right, toward the center. He then dropped a pass back to Hardy, who was behind Bozek and skating the opposite way (toward the left wing). The criss-cross put the Oilers out of position for a split second, and Hardy used the small window of time to cut in past Gretzky and take a wrist shot back against the grain, toward the right side of the net. Fuhr, surprised at the quick shot, tried to slide to his left to keep the puck out, but he was unsuccessful. The puck was in the net, the Kings' crowd went wild, and the Kings were now trailing 5-4."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the Olympic Games",
        "text": "The victory became one of the most iconic moments of the Games and in U.S. sports. Equally well-known was the television call of the final seconds of the game by Al Michaels for ABC, in which he declared: \"Do you believe in miracles?! YES!\" In 1999, \"Sports Illustrated\" named the \"Miracle on Ice\" the top sports moment of the 20th century. As part of its centennial celebration in 2008, the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) named the \"Miracle on Ice\" as the best international ice hockey story of the past 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "The next two games against Czechoslovakia and Norway both end with the U.S. victorious. The possibility of them making a run for a medal is now especially raised after they beat West Germany prior to their showdown with the Soviets. At the end of the first period in the medal round game between the U.S. and the Soviets, the score is tied. At the end of the second period, the U.S. trails by one goal. In the last few minutes of the game, the Soviet Union stages one last attack, but the U.S. is ultimately victorious. As the crowd at Olympic Center Ice Rink bursts into hysteria, Herb Brooks retreats to the locker room for some solitude, knowing they face Finland for the gold medal. Ultimately though, the United States do defeat Finland for the gold medal and Mike Eruzione urges his team to join him on the platform during the playing of the national anthem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Tikhonov replaced Tretiak with backup goaltender Vladimir Myshkin immediately after Johnson's goal, a move that shocked players on both teams. Tikhonov later identified this as the \"turning point of the game\" and called it \"the biggest mistake of my career\". Years later, when Johnson asked Viacheslav Fetisov, now an NHL teammate, about the move, Fetisov responded with \"Coach crazy.\" Myshkin allowed no goals in the second period. The Soviets dominated play in the second period, outshooting the Americans 12\u20132, but scored only once, on a power play goal by Aleksandr Maltsev 2:18 into play. After two periods the Soviet Union led, 3\u20132."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samuel Morin",
        "text": "His goal was the game-winner to break a four-game losing streak."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "At the 1981 Canada Cup, the United States, with seven players from their 1980 Olympic team, again faced the Soviet Union. The Soviets took the opening round encounter 4\u20131 in Edmonton. At the 1982 World Championship in Finland, with Mike Ramsey, Mark Johnson, Buzz Schneider, and John Harrington, the Americans again met the Soviets, but once again the U.S. lost, 8\u20134."
      },
      {
        "title": "Norm Maracle",
        "text": "Maracle earned the nickname \"Miracle\" because despite being a borderline starting goaltender, he would occasionally have superb games (including three 50+ save performances)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dave Christian",
        "text": "In the 1981 TV movie about the gold medal-winning hockey team entitled \"Miracle on Ice\", Christian is played by Thomas F. Duffy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "As the second period started, the Kings were still on the power play, but the Oilers were able to mount another rush. Gretzky took the puck in the Oiler zone, skated through center ice and passed to Fogolin. Fogolin skated down the wing and sent a seemingly harmless snap shot toward Lessard. The Kings' goaltender misplayed the sharp angle of the shot, and it went by him on the short side. The Oilers had scored two short-handed goals on the same Kings' power play, and had taken control of the game with a 3-0 lead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In their last exhibition game, against the Soviets at Madison Square Garden on Saturday, February 9, the Americans were crushed 10\u20133. Soviet head coach Viktor Tikhonov later said that this victory \"turned out to be a very big problem\" by causing the Soviets to underestimate the American team. The\u00a0game was also costly for the Americans off-ice, as defenseman Jack O'Callahan pulled a ligament in his knee; however, Brooks kept O'Callahan on the roster, which meant the U.S. was virtually playing with only 19 players throughout the tournament. O'Callahan eventually returned for the game against the Soviets, playing limited minutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "\"Miracle\" director Gavin O'Connor said that he remembers calling Herb Brooks to tell him that Karl Malden had been cast to play him and hearing a second or two of silence on the line before he replied, in a tone dripping with acid, \u2018Isn\u2019t he a bit old?\u2019 On the other hand, Tom Jones of the \"Tampa Bay Times\" said that while the movie was a bit hokey and included some strange choices (such as Steve Guttenberg as goalie Jim Craig), Karl Malden pulled off a credible performance as the grumpy Herb Brooks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "During an exhibition game against Norway in Oslo that ends in a 3\u20133 tie, Brooks notices the players are distracted and not playing up to their potential. After the game, he orders them back on the ice for a bag skate. Brooks has them skate from one end of the ice to the other several times (doing, in other words, his infamous \"Herbies,\" as the team would call them colloquially), continuing the drill even after the rink manager cuts the power. Exhausted, forward and team captain Mike Eruzione (Patrick O'Brien Demsey) re-introduces himself in the same manner from the initial practice and cries out that he plays for the United States. Getting the answer that he wanted all along, Brooks finally allows the team to go home. Eventually, the team comes together, with the players thinking of themselves as a family representing the United States. With their roster finalized, just before heading to Lake Placid, the Americans play the Soviets in an exhibition game at Madison Square Garden. The Soviets manhandle the young American team, winning by a score of 10\u20133. During the game, O'Callahan suffers a knee injury that could keep him out of the entire Olympics and starting goaltender Jim Craig (Eddie Cahill) is shockingly told he may be benched in favor of backup Steve Janaszak (Sam Skoryna). Brooks tells him that he hasn't been giving his very best and ultimately decides to keep Craig as the starter for the Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bob Kelly (ice hockey, born 1950)",
        "text": "Kelly scored the 1975 Cup-winning goal 11 seconds into the third period of game six. In a tremendous individual effort, he stole the puck behind the Sabres' net and was able to slide the puck under goalie Roger Crozier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The U.S., coached by Herb Brooks, and Russia, coached by Viacheslav Fetisov, met twice in the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, which included a 2\u20132 round-robin draw and a 3\u20132 semi-final win for the Americans. The semi-final match was played 22 years to the day after the \"Miracle on Ice\" game. The U.S. eventually won silver, while Russia won bronze."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herb Brooks",
        "text": "On the 25th anniversary of the Miracle on Ice, the Olympic ice arena in Lake Placid, New York, where the United States won the gold medal, was renamed Herb Brooks Arena. A statue of Brooks depicting his reaction to the victory in the 'Miracle' game was erected at the entrance to the RiverCentre in Saint Paul, Minnesota, in 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "Both teams were again playing at four skaters per side when the Oilers went to gain possession of the puck behind their own net. The attempted Oiler clearing pass, however, was intercepted on the right wing by Kings' forward Dean Hopkins, who took a stride forward and passed to Charlie Simmer. Simmer skated around an Oiler defender, then cut back toward the net. While falling down, Simmer tried to jam the puck into the right side of the net, but Fuhr's left foot blocked the puck. Oiler defenseman Randy Gregg, skating into the play, in trying to use his stick to tie up the stick of Simmer inadvertently hit Fuhr's leg. Fuhr was knocked back enough to allow the puck to slide over the goal line, and the goal brought the Kings to within two, at 5-3. This was the goal that really got the crowd back into the game and made the Kings believe they could actually pull the game out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monday Night Miracle (ice hockey)",
        "text": "Ken Wilson had the announcing duties for the national ESPN broadcast (the Blues regular television broadcaster, Dan Kelly, was calling the series on national TV in Canada), and he watched Calgary build a four to one lead. St. Louis scored their second goal of the game with about 15 seconds remaining in a five on three powerplay goal by Doug Wickenheiser, only to have that momentum temporary stifled as Joe Mullen answered by scoring Calgary's fifth goal of the game. The Blues subsequently found themselves trailing 5\u20132 at home with 12 minutes remaining in the third period. The Blues began their rally in earnest when Brian Sutter scored off a deflection off Calgary goalie Mike Vernon, and the 5\u20133 score carried down to eight minutes remaining in the game. Greg Paslawski was the next Blues player to score, making the score 5\u20134. In the midst of an electric atmosphere and impending sense of an upset, broadcaster Wilson commented on the Blues:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "The Oilers were on the power play, with four skaters against the Kings' three, when they went on the attack again. The Oilers obtained possession in the Kings' zone at the face-off, and as they had on their fourth goal, kept possession while moving the puck. The Oilers kept the puck on the outside until they saw an opening. Anderson took a pass to the right of the Kings' net and saw Gretzky sneak in behind Lessard and Kings' defenseman Rick Chartraw at the left side of the goal crease. Anderson sent a hard pass that went through Chartraw's legs and onto the stick of Gretzky, and all he had to do was deflect the puck into the net to give the Oilers a power play goal and a seemingly insurmountable 5-0 lead, and the score stayed that way as the second period came to a close."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "Later in the overtime period, the Kings had a scoring chance, as Doug Smith entered the Oiler zone with an open lane on the right wing. He took a hard shot, but Fuhr was in perfect position to catch the puck with his glove. He caught and controlled the puck long enough for play to be stopped. The ensuing face-off to restart play would take place in the Oiler zone to Fuhr's left. Kings' head coach Don Perry sent out an all-rookie forward line for the face-off: Bozek on left wing, Smith at center, and Daryl Evans on right wing. Smith won the face-off from Messier, gently drawing the puck back. As the puck slid back, Evans skated in behind Smith and immediately started swinging his stick back and took a slap shot. The shot swiftly headed toward the upper portion of the Oiler net. Fuhr brought his glove up to make the save, but the shot was moving too fast, and Fuhr was a fraction of a second too late. The puck went into the net at two minutes and 35 seconds of overtime, winning the game for the Kings, 6-5."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lake Placid, New York",
        "text": "In the U.S., the village is especially remembered as the 1980 USA\u2013USSR hockey game site. Dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\", a group of American college students and amateurs upset seasoned and professional Soviet national ice hockey team, 4\u20133, and two days later won the gold medal. Another high point during the Games was the performance of American speed-skater Eric Heiden, who won five gold medals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The Soviet Union entered the Lake Placid games as the heavy favorite, having won four consecutive gold medals dating back to the 1964 games. In the four Olympics following their 1960 bronze-medal finish at Squaw Valley, Soviet teams had gone 27\u20131\u20131 (wins-losses-ties) and outscored their opponents 175\u201344. In head-to-head matchups against the United States, the cumulative score over that period was 28\u20137. The Soviet team had not lost a game in Olympic play since 1968."
      },
      {
        "title": "NHL on ABC",
        "text": "For years later at Lake Placid, ABC was on hand for a medal-round men's ice hockey game that would soon become known the \"Miracle on Ice\". On February 22, 1980, the United States team, made up of amateur and collegiate players and led by coach Herb Brooks, defeated the Soviet team, which consisted of veteran professional players with significant experience in international play. The rest of the United States (except those who watched the game live on Canadian television) had to wait to see the game, as ABC decided to broadcast the late-afternoon game on tape delay in prime time. Sportscaster Al Michaels, who was calling the game on ABC along with former Montreal Canadiens goalie Ken Dryden, picked up on the countdown in his broadcast, and delivered his famous call:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ken Morrow",
        "text": "The following season, Morrow played for the 1980 U.S. Olympic hockey team that beat the Soviet team in an event known as the \"Miracle on Ice\" during the 1980 Winter Olympics before defeating Finland to win the gold medal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "Herb Brooks (Kurt Russell), head ice hockey coach at the University of Minnesota, interviews with the United States Olympic Committee for the national team coach's job, discussing his philosophy on how to beat the Soviet team, calling for changes to the practice schedule and strategy. The USOC is skeptical, but ultimately gives Brooks the job."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In 2004, Walt Disney Pictures released the film \"Miracle\", directed by Gavin O'Connor and starring Kurt Russell as Brooks. Al Michaels recreated his commentary for most of the games. The final ten seconds, however, and his \"Do you believe in miracles? YES!\" call, were from the original broadcast and used in the film since the filmmakers felt that they could not ask him to recreate the emotion he felt at that moment. The film was dedicated to Brooks, who died shortly after principal photography completed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "It could be argued that \"Miracle on Ice\" manages to tell a lot more about some of the players than \"Miracle\" did. For instance, in \"Miracle on Ice\", more is told of goalie Jim Craig, and his relationship with his father that culminated in the dramatic moment of him draped in an American flag at the end of the gold medal game, looking for his dad in the stands. There's also scenes in \"Miracle on Ice\" that touches upon the players' socio-economic backgrounds, such as one where Craig tells his father that remaining an amateur is costly for their family. \"Miracle\" instead, plays up regional tensions between Eastern and Western college hockey divisions to amplify the idea of conflict within the ranks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steve Janaszak",
        "text": "In the 1981 TV movie about the gold medal-winning U.S. hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\", Janaszak does not appear as a character, but rather in archival footage of the gold medal ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monday Night Miracle (ice hockey)",
        "text": "Monday Night Miracle (ice hockey)\n--Before the game.\n--Monday Night Miracle.\n----Overtime.\n--Aftermath.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Neal Broten",
        "text": "Broten was a member of the United States Olympic team that won a gold medal at the 1980 Winter Olympics in an event known as the \"Miracle on Ice\". He was also a member of Team USA at the 1981 Canada Cup and 1984 Canada Cup tournaments as well as the 1990 Ice Hockey World Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Whereas 1981's \"Miracle on Ice\" reused clips from ABC's actual broadcasts of the games blended in with some quick close-ups for the written footage, \"Miracle\" used real hockey players as actors and reshot the whole games. Also recreated in \"Miracle\" was the commentary by Al Michaels and Ken Dryden (with the exception of Michaels' now legendary \"Do you believe in miracles? Yes!\" line as the filmmakers felt that it would've been impossible to ask Michaels to recreate the genuine emotion and enthusiasm during the heat of that particular moment)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "At the time, the players ascended a podium to receive their medals and then lined up on the ice for the playing of the national anthem, as the podium was only meant to accommodate one person. Only the team captains remained on the podium for the duration. After the completion of the anthem, Eruzione motioned for his teammates to join him on the podium. Today, podia are not used for ice hockey; the teams line up on their respective blue lines after the final game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "A combined total of 50 goals were scored by the two teams in the five-game series, a new NHL record. The Kings also set a record for most goals by one team in a five-game series, with 27. Other NHL records that fell included the most goals by both teams in one game (18, in Game 1) and the biggest series upset in the Stanley Cup playoffs, as the Kings had finished 48 points behind Edmonton in the regular season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neal Broten",
        "text": "Broten is not featured in the 1981 TV movie about the 1980 U.S. hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\" except in archival footage of the gold medal ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 2010 Winter Olympics \u2013 Men's tournament",
        "text": "Sidney Crosby scored the game-winning goal off a pass from Jarome Iginla, seven minutes and forty seconds into overtime for Canada, gaining victory over the United States. The puck has been sent to the Hockey Hall of Fame in Toronto; in Canadian media, Crosby's goal has been compared in significance to the ones scored by Paul Henderson in the 1972 Summit Series and Mario Lemieux in the 1987 Canada Cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ren\u00e9 Lecavalier",
        "text": "Rough translation: \"Cournoyer moving it up the ice. Oh, Henderson lost the pass! He fell down. And in front of the net. AND HENDERSON SCORES! With 34 seconds to go!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Daryl Evans",
        "text": "He scored the game winning goal in the 'Miracle on Manchester\u2019, one of the most significant goals in LA Kings history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monday Night Miracle (ice hockey)",
        "text": "Wickenheiser's overtime goal set off the crowd at the Arena, a mass of cheering and celebration that continued well after both teams had left the ice. St. Louis couldn't rest on their laurels though, as they still faced an uphill battle by having to play Game 7 on Calgary's home ice, the Olympic Saddledome, two days later. The Blues made things interesting, but lost Game 7, 2\u20131. The Flames Game 7 victory sent them to the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time in their 14-year history. (The franchise spent their first eight seasons as the Atlanta Flames before moving to Calgary in 1980.) The Calgary Flames lost in five games to the Montreal Canadiens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bill Baker (ice hockey, born 1956)",
        "text": "In a 1981 TV movie about the gold medal-winning hockey team entitled \"Miracle on Ice\", Baker is played by David Wallace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Miracle on Ice\n--History.\n----The Soviet and American teams.\n----Exhibitions.\n----Olympic group play.\n--Game summary.\n----First period.\n----Second period.\n----Third period.\n--American aftermath.\n----Gold medal.\n----After the 1980 Winter Olympics.\n----Later careers.\n--Soviet aftermath.\n----Silver medal.\n----After the 1980 Winter Olympics.\n----NHL careers.\n--Notable rematches.\n--Popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack O'Callahan",
        "text": "In a 1981 TV movie about the gold medal-winning U.S. hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\", O'Callahan is played by Peter Horton."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "Game 2, both teams played more defensively, and thus was a low-scoring, more traditional style of playoff hockey, as the Kings and Oilers were tied 2-2 after regulation time had expired. In the first overtime period, Gretzky took possession of the puck after it was sent around the boards in the Kings' zone, then cradled the puck for a couple of seconds, faked a pass, and took a shot from 40 feet out that went through a screen and past Lessard into the Kings' net at 6:20 of overtime. The 3-2 victory for Edmonton tied the series at one game apiece."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States men's national ice hockey team",
        "text": "The American ice hockey team's greatest success was the \"Miracle on Ice\" at the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York, when American college players defeated the heavily favored seasoned professionals from the Soviet Union on the way to a gold medal. Though ice hockey is not a major sport in most areas of the United States, the \"Miracle\" is often listed as one of the all-time greatest American sporting achievements. The U.S. also won the gold medal in the 1960 Games at Squaw Valley, California, defeating the Soviet Union, Canada, Czechoslovakia, and Sweden along the way. However, since this victory is not as well known as the 1980 win, it has come to be known as the \"Forgotten Miracle\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "While on the power play near the end of the first period, the Kings made another offensive rush at Fuhr, with Dionne taking a centering pass and sending a wrist shot toward the Oiler net. Fuhr made the save, and the rebound went to Gretzky. Gretzky then proceeded to carry the puck from his own end to the Kings' end, skating down the middle of the ice and in alone on two Kings, Korab and Evans. Gretzky faked to the outside and then shifted quickly back inside, bypassing Korab. Gretzky then skated toward the left side, where rookie Evans was holding his position but conceding space to Gretzky. Gretzky saw enough room for an opportunity to shoot, but had his stick lifted from behind by Simmer, who was backchecking. Nevertheless, Gretzky was able to get his stick back down to ice level long enough to fire a sharp-angled shot that beat Lessard on the short side for a short-handed goal to put the Oilers up 2-0."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "The Kings' fans were enthusiastic at the start of the game, but as in Game 2, the Oilers struck first. The Kings had just finished killing a penalty to Dave Taylor when Kings forward Dan Bonar jumped on a loose puck in the Oiler zone and took a shot on goal. Fuhr made the save, and the Oilers counterattacked. A pass found Messier on the left wing, and he took a slap shot from about 25 feet out that went off Lessard's glove and into the net to give Edmonton a 1-0 lead."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Tonelli",
        "text": "Tonelli also scored the winning goal in a February 20, 1982 game against the Colorado Rockies, beating former teammate Chico Resch with just 47 seconds to play to allow the Islanders to set an NHL record (since broken) with their 15th consecutive victory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Niklas Kronwall",
        "text": "On 27 December 2010, Kronwall helped teammate and goaltender Chris Osgood get his 400th win by scoring the game-winning goal and lifting the Red Wings to a 4\u20133 overtime win over the Colorado Avalanche."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Mike Eruzione however joked that besides offering a far more handsome and hockey-knowledgeable alternative to Karl Malden, Kurt Russell was \u201cSomebody with a better nose.\u201d Nathan West, who played Rob McClanahan in \"Miracle\" said while joking with reporters about the 1981 film, \"What TV movie?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of ESPN on ABC",
        "text": "The 1980 Winter Olympics was the setting for the \"Miracle on Ice\", a medal-round men's ice hockey game in Lake Placid, New York, on February 22. The United States team, made up of amateur and collegiate players and led by coach Herb Brooks, defeated the Soviet team, which consisted of veteran professional players with significant experience in international play. The rest of the United States (except those who watched the game live on Canadian television) had to wait to see the game, as ABC decided to broadcast the late-afternoon game on tape delay in prime time. Sportscaster Al Michaels, who was calling the game on ABC along with former Montreal Canadiens goalie Ken Dryden, picked up on the countdown in his broadcast, and delivered his famous call:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 1960 Winter Olympics",
        "text": "Canada, the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia and Sweden were the top four teams heading into the Games. All four were defeated by the American team, which won all seven games it played. On the 50th anniversary of these Games, a documentary entitled \"Forgotten Miracle\" was produced by Northland Films, making reference to the more famous 1980 gold medal known as the Miracle on Ice; these are the only two Olympic gold medals won by USA men's ice hockey. Herb Brooks, the coach of the 1980 US team, was the last player cut from the 1960 team by coach Jack Riley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "A made-for-TV movie \"Miracle on Ice\", starring Karl Malden as Brooks, Steve Guttenberg as Craig, and Andrew Stevens as Eruzione aired on ABC television in 1981. It incorporated actual game footage and original commentary from the 1980 Winter Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle at the Meadowlands",
        "text": "Pisarcik, who at the time was distracted making sure Csonka was in position, was unprepared for the snap. It struck his middle finger so hard there was still blood on the nail after the game. Nevertheless, he held on to the ball after a slight bobble and tried to hand it off to Csonka; instead, the ball hit Csonka's hip and came loose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mario Lessard",
        "text": "Lessard may be best known as the Kings goalie in the Miracle on Manchester playoff game in April 1982 in which the Kings rallied from a 5-0 deficit to beat the Edmonton Oilers, 6-5 in overtime. Early in overtime of that game, Lessard mishandled the puck 40 feet in front of his net as he attempted to beat Glenn Anderson to the puck and stop a breakaway; with the net wide open and defenceman Mark Hardy trying to act as goalie, the Oilers Mark Messier shot the puck over the open net. The Kings scored two minutes later to win. After the game Lessard lamented that his mistake nearly blew the amazing comeback. He retired after the 1984 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kris Vernarsky",
        "text": "Vernarsky's lone NHL goal came in Boston's 6-4 home win against the Montreal Canadiens on February 6, 2003. It was the game-winning goal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Johnson Senior High School (Saint Paul, Minnesota)",
        "text": "Herb Brooks and Warren Strelow, who coached the Miracle on Ice gold medal-winning team, played on the school's 1955 state championship-winning team. Brooks' number five jersey was retired following his death in 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tony Leswick",
        "text": "Defenceman Doug Harvey went back to glove the puck, but instead deflected it past goaltender Gerry McNeil and into the net for the game-winning goal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Martin G\u00e9linas",
        "text": "The Flames' Cinderella run ended in the final as the Tampa Bay Lightning won the series in seven games. The result was controversial as G\u00e9linas appeared to have scored the tie-breaking goal in the sixth game that would have won the Stanley Cup for Calgary had the score held up. Television replays of the play showed that the puck deflected off G\u00e9linas' skate and appeared to be across the goal line before Tampa goaltender Nikolai Khabibulin kicked it out of the net. The referees did not signal a goal, however, and no video review was requested. Tampa Bay went on to win the game in overtime."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who scored the winning goal for Miracle on Ice?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Mike Eruzione hit the shot that gave Team USA a 4-3 lead.",
      "Mark Pavelich passed to Eruzione, who was left undefended in the high slot. Eruzione, who had just come onto the ice, fired a shot past Myshkin, who was screened by Vasili Pervukhin. This goal gave Team USA a 4\u20133 lead, its first of the game, with exactly 10 minutes remaining to play."
    ],
    "topic": "Miracle on Ice",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Miracle on Ice:22",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Miracle on Ice",
          "Game summary",
          "Third period"
        ],
        "ctx": "Vladimir Krutov was sent to the penalty box at the 6:47 mark of the third period for high-sticking. The Americans, who had managed only two shots on Myshkin in 27\u00a0minutes, had a power play and a rare offensive opportunity. Myshkin stopped a Mike Ramsey shot, then U.S. team captain Mike Eruzione fired a shot wide. Late in the power play, Dave Silk was advancing into the Soviet zone when Valeri Vasiliev knocked him to the ice. The puck slid to Mark Johnson. Johnson fired off a shot that went under Myshkin and into the net at the 8:39 mark, as the power play was ending, tying the game at 3. Only a couple of shifts later, Mark Pavelich passed to Eruzione, who was left undefended in the high slot. Eruzione, who had just come onto the ice, fired a shot past Myshkin, who was screened by Vasili Pervukhin. This goal gave Team USA a 4\u20133 lead, its first of the game, with exactly 10\u00a0minutes remaining to play."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Miracle on Ice:22",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Miracle on Ice",
          "Game summary",
          "Third period"
        ],
        "ctx": "Vladimir Krutov was sent to the penalty box at the 6:47 mark of the third period for high-sticking. The Americans, who had managed only two shots on Myshkin in 27\u00a0minutes, had a power play and a rare offensive opportunity. Myshkin stopped a Mike Ramsey shot, then U.S. team captain Mike Eruzione fired a shot wide. Late in the power play, Dave Silk was advancing into the Soviet zone when Valeri Vasiliev knocked him to the ice. The puck slid to Mark Johnson. Johnson fired off a shot that went under Myshkin and into the net at the 8:39 mark, as the power play was ending, tying the game at 3. Only a couple of shifts later, Mark Pavelich passed to Eruzione, who was left undefended in the high slot. Eruzione, who had just come onto the ice, fired a shot past Myshkin, who was screened by Vasili Pervukhin. This goal gave Team USA a 4\u20133 lead, its first of the game, with exactly 10\u00a0minutes remaining to play."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Vladimir Krutov was sent to the penalty box at the 6:47 mark of the third period for high-sticking. The Americans, who had managed only two shots on Myshkin in 27\u00a0minutes, had a power play and a rare offensive opportunity. Myshkin stopped a Mike Ramsey shot, then U.S. team captain Mike Eruzione fired a shot wide. Late in the power play, Dave Silk was advancing into the Soviet zone when Valeri Vasiliev knocked him to the ice. The puck slid to Mark Johnson. Johnson fired off a shot that went under Myshkin and into the net at the 8:39 mark, as the power play was ending, tying the game at 3. Only a couple of shifts later, Mark Pavelich passed to Eruzione, who was left undefended in the high slot. Eruzione, who had just come onto the ice, fired a shot past Myshkin, who was screened by Vasili Pervukhin. This goal gave Team USA a 4\u20133 lead, its first of the game, with exactly 10\u00a0minutes remaining to play."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The Soviets, trailing for the first time in the game, attacked ferociously. Moments after Eruzione's goal, Maltsev fired a shot which ricocheted off the right goal post. As the minutes wound down, Brooks kept repeating to his players, \"Play your game. Play your game.\" Instead of going into a defensive crouch, the United States continued to play offense, even getting off a few more shots on goal. The Soviets began to shoot wildly, and Sergei Starikov admitted that \"we were panicking.\" As the clock ticked down below a minute, the Soviets got the puck back into the American zone, and Mikhailov passed to Vladimir Petrov, who shot wide. The Americans fully expected Tikhonov to pull the goalie in the waning seconds. To their surprise, Myshkin stayed in the game. Starikov later explained that \"We never did six-on-five,\" not even in practice, because \"Tikhonov just didn't believe in it.\" Craig kicked away a Petrov slap shot with 33\u00a0seconds left. Kharlamov fired the puck back in as the clock ticked below 20\u00a0seconds. A wild scramble for the puck ensued, ending when Johnson found it and passed it to Ken Morrow. As the U.S. team tried to clear the zone (move the puck over the blue line, which they did with seven seconds remaining), the crowd began to count down the seconds left."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "As in several previous games, the U.S. team fell behind early. Vladimir Krutov deflected a slap shot by Alexei Kasatonov past U.S. goaltender Jim Craig at the 9:12 mark to give the Soviets a 1\u20130 lead. At the 14:03 mark, Buzz Schneider scored for the United States on a 50-foot shot from the left board to tie the game. The Soviets struck again when Sergei Makarov scored with 17:34 gone. With his team down 2\u20131, Craig improved his play, turning away many Soviet shots before the U.S. team had another shot on goal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Needing to defeat Finland to secure the gold medal, Team USA faced a 2\u20131 deficit at the end of the second period. According to Mike Eruzione, coming into the dressing room for the second intermission, Brooks turned to his players, looked at them, and said, \"If you lose this game, you'll take it to your fucking graves.\" He then walked towards the locker room door, paused, looked over his shoulder, and said to them again, \"Your fucking graves.\" Team USA came back in the third period to defeat Finland 4\u20132."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boston University Terriers men's ice hockey",
        "text": "Eruzione scored the famous winning goal against the Soviets with 10 minutes remaining, and Craig made 36 saves to preserve the 4\u20133 victory. Silk, who assisted on the United States' second and third goals, was mentioned in sportscast Al Michaels' final call: \"Eleven seconds, you've got ten seconds, the countdown going on right now! Morrow, up to Silk. Five seconds left in the game. Do you believe in miracles? Yes!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In the waning seconds of the first period, Dave Christian fired a slap shot on Tretiak from away. The Soviet goalie saved the shot but misplayed the rebound, which bounced out some in front of him. Mark Johnson sliced between the two defenders, found the loose puck, and fired it past a diving Tretiak to tie the score with one second left in the period. Confusion reigned immediately after as the game clock showed 0:00 since it could not be stopped in time after Johnson's goal. Referee Karl-Gustav Kaisla ruled that one second would be put back on the clock and the usual center ice faceoff would take place before the first intermission could begin. A lengthy delay followed as most of the Soviet team had already proceeded down the tunnel to their locker room. Eventually, three Soviet skaters along with backup goaltender Myshkin took the ice for the final faceoff. The first period ended with the game tied 2\u20132."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In their last exhibition game, against the Soviets at Madison Square Garden on Saturday, February 9, the Americans were crushed 10\u20133. Soviet head coach Viktor Tikhonov later said that this victory \"turned out to be a very big problem\" by causing the Soviets to underestimate the American team. The\u00a0game was also costly for the Americans off-ice, as defenseman Jack O'Callahan pulled a ligament in his knee; however, Brooks kept O'Callahan on the roster, which meant the U.S. was virtually playing with only 19 players throughout the tournament. O'Callahan eventually returned for the game against the Soviets, playing limited minutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vladimir Myshkin",
        "text": "After Tretiak gave up two goals in the first period of the famous \"Miracle on Ice\" game versus the USA in the medal round of the 1980 Winter Olympics, Tikhonov replaced him with Myshkin. He faced only 2 shots in the second period, and stopped them both, but gave up 2 goals in the third scored by Americans Mark Johnson and Mike Eruzione. Team USA won the game 4-3 and went on to capture the gold medal with the Soviets taking the silver."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Brooks wanted his team to play on lines lasting 40 seconds or less to stay energized by the third period. He instructed team physician George Nagobads to track ice time for the players, who later joked that he never saw the game since he was focused on his stopwatch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The U.S. and Russia played each other in a round-robin game at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. The game was tied 2\u20132 after overtime before the Americans prevailed in an eight-round shootout, with T.J. Oshie scoring on 4 of 6 attempts for the United States. The match has been dubbed by some as the \"Marathon on Ice\" due to its length. Both teams, however, failed to win a medal; the Americans finished fourth (losing to Canada in the semifinals), while the Russians placed fifth (losing to Finland in the quarterfinals)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "For the first game in the medal round, the United States played the Soviets. Finishing the first period tied at 2\u20132, and the Soviets leading 3\u20132 following the second, the U.S. team scored two more goals to take their first lead midway in the third and final period, then held on and won\u00a04\u20133. Two days later, the U.S. won the gold medal by beating Finland in their final game. The Soviet Union took the silver medal by beating Sweden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "With a capacity of 8,500, the arena was packed. The home crowd waved U.S. flags and sang patriotic songs such as \"God Bless America\". Before the game, Brooks read his players a statement he had written out on a piece of paper, telling them that \"You were born to be a player. You were meant to be here. This moment is yours.\" Brooks believed they could win and later said, \"The Russians were ready to cut their own throats. But we had to get to the point to be ready to pick up the knife and hand it to them. So the morning of the game I called the team together and told them, 'It's meant to be. This is your moment and it's going to happen.' It's kind of corny and I could see them thinking, 'Here goes Herb again...' But I believed it.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "During an exhibition game against Norway in Oslo that ends in a 3\u20133 tie, Brooks notices the players are distracted and not playing up to their potential. After the game, he orders them back on the ice for a bag skate. Brooks has them skate from one end of the ice to the other several times (doing, in other words, his infamous \"Herbies,\" as the team would call them colloquially), continuing the drill even after the rink manager cuts the power. Exhausted, forward and team captain Mike Eruzione (Patrick O'Brien Demsey) re-introduces himself in the same manner from the initial practice and cries out that he plays for the United States. Getting the answer that he wanted all along, Brooks finally allows the team to go home. Eventually, the team comes together, with the players thinking of themselves as a family representing the United States. With their roster finalized, just before heading to Lake Placid, the Americans play the Soviets in an exhibition game at Madison Square Garden. The Soviets manhandle the young American team, winning by a score of 10\u20133. During the game, O'Callahan suffers a knee injury that could keep him out of the entire Olympics and starting goaltender Jim Craig (Eddie Cahill) is shockingly told he may be benched in favor of backup Steve Janaszak (Sam Skoryna). Brooks tells him that he hasn't been giving his very best and ultimately decides to keep Craig as the starter for the Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States at the Olympics",
        "text": "With 10 minutes left, the Soviets increased their lead to 10 points. After that Americans finally started to press the Soviets. It helped them to cut the deficit to 1 point. Soviet players started to feel nervous. With less than a minute left, Doug Collins stole a Soviet pass at halfcourt and was fouled hard by Zurab Sakandelidze as he drove toward the basket, being knocked down into the basket stanchion. With three seconds remaining on the game clock, Collins was awarded two free throws and sank the first to tie the score at 49. Just as Collins lifted the ball to begin his shooting motion in attempting the second free throw, the horn from the scorer's table sounded, marking the beginning of a chain of events that left the game's final three seconds mired in controversy. Although the unexpected sound of the horn caused lead referee Renato Righetto to turn away from the free throw attempt and look over to the scorer's table, play was not stopped. Collins never broke his shooting motion and continued with his second free throw, scoring to put the U.S. ahead by a score of 50:49. Immediately following Collins' free throws, the Soviets inbounded the ball and failed to score. Soviet coaches claimed that they had requested a timeout before Collins' foul shots. The referees ordered the clock reset to three seconds, and the game's final seconds replayed. The horn sounded as a length-of-the-court Soviet pass was being released from the inbounding player, the pass missed its mark, and the American players began celebrating. Nevertheless, the final three seconds were replayed for a third time. This time, the Soviets' Alexander Belov and the USA's Kevin Joyce and Jim Forbes went up for the pass, and Belov caught the long pass from Ivan Edeshko near the American basket. Belov then laid the ball in for the winning points as the buzzer sounded."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States at the Summer Olympics",
        "text": "With 10 minutes left, the Soviets increased their lead to 10 points. After that Americans finally started to press the Soviets. It helped them to cut the deficit to 1 point. Soviet players started to feel nervous. With less than a minute left, Doug Collins stole a Soviet pass at halfcourt and was fouled hard by Zurab Sakandelidze as he drove toward the basket, being knocked down into the basket stanchion. With three seconds remaining on the game clock, Collins was awarded two free throws and sank the first to tie the score at 49. Just as Collins lifted the ball to begin his shooting motion in attempting the second free throw, the horn from the scorer's table sounded, marking the beginning of a chain of events that left the game's final three seconds mired in controversy. Although the unexpected sound of the horn caused lead referee Renato Righetto to turn away from the free throw attempt and look over to the scorer's table, play was not stopped. Collins never broke his shooting motion and continued with his second free throw, scoring to put the U.S. ahead by a score of 50:49. Immediately following Collins' free throws, the Soviets inbounded the ball and failed to score. Soviet coaches claimed that they had requested a timeout before Collins' foul shots. The referees ordered the clock reset to three seconds and the game's final seconds replayed. The horn sounded as a length-of-the-court Soviet pass was being released from the inbounding player, the pass missed its mark, and the American players began celebrating. Nevertheless, final three seconds were replayed for a third time. This time, the Soviets' Alexander Belov and the USA's Kevin Joyce and Jim Forbes went up for the pass, and Belov caught the long pass from Ivan Edeshko near the American basket. Belov then laid the ball in for the winning points as the buzzer sounded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In Olympic group play, the Americans surprised many observers with their physical, cohesive play. In their first game, on February 12 against favored Sweden, Team USA earned a dramatic 2\u20132 draw by scoring with 27 seconds left after pulling goalie Jim Craig for an extra attacker. Then came a stunning 7\u20133 victory over Czechoslovakia, who were a favorite for the silver medal. With its two toughest games in the group phase out of the way, the U.S. team reeled off three more wins, beating Norway 5\u20131, Romania 7\u20132, and West Germany 4\u20132 to go 4\u20130\u20131 and advance to the medal round from its group, along with\u00a0Sweden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "The Kings' crowd was electrified at the scoring of the tying goal; the roar from the stands would continue for several minutes. The Kings on the ice formed a joyous group around Bozek, all of them tired, but ecstatic. The Oiler players on the ice, by contrast, were in disbelief, and lying down on the ice. Goaltender Fuhr had dropped to one knee and hung his head in disappointment. All that was left of regulation time was a faceoff at center ice. The last five seconds quickly elapsed, and the teams headed to their respective locker rooms to prepare for their second consecutive overtime game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "After the team list is finally posted, the team plays some exhibition games in Europe, where they post a respectable record (winning eight and only losing two games). But just as they are feeling great about their performance, they play the Minnesota North Stars and realize that their skills could still use improvement; furthermore, they recognize that beating the powerful Soviet Union team, who won the gold medal at the past four Olympic Games, will be a tremendous challenge. For their last exhibition game before the Olympics, they play against the Soviet Union at Madison Square Garden. Brooks realizes that this particular game will prove whether his team is ready to compete for the gold medal. The Soviets annihilate them by the score of 10\u20133, but newly installed captain Mike Eruzione refuses to let the team's spirit slide. In their opening game against the favored Swedish team, the United States is down two goals to one with less than a minute remaining in the game. Brooks pulls his goalie and the U.S. ties the game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In September 1979, before the Olympics, the American team started exhibition play. They played a total of 61 games in five months against teams from Europe and the United States. Through these games, Brooks instilled a European style of play in his team, emphasizing wide-open play with sufficient body contact. He believed it would be the only way for the Americans to compete with the Soviets. From the start of the exhibition matches, he conducted the team through skating wind sprints consisting of end line to blue line and back, then end line to red line and back, then end line to far blue line and back, and finally end line all the way down and back. Some of the players took to calling these \"Herbies\". On September 17, the team played to a 3\u20133 tie in Norway. Believing the team wasn't putting up sufficient effort, an angry Brooks had them skate Herbies after the game and, after a while, arena custodians turned the lights off and the Herbies continued in the dark. The two teams played again the next night, with the US winning handily 9-0. Near the end of the exhibition season, Brooks, because of subpar play, threatened to cut Eruzione (the captain) from the team and replace Craig with Steve Janaszak as the starting goaltender, although he had supported them throughout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "As the 1980 Winter Olympics begins, the Americans trail Sweden 2\u20131 in the first game. Brooks fires up the team during an intermission by throwing a table and accuses McClanahan, who suffered a relatively minor leg injury, of quitting. McClanahan ends up playing despite his injury, which inspires the team. Bill Baker (Nick Postle) scores a goal with only 27 seconds remaining in the third period for a dramatic 2\u20132 tie. They then follow up with a 7\u20133 win over heavily favored Czechoslovakia. As the Olympics continue, the team defeats Norway, Romania, and West Germany to earn a spot in the medal round. The Americans are considered overwhelming underdogs to the Soviets in the first medal round game. The game begins and the Soviets score the first goal. Then O'Callahan, having healed enough from his injury, enters the game for the first time. He makes an immediate impact by heavily checking Vladimir Krutov on a play that leads to a goal by Buzz Schneider (Billy Schneider). The Soviets score again to retake the lead. In the final seconds, Soviet goalie Vladislav Tretiak stops a long shot by Dave Christian (Stephen Kovalcik), but Mark Johnson (Eric Peter-Kaiser) gets the rebound and scores with less than one second left in the period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "The Kings had trouble setting up the puck in the Oiler zone on the major power play, and game time was dwindling away. When play was stopped with 1:37 left, Perry changed goaltenders for the Kings, bringing on Doug Keans to replace Lessard. Under the rules in effect at the time, the game was suspended for several minutes while Keans took practice shots from his teammates, giving the power-play unit time to rest. At the next whistle with 1:14 remaining, Lessard returned to the net (without a warmup). Finally, with a minute left, the Kings pulled Lessard for an extra attacker to essentially give them a two-skater advantage over the Oilers. With forty-five seconds to go, Dionne gained clear possession of the puck to the right of the Oiler net. Dionne stickhandled for 20 to 25 seconds, desperately looking for an open lane to pass or shoot. At last, Dionne sent the puck to Simmer and headed to the front of the net. Simmer sent Dionne a return pass, and Dionne took a quick wrist shot on net, but the shot was kicked aside by Fuhr. The rebound slid over to the right-wing boards, where Gretzky tried to gain control of it. Jim Fox quickly moved in to harass Gretzky, frantically waving his stick along the ice to knock the puck away, and moving his body between Gretzky and the puck to gain control."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "At the time, the players ascended a podium to receive their medals and then lined up on the ice for the playing of the national anthem, as the podium was only meant to accommodate one person. Only the team captains remained on the podium for the duration. After the completion of the anthem, Eruzione motioned for his teammates to join him on the podium. Today, podia are not used for ice hockey; the teams line up on their respective blue lines after the final game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "The next two games against Czechoslovakia and Norway both end with the U.S. victorious. The possibility of them making a run for a medal is now especially raised after they beat West Germany prior to their showdown with the Soviets. At the end of the first period in the medal round game between the U.S. and the Soviets, the score is tied. At the end of the second period, the U.S. trails by one goal. In the last few minutes of the game, the Soviet Union stages one last attack, but the U.S. is ultimately victorious. As the crowd at Olympic Center Ice Rink bursts into hysteria, Herb Brooks retreats to the locker room for some solitude, knowing they face Finland for the gold medal. Ultimately though, the United States do defeat Finland for the gold medal and Mike Eruzione urges his team to join him on the platform during the playing of the national anthem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "With only five minutes to play, veteran Oilers forward Garry Unger \u2013 who had played the previous season with the Kings \u2013 brought his stick blade up into the face of Dave Lewis behind the Kings' net. Lewis' face was cut, so Unger was assessed an automatic five-minute major penalty for high sticking. Since Lewis was also penalized two minutes for roughing in the ensuing moments following the high stick, both teams would be four skaters per side for two minutes. After the two minutes were up, the Kings would have the last three minutes with a man advantage, as the major to Unger would still be running."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "At the 1981 Canada Cup, the United States, with seven players from their 1980 Olympic team, again faced the Soviet Union. The Soviets took the opening round encounter 4\u20131 in Edmonton. At the 1982 World Championship in Finland, with Mike Ramsey, Mark Johnson, Buzz Schneider, and John Harrington, the Americans again met the Soviets, but once again the U.S. lost, 8\u20134."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "Later in the second period, both teams were playing with three skaters per side due to penalties. The Oilers' defenseman Risto Siltanen skated the puck through center ice and into the Kings' zone. The Oilers maintained control with sharp passing, but after an Oiler shot went wide of the net, the Kings' defender Mark Hardy appeared to have control of the puck. Gretzky swooped in behind the net and deftly stole the puck away. He then sent a quick pass over to Siltanen who one-timed a shot toward the net that seemed to zoom past Lessard into the net; it ricocheted against the end boards and around to the left side of the Kings' zone. The goal light was turned on by the goal judge, so play was stopped as the referees convened. It was determined that Siltanen's shot went through the net, and replays later confirmed it. The Oilers had increased their lead to 4-0."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Tikhonov replaced Tretiak with backup goaltender Vladimir Myshkin immediately after Johnson's goal, a move that shocked players on both teams. Tikhonov later identified this as the \"turning point of the game\" and called it \"the biggest mistake of my career\". Years later, when Johnson asked Viacheslav Fetisov, now an NHL teammate, about the move, Fetisov responded with \"Coach crazy.\" Myshkin allowed no goals in the second period. The Soviets dominated play in the second period, outshooting the Americans 12\u20132, but scored only once, on a power play goal by Aleksandr Maltsev 2:18 into play. After two periods the Soviet Union led, 3\u20132."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "During the first intermission, Soviet coach Viktor Tikhonov (Zinaid Memi\u0161evi\u0107) replaces Tretiak with backup Vladimir Myshkin. In the second period, the Soviets score a goal to go up 3\u20132. Early in the final period, the Soviet team is called for a penalty for slashing, putting the Americans on the power play. Johnson scores his second goal of the game just as the penalty is about to expire. Later, Eruzione puts them ahead 4\u20133 with 10 minutes left. The Americans hold off the Soviets to win the game, completing one of the biggest upsets in sports history. Two days later, the team would go on to defeat Finland 4\u20132 to win the gold medal. The movie ends with Brooks staring out over his team with pride as the entire team crowds together on the gold medal platform."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boston University Terriers men's ice hockey",
        "text": "O'Callahan, who had injured his left knee in an exhibition match, returned for the famous \"Miracle on Ice\" game and in his first seconds on the ice, delivered a massive hit on a Soviet player that turned the puck over to the Americans near the Soviet defensive zone. The hit caught the Soviets off guard and set up a goal scored by William \"Buzz\" Schneider to tie the game at 1\u20131."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "During the four-on-four situation, Kings forward Steve Bozek gained possession of the puck at center ice. Bozek skated into the Oiler zone on the left wing, then quickly moved to his right, toward the center. He then dropped a pass back to Hardy, who was behind Bozek and skating the opposite way (toward the left wing). The criss-cross put the Oilers out of position for a split second, and Hardy used the small window of time to cut in past Gretzky and take a wrist shot back against the grain, toward the right side of the net. Fuhr, surprised at the quick shot, tried to slide to his left to keep the puck out, but he was unsuccessful. The puck was in the net, the Kings' crowd went wild, and the Kings were now trailing 5-4."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clint Malarchuk",
        "text": "With blood gushing out of Malarchuk's neck onto the ice, he was able to leave the ice on his own feet with the assistance of his team's athletic trainer, Jim Pizzutelli. Many spectators were physically sickened by the sight. The excessive amount of blood that Malarchuk lost caused eleven fans to faint, two more to have heart attacks, and three players to vomit on the ice. Local television cameras covering the game cut away from the sight of Malarchuk bleeding after noticing what had happened, and Sabres announcers Ted Darling and Mike Robitaille were audibly shaken. At the production room of the national cable sports highlight show, a producer scrolled his tape back to show the event to two other producers, who were both horrified by the sight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In the Soviet locker room, Tikhonov singled out first-line players Tretiak, Kharlamov, Petrov, and Mikhailov, and told each of them, \"This is your loss!\" Two days after the Miracle on Ice, the Soviet team defeated Sweden 9\u20132, winning the silver medal. The Soviet players were so upset at their loss that they did not turn in their silver medals to get their names inscribed on them, as is custom. The result stunned the Soviet Union and its news media."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In the group stage, both the Soviet and U.S. teams were unbeaten; the U.S. achieved several surprising results, including a 2\u20132 draw against Sweden, and a 7\u20133 upset victory over second-place favorite Czechoslovakia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "In overtime, the Kings almost met with immediate disaster. A bouncing puck was shot in from centre ice toward Kings' goalie Lessard, and he had trouble handling it cleanly. The puck began to slide out in front of the Kings' net. Lessard, fearing that the Oilers would regain possession of the puck, decided to leave his goal crease and chase the puck down. He went into a slide, but in doing so, he collided with Oiler Glenn Anderson about 40 feet in front of the Kings' net and the puck moved even farther out of his reach. By this time, Mark Messier had skated into the Kings' zone and took the puck on his backhand. With Lessard out of the net, Messier had an opportunity to score the winning goal into the open net. The Kings' Mark Hardy scrambled to get in front of the net as Messier unleashed a backhand shot. Unfortunately for Messier, the puck rolled off the end of his stick blade, and the shot sailed harmlessly to the right of the Kings' net. The Kings covered the puck behind their own net. Lessard had quickly skated back to his net as the Kings were covering the puck, and he leaned on the crossbar with his head down."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "As his team ran all over the ice in celebration, Herb Brooks sprinted back to the locker room and cried. In the locker room afterwards, players spontaneously broke into a chorus of \"God Bless America\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "NHL on ABC",
        "text": "For years later at Lake Placid, ABC was on hand for a medal-round men's ice hockey game that would soon become known the \"Miracle on Ice\". On February 22, 1980, the United States team, made up of amateur and collegiate players and led by coach Herb Brooks, defeated the Soviet team, which consisted of veteran professional players with significant experience in international play. The rest of the United States (except those who watched the game live on Canadian television) had to wait to see the game, as ABC decided to broadcast the late-afternoon game on tape delay in prime time. Sportscaster Al Michaels, who was calling the game on ABC along with former Montreal Canadiens goalie Ken Dryden, picked up on the countdown in his broadcast, and delivered his famous call:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "Soon after the Hardy goal, the Kings' three-minute power play began. There was an anxious moment for the Kings, as Oiler forward Pat Hughes gained a loose puck at center ice and had a clean breakaway. Hughes skated in alone on King goalie Lessard and took a low shot, but Lessard was able to block it. There was a small rebound for Hughes, but by the time Hughes regained the puck, he was too close to Lessard and didn't have time to shoot. All Hughes could do was knock the puck into Lessard's waiting glove, and Lessard covered the puck to stop play."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of ESPN on ABC",
        "text": "The 1980 Winter Olympics was the setting for the \"Miracle on Ice\", a medal-round men's ice hockey game in Lake Placid, New York, on February 22. The United States team, made up of amateur and collegiate players and led by coach Herb Brooks, defeated the Soviet team, which consisted of veteran professional players with significant experience in international play. The rest of the United States (except those who watched the game live on Canadian television) had to wait to see the game, as ABC decided to broadcast the late-afternoon game on tape delay in prime time. Sportscaster Al Michaels, who was calling the game on ABC along with former Montreal Canadiens goalie Ken Dryden, picked up on the countdown in his broadcast, and delivered his famous call:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim Craig (ice hockey)",
        "text": "Craig played a key role in one of the landmark moments in United States sports history, as the goalie for the United States in the Miracle on Ice, when the 1980 U.S. Olympic hockey team defeated the favored Soviet Olympic hockey team, which was led by greats including Boris Mikhailov and Vladislav Tretiak. In that game, Craig stopped 36 of 39 shots from the Soviet team. His composure was evident in the final moments of the game and allowed the underdog U.S. team to protect their one-goal lead and win 4\u20133. The American Flag that Craig draped over his shoulders after the upset is now displayed at the Sports Museum of America in New York City. Two days later, he again led the U.S. to victory, 4\u20132 victory over Finland, clinching the gold medal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "In the last ten seconds, Fox sent the puck back to Hardy, who was farther away from the net, but was positioned in the center of the Oiler zone. Hardy took the pass and sent a low shot toward the net. Fuhr managed to make the save, but could not control the rebound, and the puck squirted out in front of the net. The Oilers were doing their best to contain the dangerous Dionne, and they kept him away from the loose puck. Unfortunately for the Oilers, Kings' left wing Bozek had drifted from his normal position and was moving toward the front of the net. The Oilers, being two men short, were not positioned to defend Bozek, and watched in horror as the puck slid perfectly toward the King rookie's stick. Bozek immediately took a quick backhanded shot toward the net. Fuhr did not have enough time to react and adjust his position for Bozek's shot, and was helpless as the puck sailed between his pads and into the net. With only five seconds to go, the Kings had completed a historic comeback. The game was tied, 5-5."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monday Night Miracle (ice hockey)",
        "text": "The clock dipped under two minutes remaining in the game as the Blues still searched for the game-tying goal. With only 1:17 remaining, they shot the puck behind Calgary's net from the neutral zone. As Calgary defenseman Jamie Macoun brought the puck from behind the net, he didn't notice that Paslawski was right behind him. Stealing the puck at the side of net, Paslawski flung a quick shot from a terrible angle that caught goalie Mike Vernon off guard. The puck went in the net, and with near-pandemonium in the Arena, the Blues burned the remaining time on the clock to force overtime."
      },
      {
        "title": "Summit Series",
        "text": "The move paid off as Esposito scored for Canada after just 30 seconds of play, knocking a puck out of the air behind Tretiak. But even after a few minutes, Sinden felt the Soviets were coming on and having no difficulty getting through Canada's defence. Henderson scored after six minutes to give Canada a two-goal lead on a faceoff win by Clarke (the only advantage that Team Canada had, in Sinden's estimation). To the Canadian spectators and media, the second goal gave the appearance that the pre-series predictions of a rout were being proven correct. But the Soviets got over any awe of the NHLers and scored twice to tie the game 2-2 before the end of the first period. Yevgeni Zimin scored on a pass from behind the net, and Vladimir Petrov scored a shorthanded goal on a Soviet 2-on-1 break, with Petrov potting the rebound after an initial Dryden save. According to Sinden, the Canadian players had lost their poise, \"running all over the ice\" trying to establish their hitting game, while the Soviets used an unexpected tactic, the long pass, to break a man out of their defensive zone. The Canadian defence was also dropping to the ice to block shots, while the Soviets simply skated around them to get a closer shot. Although Tretiak had given up two goals on Canada's first two shots, he recovered later in the period to make two critical saves off Esposito at point-blank range. According to Esposito, \"at Christmas time, it would have been 4\u20130 for us.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The \"Miracle on Ice\" was an ice hockey game during the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York. It was played between the hosting United States and the Soviet Union on February 22, 1980, during the medal round of the men's hockey tournament. Though the Soviet Union was a four-time defending gold medalist and heavily favored, the United States upset them and won 4\u20133."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hayley Williams (ice hockey)",
        "text": "Although the 2015 version of the team was unable to follow up that success and was quickly knocked out of contention at the 2015 tournament in Granada, Spain, Williams did provide one of the squad's signature moments. During a match against Kazakhstan in the 5th through 7th place consolation round robin, Team USA found itself trailing 2\u20131 in the last three minutes of the game. Williams then scooped up a loose puck near center ice, carried in herself and scored from the bottom of the left circle with 2:37 remaining. The U.S. went on to win in overtime, a result that eventually allowed the team to finish fifth. Williams scored a pair of goals and added four assists to tie for the team scoring lead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Erin McLeod",
        "text": "During the quarter-finals, Canada faced the United States with McLeod starting in goal. In the twelfth minute of the game, American player Heather O'Reilly made a shot on goal, but it was stopped by McLeod. Angela Hucles then got the rebound and scored for the United States. However, McLeod injured her right knee during the play. She was down for several minutes before she got up and attempted to resume playing. A few minutes later, she was replaced by goalkeeper Karina LeBlanc in the 19th minute. The United States won the game 1\u20132. It was later revealed that McLeod had torn her right ACL."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ren\u00e9 Lecavalier",
        "text": "Rough translation: \"Cournoyer moving it up the ice. Oh, Henderson lost the pass! He fell down. And in front of the net. AND HENDERSON SCORES! With 34 seconds to go!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "During the broadcast wrap-up after the game, ABC Olympic sports anchor Jim McKay compared the American victory over the Soviet professionals to a group of Canadian college football players defeating the Pittsburgh Steelers (the recent Super Bowl champions and at the height of their dynasty)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 2010 Winter Olympics \u2013 Men's tournament",
        "text": "The final score was a 3\u20132 win for Team Canada. Goal scorers for Canada were Jonathan Toews, Corey Perry and Sidney Crosby, with the winning goal scored in overtime. For USA, the goal scorers were Ryan Kesler and Zach Parise, the latter tying the game with 25 seconds left, forcing it to go into sudden death."
      },
      {
        "title": "ABC Olympic broadcasts",
        "text": "The 1980 Winter Olympics was the setting for the \"Miracle on Ice\", a medal-round men's ice hockey game in Lake Placid, New York, on February 22. The United States team, made up of amateur and collegiate players and led by coach Herb Brooks, defeated the Soviet team, which consisted of veteran professional players with significant experience in international play. The rest of the United States (except those who watched the game live on Canadian television) had to wait to see the game, as ABC decided to broadcast the late-afternoon game on tape delay in prime time. Sportscaster Al Michaels, who was calling the game on ABC along with former Montreal Canadiens goalie Ken Dryden, picked up on the countdown in his broadcast, and delivered his famous call:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "Later in the overtime period, the Kings had a scoring chance, as Doug Smith entered the Oiler zone with an open lane on the right wing. He took a hard shot, but Fuhr was in perfect position to catch the puck with his glove. He caught and controlled the puck long enough for play to be stopped. The ensuing face-off to restart play would take place in the Oiler zone to Fuhr's left. Kings' head coach Don Perry sent out an all-rookie forward line for the face-off: Bozek on left wing, Smith at center, and Daryl Evans on right wing. Smith won the face-off from Messier, gently drawing the puck back. As the puck slid back, Evans skated in behind Smith and immediately started swinging his stick back and took a slap shot. The shot swiftly headed toward the upper portion of the Oiler net. Fuhr brought his glove up to make the save, but the shot was moving too fast, and Fuhr was a fraction of a second too late. The puck went into the net at two minutes and 35 seconds of overtime, winning the game for the Kings, 6-5."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The U.S., coached by Herb Brooks, and Russia, coached by Viacheslav Fetisov, met twice in the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, which included a 2\u20132 round-robin draw and a 3\u20132 semi-final win for the Americans. The semi-final match was played 22 years to the day after the \"Miracle on Ice\" game. The U.S. eventually won silver, while Russia won bronze."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada v United States (2012 Summer Olympics)",
        "text": "In the 22nd minute, Christine Sinclair opened the scoring for Canada, who remained up 1\u20130 into halftime. Nine minutes into the second half, Megan Rapinoe equalized for the U.S., scoring directly from a corner kick. Sinclair secured a hat-trick by adding goals in the 67th and 73rd minute, sandwiching a second goal by Rapinoe in the 70th minute. A controversial call against Canadian goalkeeper Erin McLeod for holding the ball longer than six seconds led to a free kick which resulted in a penalty kick being awarded to the Americans; Abby Wambach converted it in the 80th minute to tie the score at 3\u20133, and the game went into extra time. On the verge of a potential penalty shootout, Alex Morgan headed in the winning goal for the U.S. during the third minute of added time after the 30 additional minutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "While on the power play near the end of the first period, the Kings made another offensive rush at Fuhr, with Dionne taking a centering pass and sending a wrist shot toward the Oiler net. Fuhr made the save, and the rebound went to Gretzky. Gretzky then proceeded to carry the puck from his own end to the Kings' end, skating down the middle of the ice and in alone on two Kings, Korab and Evans. Gretzky faked to the outside and then shifted quickly back inside, bypassing Korab. Gretzky then skated toward the left side, where rookie Evans was holding his position but conceding space to Gretzky. Gretzky saw enough room for an opportunity to shoot, but had his stick lifted from behind by Simmer, who was backchecking. Nevertheless, Gretzky was able to get his stick back down to ice level long enough to fire a sharp-angled shot that beat Lessard on the short side for a short-handed goal to put the Oilers up 2-0."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "As the second period started, the Kings were still on the power play, but the Oilers were able to mount another rush. Gretzky took the puck in the Oiler zone, skated through center ice and passed to Fogolin. Fogolin skated down the wing and sent a seemingly harmless snap shot toward Lessard. The Kings' goaltender misplayed the sharp angle of the shot, and it went by him on the short side. The Oilers had scored two short-handed goals on the same Kings' power play, and had taken control of the game with a 3-0 lead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada Russia '72",
        "text": "The Canadians quickly score in the 3rd period to make it 5-4. Later in the game, Yvan Cournoyer scores to tie the game. Eagleson notices something from the stands and storms to the timekeeper's box. Eagleson is subdued by the Russian guards and appears to be being arrested. Team Canada, led by Pete Mahovlich, storm the area and rescue Eagleson from the guards. As he's being walked backed to the Canadian bench, an angered Eagleson shoves his fist to the crowd. At the Canadians' bench, Eagleson tells Sinden that he noticed the goal light didn't go on and went to the timekeeper's box to make sure the Russians didn't cheat them out of a goal. Late during the game, Gresko comes to the Canadian bench and informs Eagleson that if the game ends in a tie, the Russians will win the series based on goal differential (the Russians had two more goals than the Canadians). Esposito overhears the conversation, and becomes more determined to win the game, even refusing to get off the ice despite being fatigued. In the last minute of the game, Henderson calls Pete Mahovlich off the ice and skates to the net. Though he doesn't score, Esposito shoots the puck at Tretiak. Henderson picks up the rebound and scores to give the Canadians a 6-5 lead with 34 seconds left in the game. The Canadians clear the bench and crowd Henderson in celebration. Team Canada holds the lead and wins the game, thus winning the series. As the game ends, one of the Canadian players picks up the game-winning puck (the camera does not show the player's face or number, therefore leaving the player's identity unknown.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The Soviet Union had won the gold medal in five of the six previous Winter Olympic Games, and they were the favorites to win once more in Lake Placid. The team consisted primarily of professional players with significant experience in international play. By contrast, the United States' team, led by head coach Herb Brooks, was composed mostly of amateur players, with only four players with minimal minor-league experience. The United States had the youngest team in the tournament and in U.S. national team history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Al Michaels",
        "text": "In 1980, an unheralded group of college ice hockey players from the United States won the gold medal at the Olympic Winter Games. The medal round match on February 22\u2014which, contrary to popular belief, did not yet assure the team of the gold medal\u2014was of particular interest, as it was played against a heavily favored professional squad from the Soviet Union, and was in front of an incredibly excited pro-American crowd in Lake Placid, New York. Michaels's memorable broadcast of this game, including his interjection\u2014\"Do you believe in miracles? YES!\"\u2014as time expired on the 4\u20133 U.S. victory, earned the game the media nickname of \"The Miracle on Ice\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monday Night Miracle (ice hockey)",
        "text": "The goal came after seven minutes and thirty seconds had already passed in the overtime period. It is considered to be one of the most memorable victories in Blues history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 1920 Summer Olympics",
        "text": "All matches took place in the Palais de Glace d'Anvers (ice palace of Antwerp). The rink was smaller than North American standards, measuring long by wide. All games were played with seven players per side, with the rover position being used. For the duration of each match no substitutions were permitted and if a player exited the game due to injury the opposing team was forced to take a player out as well. Additional differences from modern play included a prohibition on forward passing and the requirement that all players including the goaltender be standing on his skates to play the puck. The duration of each game was two periods of twenty minutes each. If any game had been tied at the end of the 40th minute, an additional two periods of five minutes each (ten minutes total) would have been added. And this process of adding two periods of five minutes each would have continued if the score were still tied at the end of any ten-minute addendum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "In the U.S. team's locker room prior to the medal round game against the Soviets, Herb Brooks says to his team \"Whatever it costs us personally to get here, it was worth it. Don't blow it. You'll take it to your grave!\" While the real Brooks did roughly say to his team \"You'll take it to your grave!\", it was actually during the second intermission of gold medal game against Finland, when the U.S. was down 2\u20131.\n*\"Homeward Bound\" (Simon & Garfunkel song) - This is featured during musical interlude on a bus trip throughout Europe with one of the players singing with a guitar. In September 1979, before the Olympics, the American team started exhibition play for a total of 61 games in five months against teams from Europe and the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Summit Series",
        "text": "In the second, the Soviets started with a quick goal by Vladimir Shadrin after 21 seconds. The last ten minutes saw two goals from the Soviets: Yakushev scoring his seventh of the series followed by Valery Vasiliev on the power play to put the Soviets ahead 5\u20133 after two periods. White had countered for Canada midway through the period. It was one of few moments for Canada to cheer as the Soviets played an excellent period. The other was a goal-saving play by Phil Esposito who stopped a shot by Yury Blinov, who had faked goaltender Dryden out of position and had an empty net to shoot at. Esposito stopped the puck with his stick on the goal line. Blinov and the crowd had prematurely celebrated the apparent goal, and Blinov shook his head in disbelief."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "After the gold medal-securing victory over Finland, the players received a congratulatory phone call from President Jimmy Carter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The victory became one of the most iconic moments of the Games and in U.S. sports. Equally well-known was the television call of the final seconds of the game by Al Michaels for ABC, in which he declared: \"Do you believe in miracles? YES!\" In 1999, \"Sports Illustrated\" named the \"Miracle on Ice\" the top sports moment of the 20th century. As part of its centennial celebration in 2008, the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) named the \"Miracle on Ice\" as the best international ice hockey story of the past 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the Olympic Games",
        "text": "The victory became one of the most iconic moments of the Games and in U.S. sports. Equally well-known was the television call of the final seconds of the game by Al Michaels for ABC, in which he declared: \"Do you believe in miracles?! YES!\" In 1999, \"Sports Illustrated\" named the \"Miracle on Ice\" the top sports moment of the 20th century. As part of its centennial celebration in 2008, the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) named the \"Miracle on Ice\" as the best international ice hockey story of the past 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 1980 Winter Olympics",
        "text": "The victory became one of the most iconic moments of the Games and in U.S. sports. Equally well-known was the television call of the final seconds of the game by Al Michaels for ABC, in which he declared: \"Do you believe in miracles?! YES!\" In 1999, \"Sports Illustrated\" named the \"Miracle on Ice\" the top sports moment of the 20th century. As part of its centennial celebration in 2008, the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) named the \"Miracle on Ice\" as the best international ice hockey story of the past 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "2010 IIHF World Championship Final",
        "text": "The match began with a goal after just 20 seconds, scored by Jakub Klepi\u0161 from a pass by Jarom\u00edr J\u00e1gr. The goal was seemingly the result of a defensive mistake which led to a Czech offensive possession with Russian defensemen out of position. For the remainder of the period the Russians held almost complete possession of the puck, and veteran Sergei Fedorov hit the post after an odd man rush. Very late in the period the Russians put the puck in the net on a power play, but it was determined to be after the clock had run out and was ruled as no goal. There was some brief confusion however, as the buzzer sounds after the clock on the scoreboard runs out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mark Johnson (ice hockey)",
        "text": "Playing for the United States against the Soviet Union, Johnson scored two of the four goals in the Team USA 4\u20133 victory. His first goal, scored with one second left in the game's first period, led to the Soviet coach taking out his goalie, Vladislav Tretiak, who was considered the best goalie in the world at the time; years later, when Johnson asked Soviet defenseman Slava Fetisov, now an NHL teammate, about the decision, he was simply told, \"Coach crazy\". He also scored in the third period to tie the game at 3\u20133. The team then defeated Finland to capture the gold medal, with Johnson assisting on the game-winning goal and scoring the insurance goal with less than four minutes remaining in the game. Johnson was named team MVP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Henderson",
        "text": "Sitting on the bench as the game entered the final minute of play, Henderson \"had a feeling\" that he could score. He convinced coach Sinden to send him out when Peter Mahovlich left the ice. Rushing into the Soviet zone, Henderson missed a pass from Yvan Cournoyer in front of the net and was tripped by a Soviet defenceman. As he got to his feet, Phil Esposito recovered the puck and sent it towards Henderson in front of the net. The first shot was stopped by Vladislav Tretiak, but Henderson recovered the rebound and slid it past the fallen goaltender to give Canada a 6\u20135 lead with only 34 seconds left to play. It was his seventh goal of the tournament, tying him for the series lead with Esposito and Alexander Yakushev. The goal won the game, and the series, for Canada. The team returned home to massive crowds in Montreal and Toronto, and Paul Henderson had become a national hero."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 1960 Winter Olympics",
        "text": "Canada, the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia and Sweden were the top four teams heading into the Games. All four were defeated by the American team, which won all seven games it played. On the 50th anniversary of these Games, a documentary entitled \"Forgotten Miracle\" was produced by Northland Films, making reference to the more famous 1980 gold medal known as the Miracle on Ice; these are the only two Olympic gold medals won by USA men's ice hockey. Herb Brooks, the coach of the 1980 US team, was the last player cut from the 1960 team by coach Jack Riley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "Both teams were again playing at four skaters per side when the Oilers went to gain possession of the puck behind their own net. The attempted Oiler clearing pass, however, was intercepted on the right wing by Kings' forward Dean Hopkins, who took a stride forward and passed to Charlie Simmer. Simmer skated around an Oiler defender, then cut back toward the net. While falling down, Simmer tried to jam the puck into the right side of the net, but Fuhr's left foot blocked the puck. Oiler defenseman Randy Gregg, skating into the play, in trying to use his stick to tie up the stick of Simmer inadvertently hit Fuhr's leg. Fuhr was knocked back enough to allow the puck to slide over the goal line, and the goal brought the Kings to within two, at 5-3. This was the goal that really got the crowd back into the game and made the Kings believe they could actually pull the game out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "The Oilers were on the power play, with four skaters against the Kings' three, when they went on the attack again. The Oilers obtained possession in the Kings' zone at the face-off, and as they had on their fourth goal, kept possession while moving the puck. The Oilers kept the puck on the outside until they saw an opening. Anderson took a pass to the right of the Kings' net and saw Gretzky sneak in behind Lessard and Kings' defenseman Rick Chartraw at the left side of the goal crease. Anderson sent a hard pass that went through Chartraw's legs and onto the stick of Gretzky, and all he had to do was deflect the puck into the net to give the Oilers a power play goal and a seemingly insurmountable 5-0 lead, and the score stayed that way as the second period came to a close."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legend No. 17",
        "text": "The match begins. The Canadians win the first face-off and in half a minute open the score. At the sixth minute the score is 2:0. But soon the USSR team makes the score even, and in the second period, Kharlamov leads the team ahead 2:3. Valeri stickhandles through several opponents and scores his second goal. After this goal all spectators give a standing ovation to Kharlamov. During the intermission, the Canadian coach tells his players that this is not a match, but a war, and instructed Bobby Clarke to deal with the \"Number Seventeen\". During the game Bobby Clarke slashes Kharlamov's previously injured knee with a stick. However, Valeri refuses to leave the game despite danger of aggravating his injury and ending his hockey career, and returns to the ice. At the end of the match, Valeri rushes with the puck towards the Canadians' goal, aggravates his injury and falls down, but while sliding in prone position, passes the puck to one of this teammates who scores the seventh goal for the Soviet team. After the match Phil Esposito tells Kharlamov that he is impressed by his game, speed, and the two goals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada Russia '72",
        "text": "Before the game, the Canadian dressing room is silent, and Dryden claims he cannot stop shaking. Sinden tells the team winning is now the only thing that matters, and that by winning the series they will vindicate themselves. The Canadian team is surprised to see Kharlamov is playing despite his severe injury. In the first minutes, the Canadians receive questionable penalties from Kompalla. With the advantage, the Russians score a powerplay goal to give them a 1-0 lead. Shortly after, Parise is given a penalty on what appears to be an obvious dive. The Canadians' emotions quickly boil over, and Parise nearly swings his stick at Kompalla. As a result, Parise is given a game misconduct and a match penalty. A highly tempered Sinden and Ferguson throw a stick and a chair onto the ice in frustration. Esposito later scores to tie the game. However, the Russians build a 5-3 lead before the 2nd intermission. In the dressing room, a determined Esposito claims they will not lose. Esposito goes to Sinden and suggests he make a change to his line. Sinden has Peter Mahovlich take his brother's place on the line."
      },
      {
        "title": "HaMerotz LaMillion 2",
        "text": "In this leg's Roadblock, one team member had to break open a block of ice to access their next clue, a picture of the Elisabeth Bridge, frozen inside, using a variety of unusual tools.\n;Additional tasks\n*At L\u00e1szl\u00f3 Papp Budapest Sports Arena, one team member had to score two goals against a young professional goalie. Meanwhile, their partner had to hold a large, heavy block of ice. The hockey-playing team member could only attempt to shoot goals while their partner held the block of ice off the floor. If they dropped it, the one playing hockey had to stop. When two goals were scored, they would receive their next clue. They would then vote for the team they wished to U-Turn.\n*At the Doh\u00e1ny Street Synagogue, teams had to convince five people to wear a beard and imitate Theodor Herzl by leaning on a fence, mimicking a famous photo of Herzl's, and saying his famous phrase, \"Im Tirzu Ein Zo Agada\". After each team photographed five people doing this, they received their next clue.\n*At Elisabeth Bridge, teams had to count the number of posts on the bridge and then use the number obtained (2,377) to open a four digit combination lock on a box containing their next clue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Malden also remarked with disapproval that Brooks could've ventured an occasional smile during one of the less intense games. Malden also wondered how, after working hard over the course of seven months that Brooks could have simply walked away after his team clinched the improbable victory against the Soviet team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Curse of LaBonte",
        "text": "The Canadian team, skipped by Orest Meleschuk was playing the American team skipped by Robert LaBonte in the finals. Canada had been undefeated up until this point, but was down by two points in the last end. They needed two points to tie the game. Meleschuk had the \"hammer\", the final shot of the end. When it was time for him to shoot, the Americans had shot rock on the button while Canada was sitting second shot right next to it. The U.S. was sitting third rock with a rock biting the 8-foot. To tie the game, Meleschuk had to hit the American rock and not roll further than this third rock."
      },
      {
        "title": "Curt Chaplin",
        "text": "Chaplin claims to have provided via cassette recording of audio play-by-play for one of the most famous moments in American sports history\u2014the Miracle on Ice hockey game during the 1980 Winter Olympics at Lake Placid, New York. The underdog United States national team defeated the Soviet Union national team 4-3 in the semifinal round, beating a team that had won six of the previous seven Olympic gold medals. Chaplin, in an interview, notes that he was assigned to cover the game as a sports reporter for ABC News Radio, not a play-by-play announcer. However, he thought the game might be significant and found a spot near a TV camera to stand and narrate the game into his cassette recorder. His call of the game is now part of an exhibit about the game at the Hockey Hall of Fame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Epic",
        "text": "The game finally ended at the 8:47 mark of the fourth overtime when Pat LaFontaine was able to keep the puck in Washington's zone, firing a slapshot over the glove side of Washington goaltender Bob Mason."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Miracle on Ice is a 1981 American sports docudrama about the United States men's national ice hockey team, led by head coach Herb Brooks (played by Karl Malden), that won the gold medal in the 1980 Winter Olympics. The USA team's victory over the heavily favored Soviet team in the medal round was dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\". The film premiered on March 1, 1981, as an installment of \"The ABC Sunday Night Movie\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "2010 IIHF World Championship",
        "text": "The match began with a goal after just 20 seconds, scored by Jakub Klepi\u0161 from a pass by Jarom\u00edr J\u00e1gr. The goal was seemingly the result of a defensive mistake which led to a Czech offensive possession with Russian defensemen out of position. For the remainder of the period the Russians held almost complete possession of the puck, and veteran Sergei Fedorov hit the post after an odd man rush. Very late in the period the Russians put the puck in the net on a power play, but it was determined to be after the clock had run out and was ruled as no goal. There was some brief confusion however, as the buzzer sounds after the clock on the scoreboard runs out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim Fox (ice hockey)",
        "text": "Fox played a critical role in the tying goal during the stunning Miracle on Manchester game against Edmonton in the 1982 playoffs, by stripping scoring superstar Wayne Gretzky of the puck in the dying moments of the third period before sending it to defenseman Mark Hardy whose point shot was blocked but pounced on by Steve Bozek who swatted the puck past Oilers goaltender Grant Fuhr to even the score at 5-5 after Los Angeles had trailed 5-0 after two periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Time Shock (game show)",
        "text": "Each team faced a round of 10 questions, to be answered in 60 seconds. Each player was directed a question in turn, and had 6 seconds to answer (including the time used to read the question). No conferring or passing was allowed. The three teams with the highest scores advanced (tiebreaker questions were asked, if necessary). In addition, a team had to answer at least five questions correctly to qualify."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The average age of the U.S. team was 21 years, making it the youngest team in U.S. history to play in the Olympics (in addition to being the youngest team in the 1980 Olympic tournament), but Brooks knew the limits of every player. As forward John Harrington said, \"He knew exactly where to quit. He'd push you right to the limit where you were ready to say, 'I've had it, I'm throwing it in' \u2014 and then he'd back off.\" Brooks continued the organization by campaigning for the players' selection of Eruzione as the captain, and Craig had been the goalie for him in the 1979 World Championship tournament. Assistant coach Craig Patrick had played with Brooks on the 1967 U.S. national team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 2002 Winter Olympics \u2013 Men's tournament",
        "text": "USA and Russia met again in the semi-finals of the tournament. The USA's victory over Russia came coincidentally on the 22-year anniversary of the \"Miracle on Ice\", the upset of the Soviet Union team, at Lake Placid in 1980 (also a Friday). The Americans stormed out to a 3\u20130 lead for the first two periods, before withstanding a two-goal rally from the Russians to advance. Russian coach Slava Fetisov, one of the stars for the 1980 Soviet squad, complained about the selection of NHL referees to officiate Olympic matches (a stipulation by the NHL if most Olympic players are NHLers) and charged that officials were trying to fix a Canada-USA final for North American audiences. However, Russian goalie Nikolai Khabibulin thought that the refereeing was fair, having faced 38 shots in the first two periods and 49 overall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Todd Bertuzzi\u2013Steve Moore incident",
        "text": "After lying on the ice for approximately 10 minutes, Moore was removed from the playing surface on a stretcher. With eight minutes remaining in the third period and the outcome effectively decided, Avalanche general manager Pierre Lacroix reportedly asked referees to end the game. The contest was nonetheless played out with the Avalanche winning 9\u20132. Moore was taken to Vancouver General Hospital and later transferred to a Denver hospital, where he was treated for three fractured vertebrae in his neck, a grade-three concussion, vertebral ligament damage, stretching of the brachial plexus nerves, and facial lacerations. He was also suffering from amnesia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada v United States (2012 Summer Olympics)",
        "text": "The teams continued generating opportunities in the first period of extra time. Rapinoe had a shot go narrowly over the crossbar in the 92nd minute, while a Schmidt free kick in the 96th minute resulted in a Tancredi overhead kick attempt, which was weakly struck and stopped by Solo. The U.S. had a couple of other shot attempts and controlled most of the play until halfway through extra time, but no goals were scored. In the second period of extra time, the teams maintained what \"The Guardian\"s Graham Parker called \"high octane intense soccer.\" Wambach nearly had a potential game-winning goal in the 119th minute: a cross from Morgan found her, and she hit a looping header while leaning back. The attempt went off the crossbar. Going into added time, it appeared that the game was headed to a penalty shootout. In the 123rd minute, though, U.S. substitute Heather O'Reilly delivered a cross into the Canadian box, which Morgan headed past McLeod into the top right corner of the goal. The strike gave the U.S. a 4\u20133 lead, which they held until the end of the contest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Miracle on Ice\n--History.\n----The Soviet and American teams.\n----Exhibitions.\n----Olympic group play.\n--Game summary.\n----First period.\n----Second period.\n----Third period.\n--American aftermath.\n----Gold medal.\n----After the 1980 Winter Olympics.\n----Later careers.\n--Soviet aftermath.\n----Silver medal.\n----After the 1980 Winter Olympics.\n----NHL careers.\n--Notable rematches.\n--Popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "Less than three minutes later, the Kings went on another power play as the Oilers got another penalty. The Kings won the face-off, and sent the puck back to Hardy, who threw a shot at the net from the left point. Fuhr made the save, but the rebound went directly in front of the net, toward Oiler defenseman Kevin Lowe. Lowe tried to gain possession of the puck quickly and clear it out of danger, but the puck was caught between his skates, and Lowe couldn't spot it. Kings' forward Doug Smith saw the puck, however; Smith quickly stepped toward Lowe, reached between the defender's skates, and took a shot that went directly under the crossbar and into the Oiler net. It was a power play goal, and the Kings had narrowed the gap to 5-2."
      },
      {
        "title": "Summit Series",
        "text": "Henderson, who had fallen behind the net, got up and went to the front of the net where he was uncovered. Henderson recovered the rebound of Esposito's shot, shot the puck and was stopped, but recovered the rebound. With Tretiak down, he put the puck past Tretiak with only 34 seconds to play. Foster Hewitt's voice rose in excitement as he called the winning goal:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bas Roorda",
        "text": "He came on in the 60th minute of the game, conceding no goals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Molly Schaus",
        "text": "In Vancouver, Schaus did not play in the 2\u20130 loss in the final to Team Canada, and along with her teammates, brought home a silver medal. She was in the goal and unscored upon for 52 minutes in the opening game, a 12\u20131 blowout of China, with Vice President Joe Biden and 1980 \"Miracle on Ice\" men's hockey gold medalist and captain Mike Eruzione together in the stands. In the gold medal game of the 2010 Four Nations Cup, Molly Schaus faced 52 shots, including 20 in a scoreless third period. In overtime, Schaus faced 11 shots."
      },
      {
        "title": "10 Seconds",
        "text": "Note: The Catch-Up round was not played if the trailing player did not have enough points to be in catch-up range."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "The film concludes with actual footage of the U.S. hockey team members receiving their medals, along with descriptions narrated by ABC Sports broadcaster Al Michaels of their accomplishments after the 1980 Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Nagobads",
        "text": "In advance of the ice hockey at the 1980 Winter Olympics, Nagobads suggested to Herb Brooks that Mike Eruzione be named the US men's national team captain due to his leadership skills. Nagobads also welcome goaltender Jim Craig into this house, who wanted to live with a family while the national team trained. The US men's national team won the Olympic gold medal in 1980, which included a 4\u20133 victory over the Soviet Union national team known as the Miracle on Ice. Brooks wanted his team to play on lines lasting 40 seconds or less to stay energized by the third period. Nagobads stood beside Brooks with a stopwatch tracking the ice time for the players, and later joked that he never saw the game since he was focused on the watch during the entire game. He skipped the post-game celebration to complete injury reports for the players, when he was approached by players on the Soviet team who asked for translation assistance to buy Moon Boots for their wives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guelph Platers",
        "text": "Fendley was checked by an opponent with 11 minutes to play in the game. He tried to catch his balance while still handling the puck and lost his helmet in the process, falling and striking the bare back of his head on the ice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 2010 Winter Olympics \u2013 Men's tournament",
        "text": "\"Goalkeepers with 40% or more of their team's total minutes.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian ice hockey stamps",
        "text": "With 34 seconds left in Game 8 of the 1972 Summit Series between Canada and Russia, Paul Henderson scored the goal that gave Canada the 6-5 lead. The detail of the goal includes Phil Esposito intercepting the puck and firing a shot toward the net. By this time Henderson had picked himself up off the ice, picked up Esposito's rebound [and] fired the puck at Tretiak. The Soviet goalkeeper got a toe on the shot but lost his balance as he made the save. Henderson pounced on the rebound and dribbled the puck under a prone Tretiak just as Liapkin reached him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hope Solo",
        "text": "She conceded 6 goals, 3 in the aforementioned matches against France and Japan. Three goals were conceded to Christine Sinclair in the semi-final, a 4\u20133 extra-time last-minute win against Canada. Along with defenders Christie Rampone and Kelley O'Hara, Solo was one of three players on the United States team who played all 570 minutes during the team's six matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States men's national basketball team",
        "text": "With three seconds left in the gold medal game, American forward Doug Collins sank two free throws after being hit hard by a Soviet player to put the Americans up 50\u201349. Immediately following Collins' free throws, the Soviets inbounded the ball and failed to score. Soviet coaches claimed that they had requested a timeout before Collins' foul shots. The referees ordered the clock reset to three seconds and the game's final seconds replayed. The horn sounded as a length-of-the-court Soviet pass was being released from the inbounding player, the pass missed its mark, and the American players began celebrating."
      },
      {
        "title": "UMass Minutemen women's ice hockey",
        "text": "Three Minutemen from the 2013 team - Harrington, Abromson and Caleigh Labossiere - returned to play at the 2015 World University Games and were joined by newcomer Vicki Bortolussi. Although Team USA dropped out of medal contention quickly, the UMass players combined for 12 points over five tournament games. One of the points, an assist by Labossiere, set up Emily Ford's overtime goal in a come-from-behind victory against Kazakhstan that helped clinch fifth place."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who scored the winning goal for Miracle on Ice?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mark Pavelich passed to Eruzione, who was left undefended in the high slot. Eruzione, who had just come onto the ice, fired a shot past Myshkin, who was screened by Vasili Pervukhin. This goal gave Team USA a 4\u20133 lead, its first of the game, with exactly 10 minutes remaining to play."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did anything else happen in the game during the remaining 10 minutes?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Soviets, trailing for the first time in the game, attacked ferociously. The Americans fully expected Tikhonov to pull the goalie in the waning seconds, but to their surprise, Myshkin stayed in the game and as the clock ticked below 20 seconds, a wild scramble for the puck ensued, ending when Johnson found it and passed it to Ken Morrow as the U.S. tried to clear the zone and the clock counted down its final seconds.",
      "Yes, the Soviets almost scored in the last few seconds of the game, but USA managed to hold off the attack and won."
    ],
    "topic": "Miracle on Ice",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Miracle on Ice:23",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Miracle on Ice",
          "Game summary",
          "Third period"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Soviets, trailing for the first time in the game, attacked ferociously. Moments after Eruzione's goal, Maltsev fired a shot which ricocheted off the right goal post. As the minutes wound down, Brooks kept repeating to his players, \"Play your game. Play your game.\" Instead of going into a defensive crouch, the United States continued to play offense, even getting off a few more shots on goal. The Soviets began to shoot wildly, and Sergei Starikov admitted that \"we were panicking.\" As the clock ticked down below a minute, the Soviets got the puck back into the American zone, and Mikhailov passed to Vladimir Petrov, who shot wide. The Americans fully expected Tikhonov to pull the goalie in the waning seconds. To their surprise, Myshkin stayed in the game. Starikov later explained that \"We never did six-on-five,\" not even in practice, because \"Tikhonov just didn't believe in it.\" Craig kicked away a Petrov slap shot with 33\u00a0seconds left. Kharlamov fired the puck back in as the clock ticked below 20\u00a0seconds. A wild scramble for the puck ensued, ending when Johnson found it and passed it to Ken Morrow. As the U.S. team tried to clear the zone (move the puck over the blue line, which they did with seven seconds remaining), the crowd began to count down the seconds left."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Miracle on Ice:23",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Miracle on Ice",
          "Game summary",
          "Third period"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Soviets, trailing for the first time in the game, attacked ferociously. Moments after Eruzione's goal, Maltsev fired a shot which ricocheted off the right goal post. As the minutes wound down, Brooks kept repeating to his players, \"Play your game. Play your game.\" Instead of going into a defensive crouch, the United States continued to play offense, even getting off a few more shots on goal. The Soviets began to shoot wildly, and Sergei Starikov admitted that \"we were panicking.\" As the clock ticked down below a minute, the Soviets got the puck back into the American zone, and Mikhailov passed to Vladimir Petrov, who shot wide. The Americans fully expected Tikhonov to pull the goalie in the waning seconds. To their surprise, Myshkin stayed in the game. Starikov later explained that \"We never did six-on-five,\" not even in practice, because \"Tikhonov just didn't believe in it.\" Craig kicked away a Petrov slap shot with 33\u00a0seconds left. Kharlamov fired the puck back in as the clock ticked below 20\u00a0seconds. A wild scramble for the puck ensued, ending when Johnson found it and passed it to Ken Morrow. As the U.S. team tried to clear the zone (move the puck over the blue line, which they did with seven seconds remaining), the crowd began to count down the seconds left."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The Soviets, trailing for the first time in the game, attacked ferociously. Moments after Eruzione's goal, Maltsev fired a shot which ricocheted off the right goal post. As the minutes wound down, Brooks kept repeating to his players, \"Play your game. Play your game.\" Instead of going into a defensive crouch, the United States continued to play offense, even getting off a few more shots on goal. The Soviets began to shoot wildly, and Sergei Starikov admitted that \"we were panicking.\" As the clock ticked down below a minute, the Soviets got the puck back into the American zone, and Mikhailov passed to Vladimir Petrov, who shot wide. The Americans fully expected Tikhonov to pull the goalie in the waning seconds. To their surprise, Myshkin stayed in the game. Starikov later explained that \"We never did six-on-five,\" not even in practice, because \"Tikhonov just didn't believe in it.\" Craig kicked away a Petrov slap shot with 33\u00a0seconds left. Kharlamov fired the puck back in as the clock ticked below 20\u00a0seconds. A wild scramble for the puck ensued, ending when Johnson found it and passed it to Ken Morrow. As the U.S. team tried to clear the zone (move the puck over the blue line, which they did with seven seconds remaining), the crowd began to count down the seconds left."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "In the U.S. team's locker room prior to the medal round game against the Soviets, Herb Brooks says to his team \"Whatever it costs us personally to get here, it was worth it. Don't blow it. You'll take it to your grave!\" While the real Brooks did roughly say to his team \"You'll take it to your grave!\", it was actually during the second intermission of gold medal game against Finland, when the U.S. was down 2\u20131.\n*\"Homeward Bound\" (Simon & Garfunkel song) - This is featured during musical interlude on a bus trip throughout Europe with one of the players singing with a guitar. In September 1979, before the Olympics, the American team started exhibition play for a total of 61 games in five months against teams from Europe and the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "As in several previous games, the U.S. team fell behind early. Vladimir Krutov deflected a slap shot by Alexei Kasatonov past U.S. goaltender Jim Craig at the 9:12 mark to give the Soviets a 1\u20130 lead. At the 14:03 mark, Buzz Schneider scored for the United States on a 50-foot shot from the left board to tie the game. The Soviets struck again when Sergei Makarov scored with 17:34 gone. With his team down 2\u20131, Craig improved his play, turning away many Soviet shots before the U.S. team had another shot on goal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In the waning seconds of the first period, Dave Christian fired a slap shot on Tretiak from away. The Soviet goalie saved the shot but misplayed the rebound, which bounced out some in front of him. Mark Johnson sliced between the two defenders, found the loose puck, and fired it past a diving Tretiak to tie the score with one second left in the period. Confusion reigned immediately after as the game clock showed 0:00 since it could not be stopped in time after Johnson's goal. Referee Karl-Gustav Kaisla ruled that one second would be put back on the clock and the usual center ice faceoff would take place before the first intermission could begin. A lengthy delay followed as most of the Soviet team had already proceeded down the tunnel to their locker room. Eventually, three Soviet skaters along with backup goaltender Myshkin took the ice for the final faceoff. The first period ended with the game tied 2\u20132."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vladimir Myshkin",
        "text": "After Tretiak gave up two goals in the first period of the famous \"Miracle on Ice\" game versus the USA in the medal round of the 1980 Winter Olympics, Tikhonov replaced him with Myshkin. He faced only 2 shots in the second period, and stopped them both, but gave up 2 goals in the third scored by Americans Mark Johnson and Mike Eruzione. Team USA won the game 4-3 and went on to capture the gold medal with the Soviets taking the silver."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "There was however, no mention of international affairs in \"Miracle on Ice\", save for one huddled protest against the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in the pre-Olympic match-up against the Soviets at Madison Square Garden. \"Miracle\" meanwhile, showed how America was experiencing a crisis of confidence at that time (Watergate, hostages in Iran, Three Mile Island, ongoing energy crisis, etc.) of the 1980 Winter Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "With a capacity of 8,500, the arena was packed. The home crowd waved U.S. flags and sang patriotic songs such as \"God Bless America\". Before the game, Brooks read his players a statement he had written out on a piece of paper, telling them that \"You were born to be a player. You were meant to be here. This moment is yours.\" Brooks believed they could win and later said, \"The Russians were ready to cut their own throats. But we had to get to the point to be ready to pick up the knife and hand it to them. So the morning of the game I called the team together and told them, 'It's meant to be. This is your moment and it's going to happen.' It's kind of corny and I could see them thinking, 'Here goes Herb again...' But I believed it.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "As his team ran all over the ice in celebration, Herb Brooks sprinted back to the locker room and cried. In the locker room afterwards, players spontaneously broke into a chorus of \"God Bless America\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Vladimir Krutov was sent to the penalty box at the 6:47 mark of the third period for high-sticking. The Americans, who had managed only two shots on Myshkin in 27\u00a0minutes, had a power play and a rare offensive opportunity. Myshkin stopped a Mike Ramsey shot, then U.S. team captain Mike Eruzione fired a shot wide. Late in the power play, Dave Silk was advancing into the Soviet zone when Valeri Vasiliev knocked him to the ice. The puck slid to Mark Johnson. Johnson fired off a shot that went under Myshkin and into the net at the 8:39 mark, as the power play was ending, tying the game at 3. Only a couple of shifts later, Mark Pavelich passed to Eruzione, who was left undefended in the high slot. Eruzione, who had just come onto the ice, fired a shot past Myshkin, who was screened by Vasili Pervukhin. This goal gave Team USA a 4\u20133 lead, its first of the game, with exactly 10\u00a0minutes remaining to play."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Malden also remarked with disapproval that Brooks could've ventured an occasional smile during one of the less intense games. Malden also wondered how, after working hard over the course of seven months that Brooks could have simply walked away after his team clinched the improbable victory against the Soviet team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Miracle on Ice\n--History.\n----The Soviet and American teams.\n----Exhibitions.\n----Olympic group play.\n--Game summary.\n----First period.\n----Second period.\n----Third period.\n--American aftermath.\n----Gold medal.\n----After the 1980 Winter Olympics.\n----Later careers.\n--Soviet aftermath.\n----Silver medal.\n----After the 1980 Winter Olympics.\n----NHL careers.\n--Notable rematches.\n--Popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Tikhonov replaced Tretiak with backup goaltender Vladimir Myshkin immediately after Johnson's goal, a move that shocked players on both teams. Tikhonov later identified this as the \"turning point of the game\" and called it \"the biggest mistake of my career\". Years later, when Johnson asked Viacheslav Fetisov, now an NHL teammate, about the move, Fetisov responded with \"Coach crazy.\" Myshkin allowed no goals in the second period. The Soviets dominated play in the second period, outshooting the Americans 12\u20132, but scored only once, on a power play goal by Aleksandr Maltsev 2:18 into play. After two periods the Soviet Union led, 3\u20132."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In their last exhibition game, against the Soviets at Madison Square Garden on Saturday, February 9, the Americans were crushed 10\u20133. Soviet head coach Viktor Tikhonov later said that this victory \"turned out to be a very big problem\" by causing the Soviets to underestimate the American team. The\u00a0game was also costly for the Americans off-ice, as defenseman Jack O'Callahan pulled a ligament in his knee; however, Brooks kept O'Callahan on the roster, which meant the U.S. was virtually playing with only 19 players throughout the tournament. O'Callahan eventually returned for the game against the Soviets, playing limited minutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "During the broadcast wrap-up after the game, ABC Olympic sports anchor Jim McKay compared the American victory over the Soviet professionals to a group of Canadian college football players defeating the Pittsburgh Steelers (the recent Super Bowl champions and at the height of their dynasty)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The \"Miracle on Ice\" was an ice hockey game during the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York. It was played between the hosting United States and the Soviet Union on February 22, 1980, during the medal round of the men's hockey tournament. Though the Soviet Union was a four-time defending gold medalist and heavily favored, the United States upset them and won 4\u20133."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Needing to defeat Finland to secure the gold medal, Team USA faced a 2\u20131 deficit at the end of the second period. According to Mike Eruzione, coming into the dressing room for the second intermission, Brooks turned to his players, looked at them, and said, \"If you lose this game, you'll take it to your fucking graves.\" He then walked towards the locker room door, paused, looked over his shoulder, and said to them again, \"Your fucking graves.\" Team USA came back in the third period to defeat Finland 4\u20132."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In the Soviet locker room, Tikhonov singled out first-line players Tretiak, Kharlamov, Petrov, and Mikhailov, and told each of them, \"This is your loss!\" Two days after the Miracle on Ice, the Soviet team defeated Sweden 9\u20132, winning the silver medal. The Soviet players were so upset at their loss that they did not turn in their silver medals to get their names inscribed on them, as is custom. The result stunned the Soviet Union and its news media."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 1980 Winter Olympics",
        "text": "The victory became one of the most iconic moments of the Games and in U.S. sports. Equally well-known was the television call of the final seconds of the game by Al Michaels for ABC, in which he declared: \"Do you believe in miracles?! YES!\" In 1999, \"Sports Illustrated\" named the \"Miracle on Ice\" the top sports moment of the 20th century. As part of its centennial celebration in 2008, the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) named the \"Miracle on Ice\" as the best international ice hockey story of the past 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The victory became one of the most iconic moments of the Games and in U.S. sports. Equally well-known was the television call of the final seconds of the game by Al Michaels for ABC, in which he declared: \"Do you believe in miracles? YES!\" In 1999, \"Sports Illustrated\" named the \"Miracle on Ice\" the top sports moment of the 20th century. As part of its centennial celebration in 2008, the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) named the \"Miracle on Ice\" as the best international ice hockey story of the past 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The U.S. and Russia played each other in a round-robin game at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. The game was tied 2\u20132 after overtime before the Americans prevailed in an eight-round shootout, with T.J. Oshie scoring on 4 of 6 attempts for the United States. The match has been dubbed by some as the \"Marathon on Ice\" due to its length. Both teams, however, failed to win a medal; the Americans finished fourth (losing to Canada in the semifinals), while the Russians placed fifth (losing to Finland in the quarterfinals)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boston University Terriers men's ice hockey",
        "text": "O'Callahan, who had injured his left knee in an exhibition match, returned for the famous \"Miracle on Ice\" game and in his first seconds on the ice, delivered a massive hit on a Soviet player that turned the puck over to the Americans near the Soviet defensive zone. The hit caught the Soviets off guard and set up a goal scored by William \"Buzz\" Schneider to tie the game at 1\u20131."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Whereas 1981's \"Miracle on Ice\" reused clips from ABC's actual broadcasts of the games blended in with some quick close-ups for the written footage, \"Miracle\" used real hockey players as actors and reshot the whole games. Also recreated in \"Miracle\" was the commentary by Al Michaels and Ken Dryden (with the exception of Michaels' now legendary \"Do you believe in miracles? Yes!\" line as the filmmakers felt that it would've been impossible to ask Michaels to recreate the genuine emotion and enthusiasm during the heat of that particular moment)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the Olympic Games",
        "text": "The victory became one of the most iconic moments of the Games and in U.S. sports. Equally well-known was the television call of the final seconds of the game by Al Michaels for ABC, in which he declared: \"Do you believe in miracles?! YES!\" In 1999, \"Sports Illustrated\" named the \"Miracle on Ice\" the top sports moment of the 20th century. As part of its centennial celebration in 2008, the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) named the \"Miracle on Ice\" as the best international ice hockey story of the past 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lake Placid, New York",
        "text": "In the U.S., the village is especially remembered as the 1980 USA\u2013USSR hockey game site. Dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\", a group of American college students and amateurs upset seasoned and professional Soviet national ice hockey team, 4\u20133, and two days later won the gold medal. Another high point during the Games was the performance of American speed-skater Eric Heiden, who won five gold medals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "After the team list is finally posted, the team plays some exhibition games in Europe, where they post a respectable record (winning eight and only losing two games). But just as they are feeling great about their performance, they play the Minnesota North Stars and realize that their skills could still use improvement; furthermore, they recognize that beating the powerful Soviet Union team, who won the gold medal at the past four Olympic Games, will be a tremendous challenge. For their last exhibition game before the Olympics, they play against the Soviet Union at Madison Square Garden. Brooks realizes that this particular game will prove whether his team is ready to compete for the gold medal. The Soviets annihilate them by the score of 10\u20133, but newly installed captain Mike Eruzione refuses to let the team's spirit slide. In their opening game against the favored Swedish team, the United States is down two goals to one with less than a minute remaining in the game. Brooks pulls his goalie and the U.S. ties the game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Outside of archive footage, defenseman Mike Ramsey wasn't depicted in \"Miracle on Ice\". In the February 21, 1998 edition of \"The Buffalo News\", Ramsey said \"I also got paid for having my name in the TV movie that ABC did. It was about five years before I sat down and actually watched the movie. I sat back and said 'Uh, oh' when it was over because it wasn't too good. Some time after that, we (the Sabres) came into some city on a road trip at 2 a.m., and it was on TV. I think everyone on the team watched it, because the next morning everyone was busting my chops.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "The next two games against Czechoslovakia and Norway both end with the U.S. victorious. The possibility of them making a run for a medal is now especially raised after they beat West Germany prior to their showdown with the Soviets. At the end of the first period in the medal round game between the U.S. and the Soviets, the score is tied. At the end of the second period, the U.S. trails by one goal. In the last few minutes of the game, the Soviet Union stages one last attack, but the U.S. is ultimately victorious. As the crowd at Olympic Center Ice Rink bursts into hysteria, Herb Brooks retreats to the locker room for some solitude, knowing they face Finland for the gold medal. Ultimately though, the United States do defeat Finland for the gold medal and Mike Eruzione urges his team to join him on the platform during the playing of the national anthem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "The film concludes with actual footage of the U.S. hockey team members receiving their medals, along with descriptions narrated by ABC Sports broadcaster Al Michaels of their accomplishments after the 1980 Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "During an exhibition game against Norway in Oslo that ends in a 3\u20133 tie, Brooks notices the players are distracted and not playing up to their potential. After the game, he orders them back on the ice for a bag skate. Brooks has them skate from one end of the ice to the other several times (doing, in other words, his infamous \"Herbies,\" as the team would call them colloquially), continuing the drill even after the rink manager cuts the power. Exhausted, forward and team captain Mike Eruzione (Patrick O'Brien Demsey) re-introduces himself in the same manner from the initial practice and cries out that he plays for the United States. Getting the answer that he wanted all along, Brooks finally allows the team to go home. Eventually, the team comes together, with the players thinking of themselves as a family representing the United States. With their roster finalized, just before heading to Lake Placid, the Americans play the Soviets in an exhibition game at Madison Square Garden. The Soviets manhandle the young American team, winning by a score of 10\u20133. During the game, O'Callahan suffers a knee injury that could keep him out of the entire Olympics and starting goaltender Jim Craig (Eddie Cahill) is shockingly told he may be benched in favor of backup Steve Janaszak (Sam Skoryna). Brooks tells him that he hasn't been giving his very best and ultimately decides to keep Craig as the starter for the Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "As the 1980 Winter Olympics begins, the Americans trail Sweden 2\u20131 in the first game. Brooks fires up the team during an intermission by throwing a table and accuses McClanahan, who suffered a relatively minor leg injury, of quitting. McClanahan ends up playing despite his injury, which inspires the team. Bill Baker (Nick Postle) scores a goal with only 27 seconds remaining in the third period for a dramatic 2\u20132 tie. They then follow up with a 7\u20133 win over heavily favored Czechoslovakia. As the Olympics continue, the team defeats Norway, Romania, and West Germany to earn a spot in the medal round. The Americans are considered overwhelming underdogs to the Soviets in the first medal round game. The game begins and the Soviets score the first goal. Then O'Callahan, having healed enough from his injury, enters the game for the first time. He makes an immediate impact by heavily checking Vladimir Krutov on a play that leads to a goal by Buzz Schneider (Billy Schneider). The Soviets score again to retake the lead. In the final seconds, Soviet goalie Vladislav Tretiak stops a long shot by Dave Christian (Stephen Kovalcik), but Mark Johnson (Eric Peter-Kaiser) gets the rebound and scores with less than one second left in the period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Al Michaels",
        "text": "In 1980, an unheralded group of college ice hockey players from the United States won the gold medal at the Olympic Winter Games. The medal round match on February 22\u2014which, contrary to popular belief, did not yet assure the team of the gold medal\u2014was of particular interest, as it was played against a heavily favored professional squad from the Soviet Union, and was in front of an incredibly excited pro-American crowd in Lake Placid, New York. Michaels's memorable broadcast of this game, including his interjection\u2014\"Do you believe in miracles? YES!\"\u2014as time expired on the 4\u20133 U.S. victory, earned the game the media nickname of \"The Miracle on Ice\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phil Verchota",
        "text": "Verchota is not featured in a 1981 TV movie about the 1980 U.S. hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\", but does appear in archival footage of the medal ceremony where he is awarded the gold medal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Miracle on Ice is a 1981 American sports docudrama about the United States men's national ice hockey team, led by head coach Herb Brooks (played by Karl Malden), that won the gold medal in the 1980 Winter Olympics. The USA team's victory over the heavily favored Soviet team in the medal round was dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\". The film premiered on March 1, 1981, as an installment of \"The ABC Sunday Night Movie\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In September 1979, before the Olympics, the American team started exhibition play. They played a total of 61 games in five months against teams from Europe and the United States. Through these games, Brooks instilled a European style of play in his team, emphasizing wide-open play with sufficient body contact. He believed it would be the only way for the Americans to compete with the Soviets. From the start of the exhibition matches, he conducted the team through skating wind sprints consisting of end line to blue line and back, then end line to red line and back, then end line to far blue line and back, and finally end line all the way down and back. Some of the players took to calling these \"Herbies\". On September 17, the team played to a 3\u20133 tie in Norway. Believing the team wasn't putting up sufficient effort, an angry Brooks had them skate Herbies after the game and, after a while, arena custodians turned the lights off and the Herbies continued in the dark. The two teams played again the next night, with the US winning handily 9-0. Near the end of the exhibition season, Brooks, because of subpar play, threatened to cut Eruzione (the captain) from the team and replace Craig with Steve Janaszak as the starting goaltender, although he had supported them throughout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "At the 1981 Canada Cup, the United States, with seven players from their 1980 Olympic team, again faced the Soviet Union. The Soviets took the opening round encounter 4\u20131 in Edmonton. At the 1982 World Championship in Finland, with Mike Ramsey, Mark Johnson, Buzz Schneider, and John Harrington, the Americans again met the Soviets, but once again the U.S. lost, 8\u20134."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The Soviet Union entered the Lake Placid games as the heavy favorite, having won four consecutive gold medals dating back to the 1964 games. In the four Olympics following their 1960 bronze-medal finish at Squaw Valley, Soviet teams had gone 27\u20131\u20131 (wins-losses-ties) and outscored their opponents 175\u201344. In head-to-head matchups against the United States, the cumulative score over that period was 28\u20137. The Soviet team had not lost a game in Olympic play since 1968."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In 2004, Walt Disney Pictures released the film \"Miracle\", directed by Gavin O'Connor and starring Kurt Russell as Brooks. Al Michaels recreated his commentary for most of the games. The final ten seconds, however, and his \"Do you believe in miracles? YES!\" call, were from the original broadcast and used in the film since the filmmakers felt that they could not ask him to recreate the emotion he felt at that moment. The film was dedicated to Brooks, who died shortly after principal photography completed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neal Broten",
        "text": "Broten is not featured in the 1981 TV movie about the 1980 U.S. hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\" except in archival footage of the gold medal ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "A made-for-TV movie \"Miracle on Ice\", starring Karl Malden as Brooks, Steve Guttenberg as Craig, and Andrew Stevens as Eruzione aired on ABC television in 1981. It incorporated actual game footage and original commentary from the 1980 Winter Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boston University Terriers men's ice hockey",
        "text": "Eruzione scored the famous winning goal against the Soviets with 10 minutes remaining, and Craig made 36 saves to preserve the 4\u20133 victory. Silk, who assisted on the United States' second and third goals, was mentioned in sportscast Al Michaels' final call: \"Eleven seconds, you've got ten seconds, the countdown going on right now! Morrow, up to Silk. Five seconds left in the game. Do you believe in miracles? Yes!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In the group stage, both the Soviet and U.S. teams were unbeaten; the U.S. achieved several surprising results, including a 2\u20132 draw against Sweden, and a 7\u20133 upset victory over second-place favorite Czechoslovakia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herb Brooks",
        "text": "Brooks's original expressions were known by his players as \"Brooksisms\", some of which were included in \"Miracle\". According to Olympians John Harrington, Dave Silk, and Mike Eruzione, these are a few.\n*\"You're playing worse and worse every day and right now you're playing like it's next month.\"\n*\"You can't be common, the common man goes nowhere. You have to be uncommon.\"\n*\"Boys, I'm asking you to go to the well again.\"\n*\"You look like you have a five pound fart on your head.\"\n*\"You guys are getting bent over and they're not using Vaseline.\"\n*\"You look like a monkey tryin' to hump a football!\"\n*\"You're looking for players whose name on the front of the sweater is more important than the one on the back. I look for these players to play hard, to play smart and to represent their country.\"\n*\"Great moments are born from great opportunity.\"\n*\"You know, Willy Wonka said it best: we are the music makers and we are the dreamers of dreams.\"\n*\"This team isn't talented enough to win on talent alone.\"\n*\"If you lose this game you'll take it to your grave ... your fucking grave.\"\n*\"You were born to be a player. You were meant to be here. This moment is yours.\"\n*\"Write your own book instead of reading someone else's book about success.\"\n*\"Boys, in the front of the net it's a bloody nose alley.\"\n*\"Don't dump the puck in. That went out with short pants.\"\n*\"Throw the puck back and weave, weave, weave. But don't just weave for the sake of weaving.\"\n*\"Let's be idealistic but let's also be practical.\"\n*\"You guys don't want to work during the game?\"\n*\"The legs feed the wolf.\"\n*\"We walked up to the tiger, looked him straight in his eye and spat in it.\"\n*\"Tonight.\"\n*\"Again.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Brooks wanted his team to play on lines lasting 40 seconds or less to stay energized by the third period. He instructed team physician George Nagobads to track ice time for the players, who later joked that he never saw the game since he was focused on his stopwatch."
      },
      {
        "title": "U-S-A!",
        "text": "However, the chant was popularized in the context of ice hockey at the 1980 Winter Olympics. During the U.S.' 7\u20133 win over Czechoslovakia in the second game, the crowd began chanting \"U-S-A! U-S-A!\" in support of the U.S. hockey team as the U.S. scored a decisive win over one of the best teams in the world. The chant became a fixture of the team's remaining games and gained national attention after the U.S. defeated the Soviet Union in what became known as the \"Miracle on Ice\", later moving on to beat Finland for the gold medal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "The story of the United States men's national hockey team's gold medal victory at the 1980 Winter Olympics was retold in \"Miracle\", starring Kurt Russell as Herb Brooks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "During the first intermission, Soviet coach Viktor Tikhonov (Zinaid Memi\u0161evi\u0107) replaces Tretiak with backup Vladimir Myshkin. In the second period, the Soviets score a goal to go up 3\u20132. Early in the final period, the Soviet team is called for a penalty for slashing, putting the Americans on the power play. Johnson scores his second goal of the game just as the penalty is about to expire. Later, Eruzione puts them ahead 4\u20133 with 10 minutes left. The Americans hold off the Soviets to win the game, completing one of the biggest upsets in sports history. Two days later, the team would go on to defeat Finland 4\u20132 to win the gold medal. The movie ends with Brooks staring out over his team with pride as the entire team crowds together on the gold medal platform."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bob Suter",
        "text": "Suter was not featured in a 1981 TV movie about the 1980 U.S. hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\", except in archival footage of the gold medal ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The U.S., coached by Herb Brooks, and Russia, coached by Viacheslav Fetisov, met twice in the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, which included a 2\u20132 round-robin draw and a 3\u20132 semi-final win for the Americans. The semi-final match was played 22 years to the day after the \"Miracle on Ice\" game. The U.S. eventually won silver, while Russia won bronze."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Kluetmeier",
        "text": "Kluetmeier's work with \"SI\" includes the March 3, 1980 cover that shows the American hockey team celebrating its semifinal game win over the Soviet Union in the \"Miracle on Ice\" game at the 1980 Winter Olympic Games at Lake Placid, New York. The cover is the only one in the magazine's history to run without a headline or caption, because, in his words, \"It didn't need it. Everyone in America knew what happened.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of ESPN on ABC",
        "text": "The 1980 Winter Olympics was the setting for the \"Miracle on Ice\", a medal-round men's ice hockey game in Lake Placid, New York, on February 22. The United States team, made up of amateur and collegiate players and led by coach Herb Brooks, defeated the Soviet team, which consisted of veteran professional players with significant experience in international play. The rest of the United States (except those who watched the game live on Canadian television) had to wait to see the game, as ABC decided to broadcast the late-afternoon game on tape delay in prime time. Sportscaster Al Michaels, who was calling the game on ABC along with former Montreal Canadiens goalie Ken Dryden, picked up on the countdown in his broadcast, and delivered his famous call:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Stern closely watched videotapes of the Lake Placid games before setting up his scenes at the Los Angeles Sports Arena. These staged shots generally involved close-ups of the actors. The original ABC Sports footage showed the games in long or medium shots. The new material, also videotaped, was then carefully edited into the factual footage, and the result was transferred to film. This process was done in order to maintain the same picture quality throughout and not produce the 'checkerboard effect' according to co-producer Frank von Zerneck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Ken Morrow in \"Miracle on Ice\" is accurately bearded unlike in \"Miracle\". Herb Brooks specifically made a rule to allow Morrow to keep his beard for the team, based on his having a beard prior to joining the team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Mike Ramsey, Neal Broten, Steve Janaszak, Eric Strobel, Bob Suter, and Phil Verchota were not featured in the film except in archival footage of the gold medal ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "NHL on ABC",
        "text": "For years later at Lake Placid, ABC was on hand for a medal-round men's ice hockey game that would soon become known the \"Miracle on Ice\". On February 22, 1980, the United States team, made up of amateur and collegiate players and led by coach Herb Brooks, defeated the Soviet team, which consisted of veteran professional players with significant experience in international play. The rest of the United States (except those who watched the game live on Canadian television) had to wait to see the game, as ABC decided to broadcast the late-afternoon game on tape delay in prime time. Sportscaster Al Michaels, who was calling the game on ABC along with former Montreal Canadiens goalie Ken Dryden, picked up on the countdown in his broadcast, and delivered his famous call:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "For the first game in the medal round, the United States played the Soviets. Finishing the first period tied at 2\u20132, and the Soviets leading 3\u20132 following the second, the U.S. team scored two more goals to take their first lead midway in the third and final period, then held on and won\u00a04\u20133. Two days later, the U.S. won the gold medal by beating Finland in their final game. The Soviet Union took the silver medal by beating Sweden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Prior to the start of the film, Al Michaels reads a disclaimer stating that for dramatic purposes, composite characters and time compression was used in some instances. With that being said, Andrew Stevens, who portrayed Mike Eruzione, did so shooting with his right hand even though Eruzione actually shot with his left hand. Eruzione himself also claimed that Donna (Lucinda Dooling), his girlfriend depicted in the film is fictional. Therefore, the two scenes involving her character (where she's on a picnic with Eruzione in the Public Garden in Boston early on in the film, and when she must leave him and return home right before the climax) never happened in real life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "John J. O'Connor of the \"New York Times\" said \"\"Miracle on Ice\" is a fine example of the inspirational sports film. Nothing is said of the many career disappointments suffered by the players since the Olympics, but this film is meant to recapture an extraordinary moment, which it does.\" O'Connor did however also say that \"Miracle on Ice\" was sprinkled liberally with silly bits of business and ludicrous efforts to inject some romance into the scenario. For instance, every so often, a beautiful woman would suggestively approach one of the players, only to disappear quickly as, under Herb Brooks' orders. O'Connor added that outside of Mike Eruzione and Jim Craig, the rest of the team is just a collection of faces passing quickly before the cameras, identified only by the names on the backs of their uniforms. Meanwhile, O'Connor argued that other characters such as Patti Brooks as the loyally supportive and enthusiastic wife and Jim Craig's father, Donald (a devoted fan carrying a religious medal for good luck), are little more than plot conveniences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "Herb Brooks (Kurt Russell), head ice hockey coach at the University of Minnesota, interviews with the United States Olympic Committee for the national team coach's job, discussing his philosophy on how to beat the Soviet team, calling for changes to the practice schedule and strategy. The USOC is skeptical, but ultimately gives Brooks the job."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Sportscaster Al Michaels, who was calling the game on ABC along with former Montreal Canadiens goaltender Ken Dryden, picked up on the countdown in his broadcast, and delivered his famous call:"
      },
      {
        "title": "ABC Olympic broadcasts",
        "text": "The 1980 Winter Olympics was the setting for the \"Miracle on Ice\", a medal-round men's ice hockey game in Lake Placid, New York, on February 22. The United States team, made up of amateur and collegiate players and led by coach Herb Brooks, defeated the Soviet team, which consisted of veteran professional players with significant experience in international play. The rest of the United States (except those who watched the game live on Canadian television) had to wait to see the game, as ABC decided to broadcast the late-afternoon game on tape delay in prime time. Sportscaster Al Michaels, who was calling the game on ABC along with former Montreal Canadiens goalie Ken Dryden, picked up on the countdown in his broadcast, and delivered his famous call:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Karl Malden told \"Sports Illustrated\" in December 1980 that he had never actually met Herb Brooks in preparation for his portrayal of him, but he studied him on videotape, especially his eyes. Malden said of Brooks \"I'd hate to meet him in a dark alley. I think he's a little on the neurotic side. Maybe more than a little. Any moment you think he's going to jump out of his skin.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "\"Entertainment Weekly\" gave \"Miracle on Ice\" a B-, saying \"Watching Andrew Stevens and Steve Guttenberg trying to make like hockey players is itself faintly chilling. But the on-ice action is the real thing, and the thrills have not diminished a bit.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The Soviet and American teams were natural rivals due to the decades-old Cold War. In addition, President Jimmy Carter was at the time considering a U.S. boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics, to be held in Moscow, in protest of the December 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. On February 9, the same day the American and Soviet teams met in an exhibition game in New York City, U.S. Secretary of State Cyrus Vance denounced the impending Moscow games at an IOC meeting. President Carter eventually decided in favor of the boycott."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Whereas \"Miracle\" gave us the story of Ralph Cox, the last man cut from the team, \"Miracle on Ice\" tells this story from the perspective of Les Auge, who was in fact the second to last man cut from the team. We also learn in \"Miracle on Ice\" of Mike Eruzione's decision to never play professional hockey after being captain of the gold medal team. Auge is depicted as urging Eruinoze to reconsider retiring prior to the Olympics to take a position as an assistant coach on the national team. All in all, while \"Miracle on Ice\" went more onto the individual players' careers outside of the Olympics, \"Miracle\" focused more on Herb Brooks molding them into a team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "After the gold medal-securing victory over Finland, the players received a congratulatory phone call from President Jimmy Carter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The documentary \"Of Miracles And Men\", which was directed by Jonathan Hock, premiered on ESPN in 2015 as part of the channel's \"30 for 30\" series. The story of the 1980 matchup is told from the Soviet perspective."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The cover of the March 3, 1980, issue of \"Sports Illustrated\" was a photograph by Heinz Kluetmeier of the American players celebrating and waving an American flag; it did not feature any explanatory captions or headlines, because, as Kluetmeier put it, \"It didn't need it. Everyone in America knew what happened.\" The U.S. team also received the magazine's \"Sportsmen of the Year\" award, and were also named Athlete of the Year by the Associated Press and ABC's \"Wide World of Sports\". In 2004, ESPN, as part of its 25th anniversary, declared the Miracle on Ice to be the top sports headline moment and game of the period 1979\u20132004. The victory was voted the greatest sports moment of the 20th century by \"Sports Illustrated\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "It could be argued that \"Miracle on Ice\" manages to tell a lot more about some of the players than \"Miracle\" did. For instance, in \"Miracle on Ice\", more is told of goalie Jim Craig, and his relationship with his father that culminated in the dramatic moment of him draped in an American flag at the end of the gold medal game, looking for his dad in the stands. There's also scenes in \"Miracle on Ice\" that touches upon the players' socio-economic backgrounds, such as one where Craig tells his father that remaining an amateur is costly for their family. \"Miracle\" instead, plays up regional tensions between Eastern and Western college hockey divisions to amplify the idea of conflict within the ranks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The U.S. and the Soviet Union next met at the Winter Olympics in 1988. As in 1980, the Soviets were represented by their star-studded veterans, while the Americans fielded a team of college players. The Soviets won the encounter 7\u20135 and won the gold medal, while the U.S. placed seventh."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Mike Eruzione however joked that besides offering a far more handsome and hockey-knowledgeable alternative to Karl Malden, Kurt Russell was \u201cSomebody with a better nose.\u201d Nathan West, who played Rob McClanahan in \"Miracle\" said while joking with reporters about the 1981 film, \"What TV movie?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Steve Janaszak",
        "text": "In the 1981 TV movie about the gold medal-winning U.S. hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\", Janaszak does not appear as a character, but rather in archival footage of the gold medal ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim Fox (ice hockey)",
        "text": "Fox played a critical role in the tying goal during the stunning Miracle on Manchester game against Edmonton in the 1982 playoffs, by stripping scoring superstar Wayne Gretzky of the puck in the dying moments of the third period before sending it to defenseman Mark Hardy whose point shot was blocked but pounced on by Steve Bozek who swatted the puck past Oilers goaltender Grant Fuhr to even the score at 5-5 after Los Angeles had trailed 5-0 after two periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In exhibitions that year, Soviet club teams went 5\u20133\u20131 against National Hockey League (NHL) teams and, a year earlier, the Soviet national team had defeated a team of NHL All-Stars two games to one (by scores of 2-4, 5-4, and 6\u20130) to win the Challenge Cup. In 1979\u201380, virtually all the top North American players were Canadians, although the number of U.S.-born professional players had been on the rise throughout the 1970s. The 1980 U.S. Olympic team featured several young players who were regarded as highly promising, and some had signed contracts to play in the NHL immediately after the tournament."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Bob Grimm of \"Tucson Weekly\" said that \"Miracle on Ice\" falls short of being even a good sports movie. It makes too many errors on and off the ice, failing to capture the essence of the sport it's studying, and reducing most of the men and women involved in the historical drama to caricature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "\"Miracle on Ice\" was directed by Steven Hilliard Stern and written by Lionel Chetwynd. It incorporates actual game footage and ABC broadcasters Al Michaels and Ken Dryden's original commentary from the 1980 Winter Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mark Pavelich",
        "text": "In \"Miracle on Ice\", a 1981 TV movie about the 1980 U.S. hockey team, Pavelich was played by Jack Blessing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The Soviets were led by legendary players in world ice hockey, such as Boris Mikhailov (a top line right winger and team captain), Vladislav Tretiak (the consensus best goaltender in the world at the time), the speedy and skilled Valeri Kharlamov, and talented, dynamic players such as defenseman Viacheslav Fetisov and forwards Vladimir Krutov and Sergei Makarov. From that team, Tretiak, Kharlamov, Makarov, and Fetisov were eventually enshrined in the Hockey Hall of Fame. Many of the Soviet players had gained attention in the Summit Series eight years before and, in contrast to the American players, were \"de facto\" professionals with long histories of international play, employed by industrial firms or military organizations for the sole purpose of playing hockey on their organization's team. Western nations protested the Soviet Union's use of full-time athletes, as they were forced to use amateur (mainly college) players due to the International Olympic Committee's (IOC) amateur-only policy. The situation even led to Canadian withdrawal from the 1972 and 1976 Olympics, but the IOC did not change the rules until the late 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey in the United States",
        "text": "Movies such as \"Miracle\", \"The Mighty Ducks\", \"Youngblood\", and \"Soul on Ice, goon\" have become part of American culture regarding hockey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eric Strobel",
        "text": "Strobel was not featured in \"Miracle on Ice\", a 1981 TV movie, but appears in archival footage of the gold medal ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "Miracle is a 2004 American sports film about the United States men's ice hockey team, led by head coach Herb Brooks, portrayed by Kurt Russell, who won the gold medal in the 1980 Winter Olympics. The American team's victory over the heavily favored Soviet professionals in the medal round was dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\". \"Miracle\" was directed by Gavin O'Connor and written by Eric Guggenheim and Mike Rich. It was released on February 20, 2004, where it grossed $64.5 million on a $28 million budget and received positive reviews, with Russell's performance garnering the most praise from critics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "33 years later, Victor Mather of the \"New York Times\" said that while \"Miracle on Ice\" was \"Much less inspired than its successor (2004's \"Miracle\"), it still delivers a chill or two at its climax.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "At the time, the players ascended a podium to receive their medals and then lined up on the ice for the playing of the national anthem, as the podium was only meant to accommodate one person. Only the team captains remained on the podium for the duration. After the completion of the anthem, Eruzione motioned for his teammates to join him on the podium. Today, podia are not used for ice hockey; the teams line up on their respective blue lines after the final game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet Union men's national ice hockey team",
        "text": "At the 1980 Winter Olympics, the Soviets also had one of their most notable losses. Playing the United States in the medal round, the Soviets lost 4\u20133. This match, later dubbed the Miracle on Ice, was notable because it had the Soviets, recognized as the top international team in the world, against an American team composed largely of university-level players. The Americans would go on to win the gold medal in the tournament, while the Soviets finished with the silver, only the second time they failed to win gold at the Olympics since their debut in 1956."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In Olympic group play, the Americans surprised many observers with their physical, cohesive play. In their first game, on February 12 against favored Sweden, Team USA earned a dramatic 2\u20132 draw by scoring with 27 seconds left after pulling goalie Jim Craig for an extra attacker. Then came a stunning 7\u20133 victory over Czechoslovakia, who were a favorite for the silver medal. With its two toughest games in the group phase out of the way, the U.S. team reeled off three more wins, beating Norway 5\u20131, Romania 7\u20132, and West Germany 4\u20132 to go 4\u20130\u20131 and advance to the medal round from its group, along with\u00a0Sweden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "\"Miracle\" director Gavin O'Connor said that he remembers calling Herb Brooks to tell him that Karl Malden had been cast to play him and hearing a second or two of silence on the line before he replied, in a tone dripping with acid, \u2018Isn\u2019t he a bit old?\u2019 On the other hand, Tom Jones of the \"Tampa Bay Times\" said that while the movie was a bit hokey and included some strange choices (such as Steve Guttenberg as goalie Jim Craig), Karl Malden pulled off a credible performance as the grumpy Herb Brooks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The Soviet Union had won the gold medal in five of the six previous Winter Olympic Games, and they were the favorites to win once more in Lake Placid. The team consisted primarily of professional players with significant experience in international play. By contrast, the United States' team, led by head coach Herb Brooks, was composed mostly of amateur players, with only four players with minimal minor-league experience. The United States had the youngest team in the tournament and in U.S. national team history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kick Six",
        "text": "Gary Danielson would later compare the game to the legendary Miracle on Ice, equating Auburn's upset of Alabama to the amateur USA hockey team defeating the powerhouse Soviet Union team during the 1980 Winter Olympics. Danielson commented on the moment stating \"I just think it's a once-in-a-lifetime thing and I'm very proud to have been a part of it.\"\n* Commentators Rod Bramblett and Stan White called the game on radio for the Auburn IMG Sports Network."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herb Brooks",
        "text": "On the 25th anniversary of the Miracle on Ice, the Olympic ice arena in Lake Placid, New York, where the United States won the gold medal, was renamed Herb Brooks Arena. A statue of Brooks depicting his reaction to the victory in the 'Miracle' game was erected at the entrance to the RiverCentre in Saint Paul, Minnesota, in 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In the other group, the Soviets stormed through their opposition undefeated, often by grossly lopsided scores. They defeated Japan 16\u20130, the Netherlands 17\u20134, Poland 8\u20131, Finland 4\u20132, and Canada 6\u20134 to easily qualify for the next round, although both the Finns and the Canadians gave the Soviets tough games for two periods. In the end, the Soviet Union and Finland advanced from their group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "The Kings' crowd was electrified at the scoring of the tying goal; the roar from the stands would continue for several minutes. The Kings on the ice formed a joyous group around Bozek, all of them tired, but ecstatic. The Oiler players on the ice, by contrast, were in disbelief, and lying down on the ice. Goaltender Fuhr had dropped to one knee and hung his head in disappointment. All that was left of regulation time was a faceoff at center ice. The last five seconds quickly elapsed, and the teams headed to their respective locker rooms to prepare for their second consecutive overtime game."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States at the Winter Olympics",
        "text": "The 1980 hockey game between the U.S. and USSR was dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\", when American college players defeated the heavily favored seasoned professionals from the Soviet Union on the way to a gold medal at the Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York. The Soviet Union had won the gold medal in five of the six previous Winter Olympic Games, and were the favorites to win once more. Though ice hockey is not a major sport in most areas of the United States, the \"Miracle\" is often listed as one of the all-time greatest American sporting achievements. The U.S. also won the gold medal in the 1960 Games at Squaw Valley, California, defeating the Soviet Union, Canada, Czechoslovakia, and Sweden along the way. However, since this victory is not as well known as the 1980 win, it has come to be known as the \"Forgotten Miracle\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Despite the loss, the USSR remained the pre-eminent power in Olympic hockey until its dissolution in 1991. The Soviet team did not lose a World Championship game until 1985 and did not lose to the United States again until 1991. Throughout the 1980s, NHL teams continued to draft Soviet players in hopes of enticing them to eventually play in North America. Soviet emigrant Victor Nechayev made a brief appearance with the Los Angeles Kings in the 1982\u201383 season and, during the 1988\u201389 season, the Soviet Ice Hockey Federation agreed to let veteran Sergei Pryakhin join the Calgary Flames."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Manchester",
        "text": "Later in the second period, both teams were playing with three skaters per side due to penalties. The Oilers' defenseman Risto Siltanen skated the puck through center ice and into the Kings' zone. The Oilers maintained control with sharp passing, but after an Oiler shot went wide of the net, the Kings' defender Mark Hardy appeared to have control of the puck. Gretzky swooped in behind the net and deftly stole the puck away. He then sent a quick pass over to Siltanen who one-timed a shot toward the net that seemed to zoom past Lessard into the net; it ricocheted against the end boards and around to the left side of the Kings' zone. The goal light was turned on by the goal judge, so play was stopped as the referees convened. It was determined that Siltanen's shot went through the net, and replays later confirmed it. The Oilers had increased their lead to 4-0."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States at the Olympics",
        "text": "The 1980 hockey game between the U.S. and USSR was dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\", when American college players defeated the heavily favored seasoned professionals from the Soviet Union, on the way to a gold medal at the Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York. The Soviet Union had won the gold medal in five of the six previous Winter Olympic Games, and were the favorites to win once more. Though ice hockey is not a major sport in most areas of the United States, the \"Miracle\" is often listed as one of the all-time greatest American sporting achievements. The U.S. also won the gold medal in the 1960 Games at Squaw Valley, California, defeating the Soviet Union, Canada, Czechoslovakia, and Sweden along the way. However, since this victory is not as well known as the 1980 win, it has come to be known as the \"Forgotten Miracle\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "In December 2007, Tony Granato, who served as head coach of Team USA at the 2018 Winter Olympics, was interviewed by ESPN's Steve Wulf. When the subject came to how he would have to form a family of 25 players in a week, Granato said that he could show them \"Miracle\" with Kurt Russell. But Granato quickly followed it up by saying \"Actually, I'm partial to the earlier movie about the team, \"Miracle on Ice\", with Karl Malden as Herb Brooks.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Mike Eruzione was a technical consultant on the film saying \"we all know the movie will never be able to equal what happened.\" Eruzione however, wasn't involved with the latter \"Miracle\" film at all. According to Eruzione \"I did not want to be involved in the movie. I felt if I was involved then my role would be different, and the guys on the team would have went, he didn\u2019t do this, he didn\u2019t say that. Oh, no, you were an advisor; no wonder why you did this. I stayed away from the movie. I think they interviewed a bunch of us and asked us questions, but we had no input into the movie.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle at the Meadowlands",
        "text": "Pisarcik, who at the time was distracted making sure Csonka was in position, was unprepared for the snap. It struck his middle finger so hard there was still blood on the nail after the game. Nevertheless, he held on to the ball after a slight bobble and tried to hand it off to Csonka; instead, the ball hit Csonka's hip and came loose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ken Morrow",
        "text": "In the 1981 TV movie about the 1980 gold medal-winning U.S. Hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\", he is played by Scott Feraco."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lou Nanne",
        "text": "Lou Nanne\n--Early life.\n--Playing career.\n--Post-playing career.\n--Influence on the \"Miracle on Ice\".\n--Personal life.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ryazan miracle",
        "text": "All these events gave a blow to Khrushchev's image in the Soviet Union. His slogan \"Catch up and overtake America\" was widely mocked in jokes. The events contributed to his final fall from power in 1964."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who scored the winning goal for Miracle on Ice?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mark Pavelich passed to Eruzione, who was left undefended in the high slot. Eruzione, who had just come onto the ice, fired a shot past Myshkin, who was screened by Vasili Pervukhin. This goal gave Team USA a 4\u20133 lead, its first of the game, with exactly 10 minutes remaining to play."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did anything else happen in the game during the remaining 10 minutes?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Soviets, trailing for the first time in the game, attacked ferociously. The Americans fully expected Tikhonov to pull the goalie in the waning seconds, but to their surprise, Myshkin stayed in the game and as the clock ticked below 20 seconds, a wild scramble for the puck ensued, ending when Johnson found it and passed it to Ken Morrow as the U.S. tried to clear the zone and the clock counted down its final seconds."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were some of the pop culture references for Miracle on Ice?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Pop culture references include a made-for-TV movie in 1981, a documentary film on HBO in 2001, a 2004 Disney film, and an ESPN documentary in 2015. Would you like further information on any of those?"
    ],
    "topic": "Miracle on Ice",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Miracle on Ice:41",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Miracle on Ice",
          "Popular culture"
        ],
        "ctx": "A made-for-TV movie \"Miracle on Ice\", starring Karl Malden as Brooks, Steve Guttenberg as Craig, and Andrew Stevens as Eruzione aired on ABC television in 1981. It incorporated actual game footage and original commentary from the 1980 Winter Games."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Miracle on Ice:42",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Miracle on Ice",
          "Popular culture"
        ],
        "ctx": "The documentary film \"Do You Believe in Miracles?\", narrated by Liev Schreiber, premiered on HBO in 2001 and was subsequently released on home video."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Miracle on Ice:43",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Miracle on Ice",
          "Popular culture"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2004, Walt Disney Pictures released the film \"Miracle\", directed by Gavin O'Connor and starring Kurt Russell as Brooks. Al Michaels recreated his commentary for most of the games. The final ten seconds, however, and his \"Do you believe in miracles? YES!\" call, were from the original broadcast and used in the film since the filmmakers felt that they could not ask him to recreate the emotion he felt at that moment. The film was dedicated to Brooks, who died shortly after principal photography completed."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Miracle on Ice:44",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Miracle on Ice",
          "Popular culture"
        ],
        "ctx": "The documentary \"Of Miracles And Men\", which was directed by Jonathan Hock, premiered on ESPN in 2015 as part of the channel's \"30 for 30\" series. The story of the 1980 matchup is told from the Soviet perspective."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Whereas 1981's \"Miracle on Ice\" reused clips from ABC's actual broadcasts of the games blended in with some quick close-ups for the written footage, \"Miracle\" used real hockey players as actors and reshot the whole games. Also recreated in \"Miracle\" was the commentary by Al Michaels and Ken Dryden (with the exception of Michaels' now legendary \"Do you believe in miracles? Yes!\" line as the filmmakers felt that it would've been impossible to ask Michaels to recreate the genuine emotion and enthusiasm during the heat of that particular moment)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "There was however, no mention of international affairs in \"Miracle on Ice\", save for one huddled protest against the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in the pre-Olympic match-up against the Soviets at Madison Square Garden. \"Miracle\" meanwhile, showed how America was experiencing a crisis of confidence at that time (Watergate, hostages in Iran, Three Mile Island, ongoing energy crisis, etc.) of the 1980 Winter Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "A made-for-TV movie \"Miracle on Ice\", starring Karl Malden as Brooks, Steve Guttenberg as Craig, and Andrew Stevens as Eruzione aired on ABC television in 1981. It incorporated actual game footage and original commentary from the 1980 Winter Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Outside of archive footage, defenseman Mike Ramsey wasn't depicted in \"Miracle on Ice\". In the February 21, 1998 edition of \"The Buffalo News\", Ramsey said \"I also got paid for having my name in the TV movie that ABC did. It was about five years before I sat down and actually watched the movie. I sat back and said 'Uh, oh' when it was over because it wasn't too good. Some time after that, we (the Sabres) came into some city on a road trip at 2 a.m., and it was on TV. I think everyone on the team watched it, because the next morning everyone was busting my chops.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "The film concludes with actual footage of the U.S. hockey team members receiving their medals, along with descriptions narrated by ABC Sports broadcaster Al Michaels of their accomplishments after the 1980 Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Bob Grimm of \"Tucson Weekly\" said that \"Miracle on Ice\" falls short of being even a good sports movie. It makes too many errors on and off the ice, failing to capture the essence of the sport it's studying, and reducing most of the men and women involved in the historical drama to caricature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "\"Entertainment Weekly\" gave \"Miracle on Ice\" a B-, saying \"Watching Andrew Stevens and Steve Guttenberg trying to make like hockey players is itself faintly chilling. But the on-ice action is the real thing, and the thrills have not diminished a bit.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "\"Miracle on Ice\" was directed by Steven Hilliard Stern and written by Lionel Chetwynd. It incorporates actual game footage and ABC broadcasters Al Michaels and Ken Dryden's original commentary from the 1980 Winter Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Stern closely watched videotapes of the Lake Placid games before setting up his scenes at the Los Angeles Sports Arena. These staged shots generally involved close-ups of the actors. The original ABC Sports footage showed the games in long or medium shots. The new material, also videotaped, was then carefully edited into the factual footage, and the result was transferred to film. This process was done in order to maintain the same picture quality throughout and not produce the 'checkerboard effect' according to co-producer Frank von Zerneck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Mike Ramsey, Neal Broten, Steve Janaszak, Eric Strobel, Bob Suter, and Phil Verchota were not featured in the film except in archival footage of the gold medal ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Malden also remarked with disapproval that Brooks could've ventured an occasional smile during one of the less intense games. Malden also wondered how, after working hard over the course of seven months that Brooks could have simply walked away after his team clinched the improbable victory against the Soviet team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "33 years later, Victor Mather of the \"New York Times\" said that while \"Miracle on Ice\" was \"Much less inspired than its successor (2004's \"Miracle\"), it still delivers a chill or two at its climax.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Mike Eruzione was a technical consultant on the film saying \"we all know the movie will never be able to equal what happened.\" Eruzione however, wasn't involved with the latter \"Miracle\" film at all. According to Eruzione \"I did not want to be involved in the movie. I felt if I was involved then my role would be different, and the guys on the team would have went, he didn\u2019t do this, he didn\u2019t say that. Oh, no, you were an advisor; no wonder why you did this. I stayed away from the movie. I think they interviewed a bunch of us and asked us questions, but we had no input into the movie.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)\n--Plot.\n--Cast.\n--Production.\n--Reception.\n----Differences with \"Miracle\" (2004).\n--Historical inaccuracies.\n--Home media.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Miracle on Ice is a 1981 American sports docudrama about the United States men's national ice hockey team, led by head coach Herb Brooks (played by Karl Malden), that won the gold medal in the 1980 Winter Olympics. The USA team's victory over the heavily favored Soviet team in the medal round was dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\". The film premiered on March 1, 1981, as an installment of \"The ABC Sunday Night Movie\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Mike Eruzione however joked that besides offering a far more handsome and hockey-knowledgeable alternative to Karl Malden, Kurt Russell was \u201cSomebody with a better nose.\u201d Nathan West, who played Rob McClanahan in \"Miracle\" said while joking with reporters about the 1981 film, \"What TV movie?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Karl Malden told \"Sports Illustrated\" in December 1980 that he had never actually met Herb Brooks in preparation for his portrayal of him, but he studied him on videotape, especially his eyes. Malden said of Brooks \"I'd hate to meet him in a dark alley. I think he's a little on the neurotic side. Maybe more than a little. Any moment you think he's going to jump out of his skin.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Prior to the start of the film, Al Michaels reads a disclaimer stating that for dramatic purposes, composite characters and time compression was used in some instances. With that being said, Andrew Stevens, who portrayed Mike Eruzione, did so shooting with his right hand even though Eruzione actually shot with his left hand. Eruzione himself also claimed that Donna (Lucinda Dooling), his girlfriend depicted in the film is fictional. Therefore, the two scenes involving her character (where she's on a picnic with Eruzione in the Public Garden in Boston early on in the film, and when she must leave him and return home right before the climax) never happened in real life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bob Suter",
        "text": "Suter was not featured in a 1981 TV movie about the 1980 U.S. hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\", except in archival footage of the gold medal ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neal Broten",
        "text": "Broten is not featured in the 1981 TV movie about the 1980 U.S. hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\" except in archival footage of the gold medal ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "The story of the United States men's national hockey team's gold medal victory at the 1980 Winter Olympics was retold in \"Miracle\", starring Kurt Russell as Herb Brooks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Ken Morrow in \"Miracle on Ice\" is accurately bearded unlike in \"Miracle\". Herb Brooks specifically made a rule to allow Morrow to keep his beard for the team, based on his having a beard prior to joining the team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phil Verchota",
        "text": "Verchota is not featured in a 1981 TV movie about the 1980 U.S. hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\", but does appear in archival footage of the medal ceremony where he is awarded the gold medal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "John J. O'Connor of the \"New York Times\" said \"\"Miracle on Ice\" is a fine example of the inspirational sports film. Nothing is said of the many career disappointments suffered by the players since the Olympics, but this film is meant to recapture an extraordinary moment, which it does.\" O'Connor did however also say that \"Miracle on Ice\" was sprinkled liberally with silly bits of business and ludicrous efforts to inject some romance into the scenario. For instance, every so often, a beautiful woman would suggestively approach one of the players, only to disappear quickly as, under Herb Brooks' orders. O'Connor added that outside of Mike Eruzione and Jim Craig, the rest of the team is just a collection of faces passing quickly before the cameras, identified only by the names on the backs of their uniforms. Meanwhile, O'Connor argued that other characters such as Patti Brooks as the loyally supportive and enthusiastic wife and Jim Craig's father, Donald (a devoted fan carrying a religious medal for good luck), are little more than plot conveniences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eric Strobel",
        "text": "Strobel was not featured in \"Miracle on Ice\", a 1981 TV movie, but appears in archival footage of the gold medal ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "\"Miracle\" director Gavin O'Connor said that he remembers calling Herb Brooks to tell him that Karl Malden had been cast to play him and hearing a second or two of silence on the line before he replied, in a tone dripping with acid, \u2018Isn\u2019t he a bit old?\u2019 On the other hand, Tom Jones of the \"Tampa Bay Times\" said that while the movie was a bit hokey and included some strange choices (such as Steve Guttenberg as goalie Jim Craig), Karl Malden pulled off a credible performance as the grumpy Herb Brooks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In 2004, Walt Disney Pictures released the film \"Miracle\", directed by Gavin O'Connor and starring Kurt Russell as Brooks. Al Michaels recreated his commentary for most of the games. The final ten seconds, however, and his \"Do you believe in miracles? YES!\" call, were from the original broadcast and used in the film since the filmmakers felt that they could not ask him to recreate the emotion he felt at that moment. The film was dedicated to Brooks, who died shortly after principal photography completed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steve Janaszak",
        "text": "In the 1981 TV movie about the gold medal-winning U.S. hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\", Janaszak does not appear as a character, but rather in archival footage of the gold medal ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Meanwhile, Mike Eruzione claimed to the \"Star Tribune\" that Brooks wanted Paul Newman to play him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Eruzione",
        "text": "In the 1981 made-for-TV movie about the 1980 U.S. Hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\", Eruzione is portrayed by actor Andrew Stevens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "In December 2007, Tony Granato, who served as head coach of Team USA at the 2018 Winter Olympics, was interviewed by ESPN's Steve Wulf. When the subject came to how he would have to form a family of 25 players in a week, Granato said that he could show them \"Miracle\" with Kurt Russell. But Granato quickly followed it up by saying \"Actually, I'm partial to the earlier movie about the team, \"Miracle on Ice\", with Karl Malden as Herb Brooks.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "TryLon Video released \"Miracle on Ice\" on VHS in the U.S. in 1989. It was also released on VHS and Betamax in the UK and Europe by Video Form, and on LaserDisc in Japan. To date, the film remains unreleased on DVD, Blu-ray, or streaming most likely due to the popularity of the 2004 remake \"Miracle\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "In the U.S. team's locker room prior to the medal round game against the Soviets, Herb Brooks says to his team \"Whatever it costs us personally to get here, it was worth it. Don't blow it. You'll take it to your grave!\" While the real Brooks did roughly say to his team \"You'll take it to your grave!\", it was actually during the second intermission of gold medal game against Finland, when the U.S. was down 2\u20131.\n*\"Homeward Bound\" (Simon & Garfunkel song) - This is featured during musical interlude on a bus trip throughout Europe with one of the players singing with a guitar. In September 1979, before the Olympics, the American team started exhibition play for a total of 61 games in five months against teams from Europe and the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "It could be argued that \"Miracle on Ice\" manages to tell a lot more about some of the players than \"Miracle\" did. For instance, in \"Miracle on Ice\", more is told of goalie Jim Craig, and his relationship with his father that culminated in the dramatic moment of him draped in an American flag at the end of the gold medal game, looking for his dad in the stands. There's also scenes in \"Miracle on Ice\" that touches upon the players' socio-economic backgrounds, such as one where Craig tells his father that remaining an amateur is costly for their family. \"Miracle\" instead, plays up regional tensions between Eastern and Western college hockey divisions to amplify the idea of conflict within the ranks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Whereas \"Miracle\" gave us the story of Ralph Cox, the last man cut from the team, \"Miracle on Ice\" tells this story from the perspective of Les Auge, who was in fact the second to last man cut from the team. We also learn in \"Miracle on Ice\" of Mike Eruzione's decision to never play professional hockey after being captain of the gold medal team. Auge is depicted as urging Eruinoze to reconsider retiring prior to the Olympics to take a position as an assistant coach on the national team. All in all, while \"Miracle on Ice\" went more onto the individual players' careers outside of the Olympics, \"Miracle\" focused more on Herb Brooks molding them into a team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The documentary \"Of Miracles And Men\", which was directed by Jonathan Hock, premiered on ESPN in 2015 as part of the channel's \"30 for 30\" series. The story of the 1980 matchup is told from the Soviet perspective."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herb Brooks",
        "text": "In 2004, Disney released a film about the 1980 Olympic team called \"Miracle\" featuring Kurt Russell playing the part of Brooks. (Karl Malden had previously played Brooks in a 1981 television film called \"Miracle on Ice\".) Brooks served as a consultant for the Disney film during principal photography, which was completed shortly before his death. At the end of the movie there is a dedication to Brooks. It states, \"He never saw it. He lived it.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ken Morrow",
        "text": "In the 1981 TV movie about the 1980 gold medal-winning U.S. Hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\", he is played by Scott Feraco."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of ESPN on ABC",
        "text": "The 1980 Winter Olympics was the setting for the \"Miracle on Ice\", a medal-round men's ice hockey game in Lake Placid, New York, on February 22. The United States team, made up of amateur and collegiate players and led by coach Herb Brooks, defeated the Soviet team, which consisted of veteran professional players with significant experience in international play. The rest of the United States (except those who watched the game live on Canadian television) had to wait to see the game, as ABC decided to broadcast the late-afternoon game on tape delay in prime time. Sportscaster Al Michaels, who was calling the game on ABC along with former Montreal Canadiens goalie Ken Dryden, picked up on the countdown in his broadcast, and delivered his famous call:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rob McClanahan",
        "text": "In a 1981 TV movie about the same subject called \"Miracle on Ice\", McClanahan is portrayed by Ken Stovitz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Les Auge",
        "text": "In the 1981 made-for-TV movie \"Miracle on Ice\", Auge was portrayed by Jerry Houser."
      },
      {
        "title": "Craig Patrick",
        "text": "In a 1981 TV movie about the 1980 U.S. hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\", Patrick is portrayed by Robert Pierce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim Craig (ice hockey)",
        "text": "In the 1981 made-for-TV movie film \"Miracle on Ice\", Craig is portrayed by Steve Guttenberg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steve Christoff",
        "text": "In the 1981 TV movie about the gold medal-winning hockey team entitled \"Miracle on Ice\", Christoff's character is played by Rick Rockwell, but is not listed in the film's credits. The model for the Hobey Baker Award trophy was Steve Christoff, who played for Richfield Minnesota High School, the University of Minnesota, the 1980 U.S. Olympic hockey team and in the NHL. Scott Johnson portrayed Christoff in the 2004 Disney film \"Miracle\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mark Wells",
        "text": "Wells is featured in a 1981 TV movie about the 1980 U.S. hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\". Jeff Miller, a retired CA State Assemblyman played Mark Wells in the 1981 movie and Wells himself appeared in archival footage of the gold medal ceremony used in the movie."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mark Johnson (ice hockey)",
        "text": "Michael Cummings played Johnson in the 1981 TV movie \"Miracle on Ice\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mark Pavelich",
        "text": "In \"Miracle on Ice\", a 1981 TV movie about the 1980 U.S. hockey team, Pavelich was played by Jack Blessing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "The next two games against Czechoslovakia and Norway both end with the U.S. victorious. The possibility of them making a run for a medal is now especially raised after they beat West Germany prior to their showdown with the Soviets. At the end of the first period in the medal round game between the U.S. and the Soviets, the score is tied. At the end of the second period, the U.S. trails by one goal. In the last few minutes of the game, the Soviet Union stages one last attack, but the U.S. is ultimately victorious. As the crowd at Olympic Center Ice Rink bursts into hysteria, Herb Brooks retreats to the locker room for some solitude, knowing they face Finland for the gold medal. Ultimately though, the United States do defeat Finland for the gold medal and Mike Eruzione urges his team to join him on the platform during the playing of the national anthem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada's Olympic Broadcast Media Consortium",
        "text": "The 1980 \"Miracle on Ice\" game was aired live on CTV in Canada, but not ABC in the United States. Thus, American viewers who resided in or near the Canada\u2013US border and received the CTV signal could watch the game live, but the rest of the United States had to wait for a delayed rebroadcast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey in popular culture",
        "text": "A number of notable Hollywood films have been made about hockey. Notable hockey films include \"Slap Shot\"; \"The Mighty Ducks\", successful enough to spawn two sequels, a cartoon series, and an NHL team named the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim (now the Anaheim Ducks); and \"Miracle\". The first two are fictional comedies; the last is a drama based on the true story of the 1980 \"Miracle on Ice\" USA Olympic gold medal team."
      },
      {
        "title": "ABC Olympic broadcasts",
        "text": "The 1980 Winter Olympics was the setting for the \"Miracle on Ice\", a medal-round men's ice hockey game in Lake Placid, New York, on February 22. The United States team, made up of amateur and collegiate players and led by coach Herb Brooks, defeated the Soviet team, which consisted of veteran professional players with significant experience in international play. The rest of the United States (except those who watched the game live on Canadian television) had to wait to see the game, as ABC decided to broadcast the late-afternoon game on tape delay in prime time. Sportscaster Al Michaels, who was calling the game on ABC along with former Montreal Canadiens goalie Ken Dryden, picked up on the countdown in his broadcast, and delivered his famous call:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "When asked about Steve Guttenberg's portrayal of him by the \"New York Post\" in February 2010, Jim Craig said, \"I think that Steve Guttenberg did a good job in showing my more rambunctious side.\" Meanwhile, when asked about Eddie Cahill's portrayal of him in \"Miracle\", Craig said, \"Eddie did an excellent job. He did a super job conveying my intensity and passion for the mission.\" Craig did add however, \u201cIt was great to have Eddie play me in the second movie. He\u2019s better-looking than Guttenberg.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 1980 Winter Olympics",
        "text": "The victory became one of the most iconic moments of the Games and in U.S. sports. Equally well-known was the television call of the final seconds of the game by Al Michaels for ABC, in which he declared: \"Do you believe in miracles?! YES!\" In 1999, \"Sports Illustrated\" named the \"Miracle on Ice\" the top sports moment of the 20th century. As part of its centennial celebration in 2008, the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) named the \"Miracle on Ice\" as the best international ice hockey story of the past 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "Miracle is a 2004 American sports film about the United States men's ice hockey team, led by head coach Herb Brooks, portrayed by Kurt Russell, who won the gold medal in the 1980 Winter Olympics. The American team's victory over the heavily favored Soviet professionals in the medal round was dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\". \"Miracle\" was directed by Gavin O'Connor and written by Eric Guggenheim and Mike Rich. It was released on February 20, 2004, where it grossed $64.5 million on a $28 million budget and received positive reviews, with Russell's performance garnering the most praise from critics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ralph Cox",
        "text": "In the 1981 television movie \"Miracle on Ice\", the character of Ralph Cox is played by actor Brian Mozur. A more accurate portrayal of Cox is presented by Canadian actor Kenneth Mitchell in the 2004 Disney film \"Miracle\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack O'Callahan",
        "text": "In a 1981 TV movie about the gold medal-winning U.S. hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\", O'Callahan is played by Peter Horton."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The documentary film \"Do You Believe in Miracles?\", narrated by Liev Schreiber, premiered on HBO in 2001 and was subsequently released on home video."
      },
      {
        "title": "Buzz Schneider",
        "text": "In the 1981 TV movie \"Miracle on Ice\", Schneider is played by Jonathan Segal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iceman (1984 film)",
        "text": "Roger Ebert of the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", called it \"spellbinding storytelling\". \"It begins with such a simple premise and creates such a genuinely intriguing situation that we're not just entertained, we're drawn into the argument [between using Charlie as a scientific specimen or a man]\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "As the 1980 Winter Olympics begins, the Americans trail Sweden 2\u20131 in the first game. Brooks fires up the team during an intermission by throwing a table and accuses McClanahan, who suffered a relatively minor leg injury, of quitting. McClanahan ends up playing despite his injury, which inspires the team. Bill Baker (Nick Postle) scores a goal with only 27 seconds remaining in the third period for a dramatic 2\u20132 tie. They then follow up with a 7\u20133 win over heavily favored Czechoslovakia. As the Olympics continue, the team defeats Norway, Romania, and West Germany to earn a spot in the medal round. The Americans are considered overwhelming underdogs to the Soviets in the first medal round game. The game begins and the Soviets score the first goal. Then O'Callahan, having healed enough from his injury, enters the game for the first time. He makes an immediate impact by heavily checking Vladimir Krutov on a play that leads to a goal by Buzz Schneider (Billy Schneider). The Soviets score again to retake the lead. In the final seconds, Soviet goalie Vladislav Tretiak stops a long shot by Dave Christian (Stephen Kovalcik), but Mark Johnson (Eric Peter-Kaiser) gets the rebound and scores with less than one second left in the period."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Harrington (ice hockey)",
        "text": "Prior to \"Miracle\", Harrington was portrayed by Bill Schreiner in the 1981 made-for-TV movie \"Miracle on Ice\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey in popular culture",
        "text": "Other hockey films include \"Youngblood,\" \"Hockey Night\", ', \"H-E Double Hockey Sticks\", \"Mystery, Alaska\", \"The Rocket: The Maurice Richard Story\", \"The Sweater\", ' and the 1937 John Wayne film \"Idol of the Crowds\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "After the team list is finally posted, the team plays some exhibition games in Europe, where they post a respectable record (winning eight and only losing two games). But just as they are feeling great about their performance, they play the Minnesota North Stars and realize that their skills could still use improvement; furthermore, they recognize that beating the powerful Soviet Union team, who won the gold medal at the past four Olympic Games, will be a tremendous challenge. For their last exhibition game before the Olympics, they play against the Soviet Union at Madison Square Garden. Brooks realizes that this particular game will prove whether his team is ready to compete for the gold medal. The Soviets annihilate them by the score of 10\u20133, but newly installed captain Mike Eruzione refuses to let the team's spirit slide. In their opening game against the favored Swedish team, the United States is down two goals to one with less than a minute remaining in the game. Brooks pulls his goalie and the U.S. ties the game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey in the United States",
        "text": "Movies such as \"Miracle\", \"The Mighty Ducks\", \"Youngblood\", and \"Soul on Ice, goon\" have become part of American culture regarding hockey."
      },
      {
        "title": "NHL on ABC",
        "text": "For years later at Lake Placid, ABC was on hand for a medal-round men's ice hockey game that would soon become known the \"Miracle on Ice\". On February 22, 1980, the United States team, made up of amateur and collegiate players and led by coach Herb Brooks, defeated the Soviet team, which consisted of veteran professional players with significant experience in international play. The rest of the United States (except those who watched the game live on Canadian television) had to wait to see the game, as ABC decided to broadcast the late-afternoon game on tape delay in prime time. Sportscaster Al Michaels, who was calling the game on ABC along with former Montreal Canadiens goalie Ken Dryden, picked up on the countdown in his broadcast, and delivered his famous call:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dave Christian",
        "text": "In the 1981 TV movie about the gold medal-winning hockey team entitled \"Miracle on Ice\", Christian is played by Thomas F. Duffy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Miracle on Ice\n--History.\n----The Soviet and American teams.\n----Exhibitions.\n----Olympic group play.\n--Game summary.\n----First period.\n----Second period.\n----Third period.\n--American aftermath.\n----Gold medal.\n----After the 1980 Winter Olympics.\n----Later careers.\n--Soviet aftermath.\n----Silver medal.\n----After the 1980 Winter Olympics.\n----NHL careers.\n--Notable rematches.\n--Popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "Al Michaels re-recorded most of his television commentary for the film. However, the last 30 seconds of the USA-Soviet game, including \"Do you believe in miracles?\" used the original audio, as Michaels didn't feel he could re-create the call effectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gavin O'Connor (filmmaker)",
        "text": "In 2004, after serving as executive producer of several smaller, independent projects, O'Connor directed the film \"Miracle\", based on the true story about the American ice hockey team's victory over the Soviet Union at the 1980 Winter Olympics. He also produced the Mark Kerr HBO documentary film, \"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "Herb Brooks (Kurt Russell), head ice hockey coach at the University of Minnesota, interviews with the United States Olympic Committee for the national team coach's job, discussing his philosophy on how to beat the Soviet team, calling for changes to the practice schedule and strategy. The USOC is skeptical, but ultimately gives Brooks the job."
      },
      {
        "title": "High Ice (film)",
        "text": "Upon its airing on NBC in January 1980, \"High Ice\" was met by approximately 25 million viewers in the United States. The film was subsequently given a theatrical release internationally, with nudity which had been cut from the television version reinstated. The film aired on television again in the late 1980s on MTV."
      },
      {
        "title": "Al Michaels",
        "text": "Michaels, along with broadcasting partner Ken Dryden, recreated their Olympic commentary in the 2004 movie \"Miracle\". Although Michaels and Dryden recreated the bulk of their commentary for the film, the closing seconds of the game against the Soviet Union used the original ABC Sports commentary from 1980. Gavin O'Connor, the director of \"Miracle\", decided to use the last 10\u00a0seconds of Michaels's original \"Do you believe in miracles? YES!\" call in the film because he felt he couldn't ask him to recreate the emotion he experienced at that moment. Thus they cleaned up the recording to make the transition to the authentic call as seamless as possible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frozen Alive (film)",
        "text": "The movie was shown on the then-independent WPIX-TV Channel 11 in New York City on 24 July 1976 at 8.00 pm Eastern Time. It was described as \"ice cold\" by The New York Times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iceman (1984 film)",
        "text": "Iceman (1984 film)\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n--Reception.\n----Box office.\n----Critical reception.\n--Home media.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on 34th Street (1994 film)",
        "text": "Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of based on reviews from critics. \"TV Guide\" called the film \"curiously depressing\", while Desson Howe of \"The Washington Post\" said, in contrast to the 1947 version, \"[it] will not be found on television (or its computer equivalent) half a century from now.\" Its supporters included Gene Siskel & Roger Ebert, who gave the film \"two thumbs up\" on their show. Michael Medved of \"Sneak Previews\" said \"This is the new holiday classic America has been waiting for.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Queen's Park Arena",
        "text": "The arena was used in the movie \"Miracle\", as the location of tryouts for the United States men's national ice hockey team in advance of the 1980 Winter Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bill Baker (ice hockey, born 1956)",
        "text": "In a 1981 TV movie about the gold medal-winning hockey team entitled \"Miracle on Ice\", Baker is played by David Wallace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steve Guttenberg",
        "text": "Guttenberg played Jim Craig in the TV movie \"Miracle on Ice\" (1981). He appeared in Barry Levinson's \"Diner\" (1982), then starred in another short-lived TV series \"No Soap, Radio\" (1982). He starred in the action-comedy \"The Man Who Wasn't There\" (1983) and had a supporting part in the television movie \"The Day After\" (1983). Guttenberg starred in \"The Ferret\" (1984) a pilot for a TV series that was not picked up."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Ice Pirates",
        "text": "MGM had a contract with Robert Urich to make a TV series and insisted on him being cast. John Foreman wanted Anjelica Huston, a personal friend, in the film. John Matuszak was cast because one of the financiers liked him. \"It wasn\u2019t my concept,\" Rafill added. \"We just put everything we could in it to make a joke and funny and told the story.\" Filming started March 1983. \"We got lots of high-tech parts from car engines and gearings and poured molds out of them,\" said Rafill. \"We didn't want to be sleek and"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The \"Miracle on Ice\" was an ice hockey game during the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York. It was played between the hosting United States and the Soviet Union on February 22, 1980, during the medal round of the men's hockey tournament. Though the Soviet Union was a four-time defending gold medalist and heavily favored, the United States upset them and won 4\u20133."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hockey Night (1984 film)",
        "text": "In an unusual step for a 1980s made-for-television movie, the film was given a 4K resolution restoration in 2016 and screened theatrically in Toronto and Vancouver."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "During an exhibition game against Norway in Oslo that ends in a 3\u20133 tie, Brooks notices the players are distracted and not playing up to their potential. After the game, he orders them back on the ice for a bag skate. Brooks has them skate from one end of the ice to the other several times (doing, in other words, his infamous \"Herbies,\" as the team would call them colloquially), continuing the drill even after the rink manager cuts the power. Exhausted, forward and team captain Mike Eruzione (Patrick O'Brien Demsey) re-introduces himself in the same manner from the initial practice and cries out that he plays for the United States. Getting the answer that he wanted all along, Brooks finally allows the team to go home. Eventually, the team comes together, with the players thinking of themselves as a family representing the United States. With their roster finalized, just before heading to Lake Placid, the Americans play the Soviets in an exhibition game at Madison Square Garden. The Soviets manhandle the young American team, winning by a score of 10\u20133. During the game, O'Callahan suffers a knee injury that could keep him out of the entire Olympics and starting goaltender Jim Craig (Eddie Cahill) is shockingly told he may be benched in favor of backup Steve Janaszak (Sam Skoryna). Brooks tells him that he hasn't been giving his very best and ultimately decides to keep Craig as the starter for the Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dave Silk",
        "text": "Rick Dano played Silk in the 1981 TV movie \"Miracle on Ice\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fire and Ice (1983 film)",
        "text": "Fire and Ice (1983 film)\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n--Reception.\n--Home media.\n--Remake.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fire and Ice (1983 film)",
        "text": "Colin Greenland reviewed \"Fire and Ice\" for \"Imagine\" magazine, and stated that \"Much more enjoyable is his earlier \"Wizards\", now on video from CBS/Fox, a fantasy with a sly sense of humour. Compared with this, \"Fire and Ice\" is a bit glum.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Patti Brooks, who is depicted in \"Miracle on Ice\" by Jessica Walter said in 2009 \u201cI don\u2019t know that I ever watched the whole movie.\u201d In regards to Karl Malden's portrayal of her husband, she said \u201cI remember Herbie would not watch it. People used to tease him about Karl Malden playing him. Would you? That would be like Ma Kettle playing me. But you always think that you\u2019re sharper than others think you are. But to be honest, I don\u2019t know why they chose him. I don\u2019t think (Malden) ever went on the ice in his movie; he was too old.\u201d Patti Brooks' brother, Terry Lane added \"It was so bad\", and was unable to fathom how Karl Malden, at age 69, could be cast in the role of the handsome Herb Brooks, who was 42 when the actual \"Miracle on Ice\" took place. Herb Brooks himself stated that his wife would've preferred Robert Redford to have played him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fire and Ice (1983 film)",
        "text": "Andrew Leal wrote, \"The plot is standard [...] recalling nothing so much as a more graphic episode of Filmation's \"He-Man\" series. [...] \"Fire and Ice\" essentially stands as a footnote to the spate of barbarian films that followed in the wake of Arnold Schwarzenegger's appearance as Conan.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "NHL on television in the 1980s",
        "text": "NHL on television in the 1980s\n--Year-by-year breakdown.\n----1980.\n----1981.\n----1982.\n----1983.\n----1984.\n----1985.\n----1986.\n----1987.\n----1988.\n----1989.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "On Ice (film)",
        "text": "On Ice is a 1935 theatrical cartoon short in the \"Mickey Mouse\" film series, produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios. It was the 79th Mickey Mouse short film to be released, and the eighth of that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "1924 in Canada",
        "text": "Film: sailing and baseball - on ice"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "During the broadcast wrap-up after the game, ABC Olympic sports anchor Jim McKay compared the American victory over the Soviet professionals to a group of Canadian college football players defeating the Pittsburgh Steelers (the recent Super Bowl champions and at the height of their dynasty)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Al Michaels",
        "text": "In 1980, an unheralded group of college ice hockey players from the United States won the gold medal at the Olympic Winter Games. The medal round match on February 22\u2014which, contrary to popular belief, did not yet assure the team of the gold medal\u2014was of particular interest, as it was played against a heavily favored professional squad from the Soviet Union, and was in front of an incredibly excited pro-American crowd in Lake Placid, New York. Michaels's memorable broadcast of this game, including his interjection\u2014\"Do you believe in miracles? YES!\"\u2014as time expired on the 4\u20133 U.S. victory, earned the game the media nickname of \"The Miracle on Ice\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Twenty-One (game show)",
        "text": "The film \"Quiz Show\" depicts the turning point as a question for Stempel asking him to name the film that won the Academy Award for Best Motion Picture for 1955. Stempel knew that the correct answer \"Marty\", as it was one of his favorite films. The producers ordered him to answer the question with 1954's Best Motion Picture winner, \"On the Waterfront\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "On Thin Ice (1933 film)",
        "text": "On Thin Ice (1933 film)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Hard-driving, no-nonsense coach Herb Brooks puts 68 of the best amateur hockey players through a series grueling workouts at Colorado Springs in the summer of 1979. Brooks needs to trim the list down to 20 before they can represent the United States at the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York. Along the way, Brooks and his assistant coach Craig Patrick must deal with the players' agents and lawyers, who are only interested in the professional hockey contracts that await their clients. Among those clients is goaltender Jim Craig, who wants to pursue a pro career and worries that by joining the Olympics instead, he is placing his family in deeper financial straits. Brooks understands the players' financial difficulties and tries to find a corporate sponsor to cover the team's finances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "At the 1981 Canada Cup, the United States, with seven players from their 1980 Olympic team, again faced the Soviet Union. The Soviets took the opening round encounter 4\u20131 in Edmonton. At the 1982 World Championship in Finland, with Mike Ramsey, Mark Johnson, Buzz Schneider, and John Harrington, the Americans again met the Soviets, but once again the U.S. lost, 8\u20134."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iceman (1984 film)",
        "text": "Shephard consults local Inuit who recognize the name that Charlie chanted and explain that it is a mythical bird, a messenger for the gods. Shephard understands that Charlie has a spiritual side and that he was on a \"dreamwalk\" pilgrimage, a mythical quest for redemption. His people were dying in the sudden ice age; he must have offered himself to the gods in the form of a self-sacrifice or appealing to the gods to redeem his tribe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "Elvis Mitchell of \"The New York Times\" stated that the movie \"does a yeoman's job of recycling the day-old dough that passes for its story.\" Kenneth Turan of the \"Los Angeles Times\" referred to the movie as \"a classically well-made studio entertainment that, like \"The Rookie\" of a few years back, has the knack of being moving without shamelessly overdoing a sure thing.\" O'Callahan said in an interview that while the fight between him and McClanahan was fictional, the film accurately portrayed the \"pretty intense\" rivalry between Boston Terriers and Minnesota Gophers players, and was overall \"pretty darn close\" to actual events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film adaptation",
        "text": "While documentary films have often been made from journalism and reportage, so too have some dramatic films, including: \"All the President's Men\" (1976, adapted from the 1974 book); \"Miracle,\" (2004, from an account published shortly after the 1980 \"miracle on ice\"); and \"Pushing Tin\" (1999, from a 1996 \"New York Times\" article by Darcy Frey). \"An Inconvenient Truth\" is Al Gore's film adaptation of his own Keynote multimedia presentation. The 2011 independent comedy film, \"Benjamin Sniddlegrass and the Cauldron of Penguins\" was based on \"Kermode and Mayo's Film Review\" of \"Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "1981 in television",
        "text": "For 1981 in television, see:"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who scored the winning goal for Miracle on Ice?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mark Pavelich passed to Eruzione, who was left undefended in the high slot. Eruzione, who had just come onto the ice, fired a shot past Myshkin, who was screened by Vasili Pervukhin. This goal gave Team USA a 4\u20133 lead, its first of the game, with exactly 10 minutes remaining to play."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did anything else happen in the game during the remaining 10 minutes?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Soviets, trailing for the first time in the game, attacked ferociously. The Americans fully expected Tikhonov to pull the goalie in the waning seconds, but to their surprise, Myshkin stayed in the game and as the clock ticked below 20 seconds, a wild scramble for the puck ensued, ending when Johnson found it and passed it to Ken Morrow as the U.S. tried to clear the zone and the clock counted down its final seconds."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were some of the pop culture references for Miracle on Ice?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Pop culture references include a made-for-TV movie in 1981, a documentary film on HBO in 2001, a 2004 Disney film, and an ESPN documentary in 2015. Would you like further information on any of those?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Sure! Tell me about the made-for-TV movie in 1981."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "It starred Karl Malden as Brooks, Steve Guttenberg as Craig, and Andrew Stevens as Eruzione. It incorporated actual game footage and original commentary from the 1980 Winter Games."
    ],
    "topic": "Miracle on Ice",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Miracle on Ice:41",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Miracle on Ice",
          "Popular culture"
        ],
        "ctx": "A made-for-TV movie \"Miracle on Ice\", starring Karl Malden as Brooks, Steve Guttenberg as Craig, and Andrew Stevens as Eruzione aired on ABC television in 1981. It incorporated actual game footage and original commentary from the 1980 Winter Games."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "A made-for-TV movie \"Miracle on Ice\", starring Karl Malden as Brooks, Steve Guttenberg as Craig, and Andrew Stevens as Eruzione aired on ABC television in 1981. It incorporated actual game footage and original commentary from the 1980 Winter Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "As the 1980 Winter Olympics begins, the Americans trail Sweden 2\u20131 in the first game. Brooks fires up the team during an intermission by throwing a table and accuses McClanahan, who suffered a relatively minor leg injury, of quitting. McClanahan ends up playing despite his injury, which inspires the team. Bill Baker (Nick Postle) scores a goal with only 27 seconds remaining in the third period for a dramatic 2\u20132 tie. They then follow up with a 7\u20133 win over heavily favored Czechoslovakia. As the Olympics continue, the team defeats Norway, Romania, and West Germany to earn a spot in the medal round. The Americans are considered overwhelming underdogs to the Soviets in the first medal round game. The game begins and the Soviets score the first goal. Then O'Callahan, having healed enough from his injury, enters the game for the first time. He makes an immediate impact by heavily checking Vladimir Krutov on a play that leads to a goal by Buzz Schneider (Billy Schneider). The Soviets score again to retake the lead. In the final seconds, Soviet goalie Vladislav Tretiak stops a long shot by Dave Christian (Stephen Kovalcik), but Mark Johnson (Eric Peter-Kaiser) gets the rebound and scores with less than one second left in the period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "During the first intermission, Soviet coach Viktor Tikhonov (Zinaid Memi\u0161evi\u0107) replaces Tretiak with backup Vladimir Myshkin. In the second period, the Soviets score a goal to go up 3\u20132. Early in the final period, the Soviet team is called for a penalty for slashing, putting the Americans on the power play. Johnson scores his second goal of the game just as the penalty is about to expire. Later, Eruzione puts them ahead 4\u20133 with 10 minutes left. The Americans hold off the Soviets to win the game, completing one of the biggest upsets in sports history. Two days later, the team would go on to defeat Finland 4\u20132 to win the gold medal. The movie ends with Brooks staring out over his team with pride as the entire team crowds together on the gold medal platform."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "The next two games against Czechoslovakia and Norway both end with the U.S. victorious. The possibility of them making a run for a medal is now especially raised after they beat West Germany prior to their showdown with the Soviets. At the end of the first period in the medal round game between the U.S. and the Soviets, the score is tied. At the end of the second period, the U.S. trails by one goal. In the last few minutes of the game, the Soviet Union stages one last attack, but the U.S. is ultimately victorious. As the crowd at Olympic Center Ice Rink bursts into hysteria, Herb Brooks retreats to the locker room for some solitude, knowing they face Finland for the gold medal. Ultimately though, the United States do defeat Finland for the gold medal and Mike Eruzione urges his team to join him on the platform during the playing of the national anthem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "After the team list is finally posted, the team plays some exhibition games in Europe, where they post a respectable record (winning eight and only losing two games). But just as they are feeling great about their performance, they play the Minnesota North Stars and realize that their skills could still use improvement; furthermore, they recognize that beating the powerful Soviet Union team, who won the gold medal at the past four Olympic Games, will be a tremendous challenge. For their last exhibition game before the Olympics, they play against the Soviet Union at Madison Square Garden. Brooks realizes that this particular game will prove whether his team is ready to compete for the gold medal. The Soviets annihilate them by the score of 10\u20133, but newly installed captain Mike Eruzione refuses to let the team's spirit slide. In their opening game against the favored Swedish team, the United States is down two goals to one with less than a minute remaining in the game. Brooks pulls his goalie and the U.S. ties the game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In the Soviet locker room, Tikhonov singled out first-line players Tretiak, Kharlamov, Petrov, and Mikhailov, and told each of them, \"This is your loss!\" Two days after the Miracle on Ice, the Soviet team defeated Sweden 9\u20132, winning the silver medal. The Soviet players were so upset at their loss that they did not turn in their silver medals to get their names inscribed on them, as is custom. The result stunned the Soviet Union and its news media."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "There was however, no mention of international affairs in \"Miracle on Ice\", save for one huddled protest against the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in the pre-Olympic match-up against the Soviets at Madison Square Garden. \"Miracle\" meanwhile, showed how America was experiencing a crisis of confidence at that time (Watergate, hostages in Iran, Three Mile Island, ongoing energy crisis, etc.) of the 1980 Winter Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "As in several previous games, the U.S. team fell behind early. Vladimir Krutov deflected a slap shot by Alexei Kasatonov past U.S. goaltender Jim Craig at the 9:12 mark to give the Soviets a 1\u20130 lead. At the 14:03 mark, Buzz Schneider scored for the United States on a 50-foot shot from the left board to tie the game. The Soviets struck again when Sergei Makarov scored with 17:34 gone. With his team down 2\u20131, Craig improved his play, turning away many Soviet shots before the U.S. team had another shot on goal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Malden also remarked with disapproval that Brooks could've ventured an occasional smile during one of the less intense games. Malden also wondered how, after working hard over the course of seven months that Brooks could have simply walked away after his team clinched the improbable victory against the Soviet team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In their last exhibition game, against the Soviets at Madison Square Garden on Saturday, February 9, the Americans were crushed 10\u20133. Soviet head coach Viktor Tikhonov later said that this victory \"turned out to be a very big problem\" by causing the Soviets to underestimate the American team. The\u00a0game was also costly for the Americans off-ice, as defenseman Jack O'Callahan pulled a ligament in his knee; however, Brooks kept O'Callahan on the roster, which meant the U.S. was virtually playing with only 19 players throughout the tournament. O'Callahan eventually returned for the game against the Soviets, playing limited minutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The Soviet Union entered the Lake Placid games as the heavy favorite, having won four consecutive gold medals dating back to the 1964 games. In the four Olympics following their 1960 bronze-medal finish at Squaw Valley, Soviet teams had gone 27\u20131\u20131 (wins-losses-ties) and outscored their opponents 175\u201344. In head-to-head matchups against the United States, the cumulative score over that period was 28\u20137. The Soviet team had not lost a game in Olympic play since 1968."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet Union men's national ice hockey team",
        "text": "At the 1980 Winter Olympics, the Soviets also had one of their most notable losses. Playing the United States in the medal round, the Soviets lost 4\u20133. This match, later dubbed the Miracle on Ice, was notable because it had the Soviets, recognized as the top international team in the world, against an American team composed largely of university-level players. The Americans would go on to win the gold medal in the tournament, while the Soviets finished with the silver, only the second time they failed to win gold at the Olympics since their debut in 1956."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lake Placid, New York",
        "text": "In the U.S., the village is especially remembered as the 1980 USA\u2013USSR hockey game site. Dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\", a group of American college students and amateurs upset seasoned and professional Soviet national ice hockey team, 4\u20133, and two days later won the gold medal. Another high point during the Games was the performance of American speed-skater Eric Heiden, who won five gold medals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "At the 1981 Canada Cup, the United States, with seven players from their 1980 Olympic team, again faced the Soviet Union. The Soviets took the opening round encounter 4\u20131 in Edmonton. At the 1982 World Championship in Finland, with Mike Ramsey, Mark Johnson, Buzz Schneider, and John Harrington, the Americans again met the Soviets, but once again the U.S. lost, 8\u20134."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "During an exhibition game against Norway in Oslo that ends in a 3\u20133 tie, Brooks notices the players are distracted and not playing up to their potential. After the game, he orders them back on the ice for a bag skate. Brooks has them skate from one end of the ice to the other several times (doing, in other words, his infamous \"Herbies,\" as the team would call them colloquially), continuing the drill even after the rink manager cuts the power. Exhausted, forward and team captain Mike Eruzione (Patrick O'Brien Demsey) re-introduces himself in the same manner from the initial practice and cries out that he plays for the United States. Getting the answer that he wanted all along, Brooks finally allows the team to go home. Eventually, the team comes together, with the players thinking of themselves as a family representing the United States. With their roster finalized, just before heading to Lake Placid, the Americans play the Soviets in an exhibition game at Madison Square Garden. The Soviets manhandle the young American team, winning by a score of 10\u20133. During the game, O'Callahan suffers a knee injury that could keep him out of the entire Olympics and starting goaltender Jim Craig (Eddie Cahill) is shockingly told he may be benched in favor of backup Steve Janaszak (Sam Skoryna). Brooks tells him that he hasn't been giving his very best and ultimately decides to keep Craig as the starter for the Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The U.S. and the Soviet Union next met at the Winter Olympics in 1988. As in 1980, the Soviets were represented by their star-studded veterans, while the Americans fielded a team of college players. The Soviets won the encounter 7\u20135 and won the gold medal, while the U.S. placed seventh."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "In the U.S. team's locker room prior to the medal round game against the Soviets, Herb Brooks says to his team \"Whatever it costs us personally to get here, it was worth it. Don't blow it. You'll take it to your grave!\" While the real Brooks did roughly say to his team \"You'll take it to your grave!\", it was actually during the second intermission of gold medal game against Finland, when the U.S. was down 2\u20131.\n*\"Homeward Bound\" (Simon & Garfunkel song) - This is featured during musical interlude on a bus trip throughout Europe with one of the players singing with a guitar. In September 1979, before the Olympics, the American team started exhibition play for a total of 61 games in five months against teams from Europe and the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The Soviets, trailing for the first time in the game, attacked ferociously. Moments after Eruzione's goal, Maltsev fired a shot which ricocheted off the right goal post. As the minutes wound down, Brooks kept repeating to his players, \"Play your game. Play your game.\" Instead of going into a defensive crouch, the United States continued to play offense, even getting off a few more shots on goal. The Soviets began to shoot wildly, and Sergei Starikov admitted that \"we were panicking.\" As the clock ticked down below a minute, the Soviets got the puck back into the American zone, and Mikhailov passed to Vladimir Petrov, who shot wide. The Americans fully expected Tikhonov to pull the goalie in the waning seconds. To their surprise, Myshkin stayed in the game. Starikov later explained that \"We never did six-on-five,\" not even in practice, because \"Tikhonov just didn't believe in it.\" Craig kicked away a Petrov slap shot with 33\u00a0seconds left. Kharlamov fired the puck back in as the clock ticked below 20\u00a0seconds. A wild scramble for the puck ensued, ending when Johnson found it and passed it to Ken Morrow. As the U.S. team tried to clear the zone (move the puck over the blue line, which they did with seven seconds remaining), the crowd began to count down the seconds left."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In the waning seconds of the first period, Dave Christian fired a slap shot on Tretiak from away. The Soviet goalie saved the shot but misplayed the rebound, which bounced out some in front of him. Mark Johnson sliced between the two defenders, found the loose puck, and fired it past a diving Tretiak to tie the score with one second left in the period. Confusion reigned immediately after as the game clock showed 0:00 since it could not be stopped in time after Johnson's goal. Referee Karl-Gustav Kaisla ruled that one second would be put back on the clock and the usual center ice faceoff would take place before the first intermission could begin. A lengthy delay followed as most of the Soviet team had already proceeded down the tunnel to their locker room. Eventually, three Soviet skaters along with backup goaltender Myshkin took the ice for the final faceoff. The first period ended with the game tied 2\u20132."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "During the broadcast wrap-up after the game, ABC Olympic sports anchor Jim McKay compared the American victory over the Soviet professionals to a group of Canadian college football players defeating the Pittsburgh Steelers (the recent Super Bowl champions and at the height of their dynasty)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Despite the loss, the USSR remained the pre-eminent power in Olympic hockey until its dissolution in 1991. The Soviet team did not lose a World Championship game until 1985 and did not lose to the United States again until 1991. Throughout the 1980s, NHL teams continued to draft Soviet players in hopes of enticing them to eventually play in North America. Soviet emigrant Victor Nechayev made a brief appearance with the Los Angeles Kings in the 1982\u201383 season and, during the 1988\u201389 season, the Soviet Ice Hockey Federation agreed to let veteran Sergei Pryakhin join the Calgary Flames."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The \"Miracle on Ice\" was an ice hockey game during the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York. It was played between the hosting United States and the Soviet Union on February 22, 1980, during the medal round of the men's hockey tournament. Though the Soviet Union was a four-time defending gold medalist and heavily favored, the United States upset them and won 4\u20133."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "The film concludes with actual footage of the U.S. hockey team members receiving their medals, along with descriptions narrated by ABC Sports broadcaster Al Michaels of their accomplishments after the 1980 Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In September 1979, before the Olympics, the American team started exhibition play. They played a total of 61 games in five months against teams from Europe and the United States. Through these games, Brooks instilled a European style of play in his team, emphasizing wide-open play with sufficient body contact. He believed it would be the only way for the Americans to compete with the Soviets. From the start of the exhibition matches, he conducted the team through skating wind sprints consisting of end line to blue line and back, then end line to red line and back, then end line to far blue line and back, and finally end line all the way down and back. Some of the players took to calling these \"Herbies\". On September 17, the team played to a 3\u20133 tie in Norway. Believing the team wasn't putting up sufficient effort, an angry Brooks had them skate Herbies after the game and, after a while, arena custodians turned the lights off and the Herbies continued in the dark. The two teams played again the next night, with the US winning handily 9-0. Near the end of the exhibition season, Brooks, because of subpar play, threatened to cut Eruzione (the captain) from the team and replace Craig with Steve Janaszak as the starting goaltender, although he had supported them throughout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Miracle on Ice\n--History.\n----The Soviet and American teams.\n----Exhibitions.\n----Olympic group play.\n--Game summary.\n----First period.\n----Second period.\n----Third period.\n--American aftermath.\n----Gold medal.\n----After the 1980 Winter Olympics.\n----Later careers.\n--Soviet aftermath.\n----Silver medal.\n----After the 1980 Winter Olympics.\n----NHL careers.\n--Notable rematches.\n--Popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of ESPN on ABC",
        "text": "The 1980 Winter Olympics was the setting for the \"Miracle on Ice\", a medal-round men's ice hockey game in Lake Placid, New York, on February 22. The United States team, made up of amateur and collegiate players and led by coach Herb Brooks, defeated the Soviet team, which consisted of veteran professional players with significant experience in international play. The rest of the United States (except those who watched the game live on Canadian television) had to wait to see the game, as ABC decided to broadcast the late-afternoon game on tape delay in prime time. Sportscaster Al Michaels, who was calling the game on ABC along with former Montreal Canadiens goalie Ken Dryden, picked up on the countdown in his broadcast, and delivered his famous call:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aftermath of the Winter War",
        "text": "During the four months of fighting, the Soviet Army suffered massive losses. One Red Army General, looking at a map of the territory just conquered, is said to have remarked: \"We have won just about enough ground to bury our dead.\" The official Soviet figure, issued just after the war, listed 48,745 dead and 150,863 wounded."
      },
      {
        "title": "NHL on ABC",
        "text": "For years later at Lake Placid, ABC was on hand for a medal-round men's ice hockey game that would soon become known the \"Miracle on Ice\". On February 22, 1980, the United States team, made up of amateur and collegiate players and led by coach Herb Brooks, defeated the Soviet team, which consisted of veteran professional players with significant experience in international play. The rest of the United States (except those who watched the game live on Canadian television) had to wait to see the game, as ABC decided to broadcast the late-afternoon game on tape delay in prime time. Sportscaster Al Michaels, who was calling the game on ABC along with former Montreal Canadiens goalie Ken Dryden, picked up on the countdown in his broadcast, and delivered his famous call:"
      },
      {
        "title": "United States at the Winter Olympics",
        "text": "The 1980 hockey game between the U.S. and USSR was dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\", when American college players defeated the heavily favored seasoned professionals from the Soviet Union on the way to a gold medal at the Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York. The Soviet Union had won the gold medal in five of the six previous Winter Olympic Games, and were the favorites to win once more. Though ice hockey is not a major sport in most areas of the United States, the \"Miracle\" is often listed as one of the all-time greatest American sporting achievements. The U.S. also won the gold medal in the 1960 Games at Squaw Valley, California, defeating the Soviet Union, Canada, Czechoslovakia, and Sweden along the way. However, since this victory is not as well known as the 1980 win, it has come to be known as the \"Forgotten Miracle\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim McKay",
        "text": "McKay also hosted from the studio the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York. A happier result came when the U.S. hockey team defeated the Soviet Union in the Miracle on Ice. During the broadcast wrap-up after the game, McKay compared the American upset victory to a group of Canadian college football players defeating the Pittsburgh Steelers (the recent Super Bowl champions at the height of their dynasty)."
      },
      {
        "title": "ABC Olympic broadcasts",
        "text": "The 1980 Winter Olympics was the setting for the \"Miracle on Ice\", a medal-round men's ice hockey game in Lake Placid, New York, on February 22. The United States team, made up of amateur and collegiate players and led by coach Herb Brooks, defeated the Soviet team, which consisted of veteran professional players with significant experience in international play. The rest of the United States (except those who watched the game live on Canadian television) had to wait to see the game, as ABC decided to broadcast the late-afternoon game on tape delay in prime time. Sportscaster Al Michaels, who was calling the game on ABC along with former Montreal Canadiens goalie Ken Dryden, picked up on the countdown in his broadcast, and delivered his famous call:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Miracle on Ice is a 1981 American sports docudrama about the United States men's national ice hockey team, led by head coach Herb Brooks (played by Karl Malden), that won the gold medal in the 1980 Winter Olympics. The USA team's victory over the heavily favored Soviet team in the medal round was dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\". The film premiered on March 1, 1981, as an installment of \"The ABC Sunday Night Movie\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The Soviet and American teams were natural rivals due to the decades-old Cold War. In addition, President Jimmy Carter was at the time considering a U.S. boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics, to be held in Moscow, in protest of the December 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. On February 9, the same day the American and Soviet teams met in an exhibition game in New York City, U.S. Secretary of State Cyrus Vance denounced the impending Moscow games at an IOC meeting. President Carter eventually decided in favor of the boycott."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In exhibitions that year, Soviet club teams went 5\u20133\u20131 against National Hockey League (NHL) teams and, a year earlier, the Soviet national team had defeated a team of NHL All-Stars two games to one (by scores of 2-4, 5-4, and 6\u20130) to win the Challenge Cup. In 1979\u201380, virtually all the top North American players were Canadians, although the number of U.S.-born professional players had been on the rise throughout the 1970s. The 1980 U.S. Olympic team featured several young players who were regarded as highly promising, and some had signed contracts to play in the NHL immediately after the tournament."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States at the Olympics",
        "text": "The 1980 hockey game between the U.S. and USSR was dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\", when American college players defeated the heavily favored seasoned professionals from the Soviet Union, on the way to a gold medal at the Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York. The Soviet Union had won the gold medal in five of the six previous Winter Olympic Games, and were the favorites to win once more. Though ice hockey is not a major sport in most areas of the United States, the \"Miracle\" is often listed as one of the all-time greatest American sporting achievements. The U.S. also won the gold medal in the 1960 Games at Squaw Valley, California, defeating the Soviet Union, Canada, Czechoslovakia, and Sweden along the way. However, since this victory is not as well known as the 1980 win, it has come to be known as the \"Forgotten Miracle\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "The story of the United States men's national hockey team's gold medal victory at the 1980 Winter Olympics was retold in \"Miracle\", starring Kurt Russell as Herb Brooks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In the group stage, both the Soviet and U.S. teams were unbeaten; the U.S. achieved several surprising results, including a 2\u20132 draw against Sweden, and a 7\u20133 upset victory over second-place favorite Czechoslovakia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vladimir Myshkin",
        "text": "After Tretiak gave up two goals in the first period of the famous \"Miracle on Ice\" game versus the USA in the medal round of the 1980 Winter Olympics, Tikhonov replaced him with Myshkin. He faced only 2 shots in the second period, and stopped them both, but gave up 2 goals in the third scored by Americans Mark Johnson and Mike Eruzione. Team USA won the game 4-3 and went on to capture the gold medal with the Soviets taking the silver."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pavel Luspekayev",
        "text": "The long-term effects of the suffered frostbite caused a peripheral vascular disease in Luspekayev's legs when he was 26. The illness progressed, and after he finished the movie The Republic of ShKID (1966) both of his legs had to be amputated just below the knees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 1972 Winter Olympics",
        "text": "While the 1980 team had the celebrated \"Miracle on Ice\" and the 1960 US team had the \"Forgotten Miracle\", the 1972 team could be called the \"completely overlooked miracle.\" The U.S. team was expected to finish 5th behind the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, Sweden, and Finland. The Soviet and Czech teams were especially powerful as there was no distinction between amateurs and pros in communist countries; these teams were made up of seasoned professionals and were ranked 1 & 2 in the world. Valeri Kharlamov of the Soviet Union was considered one of the world's best players and experts agree he would have been a star in the NHL. The same can be said for Soviet goaltender Vladislav Tretiak. In fact, this was basically the same Soviet Team that played a Canadian team composed of NHL All Stars in the 1972 Summit Series that Canada narrowly won, 4\u20133\u20131."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herb Brooks Arena",
        "text": "The arena hosted various events during the 1980 Winter Olympics, most famously the ice hockey tournament that saw the United States' 4\u20133 victory over the Soviet Union, the game commonly referred to as the Miracle on Ice. In 2005, to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the American victory, the arena was named after the late Herb Brooks, who coached the American team during the 1980 Olympics. Other events the arena hosted during the 1980 games include figure skating events and the closing ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The U.S., coached by Herb Brooks, and Russia, coached by Viacheslav Fetisov, met twice in the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, which included a 2\u20132 round-robin draw and a 3\u20132 semi-final win for the Americans. The semi-final match was played 22 years to the day after the \"Miracle on Ice\" game. The U.S. eventually won silver, while Russia won bronze."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "With a capacity of 8,500, the arena was packed. The home crowd waved U.S. flags and sang patriotic songs such as \"God Bless America\". Before the game, Brooks read his players a statement he had written out on a piece of paper, telling them that \"You were born to be a player. You were meant to be here. This moment is yours.\" Brooks believed they could win and later said, \"The Russians were ready to cut their own throats. But we had to get to the point to be ready to pick up the knife and hand it to them. So the morning of the game I called the team together and told them, 'It's meant to be. This is your moment and it's going to happen.' It's kind of corny and I could see them thinking, 'Here goes Herb again...' But I believed it.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the United States (1980\u20131991)",
        "text": "The 1980s thus began on a thoroughly grim note. Gripped by the worst economy since the 1930s, the automobile and steel industries in serious trouble, the ongoing Iranian Hostage Crisis, and the U.S. seemingly unable to respond to growing Soviet adventurism around the globe, it came as a small measure of good feeling when the amateur U.S. Olympic hockey team defeated their professional Soviet counterparts in the Miracle on Ice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boston University Terriers men's ice hockey",
        "text": "O'Callahan, who had injured his left knee in an exhibition match, returned for the famous \"Miracle on Ice\" game and in his first seconds on the ice, delivered a massive hit on a Soviet player that turned the puck over to the Americans near the Soviet defensive zone. The hit caught the Soviets off guard and set up a goal scored by William \"Buzz\" Schneider to tie the game at 1\u20131."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palace of the Soviets",
        "text": "At the end of 1941, the remaining workers duly fireproofed and camouflaged the steel frame, and left Moscow for the Urals. In 1942, the frame was disassembled to salvage steel for building railway bridges. With no workers left to maintain the watertight curtain, river water seeped through and eventually flooded the foundations. In 1958\u20131960 the site was drained and rebuilt into an open-air swimming pool."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The Soviet Union had won the gold medal in five of the six previous Winter Olympic Games, and they were the favorites to win once more in Lake Placid. The team consisted primarily of professional players with significant experience in international play. By contrast, the United States' team, led by head coach Herb Brooks, was composed mostly of amateur players, with only four players with minimal minor-league experience. The United States had the youngest team in the tournament and in U.S. national team history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In the other group, the Soviets stormed through their opposition undefeated, often by grossly lopsided scores. They defeated Japan 16\u20130, the Netherlands 17\u20134, Poland 8\u20131, Finland 4\u20132, and Canada 6\u20134 to easily qualify for the next round, although both the Finns and the Canadians gave the Soviets tough games for two periods. In the end, the Soviet Union and Finland advanced from their group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ernst Jennrich",
        "text": "By the time Soviet troops arrived on the scene and a state of emergency had been declared at around 14.00 in the early afternoon, most of the crowd had dispersed. For some reason Jennrich was still hanging around, however."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The two teams met again at the 1992 Olympics in a semi-final match. There, the Unified Team (the successor to the Soviet Union) won 5\u20132. While some stars had left the Soviet Union to play in the NHL, the Unified Team still boasted many veterans from their domestic professional league, while the Americans were represented primarily by college players. The Unified Team eventually won the gold medal, while the U.S. placed fourth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 1960 Winter Olympics",
        "text": "Canada, the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia and Sweden were the top four teams heading into the Games. All four were defeated by the American team, which won all seven games it played. On the 50th anniversary of these Games, a documentary entitled \"Forgotten Miracle\" was produced by Northland Films, making reference to the more famous 1980 gold medal known as the Miracle on Ice; these are the only two Olympic gold medals won by USA men's ice hockey. Herb Brooks, the coach of the 1980 US team, was the last player cut from the 1960 team by coach Jack Riley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Mike Eruzione was a technical consultant on the film saying \"we all know the movie will never be able to equal what happened.\" Eruzione however, wasn't involved with the latter \"Miracle\" film at all. According to Eruzione \"I did not want to be involved in the movie. I felt if I was involved then my role would be different, and the guys on the team would have went, he didn\u2019t do this, he didn\u2019t say that. Oh, no, you were an advisor; no wonder why you did this. I stayed away from the movie. I think they interviewed a bunch of us and asked us questions, but we had no input into the movie.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "John J. O'Connor of the \"New York Times\" said \"\"Miracle on Ice\" is a fine example of the inspirational sports film. Nothing is said of the many career disappointments suffered by the players since the Olympics, but this film is meant to recapture an extraordinary moment, which it does.\" O'Connor did however also say that \"Miracle on Ice\" was sprinkled liberally with silly bits of business and ludicrous efforts to inject some romance into the scenario. For instance, every so often, a beautiful woman would suggestively approach one of the players, only to disappear quickly as, under Herb Brooks' orders. O'Connor added that outside of Mike Eruzione and Jim Craig, the rest of the team is just a collection of faces passing quickly before the cameras, identified only by the names on the backs of their uniforms. Meanwhile, O'Connor argued that other characters such as Patti Brooks as the loyally supportive and enthusiastic wife and Jim Craig's father, Donald (a devoted fan carrying a religious medal for good luck), are little more than plot conveniences."
      },
      {
        "title": "SS Chelyuskin",
        "text": "In the wake of the catastrophe, a central square in Yaroslavl was renamed after the \"Chelyuskintsy\", as was Chelyuskinites Park in Minsk. Marina Tsvetayeva wrote a poem applauding the rescue team. Nine days after the two Soviet cameramen aboard reached Moscow, their footage was developed, edited and released as a feature documentary motion picture. In 1970, East German television produced \"Tscheljuskin\", a film about the ship's voyage, directed by Rainer Hausdorf and featuring Eberhard Mellies as Prof. Schmidt, Dieter Mann as the surveyor Vasiliev and Fritz Diez as Valerian Kuybyshev."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Stalin",
        "text": "Another smaller historical aspect of the plot was modified for the film, the 1950 Sverdlovsk plane crash in which 11 players on the VVS Moscow ice hockey team died. In the film Vasily Stalin and Anatoly Tarasov deal with a depleted Soviet Union national ice hockey team, complete with a reference to their star player Vsevolod Bobrov, who missed the flight. However, the crash happened on 5 January 1950, over three years before Stalin's death."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Nagobads",
        "text": "In advance of the ice hockey at the 1980 Winter Olympics, Nagobads suggested to Herb Brooks that Mike Eruzione be named the US men's national team captain due to his leadership skills. Nagobads also welcome goaltender Jim Craig into this house, who wanted to live with a family while the national team trained. The US men's national team won the Olympic gold medal in 1980, which included a 4\u20133 victory over the Soviet Union national team known as the Miracle on Ice. Brooks wanted his team to play on lines lasting 40 seconds or less to stay energized by the third period. Nagobads stood beside Brooks with a stopwatch tracking the ice time for the players, and later joked that he never saw the game since he was focused on the watch during the entire game. He skipped the post-game celebration to complete injury reports for the players, when he was approached by players on the Soviet team who asked for translation assistance to buy Moon Boots for their wives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Winter Palace",
        "text": "Ironically, the Red Guard actually broke into the palace through a back door that was left open, guarded by wounded and disabled reserves. This gave rise to the occasion being described as the birth of the Soviet state. Nikolai Podvoisky, one of the original troika, which led the original storming, was so impressed by the re-enactment that he commissioned Sergei Eisenstein to make his film \"\". Certain features, such as the banks of floodlights which appear in Eisenstein's film indicate that Eisenstein was more influenced by the re-enactment than the original event."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Day After",
        "text": "The film was broadcast on the Soviet Union's state TV in 1987, in the period of the negotiations on Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty. The producers demanded that the Russian translation conform to the original script and that the broadcast would not be interrupted by commentary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Vladimir Krutov was sent to the penalty box at the 6:47 mark of the third period for high-sticking. The Americans, who had managed only two shots on Myshkin in 27\u00a0minutes, had a power play and a rare offensive opportunity. Myshkin stopped a Mike Ramsey shot, then U.S. team captain Mike Eruzione fired a shot wide. Late in the power play, Dave Silk was advancing into the Soviet zone when Valeri Vasiliev knocked him to the ice. The puck slid to Mark Johnson. Johnson fired off a shot that went under Myshkin and into the net at the 8:39 mark, as the power play was ending, tying the game at 3. Only a couple of shifts later, Mark Pavelich passed to Eruzione, who was left undefended in the high slot. Eruzione, who had just come onto the ice, fired a shot past Myshkin, who was screened by Vasili Pervukhin. This goal gave Team USA a 4\u20133 lead, its first of the game, with exactly 10\u00a0minutes remaining to play."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture during the Cold War",
        "text": "Cold war tensions between the US and the USSR were the backdrop of sports competitions, especially in hockey and in the Olympics of 1980 and 1984.\n*1956: 1956 Summer Olympics\u00a0\u2013 USSR-Hungary Blood in the Water match following the Hungarian Revolution\n*1969: 1969 World Ice Hockey Championships\u00a0\u2013 USSR-Czechoslovakia following the 1968 events in Czechoslovakia\n*1972: 1972 Summer Olympics\u00a0\u2013 The USSR defeats the United States in men's basketball in a controversial gold medal game\n*1972: Canada\u2013USSR Summit Series \u2013 Canada defeats the Soviets in this eight game series.\n*1972: 1972 World Chess Championship Fischer (USA)- Spaasky (USSR)- Bobby Fischer beat Spaasky in this championship held in Reykjavik, Iceland.\n*1980: The Miracle on Ice \u2013 The United States defeats the USSR in the 1980 Winter Olympics. The first time the USSR hockey team did not win gold since 1960, and the last time they would not until the USSR fell apart. Also the first and only time the United States would beat them in hockey until 1991.\n*1980: 1980 Summer Olympics boycott\u00a0\u2013 by the United States\n*1984: 1984 Summer Olympics boycott\u00a0\u2013 by the Soviet Union"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Stern closely watched videotapes of the Lake Placid games before setting up his scenes at the Los Angeles Sports Arena. These staged shots generally involved close-ups of the actors. The original ABC Sports footage showed the games in long or medium shots. The new material, also videotaped, was then carefully edited into the factual footage, and the result was transferred to film. This process was done in order to maintain the same picture quality throughout and not produce the 'checkerboard effect' according to co-producer Frank von Zerneck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "For the first game in the medal round, the United States played the Soviets. Finishing the first period tied at 2\u20132, and the Soviets leading 3\u20132 following the second, the U.S. team scored two more goals to take their first lead midway in the third and final period, then held on and won\u00a04\u20133. Two days later, the U.S. won the gold medal by beating Finland in their final game. The Soviet Union took the silver medal by beating Sweden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aftermath of World War II",
        "text": "By the end of the war, the European economy had collapsed with some 70% of its industrial infrastructure destroyed. The property damage in the Soviet Union consisted of complete or partial destruction of 1,710 cities and towns, 70,000 villages/hamlets, and 31,850 industrial establishments. The strength of the economic recovery following the war varied throughout the world, though in general, it was quite robust, particularly in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 2002 Winter Olympics \u2013 Men's tournament",
        "text": "USA and Russia met again in the semi-finals of the tournament. The USA's victory over Russia came coincidentally on the 22-year anniversary of the \"Miracle on Ice\", the upset of the Soviet Union team, at Lake Placid in 1980 (also a Friday). The Americans stormed out to a 3\u20130 lead for the first two periods, before withstanding a two-goal rally from the Russians to advance. Russian coach Slava Fetisov, one of the stars for the 1980 Soviet squad, complained about the selection of NHL referees to officiate Olympic matches (a stipulation by the NHL if most Olympic players are NHLers) and charged that officials were trying to fix a Canada-USA final for North American audiences. However, Russian goalie Nikolai Khabibulin thought that the refereeing was fair, having faced 38 shots in the first two periods and 49 overall."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Coldest Game",
        "text": "In 1962, in the middle of the Cold War Cuban Missile Crisis, fictional American chess player Joshua Mansky (Bill Pullman) walks onstage towards his Soviet opponent, fictional Soviet champion Alexander Gavrylov (Evgeniy Sidikhin). Mansky is a surprise replacement for the American player Konigsberg, whose sudden death nearly cancelled the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aftermath of World War II",
        "text": "The Soviet Union suffered enormous losses in the war against Germany. The Soviet population decreased by about 27\u00a0million during the war; of these, 8.7\u00a0million were combat deaths. The 19\u00a0million non-combat deaths had a variety of causes: starvation in the siege of Leningrad; conditions in German prisons and concentration camps; mass shootings of civilians; harsh labour in German industry; famine and disease; conditions in Soviet camps; and service in German or German-controlled military units fighting the Soviet Union. The population would not return to its pre-war level for 30 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The U.S. and Russia played each other in a round-robin game at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. The game was tied 2\u20132 after overtime before the Americans prevailed in an eight-round shootout, with T.J. Oshie scoring on 4 of 6 attempts for the United States. The match has been dubbed by some as the \"Marathon on Ice\" due to its length. Both teams, however, failed to win a medal; the Americans finished fourth (losing to Canada in the semifinals), while the Russians placed fifth (losing to Finland in the quarterfinals)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Mike Ramsey, Neal Broten, Steve Janaszak, Eric Strobel, Bob Suter, and Phil Verchota were not featured in the film except in archival footage of the gold medal ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Whereas 1981's \"Miracle on Ice\" reused clips from ABC's actual broadcasts of the games blended in with some quick close-ups for the written footage, \"Miracle\" used real hockey players as actors and reshot the whole games. Also recreated in \"Miracle\" was the commentary by Al Michaels and Ken Dryden (with the exception of Michaels' now legendary \"Do you believe in miracles? Yes!\" line as the filmmakers felt that it would've been impossible to ask Michaels to recreate the genuine emotion and enthusiasm during the heat of that particular moment)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In 2004, Walt Disney Pictures released the film \"Miracle\", directed by Gavin O'Connor and starring Kurt Russell as Brooks. Al Michaels recreated his commentary for most of the games. The final ten seconds, however, and his \"Do you believe in miracles? YES!\" call, were from the original broadcast and used in the film since the filmmakers felt that they could not ask him to recreate the emotion he felt at that moment. The film was dedicated to Brooks, who died shortly after principal photography completed."
      },
      {
        "title": "ASB.tv",
        "text": "A mechanical problem with the P-38 forced the team to abandon its mission similar to the original team who in 1942 made an emergency landing on the ice because of foul weather."
      },
      {
        "title": "Al Michaels",
        "text": "Michaels, along with broadcasting partner Ken Dryden, recreated their Olympic commentary in the 2004 movie \"Miracle\". Although Michaels and Dryden recreated the bulk of their commentary for the film, the closing seconds of the game against the Soviet Union used the original ABC Sports commentary from 1980. Gavin O'Connor, the director of \"Miracle\", decided to use the last 10\u00a0seconds of Michaels's original \"Do you believe in miracles? YES!\" call in the film because he felt he couldn't ask him to recreate the emotion he experienced at that moment. Thus they cleaned up the recording to make the transition to the authentic call as seamless as possible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moscow Strikes Back",
        "text": "\"It's been severe, but happy days. Severe, because we made a movie in a front-line city. Basement studio has turned into the apartment where we lived like in casern. At night, we discussed with the cameramen the job for the next day, and in the morning the machine took away the cameramen to the front to back in the evening with the footage. The shooting was very heavy. There were thirty-degree frosts. The mechanism of the movie camera froze and clogged with snow, numbed hands refused to act. There were times when in the car, which returned from the front, lay the body of our dead comrade and broken equipment. But the knowledge that the enemy pulls back from Moscow, that collapses the myth of the invincibility of the Nazi armies, gave us strength...We knew that the film should be created as soon as possible, that the people should as soon as possible to see on the screen the offspring of the first victories of the army. And shoted material immediately move to the lab on the editing table. We cut both day and night in the cold editing rooms without going to the shelter even when air-raid ... At the end of December 1941 cutting of the movie was over. In the great cold hall began dubbing studio. There was the most responsible exciting entry: \"Fifth Symphony\" by Tchaikovsky. Bright Russian melody, outcry, wailing chords. And on the screen were burned towns, gallows, corpses, and all the way of retreat of fascists revealed signs of violence and barbarism. We listened to music, watched the screen and cried. Cried the musicians, who played with difficulty by frozen hands.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Eruzione",
        "text": "In the 1981 made-for-TV movie about the 1980 U.S. Hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\", Eruzione is portrayed by actor Andrew Stevens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "Miracle is a 2004 American sports film about the United States men's ice hockey team, led by head coach Herb Brooks, portrayed by Kurt Russell, who won the gold medal in the 1980 Winter Olympics. The American team's victory over the heavily favored Soviet professionals in the medal round was dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\". \"Miracle\" was directed by Gavin O'Connor and written by Eric Guggenheim and Mike Rich. It was released on February 20, 2004, where it grossed $64.5 million on a $28 million budget and received positive reviews, with Russell's performance garnering the most praise from critics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aftermath of the Winter War",
        "text": "Another source, later used widely in Soviet historiography, was the Molotov speech in front of the Supreme Soviet on 29 March 1940. Molotov blamed Western countries for starting the war and argued that they had used Finland as a proxy to fight the Soviet Union. The Western Allies had furthermore tried to take neutral Sweden and Norway along with them. The main \"villains\" for the Soviets were the United Kingdom and France, but also Sweden, the United States, and Italy, who had issued massive amounts of mat\u00e9riel, money, and numbers of men, to Finland. According to Molotov, the Soviet Union was merciful in peace terms, as the problem of Leningrad security had been solved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "\"Miracle on Ice\" was directed by Steven Hilliard Stern and written by Lionel Chetwynd. It incorporates actual game footage and ABC broadcasters Al Michaels and Ken Dryden's original commentary from the 1980 Winter Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sasha Lakovic",
        "text": "He portrayed Boris Mikhailov, captain of the Soviet hockey team at the 1980 Winter Olympics, in the movie \"Miracle\" based on the Miracle on Ice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The United States did not win the gold medal by defeating the USSR. In 1980, the medal round was a round-robin, not a single elimination format as it is today. Under Olympic rules at the time, the group game with Sweden was counted along with the medal round games versus the Soviet Union and Finland. Because the United States had the high strength of victory against all their opponents, it was mathematically possible for the United States to finish anywhere from first to third."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim Craig (ice hockey)",
        "text": "Craig played a key role in one of the landmark moments in United States sports history, as the goalie for the United States in the Miracle on Ice, when the 1980 U.S. Olympic hockey team defeated the favored Soviet Olympic hockey team, which was led by greats including Boris Mikhailov and Vladislav Tretiak. In that game, Craig stopped 36 of 39 shots from the Soviet team. His composure was evident in the final moments of the game and allowed the underdog U.S. team to protect their one-goal lead and win 4\u20133. The American Flag that Craig draped over his shoulders after the upset is now displayed at the Sports Museum of America in New York City. Two days later, he again led the U.S. to victory, 4\u20132 victory over Finland, clinching the gold medal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aftermath of the Winter War",
        "text": "According to Nikita Khrushchev, 1.5 million men were sent to Finland and one million of them were killed, while 1,000 aircraft, 2,300 tanks and armored cars and an enormous amount of other war materials were lost. Finland's losses were limited to 25,904 dead or missing and 43,557 wounded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Al Michaels",
        "text": "In 1980, an unheralded group of college ice hockey players from the United States won the gold medal at the Olympic Winter Games. The medal round match on February 22\u2014which, contrary to popular belief, did not yet assure the team of the gold medal\u2014was of particular interest, as it was played against a heavily favored professional squad from the Soviet Union, and was in front of an incredibly excited pro-American crowd in Lake Placid, New York. Michaels's memorable broadcast of this game, including his interjection\u2014\"Do you believe in miracles? YES!\"\u2014as time expired on the 4\u20133 U.S. victory, earned the game the media nickname of \"The Miracle on Ice\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The Soviets were led by legendary players in world ice hockey, such as Boris Mikhailov (a top line right winger and team captain), Vladislav Tretiak (the consensus best goaltender in the world at the time), the speedy and skilled Valeri Kharlamov, and talented, dynamic players such as defenseman Viacheslav Fetisov and forwards Vladimir Krutov and Sergei Makarov. From that team, Tretiak, Kharlamov, Makarov, and Fetisov were eventually enshrined in the Hockey Hall of Fame. Many of the Soviet players had gained attention in the Summit Series eight years before and, in contrast to the American players, were \"de facto\" professionals with long histories of international play, employed by industrial firms or military organizations for the sole purpose of playing hockey on their organization's team. Western nations protested the Soviet Union's use of full-time athletes, as they were forced to use amateur (mainly college) players due to the International Olympic Committee's (IOC) amateur-only policy. The situation even led to Canadian withdrawal from the 1972 and 1976 Olympics, but the IOC did not change the rules until the late 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Tikhonov replaced Tretiak with backup goaltender Vladimir Myshkin immediately after Johnson's goal, a move that shocked players on both teams. Tikhonov later identified this as the \"turning point of the game\" and called it \"the biggest mistake of my career\". Years later, when Johnson asked Viacheslav Fetisov, now an NHL teammate, about the move, Fetisov responded with \"Coach crazy.\" Myshkin allowed no goals in the second period. The Soviets dominated play in the second period, outshooting the Americans 12\u20132, but scored only once, on a power play goal by Aleksandr Maltsev 2:18 into play. After two periods the Soviet Union led, 3\u20132."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oliver Ames High School",
        "text": "Jim Craig, a member of the 1980 U.S. Olympic hockey team that defeated the Soviet Olympic hockey team in the Miracle on Ice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marat Kazey",
        "text": "In the winter of 1943, when the detachment was breaking out of an encirclement, Ariadne Kazei received severe frostbite to her feet, and it was required to amputate both of her legs. She was to be evacuated to the Soviet rear, but her condition worsened, and the amputation was carried out in the field. Ariadne was evacuated by plane only on June 14, 1943. Marat, being underage, was asked to evacuate with his sister, but he refused and remained in the detachment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modern pentathlon at the 1976 Summer Olympics",
        "text": "Boris Onischenko of the Soviet Union was ejected from the competition during the fencing event after it was discovered he had wired his ep\u00e9e with a concealed push button circuit breaker that enabled him to register a hit at any time. Onischenko's results were deleted from the records, and he was spirited away from the Olympic Village almost immediately, never competing in events outside the USSR again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter \u0160\u0165astn\u00fd",
        "text": "The trickle of Czechoslovak and Soviet hockey players rapidly became a flood following his footsteps. According to Peter, his defection \"was the best decision I ever made. It has given my family the choices and options that people behind the Iron Curtain could only dream of. Then, to play pro hockey with my two brothers was like icing on the cake.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Curt Chaplin",
        "text": "Chaplin claims to have provided via cassette recording of audio play-by-play for one of the most famous moments in American sports history\u2014the Miracle on Ice hockey game during the 1980 Winter Olympics at Lake Placid, New York. The underdog United States national team defeated the Soviet Union national team 4-3 in the semifinal round, beating a team that had won six of the previous seven Olympic gold medals. Chaplin, in an interview, notes that he was assigned to cover the game as a sports reporter for ABC News Radio, not a play-by-play announcer. However, he thought the game might be significant and found a spot near a TV camera to stand and narrate the game into his cassette recorder. His call of the game is now part of an exhibit about the game at the Hockey Hall of Fame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "\"Miracle\" director Gavin O'Connor said that he remembers calling Herb Brooks to tell him that Karl Malden had been cast to play him and hearing a second or two of silence on the line before he replied, in a tone dripping with acid, \u2018Isn\u2019t he a bit old?\u2019 On the other hand, Tom Jones of the \"Tampa Bay Times\" said that while the movie was a bit hokey and included some strange choices (such as Steve Guttenberg as goalie Jim Craig), Karl Malden pulled off a credible performance as the grumpy Herb Brooks."
      },
      {
        "title": "1972 Olympic Men's Basketball Final",
        "text": "In the second half the Soviets provoked Dwight Jones, the leading scorer of the U.S. team. On the 28th minute during a loose ball scuffle he was assailed by Mikheil Korkia and responded. Both players were ejected. After this, Ivan Dvorny was also disqualified for protesting from the bench. The Soviets benefited from the double ejection, as they deemed Korkia less significant for them than Jones was to the Americans. The next minute Alexander Belov violently injured Jim Brewer during the free-throw, and Brewer was unable to continue playing. The referees failed to properly assess the flagrant foul."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aftermath of the Winter War",
        "text": "During the period between the war and the perestroika in late 1980s, Soviet historiography leaned solely on Vyacheslav Molotov's speeches on the Winter War. In his radio speech of 29 November 1939, Molotov argued that the Soviet Union had tried for two months to negotiate guarantees of security for Leningrad. However, the Finns had taken a hostile stance to \"please foreign imperialists\". The Finns had undertaken military provocation and the Soviets could no longer hold to nonaggression pacts. According to Molotov, the Soviets did not want to occupy or annex Finland; the goal was purely to secure Leningrad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boston University Terriers men's ice hockey",
        "text": "Eruzione scored the famous winning goal against the Soviets with 10 minutes remaining, and Craig made 36 saves to preserve the 4\u20133 victory. Silk, who assisted on the United States' second and third goals, was mentioned in sportscast Al Michaels' final call: \"Eleven seconds, you've got ten seconds, the countdown going on right now! Morrow, up to Silk. Five seconds left in the game. Do you believe in miracles? Yes!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Aftermath of the Winter War",
        "text": "Aftermath of the Winter War\n--After the war.\n----Finnish views.\n----Soviet views.\n----Germany.\n----Western Allies.\n----Military consequences.\n--Casualties of the war.\n--Contemporary views.\n----Soviet literature.\n----Russian literature.\n----Finnish literature.\n----Possible Sovietisation and resettlement.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aftermath of World War II",
        "text": "The Soviets began Operation Osoaviakhim in 1946. NKVD and Soviet army units effectively deported thousands of military-related technical specialists from the Soviet occupation zone of post-war Germany to the Soviet Union. The Soviets used 92 trains to transport the specialists and their families, an estimated 10,000-15,000 people. Much related equipment was also moved, the aim being to virtually transplant research and production centres, such as the relocated V-2 rocket centre at Mittelwerk Nordhausen, from Germany to the Soviet Union. Among the people moved were Helmut Gr\u00f6ttrup and about two hundred scientists and technicians from Mittelwerk. Personnel were also taken from AEG, BMW's Stassfurt jet propulsion group, IG Farben's Leuna chemical works, Junkers, Schott AG, Siebel, Telefunken, and Carl Zeiss AG."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aftermath of World War II",
        "text": "The economy had been devastated. Roughly a quarter of the Soviet Union's capital resources were destroyed, and industrial and agricultural output in 1945 fell far short of pre-war levels. To help rebuild the country, the Soviet government obtained limited credits from Britain and Sweden; it refused assistance offered by the United States under the Marshall Plan. Instead, the Soviet Union coerced Soviet-occupied Central and Eastern Europe to supply machinery and raw materials. Germany and former Nazi satellites made reparations to the Soviet Union. The reconstruction programme emphasised heavy industry to the detriment of agriculture and consumer goods. By 1953, steel production was twice its 1940 level, but the production of many consumer goods and foodstuffs was lower than it had been in the late 1920s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Karl Malden told \"Sports Illustrated\" in December 1980 that he had never actually met Herb Brooks in preparation for his portrayal of him, but he studied him on videotape, especially his eyes. Malden said of Brooks \"I'd hate to meet him in a dark alley. I think he's a little on the neurotic side. Maybe more than a little. Any moment you think he's going to jump out of his skin.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "1956 Winter Olympics",
        "text": "An important early matchup of the final round was the game between Canada and the United States. The Canadians had never lost to the US in Olympic play prior to that game. In what was considered a tremendous upset, the United States defeated Canada 4\u20131. The Americans, who placed fourth at the 1955 World Ice Hockey Championships and were not expected to medal, then faced the USSR, who won the tournament in 1954 and took silver in 1955 behind Canada, in a game that would eventually make the difference in the gold medal. The Soviets overwhelmed the underdogs and won the match 4\u20130. The USSR then played Canada, who still had a chance to win the gold if they defeated the Soviets, and won 2\u20130 despite being dramatically outshot in the first and second periods. The USSR won gold, the United States surprisingly took silver and Canada, with their two losses, earned bronze, their worst result to date in Olympic play."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aftermath of the Winter War",
        "text": "In 1990, professor Mikhail Semiryaga used the Red Army Casualty Notifications to publish a book in which he gave exact figures: 53,522 dead, 16,208 missing, 163,772 wounded and 12,064 frostbitten. Meanwhile, professor N. I. Baryshikov estimated 53,500 dead, a figure close to that of Semiryaga. In 1999, the Finnish historian Ohto Manninen estimated Red Army casualties to have been 84,994 dead or prisoners, 186,584 wounded or disabled, 51,892 sick and 9,614 frostbitten. The Russian historian Grigoriy Krivosheyev calculated 126,875 dead and 264,908 wounded. In 1999, the professor of the Petrozavodsk State University Yuri Kilin calculated 63,990 dead, 207,538 wounded and frostbites, making total casualties 271,528, and furthermore 58,390 men were tagged as sick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boris Brejcha",
        "text": "He was injured in the Ramstein air show disaster when aged 6, becoming badly burnt. He states in an interview; \"this was a special incident in my life. I was alone, I was a little boy and I was in an extreme situation\".."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who scored the winning goal for Miracle on Ice?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mark Pavelich passed to Eruzione, who was left undefended in the high slot. Eruzione, who had just come onto the ice, fired a shot past Myshkin, who was screened by Vasili Pervukhin. This goal gave Team USA a 4\u20133 lead, its first of the game, with exactly 10 minutes remaining to play."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did anything else happen in the game during the remaining 10 minutes?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Soviets, trailing for the first time in the game, attacked ferociously. The Americans fully expected Tikhonov to pull the goalie in the waning seconds, but to their surprise, Myshkin stayed in the game and as the clock ticked below 20 seconds, a wild scramble for the puck ensued, ending when Johnson found it and passed it to Ken Morrow as the U.S. tried to clear the zone and the clock counted down its final seconds."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were some of the pop culture references for Miracle on Ice?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Pop culture references include a made-for-TV movie in 1981, a documentary film on HBO in 2001, a 2004 Disney film, and an ESPN documentary in 2015. Would you like further information on any of those?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Sure! Tell me about the made-for-TV movie in 1981."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It starred Karl Malden as Brooks, Steve Guttenberg as Craig, and Andrew Stevens as Eruzione. It incorporated actual game footage and original commentary from the 1980 Winter Games."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the aftermath on the Soviet side?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Would like to know about Silver medal, After the 1980 Winter Olympics or NHL careers?",
      "In the Soviet locker room, Tikhonov singled out first-line players Tretiak, Kharlamov, Petrov, and Mikhailov, and told each of them, \"This is your loss!\",  two days after the Miracle on Ice, the Soviet team defeated Sweden 9\u20132, winning the silver medal, the Soviet players were so upset at their loss that they did not turn in their silver medals to get their names inscribed on them, as is custom, the result stunned the Soviet Union and its news media."
    ],
    "topic": "Miracle on Ice",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Miracle on Ice:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Miracle on Ice"
        ],
        "ctx": "For the first game in the medal round, the United States played the Soviets. Finishing the first period tied at 2\u20132, and the Soviets leading 3\u20132 following the second, the U.S. team scored two more goals to take their first lead midway in the third and final period, then held on and won\u00a04\u20133. Two days later, the U.S. won the gold medal by beating Finland in their final game. The Soviet Union took the silver medal by beating Sweden."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Miracle on Ice:0",
        "passage_titles": [],
        "ctx": "Miracle on Ice\n--History.\n----The Soviet and American teams.\n----Exhibitions.\n----Olympic group play.\n--Game summary.\n----First period.\n----Second period.\n----Third period.\n--American aftermath.\n----Gold medal.\n----After the 1980 Winter Olympics.\n----Later careers.\n--Soviet aftermath.\n----Silver medal.\n----After the 1980 Winter Olympics.\n----NHL careers.\n--Notable rematches.\n--Popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Miracle on Ice:33",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Miracle on Ice",
          "American aftermath",
          "Later careers"
        ],
        "ctx": "Of the 20\u00a0players on Team USA, 13\u00a0eventually played in the NHL. Five of them played over 500\u00a0NHL games, and three of them played over 1,000 NHL games.\n*Neal Broten played one more season for the Golden Gophers before moving on to the NHL, and he appeared in 1,099 NHL games over 17 seasons\u2014992 of them with the Minnesota North Stars/Dallas Stars franchise. He captained the Stars before being traded midway through the 1994\u201395 season to the New Jersey Devils. A two-time All-Star, he tallied 923 career points (289 goals, 634 assists), became the first American player to record 100 points in a season, and he won a Stanley Cup as a member of the Devils in 1995. Broten had already won the NCAA championship in 1979 at the University of Minnesota; this, combined with the Olympic gold medal in 1980 and the 1995 Cup win (Broten scored the Cup-winning goal in Game 4 as Viacheslav Fetisov, playing for the opposing Detroit Red Wings, fell down), made him the first player in the history of the sport to win a championship at the collegiate, professional, and Olympic levels. The Dallas Stars have since retired number\u00a07 for Broten.\n*Ken Morrow won the Stanley Cup in 1980 as a member of the New York Islanders, becoming the first hockey player to win an Olympic gold medal and the Cup in the same year. He played 550 NHL games and won three more Cups, all with the Islanders. Morrow later worked for the Islanders as Director of Pro Scouting.\n*Mike Ramsey played in 1,070 games over 18 years. Fourteen of those years were spent with the Buffalo Sabres, with whom he played 911 games and was a five-time All-Star, captaining the team from 1990 to 1992. In 1995, he played in the Stanley Cup Finals with the Detroit Red Wings, but his team was swept by Neal Broten and the New Jersey Devils. In 2000, Ramsey became an assistant coach for the Minnesota Wild.\n*Dave Christian spent 14 years in the NHL, the bulk of them for the original Winnipeg Jets (for whom he served as team captain) and Washington Capitals. In 1990, he played in the Stanley Cup Finals while with the Boston Bruins, but the Bruins lost in five games to the Edmonton Oilers. He ended his career with 783 points (340 goals, 443 assists) in 1,009 games and made the All-Star team in 1991.\n*Mark Johnson played for several teams in the NHL before finding a home in New Jersey, tallying 508 career points (203 goals, 305 assists) in 669 games over 11\u00a0seasons. Like Christian, Ramsey, and Broten, he became an NHL All-Star (in 1984) and served as Hartford Whalers team captain. In 2002, Johnson became the coach of the University of Wisconsin\u2013Madison women's team, leading the Badgers to National Championships in 2006, 2007 (which the Badgers won in the same Lake Placid arena in which the Miracle took place), 2009, 2011, 2019, and 2021. Johnson also served as head coach of the women's ice hockey team that won the silver medal at the 2010 Winter Olympics.\n*Jack O'Callahan played 390 NHL regular season games between 1982 and 1989 for the Chicago Blackhawks and New Jersey Devils.\n*Mark Pavelich played 355 NHL regular season games in the NHL for the New York Rangers, Minnesota North Stars, and San Jose Sharks between 1981 and 1992.\n*Dave Silk played 249 NHL regular season games for the Boston Bruins, Winnipeg Jets, Detroit Red Wings, and New York Rangers between 1980 and 1985.\n*Jim Craig appeared in 30\u00a0NHL games for the Atlanta Flames, Boston Bruins, and Minnesota North Stars between 1980 and 1984.\n*Team captain Mike Eruzione did not play any high-level ice hockey after the 1980 Olympics, as he felt that he had accomplished all of his hockey goals with the gold medal win. He did work as a hockey television analyst in the 1980s and 1990s.\n*Craig Patrick, Brooks' assistant coach and assistant general manager, both managed and coached the New York Rangers and Pittsburgh Penguins. As a result of his success with the Penguins, who won two Stanley Cups while Patrick was general manager, he was enshrined in the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2002. During that same year, he served as general manager of the Herb Brooks-coached 2002 U.S. hockey team that won the silver medal at the Salt Lake City games.\n*Herb Brooks, the team coach, coached several NHL teams following the Olympics, with mixed results. He returned to the Olympics as coach of the French team in 1998, the first Olympics in which NHL players competed. Brooks then led Team USA to the silver medal in 2002, which included a 2\u20132 round-robin draw and a 3\u20132 semi-final victory over Russia (the successor to the Soviet Union), the semi-final match coming 22 years to the day after the \"Miracle on Ice\" game. Brooks died in a car crash near Forest Lake, Minnesota on August 11, 2003 at the age of 66. In 2005, the Olympic Center ice arena in Lake Placid where the Miracle on Ice took place was renamed in his honor.\n*Al Michaels got the job as play-by-play announcer for ice hockey at Lake Placid because he was the only member of ABC's broadcasting team who had previously called the sport (at the 1972 Winter Olympics in Sapporo, Japan). Michaels was named \"Sportscaster of the Year\" in 1980 for his coverage of the event. Michaels spent 26 more years covering sports for ABC before moving to NBC to call \"Sunday Night Football\" alongside John Madden and then Cris Collinsworth after Madden retired."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Miracle on Ice:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Miracle on Ice",
          "Soviet aftermath",
          "Silver medal"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the Soviet locker room, Tikhonov singled out first-line players Tretiak, Kharlamov, Petrov, and Mikhailov, and told each of them, \"This is your loss!\" Two days after the Miracle on Ice, the Soviet team defeated Sweden 9\u20132, winning the silver medal. The Soviet players were so upset at their loss that they did not turn in their silver medals to get their names inscribed on them, as is custom. The result stunned the Soviet Union and its news media."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Miracle on Ice\n--History.\n----The Soviet and American teams.\n----Exhibitions.\n----Olympic group play.\n--Game summary.\n----First period.\n----Second period.\n----Third period.\n--American aftermath.\n----Gold medal.\n----After the 1980 Winter Olympics.\n----Later careers.\n--Soviet aftermath.\n----Silver medal.\n----After the 1980 Winter Olympics.\n----NHL careers.\n--Notable rematches.\n--Popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In the Soviet locker room, Tikhonov singled out first-line players Tretiak, Kharlamov, Petrov, and Mikhailov, and told each of them, \"This is your loss!\" Two days after the Miracle on Ice, the Soviet team defeated Sweden 9\u20132, winning the silver medal. The Soviet players were so upset at their loss that they did not turn in their silver medals to get their names inscribed on them, as is custom. The result stunned the Soviet Union and its news media."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The Soviet Union entered the Lake Placid games as the heavy favorite, having won four consecutive gold medals dating back to the 1964 games. In the four Olympics following their 1960 bronze-medal finish at Squaw Valley, Soviet teams had gone 27\u20131\u20131 (wins-losses-ties) and outscored their opponents 175\u201344. In head-to-head matchups against the United States, the cumulative score over that period was 28\u20137. The Soviet team had not lost a game in Olympic play since 1968."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The \"Miracle on Ice\" was an ice hockey game during the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York. It was played between the hosting United States and the Soviet Union on February 22, 1980, during the medal round of the men's hockey tournament. Though the Soviet Union was a four-time defending gold medalist and heavily favored, the United States upset them and won 4\u20133."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vladimir Myshkin",
        "text": "After Tretiak gave up two goals in the first period of the famous \"Miracle on Ice\" game versus the USA in the medal round of the 1980 Winter Olympics, Tikhonov replaced him with Myshkin. He faced only 2 shots in the second period, and stopped them both, but gave up 2 goals in the third scored by Americans Mark Johnson and Mike Eruzione. Team USA won the game 4-3 and went on to capture the gold medal with the Soviets taking the silver."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet Union men's national ice hockey team",
        "text": "At the 1980 Winter Olympics, the Soviets also had one of their most notable losses. Playing the United States in the medal round, the Soviets lost 4\u20133. This match, later dubbed the Miracle on Ice, was notable because it had the Soviets, recognized as the top international team in the world, against an American team composed largely of university-level players. The Americans would go on to win the gold medal in the tournament, while the Soviets finished with the silver, only the second time they failed to win gold at the Olympics since their debut in 1956."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States at the Winter Olympics",
        "text": "The 1980 hockey game between the U.S. and USSR was dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\", when American college players defeated the heavily favored seasoned professionals from the Soviet Union on the way to a gold medal at the Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York. The Soviet Union had won the gold medal in five of the six previous Winter Olympic Games, and were the favorites to win once more. Though ice hockey is not a major sport in most areas of the United States, the \"Miracle\" is often listed as one of the all-time greatest American sporting achievements. The U.S. also won the gold medal in the 1960 Games at Squaw Valley, California, defeating the Soviet Union, Canada, Czechoslovakia, and Sweden along the way. However, since this victory is not as well known as the 1980 win, it has come to be known as the \"Forgotten Miracle\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States at the Olympics",
        "text": "The 1980 hockey game between the U.S. and USSR was dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\", when American college players defeated the heavily favored seasoned professionals from the Soviet Union, on the way to a gold medal at the Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York. The Soviet Union had won the gold medal in five of the six previous Winter Olympic Games, and were the favorites to win once more. Though ice hockey is not a major sport in most areas of the United States, the \"Miracle\" is often listed as one of the all-time greatest American sporting achievements. The U.S. also won the gold medal in the 1960 Games at Squaw Valley, California, defeating the Soviet Union, Canada, Czechoslovakia, and Sweden along the way. However, since this victory is not as well known as the 1980 win, it has come to be known as the \"Forgotten Miracle\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "At the 1981 Canada Cup, the United States, with seven players from their 1980 Olympic team, again faced the Soviet Union. The Soviets took the opening round encounter 4\u20131 in Edmonton. At the 1982 World Championship in Finland, with Mike Ramsey, Mark Johnson, Buzz Schneider, and John Harrington, the Americans again met the Soviets, but once again the U.S. lost, 8\u20134."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Despite the loss, the USSR remained the pre-eminent power in Olympic hockey until its dissolution in 1991. The Soviet team did not lose a World Championship game until 1985 and did not lose to the United States again until 1991. Throughout the 1980s, NHL teams continued to draft Soviet players in hopes of enticing them to eventually play in North America. Soviet emigrant Victor Nechayev made a brief appearance with the Los Angeles Kings in the 1982\u201383 season and, during the 1988\u201389 season, the Soviet Ice Hockey Federation agreed to let veteran Sergei Pryakhin join the Calgary Flames."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 1960 Winter Olympics",
        "text": "Canada, the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia and Sweden were the top four teams heading into the Games. All four were defeated by the American team, which won all seven games it played. On the 50th anniversary of these Games, a documentary entitled \"Forgotten Miracle\" was produced by Northland Films, making reference to the more famous 1980 gold medal known as the Miracle on Ice; these are the only two Olympic gold medals won by USA men's ice hockey. Herb Brooks, the coach of the 1980 US team, was the last player cut from the 1960 team by coach Jack Riley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "For the first game in the medal round, the United States played the Soviets. Finishing the first period tied at 2\u20132, and the Soviets leading 3\u20132 following the second, the U.S. team scored two more goals to take their first lead midway in the third and final period, then held on and won\u00a04\u20133. Two days later, the U.S. won the gold medal by beating Finland in their final game. The Soviet Union took the silver medal by beating Sweden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Al Michaels",
        "text": "In 1980, an unheralded group of college ice hockey players from the United States won the gold medal at the Olympic Winter Games. The medal round match on February 22\u2014which, contrary to popular belief, did not yet assure the team of the gold medal\u2014was of particular interest, as it was played against a heavily favored professional squad from the Soviet Union, and was in front of an incredibly excited pro-American crowd in Lake Placid, New York. Michaels's memorable broadcast of this game, including his interjection\u2014\"Do you believe in miracles? YES!\"\u2014as time expired on the 4\u20133 U.S. victory, earned the game the media nickname of \"The Miracle on Ice\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lake Placid, New York",
        "text": "In the U.S., the village is especially remembered as the 1980 USA\u2013USSR hockey game site. Dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\", a group of American college students and amateurs upset seasoned and professional Soviet national ice hockey team, 4\u20133, and two days later won the gold medal. Another high point during the Games was the performance of American speed-skater Eric Heiden, who won five gold medals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The United States did not win the gold medal by defeating the USSR. In 1980, the medal round was a round-robin, not a single elimination format as it is today. Under Olympic rules at the time, the group game with Sweden was counted along with the medal round games versus the Soviet Union and Finland. Because the United States had the high strength of victory against all their opponents, it was mathematically possible for the United States to finish anywhere from first to third."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The Soviet Union had won the gold medal in five of the six previous Winter Olympic Games, and they were the favorites to win once more in Lake Placid. The team consisted primarily of professional players with significant experience in international play. By contrast, the United States' team, led by head coach Herb Brooks, was composed mostly of amateur players, with only four players with minimal minor-league experience. The United States had the youngest team in the tournament and in U.S. national team history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "In the U.S. team's locker room prior to the medal round game against the Soviets, Herb Brooks says to his team \"Whatever it costs us personally to get here, it was worth it. Don't blow it. You'll take it to your grave!\" While the real Brooks did roughly say to his team \"You'll take it to your grave!\", it was actually during the second intermission of gold medal game against Finland, when the U.S. was down 2\u20131.\n*\"Homeward Bound\" (Simon & Garfunkel song) - This is featured during musical interlude on a bus trip throughout Europe with one of the players singing with a guitar. In September 1979, before the Olympics, the American team started exhibition play for a total of 61 games in five months against teams from Europe and the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The U.S. and the Soviet Union next met at the Winter Olympics in 1988. As in 1980, the Soviets were represented by their star-studded veterans, while the Americans fielded a team of college players. The Soviets won the encounter 7\u20135 and won the gold medal, while the U.S. placed seventh."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In exhibitions that year, Soviet club teams went 5\u20133\u20131 against National Hockey League (NHL) teams and, a year earlier, the Soviet national team had defeated a team of NHL All-Stars two games to one (by scores of 2-4, 5-4, and 6\u20130) to win the Challenge Cup. In 1979\u201380, virtually all the top North American players were Canadians, although the number of U.S.-born professional players had been on the rise throughout the 1970s. The 1980 U.S. Olympic team featured several young players who were regarded as highly promising, and some had signed contracts to play in the NHL immediately after the tournament."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "After the team list is finally posted, the team plays some exhibition games in Europe, where they post a respectable record (winning eight and only losing two games). But just as they are feeling great about their performance, they play the Minnesota North Stars and realize that their skills could still use improvement; furthermore, they recognize that beating the powerful Soviet Union team, who won the gold medal at the past four Olympic Games, will be a tremendous challenge. For their last exhibition game before the Olympics, they play against the Soviet Union at Madison Square Garden. Brooks realizes that this particular game will prove whether his team is ready to compete for the gold medal. The Soviets annihilate them by the score of 10\u20133, but newly installed captain Mike Eruzione refuses to let the team's spirit slide. In their opening game against the favored Swedish team, the United States is down two goals to one with less than a minute remaining in the game. Brooks pulls his goalie and the U.S. ties the game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The two teams met again at the 1992 Olympics in a semi-final match. There, the Unified Team (the successor to the Soviet Union) won 5\u20132. While some stars had left the Soviet Union to play in the NHL, the Unified Team still boasted many veterans from their domestic professional league, while the Americans were represented primarily by college players. The Unified Team eventually won the gold medal, while the U.S. placed fourth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "As the 1980 Winter Olympics begins, the Americans trail Sweden 2\u20131 in the first game. Brooks fires up the team during an intermission by throwing a table and accuses McClanahan, who suffered a relatively minor leg injury, of quitting. McClanahan ends up playing despite his injury, which inspires the team. Bill Baker (Nick Postle) scores a goal with only 27 seconds remaining in the third period for a dramatic 2\u20132 tie. They then follow up with a 7\u20133 win over heavily favored Czechoslovakia. As the Olympics continue, the team defeats Norway, Romania, and West Germany to earn a spot in the medal round. The Americans are considered overwhelming underdogs to the Soviets in the first medal round game. The game begins and the Soviets score the first goal. Then O'Callahan, having healed enough from his injury, enters the game for the first time. He makes an immediate impact by heavily checking Vladimir Krutov on a play that leads to a goal by Buzz Schneider (Billy Schneider). The Soviets score again to retake the lead. In the final seconds, Soviet goalie Vladislav Tretiak stops a long shot by Dave Christian (Stephen Kovalcik), but Mark Johnson (Eric Peter-Kaiser) gets the rebound and scores with less than one second left in the period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "The next two games against Czechoslovakia and Norway both end with the U.S. victorious. The possibility of them making a run for a medal is now especially raised after they beat West Germany prior to their showdown with the Soviets. At the end of the first period in the medal round game between the U.S. and the Soviets, the score is tied. At the end of the second period, the U.S. trails by one goal. In the last few minutes of the game, the Soviet Union stages one last attack, but the U.S. is ultimately victorious. As the crowd at Olympic Center Ice Rink bursts into hysteria, Herb Brooks retreats to the locker room for some solitude, knowing they face Finland for the gold medal. Ultimately though, the United States do defeat Finland for the gold medal and Mike Eruzione urges his team to join him on the platform during the playing of the national anthem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "The film concludes with actual footage of the U.S. hockey team members receiving their medals, along with descriptions narrated by ABC Sports broadcaster Al Michaels of their accomplishments after the 1980 Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In Olympic group play, the Americans surprised many observers with their physical, cohesive play. In their first game, on February 12 against favored Sweden, Team USA earned a dramatic 2\u20132 draw by scoring with 27 seconds left after pulling goalie Jim Craig for an extra attacker. Then came a stunning 7\u20133 victory over Czechoslovakia, who were a favorite for the silver medal. With its two toughest games in the group phase out of the way, the U.S. team reeled off three more wins, beating Norway 5\u20131, Romania 7\u20132, and West Germany 4\u20132 to go 4\u20130\u20131 and advance to the medal round from its group, along with\u00a0Sweden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 1972 Winter Olympics",
        "text": "While the 1980 team had the celebrated \"Miracle on Ice\" and the 1960 US team had the \"Forgotten Miracle\", the 1972 team could be called the \"completely overlooked miracle.\" The U.S. team was expected to finish 5th behind the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, Sweden, and Finland. The Soviet and Czech teams were especially powerful as there was no distinction between amateurs and pros in communist countries; these teams were made up of seasoned professionals and were ranked 1 & 2 in the world. Valeri Kharlamov of the Soviet Union was considered one of the world's best players and experts agree he would have been a star in the NHL. The same can be said for Soviet goaltender Vladislav Tretiak. In fact, this was basically the same Soviet Team that played a Canadian team composed of NHL All Stars in the 1972 Summit Series that Canada narrowly won, 4\u20133\u20131."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The U.S., coached by Herb Brooks, and Russia, coached by Viacheslav Fetisov, met twice in the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, which included a 2\u20132 round-robin draw and a 3\u20132 semi-final win for the Americans. The semi-final match was played 22 years to the day after the \"Miracle on Ice\" game. The U.S. eventually won silver, while Russia won bronze."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 2002 Winter Olympics \u2013 Men's tournament",
        "text": "Another major surprise was the silver-medal finish of Team USA, which was not considered a contender as it was steeped heavily in over-30 veterans. Although it retained most of the players from the 1998 team which had performed below expectations, this time it was coached by Herb Brooks, who had been responsible for the \"Miracle on Ice\" over the Soviet Union during the 1980 Winter Olympics. Despite being close to the ends of their NHL careers, Mike Richter and Phil Housley put up phenomenal performances. Brett Hull, John LeClair, and Mike Modano formed the \"Divine Line\" which led the tournament in scoring. USA and Russia played to a 2\u20132 tie in their group game, drawing some comparisons to the famous 1980 Miracle game. Ending up, USA finished second behind Sweden in the round robin results."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "After the gold medal-securing victory over Finland, the players received a congratulatory phone call from President Jimmy Carter."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of ESPN on ABC",
        "text": "The 1980 Winter Olympics was the setting for the \"Miracle on Ice\", a medal-round men's ice hockey game in Lake Placid, New York, on February 22. The United States team, made up of amateur and collegiate players and led by coach Herb Brooks, defeated the Soviet team, which consisted of veteran professional players with significant experience in international play. The rest of the United States (except those who watched the game live on Canadian television) had to wait to see the game, as ABC decided to broadcast the late-afternoon game on tape delay in prime time. Sportscaster Al Michaels, who was calling the game on ABC along with former Montreal Canadiens goalie Ken Dryden, picked up on the countdown in his broadcast, and delivered his famous call:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 1980 Winter Olympics",
        "text": "The victory became one of the most iconic moments of the Games and in U.S. sports. Equally well-known was the television call of the final seconds of the game by Al Michaels for ABC, in which he declared: \"Do you believe in miracles?! YES!\" In 1999, \"Sports Illustrated\" named the \"Miracle on Ice\" the top sports moment of the 20th century. As part of its centennial celebration in 2008, the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) named the \"Miracle on Ice\" as the best international ice hockey story of the past 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States men's national ice hockey team",
        "text": "The American ice hockey team's greatest success was the \"Miracle on Ice\" at the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York, when American college players defeated the heavily favored seasoned professionals from the Soviet Union on the way to a gold medal. Though ice hockey is not a major sport in most areas of the United States, the \"Miracle\" is often listed as one of the all-time greatest American sporting achievements. The U.S. also won the gold medal in the 1960 Games at Squaw Valley, California, defeating the Soviet Union, Canada, Czechoslovakia, and Sweden along the way. However, since this victory is not as well known as the 1980 win, it has come to be known as the \"Forgotten Miracle\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "ABC Olympic broadcasts",
        "text": "The 1980 Winter Olympics was the setting for the \"Miracle on Ice\", a medal-round men's ice hockey game in Lake Placid, New York, on February 22. The United States team, made up of amateur and collegiate players and led by coach Herb Brooks, defeated the Soviet team, which consisted of veteran professional players with significant experience in international play. The rest of the United States (except those who watched the game live on Canadian television) had to wait to see the game, as ABC decided to broadcast the late-afternoon game on tape delay in prime time. Sportscaster Al Michaels, who was calling the game on ABC along with former Montreal Canadiens goalie Ken Dryden, picked up on the countdown in his broadcast, and delivered his famous call:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "As in several previous games, the U.S. team fell behind early. Vladimir Krutov deflected a slap shot by Alexei Kasatonov past U.S. goaltender Jim Craig at the 9:12 mark to give the Soviets a 1\u20130 lead. At the 14:03 mark, Buzz Schneider scored for the United States on a 50-foot shot from the left board to tie the game. The Soviets struck again when Sergei Makarov scored with 17:34 gone. With his team down 2\u20131, Craig improved his play, turning away many Soviet shots before the U.S. team had another shot on goal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Mike Ramsey, Neal Broten, Steve Janaszak, Eric Strobel, Bob Suter, and Phil Verchota were not featured in the film except in archival footage of the gold medal ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phil Verchota",
        "text": "Verchota is not featured in a 1981 TV movie about the 1980 U.S. hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\", but does appear in archival footage of the medal ceremony where he is awarded the gold medal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In September 1979, before the Olympics, the American team started exhibition play. They played a total of 61 games in five months against teams from Europe and the United States. Through these games, Brooks instilled a European style of play in his team, emphasizing wide-open play with sufficient body contact. He believed it would be the only way for the Americans to compete with the Soviets. From the start of the exhibition matches, he conducted the team through skating wind sprints consisting of end line to blue line and back, then end line to red line and back, then end line to far blue line and back, and finally end line all the way down and back. Some of the players took to calling these \"Herbies\". On September 17, the team played to a 3\u20133 tie in Norway. Believing the team wasn't putting up sufficient effort, an angry Brooks had them skate Herbies after the game and, after a while, arena custodians turned the lights off and the Herbies continued in the dark. The two teams played again the next night, with the US winning handily 9-0. Near the end of the exhibition season, Brooks, because of subpar play, threatened to cut Eruzione (the captain) from the team and replace Craig with Steve Janaszak as the starting goaltender, although he had supported them throughout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neal Broten",
        "text": "Broten is not featured in the 1981 TV movie about the 1980 U.S. hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\" except in archival footage of the gold medal ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Miracle on Ice is a 1981 American sports docudrama about the United States men's national ice hockey team, led by head coach Herb Brooks (played by Karl Malden), that won the gold medal in the 1980 Winter Olympics. The USA team's victory over the heavily favored Soviet team in the medal round was dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\". The film premiered on March 1, 1981, as an installment of \"The ABC Sunday Night Movie\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "The story of the United States men's national hockey team's gold medal victory at the 1980 Winter Olympics was retold in \"Miracle\", starring Kurt Russell as Herb Brooks."
      },
      {
        "title": "NHL on ABC",
        "text": "For years later at Lake Placid, ABC was on hand for a medal-round men's ice hockey game that would soon become known the \"Miracle on Ice\". On February 22, 1980, the United States team, made up of amateur and collegiate players and led by coach Herb Brooks, defeated the Soviet team, which consisted of veteran professional players with significant experience in international play. The rest of the United States (except those who watched the game live on Canadian television) had to wait to see the game, as ABC decided to broadcast the late-afternoon game on tape delay in prime time. Sportscaster Al Michaels, who was calling the game on ABC along with former Montreal Canadiens goalie Ken Dryden, picked up on the countdown in his broadcast, and delivered his famous call:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Needing to defeat Finland to secure the gold medal, Team USA faced a 2\u20131 deficit at the end of the second period. According to Mike Eruzione, coming into the dressing room for the second intermission, Brooks turned to his players, looked at them, and said, \"If you lose this game, you'll take it to your fucking graves.\" He then walked towards the locker room door, paused, looked over his shoulder, and said to them again, \"Your fucking graves.\" Team USA came back in the third period to defeat Finland 4\u20132."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Malden also remarked with disapproval that Brooks could've ventured an occasional smile during one of the less intense games. Malden also wondered how, after working hard over the course of seven months that Brooks could have simply walked away after his team clinched the improbable victory against the Soviet team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 1960 Winter Olympics",
        "text": "First place team wins gold, second silver and third bronze."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In the 1989-90 season, Soviet authorities permitted six more 1980 Olympians \u2013 Helmuts Balderis, Viacheslav Fetisov, Alexei Kasatonov, Vladimir Krutov, Sergei Makarov, and Sergei Starikov \u2013 to join NHL clubs, but only after they agreed to play in their final World Championship (where they won gold). Makarov won the Calder Memorial Trophy as NHL Rookie of the Year in 1989\u201390, becoming the oldest player to win that award. Fetisov was a teammate of Mike Ramsey on the 1995 Detroit Red Wings team that lost the Stanley Cup Finals to Neal Broten and the New Jersey Devils. Fetisov completed his career by winning Cups with the Red Wings in 1997 and 1998; the first Cup win also made Fetisov a member of the Triple Gold Club, consisting of individuals who have won a Stanley Cup plus gold medals at the Olympics and World Championships."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steve Janaszak",
        "text": "In the 1981 TV movie about the gold medal-winning U.S. hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\", Janaszak does not appear as a character, but rather in archival footage of the gold medal ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "During the broadcast wrap-up after the game, ABC Olympic sports anchor Jim McKay compared the American victory over the Soviet professionals to a group of Canadian college football players defeating the Pittsburgh Steelers (the recent Super Bowl champions and at the height of their dynasty)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bob Suter",
        "text": "Suter was not featured in a 1981 TV movie about the 1980 U.S. hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\", except in archival footage of the gold medal ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neal Broten",
        "text": "Broten was a member of the United States Olympic team that won a gold medal at the 1980 Winter Olympics in an event known as the \"Miracle on Ice\". He was also a member of Team USA at the 1981 Canada Cup and 1984 Canada Cup tournaments as well as the 1990 Ice Hockey World Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Nagobads",
        "text": "In advance of the ice hockey at the 1980 Winter Olympics, Nagobads suggested to Herb Brooks that Mike Eruzione be named the US men's national team captain due to his leadership skills. Nagobads also welcome goaltender Jim Craig into this house, who wanted to live with a family while the national team trained. The US men's national team won the Olympic gold medal in 1980, which included a 4\u20133 victory over the Soviet Union national team known as the Miracle on Ice. Brooks wanted his team to play on lines lasting 40 seconds or less to stay energized by the third period. Nagobads stood beside Brooks with a stopwatch tracking the ice time for the players, and later joked that he never saw the game since he was focused on the watch during the entire game. He skipped the post-game celebration to complete injury reports for the players, when he was approached by players on the Soviet team who asked for translation assistance to buy Moon Boots for their wives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 1984 Winter Olympics",
        "text": "Source:\n* Gold \u2013\n* Silver \u2013\n* Bronze \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Ramsey (ice hockey)",
        "text": "Ramsey was the youngest member of the U.S. team that upset the Soviet Union at the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York, in an event known as the Miracle on Ice. The American team, which went on to defeat Finland for the gold medal, was coached by Herb Brooks, who was Ramsey's coach at the University of Minnesota."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In the group stage, both the Soviet and U.S. teams were unbeaten; the U.S. achieved several surprising results, including a 2\u20132 draw against Sweden, and a 7\u20133 upset victory over second-place favorite Czechoslovakia."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Olympic men's ice hockey players for the United States",
        "text": "In 1960, an unheralded American squad defeated the Canadian and Soviet squads on American soil en route to their first Olympic gold medal. The next several years were not as successful, and the Americans fell in the rankings; when the United States won silver in 1972, it did so from the B Pool, becoming the first B Pool squad to medal in an Olympic tournament. In 1980, Herb Brooks, the last man cut from the team that won gold in 1960, was named coach, and selected a team of college hockey players. The Americans shocked the world by first upsetting the heavily favored Soviet team 4\u20133, and then they defeated Finland for the gold medal. The \"Miracle on Ice\", as the game against the Soviets came to be known, was later named as the greatest moment in international hockey history by the IIHF, and the story was later turned into two motion pictures, \"Miracle on Ice\" and \"Miracle\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "There was however, no mention of international affairs in \"Miracle on Ice\", save for one huddled protest against the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in the pre-Olympic match-up against the Soviets at Madison Square Garden. \"Miracle\" meanwhile, showed how America was experiencing a crisis of confidence at that time (Watergate, hostages in Iran, Three Mile Island, ongoing energy crisis, etc.) of the 1980 Winter Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The Soviets were led by legendary players in world ice hockey, such as Boris Mikhailov (a top line right winger and team captain), Vladislav Tretiak (the consensus best goaltender in the world at the time), the speedy and skilled Valeri Kharlamov, and talented, dynamic players such as defenseman Viacheslav Fetisov and forwards Vladimir Krutov and Sergei Makarov. From that team, Tretiak, Kharlamov, Makarov, and Fetisov were eventually enshrined in the Hockey Hall of Fame. Many of the Soviet players had gained attention in the Summit Series eight years before and, in contrast to the American players, were \"de facto\" professionals with long histories of international play, employed by industrial firms or military organizations for the sole purpose of playing hockey on their organization's team. Western nations protested the Soviet Union's use of full-time athletes, as they were forced to use amateur (mainly college) players due to the International Olympic Committee's (IOC) amateur-only policy. The situation even led to Canadian withdrawal from the 1972 and 1976 Olympics, but the IOC did not change the rules until the late 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 1968 Winter Olympics",
        "text": "First place team wins gold, second silver and third bronze."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Kluetmeier",
        "text": "Kluetmeier's work with \"SI\" includes the March 3, 1980 cover that shows the American hockey team celebrating its semifinal game win over the Soviet Union in the \"Miracle on Ice\" game at the 1980 Winter Olympic Games at Lake Placid, New York. The cover is the only one in the magazine's history to run without a headline or caption, because, in his words, \"It didn't need it. Everyone in America knew what happened.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Eric Strobel",
        "text": "Strobel was not featured in \"Miracle on Ice\", a 1981 TV movie, but appears in archival footage of the gold medal ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim Craig (ice hockey)",
        "text": "Craig played a key role in one of the landmark moments in United States sports history, as the goalie for the United States in the Miracle on Ice, when the 1980 U.S. Olympic hockey team defeated the favored Soviet Olympic hockey team, which was led by greats including Boris Mikhailov and Vladislav Tretiak. In that game, Craig stopped 36 of 39 shots from the Soviet team. His composure was evident in the final moments of the game and allowed the underdog U.S. team to protect their one-goal lead and win 4\u20133. The American Flag that Craig draped over his shoulders after the upset is now displayed at the Sports Museum of America in New York City. Two days later, he again led the U.S. to victory, 4\u20132 victory over Finland, clinching the gold medal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The U.S. and Russia played each other in a round-robin game at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. The game was tied 2\u20132 after overtime before the Americans prevailed in an eight-round shootout, with T.J. Oshie scoring on 4 of 6 attempts for the United States. The match has been dubbed by some as the \"Marathon on Ice\" due to its length. Both teams, however, failed to win a medal; the Americans finished fourth (losing to Canada in the semifinals), while the Russians placed fifth (losing to Finland in the quarterfinals)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The Soviet and American teams were natural rivals due to the decades-old Cold War. In addition, President Jimmy Carter was at the time considering a U.S. boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics, to be held in Moscow, in protest of the December 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. On February 9, the same day the American and Soviet teams met in an exhibition game in New York City, U.S. Secretary of State Cyrus Vance denounced the impending Moscow games at an IOC meeting. President Carter eventually decided in favor of the boycott."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 1980 Winter Olympics",
        "text": "For the first game in the medal round, the United States played the Soviets. Finishing the first period tied at 2\u20132, and the Soviets leading 3\u20132 following the second, the U.S. team scored two more goals to take their first lead during the third and final period, winning the game 4\u20133. Following the game, the U.S. went on to clinch the gold medal by beating Finland in their last game. The Soviet Union took the silver medal by beating Sweden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In their last exhibition game, against the Soviets at Madison Square Garden on Saturday, February 9, the Americans were crushed 10\u20133. Soviet head coach Viktor Tikhonov later said that this victory \"turned out to be a very big problem\" by causing the Soviets to underestimate the American team. The\u00a0game was also costly for the Americans off-ice, as defenseman Jack O'Callahan pulled a ligament in his knee; however, Brooks kept O'Callahan on the roster, which meant the U.S. was virtually playing with only 19 players throughout the tournament. O'Callahan eventually returned for the game against the Soviets, playing limited minutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "During an exhibition game against Norway in Oslo that ends in a 3\u20133 tie, Brooks notices the players are distracted and not playing up to their potential. After the game, he orders them back on the ice for a bag skate. Brooks has them skate from one end of the ice to the other several times (doing, in other words, his infamous \"Herbies,\" as the team would call them colloquially), continuing the drill even after the rink manager cuts the power. Exhausted, forward and team captain Mike Eruzione (Patrick O'Brien Demsey) re-introduces himself in the same manner from the initial practice and cries out that he plays for the United States. Getting the answer that he wanted all along, Brooks finally allows the team to go home. Eventually, the team comes together, with the players thinking of themselves as a family representing the United States. With their roster finalized, just before heading to Lake Placid, the Americans play the Soviets in an exhibition game at Madison Square Garden. The Soviets manhandle the young American team, winning by a score of 10\u20133. During the game, O'Callahan suffers a knee injury that could keep him out of the entire Olympics and starting goaltender Jim Craig (Eddie Cahill) is shockingly told he may be benched in favor of backup Steve Janaszak (Sam Skoryna). Brooks tells him that he hasn't been giving his very best and ultimately decides to keep Craig as the starter for the Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ken Morrow",
        "text": "The following season, Morrow played for the 1980 U.S. Olympic hockey team that beat the Soviet team in an event known as the \"Miracle on Ice\" during the 1980 Winter Olympics before defeating Finland to win the gold medal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vladislav Tretiak",
        "text": "In the 1980 Winter Olympics, a USSR team loss to team USA in a medal round game denied Tretiak a chance at another gold. The Soviet team won silver, as they had the second-highest number of points in the tournament.."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herb Brooks",
        "text": "On the 25th anniversary of the Miracle on Ice, the Olympic ice arena in Lake Placid, New York, where the United States won the gold medal, was renamed Herb Brooks Arena. A statue of Brooks depicting his reaction to the victory in the 'Miracle' game was erected at the entrance to the RiverCentre in Saint Paul, Minnesota, in 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim McKay",
        "text": "McKay also hosted from the studio the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York. A happier result came when the U.S. hockey team defeated the Soviet Union in the Miracle on Ice. During the broadcast wrap-up after the game, McKay compared the American upset victory to a group of Canadian college football players defeating the Pittsburgh Steelers (the recent Super Bowl champions at the height of their dynasty)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The Soviets, trailing for the first time in the game, attacked ferociously. Moments after Eruzione's goal, Maltsev fired a shot which ricocheted off the right goal post. As the minutes wound down, Brooks kept repeating to his players, \"Play your game. Play your game.\" Instead of going into a defensive crouch, the United States continued to play offense, even getting off a few more shots on goal. The Soviets began to shoot wildly, and Sergei Starikov admitted that \"we were panicking.\" As the clock ticked down below a minute, the Soviets got the puck back into the American zone, and Mikhailov passed to Vladimir Petrov, who shot wide. The Americans fully expected Tikhonov to pull the goalie in the waning seconds. To their surprise, Myshkin stayed in the game. Starikov later explained that \"We never did six-on-five,\" not even in practice, because \"Tikhonov just didn't believe in it.\" Craig kicked away a Petrov slap shot with 33\u00a0seconds left. Kharlamov fired the puck back in as the clock ticked below 20\u00a0seconds. A wild scramble for the puck ensued, ending when Johnson found it and passed it to Ken Morrow. As the U.S. team tried to clear the zone (move the puck over the blue line, which they did with seven seconds remaining), the crowd began to count down the seconds left."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "The average age of the U.S. team was 21 years, making it the youngest team in U.S. history to play in the Olympics (in addition to being the youngest team in the 1980 Olympic tournament), but Brooks knew the limits of every player. As forward John Harrington said, \"He knew exactly where to quit. He'd push you right to the limit where you were ready to say, 'I've had it, I'm throwing it in' \u2014 and then he'd back off.\" Brooks continued the organization by campaigning for the players' selection of Eruzione as the captain, and Craig had been the goalie for him in the 1979 World Championship tournament. Assistant coach Craig Patrick had played with Brooks on the 1967 U.S. national team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "Tikhonov replaced Tretiak with backup goaltender Vladimir Myshkin immediately after Johnson's goal, a move that shocked players on both teams. Tikhonov later identified this as the \"turning point of the game\" and called it \"the biggest mistake of my career\". Years later, when Johnson asked Viacheslav Fetisov, now an NHL teammate, about the move, Fetisov responded with \"Coach crazy.\" Myshkin allowed no goals in the second period. The Soviets dominated play in the second period, outshooting the Americans 12\u20132, but scored only once, on a power play goal by Aleksandr Maltsev 2:18 into play. After two periods the Soviet Union led, 3\u20132."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "With a capacity of 8,500, the arena was packed. The home crowd waved U.S. flags and sang patriotic songs such as \"God Bless America\". Before the game, Brooks read his players a statement he had written out on a piece of paper, telling them that \"You were born to be a player. You were meant to be here. This moment is yours.\" Brooks believed they could win and later said, \"The Russians were ready to cut their own throats. But we had to get to the point to be ready to pick up the knife and hand it to them. So the morning of the game I called the team together and told them, 'It's meant to be. This is your moment and it's going to happen.' It's kind of corny and I could see them thinking, 'Here goes Herb again...' But I believed it.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In the waning seconds of the first period, Dave Christian fired a slap shot on Tretiak from away. The Soviet goalie saved the shot but misplayed the rebound, which bounced out some in front of him. Mark Johnson sliced between the two defenders, found the loose puck, and fired it past a diving Tretiak to tie the score with one second left in the period. Confusion reigned immediately after as the game clock showed 0:00 since it could not be stopped in time after Johnson's goal. Referee Karl-Gustav Kaisla ruled that one second would be put back on the clock and the usual center ice faceoff would take place before the first intermission could begin. A lengthy delay followed as most of the Soviet team had already proceeded down the tunnel to their locker room. Eventually, three Soviet skaters along with backup goaltender Myshkin took the ice for the final faceoff. The first period ended with the game tied 2\u20132."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice (1981 film)",
        "text": "Whereas \"Miracle\" gave us the story of Ralph Cox, the last man cut from the team, \"Miracle on Ice\" tells this story from the perspective of Les Auge, who was in fact the second to last man cut from the team. We also learn in \"Miracle on Ice\" of Mike Eruzione's decision to never play professional hockey after being captain of the gold medal team. Auge is depicted as urging Eruinoze to reconsider retiring prior to the Olympics to take a position as an assistant coach on the national team. All in all, while \"Miracle on Ice\" went more onto the individual players' careers outside of the Olympics, \"Miracle\" focused more on Herb Brooks molding them into a team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herb Brooks Arena",
        "text": "The arena hosted various events during the 1980 Winter Olympics, most famously the ice hockey tournament that saw the United States' 4\u20133 victory over the Soviet Union, the game commonly referred to as the Miracle on Ice. In 2005, to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the American victory, the arena was named after the late Herb Brooks, who coached the American team during the 1980 Olympics. Other events the arena hosted during the 1980 games include figure skating events and the closing ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the Olympic Games",
        "text": "The victory became one of the most iconic moments of the Games and in U.S. sports. Equally well-known was the television call of the final seconds of the game by Al Michaels for ABC, in which he declared: \"Do you believe in miracles?! YES!\" In 1999, \"Sports Illustrated\" named the \"Miracle on Ice\" the top sports moment of the 20th century. As part of its centennial celebration in 2008, the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) named the \"Miracle on Ice\" as the best international ice hockey story of the past 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States at the Winter Olympics",
        "text": "The U.S., coached by Herb Brooks, and Russia, coached by Slava Fetisov, met twice in the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, which included a 2\u20132 round-robin draw and a 3\u20132 semi-final win for the Americans. The semi-final match was played 22 years to the day after the \"Miracle on Ice\" game. The U.S. eventually won silver, while Russia won bronze."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "Miracle is a 2004 American sports film about the United States men's ice hockey team, led by head coach Herb Brooks, portrayed by Kurt Russell, who won the gold medal in the 1980 Winter Olympics. The American team's victory over the heavily favored Soviet professionals in the medal round was dubbed the \"Miracle on Ice\". \"Miracle\" was directed by Gavin O'Connor and written by Eric Guggenheim and Mike Rich. It was released on February 20, 2004, where it grossed $64.5 million on a $28 million budget and received positive reviews, with Russell's performance garnering the most praise from critics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bill Baker (ice hockey, born 1956)",
        "text": "Baker is best known for being a member of the Miracle on Ice 1980 U.S. Olympic Hockey Team that won the Gold Medal in Lake Placid, NY. Specifically, he is known for scoring the tying goal as the extra skater in the final minute forcing a 2\u20132 tie with Sweden in the opening game. This tie allowed the team to eventually advance to the medal round. Baker's jersey from the famed \"Miracle On Ice\" is on display at the Smithsonian in Washington, D.C., U.S. along with a stick autographed by all the members of the team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nikolai Sologubov",
        "text": "Sologubov is known for trying to help the U.S. team at the 1960 Winter Olympics. When the U.S. was losing to Czechoslovakia, Sologubov went to their dressing room and informed them (using gestures, because he did not speak English) that they should use oxygen cans for better recovery during the breaks. The Americans came back to win the game and the gold medal. The Soviets needed the United States to defeat Czechoslovakia to have an opportunity to win the silver medal. However, the Soviets would lose their last game of the tournament, ending in a third place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 2002 Winter Olympics \u2013 Men's tournament",
        "text": "USA and Russia met again in the semi-finals of the tournament. The USA's victory over Russia came coincidentally on the 22-year anniversary of the \"Miracle on Ice\", the upset of the Soviet Union team, at Lake Placid in 1980 (also a Friday). The Americans stormed out to a 3\u20130 lead for the first two periods, before withstanding a two-goal rally from the Russians to advance. Russian coach Slava Fetisov, one of the stars for the 1980 Soviet squad, complained about the selection of NHL referees to officiate Olympic matches (a stipulation by the NHL if most Olympic players are NHLers) and charged that officials were trying to fix a Canada-USA final for North American audiences. However, Russian goalie Nikolai Khabibulin thought that the refereeing was fair, having faced 38 shots in the first two periods and 49 overall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Buzz Schneider",
        "text": "During the 1979\u201380 season, the left wing played 62 games for the national team scoring 27 goals. During the Miracle on Ice run in the Olympics, he scored five goals and notched three assists in seven games en route to the gold medal. Schneider played on the Olympic team's top-scoring \"Iron Rangers\" or \"Conehead\" line with John Harrington and Mark Pavelich."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karl-Gustav Kaisla",
        "text": "He was the referee for the Miracle on Ice game on February 22 with the United States facing the Soviet Union during the 1980 Olympic Games at Lake Placid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "U.S. head coach Herb Brooks held tryouts in Colorado Springs in the summer of 1979. Of the 20 players who eventually made the final Olympic roster, Buzz Schneider was the only one returning from the 1976 Olympic team. Nine players had played under Brooks at the University of Minnesota (including Rob McClanahan, Mike Ramsey, and Phil Verchota), while four more were from Boston University (Dave Silk, Jack O'Callahan, goaltender Jim Craig, and team captain Mike Eruzione). As Boston University and Minnesota were perennial rivals in college hockey (for instance, they had faced off in a bitter NCAA national semifinal in 1976), Brooks' selection process was a 300-question psychological test that would give him insight on how every player would react under stress; anyone who refused to take the test would automatically fail. Brooks had to select from 68 players who started the tryout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle (2004 film)",
        "text": "During the first intermission, Soviet coach Viktor Tikhonov (Zinaid Memi\u0161evi\u0107) replaces Tretiak with backup Vladimir Myshkin. In the second period, the Soviets score a goal to go up 3\u20132. Early in the final period, the Soviet team is called for a penalty for slashing, putting the Americans on the power play. Johnson scores his second goal of the game just as the penalty is about to expire. Later, Eruzione puts them ahead 4\u20133 with 10 minutes left. The Americans hold off the Soviets to win the game, completing one of the biggest upsets in sports history. Two days later, the team would go on to defeat Finland 4\u20132 to win the gold medal. The movie ends with Brooks staring out over his team with pride as the entire team crowds together on the gold medal platform."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle on Ice",
        "text": "In the other group, the Soviets stormed through their opposition undefeated, often by grossly lopsided scores. They defeated Japan 16\u20130, the Netherlands 17\u20134, Poland 8\u20131, Finland 4\u20132, and Canada 6\u20134 to easily qualify for the next round, although both the Finns and the Canadians gave the Soviets tough games for two periods. In the end, the Soviet Union and Finland advanced from their group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture during the Cold War",
        "text": "Cold war tensions between the US and the USSR were the backdrop of sports competitions, especially in hockey and in the Olympics of 1980 and 1984.\n*1956: 1956 Summer Olympics\u00a0\u2013 USSR-Hungary Blood in the Water match following the Hungarian Revolution\n*1969: 1969 World Ice Hockey Championships\u00a0\u2013 USSR-Czechoslovakia following the 1968 events in Czechoslovakia\n*1972: 1972 Summer Olympics\u00a0\u2013 The USSR defeats the United States in men's basketball in a controversial gold medal game\n*1972: Canada\u2013USSR Summit Series \u2013 Canada defeats the Soviets in this eight game series.\n*1972: 1972 World Chess Championship Fischer (USA)- Spaasky (USSR)- Bobby Fischer beat Spaasky in this championship held in Reykjavik, Iceland.\n*1980: The Miracle on Ice \u2013 The United States defeats the USSR in the 1980 Winter Olympics. The first time the USSR hockey team did not win gold since 1960, and the last time they would not until the USSR fell apart. Also the first and only time the United States would beat them in hockey until 1991.\n*1980: 1980 Summer Olympics boycott\u00a0\u2013 by the United States\n*1984: 1984 Summer Olympics boycott\u00a0\u2013 by the Soviet Union"
      },
      {
        "title": "Herb Brooks",
        "text": "Brooks also coached two more Olympic hockey teams: Team France at the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, and the U.S. hockey team again at the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City. The 2002 team defeated the Russians in the semi-finals en route to a silver, losing in the gold medal game to Canada. The U.S. win over Russia came exactly 22 years to the day after the famous 'Miracle on Ice' game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Curt Chaplin",
        "text": "Chaplin claims to have provided via cassette recording of audio play-by-play for one of the most famous moments in American sports history\u2014the Miracle on Ice hockey game during the 1980 Winter Olympics at Lake Placid, New York. The underdog United States national team defeated the Soviet Union national team 4-3 in the semifinal round, beating a team that had won six of the previous seven Olympic gold medals. Chaplin, in an interview, notes that he was assigned to cover the game as a sports reporter for ABC News Radio, not a play-by-play announcer. However, he thought the game might be significant and found a spot near a TV camera to stand and narrate the game into his cassette recorder. His call of the game is now part of an exhibit about the game at the Hockey Hall of Fame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Eruzione",
        "text": "The book gives a detailed, inside account of U.S. Olympic hockey team's path to the gold medal, including the upset of the Soviet Union in the \"Miracle On Ice\" game, as well as a portrait of Eruzione's close-knit family and the experiences in college and minor league hockey that led him to try out for the Olympic team in 1979. Eruzione has said he wanted to write the book so that his grandchildren would know there was more to his life than scoring one goal in Lake Placid."
      },
      {
        "title": "1972 Ice Hockey World Championships",
        "text": "The American team, who had won the Silver medal earlier in the year at the Olympics, could not even win the 'B' pool, losing to Poland in their final game."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States at the Olympics",
        "text": "The U.S., coached by Herb Brooks, and Russia, coached by Slava Fetisov, met twice in the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, which included a 2\u20132 round-robin draw and a 3\u20132 semi-final win for the Americans. The semi-final match was played 22 years to the day after the \"Miracle on Ice\" game. The U.S. eventually won silver, while Russia won bronze."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 1972 Winter Olympics",
        "text": "First place team wins gold, second silver and third bronze.\n*5 February\n**Sweden 5\u20131 USA\n**Czechoslovakia 14\u20131 Poland\n**USSR 9\u20133 Finland\n*7 February\n**USSR 3\u20133 Sweden\n**USA 5\u20131 Czechoslovakia\n**Finland 5\u20131 Poland\n*8 February\n**Czechoslovakia 7\u20131 Finland\n*9 February\n**Sweden 5\u20133 Poland\n**USSR 7\u20132 USA\n*10 February\n**USSR 9\u20133 Poland\n**Czechoslovakia 2\u20131 Sweden\n**USA 4\u20131 Finland\n*12 February\n**USA 6\u20131 Poland\n*13 February\n**Finland 4\u20133 Sweden\n**USSR 5\u20132 Czechoslovakia"
      },
      {
        "title": "George Nagobads",
        "text": "Nagobads published his memoirs of the US men's national team in his 2004 book, \"Gold, Bronze, & Silver: A Doctor's Devotion to American Hockey\". In the 2004 film \"Miracle\", actor Kenneth Welsh portrayed Nagobads in a story about the 1980 Winter Olympics team. In a 2010 interview, Nagobads stated that his fondest memories of hockey included the victory over the Soviet Union in 1980, and the subsequent gold medal victory in the final game versus the Finland national team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steve Christoff",
        "text": "Christoff is best known for being a member of the \"Miracle on Ice\" 1980 U.S. Olympic hockey team that won the gold medal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 1980 Winter Olympics",
        "text": "The Soviet Union had won the gold medal in five of the six previous Winter Olympic Games, and were the favorites to win once more in Lake Placid. The team consisted primarily of professional players with significant experience in international play. By contrast, the United States' team\u2014led by head coach Herb Brooks\u2014consisted exclusively of amateur players, and was the youngest team in the tournament and in U.S. national team history. In the group stage, both the Soviet and U.S. teams were unbeaten; the U.S. achieved several notable results, including a 2\u20132 draw against Sweden, and a 7\u20133 upset victory over second-place favorites Czechoslovakia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the Olympic Games",
        "text": "The Soviet Union won its third gold medal with a 7\u20131 record in the 1968 Grenoble Olympics. Czechoslovakia and Canada won the silver and bronze medals. It was the last time that the Olympics were counted as the World Championships. In 1970, Canada withdrew from international ice hockey competition protesting the use of full-time \"amateurs\" by the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia, and the team did not participate in the 1972 and 1976 Winter Olympics. Led by goaltender Vladislav Tretiak and forwards Valeri Kharlamov, Alexander Yakushev, Vladimir Petrov and Boris Mikhailov, the Soviet team won gold at both the 1972 Games in Sapporo, Japan and 1976 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck, Austria. In 1971, the United States finished last at the World Championships and was relegated to Pool B. The team qualified for the 1972 Olympics and won silver, making it the first Pool B team to win an Olympic medal. Czechoslovakia won the bronze medal in 1972. In 1976, Czechoslovakia won the silver and West Germany won bronze. Along with Canada, the Swedish team did not participate in the 1976 tournament joining the boycott."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silver medal",
        "text": "In many sports with an elimination tournament, including those with a third place playoff (such as Olympic ice hockey, Olympic soccer, FIFA World Cup), silver is the only medal given to a team that loses its final game, whereas gold and bronze are earned by teams winning their final matches. Notable athletes such as Jocelyne Larocque (2018 Olympics) removed their runners-up/silver medals right after receiving them; Larocque was later ordered by the International Ice Hockey Federation official to put her silver medal back on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey at the 1968 Winter Olympics",
        "text": "USSR \u2013 Canada 5:0 (1:0, 1:0, 3:0)"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who scored the winning goal for Miracle on Ice?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mark Pavelich passed to Eruzione, who was left undefended in the high slot. Eruzione, who had just come onto the ice, fired a shot past Myshkin, who was screened by Vasili Pervukhin. This goal gave Team USA a 4\u20133 lead, its first of the game, with exactly 10 minutes remaining to play."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did anything else happen in the game during the remaining 10 minutes?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Soviets, trailing for the first time in the game, attacked ferociously. The Americans fully expected Tikhonov to pull the goalie in the waning seconds, but to their surprise, Myshkin stayed in the game and as the clock ticked below 20 seconds, a wild scramble for the puck ensued, ending when Johnson found it and passed it to Ken Morrow as the U.S. tried to clear the zone and the clock counted down its final seconds."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were some of the pop culture references for Miracle on Ice?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Pop culture references include a made-for-TV movie in 1981, a documentary film on HBO in 2001, a 2004 Disney film, and an ESPN documentary in 2015. Would you like further information on any of those?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Sure! Tell me about the made-for-TV movie in 1981."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It starred Karl Malden as Brooks, Steve Guttenberg as Craig, and Andrew Stevens as Eruzione. It incorporated actual game footage and original commentary from the 1980 Winter Games."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the aftermath on the Soviet side?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would like to know about Silver medal, After the 1980 Winter Olympics or NHL careers?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I would like to know about their silver medal accomplishment."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In the Soviet locker room, Tikhonov singled out first-line players Tretiak, Kharlamov, Petrov, and Mikhailov, and told each of them, \"This is your loss!\" Two days after the Miracle on Ice, the Soviet team defeated Sweden 9\u20132, winning the silver medal.",
      "In the Soviet locker room, Tikhonov singled out first-line players Tretiak, Kharlamov, Petrov, and Mikhailov, and told each of them, \"This is your loss!\" The Soviet team defeated Sweden 9\u20132, winning the silver medal, but they were so upset at their loss that they did not turn in their silver medals to get their names inscribed on them, as is custom."
    ],
    "topic": "Miracle on Ice",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Miracle on Ice:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Miracle on Ice",
          "Soviet aftermath",
          "Silver medal"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the Soviet locker room, Tikhonov singled out first-line players Tretiak, Kharlamov, Petrov, and Mikhailov, and told each of them, \"This is your loss!\" Two days after the Miracle on Ice, the Soviet team defeated Sweden 9\u20132, winning the silver medal. The Soviet players were so upset at their loss that they did not turn in their silver medals to get their names inscribed on them, as is custom. The result stunned the Soviet Union and its news media."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Miracle on Ice:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Miracle on Ice",
          "Soviet aftermath",
          "Silver medal"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the Soviet locker room, Tikhonov singled out first-line players Tretiak, Kharlamov, Petrov, and Mikhailov, and told each of them, \"This is your loss!\" Two days after the Miracle on Ice, the Soviet team defeated Sweden 9\u20132, winning the silver medal. The Soviet players were so upset at their loss that they did not turn in their silver medals to get their names inscribed on them, as is custom. The result stunned the Soviet Union and its news media."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Earth religion",
        "text": "April 22 was established as International Mother Earth Day by the United Nations in 2009, but many cultures around the world have been celebrating the Earth for thousands of years. Winter solstice and Summer solstice are celebrated with holidays like Yule and Dongzhi in the winter and Tireg\u0101n and Kupala in the summer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Hindu tradition, Mother's Day is called \"Mata Tirtha Aunshi\" or \"Mother Pilgrimage fortnight\", and is celebrated in countries with a Hindu population, especially in Nepal, where mothers are honored with special foods. The holiday is observed on the new moon day in the month of Baisakh, i.e., April/May. This celebration is based on the Hindu religion and it pre-dates the creation of the US-inspired celebration by at least a few centuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Mother's Day is a celebration honoring the mother of the family or individual, as well as motherhood, maternal bonds, and the influence of mothers in society. It is celebrated on different days in many parts of the world, most commonly in the months of March or May. It complements similar celebrations, largely pushed by commercial interests, honoring family members, such as Father's Day, Siblings Day, and Grandparents' Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kilimarathukavu Temple",
        "text": "Mother's Day is a celebration honoring the mother of the family, as well as motherhood, mother - child relationship and the impact of mother in society. It is being celebrated on various days around the world commonly in the month of March and May. As per United Nations Organization and many other countries it is celebrated on second sunday in the month of May every year. On Mother's Day United Nations celebrate moms who impact their lives and work tirelessly to change the world. The United Nations Foundation knows how important mothers are in promoting prosperity, success and growth in communities around the world. They support United Nations every day in its effort to provide mothers the resources they need to lead healthy and happy life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Motherhood and Beauty Day",
        "text": "Motherhood and beauty day () is an official holiday in Armenia dedicated to women. While March 8 celebrates all women, April 7 is mother's day. April 7 is the Feast of the Annunciation in the calendar of the Armenian Apostolic Church. It is expected to give presents to one's own mother. Celebrating each woman as beautiful in her own way, mothers are particularly happy to receive flowers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "It used to be celebrated on 8 December, the same date as the Conception of the Virgin celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Armenia, Mother's Day is celebrated on 8 March, and on 7 April as Maternity and Beauty Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "International Mother Earth Day",
        "text": "International Mother Earth Day was established in 2009, by the United Nations General Assembly under Resolution A/RES/63/278. The Resolution was introduced by The Plurinational State of Bolivia and endorsed by over 50 member states. It recognizes that \"the Earth and its ecosystems are our home\" and that \"it is necessary to promote harmony with nature and the Earth.\" The term Mother Earth is used because it \"reflects the interdependence that exists among human beings, other living species and the planet we all inhabit\". It is decided to designate April 22 as International Mother Earth Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henrietta Szold",
        "text": "In Israel, Mother's Day is celebrated on the day that Szold died, on the 30th of Shevat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Sri Lanka, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Roman Catholic priests complained that the holiday interfered with the honoring of the Virgin Mary, the divine mother, which took place during the whole month of May. In 1926 Mother's Day was celebrated on 7 July in order to address these complaints. Catholic organizations and priests tried to Christianize the holiday, but those attempts were rendered futile around the 1960s when the church lost influence and the holiday was completely secularized."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "While the United States holiday was adopted by some other countries, existing celebrations, held on different dates, honoring motherhood have become described as \"Mother's Day\", such as Mothering Sunday in the United Kingdom or, in Greece, the Eastern Orthodox celebration of the presentation of Jesus Christ to the temple (2 February of Julian Calendar). Both the secular and religious Mother Day are present in Greece. Mothering Sunday is often referred to as \"Mother's Day\" even though it is an unrelated celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day (United States)",
        "text": "Internationally, there are a large variety of Mother's Day celebrations with different origins and traditions, some now also having been influenced by this more recent American tradition. For the international celebration, see Mother's Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In most countries, Mother's Day is an observance derived from the holiday as it has evolved in the United States, promoted by companies who saw benefit in making it popular. As adopted by other countries and cultures, the holiday has different meanings, is associated with different events (religious, historical or legendary), and is celebrated on different dates."
      },
      {
        "title": "International Mother's Day Shrine",
        "text": "The celebration also extended to many foreign countries within only a few years of its conception. In 1914, President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed that flags be flown \"on the second Sunday in May as a public expression of our love and reverence for the mothers of our country.\" The 1914 proclamation by Wilson represents a victory for Jarvis, since it recognized her holiday and mothers across America. The year 2014 represents the 100th anniversary of Wilson's proclamation and the official national recognition of Mother's Day as a holiday. The International Mother's Day Shrine in Grafton, West Virginia holds special commemorations and events in recognition of this anniversary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Romania, Mother's Day has been celebrated on the first Sunday of May since 2010. Law 319/2009 made both Mother's Day and Father's Day official holidays in Romania. The measure was passed thanks to campaign efforts from the Alliance Fighting Discrimination Against Fathers (TATA). Previously, Mother's Day was celebrated on 8 March, as part of International Women's Day (a tradition dating back to when Romania was part of the Eastern bloc). Today, Mother's Day and International Women's Day are two separate holidays, with International Women's Day being held on its original date of 8 March."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Pakistan, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. Media channels celebrate with special shows. Individuals honor their mothers by giving gifts and commemorative articles. Individuals who have lost their mothers pray and pay their respects to their loved ones lost. Schools hold special programs in order to acknowledge the efforts of their mothers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Singapore, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. It is not recognized as a holiday by the government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Argentina, Mother's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of October. The holiday was originally celebrated on 11 October, the old liturgical date for the celebration of the Maternity of the Blessed Virgin Mary but after the Second Vatican Council, which moved the Virgin Mary festivity to 1 January, the Mother's Day started to be celebrated the third Sunday of October because of popular tradition. Argentina is the only country in the world that celebrates Mother's Day on this date."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Hungary, Mother's Day is celebrated on the first Sunday of May. It was first celebrated in 1925 by the Hungarian Red Cross Youth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "The Jewish population of Israel used to celebrate Mother's Day on Shevat 30 of the Jewish calendar, which falls between 30 January and 1 March. The celebration was set as the same date that Henrietta Szold died (13 February 1945). Henrietta had no biological children, but her organization Youth Aliyah rescued many Jewish children from Nazi Germany and provided for them. She also championed children's rights. Szold is considered the \"mother\" of all those children, and that is why her annual remembrance day (\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d4\u05e9\u05e0\u05d4) was set as Mother's Day (\u05d9\u05d5\u05b9\u05dd \u05d4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b5\u05dd, yom ha'em). The holiday has evolved over time, becoming a celebration of mutual love inside the family, called Family Day (\u05d9\u05d5\u05b9\u05dd \u05d4\u05b7\u05de\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05bc\u05e4\u05b8\u05bc\u05d7\u05b8\u05d4, yom hamishpacha). This holiday is mainly celebrated in preschools with an activity to which parents are invited. Mother's Day is mainly celebrated by children at kindergartens. There are no longer mutual gifts among members of the family, and there is no longer any commercialization of the celebration. It is not an official holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Mother's Day is celebrated on 16 November as a public holiday in North Korea. The date takes its significance from the First National Meeting of Mothers held in 1961, for which Kim Il-sung, the leader of the country, published a work called \"The Duty of Mothers in the Education of Children\". The date was designated as Mother's Day in May 2012 by the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly but only became a public holiday and appeared on the North Korean calendar starting in 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Ireland, Mother's Day is celebrated on the fourth Sunday of Lent, as in the United Kingdom, and has the same roots in Mothering Sunday. The practice died out in Ireland around the late 18th century but was revived around the 1950s due to Americanisation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Mother's Day in most Arab countries is celebrated on 21 March. It was introduced in Egypt by journalist Mustafa Amin and was first celebrated in 1956. The practice has since been adopted by other Arab countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day (United States)",
        "text": "Mother's Day in the United States is an annual holiday celebrated on the second Sunday in May. Mother's Day recognizes mothers, motherhood and maternal bonds in general, as well as the positive contributions that they make to their families and society. It was established by Anna Jarvis, with the first official Mother's Day celebrated through a service of worship at St. Andrew's Methodist Church in Grafton, West Virginia, on May 10, 1908. Popular observances include holiday card and gift giving, churchgoing often accompanied by the distribution of carnations, and family dinners. In the United States, Mother's Day complements similar celebrations honoring family members, such as Father's Day, Siblings Day and Grandparents Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of multinational festivals and holidays",
        "text": "World Down Syndrome Awareness Day - March 21st\n;Secular and multiple religions\n* Nowruz/Newroz (\u0646\u0647\u200c\u0648\u0631\u06c6\u0632/\u0646\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0632) : \"spring equinox (on or near 21 March)\"\u00a0\u2013 originally the Iranian New Year, celebrated as a secular holiday in Iran and many neighbouring countries and as a religious holiday by Alawites, Alevis, Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00eds, Bektashis, Zoroastrians, and most Shi'a Muslims.\n;Maithil\n* Sapta-Bipta (Maithil worship festival Sapta Mai worship)\n;Hinduism\n* Holi (Hindu holiday in honor of Lord Vishnu)\n* Dhulendi: \"6 March\"\n* Ram Navami: \"28 March\"\u00a0- Birthday of Lord Rama is celebrated all over India. The epic Ramayana is recited in temples and homes.\n;Judaism\n* Pesach: \"late March or in April\". See \"movable\"\n;Buddhism\n* Hanamatsuri: \"8 April\"\u00a0\u2013 Celebrated in Japan as Buddha's Birthday.\n;Islam\n* Ramadan: \"14 April\"\n;Secular\n* April Fools' Day: \"1 April\"\n* World Autism Awareness Day: \"2 April\"\n* Children\u2019s Day: \"4 April\"\n* Earth Day: \"22 April\"\n* Saint George's Day: \"23 April\"\n* Anzac Day: \"25 April\"\n;Christianity\n* Good Friday: \"the Friday preceding Easter Sunday, see \"movable\"\"\n* Holy Saturday: \"also called Easter Eve, the Saturday preceding Easter Sunday, see \"movable\"\"\n* Easter: \"typically in April, but sometimes in March or May, see \"movable\"\"\n;Hinduism\n* Rama Navami: birth of the god Rama\n* Hanuman Jayanti: typically a week after Rama Navami, in honour of the birth of Hanuman\n* Gangaur: occurring in April, in honour of the victory of Goddess Mahagauri\n* Maithil: occurring in April, Joor-seetal First day of Mithila calendar\n;Satanism\n* Hexennacht: \"30 April\"\u00a0\u2013 A TST Satanic occasion solemnly honoring those who fell victim to superstition and pseudoscience, whether by witch hunt, Satanic panic, or other injustices.\n;South and Southeast Asian\n* Traditional New Year: \"14 April\" (Usually between 12-14 April. Date is reckoned based on sun's entry into the constellation Aries) \u00a0\u2013 In many South and Southeast Asian cultures the festival is based on harvesting of crops and a new beginning marked by the sun's entry into the constellation Aries.\n;Judaism\n* Yom HaShoah\n* Lag BaOmer\n* Shavuot: \"usually in May, but sometimes in June\". See \"Movable\"\n;Paganism\n* May Day: \"1 May\"\u00a0\u2013 a traditional spring holiday in many cultures.\n;Buddhism\n* Vesak: Buddha's Birthday \u2013 celebrated on Vesak Full Moon by most buddhists.\n;Secular\n* International Workers' Day: \"1 May\"\n* Star Wars Day: \"May the 4th\"\n* Cinco de Mayo \"May 5\"\n* Matariki: The \"Maori new year\" festival running between a week and month from late May, celebrated by kite flying and a range of artistic activities.\n* Yom HaZikaron\n* Yom Ha'atzmaut: Israeli Independence Day\n;Maithil\n* Raib-Shain Paavein Worship of Sun and Saturn god\n* Inti Raymi: \"late June\"\u00a0\u2013 festival of the Sun in Quechua, winter solstice festival in areas of the former Inca Empire, still celebrated every June in Cusco.\n* We Tripantu\n;Hinduism\n* Ratha Yatra: procession of Vishnu\n;Islam\n* Eid al-Fitr: \"24 May 2020\"\n;Secular\n* World Environment Day: 5 June\n* Juneteenth : 19 June\n* World Humanist Day: 21 June\n* midsummer: 21 June\n* Yulefest/Midwinter Christmas: \"late June or July\"\u00a0\u2013 Australian/New Zealander winter 'Christmas/Yuletide'\n;Buddhism\n* Asalha Puja: Dhamma Day a Day When First Time Buddha gave Dhamma (updesh) To his First Five Sermons It Celebrate on full moon Day of Ashaldh\n;Hinduism\n* Guru Purnima: a reverential day in honour of all teachers and instructors.\n* Devshayani Ekadashi: solemnity of the repose of Vishnu, coincides with the first day of the highly inauspicious Chaturmas season.\n;Islam\n* Eid al-Adha: \"20 July\"\n;Satanism\n* Unveiling Day: \"25 July\"\u00a0\u2013 A TST Satanic celebration of religious plurality and shedding archaic superstition; celebrated on the date upon which The Satanic Temple's Baphomet statue was unveiled in 2015, an icon of modern Satanism created with \"respect for diversity and religious minorities\" in mind.\n;Christianity\n* Assumption of Mary: \"15 August\"\n;Hinduism\n* Raksha Bandhan: a festival commemorating filial love.\n* Krishna Janmashtami: birth anniversary of Krishna.\n* Onam: a festival of Kerala, India.\n;Secular\n* International Friendship Day: \"2 August\"\n* International Lefthanders Day: \"13 August\"\n* Saint Bartholomew's Day: \"24 August\"\n;Judaism\n* Rosh Hashanah: \"usually September, sometimes early October\" see \"Moveable\"\n* Yom Kippur: \"late September, early October\" see \"Moveable\"\n* Sukkot: \"sometimes late September, usually October\" see \"Moveable\"\n;Secular\n* Labor Day/Labour Day: \"first Monday of September (US/Canada)\"\n* International Talk Like a Pirate Day: \"19 September\"\n* World Peace Day: \"21 September\"\n;Judaism\n* Simchat Torah\n;Buddhism\n* Dhammachakra Pravartan Din :14 December Mostly Celebrate in India By Followers Of B. R. Ambedkar 14 October Samraat Ashok accepted Buddhist religion and On Same Day Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar Accepted Buddhist Religion with lakh of People This is Largest Dharmantaran in World Without any War And Harm .\n;Hinduism\n* Navratri: celebrates the conquest of Goddess Durga\n* Diwali: \"mid-October\u2013mid-November\"\u00a0\u2013 see \"movable\"\n* Kartik Purnima: An additional commemoration of the Celestial Diwali, or the \"Diwali of the Gods\"; hence the Sanskrit appellation \"Dev Diwali\", in honour of Vishnu, Kartikeya and Goddess Ganga.\n;Paganism\n* Samhain: \"31 October\u20131 November\"\u00a0\u2013 first day of winter in the Celtic calendar (and Celtic New Year's Day)\n;Secular\n* Gandhi Jayanti: an indoctrinated festival; the birth anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi, falls on 2 October.\n* Columbus Day: \"12 October\" or the second Monday in October\n* Indigenous Peoples' Day: the second Monday in October\n* Halloween: \"31 October\"\u00a0\u2013 also known as Allhalloween, All Hallows' Eve, or All Saints' Eve, is a celebration observed in many countries on 31 October, the eve of the Western Christian feast of All Hallows' Day.\n;Christianity\n* All Saints'/Souls' Day: \"1-2 November\"\u00a0\u2013 in Western Christian churches.\n* Dia de los muertos (Day of the Dead): \"1-2 November\"\u00a0\u2013 Celebrated in mostly Catholic Mexico but with origins that predate European contact.\n* Nativity Fast: \"forty days leading to Christmas\"\u00a0\u2013 also Saint Philip's fast, Christmas fast, or winter Lent or fast (Eastern Christianity).\n;Secular\n* Calan Gaeaf: \"1 November\"\u00a0\u2013 the first day of winter in Wales\n* Guy Fawkes Night: \"5 November\"\u00a0\u2013 celebrated in the UK commemorating the anniversary of the Gunpowder Plot\n* International Pianist Day: \"8 November\": celebrates the mastery of playing piano\n* Armistice Day (also Remembrance Day or Veterans Day): \"11 November\": memorial day honoring the war dead\n* International Men's Day: \"19 November\"\n* Thanksgiving Day: \"fourth Thursday of November (US); second Monday of October (CAN)\"\n*Maaveerar Naal: \"27\" \"November:\" Remembrance day observed by Sri Lankan Tamils in honour of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.\n;Hinduism\n* Diwali: \"mid-October\u2013mid-November\"\u00a0\u2013 see \"movable\"\n* Mandala Vratham: \"mid-November to mid-January\"\u00a0\u2013 see \"movable\": 48 days of fasting in honour of the deity Ayyappan begins.\n;Buddhism\n* Bodhi Day: \"8 December\"\u00a0\u2013 Day of Enlightenment, celebrating the day that the historical Buddha (Shakyamuni or Siddhartha Gautama) experienced enlightenment (also known as Bodhi).\n;Christianity\n* Advent: \"four Sundays preceding Christmas Day\"\n* Saint Barbara's Day: \"4 December\"\u00a0\u2013 The Feast of St. Barbara is celebrated by Artillery regiments across the Commonwealth and some western Catholic countries.\n* Krampusnacht: \"5 December\"\u00a0\u2013 The Feast of St. Nicholas is celebrated in parts of Europe on 6 December. In Alpine countries, Saint Nicholas has a devilish companion named Krampus who punishes the bad children the night before.\n* Saint Nicholas Day: \"6 December\"\n* Feast of the Immaculate Conception: \"8 December\"\u00a0\u2013 The day of Virgin Mary's Immaculate Conception is celebrated as a public holiday in many Catholic countries.\n* Saint Lucy's Day: \"13 December\"\u00a0\u2013 Church Feast Day. Saint Lucy comes as a young woman with lights and sweets.\n* Las Posadas: \"16\u201324 December\"\u00a0\u2013 procession to various family lodgings for celebration & prayer and to re-enact Mary & Joseph's journey to Bethlehem\n* Longest Night: A modern Christian service to help those coping with loss, usually held on the eve of the Winter solstice.\n* Nikoljdan: \"19 December\"\u00a0- the most common slava, St. Nicholas's feast day.\n* Christmas Eve: \"24 December\"\u00a0\u2013 In many countries e.g. the German speaking countries, but also in Poland, Hungary and the Nordic countries, gift giving is on 24 December.\n* Christmas Day: \"25 December\" and \"7 January\"\u00a0\u2013 celebrated by Christians and non-Christians alike.\n* Anastasia of Sirmium feast day: \"25 December\"\n* Twelve Days of Christmas: \"25 December\u20136 January\"\n* Saint Stephen's Day: \"26 December\"\u00a0\u2013 In Germany, Poland, the Czech Republic and Ireland a holiday celebrated as Second Day of Christmas.\n* Saint John the Evangelist's Day: \"27 December\"\n* Holy Innocents' Day: \"28 December\"\n* Saint Sylvester's Day: \"31 December\"\n;Hinduism\n* Pancha Ganapati: a modern five-day Hindu festival celebrated from 21 through 25 December in honor of Ganesha.\n* Vaikuntha Ekadashi: Mid December - Mid January: see \"moveable\".\n;Historical\n* Malkh: \"25 December\"\n* M\u014ddraniht: or Mothers' Night, the Saxon winter solstice festival.\n* Saturnalia: \"17\u201323 December\" \u2013 An ancient Roman winter solstice festival in honor of the deity Saturn, held on 17 December of the Julian calendar and expanded with festivities through to 23 December. Celebrated with sacrifice, a public banquet, followed by private gift-giving, continual partying, and a carnival.\n* Dies Natalis Solis Invicti (Day of the birth of the Unconquered Sun): \"25 December\"\u00a0\u2013 late Roman Empire\n;Humanism\n* HumanLight: \"23 December\"\u00a0\u2013 Humanist holiday originated by the New Jersey Humanist Network in celebration of \"a Humanist's vision of a good future.\"\n;Judaism\n* Hanukkah: usually falls anywhere between late November and early January. See \"movable\"\n;Paganism\n* Yule: Pagan winter festival that was celebrated by the historical Germanic people from late December to early January.\n* Koliada: Slavic winter festival celebrated on late December with parades and singers who visit houses and receive gifts.\n;Persian\n* Yalda: \"21 December\"\u00a0\u2013 The turning point, Winter Solstice. As the longest night of the year and the beginning of the lengthening of days, \"Shabe Yald\u0101\" or \"Shabe Chelle\" is an Iranian festival celebrating the victory of light and goodness over darkness and evil. \"Shabe yalda\" means 'birthday eve.' According to Persian mythology, Mithra was born at dawn on 22 December to a virgin mother. He symbolizes light, truth, goodness, strength, and friendship. Herodotus reports that this was the most important holiday of the year for contemporary Persians. In modern times Persians celebrate \"Yalda\" by staying up late or all night, a practice known as \"Shab Chera\" meaning 'night gazing'. Fruits and nuts are eaten, especially pomegranates and watermelons, whose red color invokes the crimson hues of dawn and symbolize Mithra.\n;Satanism\n* Sol Invictus: \"25 December\"\u00a0\u2013 A TST Satanic celebration of being unconquered by superstition and consistent in the pursuit and sharing of knowledge.\n;Secular\n* World AIDS Day: \"1 December\"\n*International Day of Disabled Persons: \"3 December\"\n* Boxing Day: \"26 December\"\n* Human Rights Day: \"10 December\"\n* Dongzhi Festival\u00a0\u2013 a celebration of Winter\n* Hogmanay: \"night of 31 December\u2013before dawn of 1 January\"\u00a0\u2013 Scottish New Year's Eve celebration\n* Newtonmas: 25 December\u00a0\u2013 As an alternative to celebrating the religious holiday Christmas, some atheists and skeptics have chosen to celebrate 25 December as Newtonmas, due to it being Isaac Newton's birthday on the old style date.\n* Kwanzaa: \"26 December\u20131 January\"\u00a0\u2013 Pan-African festival celebrated in the US\n* New Year's Eve: \"31 December\"\u00a0\u2013 last day of the Gregorian year\n* \u014cmisoka:\"31 December\"\u00a0\u2013 Japanese traditional celebration on the last day of the year\n* Soyal: \"21 December\"\u00a0\u2013 Zuni and Hopi\n* Winter Solstice: on or about \"21 December\"\n* Zamenhof Day: \"15 December\"\u00a0\u2013 Birthday of Ludwig Zamenhof, inventor of Esperanto; holiday reunion for Esperantists\n* Watch Night: \"31 December\"\n* Salgirah: 13 December - celebration of Shia Ismaili Muslims of their Imam (Aga Khan IV)\n;Unitarian Universalism\n* Chalica: \"first week of December\"\u00a0\u2013 A holiday created in 2005, celebrated by some Unitarian Universalists.\n;Fictional or parody\n*Erastide: In David Eddings' Belgariad and Malloreon series, Erastide is a celebration of the day on which the Seven Gods created the world. Greetings (\"Joyous Erastide\") and gifts are exchanged, and feasts are held.\n* Feast of Winter Veil: \"15 December\u20132 January\"\u00a0\u2013 A holiday in \"World of Warcraft\". This holiday is based on Christmas. Cities are decorated with lights and a tree with presents. Special quests, items and snowballs are available to players during this time. The character of \"Greatfather Winter\", who is modeled after Santa Claus, appears. Germanic tribes used to celebrate the Winter Solstice as a time to be thankful for the blessings given to them to survive harsh winters. The term \"Weil\", incorrectly translated to \"veil\", means abundance in German.\n* Feast of Alvis: in the TV series \"Sealab 2021\". \"Believer, you have forgotten the true meaning of Alvis Day. Neither is it ham, nor pomp. Nay, the true meaning of Alvis day is drinking. Drinking and revenge.\"\u2013Alvis\n* Hogswatch: a holiday celebrated on the fictional world of Disc-world. It is very similar to the Christian celebration of Christmas.\n* Festivus: \"23 December\"\u00a0\u2013 a parody holiday created by Daniel O'Keefe and made popular by \"Seinfeld\" as an alternative to Christmas.\n* Frostvale: the winter holidays in the Artix Entertainment universe\n* Decemberween: \"25 December\"\u00a0\u2013 a parody of Christmas that features gift-giving, carol-singing and decorated trees. The fact that it takes place on 25 December, the same day as Christmas, has been presented as just a coincidence, and it has been stated that Decemberween traditionally takes place \"55 days after Halloween\". The holiday has been featured in the \"Homestar Runner\" series.\n* Wintersday, the end-of-the-year celebration in the fictional universe of the Guild Wars franchise, starts every year mid December and ends the next year on early January.\n* IES Competition Time, Don's Event questions on the number of trips he took all over the world and in return offering prizes for the person who can guess closest. Follows this up with everyone's favourite Andrew Award presentation.\n* Winter's Crest: the winter celebration held on the continent of Tal'Dorei in the world of Exandria, as featured in the RPG show \"Critical Role.\"\n*Candlenights: pan-religious, pan-sexual, personal pan pizza winter holiday created by Justin, Travis, and Griffin McElroy. Featured on the podcasts My Brother, My Brother, and Me, and Adventure Zone.\n*Snowdown: A celebration observed in Runetera, The world in which League of Legends is set. During snowdown, starting in December and ending in January \"Frost-chilled days give way to colder nights, but the warmth of Snowdown calls together kindred spirits and foes alike.\" During this time, winter game modes, winter cosmetic map changes, and new Snowdown skins are released, as well as the previous years' Snowdown skins being made available again.\n*Life Day: Wookie celebration of life, featured in the Star Wars Holiday Special, in which Wookies gather with family, wear long red robes, sing under sacred The Tree of Life and reminisce.\n*The Dawning: A celebration of the Light of the Traveler, and a time to spread cheer and give gifts to help keep The Darkness at bay during the long days of the winter months. Celebrated in the Destiny franchise of video games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "General"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Mother's Day is an annual celebration honoring mothers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In South Africa, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. It is not recognized as a holiday by the government. The tradition is to give cards and gifts and to serve mothers breakfast in bed or to go out to lunch together as a family."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Mother's Day was first celebrated on 9 February 1919 and was initially organized by religious institutions. Later it has become a family day, and the mother is often treated to breakfast in bed, flowers and cake."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Traditionally Russia had celebrated International Women's Day and Mother's Day on 8 March, an inheritance from the Soviet Union, and a public holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day (United States)",
        "text": "There were several limited observances in the 1870s and the 1880s but none achieved resonance beyond the local level. At the time, Protestant schools in the United States already held many celebrations and observations such as Children's Day, Temperance Sunday, Roll Call Day, Decision Day, Missionary Day and others. In New York City, Julia Ward Howe led a \"Mother's Day for Peace\" anti-war observance on June 2, 1872, which was accompanied by a \"Appeal to womanhood throughout the world\" (nowadays known as Mother's Day Proclamation). The observance continued in Boston for about 10 years under Howe's personal sponsorship, then died out. In these celebrations, mothers all around the world would work towards world peace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Nepal, there is a festival equivalent to Mother's Day, called Mata Tirtha Aunsi (\"Mother Pilgrimage New Moon\"), or Mata Tirtha Puja (\"Mother Pilgrimage Worship\"). It is celebrated according to the lunar calendar. It falls on the last day of the dark fortnight in the month of Baishakh which falls in April\u2013May (in 2015, it will occur on 18 April). The dark fortnight lasts for 15 days from the full moon to the new moon. This festival is observed to commemorate and honor mothers, and it is celebrated by giving gifts to mothers and remembering mothers who are no more."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Brazil, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. The first Mother's Day in Brazil was promoted by Associa\u00e7\u00e3o Crist\u00e3 de Mo\u00e7os de Porto Alegre (Young Men's Christian Association of Porto Alegre) on 12 May 1918. In 1932, then President Get\u00falio Vargas made the second Sunday of May the official date for Mother's Day. In 1947, Archbishop Jaime de Barros C\u00e2mara, Cardinal-Archbishop of Rio de Janeiro, decided that this holiday would also be included in the official calendar of the Catholic Church."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Mother's Day (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Spain, Mother's Day or D\u00eda de la Madre is celebrated on the first Sunday of May. The weeks leading up to this Sunday, school children spend a few hours a day preparing a gift for their mothers, aided by their school teachers. In general, mothers receive gifts from their family members & this day is meant to be celebrated with the whole family. It is also said to be celebrated in May, as May is the month dedicated to the Virgin Mary (mother of Jesus) according to Catholicism. The idea of a month dedicated specifically to Mary can be traced back to baroque times. Although it wasn't always held during May, Mary Month included thirty daily spiritual exercises honoring Mary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Samoa, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday in May, and as a recognised national holiday on the Monday following."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "The United States celebrates Mother's Day on the second Sunday in May. In 1872 Julia Ward Howe called for women to join in support of disarmament and asked for 2 June 1872, to be established as a \"Mother's Day for Peace\". Her 1870 \"Appeal to womanhood throughout the world\" is sometimes referred to as Mother's Day Proclamation. But Howe's day was not for honouring mothers but for organizing pacifist mothers against war. In the 1880s and 1890s there were several further attempts to establish an American \"Mother's Day\", but these did not succeed beyond the local level."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Indonesia also celebrates the Kartini Day (\"Hari Kartini\") on 21 April, in memory of activist Raden Ajeng Kartini. This is a celebration of the emancipation of women. The observance was instituted at the 1938 Indonesian Women Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "The extent of the celebrations varies greatly. In some countries, it is potentially offensive to one's mother not to mark Mother's Day. In others, it is a little-known festival celebrated mainly by immigrants, or covered by the media as a taste of foreign culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In the early 1960s, on the initiative of a chain of department stores (Galer\u00edas Preciados), which copied the custom established in Cuba, Mother's Day was also celebrated on the first Sunday of May (El Corte Ingl\u00e9s, the great competitor of Galer\u00edas Preciados, celebrated the holiday in December). The two dates, May and December, coexisted until 1965 when the ecclesiastical authorities chose to celebrate the festival in May, within the month consecrated to the Virgin, to recover the authentic character of the Day of the Immaculate Conception."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In 1950, after the war, the celebration was reinstated. The law of 24 May 1950 required (in Article 1) that the Republic pay official homage to French Mothers. Article 2 stated it should be celebrated on the last Sunday in May as the \"F\u00eate des M\u00e8res\" (except when Pentecost fell on that day, in which case it was moved to the first Sunday in June). Article 3 stated that all expenditure shall be covered from the budget of the Ministry of Public Health and Population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day (United States)",
        "text": "It has been suggested that commercialization has ensured that the holiday has continued, while other holidays from the same time, such as Children's Day and Temperance Sunday, are no longer celebrated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "According to another account, in 1924 the Rotary Club of Panama asked that Mother's Day be celebrated on 11 May. Politician An\u00edbal D. R\u00edos changed the proposal so that the celebration would be held on 8 December. He then established Mother's Day as a national holiday on that date."
      },
      {
        "title": "Our Mother of Sheshan",
        "text": "In May 2007, Pope Benedict XVI released a Letter to Chinese Catholics, in which he asked that May 24 each year be celebrated as a World Day of Prayer for the Church in China. He chose May 24 because it is the Feast of Our Lady Help of Christians, who is venerated at the Shrine of Sheshan in Shanghai. The following year Pope Benedict composed a prayer to Our Lady of Sheshan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "The United Kingdom celebrates Mother's Day on the Fourth Sunday in Lent (). In the United Kingdom, the holiday has its roots in the religious Mothering Sunday celebration and was originally unrelated to the international Mother's Day holiday. Most historians believe that Mothering Sunday evolved from a medieval practice of visiting one's mother church annually on Laetare Sunday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In New Zealand, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday in May. Mother's Day is not a public holiday. The New Zealand tradition is to send or give cards and or gifts and at-home youngsters to attempt to serve mothers a variation on breakfast in bed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In 2008, the Paraguayan Minister of Culture, Bruno Barrios, lamented this coincidence because, in Paraguay, Mother's Day is much more popular than independence day and the independence celebration goes unnoticed. As a result, Barrios asked that the celebration be moved to the end of the month. A group of young people attempted to gather 20,000 signatures to ask the Parliament to move Mother's Day. In 2008, the \"Comisi\u00f3n de festejos\" (Celebration Committee) of the city of Asunci\u00f3n asked that Mother's Day be moved to the second Sunday of May."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Kyrgyzstan, Mother's Day is celebrated on 19 May every year. The holiday was first celebrated in 2012. Mothers are also honored on International Women's Day"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Mother's Day in Egypt is celebrated on 21 March, the first day of spring in the northern hemisphere. It was introduced in Egypt by journalist Mustafa Amin in his book \"Smiling America\" (1943). The idea was overlooked at the time. Later Amin heard the story of a widowed mother who devoted her whole life to raising her son until he became a doctor. The son then married and left without showing any gratitude to his mother. Hearing this, Amin became motivated to promote \"Mother's Day\". The idea was first ridiculed by president Gamal Abdel Nasser but he eventually accepted it and Mother's Day was first celebrated on 21 March 1956. The practice has since been copied by other Arab countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In the Philippines, Mother's Day is officially celebrated on the second Sunday of May, but it is not a public holiday. Although not a traditional Filipino holiday, the occasion owes its popularity to American Colonial Period influence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Switzerland, the \"r\u00e8gle de Pentec\u00f4te\" law allows Mother's Day to be celebrated a week late if the holiday falls on the same day as Pentecost. In 2008, merchants declined to move the date."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Malawi. Mother's Day is a public holiday. The day is observed on 15 October or the following workday. It is celebrated on the UN's World Rural Women's Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Mother's Day may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Albania, as in a number of Balkan and Eastern European countries, Mother's Day is celebrated on 8 March, in conjunction with International Women's Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In some countries, the date adopted is one significant to the majority religion, such as Virgin Mary Day in Catholic countries. Other countries selected a date with historical significance. For example, Bolivia's Mother's Day is a fixed date, commemorating a battle in which women participated to defend their children. See the \"International history and tradition\" section for the complete list."
      },
      {
        "title": "Children's Day",
        "text": "Children's Day () is celebrated on 4 April."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "After World War II, Mother's Day was first celebrated on 12 May 1957 in Assisi, at the initiative of Reverend Otello Migliosi, the parish priest of the Tordibetto church. This celebration was so popular that in the following year Mother's Day was adopted throughout Italy. On 18 December 1958, a proposal was presented to the Italian Senate to make the holiday official."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Mother's Day\n--Establishment of holiday.\n--Spelling.\n--Dates around the world.\n--International history and tradition.\n----Religion.\n----By country (A\u2013G).\n------Albania.\n------Arab world.\n------Argentina.\n------Armenia.\n------Australia.\n------Bangladesh.\n------Belarus.\n------Bhutan.\n------Belgium.\n------Bolivia.\n------Brazil.\n------Canada.\n------China.\n------Czech Republic.\n------Egypt.\n------Ethiopia.\n------Estonia.\n------Finland.\n------France.\n------Georgia.\n------Germany.\n----By country (H\u2013M).\n------Hungary.\n------India.\n------Indonesia.\n------Iran.\n------Ireland.\n------Israel.\n------Italy.\n------Japan.\n------Kyrgyzstan.\n------Latvia.\n------Lithuania.\n------Malawi.\n------Maldives.\n------Malta.\n------Mexico.\n------Myanmar.\n----By country (N\u2013S).\n------Nepal.\n------Netherlands.\n------New Zealand.\n------Nicaragua.\n------North Korea.\n------Norway.\n------Pakistan.\n------Panama.\n------Paraguay.\n------Philippines.\n------Portugal.\n------Romania.\n------Russia.\n------Samoa.\n------Singapore.\n------Slovakia.\n------South Africa.\n------South Sudan.\n------Spain.\n------Sri Lanka.\n------Sweden.\n------Switzerland.\n----By country (T\u2013Z).\n------Taiwan.\n------Thailand.\n------Ukraine.\n------United Kingdom.\n------United States.\n--Notes.\n----Citations.\n--References.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In the Czech Republic, Mother's Day is celebrated every second Sunday in May. It started in former Czechoslovakia in 1923. The promoter of this celebration was Alice Masarykov\u00e1. After World War II communists replaced Mother's Day with International Woman's Day, celebrated on 8 March. The former Czechoslovakia celebrated Women's Day until the Velvet Revolution in 1989. After the split of the country in 1993, the Czech Republic started celebrating Mother's Day again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In the United States, Mother's Day remains one of the biggest days for sales of flowers, greeting cards, and the like; Mother's Day is also the biggest holiday for long-distance telephone calls. Moreover, churchgoing is also popular on Mother's Day, yielding the highest church attendance after Christmas Eve and Easter. Many worshippers celebrate the day with carnations, coloured if the mother is living and white if she is dead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Belgium, Mother's Day (\"Moederdag\" or \"Moederkesdag\" in Dutch and \"F\u00eate des M\u00e8res\" in French) is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. In the week before this holiday children make little presents at primary school, which they give to their mothers in the early morning of Mother's Day. Typically, the father will buy croissants and other sweet breads and pastries and bring these to the mother while she is still in bed \u2013 the beginning of a day of pampering for the mother. There are also many people who celebrate Mother's Day on 15 August instead; these are mostly people around Antwerp, who consider that day (Assumption) the classical Mother's Day and the observance in May an invention for commercial reasons. It was originally established on that day as the result of a campaign by Frans Van Kuyck, a painter and Alderman from Antwerp."
      },
      {
        "title": "Murder of April Tinsley",
        "text": "April Tinsley's mother held a balloon launch at April's Garden on April 4, 2018. This service was in remembrance of her daughter and other child victims of violence. The following day, at Fairfield Elementary School, a pink magnolia tree and a bench were formally dedicated to April's memory. This dedication was followed by a candlelight vigil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day (United States)",
        "text": "In May 2008, the U.S. House of Representatives voted twice on a resolution commemorating Mother's Day, the first one being passed without a dissenting vote (21 members not voting). The Saint Andrews Methodist Church, where the first celebration was held, is now the International Mother's Day Shrine and is a National Historic Landmark."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "While some countries have a multi-century history of a day to celebrate mothers, the modern American version of the holiday began in the United States in the early 20th century at the initiative of Anna Jarvis, who organized the first Mother's Day service of worship and celebration at Andrews Methodist Episcopal Church in Grafton, West Virginia, which serves as the International Mother's Day Shrine today. It is not directly related to the many traditional celebrations of mothers and motherhood that have existed throughout the world over thousands of years, such as the Greek cult to Cybele, the mother deity Rhea, the Roman festival of Hilaria, or the other Christian ecclesiastical Mothering Sunday celebration (associated with the image of Mother Church). However, in some countries, Mother's Day is still synonymous with these older traditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "International Mother's Day Shrine",
        "text": "The adoption of Mother's Day spread quickly internationally. By the third call for a Mother's Day celebration by Anna Jarvis in 1909, \"forty-five states, Puerto Rico, Hawaii, Canada, and Mexico\" participated with celebrations on the second Sunday in May. The rapid adoption of Mother's day by other nations surprised Jarvis, who stated, \"Where it will end must be left for the future to tell. That it will girdle the globe seems now certain.\" Jarvis foresaw the international appeal of Mother's Day and believed the celebration and honor would be adopted around the globe. In May 1932, Mother's Day was even adopted in Japan, after 19 years of observance by Christians, showing the wide reach of Anna Jarvis and the embracement of Mother's Day internationally. The international spread and adoption of Mother's Day creates a larger international connection for the Shrine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Iran, Mother's Day is celebrated on 20 Jumada al-thani. This is the sixth month in the Islamic calendar (a lunar calendar) and every year the holiday falls on a different day of the Gregorian calendar. This is the birthday anniversary of Fatimah, Prophet Muhammad's only daughter according to Shia Islam. On this day, banners reading \"\"Ya Fatemeah\" (O! Fatemeh)\" are displayed on \"government buildings, private buildings, public streets and car windows.\" Mother's Day was originally observed on 16 December but the date was changed after the Iranian Revolution in 1979. The celebration is both Women's Day (replacing International Women's Day) and Mother's Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In some cases, countries already had existing celebrations honoring motherhood, and their celebrations then adopted several external characteristics from the US holiday, such as giving carnations and other presents to one's mother."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "The modern Mother's Day has been assimilated into Indian culture and is celebrated every year on the second Sunday of May. Indians do not celebrate the occasion as a religious event; its celebration is mostly restricted to urban areas where the occasion has been largely commercialized."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Finland, Mother's Day (\"\u00e4itienp\u00e4iv\u00e4\" in Finnish) is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. It is recognized nationally and is a public holiday. It is usually celebrated at homes where children or grandchildren bring Mother\u00b4s day cards that they have drawn to their mothers and grandmothers. Usually, some food, coffee and cakes are served for guests. Grown up children visit their parents' homes and bring traditionally Mother\u00b4s day roses or other flowers accompanied with a Mother\u00b4s day card."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Taiwan, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of the month of May, coinciding with Buddha's birthday and the traditional ceremony of \"washing the Buddha\". In 1999 the Taiwanese government established the second Sunday of May as Buddha's birthday, so they would be celebrated in the same day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Children's Day",
        "text": "United Nations recommended 20 November to celebrate Children's Day throughout the world, but that day coincides with Revolution Day (Mexico). Also, 30 April was selected to avoid 1 May (Labor Day) and the celebrations of Cinco de Mayo (The Day of the Battle of Puebla)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Japan, was initially commemorated during the Sh\u014dwa period as the birthday of Empress K\u014djun (mother of Emperor Akihito) on 6 March. This was established in 1931 when the Imperial Women's Union was organized. In 1937, the first meeting of \"Praise Mothers\" was held on 8 May, and in 1949 Japanese society adopted the second Sunday of May as the official date for Mother's Day in Japan. Today, people typically give their mothers gifts of flowers such as red carnations and roses. Giving carnations on Mother's Day is the most common in Japan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In South Sudan, Mother's Day is celebrated on the first Monday in July. The president Salva Kiir Mayardit proclaimed Mother's Day as the first Monday in July after handing over from Sudan. Children in South Sudan are presenting mothers with gifts and flowers. The first Mother's Day was held in that country on 2 July 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Portugal, the \"Dia da M\u00e3e\" (\"Mother's Day\") is an unofficial holiday held each year on the first Sunday of May (sometimes coinciding with Labour Day). In the weeks leading up to this Sunday, school children spend a few hours a day preparing a gift for their mothers, aided by their school teachers. In general, mothers receive gifts from their family members and this day is meant to be celebrated with the whole family."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Panama, Mother's Day is celebrated on 8 December, the same day as the Feast of the Immaculate Conception. This date was suggested in 1930 by the wife of Panama's President Florencio Harmodio Arosemena. 8 December was adopted as Mother's Day under Law 69, which was passed the same year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In the Maldives, Mother's Day is celebrated on 13 May. The day is celebrated in different ways. Children give gifts and spend time with their mothers. Daughters give their mothers cards and handmade gifts and sons give their mothers gifts and flowers. Maldivians love to celebrate Mother's day, and they have it specially written on their calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Constance Adelaide Smith",
        "text": "Smith was inspired by a newspaper article in 1913, on the plans of Anna Jarvis, an American woman from Philadelphia, who hoped to introduce Mother's Day in the USA. In 1914, US President Woodrow Wilson made a proclamation establishing the second Sunday of May as the official date for the observance of a national day to celebrate mothers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day (United States)",
        "text": "In 1912 Anna Jarvis trademarked the phrases \"Second Sunday in May\" and \"Mother's Day\", and created the Mother's Day International Association. She specifically noted that \"Mother's\" should \"be a singular possessive, for each family to honor its own mother, not a plural possessive commemorating all mothers in the world.\" This is also the spelling used by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in his 1914 presidential proclamation, by the U.S. Congress in relevant bills, and by various U.S. presidents in their proclamations concerning Mother's Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "International Mother Language Day",
        "text": "UNESCO chooses a theme for each International Mother Language Day, and sponsors related events at its Paris headquarters. In 2008, the International Year of Languages began on International Mother Language Day. It is celebrated in Chile, Russia, the Philippines, Egypt and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parents' Day",
        "text": "Parents' Day is observed in South Korea (May 8) and in the United States (fourth Sunday of July). The South Korean designation was established in 1973, replacing the Mother's Day previously marked on May 8, and includes public and private celebrations. The United States day was created in 1994 under President Bill Clinton. June 1 has also been proclaimed as \"Global Day of Parents\" by the United Nations as a mark of appreciation for the commitment of parents towards their children. In the Philippines, while it is not strictly observed or celebrated, the first Monday of December each year is proclaimed as Parents' Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother",
        "text": "On the day of her funeral, 9 April, the Governor General of Canada issued a proclamation asking Canadians to honour Elizabeth's memory that day. In Australia, the Governor-General read the lesson at a memorial service held in St Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Women's Day was first celebrated on the last Sunday in February in 1913 in Russia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "It is possible that the holiday would have withered over time without the support and continuous promotion of the florist industries and other commercial industries. Other Protestant holidays from the same time, such as Children's Day and Temperance Sunday, do not have the same level of popularity.\n* International Mother's Day Shrine\n* International Women's Day\n* Father's Day\n* List of films set around Mother's Day\n* May crowning\n* Why Mom Deserves a Diamond contest"
      },
      {
        "title": "International Mother Earth Day",
        "text": "International Mother Earth Day\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mothering Sunday",
        "text": "Constance Adelaide Smith revived its modern observance beginning in 1913 to honour Mother Church, 'mothers of earthly homes', the Virgin Mary (mother of Jesus), and Mother Nature. It gained popularity in response to the originally American Mother's Day. The holiday is often known as \"Mother's Day\" in the United Kingdom, and has become a secular celebration of mothers and motherhood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In 1912, Anna Jarvis trademarked the phrase \"Second Sunday in May, Mother's Day, Anna Jarvis, Founder\", and created the Mother's Day International Association. She specifically noted that \"Mother's\" should \"be a singular possessive, for each family to honor its own mother, not a plural possessive commemorating all mothers in the world.\" This is also the spelling used by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in his 1914 presidential proclamation, by the U.S. Congress in relevant bills, and by various U.S. presidents in their proclamations concerning Mother's Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day (2016 film)",
        "text": "\"Mother's Day\" was theatrically released in the United States on April 29, 2016 by Open Road Films. It was panned by critics and grossed $48 million worldwide. At the 37th Golden Raspberry Awards, Roberts and Hudson received nominations for Worst Actress and Worst Supporting Actress respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Bolivia, Mother's Day is celebrated on 27 May. El \"D\u00eda de la Madre Boliviana\" was passed into law on 8 November 1927, during the presidency of Hernando Siles Reyes. The date commemorates the Battle of La Coronilla, which took place on 27 May 1812, during the Bolivian War of Independence, in what is now the city of Cochabamba. In this battle, women fighting for the country's independence were slaughtered by the Spanish army. It is not a public holiday, but all schools hold activities and festivities throughout the day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Mother's Day in Canada is celebrated on the second Sunday in May (it is not a public holiday or bank holiday), and typically involves small celebrations and gift-giving to one's mother, grandmother, or other important female figures in one's family. Celebratory practices are very similar to those of other western nations. A Qu\u00e9b\u00e9cois tradition is for Qu\u00e9b\u00e9cois men to offer roses or other flowers to the women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In 1908, the U.S. Congress rejected a proposal to make Mother's Day an official holiday, joking that they would also have to proclaim a \"Mother-in-law's Day\". However, owing to the efforts of Anna Jarvis, by 1911 all U.S. states observed the holiday, with some of them officially recognizing Mother's Day as a local holiday (the first being West Virginia, Jarvis' home state, in 1910). In 1914, Woodrow Wilson signed a proclamation designating Mother's Day, held on the second Sunday in May, as a national holiday to honor mothers."
      },
      {
        "title": "TRT International April 23 Children's Festival",
        "text": "As UNESCO proclaimed 1979 as the International Year of the Child, director of children's programmes of TRT Ankara Television Tekin \u00d6zertem and his assistant Canan Ar\u0131soy developed a project aimed at embracing all the children in the world. Upon approval of the project by top executives of the TRT Corporation, preparations for the organization commenced. Thus, the first celebration of TRT International 23 April Children's festival took place on 23 April 1979 in Turkey, with participation of five countries, namely the USSR, Iraq, Italy, Romania and Bulgaria. Today, TRT International 23 April Children's festival is celebrated every year with participation of approximately 50 countries. From 1979 to 2000, celebrations were performed in the capital city Ankara. In the following years, celebrations took place in Turkey's various major cities such as \u0130zmir, \u0130stanbul and Antalya. Nane Annan, spouse of the former United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan, became the honorary guest of the celebrations on 23 April 2000. In her speech at the gala, Mrs Annan expressed her pleasure at participating in the celebrations and passed greetings from her spouse Kofi Annan. Mrs. Annan also called on the entire world to say \u201cYes\u201d to the aspiration of children. After her speech, \u201cthe common declaration of the children from 40 countries\u201d, which was approved by the children at the International Children's Congress on 18 April, was read in English and Turkish. The declaration was presented to Mrs. Annan to hand it over to Kofi Annan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Estonia, Mother's Day (\"emadep\u00e4ev\" in Estonian) is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. It is recognized nationally, but is not a public holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day (United States)",
        "text": "On May 10, 1913, the U.S. House of Representatives passed a resolution calling on all federal government officials (from the president down) to wear a white carnation the following day in observance of Mother's Day. On May 8, 1914, the U.S. Congress passed a law designating the second Sunday in May as Mother's Day and requesting a proclamation. The next day, President Woodrow Wilson issued a proclamation declaring the first national Mother's Day as a day for American citizens to show the flag in honor of those mothers whose sons had died in war. In 1934, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt approved a stamp commemorating the holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Paraguay, Mother's Day is celebrated on 15 May, the same day as the \"Dia de la Patria\", which celebrates the independence of Paraguay. This date was chosen to honor the role played by Juana Mar\u00eda de Lara in the events of 14 May 1811 that led to Paraguay's independence."
      },
      {
        "title": "April Fool's Day (disambiguation)",
        "text": "April Fool's Day (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Mother's Day continues to be one of the most commercially successful U.S. occasions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Some countries, such as Russia, celebrated International Women's Day instead of Mother's Day or simply celebrate both holidays, which is the custom in Ukraine. Kyrgyzstan has recently introduced Mother's Day, but \"year on year International Women's Day is certainly increasing in status\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Mother's Day in Latvia was celebrated for the first time in 1922. Since 1934, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. After the end of the soviet occupation of Baltic states celebration was resumed in 1992. Mothers are also honored on International Women's Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Mother's Day in Lithuania was celebrated for the first time in 1928. In Lithuania, Mother's Day is celebrated on the first Sunday of May."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Mother's day celebrated in April anywhere in the world?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In Armenia April 7 is mother's day, and Indonesia celebrates  Kartini Day on 21 April, which is a celebration of the emancipation of women. Also, in Hindu tradition, Mother's Day is called \"Mata Tirtha Aunshi\" or \"Mother Pilgrimage fortnight,\" which is observed on the new moon day in the month of Baisakh, i.e., April/May."
    ],
    "topic": "Mother's Day",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Motherhood and Beauty Day:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Motherhood and Beauty Day"
        ],
        "ctx": "Motherhood and beauty day () is an official holiday in Armenia dedicated to women. While March 8 celebrates all women, April 7 is mother's day. April 7 is the Feast of the Annunciation in the calendar of the Armenian Apostolic Church. It is expected to give presents to one's own mother. Celebrating each woman as beautiful in her own way, mothers are particularly happy to receive flowers."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Mother's Day:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mother's Day",
          "International history and tradition",
          "Religion"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Hindu tradition, Mother's Day is called \"Mata Tirtha Aunshi\" or \"Mother Pilgrimage fortnight\", and is celebrated in countries with a Hindu population, especially in Nepal, where mothers are honored with special foods. The holiday is observed on the new moon day in the month of Baisakh, i.e., April/May. This celebration is based on the Hindu religion and it pre-dates the creation of the US-inspired celebration by at least a few centuries."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Mother's Day:58",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mother's Day",
          "International history and tradition",
          "By country (H\u2013M)",
          "Indonesia"
        ],
        "ctx": "Indonesia also celebrates the Kartini Day (\"Hari Kartini\") on 21 April, in memory of activist Raden Ajeng Kartini. This is a celebration of the emancipation of women. The observance was instituted at the 1938 Indonesian Women Congress."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "Sukarno's Old Order state declared 21 April as Kartini Day to remind women that they should participate in \"the hegemonic state discourse of \"pembangunan\" (development)\". After 1965, however, Suharto's New Order state reconfigured the image of Kartini from that of radical women's emancipator to one that portrayed her as a dutiful wife and obedient daughter, \"as only a woman dressed in a kebaya who can cook.\" On that occasion, popularly known as Hari Ibu Kartini or Mother Kartini Day, \"young girls were to wear tight, fitted jackets, batik shirts, elaborate hairstyles, and ornate jewelry to school, supposedly replicating Kartini's attire but in reality, wearing an invented and more constricting ensemble than she ever did.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Indonesia also celebrates the Kartini Day (\"Hari Kartini\") on 21 April, in memory of activist Raden Ajeng Kartini. This is a celebration of the emancipation of women. The observance was instituted at the 1938 Indonesian Women Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "During President Suharto's New Order (1965\u20131998), government propaganda used Mother's Day and Kartini Day to inculcate into women the idea that they should be docile and stay at home."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "In 1964, President Sukarno declared R.A. Kartini's birth date, 21 April, as \"Kartini Day\"\u2014an Indonesian national holiday. This decision has been criticized. It has been proposed that Kartini Day should be celebrated in conjunction with Indonesian Mothers\u2019 Day on 22 December. So R.A. Kartini as a national heroine does not overshadow women who took arms to oppose the Dutch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In 1960, the Institute for Women Protection adopted the Western holiday and established it on 25 Azar (16 December), the date the Institute was founded. The Institute's action had the support of Empress Farah Pahlavi, the wife of the last Shah of Persia, who promoted the construction of maternity clinics in remote parts of the country to commemorate the day. Pahlavi regime used the holiday to promote \"gender ideologies\" of the regime. The Shah's government honored and gave awards to women who represented the idealized view of the regime, including mothers who had many healthy children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "Inspired by R.A. Kartini's example, the Van Deventer family established the R.A. Kartini Foundation which built schools for women, starting in 1912 with 'Kartini's Schools' in Semarang, and followed by other women's schools in Surabaya, Yogyakarta, Malang, Madiun, Cirebon, and other areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Hindu tradition, Mother's Day is called \"Mata Tirtha Aunshi\" or \"Mother Pilgrimage fortnight\", and is celebrated in countries with a Hindu population, especially in Nepal, where mothers are honored with special foods. The holiday is observed on the new moon day in the month of Baisakh, i.e., April/May. This celebration is based on the Hindu religion and it pre-dates the creation of the US-inspired celebration by at least a few centuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Feminism in Indonesia",
        "text": "Kartini or Raden Adjeng Kartini was born a Javanese noblewoman in which she was able to attend Dutch colonial school which opened her eyes to Western ideals. After reaching adulthood, Javanese tradition dictated that Kartini live a life in shelter as a young female noble. During this time, Kartini wrote letters to her Dutch schoolmates, exposing the gender inequality emboldened by Javanese traditions which included forced marriages at a young age and the denial of education for women. With the help of the Dutch government, Kartini opened up the first Indonesian primary school for girls that allowed all Indonesian girls to attend regardless of social status. After her death in 1904, her letters were published and became symbol for the women's rights movement in Indonesia and furthered the cause of women's emancipation. April 1 is now celebrated annually as Kartini Day to celebrate her birth as a national heroine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Malati Choudhury",
        "text": "Even before Independence, she had established the Bajiraut Chhatravas at Angul in Orissa in 1946, and the Utkal Navajeevan Mandal, also at Angul, in 1948."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daya Mata",
        "text": "Daya Mata (Sanskrit for \"Compassionate Mother\"), born Rachel Faye Wright, (January 31, 1914November 30, 2010) was the third president and \"sanghamata\" (mother of the society) of the only organization that Paramahansa Yogananda created to disseminate his teachings, Self-Realization Fellowship (SRF) in Los Angeles, California/ Yogoda Satsanga Society of India (YSS), for over 55 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "The holiday is celebrated on the anniversary of the opening day of the first Indonesian Women Congress (\"Kongres Perempuan Indonesia\"), which was held from 22 to 25 December 1928. The Congress took place in a building called Dalem Jayadipuran, which now serves as the office of the Center of History and Traditional Values Preservation (\"Balai Pelestarian Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional\") in Brigjen Katamso Street, Yogyakarta. The Congress was attended by 30 feminist organizations from 12 cities in Java and Sumatra. In Indonesia, feminist organizations have existed since 1912, inspired by Indonesian heroines of the 19th century, e.g., Kartini, Martha Christina Tiahahu, Cut Nyak Meutia, Maria Walanda Maramis, Dewi Sartika, Nyai Ahmad Dahlan, Rasuna Said, etc. The Congress intended to improve women's rights in education and marriage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "To honor mothers who have died, it is the tradition to go on a pilgrimage to the Mata Tirtha ponds, located 6\u00a0km to the southwest of downtown Kathmandu. The nearby Mata Tirtha village is named after these ponds. Previously, the tradition was observed primarily by the Newar community and other people living in the Kathmandu Valley. Now this festival is widely celebrated across the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "Kartini's parents arranged her marriage to Joyodiningrat, the Regency Chief of Rembang, who had already married three wives. She was wed on 12 November 1903. She detested the marriage proposal at first, but her husband understood Kartini's aspirations and allowed her to establish a women's school on the eastern porch of Rembang's Regency Office complex. Kartini's only child was born on September 13, 1904. A few days later on 17 September 1904, Kartini died at the age of 25. She was buried at Bulu Village, Rembang."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dayalbagh",
        "text": "The colony of Dayalbagh was founded on the Basant Day (\"translation: first day of spring\") on 15 January 1915 by Sir Anand Swarup (Huzur Sahab Ji Maharaj), the Fifth Revered Leader of Radhasoami Faith, as an ashram or a spiritual home for the followers of the faith, by planting a mulberry tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day (United States)",
        "text": "In its present form, Mother's Day was established by Anna Jarvis with the help of Philadelphia merchant John Wanamaker following the death of her mother, Ann Jarvis, on May 9, 1905. Jarvis never mentioned Howe or Mothering Sunday, and she never mentioned any connection to the Protestant school celebrations, always claiming that the creation of Mother's Day was hers alone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "After her death, her sisters continued her advocacy of educating girls and women. Kartini's letters were published in a Dutch magazine and eventually, in 1911, as the works: \"Out of Darkness to Light\", \"Women's Life in the Village\", and \"Letters of a Javanese Princess\". Her birthday is now celebrated in Indonesia as Kartini Day in her honor, as well as multiple schools being named after her and a fund being established in her name to finance the education of girls in Indonesia. She was interested in mysticism and opposed polygamy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daira Mir Momin",
        "text": "It was established during the Qutb Shahi period in the 16th century around the grave of Mir Momin Astarabadi, who was the minister of the Golconda Sultanate and the planner of Hyderabad. It is said that he ordered camel-loads of soil to be brought from Karbala and sprinkled across the graveyard."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Mother's International School, New Delhi",
        "text": "The school was founded on 23 April 1956 by founder Shri Surendra Nath Jauhar \"Faquir\", with the blessings of The Mother, Mirra Alfassa, a spiritualist, the spiritual partner and collaborator of Sri Aurobindo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Matrika Prasad Koirala",
        "text": "established on the last day of October 1946. M.P. gives great importance"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Japan, was initially commemorated during the Sh\u014dwa period as the birthday of Empress K\u014djun (mother of Emperor Akihito) on 6 March. This was established in 1931 when the Imperial Women's Union was organized. In 1937, the first meeting of \"Praise Mothers\" was held on 8 May, and in 1949 Japanese society adopted the second Sunday of May as the official date for Mother's Day in Japan. Today, people typically give their mothers gifts of flowers such as red carnations and roses. Giving carnations on Mother's Day is the most common in Japan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maya Tiwari",
        "text": "On Mother's Day in 1998, Tiwari founded the Mother Om Mission (MOM), a nonprofit organization that provides Ayurveda education and services to at-risk communities in New York's inner cities and Guyana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "Kartini Schools opened in Bogor, Jakarta, and Malang. A society was also established in her name in the Netherlands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day Proclamation",
        "text": "In 1872 Howe asked for the celebration of a \"Mother's Day for Peace\" on 2 June of every year, but she was unsuccessful. The modern Mother's Day, was established by Anna Jarvis 36 years later. While the day she established was different in significance from what Howe had proposed, Anna Jarvis was reportedly inspired by her mother's work with Howe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother Teresa",
        "text": "[[Mother Teresa Women's University]], in [[Kodaikanal]], was established in 1984 as a public university by the [[government of Tamil Nadu]]. The Mother Teresa Postgraduate and Research Institute of Health Sciences, in [[Pondicherry (city)|Pondicherry]], was established in 1999 by the government of [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]]. The charitable organisation [[Sevalaya]] runs the [[Sevalaya#Mother Teresa Girls Home|Mother Teresa Girls Home]], providing poor and orphaned girls near the underserved village of Kasuva in Tamil Nadu with free food, clothing, shelter and education. A number of tributes by Mother Teresa's biographer, Navin Chawla, have appeared in Indian newspapers and magazines. [[Indian Railways]] introduced the \"Mother Express\", a new train named after Mother Teresa, on 26 August 2010 to commemorate the centenary of her birth. The [[Tamil Nadu]] government organised centenary celebrations honouring Mother Teresa on 4 December 2010 in [[Chennai]], headed by chief minister [[M Karunanidhi]]. Beginning on 5 September 2013, the anniversary of her death has been designated the [[International Day of Charity]] by the [[United Nations General Assembly]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mahadevananda Mahavidyalaya",
        "text": "The college was established by Late Swami Jyotirmoyananda Giri Maharaj, in the memory of Late Swami Mahadevananda Giri Maharaj on the day of Krishna Janmashtami on 15 August 1968. Since 15 August (Independence day of India) being a holiday, the 16th day of August has been officially declared as the Foundation Day.\n*Chemistry\n*Physics\n*Mathematics\n*Botany\n*Zoology\n*Physiology\n*Computer Science\n*Electronics\n*Bengali\n*English\n*Sanskrit\n*Hindi\n*History\n*Geography\n*Political Science\n*Philosophy\n*Economics\n*Education\n*Journalism\n*Commerce\n*Physical Education"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini Muljadi",
        "text": "After Indonesia\u2019s 1945 declaration of independence, when ethnic Chinese citizens were encouraged to adopt Indonesian names, her father changed his name from Kho (Xu in Chinese) to Budi Tjahjono, while Pauline Fanny Kho became Kartini, choosing the name of pioneering Indonesian feminist Kartini."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kasganj",
        "text": "The patiyali block is established in 02/10/1957."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jayrambati",
        "text": "The Holy Mother's Temple is consecrated on 19 April 1923 by Saradananda Swami on Akshay Tritiya day, and he placed Holy Mother's oil paintings in the temple which was replaced by a white marble statue of Holy Mother in April 1954."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nigamananda Paramahansa",
        "text": "The day Sravan Purnima (full moon day), on 24 August 1934 Friday, Nilachala Saraswata Sangha (NSS - \u0928\u0940\u0932\u093e\u091a\u0932 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0918 - \u0b28\u0b40\u0b33\u0b3e\u0b1a\u0b33 \u0b38\u0b3e\u0b30\u0b38\u0b4d\u0b2c\u0b24 \u0b38\u0b02\u0b18 \u0b2a\u0b41\u0b30\u0b40 ) was established by Nigamananda at Nilachala Kutir (\u0928\u0940\u0932\u093e\u091a\u0932 \u0915\u0941\u091f\u0940\u0930-\u0b28\u0b40\u0b33\u0b3e\u0b1a\u0b33 \u0b15\u0b41\u0b1f\u0b3f\u0b30), Puri. The Oriya devotees gathered there to celebrate his birthday. He advised them to form a religious circle. As per his wishes devotees started an association for religious talk and thus \"Nilachala Saraswata Sangha\" (the Sangha) came into existence to fulfill his tripartite objective: (1) leading an ideal family life, (2) establishment of combined power and (3) sharing of feelings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sister Nivedita",
        "text": "Within a few days of her arrival in India, on 17 March 1898, Margaret met Sarada Devi, wife and spiritual consort of Ramakrishna, who, surpassing all language and cultural barriers, embraced her as \"khooki\" or \"little girl\" in Bengali. It was St.Patrick's Day, a very holy & special day in Margaret's life, and Nivedita recounted it as her \"day of days.\" Until her death in 1911, Nivedita remained one of the closest associates of Sarada Devi. On 13 November 1898, the Holy Mother Sarada Devi came to open Nivedita's newly founded school. After worshiping Ramakrishna, she consecrated the school and blessed it, saying: \u2018I pray that the blessings of the Divine Mother may be upon the school and the girls; and the girls trained from the school may become ideal girls.\u2019 Nivedita was delighted and recorded her feelings later as \"I cannot imagine a grander omen than her blessings, spoken over the educated Hindu womanhood of the future.\" The first photograph of Sarada Devi was taken at Nivedita's house."
      },
      {
        "title": "International Mother's Day Shrine",
        "text": "Andrews Methodists Episcopal Church is most noted for holding the first official celebration of Mother's Day in 1908. Anna Jarvis, the founder of Mother's Day, conceived the idea as a way to venerate \"a mother's private service to her family.\" This reflected Anna's desire to use Mother's Day as a sentimental way to remember her own mother, Ann Maria Reeves Jarvis, following her mother's death in 1905. Following the original celebrations of Mother's Day in 1908 in Grafton, West Virginia and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Jarvis' holiday quickly gained support across America. Jarvis campaigned for recognition of Mother's Day as an official holiday. Anna chose the second Sunday in May as the annual date for the holiday because it marked the anniversary of her mother's death. The white carnation became a symbol of the day, and was selected by Jarvis to honor her mother's favorite flower."
      },
      {
        "title": "Srinagarindra",
        "text": "\"I shall plant forests on Doi Tung.\" With those words, a royal initiative was created, launching a project to return the mountain to its original state. The Princess Mother was also determined to improve the quality of life of the villagers, provide education and health services, means of a regular income, and an awareness of the need to preserve the environment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basilica of the Divine Motherhood of Our Lady",
        "text": "The origins of this church can be traced back to 1903, to a remote village called Kawali, where a village primary school was opened and placed under the care of a catechist. A village chapel was built at Kawali in 1907 and later shifted to Bhuthataur in 1948. A primary school functioned from here also and a priest attended the mass in this church. This was a time when Ulhatu still formed a part of the Ranchi Cathedral parish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Navreh",
        "text": "It is believed that Saptarishi era of the Kashmiri Hindus started on the day of Navreh, 5079 years ago. According to legends, Mother Goddess Sharika's dwelling was on Sharika Parabata (Hari Parabata) where celebrated Shapta Rishi gathered. It is an auspicious day as the first ray of sun fell on Chakreshwari and paid honor to her. This moment is considered the beginning of New Year and the Saptarishi era for astrologers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tejaswini Ananth Kumar",
        "text": "She along with her husband, Ananth Kumar, founded Adamya Chetana Foundation, a nonprofit organisation for social service. It was setup in 1998 in memory of Girija Shastry, mother of Ananth Kumar. It supports underprivileged children with food in schools through the mid-day meals programme. About 2,00,000 meals are served daily."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mirra Alfassa",
        "text": "The Mother was a revered yoga teacher in a modern context. On 24 November 1926, later declared as Siddhi Day (Victory Day) and still celebrated by Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Mother and Sri Aurobindo declared that overmind consciousness had manifested directly in physical consciousness, allowing the possibility for human consciousness to be directly aware and be in the overmind consciousness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Nepal, there is a festival equivalent to Mother's Day, called Mata Tirtha Aunsi (\"Mother Pilgrimage New Moon\"), or Mata Tirtha Puja (\"Mother Pilgrimage Worship\"). It is celebrated according to the lunar calendar. It falls on the last day of the dark fortnight in the month of Baishakh which falls in April\u2013May (in 2015, it will occur on 18 April). The dark fortnight lasts for 15 days from the full moon to the new moon. This festival is observed to commemorate and honor mothers, and it is celebrated by giving gifts to mothers and remembering mothers who are no more."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amalprava Das",
        "text": "In 1934 Das had an opportunity to interact with Mahatma Gandhi when the leader of the Indian freedom movement stayed at her house during a visit to Guwahati. This meeting is reported to have influenced her and guided her in her future endeavors. She established Maitri Ashram (later renamed as Kasturba Ashram) in a property owned by her father in Sarania Hills which was later donated to Kasturba Memorial Trust. Under the aegis of the ashram, she organized training for the womenfolk of the village in cottage industries so that they might become financially self-reliant. She also founded several institutions such as Gram Sevika Vidyalaya, Kasturba Kalyan Kendra, Gauhati Katai Mandal, Guwahati Yubak Sevadal and Assam Go-Seva Samiti."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ananth Kumar",
        "text": "He along with his wife, Tejaswini, founded Adamya Chetana Foundation, a nonprofit organisation for social service. It was setup in 1998 in memory of Girija Shastry, mother of Ananth Kumar. It supports underprivileged children with food in schools through the Midday Meal Scheme. About 2,00,000 meals are served daily."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day (United States)",
        "text": "In 1868, Ann Jarvis, Anna Jarvis's mother, organised a committee to establish a \"Mother's Friendship Day\", the purpose of which was \"to reunite families that had been divided during the Civil War.\" Ann Jarvis, who had previously organized Mother's Day Work Clubs to improve sanitation and health for both Union and Confederate encampments undergoing a typhoid outbreak, wanted to expand these into an annual memorial for mothers, but she died in 1905 before the annual celebration was established. Her daughter, who became almost obsessed with her, would continue her mother's efforts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basilica of the Divine Motherhood of Our Lady",
        "text": "In 1952 when Fr Defrijn laid the foundation of the church and school building, living in a hut. The church was formally established in the year 1953. Soon pilgrims started to arrive at Ulhatu. In this shrine the statue of Our Lady of Halle feeding the child Jesus is placed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Galyani Vadhana",
        "text": "This foundation was created in December 1994 from Charity Funds of the Princess Mother. Vadhana was president, while her mother was patron and honorary president. Its objective is to promote knowledge and understanding of breast cancer screening. The Breast Center was established in Siriraj Hospital to provide complete breast diseases examination and diagnosis. With the modern equipment in the center, the first in Thailand, breast radiography can be carried out to enable biopsies to be carried out accurately, correctly, with very little pain. It is also timesaving and less expensive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aroti Dutt",
        "text": "Saroj Nalini Dutt (Aroti's mother-in-law) was the one who started Mahila Samitis (Women's Institutes) in rural Bengal in 1916. After Saroj Nalini's death, her husband, Gurusaday Dutt, started the Saroj Nalini Dutt Memorial Association in her memory, to keep alive the valuable social welfare work that she did. The association is run by voluntary work by women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sarah Herzog",
        "text": "She proposed the creation of Mother's Day in pre-state Israel in 1947, though nothing came of her proposal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dakshin Gujarat Adivasi Sevamandal",
        "text": "As time passed, the Institute garnered support from the people and began establishing \"ashrams\" in other villages and regions. Within a ten-year span it also founded \"ashrams\" in Umarkui, Acchavanni, Patal, Kaparada, Pindwal, and Gavachhi. Boy's and girl's hostels were also created."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indonesian National Awakening",
        "text": "The movement had its beginnings in the late 19th century, a period of Dutch Indies government consolidation that significantly reinforced their governance over much of the area that is now in the 21st century the national Indonesian territorial boundaries. Kartini was one such individual who provided the impetus and ideology which inspired patriotic nationalists to pursue their ideals despite the adversity. Kartini's intellect was awakened by quality Dutch classical education and her traditional Islamic beliefs and education. Kartini was supported by an enlightened and intellectually endowed family and friends in Europe and Indonesia. Kartini maintained her inquisitiveness and incorporated feminist principles, community welfare and education in her pursuit of the national Indonesian identity and her quest to modernise her traditional society, advocating changes in gender status and principles of individual and national self-determination to realise the Indonesian universal dream of independence and self governance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Srinagarindra",
        "text": "Parallel to the princess mother's project on the greening of Doi Tung was a plan to improve the quality of life of the local hill tribe villagers. No longer able to rely on their slash-and-burn method of cultivation, they needed alternative ways to feed themselves and earn income. In 1972, the princess mother established the Hill Tribes Products Promotion Foundation with an initial donation of 100,000 baht. The foundation, based at Srapathum Palace in Bangkok, would promote and market the handicrafts produced by each village. The foundation also provided training to hill tribe youth."
      },
      {
        "title": "International Mother Earth Day",
        "text": "International Mother Earth Day was established in 2009, by the United Nations General Assembly under Resolution A/RES/63/278. The Resolution was introduced by The Plurinational State of Bolivia and endorsed by over 50 member states. It recognizes that \"the Earth and its ecosystems are our home\" and that \"it is necessary to promote harmony with nature and the Earth.\" The term Mother Earth is used because it \"reflects the interdependence that exists among human beings, other living species and the planet we all inhabit\". It is decided to designate April 22 as International Mother Earth Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kasundi",
        "text": "Three or four days later, on an auspicious day of the week (i.e. Monday, Wednesday, Thursday or Friday), a part of the prepared kasundi was put into a small, new earthenware pot with a spirit, a religious rite. Then the pot was covered and sanctimoniously put in a safe place in the house to be opened on the first day of the month of Asharh (June\u2013July). On the first day of the month of Asadh, fish was prohibited for all the members of the family. On that day Goddess Parvati is worshipped as Nistarini (lit. \"one who delivers from difficulties\") by women of high caste Hindu families of some districts of Bengal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "The United States celebrates Mother's Day on the second Sunday in May. In 1872 Julia Ward Howe called for women to join in support of disarmament and asked for 2 June 1872, to be established as a \"Mother's Day for Peace\". Her 1870 \"Appeal to womanhood throughout the world\" is sometimes referred to as Mother's Day Proclamation. But Howe's day was not for honouring mothers but for organizing pacifist mothers against war. In the 1880s and 1890s there were several further attempts to establish an American \"Mother's Day\", but these did not succeed beyond the local level."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kilacheri",
        "text": "Mother Thatipatri Gnanamma, founder of the congregations of St. Anne, Madras, and St. Anne, Phirangipuram, has been declared Servant of God, which will lead to her Beatification and Canonization. In other words, the process of initiation of sainthood on Mother Gnanamma has begun."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Mother's International School, New Delhi",
        "text": "The school's motto \"More True, Forever More True\" was given by the Mirra Alfassa, known as the Mother, and the school's emblem portrays a bird in flight rising towards heaven. When asked about the date of the school's opening, the Mother replied \"23456\". And as the only possible date was 23 April 1956, it was this day that the school first opened."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asaram",
        "text": "Asaram has been long vocal against increasing sexual liberation of the society and deemed the adoption of Western culture artifacts as corruption of morality. Shri Yogi Vedanta Seva Samiti organized a \"Matri Pitri Poojan Divas\" (\"mother-father worship day\") on 14 February, as a form of protest against Valentine's Day, which is supposedly symbolic of a Western cultural invasion. Asaram's proposal was supported by many prominent Indian politicians including union ministers and President Pranab Mukherjee. In 2015, the Government of the Chhattisgarh state even institutionalized the practice, and directed all schools to observe \"Matru-Pitru Diwas\" (\"mother-father day\") every year on 14 February. In 2014 he started \"Tulsi Poojan Diwas\" (a day to worship Tulsi - the Holy Hindu plant) to counter the celebration of Christmas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Srinagarindra",
        "text": "In addition to providing scholarships, the princess mother continued to play a major role in the field of nursing in Thailand. She founded the Thailand Nursing Association, of which she was also a board member. With her funds, the first national nursing convention in Thailand was organized in 1960. Hospital buildings and nursing schools were built with her patronage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dhudike",
        "text": "In 1956 the villagers along with the co-operate of people of the area, Registered the birthplace Memorial Committee, Dhudike. Lal Bhadur Shastri was the first President of this committee. The fund was arranged from the country and foreign for the building of this memorial. On 17 November 1959 Dr. Rajinder Parshad laid the foundation stone of this memorial and Lal Bhadur Shashtri inaugurated this memorial on 28 January 1965. A wide stage was built on the birthplace of Lala Lajpat Rai. Here the special functions are held on Independence Day, Martyrom Day and Birthday of Lala Lajpat Rai on 26, 27, and 28 January. A Khed Mela was also organized. The budget of this mela is six to seven lakh."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Mother's Day was first celebrated on 9 February 1919 and was initially organized by religious institutions. Later it has become a family day, and the mother is often treated to breakfast in bed, flowers and cake."
      },
      {
        "title": "Keshavrao Sonawane",
        "text": "Dayanand Education society was established in the year 1961 in the month of May. Earlier Latur was small town in the Osmanabad District. Facilities for higher education were not available in the Latur so students were left with no option but going to cities like Hyderabad, Pune, and Mumbai and so on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "As the wedding approached, R.A. Kartini's attitude towards Javanese traditional customs changed. She became more tolerant and felt her marriage would bring good fortune for her ambition to develop a school for native women. In her letters, she mentioned that her husband supported her desire to develop the Jepara woodcarving industry and a school for native women, but also mentioned that she was going to write a book. This ambition went unrealized due to her premature death in 1904."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "After World War II, Mother's Day was first celebrated on 12 May 1957 in Assisi, at the initiative of Reverend Otello Migliosi, the parish priest of the Tordibetto church. This celebration was so popular that in the following year Mother's Day was adopted throughout Italy. On 18 December 1958, a proposal was presented to the Italian Senate to make the holiday official."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maharashtra Andhashraddha Nirmoolan Samiti",
        "text": "It was founded by, Narendra Dabholkar in 1989. In 1999, MANS had protested the canonisation of Mother Teresa on the basis of purported miracles, but they had praised her service to the ailing and diseased."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartabhaja",
        "text": "The founder of this community was Aulchand or Aulechand ( 1686-1769), about whom very little is known, except a number of legends. Significant early leaders of this community were Ramsharan Pal, a disciple of Aulchand, his wife Sarasvati, popularly known as \"Sati Ma\" and their son Dulalchandra Pal. Under their leadership, Ghoshpara village (presently, a neighbourhood of Kalyani city) in Nadia district became a major centre of activities and later a \"pitha\" for the sect. An annual fair in Ghoshpara, known as the \"Sati Mar Dol Mela\", is held in honour of \"Sati Ma\" on the day of \"Dol Purnima\" in February/March every year. This fair is attended by many followers of this sect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ettu Nombu",
        "text": "The women then decided to observe a lent for eight days (i.e. from the 1st to the 8th of September in commemoration of this event). They believed that Mother Mary helped safeguard their chastity, modesty and dignity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dayananda Saraswati (Arsha Vidya)",
        "text": "In 1999, Swami Dayananda founded the Dharma Rakshana Samiti, a body to protect the Vedic heritage, to preserve the native spiritual culture of India inherited from the rishis by continuing the parampara and to raise awareness among Hindus of their Vedic heritage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartidaya",
        "text": "Kartidaya first began in 1989. They have grown over the years and currently serve with over 20 different language communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Srpuhi Kalfayan",
        "text": "Kalfayan founded both the Order of Kalfayan and, in 1850, a school for girls which still stands today, though it now accepts boys as well. In 1865 she mobilized financial support for the victims of a cholera epidemic and on 1 January 1866 she opened an orphanage for girls in Hask\u00f6y, Constantinople."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dor Bahadur Bista",
        "text": "He established an organization called Karnali Institute in Jumla. Father of Deepak Bista, grandfather of Bines, Yuta and Isato Bista"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mama Parsi Girls Secondary School",
        "text": "Mama Parsi Girls' Secondary School was established on 1 April 1918 by Jamshed Nusserwanjee Mehta who collected three donations to found the school. At first the new Parsi girls' school functioned in a portion of the Bai Virbaijee School, and was only opened for the parsi community but later on Muhammad Ali Jinnah's request the school allowed muslim students as well. It then shifted in June 1919 to a large building which stands today at the corner of Haji Abdullah Haroon and Inverarity Roads. This building was known as Mama Mansion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mithuben Petit",
        "text": "Petit set up an ashram in Maroli called \"Kasturba Vanat Shala\" or Kasturba Sevashram in 1930, which taught underprivileged children from families of Adivasis, Harijans and fisher folk spinning, carding, weaving, dairy farming, leather-work and a Diploma Course in Sewing, to make the women self-sufficient. Petit, known as \"Maiji\" (mother) also opened a hospital of the same name for the scientific treatment of mentally ill patients in 1942."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day (United States)",
        "text": "Mother's Day (United States)\n--History.\n----First attempts to establish a holiday.\n----Establishment of holiday.\n--Spelling.\n--Traditions.\n----Carnations.\n----Commercialization.\n----Sports.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "K. D. Sethna",
        "text": "In 1949, the journal \"Mother India\" was started by the Ashram. Its purpose was to discuss current topics, both National and International, from a viewpoint which was in line with Sri Aurobindo\u2019s thought, although it was not directly meant to be his mouthpiece. Sethna was appointed its editor, and he sent all his political articles for approval to Sri Aurobindo. However, after Sri Aurobindo\u2019s departure in 1950 the Mother advised Sethna not to touch directly on politics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sharmila Rege",
        "text": "In 2002, she established a day care centre for children in the women\u2019s studies department."
      },
      {
        "title": "World Konkani Centre",
        "text": "To fulfil the mandate of establishing World Konkani Centre at Mangalore, Konkani Bhasha Mandal, Karnatak founded an organisation called Konkani Bhas Ani Sanskriti Prathistan. It came into being immediately after the World Konkani Convention in 1995 in the leadership of Basti Vaman Shenoy as its President and eminent banker, philanthropist and social leader K.K. Pai as its Chairman. The Foundation stone, marking the beginning of construction work was laid in a ceremony in September 2005 by eminent philanthropist Dr. P. Dayanand Pai. The then Union Minister Oscar Fernandes and Cooperative Minister of Government of Karnataka R.V. Deshapande were present. Basti Vaman Shenoy toured relentlessly to raise funds for this mammoth project all over India and abroad. After the demise of Shri K. K. Pai, the Chairmanship of the KLCF is served by Dr. P. Dayananda Pai, eminent philanthropist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maiti Nepal",
        "text": "Anuradha Koirala established Maiti Nepal in 1993 with the aim of providing services for both children and women who have endured untold pain and suffering, often in silence. She not only established Maiti Nepal, she also set up transit homes, academic and medical centre to provide support to the women and children who had no other place to go."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sarvodaya School Ellenabad",
        "text": "The first batch of the school was started and the school was up to 8th standard at that time. But construction of the school building was started at Sirsa road and in 1989 session, the school was shifted to Sirsa road. It is run by The Kalauna Education Society. It was the dream of Late Ch: Mallu Ram Saharan to serve the nation in the field of education but unfortunately, he died before he could complete the dream. His wife Smt. Kasturi Devi decided to fulfill her husband's dream and establish the school. It was really hard for a lady like her coming from rural and uneducated background to come into the field of education but she did a superb role both by establishing the school but also making it number one in the whole area. At the establishment of the school, she was aged 67 so she was requiring support from one of her sons then with the blessings of his mother her youngest son and current Managing Director Mr. Balwant Singh Saharan and his wife Mrs. Kaushalya Saharan decided to handle the school. Since that day school has seen many highs. Mr. Saharan first makes it Secondary from the middle then it was named SARVODAYA SHIKSHA SADAN and then also got permanent recognition up to 10+2 (Arts, Commerce, Science)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Madan Mohan Malaviya",
        "text": "He started the tradition of \"Aarti\" at Har ki Pauri Haridwar to the sacred Ganga river which is performed till date. The Malaviya Dwipa, a small island across the ghat, is named after him and carries his bust. The Indian Post issued stamps in his honour in 1961 and 2011 to celebrate his 100th and 150th birth anniversaries, respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Commemorations of Mother Teresa",
        "text": "Mother Teresa is held in high regard among Kosovars, who consider her one of their own, as she spent her childhood in Kosovo. The main street in Kosovo's capital Pristina is called Mother Teresa Street \"(Rruga N\u00ebna Terez\u00eb)\". Zana Krasniqi, the Miss Kosovo Universe 2008, made mention of Mother Teresa, calling her a great ancestor.\n* In 1991, the Senate of Serampore College, Serampore, West Bengal, conferred upon her the degree of Doctor of Divinity (D.D.), \"honoris causa\".\n* The historic \"Park Street\" of Calcutta was renamed to \"Mother Teresa Sarani\".\n* Indian Railways introduced a new train, \"Mother Express\", named after Mother Teresa, on August 26, 2010, to mark her birth centenary.\n*Mother Teresa Women's University, in Kodaikanal, was established in 1984 as a public university by the Government of Tamil Nadu.\n*Mother Theresa Postgraduate and Research Institute of Health Sciences, in Pondicherry, was established in 1999 by the Government of Puducherry.\n*The charitable organisation Sevalaya runs the Mother Teresa Girls Home, providing poor and orphaned girls near the underserved village of Kasuva in Tamil Nadu with free food, clothing, shelter and education.\n* Tamil Nadu State government organised centenary celebrations of Mother Teresa on December 4, 2010, in Chennai headed by Tamil Nadu chief minister M Karunanidhi.\n*The government of India issued a special 5 coin to celebrate the 100th anniversary of her birth, (the amount of money Teresa had when she arrived in India) on 28 August 2010.\n* Virar The cosmopolitan town of Virar near Mumbai has a church dedicated to \"Blessed Mother Teresa\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Srinagarindra",
        "text": "In 1985, the cabinet approved the proposal of the National Committee for the Promotion and Development of Social Welfare Activities that 21 October, the princess mother's birthday, be declared National Social Welfare Day. As she was also a nurse, it has since been renamed National Nurses' Day (Thai: \u0e27\u0e31\u0e19\u0e1e\u0e22\u0e32\u0e1a\u0e32\u0e25\u0e41\u0e2b\u0e48\u0e07\u0e0a\u0e32\u0e15\u0e34 Wan Phayaban Haeng Chat)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maiti Nepal",
        "text": "Anuradha Koirala was born in 1949, to parents Colonel Pratap Singh Gurung and Laxmi Gurung. She was called dijju means [elder sister] by the ones who she saved.She completed her schooling at a convent school in Kalimpong, India. Her inspiration to establish an organization for the betterment of women population came from her bitter relationship with her husband, Dinesh Prasad Koirala.Her highest inspiration was Mother Teresa. After several years of violence, abuse and three miscarriages, she separated from her husband."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day (United States)",
        "text": "On May 10, 1913, the U.S. House of Representatives passed a resolution calling on all federal government officials (from the president down) to wear a white carnation the following day in observance of Mother's Day. On May 8, 1914, the U.S. Congress passed a law designating the second Sunday in May as Mother's Day and requesting a proclamation. The next day, President Woodrow Wilson issued a proclamation declaring the first national Mother's Day as a day for American citizens to show the flag in honor of those mothers whose sons had died in war. In 1934, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt approved a stamp commemorating the holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pravrajika Mokshaprana",
        "text": "Mokshaprana Mataji was elected as a trustee of Sri Sarada Math in 1959 and in 1960 she became the vice president of the Math and the Mission. She personally supervised the construction of a degree college, Vivekananda college in Dumdum, under Ramakrishna Sarada Mission. She had knowledge of Homeopathy and she established a charitable dispensary in Dakshineswar which was frequented by the local people and this helped Sri Sarada Math to garner local support for its activities. In 1962 Ramakrishna Siksha Mandir, the second branch of Ramakrishna Sarada Mission was established in Baruipara Lane near Alambazar. It constituted a day care, a junior basic school and a mother teachers' training centre. Mokshaprana Mataji was the head of this centre and she built it and made it environment friendly as well as fit for children. She herself went to the localities to get students for the school. She took classes for the mothers of the children and also local women. She established Saradamani Pathshala for taking care of educational needs of underprivileged kids with the help of the mother teachers. She also began teaching extra curricular activities like music, drawing, painting, dancing, sewing etc. to make the mother teachers financially independent and sold the wares produced by them to make them and the ashram self-sufficient."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurusaday Dutt",
        "text": "In 1925, he lost his wife at a very early age. He established the Saroj Nalini Dutt Memorial Association, in February 1925, as a Central Training Institute for training crafts and basic education to provide livelihood to women who had been deprived from receiving formal education in early life and lived at the mercy of relatives. He thought of \"non-formal education\" many years before it was officially started. His pioneering work was started when most women in India were still behind the \"purdah\" (veil), and would not dare to come out in the world to create a future for themselves. This organisation became the apex organisation for Mahila Samitis (Women's Institutes) in Eastern India, and was later affiliated to the Associated Country Women of the World (ACWW) and the International Alliance of Women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroli",
        "text": "Indian Freedom fighter Mithuben Petit set up an ashram here, it was called \"Kasturba Vanat Shala\" which taught underprivileged children from families of Adivasis, Harijans and fisher folk spinning, carding, weaving, dairy farming, leather-work and a Diploma Course in Sewing, to make the women self-sufficient. She also opened a hospital of the same name for the treatment of mentally ill patients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kausani",
        "text": "Lakshmi Ashram is one kilometre away from the Kausani, and is a center run by Kumauni women and dedicated to social service and the upliftment of women. Gandhiji's disciple, Sarla Behn (Kaitherine Heileman) established the ashram in 1946, and spent her life here doing social service and also established Anashakti Ashram. Lakshmi ashram is located in a solitary area among dense pine forest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parents' Day",
        "text": "The origins of Parents' Day can be traced back to the 1930s. Starting in 1930, some Christian communities began to celebrate Mother's Day or Parents' Day. This tradition was combined with Korea's traditional Confucianism culture to eventually establish Mother's Day. In 1956, the State Council of South Korea designated May 8 as an annual Mother's Day. However, the question of Father's Day was discussed and on March 30, 1973, May 8 was designated as Parents' Day under Presidential Decree 6615, or the \"Regulations Concerning Various Holidays\" (\uac01\uc885 \uae30\ub150\uc77c \ub4f1\uc5d0 \uad00\ud55c \uaddc\uc815). When Parents' Day was first established, the entire week with the 8th day was designated to be a week to respect the elderly, but respecting elders in the month of May was abolished in 1997 with October becoming the month designated for respecting the elderly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dayalbagh Educational Institute",
        "text": "The foundation of DEI goes back to 1917, with the foundation of Radhasoami Educational Institute. Soon after Dayalbagh was founded in 1915, the Radhasoami Satsang Sabha started the Radhasoami Educational Institute, as a co-educational Middle School, open to all, on 1 January 1917 administered by a Managing Committee registered under the Societies Registration Act XXI of 1860. The institute got divided and also spawned new institutions. Within six months, it was raised to the level of a High School; Intermediate classes were started in 1922; it became a Degree College in 1947, with the introduction of B.Com. classes affiliated to Agra University; B.Ed. (B.T.) classes were added in 1951 and the first batch of B.Sc. students was sent up for the final examination in 1955."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Rewa",
        "text": "On 6 February 1960, the village school suddenly caught fire at about 5 O\u2019clock in the evening. The village people ran up with ladders and buckets of water to douse the fire. By the time they could extinguish it another house belonging to one of the devotee of the Mother caught fire causing panic in the village. That too was controlled but within a span of few hours yet another house caught fire. This mysterious phenomenon continued for eight days in different places of the village in full presence of police and hundreds of people. Villagers then decided to place Mothers calendar in each house and sent 4 to 5 urgent telegrams daily to the Mother praying her to intervene. After a week, the Mother's power intervened and the attack of hostile power ceased and normalcy was restored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indumati Babuji Patankar",
        "text": "Babuji and Indumati Patankar established the Kasegaon Education Society and the first high school in Kasegaon called Azad Vidyalaya. She supported Babuji in establishing the Kasegaon Education Society and became one of its first women students, and later became a primary school teacher. She supported the family by working as a teacher and going to the fields every morning and evening along with her mother-and father-in-law. She continued working as a teacher until her retirement, while continuing throughout to take part in the movement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini Muljadi",
        "text": "When Kartini was about two-and-a-half years old, her mother died. Her father then married a woman of Chinese descent, who worked as a trader and taught Kartini to work industriously, especially during the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies when there was no school. Her father encouraged her to save money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Achhnera",
        "text": "There are multiple theories regarding the foundation of Achhnera. According to one, it was founded by Achhnidhar Jats in 1250 AD, while according to another it was founded by Anangpal Tomar of the Tomara dynasty. In 1738 AD, King Suraj Mal of Bharatpur gave the \"jagir\" of Achhnera and 23 villages to his son-in-law. Achhnera also served as the headquarter of a pargana during Jat rule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Mother's Day\n--Establishment of holiday.\n--Spelling.\n--Dates around the world.\n--International history and tradition.\n----Religion.\n----By country (A\u2013G).\n------Albania.\n------Arab world.\n------Argentina.\n------Armenia.\n------Australia.\n------Bangladesh.\n------Belarus.\n------Bhutan.\n------Belgium.\n------Bolivia.\n------Brazil.\n------Canada.\n------China.\n------Czech Republic.\n------Egypt.\n------Ethiopia.\n------Estonia.\n------Finland.\n------France.\n------Georgia.\n------Germany.\n----By country (H\u2013M).\n------Hungary.\n------India.\n------Indonesia.\n------Iran.\n------Ireland.\n------Israel.\n------Italy.\n------Japan.\n------Kyrgyzstan.\n------Latvia.\n------Lithuania.\n------Malawi.\n------Maldives.\n------Malta.\n------Mexico.\n------Myanmar.\n----By country (N\u2013S).\n------Nepal.\n------Netherlands.\n------New Zealand.\n------Nicaragua.\n------North Korea.\n------Norway.\n------Pakistan.\n------Panama.\n------Paraguay.\n------Philippines.\n------Portugal.\n------Romania.\n------Russia.\n------Samoa.\n------Singapore.\n------Slovakia.\n------South Africa.\n------South Sudan.\n------Spain.\n------Sri Lanka.\n------Sweden.\n------Switzerland.\n----By country (T\u2013Z).\n------Taiwan.\n------Thailand.\n------Ukraine.\n------United Kingdom.\n------United States.\n--Notes.\n----Citations.\n--References.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sushila Koirala",
        "text": "When Sushila Koirala was in Patna in India during 1950s, she actively worked to establish a performing art institution there too. She and her friends like Hari Uppal collected donation fund by door to door campaign to establish Bhartiya Nritya Kala Mandir there in Patna. They laid the foundation stone for the building of the institution in 1950. The institution was later got fully established and opened in 1963 when Koirala was facing the consequences of political crisis in Nepal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Keshavrao Sonawane",
        "text": "Student from middle class and lower-middle-class families were not able to afford the costs of education and other costs arising from the needs to live in the cities like Mumbai, Pune etc. Higher education was rather like a dream for students from poor families. So to make the higher education facilities accessible to children of farmers, agricultural laborers, workers; the dignitaries and business people like Manikrao Sonavane (elder brother of Keshavrao Sonawane), Chandrashekhar Bajpai, Ramgopalji Rathi and Keshavraoji Sonawane established Dayanand Education Society in the May month of year 1961"
      },
      {
        "title": "Malayapuram Singaravelu",
        "text": "On 1 May 1923, Singaravelar founded the Labour Kishan Party of Hindusthan(a party of workers and peasants) in Madras. The foundation ceremony was purposefully kept on the May Day; and for the first time in India, under the auspices of the newly formed party, the day was observed as International Workers' Day. On that occasion, again for the first time the red flag was used in India. Singaravelar made arrangements to celebrate the May Day in two places in the One meeting was held at the beach opposite to the Madras High Court; the other was held at the Triplicane beach. The Hindu newspaper, published from Madras reported, The Labour Kisan party has introduced May Day celebrations in Chennai. Comrade Singaravelar presided over the meeting. A resolution was passed stating that the government should declare May Day as a holiday. The president of the party explained the non-violent principles of the party. There was a request for financial aid. It was emphasised that workers of the world must unite to achieve independence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muni Ki Reti",
        "text": "In modern history, 'Kailash Ashram' was established here in 1880 by Dhanraj Giri. It was one of the first large ashrams to be established in Rishikesh. Before that it was mostly as a place for individual seekers or pilgrims to stop over on way to Char Dham temples pilgrimage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kirtinagar",
        "text": "Kirtinagar was founded by Garhwal Raja Kirti Shah by the Alaknanda River in response to the destruction by flood of nearby Old Srinagar in 1894."
      },
      {
        "title": "Galyani Vadhana",
        "text": "In 1964, while the Mother Princess was staying at Phu Phing Palace, Chiang Mai, she realised how poor the local populace were especially in food and medicine. She set up \"The Mother Princess Medical Volunteer Unit\" on 22 February 1969, and persuaded doctors, dentists, pharmacists, and nurses to join the unit to go and treat patients in remote communities. On 21 May 1974, the unit was renamed to become \"The Mother Princess Medical Volunteer Foundation\" with the Mother Princess as its President."
      },
      {
        "title": "International Mother Language Institute",
        "text": "Declaration of 21 February as the International Mother Language Day by the United Nations on 17 November 1999 is an unprecedented event not only for the Bangla language but also in the history of all mother languages of the world. In a historic meeting commemorating this achievement on 7 December 1999 the honourable Prime Minister of the People's Republic of Bangladesh Sheikh Hasina announced that an international mother language institute would be established in Dhaka for the research and the preservation of the dignity and the rights of augmenting/expanding as well as nearly extinct languages of the world. According to that declaration, she laid the foundation of the International Mother Language Institute (IMLI) at 1/ ka Segunbagicha, Dhaka, Bangladesh on 15 March 2001. The then Secretary General of the United Nations Kofi A. Annan was present on that occasion. Honourable Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina inaugurated the newly constructed building of the International Mother Language Institute on the Martyrs' Day and International Mother Language Day, 2010. Since then, the International Mother Language Institute is moving ahead with its set mission and vision."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frans Van Kuyck",
        "text": "In the Summer of 1913, he wrote a pamphlet, \"De Dag der moeders\" (Mother's Day) and formed the first committee to promote its establishment as an official holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kasturba Gandhi",
        "text": "Kasturbai Mohandas Gandhi (, born Kasturbai Gokuldas Kapadia; 11 April 1869 \u2013 22 February 1944) was an Indian political activist. She married Mohandas Gandhi in 1883. With her husband and son, she was involved in the Indian independence movement in British India. She was, to a great extent, influenced by her husband. \"National Safe Motherhood Day\" is observed on 11 April every year. The day also marks the birth anniversary of Kasturba Gandhi. Mohandas affectionately called her 'Ba' and in letters referred to her as 'Mrs. G[andhi]'"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presentation Sisters",
        "text": "India received its first foundation in 1841, when Mother Xavier Kearney and some Sisters from Rahan and Mullingar established themselves at Madras. Soon four more convents in the Madras presidency were founded from this, and in 1891 one at Rawal Pindi. These schools comprised orphanages, and day and boarding schools, both for Europeans and local children. The Presentation Sisters entered the Southern Hemisphere in 1866 with a convent and school in Tasmania, Australia."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Mother's day celebrated in April anywhere in the world?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Armenia April 7 is mother's day, and Indonesia celebrates  Kartini Day on 21 April, which is a celebration of the emancipation of women. Also, in Hindu tradition, Mother's Day is called \"Mata Tirtha Aunshi\" or \"Mother Pilgrimage fortnight,\" which is observed on the new moon day in the month of Baisakh, i.e., April/May."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How was Kartini Day established?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Raden Adjeng Kartini was a prominent Indonesian activist for women's rights and female education. After her death, her birthday was celebrated in Indonesia in her honor."
    ],
    "topic": "Mother's Day",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Kartini:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Kartini"
        ],
        "ctx": "Raden Adjeng\" Kartini (21 April 1879 \u2013 17 September 1904), also known as Raden Ayu\" Kartini, was a prominent Indonesian activist who advocated for women's rights and female education."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Kartini:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Kartini"
        ],
        "ctx": "After her death, her sisters continued her advocacy of educating girls and women. Kartini's letters were published in a Dutch magazine and eventually, in 1911, as the works: \"Out of Darkness to Light\", \"Women's Life in the Village\", and \"Letters of a Javanese Princess\". Her birthday is now celebrated in Indonesia as Kartini Day in her honor, as well as multiple schools being named after her and a fund being established in her name to finance the education of girls in Indonesia. She was interested in mysticism and opposed polygamy."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Indonesia also celebrates the Kartini Day (\"Hari Kartini\") on 21 April, in memory of activist Raden Ajeng Kartini. This is a celebration of the emancipation of women. The observance was instituted at the 1938 Indonesian Women Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "In 1964, President Sukarno declared R.A. Kartini's birth date, 21 April, as \"Kartini Day\"\u2014an Indonesian national holiday. This decision has been criticized. It has been proposed that Kartini Day should be celebrated in conjunction with Indonesian Mothers\u2019 Day on 22 December. So R.A. Kartini as a national heroine does not overshadow women who took arms to oppose the Dutch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Feminism in Indonesia",
        "text": "Kartini or Raden Adjeng Kartini was born a Javanese noblewoman in which she was able to attend Dutch colonial school which opened her eyes to Western ideals. After reaching adulthood, Javanese tradition dictated that Kartini live a life in shelter as a young female noble. During this time, Kartini wrote letters to her Dutch schoolmates, exposing the gender inequality emboldened by Javanese traditions which included forced marriages at a young age and the denial of education for women. With the help of the Dutch government, Kartini opened up the first Indonesian primary school for girls that allowed all Indonesian girls to attend regardless of social status. After her death in 1904, her letters were published and became symbol for the women's rights movement in Indonesia and furthered the cause of women's emancipation. April 1 is now celebrated annually as Kartini Day to celebrate her birth as a national heroine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "After her death, her sisters continued her advocacy of educating girls and women. Kartini's letters were published in a Dutch magazine and eventually, in 1911, as the works: \"Out of Darkness to Light\", \"Women's Life in the Village\", and \"Letters of a Javanese Princess\". Her birthday is now celebrated in Indonesia as Kartini Day in her honor, as well as multiple schools being named after her and a fund being established in her name to finance the education of girls in Indonesia. She was interested in mysticism and opposed polygamy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "Sukarno's Old Order state declared 21 April as Kartini Day to remind women that they should participate in \"the hegemonic state discourse of \"pembangunan\" (development)\". After 1965, however, Suharto's New Order state reconfigured the image of Kartini from that of radical women's emancipator to one that portrayed her as a dutiful wife and obedient daughter, \"as only a woman dressed in a kebaya who can cook.\" On that occasion, popularly known as Hari Ibu Kartini or Mother Kartini Day, \"young girls were to wear tight, fitted jackets, batik shirts, elaborate hairstyles, and ornate jewelry to school, supposedly replicating Kartini's attire but in reality, wearing an invented and more constricting ensemble than she ever did.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "Kartini Schools opened in Bogor, Jakarta, and Malang. A society was also established in her name in the Netherlands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini Muljadi",
        "text": "After Indonesia\u2019s 1945 declaration of independence, when ethnic Chinese citizens were encouraged to adopt Indonesian names, her father changed his name from Kho (Xu in Chinese) to Budi Tjahjono, while Pauline Fanny Kho became Kartini, choosing the name of pioneering Indonesian feminist Kartini."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "Inspired by R.A. Kartini's example, the Van Deventer family established the R.A. Kartini Foundation which built schools for women, starting in 1912 with 'Kartini's Schools' in Semarang, and followed by other women's schools in Surabaya, Yogyakarta, Malang, Madiun, Cirebon, and other areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "In her letters, Raden Adjeng Kartini wrote about her views of the social conditions prevailing at that time, particularly the condition of native Indonesian women. Most of her letters protest the Javanese cultural tendency to impose obstacles in women's development. She wanted women to have the freedom to learn and study. R.A. Kartini wrote of her ideas and ambitions, including \"Zelf-ontwikkeling, Zelf-onderricht, Zelf-vertrouwen, Zelf-werkzaamheid\" and \"Solidariteit\". These ideas were all based on \"Religieusiteit, Wijsheid, en Schoonheid\", that is, belief in God, wisdom, and beauty, along with \"Humanitarianismus\" (humanitarianism) and \"Nationalismus' (nationalism)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "She was born into an aristocratic Javanese family in the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia). After attending a Dutch-language primary school, she wanted to pursue further education, but Javanese women at the time were barred from higher education. She met various officials and influential people, including J.H. Abendanon, who was in charge of implementing the Dutch Ethical Policy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini Schools",
        "text": "Kartini Schools, named for the Javanese women's rights advocate Raden Ajeng Kartini (Lady Kartini), were opened to educate indigenous girls in the Dutch East Indies in the wake of the Dutch Ethical Policy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "During President Suharto's New Order (1965\u20131998), government propaganda used Mother's Day and Kartini Day to inculcate into women the idea that they should be docile and stay at home."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "Raden Adjeng\" Kartini (21 April 1879 \u2013 17 September 1904), also known as Raden Ayu\" Kartini, was a prominent Indonesian activist who advocated for women's rights and female education."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "Although Kartini's father allowed his daughters' schooling until the age of twelve, he firmly closed the door to further education. As a result, he prevented Kartini from continuing her studies in the Netherlands or enter medical school. Eventually, however, he gave permission for her to study to become a teacher in Batavia (now Jakarta). In the end, her plans to study in Japan changed into plans to journey to Tokyo, on the advice of Abendanon that this would be best for Kartini and her younger sister, Ayu Rukmini. In 1903, plans to become a teacher in Tokyo were abandoned due to Kartini's upcoming marriage: \" In short, I no longer desire to take advantage of this opportunity because I am to be married\". This was despite the Dutch Education Department finally giving permission for Kartini and Rukmini to study in Batavia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini Muljadi",
        "text": "Kartini was born Pauline Fanny Kho on 17 May 1930 in Kebumen, Central Java, the Dutch East Indies. Her parents were Budi Tjahono and Marianne Han. Her mother, who was of partial Dutch ancestry, was a teacher at a local school. Her father worked as an accountant for the colony\u2019s electricity company, Algemene Nederlandsch Indische Electriciteit Maatschappij."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "During her seclusion, Kartini continued to self-educate herself. She was fluent in Dutch and acquired several Dutch pen pals. One of which, was a girl named Rosa Abendanon, who later became a close friend. Books, newspapers, and European magazines fed Kartini's interest in Europe and feminist thinking and overall fostered the desire to improve the conditions of indigenous Indonesian women, which at the time had a very low social status."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "In contrast, those who recognize the significance of R.A. Kartini argue that not only was she an intellectual who elevated the status of Indonesian women, she was also a nationalist figure with modern ideas, who struggled on behalf of her people and played a role in the national struggle for independence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "As the wedding approached, R.A. Kartini's attitude towards Javanese traditional customs changed. She became more tolerant and felt her marriage would bring good fortune for her ambition to develop a school for native women. In her letters, she mentioned that her husband supported her desire to develop the Jepara woodcarving industry and a school for native women, but also mentioned that she was going to write a book. This ambition went unrealized due to her premature death in 1904."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "The holiday is celebrated on the anniversary of the opening day of the first Indonesian Women Congress (\"Kongres Perempuan Indonesia\"), which was held from 22 to 25 December 1928. The Congress took place in a building called Dalem Jayadipuran, which now serves as the office of the Center of History and Traditional Values Preservation (\"Balai Pelestarian Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional\") in Brigjen Katamso Street, Yogyakarta. The Congress was attended by 30 feminist organizations from 12 cities in Java and Sumatra. In Indonesia, feminist organizations have existed since 1912, inspired by Indonesian heroines of the 19th century, e.g., Kartini, Martha Christina Tiahahu, Cut Nyak Meutia, Maria Walanda Maramis, Dewi Sartika, Nyai Ahmad Dahlan, Rasuna Said, etc. The Congress intended to improve women's rights in education and marriage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nurmala Kartini Sjahrir",
        "text": "Kartini was born in a small hamlet of the Simargala Huta Namora, Silaen District of Toba Regency, North Sumatra, not far from Lake Toba. Her parents, Bonar Panjaitan and Farida Naiborhu were a conservative Toba Batak. They had five children, including Kartini the eldest amongst three daughters, the eldest son Luhut Binsar Panjaitan (the Coordinating Minister for Maritime and Investment Affairs of Indonesia), as well as three other siblings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini Schools",
        "text": "Efforts to create opportunities for upper-class Javanese women struggled against opposition from Conservative Dutch officials and the Javanese regent class (bupatis). The Dutch language boarding schools were staffed by women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini Muljadi",
        "text": "When Kartini was about two-and-a-half years old, her mother died. Her father then married a woman of Chinese descent, who worked as a trader and taught Kartini to work industriously, especially during the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies when there was no school. Her father encouraged her to save money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini Muljadi",
        "text": "Kartini also studied in Surabaya and Yogyakarta, before moving to Jakarta, where she majored in Law and Social Sciences at the University of Indonesia. During her studies, she worked at Candra Naya Social Organization (established 1946 as Sin Ming Hui), which provided health and legal services for the poor. She received her law degree in 1958."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "Kartini's parents arranged her marriage to Joyodiningrat, the Regency Chief of Rembang, who had already married three wives. She was wed on 12 November 1903. She detested the marriage proposal at first, but her husband understood Kartini's aspirations and allowed her to establish a women's school on the eastern porch of Rembang's Regency Office complex. Kartini's only child was born on September 13, 1904. A few days later on 17 September 1904, Kartini died at the age of 25. She was buried at Bulu Village, Rembang."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indonesian National Awakening",
        "text": "The movement had its beginnings in the late 19th century, a period of Dutch Indies government consolidation that significantly reinforced their governance over much of the area that is now in the 21st century the national Indonesian territorial boundaries. Kartini was one such individual who provided the impetus and ideology which inspired patriotic nationalists to pursue their ideals despite the adversity. Kartini's intellect was awakened by quality Dutch classical education and her traditional Islamic beliefs and education. Kartini was supported by an enlightened and intellectually endowed family and friends in Europe and Indonesia. Kartini maintained her inquisitiveness and incorporated feminist principles, community welfare and education in her pursuit of the national Indonesian identity and her quest to modernise her traditional society, advocating changes in gender status and principles of individual and national self-determination to realise the Indonesian universal dream of independence and self governance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "Kartini\n--Biography.\n----Marriage, death and legacy.\n--Letters.\n--Ideas.\n----Condition of Indonesian women.\n----Vegetarianism.\n----Further studies and teaching.\n--Legacy.\n----Kartini Day.\n--Tribute.\n--References.\n----Primary sources.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "Kartini was the fifth child and second-eldest daughter in a family of eleven, including half-siblings. She was born into a family with a strong intellectual tradition. Her grandfather, Pangeran Ario Tjondronegoro IV, became a regency chief at the age of 25, while Kartini's older brother, Sosrokartono, was an accomplished linguist. Kartini's family allowed her to attend school until she was 12 years old. Here, among other subjects, she learned Dutch, an unusual accomplishment for Javanese women at the time. After she turned 12 she was secluded (\"pingit\") at home, which was a common practice among young female Javanese nobles, to prepare them for wedlock. During seclusion, girls were not allowed to leave their parents' house until they were married, after which the authority over them was transferred to their husbands. Kartini's father was more lenient than some during his daughter's seclusion, giving her such privileges as embroidery lessons and occasional appearances in public for special events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nurmala Kartini Sjahrir",
        "text": "She is an alumnus of famous Catholic boarding school (Indonesian: \"sekolah asrama\") in Central Jakarta, St. Ursula Catholic School. In 1976 she was graduated from University of Indonesia in 1976. During her study, Kartini joined and became a member of Mapala UI (her name is listed as Kartini Panjaitan Syahrir), one of University of Indonesia's most popular student organization that focused on adventure, mountaineering, and expedition. In 1975, a year before she graduated, Kartini was chosen as the organization's chairwoman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kebaya",
        "text": "The 21st of April is celebrated in Indonesia as National Kartini Day where Kartini, the female suffragist and education advocate, is remembered by schoolgirls wearing traditional dress according to their region. In Java, Bali and Sunda, it is the kebaya."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini Schools",
        "text": "The first Kartini School was opened in Batavia in 1907. It was supported by Governor General Abendanon and Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands. Additional Kartini Schools were opened in Malang, Cirebon, Semarang, Bogor (then called Buitzenborg), and Surabaya. The schools served indigenous students who had already received a primary education."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini Muljadi",
        "text": "During her time as a judge, she undertook notary studies at the University of Indonesia, completing her course in 1967."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Indonesian Mother's Day () is celebrated nationally on 22 December. The date was made an official holiday by President Sukarno under Presidential Decree No. 316/1953, on the 25th anniversary of the 1928 Indonesian Women Congress. The day originally sought to celebrate the spirit of Indonesian women and to improve the condition of the nation. Today, the meaning of Mother's Day has changed, and it is celebrated by expressing love and gratitude to mothers. People present gifts to mothers (such as flowers) and hold surprise parties and competitions, which include cooking and kebaya wearing. People also allow mothers a day off from domestic chores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tri Mumpuni",
        "text": "On 17 August 1992, she founded Institute of Business and Economic Affairs (Indonesian: \"Institut Bisnis dan Ekonomi Kerakyatan\", IBEKA), a non-profit and non-governmental organization with her husband. She become the Director, while her husband become Chairman Board of Trustee As in 2021, she successfully built 61 micro-hydropower generator, which provided electricity to 65 villages in Indonesia and 1 village in Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini Muljadi",
        "text": "Kartini and her brother were among a few non-Dutch children permitted to attend a European school, where they studied Indonesian, Dutch, English, German and French, before opting for elective mathematics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adelaide Zoo",
        "text": "On Mother's Day 2009, the female orangutan, Karta, built an escape route out of plant material and tripped the hot wires with a stick. After a short while on the \"outside\" she dropped back into the exhibit with no harm done."
      },
      {
        "title": "Suwarsih Djojopuspito",
        "text": "Suwarsih was born in Cibatok, Bogor, West Java, Dutch East Indies on April 20, 1912. Her father, Raden Bagoes Noersaid Djojosapoetro was a merchant, and her mother Hatidjah was from a Muslim Chinese family. Her father was apparently a gifted storyteller and also believed in equality for his female children, which is why he made a strong effort to give them a good education. He enrolled his daughters in the Kartini School as well as the MULO school in Buitenzorg; Suwarsih entered it in 1918. After 1928 she enrolled in the teacher training school in Surabaya from which she graduated in 1930. She was one of only two Javanese students out of thirty students in her cohort."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "Kartini's reading included the \"Semarang\" newspaper, to which she began to send her own contributions that were published. Before she was 20 she had read \"Max Havelaar\" and \"Love Letters\" by Multatuli. She also read \"De Stille Kracht (The Hidden Force)\" by Louis Couperus, the works of Frederik van Eeden, Augusta de Witt, the Romantic-Feminist author C\u00e9cile de Jong van Beek en Donk, and an anti-war novel by Bertha von Suttner, \"Die Waffen Nieder!\" (\"Lay Down Your Arms!\"). All were in Dutch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "After Kartini died, J.H. Abendanon, the Minister for Culture, Religion, and Industry in the East Indies, collected and published the letters that she had sent to her friends in Europe. The book was titled \"Door Duisternis tot Licht (Out of Dark Comes Light)\" and published in 1911. It went through five editions, with additional letters included in the final edition, and was translated into English by Agnes L. Symmers as \"Letters of a Javanese Princess\". The publication of letters written by a native Javanese woman attracted great interest in the Netherlands, and Kartini's ideas began to change the way the Dutch viewed native women in Java. Her ideas also provided inspiration for prominent figures in the fight for independence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sientje Sondakh Mandey",
        "text": "Sientje Sondakh Mandey was born on 28 November 1947, in Manado, North Sulawesi, in what was then the State of East Indonesia, a federal state of the United States of Indonesia (RIS), during the Indonesian National Revolution. She moved from Manado to Sukabumi, West Java, and began her early education at the Kehidupan Baru Elementary school in 1958. She moved back to Manado in 1961, and continued her Secondary education at Manado Christian Junior High School. In 1968, she enrolled at Sam Ratulangi University, named after Indonesian national hero Sam Ratulangi. However, she didn't finish her degree. Instead, she discontinued her education until 1985, when she attended Indonesia Open University. She graduated from there in 1990, and began teaching at the Purple Campus College of Economics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nurmala Kartini Sjahrir",
        "text": "Graduated from one of the most prestigious university in Indonesia, majoring anthropology, Kartini started her professional career as an assistant for Dr Melly Tan, one of senior researcher at LEKNAS (\"Lembaga Ekonomi dan Kemasyarakatan Nasional\"; \"National Institute of Economics and Society\"). Now LEKNAS was merged with LRKN (\"Lembaga Riset Kebudayaan Nasional\": National Institute of Cultural Research) into PMB (\"Puslitbang Kemasyarakatan dan Kebudayaan\") OF Indonesian Institute of Sciences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kerenina Sunny Halim",
        "text": "Kerenina spent her first year of college in India, where she helped to set up a school for deaf children. She also played an active role in consolidating women's rights in the women's correctional institute in New Delhi. Kerenina then returned to Indonesia and helped build a School and Living Center in Solo, Central Java for the displaced children from Ambon where they were relocated to after the unrest and civil war in Ambon, in which most of the children lost their parents or several members of their family."
      },
      {
        "title": "Titie Said",
        "text": "She was born Sitti Raya in Bojonegoro, East Java, Dutch East Indies on 11 July 1935. Her mother was named Hastuti Suwanti and her father was called Muhammad Said; he had been a schoolteacher, soldier, and writer during the Dutch era. She was first educated in an elementary school in Bojonegoro starting in 1948. She then relocated to Malang to complete her secondary education. After 1959 she relocated to Jakarta to study in the Literature department at the University of Indonesia; however, she did not finish her degree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "On April 21, 2016, Google celebrated her 137th birthday with a Google Doodle.\n* Gerwani\n* Anonymous [Raden Adjeng Kartini] (1898), \"The Jepara Manuscript.\" Presented at Nationale Tentoonstelling van Vrouwenarbeid 1898.\n*: Reprinted in Rouffaer and Juynboll (1912), \"De Batik-Kunst in Nederlandsch-Indi\u00eb en haar Geschiedenis op Grond van Materiaal aanwezig in \u2019s Rijks Etnographisch Museum en Andere Openbare en Particuliere Verzamelingen in Nederland\".\n* Anonymous [Raden Adjeng Kartini] (1899), \"Het Huwelijk bij de Kodja's.\" \"Bijdragen tot de Taal, Land, en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indi\u00eb\", vol. 6, no.1.\n* Tiga Saudara [pseudonym of Raden Adjeng Kartini] (1899), \"Een Gouverneur Generaals Dag.\" \"De Echo: weekblad voor dames in Indi\u00eb\", September 2\u2013November 18, 1899.\n* Tiga Saudara [pseudonym of Raden Adjeng Kartini] (1900), \"Een Oorlogsschip op de Ree.\" \"De Echo: weekblad voor dames in Indi\u00eb\", April 5\u2013June 10, 1900.\n* Kartini (1903), \"Van een Vergeten Uithoekje.\" \"Eigen Haard\" (Amsterdam), no. 1."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nurmala Kartini Sjahrir",
        "text": "politics in harmony on the prevention of domestic violence. On 22 September 2016, Indonesia participated in the International Conference on Sustainable Development (IC-SD) at Columbia University in New York. Kartini chaired the Indonesia Panel, held at the Faculty House of Columbia University."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indonesian Women's Army Corps",
        "text": "Because December 22, 1938, the date now held as Mother's Day, was the day of the First Women's Congress that was held in Indonesian territory (then the Netherlands East Indies) in 1938, it was later designated as the official Corps Day, honoring the military mothers and women who through their works and actions not just ensured the independence and sovereignty of the Republic against foreign aggression, but also contributed to her defense, stability, progress and prosperity in all works of endeavor regardless of their religion, ethnic origin and way of life, including as servicewomen in the ranks of the Army."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini Hermanus",
        "text": "Hermanus was born on 2 August 1949 in Surakarta, Central Java. After attending the Medical Faculty of the Sam Ratulangi University for two years, she enlisted herself at the officers' conscription school in 1970."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ruhana Kuddus",
        "text": "She was born Siti Ruhana on December 20, 1884, in the village () of Koto Gadang, Agam Regency, in the hinterland of West Sumatra, Dutch East Indies. Her father Mohammad Rasjad Maharaja Soetan was the chief public prosecutor of Jambi Residency and later of Medan. Ruhana was the half-sister of Sutan Sjahrir, and a cousin of Agus Salim, both important intellectuals and politicians in the Indonesian independence movement. She was also an aunt () of Indonesian poet Chairil Anwar. Ruhana was intelligent although she did not receive a formal education. She often studied with her father, who taught her in reading and language studies. When her father was assigned to Alahan Panjang, West Sumatera, she asked her neighbors (including the wife of another prosecutor) to teach her reading and writing in Jawi and Latin script, and household skills such as Lace-making. After the death of her mother in 1897, she returned to Koto Gadang and became increasingly interested in teaching the girls there to learn handicrafts and to read the Quran, despite still being a child herself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Syarifah Nawawi",
        "text": "Nawawi returned to Bukittinggi after her divorce, living in the city and working as the headmistress of a girls' school until the death of her parents in 1937, after which she returned to Batavia. She had her children educated at the elite Koning Willem III School te Batavia. She also worked to reform women's education in Jatinegara by forming an educational organization there. During World War II and the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies, she joined the Buddhist Women's Association. In 1955 she joined PERWARI, a women's rights movement that also participated in the Indonesian independence movement. She continued advocating for education until her death in 1988."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ruhana Kuddus",
        "text": "Roehana Koeddoes died in Jakarta on August 17, 1972, 27 years on the Indonesian Independence Day. She was buried in Karet Bivak Cemetery"
      },
      {
        "title": "Snatam Kaur",
        "text": "Her family moved to California when Snatam was two, living in Long Beach and Sacramento. When Snatam was six, the family visited India, where her mother studied kirtan. Snatam lived on a ranch near Bolinas, California until 8th grade and then moved to Mill Valley in 1986. During her childhood, she played kirtan with her mother in Sikh temples and at Sikh religious ceremonies. She attended Tamalpais High School in Mill Valley. While at Tam High, she played violin in the school orchestra and began songwriting. Bob Weir of the Grateful Dead coached Kaur and her classmates before they performed her song \"Saving the Earth\" at an Earth Day concert in San Francisco on April 22, 1990."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ki Hajar Dewantara",
        "text": "In recognition for his dedication and accomplishments in pioneering public education in Indonesia, he was declared as the Father of Indonesian National Education, a national hero, and his birthday is appointed as the National Education Day, through Presidential Decree no. 305 of 1959, dated 28 November 1959."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rustriningsih",
        "text": "Rustriningsih was born in Kedungampel village of Kebumen, Central Java on 3 July 1967 as the eighth of ten children. Her father Sukamto was a PNI activist during the Sukarno government and, later on, was active in PDI activities. After completing her basic education, she studied in General Soedirman University's faculty of social and political sciences. While there, she once trained PDI cadres, allowing her to meet Megawati Soekarnoputri."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Mother's International School, New Delhi",
        "text": "The school was founded on 23 April 1956 by founder Shri Surendra Nath Jauhar \"Faquir\", with the blessings of The Mother, Mirra Alfassa, a spiritualist, the spiritual partner and collaborator of Sri Aurobindo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rasuna Said",
        "text": "Rasuna Said was born in Maninjau on 14 September 1910. Her family were devout Muslims. She grew up in the house of her uncle as her father's work often took him away from home. Unlike her siblings, she attended a religious, rather than secular, school and later moved to Padang Panjang, where she attended the Dininyah school, which combined religious and specular subjects. In 1923, she became an assistant teachers at the newly established Diniyah Girls School, but returned to her hometown three years later after the school was destroyed by an earthquake. She then studied for two years at a school linked to political and religious activism, and attended speeches given by the school director about nationalism and Indonesian independence."
      },
      {
        "title": "S. K. Trimurti",
        "text": "She became active in the Indonesian independence movement during the 1930s, officially joining the nationalist Partindo (Indonesian Party) in 1933, shortly after completing her schooling at Tweede Inlandsche School."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tri Mumpuni",
        "text": "In 1982, Indonesian Institute of Sciences held a junior scientific paper competition. She won the competition. One of the jury, Andi Hakim Nasution [], professor of Statistics and Quantitative Genetics of Bogor Agricultural Institute (IPB) at that time was attracted and interested with her paper. When her application to Faculty of Medicine Diponegoro University was rejected, Professor Andi, somehow learned the news. He later tracked her and giving her an opportunity to study in Faculty of Agriculture IPB with his recommendation. She later enrolled to Department of Agricultural Social and Economy, Faculty of Agriculture, IPB and finally graduated in 1990."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In 1960, the Institute for Women Protection adopted the Western holiday and established it on 25 Azar (16 December), the date the Institute was founded. The Institute's action had the support of Empress Farah Pahlavi, the wife of the last Shah of Persia, who promoted the construction of maternity clinics in remote parts of the country to commemorate the day. Pahlavi regime used the holiday to promote \"gender ideologies\" of the regime. The Shah's government honored and gave awards to women who represented the idealized view of the regime, including mothers who had many healthy children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini Hermanus",
        "text": "On 27 May 1997, Hermanus was installed as the superintendent of the Women's Army Corps Education Center. She was installed after the body's separation from the Indonesian Army Doctrine, Education and Training Development Command."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hurustiati Subandrio",
        "text": "In 1947, her husband was sent to London as a representative of the Indonesian Republican government and she moved there with him, enrolling in postgraduate studies at the London School of Economics in anthropology. She completed a thesis entitled \"Javanese peasant life: villages in East Java\". While living in London she also wrote and published a book (in Indonesian) about the life of Kartini."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "Kartini's letters also expressed her hopes for support from overseas. In her correspondence with Estell \"Stella\" Zeehandelaar, R.A. Kartini expressed her wish to be equal with European women. She depicted the sufferings of Javanese women fettered by tradition, unable to study, secluded, and who must be prepared to participate in polygamous marriages with men they don't know."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indumati Babuji Patankar",
        "text": "Babuji and Indumati Patankar established the Kasegaon Education Society and the first high school in Kasegaon called Azad Vidyalaya. She supported Babuji in establishing the Kasegaon Education Society and became one of its first women students, and later became a primary school teacher. She supported the family by working as a teacher and going to the fields every morning and evening along with her mother-and father-in-law. She continued working as a teacher until her retirement, while continuing throughout to take part in the movement."
      },
      {
        "title": "S. K. Trimurti",
        "text": "She co-founded the Gerwis, an Indonesian women's organization, in 1950, which was later renamed as Gerwani. She left the organization in 1965. She returned to college when she was 41 years old. She studied economics at the University of Indonesia. She declined an appointment to become Indonesia's Social Affairs Minister in 1959 in order to complete her degree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siti Sukaptinah Sunaryo Mangunpuspito",
        "text": "In 1926, Siti left \"Jong Java\" and joined the Indonesian Youth (\"Pemuda Indonesia\") organization. In 1928, she attended the first Indonesian Women's Congress, serving as secretary as well as a representative of a Yogyakarta-based women's Islamic organization, of which she became a senior figure. On the first day of the congress, 22 December, a song that Siti had written was sung. The congress agreed to establish an Indonesian Women's Association, and Siri became its first secretary. In 1932, a number of organizations combined to form Indonesian Wives (\"Isteri Indonesia\"), and Siti was appointed chair. From 1934 to 1938, she was a member of the Budi Utomo political organization. At the third Indonesian Women's Congress, which took place in Bandung in July 1938, she put forward the idea of a Mother's Day. Her idea was accepted by acclamation, and the day was first marked on 22 December 1938. Also in 1938, she was appointed to the Semarang City Council, representing the Parindra Party. In 1940, she became chair of the board for the fourth Indonesian Women's Congress in Semarang, again representing Parindra. Because of her activism, in 1942, she was asked to appear before the Visman Commission, which had been established by the Dutch to hear the opinions of nationalists about the governance of the Dutch East Indies. She told the commission that she wanted Indonesia to have a parliament. When the Japanese invaded in May 1942, she moved to Semarang."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rachmawati Sukarnoputri",
        "text": "Rachmawati was born in Jakarta on 27 September 1950 to President Sukarno and his third wife Fatmawati. She was the third child of this marriage. When she was three years old, her mother left Sukarno in protest of his plans to take multiple wives. She was largely raised by a foster mother from Surakarta. She initially studied at Cikini, and completed her secondary education at St. Ursula Catholic School. She had intended to become a doctor but when she enrolled at the University of Indonesia in 1969 she opted to study law, and did not complete her degree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "Kartini was born into an aristocratic Javanese family when Java was part of the Dutch colony of the Dutch East Indies. Kartini's father, Sosroningrat, became Regency Chief of Jepara after originally being the district chief of Mayong. Her mother, Ngasirah, was the daughter of Madirono and a religious teacher at Telukawur. She was Sosroningrat's first wife but not his most important one. At this time, polygamy was a common practice among the nobility. Colonial regulations required regency chiefs to marry a member of the nobility. Since Ngasirah was not of sufficiently high nobility, Sosroningrat married a second time to Woerjan (Moerjam), a direct descendant of the Raja of Madura. After this second marriage, Kartini's father was elevated to Regency Chief of Jepara, replacing his second wife's father, Tjitrowikromo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini (film)",
        "text": "The title role is played by a citra award winner, Dian Sastrowardoyo. Other actors and actresses joined the cast, including Christine Hakim as M.A. Ngasirah (Kartini's mother), Deddy Sutomo as R.M. Sosroningrat (Kartini's father), Djenar Maesa Ayu as R.A. Moeryam (Kartini's step mother), Acha Septriasa, Ayushita and Adinia Wirasti as Roekmini, Kardinah and Soelastri (Kartini's sisters), Reza Rahadian and Denny Sumargo as Sosrokartono and Slamet (Kartini's brothers), Dwi Sasono as Raden Joyodiningrat (Kartini's husband). Hanung chose Dian, Ayushita, and Acha to portray the major roles mainly because of their popularity and charisma among Indonesian females, along with their concerns regarding women issues making them the perfect choices for the roles. According to Ronny, Dian is the first and only choice to portray the heroine, stating it would be hard to make the film had she not accepted the role."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ibu Kasur",
        "text": "She founded Mini Kindergarten in Jakarta in 1965. Some of the famous Mini Kindergarten graduates are former presidents Megawati Soekarnoputri, Guruh Soekarnoputra, Hayono Isman and Ateng Wahyudi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siti Sukaptinah Sunaryo Mangunpuspito",
        "text": "Siti Sukaptinah was born in Yogyakarta. Her father, R. Penewu Abdul Wahid Mustopo, worked at the sultan's palace. From a young age, Siti disagreed with arranged marriage, and believed that a woman had the right to chose her own match. She attended a Dutch school for natives from 1916 to 1921, then continued her education at a Dutch higher primary school, graduating in 1924. While a student there, she joined the \"Jong Java\" youth organization, which marked the beginning of her political career. She then studied at a Taman Siswa school until 1926 and worked as a teacher after graduating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "This publication was edited to remove references to colonial figures, Islamic beliefs, and Javanese culture, and the English translation made further changes. Kartini's unedited letters were first published in English in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nurmala Kartini Sjahrir",
        "text": "In 1950s, Panjaitan and Naiborhu moved to Pekanbaru, a capital of neighboring province of Riau because Panjaitan was given a job to work for PT. Caltex Pacific Indonesia now Chevron Corporation. They resided in Padang Bulan, Senapelan District. There Kartini was sent to study at the SMP 1 Pekanbaru, before admitted to St. Ursula Catholic School in Jakarta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Popati Hiranandani",
        "text": "She was born on 17th September 1924 in a Hindu Amil family of Hyderabad, Sindh. Her father Ramchand Hiranandani was a forest officer. She was the second eldest of seven children, and lost her father at the age of ten. She studied at Kundan Mal High School and Miran College Hyderabad. In order to support her family, she joined as a music teacher at Kundan Mal High School and Pigit Girls School Hyderabad, while continuing her studies simultaneously. After graduating from Banaras Hindu University in 1943 with a distinction in Sanskrit, she began teaching languages and literature. She retired as chairperson of Sindhi Department of Kishinchand Chellaram College, Bombay (now Mumbai). During the last years of her service at this college, she also taught and supervised postgraduate students of the Bombay University."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dewi Sartika",
        "text": "On 16 January 1904, she founded a school named Sakola Istri at Bandung Regency's Pendopo which later was relocated to Jalan Ciguriang and the school name changed to Sekolah Kaoetamaan Isteri (Wife Eminency School) in 1910. In 1912, there were nine Sekolah Kaoetamaan Isteri in cities or regencies in West Java (half of the cities and regencies), and in 1920 all of cities and regencies had one school. In September 1929, this school changed its name to Sekolah Raden Dewi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doreen Kartinyeri",
        "text": "Kartinyeri\u2019s education began in her hometown, at the Raukkan Mission School. Kartinyeri said that she did not like her teacher at this school because he was \u201ctoo strict\u201d. After the death of her mother, Kartinyeri was, unwillingly, moved to the Salvation Army Home in Fullarton, on the condition that she would stay with her sister, Doris. Coincidentally, this was a lie - Doris did not go with Kartinyeri to Fullarton, but was instead sent to the Colebrook Home at Eden Hills. Kartinyeri said that the conditions of this institution were \u201cmilitary style\u201d, claiming that she was beaten on her first night for swearing. Kartinyeri did not do well in school - she was rebellious, was punished often, performed poorly, often did not do work, and when she did, teachers accused her of cheating. During her time at school, Kartinyeri found enjoyment in going to the pool and seeing boys. Often Kartinyeri would get into mischief with the other nunga (Aboriginal) girls, and Kartinyeri claimed that they were often the scapegoats for the white girls (herself especially). Later on, Kartinyeri was expelled for getting into a fight with girls who were bullying a disabled girl. From there, she never continued her formal education but she did go on to win many honorary academic awards and has since received much praise for her academic work."
      },
      {
        "title": "2016 in Indonesia",
        "text": "Video of Kelapa Gading fire\n* August 8\n** Muhadjir explained about the importance of Full Day School Program. The program later became an intense national debate in Indonesia, and was not welcomed warmly both from students nor parents. Muhadjir stated that students won't study at Saturday anymore as the compensation of Full Day School program.\n** A massive fire occurred on the 27th floor of a planned Swiss-Belhotel building in Kelapa Gading, trapping at least 8 people. Several other people tried to escape with a rope. During their escape, two people slipped and fell from a high height. Both of them were pronounced dead. A total of 14 people were injured in the blaze.\n* August 10 - Haze disaster looms Indonesia as new hotspots began to appear in Sumatra, Borneo and Sulawesi.\n* August 11 - School violence in Makassar\n** Dasrul, a senior teacher in SMK 2 Makassar, South Sulawesi was beaten by a student parent, later identified as Ahmad Adnan, the teacher's former student. Initially, the boy, identified by initial as AS, was slapped by the teacher because the boy used harsh words to the teacher. Outraged, the boy called his father, Ahmad Adnan, and his father (along with the boy) beaten the teacher in front of the class. Dahrul suffered nose fracture and bleeding continuously. Doctor later stated that there were several permanent damages to his face.\n** Government officials, including Minister of Education and Culture Muhadjir, condemned the beating. Students from the school, along with the teachers and the Republic of Indonesia Teachers Association protested the beating. The boy was later expelled from the school and wouldn't be accepted to any school throughout the province.\n** Members of the People's Representatives stated that immediate action should be taken in order to protect every teachers in Indonesia while doing their duties.\n* August 14 - Dual Nationality Issues - The new Minister of Energy and Natural Resources Arcandra Tahar sparked a national debate and controversy after findings revealed that he had dual nationality, an Indonesian and a U.S citizenship. Indonesia only allowed someone to have a dual nationality until 18 year old. Subsequently, he was \"put off duty\" by President Joko Widodo due to the dual nationality issues.\n* August 16 - A national flag raising team member was revealed to have a dual nationality. Identified as a Senior High School student Gloria Natapradja Hamel, an Indonesian citizen and French citizen. She was expelled from the national flag raising team for Indonesia Independence Day on August 17. A petition to allow her to come back to the group was made shortly after the incident.\n* August 17\n** Happiness and joy as Gloria Natapradja was accepted as one of the members of the national flag lowering team.\n** Indonesians rejoiced as they won their first and only gold medal in the 2016 Summer Olympics.\n* August 18 - The Indonesian Government confirmed that 2 Indonesians hostages had escaped from Abu Sayyaf and had been found by locals. One hostages escaped when he was about to be beheaded.\n* August 20\n** Two foreign tourists, one Australian and one British, were arrested by Indonesian Police due to suspected murder of Wayan Sudarsa, an Indonesian police officer.\n** A native Riau Islands' boat called pompong, carrying 17 people including 2 children sank off the coast of Tanjung Pinang, the provincial capital of Riau Islands Province. The boat was heading to Penyengat Island, a popular tourist island when it sank during thunderstorm. Search and rescue team found 10 bodies and rescued two survivors. Five others were still missing.\n* August 21\n** 177 Indonesian hajj pilgrims were found using Philippines passports instead of Indonesian passports, leading to a possible, \"loss of Indonesian citizenship\".\n** 5 missing people from the boat accident in Tanjung Pinang has been found, lifeless.\n* August 23 - Plan to raise cigarettes' price from typical Rp.18.000-Rp.20.000 to Rp.50.000 sparked an intense debate between smokers and non-smokers.\n* August 28 - Inspired by the church attack in Normandy, Mohammad Irfan detonated his homemade bomb while a mass was taking place in a church in Medan. After his bomb failed to explode, he chased the priest and tried to kill him with a knife, later overpowered by the people of the church. Police stated that the bomber had a connection with Bahrun Naim, and would be rewarded Rp.10 million if he succeed.\n* August 29 - Philippines arrested 5 people over fake hajj passports.\n* September 11 - Anniesa Hasibuan makes history as the first Indonesian designer in the New York Fashion Week and the first in the history of the event that features \"a collection of hijabs in every look\".\n* September 12 - Massive explosion occurred on the suburb of Makassar, South Sulawesi. The explosion was caused due to gas leak. Damages in the neighborhood were massive, with cars flipped and buildings destroyed.\n* September 15 - An explosion occurred on board the Gili Cat 2 ship in Bali while en route to Gili Trawangan, a popular island resort. 2 people were killed and 20 people were injured in the incident. Police suspected that the fuel tank located on the rear of the boat contacted a faulty wire on the boat, causing a short circuit that led to the explosion.\n* September 17 - A grenade was thrown into a Local Representative's car and exploded in Bener Meriah, Aceh Province. 2 people were killed instantly, including a 5-year-old boy. The third was pronounced dead at hospital. A manhunt was ordered immediately after the blast.\n* September 19\n**Three Indonesians that had previously taken hostages by Philippines terrorist group Abu Sayyaf were released.\n**Garut flash flood - A massive, 'tsunami-like' flash flood struck the city of Garut during the early hours of September 19. The Cimanuk River suddenly overflow, and a large, massive wall of water suddenly swept the residential area around the river. At least 30 people were killed when the flood struck the city. Most of them were killed while in their sleep. 22 people were missing. Preliminary report suggests that 100 houses went missing during the disaster and 300 houses were either damaged or destroyed\n* September 22\n** Conflict arose between Google and the Indonesian Government as Google accused by the Indonesian Government for tax evasion.\n** Another Indonesian identified as Herman has been released by Abu Sayyaf in the Philippines.\n* September 24 - A pedestrian bridge in Jakarta collapsed during a massive storm. 3 people were killed in the incident. Several people blamed the weather condition for the cause of the collapse, while several others stated that advertising billboards on the bridge might have caused an overloading, causing the collapse.\n* September 26 - Rioters burned the second floor of Gowa's Local Representative Building in Gowa, South Sulawesi. The arson started after a fight broke out during the protest.\n* September 28 - A video of a young Indonesian diplomat Nara Masista Rakhmatia complaining about the statements of Papuan human rights violations made by Oceanian leaders from Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Nauru, Marshall Islands, Tuvalu, and Tonga went viral in Indonesia. During the United Nations General Assembly, the six nations that complained about human rights condition in Papua were mocked and accused by the Indonesian Government for \"falsely report and accusing Indonesians for Papuans human rights violations.\n* October 2 - Three Indonesians, who had been held hostage by Abu Sayyaf, were released in Sulu.\n* October 3 -A woman, identified as Mutmainah, was arrested by the police after mutilating her own children in Cengkareng. News of the incident was widely shared on social media.\n* October 7 - A boat carrying 25 people sank in Bengawan Solo River. At least 7 people went missing, most of them were teenagers.\n* October 9 - All 7 missing people from Bengawan Solo boat accident were found, none survived.\n* October 11 - A bomb exploded inside Golkar politician Marthinus Werimon's house in Kotaraja, Jayapura. No one was killed or injured in the incident, with only minimal damages were reported.\n* October 12 - At least 172 houses were destroyed and a further 265 houses were damaged after a tornado struck the city of Pangandaran, West Java. One person was killed indirectly.\n* October 13 - Following an outcry by campaigners and the Indonesian people, a new law on paedophiles was approved by the government. Paedophiles would face chemical castration and possibly execution under the new laws. The courts can also order the police to plant a microchip instead of a chemical castration to surveillance the paedophiles' movement.\n* October 14 - After a long week of nationality issues, Archanda Tahar was inaugurated by President Joko Widodo as the Vice Minister of Energy and Human Resources, with Ignasius Jonan, the former Minister of Transportation, as the Minister of Energy and Human Resources.\n* October 15 - A speedboat carrying more than 40 people caught fire shortly after departing Jailolo Harbour in West Halmahera. At least 41 people were injured and 4 people were killed in the incident. Police stated that the fire started when one of the engines failed. The fire then contacted gasoline and ignited a massive fire.\n* October 16 - A suspension bridge, named by the local as the Yellow Bridge in Klungkung, Bali, collapsed. At least 8 people were killed in the incident, 34 others were injured. Eyewitnesses stated that the slings that were holding the weight of the bridge suddenly snapped. This structural failure could have been caused by overloading, as witnesses stated that there were many people and motorcycles seconds before the collapse.\n* October 20\n** Indonesia ratified the Paris Agreement.\n** An ISIS supporter, identified as Sultan Azianzah from South Tangerang, attacked three police officers in Tangerang police department with a knife. Sultan was shot by police and later pronounced dead at hospital. Two pipe bombs were recovered in the area near the attack site.\n* October 23 - A massive explosion occurred on a Pizza Hut Delivery building in Bekasi. The blast were so massive that a supermarket nearby were completely destroyed. Several structures located nearby the blast site were also suffered major damages. Several people were injured in the blast but no one was killed. Police stated that the blast might have been caused by a leak of a 50\u00a0kg gas tube.\n* October 25 - Puteri Indonesia Perdamaian 2016, was crowned Miss Grand International 2016 in the coronation night held at Las Vegas Strip, in Las Vegas, United States. She was the first ever Indonesian to win Miss Grand beauty pageant, one of the grand slam pageant in the world.\n* October 27 - Indonesian murderer Jessica Kumala Wongso was convicted guilty and was sentenced to 20 years in jail after proved to have murdered Wayan Mirna Salihin on 6 January 2016.\n* October 31 - A DHC-4 Caribou carrying construction materials with 4 crews on board went missing over Ilaga Pass while on approach to Ilaga.\n* November 1\n** The wreckage of the missing DHC-4 Caribou has been found by Indonesian search and rescue team. The aircraft had impacted a hill and was pulverized by the impact. No survivors were found on the crash site.\n** A nail bomb exploded on a roadside in Bantul after being stepped by a buffalo. No one was injured in the incident, but the buffalo was killed in the blast.\n* November 2 - Batam ferry sinking - A ferry carrying 101 passengers and crews sank off the coast of Nongsa in Batam, Riau Islands. The ferry was carrying illegal Indonesian workers from Malaysia when it sank during a thunderstorm. Survivors stated that the ferry was docking at the time when a big wave struck and capsized on its side. 39 people survived the sinking, while 44 were missing. At least 18 bodies, including a 6 month old baby, were recovered from the sea. Search and Rescue Team were immediately assembled. A crisis centre was set up in Nongsa.\n* November 3 - At least 54 bodies were recovered during search and rescue operation of the Batam ferry sinking.\n* November 4 - November 4 protest - Thousands of hardliner Muslims joined a march in Jakarta to protest the province's ethnic Chinese and Christian Governor Basuki Tjahaja Purnama (known in Indonesia as \"Ahok\") after his remarks on 5 October 2016 about Sura Al-Ma'ida Ayah 51 went viral on the internet. The remarks was made by him while campaigning in Pulau Pramuka, Kepulauan Seribu. The remarks sparked condemnation by hardline Muslims across Indonesia. The protest started peacefully early on the day, however it ended violently after several protesters refused to move from the protest area by the Indonesian Police. 350 people were hurt in the following clash, with 1 people died after suffering breathing problem.\n* November 5 - President Joko Widodo addressed the nation in response to the November 4 protest and had asked Indonesians to stay calm.\n* November 6 - 4 year old Intan Olivia Marbun was killed after a molotov bomb exploded in front of a church in Samarinda, East Kalimantan. The perpetrator, Muhammad Juhanda, and 3 toddlers were injured in the attack. The attack was inspired by ISIS, marking the third ISIS attack to occur in Indonesia in less than a month.\n* November 17 - At least 37 houses were damaged after a strong, magnitude 5.8 earthquake rocked the city of Malang in East Java. No one was killed in the incident.\n* November 19 - 15 people went missing after their boat collided with a Vietnamese vessel in Tuban, East Java.\n* November 24 - A Bell 412 EP helicopter carrying 5 people on board went missing over Borneo while en route to Malinau Regency in North Kalimantan. The helicopter, registered as HA-5166, had its last contact with Tarakan Tower at 11.29 local time. A search and rescue team was deployed in response to the disappearance.\n* November 25 - Anti-terror squad raided a house in Majalengka in West Java and arrested a terrorist in the operation. They found that the terrorist had bought materials for making bombs. Indonesian police confirmed that the blast would be three times more powerful than the bombs that had been used in the 2002 Bali bombings, in which a car bomb exploded in Legian Street, killing 202 people. The police later revealed that the terrorist was intended to attack several vital places in Jakarta, including the People's Representatives Council building, Indonesian Police Headquarters, Foreign embassies (including the U.S consulate), T.V stations, several \"undisclosed\" religious sites, and cafes in Jakarta. The attack was supposed to take place on the New Year's Eve. Had the attack occurred, the total number of casualties could surpass the number of victims in the 2002 Bali bombings.\n* November 26 - Indonesian anti terror squad arrested a man in Northern Aceh suspected to be involved in the Majalengka terror plot.\n* November 27\n** Search and rescue team found the wreckage of the helicopter that had gone missing over Borneo on November 24. At least 1 person survived the crash with injuries, while 3 people were killed in the crash. Their bodies were later recovered by search and rescue team. The pilot of the flight was still missing.\n** Indonesian Minister of Education and Social Culture Muhadjir stated his intention to remove the National Examination Test programme.\n* December 2\n** A massive demonstration involving more than 200.000 hardliner Muslims was held in Jakarta. Protesters demanded for the imprisonment of Jakarta's Christian and Chinese Governor Basuki Tjahaja Purnama due to his remarks on 5 October about Sura Al-Ma'ida Ayah 51. The protest was peaceful unlike the previous on 4 November. However, reports had emerged that protesters attacked multiple journalists on the scene, which drew condemnation from the public.\n** The Indonesian National Police arrested 10 people suspected of \"planning an assault to the government\".\n* December 3 - A PZL M28 Skytruck belonged to the Indonesian National Police lost contact with air traffic controller near Lingga, Riau Islands. The plane was approaching Batam when the incident occurred while carrying 13 police personnel. Local fishermen joined the search and rescue operation. Later, several personal belongings were retrieved from the sea near the area where the plane had lost contact.\n* December 4 - The first body part from one of the passengers of the missing Skytruck was found by search and rescue team. All passengers and crews were declared dead.\n* December 7 - Aceh earthquake - A shallow and violent magnitude 6.5 earthquake rocked the Aceh region on the morning of 7 December 2016, killing at least 104 people and injuring more than 1.000 people.\n* December 10 - Indonesian National Police arrested three people in a homestay in Bekasi. In a press conference, investigators stated that the terrorist were using TATP explosives. Investigators said that the bombs were highly explosive and added that the terrorists were planning to execute the bombing on the Presidential Palace on 11 December 2016 during guards exchange.\n* December 13 - Jakarta Governor Basuki Tjahaja Purnama attended his first blasphemy trial.\n* December 18 - An Indonesian Air Force Lockheed C-130 Hercules slammed onto Mount Lisuwa in Wamena while on approach to Wamena Airport, killing all 13 people on board.\n* December 21\n** Three terrorists were shot dead by the Indonesian National Police at a house in South Tangerang, West Java. Police then safely detonated the homemade bombs that they had discovered in the house. According to the police, the attackers were resisting arrests and threw bombs at the police, which forced them to shoot the terrorists on the spot. The police later added that the three terrorists were planning to attack police by throwing bombs into a police box during the New Year's Eve, similar to the earlier attack in Jakarta in January.\n** An Indonesian phrase, called \"Om Telolet Om\" went viral in social media and throughout the world. The phrase, translated in English as \"Uncle, Honk Your Horn, Uncle\" went viral after a video showing a group of children asked for a bus driver to honk their horn in Jepara, East Java was shared on social media (although several people claimed that the phrase went viral through spamming)\n* December 25 - Indonesian Police shot dead 2 people after resisting arrests and assaulted police in Jatiluhur Dam, Purwakarta, West Java. Another 2 people were arrested. All of them were arrested due to \"supporting terror attack\" as they were planning to blown up the Jatiluhur Dam, according to the a paper founded by the police. Had the attack occurred, the whole Jakarta would be submerged in water and thousands could be killed in the act.\n* December 27\n** 6 people were suffocated to death and 5 people were seriously injured when a group of armed robber held them as hostages inside a toilet with no ventilation. The robbery occurred in an elite neighborhood of Pulomas in East Jakarta. The victims were held for \"several hours\", which caused a lack of oxygen (hypoxia). A nationwide manhunt was ordered by the Chief of the National Police.\n** Former Head of the Indonesian National Football Association La Nyala Mataliti was convicted not guilty by prosecutor.\n* December 28 - 2 people suspected as accomplices in the robbery in Pulomas were arrested by the police."
      },
      {
        "title": "Puan Maharani",
        "text": "Up until elementary school (SD), Puan lived a relatively normal and uneventful life, despite being the granddaughter of the first president Sukarno. This was until she was in junior high school (SMP), as her mother Megawati, became active again in Indonesian politics during the New Order. She graduated from high school (SMA) in 1991, and she entered the University of Indonesia in 1991 to study mass communication. Graduating in 1997."
      },
      {
        "title": "Suwarsih Djojopuspito",
        "text": "During her time at the teacher school she also became involved in the Indonesian nationalist movement and its corresponding educational projects. Her sister Suwarni was involved in a \"wild school\" in Bandung which did not accept government funding, but which attempted to give a European-style education to young nationalist students. After graduating from the teaching school Suwarsih herself started to teach at one of those nationalist schools in Batavia. She met her husband, Soegondo Djojopoespito, working in such a school and they were married in 1932. They continued to teach at various schools around Java throughout the 1930s, in Semarang, Bandung, and Batavia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maiti Nepal",
        "text": "Anuradha Koirala was born in 1949, to parents Colonel Pratap Singh Gurung and Laxmi Gurung. She was called dijju means [elder sister] by the ones who she saved.She completed her schooling at a convent school in Kalimpong, India. Her inspiration to establish an organization for the betterment of women population came from her bitter relationship with her husband, Dinesh Prasad Koirala.Her highest inspiration was Mother Teresa. After several years of violence, abuse and three miscarriages, she separated from her husband."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siti Sukaptinah Sunaryo Mangunpuspito",
        "text": "In December 1978, to mark the fiftieth anniversary of the Indonesian Women's Congress, Siti was presented with a gold chain. On the forty-fifth Mother's Day, she was honoured by President Suharto for her role in the first Indonesian Women's Congress. In her final years, she lived quietly with her youngest daughter in Yogyakarta. She died there on 31 August 1991."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini Hermanus",
        "text": "Kartini Hermanus (2 August 194924 August 2021) is an Indonesian former military officer who became the first female general in the Indonesian Army."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nurmala Kartini Sjahrir",
        "text": "She received a master's and doctoral degree from the graduate school of Boston University, respectively in 1981 and 1990."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jepara",
        "text": "It was the site of an English Fort in the 17th century. It is the birthplace of Indonesian national heroine Kartini."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "She appeared twice in the Indonesian rupiah banknotes, in the 5 rupiah (1952 edition, which issued on 1953) and the 10,000 rupiah (1985 edition)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sri Koesnapsijah",
        "text": "After the Indonesian National Revolution, she was very active in Gerwani, an affiliate organization of the Communist Party of Indonesia which was founded in 1950. The organization's original name was (\"Gerwis\", the Conscious Women's Movement); Koesnapsijah acted as general secretary at the inaugural conference in June 1950, which was chaired by Tris Metty, Umi Sardjono and S. K. Trimurti. Later in the 1950s she was on the Jakarta regional committee of Gerwani. In the mid-1960s she was also appointed as a Communist Party delegate to the consultative body DPR-GR () representing the Jakarta area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini Muljadi",
        "text": "Kartini Muljadi (born 17 May 1930) is an Indonesian businesswoman and corporate lawyer, who previously worked as a judge and notary. Since 2007, she has been listed as one of the richest women in Indonesia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Khairahani Secondary School",
        "text": "When the wife of social server Bhawani Shankar Niraula, Mrs. Jasodadevi Niraula, died in April 2006, a scholarship was set up in her memory which provides the first and second students from classes 5,6,7 and 8 with a set of books and stationary each."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tererai Trent",
        "text": "Trent was born in the village of Zvipani in Karoi District, Mashonaland West Province. She was not allowed to go to her local school, Matau Primary School, as a child due to poverty as well as being female, although her brother Tinashe, an indifferent student, was given the opportunity to attend. She later recalled the men in the village including her father \"pointing to the boys in the village and saying 'These are the breadwinners of tomorrow. We need to educate them. We need to send them to school. The girls will get married.'\" She taught herself to read and write from her brother's books, and eventually started doing her brother's homework. When her teacher discovered this (because the homework was done so much better than the work her brother did at school) he begged Trent's father to allow her to attend school. She then attended school for a short period, but her father accepted a brideprice of a cow and married her off young. She had three children by age 18 and without a high school diploma. Her husband beat her for wanting an education. In 1991, Jo Luck from Heifer International visited her village and asked every woman about her greatest dream. Trent said she wanted to go to America and get a bachelor's degree, a master's, and eventually a PhD. Encouraged by her mother, Trent wrote down these dreams, put the paper in a scrap of tin, and buried it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sukarni",
        "text": "Sukarni persuaded chairman of Perhimpunan Pelajar-Pelajar Indonesia Chairul Saleh and chairman of Baperpi Supeno to establish an educational institution for Indonesian young men. At the end of 1942 the Ashrama Angkatan Baru or Ashrama Pemuda at Menteng 31 was founded and aided by \"Sendenbu\". In 1943, the first two were responsible for organizing the institution as chairman and vice chairman respectively helped by A.M. Hanafi as secretary and I. Wiejaja as treasurer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nurmala Kartini Sjahrir",
        "text": "Nurmala Kartini Sjahrir (born as Kartini Boru Pandjaitan, February 1, 1950) is an Indonesian anthropologist and former diplomat who served as the Indonesian ambassador to Argentina, accredited to Paraguay and Uruguay from August 10, 2010 to 2014. She also served as the Indonesian representative to the Advisory Board of ASEAN-IPR as well as a former chairwoman of \"Asosiasi Antropologi Indonesia\" (Association of Indonesian Anthropology), abbreviated as AAI."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fransisca Ratnasari",
        "text": "Fransisca Ratnasari Hari Saputra was born as the youngest daughter of four children of Petrus Haryanto and M. Kasiyem family. She went to Caritas Nandan Catholic Elementary School until she graduated in 1997. She then continue her education in SMPN 5 (Number 5 National Junior High School) of Yogyakarta but only lasted for 2 months because she decided to focus on her badminton career. She is now still registered as a student in STIE (School of Economics) PERBANAS Jakarta. After retired from the badminton, she continued studying at the Sanata Dharma University majoring in English literature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dewi Sartika",
        "text": "Dewi Sartika (4 December 188411 September 1947) was an advocate for and pioneer of education for women in Indonesia. She founded the first school for women in the Dutch East Indies. She was honoured as a National Hero of Indonesia in 1966."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini Muljadi",
        "text": "Following the death on 21 February 1973 of her husband, Djojo Muljadi, who was a notary, Kartini resigned as a civil servant because her income was insufficient to cover her family\u2019s needs. She was appointed a notary domiciled in Jakarta. Her clients included state-owned companies such as Widya Karya and multinationals such as Unilever. She also began to lecture in civil procedural law at various law faculties in Jakarta. She became a prominent notary, working for major companies in the 1970s and 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Education in Indonesia",
        "text": "During the colonial period there was a large gap between the educated male and female population. In 1920, on the island of Java and Madura out of the 6.5% literate male population, only 0.5% of the female native population are literate. Similar phenomenon can be observed on the 'Foreign Orientals' (Arabs and Chinese), with 26.5% literate male population and only 8.5% literate females out of the total population. In the outer islands beyond Java the difference between literate male and female population are 12% and 3% out of the population respectively. Inspired by a Javanese-born aristocrat Kartini who died young at the age of 25, the Van Deventer family worked to increase female involvement in education and received support from the Dutch government \u2014 eventually leading to foundation of Kartini Schools in 1911."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karolin Margret Natasa",
        "text": "The daughter of two-term governor Cornelis M.H., she was first elected into office in 2009, being re-elected to the national parliament in 2014. She is a graduate of Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia. In 2018, she ran for governorship of West Kalimantan, but lost to Sutarmidji."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kaumudi Teacher",
        "text": "Kaumudi was born in a royal family to A K Ramavarma Raja and Devaki Kettilamma on May 17, 1917, at Vatakara in Kannur. She later began to take interest in the India freedom struggle and pledged to not wear ornaments after her act of renunciation for the cause of Harijans in 1934."
      },
      {
        "title": "Martha Christina Tiahahu",
        "text": "Soon after Indonesia's independence, Tiahahu was declared a National Heroine of Indonesia; 2 January was designated Martha Christina Tiahahu Day. On that day, people in Maluku spread flower petals over the Banda Sea in an official ceremony honouring her struggle. However, the ceremony is smaller than that honouring Pattimura, on 15 May."
      },
      {
        "title": "Snatam Kaur",
        "text": "After graduating from Tam, Snatam attended Mills College in Oakland, California, receiving a bachelor's degree in biochemistry. She then returned to India to study Kirtan under her mother's teacher, Bhai Hari Singh. In 1997, Kaur began a career as a food technologist with Peace Cereals in Eugene, Oregon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anjana Om Kashyap",
        "text": "She had her initial schooling at Loreto Convent, a local Catholic school and then from Delhi Public School, Ranchi. She went on to pursue an honours in Botany from the University of Delhi. Kashyap went on to appear for the All India Pre Medical Test but failed to pass. She was a prolific debater and exhibited strong leadership qualities since childhood, having become the head-girl in both the schools and the president of her college hostel."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Mother's International School, New Delhi",
        "text": "The school's motto \"More True, Forever More True\" was given by the Mirra Alfassa, known as the Mother, and the school's emblem portrays a bird in flight rising towards heaven. When asked about the date of the school's opening, the Mother replied \"23456\". And as the only possible date was 23 April 1956, it was this day that the school first opened."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini (film)",
        "text": "Kartini is a 2017 Indonesian biographical family drama film directed by Hanung Bramantyo and written by Bramantyo and Bagus Bramanti. It features an ensemble cast, with Dian Sastrowardoyo starring in the title role of Indonesian woman emancipation heroine, Kartini. Christine Hakim, Acha Septriasa, Ayushita, Adinia Wirasti, and Reza Rahadian co-stars in supporting roles. Initially to be released on 2016, the film was delayed for a year. The film was released in Indonesia on 19 April 2017, two days before Kartini's day. Although being highly anticipated, the film turned out to perform below expectations. It gained just over 500 thousands viewers, a small viewership for a big budgeted local film. Despite turning a profitable venture, it is still considered an unexpected boxoffice disappointment for failing to reach less than 1 million viewers.\n* Dian Sastrowardoyo as R.A. Kartini\n** Neysa Chan as 6-year-old Kartini\n** Adelheid Bunga as 14-year-old Kartini\n* Deddy Sutomo as Raden Mas Adipati Ario Sosroningrat, Kartini's father\n* Christine Hakim as M.A. Ngasirah, Kartini's mother\n** Nova Eliza as Young M.A. Ngasirah\n* Djenar Maesa Ayu as R.A. Moerjam, Kartini's step-mother\n* Acha Septriasa as R.A. Roekmini, Kartini's half-sister\n* Ayushita as R.A. Kardinah, Kartini's sister\n* Reza Rahadian as R.M.P. Sosrokartono, Kartini's brother\n* Adinia Wirasti as R.A. Soelastri, Kartini's half-sister\n* Denny Sumargo as R.M. Slamet Sosroningrat, Kartini's brother\n* Dwi Sasono as Raden Adipati Joyodiningrat, Kartini's husband\n* Rianti Cartwright as Wilhelmina\n* Hans de Kraker as Ovink-Soer\n* Carmen van Rijnbach as\n* Alinda Wit as\n* Rebecca Reijman as Stella Zeehandelaar"
      },
      {
        "title": "S. K. Trimurti",
        "text": "A ceremony honoring Trimurti as a \"heroine for Indonesia's independence\" was held at the state palace in Central Jakarta. She was buried at Kalibata Heroes Cemetery."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Mother's day celebrated in April anywhere in the world?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Armenia April 7 is mother's day, and Indonesia celebrates  Kartini Day on 21 April, which is a celebration of the emancipation of women. Also, in Hindu tradition, Mother's Day is called \"Mata Tirtha Aunshi\" or \"Mother Pilgrimage fortnight,\" which is observed on the new moon day in the month of Baisakh, i.e., April/May."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How was Kartini Day established?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Raden Adjeng Kartini was a prominent Indonesian activist for women's rights and female education. After her death, her birthday was celebrated in Indonesia in her honor."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Please tell me about the school established in Kartini's name."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I couldn't find the information you requested. However, I did learn that Kartini Schools, named for the Javanese women's rights advocate Raden Ajeng Kartini (Lady Kartini), were opened to educate indigenous girls in the Dutch East Indies in the wake of the Dutch Ethical Policy."
    ],
    "topic": "Mother's Day",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Kartini Schools:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Kartini Schools"
        ],
        "ctx": "Kartini Schools, named for the Javanese women's rights advocate Raden Ajeng Kartini (Lady Kartini), were opened to educate indigenous girls in the Dutch East Indies in the wake of the Dutch Ethical Policy."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "She was born into an aristocratic Javanese family in the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia). After attending a Dutch-language primary school, she wanted to pursue further education, but Javanese women at the time were barred from higher education. She met various officials and influential people, including J.H. Abendanon, who was in charge of implementing the Dutch Ethical Policy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini Schools",
        "text": "Kartini Schools, named for the Javanese women's rights advocate Raden Ajeng Kartini (Lady Kartini), were opened to educate indigenous girls in the Dutch East Indies in the wake of the Dutch Ethical Policy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch Ethical Policy",
        "text": "The Dutch Ethical Policy () was the official policy of the colonial government of the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia) during the four decades from 1901 until the Japanese occupation of 1942. In 1901, the Dutch Queen Wilhelmina announced that the Netherlands accepted an ethical responsibility for the welfare of their colonial subjects. This announcement was a sharp contrast with the former official doctrine that Indonesia was a \"wingewest\" (region for making profit). It also marked the start of modern development policy; whereas other colonial powers talked of a civilising mission, which mainly involved spreading their culture to colonised peoples."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch Ethical Policy",
        "text": "On 17 September 1901, in her speech from the throne before the States-General, the newly crowned Queen Wilhelmina formally articulated the new policy - that the Dutch government had a moral obligation to the native people of the Dutch East Indies that could be summarised in the 'Three Policies' of Irrigation, Transmigration and Education."
      },
      {
        "title": "Priyayi",
        "text": "In 1901, the Dutch East Indies government established the so-called \"Ethische Politiek\" (\"Ethical Politics\") as an official policy. The Ethical Politics paradigm extended the colonial state control through educational, religious, agricultural, resource extraction, and political surveillance institutions over the native population until Japanese occupation of 1942. Western-style education became available to the native populace, although only the wealthy could afford tuition at the secondary and tertiary institutions where Dutch is the primary language of instruction. Among the Javanese, priyayi men were the first to be educated at Western-style institutions before entering the colonial civil service."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch Ethical Policy",
        "text": "Supporters of the Policy were concerned about the social and cultural conditions holding back the native population. They tried to raise awareness among the natives of the need to free themselves from the fetters of the feudal system and to develop themselves along Western lines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Feminism in Indonesia",
        "text": "Kartini or Raden Adjeng Kartini was born a Javanese noblewoman in which she was able to attend Dutch colonial school which opened her eyes to Western ideals. After reaching adulthood, Javanese tradition dictated that Kartini live a life in shelter as a young female noble. During this time, Kartini wrote letters to her Dutch schoolmates, exposing the gender inequality emboldened by Javanese traditions which included forced marriages at a young age and the denial of education for women. With the help of the Dutch government, Kartini opened up the first Indonesian primary school for girls that allowed all Indonesian girls to attend regardless of social status. After her death in 1904, her letters were published and became symbol for the women's rights movement in Indonesia and furthered the cause of women's emancipation. April 1 is now celebrated annually as Kartini Day to celebrate her birth as a national heroine."
      },
      {
        "title": "P. F. Dahler",
        "text": "Simultaneously the Dutch Ethical Policy created an educated indigenous elite increasingly voicing the idea of Indonesian national independence. For the relatively small Indo-European community (less than 0.5% of the total native population) this posed the challenge of positioning itself between the emerging forces of the Indonesian National Awakening and the repressive forces of the colonial power."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch Ethical Policy",
        "text": "The opening of Western education to indigenous Indonesians began only at the beginning of the 20th century; in 1900. Only 1,500 went to European schools compared to 13,000 Europeans. By 1928, however, 75,000 Indonesians had completed Western primary education and nearly 6,500 secondary school, although this was still a tiny proportion of the population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch Ethical Policy",
        "text": "The Policy was the first serious effort to create programmes for economic development in the tropics. It differed from the \"civilising mission\" of other colonial powers in emphasising material welfare rather than a transfer of culture. The educational component of the Policy was mainly technical as it did not aim at creating brown Dutchmen and women. The Policy foundered on two problems. First, the budgets allocated to the Policy's programmes were never sufficient to achieve its aims, with the result that many colonial officials became disillusioned with the possibility of achieving lasting progress. The financial stringencies of the Great Depression put a definitive end to the Policy. Second, the educational programmes of the Policy contributed significantly to the Indonesian National Revival, giving Indonesians the intellectual tools to organise and to articulate their objections to colonial rule. As a result, many in the colonial establishment saw the Policy as a mistake that was counter to Dutch interests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "In her letters, Raden Adjeng Kartini wrote about her views of the social conditions prevailing at that time, particularly the condition of native Indonesian women. Most of her letters protest the Javanese cultural tendency to impose obstacles in women's development. She wanted women to have the freedom to learn and study. R.A. Kartini wrote of her ideas and ambitions, including \"Zelf-ontwikkeling, Zelf-onderricht, Zelf-vertrouwen, Zelf-werkzaamheid\" and \"Solidariteit\". These ideas were all based on \"Religieusiteit, Wijsheid, en Schoonheid\", that is, belief in God, wisdom, and beauty, along with \"Humanitarianismus\" (humanitarianism) and \"Nationalismus' (nationalism)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch Ethical Policy",
        "text": "The Policy promoted efforts to improve the lot of the ordinary people through irrigation programmes, the introduction of banking services for the native population, and subsidies for native industries and handicrafts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch Ethical Policy",
        "text": "In 1901, the Queen, under advice from her prime minister of the Christian Anti-Revolutionary Party, formally declared a benevolent \"Ethical Policy\" which was aimed at bringing progress and prosperity to the peoples of the Indies. The Dutch conquest of the Indies brought them together as a single colonial entity by the early 20th century, which was fundamental to the Policy's implementation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Liberal Period (Dutch East Indies)",
        "text": "Concern over the welfare of indigenous populations in the Indies resulted in Queen Wilhelmina proclaiming in 1901 a new benevolent \"Ethical Policy\", intended to bring progress, prosperity and improved education to the natives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch Ethical Policy",
        "text": "Journalist Pieter Brooshooft (1845-1921), wrote about the moral duty of the Dutch to provide more for the peoples of the Indies. With the support of socialists and concerned middle-class Dutch, he campaigned against what he saw as the unjustness of the colonial surplus. He described the Indies indigenous peoples as \"childlike\" and in need of assistance, not oppression. Newspapers were one of the few mediums of Indies communication to the Dutch parliament, and as editor of the \"De Locomotief\", the largest of the Dutch-language newspapers in the Indies, he published writing by Snouck Hurgronje on understanding Indonesians. Brooshooft sent reporters across the archipelago to report on local developments; they reported on the poverty, crop failure, famine and epidemics in 1900. Lawyers and politicians supportive of Brooshooft's campaigning had an audience with Queen Wilhelmina and argued that the Netherlands owed the peoples of the Indies a 'debt of honour'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Batavia, Dutch East Indies",
        "text": "The Dutch Ethical Policy was introduced in 1901, expanding educational opportunities for the indigenous population of the Dutch East Indies. In 1924, a law school was founded in Batavia. The city's population in the 1930 census was 435,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Imperialism",
        "text": "The Dutch Ethical Policy was the dominant reformist and liberal political character of colonial policy in the Dutch East Indies during the 20th century. In 1901, the Dutch Queen Wilhelmina announced that the Netherlands accepted an ethical responsibility for the welfare of their colonial subjects. This announcement was a sharp contrast with the former official doctrine that Indonesia was mainly a \"wingewest\" (region for making profit). It marked the start of modern development policy, implemented and practised by Alexander Willem Frederik Idenburg, whereas other colonial powers usually talked of a civilizing mission, which mainly involved spreading their culture to colonized peoples."
      },
      {
        "title": "Golden Coach (Netherlands)",
        "text": "In 2011, MPs Harry van Bommel and Mariko Peters suggested removing the left panel, portraying \"Hulde der Koloni\u00ebn\" (Tribute from the colonies). According to activists, the panel showed half-naked slaves making gestures of submission to the royal house. Historians, on the other hand, stated that the scene does not depict slaves or the royal family, nor is it a glorification of the colonies. The panel shows the relations with the colonies at that point and, according to historian Susan Leg\u00eane of the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, refers to the discussion about the Dutch Ethical Policy that focused on a moral vocation that the Netherlands should feel towards the people in the colonies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch East Indies",
        "text": "In 1901 the Dutch adopted what they called the Ethical Policy, under which the colonial government had a duty to further the welfare of the Indonesian people in health and education. Other new measures under the policy included irrigation programs, transmigration, communications, flood mitigation, industrialisation, and protection of native industry. Industrialisation did not significantly affect the majority of Indonesians, and Indonesia remained an agricultural colony; by 1930, there were 17 cities with populations over 50,000 and their combined populations numbered 1.87\u00a0million of the colony's 60\u00a0million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Student Hidjo",
        "text": "In the early 20th century, the introduction of Western technology and culture was leading to the fragmentation of the traditional Javanese lifestyle. Meanwhile, the Dutch Ethical Policy, which guaranteed certain rights and freedoms\u00a0\u2013 such as the right to education and some press freedoms\u00a0\u2013 was leading to social unrest. The tighter controls put on the press after 1906 led to \"Student Hidjo\" being published with the text \"not to be quoted\" (\"\") on the cover."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Imperialism",
        "text": "The Dutch Ethical Policy (Dutch: \"\") emphasised improvement in material living conditions. The policy suffered, however, from serious underfunding, inflated expectations and lack of acceptance in the Dutch colonial establishment, and it had largely ceased to exist by the onset of the Great Depression in 1929. It did however create an educated indigenous elite able to articulate and eventually establish independence from the Netherlands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch Ethical Policy",
        "text": "The Policy first introduced the concept of transmigration from over-populated Java to the less densely populated areas of Sumatra and Kalimantan, beginning with government-sponsored schemes from 1905 onwards. However, the numbers of people moved during the period of the Policy was a tiny fraction of the increase in population in Java during the same period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch Ethical Policy",
        "text": "In 1899, the liberal Dutch lawyer Conrad Theodor van Deventer published an essay in the Dutch journal \"De Gids\" which claimed that the Colonial Government had a moral responsibility to return the wealth that the Dutch had received from the East Indies to the indigenous population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indos in colonial history",
        "text": "To persuade his brother in law, the father of Conrad Th\u00e9odoor van Deventer (who later became the leading spokesman of the 'Ethical Policy'), \"not\" to take the position of principal at the 'Koning Willem III' school in Batavia (the only school for secondary education in the Dutch East Indies), newspaper editor Conrad Busken Huet expressed the following popular opinion among the expatriate Dutch community in 1869: \"...the Indies climate is fatally detrimental to the proper functioning of their [schoolchildren's] brains, even when born out of pure blooded European parents, you can see the liplap [abusive term for Indos] nature in their faces. Simplistic language forms like Malay seem to eliminate parts of their thinking capabilities, so that education [...] is futile. [...] Even the best among them will remain deficient and will end up to be no more than barely tolerable civil servants.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Indonesia also celebrates the Kartini Day (\"Hari Kartini\") on 21 April, in memory of activist Raden Ajeng Kartini. This is a celebration of the emancipation of women. The observance was instituted at the 1938 Indonesian Women Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Olivia Mariamne Devenish",
        "text": "At this point, the Western colonists at Java mixed their European habits with East Indian ones: for example, white women born in the East Indies used \"Areca catechu\", and they only dressed in European fashion on official occasions, such as going to church, receptions and visits, and otherwise wore the more comfortable Asian dress \"Kebaya\" and sarong. These habits contributed to what European visitors regarded to be the decadence of the colonial lifestyle in the Dutch East Indies. Devenish banned the common use of chewing \"Areca catechu\" by Western women, and removed the pots for this from the reception rooms of the Governor's residence to prevent her guests from using it. She also banned the wearing of the Asian sarong and kebaya gowns by Western women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "Sukarno's Old Order state declared 21 April as Kartini Day to remind women that they should participate in \"the hegemonic state discourse of \"pembangunan\" (development)\". After 1965, however, Suharto's New Order state reconfigured the image of Kartini from that of radical women's emancipator to one that portrayed her as a dutiful wife and obedient daughter, \"as only a woman dressed in a kebaya who can cook.\" On that occasion, popularly known as Hari Ibu Kartini or Mother Kartini Day, \"young girls were to wear tight, fitted jackets, batik shirts, elaborate hairstyles, and ornate jewelry to school, supposedly replicating Kartini's attire but in reality, wearing an invented and more constricting ensemble than she ever did.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "During President Suharto's New Order (1965\u20131998), government propaganda used Mother's Day and Kartini Day to inculcate into women the idea that they should be docile and stay at home."
      },
      {
        "title": "Budi Utomo",
        "text": "The Dutch were tolerant of the rise and development of Indonesian nationalism. Budi Utomo did not have mass appeal and they regarded the nationalist activities in the first decade of the 20th century as a natural outcome of the Ethical Policy, which emphasised the importance of looking after the welfare of the people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini Schools",
        "text": "Efforts to create opportunities for upper-class Javanese women struggled against opposition from Conservative Dutch officials and the Javanese regent class (bupatis). The Dutch language boarding schools were staffed by women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indonesian National Awakening",
        "text": "The Ethical Period's emphasis on education did not deliver widespread educational opportunities, however, it did provide a Dutch education for the children of the indigenous Indonesian elite. Largely intended to provide clerical labour for the growing colonial bureaucracy, the Western education brought with it Western political ideas of freedom and democracy. During the 1920s and 30s, this small elite began to articulate a rising anti-colonialism and a national consciousness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "As the wedding approached, R.A. Kartini's attitude towards Javanese traditional customs changed. She became more tolerant and felt her marriage would bring good fortune for her ambition to develop a school for native women. In her letters, she mentioned that her husband supported her desire to develop the Jepara woodcarving industry and a school for native women, but also mentioned that she was going to write a book. This ambition went unrealized due to her premature death in 1904."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch Ethical Policy",
        "text": "Proponents of the Policy argued that financial transfers should not be made to the Netherlands while conditions for the indigenous peoples of the archipelago were poor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "Although Kartini's father allowed his daughters' schooling until the age of twelve, he firmly closed the door to further education. As a result, he prevented Kartini from continuing her studies in the Netherlands or enter medical school. Eventually, however, he gave permission for her to study to become a teacher in Batavia (now Jakarta). In the end, her plans to study in Japan changed into plans to journey to Tokyo, on the advice of Abendanon that this would be best for Kartini and her younger sister, Ayu Rukmini. In 1903, plans to become a teacher in Tokyo were abandoned due to Kartini's upcoming marriage: \" In short, I no longer desire to take advantage of this opportunity because I am to be married\". This was despite the Dutch Education Department finally giving permission for Kartini and Rukmini to study in Batavia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "After her death, her sisters continued her advocacy of educating girls and women. Kartini's letters were published in a Dutch magazine and eventually, in 1911, as the works: \"Out of Darkness to Light\", \"Women's Life in the Village\", and \"Letters of a Javanese Princess\". Her birthday is now celebrated in Indonesia as Kartini Day in her honor, as well as multiple schools being named after her and a fund being established in her name to finance the education of girls in Indonesia. She was interested in mysticism and opposed polygamy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "In 1964, President Sukarno declared R.A. Kartini's birth date, 21 April, as \"Kartini Day\"\u2014an Indonesian national holiday. This decision has been criticized. It has been proposed that Kartini Day should be celebrated in conjunction with Indonesian Mothers\u2019 Day on 22 December. So R.A. Kartini as a national heroine does not overshadow women who took arms to oppose the Dutch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch Ethical Policy",
        "text": "The Policy emphasised improvement in material living conditions. It suffered, however, from severe underfunding, inflated expectations and lack of acceptance in the Dutch colonial establishment, and it had mostly ceased to exist by the onset of the Great Depression in 1930."
      },
      {
        "title": "Liberal Period (Dutch East Indies)",
        "text": "Liberal Period (Dutch East Indies)\n--Background: the cultivation system.\n--De-regulation of the Indies economy.\n--The ethical policy.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Annelien Kappeyne van de Coppello",
        "text": "During debates on Dutch citizens living abroad which occurred at the end of the 1970s, Kapeyne was a supporter of allowing them to repatriate, especially if they had given up citizenship because of policy and their new home enacted policies they disagreed with. She used as an example a Dutch national who had given up citizenship to live in South Africa and wanted to repatriate because of Apartheid. She advocated to maintain a system which supported proportional representation in government and was opposed to a district system, which might create inequalities. When constitutional debate was held on the inviolability of the human body, Kapeyne worked across party lines, though it was unusual for the era, to press for approval. She believed that it was an innate right for a person to make decisions on their own body, which included abortion, euthanasia, and organ donation. Her efforts in amending the constitution, ensured that right for all Dutch citizens and was one of her most important contributions as a legislator."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judith Heumann",
        "text": "Heumann was born to Werner and Ilse Heumann, who were German Jewish immigrants. She had polio at the age of 18 months, and has used a wheelchair most of her life. Heumann had to fight repeatedly to be included in the educational system. The local public school refused to allow her to attend, calling her a fire hazard due to her inability to walk. Instead, for three years she was given home instruction twice a week, for about an hour each visit. Heumann's mother, Ilsa Heumann, a community activist in her own right, challenged the decision. Heumann was then allowed to go to a special school in the fourth grade for disabled children. Per city policy, Heumann was to return to home instruction for high school. Heumann's mother rallied against this policy with other parents who put enough pressure on the school to reverse the policy. Heumann entered high school in 1961."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maatschappij tot Nut van 't Algemeen",
        "text": "The Society was not against the church, but aimed to provide education that conformed to general Christian ethical principles and that was not dogmatic about doctrine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groener v Minister for Education",
        "text": "A Dutch woman, Miss Anita Groener, was refused a permanent teaching post at a Dublin design college. She did not speak Irish. She argued this was a restriction on her right to free movement of workers under TFEU article 45."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indos in colonial history",
        "text": "In the next century Dutch ethnocentric beliefs dominated the administration's politics and policies. In an effort to legitimize and promote the colonial system the so-called \u2018Ethical Policy\u2019 was developed and implemented (1900\u20131930), while at the same time the superiority syndrome (i.e. The White Man's Burden) prevailed more than ever. Also on a social level the arrival of larger number of Dutch expatriates, for the first time including many Dutch women and families, continued to affect the nature of Indo-European society. In the end political and social \"\u2018Dutchification\u2019\" almost totally eradicated the Eurasian character of Indo culture. The European population on Java and Madura in 1920 was 133,000, 189,000 by 1930 and circa 240,000 by 1940. This was an increase of over 500% from the numbers in the previous century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indonesian philosophy",
        "text": "When the Dutch colonial government in Indonesia implemented \u2018The Ethical Politics\u2019 (\"Politik Etis\") in the early 20th century, Dutch-style educational institutions mushroomed and were opened for native children of noble, feudal classes who wanted to work in colonial institutions. The Dutch-speaking schools taught Western philosophy, among which Enlightenment philosophy was taught to Indonesian natives, much later than its 5th century emergence in Europe (Larope 1986:236-238). The alumni of these schools mostly continued their studies in European universities. They soon gathered as a newly emerging elite in Indonesia who comprised the first generation of European-style intelligentsia, and they later advocated Western philosophy instead of their original ethnic philosophies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indo people",
        "text": "Notwithstanding the fact that Indos in the former colony of the Dutch East Indies were officially part of the European legal class and were formally considered to be Dutch nationals, the Dutch government always practiced an official policy of discouragement with regard to the post-WWII repatriation of Indos to the Netherlands. While Dutch policy was in fact aimed at stimulating Indos to give up Dutch citizenship and opt for Indonesian citizenship, simultaneously the young Indonesian Republic implemented policies increasingly intolerant towards anything remotely reminiscent of Dutch influence. Even though actual aggression against Indos decreased after the extreme violence of the Bersiap period, all Dutch (language) institutions, schools and businesses were gradually eliminated and public discrimination and racism against Indos in the Indonesian job market continued. In the end 98% of the original community moved to Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Model minority",
        "text": "Notwithstanding the fact that Indos in the former colony of the Dutch East Indies were officially part of the European legal class and were formally considered to be Dutch nationals, the Dutch government practiced an official policy of discouragement with regard to the post-WWII repatriation of Indos to the Netherlands. While Dutch policy was in fact aimed at stimulating Indos to give up Dutch citizenship and opt for Indonesian citizenship, simultaneously the young Indonesian Republic implemented policies increasingly intolerant towards anything remotely reminiscent of Dutch influence. Even though actual aggression against Indos decreased after the extreme violence of the Bersiap period, all Dutch (language) institutions, schools and businesses were gradually eliminated and public discrimination and racism against Indos in the Indonesian job market continued. In the end 98% of the original Indo community repatriated to their distant fatherland in Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "During her seclusion, Kartini continued to self-educate herself. She was fluent in Dutch and acquired several Dutch pen pals. One of which, was a girl named Rosa Abendanon, who later became a close friend. Books, newspapers, and European magazines fed Kartini's interest in Europe and feminist thinking and overall fostered the desire to improve the conditions of indigenous Indonesian women, which at the time had a very low social status."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rita Verdonk",
        "text": "As a minister, Verdonk has proposed the following, which have not become law:\n*In October 2005, a ban on Muslim women wearing the burqa in public places, on the grounds that the burqa, which covers the face, is a security risk since suicide bombers could use it as a disguise. She cancelled a meeting with Dutch Muslim leaders when one (of the 30) would not shake hands with her, because she is a woman. She has said that \"the time for cosy tea-drinking\" with Muslim groups had passed.\n* In January 2006, she proposed the adoption of a national code of conduct, listing the most important conventions of Dutch society, to facilitate the integration of immigrants. She was inspired by a similar initiative undertaken by the city of Rotterdam. One requirement would be that everyone agreed to speak only Dutch in the streets.\n* Upon receiving Dutch citizenship, immigrants would have to sing the first stanza of the national anthem, the \"Wilhelmus.\"\n* In March 2006, Verdonk considered returning homosexual asylum seekers to Iran because she understood they were no longer being prosecuted. The general public conception was that acts of homosexuality were still punishable by death. She noted that homosexuality in itself was not punishable by death sentence in Iran. In response to parliamentary criticism, the Minister announced on 4 March that all asylum cases involving homosexual Iranians would be assessed on an individual basis. Her proposed policy initially earned her selection for the Human Rights Watch Hall of Shame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian Union (Netherlands)",
        "text": "Some of CU's conservative policies include:\n* Facilitation by government of a one-earner model, allowing one parent, usually the wife, to stay at home and take care of the children.\n* Society should cherish its collective moments of rest, and preferably leave Sunday a day of rest.\n* Abortion and euthanasia-practices should be reduced and eventually replaced by alternatives, such as care of women with unwanted pregnancies and palliative care.\n* The Dutch policy of toleration of soft drugs should be abandoned.\n* Combatting child pornography and prostitution.\n* Defending the freedom of education (that is, to found religious schools), because of sphere sovereignty.\n* The Netherlands should remain an independent political entity within the European Union.\n* Limiting the use of genetic manipulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rita Verdonk",
        "text": "On 27 June 2006 Verdonk informed parliament of her decision to allow MP Ayaan Hirsi Ali to keep her Dutch passport after all. According to Verdonk, Hirsi Ali had presented her with new convincing evidence related to her use of her grandfather's surname, and the false date of birth was insufficient grounds to cancel her passport. The next day, during a parliamentary debate took place, minister Verdonk and prime-minister Jan Peter Balkenende were questioned about the decision. At the end of the first period of the debate, the prime minister said that Hirsi Ali had to sign a letter accepting responsibility for her false statements in order to retain her citizenship. Otherwise, the solution would not be acceptable for minister Verdonk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "Kartini's letters also expressed her hopes for support from overseas. In her correspondence with Estell \"Stella\" Zeehandelaar, R.A. Kartini expressed her wish to be equal with European women. She depicted the sufferings of Javanese women fettered by tradition, unable to study, secluded, and who must be prepared to participate in polygamous marriages with men they don't know."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "After Kartini died, J.H. Abendanon, the Minister for Culture, Religion, and Industry in the East Indies, collected and published the letters that she had sent to her friends in Europe. The book was titled \"Door Duisternis tot Licht (Out of Dark Comes Light)\" and published in 1911. It went through five editions, with additional letters included in the final edition, and was translated into English by Agnes L. Symmers as \"Letters of a Javanese Princess\". The publication of letters written by a native Javanese woman attracted great interest in the Netherlands, and Kartini's ideas began to change the way the Dutch viewed native women in Java. Her ideas also provided inspiration for prominent figures in the fight for independence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Annelien Kappeyne van de Coppello",
        "text": "In 1981, Kappeyne left the legislature after a series of policy disputes with her party. The first disagreement was over the reinstatement of the death penalty, which she opposed, and the second was in regard to whether foreigners should be allowed to participate in municipal elections. She believed that as a tolerant nation, the Netherlands should allow those willing to take part in government to do so and saw those who would forbid their participation as evidence of rising xenophobia. She went to work at the Veronica Broadcasting Organization as a manager of staffing and company facilities, but quickly found the culture not to her liking and returned to the House in 1982 during the First Lubbers cabinet, as State Secretary for Social Affairs and Employment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch intervention in Bali (1906)",
        "text": "The Netherlands, also under criticism for their policies in Java, Sumatra and the eastern island, decided to make amends, and announced the establishment of an \"Ethical policy\". As a consequence, the Dutch in Bali turned students and protectors of Balinese culture and endeavored to preserve it in addition to their initial modernization role. Efforts were made at preserving Bali culture and at making it a \"living museum\" of classical culture, and in 1914, Bali was opened to tourism. The very harshness of the 1906 and 1908 military invasions thus paradoxically triggered an international uproar which contributed to the preservation of Bali's culture, to make the island one of the most popular tourist destinations today."
      },
      {
        "title": "International reactions to Fitna",
        "text": "In a letter to the state-owned Indonesian news agency Antara, Dutch ambassador Nikolaos van Dam said how Dutch society is one of peaceful co-existence, with respect for the law, which guarantees safety and freedom of speech and freedom of religion. He said that Holland has a tradition of respect, tolerance and responsibility, and that offending others is not part of that tradition; he called for everyone else to act in a similar spirit. Van Dam also expressed his government's desire to remain in open contact with everyone who wishes peaceful dialogue, to build a society \"more firmly grounded in mutual understanding and respect.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "State of the Netherlands v. Urgenda Foundation",
        "text": "The Dutch government appealed the ruling over multiple actions through 2018 to the Court of Appeals at the Hague. The state argued that the District Court's orders exceeded the \"trias politica\", the Dutch's separation of powers, by creating environmental policy through its rulings. In these appeals, Urgenda further stressed the human rights issue, and introduced assertions that the Dutch government was bound by Articles 2 and 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) to address emissions, which the state refuted. The Court of Appeals ruled in October 2018 upholding the 25% emissions reduction order. The Court of Appeals rejected the state arguments that the order exceeded the separation of powers: the ruling was non-specific and did not specify the legislation of how to achieve the target, and because the matter was related to human rights, including those from the ECHR, the courts had the authority to issue such rulings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hollandsch-Inlandsche School",
        "text": "Hollandsch-Inlandsche School (HIS) (Dutch school for natives) was a school during the Dutch colonial era in Indonesia. The school, was first established in 1914, following with the enactment of the Dutch Ethical Policy. The school was at the Low Education level (\"Lager Onderwijs\") or at the level of basic education today. The school was intended for the population of indigenous Indonesian descent. Generally reserved for children from the noble class, prominent figures, or civil servants. The length of the school is seven years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neratja (newspaper)",
        "text": "It was originally funded partly by the Dutch colonial government (under the direction of Governor General Johan Paul van Limburg Stirum) which hoped to support a Malay-language forum for perspectives sympathetic to the Dutch Ethical Policy, a paternalistic policy aimed at selectively improving the lives of some elite Indonesians through education and government posts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mothers of Srebrenica",
        "text": "In 2019 the Supreme Court of the Netherlands ruled that the Dutch forces were 10% liable for the massacre given the 10% probability that they could have prevented it. The Dutch compound held 350 Muslims who were unknown to Serbian forces but were still evicted from the compound on Serbian demands; the court ruled the Dutch forces directly responsible for their deaths. Mothers of Srebrenica were in attendance but were not provided with translators, and they had to be informed about the ruling afterwards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "Kartini was the fifth child and second-eldest daughter in a family of eleven, including half-siblings. She was born into a family with a strong intellectual tradition. Her grandfather, Pangeran Ario Tjondronegoro IV, became a regency chief at the age of 25, while Kartini's older brother, Sosrokartono, was an accomplished linguist. Kartini's family allowed her to attend school until she was 12 years old. Here, among other subjects, she learned Dutch, an unusual accomplishment for Javanese women at the time. After she turned 12 she was secluded (\"pingit\") at home, which was a common practice among young female Javanese nobles, to prepare them for wedlock. During seclusion, girls were not allowed to leave their parents' house until they were married, after which the authority over them was transferred to their husbands. Kartini's father was more lenient than some during his daughter's seclusion, giving her such privileges as embroidery lessons and occasional appearances in public for special events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indos in colonial history",
        "text": "The 3 decades of the Ethical Policy was a time of significant reform and change leading up to a total transformation of the colony. Under the consecutive rule of several 'Ethical' Governors-General a slow process of democratisation and education began. In 1910 the big cities in the colony got town councils and in 1925 mayors. In 1916 an infant form of parliament named the People's Council (Dutch: Volksraad) was provided for, which commenced in 1918 and turned into a semi-legislative body in 1925. The social emancipation and politicization of Indos continued in earnest with the establishment of parties like the Indische Party in 1912, Insulinde (Political Party) in 1913 and the IEV and NIP in 1919. Although content with the greater opportunities for schooling in the colony, Indos also felt dubious about the increasing competition on the job market by educated indigenous people. Notwithstanding the obvious awakening of a national consciousness, the speed in which the great catalyst of WWII accelerated the transformation from a colony into an independent nation was not foreseen by anyone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "Raden Adjeng\" Kartini (21 April 1879 \u2013 17 September 1904), also known as Raden Ayu\" Kartini, was a prominent Indonesian activist who advocated for women's rights and female education."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hijab and burka controversies in Europe",
        "text": "The proposed legislation in the Netherlands applies nationally. Earlier, schools and other institutions had enforced their own bans on Islamic dress, although usually not on the Islamic headscarf. Employers also have their own policies. Cases of dismissal or exclusion from school are sometimes handled by the Netherlands Equality Commission, creating de facto national guidelines on what constitutes discrimination. In Amsterdam, school policies attracted media attention after an incident in 2003. A higher vocational college, banned three students for wearing the niqab. One was removed by police when she tried to enter the school wearing the niqab: the school regulations are legally enforceable because unauthorised entry is trespass. The students appealed to the Equality Commission, which ruled (in March 2003) in favour of the school. The school justified the ban on the grounds that the niqab \"hindered eye contact, which testifies to mutual respect\". The Commission agreed with the school, indicating that the educational necessity of contact and communication within the school building overrode the religious-freedom aspects. The education minister, Maria van der Hoeven, of the Christian-Democratic party CDA, publicly approved the Commission decision. The Amsterdam CDA subsequently called for a national ban on chador, burqa and niqab in schools, partly on the grounds that they conflicted with common national values."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kapitan Cina",
        "text": "In the early twentieth century, in keeping with their so-called 'Ethical Policy', the Dutch colonial authorities made concerted efforts to appoint Chinese officers and other government officials based on merit. Some of these candidates came from outside traditional Cabang Atas families, including totok appointees, such as Tjong A Fie, Majoor der Chinezen (1860\u20131921) in Medan, Lie Hin Liam, Luitenant der Chinezen in Tangerang, and Khoe A Fan, Luitenant der Chinezen in Batavia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies",
        "text": "During the tenure of governors-general who were proponents of the ethical policy a people's council called the \"Volksraad\" for the Dutch East Indies was installed in 1918. The \"Volksraad\", an infant form of democratic council, was limited to an advisory role and only a small portion of the population were able to vote for its members. The council comprised 30 indigenous members, 25 European and 5 from Chinese and other populations, and was reconstituted every four years. In 1925 the \"Volksraad\" was made a semilegislative body; and the governor-general was expected to consult the \"Volksraad\" on major issues."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Dutch nationality",
        "text": "In the 20th century, however, the Dutch colonial policy towards the East Indies changed and moved from the liberalist to neoliberalist point of view of how to deal with imperial possessions. The trend showed the desire to guard the rights of the natives and implement a better protection of colonies against outside threat. With this idea, the Netherlands began a program of greater integration in the Dutch East Indies. It was based primarily on the humanitarian idea of offering help and guidance to achieve peace and order. This was due to the assumption that subjects of the empire were not mature enough to build their own state or politics, and the mother country felt the obligation to educate them in the sphere and set an example. The new policy was called Assimilation and aimed to create a unity between Eastern and Western Dutchmen. The new harmony would be joined politically and nationally disregarding racial differences which could not weaken it. This however would mean the granting of political autonomy to the dependent Indonesia, something that a large number of Dutchmen did not agree with primarily because of economic reasons. This cultural and national synthesis was never realized in as much as strong nationalistic feelings in the Dutch East Indies, and European affairs soon ripped the plan apart."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catharina Johanna Koek",
        "text": "Her mother was born as the illegitimate daughter of a European man and a freed slave, which was not at all uncommon of her class. She wore a mixture of Dutch and native clothes, wore her hair in a bun as an Asian, and chewed areca nut. She was also a friendly and warm person who behaved in accordance with European etiquette; all very common and in the habits of the colonists of the Dutch East Indies, but considered by other Europeans at the time as a sign of the decadence of the Dutch East Indies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indo Europeesch Verbond",
        "text": "After the economic crisis of 1929 Indos were the first to truly comprehend the profound change initiated by the so-called \u2018Dutch Ethical Policy\u2019 (1900\u20131930). The relatively limited but high quality educational opportunities that had been opened to indigenous peoples had produced a large and growing number of Western style educated indigenous people competing on the job market. Jobs that were traditionally occupied by Indos were more and more taken over by indigenous people. As Indos numbered only 0.3 percent of the 60 million native people inhabiting the Dutch East Indies they came under increasing threat of marginalisation. At the same time the educated indigenous elite was also developing an Indonesian nationalist political agenda."
      },
      {
        "title": "State of the Netherlands v. Urgenda Foundation",
        "text": "The state then lodged an appeal to the Supreme Court of the Netherlands. The Supreme Court issued its rejection of the appeal on 20 December 2019 and upholding the 25% reduction requirement. In its ruling, the Supreme Court affirmed that the Dutch government was responsible for management of carbon dioxide emissions for the country and was bound to protect human rights. The ruling reiterated from the Court of Appeals that \"every country is responsible for its share\" of emissions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Volksraad (Dutch East Indies)",
        "text": "The idea of a representative body in the Dutch East Indies arose partly became of the Ethical Policy implemented by the Dutch government as part of a move away from simple exploration of the colony towards expressing concern for the Indonesian people and their wellbeing. During the World War I, the Dutch became worried about a possible Japanese threat to the East Indies. Given the small size of the local Dutch forces available for defense, the colonial authorities asked Indonesian leaders if Indonesians would be willing to be drafted into military service. The Indonesian Budi Utomo political society supported idea of a militia, but the Sarekat Islam political organization rejected this idea, refusing to fight for a colony in which they had no legislative representation. Budi Utomo came round to this view by 1915. In 1916-1917 a group comprising delegates from Budi Utomo, Sarekat Islam and the Union of Regents as well as from regions of Java travelled around the Netherlands campaigning for representation, and pleaded their case with Queen Wilhelmina. Although the Dutch refused to consider any power sharing, they realized that limited concessions might be necessary, and on 16 December 1916, following a proposal from Colonial Affairs Minister Thomas Bastiaan Pleyte, a \"Wet\" (Dutch law) was passed establishing an advisory body without any legislative powers, the \"Volksraad\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pim Fortuyn",
        "text": "Dutch neocons understood that in the evermore secularising Netherlands a change on the lines of the Reagan Revolution had become highly improbable. Women's rights, gay rights, abortion and euthanasia had been generally accepted. In his 1995 book \"De verweesde samenleving\" (\"The orphaned society\"), Fortuyn claimed that the progressive movement of the 1960s had eroded traditional norms and values. Both the roles of the \"symbolic father\" and the \"caring mother\" had been lost, leaving an orphaned population without guidance, to live out a meaningless decadent existence. However, Fortuyn did not propose a return to old socially conservative or Dutch Calvinist and iconoclastic values and argued that the media, schools and artists should provide a moral leadership, explicitly promoting and defending the new values of modern Western society, constantly recreating the Dutch identity. Fortuyn consistently retained a liberal stance on matters such as LGBT rights throughout his political career."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch Ethical Policy",
        "text": "Dutch Ethical Policy\n--Formulation.\n--Aims.\n----Irrigation.\n----Migration.\n----Education.\n--Assessment.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch Society for the Protection of Animals",
        "text": "In the 1980s the Society actively campaigned against ritual slaughter. In 1984 the State Secretary of Agriculture and Fisheries, relying on the DSPA Ritual Slaughter Commission report, decided to gradually eliminate the production of ritually slaughtered meat for export. The Ministry of Agriculture argued that this ruling didn't affect the production of ritually slaughtered meat for the consumption within the Netherlands and therefore did not infringe upon religious freedoms. However, the Ministry of Interior ruled it a violation of the principle of religious freedom, and the decision was eventually cancelled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neratja (newspaper)",
        "text": "Despite his early collaboration, Agus Salim did turn against the Dutch and against the Ethical Policy \"Neratja\" had been founded to promote. He noticed that even the token gestures aimed at raising up elite Indonesians were being done less and less by the Dutch, and that Indonesians were once against being excluded from elite social spaces. Therefore, by 1918 \"Neratja\" became a harsh critic of the colonial government, regularly printing reports of mistreatment of Muslims in remote regions of the Indies. Therefore the paper became increasingly persecuted by the Dutch under the strict press censorship laws (Persdelict) which did not tolerate printed descriptions of events that might embarrass the Dutch. In 1919 Abdul Muis was charged multiple times, in 1921 editor Moehamad Said, and again in 1923 charges were brought against the unnamed head editor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eva Ment",
        "text": "When she became a widow, she was asked by the Dutch East Indian company to remain and continue her work in the colony, but she declined the offer and returned to Amsterdam, were she remarried twice. In 1632, a new policy was introduced in Batavia: because Dutch women generally had too high demands on luxury and additionally often wished to return to the Netherlands rather than to settled permanently in the colony, which prevented real growth of the colonist population, female immigration to the Dutch East Indies were almost banned (with the exception of the wives and daughters of officials), a reform which was kept until 1869, and the male colonists were instead encouraged to free and marry their Asian slaves, who had lower demands on luxury and who did not wish to live in the Netherlands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Good Wife, Wise Mother",
        "text": "The phrase \"good wife, wise mother\" appeared in the latter part of the Meiji period in the late 19th century. During World War II it was taught to promote conservative, nationalistic, and militaristic state policies and to help a developing capitalistic economy. From the late 1890s to the end of World War II, the phrase became increasingly prevalent in mass media and higher levels of public and private girl's schools. During the 1890s, \"good wife and wise mother\" was taught only in the higher levels where elite, upper-class girls attended. It was introduced to elementary schools\u2019 curriculum when the 1911 revision of the ethics textbooks came out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Johanna Gertze",
        "text": "Uerita Kazahendike's mother was Herero and her father was Damara. By tribal custom, she was raised Herero. At 11 years old, she became the governess to the missionary Carl Hugo Hahn and his wife and children in Otjikango (later named Gross Barmen after the Rhenish Missionary Society's hometown). Hahn had founded the mission, west of Okahandja, on 31 October 1844. While looking after the Hahn children, she attended the mission school."
      },
      {
        "title": "Janine Wegman",
        "text": "Since 1959 there was a General Police Regulation in Rotterdam in which Article 56, \u201cWalking in disguise or masked\u201d, was used to prevent transvestism. Section 1 read: \"It is forbidden to show oneself on the road in the clothing of the sex to which one does not belong.\" Wegman was regularly arrested by the police for walking down the street in women's clothing. She had a run-in with the police after hitting a police officer in the face in the Benthuizerstraat, after which six police officers beat her up until she bled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marco Kartodikromo",
        "text": "While with \"Doenia Bergerak\", Kartodikromo wrote an attack on the Dutch Advisor on Native Affairs R.A. Rinkes; in his editorial, he wrote that the Dutch loved themselves far more than the natives they were subjugating. On 26 January 1915, Kartodikromo came under investigation by the Justice Office of the Dutch East Indies for publishing several further anti-Dutch editorials. The journalist unsuccessfully attempted to raise money to protest this at the Dutch parliament in The Hague. He was convicted of revolutionary activity and sentenced to nine months at Mlaten Prison; however, due to public outcry he was released after 100 days. When \"Doenia Bergerak\" went bankrupt, Kartodipuro then headed the \"Saro Tomo\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corry Tendeloo",
        "text": "As president of the VVGS youth committee Tendeloo and other feminists such as Willemijn Posthumus-van der Goot organised protests across the country in 1937, when parliament discussed Minister Carl Romme's draft law to ban married women from paid employment. Because of Tendeloo's role in the protests, VDB nominated her as candidate in the elections for Provincial Council of North Holland. Although she did not win a seat, her performance earned her a place on the candidate list in the Amsterdam City Council elections. Tendeloo was elected to the Amsterdam City Council in 1938 and remained active in the VVGS, campaigning for men to see women as equals in the workforce who could contribute to the progress of society, not just family life. She said that once society's view of women changed, the outdated laws that discriminate against women would be rewritten. In 1941, City Council proceedings were suspended by the German occupation regime during World War II. When Jewish council members were dismissed as part of the Holocaust, she expressed sympathy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Els Borst",
        "text": "Other progressive decisions she is responsible for include:\n* In 1994, she strengthened the rights of patients, giving them the right to information and privacy, and the explicit right to refuse treatment.\n* In 1996, she implemented the law on organ donation. As a result of the law, all Dutch citizens are asked when whether they wanted to become organ donor when they are 18 years old.\n* In 2001, the law on foetal tissue was passed, which legalized the scientific use of foetal tissue for medical research applications, if the parents agreed and if the foetal tissue was the result of an abortion or miscarriage.\n* In 2002, she prevented xenotransplantation.\n* In 2002, she gave permission to the Women on Waves group to offer pregnant women the abortion pill on board their boat, \"Aurora\".\n* She also defended the Dutch system of soft drugs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agus Salim",
        "text": "Salim received his elementary education at \"Europeesche Lagere School\"; at that time, it was considered a privilege for a non-European child to attend an all-European school. He continued his studies at the \"Hogere Burgerschool\" in Batavia, and graduated with the highest score in the whole Dutch East Indies. Salim's father had applied (and was granted) for his two sons, Agus and Jacob, to be granted equal status with the Europeans. However, his efforts to secure a government scholarship to study medicine in the Netherlands fell short. Kartini, another European-educated student whose writings on women's rights and emancipation became famous later, offered to defer her own scholarship for Salim; this, too, was rejected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Annie M. G. Schmidt",
        "text": "She is included as one of the topics in the Canon of Dutch History, which was prepared by a committee headed by Frits van Oostrom and presented to the Minister of Education, Culture and Science, Maria van der Hoeven, in 2006; the Canon is a list of fifty topics that aims to provide a chronological summary of Dutch history to be taught in primary schools and the first two years of secondary school in the Netherlands. A revised version, which still includes her as one of the topics, was presented to the Dutch government on 3 October 2007.\n*\"Never do what your mother tells you to.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam",
        "text": "The AIADMK sought to depoliticize the education policy of the government by not insisting that education be the Tamil language. Policies of AIADMK were targeted to the poorer segments of Tamil society \u2013 poor, rickshaw pullers, and destitute women and centralizing the massive noon meal scheme for children. There was ambivalence toward the reservation policy and interests of farmers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mohini Jain v. State of Karnataka",
        "text": "In Part IV, the directive principles of the state policy, the Constitution asks the state to secure social order and to minimise inequalities for the promotion of welfare of citizens (Article 38). Article 39 of Part IV was about directing the state policies to secure adequate means of livelihood of citizen and offering opportunities to children to facilitate their healthy al-round development. Reality of the fundamental rights under Chapter III would not be realized by illiterate citizens unless the right to education under Article 41 was ensured to the individual citizen. Therefore, the right to education was concomitant to the fundamental rights provided under Part III of the Constitution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zulaikha Patel",
        "text": "Patel's defiance initiated more protests and change. Gauteng Education MEC, Panyaza Lesufi visited Pretoria Girls' High School to hear the black students\u2019 grievances, not only about the hair policy, but about racism in general at the school. For example, girls are not permitted to speak African languages on the school premises, only English or Afrikaans. Patrick Gaspard, US ambassador to South Africa, tweeted: \"All societies have rules. And sometimes those rules are biased and need to be exposed and protested.\" An online petition had almost 25,000 signatures within a day. The Gauteng Department of Education suspended the hair policy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indonesian philosophy",
        "text": "Most of the school\u2019s proponents assume that today\u2019s Indonesian people are in the position of being blind to their original values. Jakob Sumardjo, for instance, argued that most of today\u2019s Indonesians \"\u2026forget to preserve their original values\" and \"\u2026forgetting the past, forgetting the origin, they are like amnesiac people...\" who \"\u2026ignore their own national history\u2026\" (Sumardjo 2003:23, 25). Consequently, they are \u2018alienated\u2019; estranged from \u2018their mother cultures\u2019 (Sumardjo 2003:53). The failure of Indonesian educational policy, to Jakob, is brought by this \u2018blindness\u2019 to Indonesian original culture (Sumardjo 2003:58). Therefore, the necessary task of this school of philosophy is to seek after, recall and revitalize the ethnic original values, since the values are \u2018mothers\u2019 (\"lokalitas ialah ibu manusia\") and people are \u2018fathers\u2019 of existence (\"balita ialah bapak manusia\") (Sumardjo 2003:22)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jawaharlal Nehru University sedition row",
        "text": "Ministers in the BJP government were supportive of the actions of the police. Rajnath Singh said \"Be it JNU or any other institution, anti-India slogans can never be tolerated.\" Human Resource Development Minister Smriti Irani stated that the country (could) never tolerate any insult to Mother India. Minister of State Kiren Rijiju said that \"Be it JNU or any other institution, anti-India slogans can never be tolerated.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Padang",
        "text": "By 2007 the city government began a number of religiously motivated policies. One requires females of all religious backgrounds who are municipal employees and students in government schools to wear \"jilbab\" (hijab), and high school students now take classes on reading the \"Qur'an\". Municipal employees are required to pay \"zakat\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indonesian National Awakening",
        "text": "The movement had its beginnings in the late 19th century, a period of Dutch Indies government consolidation that significantly reinforced their governance over much of the area that is now in the 21st century the national Indonesian territorial boundaries. Kartini was one such individual who provided the impetus and ideology which inspired patriotic nationalists to pursue their ideals despite the adversity. Kartini's intellect was awakened by quality Dutch classical education and her traditional Islamic beliefs and education. Kartini was supported by an enlightened and intellectually endowed family and friends in Europe and Indonesia. Kartini maintained her inquisitiveness and incorporated feminist principles, community welfare and education in her pursuit of the national Indonesian identity and her quest to modernise her traditional society, advocating changes in gender status and principles of individual and national self-determination to realise the Indonesian universal dream of independence and self governance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartini",
        "text": "Kartini Schools opened in Bogor, Jakarta, and Malang. A society was also established in her name in the Netherlands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch nationality law",
        "text": "In 2004, a number of these children of Dutch mothers and non-Dutch fathers (so-called \"latent Dutch\" or \"latente Nederlanders\") began to organise themselves in the hope of persuading the Dutch government that Article 27 of \"Rijkswet op het Nederlanderschap\" condones the discrimination against women enshrined in the earlier Dutch Nationality Law (before its 1985 revision), and it should therefore be revoked. In 2005, several Dutch lawyers agreed to take on the case and formalised the group into \u201cStichting Ne(e)derlanderschap Ja!\u201d. The legislative change was discussed by parliament in 2006, but then stalled when the government fell and the bill was withdrawn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edith Aitken",
        "text": "\"\"On the first re-opening nearly half the girls were of Dutch extraction. The school was opened and conducted with the earnest hope that here girls of different races and different denominations might meet in the commonwealth of letters which gave Erasmus and Shakespeare to the World; to acquire there, in accordance with the ideals of Christian Duty, the healthy physique, the trained mind and the disciplined character which should fit each to live worthily in that state of life unto which it should please God to call her."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indonesian Women's Army Corps",
        "text": "Because December 22, 1938, the date now held as Mother's Day, was the day of the First Women's Congress that was held in Indonesian territory (then the Netherlands East Indies) in 1938, it was later designated as the official Corps Day, honoring the military mothers and women who through their works and actions not just ensured the independence and sovereignty of the Republic against foreign aggression, but also contributed to her defense, stability, progress and prosperity in all works of endeavor regardless of their religion, ethnic origin and way of life, including as servicewomen in the ranks of the Army."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corrie ten Boom",
        "text": "In May 1940, the Germans invaded the Netherlands. One of their restrictions was the banning of the youth club. In May 1942, a well-dressed woman came to the Ten Booms' with a suitcase in hand and told them that she was a Jew, her husband had been arrested several months earlier, her son had gone into hiding and Occupation authorities had recently visited her so she was afraid to go back. She heard that the Ten Booms had previously helped their Jewish neighbors, the Weils, and asked if they could help her too. Casper readily agreed that she could stay with them although the police headquarters was only half a block away. A devoted reader of the Old Testament, he knew that the Jews were the \"chosen people\" and told the woman, \"In this household, God's people are always welcome.\" The family then became very active in the Dutch underground, hiding refugees and honouring the Jewish Sabbath. The family never sought to convert any of the Jews who stayed with them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch childcare benefits scandal",
        "text": "On 17 December 2020, the committee presented a report entitled \"Unprecedented Injustice\" () to Speaker of the House of Representatives Khadija Arib. The report criticised the Tax and Customs Administration, the Ministry of Social Affairs, the cabinet, the Council of State, and also the House of Representatives itself. The committee wrote that the affected parents did not receive the protection they deserved as a consequence of the group penalties implemented by the Ministry of Finance, thus violating the \"fundamental principles of the rule of law\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hans Janmaat",
        "text": "Janmaat wanted to represent the indigenous Dutch workers and middle class. His views were based mostly on economic and materialistic arguments rather than an underlying ideology. Disappointing economic growth, unemployment and government cutbacks could not be addressed while large numbers of immigrants were flowing into the country. Janmaat was against a multicultural society: he argued that immigrants should either assimilate into Dutch culture, or return to their country of birth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Try Sutrisno",
        "text": "1984 would see the Government pass a law which required all organizations whether it be political or non-political to adopt the national ideology of Pancasila as the sole guiding principle (\"Azas Tunggal\"). It would also see Islamic dissent reached its peak as preachers began teaching against the adoption of Pancasila as the national ideology, what they perceived to be the Government's Christianization, the Government's family planning program, and the dominance of the Indonesian Economy by the Chinese Indonesian population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eveline Herfkens",
        "text": "It is however, against U.N. rules to offer and accept such benefits; and this Dutch policy has been changed recently. UNDP has conducted and completed an internal review regarding this matter. The review concluded that the Dutch government should have known that the provision of such benefits violated U.N. Staff Regulations. The review also concluded that, while Herfkens did break U.N. rules by accepting the use of an apartment whose rent was paid by the Dutch government, she did so unknowingly and in good faith; and that lack of induction, given the haste in which the MDG Campaign office was set up, also contributed to her not being aware of the prohibition of receiving benefits from a Member. In light of these conclusions, UNDP considers the matter closed. On 28 August 2008, Dutch Foreign minister Verhagen reported the problem had been solved and the Dutch government was not intending to pursue the matter further. As part of this solution Herfkens would keep her job for another year on a $1 per year salary basis.\n;Official\n* Mr. E.L. (Eveline) Herfkens Parlement & Politiek"
      },
      {
        "title": "Party for Freedom",
        "text": "Other policies that Wilders mentions in his party programme for the 2010 general election:\n* Harsh punishment of violence against Jews and the LGBT community, which it claims is disproportionately committed by Muslims (p.\u00a013)\n* Recording the ethnicity of all Dutch citizens. (p.\u00a011)\n* Prohibition of halal and kosher slaughter (p.\u00a055) (However, Wilders has stated that opposition to kosher slaughter was not part of his party's agenda and that support for the ban had been withdrawn)\n* Limitation of cannabis coffee shops within a radius of no less than 1 kilometer from schools (p.\u00a011)\n* Active repatriation of criminals of foreign citizenship and Dutch nationals originating from the Netherlands Antilles (p.\u00a011)\n* Deportation of criminals having foreign nationality or multiple citizenship back to their country of origin, after a prison sentence (p.\u00a013)\n* Restrictions on immigrant labour from new EU member states and Islamic countries (p.\u00a015)\n* Removal of resources from anti-climate change programs, development aid, and immigration services (p.\u00a017)\n* Abolition of the Dutch Senate (p.\u00a019)\n* Shutting down of all Islamic schools and mosques (p.\u00a015)\n* Ban on Islamic gender apartheid (p.\u00a015)\n* The General Pension (AOW) age not to be increased beyond 65 (p.\u00a021)\n* Governmental communication to be exclusively in Dutch or Frisian (p.\u00a035)\n* Dutch language proficiency and a 10-year Dutch residency and work experience requirement for welfare assistance (p.\u00a015)\n* Constitutional protection of the dominance of the Judeo-Christian and humanistic culture of the Netherlands (p.\u00a035)\n* Choosing to defend the essential elements of Dutch culture: freedom of the LGBT community, as well as assured equality of men and women which Islam strongly challenges (p.\u00a033)\n* Respect for May 4 as a day to remember victims of National Socialism. (p.\u00a035)\n* Repeal of no-smoking legislation in bars (p.\u00a039)\n* Referring to Jordan as 'Palestine' (p.\u00a043)\n* One-state solution to the Israel-Palestine conflict (p.\u00a043)\n* Investment in more nuclear power plants and clean coal plants to reduce dependency on imported oil and because coal is cheaper (p.\u00a047)\n* Withdrawal from the European Union.\n* Return to the guilder (old Dutch currency) and abandonment of the euro.\n* Abolition of the European Parliament and no cooperation in any EU activity.\n* Ask the EU to remove the \"Dutch\" star in the European flag.\n* Repeal flight tax or carbon dioxide tax.\n* Binding referendum on subjects like the EU and a multicultural society.\n* No more tax money to (political) left organisations.\n* Keeping track of the ethnicity of people who have committed crimes.\n* Select policemen on \"decisiveness\".\n* Binding assimilation contracts for immigrants.\n* Taxes on the Islamic headscarf and prohibition of the Koran.\n* Ban on headscarves in any public function.\n* Support Afrikaners, as it is Dutch heritage.\n* Opposition to Turkey's membership in NATO; support for remaining in NATO.\n* Halt all support and propaganda for Palestine and Palestinians and recognize West Jerusalem as Israeli Capital.\n* No more windmills and funding for durability or CO2 reduction; no more \"fiscal greening\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Mother's day celebrated in April anywhere in the world?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Armenia April 7 is mother's day, and Indonesia celebrates  Kartini Day on 21 April, which is a celebration of the emancipation of women. Also, in Hindu tradition, Mother's Day is called \"Mata Tirtha Aunshi\" or \"Mother Pilgrimage fortnight,\" which is observed on the new moon day in the month of Baisakh, i.e., April/May."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How was Kartini Day established?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Raden Adjeng Kartini was a prominent Indonesian activist for women's rights and female education. After her death, her birthday was celebrated in Indonesia in her honor."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Please tell me about the school established in Kartini's name."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I couldn't find the information you requested. However, I did learn that Kartini Schools, named for the Javanese women's rights advocate Raden Ajeng Kartini (Lady Kartini), were opened to educate indigenous girls in the Dutch East Indies in the wake of the Dutch Ethical Policy."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Was was the Dutch Ethical Policy?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Dutch Ethical Policy was the official policy of the colonial government of the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia) during the four decades from 1901 until the Japanese occupation of 1942. The Policy emphasized improvement in material living conditions."
    ],
    "topic": "Mother's Day",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Dutch Ethical Policy:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Dutch Ethical Policy"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Dutch Ethical Policy () was the official policy of the colonial government of the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia) during the four decades from 1901 until the Japanese occupation of 1942. In 1901, the Dutch Queen Wilhelmina announced that the Netherlands accepted an ethical responsibility for the welfare of their colonial subjects. This announcement was a sharp contrast with the former official doctrine that Indonesia was a \"wingewest\" (region for making profit). It also marked the start of modern development policy; whereas other colonial powers talked of a civilising mission, which mainly involved spreading their culture to colonised peoples."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Dutch Ethical Policy:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Dutch Ethical Policy"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Policy emphasised improvement in material living conditions. It suffered, however, from severe underfunding, inflated expectations and lack of acceptance in the Dutch colonial establishment, and it had mostly ceased to exist by the onset of the Great Depression in 1930."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Culture of the Netherlands",
        "text": "A large majority of the Dutch population believes that religion should not have a determining role to play in politics and education. Religion is also decreasingly seen as a social binder, and is generally considered a personal matter which should not be propagated in public. The Dutch constitution guarantees freedom of education, which means that all schools that adhere to general quality criteria receive the same government funding. This includes schools based on religious principles by religious groups (especially Roman Catholic and various Protestant). Three political parties in the Dutch parliament, (CDA, and two small parties, ChristianUnion and SGP) are based upon the Christian belief. Several Christian religious holidays are national holidays (Christmas, Easter, Pentecost and the Ascension of Jesus). In the late 19th century atheism began to rise as secularism, liberalism and socialism grew; in the 1960s and 1970s Protestantism and Catholicism notably began to decline. There is one major exception: Islam, which grew considerably as the result of immigration. Since the year 2000, there has been raised awareness of religion, mainly due to Muslim extremism. Islam is not part of the Dutch identity, culture or tradition. In 2013 a Catholic became Queen consort."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Roman Catholic priests complained that the holiday interfered with the honoring of the Virgin Mary, the divine mother, which took place during the whole month of May. In 1926 Mother's Day was celebrated on 7 July in order to address these complaints. Catholic organizations and priests tried to Christianize the holiday, but those attempts were rendered futile around the 1960s when the church lost influence and the holiday was completely secularized."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "The Jewish population of Israel used to celebrate Mother's Day on Shevat 30 of the Jewish calendar, which falls between 30 January and 1 March. The celebration was set as the same date that Henrietta Szold died (13 February 1945). Henrietta had no biological children, but her organization Youth Aliyah rescued many Jewish children from Nazi Germany and provided for them. She also championed children's rights. Szold is considered the \"mother\" of all those children, and that is why her annual remembrance day (\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d4\u05e9\u05e0\u05d4) was set as Mother's Day (\u05d9\u05d5\u05b9\u05dd \u05d4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b5\u05dd, yom ha'em). The holiday has evolved over time, becoming a celebration of mutual love inside the family, called Family Day (\u05d9\u05d5\u05b9\u05dd \u05d4\u05b7\u05de\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05bc\u05e4\u05b8\u05bc\u05d7\u05b8\u05d4, yom hamishpacha). This holiday is mainly celebrated in preschools with an activity to which parents are invited. Mother's Day is mainly celebrated by children at kindergartens. There are no longer mutual gifts among members of the family, and there is no longer any commercialization of the celebration. It is not an official holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Church of Our Lady of Presentation, Batticaloa",
        "text": "The Batavian Code of the Dutch East India Company of 1642 restricted practice of religion to Dutch Reformed Church thus Catholic worship was forbidden. The church was burnt by the Dutch and then rebuilt in 1660 by the people with the permission of the Kandyan king. It is said that a statue of Mary at the church has some burn marks at the foot, and it is taken in procession every year on the feast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Florists launched a major promotional effort in 1925. This included the publication of a book of articles written by famous intellectuals, radio broadcasts, newspapers ads, and the collaboration of priests and teachers who wanted to promote the celebration for their own reasons. In 1931 the second Sunday of May was adopted as the official celebration date. In the mid-1930s the slogan \"Moederdag \u2013 Bloemendag\" (Mother's Day \u2013 Flowers' Day) was coined, and the phrase was popular for many years. In the 1930s and 1940s \"Mother's Day cakes\" were given as gifts in hospitals and to the Dutch Queen, who is known as the \"mother of the country\". Other trade groups tried to cash in on the holiday and to give new meaning to the holiday in order to promote their own wares as gifts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in the Netherlands",
        "text": "The Constitution of the Netherlands guarantees freedom of education, which means that all schools that adhere to general quality criteria receive the same government funding. This includes schools based on religious principles by religious groups. Three out of nineteen political parties in the States General (CDA, CU and SGP) are based upon the Christian belief. Several Christian religious holidays are national holidays (Christmas, Easter, Pentecost, and the Ascension of Jesus). Atheism, Agnosticism, and Christian atheism are on the rise and are widely accepted and considered to be non-controversial. Even among those who adhere to Christianity, there are high percentages of atheists, agnostics, and Ietsists, since affiliation with a Christian denomination is also used in a way of cultural identification in various parts of the Netherlands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "The UNS and the clergy of the city of Le\u00f3n interpreted the government's actions as an effort to secularize the holiday and to promote a more active role for women in society. They concluded that the government's long-term goal was to cause women to abandon their traditional roles at home in order to spiritually weaken men. They also saw the holiday as an attempt to secularize the cult to the Virgin Mary, inside a larger effort to dechristianize several holidays. The government sought to counter these claims by organizing widespread masses and asking religious women to assist with the state-sponsored events in order to \"depaganize\" them. The clergy preferred to promote 2 July celebration of the Sant\u00edsima Virgen de la Luz, the patron of Le\u00f3n, Guanajuato, in replacement of Mother's Day. In 1942, at the same time as Soledad's greatest celebration of Mother's Day, the clergy organized the 210th celebration of the Virgin Mary with a large parade in Le\u00f3n."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Indonesian Mother's Day () is celebrated nationally on 22 December. The date was made an official holiday by President Sukarno under Presidential Decree No. 316/1953, on the 25th anniversary of the 1928 Indonesian Women Congress. The day originally sought to celebrate the spirit of Indonesian women and to improve the condition of the nation. Today, the meaning of Mother's Day has changed, and it is celebrated by expressing love and gratitude to mothers. People present gifts to mothers (such as flowers) and hold surprise parties and competitions, which include cooking and kebaya wearing. People also allow mothers a day off from domestic chores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jehovah's Witnesses practices",
        "text": "Other common celebrations and religious or national holidays such as birthdays, Halloween, Easter and Christmas are not celebrated because they believe that these continue to involve \"false religious beliefs or activities.\" Watch Tower Society publications rule out the celebration of Mother's Day because of a claimed link with pagan gods and concerns that giving \"special honor and worship\" to mothers is a form of \"creature worship\" that could turn people away from God. The Society also directs Witnesses to shun May Day, New Year's Day and Valentine's Day celebrations because of their pagan origins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "The holiday is celebrated on the anniversary of the opening day of the first Indonesian Women Congress (\"Kongres Perempuan Indonesia\"), which was held from 22 to 25 December 1928. The Congress took place in a building called Dalem Jayadipuran, which now serves as the office of the Center of History and Traditional Values Preservation (\"Balai Pelestarian Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional\") in Brigjen Katamso Street, Yogyakarta. The Congress was attended by 30 feminist organizations from 12 cities in Java and Sumatra. In Indonesia, feminist organizations have existed since 1912, inspired by Indonesian heroines of the 19th century, e.g., Kartini, Martha Christina Tiahahu, Cut Nyak Meutia, Maria Walanda Maramis, Dewi Sartika, Nyai Ahmad Dahlan, Rasuna Said, etc. The Congress intended to improve women's rights in education and marriage."
      },
      {
        "title": "For Heaven's Sake (play)",
        "text": "Pedersen's life has familiarities with the play. She has stated \"The Buffalo, NY, area was 80% Catholic when I was growing up there in the 1970s. It was a hotbed of anti-abortion protests, church basement Bingo and Friday night fish fries. While the church was still reeling from the Second Vatican Council, society was being rocked by the Vietnam War, Watergate, birth control, a recession, an oil crisis, and various progressive movements championing African-Americans, women, Native Americans and the environment. It was a time of religious, political, and cultural upheaval that placed young people in opposition to their elders more than at any other time in recent history. Hair length alone was responsible for a thousand of dinner table fights. Almost all the families I knew were struggling to find their way forward and make sense of a way of life that was unraveling before their eyes. It turns out that mood rings, smiley faces, pet rocks and fuzzy dice affect people in all sorts of different ways.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In the mid-1930s, the leftist government of L\u00e1zaro C\u00e1rdenas promoted the holiday as a \"patriotic festival\". The C\u00e1rdenas government tried to use the holiday as a vehicle for various efforts: to stress the importance of families as the basis for national development; to benefit from the loyalty that Mexicans felt towards their mothers; to introduce new morals to Mexican women; and to reduce the influence that the church and the Catholic right exerted over women. The government sponsored the holiday in the schools. However, ignoring the strict guidelines from the government, theatre plays were filled with religious icons and themes. Consequently, the \"national celebrations\" became \"religious fiestas\" despite the efforts of the government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irreligion in the Netherlands",
        "text": "After the Second World War, the major religions began to decline, while the previously insignificant religion of Islam began to increase in numbers. During the 1960s and 1970s, pillarization began to weaken and the population became less religious. In 1971, 39% of the Dutch population were members of the Roman Catholic Church; by 2014, their share of the population had dropped to about 23.3%. The proportion of adherents of Protestantism declined in the same period from 31% to 15.5%. A significant percentage of the population adheres to other Protestant churches and the Old Catholic Church."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "During the 1950s, the celebration lost all its patriotic and natalist ideologies, and became heavily commercialized."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "It is possible that the holiday would have withered over time without the support and continuous promotion of the florist industries and other commercial industries. Other Protestant holidays from the same time, such as Children's Day and Temperance Sunday, do not have the same level of popularity.\n* International Mother's Day Shrine\n* International Women's Day\n* Father's Day\n* List of films set around Mother's Day\n* May crowning\n* Why Mom Deserves a Diamond contest"
      },
      {
        "title": "Twelfth Night (holiday)",
        "text": "Twelfth Night in the Netherlands became so secularised, rowdy, and boisterous that public celebrations were banned from the church."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sinterklaas",
        "text": "After the successful revolt of the largely Protestant northern provinces of the Low Countries against the rule of Roman Catholic king Philip II of Spain, the new Calvinist regents, ministers and clericals prohibited celebration of Saint Nicholas. The newly independent Dutch Republic officially became a Protestant country and abolished public Catholic celebrations. Nevertheless, the Saint Nicholas feast never completely disappeared in the Netherlands. In Amsterdam, where the public Saint Nicholas festivities were very popular, main events like street markets and fairs were kept alive with persons impersonating Nicholas dressed in red clothes instead of a bishop's tabard and mitre. The Dutch government eventually tolerated private family celebrations of Saint Nicholas' Day, as can be seen on Jan Steen's painting \"The Feast of Saint Nicholas\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural Christians",
        "text": "The provinces North Brabant and Limburg in the Netherlands are historically mostly Roman Catholic, therefore many of their people still use the term and some traditions as a base for their cultural identity rather than as a religious identity. Since the War of Independence the Catholics were systematically and officially discriminated against by the Protestant government until the second half of the 20th century, which had a major influence on the economic and cultural development of the southern part of the Netherlands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carnival in the Netherlands",
        "text": "The catholic church, being the most powerful and influential organisation at the time, had to suffer most during carnaval. All kinds of sacred traditions and rules were ridiculed during the feast. A donkey would be put on the altar during the \"ezelsmis\" (donkey's mass) after which a civilian dressed as a priest staged a mass. During all the prayers, the \"amen\" would be replaced by the donkey imitation \"ia, ia, ia\". A dance called the polonaise was done during which people did not follow the pastor with the hand on the shoulder, but with the nose at the bottom. Also celebrated on 28 December is the now forgotten feast of the massacre of the innocents, commemorating the infanticide in Bethlehem. On this day the children were given the power for one day and turned it against the church. The choirboys put the clergy on a cart full of manure, and then let them pass through the village. Often this gave the mass the opportunity to pelt the church ministers with shit, a phenomenon in slightly modified version to be found now in the spreading confetti from the carnaval floats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hinduism in Indonesia",
        "text": "According to the 2000 census, Hindus made up 1.79% of the total Indonesian population. Bali had the highest concentration of Hindus with 88.05% of its population professing Hinduism agama. The percentage of Hindus in the total population declined from the 1990 census, and this is largely attributed to lower birth rates and immigration of Muslims from Java into provinces with high Hindu populations. In Central Kalimantan there has been progressive settlement of Madurese from Madura. The details are given below:\n*Hari Raya Galungan occurs every 210 days and lasts for 10 days. It celebrates the coming of the gods and the ancestral spirits to earth to dwell again in the homes of their descendants. The festivities are characterized by offerings, dances and new clothes. The ancestors must be suitably entertained and welcomed, and prayers and offerings must be made for them. Families whose ancestors have not been cremated yet, but remain buried in the village cemetery, must make offerings at the graves. Kuningan is the last day of the holiday, when the gods and ancestors depart until the next Galungan.\n*Hari Raya Saraswati is dedicated to the goddess of learning, science, and literature. She rules the intellectual and creative realm, and is the patron goddess of libraries and schools. Balinese Hindus believe that knowledge is an essential medium to achieve the goal of life as a human being, and so honor her. She is also celebrated because she succeeded in taming the wandering and lustful mind of her consort, Brahma, who was preoccupied with the goddess of material existence, Shatarupa. On this day, offerings are made to the lontar (palm-leaf manuscripts), books, and shrines. Saraswati Day is celebrated every 210-days on Saniscara Umanis Wuku Watugunung and marks the start of the new year according to the Balinese Pawukon calendar. Ceremonies and prayers are held at the temples in family compounds, educational institutions and temples, villages, and businesses from morning to noon. Teachers and students replace their uniforms for the day with bright and colorful ceremonial clothing, filling the island with color. Children bring fruit and traditional cakes to school for offerings at the temple.\n*Hari Raya Nyepi is a Hindu Day of Silence or the Hindu New Year in the Balinese Saka calendar. The largest celebrations are held in Bali as well as in Balinese Hindu communities around Indonesia. On New Year's Eve the villages are cleaned, food is cooked for two days and in the evening as much noise is made as possible to scare away the devils. On the following day, Hindus do not leave their homes, cook or engage in any activity. Streets are deserted, and tourists are not allowed to leave hotel complexes. The day following Nyepi night, everything stops for a day except emergency services such as ambulances. Nyepi is determined using the Balinese calendar, the eve of Nyepi falling on the night of the new moon whenever it occurs around March/April each year. Therefore, the date for Nyepi changes every year. Nyepi night is a night of community gathering and burning of effigies island-wide (similar to Karthikai in South India), while the next day is the day of total peace and quiet."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of religion in the Netherlands",
        "text": "In the 21st century, a large majority of the Dutch population believes in the separation of church and state, that is, that religion should not play a decisive role in politics or public education. Religion is also decreasingly seen as a social binder. Religion in the Netherlands is generally considered a personal matter, which is not supposed to be propagated in public."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of religion in the Netherlands",
        "text": "After the Second World War, the major religions began to decline. With higher immigration of workers from North Africa and the Mideast, the number of people practicing Islam increased. During the 1960s and 1970s, the traditional pillarization began to weaken and the population became less religious. In 1971, 39% of the Dutch population were members of the Roman Catholic Church; by 2014, their share of the population had dropped to 23.3% (church-provided KASKI data). The proportion of adherents of mainline Protestantism declined in the same period from 31% to 10% (church-provided KASKI data)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in the Netherlands",
        "text": "Secularization in the Netherlands started around 1880, and major religions began to decline after the Second World War. Religion lost its influence on Dutch politics between the 1960s and 1980s, resulting in liberal Dutch policy. The increasing trend towards secularism is countered by a religious revival in the Protestant Bible Belt, and the growth of Muslim and Hindu communities resulting from immigration and high birth rates. As a result of the declining religious adherence, the two major strands of Calvinism, the Dutch Reformed Church and the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands, together with a small Lutheran group began to cooperate, first as the \"Samen op weg Kerken\" (\"Together on the road churches\") and since 2004 as the Protestant Church in the Netherlands, a united Protestant church."
      },
      {
        "title": "Repentance Day",
        "text": "On 26 August 2011, prayer ceremonies were held in churches throughout the country. In Port Moresby, the capital, a ceremony at the Rev Sioni Kami Memorial church was attended by \"representatives of 20 provinces\" and various \"national leaders\" and \"church leaders\", for \"special prayer and Bible readings\" and \"thanksgiving prayers\". Participants asked God to lead the nation. A parish priest in Boroko was reported by \"The National\" as saying that religious values were \"essential to our identity and our culture\", and people's church attendance on such a public holiday revealed a difference between Papua New Guinean identity and that of many other countries. On Karanget Island in Madang, the day was celebrated through children depositing the national flag on a church altar, symbolically \"deliver[ing] the nation to God\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of the Netherlands",
        "text": "World Animal Day has been observed since 1929, primarily by the children of the Netherlands. It is as well known as Mother's and Father's Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Old age",
        "text": "In a British 20-year longitudinal study, less than half of the old people surveyed said that religion was \"very important\" to them, and a quarter said they had become less religious in old age. The late-life rise in religiosity is stronger in Japan than in the United States, but in the Netherlands it is minimal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kaharingan",
        "text": "After the Communist Party of Indonesia was declared illegal in the 1960s, the subject 'religion' became very sensitive. The state ideology that time defined a religion as a belief in one God which exclusively recognized only five religions (Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism and Buddhism). The Dayak were seen as 'atheists', whom were highly associated with the communist ideology. They had to pick between two options: conversion to a recognized religion voluntarily or being pressured by local authorities to do so. With this in mind; it is fairly clear why the missions with their schools and hospitals had more success after the 1960s in converting the Dayaks. Compared to the situations in the 17th and 18th century, Christianity in the 1960s offered more possibilities for social progresses than Islam did. Over time, the ban on local religions or aliran kepercayaan was abandoned. In 1980, Kaharingan was officially recognised as religion, but only as a part of the Hindu Dharma, so in fact it was placed under Hinduism. In Nov 2017, the government of Indonesia officially and formally recognizes aliran kepercayaan, which kaharingan was a part of."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "The extent of the celebrations varies greatly. In some countries, it is potentially offensive to one's mother not to mark Mother's Day. In others, it is a little-known festival celebrated mainly by immigrants, or covered by the media as a taste of foreign culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Venkatachalapathi Samuldrala prayer controversy",
        "text": "What's wrong is that it is one more indication that our nation is drifting from its Judeo-Christian roots...Alas, in our day, when 'tolerance' and 'diversity' have replaced the 10 Commandments as the only remaining absolute dictums, it has become necessary to 'celebrate' non-Christian religions \u2013 even in the halls of Congress...Our founders expected that Christianity \u2013 and no other religion \u2013 would receive support from the government as long as that support did not violate people's consciences and their right to worship. They would have found utterly incredible the idea that all religions, including paganism, be treated with equal deference. Many people today confuse traditional Western religious tolerance with religious pluralism. The former embraces biblical truth while allowing for freedom of conscience, while the latter assumes all religions are equally valid, resulting in moral relativism and ethical chaos..."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saturnalia",
        "text": "The day was supposed to be a holiday from all forms of work. Schools were closed, and exercise regimens were suspended. Courts were not in session, so no justice was administered, and no declaration of war could be made. After the public rituals, observances continued at home. On 18 and 19 December, which were also holidays from public business, families conducted domestic rituals. They bathed early, and those with means sacrificed a suckling pig, a traditional offering to an earth deity."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of religion in the Netherlands",
        "text": "During this period Catholics began to develop their own non-governmental institutions. The Netherlands became dominated among three religious pillars, an orthodox Calvinist, a Catholic, and a neutral one. These subcultures generally did not interfere with each other. During the 20th century, a separate socialist pillar would also develop. This phenomenon is called pillarization. There was considerable religious tolerance among these subcultures, and they cooperated with each other at the level of government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carnival in the Netherlands",
        "text": "In the sixteenth century, the excessive, public and massive carnaval celebration from the Middle Ages came to an end. The council of Trent (1545\u20131563) and the reformation caused a complete reverse in attitude towards the carnaval. The schism within Christianity as a result of the reformation, led to a religious divide in the territory of the present Netherlands. Protestantism became the dominant religion north of the rivers Meuse and Rhine. In the areas that cover today the provinces of Limburg and North Brabant the Catholic religion remained dominant. In the part of the Netherlands that after the reformation became predominantly Protestant, the public shrovetide celebration disappeared from the streets. The new Protestant clergy found the riotous Catholic carnaval sinful. In the north, the feast quickly eradicated and also in the south the carnaval was restricted. Shrove Tuesday was interpreted as a \"romish\" superstition and prohibited to ban it out. In 's-Hertogenbosch e.g. the carnaval was banned in 1629 after Protestants had conquered the city which had belonged to the Roman Catholic Spaniards. By the end of the 17th century carnaval in the Netherlands had mostly disappeared, though smaller festivities before lent in the south of the Netherlands and in German Rhineland and North Rhine-Westphalia kept some carnaval traditions alive over the next 150 years. In the Catholic south the feast became less celebrated as well during the seventeenth and eighteenth century. Though the celebrations were banned, they did not entirely disappear. This is clear from the fact that a new ban had to be enacted every year. Despite the Protestant rule, the Catholics in the 18th century managed to celebrate some sort of street carnaval. There were still dressing, eating and drinking feasts and all sorts of games were held like goose pulling / rooster smashing (smashing or pulling the head of the animal), cat burning/smashing, ray stabbing, wolf hunting and herring biting. These games were held in both the 18th and in the 19th century. In Venlo these games were banned in 1775, but in Wijnandsrade this tradition was held till 1848. Also sketches and plays were held. It was only since 1794, the beginning of the French era, that Den Bosch would officially allow celebrating carnaval again. In Den Bosch a large effigy named \"Knillis\" would be burned as a typical carnaval ritual, until this was prohibited around 1853."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carnival in the Netherlands",
        "text": "Gradually the ecclesiastical authority began to realize that the desired result could not be attained by banning the traditions, which eventually led to a degree of Christianization. The festivities became part of the liturgy and the liturgical year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Creativity (religion)",
        "text": "The religion has several holidays. Creators are encouraged to observe them, spending time with their families and friends of the religion:\n* South Victory Day (January 26): Commemorates the arrival of the First Fleet to the Australian continent in 1788.\n* Klassen Day (February 20): Anniversary of its founder's birth in 1918.\n* Founding Day (February 21): Anniversary of the publication of \"Nature\u2019s Eternal Religion\" in 1973.\n* Foundation Day, Rahowa Day (March 20): Anniversary of the foundation of the World Center in 1982 and a reminder of racial war.\n* Kozel Day, Martyr's Day (September 15): Commemorates Brian Kozel, who died on this date in 1992.\n* Festum Album (December 26 \u2013 January 1): Week-long celebration of white racial pride, commemorating the massacre at Wounded Knee. December 29, the anniversary of the massacre is also celebrated as \"West Victory Day\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of the Netherlands",
        "text": "More regional traditions include the huge Easter Fires or celebrating Sint Maarten on the evening of 11 November when children go door to door with paper lanterns and candles, and sing songs in return for a treat. This holiday is celebrated in some parts of Groningen, North Holland and the southern and middle part of Limburg and to a lesser extent in South Holland and Zeeland. This celebration marks the beginning of the dark period before Christmas and the long days of winter. The same thing happens on 6 January with Epiphany in some areas in the Catholic south of the Netherlands. In the past, home-made lanterns were used, made from a hollowed out sugar beet. In North Brabant, Limburg and some other parts of the Netherlands people celebrate Carnaval similar to the carnival of the German Rhineland and Belgium Flanders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In some countries, the date adopted is one significant to the majority religion, such as Virgin Mary Day in Catholic countries. Other countries selected a date with historical significance. For example, Bolivia's Mother's Day is a fixed date, commemorating a battle in which women participated to defend their children. See the \"International history and tradition\" section for the complete list."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "The holiday was then seen as a means to encourage women to bear more children, which nationalists saw as a way to rejuvenate the nation. The holiday did not celebrate individual women, but an idealized standard of motherhood. The progressive forces resisted the implementation of the holiday because it was backed by so many conservatives and because they saw it as a way to eliminate the rights of working women. \"Die Frau\", the newspaper of the Federation of German Women's Associations, refused to recognize the holiday. Many local authorities adopted their own interpretation of the holiday: it would be a day to support economically larger families or single-mother families. The guidelines for the subsidies had eugenics criteria, but there is no indication that social workers ever implemented them in practice, and subsidies were given preferentially to families in economic need rather than to families with more children or \"healthier\" children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In certain traditional branches of Christianity, the holiday is strongly associated with revering the Virgin Mary. In some Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican homes, families have a special shrine on their home altar devoted to the Blessed Virgin Mary. In many Eastern Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, a special prayer service is held in honor of the Theotokos Virgin Mary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "The Nazis quickly declared Mother's Day an official holiday and put it under the control of the NSV (National Socialist People's Welfare Association) and the NSF (National Socialist Women Organization). This created conflicts with other organizations that resented Nazi control of the holiday, including Catholic and Protestant churches and local women's organizations. Local authorities resisted the guidelines from the Nazi government and continued assigning resources to families who were in economic need, much to the dismay of the Nazi officials."
      },
      {
        "title": "French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools",
        "text": "A section of the report which received less media attention recommended that the school system make Yom Kippur and \"Eid\" (festival) into vacation days each year: currently, only some Christian holidays are vacation days (see Holidays in France); students who want to celebrate other festivities have to take some work day off with the authorisation of their parents. However, for critics and Muslims this did not balance out affairs: the banning of Muslim girls from freely choosing to wear an article of faith, seen by them as a religious obligation, could not be balanced with the permission to celebrate a religious festival, which is not obligatory at all."
      },
      {
        "title": "Enver Hoxha",
        "text": "The Party focused on atheist education in schools. This tactic was effective, primarily as a result of the high birthrate policy which was encouraged after the war. During periods which are considered \"holy periods\" by religious people, such as Lent and Ramadan, many foods and non-water beverages were distributed in schools and factories, and religious people who refused to eat those foods and drink those beverages when they were offered to them during their \"fasting times\" were denounced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In 1950, after the war, the celebration was reinstated. The law of 24 May 1950 required (in Article 1) that the Republic pay official homage to French Mothers. Article 2 stated it should be celebrated on the last Sunday in May as the \"F\u00eate des M\u00e8res\" (except when Pentecost fell on that day, in which case it was moved to the first Sunday in June). Article 3 stated that all expenditure shall be covered from the budget of the Ministry of Public Health and Population."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of religion in the Netherlands",
        "text": "Secularization, or the decline in religious adherence and practice, first became noticeable after 1960 in the Protestant rural towns of Friesland and Groningen. It became more obvious in Amsterdam, Rotterdam and the other large cities in the west. Finally, the Catholic south also showed declines in religious practice and belief. By contrast, there has been a religious revival in the Protestant Bible Belt of the Netherlands. In addition, there has been growth of Hindu and Muslim communities as a result of immigration and higher birth rates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In later years, the initial resistance disappeared, and even leftist newspapers stopped their criticism and endorsed Mother's Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Birthday",
        "text": "Birthday\n--Legal conventions.\n--Cultural conventions.\n--Traditions.\n----Name days.\n----Official birthdays.\n--Distribution through the year.\n--Leap day.\n--By religion.\n----Judaism.\n----Christianity.\n------Early centuries.\n------Medieval.\n------Modern.\n----Islam.\n----Buddhism (Mahayana).\n----Hinduism.\n----Sikhism.\n--By region.\n----Ancient Persia.\n----Ancient Rome.\n----China.\n----Japan.\n----North Korea.\n----South Korea.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Father's Day",
        "text": "In South Korea, Parents' Day () is celebrated on May 8 and is not a public holiday. Setting Parents' Day as a national holiday and holding a pan-national event is intended to inherit and develop traditional ethical standards such as filial piety and senior citizens' ideology. Regardless of age or gender, this day is also an opportunity to reaffirm that traditional filial piety is a crucial norm and cultural value in modern society. The ceremony to mark Parents' Day as an anniversary and put on carnations stems from a Christian culture. As Western religions and cultures entered, this holiday, which was introduced together, became the most traditional holiday combined with Confucian filial piety in the process of establishing itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Mother's Day\n--Establishment of holiday.\n--Spelling.\n--Dates around the world.\n--International history and tradition.\n----Religion.\n----By country (A\u2013G).\n------Albania.\n------Arab world.\n------Argentina.\n------Armenia.\n------Australia.\n------Bangladesh.\n------Belarus.\n------Bhutan.\n------Belgium.\n------Bolivia.\n------Brazil.\n------Canada.\n------China.\n------Czech Republic.\n------Egypt.\n------Ethiopia.\n------Estonia.\n------Finland.\n------France.\n------Georgia.\n------Germany.\n----By country (H\u2013M).\n------Hungary.\n------India.\n------Indonesia.\n------Iran.\n------Ireland.\n------Israel.\n------Italy.\n------Japan.\n------Kyrgyzstan.\n------Latvia.\n------Lithuania.\n------Malawi.\n------Maldives.\n------Malta.\n------Mexico.\n------Myanmar.\n----By country (N\u2013S).\n------Nepal.\n------Netherlands.\n------New Zealand.\n------Nicaragua.\n------North Korea.\n------Norway.\n------Pakistan.\n------Panama.\n------Paraguay.\n------Philippines.\n------Portugal.\n------Romania.\n------Russia.\n------Samoa.\n------Singapore.\n------Slovakia.\n------South Africa.\n------South Sudan.\n------Spain.\n------Sri Lanka.\n------Sweden.\n------Switzerland.\n----By country (T\u2013Z).\n------Taiwan.\n------Thailand.\n------Ukraine.\n------United Kingdom.\n------United States.\n--Notes.\n----Citations.\n--References.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of the Netherlands",
        "text": "Until late into the 20th century, the predominant religion in the Netherlands was Christianity. Although religious diversity remains, there has been a decline in religious adherence. In 2006, 34% of the Dutch population identified as Christian, decreasing till in 2015 almost 25% of the population adhered to one of the Christian faiths (11.7% Roman Catholic, 8.6% PKN, 4.2% other small Christian denominations), 5% is Muslim and 2% adheres to Hinduism or Buddhism, based on independent in-depth interviewing by Radboud University and Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. Approximately 67.8% of the population in 2015 has no religious affiliation, up from 61% in 2006, 53% in 1996, 43% 1979 and 33% in 1966. The Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau (Social and Cultural Planning Agency, SCP) expects the number of non-affiliated Dutch to be at 72% in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christmas controversies",
        "text": "With the atheistic Cult of Reason in power during the era of Revolutionary France, Christian Christmas church services were banned and the three kings cake was forcibly renamed the \"equality cake\" under antireligious government policies. In the former Eastern Bloc, where governments implemented the policy of state atheism, Christmas and other religious holidays were \"effectively banned\". The League of Militant Atheists organized alternate festivals \"specifically to denigrate religious holidays\" in the USSR. In the United States, some atheists choose to celebrate Christmas fully, while others celebrate only portions of the holiday, and others reject it completely. In China, which is officially an atheist state, some officials in 2018 raided Christian churches just prior to Christmas and forced them to close."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural Muslims",
        "text": "In 2009, only 24% of Muslims in the Netherlands attended mosque once a week according to a survey. According to the same 2004 survey, they found that the importance of Islam in the lives of Dutch Muslims, particularly of second-generation immigrants was decreasing. This observation was based on the reducing participation of younger Muslims in Islamic rituals, organizations, and prayer. The study also predicted that the trend would continue with increasing education and \"individualization\". However, the study also found that second-generation immigrants attached more importance to religion that the first generation as an \"individual experience.\" The study concluded \"the expression of religiosity by Muslim youth was not much different to that of their Dutch Christian or Jewish peers\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch festivities",
        "text": "Below are some of common festivities associated with, or observed by the Dutch ethnic group. Included are cultural feasts. National holidays, of for example the Netherlands (such as Queen's Day) are omitted. Major festivities include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in Suriname",
        "text": "The difference is that the Netherlands' more liberal policy toward Hinduism allowed the culture to develop stronger. Examples are the lack of a rigid caste system and the almost universal reading of Gita and Ramayan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henrietta Szold",
        "text": "In Israel, Mother's Day is celebrated on the day that Szold died, on the 30th of Shevat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Days Bay",
        "text": "Although some people objected to giving their religion, 55.3% had no religion, 36.1% were Christian, 0.3% were Hindu, 0.3% were Muslim, 0.9% were Buddhist and 2.3% had other religions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in Indonesia",
        "text": "The Sukarno era was characterised by a \"distrust\" between religion and the state. There were also significant changes to the relationship during the New Order. Following an attempted coup in 1965 that officially blamed the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) and an anti-communist purge, the New Order government attempted to suppress PKI supporters by making it mandatory to have a religion since PKI supporters were mostly atheists. As a result, citizens were required to carry personal identification cards indicating their religion. The policy resulted in a mass conversion, with most to Protestantism and Catholicism. Chinese Indonesians, who were mostly Confucianists, also faced similar circumstances. Because Confucianism was not one of the state-recognised religions, many converted to Christianity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural Christians",
        "text": "However, with modern population shifts and increasing secularization, these areas tend to have fewer and fewer religious Catholics. Since 1960 the emphasis on many Catholic concepts including hell, the devil, sinning and Catholic traditions like confession, kneeling, the teaching of catechism and having the host placed on the tongue by the priest rapidly disappeared, and these concepts are nowadays seldom or not at all found in modern Dutch Catholicism. The southern area still has original Catholic traditions including Carnival, pilgrimages, rituals like lighting candles for special occasions and field chapels and crucifixes in the landscape, giving the southern part of the Netherlands a distinctive Catholic atmosphere, with which the population identifies in contrast to the rest of the Netherlands. The vast majority of the (self-identifying) Catholic population in the Netherlands is now largely irreligious in practice. Research among Catholics in the Netherlands in 2007 shows that only 27% of the Dutch Catholics can be regarded as theist, 55% as ietsist, 17% as agnostic and 1% as atheist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irreligion in the Netherlands",
        "text": "With only 49.9% of the Dutch adhering to a religion as of 2015, the Netherlands is one of the least religious countries of Europe, after the Czech Republic and Estonia. During the 1960s through 1980s, religion lost its influence on the Dutch politics, and as a result, Dutch policy on abortion, euthanasia, homosexuality and prostitution became very liberal in the following decades."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on religion",
        "text": "Mahavir Jyanti, the major festival of Jains associated with the birth of Lord Mahavira that falls on 6 April 2020 is usually celebrated by taking out large Procession has been cancelled throughout the country and the followers of the religion has been instructed to carry religious rituals at home by the religious leaders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in Japan",
        "text": "Some of the holidays are secular in nature, but the two most significant for the majority of Japanese\u2014New Year's Day and \"Obon\"\u2014involve visits to Shinto shrines or Buddhist temples and only Buddhist temples for later. The New Year's holiday (January 1\u20133) is marked by the practice of numerous customs and the consumption of special foods. Visiting Shinto shrines or Buddhist temples to pray for family blessings in the coming year, dressing in a kimono, hanging special decorations, eating noodles on New Year's Eve, and playing a poetry card game are among these practices. During Obon, \"bon\" (spirit altars) are set up in front of Buddhist family altars, which, along with ancestral graves, are cleaned in anticipation of the return of the spirits. People living away from their family homes return for visits with relatives. Celebrations include folk dancing and prayers at Buddhist temples as well as family rituals in the home."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frans Van Kuyck",
        "text": "In the Summer of 1913, he wrote a pamphlet, \"De Dag der moeders\" (Mother's Day) and formed the first committee to promote its establishment as an official holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Netherlands",
        "text": "In the late 19th century this Dutch tradition of religious tolerance transformed into a system of pillarisation, in which religious groups coexisted separately and only interacted at the level of government. This tradition of tolerance influences Dutch criminal justice policies on recreational drugs, prostitution, LGBT rights, euthanasia, and abortion, which are among the most liberal in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Our Lady of Aparecida",
        "text": "On her feast day in 1995, a public holiday, an incident later known as \"kicking of the saint\" took place when televangelist S\u00e9rgio Von Helder (or Helde), of the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God (UCKG), insulted and kicked a replica of Our Lady Aparecida, and said that \"it could not do anything for you\", on a late-night religious program broadcast by UCKG television station Rede Record. On the following day, Rede Globo's \"Jornal Nacional\" denounced the incident, causing a nationwide commotion. The event was perceived by Catholics as a major act of religious intolerance, causing a public outcry. Several temples of the UCKG were targeted by protesters, and Von Helder was transferred to South Africa until the end of the controversy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Franklin Rutherford",
        "text": "In 1927, Christmas was declared to be of pagan origin, and the following year its celebration by Bible Students was condemned as supporting \"Satan's organization\". Mother's Day was condemned in 1931, with other holidays as well as birthdays officially renounced in subsequent years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in the Netherlands",
        "text": "The percentage of the Dutch population who are members decreases by about 2.5% per year. This is caused primarily by the conflux of older members dying off and little growth amongst the younger population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in the Netherlands",
        "text": "Since 1880 the major religions began to decline as secularism, socialism and liberalism grew; in the 1960s and 1970s Protestantism and Catholicism began to decline at a rapid rate. The major exception is Islam, which grew considerably as the result of immigration. Since the beginning of the 21st century, there has been a rising awareness of Muslim extremism. In 2013, a Catholic became queen consort."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day (United States)",
        "text": "It has been suggested that commercialization has ensured that the holiday has continued, while other holidays from the same time, such as Children's Day and Temperance Sunday, are no longer celebrated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Java War",
        "text": "Dutch influence also affected the cultural dynamics of Java. A devout Muslim, Diponegoro was alarmed by the increasingly relaxed religious observance at court. This included the rising influence of Christian Dutch colonists and the court's pro-Dutch leanings. Among Diponegoro's followers, the war was described as a jihad \"both against the Dutch and the \"murtad\" or apostate Javanese.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Christmas controversies",
        "text": "In the 17th century, the Puritans had laws forbidding the ecclesiastical celebration of Christmas, unlike the Catholic Church or the Anglican Church, the latter from which they separated. With the atheistic Cult of Reason in power during the era of Revolutionary France, Christian Christmas religious services were banned and the three kings cake was forcibly renamed the \"equality cake\" under anticlerical government policies. Later, in the 20th century, Christmas celebrations were prohibited under the doctrine of state atheism in the Soviet Union. In Nazi Germany, organized religion as a whole was attacked as an enemy of the state and Christmas celebrations were corrupted so as to serve the Party's racist ideology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of the United States",
        "text": "Christmas Day, celebrating the birth of Jesus Christ, is widely celebrated and a federal holiday, though a fair amount of its current cultural importance is due to secular reasons. European colonization has led to some other Christian holidays such as Easter and St. Patrick's Day to be observed, though with varying degrees of religious fidelity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Iran, Mother's Day is celebrated on 20 Jumada al-thani. This is the sixth month in the Islamic calendar (a lunar calendar) and every year the holiday falls on a different day of the Gregorian calendar. This is the birthday anniversary of Fatimah, Prophet Muhammad's only daughter according to Shia Islam. On this day, banners reading \"\"Ya Fatemeah\" (O! Fatemeh)\" are displayed on \"government buildings, private buildings, public streets and car windows.\" Mother's Day was originally observed on 16 December but the date was changed after the Iranian Revolution in 1979. The celebration is both Women's Day (replacing International Women's Day) and Mother's Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decline of Christianity in the Western world",
        "text": "Starting in 1880 and accelerating after the Second World War, the major religions began to decline among the Dutch, while Islam began to increase. During the 1960s and 1970s, pillarization began to weaken and the population became less religious. In 1971, 39% of the Dutch population were members of the Roman Catholic Church; by 2014, their share of the population had dropped to 23.3% (church-reported KASKI data), or to 23.7% (large sample survey by Statistics Netherlands in 2015). The proportion of adherents of Calvinism and Methodism declined in the same period from 31% to 15.5%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Day of the Vow",
        "text": "\"Die Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek\" declared 16 December a public holiday in 1865, to be commemorated by public religious services. However, until 1877, the general public there did not utilise the holiday as they did in Natal. Cricket matches and hunts were organised, some businesses remained open, and newspapers were sold. The name Dingane's Day appeared for the first time in the media, in an 1875 edition of \"De Volksstem.\" That newspaper wondered whether the lack of support for the holiday signaled a weakening sense of nationalism (Bailey 2003:37,38)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In the 1920s, Germany had the lowest birthrate in Europe, and the declining trend was continuing. This was attributed to women's participation in the labor market. At the same time, influential groups in society (politicians of left and right, churchwomen, and feminists) believed that mothers should be honored but could not agree on how to do so. However, all groups strongly agreed on the promotion of the values of motherhood. In 1923, this resulted in the unanimous adoption of \"Muttertag\", the Mother's Day holiday as imported from America and Norway. The head of the Association of German Florists cited \"the inner conflict of our \"Volk\" and the loosening of the family\" as his reason for introducing the holiday. He expected that the holiday would unite the divided country. In 1925, the Mother's Day Committee joined the task force for the recovery of the \"volk\", and the holiday stopped depending on commercial interests and began emphasizing the need to increase the population in Germany by promoting motherhood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Valentine's Day",
        "text": "In modern times, Hindu and Islamic traditionalists have considered the holiday to be cultural contamination from the West, a result of globalization in India. Shiv Sena and the Sangh Parivar have asked their followers to shun the holiday and the \"public admission of love\" because of them being \"alien to Indian culture\". Although these protests are organized by political elites, the protesters themselves are middle-class Hindu men who fear that the globalization will destroy the traditions in their society: arranged marriages, Hindu joint families, full-time mothers, etc. Despite these obstacles, Valentine's Day is becoming increasingly popular in India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Asia",
        "text": "In Indonesia, the Independence Day and the birthday of Pancasila are important. This Muslim majority country also celebrates Islamic celebrations and festivals, such as Eid ul-Fitr, Eid ul-Adha, Mawlid, Islamic New Year, Ashura, Tabuik, and Tasyrik day."
      },
      {
        "title": "HumanLight",
        "text": "Celebration of the holiday has expanded since its inaugural event. By 2010, there were at least thirty known public celebrations, and multiple secular organizations\u2014including the American Humanist Association\u2014had endorsed the holiday. The ceremonies themselves have also evolved. The first event involved a meal among its participants, along with artistic performances and other activities. Over the years, additional traditions have been added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Observance of Christmas by country",
        "text": "Christianity in Japan along with Christmas reemerged in the Meiji period. Influenced by America, Christmas parties were held and presents were exchanged. The practice slowly spread, but its proximity to the New Year's celebrations makes it a smaller focus of attention. It became a popular celebration for non-Christians during 1900s after the Russo-Japanese War. During World War II, all celebrations, especially American, were suppressed. From the 1960s, with an expanding economy, and influenced by American TV, Christmas became popular. Many songs and TV series present Christmas as romantic, for example \"Last Christmas\" by Exile. The birthday of the previous emperor, Akihito, on December 23 is or was a national holiday. Businesses soon close for the New Year's holidays, reopening after January 3."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decline of Christianity in the Western world",
        "text": "With only 49.9% of the Dutch currently (2015) adhering to a religion, the Netherlands is one of the least religious countries of the European Union, after the Czech Republic and Estonia. By the 1980s, religion had largely lost its influence on Dutch politics and as a result Dutch policy on women's rights, abortion, euthanasia, homosexuality and prostitution became very liberal in the 1980s and 1990s. As a result of the decline, the two major strands of Calvinism, the Dutch Reformed Church and the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands, together with a small Lutheran group, began to cooperate as the \"Samen op weg Kerken\" (\"Together on the road churches\"). In 2004 these groups merged to form the Protestant Church in the Netherlands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in the Netherlands",
        "text": "Religion in the Netherlands was historically dominated by Christianity between the 10th and 20th centuries. In the late 19th century, roughly 60% of the population was Calvinist and 35% was Catholic. Since then, there has been a significant decline in both Catholic and Protestant Christianity, with Protestantism declining to such a degree that Catholicism became the plurality form of the Christian religion. The majority of the Dutch population is secular. A relatively sizable Muslim minority also exists."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of religion in the Netherlands",
        "text": "During the same period, Islam increased from 0% to 5%. The main Islamic immigrants came from Surinam and Indonesia, as a result of decolonization; Turkey and Morocco, as migrant workers; and Iraq, Iran, Bosnia and Afghanistan as political refugees. In the early 21st century, religious tensions between native Dutch people and migrant Muslims has increased in some areas. The popular politician Pim Fortuyn provoked controversy by defending the Dutch liberal culture against what he considered a \"backward religion\", conservative Islam. Stricter immigration laws were enacted. Religious tensions heightened after film director Theo van Gogh was killed in 2004 by Mohammed Bouyeri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint Lucy's Day",
        "text": "Although the tradition is imported from Sweden, it differs somewhat in that the church celebration has always been strongly centered on Christianity and it is a yearly local event in most churches in conjunction with Christmas. Schools and kindergartens also use the occasion to mark the event as a special day for children on one of the final days before the Christmas holidays, but it does not have much impact anywhere else in society."
      },
      {
        "title": "Javanese culture",
        "text": "Held when a child is 35 days, a ritual celebrating the new life. Family members and close friends will come to the event. The child's hair and nails are shaved. prayers, religious readings and a slametan is a common part of the event. After the event, cakes, sweets and eggs (symbolising the new life) will be shared."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in the Netherlands",
        "text": "During the same period, Islam increased from essentially nonexistent to 5% of the population. The main sources of Muslim immigrants include Surinam and Indonesia from decolonization, Turkey and Morocco as migrant workers, and Iraq, Iran, Bosnia and Afghanistan as refugees. In the early 21st century, religious tensions between native Dutch people and migrant Muslims was increasing. After the rise of politician Pim Fortuyn, who sought to defend the Dutch liberal culture against what he saw as a \"backwards religion\", stricter immigration laws were enacted. Religious tensions increased after the murders of Pim Fortuyn in 2002 by environmental activist Volkert van der Graaf, and Theo van Gogh in 2004, killed by a conservative Muslim."
      },
      {
        "title": "1921 in France",
        "text": "An event of national importance of a much earlier date was commemorated by Joan of Arc's day (8 May) instituted as a national holiday by the law of July 1920. On 16 April Marraud, minister of the interior, sent to the prefects a circular regarding this celebration, requesting them to take the necessary steps in order to solemnize the day with great display. He pointed out that the memory of Jeanne d'Arc should not be the exclusive possession of any one religious body, but should be the common property of the whole nation. These sentiments, echoed by a cabinet minister, reflected the government's changed attitude towards the Catholic Church which culminated in the endeavour to reestablish diplomatic relations with the Vatican."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Mary of the Assumption Cathedral, Jakarta",
        "text": "After the arrival of Dutch East India Company in 1619, the Roman Catholic Church was banned in the Dutch East Indies and was limited to Flores and Timor. The Netherlands was known to support Protestantism and tried to limit the influence and authority of the Holy See. During the Napoleonic Wars, the Netherlands, including the Dutch East Indies and its other colonies, fell under the control of the French Empire. In 1806, Napoleon Bonaparte installed his Catholic younger brother Louis Napoleon () as the king of the Netherlands. Since then, the Catholic Church has been free to operate in the Dutch East Indies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timorese wedding traditions",
        "text": "Portuguese colonialism and the subsequent Indonesian occupation (1975\u20131999) weakened traditional culture in East Timor, but strengthened family ties and beliefs. A 1963 article reported that in order to impress or out of generosity, some families sacrificed too many buffaloes for wedding celebrations, with the result that later in the year they themselves lacked the animals for breeding or work. The Portuguese colonial administration put an end to this by limiting the number of animals that could be killed for celebrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on religion",
        "text": "The celebration of Saint Patrick's Day, a feast day celebrating the arrival of Christianity in Ireland, on 17 March 2020 was affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, though services were still held in some churches and some parades still commenced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carnival in the Netherlands",
        "text": "In the Christian tradition the fasting is to commemorate the 40 days that Jesus fasted in the desert according to the New Testament and also to reflect on Christian values. As with many other Christian festivals such as Christmas which was originally a Pagan midwinter festival, Easter which was a Pagan spring festival, and Sinterklaas, the Christian church has found it easier to turn the pagan Carnaval in a catholic tradition than to eliminate it. Unlike today, Carnaval in the Middle Ages took not just a few days, but it covered almost the entire period between Christmas and the beginning of Lent. In those two months, several Catholic holidays were seized by the Catholic population as an outlet for their daily frustrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Father's Day",
        "text": "Father's Day\n--History.\n----Early history.\n--Dates.\n--African traditions.\n----Algeria.\n----Egypt.\n----Kenya.\n----Morocco.\n----Mozambique.\n----Nigeria.\n----Seychelles.\n----South Africa.\n----South Sudan.\n----Sudan.\n--Asian traditions.\n----Bangladesh.\n----China.\n----India.\n------Popular story culture.\n----Indonesia.\n----Israel.\n----Japan.\n----Kazakhstan.\n----Korea.\n----Malaysia.\n----Mongolia.\n----Nepal.\n----Pakistan.\n----Philippines.\n----Singapore.\n----Sri Lanka.\n----Taiwan.\n----Thailand.\n----United Arab Emirates.\n--European traditions.\n----Roman Catholicism.\n----Austria.\n----Belarus.\n----Belgium.\n----Bulgaria.\n----Croatia.\n----Denmark.\n----Estonia.\n----Finland.\n----France.\n----Germany.\n----Greece.\n----Hungary.\n----Iceland.\n----Ireland.\n----Italy.\n----Latvia.\n----Lithuania.\n----Malta.\n----Netherlands.\n----Norway.\n----Poland.\n----Portugal.\n----Romania.\n----Russia.\n----Slovakia.\n----Spain.\n----Sweden.\n----Turkey.\n----Ukraine.\n----United Kingdom.\n--North American traditions.\n----Canada.\n----Costa Rica.\n----Haiti.\n----Mexico.\n----Trinidad and Tobago.\n----United States.\n--Oceanian traditions.\n----Australia.\n----New Zealand.\n----Samoa.\n----Fiji.\n--South American traditions.\n----Argentina.\n----Bolivia.\n----Brazil.\n----Chile.\n----Colombia.\n----Paraguay.\n----Peru.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Enterprise, Guyana",
        "text": "Many of the original religious customs and traditions that have not been lost were modified by the ages and vestiges of an East Indian heritage appear in a number of the festivities. For example, few weddings are ever complete without the ceremonial rubbing of the dye; an old Indian wedding custom that is accepted among every religion. Holidays like Christmas and Diwali are examples of occasions where the entire community celebrates together in a congenial integration of faith."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Belgium, Mother's Day (\"Moederdag\" or \"Moederkesdag\" in Dutch and \"F\u00eate des M\u00e8res\" in French) is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. In the week before this holiday children make little presents at primary school, which they give to their mothers in the early morning of Mother's Day. Typically, the father will buy croissants and other sweet breads and pastries and bring these to the mother while she is still in bed \u2013 the beginning of a day of pampering for the mother. There are also many people who celebrate Mother's Day on 15 August instead; these are mostly people around Antwerp, who consider that day (Assumption) the classical Mother's Day and the observance in May an invention for commercial reasons. It was originally established on that day as the result of a campaign by Frans Van Kuyck, a painter and Alderman from Antwerp."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christmas controversies",
        "text": "A controversy regarding these issues arose in 2002, when the New York City public school system banned the display of Nativity scenes but allowed the display of what the policy deemed less overtly religious symbols such as Christmas trees, Hanukkah menorahs, and the Muslim star and crescent. The school system successfully defended its policy in \"Skoros v. City of New York\" (2006)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spanish influence on Filipino culture",
        "text": "Every year on the 3rd Sunday of January, the Philippines celebrates the festival of the \"Santo Ni\u00f1o\" (Holy Child Jesus), the largest being held in Cebu City.\n*January 1 \u2013 New Year's Day (Bagong Taon)\n*March or April \u2013 Semana Santa (Holy Week or Easter)\n*October 31 to November 2 \u2013 Day of the Dead, Araw ng mga Kaluluwa (All Souls' Day), and Todos Los Santos (All Saints' Day) where families spend much of the 3 days and 3 evenings visiting their ancestral graves, showing respect and honoring the departed relatives by feasting, decorating and offering prayers.\n*December 24 \u2013 Nochebuena (The Good night or Christmas Eve)\n*December 25 \u2013 Christmas (Pasko)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In the United States, Mother's Day remains one of the biggest days for sales of flowers, greeting cards, and the like; Mother's Day is also the biggest holiday for long-distance telephone calls. Moreover, churchgoing is also popular on Mother's Day, yielding the highest church attendance after Christmas Eve and Easter. Many worshippers celebrate the day with carnations, coloured if the mother is living and white if she is dead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in Suriname",
        "text": "The government engages in vocal support of religious diversity and tolerance, and recognizes the holidays of various religious traditions present in the country as national holidays. The armed forces have chaplains for the Hindu, Muslim, Catholic, and Protestant faiths."
      },
      {
        "title": "Koningsdag",
        "text": "Faced with an unpopular monarchy, in the 1880s the liberals in Dutch government sought a means of promoting national unity. King William III was disliked, but his four-year-old daughter Princess Wilhelmina was not. A holiday honouring King William had been intermittently held on his birthday, and J. W. R. Gerlach, editor of the newspaper \"Utrechts Provinciaal en Stedelijk Dagblad\", proposed that the princess's birthday be observed as an opportunity for patriotic celebration and national reconciliation. \"Prinsessedag\" or Princess's Day was first celebrated in the Netherlands on 31 August 1885, Wilhelmina's fifth birthday. The young princess was paraded through the streets, waving to the crowds. The first observance occurred only in Utrecht, but other municipalities quickly began to observe it, organizing activities for children. Further processions were held in the following years, and when Wilhelmina inherited the throne in 1890, \"Prinsessedag\" was renamed \"Koninginnedag\", or Queen's Day. By then almost every Dutch town and city was marking the holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Social Democratic Party of India",
        "text": "In 2014 a private school in Karicode, Kerala removed \"Vande Mataram\" from their Independence Day programme after workers of the SDPI threatened to disrupt the programme, saying that some of the words in the song were against the religious beliefs of the Muslim community. Fearing trouble, the school authorities dropped the singing of the national song and \"namaste\" gesture from a dance number performed. This issue sparked protests from youth organisations of various parties. SDPI justified the changes in the programme saying that they approached the school management after several parents complained that some words in \"Vande Mataram\" and the \"namaste\" gesture were against their religious beliefs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of religion in Asia by country",
        "text": "Some major religious holidays like Diwali (Hindu), Christmas (Christian), Eid (Muslim) and Guru Nanak's birth anniversary (Sikh) are considered national holidays. Private schools offering religious instruction are permitted while government schools are non-religious."
      },
      {
        "title": "Evangelical feast",
        "text": "The five evangelical feasts or feast days are Christmas, Good Friday, Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost. Most Continental Reformed churches continued to celebrate these feast days while largely discarding the rest of the liturgical calendar and emphasizing weekly celebration of the Lord's Day. Reformed churches in the Palatinate and the Netherlands also celebrated New Year's Day. The Genevan church and the Church of Scotland did not celebrate any holiday but Sunday. The Church of England retained twenty-seven holy days. As a result of disputes between Puritans and high churchmen over the Book of Common Prayer, which the Puritans refused to adopt because they believed it violated their liberty of conscience, they refused to celebrate any holidays besides the Lord's Day. These disputes spread into the Dutch Reformed Church, where there were intermittent battles over celebration of Christmas. Noncontinental Reformed Protestants continued to avoid celebrating feast days until the twentieth century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Koningsdag",
        "text": "Due to the coronavirus pandemic, many King's day celebrations were cancelled in 2020, including the royal family's planned visit to Maastricht. An alternative stay-at-home program was issued instead, featuring a simultaneous national anthem sing-along and a national toast moment. The King addressed the Dutch people from his home."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Mother's day celebrated in April anywhere in the world?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Armenia April 7 is mother's day, and Indonesia celebrates  Kartini Day on 21 April, which is a celebration of the emancipation of women. Also, in Hindu tradition, Mother's Day is called \"Mata Tirtha Aunshi\" or \"Mother Pilgrimage fortnight,\" which is observed on the new moon day in the month of Baisakh, i.e., April/May."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How was Kartini Day established?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Raden Adjeng Kartini was a prominent Indonesian activist for women's rights and female education. After her death, her birthday was celebrated in Indonesia in her honor."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Please tell me about the school established in Kartini's name."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I couldn't find the information you requested. However, I did learn that Kartini Schools, named for the Javanese women's rights advocate Raden Ajeng Kartini (Lady Kartini), were opened to educate indigenous girls in the Dutch East Indies in the wake of the Dutch Ethical Policy."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Was was the Dutch Ethical Policy?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Dutch Ethical Policy was the official policy of the colonial government of the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia) during the four decades from 1901 until the Japanese occupation of 1942. The Policy emphasized improvement in material living conditions."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Back to Mother's Day, how is its celebration affected by religion?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In certain traditional branches of Christianity, the holiday is strongly associated with revering the Virgin Mary. In Hindu tradition, Mother's Day is called \"Mata Tirtha Aunshi\" or \"Mother Pilgrimage fortnight\", and is celebrated in countries with a Hindu population, especially in Nepal, where mothers are honored with special foods, while in Buddhism, the festival of Ullambana is derived from the story of Maudgalyayana and his mother.",
      "In certain traditional branches of Christianity, the holiday is strongly associated with revering the Virgin Mary, in some Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican homes, families have a special shrine on their home altar devoted to the Blessed Virgin Mary, in many Eastern Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, a special prayer service is held in honor of the Theotokos Virgin Mary."
    ],
    "topic": "Mother's Day",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Mother's Day:15",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mother's Day",
          "International history and tradition",
          "Religion"
        ],
        "ctx": "In certain traditional branches of Christianity, the holiday is strongly associated with revering the Virgin Mary. In some Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican homes, families have a special shrine on their home altar devoted to the Blessed Virgin Mary. In many Eastern Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, a special prayer service is held in honor of the Theotokos Virgin Mary."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Mother's Day:18",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mother's Day",
          "International history and tradition",
          "Religion"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Buddhism, the festival of Ullambana is derived from the story of Maudgalyayana and his mother."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Mother's Day:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mother's Day",
          "International history and tradition",
          "Religion"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Hindu tradition, Mother's Day is called \"Mata Tirtha Aunshi\" or \"Mother Pilgrimage fortnight\", and is celebrated in countries with a Hindu population, especially in Nepal, where mothers are honored with special foods. The holiday is observed on the new moon day in the month of Baisakh, i.e., April/May. This celebration is based on the Hindu religion and it pre-dates the creation of the US-inspired celebration by at least a few centuries."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Mother's Day:15",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mother's Day",
          "International history and tradition",
          "Religion"
        ],
        "ctx": "In certain traditional branches of Christianity, the holiday is strongly associated with revering the Virgin Mary. In some Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican homes, families have a special shrine on their home altar devoted to the Blessed Virgin Mary. In many Eastern Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, a special prayer service is held in honor of the Theotokos Virgin Mary."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In certain traditional branches of Christianity, the holiday is strongly associated with revering the Virgin Mary. In some Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican homes, families have a special shrine on their home altar devoted to the Blessed Virgin Mary. In many Eastern Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, a special prayer service is held in honor of the Theotokos Virgin Mary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Ireland, Mother's Day is celebrated on the fourth Sunday of Lent, as in the United Kingdom, and has the same roots in Mothering Sunday. The practice died out in Ireland around the late 18th century but was revived around the 1950s due to Americanisation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Roman Catholic priests complained that the holiday interfered with the honoring of the Virgin Mary, the divine mother, which took place during the whole month of May. In 1926 Mother's Day was celebrated on 7 July in order to address these complaints. Catholic organizations and priests tried to Christianize the holiday, but those attempts were rendered futile around the 1960s when the church lost influence and the holiday was completely secularized."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sheelah's Day",
        "text": "Traditionally, Sheelah's Day was celebrated the day after the Feast of St. Patrick and coincided with the Christian festivities. According to Irish folklore and mythology, Sheelah was either the wife or mother of St. Patrick, and the holiday served to commemorate her life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Veneration of Mary in the Catholic Church",
        "text": "The \"Catechism of the Catholic Church\" states: \"From the most ancient times the Blessed Virgin has been honored with the title of 'Mother of God,' to whose protection the faithful fly in all their dangers and needs.\" The Eastern Catholic Churches observe the feast of the Intercession of the Theotokos in October."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Argentina, Mother's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of October. The holiday was originally celebrated on 11 October, the old liturgical date for the celebration of the Maternity of the Blessed Virgin Mary but after the Second Vatican Council, which moved the Virgin Mary festivity to 1 January, the Mother's Day started to be celebrated the third Sunday of October because of popular tradition. Argentina is the only country in the world that celebrates Mother's Day on this date."
      },
      {
        "title": "Theotokos",
        "text": "The Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God is a Roman Catholic feast day introduced in 1969, based on older traditions associating 1 January with the motherhood of Mary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God",
        "text": "The 1969 revision of the liturgical year and the calendar states: \"1 January, the Octave Day of the Nativity of the Lord, is the Solemnity of Mary, the Holy Mother of God, and also the commemoration of the conferral of the Most Holy Name of Jesus.\" It removed the 11 October feast, even for Portugal, stating: \"The Maternity of the Blessed Virgin Mary is celebrated on 1 January in the Solemnity of Mary, the Mother of God.\" The 11 October feast is now celebrated only by some Traditionalist Catholic individuals and groups."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holy day of obligation",
        "text": "\"includes the entire island of Ireland, i.e. both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland.\"\n*Epiphany\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*All Saints' Day\n*Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary\n*Christmas\n*St. Patrick's Day\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*Epiphany\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*All Saints' Day\n*Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary\n*Christmas\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*Christmas\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*All Saints Day\n*Christmas"
      },
      {
        "title": "Name day",
        "text": "In Ireland, name days were occasionally observed in the past. Among Roman Catholics, it was traditional to begin the celebration on the night before, with a decade of the Rosary to ask the Virgin Mary and the child's patron for his or her needs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mary, mother of Jesus",
        "text": "The Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary is kept in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, on 8 December. In certain Anglo-Catholic parishes this feast is called the Immaculate Conception. Again, the Assumption of Mary is believed in by most Anglo-Catholics, but is considered a pious opinion by moderate Anglicans. Protestant-minded Anglicans reject the celebration of these feasts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Latin Church",
        "text": "The Western Feast of the Assumption is celebrated on 15 August, and the Eastern Orthodox and Greek Catholics celebrate the Dormition of the Mother of God (or Dormition of the Theotokos, the falling asleep of the Mother of God) on the same date, preceded by a 14-day fast period. Eastern Christians believe that Mary died a natural death, that her soul was received by Christ upon death, and that her body was resurrected on the third day after her death and that she was taken up into heaven bodily in anticipation of the general resurrection. Her tomb was found empty on the third day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Spain, Mother's Day or D\u00eda de la Madre is celebrated on the first Sunday of May. The weeks leading up to this Sunday, school children spend a few hours a day preparing a gift for their mothers, aided by their school teachers. In general, mothers receive gifts from their family members & this day is meant to be celebrated with the whole family. It is also said to be celebrated in May, as May is the month dedicated to the Virgin Mary (mother of Jesus) according to Catholicism. The idea of a month dedicated specifically to Mary can be traced back to baroque times. Although it wasn't always held during May, Mary Month included thirty daily spiritual exercises honoring Mary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Iran, Mother's Day is celebrated on 20 Jumada al-thani. This is the sixth month in the Islamic calendar (a lunar calendar) and every year the holiday falls on a different day of the Gregorian calendar. This is the birthday anniversary of Fatimah, Prophet Muhammad's only daughter according to Shia Islam. On this day, banners reading \"\"Ya Fatemeah\" (O! Fatemeh)\" are displayed on \"government buildings, private buildings, public streets and car windows.\" Mother's Day was originally observed on 16 December but the date was changed after the Iranian Revolution in 1979. The celebration is both Women's Day (replacing International Women's Day) and Mother's Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lutheran Church in Ireland",
        "text": "The mother parish is located in Dublin. Although the services are mostly conducted in German, on the last Sunday of each month it is held in English. Services in German also take place in Belfast, Castlepollard, Cork, Galway, Killarney, Limerick, Sligo and Wexford."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mothering Sunday",
        "text": "Constance Adelaide Smith revived its modern observance beginning in 1913 to honour Mother Church, 'mothers of earthly homes', the Virgin Mary (mother of Jesus), and Mother Nature. It gained popularity in response to the originally American Mother's Day. The holiday is often known as \"Mother's Day\" in the United Kingdom, and has become a secular celebration of mothers and motherhood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presentation of Jesus at the Temple",
        "text": "In Irish homes, there were many rituals revolving around welcoming Brigid into the home. Some of Brigid's rituals and legends later became attached to Saint Brigid, who was seen by Celtic Christians as the midwife of Christ and \"Mary of the Gael\". In Ireland and Scotland she is the \"foster mother of Jesus.\" The exact date of the Imbolc festival may have varied from place to place based on local tradition and regional climate. Imbolc is celebrated by modern Pagans on the eve of 2 February, at the astronomical midpoint, or on the full moon closest to the first spring thaw."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mary, mother of Jesus",
        "text": "Mary's special position within God's purpose of salvation as \"God-bearer\" is recognised in a number of ways by some Anglican Christians. All the member churches of the Anglican Communion affirm in the historic creeds that Jesus was born of the Virgin Mary, and celebrates the feast days of the Presentation of Christ in the Temple. This feast is called in older prayer books the Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary on 2 February. The Annunciation of our Lord to the Blessed Virgin on 25 March was from before the time of Bede until the 18th century New Year's Day in England. The Annunciation is called the \"Annunciation of our Lady\" in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer. Anglicans also celebrate in the Visitation of the Blessed Virgin on 31 May, though in some provinces the traditional date of 2 July is kept. The feast of the St. Mary the Virgin is observed on the traditional day of the Assumption, 15 August. The Nativity of the Blessed Virgin is kept on 8 September."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother of the Church",
        "text": "In 2018, Pope Francis decreed that the Memorial of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother of the Church be inserted into the Roman Calendar on the Monday after Pentecost (also known as Whit Monday) and to be celebrated every year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basilica of Our Lady of the Mount, Bandra",
        "text": "The feast of the nativity of Mother Mary (Marymas) is celebrated here on the 8th day of September, on the occasion of the birth of the virgin-mother of Jesus Christ. The feast is followed by a week-long fair or carnival known in the Konkan region as the Bandra Fair and is visited by thousands of people every year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "While the United States holiday was adopted by some other countries, existing celebrations, held on different dates, honoring motherhood have become described as \"Mother's Day\", such as Mothering Sunday in the United Kingdom or, in Greece, the Eastern Orthodox celebration of the presentation of Jesus Christ to the temple (2 February of Julian Calendar). Both the secular and religious Mother Day are present in Greece. Mothering Sunday is often referred to as \"Mother's Day\" even though it is an unrelated celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In Hungary, Mother's Day is celebrated on the first Sunday of May. It was first celebrated in 1925 by the Hungarian Red Cross Youth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Veneration of Mary in the Catholic Church",
        "text": "The Roman Catholic Church celebrates three Marian solemnities which are also holy days of obligation in many countries during the liturgical year (in liturgical order):\n* December 8 Feast of the Immaculate Conception\n* January 1 Mary, Mother of God\n* August 15 The Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lady Day",
        "text": "In Ireland, however, Lady's Day means 15 August, the Feast of the Assumption of Mary, and is a day when fairs are celebrated in many country towns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marian feast days",
        "text": "In the Malankara Orthodox church St. Mary is commemorated on the following feast days:\n* January 1Virgin Mary,Mother of God\n* January 15 Virgin Mary of the Sowing\n* March 25 Annunciation\u00a0of the Virgin Mary\n* May 15 Feast of the Virgin Mary of the Harvest\n* August 15 Assumption of the Virgin Mary (preceded by 15 days of lent)\n* September 8 Nativity of the Virgin Mary(preceded by 8 days of lent)\n* December 26 Glorification of the Mother of God"
      },
      {
        "title": "Women in the Catholic Church",
        "text": "As the mother of Jesus, Mary has a central role in the life of the Roman Catholic Church. Within the church she is seen as the Mother of God and the Mother of the Church. By the early Middle Ages, Marian devotion had become an integral part of Church life. Roman Catholic veneration of her as the \"Blessed Virgin Mary\" has grown over time both in importance and manifestation, in prayer, art, poetry and music. Popes have encouraged this veneration, although they have also taken steps to reform it. Overall, there are significantly more titles, feasts and venerative Marian practices among Roman Catholics than any other Christians traditions. The feast day of the Assumption marks the assuming of Mary's body into Heaven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holy day of obligation",
        "text": "There are different regulations for Scotland and for Ireland.\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*Epiphany\n*Feast of the Ascension\n*Christmas\n*Feast of the Ascension\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*All Saints' Day\n*Christmas\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*Feast of the Ascension\n*Christmas\n*Easter Monday\n*Pentecost Monday\n*Saint Stephen's Day or (Second Christmas Day)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sheelah's Day",
        "text": "Sheelah's Day, also known as Sheelagh's Day, is an Irish cultural holiday celebrated on 18 March which coincides with St. Patrick's Day. While the holiday is no longer widely celebrated in Ireland, there are still associated festivities celebrated throughout the Irish diaspora in Australia and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God",
        "text": "Christians of Byzantine Rite and of all West Syriac and East Syriac rites celebrate Mary as the Mother of God on 26 December and the Coptic Church does so on 16 January. The Eastern Orthodox Church, Anglican Communion and the Lutheran Church observe the Feast of the Circumcision of Christ on 1 January."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Mother's Day\n--Establishment of holiday.\n--Spelling.\n--Dates around the world.\n--International history and tradition.\n----Religion.\n----By country (A\u2013G).\n------Albania.\n------Arab world.\n------Argentina.\n------Armenia.\n------Australia.\n------Bangladesh.\n------Belarus.\n------Bhutan.\n------Belgium.\n------Bolivia.\n------Brazil.\n------Canada.\n------China.\n------Czech Republic.\n------Egypt.\n------Ethiopia.\n------Estonia.\n------Finland.\n------France.\n------Georgia.\n------Germany.\n----By country (H\u2013M).\n------Hungary.\n------India.\n------Indonesia.\n------Iran.\n------Ireland.\n------Israel.\n------Italy.\n------Japan.\n------Kyrgyzstan.\n------Latvia.\n------Lithuania.\n------Malawi.\n------Maldives.\n------Malta.\n------Mexico.\n------Myanmar.\n----By country (N\u2013S).\n------Nepal.\n------Netherlands.\n------New Zealand.\n------Nicaragua.\n------North Korea.\n------Norway.\n------Pakistan.\n------Panama.\n------Paraguay.\n------Philippines.\n------Portugal.\n------Romania.\n------Russia.\n------Samoa.\n------Singapore.\n------Slovakia.\n------South Africa.\n------South Sudan.\n------Spain.\n------Sri Lanka.\n------Sweden.\n------Switzerland.\n----By country (T\u2013Z).\n------Taiwan.\n------Thailand.\n------Ukraine.\n------United Kingdom.\n------United States.\n--Notes.\n----Citations.\n--References.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Assumption of Mary",
        "text": "The Latin Catholic Feast of the Assumption is celebrated on 15 August and the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholics celebrate the Dormition of the Mother of God (or Dormition of the Theotokos, the falling asleep of the Mother of God) on the same date, preceded by a 14-day fast period. Eastern Christians believe that Mary died a natural death, that her soul was received by Christ upon death, that her body was resurrected on the third day after her death and that she was taken up into heaven bodily in anticipation of the general resurrection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God",
        "text": "The Second Vatican Council stated: \"Clearly from earliest times the Blessed Virgin is honoured under the title of Mother of God.\" and at an early stage the Church in Rome celebrated on 1 January a feast that it called the anniversary (\"Natale\") of the Mother of God. When this was overshadowed by the feasts of the Annunciation and the Assumption, adopted from Constantinople at the start of the 7th century, 1 January began to be celebrated simply as the octave day of Christmas, the \"eighth day\" on which, according to , the child was circumcised and given the name Jesus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "The Jewish population of Israel used to celebrate Mother's Day on Shevat 30 of the Jewish calendar, which falls between 30 January and 1 March. The celebration was set as the same date that Henrietta Szold died (13 February 1945). Henrietta had no biological children, but her organization Youth Aliyah rescued many Jewish children from Nazi Germany and provided for them. She also championed children's rights. Szold is considered the \"mother\" of all those children, and that is why her annual remembrance day (\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d4\u05e9\u05e0\u05d4) was set as Mother's Day (\u05d9\u05d5\u05b9\u05dd \u05d4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b5\u05dd, yom ha'em). The holiday has evolved over time, becoming a celebration of mutual love inside the family, called Family Day (\u05d9\u05d5\u05b9\u05dd \u05d4\u05b7\u05de\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05bc\u05e4\u05b8\u05bc\u05d7\u05b8\u05d4, yom hamishpacha). This holiday is mainly celebrated in preschools with an activity to which parents are invited. Mother's Day is mainly celebrated by children at kindergartens. There are no longer mutual gifts among members of the family, and there is no longer any commercialization of the celebration. It is not an official holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint Patrick's Day",
        "text": "Saint Patrick's Day was made an official Christian feast day in the early 17th century and is observed by the Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion (especially the Church of Ireland), the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Lutheran Church. The day commemorates Saint Patrick and the arrival of Christianity in Ireland, and celebrates the heritage and culture of the Irish in general. Celebrations generally involve public parades and festivals, c\u00e9ilithe, and the wearing of green attire or shamrocks. Christians who belong to liturgical denominations also attend church services and historically the Lenten restrictions on eating and drinking alcohol were lifted for the day, which has encouraged and propagated the holiday's tradition of alcohol consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mothering Sunday",
        "text": "Mothering Sunday is a day honouring mother churches, the church where one is baptised and becomes \"a child of the church\", celebrated since the Middle Ages in the United Kingdom, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries on the fourth Sunday in Lent. On Mothering Sunday, Christians have historically visited their mother church\u2014the church in which they received the sacrament of baptism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "While some countries have a multi-century history of a day to celebrate mothers, the modern American version of the holiday began in the United States in the early 20th century at the initiative of Anna Jarvis, who organized the first Mother's Day service of worship and celebration at Andrews Methodist Episcopal Church in Grafton, West Virginia, which serves as the International Mother's Day Shrine today. It is not directly related to the many traditional celebrations of mothers and motherhood that have existed throughout the world over thousands of years, such as the Greek cult to Cybele, the mother deity Rhea, the Roman festival of Hilaria, or the other Christian ecclesiastical Mothering Sunday celebration (associated with the image of Mother Church). However, in some countries, Mother's Day is still synonymous with these older traditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God",
        "text": "The Solemnity of Mary, the Holy Mother of God is a feast day of the Blessed Virgin Mary under the aspect of her motherhood of Jesus Christ, whom she had circumcised on the 8th day, according to the Levitical Law. Christians see him as the Lord, the Son of God. It is celebrated by the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church on 1 January, the Octave (8th) day of Christmastide. The solemnity is a Holy Day of Obligation in areas that have not abrogated it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "It used to be celebrated on 8 December, the same date as the Conception of the Virgin celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frances Mary Teresa Ball",
        "text": "Mother Frances was a woman of great piety and administrative ability. Her energies were devoted to the establishment of schools and to the development of the sisterhood which now has members in many countries. The first offshoot was planted in Navan, County Meath, in the year 1833. The year 1840 was marked by the erection of the first church in Ireland dedicated to the Sacred Heart, in Loretto Abbey, Rathfarnham. In addition to the boarding and day schools the sisters conduct orphanages. Her sister, Anna Maria helped her in the development of her schools, providing the funds for her to purchase the Loreto school on St Stephen's Green."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holy day of obligation",
        "text": "\"includes the entire Korean Peninsula, including both North and South Korea.\"\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*Christmas\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*St Thomas\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*Birth of our Lady\n*Christmas\n* Epiphany\n* Feast of the Ascension\n* Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n* All Saints Day\n* Immaculate Conception of Blessed Virgin Mary\n* Christmas\n*Feast of the Ascension\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*All Saints' Day\n*Christmas\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*Saint Joseph's Day\n*Feast of Saints Peter and Paul\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*All Saints' Day\n*Immaculate Conception of Virgin Mary\n*Christmas\n*The Shipwreck of Saint Paul in Malta on 10 February\n*Feast of the Ascension\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*All Saints' Day\n*Christmas\n*Easter Sunday\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*The Body and Blood of Christ\n*Christmas\n*Our Lady of Guadalupe\n* Epiphany\n* Christmas Day\n* St. Stephen's Day\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*Feast of the Ascension\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*All Saints' Day\n*Christmas\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*Christmas\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*The Body and Blood of Christ\n*Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary\n*Christmas\n*Feast of the Ascension\n*Christmas Day\n* Epiphany\n* Assumption of the Virgin Mary\n* Inmaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary\n* Christmas\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary\n*Christmas\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary\n*Christmas\n*Feast of Saints Peter and Paul\n*The Feast of St. Rose of Lima\n*All Saints' Day\n*Inmaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary\n*Christmas\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*Solemnity of the Immaculate Conception\n*Christmas\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*Epiphany\n*The Body and Blood of Christ\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*All Saints' Day\n*Christmas\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*The Body and Blood of Christ\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*All Saints' Day\n*Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary\n*Christmas\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*Thomas the Apostle\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*Birth of our Lady\n*Christmas\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*Christmas\n*Epiphany\n*Christmas\n*Feast of the Ascension\n*Feast of Saints Peter and Paul\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*All Saints' Day\n*Christmas"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sheelah's Day",
        "text": "Irish antiquarian journals and newspapers from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries mention a wife of St. Patrick. \"Freeman's Journal\" referenced Sheelah's Day in 1785, 1811, and 1841. Australian press from the nineteenth century recorded observances of Sheelah's Day, including the consumption of large amounts of alcohol. Sheelah's Day is no longer officially celebrated in Ireland, but continues to be celebrated in Newfoundland, Canada after Irish immigrants arrived in the late seventeenth century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mary, mother of Jesus",
        "text": "Catholics believe in the Immaculate Conception of Mary, as proclaimed by Pope Pius IX in 1854, namely that she was filled with grace from the very moment of her conception in her mother's womb and preserved from the stain of original sin. The Latin Church has a liturgical feast by that name, kept on 8 December. Orthodox Christians reject the Immaculate Conception dogma principally because their understanding of ancestral sin (the Greek term corresponding to the Latin \"original sin\") differs from the Augustinian interpretation and that of the Catholic Church."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mary Aikenhead",
        "text": "Mother Mary Frances Aikenhead (19 January 1787 \u2013 22 July 1858) was born in Daunt's Square off Grand Parade, Cork, Ireland. Described as one of nursing's greatest leaders, she was the founder of the Catholic religious institute, the Religious Sisters of Charity, the Sisters of Charity of Australia, and of St. Vincent's Hospital in Dublin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Intercession of the Theotokos",
        "text": "The Intercession of the Theotokos, or the Protection of Our Most Holy Lady Theotokos and Ever-Virgin Mary, is a Christian feast of the Mother of God celebrated in the Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic Churches on October 1 (Julian calendar: October 14)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In some countries, the date adopted is one significant to the majority religion, such as Virgin Mary Day in Catholic countries. Other countries selected a date with historical significance. For example, Bolivia's Mother's Day is a fixed date, commemorating a battle in which women participated to defend their children. See the \"International history and tradition\" section for the complete list."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Mary's Basilica, Bangalore",
        "text": "St. Mary's Feast which celebrates the birth of Mother Mary is the most important festival celebrated in the basilica and is attended by 500,000 people. Held in the month of September, the festivities go on for 10 days culminating in a grand chariot procession on the last day. The festivities begin with the hoisting of a traditional flag. A Novena is held on the first nine days from 29 August to 7 September. September 8, the day on which Mother Mary was born, is celebrated as a Holy feast. Mass is offered in different languages and mass marriages are conducted for the poor and needy. A thanksgiving Mass is also organized for couples who have completed 50 years of marriage. Eucharistic celebrations are held on the day of the feast and a decorated chariot with the image of Mother Mary is drawn by devotees along the various streets of Bangalore."
      },
      {
        "title": "Assumption of Mary",
        "text": "Prominent Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox countries in which Assumption Day is an important festival but is not recognized by the state as a public holiday include the Czech Republic, Ireland, Mexico, the Philippines and Russia. In Bulgaria, the Feast of the Assumption is the biggest Eastern Orthodox Christian celebration of the Holy Virgin. Celebrations include liturgies and votive offerings. In Varna, the day is celebrated with a procession of a holy icon, and with concerts and regattas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Imbolc",
        "text": "Although many of its customs died out in the 20th century, it is still observed by Christians as a religious holiday and by some non-Christians as a cultural one, and its customs have been revived in some places. Since the latter 20th century, Celtic neopagans and Wiccans have observed Imbolc as a religious holiday. From 2023, \"Imbolc/St Brigid's Day\" will be an annual public holiday in the Republic of Ireland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "After World War II, Mother's Day was first celebrated on 12 May 1957 in Assisi, at the initiative of Reverend Otello Migliosi, the parish priest of the Tordibetto church. This celebration was so popular that in the following year Mother's Day was adopted throughout Italy. On 18 December 1958, a proposal was presented to the Italian Senate to make the holiday official."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day (United States)",
        "text": "Frank E. Hering, alumnus and administrator at the University of Notre Dame and President of the Fraternal Order of Eagles, made a plea for \"setting aside one day in the year as a nationwide memorial to the memories of Mothers and motherhood\" in 1904. After observing a class of Notre Dame students sending home penny postcards to their mothers, Hering went on to be a vocal advocate for a national Mother's Day for the next decade. As Hering stated in a 1941 issue of \"Scholastic\": \"Throughout history the great men of the world have given their credit for their achievements to their mothers. [The] Holy Church recognizes this, as does Notre Dame especially, and Our Lady who watches over our great institution.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "All Saints Catholic College, Liverpool",
        "text": "Mother Mary Frances Aikenhead (19 January 1787 \u2013 22 July 1858) was born in Daunt's Square off Grand Parade, Cork, Ireland. She was the founder of the Catholic religious institute, the Religious Sisters of Charity, the Sisters of Charity of Australia, and of St. Vincent's Hospital in Dublin. She was active in works of charity but she had failed to find a religious institute devoted to charitable work. She shared this idea with Archbishop Murray, Bishop Coadjutor of Dublin who was a friend of O'Brien. Murray returned later and said that he would bring a French order to Ireland if Aikenhead would lead it.[6] To prepare for this task she became a novice from 1812 to 1815 in the Convent of the Institute of the Blessed Virgin at Micklegate Bar, York.[5] She there assumed the name she kept till death, Sister Mary Augustine. `"
      },
      {
        "title": "Feast of the Conception of the Virgin Mary",
        "text": "The feast eventually began to be observed in the West. Although the name changed to the Conception of Mary, it still focused on the miracle accorded to her parents. Herbert Thurston says that by the tenth century, the Feast of the Conception of Mary was noted in Irish liturgical calendars and listed for May 3. As it was thought that Mary was due no less honor than John the Baptist, it was believed that, like John, Mary must have been sanctified before birth. The feast was brought to Britain by Irish missionaries, and was celebrated there by the 1030s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dormition of the Mother of God",
        "text": "Eastern Christians celebrate the Dormition of the Theotokos on August 15 (August 28, N.S. for those following the Julian Calendar), the same calendar day as the Roman Catholic Feast of the Assumption of Mary. \"Dormition\" and \"Assumption\" are the different names respectively in use by the Eastern and Catholic traditions relating to the end of Mary's life and to her departure from the earth, although the beliefs are not necessarily identical. Both views agree that she was taken up into heaven bodily."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henrietta Szold",
        "text": "In Israel, Mother's Day is celebrated on the day that Szold died, on the 30th of Shevat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presentation of Mary",
        "text": "The Presentation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, known in the East as The Entry of the Most Holy Theotokos into the Temple, is a liturgical feast celebrated on November 21 by the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and some Anglo-Catholic Churches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "Internationally, there were immediate concerns surrounding the exclusive association of Mother's Day with a biological definition of motherhood. Constance Adelaide Smith instead advocated for Mothering Sunday, an already-existing Christian ecclesiastical celebration in which the faithful visit the church in which they received the sacrament of baptism, as an equivalent celebration. She referred to medieval traditions of celebrating Mother Church, 'mothers of earthly homes', Mary, mother of Jesus, and Mother Nature. Her efforts were successful in the British Isles and other parts of the English-speaking world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dormition of the Mother of God",
        "text": "The Dormition of the Mother of God is a Great Feast of the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Eastern Catholic Churches (except the East Syriac churches). It celebrates the \"falling asleep\" (death) of Mary the \"Theotokos\" (\"Mother of God\", literally translated as \"God-bearer\"), and her being taken up into heaven (bodily assumption). It is celebrated on 15 August (28 August N.S. in the Julian Calendar) as the Feast of the Dormition of the Mother of God. The Armenian Apostolic Church celebrates the Dormition not on a fixed date, but on the Sunday nearest 15 August. In Western Churches the corresponding feast is known as the Assumption of Mary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shrove Tuesday",
        "text": "In Ireland, the observance of fasting at Lent continued up to the 20th century, with Shrove Tuesday marking the last day of the consumption of meat for the Lenten period. This was later relaxed, but with three days of fasting observed, Ash Wednesday, Spy Wednesday, and Good Friday. It was a tradition that the eldest unmarried daughter would toss the first pancake. If the pancake fell on the floor, she would remain unmarried for the next 12 months. As marriages were not traditionally permitted during the Lenten period, as decreed by the Council of Trent, weddings on Shrove Tuesday were popular. In some parts of Ireland the holly from Christmas was saved and burnt in the fire for the pancakes. The night was also known as Skellig Night in Counties Cork and Kerry, during the celebrations, those who were unmarried were taunted with jeers and singing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint Patrick's Day",
        "text": "Saint Patrick's feast day, as a kind of national day, was already being celebrated by the Irish in Europe in the ninth and tenth centuries. In later times, he became more and more widely seen as the patron of Ireland. Saint Patrick's feast day was finally placed on the universal liturgical calendar in the Catholic Church due to the influence of Waterford-born Franciscan scholar Luke Wadding in the early 1600s. Saint Patrick's Day thus became a holy day of obligation for Roman Catholics in Ireland. It is also a feast day in the Church of Ireland, which is part of the worldwide Anglican Communion. The church calendar avoids the observance of saints' feasts during certain solemnities, moving the saint's day to a time outside those periods. St Patrick's Day is occasionally affected by this requirement, when 17 March falls during Holy Week. This happened in 1940, when Saint Patrick's Day was observed on 3 April to avoid it coinciding with Palm Sunday, and again in 2008, where it was officially observed on 15 March. St Patrick's Day will not fall within Holy Week again until 2160. However, the popular festivities may still be held on 17 March or on a weekend near to the feast day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marian feast days",
        "text": "While the Western Catholics celebrate the Feast of the Assumption on August 15, some Eastern Catholics celebrate it as Dormition of the Mother of God, and may do so on August 28, if they follow the Julian calendar. The Eastern Orthodox also celebrate it as the Dormition of the Mother of God, one of their 12 Great Feasts. The Armenian Apostolic Church celebrates the Feast of Dormition not on a fixed date, but on the Sunday nearest August 15. Moreover, the practices apart from doctrinal differences also vary, e.g. for the Eastern Orthodox the feast is preceded by the 14-day Dormition Fast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God",
        "text": "The feast of the Maternity of the Blessed Virgin Mary was first granted, on the petition of King Joseph I of Portugal, to the dioceses of Portugal and to Brasil and Algeria, 22 January 1751, together with the feast of the Purity of Mary, and was assigned to the first Sunday in May. In the following year both feasts were extended to the province of Venice, in 1778 to the kingdom of Naples, and 1807 to Tuscany. In the Roman Breviary the feast of the Maternity was commemorated on the second, and the feast of the Purity on the third, Sunday in October. At Mesagna in Apulia it was kept 20 February in commemoration of the earthquake, 20 February 1743. This particular feast was not included in the universal calendar of the church, but a number of diocesan calendars had adopted it. By 1914, the feast was established in Portugal for celebration on 11 October and was extended to the entire Catholic Church by Pope Pius XI in 1931."
      },
      {
        "title": "May Day",
        "text": "May Day has been celebrated in Ireland since pagan times as the feast of Beltane (Bealtaine) and in latter times as Mary's day. Traditionally, bonfires were lit to mark the coming of summer and to grant luck to people and livestock. Officially Irish May Day holiday is the first Monday in May. The tradition of a MayBush was reported as being suppressed by law and the magistrates in Dublin in the 18th century. Old traditions such as bonfires are no longer widely observed, though the practice still persists in some places across the country. Limerick, Clare and many other people in other counties still keep on this tradition, including areas in Dublin city such as Ringsend."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Hospital Kilmainham",
        "text": "Every year on the National Day of Commemoration \u2013 the Sunday nearest 11 July \u2013 the anniversary of the Truce that ended the Irish War of Independence \u2013 the President of Ireland, in the presence of members of the Government of Ireland, members of D\u00e1il \u00c9ireann and of Seanad \u00c9ireann, the Council of State, the Defence Forces, the Judiciary and the Diplomatic Corps, lays a wreath in the courtyard in memory of all Irishmen and Irishwomen who have died in past wars and on service with the United Nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gerard Majella",
        "text": "The St. Gerard Majella Annual Novena takes place every year at St. Josephs Church in Dundalk, Ireland. This annual nine-day novena is the biggest festival of faith in Ireland. St. Joseph's sponsors the St. Gerard's Family League, an association of Christians united in prayer for their own and other families, to preserve Christian values in their home and family lives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fatimah",
        "text": "Iranians celebrate Fatimah's birth anniversary on 20 Jumada al-Thani as the Mother's Day. On this day, banners reading \"\"Ya Fatemeah\" (O! Fatemeh)\" are displayed on \"government buildings, private buildings, public streets and car windows.\" The Gregorian date for this changes every year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mary, mother of Jesus",
        "text": "In the 7th and 8th centuries, four more Marian feasts were established in Eastern Christianity. In the West, a feast dedicated to Mary, just before Christmas was celebrated in the Churches of Milan and Ravenna in Italy in the 7th century. The four Roman Marian feasts of Purification, Annunciation, Assumption and Nativity of Mary were gradually and sporadically introduced into England by the 11th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holy day of obligation",
        "text": "According to the Bishops' Conference of Scotland in 1986, holy days which fall on a Saturday or Monday (with the exception of Christmas) are transferred to the adjacent Sunday. There are separate regulations for Ireland and for England and Wales.\n*Feast of the Ascension\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*All Saints' Day\n*Christmas\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*Epiphany\n*Feast of the Ascension\n*The Body and Blood of Christ\n*Feast of Saints Peter and Paul\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*All Saints' Day\n*Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary\n*Christmas"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mary, mother of Jesus",
        "text": "Differences in feasts may also originate from doctrinal issues\u2014the Feast of the Assumption is such an example. Given that there is no agreement among all Christians on the circumstances of the death, Dormition or Assumption of Mary, the feast of assumption is celebrated among some denominations and not others. While the Catholic Church celebrates the Feast of the Assumption on 15 August, some Eastern Catholics celebrate it as Dormition of the, and may do so on 28 August, if they follow the Julian calendar. The Eastern Orthodox also celebrate it as the Dormition of the , one of their 12 Great Feasts. Protestants do not celebrate this, or any other Marian feasts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Assumption of Mary",
        "text": "Assumption Day on 15 August is a nationwide public holiday in Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chile, Republic of Congo, C\u00f4te d'Ivoire, Croatia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cyprus, East Timor, France, Gabon, Greece, Georgia, Republic of Guinea, Haiti, Italy, Lebanon, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Republic of North Macedonia, Madagascar, Malta, Mauritius, Republic of Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro (Albanian Catholics), Paraguay, Poland (coinciding with Polish Army Day), Portugal, Romania, Rwanda, Senegal, Seychelles, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Tahiti, Togo, and Vanuatu; and was also in Hungary until 1948."
      },
      {
        "title": "Patronages of the Immaculate Conception",
        "text": "On 7 December 1650, the Irish Catholic Confederation, on the verge of its final defeat by the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, declared the Virgin Mother of God, under the title of the Immaculate Conception, patroness of the Kingdom of Ireland and was cited six days later:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jehovah's Witnesses practices",
        "text": "Other common celebrations and religious or national holidays such as birthdays, Halloween, Easter and Christmas are not celebrated because they believe that these continue to involve \"false religious beliefs or activities.\" Watch Tower Society publications rule out the celebration of Mother's Day because of a claimed link with pagan gods and concerns that giving \"special honor and worship\" to mothers is a form of \"creature worship\" that could turn people away from God. The Society also directs Witnesses to shun May Day, New Year's Day and Valentine's Day celebrations because of their pagan origins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Little Christmas",
        "text": "In Ireland, Little Christmas is also called Women's Christmas (), and sometimes \"Women's Little Christmas\". The tradition, still strong in Cork and Kerry, is so called because Irish men take on household duties for the day. Goose was the traditional meat served on Women's Christmas. Some women hold parties or go out to celebrate the day with their friends, sisters, mothers and aunts. As a result, parties of women and girls are common in bars and restaurants on this night."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Ireland",
        "text": "Other pre-Christian festivals, whose names survive as Irish month names, are Bealtaine (May), L\u00fanasa (August) and Samhain (November). The last is still widely observed as Halloween which is celebrated all over the world, including in the United States followed by All Saints' Day, another Christian holiday associated with a traditional one. Important church holidays include Easter, and various Marian observances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marian feast days",
        "text": "In the Syriac Orthodox rite St. Mary is commemorated on the following 8 Major feast days:\n* January 15 Virgin Mary of the Sowing\n* March 25 Annunciation\u00a0of the Virgin Mary\n* May 15 Feast of the Virgin Mary of the Harvest\n* August 15 Dormition and Assumption of the Virgin Mary\n* September 8 Nativity of the Virgin Mary\n* December 26 Glorification of the Mother of God"
      },
      {
        "title": "Paps of Anu",
        "text": "It is believed that the site is named after the saint Crobh Dearg and was originally used for Beltane rituals and festivities. Over time, the site and the festivities became somewhat Christianized. A yearly May Day festival was held there up until World War II. According to local folklorist Dan Cronin, the festival involved music, dancing, drinking, and \"champions\u2026performing feats of valour\". People would circle the well and the other features of the site while reciting prayers. They would also walk their cattle around the well as a purification ritual. In 1925 the festivities \"were augmented\u2026for the first time in modern memory, with the inclusion of a Mass\". In his sermon, the priest commented that \"The pagan danger is now past. Paganism is dead, or rather all the best elements in it have been absorbed into Christianity\". After World War II, \"all that remained of the event were the penitential rites, observed by the occasional visitor on any day of the year, and by a small crowd celebrating Mass there each May Day\". A statue of Mary has been erected at the site. In 1983 a local affiliate of Comhaltas Ceolt\u00f3ir\u00ed \u00c9ireann, the Irish cultural organization, working with the parish priest, reintroduced music and dance to the May Day festival at Cahercrovdarrig."
      },
      {
        "title": "Annie Isherwood",
        "text": "Mother Cecile CR is commemorated in the Calendar of saints (Anglican Church of Southern Africa) on 20 February. Her image is featured in a stained glass window in St George's Cathedral, Cape Town and in All Saints' Church, Cambridge and in a stained-glass window on the staircase to the Lady Chapel in Liverpool Cathedral."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mothering Sunday",
        "text": "In modern Britain, 'Mother's Day' has become another term for Mothering Sunday in commercial contexts due to American influence, but it continues to be held during Lent. The holiday has also gained secular observance in Britain as a celebration of motherhood, following the American tradition, rather than its original religious meaning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mermuth",
        "text": "Also worthy of mention is the \"Mermuther Feiertag\" (\u201cMermuth Day of Celebration\u201d). It has been held for many generations in the Virgin Mary\u2019s honour. According to oral tradition, a pledge was made, after the village had been beset by a whole series of fires over a short time \u2013 some caused by troops in the Thirty Years' War \u2013 to keep this day to secure the protection of the \u201cMother of God\u201d."
      },
      {
        "title": "Imbolc",
        "text": "Today, St Brigid's Day and Imbolc is observed by Christians and non-Christians. Some people still make Brigid's crosses and s or visit holy wells dedicated to St Brigid on 1 February. Brigid's Day parades have been revived in the town of Killorglin, County Kerry, which holds a yearly \"Biddy's Day Festival\". Men and women wearing elaborate straw hats and masks visit public houses carrying a to ward off evil spirits and bring good luck for the coming year. There are folk music sessions, historical talks, film screenings, drama productions and cross-making workshops. The main event is a torchlight parade of 'Biddy groups' through the town. Since 2009 a yearly \"Brigid of Faughart Festival\" is held in County Louth. This celebrates Brigid as both saint and goddess, and includes the long-standing pilgrimage to Faughart as well as music, poetry and lectures."
      },
      {
        "title": "National calendars of the Roman Rite",
        "text": "According to the national calendar of Ireland, as drawn up by the Irish Catholic Bishops' Conference and approved by the Holy See:\n* 3 January: Saint Munchin, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 15 January: Saint Ita, virgin \u2013 Memorial\n* 16 January: Saint Fursa, abbot and missionary \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 30 January: Saint Aidan, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 1 February: Saint Brigid, virgin \u2013 Feast\n* 7 February: Saint Mel, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 11 February: Saint Gobnait, virgin \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 14 February: Saints Cyril, monk and Methodius, bishop \u2013 Feast\n* 17 February: Saint Fintan \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 1 March: Saint David, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 5 March: Saint Kieran, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 8 March: Saint Senan, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 11 March: Saint Aengus (Oengus), bishop and abbot \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 17 March: Saint Patrick, bishop \u2013 Solemnity\n* 21 March: Saint Enda, abbot \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 24 March: Saint Macartan, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 1 April: Saint Ceallach (Celsus), bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 18 April: Saint Molaise (Laisr\u00e9n, Laserian), bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 27 April: Saint Asicus, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 29 April: Saint Catherine of Siena, virgin and doctor \u2013 Feast\n* 4 May: Saint Conleth, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 5 May: Blessed Edmund Ignatius Rice, religious \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 10 May: Saint Comgall, abbot \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 15 May: Saint Carthage, bishop (Mochuta) \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 16 May: Saint Brendan, abbot \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 3 June: Saint Kevin, abbot \u2013 Memorial\n* 6 June: Saint Jarlath, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 7 June: Saint Colman of Dromore, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 9 June: Saint Columba, abbot and missionary \u2013 Feast\n* 14 June: Saint Davnet, virgin \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 20 June: Blessed Irish Martyrs \u2013 Memorial\n* 1 July: Saint Oliver Plunkett, bishop and martyr \u2013 Memorial\n* 6 July: Saint Moninne, virgin \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 7 July: Saint Maelruain (Maolruain), virgin \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 8 July: Saint Killian, bishop and martyr \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 11 July: Saint Benedict, abbot \u2013 Feast\n* 23 July: Saint Birgitta, religious \u2013 Feast\n* 24 July: Saint Declan, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 9 August: Saint Teresa Benedicta of the Cross (Edith Stein), virgin and martyr \u2013 Feast\n* 9 August: In the revised liturgical calendar for Ireland, approved by the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments on 1 October 1998 (Protocol No. 227/97/L), optional memorials of Saint Nathy and Saint Felim were assigned to this day; outside the dioceses that celebrate them with a higher rank, their celebrations are impeded by that of Saint Teresa Benedicta of the Cross, who was later declared one of the patron saints of Europe.\n* 12 August: Saint Muiredach, bishop, Saint Attracta, virgin, or Saint Lelia, virgin \u2013 Optional Memorials\n* 13 August: Saint Fachtna, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 17 August: Our Lady of Knock \u2013 Feast\n* 23 August: Saint Eugene (Eoghan), bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 30 August: Saint Fiacre, monk \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 31 August: Saint Aidan of Lindisfarne, bishop and missionary \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 4 September: Saint Mac Nissi, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 9 September: Saint Ciaran, abbot \u2013 Memorial\n* 12 September: Saint Ailbe, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 23 September: The celebration of Saint Eunan (Adomnan), abbot as an optional memorial is now generally impeded by the later assignation to this date in the General Calendar of the obligatory memorial of Saint Pio of Pietralcina\n* 25 September: Saint Finbarr, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 3 October: Blessed Columba Marmion, priest \u2013 Optional Memorial (in some places)\n* 9 October: Saint John Henry Newman, priest \u2013 Optional Memorial (in some places)\n* 11 October: Saint Canice, abbot \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 16 October: Saint Gall, abbot and missionary \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 27 October: Saint Otteran, monk \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 29 October: Saint Colman of Kilmacduagh, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 3 November: Saint Malachy, bishop \u2013 Memorial\n* 6 November: All Saints of Ireland \u2013 Feast\n* 7 November: Saint Willibrord, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 14 November: Saint Laurence O'Toole, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 23 November: Saint Columban, abbot and missionary \u2013 Memorial\n* 25 November Saint Colman of Cloyne, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 27 November Saint Fergal, bishop and missionary \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 12 December Saint Finnian of Clonard, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 18 December Saint Flannan, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 20 December Saint Fachanan of Kilfenora, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 6 February: Saints Paul Miki and companions, martyrs \u2013 Feast\n* 17 March: Our Lady of the Discovery of the Hidden Christians \u2013 Feast\n* 1 July: Saint Peter Kibe, priest and companions, martyrs \u2013 Memorial\n* 10 September: 205 Blessed Martyrs of Japan \u2013 Memorial\n* 28 September: Saint Thomas Rokuzayemon, priest and companions, martyrs \u2013 Memorial\n* 3 December: Saint Francis Xavier, priest \u2013 Feast\n* 29 May: Blessed Paul Yun Ji-Chung and companions, martyrs \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 5 July: Saint Andrew Kim Taegon, priest and martyr \u2013 Solemnity\n* 20 September: Saint Andrew Kim Taegon, priest, and Paul Chong Hasang and companions, martyrs \u2013 Solemnity\n* 1 October: Saint Th\u00e9r\u00e8se of the Child Jesus, virgin and doctor \u2013 Feast\n* 3 December: Saint Francis Xavier, priest \u2013 Feast\n* 4 December: Saint Barbara, virgin and martyr \u2013 Memorial\n* 6 December: Saint Nicholas, bishop \u2013 Memorial\n* 24 December: Saint Charbel, priest \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 9 February: Saint Maroun \u2013 Memorial\n* 23 March: Saint Rafqa (Rebecca), virgin \u2013 Memorial\n* 23 April: Saint George, martyr \u2013 Memorial\n* 1 May: Our Lady of Lebanon \u2013 Feast\n* 27 January: Blessed Jurgis Matulaitis-Matulevi\u010dius, bishop \u2013 Memorial\n* 14 February: Saints Cyril, monk and Methodius, bishop \u2013 Feast\n* 4 March: Saint Casimir \u2013 Feast\n* 9 March: Saint Bruno Boniface of Querfurt, bishop and martyr \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 23 April: Saint Adalbert, bishop and martyr \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 29 April: Saint Catherine of Siena, virgin and doctor \u2013 Feast\n* 16 May: Saint Andrew Bobola, priest and martyr \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 2 July: Our Lady, Queen of Families \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 11 July: Saint Benedict, abbot \u2013 Feast\n* 23 July: Saint Birgitta, religious \u2013 Feast\n* 9 August: Saint Teresa Benedicta of the Cross (Edith Stein), virgin and martyr \u2013 Feast\n* 17 August: Saint Hyacinth \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 8 September: Birth of the Blessed Virgin Mary \u2013 Solemnity\n* 5 October: Saint Faustina Kowalska, religious \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 16 November: Our Lady, Mother of Mercy \u2013 Solemnity\n* 3 January: Saint Irmine, abbess \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 14 February: Saints Cyril, monk and Methodius, bishop \u2013 Feast\n* 29 April: Saint Catherine of Siena, virgin and doctor \u2013 Feast\n* 11 July: Saint Benedict, abbot \u2013 Feast\n* 13 July: Saints Henry and Cunigunde \u2013 Memorial\n* 23 July: Saint Birgitta, religious \u2013 Feast\n* 9 August: Saint Teresa Benedicta of the Cross (Edith Stein), virgin and martyr \u2013 Feast\n* 11 August: Blessed Ghislaine \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 18 September: Saint Lambert of Maastricht, bishop and martyr \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 3 November: Saint Hubert, bishop \u2013 Memorial\n* 7 November: Saint Willibrord, bishop \u2013 Feast\n* Second Saturday after the Solemnity of Corpus Christi: Our Lady, Comforter of the Afflicted \u2013 Solemnity\n* 22 January: Saint Publius, bishop \u2013 Memorial\n* 10 February: Shipwreck of Saint Paul, apostle \u2013 Solemnity\n* 14 February: Saints Cyril, monk and Methodius, bishop \u2013 Feast\n* 25 February: Blessed Maria Adeodata Pisani, virgin \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* Friday before Good Friday: Our Lady of Sorrows \u2013 Feast\n* 23 April: Saint George, martyr \u2013 Memorial\n* 29 April: Saint Catherine of Siena, virgin and doctor \u2013 Feast\n* 30 April: Saint Pius V, pope \u2013 Memorial\n* 9 May: Saint George Preca, priest \u2013 Feast\n* 1 July: Blessed Nazju Falzon \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 11 July: Saint Benedict, abbot \u2013 Feast\n* 16 July: Our Lady of Mount Carmel \u2013 Memorial\n* 23 July: Saint Birgitta, religious \u2013 Feast\n* 9 August: Saint Teresa Benedicta of the Cross (Edith Stein), virgin and martyr \u2013 Feast\n* 8 September: Birth of the Blessed Virgin Mary \u2013 Feast\n* 5 February: Saint Felipe de Jes\u00fas, priest and martyr \u2013 Feast\n* 25 February: Blessed Sebasti\u00e1n de Aparicio, religious \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 27 April: Saint Mar\u00eda Guadalupe Garc\u00eda Zavala, virgin \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 3 May: Exaltation of the Holy Cross \u2013 Feast\n* 4 May: Saint Philip and Saint James, apostles \u2013 Feast\n* 15 May: Saint Isidore the Laborer \u2013 Memorial\n* 16 May: Saint John Nepomucene, priest and martyr \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 21 May: Saint Crist\u00f3bal Magallanes and companions, martyrs \u2013 Memorial\n* 27 June: Our Lady of Perpetual Help \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 4 July: Our Lady of Refuge \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 30 July: Saint Mar\u00eda de Jes\u00fas Sacramentado Venegas, virgin \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 16 August: Blessed Bartolom\u00e9 D\u00edas Laurel, religious and martyr or Blessed Pedro de Z\u00fa\u00f1iga and Blessed Luis Flores, priests and martyrs \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 26 August: Saint Jun\u00edpero Serra, priest \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 30 August: Saint Rose of Lima, virgin \u2013 Feast\n* 19 September: Saint Jos\u00e9 Maria de Yermo, priest \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 24 September: Our Lady of Mercy \u2013 Memorial\n* 24 October: Saint Rafael Gu\u00edzar y Valencia, bishop \u2013 Feast\n* 23 November: Blessed Miguel Agust\u00edn Pro, priest and martyr \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 9 December: Saint Juan Diego \u2013 Memorial\n* 12 December: Our Lady of Guadalupe \u2013 Solemnity\n* Thursday after Pentecost: Our Lord Jesus Christ, the Eternal High Priest \u2013 Feast\n* Monday after Pentecost: Our Lady, Mother of the Church \u2013 Feast\n* 13 May: Our Lady of Fatima \u2013 Memorial\n* 3 June: Saints Charles Lwanga and companions, martyrs \u2013 Feast\n* 5 August: Our Lady of Africa \u2013 Memorial\n* 28 August: Saint Augustine of Hippo, bishop and doctor of the Church \u2013 Feast\n* 9 September: Saint Peter Claver, priest \u2013 Memorial\n* Saturday before the last Sunday in October: Immaculate Heart of Mary \u2013 Solemnity\n* 3 October: Saint Th\u00e9r\u00e8se of the Child Jesus, virgin and doctor \u2013 Feast\n* 3 December: Saint Francis Xavier, priest \u2013 Feast\n* 14 January: Blessed Peter Donders, priest \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 15 January: Saint Arnold Janssen, priest -Optional Memorial\n* 14 February: Saints Cyril, monk and Methodius, bishop \u2013 Feast\n* 29 April: Saint Catherine of Siena, virgin and doctor \u2013 Feast\n* 5 June: Saint Boniface, bishop and martyr, and companions, martyrs \u2013 Memorial\n* 14 June: Saint Lidwina, virgin \u2013 Feast\n* 9 July: The Martyrs of Gorkum \u2013 Feast\n* 11 July: Saint Benedict, abbot \u2013 Feast\n* 23 July: Saint Brigitta, religious \u2013 Feast\n* 27 July: Blessed Titus Brandsma, priest and martyr \u2013 Memorial\n* 9 August: Saint Teresa Benedicta of the Cross, virgin and martyr \u2013 Feast\n* 3 November: Saint Hubert, bishop \u2013 Memorial\n* 6 November: The Preachers of the Faith in Netherlands \u2013 Feast\n* 7 November: Saint Willibrord, bishop \u2013 Solemnity\n* 6 February: Waitangi Day\n* 7 February: Saint Paul Miki and Companions \u2013 Memorial\n* 17 March: Saint Patrick, bishop \u2013 Feast\n* 26 April: Saint Mark, apostle \u2013 Feast\n* 27 April: Saint Louis Grignon de Montfort, priest \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 28 April: Saint Peter Chanel, priest and martyr \u2013 Feast\n* 24 May: Our Lady, Help of Christians \u2013 Memorial\n* 6 June: Saint Marcellin Champagnat, priest \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 3 August: Saint Dominic, priest \u2013 Memorial\n* 8 August: Saint Mary MacKillop, virgin \u2013 Feast\n* 9 January: Saint Adrian of Canterbury, abbot \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 19 January: Saint Fabian, pope and martyr; or Saint Sebastian, martyr \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 20 January: Blessed Cyprian Michael Tansi, priest \u2013 Feast\n* 26 February: Saint Alexander of Alexandria, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 17 March: Saint Patrick, bishop \u2013 Feast\n* 4 April: Saint Benedict, religious or Saint Isidore, bishop and doctor of the Church \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 12 April: Saint Zeno of Verona, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 20 April: Saint Marcellinus, bishop \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 28 April: Saint Pius V, pope; or Saint Peter Chanel, priest and martyr; or Saint Louis Grignon de Montfort, priest \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 30 April: Our Lady, Mother of Africa \u2013 Feast\n* 24 May: Blessed Virgin Mary, Help of Christians \u2013 Memorial\n* 29 May: Blessed Joseph Gerard, priest \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 12 June: Saint Onuphrius, hermit \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 28 July: Saint Victor I, pope and martyr \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 30 July: Saint Justin de Jacobis, bishop; or Saint Peter Chrysologus, bishop and doctor \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 12 August: Blessed Isidore Bakanja, martyr; or Saint Jane Frances de Chantal, religious \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 18 August: Blessed Victoria Rasoamanarivo \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 22 September: Saint Maurice and companions, martyrs \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 1 October: Our Lady, Queen of Nigeria \u2013 Solemnity\n* 3 October: Saint Th\u00e9r\u00e8se of the Child Jesus, virgin and doctor \u2013 Memorial\n* 10 October: Saint Daniel Comboni, bishop \u2013 Memorial\n* 20 October: Blessed Daudi Okelo and Jildo Irwa, martyrs \u2013 Optional Memorial\n* 6 November: All Saints of Africa \u2013 Memorial\n* 1 December: Blessed Clementine Anuarite, virgin and martyr \u2013 Optional Memorial"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "In the early 1960s, on the initiative of a chain of department stores (Galer\u00edas Preciados), which copied the custom established in Cuba, Mother's Day was also celebrated on the first Sunday of May (El Corte Ingl\u00e9s, the great competitor of Galer\u00edas Preciados, celebrated the holiday in December). The two dates, May and December, coexisted until 1965 when the ecclesiastical authorities chose to celebrate the festival in May, within the month consecrated to the Virgin, to recover the authentic character of the Day of the Immaculate Conception."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holy day of obligation",
        "text": "If they are thus assigned to a Sunday, they are not included in the following national lists of holy days of obligation, since \u201ein every country all Sundays are holy days of obligation\u201c.\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*Assumption of the Virgin Mary\n*Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary\n*Christmas\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*Christmas\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*Epiphany\n*Feast of the Ascension\n*The Body and Blood of Christ\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*All Saints' Day\n*Feast of the Immaculate Conception\n*Christmas\n*Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God\n*St Thomas\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*Birth of our Lady\n*Christmas\n*Feast of the Ascension\n*Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary\n*All Saints' Day\n*Christmas"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother's Day",
        "text": "It is possible that the holiday would have withered over time without the support and continuous promotion of the florist industries and other commercial industries. Other Protestant holidays from the same time, such as Children's Day and Temperance Sunday, do not have the same level of popularity.\n* International Mother's Day Shrine\n* International Women's Day\n* Father's Day\n* List of films set around Mother's Day\n* May crowning\n* Why Mom Deserves a Diamond contest"
      },
      {
        "title": "Brigid of Kildare",
        "text": "Saint Brigid of Kildare or Brigid of Ireland (; ; 525) is the patroness saint (or 'mother saint') of Ireland, and one of its three national saints along with Patrick and Columba. According to medieval Irish hagiographies, she was an abbess who founded several convents of nuns, most notably that of Kildare, which was one of the most important in Ireland. There are few historical facts about her, and early hagiographies are mainly anecdotes and miracle tales, some of which are rooted in pagan folklore. She is patroness of many things, including poetry, learning, healing, protection, blacksmithing, livestock and dairy production. The saint shares her name with a Celtic goddess. Brigid's feast day is 1 February, which was originally a pre-Christian festival called Imbolc, marking the beginning of spring. From 2023 it will be a public holiday in the Republic of Ireland, the first named after a woman. This feast day is shared by Dar Lugdach, who tradition says was her student, close companion, and successor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mary, mother of Jesus",
        "text": "Prayers and venerative practices vary greatly. For instance, as of the 19th century, following the Oxford Movement, Anglo-Catholics frequently pray the Rosary, the , , and other litanies and anthems of Mary reminiscent of Catholic practices. Conversely, low church Anglicans rarely invoke the Blessed Virgin except in certain hymns, such as the second stanza of \"Ye Watchers and Ye Holy Ones\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "St Mary's Church, Belfast",
        "text": "The church holds two masses a day from Sunday - Monday, and three a day on Friday and Saturday. The 6pm Mass on both Friday and Saturday are held in the Irish language."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Ireland",
        "text": "Brigid's Day (1 February, known as Imbolc or Candlemas) also does not have its origins in Christianity, being instead another religious observance superimposed at the beginning of spring. The Brigid's cross made from rushes represents a pre-Christian solar wheel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presentation of Jesus at the Temple",
        "text": "Modern Pagans believe that Candlemas is a Christianization of the Gaelic festival of Imbolc, which was celebrated in pre-Christian Europe (and especially the Celtic Nations) at about the same time of year. Imbolc is called \"St. Brigid's Day\" or \"Brigid\" in Ireland. Both the goddess Brigid and the Christian Saint Brigid\u2014who was the Abbess of Kildare\u2014are associated with sacred flames, holy wells and springs, healing, and smithcraft. Brigid is a virgin, yet also the patron of midwives. However, a connection with Roman (rather than Celtic or Germanic) polytheism is more plausible, since the feast was celebrated before any serious attempt to expand Christianity into non-Roman countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Observance of Christmas by country",
        "text": "Christmas celebrations in Ireland finish with the celebration of Little Christmas also known as O\u00edche Nollaig na mBan in Irish on January 6. This festival, which coincides with Epiphany, is also known as \"Women's Christmas\" in Cork & Kerry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catholic Church in Ireland",
        "text": "Alongside the church itself, many Irish devotional traditions have continued for centuries as a part of the church's local culture. One such tradition, unbroken since ancient times, is of annual pilgrimages to sacred Celtic Christian places such as St Patrick's Purgatory and Croagh Patrick. Particular emphasis on mortification and offerings of sacrifices and prayers for the Holy Souls of Purgatory is another strong, long time cultural practice. The Leonine Prayers were said at the end of Low Mass for the deceased of the penal times. \"Patterns\" (processions) in honour of local saints also continue to this day. Marian Devotion is an element, focused on the shrine at Knock, an approved apparition of the Virgin Mary who appeared in 1879. Feasts and devotions such as the Immaculate Conception of Mary (1854) and the Sacred Heart of Jesus (1642), and the concepts of martyrology are very prominent elements. Respect for mortification of the flesh has led on to the veneration of Matt Talbot and Padre Pio."
      },
      {
        "title": "Epiphany (holiday)",
        "text": "The Irish call the day the Feast of the Epiphany or traditionally Little Christmas or \"Women's Christmas\" (Irish: \"Nollaig na mBan\"). On Nollaig na mBan, women traditionally rested and celebrated for themselves after the cooking and work of the Christmas holidays. The custom was for women to gather on this day for a special meal, but on the occasion of Epiphany accompanied by wine, to honor the Miracle at the Wedding at Cana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nativity of Mary",
        "text": "In Kerala, the feast of Mary's Nativity, called \"Nalpiravi\" (\u0d28\u0d7d\u200c\u0d2a\u0d3f\u0d31\u0d35\u0d3f), is a major celebration among Saint Thomas Christians and is always celebrated as an octave. An eight-day abstinence (Ettu Nombu) of meat and alcohol is observed from September 1 until September 8. During this period, vegetarian food is prepared in all families of Saint Thomas Christian and churches organize charitable activities, evangelical conventions and special prayers to honor Virgin Mary. Praying \"Kontha\" (The Holy Rosary) in groups is an important custom during these days. On the day of Marymas, a ceremonial pudding called \"Pachoru\" (\u0d2a\u0d3e\u0d1a\u0d4d\u0d1a\u0d4b\u0d31\u0d4d) which is made using milk, rice and jaggery is prepared in churches and distributed to the devotees in the afternoon as part of the feast celebration. In houses, Theenmura (a festive meal including meat and fish dishes) is prepared."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint Patrick's Day",
        "text": "Christian leaders in Ireland have expressed concern about the secularisation of St Patrick's Day. In \"The Word\" magazine's March 2007 issue, Fr Vincent Twomey wrote, \"It is time to reclaim St Patrick's Day as a church festival\". He questioned the need for \"mindless alcohol-fuelled revelry\" and concluded that \"it is time to bring the piety and the fun together\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Feast of the Conception of the Virgin Mary",
        "text": "In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the faithful celebrate a liturgical feast on 9 December called the \"Conception\" (passive) of the Mother of God, which used to be more often called the \"Feast of the Conception\" (active) of Saint Anne. In the Greek Orthodox Church the feast is called \"The Conception by St. Anne of the Most Holy Theotokos\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Imbolc",
        "text": "From 2023, \"Imbolc/St Brigid's Day\" will be a yearly public holiday in the Republic of Ireland, to mark both the saint's feast day and the seasonal festival. A government statement noted that it will be the first Irish public holiday named after a woman, and \"means that all four of the traditional Celtic seasonal festival will now be public holidays\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Visit by Pope Francis to Ireland",
        "text": "Coinciding with the Mass on Sunday, around 1,000 people assembled at Tuam's Town Hall in the West of Ireland and walked in silent vigil the 30-minute route to the Bon Secours Mother and Baby Home in remembrance of those who died or disappeared there. Meanwhile, at the Garden of Remembrance in Dublin at the same time, several thousand others were present for \"Stand4Truth\", held in solidarity with those who had been abused. Some called it a protest, others a space for anyone who felt excluded. It was organised by Colm O'Gorman, head of Amnesty International Ireland, himself a victim of sexual abuse by a priest. There were speeches, and music and then a silent walk to the site of the last Magdalen laundry to close in Ireland, on Sean McDermott Street, asking that it be preserved as a site of conscience, of memory and education."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brigid McGuigan",
        "text": "Mother Mary Francis was the first Australian-born Sister of Charity to celebrate her Golden Jubilee celebrated on 21 April 1914, where she was honoured by three bishops and fifty-two priests. The Sisters donated a pipe organ and a Gothic marble altar to the Mother House chapel. Eighteen convents, six hospitals including two private hospitals and the Hospice for the Dying, members of colleges, high schools and primary schools were all represented at the celebrations. On 1 November 2018, the newly opened Sr Francis McGuigan Wing of St Vincent\u2019s Private Hospital, Sydney was named in her honour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint Patrick's Day",
        "text": "According to tradition, Patrick returned to Ireland to convert the pagan Irish to Christianity. The \"Declaration\" says that he spent many years evangelising in the northern half of Ireland and converted thousands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint Patrick's Day",
        "text": "Today's Saint Patrick's Day celebrations have been greatly influenced by those that developed among the Irish diaspora, especially in North America. Until the late 20th century, Saint Patrick's Day was often a bigger celebration among the diaspora than it was in Ireland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marian Days",
        "text": "The Marian Days (, officially \"c\u00e1c Ng\u00e0y Th\u00e1nh M\u1eabu\") is the main festival and pilgrimage for Vietnamese American Roman Catholics. The annual event in honor of the Blessed Virgin Mary has taken place the first weekend in August since 1978 on the campus of the Congregation of the Mother of the Redeemer (CRM) in Carthage, Missouri. Tens of thousands of attendees come from throughout the United States, while non-Vietnamese locals and some visitors from Canada, Vietnam, and Australia also attend."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Mother's day celebrated in April anywhere in the world?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Armenia April 7 is mother's day, and Indonesia celebrates  Kartini Day on 21 April, which is a celebration of the emancipation of women. Also, in Hindu tradition, Mother's Day is called \"Mata Tirtha Aunshi\" or \"Mother Pilgrimage fortnight,\" which is observed on the new moon day in the month of Baisakh, i.e., April/May."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How was Kartini Day established?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Raden Adjeng Kartini was a prominent Indonesian activist for women's rights and female education. After her death, her birthday was celebrated in Indonesia in her honor."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Please tell me about the school established in Kartini's name."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I couldn't find the information you requested. However, I did learn that Kartini Schools, named for the Javanese women's rights advocate Raden Ajeng Kartini (Lady Kartini), were opened to educate indigenous girls in the Dutch East Indies in the wake of the Dutch Ethical Policy."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Was was the Dutch Ethical Policy?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Dutch Ethical Policy was the official policy of the colonial government of the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia) during the four decades from 1901 until the Japanese occupation of 1942. The Policy emphasized improvement in material living conditions."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Back to Mother's Day, how is its celebration affected by religion?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In certain traditional branches of Christianity, the holiday is strongly associated with revering the Virgin Mary, in some Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican homes, families have a special shrine on their home altar devoted to the Blessed Virgin Mary, in many Eastern Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, a special prayer service is held in honor of the Theotokos Virgin Mary."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Mother's Day celebrated in Ireland?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In Ireland, Mother's Day is celebrated on the fourth Sunday of Lent, as in the United Kingdom, and has the same roots in Mothering Sunday. The practice died out in Ireland around the late 18th century but was revived around the 1950s due to Americanisation.",
      "Yes, Mothering Sunday is a day honouring mother churches, the church where one is baptised and becomes \"a child of the church\", celebrated since the Middle Ages in the United Kingdom, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries on the fourth Sunday in Lent. It gained popularity in response to the originally American Mother's Day; the holiday is often known as \"Mother's Day\" in the United Kingdom, and has become a secular celebration of mothers and motherhood."
    ],
    "topic": "Mother's Day",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Mother's Day:63",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mother's Day",
          "International history and tradition",
          "By country (H\u2013M)",
          "Ireland"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Ireland, Mother's Day is celebrated on the fourth Sunday of Lent, as in the United Kingdom, and has the same roots in Mothering Sunday. The practice died out in Ireland around the late 18th century but was revived around the 1950s due to Americanisation."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Mothering Sunday:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mothering Sunday"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mothering Sunday is a day honouring mother churches, the church where one is baptised and becomes \"a child of the church\", celebrated since the Middle Ages in the United Kingdom, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries on the fourth Sunday in Lent. On Mothering Sunday, Christians have historically visited their mother church\u2014the church in which they received the sacrament of baptism."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Mothering Sunday:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mothering Sunday"
        ],
        "ctx": "Constance Adelaide Smith revived its modern observance beginning in 1913 to honour Mother Church, 'mothers of earthly homes', the Virgin Mary (mother of Jesus), and Mother Nature. It gained popularity in response to the originally American Mother's Day. The holiday is often known as \"Mother's Day\" in the United Kingdom, and has become a secular celebration of mothers and motherhood."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In the United States, 90% of allergic responses to foods are caused by cow's milk, eggs, wheat, shellfish, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and soy beans. The declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory in any country, with the exception of Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have responded by instituting labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain major allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods. Nevertheless, there are no labeling laws to mandatory declare the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination, except in Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In Brazil since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory when the product does not intentionally add any allergenic food or its derivatives but the Good Manufacturing Practices and allergen control measures adopted are not sufficient to prevent the presence of accidental trace amounts. These allergens include wheat, rye, barley, oats and their hybrids, crustaceans, eggs, fish, peanuts, soybean, milk of all species of mammalians, almonds, hazelnuts, cashew nuts, Brazil nuts, macadamia nuts, walnuts, pecan nuts, pistaches, pine nuts, and chestnuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA became effective 1 January 2006, requiring companies selling foods in the United States to disclose on labels whether a packaged food product contains any of these eight major food allergens, added intentionally: cow's milk, peanuts, eggs, shellfish, fish, tree nuts, soy and wheat. This list originated in 1999 from the World Health Organisation Codex Alimentarius Commission. To meet FALCPA labeling requirements, if an ingredient is derived from one of the required-label allergens, then it must either have its \"food sourced name\" in parentheses, for example \"Casein (milk),\" or as an alternative, there must be a statement separate but adjacent to the ingredients list: \"Contains milk\" (and any other of the allergens with mandatory labeling). The European Union requires listing for those eight major allergens plus molluscs, celery, mustard, lupin, sesame and sulfites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA applies to packaged foods regulated by the FDA, which does not include poultry, most meats, certain egg products, and most alcoholic beverages. However, some meat, poultry, and egg processed products may contain allergenic ingredients. These products are regulated by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), which requires that any ingredient be declared in the labeling only by its common or usual name. Neither the identification of the source of a specific ingredient in a parenthetical statement nor the use of statements to alert for the presence of specific ingredients, like \"Contains: milk\", are mandatory according to FSIS. FALCPA also does not apply to food prepared in restaurants. The EU Food Information for Consumers Regulation 1169/2011 \u2013 requires food businesses to provide allergy information on food sold unpackaged, for example, in catering outlets, deli counters, bakeries and sandwich bars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "There are no labeling laws mandating declaration of the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination, except in Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "In Brazil, since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory when the product does not intentionally add any allergenic food or its derivatives, but the Good Manufacturing Practices and allergen control measures adopted are not sufficient to prevent the presence of accidental trace amounts. These allergens include wheat, rye, barley, oats and their hybrids, crustaceans, eggs, fish, peanuts, soybean, milk of all species of mammalians, almonds, hazelnuts, cashew nuts, Brazil nuts, macadamia nuts, walnuts, pecan nuts, pistachios, pine nuts, and chestnuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk allergy",
        "text": "In response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have responded by instituting labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain major allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods. Nevertheless, there are no labeling laws to mandatory declare the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination, except in Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In the United States, there is no federal mandate to address the presence of allergens in drug products. FALCPA does not apply to medicines nor to cosmetics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The mainstay of treatment is total avoidance of egg protein intake. This is complicated because the declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory (see regulation of labelling)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Labeling regulations have been modified to provide for mandatory labeling of ingredients plus voluntary labeling, termed precautionary allergen labeling (PAL), also known as \u201cmay contain\u201d statements, for possible, inadvertent, trace amount, cross-contamination during production. PAL labeling can be confusing to consumers, especially as there can be many variations on the wording of the warning. PAL is regulated only in Switzerland, Japan, Argentina, and South Africa. Argentina decided to prohibit precautionary allergen labeling since 2010, and instead puts the onus on the manufacturer to control the manufacturing process and label only those allergenic ingredients known to be in the products. South Africa does not permit the use of PAL, except when manufacturers demonstrate the potential presence of allergen due to cross-contamination through a documented risk assessment and despite adherence to Good Manufacturing Practice. In Australia and New Zealand there is a recommendation that PAL be replaced by guidance from VITAL 2.0 (Vital Incidental Trace Allergen Labeling). A review identified \"the eliciting dose for an allergic reaction in 1% of the population\" as ED01. This threshold reference dose for foods such as cow's milk, egg, peanut and other proteins) will provide food manufacturers with guidance for developing precautionary labeling and give consumers a better idea of might be accidentally in a food product beyond \"may contain.\" VITAL 2.0 was developed by the Allergen Bureau, a food industry sponsored, non-government organization. The European Union has initiated a process to create labeling regulations for unintentional contamination but is not expected to publish such before 2024."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peanut allergy",
        "text": "In response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have responded by instituting labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain major allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods. Nevertheless, there are no labeling laws to mandatory declare the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination, except in Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In countries in North America and western Europe, where use of cow's milk based infant formula is common, chicken egg allergy is the second most common food allergy in infants and young children after cow's milk. However, in Japan, egg allergy is first and cow's milk second, followed by wheat and then the other common allergenic foods. A review from South Africa reported egg and peanut as the two most common allergenic foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tree nut allergy",
        "text": "In response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have responded by instituting labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain major allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods. Nevertheless, there are no labeling laws to mandatory declare the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination, except in Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shellfish allergy",
        "text": "In response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have responded by instituting labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain major allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods. Laws and regulations passed in the US and by the European Union recommend labeling but do not require mandatory declaration of the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of unintentional cross-contamination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish allergy",
        "text": "In response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have responded by instituting labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain major allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods. Nevertheless, there are no labeling laws to mandatory declare the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy allergy",
        "text": "In response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have established labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain major allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods. Except in Canada and Brazil, there are no labeling laws to declare the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shellfish allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA requires companies to disclose on the label whether a packaged food product contains any of these eight major food allergens, added intentionally: cow's milk, peanuts, eggs, shellfish, fish, tree nuts, soy and wheat. This list originated in 1999 from the World Health Organisation Codex Alimentarius Commission. To meet FALCPA labeling requirements, if an ingredient is derived from one of the required-label allergens, then it must either have its \"food sourced name\" in parentheses, for example \"Casein (milk),\" or as an alternative, there must be a statement separate but adjacent to the ingredients list: \"Contains milk\" (and any other of the allergens with mandatory labeling). The European Union requires listing for those eight major allergens plus molluscs, celery, mustard, lupin, sesame and sulfites. In Japan, a food-labeling system for five specific allergenic ingredients (egg, milk, wheat, buckwheat, peanut) was mandated under law on April 1, 2002. Additional labeling of shrimp/prawn and crab became mandatory in 2008. This applies to packaged food, but not to restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Egg allergy appears mainly in children but can persist into adulthood. In the United States, it is the second most common food allergy in children after cow's milk. Most children outgrow egg allergy by the age of five, but some people remain allergic for a lifetime. In North America and Western Europe, egg allergy occurs in 0.5% to 2.5% of children under the age of five years. The majority grow out of it by school age, but for roughly one-third, the allergy persists into adulthood. Strong predictors for adult-persistence are anaphylaxis, high egg-specific serum immunoglobulin E (IgE), robust response to the skin prick test and absence of tolerance to egg-containing baked foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peanut allergy",
        "text": "In Brazil, since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory when the product does not intentionally add any allergenic food or its derivatives, but the Good Manufacturing Practices and allergen control measures adopted are not sufficient to prevent the presence of accidental trace amounts. These allergens include wheat, rye, barley, oats and their hybrids, crustaceans, eggs, fish, peanuts, soybean, milk of all species of mammalians, almonds, hazelnuts, cashew nuts, Brazil nuts, macadamia nuts, walnuts, pecan nuts, pistaches, pine nuts, and chestnuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk allergy",
        "text": "In the US, FALCPA requires companies to disclose on the label whether a packaged food product contains a major food allergen added intentionally: cow's milk, peanuts, eggs, shellfish, fish, tree nuts, soy and wheat. This list originated in 1999 from the World Health Organisation Codex Alimentarius Commission. To meet FALCPA labeling requirements, if an ingredient is derived from one of the required-label allergens, then it must either have its \"food sourced name\" in parentheses, for example \"Casein (milk),\" or as an alternative, there must be a statement separate but adjacent to the ingredients list: \"Contains milk\" (and any other of the allergens with mandatory labeling). Dairy food listing is also mandatory in the European Union and more than a dozen other countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "For all age groups, a review of fifty studies conducted in Europe estimated 2.5% for self-reported egg allergy and 0.2% for confirmed. National survey data in the United States collected in 2005 and 2006 showed that from age six and older, the prevalence of serum IgE confirmed egg allergy was under 0.2%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA applies to packaged foods regulated by the FDA, which does not include poultry, most meats, certain egg products, and most alcoholic beverages. However, some meat, poultry, and egg processed products may contain allergenic ingredients. These products are regulated by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), which requires that any ingredient be declared in the labeling only by its common or usual name. Neither the identification of the source of a specific ingredient in a parenthetical statement nor the use of statements to alert for the presence of specific ingredients, like \"Contains: milk\", are mandatory according to FSIS. FALCPA also does not apply to food prepared in restaurants. The EU Food Information for Consumers Regulation 1169/2011 \u2013 requires food businesses to provide allergy information on food sold unpackaged, for example, in catering outlets, deli counters, bakeries and sandwich bars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peanut allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA applies to packaged foods regulated by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which does not include poultry, most meats, certain egg products, and most alcoholic beverages. However, some meat, poultry, and egg processed products may contain allergenic ingredients. These products are regulated by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), which requires that any ingredient be declared in the labeling only by its common or usual name. Neither the identification of the source of a specific ingredient in a parenthetical statement nor the use of statements to alert for the presence of specific ingredients, like \"Contains: milk\", are mandatory according to FSIS. FALCPA also does not apply to food prepared in restaurants. The EU Food Information for Consumers Regulation 1169/2011 \u2013 requires food businesses to provide allergy information on food sold unpackaged, for example, in catering outlets, deli counters, bakeries and sandwich bars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA applies to packaged foods regulated by the FDA, which does not include poultry, most meats, certain egg products, and most alcoholic beverages. However, some meat, poultry, and egg processed products may contain allergenic ingredients. These products are regulated by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), which requires that any ingredient be declared in the labeling only by its common or usual name. Neither the identification of the source of a specific ingredient in a parenthetical statement nor the use of statements to alert for the presence of specific ingredients, like \"Contains: milk\", are mandatory according to FSIS. FALCPA also does not apply to food prepared in restaurants. The EU Food Information for Consumers Regulation 1169/2011 requires food businesses to provide allergy information on food sold unpackaged. Examples would include by catering outlets and deli counters, bakeries and sandwich bars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sesame allergy",
        "text": "In response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have responded by instituting labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain major allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods. Laws and regulations passed in the US and by the European Union recommend labeling but do not require mandatory declaration of the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of unintentional cross-contamination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Diagnosis of egg allergy is based on the person's history of allergic reactions, skin prick test (SPT), patch test and measurement of egg-specific serum immunoglobulin E (IgE or sIgE). Confirmation is by double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenges. SPT and sIgE have sensitivity greater than 90% but specificity in the 50-60% range, meaning these tests will detect an egg sensitivity, but will also be positive for other allergens. For young children, attempts have been made to identify SPT and sIgE responses strong enough to avoid the need for a confirming oral food challenge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "In the United States, the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 (FALCPA) requires companies to disclose on the label whether a packaged food product contains any of these eight major food allergens, added intentionally: cow's milk, peanuts, eggs, shellfish, fish, tree nuts, soy and wheat. The eight-ingredient is list originated in 1999 from the World Health Organisation Codex Alimentarius Commission. To meet FALCPA labeling requirements, if an ingredient is derived from one of the required-label allergens, then it must either have its \"food sourced name\" in parentheses, for example, \"Casein (milk),\" or as an alternative, there must be a statement separate but adjacent to the ingredients list: \"Contains milk\" (and any other of the allergens with mandatory labeling). The European Union requires listing for those eight major allergens plus molluscs, celery, mustard, lupin, sesame and sulfites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA requires companies to disclose on the label whether a packaged food product contains any of these eight major food allergens, added intentionally: cow's milk, peanuts, eggs, shellfish, fish, tree nuts, soy and wheat. This list originated in 1999 from the World Health Organisation Codex Alimentarius Commission. To meet FALCPA labeling requirements, if an ingredient is derived from one of the required-label allergens, then it must either have its \"food sourced name\" in parentheses, for example \"Casein (milk),\" or as an alternative, there must be a statement separate but adjacent to the ingredients list: \"Contains milk\" (and any other of the allergens with mandatory labeling)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tree nut allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA applies to packaged foods regulated by the FDA, which does not include poultry, most meats, certain egg products, and most alcoholic beverages. However, some meat, poultry, and egg processed products may contain allergenic ingredients. These products are regulated by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), which requires that any ingredient be declared in the labeling only by its common or usual name. Neither the identification of the source of a specific ingredient in a parenthetical statement nor the use of statements to alert for the presence of specific ingredients, like \"Contains: milk\", are mandatory according to FSIS. FALCPA also does not apply to food prepared in restaurants. The EU Food Information for Consumers Regulation 1169/2011 \u2013 requires food businesses to provide allergy information on food sold unpackaged, for example, in catering outlets, deli counters, bakeries and sandwich bars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Egg allergy\n--Signs and symptoms.\n--Causes.\n----Eating egg.\n----Vaccines.\n----Exercise as a contributing factor.\n--Mechanisms.\n----Non-allergic intolerance.\n--Diagnosis.\n--Prevention.\n--Treatment.\n----Immunotherapy.\n----Avoiding eggs.\n--Prognosis.\n--Epidemiology.\n--Society and culture.\n----Regulation of labelling.\n------Ingredients intentionally added.\n------Trace amounts as a result of cross-contamination.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The value of allergen labeling other than for intentional ingredients is controversial. This concerns labeling for ingredients present unintentionally as a consequence of cross-contact or cross-contamination at any point along the food chain (during raw material transportation, storage or handling, due to shared equipment for processing and packaging, etc.). Experts in this field propose that if allergen labeling is to be useful to consumers, and healthcare professionals who advise and treat those consumers, ideally there should be agreement on which foods require labeling, threshold quantities below which labeling may be of no purpose, and validation of allergen detection methods to test and potentially recall foods that were deliberately or inadvertently contaminated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sesame allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA became effective 1 January 2006, requiring companies selling foods in the United States to disclose on labels whether a packaged food product contains any of these eight major food allergens, added intentionally: cow's milk, peanuts, eggs, shellfish, fish, tree nuts, soy and wheat. This list originated in 1999 from the World Health Organisation Codex Alimentarius Commission. To meet FALCPA labeling requirements, if an ingredient is derived from one of the required-label allergens, then it must either have its \"food sourced name\" in parentheses, for example \"Casein (milk),\" or as an alternative, there must be a statement separate but adjacent to the ingredients list: \"Contains milk\" (and any other of the allergens with mandatory labeling)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shellfish allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA applies to packaged foods regulated by the FDA, which does not include poultry, most meats, certain egg products, and most alcoholic beverages. Some meat, poultry, and egg processed products may contain allergenic ingredients. These products are regulated by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), which requires that any ingredient be declared in the labeling only by its common or usual name. Neither the identification of the source of a specific ingredient in a parenthetical statement nor the use of statements to alert for the presence of specific ingredients, like \"Contains: milk\", are mandatory according to FSIS. FALCPA also does not apply to food prepared in restaurants. In contrast, the EU Food Information for Consumers Regulation 1169/2011 requires food businesses to provide allergy information on food sold unpackaged. Examples would include by catering outlets and deli counters, bakeries and sandwich bars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peanut allergy",
        "text": "In the United States, the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 (FALCPA), which became effective January 1, 2006, requires companies to disclose on the label whether a packaged food product contains any of these eight major food allergens, added intentionally: cow's milk, peanuts, eggs, shellfish, fish, tree nuts, soy and wheat. This list originated in 1999, from the World Health Organisation Codex Alimentarius Commission. To meet FALCPA labeling requirements, if an ingredient is derived from one of the required-label allergens, then it must either have its \"food sourced name\" in parentheses, for example \"Casein (milk),\" or as an alternative, there must be a statement separate but adjacent to the ingredients list: \"Contains milk\" (and any other of the allergens with mandatory labeling). The European Union requires listing for those eight major allergens plus molluscs, celery, mustard, lupin, sesame and sulfites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk allergy",
        "text": "In Brazil, since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory when the product does not intentionally add any allergenic food or its derivatives, but the Good Manufacturing Practices and allergen control measures adopted are not sufficient to prevent the presence of accidental trace amounts. Milk of all species of mammalians is included among these allergenic foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tree nut allergy",
        "text": "In Brazil since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory when the product does not intentionally add any allergenic food or its derivatives, but the Good Manufacturing Practices and allergen control measures adopted are not sufficient to prevent the presence of accidental trace amounts. These allergens include wheat, rye, barley, oats and their hybrids, crustaceans, eggs, fish, peanuts, soybean, milk of all species of mammalians, almonds, hazelnuts, cashew nuts, Brazil nuts, macadamia nuts, walnuts, pecan nuts, pistaches, pine nuts, and chestnuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Whether food allergy prevalence is increasing or not, food allergy awareness has definitely increased, with impacts on the quality of life for children, their parents and their immediate caregivers. In the United States, the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 (FALCPA) causes people to be reminded of allergy problems every time they handle a food package, and restaurants have added allergen warnings to menus. The Culinary Institute of America, a premier school for chef training, has courses in allergen-free cooking and a separate teaching kitchen. School systems have protocols about what foods can be brought into the school. Despite all these precautions, people with serious allergies are aware that accidental exposure can easily occur at other peoples' houses, at school or in restaurants. Food fear has a significant impact on quality of life. Finally, for children with allergies, their quality of life is also affected by actions of their peers. There is an increased occurrence of bullying, which can include threats or acts of deliberately being touched with foods they need to avoid, also having their allergen-free food deliberately contaminated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sesame allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA applies to packaged foods regulated by the FDA, which does not include poultry, most meats, certain egg products, and most alcoholic beverages. Some meat, poultry, and egg processed products may contain allergenic ingredients. These products are regulated by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), which requires that any ingredient be declared in the labeling only by its common or usual name. Neither the identification of the source of a specific ingredient in a parenthetical statement nor the use of statements to alert for the presence of specific ingredients, like \"Contains: milk\", are mandatory according to FSIS. FALCPA also does not apply to food prepared in restaurants. In contrast, the EU Food Information for Consumers Regulation 1169/2011 requires food businesses to provide allergy information on food sold unpackaged. Examples would include by catering outlets and deli counters, bakeries and sandwich bars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy allergy",
        "text": "In the United States, the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 (FALCPA) requires companies to disclose on the label whether a packaged food product contains any of the eight most common food allergens, added intentionally: cow milk, peanuts, eggs, shellfish, fish, tree nuts, soy and wheat. This list originated in 1999 from the World Health Organization Codex Alimentarius Commission. To meet FALCPA labeling requirements, if an ingredient is derived from one of the required-label allergens, then it must either have its \"food sourced name\" in parentheses, such as \"Soy,\" or as an alternative, there must be a statement separate but adjacent to the ingredients list: \"Contains soy\" (and any other of the allergens with mandatory labeling). The FDA emphasizes to consumers that \"it's very important to read the entire ingredient list to see if your allergen is present\". The European Union requires listing of soy and seven other common allergens, plus other potentially allergenic foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "Egg allergies affect about one in 50 children but are frequently outgrown by children when they reach age five. Typically, the sensitivity is to proteins in the white, rather than the yolk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tree nut allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA requires companies to disclose on the label whether a packaged food product contains any of these eight major food allergens, added intentionally: cow's milk, peanuts, eggs, shellfish, fish, tree nuts, soy and wheat. This list originated in 1999 from the World Health Organisation Codex Alimentarius Commission. To meet FALCPA labeling requirements, if an ingredient is derived from one of the required-label allergens, then it must either have its \"food sourced name\" in parentheses, for example \"Casein (milk),\" or as an alternative, there must be a statement separate but adjacent to the ingredients list: \"Contains milk\" (and any other of the allergens with mandatory labeling). The European Union requires listing for those eight major allergens plus molluscs, celery, mustard, lupin, sesame and sulfites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allergen",
        "text": "Officially, the United States Food and Drug Administration does recognize eight foods as being common for allergic reactions in a large segment of the sensitive population. These include peanuts, tree nuts, eggs, milk, shellfish, fish, wheat and their derivatives, and soy and their derivatives, as well as sulfites (chemical-based, often found in flavors and colors in foods) at 10ppm and over. See the FDA website for complete details. In other countries, due to differences in the genetic profiles of their citizens and different levels of exposure to specific foods resultant from different dietary habits, the \"official\" allergen lists will vary. Canada recognizes all eight of the allergens recognized by the US as well as sesame seeds and mustard. The European Union additionally recognizes other gluten-containing cereals as well as celery and lupin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "One of the most common food allergies in infants is eggs. Infants usually have the opportunity to grow out of this allergy during childhood, if exposure is minimized. Allergic reactions against egg white are more common than reactions against egg yolks. In addition to true allergic reactions, some people experience a food intolerance to egg whites. Food labeling practices in most developed countries now include eggs, egg products, and the processing of foods on equipment that also process foods containing eggs in a special allergen alert section of the ingredients on the labels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "In response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have responded by instituting labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain priority allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Incidence and prevalence are terms commonly used in describing disease epidemiology. Incidence is newly diagnosed cases, which can be expressed as new cases per year per million people. Prevalence is the number of cases alive, expressible as existing cases per million people during a period of time. Egg allergies are usually observed in infants and young children, and often disappear with age (see Prognosis), so prevalence of egg allergy may be expressed as a percentage of children under a set age. One review estimates that in North American and western European populations the prevalence of egg allergy in children under the age of five years is 1.8-2.0%. A second described the range in young children as 0.5-2.5%. Although the majority of children develop tolerance as they age into school age years, for roughly one-third the allergy persists into adulthood. Strong predictors for adult-persistent allergy are anaphylactic symptoms as a child, high egg-specific serum IgE, robust response to the skin prick test and absence of tolerance to egg-containing baked foods. Self-reported allergy prevalence is always higher than food-challenge confirmed allergy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "The priority allergens vary by country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA applies to packaged foods regulated by the FDA, which does not include poultry, most meats, certain egg products, and most alcoholic beverages. However, some meat, poultry, and egg processed products may contain allergenic ingredients, such as added milk proteins. These products are regulated by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), which requires that any ingredient be declared in the labeling only by its common or usual name. Neither the identification of the source of a specific ingredient in a parenthetical statement nor the use of statements to alert for the presence of specific ingredients, like \"Contains: milk\", are mandatory according to FSIS."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The cause is typically the eating of eggs or foods that contain eggs. Briefly, the immune system over-reacts to proteins found in eggs. This allergic reaction may be triggered by small amounts of egg, even egg incorporated into cooked foods, such as cake. People with an allergy to chicken eggs may also be reactive to goose, duck, or turkey eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Allergic reactions are hyperactive responses of the immune system to generally innocuous substances, such as proteins in the foods we eat. Why some proteins trigger allergic reactions while others do not is not entirely clear, although in part thought to be due to resistance to digestion. Because of this, intact or largely intact proteins reach the small intestine, which has a large presence of white blood cells involved in immune reactions. The heat of cooking structurally degrades protein molecules, potentially making them less allergenic. The pathophysiology of allergic responses can be divided into two phases. The first is an acute response that occurs immediately after exposure to an allergen. This phase can either subside or progress into a \"late-phase reaction\" which can substantially prolong the symptoms of a response, and result in more tissue damage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "In 2017, authorities blocked millions of eggs from sale in the Netherlands, Belgium, and Germany because of contamination with the insecticide fipronil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sesame allergy",
        "text": "The European Union requires listing for those eight major allergens plus molluscs, celery, mustard, lupin, sesame and sulfites. In Japan, a food-labeling system for five specific allergenic ingredients (egg, milk, wheat, buckwheat, peanut) was mandated under law on April 1, 2002, adding shrimp/prawn and crab in 2008. Walnut was added in 2019. Sesame is on a list of 27 foods for which labeling is recommended but remains voluntary. Labeling requirements apply to packaged food, but not to restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "Labeling regulations have been modified to provide for mandatory labeling of ingredients plus voluntary labeling, termed precautionary allergen labeling (PAL), also known as \u201cmay contain\u201d statements, for possible, inadvertent, trace amount, cross-contamination during production. PAL labeling can be confusing to consumers, especially as there can be many variations on the wording of the warning. PAL is optional in the United States. , PAL is regulated only in Switzerland, Japan, Argentina, and South Africa. Argentina decided to prohibit precautionary allergen labeling since 2010 and instead puts the onus on the manufacturer to control the manufacturing process and label only those allergenic ingredients known to be in the products. South Africa does not permit the use of PAL, except when manufacturers demonstrate the potential presence of allergen due to cross-contamination through a documented risk assessment and despite adherence to Good Manufacturing Practice. In Australia and New Zealand there is a recommendation that PAL be replaced by guidance from VITAL 2.0 (Vital Incidental Trace Allergen Labeling). A review identified \"the eliciting dose for an allergic reaction in 1% of the population\" as ED01. This threshold reference dose for foods (such as cow's milk, egg, peanut and other proteins) will provide food manufacturers with guidance for developing precautionary labeling and give consumers a better idea of what might be accidentally in a food product beyond \"may contain.\" VITAL 2.0 was developed by the Allergen Bureau, a food industry sponsored, non-government organization. The European Union has initiated a process to create labeling regulations for unintentional contamination but is not expected to publish such before 2024."
      },
      {
        "title": "Organic egg production",
        "text": "In the European Union (EU), to identify and trace egg production, a unique code must legally be printed on all eggs. A \"0\" code distinguishes organic farming eggs. The regulation on egg marking includes four levels with strict requirements on husbandry conditions. While free-range and indoor keeping requires 1100\u00a0cm\u00b2 indoor space per hen it makes 1667\u00a0cm\u00b2 (or 6 hens per square meter) the minimum for organic farming."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The response is usually localized, typically in the gastrointestinal tract. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, diarrhea, or any other symptoms typical to histamine release. If sufficiently strong, it can result in an anaphylactoid reaction, which is clinically indistinguishable from true anaphylaxis. Some people with this condition tolerate small quantities of egg whites. They are more often able to tolerate well-cooked eggs, such as found in cake or dried egg-based pasta, than incompletely cooked eggs, such as fried eggs or meringues, or uncooked eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Probiotic products have been tested, and some found to contain milk and egg proteins which were not always indicated on the labels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Produce traceability",
        "text": "Traceability of food is legally required in the European Union (Regulation 178/2002) with dedicated initiatives in EU countries like the UK and Northern Ireland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Most people find it necessary to strictly avoid any item containing eggs, including:\n* Albumin (egg white protein)\n* Apovitellin (egg yolk protein)\n* Egg Beaters (cholesterol-free, uses egg whites)\n* Dried egg solids, powdered egg\n* Egg, egg white, egg yolk\n* Egg wash\n* Eggnog\n* Fat substitutes (some)\n* Livetin (egg yolk protein)\n* Lysozyme (egg white protein)\n* Mayonnaise\n* Meringue or meringue powder\n* Ovalbumin (egg white protein)\n* Ovoglobulin (egg white protein)\n* Ovomucin (egg white protein)\n* Ovomucoid (egg white protein)\n* Ovotransferrin (egg white protein)\n* Ovovitelia (egg yolk protein)\n* Ovovitellin (egg yolk protein)\n* Silici albuminate\n* Simplesse\n* Vitellin (egg yolk protein)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandatory labelling",
        "text": "Because of past scandals involving deceptive labelling, countries like the United States and Canada require most processed foods to have a nutrition facts label on the label, and the table's formatting and content must conform to strict guidelines. The European Union equivalent is the slightly different nutrition information table, which may also be supplemented with standardized icons indicating the presence of allergens. In China, all clothing is labelled with the factory of origin, including telephone and fax numbers, although this information is not available to buyers outside China, who see only a generic Made in China tag."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peanut allergy",
        "text": "Labeling regulations have been modified to provide for mandatory labeling of ingredients plus voluntary labeling, termed precautionary allergen labeling (PAL), also known as \"may contain\" statements, for possible, inadvertent, trace amount, cross-contamination during production. PAL labeling can be confusing to consumers, especially as there can be many variations on the wording of the warning. PAL is regulated only in Switzerland, Japan, Argentina, and South Africa. Argentina decided to prohibit precautionary allergen labeling since 2010, and instead puts the onus on the manufacturer to control the manufacturing process and label only those allergenic ingredients known to be in the products. South Africa does not permit the use of PAL, except when manufacturers demonstrate the potential presence of allergen due to cross-contamination through a documented risk assessment and despite adherence to Good Manufacturing Practice. In Australia and New Zealand there is a recommendation that PAL be replaced by guidance from VITAL 2.0 (Vital Incidental Trace Allergen Labeling). A review identified \"the eliciting dose for an allergic reaction in 1% of the population\" as ED01. This threshold reference dose for foods (such as cow's milk, egg, peanut and other proteins) will provide food manufacturers with guidance for developing precautionary labeling and give consumers a better idea of might be accidentally in a food product beyond \"may contain.\" VITAL 2.0 was developed by the Allergen Bureau, a food industry sponsored, non-government organization. The European Union has initiated a process to create labeling regulations for unintentional contamination but is not expected to publish such before 2024."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Prevention of egg-allergic reactions means avoiding eggs and egg-containing foods. People with an allergy to chicken eggs may also be allergic to other types of eggs, such as goose, duck, or turkey eggs. In cooking, eggs are multifunctional: they may act as an emulsifier to reduce oil/water separation (mayonnaise), a binder (water binding and particle adhesion, as in meatloaf), or an aerator (cakes, especially angel food). Some commercial egg substitutes can substitute for particular functions (potato starch and tapioca for water binding, whey protein or bean water for aeration or particle binding, or soy lecithin or avocado for emulsification). Food companies produce egg-free mayonnaise and other replacement foods. Alfred Bird invented egg-free Bird's Custard, the original version of what is known generically as custard powder today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "For reasons not entirely understood, the diagnosis of food allergies has apparently become more common in Western nations recently. One possible explanation for this is the \"old friends\" hypothesis which suggests that non disease causing organisms, such as helminths, could protect against allergy. Therefore, reduced exposure to these organisms, particularly in developed countries, could have contributed towards the increase."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food policy",
        "text": "There are also requirements for allergen labeling. According to the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 (Public Law 108-282, Title II), 2% of adults and 5% of infants and children have food allergies, and 90% of these allergies are related to milk, eggs, fish, crustacean shellfish, tree nuts, peanuts, wheat, and soybeans. Labeling must contain a list of these major food allergens which are contained in the product, or which may have come in contact with the food during production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peanut allergy",
        "text": "Total avoidance is complicated because the declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory (see regulation of labelling)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk allergy",
        "text": "Labeling regulations have been modified to provide for mandatory labeling of ingredients plus voluntary labeling, termed precautionary allergen labeling (PAL), also known as \"may contain\" statements, for possible, inadvertent, trace amount, cross-contamination during production. PAL labeling can be confusing to consumers, especially as there can be many variations on the wording of the warning. , PAL is regulated only in Switzerland, Japan, Argentina, and South Africa. Argentina decided to prohibit precautionary allergen labeling since 2010, and instead puts the onus on the manufacturer to control the manufacturing process and label only those allergenic ingredients known to be in the products. South Africa does not permit the use of PAL, except when manufacturers demonstrate the potential presence of allergen due to cross-contamination through a documented risk assessment despite adherence to Good Manufacturing Practice. In Australia and New Zealand, there is a recommendation that PAL be replaced by guidance from VITAL 2.0 (Vital Incidental Trace Allergen Labelling). A review identified \"the eliciting dose for an allergic reaction in 1% of the population\" as 0.01\u00a0mg for cow's milk. This threshold reference dose (and similar results for egg, peanut and other proteins) will provide food manufacturers with guidance for developing precautionary labelling and give consumers a better idea of what might be accidentally in a food product beyond \"may contain.\" VITAL 2.0 was developed by the Allergen Bureau, a food industry-sponsored, non-government organization. The EU has initiated a process to create labeling regulations for unintentional contamination but it is not expected to be published before 2024."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "A study by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 2002 (Risk Analysis April 2002 22(2):203-18) suggests the problem is not so prevalent in the U.S. as once thought. It showed that of the 69 billion eggs produced annually, only 2.3 million are contaminated with \"Salmonella\"\u2014equivalent to just one in every 30,000 eggs\u2014thus showing \"Salmonella\" infection is quite rarely induced by eggs. This has not been the case in other countries, however, where \"Salmonella enteritidis\" and \"Salmonella typhimurium\" infections due to egg consumption are major concerns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Prevention is by avoiding eating eggs and foods that may contain eggs, such as cake or cookies. It is unclear if the early introduction of the eggs to the diet of babies aged 4\u20136 months decreases the risk of egg allergies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tree nut allergy",
        "text": "Labeling regulations have been modified to provide for mandatory labeling of ingredients plus voluntary labeling, termed precautionary allergen labeling (PAL), also known as \u201cmay contain\u201d statements, for possible, inadvertent, trace amount, cross-contamination during production. PAL labeling can be confusing to consumers, especially as there can be many variations on the wording of the warning. PAL is regulated only in Switzerland, Japan, Argentina, and South Africa. Argentina decided to prohibit precautionary allergen labeling since 2010, and instead puts the onus on the manufacturer to control the manufacturing process and label only those allergenic ingredients known to be in the products. South Africa does not permit the use of PAL, except when manufacturers demonstrate the potential presence of allergen due to cross-contamination through a documented risk assessment and despite adherence to Good Manufacturing Practice. In Australia and New Zealand there is a recommendation that PAL be replaced by guidance from VITAL 2.0 (Vital Incidental Trace Allergen Labeling). A review identified \"the eliciting dose for an allergic reaction in 1% of the population\" as ED01. This threshold reference dose for foods (such as cow's milk, egg, peanut and other proteins) will provide food manufacturers with guidance for developing precautionary labeling and give consumers a better idea of might be accidentally in a food product beyond \"may contain.\" VITAL 2.0 was developed by the Allergen Bureau, a food industry sponsored, non-government organization. The European Union has initiated a process to create labeling regulations for unintentional contamination but is not expected to publish such before 2024."
      },
      {
        "title": "ParknShop",
        "text": "In 2017, Europe Egg Scandal happened, where contaminated eggs spread to Hong Kong. It was confirmed that eggs have been tainted with unsafe levels of insecticide. Eggs contained excessive level of Fipronil, a highly toxic pest control chemical banned from the production of food. Shops were asked to remove the products from shelves, and instructed the importer to initiate a recall. This included ParknShop."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Food allergies usually have a fast onset (from seconds to one hour). Symptoms may include: rash, hives, itching of mouth, lips, tongue, throat, eyes, skin, or other areas, swelling of lips, tongue, eyelids, or the whole face, difficulty swallowing, runny or congested nose, hoarse voice, wheezing, shortness of breath, diarrhea, abdominal pain, lightheadedness, fainting, nausea, or vomiting. Symptoms of allergies vary from person to person and may vary from incident to incident. Serious danger regarding allergies can begin when the respiratory tract or blood circulation is affected. The former can be indicated by wheezing, a blocked airway and cyanosis, the latter by weak pulse, pale skin, and fainting. When these symptoms occur the allergic reaction is called anaphylaxis. Anaphylaxis occurs when IgE antibodies are involved, and areas of the body that are not in direct contact with the food become affected and show severe symptoms. Untreated, this can proceed to vasodilation and a low blood pressure situation called anaphylactic shock."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "Although sensitivity levels vary by country, the most common food allergies are allergies to milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, shellfish, soy, and wheat. These are often referred to as \"the big eight\". Allergies to seeds\u2014especially sesame\u2014seem to be increasing in many countries. An example of an allergy more common to a particular region is that to rice in East Asia where it forms a large part of the diet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "The most common food allergens account for about 90% of all allergic reactions; in adults they include shellfish, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and egg. In children, they include milk, eggs, peanuts, and tree nuts. Six to 8% of children under the age of three have food allergies and nearly 4% of adults have food allergies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Generation Z in the United States",
        "text": "While food allergies have been observed by doctors since ancient times and virtually all foods can be allergens, research by the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota found they are becoming increasingly common since the early 2000s. Today, one in twelve American children has a food allergy, with peanut allergy being the most prevalent type. Nut allergies, in general, have quadrupled and shellfish allergies have increased 40% between 2004 and 2019. In all, about 36% of American children have some kind of allergy. By comparison, this number among the Amish in Indiana is 7%. Allergies have also risen ominously in other Western countries. In general, the better developed the country, the higher the rates of allergies. Reasons for this remain poorly understood. One possible explanation, supported by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, is that parents keep their children \"too clean for their own good.\" They recommend exposing newborn babies to a variety of potentially allergenic foods, such as peanut butter, before they reach the age of six months. According to this \"hygiene hypothesis,\" such exposures give the infant's immune system some exercise, making it less likely to overreact. Evidence for this includes the fact that children living on a farm are consistently less likely to be allergic than their counterparts who are raised in the city, and that children born in a developed country to parents who immigrated from developing nations are more likely to be allergic than their parents are."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA applies to packaged foods regulated by the FDA and by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), which requires that any ingredient be declared in the labeling only by its common or usual name. Neither the identification of the source of a specific ingredient in a parenthetical statement nor the use of statements to alert for the presence of specific ingredients, like \"Contains: soy\", is mandatory, according to FSIS. FALCPA does not apply to food prepared in restaurants. The EU Food Information for Consumers Regulation 1169/2011 requires food businesses to provide allergy information on food sold as unpackaged in public food outlets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Adult-onset of egg allergy is rare, but there is confirmation of cases. Some were described as having started in late teenage years; another group were workers in the baking industry who were exposed to powdered egg dust."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act",
        "text": "This law is in regard to the eight most common food allergens. These affect the most people and the proteins are commonly found in other ingredients. They account for about 90% of food allergies. The main eight are:\n* Milk \u2013 \"A milk allergy is different from lactose intolerance in that the reaction is caused typically by casein, a protein found in milk.\"\n* Eggs\n* Fish\n* Crustacean shellfish\n* Tree nuts\n* Peanuts \u2013 \"Not everyone who is allergic to peanuts is also allergic to tree nuts, or vice versa, as peanuts are actually a legume.\"\n* Wheat\n* Soybeans"
      },
      {
        "title": "Eggplant",
        "text": "A 2008 study of a sample of 741 people in India, where eggplant is commonly consumed, found nearly 10% reported some allergic symptoms after consuming eggplant, with 1.4% showing symptoms within two hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "Common foods involved include cow's milk, peanuts, eggs, shellfish, fish, tree nuts, soy, wheat, sesame, rice, and fruit. The common allergies vary depending on the country. Risk factors include a family history of allergies, vitamin D deficiency, obesity, and high levels of cleanliness. Allergies occur when immunoglobulin E (IgE), part of the body's immune system, binds to food molecules. A protein in the food is usually the problem. This triggers the release of inflammatory chemicals such as histamine. Diagnosis is usually based on a medical history, elimination diet, skin prick test, blood tests for food-specific IgE antibodies, or oral food challenge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "In the US, the FDA Food Code states that the person in charge in restaurants should have knowledge about major food allergens, cross-contacts, and symptoms of food allergy"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tree nut allergy",
        "text": "Total avoidance is complicated because the declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory (see regulation of labelling)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified food controversies",
        "text": "In 2014, 64 countries required labeling of all GM foods. These include the European Union, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Russia, China and India. As of March 2015, Israel was in the process of issuing regulations for labeling of food with ingredients from GMOs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fipronil",
        "text": "The 2017 fipronil eggs contamination is an incident in Europe and South Korea involving the spread of insecticide contaminated eggs and egg products. Chicken eggs were found to contain fipronil and distributed to 15 European Union countries, Switzerland, and Hong Kong. Approximately 700,000 eggs are thought to have reached shelves in the UK alone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The majority of children outgrow egg allergy. One review reported that 70% of children will outgrow this allergy by 16 years. In subsequently published longitudinal studies, one reported that for 140 infants who had challenge-confirmed egg allergy, 44% had resolved by two years. A second reported that for 203 infants with confirmed IgE-mediated egg allergy, 45% resolved by two years of age, 66% by four years, and 71% by six years. Children will be able to tolerate eggs as an ingredient in baked goods and well-cooked eggs sooner than under-cooked eggs. Resolution was more likely if baseline serum IgE was lower, and if the baseline symptoms did not include anaphylaxis."
      },
      {
        "title": "2017 fipronil eggs contamination",
        "text": "Scientific tests carried in Germany on imported eggs to Malta found that eight of twenty had traces of fipronil, and the Maltese were informed to take measures in limiting the consumption to not more than two eggs per day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "In the developed world, about 4% to 8% of people have at least one food allergy. They are more common in children than adults and appear to be increasing in frequency. Male children appear to be more commonly affected than females. Some allergies more commonly develop early in life, while others typically develop in later life. In developed countries, more people believe they have food allergies when they actually do not have them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Generation Alpha",
        "text": "While food allergies have been observed by doctors since ancient times and virtually all foods can be allergens, research by the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota found they are becoming increasingly common since the early 2000s. By the late 2010s, one in twelve American children has a food allergy, with peanut allergy being the most prevalent type. Reasons for this remain poorly understood. Nut allergies in general have quadrupled and shellfish allergies have increased 40% between 2004 and 2019. In all, about 36% of American children have some kind of allergy. By comparison, this number among the Amish in Indiana is 7%. Allergies have also risen ominously in other Western countries. In the United Kingdom, for example, the number of children hospitalized for allergic reactions increased by a factor of five between 1990 and the late 2010s, as did the number of British children allergic to peanuts. In general, the better developed the country, the higher the rates of allergies. Reasons for this also remain poorly understood. One possible explanation, supported by the U.S. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, is that parents keep their children \"too clean for their own good.\" They recommend exposing newborn babies to a variety of potentially allergenic foods, such as peanut butter, before they reach the age of six months. According to this \"hygiene hypothesis,\" such exposures give the infant's immune system some exercise, making it less likely to overreact. Evidence for this includes the fact that children living on a farm are consistently less likely to be allergic than their counterparts who are raised in the city, and that children born in a developed country to parents who immigrated from developing nations are more likely to be allergic than their parents are."
      },
      {
        "title": "2017 fipronil eggs contamination",
        "text": "The Dutch food and product safety board (NVWA) reported that the test results of one batch of eggs originating from one poultry farm in the Netherlands exceeded the threshold of 0.72\u00a0mg/kg. Eggs containing fipronil values above this threshold could have possible negative health effects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk allergy",
        "text": "Beyond the obvious (anything with milk, cheese, cream, curd, butter, ghee or yogurt in the name), in countries where allergen labeling is mandatory, the ingredient list is supposed to list all ingredients. Anyone with or caring for a person with a dairy protein allergy should always carefully read food package labels, as sometimes even a familiar brand undergoes an ingredient change. In the U.S., for all foods except meat, poultry and egg processed products and most alcoholic beverages, if an ingredient is derived from one of the required-label allergens, then it must either have the food name in parentheses, for example \"Casein (milk),\" or as an alternative, there must be a statement separate but adjacent to the ingredients list: \"Contains milk\" (and any other of the allergens with mandatory labeling). Dairy-sourced protein ingredients include casein, caseinates, whey and lactalbumin, among others. The U.S. FDA has a recall process for foods that contain undeclared allergenic ingredients. The University of Wisconsin has a list of foods that may contain dairy proteins, yet are not always obvious from the name or type of food. This list contains the following examples:\n* Bread, baked goods and desserts\n* Caramel and nougat candies\n* Cereals, crackers, food bars\n* Chewing gum\n* Chocolate ('milk' and 'dark')\n* \"Cream of...\" soups\n* Creamy pasta sauces\n* Creamy salad dressings\n* Eggnog\n* Flavored potato chips\n* Hot dogs and lunch meat\n* Instant mashed potatoes\n* Margarine\n* Medical food beverages\n* Non-dairy creamer\n* Sherbet\n* Pudding and custard"
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "The Food Standards Agency, in the United Kingdom, are in charge of funding research into food allergies and intolerance. Since their founding in 1994 they have funded over 45 studies.\u00a0In 2005 Europe created EuroPrevall, a multi-country project dedicated to research involving allergies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified food controversies",
        "text": "A well-known risk of genetic modification is the introduction of an allergen. Allergen testing is routine for products intended for food, and passing those tests is part of the regulatory requirements. Organizations such as the European Green Party and Greenpeace emphasize this risk. A 2005 review of the results from allergen testing stated that \"no biotech proteins in foods have been documented to cause allergic reactions\". Regulatory authorities require that new modified foods be tested for allergenicity before they are marketed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lecithin",
        "text": "Egg-derived lecithin is not usually a concern for those allergic to eggs since commercially available egg lecithin is highly purified and devoid of allergy-causing egg proteins. Similarly, soy lecithin does not contain enough allergenic proteins for most people allergic to soy, although the US FDA only exempts a few soy lecithin products from its mandatory allergenic source labeling requirements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Five major allergenic proteins from the egg of the domestic chicken (\"Gallus domesticus\") have been identified; these are designated Gal d 1-5. Four of these are in egg white: ovomucoid (Gal d 1), ovalbumin (Gal d 2), ovotransferrin (Gal d 3) and lysozyme (Gal d 4). Of these, ovomucoid is the dominant allergen, and one that is less likely to be outgrown as children get older. Ingestion of under-cooked egg may trigger more severe clinical reactions than well-cooked egg. In egg yolk, alpha-livetin (Gal d 5) is the major allergen, but various vitellins may also trigger a reaction. People allergic to alpha-livetin may experience respiratory symptoms such as rhinitis and/or asthma when exposed to chickens, because the yolk protein is also found in live birds. In addition to IgE-mediated responses, egg allergy can manifest as atopic dermatitis, especially in infants and young children. Some will display both, so that a child could react to an oral food challenge with allergic symptoms, followed a day or two later with a flare up of atopic dermatitis and/or gastrointestinal symptoms, including allergic eosinophilic esophagitis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soybean",
        "text": "In the European Union, identifying the presence of soy either as an ingredient or unintended contaminant in packaged food is compulsory. The regulation (EC) 1169/2011 on food-labeling lists 14 allergens, including soy, in packaged food must be clearly indicated on the label as part of the list of ingredients, using a distinctive typography (such as bold type or capital letters)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteurized eggs",
        "text": "The FDA Food Code has gained adoption by health jurisdictions throughout the U.S."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poultry allergy",
        "text": "It can co-occur with egg allergy but more often occurs without allergy to poultry eggs. One study found that not chicken, just turkey meat are the primary cause of allergic reactions, whilst goose, pheasant, and duck meat cause milder reaction or no symptoms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food labelling in Canada",
        "text": "When an allergen is not a listed ingredient but is processed in the same facility so that contamination with trace amounts is possible, a precautionary statement is often given near the ingredient list (\"may contain traces of . . . \"); this is not required, but Health Canada \"considers the use of allergen precautionary statements to be a useful tool in mitigating adverse reactions to priority food allergens if the statements are used appropriately.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Fried egg",
        "text": "Fried egg\n--Regional adaptations and specialities.\n----Austria, Germany, and Switzerland.\n----Bangladesh and India.\n----Cambodia and Vietnam.\n----Czech Republic.\n----Egypt.\n----Indonesia.\n----Ireland and the United Kingdom.\n----Hispanic America, Portugal, and Spain.\n----Japan.\n----Korea.\n----Malaysia and Singapore.\n----Netherlands.\n----Nigeria.\n----Philippines.\n----Russia.\n----Thailand.\n----United States and Canada.\n--Egg in the basket.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Egg allergy is an immune hypersensitivity to proteins found in chicken eggs, and possibly goose, duck, or turkey eggs. Symptoms can be either rapid or gradual in onset. The latter can take hours to days to appear. The former may include anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening condition which requires treatment with epinephrine. Other presentations may include atopic dermatitis or inflammation of the esophagus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Generation Z",
        "text": "While food allergies have been observed by doctors since ancient times and virtually all foods can be allergens, research by the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota found they are becoming increasingly common since the early 2000s. Today, one in twelve American children has a food allergy, with peanut allergy being the most prevalent type. Reasons for this remain poorly understood. Nut allergies in general have quadrupled and shellfish allergies have increased 40% between 2004 and 2019. In all, about 36% of American children have some kind of allergy. By comparison, this number among the Amish in Indiana is 7%. Allergies have also risen ominously in other Western countries. In the United Kingdom, for example, the number of children hospitalized for allergic reactions increased by a factor of five between 1990 and the late 2010s, as did the number of British children allergic to peanuts. In general, the better developed the country, the higher the rates of allergies. Reasons for this remain poorly understood. One possible explanation, supported by the U.S. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, is that parents keep their children \"too clean for their own good\". They recommend exposing newborn babies to a variety of potentially allergenic foods, such as peanut butter before they reach the age of six months. According to this \"hygiene hypothesis\", such exposures give the infant's immune system some exercise, making it less likely to overreact. Evidence for this includes the fact that children living on a farm are consistently less likely to be allergic than their counterparts who are raised in the city, and that children born in a developed country to parents who immigrated from developing nations are more likely to be allergic than their parents are."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "Prior to a new GMO food receiving government approval, certain criteria need to be met. These include: Is the donor species known to be allergenic? Does the amino acid sequence of the transferred proteins resemble the sequence of known allergenic proteins? Are the transferred proteins resistant to digestion - a trait shared by many allergenic proteins? Genes approved for animal use can be restricted from human consumption due to potential for allergic reactions. In 1998 Starlink brand corn restricted to animals was detected in the human food supply, leading to first a voluntary and then a FDA mandated recall. There are requirements in some countries and recommendations in others that all foods containing GMO ingredients be so labeled, and that there be a post-launch monitoring system to report adverse effects (much there exists in some countries for drug and dietary supplement reporting)."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the only country that has to disclose trace amounts of allergens in foods?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "It is not correct to say in all circumstances that there is only one country with such a disclosure policy, as it depends on the intent behind the inclusion. Trace amounts intentionally added need to be disclosed in countries which have instituting labeling laws for intentionally added ingredients known to be major allergens, but Brazil (and soon to be countries in the EU) is the only country where it is mandatory to declare the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination."
    ],
    "topic": "Egg allergy",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Milk allergy:33",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Milk allergy",
          "Society and culture",
          "Regulation of labeling"
        ],
        "ctx": "In response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have responded by instituting labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain major allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods. Nevertheless, there are no labeling laws to mandatory declare the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination, except in Brazil."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Milk allergy:38",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Milk allergy",
          "Society and culture",
          "Regulation of labeling",
          "Trace amounts as a result of cross-contamination"
        ],
        "ctx": "Labeling regulations have been modified to provide for mandatory labeling of ingredients plus voluntary labeling, termed precautionary allergen labeling (PAL), also known as \"may contain\" statements, for possible, inadvertent, trace amount, cross-contamination during production. PAL labeling can be confusing to consumers, especially as there can be many variations on the wording of the warning. , PAL is regulated only in Switzerland, Japan, Argentina, and South Africa. Argentina decided to prohibit precautionary allergen labeling since 2010, and instead puts the onus on the manufacturer to control the manufacturing process and label only those allergenic ingredients known to be in the products. South Africa does not permit the use of PAL, except when manufacturers demonstrate the potential presence of allergen due to cross-contamination through a documented risk assessment despite adherence to Good Manufacturing Practice. In Australia and New Zealand, there is a recommendation that PAL be replaced by guidance from VITAL 2.0 (Vital Incidental Trace Allergen Labelling). A review identified \"the eliciting dose for an allergic reaction in 1% of the population\" as 0.01\u00a0mg for cow's milk. This threshold reference dose (and similar results for egg, peanut and other proteins) will provide food manufacturers with guidance for developing precautionary labelling and give consumers a better idea of what might be accidentally in a food product beyond \"may contain.\" VITAL 2.0 was developed by the Allergen Bureau, a food industry-sponsored, non-government organization. The EU has initiated a process to create labeling regulations for unintentional contamination but it is not expected to be published before 2024."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In Brazil since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory when the product does not intentionally add any allergenic food or its derivatives but the Good Manufacturing Practices and allergen control measures adopted are not sufficient to prevent the presence of accidental trace amounts. These allergens include wheat, rye, barley, oats and their hybrids, crustaceans, eggs, fish, peanuts, soybean, milk of all species of mammalians, almonds, hazelnuts, cashew nuts, Brazil nuts, macadamia nuts, walnuts, pecan nuts, pistaches, pine nuts, and chestnuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "In Brazil, since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory when the product does not intentionally add any allergenic food or its derivatives, but the Good Manufacturing Practices and allergen control measures adopted are not sufficient to prevent the presence of accidental trace amounts. These allergens include wheat, rye, barley, oats and their hybrids, crustaceans, eggs, fish, peanuts, soybean, milk of all species of mammalians, almonds, hazelnuts, cashew nuts, Brazil nuts, macadamia nuts, walnuts, pecan nuts, pistachios, pine nuts, and chestnuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have responded by instituting labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain major allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods. Nevertheless, there are no labeling laws to mandatory declare the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination, except in Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peanut allergy",
        "text": "In Brazil, since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory when the product does not intentionally add any allergenic food or its derivatives, but the Good Manufacturing Practices and allergen control measures adopted are not sufficient to prevent the presence of accidental trace amounts. These allergens include wheat, rye, barley, oats and their hybrids, crustaceans, eggs, fish, peanuts, soybean, milk of all species of mammalians, almonds, hazelnuts, cashew nuts, Brazil nuts, macadamia nuts, walnuts, pecan nuts, pistaches, pine nuts, and chestnuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "There are no labeling laws mandating declaration of the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination, except in Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tree nut allergy",
        "text": "In Brazil since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory when the product does not intentionally add any allergenic food or its derivatives, but the Good Manufacturing Practices and allergen control measures adopted are not sufficient to prevent the presence of accidental trace amounts. These allergens include wheat, rye, barley, oats and their hybrids, crustaceans, eggs, fish, peanuts, soybean, milk of all species of mammalians, almonds, hazelnuts, cashew nuts, Brazil nuts, macadamia nuts, walnuts, pecan nuts, pistaches, pine nuts, and chestnuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk allergy",
        "text": "In Brazil, since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory when the product does not intentionally add any allergenic food or its derivatives, but the Good Manufacturing Practices and allergen control measures adopted are not sufficient to prevent the presence of accidental trace amounts. Milk of all species of mammalians is included among these allergenic foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tree nut allergy",
        "text": "In response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have responded by instituting labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain major allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods. Nevertheless, there are no labeling laws to mandatory declare the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination, except in Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peanut allergy",
        "text": "In response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have responded by instituting labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain major allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods. Nevertheless, there are no labeling laws to mandatory declare the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination, except in Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk allergy",
        "text": "In response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have responded by instituting labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain major allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods. Nevertheless, there are no labeling laws to mandatory declare the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination, except in Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy allergy",
        "text": "In response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have established labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain major allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods. Except in Canada and Brazil, there are no labeling laws to declare the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In the United States, 90% of allergic responses to foods are caused by cow's milk, eggs, wheat, shellfish, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and soy beans. The declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory in any country, with the exception of Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA became effective 1 January 2006, requiring companies selling foods in the United States to disclose on labels whether a packaged food product contains any of these eight major food allergens, added intentionally: cow's milk, peanuts, eggs, shellfish, fish, tree nuts, soy and wheat. This list originated in 1999 from the World Health Organisation Codex Alimentarius Commission. To meet FALCPA labeling requirements, if an ingredient is derived from one of the required-label allergens, then it must either have its \"food sourced name\" in parentheses, for example \"Casein (milk),\" or as an alternative, there must be a statement separate but adjacent to the ingredients list: \"Contains milk\" (and any other of the allergens with mandatory labeling). The European Union requires listing for those eight major allergens plus molluscs, celery, mustard, lupin, sesame and sulfites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Labeling regulations have been modified to provide for mandatory labeling of ingredients plus voluntary labeling, termed precautionary allergen labeling (PAL), also known as \u201cmay contain\u201d statements, for possible, inadvertent, trace amount, cross-contamination during production. PAL labeling can be confusing to consumers, especially as there can be many variations on the wording of the warning. PAL is regulated only in Switzerland, Japan, Argentina, and South Africa. Argentina decided to prohibit precautionary allergen labeling since 2010, and instead puts the onus on the manufacturer to control the manufacturing process and label only those allergenic ingredients known to be in the products. South Africa does not permit the use of PAL, except when manufacturers demonstrate the potential presence of allergen due to cross-contamination through a documented risk assessment and despite adherence to Good Manufacturing Practice. In Australia and New Zealand there is a recommendation that PAL be replaced by guidance from VITAL 2.0 (Vital Incidental Trace Allergen Labeling). A review identified \"the eliciting dose for an allergic reaction in 1% of the population\" as ED01. This threshold reference dose for foods such as cow's milk, egg, peanut and other proteins) will provide food manufacturers with guidance for developing precautionary labeling and give consumers a better idea of might be accidentally in a food product beyond \"may contain.\" VITAL 2.0 was developed by the Allergen Bureau, a food industry sponsored, non-government organization. The European Union has initiated a process to create labeling regulations for unintentional contamination but is not expected to publish such before 2024."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish allergy",
        "text": "In response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have responded by instituting labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain major allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods. Nevertheless, there are no labeling laws to mandatory declare the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sesame allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA became effective 1 January 2006, requiring companies selling foods in the United States to disclose on labels whether a packaged food product contains any of these eight major food allergens, added intentionally: cow's milk, peanuts, eggs, shellfish, fish, tree nuts, soy and wheat. This list originated in 1999 from the World Health Organisation Codex Alimentarius Commission. To meet FALCPA labeling requirements, if an ingredient is derived from one of the required-label allergens, then it must either have its \"food sourced name\" in parentheses, for example \"Casein (milk),\" or as an alternative, there must be a statement separate but adjacent to the ingredients list: \"Contains milk\" (and any other of the allergens with mandatory labeling)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shellfish allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA requires companies to disclose on the label whether a packaged food product contains any of these eight major food allergens, added intentionally: cow's milk, peanuts, eggs, shellfish, fish, tree nuts, soy and wheat. This list originated in 1999 from the World Health Organisation Codex Alimentarius Commission. To meet FALCPA labeling requirements, if an ingredient is derived from one of the required-label allergens, then it must either have its \"food sourced name\" in parentheses, for example \"Casein (milk),\" or as an alternative, there must be a statement separate but adjacent to the ingredients list: \"Contains milk\" (and any other of the allergens with mandatory labeling). The European Union requires listing for those eight major allergens plus molluscs, celery, mustard, lupin, sesame and sulfites. In Japan, a food-labeling system for five specific allergenic ingredients (egg, milk, wheat, buckwheat, peanut) was mandated under law on April 1, 2002. Additional labeling of shrimp/prawn and crab became mandatory in 2008. This applies to packaged food, but not to restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shellfish allergy",
        "text": "In response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have responded by instituting labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain major allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods. Laws and regulations passed in the US and by the European Union recommend labeling but do not require mandatory declaration of the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of unintentional cross-contamination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sesame allergy",
        "text": "In response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have responded by instituting labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain major allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods. Laws and regulations passed in the US and by the European Union recommend labeling but do not require mandatory declaration of the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of unintentional cross-contamination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peanut allergy",
        "text": "In the United States, the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 (FALCPA), which became effective January 1, 2006, requires companies to disclose on the label whether a packaged food product contains any of these eight major food allergens, added intentionally: cow's milk, peanuts, eggs, shellfish, fish, tree nuts, soy and wheat. This list originated in 1999, from the World Health Organisation Codex Alimentarius Commission. To meet FALCPA labeling requirements, if an ingredient is derived from one of the required-label allergens, then it must either have its \"food sourced name\" in parentheses, for example \"Casein (milk),\" or as an alternative, there must be a statement separate but adjacent to the ingredients list: \"Contains milk\" (and any other of the allergens with mandatory labeling). The European Union requires listing for those eight major allergens plus molluscs, celery, mustard, lupin, sesame and sulfites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy allergy",
        "text": "In the United States, the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 (FALCPA) requires companies to disclose on the label whether a packaged food product contains any of the eight most common food allergens, added intentionally: cow milk, peanuts, eggs, shellfish, fish, tree nuts, soy and wheat. This list originated in 1999 from the World Health Organization Codex Alimentarius Commission. To meet FALCPA labeling requirements, if an ingredient is derived from one of the required-label allergens, then it must either have its \"food sourced name\" in parentheses, such as \"Soy,\" or as an alternative, there must be a statement separate but adjacent to the ingredients list: \"Contains soy\" (and any other of the allergens with mandatory labeling). The FDA emphasizes to consumers that \"it's very important to read the entire ingredient list to see if your allergen is present\". The European Union requires listing of soy and seven other common allergens, plus other potentially allergenic foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peanut allergy",
        "text": "Labeling regulations have been modified to provide for mandatory labeling of ingredients plus voluntary labeling, termed precautionary allergen labeling (PAL), also known as \"may contain\" statements, for possible, inadvertent, trace amount, cross-contamination during production. PAL labeling can be confusing to consumers, especially as there can be many variations on the wording of the warning. PAL is regulated only in Switzerland, Japan, Argentina, and South Africa. Argentina decided to prohibit precautionary allergen labeling since 2010, and instead puts the onus on the manufacturer to control the manufacturing process and label only those allergenic ingredients known to be in the products. South Africa does not permit the use of PAL, except when manufacturers demonstrate the potential presence of allergen due to cross-contamination through a documented risk assessment and despite adherence to Good Manufacturing Practice. In Australia and New Zealand there is a recommendation that PAL be replaced by guidance from VITAL 2.0 (Vital Incidental Trace Allergen Labeling). A review identified \"the eliciting dose for an allergic reaction in 1% of the population\" as ED01. This threshold reference dose for foods (such as cow's milk, egg, peanut and other proteins) will provide food manufacturers with guidance for developing precautionary labeling and give consumers a better idea of might be accidentally in a food product beyond \"may contain.\" VITAL 2.0 was developed by the Allergen Bureau, a food industry sponsored, non-government organization. The European Union has initiated a process to create labeling regulations for unintentional contamination but is not expected to publish such before 2024."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk allergy",
        "text": "In the US, FALCPA requires companies to disclose on the label whether a packaged food product contains a major food allergen added intentionally: cow's milk, peanuts, eggs, shellfish, fish, tree nuts, soy and wheat. This list originated in 1999 from the World Health Organisation Codex Alimentarius Commission. To meet FALCPA labeling requirements, if an ingredient is derived from one of the required-label allergens, then it must either have its \"food sourced name\" in parentheses, for example \"Casein (milk),\" or as an alternative, there must be a statement separate but adjacent to the ingredients list: \"Contains milk\" (and any other of the allergens with mandatory labeling). Dairy food listing is also mandatory in the European Union and more than a dozen other countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA requires companies to disclose on the label whether a packaged food product contains any of these eight major food allergens, added intentionally: cow's milk, peanuts, eggs, shellfish, fish, tree nuts, soy and wheat. This list originated in 1999 from the World Health Organisation Codex Alimentarius Commission. To meet FALCPA labeling requirements, if an ingredient is derived from one of the required-label allergens, then it must either have its \"food sourced name\" in parentheses, for example \"Casein (milk),\" or as an alternative, there must be a statement separate but adjacent to the ingredients list: \"Contains milk\" (and any other of the allergens with mandatory labeling)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tree nut allergy",
        "text": "Labeling regulations have been modified to provide for mandatory labeling of ingredients plus voluntary labeling, termed precautionary allergen labeling (PAL), also known as \u201cmay contain\u201d statements, for possible, inadvertent, trace amount, cross-contamination during production. PAL labeling can be confusing to consumers, especially as there can be many variations on the wording of the warning. PAL is regulated only in Switzerland, Japan, Argentina, and South Africa. Argentina decided to prohibit precautionary allergen labeling since 2010, and instead puts the onus on the manufacturer to control the manufacturing process and label only those allergenic ingredients known to be in the products. South Africa does not permit the use of PAL, except when manufacturers demonstrate the potential presence of allergen due to cross-contamination through a documented risk assessment and despite adherence to Good Manufacturing Practice. In Australia and New Zealand there is a recommendation that PAL be replaced by guidance from VITAL 2.0 (Vital Incidental Trace Allergen Labeling). A review identified \"the eliciting dose for an allergic reaction in 1% of the population\" as ED01. This threshold reference dose for foods (such as cow's milk, egg, peanut and other proteins) will provide food manufacturers with guidance for developing precautionary labeling and give consumers a better idea of might be accidentally in a food product beyond \"may contain.\" VITAL 2.0 was developed by the Allergen Bureau, a food industry sponsored, non-government organization. The European Union has initiated a process to create labeling regulations for unintentional contamination but is not expected to publish such before 2024."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk allergy",
        "text": "Labeling regulations have been modified to provide for mandatory labeling of ingredients plus voluntary labeling, termed precautionary allergen labeling (PAL), also known as \"may contain\" statements, for possible, inadvertent, trace amount, cross-contamination during production. PAL labeling can be confusing to consumers, especially as there can be many variations on the wording of the warning. , PAL is regulated only in Switzerland, Japan, Argentina, and South Africa. Argentina decided to prohibit precautionary allergen labeling since 2010, and instead puts the onus on the manufacturer to control the manufacturing process and label only those allergenic ingredients known to be in the products. South Africa does not permit the use of PAL, except when manufacturers demonstrate the potential presence of allergen due to cross-contamination through a documented risk assessment despite adherence to Good Manufacturing Practice. In Australia and New Zealand, there is a recommendation that PAL be replaced by guidance from VITAL 2.0 (Vital Incidental Trace Allergen Labelling). A review identified \"the eliciting dose for an allergic reaction in 1% of the population\" as 0.01\u00a0mg for cow's milk. This threshold reference dose (and similar results for egg, peanut and other proteins) will provide food manufacturers with guidance for developing precautionary labelling and give consumers a better idea of what might be accidentally in a food product beyond \"may contain.\" VITAL 2.0 was developed by the Allergen Bureau, a food industry-sponsored, non-government organization. The EU has initiated a process to create labeling regulations for unintentional contamination but it is not expected to be published before 2024."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tree nut allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA requires companies to disclose on the label whether a packaged food product contains any of these eight major food allergens, added intentionally: cow's milk, peanuts, eggs, shellfish, fish, tree nuts, soy and wheat. This list originated in 1999 from the World Health Organisation Codex Alimentarius Commission. To meet FALCPA labeling requirements, if an ingredient is derived from one of the required-label allergens, then it must either have its \"food sourced name\" in parentheses, for example \"Casein (milk),\" or as an alternative, there must be a statement separate but adjacent to the ingredients list: \"Contains milk\" (and any other of the allergens with mandatory labeling). The European Union requires listing for those eight major allergens plus molluscs, celery, mustard, lupin, sesame and sulfites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "Labeling regulations have been modified to provide for mandatory labeling of ingredients plus voluntary labeling, termed precautionary allergen labeling (PAL), also known as \u201cmay contain\u201d statements, for possible, inadvertent, trace amount, cross-contamination during production. PAL labeling can be confusing to consumers, especially as there can be many variations on the wording of the warning. PAL is optional in the United States. , PAL is regulated only in Switzerland, Japan, Argentina, and South Africa. Argentina decided to prohibit precautionary allergen labeling since 2010 and instead puts the onus on the manufacturer to control the manufacturing process and label only those allergenic ingredients known to be in the products. South Africa does not permit the use of PAL, except when manufacturers demonstrate the potential presence of allergen due to cross-contamination through a documented risk assessment and despite adherence to Good Manufacturing Practice. In Australia and New Zealand there is a recommendation that PAL be replaced by guidance from VITAL 2.0 (Vital Incidental Trace Allergen Labeling). A review identified \"the eliciting dose for an allergic reaction in 1% of the population\" as ED01. This threshold reference dose for foods (such as cow's milk, egg, peanut and other proteins) will provide food manufacturers with guidance for developing precautionary labeling and give consumers a better idea of what might be accidentally in a food product beyond \"may contain.\" VITAL 2.0 was developed by the Allergen Bureau, a food industry sponsored, non-government organization. The European Union has initiated a process to create labeling regulations for unintentional contamination but is not expected to publish such before 2024."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "In the United States, the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 (FALCPA) requires companies to disclose on the label whether a packaged food product contains any of these eight major food allergens, added intentionally: cow's milk, peanuts, eggs, shellfish, fish, tree nuts, soy and wheat. The eight-ingredient is list originated in 1999 from the World Health Organisation Codex Alimentarius Commission. To meet FALCPA labeling requirements, if an ingredient is derived from one of the required-label allergens, then it must either have its \"food sourced name\" in parentheses, for example, \"Casein (milk),\" or as an alternative, there must be a statement separate but adjacent to the ingredients list: \"Contains milk\" (and any other of the allergens with mandatory labeling). The European Union requires listing for those eight major allergens plus molluscs, celery, mustard, lupin, sesame and sulfites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy allergy",
        "text": "Labeling regulations in the European Union require mandatory labeling of certain ingredients, and allow voluntary labeling, termed Precautionary Allergen Labeling (PAL) for \"may contain\" statements to account for product ingredients included as inadvertent, trace amount or cross-contamination during production. PAL labeling may be confusing to consumers, possibly due to variations of wording on labels. The European Union initiated a process to create labeling regulations for unintentional contamination, although it may not be official until 2024. The US FDA requires reporting by government inspectors and manufacturers to reduce or eliminate the potential cross-contact of product ingredients, including soy, and to state possible cross-contamination on food labels, using the words \"may contain\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gluten",
        "text": "By law in Brazil, all food products must display labels clearly indicating whether or not they contain gluten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The value of allergen labeling other than for intentional ingredients is controversial. This concerns labeling for ingredients present unintentionally as a consequence of cross-contact or cross-contamination at any point along the food chain (during raw material transportation, storage or handling, due to shared equipment for processing and packaging, etc.). Experts in this field propose that if allergen labeling is to be useful to consumers, and healthcare professionals who advise and treat those consumers, ideally there should be agreement on which foods require labeling, threshold quantities below which labeling may be of no purpose, and validation of allergen detection methods to test and potentially recall foods that were deliberately or inadvertently contaminated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA applies to packaged foods regulated by the FDA, which does not include poultry, most meats, certain egg products, and most alcoholic beverages. However, some meat, poultry, and egg processed products may contain allergenic ingredients. These products are regulated by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), which requires that any ingredient be declared in the labeling only by its common or usual name. Neither the identification of the source of a specific ingredient in a parenthetical statement nor the use of statements to alert for the presence of specific ingredients, like \"Contains: milk\", are mandatory according to FSIS. FALCPA also does not apply to food prepared in restaurants. The EU Food Information for Consumers Regulation 1169/2011 \u2013 requires food businesses to provide allergy information on food sold unpackaged, for example, in catering outlets, deli counters, bakeries and sandwich bars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The mainstay of treatment is total avoidance of egg protein intake. This is complicated because the declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory (see regulation of labelling)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food labelling in Canada",
        "text": "When an allergen is not a listed ingredient but is processed in the same facility so that contamination with trace amounts is possible, a precautionary statement is often given near the ingredient list (\"may contain traces of . . . \"); this is not required, but Health Canada \"considers the use of allergen precautionary statements to be a useful tool in mitigating adverse reactions to priority food allergens if the statements are used appropriately.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Gluten-free diet",
        "text": "All food products must be clearly labelled whether they contain gluten or they are gluten-free. Since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory when the product does not intentionally add any allergenic food or its derivatives, but the Good Manufacturing Practices and allergen control measures adopted are not sufficient to prevent the presence of accidental trace amounts. When a product contains the warning of cross-contamination with wheat, rye, barley, oats and their hybridised strains, the warning \"contains gluten\" is mandatory. The law does not establish a gluten threshold for the declaration of its absence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peanut allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA applies to packaged foods regulated by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which does not include poultry, most meats, certain egg products, and most alcoholic beverages. However, some meat, poultry, and egg processed products may contain allergenic ingredients. These products are regulated by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), which requires that any ingredient be declared in the labeling only by its common or usual name. Neither the identification of the source of a specific ingredient in a parenthetical statement nor the use of statements to alert for the presence of specific ingredients, like \"Contains: milk\", are mandatory according to FSIS. FALCPA also does not apply to food prepared in restaurants. The EU Food Information for Consumers Regulation 1169/2011 \u2013 requires food businesses to provide allergy information on food sold unpackaged, for example, in catering outlets, deli counters, bakeries and sandwich bars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tree nut allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA applies to packaged foods regulated by the FDA, which does not include poultry, most meats, certain egg products, and most alcoholic beverages. However, some meat, poultry, and egg processed products may contain allergenic ingredients. These products are regulated by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), which requires that any ingredient be declared in the labeling only by its common or usual name. Neither the identification of the source of a specific ingredient in a parenthetical statement nor the use of statements to alert for the presence of specific ingredients, like \"Contains: milk\", are mandatory according to FSIS. FALCPA also does not apply to food prepared in restaurants. The EU Food Information for Consumers Regulation 1169/2011 \u2013 requires food businesses to provide allergy information on food sold unpackaged, for example, in catering outlets, deli counters, bakeries and sandwich bars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trans fat",
        "text": "Resolution 360, dated December 23 2003, by the Brazilian ministry of health required the amount of trans fat to be specified in labels of food products. On 31 July 2006, such labeling of trans fat contents became mandatory. In 2019 Anvisa published a new legislation to reduce the total amount of trans fat in any industrialized food sold in Brazil to a maximum of 2% by the end of 2023."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Egg allergy\n--Signs and symptoms.\n--Causes.\n----Eating egg.\n----Vaccines.\n----Exercise as a contributing factor.\n--Mechanisms.\n----Non-allergic intolerance.\n--Diagnosis.\n--Prevention.\n--Treatment.\n----Immunotherapy.\n----Avoiding eggs.\n--Prognosis.\n--Epidemiology.\n--Society and culture.\n----Regulation of labelling.\n------Ingredients intentionally added.\n------Trace amounts as a result of cross-contamination.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sesame allergy",
        "text": "The European Union requires listing for those eight major allergens plus molluscs, celery, mustard, lupin, sesame and sulfites. In Japan, a food-labeling system for five specific allergenic ingredients (egg, milk, wheat, buckwheat, peanut) was mandated under law on April 1, 2002, adding shrimp/prawn and crab in 2008. Walnut was added in 2019. Sesame is on a list of 27 foods for which labeling is recommended but remains voluntary. Labeling requirements apply to packaged food, but not to restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peanut allergy",
        "text": "Total avoidance is complicated because the declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory (see regulation of labelling)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA applies to packaged foods regulated by the FDA, which does not include poultry, most meats, certain egg products, and most alcoholic beverages. However, some meat, poultry, and egg processed products may contain allergenic ingredients, such as added milk proteins. These products are regulated by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), which requires that any ingredient be declared in the labeling only by its common or usual name. Neither the identification of the source of a specific ingredient in a parenthetical statement nor the use of statements to alert for the presence of specific ingredients, like \"Contains: milk\", are mandatory according to FSIS."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA applies to packaged foods regulated by the FDA, which does not include poultry, most meats, certain egg products, and most alcoholic beverages. However, some meat, poultry, and egg processed products may contain allergenic ingredients. These products are regulated by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), which requires that any ingredient be declared in the labeling only by its common or usual name. Neither the identification of the source of a specific ingredient in a parenthetical statement nor the use of statements to alert for the presence of specific ingredients, like \"Contains: milk\", are mandatory according to FSIS. FALCPA also does not apply to food prepared in restaurants. The EU Food Information for Consumers Regulation 1169/2011 \u2013 requires food businesses to provide allergy information on food sold unpackaged, for example, in catering outlets, deli counters, bakeries and sandwich bars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In the United States, there is no federal mandate to address the presence of allergens in drug products. FALCPA does not apply to medicines nor to cosmetics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soybean",
        "text": "In the European Union, identifying the presence of soy either as an ingredient or unintended contaminant in packaged food is compulsory. The regulation (EC) 1169/2011 on food-labeling lists 14 allergens, including soy, in packaged food must be clearly indicated on the label as part of the list of ingredients, using a distinctive typography (such as bold type or capital letters)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trans fat regulation",
        "text": "Resolution 360 of 23 December 2003 by the Brazilian ministry of health required for the first time in the country that the amount of trans fat to be specified in labels of food products. On 31 July 2006, such labelling of trans fat contents became mandatory. In 2019 Anvisa published a new legislation to reduce the total amount of trans fat in any industrialized food sold in Brazil to a maximum of 2% by the end of 2023."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA applies to packaged foods regulated by the FDA and by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), which requires that any ingredient be declared in the labeling only by its common or usual name. Neither the identification of the source of a specific ingredient in a parenthetical statement nor the use of statements to alert for the presence of specific ingredients, like \"Contains: soy\", is mandatory, according to FSIS. FALCPA does not apply to food prepared in restaurants. The EU Food Information for Consumers Regulation 1169/2011 requires food businesses to provide allergy information on food sold as unpackaged in public food outlets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA applies to packaged foods regulated by the FDA, which does not include poultry, most meats, certain egg products, and most alcoholic beverages. However, some meat, poultry, and egg processed products may contain allergenic ingredients. These products are regulated by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), which requires that any ingredient be declared in the labeling only by its common or usual name. Neither the identification of the source of a specific ingredient in a parenthetical statement nor the use of statements to alert for the presence of specific ingredients, like \"Contains: milk\", are mandatory according to FSIS. FALCPA also does not apply to food prepared in restaurants. The EU Food Information for Consumers Regulation 1169/2011 requires food businesses to provide allergy information on food sold unpackaged. Examples would include by catering outlets and deli counters, bakeries and sandwich bars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tree nut allergy",
        "text": "Total avoidance is complicated because the declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory (see regulation of labelling)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sesame allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA applies to packaged foods regulated by the FDA, which does not include poultry, most meats, certain egg products, and most alcoholic beverages. Some meat, poultry, and egg processed products may contain allergenic ingredients. These products are regulated by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), which requires that any ingredient be declared in the labeling only by its common or usual name. Neither the identification of the source of a specific ingredient in a parenthetical statement nor the use of statements to alert for the presence of specific ingredients, like \"Contains: milk\", are mandatory according to FSIS. FALCPA also does not apply to food prepared in restaurants. In contrast, the EU Food Information for Consumers Regulation 1169/2011 requires food businesses to provide allergy information on food sold unpackaged. Examples would include by catering outlets and deli counters, bakeries and sandwich bars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandatory labelling",
        "text": "Because of past scandals involving deceptive labelling, countries like the United States and Canada require most processed foods to have a nutrition facts label on the label, and the table's formatting and content must conform to strict guidelines. The European Union equivalent is the slightly different nutrition information table, which may also be supplemented with standardized icons indicating the presence of allergens. In China, all clothing is labelled with the factory of origin, including telephone and fax numbers, although this information is not available to buyers outside China, who see only a generic Made in China tag."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sesame",
        "text": "Canada requires sesame labeling as an allergen. In the European Union, identifying the presence of sesame, along with 13 other foods, either as an ingredient or unintended contaminant in packaged food is compulsory. In the US, the \"FASTER Act\" was passed in April 2021, stipulating that labeling be mandatory, to be in effect January 1, 2023, making it the ninth required food ingredient."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "In response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have responded by instituting labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain priority allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Whether food allergy prevalence is increasing or not, food allergy awareness has definitely increased, with impacts on the quality of life for children, their parents and their immediate caregivers. In the United States, the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 (FALCPA) causes people to be reminded of allergy problems every time they handle a food package, and restaurants have added allergen warnings to menus. The Culinary Institute of America, a premier school for chef training, has courses in allergen-free cooking and a separate teaching kitchen. School systems have protocols about what foods can be brought into the school. Despite all these precautions, people with serious allergies are aware that accidental exposure can easily occur at other peoples' houses, at school or in restaurants. Food fear has a significant impact on quality of life. Finally, for children with allergies, their quality of life is also affected by actions of their peers. There is an increased occurrence of bullying, which can include threats or acts of deliberately being touched with foods they need to avoid, also having their allergen-free food deliberately contaminated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shellfish allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA applies to packaged foods regulated by the FDA, which does not include poultry, most meats, certain egg products, and most alcoholic beverages. Some meat, poultry, and egg processed products may contain allergenic ingredients. These products are regulated by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), which requires that any ingredient be declared in the labeling only by its common or usual name. Neither the identification of the source of a specific ingredient in a parenthetical statement nor the use of statements to alert for the presence of specific ingredients, like \"Contains: milk\", are mandatory according to FSIS. FALCPA also does not apply to food prepared in restaurants. In contrast, the EU Food Information for Consumers Regulation 1169/2011 requires food businesses to provide allergy information on food sold unpackaged. Examples would include by catering outlets and deli counters, bakeries and sandwich bars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food policy",
        "text": "There are also requirements for allergen labeling. According to the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 (Public Law 108-282, Title II), 2% of adults and 5% of infants and children have food allergies, and 90% of these allergies are related to milk, eggs, fish, crustacean shellfish, tree nuts, peanuts, wheat, and soybeans. Labeling must contain a list of these major food allergens which are contained in the product, or which may have come in contact with the food during production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegetarianism and wine",
        "text": "in 2011, Dr. Emilia Vassilopoulou published a study conducted by herself and her colleagues in an attempt to determine if allergens (milk, egg, and fish products used as fining agents) should be labeled on the packaging of the product. Their goal was to find, in a controlled environment, if people with certain allergens would have reactions after drinking wine that had been fined with said allergen. The findings showed no reactions through in-vitro methods, but had positive skin pricks tests in patients who consumed/were allergic to wines fined with milk, fish, and eggs. The findings were so minimal that they agreed that the labeling is not necessary. However, this does prove that there are still particles of these animal proteins leftover in the wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish allergy",
        "text": "Sesame labeling was declared mandatory in April 2021, effective January 1, 2023. making it the ninth required food ingredient label. The European Union requires listing for the original eight major allergens plus molluscs, celery, mustard, lupin, sesame and sulfites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tree nut allergy",
        "text": "The value of allergen labeling other than for intentional ingredients is controversial. This concerns labeling for ingredients present unintentionally as a consequence of cross-contact or cross-contamination at any point along the food chain (during raw material transportation, storage or handling, due to shared equipment for processing and packaging, etc.). Experts in this field propose that if allergen labeling is to be useful to consumers, and healthcare professionals who advise and treat those consumers, ideally there should be agreement on which foods require labeling, threshold quantities below which labeling may be of no purpose, and validation of allergen detection methods to test and potentially recall foods that were deliberately or inadvertently contaminated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act",
        "text": "The Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act (FALCPA) is a United States law that requires all food labels in the United States to list ingredients that may cause allergic reactions and was effective as of January 1, 2006. While many ingredients can trigger a food allergy, this legislation only specifies the eight major food allergens. This law was passed largely due to the efforts of organizations such as the Food Allergy & Anaphylaxis Network (FAAN)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peanut allergy",
        "text": "The value of allergen labeling other than for intentional ingredients is controversial. This concerns labeling for ingredients present unintentionally as a consequence of cross-contact or cross-contamination at any point along the food chain (during raw material transportation, storage or handling, due to shared equipment for processing and packaging, etc.). Experts in this field propose that if allergen labeling is to be useful to consumers, and healthcare professionals who advise and treat those consumers, ideally there should be agreement on which foods require labeling, threshold quantities below which labeling may be of no purpose, and validation of allergen detection methods to test and potentially recall foods that were deliberately or inadvertently contaminated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food labelling in Canada",
        "text": "Common allergens such as gluten, peanuts, and dairy must be called out below the ingredient list. On February 16, 2011, the \"Food and Drug Regulations Act\" was passed, requiring enhanced labelling requirements for food allergen, gluten sources, and sulphites, beginning on August 4, 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy allergy",
        "text": "Many foods that contain soy are exempt from being labelled as a major allergen under US FDA regulations because they contain negligible soy protein, and individuals with a mild allergy may not experience any symptoms when exposed.\n* Highly refined soybean oil (vegetable oil): When tested, this product contains little to no soy proteins. Note that soybean oils extracted using only mechanical means (pressed or extruded) should still be avoided.\n* Soy lecithin: Usually derived from soybean oil, presents minimal amounts of soy protein. However, with few exceptions, the US FDA does not exempt soy lecithin containing foods from its mandatory allergenic source labeling requirements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hydrolyzed vegetable protein",
        "text": "According to European law, wheat and soy are subject to allergen labelling in terms of Regulation (EU) 1169/2011 on food information to consumers. Since wheat and soy used for the production of HVP are not exempted from allergen labelling for formal reasons, HVP produced by using those raw materials has to be labelled with a reference to wheat or soy in the list of ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk allergy",
        "text": "Management is by avoiding eating any dairy foods or foods that contain dairy ingredients. In people with rapid reactions (IgE-mediated milk allergy), the dose capable of provoking an allergic response can be as low as a few milligrams, so recommendations are to avoid dairy strictly. The declaration of the presence of trace amounts of milk or dairy in foods is not mandatory in any country, with the exception of Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "ParknShop",
        "text": "In 2017, Europe Egg Scandal happened, where contaminated eggs spread to Hong Kong. It was confirmed that eggs have been tainted with unsafe levels of insecticide. Eggs contained excessive level of Fipronil, a highly toxic pest control chemical banned from the production of food. Shops were asked to remove the products from shelves, and instructed the importer to initiate a recall. This included ParknShop."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bernardo T. Chua",
        "text": "In February 2005, Gano Excel issued a recall and allergy alert concerning some of its products. This resulted after Health Canada, the government health agency of Canada, conducted tests revealing the presence of milk protein, which was not declared on the product label."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act",
        "text": "Even minute amounts, such as coloring or spices, must be listed if they contain any proteins from these major allergens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "Prior to a new GMO food receiving government approval, certain criteria need to be met. These include: Is the donor species known to be allergenic? Does the amino acid sequence of the transferred proteins resemble the sequence of known allergenic proteins? Are the transferred proteins resistant to digestion - a trait shared by many allergenic proteins? Genes approved for animal use can be restricted from human consumption due to potential for allergic reactions. In 1998 Starlink brand corn restricted to animals was detected in the human food supply, leading to first a voluntary and then a FDA mandated recall. There are requirements in some countries and recommendations in others that all foods containing GMO ingredients be so labeled, and that there be a post-launch monitoring system to report adverse effects (much there exists in some countries for drug and dietary supplement reporting)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in Brazil",
        "text": "Federal Justice decided that foods containing more than 1 percent of modified genes must be labeled to inform consumers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allura Red AC",
        "text": "The European Food Safety Authority, with a stronger emphasis on the precautionary principle, required labelling and temporarily reduced the acceptable daily intake (ADI) for the food colorings; the UK FSA called for voluntary withdrawal of the colorings by food manufacturers. However, in 2009, the EFSA re-evaluated the data at hand and determined that \"the available scientific evidence does not substantiate a link between the color additives and behavioral effects\", and in 2014, after further review of the data, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) restored the prior ADI levels. In 2015, the EFSA found that the exposure estimates did not exceed the ADI of 7\u00a0mg/kg per day in any population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy allergy",
        "text": "While many countries require allergen warnings on labels of food containing soy ingredients, such labeling requirements may not apply to certain food and personal care items containing soy ingredients, including prescription and over-the-counter drugs and cosmetics. Without actually ingesting an allergen, a person allergic to soy would not likely have a reaction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified food in the United States",
        "text": "The FDA consultation focuses on whether the new food or feed contains any new allergens or toxic substances and whether the nutritional components of the food or feed have increased or decreased. The developer submits documentation to the FDA describing the food or feed and a FDA assigned caseworker can then request additional information on expected dietary exposure, in particular if any risk groups (children, elderly etc.) might be exposed. As of 2007, the FDA has not identified any genetically modified foods with unexpected changes in the nutrient composition or levels of allergens or toxic substances. However, allergic proteins have been detected when some GM products have undergone testing. Pioneer Hi-Bred inserted a gene from the Brazil nut into transgenic soybean resulting in soy with an enhanced nutritional profile. The inserted gene did not translate into a known allergen at the time, but when tested with serum from people who are allergic to Brazil nut the allergenic nature of the protein was discovered. The development of the transgenic soybean expressing a Brazil nut allergen was stopped after these tests. The FDA consultation process is relatively (when compared to the other agencies regulating GM) informal and they do not approve new GM products. Instead they issue a \"memo\" stating whether the new food is the same as or different from the non-modified variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "The value of allergen labeling other than for intentional ingredients is controversial. This concerns labeling for ingredients present unintentionally as a consequence of cross-contact or cross-contamination at any point along the food chain (during raw material transportation, storage or handling, due to shared equipment for processing and packaging, etc.). Experts in this field propose that if allergen labeling is to be useful to consumers, and healthcare professionals who advise and treat those consumers, ideally there should be agreement on which foods require labeling, threshold quantities below which labeling may be of no purpose, and validation of allergen detection methods to test and potentially recall foods that were deliberately or inadvertently contaminated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red River Cereal",
        "text": "On 24 September 2011, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency issued an allergy alert that the 1.35\u00a0kg size of the product sold in Canada contained undisclosed soy, one of the nine most common food allergens. Voluntarily, the manufacturer temporarily removed the product from the marketplace. The packaging has since been altered to include a warning about the presence of soy."
      },
      {
        "title": "2017 fipronil eggs contamination",
        "text": "The Dutch food and product safety board (NVWA) reported that the test results of one batch of eggs originating from one poultry farm in the Netherlands exceeded the threshold of 0.72\u00a0mg/kg. Eggs containing fipronil values above this threshold could have possible negative health effects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "Congress and the President passed a law in April 2021, the \"FASTER Act\", stipulating that labeling be mandatory, to be effect January 1, 2023, making it the ninth required food ingredient label."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sesame allergy",
        "text": "Cross-contact, also referred to as cross-contamination, occurs when foods are being processed in factories or at food markets, or are being prepared for cooking in restaurants and home kitchens. The allergenic proteins are transferred from one food to another. Bakeries are mentioned as a possible site of cross-contact because sesame seeds are used as ingredients in various baked goods. Assessment of food products purchased from Middle Eastern grocery stores and bakeries in Montreal, Canada found that 16% of packaged products with \"Precautionary Allergen Labelling\" may contain sesame; the finding indicates that products had measurable sesame content, causing inadvertent cross-contamination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sesame allergy",
        "text": "Reporting of sesame seed allergy has increased in the 21st century, due either to a true increase from exposure to more sesame foods or an increase in awareness. Increasing sesame allergy has induced more countries to regulate food labels to identify sesame ingredients in products and the potential for allergy. In the United States, sesame will become the ninth food allergen with mandatory labeling, effective January 1, 2023."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in Brazil",
        "text": "In 2007 tomatoes, lettuce and strawberries showed the highest rates of contamination by agrochemicals. Farmer awareness is low and few comply with rules on the use of these substances, such as Individual Protection Equipment (EPI)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy allergy",
        "text": "People with a confirmed soy allergy should avoid foods containing soy-sourced ingredients. In many countries, packaged food labels are required to list ingredients, and soy is identified as an allergen. Many fast-food restaurants commonly use soy protein in hamburger buns (soy flour), or as substitute meat (soy protein) preparations. Packaged foods, school meals, and restaurant foods may contain soy ingredients. Some food contains soy-based ingredients that are not considered allergens under national regulations, and thus are not labeled, such as foods cooked in highly refined soy oil, which is considered safe due to absence of soy protein."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cadbury",
        "text": "On 10 February 2007, Cadbury recalled some of its Easter eggs due to a labelling error. The products were produced in a factory handling nuts, potential allergens, but this was not made clear on the packaging. Cadbury said the products were \"perfectly safe\" for people without nut allergies to eat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guido Girardi",
        "text": "Also in 2012, the \"Law on the nutritional composition of food and its advertising\" was approved, known as the \"Food Labeling Law\", one of its main peculiarities being to force the industry to incorporate icons Black octagonal in the packaging of processed food products that indicate if this food contains sugar, saturated fat, salt and / or calories above those recommended by a technical table of experts. Various countries have expressed their interest in Chilean regulations, considering its content in the development of its own regulatory projects on labeling, including Uruguay, Brazil, Ecuador, Argentina, Peru, Mexico, the member countries of the Caribbean Community, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Panama, El Salvador, Honduras, Israel, Canada, Australia and New Zealand."
      },
      {
        "title": "2017 fipronil eggs contamination",
        "text": "In July/August 2017 millions of chicken eggs were blocked from sale or withdrawn from the market in the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany and France after elevated levels of fipronil were discovered by the Dutch food and product safety board. About 180 Dutch farms were temporarily shut down. In early August, Aldi reported removing all eggs for sale in their German stores as a precaution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allergen",
        "text": "Officially, the United States Food and Drug Administration does recognize eight foods as being common for allergic reactions in a large segment of the sensitive population. These include peanuts, tree nuts, eggs, milk, shellfish, fish, wheat and their derivatives, and soy and their derivatives, as well as sulfites (chemical-based, often found in flavors and colors in foods) at 10ppm and over. See the FDA website for complete details. In other countries, due to differences in the genetic profiles of their citizens and different levels of exposure to specific foods resultant from different dietary habits, the \"official\" allergen lists will vary. Canada recognizes all eight of the allergens recognized by the US as well as sesame seeds and mustard. The European Union additionally recognizes other gluten-containing cereals as well as celery and lupin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act",
        "text": "Any ingredient which contains proteins derived from these allergens must also be listed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified food controversies",
        "text": "The EU implemented regulations specifically governing co-existence and traceability. Traceability has become commonplace in the food and feed supply chains of most countries, but GMO traceability is more challenging given strict legal thresholds for unwanted mixing. Since 2001, conventional and organic food and feedstuffs can contain up to 0.9% of authorised modified material without carrying a GMO label. (any trace of non-authorised modification is cause for a shipment to be rejected). Authorities require the ability to trace, detect and identify GMOs, and the several countries and interested parties created a non-governmental organization, Co-Extra, to develop such methods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk allergy",
        "text": "The value of allergen labeling other than for intentional ingredients is controversial. This concerns labeling for ingredients present unintentionally as a consequence of cross-contact or cross-contamination at any point along the food chain (during raw material transportation, storage or handling, due to shared equipment for processing and packaging, etc.). Experts in this field propose that if allergen labeling is to be useful to consumers, and healthcare professionals who advise and treat those consumers, ideally there should be agreement on which foods require labeling, threshold quantities below which labeling may be of no purpose, and validation of allergen detection methods to test and potentially recall foods that were deliberately or inadvertently contaminated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shellfish allergy",
        "text": "Whether food allergy prevalence is increasing or not, food allergy awareness has increased, with impacts on the quality of life for children, their parents and their immediate caregivers. In the United States, the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act (FALCPA), made law in August 2004, effective January 1, 2006, causes people to be reminded of allergy problems every time they handle a food package. Although not regulated under FALCPA, restaurants have added allergen warnings to menus. The Culinary Institute of America, a premier school for chef training, has courses in allergen-free cooking and a separate teaching kitchen. School systems have protocols about what foods can be brought into the school. Despite all these precautions, people with serious allergies are aware that accidental exposure can easily occur at other peoples' houses, at school or in restaurants. Food fear has a significant impact on quality of life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act",
        "text": "Manufacturers are given two ways in which to label food allergens. They may either state the food source name of a major food allergen in the list of ingredients, most often contained within parenthesis. (e.g. Casein (milk)) or they could instead use the word \"contains\" in the label, such as \"contains peanuts\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trans fat",
        "text": "Trans fat content labeling is required starting in August 2006. Since 2010, vegetable oils and fats sold to consumers directly must contain only 2% of trans fat over total fat, and other food must contain less than 5% of their total fat. Starting on 10 December 2014, Argentina has on effect a total ban on food with trans fat, a regulation that could save the government more than US$100 million a year on healthcare."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk allergy",
        "text": "With the passage of mandatory labeling laws, food allergy awareness has definitely increased, with impacts on the quality of life for children, their parents and their immediate caregivers. In the U.S., the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 (FALPA) causes people to be reminded of allergy problems every time they handle a food package, and restaurants have added allergen warnings to menus. School systems have protocols about what foods can be brought into the school. Despite all these precautions, people with serious allergies are aware that accidental exposure can easily occur at other peoples' houses, at school or in restaurants. Food fear has a significant impact on quality of life. Finally, for children with allergies, their quality of life is also affected by actions of their peers. There is an increased occurrence of bullying, which can include threats or acts of deliberately being touched with foods they need to avoid, also having their allergen-free food deliberately contaminated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In countries in North America and western Europe, where use of cow's milk based infant formula is common, chicken egg allergy is the second most common food allergy in infants and young children after cow's milk. However, in Japan, egg allergy is first and cow's milk second, followed by wheat and then the other common allergenic foods. A review from South Africa reported egg and peanut as the two most common allergenic foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "The priority allergens vary by country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegetarianism by country",
        "text": "By U.S. law, food packaging is regulated by the Food and Drug Administration, and generally must be labeled with a list of all its ingredients. However, there are exceptions. For example, certain trace ingredients that are \"ingredients of ingredients\" do not need to be listed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "In 2017, authorities blocked millions of eggs from sale in the Netherlands, Belgium, and Germany because of contamination with the insecticide fipronil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wine label",
        "text": "New Zealand and Australian labelling regulations have required an allergen warning to appear on wine labels since 2002 due to the use of egg whites, milk, and isinglass in the fining and clarifying of the wine. The United States is considering similar requirements. Winemakers in the US have been resistant to this requirement because the decision to put a wine through a fining process normally occurs after the labels have been ordered, which could lead to allergen warnings on wines that have had no exposure to allergens."
      },
      {
        "title": "2017 fipronil eggs contamination",
        "text": "The first results of an investigation by Belgian police led to the discovery of of fipronil that Poultry Vision had imported from a chemical manufacturing company in Romania."
      },
      {
        "title": "A2 milk",
        "text": "The Brasilian Association of Allergy and Immunology found that about 350,000 individuals in Brazil are allergic to beta-caseins. As of 2017, about 700 litres of milk a day were produced in the country through Gir cows, a breed originally procured from India, but which are now also being exported to India."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the only country that has to disclose trace amounts of allergens in foods?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It is not correct to say in all circumstances that there is only one country with such a disclosure policy, as it depends on the intent behind the inclusion. Trace amounts intentionally added need to be disclosed in countries which have instituting labeling laws for intentionally added ingredients known to be major allergens, but Brazil (and soon to be countries in the EU) is the only country where it is mandatory to declare the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did Brazil start requiring foods be labeled with warnings about trace amounts of allergens?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In Brazil since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory."
    ],
    "topic": "Egg allergy",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Tree nut allergy:24",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tree nut allergy",
          "Society and culture",
          "Regulation of labeling",
          "Trace amounts as a result of cross-contamination"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Brazil since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory when the product does not intentionally add any allergenic food or its derivatives, but the Good Manufacturing Practices and allergen control measures adopted are not sufficient to prevent the presence of accidental trace amounts. These allergens include wheat, rye, barley, oats and their hybrids, crustaceans, eggs, fish, peanuts, soybean, milk of all species of mammalians, almonds, hazelnuts, cashew nuts, Brazil nuts, macadamia nuts, walnuts, pecan nuts, pistaches, pine nuts, and chestnuts."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In Brazil since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory when the product does not intentionally add any allergenic food or its derivatives but the Good Manufacturing Practices and allergen control measures adopted are not sufficient to prevent the presence of accidental trace amounts. These allergens include wheat, rye, barley, oats and their hybrids, crustaceans, eggs, fish, peanuts, soybean, milk of all species of mammalians, almonds, hazelnuts, cashew nuts, Brazil nuts, macadamia nuts, walnuts, pecan nuts, pistaches, pine nuts, and chestnuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Prevention is by avoiding eating eggs and foods that may contain eggs, such as cake or cookies. It is unclear if the early introduction of the eggs to the diet of babies aged 4\u20136 months decreases the risk of egg allergies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Prevention of egg-allergic reactions means avoiding eggs and egg-containing foods. People with an allergy to chicken eggs may also be allergic to other types of eggs, such as goose, duck, or turkey eggs. In cooking, eggs are multifunctional: they may act as an emulsifier to reduce oil/water separation (mayonnaise), a binder (water binding and particle adhesion, as in meatloaf), or an aerator (cakes, especially angel food). Some commercial egg substitutes can substitute for particular functions (potato starch and tapioca for water binding, whey protein or bean water for aeration or particle binding, or soy lecithin or avocado for emulsification). Food companies produce egg-free mayonnaise and other replacement foods. Alfred Bird invented egg-free Bird's Custard, the original version of what is known generically as custard powder today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In the United States, 90% of allergic responses to foods are caused by cow's milk, eggs, wheat, shellfish, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and soy beans. The declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory in any country, with the exception of Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The mainstay of treatment is total avoidance of egg protein intake. This is complicated because the declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory (see regulation of labelling)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Egg allergy\n--Signs and symptoms.\n--Causes.\n----Eating egg.\n----Vaccines.\n----Exercise as a contributing factor.\n--Mechanisms.\n----Non-allergic intolerance.\n--Diagnosis.\n--Prevention.\n--Treatment.\n----Immunotherapy.\n----Avoiding eggs.\n--Prognosis.\n--Epidemiology.\n--Society and culture.\n----Regulation of labelling.\n------Ingredients intentionally added.\n------Trace amounts as a result of cross-contamination.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Most people find it necessary to strictly avoid any item containing eggs, including:\n* Albumin (egg white protein)\n* Apovitellin (egg yolk protein)\n* Egg Beaters (cholesterol-free, uses egg whites)\n* Dried egg solids, powdered egg\n* Egg, egg white, egg yolk\n* Egg wash\n* Eggnog\n* Fat substitutes (some)\n* Livetin (egg yolk protein)\n* Lysozyme (egg white protein)\n* Mayonnaise\n* Meringue or meringue powder\n* Ovalbumin (egg white protein)\n* Ovoglobulin (egg white protein)\n* Ovomucin (egg white protein)\n* Ovomucoid (egg white protein)\n* Ovotransferrin (egg white protein)\n* Ovovitelia (egg yolk protein)\n* Ovovitellin (egg yolk protein)\n* Silici albuminate\n* Simplesse\n* Vitellin (egg yolk protein)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have responded by instituting labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain major allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods. Nevertheless, there are no labeling laws to mandatory declare the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination, except in Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "In Brazil, since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory when the product does not intentionally add any allergenic food or its derivatives, but the Good Manufacturing Practices and allergen control measures adopted are not sufficient to prevent the presence of accidental trace amounts. These allergens include wheat, rye, barley, oats and their hybrids, crustaceans, eggs, fish, peanuts, soybean, milk of all species of mammalians, almonds, hazelnuts, cashew nuts, Brazil nuts, macadamia nuts, walnuts, pecan nuts, pistachios, pine nuts, and chestnuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Egg allergy appears mainly in children but can persist into adulthood. In the United States, it is the second most common food allergy in children after cow's milk. Most children outgrow egg allergy by the age of five, but some people remain allergic for a lifetime. In North America and Western Europe, egg allergy occurs in 0.5% to 2.5% of children under the age of five years. The majority grow out of it by school age, but for roughly one-third, the allergy persists into adulthood. Strong predictors for adult-persistence are anaphylaxis, high egg-specific serum immunoglobulin E (IgE), robust response to the skin prick test and absence of tolerance to egg-containing baked foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Each year the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) publishes recommendations for prevention and control of influenza in children. In the 2016-2017 guidelines a change was made, that children with a history of egg allergy may receive the IIV3 or IIV4 vaccine without special precautions. It did, however, state that \"Standard vaccination practice should include the ability to respond to acute hypersensitivity reactions.\" Prior to this, AAP recommended precautions based on egg allergy history: if no history, immunize; if a history of mild reaction, i.e., hives, immunize in a medical setting with healthcare professionals and resuscitative equipment available; if a history of severe reactions, refer to an allergist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The cause is typically the eating of eggs or foods that contain eggs. Briefly, the immune system over-reacts to proteins found in eggs. This allergic reaction may be triggered by small amounts of egg, even egg incorporated into cooked foods, such as cake. People with an allergy to chicken eggs may also be reactive to goose, duck, or turkey eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peanut allergy",
        "text": "In Brazil, since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory when the product does not intentionally add any allergenic food or its derivatives, but the Good Manufacturing Practices and allergen control measures adopted are not sufficient to prevent the presence of accidental trace amounts. These allergens include wheat, rye, barley, oats and their hybrids, crustaceans, eggs, fish, peanuts, soybean, milk of all species of mammalians, almonds, hazelnuts, cashew nuts, Brazil nuts, macadamia nuts, walnuts, pecan nuts, pistaches, pine nuts, and chestnuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Egg allergy is an immune hypersensitivity to proteins found in chicken eggs, and possibly goose, duck, or turkey eggs. Symptoms can be either rapid or gradual in onset. The latter can take hours to days to appear. The former may include anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening condition which requires treatment with epinephrine. Other presentations may include atopic dermatitis or inflammation of the esophagus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The response is usually localized, typically in the gastrointestinal tract. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, diarrhea, or any other symptoms typical to histamine release. If sufficiently strong, it can result in an anaphylactoid reaction, which is clinically indistinguishable from true anaphylaxis. Some people with this condition tolerate small quantities of egg whites. They are more often able to tolerate well-cooked eggs, such as found in cake or dried egg-based pasta, than incompletely cooked eggs, such as fried eggs or meringues, or uncooked eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Treatment for accidental ingestion of egg products by allergic individuals varies depending on the sensitivity of the person. An antihistamine such as diphenhydramine (Benadryl) may be prescribed. Sometimes prednisone will be prescribed to prevent a possible late phase Type I hypersensitivity reaction. Severe allergic reactions (anaphalaxis) may require treatment with an epinephrine pen, an injection device designed to be used by a non-healthcare professional when emergency treatment is warranted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Whether food allergy prevalence is increasing or not, food allergy awareness has definitely increased, with impacts on the quality of life for children, their parents and their immediate caregivers. In the United States, the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 (FALCPA) causes people to be reminded of allergy problems every time they handle a food package, and restaurants have added allergen warnings to menus. The Culinary Institute of America, a premier school for chef training, has courses in allergen-free cooking and a separate teaching kitchen. School systems have protocols about what foods can be brought into the school. Despite all these precautions, people with serious allergies are aware that accidental exposure can easily occur at other peoples' houses, at school or in restaurants. Food fear has a significant impact on quality of life. Finally, for children with allergies, their quality of life is also affected by actions of their peers. There is an increased occurrence of bullying, which can include threats or acts of deliberately being touched with foods they need to avoid, also having their allergen-free food deliberately contaminated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tree nut allergy",
        "text": "In Brazil since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory when the product does not intentionally add any allergenic food or its derivatives, but the Good Manufacturing Practices and allergen control measures adopted are not sufficient to prevent the presence of accidental trace amounts. These allergens include wheat, rye, barley, oats and their hybrids, crustaceans, eggs, fish, peanuts, soybean, milk of all species of mammalians, almonds, hazelnuts, cashew nuts, Brazil nuts, macadamia nuts, walnuts, pecan nuts, pistaches, pine nuts, and chestnuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "When eggs are introduced to a baby's diet is thought to affect risk of developing allergy, but there are contradictory recommendations. A 2016 review acknowledged that introducing peanuts early appears to have a benefit, but stated \"The effect of early introduction of egg on egg allergy are controversial.\" A meta-analysis published the same year supported the theory that early introduction of eggs into an infant's diet lowers risk, and a review of allergens in general stated that introducing solid foods at 4\u20136 months may result in the lowest subsequent allergy risk. However, an older consensus document from the American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology recommended that introduction of chicken eggs be delayed to 24 months of age."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The majority of children outgrow egg allergy. One review reported that 70% of children will outgrow this allergy by 16 years. In subsequently published longitudinal studies, one reported that for 140 infants who had challenge-confirmed egg allergy, 44% had resolved by two years. A second reported that for 203 infants with confirmed IgE-mediated egg allergy, 45% resolved by two years of age, 66% by four years, and 71% by six years. Children will be able to tolerate eggs as an ingredient in baked goods and well-cooked eggs sooner than under-cooked eggs. Resolution was more likely if baseline serum IgE was lower, and if the baseline symptoms did not include anaphylaxis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "Breastfeeding for more than four months may prevent atopic dermatitis, cow's milk allergy, and wheezing in early childhood. Early exposure to potential allergens may be protective. Specifically, early exposure to eggs and peanuts reduces the risk of allergies to these. Guidelines suggest introducing peanuts as early as 4\u20136 months and include precautionary measures for high-risk infants. The former guidelines, advising delaying the introduction of peanuts, are now thought to have contributed to the increase in peanut allergy seen recently."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA became effective 1 January 2006, requiring companies selling foods in the United States to disclose on labels whether a packaged food product contains any of these eight major food allergens, added intentionally: cow's milk, peanuts, eggs, shellfish, fish, tree nuts, soy and wheat. This list originated in 1999 from the World Health Organisation Codex Alimentarius Commission. To meet FALCPA labeling requirements, if an ingredient is derived from one of the required-label allergens, then it must either have its \"food sourced name\" in parentheses, for example \"Casein (milk),\" or as an alternative, there must be a statement separate but adjacent to the ingredients list: \"Contains milk\" (and any other of the allergens with mandatory labeling). The European Union requires listing for those eight major allergens plus molluscs, celery, mustard, lupin, sesame and sulfites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Adult-onset of egg allergy is rare, but there is confirmation of cases. Some were described as having started in late teenage years; another group were workers in the baking industry who were exposed to powdered egg dust."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Diagnosis of egg allergy is based on the person's history of allergic reactions, skin prick test (SPT), patch test and measurement of egg-specific serum immunoglobulin E (IgE or sIgE). Confirmation is by double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenges. SPT and sIgE have sensitivity greater than 90% but specificity in the 50-60% range, meaning these tests will detect an egg sensitivity, but will also be positive for other allergens. For young children, attempts have been made to identify SPT and sIgE responses strong enough to avoid the need for a confirming oral food challenge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dust mite allergy",
        "text": "Dust mite eggs are freeze tolerant (\u221270\u00a0\u00b0C for 30 minutes); hatching can normally be prevented by exposure of fabrics to:\n* Direct sunlight for 3 hours or\n* Dry or wet heat of at least 60\u00a0\u00b0C (140\u00a0\u00b0F) for a minimum of 30 minutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "One of the most common food allergies in infants is eggs. Infants usually have the opportunity to grow out of this allergy during childhood, if exposure is minimized. Allergic reactions against egg white are more common than reactions against egg yolks. In addition to true allergic reactions, some people experience a food intolerance to egg whites. Food labeling practices in most developed countries now include eggs, egg products, and the processing of foods on equipment that also process foods containing eggs in a special allergen alert section of the ingredients on the labels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Incidence and prevalence are terms commonly used in describing disease epidemiology. Incidence is newly diagnosed cases, which can be expressed as new cases per year per million people. Prevalence is the number of cases alive, expressible as existing cases per million people during a period of time. Egg allergies are usually observed in infants and young children, and often disappear with age (see Prognosis), so prevalence of egg allergy may be expressed as a percentage of children under a set age. One review estimates that in North American and western European populations the prevalence of egg allergy in children under the age of five years is 1.8-2.0%. A second described the range in young children as 0.5-2.5%. Although the majority of children develop tolerance as they age into school age years, for roughly one-third the allergy persists into adulthood. Strong predictors for adult-persistent allergy are anaphylactic symptoms as a child, high egg-specific serum IgE, robust response to the skin prick test and absence of tolerance to egg-containing baked foods. Self-reported allergy prevalence is always higher than food-challenge confirmed allergy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk allergy",
        "text": "In Brazil, since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory when the product does not intentionally add any allergenic food or its derivatives, but the Good Manufacturing Practices and allergen control measures adopted are not sufficient to prevent the presence of accidental trace amounts. Milk of all species of mammalians is included among these allergenic foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In countries in North America and western Europe, where use of cow's milk based infant formula is common, chicken egg allergy is the second most common food allergy in infants and young children after cow's milk. However, in Japan, egg allergy is first and cow's milk second, followed by wheat and then the other common allergenic foods. A review from South Africa reported egg and peanut as the two most common allergenic foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "For all age groups, a review of fifty studies conducted in Europe estimated 2.5% for self-reported egg allergy and 0.2% for confirmed. National survey data in the United States collected in 2005 and 2006 showed that from age six and older, the prevalence of serum IgE confirmed egg allergy was under 0.2%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Allergic reactions are hyperactive responses of the immune system to generally innocuous substances, such as proteins in the foods we eat. Why some proteins trigger allergic reactions while others do not is not entirely clear, although in part thought to be due to resistance to digestion. Because of this, intact or largely intact proteins reach the small intestine, which has a large presence of white blood cells involved in immune reactions. The heat of cooking structurally degrades protein molecules, potentially making them less allergenic. The pathophysiology of allergic responses can be divided into two phases. The first is an acute response that occurs immediately after exposure to an allergen. This phase can either subside or progress into a \"late-phase reaction\" which can substantially prolong the symptoms of a response, and result in more tissue damage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Five major allergenic proteins from the egg of the domestic chicken (\"Gallus domesticus\") have been identified; these are designated Gal d 1-5. Four of these are in egg white: ovomucoid (Gal d 1), ovalbumin (Gal d 2), ovotransferrin (Gal d 3) and lysozyme (Gal d 4). Of these, ovomucoid is the dominant allergen, and one that is less likely to be outgrown as children get older. Ingestion of under-cooked egg may trigger more severe clinical reactions than well-cooked egg. In egg yolk, alpha-livetin (Gal d 5) is the major allergen, but various vitellins may also trigger a reaction. People allergic to alpha-livetin may experience respiratory symptoms such as rhinitis and/or asthma when exposed to chickens, because the yolk protein is also found in live birds. In addition to IgE-mediated responses, egg allergy can manifest as atopic dermatitis, especially in infants and young children. Some will display both, so that a child could react to an oral food challenge with allergic symptoms, followed a day or two later with a flare up of atopic dermatitis and/or gastrointestinal symptoms, including allergic eosinophilic esophagitis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Food allergies usually have a fast onset (from seconds to one hour). Symptoms may include: rash, hives, itching of mouth, lips, tongue, throat, eyes, skin, or other areas, swelling of lips, tongue, eyelids, or the whole face, difficulty swallowing, runny or congested nose, hoarse voice, wheezing, shortness of breath, diarrhea, abdominal pain, lightheadedness, fainting, nausea, or vomiting. Symptoms of allergies vary from person to person and may vary from incident to incident. Serious danger regarding allergies can begin when the respiratory tract or blood circulation is affected. The former can be indicated by wheezing, a blocked airway and cyanosis, the latter by weak pulse, pale skin, and fainting. When these symptoms occur the allergic reaction is called anaphylaxis. Anaphylaxis occurs when IgE antibodies are involved, and areas of the body that are not in direct contact with the food become affected and show severe symptoms. Untreated, this can proceed to vasodilation and a low blood pressure situation called anaphylactic shock."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Labeling regulations have been modified to provide for mandatory labeling of ingredients plus voluntary labeling, termed precautionary allergen labeling (PAL), also known as \u201cmay contain\u201d statements, for possible, inadvertent, trace amount, cross-contamination during production. PAL labeling can be confusing to consumers, especially as there can be many variations on the wording of the warning. PAL is regulated only in Switzerland, Japan, Argentina, and South Africa. Argentina decided to prohibit precautionary allergen labeling since 2010, and instead puts the onus on the manufacturer to control the manufacturing process and label only those allergenic ingredients known to be in the products. South Africa does not permit the use of PAL, except when manufacturers demonstrate the potential presence of allergen due to cross-contamination through a documented risk assessment and despite adherence to Good Manufacturing Practice. In Australia and New Zealand there is a recommendation that PAL be replaced by guidance from VITAL 2.0 (Vital Incidental Trace Allergen Labeling). A review identified \"the eliciting dose for an allergic reaction in 1% of the population\" as ED01. This threshold reference dose for foods such as cow's milk, egg, peanut and other proteins) will provide food manufacturers with guidance for developing precautionary labeling and give consumers a better idea of might be accidentally in a food product beyond \"may contain.\" VITAL 2.0 was developed by the Allergen Bureau, a food industry sponsored, non-government organization. The European Union has initiated a process to create labeling regulations for unintentional contamination but is not expected to publish such before 2024."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The measles and mumps parts of the \"MMR vaccine\" (for measles, mumps, and rubella) are cultured on chick embryo cell culture and contain trace amounts of egg protein. The amount of egg protein is lower than in influenza vaccines and the risk of an allergic reaction is much lower. One guideline stated that all infants and children should get the two MMR vaccinations, mentioning that \"Studies on large numbers of egg-allergic children show there is no increased risk of severe allergic reactions to the vaccines.\" Another guideline recommended that if a child has a known medical history of severe anaphylaxis reaction to eggs, then the vaccination should be done in a hospital center, and the child be kept for observation for 60 minutes before being allowed to leave. The second guideline also stated that if there was a severe reaction to the first vaccination - which could have been to egg protein or the gelatin and neomycin components of the vaccine - the second is contraindicated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poultry allergy",
        "text": "It can co-occur with egg allergy but more often occurs without allergy to poultry eggs. One study found that not chicken, just turkey meat are the primary cause of allergic reactions, whilst goose, pheasant, and duck meat cause milder reaction or no symptoms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "Egg allergies affect about one in 50 children but are frequently outgrown by children when they reach age five. Typically, the sensitivity is to proteins in the white, rather than the yolk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteurized eggs",
        "text": "In Europe, all hens are required to be vaccinated against salmonellosis. Eggs are not washed (and, in some countries, not refrigerated) since condensation could lead to salmonellosis contamination. In the US, it is important to keep eggs refrigerated since not all hens are vaccinated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg car",
        "text": "In the Quilombo do Orobu, in the region of Cajazeiras, in Salvador da Bahia, the popular and easily recognized by the community character of the egg car was used to advertise the personal protective equipment against Covid-19, being part of the strategy to contain the disease, with messages like \"Covid came from China. Wear a mask and come get the egg!\". The strategy posed the question of the need to interact with the community when it comes to promoting social distancing as a way to combat Covid-19. The thought that this distancing would prevent access to food items, such as eggs, generated a conflict that amped up the risk the community submitted itself to by leaving home."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In the United States, there is no federal mandate to address the presence of allergens in drug products. FALCPA does not apply to medicines nor to cosmetics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egging",
        "text": "Former Brazilian president Luiz In\u00e1cio da Silva had eggs and rocks thrown at his bus by protesters in March 2019 while he was visiting southern Brazil. In July 2017, Maria Victoria Barros, a member of the state assembly in Paran\u00e1 and daughter of Ricardo Barros, Health Minister during Michel Temer's government, had eggs thrown at her during her wedding as she left the church."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The value of allergen labeling other than for intentional ingredients is controversial. This concerns labeling for ingredients present unintentionally as a consequence of cross-contact or cross-contamination at any point along the food chain (during raw material transportation, storage or handling, due to shared equipment for processing and packaging, etc.). Experts in this field propose that if allergen labeling is to be useful to consumers, and healthcare professionals who advise and treat those consumers, ideally there should be agreement on which foods require labeling, threshold quantities below which labeling may be of no purpose, and validation of allergen detection methods to test and potentially recall foods that were deliberately or inadvertently contaminated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteurized eggs",
        "text": "Because of the risk of food-borne illness caused by \"Salmonella\" bacteria that may be present in raw eggs, the U.S. Department of Agriculture requires a safe-handling advisory statement on all packages of raw shell eggs that are not treated to destroy \"Salmonella\" as follows: \"Safe Handling Instructions: To prevent illness from bacteria: Keep eggs refrigerated, cook eggs until yolks are firm, and cook foods containing eggs thoroughly.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "There is active research on trying oral immunotherapy (OIT) to desensitize people to egg allergens. A Cochrane Review concluded that OIT can desensitize people, but it remains unclear whether long-term tolerance develops after treatment ceases, and 69% of the people enrolled in the trials had adverse effects. They concluded there was a need for standardized protocols and guidelines prior to incorporating OIT into clinical practice. A second review noted that allergic reactions, up to anaphylaxis, can occur during OIT, and recommends this treatment not be routine medical practice. A third review limited its scope to trials of baked egg-containing goods such as bread or cake as a means of resolving egg allergy. Again, there were some successes, but also some severe allergic reactions, and the authors came down on the side of not recommending this as treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parenteral nutrition",
        "text": "Use of egg-derived emulsifiers is not recommended for people with an egg allergy due to the risk of reaction. In situations where there is no suitable emulsifying agent for a person at risk of developing essential fatty acid deficiency, cooking oils may be spread upon large portions of available skin for supplementation by transdermal absorption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg white",
        "text": "Eggs are susceptible to \"Salmonella\" contamination. Thorough cooking eliminates the direct threat (i.e. cooked egg whites that are solid and not runny), but the threat of cross-contamination remains if people handle contaminated eggs and then touch other foods or items in the kitchen, thus spreading the bacteria. In August 2010, the FDA ordered the recall of 380 million eggs because of possible \"Salmonella\" contamination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dermatitis",
        "text": "There has not been adequate evaluation of changing the diet to reduce eczema. There is some evidence that infants with an established egg allergy may have a reduction in symptoms if eggs are eliminated from their diets. Benefits have not been shown for other elimination diets, though the studies are small and poorly executed. Establishing that there is a food allergy before dietary change could avoid unnecessary lifestyle changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trichuris suis",
        "text": "Prevention of \"T. suis\" depends on the treatment and prevention of infections in animals, the removal of feces before the eggs can become embryonated, good hygiene, and public education."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "In 2017, authorities blocked millions of eggs from sale in the Netherlands, Belgium, and Germany because of contamination with the insecticide fipronil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "There is a condition called food-dependent, exercise-induced anaphylaxis (FDEIAn). Exercise can trigger hives and more severe symptoms of an allergic reaction. For some people with this condition, exercise alone is not sufficient, nor consumption of a food to which they are mildly allergic sufficient, but when the food in question is consumed within a few hours before high intensity exercise, the result can be anaphylaxis. Egg are specifically mentioned as a causative food. One theory is that exercise is stimulating the release of mediators such as histamine from IgE-activated mast cells. Two of the reviews postulate that exercise is not essential for the development of symptoms, but rather that it is one of several augmentation factors, citing evidence that the culprit food in combination with alcohol or aspirin will result in a respiratory anaphylactic reaction."
      },
      {
        "title": "ParknShop",
        "text": "In 2017, Europe Egg Scandal happened, where contaminated eggs spread to Hong Kong. It was confirmed that eggs have been tainted with unsafe levels of insecticide. Eggs contained excessive level of Fipronil, a highly toxic pest control chemical banned from the production of food. Shops were asked to remove the products from shelves, and instructed the importer to initiate a recall. This included ParknShop."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk allergy",
        "text": "Management is by avoiding eating any dairy foods or foods that contain dairy ingredients. In people with rapid reactions (IgE-mediated milk allergy), the dose capable of provoking an allergic response can be as low as a few milligrams, so recommendations are to avoid dairy strictly. The declaration of the presence of trace amounts of milk or dairy in foods is not mandatory in any country, with the exception of Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Probiotic products have been tested, and some found to contain milk and egg proteins which were not always indicated on the labels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg drop syndrome",
        "text": "There is no treatment for EDS '76, but there are ways in which chickens can be prevented form being infected by EDS '76."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Influenza vaccines are created by injecting a live virus into fertilized chicken eggs. The viruses are harvested, killed and purified, but a residual amount of egg white protein remains. Each year, vaccines are created to provide protection against the flu viruses expected to be prevalent in the upcoming cold weather months. For the 2017-2018 flu season, the vaccines are described as IIV3 and IIV4 for resistance to the expected three or four viruses. For adults ages 18 and older there is also an option to receive recombinant flu vaccines (RIV3 or RIV4) which are grown on mammalian cell cultures instead of in eggs, and so are no risk for people with severe egg allergy. Recommendations are that for people with a history of mild egg allergy should receive any IIV or RIV vaccine. People with a more severe allergic reaction may also receive any IIV or RIV, but in an inpatient or outpatient medical setting, administered by a healthcare provider. People with a known severe allergic reaction to influenza vaccine (which could be egg protein or the gelatin or the neomycin components of the vaccine) should not receive a flu vaccine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Conditions caused by food allergies are classified into three groups according to the mechanism of the allergic response:\n# IgE-mediated (classic)\u00a0\u2013 the most common type, manifesting acute changes that occur shortly after eating, and may progress to anaphylaxis\n# Non-IgE mediated\u00a0\u2013 characterized by an immune response not involving immunoglobulin E; may occur hours to days after eating, complicating diagnosis\n# IgE and non-IgE-mediated\u00a0\u2013 a hybrid of the above two types"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg drop syndrome",
        "text": "Cleaning all areas, such as breeding and laying areas, and equipment may mitigate the risk of getting EDS '76. Shared egg trays have to be cleaned and disinfected prior to use. Healthy and uninfected flocks should be kept away upon a contact with those affected birds and the virus natural host. Potential contaminated water should also be chlorinated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "Effective 1 January 2012, the European Union banned conventional battery cages for egg-laying hens, as outlined in EU Directive 1999/74/EC. The EU permits the use of \"enriched\" furnished cages that must meet certain space and amenity requirements. Egg producers in many member states have objected to the new quality standards while in some countries, even furnished cages and family cages are subject to be banned as well. The production standard of the eggs is visible on a mandatory egg marking categorization where the EU egg code begins with 3 for caged chicken to 1 for free-range eggs and 0 for organic egg production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch Society for the Protection of Animals",
        "text": "In 1984 DSPA started a national campaign promoting the sale of free range eggs (, literally: \"scratching eggs\"). New distribution channels were created and special stickers were produced by DSPA, marking the bakeries and the restaurants that use scratching eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Directive 1999/74/EC",
        "text": "According to figures submitted to the European Commission in 2011, 14 countries were expected to be battery cage free by 1 January 2012. However, six states including Portugal, Poland and Romania admitted they would not be ready, while Spain and Italy, among others, did not know or would not say whether they will meet the deadline. In France one third of egg producers have gone out of business and according to figures of the UGPVB (the industry association) 5% of producers were still not compliant as of January 2012 and have had their licences withdrawn. This has led to fears that cheaper, illegal eggs, particularly liquid egg products, from non-compliant states will flood the market undercutting compliant egg producers. John Dalli, the EU health commissioner, has issued legal warnings to 13 countries over their lack of readiness or effort to enforce the ban. The 13 member states already found to be in breach of the directive are: Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Spain, Greece, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia and the Netherlands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coddled egg",
        "text": "In the United States, eggs have around a 1 in 30,000 risk of exposure to salmonella and other bacteria. Using fresh eggs that have been washed and kept refrigerated, or pasteurized eggs is recommended to minimize the risk. According to the United States Department of Health and Human Services, eggs should be cooked until both the white and the yolk are firm, and the water temperature should be . Children, the elderly, and persons with compromised immune systems are advised against eating lightly cooked eggs because of the risk of exposure to salmonella infection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "FALCPA applies to packaged foods regulated by the FDA, which does not include poultry, most meats, certain egg products, and most alcoholic beverages. However, some meat, poultry, and egg processed products may contain allergenic ingredients. These products are regulated by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), which requires that any ingredient be declared in the labeling only by its common or usual name. Neither the identification of the source of a specific ingredient in a parenthetical statement nor the use of statements to alert for the presence of specific ingredients, like \"Contains: milk\", are mandatory according to FSIS. FALCPA also does not apply to food prepared in restaurants. The EU Food Information for Consumers Regulation 1169/2011 \u2013 requires food businesses to provide allergy information on food sold unpackaged, for example, in catering outlets, deli counters, bakeries and sandwich bars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ascaris lumbricoides",
        "text": "Preventing any fecal-borne disease requires educated hygienic habits/culture and effective fecal treatment systems. This is particularly important with \"A. lumbricoides\" because its eggs are one of the most difficult pathogens to kill (second only to prions), and the eggs commonly survive 1\u20133 years. \"A. lumbricoides\" lives in the intestine where it lays eggs. Infection occurs when the eggs, too small to be seen by the unaided eye, are eaten. The eggs may get onto vegetables when improperly processed human feces of infected people are used as fertilizer for food crops. Infection may occur when food is handled without removing or killing the eggs on the hands, clothes, hair, raw vegetables/fruit, or cooked food that is (re)infected by handlers, containers, etc. Bleach does not readily kill \"A. lumbricoides\" eggs, but it will remove their sticky film, to allow the eggs to be rinsed away. \"A. lumbricoides\" eggs can be reduced by hot composting methods, but to completely kill them may require rubbing alcohol, iodine, specialized chemicals, cooking heat, or \"unusually\" hot composting (for example, over for 24 hours)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "Influenza vaccines are created by injecting a live virus into fertilized chicken eggs. The viruses are harvested, killed and purified, but a residual amount of egg white protein remains. There are options to receive recombinant flu vaccine grown on mammalian cell cultures instead of in eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "There are no labeling laws mandating declaration of the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination, except in Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prior Norge",
        "text": "The central started with quality sorting and marking of all eggs in 1934 and the brand \"Sol-egg\" was introduced. During and after World War II there was rationing of eggs in Norway, but this was suspended in 1949. In the 1950s the egg central started active marketing through advertisements and in 1977 the \"Sol-egg\" brand was replaced with the Prior brand on all eggs and white meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gnathostomiasis",
        "text": "The best strategies for preventing accidental infection of humans is to educate those living in endemic areas to only consume fully cooked meat. The inability of the parasite to complete its life cycle within humans means that transmission can easily be contained by adequate preparation of meat from intermediate hosts. This is especially useful because of the difficulty and lack of feasibility inherent in eliminating all intermediate hosts of gnathostomiasis. So instead, individuals in endemic areas should avoid eating raw and undercooked meat in endemic areas, but this may be difficult in these areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ovomucoid",
        "text": "Chicken ovomucoid, also known as Gal d 1, is a known allergen. It is the protein most often causing egg allergy. At least four IgE epitopes have been identified. Three other egg white proteins are also identified as allergenic: ovalbumin (Gal d 2), ovotransferrin (Gal d 3) and lysozyme (Gal d 4)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Ingredients that sometimes include egg protein include: artificial flavoring, natural flavoring, lecithin and nougat candy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nippostrongylus brasiliensis",
        "text": "\"N. brasiliensis\" is adapted to infecting rats, so can continue laying eggs for prolonged periods of time. The immune response of mice, however, leads to cessation of egglaying by day 8 and adults are expelled by day 10."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg car",
        "text": "In December 2020, the group Aparelhamento, a collective from S\u00e3o Paulo born in 2016, put on the streets of the city a van selling eggs from free-range chickens, 30 units for 10 reals, with the goal not to generate profit, but to encourage debate through questions of political nature and national relevance, such as \"The egg car wants to know: why Queiroz was hiding in the house of the Bolsonaro family lawyer?\". The questions were emitted by the van's sound system, surprising, cheering and revolting the S\u00e3o Paulo traffic, and generating repercussions in social networks. The sale of the egg itself was part of the message, being sold for a lower price than purchased, with the characteristic that they came from free-range hens. In addition, the eggs were boiled and distributed free of charge to homeless people by the same car. The word also had its function, playing on the similarity of \"the egg wants to know\", the motto used as an introduction to the questions asked by the megaphone, with the slogan, \"the people want to know\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Organic egg production",
        "text": "In the European Union (EU), to identify and trace egg production, a unique code must legally be printed on all eggs. A \"0\" code distinguishes organic farming eggs. The regulation on egg marking includes four levels with strict requirements on husbandry conditions. While free-range and indoor keeping requires 1100\u00a0cm\u00b2 indoor space per hen it makes 1667\u00a0cm\u00b2 (or 6 hens per square meter) the minimum for organic farming."
      },
      {
        "title": "Precautionary principle",
        "text": "A petition filed 17 May 2013 by environmental group Greenpeace Southeast Asia and farmer-scientist coalition Masipag (\"Magsasaka at Siyentipiko sa Pagpapaunlad ng Agrikultura\") asked the appellate court to stop the planting of Bt eggplant in test fields, saying the impacts of such an undertaking to the environment, native crops and human health are still unknown. The Court of Appeals granted the petition, citing the precautionary principle stating \"when human activities may lead to threats of serious and irreversible damage to the environment that is scientifically plausible but uncertain, actions shall be taken to avoid or diminish the threat.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Allergies in children",
        "text": "Avoiding allergens will help prevent symptoms. Allergies that a child has to the family pet can be controlled by removing the animal and finding it a new home. Exterminating cockroaches, mice and rats and a thorough cleaning can reduce symptoms of an allergy in children. Dust mites are attracted to moisture. They consume human skin that has come off and lodged in, furniture, rugs, mattresses, box springs, and pillows. The child's bedding can be covered with allergen-proof covers. Laundering of the child's clothing, bed linens and blankets will also reduce exposure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allergy",
        "text": "Rates of allergies differ between adults and children. Peanut allergies can sometimes be outgrown by children. Egg allergies affect one to two percent of children but are outgrown by about two-thirds of children by the age of 5. The sensitivity is usually to proteins in the white, rather than the yolk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteurized eggs",
        "text": "Pasteurized eggs\n--Rationale.\n----Salmonellosis.\n----Avian flu virus.\n----Food code compliance.\n--Products.\n--Pasteurized shell eggs.\n----History.\n----Process.\n----Quality.\n----Exemption.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Eggplant",
        "text": "Individuals who are atopic (genetically predisposed to developing certain allergic hypersensitivity reactions) are more likely to have a reaction to eggplant, which may be because eggplant is high in histamines. A few proteins and at least one secondary metabolite have been identified as potential allergens. Cooking eggplant thoroughly seems to preclude reactions in some individuals, but at least one of the allergenic proteins survives the cooking process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ferrero SpA",
        "text": "On 6 April 2022, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) began investigating a \"rapidly evolving\" outbreak of salmonella linked to Kinder Surprise chocolate eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nutritional immunology",
        "text": "Nutrition can help prevent or promote the development of food allergies. The hygiene hypothesis states that a child's early introduction to certain microorganisms can avert the onset of allergies. Breastfeeding is considered to be the main method of preventing food allergies. This is because breast milk contains oligosaccharides, secretory IgA, vitamins, antioxidants and possible transfer of microbiota. Conversely, a child's lack of exposure to specific microorganisms can establish a vulnerability to food allergies"
      },
      {
        "title": "L214",
        "text": "In February 2013, after repeated presence in front of retail chain Monoprix stores by L214 activists in many big cities of France, the retailer decided to stop using eggs from hens grown in battery cages in their own brand from April 2013, using free-range eggs instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Egg whites, which are potentially histamine liberators, also provoke a nonallergic response in some people. In this situation, proteins in egg white directly trigger the release of histamine from mast cells. Because this mechanism is classified as a pharmacological reaction, or \"pseudoallergy\", the condition is considered a food intolerance instead of a true immunoglobulin E (IgE) based allergic reaction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk allergy",
        "text": "Research on prevention addresses the question of whether it is possible to reduce the risk of developing an allergy in the first place. Reviews concluded that there is no strong evidence to recommend changes to the diets of pregnant or nursing women as a means of preventing the development of food allergy in their infants. For mothers of infants considered at high risk of developing cow's milk allergy because of a family history, there is some evidence that the nursing mother avoiding allergens may reduce risk of the child developing eczema, but a Cochrane review concluded that more research is needed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cadbury",
        "text": "On 10 February 2007, Cadbury recalled some of its Easter eggs due to a labelling error. The products were produced in a factory handling nuts, potential allergens, but this was not made clear on the packaging. Cadbury said the products were \"perfectly safe\" for people without nut allergies to eat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "After the chemical mediators of the acute response subside, late-phase responses can often occur due to the migration of other white blood cells such as neutrophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils, and macrophages to the initial reaction sites. This is usually seen 2\u201324 hours after the original reaction. Cytokines from mast cells may also play a role in the persistence of long-term effects. Late-phase responses seen in asthma are slightly different from those seen in other allergic responses, although they are still caused by release of mediators from eosinophils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cell-based vaccine",
        "text": "Cell lines grown in synthetic media avoid animal serum, which may pose a sterility problem, more specifically, preventing the spread of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. Another benefit is the avoidance of egg-allergen. Lastly, cell-based vaccines may be more effective given that, with egg-based vaccines, there is a risk that the virus may mutate during its long growth phase in the chicken egg, thus causing the immune system to produce a different antibody than originally intended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lecithin",
        "text": "Egg-derived lecithin is not usually a concern for those allergic to eggs since commercially available egg lecithin is highly purified and devoid of allergy-causing egg proteins. Similarly, soy lecithin does not contain enough allergenic proteins for most people allergic to soy, although the US FDA only exempts a few soy lecithin products from its mandatory allergenic source labeling requirements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pochazia shantungensis",
        "text": "Another mitigation solution involves using yellow-colored sticky traps. The sticky trap made it possible to safely remove the eggs during spawning season. The traps should be placed around common locations for oviposition depending on the farm and plant. It also deters the Ricania shantungensis from laying eggs there again, as the eggs don't survive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oology",
        "text": "In the United Kingdom, to avoid the possibility of prosecution, owners of old egg collections must retain sufficient proof to show, on the balance of probabilities, that the eggs pre-date 1981. However owners of genuinely old collections are unlikely to face prosecution as experienced investigators and prosecutors are able to distinguish them from recently collected eggs. It is illegal to sell a collection, regardless of the eggs' age, so old collections may only be disposed of by giving the eggs away or by destroying them. Museums are reluctant to accept donations of collections without reliable collection data (i.e. date and place that they were collected) that gives them scientific value. Also, museums no longer put egg collections on public display."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg balancing",
        "text": "In 1947, after Japanese newspapers picked up the story, the physicist Ukichiro Nakaya verified experimentally that eggs can be balanced with ease at any time of the year. He noticed that an eggshell usually has many small bumps and dimples so that, by turning the egg in different directions, it can be made to touch a flat surface on three points at the same time in many ways. It is not hard to find an orientation such that the egg's center of mass is contained within the triangle spanned by the three contact points, which is the condition for balancing any object. His findings were replicated by astronomer Frank D. Ghigo of the University of Minnesota in 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "To avoid an allergic reaction, a strict diet can be followed. It is difficult to determine the amount of allergenic food required to elicit a reaction, so complete avoidance should be attempted. In some cases, hypersensitive reactions can be triggered by exposures to allergens through skin contact, inhalation, kissing, participation in sports, blood transfusions, cosmetics, and alcohol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "A health issue associated with eggs is contamination by pathogenic bacteria, such as \"Salmonella enteritidis\". Contamination of eggs with other members of the genus \"Salmonella\" while exiting a female bird via the cloaca may occur, so care must be taken to prevent the egg shell from becoming contaminated with fecal matter. In commercial practice in the US, eggs are quickly washed with a sanitizing solution within minutes of being laid. The risk of infection from raw or undercooked eggs is dependent in part upon the sanitary conditions under which the hens are kept."
      },
      {
        "title": "2017 fipronil eggs contamination",
        "text": "In July/August 2017 millions of chicken eggs were blocked from sale or withdrawn from the market in the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany and France after elevated levels of fipronil were discovered by the Dutch food and product safety board. About 180 Dutch farms were temporarily shut down. In early August, Aldi reported removing all eggs for sale in their German stores as a precaution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "A study by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 2002 (Risk Analysis April 2002 22(2):203-18) suggests the problem is not so prevalent in the U.S. as once thought. It showed that of the 69 billion eggs produced annually, only 2.3 million are contaminated with \"Salmonella\"\u2014equivalent to just one in every 30,000 eggs\u2014thus showing \"Salmonella\" infection is quite rarely induced by eggs. This has not been the case in other countries, however, where \"Salmonella enteritidis\" and \"Salmonella typhimurium\" infections due to egg consumption are major concerns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "The simplest method to preserve an egg is to treat it with salt. Salt draws water out of bacteria and molds, which prevents their growth. The Chinese salted duck egg is made by immersing duck eggs in brine, or coating them individually with a paste of salt and mud or clay. The eggs stop absorbing salt after approximately a month, having reached osmotic equilibrium. Their yolks take on an orange-red color and solidify, but the white remains somewhat liquid. These often are boiled before consumption and are served with rice congee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg drop syndrome",
        "text": "An inactivated vaccine with oil adjuvant can be administered and has proven to be reasonably successful to prevent the clinical signs of the disease. This vaccine is given before hens start to lay eggs, usually between 14 and 20 weeks of age. Several vaccine are available: Izovac EDS, Nobilis EDS, AVIVAC-EDS-76 and other EDS '76 available vaccines."
      },
      {
        "title": "2017 fipronil eggs contamination",
        "text": "The Dutch food and product safety board (NVWA) reported that the test results of one batch of eggs originating from one poultry farm in the Netherlands exceeded the threshold of 0.72\u00a0mg/kg. Eggs containing fipronil values above this threshold could have possible negative health effects."
      },
      {
        "title": "McDonald's",
        "text": "In 2015, McDonald's pledged to stop using eggs from battery cage facilities by 2025. Since McDonald's purchases over 2\u00a0billion eggs per year or 4 percent of eggs produced in the United States, the switch is expected to have a major impact on the egg industry and is part of a general trend toward cage-free eggs driven by consumer concern over the harsh living conditions of hens. The aviary systems from which the new eggs will be sourced are troubled by much higher mortality rates, as well as introducing environmental and worker safety problems. The high hen mortality rate, which is more than double that of battery cage systems, will require new research to mitigate. The facilities have higher ammonia levels due to faeces being kicked up into the air. Producers raised concerns about the production cost, which is expected to increase by 36 percent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Entomological evidence collection",
        "text": "Eggs are extremely small and delicate, so great care should be taken in their collection. Eggs are generally laid in clumps or masses, and are found in any orifice whether it be a natural opening or a wound. The safest way to remove eggs is by using a small paint brush dipped in water, so that the eggs stick to the bristles. Forceps may be used but can often damage the eggs. Half of the eggs should be placed into a preservative, while the other half should be kept alive to be reared out. Since it is often difficult to identify insect eggs rearing the eggs to adulthood provides positive identification. In order to prevent the eggs from dehydrating it is important to place a damp tissue or other media in the collection vial. It also important to make sure the eggs have air, placing a paper towel over the top using a rubber band provides plenty of ventilation. Newly emerged maggots are very small so the vial must remain upright to prevent escape."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish allergy",
        "text": "Treatment for accidental ingestion of fish products by allergic individuals varies depending on the sensitivity of the person. An antihistamine such as diphenhydramine may be prescribed. Sometimes prednisone will be prescribed to prevent a possible late phase Type I hypersensitivity reaction. Severe allergic reactions (anaphalaxis) may require treatment with an epinephrine pen, which is an injection device designed to be used by a non-healthcare professional when emergency treatment is warranted. Unlike for egg allergy, for which there is active research on trying oral immunotherapy (OIT) to desensitize people to egg allergens, a 2015 review mentioned that there are no published clinical trials evaluating oral immunotherapy for fish allergy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adult polyglucosan body disease",
        "text": "APBD can only be prevented if parents undergo genetic screening to understand their risk of producing a child with the condition; if in vitro fertilization is used, then preimplantation genetic diagnosis can be done to identify fertilized eggs that do not carry two copies of mutated \"GBE1\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the only country that has to disclose trace amounts of allergens in foods?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It is not correct to say in all circumstances that there is only one country with such a disclosure policy, as it depends on the intent behind the inclusion. Trace amounts intentionally added need to be disclosed in countries which have instituting labeling laws for intentionally added ingredients known to be major allergens, but Brazil (and soon to be countries in the EU) is the only country where it is mandatory to declare the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did Brazil start requiring foods be labeled with warnings about trace amounts of allergens?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Brazil since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How can egg allergies be prevented?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Prevention is obtained by avoiding eating eggs and foods that may contain eggs. Additionally, the introduction of eggs to a baby's diet is thought to affect the risk of the baby developing an egg allergy, but there are contradictory recommendations to that.",
      "Prevention is by avoiding eating eggs and foods that may contain eggs, such as cake or cookies. It is unclear if the early introduction of the eggs to the diet of babies aged 4\u20136 months decreases the risk of egg allergies."
    ],
    "topic": "Egg allergy",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Egg allergy:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Egg allergy"
        ],
        "ctx": "Prevention is by avoiding eating eggs and foods that may contain eggs, such as cake or cookies. It is unclear if the early introduction of the eggs to the diet of babies aged 4\u20136 months decreases the risk of egg allergies."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Egg allergy:20",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Egg allergy",
          "Prevention"
        ],
        "ctx": "When eggs are introduced to a baby's diet is thought to affect risk of developing allergy, but there are contradictory recommendations. A 2016 review acknowledged that introducing peanuts early appears to have a benefit, but stated \"The effect of early introduction of egg on egg allergy are controversial.\" A meta-analysis published the same year supported the theory that early introduction of eggs into an infant's diet lowers risk, and a review of allergens in general stated that introducing solid foods at 4\u20136 months may result in the lowest subsequent allergy risk. However, an older consensus document from the American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology recommended that introduction of chicken eggs be delayed to 24 months of age."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Egg allergy:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Egg allergy"
        ],
        "ctx": "Prevention is by avoiding eating eggs and foods that may contain eggs, such as cake or cookies. It is unclear if the early introduction of the eggs to the diet of babies aged 4\u20136 months decreases the risk of egg allergies."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Prevention of egg-allergic reactions means avoiding eggs and egg-containing foods. People with an allergy to chicken eggs may also be allergic to other types of eggs, such as goose, duck, or turkey eggs. In cooking, eggs are multifunctional: they may act as an emulsifier to reduce oil/water separation (mayonnaise), a binder (water binding and particle adhesion, as in meatloaf), or an aerator (cakes, especially angel food). Some commercial egg substitutes can substitute for particular functions (potato starch and tapioca for water binding, whey protein or bean water for aeration or particle binding, or soy lecithin or avocado for emulsification). Food companies produce egg-free mayonnaise and other replacement foods. Alfred Bird invented egg-free Bird's Custard, the original version of what is known generically as custard powder today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Most people find it necessary to strictly avoid any item containing eggs, including:\n* Albumin (egg white protein)\n* Apovitellin (egg yolk protein)\n* Egg Beaters (cholesterol-free, uses egg whites)\n* Dried egg solids, powdered egg\n* Egg, egg white, egg yolk\n* Egg wash\n* Eggnog\n* Fat substitutes (some)\n* Livetin (egg yolk protein)\n* Lysozyme (egg white protein)\n* Mayonnaise\n* Meringue or meringue powder\n* Ovalbumin (egg white protein)\n* Ovoglobulin (egg white protein)\n* Ovomucin (egg white protein)\n* Ovomucoid (egg white protein)\n* Ovotransferrin (egg white protein)\n* Ovovitelia (egg yolk protein)\n* Ovovitellin (egg yolk protein)\n* Silici albuminate\n* Simplesse\n* Vitellin (egg yolk protein)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Prevention is by avoiding eating eggs and foods that may contain eggs, such as cake or cookies. It is unclear if the early introduction of the eggs to the diet of babies aged 4\u20136 months decreases the risk of egg allergies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The response is usually localized, typically in the gastrointestinal tract. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, diarrhea, or any other symptoms typical to histamine release. If sufficiently strong, it can result in an anaphylactoid reaction, which is clinically indistinguishable from true anaphylaxis. Some people with this condition tolerate small quantities of egg whites. They are more often able to tolerate well-cooked eggs, such as found in cake or dried egg-based pasta, than incompletely cooked eggs, such as fried eggs or meringues, or uncooked eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "There is active research on trying oral immunotherapy (OIT) to desensitize people to egg allergens. A Cochrane Review concluded that OIT can desensitize people, but it remains unclear whether long-term tolerance develops after treatment ceases, and 69% of the people enrolled in the trials had adverse effects. They concluded there was a need for standardized protocols and guidelines prior to incorporating OIT into clinical practice. A second review noted that allergic reactions, up to anaphylaxis, can occur during OIT, and recommends this treatment not be routine medical practice. A third review limited its scope to trials of baked egg-containing goods such as bread or cake as a means of resolving egg allergy. Again, there were some successes, but also some severe allergic reactions, and the authors came down on the side of not recommending this as treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The cause is typically the eating of eggs or foods that contain eggs. Briefly, the immune system over-reacts to proteins found in eggs. This allergic reaction may be triggered by small amounts of egg, even egg incorporated into cooked foods, such as cake. People with an allergy to chicken eggs may also be reactive to goose, duck, or turkey eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Veganism",
        "text": "As of 2019 in the United States, there were numerous vegan egg substitutes available, including products used for \"scrambled\" eggs, cakes, cookies, and doughnuts. Baking powder, silken (soft) tofu, mashed potato, bananas, flaxseeds, and aquafaba from chickpeas can also be used as egg substitutes. Which one of these works depends on the egg property the replacement is meant to emulate. Scrambled tofu for instance replaces scrambled eggs, but tofu does not act as a binding agent for cakes like raw eggs, flaxseeds or bananas do."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Egg allergy is an immune hypersensitivity to proteins found in chicken eggs, and possibly goose, duck, or turkey eggs. Symptoms can be either rapid or gradual in onset. The latter can take hours to days to appear. The former may include anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening condition which requires treatment with epinephrine. Other presentations may include atopic dermatitis or inflammation of the esophagus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eggnog",
        "text": "Some North American manufacturers offer soy-, almond-, rice- or coconut milk-based alternatives for vegans and those with dairy allergies, lactose intolerance or other dietary restrictions. The history of non-dairy eggnogs goes back to 1899 when Almeda Lambert, in her \"Guide for Nut Cookery\", gave a recipe for \"Eggnog\" made using coconut cream, eggs, and sugar. In 1973, Eunice Farmilant, in \"The Natural Foods Sweet-Tooth Cookbook\", gave a more modern non-dairy eggnog recipe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The majority of children outgrow egg allergy. One review reported that 70% of children will outgrow this allergy by 16 years. In subsequently published longitudinal studies, one reported that for 140 infants who had challenge-confirmed egg allergy, 44% had resolved by two years. A second reported that for 203 infants with confirmed IgE-mediated egg allergy, 45% resolved by two years of age, 66% by four years, and 71% by six years. Children will be able to tolerate eggs as an ingredient in baked goods and well-cooked eggs sooner than under-cooked eggs. Resolution was more likely if baseline serum IgE was lower, and if the baseline symptoms did not include anaphylaxis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg substitutes",
        "text": "There are many commercial substitutes on the market today for people who wish to avoid eggs. Most of these products are devoid of all animal products, and thus are vegan and contain no cholesterol.\n*The EVERY Company, a venture-backed company, produces bioidentical egg whites through a fermentation process.\n*JUST, Inc., another venture-backed company, produces and markets egg-free products, including cookie dough and a mayonnaise substitute, based on pea protein from the yellow pea.\n* Egg Replacer is a mixture of \"potato starch, tapioca flour, leavening (calcium lactate, calcium carbonate, cream of tartar), cellulose gum, modified cellulose\".\n* The Vegg is a vegan liquid egg yolk replacer, suitable in any recipe that one would alternatively use egg yolk. It is made of \"nutritional yeast flakes, sodium alginate, kala namak, [and] beta-carotene\". The Vegg was first sold in 2012, and is available in a variety of online and in-store retailers in the United States, Europe, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.\n* FUMI Ingredients produces egg white substitutes from micro-algae with the help of micro-organisms such as brewer's yeast and baker's yeast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Treatment for accidental ingestion of egg products by allergic individuals varies depending on the sensitivity of the person. An antihistamine such as diphenhydramine (Benadryl) may be prescribed. Sometimes prednisone will be prescribed to prevent a possible late phase Type I hypersensitivity reaction. Severe allergic reactions (anaphalaxis) may require treatment with an epinephrine pen, an injection device designed to be used by a non-healthcare professional when emergency treatment is warranted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Egg allergy appears mainly in children but can persist into adulthood. In the United States, it is the second most common food allergy in children after cow's milk. Most children outgrow egg allergy by the age of five, but some people remain allergic for a lifetime. In North America and Western Europe, egg allergy occurs in 0.5% to 2.5% of children under the age of five years. The majority grow out of it by school age, but for roughly one-third, the allergy persists into adulthood. Strong predictors for adult-persistence are anaphylaxis, high egg-specific serum immunoglobulin E (IgE), robust response to the skin prick test and absence of tolerance to egg-containing baked foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg substitutes",
        "text": "Egg substitutes are food products which can be used to replace eggs in cooking and baking. Common reasons a cook may choose to use an egg substitute instead of egg(s) include having an egg allergy, adhering to a vegan diet or a vegetarian diet of a type that omits eggs, or having concerns about the level of animal welfare or environmental burden associated with egg farming. There is an growing movement to address some of these concerns via third-party certifications, but because many labels in the industry remain confusing or intentionally misleading, some consumers distrust them and may use egg substitutes instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The mainstay of treatment is total avoidance of egg protein intake. This is complicated because the declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory (see regulation of labelling)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "For those who do not consume eggs, alternatives used in baking include other rising agents or binding materials, such as ground flax seeds or potato starch flour. Tofu also acts as a partial binding agent, since it is high in lecithin due to its soy content. Applesauce may be used, as well as arrowroot and banana. Extracted soybean lecithin, in turn, often is used in packaged foods as an inexpensive substitute for egg-derived lecithin. Leguminous broths, such as chickpea brine or green pea canning liquid, also known as aquafaba, can replace egg whites in desserts such as meringues and mousses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Diagnosis of egg allergy is based on the person's history of allergic reactions, skin prick test (SPT), patch test and measurement of egg-specific serum immunoglobulin E (IgE or sIgE). Confirmation is by double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenges. SPT and sIgE have sensitivity greater than 90% but specificity in the 50-60% range, meaning these tests will detect an egg sensitivity, but will also be positive for other allergens. For young children, attempts have been made to identify SPT and sIgE responses strong enough to avoid the need for a confirming oral food challenge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parenteral nutrition",
        "text": "Use of egg-derived emulsifiers is not recommended for people with an egg allergy due to the risk of reaction. In situations where there is no suitable emulsifying agent for a person at risk of developing essential fatty acid deficiency, cooking oils may be spread upon large portions of available skin for supplementation by transdermal absorption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lecithin",
        "text": "Egg-derived lecithin is not usually a concern for those allergic to eggs since commercially available egg lecithin is highly purified and devoid of allergy-causing egg proteins. Similarly, soy lecithin does not contain enough allergenic proteins for most people allergic to soy, although the US FDA only exempts a few soy lecithin products from its mandatory allergenic source labeling requirements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "When eggs are introduced to a baby's diet is thought to affect risk of developing allergy, but there are contradictory recommendations. A 2016 review acknowledged that introducing peanuts early appears to have a benefit, but stated \"The effect of early introduction of egg on egg allergy are controversial.\" A meta-analysis published the same year supported the theory that early introduction of eggs into an infant's diet lowers risk, and a review of allergens in general stated that introducing solid foods at 4\u20136 months may result in the lowest subsequent allergy risk. However, an older consensus document from the American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology recommended that introduction of chicken eggs be delayed to 24 months of age."
      },
      {
        "title": "The EVERY Company",
        "text": "The EVERY Company developed the first animal-free egg white, which can be used instead of traditional eggs for use in baking, nutrition, and industrial use. It foams, gels and binds, similar to a traditional egg white and can be used to make vegan alternatives to popular egg-based foods, such as meringue or scrambled eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In countries in North America and western Europe, where use of cow's milk based infant formula is common, chicken egg allergy is the second most common food allergy in infants and young children after cow's milk. However, in Japan, egg allergy is first and cow's milk second, followed by wheat and then the other common allergenic foods. A review from South Africa reported egg and peanut as the two most common allergenic foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg Beaters",
        "text": "Egg Beaters is a product marketed in the United States as a healthy substitute for whole eggs. It is a substitute for whole/fresh eggs (from the shell) that contains less cholesterol, but it is not an egg substitute (in the sense of a food to replace eggs for people with egg allergies). Egg Beaters is primarily egg whites with added flavorings, vitamins, and thickeners xanthan gum and guar gum. It contains real egg whites, but no egg yolks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poultry allergy",
        "text": "It can co-occur with egg allergy but more often occurs without allergy to poultry eggs. One study found that not chicken, just turkey meat are the primary cause of allergic reactions, whilst goose, pheasant, and duck meat cause milder reaction or no symptoms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Egg allergy\n--Signs and symptoms.\n--Causes.\n----Eating egg.\n----Vaccines.\n----Exercise as a contributing factor.\n--Mechanisms.\n----Non-allergic intolerance.\n--Diagnosis.\n--Prevention.\n--Treatment.\n----Immunotherapy.\n----Avoiding eggs.\n--Prognosis.\n--Epidemiology.\n--Society and culture.\n----Regulation of labelling.\n------Ingredients intentionally added.\n------Trace amounts as a result of cross-contamination.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Five major allergenic proteins from the egg of the domestic chicken (\"Gallus domesticus\") have been identified; these are designated Gal d 1-5. Four of these are in egg white: ovomucoid (Gal d 1), ovalbumin (Gal d 2), ovotransferrin (Gal d 3) and lysozyme (Gal d 4). Of these, ovomucoid is the dominant allergen, and one that is less likely to be outgrown as children get older. Ingestion of under-cooked egg may trigger more severe clinical reactions than well-cooked egg. In egg yolk, alpha-livetin (Gal d 5) is the major allergen, but various vitellins may also trigger a reaction. People allergic to alpha-livetin may experience respiratory symptoms such as rhinitis and/or asthma when exposed to chickens, because the yolk protein is also found in live birds. In addition to IgE-mediated responses, egg allergy can manifest as atopic dermatitis, especially in infants and young children. Some will display both, so that a child could react to an oral food challenge with allergic symptoms, followed a day or two later with a flare up of atopic dermatitis and/or gastrointestinal symptoms, including allergic eosinophilic esophagitis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "One of the most common food allergies in infants is eggs. Infants usually have the opportunity to grow out of this allergy during childhood, if exposure is minimized. Allergic reactions against egg white are more common than reactions against egg yolks. In addition to true allergic reactions, some people experience a food intolerance to egg whites. Food labeling practices in most developed countries now include eggs, egg products, and the processing of foods on equipment that also process foods containing eggs in a special allergen alert section of the ingredients on the labels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Erica Meier",
        "text": "Meier led Animal Outlook through several successful campaigns, including ending the egg industry's use of \"Animal Care Certified\" claims that could mislead consumers, as well as persuading companies like Dunkin' Donuts, Starbucks, and Subway to offer vegan options. She also persuaded vegetarian brands Boca Burger, Lightlife, Morningstar Farms, and Quorn to eliminate or reduce their use of eggs in their products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Each year the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) publishes recommendations for prevention and control of influenza in children. In the 2016-2017 guidelines a change was made, that children with a history of egg allergy may receive the IIV3 or IIV4 vaccine without special precautions. It did, however, state that \"Standard vaccination practice should include the ability to respond to acute hypersensitivity reactions.\" Prior to this, AAP recommended precautions based on egg allergy history: if no history, immunize; if a history of mild reaction, i.e., hives, immunize in a medical setting with healthcare professionals and resuscitative equipment available; if a history of severe reactions, refer to an allergist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "Other egg substitutes are made from just the white of the egg for those who worry about the high cholesterol and fat content in eggs. These products usually have added vitamins and minerals, as well as vegetable-based emulsifiers and thickeners, such as xanthan gum or guar gum. These allow the product to maintain the nutrition and several culinary properties of real eggs, making possible foods such as Hollandaise sauce, custard, mayonnaise, and most baked goods with these substitutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg lecithin",
        "text": "Egg-derived lecithin is not usually a concern for those allergic to eggs since commercially available food grade egg lecithin is devoid of allergy causing egg proteins. Egg lecithin is not a concern for those on low-cholesterol diets, because the lecithin found in eggs markedly inhibits the absorption of the cholesterol contained in eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteurized eggs",
        "text": "The 2013 FDA Food Code states that in serving highly susceptible populations (preschool age children; older adults; individuals with compromised immune systems; and individuals who receive meals through custodial care-giving environments such as child or adult day care centers, kidney dialysis centers, hospitals, or nursing homes ): \u201cPasteurized eggs or egg products shall be substituted for raw eggs in the preparation of Foods such as Caesar salad, hollandaise or B\u00e9arnaise sauce, mayonnaise, meringue, eggnog, ice cream, egg-fortified beverages and recipes in which more than one egg is broken and the eggs are combined.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Ingredients that sometimes include egg protein include: artificial flavoring, natural flavoring, lecithin and nougat candy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Egg whites, which are potentially histamine liberators, also provoke a nonallergic response in some people. In this situation, proteins in egg white directly trigger the release of histamine from mast cells. Because this mechanism is classified as a pharmacological reaction, or \"pseudoallergy\", the condition is considered a food intolerance instead of a true immunoglobulin E (IgE) based allergic reaction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "For all age groups, a review of fifty studies conducted in Europe estimated 2.5% for self-reported egg allergy and 0.2% for confirmed. National survey data in the United States collected in 2005 and 2006 showed that from age six and older, the prevalence of serum IgE confirmed egg allergy was under 0.2%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "There is a condition called food-dependent, exercise-induced anaphylaxis (FDEIAn). Exercise can trigger hives and more severe symptoms of an allergic reaction. For some people with this condition, exercise alone is not sufficient, nor consumption of a food to which they are mildly allergic sufficient, but when the food in question is consumed within a few hours before high intensity exercise, the result can be anaphylaxis. Egg are specifically mentioned as a causative food. One theory is that exercise is stimulating the release of mediators such as histamine from IgE-activated mast cells. Two of the reviews postulate that exercise is not essential for the development of symptoms, but rather that it is one of several augmentation factors, citing evidence that the culprit food in combination with alcohol or aspirin will result in a respiratory anaphylactic reaction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In the United States, 90% of allergic responses to foods are caused by cow's milk, eggs, wheat, shellfish, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and soy beans. The declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory in any country, with the exception of Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg white",
        "text": "Although egg whites are prized as a source of low-fat, high-protein nutrition, a small number of people cannot eat them. Egg allergy is more common among infants than adults, and most children will outgrow it by the age of five. Allergic reactions against egg white are more common than reactions against egg yolks. In addition to true allergic reactions, some people experience a food intolerance to egg whites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Adult-onset of egg allergy is rare, but there is confirmation of cases. Some were described as having started in late teenage years; another group were workers in the baking industry who were exposed to powdered egg dust."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jason Mantzoukas",
        "text": "Mantzoukas was born with an egg allergy and experiences anaphylaxis if ingested. He has cited this allergy as the cause of his hypochondriac tendencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trophic egg",
        "text": "An alternative to trophic egg-laying is sibling cannibalism; however this requires the mother to regulate the synchrony of hatching times. However, in this case eggs which are not eaten would continue to develop. If it is difficult for the mother to achieve this synchrony, trophic eggs are a sensible alternative in ensuring that the offspring that hatches will be fed sufficiently."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "Free-range eggs are considered by some advocates to be an acceptable substitute to factory-farmed eggs. Free-range laying hens are given outdoor access instead of being contained in crowded cages. Questions regarding the living conditions of free-range hens have been raised in the United States of America, as there is no legal definition or regulations for eggs labeled as free-range in that country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mayonnaise",
        "text": "Egg-free imitations of mayonnaise are available for vegans and others who avoid eggs or cholesterol, or who have egg allergies. In the U.S., these imitations cannot be labelled as \"mayonnaise\" because the definition of mayonnaise requires egg. Egg-free imitations generally contain soya or pea protein as the emulsifying agent to stabilize oil droplets in water. Well-known brands include Nasoya's Nayonaise, Vegenaise and Just Mayo in North America, and Plamil Egg Free in the United Kingdom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mayonnaise",
        "text": "Commercial imitations are made for vegans and those who avoid chicken eggs or dietary cholesterol as well as people with egg allergies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Probiotic products have been tested, and some found to contain milk and egg proteins which were not always indicated on the labels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "Egg allergies affect about one in 50 children but are frequently outgrown by children when they reach age five. Typically, the sensitivity is to proteins in the white, rather than the yolk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scrambled Eggs Super!",
        "text": "He explains his criteria for choosing some eggs, because of their sweetness, and avoiding others. He takes the eggs home but decides that he still needs more, and he calls on the help of some of his friends from around the world, including a \"fellow named Ali\". After each bird Peter finds he states the phrase...\"Scrambled Eggs Super Dee Dooper Dee Booper Special Deluxe a la Peter T. Hooper\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modest Heroes",
        "text": "Shun Yashima is a young boy born with a lethal allergy to eggs. Every day, then, his family focuses on protecting Shun from contact with eggs. Shun has to eat special meals at school, his classmates must be careful not to spit on him and get saliva with egg all over him, and Shun has to take his allergy into consideration when he thinks about going on a school field trip. At the same time, his mother tries to maintain her career as a dance teacher. One day Shun mistakenly consumes egg products when his parents are away from home."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dermatitis",
        "text": "There has not been adequate evaluation of changing the diet to reduce eczema. There is some evidence that infants with an established egg allergy may have a reduction in symptoms if eggs are eliminated from their diets. Benefits have not been shown for other elimination diets, though the studies are small and poorly executed. Establishing that there is a food allergy before dietary change could avoid unnecessary lifestyle changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg substitutes",
        "text": "Simple homemade egg substitutes can be made using many different ingredients, depending on which aspect(s) of an egg must be replicated. Some commonly used substitutes are tofu, various fruit pur\u00e9es, potato starch, mashed potato, baking powder, ground seeds (especially flax and chia), agar powder, chickpea flour, and plant milk.\n* Aquafaba refers to the drained water and solutes that remain after cooking chickpeas. It can also be obtained by saving the water solution from a commercial can of chickpeas. Use of this as an egg replacer was discovered by specialists in molecular gastronomy. As it can replicate the whipped structural loft as well as the moisture of egg whites, it enables egg-avoiding cooks to produce such elusive egg dishes as macarons or lemon meringue pie.\n* Tofu can be used as an egg substitute in recipes that use many eggs, like quiches or custards. Tofu doesn't fluff up like eggs or aquafaba, but it does reproduce the meaty structure and texture that is needed for some \"eggy\" dishes. For more fluffy egg dishes such as an omelette, silken tofu may be used.\n* In sweet, baked foods and desserts, many different fruits can be used to serve the same purpose as eggs. These act by replacing the moisture and structural \"binding\" for which recipes often call for eggs. To replace one egg, the following fruits can be substituted:\n** 1 banana\n** \u00bc cup canned pumpkin or squash\n** \u00bc cup applesauce\n** \u00bc cup pur\u00e9ed prunes"
      },
      {
        "title": "Uny",
        "text": "Uny\n--Stores.\n--Cage-free eggs.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ovomucoid",
        "text": "Chicken ovomucoid, also known as Gal d 1, is a known allergen. It is the protein most often causing egg allergy. At least four IgE epitopes have been identified. Three other egg white proteins are also identified as allergenic: ovalbumin (Gal d 2), ovotransferrin (Gal d 3) and lysozyme (Gal d 4)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Incidence and prevalence are terms commonly used in describing disease epidemiology. Incidence is newly diagnosed cases, which can be expressed as new cases per year per million people. Prevalence is the number of cases alive, expressible as existing cases per million people during a period of time. Egg allergies are usually observed in infants and young children, and often disappear with age (see Prognosis), so prevalence of egg allergy may be expressed as a percentage of children under a set age. One review estimates that in North American and western European populations the prevalence of egg allergy in children under the age of five years is 1.8-2.0%. A second described the range in young children as 0.5-2.5%. Although the majority of children develop tolerance as they age into school age years, for roughly one-third the allergy persists into adulthood. Strong predictors for adult-persistent allergy are anaphylactic symptoms as a child, high egg-specific serum IgE, robust response to the skin prick test and absence of tolerance to egg-containing baked foods. Self-reported allergy prevalence is always higher than food-challenge confirmed allergy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eggplant",
        "text": "Individuals who are atopic (genetically predisposed to developing certain allergic hypersensitivity reactions) are more likely to have a reaction to eggplant, which may be because eggplant is high in histamines. A few proteins and at least one secondary metabolite have been identified as potential allergens. Cooking eggplant thoroughly seems to preclude reactions in some individuals, but at least one of the allergenic proteins survives the cooking process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free-range eggs",
        "text": "In the European Union, cage-free egg production includes barns, free-range, organic (in the UK, systems must be free-range if they are to be labelled as organic) and aviary systems. Non-cage systems may be single or multi-tier (up to four levels), with or without outdoor access. In the UK, free-range systems are the most popular of the non-cage alternatives, accounting for around 44% of all eggs in 2013, whereas barns and organic eggs together accounted for 5%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Save-A-Lot",
        "text": "Good Nature - eggs"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cadbury",
        "text": "On 10 February 2007, Cadbury recalled some of its Easter eggs due to a labelling error. The products were produced in a factory handling nuts, potential allergens, but this was not made clear on the packaging. Cadbury said the products were \"perfectly safe\" for people without nut allergies to eat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquafaba",
        "text": "Due to its ability to mimic functional properties of egg whites in cooking, aquafaba can be used as a direct replacement for them in some cases, including meringues and marshmallows. It is especially suitable for use by people who avoid eggs, such as vegans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Are You an Egghead?",
        "text": "Match Two: Anne Hegerty v. David Edwards: Despite having 4 Eggheads, Anne sensationally collapsed in General Knowledge, wasting 2 Eggheads and giving a wrong answer on the first question, before getting another one wrong, making it easy for David."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scrambled Eggs Super!",
        "text": "Ruth C. Barlow of the \"Christian Science Monitor\" called it a \"gay extravaganza\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "A modern custom in some places is to substitute chocolate eggs wrapped in coloured foil, hand-carved wooden eggs, or plastic eggs filled with confectionery such as chocolate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg substitutes",
        "text": "The product called Egg Beaters is a substitute for whole/fresh eggs (from the shell) but is not an egg substitute; it consists mainly of egg whites."
      },
      {
        "title": "2009 swine flu pandemic vaccine",
        "text": "A different method of producing influenza virus was used to produce the Novartis vaccine Optaflu. In this vaccine the virus is grown in cell culture instead of in eggs. This method is faster than the classic egg-based system and produces a purer final product. There are no traces of egg proteins in the final product, so it is safe for people with egg allergies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emily Grossman",
        "text": "She made the decision to have some of her eggs frozen to preserve them for when she meets the person she would like to have a family with. She advocates that women considering having the procedure done do so earlier than their mid-thirties, as the success rate for younger eggs is higher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Influenza vaccine",
        "text": "Although most influenza vaccines are produced using egg-based techniques, influenza vaccines are nonetheless still recommended for people with egg allergies, even if severe. Studies examining the safety of influenza vaccines in people with severe egg allergies found that anaphylaxis was very rare, occurring in 1.3 cases per million doses given."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Lovely Eggs",
        "text": "On 5 December 2011, they released the first 7\" single \"Allergies\" from their third album \"Wildlife\" on the Too Pure Label. The single was produced by Gruff Rhys who also appeared in the video (produced by Casey Raymond). Allergies won the vote in Steve Lamacq's round table on 6 music and also won Steve Lamacq's rebel playlist with 82% of the public vote. The single sold out before release date and received airplay from both 6 Music and Radio 1."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg substitutes",
        "text": "However, these will also add some flavor to the recipe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dust mite allergy",
        "text": "Dust mite eggs are freeze tolerant (\u221270\u00a0\u00b0C for 30 minutes); hatching can normally be prevented by exposure of fabrics to:\n* Direct sunlight for 3 hours or\n* Dry or wet heat of at least 60\u00a0\u00b0C (140\u00a0\u00b0F) for a minimum of 30 minutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Has Hlai grammar",
        "text": "egg chicken"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russell Hoban",
        "text": "Without eggs.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg donation",
        "text": "Women may resort to egg donation because their ovaries may not be able to produce a substantial number of viable eggs. Women may experience premature ovarian failure and stop producing viable eggs during their reproductive years. Some women may be born without ovaries. Ovaries damaged by chemotherapy or radiotherapy may also no longer produce healthy eggs. Older women with diminished ovarian reserves or older women who are going through menopause could also become pregnant with egg donation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shirred eggs",
        "text": "Shirred eggs have also been compared to eggs Benedict; chef James Ramsden has described them as a more reliable and simpler recipe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Denny's",
        "text": "In 2008, Denny's began switching to cage-free eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of egg topics",
        "text": "A to Z egg dishes"
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Although one of the Christian traditions are to use dyed or painted chicken eggs, a modern custom is to substitute chocolate eggs, or plastic eggs filled with candy such as jelly beans; as many people give up sweets as their Lenten sacrifice, individuals enjoy them at Easter after having abstained from them during the preceding forty days of Lent. These eggs can be hidden for children to find on Easter morning, which may be left by the Easter Bunny. They may also be put in a basket filled with real or artificial straw to resemble a bird's nest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eggst\u00e4tt",
        "text": "Eggst\u00e4tt\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg wash",
        "text": "Vegan substitutes for egg wash include vegetable oil, non-dairy milk and butter substitutes, and light corn syrup thinned with water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chrissy Conant",
        "text": "Conant injected herself for six weeks with fertility drugs so that she would produce multiple eggs, followed by a final hormone injection to make the eggs mature at the same time. An endocrinologist and embryologist harvested her eggs in a forty-five-minute hospital procedure. Conant carefully placed each of her thirteen eggs in a flask filled with human tubal fluid, a saline solution used to preserve and transport human ova for IVF. Each flask was set in a jar of clear silicone gel, sealed, and labelled with a photograph of the artist reclining and the information that the jar contains \"one egg\" \"Caucasian\" with \"human tubal fluid\" which must be refrigerated properly. Conant even applied for and received a trademark for Chrissy Caviar\u00ae, registered as both a \"food product\" and as \"DNA\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg donation",
        "text": "An alternative to egg donation in some couples, especially those in whom the male partner cannot provide viable sperm, is embryo donation. Embryo donation is the use of embryos remaining after a couple's IVF treatments have been completed, to another individual or couple, followed by the placement of those embryos into the recipient woman's uterus, to facilitate pregnancy and childbirth. Embryo donation is more cost-effective than egg donation on a \"per live birth\" basis. Another study has found that embryos created for one couple, using an egg donor, are often made available for donation to another couple if the first couple chooses not to use them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eggcorn",
        "text": "The term \"eggcorn\", as used to refer to this kind of substitution, was coined by professor of linguistics Geoffrey Pullum in September 2003 in response to an article by Mark Liberman on the website \"Language Log\", a group blog for linguists. Liberman discussed the case of a woman who substituted the phrase \"egg corn\" for the word \"acorn\", and he argued that the precise phenomenon lacked a name. Pullum suggested using \"eggcorn\" itself as a label.\n* \"damp squid\" for \"damp squib\"\n* \"ex-patriot\" for \"expatriate\"\n* \"for all intensive purposes\" for \"for all intents and purposes\"\n* \"free reign\" for \"free rein\"\n*\"in one foul swoop\" for \"in one fell swoop\"\n* \"old-timers' disease\" for \"Alzheimer's disease\"\n* \"on the spurt of the moment\" for \"on the spur of the moment\"\n* \"preying mantis\" for \"praying mantis\"\n* \"to the manor born\" for \"to the manner born\".\n* \"with baited breath\" for \"with bated breath\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Free range",
        "text": "Cage-free egg production includes barn, free-range and organic systems. In the UK, free-range systems are the most popular of the non-cage alternatives, accounting for around 57% of all eggs, compared to 2% in barns and 2% organic. In free-range systems, hens are housed to a similar standard as the barn or aviary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Julie Powell",
        "text": "Prior to her Julie/Julia project, Powell had never eaten an egg before she tackled Oeufs a la Fondue de Fromage. At various points in the blog, Powell confessed to loathing beans, olives, anchovies, salad, spinach, eggs and even fresh peas (\u201clittle green sacs of wet flour\u201d)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg repair",
        "text": "Birds can also develop from eggs without shells, but the chance of success is around 60% for chickens. A transparent substitute for eggshell made from polydimethylsiloxane allows observation of the growing embryo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Young children may exhibit dermatitis/eczema on face, scalp and other parts of the body, in older children knees and elbows are more commonly afflicted. Children with dermatitis are at greater than expected risk of also exhibiting asthma and allergic rhinitis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sant Antoni de Portmany",
        "text": "The choice of an egg comes from a story about Columbus, who when seeking funding for his Western route to the Indies, was told it was impossible. He then allegedly asked if standing an egg upright was impossible, and when told that it was, he cracked the base of an egg, thus making it possible for it to stand upright. He was then granted funding. See Egg of Columbus."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of egg topics",
        "text": "This list of egg topics connects to numerous articles about eggs. The wide-ranging diversity of topics here exceeds the scope of any other single article to link all of these articles."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Egg Board",
        "text": "In September 2015, the board was investigated regarding their actions of paid advocacy against Hampton Creek, a company marketing vegan egg substitutes and Just Mayo, a mayonnaise substitute which uses pea protein as an emulsifier in place of eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shirred eggs",
        "text": "Variations on the recipe include adding breadcrumbs or cheese to the top of the eggs to create a crust, or garnishing with herbs such as tarragon. Adding a protein such as fish to the dish has also been suggested by chefs to round it out sufficiently to make it suitable as a dinner-time option. Another variation suggested by the United States Department of Agriculture during the 1920s was to break the eggs into a bed of cooked rice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Food allergies usually have a fast onset (from seconds to one hour). Symptoms may include: rash, hives, itching of mouth, lips, tongue, throat, eyes, skin, or other areas, swelling of lips, tongue, eyelids, or the whole face, difficulty swallowing, runny or congested nose, hoarse voice, wheezing, shortness of breath, diarrhea, abdominal pain, lightheadedness, fainting, nausea, or vomiting. Symptoms of allergies vary from person to person and may vary from incident to incident. Serious danger regarding allergies can begin when the respiratory tract or blood circulation is affected. The former can be indicated by wheezing, a blocked airway and cyanosis, the latter by weak pulse, pale skin, and fainting. When these symptoms occur the allergic reaction is called anaphylaxis. Anaphylaxis occurs when IgE antibodies are involved, and areas of the body that are not in direct contact with the food become affected and show severe symptoms. Untreated, this can proceed to vasodilation and a low blood pressure situation called anaphylactic shock."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eat Just",
        "text": "Eat Just develops and markets plant-based substitutes for foods that ordinarily use chicken eggs, such as scrambled eggs and mayonnaise. The company is best known for its plant-based JUST Egg made from mung beans. According to Eat Just, the company has made the equivalent of 100 million eggs worth of food products as of March 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eggs Benedict",
        "text": "Several variations of Eggs Benedict exist, involving replacing any component except the egg:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Helen Parsons",
        "text": "Parsons and her group then went on to look for foods that could counteract the symptoms of egg-white injury. They found that foods like cooked kidney, cooked liver, yeast, egg yolk, or dried milk contained a 'protective factor' (later found to be biotin) that cured the rats dermatitis and prevented the debilitating effects of egg-white consumption. They went on to partially purify the factor and showed that the amount needed to cure symptoms was proportional to the amount of egg-white fed. Although ultimately unable to chemically identify the protective factor, Parsons' early work on the subject was crucial to the later identification of biotin by Paul Gyorgy in 1940. In a 1959 letter to Parsons, Gyorgy wrote: \"It was you, my dear Doctor Parsons, who gave me the best stimulus to unravel the difficult problem of egg-white toxicity and biotin deficiency. Your excellent and classical experiments on the identification of bound biotin in the feces of rats fed raw egg-white opened the way to solve the puzzle of egg-white toxicity. I am still grateful to you for giving us the light to see the things in proper perspective.\"At the time, Parsons' egg-white results were controversial within the egg and poultry industry. She recalls being \"insulted at the time any of [her] reports\" were given at meetings and her results were often called into question by those involved with the industries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquafaba",
        "text": "A few days later, a Facebook group was created to encourage development and popularize the egg substitute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquafaba",
        "text": "Around the same time, vegan food enthusiast Goose Wohlt discovered that the cooking liquid can replace egg white without the need for stabilizers. In March 2015 he published a recipe for egg-free meringue using only chickpea liquid and sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg substitutes",
        "text": "Egg substitutes\n--Types.\n----Commercial.\n----Homemade.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "L214",
        "text": "In February 2013, after repeated presence in front of retail chain Monoprix stores by L214 activists in many big cities of France, the retailer decided to stop using eggs from hens grown in battery cages in their own brand from April 2013, using free-range eggs instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boiled egg",
        "text": "Soft-boiled eggs are not recommended for people who may be susceptible to salmonella, such as very young children, the elderly, and those with weakened immune systems. To avoid the issue of salmonella, eggs can be pasteurised in shell at 57 \u00b0C for an hour and 15 minutes. The eggs can then be soft-boiled as normal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg donation",
        "text": "A need for egg donation may arise for a number of reasons. Infertile couples may resort to egg donation when the female partner cannot have genetic children because her own eggs cannot generate a viable pregnancy, or because they could generate a viable pregnancy but the chances are so low that it is not advisable or not financially feasible to do IVF with her own eggs. This situation is often, but not always based on advanced reproductive age. It can also be due to early onset of menopause, which can occur as early as their 20s. In addition, some women are born without ovaries, while some women's reproductive organs have been damaged or surgically removed due to disease or other circumstances. Another indication would be a genetic disorder on part of the woman that either renders her infertile or would be dangerous for any offspring, problems that can be circumvented by using eggs from another woman. Many women have none of these issues, but continue to be unsuccessful using their own eggs\u2014in other words, they have undiagnosed infertility\u2014and thus turn to donor eggs or donor embryos. As stated above, egg donation is also helpful for gay male couples using surrogacy (see LGBT parenting)."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of egg topics",
        "text": "This list of egg topics is not intended to be complete, but it spans the vast majority of related articles. The names of articles were linked from current articles, but those article names might be changed, at a later time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alexander Findlater",
        "text": "Burns sent Findlater a gift of new laid eggs from Ellisland Farm with an accompanying note \"Mrs Burns, like a true good wife, looking on my taste as a Standard, & knowing that she cannot give me anything --\"eateable\" more agreeable than a new-laid egg, she begs your acceptance of a few. They are all of them couch, not thirty hours out\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the only country that has to disclose trace amounts of allergens in foods?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It is not correct to say in all circumstances that there is only one country with such a disclosure policy, as it depends on the intent behind the inclusion. Trace amounts intentionally added need to be disclosed in countries which have instituting labeling laws for intentionally added ingredients known to be major allergens, but Brazil (and soon to be countries in the EU) is the only country where it is mandatory to declare the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did Brazil start requiring foods be labeled with warnings about trace amounts of allergens?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Brazil since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How can egg allergies be prevented?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Prevention is obtained by avoiding eating eggs and foods that may contain eggs. Additionally, the introduction of eggs to a baby's diet is thought to affect the risk of the baby developing an egg allergy, but there are contradictory recommendations to that."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some good alternatives to eggs for someone who has allergies?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Would you like to know more of commercial or homemade substitutes?",
      "There are commercial and homemade substitutes available, which ones would you like to know about?"
    ],
    "topic": "Egg allergy",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Egg substitutes:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Egg substitutes",
          "Types",
          "Commercial"
        ],
        "ctx": "There are many commercial substitutes on the market today for people who wish to avoid eggs. Most of these products are devoid of all animal products, and thus are vegan and contain no cholesterol.\n*The EVERY Company, a venture-backed company, produces bioidentical egg whites through a fermentation process.\n*JUST, Inc., another venture-backed company, produces and markets egg-free products, including cookie dough and a mayonnaise substitute, based on pea protein from the yellow pea.\n* Egg Replacer is a mixture of \"potato starch, tapioca flour, leavening (calcium lactate, calcium carbonate, cream of tartar), cellulose gum, modified cellulose\".\n* The Vegg is a vegan liquid egg yolk replacer, suitable in any recipe that one would alternatively use egg yolk. It is made of \"nutritional yeast flakes, sodium alginate, kala namak, [and] beta-carotene\". The Vegg was first sold in 2012, and is available in a variety of online and in-store retailers in the United States, Europe, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.\n* FUMI Ingredients produces egg white substitutes from micro-algae with the help of micro-organisms such as brewer's yeast and baker's yeast."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Egg substitutes:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Egg substitutes",
          "Types",
          "Homemade"
        ],
        "ctx": "Simple homemade egg substitutes can be made using many different ingredients, depending on which aspect(s) of an egg must be replicated. Some commonly used substitutes are tofu, various fruit pur\u00e9es, potato starch, mashed potato, baking powder, ground seeds (especially flax and chia), agar powder, chickpea flour, and plant milk.\n* Aquafaba refers to the drained water and solutes that remain after cooking chickpeas. It can also be obtained by saving the water solution from a commercial can of chickpeas. Use of this as an egg replacer was discovered by specialists in molecular gastronomy. As it can replicate the whipped structural loft as well as the moisture of egg whites, it enables egg-avoiding cooks to produce such elusive egg dishes as macarons or lemon meringue pie.\n* Tofu can be used as an egg substitute in recipes that use many eggs, like quiches or custards. Tofu doesn't fluff up like eggs or aquafaba, but it does reproduce the meaty structure and texture that is needed for some \"eggy\" dishes. For more fluffy egg dishes such as an omelette, silken tofu may be used.\n* In sweet, baked foods and desserts, many different fruits can be used to serve the same purpose as eggs. These act by replacing the moisture and structural \"binding\" for which recipes often call for eggs. To replace one egg, the following fruits can be substituted:\n** 1 banana\n** \u00bc cup canned pumpkin or squash\n** \u00bc cup applesauce\n** \u00bc cup pur\u00e9ed prunes"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Egg substitutes:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Egg substitutes",
          "Types",
          "Commercial"
        ],
        "ctx": "There are many commercial substitutes on the market today for people who wish to avoid eggs. Most of these products are devoid of all animal products, and thus are vegan and contain no cholesterol.\n*The EVERY Company, a venture-backed company, produces bioidentical egg whites through a fermentation process.\n*JUST, Inc., another venture-backed company, produces and markets egg-free products, including cookie dough and a mayonnaise substitute, based on pea protein from the yellow pea.\n* Egg Replacer is a mixture of \"potato starch, tapioca flour, leavening (calcium lactate, calcium carbonate, cream of tartar), cellulose gum, modified cellulose\".\n* The Vegg is a vegan liquid egg yolk replacer, suitable in any recipe that one would alternatively use egg yolk. It is made of \"nutritional yeast flakes, sodium alginate, kala namak, [and] beta-carotene\". The Vegg was first sold in 2012, and is available in a variety of online and in-store retailers in the United States, Europe, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.\n* FUMI Ingredients produces egg white substitutes from micro-algae with the help of micro-organisms such as brewer's yeast and baker's yeast."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Egg substitutes:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Egg substitutes",
          "Types",
          "Homemade"
        ],
        "ctx": "Simple homemade egg substitutes can be made using many different ingredients, depending on which aspect(s) of an egg must be replicated. Some commonly used substitutes are tofu, various fruit pur\u00e9es, potato starch, mashed potato, baking powder, ground seeds (especially flax and chia), agar powder, chickpea flour, and plant milk.\n* Aquafaba refers to the drained water and solutes that remain after cooking chickpeas. It can also be obtained by saving the water solution from a commercial can of chickpeas. Use of this as an egg replacer was discovered by specialists in molecular gastronomy. As it can replicate the whipped structural loft as well as the moisture of egg whites, it enables egg-avoiding cooks to produce such elusive egg dishes as macarons or lemon meringue pie.\n* Tofu can be used as an egg substitute in recipes that use many eggs, like quiches or custards. Tofu doesn't fluff up like eggs or aquafaba, but it does reproduce the meaty structure and texture that is needed for some \"eggy\" dishes. For more fluffy egg dishes such as an omelette, silken tofu may be used.\n* In sweet, baked foods and desserts, many different fruits can be used to serve the same purpose as eggs. These act by replacing the moisture and structural \"binding\" for which recipes often call for eggs. To replace one egg, the following fruits can be substituted:\n** 1 banana\n** \u00bc cup canned pumpkin or squash\n** \u00bc cup applesauce\n** \u00bc cup pur\u00e9ed prunes"
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Prevention of egg-allergic reactions means avoiding eggs and egg-containing foods. People with an allergy to chicken eggs may also be allergic to other types of eggs, such as goose, duck, or turkey eggs. In cooking, eggs are multifunctional: they may act as an emulsifier to reduce oil/water separation (mayonnaise), a binder (water binding and particle adhesion, as in meatloaf), or an aerator (cakes, especially angel food). Some commercial egg substitutes can substitute for particular functions (potato starch and tapioca for water binding, whey protein or bean water for aeration or particle binding, or soy lecithin or avocado for emulsification). Food companies produce egg-free mayonnaise and other replacement foods. Alfred Bird invented egg-free Bird's Custard, the original version of what is known generically as custard powder today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg substitutes",
        "text": "Egg substitutes are food products which can be used to replace eggs in cooking and baking. Common reasons a cook may choose to use an egg substitute instead of egg(s) include having an egg allergy, adhering to a vegan diet or a vegetarian diet of a type that omits eggs, or having concerns about the level of animal welfare or environmental burden associated with egg farming. There is an growing movement to address some of these concerns via third-party certifications, but because many labels in the industry remain confusing or intentionally misleading, some consumers distrust them and may use egg substitutes instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg substitutes",
        "text": "Egg substitutes\n--Types.\n----Commercial.\n----Homemade.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg substitutes",
        "text": "There are many commercial substitutes on the market today for people who wish to avoid eggs. Most of these products are devoid of all animal products, and thus are vegan and contain no cholesterol.\n*The EVERY Company, a venture-backed company, produces bioidentical egg whites through a fermentation process.\n*JUST, Inc., another venture-backed company, produces and markets egg-free products, including cookie dough and a mayonnaise substitute, based on pea protein from the yellow pea.\n* Egg Replacer is a mixture of \"potato starch, tapioca flour, leavening (calcium lactate, calcium carbonate, cream of tartar), cellulose gum, modified cellulose\".\n* The Vegg is a vegan liquid egg yolk replacer, suitable in any recipe that one would alternatively use egg yolk. It is made of \"nutritional yeast flakes, sodium alginate, kala namak, [and] beta-carotene\". The Vegg was first sold in 2012, and is available in a variety of online and in-store retailers in the United States, Europe, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.\n* FUMI Ingredients produces egg white substitutes from micro-algae with the help of micro-organisms such as brewer's yeast and baker's yeast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Veganism",
        "text": "As of 2019 in the United States, there were numerous vegan egg substitutes available, including products used for \"scrambled\" eggs, cakes, cookies, and doughnuts. Baking powder, silken (soft) tofu, mashed potato, bananas, flaxseeds, and aquafaba from chickpeas can also be used as egg substitutes. Which one of these works depends on the egg property the replacement is meant to emulate. Scrambled tofu for instance replaces scrambled eggs, but tofu does not act as a binding agent for cakes like raw eggs, flaxseeds or bananas do."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Most people find it necessary to strictly avoid any item containing eggs, including:\n* Albumin (egg white protein)\n* Apovitellin (egg yolk protein)\n* Egg Beaters (cholesterol-free, uses egg whites)\n* Dried egg solids, powdered egg\n* Egg, egg white, egg yolk\n* Egg wash\n* Eggnog\n* Fat substitutes (some)\n* Livetin (egg yolk protein)\n* Lysozyme (egg white protein)\n* Mayonnaise\n* Meringue or meringue powder\n* Ovalbumin (egg white protein)\n* Ovoglobulin (egg white protein)\n* Ovomucin (egg white protein)\n* Ovomucoid (egg white protein)\n* Ovotransferrin (egg white protein)\n* Ovovitelia (egg yolk protein)\n* Ovovitellin (egg yolk protein)\n* Silici albuminate\n* Simplesse\n* Vitellin (egg yolk protein)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg substitutes",
        "text": "However, these will also add some flavor to the recipe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "Other egg substitutes are made from just the white of the egg for those who worry about the high cholesterol and fat content in eggs. These products usually have added vitamins and minerals, as well as vegetable-based emulsifiers and thickeners, such as xanthan gum or guar gum. These allow the product to maintain the nutrition and several culinary properties of real eggs, making possible foods such as Hollandaise sauce, custard, mayonnaise, and most baked goods with these substitutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg substitutes",
        "text": "Simple homemade egg substitutes can be made using many different ingredients, depending on which aspect(s) of an egg must be replicated. Some commonly used substitutes are tofu, various fruit pur\u00e9es, potato starch, mashed potato, baking powder, ground seeds (especially flax and chia), agar powder, chickpea flour, and plant milk.\n* Aquafaba refers to the drained water and solutes that remain after cooking chickpeas. It can also be obtained by saving the water solution from a commercial can of chickpeas. Use of this as an egg replacer was discovered by specialists in molecular gastronomy. As it can replicate the whipped structural loft as well as the moisture of egg whites, it enables egg-avoiding cooks to produce such elusive egg dishes as macarons or lemon meringue pie.\n* Tofu can be used as an egg substitute in recipes that use many eggs, like quiches or custards. Tofu doesn't fluff up like eggs or aquafaba, but it does reproduce the meaty structure and texture that is needed for some \"eggy\" dishes. For more fluffy egg dishes such as an omelette, silken tofu may be used.\n* In sweet, baked foods and desserts, many different fruits can be used to serve the same purpose as eggs. These act by replacing the moisture and structural \"binding\" for which recipes often call for eggs. To replace one egg, the following fruits can be substituted:\n** 1 banana\n** \u00bc cup canned pumpkin or squash\n** \u00bc cup applesauce\n** \u00bc cup pur\u00e9ed prunes"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg substitutes",
        "text": "The product called Egg Beaters is a substitute for whole/fresh eggs (from the shell) but is not an egg substitute; it consists mainly of egg whites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The response is usually localized, typically in the gastrointestinal tract. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, diarrhea, or any other symptoms typical to histamine release. If sufficiently strong, it can result in an anaphylactoid reaction, which is clinically indistinguishable from true anaphylaxis. Some people with this condition tolerate small quantities of egg whites. They are more often able to tolerate well-cooked eggs, such as found in cake or dried egg-based pasta, than incompletely cooked eggs, such as fried eggs or meringues, or uncooked eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "A modern custom in some places is to substitute chocolate eggs wrapped in coloured foil, hand-carved wooden eggs, or plastic eggs filled with confectionery such as chocolate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg Beaters",
        "text": "Egg Beaters is a product marketed in the United States as a healthy substitute for whole eggs. It is a substitute for whole/fresh eggs (from the shell) that contains less cholesterol, but it is not an egg substitute (in the sense of a food to replace eggs for people with egg allergies). Egg Beaters is primarily egg whites with added flavorings, vitamins, and thickeners xanthan gum and guar gum. It contains real egg whites, but no egg yolks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The cause is typically the eating of eggs or foods that contain eggs. Briefly, the immune system over-reacts to proteins found in eggs. This allergic reaction may be triggered by small amounts of egg, even egg incorporated into cooked foods, such as cake. People with an allergy to chicken eggs may also be reactive to goose, duck, or turkey eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "Free-range eggs are considered by some advocates to be an acceptable substitute to factory-farmed eggs. Free-range laying hens are given outdoor access instead of being contained in crowded cages. Questions regarding the living conditions of free-range hens have been raised in the United States of America, as there is no legal definition or regulations for eggs labeled as free-range in that country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteurized eggs",
        "text": "The 2013 FDA Food Code states that in serving highly susceptible populations (preschool age children; older adults; individuals with compromised immune systems; and individuals who receive meals through custodial care-giving environments such as child or adult day care centers, kidney dialysis centers, hospitals, or nursing homes ): \u201cPasteurized eggs or egg products shall be substituted for raw eggs in the preparation of Foods such as Caesar salad, hollandaise or B\u00e9arnaise sauce, mayonnaise, meringue, eggnog, ice cream, egg-fortified beverages and recipes in which more than one egg is broken and the eggs are combined.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "For those who do not consume eggs, alternatives used in baking include other rising agents or binding materials, such as ground flax seeds or potato starch flour. Tofu also acts as a partial binding agent, since it is high in lecithin due to its soy content. Applesauce may be used, as well as arrowroot and banana. Extracted soybean lecithin, in turn, often is used in packaged foods as an inexpensive substitute for egg-derived lecithin. Leguminous broths, such as chickpea brine or green pea canning liquid, also known as aquafaba, can replace egg whites in desserts such as meringues and mousses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mayonnaise",
        "text": "Commercial imitations are made for vegans and those who avoid chicken eggs or dietary cholesterol as well as people with egg allergies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eggs Benedict",
        "text": "Several variations of Eggs Benedict exist, involving replacing any component except the egg:"
      },
      {
        "title": "The EVERY Company",
        "text": "The EVERY Company developed the first animal-free egg white, which can be used instead of traditional eggs for use in baking, nutrition, and industrial use. It foams, gels and binds, similar to a traditional egg white and can be used to make vegan alternatives to popular egg-based foods, such as meringue or scrambled eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Egg allergy is an immune hypersensitivity to proteins found in chicken eggs, and possibly goose, duck, or turkey eggs. Symptoms can be either rapid or gradual in onset. The latter can take hours to days to appear. The former may include anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening condition which requires treatment with epinephrine. Other presentations may include atopic dermatitis or inflammation of the esophagus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Prevention is by avoiding eating eggs and foods that may contain eggs, such as cake or cookies. It is unclear if the early introduction of the eggs to the diet of babies aged 4\u20136 months decreases the risk of egg allergies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Egg allergy\n--Signs and symptoms.\n--Causes.\n----Eating egg.\n----Vaccines.\n----Exercise as a contributing factor.\n--Mechanisms.\n----Non-allergic intolerance.\n--Diagnosis.\n--Prevention.\n--Treatment.\n----Immunotherapy.\n----Avoiding eggs.\n--Prognosis.\n--Epidemiology.\n--Society and culture.\n----Regulation of labelling.\n------Ingredients intentionally added.\n------Trace amounts as a result of cross-contamination.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Treatment for accidental ingestion of egg products by allergic individuals varies depending on the sensitivity of the person. An antihistamine such as diphenhydramine (Benadryl) may be prescribed. Sometimes prednisone will be prescribed to prevent a possible late phase Type I hypersensitivity reaction. Severe allergic reactions (anaphalaxis) may require treatment with an epinephrine pen, an injection device designed to be used by a non-healthcare professional when emergency treatment is warranted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Ingredients that sometimes include egg protein include: artificial flavoring, natural flavoring, lecithin and nougat candy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eggnog",
        "text": "Some North American manufacturers offer soy-, almond-, rice- or coconut milk-based alternatives for vegans and those with dairy allergies, lactose intolerance or other dietary restrictions. The history of non-dairy eggnogs goes back to 1899 when Almeda Lambert, in her \"Guide for Nut Cookery\", gave a recipe for \"Eggnog\" made using coconut cream, eggs, and sugar. In 1973, Eunice Farmilant, in \"The Natural Foods Sweet-Tooth Cookbook\", gave a more modern non-dairy eggnog recipe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eat Just",
        "text": "The company's egg substitutes are developed by finding plant proteins that serve a function eggs are normally used for, such as binding or emulsifying. For example, plant proteins are analyzed for molecular weight, amino acid sequences, and performance under heat or pressure. Much of the testing is focused on finding high-protein plants with specific types of proteins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eggst\u00e4tt",
        "text": "Eggst\u00e4tt\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Egg allergy appears mainly in children but can persist into adulthood. In the United States, it is the second most common food allergy in children after cow's milk. Most children outgrow egg allergy by the age of five, but some people remain allergic for a lifetime. In North America and Western Europe, egg allergy occurs in 0.5% to 2.5% of children under the age of five years. The majority grow out of it by school age, but for roughly one-third, the allergy persists into adulthood. Strong predictors for adult-persistence are anaphylaxis, high egg-specific serum immunoglobulin E (IgE), robust response to the skin prick test and absence of tolerance to egg-containing baked foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Egg Board",
        "text": "In September 2015, the board was investigated regarding their actions of paid advocacy against Hampton Creek, a company marketing vegan egg substitutes and Just Mayo, a mayonnaise substitute which uses pea protein as an emulsifier in place of eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Probiotic products have been tested, and some found to contain milk and egg proteins which were not always indicated on the labels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poached egg",
        "text": "Steamed eggs are often made in a home environment in place of poached eggs, as it is easier to obtain consistent results with this alternative method. However, poached eggs remain the preference of professional kitchens as it is easier to cook larger quantities, and no additional equipment or appliance is needed to do so."
      },
      {
        "title": "Save-A-Lot",
        "text": "Good Nature - eggs"
      },
      {
        "title": "Parenteral nutrition",
        "text": "Use of egg-derived emulsifiers is not recommended for people with an egg allergy due to the risk of reaction. In situations where there is no suitable emulsifying agent for a person at risk of developing essential fatty acid deficiency, cooking oils may be spread upon large portions of available skin for supplementation by transdermal absorption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The mainstay of treatment is total avoidance of egg protein intake. This is complicated because the declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory (see regulation of labelling)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg wash",
        "text": "Vegan substitutes for egg wash include vegetable oil, non-dairy milk and butter substitutes, and light corn syrup thinned with water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Adult-onset of egg allergy is rare, but there is confirmation of cases. Some were described as having started in late teenage years; another group were workers in the baking industry who were exposed to powdered egg dust."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquafaba",
        "text": "A few days later, a Facebook group was created to encourage development and popularize the egg substitute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquafaba",
        "text": "Due to its ability to mimic functional properties of egg whites in cooking, aquafaba can be used as a direct replacement for them in some cases, including meringues and marshmallows. It is especially suitable for use by people who avoid eggs, such as vegans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eat Just",
        "text": "Eat Just develops and markets plant-based substitutes for foods that ordinarily use chicken eggs, such as scrambled eggs and mayonnaise. The company is best known for its plant-based JUST Egg made from mung beans. According to Eat Just, the company has made the equivalent of 100 million eggs worth of food products as of March 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Although one of the Christian traditions are to use dyed or painted chicken eggs, a modern custom is to substitute chocolate eggs, or plastic eggs filled with candy such as jelly beans; as many people give up sweets as their Lenten sacrifice, individuals enjoy them at Easter after having abstained from them during the preceding forty days of Lent. These eggs can be hidden for children to find on Easter morning, which may be left by the Easter Bunny. They may also be put in a basket filled with real or artificial straw to resemble a bird's nest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Air Quality Egg",
        "text": "Air Quality Egg\n--Current version.\n--History.\n--Competition.\n--Criticism.\n--See also.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Diagnosis of egg allergy is based on the person's history of allergic reactions, skin prick test (SPT), patch test and measurement of egg-specific serum immunoglobulin E (IgE or sIgE). Confirmation is by double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenges. SPT and sIgE have sensitivity greater than 90% but specificity in the 50-60% range, meaning these tests will detect an egg sensitivity, but will also be positive for other allergens. For young children, attempts have been made to identify SPT and sIgE responses strong enough to avoid the need for a confirming oral food challenge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mayonnaise",
        "text": "Egg-free imitations of mayonnaise are available for vegans and others who avoid eggs or cholesterol, or who have egg allergies. In the U.S., these imitations cannot be labelled as \"mayonnaise\" because the definition of mayonnaise requires egg. Egg-free imitations generally contain soya or pea protein as the emulsifying agent to stabilize oil droplets in water. Well-known brands include Nasoya's Nayonaise, Vegenaise and Just Mayo in North America, and Plamil Egg Free in the United Kingdom."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of egg topics",
        "text": "A to Z egg dishes"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of egg topics",
        "text": "This list of egg topics is not intended to be complete, but it spans the vast majority of related articles. The names of articles were linked from current articles, but those article names might be changed, at a later time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The majority of children outgrow egg allergy. One review reported that 70% of children will outgrow this allergy by 16 years. In subsequently published longitudinal studies, one reported that for 140 infants who had challenge-confirmed egg allergy, 44% had resolved by two years. A second reported that for 203 infants with confirmed IgE-mediated egg allergy, 45% resolved by two years of age, 66% by four years, and 71% by six years. Children will be able to tolerate eggs as an ingredient in baked goods and well-cooked eggs sooner than under-cooked eggs. Resolution was more likely if baseline serum IgE was lower, and if the baseline symptoms did not include anaphylaxis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deviled egg",
        "text": "There are many variations on the basic recipe that may add ingredients such as:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Egg (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of egg dishes",
        "text": "List of egg dishes\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Egg or eggs may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Scrambled eggs (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Scrambled eggs (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg white",
        "text": "Although egg whites are prized as a source of low-fat, high-protein nutrition, a small number of people cannot eat them. Egg allergy is more common among infants than adults, and most children will outgrow it by the age of five. Allergic reactions against egg white are more common than reactions against egg yolks. In addition to true allergic reactions, some people experience a food intolerance to egg whites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Two More Eggs",
        "text": "Two More Eggs\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteurized eggs",
        "text": "\u201cIndependent taste tests conducted in Good Housekeeping kitchens have not been able to tell any differences between raw and pasteurized eggs,\u201d according to \"Food Safety News\", and in two out of three tastings a \"Chicago Tribune\" reporter preferred pasteurized eggs flavor over farmers market eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strange Eggs",
        "text": "etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of egg topics",
        "text": "This list of egg topics connects to numerous articles about eggs. The wide-ranging diversity of topics here exceeds the scope of any other single article to link all of these articles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Back to the Egg",
        "text": "Production"
      },
      {
        "title": "Scrambled Eggs Super!",
        "text": "He explains his criteria for choosing some eggs, because of their sweetness, and avoiding others. He takes the eggs home but decides that he still needs more, and he calls on the help of some of his friends from around the world, including a \"fellow named Ali\". After each bird Peter finds he states the phrase...\"Scrambled Eggs Super Dee Dooper Dee Booper Special Deluxe a la Peter T. Hooper\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg foo young",
        "text": "Egg foo young\n--Preparation.\n--Comparison.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Scrambled Eggs Super!",
        "text": "Ruth C. Barlow of the \"Christian Science Monitor\" called it a \"gay extravaganza\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "Egg allergies affect about one in 50 children but are frequently outgrown by children when they reach age five. Typically, the sensitivity is to proteins in the white, rather than the yolk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eggslut",
        "text": "Eggslut\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteurized eggs",
        "text": "Pasteurized eggs\n--Rationale.\n----Salmonellosis.\n----Avian flu virus.\n----Food code compliance.\n--Products.\n--Pasteurized shell eggs.\n----History.\n----Process.\n----Quality.\n----Exemption.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Poultry allergy",
        "text": "It can co-occur with egg allergy but more often occurs without allergy to poultry eggs. One study found that not chicken, just turkey meat are the primary cause of allergic reactions, whilst goose, pheasant, and duck meat cause milder reaction or no symptoms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "One of the most common food allergies in infants is eggs. Infants usually have the opportunity to grow out of this allergy during childhood, if exposure is minimized. Allergic reactions against egg white are more common than reactions against egg yolks. In addition to true allergic reactions, some people experience a food intolerance to egg whites. Food labeling practices in most developed countries now include eggs, egg products, and the processing of foods on equipment that also process foods containing eggs in a special allergen alert section of the ingredients on the labels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Buildout",
        "text": "eggs = theegg"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Five major allergenic proteins from the egg of the domestic chicken (\"Gallus domesticus\") have been identified; these are designated Gal d 1-5. Four of these are in egg white: ovomucoid (Gal d 1), ovalbumin (Gal d 2), ovotransferrin (Gal d 3) and lysozyme (Gal d 4). Of these, ovomucoid is the dominant allergen, and one that is less likely to be outgrown as children get older. Ingestion of under-cooked egg may trigger more severe clinical reactions than well-cooked egg. In egg yolk, alpha-livetin (Gal d 5) is the major allergen, but various vitellins may also trigger a reaction. People allergic to alpha-livetin may experience respiratory symptoms such as rhinitis and/or asthma when exposed to chickens, because the yolk protein is also found in live birds. In addition to IgE-mediated responses, egg allergy can manifest as atopic dermatitis, especially in infants and young children. Some will display both, so that a child could react to an oral food challenge with allergic symptoms, followed a day or two later with a flare up of atopic dermatitis and/or gastrointestinal symptoms, including allergic eosinophilic esophagitis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quorn",
        "text": "After its producer switched to using free-range eggs as an ingredient, the Vegetarian Society gave the product its seal of approval."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Easter eggs in Microsoft products",
        "text": "In Microsoft Word 2007 and 2010, the repeated sentence is replaced with a longer text:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Uny",
        "text": "Uny\n--Stores.\n--Cage-free eggs.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "United Egg Producers",
        "text": "United Egg Producers\n--History.\n--Response to letter writing campaign.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Eggstedt",
        "text": "Eggstedt\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Eggbeare",
        "text": "Eggbeare\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In the United States, 90% of allergic responses to foods are caused by cow's milk, eggs, wheat, shellfish, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and soy beans. The declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory in any country, with the exception of Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Incredible, Edible Egg",
        "text": "The Incredible, Edible Egg\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteurized eggs",
        "text": "Egg products include whole eggs, whites, yolks and various blends with or without non-egg ingredients that are processed and pasteurized and may be available in liquid, frozen, and dried forms. This is achieved by heating the products to a specified temperature for a specified period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eggesb\u00f8nes",
        "text": "Eggesb\u00f8nes\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tobiko",
        "text": "Frequently, \"masago\" (capelin or smelt roe) is substituted for \"tobiko\", due to its similar appearance and flavor. The smaller size of the individual eggs is apparent to the experienced diner, however."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Easter eggs in Microsoft products",
        "text": "In Microsoft Word 2013, the text was replaced again with"
      },
      {
        "title": "Setuptools",
        "text": "Python wheels have replaced eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In countries in North America and western Europe, where use of cow's milk based infant formula is common, chicken egg allergy is the second most common food allergy in infants and young children after cow's milk. However, in Japan, egg allergy is first and cow's milk second, followed by wheat and then the other common allergenic foods. A review from South Africa reported egg and peanut as the two most common allergenic foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ham and eggs (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Ham and eggs (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Eat Just",
        "text": "Eat Just's first product, Beyond Eggs, was intended to replace eggs in baked goods and was released in February 2013. It is made with peas and other ingredients. Later on, Eat Just developed plant-based substitutes for mayonnaise and cookie dough. Initially, the company focused on foods that use eggs as an ingredient, like muffins. In July 2017, it started selling a substitute for scrambled eggs called Just Egg that is made from mung beans. It released a frozen version in January 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Easter eggs in Microsoft products",
        "text": "All of these features will be disabled when \"Replace text as you type\" is turned off."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Egg (virtual)",
        "text": "#REDIRECT Easter egg (media)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg sandwich",
        "text": "A 1905 British cookbook describes an \"egg sandwich\" made with sliced hard-boiled eggs, marinated in oil, vinegar, salt, and pepper, and garnished with minced watercress. An \"egg and chutney sandwich\" is made from chutney and minced hard-boiled eggs; an \"egg cream\" sandwich from hard-boiled eggs pounded into a smooth paste and seasoned with anchovies and mustard. A common alternative is to mash the hard-boiled egg together with mayonnaise, salt and black pepper, usually called simply \"egg spread\", or an \"egg mayonnaise\" or \"egg mayo\". Cress is often seen as the typical accompaniment to an egg sandwich. Salad cream is also a common alternative to mayonnaise, mainly within the UK."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Easter egg (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Free-range eggs",
        "text": "In the European Union, cage-free egg production includes barns, free-range, organic (in the UK, systems must be free-range if they are to be labelled as organic) and aviary systems. Non-cage systems may be single or multi-tier (up to four levels), with or without outdoor access. In the UK, free-range systems are the most popular of the non-cage alternatives, accounting for around 44% of all eggs in 2013, whereas barns and organic eggs together accounted for 5%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mr Egg",
        "text": "Mr Egg\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lecithin",
        "text": "Egg-derived lecithin is not usually a concern for those allergic to eggs since commercially available egg lecithin is highly purified and devoid of allergy-causing egg proteins. Similarly, soy lecithin does not contain enough allergenic proteins for most people allergic to soy, although the US FDA only exempts a few soy lecithin products from its mandatory allergenic source labeling requirements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteurized eggs",
        "text": "According to \"International Business Times\", demand for pasteurized shell eggs within the food service industry is strong because, as of 2008, \u201cstates such as California, Iowa, Michigan, Wisconsin and Illinois have adopted the most recent FDA Food Code, in which pasteurized shell eggs shall be substituted for raw eggs to at-risk groups.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Has Hlai grammar",
        "text": "egg chicken"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteurized eggs",
        "text": "Currently, shell eggs pasteurized using the heating technique are the only commercially available pasteurized eggs. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Shell eggs can be pasteurized by a processor if FDA accepted the process for the destruction of Salmonella. Pasteurized shell eggs are now available at some grocery stores and must be kept refrigerated to retain quality. The equipment to pasteurize shell eggs isn't available for home use, and it is very difficult to pasteurize shell eggs at home without cooking the contents of the egg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russell Hoban",
        "text": "Without eggs.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Dinosaur egg",
        "text": "Allosterics"
      },
      {
        "title": "Len Deighton",
        "text": "I was buying expensive cookbooks. I'm very messy, and didn't want to take them into the kitchen. So I wrote out the recipes on paper, and it was easier for me to draw three eggs than write 'three eggs'. So I drew three eggs, then put in an arrow. For me it was a natural way to work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteurized eggs",
        "text": "Opinion on the quality of pasteurized shell eggs is mixed, and sometimes depends on whether comparisons involve experimental processes or products that are actually on the market. Taste tests noted deficiencies in pasteurized shell eggs experimentally produced via a microwaved pasteurization process (not for commercially available pasteurized shell eggs). Using commercially available pasteurized shell eggs, a \"San Francisco Chronicle\" reporter noted a \"slight chemical taste\" for pasteurized shell eggs, and a Lifescript blogger noted a \"barely detectable\" flavor and aroma difference and stated the eggs were \"worth\" their price. \"Relish\" magazine states that pasteurized shell eggs \u201clook like real eggs, act like real eggs and taste like real eggs.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "There is active research on trying oral immunotherapy (OIT) to desensitize people to egg allergens. A Cochrane Review concluded that OIT can desensitize people, but it remains unclear whether long-term tolerance develops after treatment ceases, and 69% of the people enrolled in the trials had adverse effects. They concluded there was a need for standardized protocols and guidelines prior to incorporating OIT into clinical practice. A second review noted that allergic reactions, up to anaphylaxis, can occur during OIT, and recommends this treatment not be routine medical practice. A third review limited its scope to trials of baked egg-containing goods such as bread or cake as a means of resolving egg allergy. Again, there were some successes, but also some severe allergic reactions, and the authors came down on the side of not recommending this as treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mini Eggs",
        "text": "Nutrition:"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the only country that has to disclose trace amounts of allergens in foods?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It is not correct to say in all circumstances that there is only one country with such a disclosure policy, as it depends on the intent behind the inclusion. Trace amounts intentionally added need to be disclosed in countries which have instituting labeling laws for intentionally added ingredients known to be major allergens, but Brazil (and soon to be countries in the EU) is the only country where it is mandatory to declare the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did Brazil start requiring foods be labeled with warnings about trace amounts of allergens?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Brazil since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How can egg allergies be prevented?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Prevention is obtained by avoiding eating eggs and foods that may contain eggs. Additionally, the introduction of eggs to a baby's diet is thought to affect the risk of the baby developing an egg allergy, but there are contradictory recommendations to that."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some good alternatives to eggs for someone who has allergies?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know more of commercial or homemade substitutes?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I would like to know more about homemade egg substitutes."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Aquafaba is the drained water and solutes that remain after cooking chickpeas, often used in molecular gastronomy; flax seeds can be used for eggs when baking cookies, brownies, and bars; tofu can be used as an egg substitute in recipes that use many eggs, like quiches or custards. Would you like to learn more about one of these homemade egg replacers?",
      "Simple homemade egg substitutes can be made using many different ingredients, depending on which aspect(s) of an egg must be replicated. Some commonly used substitutes are tofu, various fruit pur\u00e9es, potato starch, mashed potato, baking powder, ground seeds (especially flax and chia), agar powder, chickpea flour,[15] and plant milk."
    ],
    "topic": "Egg allergy",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Egg substitutes:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Egg substitutes",
          "Types",
          "Homemade"
        ],
        "ctx": "Simple homemade egg substitutes can be made using many different ingredients, depending on which aspect(s) of an egg must be replicated. Some commonly used substitutes are tofu, various fruit pur\u00e9es, potato starch, mashed potato, baking powder, ground seeds (especially flax and chia), agar powder, chickpea flour, and plant milk.\n* Aquafaba refers to the drained water and solutes that remain after cooking chickpeas. It can also be obtained by saving the water solution from a commercial can of chickpeas. Use of this as an egg replacer was discovered by specialists in molecular gastronomy. As it can replicate the whipped structural loft as well as the moisture of egg whites, it enables egg-avoiding cooks to produce such elusive egg dishes as macarons or lemon meringue pie.\n* Tofu can be used as an egg substitute in recipes that use many eggs, like quiches or custards. Tofu doesn't fluff up like eggs or aquafaba, but it does reproduce the meaty structure and texture that is needed for some \"eggy\" dishes. For more fluffy egg dishes such as an omelette, silken tofu may be used.\n* In sweet, baked foods and desserts, many different fruits can be used to serve the same purpose as eggs. These act by replacing the moisture and structural \"binding\" for which recipes often call for eggs. To replace one egg, the following fruits can be substituted:\n** 1 banana\n** \u00bc cup canned pumpkin or squash\n** \u00bc cup applesauce\n** \u00bc cup pur\u00e9ed prunes"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Egg substitutes:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Egg substitutes",
          "Types",
          "Homemade"
        ],
        "ctx": "Simple homemade egg substitutes can be made using many different ingredients, depending on which aspect(s) of an egg must be replicated. Some commonly used substitutes are tofu, various fruit pur\u00e9es, potato starch, mashed potato, baking powder, ground seeds (especially flax and chia), agar powder, chickpea flour, and plant milk.\n* Aquafaba refers to the drained water and solutes that remain after cooking chickpeas. It can also be obtained by saving the water solution from a commercial can of chickpeas. Use of this as an egg replacer was discovered by specialists in molecular gastronomy. As it can replicate the whipped structural loft as well as the moisture of egg whites, it enables egg-avoiding cooks to produce such elusive egg dishes as macarons or lemon meringue pie.\n* Tofu can be used as an egg substitute in recipes that use many eggs, like quiches or custards. Tofu doesn't fluff up like eggs or aquafaba, but it does reproduce the meaty structure and texture that is needed for some \"eggy\" dishes. For more fluffy egg dishes such as an omelette, silken tofu may be used.\n* In sweet, baked foods and desserts, many different fruits can be used to serve the same purpose as eggs. These act by replacing the moisture and structural \"binding\" for which recipes often call for eggs. To replace one egg, the following fruits can be substituted:\n** 1 banana\n** \u00bc cup canned pumpkin or squash\n** \u00bc cup applesauce\n** \u00bc cup pur\u00e9ed prunes"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Egg substitutes:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Egg substitutes"
        ],
        "ctx": "Egg substitutes are food products which can be used to replace eggs in cooking and baking. Common reasons a cook may choose to use an egg substitute instead of egg(s) include having an egg allergy, adhering to a vegan diet or a vegetarian diet of a type that omits eggs, or having concerns about the level of animal welfare or environmental burden associated with egg farming. There is an growing movement to address some of these concerns via third-party certifications, but because many labels in the industry remain confusing or intentionally misleading, some consumers distrust them and may use egg substitutes instead."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Egg substitutes:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Egg substitutes",
          "Types",
          "Homemade"
        ],
        "ctx": "Simple homemade egg substitutes can be made using many different ingredients, depending on which aspect(s) of an egg must be replicated. Some commonly used substitutes are tofu, various fruit pur\u00e9es, potato starch, mashed potato, baking powder, ground seeds (especially flax and chia), agar powder, chickpea flour, and plant milk.\n* Aquafaba refers to the drained water and solutes that remain after cooking chickpeas. It can also be obtained by saving the water solution from a commercial can of chickpeas. Use of this as an egg replacer was discovered by specialists in molecular gastronomy. As it can replicate the whipped structural loft as well as the moisture of egg whites, it enables egg-avoiding cooks to produce such elusive egg dishes as macarons or lemon meringue pie.\n* Tofu can be used as an egg substitute in recipes that use many eggs, like quiches or custards. Tofu doesn't fluff up like eggs or aquafaba, but it does reproduce the meaty structure and texture that is needed for some \"eggy\" dishes. For more fluffy egg dishes such as an omelette, silken tofu may be used.\n* In sweet, baked foods and desserts, many different fruits can be used to serve the same purpose as eggs. These act by replacing the moisture and structural \"binding\" for which recipes often call for eggs. To replace one egg, the following fruits can be substituted:\n** 1 banana\n** \u00bc cup canned pumpkin or squash\n** \u00bc cup applesauce\n** \u00bc cup pur\u00e9ed prunes"
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The response is usually localized, typically in the gastrointestinal tract. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, diarrhea, or any other symptoms typical to histamine release. If sufficiently strong, it can result in an anaphylactoid reaction, which is clinically indistinguishable from true anaphylaxis. Some people with this condition tolerate small quantities of egg whites. They are more often able to tolerate well-cooked eggs, such as found in cake or dried egg-based pasta, than incompletely cooked eggs, such as fried eggs or meringues, or uncooked eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Prevention of egg-allergic reactions means avoiding eggs and egg-containing foods. People with an allergy to chicken eggs may also be allergic to other types of eggs, such as goose, duck, or turkey eggs. In cooking, eggs are multifunctional: they may act as an emulsifier to reduce oil/water separation (mayonnaise), a binder (water binding and particle adhesion, as in meatloaf), or an aerator (cakes, especially angel food). Some commercial egg substitutes can substitute for particular functions (potato starch and tapioca for water binding, whey protein or bean water for aeration or particle binding, or soy lecithin or avocado for emulsification). Food companies produce egg-free mayonnaise and other replacement foods. Alfred Bird invented egg-free Bird's Custard, the original version of what is known generically as custard powder today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The cause is typically the eating of eggs or foods that contain eggs. Briefly, the immune system over-reacts to proteins found in eggs. This allergic reaction may be triggered by small amounts of egg, even egg incorporated into cooked foods, such as cake. People with an allergy to chicken eggs may also be reactive to goose, duck, or turkey eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Egg allergy is an immune hypersensitivity to proteins found in chicken eggs, and possibly goose, duck, or turkey eggs. Symptoms can be either rapid or gradual in onset. The latter can take hours to days to appear. The former may include anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening condition which requires treatment with epinephrine. Other presentations may include atopic dermatitis or inflammation of the esophagus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Veganism",
        "text": "As of 2019 in the United States, there were numerous vegan egg substitutes available, including products used for \"scrambled\" eggs, cakes, cookies, and doughnuts. Baking powder, silken (soft) tofu, mashed potato, bananas, flaxseeds, and aquafaba from chickpeas can also be used as egg substitutes. Which one of these works depends on the egg property the replacement is meant to emulate. Scrambled tofu for instance replaces scrambled eggs, but tofu does not act as a binding agent for cakes like raw eggs, flaxseeds or bananas do."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Most people find it necessary to strictly avoid any item containing eggs, including:\n* Albumin (egg white protein)\n* Apovitellin (egg yolk protein)\n* Egg Beaters (cholesterol-free, uses egg whites)\n* Dried egg solids, powdered egg\n* Egg, egg white, egg yolk\n* Egg wash\n* Eggnog\n* Fat substitutes (some)\n* Livetin (egg yolk protein)\n* Lysozyme (egg white protein)\n* Mayonnaise\n* Meringue or meringue powder\n* Ovalbumin (egg white protein)\n* Ovoglobulin (egg white protein)\n* Ovomucin (egg white protein)\n* Ovomucoid (egg white protein)\n* Ovotransferrin (egg white protein)\n* Ovovitelia (egg yolk protein)\n* Ovovitellin (egg yolk protein)\n* Silici albuminate\n* Simplesse\n* Vitellin (egg yolk protein)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Egg allergy appears mainly in children but can persist into adulthood. In the United States, it is the second most common food allergy in children after cow's milk. Most children outgrow egg allergy by the age of five, but some people remain allergic for a lifetime. In North America and Western Europe, egg allergy occurs in 0.5% to 2.5% of children under the age of five years. The majority grow out of it by school age, but for roughly one-third, the allergy persists into adulthood. Strong predictors for adult-persistence are anaphylaxis, high egg-specific serum immunoglobulin E (IgE), robust response to the skin prick test and absence of tolerance to egg-containing baked foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Diagnosis of egg allergy is based on the person's history of allergic reactions, skin prick test (SPT), patch test and measurement of egg-specific serum immunoglobulin E (IgE or sIgE). Confirmation is by double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenges. SPT and sIgE have sensitivity greater than 90% but specificity in the 50-60% range, meaning these tests will detect an egg sensitivity, but will also be positive for other allergens. For young children, attempts have been made to identify SPT and sIgE responses strong enough to avoid the need for a confirming oral food challenge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Five major allergenic proteins from the egg of the domestic chicken (\"Gallus domesticus\") have been identified; these are designated Gal d 1-5. Four of these are in egg white: ovomucoid (Gal d 1), ovalbumin (Gal d 2), ovotransferrin (Gal d 3) and lysozyme (Gal d 4). Of these, ovomucoid is the dominant allergen, and one that is less likely to be outgrown as children get older. Ingestion of under-cooked egg may trigger more severe clinical reactions than well-cooked egg. In egg yolk, alpha-livetin (Gal d 5) is the major allergen, but various vitellins may also trigger a reaction. People allergic to alpha-livetin may experience respiratory symptoms such as rhinitis and/or asthma when exposed to chickens, because the yolk protein is also found in live birds. In addition to IgE-mediated responses, egg allergy can manifest as atopic dermatitis, especially in infants and young children. Some will display both, so that a child could react to an oral food challenge with allergic symptoms, followed a day or two later with a flare up of atopic dermatitis and/or gastrointestinal symptoms, including allergic eosinophilic esophagitis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Egg whites, which are potentially histamine liberators, also provoke a nonallergic response in some people. In this situation, proteins in egg white directly trigger the release of histamine from mast cells. Because this mechanism is classified as a pharmacological reaction, or \"pseudoallergy\", the condition is considered a food intolerance instead of a true immunoglobulin E (IgE) based allergic reaction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Prevention is by avoiding eating eggs and foods that may contain eggs, such as cake or cookies. It is unclear if the early introduction of the eggs to the diet of babies aged 4\u20136 months decreases the risk of egg allergies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poultry allergy",
        "text": "It can co-occur with egg allergy but more often occurs without allergy to poultry eggs. One study found that not chicken, just turkey meat are the primary cause of allergic reactions, whilst goose, pheasant, and duck meat cause milder reaction or no symptoms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Egg allergy\n--Signs and symptoms.\n--Causes.\n----Eating egg.\n----Vaccines.\n----Exercise as a contributing factor.\n--Mechanisms.\n----Non-allergic intolerance.\n--Diagnosis.\n--Prevention.\n--Treatment.\n----Immunotherapy.\n----Avoiding eggs.\n--Prognosis.\n--Epidemiology.\n--Society and culture.\n----Regulation of labelling.\n------Ingredients intentionally added.\n------Trace amounts as a result of cross-contamination.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Adult-onset of egg allergy is rare, but there is confirmation of cases. Some were described as having started in late teenage years; another group were workers in the baking industry who were exposed to powdered egg dust."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Allergic reactions are hyperactive responses of the immune system to generally innocuous substances, such as proteins in the foods we eat. Why some proteins trigger allergic reactions while others do not is not entirely clear, although in part thought to be due to resistance to digestion. Because of this, intact or largely intact proteins reach the small intestine, which has a large presence of white blood cells involved in immune reactions. The heat of cooking structurally degrades protein molecules, potentially making them less allergenic. The pathophysiology of allergic responses can be divided into two phases. The first is an acute response that occurs immediately after exposure to an allergen. This phase can either subside or progress into a \"late-phase reaction\" which can substantially prolong the symptoms of a response, and result in more tissue damage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parenteral nutrition",
        "text": "Use of egg-derived emulsifiers is not recommended for people with an egg allergy due to the risk of reaction. In situations where there is no suitable emulsifying agent for a person at risk of developing essential fatty acid deficiency, cooking oils may be spread upon large portions of available skin for supplementation by transdermal absorption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "For those who do not consume eggs, alternatives used in baking include other rising agents or binding materials, such as ground flax seeds or potato starch flour. Tofu also acts as a partial binding agent, since it is high in lecithin due to its soy content. Applesauce may be used, as well as arrowroot and banana. Extracted soybean lecithin, in turn, often is used in packaged foods as an inexpensive substitute for egg-derived lecithin. Leguminous broths, such as chickpea brine or green pea canning liquid, also known as aquafaba, can replace egg whites in desserts such as meringues and mousses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "There is a condition called food-dependent, exercise-induced anaphylaxis (FDEIAn). Exercise can trigger hives and more severe symptoms of an allergic reaction. For some people with this condition, exercise alone is not sufficient, nor consumption of a food to which they are mildly allergic sufficient, but when the food in question is consumed within a few hours before high intensity exercise, the result can be anaphylaxis. Egg are specifically mentioned as a causative food. One theory is that exercise is stimulating the release of mediators such as histamine from IgE-activated mast cells. Two of the reviews postulate that exercise is not essential for the development of symptoms, but rather that it is one of several augmentation factors, citing evidence that the culprit food in combination with alcohol or aspirin will result in a respiratory anaphylactic reaction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Treatment for accidental ingestion of egg products by allergic individuals varies depending on the sensitivity of the person. An antihistamine such as diphenhydramine (Benadryl) may be prescribed. Sometimes prednisone will be prescribed to prevent a possible late phase Type I hypersensitivity reaction. Severe allergic reactions (anaphalaxis) may require treatment with an epinephrine pen, an injection device designed to be used by a non-healthcare professional when emergency treatment is warranted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The majority of children outgrow egg allergy. One review reported that 70% of children will outgrow this allergy by 16 years. In subsequently published longitudinal studies, one reported that for 140 infants who had challenge-confirmed egg allergy, 44% had resolved by two years. A second reported that for 203 infants with confirmed IgE-mediated egg allergy, 45% resolved by two years of age, 66% by four years, and 71% by six years. Children will be able to tolerate eggs as an ingredient in baked goods and well-cooked eggs sooner than under-cooked eggs. Resolution was more likely if baseline serum IgE was lower, and if the baseline symptoms did not include anaphylaxis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eggplant",
        "text": "Individuals who are atopic (genetically predisposed to developing certain allergic hypersensitivity reactions) are more likely to have a reaction to eggplant, which may be because eggplant is high in histamines. A few proteins and at least one secondary metabolite have been identified as potential allergens. Cooking eggplant thoroughly seems to preclude reactions in some individuals, but at least one of the allergenic proteins survives the cooking process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg substitutes",
        "text": "Simple homemade egg substitutes can be made using many different ingredients, depending on which aspect(s) of an egg must be replicated. Some commonly used substitutes are tofu, various fruit pur\u00e9es, potato starch, mashed potato, baking powder, ground seeds (especially flax and chia), agar powder, chickpea flour, and plant milk.\n* Aquafaba refers to the drained water and solutes that remain after cooking chickpeas. It can also be obtained by saving the water solution from a commercial can of chickpeas. Use of this as an egg replacer was discovered by specialists in molecular gastronomy. As it can replicate the whipped structural loft as well as the moisture of egg whites, it enables egg-avoiding cooks to produce such elusive egg dishes as macarons or lemon meringue pie.\n* Tofu can be used as an egg substitute in recipes that use many eggs, like quiches or custards. Tofu doesn't fluff up like eggs or aquafaba, but it does reproduce the meaty structure and texture that is needed for some \"eggy\" dishes. For more fluffy egg dishes such as an omelette, silken tofu may be used.\n* In sweet, baked foods and desserts, many different fruits can be used to serve the same purpose as eggs. These act by replacing the moisture and structural \"binding\" for which recipes often call for eggs. To replace one egg, the following fruits can be substituted:\n** 1 banana\n** \u00bc cup canned pumpkin or squash\n** \u00bc cup applesauce\n** \u00bc cup pur\u00e9ed prunes"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Ingredients that sometimes include egg protein include: artificial flavoring, natural flavoring, lecithin and nougat candy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Food allergies usually have a fast onset (from seconds to one hour). Symptoms may include: rash, hives, itching of mouth, lips, tongue, throat, eyes, skin, or other areas, swelling of lips, tongue, eyelids, or the whole face, difficulty swallowing, runny or congested nose, hoarse voice, wheezing, shortness of breath, diarrhea, abdominal pain, lightheadedness, fainting, nausea, or vomiting. Symptoms of allergies vary from person to person and may vary from incident to incident. Serious danger regarding allergies can begin when the respiratory tract or blood circulation is affected. The former can be indicated by wheezing, a blocked airway and cyanosis, the latter by weak pulse, pale skin, and fainting. When these symptoms occur the allergic reaction is called anaphylaxis. Anaphylaxis occurs when IgE antibodies are involved, and areas of the body that are not in direct contact with the food become affected and show severe symptoms. Untreated, this can proceed to vasodilation and a low blood pressure situation called anaphylactic shock."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg substitutes",
        "text": "Egg substitutes are food products which can be used to replace eggs in cooking and baking. Common reasons a cook may choose to use an egg substitute instead of egg(s) include having an egg allergy, adhering to a vegan diet or a vegetarian diet of a type that omits eggs, or having concerns about the level of animal welfare or environmental burden associated with egg farming. There is an growing movement to address some of these concerns via third-party certifications, but because many labels in the industry remain confusing or intentionally misleading, some consumers distrust them and may use egg substitutes instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jason Mantzoukas",
        "text": "Mantzoukas was born with an egg allergy and experiences anaphylaxis if ingested. He has cited this allergy as the cause of his hypochondriac tendencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lecithin",
        "text": "Egg-derived lecithin is not usually a concern for those allergic to eggs since commercially available egg lecithin is highly purified and devoid of allergy-causing egg proteins. Similarly, soy lecithin does not contain enough allergenic proteins for most people allergic to soy, although the US FDA only exempts a few soy lecithin products from its mandatory allergenic source labeling requirements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "One of the most common food allergies in infants is eggs. Infants usually have the opportunity to grow out of this allergy during childhood, if exposure is minimized. Allergic reactions against egg white are more common than reactions against egg yolks. In addition to true allergic reactions, some people experience a food intolerance to egg whites. Food labeling practices in most developed countries now include eggs, egg products, and the processing of foods on equipment that also process foods containing eggs in a special allergen alert section of the ingredients on the labels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg substitutes",
        "text": "There are many commercial substitutes on the market today for people who wish to avoid eggs. Most of these products are devoid of all animal products, and thus are vegan and contain no cholesterol.\n*The EVERY Company, a venture-backed company, produces bioidentical egg whites through a fermentation process.\n*JUST, Inc., another venture-backed company, produces and markets egg-free products, including cookie dough and a mayonnaise substitute, based on pea protein from the yellow pea.\n* Egg Replacer is a mixture of \"potato starch, tapioca flour, leavening (calcium lactate, calcium carbonate, cream of tartar), cellulose gum, modified cellulose\".\n* The Vegg is a vegan liquid egg yolk replacer, suitable in any recipe that one would alternatively use egg yolk. It is made of \"nutritional yeast flakes, sodium alginate, kala namak, [and] beta-carotene\". The Vegg was first sold in 2012, and is available in a variety of online and in-store retailers in the United States, Europe, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.\n* FUMI Ingredients produces egg white substitutes from micro-algae with the help of micro-organisms such as brewer's yeast and baker's yeast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In the United States, 90% of allergic responses to foods are caused by cow's milk, eggs, wheat, shellfish, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and soy beans. The declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory in any country, with the exception of Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteurized eggs",
        "text": "The 2013 FDA Food Code states that in serving highly susceptible populations (preschool age children; older adults; individuals with compromised immune systems; and individuals who receive meals through custodial care-giving environments such as child or adult day care centers, kidney dialysis centers, hospitals, or nursing homes ): \u201cPasteurized eggs or egg products shall be substituted for raw eggs in the preparation of Foods such as Caesar salad, hollandaise or B\u00e9arnaise sauce, mayonnaise, meringue, eggnog, ice cream, egg-fortified beverages and recipes in which more than one egg is broken and the eggs are combined.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The mainstay of treatment is total avoidance of egg protein intake. This is complicated because the declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory (see regulation of labelling)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "There is active research on trying oral immunotherapy (OIT) to desensitize people to egg allergens. A Cochrane Review concluded that OIT can desensitize people, but it remains unclear whether long-term tolerance develops after treatment ceases, and 69% of the people enrolled in the trials had adverse effects. They concluded there was a need for standardized protocols and guidelines prior to incorporating OIT into clinical practice. A second review noted that allergic reactions, up to anaphylaxis, can occur during OIT, and recommends this treatment not be routine medical practice. A third review limited its scope to trials of baked egg-containing goods such as bread or cake as a means of resolving egg allergy. Again, there were some successes, but also some severe allergic reactions, and the authors came down on the side of not recommending this as treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "Egg allergies affect about one in 50 children but are frequently outgrown by children when they reach age five. Typically, the sensitivity is to proteins in the white, rather than the yolk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "After the chemical mediators of the acute response subside, late-phase responses can often occur due to the migration of other white blood cells such as neutrophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils, and macrophages to the initial reaction sites. This is usually seen 2\u201324 hours after the original reaction. Cytokines from mast cells may also play a role in the persistence of long-term effects. Late-phase responses seen in asthma are slightly different from those seen in other allergic responses, although they are still caused by release of mediators from eosinophils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquafaba",
        "text": "Around the same time, vegan food enthusiast Goose Wohlt discovered that the cooking liquid can replace egg white without the need for stabilizers. In March 2015 he published a recipe for egg-free meringue using only chickpea liquid and sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg lecithin",
        "text": "Egg-derived lecithin is not usually a concern for those allergic to eggs since commercially available food grade egg lecithin is devoid of allergy causing egg proteins. Egg lecithin is not a concern for those on low-cholesterol diets, because the lecithin found in eggs markedly inhibits the absorption of the cholesterol contained in eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "For all age groups, a review of fifty studies conducted in Europe estimated 2.5% for self-reported egg allergy and 0.2% for confirmed. National survey data in the United States collected in 2005 and 2006 showed that from age six and older, the prevalence of serum IgE confirmed egg allergy was under 0.2%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Incidence and prevalence are terms commonly used in describing disease epidemiology. Incidence is newly diagnosed cases, which can be expressed as new cases per year per million people. Prevalence is the number of cases alive, expressible as existing cases per million people during a period of time. Egg allergies are usually observed in infants and young children, and often disappear with age (see Prognosis), so prevalence of egg allergy may be expressed as a percentage of children under a set age. One review estimates that in North American and western European populations the prevalence of egg allergy in children under the age of five years is 1.8-2.0%. A second described the range in young children as 0.5-2.5%. Although the majority of children develop tolerance as they age into school age years, for roughly one-third the allergy persists into adulthood. Strong predictors for adult-persistent allergy are anaphylactic symptoms as a child, high egg-specific serum IgE, robust response to the skin prick test and absence of tolerance to egg-containing baked foods. Self-reported allergy prevalence is always higher than food-challenge confirmed allergy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquafaba",
        "text": "Due to its ability to mimic functional properties of egg whites in cooking, aquafaba can be used as a direct replacement for them in some cases, including meringues and marshmallows. It is especially suitable for use by people who avoid eggs, such as vegans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg white",
        "text": "Although egg whites are prized as a source of low-fat, high-protein nutrition, a small number of people cannot eat them. Egg allergy is more common among infants than adults, and most children will outgrow it by the age of five. Allergic reactions against egg white are more common than reactions against egg yolks. In addition to true allergic reactions, some people experience a food intolerance to egg whites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "Other egg substitutes are made from just the white of the egg for those who worry about the high cholesterol and fat content in eggs. These products usually have added vitamins and minerals, as well as vegetable-based emulsifiers and thickeners, such as xanthan gum or guar gum. These allow the product to maintain the nutrition and several culinary properties of real eggs, making possible foods such as Hollandaise sauce, custard, mayonnaise, and most baked goods with these substitutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Probiotic products have been tested, and some found to contain milk and egg proteins which were not always indicated on the labels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ovomucoid",
        "text": "Chicken ovomucoid, also known as Gal d 1, is a known allergen. It is the protein most often causing egg allergy. At least four IgE epitopes have been identified. Three other egg white proteins are also identified as allergenic: ovalbumin (Gal d 2), ovotransferrin (Gal d 3) and lysozyme (Gal d 4)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "When eggs are introduced to a baby's diet is thought to affect risk of developing allergy, but there are contradictory recommendations. A 2016 review acknowledged that introducing peanuts early appears to have a benefit, but stated \"The effect of early introduction of egg on egg allergy are controversial.\" A meta-analysis published the same year supported the theory that early introduction of eggs into an infant's diet lowers risk, and a review of allergens in general stated that introducing solid foods at 4\u20136 months may result in the lowest subsequent allergy risk. However, an older consensus document from the American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology recommended that introduction of chicken eggs be delayed to 24 months of age."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "The measles and mumps parts of the \"MMR vaccine\" (for measles, mumps, and rubella) are cultured on chick embryo cell culture and contain trace amounts of egg protein. The amount of egg protein is lower than in influenza vaccines and the risk of an allergic reaction is much lower. One guideline stated that all infants and children should get the two MMR vaccinations, mentioning that \"Studies on large numbers of egg-allergic children show there is no increased risk of severe allergic reactions to the vaccines.\" Another guideline recommended that if a child has a known medical history of severe anaphylaxis reaction to eggs, then the vaccination should be done in a hospital center, and the child be kept for observation for 60 minutes before being allowed to leave. The second guideline also stated that if there was a severe reaction to the first vaccination - which could have been to egg protein or the gelatin and neomycin components of the vaccine - the second is contraindicated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Conditions caused by food allergies are classified into three groups according to the mechanism of the allergic response:\n# IgE-mediated (classic)\u00a0\u2013 the most common type, manifesting acute changes that occur shortly after eating, and may progress to anaphylaxis\n# Non-IgE mediated\u00a0\u2013 characterized by an immune response not involving immunoglobulin E; may occur hours to days after eating, complicating diagnosis\n# IgE and non-IgE-mediated\u00a0\u2013 a hybrid of the above two types"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Young children may exhibit dermatitis/eczema on face, scalp and other parts of the body, in older children knees and elbows are more commonly afflicted. Children with dermatitis are at greater than expected risk of also exhibiting asthma and allergic rhinitis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Each year the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) publishes recommendations for prevention and control of influenza in children. In the 2016-2017 guidelines a change was made, that children with a history of egg allergy may receive the IIV3 or IIV4 vaccine without special precautions. It did, however, state that \"Standard vaccination practice should include the ability to respond to acute hypersensitivity reactions.\" Prior to this, AAP recommended precautions based on egg allergy history: if no history, immunize; if a history of mild reaction, i.e., hives, immunize in a medical setting with healthcare professionals and resuscitative equipment available; if a history of severe reactions, refer to an allergist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dermatitis",
        "text": "There has not been adequate evaluation of changing the diet to reduce eczema. There is some evidence that infants with an established egg allergy may have a reduction in symptoms if eggs are eliminated from their diets. Benefits have not been shown for other elimination diets, though the studies are small and poorly executed. Establishing that there is a food allergy before dietary change could avoid unnecessary lifestyle changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg as food",
        "text": "Abnormalities that have been found in eggs purchased for human consumption include:\n* Double-yolk eggs, when an egg contains two or more yolks, occurs when ovulation occurs too rapidly, or when one yolk becomes joined with another yolk.\n* Yolkless eggs, which contain whites but no yolk, usually occurs during a pullet's first effort, produced before her laying mechanism is fully ready.\n* Double-shelled eggs, where an egg may have two or more outer shells, is caused by a counter-peristalsis contraction and occurs when a second oocyte is released by the ovary before the first egg has completely traveled through the oviduct and been laid.\n* Shell-less or thin-shelled eggs may be caused by egg drop syndrome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eggplant",
        "text": "Case reports of itchy skin or mouth, mild headache, and stomach upset after handling or eating eggplant have been reported anecdotally and published in medical journals (see also oral allergy syndrome)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In countries in North America and western Europe, where use of cow's milk based infant formula is common, chicken egg allergy is the second most common food allergy in infants and young children after cow's milk. However, in Japan, egg allergy is first and cow's milk second, followed by wheat and then the other common allergenic foods. A review from South Africa reported egg and peanut as the two most common allergenic foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "Influenza vaccines are created by injecting a live virus into fertilized chicken eggs. The viruses are harvested, killed and purified, but a residual amount of egg white protein remains. There are options to receive recombinant flu vaccine grown on mammalian cell cultures instead of in eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Julie Powell",
        "text": "Prior to her Julie/Julia project, Powell had never eaten an egg before she tackled Oeufs a la Fondue de Fromage. At various points in the blog, Powell confessed to loathing beans, olives, anchovies, salad, spinach, eggs and even fresh peas (\u201clittle green sacs of wet flour\u201d)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scrambled Eggs Super!",
        "text": "Ruth C. Barlow of the \"Christian Science Monitor\" called it a \"gay extravaganza\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eggplant",
        "text": "A 2008 study of a sample of 741 people in India, where eggplant is commonly consumed, found nearly 10% reported some allergic symptoms after consuming eggplant, with 1.4% showing symptoms within two hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Are You an Egghead?",
        "text": "Match Two: Anne Hegerty v. David Edwards: Despite having 4 Eggheads, Anne sensationally collapsed in General Knowledge, wasting 2 Eggheads and giving a wrong answer on the first question, before getting another one wrong, making it easy for David."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "Whether food allergy prevalence is increasing or not, food allergy awareness has definitely increased, with impacts on the quality of life for children, their parents and their immediate caregivers. In the United States, the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 (FALCPA) causes people to be reminded of allergy problems every time they handle a food package, and restaurants have added allergen warnings to menus. The Culinary Institute of America, a premier school for chef training, has courses in allergen-free cooking and a separate teaching kitchen. School systems have protocols about what foods can be brought into the school. Despite all these precautions, people with serious allergies are aware that accidental exposure can easily occur at other peoples' houses, at school or in restaurants. Food fear has a significant impact on quality of life. Finally, for children with allergies, their quality of life is also affected by actions of their peers. There is an increased occurrence of bullying, which can include threats or acts of deliberately being touched with foods they need to avoid, also having their allergen-free food deliberately contaminated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg substitutes",
        "text": "Egg substitutes\n--Types.\n----Commercial.\n----Homemade.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteurized eggs",
        "text": "Pasteurized eggs\n--Rationale.\n----Salmonellosis.\n----Avian flu virus.\n----Food code compliance.\n--Products.\n--Pasteurized shell eggs.\n----History.\n----Process.\n----Quality.\n----Exemption.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Buildout",
        "text": "eggs = theegg"
      },
      {
        "title": "American Egg Board",
        "text": "In September 2015, the board was investigated regarding their actions of paid advocacy against Hampton Creek, a company marketing vegan egg substitutes and Just Mayo, a mayonnaise substitute which uses pea protein as an emulsifier in place of eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg Beaters",
        "text": "Egg Beaters is a product marketed in the United States as a healthy substitute for whole eggs. It is a substitute for whole/fresh eggs (from the shell) that contains less cholesterol, but it is not an egg substitute (in the sense of a food to replace eggs for people with egg allergies). Egg Beaters is primarily egg whites with added flavorings, vitamins, and thickeners xanthan gum and guar gum. It contains real egg whites, but no egg yolks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cadbury",
        "text": "On 10 February 2007, Cadbury recalled some of its Easter eggs due to a labelling error. The products were produced in a factory handling nuts, potential allergens, but this was not made clear on the packaging. Cadbury said the products were \"perfectly safe\" for people without nut allergies to eat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eggnog",
        "text": "Some North American manufacturers offer soy-, almond-, rice- or coconut milk-based alternatives for vegans and those with dairy allergies, lactose intolerance or other dietary restrictions. The history of non-dairy eggnogs goes back to 1899 when Almeda Lambert, in her \"Guide for Nut Cookery\", gave a recipe for \"Eggnog\" made using coconut cream, eggs, and sugar. In 1973, Eunice Farmilant, in \"The Natural Foods Sweet-Tooth Cookbook\", gave a more modern non-dairy eggnog recipe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mayonnaise",
        "text": "Commercial imitations are made for vegans and those who avoid chicken eggs or dietary cholesterol as well as people with egg allergies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In the early stages of acute allergic reaction, lymphocytes previously sensitized to a specific protein or protein fraction react by quickly producing a particular type of antibody known as secreted IgE (sIgE), which circulates in the blood and binds to IgE-specific receptors on the surface of other kinds of immune cells called mast cells and basophils. Both of these are involved in the acute inflammatory response. Activated mast cells and basophils undergo a process called degranulation, during which they release histamine and other inflammatory chemical mediators called (cytokines, interleukins, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins) into the surrounding tissue causing several systemic effects, such as vasodilation, mucous secretion, nerve stimulation, and smooth-muscle contraction. This results in runny nose, itchiness, shortness of breath, and potentially anaphylaxis. Depending on the individual, the allergen, and the mode of introduction, the symptoms can be system-wide (classical anaphylaxis), or localized to particular body systems; asthma is localized to the respiratory system while eczema is localized to the skin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquafaba",
        "text": "A few days later, a Facebook group was created to encourage development and popularize the egg substitute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicarbazin",
        "text": "The mechanism by which egg production is reduced appears to be the result of reduced hypothalamic sensitivity to exogenous progesterone, while the ability of the pituitary to respond to the lutein excretion factor (LHRF) remains intact."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteurized eggs",
        "text": "Currently, shell eggs pasteurized using the heating technique are the only commercially available pasteurized eggs. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Shell eggs can be pasteurized by a processor if FDA accepted the process for the destruction of Salmonella. Pasteurized shell eggs are now available at some grocery stores and must be kept refrigerated to retain quality. The equipment to pasteurize shell eggs isn't available for home use, and it is very difficult to pasteurize shell eggs at home without cooking the contents of the egg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquafaba",
        "text": "In general one medium egg white can be replaced with 30 millilitres (2 tablespoons) of aquafaba, or one medium whole egg with 45\u00a0ml (3\u00a0tbsp)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In the United States, there is no federal mandate to address the presence of allergens in drug products. FALCPA does not apply to medicines nor to cosmetics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Portia labiata",
        "text": "\"Portia\" females have never been seen eating their own eggs, but in nature females with eggs of their own have been seen eating eggs of other females of the same species. In a test, \"P. labiata\" females did not eat their eggs if the testers put them in other female's nests, showing that the test females could identify their own eggs, possibly by chemical means. When the test females and their eggs were restored to their own nests and other females' eggs were also placed in the same nest, the test females ate neither their own eggs nor the \"foreign\" ones. In nature a female is unlikely to find foreign eggs in her nest, and it might be safest for females to avoid any eggs in their own nests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg donation",
        "text": "Women may resort to egg donation because their ovaries may not be able to produce a substantial number of viable eggs. Women may experience premature ovarian failure and stop producing viable eggs during their reproductive years. Some women may be born without ovaries. Ovaries damaged by chemotherapy or radiotherapy may also no longer produce healthy eggs. Older women with diminished ovarian reserves or older women who are going through menopause could also become pregnant with egg donation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allonemobius fasciatus",
        "text": "\"A. fasciatus\" undergoes a process called bet hedging that is likely due to temperature and changes in moisture found in the soil where eggs are positioned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter in Latvia",
        "text": "While eating an egg, people watched how the eggshell separated - if it came off well, it meant the flax will grow well; if it shed badly, then it meant a bad flax harvest. Eggs also involved in a lot of other beliefs:\n* Who steals a Lieldienas egg - will remain naked like an egg!\n* Who eats a Lieldienas egg without salt - will lie all summer!\n* Exchange eggs during Lieldienas - otherwise chickens will not lay and chicks will not hatch!\n* If a girl during Lieldienas gives to a guy 2 eggs, it would imply - I don't like you; if 3 - better than nothing; if 4 - I don't like you, but since you're rich, I will be with you; if 5 - I have been waiting for you for a long time, come, take me!"
      },
      {
        "title": "The EVERY Company",
        "text": "The EVERY Company developed the first animal-free egg white, which can be used instead of traditional eggs for use in baking, nutrition, and industrial use. It foams, gels and binds, similar to a traditional egg white and can be used to make vegan alternatives to popular egg-based foods, such as meringue or scrambled eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg allergy",
        "text": "In Brazil since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory when the product does not intentionally add any allergenic food or its derivatives but the Good Manufacturing Practices and allergen control measures adopted are not sufficient to prevent the presence of accidental trace amounts. These allergens include wheat, rye, barley, oats and their hybrids, crustaceans, eggs, fish, peanuts, soybean, milk of all species of mammalians, almonds, hazelnuts, cashew nuts, Brazil nuts, macadamia nuts, walnuts, pecan nuts, pistaches, pine nuts, and chestnuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scrambled Eggs Super!",
        "text": "He explains his criteria for choosing some eggs, because of their sweetness, and avoiding others. He takes the eggs home but decides that he still needs more, and he calls on the help of some of his friends from around the world, including a \"fellow named Ali\". After each bird Peter finds he states the phrase...\"Scrambled Eggs Super Dee Dooper Dee Booper Special Deluxe a la Peter T. Hooper\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modest Heroes",
        "text": "Shun Yashima is a young boy born with a lethal allergy to eggs. Every day, then, his family focuses on protecting Shun from contact with eggs. Shun has to eat special meals at school, his classmates must be careful not to spit on him and get saliva with egg all over him, and Shun has to take his allergy into consideration when he thinks about going on a school field trip. At the same time, his mother tries to maintain her career as a dance teacher. One day Shun mistakenly consumes egg products when his parents are away from home."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg white",
        "text": "Eggs are susceptible to \"Salmonella\" contamination. Thorough cooking eliminates the direct threat (i.e. cooked egg whites that are solid and not runny), but the threat of cross-contamination remains if people handle contaminated eggs and then touch other foods or items in the kitchen, thus spreading the bacteria. In August 2010, the FDA ordered the recall of 380 million eggs because of possible \"Salmonella\" contamination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Len Deighton",
        "text": "I was buying expensive cookbooks. I'm very messy, and didn't want to take them into the kitchen. So I wrote out the recipes on paper, and it was easier for me to draw three eggs than write 'three eggs'. So I drew three eggs, then put in an arrow. For me it was a natural way to work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eat Just",
        "text": "The company's egg substitutes are developed by finding plant proteins that serve a function eggs are normally used for, such as binding or emulsifying. For example, plant proteins are analyzed for molecular weight, amino acid sequences, and performance under heat or pressure. Much of the testing is focused on finding high-protein plants with specific types of proteins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg substitutes",
        "text": "However, these will also add some flavor to the recipe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oomancy",
        "text": "One way this can be done is to roll the egg all over a person's body so it can absorb the negative energy within the person. Then this egg is cracked open into a bowl of water where it can be interpreted as to whether or not the negativity has left the body. A modern-day variation of the hard boiled egg divination is to draw symbols on different spots of the egg shell that each indicate a different answer to the question being asked. After the egg is rolled down the slope, whatever symbol is facing up is considered the answer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Erica Meier",
        "text": "Meier led Animal Outlook through several successful campaigns, including ending the egg industry's use of \"Animal Care Certified\" claims that could mislead consumers, as well as persuading companies like Dunkin' Donuts, Starbucks, and Subway to offer vegan options. She also persuaded vegetarian brands Boca Burger, Lightlife, Morningstar Farms, and Quorn to eliminate or reduce their use of eggs in their products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Acrosome reaction",
        "text": "There are considerable species variations in the morphology and consequences of the acrosome reaction. In several species, the trigger for the acrosome reaction has been identified in a layer that surrounds the egg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg timer",
        "text": "Eggs consist of proteins which denature when heat is applied. They lose their shape and become long strands rather than tight masses. They then tangle with each other causing the liquid of the egg to become more and more viscous."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuckoo",
        "text": "There are two main hypotheses on the cognitive mechanisms that mediate host distinguishing of eggs.\u00a0One hypothesis is true recognition, which states that a host compares eggs present in its clutch to an internal template (learnt or innate), to identify if parasitic eggs are present. However, memorizing a template of a parasitic egg is costly and imperfect and likely not identical to each host's egg. The other one is the discordancy hypothesis, which states that host compares eggs in the clutch and identifies the odd ones. However, if parasitic eggs made the majority of eggs in the clutch, then hosts will end up rejecting their own eggs. More recent studies have found that it is more likely that both mechanisms contribute to host discrimination of parasitic eggs since one compensates for the limitations of the other."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russell Hoban",
        "text": "Without eggs.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg drop syndrome",
        "text": "Hygiene:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Strange Eggs",
        "text": "etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scrambled eggs",
        "text": "Once the liquid has mostly set, additional ingredients such as ham, herbs, cheese or cream may be folded in over low heat until incorporated. The eggs are usually slightly undercooked when removed from heat, since the eggs will continue to set. If any liquid is seeping from the eggs (syneresis), this is a sign of undercooking, overcooking or adding undercooked high-moisture vegetables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scrambled eggs",
        "text": "The mixture can be poured into a hot pan containing melted butter or oil, where it starts coagulating. The heat is turned down and the eggs are stirred as they cook. This creates small, soft curds of egg. Unlike pancakes, scrambled eggs are virtually never browned. A thin pan is preferable to prevent browning. With continuous stirring, and not allowing the eggs to stick to the pan, the eggs themselves will maintain the pan temperature at about the boiling point of water, until they coagulate."
      },
      {
        "title": "2009 swine flu pandemic vaccine",
        "text": "A different method of producing influenza virus was used to produce the Novartis vaccine Optaflu. In this vaccine the virus is grown in cell culture instead of in eggs. This method is faster than the classic egg-based system and produces a purer final product. There are no traces of egg proteins in the final product, so it is safe for people with egg allergies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eggs Benedict",
        "text": "Several variations of Eggs Benedict exist, involving replacing any component except the egg:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Uny",
        "text": "Uny\n--Stores.\n--Cage-free eggs.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electrogastrogram",
        "text": "Another emotion with a bodily effect that can be measured by EGG is that of stress. When the body is stressed and engages in the fight-or-flight response, blood flow is directed to the muscles in the arms and legs and away from the digestive system. This loss of blood flow slows the digestive system, and this slowing can be seen on the EGG. However, this response can vary from person to person and situation to situation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Globodera ellingtonae",
        "text": "Another way to utilize this research is to synthetically produce the compounds produced by trap crop. Up to 10 different compounds have been identified as contributing to the egg hatching factor. If these compounds can be produced and delivered to infested fields this would contribute the depletion of cyst nematode eggs."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the only country that has to disclose trace amounts of allergens in foods?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It is not correct to say in all circumstances that there is only one country with such a disclosure policy, as it depends on the intent behind the inclusion. Trace amounts intentionally added need to be disclosed in countries which have instituting labeling laws for intentionally added ingredients known to be major allergens, but Brazil (and soon to be countries in the EU) is the only country where it is mandatory to declare the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did Brazil start requiring foods be labeled with warnings about trace amounts of allergens?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Brazil since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How can egg allergies be prevented?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Prevention is obtained by avoiding eating eggs and foods that may contain eggs. Additionally, the introduction of eggs to a baby's diet is thought to affect the risk of the baby developing an egg allergy, but there are contradictory recommendations to that."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some good alternatives to eggs for someone who has allergies?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know more of commercial or homemade substitutes?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I would like to know more about homemade egg substitutes."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Aquafaba is the drained water and solutes that remain after cooking chickpeas, often used in molecular gastronomy; flax seeds can be used for eggs when baking cookies, brownies, and bars; tofu can be used as an egg substitute in recipes that use many eggs, like quiches or custards. Would you like to learn more about one of these homemade egg replacers?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is there any way for a person to have an egg allergy reaction other than from eating eggs?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
    ],
    "topic": "Egg allergy",
    "ground_truth_ctx": []
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Membership requirements for applicants include being at least 18 years of age and have a documented ownership of at least one qualifying high-quality costume of a Star Wars villain. To maintain membership they must troop at least one local unit or Legion-level event per year and abide by the 501st Legion Code of Conduct."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members were also featured on the Christmas 2012 episode of \"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the Legion are issued with individual identification numbers upon joining. It becomes their number for life, and will never be given to anyone else, even after they die. Because of that, many members pick a number that has a significant meaning to them."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "At formal events, members typically appear to have walked off the screen when portraying characters. At informal events (such as local science fiction conventions), members often display their creativity with genre mash-ups of their costumes."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Combining a costume code with a member's identification number creates a unique in-universe designation for each Legion member and each one of their costumes. Member 8968 might be known as TK-8968, IG-8968, or TB-8968, depending on whether they are wearing a Stormtrooper, Imperial Gunner, or Biker Scout costume at the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The Legion's costuming standards are listed online in the 501st Legion Costume Reference Library (CRL). All costumes must meet the base requirements listed there in order to be considered for approval."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion is an international fan-based organization dedicated to the construction and wearing of screen-accurate replicas of Imperial Stormtrooper armor, Sith Lords, Clone Troopers, bounty hunters, and other villains from the \"Star Wars\" universe. The 501st Legion, called by its nickname Vader's Fist, is made up entirely of volunteers."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "While the Legion was initially based only on the white-armored stormtroopers stationed aboard the Death Star, as the group expanded, it grew to encompass every other canon trooper variation, and other villains from the Star Wars saga, such as Sith Lords and bounty hunters. Custom creations are generally not eligible for membership, and all applicants are reviewed by their local units and Legion Membership Officers prior to approval into the member database."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the 501st Legion refer to themselves by a letter-number combination, such as TK-899, TR-3774, or DZ-40201. This tradition originates from a line in Star Wars, \"TK-421, why aren't you at your post?\". The founder of the 501st Legion, Albin Johnson, decided that \"Desert Troopers would be labeled \u201cTD\u201d and came from specialized training schools for their missions, Snowtroopers would be \u201cTS\u201d, Biker Scouts would [become] \u201cTB.\u201d\" as each group of costumes carries a specific letter designation."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion is an all-volunteer organization formed for the purpose of bringing together costume enthusiasts from around the world under a collective identity. The 501st Legion seeks to promote interest in Star Wars through the building and wearing of high quality costumes, to facilitate the use of these costumes for Star Wars-related events, and to contribute to the local community through costumed charity and volunteer work."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "To supervise the Legion at the worldwide and local levels, the membership elects leaders every year, who in turn appoint command staffs to administrate day-to-day operations for the Legion as a whole, Garrisons, Squads, Outposts, and Detachments."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Early events attended (or \"trooped\") by the Legion were mostly science-fiction and comic book conventions or related to the release of the Star Wars movies in theaters and on video. But members were looking for more frequent reasons to meet up with their new-found Legion friends and show off their costumes together. The Legion expanded into a charitable organization."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The Legion helps members to connect with fellow Star Wars costumers through two organizational networks: one based on geographical location and one based on costume types."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion Membership Officer (LMO): The office of the LMO is responsible for reviewing and processing applications for membership and maintaining member information in the Legion database. The LMO drives costume policies, including acceptable costume types for membership and quality control of costume submissions. The LMO is the final arbiter of member costume issues and approvals. The LMO supervises and advises Detachments, Garrison Membership Liaisons, and Garrison Web Liaisons."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "501st Legion\n--Origins.\n----The 501st Legion name.\n--Mission statement.\n--Membership.\n----Legion identification numbers.\n----The Galactic Academy.\n--Organization.\n----Local units.\n----Detachments.\n--Command structure.\n----Legion officers.\n----Unit officers.\n------Garrison officers.\n------Squad officers.\n------Outpost officers.\n----Detachment officers.\n--Appearances.\n----Community events.\n----Libraries.\n----Hospitals.\n----Promotions.\n----Professional sports.\n----Conventions.\n----Concerts.\n----Television.\n--Charitable works.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion members have become an established attraction at Disney World's annual Star Wars Weekends, the Star Wars: Where Science Meets Imagination museum exhibit, and Free Comic Book Day events across the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Garrison Membership Liaison (GML): The GML is appointed by the CO. The GML is responsible for reviewing and processing applications for membership and maintaining Garrison member information in the Legion database. The GML reports to the CO and the LMO."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion members make appearances at casual, promotional, and charitable events, often at the request of Lucasfilm's Fan Events department. Although not officially affiliated with the Walt Disney Company or Lucasfilm LLC., the 501st Legion is Lucasfilm's preferred Imperial costuming organization, and its members were featured as extras in the official series \"The Mandalorian\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "For Star Wars costumers who are under 18 years of age, the 501st Legion has partnered with its sister club, the Rebel Legion, to form a joint group for children called the Galactic Academy. The Galactic Academy deals with both \"bad guy\" and \"good guy\" costumes, has no member age requirement, and has no strict costume standards. It provides a safe environment for children of different age groups who share a love of Star Wars and costuming to connect with one another online."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Detachment Leader (DL): The DL is elected by the Detachment membership. The DL is the chief administrator of the Detachment and is responsible for the operations of the Detachment and managing research and information about costume creation and construction. The DL also appoints any necessary Detachment officers and staff. DLs are supervised and represented on the Council by the LMO. A DL has the following responsibilities: Verify membership status in the Legion with the approved costume, and grant the appropriate access for active Legion members in good standing to detachments areas; monitor and moderate the Detachment forums, appointing additional moderators as needed; ensure that the Detachment Web site is properly maintained and the content therein is accurate and up to date; participate on the Legion forums and advise other DLs and GMLs as needed; maintain contact with the LMO and report any issue or controversy related to costuming."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Some larger units of the Legion also sometimes conduct activities like the Droid Hunt and Blast-a-Trooper at conventions."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the 501st Legion frequently attend fandom's larger conventions including Dragon Con, San Diego Comic-Con, MCM London Comic Con, the Wizard World Comic Cons, and Megacon (among scores of other Sci-Fi conventions) where they often host a fan table or booth where the public can learn more about the Legion, see costumes and props on display, and speak directly with members. At HeroesCon, their table is generally set up near the similarly-themed, \"Star Trek\"-based Klingon Assault Group, and the two have a friendly rivalry to see who can solicit the most donations for charity."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Squad Leader (SL): The SL is elected by the Squad's membership. The SL is the event coordinator for the local area in which the Squad operates. The SL reports directly to the parent Garrison's leadership."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "While Garrisons, Squads, and Outposts contain members with all varieties of Legion costumes, bound by a common geographic region, Legion Detachments contain members who are tied together by a common costume, but who live all over the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The following officers are collectively called \"Legion Command\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion never charges a fee for an appearance, but they do welcome donations to a charity in honor of the Legion or the local Legion unit. If an event host does not have a charity of choice, Legion members frequently direct the donations to the Endowment Fund. In cases where the event host is itself a charitable organization, a donation is usually not accepted by the 501st Legion as they volunteer their time for that charitable organization."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion appears at several different venues for myriad reasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion Executive Officer (LXO): The LXO assists the LCO in club operations as vice-president. The LXO may perform duties as assigned by the LCO, and will act as club president in the absence of the LCO."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Giving back to the community is one of the 501st Legion's highest priorities. Because of this, the 501st Legion proudly refers to themselves as the \"Bad Guys Doing Good.\" Members regularly participate in events to raise awareness for charitable causes, from walk-a-thons to blood drives, and provide opportunities for fundraising through events such as their \"Blast-A-Trooper\" game, where donations are collected from the public to target armored characters with Nerf blasters."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Formed in South Carolina by residents Albin Johnson and Tom Crews in August 1997, the Legion now has over 14,000 active members worldwide, with over 26,000 approved costumes. The Legion is active on 6 continents, with local units known as \"Garrisons\" and \"Outposts\" in over 60 countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the 501st Legion participate in parades, school fairs, and community festivals."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion units are often invited to appear on stage with symphonies and school bands who perform the music of John Williams."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Rock band No Doubt and country music band Sugarland have also invited 501st members up on stage during their performances in the past."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "As a worldwide organization that fields dozens of appearance requests daily, the Legion has set up local units to better handle tasks like event coordination, promotion, recruitment, and discipline."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Garrison Web Liaison (GWL): The GWL is appointed by the Garrison Commanding Officer. The GWL assists the GML in the preparation and management of the Garrison Membership Profiles and is directly responsible for the processing and management of the Garrison Members' profile images."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clone trooper",
        "text": "The 501st first appears unnamed in \"Revenge of the Sith\" under the leadership of Commander Appo, and they assault the Jedi Temple on Coruscant under Order 66. The 501st Legion also appears extensively throughout \"Star Wars Battlefront\" video game franchise and \"The Clone Wars\" television series, under the leadership of Captain Rex of Torrent Company. In the \"Star Wars Legends\" expanded universe, after the conversion of the Republic into the Galactic Empire, the 501st Legion (nicknamed \"Vader's Fist\") is placed under the command of General Maximilian Veers that serves as Darth Vader's personal battalion. In current Canon media, the 501st still remain under the command of Vader, however a new group named the First Legion is established as his personal task force, which recruits only from 501st ranks. Members of the 501st Legion wear armor with blue markings. The unit is named after the 501st Legion costuming group."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Garrison Executive Officer (XO or GXO): The XO is appointed by the CO. The XO may perform duties as assigned by the CO, and will assume leadership of the Garrison in the absence of the CO."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal British Legion",
        "text": "Service in the military is no longer a requirement of Legion membership. The Legion has an official membership magazine, \"Legion\", which is free to all Legion members as part of their annual subscription."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "In 2016, the members of the 501st donated over 182,000 hours of community service, raising over $889,000 USD in direct donations, and participated in events that helped raise over $46 million for charities worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion Charity Representative (LCR): The office of the LCR serves as the Legion's primary point of contact with outside charitable organizations. The LCR manages documentation of Legion charitable activities and may publish and promote the Legion's charity efforts to the membership and the public."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Johnson and Tom chose the club's name in 1997 to represent a fictional unit of Imperial stormtroopers. He wanted to ground the group in a \u201crealistic\u201d world and to pay homage to the fighting units of true military heroes, like his World War II airman father."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sons of the American Legion",
        "text": "As of 2016, the membership total is over 360,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebel Legion",
        "text": "In early 2000, the 501st Legion \"Star Wars\" costuming group chose to remain \"Imperials only\". This prompted 501st members Tony Troxell, Richard Fairbrother, Ed O'Connell, Ken Ograyensek, and Doug Fesko to create a separate \"Rebels only\" costuming group, officially announced to the 501st Legion forums in December 2000. Though not affiliated with Lucasfilm, the Rebel Legion is officially sanctioned by Lucasfilm."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion Captain of the Guard (LCotG): The office of the LCotG interprets and enforces club rules. This officer serves as an impartial mediator for disputes among members or officers, oversees disciplinary hearings, moderates Legion elections, and maintains the Legion map of units."
      },
      {
        "title": "501(c) organization",
        "text": "The society must have members of a similar calling, recreation, or profession, or members who work together to accomplish a worthy goal. The members have associated themselves in order to help each other and to promote the common cause. The society must have written documentation of its eligibility standards for membership, classes of membership, a process of admission, and rights and privileges of members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spanish Legion",
        "text": "Today, acceptance to the Spanish Legion is based on the following criteria:\n*Be a Spanish citizen; although citizens from former Spanish territories also can join (foreign recruits are required to have a valid Spanish residence permit).\n*Be a citizen in good legal standing\n*Not be deprived of civil rights\n*Be at least 18 years of age and not be 29 on the day of joining boot camp.\n*Be able to pass psychological, physical and medical evaluations"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Musician and comedian \"Weird Al\" Yankovic has invited members of the 501st Legion on stage during performances of his \"Star Wars\"-themed songs \"Yoda\" and \"The Saga Begins\", recruiting members of local garrisons while on tour. In appreciation, the 501st inducted Yankovic as a \"Friend of the Legion\", in September 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Scott Loxley of the 501st Legion was raising money for Monash Children's Hospital when he claims he was saved by stormtrooper armor from a bite on the shin by a deadly King Brown serpent near Yalboroo, Australia on January 14, 2015 as he walked down a road while walking entirely around the Australian continent."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "There are three kinds of local units.\n* Garrisons are the largest type of local unit. One must have at least 25 active members, but there is no upward limit to how many members can belong to a garrison. There are 76 Garrisons worldwide, the largest of which is German Garrison, with over 680 members.\n** Squads are subdivisions of Garrisons, established to better serve members in distinct regions within a Garrison's territory. Squads are formed of at least 10 members of a Garrison, residing within a reasonably close, clearly defined geographic region. There is no requirement for a Garrison to have any squads, and many do not. Other Garrisons, especially those that cover large geographic areas, have several Squads to better serve their members. There are 78 squads amongst the Legion's Garrisons.\n* Outposts are the smallest Legion unit, and one can have as few as one Legion member. They are most often established when a new member joins the Legion and lives in an area that lies outside the borders of an existing Garrison. There are 30 Outposts in the Legion worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States",
        "text": "and William Backhouse Astor Sr. are eligible for membership in MOLLUS by collateral descent."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Garrison Commanding Officer (CO or GCO): The CO is elected by the Garrison membership. The CO is the chief administrator of the Garrison and is responsible for the operations of the Garrison and the coordination of events that occur within the Garrison's boundaries. The CO is responsible for maintaining communications with the Legion Council and Legion Command. The CO also appoints the Garrison officers and staff, and administers local forum rules. The CO is the principal representative of the Garrison membership on the Legion Council, and is responsible for assigning additional required Council representatives from the Garrison."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clone trooper",
        "text": "The 501st Legion is a division of the Grand Army of the Republic\u2014in both canon and \"Legends\"\u2014under the command of Jedi General Anakin Skywalker and Padawan Commander Ahsoka Tano. The 501st fought against the droid forces of CIS (the Confederacy of Independent Systems) throughout the Clone Wars."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of members of the American Legion",
        "text": "List of members of the American Legion\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Garrison Public Relations Officer (GPRO): The GPRO is appointed by the Garrison Commanding Officer. The GPRO assists the CO in promoting the Unit to the public and also may be called upon by the Legion PRO to assist in the public promotion of the Legion."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion Webmaster (LWM): The office of the LWM manages all Legion Web resources and advises unit Webmasters."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the 501st Legion get frequently invited to appear at pediatric wards. When the 501st Legion appears in a hospital, they brighten the lives of children going through difficult trials and serious medical treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion Commanding Officer (LCO): The LCO is the top administrator and president of the club. The LCO appoints an administrative staff to assist with club operations, which may include but are not limited to formulating policies, moderating the Legion Council, and organizing partnerships with outside parties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Military Order of the Dragon",
        "text": "Article X. Application for membership shall be submitted to the Secretary. Satisfactory proofs of eligibility of the applicant must be furnished with the application. Applications for Hereditary and Honorary Hereditary membership shall be submitted to the Executive Committed for action. A single negative vote by any member of the Executive Committee upon an application for membership shall be sufficient for rejection."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st name continued to appear in various \"Star Wars\" expanded universe media until its suspension and rebranding to \"Star Wars Legends\" in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion has been called in frequently to support many Star Wars events at public libraries, aimed at encouraging literacy among younger fans of the franchise. Library \u201cStar Wars days\u201d (including events for the official \"Star Wars Reads Day\") are routinely among the most popular events on a library's calendar. Activities like Stormtrooper Story Time, Jedi training games, trivia contests, coloring and drawing activity stations, and appearances by the 501st Legion help make these events successful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States",
        "text": "There are now three basic categories of membership: Hereditary, Associate (non-hereditary), and Honorary. Just as many Original Companions of the Order were also members of the Grand Army of the Republic (the \"GAR\"), many current Companions of the Order are also members of the Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War, the legal heir to the GAR."
      },
      {
        "title": "Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States",
        "text": "Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States\n--Origins.\n--Later history.\n--Prominent Companions.\n----Presidents of the United States.\n----Vice Presidents.\n----Honorary Companions.\n----Veteran Companions.\n------United States Army.\n----3rd Class Companions.\n----Hereditary Companions.\n----Associate Companions.\n--Non-members who were or are eligible for membership.\n----Eligible veteran officers who did not join MOLLUS.\n----Noteworthy persons eligible for hereditary companionship in MOLLUS.\n----Eligible royalty.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sons of the American Legion",
        "text": "Sons of the American Legion\n--Mission.\n--History.\n----Beginnings.\n----1960\u2013present.\n--Programs.\n--Membership eligibility requirements.\n--Organizational structure.\n----Squadron.\n----Counties.\n----Districts.\n----Detachments.\n----National headquarters.\n--mySAL.\n--Past S.A.L. Commanders.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Canadian Legion",
        "text": "Commonwealth subjects who do not qualify for ordinary or associate membership are eligible for affiliate membership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alpha Phi Sigma",
        "text": "There are several requirements for becoming a member of Alpha Phi Sigma."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign Legion Recruiting Group",
        "text": "For the G.R.L.E, the Division General of the Foreign Legion has authorized that the guard of the G.R.L.E Fanion be constituted of, as per reglementation, 1 Sous-officiers (fanion bearer), and 2 Legionnaires, all three armed with MAS- 49-56."
      },
      {
        "title": "Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States",
        "text": "Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta (b. 1943), head of the House of Savoy and claimant to the throne of Italy, is eligible for Hereditary MOLLUS membership but was elected as an honorary member instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The Legion was called in to play stormtrooper extras for the official \"Star Wars\" series \"The Mandalorian\" after the pilot's directors realized that they did not have enough stormtrooper armor to complete a shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign Legion Veteran Societies Federation",
        "text": "The association is not a group of particularities, however regroups associations, the general assembly is constituted of representatives of different associations of veteran legionnaires members at the prorata of their active members numbers."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Outpost Leader (OL): The OL of an Outpost is elected by the Outpost membership. The OL is the chief administrator of the Outpost and is responsible for the operations of the Outpost and the coordination of events that occur within the Outpost's boundaries. The OL is responsible for maintaining communications with the Legion Council and Legion Command. The OL also appoints any necessary Outpost officers and staff, and administers local forum rules. The OL is the principal representative of the Outpost membership on the Legion Council."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Combat Support Group",
        "text": "Support Squadrons"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sons of the American Legion",
        "text": "All male descendants, adopted sons and stepsons of members of The American Legion, and such male descendants of veterans who died in service during World War I or since December 7, 1941, during the delimiting periods set forth in Article IV, Section 1, of the National Constitution of The American Legion or who died subsequent to their honorable discharge from such service, shall be eligible for membership in the Sons of The American Legion.\n*Because eligibility dates remain open, all active duty members of the U.S. Armed Forces are eligible to join The American Legion at this time, until the date of the end of hostilities as determined by the government of the United States.\n*U.S. Merchant Marine eligible only from December 7, 1941 to December 31, 1946 (WWII)."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "There are sixteen Legion costume Detachments. Each is dedicated to researching, constructing, and promoting a distinct group of costumes in the 501st. The Legion's costume references are stored on the Detachment websites, and their message boards contain tutorials on how to build the costumes that they have domain over.\n* Armored Cavalry Detachment: AT-AT Drivers, AT-ST Drivers and Armor Assault Commanders\n* Blizzard Force: Snowtroopers, Galactic Marines, Snow Scouts, Wampas\n* Bounty Hunters Guild: Bounty Hunters\n* Clone Trooper Detachment: Clone Troopers from Episodes II and III, and the \"Star Wars: The Clone Wars\" television series\n* First Imperial Stormtrooper Detachment: Stormtroopers\n* Flagship Eclipse Detachment: Expanded Universe Characters (non-troopers)\n* Imperial Gunnery Corps: Imperial Gunners\n* Imperial Officer Corps: Imperial Officers, Imperial Crew, and Imperial Navy/Death Star Troopers\n* Jolly Roger Squadron: T.I.E. Fighter Pilots\n* Krayt Clan: Tusken Raiders, Jawas, Gamorrean Guards, and several denizens of Jabba's palace\n* Mos Eisley Police Department:\" \"Sandtroopers\n* Pathfinders Detachment: Biker Scouts, Kashyyyk Clone Scout Troopers, Shore Troopers\n* Sith Lord Detachment: The Film-Canon Sith Lords: Darth Vader, Darth Sidious, Darth Maul, Darth Tyranus and Kylo Ren\n* Sovereign Protectors: Emperor's Royal Guards\n* Spec Ops Detachment: Expanded Universe Characters (troopers)\n* Underworld Detachment: Pirates, Gangsters, Henchmen, Thieves, Smugglers, Thugs, Scum and Villiany"
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Canadian Legion",
        "text": "Non-Commonwealth subjects from an Allied nation who support the aims and objects of The Royal Canadian Legion can apply for affiliate non-voting membership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish Legion of American Veterans",
        "text": "Polish Legion of American Veterans\n--Mission.\n--History.\n--Membership eligibility requirements.\n--Organizational structure.\n----Posts.\n----Departments.\n----National Department.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "In September 2016, the 501st Legion announced their commitment to a first-of-its kind international endowment in a unique partnership with Make-A-Wish. The 501st Legion Make-A-Wish Endowment Fund will allow Make-A-Wish America and Make-A-Wish International to grant more Star Wars-related wishes to children diagnosed with life-threatening medical conditions. The endowment fund allows Make-A-Wish to grant wishes, alternating between the United States and international locations every other year \u2013 a first for an endowment of this kind. The Endowment relies on contributions from its members, as well as the public. With a goal of $150,000 in the fund by 2021, the Endowment fund will grant wishes from the interest accrued; as the fund continues to grow, so will the number of wishes granted by the endowment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States",
        "text": "Several Europeans of royal descent at eligible for membership in MOLLUS by right of their descent from Captain Philippe d'Orleans, the grandson of King Louis Philippe I of France."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Although the 501st Legion is not sponsored by Disney or Lucasfilm, they often call, together with their partners, upon members of the Legion to help promote the commercial release of new Star Wars products and tie-ins."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Legion of the Unliving members",
        "text": "List of Legion of the Unliving members\n--Membership.\n----Legion of the Unliving I.\n----Legion of the Unliving II.\n----Legion of the Unliving III.\n----Legion of the Unliving IV.\n----Legion of the Unliving V.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion has also partnered with various minor and major league sports franchises such as the National Hockey League, Major League Baseball, and National Basketball Association in recent years for special \u201cStar Wars Nights.\u201d These events have brought record attendance numbers to games. Members of the 501st Legion have participated in games at the minor league hockey and baseball levels, college sports, the Arena Football League, and the National Football League."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "In the Blast-a-Trooper game, fans fire foam darts at Imperial characters in exchange for a donation to charity. Blast-a-Trooper ranges have raised thousands of dollars for worthy causes around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Legion of Honor",
        "text": "Membership was open to white men and women 18 to 50 years of age, the upper age limit having been lowered from 64 in 1885. There were initiation ceremonies but, if the candidate objected, these could be dispensed with and a formal obligation could be taken at any time and place. The order had a three-tier structure: local units were called \"Subordinate Councils\"; above them were the \"Grand\" or \"State Councils\"; representatives of the latter and all living Past Supreme Commanders made up the \"Supreme Council\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign Legion Recruiting Group",
        "text": "A celui des santons"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sons of the American Legion",
        "text": "National Headquarters developed the website to mimic myLegion, which assists a post, district, county, and state officers with their membership needs. Download an authorization form at mySAL to start the process of creating a squadron account. Once an account is created, you can login here: mySAL.\"Sons of the American Legion\" squadron adjutants can now access membership information, reports and electronic membership tools online. As of April 2015, Detachments now have access to the website which provides membership information, reports and electronic membership tools such as data change forms for all squadrons within their Detachment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Forty and Eight",
        "text": "Membership is by invitation and open to all Honorably Discharged Veterans and all Military Personnel currently serving the United States Armed Forces, per a 2008 change to Article IV of la Societe's constitution. Combat service is not required for membership."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Legion",
        "text": "Membership in the Legion was originally restricted to U.S. soldiers, sailors, and Marines who served honorably between April 6, 1917, and November 11, 1918. Eligibility has since been expanded to include military personnel who served on active duty in the Armed Forces of the United States, or armed forces associated with the U.S., between December 7, 1941, through a date of cessation of hostilities as determined by the government of the U.S., and was an American citizen when they entered that service or continues to serve honorably. U.S. Merchant marines who served between December 7, 1941, and December 31, 1946, are also eligible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion of Mary",
        "text": "Membership is open to all baptized Catholics. After visiting a Praesidium a few times, one can join the legion as a probationary member for three months. Then, a decision is made on whether to join the legion as an active member permanently. During the probationary period, probationary members learn about the legion system by reading the \"Handbook of the Legion of Mary\" and its active works by listening to reports of active works undertaken by fellow legionaries. At the end of probationary period, members say an oath of \"Legion promise\", a pledge of allegiance to the Holy Spirit and to Mary, and become a permanent active members."
      },
      {
        "title": "International Legion of Territorial Defense of Ukraine",
        "text": "The criteria listed for joining included having prior military or medical experience and submitting documents as proof of military service to the Ministry of Defense official at the Ukrainian embassy. People were asked not to bring their own weapons to Ukraine. Most of the volunteers who reached Lviv and applied were accepted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States",
        "text": "A number of noteworthy Union officers, although eligible, did not become MOLLUS companions. They included the following:"
      },
      {
        "title": "501(c) organization",
        "text": "The members must have a common bond, which may be based on religious beliefs, gender, occupation, ethnicity, or shared values."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion of Valor of the United States of America, Incorporated",
        "text": "In 1910, a dispute over who would be eligible for membership led Daniel Sickles and several other members of the Medal of Honor Legion to leave and form a new group, the Military Order of the Medal of Honor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign Legion Recruiting Group",
        "text": "Official website - GRLE"
      },
      {
        "title": "American Legion of Honor",
        "text": "The Legion reached its largest membership at the end of 1889 with 62,457. Like many fraternal organizations, the Legion ran into financial difficulties in 1895 and 1896. These were caused by a number of factors, including the Panic of 1896, an increased death rate, increased expenses and debts, \"unusually high\" assessments in 1896, and a lack of new members. The total membership on December 31, 1895, was 53,210; a year later it was 36,028."
      },
      {
        "title": "Forty and Eight",
        "text": "In 1959 the 40 & 8 became independent of the American Legion when the Legion's National Commander, Martin McKneally, discontinued the 40 & 8 as an organization within the American Legion for having racially discriminatory membership requirements. In 1973 the 40 & 8 modified their membership rules to prohibit racial discrimination. The Society required its members to also be members of the American Legion until 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of members of the American Legion",
        "text": "This article contains a list of notable members of The American Legion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign Legion Recruiting Group",
        "text": "Rejoints les plus vaillants"
      },
      {
        "title": ""Weird Al" Yankovic",
        "text": "Yankovic has invited members of the 501st Legion on stage during performances of his \"Star Wars\"-themed songs \"Yoda\" and \"The Saga Begins\", recruiting members of local garrisons (club chapters) while on tour. In appreciation, the 501st inducted Yankovic as a \"Friend of the Legion\" in September 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fifth Legion",
        "text": "5th Legion may refer to any of the following:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Canadian Legion",
        "text": "Membership in The Royal Canadian Legion was originally restricted to ex-service members of Canada's Armed Forces and Merchant Navy. The organization is now open to members of the general public. There are four categories of membership."
      },
      {
        "title": "501(c) organization",
        "text": "The society must have a supreme governing body and subordinate lodges into which members are elected, initiated, or admitted in accordance with its laws. The supreme governing body should be composed of delegates elected directly by members or intermediate assemblies."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is required for membership to the 501st Legion?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Membership requirements for applicants include being at least 18 years of age and have a documented ownership of at least one qualifying high-quality costume of a Star Wars villain. To maintain membership they must troop at least one local unit or Legion-level event per year and abide by the 501st Legion Code of Conduct."
    ],
    "topic": "501st Legion",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "501st Legion:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "501st Legion",
          "Membership"
        ],
        "ctx": "Membership requirements for applicants include being at least 18 years of age and have a documented ownership of at least one qualifying high-quality costume of a Star Wars villain. To maintain membership they must troop at least one local unit or Legion-level event per year and abide by the 501st Legion Code of Conduct."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Membership requirements for applicants include being at least 18 years of age and have a documented ownership of at least one qualifying high-quality costume of a Star Wars villain. To maintain membership they must troop at least one local unit or Legion-level event per year and abide by the 501st Legion Code of Conduct."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Some larger units of the Legion also sometimes conduct activities like the Droid Hunt and Blast-a-Trooper at conventions."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "There are three kinds of local units.\n* Garrisons are the largest type of local unit. One must have at least 25 active members, but there is no upward limit to how many members can belong to a garrison. There are 76 Garrisons worldwide, the largest of which is German Garrison, with over 680 members.\n** Squads are subdivisions of Garrisons, established to better serve members in distinct regions within a Garrison's territory. Squads are formed of at least 10 members of a Garrison, residing within a reasonably close, clearly defined geographic region. There is no requirement for a Garrison to have any squads, and many do not. Other Garrisons, especially those that cover large geographic areas, have several Squads to better serve their members. There are 78 squads amongst the Legion's Garrisons.\n* Outposts are the smallest Legion unit, and one can have as few as one Legion member. They are most often established when a new member joins the Legion and lives in an area that lies outside the borders of an existing Garrison. There are 30 Outposts in the Legion worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members were also featured on the Christmas 2012 episode of \"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Combining a costume code with a member's identification number creates a unique in-universe designation for each Legion member and each one of their costumes. Member 8968 might be known as TK-8968, IG-8968, or TB-8968, depending on whether they are wearing a Stormtrooper, Imperial Gunner, or Biker Scout costume at the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion is an international fan-based organization dedicated to the construction and wearing of screen-accurate replicas of Imperial Stormtrooper armor, Sith Lords, Clone Troopers, bounty hunters, and other villains from the \"Star Wars\" universe. The 501st Legion, called by its nickname Vader's Fist, is made up entirely of volunteers."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Formed in South Carolina by residents Albin Johnson and Tom Crews in August 1997, the Legion now has over 14,000 active members worldwide, with over 26,000 approved costumes. The Legion is active on 6 continents, with local units known as \"Garrisons\" and \"Outposts\" in over 60 countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "While the Legion was initially based only on the white-armored stormtroopers stationed aboard the Death Star, as the group expanded, it grew to encompass every other canon trooper variation, and other villains from the Star Wars saga, such as Sith Lords and bounty hunters. Custom creations are generally not eligible for membership, and all applicants are reviewed by their local units and Legion Membership Officers prior to approval into the member database."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clone trooper",
        "text": "The 501st first appears unnamed in \"Revenge of the Sith\" under the leadership of Commander Appo, and they assault the Jedi Temple on Coruscant under Order 66. The 501st Legion also appears extensively throughout \"Star Wars Battlefront\" video game franchise and \"The Clone Wars\" television series, under the leadership of Captain Rex of Torrent Company. In the \"Star Wars Legends\" expanded universe, after the conversion of the Republic into the Galactic Empire, the 501st Legion (nicknamed \"Vader's Fist\") is placed under the command of General Maximilian Veers that serves as Darth Vader's personal battalion. In current Canon media, the 501st still remain under the command of Vader, however a new group named the First Legion is established as his personal task force, which recruits only from 501st ranks. Members of the 501st Legion wear armor with blue markings. The unit is named after the 501st Legion costuming group."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion units are often invited to appear on stage with symphonies and school bands who perform the music of John Williams."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the 501st Legion refer to themselves by a letter-number combination, such as TK-899, TR-3774, or DZ-40201. This tradition originates from a line in Star Wars, \"TK-421, why aren't you at your post?\". The founder of the 501st Legion, Albin Johnson, decided that \"Desert Troopers would be labeled \u201cTD\u201d and came from specialized training schools for their missions, Snowtroopers would be \u201cTS\u201d, Biker Scouts would [become] \u201cTB.\u201d\" as each group of costumes carries a specific letter designation."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "There are sixteen Legion costume Detachments. Each is dedicated to researching, constructing, and promoting a distinct group of costumes in the 501st. The Legion's costume references are stored on the Detachment websites, and their message boards contain tutorials on how to build the costumes that they have domain over.\n* Armored Cavalry Detachment: AT-AT Drivers, AT-ST Drivers and Armor Assault Commanders\n* Blizzard Force: Snowtroopers, Galactic Marines, Snow Scouts, Wampas\n* Bounty Hunters Guild: Bounty Hunters\n* Clone Trooper Detachment: Clone Troopers from Episodes II and III, and the \"Star Wars: The Clone Wars\" television series\n* First Imperial Stormtrooper Detachment: Stormtroopers\n* Flagship Eclipse Detachment: Expanded Universe Characters (non-troopers)\n* Imperial Gunnery Corps: Imperial Gunners\n* Imperial Officer Corps: Imperial Officers, Imperial Crew, and Imperial Navy/Death Star Troopers\n* Jolly Roger Squadron: T.I.E. Fighter Pilots\n* Krayt Clan: Tusken Raiders, Jawas, Gamorrean Guards, and several denizens of Jabba's palace\n* Mos Eisley Police Department:\" \"Sandtroopers\n* Pathfinders Detachment: Biker Scouts, Kashyyyk Clone Scout Troopers, Shore Troopers\n* Sith Lord Detachment: The Film-Canon Sith Lords: Darth Vader, Darth Sidious, Darth Maul, Darth Tyranus and Kylo Ren\n* Sovereign Protectors: Emperor's Royal Guards\n* Spec Ops Detachment: Expanded Universe Characters (troopers)\n* Underworld Detachment: Pirates, Gangsters, Henchmen, Thieves, Smugglers, Thugs, Scum and Villiany"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "While Garrisons, Squads, and Outposts contain members with all varieties of Legion costumes, bound by a common geographic region, Legion Detachments contain members who are tied together by a common costume, but who live all over the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion members make appearances at casual, promotional, and charitable events, often at the request of Lucasfilm's Fan Events department. Although not officially affiliated with the Walt Disney Company or Lucasfilm LLC., the 501st Legion is Lucasfilm's preferred Imperial costuming organization, and its members were featured as extras in the official series \"The Mandalorian\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The Legion helps members to connect with fellow Star Wars costumers through two organizational networks: one based on geographical location and one based on costume types."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "501st Legion\n--Origins.\n----The 501st Legion name.\n--Mission statement.\n--Membership.\n----Legion identification numbers.\n----The Galactic Academy.\n--Organization.\n----Local units.\n----Detachments.\n--Command structure.\n----Legion officers.\n----Unit officers.\n------Garrison officers.\n------Squad officers.\n------Outpost officers.\n----Detachment officers.\n--Appearances.\n----Community events.\n----Libraries.\n----Hospitals.\n----Promotions.\n----Professional sports.\n----Conventions.\n----Concerts.\n----Television.\n--Charitable works.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The following officers are collectively called \"Legion Command\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "At formal events, members typically appear to have walked off the screen when portraying characters. At informal events (such as local science fiction conventions), members often display their creativity with genre mash-ups of their costumes."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Early events attended (or \"trooped\") by the Legion were mostly science-fiction and comic book conventions or related to the release of the Star Wars movies in theaters and on video. But members were looking for more frequent reasons to meet up with their new-found Legion friends and show off their costumes together. The Legion expanded into a charitable organization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clone trooper",
        "text": "The 501st Legion is a division of the Grand Army of the Republic\u2014in both canon and \"Legends\"\u2014under the command of Jedi General Anakin Skywalker and Padawan Commander Ahsoka Tano. The 501st fought against the droid forces of CIS (the Confederacy of Independent Systems) throughout the Clone Wars."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "In 2004, author Timothy Zahn, with Lucasfilm's approval, honored the costuming group by incorporating the 501st Legion Elite Stormtrooper Unit into his \"Star Wars\" novel \"Survivor's Quest\". Several other authors have since followed suit and solidified the Legion's name in the official \"Star Wars\" universe. In 2005, the 501st Legion finally hit \u201cmainstream\u201d \"Star Wars\" canon with its inclusion in the novelization of '. The blue clone troopers led into the Jedi Temple by Darth Vader in are officially designated as the 501st Legion, with the nickname \"Vader's Fist\" because of his exclusive use of the unit. Although not mentioned in the film itself, all of the licensed support material and merchandising for the film make this reference, including Hasbro's 501st Legion action figures, the DK Publishing \"Star Wars Visual Dictionary\" books, and the ' game. The story-driven campaign mode of \"Battlefront II\" even expanded the role of the 501st Legion to the main fighting force in almost every battle in the \"Clone Wars\" and \"Galactic Civil War\" eras of \"Star Wars\", from the to the Battle of Hoth."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Johnson and Tom chose the club's name in 1997 to represent a fictional unit of Imperial stormtroopers. He wanted to ground the group in a \u201crealistic\u201d world and to pay homage to the fighting units of true military heroes, like his World War II airman father."
      },
      {
        "title": "Late Roman army",
        "text": "For the size of \"limitanei\" units, opinion is divided. Jones and Elton suggest from the scarce and ambiguous literary evidence that border \"legiones\" numbered c. 1,000 men and that the other units contained in the region of 500 men each. Others draw on papyrus and more recent archaeological evidence to argue that \"limitanei\" units probably averaged about half the Jones/Elton strength i.e. c. 500 for \"legiones\" and around 250 for other units."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regiment of Patricians",
        "text": "In all: \"69 Officers, 70 Sergeants, 20 Drummers, 179 Corporals, and 1,059 enlisted soldiers, for a total of 1,395 Patrician Legionnaires\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clone trooper",
        "text": "Notable sub-divisions within the 501st Legion include:\n*332nd Company, which was active during the Clone Wars after former Jedi Padawan Ahsoka Tano left the Jedi Order. When she returned to help Republic forces stage an invasion of Mandalore, the company\u2014alongside Clone Commander CT-7567 \"Rex\" and Clone Captain CT-0292 \"Vaughn\"\u2014 was assigned to aid her. After Order 66 is issued, the 332nd's Star Destroyer crash lands on the surface of an unnamed moon, killing all except Ahsoka, Rex, and Maul, who manage to escape; The troopers under the command of Ahsoka Tano have orange marks on their helmets. Ahsoka and Rex have dug graves for the fallen soldiers as a memorial to them.\n*Torrent Company was an elite military unit led by Clone Captain CT-7567 \"Rex\", who served as first-in-command to Jedi General Anakin Skywalker. The company is distinguished for their engagements against the Confederacy of Independent Systems throughout the war, including the Battle of Christophsis, Battle of Teth, and the Battle of Horain. Torrent Company died along with the 332nd soon after Order 66."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sons of the American Legion",
        "text": "As of 2016, the membership total is over 360,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "As a worldwide organization that fields dozens of appearance requests daily, the Legion has set up local units to better handle tasks like event coordination, promotion, recruitment, and discipline."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the Legion are issued with individual identification numbers upon joining. It becomes their number for life, and will never be given to anyone else, even after they die. Because of that, many members pick a number that has a significant meaning to them."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion members have become an established attraction at Disney World's annual Star Wars Weekends, the Star Wars: Where Science Meets Imagination museum exhibit, and Free Comic Book Day events across the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion is an all-volunteer organization formed for the purpose of bringing together costume enthusiasts from around the world under a collective identity. The 501st Legion seeks to promote interest in Star Wars through the building and wearing of high quality costumes, to facilitate the use of these costumes for Star Wars-related events, and to contribute to the local community through costumed charity and volunteer work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stormtrooper (Star Wars)",
        "text": "The 501st Legion Elite Stormtrooper Unit, or \"Vader's Fist\", is a stormtrooper unit from the \"Star Wars\" movies and \"Star Wars Legends\" continuity. Commanded by the ruthlessly cunning General Maximilian Veers and composed of the best trained soldiers in the \"Star Wars\" galaxy, the legion earned a fierce reputation for completing missions considered unwinnable or suicidal. The 501st serves as Darth Vader's personal death squadron, whom he leads in the Jedi extermination. The 501st spearhead the assault upon the \"Tantive IV\" consular ship, and capture Princess Leia. During the Battle of Hoth, the 501st is instrumental in the destruction of the Rebel Alliance base, and nearly succeeds in capturing the \"Millennium Falcon\". Most of the background story linked to the 501st comes from \"Star Wars\" novels, the games \"\" and \"Star Wars The Force Unleashed\", and the TV show ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maniple (military unit)",
        "text": "According to Polybius, the most complete and likely the most accurate account, the legion consisted of 10 maniples of 120 \"hastati\", 10 maniples of 120 \"principes\" and 10 half strength maniples of \"triarii\" containing 60 men each. With 1,200 \"velites\" and 300 cavalrymen a legion numbered 4,500 men. However, in times of great need the number might be reinforced up to 5,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion of Death (military unit)",
        "text": "The unit reached a strength of 1,731 members in October 1942, but plans for further expansion were never realized. The unit was mainly led by former Yugoslav Royal Army officers. When the Italians capitulated in 1943, the unit was disbanded and its members absorbed into the Slovene Home Guard units."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st name continued to appear in various \"Star Wars\" expanded universe media until its suspension and rebranding to \"Star Wars Legends\" in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebel Legion",
        "text": "It is divided into \"bases\" located throughout the world, and as of November 2019, the Rebel Legion membership is approximately 8,000 members. Though not affiliated with Lucasfilm, the organization is sanctioned by Lucasfilm."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "To supervise the Legion at the worldwide and local levels, the membership elects leaders every year, who in turn appoint command staffs to administrate day-to-day operations for the Legion as a whole, Garrisons, Squads, Outposts, and Detachments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Imperial Roman army",
        "text": "The legion's basic sub-unit was the \"centuria\" (plural: \"centuriae\"), which literally means \"a hundred men\", but in practice numbered 80 men in the principate, equivalent in numbers to half of a modern company. The legion's main tactical sub-unit was the \"cohors\" (plural: \"cohortes\", or cohort), which contained six \"centuriae\" for a total of 480 men, roughly the same size as a modern battalion. There were 10 cohorts to each legion, or 4,800 men (c. 5,000 including the small legionary cavalry of 120 horse and officers). Thus a legion was equivalent in numbers to a modern brigade. By AD 100, however, the legion's First Cohort was divided into only five \"centuriae\", but double-strength at 160 men each, for a total of 800 men. At this point, therefore, a legion would have numbered c. 5,300 effectives."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion Membership Officer (LMO): The office of the LMO is responsible for reviewing and processing applications for membership and maintaining member information in the Legion database. The LMO drives costume policies, including acceptable costume types for membership and quality control of costume submissions. The LMO is the final arbiter of member costume issues and approvals. The LMO supervises and advises Detachments, Garrison Membership Liaisons, and Garrison Web Liaisons."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Garrison Executive Officer (XO or GXO): The XO is appointed by the CO. The XO may perform duties as assigned by the CO, and will assume leadership of the Garrison in the absence of the CO."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Roman legions",
        "text": "These units usually numbered between 300 and 2,000 soldiers and some of them kept their original numbering schemes. The primary source for the legions of this era is the \"Notitia Dignitatum\", a late 4th-century document containing all the civil and military offices of both halves of the Roman Empire (revised in for the Western Empire)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebel Legion",
        "text": "In early 2000, the 501st Legion \"Star Wars\" costuming group chose to remain \"Imperials only\". This prompted 501st members Tony Troxell, Richard Fairbrother, Ed O'Connell, Ken Ograyensek, and Doug Fesko to create a separate \"Rebels only\" costuming group, officially announced to the 501st Legion forums in December 2000. Though not affiliated with Lucasfilm, the Rebel Legion is officially sanctioned by Lucasfilm."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Continental Army units",
        "text": "Thus the total number of regimental equivalents was reduced to 61. This number included 50 infantry regiments, 4 legionary corps (which were partly dismounted light dragoons), 4 artillery regiments, 2 partisan corps, and 1 artificer regiment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Armenian Legion",
        "text": "There were a number of other units that Armenians also served in aside from the 812th Battalion, their total number, according to Joris Versteeg, reaching 33,000. Of these, 14,000 were placed in field battalions, while another 7,000 served in logistical and other non-combat units. Ailsby puts the number of Armenians in \"the legions and replacement battalions\" closer to 11,600. The other units included:"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the 501st Legion frequently attend fandom's larger conventions including Dragon Con, San Diego Comic-Con, MCM London Comic Con, the Wizard World Comic Cons, and Megacon (among scores of other Sci-Fi conventions) where they often host a fan table or booth where the public can learn more about the Legion, see costumes and props on display, and speak directly with members. At HeroesCon, their table is generally set up near the similarly-themed, \"Star Trek\"-based Klingon Assault Group, and the two have a friendly rivalry to see who can solicit the most donations for charity."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Squad Leader (SL): The SL is elected by the Squad's membership. The SL is the event coordinator for the local area in which the Squad operates. The SL reports directly to the parent Garrison's leadership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Combined arms",
        "text": "The legion was sometimes also incorporated into a higher-echelon combined arms unit \u2014 e.g., in one period it was customary for a general to command two legions plus two similarly sized units of auxiliaries, lighter units useful as screens or for combat in rough terrain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion of Honour",
        "text": "There is not a single, complete list of all the members of the Legion in chronological order. The number is estimated at one million, including about 2,900 Knights Grand Cross."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The Legion was called in to play stormtrooper extras for the official \"Star Wars\" series \"The Mandalorian\" after the pilot's directors realized that they did not have enough stormtrooper armor to complete a shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hampton's Legion",
        "text": "A legion historically consisted of a single integrated command, with individual components including infantry, cavalry, and artillery. The concept of a multiple-branch unit was never a practical application for Civil War armies and, early in the war, the individual elements were assigned to other organizations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Legion",
        "text": "The Irish Regiment no longer existed as a fighting unit. Twenty-three officers out of 47 and 94 non-commissioned officers and soldiers returned from the campaign of 1813. Out of approximately 2,000 men who had marched to join the Grand Army eight months earlier, only 117 were left. The survivors managed to save their eagle and retired to Bois-le-Duc."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion Webmaster (LWM): The office of the LWM manages all Legion Web resources and advises unit Webmasters."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion appears at several different venues for myriad reasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roman legion",
        "text": "By the fourth century AD, the legion was a much smaller unit of about 1,000 to 1,500 men, and there were more of them. This had come about as the large formation legion and auxiliary unit, 10,000 men, was broken down into smaller units - originally temporary detachments - to cover more territory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebel Legion",
        "text": "The Rebel Legion is divided into detachments determined by the type of character costumes represent. The organization is also divided into bases or outposts determined by geographical region; bases can be further divided into variably named detachment units. The leadership consists of a Commanding Officer and 5 Council members. Additional leadership roles are assigned as needed per the LCO (LPRO, LMO, etc.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "In the Blast-a-Trooper game, fans fire foam darts at Imperial characters in exchange for a donation to charity. Blast-a-Trooper ranges have raised thousands of dollars for worthy causes around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Garrison Public Relations Officer (GPRO): The GPRO is appointed by the Garrison Commanding Officer. The GPRO assists the CO in promoting the Unit to the public and also may be called upon by the Legion PRO to assist in the public promotion of the Legion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion of Honour",
        "text": "The order has a maximum quota of 75 Grand Cross, 250 Grand Officers, 1,250 Commanders, 10,000 Officers, and 113,425 (ordinary) Knights. the actual membership was 67 Grand Cross, 314 Grand Officers, 3,009 Commanders, 17,032 Officers and 74,384 Knights. Appointments of veterans of World War II, French military personnel involved in the North African Campaign and other foreign French military operations, as well as wounded soldiers, are made independently of the quota."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Although the 501st Legion is not sponsored by Disney or Lucasfilm, they often call, together with their partners, upon members of the Legion to help promote the commercial release of new Star Wars products and tie-ins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion",
        "text": "...with a strength of 71 officers and 3,315 junior officiers, corporals and legionnaires."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "In 2016, the members of the 501st donated over 182,000 hours of community service, raising over $889,000 USD in direct donations, and participated in events that helped raise over $46 million for charities worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Continental Army units (1777\u20131784)",
        "text": "Thus the total number of regimental equivalents was reduced to 61. This number included 50 infantry regiments, 4 legionary corps (which were partly dismounted light dragoons), 4 artillery regiments, 2 partisan corps, and 1 artificer regiment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roman army of the mid-Republic",
        "text": "The normal size of a legion in this period was 4,200 infantry, of which 3,000 were heavily armed and 1,200 \"velites\" (plus 200\u2013300 cavalry). In times of emergency, a legion of 5,000 infantry could be levied, of which 3,800 would be heavy infantry. However, Polybius and Livy also mention legions of 6,000 infantry. This has led Roth to conclude that Republican legions were variable in size, depending on circumstances when they were raised. The heavy infantry of the earlier legion was organised into 30 \"centuriae\" units of 100 men each. The subdivisions in the mid-republican period were called maniples (\"manipuli\", from \"manus\" = \"hand\"). There were 10 maniples in each of the three lines that a legion was drawn up in for battle: \"hastati\", \"principes\" and \"triarii\", for a total of 30 maniples in each legion. The maniples of the front two lines contained twice as many men (120) as those in the rear line (60). If the legion numbered 5,000 men, the maniples in the front lines were increased to 160 men each. Membership of each line was determined by age-group: the \"hastati\" contained the younger men (up to 25 years old); the \"principes\" those in the 26\u201335 group; and the \"triarii\" the older men (36\u201346)."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion has been called in frequently to support many Star Wars events at public libraries, aimed at encouraging literacy among younger fans of the franchise. Library \u201cStar Wars days\u201d (including events for the official \"Star Wars Reads Day\") are routinely among the most popular events on a library's calendar. Activities like Stormtrooper Story Time, Jedi training games, trivia contests, coloring and drawing activity stations, and appearances by the 501st Legion help make these events successful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roman legion",
        "text": "\"See also Sub-Units of the Roman legion\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Roman legion",
        "text": "\"See also Sub-Units of the Roman legion\""
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Garrison Membership Liaison (GML): The GML is appointed by the CO. The GML is responsible for reviewing and processing applications for membership and maintaining Garrison member information in the Legion database. The GML reports to the CO and the LMO."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "When the \"Star Wars: The Clone Wars\" and were released in 2008, the 501st Legion was given the charismatic clone Captain Rex, a popular character, to lead them into battle."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion Captain of the Guard (LCotG): The office of the LCotG interprets and enforces club rules. This officer serves as an impartial mediator for disputes among members or officers, oversees disciplinary hearings, moderates Legion elections, and maintains the Legion map of units."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The Legion's costuming standards are listed online in the 501st Legion Costume Reference Library (CRL). All costumes must meet the base requirements listed there in order to be considered for approval."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Corcoran",
        "text": "The Legion consisted of:\n*1st Regiment-formed of the 1st and 6th Regiment; later the 182nd New York Volunteer Infantry\n*2nd Regiment-formed of the 5th and 6th Regiment; later the 155th New York Volunteer Infantry\n*3rd Regiment-formed of the 3rd; 7th and 8th Regiment; later the 164th New York Volunteer Infantry\n*4th Regiment-formed of the 2nd Regiment; later the 170th New York Volunteer Infantry\n*5th Regiment-never served with Brigade; later the 175th New York Volunteer Infantry\n*6th Regiment-below minimum strength-later part of 1st and 2nd Regiment\n*7th Regiment-below minimum strength-later part of the 3rd Regiment\n*8th Regiment-below minimum strength-later part of the 3rd Regiment"
      },
      {
        "title": "213th Battalion (American Legion), CEF",
        "text": "213th Battalion (American Legion), CEF\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "For Star Wars costumers who are under 18 years of age, the 501st Legion has partnered with its sister club, the Rebel Legion, to form a joint group for children called the Galactic Academy. The Galactic Academy deals with both \"bad guy\" and \"good guy\" costumes, has no member age requirement, and has no strict costume standards. It provides a safe environment for children of different age groups who share a love of Star Wars and costuming to connect with one another online."
      },
      {
        "title": "212th Battalion (American Legion), CEF",
        "text": "212th Battalion (American Legion), CEF\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Scott Loxley of the 501st Legion was raising money for Monash Children's Hospital when he claims he was saved by stormtrooper armor from a bite on the shin by a deadly King Brown serpent near Yalboroo, Australia on January 14, 2015 as he walked down a road while walking entirely around the Australian continent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regiment of Patricians",
        "text": "The Patricios Legion was made up of three battalions and the regimental HQ, with 23 companies of 50 men each (8 battalions I and III and seven in the II), with a total of 1,356 soldiers."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Infantry Regiment (United States)",
        "text": "In October 2013 2-501 PIR activated as part of the 1st BCT, 82nd ABN DIV replacing the 4\u201373 Cavalry Regiment, 4th BCT, 82nd ABN DIV due to organizational restructuring."
      },
      {
        "title": "211th Battalion (American Legion), CEF",
        "text": "211th Battalion (American Legion), CEF\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "East Roman army",
        "text": "The overall picture is that \"comitatenses\" units were either c. 1,000 or c. 500 strong. \"Limitanei\" units would appear to average about 250 effectives. But much uncertainty remains, especially regarding the size of \"limitanei\" regiments, as can be seen by the wide ranges of the size estimates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silver Legion of America",
        "text": "By 1934, the Legion claimed to have about 15,000 members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cantabrian Wars",
        "text": "These units totaled 50,000 soldiers (30,000 legionaries and 20,000 auxiliaries)."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Combat Support Wing",
        "text": "In total, the 501st CSW has almost 2,600 U.S. military and civilian employees directly assigned, including non-appropriated fund employees. There are also 117 U.K. personnel who work directly for the wing in appropriated and non-appropriated positions and more than 180 U.K. Ministry of Defence Police, Defense Schools and our many tenant units along with family members and retirees who reside in the United Kingdom."
      },
      {
        "title": "British Auxiliary Legion",
        "text": "It would appear that most of the 9,600 men forming the Legion were volunteers from British Army line regiments. The only \"regular\" troops who served in the war were men of the Royal Navy, Royal Marines, Royal Artillery, and Royal Engineers. Recruiting and training began in 1835. The Legion was to comprise 8,500 infantry (in 10 battalions), 550 rifles, 700 cavalry and 300 artillery.\n* Cavalry \u2013 Consisted of two Regiments:\n** 1st Reina Isabel Lancers \u2013 English\n** 2nd Queen's Own Irish Lancers \u2013 Irish\n* Infantry \u2013 Consisted of ten battalions organised into \"English\", \"Scottish\" and \"Irish\" brigades. All foot units were single Battalion Regiments with six Battalion/Centre companies, one Light Company, and one Grenadier Company.\n** 1st English Battalion\n** 2nd English Battalion\n** 3rd Westminster Grenadiers \u2013 English\n** 4th Queen's Own Fusiliers \u2013 English\n** 5th Scotch \u2013 Scottish\n** 6th Scotch Grenadiers \u2013 Scottish\n** 7th Irish Light Infantry \u2013 Irish\n** 8th Highlanders \u2013 Scottish\n** 9th Irish Grenadiers \u2013 Irish\n** 10th Munster Light Infantry \u2013 Irish"
      },
      {
        "title": "Saxe Hussar Regiment",
        "text": "Under the reorganisations, the legions were completely revamped so that they were organised as follows: Regimental Staff, 8 x Chasseurs \u00e0 Pied (foot chasseurs) and 8 x Chasseurs \u00e0 Cheval (mounted chasseurs) companies, each consisted of 128 and 132 personnel respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "261st Medical Battalion",
        "text": "Legion of Merit: 2"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion Executive Officer (LXO): The LXO assists the LCO in club operations as vice-president. The LXO may perform duties as assigned by the LCO, and will act as club president in the absence of the LCO."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Combat Support Group",
        "text": "Support Squadrons"
      },
      {
        "title": "100,000",
        "text": "In Cyrillic numerals, it is known as the legion (): or ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign Legion Recruiting Group",
        "text": "For the G.R.L.E, the Division General of the Foreign Legion has authorized that the guard of the G.R.L.E Fanion be constituted of, as per reglementation, 1 Sous-officiers (fanion bearer), and 2 Legionnaires, all three armed with MAS- 49-56."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "A decade after Johnson and Crews founded the Legion, on January 1, 2007, two hundred members of the Legion marched in the annual Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena, California, with George Lucas himself as the grand marshal. At this watershed moment for the club, Lucas and Johnson discussed the future of the rapidly growing Legion, and an unofficial partnership was born. Lucasfilm would grant the Legion a limited use of their copyrighted characters, as long as members of the 501st promised never to use their costumes for personal profit and that they represent the franchise in a positive and respectful manner."
      },
      {
        "title": "136th Armored Legionary Division "Centauro"",
        "text": "136th Armored Legionary Division \"Centauro\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion of Death (military unit)",
        "text": "Legion of Death (military unit)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "237th Battalion (American Legion), CEF",
        "text": "237th Battalion (American Legion), CEF\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "13th Demi-Brigade of the Foreign Legion",
        "text": "In 2022, the composition is about 1300 legionnaires at in five combat companies, one support company (CCL), and one reconnaissance and support company.\n* The CCS or command and support company, is mixed, composed of legionnaires in MCD and permanently based. The unit regrouped all projectable services, necessary to command the regiment (transmission, operations bureau, medics, transport section). The unit also armed the CECAP which organized the various tactical desert training courses in desert zones. This unit formed the French Forces stationed in Djibouti (FFDj), as well as the recently commissioned infantry officers of the various institutions and foreign military units;\n* The CM or maintenance company. This company is mixed in double since it consists of both legionnaires and soldiers of the arms material branch, in MCD or permanently posted. This unit assured the maintenance of all units of the French Army present on the territory;\n* The ER or squadron reconnaissance (permanent unit). The squadron formed mainly of legionnaires from the 1st Foreign Cavalry Regiment 1e REC and stationed in isolated posts, at Brunet de Sairign\u00e9, at Oueah, 40\u00a0km from Djibouti since 1968. The unit was equipped with light armor type ERC 90 Sagaie. The unit was autonomous at the scale of maintain materials and infrastructure;\n* The Compagnie d'Infanterie. Armed alternatively by a company of the 2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment 2e REI or 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment 2e REP, the unit was equipped with VAB and VLRA. The unit is formed of one section command, one support section (one group of 81\u00a0mm and another missile group), and three combat sections;\n* The Compagnie de G\u00e9nie. Hailing from the 1st Foreign Engineer Regiment 1e REG and 2nd Foreign Engineer Regiment 2e REG, is composed of a command section, three combat engineer sections, one support section and one works section. The latter was in charge in general of preparing roads or landing strips. Sometimes, one of these sections can pass all the MCD time in the desert, under tents, drawing a landing strip, in the most purest tradition of legionnaires b\u00e2tisseurs (builder)."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion has also partnered with various minor and major league sports franchises such as the National Hockey League, Major League Baseball, and National Basketball Association in recent years for special \u201cStar Wars Nights.\u201d These events have brought record attendance numbers to games. Members of the 501st Legion have participated in games at the minor league hockey and baseball levels, college sports, the Arena Football League, and the National Football League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roman legion",
        "text": "The Roman legion (, ) was the largest military unit of the Roman army, composed of 5,200 infantry and 300 equites (cavalry) in the period of the Roman Republic (509 BC\u201327 BC); and was composed of 5,600 infantry and 200 auxilia in the period of the Roman Empire (27 BC \u2013 AD 1453)"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of French Foreign Legion units",
        "text": "List of French Foreign Legion units\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Greek Volunteer Legion",
        "text": "By mid-March, the corps had grown to two battalions, one of which was Greek, and by May, Lieutenant General reported that the Greeks alone numbered 1097 men in ten companies, forming two battalions, with a third being created."
      },
      {
        "title": "British Auxiliary Legion",
        "text": "In total a quarter of the force \u2013 some 2,500 men \u2013 died, only half of them in combat. Their presence had not been well received by the Carlists; one former soldier wrote"
      },
      {
        "title": "213th Battalion (American Legion), CEF",
        "text": "The 213th Battalion, CEF was a unit in the Canadian Expeditionary Force during World War I. Based in Toronto, Ontario, the unit began recruiting in early 1916 throughout Military Districts 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. After sailing to England in January 1917, the battalion was absorbed into the 4th Reserve Battalion. The 213th Battalion, CEF had one Officer Commanding: Lieutenant-Colonel B. J. McCormick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion Lost",
        "text": "The second series, as part of The New 52, depicts seven Legionnaires (Chameleon Girl, Dawnstar, Gates, Timber Wolf, Tellus, Tyroc and Wildfire) from the Post-Infinite Crisis \"Retroboot\" Legion trapped in the twenty-first century pursuing a villain who released a pathogen. The series was cancelled with issue #16."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is required for membership to the 501st Legion?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Membership requirements for applicants include being at least 18 years of age and have a documented ownership of at least one qualifying high-quality costume of a Star Wars villain. To maintain membership they must troop at least one local unit or Legion-level event per year and abide by the 501st Legion Code of Conduct."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many units are a part of the 501st Legion total?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "There are three types of local units: garrisons, squads, and outposts. Worldwide, there are 76 Garrisons, 78 squads, and 30 Outposts."
    ],
    "topic": "501st Legion",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "501st Legion:21",
        "passage_titles": [
          "501st Legion",
          "Organization",
          "Local units"
        ],
        "ctx": "There are three kinds of local units.\n* Garrisons are the largest type of local unit. One must have at least 25 active members, but there is no upward limit to how many members can belong to a garrison. There are 76 Garrisons worldwide, the largest of which is German Garrison, with over 680 members.\n** Squads are subdivisions of Garrisons, established to better serve members in distinct regions within a Garrison's territory. Squads are formed of at least 10 members of a Garrison, residing within a reasonably close, clearly defined geographic region. There is no requirement for a Garrison to have any squads, and many do not. Other Garrisons, especially those that cover large geographic areas, have several Squads to better serve their members. There are 78 squads amongst the Legion's Garrisons.\n* Outposts are the smallest Legion unit, and one can have as few as one Legion member. They are most often established when a new member joins the Legion and lives in an area that lies outside the borders of an existing Garrison. There are 30 Outposts in the Legion worldwide."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "501st Legion:21",
        "passage_titles": [
          "501st Legion",
          "Organization",
          "Local units"
        ],
        "ctx": "There are three kinds of local units.\n* Garrisons are the largest type of local unit. One must have at least 25 active members, but there is no upward limit to how many members can belong to a garrison. There are 76 Garrisons worldwide, the largest of which is German Garrison, with over 680 members.\n** Squads are subdivisions of Garrisons, established to better serve members in distinct regions within a Garrison's territory. Squads are formed of at least 10 members of a Garrison, residing within a reasonably close, clearly defined geographic region. There is no requirement for a Garrison to have any squads, and many do not. Other Garrisons, especially those that cover large geographic areas, have several Squads to better serve their members. There are 78 squads amongst the Legion's Garrisons.\n* Outposts are the smallest Legion unit, and one can have as few as one Legion member. They are most often established when a new member joins the Legion and lives in an area that lies outside the borders of an existing Garrison. There are 30 Outposts in the Legion worldwide."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "501st Legion:21",
        "passage_titles": [
          "501st Legion",
          "Organization",
          "Local units"
        ],
        "ctx": "There are three kinds of local units.\n* Garrisons are the largest type of local unit. One must have at least 25 active members, but there is no upward limit to how many members can belong to a garrison. There are 76 Garrisons worldwide, the largest of which is German Garrison, with over 680 members.\n** Squads are subdivisions of Garrisons, established to better serve members in distinct regions within a Garrison's territory. Squads are formed of at least 10 members of a Garrison, residing within a reasonably close, clearly defined geographic region. There is no requirement for a Garrison to have any squads, and many do not. Other Garrisons, especially those that cover large geographic areas, have several Squads to better serve their members. There are 78 squads amongst the Legion's Garrisons.\n* Outposts are the smallest Legion unit, and one can have as few as one Legion member. They are most often established when a new member joins the Legion and lives in an area that lies outside the borders of an existing Garrison. There are 30 Outposts in the Legion worldwide."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "In 2016, the members of the 501st donated over 182,000 hours of community service, raising over $889,000 USD in direct donations, and participated in events that helped raise over $46 million for charities worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion never charges a fee for an appearance, but they do welcome donations to a charity in honor of the Legion or the local Legion unit. If an event host does not have a charity of choice, Legion members frequently direct the donations to the Endowment Fund. In cases where the event host is itself a charitable organization, a donation is usually not accepted by the 501st Legion as they volunteer their time for that charitable organization."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion Charity Representative (LCR): The office of the LCR serves as the Legion's primary point of contact with outside charitable organizations. The LCR manages documentation of Legion charitable activities and may publish and promote the Legion's charity efforts to the membership and the public."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Giving back to the community is one of the 501st Legion's highest priorities. Because of this, the 501st Legion proudly refers to themselves as the \"Bad Guys Doing Good.\" Members regularly participate in events to raise awareness for charitable causes, from walk-a-thons to blood drives, and provide opportunities for fundraising through events such as their \"Blast-A-Trooper\" game, where donations are collected from the public to target armored characters with Nerf blasters."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "In the Blast-a-Trooper game, fans fire foam darts at Imperial characters in exchange for a donation to charity. Blast-a-Trooper ranges have raised thousands of dollars for worthy causes around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "CVQO",
        "text": "The charity works with a wide variety of educational establishments such as Pearson BTEC, City & Guilds and The Institute of Leadership and Management.\n* Sea Cadet Corps (SCC)\n* Army Cadet Force (ACF)\n* Air Training Corps (ATC)\n* Combined Cadet Force (CCF)\n* Volunteer Cadet Corps\n* Royal Marines Band Service\n* Royal Corps of Army Music (CAMUS)\n* Army School of Ceremonial Drumming Wing\n* St John Ambulance\n* Police Cadets\n* Fire Cadets\n* The Prince's Trust\n* Boys' Brigade"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Early events attended (or \"trooped\") by the Legion were mostly science-fiction and comic book conventions or related to the release of the Star Wars movies in theaters and on video. But members were looking for more frequent reasons to meet up with their new-found Legion friends and show off their costumes together. The Legion expanded into a charitable organization."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "In September 2016, the 501st Legion announced their commitment to a first-of-its kind international endowment in a unique partnership with Make-A-Wish. The 501st Legion Make-A-Wish Endowment Fund will allow Make-A-Wish America and Make-A-Wish International to grant more Star Wars-related wishes to children diagnosed with life-threatening medical conditions. The endowment fund allows Make-A-Wish to grant wishes, alternating between the United States and international locations every other year \u2013 a first for an endowment of this kind. The Endowment relies on contributions from its members, as well as the public. With a goal of $150,000 in the fund by 2021, the Endowment fund will grant wishes from the interest accrued; as the fund continues to grow, so will the number of wishes granted by the endowment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal British Legion",
        "text": "In August 2010, Tony Blair pledged the proceeds of his memoirs, \"A Journey\", to the Legion, \"as a way of marking the enormous sacrifice [the armed forces] make for the security of our people and the world\". This included a \u00a34.6\u00a0million advance, making it the largest single donation in the charity's history. Chris Simpkins, the Legion's Director General, said he was delighted with what he called \"this very generous\" offer and the Legion announced that it would be used to help fund its planned \"Battle Back\" challenge, a project to provide state-of-the-art rehabilitation services for troops returning from the frontline with serious injuries. Amongst the generally favourable reaction to the news, some anti war campaigners and families of soldiers killed during the wars in Iraq and in Afghanistan claimed the donation was \"blood money\" and a public relations stunt. They were not widely supported"
      },
      {
        "title": "ABF The Soldiers' Charity",
        "text": "The charity runs key national events as part of its fundraising activities:"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion members make appearances at casual, promotional, and charitable events, often at the request of Lucasfilm's Fan Events department. Although not officially affiliated with the Walt Disney Company or Lucasfilm LLC., the 501st Legion is Lucasfilm's preferred Imperial costuming organization, and its members were featured as extras in the official series \"The Mandalorian\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "As a worldwide organization that fields dozens of appearance requests daily, the Legion has set up local units to better handle tasks like event coordination, promotion, recruitment, and discipline."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "501st Legion\n--Origins.\n----The 501st Legion name.\n--Mission statement.\n--Membership.\n----Legion identification numbers.\n----The Galactic Academy.\n--Organization.\n----Local units.\n----Detachments.\n--Command structure.\n----Legion officers.\n----Unit officers.\n------Garrison officers.\n------Squad officers.\n------Outpost officers.\n----Detachment officers.\n--Appearances.\n----Community events.\n----Libraries.\n----Hospitals.\n----Promotions.\n----Professional sports.\n----Conventions.\n----Concerts.\n----Television.\n--Charitable works.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebel Legion",
        "text": "Some of the events where the member of the Rebel Legion were guests, supporters, artists or exhibitors to support charity projects:"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion is an international fan-based organization dedicated to the construction and wearing of screen-accurate replicas of Imperial Stormtrooper armor, Sith Lords, Clone Troopers, bounty hunters, and other villains from the \"Star Wars\" universe. The 501st Legion, called by its nickname Vader's Fist, is made up entirely of volunteers."
      },
      {
        "title": "ABF The Soldiers' Charity",
        "text": "ABF The Soldiers' Charity is a key funder for many specialist organisations who rely on such funding to continue their bespoke support to the Army family and partners, alongside over 92 military service charities including the Royal British Legion, RAF Benevolent Fund, Royal Navy & Royal Marines Charity, SSAFA and Combat Stress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charitable activities of the Knights of Columbus",
        "text": "At a Solidarity Dinner for the Washington-based group In Defense of Christians, Vice President Mike Pence singled out the order for their \"extraordinary work caring for the persecuted around the world.\" Between 2014 and 2017, the Knights of Columbus Christian Refugee Relief Fund gave over $17 million for humanitarian relief work in the area. That includes $2 million to rebuild the primarily Christian town of Karamles in Iraq."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion is an all-volunteer organization formed for the purpose of bringing together costume enthusiasts from around the world under a collective identity. The 501st Legion seeks to promote interest in Star Wars through the building and wearing of high quality costumes, to facilitate the use of these costumes for Star Wars-related events, and to contribute to the local community through costumed charity and volunteer work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outpost for Hope",
        "text": "Workers: The charity is run by volunteers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bunkers in Baghdad",
        "text": "According to the charity's website, it is run \"100% on donations \u2013 from the equipment that is generously donated to the funds required to pay for shipping to our troops.\" It holds an annual golf tournament in Akron, New York that stands as its biggest fundraiser for the year, but also holds events in Chicago, Dallas, Houston, and Miami. Its Bunkers Buddies program works with more than 400 schools across the country to fundraise, collect equipment, and hold letter-writing campaigns for troops stationed overseas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebel Legion",
        "text": "For public and private gatherings, the Legion never charges a fee for an appearance, but they do welcome donations made to an event host's favorite charity in the name of the Legion or the local Legion unit. If an event host does not have a charity of choice, Legion members usually provide a suggestion, sometimes tied to a fundraising effort that is already underway. In cases where the event host is itself a charitable organization, a donation is usually not accepted by the Rebel Legion as they volunteer their time for that charitable organization."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the 501st Legion get frequently invited to appear at pediatric wards. When the 501st Legion appears in a hospital, they brighten the lives of children going through difficult trials and serious medical treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Call of Duty Endowment",
        "text": "According to the organization website, primary grantees include AMVETS, Vet Jobs Powered by Corporate America Supports You, Hire Heroes USA, JVS SoCal, Operation: Job Ready Veterans, The Forces Employment Charity (RFEA), Salvation Army Community Integration Services, Still Serving Veterans, US VETS, Veterans Inc., Walking With The Wounded, and Workshops for Warriors."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "There are three kinds of local units.\n* Garrisons are the largest type of local unit. One must have at least 25 active members, but there is no upward limit to how many members can belong to a garrison. There are 76 Garrisons worldwide, the largest of which is German Garrison, with over 680 members.\n** Squads are subdivisions of Garrisons, established to better serve members in distinct regions within a Garrison's territory. Squads are formed of at least 10 members of a Garrison, residing within a reasonably close, clearly defined geographic region. There is no requirement for a Garrison to have any squads, and many do not. Other Garrisons, especially those that cover large geographic areas, have several Squads to better serve their members. There are 78 squads amongst the Legion's Garrisons.\n* Outposts are the smallest Legion unit, and one can have as few as one Legion member. They are most often established when a new member joins the Legion and lives in an area that lies outside the borders of an existing Garrison. There are 30 Outposts in the Legion worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members were also featured on the Christmas 2012 episode of \"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the 501st Legion frequently attend fandom's larger conventions including Dragon Con, San Diego Comic-Con, MCM London Comic Con, the Wizard World Comic Cons, and Megacon (among scores of other Sci-Fi conventions) where they often host a fan table or booth where the public can learn more about the Legion, see costumes and props on display, and speak directly with members. At HeroesCon, their table is generally set up near the similarly-themed, \"Star Trek\"-based Klingon Assault Group, and the two have a friendly rivalry to see who can solicit the most donations for charity."
      },
      {
        "title": "ABF The Soldiers' Charity",
        "text": "Last year, the charity spent \u00a317.3 million supporting more than 70,000 members of the Army family in 68 countries across the globe, and funded 92 other charities and organisations to deliver specialist support on its behalf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sons of the American Legion",
        "text": "Since 1988, The Sons have raised more than $8 million for the American Legion Child Welfare Foundation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corpul Muncitoresc Legionar",
        "text": "It soon began organizing a series of leisure ventures, including several low-cost restaurants (one of them was maintained in Grivi\u021ba), which also functioned as charity canteens for the poor. Following a model instituted by Opera nazionale dopolavoro in Fascist Italy, a number of campsites were set up, offering free vacationing to working-class children."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Over the years, the 501st Legion has also been instrumental in granting the wishes of several Make-A-Wish children. Occasions such as these can make a difference for patients by providing them with some joy and comfort to them and their families during their treatments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kappa Sigma",
        "text": "During the 66th Grand Conclave in 2007, the Fraternity announced a new charity entitled the \"Kappa Sigma Fraternity Military Heroes Campaign\". Since its inception, the campaign has donated over $1,000,000 to non-profit organizations who advocate on behalf of servicemen and women and those wounded in combat. The Supreme Executive Committee determines how the contributions will be distributed to support these patriots and veterans. Some of these charities include the Fisher House Foundation, the SEAL Legacy Foundation, and the Valour Place."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Some larger units of the Legion also sometimes conduct activities like the Droid Hunt and Blast-a-Trooper at conventions."
      },
      {
        "title": "ABF The Soldiers' Charity",
        "text": "In January 2010, the charity rebranded as ABF The Soldiers' Charity and continues to support the Army family by giving grants to individuals and other specialist charities that help soldiers and their families. It works with veterans from every conflict since the Second World War, including those from recent operations in Iraq and Afghanistan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal British Legion Industries",
        "text": "Over time, the charity has expanded its charitable goals and now support veterans from many backgrounds, as well as people with disabilities and people who are unemployed."
      },
      {
        "title": "ABF The Soldiers' Charity",
        "text": "Every year, thousands of individuals received welfare support from ABF The Soldiers' Charity. Many of these individuals have gone on to become ambassadors for The Soldiers' Charity, sharing their stories in order to raise much needed funds and awareness for the cause. These individuals include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Project Hope (Palestine)",
        "text": "In 2013 Project Hope hosted 144 international volunteers from 19 countries, the majority from the United States, France and Britain. This represents a 57% increase over 2011. Volunteers are required to contribute to the cost of shared accommodation in houses belonging to the charity. All volunteers undergo induction before teaching or setting up workshops and summer camps. Local volunteers are key to supporting overseas teams in the classroom and other activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "4x4 Response",
        "text": "Although a national organisation, the charity operates through an affiliated network of thirty-two local groups. Each group has its own formalised Memoranda of Understanding with its user agencies, which include Category One and Category Two responders as defined by the Civil Contingencies Act 2004. These organisations include:\n* Local Authority Emergency Planning Offices\n* Police\n* Ambulance Services\n* St. John Ambulance\n* Red Cross\n* Doctors' Associations."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Garrison Public Relations Officer (GPRO): The GPRO is appointed by the Garrison Commanding Officer. The GPRO assists the CO in promoting the Unit to the public and also may be called upon by the Legion PRO to assist in the public promotion of the Legion."
      },
      {
        "title": "British Charitable Fund",
        "text": "Until the Second World War, the charity was based at Avenue Hoche near the Arc de Triomphe. It is now based in the Paris suburb of Levallois-Perret. It became a registered charity in the UK in 1969."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Scott Loxley of the 501st Legion was raising money for Monash Children's Hospital when he claims he was saved by stormtrooper armor from a bite on the shin by a deadly King Brown serpent near Yalboroo, Australia on January 14, 2015 as he walked down a road while walking entirely around the Australian continent."
      },
      {
        "title": "ABF The Soldiers' Charity",
        "text": "The charity has a range of corporate partners and supporters that includes MBDA, Barclays and BAE Systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Classics for All",
        "text": "The charity relies largely on donations from individuals, organisations or charities. In 2017 it was awarded a \u00a390,000 grant from the A. G. Leventis Foundation and \u00a360,000 from The Polonsky Foundation, both to be paid over three years. In 2017 it received donations from 343 individuals, charities or organisations, including 107 made anonymously."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outpost Club",
        "text": "The OC conducts many events each year for charity. These events have been sponsored by companies such as, TRUElinks, Ralph Lauren, Macallan, Highland Park and Dunning Golf. Organizations they have raised money for include: Troops First, Wounded Warrior Project, American Cancer Society, and St Jude's."
      },
      {
        "title": "America's Charities",
        "text": "America's Charities is a 501(c)(3) membership-based nonprofit, representing more than 130 charitable organizations in workplace giving campaigns for employers in public and private sectors: the Combined Federal Campaign, the federal government\u2019s workplace giving campaign, state and local governments, and nonprofits. In its 40 years, America's Charities has raised more than $750 million for more than 20,000 nonprofits addressing causes including education, human rights, hunger, poverty, research, animal welfare, veteran assistance, disaster relief, and health services. It is based in Chantilly, Virginia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebel Legion",
        "text": "The Rebel Legion is an international fan-based volunteer organization dedicated to the construction and wearing of screen-accurate replicas of the Rebel Alliance, the Galactic Republic, the New Republic, the Resistance, the Jedi Order, and other heroes from the \"Star Wars\" universe. Founded in 2000, the group was formed in response to the decision of sister organization the 501st Legion to remain dedicated to Galactic Empire costumes. The Rebel Legion makes appearances at private and public events, including charitable events and official \"Star Wars\" promotional events. The organization does not charge a fee for appearances, instead encouraging a donation to a charity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Serving Charity",
        "text": "The organization has charity projects in seven countries; Canada, India, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Germany, Iran, and Vietnam. In 2010 Serving Charity opened its first orphanage in Puerto Plata, Dominican Republic, for orphaned or abandoned Haitian refugee children. The organization is most recognized for its soup kitchen in Toronto where volunteers come to makes sandwiches and go out to feed the homeless every night from 2:00AM\u20136:00AM."
      },
      {
        "title": "Circle of Friends for American Veterans",
        "text": "In 2012 they raised $21,332,659. Of that $2,227,761 was retained by the charities. In 2012, \"Outreach Calling collected $6,681 on behalf of the Disabled Police and Sheriffs Foundation from Massachusetts residents ... and turned over $668 to the charity, according to state records.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Air Training Corps",
        "text": "The RAFAC (ATC) is itself not a charitable organisation and is not itself a legal entity and so has no legal status. That defers to the MOD. For this and other reasons, the trustees within each Civilian Committee are required to be responsible for, and accountable for, the charitable fundraising of the squadron. As with any charity, three officers (Chairperson, Secretary and Treasurer) are elected at an AGM, possibly with the addition of a deputy chairperson, and then exist as an independent group to raise and manage funds in a lawful manner in accordance with the Charities Act. They do this under the status of an 'excepted charity' which requires that they conduct themselves wholly to the Charities Act 2011 but are excepted from sending in annual reports to the Charity Commission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Southampton University Air Squadron",
        "text": "SUAS participates in charity work and will democratically choose a charity to focus on as a squadron at the start of each academic year. Past charities SUAS have supported include MindUK and the Movember Foundation. They support the Royal British Legion by selling poppies on their university campus' in uniform every year before Remembrance Day. Other examples of their volunteering and charity work includes marshaling the Oakhaven Half Marathon every year in uniform and participation in plane-pulling contests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charitable activities of the Knights of Columbus",
        "text": "Each year, the Knights bring veterans to Lourdes, France, as part of the International Military Pilgrimage to Our Lady's Shrine. In 2017, the order brought over 200 veterans through their Warriors to Lourdes program."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "While Garrisons, Squads, and Outposts contain members with all varieties of Legion costumes, bound by a common geographic region, Legion Detachments contain members who are tied together by a common costume, but who live all over the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taras Kostanchuk",
        "text": "At the beginning of 2016, Taras Kostanchuk created a charity organization \"Justice\", which was aimed at helping the wounded soldiers and ATO veterans, the families of the dead and missing soldiers, as well as the children of ATO participants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Little Heroes Foundation",
        "text": "The Foundation has undertaken or provided support to a number of projects including:\n* Extensions to the Ronald McDonald Children's Clinic\n* Establishment of the Brookman Cancer Ward\n* Extensions to the Dialysis Unit\n* Improvements to the Adolescent Ward\n* Purchase of an x-ray machine and refurbishment of the Medical Imaging rooms\n* Upgrading of the holding bay in Paediatric Theatres\n* Upgrading the Endocrinology and Diabetes Centre\n* The purchase of a HPLC machine for the Gastroenterology Unit\n* The purchase of the MRI scanner\n* Endoscopic Theatre Suite Redevelopment"
      },
      {
        "title": "ABF The Soldiers' Charity",
        "text": "Adventure Challenges \u2013 The charity regularly undertakes a variety of adventure challenges, including tandem skydives with The Red Devils (the official parachute display team of both The Parachute Regiment (The Paras) and the British Army), the Virgin Money London Marathon and the Frontline Walk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Child Soldiers International",
        "text": "Child Soldiers International was a UK registered charity (registered charity number 1095237), with section 501(c)(3) public charity status in the USA."
      },
      {
        "title": "ABF The Soldiers' Charity",
        "text": "ABF The Soldiers' Charity was founded in 1944 as the Army Benevolent Fund. The demobilisation of soldiers after the two World Wars had put an enormous strain on Regimental and Corps charitable funds and highlighted the need for a national charity to give practical help to soldiers and veterans. Its first patron was His Majesty King George VI."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hope & Heroes Children's Cancer Fund",
        "text": "The charity raises approximately $3.5 million per year to support the Division's prestigious clinical care, research and supporting programs. The full-time staff currently consists of an executive director, a senior director of development, and an events and outreach manager. The funds are raised through a multitude of events, annual giving and multi-year gift agreements with major donors. Events include a golf tournament, a gala dinner, a walk and a luncheon, along with community and family run functions throughout the tri-state area."
      },
      {
        "title": "ABF The Soldiers' Charity",
        "text": "ABF The Soldiers' Charity, formerly the Army Benevolent Fund, is the national charity of the British Army. Since 1944, it has provided a lifetime of support to soldiers, veterans and their immediate families when they are in need."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal British Legion",
        "text": "The Legion support nearly 36,000 War Disablement Pension cases for war veterans and make around 300,000 welfare and friendship visits every year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal British Legion",
        "text": "The Royal British Legion (RBL), sometimes called the British Legion, is a British charity providing financial, social and emotional support to members and veterans of the British Armed Forces, their families and dependants."
      },
      {
        "title": "British Charitable Fund",
        "text": "The fund in Paris was supported by the British embassy in the 19th century: fundraising events including balls, and a reading by Charles Dickens in 1863. Donations from Richard Wallace supported thousands of Britons during the Siege of Paris in 1870\u201371, during the Franco-Prussian War. In 1896, Lieutenant Colonel Hylton Brisco left half of his personal fortune, \u00a390,000, to the charity. The charity assisted civilians to return to the UK after the outbreak of the First World War."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebel Legion",
        "text": "Rebel Legion\n--History.\n--Structure.\n--Charitable work.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ernest Hecht",
        "text": "Charities and organisations the Foundation has so far been able to support include: Lucy Cavendish College, Cambridge; Cardboard Citizens; University College London; Chickenshed Theatre; The National Gallery's Dame Myra Hess Day; Whizz-Kidz; Royal College of Music; React \u2013 Rapid Effective Assistance for Children with Potentially Terminal illness; Alzheimer's Society \"Singing for the Brain\" groups; Action for Blind People; InterAct Reading Service; Mildmay Mission Hospital; Dementia Care; Resource: The Jewish Employment Advice Centre; Scottish Disability Golf Partnership; British Limbless Ex-Service Men's Association; Tricycle Theatre; Macmillan Centre Clinical Nurse Specialists; Salvation Army; RAF Benevolent Fund; St John's Hospice; Marie Curie Cancer Care Nurses; St John's Ambulance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Help for Heroes",
        "text": "Help for Heroes previously grant funded more than 60\u00a0specialist charities; including The Prince's Trust, The Poppy Factory, and Combat Stress. The charity now focuses its financial support in the form of individual grants to wounded personnel, veterans and families. In 2019, the charity awarded 819 such grants, totalling \u00a3703,000, and taking the life-to-date awards total to 12,969."
      },
      {
        "title": "102nd Reconnaissance Battalion of General Karel Pale\u010dek",
        "text": "Charity events have been organized annually by the 102nd Reconnaissance Battalion since 2009 in order to raise money for children in need. Handing over of the charity voucher is usually connected with sport activities and social events organized for service members, their families and guests."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Hero Initiative",
        "text": "The charity is currently supported by Dark Horse Comics, Dynamic Forces, Image Comics, Marvel Entertainment, Top Cow Productions, and Wizard Entertainment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hatune Dogan",
        "text": "The foundation is an international organization. It maintains sections in Europe, the Middle East, Asia, Africa and the USA. Organization teams support the work directly on site. The Foundation coordinates the work of more than 5,000 volunteers in 37 countries around the world, working as a helping hand among the poorest of the poor and sick, without pursuing religious objectives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Knights of Vartan",
        "text": "Individual Knights are encouraged to have their own charity projects as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Campaign Against Arms Trade",
        "text": "Individuals and supportive groups (local branches of peace organisations, trade unions, churches, etc.) donate around 80% of the running costs. As a campaigning organisation, it is unable to take advantage of many of the benefits open to charities, but makes applications for charitable funding to a small number of trusts and foundations for its research and educational work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wedding of Prince Harry and Meghan Markle",
        "text": "In April 2018, the couple requested that, rather than sending wedding gifts, people should make a donation to one of seven charitable organisations, none of which they had a formal association with:\n*CHIVA (Children's HIV Association): The small charity supports more than 1,000 young people living with HIV in the UK and Ireland.\n*Crisis: The national homeless body works with thousands of people a year to help rebuild their lives.\n*The Myna Mahila Foundation: The organisation, based in Mumbai, helps empower women through offering stable employment and breaking cultural taboos around menstrual hygiene. Myna Mahila also teaches women life skills such as maths, English and self-defence.\n*Scotty's Little Soldiers: The charity supports children who have lost a parent while serving in the British Armed Forces.\n*StreetGames: The organisation uses sport to help young people and communities become healthier and safer.\n*Surfers Against Sewage: The national marine conservation body works to protect oceans, beaches, waves and wildlife.\n*The Wilderness Foundation UK: Vulnerable teenagers from urban communities are taught about the great outdoors and rural employment opportunities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Erskine",
        "text": "The charity host various fundraising events throughout the year. They host an annual motorbike meet, a Military themed ball, Christmas fayre and various concerts. The charity accept the help of volunteers from the public and needs to raise \u00a310 million annually to run its services."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Society for the Defense of Tradition, Family and Property",
        "text": "The organization solicits funds as a non-profit charity, not as a diocesan organization.\" Its annual public reports to the Internal Revenue Service indicate that between 2002 and 2014 it disbursed $1,800,000 to support the St. Louis de Montfort Academy and $1,500,000 to support related organizations in North and South America, most significantly Canada Needs Our Lady, Associa\u00e7\u00e3o dos Fundadores and the \"Tradici\u00f3n y Acci\u00f3n\" organizations of Colombia and Peru."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ayuda Suiza",
        "text": "The main tasks of the volunteers were: manage canteens; evacuate children from war zones to safe places; send to children's colonies, shelters and hospitals basic necessities from donations; and logistical support to children's colonies, shelters and hospitals through direct assistance and sponsorship. They worked together with republican institutions and local entities who received refugee children and families."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outpost for Hope",
        "text": "The charity provides training and free guides to Law Enforcement, Social Workers, Educators, Health Care Workers, Mental Health Workers, Homeless Services, Drug & Alcohol Recovery Providers and Youth."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion appears at several different venues for myriad reasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supporting organization (charity)",
        "text": "\"Case law\"\n*Cockerline Memorial Fund, 86 TC 53, 63 (1986)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outreach Calling Inc",
        "text": "Their charity clients include American Alliance For Disabled Veterans, Inc., American Association For Cancer Support, Inc., American Foundation For Disabled Children, Inc., AMVETS (American Veterans), Cancer Fund Of America, Inc., Center For American Homeless Veterans, Inc., Child Watch of North America, Childhood Leukemia Foundation, Inc., Committee for Missing Children, Inc., The Defeat Diabetes Disabled Police Officers Counseling Center, Inc., Disabled Police Officers Of an International Union of Police Associations, AFL-CIO (contract since 2010 through Megan Parker), Law Enforcement Officers Relief Fund National Vietnam Veterans Foundation, Inc., Optimal Medical Foundation, Inc., Reserve Police Officers Association, United Breast Cancer Research Society, Inc., Veterans Assistance Foundation, Inc., and Woman To Woman Breast Cancer Foundation, Inc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zombie Squad",
        "text": "Since its inception in 2003, Zombie Squad has organized charity events for organizations such as Meals on Wheels, American Red Cross, Youth In Need, Feed My People, Food Bank of Monmouth and Ocean County, Multiple Myeloma Research Foundation, Habitat for Humanity, Project S.H.A.R.E. and they have held a fund raiser for the victims of Hurricane Katrina and the May 2007 tornado outbreak."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Formed in South Carolina by residents Albin Johnson and Tom Crews in August 1997, the Legion now has over 14,000 active members worldwide, with over 26,000 approved costumes. The Legion is active on 6 continents, with local units known as \"Garrisons\" and \"Outposts\" in over 60 countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joint War Organisation",
        "text": "Other activities of VAD's included:\n* Rest stations at railway stations\n* Fundraising \u2013 over \u00a321 million was raised\n* Missing and wounded service\n* Air raid duty\n* Libraries\n* Transport of patients\n* Providing grants such as to Hammersmith hospital to help rehabilitation"
      },
      {
        "title": "ABF The Soldiers' Charity",
        "text": "ABF The Soldiers' Charity\n--History.\n--Events.\n--Partner charities.\n--Beneficiaries and ambassadors.\n--High-profile supporters.\n--Corporate sponsors.\n--Patrons and trustees.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lois Pope",
        "text": "Pope\u2019s organizations have sponsored a variety of charitable endeavors, including a clean-water project in Guatemala, summer camp grants for disadvantaged youths, programs to honor disabled veterans, and HealthCorps. She initiated the discussions which led to the creation of the American Veterans Disabled for Life Memorial, to which she and her foundations donated more than $10 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "ICanServe Foundation",
        "text": "7. Volunteer opportunities - survivor volunteers serve in ICanServe projects (for fund-raising or awareness) in gratitude for help received while they were in treatment; or as in the case of non-survivors, in honor the struggle of their loved ones who battled or continue to battle cancer"
      },
      {
        "title": "Charitable activities of the Knights of Columbus",
        "text": "To pay for these huts and their staff, the order instituted a per capita tax on the membership to raise $1 million. Local councils undertook their own fundraising drives which resulted in an additional $14 million to support the effort. In 1918, just before the war ended, the Knights and other organizations undertook another effort to raise funds to support the welfare of the men fighting abroad. The amount apportioned to the order and the National Catholic War Council totaled $30 million which, when combined with earlier efforts, funded efforts to support troops both in the United States and overseas. After the war, the Knights became involved in education, occupational training, and employment programs for the returning troops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Classics for All",
        "text": "The charity currently has 12 trustees and 47 volunteers. Trustees include Geoffrey John De Jager and Sir Rupert Jackson. It has twenty honorary patrons, including some of the most visible and senior classicists in the discipline such as Mary Beard and Bettany Hughes, and authors, playwrights, actors and politicians such as Joanna Lumley, Ian Hislop, Tom Stoppard and Michael Fallon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gary Hailes",
        "text": "Hailes is involved with the worldwide Star Wars costuming group, 501st Legion. In his position of Commanding Officer of the UK Garrison, Hailes spends much of his time traveling the country helping to raise money for charities. Hailes appeared as a Stormtrooper, along with five other members of the 501st Legion, in \"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Combat Stress (charitable organisation)",
        "text": "Currently, the organisation is helping almost 6,000 people who are Veterans aged from 19 to 97. Combat Stress are currently treating 971 Veterans who served in Afghanistan and 1,185 who served in Iraq."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton",
        "text": "The fund supported a total of 26 named organisations:\n* Oily Cart: a charity providing interactive theatre for under-fives and young children with learning difficulties\n* PeacePlayers International: a charity uses sport, particularly basketball, to unite and educate young people from diverse backgrounds\n* The Ocean Youth Trust: a charity based around teaching people to sail to enhance personal development\n* Greenhouse Schools: a charity uses sport and dance programmes to reach out to London's disadvantaged children\n* IntoUniversity: a charity provides local learning centres in disadvantaged areas to inspire the local youngsters to achieve\n* Beatbullying: a charity works with children affected by bullying to provide them with support and confidence\n* The Association for Children's Palliative Care (ACT): a charity aims to give children who are not expected to reach adulthood the best quality of life they can\n* The Scottish Community Foundation: a charity helps fund good causes all across Scotland\n* The Berkshire Community Foundation: a charity is an organisation that gives grants to local voluntary organisations\n* Combat Stress: a charity providing care for veterans' mental health\n* The Household Cavalry Benevolent fund: a charity provides support to soldiers' families, former soldiers and serving soldiers of the Household Cavalry Regiment\n* The Irish Guards Appeal: a charity is an appeal to help all Irish Guards and their families who have been affected by serious injury or disability\n* The Army Widows Association: a charity provides comfort and support to widows and widowers of service men and women\n* The RAF Benevolent Fund: a charity provides practical and financial support to members of the RAF and their families\n* The Zoological Society of London: a charity for the worldwide conservation of wildlife and their habitats\n* Earthwatch: a charity to promote the understanding and action necessary for a sustainable environment\n* The Canadian Coast Guard Auxiliary: a charity provides assistance to the National Defence and Coast Guard with search and rescue and safe boating programmes\n* The Christchurch Earthquake appeal: a charity is raising money for the victims and victims' families of the earthquake that devastated Christchurch in February 2011\n* The Royal Flying Doctor Service of Australia: a charity delivering health care and emergency service to those who live, travel and work throughout Australia\n* Cruse Bereavement Care: a charity provides advice and support to anyone trying to cope with grief\n* Dance United: a charity uses contemporary dance training to unlock the potential of young offenders and disadvantaged children\n* Venture Trust: a charity uses wilderness expeditions to provide young people with personal development activities\n* Keyfund: a charity is providing young people with the opportunity to practically develop skills, confidence and self-awareness to reach their potential\n* A National Voice: a charity is an organisation run for and by young people who are or have been in care to create positive changes to the care system\n* Youth Access: a charity provides advice and counselling to youngsters across the UK\n* The Community Foundation in Wales: a charity manages funds to provide volunteer organisations in Wales with necessary grants"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Johnson and Tom chose the club's name in 1997 to represent a fictional unit of Imperial stormtroopers. He wanted to ground the group in a \u201crealistic\u201d world and to pay homage to the fighting units of true military heroes, like his World War II airman father."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harry's",
        "text": "Similar to Warby Parker, which was also co-founded by Jeff Raider, Harry's began with a buy-one-donate-one business model, donating a free razor blade (or the cost of one) to charitable organizations. The program started in 2013 by supporting The Mission Continues to help veterans returning from Iraq and Afghanistan, and it was called the \"Give a Shave\" program. By the end of 2013, the \"Give a Shave\" program had changed slightly such that Harry's would donate 1% of their sales and the employees would donate 1% of their time to charitable organizations like City Year. Currently, the donation model remains 1% of sales, and employees now receive five days of paid time off to volunteer with a registered non-profit organization. Various charities have received this benefit, and Harry's has recently focused on promoting better mental health care for men and suicide prevention, making news for working with organizations such as Campaign Against Living Miserably (CALM), HEADstrong Foundation, and The Trevor Project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drum and bugle corps (modern)",
        "text": "Most corps are operated as or by dedicated non-profit organizations; very few are associated with schools or for-profit entities. Some corps are even parts of larger non-profit performance arts organizations, which might also include theater groups, winter guards, winter drumlines, and other various musical or visual activities. In Europe, many are also registered charities, assisting with their fundraising aims."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal British Legion",
        "text": "Legion campaigns include calls for more research into: Gulf War syndrome and compensation for its victims; upgrading of War Pensions; the extension of endowment mortgage compensation for British military personnel serving overseas; and better support for British military personnel resettling into civilian life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charitable activities of the Knights of Columbus",
        "text": "Charitable activities of the Knights of Columbus\n--Charitable activity.\n----Support for employment.\n----Support for disabilities.\n----Disaster relief.\n----Housing.\n----Health initiatives.\n----Refugees.\n----Support for Catholic buildings and education.\n----Support for Catholic liturgy and vocations.\n----Education initiatives.\n------The Catholic University of America.\n------Post\u2013World War I efforts.\n------Council schools.\n------Scholarships.\n------Correspondence courses.\n------Modern efforts.\n----Support for Catholic media.\n----Support for military and veterans.\n------World War I.\n------World War II.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "SSAFA",
        "text": "SSAFA\u2019s charitable work is financed by contributions from benevolent funds, generous donations from members of the public and the profits generated by their Health and Social Care department who are contracted by the National Health Service and Ministry of Defence to provide direct support to serving personnel and their families in the UK and overseas."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion units are often invited to appear on stage with symphonies and school bands who perform the music of John Williams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christopher Coutu",
        "text": "In 2006, Coutu established AmericanWarrior.org. The non-profit supports veterans and patriotic events. The organization is supported through private donations and has coordinated and financed for 1130 World War II and Korean War veterans to visit their war memorials in Washington, D.C."
      },
      {
        "title": "HIT Humanitarian",
        "text": "The company is currently assisting the dozens of orphans still there. As of March 2010, it donates around $4,500 each month to the orphanage."
      },
      {
        "title": "TV-aksjonen",
        "text": "The beneficiary of each year's event is decided by a fund-raising committee at NRK, which also receives detailed follow-up reports from the selected charity on the spending of the raised money. Charities vary, with causes including combating poverty, providing healthcare, clearing minefields and munitions, protecting women, and the environment. The Norwegian Refugee Council and Norwegian Church Aid are the organizations which have the most campaigns run for their benefit, with five and four fundraisers, respectively. Funds have also been earmarked to assist displaced persons in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Burundi, Angola, and Uganda (1998), and refugees from wars in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sudan, Somalia, the Palestinian territories, and Colombia (2010)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Post-traumatic stress disorder",
        "text": "In the UK, there are various charities and service organisations dedicated to aiding veterans in readjusting to civilian life. The Royal British Legion and the more recently established Help for Heroes are two of Britain's more high-profile veterans' organisations which have actively advocated for veterans over the years. There has been some controversy that the NHS has not done enough in tackling mental health issues and is instead \"dumping\" veterans on charities such as Combat Stress."
      },
      {
        "title": "2017 Invictus Games",
        "text": "The Royal Canadian Legion was asked by organizers to be a sponsor; the 30 members of the Legion council who met voted unanimously in support. Their $500,000 donation drew criticism from Canadian Veterans Advocacy, who suggested that drawing on the Poppy Campaign donations as opposed to other revenue sources was inappropriate. The Legion and columnists defended the use of funds as supporting the mission, noting other veteran welfare projects like purchasing a specialized MRI for a mental health clinic."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is required for membership to the 501st Legion?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Membership requirements for applicants include being at least 18 years of age and have a documented ownership of at least one qualifying high-quality costume of a Star Wars villain. To maintain membership they must troop at least one local unit or Legion-level event per year and abide by the 501st Legion Code of Conduct."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many units are a part of the 501st Legion total?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are three types of local units: garrisons, squads, and outposts. Worldwide, there are 76 Garrisons, 78 squads, and 30 Outposts."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are they involved with any charity work?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Yes, the 501st Legion seeks to promote interest in Star Wars through the building and wearing of high quality costumes, to facilitate the use of these costumes for Star Wars-related events, and to contribute to the local community through costumed charity and volunteer work.",
      "Legion Charity Representative serves as the Legion's primary point of contact with outside charitable organizations. The LCR manages documentation of Legion charitable activities and may publish and promote the Legion's charity efforts to the membership and the public."
    ],
    "topic": "501st Legion",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "501st Legion:12",
        "passage_titles": [
          "501st Legion",
          "Mission statement"
        ],
        "ctx": "The 501st Legion is an all-volunteer organization formed for the purpose of bringing together costume enthusiasts from around the world under a collective identity. The 501st Legion seeks to promote interest in Star Wars through the building and wearing of high quality costumes, to facilitate the use of these costumes for Star Wars-related events, and to contribute to the local community through costumed charity and volunteer work."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "501st Legion:33",
        "passage_titles": [
          "501st Legion",
          "Command structure",
          "Legion officers"
        ],
        "ctx": "Legion Charity Representative (LCR): The office of the LCR serves as the Legion's primary point of contact with outside charitable organizations. The LCR manages documentation of Legion charitable activities and may publish and promote the Legion's charity efforts to the membership and the public."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion never charges a fee for an appearance, but they do welcome donations to a charity in honor of the Legion or the local Legion unit. If an event host does not have a charity of choice, Legion members frequently direct the donations to the Endowment Fund. In cases where the event host is itself a charitable organization, a donation is usually not accepted by the 501st Legion as they volunteer their time for that charitable organization."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion Charity Representative (LCR): The office of the LCR serves as the Legion's primary point of contact with outside charitable organizations. The LCR manages documentation of Legion charitable activities and may publish and promote the Legion's charity efforts to the membership and the public."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the 501st Legion frequently attend fandom's larger conventions including Dragon Con, San Diego Comic-Con, MCM London Comic Con, the Wizard World Comic Cons, and Megacon (among scores of other Sci-Fi conventions) where they often host a fan table or booth where the public can learn more about the Legion, see costumes and props on display, and speak directly with members. At HeroesCon, their table is generally set up near the similarly-themed, \"Star Trek\"-based Klingon Assault Group, and the two have a friendly rivalry to see who can solicit the most donations for charity."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion appears at several different venues for myriad reasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "At formal events, members typically appear to have walked off the screen when portraying characters. At informal events (such as local science fiction conventions), members often display their creativity with genre mash-ups of their costumes."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Early events attended (or \"trooped\") by the Legion were mostly science-fiction and comic book conventions or related to the release of the Star Wars movies in theaters and on video. But members were looking for more frequent reasons to meet up with their new-found Legion friends and show off their costumes together. The Legion expanded into a charitable organization."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion members make appearances at casual, promotional, and charitable events, often at the request of Lucasfilm's Fan Events department. Although not officially affiliated with the Walt Disney Company or Lucasfilm LLC., the 501st Legion is Lucasfilm's preferred Imperial costuming organization, and its members were featured as extras in the official series \"The Mandalorian\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion members have become an established attraction at Disney World's annual Star Wars Weekends, the Star Wars: Where Science Meets Imagination museum exhibit, and Free Comic Book Day events across the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Some larger units of the Legion also sometimes conduct activities like the Droid Hunt and Blast-a-Trooper at conventions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebel Legion",
        "text": "Some of the events where the member of the Rebel Legion were guests, supporters, artists or exhibitors to support charity projects:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebel Legion",
        "text": "For public and private gatherings, the Legion never charges a fee for an appearance, but they do welcome donations made to an event host's favorite charity in the name of the Legion or the local Legion unit. If an event host does not have a charity of choice, Legion members usually provide a suggestion, sometimes tied to a fundraising effort that is already underway. In cases where the event host is itself a charitable organization, a donation is usually not accepted by the Rebel Legion as they volunteer their time for that charitable organization."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "As a worldwide organization that fields dozens of appearance requests daily, the Legion has set up local units to better handle tasks like event coordination, promotion, recruitment, and discipline."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion has been called in frequently to support many Star Wars events at public libraries, aimed at encouraging literacy among younger fans of the franchise. Library \u201cStar Wars days\u201d (including events for the official \"Star Wars Reads Day\") are routinely among the most popular events on a library's calendar. Activities like Stormtrooper Story Time, Jedi training games, trivia contests, coloring and drawing activity stations, and appearances by the 501st Legion help make these events successful."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members were also featured on the Christmas 2012 episode of \"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the 501st Legion participate in parades, school fairs, and community festivals."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion is an all-volunteer organization formed for the purpose of bringing together costume enthusiasts from around the world under a collective identity. The 501st Legion seeks to promote interest in Star Wars through the building and wearing of high quality costumes, to facilitate the use of these costumes for Star Wars-related events, and to contribute to the local community through costumed charity and volunteer work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal British Legion",
        "text": "The Legion organises 'The Festival of Remembrance' in Royal Albert Hall, London on the Saturday before Remembrance Sunday. Originally featuring composer John Foulds's \"World Requiem\" it now includes military displays by current members of the armed forces, choral works, and prayers. It culminates with Servicemen and Women, with representatives from youth uniformed organizations and uniformed public security services of the City of London, parading down the aisles and onto the floor of the hall. There is a release of poppy petals from the roof of the hall."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "501st Legion\n--Origins.\n----The 501st Legion name.\n--Mission statement.\n--Membership.\n----Legion identification numbers.\n----The Galactic Academy.\n--Organization.\n----Local units.\n----Detachments.\n--Command structure.\n----Legion officers.\n----Unit officers.\n------Garrison officers.\n------Squad officers.\n------Outpost officers.\n----Detachment officers.\n--Appearances.\n----Community events.\n----Libraries.\n----Hospitals.\n----Promotions.\n----Professional sports.\n----Conventions.\n----Concerts.\n----Television.\n--Charitable works.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the 501st Legion get frequently invited to appear at pediatric wards. When the 501st Legion appears in a hospital, they brighten the lives of children going through difficult trials and serious medical treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Giving back to the community is one of the 501st Legion's highest priorities. Because of this, the 501st Legion proudly refers to themselves as the \"Bad Guys Doing Good.\" Members regularly participate in events to raise awareness for charitable causes, from walk-a-thons to blood drives, and provide opportunities for fundraising through events such as their \"Blast-A-Trooper\" game, where donations are collected from the public to target armored characters with Nerf blasters."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Royal British Legion Riders Branch",
        "text": "The members are regularly seen at many motorcycle events wearing the distinctive rider's badge. They have become synonymous with the repatriations of fallen service personnel at both Royal Wootton Bassett, where they have met since 11 December 2008 for the repatriation of the bodies of fallen service personnel who were flown into RAF Lyneham. and since 1 September 2011 at Carterton, Oxfordshire after repatriation flights were moved back to RAF Brize Norton. They still attend all Repatriations & continue to do so. Ex-military members of the RBLR often wear medals and head dress with their leathers and motorcycle kit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign Legion Museum",
        "text": "The first floor features the battle campaigns hall, organized within a chronological order and occupies in space the entire floor, through displays, with different \u00e9poques as well as the different conflicts throughout the course which the Legion illustrated capability."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "While Garrisons, Squads, and Outposts contain members with all varieties of Legion costumes, bound by a common geographic region, Legion Detachments contain members who are tied together by a common costume, but who live all over the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The Legion helps members to connect with fellow Star Wars costumers through two organizational networks: one based on geographical location and one based on costume types."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebel Legion",
        "text": "The Rebel Legion is an international fan-based volunteer organization dedicated to the construction and wearing of screen-accurate replicas of the Rebel Alliance, the Galactic Republic, the New Republic, the Resistance, the Jedi Order, and other heroes from the \"Star Wars\" universe. Founded in 2000, the group was formed in response to the decision of sister organization the 501st Legion to remain dedicated to Galactic Empire costumes. The Rebel Legion makes appearances at private and public events, including charitable events and official \"Star Wars\" promotional events. The organization does not charge a fee for appearances, instead encouraging a donation to a charity."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Squad Leader (SL): The SL is elected by the Squad's membership. The SL is the event coordinator for the local area in which the Squad operates. The SL reports directly to the parent Garrison's leadership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Remembrance Day of the Latvian Legionnaires",
        "text": "Organizations whose members have been seen to participate in events:\n*National Alliance. Traditionally members organize a flag alley at the Freedom Monument when the procession arrives.\n*Gustavs Celmi\u0146\u0161 Centre \u2013 an organisation seeking to revive the fascist P\u0113rkonkrusts movement."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion is an international fan-based organization dedicated to the construction and wearing of screen-accurate replicas of Imperial Stormtrooper armor, Sith Lords, Clone Troopers, bounty hunters, and other villains from the \"Star Wars\" universe. The 501st Legion, called by its nickname Vader's Fist, is made up entirely of volunteers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal British Legion",
        "text": "Most parts of the Festival are of a formal, thought-provoking, and solemn nature. In recent years, the items have included more contemporary performers to attract a younger audience. They have included family members of serving military personnel (e.g. The Poppy Girls and the Military Wives choir); singers Gregory Porter, Joss Stone, Jim Radford and James Blunt, the latter two of whom being both military veterans; and the animatronic horse used in the war film \"War Horse\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion Executive Officer (LXO): The LXO assists the LCO in club operations as vice-president. The LXO may perform duties as assigned by the LCO, and will act as club president in the absence of the LCO."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion units are often invited to appear on stage with symphonies and school bands who perform the music of John Williams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fallen Legion",
        "text": "Fallen Legion was showcased at the SAAM Arcade at the Smithsonian Museum in 2017, and at Bitsummit's 2017 event."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion has also partnered with various minor and major league sports franchises such as the National Hockey League, Major League Baseball, and National Basketball Association in recent years for special \u201cStar Wars Nights.\u201d These events have brought record attendance numbers to games. Members of the 501st Legion have participated in games at the minor league hockey and baseball levels, college sports, the Arena Football League, and the National Football League."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Roman Legion Museum",
        "text": "The National Roman Legion Museum () is a museum in Caerleon, near Newport, south-east Wales. It is one of three Roman sites in Caerleon, along with the Baths museum and the open-air ruins of the amphitheatre and barracks. It is part of the wider network of Amgueddfa Cymru \u2013 National Museum Wales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign Legion Museum",
        "text": "Each Legion regiment houses a regimental \"Salle d'Honneur\" (Regimental Honorary Hall), in form of a museum, along with a regimental memorial dedicated to the respectful regiment.\n* 2018 : exhibition Zinoviev - [[Blaise Cendrars|Cendrars]]\n* 2019 :\n** Photos exhibition Caroline Thirion\n** Exhibition Guillaume de Saint-Phalle (sculpteur)\n** Exhibition \"No\u00ebl l\u00e9gionnaire\"\n* [[Major (France)]]\n* [[K\u00e9pi Blanc (publication)]]\n* [[French Foreign Legion Veteran Societies Federation (L\u00e9gion \u00e9trang\u00e8re)]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cirque d'hiver",
        "text": "The Cirque d'hiver was the site of the organization meeting of the American Legion from March 15 to 17, 1919. The American Legion was originally founded as an organization for American veterans of the First World War and has since expanded its membership to include veterans of subsequent conflicts. It is the largest veterans organization in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Military Museum of the Legion",
        "text": "Military Museum of the Legion\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion of Mary",
        "text": "The Praesidia normally meet weekly; larger entities normally monthly or more rarely."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Combining a costume code with a member's identification number creates a unique in-universe designation for each Legion member and each one of their costumes. Member 8968 might be known as TK-8968, IG-8968, or TB-8968, depending on whether they are wearing a Stormtrooper, Imperial Gunner, or Biker Scout costume at the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign Legion Museum",
        "text": "The ground floor also features the decorations hall as well as the museum boutique store."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Canadian Legion",
        "text": "A number of military museums are co-located and affiliated with Royal Canadian Legions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Riggs-Hamilton American Legion Post No. 20",
        "text": "Legion meetings are held 6:00 pm second Tuesday of each month. The building also is the meeting place for the Pope County Republican party members, 6:00 pm third Tuesday each month. On the first Wednesday of each month is Hooner's Bingo Night, in which fabulous prizes are won."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the American Legion",
        "text": "Having immediately received a blizzard of acceptances to attend the opening of the \"Liberty League Caucus\", as he had begun to refer to it, Temporary Secretary Eric Fisher Wood began to search for use of a room of sufficient size to contain the gathering. The Cirque de Paris had been retained, a large, multisided amphitheater sufficient to accommodate a crowd of about 2,000. Delegates began to assemble from all over France. The 10:00 am scheduled start was delayed due to various logistical problems, with a beginning finally made shortly after 2:45 pm."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Roman Legion Museum",
        "text": "A short walk from the National Roman Legion Museum is the remains of Isca Augusta:\n* Part of the military bath house in the Roman Baths Museum\n* The most complete Roman amphitheatre in Britain\n* Sections of the fortress walls\n* The only remains of a Roman legionary barracks on view anywhere in Europe at Prysg Field"
      },
      {
        "title": "Catholic Legion",
        "text": "Defunct Organizations:"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "There are sixteen Legion costume Detachments. Each is dedicated to researching, constructing, and promoting a distinct group of costumes in the 501st. The Legion's costume references are stored on the Detachment websites, and their message boards contain tutorials on how to build the costumes that they have domain over.\n* Armored Cavalry Detachment: AT-AT Drivers, AT-ST Drivers and Armor Assault Commanders\n* Blizzard Force: Snowtroopers, Galactic Marines, Snow Scouts, Wampas\n* Bounty Hunters Guild: Bounty Hunters\n* Clone Trooper Detachment: Clone Troopers from Episodes II and III, and the \"Star Wars: The Clone Wars\" television series\n* First Imperial Stormtrooper Detachment: Stormtroopers\n* Flagship Eclipse Detachment: Expanded Universe Characters (non-troopers)\n* Imperial Gunnery Corps: Imperial Gunners\n* Imperial Officer Corps: Imperial Officers, Imperial Crew, and Imperial Navy/Death Star Troopers\n* Jolly Roger Squadron: T.I.E. Fighter Pilots\n* Krayt Clan: Tusken Raiders, Jawas, Gamorrean Guards, and several denizens of Jabba's palace\n* Mos Eisley Police Department:\" \"Sandtroopers\n* Pathfinders Detachment: Biker Scouts, Kashyyyk Clone Scout Troopers, Shore Troopers\n* Sith Lord Detachment: The Film-Canon Sith Lords: Darth Vader, Darth Sidious, Darth Maul, Darth Tyranus and Kylo Ren\n* Sovereign Protectors: Emperor's Royal Guards\n* Spec Ops Detachment: Expanded Universe Characters (troopers)\n* Underworld Detachment: Pirates, Gangsters, Henchmen, Thieves, Smugglers, Thugs, Scum and Villiany"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Detachment Leader (DL): The DL is elected by the Detachment membership. The DL is the chief administrator of the Detachment and is responsible for the operations of the Detachment and managing research and information about costume creation and construction. The DL also appoints any necessary Detachment officers and staff. DLs are supervised and represented on the Council by the LMO. A DL has the following responsibilities: Verify membership status in the Legion with the approved costume, and grant the appropriate access for active Legion members in good standing to detachments areas; monitor and moderate the Detachment forums, appointing additional moderators as needed; ensure that the Detachment Web site is properly maintained and the content therein is accurate and up to date; participate on the Legion forums and advise other DLs and GMLs as needed; maintain contact with the LMO and report any issue or controversy related to costuming."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion Public Relations Officer (LPRO): The office of the LPRO serves as the Legion's advocate and primary point of contact with the public and outside parties. The LPRO serves as the executive editor of all Legion publications and multimedia productions. The office of the LPRO also serves as the primary point of contact for celebrities and VIPs."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Although the 501st Legion is not sponsored by Disney or Lucasfilm, they often call, together with their partners, upon members of the Legion to help promote the commercial release of new Star Wars products and tie-ins."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Scott Loxley of the 501st Legion was raising money for Monash Children's Hospital when he claims he was saved by stormtrooper armor from a bite on the shin by a deadly King Brown serpent near Yalboroo, Australia on January 14, 2015 as he walked down a road while walking entirely around the Australian continent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Institution des Invalides de la Legion Etrangere",
        "text": "The domain, also houses as well the Legionnaire Uniform Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion (band)",
        "text": "2013\n*Spring Tour with This or the Apocalypse, Your Memorial and ERRA from March 18 to 28.\n*Shook West Coast Tour with No Bragging Rights, Being as an Ocean and Verah Falls from May 11 to 23.\n*The Lone Wolf Tour with Bermuda, Seeker, Sessions from June 8 to 18.\n*Summer Tour with Fit For An Autopsy and Beyond the Shore from July 25 to August 12.\n*Headlining tour with Those Who Fear from September 26 to October 3.\n*East Coast Tour with Beneath the Massacre, Rings of Saturn and Rivers of Nihil from October 4 to 13.\n*Winter tour with Within the Ruins, Sworn In and Reflections from November 29 to December 7."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal British Legion",
        "text": "The Royal British Legion Riders Branch (RBLR) is a specialist worldwide branch of The Royal British Legion for motorcyclists. Its members hold events such as Weston Bike Night in Weston-super-Mare and rallies such as the RBLR 1000, a 1,000 mile in 24 hours sponsored ride, all to raise money for the Poppy Appeal. Many RBLR members attended the repatriation ceremonies in Royal Wootton Bassett. Ex-services members of the RBLR often wear medals and head-dress with their leathers and motorcycle kit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion Arena",
        "text": "Legion Arena\n--\"Cult of Mithras\".\n--Reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion of Honor (museum)",
        "text": "Legion of Honor (museum)\n--History.\n--Collections.\n----Spreckels Organ and Gunn Theater.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "In 2016, the members of the 501st donated over 182,000 hours of community service, raising over $889,000 USD in direct donations, and participated in events that helped raise over $46 million for charities worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of Friends of the Foreign Legion Museum (SAMLE)",
        "text": "In addition, the society is in liaison with the \"Foyer d'Entraide de la L\u00e9gion \u00e9trang\u00e8re\" (FELE), to maintain the graves, \"carr\u00e9s L\u00e9gion\" and memorials dedicated to this institution by the world, notably that of Camar\u00f3n de Tejeda, commemorating the Battle of Camar\u00f3n in partnership with the Le Souvenir fran\u00e7ais ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Membership requirements for applicants include being at least 18 years of age and have a documented ownership of at least one qualifying high-quality costume of a Star Wars villain. To maintain membership they must troop at least one local unit or Legion-level event per year and abide by the 501st Legion Code of Conduct."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sons of the American Legion",
        "text": "The squadron is the basic unit of the Legion and usually represents a small geographic area such as a single town or part of a county. There are roughly 14,900 posts in the United States. The squadron is used for formal business such as meetings and a coordination point for community service projects. Often the squadron will host community events such as bingo, Hunter breakfasts, holiday celebrations, and available to the community, churches in time of need. It is also not uncommon for the Post to contain a bar open during limited hours. An S.A.L. squadron member is distinguished by a French blue garrison cap with red, white and blue piping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Matese Legion",
        "text": "They stage events in cities across Italy, particularly in Rome, in order to share the history and spread awareness and knowledge the Matese Legion. The Matese Legion's flag was preserved, and is stored in the museum of Piedimonte Matese. There is a commemorative tombstone where there are the names of the most important members of the legion. This is located in the town hall and every year on 4 November the Mayor, followed by a parade, places a crown under the tombstone."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the 501st Legion refer to themselves by a letter-number combination, such as TK-899, TR-3774, or DZ-40201. This tradition originates from a line in Star Wars, \"TK-421, why aren't you at your post?\". The founder of the 501st Legion, Albin Johnson, decided that \"Desert Troopers would be labeled \u201cTD\u201d and came from specialized training schools for their missions, Snowtroopers would be \u201cTS\u201d, Biker Scouts would [become] \u201cTB.\u201d\" as each group of costumes carries a specific letter designation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Condor Legion",
        "text": "Other notable events on the return of the Legion included an assembly for a personal address by Hitler on 6 June 1939 and a parade as part of the celebrations organised for Hitler's 50th birthday 20 April 1939. Also by way of commemoration the activities of the Legion were memorialized in a special edition of \"Der Adler\", the Luftwaffe's magazine for service members, which was then also circulated in both Spain and the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "EventPlan Limited",
        "text": "Other events include The Roman Army and Chariot Experience (RACE) in Jerash, Jordan in 2005, and ancient to modern era and multi-period shows for the Army Benevolent Fund, British army and others. During 2014 commemorative projects include Centenary Great War, 70th, and 75th anniversary World War Two displays."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Legion Sessions",
        "text": "The Legion Sessions\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "In the Blast-a-Trooper game, fans fire foam darts at Imperial characters in exchange for a donation to charity. Blast-a-Trooper ranges have raised thousands of dollars for worthy causes around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign Legion Museum",
        "text": "Hailing from a private collection, the legionnaire uniform museum is an extension of the Legion museum delocalized at the corps of the Institution des Invalides de la Legion Etrangere. The museum regroups 120 mannequin, illustrating the evolutions of the uniforms since the creation of the Foreign Legion in 1831 until the modern presently \u00e9poque."
      },
      {
        "title": "Institution des Invalides de la Legion Etrangere",
        "text": "There are series of programs which include reaping, outdoor activities, and design workshops. Other programs include rehabilitation and reeducation programs which assist for preparing the return to a normal life. Due to the generosity of the friends of the Foreign Legion and all Legion officers, sous-officiers, and legionnaires, a vast hemicycle structure was built, capable of housing all the needing veterans of the French Foreign Legion."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Royal British Legion Riders Branch",
        "text": "RBLR runs events such as Weston Bike Night in Weston-super-Mare,"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The Droid Hunt is a give-away game where convention attendees become \u201cthe droids we\u2019re looking for.\u201d After the \u201cdroids\u201d are \"captured\" by Legion members, the game concludes with a drawing for dozens of prizes from sponsors like Sideshow Collectibles, DK Publishing, Hasbro, Del Rey Publishers, Hallmark, Kotobukiya, and many other Star Wars merchandise partners."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Musician and comedian \"Weird Al\" Yankovic has invited members of the 501st Legion on stage during performances of his \"Star Wars\"-themed songs \"Yoda\" and \"The Saga Begins\", recruiting members of local garrisons while on tour. In appreciation, the 501st inducted Yankovic as a \"Friend of the Legion\", in September 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion Captain of the Guard (LCotG): The office of the LCotG interprets and enforces club rules. This officer serves as an impartial mediator for disputes among members or officers, oversees disciplinary hearings, moderates Legion elections, and maintains the Legion map of units."
      },
      {
        "title": "Remembrance Day of the Latvian Legionnaires",
        "text": "Parties whose members have been seen to participate in events"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Rock band No Doubt and country music band Sugarland have also invited 501st members up on stage during their performances in the past."
      },
      {
        "title": "G\u00e9n\u00e9rations Star Wars et Science Fiction",
        "text": "The visitors are able to meet the actors and artists, ask them questions, obtain signings or take photos with them. There are also exhibitions, dioramas and merchandising shops. Sci-Fi fans associations present their activities and what they've created like real scale objects or vehicles. The main events regularly happening are cosplay contests, knowledges quizzes, fan art contests, Questions/Answers with the guests or conferences. Since 2013, charity sales are organized on the favour of the children service of Vichy's hospital."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign Legion Museum",
        "text": "Salle d'Honneur;"
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal British Legion",
        "text": "On the day there are two performances. The matinee is open to any member of the public. The evening event is open only to members of the Legion and their families, and is attended by senior members of the Royal Family; starting and ending with the British National Anthem, God Save The Queen, and includes the three cheers led by the army's London District Garrison Sergeant Major at the finale. In 2007, the second half of the evening event was aired live on BBC Radio 2. BBC One showed the event an hour later."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "For Star Wars costumers who are under 18 years of age, the 501st Legion has partnered with its sister club, the Rebel Legion, to form a joint group for children called the Galactic Academy. The Galactic Academy deals with both \"bad guy\" and \"good guy\" costumes, has no member age requirement, and has no strict costume standards. It provides a safe environment for children of different age groups who share a love of Star Wars and costuming to connect with one another online."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clone trooper",
        "text": "The 501st first appears unnamed in \"Revenge of the Sith\" under the leadership of Commander Appo, and they assault the Jedi Temple on Coruscant under Order 66. The 501st Legion also appears extensively throughout \"Star Wars Battlefront\" video game franchise and \"The Clone Wars\" television series, under the leadership of Captain Rex of Torrent Company. In the \"Star Wars Legends\" expanded universe, after the conversion of the Republic into the Galactic Empire, the 501st Legion (nicknamed \"Vader's Fist\") is placed under the command of General Maximilian Veers that serves as Darth Vader's personal battalion. In current Canon media, the 501st still remain under the command of Vader, however a new group named the First Legion is established as his personal task force, which recruits only from 501st ranks. Members of the 501st Legion wear armor with blue markings. The unit is named after the 501st Legion costuming group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Albert Hall",
        "text": "The Royal British Legion Festival of Remembrance is held annually the day before Remembrance Sunday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Canadian Legion",
        "text": "Royal Canadian Legion\n--History.\n--Recognition.\n--National Headquarters.\n--Memorials.\n--Legion museums.\n--Legion halls.\n--Services and activities.\n----Poppy Campaign.\n----Legion Athletic Camp.\n----Legion Bands.\n----Lest We Forget Project.\n----Legion Military Skills Conversion Program.\n----Appeals Before the Veterans Review and Appeal Board.\n--Membership.\n----Ordinary membership.\n----Associate membership.\n----Affiliate voting membership.\n----Affiliate non-voting membership.\n--Archives.\n--Freedoms.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Volunteer Cadet Corps",
        "text": "The VCC also provides Display Teams that appear at public events in the South West and South East of England, and sometimes further afield. In recent times, the VCC has appeared at the Castle Combe Steam Rally, Cumbria Steam Rally, Attleborough Tattoo, Kirkcudbright Tattoo and the Battle of the Flowers in Jersey. The Display Teams generally provide a 20 to 25 minute display and are ideal for fetes, fayres, tattoos, carnivals and other such public events. A modest donation is asked for, which is put towards the cost of attending, and any funds left over are put back into the VCC to fund its other activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sons of the American Legion",
        "text": "The main S.A.L. Headquarters is located on the Indiana World War Memorial Plaza in Indianapolis. It is the primary office for the National Commander and also houses the historical archives, library, Membership, Internal Affairs, Public Relations, and the Magazine editorial offices. The Legion also owns a building in Washington D.C. that contains many of the operation offices such as Economics, Legislative, Veterans Affairs, Foreign Relations, National Security, and Media Relations. A National member is distinguished by a gold garrison cap with a gold crown and red, white and blue piping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Remembrance Day of the Latvian Legionnaires",
        "text": "Organizations that support veterans of the Legion and participate in events:\n*Club 415 \u2013 Latvian nationalist youth organisation.\n*Popular Front of Latvia \u2013 Latvian political organisation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign Legion Museum",
        "text": "[[Category:Military and war museums in France]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "I Am Legion (comics)",
        "text": "Real world organizations referenced include the London Controlling Section, the Abwehr and the Special Operations Executive. A main character is a Colonel Von Kleist, perhaps a reference to Paul von Kleist. The Casablanca Conference and the Wannsee Conference are also mentioned.\n*\"I Am Legion\" (trade paperback, 144 pages, October 2009, )\n*\"I Am Legion\" (hardcover, September 2010, )"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The Legion's costuming standards are listed online in the 501st Legion Costume Reference Library (CRL). All costumes must meet the base requirements listed there in order to be considered for approval."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "While the Legion was initially based only on the white-armored stormtroopers stationed aboard the Death Star, as the group expanded, it grew to encompass every other canon trooper variation, and other villains from the Star Wars saga, such as Sith Lords and bounty hunters. Custom creations are generally not eligible for membership, and all applicants are reviewed by their local units and Legion Membership Officers prior to approval into the member database."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion of Honor (museum)",
        "text": "The museum building occupies an elevated site in Lincoln Park in the northwest of the city, with views over the nearby Golden Gate Bridge and the distant downtown skyline."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebel Legion",
        "text": "The Rebel Legion is divided into detachments determined by the type of character costumes represent. The organization is also divided into bases or outposts determined by geographical region; bases can be further divided into variably named detachment units. The leadership consists of a Commanding Officer and 5 Council members. Additional leadership roles are assigned as needed per the LCO (LPRO, LMO, etc.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "American Legion Hall",
        "text": "American Legion Hall\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion of Honor (museum)",
        "text": "Situated off the northwest corner of the Legion grounds is the \"Holocaust Memorial\", a sculptural group of white-painted bronze by George Segal installed in 1984. Although not part of the Legion's collection, the sculpture is often seen by visitors to the museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dartmoor",
        "text": "Some \"challenge\" and charitable events take place with assistance of the military on Dartmoor including the long established Ten Tors event and the more recent Dartmoor Beast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign Legion Museum",
        "text": "The courtyard of the museum is occupied with tanks and cannons types belonging to different campaign eras and also house a couple of tombstones, brought forth from far away distant campaigns. The back of the Museum, giving on the arms place () of the 1st Foreign Regiment 1er RE, opens on the Monument morts de la Legion, grand sculpture Pourquet (), representing a world map guarded by four legionnaires and inaugurated in 1931 during the centennial commemoration of the Legion at Sidi bel-Abb\u00e8s. This entire world map sculpture was entirely demounted in order to be transported during the move of 1962."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion of Honor (museum)",
        "text": "The Legion of Honor displays a collection spanning more than 6,000 years of ancient and European art and houses the Achenbach Foundation for Graphic Arts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal British Legion",
        "text": "Musical accompaniment for the event is provided by a military band from the Household Division together with The Countess of Wessex's String Orchestra, joined by musicians of the Royal Air Force (via the RAF Music Services through the RAF Salon Orchestra) and representatives of the Royal Marines Band Service."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bayeux",
        "text": "Royal British Legion National, every 5 June at 1530 hrs, attends the 3rd Division Cean Memorial Service and beating retreat ceremony. On the 6th of June, it holds a remembrance service in Bayeux Cathedral starting at 1015 hrs, and later at 1200 hrs, the Royal British Legion National holds a service of remembrance at the Bayeux Cemetery. All services are open to the public, all Standards RBL, NVA, RN, ARMY, and RAF service and Regimental Associations are welcome to attend and parade. Details can be found at www.rblsomme.org"
      },
      {
        "title": "San Diego Legion",
        "text": "\u00b0 = Exhibition game<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Charitable activities of the Knights of Columbus",
        "text": "Each year, the Knights bring veterans to Lourdes, France, as part of the International Military Pilgrimage to Our Lady's Shrine. In 2017, the order brought over 200 veterans through their Warriors to Lourdes program."
      },
      {
        "title": "Federated Legion of Women",
        "text": "Witnesses' accounts of the number of women in the legion vary from 20 to 100. They wore a uniform with a red armband and belt and, above all, they were armed. The presence of weapons was attested by external witnesses \u2014\u00a0interested\u00a0parties denied it before the court martial \u2014 who mentioned the presence of revolvers and personal rifles. The volunteers were organized militarily, with women officers at their head, and many witness accounts, preserved in the dossiers of the courts martial, attest to many parades in front of the Place de la Bastille next to the town hall of the 12th\u00a0arrondissement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cushing American Legion Building",
        "text": "The Cushing American Legion Building is an American Legion hall located at 212 S. Noble in Cushing, Oklahoma. The building was built in 1924 to serve as a meeting place for American Legion Post 108, which was organized by World War I veterans. The Mission Revival building features a raised parapet and a colonnade of square columns in front of the entrance. The American Legion Post hosted social events for veterans and sponsored observances on Armistice Day and Memorial Day. The post expanded to include World War II veterans in the 1940s and hosted meetings of other local groups throughout the 1940s and 1950s; the American Legion has continued to meet at the post into the 21st century."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is required for membership to the 501st Legion?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Membership requirements for applicants include being at least 18 years of age and have a documented ownership of at least one qualifying high-quality costume of a Star Wars villain. To maintain membership they must troop at least one local unit or Legion-level event per year and abide by the 501st Legion Code of Conduct."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many units are a part of the 501st Legion total?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are three types of local units: garrisons, squads, and outposts. Worldwide, there are 76 Garrisons, 78 squads, and 30 Outposts."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are they involved with any charity work?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Legion Charity Representative serves as the Legion's primary point of contact with outside charitable organizations. The LCR manages documentation of Legion charitable activities and may publish and promote the Legion's charity efforts to the membership and the public."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What kind of events or places do they appear at?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Yes, they appear in a number of events, from parades, school fairs, community festivals, to public libraries, pediatric wards, and even professional sport events to name some.",
      "The 501st Legion appears at different venues for many reasons, including community events, libraries and hospitals. Do you want more information on any one of these appearances?"
    ],
    "topic": "501st Legion",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "501st Legion:43",
        "passage_titles": [
          "501st Legion",
          "Appearances",
          "Community events"
        ],
        "ctx": "Members of the 501st Legion participate in parades, school fairs, and community festivals."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "501st Legion:44",
        "passage_titles": [
          "501st Legion",
          "Appearances",
          "Libraries"
        ],
        "ctx": "The 501st Legion has been called in frequently to support many Star Wars events at public libraries, aimed at encouraging literacy among younger fans of the franchise. Library \u201cStar Wars days\u201d (including events for the official \"Star Wars Reads Day\") are routinely among the most popular events on a library's calendar. Activities like Stormtrooper Story Time, Jedi training games, trivia contests, coloring and drawing activity stations, and appearances by the 501st Legion help make these events successful."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "501st Legion:45",
        "passage_titles": [
          "501st Legion",
          "Appearances",
          "Hospitals"
        ],
        "ctx": "Members of the 501st Legion get frequently invited to appear at pediatric wards. When the 501st Legion appears in a hospital, they brighten the lives of children going through difficult trials and serious medical treatment."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "501st Legion:50",
        "passage_titles": [
          "501st Legion",
          "Appearances",
          "Professional sports"
        ],
        "ctx": "The 501st Legion has also partnered with various minor and major league sports franchises such as the National Hockey League, Major League Baseball, and National Basketball Association in recent years for special \u201cStar Wars Nights.\u201d These events have brought record attendance numbers to games. Members of the 501st Legion have participated in games at the minor league hockey and baseball levels, college sports, the Arena Football League, and the National Football League."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "501st Legion:42",
        "passage_titles": [
          "501st Legion",
          "Appearances"
        ],
        "ctx": "The 501st Legion appears at several different venues for myriad reasons."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "501st Legion:43",
        "passage_titles": [
          "501st Legion",
          "Appearances",
          "Community events"
        ],
        "ctx": "Members of the 501st Legion participate in parades, school fairs, and community festivals."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "501st Legion:44",
        "passage_titles": [
          "501st Legion",
          "Appearances",
          "Libraries"
        ],
        "ctx": "The 501st Legion has been called in frequently to support many Star Wars events at public libraries, aimed at encouraging literacy among younger fans of the franchise. Library \u201cStar Wars days\u201d (including events for the official \"Star Wars Reads Day\") are routinely among the most popular events on a library's calendar. Activities like Stormtrooper Story Time, Jedi training games, trivia contests, coloring and drawing activity stations, and appearances by the 501st Legion help make these events successful."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "501st Legion:45",
        "passage_titles": [
          "501st Legion",
          "Appearances",
          "Hospitals"
        ],
        "ctx": "Members of the 501st Legion get frequently invited to appear at pediatric wards. When the 501st Legion appears in a hospital, they brighten the lives of children going through difficult trials and serious medical treatment."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion has also partnered with various minor and major league sports franchises such as the National Hockey League, Major League Baseball, and National Basketball Association in recent years for special \u201cStar Wars Nights.\u201d These events have brought record attendance numbers to games. Members of the 501st Legion have participated in games at the minor league hockey and baseball levels, college sports, the Arena Football League, and the National Football League."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "At formal events, members typically appear to have walked off the screen when portraying characters. At informal events (such as local science fiction conventions), members often display their creativity with genre mash-ups of their costumes."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Early events attended (or \"trooped\") by the Legion were mostly science-fiction and comic book conventions or related to the release of the Star Wars movies in theaters and on video. But members were looking for more frequent reasons to meet up with their new-found Legion friends and show off their costumes together. The Legion expanded into a charitable organization."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion members make appearances at casual, promotional, and charitable events, often at the request of Lucasfilm's Fan Events department. Although not officially affiliated with the Walt Disney Company or Lucasfilm LLC., the 501st Legion is Lucasfilm's preferred Imperial costuming organization, and its members were featured as extras in the official series \"The Mandalorian\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion appears at several different venues for myriad reasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion is an international fan-based organization dedicated to the construction and wearing of screen-accurate replicas of Imperial Stormtrooper armor, Sith Lords, Clone Troopers, bounty hunters, and other villains from the \"Star Wars\" universe. The 501st Legion, called by its nickname Vader's Fist, is made up entirely of volunteers."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Some larger units of the Legion also sometimes conduct activities like the Droid Hunt and Blast-a-Trooper at conventions."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the 501st Legion frequently attend fandom's larger conventions including Dragon Con, San Diego Comic-Con, MCM London Comic Con, the Wizard World Comic Cons, and Megacon (among scores of other Sci-Fi conventions) where they often host a fan table or booth where the public can learn more about the Legion, see costumes and props on display, and speak directly with members. At HeroesCon, their table is generally set up near the similarly-themed, \"Star Trek\"-based Klingon Assault Group, and the two have a friendly rivalry to see who can solicit the most donations for charity."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion members have become an established attraction at Disney World's annual Star Wars Weekends, the Star Wars: Where Science Meets Imagination museum exhibit, and Free Comic Book Day events across the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the 501st Legion participate in parades, school fairs, and community festivals."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members were also featured on the Christmas 2012 episode of \"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion never charges a fee for an appearance, but they do welcome donations to a charity in honor of the Legion or the local Legion unit. If an event host does not have a charity of choice, Legion members frequently direct the donations to the Endowment Fund. In cases where the event host is itself a charitable organization, a donation is usually not accepted by the 501st Legion as they volunteer their time for that charitable organization."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "501st Legion\n--Origins.\n----The 501st Legion name.\n--Mission statement.\n--Membership.\n----Legion identification numbers.\n----The Galactic Academy.\n--Organization.\n----Local units.\n----Detachments.\n--Command structure.\n----Legion officers.\n----Unit officers.\n------Garrison officers.\n------Squad officers.\n------Outpost officers.\n----Detachment officers.\n--Appearances.\n----Community events.\n----Libraries.\n----Hospitals.\n----Promotions.\n----Professional sports.\n----Conventions.\n----Concerts.\n----Television.\n--Charitable works.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "In the Blast-a-Trooper game, fans fire foam darts at Imperial characters in exchange for a donation to charity. Blast-a-Trooper ranges have raised thousands of dollars for worthy causes around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion has been called in frequently to support many Star Wars events at public libraries, aimed at encouraging literacy among younger fans of the franchise. Library \u201cStar Wars days\u201d (including events for the official \"Star Wars Reads Day\") are routinely among the most popular events on a library's calendar. Activities like Stormtrooper Story Time, Jedi training games, trivia contests, coloring and drawing activity stations, and appearances by the 501st Legion help make these events successful."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "As a worldwide organization that fields dozens of appearance requests daily, the Legion has set up local units to better handle tasks like event coordination, promotion, recruitment, and discipline."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion is an all-volunteer organization formed for the purpose of bringing together costume enthusiasts from around the world under a collective identity. The 501st Legion seeks to promote interest in Star Wars through the building and wearing of high quality costumes, to facilitate the use of these costumes for Star Wars-related events, and to contribute to the local community through costumed charity and volunteer work."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Johnson and Tom chose the club's name in 1997 to represent a fictional unit of Imperial stormtroopers. He wanted to ground the group in a \u201crealistic\u201d world and to pay homage to the fighting units of true military heroes, like his World War II airman father."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the 501st Legion get frequently invited to appear at pediatric wards. When the 501st Legion appears in a hospital, they brighten the lives of children going through difficult trials and serious medical treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legionowo",
        "text": "The local arena hosts all the town's indoor sports clubs as well as music, MMA, boxing and other events.\n* Wojciech Lema\u0144ski (born 1960) - a suspended Roman Catholic priest\n* Ola Jordan (born 1982) - Ballroom Dancer"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Squad Leader (SL): The SL is elected by the Squad's membership. The SL is the event coordinator for the local area in which the Squad operates. The SL reports directly to the parent Garrison's leadership."
      },
      {
        "title": "10th Legion Championship Fighting",
        "text": "Mixed Martial Arts combines Olympic disciplines such as Greco-Roman Wrestling, Freestyle Wrestling, Boxing and Judo with the more modern Martial Arts skills of Kickboxing/Muay Thai, Submission Fighting/Grappling \u2013 such as Brazilian jiu-jitsu"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Giving back to the community is one of the 501st Legion's highest priorities. Because of this, the 501st Legion proudly refers to themselves as the \"Bad Guys Doing Good.\" Members regularly participate in events to raise awareness for charitable causes, from walk-a-thons to blood drives, and provide opportunities for fundraising through events such as their \"Blast-A-Trooper\" game, where donations are collected from the public to target armored characters with Nerf blasters."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the 501st Legion refer to themselves by a letter-number combination, such as TK-899, TR-3774, or DZ-40201. This tradition originates from a line in Star Wars, \"TK-421, why aren't you at your post?\". The founder of the 501st Legion, Albin Johnson, decided that \"Desert Troopers would be labeled \u201cTD\u201d and came from specialized training schools for their missions, Snowtroopers would be \u201cTS\u201d, Biker Scouts would [become] \u201cTB.\u201d\" as each group of costumes carries a specific letter designation."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Legion Memorial Stadium",
        "text": "Throughout the years the stadium hosted events of every kind, ranging from Presidential addresses to classic professional wrestling encounters featuring local hero Ric Flair."
      },
      {
        "title": "Academy of Art Urban Knights",
        "text": "A number of Academy of Art's athletes and staff have participated in professional sports and in the Olympic Games. They include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion Athletic Camp",
        "text": "Legion Athletic Camp\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion units are often invited to appear on stage with symphonies and school bands who perform the music of John Williams."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion Executive Officer (LXO): The LXO assists the LCO in club operations as vice-president. The LXO may perform duties as assigned by the LCO, and will act as club president in the absence of the LCO."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion Athletic Camp",
        "text": "#redirect Royal Canadian Legion"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Musician and comedian \"Weird Al\" Yankovic has invited members of the 501st Legion on stage during performances of his \"Star Wars\"-themed songs \"Yoda\" and \"The Saga Begins\", recruiting members of local garrisons while on tour. In appreciation, the 501st inducted Yankovic as a \"Friend of the Legion\", in September 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "SoldierStrong",
        "text": "SoldierStrong has been featured in a number of professional sporting events."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Combining a costume code with a member's identification number creates a unique in-universe designation for each Legion member and each one of their costumes. Member 8968 might be known as TK-8968, IG-8968, or TB-8968, depending on whether they are wearing a Stormtrooper, Imperial Gunner, or Biker Scout costume at the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion Field",
        "text": "Legion Field\n--Stadium history.\n--College football.\n----UAB Blazers.\n----Iron Bowl.\n----Other Alabama and Auburn football games.\n----Other college football games.\n--Professional football.\n--High school football.\n--Soccer.\n--Concerts and other events.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "In 2016, the members of the 501st donated over 182,000 hours of community service, raising over $889,000 USD in direct donations, and participated in events that helped raise over $46 million for charities worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st name continued to appear in various \"Star Wars\" expanded universe media until its suspension and rebranding to \"Star Wars Legends\" in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion of Blue",
        "text": "Legion of Blue helps organize events with the university's athletic department and the basketball team to benefit Penn State THON, a dance marathon dedicated to curing childhood cancer. Each year, the Legion of Blue helps host the THON Hoops game, where all revenue from single game student tickets in donated to THON under the name of the organization of the student's choice. Students also receive colorful shirts worn to generate awareness. THON children and their families are seated in the typical section section behind the basket near the Penn State bench and are recognized throughout the game."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The Legion helps members to connect with fellow Star Wars costumers through two organizational networks: one based on geographical location and one based on costume types."
      },
      {
        "title": "217",
        "text": "217\n--Events.\n----By topic.\n------Sports.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "A decade after Johnson and Crews founded the Legion, on January 1, 2007, two hundred members of the Legion marched in the annual Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena, California, with George Lucas himself as the grand marshal. At this watershed moment for the club, Lucas and Johnson discussed the future of the rapidly growing Legion, and an unofficial partnership was born. Lucasfilm would grant the Legion a limited use of their copyrighted characters, as long as members of the 501st promised never to use their costumes for personal profit and that they represent the franchise in a positive and respectful manner."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Rock band No Doubt and country music band Sugarland have also invited 501st members up on stage during their performances in the past."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hazlet, Saskatchewan",
        "text": "In 1948, the Legion formed a softball team and actively supported a ladies\u2019 team. The Legion teams existed for several years and each year held a sports day tournament. A meeting place for the Legion was a problem, so in 1949, a clubroom was set up in the basement of the Community Hall. This was used as the meeting place until August 1950, when Maurice Akre offered the use of his poolroom. This continued as their meeting place for seven years, with free use of the pool tables included."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sarnia Legionnaires (1954\u20131970)",
        "text": "During a Nov. 30 game at the Sarnia Arena, a riot broke out between fans and players. Sarnia Observer sports editor Freddie Wheeler restored order by playing the national anthem, a move that shamed the combatants into coming to attention. Once the song ended, cooler heads had prevailed and order was restored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Question of Sport",
        "text": "Shortly after the 2016 Summer Olympics, \"A Question of Sport\" held two special editions featuring champions from the above-mentioned Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The Droid Hunt is a give-away game where convention attendees become \u201cthe droids we\u2019re looking for.\u201d After the \u201cdroids\u201d are \"captured\" by Legion members, the game concludes with a drawing for dozens of prizes from sponsors like Sideshow Collectibles, DK Publishing, Hasbro, Del Rey Publishers, Hallmark, Kotobukiya, and many other Star Wars merchandise partners."
      },
      {
        "title": "Imagine Prep at Surprise",
        "text": "Fall Sports:\n* Cheer & Dance\n* Cross Country\n* Esports (League of Legends, Rocket League)\n* Middle School/High School Football\n* Middle School/High School Volleyball"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of professional sports",
        "text": "Professional darts players perform in the Professional Darts Corporation or the World Darts Federation."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Although the 501st Legion is not sponsored by Disney or Lucasfilm, they often call, together with their partners, upon members of the Legion to help promote the commercial release of new Star Wars products and tie-ins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Canadian Legion",
        "text": "In 1962 the Legion began a summer sports camp at the International Peace Garden which ran until 2019. More than 60,000 school age athletes. Several sports were offered over a five-week period. The program was founded by George H. Phillips and Fred Taylor."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of broomball teams",
        "text": "National Team: The Legion"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Scott Loxley of the 501st Legion was raising money for Monash Children's Hospital when he claims he was saved by stormtrooper armor from a bite on the shin by a deadly King Brown serpent near Yalboroo, Australia on January 14, 2015 as he walked down a road while walking entirely around the Australian continent."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "While Garrisons, Squads, and Outposts contain members with all varieties of Legion costumes, bound by a common geographic region, Legion Detachments contain members who are tied together by a common costume, but who live all over the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sons of the American Legion",
        "text": "At the state level, the S.A.L. is organized into \"detachments\", which run annual civic training events for high school juniors called Boys State. Two members from each Boys State are selected for Boys Nation. The American Legion Auxiliary runs Girls State and Girls Nation. In addition to Boys State, the S.A.L., division of the \"American Legion\", features numerous programs including American Legion Baseball, Scouting, Oratorical Contests, Junior Shooting Sports, Youth Alumni, the American Legion Riders, and Scholarships at every level of the organization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebel Legion",
        "text": "The Rebel Legion is an international fan-based volunteer organization dedicated to the construction and wearing of screen-accurate replicas of the Rebel Alliance, the Galactic Republic, the New Republic, the Resistance, the Jedi Order, and other heroes from the \"Star Wars\" universe. Founded in 2000, the group was formed in response to the decision of sister organization the 501st Legion to remain dedicated to Galactic Empire costumes. The Rebel Legion makes appearances at private and public events, including charitable events and official \"Star Wars\" promotional events. The organization does not charge a fee for appearances, instead encouraging a donation to a charity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion of Blue",
        "text": "Legion of Blue and its members have been recognized by a variety of sources for their school spirit and charitable work. During the 2017-18 school year, Legion of Blue won the Lion Light student organization of the month award for their September \"Fill the Forum\" event and the Penn State student organization of the month for their contributions to the annual THON Hoops game. Legion of Blue was featured in conjunction with Penn State THON as part of ESPN's Student Spirit Week for the Nittany Lions' 2008 matchup against Ohio State, and 2005-06 president Jennifer Owsiany was named ESPN's 2006 \"Miss Bracket\" after an online poll of college basketball's biggest superfans."
      },
      {
        "title": ""Weird Al" Yankovic",
        "text": "Yankovic has invited members of the 501st Legion on stage during performances of his \"Star Wars\"-themed songs \"Yoda\" and \"The Saga Begins\", recruiting members of local garrisons (club chapters) while on tour. In appreciation, the 501st inducted Yankovic as a \"Friend of the Legion\" in September 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion Athletic Camp",
        "text": "Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Legion Athletic Camp"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fuessenich Park",
        "text": "The field has also been home to the American Legion Baseball League team for high school age players, the Tri-State Baseball League team for post-high school players, and additional organized baseball leagues and events for middle school and high school players."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports in Minnesota",
        "text": "American Legion baseball is played throughout the state in summer."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Socialist League of the Reich for Physical Exercise",
        "text": "The last big sports event organized in its trademark grandiose style by the NSRL was the \"Deutsches Turn- und Sportfest\" (German Gym and Sports Celebration) in Breslau (now Wroc\u0142aw) in July 1938. This highly nationalistic sports event commemorated the 125th anniversary of the German Wars of Liberation against Napoleon and the first award of the Iron Cross in the city of Breslau itself in 1813."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom Hall Civic Center",
        "text": "Former and current entertainment include acts such as the Ringling Brothers and Barnum & Bailey circus who came in 2008, a Jehovah's Witnesses convention in 2010, professional wrestling, Disney on Ice, Southeastern Championship Wrestling, Sugarland, Luke Bryan, KISS, Third Day, Shrine Circus, AC/DC, Metallica, Elvis Presley, Elton John, and Aerosmith.\n* List of NCAA Division I basketball arenas\n*Official Website"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports Museum of America",
        "text": "In an effort to be truly national and collaborative in its representation of all sports, the Museum partnered with more than 60 sporting organizations throughout the United States, and the Hockey Hall of Fame in Toronto (with 30 of those signed up to participate during the concept phase). Exclusive Partners included:\n*American Museum of Fly Fishing\n*College Football Hall of Fame\n*Companions in Courage Foundation\n*World Figure Skating Hall of Fame\n*Heisman Trophy\n*Herreshoff Marine Museum/America's Cup Hall of Fame\n*Hockey Hall of Fame\n*Indianapolis Motor Speedway\n*International Boxing Hall of Fame\n*International Bowling Museum and Hall of Fame\n*International Swimming Hall of Fame\n*International Tennis Hall of Fame\n*Jackie Robinson Foundation\n*Lacrosse Museum and National Hall of Fame\n*Museum of Yachting\n*NCAA Hall of Champions\n*Negro Leagues Baseball Museum\n*Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame\n*NASCAR\n*National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame\n*National Soccer Hall of Fame\n*National Softball Hall of Fame\n*National Track and Field Hall of Fame\n*National Wrestling Hall of Fame\n*Pro Football Hall of Fame\n*Special Olympics\n*United States Bicycling Hall of Fame\n*United States Golf Association\n*United States Tennis Association\n*US Lacrosse\n*United States Olympic Committee\n*US Soccer\n*USA Basketball\n*USA Hockey\n*USA Football\n*USA Rugby\n*USA Softball & Amateur Softball Association\n*USA Swimming\n*USA Track & Field\n*USA Volleyball\n*USA Wrestling\n*Volleyball Hall of Fame\n*Women's Sports Foundation\n*World Golf Hall of Fame"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ben Schwartzwalder",
        "text": "Even as a paratrooper, Schwartzwalder remained focused on his football career. He organized an athletic league from among the soldiers being assembled in England in preparation for D-Day in order to keep the troops motivated and fit. He coached the 507th PIR football team, leading them through a ten-game season in which the 507th was never defeated and never even scored upon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports in Birmingham, Alabama",
        "text": "In 1996, Legion Field hosted early rounds of Olympic soccer where it drew record crowds. The field has also hosted men's and women's World Cup qualifiers and friendlies. A switch from natural grass to an artificial surface has left the stadium's role as a soccer venue in doubt. In 2019, Legion Field was also the home of the Birmingham Iron of the Alliance of American Football."
      },
      {
        "title": "Warrior Games",
        "text": "In 2015 and 2016, the eight sports included were:\n* Archery\n* Cycling\n* Field: Events included men's and women's shot put, standing shot put, seated discus, and standing discus.\n* Shooting\n* Sitting volleyball\n* Swimming: Events included men's and women's 50 meter freestyle, 100 meter freestyle, 50 meter backstroke, and 50 meter breaststroke.\n* Track: Events included 100 meters, 200 meters, 400 meters, 800 meters, and 1500 meters. There were events for athletes using wheelchairs and those using prosthetics.\n* Wheelchair basketball"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The Legion was called in to play stormtrooper extras for the official \"Star Wars\" series \"The Mandalorian\" after the pilot's directors realized that they did not have enough stormtrooper armor to complete a shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clone trooper",
        "text": "The 501st first appears unnamed in \"Revenge of the Sith\" under the leadership of Commander Appo, and they assault the Jedi Temple on Coruscant under Order 66. The 501st Legion also appears extensively throughout \"Star Wars Battlefront\" video game franchise and \"The Clone Wars\" television series, under the leadership of Captain Rex of Torrent Company. In the \"Star Wars Legends\" expanded universe, after the conversion of the Republic into the Galactic Empire, the 501st Legion (nicknamed \"Vader's Fist\") is placed under the command of General Maximilian Veers that serves as Darth Vader's personal battalion. In current Canon media, the 501st still remain under the command of Vader, however a new group named the First Legion is established as his personal task force, which recruits only from 501st ranks. Members of the 501st Legion wear armor with blue markings. The unit is named after the 501st Legion costuming group."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion Charity Representative (LCR): The office of the LCR serves as the Legion's primary point of contact with outside charitable organizations. The LCR manages documentation of Legion charitable activities and may publish and promote the Legion's charity efforts to the membership and the public."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shwet Ashwas",
        "text": "The team continues to perform in various military events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Defunct Paralympic field events",
        "text": "Defunct Paralympic field events\n--Events.\n----Football accuracy and distance.\n----Pentathlon.\n------Men.\n------Women.\n----Precision club throw.\n----Precision javelin.\n----Triple jump.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "National Jewish Sports Hall of Fame and Museum",
        "text": "The Hall has inductees in the sports of American football, auto-racing, baseball, basketball, bicycling, bowling, boxing, Canadian football, canoeing, cycling, discus, dressage, fencing, figure skating, golf, gymnastics, handball, horse showing, horse-racing, ice hockey, judo, karate, lacrosse, marathon running, pole vault, racquetball, rowing, rugby, shot put, skiing, soccer (European football), softball, squash, swimming, tennis, track, triathlete, volleyball, weightlifting, and wrestling. It has also inducted authors, broadcasters, columnists, and sportscasters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cy the Cardinal",
        "text": "Cy makes appearances at various Cyclone sporting events such as football, men's and women's basketball, volleyball, wrestling, soccer, softball, and gymnastics. In addition to sporting events, Cy is often requested to make various appearances across the state of Iowa for a number of events. Cy also competes each year at the NCAA College Mascot Nationals in Daytona Beach, Florida."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parasports",
        "text": "In 2006, the Extremity Games were formed for people with limb loss or limb difference to compete in extreme sports. College Park Industries, a manufacturer of prosthetic feet, organized this event to give amputee athletes a venue to compete in this increasingly popular sports genre also referred to as action sports. This annual event held in the summer in Orlando, includes competitions in skateboarding, wakeboarding, rock climbing, mountain biking, surfing, moto-x and kayaking. Various organizations, such as Paradox Sports, have arisen to help empower and inspire disabled people through equipping and welcoming them into the extreme sports community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion Field",
        "text": "If Protective Stadium had not been completed in time for the 2022 World Games, that event's opening and closing ceremonies would have been held at Legion Field. It will remain in use at least through the World Games, as it is scheduled to be the venue for flag football."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion Sports Complex",
        "text": "Legion Sports Complex\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Knights Must Fall",
        "text": "The jousting field is depicted as a typical sports field transferred to the Middle Ages. There is an announcer, a vendor selling programs, a football field, and references to baseball, boxing, and pool. There is also an appearance by a kazoo-using marching band at half-time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catholic Legion",
        "text": "Defunct Organizations:"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "There are sixteen Legion costume Detachments. Each is dedicated to researching, constructing, and promoting a distinct group of costumes in the 501st. The Legion's costume references are stored on the Detachment websites, and their message boards contain tutorials on how to build the costumes that they have domain over.\n* Armored Cavalry Detachment: AT-AT Drivers, AT-ST Drivers and Armor Assault Commanders\n* Blizzard Force: Snowtroopers, Galactic Marines, Snow Scouts, Wampas\n* Bounty Hunters Guild: Bounty Hunters\n* Clone Trooper Detachment: Clone Troopers from Episodes II and III, and the \"Star Wars: The Clone Wars\" television series\n* First Imperial Stormtrooper Detachment: Stormtroopers\n* Flagship Eclipse Detachment: Expanded Universe Characters (non-troopers)\n* Imperial Gunnery Corps: Imperial Gunners\n* Imperial Officer Corps: Imperial Officers, Imperial Crew, and Imperial Navy/Death Star Troopers\n* Jolly Roger Squadron: T.I.E. Fighter Pilots\n* Krayt Clan: Tusken Raiders, Jawas, Gamorrean Guards, and several denizens of Jabba's palace\n* Mos Eisley Police Department:\" \"Sandtroopers\n* Pathfinders Detachment: Biker Scouts, Kashyyyk Clone Scout Troopers, Shore Troopers\n* Sith Lord Detachment: The Film-Canon Sith Lords: Darth Vader, Darth Sidious, Darth Maul, Darth Tyranus and Kylo Ren\n* Sovereign Protectors: Emperor's Royal Guards\n* Spec Ops Detachment: Expanded Universe Characters (troopers)\n* Underworld Detachment: Pirates, Gangsters, Henchmen, Thieves, Smugglers, Thugs, Scum and Villiany"
      },
      {
        "title": "180th Battalion (Sportsmen), CEF",
        "text": "180th Battalion (Sportsmen), CEF\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion of Blue",
        "text": "The Legion of Blue traditionally experiences increased membership during successful seasons and the years following. The Bryce Jordan Center sold out for the first time since 2011 during a February match vs. Minnesota, due in large part to a strong showing by the Legion of Blue. Penn State went on to win the game 83-77. Other games with high student attendance include Penn State's 2011 Senior Night vs. Ohio State and Penn State's 2020 THON Hoops game vs. Ohio State."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of sports",
        "text": "Sport management\n* Demonstration sport\n* Sports marketing\n* Sponsor\n* Scout\n* List of professional sports leagues by revenue\n* Fan loyalty\n* National sport\n* Nudity in sport\n* Performance art\n* Sports memorabilia\n* Sporting club\n* List of sports attendance figures\n* List of attendance figures at domestic professional sports leagues"
      },
      {
        "title": "Army Black Knights",
        "text": "Army Black Knights\n--History.\n--Sports sponsored.\n----Football.\n----Men's golf.\n----Men's ice hockey.\n----Men's rugby.\n----Wrestling.\n----Non-varsity sports.\n------Boxing.\n------Handball.\n--Hall of Fame.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion Field",
        "text": "Legion Field has hosted a number of other college football games. The annual Magic City Classic between Alabama A&M University and Alabama State University has been played here since 1946. The Steel City Classic featuring Miles College and Stillman College is also played at Legion Field. The MEAC/SWAC Challenge was played at Legion Field from 2005 to 2007, but moved to Orlando in 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion Stadium",
        "text": "Legion Stadium\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion of Blue",
        "text": "11. Men\u2019s Basketball Student Section Finds Fresh Start In \u2018Legion Of Blue\u2019"
      },
      {
        "title": "Colchester Legion Stadium",
        "text": "Colchester Legion Stadium is also home to local High School Hockey, Minor Hockey, Lacrosse during the summer and a local figure skating club. Events such as expos, model railway shows, a circus and flea markets are held often during summer months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tau Epsilon Phi",
        "text": "Sports and athletics:\n*Red Auerbach \u2013 general manager, Boston Celtics\n*Bryan Clark \u2013 professional wrestler\n*Jared Ross \u2013 professional hockey player\n*Eddie Fogler \u2013 college basketball coach\n*Howie Roseman \u2013 general manager, Philadelphia Eagles\n*Jedd Fisch \u2013 offensive coordinator, Michigan Wolverines\n*Bob Vogel - college and professional football player Ohio State University Buckeyes and Baltimore Colts\n*Neal Walk - college and professional basketball player University of Florida and various NBA teams"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Membership requirements for applicants include being at least 18 years of age and have a documented ownership of at least one qualifying high-quality costume of a Star Wars villain. To maintain membership they must troop at least one local unit or Legion-level event per year and abide by the 501st Legion Code of Conduct."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roman Legion-Hare",
        "text": "The setting is Rome, 54 A. D.; the camera pans past a billboard announcing \"Another Appian Freeway for Your Safety (Slow Chariots Keep Right)\" before settling on an exterior view of the Coliseum. As spectators file into the Coliseum, their shadows fall on a poster describing the day's sporting event: \"Detroit Lions in Season Opener \u2014 Undefeated Lions out for First Taste of Victory\". The sign is a reference to the NFL team with the same name, which was a league powerhouse at the time. The NFL Lions had appeared in the league championship game in the three seasons prior to the short being released, winning the title in 1952 and 1953."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Legion Baseball",
        "text": "American Legion Baseball\n--Purpose.\n--History.\n--Hall of Fame alumni.\n--World Series.\n--State, sectional and regional tournaments.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "National Sports Academy "Vasil Levski"",
        "text": "The alumni of the National Sports Academy have found professional realization as:\n* Coaches of club or national teams, as well as trainers in youth sports academies;\n* Teachers and lecturers in physical education and sports at kindergartens, schools, and universities;\n* Kinesitherapists or physiotherapists in hospitals, sanatoriums, and rehabilitation centers;\n* Instructors in fitness and SPA centers;\n* Sport Animators in sports and leisure centers;\n* Trainers of people with disabilities and special educational needs;\n* Sports Psychologists of elite athletes and teams;\n* Managers of sports clubs, fitness centers, sports facilities, sports federations, and associations;\n* Sports journalists and commentators in electronic and print media;\n* Specialists in physical and martial applied training in the system of Ministry of Interior and Ministry of Defense."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports before 1001",
        "text": "Events\n* ~3000 BCE \u2014 fist fighting is depicted in Sumerian relief carvings from the 3rd millennium BCE.\n* ~1500 BCE \u2014 the earliest evidence for fist fighting with gloves or other forms of hand protection, such as \"cestae\", is found on a carved vase from Minoan Crete.\n* ~1350 BCE \u2014 an ancient Egyptian relief from the 2nd millennium BCE depicts both fist-fighters and spectators.\n* ~675 BCE \u2014 Homer's Iliad (Book XXIII) contains the first detailed account of a boxing contest.\n* ~400 BCE \u2014 in ancient Greece, a form of \"cestae\" called \"meilichae\" (\u03bc\u03b5\u03b9\u03bb\u03af\u03c7\u03b1\u03b9) were in use; they were gloves consisting of strips of raw hide tied under the palm, leaving the fingers bare.\n* ~100 BCE \u2014 in ancient Rome, boxing was primarily a gladiatorial contest; gladiators wore lead \"cestae\" over their knuckles and heavy leather straps on their forearms for protection against blows.\n* ~400 CE \u2014 boxing apparently went into centuries-long decline after the rise of Christianity and the decline of the Roman Empire.\n* Chariot racing was one of the most popular ancient Greek, Roman and Byzantine sports, despite being dangerous to both driver and horse as they frequently suffered serious injury and even death. In the Roman Empire, it was a major industry.\n* 648 BCE \u2014 chariot and mounted horse racing were events in the ancient Greek Olympics by this time and featured in the other Panhellenic Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fallen Legion",
        "text": "Fallen Legion was showcased at the SAAM Arcade at the Smithsonian Museum in 2017, and at Bitsummit's 2017 event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico Nacional",
        "text": "IPN fields 27 varsity teams in sports or activities such as archery, American football, athletics, baseball, basketball, body building, bowling, boxing, chess, cycling, frontenis, gymnastics, handball, indoor soccer, judo, karate, kendo, mountaineering, rowing, soccer, swimming, taekwondo, tennis, touch football, volleyball, weightlifting, and wrestling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebel Legion",
        "text": "Some of the events where the member of the Rebel Legion were guests, supporters, artists or exhibitors to support charity projects:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Keenan Cornelius",
        "text": "After a falling out with his long time gym ATOS, Keenan decided to open his own gym and fight team. On August 6, 2019 he announced he would open Legion Academy in San Diego CA. Since launching the Legion AJJ academy, Keenan Cornelius has attracted some of ATOS' top athletes to his team including Andris Brunovskis and Darin Conner DeAngelis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jon Blais",
        "text": "Exemplifying the passion amateur athletes have for the cause, 18-year-old \"Blaze Kid\" Jennifer Hansen had raised almost $30,000 for the organization before reaching eligibility for her first Ironman event in 2011. The San Francisco athlete said the disease hit home with her in 2009 when a beloved basketball coach was diagnosed with ALS."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Legion Baseball",
        "text": "With games set at Keeter Stadium on the campus of Shelby High School, the local community has rallied around the event, turning it into a lengthy celebration including the Seventh Inning Stretch festival in Uptown Shelby the Saturday prior to the World Series, a Commander's Reception the Tuesday before the event and a Parade of Champions the night prior to the first game."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Legion Baseball",
        "text": "American Legion Baseball is a variety of amateur baseball played by 13-to-19-year-olds in fifty states in the U.S. and Canada. More than 3,500 teams participate each year. The American Legion Department of South Dakota established the program in 1925 at Milbank, South Dakota."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion National Youth Track and Field Championships",
        "text": "Legion National Youth Track and Field Championships\n--History.\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is required for membership to the 501st Legion?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Membership requirements for applicants include being at least 18 years of age and have a documented ownership of at least one qualifying high-quality costume of a Star Wars villain. To maintain membership they must troop at least one local unit or Legion-level event per year and abide by the 501st Legion Code of Conduct."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many units are a part of the 501st Legion total?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are three types of local units: garrisons, squads, and outposts. Worldwide, there are 76 Garrisons, 78 squads, and 30 Outposts."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are they involved with any charity work?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Legion Charity Representative serves as the Legion's primary point of contact with outside charitable organizations. The LCR manages documentation of Legion charitable activities and may publish and promote the Legion's charity efforts to the membership and the public."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What kind of events or places do they appear at?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes, they appear in a number of events, from parades, school fairs, community festivals, to public libraries, pediatric wards, and even professional sport events to name some."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you expand further on what kind of professional sports they've appeared at?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The 501st Legion has partnered with various minor and major league sports franchises such as the National Hockey League, Major League Baseball, and National Basketball Association in recent years for special \u201cStar Wars Nights.\u201d Members of the 501st Legion have participated in games at the minor league hockey and baseball levels,  college sports, the Arena Football League, and the National Football League.",
      "The 501st Legion has partnered with various major league sports franchises such as the National Hockey League, Major League Baseball, National Basketball Association, and the National Football League. Members have also participated in games at the minor league hockey and baseball levels and the Arena Football League."
    ],
    "topic": "501st Legion",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "501st Legion:50",
        "passage_titles": [
          "501st Legion",
          "Appearances",
          "Professional sports"
        ],
        "ctx": "The 501st Legion has also partnered with various minor and major league sports franchises such as the National Hockey League, Major League Baseball, and National Basketball Association in recent years for special \u201cStar Wars Nights.\u201d These events have brought record attendance numbers to games. Members of the 501st Legion have participated in games at the minor league hockey and baseball levels, college sports, the Arena Football League, and the National Football League."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "501st Legion:50",
        "passage_titles": [
          "501st Legion",
          "Appearances",
          "Professional sports"
        ],
        "ctx": "The 501st Legion has also partnered with various minor and major league sports franchises such as the National Hockey League, Major League Baseball, and National Basketball Association in recent years for special \u201cStar Wars Nights.\u201d These events have brought record attendance numbers to games. Members of the 501st Legion have participated in games at the minor league hockey and baseball levels, college sports, the Arena Football League, and the National Football League."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion has been called in frequently to support many Star Wars events at public libraries, aimed at encouraging literacy among younger fans of the franchise. Library \u201cStar Wars days\u201d (including events for the official \"Star Wars Reads Day\") are routinely among the most popular events on a library's calendar. Activities like Stormtrooper Story Time, Jedi training games, trivia contests, coloring and drawing activity stations, and appearances by the 501st Legion help make these events successful."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "At formal events, members typically appear to have walked off the screen when portraying characters. At informal events (such as local science fiction conventions), members often display their creativity with genre mash-ups of their costumes."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion members have become an established attraction at Disney World's annual Star Wars Weekends, the Star Wars: Where Science Meets Imagination museum exhibit, and Free Comic Book Day events across the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Early events attended (or \"trooped\") by the Legion were mostly science-fiction and comic book conventions or related to the release of the Star Wars movies in theaters and on video. But members were looking for more frequent reasons to meet up with their new-found Legion friends and show off their costumes together. The Legion expanded into a charitable organization."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion appears at several different venues for myriad reasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the 501st Legion frequently attend fandom's larger conventions including Dragon Con, San Diego Comic-Con, MCM London Comic Con, the Wizard World Comic Cons, and Megacon (among scores of other Sci-Fi conventions) where they often host a fan table or booth where the public can learn more about the Legion, see costumes and props on display, and speak directly with members. At HeroesCon, their table is generally set up near the similarly-themed, \"Star Trek\"-based Klingon Assault Group, and the two have a friendly rivalry to see who can solicit the most donations for charity."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members were also featured on the Christmas 2012 episode of \"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the 501st Legion get frequently invited to appear at pediatric wards. When the 501st Legion appears in a hospital, they brighten the lives of children going through difficult trials and serious medical treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion has also partnered with various minor and major league sports franchises such as the National Hockey League, Major League Baseball, and National Basketball Association in recent years for special \u201cStar Wars Nights.\u201d These events have brought record attendance numbers to games. Members of the 501st Legion have participated in games at the minor league hockey and baseball levels, college sports, the Arena Football League, and the National Football League."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the 501st Legion participate in parades, school fairs, and community festivals."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion members make appearances at casual, promotional, and charitable events, often at the request of Lucasfilm's Fan Events department. Although not officially affiliated with the Walt Disney Company or Lucasfilm LLC., the 501st Legion is Lucasfilm's preferred Imperial costuming organization, and its members were featured as extras in the official series \"The Mandalorian\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The Legion's costuming standards are listed online in the 501st Legion Costume Reference Library (CRL). All costumes must meet the base requirements listed there in order to be considered for approval."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion Charity Representative (LCR): The office of the LCR serves as the Legion's primary point of contact with outside charitable organizations. The LCR manages documentation of Legion charitable activities and may publish and promote the Legion's charity efforts to the membership and the public."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Scott Loxley of the 501st Legion was raising money for Monash Children's Hospital when he claims he was saved by stormtrooper armor from a bite on the shin by a deadly King Brown serpent near Yalboroo, Australia on January 14, 2015 as he walked down a road while walking entirely around the Australian continent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Library War Council",
        "text": "One of the council's projects involved collecting books to send to American troops overseas during WWI. Another object was to provide overall library services to the troops. In total, the council held three campaigns to provide servicepersons with books and other amenities commonly found in libraries. Posters solicited the public for funds as well as book donations. Some campaigns solicited for money alone, while others were in solicitation of books. Various articles appeared in newspapers in magazines drawing attention to the cause and enlisting the public's interest in the education of soldiers. For example, Eveline W. Brainerd's \"Reading At the Front,\" published January 19, 1918 in \"The Independent\", read:"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "501st Legion\n--Origins.\n----The 501st Legion name.\n--Mission statement.\n--Membership.\n----Legion identification numbers.\n----The Galactic Academy.\n--Organization.\n----Local units.\n----Detachments.\n--Command structure.\n----Legion officers.\n----Unit officers.\n------Garrison officers.\n------Squad officers.\n------Outpost officers.\n----Detachment officers.\n--Appearances.\n----Community events.\n----Libraries.\n----Hospitals.\n----Promotions.\n----Professional sports.\n----Conventions.\n----Concerts.\n----Television.\n--Charitable works.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion is an international fan-based organization dedicated to the construction and wearing of screen-accurate replicas of Imperial Stormtrooper armor, Sith Lords, Clone Troopers, bounty hunters, and other villains from the \"Star Wars\" universe. The 501st Legion, called by its nickname Vader's Fist, is made up entirely of volunteers."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion units are often invited to appear on stage with symphonies and school bands who perform the music of John Williams."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion is an all-volunteer organization formed for the purpose of bringing together costume enthusiasts from around the world under a collective identity. The 501st Legion seeks to promote interest in Star Wars through the building and wearing of high quality costumes, to facilitate the use of these costumes for Star Wars-related events, and to contribute to the local community through costumed charity and volunteer work."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st Legion never charges a fee for an appearance, but they do welcome donations to a charity in honor of the Legion or the local Legion unit. If an event host does not have a charity of choice, Legion members frequently direct the donations to the Endowment Fund. In cases where the event host is itself a charitable organization, a donation is usually not accepted by the 501st Legion as they volunteer their time for that charitable organization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fallen Legion",
        "text": "Fallen Legion was showcased at the SAAM Arcade at the Smithsonian Museum in 2017, and at Bitsummit's 2017 event."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Am Legion (comics)",
        "text": "Real world organizations referenced include the London Controlling Section, the Abwehr and the Special Operations Executive. A main character is a Colonel Von Kleist, perhaps a reference to Paul von Kleist. The Casablanca Conference and the Wannsee Conference are also mentioned.\n*\"I Am Legion\" (trade paperback, 144 pages, October 2009, )\n*\"I Am Legion\" (hardcover, September 2010, )"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dwight Foster Public Library",
        "text": "In 2017, Dwight Foster Public Library presented a series of programs based on the book \"Being Mortal,\" as well as fundraisers and other programs. Artist Marcus Tauch's art has been featured in public display at the Dwight Foster Public Library. In 2020 the library hosted a discussion of \"Such Anxious Hours: Wisconsin Women\u2019s Voices From the Civil War,\" as well as a travel series."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "In 2016, the members of the 501st donated over 182,000 hours of community service, raising over $889,000 USD in direct donations, and participated in events that helped raise over $46 million for charities worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Combining a costume code with a member's identification number creates a unique in-universe designation for each Legion member and each one of their costumes. Member 8968 might be known as TK-8968, IG-8968, or TB-8968, depending on whether they are wearing a Stormtrooper, Imperial Gunner, or Biker Scout costume at the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Giving back to the community is one of the 501st Legion's highest priorities. Because of this, the 501st Legion proudly refers to themselves as the \"Bad Guys Doing Good.\" Members regularly participate in events to raise awareness for charitable causes, from walk-a-thons to blood drives, and provide opportunities for fundraising through events such as their \"Blast-A-Trooper\" game, where donations are collected from the public to target armored characters with Nerf blasters."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Some larger units of the Legion also sometimes conduct activities like the Droid Hunt and Blast-a-Trooper at conventions."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "As a worldwide organization that fields dozens of appearance requests daily, the Legion has set up local units to better handle tasks like event coordination, promotion, recruitment, and discipline."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign Legion Museum",
        "text": "Hailing from a private collection, the legionnaire uniform museum is an extension of the Legion museum delocalized at the corps of the Institution des Invalides de la Legion Etrangere. The museum regroups 120 mannequin, illustrating the evolutions of the uniforms since the creation of the Foreign Legion in 1831 until the modern presently \u00e9poque."
      },
      {
        "title": "Every Boy's Library (Boy Scouts of America Edition)",
        "text": "Many books in the library feature an olive-green, linen fabric hard cover and bears a seal red and black fleur-de-lis Boy Scout emblem over two crossed signal flags, with the title at the top and author on the bottom. Some works included an original dust jacket, however intact copies are increasingly rare. There are also several versions that do not display a BSA seal, but rather have different colored hardcovers with or without and embossed seal on the spine. The series was sold as a fundraiser for the BSA, and were sold for fifty cents each. They are currently valued on average at ten dollars to most collectors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Library Bards",
        "text": "The Library Bards started touring Comic and Pop Culture conventions in 2015, including the Amazing! Comic Con series. The list of cities included:\n* Los Angeles, CA\n* Indianapolis, IN\n* Ventura, CA\n* Houston, TX\n* Honolulu, HI\n* San Francisco, CA\n* Oklahoma City, OK"
      },
      {
        "title": "Military Museum of the Legion",
        "text": "Military Museum of the Legion\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "In the Blast-a-Trooper game, fans fire foam darts at Imperial characters in exchange for a donation to charity. Blast-a-Trooper ranges have raised thousands of dollars for worthy causes around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Musician and comedian \"Weird Al\" Yankovic has invited members of the 501st Legion on stage during performances of his \"Star Wars\"-themed songs \"Yoda\" and \"The Saga Begins\", recruiting members of local garrisons while on tour. In appreciation, the 501st inducted Yankovic as a \"Friend of the Legion\", in September 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The Legion helps members to connect with fellow Star Wars costumers through two organizational networks: one based on geographical location and one based on costume types."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Legion of Super-Heroes publications",
        "text": "The various Legion titles have been collected in the following trade paperbacks. The \"Archives\" editions are hardcover collections, while most of the rest are softcover trade paperbacks. The \"100-page spectaculars\" are collections that DC has released in conjunction with TPBs or HCs, but through comics markets only. They are squarebound and have slightly stiff covers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goshen Carnegie Public Library",
        "text": "Goshen Carnegie Public Library\n--Appearance.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign Legion Museum",
        "text": "Strong with more than 4500 books and 10 000 iconic pieces, the center of documentation has for vocation to ground and treat all the media inventory of the Institution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Liberty Legion",
        "text": "Liberty Legion\n--Publication history.\n--Fictional team histories.\n--Liberteens.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion of Honor (museum)",
        "text": "Legion of Honor (museum)\n--History.\n--Collections.\n----Spreckels Organ and Gunn Theater.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Catholic Legion",
        "text": "Defunct Organizations:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion of Honor (museum)",
        "text": "The Legion of Honor displays a collection spanning more than 6,000 years of ancient and European art and houses the Achenbach Foundation for Graphic Arts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas Pennant Barton",
        "text": "As of 2017, the Boston Public Library is actively engaged in the conservation and digitization of Barton's Shakespeare and Shakespeareana. Digitized copies of his books are accessible through the Internet Archive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of Friends of the Foreign Legion Museum (SAMLE)",
        "text": "- the legion's regimental Honorary Halls"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the 501st Legion refer to themselves by a letter-number combination, such as TK-899, TR-3774, or DZ-40201. This tradition originates from a line in Star Wars, \"TK-421, why aren't you at your post?\". The founder of the 501st Legion, Albin Johnson, decided that \"Desert Troopers would be labeled \u201cTD\u201d and came from specialized training schools for their missions, Snowtroopers would be \u201cTS\u201d, Biker Scouts would [become] \u201cTB.\u201d\" as each group of costumes carries a specific letter designation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Library Bards",
        "text": "The Library Bards continued to tour over 50 comic and pop culture conventions in 2016, including:\n* WonderCon (LA)\n* Pasadena Comic Con (Pasadena)\n* Orlando, FL Concert\n* Anime Fan Fest (New Jersey)\n* Amazing! Hawaii Comic Con\n* BayCon (San Francisco)\n* Ninja-Con (LA)\n* LA CosplayCon\n* Amazing! Las Vegas Comic Con\n* Anime Expo (LA)\n* San Diego Comic Con\n* Wizard World Chicago\n* FuMPFest (Chicago)\n* Amazing Houston Comic Con\n* NerdBot Con\n* Santa Clarita Valley Comic Con\n* Louisiana Comic Con (Lafayette)\n* LosCon"
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign Legion Museum",
        "text": "The museum was opened to the public since May 7 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ogden, Illinois",
        "text": "library. Mr. Rose died in August 1916 and willed $800 to start the library. Past librarians and board members include Lena Ackerman and Florence Sadler. In 1946 the American Legion Post 998 was organized. In 1959, a lot on the northeast corner of Main and East Streets was purchased by the American Legion and plans were made for a Memorial Park which stands today in honor of Ogden war veterans. Around 1871, the Methodist and Christian Churches were erected in Ogden. The first Nazarene church"
      },
      {
        "title": "Library War Service",
        "text": "Like other volunteers during the war, especially the Red Cross and the Salvation Army, Library War Service librarians wore uniforms while performing their duties. There were separate uniforms for camp librarians and hospital librarians, as well as separate uniforms for men and women. Camp librarians wore a forest green uniform, similar to a military uniform, with ALA pins and patches that marked the wearer as a War Service librarian. Female librarians working in hospital libraries had a unique uniform of naturally colored pongee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Birkenhead Public Library",
        "text": "From this the library became more involved in the provision of a wider range of holiday activities, like puppet shows and hands-on arts and crafts, such as making hats or murals or cake decorations. On one occasion these were so well subscribed the library held them down the road in the All Saints Church hall. There were events too on such occasions as the library's 50th celebration, and Halloween."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The 501st name continued to appear in various \"Star Wars\" expanded universe media until its suspension and rebranding to \"Star Wars Legends\" in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soldiers' Free Library",
        "text": "The Soldiers' Free Library grew to hold approximately six thousand books and other monographs. Popular donations were Bibles, Shakespeare, and \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\", but the collection also included stories for young readers, scientific texts, Charles Dickens' novels, poetry collections, hymnals, and histories. Donors, including grateful patrons, gave the library subscriptions to popular magazines. The library also provided space for concerts for wounded soldiers, classes, prayer meetings, and church services."
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of Friends of the Foreign Legion Museum (SAMLE)",
        "text": "- the archives of the Foreign Legion"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Squad Leader (SL): The SL is elected by the Squad's membership. The SL is the event coordinator for the local area in which the Squad operates. The SL reports directly to the parent Garrison's leadership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Library War Service",
        "text": "At the height of the war, nearly every YMCA, Knights of Columbus, Young Men's Hebrew Association and base hospital at a barracks was used as distribution point for War Service books, and nearly every book was in constant use. Books and periodicals were minimally cataloged and camp librarians were either volunteers, or were paid a small annual salary of around $1,200."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Legion Public Relations Officer (LPRO): The office of the LPRO serves as the Legion's advocate and primary point of contact with the public and outside parties. The LPRO serves as the executive editor of all Legion publications and multimedia productions. The office of the LPRO also serves as the primary point of contact for celebrities and VIPs."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Members of the Legion are issued with individual identification numbers upon joining. It becomes their number for life, and will never be given to anyone else, even after they die. Because of that, many members pick a number that has a significant meaning to them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soldiers' Memorial Library",
        "text": "Soldiers' Memorial Library\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Membership requirements for applicants include being at least 18 years of age and have a documented ownership of at least one qualifying high-quality costume of a Star Wars villain. To maintain membership they must troop at least one local unit or Legion-level event per year and abide by the 501st Legion Code of Conduct."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Legion Soldier",
        "text": "This sculpture depicts a male figure dressed in a combination of World War I and World War II battle fatigues. His shirt is unbuttoned and dogtags hang around his neck. A rifle is slung over his right shoulder and he holds a grenade in his left hand. He wears a helmet on his head and his pants are tucked into his boots. He steps on a snake with his right foot, the snake represents the enemy. The sculpture is installed on a small ledge on the facade of the American Legion building, forty feet above the sidewalk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soldiers' Free Library",
        "text": "The Soldiers' Free Library opened in October 1862, initially housed in the Rumsey family home, with Elida Rumsey as unofficial librarian. It held about 1,500 books, and hundreds of magazines at the start. Soon the donations overwhelmed the space available. A convalescent soldier, Samuel K. Crozier of the 124th Pennsylvania, took over librarian duties, and separate quarters were arranged. The library was specifically open to military and civilian patrons of any race."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign Legion Museum",
        "text": "Foreign Legion Museum\n--History.\n--Organization.\n----The Museum of Aubagne.\n----The Legionnaire Uniform Museum.\n----Center of documentation.\n--References.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Institution des Invalides de la Legion Etrangere",
        "text": "The domain, also houses as well the Legionnaire Uniform Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medicine Hat Public Library",
        "text": "The lower level is home to the reference collection, adult non-fiction, periodicals, microfilm readers and public computer terminals. The 150-seat theatre and both the Honor Currie and Legion meeting rooms and Training Room are also found on this level. Rent a room at the Library."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nora Beust",
        "text": "Beust was also active in Altrusa International, and represented the Durham chapter at a national peace conference in 1938. She was later president of the Washington, D.C. chapter of Altrusa.\n* \"New Books for Christmas\" (1931)\n* \"Professional Library Education: Introducing the Library\" (1938)\n* \"500 Books for Children\" (1940)\n* \"Know your school library\" (1940)\n* \"School Library Administration\" (1941, with Eunice L. Hoffman)\n* \"Our neighbor republics; a selected list of readable books for young people\" (1942, with Emilie Dew Sandsten Lassalle and Jean Gardiner Smith)\n* \"School Library Standards\" (1954)\n* \"Through Golden Windows\" (1958) a 10-volume story anthology set for young readers co-edited with Jeanne Hale, including:\n** \"Mostly Magic\"\n** \"Fun and Fantasy\"\n** \"Wonderful Things Happen\"\n** \"Adventures Here and There\"\n** \"Good Times Together\"\n** \"Children Everywhere\"\n** \"Stories of Early America\"\n** \"American Backgrounds\"\n** \"Wide Wonderful World\"\n** \"Man and His World\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Clone trooper",
        "text": "The 501st first appears unnamed in \"Revenge of the Sith\" under the leadership of Commander Appo, and they assault the Jedi Temple on Coruscant under Order 66. The 501st Legion also appears extensively throughout \"Star Wars Battlefront\" video game franchise and \"The Clone Wars\" television series, under the leadership of Captain Rex of Torrent Company. In the \"Star Wars Legends\" expanded universe, after the conversion of the Republic into the Galactic Empire, the 501st Legion (nicknamed \"Vader's Fist\") is placed under the command of General Maximilian Veers that serves as Darth Vader's personal battalion. In current Canon media, the 501st still remain under the command of Vader, however a new group named the First Legion is established as his personal task force, which recruits only from 501st ranks. Members of the 501st Legion wear armor with blue markings. The unit is named after the 501st Legion costuming group."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "The following officers are collectively called \"Legion Command\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Omaha Public Library",
        "text": "The Friends of Omaha Public Library (FOPL) is a non-profit, volunteer-run organization which helps to fund literacy and community outreach programs for Omaha Public Library and the Omaha community. FOPL raises money through membership support and sales of used books. General book sales are held quarterly at the W. Clarke Swanson Branch. The Friends of Omaha Public Library can also be found online on AbeBooks as the Omaha Library Friends and on eBay as the Friends of the Omaha Public Library."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marblehead Libraries",
        "text": "Because municipalities in the South provided little to no public library service to African Americans through the 1910s, philanthropic efforts often presented their only access to library books. James J.H. Gregory, a white seed salesman who had seen the plight of southern blacks during his time as a Union Civil War soldier, recognized the harm done when they were denied access to public libraries; Gregory believed everyone should have access to \"character-forming books\". In addition to his other philanthropy, Gregory sought to send books to \"schools intended for the children of the poor, particularly the Negroes and the mountain white people\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish Legion (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Jewish Legion (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of Friends of the Foreign Legion Museum (SAMLE)",
        "text": "- of the Foreign Legion Museum,"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Garrison Public Relations Officer (GPRO): The GPRO is appointed by the Garrison Commanding Officer. The GPRO assists the CO in promoting the Unit to the public and also may be called upon by the Legion PRO to assist in the public promotion of the Legion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Detroit Public Library",
        "text": "After World War II, Detroit Public Library obtained \"projected books\" on microfilm and loaned these with portable projectors to disabled veterans (and other patrons with disabilities) who could press a switch under their chin more easily than turning a page."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public library",
        "text": "Public libraries may answer millions of reference questions every year. The Boston Public Library answers more than one million reference questions annually."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Formed in South Carolina by residents Albin Johnson and Tom Crews in August 1997, the Legion now has over 14,000 active members worldwide, with over 26,000 approved costumes. The Legion is active on 6 continents, with local units known as \"Garrisons\" and \"Outposts\" in over 60 countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "Although the 501st Legion is not sponsored by Disney or Lucasfilm, they often call, together with their partners, upon members of the Legion to help promote the commercial release of new Star Wars products and tie-ins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign Legion Museum",
        "text": "In 2003, the Museum was restructured; on another hand, the new organization implicated the creation of support structures. The Society of Friends of the Foreign Legion Museum (SAMLE) () was accordingly created at the request of the COMLE. This association ensures the judicial and financial support of the museum (object collections and functioning)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banner Repeater",
        "text": "The reading room holds a collection of artist's books and other printed material, for both browsing and purchase. The permanent collection is home to Publish And Be Damned's public library. The project space arts programme, of exhibitions, events and performance, publishes pamphlets and posters, which are free to take away from the library trolley on the platform, and when closed from a box outside the reading room."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bob Hope Patriotic Hall",
        "text": "Much of the collection is property of American Legion Post 8. Display cases hold these valuable artifacts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion of Honor (museum)",
        "text": "Situated off the northwest corner of the Legion grounds is the \"Holocaust Memorial\", a sculptural group of white-painted bronze by George Segal installed in 1984. Although not part of the Legion's collection, the sculpture is often seen by visitors to the museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign Legion Museum",
        "text": "[[Category:French Foreign Legion]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Harold Keith",
        "text": "On May 3, 2015 Norman (Oklahoma) Public Library was added to the United For Libraries Literary Landmarks Register for displaying Keith's 1958 Newbery Award medal in their children's section of the library since 1993."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Legion Post No. 512",
        "text": "American Legion Post No. 512\n--History.\n----Manzanita Hall.\n----American Legion Hall.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Legion of Super-Heroes",
        "text": "The Legion of Super-Heroes is a fictional superhero team appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Created by writer Otto Binder and artist Al Plastino, the Legion is a group of superpowered beings living in the 30th and 31st centuries of the , and first appears in \"Adventure Comics\" #247 (April 1958)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebel Legion",
        "text": "The Rebel Legion is an international fan-based volunteer organization dedicated to the construction and wearing of screen-accurate replicas of the Rebel Alliance, the Galactic Republic, the New Republic, the Resistance, the Jedi Order, and other heroes from the \"Star Wars\" universe. Founded in 2000, the group was formed in response to the decision of sister organization the 501st Legion to remain dedicated to Galactic Empire costumes. The Rebel Legion makes appearances at private and public events, including charitable events and official \"Star Wars\" promotional events. The organization does not charge a fee for appearances, instead encouraging a donation to a charity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Liberty Legion",
        "text": "[[Category:United States-themed superheroes]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pollokshields Library",
        "text": "Regular events are held at the library, including talks by authors, children's activities and reading challenges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Birkenhead Public Library",
        "text": "There have been regular appearances by authors, illustrators, storytellers and various speakers, and celebrities from Judy Bailey to Edith the Elf. Others include storyteller Lynne Kriegler, illustrators Trevor Pye, Margaret Beames, Robyn Belton, and Judy Lambert, and writers Lino Nelisi, Tom Bradley, and Jean Bennett, as well as Irish storyteller Nigel De Burca, and two of the Aunties. They were often invited as part of various book festivals, such as the Children's Aim Book Award. Competitions to select favourite reads further raised awareness and use of the books."
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of Friends of the Foreign Legion Museum (SAMLE)",
        "text": "- the annex (\"uniformologie\"), garrisoned at the Domain of Captain Danjou, at Puyloubier,"
      },
      {
        "title": "New York Public Library Main Branch",
        "text": "The Rare Book Division requires pre-registration for researchers before they are allowed to enter. The collection includes 800 incunable works published in Europe before 1501, Americana published before 1801, and American newspapers published before 1865, as well as over 20,000 broadsides, old atlases, and works about voyages. The division also contains rare Bibles, including the first Gutenberg Bible to be brought to the U.S., the first Native American language Bible, and the first Bible created in the U.S. In addition, it includes first editions and copies from notable writers, including William Shakespeare, copies of \"The Pilgrim's Progress\" printed before 1700, Voltaire's entire work, and Walt Whitman's personal copies of his own work. The division houses rare artifacts as well, such as the first book printed in North America and the first English-language book printed in the U.S."
      },
      {
        "title": "The First Legion",
        "text": "The film was restored by the UCLA Film & Television Archive, with funding provided by The Louis B. Mayer Foundation and The Carl David Memorial Fund for Film Preservation; the restoration was publicly screened in March 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Out on the Shelves",
        "text": "OOTS operates as a collective composed of unpaid volunteers, with no formal leadership structure. As of 2019, the library had around 300 members and 25 volunteers. The library's collection includes fiction and nonfiction books, new and rare books, mainstream and small press books, a children's and young adult section, and a small collection of DVDs. Although the library includes selected older books, the collection focus is on popular, contemporary titles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soldiers Memorial Library",
        "text": "The interior is divided into several small rooms. The circulation desk is immediately right of the entrance, with the main book collection in the southeast corner (later augmented by stacks added to the basement). Much of the remaining space is taken up by reading areas, one of which features a massive cobblestone fireplace. A plastered section of the chimney above the mantel has bronze plaques affixed, identifying all but one of the town's military service personnel who served in wars from the American Revolution to the Spanish\u2013American War."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catholic Legion",
        "text": "Catholic Legion\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "501st Legion",
        "text": "While Garrisons, Squads, and Outposts contain members with all varieties of Legion costumes, bound by a common geographic region, Legion Detachments contain members who are tied together by a common costume, but who live all over the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Library War Council",
        "text": "\"Scant as the libraries at the front have been and still are, little as they hold of recent publications, they are yet circulating thousands of books and do fine service all of the daytime.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Modern Library",
        "text": "In 1992, on the occasion of the Modern Library's seventy-fifth anniversary, Random House embarked on an ambitious project to refurbish the series. We revived the torchbearer emblem that Cerf and Klopfer commissioned in 1925 from Lucian Bernhard. The Promethean bearer of enlightenment (known informally around the old Modern Library offices as the \"dame running away from Bennett Cerf\") was redesigned several times over the years, most notably by Rockwell Kent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soldiers' Free Library",
        "text": "The Soldiers' Free Library was established in Washington, D.C. during the American Civil War, to supply Union troops with reading material. The library also held other items for the troops' use, including crutches, stationery, and clothing, many of these handmade donations from women's organizations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Demosthenian Literary Society",
        "text": "After being active members for a designated amount of time and completing adequate service to the Society, members are eligible to run for officer positions. The Society has 13 officers: President, Vice President, Secretary, Chief Justice, two Associate Justices, Treasurer, Hall Administrator, Hall Preservationist, Historian, Sergeant-at-Arms, Librarian and Custodian. The offices of Treasurer, Hall Administrator, Hall Preservationist, and Historian are all year-long positions elected every Spring while the others are elected each semester."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign Legion Museum",
        "text": "The first floor features the battle campaigns hall, organized within a chronological order and occupies in space the entire floor, through displays, with different \u00e9poques as well as the different conflicts throughout the course which the Legion illustrated capability."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is required for membership to the 501st Legion?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Membership requirements for applicants include being at least 18 years of age and have a documented ownership of at least one qualifying high-quality costume of a Star Wars villain. To maintain membership they must troop at least one local unit or Legion-level event per year and abide by the 501st Legion Code of Conduct."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many units are a part of the 501st Legion total?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are three types of local units: garrisons, squads, and outposts. Worldwide, there are 76 Garrisons, 78 squads, and 30 Outposts."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are they involved with any charity work?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Legion Charity Representative serves as the Legion's primary point of contact with outside charitable organizations. The LCR manages documentation of Legion charitable activities and may publish and promote the Legion's charity efforts to the membership and the public."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What kind of events or places do they appear at?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes, they appear in a number of events, from parades, school fairs, community festivals, to public libraries, pediatric wards, and even professional sport events to name some."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you expand further on what kind of professional sports they've appeared at?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The 501st Legion has partnered with various major league sports franchises such as the National Hockey League, Major League Baseball, National Basketball Association, and the National Football League. Members have also participated in games at the minor league hockey and baseball levels and the Arena Football League."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about the 501st Legion's appearances at public libraries?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "They've been frequently called to support Star Wars events at public events, which are aimed at encouraging literacy among younger fans of the franchise. \"Star Wars days\" at libraries are routinely among the most popular events for them and include events like Stormtrooper Story Time, Jedi training games, trivia contests, coloring and drawing activity stations, and 501st Legion appearances.",
      "The 501st Legion has been called in frequently to support many Star Wars events at public libraries, aimed at encouraging literacy among younger fans of the franchise. Library \u201cStar Wars days\u201d (including events for the official \"Star Wars Reads Day\" are routinely among the most popular events on a library's calendar."
    ],
    "topic": "501st Legion",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "501st Legion:44",
        "passage_titles": [
          "501st Legion",
          "Appearances",
          "Libraries"
        ],
        "ctx": "The 501st Legion has been called in frequently to support many Star Wars events at public libraries, aimed at encouraging literacy among younger fans of the franchise. Library \u201cStar Wars days\u201d (including events for the official \"Star Wars Reads Day\") are routinely among the most popular events on a library's calendar. Activities like Stormtrooper Story Time, Jedi training games, trivia contests, coloring and drawing activity stations, and appearances by the 501st Legion help make these events successful."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "501st Legion:44",
        "passage_titles": [
          "501st Legion",
          "Appearances",
          "Libraries"
        ],
        "ctx": "The 501st Legion has been called in frequently to support many Star Wars events at public libraries, aimed at encouraging literacy among younger fans of the franchise. Library \u201cStar Wars days\u201d (including events for the official \"Star Wars Reads Day\") are routinely among the most popular events on a library's calendar. Activities like Stormtrooper Story Time, Jedi training games, trivia contests, coloring and drawing activity stations, and appearances by the 501st Legion help make these events successful."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "\"Synthetic phonics\", also known as blended phonics, is a method employed to teach students to read by \"sounding out\" the letters then \"blending\" the sounds to form the word. This method involves learning how letters or letter groups represent individual sounds, and that those sounds are blended to form a word. For example, \"shrouds\" would be read by pronouncing the sounds for each spelling, \"sh,r,ou,d,s\" (IPA ), then blending those sounds orally to produce a spoken word, \"sh - r - ou - d - s= shrouds\" (IPA ). The goal of either a blended phonics or synthetic phonics instructional program is that students identify the sound-symbol correspondences and blend their phonemes automatically. Since 2005, synthetic phonics has become the accepted method of teaching reading (by phonics instruction) in the United Kingdom and Australia. In the United States, a pilot program using the Core Knowledge Early Literacy program that used this type of phonics approach showed significantly higher results in K-3 reading compared with comparison schools. In addition, several States such as California, Ohio, New York and Arkansas, are promoting the principles of synthetic phonics (see synthetic phonics in the USA)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics, also known as \"blended phonics\" or \"inductive phonics\", is a method of teaching English reading which first teaches the letter sounds and then builds up to blending these sounds together to achieve full pronunciation of whole words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Critics of the report claim that the results were exaggerated and due to more than just synthetic phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics refers to a family of programs which aim to teach reading and writing through the following methods:\n* Teaching students the correspondence between \"written letters\" (graphemes) and \"speech sounds\" (phonemes). For example, the words \"me\" and \"pony\" have the same sound at the end, but use different letters.\n* Teaching students to read words by \"blending\": identifying the graphemes (letters) in the word, recalling the corresponding phonemes (sounds), and saying the phonemes together to form the sound of the whole word.\n* Teaching students to write words by \"segmenting\": identifying the phonemes of the word, recalling the corresponding graphemes, then writing the graphemes together to form the written word."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic Phonics uses the concept of 'synthesising', which means 'putting together' or 'blending'. Simply put, the sounds prompted by the letters are synthesised (put together or blended) to pronounce the word."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "\"Synthetic phonics\", also known as blended phonics, is a systematic phonics method employed to teach students to read by \"sounding out\" the letters then \"blending\" the sounds to form the word. This method involves learning how letters or letter groups represent individual sounds, and that those sounds are blended to form a word. For example, \"shrouds\" would be read by pronouncing the sounds for each spelling, \"sh, r, ou, d, s\" (IPA ), then blending those sounds orally to produce a spoken word, \"sh \u2013 r \u2013 ou \u2013 d \u2013 s = shrouds\" (IPA ). The goal of either a blended phonics or synthetic phonics instructional program is that students identify the sound-symbol correspondences and blend their phonemes automatically. Since 2005, synthetic phonics has become the accepted method of teaching reading (by phonics instruction) in England, Scotland and Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics involves the development of phonemic awareness from the outset. As part of the decoding process, the reader learns up to 44 phonemes (the smallest units of sound) and their related graphemes (the written symbols for the phoneme)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics programs have some or all of the following characteristics:\n* Teaching grapheme-phoneme (letters-sound) correspondence out of alphabetic order, following an order determined by perceived complexity (going from easiest to hardest to learn).\n* Teaching the reading and writing of words in order of increasing irregularity, in other words teaching words which follow typical grapheme-phoneme correspondence first (e.g. \"ape\" and \"cat\"), and teaching words with idiosyncratic or unusual grapheme-phoneme correspondence later (e.g. \"eight\" and \"duck\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Dr Jennifer Buckingham, Senior Research Fellow, Centre for Independent Studies, AU published a research brief in June 2018 explaining Systematic Synthetic Phonics and the evidence supporting it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "\"Overall we conclude that the synthetic phonics approach, as part of the reading curriculum, is more effective than the analytic phonics approach, even when it is supplemented with phonemic awareness training. It also led boys to reading words significantly better than girls, and there was a trend towards better spelling and reading comprehension. There is evidence that synthetic phonics is best taught at the beginning of Primary 1, as even by the end of the second year at school the children in the early synthetic phonics programme had better spelling ability, and the girls had significantly better reading ability.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "As of October 5, 2018, The State Government of Victoria, Australia, publishes a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons. It contains elements of synthetic phonics, analytic phonics, and analogy phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics programs \"do not\" have the following characteristics:\n* Encouraging students to guess the meaning of words from contextual clues (see whole language method).\n* Encouraging students to memorise the shape of words, to recall them by sight (see Look say method).\n* Teaching grapheme-phoneme correspondence on a \"when needed\" basis or as applied to particular groups of words, when these words arise in other forms of reading instruction (see \"embedded phonics\" in Whole language)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "There has been a resurgence of interest in synthetic phonics in recent years, particularly in England. As of 2013, all (local-authority-maintained) primary schools in England have a statutory requirement to teach synthetic phonics in years one and two. In addition, any pupil who is struggling to decode words properly by year three must \"urgently\" receive help through a \"rigorous and systematic phonics programme\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics teaches phonics at the level of the individual phoneme from the outset; not syllables and not onset and rime. Synthetic phonics does not teach anything about reading as a meaning-focused process. It highlights decoding and pronunciation of words only. Teachers are to put accuracy before speed, because fluency (i.e. speed, accuracy, expression), and comprehension will come with time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Supporters of Synthetic phonics argue that if the systematic teaching of phonics doesn't take place, analytic learners can fall behind and fail to develop the tools they need for decoding words.\n*Reading\n*Phonemic awareness\n*Phonetics\n*Phonics\n*Synthetic phonics"
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In Canada, public education is the responsibility of the Provincial and Territorial governments. There is no evidence that \"systematic phonics (including synthetic phonics)\" has been specifically adopted by any of these jurisdictions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics teaches the phonemes (sounds) associated with the graphemes (letters) at the rate of about six sounds per week. The sounds are taught in isolation then blended together (i.e. synthesised), all-through-the-word. For example, learners might be taught a short vowel sound (e.g. \"a\" as in cat) in addition to some consonant sounds (e.g. \"s, t, p\"). Then the learners are taught words with these sounds (e.g. sat, pat, tap, at). They are taught to pronounce each phoneme in a word, then to blend the phonemes together to form the word (e.g. \"s - a - t; \"sat\"\"). Sounds are taught in all positions of the words, but the emphasis is on all-through-the-word segmenting and blending from week one. It does not teach whole words as shapes (initial sight vocabulary) prior to learning the alphabetic code."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2014 the California Department of Education stated \"Ensuring that children know how to decode regularly spelled one-syllable words by mid-first grade is crucial\". It goes on to say that \"Children need to be phonemically aware (especially able to segment and blend phonemes)\". The skills of segmenting and blending phonemes are a central aspect of synthetic phonics. In grades two and three children receive explicit instruction in advanced phonic-analysis and reading multi-syllabic and more complex words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics involves the teaching of the transparent alphabet (e.g. \"c\" as in \"cat\") before progressing onto the opaque alphabet (e.g. \"ch\" as in \"school\"). In other words, learners are taught steps which are straightforward and 'work' before being taught the complications and variations of pronunciation and spelling of the full alphabetic code. It introduces irregular words and more tricky words (defined as words which cannot be pronounced phonically \u2013 English has a surprisingly large number of these, usually the commonest words of all such as 'to', 'of', etc.) slowly and systematically after a thorough introduction of the transparent alphabet code (learning the 44 letter/s-sound correspondences to automaticity and how to blend for reading and segment for spelling). Phonics application still works at least in part in such words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics\n--Overview.\n--Methodology.\n--Systematic phonics.\n----Analytic phonics.\n----Synthetic phonics.\n--Common terminology.\n--History.\n----Australia.\n----Canada.\n----United Kingdom.\n------Scotland.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics develops phonemic awareness along with the corresponding letter shapes. It involves the learners rehearsing the writing of letter shapes alongside learning the letter/s-sound correspondences preferably with the tripod pencil grip. Dictation is a frequent teaching technique from letter level to word spelling, including nonsense words (e.g. choy and feep) and eventually extending to text level. It does not teach letter names until the learners know their letter/s-sound correspondences thoroughly and how to blend for reading and segment for spelling. Often when letter names are introduced it is through singing an alphabet song."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In Analytic phonics (sometimes referred to as Analytical phonics) practitioners do not teach learners to pronounce sounds \"in isolation\" as is the practice with Synthetic Phonics. Furthermore, consonant blends (separate, adjacent consonants) are taught as units (e.g., in the word 'shrouds' the shr would be taught as a unit). Some analytic phonics programs (referred to as analogy phonics ) teach learners to break-down words into their common components which are referred to as the \"onset\" and the \"rime\". In the word \"ship\", \"sh\" is the \"onset\" and \"ip\" is the \"rime\" (the part starting with the vowel). In other words, analytic phonics teaches the learner to say \"sh\" - \"ip\" (ship) and \"sh\" - \"op\" (shop), whereas synthetic phonics, teaches the learner to say \"sh - i - p\" (ship) and \"sh - o - p\" (shop). In analytic phonics, learners are also taught to find the similarities among words (e.g. man, can, tan, fan, and ran), whereas synthetic phonics devotes most of its time to learning the letter/sound relationships (i.e. grapheme/phoneme)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "A five-year follow-up of the study concluded that the beneficial effects were long-lasting, in fact the reading gains increased."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2015 the New York State Public School system began a process to revise its English Language Arts Learning Standards. The standards were revised in 2017 and call for teaching involving \"reading or literacy experiences\" as well as phonemic awareness from prekindergarten to grade 1 and phonics, word recognition, and word analysis skills in decoding words from grade 1 to grade 4. They will become effective at the beginning of the 2020-2021 school year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "The United States has a long history of debate concerning the various methods used to teach reading, including Phonics. In 1999, The \"National Institute of Child Health and Human Development\" (NICHD) appears to conclude that systematic phonics programs are \"significantly more effective\" than non-phonics programs. It also concludes that they found no significant difference between the different phonics approaches, while suggesting that more evidence may be required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Systematic phonics is not one specific method of teaching phonics; rather, it is a family of phonics instruction that includes methods such as synthetic phonics and analytic phonics. They are \"systematic\" because the letters, and the sounds they relate to, are taught in a specific sequence; as opposed to incidentally or on a 'when-needed' basis. In the United Kingdom, the term \"systematic phonics\" is \"generally understood as synthetic phonics\" according to the reading review which was conducted in 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "On the one hand, the curriculum of all of the Canadian provinces include some of the following: phonics, phonological awareness, segmenting and blending, decoding, phonemic awareness, graphophonic cues, and letter-sound relationships."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In 2009, the UK Department of Education published a curriculum review that added support for systematic phonics. In fact, systematic phonics in the UK is known as Synthetic phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics in Scotland has its roots in the Clackmannanshire Report, a seven-year study that was published in 2005. It compared analytic Phonics with synthetic Phonics and advantaged students with disadvantaged children. The report concluded that \"the synthetic phonics programme led to children from lower socio-economic backgrounds performing at the same level as children from advantaged backgrounds for most of their time in primary school. It also led to boys performing better than or as well as girls.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2021, the province of New Brunswick introduced a new English Language Arts curriculum that includes phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and reading comprehension. Notably, the teaching of alphabetic skills based on the science of reading has replaced the use of various cueing systems and a variety of strategies to construct meaning from text. It is not yet clear whether the teaching practices will lean towards synthetic phonics, or analytic phonics, or a combination of the two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics in Scotland has its roots in the Clackmannanshire Report, a seven-year study that was published in 2005. It compared analytic Phonics with synthetic Phonics and advantaged students with disadvantaged children. The report found that, using synthetic phonics, children from lower socio-economic backgrounds performed at the same level as children from advantaged backgrounds in primary school (whereas with analytic phonics teaching, they did significantly less well.); and boys performed better than or as well as girls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "It is no longer supported by the Primary National Strategy in England as Synthetic phonics is the officially recognized method for teaching reading."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 2016 the London School of Economics published a paper supporting the teaching of synthetic phonics to disadvantaged children because it helps to close the literacy gap."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "On the other hand, some of the practices of whole language are evident, such as: \"use language prediction skills to identify unknown words\"; \"using three cueing systems: meaning, structure, and visual\"; \"reading on, omitting words, rereading and making substitutions\"; \"predict on the basis of what makes sense\"; and \"a wide variety of sight words\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "The teaching of reading and writing has varied over the years from spelling and phonetic methods to the fashions for look-say and whole language methods. In America in the eighteenth century, Noah Webster introduced spelling approaches with syllabaries and in England the use of James Pitman's Initial Teaching Alphabet was popular in the 1960s. Recently phonic methods have been revived."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Systematic phonics does \"not\" include methods such as \"embedded phonics\" and \"phonics mini lessons\" which are found in the \"Whole Language\" approach and the \"Balanced Literacy\" approach."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 2009, the UK Department of Education published a curriculum review that added support for systematic phonics. In fact, systematic phonics in the UK is known as Synthetic phonics. Beginning as early as 2014, several States in the United States have changed their curriculum to include systematic phonics instruction in elementary school. In 2018, the State Government of Victoria, Australia, published a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Education Scotland found that explicit, systematic phonics programs, usually embedded in a rich literacy environment, give an additional four months progress over other programs such as whole language, and are particularly beneficial for young learners (aged 4\u20137). There is evidence, though less secure, that synthetic phonics programs may be more beneficial than analytic phonics programs; however it is more important to systematically teach to the children's needs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2018 The Association for Psychological Science published an article entitled \"Ending the Reading Wars: Reading Acquisition From Novice to Expert\". The purpose of the article is to fill the gap between the current research knowledge and the public understanding about how we learn to read, and to explain \"why phonics instruction is so central to learning in a writing system such as English\". It points out that if reading instruction relied only on the association between the printed word and meaning (as in Whole Language) it would require the memorization of thousands of individual words. Thus, \"systematic phonics instruction should be viewed as a natural and logical consequence of the manner in which alphabetic writing systems represent spoken language\". There is, however, still a debate as to which systematic phonics method is most effective, synthetic or analytic. The article also explains that despite the weight of evidence supporting systematic phonics, it has only been fully implemented in England. The United States does have Common Core State Standards Initiative that include recommendations for Print Concepts, Phonological Awareness, Phonics, and Fluency; however not all states have adopted these standards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The following are examples of how phonics is used in some countries:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In the 1980s the three-cueing system (the searchlights model in England) emerged. According to a 2010 survey 75% of teachers in the United States teach the three-cueing system. It teaches children to guess a word by using \"meaning cues\" (semantic, syntactic and graphophonic). While the system does help students to \"make better guesses\", it does not help when the words become more sophisticated; and it reduces the amount of practice time available to learn essential decoding skills. Consequently, present-day researchers such as cognitive neuroscientists Mark Seidenberg and professor Timothy Shanahan do not support the theory. In England, synthetic phonics is intended to replace \"the searchlights multi-cueing model\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Whole language",
        "text": "In 2006, the U.K. Department for Education and Skills undertook a review of early reading that came out in favor of Synthetic phonics. Subsequently, in March 2011, the U.K. Department of Education released a white paper entitled \"The Importance of Teaching\", which supported systematic synthetic phonics as the best method for teaching reading."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "\"Analytic phonics\" does not involve pronouncing individual sounds (phonemes) in isolation and blending the sounds, as is done in synthetic phonics. Rather, it is taught at the word level and students learn to analyze letter-sound relationships once the word is identified. For example, students analyze letter-sound correspondences such as the \"ou\" spelling of in shrouds. Also, students might be asked to practice saying words with similar sounds such as ball, bat and bite. Furthermore, students are taught consonant blends (separate, adjacent consonants) as units, such as break or shrouds\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In the US, a pilot program using the Core Knowledge Early Literacy program that used this type of phonics approach showed significantly higher results in K-3 reading compared with comparison schools. In addition, several States such as California, Ohio, New York and Arkansas, are promoting the principles of synthetic phonics (see synthetic phonics in the United States)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In December 2005 the Department of Education, Science and Training of the Australian Government published a report entitled a National Inquiry into the Teaching of Reading. The report recommends direct and systematic instruction in phonics as the foundation of early reading instruction. It is not clear if all of the findings of the report are reflected in the Australian Curriculum. The report was critiqued by Phillip Cormack, University of South Australia, who states that the key to success in a reading lesson is the relationship between the teacher, the child and the material to be read."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diane McGuinness",
        "text": "McGuinness is an outspoken critic of whole language instruction but also of phonics as traditionally taught in the United States. She favors an approach to early reading instruction known as synthetic phonics or linguistic phonics, in which the starting point for instruction is the 40-odd phonemes of English. In synthetic phonics instruction, each sound is introduced initially with a single \"basic code\" spelling, e.g. the /ee/ sound is connected to the 'ee' spelling. Students are taught to read by blending all of the sounds in the word. Spelling alternatives for sounds (e.g. for /ee/ the spellings 'y' as in \"funny\", 'ea' as in \"eat\", 'e' as in \"reflex\", 'ie' as in \"cookie\", etc.) are taught later. McGuinness has also introduced the term \"code overlap\" to describe a spelling (or grapheme) that can stand for more than one sound (phoneme), e.g. the spelling 'ow' can stand for the /ou/ sound as in the word \"now\", or for the /oe/ sound as in the word \"snow\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Analytic phonics is different from Synthetic phonics (that starts at the individual sound/ phoneme level and builds up to the whole word), and Whole language (that starts at the word level and does not encourage the use of phonics). It may, however, be used as a part of the Balanced literacy approach."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sight word",
        "text": "Proponents of systematic phonics and synthetic phonics argue that children must first learn to associate the sounds of their language with the letter(s) that are used to represent them, and then to blends those sounds into words, and that children should never memorize words as visual designs. Using sight words as a method of teaching reading in English is seen as being at odds with the alphabetic principle and treating English as though it was a logographic language (e.g. Chinese or Japanese)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "\"Analogy phonics\" is a particular type of \"analytic phonics\" in which the teacher has students analyze phonic elements according to the speech sounds (phonograms) in the word. For example, a type of phonogram (known in linguistics as a rime) is composed of the vowel and the consonant sounds that follow it (e.g. in the words \"cat, mat and sat,\" the rime is \"at\".) Teachers using the analogy method may have students memorize a bank of phonograms, such as \"-at\" or \"-am\", or use \"word families\" (e.g. can, ran, man, or may, play, say)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "A review of the teaching of early reading was undertaken by Sir Jim Rose at the request of the Department for Education. While the report often uses the term \"\"Systematic\" Phonic work\", it appears to support \"\"Synthetic\" Phonics\" as evidenced in the Rose Review in 2006. In fact, the Department of Education, England uses the term \"systematic synthetic phonics\". The following is a summary of the report's observations and recommendations concerning phonics:\n#The skills of speaking, listening, reading and writing are used by (and are supported by) what it refers to as \"high quality, systematic phonics\".\n#Young children should receive sufficient pre-reading instruction so they are able to start systematic phonics work \"by the age of five\".\n#High quality phonics work should be taught as \"the prime approach\" to teaching reading, writing, and spelling.\n#Phonics instruction should form a part of \"a broad and rich language curriculum\". Note: critics of this report point out that the report does not explain what they mean by this, nor does it offer any details on how to achieve this within the framework of synthetic phonics' instruction.\n* In a report dated April 2007, professors Dominic Wyse and Morag Styles conclude that the evidence \"supports\" systematic phonics; however, the Rose Report's assertion that synthetic phonics should be the \"preferred method\" is \"not supported by research evidence\". This criticism is based on the way the research was conducted and how the results were interpreted.\n* In October 2011, The \"National Campaign for Real Nursery Education\" web site (U.K.) comments on the U.K. government's intent to impose a specific type of phonics teaching (i.e. systematic, synthetic phonics) in the nursery and reception years, and suggests that this decision was not supported by the \"research evidence\".\n* Following the adoption of the phonics approach in its schools, the Department of Education, England provided a great deal of online support for teachers wishing to learn more about effective phonics teaching strategies. In 2010, the U.K. Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED) released a report entitled Reading by Six - How the best schools do it. It reported that twelve successful schools employed common methods of teaching reading using systematic phonics with features such as; having a clearly defined and incremental approach to the correspondence between the letters and the sounds; applying the blending of the sounds all through the word; and segmenting the phonemes (sounds) to spell the words.\n* In March 2011 the Department of Education, England released its White paper entitled \"The Importance of Teaching\". In the Executive Summary, item 12 of the curriculum section states their commitment to support \"systematic synthetic phonics, as the best method for teaching reading.\"\n*As of 2013, all (local-authority-maintained) primary schools in England have a statutory requirement to teach synthetic phonics in years one and two. In addition, any pupil who is struggling to decode words properly by year three must \"urgently\" receive help through a \"rigorous and systematic phonics programme\".\n* In 2014 the U.K. Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED) updated their guidance for school inspectors to include practical tips on how schools should teach reading with systematic phonics, including \"Getting them Reading Early\". It describes \"The simple view of reading\" as the word recognition processes (recognizing the words on the page, free of context and using phonics) and the language recognition processes (understanding the meaning of the language). It also includes some videos to illustrate its principles.\n* The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS 2016) report was released in December 2017. It reports on the reading abilities of students aged 9 and 10 in 50 countries, and shows that England has risen to Joint 8th place in 2016; its best since 2001. This confirms \"that our approach is working\", according to Minister Nick Gibb. PIRLS 2016 has a summary of England's Language/Reading Curriculum in the Fourth Grade that shows the increased emphasis on \"phonic knowledge and skills as the route to decode words until automatic decoding has become embedded and reading is fluent\".\n* In 2016 the London School of Economics published a paper that supports the teaching of synthetic phonics to disadvantaged children because it helps to close the literacy gap.\n* Some critics continue to raise concerns about how Systematic Synthetic Phonics is being taught and assessed, and whether it puts too much emphasis on decoding at the expense of other factors such as vocabulary and \"learning to read\".\n* In 2018, The Office for Standards in Education, Children\u2019s Services and Skills (Ofsted), as part of its curriculum research has produced a YouTube video on Early Reading. It states \"It is absolutely essential that every child master the phonic code as quickly as possible ... So, successful schools firstly teach phonics first, fast and furious.\" As of September, 2019, the Ofsted inspections will focus more on what is taught and how it is taught, and less on the test data.\n* While there has been concern expressed about the phonics screening test at the end of year one, some report that phonics is especially valuable for poor readers and those without English as a first language. In January, 2019 Ofsted published a report entitled \"Education inspection framework: overview of research\" that further supports \"systematic synthetic phonics\" together with phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension.\n* In January 2022, a report was published by researchers at University College London which said that the current emphasis in English schools on synthetics phonics is not underpinned by the latest evidence, and suggested that teaching reading in England may have been less successful since the adoption of the synthetic phonics approach, rather than more. The researchers were among 250 signatories to a letter to the education secretary calling on the government to allow for a wider range of approaches to teaching reading."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In January, 2019 Ofsted published a report entitled \"Education inspection framework: overview of research\" that further supports \"systematic synthetic phonics\" together with phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "There are two primary approaches to teaching phonics: analytic phonics and synthetic phonics. Both approaches require the learner to have some phonological awareness (the ability to hear and discriminate sounds in spoken words). Both approaches can also contribute to furthering the student's phonological development. Phonological awareness is an essential skill for reading, writing, listening and talking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Other findings of this report are:\n* Guided Oral Reading (reading out loud and receiving systematic and explicit feedback from a teacher) \"had a significant and positive impact on word recognition, fluency, and comprehension\".\n* The value of Independent Silent Reading is unclear; however it is clear that it should not be the only type of reading instruction to develop fluency and other reading skills.\n* Vocabulary, both oral and print, should be taught directly and indirectly because it leads to gains in comprehension.\n* Teaching a combination of reading comprehension techniques is the most effective, however more research is needed to determine which techniques are the most effective."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In the United Kingdom a 2010 government white paper contained plans to train all primary school teachers in phonics. The 2013 curriculum has \"statutory requirements\" that, amongst other things, students in years one and two be capable in using systematic synthetic phonics in regards to word reading, reading comprehension, fluency, and writing. This includes having skills in \"sound to graphemes\", \"decoding\", and \"blending\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2019 the International Literacy Association released a report entitled Meeting the Challenges of Early Literacy Phonics Instruction The report clearly supports the use of phonics instruction that is explicit and systematic, stating that \"phonics instruction is helpful for all students, harmful for none, and crucial for some\". It also offers an opinion on the ten most common causes of Phonics Instructional Failure, namely: inadequate time devoted to mastering a new phonics skill such as blending (4\u20136 weeks recommended); lack of application to real reading instruction; inappropriate reading material to practice the skills; too much teacher instruction, and too little reading by the student; lost time during instructional transitions; the teacher's attitude and knowledge of phonics instructional material; lessons that are not fast-paced and rigorous; lack of assessments over an extended period of time; waiting too long to transition to multi-syllable words; and over emphasis of phonics drills at the expense of other aspects such as vocabulary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "The Rose Report, from the Department for Education in England makes it clear that, in their view, systematic phonics, specifically synthetic phonics, is the best way to ensure that children learn to read; such that it is now the law. In 2005 the government of Australia published a report stating \"The evidence is clear ... that direct systematic instruction in phonics during the early years of schooling is an essential foundation for teaching children to read\". Phonics has been gaining acceptance in many other countries as can be seen from this page Practices by country or region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Yet, systematic phonics and synthetic phonics received attention in the following publications:\n* In 2005 the Ministry of Education for the government of Ontario published a report entitled \"Early Reading Strategy: The Report of the Expert Panel on Early Reading in Ontario and Early Math Strategy\". The report states \"This Expert Panel supports the position of the National Reading Panel (2000) that phonics instruction should be integrated into a comprehensive and balanced reading program. Instruction in phonics and decoding should not be conceived of as a total reading program, but neither should it be neglected.\" Pg 104\n* The Canadian Language and Literacy Research Network published a report entitled Foundations for Literacy: An evidence-based Toolkit for the Effective Reading and Writing Teacher. It is a practical toolkit helping teachers to a) understand research in order to keep informed, b) understand how children develop reading and writing skills, and c) understand how to use effective instruction techniques. It also includes explanations of phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, the alphabetic principle (including systematic phonics and synthetic phonics instruction).\n* In 2009, the Ministry of Education for the province of British Columbia posted a discussion paper on their Read Now website entitled \"Reading: Breaking Through the Barriers.\" The paper states that explicit and synthetic phonics needs to be taught directly in the classroom because it works \"for all students but are particularly helpful for students at risk for reading difficulty\". (Pg. 8) There appears to be no evidence, however, that systematic phonics (or synthetic phonics) is a part of the teaching pedagogy.\n* In 2010, The Literacy and Numeracy Secretariat of Ontario, Canada published a report entitled Capacity Building Series: Reading Fluency that offers practical strategies to teach reading comprehension. This includes Automaticity (the ability to automatically decode words), Phrasing (reading phrases not only words), and Expression (moving from a monotone delivery to a natural rise and fall in pitch, tone and rhythm). In the section about decoding it discusses the importance of Phonological Awareness (hearing words in sentences and individual sounds in words), Alphabetic Letter Knowledge (identifying, naming and writing letters), and the Alphabetic Principle (understanding that letters represent the sounds of spoke language). In the latter, in addition to other suggestions, it is emphasized that teaching should include instruction in segmenting and blending alongside the explicit teaching of letter sounds.\n* Dr. Robert Savage, formerly of McGill University and now at UCL Institute of Education, University College London, concludes that, with respect to remedial programs, we should not wait for children to fail before using phonics programs. He also recommends the teaching of such skills as segmenting and blending alongside the \"explicit teaching\" of letter sounds. He also says there is a need for more Randomized controlled trials in order to produce more definitive conclusions. In another report about effective early reading instruction and inclusion, Dr. Savage states that \"a heavy and early structured approach to early reading intervention focused on mastering the use of the alphabetic principle to decode as a self-teaching mechanism is enough to allow many children to take off into reading without further focused support beyond good regular classroom teaching\".\n* In 2011, Dr. Janette Pelletier, OISE, University of Toronto published a paper entitled Supporting Early Language and Literacy that outlines several key findings from early literacy research, including the importance of teaching phonological awareness and the \"knowledge of letter names and letter-sound correspondences\" also known as decoding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 1959, a journal report adds more details about how phonics is used. It says other"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "\"Analytic phonics\" does not involve pronouncing individual sounds (phonemes) in isolation and blending the sounds, as is done in synthetic phonics. Rather, it is taught at the word level and students learn to analyze letter-sound relationships once the word is identified. For example, students analyze letter-sound correspondences such as the \"ou\" spelling of in shr\"ou\"ds. Also, students might be asked to practice saying words with similar sounds such as \"b\"all, \"b\"at and \"b\"ite. Furthermore, students are taught consonant blends (separate, adjacent consonants) as units, such as \"br\"eak or \"shr\"ouds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Some common terminology used within this article includes:\n*\"alphabetic code\" (in synthetic phonics): The relationship between sounds (phonemes) and the letter/s (graphemes) that represent them are referred to as a \"code\". For example, the sound \"ay\" can be represented in many ways \"(e.g. cake, may, they, eight, aid, break, etc.)\". See also: Alphabetic principle\n*\"decoding skills\" (in phonics): Without the use of context, to pronounce and \"read\" words accurately by using the relationship between the letter(s) and the sounds they represent. (i.e. \"cat\" is \"k - a - t\", \"plough\" is \"p - l - ow\", and \"school\" is \"s - k - oo - l\". \"Encoding skills\" (i.e. \"spelling\") is the same process in reverse.\n*Direct instruction (also known as \"Explicit Instruction\" ): A teaching style that is characterized by \"carefully designed instruction\" that usually includes a fast pace, small steps, demonstrations, active participation, coaching, immediate correction, and positive feedback. (Pg. 85)\n*intensive instruction: teaching or tutoring that include some of the following: more time; peer-assisted strategies; and instruction in small groups or one-on-one. (Pg. 209)\n*peer-assisted literacy strategies: learners work in pairs (taking turns as teacher and learner) to learn a \"structured sequence\" of literacy skills, such as phonemic awareness, phonics, sound blending, passage reading, and story retelling. (Pg. 33)\n*supportive instruction: teaching or tutoring that supports the student both emotionally and cognitively. This includes encouragement, immediate feedback, positive reinforcement, and instructional scaffolding (i.e. clear structure, small steps, guiding with questions). (Pg. 209)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "The NICHD has come out in support of phonics instruction. The institute conducts and supports research on all stages of human development. The institute conducted a meta-analysis and, in 2000 it published a report entitled \"Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching Children to Read\". Some \"findings and determinations\" of this report are:\n*Teaching phonemic awareness (PA) to children was \"highly effective\" with a variety of children under a variety of conditions. (Note: Phonemic Awareness is the ability to manipulate sounds (phonemes) in spoken syllables and words. Phonemes are the smallest units of sounds comprising spoken language. For example, the words \"go\" and \"she\" each consist of two sounds or phonemes, \"g-o\" (IPA ) and \"sh-e\" (IPA ), respectively.\n*Reading instruction that taught PA improved the children's reading ability significantly more than those that lacked this instruction.\n*PA helped normally achieving children to spell but was not effective in helping disabled readers to spell better.\n*\"Systematic synthetic phonics\" instruction had a positive and significant effect on helping disabled readers, low achieving students, and students with low socioeconomic status to read words more effectively than instruction methods that lacked this approach.\n*Systematic Phonics instruction improved the ability of good readers to spell. Poor readers experienced a small improvement in spelling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Some of the findings of the report are:\n* Among the successful schools visited, there were a number of key similarities. Three of those similarities are:\n:# a belief that each child can learn to read and write regardless of background;\n:# an early, systematic, and \"explicit\" (i.e. specific and clear) teaching of phonics;\n:#the phonics instruction was followed by \"direct teaching\".\n* Students learn best from an approach that includes phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary knowledge and comprehension. (Executive Summary)\n* A whole-language approach, \"on its own, is not in the best interests of children, particularly those experiencing reading difficulties\". (Pg. 12)\n* Where there is unsystematic or no phonics instruction, children do not perform as well in such areas as reading accuracy, fluency, writing, spelling and comprehension. (Pg. 12)\n* A recommendation that teachers provide \"systematic, direct and explicit phonics instruction\".(Pg. 14)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "\"Analogy phonics\" is a particular type of \"analytic phonics\" in which the teacher has students analyze phonic elements according to the speech sounds (phonograms) in the word. For example, a type of phonogram (known in linguistics as a rime) is composed of the vowel and the consonant sounds that follow it (e.g. in the words \"cat, mat and sat,\" the rime is \"at\".) Teachers using the analogy method may have students memorize a bank of phonograms, such as \"-at\" or \"-am\", or use \"word families\" (e.g. c\"an\", r\"an\", m\"an\", or m\"ay\", pl\"ay\", s\"ay\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Analytic phonics (sometimes referred to as Analytical phonics or Implicit phonics ) refers to a very common approach to the teaching of reading that starts at the word level, not at the sound (phoneme) level. It does not teach the blending of sounds together as is done in Synthetic phonics. One method is to have students identify a common sound in a set of words that each contain that same sound. For example, the teacher and student discuss how the following words are alike: \"pat\", \"park\", \"push\" and \"pen\". Analytic phonics is often taught together with levelled-reading books, look-say practice, and the use of aids such as phonics worksheets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The term \"phonics\" during the 19th century and into the 1970s was used as a synonym of phonetics. The use of the term in reference to the method of teaching is dated to 1901 by the Oxford English Dictionary. The relationship between sounds and letters is the backbone of traditional phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "\"Analog phonics\" is a subset of analytic phonics that uses the \"onset-rhyme\" of many words. In the word \"snap\", \"sn\" is the \"onset\" and \"ap\" is the \"rime\" (the part starting with the vowel). So, \"snap\" rhymes with \"map\", \"sap\", \"clap\", and so on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2015 the Ohio Legislature set minimum standards requiring the use of phonics as a technique in teaching reading. It includes guidelines for teaching phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension. The Ohio Department of Education has created a guidance manual for the year 2018-2019 that outlines the requirements for Researched-Based Reading Instruction. By 2019 the new curricula appears to be paying off. Edweek.org reported that one elementary school in Ohio found that \"3rd grade test scores went from the worst in the district\u201444 percent proficient in 2016\u2014to the best, 71 percent in 2019.\" They also say \"Third grade reading proficiency districtwide moved from 53 percent in 2016 to 64 percent in 2019\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "because the understanding of the sound-letters connection is implied and not necessarily taught directly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Systematic phonics is sometimes mischaracterized as \"skill and drill\" with little attention to meaning. However, researchers point out that this impression is false. Teachers can use engaging games or materials to teach letter-sound connections, and it can also be incorporated with the reading of meaningful text."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Reading Panel",
        "text": "The NRP reviewed 38 studies on the teaching of phonics and found that teaching children the relationship between letters and spelling patterns and pronunciation and how to decode words improved reading achievement. Young children who received such instruction did better with decoding words, nonsense words, spelling, fluency, and reading comprehension. Older disabled readers also benefited from such instruction in terms of improvement in decoding, but without commensurate gains in spelling or reading comprehension. Systematic phonics instruction \u2014 that is instruction based on a planned curriculum \u2014 was found to be superior to more opportunistic versions in which teachers tried to teach what they thought students needed. There were no statistical differences between synthetic phonics programs in which each letter sound is taught versus analytic phonics that analyzes the sounds within complete words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The 2016 international PISA study states that the method widely used now to teach reading in the Russian Federation was developed by the famous psychologist Daniil Elkonin in the 1960s. It says, \"students learn to define the sequence of sounds in a word and characterize each sound ... acquiring the knowledge of the phonetic system at an early stage\" and \"become better familiarized with the skills of reading\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Phonics can be taught systematically in a variety of ways, such as: synthetic phonics, analytic phonics and analogy phonics. However, their effectiveness vary considerably because the methods differ in such areas as the range of letter-sound coverage, the structure of the lesson plans, and the time devoted to specific instructions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "What Works Clearinghouse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Phonics\n--Overview.\n----History.\n----Phonemic awareness.\n----The alphabetic principle (also: The alphabetic code).\n--Alternative spellings of the sounds.\n--Vowel and consonant phonics patterns.\n----Consonant phonics patterns.\n--Teaching reading with phonics.\n----Combining phonics with other literacy instruction.\n----Effectiveness of programs.\n----Sight words and sight vocabulary.\n----Systematic phonics.\n----Synthetic phonics.\n----Analytic phonics.\n----Analogy phonics.\n----Embedded phonics with mini-lessons.\n----Phonics through spelling.\n--Resources for phonics instruction.\n--The Reading Wars \u2013 Phonics vs. Whole language.\n----Simple view of reading.\n--Practices by country or region.\n----Australia.\n----Canada.\n----England.\n----Finland.\n----France.\n----Hungary.\n----Ireland.\n----Latin America and the Caribbean.\n----New Zealand.\n----Northern Ireland.\n----Norway.\n----Poland.\n----Portugal.\n----Russian Federation.\n----Scotland.\n----Singapore.\n----Sweden.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Subsequently, Education Scotland concluded that explicit, systematic phonics programs, usually embedded in a rich literacy environment, give an additional four months progress over other programs such as whole language, and are particularly beneficial for young learners (aged 4\u20137). There is evidence, though less secure, that synthetic phonics programs may be more beneficial than analytic phonics programs; however it is most important to teach systematically."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic media",
        "text": "Speech synthesis has been identified as a popular branch of synthetic media and is defined as the artificial production of human speech. A computer system used for this purpose is called a speech computer or speech synthesizer, and can be implemented in software or hardware products. A text-to-speech (TTS) system converts normal language text into speech; other systems render symbolic linguistic representations like phonetic transcriptions into speech."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics involves a heavy emphasis on hearing the sounds all-through-the-word for spelling and not an emphasis on \"look, cover, write, check\". This latter, visual form of spelling plays a larger part with unusual spellings and spelling variations although a phonemic procedure is always emphasised in spelling generally. Teachers read a full range of literature with the learners and ensure that all learners have a full range of experience of activities associated with literacy such as role play, drama, poetry, but the learners are \"not\" expected to 'read' text which is beyond them, and the method does \"not\" involve guessing at words from context, picture and initial letter clues.\n*learning letter sounds (as distinct from the letter names);\n:For example, mmm not em, sss not ess, fff not ef. The letter names can be taught later but should not be taught in the early stages.\n*learning the 40+ sounds and their corresponding letters/letter groups;\n:The English Alphabet Code 'Key': 40+ phonemes with their common 'sound pattern' representations. (This is based on the British pronunciation. The number and mixture of the 40+ phonemes will vary for other English speaking countries such as Australia, Canada and the United States).\n::Vowels:\n::*\"a\" - mat\n::*\"a-e\" - ape, baby, rain, tray, they, eight\n::*\"air\" - square, bear\n::*\"ar\" - jar, far\n::*\"e\" - peg, bread\n::*\"ee\" - sweet, me, beach, key, pony\n::*\"eer\" - deer, hear\n::*\"er\" - computer, doctor\n::*\"i\" - pig, wanted\n::*\"i-e\" - kite, wild, light, pie\n::*\"o\" - orange, quality\n::*\"oa\" - oak, rope, bow, piano\n::*\"oi\" - coin, boy\n::*\"oo\" - (short) book, would, put\n::*\"oo\" - (long) moon, crew, blue, fruit, few\n::*\"ow\" - down, house\n::*\"or\" - fork, ball, sauce, law,\n::*\"u\" - plug, glove\n::*\"ur\" - burn, teacher, work, first\n::*\"u-e\" - tune, unicorn, hue\n::*\"uh\" - button, hidden\n::Consonants:\n::*\"b\" - boy, rabbit\n::*\"c / k\" - cat, key, duck, school, quit\n::*\"ch\" - chip, watch, statue\n::*\"d\" - dog, ladder\n::*\"f\" - fish, coffee, photo, tough\n::*\"g\" - gate, egg, ghost\n::*\"h\" - hat, whole\n::*\"j\" - jet, giant, cage, bridge\n::*\"k-s\" - box\n::*\"l\" - lip, bell, sample\n::*\"m\" - man, hammer, comb\n::*\"n\" - nut, dinner, knee, gnat\n::*\"ng\" - ring, singer\n::*\"p\" - pan, happy\n::*\"r\" - rat, cherry, write\n::*\"s / c\" - sun, dress, house, city, mice\n::*\"sh\" - ship, mission, station, chef\n::*\"t\" - tap, letter, debt\n::*\"th\" - thrush\n::*\"th\" - that\n::*\"v\" - vet, sleeve\n::*\"w\" - wet, wheel, queen\n::*\"y\" - yes, new\n::*\"z\" - zip, fizz, sneeze, is, cheese\n::*\"g-z\" - exist\n::*\"zh\" - treasure\n*learning to read words using sound \"blending\" in which each individual sound is joined together to form a word (e.g. \"c\" - \"a\" - \"t\"= cat).;\n*reading stories featuring the words the students have learned to sound out;\n*demonstration exercises to show they comprehend the stories;"
      },
      {
        "title": "Nick Gibb",
        "text": "Gibb is a longstanding advocate of synthetic phonics as a method of teaching children to read, and is also a supporter of the motor neurone disease cause, currently being vice-chair of the All Party Motor Neurone Disease Group in parliament."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "b) learning the sounds of groups of letters (in words) such as rimes (e.g. hat, mat and sat have the same rime, \"at\"), or consonant blends (also consonant clusters in linguistics) (e.g. bl as in black and st as in last), or syllables (e.g. pen-cil and al-pha-bet), or"
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2016 the What Works Clearinghouse and the Institute of Education Sciences, an independent and non-partisan arm of the U.S. Department of Education, published an Educator's Practice Guide (with evidence) on Foundational Skills to Support Reading for Understanding in Kindergarten Through 3rd Grade. It contains four recommendations to support reading: 1) Teach students academic language skills, including the use of inferential and narrative language, and vocabulary knowledge, 2) Develop awareness of the segments of sounds in speech and how they link to letters (phonemic awareness and phonics), 3) Teach students to decode words, analyze word parts, and write and recognize words (phonics and synthetic phonics), and 4) Ensure that each student reads connected text every day to support reading accuracy, fluency, and comprehension. Some universities have created additional material based on this guide"
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Analytic phonics\n--Practice and approach.\n--Shortcomings of this approach.\n--Controversy: analytic vs. synthetic approaches.\n--Additional information.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phono-graphix",
        "text": "Phono-graphix, a phonetics program, is a method for teaching and re-mediating reading and spelling developed in 1993 by the Read America clinic in Florida. It takes the sounds of the English language and teaches the various \"sound-pictures\" (letters and combinations of letters) that represent those sounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "Systematic phonics is sometimes mischaracterized as \"skill and drill\" with little attention to meaning. However, researchers point out that this impression is false. Teachers can use engaging games or materials to teach letter-sound connections, and it can also be incorporated with the reading of meaningful text."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 2007 the Department of Education (DE) in Northern Ireland was required by law to teach children foundational skills in phonological awareness and the understanding \u201cthat words are made up of sounds and syllables and that sounds are represented by letters (phoneme/grapheme awareness)\u201d."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "As of October 5, 2018, The State Government of Victoria, Australia, publishes a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons. It contains elements of synthetic phonics, analytical phonics, and analogy phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In Scotland a seven-year study (the Clackmannanshire Report) was published in 2005. It compared analytic phonics with synthetic phonics and advantaged students with disadvantaged students. The report found that, using synthetic phonics children from lower socio-economic backgrounds performed at the same level as children from advantaged backgrounds in primary school (whereas with analytic phonics teaching, they did significantly less well.); and boys performed better than or as well as girls. A five-year follow-up of the study concluded that the beneficial effects were long-lasting, in fact the reading gains increased. Subsequently, Education Scotland concluded that explicit, systematic phonics programs, usually embedded in a rich literacy environment, give an additional four months progress over other programs such as whole language, and are particularly beneficial for young learners (aged 4\u20137). There is evidence, though less secure, that synthetic phonics programs may be more beneficial than analytic phonics programs; however it is most important to teach systematically."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "Phonics approaches include analogy phonics, analytic phonics, embedded phonics with mini-lessons, phonics through spelling, and synthetic phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "Phonics can be taught systematically in a variety of ways, such as: analogy phonics, analytic phonics, phonics through spelling, and synthetic phonics. However, their effectiveness vary considerably because the methods differ in such areas as the range of letter-sound coverage, the structure of the lesson plans, and the time devoted to specific instructions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The syllabus for 2010 advocates for a balance between \"systematic and explicit instruction\" and \"a rich language environment\". It called for increased instruction in oral language skills together with phonemic awareness and the key decoding elements of synthetic phonics, analytic phonics and analogy phonics. Specifically, it advocated for instruction in phonic's areas such as word families and rimes (e.g. jumps and jumped; bite and kite), segmenting and blending (e.g. , , = cat), vowels, consonants and syllables. And finally, it called for instruction in word study, grammar, vocabulary, writing and comprehension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The National Reading Panel in the United States concluded that systematic phonics instruction is more effective than unsystematic phonics or non-phonics instruction. Some critics suggest that systematic phonics is \"skill and drill\" with little attention to meaning. However, researchers point out that this impression is false. Teachers can use engaging games or materials to teach letter-sound connections, and it can also be incorporated with the reading of meaningful text."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Prior to that, synthetic phonics was promoted by a cross-party group of Parliamentarians, particularly Nick Gibb MP. A report by the House of Commons Education and Skills Committee called for a review of the phonics content in the National Curriculum. Subsequently, the Department for Education and Skills announced a review into early years reading, headed by Sir Jim Rose, former Director of Inspection for Ofsted (responsible for the education standards in the UK). The review, entitled Independent review of the teaching of early reading (Rose Report 2006), addresses the question of why children's reading and writing (especially for boys) have not been meeting expectations. Paragraph 3.25 of the Final Report states \"This suggests that it is far more often the nature of the teaching than the nature of the child which determines success or failure in learning the 'basic' skills of reading and writing.\u201d It goes on to say it is not suggesting teachers are unable or unwilling to develop the required expertise, only that there has been systematic confusion and conflicting views about phonics. It also makes it clear that, when it comes to the wider knowledge and skills required for reading and writing, phonics work is \"necessary but not sufficient\". It concludes by suggesting the challenge will be resolved as research continues to support systematic phonics, and that teacher training and systematic phonics programs will produce \"good results for children\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic media",
        "text": "Synthesized speech can be created by concatenating pieces of recorded speech that are stored in a database. Systems differ in the size of the stored speech units; a system that stores phones or diphones provides the largest output range, but may lack clarity. For specific usage domains, the storage of entire words or sentences allows for high-quality output. Alternatively, a synthesizer can incorporate a model of the vocal tract and other human voice characteristics to create a completely \"synthetic\" voice output."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "c) having students read books, play games and perform activities that contain the sounds they are learning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic media",
        "text": "A combination of speech synthesis and deepfakes has been used to automatically redub an actor's speech into multiple languages without the need for reshoots or language classes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Additive synthesis",
        "text": "In linguistics research, harmonic additive synthesis was used in 1950s to play back modified and synthetic speech spectrograms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "On January 27, 2022, the Ontario Human Rights Commission (OHRC) released a report on its public inquiry into the right to read. The OHRC's report deals with all students, not just those with learning disabilities. The inquiry found that Ontario is not fulfilling its obligations to meet students\u2019 right to read. The Minister of Education for Ontario responded to this report by saying the government is taking immediate action to improve student literacy and making longer-term reforms to modernize the way reading is taught and assessed in schools, with a focus on phonics. Their plan includes \"revising the elementary Language curriculum and the Grade 9 English course with scientific, evidence-based approaches that emphasize direct, explicit and systematic instruction and removing references to unscientific discovery and inquiry-based learning, including the three-cueing system, by 2023.\" It remains to be seen whether Ontario's curriculum will lean towards synthetic phonics, analytic phonics, or a combination of both."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic language",
        "text": "In order to demonstrate the nature of the analytic\u2013synthetic\u2013polysynthetic classification as a \"continuum\", some examples are shown below.\n* Mandarin lacks inflectional morphology almost entirely, and most words consist of either one- or two-syllable morphemes, especially due to the very numerous compound words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "The 2005 Rose Report from the UK concluded that systematic synthetic phonics was the most effective method for teaching reading. It also suggests the \"best teaching\" included a brisk pace, engaging children's interest with multi-sensory activities and stimulating resources, praise for effort and achievement; and above all, the full backing of the headteacher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Typically, the instruction starts with sounds that have only one letter and simple CVC words such as \"sat\" and \"pin\". Then it progresses to longer words, and sounds with more than one letter (e.g. hear and day), and perhaps even syllables (e.g. wa-ter). Sometimes the student practices saying (or sounding-out) cards that contain entire words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic chord",
        "text": "Synthetic chord\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where in the world are synthetic phonics used?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Curriculum in Canada includes synthetic phonics instruction, the Department of Education in England supports systematic synthetic phonics as the best method for teaching reading. Scotland and the United States also both support synthetic phonics instruction.",
      "Synthetic phonic is a method of teaching English reading, so is used in countries such as Australia, Canada, and the U.K."
    ],
    "topic": "Synthetic phonics",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Synthetic phonics:21",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Synthetic phonics",
          "History",
          "Canada"
        ],
        "ctx": "On the one hand, the curriculum of all of the Canadian provinces include some of the following: phonics, phonological awareness, segmenting and blending, decoding, phonemic awareness, graphophonic cues, and letter-sound relationships."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Synthetic phonics:26",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Synthetic phonics",
          "History",
          "United Kingdom"
        ],
        "ctx": "A review of the teaching of early reading was undertaken by Sir Jim Rose at the request of the Department for Education. While the report often uses the term \"\"Systematic\" Phonic work\", it appears to support \"\"Synthetic\" Phonics\" as evidenced in the Rose Review in 2006. In fact, the Department of Education, England uses the term \"systematic synthetic phonics\". The following is a summary of the report's observations and recommendations concerning phonics:\n#The skills of speaking, listening, reading and writing are used by (and are supported by) what it refers to as \"high quality, systematic phonics\".\n#Young children should receive sufficient pre-reading instruction so they are able to start systematic phonics work \"by the age of five\".\n#High quality phonics work should be taught as \"the prime approach\" to teaching reading, writing, and spelling.\n#Phonics instruction should form a part of \"a broad and rich language curriculum\". Note: critics of this report point out that the report does not explain what they mean by this, nor does it offer any details on how to achieve this within the framework of synthetic phonics' instruction.\n* In a report dated April 2007, professors Dominic Wyse and Morag Styles conclude that the evidence \"supports\" systematic phonics; however, the Rose Report's assertion that synthetic phonics should be the \"preferred method\" is \"not supported by research evidence\". This criticism is based on the way the research was conducted and how the results were interpreted.\n* In October 2011, The \"National Campaign for Real Nursery Education\" web site (U.K.) comments on the U.K. government's intent to impose a specific type of phonics teaching (i.e. systematic, synthetic phonics) in the nursery and reception years, and suggests that this decision was not supported by the \"research evidence\".\n* Following the adoption of the phonics approach in its schools, the Department of Education, England provided a great deal of online support for teachers wishing to learn more about effective phonics teaching strategies. In 2010, the U.K. Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED) released a report entitled Reading by Six - How the best schools do it. It reported that twelve successful schools employed common methods of teaching reading using systematic phonics with features such as; having a clearly defined and incremental approach to the correspondence between the letters and the sounds; applying the blending of the sounds all through the word; and segmenting the phonemes (sounds) to spell the words.\n* In March 2011 the Department of Education, England released its White paper entitled \"The Importance of Teaching\". In the Executive Summary, item 12 of the curriculum section states their commitment to support \"systematic synthetic phonics, as the best method for teaching reading.\"\n*As of 2013, all (local-authority-maintained) primary schools in England have a statutory requirement to teach synthetic phonics in years one and two. In addition, any pupil who is struggling to decode words properly by year three must \"urgently\" receive help through a \"rigorous and systematic phonics programme\".\n* In 2014 the U.K. Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED) updated their guidance for school inspectors to include practical tips on how schools should teach reading with systematic phonics, including \"Getting them Reading Early\". It describes \"The simple view of reading\" as the word recognition processes (recognizing the words on the page, free of context and using phonics) and the language recognition processes (understanding the meaning of the language). It also includes some videos to illustrate its principles.\n* The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS 2016) report was released in December 2017. It reports on the reading abilities of students aged 9 and 10 in 50 countries, and shows that England has risen to Joint 8th place in 2016; its best since 2001. This confirms \"that our approach is working\", according to Minister Nick Gibb. PIRLS 2016 has a summary of England's Language/Reading Curriculum in the Fourth Grade that shows the increased emphasis on \"phonic knowledge and skills as the route to decode words until automatic decoding has become embedded and reading is fluent\".\n* In 2016 the London School of Economics published a paper that supports the teaching of synthetic phonics to disadvantaged children because it helps to close the literacy gap.\n* Some critics continue to raise concerns about how Systematic Synthetic Phonics is being taught and assessed, and whether it puts too much emphasis on decoding at the expense of other factors such as vocabulary and \"learning to read\".\n* In 2018, The Office for Standards in Education, Children\u2019s Services and Skills (Ofsted), as part of its curriculum research has produced a YouTube video on Early Reading. It states \"It is absolutely essential that every child master the phonic code as quickly as possible ... So, successful schools firstly teach phonics first, fast and furious.\" As of September, 2019, the Ofsted inspections will focus more on what is taught and how it is taught, and less on the test data.\n* While there has been concern expressed about the phonics screening test at the end of year one, some report that phonics is especially valuable for poor readers and those without English as a first language. In January, 2019 Ofsted published a report entitled \"Education inspection framework: overview of research\" that further supports \"systematic synthetic phonics\" together with phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension.\n* In January 2022, a report was published by researchers at University College London which said that the current emphasis in English schools on synthetics phonics is not underpinned by the latest evidence, and suggested that teaching reading in England may have been less successful since the adoption of the synthetic phonics approach, rather than more. The researchers were among 250 signatories to a letter to the education secretary calling on the government to allow for a wider range of approaches to teaching reading."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Synthetic phonics:27",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Synthetic phonics",
          "History",
          "United Kingdom",
          "Scotland"
        ],
        "ctx": "Education Scotland found that explicit, systematic phonics programs, usually embedded in a rich literacy environment, give an additional four months progress over other programs such as whole language, and are particularly beneficial for young learners (aged 4\u20137). There is evidence, though less secure, that synthetic phonics programs may be more beneficial than analytic phonics programs; however it is more important to systematically teach to the children's needs."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Synthetic phonics:37",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Synthetic phonics",
          "History",
          "United States"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2016 the What Works Clearinghouse and the Institute of Education Sciences, an independent and non-partisan arm of the U.S. Department of Education, published an Educator's Practice Guide (with evidence) on Foundational Skills to Support Reading for Understanding in Kindergarten Through 3rd Grade. It contains four recommendations to support reading: 1) Teach students academic language skills, including the use of inferential and narrative language, and vocabulary knowledge, 2) Develop awareness of the segments of sounds in speech and how they link to letters (phonemic awareness and phonics), 3) Teach students to decode words, analyze word parts, and write and recognize words (phonics and synthetic phonics), and 4) Ensure that each student reads connected text every day to support reading accuracy, fluency, and comprehension. Some universities have created additional material based on this guide"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Synthetic phonics:9",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Synthetic phonics",
          "Methodology"
        ],
        "ctx": "Synthetic phonics involves a heavy emphasis on hearing the sounds all-through-the-word for spelling and not an emphasis on \"look, cover, write, check\". This latter, visual form of spelling plays a larger part with unusual spellings and spelling variations although a phonemic procedure is always emphasised in spelling generally. Teachers read a full range of literature with the learners and ensure that all learners have a full range of experience of activities associated with literacy such as role play, drama, poetry, but the learners are \"not\" expected to 'read' text which is beyond them, and the method does \"not\" involve guessing at words from context, picture and initial letter clues.\n*learning letter sounds (as distinct from the letter names);\n:For example, mmm not em, sss not ess, fff not ef. The letter names can be taught later but should not be taught in the early stages.\n*learning the 40+ sounds and their corresponding letters/letter groups;\n:The English Alphabet Code 'Key': 40+ phonemes with their common 'sound pattern' representations. (This is based on the British pronunciation. The number and mixture of the 40+ phonemes will vary for other English speaking countries such as Australia, Canada and the United States).\n::Vowels:\n::*\"a\" - mat\n::*\"a-e\" - ape, baby, rain, tray, they, eight\n::*\"air\" - square, bear\n::*\"ar\" - jar, far\n::*\"e\" - peg, bread\n::*\"ee\" - sweet, me, beach, key, pony\n::*\"eer\" - deer, hear\n::*\"er\" - computer, doctor\n::*\"i\" - pig, wanted\n::*\"i-e\" - kite, wild, light, pie\n::*\"o\" - orange, quality\n::*\"oa\" - oak, rope, bow, piano\n::*\"oi\" - coin, boy\n::*\"oo\" - (short) book, would, put\n::*\"oo\" - (long) moon, crew, blue, fruit, few\n::*\"ow\" - down, house\n::*\"or\" - fork, ball, sauce, law,\n::*\"u\" - plug, glove\n::*\"ur\" - burn, teacher, work, first\n::*\"u-e\" - tune, unicorn, hue\n::*\"uh\" - button, hidden\n::Consonants:\n::*\"b\" - boy, rabbit\n::*\"c / k\" - cat, key, duck, school, quit\n::*\"ch\" - chip, watch, statue\n::*\"d\" - dog, ladder\n::*\"f\" - fish, coffee, photo, tough\n::*\"g\" - gate, egg, ghost\n::*\"h\" - hat, whole\n::*\"j\" - jet, giant, cage, bridge\n::*\"k-s\" - box\n::*\"l\" - lip, bell, sample\n::*\"m\" - man, hammer, comb\n::*\"n\" - nut, dinner, knee, gnat\n::*\"ng\" - ring, singer\n::*\"p\" - pan, happy\n::*\"r\" - rat, cherry, write\n::*\"s / c\" - sun, dress, house, city, mice\n::*\"sh\" - ship, mission, station, chef\n::*\"t\" - tap, letter, debt\n::*\"th\" - thrush\n::*\"th\" - that\n::*\"v\" - vet, sleeve\n::*\"w\" - wet, wheel, queen\n::*\"y\" - yes, new\n::*\"z\" - zip, fizz, sneeze, is, cheese\n::*\"g-z\" - exist\n::*\"zh\" - treasure\n*learning to read words using sound \"blending\" in which each individual sound is joined together to form a word (e.g. \"c\" - \"a\" - \"t\"= cat).;\n*reading stories featuring the words the students have learned to sound out;\n*demonstration exercises to show they comprehend the stories;"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Synthetic phonics:9",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Synthetic phonics",
          "Methodology"
        ],
        "ctx": "Synthetic phonics involves a heavy emphasis on hearing the sounds all-through-the-word for spelling and not an emphasis on \"look, cover, write, check\". This latter, visual form of spelling plays a larger part with unusual spellings and spelling variations although a phonemic procedure is always emphasised in spelling generally. Teachers read a full range of literature with the learners and ensure that all learners have a full range of experience of activities associated with literacy such as role play, drama, poetry, but the learners are \"not\" expected to 'read' text which is beyond them, and the method does \"not\" involve guessing at words from context, picture and initial letter clues.\n*learning letter sounds (as distinct from the letter names);\n:For example, mmm not em, sss not ess, fff not ef. The letter names can be taught later but should not be taught in the early stages.\n*learning the 40+ sounds and their corresponding letters/letter groups;\n:The English Alphabet Code 'Key': 40+ phonemes with their common 'sound pattern' representations. (This is based on the British pronunciation. The number and mixture of the 40+ phonemes will vary for other English speaking countries such as Australia, Canada and the United States).\n::Vowels:\n::*\"a\" - mat\n::*\"a-e\" - ape, baby, rain, tray, they, eight\n::*\"air\" - square, bear\n::*\"ar\" - jar, far\n::*\"e\" - peg, bread\n::*\"ee\" - sweet, me, beach, key, pony\n::*\"eer\" - deer, hear\n::*\"er\" - computer, doctor\n::*\"i\" - pig, wanted\n::*\"i-e\" - kite, wild, light, pie\n::*\"o\" - orange, quality\n::*\"oa\" - oak, rope, bow, piano\n::*\"oi\" - coin, boy\n::*\"oo\" - (short) book, would, put\n::*\"oo\" - (long) moon, crew, blue, fruit, few\n::*\"ow\" - down, house\n::*\"or\" - fork, ball, sauce, law,\n::*\"u\" - plug, glove\n::*\"ur\" - burn, teacher, work, first\n::*\"u-e\" - tune, unicorn, hue\n::*\"uh\" - button, hidden\n::Consonants:\n::*\"b\" - boy, rabbit\n::*\"c / k\" - cat, key, duck, school, quit\n::*\"ch\" - chip, watch, statue\n::*\"d\" - dog, ladder\n::*\"f\" - fish, coffee, photo, tough\n::*\"g\" - gate, egg, ghost\n::*\"h\" - hat, whole\n::*\"j\" - jet, giant, cage, bridge\n::*\"k-s\" - box\n::*\"l\" - lip, bell, sample\n::*\"m\" - man, hammer, comb\n::*\"n\" - nut, dinner, knee, gnat\n::*\"ng\" - ring, singer\n::*\"p\" - pan, happy\n::*\"r\" - rat, cherry, write\n::*\"s / c\" - sun, dress, house, city, mice\n::*\"sh\" - ship, mission, station, chef\n::*\"t\" - tap, letter, debt\n::*\"th\" - thrush\n::*\"th\" - that\n::*\"v\" - vet, sleeve\n::*\"w\" - wet, wheel, queen\n::*\"y\" - yes, new\n::*\"z\" - zip, fizz, sneeze, is, cheese\n::*\"g-z\" - exist\n::*\"zh\" - treasure\n*learning to read words using sound \"blending\" in which each individual sound is joined together to form a word (e.g. \"c\" - \"a\" - \"t\"= cat).;\n*reading stories featuring the words the students have learned to sound out;\n*demonstration exercises to show they comprehend the stories;"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Synthetic phonics:10",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Synthetic phonics",
          "Systematic phonics"
        ],
        "ctx": "Systematic phonics is not one specific method of teaching phonics; rather, it is a family of phonics instruction that includes methods such as synthetic phonics and analytic phonics. They are \"systematic\" because the letters, and the sounds they relate to, are taught in a specific sequence; as opposed to incidentally or on a 'when-needed' basis. In the United Kingdom, the term \"systematic phonics\" is \"generally understood as synthetic phonics\" according to the reading review which was conducted in 2006."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Synthetic phonics:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Synthetic phonics"
        ],
        "ctx": "Synthetic phonics, also known as \"blended phonics\" or \"inductive phonics\", is a method of teaching English reading which first teaches the letter sounds and then builds up to blending these sounds together to achieve full pronunciation of whole words."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "As of October 5, 2018, The State Government of Victoria, Australia, publishes a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons. It contains elements of synthetic phonics, analytic phonics, and analogy phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In December 2005 the Department of Education, Science and Training of the Australian Government published a report entitled a National Inquiry into the Teaching of Reading. The report recommends direct and systematic instruction in phonics as the foundation of early reading instruction. It is not clear if all of the findings of the report are reflected in the Australian Curriculum. The report was critiqued by Phillip Cormack, University of South Australia, who states that the key to success in a reading lesson is the relationship between the teacher, the child and the material to be read."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "The teaching of reading and writing has varied over the years from spelling and phonetic methods to the fashions for look-say and whole language methods. In America in the eighteenth century, Noah Webster introduced spelling approaches with syllabaries and in England the use of James Pitman's Initial Teaching Alphabet was popular in the 1960s. Recently phonic methods have been revived."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Dr Jennifer Buckingham, Senior Research Fellow, Centre for Independent Studies, AU published a research brief in June 2018 explaining Systematic Synthetic Phonics and the evidence supporting it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 2009, the UK Department of Education published a curriculum review that added support for systematic phonics. In fact, systematic phonics in the UK is known as Synthetic phonics. Beginning as early as 2014, several States in the United States have changed their curriculum to include systematic phonics instruction in elementary school. In 2018, the State Government of Victoria, Australia, published a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "As of October 5, 2018, The State Government of Victoria, Australia, publishes a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons. It contains elements of synthetic phonics, analytical phonics, and analogy phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "The Rose Report, from the Department for Education in England makes it clear that, in their view, systematic phonics, specifically synthetic phonics, is the best way to ensure that children learn to read; such that it is now the law. In 2005 the government of Australia published a report stating \"The evidence is clear ... that direct systematic instruction in phonics during the early years of schooling is an essential foundation for teaching children to read\". Phonics has been gaining acceptance in many other countries as can be seen from this page Practices by country or region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "It is no longer supported by the Primary National Strategy in England as Synthetic phonics is the officially recognized method for teaching reading."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2021, the province of New Brunswick introduced a new English Language Arts curriculum that includes phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and reading comprehension. Notably, the teaching of alphabetic skills based on the science of reading has replaced the use of various cueing systems and a variety of strategies to construct meaning from text. It is not yet clear whether the teaching practices will lean towards synthetic phonics, or analytic phonics, or a combination of the two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In 2009, the UK Department of Education published a curriculum review that added support for systematic phonics. In fact, systematic phonics in the UK is known as Synthetic phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "\"Overall we conclude that the synthetic phonics approach, as part of the reading curriculum, is more effective than the analytic phonics approach, even when it is supplemented with phonemic awareness training. It also led boys to reading words significantly better than girls, and there was a trend towards better spelling and reading comprehension. There is evidence that synthetic phonics is best taught at the beginning of Primary 1, as even by the end of the second year at school the children in the early synthetic phonics programme had better spelling ability, and the girls had significantly better reading ability.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "\"Synthetic phonics\", also known as blended phonics, is a method employed to teach students to read by \"sounding out\" the letters then \"blending\" the sounds to form the word. This method involves learning how letters or letter groups represent individual sounds, and that those sounds are blended to form a word. For example, \"shrouds\" would be read by pronouncing the sounds for each spelling, \"sh,r,ou,d,s\" (IPA ), then blending those sounds orally to produce a spoken word, \"sh - r - ou - d - s= shrouds\" (IPA ). The goal of either a blended phonics or synthetic phonics instructional program is that students identify the sound-symbol correspondences and blend their phonemes automatically. Since 2005, synthetic phonics has become the accepted method of teaching reading (by phonics instruction) in the United Kingdom and Australia. In the United States, a pilot program using the Core Knowledge Early Literacy program that used this type of phonics approach showed significantly higher results in K-3 reading compared with comparison schools. In addition, several States such as California, Ohio, New York and Arkansas, are promoting the principles of synthetic phonics (see synthetic phonics in the USA)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "This principle was first presented by John Hart in 1570. Prior to that children learned to read through the ABC method, by which they recited the letters used in each word, from a familiar piece of text such as Genesis. It was John Hart who first suggested that the focus should be on the relationship between what is now referred to as graphemes and phonemes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Whole language",
        "text": "In December 2005, the Australian government endorsed the teaching of synthetic phonics and discredited the whole language approach (\"on its own\"). Its Department of Education, Science and Training published a National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy. The report states: \"The evidence is clear, whether from research, good practice observed in schools, advice from submissions to the Inquiry, consultations, or from Committee members' own individual experiences, that direct systematic instruction in phonics during the early years of schooling is an essential foundation for teaching children to read.\" See ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Australia\n* Sample phonics lessons - Victoria State Government, Australia\n* Phonological awareness - Victoria State Government, Australia\n* Effective reading instruction - Victoria State Government, Australia\n* Teaching practices for reading and viewing - Victoria State Government, Australia\n* Phonics - NSW Government, Australia\n* Systematic and explicit phonics instruction - Primary English Teacher Association Australia"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 1959, a journal report adds more details about how phonics is used. It says other"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "There has been a resurgence of interest in synthetic phonics in recent years, particularly in England. As of 2013, all (local-authority-maintained) primary schools in England have a statutory requirement to teach synthetic phonics in years one and two. In addition, any pupil who is struggling to decode words properly by year three must \"urgently\" receive help through a \"rigorous and systematic phonics programme\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "\"Synthetic phonics\", also known as blended phonics, is a systematic phonics method employed to teach students to read by \"sounding out\" the letters then \"blending\" the sounds to form the word. This method involves learning how letters or letter groups represent individual sounds, and that those sounds are blended to form a word. For example, \"shrouds\" would be read by pronouncing the sounds for each spelling, \"sh, r, ou, d, s\" (IPA ), then blending those sounds orally to produce a spoken word, \"sh \u2013 r \u2013 ou \u2013 d \u2013 s = shrouds\" (IPA ). The goal of either a blended phonics or synthetic phonics instructional program is that students identify the sound-symbol correspondences and blend their phonemes automatically. Since 2005, synthetic phonics has become the accepted method of teaching reading (by phonics instruction) in England, Scotland and Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2015 the New York State Public School system began a process to revise its English Language Arts Learning Standards. The standards were revised in 2017 and call for teaching involving \"reading or literacy experiences\" as well as phonemic awareness from prekindergarten to grade 1 and phonics, word recognition, and word analysis skills in decoding words from grade 1 to grade 4. They will become effective at the beginning of the 2020-2021 school year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Whole language",
        "text": "In 2006, the U.K. Department for Education and Skills undertook a review of early reading that came out in favor of Synthetic phonics. Subsequently, in March 2011, the U.K. Department of Education released a white paper entitled \"The Importance of Teaching\", which supported systematic synthetic phonics as the best method for teaching reading."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In the 1980s the three-cueing system (the searchlights model in England) emerged. According to a 2010 survey 75% of teachers in the United States teach the three-cueing system. It teaches children to guess a word by using \"meaning cues\" (semantic, syntactic and graphophonic). While the system does help students to \"make better guesses\", it does not help when the words become more sophisticated; and it reduces the amount of practice time available to learn essential decoding skills. Consequently, present-day researchers such as cognitive neuroscientists Mark Seidenberg and professor Timothy Shanahan do not support the theory. In England, synthetic phonics is intended to replace \"the searchlights multi-cueing model\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The term \"phonics\" during the 19th century and into the 1970s was used as a synonym of phonetics. The use of the term in reference to the method of teaching is dated to 1901 by the Oxford English Dictionary. The relationship between sounds and letters is the backbone of traditional phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In the United Kingdom a 2010 government white paper contained plans to train all primary school teachers in phonics. The 2013 curriculum has \"statutory requirements\" that, amongst other things, students in years one and two be capable in using systematic synthetic phonics in regards to word reading, reading comprehension, fluency, and writing. This includes having skills in \"sound to graphemes\", \"decoding\", and \"blending\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "The United States has a long history of debate concerning the various methods used to teach reading, including Phonics. In 1999, The \"National Institute of Child Health and Human Development\" (NICHD) appears to conclude that systematic phonics programs are \"significantly more effective\" than non-phonics programs. It also concludes that they found no significant difference between the different phonics approaches, while suggesting that more evidence may be required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics\n--Overview.\n--Methodology.\n--Systematic phonics.\n----Analytic phonics.\n----Synthetic phonics.\n--Common terminology.\n--History.\n----Australia.\n----Canada.\n----United Kingdom.\n------Scotland.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The 2016 international PISA study states that the method widely used now to teach reading in the Russian Federation was developed by the famous psychologist Daniil Elkonin in the 1960s. It says, \"students learn to define the sequence of sounds in a word and characterize each sound ... acquiring the knowledge of the phonetic system at an early stage\" and \"become better familiarized with the skills of reading\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In 1996 the California Department of Education took an increased interest in using phonics in schools. And in 1997 the department called for grade one teaching in concepts about print, phonemic awareness, decoding and word recognition, and vocabulary and concept development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics, also known as \"blended phonics\" or \"inductive phonics\", is a method of teaching English reading which first teaches the letter sounds and then builds up to blending these sounds together to achieve full pronunciation of whole words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 1996 the California Department of Education took an increased interest in using phonics in schools. And in 1997 the department called for grade one teaching in concepts about print, phonemic awareness, decoding and word recognition, and vocabulary and concept development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics refers to a family of programs which aim to teach reading and writing through the following methods:\n* Teaching students the correspondence between \"written letters\" (graphemes) and \"speech sounds\" (phonemes). For example, the words \"me\" and \"pony\" have the same sound at the end, but use different letters.\n* Teaching students to read words by \"blending\": identifying the graphemes (letters) in the word, recalling the corresponding phonemes (sounds), and saying the phonemes together to form the sound of the whole word.\n* Teaching students to write words by \"segmenting\": identifying the phonemes of the word, recalling the corresponding graphemes, then writing the graphemes together to form the written word."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 2016 the London School of Economics published a paper supporting the teaching of synthetic phonics to disadvantaged children because it helps to close the literacy gap."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading Recovery",
        "text": "After Reading Recovery was removed from the curriculum in many Australian schools, its utility has been questioned by researchers and policy makers in New Zealand as well. By 2019, this had led to reduction in use of Reading Recovery in New Zealand's public schools, and toward a greater emphasis on phonics based instruction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "A five-year follow-up of the study concluded that the beneficial effects were long-lasting, in fact the reading gains increased."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "As of 2018, the Ministry of Education in New Zealand has online information to help teachers to support their students in years 1\u20133 in relation to sounds, letters, and words. It states that phonics instruction \"is not an end in itself\" and it is \"not\" necessary to teach students \"every combination of letters and sounds\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "A review of the teaching of early reading was undertaken by Sir Jim Rose at the request of the Department for Education. While the report often uses the term \"\"Systematic\" Phonic work\", it appears to support \"\"Synthetic\" Phonics\" as evidenced in the Rose Review in 2006. In fact, the Department of Education, England uses the term \"systematic synthetic phonics\". The following is a summary of the report's observations and recommendations concerning phonics:\n#The skills of speaking, listening, reading and writing are used by (and are supported by) what it refers to as \"high quality, systematic phonics\".\n#Young children should receive sufficient pre-reading instruction so they are able to start systematic phonics work \"by the age of five\".\n#High quality phonics work should be taught as \"the prime approach\" to teaching reading, writing, and spelling.\n#Phonics instruction should form a part of \"a broad and rich language curriculum\". Note: critics of this report point out that the report does not explain what they mean by this, nor does it offer any details on how to achieve this within the framework of synthetic phonics' instruction.\n* In a report dated April 2007, professors Dominic Wyse and Morag Styles conclude that the evidence \"supports\" systematic phonics; however, the Rose Report's assertion that synthetic phonics should be the \"preferred method\" is \"not supported by research evidence\". This criticism is based on the way the research was conducted and how the results were interpreted.\n* In October 2011, The \"National Campaign for Real Nursery Education\" web site (U.K.) comments on the U.K. government's intent to impose a specific type of phonics teaching (i.e. systematic, synthetic phonics) in the nursery and reception years, and suggests that this decision was not supported by the \"research evidence\".\n* Following the adoption of the phonics approach in its schools, the Department of Education, England provided a great deal of online support for teachers wishing to learn more about effective phonics teaching strategies. In 2010, the U.K. Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED) released a report entitled Reading by Six - How the best schools do it. It reported that twelve successful schools employed common methods of teaching reading using systematic phonics with features such as; having a clearly defined and incremental approach to the correspondence between the letters and the sounds; applying the blending of the sounds all through the word; and segmenting the phonemes (sounds) to spell the words.\n* In March 2011 the Department of Education, England released its White paper entitled \"The Importance of Teaching\". In the Executive Summary, item 12 of the curriculum section states their commitment to support \"systematic synthetic phonics, as the best method for teaching reading.\"\n*As of 2013, all (local-authority-maintained) primary schools in England have a statutory requirement to teach synthetic phonics in years one and two. In addition, any pupil who is struggling to decode words properly by year three must \"urgently\" receive help through a \"rigorous and systematic phonics programme\".\n* In 2014 the U.K. Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED) updated their guidance for school inspectors to include practical tips on how schools should teach reading with systematic phonics, including \"Getting them Reading Early\". It describes \"The simple view of reading\" as the word recognition processes (recognizing the words on the page, free of context and using phonics) and the language recognition processes (understanding the meaning of the language). It also includes some videos to illustrate its principles.\n* The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS 2016) report was released in December 2017. It reports on the reading abilities of students aged 9 and 10 in 50 countries, and shows that England has risen to Joint 8th place in 2016; its best since 2001. This confirms \"that our approach is working\", according to Minister Nick Gibb. PIRLS 2016 has a summary of England's Language/Reading Curriculum in the Fourth Grade that shows the increased emphasis on \"phonic knowledge and skills as the route to decode words until automatic decoding has become embedded and reading is fluent\".\n* In 2016 the London School of Economics published a paper that supports the teaching of synthetic phonics to disadvantaged children because it helps to close the literacy gap.\n* Some critics continue to raise concerns about how Systematic Synthetic Phonics is being taught and assessed, and whether it puts too much emphasis on decoding at the expense of other factors such as vocabulary and \"learning to read\".\n* In 2018, The Office for Standards in Education, Children\u2019s Services and Skills (Ofsted), as part of its curriculum research has produced a YouTube video on Early Reading. It states \"It is absolutely essential that every child master the phonic code as quickly as possible ... So, successful schools firstly teach phonics first, fast and furious.\" As of September, 2019, the Ofsted inspections will focus more on what is taught and how it is taught, and less on the test data.\n* While there has been concern expressed about the phonics screening test at the end of year one, some report that phonics is especially valuable for poor readers and those without English as a first language. In January, 2019 Ofsted published a report entitled \"Education inspection framework: overview of research\" that further supports \"systematic synthetic phonics\" together with phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension.\n* In January 2022, a report was published by researchers at University College London which said that the current emphasis in English schools on synthetics phonics is not underpinned by the latest evidence, and suggested that teaching reading in England may have been less successful since the adoption of the synthetic phonics approach, rather than more. The researchers were among 250 signatories to a letter to the education secretary calling on the government to allow for a wider range of approaches to teaching reading."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Yet, systematic phonics and synthetic phonics received attention in the following publications:\n* In 2005 the Ministry of Education for the government of Ontario published a report entitled \"Early Reading Strategy: The Report of the Expert Panel on Early Reading in Ontario and Early Math Strategy\". The report states \"This Expert Panel supports the position of the National Reading Panel (2000) that phonics instruction should be integrated into a comprehensive and balanced reading program. Instruction in phonics and decoding should not be conceived of as a total reading program, but neither should it be neglected.\" Pg 104\n* The Canadian Language and Literacy Research Network published a report entitled Foundations for Literacy: An evidence-based Toolkit for the Effective Reading and Writing Teacher. It is a practical toolkit helping teachers to a) understand research in order to keep informed, b) understand how children develop reading and writing skills, and c) understand how to use effective instruction techniques. It also includes explanations of phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, the alphabetic principle (including systematic phonics and synthetic phonics instruction).\n* In 2009, the Ministry of Education for the province of British Columbia posted a discussion paper on their Read Now website entitled \"Reading: Breaking Through the Barriers.\" The paper states that explicit and synthetic phonics needs to be taught directly in the classroom because it works \"for all students but are particularly helpful for students at risk for reading difficulty\". (Pg. 8) There appears to be no evidence, however, that systematic phonics (or synthetic phonics) is a part of the teaching pedagogy.\n* In 2010, The Literacy and Numeracy Secretariat of Ontario, Canada published a report entitled Capacity Building Series: Reading Fluency that offers practical strategies to teach reading comprehension. This includes Automaticity (the ability to automatically decode words), Phrasing (reading phrases not only words), and Expression (moving from a monotone delivery to a natural rise and fall in pitch, tone and rhythm). In the section about decoding it discusses the importance of Phonological Awareness (hearing words in sentences and individual sounds in words), Alphabetic Letter Knowledge (identifying, naming and writing letters), and the Alphabetic Principle (understanding that letters represent the sounds of spoke language). In the latter, in addition to other suggestions, it is emphasized that teaching should include instruction in segmenting and blending alongside the explicit teaching of letter sounds.\n* Dr. Robert Savage, formerly of McGill University and now at UCL Institute of Education, University College London, concludes that, with respect to remedial programs, we should not wait for children to fail before using phonics programs. He also recommends the teaching of such skills as segmenting and blending alongside the \"explicit teaching\" of letter sounds. He also says there is a need for more Randomized controlled trials in order to produce more definitive conclusions. In another report about effective early reading instruction and inclusion, Dr. Savage states that \"a heavy and early structured approach to early reading intervention focused on mastering the use of the alphabetic principle to decode as a self-teaching mechanism is enough to allow many children to take off into reading without further focused support beyond good regular classroom teaching\".\n* In 2011, Dr. Janette Pelletier, OISE, University of Toronto published a paper entitled Supporting Early Language and Literacy that outlines several key findings from early literacy research, including the importance of teaching phonological awareness and the \"knowledge of letter names and letter-sound correspondences\" also known as decoding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "For more information see Practices by country or region (below); and, History of learning to read."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 2016 Australia ranked 21st in the PIRLS reading achievement for fourth grade students."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In Canada, public education is the responsibility of the Provincial and Territorial governments. There is no evidence that \"systematic phonics (including synthetic phonics)\" has been specifically adopted by any of these jurisdictions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "Systematic phonics has gained increased acceptance in different parts of the world since the completion of three major studies into teaching reading; one in the US in 2000, another in Australia in 2005, and the other in the UK in 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics programs \"do not\" have the following characteristics:\n* Encouraging students to guess the meaning of words from contextual clues (see whole language method).\n* Encouraging students to memorise the shape of words, to recall them by sight (see Look say method).\n* Teaching grapheme-phoneme correspondence on a \"when needed\" basis or as applied to particular groups of words, when these words arise in other forms of reading instruction (see \"embedded phonics\" in Whole language)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The following are examples of how phonics is used in some countries:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics teaches phonics at the level of the individual phoneme from the outset; not syllables and not onset and rime. Synthetic phonics does not teach anything about reading as a meaning-focused process. It highlights decoding and pronunciation of words only. Teachers are to put accuracy before speed, because fluency (i.e. speed, accuracy, expression), and comprehension will come with time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In the US, a pilot program using the Core Knowledge Early Literacy program that used this type of phonics approach showed significantly higher results in K-3 reading compared with comparison schools. In addition, several States such as California, Ohio, New York and Arkansas, are promoting the principles of synthetic phonics (see synthetic phonics in the United States)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "By 1998 in the U.K. whole language instruction and the searchlights-model were still the norm, however there was some attention to teaching phonics in the early grades, as seen in the National Literacy Strategies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics develops phonemic awareness along with the corresponding letter shapes. It involves the learners rehearsing the writing of letter shapes alongside learning the letter/s-sound correspondences preferably with the tripod pencil grip. Dictation is a frequent teaching technique from letter level to word spelling, including nonsense words (e.g. choy and feep) and eventually extending to text level. It does not teach letter names until the learners know their letter/s-sound correspondences thoroughly and how to blend for reading and segment for spelling. Often when letter names are introduced it is through singing an alphabet song."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2014 the California Department of Education stated \"Ensuring that children know how to decode regularly spelled one-syllable words by mid-first grade is crucial\". It goes on to say that \"Children need to be phonemically aware (especially able to segment and blend phonemes)\". The skills of segmenting and blending phonemes are a central aspect of synthetic phonics. In grades two and three children receive explicit instruction in advanced phonic-analysis and reading multi-syllabic and more complex words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics involves the teaching of the transparent alphabet (e.g. \"c\" as in \"cat\") before progressing onto the opaque alphabet (e.g. \"ch\" as in \"school\"). In other words, learners are taught steps which are straightforward and 'work' before being taught the complications and variations of pronunciation and spelling of the full alphabetic code. It introduces irregular words and more tricky words (defined as words which cannot be pronounced phonically \u2013 English has a surprisingly large number of these, usually the commonest words of all such as 'to', 'of', etc.) slowly and systematically after a thorough introduction of the transparent alphabet code (learning the 44 letter/s-sound correspondences to automaticity and how to blend for reading and segment for spelling). Phonics application still works at least in part in such words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diane McGuinness",
        "text": "McGuinness is an outspoken critic of whole language instruction but also of phonics as traditionally taught in the United States. She favors an approach to early reading instruction known as synthetic phonics or linguistic phonics, in which the starting point for instruction is the 40-odd phonemes of English. In synthetic phonics instruction, each sound is introduced initially with a single \"basic code\" spelling, e.g. the /ee/ sound is connected to the 'ee' spelling. Students are taught to read by blending all of the sounds in the word. Spelling alternatives for sounds (e.g. for /ee/ the spellings 'y' as in \"funny\", 'ea' as in \"eat\", 'e' as in \"reflex\", 'ie' as in \"cookie\", etc.) are taught later. McGuinness has also introduced the term \"code overlap\" to describe a spelling (or grapheme) that can stand for more than one sound (phoneme), e.g. the spelling 'ow' can stand for the /ou/ sound as in the word \"now\", or for the /oe/ sound as in the word \"snow\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "On 30 November 2004 Brendan Nelson, Minister for Education, Science and Training, established a National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy in Australia. The Inquiry examined the way reading is taught in schools, as well as the effectiveness of teacher education courses in preparing teachers for reading instruction. In the resulting report in 2005, \"Teaching Reading\", the first two recommendations make clear the committee's conviction about the need to base the teaching of reading on evidence and the importance of teaching systematic, explicit phonics within an integrated approach."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics programs have some or all of the following characteristics:\n* Teaching grapheme-phoneme (letters-sound) correspondence out of alphabetic order, following an order determined by perceived complexity (going from easiest to hardest to learn).\n* Teaching the reading and writing of words in order of increasing irregularity, in other words teaching words which follow typical grapheme-phoneme correspondence first (e.g. \"ape\" and \"cat\"), and teaching words with idiosyncratic or unusual grapheme-phoneme correspondence later (e.g. \"eight\" and \"duck\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "New Zealand\n* Sound Sense: Supporting reading and writing in years 1\u20133 - Ministry of Education, NZ"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The use of phonics in education in the United States dates at least to the work of Favell Lee Mortimer, whose works using phonics includes the early flashcard set \"Reading Disentangled\" (1834) and text \"Reading Without Tears\" (1857). Despite the work of 19th-century proponents such as Rebecca Smith Pollard, some American educators, prominently Horace Mann, argued that phonics should not be taught at all. This led to the commonly used \"look-say\" approach ensconced in the \"Dick and Jane\" readers popular in the mid-20th century. Beginning in the 1950s, however, inspired by a landmark study by Dr. Harry E. Houtz, and spurred by Rudolf Flesch's criticism of the absence of phonics instruction (particularly in his book, \"Why Johnny Can't Read\"- 1955) and Jeanne Chall (the author of \"Learning to Read the Great Debate\" - 1967-1995 phonics resurfaced as a method of teaching reading."
      },
      {
        "title": "Multisensory learning",
        "text": "According to the U.K. Independent review of the teaching of early reading (Rose Report 2006) multisensory learning is also effective because it keeps students more engaged in their learning. In 2010 the U.K. Department for Education established the core criteria for programs that teach school children to read by using systematic Synthetic phonics. It includes a requirement that the material \"uses a multi-sensory approach so that children learn variously from simultaneous visual, auditory and kinaesthetic activities which are designed to secure essential phonic knowledge and skills\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2018 The Association for Psychological Science published an article entitled \"Ending the Reading Wars: Reading Acquisition From Novice to Expert\". The purpose of the article is to fill the gap between the current research knowledge and the public understanding about how we learn to read, and to explain \"why phonics instruction is so central to learning in a writing system such as English\". It points out that if reading instruction relied only on the association between the printed word and meaning (as in Whole Language) it would require the memorization of thousands of individual words. Thus, \"systematic phonics instruction should be viewed as a natural and logical consequence of the manner in which alphabetic writing systems represent spoken language\". There is, however, still a debate as to which systematic phonics method is most effective, synthetic or analytic. The article also explains that despite the weight of evidence supporting systematic phonics, it has only been fully implemented in England. The United States does have Common Core State Standards Initiative that include recommendations for Print Concepts, Phonological Awareness, Phonics, and Fluency; however not all states have adopted these standards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Phonics\n--Overview.\n----History.\n----Phonemic awareness.\n----The alphabetic principle (also: The alphabetic code).\n--Alternative spellings of the sounds.\n--Vowel and consonant phonics patterns.\n----Consonant phonics patterns.\n--Teaching reading with phonics.\n----Combining phonics with other literacy instruction.\n----Effectiveness of programs.\n----Sight words and sight vocabulary.\n----Systematic phonics.\n----Synthetic phonics.\n----Analytic phonics.\n----Analogy phonics.\n----Embedded phonics with mini-lessons.\n----Phonics through spelling.\n--Resources for phonics instruction.\n--The Reading Wars \u2013 Phonics vs. Whole language.\n----Simple view of reading.\n--Practices by country or region.\n----Australia.\n----Canada.\n----England.\n----Finland.\n----France.\n----Hungary.\n----Ireland.\n----Latin America and the Caribbean.\n----New Zealand.\n----Northern Ireland.\n----Norway.\n----Poland.\n----Portugal.\n----Russian Federation.\n----Scotland.\n----Singapore.\n----Sweden.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "The 2005 Rose Report from the UK concluded that systematic synthetic phonics was the most effective method for teaching reading. It also suggests the \"best teaching\" included a brisk pace, engaging children's interest with multi-sensory activities and stimulating resources, praise for effort and achievement; and above all, the full backing of the headteacher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "With respect to the English language in the United States, the phonics principle of teaching reading was first presented by John Hart in 1570, who suggested the teaching of reading should focus on the relationship between what is now referred to as graphemes (letters) and phonemes (sounds)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sight word",
        "text": "Proponents of systematic phonics and synthetic phonics argue that children must first learn to associate the sounds of their language with the letter(s) that are used to represent them, and then to blends those sounds into words, and that children should never memorize words as visual designs. Using sight words as a method of teaching reading in English is seen as being at odds with the alphabetic principle and treating English as though it was a logographic language (e.g. Chinese or Japanese)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "On the one hand, the curriculum of all of the Canadian provinces include some of the following: phonics, phonological awareness, segmenting and blending, decoding, phonemic awareness, graphophonic cues, and letter-sound relationships."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics in Scotland has its roots in the Clackmannanshire Report, a seven-year study that was published in 2005. It compared analytic Phonics with synthetic Phonics and advantaged students with disadvantaged children. The report concluded that \"the synthetic phonics programme led to children from lower socio-economic backgrounds performing at the same level as children from advantaged backgrounds for most of their time in primary school. It also led to boys performing better than or as well as girls.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics teaches the phonemes (sounds) associated with the graphemes (letters) at the rate of about six sounds per week. The sounds are taught in isolation then blended together (i.e. synthesised), all-through-the-word. For example, learners might be taught a short vowel sound (e.g. \"a\" as in cat) in addition to some consonant sounds (e.g. \"s, t, p\"). Then the learners are taught words with these sounds (e.g. sat, pat, tap, at). They are taught to pronounce each phoneme in a word, then to blend the phonemes together to form the word (e.g. \"s - a - t; \"sat\"\"). Sounds are taught in all positions of the words, but the emphasis is on all-through-the-word segmenting and blending from week one. It does not teach whole words as shapes (initial sight vocabulary) prior to learning the alphabetic code."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Systematic phonics is not one specific method of teaching phonics; rather, it is a family of phonics instruction that includes methods such as synthetic phonics and analytic phonics. They are \"systematic\" because the letters, and the sounds they relate to, are taught in a specific sequence; as opposed to incidentally or on a 'when-needed' basis. In the United Kingdom, the term \"systematic phonics\" is \"generally understood as synthetic phonics\" according to the reading review which was conducted in 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Janet and John",
        "text": "The books became a familiar aid for teaching schoolchildren throughout the 1950s and 1960s, being used in 81% of British primary schools in 1968. They were one of the first popular \"look-and-say\" or \"whole word\" reading schemes, the approach being to repeat words sufficiently frequently that children memorised them \u2013 in contrast with the phonics method in which children were encouraged to decode groups of letters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "More than a century of debate has occurred over whether English phonics should or should not be used in teaching beginning reading."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Other findings of this report are:\n* Guided Oral Reading (reading out loud and receiving systematic and explicit feedback from a teacher) \"had a significant and positive impact on word recognition, fluency, and comprehension\".\n* The value of Independent Silent Reading is unclear; however it is clear that it should not be the only type of reading instruction to develop fluency and other reading skills.\n* Vocabulary, both oral and print, should be taught directly and indirectly because it leads to gains in comprehension.\n* Teaching a combination of reading comprehension techniques is the most effective, however more research is needed to determine which techniques are the most effective."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Critics of the report claim that the results were exaggerated and due to more than just synthetic phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "By November 2010, a government white paper contained plans to train all primary school teachers in phonics. The 2013 curriculum has \"statutory requirements\" that, amongst other things, students in years one and two be capable in using systematic synthetic phonics in regards to Word Reading, Reading Comprehension, Fluency, and Writing. This includes having skills in \"sound to graphemes\", \"decoding\", and \"blending\". Following this, Ofsted updated their guidance for school inspectors in 2014 to include tips on how schools should teach reading with systematic phonics, including \"Getting them Reading Early\". It includes a description of the simple view of reading as \"the word recognition processes\" (recognizing the words on the page, free of context and using phonics) and the \"language recognition processes\" (understanding the meaning of the language). It also includes some videos to illustrate its principles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics in Scotland has its roots in the Clackmannanshire Report, a seven-year study that was published in 2005. It compared analytic Phonics with synthetic Phonics and advantaged students with disadvantaged children. The report found that, using synthetic phonics, children from lower socio-economic backgrounds performed at the same level as children from advantaged backgrounds in primary school (whereas with analytic phonics teaching, they did significantly less well.); and boys performed better than or as well as girls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hooked on Phonics",
        "text": "By 2007, the Hooked on Phonics program had been introduced in over 30 countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The 2016 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) awarded England its best results since the studies began in 2001. Nick Gibb attributes this success to the use of systematic synthetic phonics. In March of that year the Secretary of State for Education released a report entitled \"Educational Excellence Everywhere\". The report states that in 2010 33% percent of primary school students did not achieve the expected standard in reading, however \"since the introduction of the phonics reading check in 2012\", that number is down to 20%. The report goes on to say they still have much to do, particularly with students who are disadvantaged. The phonics check involves pupils reading aloud 40 words (including 20 non-words). In 2016, 81 per cent of pupils reached the expected standard of 32 correct words \u2013 up from 77 per cent in 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic Phonics uses the concept of 'synthesising', which means 'putting together' or 'blending'. Simply put, the sounds prompted by the letters are synthesised (put together or blended) to pronounce the word."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "Phonics was a popular way to learn reading in the 1800s. William Holmes McGuffey (1800\u20131873), an American educator, author, and Presbyterian minister who had a lifelong interest in teaching children, compiled the first four of the McGuffey Readers in 1836."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ken Goodman",
        "text": "98. \"Phonics Phacts,\" Nebraska Language Arts Bulletin, Vol. 5:2, January, 1993, pp.\u00a01\u20135."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics involves the development of phonemic awareness from the outset. As part of the decoding process, the reader learns up to 44 phonemes (the smallest units of sound) and their related graphemes (the written symbols for the phoneme)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In Australia the 2005 report, \"Teaching Reading\", recommends teaching reading based on evidence and teaching systematic, explicit phonics within an integrated approach. The executive summary says \"systematic phonics instruction is critical if children are to be taught to read well, whether or not they experience reading difficulties\". As of October 5, 2018, The State Government of Victoria, Australia, publishes a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including effective reading instruction, phonics, and sample phonics lessons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In January, 2019 Ofsted published a report entitled \"Education inspection framework: overview of research\" that further supports \"systematic synthetic phonics\" together with phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Prior to that, synthetic phonics was promoted by a cross-party group of Parliamentarians, particularly Nick Gibb MP. A report by the House of Commons Education and Skills Committee called for a review of the phonics content in the National Curriculum. Subsequently, the Department for Education and Skills announced a review into early years reading, headed by Sir Jim Rose, former Director of Inspection for Ofsted (responsible for the education standards in the UK). The review, entitled Independent review of the teaching of early reading (Rose Report 2006), addresses the question of why children's reading and writing (especially for boys) have not been meeting expectations. Paragraph 3.25 of the Final Report states \"This suggests that it is far more often the nature of the teaching than the nature of the child which determines success or failure in learning the 'basic' skills of reading and writing.\u201d It goes on to say it is not suggesting teachers are unable or unwilling to develop the required expertise, only that there has been systematic confusion and conflicting views about phonics. It also makes it clear that, when it comes to the wider knowledge and skills required for reading and writing, phonics work is \"necessary but not sufficient\". It concludes by suggesting the challenge will be resolved as research continues to support systematic phonics, and that teacher training and systematic phonics programs will produce \"good results for children\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hooked on Phonics",
        "text": "Hooked on Phonics was developed in the 1980s. The original Hooked on Phonics \"Learn to Read\" product was released by Gateway Educational Products in 1987."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Reading Panel",
        "text": "The NRP reviewed 38 studies on the teaching of phonics and found that teaching children the relationship between letters and spelling patterns and pronunciation and how to decode words improved reading achievement. Young children who received such instruction did better with decoding words, nonsense words, spelling, fluency, and reading comprehension. Older disabled readers also benefited from such instruction in terms of improvement in decoding, but without commensurate gains in spelling or reading comprehension. Systematic phonics instruction \u2014 that is instruction based on a planned curriculum \u2014 was found to be superior to more opportunistic versions in which teachers tried to teach what they thought students needed. There were no statistical differences between synthetic phonics programs in which each letter sound is taught versus analytic phonics that analyzes the sounds within complete words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "A challenge in teaching phonics is that in some languages, such as English, complex letter-sound correspondences can cause confusion for beginning readers. For this reason, it is recommended that teachers of English-reading begin by introducing the \"most frequent sounds\" and the \"common spellings\", and save the less frequent sounds and complex spellings for later. (e.g. the sounds /s/ and /t/ before /v/ and /w/; and the spellings c\"a\"ke before \"eigh\"t and \"c\"at before du\"ck\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "Beginning as early as 2014, several states in the United States have changed their curriculum to include systematic phonics instruction in elementary school."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2016 the What Works Clearinghouse and the Institute of Education Sciences, an independent and non-partisan arm of the U.S. Department of Education, published an Educator's Practice Guide (with evidence) on Foundational Skills to Support Reading for Understanding in Kindergarten Through 3rd Grade. It contains four recommendations to support reading: 1) Teach students academic language skills, including the use of inferential and narrative language, and vocabulary knowledge, 2) Develop awareness of the segments of sounds in speech and how they link to letters (phonemic awareness and phonics), 3) Teach students to decode words, analyze word parts, and write and recognize words (phonics and synthetic phonics), and 4) Ensure that each student reads connected text every day to support reading accuracy, fluency, and comprehension. Some universities have created additional material based on this guide"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Until the mid-19th century, phonics was the accepted method in the United States to teach children to read. Then, in 1841 Horace Mann, the Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education, advocated for a whole-word method of teaching reading to replace phonics. Rudolf Flesch advocated for a return to phonics in his book \"Why Johnny Can't Read\" (1955). The whole-word method received support from Kenneth J. Goodman who wrote an article in 1967 entitled \"Reading: A psycholinguistic guessing game\". Although not supported by scientific studies, the theory became very influential as the whole language method. Since the 1970s some whole language supporters such as Frank Smith, are unyielding in arguing that phonics should be taught little, if at all."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "As of 2018, the Ministry of Education in New Zealand has online information to help teachers to support their students in years 1\u20133 in relation to sounds, letters, and words. It has specific suggestions in the areas of oral language, phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, phonemes and phonics. There are also examples and recommended books concerning phonics instruction, hearing sounds in spoken words, syllables, phoneme blending, onset and rime, and sounds and letters (initial, ending and medial). In its introduction it states that phonics instruction \"is not an end in itself\" and it is \"not\" necessary to teach students \"every combination of letters and sounds\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 2007 the Department of Education (DE) in Northern Ireland was required by law to teach children foundational skills in phonological awareness and the understanding \u201cthat words are made up of sounds and syllables and that sounds are represented by letters (phoneme/grapheme awareness)\u201d."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ken Goodman",
        "text": "97. \"Gurus, Professors, and the Politics of Phonics,\" Reading Today, December 1992/January 1993, pp.\u00a08\u201310."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "Beginning in 2000, several reading research reports were published:\n* 2000 \u2013 The National Reading Panel (U.S.A.) that identified five ingredients of effective reading instruction: \"phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension\".\n* 2005 \u2013 The Australian report on \"Teaching reading\" that supports the use of systematic phonics.\n* 2006 \u2013 The United Kingdom Independent review of the teaching of early reading (Rose Report 2006) that supports systematic synthetic phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Supporters of Synthetic phonics argue that if the systematic teaching of phonics doesn't take place, analytic learners can fall behind and fail to develop the tools they need for decoding words.\n*Reading\n*Phonemic awareness\n*Phonetics\n*Phonics\n*Synthetic phonics"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phono-graphix",
        "text": "Phono-graphix, a phonetics program, is a method for teaching and re-mediating reading and spelling developed in 1993 by the Read America clinic in Florida. It takes the sounds of the English language and teaches the various \"sound-pictures\" (letters and combinations of letters) that represent those sounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dick and Jane",
        "text": "For three decades (roughly 1940 to 1970), the whole-word or look-say method (also called sight reading) on which the Dick and Jane readers were based remained the dominant reading method in American schools. Phonics-based reading methods came into fashion in the 1970s. The whole-language movement developed in the 1980s. Other methods were also in use for shorter periods before they were replaced as well. The look-say method used a controlled vocabulary and taught readers to memorize the words through repetition, placing less emphasis on teaching phonics Texts in the Dick and Jane readers repeated words within phrases such as \"Oh, see. Oh, see Jane. Funny, funny Jane.\" Teacher's guides accompanying the texts also encouraged adoption of the whole-word (look-say) method of identifying the meaning of words from the illustrations and repeating words introduced in the text."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Systematic phonics has gained increased acceptance in different parts of the world since the completion of two major studies into teaching reading; one in the United States in 2000 and the other in the UK in 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Education Scotland found that explicit, systematic phonics programs, usually embedded in a rich literacy environment, give an additional four months progress over other programs such as whole language, and are particularly beneficial for young learners (aged 4\u20137). There is evidence, though less secure, that synthetic phonics programs may be more beneficial than analytic phonics programs; however it is more important to systematically teach to the children's needs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hooked on Phonics",
        "text": "Hooked on Phonics is a commercial brand of educational materials, originally designed for reading education through phonetics. First marketed in 1987, it used systematic phonics and scaffolded stories to teach letter\u2013sound correlations (phonics) as part of children's literacy. The program has since expanded to encompass a wide variety of media, including books, computer games, music, videos, and flash cards in addition to books in its materials, as well as to include other subject areas. The target audience for this brand is primarily individuals and home school parents. The product was advertised extensively on television and radio throughout the 1990s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sight word",
        "text": "Other phonics advocates such as the Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSSI-USA) and the Departments of Education in England and the State of Victoria in Australia, recommend that teachers first begin by teaching children the frequent sounds and the simple spellings, then introduce the less frequent sounds and more complex spellings later (e.g. the sounds /s/ and /t/ before /v/ and /w/; and the spellings cake before eight and cat before duck). The following are samples of the lists that are available on the CCSSI-USA site:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonograph",
        "text": "In Australian English, \"record player\" was the term; \"turntable\" was a more technical term; \"gramophone\" was restricted to the old mechanical (i.e., wind-up) players; and \"phonograph\" was used as in British English. The \"phonograph\" was first demonstrated in Australia on 14 June 1878 to a meeting of the Royal Society of Victoria by the Society's Honorary Secretary, Alex Sutherland who published \"The Sounds of the Consonants, as Indicated by the Phonograph\" in the Society's journal in November that year. On 8 August 1878 the phonograph was publicly demonstrated at the Society's annual \"conversazione\", along with a range of other new inventions, including the microphone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "The meaning-based curriculum came to dominate reading instruction by the second quarter of the 20th century. In the 1930s and 1940s, reading programs became very focused on comprehension and taught children to read whole words by sight. Phonics was taught as a last resort."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Since the 1860s it was \"taken for granted\" that phonics is a major part of reading instruction in the first school years in Sweden. However, in the 1990s the National Agency for Education (Sweden) encouraged teachers to try other methods, including whole language."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "Until the mid-1800's, phonics was the accepted method in the United States to teach children to read. Then, in 1841 Horace Mann, the Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education, advocated for a whole-word method of teaching reading to replace phonics. Others, such as Rudolf Flesch, advocated for a return to phonics in his book \"Why Johnny Can't Read\" (1955). The whole-word method received support from Kenneth J. Goodman who wrote an article in 1967 entitled \"Reading: A psycholinguistic guessing game\". Although not supported by scientific studies, the theory became very influential as the whole language method. Since the 1970s some whole language supporters such as Frank Smith (psycholinguist), are unyielding in arguing that phonics should be taught little, if at all."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ken Goodman",
        "text": "20. Ken Goodman Phonics Phacts, Richmond Hill, Ontario: Scholastic Canada, Ltd (Canada), and Heinemann (US) Portsmouth, NH, 1994."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where in the world are synthetic phonics used?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Synthetic phonic is a method of teaching English reading, so is used in countries such as Australia, Canada, and the U.K."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did it start being used in Australia?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "As of October 5, 2018, The State Government of Victoria, Australia, publishes a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons."
    ],
    "topic": "Synthetic phonics",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Synthetic phonics:19",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Synthetic phonics",
          "History",
          "Australia"
        ],
        "ctx": "As of October 5, 2018, The State Government of Victoria, Australia, publishes a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons. It contains elements of synthetic phonics, analytic phonics, and analogy phonics."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "As of October 5, 2018, The State Government of Victoria, Australia, publishes a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons. It contains elements of synthetic phonics, analytic phonics, and analogy phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "\"Synthetic phonics\", also known as blended phonics, is a systematic phonics method employed to teach students to read by \"sounding out\" the letters then \"blending\" the sounds to form the word. This method involves learning how letters or letter groups represent individual sounds, and that those sounds are blended to form a word. For example, \"shrouds\" would be read by pronouncing the sounds for each spelling, \"sh, r, ou, d, s\" (IPA ), then blending those sounds orally to produce a spoken word, \"sh \u2013 r \u2013 ou \u2013 d \u2013 s = shrouds\" (IPA ). The goal of either a blended phonics or synthetic phonics instructional program is that students identify the sound-symbol correspondences and blend their phonemes automatically. Since 2005, synthetic phonics has become the accepted method of teaching reading (by phonics instruction) in England, Scotland and Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "\"Synthetic phonics\", also known as blended phonics, is a method employed to teach students to read by \"sounding out\" the letters then \"blending\" the sounds to form the word. This method involves learning how letters or letter groups represent individual sounds, and that those sounds are blended to form a word. For example, \"shrouds\" would be read by pronouncing the sounds for each spelling, \"sh,r,ou,d,s\" (IPA ), then blending those sounds orally to produce a spoken word, \"sh - r - ou - d - s= shrouds\" (IPA ). The goal of either a blended phonics or synthetic phonics instructional program is that students identify the sound-symbol correspondences and blend their phonemes automatically. Since 2005, synthetic phonics has become the accepted method of teaching reading (by phonics instruction) in the United Kingdom and Australia. In the United States, a pilot program using the Core Knowledge Early Literacy program that used this type of phonics approach showed significantly higher results in K-3 reading compared with comparison schools. In addition, several States such as California, Ohio, New York and Arkansas, are promoting the principles of synthetic phonics (see synthetic phonics in the USA)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics\n--Overview.\n--Methodology.\n--Systematic phonics.\n----Analytic phonics.\n----Synthetic phonics.\n--Common terminology.\n--History.\n----Australia.\n----Canada.\n----United Kingdom.\n------Scotland.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Dr Jennifer Buckingham, Senior Research Fellow, Centre for Independent Studies, AU published a research brief in June 2018 explaining Systematic Synthetic Phonics and the evidence supporting it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 2009, the UK Department of Education published a curriculum review that added support for systematic phonics. In fact, systematic phonics in the UK is known as Synthetic phonics. Beginning as early as 2014, several States in the United States have changed their curriculum to include systematic phonics instruction in elementary school. In 2018, the State Government of Victoria, Australia, published a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In December 2005 the Department of Education, Science and Training of the Australian Government published a report entitled a National Inquiry into the Teaching of Reading. The report recommends direct and systematic instruction in phonics as the foundation of early reading instruction. It is not clear if all of the findings of the report are reflected in the Australian Curriculum. The report was critiqued by Phillip Cormack, University of South Australia, who states that the key to success in a reading lesson is the relationship between the teacher, the child and the material to be read."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "As of October 5, 2018, The State Government of Victoria, Australia, publishes a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons. It contains elements of synthetic phonics, analytical phonics, and analogy phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics, also known as \"blended phonics\" or \"inductive phonics\", is a method of teaching English reading which first teaches the letter sounds and then builds up to blending these sounds together to achieve full pronunciation of whole words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2021, the province of New Brunswick introduced a new English Language Arts curriculum that includes phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and reading comprehension. Notably, the teaching of alphabetic skills based on the science of reading has replaced the use of various cueing systems and a variety of strategies to construct meaning from text. It is not yet clear whether the teaching practices will lean towards synthetic phonics, or analytic phonics, or a combination of the two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2015 the New York State Public School system began a process to revise its English Language Arts Learning Standards. The standards were revised in 2017 and call for teaching involving \"reading or literacy experiences\" as well as phonemic awareness from prekindergarten to grade 1 and phonics, word recognition, and word analysis skills in decoding words from grade 1 to grade 4. They will become effective at the beginning of the 2020-2021 school year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics refers to a family of programs which aim to teach reading and writing through the following methods:\n* Teaching students the correspondence between \"written letters\" (graphemes) and \"speech sounds\" (phonemes). For example, the words \"me\" and \"pony\" have the same sound at the end, but use different letters.\n* Teaching students to read words by \"blending\": identifying the graphemes (letters) in the word, recalling the corresponding phonemes (sounds), and saying the phonemes together to form the sound of the whole word.\n* Teaching students to write words by \"segmenting\": identifying the phonemes of the word, recalling the corresponding graphemes, then writing the graphemes together to form the written word."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "The teaching of reading and writing has varied over the years from spelling and phonetic methods to the fashions for look-say and whole language methods. In America in the eighteenth century, Noah Webster introduced spelling approaches with syllabaries and in England the use of James Pitman's Initial Teaching Alphabet was popular in the 1960s. Recently phonic methods have been revived."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In 2009, the UK Department of Education published a curriculum review that added support for systematic phonics. In fact, systematic phonics in the UK is known as Synthetic phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "\"Overall we conclude that the synthetic phonics approach, as part of the reading curriculum, is more effective than the analytic phonics approach, even when it is supplemented with phonemic awareness training. It also led boys to reading words significantly better than girls, and there was a trend towards better spelling and reading comprehension. There is evidence that synthetic phonics is best taught at the beginning of Primary 1, as even by the end of the second year at school the children in the early synthetic phonics programme had better spelling ability, and the girls had significantly better reading ability.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics involves the teaching of the transparent alphabet (e.g. \"c\" as in \"cat\") before progressing onto the opaque alphabet (e.g. \"ch\" as in \"school\"). In other words, learners are taught steps which are straightforward and 'work' before being taught the complications and variations of pronunciation and spelling of the full alphabetic code. It introduces irregular words and more tricky words (defined as words which cannot be pronounced phonically \u2013 English has a surprisingly large number of these, usually the commonest words of all such as 'to', 'of', etc.) slowly and systematically after a thorough introduction of the transparent alphabet code (learning the 44 letter/s-sound correspondences to automaticity and how to blend for reading and segment for spelling). Phonics application still works at least in part in such words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics programs have some or all of the following characteristics:\n* Teaching grapheme-phoneme (letters-sound) correspondence out of alphabetic order, following an order determined by perceived complexity (going from easiest to hardest to learn).\n* Teaching the reading and writing of words in order of increasing irregularity, in other words teaching words which follow typical grapheme-phoneme correspondence first (e.g. \"ape\" and \"cat\"), and teaching words with idiosyncratic or unusual grapheme-phoneme correspondence later (e.g. \"eight\" and \"duck\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "It is no longer supported by the Primary National Strategy in England as Synthetic phonics is the officially recognized method for teaching reading."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2014 the California Department of Education stated \"Ensuring that children know how to decode regularly spelled one-syllable words by mid-first grade is crucial\". It goes on to say that \"Children need to be phonemically aware (especially able to segment and blend phonemes)\". The skills of segmenting and blending phonemes are a central aspect of synthetic phonics. In grades two and three children receive explicit instruction in advanced phonic-analysis and reading multi-syllabic and more complex words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic Phonics uses the concept of 'synthesising', which means 'putting together' or 'blending'. Simply put, the sounds prompted by the letters are synthesised (put together or blended) to pronounce the word."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics programs \"do not\" have the following characteristics:\n* Encouraging students to guess the meaning of words from contextual clues (see whole language method).\n* Encouraging students to memorise the shape of words, to recall them by sight (see Look say method).\n* Teaching grapheme-phoneme correspondence on a \"when needed\" basis or as applied to particular groups of words, when these words arise in other forms of reading instruction (see \"embedded phonics\" in Whole language)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diane McGuinness",
        "text": "McGuinness is an outspoken critic of whole language instruction but also of phonics as traditionally taught in the United States. She favors an approach to early reading instruction known as synthetic phonics or linguistic phonics, in which the starting point for instruction is the 40-odd phonemes of English. In synthetic phonics instruction, each sound is introduced initially with a single \"basic code\" spelling, e.g. the /ee/ sound is connected to the 'ee' spelling. Students are taught to read by blending all of the sounds in the word. Spelling alternatives for sounds (e.g. for /ee/ the spellings 'y' as in \"funny\", 'ea' as in \"eat\", 'e' as in \"reflex\", 'ie' as in \"cookie\", etc.) are taught later. McGuinness has also introduced the term \"code overlap\" to describe a spelling (or grapheme) that can stand for more than one sound (phoneme), e.g. the spelling 'ow' can stand for the /ou/ sound as in the word \"now\", or for the /oe/ sound as in the word \"snow\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Some common terminology used within this article includes:\n*\"alphabetic code\" (in synthetic phonics): The relationship between sounds (phonemes) and the letter/s (graphemes) that represent them are referred to as a \"code\". For example, the sound \"ay\" can be represented in many ways \"(e.g. cake, may, they, eight, aid, break, etc.)\". See also: Alphabetic principle\n*\"decoding skills\" (in phonics): Without the use of context, to pronounce and \"read\" words accurately by using the relationship between the letter(s) and the sounds they represent. (i.e. \"cat\" is \"k - a - t\", \"plough\" is \"p - l - ow\", and \"school\" is \"s - k - oo - l\". \"Encoding skills\" (i.e. \"spelling\") is the same process in reverse.\n*Direct instruction (also known as \"Explicit Instruction\" ): A teaching style that is characterized by \"carefully designed instruction\" that usually includes a fast pace, small steps, demonstrations, active participation, coaching, immediate correction, and positive feedback. (Pg. 85)\n*intensive instruction: teaching or tutoring that include some of the following: more time; peer-assisted strategies; and instruction in small groups or one-on-one. (Pg. 209)\n*peer-assisted literacy strategies: learners work in pairs (taking turns as teacher and learner) to learn a \"structured sequence\" of literacy skills, such as phonemic awareness, phonics, sound blending, passage reading, and story retelling. (Pg. 33)\n*supportive instruction: teaching or tutoring that supports the student both emotionally and cognitively. This includes encouragement, immediate feedback, positive reinforcement, and instructional scaffolding (i.e. clear structure, small steps, guiding with questions). (Pg. 209)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics develops phonemic awareness along with the corresponding letter shapes. It involves the learners rehearsing the writing of letter shapes alongside learning the letter/s-sound correspondences preferably with the tripod pencil grip. Dictation is a frequent teaching technique from letter level to word spelling, including nonsense words (e.g. choy and feep) and eventually extending to text level. It does not teach letter names until the learners know their letter/s-sound correspondences thoroughly and how to blend for reading and segment for spelling. Often when letter names are introduced it is through singing an alphabet song."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics involves the development of phonemic awareness from the outset. As part of the decoding process, the reader learns up to 44 phonemes (the smallest units of sound) and their related graphemes (the written symbols for the phoneme)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics teaches phonics at the level of the individual phoneme from the outset; not syllables and not onset and rime. Synthetic phonics does not teach anything about reading as a meaning-focused process. It highlights decoding and pronunciation of words only. Teachers are to put accuracy before speed, because fluency (i.e. speed, accuracy, expression), and comprehension will come with time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Yet, systematic phonics and synthetic phonics received attention in the following publications:\n* In 2005 the Ministry of Education for the government of Ontario published a report entitled \"Early Reading Strategy: The Report of the Expert Panel on Early Reading in Ontario and Early Math Strategy\". The report states \"This Expert Panel supports the position of the National Reading Panel (2000) that phonics instruction should be integrated into a comprehensive and balanced reading program. Instruction in phonics and decoding should not be conceived of as a total reading program, but neither should it be neglected.\" Pg 104\n* The Canadian Language and Literacy Research Network published a report entitled Foundations for Literacy: An evidence-based Toolkit for the Effective Reading and Writing Teacher. It is a practical toolkit helping teachers to a) understand research in order to keep informed, b) understand how children develop reading and writing skills, and c) understand how to use effective instruction techniques. It also includes explanations of phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, the alphabetic principle (including systematic phonics and synthetic phonics instruction).\n* In 2009, the Ministry of Education for the province of British Columbia posted a discussion paper on their Read Now website entitled \"Reading: Breaking Through the Barriers.\" The paper states that explicit and synthetic phonics needs to be taught directly in the classroom because it works \"for all students but are particularly helpful for students at risk for reading difficulty\". (Pg. 8) There appears to be no evidence, however, that systematic phonics (or synthetic phonics) is a part of the teaching pedagogy.\n* In 2010, The Literacy and Numeracy Secretariat of Ontario, Canada published a report entitled Capacity Building Series: Reading Fluency that offers practical strategies to teach reading comprehension. This includes Automaticity (the ability to automatically decode words), Phrasing (reading phrases not only words), and Expression (moving from a monotone delivery to a natural rise and fall in pitch, tone and rhythm). In the section about decoding it discusses the importance of Phonological Awareness (hearing words in sentences and individual sounds in words), Alphabetic Letter Knowledge (identifying, naming and writing letters), and the Alphabetic Principle (understanding that letters represent the sounds of spoke language). In the latter, in addition to other suggestions, it is emphasized that teaching should include instruction in segmenting and blending alongside the explicit teaching of letter sounds.\n* Dr. Robert Savage, formerly of McGill University and now at UCL Institute of Education, University College London, concludes that, with respect to remedial programs, we should not wait for children to fail before using phonics programs. He also recommends the teaching of such skills as segmenting and blending alongside the \"explicit teaching\" of letter sounds. He also says there is a need for more Randomized controlled trials in order to produce more definitive conclusions. In another report about effective early reading instruction and inclusion, Dr. Savage states that \"a heavy and early structured approach to early reading intervention focused on mastering the use of the alphabetic principle to decode as a self-teaching mechanism is enough to allow many children to take off into reading without further focused support beyond good regular classroom teaching\".\n* In 2011, Dr. Janette Pelletier, OISE, University of Toronto published a paper entitled Supporting Early Language and Literacy that outlines several key findings from early literacy research, including the importance of teaching phonological awareness and the \"knowledge of letter names and letter-sound correspondences\" also known as decoding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The term \"phonics\" during the 19th century and into the 1970s was used as a synonym of phonetics. The use of the term in reference to the method of teaching is dated to 1901 by the Oxford English Dictionary. The relationship between sounds and letters is the backbone of traditional phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Other findings of this report are:\n* Guided Oral Reading (reading out loud and receiving systematic and explicit feedback from a teacher) \"had a significant and positive impact on word recognition, fluency, and comprehension\".\n* The value of Independent Silent Reading is unclear; however it is clear that it should not be the only type of reading instruction to develop fluency and other reading skills.\n* Vocabulary, both oral and print, should be taught directly and indirectly because it leads to gains in comprehension.\n* Teaching a combination of reading comprehension techniques is the most effective, however more research is needed to determine which techniques are the most effective."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Supporters of Synthetic phonics argue that if the systematic teaching of phonics doesn't take place, analytic learners can fall behind and fail to develop the tools they need for decoding words.\n*Reading\n*Phonemic awareness\n*Phonetics\n*Phonics\n*Synthetic phonics"
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "The United States has a long history of debate concerning the various methods used to teach reading, including Phonics. In 1999, The \"National Institute of Child Health and Human Development\" (NICHD) appears to conclude that systematic phonics programs are \"significantly more effective\" than non-phonics programs. It also concludes that they found no significant difference between the different phonics approaches, while suggesting that more evidence may be required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "There has been a resurgence of interest in synthetic phonics in recent years, particularly in England. As of 2013, all (local-authority-maintained) primary schools in England have a statutory requirement to teach synthetic phonics in years one and two. In addition, any pupil who is struggling to decode words properly by year three must \"urgently\" receive help through a \"rigorous and systematic phonics programme\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Systematic phonics is not one specific method of teaching phonics; rather, it is a family of phonics instruction that includes methods such as synthetic phonics and analytic phonics. They are \"systematic\" because the letters, and the sounds they relate to, are taught in a specific sequence; as opposed to incidentally or on a 'when-needed' basis. In the United Kingdom, the term \"systematic phonics\" is \"generally understood as synthetic phonics\" according to the reading review which was conducted in 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "On the one hand, the curriculum of all of the Canadian provinces include some of the following: phonics, phonological awareness, segmenting and blending, decoding, phonemic awareness, graphophonic cues, and letter-sound relationships."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Critics of the report claim that the results were exaggerated and due to more than just synthetic phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2019 the International Literacy Association released a report entitled Meeting the Challenges of Early Literacy Phonics Instruction The report clearly supports the use of phonics instruction that is explicit and systematic, stating that \"phonics instruction is helpful for all students, harmful for none, and crucial for some\". It also offers an opinion on the ten most common causes of Phonics Instructional Failure, namely: inadequate time devoted to mastering a new phonics skill such as blending (4\u20136 weeks recommended); lack of application to real reading instruction; inappropriate reading material to practice the skills; too much teacher instruction, and too little reading by the student; lost time during instructional transitions; the teacher's attitude and knowledge of phonics instructional material; lessons that are not fast-paced and rigorous; lack of assessments over an extended period of time; waiting too long to transition to multi-syllable words; and over emphasis of phonics drills at the expense of other aspects such as vocabulary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics teaches the phonemes (sounds) associated with the graphemes (letters) at the rate of about six sounds per week. The sounds are taught in isolation then blended together (i.e. synthesised), all-through-the-word. For example, learners might be taught a short vowel sound (e.g. \"a\" as in cat) in addition to some consonant sounds (e.g. \"s, t, p\"). Then the learners are taught words with these sounds (e.g. sat, pat, tap, at). They are taught to pronounce each phoneme in a word, then to blend the phonemes together to form the word (e.g. \"s - a - t; \"sat\"\"). Sounds are taught in all positions of the words, but the emphasis is on all-through-the-word segmenting and blending from week one. It does not teach whole words as shapes (initial sight vocabulary) prior to learning the alphabetic code."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In Analytic phonics (sometimes referred to as Analytical phonics) practitioners do not teach learners to pronounce sounds \"in isolation\" as is the practice with Synthetic Phonics. Furthermore, consonant blends (separate, adjacent consonants) are taught as units (e.g., in the word 'shrouds' the shr would be taught as a unit). Some analytic phonics programs (referred to as analogy phonics ) teach learners to break-down words into their common components which are referred to as the \"onset\" and the \"rime\". In the word \"ship\", \"sh\" is the \"onset\" and \"ip\" is the \"rime\" (the part starting with the vowel). In other words, analytic phonics teaches the learner to say \"sh\" - \"ip\" (ship) and \"sh\" - \"op\" (shop), whereas synthetic phonics, teaches the learner to say \"sh - i - p\" (ship) and \"sh - o - p\" (shop). In analytic phonics, learners are also taught to find the similarities among words (e.g. man, can, tan, fan, and ran), whereas synthetic phonics devotes most of its time to learning the letter/sound relationships (i.e. grapheme/phoneme)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "On the other hand, some of the practices of whole language are evident, such as: \"use language prediction skills to identify unknown words\"; \"using three cueing systems: meaning, structure, and visual\"; \"reading on, omitting words, rereading and making substitutions\"; \"predict on the basis of what makes sense\"; and \"a wide variety of sight words\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "The Rose Report, from the Department for Education in England makes it clear that, in their view, systematic phonics, specifically synthetic phonics, is the best way to ensure that children learn to read; such that it is now the law. In 2005 the government of Australia published a report stating \"The evidence is clear ... that direct systematic instruction in phonics during the early years of schooling is an essential foundation for teaching children to read\". Phonics has been gaining acceptance in many other countries as can be seen from this page Practices by country or region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In the United Kingdom a 2010 government white paper contained plans to train all primary school teachers in phonics. The 2013 curriculum has \"statutory requirements\" that, amongst other things, students in years one and two be capable in using systematic synthetic phonics in regards to word reading, reading comprehension, fluency, and writing. This includes having skills in \"sound to graphemes\", \"decoding\", and \"blending\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Australia\n* Sample phonics lessons - Victoria State Government, Australia\n* Phonological awareness - Victoria State Government, Australia\n* Effective reading instruction - Victoria State Government, Australia\n* Teaching practices for reading and viewing - Victoria State Government, Australia\n* Phonics - NSW Government, Australia\n* Systematic and explicit phonics instruction - Primary English Teacher Association Australia"
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Systematic phonics does \"not\" include methods such as \"embedded phonics\" and \"phonics mini lessons\" which are found in the \"Whole Language\" approach and the \"Balanced Literacy\" approach."
      },
      {
        "title": "Whole language",
        "text": "In 2006, the U.K. Department for Education and Skills undertook a review of early reading that came out in favor of Synthetic phonics. Subsequently, in March 2011, the U.K. Department of Education released a white paper entitled \"The Importance of Teaching\", which supported systematic synthetic phonics as the best method for teaching reading."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "A five-year follow-up of the study concluded that the beneficial effects were long-lasting, in fact the reading gains increased."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In Canada, public education is the responsibility of the Provincial and Territorial governments. There is no evidence that \"systematic phonics (including synthetic phonics)\" has been specifically adopted by any of these jurisdictions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics involves a heavy emphasis on hearing the sounds all-through-the-word for spelling and not an emphasis on \"look, cover, write, check\". This latter, visual form of spelling plays a larger part with unusual spellings and spelling variations although a phonemic procedure is always emphasised in spelling generally. Teachers read a full range of literature with the learners and ensure that all learners have a full range of experience of activities associated with literacy such as role play, drama, poetry, but the learners are \"not\" expected to 'read' text which is beyond them, and the method does \"not\" involve guessing at words from context, picture and initial letter clues.\n*learning letter sounds (as distinct from the letter names);\n:For example, mmm not em, sss not ess, fff not ef. The letter names can be taught later but should not be taught in the early stages.\n*learning the 40+ sounds and their corresponding letters/letter groups;\n:The English Alphabet Code 'Key': 40+ phonemes with their common 'sound pattern' representations. (This is based on the British pronunciation. The number and mixture of the 40+ phonemes will vary for other English speaking countries such as Australia, Canada and the United States).\n::Vowels:\n::*\"a\" - mat\n::*\"a-e\" - ape, baby, rain, tray, they, eight\n::*\"air\" - square, bear\n::*\"ar\" - jar, far\n::*\"e\" - peg, bread\n::*\"ee\" - sweet, me, beach, key, pony\n::*\"eer\" - deer, hear\n::*\"er\" - computer, doctor\n::*\"i\" - pig, wanted\n::*\"i-e\" - kite, wild, light, pie\n::*\"o\" - orange, quality\n::*\"oa\" - oak, rope, bow, piano\n::*\"oi\" - coin, boy\n::*\"oo\" - (short) book, would, put\n::*\"oo\" - (long) moon, crew, blue, fruit, few\n::*\"ow\" - down, house\n::*\"or\" - fork, ball, sauce, law,\n::*\"u\" - plug, glove\n::*\"ur\" - burn, teacher, work, first\n::*\"u-e\" - tune, unicorn, hue\n::*\"uh\" - button, hidden\n::Consonants:\n::*\"b\" - boy, rabbit\n::*\"c / k\" - cat, key, duck, school, quit\n::*\"ch\" - chip, watch, statue\n::*\"d\" - dog, ladder\n::*\"f\" - fish, coffee, photo, tough\n::*\"g\" - gate, egg, ghost\n::*\"h\" - hat, whole\n::*\"j\" - jet, giant, cage, bridge\n::*\"k-s\" - box\n::*\"l\" - lip, bell, sample\n::*\"m\" - man, hammer, comb\n::*\"n\" - nut, dinner, knee, gnat\n::*\"ng\" - ring, singer\n::*\"p\" - pan, happy\n::*\"r\" - rat, cherry, write\n::*\"s / c\" - sun, dress, house, city, mice\n::*\"sh\" - ship, mission, station, chef\n::*\"t\" - tap, letter, debt\n::*\"th\" - thrush\n::*\"th\" - that\n::*\"v\" - vet, sleeve\n::*\"w\" - wet, wheel, queen\n::*\"y\" - yes, new\n::*\"z\" - zip, fizz, sneeze, is, cheese\n::*\"g-z\" - exist\n::*\"zh\" - treasure\n*learning to read words using sound \"blending\" in which each individual sound is joined together to form a word (e.g. \"c\" - \"a\" - \"t\"= cat).;\n*reading stories featuring the words the students have learned to sound out;\n*demonstration exercises to show they comprehend the stories;"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In the 1980s the three-cueing system (the searchlights model in England) emerged. According to a 2010 survey 75% of teachers in the United States teach the three-cueing system. It teaches children to guess a word by using \"meaning cues\" (semantic, syntactic and graphophonic). While the system does help students to \"make better guesses\", it does not help when the words become more sophisticated; and it reduces the amount of practice time available to learn essential decoding skills. Consequently, present-day researchers such as cognitive neuroscientists Mark Seidenberg and professor Timothy Shanahan do not support the theory. In England, synthetic phonics is intended to replace \"the searchlights multi-cueing model\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In January, 2019 Ofsted published a report entitled \"Education inspection framework: overview of research\" that further supports \"systematic synthetic phonics\" together with phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 2016 the London School of Economics published a paper supporting the teaching of synthetic phonics to disadvantaged children because it helps to close the literacy gap."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "A review of the teaching of early reading was undertaken by Sir Jim Rose at the request of the Department for Education. While the report often uses the term \"\"Systematic\" Phonic work\", it appears to support \"\"Synthetic\" Phonics\" as evidenced in the Rose Review in 2006. In fact, the Department of Education, England uses the term \"systematic synthetic phonics\". The following is a summary of the report's observations and recommendations concerning phonics:\n#The skills of speaking, listening, reading and writing are used by (and are supported by) what it refers to as \"high quality, systematic phonics\".\n#Young children should receive sufficient pre-reading instruction so they are able to start systematic phonics work \"by the age of five\".\n#High quality phonics work should be taught as \"the prime approach\" to teaching reading, writing, and spelling.\n#Phonics instruction should form a part of \"a broad and rich language curriculum\". Note: critics of this report point out that the report does not explain what they mean by this, nor does it offer any details on how to achieve this within the framework of synthetic phonics' instruction.\n* In a report dated April 2007, professors Dominic Wyse and Morag Styles conclude that the evidence \"supports\" systematic phonics; however, the Rose Report's assertion that synthetic phonics should be the \"preferred method\" is \"not supported by research evidence\". This criticism is based on the way the research was conducted and how the results were interpreted.\n* In October 2011, The \"National Campaign for Real Nursery Education\" web site (U.K.) comments on the U.K. government's intent to impose a specific type of phonics teaching (i.e. systematic, synthetic phonics) in the nursery and reception years, and suggests that this decision was not supported by the \"research evidence\".\n* Following the adoption of the phonics approach in its schools, the Department of Education, England provided a great deal of online support for teachers wishing to learn more about effective phonics teaching strategies. In 2010, the U.K. Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED) released a report entitled Reading by Six - How the best schools do it. It reported that twelve successful schools employed common methods of teaching reading using systematic phonics with features such as; having a clearly defined and incremental approach to the correspondence between the letters and the sounds; applying the blending of the sounds all through the word; and segmenting the phonemes (sounds) to spell the words.\n* In March 2011 the Department of Education, England released its White paper entitled \"The Importance of Teaching\". In the Executive Summary, item 12 of the curriculum section states their commitment to support \"systematic synthetic phonics, as the best method for teaching reading.\"\n*As of 2013, all (local-authority-maintained) primary schools in England have a statutory requirement to teach synthetic phonics in years one and two. In addition, any pupil who is struggling to decode words properly by year three must \"urgently\" receive help through a \"rigorous and systematic phonics programme\".\n* In 2014 the U.K. Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED) updated their guidance for school inspectors to include practical tips on how schools should teach reading with systematic phonics, including \"Getting them Reading Early\". It describes \"The simple view of reading\" as the word recognition processes (recognizing the words on the page, free of context and using phonics) and the language recognition processes (understanding the meaning of the language). It also includes some videos to illustrate its principles.\n* The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS 2016) report was released in December 2017. It reports on the reading abilities of students aged 9 and 10 in 50 countries, and shows that England has risen to Joint 8th place in 2016; its best since 2001. This confirms \"that our approach is working\", according to Minister Nick Gibb. PIRLS 2016 has a summary of England's Language/Reading Curriculum in the Fourth Grade that shows the increased emphasis on \"phonic knowledge and skills as the route to decode words until automatic decoding has become embedded and reading is fluent\".\n* In 2016 the London School of Economics published a paper that supports the teaching of synthetic phonics to disadvantaged children because it helps to close the literacy gap.\n* Some critics continue to raise concerns about how Systematic Synthetic Phonics is being taught and assessed, and whether it puts too much emphasis on decoding at the expense of other factors such as vocabulary and \"learning to read\".\n* In 2018, The Office for Standards in Education, Children\u2019s Services and Skills (Ofsted), as part of its curriculum research has produced a YouTube video on Early Reading. It states \"It is absolutely essential that every child master the phonic code as quickly as possible ... So, successful schools firstly teach phonics first, fast and furious.\" As of September, 2019, the Ofsted inspections will focus more on what is taught and how it is taught, and less on the test data.\n* While there has been concern expressed about the phonics screening test at the end of year one, some report that phonics is especially valuable for poor readers and those without English as a first language. In January, 2019 Ofsted published a report entitled \"Education inspection framework: overview of research\" that further supports \"systematic synthetic phonics\" together with phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension.\n* In January 2022, a report was published by researchers at University College London which said that the current emphasis in English schools on synthetics phonics is not underpinned by the latest evidence, and suggested that teaching reading in England may have been less successful since the adoption of the synthetic phonics approach, rather than more. The researchers were among 250 signatories to a letter to the education secretary calling on the government to allow for a wider range of approaches to teaching reading."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2018 The Association for Psychological Science published an article entitled \"Ending the Reading Wars: Reading Acquisition From Novice to Expert\". The purpose of the article is to fill the gap between the current research knowledge and the public understanding about how we learn to read, and to explain \"why phonics instruction is so central to learning in a writing system such as English\". It points out that if reading instruction relied only on the association between the printed word and meaning (as in Whole Language) it would require the memorization of thousands of individual words. Thus, \"systematic phonics instruction should be viewed as a natural and logical consequence of the manner in which alphabetic writing systems represent spoken language\". There is, however, still a debate as to which systematic phonics method is most effective, synthetic or analytic. The article also explains that despite the weight of evidence supporting systematic phonics, it has only been fully implemented in England. The United States does have Common Core State Standards Initiative that include recommendations for Print Concepts, Phonological Awareness, Phonics, and Fluency; however not all states have adopted these standards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "The NICHD has come out in support of phonics instruction. The institute conducts and supports research on all stages of human development. The institute conducted a meta-analysis and, in 2000 it published a report entitled \"Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching Children to Read\". Some \"findings and determinations\" of this report are:\n*Teaching phonemic awareness (PA) to children was \"highly effective\" with a variety of children under a variety of conditions. (Note: Phonemic Awareness is the ability to manipulate sounds (phonemes) in spoken syllables and words. Phonemes are the smallest units of sounds comprising spoken language. For example, the words \"go\" and \"she\" each consist of two sounds or phonemes, \"g-o\" (IPA ) and \"sh-e\" (IPA ), respectively.\n*Reading instruction that taught PA improved the children's reading ability significantly more than those that lacked this instruction.\n*PA helped normally achieving children to spell but was not effective in helping disabled readers to spell better.\n*\"Systematic synthetic phonics\" instruction had a positive and significant effect on helping disabled readers, low achieving students, and students with low socioeconomic status to read words more effectively than instruction methods that lacked this approach.\n*Systematic Phonics instruction improved the ability of good readers to spell. Poor readers experienced a small improvement in spelling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Whole language",
        "text": "In December 2005, the Australian government endorsed the teaching of synthetic phonics and discredited the whole language approach (\"on its own\"). Its Department of Education, Science and Training published a National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy. The report states: \"The evidence is clear, whether from research, good practice observed in schools, advice from submissions to the Inquiry, consultations, or from Committee members' own individual experiences, that direct systematic instruction in phonics during the early years of schooling is an essential foundation for teaching children to read.\" See ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "A challenge in teaching phonics is that in some languages, such as English, complex letter-sound correspondences can cause confusion for beginning readers. For this reason, it is recommended that teachers of English-reading begin by introducing the \"most frequent sounds\" and the \"common spellings\", and save the less frequent sounds and complex spellings for later. (e.g. the sounds /s/ and /t/ before /v/ and /w/; and the spellings c\"a\"ke before \"eigh\"t and \"c\"at before du\"ck\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Analytic phonics (sometimes referred to as Analytical phonics or Implicit phonics ) refers to a very common approach to the teaching of reading that starts at the word level, not at the sound (phoneme) level. It does not teach the blending of sounds together as is done in Synthetic phonics. One method is to have students identify a common sound in a set of words that each contain that same sound. For example, the teacher and student discuss how the following words are alike: \"pat\", \"park\", \"push\" and \"pen\". Analytic phonics is often taught together with levelled-reading books, look-say practice, and the use of aids such as phonics worksheets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2016 the What Works Clearinghouse and the Institute of Education Sciences, an independent and non-partisan arm of the U.S. Department of Education, published an Educator's Practice Guide (with evidence) on Foundational Skills to Support Reading for Understanding in Kindergarten Through 3rd Grade. It contains four recommendations to support reading: 1) Teach students academic language skills, including the use of inferential and narrative language, and vocabulary knowledge, 2) Develop awareness of the segments of sounds in speech and how they link to letters (phonemic awareness and phonics), 3) Teach students to decode words, analyze word parts, and write and recognize words (phonics and synthetic phonics), and 4) Ensure that each student reads connected text every day to support reading accuracy, fluency, and comprehension. Some universities have created additional material based on this guide"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sight word",
        "text": "Proponents of systematic phonics and synthetic phonics argue that children must first learn to associate the sounds of their language with the letter(s) that are used to represent them, and then to blends those sounds into words, and that children should never memorize words as visual designs. Using sight words as a method of teaching reading in English is seen as being at odds with the alphabetic principle and treating English as though it was a logographic language (e.g. Chinese or Japanese)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "\"Analytic phonics\" does not involve pronouncing individual sounds (phonemes) in isolation and blending the sounds, as is done in synthetic phonics. Rather, it is taught at the word level and students learn to analyze letter-sound relationships once the word is identified. For example, students analyze letter-sound correspondences such as the \"ou\" spelling of in shrouds. Also, students might be asked to practice saying words with similar sounds such as ball, bat and bite. Furthermore, students are taught consonant blends (separate, adjacent consonants) as units, such as break or shrouds\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Reading Panel",
        "text": "The NRP reviewed 38 studies on the teaching of phonics and found that teaching children the relationship between letters and spelling patterns and pronunciation and how to decode words improved reading achievement. Young children who received such instruction did better with decoding words, nonsense words, spelling, fluency, and reading comprehension. Older disabled readers also benefited from such instruction in terms of improvement in decoding, but without commensurate gains in spelling or reading comprehension. Systematic phonics instruction \u2014 that is instruction based on a planned curriculum \u2014 was found to be superior to more opportunistic versions in which teachers tried to teach what they thought students needed. There were no statistical differences between synthetic phonics programs in which each letter sound is taught versus analytic phonics that analyzes the sounds within complete words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In the US, a pilot program using the Core Knowledge Early Literacy program that used this type of phonics approach showed significantly higher results in K-3 reading compared with comparison schools. In addition, several States such as California, Ohio, New York and Arkansas, are promoting the principles of synthetic phonics (see synthetic phonics in the United States)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 1959, a journal report adds more details about how phonics is used. It says other"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "By November 2010, a government white paper contained plans to train all primary school teachers in phonics. The 2013 curriculum has \"statutory requirements\" that, amongst other things, students in years one and two be capable in using systematic synthetic phonics in regards to Word Reading, Reading Comprehension, Fluency, and Writing. This includes having skills in \"sound to graphemes\", \"decoding\", and \"blending\". Following this, Ofsted updated their guidance for school inspectors in 2014 to include tips on how schools should teach reading with systematic phonics, including \"Getting them Reading Early\". It includes a description of the simple view of reading as \"the word recognition processes\" (recognizing the words on the page, free of context and using phonics) and the \"language recognition processes\" (understanding the meaning of the language). It also includes some videos to illustrate its principles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2015 the Ohio Legislature set minimum standards requiring the use of phonics as a technique in teaching reading. It includes guidelines for teaching phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension. The Ohio Department of Education has created a guidance manual for the year 2018-2019 that outlines the requirements for Researched-Based Reading Instruction. By 2019 the new curricula appears to be paying off. Edweek.org reported that one elementary school in Ohio found that \"3rd grade test scores went from the worst in the district\u201444 percent proficient in 2016\u2014to the best, 71 percent in 2019.\" They also say \"Third grade reading proficiency districtwide moved from 53 percent in 2016 to 64 percent in 2019\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Phonics\n--Overview.\n----History.\n----Phonemic awareness.\n----The alphabetic principle (also: The alphabetic code).\n--Alternative spellings of the sounds.\n--Vowel and consonant phonics patterns.\n----Consonant phonics patterns.\n--Teaching reading with phonics.\n----Combining phonics with other literacy instruction.\n----Effectiveness of programs.\n----Sight words and sight vocabulary.\n----Systematic phonics.\n----Synthetic phonics.\n----Analytic phonics.\n----Analogy phonics.\n----Embedded phonics with mini-lessons.\n----Phonics through spelling.\n--Resources for phonics instruction.\n--The Reading Wars \u2013 Phonics vs. Whole language.\n----Simple view of reading.\n--Practices by country or region.\n----Australia.\n----Canada.\n----England.\n----Finland.\n----France.\n----Hungary.\n----Ireland.\n----Latin America and the Caribbean.\n----New Zealand.\n----Northern Ireland.\n----Norway.\n----Poland.\n----Portugal.\n----Russian Federation.\n----Scotland.\n----Singapore.\n----Sweden.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The 2016 international PISA study states that the method widely used now to teach reading in the Russian Federation was developed by the famous psychologist Daniil Elkonin in the 1960s. It says, \"students learn to define the sequence of sounds in a word and characterize each sound ... acquiring the knowledge of the phonetic system at an early stage\" and \"become better familiarized with the skills of reading\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Typically, the instruction starts with sounds that have only one letter and simple CVC words such as \"sat\" and \"pin\". Then it progresses to longer words, and sounds with more than one letter (e.g. hear and day), and perhaps even syllables (e.g. wa-ter). Sometimes the student practices saying (or sounding-out) cards that contain entire words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Analytic phonics is different from Synthetic phonics (that starts at the individual sound/ phoneme level and builds up to the whole word), and Whole language (that starts at the word level and does not encourage the use of phonics). It may, however, be used as a part of the Balanced literacy approach."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "Systematic phonics is sometimes mischaracterized as \"skill and drill\" with little attention to meaning. However, researchers point out that this impression is false. Teachers can use engaging games or materials to teach letter-sound connections, and it can also be incorporated with the reading of meaningful text."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In 1996 the California Department of Education took an increased interest in using phonics in schools. And in 1997 the department called for grade one teaching in concepts about print, phonemic awareness, decoding and word recognition, and vocabulary and concept development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Multisensory learning",
        "text": "According to the U.K. Independent review of the teaching of early reading (Rose Report 2006) multisensory learning is also effective because it keeps students more engaged in their learning. In 2010 the U.K. Department for Education established the core criteria for programs that teach school children to read by using systematic Synthetic phonics. It includes a requirement that the material \"uses a multi-sensory approach so that children learn variously from simultaneous visual, auditory and kinaesthetic activities which are designed to secure essential phonic knowledge and skills\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "The 2005 Rose Report from the UK concluded that systematic synthetic phonics was the most effective method for teaching reading. It also suggests the \"best teaching\" included a brisk pace, engaging children's interest with multi-sensory activities and stimulating resources, praise for effort and achievement; and above all, the full backing of the headteacher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "\"Analogy phonics\" is a particular type of \"analytic phonics\" in which the teacher has students analyze phonic elements according to the speech sounds (phonograms) in the word. For example, a type of phonogram (known in linguistics as a rime) is composed of the vowel and the consonant sounds that follow it (e.g. in the words \"cat, mat and sat,\" the rime is \"at\".) Teachers using the analogy method may have students memorize a bank of phonograms, such as \"-at\" or \"-am\", or use \"word families\" (e.g. can, ran, man, or may, play, say)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 1996 the California Department of Education took an increased interest in using phonics in schools. And in 1997 the department called for grade one teaching in concepts about print, phonemic awareness, decoding and word recognition, and vocabulary and concept development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Systematic phonics is sometimes mischaracterized as \"skill and drill\" with little attention to meaning. However, researchers point out that this impression is false. Teachers can use engaging games or materials to teach letter-sound connections, and it can also be incorporated with the reading of meaningful text."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "b) learning the sounds of groups of letters (in words) such as rimes (e.g. hat, mat and sat have the same rime, \"at\"), or consonant blends (also consonant clusters in linguistics) (e.g. bl as in black and st as in last), or syllables (e.g. pen-cil and al-pha-bet), or"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "\"Analytic phonics\" does not involve pronouncing individual sounds (phonemes) in isolation and blending the sounds, as is done in synthetic phonics. Rather, it is taught at the word level and students learn to analyze letter-sound relationships once the word is identified. For example, students analyze letter-sound correspondences such as the \"ou\" spelling of in shr\"ou\"ds. Also, students might be asked to practice saying words with similar sounds such as \"b\"all, \"b\"at and \"b\"ite. Furthermore, students are taught consonant blends (separate, adjacent consonants) as units, such as \"br\"eak or \"shr\"ouds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "\"Analogy phonics\" is a particular type of \"analytic phonics\" in which the teacher has students analyze phonic elements according to the speech sounds (phonograms) in the word. For example, a type of phonogram (known in linguistics as a rime) is composed of the vowel and the consonant sounds that follow it (e.g. in the words \"cat, mat and sat,\" the rime is \"at\".) Teachers using the analogy method may have students memorize a bank of phonograms, such as \"-at\" or \"-am\", or use \"word families\" (e.g. c\"an\", r\"an\", m\"an\", or m\"ay\", pl\"ay\", s\"ay\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics in Scotland has its roots in the Clackmannanshire Report, a seven-year study that was published in 2005. It compared analytic Phonics with synthetic Phonics and advantaged students with disadvantaged children. The report concluded that \"the synthetic phonics programme led to children from lower socio-economic backgrounds performing at the same level as children from advantaged backgrounds for most of their time in primary school. It also led to boys performing better than or as well as girls.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Education Scotland found that explicit, systematic phonics programs, usually embedded in a rich literacy environment, give an additional four months progress over other programs such as whole language, and are particularly beneficial for young learners (aged 4\u20137). There is evidence, though less secure, that synthetic phonics programs may be more beneficial than analytic phonics programs; however it is more important to systematically teach to the children's needs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics in Scotland has its roots in the Clackmannanshire Report, a seven-year study that was published in 2005. It compared analytic Phonics with synthetic Phonics and advantaged students with disadvantaged children. The report found that, using synthetic phonics, children from lower socio-economic backgrounds performed at the same level as children from advantaged backgrounds in primary school (whereas with analytic phonics teaching, they did significantly less well.); and boys performed better than or as well as girls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The 2016 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) awarded England its best results since the studies began in 2001. Nick Gibb attributes this success to the use of systematic synthetic phonics. In March of that year the Secretary of State for Education released a report entitled \"Educational Excellence Everywhere\". The report states that in 2010 33% percent of primary school students did not achieve the expected standard in reading, however \"since the introduction of the phonics reading check in 2012\", that number is down to 20%. The report goes on to say they still have much to do, particularly with students who are disadvantaged. The phonics check involves pupils reading aloud 40 words (including 20 non-words). In 2016, 81 per cent of pupils reached the expected standard of 32 correct words \u2013 up from 77 per cent in 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2018 the Arkansas Department of Education, Literacy Support Unit, published a report about their new initiative known as R.I.S.E., Reading Initiative for Student Excellence, that was the result of The Right to Read Act, passed in 2017. This was inspired because, as of 2015, less than half of their students were reading at grade level, placing them in the bottom third of States in relation to national reading assessments. The first goal of this initiative is to provide educators with the in-depth knowledge and skills of \"the science of reading\" and evidence-based instructional strategies. This includes a change of focus to research-based instruction on phonological awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension. Specific requirements are that reading instruction be systematic and explicit, and include decoding techniques. Part of the instruction involves the use of a book and study guide entitled Essentials of Assessing, Preventing and Overcoming Reading Difficulties, by David Kilpatrick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Some of the findings of the report are:\n* Among the successful schools visited, there were a number of key similarities. Three of those similarities are:\n:# a belief that each child can learn to read and write regardless of background;\n:# an early, systematic, and \"explicit\" (i.e. specific and clear) teaching of phonics;\n:#the phonics instruction was followed by \"direct teaching\".\n* Students learn best from an approach that includes phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary knowledge and comprehension. (Executive Summary)\n* A whole-language approach, \"on its own, is not in the best interests of children, particularly those experiencing reading difficulties\". (Pg. 12)\n* Where there is unsystematic or no phonics instruction, children do not perform as well in such areas as reading accuracy, fluency, writing, spelling and comprehension. (Pg. 12)\n* A recommendation that teachers provide \"systematic, direct and explicit phonics instruction\".(Pg. 14)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Nick Gibb",
        "text": "Gibb is a longstanding advocate of synthetic phonics as a method of teaching children to read, and is also a supporter of the motor neurone disease cause, currently being vice-chair of the All Party Motor Neurone Disease Group in parliament."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "\"Analog phonics\" is a subset of analytic phonics that uses the \"onset-rhyme\" of many words. In the word \"snap\", \"sn\" is the \"onset\" and \"ap\" is the \"rime\" (the part starting with the vowel). So, \"snap\" rhymes with \"map\", \"sap\", \"clap\", and so on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sight word",
        "text": "Other phonics advocates such as the Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSSI-USA) and the Departments of Education in England and the State of Victoria in Australia, recommend that teachers first begin by teaching children the frequent sounds and the simple spellings, then introduce the less frequent sounds and more complex spellings later (e.g. the sounds /s/ and /t/ before /v/ and /w/; and the spellings cake before eight and cat before duck). The following are samples of the lists that are available on the CCSSI-USA site:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The syllabus for 2010 advocates for a balance between \"systematic and explicit instruction\" and \"a rich language environment\". It called for increased instruction in oral language skills together with phonemic awareness and the key decoding elements of synthetic phonics, analytic phonics and analogy phonics. Specifically, it advocated for instruction in phonic's areas such as word families and rimes (e.g. jumps and jumped; bite and kite), segmenting and blending (e.g. , , = cat), vowels, consonants and syllables. And finally, it called for instruction in word study, grammar, vocabulary, writing and comprehension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "On January 27, 2022, the Ontario Human Rights Commission (OHRC) released a report on its public inquiry into the right to read. The OHRC's report deals with all students, not just those with learning disabilities. The inquiry found that Ontario is not fulfilling its obligations to meet students\u2019 right to read. The Minister of Education for Ontario responded to this report by saying the government is taking immediate action to improve student literacy and making longer-term reforms to modernize the way reading is taught and assessed in schools, with a focus on phonics. Their plan includes \"revising the elementary Language curriculum and the Grade 9 English course with scientific, evidence-based approaches that emphasize direct, explicit and systematic instruction and removing references to unscientific discovery and inquiry-based learning, including the three-cueing system, by 2023.\" It remains to be seen whether Ontario's curriculum will lean towards synthetic phonics, analytic phonics, or a combination of both."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The formula is: Decoding \u00d7 Oral Language Comprehension = Reading Comprehension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Prior to that, synthetic phonics was promoted by a cross-party group of Parliamentarians, particularly Nick Gibb MP. A report by the House of Commons Education and Skills Committee called for a review of the phonics content in the National Curriculum. Subsequently, the Department for Education and Skills announced a review into early years reading, headed by Sir Jim Rose, former Director of Inspection for Ofsted (responsible for the education standards in the UK). The review, entitled Independent review of the teaching of early reading (Rose Report 2006), addresses the question of why children's reading and writing (especially for boys) have not been meeting expectations. Paragraph 3.25 of the Final Report states \"This suggests that it is far more often the nature of the teaching than the nature of the child which determines success or failure in learning the 'basic' skills of reading and writing.\u201d It goes on to say it is not suggesting teachers are unable or unwilling to develop the required expertise, only that there has been systematic confusion and conflicting views about phonics. It also makes it clear that, when it comes to the wider knowledge and skills required for reading and writing, phonics work is \"necessary but not sufficient\". It concludes by suggesting the challenge will be resolved as research continues to support systematic phonics, and that teacher training and systematic phonics programs will produce \"good results for children\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "This principle was first presented by John Hart in 1570. Prior to that children learned to read through the ABC method, by which they recited the letters used in each word, from a familiar piece of text such as Genesis. It was John Hart who first suggested that the focus should be on the relationship between what is now referred to as graphemes and phonemes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "There are two primary approaches to teaching phonics: analytic phonics and synthetic phonics. Both approaches require the learner to have some phonological awareness (the ability to hear and discriminate sounds in spoken words). Both approaches can also contribute to furthering the student's phonological development. Phonological awareness is an essential skill for reading, writing, listening and talking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The following are examples of how phonics is used in some countries:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 2014 the California Department of Education stated \"Ensuring that children know how to decode regularly spelled one-syllable words by mid-first grade is crucial\". It goes on to say that \"Learners need to be phonemically aware (especially able to segment and blend phonemes)\". In grades two and three children receive explicit instruction in advanced phonic-analysis and reading multi-syllabic and more complex words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "observers report that the Russian system in beginning reading is \"strictly phonetic\". However, there are no separate phonics lessons, drill periods, drill books, exercises or \"gadgets\" as you might see in typical American schools. Instead, each new letter-sound is introduced at once in meaningful words the children can pronounce as soon as they know the sound of the new letter. There are no \"blending\" of the sounds, or \"crutches\" such as equating the sound of /s/ with a snake. Instead, \"all learning is by eye and ear in tandem\", and the association is formed solely between the printed symbol and its sound. And finally, each lesson makes use of exercises to confirm comprehension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "c) having students read books, play games and perform activities that contain the sounds they are learning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "For more information see Practices by country or region (below); and, History of learning to read."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "Phonics approaches include analogy phonics, analytic phonics, embedded phonics with mini-lessons, phonics through spelling, and synthetic phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "because the understanding of the sound-letters connection is implied and not necessarily taught directly."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where in the world are synthetic phonics used?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Synthetic phonic is a method of teaching English reading, so is used in countries such as Australia, Canada, and the U.K."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did it start being used in Australia?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "As of October 5, 2018, The State Government of Victoria, Australia, publishes a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is some of the common terminology used for synthetic phonics?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "These include alphabetic code, decoding skills, direct instruction, and intensive instruction. Which would you like to know more of?",
      "Common terminology in synthetic phonics include alphabetic code, decoding skills, direct instruction, and intensive instruction, to name a few. Which of these are you interested in learning more about?"
    ],
    "topic": "Synthetic phonics",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Synthetic phonics:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Synthetic phonics",
          "Common terminology"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some common terminology used within this article includes:\n*\"alphabetic code\" (in synthetic phonics): The relationship between sounds (phonemes) and the letter/s (graphemes) that represent them are referred to as a \"code\". For example, the sound \"ay\" can be represented in many ways \"(e.g. cake, may, they, eight, aid, break, etc.)\". See also: Alphabetic principle\n*\"decoding skills\" (in phonics): Without the use of context, to pronounce and \"read\" words accurately by using the relationship between the letter(s) and the sounds they represent. (i.e. \"cat\" is \"k - a - t\", \"plough\" is \"p - l - ow\", and \"school\" is \"s - k - oo - l\". \"Encoding skills\" (i.e. \"spelling\") is the same process in reverse.\n*Direct instruction (also known as \"Explicit Instruction\" ): A teaching style that is characterized by \"carefully designed instruction\" that usually includes a fast pace, small steps, demonstrations, active participation, coaching, immediate correction, and positive feedback. (Pg. 85)\n*intensive instruction: teaching or tutoring that include some of the following: more time; peer-assisted strategies; and instruction in small groups or one-on-one. (Pg. 209)\n*peer-assisted literacy strategies: learners work in pairs (taking turns as teacher and learner) to learn a \"structured sequence\" of literacy skills, such as phonemic awareness, phonics, sound blending, passage reading, and story retelling. (Pg. 33)\n*supportive instruction: teaching or tutoring that supports the student both emotionally and cognitively. This includes encouragement, immediate feedback, positive reinforcement, and instructional scaffolding (i.e. clear structure, small steps, guiding with questions). (Pg. 209)"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Synthetic phonics:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Synthetic phonics",
          "Common terminology"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some common terminology used within this article includes:\n*\"alphabetic code\" (in synthetic phonics): The relationship between sounds (phonemes) and the letter/s (graphemes) that represent them are referred to as a \"code\". For example, the sound \"ay\" can be represented in many ways \"(e.g. cake, may, they, eight, aid, break, etc.)\". See also: Alphabetic principle\n*\"decoding skills\" (in phonics): Without the use of context, to pronounce and \"read\" words accurately by using the relationship between the letter(s) and the sounds they represent. (i.e. \"cat\" is \"k - a - t\", \"plough\" is \"p - l - ow\", and \"school\" is \"s - k - oo - l\". \"Encoding skills\" (i.e. \"spelling\") is the same process in reverse.\n*Direct instruction (also known as \"Explicit Instruction\" ): A teaching style that is characterized by \"carefully designed instruction\" that usually includes a fast pace, small steps, demonstrations, active participation, coaching, immediate correction, and positive feedback. (Pg. 85)\n*intensive instruction: teaching or tutoring that include some of the following: more time; peer-assisted strategies; and instruction in small groups or one-on-one. (Pg. 209)\n*peer-assisted literacy strategies: learners work in pairs (taking turns as teacher and learner) to learn a \"structured sequence\" of literacy skills, such as phonemic awareness, phonics, sound blending, passage reading, and story retelling. (Pg. 33)\n*supportive instruction: teaching or tutoring that supports the student both emotionally and cognitively. This includes encouragement, immediate feedback, positive reinforcement, and instructional scaffolding (i.e. clear structure, small steps, guiding with questions). (Pg. 209)"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Synthetic phonics:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Synthetic phonics",
          "Common terminology"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some common terminology used within this article includes:\n*\"alphabetic code\" (in synthetic phonics): The relationship between sounds (phonemes) and the letter/s (graphemes) that represent them are referred to as a \"code\". For example, the sound \"ay\" can be represented in many ways \"(e.g. cake, may, they, eight, aid, break, etc.)\". See also: Alphabetic principle\n*\"decoding skills\" (in phonics): Without the use of context, to pronounce and \"read\" words accurately by using the relationship between the letter(s) and the sounds they represent. (i.e. \"cat\" is \"k - a - t\", \"plough\" is \"p - l - ow\", and \"school\" is \"s - k - oo - l\". \"Encoding skills\" (i.e. \"spelling\") is the same process in reverse.\n*Direct instruction (also known as \"Explicit Instruction\" ): A teaching style that is characterized by \"carefully designed instruction\" that usually includes a fast pace, small steps, demonstrations, active participation, coaching, immediate correction, and positive feedback. (Pg. 85)\n*intensive instruction: teaching or tutoring that include some of the following: more time; peer-assisted strategies; and instruction in small groups or one-on-one. (Pg. 209)\n*peer-assisted literacy strategies: learners work in pairs (taking turns as teacher and learner) to learn a \"structured sequence\" of literacy skills, such as phonemic awareness, phonics, sound blending, passage reading, and story retelling. (Pg. 33)\n*supportive instruction: teaching or tutoring that supports the student both emotionally and cognitively. This includes encouragement, immediate feedback, positive reinforcement, and instructional scaffolding (i.e. clear structure, small steps, guiding with questions). (Pg. 209)"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Synthetic phonics:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Synthetic phonics",
          "Common terminology"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some common terminology used within this article includes:\n*\"alphabetic code\" (in synthetic phonics): The relationship between sounds (phonemes) and the letter/s (graphemes) that represent them are referred to as a \"code\". For example, the sound \"ay\" can be represented in many ways \"(e.g. cake, may, they, eight, aid, break, etc.)\". See also: Alphabetic principle\n*\"decoding skills\" (in phonics): Without the use of context, to pronounce and \"read\" words accurately by using the relationship between the letter(s) and the sounds they represent. (i.e. \"cat\" is \"k - a - t\", \"plough\" is \"p - l - ow\", and \"school\" is \"s - k - oo - l\". \"Encoding skills\" (i.e. \"spelling\") is the same process in reverse.\n*Direct instruction (also known as \"Explicit Instruction\" ): A teaching style that is characterized by \"carefully designed instruction\" that usually includes a fast pace, small steps, demonstrations, active participation, coaching, immediate correction, and positive feedback. (Pg. 85)\n*intensive instruction: teaching or tutoring that include some of the following: more time; peer-assisted strategies; and instruction in small groups or one-on-one. (Pg. 209)\n*peer-assisted literacy strategies: learners work in pairs (taking turns as teacher and learner) to learn a \"structured sequence\" of literacy skills, such as phonemic awareness, phonics, sound blending, passage reading, and story retelling. (Pg. 33)\n*supportive instruction: teaching or tutoring that supports the student both emotionally and cognitively. This includes encouragement, immediate feedback, positive reinforcement, and instructional scaffolding (i.e. clear structure, small steps, guiding with questions). (Pg. 209)"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Synthetic phonics:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Synthetic phonics",
          "Common terminology"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some common terminology used within this article includes:\n*\"alphabetic code\" (in synthetic phonics): The relationship between sounds (phonemes) and the letter/s (graphemes) that represent them are referred to as a \"code\". For example, the sound \"ay\" can be represented in many ways \"(e.g. cake, may, they, eight, aid, break, etc.)\". See also: Alphabetic principle\n*\"decoding skills\" (in phonics): Without the use of context, to pronounce and \"read\" words accurately by using the relationship between the letter(s) and the sounds they represent. (i.e. \"cat\" is \"k - a - t\", \"plough\" is \"p - l - ow\", and \"school\" is \"s - k - oo - l\". \"Encoding skills\" (i.e. \"spelling\") is the same process in reverse.\n*Direct instruction (also known as \"Explicit Instruction\" ): A teaching style that is characterized by \"carefully designed instruction\" that usually includes a fast pace, small steps, demonstrations, active participation, coaching, immediate correction, and positive feedback. (Pg. 85)\n*intensive instruction: teaching or tutoring that include some of the following: more time; peer-assisted strategies; and instruction in small groups or one-on-one. (Pg. 209)\n*peer-assisted literacy strategies: learners work in pairs (taking turns as teacher and learner) to learn a \"structured sequence\" of literacy skills, such as phonemic awareness, phonics, sound blending, passage reading, and story retelling. (Pg. 33)\n*supportive instruction: teaching or tutoring that supports the student both emotionally and cognitively. This includes encouragement, immediate feedback, positive reinforcement, and instructional scaffolding (i.e. clear structure, small steps, guiding with questions). (Pg. 209)"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Synthetic phonics:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Synthetic phonics",
          "Common terminology"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some common terminology used within this article includes:\n*\"alphabetic code\" (in synthetic phonics): The relationship between sounds (phonemes) and the letter/s (graphemes) that represent them are referred to as a \"code\". For example, the sound \"ay\" can be represented in many ways \"(e.g. cake, may, they, eight, aid, break, etc.)\". See also: Alphabetic principle\n*\"decoding skills\" (in phonics): Without the use of context, to pronounce and \"read\" words accurately by using the relationship between the letter(s) and the sounds they represent. (i.e. \"cat\" is \"k - a - t\", \"plough\" is \"p - l - ow\", and \"school\" is \"s - k - oo - l\". \"Encoding skills\" (i.e. \"spelling\") is the same process in reverse.\n*Direct instruction (also known as \"Explicit Instruction\" ): A teaching style that is characterized by \"carefully designed instruction\" that usually includes a fast pace, small steps, demonstrations, active participation, coaching, immediate correction, and positive feedback. (Pg. 85)\n*intensive instruction: teaching or tutoring that include some of the following: more time; peer-assisted strategies; and instruction in small groups or one-on-one. (Pg. 209)\n*peer-assisted literacy strategies: learners work in pairs (taking turns as teacher and learner) to learn a \"structured sequence\" of literacy skills, such as phonemic awareness, phonics, sound blending, passage reading, and story retelling. (Pg. 33)\n*supportive instruction: teaching or tutoring that supports the student both emotionally and cognitively. This includes encouragement, immediate feedback, positive reinforcement, and instructional scaffolding (i.e. clear structure, small steps, guiding with questions). (Pg. 209)"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Synthetic phonics:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Synthetic phonics",
          "Common terminology"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some common terminology used within this article includes:\n*\"alphabetic code\" (in synthetic phonics): The relationship between sounds (phonemes) and the letter/s (graphemes) that represent them are referred to as a \"code\". For example, the sound \"ay\" can be represented in many ways \"(e.g. cake, may, they, eight, aid, break, etc.)\". See also: Alphabetic principle\n*\"decoding skills\" (in phonics): Without the use of context, to pronounce and \"read\" words accurately by using the relationship between the letter(s) and the sounds they represent. (i.e. \"cat\" is \"k - a - t\", \"plough\" is \"p - l - ow\", and \"school\" is \"s - k - oo - l\". \"Encoding skills\" (i.e. \"spelling\") is the same process in reverse.\n*Direct instruction (also known as \"Explicit Instruction\" ): A teaching style that is characterized by \"carefully designed instruction\" that usually includes a fast pace, small steps, demonstrations, active participation, coaching, immediate correction, and positive feedback. (Pg. 85)\n*intensive instruction: teaching or tutoring that include some of the following: more time; peer-assisted strategies; and instruction in small groups or one-on-one. (Pg. 209)\n*peer-assisted literacy strategies: learners work in pairs (taking turns as teacher and learner) to learn a \"structured sequence\" of literacy skills, such as phonemic awareness, phonics, sound blending, passage reading, and story retelling. (Pg. 33)\n*supportive instruction: teaching or tutoring that supports the student both emotionally and cognitively. This includes encouragement, immediate feedback, positive reinforcement, and instructional scaffolding (i.e. clear structure, small steps, guiding with questions). (Pg. 209)"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Synthetic phonics:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Synthetic phonics",
          "Common terminology"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some common terminology used within this article includes:\n*\"alphabetic code\" (in synthetic phonics): The relationship between sounds (phonemes) and the letter/s (graphemes) that represent them are referred to as a \"code\". For example, the sound \"ay\" can be represented in many ways \"(e.g. cake, may, they, eight, aid, break, etc.)\". See also: Alphabetic principle\n*\"decoding skills\" (in phonics): Without the use of context, to pronounce and \"read\" words accurately by using the relationship between the letter(s) and the sounds they represent. (i.e. \"cat\" is \"k - a - t\", \"plough\" is \"p - l - ow\", and \"school\" is \"s - k - oo - l\". \"Encoding skills\" (i.e. \"spelling\") is the same process in reverse.\n*Direct instruction (also known as \"Explicit Instruction\" ): A teaching style that is characterized by \"carefully designed instruction\" that usually includes a fast pace, small steps, demonstrations, active participation, coaching, immediate correction, and positive feedback. (Pg. 85)\n*intensive instruction: teaching or tutoring that include some of the following: more time; peer-assisted strategies; and instruction in small groups or one-on-one. (Pg. 209)\n*peer-assisted literacy strategies: learners work in pairs (taking turns as teacher and learner) to learn a \"structured sequence\" of literacy skills, such as phonemic awareness, phonics, sound blending, passage reading, and story retelling. (Pg. 33)\n*supportive instruction: teaching or tutoring that supports the student both emotionally and cognitively. This includes encouragement, immediate feedback, positive reinforcement, and instructional scaffolding (i.e. clear structure, small steps, guiding with questions). (Pg. 209)"
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Some common terminology used within this article includes:\n*\"alphabetic code\" (in synthetic phonics): The relationship between sounds (phonemes) and the letter/s (graphemes) that represent them are referred to as a \"code\". For example, the sound \"ay\" can be represented in many ways \"(e.g. cake, may, they, eight, aid, break, etc.)\". See also: Alphabetic principle\n*\"decoding skills\" (in phonics): Without the use of context, to pronounce and \"read\" words accurately by using the relationship between the letter(s) and the sounds they represent. (i.e. \"cat\" is \"k - a - t\", \"plough\" is \"p - l - ow\", and \"school\" is \"s - k - oo - l\". \"Encoding skills\" (i.e. \"spelling\") is the same process in reverse.\n*Direct instruction (also known as \"Explicit Instruction\" ): A teaching style that is characterized by \"carefully designed instruction\" that usually includes a fast pace, small steps, demonstrations, active participation, coaching, immediate correction, and positive feedback. (Pg. 85)\n*intensive instruction: teaching or tutoring that include some of the following: more time; peer-assisted strategies; and instruction in small groups or one-on-one. (Pg. 209)\n*peer-assisted literacy strategies: learners work in pairs (taking turns as teacher and learner) to learn a \"structured sequence\" of literacy skills, such as phonemic awareness, phonics, sound blending, passage reading, and story retelling. (Pg. 33)\n*supportive instruction: teaching or tutoring that supports the student both emotionally and cognitively. This includes encouragement, immediate feedback, positive reinforcement, and instructional scaffolding (i.e. clear structure, small steps, guiding with questions). (Pg. 209)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics involves the teaching of the transparent alphabet (e.g. \"c\" as in \"cat\") before progressing onto the opaque alphabet (e.g. \"ch\" as in \"school\"). In other words, learners are taught steps which are straightforward and 'work' before being taught the complications and variations of pronunciation and spelling of the full alphabetic code. It introduces irregular words and more tricky words (defined as words which cannot be pronounced phonically \u2013 English has a surprisingly large number of these, usually the commonest words of all such as 'to', 'of', etc.) slowly and systematically after a thorough introduction of the transparent alphabet code (learning the 44 letter/s-sound correspondences to automaticity and how to blend for reading and segment for spelling). Phonics application still works at least in part in such words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics programs have some or all of the following characteristics:\n* Teaching grapheme-phoneme (letters-sound) correspondence out of alphabetic order, following an order determined by perceived complexity (going from easiest to hardest to learn).\n* Teaching the reading and writing of words in order of increasing irregularity, in other words teaching words which follow typical grapheme-phoneme correspondence first (e.g. \"ape\" and \"cat\"), and teaching words with idiosyncratic or unusual grapheme-phoneme correspondence later (e.g. \"eight\" and \"duck\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics refers to a family of programs which aim to teach reading and writing through the following methods:\n* Teaching students the correspondence between \"written letters\" (graphemes) and \"speech sounds\" (phonemes). For example, the words \"me\" and \"pony\" have the same sound at the end, but use different letters.\n* Teaching students to read words by \"blending\": identifying the graphemes (letters) in the word, recalling the corresponding phonemes (sounds), and saying the phonemes together to form the sound of the whole word.\n* Teaching students to write words by \"segmenting\": identifying the phonemes of the word, recalling the corresponding graphemes, then writing the graphemes together to form the written word."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics, also known as \"blended phonics\" or \"inductive phonics\", is a method of teaching English reading which first teaches the letter sounds and then builds up to blending these sounds together to achieve full pronunciation of whole words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics programs \"do not\" have the following characteristics:\n* Encouraging students to guess the meaning of words from contextual clues (see whole language method).\n* Encouraging students to memorise the shape of words, to recall them by sight (see Look say method).\n* Teaching grapheme-phoneme correspondence on a \"when needed\" basis or as applied to particular groups of words, when these words arise in other forms of reading instruction (see \"embedded phonics\" in Whole language)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics develops phonemic awareness along with the corresponding letter shapes. It involves the learners rehearsing the writing of letter shapes alongside learning the letter/s-sound correspondences preferably with the tripod pencil grip. Dictation is a frequent teaching technique from letter level to word spelling, including nonsense words (e.g. choy and feep) and eventually extending to text level. It does not teach letter names until the learners know their letter/s-sound correspondences thoroughly and how to blend for reading and segment for spelling. Often when letter names are introduced it is through singing an alphabet song."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "\"Synthetic phonics\", also known as blended phonics, is a systematic phonics method employed to teach students to read by \"sounding out\" the letters then \"blending\" the sounds to form the word. This method involves learning how letters or letter groups represent individual sounds, and that those sounds are blended to form a word. For example, \"shrouds\" would be read by pronouncing the sounds for each spelling, \"sh, r, ou, d, s\" (IPA ), then blending those sounds orally to produce a spoken word, \"sh \u2013 r \u2013 ou \u2013 d \u2013 s = shrouds\" (IPA ). The goal of either a blended phonics or synthetic phonics instructional program is that students identify the sound-symbol correspondences and blend their phonemes automatically. Since 2005, synthetic phonics has become the accepted method of teaching reading (by phonics instruction) in England, Scotland and Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "\"Synthetic phonics\", also known as blended phonics, is a method employed to teach students to read by \"sounding out\" the letters then \"blending\" the sounds to form the word. This method involves learning how letters or letter groups represent individual sounds, and that those sounds are blended to form a word. For example, \"shrouds\" would be read by pronouncing the sounds for each spelling, \"sh,r,ou,d,s\" (IPA ), then blending those sounds orally to produce a spoken word, \"sh - r - ou - d - s= shrouds\" (IPA ). The goal of either a blended phonics or synthetic phonics instructional program is that students identify the sound-symbol correspondences and blend their phonemes automatically. Since 2005, synthetic phonics has become the accepted method of teaching reading (by phonics instruction) in the United Kingdom and Australia. In the United States, a pilot program using the Core Knowledge Early Literacy program that used this type of phonics approach showed significantly higher results in K-3 reading compared with comparison schools. In addition, several States such as California, Ohio, New York and Arkansas, are promoting the principles of synthetic phonics (see synthetic phonics in the USA)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2014 the California Department of Education stated \"Ensuring that children know how to decode regularly spelled one-syllable words by mid-first grade is crucial\". It goes on to say that \"Children need to be phonemically aware (especially able to segment and blend phonemes)\". The skills of segmenting and blending phonemes are a central aspect of synthetic phonics. In grades two and three children receive explicit instruction in advanced phonic-analysis and reading multi-syllabic and more complex words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics involves the development of phonemic awareness from the outset. As part of the decoding process, the reader learns up to 44 phonemes (the smallest units of sound) and their related graphemes (the written symbols for the phoneme)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics teaches the phonemes (sounds) associated with the graphemes (letters) at the rate of about six sounds per week. The sounds are taught in isolation then blended together (i.e. synthesised), all-through-the-word. For example, learners might be taught a short vowel sound (e.g. \"a\" as in cat) in addition to some consonant sounds (e.g. \"s, t, p\"). Then the learners are taught words with these sounds (e.g. sat, pat, tap, at). They are taught to pronounce each phoneme in a word, then to blend the phonemes together to form the word (e.g. \"s - a - t; \"sat\"\"). Sounds are taught in all positions of the words, but the emphasis is on all-through-the-word segmenting and blending from week one. It does not teach whole words as shapes (initial sight vocabulary) prior to learning the alphabetic code."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic Phonics uses the concept of 'synthesising', which means 'putting together' or 'blending'. Simply put, the sounds prompted by the letters are synthesised (put together or blended) to pronounce the word."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics teaches phonics at the level of the individual phoneme from the outset; not syllables and not onset and rime. Synthetic phonics does not teach anything about reading as a meaning-focused process. It highlights decoding and pronunciation of words only. Teachers are to put accuracy before speed, because fluency (i.e. speed, accuracy, expression), and comprehension will come with time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2021, the province of New Brunswick introduced a new English Language Arts curriculum that includes phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and reading comprehension. Notably, the teaching of alphabetic skills based on the science of reading has replaced the use of various cueing systems and a variety of strategies to construct meaning from text. It is not yet clear whether the teaching practices will lean towards synthetic phonics, or analytic phonics, or a combination of the two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diane McGuinness",
        "text": "McGuinness is an outspoken critic of whole language instruction but also of phonics as traditionally taught in the United States. She favors an approach to early reading instruction known as synthetic phonics or linguistic phonics, in which the starting point for instruction is the 40-odd phonemes of English. In synthetic phonics instruction, each sound is introduced initially with a single \"basic code\" spelling, e.g. the /ee/ sound is connected to the 'ee' spelling. Students are taught to read by blending all of the sounds in the word. Spelling alternatives for sounds (e.g. for /ee/ the spellings 'y' as in \"funny\", 'ea' as in \"eat\", 'e' as in \"reflex\", 'ie' as in \"cookie\", etc.) are taught later. McGuinness has also introduced the term \"code overlap\" to describe a spelling (or grapheme) that can stand for more than one sound (phoneme), e.g. the spelling 'ow' can stand for the /ou/ sound as in the word \"now\", or for the /oe/ sound as in the word \"snow\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In Analytic phonics (sometimes referred to as Analytical phonics) practitioners do not teach learners to pronounce sounds \"in isolation\" as is the practice with Synthetic Phonics. Furthermore, consonant blends (separate, adjacent consonants) are taught as units (e.g., in the word 'shrouds' the shr would be taught as a unit). Some analytic phonics programs (referred to as analogy phonics ) teach learners to break-down words into their common components which are referred to as the \"onset\" and the \"rime\". In the word \"ship\", \"sh\" is the \"onset\" and \"ip\" is the \"rime\" (the part starting with the vowel). In other words, analytic phonics teaches the learner to say \"sh\" - \"ip\" (ship) and \"sh\" - \"op\" (shop), whereas synthetic phonics, teaches the learner to say \"sh - i - p\" (ship) and \"sh - o - p\" (shop). In analytic phonics, learners are also taught to find the similarities among words (e.g. man, can, tan, fan, and ran), whereas synthetic phonics devotes most of its time to learning the letter/sound relationships (i.e. grapheme/phoneme)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2015 the New York State Public School system began a process to revise its English Language Arts Learning Standards. The standards were revised in 2017 and call for teaching involving \"reading or literacy experiences\" as well as phonemic awareness from prekindergarten to grade 1 and phonics, word recognition, and word analysis skills in decoding words from grade 1 to grade 4. They will become effective at the beginning of the 2020-2021 school year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics\n--Overview.\n--Methodology.\n--Systematic phonics.\n----Analytic phonics.\n----Synthetic phonics.\n--Common terminology.\n--History.\n----Australia.\n----Canada.\n----United Kingdom.\n------Scotland.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "The teaching of reading and writing has varied over the years from spelling and phonetic methods to the fashions for look-say and whole language methods. In America in the eighteenth century, Noah Webster introduced spelling approaches with syllabaries and in England the use of James Pitman's Initial Teaching Alphabet was popular in the 1960s. Recently phonic methods have been revived."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Systematic phonics is not one specific method of teaching phonics; rather, it is a family of phonics instruction that includes methods such as synthetic phonics and analytic phonics. They are \"systematic\" because the letters, and the sounds they relate to, are taught in a specific sequence; as opposed to incidentally or on a 'when-needed' basis. In the United Kingdom, the term \"systematic phonics\" is \"generally understood as synthetic phonics\" according to the reading review which was conducted in 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Supporters of Synthetic phonics argue that if the systematic teaching of phonics doesn't take place, analytic learners can fall behind and fail to develop the tools they need for decoding words.\n*Reading\n*Phonemic awareness\n*Phonetics\n*Phonics\n*Synthetic phonics"
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics involves a heavy emphasis on hearing the sounds all-through-the-word for spelling and not an emphasis on \"look, cover, write, check\". This latter, visual form of spelling plays a larger part with unusual spellings and spelling variations although a phonemic procedure is always emphasised in spelling generally. Teachers read a full range of literature with the learners and ensure that all learners have a full range of experience of activities associated with literacy such as role play, drama, poetry, but the learners are \"not\" expected to 'read' text which is beyond them, and the method does \"not\" involve guessing at words from context, picture and initial letter clues.\n*learning letter sounds (as distinct from the letter names);\n:For example, mmm not em, sss not ess, fff not ef. The letter names can be taught later but should not be taught in the early stages.\n*learning the 40+ sounds and their corresponding letters/letter groups;\n:The English Alphabet Code 'Key': 40+ phonemes with their common 'sound pattern' representations. (This is based on the British pronunciation. The number and mixture of the 40+ phonemes will vary for other English speaking countries such as Australia, Canada and the United States).\n::Vowels:\n::*\"a\" - mat\n::*\"a-e\" - ape, baby, rain, tray, they, eight\n::*\"air\" - square, bear\n::*\"ar\" - jar, far\n::*\"e\" - peg, bread\n::*\"ee\" - sweet, me, beach, key, pony\n::*\"eer\" - deer, hear\n::*\"er\" - computer, doctor\n::*\"i\" - pig, wanted\n::*\"i-e\" - kite, wild, light, pie\n::*\"o\" - orange, quality\n::*\"oa\" - oak, rope, bow, piano\n::*\"oi\" - coin, boy\n::*\"oo\" - (short) book, would, put\n::*\"oo\" - (long) moon, crew, blue, fruit, few\n::*\"ow\" - down, house\n::*\"or\" - fork, ball, sauce, law,\n::*\"u\" - plug, glove\n::*\"ur\" - burn, teacher, work, first\n::*\"u-e\" - tune, unicorn, hue\n::*\"uh\" - button, hidden\n::Consonants:\n::*\"b\" - boy, rabbit\n::*\"c / k\" - cat, key, duck, school, quit\n::*\"ch\" - chip, watch, statue\n::*\"d\" - dog, ladder\n::*\"f\" - fish, coffee, photo, tough\n::*\"g\" - gate, egg, ghost\n::*\"h\" - hat, whole\n::*\"j\" - jet, giant, cage, bridge\n::*\"k-s\" - box\n::*\"l\" - lip, bell, sample\n::*\"m\" - man, hammer, comb\n::*\"n\" - nut, dinner, knee, gnat\n::*\"ng\" - ring, singer\n::*\"p\" - pan, happy\n::*\"r\" - rat, cherry, write\n::*\"s / c\" - sun, dress, house, city, mice\n::*\"sh\" - ship, mission, station, chef\n::*\"t\" - tap, letter, debt\n::*\"th\" - thrush\n::*\"th\" - that\n::*\"v\" - vet, sleeve\n::*\"w\" - wet, wheel, queen\n::*\"y\" - yes, new\n::*\"z\" - zip, fizz, sneeze, is, cheese\n::*\"g-z\" - exist\n::*\"zh\" - treasure\n*learning to read words using sound \"blending\" in which each individual sound is joined together to form a word (e.g. \"c\" - \"a\" - \"t\"= cat).;\n*reading stories featuring the words the students have learned to sound out;\n*demonstration exercises to show they comprehend the stories;"
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "On the other hand, some of the practices of whole language are evident, such as: \"use language prediction skills to identify unknown words\"; \"using three cueing systems: meaning, structure, and visual\"; \"reading on, omitting words, rereading and making substitutions\"; \"predict on the basis of what makes sense\"; and \"a wide variety of sight words\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "\"Analytic phonics\" does not involve pronouncing individual sounds (phonemes) in isolation and blending the sounds, as is done in synthetic phonics. Rather, it is taught at the word level and students learn to analyze letter-sound relationships once the word is identified. For example, students analyze letter-sound correspondences such as the \"ou\" spelling of in shrouds. Also, students might be asked to practice saying words with similar sounds such as ball, bat and bite. Furthermore, students are taught consonant blends (separate, adjacent consonants) as units, such as break or shrouds\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "As of October 5, 2018, The State Government of Victoria, Australia, publishes a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons. It contains elements of synthetic phonics, analytic phonics, and analogy phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "There has been a resurgence of interest in synthetic phonics in recent years, particularly in England. As of 2013, all (local-authority-maintained) primary schools in England have a statutory requirement to teach synthetic phonics in years one and two. In addition, any pupil who is struggling to decode words properly by year three must \"urgently\" receive help through a \"rigorous and systematic phonics programme\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "\"Overall we conclude that the synthetic phonics approach, as part of the reading curriculum, is more effective than the analytic phonics approach, even when it is supplemented with phonemic awareness training. It also led boys to reading words significantly better than girls, and there was a trend towards better spelling and reading comprehension. There is evidence that synthetic phonics is best taught at the beginning of Primary 1, as even by the end of the second year at school the children in the early synthetic phonics programme had better spelling ability, and the girls had significantly better reading ability.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Systematic phonics does \"not\" include methods such as \"embedded phonics\" and \"phonics mini lessons\" which are found in the \"Whole Language\" approach and the \"Balanced Literacy\" approach."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Typically, the instruction starts with sounds that have only one letter and simple CVC words such as \"sat\" and \"pin\". Then it progresses to longer words, and sounds with more than one letter (e.g. hear and day), and perhaps even syllables (e.g. wa-ter). Sometimes the student practices saying (or sounding-out) cards that contain entire words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "On the one hand, the curriculum of all of the Canadian provinces include some of the following: phonics, phonological awareness, segmenting and blending, decoding, phonemic awareness, graphophonic cues, and letter-sound relationships."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In 2009, the UK Department of Education published a curriculum review that added support for systematic phonics. In fact, systematic phonics in the UK is known as Synthetic phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "\"Analytic phonics\" does not involve pronouncing individual sounds (phonemes) in isolation and blending the sounds, as is done in synthetic phonics. Rather, it is taught at the word level and students learn to analyze letter-sound relationships once the word is identified. For example, students analyze letter-sound correspondences such as the \"ou\" spelling of in shr\"ou\"ds. Also, students might be asked to practice saying words with similar sounds such as \"b\"all, \"b\"at and \"b\"ite. Furthermore, students are taught consonant blends (separate, adjacent consonants) as units, such as \"br\"eak or \"shr\"ouds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "b) learning the sounds of groups of letters (in words) such as rimes (e.g. hat, mat and sat have the same rime, \"at\"), or consonant blends (also consonant clusters in linguistics) (e.g. bl as in black and st as in last), or syllables (e.g. pen-cil and al-pha-bet), or"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "\"Analogy phonics\" is a particular type of \"analytic phonics\" in which the teacher has students analyze phonic elements according to the speech sounds (phonograms) in the word. For example, a type of phonogram (known in linguistics as a rime) is composed of the vowel and the consonant sounds that follow it (e.g. in the words \"cat, mat and sat,\" the rime is \"at\".) Teachers using the analogy method may have students memorize a bank of phonograms, such as \"-at\" or \"-am\", or use \"word families\" (e.g. can, ran, man, or may, play, say)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sight word",
        "text": "Proponents of systematic phonics and synthetic phonics argue that children must first learn to associate the sounds of their language with the letter(s) that are used to represent them, and then to blends those sounds into words, and that children should never memorize words as visual designs. Using sight words as a method of teaching reading in English is seen as being at odds with the alphabetic principle and treating English as though it was a logographic language (e.g. Chinese or Japanese)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "It is no longer supported by the Primary National Strategy in England as Synthetic phonics is the officially recognized method for teaching reading."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Phonics is a method for teaching people how to read and write an alphabetic language (such as English, Arabic or Russian). It is done by demonstrating the relationship between the sounds of the spoken language (phonemes), and the letters or groups of letters (graphemes) or syllables of the written language. In English, this is also known as the Alphabetic principle or the \"Alphabetic code\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Dr Jennifer Buckingham, Senior Research Fellow, Centre for Independent Studies, AU published a research brief in June 2018 explaining Systematic Synthetic Phonics and the evidence supporting it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The term \"phonics\" during the 19th century and into the 1970s was used as a synonym of phonetics. The use of the term in reference to the method of teaching is dated to 1901 by the Oxford English Dictionary. The relationship between sounds and letters is the backbone of traditional phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Systematic phonics is sometimes mischaracterized as \"skill and drill\" with little attention to meaning. However, researchers point out that this impression is false. Teachers can use engaging games or materials to teach letter-sound connections, and it can also be incorporated with the reading of meaningful text."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Reading Panel",
        "text": "The NRP reviewed 38 studies on the teaching of phonics and found that teaching children the relationship between letters and spelling patterns and pronunciation and how to decode words improved reading achievement. Young children who received such instruction did better with decoding words, nonsense words, spelling, fluency, and reading comprehension. Older disabled readers also benefited from such instruction in terms of improvement in decoding, but without commensurate gains in spelling or reading comprehension. Systematic phonics instruction \u2014 that is instruction based on a planned curriculum \u2014 was found to be superior to more opportunistic versions in which teachers tried to teach what they thought students needed. There were no statistical differences between synthetic phonics programs in which each letter sound is taught versus analytic phonics that analyzes the sounds within complete words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "These patterns are just a few examples out of dozens that can be used to help learners unpack the challenging English alphabetic code. While complex, many believe English spelling does retain order and reason."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Critics of the report claim that the results were exaggerated and due to more than just synthetic phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Phonics\n--Overview.\n----History.\n----Phonemic awareness.\n----The alphabetic principle (also: The alphabetic code).\n--Alternative spellings of the sounds.\n--Vowel and consonant phonics patterns.\n----Consonant phonics patterns.\n--Teaching reading with phonics.\n----Combining phonics with other literacy instruction.\n----Effectiveness of programs.\n----Sight words and sight vocabulary.\n----Systematic phonics.\n----Synthetic phonics.\n----Analytic phonics.\n----Analogy phonics.\n----Embedded phonics with mini-lessons.\n----Phonics through spelling.\n--Resources for phonics instruction.\n--The Reading Wars \u2013 Phonics vs. Whole language.\n----Simple view of reading.\n--Practices by country or region.\n----Australia.\n----Canada.\n----England.\n----Finland.\n----France.\n----Hungary.\n----Ireland.\n----Latin America and the Caribbean.\n----New Zealand.\n----Northern Ireland.\n----Norway.\n----Poland.\n----Portugal.\n----Russian Federation.\n----Scotland.\n----Singapore.\n----Sweden.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Yet, systematic phonics and synthetic phonics received attention in the following publications:\n* In 2005 the Ministry of Education for the government of Ontario published a report entitled \"Early Reading Strategy: The Report of the Expert Panel on Early Reading in Ontario and Early Math Strategy\". The report states \"This Expert Panel supports the position of the National Reading Panel (2000) that phonics instruction should be integrated into a comprehensive and balanced reading program. Instruction in phonics and decoding should not be conceived of as a total reading program, but neither should it be neglected.\" Pg 104\n* The Canadian Language and Literacy Research Network published a report entitled Foundations for Literacy: An evidence-based Toolkit for the Effective Reading and Writing Teacher. It is a practical toolkit helping teachers to a) understand research in order to keep informed, b) understand how children develop reading and writing skills, and c) understand how to use effective instruction techniques. It also includes explanations of phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, the alphabetic principle (including systematic phonics and synthetic phonics instruction).\n* In 2009, the Ministry of Education for the province of British Columbia posted a discussion paper on their Read Now website entitled \"Reading: Breaking Through the Barriers.\" The paper states that explicit and synthetic phonics needs to be taught directly in the classroom because it works \"for all students but are particularly helpful for students at risk for reading difficulty\". (Pg. 8) There appears to be no evidence, however, that systematic phonics (or synthetic phonics) is a part of the teaching pedagogy.\n* In 2010, The Literacy and Numeracy Secretariat of Ontario, Canada published a report entitled Capacity Building Series: Reading Fluency that offers practical strategies to teach reading comprehension. This includes Automaticity (the ability to automatically decode words), Phrasing (reading phrases not only words), and Expression (moving from a monotone delivery to a natural rise and fall in pitch, tone and rhythm). In the section about decoding it discusses the importance of Phonological Awareness (hearing words in sentences and individual sounds in words), Alphabetic Letter Knowledge (identifying, naming and writing letters), and the Alphabetic Principle (understanding that letters represent the sounds of spoke language). In the latter, in addition to other suggestions, it is emphasized that teaching should include instruction in segmenting and blending alongside the explicit teaching of letter sounds.\n* Dr. Robert Savage, formerly of McGill University and now at UCL Institute of Education, University College London, concludes that, with respect to remedial programs, we should not wait for children to fail before using phonics programs. He also recommends the teaching of such skills as segmenting and blending alongside the \"explicit teaching\" of letter sounds. He also says there is a need for more Randomized controlled trials in order to produce more definitive conclusions. In another report about effective early reading instruction and inclusion, Dr. Savage states that \"a heavy and early structured approach to early reading intervention focused on mastering the use of the alphabetic principle to decode as a self-teaching mechanism is enough to allow many children to take off into reading without further focused support beyond good regular classroom teaching\".\n* In 2011, Dr. Janette Pelletier, OISE, University of Toronto published a paper entitled Supporting Early Language and Literacy that outlines several key findings from early literacy research, including the importance of teaching phonological awareness and the \"knowledge of letter names and letter-sound correspondences\" also known as decoding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "\"Analogy phonics\" is a particular type of \"analytic phonics\" in which the teacher has students analyze phonic elements according to the speech sounds (phonograms) in the word. For example, a type of phonogram (known in linguistics as a rime) is composed of the vowel and the consonant sounds that follow it (e.g. in the words \"cat, mat and sat,\" the rime is \"at\".) Teachers using the analogy method may have students memorize a bank of phonograms, such as \"-at\" or \"-am\", or use \"word families\" (e.g. c\"an\", r\"an\", m\"an\", or m\"ay\", pl\"ay\", s\"ay\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The formula is: Decoding \u00d7 Oral Language Comprehension = Reading Comprehension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "Systematic phonics is sometimes mischaracterized as \"skill and drill\" with little attention to meaning. However, researchers point out that this impression is false. Teachers can use engaging games or materials to teach letter-sound connections, and it can also be incorporated with the reading of meaningful text."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2018 The Association for Psychological Science published an article entitled \"Ending the Reading Wars: Reading Acquisition From Novice to Expert\". The purpose of the article is to fill the gap between the current research knowledge and the public understanding about how we learn to read, and to explain \"why phonics instruction is so central to learning in a writing system such as English\". It points out that if reading instruction relied only on the association between the printed word and meaning (as in Whole Language) it would require the memorization of thousands of individual words. Thus, \"systematic phonics instruction should be viewed as a natural and logical consequence of the manner in which alphabetic writing systems represent spoken language\". There is, however, still a debate as to which systematic phonics method is most effective, synthetic or analytic. The article also explains that despite the weight of evidence supporting systematic phonics, it has only been fully implemented in England. The United States does have Common Core State Standards Initiative that include recommendations for Print Concepts, Phonological Awareness, Phonics, and Fluency; however not all states have adopted these standards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 2009, the UK Department of Education published a curriculum review that added support for systematic phonics. In fact, systematic phonics in the UK is known as Synthetic phonics. Beginning as early as 2014, several States in the United States have changed their curriculum to include systematic phonics instruction in elementary school. In 2018, the State Government of Victoria, Australia, published a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "A challenge in teaching phonics is that in some languages, such as English, complex letter-sound correspondences can cause confusion for beginning readers. For this reason, it is recommended that teachers of English-reading begin by introducing the \"most frequent sounds\" and the \"common spellings\", and save the less frequent sounds and complex spellings for later. (e.g. the sounds /s/ and /t/ before /v/ and /w/; and the spellings c\"a\"ke before \"eigh\"t and \"c\"at before du\"ck\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 2014 the California Department of Education stated \"Ensuring that children know how to decode regularly spelled one-syllable words by mid-first grade is crucial\". It goes on to say that \"Learners need to be phonemically aware (especially able to segment and blend phonemes)\". In grades two and three children receive explicit instruction in advanced phonic-analysis and reading multi-syllabic and more complex words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Analytic phonics (sometimes referred to as Analytical phonics or Implicit phonics ) refers to a very common approach to the teaching of reading that starts at the word level, not at the sound (phoneme) level. It does not teach the blending of sounds together as is done in Synthetic phonics. One method is to have students identify a common sound in a set of words that each contain that same sound. For example, the teacher and student discuss how the following words are alike: \"pat\", \"park\", \"push\" and \"pen\". Analytic phonics is often taught together with levelled-reading books, look-say practice, and the use of aids such as phonics worksheets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "a) learning \"individual\" sounds and their corresponding letters (e.g. the word cat has three letters and three sounds c - a - t, (in IPA: , , ), whereas the word flower has six letters but four sounds: f - l - ow - er, (IPA , , , ), or"
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "because the understanding of the sound-letters connection is implied and not necessarily taught directly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "c) having students read books, play games and perform activities that contain the sounds they are learning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Other findings of this report are:\n* Guided Oral Reading (reading out loud and receiving systematic and explicit feedback from a teacher) \"had a significant and positive impact on word recognition, fluency, and comprehension\".\n* The value of Independent Silent Reading is unclear; however it is clear that it should not be the only type of reading instruction to develop fluency and other reading skills.\n* Vocabulary, both oral and print, should be taught directly and indirectly because it leads to gains in comprehension.\n* Teaching a combination of reading comprehension techniques is the most effective, however more research is needed to determine which techniques are the most effective."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In the 1980s the three-cueing system (the searchlights model in England) emerged. According to a 2010 survey 75% of teachers in the United States teach the three-cueing system. It teaches children to guess a word by using \"meaning cues\" (semantic, syntactic and graphophonic). While the system does help students to \"make better guesses\", it does not help when the words become more sophisticated; and it reduces the amount of practice time available to learn essential decoding skills. Consequently, present-day researchers such as cognitive neuroscientists Mark Seidenberg and professor Timothy Shanahan do not support the theory. In England, synthetic phonics is intended to replace \"the searchlights multi-cueing model\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Analytic phonics can also help with spelling. For example, a student learns that the initial sound in \"pig\" is the same as that in \"pen\" and \"pat\", so they conclude that they must write that sound with the same letter (grapheme) \"p\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "English spelling is based on the alphabetic principle. In the education field it is also referred to as \"the alphabetic code\". In an alphabetic writing system, letters are used to represent speech sounds, or phonemes. For example, the word \"cat\" is spelled with three letters, \"c\", \"a\", and \"t\", each representing a phoneme, respectively, , , and ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "A five-year follow-up of the study concluded that the beneficial effects were long-lasting, in fact the reading gains increased."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "\"Analog phonics\" is a subset of analytic phonics that uses the \"onset-rhyme\" of many words. In the word \"snap\", \"sn\" is the \"onset\" and \"ap\" is the \"rime\" (the part starting with the vowel). So, \"snap\" rhymes with \"map\", \"sap\", \"clap\", and so on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2019 the International Literacy Association released a report entitled Meeting the Challenges of Early Literacy Phonics Instruction The report clearly supports the use of phonics instruction that is explicit and systematic, stating that \"phonics instruction is helpful for all students, harmful for none, and crucial for some\". It also offers an opinion on the ten most common causes of Phonics Instructional Failure, namely: inadequate time devoted to mastering a new phonics skill such as blending (4\u20136 weeks recommended); lack of application to real reading instruction; inappropriate reading material to practice the skills; too much teacher instruction, and too little reading by the student; lost time during instructional transitions; the teacher's attitude and knowledge of phonics instructional material; lessons that are not fast-paced and rigorous; lack of assessments over an extended period of time; waiting too long to transition to multi-syllable words; and over emphasis of phonics drills at the expense of other aspects such as vocabulary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Complex consonants and digraphs:\n::\"ch\" - chair, watch, cello, righteous, question, structure\n::\"k+s\"1 - box, books, ducks, lakes\n::\"k+w\"1 - queen\n::\"-ul\" - table, animal, camel\n::\"ng\" - spring\n::\"sh\" - show, lotion, sure, chef, mission, ocean, special,\n::\"th\" - think\n::\"th\" - them\n::\"g+z\"1 - exam, exist\n::\"z-h\" - vision, treasure, azure, equation, garage, regime"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "Phonics emphasizes the alphabetic principle \u2013 the idea that letters (graphemes) represent the sounds of speech (phonemes). It is taught in a variety of ways; some are systematic and others are unsystematic. Unsystematic phonics teaches phonics on a \"when needed\" basis and in no particular sequence. \"Systematic\" phonics uses a planned, sequential introduction of a set of phonic elements along with \"explicit\" teaching and practice of those elements. The National Reading Panel (NPR) concluded that systematic phonics instruction is more effective than unsystematic phonics or non-phonics instruction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "What Works Clearinghouse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In January, 2019 Ofsted published a report entitled \"Education inspection framework: overview of research\" that further supports \"systematic synthetic phonics\" together with phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "The United States has a long history of debate concerning the various methods used to teach reading, including Phonics. In 1999, The \"National Institute of Child Health and Human Development\" (NICHD) appears to conclude that systematic phonics programs are \"significantly more effective\" than non-phonics programs. It also concludes that they found no significant difference between the different phonics approaches, while suggesting that more evidence may be required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "The NICHD has come out in support of phonics instruction. The institute conducts and supports research on all stages of human development. The institute conducted a meta-analysis and, in 2000 it published a report entitled \"Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching Children to Read\". Some \"findings and determinations\" of this report are:\n*Teaching phonemic awareness (PA) to children was \"highly effective\" with a variety of children under a variety of conditions. (Note: Phonemic Awareness is the ability to manipulate sounds (phonemes) in spoken syllables and words. Phonemes are the smallest units of sounds comprising spoken language. For example, the words \"go\" and \"she\" each consist of two sounds or phonemes, \"g-o\" (IPA ) and \"sh-e\" (IPA ), respectively.\n*Reading instruction that taught PA improved the children's reading ability significantly more than those that lacked this instruction.\n*PA helped normally achieving children to spell but was not effective in helping disabled readers to spell better.\n*\"Systematic synthetic phonics\" instruction had a positive and significant effect on helping disabled readers, low achieving students, and students with low socioeconomic status to read words more effectively than instruction methods that lacked this approach.\n*Systematic Phonics instruction improved the ability of good readers to spell. Poor readers experienced a small improvement in spelling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "observers report that the Russian system in beginning reading is \"strictly phonetic\". However, there are no separate phonics lessons, drill periods, drill books, exercises or \"gadgets\" as you might see in typical American schools. Instead, each new letter-sound is introduced at once in meaningful words the children can pronounce as soon as they know the sound of the new letter. There are no \"blending\" of the sounds, or \"crutches\" such as equating the sound of /s/ with a snake. Instead, \"all learning is by eye and ear in tandem\", and the association is formed solely between the printed symbol and its sound. And finally, each lesson makes use of exercises to confirm comprehension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In December 2005 the Department of Education, Science and Training of the Australian Government published a report entitled a National Inquiry into the Teaching of Reading. The report recommends direct and systematic instruction in phonics as the foundation of early reading instruction. It is not clear if all of the findings of the report are reflected in the Australian Curriculum. The report was critiqued by Phillip Cormack, University of South Australia, who states that the key to success in a reading lesson is the relationship between the teacher, the child and the material to be read."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Sight vocabulary is a part of the phonics method. It describes words that are stored in long-term memory and read automatically. Skilled fully-alphabetic readers learn to store words in long-term memory without memorization (i.e. a mental dictionary), making reading and comprehension easier. The process, called \"orthographic mapping\", involves \"decoding, crosschecking, mental marking and rereading\". It takes significantly less time than memorization. This process works for fully-alphabetic readers when reading simple decodable words from left to right through the word. \"Irregular words\" pose more of a challenge, yet research in 2018 concluded that \"fully-alphabetic students\" learn irregular words more easily when they use a process called \"hierarchical decoding\". In this process, students, rather than decode from left to right, are taught to focus attention on the irregular elements such as a vowel-digraph and a silent-e; for example, \"break (b - r - ea - k), height (h - eigh - t), touch (t - ou - ch), and make (m - a- ke)\". Consequentially, they suggest that teachers and tutors should focus on \"teaching decoding with more advanced vowel patterns before expecting young readers to tackle irregular words\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The syllabus for 2010 advocates for a balance between \"systematic and explicit instruction\" and \"a rich language environment\". It called for increased instruction in oral language skills together with phonemic awareness and the key decoding elements of synthetic phonics, analytic phonics and analogy phonics. Specifically, it advocated for instruction in phonic's areas such as word families and rimes (e.g. jumps and jumped; bite and kite), segmenting and blending (e.g. , , = cat), vowels, consonants and syllables. And finally, it called for instruction in word study, grammar, vocabulary, writing and comprehension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alphabetic principle",
        "text": "Two contrasting philosophies exist with regard to emergent readers learning to associate letters to speech sounds in English. Proponents of phonics argue that this relationship needs to be taught explicitly and to be learned to automaticity, in order to facilitate the rapid word recognition upon which comprehension depends."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "1 Clearly, \"k+s\", \"k+w\" and \"g+z\" each have two sounds that are blended together. However, they are often taught in this fashion to make it easier for the learner to understand the sounds of \"x\" and \"qu\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "There are two primary approaches to teaching phonics: analytic phonics and synthetic phonics. Both approaches require the learner to have some phonological awareness (the ability to hear and discriminate sounds in spoken words). Both approaches can also contribute to furthering the student's phonological development. Phonological awareness is an essential skill for reading, writing, listening and talking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Students are not reading if they can decode words but do not understand their meaning. Similarly, students are not reading if they cannot decode words that they would ordinarily recognize and understand if they heard them spoken out loud."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In the United Kingdom a 2010 government white paper contained plans to train all primary school teachers in phonics. The 2013 curriculum has \"statutory requirements\" that, amongst other things, students in years one and two be capable in using systematic synthetic phonics in regards to word reading, reading comprehension, fluency, and writing. This includes having skills in \"sound to graphemes\", \"decoding\", and \"blending\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Implicit phonics is moving from the whole to the smallest parts; \"blending-and-building\" is not usually taught. A student will identify new words by its shape, beginning and ending letters, any context clues from the rest of the sentence or any accompanying pictures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "The Rose Report, from the Department for Education in England makes it clear that, in their view, systematic phonics, specifically synthetic phonics, is the best way to ensure that children learn to read; such that it is now the law. In 2005 the government of Australia published a report stating \"The evidence is clear ... that direct systematic instruction in phonics during the early years of schooling is an essential foundation for teaching children to read\". Phonics has been gaining acceptance in many other countries as can be seen from this page Practices by country or region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Phonics can be taught systematically in a variety of ways, such as: synthetic phonics, analytic phonics and analogy phonics. However, their effectiveness vary considerably because the methods differ in such areas as the range of letter-sound coverage, the structure of the lesson plans, and the time devoted to specific instructions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2016 the What Works Clearinghouse and the Institute of Education Sciences, an independent and non-partisan arm of the U.S. Department of Education, published an Educator's Practice Guide (with evidence) on Foundational Skills to Support Reading for Understanding in Kindergarten Through 3rd Grade. It contains four recommendations to support reading: 1) Teach students academic language skills, including the use of inferential and narrative language, and vocabulary knowledge, 2) Develop awareness of the segments of sounds in speech and how they link to letters (phonemic awareness and phonics), 3) Teach students to decode words, analyze word parts, and write and recognize words (phonics and synthetic phonics), and 4) Ensure that each student reads connected text every day to support reading accuracy, fluency, and comprehension. Some universities have created additional material based on this guide"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 2016 the London School of Economics published a paper supporting the teaching of synthetic phonics to disadvantaged children because it helps to close the literacy gap."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "Phonics can be taught systematically in a variety of ways, such as: analogy phonics, analytic phonics, phonics through spelling, and synthetic phonics. However, their effectiveness vary considerably because the methods differ in such areas as the range of letter-sound coverage, the structure of the lesson plans, and the time devoted to specific instructions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Some of the findings of the report are:\n* Among the successful schools visited, there were a number of key similarities. Three of those similarities are:\n:# a belief that each child can learn to read and write regardless of background;\n:# an early, systematic, and \"explicit\" (i.e. specific and clear) teaching of phonics;\n:#the phonics instruction was followed by \"direct teaching\".\n* Students learn best from an approach that includes phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary knowledge and comprehension. (Executive Summary)\n* A whole-language approach, \"on its own, is not in the best interests of children, particularly those experiencing reading difficulties\". (Pg. 12)\n* Where there is unsystematic or no phonics instruction, children do not perform as well in such areas as reading accuracy, fluency, writing, spelling and comprehension. (Pg. 12)\n* A recommendation that teachers provide \"systematic, direct and explicit phonics instruction\".(Pg. 14)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Analytic phonics is different from Synthetic phonics (that starts at the individual sound/ phoneme level and builds up to the whole word), and Whole language (that starts at the word level and does not encourage the use of phonics). It may, however, be used as a part of the Balanced literacy approach."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In Canada, public education is the responsibility of the Provincial and Territorial governments. There is no evidence that \"systematic phonics (including synthetic phonics)\" has been specifically adopted by any of these jurisdictions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Implicit instruction relies on readers \"discovering\" clues about sound-spelling relationships; good readers can do this, but poor readers are not likely to do so."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "\"Systematic phonics\" is not one specific method of teaching phonics; it is a term used to describe phonics approaches that are taught \"explicitly\" and in a structured, systematic manner. They are \"systematic\" because the letters and the sounds they relate to are taught in a specific sequence, as opposed to incidentally or on a \"when needed\" basis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 1990, Congress asked the U.S. Department of Education (ED) to compile a list of available programs on beginning reading instruction, evaluating each in terms of the effectiveness of its phonics component. As part of this requirement, the ED asked Dr. Marilyn J. Adams to produce a report on the role of phonics instruction in beginning reading. This resulted in her 1994 book \"Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning about Print\". In the book, Adams asserted that existing scientific research supported that phonics is an effective way to teach students the \"alphabetic code\" - building their skills in decoding unknown words. By learning the alphabetic code, she argued, students can free up mental energy used for word analysis and devote this mental effort to meaning, leading to stronger comprehension. Furthermore, she suggested that students be encouraged \"not\" to skip words they find difficult. Instead they should take the time to study the challenging words and to reread sentences after they have succeeded in decoding them. She also concluded that while phonics instruction is a necessary component of reading instruction, it is not sufficient by itself. Children should also have practice reading text provided they do not make too many mistakes. In spite of her study, the argument about how to teach reading eventually known as \"the Great Debate,\" continued unabated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "United Kingdom\n* Phonics teaching materials - Department of Education, UK\n* Letters and Sounds: Principles and Practice of High Quality Phonics - Department of Education, UK\n* Learning to read through phonics: Information for parents - Department of Education, UK"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In grade four, the basic teaching techniques consist of ample practice of \"sound-letter correspondence\"; breaking down speech into words, syllables, and sounds; word recognition; and spelling at the sound and sentence level; daily reading and writing; and comprehension strategies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The 2016 international PISA study states that the method widely used now to teach reading in the Russian Federation was developed by the famous psychologist Daniil Elkonin in the 1960s. It says, \"students learn to define the sequence of sounds in a word and characterize each sound ... acquiring the knowledge of the phonetic system at an early stage\" and \"become better familiarized with the skills of reading\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "In contrast, analytic phonics, involves the analysis of whole words to detect phonetic or orthographic (spelling) patterns, then splitting them into smaller parts to help with decoding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The National Reading Panel in the United States concluded that systematic phonics instruction is more effective than unsystematic phonics or non-phonics instruction. Some critics suggest that systematic phonics is \"skill and drill\" with little attention to meaning. However, researchers point out that this impression is false. Teachers can use engaging games or materials to teach letter-sound connections, and it can also be incorporated with the reading of meaningful text."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "On the other hand, phonics advocates say that most words are decodable, so comparatively few words have to be memorized. And because a child will over time encounter many low-frequency words, \"the phonological recoding mechanism is a very powerful, indeed essential, mechanism throughout reading development\". Furthermore, researchers suggest that teachers who withhold phonics instruction to make it easier on children \u201care having the opposite effect\u201d by making it harder for children to gain basic word-recognition skills. They suggest that learners should focus on understanding the principles of phonics so they can recognize the phonemic overlaps among words (e.g. have, had, has, having, haven't, etc.), making it easier to decode them all."
      },
      {
        "title": "English Phonotypic Alphabet",
        "text": "\u019c /ju\u02d0/, \u2144 /a\u026a/, \u0222 /a\u028a/?\n;Reduced ('obscure') vowels"
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Education Scotland found that explicit, systematic phonics programs, usually embedded in a rich literacy environment, give an additional four months progress over other programs such as whole language, and are particularly beneficial for young learners (aged 4\u20137). There is evidence, though less secure, that synthetic phonics programs may be more beneficial than analytic phonics programs; however it is more important to systematically teach to the children's needs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "\"Systematic phonics\" is not one specific method of teaching phonics; it is a term used to describe phonics approaches that are taught \"explicitly\" and in a structured, systematic manner. They are \"systematic\" because the letters and the sounds they relate to are taught in a specific sequence, as opposed to incidentally or on a \"when needed\" basis."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where in the world are synthetic phonics used?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Synthetic phonic is a method of teaching English reading, so is used in countries such as Australia, Canada, and the U.K."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did it start being used in Australia?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "As of October 5, 2018, The State Government of Victoria, Australia, publishes a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is some of the common terminology used for synthetic phonics?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "These include alphabetic code, decoding skills, direct instruction, and intensive instruction. Which would you like to know more of?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in alphabetic code."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Alphabetic code (in synthetic phonics) is the relationship between sounds (phonemes) and the letter/s (graphemes) that represent them are referred to as a \"code\".  The alphabetic principle is the foundation of any alphabetic writing system (in the education field, it is known as the alphabetic code) but does not underlie logographic writing systems like Chinese or syllabic writing systems such as Japanese kana.",
      "The alphabetic code focuses on the relationship between sounds (phonemes) and the letter/s (graphemes) that represent them are referred to as a \"code\". For example, the sound ay can be represented in many ways (e.g. cake, may, they, eight, aid, break, etc.)."
    ],
    "topic": "Synthetic phonics",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Synthetic phonics:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Synthetic phonics",
          "Common terminology"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some common terminology used within this article includes:\n*\"alphabetic code\" (in synthetic phonics): The relationship between sounds (phonemes) and the letter/s (graphemes) that represent them are referred to as a \"code\". For example, the sound \"ay\" can be represented in many ways \"(e.g. cake, may, they, eight, aid, break, etc.)\". See also: Alphabetic principle\n*\"decoding skills\" (in phonics): Without the use of context, to pronounce and \"read\" words accurately by using the relationship between the letter(s) and the sounds they represent. (i.e. \"cat\" is \"k - a - t\", \"plough\" is \"p - l - ow\", and \"school\" is \"s - k - oo - l\". \"Encoding skills\" (i.e. \"spelling\") is the same process in reverse.\n*Direct instruction (also known as \"Explicit Instruction\" ): A teaching style that is characterized by \"carefully designed instruction\" that usually includes a fast pace, small steps, demonstrations, active participation, coaching, immediate correction, and positive feedback. (Pg. 85)\n*intensive instruction: teaching or tutoring that include some of the following: more time; peer-assisted strategies; and instruction in small groups or one-on-one. (Pg. 209)\n*peer-assisted literacy strategies: learners work in pairs (taking turns as teacher and learner) to learn a \"structured sequence\" of literacy skills, such as phonemic awareness, phonics, sound blending, passage reading, and story retelling. (Pg. 33)\n*supportive instruction: teaching or tutoring that supports the student both emotionally and cognitively. This includes encouragement, immediate feedback, positive reinforcement, and instructional scaffolding (i.e. clear structure, small steps, guiding with questions). (Pg. 209)"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Alphabetic principle:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Alphabetic principle"
        ],
        "ctx": "According to the alphabetic principle, letters and combinations of letters are the symbols used to represent the speech sounds of a language based on systematic and predictable relationships between written letters, symbols, and spoken words. The alphabetic principle is the foundation of any alphabetic writing system (such as the English variety of the Roman alphabet, one of the more common types of writing systems in use today). In the education field, it is known as ."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Alphabetic principle:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Alphabetic principle"
        ],
        "ctx": "The alphabetic principle does not underlie logographic writing systems like Chinese or syllabic writing systems such as Japanese kana. Korean was formerly written partially with Chinese characters, but is now written in the fully alphabetic Hangul system, in which the letters are not written linearly, but arranged in syllabic blocks which resemble Chinese characters."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Synthetic phonics:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Synthetic phonics",
          "Common terminology"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some common terminology used within this article includes:\n*\"alphabetic code\" (in synthetic phonics): The relationship between sounds (phonemes) and the letter/s (graphemes) that represent them are referred to as a \"code\". For example, the sound \"ay\" can be represented in many ways \"(e.g. cake, may, they, eight, aid, break, etc.)\". See also: Alphabetic principle\n*\"decoding skills\" (in phonics): Without the use of context, to pronounce and \"read\" words accurately by using the relationship between the letter(s) and the sounds they represent. (i.e. \"cat\" is \"k - a - t\", \"plough\" is \"p - l - ow\", and \"school\" is \"s - k - oo - l\". \"Encoding skills\" (i.e. \"spelling\") is the same process in reverse.\n*Direct instruction (also known as \"Explicit Instruction\" ): A teaching style that is characterized by \"carefully designed instruction\" that usually includes a fast pace, small steps, demonstrations, active participation, coaching, immediate correction, and positive feedback. (Pg. 85)\n*intensive instruction: teaching or tutoring that include some of the following: more time; peer-assisted strategies; and instruction in small groups or one-on-one. (Pg. 209)\n*peer-assisted literacy strategies: learners work in pairs (taking turns as teacher and learner) to learn a \"structured sequence\" of literacy skills, such as phonemic awareness, phonics, sound blending, passage reading, and story retelling. (Pg. 33)\n*supportive instruction: teaching or tutoring that supports the student both emotionally and cognitively. This includes encouragement, immediate feedback, positive reinforcement, and instructional scaffolding (i.e. clear structure, small steps, guiding with questions). (Pg. 209)"
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Some common terminology used within this article includes:\n*\"alphabetic code\" (in synthetic phonics): The relationship between sounds (phonemes) and the letter/s (graphemes) that represent them are referred to as a \"code\". For example, the sound \"ay\" can be represented in many ways \"(e.g. cake, may, they, eight, aid, break, etc.)\". See also: Alphabetic principle\n*\"decoding skills\" (in phonics): Without the use of context, to pronounce and \"read\" words accurately by using the relationship between the letter(s) and the sounds they represent. (i.e. \"cat\" is \"k - a - t\", \"plough\" is \"p - l - ow\", and \"school\" is \"s - k - oo - l\". \"Encoding skills\" (i.e. \"spelling\") is the same process in reverse.\n*Direct instruction (also known as \"Explicit Instruction\" ): A teaching style that is characterized by \"carefully designed instruction\" that usually includes a fast pace, small steps, demonstrations, active participation, coaching, immediate correction, and positive feedback. (Pg. 85)\n*intensive instruction: teaching or tutoring that include some of the following: more time; peer-assisted strategies; and instruction in small groups or one-on-one. (Pg. 209)\n*peer-assisted literacy strategies: learners work in pairs (taking turns as teacher and learner) to learn a \"structured sequence\" of literacy skills, such as phonemic awareness, phonics, sound blending, passage reading, and story retelling. (Pg. 33)\n*supportive instruction: teaching or tutoring that supports the student both emotionally and cognitively. This includes encouragement, immediate feedback, positive reinforcement, and instructional scaffolding (i.e. clear structure, small steps, guiding with questions). (Pg. 209)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2014 the California Department of Education stated \"Ensuring that children know how to decode regularly spelled one-syllable words by mid-first grade is crucial\". It goes on to say that \"Children need to be phonemically aware (especially able to segment and blend phonemes)\". The skills of segmenting and blending phonemes are a central aspect of synthetic phonics. In grades two and three children receive explicit instruction in advanced phonic-analysis and reading multi-syllabic and more complex words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics involves the development of phonemic awareness from the outset. As part of the decoding process, the reader learns up to 44 phonemes (the smallest units of sound) and their related graphemes (the written symbols for the phoneme)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics programs have some or all of the following characteristics:\n* Teaching grapheme-phoneme (letters-sound) correspondence out of alphabetic order, following an order determined by perceived complexity (going from easiest to hardest to learn).\n* Teaching the reading and writing of words in order of increasing irregularity, in other words teaching words which follow typical grapheme-phoneme correspondence first (e.g. \"ape\" and \"cat\"), and teaching words with idiosyncratic or unusual grapheme-phoneme correspondence later (e.g. \"eight\" and \"duck\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics programs \"do not\" have the following characteristics:\n* Encouraging students to guess the meaning of words from contextual clues (see whole language method).\n* Encouraging students to memorise the shape of words, to recall them by sight (see Look say method).\n* Teaching grapheme-phoneme correspondence on a \"when needed\" basis or as applied to particular groups of words, when these words arise in other forms of reading instruction (see \"embedded phonics\" in Whole language)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics develops phonemic awareness along with the corresponding letter shapes. It involves the learners rehearsing the writing of letter shapes alongside learning the letter/s-sound correspondences preferably with the tripod pencil grip. Dictation is a frequent teaching technique from letter level to word spelling, including nonsense words (e.g. choy and feep) and eventually extending to text level. It does not teach letter names until the learners know their letter/s-sound correspondences thoroughly and how to blend for reading and segment for spelling. Often when letter names are introduced it is through singing an alphabet song."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics involves the teaching of the transparent alphabet (e.g. \"c\" as in \"cat\") before progressing onto the opaque alphabet (e.g. \"ch\" as in \"school\"). In other words, learners are taught steps which are straightforward and 'work' before being taught the complications and variations of pronunciation and spelling of the full alphabetic code. It introduces irregular words and more tricky words (defined as words which cannot be pronounced phonically \u2013 English has a surprisingly large number of these, usually the commonest words of all such as 'to', 'of', etc.) slowly and systematically after a thorough introduction of the transparent alphabet code (learning the 44 letter/s-sound correspondences to automaticity and how to blend for reading and segment for spelling). Phonics application still works at least in part in such words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics refers to a family of programs which aim to teach reading and writing through the following methods:\n* Teaching students the correspondence between \"written letters\" (graphemes) and \"speech sounds\" (phonemes). For example, the words \"me\" and \"pony\" have the same sound at the end, but use different letters.\n* Teaching students to read words by \"blending\": identifying the graphemes (letters) in the word, recalling the corresponding phonemes (sounds), and saying the phonemes together to form the sound of the whole word.\n* Teaching students to write words by \"segmenting\": identifying the phonemes of the word, recalling the corresponding graphemes, then writing the graphemes together to form the written word."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "On the other hand, some of the practices of whole language are evident, such as: \"use language prediction skills to identify unknown words\"; \"using three cueing systems: meaning, structure, and visual\"; \"reading on, omitting words, rereading and making substitutions\"; \"predict on the basis of what makes sense\"; and \"a wide variety of sight words\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading for special needs",
        "text": "In general terms, individuals who have challenges in decoding are referred to as poor decoders. Dyslexia is a more specific disability where individuals demonstrate difficulty with decoding. Poor decoders have not acquired the basic knowledge of sound-letter correspondence rules, specifically phonological skills (skills that include identifying and manipulation of words, syllables, onsets, rimes, and phonemes -individual sounds). In addition, language abilities often evidence poor morphological and syntactic knowledge. Interventions that target decoding abilities may include instruction in phonics, phonological awareness, and phonemic awareness (also see Dyslexia intervention)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The formula is: Decoding \u00d7 Oral Language Comprehension = Reading Comprehension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2015 the New York State Public School system began a process to revise its English Language Arts Learning Standards. The standards were revised in 2017 and call for teaching involving \"reading or literacy experiences\" as well as phonemic awareness from prekindergarten to grade 1 and phonics, word recognition, and word analysis skills in decoding words from grade 1 to grade 4. They will become effective at the beginning of the 2020-2021 school year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics teaches phonics at the level of the individual phoneme from the outset; not syllables and not onset and rime. Synthetic phonics does not teach anything about reading as a meaning-focused process. It highlights decoding and pronunciation of words only. Teachers are to put accuracy before speed, because fluency (i.e. speed, accuracy, expression), and comprehension will come with time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "The transition from the novice reader stage to the decoding stage is marked by a reduction of painful pronunciations and in its place the sounds of a smoother, more confident reader. In this phase the reader adds at least 3,000 words to what they can decode. For example, in the English language, readers now learn the variations of the vowel-based rimes (e.g. s\"at\", m\"at\", c\"at\") and vowel pairs (also digraph) (e.g. r\"ai\"n, pl\"ay\", b\"oa\"t)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics teaches the phonemes (sounds) associated with the graphemes (letters) at the rate of about six sounds per week. The sounds are taught in isolation then blended together (i.e. synthesised), all-through-the-word. For example, learners might be taught a short vowel sound (e.g. \"a\" as in cat) in addition to some consonant sounds (e.g. \"s, t, p\"). Then the learners are taught words with these sounds (e.g. sat, pat, tap, at). They are taught to pronounce each phoneme in a word, then to blend the phonemes together to form the word (e.g. \"s - a - t; \"sat\"\"). Sounds are taught in all positions of the words, but the emphasis is on all-through-the-word segmenting and blending from week one. It does not teach whole words as shapes (initial sight vocabulary) prior to learning the alphabetic code."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In the 1980s the three-cueing system (the searchlights model in England) emerged. According to a 2010 survey 75% of teachers in the United States teach the three-cueing system. It teaches children to guess a word by using \"meaning cues\" (semantic, syntactic and graphophonic). While the system does help students to \"make better guesses\", it does not help when the words become more sophisticated; and it reduces the amount of practice time available to learn essential decoding skills. Consequently, present-day researchers such as cognitive neuroscientists Mark Seidenberg and professor Timothy Shanahan do not support the theory. In England, synthetic phonics is intended to replace \"the searchlights multi-cueing model\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 2014 the California Department of Education stated \"Ensuring that children know how to decode regularly spelled one-syllable words by mid-first grade is crucial\". It goes on to say that \"Learners need to be phonemically aware (especially able to segment and blend phonemes)\". In grades two and three children receive explicit instruction in advanced phonic-analysis and reading multi-syllabic and more complex words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "\"Sight vocabulary\" is a part of the phonics method. It describes words that are stored in long-term memory and read automatically. Skilled fully-alphabetic readers learn to store words in long-term memory without memorization (i.e. a mental dictionary), making reading and comprehension easier. \"Once you know the sound-based way to decode, your mind learns what words look like, even if you're not especially trying to do so\". The process, called \"orthographic mapping\", involves \"decoding, crosschecking, mental marking and rereading\". It takes significantly less time than memorization. This process works for fully-alphabetic readers when reading simple decodable words from left to right through the word. \"Irregular words\" pose more of a challenge, yet research in 2018 concluded that \"fully-alphabetic students\" learn irregular words more easily when they use a process called \"hierarchical decoding\". In this process, students, rather than decode from left to right, are taught to focus attention on the irregular elements such as a vowel-digraph and a silent-e; for example, break (b \u2013 r \u2013 \"ea\" \u2013 k), height (h \u2013 \"eigh\" \u2013 t), touch (t \u2013 \"ou \u2013 ch\"), and make (m \u2013 \"a\" \u2013 k\"e\"). Consequentially, they suggest that teachers and tutors should focus on \"teaching decoding with more advanced vowel patterns before expecting young readers to tackle irregular words\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics, also known as \"blended phonics\" or \"inductive phonics\", is a method of teaching English reading which first teaches the letter sounds and then builds up to blending these sounds together to achieve full pronunciation of whole words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cursive",
        "text": "Students with dyslexia, who have difficulty learning to read because their brains have difficulty associating sounds and letter combinations efficiently, have found that cursive can help them with the decoding process because it integrates hand-eye coordination, fine motor skills and other brain and memory functions. However, students with dysgraphia may be badly served, or even substantially hindered, by demands for cursive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "\"Synthetic phonics\", also known as blended phonics, is a systematic phonics method employed to teach students to read by \"sounding out\" the letters then \"blending\" the sounds to form the word. This method involves learning how letters or letter groups represent individual sounds, and that those sounds are blended to form a word. For example, \"shrouds\" would be read by pronouncing the sounds for each spelling, \"sh, r, ou, d, s\" (IPA ), then blending those sounds orally to produce a spoken word, \"sh \u2013 r \u2013 ou \u2013 d \u2013 s = shrouds\" (IPA ). The goal of either a blended phonics or synthetic phonics instructional program is that students identify the sound-symbol correspondences and blend their phonemes automatically. Since 2005, synthetic phonics has become the accepted method of teaching reading (by phonics instruction) in England, Scotland and Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Classical capacity",
        "text": "decoding technique."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2021, the province of New Brunswick introduced a new English Language Arts curriculum that includes phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and reading comprehension. Notably, the teaching of alphabetic skills based on the science of reading has replaced the use of various cueing systems and a variety of strategies to construct meaning from text. It is not yet clear whether the teaching practices will lean towards synthetic phonics, or analytic phonics, or a combination of the two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "On the one hand, the curriculum of all of the Canadian provinces include some of the following: phonics, phonological awareness, segmenting and blending, decoding, phonemic awareness, graphophonic cues, and letter-sound relationships."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Yet, systematic phonics and synthetic phonics received attention in the following publications:\n* In 2005 the Ministry of Education for the government of Ontario published a report entitled \"Early Reading Strategy: The Report of the Expert Panel on Early Reading in Ontario and Early Math Strategy\". The report states \"This Expert Panel supports the position of the National Reading Panel (2000) that phonics instruction should be integrated into a comprehensive and balanced reading program. Instruction in phonics and decoding should not be conceived of as a total reading program, but neither should it be neglected.\" Pg 104\n* The Canadian Language and Literacy Research Network published a report entitled Foundations for Literacy: An evidence-based Toolkit for the Effective Reading and Writing Teacher. It is a practical toolkit helping teachers to a) understand research in order to keep informed, b) understand how children develop reading and writing skills, and c) understand how to use effective instruction techniques. It also includes explanations of phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, the alphabetic principle (including systematic phonics and synthetic phonics instruction).\n* In 2009, the Ministry of Education for the province of British Columbia posted a discussion paper on their Read Now website entitled \"Reading: Breaking Through the Barriers.\" The paper states that explicit and synthetic phonics needs to be taught directly in the classroom because it works \"for all students but are particularly helpful for students at risk for reading difficulty\". (Pg. 8) There appears to be no evidence, however, that systematic phonics (or synthetic phonics) is a part of the teaching pedagogy.\n* In 2010, The Literacy and Numeracy Secretariat of Ontario, Canada published a report entitled Capacity Building Series: Reading Fluency that offers practical strategies to teach reading comprehension. This includes Automaticity (the ability to automatically decode words), Phrasing (reading phrases not only words), and Expression (moving from a monotone delivery to a natural rise and fall in pitch, tone and rhythm). In the section about decoding it discusses the importance of Phonological Awareness (hearing words in sentences and individual sounds in words), Alphabetic Letter Knowledge (identifying, naming and writing letters), and the Alphabetic Principle (understanding that letters represent the sounds of spoke language). In the latter, in addition to other suggestions, it is emphasized that teaching should include instruction in segmenting and blending alongside the explicit teaching of letter sounds.\n* Dr. Robert Savage, formerly of McGill University and now at UCL Institute of Education, University College London, concludes that, with respect to remedial programs, we should not wait for children to fail before using phonics programs. He also recommends the teaching of such skills as segmenting and blending alongside the \"explicit teaching\" of letter sounds. He also says there is a need for more Randomized controlled trials in order to produce more definitive conclusions. In another report about effective early reading instruction and inclusion, Dr. Savage states that \"a heavy and early structured approach to early reading intervention focused on mastering the use of the alphabetic principle to decode as a self-teaching mechanism is enough to allow many children to take off into reading without further focused support beyond good regular classroom teaching\".\n* In 2011, Dr. Janette Pelletier, OISE, University of Toronto published a paper entitled Supporting Early Language and Literacy that outlines several key findings from early literacy research, including the importance of teaching phonological awareness and the \"knowledge of letter names and letter-sound correspondences\" also known as decoding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "\"Analytic phonics\" does not involve pronouncing individual sounds (phonemes) in isolation and blending the sounds, as is done in synthetic phonics. Rather, it is taught at the word level and students learn to analyze letter-sound relationships once the word is identified. For example, students analyze letter-sound correspondences such as the \"ou\" spelling of in shrouds. Also, students might be asked to practice saying words with similar sounds such as ball, bat and bite. Furthermore, students are taught consonant blends (separate, adjacent consonants) as units, such as break or shrouds\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics involves a heavy emphasis on hearing the sounds all-through-the-word for spelling and not an emphasis on \"look, cover, write, check\". This latter, visual form of spelling plays a larger part with unusual spellings and spelling variations although a phonemic procedure is always emphasised in spelling generally. Teachers read a full range of literature with the learners and ensure that all learners have a full range of experience of activities associated with literacy such as role play, drama, poetry, but the learners are \"not\" expected to 'read' text which is beyond them, and the method does \"not\" involve guessing at words from context, picture and initial letter clues.\n*learning letter sounds (as distinct from the letter names);\n:For example, mmm not em, sss not ess, fff not ef. The letter names can be taught later but should not be taught in the early stages.\n*learning the 40+ sounds and their corresponding letters/letter groups;\n:The English Alphabet Code 'Key': 40+ phonemes with their common 'sound pattern' representations. (This is based on the British pronunciation. The number and mixture of the 40+ phonemes will vary for other English speaking countries such as Australia, Canada and the United States).\n::Vowels:\n::*\"a\" - mat\n::*\"a-e\" - ape, baby, rain, tray, they, eight\n::*\"air\" - square, bear\n::*\"ar\" - jar, far\n::*\"e\" - peg, bread\n::*\"ee\" - sweet, me, beach, key, pony\n::*\"eer\" - deer, hear\n::*\"er\" - computer, doctor\n::*\"i\" - pig, wanted\n::*\"i-e\" - kite, wild, light, pie\n::*\"o\" - orange, quality\n::*\"oa\" - oak, rope, bow, piano\n::*\"oi\" - coin, boy\n::*\"oo\" - (short) book, would, put\n::*\"oo\" - (long) moon, crew, blue, fruit, few\n::*\"ow\" - down, house\n::*\"or\" - fork, ball, sauce, law,\n::*\"u\" - plug, glove\n::*\"ur\" - burn, teacher, work, first\n::*\"u-e\" - tune, unicorn, hue\n::*\"uh\" - button, hidden\n::Consonants:\n::*\"b\" - boy, rabbit\n::*\"c / k\" - cat, key, duck, school, quit\n::*\"ch\" - chip, watch, statue\n::*\"d\" - dog, ladder\n::*\"f\" - fish, coffee, photo, tough\n::*\"g\" - gate, egg, ghost\n::*\"h\" - hat, whole\n::*\"j\" - jet, giant, cage, bridge\n::*\"k-s\" - box\n::*\"l\" - lip, bell, sample\n::*\"m\" - man, hammer, comb\n::*\"n\" - nut, dinner, knee, gnat\n::*\"ng\" - ring, singer\n::*\"p\" - pan, happy\n::*\"r\" - rat, cherry, write\n::*\"s / c\" - sun, dress, house, city, mice\n::*\"sh\" - ship, mission, station, chef\n::*\"t\" - tap, letter, debt\n::*\"th\" - thrush\n::*\"th\" - that\n::*\"v\" - vet, sleeve\n::*\"w\" - wet, wheel, queen\n::*\"y\" - yes, new\n::*\"z\" - zip, fizz, sneeze, is, cheese\n::*\"g-z\" - exist\n::*\"zh\" - treasure\n*learning to read words using sound \"blending\" in which each individual sound is joined together to form a word (e.g. \"c\" - \"a\" - \"t\"= cat).;\n*reading stories featuring the words the students have learned to sound out;\n*demonstration exercises to show they comprehend the stories;"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Sight vocabulary is a part of the phonics method. It describes words that are stored in long-term memory and read automatically. Skilled fully-alphabetic readers learn to store words in long-term memory without memorization (i.e. a mental dictionary), making reading and comprehension easier. The process, called \"orthographic mapping\", involves \"decoding, crosschecking, mental marking and rereading\". It takes significantly less time than memorization. This process works for fully-alphabetic readers when reading simple decodable words from left to right through the word. \"Irregular words\" pose more of a challenge, yet research in 2018 concluded that \"fully-alphabetic students\" learn irregular words more easily when they use a process called \"hierarchical decoding\". In this process, students, rather than decode from left to right, are taught to focus attention on the irregular elements such as a vowel-digraph and a silent-e; for example, \"break (b - r - ea - k), height (h - eigh - t), touch (t - ou - ch), and make (m - a- ke)\". Consequentially, they suggest that teachers and tutors should focus on \"teaching decoding with more advanced vowel patterns before expecting young readers to tackle irregular words\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "\"Analytic phonics\" does not involve pronouncing individual sounds (phonemes) in isolation and blending the sounds, as is done in synthetic phonics. Rather, it is taught at the word level and students learn to analyze letter-sound relationships once the word is identified. For example, students analyze letter-sound correspondences such as the \"ou\" spelling of in shr\"ou\"ds. Also, students might be asked to practice saying words with similar sounds such as \"b\"all, \"b\"at and \"b\"ite. Furthermore, students are taught consonant blends (separate, adjacent consonants) as units, such as \"br\"eak or \"shr\"ouds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "\"Synthetic phonics\", also known as blended phonics, is a method employed to teach students to read by \"sounding out\" the letters then \"blending\" the sounds to form the word. This method involves learning how letters or letter groups represent individual sounds, and that those sounds are blended to form a word. For example, \"shrouds\" would be read by pronouncing the sounds for each spelling, \"sh,r,ou,d,s\" (IPA ), then blending those sounds orally to produce a spoken word, \"sh - r - ou - d - s= shrouds\" (IPA ). The goal of either a blended phonics or synthetic phonics instructional program is that students identify the sound-symbol correspondences and blend their phonemes automatically. Since 2005, synthetic phonics has become the accepted method of teaching reading (by phonics instruction) in the United Kingdom and Australia. In the United States, a pilot program using the Core Knowledge Early Literacy program that used this type of phonics approach showed significantly higher results in K-3 reading compared with comparison schools. In addition, several States such as California, Ohio, New York and Arkansas, are promoting the principles of synthetic phonics (see synthetic phonics in the USA)."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Reading Panel",
        "text": "The NRP reviewed 38 studies on the teaching of phonics and found that teaching children the relationship between letters and spelling patterns and pronunciation and how to decode words improved reading achievement. Young children who received such instruction did better with decoding words, nonsense words, spelling, fluency, and reading comprehension. Older disabled readers also benefited from such instruction in terms of improvement in decoding, but without commensurate gains in spelling or reading comprehension. Systematic phonics instruction \u2014 that is instruction based on a planned curriculum \u2014 was found to be superior to more opportunistic versions in which teachers tried to teach what they thought students needed. There were no statistical differences between synthetic phonics programs in which each letter sound is taught versus analytic phonics that analyzes the sounds within complete words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In 2014 the California Department of Education said children should know how to decode regularly spelled one-syllable words by mid-first grade, and be phonemically aware (especially able to segment and blend phonemes)\". In grades two and three children receive explicit instruction in advanced phonic-analysis and reading multi-syllabic and more complex words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonological awareness",
        "text": "Phonological awareness and literacy is often explained by decoding and encoding. In reading, decoding refers to the process of relating a word's written representation to its verbal representation. Especially in the early stages of reading, decoding involves mapping letters in the word to their corresponding sounds, and then combining those sounds to form a verbal word. Encoding: a process used in spelling: is similar, although the process goes in the opposite direction, with the word's verbal representation is encoded in a written form. Again, especially in the early stages of reading, encoding involves determining the sounds in a verbal word, and then mapping those sounds onto a letter sequence in order to spell out the written word. In both encoding and decoding, phonological awareness is needed because the child must know the sounds in the words in order to relate them to the letter sounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "According to some, three-cueing isn't the most effective way for beginning readers to learn how to decode printed text. While a cueing system does help students to \"make better guesses\", it does not help when the words become more sophisticated; and it reduces the amount of practice time available to learn essential decoding skills. They also say that students should first decode the word, \"then they can use context to figure out the meaning of any word they don\u2019t understand\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wechsler Individual Achievement Test",
        "text": "Reading\n* Word Reading: assesses pre-reading (phonological awareness) and decoding skills (naming letters, phonological skills [working with sounds in words], reading words from lists).\n* Reading Comprehension: assesses types of reading comprehension skills taught in the classroom or used in everyday life (matching words to pictures, reading sentences aloud, orally answering oral questions about reading passages, silent reading speed).\n* Pseudoword (phonetic) Decoding: assesses the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills. (Reading nonsense words aloud from a list [phonetic word attack])."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decoding methods",
        "text": "then:\n:formula_31"
      },
      {
        "title": "Decoding methods",
        "text": "Given a received codeword formula_6, minimum distance decoding picks a codeword formula_7 to minimise the Hamming distance:\n:formula_26"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Phonics is a method for teaching people how to read and write an alphabetic language (such as English, Arabic or Russian). It is done by demonstrating the relationship between the sounds of the spoken language (phonemes), and the letters or groups of letters (graphemes) or syllables of the written language. In English, this is also known as the Alphabetic principle or the \"Alphabetic code\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Supporters of Synthetic phonics argue that if the systematic teaching of phonics doesn't take place, analytic learners can fall behind and fail to develop the tools they need for decoding words.\n*Reading\n*Phonemic awareness\n*Phonetics\n*Phonics\n*Synthetic phonics"
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic Phonics uses the concept of 'synthesising', which means 'putting together' or 'blending'. Simply put, the sounds prompted by the letters are synthesised (put together or blended) to pronounce the word."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ambisonics",
        "text": "A variety of more modern decoding methods are also in use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decoding methods",
        "text": "Suppose that formula_33 is a linear code of length formula_2 and minimum distance formula_35 with parity-check matrix formula_36. Then clearly formula_37 is capable of correcting up to\n:formula_38"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "Difficulty with decoding is marked by having not acquired the phoneme-grapheme mapping concept. One specific disability characterized by poor decoding is dyslexia, defined as brain-based type of learning disability that specifically impairs a person's ability to read. These individuals typically read at levels significantly lower than expected despite having normal intelligence. It can also be inherited in some families, and recent studies have identified a number of genes that may predispose an individual to developing dyslexia. Although the symptoms vary from person to person, common characteristics among people with dyslexia are difficulty with spelling, phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), and/or rapid visual-verbal responding. Adults can have either developmental dyslexia or acquired dyslexia which occurs after a brain injury, stroke or dementia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Students are not reading if they can decode words but do not understand their meaning. Similarly, students are not reading if they cannot decode words that they would ordinarily recognize and understand if they heard them spoken out loud."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decoding methods",
        "text": "formula_21"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonological Awareness for Literacy",
        "text": "Level 1 (simple words): Simple syllables with structures up to a consonant\u2013vowel\u2013consonant (CVC) level. The focus of this level is the ability to decode and encode CVC syllables, before applying this skill in reading and spelling. This incorporates the learning of long and short vowels in addition to consonants. Words used at this level have consistent grapheme-phoneme correspondences (GPCs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Classical capacity",
        "text": "codeword correctly under our sequential decoding scheme is equal to"
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In Analytic phonics (sometimes referred to as Analytical phonics) practitioners do not teach learners to pronounce sounds \"in isolation\" as is the practice with Synthetic Phonics. Furthermore, consonant blends (separate, adjacent consonants) are taught as units (e.g., in the word 'shrouds' the shr would be taught as a unit). Some analytic phonics programs (referred to as analogy phonics ) teach learners to break-down words into their common components which are referred to as the \"onset\" and the \"rime\". In the word \"ship\", \"sh\" is the \"onset\" and \"ip\" is the \"rime\" (the part starting with the vowel). In other words, analytic phonics teaches the learner to say \"sh\" - \"ip\" (ship) and \"sh\" - \"op\" (shop), whereas synthetic phonics, teaches the learner to say \"sh - i - p\" (ship) and \"sh - o - p\" (shop). In analytic phonics, learners are also taught to find the similarities among words (e.g. man, can, tan, fan, and ran), whereas synthetic phonics devotes most of its time to learning the letter/sound relationships (i.e. grapheme/phoneme)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In the Norwegian curriculum, basic skills include \"decoding and comprehension of simple texts\" (i.e. phonics). At the end of grade two students are expected to demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between \"speech sound and letter\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In addition, according to research, whole-word memorisation is \"labor-intensive\", requiring on average about 35 trials per word. Also, phonics advocates say that most words are decodable, so comparatively few words have to be memorized. And because a child will over time encounter many low-frequency words, \"the phonological recoding mechanism is a very powerful, indeed essential, mechanism throughout reading development\". Furthermore, researchers suggest that teachers who withhold phonics instruction to make it easier on children \"are having the opposite effect\" by making it harder for children to gain basic word-recognition skills. They suggest that learners should focus on understanding the principles of phonics so they can recognize the phonemic overlaps among words (e.g. have, had, has, having, haven't, etc.), making it easier to decode them all."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "\"Overall we conclude that the synthetic phonics approach, as part of the reading curriculum, is more effective than the analytic phonics approach, even when it is supplemented with phonemic awareness training. It also led boys to reading words significantly better than girls, and there was a trend towards better spelling and reading comprehension. There is evidence that synthetic phonics is best taught at the beginning of Primary 1, as even by the end of the second year at school the children in the early synthetic phonics programme had better spelling ability, and the girls had significantly better reading ability.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sequential decoding",
        "text": "Therefore:\n:formula_20"
      },
      {
        "title": "Decoding methods",
        "text": "formula_23"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "On the other hand, phonics advocates say that most words are decodable, so comparatively few words have to be memorized. And because a child will over time encounter many low-frequency words, \"the phonological recoding mechanism is a very powerful, indeed essential, mechanism throughout reading development\". Furthermore, researchers suggest that teachers who withhold phonics instruction to make it easier on children \u201care having the opposite effect\u201d by making it harder for children to gain basic word-recognition skills. They suggest that learners should focus on understanding the principles of phonics so they can recognize the phonemic overlaps among words (e.g. have, had, has, having, haven't, etc.), making it easier to decode them all."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In the United Kingdom a 2010 government white paper contained plans to train all primary school teachers in phonics. The 2013 curriculum has \"statutory requirements\" that, amongst other things, students in years one and two be capable in using systematic synthetic phonics in regards to word reading, reading comprehension, fluency, and writing. This includes having skills in \"sound to graphemes\", \"decoding\", and \"blending\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Code",
        "text": "Other examples of decoding include:\n* Decoding (computer science)\n* Decoding methods, methods in communication theory for decoding codewords sent over a noisy channel\n* Digital signal processing, the study of signals in a digital representation and the processing methods of these signals\n* Digital-to-analog converter, the use of analog circuit for decoding operations\n* Word decoding, the use of phonics to decipher print patterns and translate them into the sounds of language"
      },
      {
        "title": "Decoding",
        "text": "Decoding\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "Novice readers continue to develop their phonemic awareness, and come to realise that the letters (graphemes) connect to the sounds (phonemes) of the language; known as decoding, phonics, and the alphabetic principle. They may also memorize the most common letter patterns and some of the high-frequency words that do not necessarily follow basic phonological rules (e.g. \"have and who\"). However, it is a mistake to assume a reader understands the meaning of a text merely because they can decode it. Vocabulary and oral language comprehension are also important parts of text comprehension as described in the Simple view of reading, Scarborough's reading rope, and The active view of reading model. Reading and speech are codependent: reading promotes vocabulary development and a richer vocabulary facilitates skilled reading."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "Systematic phonics is sometimes mischaracterized as \"skill and drill\" with little attention to meaning. However, researchers point out that this impression is false. Teachers can use engaging games or materials to teach letter-sound connections, and it can also be incorporated with the reading of meaningful text."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "There has been a resurgence of interest in synthetic phonics in recent years, particularly in England. As of 2013, all (local-authority-maintained) primary schools in England have a statutory requirement to teach synthetic phonics in years one and two. In addition, any pupil who is struggling to decode words properly by year three must \"urgently\" receive help through a \"rigorous and systematic phonics programme\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ken Goodman",
        "text": "26. \"Decoding -- From Code to What?\" Journal of Reading, April, 1971, Vol 14:7, pp.\u00a0455\u2013462."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lempel\u2013Ziv\u2013Welch",
        "text": "The decoding algorithm works by reading a value from the encoded input and outputting the corresponding string from the dictionary. However, the full dictionary is not needed, only the initial dictionary that contains single-character strings (and that is usually hard coded in the program, instead of sent with the encoded data). Instead, the full dictionary is rebuilt during the decoding process the following way: after decoding a value and outputting a string, the decoder concatenates it with the first character of the \"next\" decoded string (or the first character of current string, if the next one can't be decoded; since if the next value is unknown, then it must be the value added to the dictionary in \"this\" iteration, and so its first character is the same as the first character of the current string), and updates the dictionary with the new string. The decoder then proceeds to the next input (which was already read in the previous iteration) and processes it as before, and so on until it has exhausted the input stream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lempel\u2013Ziv\u2013Welch",
        "text": "At each stage, the decoder receives a code X; it looks X up in the table and outputs the sequence \u03c7 it codes, and it conjectures \u03c7 + ? as the entry the encoder just added \u2013 because the encoder emitted X for \u03c7 precisely because \u03c7 + ? was not in the table, and the encoder goes ahead and adds it. But what is the missing letter? It is the first letter in the sequence coded by the \"next\" code Z that the decoder receives. So the decoder looks up Z, decodes it into the sequence \u03c9 and takes the first letter z and tacks it onto the end of \u03c7 as the next dictionary entry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "As of October 5, 2018, The State Government of Victoria, Australia, publishes a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons. It contains elements of synthetic phonics, analytic phonics, and analogy phonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "observers report that the Russian system in beginning reading is \"strictly phonetic\". However, there are no separate phonics lessons, drill periods, drill books, exercises or \"gadgets\" as you might see in typical American schools. Instead, each new letter-sound is introduced at once in meaningful words the children can pronounce as soon as they know the sound of the new letter. There are no \"blending\" of the sounds, or \"crutches\" such as equating the sound of /s/ with a snake. Instead, \"all learning is by eye and ear in tandem\", and the association is formed solely between the printed symbol and its sound. And finally, each lesson makes use of exercises to confirm comprehension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decoding methods",
        "text": "Therefore,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Majority logic decoding",
        "text": "Assumption: the code word is formula_2, where formula_9, an odd number.\n* Calculate the formula_10 Hamming weight of the repetition code.\n* if formula_11, decode code word to be all 0's\n* if formula_12, decode code word to be all 1's"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "Major predictors of an individual's ability to read both alphabetic and non-alphabetic scripts are oral language skills, phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming and verbal IQ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Systematic phonics does \"not\" include methods such as \"embedded phonics\" and \"phonics mini lessons\" which are found in the \"Whole Language\" approach and the \"Balanced Literacy\" approach."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "The teaching of reading and writing has varied over the years from spelling and phonetic methods to the fashions for look-say and whole language methods. In America in the eighteenth century, Noah Webster introduced spelling approaches with syllabaries and in England the use of James Pitman's Initial Teaching Alphabet was popular in the 1960s. Recently phonic methods have been revived."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Systematic phonics is sometimes mischaracterized as \"skill and drill\" with little attention to meaning. However, researchers point out that this impression is false. Teachers can use engaging games or materials to teach letter-sound connections, and it can also be incorporated with the reading of meaningful text."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Other findings of this report are:\n* Guided Oral Reading (reading out loud and receiving systematic and explicit feedback from a teacher) \"had a significant and positive impact on word recognition, fluency, and comprehension\".\n* The value of Independent Silent Reading is unclear; however it is clear that it should not be the only type of reading instruction to develop fluency and other reading skills.\n* Vocabulary, both oral and print, should be taught directly and indirectly because it leads to gains in comprehension.\n* Teaching a combination of reading comprehension techniques is the most effective, however more research is needed to determine which techniques are the most effective."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Butterworth",
        "text": "His distinctive contribution to reading and dyslexia research was to show that John Marshall's 'two route model of reading' could explain the dyslexias in both alphabetic and logographic orthographies such as Chinese and Japanese. According to the two-route model, the reader simultaneously processes words as a whole and the components of words\u2014letters in alphabetic scripts, and radicals in Chinese. Reading fluency depends on whether the outcomes of these two processes are compatible. In English, they often are not: -INT is pronounced one way in MINT and another way in PINT. This incompatibility slows down reading that word. He showed that this applies also to Chinese, as he showed with his student, Yin Wengang and Japanese with colleague Taeko Wydell. He also showed that each route could be separately impaired in development\u2014developmental dyslexia\u2014and in brain damage\u2014acquired dyslexia\u2014again in both alphabetic and logographic scripts. To learn an alphabetic script, it is critical to learn how each letter is pronounced\u2014this is sometimes called 'phonics'\u2014but of course orthographies such as English there are many exceptions that just need to be learned. For example, the letter C is pronounced differently in COT, MICE, AND CHURCH. He showed that the phonic route could be selectively impaired or spared in both learners and neurological patients. In development, learners who are unable to parse a whole syllable into their component phonemes will have great difficulty learning to read, and will have to rely on recognizing words as a whole, as he was the first to show. This would not be a problem for learning to read Japanese, and he reported a young man of English-speaking parents, raised in Japan, severely dyslexic in English but a superior reader of Japanese. His siblings were fluent readers in both languages."
      },
      {
        "title": "List decoding",
        "text": "Output: A list of all codewords formula_11 whose hamming distance from formula_12 is at most formula_10."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "Decoding \u00d7 Oral Language Comprehension = Reading Comprehension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modulo-N code",
        "text": "At the receiver by joint decoding we may complete the process of extracting the data and rebuilding the original values. The code from the even node is reconstructed by the \"assumption\" that it must be close to the data from the odd node. Hence the decoding algorithm retrieves even node data as\n: formula_8"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sight word",
        "text": "Proponents of systematic phonics and synthetic phonics argue that children must first learn to associate the sounds of their language with the letter(s) that are used to represent them, and then to blends those sounds into words, and that children should never memorize words as visual designs. Using sight words as a method of teaching reading in English is seen as being at odds with the alphabetic principle and treating English as though it was a logographic language (e.g. Chinese or Japanese)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luby transform code",
        "text": "This decoding procedure works because \"A\"\u00a0formula_1\u00a0\"A\"\u00a0=\u00a00 for any bit string \"A\". After \"d\"\u00a0\u2212\u00a01 distinct blocks have been exclusive-ored into a packet of degree \"d\", the original unencoded content of the unmatched block is all that remains. In symbols we have\n:formula_4"
      },
      {
        "title": "Decoding methods",
        "text": "formula_20 is constant as all codewords are equally likely to be sent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Simple view of reading",
        "text": "The parts of the equation are:\n:(D) \"Decoding\": the ability of the student to \"sound-out or decode\" the written words using the principles of phonics (e.g. /k - \u00e6 - t/= cat).\n:(LC) \"language (listening) comprehension\": the ability of the student to understand the meaning of the words (as if they had been \"spoken out loud\").\n:(RC) \"Reading comprehension\": the ability of the student to understand the meaning of the \"written\" words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Typically, the instruction starts with sounds that have only one letter and simple CVC words such as \"sat\" and \"pin\". Then it progresses to longer words, and sounds with more than one letter (e.g. hear and day), and perhaps even syllables (e.g. wa-ter). Sometimes the student practices saying (or sounding-out) cards that contain entire words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "b) learning the sounds of groups of letters (in words) such as rimes (e.g. hat, mat and sat have the same rime, \"at\"), or consonant blends (also consonant clusters in linguistics) (e.g. bl as in black and st as in last), or syllables (e.g. pen-cil and al-pha-bet), or"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 1990, Congress asked the U.S. Department of Education (ED) to compile a list of available programs on beginning reading instruction, evaluating each in terms of the effectiveness of its phonics component. As part of this requirement, the ED asked Dr. Marilyn J. Adams to produce a report on the role of phonics instruction in beginning reading. This resulted in her 1994 book \"Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning about Print\". In the book, Adams asserted that existing scientific research supported that phonics is an effective way to teach students the \"alphabetic code\" - building their skills in decoding unknown words. By learning the alphabetic code, she argued, students can free up mental energy used for word analysis and devote this mental effort to meaning, leading to stronger comprehension. Furthermore, she suggested that students be encouraged \"not\" to skip words they find difficult. Instead they should take the time to study the challenging words and to reread sentences after they have succeeded in decoding them. She also concluded that while phonics instruction is a necessary component of reading instruction, it is not sufficient by itself. Children should also have practice reading text provided they do not make too many mistakes. In spite of her study, the argument about how to teach reading eventually known as \"the Great Debate,\" continued unabated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthographies and dyslexia",
        "text": "With alphabetic writing systems, phonological awareness plays a central role in reading acquisition; while phonological awareness in Chinese is much less important. Rather, reading in Chinese is strongly related to a child's writing skills, which depend on orthographic awareness and on motor memory. In handling alphabetic languages with deep orthographies, the child must cope with having more than one spelling to represent a sound. In spoken Chinese, a single syllable is used in many different words, and a Chinese child must cope with having many written characters that represent the same syllable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "These patterns are just a few examples out of dozens that can be used to help learners unpack the challenging English alphabetic code. While complex, many believe English spelling does retain order and reason."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dyslexia research",
        "text": "The phonological deficit theory proposes that people with dyslexia have a specific sound manipulation impairment, which affects their auditory memory, word recall, and sound association skills when processing speech. The phonological theory explains a reading impairment when using an alphabetic writing system which requires learning the grapheme/phoneme correspondence, the relationship between the graphic letter symbols and speech sounds which they represent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zemor's decoding algorithm",
        "text": "Received word : formula_180"
      },
      {
        "title": "Convolutional code",
        "text": "This diagram gives us an idea about \"decoding\": if a received sequence doesn't fit this graph, then it was received with errors, and we must choose the nearest \"correct\" (fitting the graph) sequence. The real decoding algorithms exploit this idea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grace Fernald",
        "text": "Warren's 1977 dissertation study with children exhibiting mild forms of reading problems demonstrated 147% and 77% superior word recognition and comprehension respectively by Fernald tracing compared to Orton-Gillingham phonics, although O-G was 10% more effective in word decoding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Speech recognition",
        "text": "A possible improvement to decoding is to keep a set of good candidates instead of just keeping the best candidate, and to use a better scoring function (re scoring) to rate these good candidates so that we may pick the best one according to this refined score. The set of candidates can be kept either as a list (the N-best list approach) or as a subset of the models (a lattice). Re scoring is usually done by trying to minimize the Bayes risk (or an approximation thereof): Instead of taking the source sentence with maximal probability, we try to take the sentence that minimizes the expectancy of a given loss function with regards to all possible transcriptions (i.e., we take the sentence that minimizes the average distance to other possible sentences weighted by their estimated probability). The loss function is usually the Levenshtein distance, though it can be different distances for specific tasks; the set of possible transcriptions is, of course, pruned to maintain tractability. Efficient algorithms have been devised to re score lattices represented as weighted finite state transducers with edit distances represented themselves as a finite state transducer verifying certain assumptions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Analytic phonics can also help with spelling. For example, a student learns that the initial sound in \"pig\" is the same as that in \"pen\" and \"pat\", so they conclude that they must write that sound with the same letter (grapheme) \"p\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decoding methods",
        "text": "i.e. choose the codeword formula_9 that is as close as possible to formula_10."
      },
      {
        "title": "Writing",
        "text": "A featural script notates in an internally consistent way the building blocks of the phonemes that make up a language. For instance, all sounds pronounced with the lips (\"labial\" sounds) may have some element in common. In the Latin alphabet, this is accidentally the case with the letters \"b\" and \"p\"; however, labial \"m\" is completely dissimilar, and the similar-looking \"q\" and \"d\" are not labial. In Korean hangul, however, all four labial consonants are based on the same basic element, but in practice, Korean is learned by children as an ordinary alphabet, and the featural elements tend to pass unnoticed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Binary Reed\u2013Solomon encoding",
        "text": "During the decoding process, there is a necessary condition: The number of undamaged calibration data blocks have to be greater than or equal to the number of the original data blocks that missing, if not, it cannot be repaired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading for special needs",
        "text": "Using computer-assisted instruction to implement programs for individuals with ASD that target skills in decoding could be an effective way to help improve these skills in these individuals. Procedural facilitation tasks such as prereading questions, anaphoric cuing, or a cloze task helped to improve reading comprehension with the anaphoric cuing task being the most effective task."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boyer\u2013Moore\u2013Horspool algorithm",
        "text": "Like Boyer\u2013Moore, Boyer\u2013Moore\u2013Horspool preprocesses the pattern to produce a table containing, for each symbol in the alphabet, the number of characters that can safely be skipped. The preprocessing phase, in pseudocode, is as follows (for an alphabet of 256 symbols, i.e., bytes):"
      },
      {
        "title": "Neural decoding",
        "text": "formula_20"
      },
      {
        "title": "Decoding methods",
        "text": "This method has been improved in various ways, e.g. by Stern and Canteaut and Sendrier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zemor's decoding algorithm",
        "text": "In general, the above algorithm can correct a code word whose Hamming weight is no more than formula_224 for values of formula_225. Here, the decoding algorithm is implemented as a circuit of size formula_226 and depth formula_227 that returns the codeword given that error vector has weight less than formula_228 ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Majority logic decoding",
        "text": "In a binary alphabet made of formula_1, if a formula_2 repetition code is used, then each input bit is mapped to the code word as a string of formula_3-replicated input bits. Generally formula_4, an odd number."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where in the world are synthetic phonics used?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Synthetic phonic is a method of teaching English reading, so is used in countries such as Australia, Canada, and the U.K."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did it start being used in Australia?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "As of October 5, 2018, The State Government of Victoria, Australia, publishes a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is some of the common terminology used for synthetic phonics?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "These include alphabetic code, decoding skills, direct instruction, and intensive instruction. Which would you like to know more of?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in alphabetic code."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Alphabetic code (in synthetic phonics) is the relationship between sounds (phonemes) and the letter/s (graphemes) that represent them are referred to as a \"code\".  The alphabetic principle is the foundation of any alphabetic writing system (in the education field, it is known as the alphabetic code) but does not underlie logographic writing systems like Chinese or syllabic writing systems such as Japanese kana."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you also tell me about decoding skills?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Reading by using phonics is often referred to as decoding words, sounding-out words or using print-to-sound relationships.",
      "Decoding skills (in phonics): Without the use of context, to pronounce and read words accurately by using the relationship between the letter(s) and the sounds they represent. (i.e. cat is k - a - t, plough is p - l - ow, and school is s - k - oo - l. Encoding skills (i.e. spelling) is the same process in reverse."
    ],
    "topic": "Synthetic phonics",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Phonics:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Phonics",
          "Overview"
        ],
        "ctx": "Reading by using phonics is often referred to as \"decoding words\", \"sounding-out words\" or using \"print-to-sound relationships\". Since phonics focuses on the sounds and letters within words (i.e. sublexical), it is often contrasted with whole language (a word-level-up philosophy for teaching reading) and a compromise approach called balanced literacy (the attempt to combine whole language and phonics)."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Synthetic phonics:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Synthetic phonics",
          "Common terminology"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some common terminology used within this article includes:\n*\"alphabetic code\" (in synthetic phonics): The relationship between sounds (phonemes) and the letter/s (graphemes) that represent them are referred to as a \"code\". For example, the sound \"ay\" can be represented in many ways \"(e.g. cake, may, they, eight, aid, break, etc.)\". See also: Alphabetic principle\n*\"decoding skills\" (in phonics): Without the use of context, to pronounce and \"read\" words accurately by using the relationship between the letter(s) and the sounds they represent. (i.e. \"cat\" is \"k - a - t\", \"plough\" is \"p - l - ow\", and \"school\" is \"s - k - oo - l\". \"Encoding skills\" (i.e. \"spelling\") is the same process in reverse.\n*Direct instruction (also known as \"Explicit Instruction\" ): A teaching style that is characterized by \"carefully designed instruction\" that usually includes a fast pace, small steps, demonstrations, active participation, coaching, immediate correction, and positive feedback. (Pg. 85)\n*intensive instruction: teaching or tutoring that include some of the following: more time; peer-assisted strategies; and instruction in small groups or one-on-one. (Pg. 209)\n*peer-assisted literacy strategies: learners work in pairs (taking turns as teacher and learner) to learn a \"structured sequence\" of literacy skills, such as phonemic awareness, phonics, sound blending, passage reading, and story retelling. (Pg. 33)\n*supportive instruction: teaching or tutoring that supports the student both emotionally and cognitively. This includes encouragement, immediate feedback, positive reinforcement, and instructional scaffolding (i.e. clear structure, small steps, guiding with questions). (Pg. 209)"
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "In 2014 the California Department of Education stated \"Ensuring that children know how to decode regularly spelled one-syllable words by mid-first grade is crucial\". It goes on to say that \"Children need to be phonemically aware (especially able to segment and blend phonemes)\". The skills of segmenting and blending phonemes are a central aspect of synthetic phonics. In grades two and three children receive explicit instruction in advanced phonic-analysis and reading multi-syllabic and more complex words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Analytic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics involves the development of phonemic awareness from the outset. As part of the decoding process, the reader learns up to 44 phonemes (the smallest units of sound) and their related graphemes (the written symbols for the phoneme)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "The formula is: Decoding \u00d7 Oral Language Comprehension = Reading Comprehension."
      },
      {
        "title": "DRYAD",
        "text": "For example, using the example cipher sheet to the right and the NATO phonetic alphabet, Jason could challenge Peggy by transmitting \"authenticate Alpha Bravo\". Peggy's correct response would then be \"authenticate Yankee\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Some common terminology used within this article includes:\n*\"alphabetic code\" (in synthetic phonics): The relationship between sounds (phonemes) and the letter/s (graphemes) that represent them are referred to as a \"code\". For example, the sound \"ay\" can be represented in many ways \"(e.g. cake, may, they, eight, aid, break, etc.)\". See also: Alphabetic principle\n*\"decoding skills\" (in phonics): Without the use of context, to pronounce and \"read\" words accurately by using the relationship between the letter(s) and the sounds they represent. (i.e. \"cat\" is \"k - a - t\", \"plough\" is \"p - l - ow\", and \"school\" is \"s - k - oo - l\". \"Encoding skills\" (i.e. \"spelling\") is the same process in reverse.\n*Direct instruction (also known as \"Explicit Instruction\" ): A teaching style that is characterized by \"carefully designed instruction\" that usually includes a fast pace, small steps, demonstrations, active participation, coaching, immediate correction, and positive feedback. (Pg. 85)\n*intensive instruction: teaching or tutoring that include some of the following: more time; peer-assisted strategies; and instruction in small groups or one-on-one. (Pg. 209)\n*peer-assisted literacy strategies: learners work in pairs (taking turns as teacher and learner) to learn a \"structured sequence\" of literacy skills, such as phonemic awareness, phonics, sound blending, passage reading, and story retelling. (Pg. 33)\n*supportive instruction: teaching or tutoring that supports the student both emotionally and cognitively. This includes encouragement, immediate feedback, positive reinforcement, and instructional scaffolding (i.e. clear structure, small steps, guiding with questions). (Pg. 209)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In 2014 the California Department of Education stated \"Ensuring that children know how to decode regularly spelled one-syllable words by mid-first grade is crucial\". It goes on to say that \"Learners need to be phonemically aware (especially able to segment and blend phonemes)\". In grades two and three children receive explicit instruction in advanced phonic-analysis and reading multi-syllabic and more complex words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beaufort cipher",
        "text": "In the above example in the column with \"m\" on top one would find in the reciprocal \"d\" row the ciphertext \"K\". The same is true for decryption where ciphertext \"K\" combined with key \"m\" results in plaintext \"d\" as well as combining \"K\" with \"d\" results in \"m\". This results in \"trigram\" combinations where two parts suffice to identify the third. After eliminating the identical trigrams only 126 of the initial 676 combinations remain (see below) and could be memorized in any order (e.g. AMN can be memorized as \"man\" and CIP as \"pic\") to speed up encoding and decoding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Students are not reading if they can decode words but do not understand their meaning. Similarly, students are not reading if they cannot decode words that they would ordinarily recognize and understand if they heard them spoken out loud."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hasty Pudding cipher",
        "text": "The Hasty Pudding cipher can take a key of any number of bits for any one of the five subciphers. The cipher itself uses a \"key table\" of 16,384 bits (256 64-bit words). To derive the key table from the key, the key expansion function uses the following algorithm:\n# The first three words, \"KX\"[0], \"KX\"[1], \"KX\"[2] are set based on constants, the sub-cipher, and the length of the key. \"KX\"[1] is computed with a multiplication; the other operations involved are an addition and a bit shift.\n# Each successive word, \"KX\"[\"i\"] is determined from the three previous words by an efficient recursive formula.\n# The key bits are XORed into the bits of the key table, starting at \"KX\"[0], until all the key bits are used. (Keys longer than 8,192 bits use a more complicated procedure.)\n# Several passes over the key table are made. Each time, a \"stirring function\" is applied to each word of the key table, in sequence. The stirring function uses eight internal variables, and uses 14 logical bit operations, 5 bit shifts, and 14 additions / subtractions. Each use of the stirring function modifies one word in the key table, based on its previous value, the values of certain other words, and the internal variables of the stirring function. (3 total passes is the default.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hasty Pudding cipher",
        "text": "Each of the subciphers uses a different algorithm, but there are certain similarities. Three inputs are used to determine the ciphertext: the plaintext (in several 64-bit words plus one \"fragment\"), the spice (eight 64-bit words, with default value 0), and the key table. The operations within the cipher consist of \"stirring\", which combines internal variables in various ways with values from the key table and spice at regular intervals. HPC-Short uses two fixed permutations in addition, and HPC-Tiny consists of many special sub-cases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Reading by using phonics is often referred to as \"decoding words\", \"sounding-out words\" or using \"print-to-sound relationships\". Since phonics focuses on the sounds and letters within words (i.e. sublexical), it is often contrasted with whole language (a word-level-up philosophy for teaching reading) and a compromise approach called balanced literacy (the attempt to combine whole language and phonics)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bacon's cipher",
        "text": "This decodes in groups of five as"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cipher Department of the High Command of the Wehrmacht",
        "text": "Enciphered sections of encrypted test on the same generatrix (A curve that, when rotated about an axis, produces a solid figure), were superimposed properly. As a result, the letters within columns fell into successive and separate mono alphabets with characteristic frequencies. A new section of 30 letters of cipher text would have to \"match\" these alphabets, i.e., show a greater than random number of coincidences with them, before it could be added to this depth. The machine was used to test the probability of such a match. Weights were assigned each letter in each of the basic thirty alphabets, depending on the frequencies therein, and these weights were \"stored\" in the machine. Paper tape was read in sequences of 30 characters in succession. A long resultant stroke by the recording pen meant a greater total weight, therefore a long resultant stroke probably belonged to the basis set of superimposed sequences."
      },
      {
        "title": "The world wonders",
        "text": "Encryption cyphers can be defeated when easily guessed common patterns are recognized in the messages. Messages typically have common intros and salutations such as \"Dear\" and \"Sincerely\" which can lead to the defeat of the cypher. To remove common phrases from the start and the end, in World War II the US Navy would add unique non-relevant padding phrases separated from the main text by a word of two characters. The padding would be added before encoding and stripped after decoding. So a simple message like \"Halsey: Come home. -CINPAC\" might become the message \"I love gibberish nn Halsey: Come home. - CINPAC rr exo zagrat a zpqtrec\" during encrypted transmission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "\"Analytic phonics\" does not involve pronouncing individual sounds (phonemes) in isolation and blending the sounds, as is done in synthetic phonics. Rather, it is taught at the word level and students learn to analyze letter-sound relationships once the word is identified. For example, students analyze letter-sound correspondences such as the \"ou\" spelling of in shrouds. Also, students might be asked to practice saying words with similar sounds such as ball, bat and bite. Furthermore, students are taught consonant blends (separate, adjacent consonants) as units, such as break or shrouds\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonological awareness",
        "text": "Phonological awareness and literacy is often explained by decoding and encoding. In reading, decoding refers to the process of relating a word's written representation to its verbal representation. Especially in the early stages of reading, decoding involves mapping letters in the word to their corresponding sounds, and then combining those sounds to form a verbal word. Encoding: a process used in spelling: is similar, although the process goes in the opposite direction, with the word's verbal representation is encoded in a written form. Again, especially in the early stages of reading, encoding involves determining the sounds in a verbal word, and then mapping those sounds onto a letter sequence in order to spell out the written word. In both encoding and decoding, phonological awareness is needed because the child must know the sounds in the words in order to relate them to the letter sounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Classical cipher",
        "text": "Another example of a polyalphabetic substitution cipher that is much more difficult to decode is the Vigen\u00e8re square, an innovative encoding method. With the square, there are 26 different cipher alphabets that are used to encrypt text. Each cipher alphabet is just another rightward Caesar shift of the original alphabet. This is what a Vigen\u00e8re square looks like:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Classical cipher",
        "text": "Next, the letters are taken in numerical order and that is how the message is transposed. The column under A is taken first, then the column under C, then the column under T, as a result the message \"The sky is blue\" has become: HKSUTSILEYBE"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "\"Synthetic phonics\", also known as blended phonics, is a systematic phonics method employed to teach students to read by \"sounding out\" the letters then \"blending\" the sounds to form the word. This method involves learning how letters or letter groups represent individual sounds, and that those sounds are blended to form a word. For example, \"shrouds\" would be read by pronouncing the sounds for each spelling, \"sh, r, ou, d, s\" (IPA ), then blending those sounds orally to produce a spoken word, \"sh \u2013 r \u2013 ou \u2013 d \u2013 s = shrouds\" (IPA ). The goal of either a blended phonics or synthetic phonics instructional program is that students identify the sound-symbol correspondences and blend their phonemes automatically. Since 2005, synthetic phonics has become the accepted method of teaching reading (by phonics instruction) in England, Scotland and Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cryptanalysis",
        "text": "Deciphering combines the same key bits with the ciphertext to reconstruct the plaintext:\n::::Ciphertext \u2295 Key = Plaintext"
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics involves the teaching of the transparent alphabet (e.g. \"c\" as in \"cat\") before progressing onto the opaque alphabet (e.g. \"ch\" as in \"school\"). In other words, learners are taught steps which are straightforward and 'work' before being taught the complications and variations of pronunciation and spelling of the full alphabetic code. It introduces irregular words and more tricky words (defined as words which cannot be pronounced phonically \u2013 English has a surprisingly large number of these, usually the commonest words of all such as 'to', 'of', etc.) slowly and systematically after a thorough introduction of the transparent alphabet code (learning the 44 letter/s-sound correspondences to automaticity and how to blend for reading and segment for spelling). Phonics application still works at least in part in such words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reservehandverfahren",
        "text": "The cipher had two stages: a transposition followed by bigram substitution. In the transposition stage, the cipher clerk would write out the plaintext into a \"cage\" \u2014 a shape on a piece of paper. Pairs of letters were then substituted using a set of bigram tables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ambisonics",
        "text": "A variety of more modern decoding methods are also in use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Classical cipher",
        "text": "The previous examples were all examples of monoalphabetic substitution ciphers, where just one cipher alphabet is used. It is also possible to have a polyalphabetic substitution cipher, where multiple cipher alphabets are used. The encoder would make up two or more cipher alphabets using whatever techniques he or she chooses, and then encode their message, alternating what cipher alphabet is used with every letter or word. This makes the message much harder to decode because the codebreaker would have to figure out both cipher alphabets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Running key cipher",
        "text": "sentences are generated as ciphertext output. Decryption requires mapping the words back to"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "The transition from the novice reader stage to the decoding stage is marked by a reduction of painful pronunciations and in its place the sounds of a smoother, more confident reader. In this phase the reader adds at least 3,000 words to what they can decode. For example, in the English language, readers now learn the variations of the vowel-based rimes (e.g. s\"at\", m\"at\", c\"at\") and vowel pairs (also digraph) (e.g. r\"ai\"n, pl\"ay\", b\"oa\"t)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Speak & Spell (toy)",
        "text": "The \"Secret Code\" mini-game encrypted or decrypted \"words\" (really, any string of up to 8 letters) by matching up two sets of the alphabet, slightly askew, in the form of a Caesar cipher. In the game, both C and D and P and Q match up and run in opposite directions:\n: codice_1\n: codice_2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Running key cipher",
        "text": "interpret it as decoded plaintext."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beale ciphers",
        "text": "Finally, in the decoded text there are six errors, probably due to wrong transcription of the original paper:\n* ... 84, 57, 540, 217, 115, 71, 29, 84 (should be 85), 63, ... \"consistcd\" (\"consisted\").\n* ... 53 (should be 54), 20, 125, 371, 38, 36, 10, 52, ... \"rhousand\" (\"thousand\").\n* ... 2, 108 (should be 10, 8), 220, 106, 353, ... \"itron\" (\"in iron\").\n* ... 440 (should be 40), 370, 643, 466, ... \"uith\" (\"with\").\n* ... 14, 73, 84 (should be 85), ... \"thc\" (\"the\").\n* ... 807, 81, 96 (should be 95), 405, 41, ... \"varlt\" (\"vault\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "DRYAD",
        "text": "Numbers are enciphered one digit at a time. A ciphertext letter is chosen from the selected row (the row designated by the SET LETTER) in the column under the plain text digit. If the digit occurs more than once in the number, the coder is instructed to choose a different letter in the same column. All the digits in a single plaintext number are encoded from the same row. (There is also a provision for encoding letters associated with map grid coordinates.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Classical cipher",
        "text": "Another method of substitution cipher is based on a keyword. All spaces and repeated letters are removed from a word or phrase, which the encoder then uses as the start of the cipher alphabet. The end of the cipher alphabet is the rest of the alphabet in order without repeating the letters in the keyword. For example, if the keyword is CIPHER, the cipher alphabet would look like this:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "\"Sight vocabulary\" is a part of the phonics method. It describes words that are stored in long-term memory and read automatically. Skilled fully-alphabetic readers learn to store words in long-term memory without memorization (i.e. a mental dictionary), making reading and comprehension easier. \"Once you know the sound-based way to decode, your mind learns what words look like, even if you're not especially trying to do so\". The process, called \"orthographic mapping\", involves \"decoding, crosschecking, mental marking and rereading\". It takes significantly less time than memorization. This process works for fully-alphabetic readers when reading simple decodable words from left to right through the word. \"Irregular words\" pose more of a challenge, yet research in 2018 concluded that \"fully-alphabetic students\" learn irregular words more easily when they use a process called \"hierarchical decoding\". In this process, students, rather than decode from left to right, are taught to focus attention on the irregular elements such as a vowel-digraph and a silent-e; for example, break (b \u2013 r \u2013 \"ea\" \u2013 k), height (h \u2013 \"eigh\" \u2013 t), touch (t \u2013 \"ou \u2013 ch\"), and make (m \u2013 \"a\" \u2013 k\"e\"). Consequentially, they suggest that teachers and tutors should focus on \"teaching decoding with more advanced vowel patterns before expecting young readers to tackle irregular words\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "VIC cipher",
        "text": "\"Note: this section tracks the calculations by referring to [Line-X] or similar. This is to align with the notation stated in the CIA archive description.\"\n* [Line-A]: Generate a random 5-digit \"Keygroup\"\n* [Line-B]: Write the first 5 digits of the secret \"Date\"\n* [Line-C]: Subtract [Line-B] from [Line-A] by modular arithmetic (digit-by-digit, not 'borrowing' any tens from a neighboring column)\n* [Line-D]: Write out the first 20 letters from the secret \"Phrase\"\n* [Line-E.1&2]: \"Sequence\" (see below) the first and second ten characters separately (to get [Line-E.1] & [Line-E.2] respectively)\n* [Line-F.1]: Write out the 5-Digits from [Line-C], then apply \"Chain Addition\" (see below) applied to create five more digits\n* [Line-F.2]: The digit sequence '1234567890' is written out (under [Line-E.2]) as an aide for encoding when creating [Line-H]\n* [Line-G]: Addition of [Line-E.1] to [Line-F.1] - this is digit-by-digit by mod-10 arithmetic, i.e. no 'carrying' over tens to the next column\n* [Line-H]: \"Encoding\" (see below) of the digits in [Line-G] under [Line-E.2] as the key\n* \"[Line-I]: No [Line-I] used, presumably to avoid confusion (as 'I' may be misread as a '1' or 'J')\"\n* [Line-J]: The \"Sequencing\" of [Line-H]\n* [Lines-K,L,M,N,P]: These are five 10-digit lines created by chain addition of [Line-H]. The last two non-equal digits are added to the agent's personal number to determine the key length of the 2 transpositions. (Lines K-to-P are in-effect a key-driven pseudo-random block used for the next stage of encryption)\n* \"[Line-O]: No [Line-O] used, presumably to avoid confusion (as 'O' may be misread as a zero or 'Q')\"\n* [Line-Q]: The first 'a' digits extracted from [Lines-K,L,M,N,P] when Transposed via [Line-J]. (Where 'a' is the first value resulting from the addition of the last non-equal digits in [Line-P] to the Personal Number). These are used to key the Columnar Transposition.\n* [Line-R]: The next 'b' digits extracted (after the 'a' digits have been extracted) from [Lines-K,L,M,N,P] when transposed via [Line-J]. (Where 'b' is the second value resulting from the addition of the last non-equal digits in [Line-P] to the Personal Number). These are used to key the Diagonal Transposition.\n* [Line-S]: The Sequencing of [Line-P], this is used as the key to the Straddling Checkerboard"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tabula recta",
        "text": "Programmatically, the cipher is computable, assigning formula_1, then the encryption process is formula_2. Decryption follows the same process, exchanging ciphertext and plaintext. may be defined as the value of a letter from a companion ciphertext in a running key cipher, a constant for a Caesar cipher, or a zero-based counter with some period in Trithemius's usage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics programs \"do not\" have the following characteristics:\n* Encouraging students to guess the meaning of words from contextual clues (see whole language method).\n* Encouraging students to memorise the shape of words, to recall them by sight (see Look say method).\n* Teaching grapheme-phoneme correspondence on a \"when needed\" basis or as applied to particular groups of words, when these words arise in other forms of reading instruction (see \"embedded phonics\" in Whole language)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics refers to a family of programs which aim to teach reading and writing through the following methods:\n* Teaching students the correspondence between \"written letters\" (graphemes) and \"speech sounds\" (phonemes). For example, the words \"me\" and \"pony\" have the same sound at the end, but use different letters.\n* Teaching students to read words by \"blending\": identifying the graphemes (letters) in the word, recalling the corresponding phonemes (sounds), and saying the phonemes together to form the sound of the whole word.\n* Teaching students to write words by \"segmenting\": identifying the phonemes of the word, recalling the corresponding graphemes, then writing the graphemes together to form the written word."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics programs have some or all of the following characteristics:\n* Teaching grapheme-phoneme (letters-sound) correspondence out of alphabetic order, following an order determined by perceived complexity (going from easiest to hardest to learn).\n* Teaching the reading and writing of words in order of increasing irregularity, in other words teaching words which follow typical grapheme-phoneme correspondence first (e.g. \"ape\" and \"cat\"), and teaching words with idiosyncratic or unusual grapheme-phoneme correspondence later (e.g. \"eight\" and \"duck\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Classical cipher",
        "text": "In a transposition cipher, the letters themselves are kept unchanged, but their order within the message is scrambled according to some well-defined scheme. Many transposition ciphers are done according to a geometric design. A simple (and once again easy to crack) encryption would be to write every word backwards. For example, \"Hello my name is Alice.\" would now be \"olleH ym eman si ecilA.\" A scytale is a machine that aids in the transposition of methods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bacon's cipher",
        "text": "To decode the message, the reverse method is applied. Each \"typeface 1\" letter in the false message is replaced with an \"A\" and each \"typeface 2\" letter is replaced with a \"B\". The Baconian alphabet is then used to recover the original message."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "Sight vocabulary is a part of the phonics method. It describes words that are stored in long-term memory and read automatically. Skilled fully-alphabetic readers learn to store words in long-term memory without memorization (i.e. a mental dictionary), making reading and comprehension easier. The process, called \"orthographic mapping\", involves \"decoding, crosschecking, mental marking and rereading\". It takes significantly less time than memorization. This process works for fully-alphabetic readers when reading simple decodable words from left to right through the word. \"Irregular words\" pose more of a challenge, yet research in 2018 concluded that \"fully-alphabetic students\" learn irregular words more easily when they use a process called \"hierarchical decoding\". In this process, students, rather than decode from left to right, are taught to focus attention on the irregular elements such as a vowel-digraph and a silent-e; for example, \"break (b - r - ea - k), height (h - eigh - t), touch (t - ou - ch), and make (m - a- ke)\". Consequentially, they suggest that teachers and tutors should focus on \"teaching decoding with more advanced vowel patterns before expecting young readers to tackle irregular words\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decoding methods",
        "text": "then:\n:formula_31"
      },
      {
        "title": "Classical cipher",
        "text": "To use the Vigen\u00e8re square to encrypt a message, a coder first chooses a keyword to use and then repeats it until it is the same length as the message to be encoded. If is the keyword, each letter of the repeated keyword will tell what cipher (what row) to use for each letter of the message to be coded. The cipher alphabet on the second row uses B for A and C for B etc. That is cipher alphabet 'B'. Each cipher alphabet is named by the first letter in it. For example, if the keyword is and the message to encode is , then the encoding is:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Padding (cryptography)",
        "text": "Many classical ciphers arrange the plaintext into particular patterns (e.g., squares, rectangles, etc.) and if the plaintext doesn't exactly fit, it is often necessary to supply additional letters to fill out the pattern. Using nonsense letters for this purpose has a side benefit of making some kinds of cryptanalysis more difficult."
      },
      {
        "title": "Affine cipher",
        "text": "In this decryption example, the ciphertext that will be decrypted is the ciphertext from the encryption example. The corresponding decryption function is , where is calculated to be 21, and is 8. To begin, write the numeric equivalents to each letter in the ciphertext, as shown in the table below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Affine cipher",
        "text": "where modulus is the size of the alphabet and and are the keys of the cipher. The value must be chosen such that and are coprime. The decryption function is\n:formula_2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Type B Cipher Machine",
        "text": "For decryption, the data flow is reversed. The keyboard on the second typewriter becomes the input and the twenties letters pass through the stepping switch stages in the opposite order."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decius Wadsworth",
        "text": "Wadsworth's cipher system involved a set of two disks, one inside the other, where the outer disk had the 26 letters of the alphabet and the numbers 2\u20138, and the inner disk had only the 26 letters. The disks were geared at a ratio of 26:33. To encipher a message, the inner disk was turned until the desired letter was at the top position, with the number of turns required for the result transmitted as ciphertext. Due to the gearing, a ciphertext substitution for a character did not repeat until all 33 characters for the plaintext letter had been used. He received recognition for this method only posthumously."
      },
      {
        "title": "De Furtivis Literarum Notis",
        "text": "The book includes three sets of cypher discs for coding and decoding messages and a substitution cipher improving on the work of Al-Qalqashandi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Turingery",
        "text": "Similarly, for deciphering, the ciphertext was combined with the same key to give the plaintext:\n:formula_2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter Twinn",
        "text": "The system worked in reverse. The person decoding a cipher message would use an Enigma with identical settings. When he pressed the cipher text letter, the letter in the original plain text message lit up. The illuminated letters made up the original message."
      },
      {
        "title": "General der Nachrichtenaufkl\u00e4rung",
        "text": "The first 3-digit ciphers were very simple in form, consisting of several pages, ten at most, and contained alphabetically semi-hatted or completely hatted, the numbers 1 to 0 and punctuation marks. See Fig IV."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Reading Panel",
        "text": "The NRP reviewed 38 studies on the teaching of phonics and found that teaching children the relationship between letters and spelling patterns and pronunciation and how to decode words improved reading achievement. Young children who received such instruction did better with decoding words, nonsense words, spelling, fluency, and reading comprehension. Older disabled readers also benefited from such instruction in terms of improvement in decoding, but without commensurate gains in spelling or reading comprehension. Systematic phonics instruction \u2014 that is instruction based on a planned curriculum \u2014 was found to be superior to more opportunistic versions in which teachers tried to teach what they thought students needed. There were no statistical differences between synthetic phonics programs in which each letter sound is taught versus analytic phonics that analyzes the sounds within complete words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Classical capacity",
        "text": "decoding technique."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics develops phonemic awareness along with the corresponding letter shapes. It involves the learners rehearsing the writing of letter shapes alongside learning the letter/s-sound correspondences preferably with the tripod pencil grip. Dictation is a frequent teaching technique from letter level to word spelling, including nonsense words (e.g. choy and feep) and eventually extending to text level. It does not teach letter names until the learners know their letter/s-sound correspondences thoroughly and how to blend for reading and segment for spelling. Often when letter names are introduced it is through singing an alphabet song."
      },
      {
        "title": "Book cipher",
        "text": "This can have problems; if a word appears in the plaintext but not in the book, it cannot be encoded. An alternative approach which gets around this problem is to replace individual letters rather than words. One such method, used in the second Beale cipher, replaces the first letter of a word in the book with that word's position. In this case, the book cipher is properly a cipher \u2014 specifically, a homophonic substitution cipher. However, if used often, this technique has the side effect of creating a larger ciphertext (typically 4 to 6 digits being required to encipher each letter or syllable) and increases the time and effort required to decode the message."
      },
      {
        "title": "General der Nachrichtenaufkl\u00e4rung Training Referat",
        "text": "A clear symbol, e.g. letter, figure, syllable, word, is replaced by a cipher symbol\n* Simple substitution with standard alphabet\n:* a) Alphabetic simple polyalphabetic cipher\n::Example of enciphering;-\n:* b) Simple substitution cipher with standard alphabet\n::Method for enciphering as for (a).\n:* c) Normal simple substitution cipher with mixed alphabet\n::Method for enciphering as for (a).\n* Polyalphabetic cipher variants\n:This can take several variants. When enciphering a clear letter by means of a cipher symbol it is only possible to do this with variants by taking the ten figure symbols in addition to the alphabet letters. In such cases the ten figures are either allotted as variants to the ten high frequency letters of the alphabet, or alternatively three variants are allotted to a few frequent letters and the remainder to the next frequently occurring ones. It follows then that the frequencies are altered and that peaks in frequency graphs cannot be found easily.\n:Example of enciphering:\n:Figures for enciphered by using clear words, e.g.7=seven, and so on. The other forms of polyalphabetic cipher with variants were described next.\n* Polyalphabetic cipher with regular patterns\n: The number of alphabets in polyalphabetic ciphers of regular pattern varies between 3 and 40. The following is an example of a polyalphabetic cipher of 3 alphabets of regular pattern that would have been studied on the course.\n:Example of an enciphering:\n:Alphabetical polyalphabetic ciphers of regular pattern are possible but are not generally used. However, polyalphabetic ciphers with variants occurred more frequently and were what the German cryptanalyst would expect. The British SYKO Strip Cipher is built on the principle of 32 alphabets polyalphabetic cipher of regular pattern, except for the difference that the messages can start anywhere within the first 10 columns, that is given by the indicator group. Each line can also start anywhere within the first 10 columns.\n* Polyalphabetic cipher-hatted\n:This is similar to a polyalphabetic cipher of regular pattern, except that the sequence of alphabets is hatted, meaning random, e.g.:\n:Possible variants can be worked out to solution and evaluated as the previous example, at Polyalphabetic cipher with regular patterns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caesar cipher",
        "text": "For natural language plaintext, there will typically be only one plausible decryption, although for extremely short plaintexts, multiple candidates are possible. For example, the ciphertext could, plausibly, decrypt to either \" or \" (assuming the plaintext is in English); similarly, \" to \" or \"; and \" to \" or \"\" (see also unicity distance)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "On the other hand, phonics advocates say that most words are decodable, so comparatively few words have to be memorized. And because a child will over time encounter many low-frequency words, \"the phonological recoding mechanism is a very powerful, indeed essential, mechanism throughout reading development\". Furthermore, researchers suggest that teachers who withhold phonics instruction to make it easier on children \u201care having the opposite effect\u201d by making it harder for children to gain basic word-recognition skills. They suggest that learners should focus on understanding the principles of phonics so they can recognize the phonemic overlaps among words (e.g. have, had, has, having, haven't, etc.), making it easier to decode them all."
      },
      {
        "title": "Substitution cipher",
        "text": "Substitution of single letters separately\u2014simple substitution\u2014can be demonstrated by writing out the alphabet in some order to represent the substitution. This is termed a substitution alphabet. The cipher alphabet may be shifted or reversed (creating the Caesar and Atbash ciphers, respectively) or scrambled in a more complex fashion, in which case it is called a \"mixed alphabet\" or \"deranged alphabet\". Traditionally, mixed alphabets may be created by first writing out a keyword, removing repeated letters in it, then writing all the remaining letters in the alphabet in the usual order."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "In 2014 the California Department of Education said children should know how to decode regularly spelled one-syllable words by mid-first grade, and be phonemically aware (especially able to segment and blend phonemes)\". In grades two and three children receive explicit instruction in advanced phonic-analysis and reading multi-syllabic and more complex words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "In the Norwegian curriculum, basic skills include \"decoding and comprehension of simple texts\" (i.e. phonics). At the end of grade two students are expected to demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between \"speech sound and letter\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cryptography",
        "text": "In India, the 2000-year-old Kamasutra of V\u0101tsy\u0101yana speaks of two different kinds of ciphers called Kautiliyam and Mulavediya. In the Kautiliyam, the cipher letter substitutions are based on phonetic relations, such as vowels becoming consonants. In the Mulavediya, the cipher alphabet consists of pairing letters and using the reciprocal ones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decoding methods",
        "text": "Therefore,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Affine cipher",
        "text": "The final step in decrypting the ciphertext is to use the table to convert numeric values back into letters. The plaintext in this decryption is AFFINECIPHER. Below is the table with the final step completed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Classical cipher",
        "text": "In the Chinese cipher's method of transposing, the letters of the message are written from right to left, down and up columns to scramble the letters. Then, starting in the first row, the letters are taken in order to get the new ciphertext. For example, if the message needed to be enciphered was THE DOG RAN FAR, the Chinese cipher would look like this:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Transposition cipher",
        "text": "Then reads off:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chaocipher",
        "text": "Deciphering is identical to enciphering, with the ciphertext letter being located in the \"left\" alphabet while the corresponding plaintext letter being read from the \"right\" alphabet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jefferson disk",
        "text": "When the decrypter gets the ciphertext, they rearrange the disks on their cylinder to the key arrangement, rotate the disks to give the ciphertext, and then read the plaintext six rows down from the ciphertext, or look over the cylinder for a row that makes sense."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading",
        "text": "\"Analytic phonics\" does not involve pronouncing individual sounds (phonemes) in isolation and blending the sounds, as is done in synthetic phonics. Rather, it is taught at the word level and students learn to analyze letter-sound relationships once the word is identified. For example, students analyze letter-sound correspondences such as the \"ou\" spelling of in shr\"ou\"ds. Also, students might be asked to practice saying words with similar sounds such as \"b\"all, \"b\"at and \"b\"ite. Furthermore, students are taught consonant blends (separate, adjacent consonants) as units, such as \"br\"eak or \"shr\"ouds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics teaches phonics at the level of the individual phoneme from the outset; not syllables and not onset and rime. Synthetic phonics does not teach anything about reading as a meaning-focused process. It highlights decoding and pronunciation of words only. Teachers are to put accuracy before speed, because fluency (i.e. speed, accuracy, expression), and comprehension will come with time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Maskell Patterson",
        "text": "The cipher consists of 7 digit pairs and is decoded by decrypting 7 blocks at a time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prince (cipher)",
        "text": "The block size is 64 bits and the key size is 128 bits. The key is split into two 64 bit keys formula_1 and formula_2. The input is XORed with formula_1, then is processed by a core function using formula_2. The output of the core function is xored by formula_5 to produce the final output (formula_6 is a value derived from formula_1). The decryption is done by exchanging formula_1 and formula_5 and by feeding the core function with formula_2 xored with a constant denoted alpha."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chaocipher",
        "text": "The Chaocipher system consists of two alphabets, with the \"right\" alphabet used for locating the plaintext letter while the other (\"left\") alphabet is used for reading the corresponding ciphertext letter. The underlying algorithm is related to the concept of dynamic substitution whereby the two alphabets are slightly modified after each input plaintext letter is enciphered. This leads to nonlinear and highly diffused alphabets as encryption progresses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonics",
        "text": "\"Synthetic phonics\", also known as blended phonics, is a method employed to teach students to read by \"sounding out\" the letters then \"blending\" the sounds to form the word. This method involves learning how letters or letter groups represent individual sounds, and that those sounds are blended to form a word. For example, \"shrouds\" would be read by pronouncing the sounds for each spelling, \"sh,r,ou,d,s\" (IPA ), then blending those sounds orally to produce a spoken word, \"sh - r - ou - d - s= shrouds\" (IPA ). The goal of either a blended phonics or synthetic phonics instructional program is that students identify the sound-symbol correspondences and blend their phonemes automatically. Since 2005, synthetic phonics has become the accepted method of teaching reading (by phonics instruction) in the United Kingdom and Australia. In the United States, a pilot program using the Core Knowledge Early Literacy program that used this type of phonics approach showed significantly higher results in K-3 reading compared with comparison schools. In addition, several States such as California, Ohio, New York and Arkansas, are promoting the principles of synthetic phonics (see synthetic phonics in the USA)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Affine cipher",
        "text": "In this example showing encryption and decryption, the alphabet is going to be the letters A through Z, and will have the corresponding values found in the following table."
      },
      {
        "title": "Playfair cipher",
        "text": "Cryptanalysis of Playfair is similar to that of four-square and two-square ciphers, though the relative simplicity of the Playfair system makes identifying candidate plaintext strings easier. Most notably, a Playfair digraph and its reverse (e.g. AB and BA) will decrypt to the same letter pattern in the plaintext (e.g. RE and ER). In English, there are many words which contain these reversed digraphs such as REceivER and DEpartED. Identifying nearby reversed digraphs in the ciphertext and matching the pattern to a list of known plaintext words containing the pattern is an easy way to generate possible plaintext strings with which to begin constructing the key."
      },
      {
        "title": "Affine cipher",
        "text": "Now, take each value of , and solve the first part of the equation, . After finding the value of for each character, take the remainder when dividing the result of by 26. The following table shows the first four steps of the encrypting process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caesar cipher",
        "text": "When encrypting, a person looks up each letter of the message in the \"plain\" line and writes down the corresponding letter in the \"cipher\" line."
      },
      {
        "title": "Classical capacity",
        "text": "codeword correctly under our sequential decoding scheme is equal to"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reading for special needs",
        "text": "In general terms, individuals who have challenges in decoding are referred to as poor decoders. Dyslexia is a more specific disability where individuals demonstrate difficulty with decoding. Poor decoders have not acquired the basic knowledge of sound-letter correspondence rules, specifically phonological skills (skills that include identifying and manipulation of words, syllables, onsets, rimes, and phonemes -individual sounds). In addition, language abilities often evidence poor morphological and syntactic knowledge. Interventions that target decoding abilities may include instruction in phonics, phonological awareness, and phonemic awareness (also see Dyslexia intervention)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cryptanalysis",
        "text": "Generally, the cryptanalyst may benefit from lining up identical enciphering operations among a set of messages. For example, the Vernam cipher enciphers by bit-for-bit combining plaintext with a long key using the \"exclusive or\" operator, which is also known as \"modulo-2 addition\" (symbolized by \u2295 ):\n::::Plaintext \u2295 Key = Ciphertext"
      },
      {
        "title": "HEAAN",
        "text": "The decryption algorithm is following:\n* For a given ciphertext formula_47, output a message formula_48 formula_49."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kryha",
        "text": "The machine consisted of two concentric rings each containing an alphabet. The inner alphabet was stepped a variable number of places by pushing a lever. In operation, the user would encrypt by finding the plaintext letter on one ring (usually the outer ring), and reading the corresponding letter on the other ring; this was then used as the ciphertext letter. When the lever was pressed, the inner ring would step, causing the relationship between the two alphabets to change. The stepping was irregular and governed by the use of a disk with a number of sectors, each containing a number of teeth."
      },
      {
        "title": "General der Nachrichtenaufkl\u00e4rung",
        "text": "The 3-digit groups were read in the order of page-line. The recipher of 3-digit ciphers was as varied as in the case of 2-figure ciphers. Each figure was re-enciphered separately. This is to say, for the page numbers, a hatted order of the figures 1 to 0 was substituted. Thus Page 1 became 4, 2 became 6 and so on. Fig. VIII."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hasty Pudding cipher",
        "text": "Hasty Pudding cipher\n--The cipher.\n----Key expansion.\n----Encryption and decryption.\n----Performance.\n--Further work.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "DRYAD",
        "text": "A DRYAD cipher sheet contains 25 lines or rows of scrambled letters. Each line is labeled by the letters A to Y in a column on the left of the page. Each row contains a random permutation of the letters A through Y. The letters in each row are grouped into 10 columns labeled 0 through 9. The columns under 0, 1, 2 and 5 have more letters than the other digits, which have just two each."
      },
      {
        "title": "W. T. Tutte",
        "text": "To decrypt a Tunny message required knowledge not only of the logical functioning of the machine, but also the start positions of each rotor for the particular message. The search was on for a process that would manipulate the ciphertext or key to produce a frequency distribution of characters that departed from the uniformity that the enciphering process aimed to achieve. While on secondment to the Research Section in July 1942, Alan Turing worked out that the XOR combination of the values of successive characters in a stream of ciphertext and key emphasised any departures from a uniform distribution. The resultant stream (symbolised by the Greek letter \"delta\" \u0394) was called the difference because XOR is the same as modulo 2 subtraction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics teaches the phonemes (sounds) associated with the graphemes (letters) at the rate of about six sounds per week. The sounds are taught in isolation then blended together (i.e. synthesised), all-through-the-word. For example, learners might be taught a short vowel sound (e.g. \"a\" as in cat) in addition to some consonant sounds (e.g. \"s, t, p\"). Then the learners are taught words with these sounds (e.g. sat, pat, tap, at). They are taught to pronounce each phoneme in a word, then to blend the phonemes together to form the word (e.g. \"s - a - t; \"sat\"\"). Sounds are taught in all positions of the words, but the emphasis is on all-through-the-word segmenting and blending from week one. It does not teach whole words as shapes (initial sight vocabulary) prior to learning the alphabetic code."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decoding methods",
        "text": "Given a received codeword formula_6, minimum distance decoding picks a codeword formula_7 to minimise the Hamming distance:\n:formula_26"
      },
      {
        "title": "Trifid cipher",
        "text": "The encryption protocol divides the plaintext into groups of fixed size (plus possibly one short group at the end): this confines encoding errors to the group in which they occur, an important consideration for ciphers that must be implemented by hand. The group size should be coprime to 3 to get the maximum amount of diffusion within each group: Delastelle gives examples with groups of 5 and 7 letters. He describes the encryption step as follows:We start by writing \"vertically\" under each letter, the numerical trigram that corresponds to it in the enciphering alphabet: then proceeding \"horizontally\" as if the numbers were written on a single line, we take groups of three numbers, look them up in the deciphering alphabet, and write the result under each column."
      },
      {
        "title": "Affine cipher",
        "text": "To make encrypting and decrypting quicker, the entire alphabet can be encrypted to create a one-to-one map between the letters of the cleartext and the ciphertext. In this example, the one-to-one map would be the following:"
      },
      {
        "title": "VIC cipher",
        "text": "An example encoding is below:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Code",
        "text": "Other examples of decoding include:\n* Decoding (computer science)\n* Decoding methods, methods in communication theory for decoding codewords sent over a noisy channel\n* Digital signal processing, the study of signals in a digital representation and the processing methods of these signals\n* Digital-to-analog converter, the use of analog circuit for decoding operations\n* Word decoding, the use of phonics to decipher print patterns and translate them into the sounds of language"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cipher",
        "text": "The operation of a cipher usually depends on a piece of auxiliary information, called a key (or, in traditional NSA parlance, a \"cryptovariable\"). The encrypting procedure is varied depending on the key, which changes the detailed operation of the algorithm. A key must be selected before using a cipher to encrypt a message. Without knowledge of the key, it should be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to decrypt the resulting ciphertext into readable plaintext."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synthetic phonics",
        "text": "Synthetic phonics, also known as \"blended phonics\" or \"inductive phonics\", is a method of teaching English reading which first teaches the letter sounds and then builds up to blending these sounds together to achieve full pronunciation of whole words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grace Fernald",
        "text": "Warren's 1977 dissertation study with children exhibiting mild forms of reading problems demonstrated 147% and 77% superior word recognition and comprehension respectively by Fernald tracing compared to Orton-Gillingham phonics, although O-G was 10% more effective in word decoding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salsa20",
        "text": "Internally, the cipher uses bitwise addition \u2295 (exclusive OR), 32-bit addition mod 232 \u229e, and constant-distance rotation operations \u00ab< on an internal state of sixteen 32-bit words. Using only add-rotate-xor operations avoids the possibility of timing attacks in software implementations. The internal state is made of sixteen 32-bit words arranged as a 4\u00d74 matrix."
      },
      {
        "title": "Majority logic decoding",
        "text": "Assumption: the code word is formula_2, where formula_9, an odd number.\n* Calculate the formula_10 Hamming weight of the repetition code.\n* if formula_11, decode code word to be all 0's\n* if formula_12, decode code word to be all 1's"
      },
      {
        "title": "XXTEA",
        "text": "} else if (n < -1) { /* Decoding Part */"
      },
      {
        "title": "XXTEA",
        "text": "} else if (n < -1) { /* Decoding Part */"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where in the world are synthetic phonics used?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Synthetic phonic is a method of teaching English reading, so is used in countries such as Australia, Canada, and the U.K."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did it start being used in Australia?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "As of October 5, 2018, The State Government of Victoria, Australia, publishes a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is some of the common terminology used for synthetic phonics?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "These include alphabetic code, decoding skills, direct instruction, and intensive instruction. Which would you like to know more of?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in alphabetic code."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Alphabetic code (in synthetic phonics) is the relationship between sounds (phonemes) and the letter/s (graphemes) that represent them are referred to as a \"code\".  The alphabetic principle is the foundation of any alphabetic writing system (in the education field, it is known as the alphabetic code) but does not underlie logographic writing systems like Chinese or syllabic writing systems such as Japanese kana."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you also tell me about decoding skills?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Reading by using phonics is often referred to as decoding words, sounding-out words or using print-to-sound relationships."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about decoding when used with ciphers?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Are you talking about ciphers as in the algorithms used in cryptography or do you mean decoding words and phonics?",
      "Historically, cryptography was split into a dichotomy of codes and ciphers; and coding had its own terminology, analogous to that for ciphers: \"encoding, codetext, decoding\" and so on."
    ],
    "topic": "Synthetic phonics",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Cipher:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cipher"
        ],
        "ctx": "In cryptography, a cipher (or cypher) is an algorithm for performing encryption or decryption\u2014a series of well-defined steps that can be followed as a procedure. An alternative, less common term is \"encipherment\". To encipher or encode is to convert information into cipher or code. In common parlance, \"cipher\" is synonymous with \"code\", as they are both a set of steps that encrypt a message; however, the concepts are distinct in cryptography, especially classical cryptography."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Cipher:12",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cipher",
          "Versus codes"
        ],
        "ctx": "Historically, cryptography was split into a dichotomy of codes and ciphers; and coding had its own terminology, analogous to that for ciphers: \"\"encoding\", \"codetext\", \"decoding\"\" and so on."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Europe and the Americas, typical fillers include meat, fat, suet, bread, cornmeal, onion, chestnuts, barley, oatmeal and buckwheat. On the Iberian Peninsula and in Latin America and Asia, fillers are often made with rice. Sweet variants with sugar, honey, orange peel and spices are also regional specialties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "Blood sausage is any sausage made by cooking animal blood with a filler until it is thick enough to congeal when cooled. Pig or cattle blood is most often used. Typical fillers include meat, fat, suet, bread, rice, barley and oatmeal. Varieties include biroldo, black pudding, blood tongue, blutwurst, drisheen, kishka (kaszanka), morcilla, moronga, mustamakkara, sundae, verivorst, and many types of boudin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "A blood sausage is a sausage filled with blood that is cooked or dried and mixed with a filler until it is thick enough to solidify when cooled. Most commonly, the blood of pigs, sheep, lamb, cow, chicken, or goose is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Nowadays many types of mutura, especially commercial street food versions, do not contain blood. The meat used in the filling can be any fleshy part, but like any other type of sausage, prime cuts are not ordinarily used for the stuffing. Instead the tougher, leaner cuts \u2013 for example the neck \u2013 are trimmed off the bone. The casing for the stuffing is the stomach sac and larger intestines. These are flushed many times with water to clean them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "The meat for the stuffing is finely chopped or minced, and the mandatory fat is often trimmed from other parts. The meat is slightly fried, mixed with finely chopped red onions, salt and optionally fresh chili. Other additions include freshly chopped coriander (dhania or cilantro), garlic, pepper and even beef stock. This is then mixed thoroughly with the fresh blood from the animal, and stuffed into the stomach and intestines, with the openings sewn or tied together with string."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Galicia, blood pancakes are called filloas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Ecuador and Bolivia the blood sausage is also called \"morcilla\", and is usually filled with rice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Panama, blood sausage is called \"morcilla\", \"rellena\" or \"tuber\u00eda negra\", and is usually filled with rice. In El Salvador and Nicaragua, it is called \"moronga\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In France, there is \", a solidified/curd blood in a pan, and \", a sort of sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Similarly, in Czech cuisine, \"jelito\" is made from second-rate pork, pig's blood and peeled barley; the stuffing served by itself, unformed, is called \"prejt\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Throughout Central and Eastern Europe, blood sausage, known as \"kishka\" (meaning \"intestine\"), is made with pig's blood and buckwheat kasha. It is also known in Russia as \"krovyanka\" (\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430), or \"krovyanaya kolbasa\" (\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044f\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0431\u0430\u0441\u0430, literally \"blood sausage\"), and includes buckwheat as a main filler, instead of oats or oatmeal. In Ukraine it's called \"krov'yanka\" (\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432'\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430) or \"kryvava kyshka\" (\u043a\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u043a\u0438\u0448\u043a\u0430), and \"kiszka\" or \"kaszanka\" in Poland; \"krvavni\u010dka\" in Slovakia and \"krupniok\" in Silesia. Polish \"salceson\" (\"black\" and \"\") are a type of head cheese (\"brawn\") that contains blood. In Hungary, \"v\u00e9res hurka\" is typically made with pig's blood and barleycorn or cubed bread (typically zsemle) as filler as such also known as \"zseml\u00e9s hurka\" and \"gerslis hurka\". In Bulgaria, \"karvavitsa\" (\u043a\u044a\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430) is usually prepared with pig's blood, fat and a variety of mountain herbs and spices and eaten warm during the winter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In many languages, there is a general term such as \"blood sausage\" (American English) that is used for all sausages that are made from blood, whether or not they include non-animal material such as bread, cereal, and nuts. Sausages that include such material are often referred to with more specific terms, such as \"black pudding\" in English."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Mutura\" is a traditional blood sausage dish among the people of central Kenya, although recently its popularity has spread throughout Kenya. It is made with meat, blood, and spices all encased in the animal's intestines or stomach. In Kenya fillers include fresh minced goat, beef, and mutton, fat, and red onions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Fran\u00e7ois Rabelais in France mentions in his \"fourth book\" (1552) carnavalesque figures called \"forest-dwelling Blood-puddings\" (Saulcis- sons montig\u00e8nes, Boudins sylvatiques) as a farce representing the Swiss and German Protestants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Barbados, blood sausage, also called pudding, is made with sweet potato (\"batata\"), pig's blood and onions, seasoned with peppers and other herbs and stuffed in pig intestines. Traditionally pig's blood was used to darken the mixture but Browning sauce (caramelized sugar) is sometimes used as a substitute. It is normally served with \"souse\", which is pickled pig's feet, pig's ears and other trimmings. The cooked meat is cut into bite-sized pieces and soaked in a brine made of water, lime juice, cucumbers, hot pepper, and specially prepared seasonings. Blood sausage and souse, more commonly known as pudding and souse, is a Bajan delicacy usually prepared on weekends and special occasions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Latvia, blood sausage is either called \"asinsdesa\" (blood sausage) or \"putraimu desa\" (groat sausage) because of the added barley groats. It usually served with lingonberry jam and sour cream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "When prepared for serving, it is sliced and fried. The style of serving and accompaniments vary across the country, and it is not uncommon to have the \"blodpudding\" act as the meat in a meal. Nationally, the common way is to serve it with lingonberry jam, grated carrots and ice cold milk to drink. Fried bacon or pork side is also common. In Scania, the lingonberry jam is often replaced by finely sliced apples, fried along with the pork."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Belgium and the Netherlands, \"bloedworst\" or \"beuling\" is sold in slices. It is generally pan fried; sometimes apples are cooked alongside or on top of the pieces. It is also eaten with apple sauce, brown sugar, syrup or red cabbage. As a cold cut, thin slices are eaten as a sandwich topping. \"Zwarte pens\" are individual blood sausages the size of a banana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Romania there is a traditional sausage prepared with blood named \"s\u00e2ngerete\", literally meaning \"a thing from hemoragy\" (it came from \"s\u00e2ngera\" \u2013 \"hemoragy\" from \"s\u00e2nge\" \u2013 \"blood\")), and it is prepared especially during the Ignat (the pig carving holiday)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "The sausage is boiled in a large pot (often with other parts of the animal not roasted and used to make soup) for 30\u201345 minutes, and roasted over coals till brown. Sliced, it is served with kachumbari, an onion based salad consisting of tomatoes, red onions and fresh coriander, a bit of chili and squeeze of lemon. The accompanying starch is ugali."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Spain, the \"morcilla\" sausage is a kind of black pudding mainly made with pig blood, with spices, fat, and sometimes vegetables. In Andalusia \"sangre encebollada\" and Valencian \"sang amb ceba \"are popular dishes made with chicken or pork solidified blood and onion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Puerto Rico, blood sausage is known as \"morcilla\". Puerto Rican blood sausage is made with rice, culantro, cilantro, garlic, and Cubanelle pepper. Some contain paprika and annatto. Morcilla is especially popular during Christmas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Trinidad and Tobago, the local style of blood sausage is heavily seasoned with local peppers and traditionally prepared from pig's blood, often replaced by pig's liver today. It is sold by local producers as a popular accompaniment to rolls of crusty hops bread or served as an accompaniment to \"trotter souse\", a stew based on trotters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Denmark, \"blodp\u00f8lse\" is made from pigs's blood and suet, rye flour, brown sugar, raisins, salt, cinnamon and cardamom stuffed into natural or artificial intestines. It is usually boiled in its skin, eaten hot or cold, sometimes sliced and fried, served with syrup, cinnamon and stewed apples."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sl\u00e1tur",
        "text": "Both blood pudding and liver sausage are prepared in a similar fashion. Pouches are cut and sewn from the stomach, as in traditional haggis, or artificial non-edible pouches can be used. They are filled with a mixture of sliced/minced fat (\"m\u00f6r\") or suet, flour (rye and oats), rolled oats and either blood or finely-minced liver (sometimes kidney is also blended in). The pouches are sewn shut after filling, then they are slow boiled for 2\u20133 hours. Sl\u00e1tur may be eaten hot or cold and sometimes it is pickled in whey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Romania, the traditional \"s\u00e2ngerete\" (from \"s\u00e2nge\", \"blood\" in Romanian) is made from shoulder butt pork meat, pork blood and a filler such as pre-boiled rice seasoned with pepper, garlic and basil. It has many regional variants, but the most common are the \"s\u00e2ngerete\" from Transylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Migliaccio\" is a black pudding that is traditionally prepared in winter in Romagna. It is a sweet pudding with a thick black filling made with pig's blood, sugar, breadcrumbs, almonds, chocolate, butter and spices contained in a thin pastry crust. A similar pudding is made throughout southern Italy, generally called \"sanguinaccio\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Guyana, blood sausage is a very popular snack served at social occasions, and as \"cutters\" when drinking. The main ingredient is cooked rice seasoned with herbs, such as thyme and basil. The rice is mixed with cow's blood, stuffed into cow's or pig's intestine, and boiled until firm, sliced and served with Sour (a mild type of dipping sauce with hot peppers). White pudding is also made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Tibetan cuisine, sausages or \"gyurma\" refer to blood sausages and are made with yak or sheep's blood which may or may not include either rice or roasted barley flour as filler. The sausage uses natural casing employing the use of yak or sheep's intestine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Many Roman Catholics celebrate Mardi Gras, the last day of carnival, (Literally meaning Carne Vale, farewell to Meat in Italian) with rituals involving the blood sausage. For example, in Spain, they celebrate carnival with \"jud\u00edas con morcilla\" (morcilla is a variation of Blood sausage) followed by the funeral of the sardina."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Across Asia, various people create food from congealed animal blood. Most of these food types do not have casings and might be considered a version of sliced sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Provoleta",
        "text": "Stuffed provoleta () is provoleta stuffed with assorted fillings that could include ham, barbecue sausage or \"morcilla\" blood sausage, cheese, vegetables, peppers and onions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula, \"morcilla\" is made exclusively from pig's blood and once deep fried it is served with a mix of pickled onions, cilantro and spices. It is always consumed in the form of tacos and paired with fresh habanero peppers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "A dish similar to the British black pudding is also made by making batter out of pig's blood and baking it like pancakes. Traditionally, rye flour or oatmeal is used and minced onion is added to the mix. This dish is called \"veriohukainen\" or \"verilettu\" (blood pancake). \"R\u00f6ssypottu\" is a traditional soup in northern Finland with blood pudding as a main ingredient."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Chile, the blood sausage is called \"prieta\" (a synonym of \"negra\", black) and tends to have a very thick skin, so is eaten cut open lengthwise. Apart from blood and a little fat, \"prietas\" may contain a variety of ingredients, such as chopped onion and spices, cabbage, peppers, watercress, rice, meat or even dried fruit or nuts. \"Prietas\" or \"morcillas\" are part of the Chilote tradition of \"reitimiento\" involving the slaughter and preparation of a pig."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In northern region of Nepal, \"Gyuma\" a blood sausage is a popular dish commonly eaten by locals. It is made up on Yak's blood and meat. The fillings also include buck wheat flour and other spices. The sausage is also used in lentils or prepared in stir fry dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "A similar blood sausage to \"karvavitsa\", called \"krvavica\" (\u043a\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430), made out of similar ingredients, is eaten in Bosnia, Croatia, Serbia, and Slovenia in wintertime, usually with sauerkraut and potatoes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Brazil there is a version of the blood sausage called \"chouri\u00e7o\" or \"morcela\" (sometimes the Castillian Spanish version \"morcilla\" is used as well), consisting of a fresh sausage made of the blood and fat from pork and usually rice. It is a variation of the Portuguese blood sausage, and it is known for its deep dark color. In some regions, it is popular on barbecues (\"Churrascos\") as a starter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In many areas of Latin America, \"morcilla\" is served. \"Morcilla\" is sometimes made with a filler of rice and/or onions, and seasoned with paprika and other spices. In Puerto Rico, it is served fried and mostly consumed during the holidays. In Colombia, \"morcilla\" can have rice, green peas, cilantro or culantro, and is often eaten as an appetizer called \"picada\" or with the traditional dishes \"Bandeja Paisa\" or \"Fritanga\". In Venezuela, \"morcilla\" is often served with \"parrilla\" (barbecue)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "As in Europe, several varieties of blood sausage are also popular in Mexico, Newfoundland and Labrador and the southwest United States (moronga), Chile (prietas, \u00f1ache), Argentina, Uruguay, Cuba, and Puerto Rico (morcilla)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Chinese cuisines, whole coagulated blood is fried or steamed as a snack or cooked in a hot pot. In mainland China, \"blood tofu\" (), or \"red tofu\" (), is most often made with pig's or duck's blood. Like the above dishes, this has no casing but is simply cut into rectangular pieces and cooked. In Northeast China, the \"blood sausage\" was a traditional food which is cooked with sheep or goat blood. In Tibet, congealed yak's blood is a traditional food. Chinese people also used pig blood curd that was consumed by laborers in Kaifeng over 1,000 years ago in the south of China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Vietnamese 'd\u1ed3i ti\u1ebft' (Northern) or 'd\u1ed3i huy\u1ebft' (Southern) is blood sausage, boiled or fried, made with pork blood, pork fat and basil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tr\u00e4ipen",
        "text": "There are many variants to local recipes for its preparation but basically the meat and fat are boiled with salt, then minced and mixed with the finely ground vegetables. Fresh blood is added together with breadcrumbs and spices, and the mixture is put into larger intestine casings. The sausages are then boiled for 15 minutes in a large saucepan until cooked (when punctured, only clear liquid should emerge)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Most blood sausage dishes in Finland are often eaten with lingonberry jam to sweeten the taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausage making is a natural outcome of efficient butchery. Traditionally, sausage makers salted various tissues and organs such as scraps, organ meats, blood, and fat to help preserve them. They then stuffed them into tubular casings made from the cleaned intestines of the animal, producing the characteristic cylindrical shape. Hence, sausages, puddings, and salami are among the oldest of prepared foods, whether cooked and eaten immediately or dried to varying degrees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Austria it is often prepared in a dish known as \"Blunzngr\u00f6stl\", which consists of pan-fried potatoes and blood sausage. This is usually served with freshly grated horseradish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Other varieties of blood sausage include \"blodp\u00f8lse\" (Norway and Denmark), \"tongenworst\" (with added pigs tongues) (Netherlands), \"mazzit\" (Malta), \"krvavica\" (Balkans), \"krovianka\" (Russia and Ukraine), and \"v\u0117darai\" (Lithuania)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Many traditional styles of sausage from Asia and mainland Europe use no bread-based filler and include only meat (lean meat and fat) and flavorings. In the United Kingdom and other countries with English cuisine traditions, many sausages contain a significant proportion of bread and starch-based fillers, which may comprise 30% of ingredients. The filler in many sausages helps them to keep their shape as they are cooked. As the meat contracts in the heat, the filler expands and absorbs moisture and fat from the meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Italy, regional varieties of blood sausage are known as \"sanguinaccio\". In Tuscany, is a sausage made with pig's blood and fat cooked in a pig's stomach. It is not reheated and is often spread on bread. It is found only in the south of Tuscany in the winter months and even there it can be difficult to come by. \"Biroldo\" is another type of black pudding which can be found in Tuscany, while the version made in southern Lombardy is called \"marsapan\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Finland, pig's blood is used, with milk, flour and molasses, to make blood pancakes veriohukainen, usually served with lingonberry jam. Also different style of sausages are common, mustamakkara and ryynimakkara. In \u00c5land and Bothnia region is also mustaleip\u00e4 or verileip\u00e4 that are bread where liquid of the batter either totally or partially blood. Blackpudding veripalttu is available is some parts of the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jakob Walter",
        "text": "...I took along the pot I carried, stationed myself beside a horse that was being shot, and caught up the blood...I set this blood on the fire, let it coagulate, and ate the lumps without salt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausage is known generically as \"longganisang dugo\" (lit. \"blood longaniza\") in the Philippines. A notable type of native pre-colonial blood sausage is \"pinuneg\", which is composed of minced pork and innards in a pork casing made from large intestines that is prepared in the Cordillera Administrative Region of the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Iceland, \"bl\u00f3\u00f0m\u00f6r\" is one of two types of \"sl\u00e1tur\". It is made from lamb's blood and suet, rye flour and oats, traditionally stuffed into pouches sewn from the lamb's stomach. It is usually boiled in its skin, eaten hot or cold, sometimes sliced and fried. After cooking, it is often preserved in fermented whey and acquires a distinct sour taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "While \"blood sausage\" in English is understood in Britain, the term is applied only to foreign usage (e.g., in the story \"The Name-Day\" by Saki), or to similar blood-based sausages elsewhere in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausage\n--Africa.\n--Americas.\n----North America.\n------Caribbean.\n------Central America.\n------Mexico.\n------United States.\n----Latin America.\n----South America.\n------Andean.\n------Argentina, Uruguay.\n------Brazil.\n------Chile.\n------Guianas.\n--Asia.\n----East Asia.\n------Hong Kong.\n------Korea.\n------Manchuria and China.\n------Mongolia.\n------Taiwan.\n------Tibet.\n----Southeast Asia.\n------Indonesia.\n------Malaysia.\n------Philippines.\n------Thailand.\n------Vietnam.\n----South Asia.\n------Nepal.\n------India.\n--Europe.\n----Central and Eastern Europe.\n----Northern Europe.\n------Denmark.\n------Estonia.\n------Finland.\n------Iceland.\n------Latvia.\n------Sweden.\n----Southern Europe.\n------Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia, Slovenia.\n------Italy.\n------Portugal.\n------Spain.\n----Western Europe.\n------Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg.\n------France and southern Belgium.\n------Germany and Austria.\n------United Kingdom and Ireland.\n----Symbol of Carnival.\n----Additional varieties.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "An Akkadian cuneiform tablet records a dish of intestine casings filled with some sort of forcemeat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Blodpudding\" is a traditional medieval dish still popular in Sweden. The exact proportions and ingredients vary, partly according to regional preference, but generally it is made from pig's blood, milk, rye or barley flour, diced lard, either beer or \"svagdricka\", treacle and onion, flavoured with allspice and marjoram. It is then poured into forms and oven-baked in a waterbath. Most of the \"blodpudding\" consumed today is made on industrial basis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vacuum filler",
        "text": "Hanging lines in the field of sausage production are auxiliary devices for linking and hanging portions of sausage. In principle, the application is similar to that of a holding device, however significantly higher filling capacities can be achieved. Hanging lines are available with various different degrees of automation.\n; Cutting lines: Cutting lines in the field of sausage production have the same basic structure as hanging lines. Cutting lines are used to chop linked strings of sausages into portioned sausages.\n; Clippers: Clippers for the production of portioned sausages are used in conjunction with vacuum fillers. The filling product is taken from the vacuum filler and through a filling pipe connected to the clipper and an appropriate sausage casing brake, where it is portioned into appropriate casings. The portion is then sealed by the clipper with the aid of metal clips. Sometimes, loops for hanging the portions are also attached simultaneously. Strings of sausages as well as individual portions can be produced.\n; Forming devices: Forming devices are used for the production of formed products, such as dumplings and burgers. There are two types. With \"free-forming devices\", the filling product is filled via tubing with an attached separating device. The separating device and the portion output are synchronised in such a way that it is possible to form the filling flow. The separating devices can be diaphragms (which function in a similar way to a photographic iris diaphragm; opening and closing creates a round shape during portioning), forming blades that move against each other or simple wire cutters or blades. The portion is ejected when the separating unit is opened. The separating devices then close in synchronisation with the end of the portion. This synchronised, adjustable process allows various different shapes to be created. The products can be directly transported for packaging or for thermal treatment on conveyor belts. With \"devices with forming dies\", the filling product is filled into forming dies (plastic mould that is filled to the base). The filled mould is \u201cmoved\u201d away from the filling area, it is detached from the flow of product by means of a simultaneous clipping movement and then ejected mechanically or pneumatically into transportation containers or into thermal treatment media.\n; Co-extrusion systems: Co-extrusion means the synchronous feeding of two or more product flows with the aim of producing filled products (e.g. meatballs with ketchup filling, sausages with mustard filling and potato dumplings with a meat filling). Two or more vacuum fillers are always required. Co-extrusion systems are available for the forming, clipping and linking applications.\n; ConPro systems: ConPro systems (continuous production systems) are special continuous co-extrusion systems for producing sausages with alginate skin. With this application, two vacuum fillers are operated in synchronisation and their filling flows are combined into one continuous product flow. Further down the process, the continuous string is divided into individual portions or strings of portions. One vacuum filler pumps the filling product while a second one deposits the skin (a paste containing alginate) via an annular gap. This is solidified by means of a fixing solution containing calcium ions. Depending on the degree of automation, the portions can be hung or collated or transported further for continuous thermal treatment or packaging. The most important advantage of the ConPro systems in comparison to traditional production methods is that sausage skins or casings no longer have to be changed. Due to continuous co-extrusion there are no casing change times and therefore the filling time is maximised.\n; Inline grinding systems: In the meat processing industry, grinding systems are used for grinding meat and are to be found ahead of the filling process in the product preparation phase. With inline grinding systems, a grinding system is integrated into the vacuum filler's filling flow as an auxiliary device. The filling and grinding process steps can therefore be combined in a single machine. This means that the filling product is moved by the vacuum filler and, during filling, it is chopped to the final grain size within the grinding system. An important application for inline grinding systems is dry sausage or fresh sausage production.\n; Minced meat lines: Minced meat lines are a combination of vacuum fillers, inline grinding systems and devices for separating the minced meat flow into individual portions. A continuous, formed product flow is filled onto a conveyor belt and a cutting blade divides the filling flow into portions. The portions can then be packed straight away.\n; Filling flow dividers: A filling flow divider can separate a single product flow from a pump into several equal flows. Feed systems similar to a vane cell feed system are integrated into filling flow dividers. Filling flow dividers are required, for example, for simultaneous depositing into several containers.\n; Valves: Valves or cutting devices are used as sealing devices at the end of tubing or filling flow dividers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Hong Kong, the dish closest to blood sausage is pig blood curd, which is only made from pig's blood and is not considered a sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage casing",
        "text": "Sausage casing, also known as sausage skin or simply casing, is the material that encloses the filling of a sausage. Natural casings are made from animal intestines or skin; artificial casings, introduced in the early 20th century, are made of collagen and cellulose. The material is then shaped via a continuous extrusion process \u2013 producing a single sausage casing of indefinite length \u2013 which is then cut into desired lengths, usually while the extrusion process continues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "This dish is usually made with pig's blood and duck's blood but it can also be made from any type of animal's blood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sundae, a form of blood sausage, is a traditional Korean sausage. A popular street food, sundae is normally prepared by steaming or boiling cow or pig intestines stuffed with various ingredients. The most common variation is composed of pork blood, cellophane noodle, sliced carrot and barley stuffed into pig intestines, but other regional variations include squid or Alaska pollock casings. Sundae is eaten plain with salt, in stews, or as part of a stir-fry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Other blood-based foods include \"blodkorv\" (blood sausage) which differs from \"blodpudding\" by having raisins, pork tallow and apple sauce in it, \"blodpl\u00e4ttar\" (blood pancakes, similar to the original Finnish dish \"veriohukainen\" above) and \"blodpalt\". There is also a soup made from blood, called \"svartsoppa\" (black soup)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Taiwan, \"pig's blood cake\" () or \"rice blood cake\"(), made of pork blood and sticky rice, is served on a popsicle stick; this is a very popular snack at local night markets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "The Luxembourg tr\u00e4ipen includes green cabbage, and is served pan fried with apple sauce. It was eaten in church in the Middle Ages during Carnival and is still consumed for breakfast, baked with apples and topped with apple syrup, during Carnival in the Dutch province of Limburg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meat",
        "text": "Draining as much blood as possible from the carcass is necessary because blood causes the meat to have an unappealing appearance and is a breeding ground for microorganisms. The exsanguination is accomplished by severing the carotid artery and the jugular vein in cattle and sheep, and the anterior vena cava in pigs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Other varieties of blood sausage include \"boudin rouge\" (Creole and Cajun), \"rellena\" or \"moronga\" (Mexico) and \"sanganel\" (Friuli)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Portuguese cuisine, there are many varieties of blood sausage. Sausages made of blood are usually called \"morcela\" or \"negrinha\" (a slang term from Portuguese \"negro\" meaning dark or black). There are many varieties around the Portuguese world. There are varieties local to mainland Portugal, the Azores, Hawaii, China, US and India, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Penang or other northern states, pig blood curd (known locally in Penang Hokkien as \"too huet\"; ) is usually served with the local street delicacy Curry Mee (curry noodles). It can also be mixed with some traditional Hokkien dishes as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Likewise, in Belgium and the Netherlands, the Bloodsausage is a symbol for Carnival (most likely following the invasion of Spain during the Eighty Years' War)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kaszanka",
        "text": "Kaszanka is a traditional blood sausage in the east and central European cuisine. It is made of a mixture of pig's blood, pork offal (commonly liver), and buckwheat or barley (kasza) stuffed in a pig intestine. It is usually flavored with onion, black pepper, and marjoram."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Meghalayan cuisine, \"doh snam\" is type of blood sausage made from pork intestine with local spices and ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allantois",
        "text": "This sac-like structure, whose name is the New Latin equivalent of \"sausage\" (in reference to its shape when first formed) is primarily involved in nutrition and excretion, and is webbed with blood vessels. The function of the allantois is to collect liquid waste from the embryo, as well as to exchange gases used by the embryo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "An Italian-American version of blood sausage in the San Francisco Bay Area is called \"biroldo\" and has pine nuts, raisins, spices, and pig snouts and is made using either pig's or cow's blood. German-style blood sausage and Zungenwurst can be found in Fresno and Santa Rosa, where Russian and Armenian delis offer a wide range of Central European foods. Also, Alpine Village in Torrance, California has Blutwurst due to a considerable German-American population in the South Bay area of Los Angeles County."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Cajun \"boudin\" is a fresh sausage made with green onions, pork, pork liver (making it somewhat gritty or grainy), and rice. Pig's blood was sometimes added to produce \"boudin rouge\", but this tradition became increasingly rare after the mid-twentieth century due to the decline of the \"boucherie\" (traditional communal butchering) and government health regulations prohibiting the transportation of raw blood. As a result, Cajun \"boudin\" is now usually made without blood; however, blood or \"black\" \"boudin\" can still be purchased."
      },
      {
        "title": "There is a fountain filled with blood",
        "text": "There is a fountain filled with blood\n--Text.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Prietas are easily found at supermarkets throughout the country and are available from practically any butcher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood Sausage (band)",
        "text": "Blood Sausage (band)\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "Many cultures consume blood as food, often in combination with meat. The blood may be in the form of blood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, a cured salted form for times of food scarcity, or in a blood soup. This is a product from domesticated animals, obtained at a place and time where the blood can run into a container and be swiftly consumed or processed. In many cultures, the animal is slaughtered. In some cultures, blood is a taboo food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regensburger Wurst",
        "text": "The sausage is prepared using pork without fat which is finely ground and mixed with salt and spices as well as some dices of pork. The sausage filling is put into sausage casing made from beef intestines, bound into short sausages, smoked and then boiled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Thai cuisine \"sai krok lueat\" (Thai: \u0e44\u0e2a\u0e49\u0e01\u0e23\u0e2d\u0e01\u0e40\u0e25\u0e37\u0e2d\u0e14) is a blood sausage ( = sausage, = blood), often served sliced and accompanied by a spicy dipping sauce. \"Blood tofu\" is simply called \"lueat\" (, blood) in Thailand. This can be used in many Thai dishes such as in noodle soups, Thai curries, or as an addition to certain rice dishes such as Khao man kai."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Limbu cuisine, \"sargemba\" or \"sargyangma\" is a type of blood sausage made mostly from pork intestines, pork fat, rice and \"yangben\", a type of edible wild lichen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Another version in Java called \"saren\" or \"marus\", is made with chicken's blood and usually cut into small cube pieces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Morcilla\" is also eaten inside a sandwich called \"morcip\u00e1n\", especially in the R\u00edo de la Plata. \"Morcilla\" is a component of the \" asado criollo\", a regional mixed grill or barbecue meal. In Uruguay and in Argentina, a sweet version including raisins and pine nuts is popular; some vendors even add chocolate, caramelised orange peels, peanuts, and other dried fruits. Uruguayans usually are fond of sweet or salty \"morcilla\", and most restaurants and supermarkets carry both versions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "A sausage is a type of meat product usually made from ground meat, often pork, beef, or poultry, along with salt, spices and other flavourings. Other ingredients such as grains or breadcrumbs may be included as fillers or extenders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "While in Sumatra, Bataknese eats a dish called \" Kidu-Kidu \", a sausage dish made from pork intestines, served with sauce made from pork's blood and spices such as andaliman pepper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pig blood curd",
        "text": "Pig's blood is also made into food by many western countries. For example, in Britain, black pudding (Blood sausage) is made from pig's blood and a high proportion of oatmeal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Mustamakkara\" (literally \"black sausage\") is a roasted sausage containing pig's blood and very similar to Estonian \"verivorst\". The sausage is said to originate from Tampere and is considered an integral part of the city's culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood tongue",
        "text": "Blood tongue, or Zungenwurst (translation tongue sausage), is a variety of German head cheese with blood. It is a large head cheese that is made with pig's blood, suet, bread crumbs and oatmeal with chunks of pickled beef tongue added. It has a slight resemblance to blood sausage. It is commonly sliced and browned in butter or bacon fat prior to consumption. It is sold in markets pre-cooked and its appearance is maroon to black in color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Suriname, blood sausage is known by the Dutch name \"bloedworst\", and white pudding by the equally Dutch name \"vleesworst\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Korea, blood as food is known as \"seonji\" ( ; derived from the Manchu word \"senggi\" () meaning \"blood\"). Coagulated cattle \"seonji\" and dried radish greens are added to the beef legbone broth in order to make \"seonji-guk\" (blood curd soup). \"Sundae\", a blood sausage made generally by boiling or steaming cow or pig's intestines that are stuffed with various ingredients, such as pig's blood, cellophane noodles, kimchi, scallions, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Black pudding is the native British version of blood sausage. It is generally made from pork blood and a relatively high proportion of oatmeal. In the past it was occasionally flavoured with pennyroyal, differing from continental European versions in its relatively limited range of ingredients and reliance on oatmeal and barley instead of onions to absorb the blood. It can be eaten cold, as it is cooked in production, grilled, fried or boiled in its skin. It is often served sliced and fried or grilled as part of a traditional full breakfast, a tradition that followed British and Irish emigrants around the world. Black pudding is now part of the local cuisine of New Zealand and the Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausage is popular in Mongolia. In Mongolia a special method of killing sheep was made mandatory by Genghis Khan to save blood for sausage. It appears in the Yasa and is still used today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "Blood as food\n--Methods of preparation.\n----Sausage.\n----Pancakes.\n----Soups, stews and sauces.\n----Solidified.\n----Raw.\n----Nutrition bars.\n--Religious consumption of blood.\n--Cultural considerations.\n--Dishes.\n----Africa.\n----Americas.\n------Brazil.\n------Colombia.\n------Mexico.\n------Per\u00fa.\n------Ecuador.\n----Asia.\n------China.\n------India.\n------Indonesia.\n------Korea.\n------Nepal.\n------Philippines.\n------Thailand and Laos.\n------Vietnam.\n----Europe.\n------Finland.\n------France.\n------Germany.\n------Greece.\n------Hungary.\n------Italy.\n------Poland.\n------Portugal.\n------Romania.\n------Spain.\n------Sweden.\n------United Kingdom and Ireland.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood pudding",
        "text": "Blood pudding\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "There are other similarly famous kinds being made at Asturias (slightly darker and smaller, used for bean and chickpea stews) and Le\u00f3n (without rice, grilled & spread on toasted bread). Other less popular varieties may add cumin to the pudding mixture, but this is not a standard practice. The cooking method for consumption is typically frying, stewing, grilling or roasting, and usually sliced in one-finger-thick wheelettes (\"rodajas\"). There are many derivative foods made from morcilla, such as omelettes, stuffed red pepper, puff pastry, pizza, flavoured nachos, croquettes, and a range of fillings for different dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corumbela",
        "text": "The blood sausages are very good as well as the \"cateto\" bread, made in a traditional wood oven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood Sausage (band)",
        "text": "Blood Sausage were an indie rock band from Brighton, England, containing members of Huggy Bear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausages may be served as hors d'\u0153uvres, in a sandwich, in a bread roll as a hot dog, wrapped in a tortilla, or as an ingredient in dishes such as stews and casseroles. It can be served on a stick (like the corn dog) or on a bone as well. Sausage without casing is called \"sausage meat\" and can be fried or used as stuffing for poultry, or for wrapping foods like Scotch eggs. Similarly, sausage meat encased in puff pastry is called a \"sausage roll\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "The Greek poet Homer mentioned a kind of blood sausage in the \"Odyssey\", Epicharmus wrote a comedy titled \"The Sausage\", and Aristophanes' play \"The Knights\" is about a sausage vendor who is elected leader. Evidence suggests that sausages were already popular both among the ancient Greeks and Romans and most likely with the various tribes occupying the larger part of Europe."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the purpose of filling a sausage with blood?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Are you wanting to know the uses generally, or specifically to a type of blood sausage, such as those served in Japan, Korea, Scotland, Germany, or Poland?"
    ],
    "topic": "Blood sausage",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Sausage:31",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sausage",
          "National varieties",
          "Asia",
          "Japan"
        ],
        "ctx": "Although Japan is not traditionally known for beef, pork, venison, or even blood sausages, the Japanese do consume a fish-based log called kamaboko, which could be considered a type of sausage. Kamaboko is made with cured ground fish paste called surimi. It is usually shaped into half-moons on top of a small plank of wood and the outside dyed pink. When the kamaboko is cut into slices it appears to have an unmistakable pink rind which surrounds a white interior. It is often cut into thin slices and added to soups, salads, bento, and many other dishes as a garnish."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Sausage:33",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sausage",
          "National varieties",
          "Asia",
          "Korea"
        ],
        "ctx": "Sundae, a form of blood sausage, is a traditional Korean sausage. A popular street food, sundae is normally prepared by steaming or boiling cow or pig intestines stuffed with various ingredients. The most common variation is composed of pork blood, cellophane noodle, sliced carrot and barley stuffed into pig intestines, but other regional variations include squid or Alaska pollock casings. Sundae is eaten plain with salt, in stews, or as part of a stir-fry."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Sausage:44",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sausage",
          "National varieties",
          "Europe",
          "Britain and Ireland",
          "Scotland"
        ],
        "ctx": "Haggis is generally recognized as the national dish, although not described as a sausage. A popular breakfast food is the square sausage, also known as a Lorne sausage. This is normally eaten as part of a full Scottish breakfast or on a Scottish morning roll. The sausage is produced in a rectangular block and individual portions are sliced off. It is seasoned mainly with pepper. It is rarely seen outside Scotland. Other types of sausage include black pudding, similar to the German and Polish blood sausages. Stornoway black pudding is held in high regard and it has protected geographical indication. Additionally a popular native variety of sausage is the red pudding. It is usually served in chip shops, deep fried in batter and with chips as a red pudding supper."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Sausage:7",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sausage",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "Sausage making is a natural outcome of efficient butchery. Traditionally, sausage makers salted various tissues and organs such as scraps, organ meats, blood, and fat to help preserve them. They then stuffed them into tubular casings made from the cleaned intestines of the animal, producing the characteristic cylindrical shape. Hence, sausages, puddings, and salami are among the oldest of prepared foods, whether cooked and eaten immediately or dried to varying degrees."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "Blood sausage is any sausage made by cooking animal blood with a filler until it is thick enough to congeal when cooled. Pig or cattle blood is most often used. Typical fillers include meat, fat, suet, bread, rice, barley and oatmeal. Varieties include biroldo, black pudding, blood tongue, blutwurst, drisheen, kishka (kaszanka), morcilla, moronga, mustamakkara, sundae, verivorst, and many types of boudin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "A blood sausage is a sausage filled with blood that is cooked or dried and mixed with a filler until it is thick enough to solidify when cooled. Most commonly, the blood of pigs, sheep, lamb, cow, chicken, or goose is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Nowadays many types of mutura, especially commercial street food versions, do not contain blood. The meat used in the filling can be any fleshy part, but like any other type of sausage, prime cuts are not ordinarily used for the stuffing. Instead the tougher, leaner cuts \u2013 for example the neck \u2013 are trimmed off the bone. The casing for the stuffing is the stomach sac and larger intestines. These are flushed many times with water to clean them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Europe and the Americas, typical fillers include meat, fat, suet, bread, cornmeal, onion, chestnuts, barley, oatmeal and buckwheat. On the Iberian Peninsula and in Latin America and Asia, fillers are often made with rice. Sweet variants with sugar, honey, orange peel and spices are also regional specialties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In France, there is \", a solidified/curd blood in a pan, and \", a sort of sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "The meat for the stuffing is finely chopped or minced, and the mandatory fat is often trimmed from other parts. The meat is slightly fried, mixed with finely chopped red onions, salt and optionally fresh chili. Other additions include freshly chopped coriander (dhania or cilantro), garlic, pepper and even beef stock. This is then mixed thoroughly with the fresh blood from the animal, and stuffed into the stomach and intestines, with the openings sewn or tied together with string."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Throughout Central and Eastern Europe, blood sausage, known as \"kishka\" (meaning \"intestine\"), is made with pig's blood and buckwheat kasha. It is also known in Russia as \"krovyanka\" (\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430), or \"krovyanaya kolbasa\" (\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044f\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0431\u0430\u0441\u0430, literally \"blood sausage\"), and includes buckwheat as a main filler, instead of oats or oatmeal. In Ukraine it's called \"krov'yanka\" (\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432'\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430) or \"kryvava kyshka\" (\u043a\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u043a\u0438\u0448\u043a\u0430), and \"kiszka\" or \"kaszanka\" in Poland; \"krvavni\u010dka\" in Slovakia and \"krupniok\" in Silesia. Polish \"salceson\" (\"black\" and \"\") are a type of head cheese (\"brawn\") that contains blood. In Hungary, \"v\u00e9res hurka\" is typically made with pig's blood and barleycorn or cubed bread (typically zsemle) as filler as such also known as \"zseml\u00e9s hurka\" and \"gerslis hurka\". In Bulgaria, \"karvavitsa\" (\u043a\u044a\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430) is usually prepared with pig's blood, fat and a variety of mountain herbs and spices and eaten warm during the winter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Galicia, blood pancakes are called filloas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Panama, blood sausage is called \"morcilla\", \"rellena\" or \"tuber\u00eda negra\", and is usually filled with rice. In El Salvador and Nicaragua, it is called \"moronga\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In many languages, there is a general term such as \"blood sausage\" (American English) that is used for all sausages that are made from blood, whether or not they include non-animal material such as bread, cereal, and nuts. Sausages that include such material are often referred to with more specific terms, such as \"black pudding\" in English."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "As in Europe, several varieties of blood sausage are also popular in Mexico, Newfoundland and Labrador and the southwest United States (moronga), Chile (prietas, \u00f1ache), Argentina, Uruguay, Cuba, and Puerto Rico (morcilla)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Ecuador and Bolivia the blood sausage is also called \"morcilla\", and is usually filled with rice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Similarly, in Czech cuisine, \"jelito\" is made from second-rate pork, pig's blood and peeled barley; the stuffing served by itself, unformed, is called \"prejt\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Finland, pig's blood is used, with milk, flour and molasses, to make blood pancakes veriohukainen, usually served with lingonberry jam. Also different style of sausages are common, mustamakkara and ryynimakkara. In \u00c5land and Bothnia region is also mustaleip\u00e4 or verileip\u00e4 that are bread where liquid of the batter either totally or partially blood. Blackpudding veripalttu is available is some parts of the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Belgium and the Netherlands, \"bloedworst\" or \"beuling\" is sold in slices. It is generally pan fried; sometimes apples are cooked alongside or on top of the pieces. It is also eaten with apple sauce, brown sugar, syrup or red cabbage. As a cold cut, thin slices are eaten as a sandwich topping. \"Zwarte pens\" are individual blood sausages the size of a banana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "While \"blood sausage\" in English is understood in Britain, the term is applied only to foreign usage (e.g., in the story \"The Name-Day\" by Saki), or to similar blood-based sausages elsewhere in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Chinese cuisines, whole coagulated blood is fried or steamed as a snack or cooked in a hot pot. In mainland China, \"blood tofu\" (), or \"red tofu\" (), is most often made with pig's or duck's blood. Like the above dishes, this has no casing but is simply cut into rectangular pieces and cooked. In Northeast China, the \"blood sausage\" was a traditional food which is cooked with sheep or goat blood. In Tibet, congealed yak's blood is a traditional food. Chinese people also used pig blood curd that was consumed by laborers in Kaifeng over 1,000 years ago in the south of China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Barbados, blood sausage, also called pudding, is made with sweet potato (\"batata\"), pig's blood and onions, seasoned with peppers and other herbs and stuffed in pig intestines. Traditionally pig's blood was used to darken the mixture but Browning sauce (caramelized sugar) is sometimes used as a substitute. It is normally served with \"souse\", which is pickled pig's feet, pig's ears and other trimmings. The cooked meat is cut into bite-sized pieces and soaked in a brine made of water, lime juice, cucumbers, hot pepper, and specially prepared seasonings. Blood sausage and souse, more commonly known as pudding and souse, is a Bajan delicacy usually prepared on weekends and special occasions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "When prepared for serving, it is sliced and fried. The style of serving and accompaniments vary across the country, and it is not uncommon to have the \"blodpudding\" act as the meat in a meal. Nationally, the common way is to serve it with lingonberry jam, grated carrots and ice cold milk to drink. Fried bacon or pork side is also common. In Scania, the lingonberry jam is often replaced by finely sliced apples, fried along with the pork."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Other varieties of blood sausage include \"blodp\u00f8lse\" (Norway and Denmark), \"tongenworst\" (with added pigs tongues) (Netherlands), \"mazzit\" (Malta), \"krvavica\" (Balkans), \"krovianka\" (Russia and Ukraine), and \"v\u0117darai\" (Lithuania)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "The sausage is boiled in a large pot (often with other parts of the animal not roasted and used to make soup) for 30\u201345 minutes, and roasted over coals till brown. Sliced, it is served with kachumbari, an onion based salad consisting of tomatoes, red onions and fresh coriander, a bit of chili and squeeze of lemon. The accompanying starch is ugali."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Across Asia, various people create food from congealed animal blood. Most of these food types do not have casings and might be considered a version of sliced sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Spain, the \"morcilla\" sausage is a kind of black pudding mainly made with pig blood, with spices, fat, and sometimes vegetables. In Andalusia \"sangre encebollada\" and Valencian \"sang amb ceba \"are popular dishes made with chicken or pork solidified blood and onion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Fran\u00e7ois Rabelais in France mentions in his \"fourth book\" (1552) carnavalesque figures called \"forest-dwelling Blood-puddings\" (Saulcis- sons montig\u00e8nes, Boudins sylvatiques) as a farce representing the Swiss and German Protestants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausage\n--Africa.\n--Americas.\n----North America.\n------Caribbean.\n------Central America.\n------Mexico.\n------United States.\n----Latin America.\n----South America.\n------Andean.\n------Argentina, Uruguay.\n------Brazil.\n------Chile.\n------Guianas.\n--Asia.\n----East Asia.\n------Hong Kong.\n------Korea.\n------Manchuria and China.\n------Mongolia.\n------Taiwan.\n------Tibet.\n----Southeast Asia.\n------Indonesia.\n------Malaysia.\n------Philippines.\n------Thailand.\n------Vietnam.\n----South Asia.\n------Nepal.\n------India.\n--Europe.\n----Central and Eastern Europe.\n----Northern Europe.\n------Denmark.\n------Estonia.\n------Finland.\n------Iceland.\n------Latvia.\n------Sweden.\n----Southern Europe.\n------Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia, Slovenia.\n------Italy.\n------Portugal.\n------Spain.\n----Western Europe.\n------Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg.\n------France and southern Belgium.\n------Germany and Austria.\n------United Kingdom and Ireland.\n----Symbol of Carnival.\n----Additional varieties.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Romania there is a traditional sausage prepared with blood named \"s\u00e2ngerete\", literally meaning \"a thing from hemoragy\" (it came from \"s\u00e2ngera\" \u2013 \"hemoragy\" from \"s\u00e2nge\" \u2013 \"blood\")), and it is prepared especially during the Ignat (the pig carving holiday)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "A dish similar to the British black pudding is also made by making batter out of pig's blood and baking it like pancakes. Traditionally, rye flour or oatmeal is used and minced onion is added to the mix. This dish is called \"veriohukainen\" or \"verilettu\" (blood pancake). \"R\u00f6ssypottu\" is a traditional soup in northern Finland with blood pudding as a main ingredient."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "Blood as food\n--Methods of preparation.\n----Sausage.\n----Pancakes.\n----Soups, stews and sauces.\n----Solidified.\n----Raw.\n----Nutrition bars.\n--Religious consumption of blood.\n--Cultural considerations.\n--Dishes.\n----Africa.\n----Americas.\n------Brazil.\n------Colombia.\n------Mexico.\n------Per\u00fa.\n------Ecuador.\n----Asia.\n------China.\n------India.\n------Indonesia.\n------Korea.\n------Nepal.\n------Philippines.\n------Thailand and Laos.\n------Vietnam.\n----Europe.\n------Finland.\n------France.\n------Germany.\n------Greece.\n------Hungary.\n------Italy.\n------Poland.\n------Portugal.\n------Romania.\n------Spain.\n------Sweden.\n------United Kingdom and Ireland.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Brazil there is a version of the blood sausage called \"chouri\u00e7o\" or \"morcela\" (sometimes the Castillian Spanish version \"morcilla\" is used as well), consisting of a fresh sausage made of the blood and fat from pork and usually rice. It is a variation of the Portuguese blood sausage, and it is known for its deep dark color. In some regions, it is popular on barbecues (\"Churrascos\") as a starter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Trinidad and Tobago, the local style of blood sausage is heavily seasoned with local peppers and traditionally prepared from pig's blood, often replaced by pig's liver today. It is sold by local producers as a popular accompaniment to rolls of crusty hops bread or served as an accompaniment to \"trotter souse\", a stew based on trotters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Latvia, blood sausage is either called \"asinsdesa\" (blood sausage) or \"putraimu desa\" (groat sausage) because of the added barley groats. It usually served with lingonberry jam and sour cream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Korea, blood as food is known as \"seonji\" ( ; derived from the Manchu word \"senggi\" () meaning \"blood\"). Coagulated cattle \"seonji\" and dried radish greens are added to the beef legbone broth in order to make \"seonji-guk\" (blood curd soup). \"Sundae\", a blood sausage made generally by boiling or steaming cow or pig's intestines that are stuffed with various ingredients, such as pig's blood, cellophane noodles, kimchi, scallions, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Denmark, \"blodp\u00f8lse\" is made from pigs's blood and suet, rye flour, brown sugar, raisins, salt, cinnamon and cardamom stuffed into natural or artificial intestines. It is usually boiled in its skin, eaten hot or cold, sometimes sliced and fried, served with syrup, cinnamon and stewed apples."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "A similar blood sausage to \"karvavitsa\", called \"krvavica\" (\u043a\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430), made out of similar ingredients, is eaten in Bosnia, Croatia, Serbia, and Slovenia in wintertime, usually with sauerkraut and potatoes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Hong Kong, the dish closest to blood sausage is pig blood curd, which is only made from pig's blood and is not considered a sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Chile, the blood sausage is called \"prieta\" (a synonym of \"negra\", black) and tends to have a very thick skin, so is eaten cut open lengthwise. Apart from blood and a little fat, \"prietas\" may contain a variety of ingredients, such as chopped onion and spices, cabbage, peppers, watercress, rice, meat or even dried fruit or nuts. \"Prietas\" or \"morcillas\" are part of the Chilote tradition of \"reitimiento\" involving the slaughter and preparation of a pig."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In northern region of Nepal, \"Gyuma\" a blood sausage is a popular dish commonly eaten by locals. It is made up on Yak's blood and meat. The fillings also include buck wheat flour and other spices. The sausage is also used in lentils or prepared in stir fry dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Puerto Rico, blood sausage is known as \"morcilla\". Puerto Rican blood sausage is made with rice, culantro, cilantro, garlic, and Cubanelle pepper. Some contain paprika and annatto. Morcilla is especially popular during Christmas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausage is known generically as \"longganisang dugo\" (lit. \"blood longaniza\") in the Philippines. A notable type of native pre-colonial blood sausage is \"pinuneg\", which is composed of minced pork and innards in a pork casing made from large intestines that is prepared in the Cordillera Administrative Region of the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Mutura\" is a traditional blood sausage dish among the people of central Kenya, although recently its popularity has spread throughout Kenya. It is made with meat, blood, and spices all encased in the animal's intestines or stomach. In Kenya fillers include fresh minced goat, beef, and mutton, fat, and red onions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "An Italian-American version of blood sausage in the San Francisco Bay Area is called \"biroldo\" and has pine nuts, raisins, spices, and pig snouts and is made using either pig's or cow's blood. German-style blood sausage and Zungenwurst can be found in Fresno and Santa Rosa, where Russian and Armenian delis offer a wide range of Central European foods. Also, Alpine Village in Torrance, California has Blutwurst due to a considerable German-American population in the South Bay area of Los Angeles County."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Romania, the traditional \"s\u00e2ngerete\" (from \"s\u00e2nge\", \"blood\" in Romanian) is made from shoulder butt pork meat, pork blood and a filler such as pre-boiled rice seasoned with pepper, garlic and basil. It has many regional variants, but the most common are the \"s\u00e2ngerete\" from Transylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausage is popular in Mongolia. In Mongolia a special method of killing sheep was made mandatory by Genghis Khan to save blood for sausage. It appears in the Yasa and is still used today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Austria it is often prepared in a dish known as \"Blunzngr\u00f6stl\", which consists of pan-fried potatoes and blood sausage. This is usually served with freshly grated horseradish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula, \"morcilla\" is made exclusively from pig's blood and once deep fried it is served with a mix of pickled onions, cilantro and spices. It is always consumed in the form of tacos and paired with fresh habanero peppers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Tibetan cuisine, sausages or \"gyurma\" refer to blood sausages and are made with yak or sheep's blood which may or may not include either rice or roasted barley flour as filler. The sausage uses natural casing employing the use of yak or sheep's intestine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Hungary when a pig is slaughtered in the morning, the blood is fried with onions and served for breakfast. In Peru they use chicken blood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Most blood sausage dishes in Finland are often eaten with lingonberry jam to sweeten the taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Taiwan, \"pig's blood cake\" () or \"rice blood cake\"(), made of pork blood and sticky rice, is served on a popsicle stick; this is a very popular snack at local night markets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Italy, regional varieties of blood sausage are known as \"sanguinaccio\". In Tuscany, is a sausage made with pig's blood and fat cooked in a pig's stomach. It is not reheated and is often spread on bread. It is found only in the south of Tuscany in the winter months and even there it can be difficult to come by. \"Biroldo\" is another type of black pudding which can be found in Tuscany, while the version made in southern Lombardy is called \"marsapan\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Guyana, blood sausage is a very popular snack served at social occasions, and as \"cutters\" when drinking. The main ingredient is cooked rice seasoned with herbs, such as thyme and basil. The rice is mixed with cow's blood, stuffed into cow's or pig's intestine, and boiled until firm, sliced and served with Sour (a mild type of dipping sauce with hot peppers). White pudding is also made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In many areas of Latin America, \"morcilla\" is served. \"Morcilla\" is sometimes made with a filler of rice and/or onions, and seasoned with paprika and other spices. In Puerto Rico, it is served fried and mostly consumed during the holidays. In Colombia, \"morcilla\" can have rice, green peas, cilantro or culantro, and is often eaten as an appetizer called \"picada\" or with the traditional dishes \"Bandeja Paisa\" or \"Fritanga\". In Venezuela, \"morcilla\" is often served with \"parrilla\" (barbecue)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "Many cultures consume blood as food, often in combination with meat. The blood may be in the form of blood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, a cured salted form for times of food scarcity, or in a blood soup. This is a product from domesticated animals, obtained at a place and time where the blood can run into a container and be swiftly consumed or processed. In many cultures, the animal is slaughtered. In some cultures, blood is a taboo food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pig blood curd",
        "text": "Pig's blood is also made into food by many western countries. For example, in Britain, black pudding (Blood sausage) is made from pig's blood and a high proportion of oatmeal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Migliaccio\" is a black pudding that is traditionally prepared in winter in Romagna. It is a sweet pudding with a thick black filling made with pig's blood, sugar, breadcrumbs, almonds, chocolate, butter and spices contained in a thin pastry crust. A similar pudding is made throughout southern Italy, generally called \"sanguinaccio\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Vietnamese 'd\u1ed3i ti\u1ebft' (Northern) or 'd\u1ed3i huy\u1ebft' (Southern) is blood sausage, boiled or fried, made with pork blood, pork fat and basil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Likewise, in Belgium and the Netherlands, the Bloodsausage is a symbol for Carnival (most likely following the invasion of Spain during the Eighty Years' War)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Many Roman Catholics celebrate Mardi Gras, the last day of carnival, (Literally meaning Carne Vale, farewell to Meat in Italian) with rituals involving the blood sausage. For example, in Spain, they celebrate carnival with \"jud\u00edas con morcilla\" (morcilla is a variation of Blood sausage) followed by the funeral of the sardina."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausages are very difficult to find in US supermarkets. Brussels and Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin are both home to local grocers who produce blood sausage, due to their large Belgian American populations. Supermarkets throughout Maine also carry locally produced blood pudding due to the state's large French Canadian population. In southeastern Michigan, Polish-style \"kaszanka\" can be found in supermarkets throughout the year and is very popular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Blodpudding\" is a traditional medieval dish still popular in Sweden. The exact proportions and ingredients vary, partly according to regional preference, but generally it is made from pig's blood, milk, rye or barley flour, diced lard, either beer or \"svagdricka\", treacle and onion, flavoured with allspice and marjoram. It is then poured into forms and oven-baked in a waterbath. Most of the \"blodpudding\" consumed today is made on industrial basis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Penang or other northern states, pig blood curd (known locally in Penang Hokkien as \"too huet\"; ) is usually served with the local street delicacy Curry Mee (curry noodles). It can also be mixed with some traditional Hokkien dishes as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kaszanka",
        "text": "Kaszanka is a traditional blood sausage in the east and central European cuisine. It is made of a mixture of pig's blood, pork offal (commonly liver), and buckwheat or barley (kasza) stuffed in a pig intestine. It is usually flavored with onion, black pepper, and marjoram."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "This dish is usually made with pig's blood and duck's blood but it can also be made from any type of animal's blood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sundae, a form of blood sausage, is a traditional Korean sausage. A popular street food, sundae is normally prepared by steaming or boiling cow or pig intestines stuffed with various ingredients. The most common variation is composed of pork blood, cellophane noodle, sliced carrot and barley stuffed into pig intestines, but other regional variations include squid or Alaska pollock casings. Sundae is eaten plain with salt, in stews, or as part of a stir-fry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood Sausage (band)",
        "text": "Blood Sausage (band)\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Other varieties of blood sausage include \"boudin rouge\" (Creole and Cajun), \"rellena\" or \"moronga\" (Mexico) and \"sanganel\" (Friuli)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sl\u00e1tur",
        "text": "Both blood pudding and liver sausage are prepared in a similar fashion. Pouches are cut and sewn from the stomach, as in traditional haggis, or artificial non-edible pouches can be used. They are filled with a mixture of sliced/minced fat (\"m\u00f6r\") or suet, flour (rye and oats), rolled oats and either blood or finely-minced liver (sometimes kidney is also blended in). The pouches are sewn shut after filling, then they are slow boiled for 2\u20133 hours. Sl\u00e1tur may be eaten hot or cold and sometimes it is pickled in whey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Other blood-based foods include \"blodkorv\" (blood sausage) which differs from \"blodpudding\" by having raisins, pork tallow and apple sauce in it, \"blodpl\u00e4ttar\" (blood pancakes, similar to the original Finnish dish \"veriohukainen\" above) and \"blodpalt\". There is also a soup made from blood, called \"svartsoppa\" (black soup)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Prietas are easily found at supermarkets throughout the country and are available from practically any butcher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Portuguese cuisine, there are many varieties of blood sausage. Sausages made of blood are usually called \"morcela\" or \"negrinha\" (a slang term from Portuguese \"negro\" meaning dark or black). There are many varieties around the Portuguese world. There are varieties local to mainland Portugal, the Azores, Hawaii, China, US and India, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Iceland, \"bl\u00f3\u00f0m\u00f6r\" is one of two types of \"sl\u00e1tur\". It is made from lamb's blood and suet, rye flour and oats, traditionally stuffed into pouches sewn from the lamb's stomach. It is usually boiled in its skin, eaten hot or cold, sometimes sliced and fried. After cooking, it is often preserved in fermented whey and acquires a distinct sour taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Thai cuisine \"sai krok lueat\" (Thai: \u0e44\u0e2a\u0e49\u0e01\u0e23\u0e2d\u0e01\u0e40\u0e25\u0e37\u0e2d\u0e14) is a blood sausage ( = sausage, = blood), often served sliced and accompanied by a spicy dipping sauce. \"Blood tofu\" is simply called \"lueat\" (, blood) in Thailand. This can be used in many Thai dishes such as in noodle soups, Thai curries, or as an addition to certain rice dishes such as Khao man kai."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Black pudding is the native British version of blood sausage. It is generally made from pork blood and a relatively high proportion of oatmeal. In the past it was occasionally flavoured with pennyroyal, differing from continental European versions in its relatively limited range of ingredients and reliance on oatmeal and barley instead of onions to absorb the blood. It can be eaten cold, as it is cooked in production, grilled, fried or boiled in its skin. It is often served sliced and fried or grilled as part of a traditional full breakfast, a tradition that followed British and Irish emigrants around the world. Black pudding is now part of the local cuisine of New Zealand and the Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood Sausage (band)",
        "text": "Blood Sausage were an indie rock band from Brighton, England, containing members of Huggy Bear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Northern Germany pig's blood used to be traditionally mixed with vinegar, scraps, spices and sugar to make schwarzsauer. It's eaten warm or preserved in jars. Changes in taste and lifestyle have made this an uncommon dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Meghalayan cuisine, \"doh snam\" is type of blood sausage made from pork intestine with local spices and ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Cajun \"boudin\" is a fresh sausage made with green onions, pork, pork liver (making it somewhat gritty or grainy), and rice. Pig's blood was sometimes added to produce \"boudin rouge\", but this tradition became increasingly rare after the mid-twentieth century due to the decline of the \"boucherie\" (traditional communal butchering) and government health regulations prohibiting the transportation of raw blood. As a result, Cajun \"boudin\" is now usually made without blood; however, blood or \"black\" \"boudin\" can still be purchased."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "Aside from \"dinuguan\", a native blood sausage known as \"pinuneg\" also exists among the Kankanaey people of the highlands of Luzon. Cubes of pork blood grilled on skewers is also a common street food throughout the Philippines. These are known colloquially as \"betamax\" (after its resemblance to Betamax tapes)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Vietnamese cuisine pig blood curd is used in soup based noodles dishes such as B\u00fan b\u00f2 Hu\u1ebf or B\u00e1nh canh."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Suriname, blood sausage is known by the Dutch name \"bloedworst\", and white pudding by the equally Dutch name \"vleesworst\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Italy, the sanguinaccio dolce is a pudding made with pig blood, chocolate, sugar, pine nuts, raisins and milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Other German variants are \"Zungenwurst\", which is \"Blutwurst\" mixed with pieces of pickled ox tongue, and \"Beutelwurst,\" which is pressed in a linen or paper bag (\"Beutel\"). A variety of \"Blutwurst\", the \"Rotwurst\" from Thuringia (\"Th\u00fcringer Rotwurst\"), has geographical indication protection under EU law, with PGI status. \"Kartoffelwurst\" (potato sausage) is a post-World War II variety popular in the Palatinate, a reduced fat version of \"Blutwurst\" using potato cubes instead of bacon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Mustamakkara\" (literally \"black sausage\") is a roasted sausage containing pig's blood and very similar to Estonian \"verivorst\". The sausage is said to originate from Tampere and is considered an integral part of the city's culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kasha",
        "text": "As Polish blood sausage is prepared with buckwheat, barley or rice, it is called kaszanka (kasha sausage)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "There are other similarly famous kinds being made at Asturias (slightly darker and smaller, used for bean and chickpea stews) and Le\u00f3n (without rice, grilled & spread on toasted bread). Other less popular varieties may add cumin to the pudding mixture, but this is not a standard practice. The cooking method for consumption is typically frying, stewing, grilling or roasting, and usually sliced in one-finger-thick wheelettes (\"rodajas\"). There are many derivative foods made from morcilla, such as omelettes, stuffed red pepper, puff pastry, pizza, flavoured nachos, croquettes, and a range of fillings for different dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Morcilla\" is also eaten inside a sandwich called \"morcip\u00e1n\", especially in the R\u00edo de la Plata. \"Morcilla\" is a component of the \" asado criollo\", a regional mixed grill or barbecue meal. In Uruguay and in Argentina, a sweet version including raisins and pine nuts is popular; some vendors even add chocolate, caramelised orange peels, peanuts, and other dried fruits. Uruguayans usually are fond of sweet or salty \"morcilla\", and most restaurants and supermarkets carry both versions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Another version in Java called \"saren\" or \"marus\", is made with chicken's blood and usually cut into small cube pieces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In China and some regions of Southeast Asia, coagulated chicken, duck, goose or pig blood, known in Chinese as \"blood tofu\" () is used in soups. In Taiwan, \"pig's blood cake\" () is made of pork blood and sticky rice. It is fried or steamed as a snack or cooked in a hot pot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood tongue",
        "text": "Blood tongue, or Zungenwurst (translation tongue sausage), is a variety of German head cheese with blood. It is a large head cheese that is made with pig's blood, suet, bread crumbs and oatmeal with chunks of pickled beef tongue added. It has a slight resemblance to blood sausage. It is commonly sliced and browned in butter or bacon fat prior to consumption. It is sold in markets pre-cooked and its appearance is maroon to black in color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black pudding",
        "text": "Blood puddings are often considered to be one of the oldest forms of sausage. Animals are generally bled at slaughter, and as blood rapidly spoils unless prepared in some way, making a pudding with it is one of the easiest ways of ensuring it does not go to waste. While the majority of modern black pudding recipes involve pork blood, this has not always been the case. Sheep or cow blood was also used, and one 15th-century English recipe used that of a porpoise in a pudding eaten exclusively by the nobility. Until at least the 19th century, cow or sheep blood was the usual basis for black puddings in Scotland; Jamieson's Scottish dictionary defined \"black pudding\" as \"a pudding made of the blood of a cow or sheep\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Korea, blood curd is typically made of cattle blood and is often used as an ingredient for different kinds of soups and stews, such as hangover soup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tr\u00e4ipen",
        "text": "There are many variants to local recipes for its preparation but basically the meat and fat are boiled with salt, then minced and mixed with the finely ground vegetables. Fresh blood is added together with breadcrumbs and spices, and the mixture is put into larger intestine casings. The sausages are then boiled for 15 minutes in a large saucepan until cooked (when punctured, only clear liquid should emerge)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Limbu cuisine, \"sargemba\" or \"sargyangma\" is a type of blood sausage made mostly from pork intestines, pork fat, rice and \"yangben\", a type of edible wild lichen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "While in Sumatra, Bataknese eats a dish called \" Kidu-Kidu \", a sausage dish made from pork intestines, served with sauce made from pork's blood and spices such as andaliman pepper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corumbela",
        "text": "The blood sausages are very good as well as the \"cateto\" bread, made in a traditional wood oven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Central Mexico, \"morcilla\" is known as \"moronga\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "The majority of Korea's \"sundae\" (\uc21c\ub300) can be categorised as blood sausage. The most common type of \"sundae\" is made of sweet potato noodle (\"dangmyeon\"), barley, and pig's blood, but some variants contain sesame leaves, green onion, fermented soy paste (\"doenjang\"), sweet rice, kimchi, and bean sprouts, in addition to the common ingredients. The Korean sundae is wrapped with pig's intestines. The addition of sweet potato noodle is a more modern addition to the dish. There is another Korean food called \"seonji\" which is cow blood that has been boiled in soup. It looks like the Blodpudding of Sweden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "The Luxembourg tr\u00e4ipen includes green cabbage, and is served pan fried with apple sauce. It was eaten in church in the Middle Ages during Carnival and is still consumed for breakfast, baked with apples and topped with apple syrup, during Carnival in the Dutch province of Limburg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Vietnam, congealed pork blood is used in Bun bo Hue (a spicy noodle soup), as well as congee (a type of rice porridge). It is simply solidified, then put into the broth to absorb the flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Antigua, rice pudding is a local delicacy and it is prepared the same way as blood sausage."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the purpose of filling a sausage with blood?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you wanting to know the uses generally, or specifically to a type of blood sausage, such as those served in Japan, Korea, Scotland, Germany, or Poland?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know of them in general, and why blood is used in them."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Blood puddings are often considered to be one of the oldest forms of sausage. Animals are generally bled at slaughter, and as blood rapidly spoils unless prepared in some way, making a pudding with it is one of the easiest ways of ensuring it does not go to waste. As a product of the slaughtering process, eating black puddings was historically associated with Martinmas, when the annual slaughter of livestock took place.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I don't know why they use blood, but a blood sausage is a sausage filled with blood that is cooked or dried and mixed with a filler until it is thick enough to solidify when cooled."
    ],
    "topic": "Blood sausage",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Black pudding:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Black pudding",
          "History and recipes"
        ],
        "ctx": "Blood puddings are often considered to be one of the oldest forms of sausage. Animals are generally bled at slaughter, and as blood rapidly spoils unless prepared in some way, making a pudding with it is one of the easiest ways of ensuring it does not go to waste. While the majority of modern black pudding recipes involve pork blood, this has not always been the case. Sheep or cow blood was also used, and one 15th-century English recipe used that of a porpoise in a pudding eaten exclusively by the nobility. Until at least the 19th century, cow or sheep blood was the usual basis for black puddings in Scotland; Jamieson's Scottish dictionary defined \"black pudding\" as \"a pudding made of the blood of a cow or sheep\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Black pudding:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Black pudding",
          "History and recipes"
        ],
        "ctx": "As a product of the slaughtering process, eating black puddings was historically associated with Martinmas, when the annual slaughter of livestock took place. By the 19th century black pudding manufacture was linked with towns known for their large markets for pork, such as Stretford, then in Lancashire, and Cork, Ireland. By this time, black puddings were generally omitted from recipe books aimed at urban housewives, as they no longer usually had access to home-killed pork, although recipes would continue to appear in Scottish books until the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blood sausage:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blood sausage"
        ],
        "ctx": "A blood sausage is a sausage filled with blood that is cooked or dried and mixed with a filler until it is thick enough to solidify when cooled. Most commonly, the blood of pigs, sheep, lamb, cow, chicken, or goose is used."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Spain, the \"morcilla\" sausage is a kind of black pudding mainly made with pig blood, with spices, fat, and sometimes vegetables. In Andalusia \"sangre encebollada\" and Valencian \"sang amb ceba \"are popular dishes made with chicken or pork solidified blood and onion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Migliaccio\" is a black pudding that is traditionally prepared in winter in Romagna. It is a sweet pudding with a thick black filling made with pig's blood, sugar, breadcrumbs, almonds, chocolate, butter and spices contained in a thin pastry crust. A similar pudding is made throughout southern Italy, generally called \"sanguinaccio\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "A dish similar to the British black pudding is also made by making batter out of pig's blood and baking it like pancakes. Traditionally, rye flour or oatmeal is used and minced onion is added to the mix. This dish is called \"veriohukainen\" or \"verilettu\" (blood pancake). \"R\u00f6ssypottu\" is a traditional soup in northern Finland with blood pudding as a main ingredient."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Fran\u00e7ois Rabelais in France mentions in his \"fourth book\" (1552) carnavalesque figures called \"forest-dwelling Blood-puddings\" (Saulcis- sons montig\u00e8nes, Boudins sylvatiques) as a farce representing the Swiss and German Protestants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Italy, regional varieties of blood sausage are known as \"sanguinaccio\". In Tuscany, is a sausage made with pig's blood and fat cooked in a pig's stomach. It is not reheated and is often spread on bread. It is found only in the south of Tuscany in the winter months and even there it can be difficult to come by. \"Biroldo\" is another type of black pudding which can be found in Tuscany, while the version made in southern Lombardy is called \"marsapan\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Barbados, blood sausage, also called pudding, is made with sweet potato (\"batata\"), pig's blood and onions, seasoned with peppers and other herbs and stuffed in pig intestines. Traditionally pig's blood was used to darken the mixture but Browning sauce (caramelized sugar) is sometimes used as a substitute. It is normally served with \"souse\", which is pickled pig's feet, pig's ears and other trimmings. The cooked meat is cut into bite-sized pieces and soaked in a brine made of water, lime juice, cucumbers, hot pepper, and specially prepared seasonings. Blood sausage and souse, more commonly known as pudding and souse, is a Bajan delicacy usually prepared on weekends and special occasions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black pudding",
        "text": "Blood puddings are often considered to be one of the oldest forms of sausage. Animals are generally bled at slaughter, and as blood rapidly spoils unless prepared in some way, making a pudding with it is one of the easiest ways of ensuring it does not go to waste. While the majority of modern black pudding recipes involve pork blood, this has not always been the case. Sheep or cow blood was also used, and one 15th-century English recipe used that of a porpoise in a pudding eaten exclusively by the nobility. Until at least the 19th century, cow or sheep blood was the usual basis for black puddings in Scotland; Jamieson's Scottish dictionary defined \"black pudding\" as \"a pudding made of the blood of a cow or sheep\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Panama, blood sausage is called \"morcilla\", \"rellena\" or \"tuber\u00eda negra\", and is usually filled with rice. In El Salvador and Nicaragua, it is called \"moronga\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Mustamakkara\" (literally \"black sausage\") is a roasted sausage containing pig's blood and very similar to Estonian \"verivorst\". The sausage is said to originate from Tampere and is considered an integral part of the city's culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palencia",
        "text": "Morcilla is a form of black sausage made from pig's blood. In Castile the pig blood is often flavoured with pieces of pork fat, onions herbs and spices; the addition of rice gives a distinctive texture and flavour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black pudding",
        "text": "Black pudding is a distinct regional type of blood sausage originating in Great Britain and Ireland. It is made from pork or beef blood, with pork fat or beef suet, and a cereal, usually oatmeal, oat groats, or barley groats. The high proportion of cereal, along with the use of certain herbs such as pennyroyal, serves to distinguish black pudding from blood sausages eaten in other parts of the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "Blood sausage is any sausage made by cooking animal blood with a filler until it is thick enough to congeal when cooled. Pig or cattle blood is most often used. Typical fillers include meat, fat, suet, bread, rice, barley and oatmeal. Varieties include biroldo, black pudding, blood tongue, blutwurst, drisheen, kishka (kaszanka), morcilla, moronga, mustamakkara, sundae, verivorst, and many types of boudin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Chile, the blood sausage is called \"prieta\" (a synonym of \"negra\", black) and tends to have a very thick skin, so is eaten cut open lengthwise. Apart from blood and a little fat, \"prietas\" may contain a variety of ingredients, such as chopped onion and spices, cabbage, peppers, watercress, rice, meat or even dried fruit or nuts. \"Prietas\" or \"morcillas\" are part of the Chilote tradition of \"reitimiento\" involving the slaughter and preparation of a pig."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "There are other similarly famous kinds being made at Asturias (slightly darker and smaller, used for bean and chickpea stews) and Le\u00f3n (without rice, grilled & spread on toasted bread). Other less popular varieties may add cumin to the pudding mixture, but this is not a standard practice. The cooking method for consumption is typically frying, stewing, grilling or roasting, and usually sliced in one-finger-thick wheelettes (\"rodajas\"). There are many derivative foods made from morcilla, such as omelettes, stuffed red pepper, puff pastry, pizza, flavoured nachos, croquettes, and a range of fillings for different dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Puerto Rico, blood sausage is known as \"morcilla\". Puerto Rican blood sausage is made with rice, culantro, cilantro, garlic, and Cubanelle pepper. Some contain paprika and annatto. Morcilla is especially popular during Christmas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In many languages, there is a general term such as \"blood sausage\" (American English) that is used for all sausages that are made from blood, whether or not they include non-animal material such as bread, cereal, and nuts. Sausages that include such material are often referred to with more specific terms, such as \"black pudding\" in English."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula, \"morcilla\" is made exclusively from pig's blood and once deep fried it is served with a mix of pickled onions, cilantro and spices. It is always consumed in the form of tacos and paired with fresh habanero peppers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Many Roman Catholics celebrate Mardi Gras, the last day of carnival, (Literally meaning Carne Vale, farewell to Meat in Italian) with rituals involving the blood sausage. For example, in Spain, they celebrate carnival with \"jud\u00edas con morcilla\" (morcilla is a variation of Blood sausage) followed by the funeral of the sardina."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Ecuador and Bolivia the blood sausage is also called \"morcilla\", and is usually filled with rice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Antigua, rice pudding is a local delicacy and it is prepared the same way as blood sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Black pudding is the native British version of blood sausage. It is generally made from pork blood and a relatively high proportion of oatmeal. In the past it was occasionally flavoured with pennyroyal, differing from continental European versions in its relatively limited range of ingredients and reliance on oatmeal and barley instead of onions to absorb the blood. It can be eaten cold, as it is cooked in production, grilled, fried or boiled in its skin. It is often served sliced and fried or grilled as part of a traditional full breakfast, a tradition that followed British and Irish emigrants around the world. Black pudding is now part of the local cuisine of New Zealand and the Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Cajun \"boudin\" is a fresh sausage made with green onions, pork, pork liver (making it somewhat gritty or grainy), and rice. Pig's blood was sometimes added to produce \"boudin rouge\", but this tradition became increasingly rare after the mid-twentieth century due to the decline of the \"boucherie\" (traditional communal butchering) and government health regulations prohibiting the transportation of raw blood. As a result, Cajun \"boudin\" is now usually made without blood; however, blood or \"black\" \"boudin\" can still be purchased."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In northern region of Nepal, \"Gyuma\" a blood sausage is a popular dish commonly eaten by locals. It is made up on Yak's blood and meat. The fillings also include buck wheat flour and other spices. The sausage is also used in lentils or prepared in stir fry dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Latvia, blood sausage is either called \"asinsdesa\" (blood sausage) or \"putraimu desa\" (groat sausage) because of the added barley groats. It usually served with lingonberry jam and sour cream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Morcilla\" is also eaten inside a sandwich called \"morcip\u00e1n\", especially in the R\u00edo de la Plata. \"Morcilla\" is a component of the \" asado criollo\", a regional mixed grill or barbecue meal. In Uruguay and in Argentina, a sweet version including raisins and pine nuts is popular; some vendors even add chocolate, caramelised orange peels, peanuts, and other dried fruits. Uruguayans usually are fond of sweet or salty \"morcilla\", and most restaurants and supermarkets carry both versions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Stornoway black pudding produced on the Isle of Lewis, Scotland, is one of the most renowned varieties and has been granted Protected Geographical Indicator of Origin (PGI) status. Ireland also has two distinctive varieties of black pudding: Sneem Black Pudding from County Kerry, and drisheen, which is distinguished by its gelatinous texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Trinidad and Tobago, the local style of blood sausage is heavily seasoned with local peppers and traditionally prepared from pig's blood, often replaced by pig's liver today. It is sold by local producers as a popular accompaniment to rolls of crusty hops bread or served as an accompaniment to \"trotter souse\", a stew based on trotters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "A blood sausage is a sausage filled with blood that is cooked or dried and mixed with a filler until it is thick enough to solidify when cooled. Most commonly, the blood of pigs, sheep, lamb, cow, chicken, or goose is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In many areas of Latin America, \"morcilla\" is served. \"Morcilla\" is sometimes made with a filler of rice and/or onions, and seasoned with paprika and other spices. In Puerto Rico, it is served fried and mostly consumed during the holidays. In Colombia, \"morcilla\" can have rice, green peas, cilantro or culantro, and is often eaten as an appetizer called \"picada\" or with the traditional dishes \"Bandeja Paisa\" or \"Fritanga\". In Venezuela, \"morcilla\" is often served with \"parrilla\" (barbecue)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Portuguese cuisine, there are many varieties of blood sausage. Sausages made of blood are usually called \"morcela\" or \"negrinha\" (a slang term from Portuguese \"negro\" meaning dark or black). There are many varieties around the Portuguese world. There are varieties local to mainland Portugal, the Azores, Hawaii, China, US and India, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Similarly, in Czech cuisine, \"jelito\" is made from second-rate pork, pig's blood and peeled barley; the stuffing served by itself, unformed, is called \"prejt\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Throughout Central and Eastern Europe, blood sausage, known as \"kishka\" (meaning \"intestine\"), is made with pig's blood and buckwheat kasha. It is also known in Russia as \"krovyanka\" (\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430), or \"krovyanaya kolbasa\" (\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044f\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0431\u0430\u0441\u0430, literally \"blood sausage\"), and includes buckwheat as a main filler, instead of oats or oatmeal. In Ukraine it's called \"krov'yanka\" (\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432'\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430) or \"kryvava kyshka\" (\u043a\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u043a\u0438\u0448\u043a\u0430), and \"kiszka\" or \"kaszanka\" in Poland; \"krvavni\u010dka\" in Slovakia and \"krupniok\" in Silesia. Polish \"salceson\" (\"black\" and \"\") are a type of head cheese (\"brawn\") that contains blood. In Hungary, \"v\u00e9res hurka\" is typically made with pig's blood and barleycorn or cubed bread (typically zsemle) as filler as such also known as \"zseml\u00e9s hurka\" and \"gerslis hurka\". In Bulgaria, \"karvavitsa\" (\u043a\u044a\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430) is usually prepared with pig's blood, fat and a variety of mountain herbs and spices and eaten warm during the winter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Spanish \"morcilla\" has many variants. The most well-known and widespread is \"morcilla de Burgos\" which contains mainly pork blood and fat, rice, onions, and salt, and is produced in two varieties: cylindrical and gut-shaped. In Albacete and La Mancha, the \"morcilla\" is filled with onions instead of rice, which completely changes the texture. In Extremadura the creamy \"morcilla patatera\" includes roughly mashed potatoes. In the northern regions and the Canary Islands there is a sweet variety known as \"morcilla dulce\". Other varieties introduce breadcrumbs, pine nuts, and almonds, and vary the proportions of the other ingredients or flavourings, some of them considered delicacies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Romania there is a traditional sausage prepared with blood named \"s\u00e2ngerete\", literally meaning \"a thing from hemoragy\" (it came from \"s\u00e2ngera\" \u2013 \"hemoragy\" from \"s\u00e2nge\" \u2013 \"blood\")), and it is prepared especially during the Ignat (the pig carving holiday)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In France, there is \", a solidified/curd blood in a pan, and \", a sort of sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timoleague Brown Pudding",
        "text": "The pudding is brown in colour, is a long cylindrical sausage shape which forms naturally into rings and is made from fresh pigs' blood, pork trimming, cereal, fresh onions, seasonings, spices and natural casings. It comes in weights of between 750 and 1000 grams (1.7\u20132.2\u00a0lb). Due to the inclusion of fresh blood, the taste of the pudding can be described as very clean and rustic. The process of pre-soaking pig's blood in oatmeal is a continuation of the traditional Cork method of combining blood and cereal in a pudding to give it its distinctive regional texture and taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Limbu cuisine, \"sargemba\" or \"sargyangma\" is a type of blood sausage made mostly from pork intestines, pork fat, rice and \"yangben\", a type of edible wild lichen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Finland, pig's blood is used, with milk, flour and molasses, to make blood pancakes veriohukainen, usually served with lingonberry jam. Also different style of sausages are common, mustamakkara and ryynimakkara. In \u00c5land and Bothnia region is also mustaleip\u00e4 or verileip\u00e4 that are bread where liquid of the batter either totally or partially blood. Blackpudding veripalttu is available is some parts of the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "The meat for the stuffing is finely chopped or minced, and the mandatory fat is often trimmed from other parts. The meat is slightly fried, mixed with finely chopped red onions, salt and optionally fresh chili. Other additions include freshly chopped coriander (dhania or cilantro), garlic, pepper and even beef stock. This is then mixed thoroughly with the fresh blood from the animal, and stuffed into the stomach and intestines, with the openings sewn or tied together with string."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Nowadays many types of mutura, especially commercial street food versions, do not contain blood. The meat used in the filling can be any fleshy part, but like any other type of sausage, prime cuts are not ordinarily used for the stuffing. Instead the tougher, leaner cuts \u2013 for example the neck \u2013 are trimmed off the bone. The casing for the stuffing is the stomach sac and larger intestines. These are flushed many times with water to clean them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Brazil there is a version of the blood sausage called \"chouri\u00e7o\" or \"morcela\" (sometimes the Castillian Spanish version \"morcilla\" is used as well), consisting of a fresh sausage made of the blood and fat from pork and usually rice. It is a variation of the Portuguese blood sausage, and it is known for its deep dark color. In some regions, it is popular on barbecues (\"Churrascos\") as a starter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Galicia, blood pancakes are called filloas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Hungary, \"hagym\u00e1s v\u00e9r\" (pan-fried pig's blood with onions) and \"v\u00e9res hurka\" (a kind of blood sausage made with pig's blood, bacon, pork, rice, onion, salt and various herbs and spices) are common winter foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Meghalayan cuisine, \"doh snam\" is type of blood sausage made from pork intestine with local spices and ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corumbela",
        "text": "The blood sausages are very good as well as the \"cateto\" bread, made in a traditional wood oven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Tibetan cuisine, sausages or \"gyurma\" refer to blood sausages and are made with yak or sheep's blood which may or may not include either rice or roasted barley flour as filler. The sausage uses natural casing employing the use of yak or sheep's intestine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timoleague",
        "text": "Timoleague Brown Pudding, a type of blood sausage, has been granted Protected Geographical Status under European Union law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "An Italian-American version of blood sausage in the San Francisco Bay Area is called \"biroldo\" and has pine nuts, raisins, spices, and pig snouts and is made using either pig's or cow's blood. German-style blood sausage and Zungenwurst can be found in Fresno and Santa Rosa, where Russian and Armenian delis offer a wide range of Central European foods. Also, Alpine Village in Torrance, California has Blutwurst due to a considerable German-American population in the South Bay area of Los Angeles County."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burgos",
        "text": "Morcilla de Burgos, a pig's-blood sausage (black pudding), is a staple country food known across the Iberian peninsula. Spiced with onions and herbs its most noticeable content is rice (often mistaken for fat) which makes it one of the lightest and healthiest products of its kind. Oral tradition says that it must be \"salty, smooth and piquant\" (see Spanish pages for details). As with the Queso de Burgos, several comarcas or towns in the province (Carde\u00f1adijo, Sotopalacios, Aranda de Duero, Briviesca, Covarrubias, Villarcayo, Trespaderne, Miranda de Ebro...) made their own morcillas, with minor variations between them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Central Mexico, \"morcilla\" is known as \"moronga\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sneem Black Pudding",
        "text": "Produced by local butchers Peter O'Sullivan and Kieran Burns, it is described as \"traditional blood pudding, uncased and tray-baked. It has a deep red-brown colour and is free from artificial colours, flavours, bulking agents and preservatives.\" It is sold in squares rather than rings, and the ingredients are beef suet, onions, oat flakes, spices and blood (from pigs, cattle and lambs of South Kerry)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Italy, the sanguinaccio dolce is a pudding made with pig blood, chocolate, sugar, pine nuts, raisins and milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Suriname, blood sausage is known by the Dutch name \"bloedworst\", and white pudding by the equally Dutch name \"vleesworst\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cascajares de la Sierra",
        "text": "The Morcilla de Burgos is a sausage made from pig slaughter. It was made from different parts of the pigs, such as the blood, guts and butter. Plants and spices like paprika were added to improve the flavor. Later, the rice pudding of Burgos was incorporated. Now, the foundation for the Morcilla de Burgos was laid. It is now \"soda, tasty and picantosa,\" with blood, rice, butter, horcal onion, salt, pepper and paprika, all stuffed into casings and then cooked. Eating one is a definite pleasure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausage is known generically as \"longganisang dugo\" (lit. \"blood longaniza\") in the Philippines. A notable type of native pre-colonial blood sausage is \"pinuneg\", which is composed of minced pork and innards in a pork casing made from large intestines that is prepared in the Cordillera Administrative Region of the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kaszanka",
        "text": "Kaszanka is a traditional blood sausage in the east and central European cuisine. It is made of a mixture of pig's blood, pork offal (commonly liver), and buckwheat or barley (kasza) stuffed in a pig intestine. It is usually flavored with onion, black pepper, and marjoram."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black pudding",
        "text": "Most traditional recipes from the UK involve stirring the fresh blood, adding fat and some form of rusk, and seasoning, before filling the mixture into a casing and boiling it. Natural casings of beef intestine were formerly used, though modern commercially made puddings use synthetic cellulose skins, and are usually produced from imported dried blood. The relatively limited range of ingredients and use of oats or barley to thicken and absorb the blood is typical of black pudding in comparison to Continental blood sausages. Despite this, black pudding recipes still show more regional variation across the islands than other sausages, with many butchers having their own individual versions. Breadcrumbs or flour are sometimes used to supplement the oats or barley, and the proportion and texture of the fat or suet used can also vary widely. Pennyroyal, marjoram, thyme, and mint are all traditional flavourings: pennyroyal was known as \"pudding-yerb\" in the North Riding of Yorkshire for its use in black puddings. Other herbs and spices sometimes used in traditional black puddings include cumin, rue, and parsley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Estonia, \"verivorst\" (blood sausage) is made of pig's blood, barley groats, pork, marjoram and other flavourings. It is sold and eaten mostly in winter, being a traditional Christmas food. At that time there is a large variety of \"verivorst\" in stores, ranging in shapes and sizes. \"Verivorst\" is usually cooked in an oven, but sometimes also fried in a pan. \"Verivorst\" is often eaten together with lingonberry jam, but occasionally also with butter or sour cream. Another similar dish is called \"verik\u00e4kk\" ((black pudding) or blood dumpling, depending on the shape). The popularity of \"verik\u00e4kk\" has decreased during the past decades (possibly because of its less appealing commercial appearance) and has mostly been substituted by \"verivorst\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Blodpudding\" is a traditional medieval dish still popular in Sweden. The exact proportions and ingredients vary, partly according to regional preference, but generally it is made from pig's blood, milk, rye or barley flour, diced lard, either beer or \"svagdricka\", treacle and onion, flavoured with allspice and marjoram. It is then poured into forms and oven-baked in a waterbath. Most of the \"blodpudding\" consumed today is made on industrial basis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Guyana, blood sausage is a very popular snack served at social occasions, and as \"cutters\" when drinking. The main ingredient is cooked rice seasoned with herbs, such as thyme and basil. The rice is mixed with cow's blood, stuffed into cow's or pig's intestine, and boiled until firm, sliced and served with Sour (a mild type of dipping sauce with hot peppers). White pudding is also made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Prietas are easily found at supermarkets throughout the country and are available from practically any butcher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "A similar blood sausage to \"karvavitsa\", called \"krvavica\" (\u043a\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430), made out of similar ingredients, is eaten in Bosnia, Croatia, Serbia, and Slovenia in wintertime, usually with sauerkraut and potatoes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Denmark, \"blodp\u00f8lse\" is made from pigs's blood and suet, rye flour, brown sugar, raisins, salt, cinnamon and cardamom stuffed into natural or artificial intestines. It is usually boiled in its skin, eaten hot or cold, sometimes sliced and fried, served with syrup, cinnamon and stewed apples."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinuneg",
        "text": "Pinuneg is a Filipino blood sausage originating from the Igorots. It is made with pig's blood (sometimes cow's or carabao's blood), minced pork fat, salt, red onions, ginger, and garlic stuffed into a casing made from pig's small intestine. It is traditionally prepared during pig sacrifice ceremonies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausages are very difficult to find in US supermarkets. Brussels and Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin are both home to local grocers who produce blood sausage, due to their large Belgian American populations. Supermarkets throughout Maine also carry locally produced blood pudding due to the state's large French Canadian population. In southeastern Michigan, Polish-style \"kaszanka\" can be found in supermarkets throughout the year and is very popular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gyurma",
        "text": "Gyurma is a blood sausage made with yak or sheep's blood in Tibetan cuisine. Rice or roasted barley flour can be added as filler. The sausage uses natural yak or sheep casing (intestine). This sausage is also consumed in the region of Sikkim, Uttrakhand and Ladakh in India and Himalayan regions of Nepal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moronga",
        "text": "Moronga, rellena, or morcilla is a kind of blood sausage. It is found in Argentina, Cuba, Colombia, Puerto Rico, Central America, and Mexican cuisine. Spices, herbs (such as ruta, oregano, and mint), onions and chili peppers are added and then boiled in the pig's large intestines for casing for several hours. It is served in a sauce, either \"chile rojo\" or \"chile verde\". It is also served in central Mexico as a filling in gorditas and tacos after it has been pan-fried with fresh onions and jalape\u00f1o peppers. This sausage is called \"morcilla\" in the Yucatan Peninsula, and it is almost always served along with other sausages (buche) and a mix of pickled onion, cilantro, and spices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Iceland, \"bl\u00f3\u00f0m\u00f6r\" is one of two types of \"sl\u00e1tur\". It is made from lamb's blood and suet, rye flour and oats, traditionally stuffed into pouches sewn from the lamb's stomach. It is usually boiled in its skin, eaten hot or cold, sometimes sliced and fried. After cooking, it is often preserved in fermented whey and acquires a distinct sour taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dinuguan",
        "text": "This dish is rather similar to European-style blood sausage, or British and Irish black pudding in a saucy stew form. It is perhaps closer in appearance and preparation to the Polish soup Czernina or an even more ancient Spartan dish known as \"melas zomos\" (black soup) whose primary ingredients were pork, vinegar and blood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "The similar white pudding (mealie pudding) is a further important feature of the traditional Northumbrian, Scottish, Irish and Newfoundland breakfast. Black and white pudding, as well as a third variant, red pudding, is served battered in some chip shops in England, Scotland and Ireland as an alternative to fish and chips."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sl\u00e1tur",
        "text": "Both blood pudding and liver sausage are prepared in a similar fashion. Pouches are cut and sewn from the stomach, as in traditional haggis, or artificial non-edible pouches can be used. They are filled with a mixture of sliced/minced fat (\"m\u00f6r\") or suet, flour (rye and oats), rolled oats and either blood or finely-minced liver (sometimes kidney is also blended in). The pouches are sewn shut after filling, then they are slow boiled for 2\u20133 hours. Sl\u00e1tur may be eaten hot or cold and sometimes it is pickled in whey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black pudding",
        "text": "As a product of the slaughtering process, eating black puddings was historically associated with Martinmas, when the annual slaughter of livestock took place. By the 19th century black pudding manufacture was linked with towns known for their large markets for pork, such as Stretford, then in Lancashire, and Cork, Ireland. By this time, black puddings were generally omitted from recipe books aimed at urban housewives, as they no longer usually had access to home-killed pork, although recipes would continue to appear in Scottish books until the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Britain, Ireland, and some Commonwealth countries, \"black pudding\" or \"blood pudding\" is made from blood and some filler grains and spices, often oatmeal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Vietnamese 'd\u1ed3i ti\u1ebft' (Northern) or 'd\u1ed3i huy\u1ebft' (Southern) is blood sausage, boiled or fried, made with pork blood, pork fat and basil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pig blood curd",
        "text": "Pig's blood is also made into food by many western countries. For example, in Britain, black pudding (Blood sausage) is made from pig's blood and a high proportion of oatmeal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Likewise, in Belgium and the Netherlands, the Bloodsausage is a symbol for Carnival (most likely following the invasion of Spain during the Eighty Years' War)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Other varieties of blood sausage include \"boudin rouge\" (Creole and Cajun), \"rellena\" or \"moronga\" (Mexico) and \"sanganel\" (Friuli)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boudin",
        "text": "The Anglo-Norman word meant 'sausage', 'blood sausage' or 'entrails' in general. Its origin is unclear. It has been traced both to Romance and to Germanic roots, but there is not good evidence for either (cf. boudin. The English word \"pudding\" probably comes from .\n* \" ball\": A Cajun variation on . Instead of the filling being stuffed into pork casings, it is rolled into a ball, battered, and deep-fried.\n* : Originally, a white sausage made of pork without the blood. Variants include:\n** French/Belgian boudin blanc, with milk. Generally saut\u00e9ed or grilled.\n** Cajun boudin blanc, made from a pork and rice mixture (much like dirty rice) in pork casings. Often includes pork liver and heart. Generally simmered or braised, although it may also be grilled.\n** (): a traditional French , which may only contain pork meat, fresh whole eggs and milk, and cannot contain any breadcrumbs or flours/starches. It is protected under EU law with a Protected geographical indication status.\n* : A dark-hued blood sausage, containing pork, pig blood, and other ingredients. Variants of the occur in French, Belgian, Cajun and Catalan cuisine. The Catalan version of the is called . In the French Caribbean, it is known as . In Britain a similar sausage is called \"black pudding\", the word \"pudding\" being an anglicized pronunciation of , and probably introduced after the Norman Conquest.\n** : In Louisiana cuisine, a sausage similar to , but with pork blood added to it. This originated from the French .\n* : A green sausage made of pork meat and cabbage and kale. Popular in the Belgian province of Walloon Brabant.\n* : with beetroot, spices, wine and beef or pork blood, in the French-speaking Aosta Valley of Italy;\n* \"Brown-rice \": Brown-rice is a less common variation made from brown rice with taste similar to traditional pork .\n* \"Crawfish \": Popular in Cajun cuisine, crawfish is made with the meat of crawfish tails added to rice. It is often served with cracklins (fried pig skins) and saltine crackers, hot sauce, and ice-cold beer.\n* \"Gator \": Made from alligator, gator can be found sporadically in Louisiana and the Mississippi gulf coast.\n* \"Shrimp \": Similar to crawfish , shrimp is made by adding the shrimp to rice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "While \"blood sausage\" in English is understood in Britain, the term is applied only to foreign usage (e.g., in the story \"The Name-Day\" by Saki), or to similar blood-based sausages elsewhere in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausage\n--Africa.\n--Americas.\n----North America.\n------Caribbean.\n------Central America.\n------Mexico.\n------United States.\n----Latin America.\n----South America.\n------Andean.\n------Argentina, Uruguay.\n------Brazil.\n------Chile.\n------Guianas.\n--Asia.\n----East Asia.\n------Hong Kong.\n------Korea.\n------Manchuria and China.\n------Mongolia.\n------Taiwan.\n------Tibet.\n----Southeast Asia.\n------Indonesia.\n------Malaysia.\n------Philippines.\n------Thailand.\n------Vietnam.\n----South Asia.\n------Nepal.\n------India.\n--Europe.\n----Central and Eastern Europe.\n----Northern Europe.\n------Denmark.\n------Estonia.\n------Finland.\n------Iceland.\n------Latvia.\n------Sweden.\n----Southern Europe.\n------Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia, Slovenia.\n------Italy.\n------Portugal.\n------Spain.\n----Western Europe.\n------Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg.\n------France and southern Belgium.\n------Germany and Austria.\n------United Kingdom and Ireland.\n----Symbol of Carnival.\n----Additional varieties.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Hong Kong, the dish closest to blood sausage is pig blood curd, which is only made from pig's blood and is not considered a sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mustamakkara",
        "text": "Mustamakkara () is a type of Finnish blood sausage traditionally eaten with lingonberry jam. It is nowadays available in many stores across Finland, but is held in the position of local delicacy and speciality of Tampere, Pirkanmaa. Mustamakkara is at its best when bought and eaten fresh at market stalls, to which it is delivered hot in styrofoam boxes from the factories directly after baking. A typical practice of reheating the sausage is to just fry it in a pan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "As in Europe, several varieties of blood sausage are also popular in Mexico, Newfoundland and Labrador and the southwest United States (moronga), Chile (prietas, \u00f1ache), Argentina, Uruguay, Cuba, and Puerto Rico (morcilla)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Northern Germany pig's blood used to be traditionally mixed with vinegar, scraps, spices and sugar to make schwarzsauer. It's eaten warm or preserved in jars. Changes in taste and lifestyle have made this an uncommon dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mortadella",
        "text": "Mortadella () is a large Italian sausage or luncheon meat (\"salume\" ) made of finely hashed or ground heat-cured pork, which incorporates at least 15% small cubes of pork fat (principally the hard fat from the neck of the pig). It is traditionally flavoured with black pepper grains, but modern versions can also contain pistachios or, more rarely, myrtle berries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chorip\u00e1n",
        "text": "A variant of \"chorip\u00e1n\" called \"morcip\u00e1n\", made with \"morcilla\" (blood sausage), is popular in the R\u00edo de la Plata region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In France and Wallonia (south Belgium) \"boudin noir\" is traditionally prepared in \"charcuteries\", shops that prepare mainly pork products (and sometimes duck and game), but also sell smoked and dried sausages, p\u00e2t\u00e9s, and terrines, along with prepared salads. It is usually called \"boudin noir\" and is often made with cream with apples or onions as a filler. It is generally served with either cooked apples, mashed potatoes or both, and is appreciated by combining either the apples or mashed potatoes with each bite of \"boudin\", which has been gently heated and browned in butter. In France also, there are many different regional \"Boudins Noirs\" such as the large \"Boudin du B\u00e9arn\" with pork meat pieces usually eaten cold. The French \"Confr\u00e9rie des Chevaliers du Go\u00fbte-Boudin\" (Brotherhood of the Knights of Blood Sausage Tasting) in Mortagne-au-Perche in southern Normandy holds an annual contest of international blood sausage specialities. Boudin is considered the emblematic staple of the French Foreign Legion, and gives its name to the Legion's anthem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Romania, the traditional \"s\u00e2ngerete\" (from \"s\u00e2nge\", \"blood\" in Romanian) is made from shoulder butt pork meat, pork blood and a filler such as pre-boiled rice seasoned with pepper, garlic and basil. It has many regional variants, but the most common are the \"s\u00e2ngerete\" from Transylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biroldo",
        "text": "Biroldo is a very dark, brownish-red, soft-textured Tuscan blood sausage about 4 inches (10\u00a0cm) wide, with lighter-coloured chunks of meat and fat in it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Europe and the Americas, typical fillers include meat, fat, suet, bread, cornmeal, onion, chestnuts, barley, oatmeal and buckwheat. On the Iberian Peninsula and in Latin America and Asia, fillers are often made with rice. Sweet variants with sugar, honey, orange peel and spices are also regional specialties."
      },
      {
        "title": "M\u00f6pkenbrot",
        "text": "M\u00f6pkenbrot, also spelled as m\u00f6ppkenbrot, is a type of cooked German sausage prepared using pork, grain, apples and raisins. Its preparation is similar to that of blood sausage. The main ingredients are bacon, pig masks (consisting of pig's head meat, rinds and skin), pork rind, pork blood, and grated rye or wheat flour. The ingredients are formed into a dough, which is then boiled, after which it is typically sliced and pan-fried. It is similar in appearance to black pudding, but it is prepared using fruit, which imbues a fruity flavor, and it is also prepared using a greater amount of flour compared to black pudding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "When prepared for serving, it is sliced and fried. The style of serving and accompaniments vary across the country, and it is not uncommon to have the \"blodpudding\" act as the meat in a meal. Nationally, the common way is to serve it with lingonberry jam, grated carrots and ice cold milk to drink. Fried bacon or pork side is also common. In Scania, the lingonberry jam is often replaced by finely sliced apples, fried along with the pork."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sundae, a form of blood sausage, is a traditional Korean sausage. A popular street food, sundae is normally prepared by steaming or boiling cow or pig intestines stuffed with various ingredients. The most common variation is composed of pork blood, cellophane noodle, sliced carrot and barley stuffed into pig intestines, but other regional variations include squid or Alaska pollock casings. Sundae is eaten plain with salt, in stews, or as part of a stir-fry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "There's also a candy called Papas de moado, which is prepared from pig's blood, flour, sugar, nuts and spices, mainly in the Mondego River region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood pudding",
        "text": "Blood pudding may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Most blood sausage dishes in Finland are often eaten with lingonberry jam to sweeten the taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood pudding",
        "text": "Blood pudding\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Other varieties of blood sausage include \"blodp\u00f8lse\" (Norway and Denmark), \"tongenworst\" (with added pigs tongues) (Netherlands), \"mazzit\" (Malta), \"krvavica\" (Balkans), \"krovianka\" (Russia and Ukraine), and \"v\u0117darai\" (Lithuania)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Mutura\" is a traditional blood sausage dish among the people of central Kenya, although recently its popularity has spread throughout Kenya. It is made with meat, blood, and spices all encased in the animal's intestines or stomach. In Kenya fillers include fresh minced goat, beef, and mutton, fat, and red onions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood tongue",
        "text": "Blood tongue, or Zungenwurst (translation tongue sausage), is a variety of German head cheese with blood. It is a large head cheese that is made with pig's blood, suet, bread crumbs and oatmeal with chunks of pickled beef tongue added. It has a slight resemblance to blood sausage. It is commonly sliced and browned in butter or bacon fat prior to consumption. It is sold in markets pre-cooked and its appearance is maroon to black in color."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the purpose of filling a sausage with blood?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you wanting to know the uses generally, or specifically to a type of blood sausage, such as those served in Japan, Korea, Scotland, Germany, or Poland?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know of them in general, and why blood is used in them."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Blood puddings are often considered to be one of the oldest forms of sausage. Animals are generally bled at slaughter, and as blood rapidly spoils unless prepared in some way, making a pudding with it is one of the easiest ways of ensuring it does not go to waste. As a product of the slaughtering process, eating black puddings was historically associated with Martinmas, when the annual slaughter of livestock took place."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is Martinmas?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Saint Martin's Day, also called the Feast of Saint Martin, Martinstag or Martinmas, as well as Old Halloween and Old Hallowmas Eve, is the feast day of Saint Martin of Tours and is celebrated on 11 November each year."
    ],
    "topic": "Blood sausage",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "St. Martin's Day:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "St. Martin's Day"
        ],
        "ctx": "Saint Martin's Day, also called the Feast of Saint Martin, Martinstag or Martinmas, as well as Old Halloween and Old Hallowmas Eve, is the feast day of Saint Martin of Tours and is celebrated on 11 November each year. The feast was widely seen as the preferred time for the butchering of \"Martinmas beef\" from prime, fattened cattle, geese, other livestock and the ending of the toil of autumn wheat seeding (sowing). Hiring fairs were more abundant than usual, where farm laborers could choose, or others had, to seek new posts."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's Day",
        "text": "Saint Martin's Day, also called the Feast of Saint Martin, Martinstag or Martinmas, as well as Old Halloween and Old Hallowmas Eve, is the feast day of Saint Martin of Tours and is celebrated on 11 November each year. The feast was widely seen as the preferred time for the butchering of \"Martinmas beef\" from prime, fattened cattle, geese, other livestock and the ending of the toil of autumn wheat seeding (sowing). Hiring fairs were more abundant than usual, where farm laborers could choose, or others had, to seek new posts."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's Day",
        "text": "In the agricultural calendar formerly used widely in Europe, the day marked natural winter's start, and in the economic calendar, the end of autumn. The feast coincides with the end of the Octave (liturgy) of All Saints and of harvest time. Much brewed beer and wine first becomes ready at this time, which sees the end of winter preparations, including the butchering of animals. (An old English saying, replicated in Galician as to piglets, is \"His Martinmas will come as it does to every hog,\" the word being a euphemism for slaughter). Because of this, the feast is much like the American Thanksgiving: a celebration of the earth's bounty to humans. Because it also comes before a penitential season, it became a minor time for feasting, dancing and bonfires. As at Michaelmas on 29 September, goose is eaten in most places. After one of these holidays, many women resumed work away from the fields for the winter, while male farm labourers would work in animal-driven sowing and then in the forest slaughter/butchering hogs, followed by moving into coppicing and felling trees, hunting, fishing and, most often with their families, tending any winter crops and animals."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's Day",
        "text": "In some parts of Ireland, on the eve of St. Martin's Day (\"L\u00e1 Fh\u00e9ile M\u00e1rtain\" in Irish), it was tradition to sacrifice a cockerel by bleeding it. The blood was collected and sprinkled on the four corners of the house. Also in Ireland, no wheel of any kind was to turn on St. Martin's Day, because Martin was said by some people to have been thrown into a mill stream and killed by the wheel and so it was not right to turn any kind of wheel on that day. A local legend in Co. Wexford says that putting to sea is to be avoided as St. Martin rides a white horse across Wexford Bay bringing death by drowning to any who see him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samhain",
        "text": "Traditionally, Samhain was a time to take stock of the herds and food supplies. Cattle were brought down to the winter pastures after six months in the higher summer pastures (see transhumance). It was also the time to choose which animals would be slaughtered. This custom is still observed by many who farm and raise livestock. It is thought that some of the rituals associated with the slaughter have been transferred to other winter holidays. On St. Martin's Day (11 November) in Ireland, an animal\u2014usually a rooster, goose or sheep\u2014would be slaughtered and some of its blood sprinkled on the threshold of the house. It was offered to Saint Martin, who may have taken the place of a god or gods, and it was then eaten as part of a feast. This custom was common in parts of Ireland until the 19th century, and was found in some other parts of Europe. At New Year in the Hebrides, a man dressed in a cowhide would circle the township sunwise. A bit of the hide would be burnt and everyone would breathe in the smoke. These customs were meant to keep away bad luck, and similar customs were found in other Celtic regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's Day",
        "text": "In Spain, St. Martin's Day is the traditional day for slaughtering fattened pigs for the winter. This tradition has given way to the popular saying \"\"A cada cerdo le llega su San Mart\u00edn\" from Galician \"A cada porqui\u00f1o ch\u00e9galle o seu San Marti\u00f1o\"\" , which translates as \"Every pig gets its St Martin.\" The phrase is used to indicate that wrongdoers eventually get their comeuppance. Saint Martin is widely celebrated in Galicia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Animal sacrifice",
        "text": "Some animal sacrifice or ritual slaughter continued among Celtic peoples long after they converted to Christianity. Until the 19th century, on St. Martin's Day (11 November) in rural Ireland a rooster, goose or sheep would be slaughtered and some of its blood sprinkled on the threshold of the house. It was offered to Saint Martin, and was eaten as part of a feast. Bull sacrifices at the time of the Lughnasa festival were recorded as late as the 18th century at Cois Fharraige in Ireland (where they were offered to Crom Dubh) and at Loch Maree in Scotland (where they were offered to Saint M\u00e1el Ruba)."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's Day",
        "text": "The goose became a symbol of the saint due to a legend that, when trying to avoid being ordained bishop he hid in a pen of geese whose cackling gave him away. Once a key medieval autumn feast, a custom of eating goose on the day spread to Sweden from France. It was primarily observed by the craftsmen and noblemen of the towns. In the peasant community, not everyone could afford this, so many ate duck or hen instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's Day",
        "text": "Martlemass beef was from cattle slaughtered at Martinmas and salted or otherwise preserved for the winter. The archaic term \"St. Martin's Summer\" in all but a few villages is a folklore of a brief warm spell common around the date (see Sicily, below). The more prevalent term, that originated in and is shared with the US, is an Indian summer."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's Day",
        "text": "Its celebration has remained a tradition mainly in the Swiss Catholic region of the Ajoie in the canton of Jura. The traditional gargantuan feast, the \"Repas du Saint Martin\", includes all the parts of freshly butchered pigs, accompanied by shots of Damassine, and lasting for at least 5 hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's Day",
        "text": "St. Martin's Day (\"M\u00e5rtensafton\") was an important medieval autumn feast, and the custom of eating goose spread to Sweden from France. In early November, geese are ready for slaughter, and on St. Martin's Eve (M\u00e5rtensafton), 10 November, it is time for the traditional dinner of roast goose. The custom is particularly popular in Scania in southern Sweden, where goose farming has long been practised, but it has gradually spread northwards. A proper goose dinner also includes svartsoppa (a heavily spiced soup made from geese blood) and apple charlotte."
      },
      {
        "title": "Martin of Tours",
        "text": "On St. Martin's Day, children in Flanders, the southern and northern parts of the Netherlands, and the Catholic areas of Germany and Austria still participate in paper lantern processions. Often, a man dressed as St. Martin rides on a horse in front of the procession. The children sing songs about St. Martin and about their lanterns. The food traditionally eaten on the day is goose, a rich bird. According to legend, Martin was reluctant to become bishop, which is why he hid in a stable filled with geese. The noise made by the geese betrayed his location to the people who were looking for him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Refrontolo",
        "text": "It was a pig, donated by a devotee, who soon became accustomed to going around the houses of the village, where it received the \"lavadura\". It was then killed on the day of Saint Anthony, January 17, put up for auction, and the proceeds donated to the poorest or to charitable works."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pig slaughter",
        "text": "In Slovakia, the pig slaughter (\"zab\u00edja\u010dka\", \"zak\u00e1\u013ea\u010dka\", \"brav\u010dovina\", \"svinsk\u00fd kar\", \"karmina\") was an essential part of the winter traditions from early medieval times. The pig slaughter was considered an important event in village society and an opportunity for families to get together. According to Katar\u00edna N\u00e1dask\u00e1 of the Department of Ethnology and Cultural Anthropology at Comenius University in Bratislava, the traditional period for pig slaughters usually started on 21 December, the feast day of St. Thomas. There was a special magical importance attached to the date and farmers believed that the meat of a pig slaughtered on St. Thomas Day would last longer. A second traditional pig slaughtering period began around Mardi Gras."
      },
      {
        "title": "Martin Dumollard",
        "text": "At 6:45, Dumollard was asked to use the horseback to go to the scaffold 150 meters away, which he refused. Accompanied by Father B\u00e9roud, the parish priest Carrel and the executioners, and in front of a crowd of 5,000, Dumollard walked on foot to Bourgeat Square (now Place Carnot) where a scaffold was installed, on which he kneeled and kissed the crucifix presented. He was executed around 7 o'clock in the morning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Winterborne St Martin",
        "text": "In 1268 Henry II granted a charter to Winterborne St Martin, which allowed the village to hold an annual fair within five days of St. Martin's Day. The fair, which in times past was a leading horse market and amusement fair, had been revived but the old-time custom of roasting a ram was replaced once during an event in the 1960s with a 'badger roast'. The 80\u00a0lb badger was caught in a snare and many villagers thought they were eating goose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wayzgoose",
        "text": "The paper windows were fitted on St. Martin's Day (11 November). Just as the saint had supposedly cut his cloak in half to share with a beggar during a snowstorm, so yeoman farmers would give offcuts of the windows to the poor, to help them keep warm during the coming winter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ajoie",
        "text": "The inhabitants are mainly Roman Catholic. Each year on St. Martin's Day they enjoy a substantial banquet lasting for many hours, and composed of all the various cuts of freshly butchered pigs, together with regional wines and shots of damassine, the regional AOC eau de vie."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's Day",
        "text": "Leite de Vasconcelos regarded the \"magusto\" as the vestige of an ancient sacrifice to honor the dead and stated that it was tradition in Barqueiros to prepare, at midnight, a table with chestnuts for the deceased family members to eat. The people also mask their faces with the dark wood ashes from the bonfire."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's Day",
        "text": "This holiday feast-day originated in France, then spread to the Low Countries, the British Isles, Galicia, Germany, Scandinavia, and Eastern Europe. Akin to \u201cChristmas\u201d, Martinmas (or Martinmass, Martin-mass) is the day when Martin is honoured in the Mass. Its feast and meat-permitted day celebrates the end of the agrarian year, the main annual harvest. Saint Martin was known as friend of the children and patron of the poor."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Bartholomew's Day massacre",
        "text": "Compounding this bad feeling was the fact that the harvests had been poor and taxes had risen. The rise in food prices and the luxury displayed on the occasion of the royal wedding increased tensions among the common people. A particular point of tension was an open-air cross erected on the site of the house of Philippe de Gastines, a Huguenot who had been executed in 1569. The mob had torn down his house and erected a large wooden cross on a stone base. Under the terms of the peace, and after considerable popular resistance, this had been removed in December 1571 (and re-erected in a cemetery), which had already led to about 50 deaths in riots, as well as mob destruction of property. In the massacres of August, the relatives of the Gastines family were among the first to be killed by the mob."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's Day",
        "text": "A widespread custom in Germany is bonfires on St. Martin's eve, called \"Martinsfeuer\". In recent years, the processions that accompany those fires have been spread over almost a fortnight before Martinmas (\"Martinstag\"). At one time, the Rhine River valley would be lined with fires on the eve of Martinmas. In the Rhineland, Martin's day is celebrated traditionally with a get-together during which a roasted suckling pig is shared with the neighbours."
      },
      {
        "title": "St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in the Provinces",
        "text": "Bourges received news of the massacre on the 27th, by which time many of the town's Huguenots, including Fran\u00e7ois Hotman had already fled the town due to the earlier news of the assassination attempt on Gaspard II de Coligny. The town's mayor Jean Joupitre was keen to act on the massacre to eliminate the Huguenots of Bourges, but the municipal officers of the town were more sceptical, and keen to wait for confirmation or denial of the orders to kill Huguenots from the king. As such for the moment the Huguenots were confined to the prisons of the town. On the 30th the impasse broke and the Huguenots in the prison were killed."
      },
      {
        "title": "September Massacres",
        "text": "Late in the afternoon, they went to Tour Saint-Bernard (belonging to a confiscated monastery Coll\u00e8ge des Bernardins, located in the Sansculotte district) where forgers of assignats were jailed. (Almost all of them were locked up in the previous three months.) The pattern of semi-formal executions followed by the popular tribunals was for condemned prisoners to be ordered \"transferred\" and then taken into the prison courtyard where they would be cut down. One man was released after he was recognized as a thief. The participants in the killing received bread, wine and cheese, and some money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Martin of Tours",
        "text": "In Portugal, where the saint's day is celebrated across the country, it is common for families and friends to gather around the fire in reunions called \"magustos\", where they typically eat roasted chestnuts and drink wine, \"jeropiga\" (a drink made of grape must and aguardente) and \"aguap\u00e9\" (a sort of weak and watered-down wine). According to the most widespread variation of the cloak story, Saint Martin cut off half of his cloak in order to offer it to a beggar and along the way, he gave the remaining part to a second beggar. As he faced a long ride in a freezing weather, the dark clouds cleared away and the sun shone so intensely that the frost melted away. Such weather was rare for early November, so was credited to God's intervention. The phenomenon of a sunny break to the chilly weather on Saint Martin's Day (11 November) is called \"Ver\u00e3o de S\u00e3o Martinho\" (Saint Martin's Summer, \"veranillo de san Mart\u00edn\" in Spanish) in honor of the cloak legend."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Ceredigion",
        "text": "Sheila Barry recounts the keeping of pigs on Penrallt Farm, Llangranog shortly after World War II. The pigs would be killed during cold weather to keep the meat fresh. Barry recounts that the farm would kill two pigs a year with the first pig being killed in November, or the first week of December. If the pig was killed later than this then the task would overlap with the work of preparing poultry for the Christmas market. The second pig would be killed in early March. The fat from the pig would be rendered into lard which was clarified and stored in large, glazed earthenware jars for use in pastry and for roasting. Barry comments that the lard would keep for years, if covered and stored in a cool dairy. However, the lean meat would need to be eaten within ten days and the custom would be to give packs of meat to neighbours who would reciprocate when their pig was killed. The offal would be used to make brawn and faggots. After being hung for three days the rest of the pig would be cut into sections and salted to make bacon, with the salt being rubbed into the flesh twice a day for three or four weeks. Each bacon joint was then wrapped in fine muslin and hung from hooks in the ceiling of the living room to mature. Barry recalls that the practice ceased on the farm around 1953 as farms became more commercialised."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's Day",
        "text": "Saint Martin of Tours was a Roman soldier who was baptised as an adult and became a bishop in a French town. The most notable of his saintly acts was when he had cut his cloak in half to share with a beggar during a snowstorm, to save him from the cold. That same night he dreamed of Jesus wearing the half-cloak and saying to the angels, \"Here is Martin, the Roman soldier who is now baptised; he has clothed me.\" Saint Martin died on 8 November 397, and was buried three days later."
      },
      {
        "title": "St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in the Provinces",
        "text": "However, this does not absolve Charles from all responsibility and it appears he initially sent verbal orders to Lyon and Bordeaux among others. Their nature can be deduced from the letter of 2 September from Fran\u00e7ois de Mandelot, Governor of Lyon, announcing he had arrested the Huguenots and seized their property. Once he had cooled, he countermanded all verbal orders he had sent out. It is thus clear then that the orders did not contain instructions to commit a massacre. His vacillations did not end there however; when Vaucluse approached him at a public banquet and attempted to clarify whether his orders included killing, Charles asked him to return the following morning to his chambers, where he told him in private that Huguenots in Provence should be spared. This suggests those who wanted to extend the killings into the provinces included the hardline Catholic extremist nobles who were present at the banquet and whom Charles was uncomfortable at speaking against in public."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slaying of the Spaniards",
        "text": "On 13 October Martin and the other 17 of his group were killed at \u00c6\u00f0ey and Sandeyri in \u00cdsafjar\u00f0ardj\u00fap, while they were fishing, by the troops commanded by Ari Magn\u00fasson."
      },
      {
        "title": "St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in the Provinces",
        "text": "This uneasy peace was broken on 17 September when, a mob, under the leadership of Laurent de Maromme who had prior been involved in the massacre of Bondeville and the curate of the St Pierre church Montereul seized the city. They locked the gates and then first stormed the various prisons where the Huguenots were being kept, killing them all, and after having completed that devolved into breaking into houses searching for stragglers and looting for the next 4 days before order was restored. The bodies were buried in rudimentary mass graves in the ditches of Porte Cauchoise. The 300-400 victims of the massacre were of generally humbler origins than in other cities, the rich Huguenots having been able to leave, or able to buy off their attackers."
      },
      {
        "title": "St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in the Provinces",
        "text": "Belin finds a willing collaborator in his plan in de Vaudrey who had long been an enemy of the Huguenots. They set about organising the murder of those in the prisons. The massacre would be smaller than in many other towns, with only 43 Huguenots killed in total. To do the work they employ prison guards, the executioner having refused to be involved, several other Huguenots being killed in the streets by angry Catholics. The massacre would begin on 4 September with each called up from their cell to be dispatched one at a time. After killing 36 in the prison they would spend the next few days searching for those that might be hiding around the town."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Tribute of the Three Cows",
        "text": "At about 10 o'clock in the morning of 13 July, the representatives of Roncal \u2014styling their traditional garment consisting of a short black cloak, doublet, breeches, broad linen collar, and a hat\u2014 gather on the Spanish side of boundary marker no.262, which substitutes the traditional \"pierre de St Martin\" (lost since 1858). The boundary marker is at the summit of the Col de la Pierre St Martin, 1721m high. The representatives of Bar\u00e9tous, dressed on Sunday clothes and holding the tricolour French flag, approach the boundary marker from the French side. Traditionally, the mayor of Isaba would hold a pike against the Bar\u00e9tous representatives, and these would also be held at gunpoint by the rest of representatives of Roncal; this custom was dropped in the late 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in the Provinces",
        "text": "Orl\u00e9ans received news of the massacre the same day as Bourges on the 27th. The preacher Sorbin whipped up the population, urging them to follow the example of Paris in a letter he wrote from the city. Popular bands formed to orchestrate the killings. The first victim was to be a royal conseiller Champeaux who was cut down in his home by a band under Tessier La Court on Monday. It was not until the following day that the massacre became general, as the ramparts neighbourhood was systematically assaulted. The violence would continue for 4 days with a myriad of small bands breaking down doors, sometimes demanding money in return for sparing the occupants, but always going back on their word if money was delivered to kill them anyway. Occasionally on their rounds they stopped off at taverns, narrating the slaughters they committed during the day to the patrons as they ate. The massacre would be the bloodiest in France, with 1000 killed from a population of only 50,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in the Provinces",
        "text": "Although Calvinist historians were aware of these instructions, they suggested they were simply a cunning charade to disguise his true orders to his governors, which would be delivered orally. There is little evidence for this assertion, since the councillors of Rouen were rebuked by the king for failing to keep the peace, and after the massacre in Lyon in September local officials critiqued it in their correspondence with the king, fearing his disapproval. Indeed, by the end of September they had removed their prior endorsement of the massacre, to bring themselves into line with royal policy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strigoi",
        "text": "\"The Dracula Scrapbook\" by Peter Haining, published by New English Library editions in 1976, reported that the meat of a pig killed on the 17 October, the feast day of Saint Ignatius, was a good way to guard against vampires, according to Romanian legend."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Bartholomew's Day massacre",
        "text": "One historian puts forward an analysis of the massacre in terms of social anthropology \u2013 the religious historian Bruce Lincoln. He describes how the religious divide, which gave the Huguenots different patterns of dress, eating and pastimes, as well as the obvious differences of religion and (very often) class, had become a social schism or cleavage. The rituals around the royal marriage had only intensified this cleavage, contrary to its intentions, and the \"sentiments of estrangement \u2013 radical otherness \u2013 [had come] to prevail over sentiments of affinity between Catholics and Protestants\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in the Provinces",
        "text": "Toulouse like much of the south received the news fairly late. Upon doing so the provincial Parlement and city magistrates tried to keep order, fearful of the consequences of any unrest. The Huguenots were arrested for their own protection as they had been in many towns. On 3 October having heard from some recently arrived envoys that the massacre of the Huguenots was the king's will, an angry mob broke into the prisons and massacred those inside, including 3 Protestant judges of the Parlement. In total around 200-300 were killed in these attacks. The Parlement meanwhile, following the lead of these envoys, sent orders to massacre out into the surrounding regions under the Parlement's authority, including the town of Gaillac."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caristia",
        "text": "In the first half of the 6th century, some Gallo-Romans still observed a form of the holiday with food offerings to the dead and a ritual meal. By then, however, the practice had come under suspicion as a \"pagan\" ritual, and the Council of Tours in 567 explicitly censured those who \"defiled\" the feast day of St. Peter. The observances were condemned by Caesarius of Arles as an excuse for drunkenness, dancing, singing, and other demonic behaviors. The suppression of traditional commemorations of the dead were part of increasing efforts by the Church to control and monopolize religious behaviors in Merovingian Gaul."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's croissant",
        "text": "This tradition dates back to pagan times, when during the autumn feast the gods were offered sacrifices of oxen or, as a substitute, of dough rolled up in oxen horns. The Latin Church has taken over this custom and linked it to the figure of St Martin. The shape of the dough was interpreted as a reference to the horseshoe that the holy horse was to lose."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's Day",
        "text": "Feasts, balls and fairs were regular in Hungary on this day. At such times, great eating and drinking was arranged so that there would be plenty to eat next year as well. Belief that still strongly belongs to this day: \"He who does not eat a goose on Martin's day will starve all year round.\" Martin's Day foods are typically goose dishes, such as goose soup with goose roast with braised red cabbage and potato dumplings. There are beliefs about the weather based on the weather on Martin's day: \"On St. Martin's Day, if the goose walks on ice, it will toddle in water at Christmas.\" So it is believed that if the temperature falls below freezing point on Martin's day, Christmas will not be white."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerejais (Alf\u00e2ndega da F\u00e9)",
        "text": "- 'Matanca do porco' (killing of the pig) now less common in small villages due to stricter sanitary rules. Traditionally, every family would kill their pig at the start of winter, making this a day of social gathering, abundance of food (including 'rojoes') and celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicholas Garlick",
        "text": "On 24 July 1588, the three priests were placed on hurdles and drawn to St Mary's Bridge, where the executions were to be carried out. Garlick remained witty and cheerful to the end. A passer-by reminded him that they had often gone shooting together, to which Garlick replied, \"True, but now I am to shoot off such a shot as I never shot in all my life\". When they arrived at the bridge, the cauldron was not ready for burning the entrails. According to Sweeney, \"[t]his sort of bungling was frequent in provincial executions; the local men were amateurs, unversed in the ritual of butchery.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Laternelaufen",
        "text": "Legend has it that St. Martin, a soldier, gave a beggar the half of his soldier's coat to protect the man from freezing to death. Afterwards St. Martin became a bishop in order to help poor people. While this story is commonly known among German children and told in connection with this tradition, it does not explain the custom of promenading along the streets with lanterns. Several reasons why it is done this way can be found (s. Origin of the Tradition)."
      },
      {
        "title": "St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in the Provinces",
        "text": "In traditional scholarship, the provincial massacres were assumed to be part of a centrally planned scheme to eliminate all Huguenots. This meant explaining why they occurred in some towns but not others was taken to be a factor of which governors had followed orders and which had not. Since the lack of orders from Charles means this theory has now been rejected, explaining what made a town likely to have a massacre has become more difficult."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Tribute of the Three Cows",
        "text": "The first major interruption of the Tribute ceremony took place during the War of the Convention that started in 1793 between France and Spain. Due to the presence of troops in the Pyrenean mountain passes, the representatives of Aramits were prevented from climbing to the \"Col of la Pierre St Martin\", so they instead took the cows all the way to Isaba the following month, leaving the cows in Isaba's main square on 17 August 1793."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Bartholomew's Day massacre",
        "text": "Shortly after this decision, the municipal authorities of Paris were summoned. They were ordered to shut the city gates and arm the citizenry to prevent any attempt at a Protestant uprising. The king's Swiss mercenaries were given the task of killing a list of leading Protestants. It is difficult today to determine the exact chronology of events, or to know the precise moment the killing began. It seems probable that a signal was given by ringing bells for matins (between midnight and dawn) at the church of Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois, near the Louvre, which was the parish church of the kings of France. The Swiss mercenaries expelled the Protestant nobles from the Louvre castle and then slaughtered them in the streets."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Bartholomew's Day massacre",
        "text": "Holt, notable for re-emphasising the importance of religious issues, as opposed to political/dynastic power struggles or socio-economic tensions, in explaining the French Wars of Religion, also re-emphasised the role of religion in the St Bartholomew's Day Massacre. He noted that the extra violence inflicted on many of the corpses \"was not random at all, but patterned after the rites of the Catholic culture that had given birth to it\". \"Many Protestant houses were burned, invoking the traditional purification by fire of all heretics. Many victims were also thrown into the Seine, invoking the purification by water of Catholic baptism\". Viewed as a threat to the social and political order, Holt argues that \"Huguenots not only had to be exterminated \u2013 that is, killed \u2013 they also had to be humiliated, dishonoured, and shamed as the inhuman beasts they were perceived to be.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Bartholomew's Day massacre",
        "text": "The massacre began in the night of 23\u201324 August 1572 (the eve of the feast of Bartholomew the Apostle), two days after the attempted assassination of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, the military and political leader of the Huguenots. King Charles IX ordered the killing of a group of Huguenot leaders, including Coligny, and the slaughter spread throughout Paris. Lasting several weeks, the massacre expanded outward to the countryside and other urban centres. Modern estimates for the number of dead across France vary widely, from 5,000 to 30,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Edward Bonsor Saint Martin",
        "text": "Another of the local spectacles in which Bonsor took delight was , an old tradition often associated with bull-fighting, though purists insist that the two ritualised events have nothing in common beyond the involvement of bulls, and some of the bull-related perils for the young men involved. Bonsor also enjoyed watching groups of young people returning from the fields at around sunset, climbing the twisting hill road in their white shirts and blouses towards the town, with brightly coloured scarves fixed across their chests, still wearing the palm-leaf hats characteristic of the locality, which had protected them from the sun's heat during the day, and leading donkeys laden with children and whatever produce from the fields they had gathered. What he liked best about it was watching the boy who went at the front of each group, blowing a sound on a large sea shell in order to announce their approach."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Tribute of the Three Cows",
        "text": "The Treaty of Bayonne of 1856 established the modern border between France and Spain, and was aimed at solving the proverbial problems surrounding the grazing grounds in the Pyrenees. As a result of this treaty, the \"pierre de St Martin\" (the traditional boundary marker around which the ceremony had taken place since 1375) was removed and substituted by a simple boundary marker, around which the ceremony takes place ever since."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bull running",
        "text": "Walsh observed that the bull running that took place in November occurred in the calendar around Martinmas, which \"traditionally marked the slaughtering time for the beef, swine and geese not being maintained through the winter on stored feed.\" During the Anglo-Saxon period, November was called \"Bl\u014dtm\u014dna\u00fe\" (\"sacrifice month\") or \"Bl\u014ddm\u014dna\u00fe\" (\"blood month\"). Langeslag cautions: \"Whether the [Anglo-Saxons'] slaughter was accompanied by a celebration, and whether such a celebration would have been secular or religious, is not known, although a twelfth-century reader of Bede gave the month name the explanation 'because this is when they offered the cattle to be killed to their gods'. Whether this should be read as speculation or report, it is certain that the necessary conditions for a gathering, secular or religious, were in place at this time of year.\" William Fitzstephen, writing in 1173, indicates that, in London at least, the animals to be slaughtered were often first used for sport: \"[T]he youth are entertained in a morning with boars fighting to the last gasp, as likewise with hogs full tusked, intended to be converted into bacon; or game-bulls, and bears of a large bulk, are baited with dogs.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in the Provinces",
        "text": "Some Protestants escaped the massacre by fleeing to nearby Montluel a town under the Duke of Savoy's dominion. Others hid in the city, having not attended the meeting Mandelot organised. Two consuls opposed the decision of their colleagues in endorsing the massacre on 18 September, the sieur de Combellande and the sieur d\u2019Aveyne, who lodged a written protest. The consulate would itself renounce the massacre by the end of September as the kings position became more clear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint-Martin-au-Val Sanctuary",
        "text": "By the 3rd century, the religious purpose of the sanctuary had changed. A large recovery pit outside the north-eastern corner pavilion was the burial site of more than one hundred bodies between 270 and 280 CE, thought to have died in an epidemic. People of all ages were buried along with domestic artifacts like game tokens, dishes, ornaments, and pottery, as well as with animal remains."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greding",
        "text": "To the left of St Martin's Church in the cellar of the former Michael's Chapel, dating from the early 12th century, is a so-called Charnel House. This was first used in the 14th century to store the bones of the dead as the graveyard itself became too full. The bones of about 2500 corpses can be seen behind an iron grille."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jos\u00e9 de San Mart\u00edn",
        "text": "San Mart\u00edn's horse was killed during the battle, and his leg was trapped under the corpse of the animal after the fall. A royalist, probably Zabala himself, attempted to kill San Mart\u00edn while he was trapped under his dead horse where he suffered a saber injury to his face, and a bullet wound to his arm. Juan Bautista Cabral and Juan Bautista Baigorria of San Mart\u00edn's regiment intervened and saved his life; Cabral was mortally wounded, and died shortly afterwards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Angers",
        "text": "When the news of the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre reached Angers, another massacre took place in the city. The bodies of slain Protestants were thrown into the Mayenne. It was the aldermen who stopped the slaughter."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's Day",
        "text": "In Slovakia, the feast day is a celebration for those named Martin/Martina; small presents or money are common gifts. Folklore says it snows on the day then St. Martin came on a white horse; it will snow on Christmas day, mutatis mutandis as to a dark horse, if not."
      },
      {
        "title": "St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in the Provinces",
        "text": "The St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in the Provinces refers to a series of killings that took place in towns across France between August and October 1572. A reaction to news of the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre in Paris, total deaths are estimated as between 3,000 to 5,000, roughly equivalent to those incurred in Paris. These events severely impacted Huguenot communities outside their strongholds in Southern France; the deaths combined with fear and distrust of Catholic intentions resulted in a large wave of conversions, while many others went into exile."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arnaud Amalric",
        "text": "...while discussions were still going on with the barons about the release of those in the city who were deemed to be Catholics, the servants and other persons of low rank and unarmed attacked the city without waiting for orders from their leaders. To our amazement, crying \"to arms, to arms!\", within the space of two or three hours they crossed the ditches and the walls and B\u00e9ziers was taken. Our men spared no one, irrespective of rank, sex or age, and put to the sword almost 20,000 people. After this great slaughter the whole city was despoiled and burnt..."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sennen",
        "text": "On the old Christmas Day in the 1830s (and before) the farmers of St Sennen assembled for the festivities. One of the dishes was a pie made from 24 blackbirds. At midnight the young men went out to see the \u2018cattle kneel\u2019 and on their return they threw rushes onto the fire. The number of crackles, or the particular form assumed, told the fortunes of those who threw them into the fire."
      },
      {
        "title": "St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in the Provinces",
        "text": "Responsibility was traditionally placed on Charles IX himself, who was alleged to have provided secret orders for the extermination of the Huguenots to municipal governors. However lack of direct evidence for this means historians now view the massacres as driven by zealous Catholics within provincial administrations or the court, who either knowingly or unknowingly deceived themselves as to the Kings wishes regarding the fate of the Huguenots."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Bartholomew's Day massacre",
        "text": "Among the slain were the philosopher Petrus Ramus, and in Lyon the composer Claude Goudimel. The corpses floating down the Rh\u00f4ne from Lyon are said to have put the people of Arles off drinking the water for three months."
      },
      {
        "title": "La Fert\u00e9 Mac\u00e9",
        "text": "In 1386, a criminal trial in Falaise sentenced to death a special assassin: a pig who had eaten the infant of the mason Souvet in the village. This was common in the Middle Ages, where several excommunications of murderous pigs were reported for the city of Rouen alone and their hanging for similar reasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Piti\u00e9-Salp\u00eatri\u00e8re Hospital",
        "text": "During the September massacres of 1792, the Salp\u00eatri\u00e8re was stormed on the night of 3/4 September by a mob from the impoverished working-class district of the Faubourg Saint-Marcel, with the avowed intention of releasing the detained prisoners: 134 of the prostitutes were released; twenty-five madwomen were less fortunate and were dragged, some still in their chains, into the streets and murdered."
      },
      {
        "title": "M\u0101rti\u0146i",
        "text": "The holiday has already acquired its name before the 16th century, during which happened the reformation of churches by Livonian Order's sacred memorial day in honor of a Roman soldier Martin (\"Martinus\"), who sat on the horse, offering his cloak to a poor man suffering from coldness. Then he learned through dreams, that it was Jesus himself. Christian legend tells, that Martin did not want to become a bishop and hid away in the poultry barn, however, the local church nationals meanwhile walked around and they discovered him because of poultry's noisiness. Therefore, the Latvian M\u0101rti\u0146i beliefs and predictions are not only associated with horses and clothes, but also with poultry slaughter and Children of M\u0101rti\u0146i march."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's Day",
        "text": "A feast is celebrated in the village of Ba\u0127rija on the outskirts of Rabat, including a procession led by the statue of Saint Martin. There is also a fair, and a show for local animals. San Anton School, a private school on the island, organises a walk to and from a cave especially associated with Martin in remembrance of the day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Schlachteplatte",
        "text": "Originally these slaughtering days took place mainly in the autumn. This meant that not so many animals had to be fed over the winter, the meat could be preserved for longer in the cooler temperatures and the farmers had more time after the last harvest for turning it into ham and sausages which could then be smoked over the winter hearth fire."
      },
      {
        "title": "St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in the Provinces",
        "text": "Saumar and Angers were largely instigated into massacre by the work of one man. Monsereau, a deputy of governor Puyguillard who travelled from the capital to execute the orders of Puyguillard and his superior Henri, Duke of Anjou. He entered Angers on 29 August and made his way to the house of seigneur du Barbei, Cond\u00e9s lieutenant in the area. Du Barbei was however, not present in the town, so Monsoreau contented himself with executing his brother. Then he went to the house of the town's Huguenot minister, invited into the garden by the minister's wife he announced his orders 'from the king' to the minister, and, after allowing him a final prayer, shot him. He continued in this fashion house to house, after a few hours, a crowd, getting wind of what he was doing decided to join in, and for a few hours there was a general massacre, before the authorities were able to clamp down on it. Monsereau then moved on to Saumar to repeat this pattern. Puyguillard followed to Angers, unsatisfied with his partial work in the towns, however he was more easily bribed into looking the other way by the town's remaining Huguenots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caedite eos. Novit enim Dominus qui sunt eius.",
        "text": "While discussions were still going on with the barons about the release of those in the city who were deemed to be Catholics, the servants and other persons of low rank and unarmed attacked the city without waiting for orders from their leaders. To our amazement, crying \"to arms, to arms!\", within the space of two or three hours they crossed the ditches and the walls and B\u00e9ziers was taken. Our men spared no one, irrespective of rank, sex or age, and put to the sword almost 20,000 people. After this great slaughter the whole city was despoiled and burnt\u00a0..."
      },
      {
        "title": "Huguenots",
        "text": "In what became known as the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre of 24 August \u2013 3 October 1572, Catholics killed thousands of Huguenots in Paris and similar massacres took place in other towns in the following weeks. The main provincial towns and cities experiencing massacres were Aix, Bordeaux, Bourges, Lyons, Meaux, Orl\u00e9ans, Rouen, Toulouse, and Troyes."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Bartholomew's Day massacre",
        "text": "On hearing of the slaughter, Philip II of Spain supposedly \"laughed, for almost the only time on record\". In Paris, the poet Jean-Antoine de Ba\u00eff, founder of the \"Academie de Musique et de Po\u00e9sie\", wrote a sonnet extravagantly praising the killings. On the other hand, the Holy Roman Emperor, Maximilian II, King Charles's father-in-law, was sickened, describing the massacre as a \"shameful bloodbath\". Moderate French Catholics also began to wonder whether religious uniformity was worth the price of such bloodshed and the ranks of the Politiques began to swell."
      },
      {
        "title": "St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in the Provinces",
        "text": "Popular fury also plays a key part in explaining responsibility, as in towns such as Rouen and Lyon, where the governors did not wish to lead a massacre, and instead, the prisons where they were keeping the Huguenots in protective custody were broken into by angry mobs, who then set about killing all the Huguenots inside."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Bartholomew's Day massacre",
        "text": "In several cases the Catholic party in the city believed they had received orders from the king to begin the massacre, some conveyed by visitors to the city, and in other cases apparently coming from a local nobleman or his agent. It seems unlikely any such orders came from the king, although the Guise faction may have desired the massacres. Apparently genuine letters from the Duke of Anjou, the king's younger brother, did urge massacres in the king's name; in Nantes the mayor fortunately held on to his without publicising it until a week later when contrary orders from the king had arrived. In some cities the massacres were led by the mob, while the city authorities tried to suppress them, and in others small groups of soldiers and officials began rounding up Protestants with little mob involvement. In Bordeaux the inflammatory sermon on September 29 of a Jesuit, Edmond Auger, encouraged the massacre that was to occur a few days later."
      },
      {
        "title": "St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in the Provinces",
        "text": "In the days following the massacre, many of these nobles would write back to their respective provinces, insinuating that it was the kings wish that the Huguenots be eliminated throughout France. This includes the Duke of Anjou who instructed his subordinate as related to Saumar and Angers, the Duke of Montpensier who wrote a letter to Nantes, instructing them to kill their Huguenot population and the Duke of Nevers who personally led troops in the massacre of La Charit\u00e9. Many other hardline local representatives of towns, who had been to Paris on official business, likewise reported back that the king desired a massacre, as happened with Belin in Troyes and with Rubys in Lyon."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Bartholomew's Day massacre",
        "text": "However Raymond Mentzer points out that Protestants \"could be as bloodthirsty as Catholics. Earlier Huguenot rage at Nimes (in 1567) led to... the massacre of twenty-four Catholics, mostly priests and prominent laymen, at the hands of their Protestant neighbours. Few towns escaped the episodic violence and some suffered repeatedly from both sides. Neither faith had a monopoly on cruelty and misguided fervour\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Bartholomew's Day massacre",
        "text": "The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre () in 1572 was a targeted group of assassinations and a wave of Catholic mob violence, directed against the Huguenots (French Calvinist Protestants) during the French Wars of Religion. Traditionally believed to have been instigated by Queen Catherine de' Medici, the mother of King Charles IX, the massacre took place a few days after the wedding day (18 August) of the king's sister Margaret to the Protestant Henry of Navarre (the future Henry IV of France). Many of the wealthiest and most prominent Huguenots had gathered in largely Catholic Paris to attend the wedding."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Bartholomew's Day massacre",
        "text": "The Politiques, those Catholics who placed national unity above sectarian interests, were horrified, but many Catholics inside and outside France initially regarded the massacres as deliverance from an imminent Huguenot coup d'etat. The severed head of Coligny was apparently dispatched to Pope Gregory XIII, though it got no further than Lyon, and the pope sent the king a Golden Rose. The pope ordered a Te Deum to be sung as a special thanksgiving (a practice continued for many years after) and had a medal struck with the motto \"Ugonottorum strages 1572\" (Latin: \"Overthrow (or slaughter) of the Huguenots 1572\") showing an angel bearing a cross and a sword before which are the felled Protestants."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Bartholomew's Day massacre",
        "text": "Traditional histories have tended to focus more on the roles of the political notables whose machinations began the massacre than the mindset of those who actually did the killing. Ordinary lay Catholics were involved in the mass killings; they believed they were executing the wishes of the king and of God. At this time, in an age before mass media, \"the pulpit remained probably the most effective means of mass communication\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint George's Day (Spain)",
        "text": "This is primarily the legend popular all over Catalonia, Spain. In Montblanc \u2013 the region's name changes depending on the person asked \u2013 there was a dragon attacking the kingdom. Scared to death, the inhabitants decided to give two lambs every day to the dragon to satisfy its hunger and prevent attack on the village. But when the animals became scarce it was decided to send a person, chosen by drawing lots, and a lamb. When a family member was devoured by the dragon, the family received a rich compensation from the Kingdom's Treasury."
      },
      {
        "title": "Capture of Saint Martin (1633)",
        "text": "The Spanish ships now began bombarding the fort, allowing them to disembark troops, although seven sailors died in the process. By 2:00 A.M on 25th, 1,000 troops were ashore but the thick undergrowth meant they did not reach the fort until the next day, while suffering a number of deaths from heat exhaustion. Although de Hoces was badly wounded in one of the first exchanges of fire, the Spanish landed four heavier guns which began firing on the fort from close range."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cauterets",
        "text": "In the 12th century, a conflict arose between the inhabitants of Lavedan and those of the Aspe Valley for a theft of livestock; the result was the death of several Aspe people. The Bishop of Comminges, Bertrand excommunicated the Bigorre people who were repentant. They were sentenced to life imprisonment and to pay a yearly fine on the day of Saint Michel in the Church of Saint-Savin. It was regularly paid until 1789, and it was known as the \"tribut des M\u00e9dailles\" [tribute of the medals]."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jos\u00e9 de San Mart\u00edn",
        "text": "The whole operation took nearly a month. The armies took dried food for the soldiers and fodder for the horses, because of the inhospitable conditions. They also consumed garlics and onions, to prevent altitude sickness. Only 4,300 mules and 511 horses survived, less than half the original complement."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Bartholomew's Day massacre",
        "text": "In the cities affected, the loss to the Huguenot communities after the massacres was numerically far larger than those actually killed; in the following weeks there were mass conversions to Catholicism, apparently in response to the threatening atmosphere for Huguenots in these cities. In Rouen, where some hundreds were killed, the Huguenot community shrank from 16,500 to fewer than 3,000 mainly as a result of conversions and emigration to safer cities or countries. Some cities unaffected by the violence nevertheless witnessed a sharp decline in their Huguenot population. It has been claimed that the Huguenot community represented as much as 10% of the French population on the eve of the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, declining to 7\u20138% by the end of the 16th century, and further after heavy persecution began once again during the reign of Louis XIV, culminating with the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's Day",
        "text": "The tradition of the St. Martin's goose or \"Martinsgans\", which is typically served on the evening of St. Martin's feast day following the procession of lanterns, most likely evolved from the well-known legend of St. Martin and the geese. \"Martinsgans\" is usually served in restaurants, roasted, with red cabbage and dumplings."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's Day",
        "text": "In Wervik, children go from door to door, singing traditional \"S\u00e9ngmart\u00e9ng\" songs, sporting a hollow beetroot with a carved face and a candle inside called \"Bolle S\u00e9ngmart\u00e9ng\"; they gather at an evening bonfire. At the end the beetroots are thrown into the fire, and pancakes are served."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Tribute of the Three Cows",
        "text": "The tribute started to become notorious at the end of the 19th century, when it was popularised in France in numerous books and news articles, usually in negative light as a \"humiliation\" towards the people of France. The negative press prompted an attempt in 1895 to substitute the cows for money, without success. That year, Le Figaro published an open letter protesting against a ceremony they deemed \"extravagant\" and \"anti-French\". The ceremony was described as a war tribute, where the Bar\u00e9tous had to uncover their heads whilst the Roncalese could wear their hats, and where the Bar\u00e9tous had to advance towards the Roncalese whilst the latter pointed at them with pike. As a result, over 600 people climbed the Col de la Pierre St Martin that year to demonstrate against the ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in the Provinces",
        "text": "Bordeaux is one of the two cities we know that the king sent, and then countermanded secret instructions to, along with Lyon. A public order to protect the Huguenots was published by the Parlement. Yet this was accompanied by governor Montferrands order, forbidding Huguenot worship which had been permitted some distance away from the city by the Peace of Saint Germain in 1570. Things remained relatively calm in the city until on 3 October Montferrand after having received a private visit from the son in law of Admiral Villars, appeared before the city jurats, claiming he had a list of Huguenots that the king wanted killed. He would not however produce this list when requested by the jurats, and no record of it has ever been found. He would proceed to carry out the massacre, largely free of popular involvement, as had been the massacres of Troyes and La Charit\u00e9 utilising 6 companies of his soldiers to execute it. As in most other cities, the massacre would represent an opportunity for plunder as well. In total 264 persons are recorded as having been killed in Bordeaux, as compiled in a report by the Parlement itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Jean Bosco massacre",
        "text": "According to the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, the following day, \"five men and one woman appeared on the government controlled television station (T\u00e9l\u00e9 Nationale) and admitted their participation in the attack on the church. They threatened a 'heap of corpses' at any future mass celebrated by Aristide. Many people were outraged that these individuals could appear on television, without any disguise, confess their participation in these events and threaten future criminal acts with no fear of being arrested by the authorities.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Organ of the Basilica of St. Martin (Weingarten)",
        "text": "The pipe was cast as the vox humana and actually sounded as a human voice, but his luck did not last long. The monks in their singing were so confused that they could no longer follow the services with prayer. The abbot got Gabler to come and confess to the crime. It was decided that Gabler should be burned along with the devil's stop, but before that he should make a worthy replacement. At this Gabler succeeded so well that the abbot graciously pardoned his life."
      },
      {
        "title": "St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in the Provinces",
        "text": "The king, despite his opposition to the massacres, decided not to let a good opportunity go to waste, and in early 1573 he banned Protestants from serving in royal office. At the same time, the heartland Protestant cities of the south, entered open rebellion against the king, beginning the fourth of the French Wars of Religion as the king tried and failed to siege La Rochelle back into obedience with the crown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Col de la Pierre St Martin",
        "text": "Every year on 13 July since 1375, the ceremony of the Tribute of the Three Cows takes place on the summit of the mountain pass."
      },
      {
        "title": "St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in the Provinces",
        "text": "While around 3000-5000 Protestants would directly die as a result of these massacres, the far larger result was that obtained in the subsequent wave of defections back to Catholicism. Though only 300 had been killed in Rouen, the community shrank from 16500 pre massacre to around 3000 post massacre. The majority either abjuring, or going as refugees to Geneva and England. At least 3000 made some form of formal reconciliation with the Catholic church in the city, be it through rebaptisms, venerating the mass or abjuration documents. 174 Rouennais were recorded in the Rye census in Sussex in November, with a record of 16 more families to come. In Troyes we see a similar wave, with so many seeking to reconcile with the Catholic church that the town had to hire a special priest to hear the confessions. Pithou records 20 families who emigrated from Troyes in the wake of the massacre, mostly to Geneva. This trend of abjurations and exile occurred even in towns in the north that had experienced no massacre, Protestants ill inclined to trust any royal guarantee of safety going forward."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vincenzo, Martyr of Craco",
        "text": "The feast in honor of San Vincenzo was always preceded on the Saturday before by a fair, a proud tradition carried out since the end of the 18th century until today. The fair, traditionally known by all the nearby people and neighboring towns, brought many people from Salandra, Fernandina, Montalbano and Pisticci. The fair branched from the entrance of Craco to the other end of the town, at the drinking trough. It was held at the time of the year when workers of the earth were engaged in preparing land for planting or harvesting olives. But on that day, all work ceased so the people could make major purchases at the fair. Animals of all types, as well as foodstuffs: dried beans, \"winter\" apples, and dried peppers that would be used to season salami were available. This served as a way for people to purchase provisions for the long winter that awaited the rural population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carnival",
        "text": "Traditionally, a Carnival feast was the last opportunity for common people to eat well, as there was typically a food shortage at the end of the winter as stores ran out. Until spring produce was available, people were limited to the minimum necessary meals during this period. On what nowadays is called \"vastenavond\" (the days before fasting), all the remaining winter stores of lard, butter, and meat which were left would be eaten, for these would otherwise soon start to rot and decay. The selected livestock had already been slaughtered in November and the meat would no longer be preservable. All the food that had survived the winter had to be eaten to assure that everyone was fed enough to survive until the coming spring would provide new food sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Attack on Saint Martin",
        "text": "On the night of 31 March\u20131 April an assault column under cover of darkness advanced toward the Spanish positions, almost escaping the sentinels\u2019 detection because all were musketeers (and hence carry no lit cords). Once the Dutch intruders were discovered, however, a firefight erupted until dawn; at least five Dutch attackers were killed, as opposed to a single Spaniard. A second, even more half-hearted attempt was made at 9pm on 3 April, which was easily repelled; no further assaults were made."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's Day",
        "text": "In Croatia, St. Martin's Day (\"Martinje\", \"Martinovanje\") marks the day when the must traditionally turns to wine. The must is usually considered impure and sinful, until it is baptised and turned into wine. The baptism is performed by someone who dresses up as a bishop and blesses the wine; this is usually done by the host. Another person is chosen as the godfather of the wine. The foods traditionally eaten on the day are goose and home-made or store bought mlinci."
      },
      {
        "title": "St Scholastica Day riot",
        "text": "The following morning, in an attempt to stop any recurrence of the violence, the Chancellor issued a proclamation at the churches of St Martin and St Mary that no-one should bear arms, assault anyone or disturb the peace. He was supported by the chief magistrate of the town. At the same time, the town's bailiffs were urging townsfolk to arm themselves; the bailiffs were also paying people in the surrounding countryside to come to aid the citizens. About eighty townsmen, armed with bows and other weapons, went to St Giles' Church in the north part of the town, where they knew some scholars were, and chased them to the Augustine priory, killing at least one student and badly injuring several others on the way. A master of theology was shot at when he tried to leave the priory. The bells of both the town and university churches were rung to rally the respective supporters; students locked and barricaded some of the town's gates, to stop an influx of outsiders coming at them from a new direction."
      },
      {
        "title": "St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in the Provinces",
        "text": "Meaux would be the location of the first massacre outside of Paris, due to its extreme proximity to the city. News of the massacre arrived in the city in the middle of the 25th August. The carrier of the news made his way to the \"procureur du roi\" of the town, Casset, and his followers, upon hearing the news, seized the gates, and began arresting all the Protestants he could find. They were not however entirely successful, many Protestants were gathered in the suburb of grand marche and hearing of what was going on were able to scatter into the surrounding villages. When Casset and his men arrived in the suburb they were left to take out their frustration on the women who had stayed behind to protect their property. On the 26th Casset turned to liquidate the arrested Protestants who were filling the prisons, a list was drawn up of 200 names for execution, largely composed of merchants artisans and judicial officials. The executions continued into the evening, but, unable to finish the exhausting work, the remainder of the killing was set aside for the following day."
      },
      {
        "title": "D\u00e1maso Rodr\u00edguez Mart\u00edn",
        "text": "These events overlapped the celebration of the Carnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife of that year, mainly due to the fear that aroused among the people that the murderer would show up in a costume, and could easily escape."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Mart\u00edn de Hidalgo",
        "text": "When asking the elders about the origin of this tradition, they say that in their memories the purpose of this horse riding was to present to the Virgin their daughters who had turned fifteen during the year and it was on horseback that they approached to the municipality seat to attend the mass that was celebrated in honor of the Virgin, because 15 August is the Day of the Virgin of the Assumption. Until a few years ago, groups of cheerful young people who came dressed in their own outfits to ride, the boys wearing their hats and the girls wearing their wide skirts and sitting sideways like Amazons, made a tour visiting the temples of the aforementioned towns. Currently the tradition has changed and now it is young people dressed in cowboy style who horse ride through the streets of the town accompanied by musical bands and end their tour in the square where the party ends."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sant'Anna di Stazzema massacre",
        "text": "After other people were killed through the village, their corpses were set on fire (at the church, the soldiers used its pews for a bonfire to dispose of the bodies). The livestock were also exterminated and the whole village was burned down. All this took three hours. The SS men then sat down outside the burning Sant'Anna and ate lunch."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the purpose of filling a sausage with blood?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you wanting to know the uses generally, or specifically to a type of blood sausage, such as those served in Japan, Korea, Scotland, Germany, or Poland?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know of them in general, and why blood is used in them."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Blood puddings are often considered to be one of the oldest forms of sausage. Animals are generally bled at slaughter, and as blood rapidly spoils unless prepared in some way, making a pudding with it is one of the easiest ways of ensuring it does not go to waste. As a product of the slaughtering process, eating black puddings was historically associated with Martinmas, when the annual slaughter of livestock took place."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is Martinmas?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Saint Martin's Day, also called the Feast of Saint Martin, Martinstag or Martinmas, as well as Old Halloween and Old Hallowmas Eve, is the feast day of Saint Martin of Tours and is celebrated on 11 November each year."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why was the slaughtering of livestock done on or around Saint Martin's Day?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In the agricultural calendar formerly used widely in Europe, the day marked natural winter's start, which sees the end of winter preparations, including the butchering of animals.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "The feast and celebration of Saint Martin coincides with harvest time, when much brewed beer and wine first becomes ready at this time, which sees the end of winter preparations, including the butchering of animals. But I don't have any other information about why the slaughter is done around that day."
    ],
    "topic": "Blood sausage",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "St. Martin's Day:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "St. Martin's Day",
          "Customs",
          "Feast and celebration of Saint Martin"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the agricultural calendar formerly used widely in Europe, the day marked natural winter's start, and in the economic calendar, the end of autumn. The feast coincides with the end of the Octave (liturgy) of All Saints and of harvest time. Much brewed beer and wine first becomes ready at this time, which sees the end of winter preparations, including the butchering of animals. (An old English saying, replicated in Galician as to piglets, is \"His Martinmas will come as it does to every hog,\" the word being a euphemism for slaughter). Because of this, the feast is much like the American Thanksgiving: a celebration of the earth's bounty to humans. Because it also comes before a penitential season, it became a minor time for feasting, dancing and bonfires. As at Michaelmas on 29 September, goose is eaten in most places. After one of these holidays, many women resumed work away from the fields for the winter, while male farm labourers would work in animal-driven sowing and then in the forest slaughter/butchering hogs, followed by moving into coppicing and felling trees, hunting, fishing and, most often with their families, tending any winter crops and animals."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "St. Martin's Day:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "St. Martin's Day",
          "Customs",
          "Feast and celebration of Saint Martin"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the agricultural calendar formerly used widely in Europe, the day marked natural winter's start, and in the economic calendar, the end of autumn. The feast coincides with the end of the Octave (liturgy) of All Saints and of harvest time. Much brewed beer and wine first becomes ready at this time, which sees the end of winter preparations, including the butchering of animals. (An old English saying, replicated in Galician as to piglets, is \"His Martinmas will come as it does to every hog,\" the word being a euphemism for slaughter). Because of this, the feast is much like the American Thanksgiving: a celebration of the earth's bounty to humans. Because it also comes before a penitential season, it became a minor time for feasting, dancing and bonfires. As at Michaelmas on 29 September, goose is eaten in most places. After one of these holidays, many women resumed work away from the fields for the winter, while male farm labourers would work in animal-driven sowing and then in the forest slaughter/butchering hogs, followed by moving into coppicing and felling trees, hunting, fishing and, most often with their families, tending any winter crops and animals."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausages are very difficult to find in US supermarkets. Brussels and Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin are both home to local grocers who produce blood sausage, due to their large Belgian American populations. Supermarkets throughout Maine also carry locally produced blood pudding due to the state's large French Canadian population. In southeastern Michigan, Polish-style \"kaszanka\" can be found in supermarkets throughout the year and is very popular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "As in Europe, several varieties of blood sausage are also popular in Mexico, Newfoundland and Labrador and the southwest United States (moronga), Chile (prietas, \u00f1ache), Argentina, Uruguay, Cuba, and Puerto Rico (morcilla)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "An Italian-American version of blood sausage in the San Francisco Bay Area is called \"biroldo\" and has pine nuts, raisins, spices, and pig snouts and is made using either pig's or cow's blood. German-style blood sausage and Zungenwurst can be found in Fresno and Santa Rosa, where Russian and Armenian delis offer a wide range of Central European foods. Also, Alpine Village in Torrance, California has Blutwurst due to a considerable German-American population in the South Bay area of Los Angeles County."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausage\n--Africa.\n--Americas.\n----North America.\n------Caribbean.\n------Central America.\n------Mexico.\n------United States.\n----Latin America.\n----South America.\n------Andean.\n------Argentina, Uruguay.\n------Brazil.\n------Chile.\n------Guianas.\n--Asia.\n----East Asia.\n------Hong Kong.\n------Korea.\n------Manchuria and China.\n------Mongolia.\n------Taiwan.\n------Tibet.\n----Southeast Asia.\n------Indonesia.\n------Malaysia.\n------Philippines.\n------Thailand.\n------Vietnam.\n----South Asia.\n------Nepal.\n------India.\n--Europe.\n----Central and Eastern Europe.\n----Northern Europe.\n------Denmark.\n------Estonia.\n------Finland.\n------Iceland.\n------Latvia.\n------Sweden.\n----Southern Europe.\n------Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia, Slovenia.\n------Italy.\n------Portugal.\n------Spain.\n----Western Europe.\n------Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg.\n------France and southern Belgium.\n------Germany and Austria.\n------United Kingdom and Ireland.\n----Symbol of Carnival.\n----Additional varieties.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Fran\u00e7ois Rabelais in France mentions in his \"fourth book\" (1552) carnavalesque figures called \"forest-dwelling Blood-puddings\" (Saulcis- sons montig\u00e8nes, Boudins sylvatiques) as a farce representing the Swiss and German Protestants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Cajun \"boudin\" is a fresh sausage made with green onions, pork, pork liver (making it somewhat gritty or grainy), and rice. Pig's blood was sometimes added to produce \"boudin rouge\", but this tradition became increasingly rare after the mid-twentieth century due to the decline of the \"boucherie\" (traditional communal butchering) and government health regulations prohibiting the transportation of raw blood. As a result, Cajun \"boudin\" is now usually made without blood; however, blood or \"black\" \"boudin\" can still be purchased."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "While \"blood sausage\" in English is understood in Britain, the term is applied only to foreign usage (e.g., in the story \"The Name-Day\" by Saki), or to similar blood-based sausages elsewhere in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In France, there is \", a solidified/curd blood in a pan, and \", a sort of sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Prietas are easily found at supermarkets throughout the country and are available from practically any butcher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Other varieties of blood sausage include \"boudin rouge\" (Creole and Cajun), \"rellena\" or \"moronga\" (Mexico) and \"sanganel\" (Friuli)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In many languages, there is a general term such as \"blood sausage\" (American English) that is used for all sausages that are made from blood, whether or not they include non-animal material such as bread, cereal, and nuts. Sausages that include such material are often referred to with more specific terms, such as \"black pudding\" in English."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Panama, blood sausage is called \"morcilla\", \"rellena\" or \"tuber\u00eda negra\", and is usually filled with rice. In El Salvador and Nicaragua, it is called \"moronga\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Trinidad and Tobago, the local style of blood sausage is heavily seasoned with local peppers and traditionally prepared from pig's blood, often replaced by pig's liver today. It is sold by local producers as a popular accompaniment to rolls of crusty hops bread or served as an accompaniment to \"trotter souse\", a stew based on trotters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Other varieties of blood sausage include \"blodp\u00f8lse\" (Norway and Denmark), \"tongenworst\" (with added pigs tongues) (Netherlands), \"mazzit\" (Malta), \"krvavica\" (Balkans), \"krovianka\" (Russia and Ukraine), and \"v\u0117darai\" (Lithuania)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "A blood sausage is a sausage filled with blood that is cooked or dried and mixed with a filler until it is thick enough to solidify when cooled. Most commonly, the blood of pigs, sheep, lamb, cow, chicken, or goose is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Many Roman Catholics celebrate Mardi Gras, the last day of carnival, (Literally meaning Carne Vale, farewell to Meat in Italian) with rituals involving the blood sausage. For example, in Spain, they celebrate carnival with \"jud\u00edas con morcilla\" (morcilla is a variation of Blood sausage) followed by the funeral of the sardina."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausage is popular in Mongolia. In Mongolia a special method of killing sheep was made mandatory by Genghis Khan to save blood for sausage. It appears in the Yasa and is still used today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Likewise, in Belgium and the Netherlands, the Bloodsausage is a symbol for Carnival (most likely following the invasion of Spain during the Eighty Years' War)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Across Asia, various people create food from congealed animal blood. Most of these food types do not have casings and might be considered a version of sliced sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Several varieties of meat-and-grain sausages developed in the US. Scrapple is a pork-and-cornmeal sausage that originated in the Mid-Atlantic States. Goetta is a pork-and-oats sausage that originated in Cincinnati. Livermush, originating in North Carolina, is made with pork, liver, and cornmeal or rice. All were developed by German immigrants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "Blood sausage is any sausage made by cooking animal blood with a filler until it is thick enough to congeal when cooled. Pig or cattle blood is most often used. Typical fillers include meat, fat, suet, bread, rice, barley and oatmeal. Varieties include biroldo, black pudding, blood tongue, blutwurst, drisheen, kishka (kaszanka), morcilla, moronga, mustamakkara, sundae, verivorst, and many types of boudin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Italy, regional varieties of blood sausage are known as \"sanguinaccio\". In Tuscany, is a sausage made with pig's blood and fat cooked in a pig's stomach. It is not reheated and is often spread on bread. It is found only in the south of Tuscany in the winter months and even there it can be difficult to come by. \"Biroldo\" is another type of black pudding which can be found in Tuscany, while the version made in southern Lombardy is called \"marsapan\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Ecuador and Bolivia the blood sausage is also called \"morcilla\", and is usually filled with rice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Stornoway black pudding produced on the Isle of Lewis, Scotland, is one of the most renowned varieties and has been granted Protected Geographical Indicator of Origin (PGI) status. Ireland also has two distinctive varieties of black pudding: Sneem Black Pudding from County Kerry, and drisheen, which is distinguished by its gelatinous texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Puerto Rico, blood sausage is known as \"morcilla\". Puerto Rican blood sausage is made with rice, culantro, cilantro, garlic, and Cubanelle pepper. Some contain paprika and annatto. Morcilla is especially popular during Christmas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausage is known generically as \"longganisang dugo\" (lit. \"blood longaniza\") in the Philippines. A notable type of native pre-colonial blood sausage is \"pinuneg\", which is composed of minced pork and innards in a pork casing made from large intestines that is prepared in the Cordillera Administrative Region of the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "A similar blood sausage to \"karvavitsa\", called \"krvavica\" (\u043a\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430), made out of similar ingredients, is eaten in Bosnia, Croatia, Serbia, and Slovenia in wintertime, usually with sauerkraut and potatoes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Brazil there is a version of the blood sausage called \"chouri\u00e7o\" or \"morcela\" (sometimes the Castillian Spanish version \"morcilla\" is used as well), consisting of a fresh sausage made of the blood and fat from pork and usually rice. It is a variation of the Portuguese blood sausage, and it is known for its deep dark color. In some regions, it is popular on barbecues (\"Churrascos\") as a starter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Spain, the \"morcilla\" sausage is a kind of black pudding mainly made with pig blood, with spices, fat, and sometimes vegetables. In Andalusia \"sangre encebollada\" and Valencian \"sang amb ceba \"are popular dishes made with chicken or pork solidified blood and onion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Europe and the Americas, typical fillers include meat, fat, suet, bread, cornmeal, onion, chestnuts, barley, oatmeal and buckwheat. On the Iberian Peninsula and in Latin America and Asia, fillers are often made with rice. Sweet variants with sugar, honey, orange peel and spices are also regional specialties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Nowadays many types of mutura, especially commercial street food versions, do not contain blood. The meat used in the filling can be any fleshy part, but like any other type of sausage, prime cuts are not ordinarily used for the stuffing. Instead the tougher, leaner cuts \u2013 for example the neck \u2013 are trimmed off the bone. The casing for the stuffing is the stomach sac and larger intestines. These are flushed many times with water to clean them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Throughout Central and Eastern Europe, blood sausage, known as \"kishka\" (meaning \"intestine\"), is made with pig's blood and buckwheat kasha. It is also known in Russia as \"krovyanka\" (\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430), or \"krovyanaya kolbasa\" (\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044f\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0431\u0430\u0441\u0430, literally \"blood sausage\"), and includes buckwheat as a main filler, instead of oats or oatmeal. In Ukraine it's called \"krov'yanka\" (\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432'\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430) or \"kryvava kyshka\" (\u043a\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u043a\u0438\u0448\u043a\u0430), and \"kiszka\" or \"kaszanka\" in Poland; \"krvavni\u010dka\" in Slovakia and \"krupniok\" in Silesia. Polish \"salceson\" (\"black\" and \"\") are a type of head cheese (\"brawn\") that contains blood. In Hungary, \"v\u00e9res hurka\" is typically made with pig's blood and barleycorn or cubed bread (typically zsemle) as filler as such also known as \"zseml\u00e9s hurka\" and \"gerslis hurka\". In Bulgaria, \"karvavitsa\" (\u043a\u044a\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430) is usually prepared with pig's blood, fat and a variety of mountain herbs and spices and eaten warm during the winter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "Other types of sausage included liver sausage, blood sausage, bologna, cervelat and wiener wurst. Hamburg steak was made from tough cuts of beef with suet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Hong Kong, the dish closest to blood sausage is pig blood curd, which is only made from pig's blood and is not considered a sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Other German variants are \"Zungenwurst\", which is \"Blutwurst\" mixed with pieces of pickled ox tongue, and \"Beutelwurst,\" which is pressed in a linen or paper bag (\"Beutel\"). A variety of \"Blutwurst\", the \"Rotwurst\" from Thuringia (\"Th\u00fcringer Rotwurst\"), has geographical indication protection under EU law, with PGI status. \"Kartoffelwurst\" (potato sausage) is a post-World War II variety popular in the Palatinate, a reduced fat version of \"Blutwurst\" using potato cubes instead of bacon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "The meat for the stuffing is finely chopped or minced, and the mandatory fat is often trimmed from other parts. The meat is slightly fried, mixed with finely chopped red onions, salt and optionally fresh chili. Other additions include freshly chopped coriander (dhania or cilantro), garlic, pepper and even beef stock. This is then mixed thoroughly with the fresh blood from the animal, and stuffed into the stomach and intestines, with the openings sewn or tied together with string."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "Blood as food\n--Methods of preparation.\n----Sausage.\n----Pancakes.\n----Soups, stews and sauces.\n----Solidified.\n----Raw.\n----Nutrition bars.\n--Religious consumption of blood.\n--Cultural considerations.\n--Dishes.\n----Africa.\n----Americas.\n------Brazil.\n------Colombia.\n------Mexico.\n------Per\u00fa.\n------Ecuador.\n----Asia.\n------China.\n------India.\n------Indonesia.\n------Korea.\n------Nepal.\n------Philippines.\n------Thailand and Laos.\n------Vietnam.\n----Europe.\n------Finland.\n------France.\n------Germany.\n------Greece.\n------Hungary.\n------Italy.\n------Poland.\n------Portugal.\n------Romania.\n------Spain.\n------Sweden.\n------United Kingdom and Ireland.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood Sausage (band)",
        "text": "Blood Sausage (band)\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Romania there is a traditional sausage prepared with blood named \"s\u00e2ngerete\", literally meaning \"a thing from hemoragy\" (it came from \"s\u00e2ngera\" \u2013 \"hemoragy\" from \"s\u00e2nge\" \u2013 \"blood\")), and it is prepared especially during the Ignat (the pig carving holiday)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pig blood curd",
        "text": "Pig's blood is also made into food by many western countries. For example, in Britain, black pudding (Blood sausage) is made from pig's blood and a high proportion of oatmeal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Central Mexico, \"morcilla\" is known as \"moronga\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Portuguese cuisine, there are many varieties of blood sausage. Sausages made of blood are usually called \"morcela\" or \"negrinha\" (a slang term from Portuguese \"negro\" meaning dark or black). There are many varieties around the Portuguese world. There are varieties local to mainland Portugal, the Azores, Hawaii, China, US and India, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Suriname, blood sausage is known by the Dutch name \"bloedworst\", and white pudding by the equally Dutch name \"vleesworst\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Latvia, blood sausage is either called \"asinsdesa\" (blood sausage) or \"putraimu desa\" (groat sausage) because of the added barley groats. It usually served with lingonberry jam and sour cream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bloody",
        "text": "United States"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Finland, pig's blood is used, with milk, flour and molasses, to make blood pancakes veriohukainen, usually served with lingonberry jam. Also different style of sausages are common, mustamakkara and ryynimakkara. In \u00c5land and Bothnia region is also mustaleip\u00e4 or verileip\u00e4 that are bread where liquid of the batter either totally or partially blood. Blackpudding veripalttu is available is some parts of the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ham sausage",
        "text": "Ham sausage\n--By country.\n----China.\n----Germany.\n----Italy.\n----Poland.\n----United States.\n--Mass production.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Mustamakkara\" (literally \"black sausage\") is a roasted sausage containing pig's blood and very similar to Estonian \"verivorst\". The sausage is said to originate from Tampere and is considered an integral part of the city's culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jehovah's Witnesses and blood transfusions",
        "text": "Ambivalence and rejection of the blood doctrine dates back to at least the 1940s. After the Watch Tower Society established the doctrine, teaching that blood should not be eaten (circa 1927-31), Margaret Buber, who was never a member of the denomination, offered a firsthand eyewitness account of Jehovah's Witnesses in the Nazi Ravensbr\u00fcck concentration camp. She relates that an overwhelming majority were willing to eat blood sausage despite having alternate food to choose from, and specifically after considering biblical statements regarding blood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Chile, the blood sausage is called \"prieta\" (a synonym of \"negra\", black) and tends to have a very thick skin, so is eaten cut open lengthwise. Apart from blood and a little fat, \"prietas\" may contain a variety of ingredients, such as chopped onion and spices, cabbage, peppers, watercress, rice, meat or even dried fruit or nuts. \"Prietas\" or \"morcillas\" are part of the Chilote tradition of \"reitimiento\" involving the slaughter and preparation of a pig."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Similarly, in Czech cuisine, \"jelito\" is made from second-rate pork, pig's blood and peeled barley; the stuffing served by itself, unformed, is called \"prejt\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "The Greek poet Homer mentioned a kind of blood sausage in the \"Odyssey\", Epicharmus wrote a comedy titled \"The Sausage\", and Aristophanes' play \"The Knights\" is about a sausage vendor who is elected leader. Evidence suggests that sausages were already popular both among the ancient Greeks and Romans and most likely with the various tribes occupying the larger part of Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Romania, the traditional \"s\u00e2ngerete\" (from \"s\u00e2nge\", \"blood\" in Romanian) is made from shoulder butt pork meat, pork blood and a filler such as pre-boiled rice seasoned with pepper, garlic and basil. It has many regional variants, but the most common are the \"s\u00e2ngerete\" from Transylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Hungary when a pig is slaughtered in the morning, the blood is fried with onions and served for breakfast. In Peru they use chicken blood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Meghalayan cuisine, \"doh snam\" is type of blood sausage made from pork intestine with local spices and ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula, \"morcilla\" is made exclusively from pig's blood and once deep fried it is served with a mix of pickled onions, cilantro and spices. It is always consumed in the form of tacos and paired with fresh habanero peppers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In the French Antilles, \"boudin cr\u00e9ole\", or \"boudin antillais\" is very popular, this being the French \"boudin noir\" with local Caribbean chilli and other spices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Chinese cuisines, whole coagulated blood is fried or steamed as a snack or cooked in a hot pot. In mainland China, \"blood tofu\" (), or \"red tofu\" (), is most often made with pig's or duck's blood. Like the above dishes, this has no casing but is simply cut into rectangular pieces and cooked. In Northeast China, the \"blood sausage\" was a traditional food which is cooked with sheep or goat blood. In Tibet, congealed yak's blood is a traditional food. Chinese people also used pig blood curd that was consumed by laborers in Kaifeng over 1,000 years ago in the south of China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood Sausage (band)",
        "text": "Blood Sausage were an indie rock band from Brighton, England, containing members of Huggy Bear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Denmark, \"blodp\u00f8lse\" is made from pigs's blood and suet, rye flour, brown sugar, raisins, salt, cinnamon and cardamom stuffed into natural or artificial intestines. It is usually boiled in its skin, eaten hot or cold, sometimes sliced and fried, served with syrup, cinnamon and stewed apples."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Northern Germany pig's blood used to be traditionally mixed with vinegar, scraps, spices and sugar to make schwarzsauer. It's eaten warm or preserved in jars. Changes in taste and lifestyle have made this an uncommon dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Barbados, blood sausage, also called pudding, is made with sweet potato (\"batata\"), pig's blood and onions, seasoned with peppers and other herbs and stuffed in pig intestines. Traditionally pig's blood was used to darken the mixture but Browning sauce (caramelized sugar) is sometimes used as a substitute. It is normally served with \"souse\", which is pickled pig's feet, pig's ears and other trimmings. The cooked meat is cut into bite-sized pieces and soaked in a brine made of water, lime juice, cucumbers, hot pepper, and specially prepared seasonings. Blood sausage and souse, more commonly known as pudding and souse, is a Bajan delicacy usually prepared on weekends and special occasions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In many areas of Latin America, \"morcilla\" is served. \"Morcilla\" is sometimes made with a filler of rice and/or onions, and seasoned with paprika and other spices. In Puerto Rico, it is served fried and mostly consumed during the holidays. In Colombia, \"morcilla\" can have rice, green peas, cilantro or culantro, and is often eaten as an appetizer called \"picada\" or with the traditional dishes \"Bandeja Paisa\" or \"Fritanga\". In Venezuela, \"morcilla\" is often served with \"parrilla\" (barbecue)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kishka (food)",
        "text": "The sausages are popular in areas of the Midwestern United States, where many Poles emigrated. There are numerous mail order companies and delis that sell various kishkas. As blood is often used as an ingredient, kishkas are considered an acquired taste. Kosher kishka recipes omit animal blood and pork products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Vietnamese 'd\u1ed3i ti\u1ebft' (Northern) or 'd\u1ed3i huy\u1ebft' (Southern) is blood sausage, boiled or fried, made with pork blood, pork fat and basil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Tibetan cuisine, sausages or \"gyurma\" refer to blood sausages and are made with yak or sheep's blood which may or may not include either rice or roasted barley flour as filler. The sausage uses natural casing employing the use of yak or sheep's intestine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "The sausage is boiled in a large pot (often with other parts of the animal not roasted and used to make soup) for 30\u201345 minutes, and roasted over coals till brown. Sliced, it is served with kachumbari, an onion based salad consisting of tomatoes, red onions and fresh coriander, a bit of chili and squeeze of lemon. The accompanying starch is ugali."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Blodpudding\" is a traditional medieval dish still popular in Sweden. The exact proportions and ingredients vary, partly according to regional preference, but generally it is made from pig's blood, milk, rye or barley flour, diced lard, either beer or \"svagdricka\", treacle and onion, flavoured with allspice and marjoram. It is then poured into forms and oven-baked in a waterbath. Most of the \"blodpudding\" consumed today is made on industrial basis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Belgium and the Netherlands, \"bloedworst\" or \"beuling\" is sold in slices. It is generally pan fried; sometimes apples are cooked alongside or on top of the pieces. It is also eaten with apple sauce, brown sugar, syrup or red cabbage. As a cold cut, thin slices are eaten as a sandwich topping. \"Zwarte pens\" are individual blood sausages the size of a banana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black pudding",
        "text": "Blood puddings are often considered to be one of the oldest forms of sausage. Animals are generally bled at slaughter, and as blood rapidly spoils unless prepared in some way, making a pudding with it is one of the easiest ways of ensuring it does not go to waste. While the majority of modern black pudding recipes involve pork blood, this has not always been the case. Sheep or cow blood was also used, and one 15th-century English recipe used that of a porpoise in a pudding eaten exclusively by the nobility. Until at least the 19th century, cow or sheep blood was the usual basis for black puddings in Scotland; Jamieson's Scottish dictionary defined \"black pudding\" as \"a pudding made of the blood of a cow or sheep\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bologna sausage",
        "text": "U.S. government regulations require American bologna to be finely ground, and without visible pieces of fat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timoleague",
        "text": "Timoleague Brown Pudding, a type of blood sausage, has been granted Protected Geographical Status under European Union law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Iceland, \"bl\u00f3\u00f0m\u00f6r\" is one of two types of \"sl\u00e1tur\". It is made from lamb's blood and suet, rye flour and oats, traditionally stuffed into pouches sewn from the lamb's stomach. It is usually boiled in its skin, eaten hot or cold, sometimes sliced and fried. After cooking, it is often preserved in fermented whey and acquires a distinct sour taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Migliaccio\" is a black pudding that is traditionally prepared in winter in Romagna. It is a sweet pudding with a thick black filling made with pig's blood, sugar, breadcrumbs, almonds, chocolate, butter and spices contained in a thin pastry crust. A similar pudding is made throughout southern Italy, generally called \"sanguinaccio\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "Aside from \"dinuguan\", a native blood sausage known as \"pinuneg\" also exists among the Kankanaey people of the highlands of Luzon. Cubes of pork blood grilled on skewers is also a common street food throughout the Philippines. These are known colloquially as \"betamax\" (after its resemblance to Betamax tapes)."
      },
      {
        "title": "North American Piedmontese",
        "text": "According to the North American Piedmontese Cattle Association, in the last decade of the 20th century, there was a noticeable upsurge in the importation of genetic material (i.e., embryos and semen). Thus, it is said that \"there are now a wealth of blood lines\" available from which to choose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausage\n--Etymology.\n--History.\n--Casings.\n--Ingredients.\n--Classifications.\n--National varieties.\n----Africa.\n------North Africa.\n------South Africa.\n----Asia.\n------Brunei.\n------China.\n------Japan.\n------Korea.\n------Philippines.\n------Thailand.\n----Eurasia.\n------Turkey.\n----Europe.\n------Britain and Ireland.\n--------Scotland.\n------Bulgaria.\n------Croatia.\n------Denmark.\n------Finland.\n------France and Belgium.\n------Germany.\n------Greece.\n------Hungary.\n------Iceland.\n------Italy.\n------Macedonia.\n------Malta.\n------Netherlands.\n------Nordic countries.\n------Norway.\n------Poland.\n------Portugal and Brazil.\n------Russia.\n------Serbia.\n------Spain.\n------Sweden.\n------Switzerland.\n------Ukraine.\n----Latin America.\n------Argentina and Uruguay.\n------Chile.\n------Colombia.\n------Mexico.\n------El Salvador.\n----North America.\n----Oceania.\n------Australia.\n------New Zealand.\n--Other variations.\n--Vegetarian versions.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "A dish similar to the British black pudding is also made by making batter out of pig's blood and baking it like pancakes. Traditionally, rye flour or oatmeal is used and minced onion is added to the mix. This dish is called \"veriohukainen\" or \"verilettu\" (blood pancake). \"R\u00f6ssypottu\" is a traditional soup in northern Finland with blood pudding as a main ingredient."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Hungary, \"hagym\u00e1s v\u00e9r\" (pan-fried pig's blood with onions) and \"v\u00e9res hurka\" (a kind of blood sausage made with pig's blood, bacon, pork, rice, onion, salt and various herbs and spices) are common winter foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausage making is a natural outcome of efficient butchery. Traditionally, sausage makers salted various tissues and organs such as scraps, organ meats, blood, and fat to help preserve them. They then stuffed them into tubular casings made from the cleaned intestines of the animal, producing the characteristic cylindrical shape. Hence, sausages, puddings, and salami are among the oldest of prepared foods, whether cooked and eaten immediately or dried to varying degrees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boudin",
        "text": "Boudin gave rise to \"Le Boudin\", the official march of the French Foreign Legion. \"Blood sausage\" is a colloquial reference to the gear (rolled up in a red blanket) that used to top the backpacks of Legionnaires. The song makes repeated reference to the fact that the Belgians do not get any \"blood sausage\", since the king of the Belgians at one time forbade his subjects from joining the Legion (the verse says \"\"ce sont des tireurs au cul\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Since the return of capitalism, all imaginable types of sausage are produced and imported in Russia, but the traditional styles, be it a factory made Doctor's bologna, artisanal links of delicately smoked Ukrainian or boldly red Krakow, or buckwheat-stuffed blood sausage, still endure."
      },
      {
        "title": "2013 horse meat scandal",
        "text": "On 15 March 2013 it was confirmed by a Westminster survey on health and safety that pig DNA had been found in halal chicken sausages produced for schools."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Austria it is often prepared in a dish known as \"Blunzngr\u00f6stl\", which consists of pan-fried potatoes and blood sausage. This is usually served with freshly grated horseradish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Limbu cuisine, \"sargemba\" or \"sargyangma\" is a type of blood sausage made mostly from pork intestines, pork fat, rice and \"yangben\", a type of edible wild lichen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Morcilla\" is also eaten inside a sandwich called \"morcip\u00e1n\", especially in the R\u00edo de la Plata. \"Morcilla\" is a component of the \" asado criollo\", a regional mixed grill or barbecue meal. In Uruguay and in Argentina, a sweet version including raisins and pine nuts is popular; some vendors even add chocolate, caramelised orange peels, peanuts, and other dried fruits. Uruguayans usually are fond of sweet or salty \"morcilla\", and most restaurants and supermarkets carry both versions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bloodhound",
        "text": "Meanwhile, the Bloodhound has become widely distributed internationally, though numbers are small in most countries, with more in the US than anywhere else. Following the spread of the Bloodhound from Britain in the 19th and 20th centuries, imports and exports and, increasingly, artificial insemination, are maintaining the world population as a common breeding stock, without a great deal of divergence in type in different countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sausage (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Galicia, blood pancakes are called filloas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Penang or other northern states, pig blood curd (known locally in Penang Hokkien as \"too huet\"; ) is usually served with the local street delicacy Curry Mee (curry noodles). It can also be mixed with some traditional Hokkien dishes as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "The Luxembourg tr\u00e4ipen includes green cabbage, and is served pan fried with apple sauce. It was eaten in church in the Middle Ages during Carnival and is still consumed for breakfast, baked with apples and topped with apple syrup, during Carnival in the Dutch province of Limburg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "The most famous sausage in ancient Italy was from Lucania (modern Basilicata) and was called \"lucanica\", a name which lives on in a variety of modern sausages in the Mediterranean. During the reign of the Roman emperor Nero, sausages were associated with the Lupercalia festival. Early in the 10th century during the Byzantine Empire, Leo VI the Wise outlawed the production of blood sausages following cases of food poisoning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Antigua, rice pudding is a local delicacy and it is prepared the same way as blood sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "The United States has a particular shelf stable type called pickled sausages, commonly sold in establishments such as gas stations and delicatessens. These are usually smoked or boiled sausages of a highly processed hot dog or kielbasa style plunged into a boiling brine of vinegar, salt, spices, and often a pink coloring, then canned in Mason jars. They are usually packaged in single blister packs or jars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Black pudding is the native British version of blood sausage. It is generally made from pork blood and a relatively high proportion of oatmeal. In the past it was occasionally flavoured with pennyroyal, differing from continental European versions in its relatively limited range of ingredients and reliance on oatmeal and barley instead of onions to absorb the blood. It can be eaten cold, as it is cooked in production, grilled, fried or boiled in its skin. It is often served sliced and fried or grilled as part of a traditional full breakfast, a tradition that followed British and Irish emigrants around the world. Black pudding is now part of the local cuisine of New Zealand and the Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor's sausage",
        "text": "This sausage was first produced in 1936, after the All-Russian Research Institute of the Meat Industry developed a recipe for sausage and the technology for its production. Its first production run was carried out at the Moscow Meat Processing Plant named after Anastas Mikoyan. The sausage was intended to be a dietary supplement for people exhibiting signs of prolonged starvation (specifically \"patients with compromised health as a result of the Civil War\"), hence its name. Because it was a mild-tasting, inexpensive and relatively healthy source of meat, Doctor's Sausage became very popular in the USSR."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "\"Boudin\" is a type of sausage found only in this area of the country, and it is often by far more spicy than anything found in France or Belgium. \"Chaudin\" is unique to the area, and the method of cooking is comparable to the Scottish dish haggis: the stuffing includes onions, rice, bell peppers, spices, and pork sewn up in the stomach of a pig, and served in slices piping hot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black pudding",
        "text": "Black pudding is a distinct regional type of blood sausage originating in Great Britain and Ireland. It is made from pork or beef blood, with pork fat or beef suet, and a cereal, usually oatmeal, oat groats, or barley groats. The high proportion of cereal, along with the use of certain herbs such as pennyroyal, serves to distinguish black pudding from blood sausages eaten in other parts of the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sundae, a form of blood sausage, is a traditional Korean sausage. A popular street food, sundae is normally prepared by steaming or boiling cow or pig intestines stuffed with various ingredients. The most common variation is composed of pork blood, cellophane noodle, sliced carrot and barley stuffed into pig intestines, but other regional variations include squid or Alaska pollock casings. Sundae is eaten plain with salt, in stews, or as part of a stir-fry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In northern region of Nepal, \"Gyuma\" a blood sausage is a popular dish commonly eaten by locals. It is made up on Yak's blood and meat. The fillings also include buck wheat flour and other spices. The sausage is also used in lentils or prepared in stir fry dishes."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the purpose of filling a sausage with blood?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you wanting to know the uses generally, or specifically to a type of blood sausage, such as those served in Japan, Korea, Scotland, Germany, or Poland?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know of them in general, and why blood is used in them."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Blood puddings are often considered to be one of the oldest forms of sausage. Animals are generally bled at slaughter, and as blood rapidly spoils unless prepared in some way, making a pudding with it is one of the easiest ways of ensuring it does not go to waste. As a product of the slaughtering process, eating black puddings was historically associated with Martinmas, when the annual slaughter of livestock took place."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is Martinmas?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Saint Martin's Day, also called the Feast of Saint Martin, Martinstag or Martinmas, as well as Old Halloween and Old Hallowmas Eve, is the feast day of Saint Martin of Tours and is celebrated on 11 November each year."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why was the slaughtering of livestock done on or around Saint Martin's Day?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In the agricultural calendar formerly used widely in Europe, the day marked natural winter's start, which sees the end of winter preparations, including the butchering of animals."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is there any blood sausage in the U. S.?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Yes, but it is difficult to find in supermarkets. Some places where it can be found are in at local grocers in Brussels and Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin and Russian and Armenian delis in in Fresno and Santa Rosa.",
      "Blood sausages are very difficult to find in US supermarkets. Brussels and Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin are both home to local grocers who produce blood sausage, due to their large Belgian American populations. Supermarkets throughout Maine also carry locally produced blood pudding due to the state's large French Canadian population. In southeastern Michigan, Polish-style kaszanka can be found in supermarkets throughout the year and is very popular."
    ],
    "topic": "Blood sausage",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Blood sausage:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blood sausage",
          "Americas",
          "North America",
          "United States"
        ],
        "ctx": "Blood sausages are very difficult to find in US supermarkets. Brussels and Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin are both home to local grocers who produce blood sausage, due to their large Belgian American populations. Supermarkets throughout Maine also carry locally produced blood pudding due to the state's large French Canadian population. In southeastern Michigan, Polish-style \"kaszanka\" can be found in supermarkets throughout the year and is very popular."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blood sausage:18",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blood sausage",
          "Americas",
          "North America",
          "United States"
        ],
        "ctx": "An Italian-American version of blood sausage in the San Francisco Bay Area is called \"biroldo\" and has pine nuts, raisins, spices, and pig snouts and is made using either pig's or cow's blood. German-style blood sausage and Zungenwurst can be found in Fresno and Santa Rosa, where Russian and Armenian delis offer a wide range of Central European foods. Also, Alpine Village in Torrance, California has Blutwurst due to a considerable German-American population in the South Bay area of Los Angeles County."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blood sausage:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blood sausage",
          "Americas",
          "North America",
          "United States"
        ],
        "ctx": "Blood sausages are very difficult to find in US supermarkets. Brussels and Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin are both home to local grocers who produce blood sausage, due to their large Belgian American populations. Supermarkets throughout Maine also carry locally produced blood pudding due to the state's large French Canadian population. In southeastern Michigan, Polish-style \"kaszanka\" can be found in supermarkets throughout the year and is very popular."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausages are very difficult to find in US supermarkets. Brussels and Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin are both home to local grocers who produce blood sausage, due to their large Belgian American populations. Supermarkets throughout Maine also carry locally produced blood pudding due to the state's large French Canadian population. In southeastern Michigan, Polish-style \"kaszanka\" can be found in supermarkets throughout the year and is very popular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Throughout Central and Eastern Europe, blood sausage, known as \"kishka\" (meaning \"intestine\"), is made with pig's blood and buckwheat kasha. It is also known in Russia as \"krovyanka\" (\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430), or \"krovyanaya kolbasa\" (\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044f\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0431\u0430\u0441\u0430, literally \"blood sausage\"), and includes buckwheat as a main filler, instead of oats or oatmeal. In Ukraine it's called \"krov'yanka\" (\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432'\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430) or \"kryvava kyshka\" (\u043a\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u043a\u0438\u0448\u043a\u0430), and \"kiszka\" or \"kaszanka\" in Poland; \"krvavni\u010dka\" in Slovakia and \"krupniok\" in Silesia. Polish \"salceson\" (\"black\" and \"\") are a type of head cheese (\"brawn\") that contains blood. In Hungary, \"v\u00e9res hurka\" is typically made with pig's blood and barleycorn or cubed bread (typically zsemle) as filler as such also known as \"zseml\u00e9s hurka\" and \"gerslis hurka\". In Bulgaria, \"karvavitsa\" (\u043a\u044a\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430) is usually prepared with pig's blood, fat and a variety of mountain herbs and spices and eaten warm during the winter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "Blood sausage is any sausage made by cooking animal blood with a filler until it is thick enough to congeal when cooled. Pig or cattle blood is most often used. Typical fillers include meat, fat, suet, bread, rice, barley and oatmeal. Varieties include biroldo, black pudding, blood tongue, blutwurst, drisheen, kishka (kaszanka), morcilla, moronga, mustamakkara, sundae, verivorst, and many types of boudin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Barbados, blood sausage, also called pudding, is made with sweet potato (\"batata\"), pig's blood and onions, seasoned with peppers and other herbs and stuffed in pig intestines. Traditionally pig's blood was used to darken the mixture but Browning sauce (caramelized sugar) is sometimes used as a substitute. It is normally served with \"souse\", which is pickled pig's feet, pig's ears and other trimmings. The cooked meat is cut into bite-sized pieces and soaked in a brine made of water, lime juice, cucumbers, hot pepper, and specially prepared seasonings. Blood sausage and souse, more commonly known as pudding and souse, is a Bajan delicacy usually prepared on weekends and special occasions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "An Italian-American version of blood sausage in the San Francisco Bay Area is called \"biroldo\" and has pine nuts, raisins, spices, and pig snouts and is made using either pig's or cow's blood. German-style blood sausage and Zungenwurst can be found in Fresno and Santa Rosa, where Russian and Armenian delis offer a wide range of Central European foods. Also, Alpine Village in Torrance, California has Blutwurst due to a considerable German-American population in the South Bay area of Los Angeles County."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "The meat for the stuffing is finely chopped or minced, and the mandatory fat is often trimmed from other parts. The meat is slightly fried, mixed with finely chopped red onions, salt and optionally fresh chili. Other additions include freshly chopped coriander (dhania or cilantro), garlic, pepper and even beef stock. This is then mixed thoroughly with the fresh blood from the animal, and stuffed into the stomach and intestines, with the openings sewn or tied together with string."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Trinidad and Tobago, the local style of blood sausage is heavily seasoned with local peppers and traditionally prepared from pig's blood, often replaced by pig's liver today. It is sold by local producers as a popular accompaniment to rolls of crusty hops bread or served as an accompaniment to \"trotter souse\", a stew based on trotters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kaszanka",
        "text": "Kaszanka is a traditional blood sausage in the east and central European cuisine. It is made of a mixture of pig's blood, pork offal (commonly liver), and buckwheat or barley (kasza) stuffed in a pig intestine. It is usually flavored with onion, black pepper, and marjoram."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "A similar blood sausage to \"karvavitsa\", called \"krvavica\" (\u043a\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430), made out of similar ingredients, is eaten in Bosnia, Croatia, Serbia, and Slovenia in wintertime, usually with sauerkraut and potatoes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Similarly, in Czech cuisine, \"jelito\" is made from second-rate pork, pig's blood and peeled barley; the stuffing served by itself, unformed, is called \"prejt\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula, \"morcilla\" is made exclusively from pig's blood and once deep fried it is served with a mix of pickled onions, cilantro and spices. It is always consumed in the form of tacos and paired with fresh habanero peppers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Fran\u00e7ois Rabelais in France mentions in his \"fourth book\" (1552) carnavalesque figures called \"forest-dwelling Blood-puddings\" (Saulcis- sons montig\u00e8nes, Boudins sylvatiques) as a farce representing the Swiss and German Protestants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "The sausage is boiled in a large pot (often with other parts of the animal not roasted and used to make soup) for 30\u201345 minutes, and roasted over coals till brown. Sliced, it is served with kachumbari, an onion based salad consisting of tomatoes, red onions and fresh coriander, a bit of chili and squeeze of lemon. The accompanying starch is ugali."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Spain, the \"morcilla\" sausage is a kind of black pudding mainly made with pig blood, with spices, fat, and sometimes vegetables. In Andalusia \"sangre encebollada\" and Valencian \"sang amb ceba \"are popular dishes made with chicken or pork solidified blood and onion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Cajun \"boudin\" is a fresh sausage made with green onions, pork, pork liver (making it somewhat gritty or grainy), and rice. Pig's blood was sometimes added to produce \"boudin rouge\", but this tradition became increasingly rare after the mid-twentieth century due to the decline of the \"boucherie\" (traditional communal butchering) and government health regulations prohibiting the transportation of raw blood. As a result, Cajun \"boudin\" is now usually made without blood; however, blood or \"black\" \"boudin\" can still be purchased."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In the French Antilles, \"boudin cr\u00e9ole\", or \"boudin antillais\" is very popular, this being the French \"boudin noir\" with local Caribbean chilli and other spices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Puerto Rico, blood sausage is known as \"morcilla\". Puerto Rican blood sausage is made with rice, culantro, cilantro, garlic, and Cubanelle pepper. Some contain paprika and annatto. Morcilla is especially popular during Christmas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Tibetan cuisine, sausages or \"gyurma\" refer to blood sausages and are made with yak or sheep's blood which may or may not include either rice or roasted barley flour as filler. The sausage uses natural casing employing the use of yak or sheep's intestine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Brazil there is a version of the blood sausage called \"chouri\u00e7o\" or \"morcela\" (sometimes the Castillian Spanish version \"morcilla\" is used as well), consisting of a fresh sausage made of the blood and fat from pork and usually rice. It is a variation of the Portuguese blood sausage, and it is known for its deep dark color. In some regions, it is popular on barbecues (\"Churrascos\") as a starter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Meghalayan cuisine, \"doh snam\" is type of blood sausage made from pork intestine with local spices and ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In many languages, there is a general term such as \"blood sausage\" (American English) that is used for all sausages that are made from blood, whether or not they include non-animal material such as bread, cereal, and nuts. Sausages that include such material are often referred to with more specific terms, such as \"black pudding\" in English."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "A blood sausage is a sausage filled with blood that is cooked or dried and mixed with a filler until it is thick enough to solidify when cooled. Most commonly, the blood of pigs, sheep, lamb, cow, chicken, or goose is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "As in Europe, several varieties of blood sausage are also popular in Mexico, Newfoundland and Labrador and the southwest United States (moronga), Chile (prietas, \u00f1ache), Argentina, Uruguay, Cuba, and Puerto Rico (morcilla)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Other varieties of blood sausage include \"boudin rouge\" (Creole and Cajun), \"rellena\" or \"moronga\" (Mexico) and \"sanganel\" (Friuli)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausage is known generically as \"longganisang dugo\" (lit. \"blood longaniza\") in the Philippines. A notable type of native pre-colonial blood sausage is \"pinuneg\", which is composed of minced pork and innards in a pork casing made from large intestines that is prepared in the Cordillera Administrative Region of the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausage\n--Africa.\n--Americas.\n----North America.\n------Caribbean.\n------Central America.\n------Mexico.\n------United States.\n----Latin America.\n----South America.\n------Andean.\n------Argentina, Uruguay.\n------Brazil.\n------Chile.\n------Guianas.\n--Asia.\n----East Asia.\n------Hong Kong.\n------Korea.\n------Manchuria and China.\n------Mongolia.\n------Taiwan.\n------Tibet.\n----Southeast Asia.\n------Indonesia.\n------Malaysia.\n------Philippines.\n------Thailand.\n------Vietnam.\n----South Asia.\n------Nepal.\n------India.\n--Europe.\n----Central and Eastern Europe.\n----Northern Europe.\n------Denmark.\n------Estonia.\n------Finland.\n------Iceland.\n------Latvia.\n------Sweden.\n----Southern Europe.\n------Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia, Slovenia.\n------Italy.\n------Portugal.\n------Spain.\n----Western Europe.\n------Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg.\n------France and southern Belgium.\n------Germany and Austria.\n------United Kingdom and Ireland.\n----Symbol of Carnival.\n----Additional varieties.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Nowadays many types of mutura, especially commercial street food versions, do not contain blood. The meat used in the filling can be any fleshy part, but like any other type of sausage, prime cuts are not ordinarily used for the stuffing. Instead the tougher, leaner cuts \u2013 for example the neck \u2013 are trimmed off the bone. The casing for the stuffing is the stomach sac and larger intestines. These are flushed many times with water to clean them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Limbu cuisine, \"sargemba\" or \"sargyangma\" is a type of blood sausage made mostly from pork intestines, pork fat, rice and \"yangben\", a type of edible wild lichen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Italy, regional varieties of blood sausage are known as \"sanguinaccio\". In Tuscany, is a sausage made with pig's blood and fat cooked in a pig's stomach. It is not reheated and is often spread on bread. It is found only in the south of Tuscany in the winter months and even there it can be difficult to come by. \"Biroldo\" is another type of black pudding which can be found in Tuscany, while the version made in southern Lombardy is called \"marsapan\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Chile, the blood sausage is called \"prieta\" (a synonym of \"negra\", black) and tends to have a very thick skin, so is eaten cut open lengthwise. Apart from blood and a little fat, \"prietas\" may contain a variety of ingredients, such as chopped onion and spices, cabbage, peppers, watercress, rice, meat or even dried fruit or nuts. \"Prietas\" or \"morcillas\" are part of the Chilote tradition of \"reitimiento\" involving the slaughter and preparation of a pig."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Other varieties of blood sausage include \"blodp\u00f8lse\" (Norway and Denmark), \"tongenworst\" (with added pigs tongues) (Netherlands), \"mazzit\" (Malta), \"krvavica\" (Balkans), \"krovianka\" (Russia and Ukraine), and \"v\u0117darai\" (Lithuania)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Mustamakkara\" (literally \"black sausage\") is a roasted sausage containing pig's blood and very similar to Estonian \"verivorst\". The sausage is said to originate from Tampere and is considered an integral part of the city's culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In northern region of Nepal, \"Gyuma\" a blood sausage is a popular dish commonly eaten by locals. It is made up on Yak's blood and meat. The fillings also include buck wheat flour and other spices. The sausage is also used in lentils or prepared in stir fry dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Prietas are easily found at supermarkets throughout the country and are available from practically any butcher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Latvia, blood sausage is either called \"asinsdesa\" (blood sausage) or \"putraimu desa\" (groat sausage) because of the added barley groats. It usually served with lingonberry jam and sour cream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Romania, the traditional \"s\u00e2ngerete\" (from \"s\u00e2nge\", \"blood\" in Romanian) is made from shoulder butt pork meat, pork blood and a filler such as pre-boiled rice seasoned with pepper, garlic and basil. It has many regional variants, but the most common are the \"s\u00e2ngerete\" from Transylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Europe and the Americas, typical fillers include meat, fat, suet, bread, cornmeal, onion, chestnuts, barley, oatmeal and buckwheat. On the Iberian Peninsula and in Latin America and Asia, fillers are often made with rice. Sweet variants with sugar, honey, orange peel and spices are also regional specialties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Panama, blood sausage is called \"morcilla\", \"rellena\" or \"tuber\u00eda negra\", and is usually filled with rice. In El Salvador and Nicaragua, it is called \"moronga\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kasha",
        "text": "As Polish blood sausage is prepared with buckwheat, barley or rice, it is called kaszanka (kasha sausage)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Suriname, blood sausage is known by the Dutch name \"bloedworst\", and white pudding by the equally Dutch name \"vleesworst\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "While in Sumatra, Bataknese eats a dish called \" Kidu-Kidu \", a sausage dish made from pork intestines, served with sauce made from pork's blood and spices such as andaliman pepper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Guyana, blood sausage is a very popular snack served at social occasions, and as \"cutters\" when drinking. The main ingredient is cooked rice seasoned with herbs, such as thyme and basil. The rice is mixed with cow's blood, stuffed into cow's or pig's intestine, and boiled until firm, sliced and served with Sour (a mild type of dipping sauce with hot peppers). White pudding is also made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kishka (food)",
        "text": "The sausages are popular in areas of the Midwestern United States, where many Poles emigrated. There are numerous mail order companies and delis that sell various kishkas. As blood is often used as an ingredient, kishkas are considered an acquired taste. Kosher kishka recipes omit animal blood and pork products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "A dish similar to the British black pudding is also made by making batter out of pig's blood and baking it like pancakes. Traditionally, rye flour or oatmeal is used and minced onion is added to the mix. This dish is called \"veriohukainen\" or \"verilettu\" (blood pancake). \"R\u00f6ssypottu\" is a traditional soup in northern Finland with blood pudding as a main ingredient."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Other German variants are \"Zungenwurst\", which is \"Blutwurst\" mixed with pieces of pickled ox tongue, and \"Beutelwurst,\" which is pressed in a linen or paper bag (\"Beutel\"). A variety of \"Blutwurst\", the \"Rotwurst\" from Thuringia (\"Th\u00fcringer Rotwurst\"), has geographical indication protection under EU law, with PGI status. \"Kartoffelwurst\" (potato sausage) is a post-World War II variety popular in the Palatinate, a reduced fat version of \"Blutwurst\" using potato cubes instead of bacon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dinuguan",
        "text": "This dish is rather similar to European-style blood sausage, or British and Irish black pudding in a saucy stew form. It is perhaps closer in appearance and preparation to the Polish soup Czernina or an even more ancient Spartan dish known as \"melas zomos\" (black soup) whose primary ingredients were pork, vinegar and blood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Chinese cuisines, whole coagulated blood is fried or steamed as a snack or cooked in a hot pot. In mainland China, \"blood tofu\" (), or \"red tofu\" (), is most often made with pig's or duck's blood. Like the above dishes, this has no casing but is simply cut into rectangular pieces and cooked. In Northeast China, the \"blood sausage\" was a traditional food which is cooked with sheep or goat blood. In Tibet, congealed yak's blood is a traditional food. Chinese people also used pig blood curd that was consumed by laborers in Kaifeng over 1,000 years ago in the south of China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Antigua, rice pudding is a local delicacy and it is prepared the same way as blood sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Penang or other northern states, pig blood curd (known locally in Penang Hokkien as \"too huet\"; ) is usually served with the local street delicacy Curry Mee (curry noodles). It can also be mixed with some traditional Hokkien dishes as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Portuguese cuisine, there are many varieties of blood sausage. Sausages made of blood are usually called \"morcela\" or \"negrinha\" (a slang term from Portuguese \"negro\" meaning dark or black). There are many varieties around the Portuguese world. There are varieties local to mainland Portugal, the Azores, Hawaii, China, US and India, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "Aside from \"dinuguan\", a native blood sausage known as \"pinuneg\" also exists among the Kankanaey people of the highlands of Luzon. Cubes of pork blood grilled on skewers is also a common street food throughout the Philippines. These are known colloquially as \"betamax\" (after its resemblance to Betamax tapes)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Belgium and the Netherlands, \"bloedworst\" or \"beuling\" is sold in slices. It is generally pan fried; sometimes apples are cooked alongside or on top of the pieces. It is also eaten with apple sauce, brown sugar, syrup or red cabbage. As a cold cut, thin slices are eaten as a sandwich topping. \"Zwarte pens\" are individual blood sausages the size of a banana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "Blood as food\n--Methods of preparation.\n----Sausage.\n----Pancakes.\n----Soups, stews and sauces.\n----Solidified.\n----Raw.\n----Nutrition bars.\n--Religious consumption of blood.\n--Cultural considerations.\n--Dishes.\n----Africa.\n----Americas.\n------Brazil.\n------Colombia.\n------Mexico.\n------Per\u00fa.\n------Ecuador.\n----Asia.\n------China.\n------India.\n------Indonesia.\n------Korea.\n------Nepal.\n------Philippines.\n------Thailand and Laos.\n------Vietnam.\n----Europe.\n------Finland.\n------France.\n------Germany.\n------Greece.\n------Hungary.\n------Italy.\n------Poland.\n------Portugal.\n------Romania.\n------Spain.\n------Sweden.\n------United Kingdom and Ireland.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Finland, pig's blood is used, with milk, flour and molasses, to make blood pancakes veriohukainen, usually served with lingonberry jam. Also different style of sausages are common, mustamakkara and ryynimakkara. In \u00c5land and Bothnia region is also mustaleip\u00e4 or verileip\u00e4 that are bread where liquid of the batter either totally or partially blood. Blackpudding veripalttu is available is some parts of the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In many areas of Latin America, \"morcilla\" is served. \"Morcilla\" is sometimes made with a filler of rice and/or onions, and seasoned with paprika and other spices. In Puerto Rico, it is served fried and mostly consumed during the holidays. In Colombia, \"morcilla\" can have rice, green peas, cilantro or culantro, and is often eaten as an appetizer called \"picada\" or with the traditional dishes \"Bandeja Paisa\" or \"Fritanga\". In Venezuela, \"morcilla\" is often served with \"parrilla\" (barbecue)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Northern Germany pig's blood used to be traditionally mixed with vinegar, scraps, spices and sugar to make schwarzsauer. It's eaten warm or preserved in jars. Changes in taste and lifestyle have made this an uncommon dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Korea, blood as food is known as \"seonji\" ( ; derived from the Manchu word \"senggi\" () meaning \"blood\"). Coagulated cattle \"seonji\" and dried radish greens are added to the beef legbone broth in order to make \"seonji-guk\" (blood curd soup). \"Sundae\", a blood sausage made generally by boiling or steaming cow or pig's intestines that are stuffed with various ingredients, such as pig's blood, cellophane noodles, kimchi, scallions, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Bali, \"Urutan\" is a version of blood sausage made with pork intestine and pork blood. It is served with rice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Romania there is a traditional sausage prepared with blood named \"s\u00e2ngerete\", literally meaning \"a thing from hemoragy\" (it came from \"s\u00e2ngera\" \u2013 \"hemoragy\" from \"s\u00e2nge\" \u2013 \"blood\")), and it is prepared especially during the Ignat (the pig carving holiday)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Migliaccio\" is a black pudding that is traditionally prepared in winter in Romagna. It is a sweet pudding with a thick black filling made with pig's blood, sugar, breadcrumbs, almonds, chocolate, butter and spices contained in a thin pastry crust. A similar pudding is made throughout southern Italy, generally called \"sanguinaccio\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Ecuador and Bolivia the blood sausage is also called \"morcilla\", and is usually filled with rice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Black pudding is the native British version of blood sausage. It is generally made from pork blood and a relatively high proportion of oatmeal. In the past it was occasionally flavoured with pennyroyal, differing from continental European versions in its relatively limited range of ingredients and reliance on oatmeal and barley instead of onions to absorb the blood. It can be eaten cold, as it is cooked in production, grilled, fried or boiled in its skin. It is often served sliced and fried or grilled as part of a traditional full breakfast, a tradition that followed British and Irish emigrants around the world. Black pudding is now part of the local cuisine of New Zealand and the Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "The Luxembourg tr\u00e4ipen includes green cabbage, and is served pan fried with apple sauce. It was eaten in church in the Middle Ages during Carnival and is still consumed for breakfast, baked with apples and topped with apple syrup, during Carnival in the Dutch province of Limburg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Another version in Java called \"saren\" or \"marus\", is made with chicken's blood and usually cut into small cube pieces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Embutidos (or enchidos) and lingui\u00e7a generally contain hashed meat, particularly pork, seasoned with aromatic herbs or spices (pepper, red pepper, paprika, garlic, rosemary, thyme, cloves, ginger, nutmeg, etc.)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Vietnamese 'd\u1ed3i ti\u1ebft' (Northern) or 'd\u1ed3i huy\u1ebft' (Southern) is blood sausage, boiled or fried, made with pork blood, pork fat and basil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Denmark, \"blodp\u00f8lse\" is made from pigs's blood and suet, rye flour, brown sugar, raisins, salt, cinnamon and cardamom stuffed into natural or artificial intestines. It is usually boiled in its skin, eaten hot or cold, sometimes sliced and fried, served with syrup, cinnamon and stewed apples."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In France, there is \", a solidified/curd blood in a pan, and \", a sort of sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "There are other similarly famous kinds being made at Asturias (slightly darker and smaller, used for bean and chickpea stews) and Le\u00f3n (without rice, grilled & spread on toasted bread). Other less popular varieties may add cumin to the pudding mixture, but this is not a standard practice. The cooking method for consumption is typically frying, stewing, grilling or roasting, and usually sliced in one-finger-thick wheelettes (\"rodajas\"). There are many derivative foods made from morcilla, such as omelettes, stuffed red pepper, puff pastry, pizza, flavoured nachos, croquettes, and a range of fillings for different dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corumbela",
        "text": "The blood sausages are very good as well as the \"cateto\" bread, made in a traditional wood oven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Likewise, in Belgium and the Netherlands, the Bloodsausage is a symbol for Carnival (most likely following the invasion of Spain during the Eighty Years' War)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Hong Kong, the dish closest to blood sausage is pig blood curd, which is only made from pig's blood and is not considered a sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Hungary, \"hagym\u00e1s v\u00e9r\" (pan-fried pig's blood with onions) and \"v\u00e9res hurka\" (a kind of blood sausage made with pig's blood, bacon, pork, rice, onion, salt and various herbs and spices) are common winter foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood tongue",
        "text": "Blood tongue, or Zungenwurst (translation tongue sausage), is a variety of German head cheese with blood. It is a large head cheese that is made with pig's blood, suet, bread crumbs and oatmeal with chunks of pickled beef tongue added. It has a slight resemblance to blood sausage. It is commonly sliced and browned in butter or bacon fat prior to consumption. It is sold in markets pre-cooked and its appearance is maroon to black in color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "While \"blood sausage\" in English is understood in Britain, the term is applied only to foreign usage (e.g., in the story \"The Name-Day\" by Saki), or to similar blood-based sausages elsewhere in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausage is popular in Mongolia. In Mongolia a special method of killing sheep was made mandatory by Genghis Khan to save blood for sausage. It appears in the Yasa and is still used today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kishka (food)",
        "text": "One Eastern European kishka type is \"kaszanka\", a blood sausage made with pig's blood and buckwheat or barley, with pig intestines used as a casing. Similar to black pudding, it is traditionally served at breakfast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gyurma",
        "text": "Gyurma is a blood sausage made with yak or sheep's blood in Tibetan cuisine. Rice or roasted barley flour can be added as filler. The sausage uses natural yak or sheep casing (intestine). This sausage is also consumed in the region of Sikkim, Uttrakhand and Ladakh in India and Himalayan regions of Nepal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tr\u00e4ipen",
        "text": "There are many variants to local recipes for its preparation but basically the meat and fat are boiled with salt, then minced and mixed with the finely ground vegetables. Fresh blood is added together with breadcrumbs and spices, and the mixture is put into larger intestine casings. The sausages are then boiled for 15 minutes in a large saucepan until cooked (when punctured, only clear liquid should emerge)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Across Asia, various people create food from congealed animal blood. Most of these food types do not have casings and might be considered a version of sliced sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Mutura\" is a traditional blood sausage dish among the people of central Kenya, although recently its popularity has spread throughout Kenya. It is made with meat, blood, and spices all encased in the animal's intestines or stomach. In Kenya fillers include fresh minced goat, beef, and mutton, fat, and red onions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Other blood-based foods include \"blodkorv\" (blood sausage) which differs from \"blodpudding\" by having raisins, pork tallow and apple sauce in it, \"blodpl\u00e4ttar\" (blood pancakes, similar to the original Finnish dish \"veriohukainen\" above) and \"blodpalt\". There is also a soup made from blood, called \"svartsoppa\" (black soup)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black pudding",
        "text": "Black pudding is a distinct regional type of blood sausage originating in Great Britain and Ireland. It is made from pork or beef blood, with pork fat or beef suet, and a cereal, usually oatmeal, oat groats, or barley groats. The high proportion of cereal, along with the use of certain herbs such as pennyroyal, serves to distinguish black pudding from blood sausages eaten in other parts of the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black pudding",
        "text": "Most traditional recipes from the UK involve stirring the fresh blood, adding fat and some form of rusk, and seasoning, before filling the mixture into a casing and boiling it. Natural casings of beef intestine were formerly used, though modern commercially made puddings use synthetic cellulose skins, and are usually produced from imported dried blood. The relatively limited range of ingredients and use of oats or barley to thicken and absorb the blood is typical of black pudding in comparison to Continental blood sausages. Despite this, black pudding recipes still show more regional variation across the islands than other sausages, with many butchers having their own individual versions. Breadcrumbs or flour are sometimes used to supplement the oats or barley, and the proportion and texture of the fat or suet used can also vary widely. Pennyroyal, marjoram, thyme, and mint are all traditional flavourings: pennyroyal was known as \"pudding-yerb\" in the North Riding of Yorkshire for its use in black puddings. Other herbs and spices sometimes used in traditional black puddings include cumin, rue, and parsley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Many Roman Catholics celebrate Mardi Gras, the last day of carnival, (Literally meaning Carne Vale, farewell to Meat in Italian) with rituals involving the blood sausage. For example, in Spain, they celebrate carnival with \"jud\u00edas con morcilla\" (morcilla is a variation of Blood sausage) followed by the funeral of the sardina."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u010ce\u0161novka",
        "text": "\u010ce\u0161njovka(TSCHESH-nyov-kah) is a Croatian spicy pork garlic sausage from Turopolje."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "When prepared for serving, it is sliced and fried. The style of serving and accompaniments vary across the country, and it is not uncommon to have the \"blodpudding\" act as the meat in a meal. Nationally, the common way is to serve it with lingonberry jam, grated carrots and ice cold milk to drink. Fried bacon or pork side is also common. In Scania, the lingonberry jam is often replaced by finely sliced apples, fried along with the pork."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sremska kobasica",
        "text": "Sremska sausage (in Serbian \"sremska kobasica\") is from Serbia. It has its origin in the Serbian area of Srem. It contains a mixture of beef and pork meat spiced with paprika, black pepper, salt and \"secret spices\". It is slightly smoked and medium ground."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Spanish \"morcilla\" has many variants. The most well-known and widespread is \"morcilla de Burgos\" which contains mainly pork blood and fat, rice, onions, and salt, and is produced in two varieties: cylindrical and gut-shaped. In Albacete and La Mancha, the \"morcilla\" is filled with onions instead of rice, which completely changes the texture. In Extremadura the creamy \"morcilla patatera\" includes roughly mashed potatoes. In the northern regions and the Canary Islands there is a sweet variety known as \"morcilla dulce\". Other varieties introduce breadcrumbs, pine nuts, and almonds, and vary the proportions of the other ingredients or flavourings, some of them considered delicacies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Stornoway black pudding produced on the Isle of Lewis, Scotland, is one of the most renowned varieties and has been granted Protected Geographical Indicator of Origin (PGI) status. Ireland also has two distinctive varieties of black pudding: Sneem Black Pudding from County Kerry, and drisheen, which is distinguished by its gelatinous texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boudin",
        "text": "The Anglo-Norman word meant 'sausage', 'blood sausage' or 'entrails' in general. Its origin is unclear. It has been traced both to Romance and to Germanic roots, but there is not good evidence for either (cf. boudin. The English word \"pudding\" probably comes from .\n* \" ball\": A Cajun variation on . Instead of the filling being stuffed into pork casings, it is rolled into a ball, battered, and deep-fried.\n* : Originally, a white sausage made of pork without the blood. Variants include:\n** French/Belgian boudin blanc, with milk. Generally saut\u00e9ed or grilled.\n** Cajun boudin blanc, made from a pork and rice mixture (much like dirty rice) in pork casings. Often includes pork liver and heart. Generally simmered or braised, although it may also be grilled.\n** (): a traditional French , which may only contain pork meat, fresh whole eggs and milk, and cannot contain any breadcrumbs or flours/starches. It is protected under EU law with a Protected geographical indication status.\n* : A dark-hued blood sausage, containing pork, pig blood, and other ingredients. Variants of the occur in French, Belgian, Cajun and Catalan cuisine. The Catalan version of the is called . In the French Caribbean, it is known as . In Britain a similar sausage is called \"black pudding\", the word \"pudding\" being an anglicized pronunciation of , and probably introduced after the Norman Conquest.\n** : In Louisiana cuisine, a sausage similar to , but with pork blood added to it. This originated from the French .\n* : A green sausage made of pork meat and cabbage and kale. Popular in the Belgian province of Walloon Brabant.\n* : with beetroot, spices, wine and beef or pork blood, in the French-speaking Aosta Valley of Italy;\n* \"Brown-rice \": Brown-rice is a less common variation made from brown rice with taste similar to traditional pork .\n* \"Crawfish \": Popular in Cajun cuisine, crawfish is made with the meat of crawfish tails added to rice. It is often served with cracklins (fried pig skins) and saltine crackers, hot sauce, and ice-cold beer.\n* \"Gator \": Made from alligator, gator can be found sporadically in Louisiana and the Mississippi gulf coast.\n* \"Shrimp \": Similar to crawfish , shrimp is made by adding the shrimp to rice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Galicia, blood pancakes are called filloas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "\"Blodpudding\" is a traditional medieval dish still popular in Sweden. The exact proportions and ingredients vary, partly according to regional preference, but generally it is made from pig's blood, milk, rye or barley flour, diced lard, either beer or \"svagdricka\", treacle and onion, flavoured with allspice and marjoram. It is then poured into forms and oven-baked in a waterbath. Most of the \"blodpudding\" consumed today is made on industrial basis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Most blood sausage dishes in Finland are often eaten with lingonberry jam to sweeten the taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinuneg",
        "text": "Pinuneg is a Filipino blood sausage originating from the Igorots. It is made with pig's blood (sometimes cow's or carabao's blood), minced pork fat, salt, red onions, ginger, and garlic stuffed into a casing made from pig's small intestine. It is traditionally prepared during pig sacrifice ceremonies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palencia",
        "text": "Morcilla is a form of black sausage made from pig's blood. In Castile the pig blood is often flavoured with pieces of pork fat, onions herbs and spices; the addition of rice gives a distinctive texture and flavour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Austria it is often prepared in a dish known as \"Blunzngr\u00f6stl\", which consists of pan-fried potatoes and blood sausage. This is usually served with freshly grated horseradish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Fresh sausage may be red or white. Red sausages contain paprika (piment\u00f3n in Spanish) and are usually fried; they can also contain other spices such as garlic, pepper or thyme. The most popular type of red sausage is perhaps \"txistorra\", a thin and long paprika sausage originating in Navarre. White sausages do not contain paprika and can be fried, boiled in wine, or, more rarely, in water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Estonia, \"verivorst\" (blood sausage) is made of pig's blood, barley groats, pork, marjoram and other flavourings. It is sold and eaten mostly in winter, being a traditional Christmas food. At that time there is a large variety of \"verivorst\" in stores, ranging in shapes and sizes. \"Verivorst\" is usually cooked in an oven, but sometimes also fried in a pan. \"Verivorst\" is often eaten together with lingonberry jam, but occasionally also with butter or sour cream. Another similar dish is called \"verik\u00e4kk\" ((black pudding) or blood dumpling, depending on the shape). The popularity of \"verik\u00e4kk\" has decreased during the past decades (possibly because of its less appealing commercial appearance) and has mostly been substituted by \"verivorst\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Central Mexico, \"morcilla\" is known as \"moronga\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the purpose of filling a sausage with blood?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you wanting to know the uses generally, or specifically to a type of blood sausage, such as those served in Japan, Korea, Scotland, Germany, or Poland?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know of them in general, and why blood is used in them."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Blood puddings are often considered to be one of the oldest forms of sausage. Animals are generally bled at slaughter, and as blood rapidly spoils unless prepared in some way, making a pudding with it is one of the easiest ways of ensuring it does not go to waste. As a product of the slaughtering process, eating black puddings was historically associated with Martinmas, when the annual slaughter of livestock took place."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is Martinmas?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Saint Martin's Day, also called the Feast of Saint Martin, Martinstag or Martinmas, as well as Old Halloween and Old Hallowmas Eve, is the feast day of Saint Martin of Tours and is celebrated on 11 November each year."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why was the slaughtering of livestock done on or around Saint Martin's Day?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In the agricultural calendar formerly used widely in Europe, the day marked natural winter's start, which sees the end of winter preparations, including the butchering of animals."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is there any blood sausage in the U. S.?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Blood sausages are very difficult to find in US supermarkets. Brussels and Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin are both home to local grocers who produce blood sausage, due to their large Belgian American populations. Supermarkets throughout Maine also carry locally produced blood pudding due to the state's large French Canadian population. In southeastern Michigan, Polish-style kaszanka can be found in supermarkets throughout the year and is very popular."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What spices are used in blood sausage?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Morcilla is sometimes made with a filler of rice and/or onions, and seasoned with paprika and other spices. Blodpudding in Sweden is made from pig's blood, milk, rye or barley flour, diced lard, either beer or svagdricka, treacle and onion, flavoured with allspice and marjoram.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "Spices used vary greatly depending on the variety under consideration. For example, local Caribbean chili is used in the French Antilles, paprika is used in many areas of Latin America, and andaliman pepper used in Sumatra."
    ],
    "topic": "Blood sausage",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Blood sausage:20",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blood sausage",
          "Americas",
          "Latin America"
        ],
        "ctx": "In many areas of Latin America, \"morcilla\" is served. \"Morcilla\" is sometimes made with a filler of rice and/or onions, and seasoned with paprika and other spices. In Puerto Rico, it is served fried and mostly consumed during the holidays. In Colombia, \"morcilla\" can have rice, green peas, cilantro or culantro, and is often eaten as an appetizer called \"picada\" or with the traditional dishes \"Bandeja Paisa\" or \"Fritanga\". In Venezuela, \"morcilla\" is often served with \"parrilla\" (barbecue)."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blood sausage:54",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blood sausage",
          "Europe",
          "Northern Europe",
          "Sweden"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"Blodpudding\" is a traditional medieval dish still popular in Sweden. The exact proportions and ingredients vary, partly according to regional preference, but generally it is made from pig's blood, milk, rye or barley flour, diced lard, either beer or \"svagdricka\", treacle and onion, flavoured with allspice and marjoram. It is then poured into forms and oven-baked in a waterbath. Most of the \"blodpudding\" consumed today is made on industrial basis."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blood sausage:10",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blood sausage",
          "Americas",
          "North America",
          "Caribbean"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the French Antilles, \"boudin cr\u00e9ole\", or \"boudin antillais\" is very popular, this being the French \"boudin noir\" with local Caribbean chilli and other spices."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blood sausage:20",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blood sausage",
          "Americas",
          "Latin America"
        ],
        "ctx": "In many areas of Latin America, \"morcilla\" is served. \"Morcilla\" is sometimes made with a filler of rice and/or onions, and seasoned with paprika and other spices. In Puerto Rico, it is served fried and mostly consumed during the holidays. In Colombia, \"morcilla\" can have rice, green peas, cilantro or culantro, and is often eaten as an appetizer called \"picada\" or with the traditional dishes \"Bandeja Paisa\" or \"Fritanga\". In Venezuela, \"morcilla\" is often served with \"parrilla\" (barbecue)."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blood sausage:37",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blood sausage",
          "Asia",
          "Southeast Asia",
          "Indonesia"
        ],
        "ctx": "While in Sumatra, Bataknese eats a dish called \" Kidu-Kidu \", a sausage dish made from pork intestines, served with sauce made from pork's blood and spices such as andaliman pepper."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "The English term \"taro\" was borrowed from the M\u0101ori language of New Zealand when Captain Cook first observed plantations of \"Colocasia\" tubers there in 1769. The form \"taro\" or \"talo\" is widespread among Polynesian languages: in Tahitian; in Samoan and Tongan; in Hawaiian; \"tao\" in Marquesan. All these forms originate from Proto-Polynesian \"*talo\", which itself descended from Proto-Oceanic \"*talos\" (cf. in Fijian) and Proto-Austronesian \"*tales\" (cf. in Javanese). However, irregularity in sound correspondences among the cognate forms in Austronesian suggests that the term may have been borrowed from an Austroasiatic language perhaps somewhere in Borneo and spread from there (cf. proto-Mon-Khmer \"*t2raw\u0294\", Khasi , Khmu \"sro\u0294\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro was probably first native to the lowland wetlands of Malaysia, where it is called \"taloes\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is one of the most ancient cultivated crops. Taro is found widely in tropical and subtropical regions of South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Papua New Guinea, and northern Australia and is highly polymorphic, making taxonomy and distinction between wild and cultivated types difficult. It is believed that they were domesticated independently multiple times, with authors giving possible locations as New Guinea, Mainland Southeast Asia, and northeastern India, based largely on the assumed native range of the wild plants. However, more recent studies have pointed out that wild taro may have a much larger native distribution than previously believed, and wild breeding types may also likely be indigenous to other parts of Island Southeast Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d As\u014d",
        "text": "\"Incorporates information from the Japanese Wikipedia article\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro has been grown for centuries in the United States, though it has never attained the same popularity as in Asian and Pacific nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Urashima Tar\u014d",
        "text": "The tale originates from the legend of Urashimako (Urashima no ko or Ura no Shimako) recorded in various pieces of literature dating to the 8th century, such as the \"Fudoki\" for Tango Province, \"Nihon Shoki\", and the \"Man'y\u014dsh\u016b\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro () is grown in the south coast of Turkey, especially in Mersin, Bozyaz\u0131, Anamur and Antalya. It is boiled in a tomato sauce or cooked with meat, beans and chickpeas. It is often used as a substitute for potato."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro paste, a traditional Cantonese cuisine, which originated from the Chaoshan region in the eastern part of China's Guangdong Province is a dessert made primarily from taro. The taro is steamed and then mashed into a thick paste, which forms the base of the dessert. Lard or fried onion oil is then added for fragrance. The dessert is traditionally sweetened with water chestnut syrup, and served with ginkgo nuts. Modern versions of the dessert include the addition of coconut cream and sweet corn. The dessert is commonly served at traditional Teochew wedding banquet dinners as the last course, marking the end of the banquet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tartalo",
        "text": "suggested that name \"Tartaro\" derived from the Tartar people, just as the word \"ogre\" derived from \"Hungarians\", but Wentworth Webster agreed, though he expressed some doubt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d As\u014d",
        "text": "As\u014d is a patrilineal descendant of the As\u014d clan and is maternally descended from \u014ckubo Toshimichi through his son Count Makino Nobuaki. Through his paternal grandmother the Hon. Kan\u014d Natsuko, he descends from the Tachibana clan of the Miike Domain and from a cadet branch of the \u014ckubo clan, who ruled the Odawara Domain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "It is a food staple in African, Oceanic and South Asian cultures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d As\u014d",
        "text": "As\u014d graduated from the Faculty of Politics and Economics at Gakushuin University, and the London School of Economics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asashio Tar\u014d I",
        "text": "Asashio Tar\u014d I (November 28, 1864 \u2013 August 26, 1920) was a sumo wrestler from Ehime Prefecture, Japan. His highest rank was ozeki."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Taro (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d, Iwate",
        "text": "was a town located in Shimohei District, Iwate Prefecture in Japan. Today it is part of the city of Miyako."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Daniel",
        "text": "Taro's mother, Yasue, is Japanese and his father, Paul Daniel, is American. He grew up in various places throughout the world. He spent most of his elementary school days in Saitama, Japan. He went to Nagoya International School. Taro and his family moved to Spain when he was 14 years old. He speaks English, Spanish and Japanese. He has one younger sister, Kana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro no To",
        "text": "\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Taro may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Urashima Tar\u014d",
        "text": "Local legend also claims native ties to Urashima Tar\u014d, claiming that his father Urashima Tay\u016b was originally from somewhere not far from Yokohama, in Miura District, Kanagawa in Sagami Province. But the father moved to"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Indonesia, taro is widely used for snacks, cakes, crackers, and even macarons, thus it can be easily found everywhere. Some varieties are specially cultivated in accordance with social or geographical traditions. Taro is usually known as \"keladi\", although other varieties are also known as \"talas\", among others. Chinese descendants in Indonesia often eat taro with stewed rice and dried shrimp. The taro is diced and cooked along with the rice, the shrimp, and sesame oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In the Odia language, it is called Saru (\u0b38\u0b3e\u0b30\u0b41). In India, it is used in huge quantities in the Odisha region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Greece, taro grows on Icaria. Icarians credit taro for saving them from famine during World War II. They boil it until tender and serve it as a salad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taros are often prepared like potatoes, eaten boiled, stewed or mashed, generally with salt and sometimes garlic as a condiment, as part of a meal (most often lunch or dinner)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is mashed in the dessert known as taro pur\u00e9e."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alocasia macrorrhizos",
        "text": "The giant taro was originally domesticated in the Philippines, but are known from wild specimens to early Austronesians in Taiwan. From the Philippines, they spread outwards to the rest of Maritime Southeast Asia and eastward to Oceania where it became one of the staple crops of Pacific Islanders. They are one of the four main species of aroids (taros) cultivated by Austronesians primarily as a source of starch, the others being \"Amorphophallus paeoniifolius\", \"Colocasia esculenta\", and \"Cyrtosperma merkusii\", each with multiple cultivated varieties. Their leaves and stems are also edible if cooked thoroughly, though this is rarely done for giant taro as it contains higher amounts of raphides which cause itching."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Mizoram, in north-eastern India, it is called \"b\u00e4l\"; the leaves, stalks and corms are eaten as \"dawl bai\". The leaves and stalks are often traditionally preserved to be eaten in dry season as \"dawl r\u00ebp bai\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ultraman Taro (character)",
        "text": "Taro's name comes from either a stand-alone masculine Japanese given name/common name suffix, or one of the most typical name of a boy in \"otogi-banashi\"/Japanese fairy tales, the latter coinciding with the fairy tale motif in the \"Ultraman Taro\" series. However, in-universe, it is said that this was given by the Father of Ultra, as it meant , which is similarly translated in Earth's culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Corms of the small, round variety are peeled and boiled, then sold either frozen, bagged in their own liquids, or canned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "A similar plant in Japan is called . The \"child\" and \"grandchild\" corms (cormels, cormlets) which bud from the parent \"satoimo\", are called and , respectively, or more generally . \"Satoimo\" has been propagated in Southeast Asia since the late J\u014dmon period. It was a regional staple before rice became predominant. The tuber, \"satoimo\", is often prepared through simmering in fish stock (\"dashi\") and soy sauce. The stalk, , can also be prepared a number of ways, depending on the variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Chiezo",
        "text": "Taro Chiezo (\u5343\u6075\u85cf \u592a\u90ce \"Chiez\u014d Tar\u014d\") is a Japanese artist based in Manhattan. His works include SuperLambBanana, a sculpture in Liverpool, England of a Lamb with its back as a banana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Revolt",
        "text": "The taro (\"Colocasia esculenta\"), referred to in the Azores as \"inhames\" or \"coco\" in Portuguese, is cultivated in many islands of the archipelago. It was first introduced onto the island of S\u00e3o Jorge during the 17th century, probably from southeast Asia, and became popular with the peasant class. Given its nutritional importance, taro was planted in peasant gardens to stave off food crises and famine; in periods when crops failed, the taro was used to supplant local sources of protein."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro root is consumed in the south of Spain. Taro has remained popular in the Canary Islands. In the Canary Islands it is known as \"\u00f1ame\" and is often used in thick vegetable stews, like \"potaje de berros\" (cress potage). Taro is called \"\u00f1ame\" (which normally designates yams) in Canarian Spanish and is a common crop in the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands (Canary Islands, Spain)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, taro is commonly known as \"arrow root\", , or and in some local Bantu languages. It is usually boiled and eaten with tea or other beverages, or as the main starch of a meal. It is also cultivated in Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tareco",
        "text": "It makes part of the popular culture from the Northeast region of Brazil from far. It is said that the tareco was first made in the state of Pernambuco, and then introduced to all Brazil's Northeast. Its presence is noticed in poetry and lyrics; such as the famous song \"Tareco e Mariola\" (Tareco and Mariola), by Fl\u00e1vio Jos\u00e9"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "The Ancient Greek word (, lit. 'lotus root') is the origin of the Modern Greek word (), the word in both Greek and Turkish, and \"kolkas\" () in Arabic. It was borrowed in Latin as \"colocasia\", hence the genus name \"Colocasia\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Mithila, Bihar, taro corms are known as \"\u0259dua\" (\u0905\u0921\u0941\u0906) and its leaves are called \"\u0259dikunch ke paat\" (\u0905\u0921\u093c\u093f\u0915\u0902\u091a \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0924). A curry of taro leaves is made with mustard paste and sour sun-dried mango pulp (\u0906\u092e\u093f\u0932; )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Taro (\"Colocasia esculenta\") is a tropical plant grown primarily for its edible corms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (river)",
        "text": "The Taro (Latin \"Tarus\") is a river in Emilia-Romagna, in northern Italy. It is a tributary of the Po and is long. It flows almost entirely in the province of Parma, west of the city Parma. The Taro flows into the Po near Gramignazzo, a frazione of the comune of Sissa, north of Parma."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asashio Tar\u014d III",
        "text": "He was born on Tokunoshima in the Amami Islands. Due to the Amami Islands being occupied by America, in 1948 he stowed away on a cargo ship and was supported by a relative in Hyogo Prefecture. Making his professional debut in October 1948, he at first fought under his real name. He was billed in sumo as being from Kobe in Hyogo until America returned the Anami Islands to Japan in 1953, and was thereafter billed as being from Kagoshima Prefecture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (department)",
        "text": "The most notable person born in the then-D\u00e9partement of Taro was the composer Giuseppe Verdi (born 9 or 10 October 1813 in the village of Le Roncole near Busseto)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "The islands situated along the border of the three main parts of Oceania (Polynesia, Micronesia and Melanesia) are more prone to being atolls rather than volcanic islands (most prominently Tuvalu, Tokelau, and Kiribati). As a result of this, Taro was not a part of the traditional diet due to the infertile soil and have only become a staple today through importation from other islands (Taro and Cassava cultivars are usually imported from Fiji or Samoa). The traditional staple however is the Swamp Taro known as Pulaka or Babai, a distant relative of the Taro but with a very long growing phase (3\u20135 years), larger and denser corms and coarser leaves. It is grown in a patch of land dug out to give rise to the freshwater lense beneath the soil. The lengthy growing time of this crop usually confines it as a food during festivities much like Pork although it can be preserved by drying out in the sun and storing it somewhere cool and dry to be enjoyed out of harvesting season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro no To",
        "text": "\"Taro no To\" (Japanese title TARO\u306e\u5854) is a 2011 dorama created by NHK. Directed by NHK employees Yoshihiko Nagikawa and Mitsuhiro Fukui, it stars Suzuki Matsuo as Okamoto Taro during his rise to fame and the construction of the Tower of the Sun in Osaka."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "\"Colocasia esculenta\" is thought to be native to Southern India and Southeast Asia, but is widely naturalised. \"Colocasia\" is thought to have originated in the Indomalayan realm, perhaps in East India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. It spread by cultivation eastward into Southeast Asia, East Asia and the Pacific Islands; westward to Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean Basin; and then southward and westward from there into East Africa and West Africa, where it spread to the Caribbean and Americas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d As\u014d",
        "text": "As\u014d, a Catholic, was born in Iizuka in Fukuoka Prefecture on 20 September 1940. His father, Takakichi As\u014d, was the chairman of the Aso Cement Company and a close associate of Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka; his mother Kazuko As\u014d was Prime Minister Shigeru Yoshida's daughter. Tar\u014d is also a great-great-grandson of \u014ckubo Toshimichi, and his wife, Chikako, is the third daughter of Prime Minister Zenk\u014d Suzuki. His younger sister, Nobuko, Princess Tomohito of Mikasa, is a cousin-in-law of Emperor Emeritus Akihito."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Macaronesia this plant has become naturalized, probably as a result of the Portuguese discoveries and is frequently used in the macaronesian diet as an important carb source."
      },
      {
        "title": "Akebono Tar\u014d",
        "text": "is an American-born Japanese former professional sumo wrestler and professional wrestler from Waim\u0101nalo, Hawaii. Joining sumo in Japan in 1988, he was trained by pioneering Hawaiian wrestler Takamiyama and rose swiftly up the rankings, reaching the top division in 1990. After two consecutive \"yusho\" or tournament championships in November 1992 and January 1993 he made history by becoming the first non-Japanese-born wrestler ever to reach \"yokozuna\", the highest rank in sumo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Urashima Tar\u014d",
        "text": "The story itself can be found in much older sources, dating to the 8th century (the Nara period), where the protagonist is styled either \"Urashima no ko\" or \"Ura (no) Shimako\", attested in earlier sources such as the \"Fudoki\" for Tango Province () that survived in excerpts, the \"Man'y\u014dsh\u016b\" and the \"Nihon Shoki\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Oceanian Atolls"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Suruga",
        "text": "is a Japanese musician and actor from Nishinomiya, Hy\u014dgo Prefecture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro\n--Names and etymology.\n--Taxonomy and ecology.\n----Nomenclature and related plants.\n----Description.\n----Distribution and habitat.\n--History.\n--Cultivation.\n--Uses.\n----Culinary.\n------Oceania.\n--------Cook Islands.\n--------Fiji.\n--------Hawaii.\n--------Papua New Guinea.\n--------Polynesia.\n--------Samoa.\n--------Tonga.\n------East Asia.\n--------P.R.China.\n--------Japan.\n--------Korea.\n--------Taiwan.\n------Southeast Asia.\n--------Indonesia.\n--------Philippines.\n--------Thailand.\n--------Vietnam.\n------South Asia.\n--------Bangladesh.\n--------India.\n--------Maldives.\n--------Nepal.\n--------Pakistan.\n--------Sri Lanka.\n------Middle East and Europe.\n--------Cyprus.\n--------Egypt.\n--------Greece.\n--------Lebanon.\n--------Portugal.\n--------Spain.\n--------Turkey.\n------Africa.\n--------East Africa.\n--------South Africa.\n--------West Africa.\n------Americas.\n--------Brazil.\n--------Central America.\n--------Haiti.\n--------Jamaica.\n--------Suriname.\n--------Trinidad and Tobago.\n--------United States.\n--------Venezuela.\n--------West Indies.\n----Ornamental.\n----Laboratory.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Urashima Tar\u014d",
        "text": "Tango Province. This legend adds that when Urashima Tar\u014d returned from the Dragon Place, he was guided to seek his parents' grave in \"Shirahata, Musashi Province\" (in today's Yokohama)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Goto",
        "text": "is a former Japanese football player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Urashima Tar\u014d",
        "text": "Local legend has it that Urashima Tar\u014d once dwelled in the mountains of Kiso, Nagano. This legend originated in near-modern times, from the late Muromachi to Edo periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "T\u00e1rogat\u00f3",
        "text": "Dumitru F\u0103rca\u015f, who was born in Maramure\u015f, made the instrument known all over the world and was considered to be the most famous t\u00e1rogat\u00f3 player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is cultivated and eaten by the Tharu people in the Inner Terai as well. Roots are mixed with dried fish and turmeric, then dried in cakes called \"sidhara\" which are curried with radish, chili, garlic and other spices to accompany rice. The Tharu prepare the leaves in a fried vegetable side-dish that also shows up in Maithili cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asashio Tar\u014d III",
        "text": "was a Japanese professional sumo wrestler from Tokunoshima in the Amami Islands. He was the sport's 46th \"yokozuna\". He was also a sumo coach and head of Takasago stable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kyabetsu Tar\u014d",
        "text": "is a Japanese snack food made by the \"Kad\u014d\" (\u83d3\u9053) company of Ibaraki Prefecture. It consists of balls of corn about 3\u00a0cm in diameter flavoured with small pieces of nori and Japanese brown sauce. It is a relatively low cost snack aimed at children. It is sold in two bag sizes, a 20 yen and a 100 yen bag. The package shows a frog wearing a policeman's hat. Despite the name, the snack does not list cabbage in its ingredients. Its name may be a pun on Momotaro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iyo language",
        "text": "'Seeing it simply as the type of taro they always planted they added it to the taro they are planting now.'"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Colocasia esculenta is a tropical plant grown primarily for its edible corms, a root vegetable most commonly known as taro (), among many other names (see below). It is the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the family Araceae that are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, and petioles. Taro corms are a food staple in African, Oceanic, and South Asian cultures (similar to yams), and taro is believed to have been one of the earliest cultivated plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tariccoia",
        "text": "\"T. arrusensis\" has been collected from the Upper Ordovician (Sandbian to Katian) Riu is Arrus Member, Monte Argentu Formation, Sardinia, Italy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d Okamoto",
        "text": "Taro Okamoto was the son of cartoonist Okamoto Ippei and writer Okamoto Kanoko. He was born in Takatsu, in Kawasaki, Kanagawa Prefecture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Egypt, taro is known as \"qolqas\" (, ). The corms are larger than what would be found in North American supermarkets. After being peeled completely, it is cooked in one of two ways: cut into small cubes and cooked in broth with fresh coriander and chard and served as an accompaniment to meat stew, or sliced and cooked with minced meat and tomato sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Since the late 20th century, taro chips have been available in many supermarkets and natural food stores, and taro is often used in American Chinatowns, in Chinese cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "It is known as (plural) or (singular) in the Zulu language of Southern Africa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Nishidono",
        "text": "Taro Nishidono\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Targho",
        "text": "Targho\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ultraman Taro (character)",
        "text": "As the official website of Tsuburaya Productions stated: \"The mature biological son of Mother and Father of Ultra comes from Nebula M78 of the Land of Light to Earth. On Earth, he assumes the form of Kotaro Higashi, a member of the defense team ZAT. Taro is a member of the Ultra Brothers, lead instructor of the Space Garrison and even a mentor to Ultraman Mebius. His finishing move is Strium Ray, among others.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In the Spanish-speaking countries of the Spanish West Indies taro is called \"\u00f1ame\", the Portuguese variant of which (\"inhame\") is used in former Portuguese colonies where taro is still cultivated, including the Azores and Brazil. In Puerto Rico and Cuba, and the Dominican Republic it is sometimes called \"malanga\" or \"yautia\". In some countries, such as Trinidad and Tobago, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Dominica, the leaves and stem of the \"dasheen\", or taro, are most often cooked and pureed into a thick liquid called callaloo, which is served as a side dish similar to creamed spinach. \"Callaloo\" is sometimes prepared with crab legs, coconut milk, pumpkin, and okra. It is usually served alongside rice or made into a soup along with various other roots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d (given name)",
        "text": ", is a stand-alone masculine Japanese given name or a common name suffix (literally meaning \"eldest son\"). Tar\u014d can also be used as a surname, but the etymology and kanji are different."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Portuguese, it is known as , , , , , or and in Spanish it is called ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Volkswagen Taro",
        "text": "The first Taros manufactured in Hanover, Germany, from 1989-1994 had a 2.4-litre diesel engine with , torque was at 2,400\u00a0rpm, with loading space of and a payload. The Hanover plant only built the Taro with two-wheel drive and a regular cab, although the \"Volkswagen Taro\" name was used for other versions imported from Japan in some European markets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (river)",
        "text": "Taro (river)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tariana language",
        "text": "2\"\u00f5\" occurs only in the following words: \"t\u00f5k\u1ebd\" \"firefly\", \"siwirik\u00f5rena\" \"tapiriri, Tapirira guianensis\", \"nuit\u00f5\" \"daughter! (vocative)\", and -t\u00f5reta \"roll into a thin roll, like a cigarette\". It also occurs word-initially in place names of Tucano origin (e.g. \u00d5r\u00f5reana)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asasekiry\u016b Tar\u014d",
        "text": "Asasekiry\u016b graduated from the National University of Mongolia in June 2010 after studying by correspondence for six years. His thesis was in the history and culture of sumo in Japan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro was consumed by the early Romans in much the same way the potato is today. They called this root vegetable \"colocasia\". The Roman cookbook \"Apicius\" mentions several methods for preparing taro, including boiling, preparing with sauces, and cooking with meat or fowl. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the use of taro dwindled in Europe. This was largely due to the decline of trade and commerce with Egypt, previously controlled by Rome. When the Spanish and Portuguese sailed to the new world, they brought taro along with them. Recently there has been renewed interest in exotic foods and consumption is increasing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d (given name)",
        "text": "Tar\u014d (given name)\n--Possible writings.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro were carried into the Pacific Islands by Austronesian peoples from around 1300 BC, where they became a staple crop of Polynesians, along with other types of \"taros\", like \"Alocasia macrorrhizos\", \"Amorphophallus paeoniifolius\", and \"Cyrtosperma merkusii\". They are the most important and the most preferred among the four, because they were less likely to contain the irritating raphides present in the other plants. Taro is also identified as one of the staples of Micronesia, from archaeological evidence dating back to the pre-colonial Latte Period (c. 900 - 1521 AD), indicating that it was also carried by Micronesians when they colonized the islands. Taro pollen and starch residue have also been identified in Lapita sites, dated to between 1100 BC and 550 BC. Taro was later spread to Madagascar as early as the 1st century AD."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asashio Tar\u014d",
        "text": "Asashio Tar\u014d may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Urashima Tar\u014d",
        "text": "The tale of \"Urashima Taro\" in Keigo Seki's anthology (translated into English 1963), was a version told in Nakatado District, Kagawa. In this variant, Urashima is localized as being from \"Kitamae Oshima\". It incorporates both the motif of the turtle being caught while fishing, and that of Urashima transforming into a crane at the end, which are found in the \"Otogiz\u014dshi\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In the Azores taro is known as \"inhame\" or \"inhame-coco\" and is commonly steamed with potatoes, vegetables and meats or fish. The leaves are sometimes cooked into soups and stews. It is also consumed as a dessert after first being steamed and peeled, then fried in vegetable oil or lard, and finally sprinkled with sugar, cinnamon and nutmeg. Taro grows abundantly in the fertile land of the Azores, as well as in creeks that are fed by mineral springs. Through migration to other countries, the \"inhame\" is found in the Azorean diaspora."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d As\u014d",
        "text": "As a Catholic, As\u014d belongs to the small minority of Japanese Christians, but he has not emphasized his religiosity. As\u014d is the seventh Christian prime minister of Japan, after Takashi Hara, Korekiyo Takahashi, Tetsu Katayama, Ichir\u014d Hatoyama, Masayoshi \u014chira, and his own grandfather Shigeru Yoshida. His Christian name is Francisco (\u30d5\u30e9\u30f3\u30b7\u30b9\u30b3)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Kono",
        "text": "Taro Kono was born on 10 January 1963, in Hiratsuka, Kanagawa, the oldest of the three children of Y\u014dhei K\u014dno, a former President of the Liberal Democratic Party and Speaker of the House of Representatives. He was born into a family of politicians: his father, his grandfather Ichir\u014d K\u014dno, and his great-uncle Kenz\u014d K\u014dno (Speaker of the House of Councillors between 1971 and 1977), were all active in Japanese politics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kirinowaka Tar\u014d",
        "text": "is a former sumo wrestler and current professional wrestler from Ch\u014dy\u014d, Kumamoto, Japan. In sumo, he used the \"shikona\" , while in professional wrestling he is known by the ring name ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In India, taro or eddoe is a common dish served in many ways."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asashio Tar\u014d",
        "text": "Asashio Tar\u014d\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tartalo",
        "text": "Tartaro (or Tartaroa) is the form given in some translated tales and commentary in French and English"
      },
      {
        "title": "Asashio Tar\u014d I",
        "text": "Asashio Tar\u014d I\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Archaeological traces of taro exploitation have been recovered from numerous sites, though whether these were cultivated or wild types can not be ascertained. They include the Niah Caves of Borneo around 10,000 years ago, Ille Cave of Palawan, dated to at least 11,000 year ago; Kuk Swamp of New Guinea, dated to between 8250 BC and 7960 BC; and Kilu Cave in the Solomon Islands dated to around 28,000 to 20,000 years ago. In the case of Kuk Swamp, there is evidence of formalized agriculture emerging by about 10,000 years ago, with evidence of cultivated plots, though which plant was cultivated remains unknown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is the pre-eminent crop of the Cook Islands and surpasses all other crops in terms of land area devoted to production. The prominence of the crop there has led it to be a staple of the population's diet. Taro is grown across the country, but the method of cultivation depends on the nature of the island it is grown on. Taro also plays an important role in the country's export trade. The root is eaten boiled, as is standard across Polynesia. Taro leaves are also eaten, cooked with coconut milk, onion, and meat or fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro no To",
        "text": "Taro no To\n--Overview.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia",
        "text": "There are numerous terms for taro in the Austronesian languages, both specific and generalized. The reconstructed Proto-Austronesian term for taro is \"*cali\", with cognates in Formosan languages including Seediq \"sali\", Thao \"lhari\"; Bunun \"tai\"; and Amis \"tali\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Masushio",
        "text": "Taro Masushio is a Japanese artist and writer living in New York, NY. Masushio attended the University of California, Berkeley where he earned a BA and New York University where he earned an MFA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro pur\u00e9e",
        "text": "Taro pur\u00e9e\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Manipur, another north-eastern state, taro is known as \"pan\". The Kukis calls it \"bal\". Boiled \"bal\" is a snack at lunch along with chutney or hot chili-flakes besides being cooked as a main dish along with smoked or dried meat, beans, and mustard leaves. Sun-dried taro leaves are later used in broth and stews. It is widely available and is eaten in many forms, either baked, boiled, or cooked into a curry with hilsa or with fermented soybeans called \"hawai-zaar\". The leaves are also used in a special traditional dish called \"utti\", cooked with peas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "The taro corm is a traditional staple crop for large parts of Papua New Guinea, with a domestic trade extending its consumption to areas where it is not traditionally grown. Taro from some regions has developed particularly good reputations with (for instance) Lae taro being highly prized."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u00ec",
        "text": "The tar\u00ec coins were generally minted from African gold obtained from Misrata or Tunis in Northern Africa in exchange for grain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Urashima Tar\u014d",
        "text": "As for the relative dating of these texts, an argument has been advanced that places the \"Fudoki\" version as the oldest. The argument dates the \"Tango fudoki\" to shortly after 715, but the compilers refer to an earlier record by , which was identical in content. It has even been suggested by Sh\u016bichi Kat\u014d that this Umakai originally adapted this tale into Japanese from a similar Chinese tale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kepahiang Regency",
        "text": "Taro (Talas Satoimo) is predominantly consumed in Japan whereas most of it is imported from China. However, there is still a shortage in Taro which cannot be covered by imports from China. Due to this fact, Kepahiang aims to grow Taro for the Japanese market. It is grown as a secondary plant next to Sengon trees for instance instead of monocultural plantations which would again create unfavourable dependencies for farmers. The shortage on the Japanese market amounts to 45,000 tons per annum and therefore constitutes significant economic potential for farmers in Kepahiang who can develop the capacities to serve this particular market. Taro is cultivated in line with the B.A.C.K. Model, which prescribes a sustainable cultivation strategy and provides organisational and financial options to farmers as well. It entails the complementary growing approach, combining Sengon and Taro cultivation. Taro is harvested after 5 month and therefore generates income to farmers prior to harvesting the Sengon trees. By that it diversifies the income structures of farmers and lessens dependencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d (given name)",
        "text": "The name Taro can have many different meaning depending on the kanji characters used to write it. The name can also be written using the hiragana or katakana writing systems. Possible variations of the name Taro include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is among the most widely grown species in the group of tropical perennial plants that are referred to as \"elephant ears\" when grown as ornamental plants."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where do most taro come from?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "At around 3.3 million metric tons per year, Nigeria is the largest producer of taro in the world.",
      "Do you mean Taro as in the plant species or Taro as in the Volkswagen pickup truck?"
    ],
    "topic": "Taro",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Taro:22",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Taro",
          "Cultivation"
        ],
        "ctx": "At around 3.3 million metric tons per year, Nigeria is the largest producer of taro in the world. Taro can be grown in paddy fields where water is abundant or in upland situations where water is supplied by rainfall or supplemental irrigation. Taro is one of the few crops (along with rice and lotus) that can be grown under flooded conditions. This is due to air spaces in the petiole, which permit underwater gaseous exchange with the atmosphere. For a maximum dissolved oxygen supply, the water should be cool and flowing. Warm, stagnant water causes basal rotting. For maximum yields, the water level should be controlled so that the base of the plant is always under water."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Taro:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Taro"
        ],
        "ctx": "Colocasia esculenta is a tropical plant grown primarily for its edible corms, a root vegetable most commonly known as taro (), among many other names (see below). It is the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the family Araceae that are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, and petioles. Taro corms are a food staple in African, Oceanic, and South Asian cultures (similar to yams), and taro is believed to have been one of the earliest cultivated plants."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Volkswagen Taro:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Volkswagen Taro"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Volkswagen Taro 1\u00a0tonne pickup truck was introduced in January 1989 by Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles to complement the half\u00a0tonne Caddy pickup / panel van ranges, and the 1\u00a0tonne Transporter van and chassis cab ranges. The name \"tar\u014d\" is a suffix used in Japanese to denote the oldest brother or son, or the first-born son of a family."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "At around 3.3 million metric tons per year, Nigeria is the largest producer of taro in the world. Taro can be grown in paddy fields where water is abundant or in upland situations where water is supplied by rainfall or supplemental irrigation. Taro is one of the few crops (along with rice and lotus) that can be grown under flooded conditions. This is due to air spaces in the petiole, which permit underwater gaseous exchange with the atmosphere. For a maximum dissolved oxygen supply, the water should be cool and flowing. Warm, stagnant water causes basal rotting. For maximum yields, the water level should be controlled so that the base of the plant is always under water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "It is a food staple in African, Oceanic and South Asian cultures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is mashed in the dessert known as taro pur\u00e9e."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taros are often prepared like potatoes, eaten boiled, stewed or mashed, generally with salt and sometimes garlic as a condiment, as part of a meal (most often lunch or dinner)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro () is grown in the south coast of Turkey, especially in Mersin, Bozyaz\u0131, Anamur and Antalya. It is boiled in a tomato sauce or cooked with meat, beans and chickpeas. It is often used as a substitute for potato."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, taro is commonly known as \"arrow root\", , or and in some local Bantu languages. It is usually boiled and eaten with tea or other beverages, or as the main starch of a meal. It is also cultivated in Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kyabetsu Tar\u014d",
        "text": "is a Japanese snack food made by the \"Kad\u014d\" (\u83d3\u9053) company of Ibaraki Prefecture. It consists of balls of corn about 3\u00a0cm in diameter flavoured with small pieces of nori and Japanese brown sauce. It is a relatively low cost snack aimed at children. It is sold in two bag sizes, a 20 yen and a 100 yen bag. The package shows a frog wearing a policeman's hat. Despite the name, the snack does not list cabbage in its ingredients. Its name may be a pun on Momotaro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro paste, a traditional Cantonese cuisine, which originated from the Chaoshan region in the eastern part of China's Guangdong Province is a dessert made primarily from taro. The taro is steamed and then mashed into a thick paste, which forms the base of the dessert. Lard or fried onion oil is then added for fragrance. The dessert is traditionally sweetened with water chestnut syrup, and served with ginkgo nuts. Modern versions of the dessert include the addition of coconut cream and sweet corn. The dessert is commonly served at traditional Teochew wedding banquet dinners as the last course, marking the end of the banquet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Indonesia, taro is widely used for snacks, cakes, crackers, and even macarons, thus it can be easily found everywhere. Some varieties are specially cultivated in accordance with social or geographical traditions. Taro is usually known as \"keladi\", although other varieties are also known as \"talas\", among others. Chinese descendants in Indonesia often eat taro with stewed rice and dried shrimp. The taro is diced and cooked along with the rice, the shrimp, and sesame oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Greece, taro grows on Icaria. Icarians credit taro for saving them from famine during World War II. They boil it until tender and serve it as a salad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Mithila, Bihar, taro corms are known as \"\u0259dua\" (\u0905\u0921\u0941\u0906) and its leaves are called \"\u0259dikunch ke paat\" (\u0905\u0921\u093c\u093f\u0915\u0902\u091a \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0924). A curry of taro leaves is made with mustard paste and sour sun-dried mango pulp (\u0906\u092e\u093f\u0932; )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is the pre-eminent crop of the Cook Islands and surpasses all other crops in terms of land area devoted to production. The prominence of the crop there has led it to be a staple of the population's diet. Taro is grown across the country, but the method of cultivation depends on the nature of the island it is grown on. Taro also plays an important role in the country's export trade. The root is eaten boiled, as is standard across Polynesia. Taro leaves are also eaten, cooked with coconut milk, onion, and meat or fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is cultivated and eaten by the Tharu people in the Inner Terai as well. Roots are mixed with dried fish and turmeric, then dried in cakes called \"sidhara\" which are curried with radish, chili, garlic and other spices to accompany rice. The Tharu prepare the leaves in a fried vegetable side-dish that also shows up in Maithili cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Corms of the small, round variety are peeled and boiled, then sold either frozen, bagged in their own liquids, or canned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Trinidad and Tobago, it is called \"dasheen\". The leaves of the taro plant are used to make the Trinidadian variant of the Caribbean dish known as callaloo (which is made with okra, \"dasheen\"/taro leaves, coconut milk or creme and aromatic herbs) and it is also prepared similarly to steamed spinach. The root of the taro plant is often served boiled, accompanied by stewed fish or meat, curried, often with peas and eaten with roti, or in soups. The leaves are also sauteed with onions, hot pepper and garlic til they are melted to make a dish called \"bhaji\". This dish is popular with Indo-Trinidadian people. The leaves are also fried in a split pea batter to make \"saheena\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "The islands situated along the border of the three main parts of Oceania (Polynesia, Micronesia and Melanesia) are more prone to being atolls rather than volcanic islands (most prominently Tuvalu, Tokelau, and Kiribati). As a result of this, Taro was not a part of the traditional diet due to the infertile soil and have only become a staple today through importation from other islands (Taro and Cassava cultivars are usually imported from Fiji or Samoa). The traditional staple however is the Swamp Taro known as Pulaka or Babai, a distant relative of the Taro but with a very long growing phase (3\u20135 years), larger and denser corms and coarser leaves. It is grown in a patch of land dug out to give rise to the freshwater lense beneath the soil. The lengthy growing time of this crop usually confines it as a food during festivities much like Pork although it can be preserved by drying out in the sun and storing it somewhere cool and dry to be enjoyed out of harvesting season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In the Odia language, it is called Saru (\u0b38\u0b3e\u0b30\u0b41). In India, it is used in huge quantities in the Odisha region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Mizoram, in north-eastern India, it is called \"b\u00e4l\"; the leaves, stalks and corms are eaten as \"dawl bai\". The leaves and stalks are often traditionally preserved to be eaten in dry season as \"dawl r\u00ebp bai\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Manipur, another north-eastern state, taro is known as \"pan\". The Kukis calls it \"bal\". Boiled \"bal\" is a snack at lunch along with chutney or hot chili-flakes besides being cooked as a main dish along with smoked or dried meat, beans, and mustard leaves. Sun-dried taro leaves are later used in broth and stews. It is widely available and is eaten in many forms, either baked, boiled, or cooked into a curry with hilsa or with fermented soybeans called \"hawai-zaar\". The leaves are also used in a special traditional dish called \"utti\", cooked with peas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyrtosperma merkusii",
        "text": "In Nepal, Giant Swamp Taro is called \"mane\" and grows in the tropical and sub tropical forests along stream banks. It is gathered in January\u2013February and all plant parts (leaf, stem, rhizomes) are savored after being boiled and roasted. The stem requires prolonged boiling and the water is replaced once to remove irritating chemicals. If cooked carefully, the rhizomes taste like taro and the leaves like spinach. But without careful washing, the food causes an unpleasant tingling or scratchy sensation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro was consumed by the early Romans in much the same way the potato is today. They called this root vegetable \"colocasia\". The Roman cookbook \"Apicius\" mentions several methods for preparing taro, including boiling, preparing with sauces, and cooking with meat or fowl. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the use of taro dwindled in Europe. This was largely due to the decline of trade and commerce with Egypt, previously controlled by Rome. When the Spanish and Portuguese sailed to the new world, they brought taro along with them. Recently there has been renewed interest in exotic foods and consumption is increasing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Belize, Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Panama, taro is eaten in soups, as a replacement for potatoes, and as chips. It is known locally as \"malanga\" (also \"malanga coco\") and \"dasheen\" in Belize and Costa Rica, \"quiquizque\" in Nicaragua, and as \"otoe\" in Panama."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iyo language",
        "text": "'Seeing it simply as the type of taro they always planted they added it to the taro they are planting now.'"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Odisha, taro corms are known as \"saru\". Dishes made of taro include \"saru besara\" (taro in mustard and garlic paste). It is also an indispensable ingredient in preparing \"dalma\", an Odia cuisine staple (vegetables cooked with dal). Sliced taro corms, deep fried in oil and mixed with red chili powder and salt, are known as \"'saru\" chips'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d As\u014d",
        "text": "\"Incorporates information from the Japanese Wikipedia article\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Taro (\"Colocasia esculenta\") is a tropical plant grown primarily for its edible corms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In the Spanish-speaking countries of the Spanish West Indies taro is called \"\u00f1ame\", the Portuguese variant of which (\"inhame\") is used in former Portuguese colonies where taro is still cultivated, including the Azores and Brazil. In Puerto Rico and Cuba, and the Dominican Republic it is sometimes called \"malanga\" or \"yautia\". In some countries, such as Trinidad and Tobago, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Dominica, the leaves and stem of the \"dasheen\", or taro, are most often cooked and pureed into a thick liquid called callaloo, which is served as a side dish similar to creamed spinach. \"Callaloo\" is sometimes prepared with crab legs, coconut milk, pumpkin, and okra. It is usually served alongside rice or made into a soup along with various other roots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is consumed as a staple crop in West Africa, particularly in Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon. It is called \"cocoyam\" in Nigeria, Ghana and Anglophone Cameroon, \"macabo\" in Francophone Cameroon, \"mankani\" in Hausa language, and in Yoruba, and in Igbo language. \"Cocoyam\" is often boiled, fried, or roasted and eaten with a sauce. In Ghana, it substitutes for plantain in making \"fufu\" when plantains are out of season. It is also cut into small pieces to make a soupy baby food and appetizer called \"mpotompoto\". It is also common in Ghana to find \"cocoyam chips\" (deep-fried slices, about thick). \"Cocoyam\" leaves, locally called \"kontomire\" in Ghana, are a popular vegetable for local sauces such as palaver sauce and egusi/agushi stew. It is also commonly consumed in Guinea and parts of Senegal, as a leaf sauce or as a vegetable side, and is referred to as \"jaabere\" in the local Pulaar dialect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro () is commonly used as a main course as steamed taro with or without sugar, as a substitute for other cereals, in Chinese cuisine in a variety of styles and provinces steamed, boiled or stir-fried as a main dish and as a flavor-enhancing ingredient. In Northern China, it is often boiled or steamed then peeled and eaten with or without sugar much like a potato. It is commonly braised with pork or beef. It is used in the Cantonese dim sum to make a small plated dish called taro dumpling as well as a pan-fried dish called taro cake. It can also be shredded into long strips which are woven together to form a seafood birdsnest. In Fujian cuisine, it is steamed or boiled and mixed with starch to form a dough for dumpling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Taro may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro no To",
        "text": "\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "The taro corm is a traditional staple crop for large parts of Papua New Guinea, with a domestic trade extending its consumption to areas where it is not traditionally grown. Taro from some regions has developed particularly good reputations with (for instance) Lae taro being highly prized."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Gujarat, it is called \"patar vel\" or \"saryia na paan\". Gram flour, salt, turmeric, red chili powder made into paste and stuffed inside a roll of green leaves. Then steamed and in small portions and then fried."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Taro (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Egypt, taro is known as \"qolqas\" (, ). The corms are larger than what would be found in North American supermarkets. After being peeled completely, it is cooked in one of two ways: cut into small cubes and cooked in broth with fresh coriander and chard and served as an accompaniment to meat stew, or sliced and cooked with minced meat and tomato sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "A similar plant in Japan is called . The \"child\" and \"grandchild\" corms (cormels, cormlets) which bud from the parent \"satoimo\", are called and , respectively, or more generally . \"Satoimo\" has been propagated in Southeast Asia since the late J\u014dmon period. It was a regional staple before rice became predominant. The tuber, \"satoimo\", is often prepared through simmering in fish stock (\"dashi\") and soy sauce. The stalk, , can also be prepared a number of ways, depending on the variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "\"L\u016b\" is the Tongan word for the edible leaves of the taro plant (called \"talo\" in Tonga), as well as the traditional dish made using them. This meal is still prepared for special occasions and especially on Sunday. The dish consists of chopped meat, onions, and coconut milk wrapped in a number of taro leaves (\"l\u016b talo\"). This is then wrapped traditionally in a banana leaf (nowadays, aluminum foil is often used) and put in the \"\u02bbumu\" to cook. It has a number of named varieties, dependent on the filling:\n* \"L\u016b pulu\" \u2013 \"l\u016b\" with beef, commonly using imported corned beef (\"kapapulu\")\n* \"L\u016b sipi\" \u2013 \"l\u016b\" with lamb\n* \"L\u016b moa\" \u2013 \"l\u016b\" with chicken\n* \"L\u016b hoosi\" \u2013 \"l\u016b\" with horse meat"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Himachal Pradesh, in northern India, taro corms are known as \"ghandyali\", and the plant is known as \"kachalu\" in the Kangra and Mandi districts. The dish called \"patrodu\" is made using taro leaves rolled with corn or gram flour and boiled in water. Another dish, \"pujji\" is made with mashed leaves and the trunk of the plant and \"ghandyali\" or taro corms are prepared as a separate dish. In Shimla, a pancake-style dish, called \"patra\" or \"patid\", is made using gram flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d As\u014d",
        "text": "In October 2021, during As\u014d's speech for an LDP candidate in Otaru said that Hokkaido rice \"has become tastier thanks to (global) warming,\" also adding that the rice \"used to be unsalable\" but now tastier and even exported \"because of higher temperatures.\" Additionally he made the statement that people often associate global warming and the warmer temperature it brings with it as a negative but that there can be \"something good\" that can come out of it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro has been grown for centuries in the United States, though it has never attained the same popularity as in Asian and Pacific nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Macaronesia this plant has become naturalized, probably as a result of the Portuguese discoveries and is frequently used in the macaronesian diet as an important carb source."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In the Philippines taro is usually called \"gabi\", \"abi\", or \"avi\" and is widely available throughout the archipelago. Its adaptability to marshland and swamps make it one of the most common vegetables in the Philippines. The leaves, stems, and corms are all consumed and form part of the local cuisine. A popular recipe for taro is \"laing\" from the Bicol Region; the dish's main ingredients are taro leaves (at times including stems) cooked in coconut milk, and salted with fermented shrimp or fish \"bagoong\". It is sometimes heavily spiced with red hot chilies called \"siling labuyo\". Another dish in which taro is commonly used is the Philippine national stew, \"sinigang\", although radish can be used if taro is not available. This stew is made with pork and beef, shrimp, or fish, a souring agent (tamarind fruit, \"kamias\", etc.) with the addition of peeled and diced corms as thickener. The corm is also prepared as a basic ingredient for \"ginataan\", a coconut milk and taro dessert."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In the Azores taro is known as \"inhame\" or \"inhame-coco\" and is commonly steamed with potatoes, vegetables and meats or fish. The leaves are sometimes cooked into soups and stews. It is also consumed as a dessert after first being steamed and peeled, then fried in vegetable oil or lard, and finally sprinkled with sugar, cinnamon and nutmeg. Taro grows abundantly in the fertile land of the Azores, as well as in creeks that are fed by mineral springs. Through migration to other countries, the \"inhame\" is found in the Azorean diaspora."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fijian cuisine",
        "text": "Taro is a cool dry starchy root crop, which has a taste similar to artichokes, and is the most important staple for special occasions. It is available in 70 different varieties; some turn pink or yellow or remain white after cooking. It can be grown in any soil conditions. Taro is a rich source of fiber."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro pur\u00e9e",
        "text": "Taro pur\u00e9e, also known as taro mash or taro paste, () is a traditional dessert in Fujianese cuisine and Teochew cuisine. Made from pur\u00e9ed taro and lard and served on a flat plate, the dessert is normally topped with toasted sesame seeds, and occasionally with candied ginkgo, red dates, or melon seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alocasia macrorrhizos",
        "text": "The giant taro was originally domesticated in the Philippines, but are known from wild specimens to early Austronesians in Taiwan. From the Philippines, they spread outwards to the rest of Maritime Southeast Asia and eastward to Oceania where it became one of the staple crops of Pacific Islanders. They are one of the four main species of aroids (taros) cultivated by Austronesians primarily as a source of starch, the others being \"Amorphophallus paeoniifolius\", \"Colocasia esculenta\", and \"Cyrtosperma merkusii\", each with multiple cultivated varieties. Their leaves and stems are also edible if cooked thoroughly, though this is rarely done for giant taro as it contains higher amounts of raphides which cause itching."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Kerala, a state in southern India, taro corms are known as \"chembu kizhangu\" (\u0d1a\u0d47\u0d2e\u0d4d\u0d2a\u0d4d \u0d15\u0d3f\u0d34\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d4d) and are a staple food, a side dish, and an ingredient in various side dishes like sambar. As a staple food, it is steamed and eaten with a spicy chutney of green chilies, tamarind, and shallots. The leaves and stems of certain varieties of taro are also used as a vegetable in Kerala. In Dakshin Kannada in Karnataka, it is used as a breakfast dish, either made like fritters or steamed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Kono",
        "text": "Kono's favorite food is durian. He was named the Honorary Chairman of the Japan Durian Promotion Association when it was established in January 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "People usually consume its edible corm and leaves. The corms, which have a light purple color due to phenolic pigments, are roasted, baked or boiled. The natural sugars give a sweet, nutty flavor. The starch is easily digestible, and since the grains are fine and small it is often used for baby food. Young taro leaves and stems can be eaten after boiling twice to remove the acrid flavor. The leaves are a good source of vitamins A and C and contain more protein than the corms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Considered the staple starch of traditional Polynesian cuisine, taro is both a common and prestigious food item that was first introduced to the Polynesian islands by prehistoric seafarers of Southeast Asian derivation. The tuber itself is prepared in various ways, including baking, steaming in earth ovens (\"umu\" or \"imu\"), boiling, and frying. The famous Hawaiian staple poi is made by mashing steamed taro roots with water. Taro also features in traditional desserts such as Samoan \"fa'ausi\", which consists of grated, cooked taro mixed with coconut milk and brown sugar. The leaves of the taro plant also feature prominently in Polynesian cooking, especially as edible wrappings for dishes such as Hawaiian \"laulau\", Fijian and Samoan \"palusami\" (wrapped around onions and coconut milk), and Tongan \"lupulu\" (wrapped corned beef). Ceremonial presentations on occasion of chiefly rites or communal events (weddings, funerals, etc.) traditionally included the ritual presentation of raw and cooked taro roots/plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro pur\u00e9e",
        "text": "Taro pur\u00e9e\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tareco",
        "text": "It makes part of the popular culture from the Northeast region of Brazil from far. It is said that the tareco was first made in the state of Pernambuco, and then introduced to all Brazil's Northeast. Its presence is noticed in poetry and lyrics; such as the famous song \"Tareco e Mariola\" (Tareco and Mariola), by Fl\u00e1vio Jos\u00e9"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Assam, a north-eastern state, taro is known as \"kosu\" (\u0995\u099a\u09c1). Various parts of the plant are eaten by making different dishes. The leaf buds called \"kosu loti\" (\u0995\u099a\u09c1 \u09b2\u09a4\u09bf) are cooked with sour dried fruits and called \"thekera\" (\u09a5\u09c7\u0995\u09c7\u09f0\u09be) or sometimes eaten alongside tamarind, elephant apple, a small amount of pulses, or fish. Similar dishes are prepared from the long root-like structures called \"kosu thuri\". A sour fried dish is made from its flower (\"kosu kala\"). Porridges are made from the corms themselves, which may also be boiled, seasoned with salt and eaten as snacks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tareco",
        "text": "The tareco () is a little tough biscuit, made of wheat flour, eggs and sugar; that, when put into the oven, get the disk shape."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tardos, Tata",
        "text": "Tardos, Tata\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Uttarakhand and neighboring Nepal, taro is considered a healthy food and is cooked in a variety of ways. The delicate \"gaderi\" (taro variety) of Kumaon, especially from Lobanj, Bageshwar district, is much sought after. Most commonly it is boiled in tamarind water until tender, then diced into cubes which are stir-fried in mustard oil with fenugreek leaves. Another technique for preparation is boiling it in salt water till it is reduced to a porridge. The young leaves called \"gaaba\", are steamed, sun-dried, and stored for later use. Taro leaves and stems are pickled. Crushed leaves and stems are mixed with de-husked \"urad daal\" (black lentils) and then dried as small balls called \"badi\". These stems may also be sun-dried and stored for later use. On auspicious days, women worship \"saptarshi\" (\"seven sages\") and only eat rice with taro leaves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Chiezo",
        "text": "Taro Chiezo (\u5343\u6075\u85cf \u592a\u90ce \"Chiez\u014d Tar\u014d\") is a Japanese artist based in Manhattan. His works include SuperLambBanana, a sculpture in Liverpool, England of a Lamb with its back as a banana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is grown in the Terai and the hilly regions of Nepal. The root (corm) of taro is known as \"pindalu\" (\u092a\u093f\u0901\u0921\u093e\u0932\u0941) and petioles with leaves are known as \"karkalo\" (\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0915\u0932\u094b), \"Gava\" (\u0917\u093e\u092d\u093e) and also Kaichu (\u0915\u0947\u0947\u0947\u0948\u091a\u0941 ) in Maithili. Almost all parts are eaten in different dishes. Boiled corm of Taro is commonly served with salt, spices, and chilies. Taro is a popular dish in the hilly region. Chopped leaves and petioles are mixed with \"Urad\" bean flour to make dried balls called \"maseura\" (\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u094c\u0930\u093e). Large taro leaves are used as an alternative to an umbrella when unexpected rain occurs. Popular attachment to taro since ancient times is reflected in popular culture, such as in songs and textbooks. \"Jivan hamro karkala ko pani jastai ho\" (\u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u0939\u093e\u092e\u094d\u0930\u094b \u0915\u0930\u094d\u0915\u0932\u093e\u0915\u094b \u092a\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u091c\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0948 \u0939\u094b) means, \"Our life is as vulnerable as water stuck in the leaf of taro\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Gujarat, it is called \"Patar Vel\" or \"Saryia Na Paan\" green leaves are used by making a roll, with besan (gram flour), salt, turmeric, red chili powder all put into paste form inside leaves. Then steamed and in small portions, as well as fried in the deep fryer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Samoa, the baby talo leaves and coconut milk are wrapped into parcels and cooked, along with other food, in an earth oven . The parcels are called \"palusami\" or \"lu'au\". The resulting taste is smoky, sweet, savory and has a unique creamy texture. The root is also baked (\"Talo tao\") in the \"umu\" or boiled with coconut cream (\"Fa\u00e1lifu Talo\"). It has a slightly bland and starchy flavor. It is sometimes called the Polynesian potato."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tarhuna",
        "text": "Tarhuna is a leading producer of olive oil, cereals, figs, grapes, sparto grass, and various nuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is called \"dasheen\", in contrast to the smaller variety of corms called \"eddo\", or \"tanya\" in the English speaking countries of the West Indies, and is cultivated and consumed as a staple crop in the region. There are differences among the roots mentioned above: taro or \"dasheen\" is mostly blue when cooked, \"tanya\" is white and very dry, and \"eddoes\" are small and very slimy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro root is consumed in the south of Spain. Taro has remained popular in the Canary Islands. In the Canary Islands it is known as \"\u00f1ame\" and is often used in thick vegetable stews, like \"potaje de berros\" (cress potage). Taro is called \"\u00f1ame\" (which normally designates yams) in Canarian Spanish and is a common crop in the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands (Canary Islands, Spain)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In India, taro or eddoe is a common dish served in many ways."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Korea, taro is called \"toran\" (: \"earth egg\"), and the corm is stewed and the leaf stem is stir-fried. Taro roots can be used for medicinal purposes, particularly for treating insect bites. It is made into the Korean traditional soup \"toranguk\" (\ud1a0\ub780\uad6d). Taro stems are often used as an ingredient in yukgaejang (\uc721\uac1c\uc7a5)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Maharashtra, in western India, the leaves, called \"alu che paana\", are de-veined and rolled with a paste of gram flour. Then seasoned with tamarind paste, red chili powder, turmeric, coriander, asafoetida and salt, and finally steamed. These can be eaten whole, cut into pieces, or shallow fried and eaten as a snack known as \"alu chi wadi\". \"Alu chya panan chi patal bhaji\" a lentil and colocasia leaves curry, is also popular. In Goan as well as Konkani cuisine taro leaves are very popular. A tall-growing variety of taro is extensively used on the western coast of India to make \"patrode\", \"patrade\", or \"patrada\" (lit. \"leaf-pancake\") a dish with gram flour, tamarind and other spices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro cake",
        "text": "A similar dish is prepared in the cuisine of Vietnam, where it is called \"b\u00e1nh khoai m\u00f4n\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Cyprus, taro has been in use since the time of the Roman Empire. Today it is known as \"kolokas\" in Turkish or \"kolokasi\" (\u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03ba\u03ac\u03c3\u03b9) in Greek, which comes from the Ancient Greek name \u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03ba\u03ac\u03c3\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd (\"kolokasion\") for lotus root. It is usually sauteed with celery and onion with pork, chicken or lamb, in a tomato sauce \u2013 a vegetarian version is also available. The cormlets are called \"poulles\" (sing. \"poulla\"), and they are prepared by first being sauteed, followed by decaramelising the vessel with dry red wine and coriander seeds, and finally served with freshly squeezed lemon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro no To",
        "text": "\"Taro no To\" (Japanese title TARO\u306e\u5854) is a 2011 dorama created by NHK. Directed by NHK employees Yoshihiko Nagikawa and Mitsuhiro Fukui, it stars Suzuki Matsuo as Okamoto Taro during his rise to fame and the construction of the Tower of the Sun in Osaka."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In northern Lebanon, it is known as a potato with the name \"borshoushi\" (\"el-orse borshushi\"). It is also prepared as part of a lentil soup with crushed garlic and lemon juice. Also in the north, it is known by the name \"bouzmet\", mainly around Menieh, where it is first peeled, and left to dry in the sun for a couple of days. After that, it is stir-fried in lots of vegetable oil in a casserole until golden brown, then a large amount of wedged, melted onions are added, in addition to water, chickpeas and some seasoning. These are all left to simmer for a few hours, and the result is a stew-like dish. It is considered a hard-to-make delicacy, not only because of the tedious preparation but the consistency and flavour that the taro must reach. The smaller variety of taro is more popular in the north due to its tenderness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Pakistan, taro or \"eddoe\" or \"arvi\" is a very common dish served with or without gravy; a popular dish is \"arvi gosht\", which includes beef, lamb or mutton. The leaves are rolled along with gram flour batter and then fried or steamed to make a dish called \"Pakora\", which is finished by tempering with red chilies and carrom (ajwain) seeds. Taro or \"arvi\" is also cooked with chopped spinach. The dish called \"Arvi Palak\" is the second most renowned dish made of Taro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Colocasia esculenta is a tropical plant grown primarily for its edible corms, a root vegetable most commonly known as taro (), among many other names (see below). It is the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the family Araceae that are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, and petioles. Taro corms are a food staple in African, Oceanic, and South Asian cultures (similar to yams), and taro is believed to have been one of the earliest cultivated plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Since the late 20th century, taro chips have been available in many supermarkets and natural food stores, and taro is often used in American Chinatowns, in Chinese cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Among the Urapmin people of Papua New Guinea, taro (known in Urap as \"ima\") is the main source of sustenance along with the sweet potato (Urap: \"wan\"). In fact, the word for \"food\" in Urap is a compound of these two words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Native Taiwanese",
        "text": "In contrast to sweet potatoes, people from other provinces who moved to Taiwan from mainland China after the end of the World War II are referred to as \"taro people\". For example, it is common in colloquial speech to call older soldiers from other provinces \"old taro\". The offspring of native Taiwanese and Nationalist era migrants are sometimes jokingly called \"taro sweet potatoes.\" Ironically, Taro has a much longer agricultural and culinary history on the island. It commonly found in some Austronesian and Hoklo diets. \"Taro cookies\" are common in some Formosan diets. Paiwan people use a special kiln roast method to preserve dried taro. Dried taro can be eaten alone or cooked, or ground into powder for cooking. In Paiwan cuisine, taro stems can also be used as food ingredients, but specific parts must be cut and specially processed in order to avoid physical discomfort after ingesting. Hoklo people also make a puree dish with taro: fresh taro is peeled and cut into pieces, steamed in a basket, mashed, mixed with lard and sugar, and finally garnished with peanuts, sesame seeds, and butterflied plums. Taro puree is most commonly served as a dessert at the end of the banquet. Other methods include wire-drawing taro, fried taro cake, Muscovy taro, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is one of the most ancient cultivated crops. Taro is found widely in tropical and subtropical regions of South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Papua New Guinea, and northern Australia and is highly polymorphic, making taxonomy and distinction between wild and cultivated types difficult. It is believed that they were domesticated independently multiple times, with authors giving possible locations as New Guinea, Mainland Southeast Asia, and northeastern India, based largely on the assumed native range of the wild plants. However, more recent studies have pointed out that wild taro may have a much larger native distribution than previously believed, and wild breeding types may also likely be indigenous to other parts of Island Southeast Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro cake",
        "text": "Taro cake\n--Variety.\n----Regional home-style.\n----Frozen taro cake.\n--In other cultures.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mmuock Leteh",
        "text": "\"aP\u00e1l\u00e1h\" is made from taro (Colocasia esculenta). Two people are usually involved in the mashing or pounding process: one peels and the other one pounds. Traditionally, the taro does not require any ingredient, although today special bananas may be added. The resulting paste is wrapped in fresh taro leaves and served with \"yellow soup.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Kwaio people",
        "text": "Their main mode of economic activity was traditionally subsistence farming of taro, which could be planted and harvested continuously in swidden agriculture. Other important crops include yams and plantains. Birds, insects, fish, and cuscus were occasional additions to what was mainly a vegetarian diet. Taro production suffered in a severe blight in the 1950s, and has been replaced by the sweet potato, a food of much lower prestige."
      },
      {
        "title": "T\u014dno, Iwate",
        "text": "T\u014dno's food includes \"Genghis Khan\" or barbecued lamb and \"hittsumi\" or wheat dumplings as well as horse meat. The Miyamori part of T\u014dno is known for its \"wasabi\" production and a local brewery makes a \"wasabi\" beer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Nishidono",
        "text": "Taro Nishidono\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Poi (food)",
        "text": "Taro is low in fat, high in vitamin A, and abounds in complex carbohydrates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d, Iwate",
        "text": "was a town located in Shimohei District, Iwate Prefecture in Japan. Today it is part of the city of Miyako."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro dumpling",
        "text": "The outer shell is made from a thick layer of taro that has been boiled and mashed. The filling is made from seasoned ground pork. The dumpling is deep fried, and the outermost layer of taro becomes crisp, light, and fluffy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro was probably first native to the lowland wetlands of Malaysia, where it is called \"taloes\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyrtosperma merkusii",
        "text": "In the Philippines, giant swamp taro is known as \"palawan\" (or \"palauan\"), \"palaw\" (or \"palau\"), or \"payaw\". It is commonly cultivated and harvested for their corms in the Visayas Islands and Mindanao (especially in Siargao and northeastern Mindanao). They are usually prepared in the same way as other taro dishes in the Philippines. They are also used as sweet fillings for pastries like hopia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Goto",
        "text": "is a former Japanese football player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asashio Tar\u014d",
        "text": "Asashio Tar\u014d may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro cake",
        "text": "Taro cake () is a Cantonese dish made from the vegetable taro. While it is denser in texture than radish cakes, both of these savory cakes are made in similar ways, with rice flour as the main ingredient. As a dim sum, it is usually cut into rectangular slices and pan-fried before serving. It is found in Hong Kong, China, and overseas Chinatown restaurants. Other ingredients often include pork and Chinese black mushroom, or even Chinese sausages. It is usually topped with chopped scallions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro (\"dalo\" in Fijian) has been a staple of the Fijian diet for centuries, and its cultural importance is celebrated on Taro Day. Its growth as an export crop began in 1993 when taro leaf blight decimated the taro industry in neighboring Samoa. Fiji filled the void and was soon supplying taro internationally. Almost 80% of Fiji's exported taro comes from the island of Taveuni where the taro beetle species \"Papuana uninodis\" is absent. The Fijian taro industry on the main islands of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu faces constant damage from the beetles. The Fiji Ministry of Agriculture and the Land Resources Division of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) are researching pest control and instigating quarantine restrictions to prevent the spread of the pest. Taveuni now exports pest-damage-free crops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Archaeological traces of taro exploitation have been recovered from numerous sites, though whether these were cultivated or wild types can not be ascertained. They include the Niah Caves of Borneo around 10,000 years ago, Ille Cave of Palawan, dated to at least 11,000 year ago; Kuk Swamp of New Guinea, dated to between 8250 BC and 7960 BC; and Kilu Cave in the Solomon Islands dated to around 28,000 to 20,000 years ago. In the case of Kuk Swamp, there is evidence of formalized agriculture emerging by about 10,000 years ago, with evidence of cultivated plots, though which plant was cultivated remains unknown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In its raw form, the plant is toxic due to the presence of calcium oxalate, and the presence of needle-shaped raphides in the plant cells. However, the toxin can be minimized and the tuber rendered palatable by cooking, or by steeping in cold water overnight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tareco",
        "text": "Tareco\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kepahiang Regency",
        "text": "Taro (Talas Satoimo) is predominantly consumed in Japan whereas most of it is imported from China. However, there is still a shortage in Taro which cannot be covered by imports from China. Due to this fact, Kepahiang aims to grow Taro for the Japanese market. It is grown as a secondary plant next to Sengon trees for instance instead of monocultural plantations which would again create unfavourable dependencies for farmers. The shortage on the Japanese market amounts to 45,000 tons per annum and therefore constitutes significant economic potential for farmers in Kepahiang who can develop the capacities to serve this particular market. Taro is cultivated in line with the B.A.C.K. Model, which prescribes a sustainable cultivation strategy and provides organisational and financial options to farmers as well. It entails the complementary growing approach, combining Sengon and Taro cultivation. Taro is harvested after 5 month and therefore generates income to farmers prior to harvesting the Sengon trees. By that it diversifies the income structures of farmers and lessens dependencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Some other names include \"amadumbe\" or \"madumbi\" in certain languages of South Africa, \"boina\" in Wolaita language of Ethiopia, in Kinyarwanda. In Madagascar, it is known as \"saonjo\". It is \"dasheen\" in Trinidad and Tobago, Saint Lucia and Jamaica."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro ball",
        "text": "The taro balls can be made by mixing mashed taro with water and sweet potato flour or potato flour, making the taro balls more springy or softer respectively. The colour of mashed taro makes the dessert appear crystal purple or grey. The mashed taro can be replaced by mashed sweet potato or ground mung bean and becomes the yellow sweet potato ball () or the green mung bean ball ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Patrode",
        "text": "It is made from colocasia leaves (\"chevu\" in Tulu, taro, \"kesuve\" or \"arbi\") stuffed with gram or rice flour and flavourings such as spices, tamarind, and jaggery (raw sugar)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Turkey, \"Colocasia esculenta\" is locally known as \"g\u00f6levez\" and mainly grown on the Mediterranean coast, such as the Alanya district of Antalya Province and the Anamur district of Mersin Province."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyrtosperma merkusii",
        "text": "Giant swamp taro is the largest of the root crop plants known collectively as Taro, which are cultivated throughout Southeast Asia and the Pacific. Although outwardly similar to Colocasia esculenta, the most widely cultivated taro, it belongs to a different genus. The plant may reach heights of 4\u20136 metres, with leaves and roots much larger than Colocasia esculenta. The sagittate leaves are up to 6' 7\" (2\u00a0meters) long by up to four feet (120\u00a0cm) in width, borne atop petioles or stalks up to 19' 6\" (6\u00a0meters)in length and four inches (10\u00a0cm) wide. It is relatively resistant to disease and pests but is susceptible to taro beetle (\"Papuana\"). The corm, which can reach weights of 80\u00a0kg or even 220 pounds (100\u00a0kg) with a diameter of up to 39 inches (1\u00a0meter) and equally long. is starchy and cream or pink in colour, with a taste similar to sweet potato, though it is drier in texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In the east Indian state of West Bengal, taro corms are thinly sliced and fried to make chips called \"kochu bhaja\"(\u0995\u099a\u09c1 \u09ad\u09be\u099c\u09be). The stem is used to cook \"kochur saag\" (\u0995\u099a\u09c1\u09b0 \u09b6\u09be\u0997) with fried hilsha (ilish) head or boiled \"chhola\" (chickpea), often eaten as a starter with hot rice. The corms are also made into a paste with spices and eaten with rice. The most popular dish is a spicy curry made with prawn and taro corms. \"Gathi kochu\" (\u0997\u09be\u09a0\u09bf \u0995\u099a\u09c1) (taro variety) are very popular and used to make a thick curry called \"gathi kochur dal\" (\u0997\u09be\u09a0\u09bf \u0995\u099a\u09c1\u09b0 \u09a1\u09be\u09b2). Here \"kochur loti\" (\u0995\u099a\u09c1\u09b0 \u09b2\u09a4\u09bf) (taro stolon) dry curry is a popular dish which is usually prepared with poppy seeds and mustard paste. Leaves and corms of \"shola kochu\" (\u09b6\u09b2\u09be \u0995\u099a\u09c1) and \"maan kochu\" (\u09ae\u09be\u09a8 \u0995\u099a\u09c1) are also used to make some popular traditional dishes."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where do most taro come from?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "At around 3.3 million metric tons per year, Nigeria is the largest producer of taro in the world."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What kinda of foods are made with taro?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The kinds of food made with taro vary according to different regions of the world like Oceania, East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia. Which region do you want to know more?",
      "The starch is easily digestible, and since the grains are fine and small it is often used for baby food."
    ],
    "topic": "Taro",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Taro:49",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Taro",
          "Uses",
          "Culinary",
          "Oceania",
          "Tonga"
        ],
        "ctx": "The islands situated along the border of the three main parts of Oceania (Polynesia, Micronesia and Melanesia) are more prone to being atolls rather than volcanic islands (most prominently Tuvalu, Tokelau, and Kiribati). As a result of this, Taro was not a part of the traditional diet due to the infertile soil and have only become a staple today through importation from other islands (Taro and Cassava cultivars are usually imported from Fiji or Samoa). The traditional staple however is the Swamp Taro known as Pulaka or Babai, a distant relative of the Taro but with a very long growing phase (3\u20135 years), larger and denser corms and coarser leaves. It is grown in a patch of land dug out to give rise to the freshwater lense beneath the soil. The lengthy growing time of this crop usually confines it as a food during festivities much like Pork although it can be preserved by drying out in the sun and storing it somewhere cool and dry to be enjoyed out of harvesting season."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Taro:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Taro",
          "Taxonomy and ecology",
          "Distribution and habitat"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"Colocasia esculenta\" is thought to be native to Southern India and Southeast Asia, but is widely naturalised. \"Colocasia\" is thought to have originated in the Indomalayan realm, perhaps in East India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. It spread by cultivation eastward into Southeast Asia, East Asia and the Pacific Islands; westward to Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean Basin; and then southward and westward from there into East Africa and West Africa, where it spread to the Caribbean and Americas."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Taro:54",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Taro",
          "Uses",
          "Culinary",
          "East Asia",
          "Japan"
        ],
        "ctx": "A similar plant in Japan is called . The \"child\" and \"grandchild\" corms (cormels, cormlets) which bud from the parent \"satoimo\", are called and , respectively, or more generally . \"Satoimo\" has been propagated in Southeast Asia since the late J\u014dmon period. It was a regional staple before rice became predominant. The tuber, \"satoimo\", is often prepared through simmering in fish stock (\"dashi\") and soy sauce. The stalk, , can also be prepared a number of ways, depending on the variety."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Taro:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Taro"
        ],
        "ctx": "Colocasia esculenta is a tropical plant grown primarily for its edible corms, a root vegetable most commonly known as taro (), among many other names (see below). It is the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the family Araceae that are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, and petioles. Taro corms are a food staple in African, Oceanic, and South Asian cultures (similar to yams), and taro is believed to have been one of the earliest cultivated plants."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Taro:27",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Taro",
          "Uses",
          "Culinary"
        ],
        "ctx": "People usually consume its edible corm and leaves. The corms, which have a light purple color due to phenolic pigments, are roasted, baked or boiled. The natural sugars give a sweet, nutty flavor. The starch is easily digestible, and since the grains are fine and small it is often used for baby food. Young taro leaves and stems can be eaten after boiling twice to remove the acrid flavor. The leaves are a good source of vitamins A and C and contain more protein than the corms."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "It is a food staple in African, Oceanic and South Asian cultures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "The islands situated along the border of the three main parts of Oceania (Polynesia, Micronesia and Melanesia) are more prone to being atolls rather than volcanic islands (most prominently Tuvalu, Tokelau, and Kiribati). As a result of this, Taro was not a part of the traditional diet due to the infertile soil and have only become a staple today through importation from other islands (Taro and Cassava cultivars are usually imported from Fiji or Samoa). The traditional staple however is the Swamp Taro known as Pulaka or Babai, a distant relative of the Taro but with a very long growing phase (3\u20135 years), larger and denser corms and coarser leaves. It is grown in a patch of land dug out to give rise to the freshwater lense beneath the soil. The lengthy growing time of this crop usually confines it as a food during festivities much like Pork although it can be preserved by drying out in the sun and storing it somewhere cool and dry to be enjoyed out of harvesting season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Oceanian Atolls"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taros are often prepared like potatoes, eaten boiled, stewed or mashed, generally with salt and sometimes garlic as a condiment, as part of a meal (most often lunch or dinner)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is mashed in the dessert known as taro pur\u00e9e."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Indonesia, taro is widely used for snacks, cakes, crackers, and even macarons, thus it can be easily found everywhere. Some varieties are specially cultivated in accordance with social or geographical traditions. Taro is usually known as \"keladi\", although other varieties are also known as \"talas\", among others. Chinese descendants in Indonesia often eat taro with stewed rice and dried shrimp. The taro is diced and cooked along with the rice, the shrimp, and sesame oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Taro (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro cake",
        "text": "Taro cake\n--Variety.\n----Regional home-style.\n----Frozen taro cake.\n--In other cultures.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kyabetsu Tar\u014d",
        "text": "is a Japanese snack food made by the \"Kad\u014d\" (\u83d3\u9053) company of Ibaraki Prefecture. It consists of balls of corn about 3\u00a0cm in diameter flavoured with small pieces of nori and Japanese brown sauce. It is a relatively low cost snack aimed at children. It is sold in two bag sizes, a 20 yen and a 100 yen bag. The package shows a frog wearing a policeman's hat. Despite the name, the snack does not list cabbage in its ingredients. Its name may be a pun on Momotaro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is the pre-eminent crop of the Cook Islands and surpasses all other crops in terms of land area devoted to production. The prominence of the crop there has led it to be a staple of the population's diet. Taro is grown across the country, but the method of cultivation depends on the nature of the island it is grown on. Taro also plays an important role in the country's export trade. The root is eaten boiled, as is standard across Polynesia. Taro leaves are also eaten, cooked with coconut milk, onion, and meat or fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro () is grown in the south coast of Turkey, especially in Mersin, Bozyaz\u0131, Anamur and Antalya. It is boiled in a tomato sauce or cooked with meat, beans and chickpeas. It is often used as a substitute for potato."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro no To",
        "text": "\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Corms of the small, round variety are peeled and boiled, then sold either frozen, bagged in their own liquids, or canned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fijian cuisine",
        "text": "Taro is a cool dry starchy root crop, which has a taste similar to artichokes, and is the most important staple for special occasions. It is available in 70 different varieties; some turn pink or yellow or remain white after cooking. It can be grown in any soil conditions. Taro is a rich source of fiber."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro has been grown for centuries in the United States, though it has never attained the same popularity as in Asian and Pacific nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Considered the staple starch of traditional Polynesian cuisine, taro is both a common and prestigious food item that was first introduced to the Polynesian islands by prehistoric seafarers of Southeast Asian derivation. The tuber itself is prepared in various ways, including baking, steaming in earth ovens (\"umu\" or \"imu\"), boiling, and frying. The famous Hawaiian staple poi is made by mashing steamed taro roots with water. Taro also features in traditional desserts such as Samoan \"fa'ausi\", which consists of grated, cooked taro mixed with coconut milk and brown sugar. The leaves of the taro plant also feature prominently in Polynesian cooking, especially as edible wrappings for dishes such as Hawaiian \"laulau\", Fijian and Samoan \"palusami\" (wrapped around onions and coconut milk), and Tongan \"lupulu\" (wrapped corned beef). Ceremonial presentations on occasion of chiefly rites or communal events (weddings, funerals, etc.) traditionally included the ritual presentation of raw and cooked taro roots/plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Greece, taro grows on Icaria. Icarians credit taro for saving them from famine during World War II. They boil it until tender and serve it as a salad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Taro (\"Colocasia esculenta\") is a tropical plant grown primarily for its edible corms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Taro may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Kono",
        "text": "Kono's favorite food is durian. He was named the Honorary Chairman of the Japan Durian Promotion Association when it was established in January 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alocasia brisbanensis",
        "text": "The plant, related to Taro, is edible when well cooked. The closely related and almost indistinguishable plant \"Alocasia macrorrhizos\" is cultivated as a food plant in some parts of Oceania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro cake",
        "text": "Taro cake () is a Cantonese dish made from the vegetable taro. While it is denser in texture than radish cakes, both of these savory cakes are made in similar ways, with rice flour as the main ingredient. As a dim sum, it is usually cut into rectangular slices and pan-fried before serving. It is found in Hong Kong, China, and overseas Chinatown restaurants. Other ingredients often include pork and Chinese black mushroom, or even Chinese sausages. It is usually topped with chopped scallions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Samoa, the baby talo leaves and coconut milk are wrapped into parcels and cooked, along with other food, in an earth oven . The parcels are called \"palusami\" or \"lu'au\". The resulting taste is smoky, sweet, savory and has a unique creamy texture. The root is also baked (\"Talo tao\") in the \"umu\" or boiled with coconut cream (\"Fa\u00e1lifu Talo\"). It has a slightly bland and starchy flavor. It is sometimes called the Polynesian potato."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is cultivated and eaten by the Tharu people in the Inner Terai as well. Roots are mixed with dried fish and turmeric, then dried in cakes called \"sidhara\" which are curried with radish, chili, garlic and other spices to accompany rice. The Tharu prepare the leaves in a fried vegetable side-dish that also shows up in Maithili cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "The taro corm is a traditional staple crop for large parts of Papua New Guinea, with a domestic trade extending its consumption to areas where it is not traditionally grown. Taro from some regions has developed particularly good reputations with (for instance) Lae taro being highly prized."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "\"L\u016b\" is the Tongan word for the edible leaves of the taro plant (called \"talo\" in Tonga), as well as the traditional dish made using them. This meal is still prepared for special occasions and especially on Sunday. The dish consists of chopped meat, onions, and coconut milk wrapped in a number of taro leaves (\"l\u016b talo\"). This is then wrapped traditionally in a banana leaf (nowadays, aluminum foil is often used) and put in the \"\u02bbumu\" to cook. It has a number of named varieties, dependent on the filling:\n* \"L\u016b pulu\" \u2013 \"l\u016b\" with beef, commonly using imported corned beef (\"kapapulu\")\n* \"L\u016b sipi\" \u2013 \"l\u016b\" with lamb\n* \"L\u016b moa\" \u2013 \"l\u016b\" with chicken\n* \"L\u016b hoosi\" \u2013 \"l\u016b\" with horse meat"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro was consumed by the early Romans in much the same way the potato is today. They called this root vegetable \"colocasia\". The Roman cookbook \"Apicius\" mentions several methods for preparing taro, including boiling, preparing with sauces, and cooking with meat or fowl. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the use of taro dwindled in Europe. This was largely due to the decline of trade and commerce with Egypt, previously controlled by Rome. When the Spanish and Portuguese sailed to the new world, they brought taro along with them. Recently there has been renewed interest in exotic foods and consumption is increasing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro paste, a traditional Cantonese cuisine, which originated from the Chaoshan region in the eastern part of China's Guangdong Province is a dessert made primarily from taro. The taro is steamed and then mashed into a thick paste, which forms the base of the dessert. Lard or fried onion oil is then added for fragrance. The dessert is traditionally sweetened with water chestnut syrup, and served with ginkgo nuts. Modern versions of the dessert include the addition of coconut cream and sweet corn. The dessert is commonly served at traditional Teochew wedding banquet dinners as the last course, marking the end of the banquet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro\n--Names and etymology.\n--Taxonomy and ecology.\n----Nomenclature and related plants.\n----Description.\n----Distribution and habitat.\n--History.\n--Cultivation.\n--Uses.\n----Culinary.\n------Oceania.\n--------Cook Islands.\n--------Fiji.\n--------Hawaii.\n--------Papua New Guinea.\n--------Polynesia.\n--------Samoa.\n--------Tonga.\n------East Asia.\n--------P.R.China.\n--------Japan.\n--------Korea.\n--------Taiwan.\n------Southeast Asia.\n--------Indonesia.\n--------Philippines.\n--------Thailand.\n--------Vietnam.\n------South Asia.\n--------Bangladesh.\n--------India.\n--------Maldives.\n--------Nepal.\n--------Pakistan.\n--------Sri Lanka.\n------Middle East and Europe.\n--------Cyprus.\n--------Egypt.\n--------Greece.\n--------Lebanon.\n--------Portugal.\n--------Spain.\n--------Turkey.\n------Africa.\n--------East Africa.\n--------South Africa.\n--------West Africa.\n------Americas.\n--------Brazil.\n--------Central America.\n--------Haiti.\n--------Jamaica.\n--------Suriname.\n--------Trinidad and Tobago.\n--------United States.\n--------Venezuela.\n--------West Indies.\n----Ornamental.\n----Laboratory.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d As\u014d",
        "text": "\"Incorporates information from the Japanese Wikipedia article\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro cake",
        "text": "A similar dish is prepared in the cuisine of Vietnam, where it is called \"b\u00e1nh khoai m\u00f4n\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional street food",
        "text": "Alcapurria, masa made from cassava or traditional \"taro\" with green banana. The masa is filled with meat or seafood. The masa can also contains a small amount of potatoes, plantains, and/or calabazas (tropical pumpkins). Picadillo is the typical stuffing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "A similar plant in Japan is called . The \"child\" and \"grandchild\" corms (cormels, cormlets) which bud from the parent \"satoimo\", are called and , respectively, or more generally . \"Satoimo\" has been propagated in Southeast Asia since the late J\u014dmon period. It was a regional staple before rice became predominant. The tuber, \"satoimo\", is often prepared through simmering in fish stock (\"dashi\") and soy sauce. The stalk, , can also be prepared a number of ways, depending on the variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pineapple tart",
        "text": "Pineapple tart\n--General description.\n--Regions.\n----Indonesia.\n----Malaysia and Singapore.\n----Taiwan.\n----Australia.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, taro is commonly known as \"arrow root\", , or and in some local Bantu languages. It is usually boiled and eaten with tea or other beverages, or as the main starch of a meal. It is also cultivated in Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Among the Urapmin people of Papua New Guinea, taro (known in Urap as \"ima\") is the main source of sustenance along with the sweet potato (Urap: \"wan\"). In fact, the word for \"food\" in Urap is a compound of these two words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tareco",
        "text": "The tareco () is a little tough biscuit, made of wheat flour, eggs and sugar; that, when put into the oven, get the disk shape."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Manipur, another north-eastern state, taro is known as \"pan\". The Kukis calls it \"bal\". Boiled \"bal\" is a snack at lunch along with chutney or hot chili-flakes besides being cooked as a main dish along with smoked or dried meat, beans, and mustard leaves. Sun-dried taro leaves are later used in broth and stews. It is widely available and is eaten in many forms, either baked, boiled, or cooked into a curry with hilsa or with fermented soybeans called \"hawai-zaar\". The leaves are also used in a special traditional dish called \"utti\", cooked with peas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Macaronesia this plant has become naturalized, probably as a result of the Portuguese discoveries and is frequently used in the macaronesian diet as an important carb source."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d As\u014d",
        "text": "In October 2021, during As\u014d's speech for an LDP candidate in Otaru said that Hokkaido rice \"has become tastier thanks to (global) warming,\" also adding that the rice \"used to be unsalable\" but now tastier and even exported \"because of higher temperatures.\" Additionally he made the statement that people often associate global warming and the warmer temperature it brings with it as a negative but that there can be \"something good\" that can come out of it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iyo language",
        "text": "'Seeing it simply as the type of taro they always planted they added it to the taro they are planting now.'"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro pur\u00e9e",
        "text": "Taro pur\u00e9e\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In the Azores taro is known as \"inhame\" or \"inhame-coco\" and is commonly steamed with potatoes, vegetables and meats or fish. The leaves are sometimes cooked into soups and stews. It is also consumed as a dessert after first being steamed and peeled, then fried in vegetable oil or lard, and finally sprinkled with sugar, cinnamon and nutmeg. Taro grows abundantly in the fertile land of the Azores, as well as in creeks that are fed by mineral springs. Through migration to other countries, the \"inhame\" is found in the Azorean diaspora."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oceanic cuisine",
        "text": "Since the region of Oceania consists of islands, seafood is a prominent part of the diet, with vegetables such as potatoes, sweet potato, taro and yams being the main starch. Coconut, and its derivative products such as coconut milk, coconut oil and coconut sugar are an important ingredient in the tropics of Oceania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poi (food)",
        "text": "Taro is low in fat, high in vitamin A, and abounds in complex carbohydrates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is one of the most ancient cultivated crops. Taro is found widely in tropical and subtropical regions of South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Papua New Guinea, and northern Australia and is highly polymorphic, making taxonomy and distinction between wild and cultivated types difficult. It is believed that they were domesticated independently multiple times, with authors giving possible locations as New Guinea, Mainland Southeast Asia, and northeastern India, based largely on the assumed native range of the wild plants. However, more recent studies have pointed out that wild taro may have a much larger native distribution than previously believed, and wild breeding types may also likely be indigenous to other parts of Island Southeast Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u00f4 K\u00f4no",
        "text": "</contributor>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Poi (food)",
        "text": "Although many of the world's people consume taro, only Hawaiians make poi. Hawaiians traditionally cook the starchy, potato-like heart of the taro corm for hours in an underground oven called an \"imu\", which is also used to cook other types of food such as pork, carrots, and sweet potatoes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia",
        "text": "There are numerous terms for taro in the Austronesian languages, both specific and generalized. The reconstructed Proto-Austronesian term for taro is \"*cali\", with cognates in Formosan languages including Seediq \"sali\", Thao \"lhari\"; Bunun \"tai\"; and Amis \"tali\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is grown in the Terai and the hilly regions of Nepal. The root (corm) of taro is known as \"pindalu\" (\u092a\u093f\u0901\u0921\u093e\u0932\u0941) and petioles with leaves are known as \"karkalo\" (\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0915\u0932\u094b), \"Gava\" (\u0917\u093e\u092d\u093e) and also Kaichu (\u0915\u0947\u0947\u0947\u0948\u091a\u0941 ) in Maithili. Almost all parts are eaten in different dishes. Boiled corm of Taro is commonly served with salt, spices, and chilies. Taro is a popular dish in the hilly region. Chopped leaves and petioles are mixed with \"Urad\" bean flour to make dried balls called \"maseura\" (\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u094c\u0930\u093e). Large taro leaves are used as an alternative to an umbrella when unexpected rain occurs. Popular attachment to taro since ancient times is reflected in popular culture, such as in songs and textbooks. \"Jivan hamro karkala ko pani jastai ho\" (\u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u0939\u093e\u092e\u094d\u0930\u094b \u0915\u0930\u094d\u0915\u0932\u093e\u0915\u094b \u092a\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u091c\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0948 \u0939\u094b) means, \"Our life is as vulnerable as water stuck in the leaf of taro\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro () is commonly used as a main course as steamed taro with or without sugar, as a substitute for other cereals, in Chinese cuisine in a variety of styles and provinces steamed, boiled or stir-fried as a main dish and as a flavor-enhancing ingredient. In Northern China, it is often boiled or steamed then peeled and eaten with or without sugar much like a potato. It is commonly braised with pork or beef. It is used in the Cantonese dim sum to make a small plated dish called taro dumpling as well as a pan-fried dish called taro cake. It can also be shredded into long strips which are woven together to form a seafood birdsnest. In Fujian cuisine, it is steamed or boiled and mixed with starch to form a dough for dumpling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Hawaii",
        "text": "For centuries taro, and the \"poi\" made from it, was the main staple of their diet, and it is still much loved today. In addition to taro the Polynesians brought sweet potatoes. These are believed to have come from Polynesian contact with the New World."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alocasia macrorrhizos",
        "text": "The giant taro was originally domesticated in the Philippines, but are known from wild specimens to early Austronesians in Taiwan. From the Philippines, they spread outwards to the rest of Maritime Southeast Asia and eastward to Oceania where it became one of the staple crops of Pacific Islanders. They are one of the four main species of aroids (taros) cultivated by Austronesians primarily as a source of starch, the others being \"Amorphophallus paeoniifolius\", \"Colocasia esculenta\", and \"Cyrtosperma merkusii\", each with multiple cultivated varieties. Their leaves and stems are also edible if cooked thoroughly, though this is rarely done for giant taro as it contains higher amounts of raphides which cause itching."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Belize, Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Panama, taro is eaten in soups, as a replacement for potatoes, and as chips. It is known locally as \"malanga\" (also \"malanga coco\") and \"dasheen\" in Belize and Costa Rica, \"quiquizque\" in Nicaragua, and as \"otoe\" in Panama."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro no To",
        "text": "Taro no To\n--Overview.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Mithila, Bihar, taro corms are known as \"\u0259dua\" (\u0905\u0921\u0941\u0906) and its leaves are called \"\u0259dikunch ke paat\" (\u0905\u0921\u093c\u093f\u0915\u0902\u091a \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0924). A curry of taro leaves is made with mustard paste and sour sun-dried mango pulp (\u0906\u092e\u093f\u0932; )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alocasia macrorrhizos",
        "text": "The reconstructed word for giant taro in Proto-Austronesian is \"*biRaq\", which became Proto-Oceanic \"*piRaq\". Modern cognates in Maritime Southeast Asia and Micronesia include Rukai \"vi'a\" or \"bi'a\"; Ifugao \"bila\"; Ilocano, Cebuano, and Bikol \"biga\"; Tiruray \"bira\"; Ngaju \"biha\"; Malagasy \"via\"; Malay and Acehnese \"birah\"; Mongondow \"biga\"; Palauan \"b\u00eds\u0259\"; Chamorro \"piga\"; Bima \"wia\"; Roti and Tetun \"fia\"; Asilulu \"hila\"; and Kowiai \"fira\". In Oceania, cognates for it include Wuvulu and Aua \"pia\"; Motu and 'Are'are \"hira\"; Kilivila and Fijian \"via\"; and Hawaiian \"pia\". Note that in some cases, the cognates have shifted to mean other types of taro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro cake",
        "text": "The other version is the more home-style baked version. Usually it uses the same ingredients and steamed for long periods of time in a deep pan until it is ultra soft and pasty. The formula varies greatly depending on the family recipe or regional tastes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In the Philippines taro is usually called \"gabi\", \"abi\", or \"avi\" and is widely available throughout the archipelago. Its adaptability to marshland and swamps make it one of the most common vegetables in the Philippines. The leaves, stems, and corms are all consumed and form part of the local cuisine. A popular recipe for taro is \"laing\" from the Bicol Region; the dish's main ingredients are taro leaves (at times including stems) cooked in coconut milk, and salted with fermented shrimp or fish \"bagoong\". It is sometimes heavily spiced with red hot chilies called \"siling labuyo\". Another dish in which taro is commonly used is the Philippine national stew, \"sinigang\", although radish can be used if taro is not available. This stew is made with pork and beef, shrimp, or fish, a souring agent (tamarind fruit, \"kamias\", etc.) with the addition of peeled and diced corms as thickener. The corm is also prepared as a basic ingredient for \"ginataan\", a coconut milk and taro dessert."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro ball",
        "text": "The taro balls can be made by mixing mashed taro with water and sweet potato flour or potato flour, making the taro balls more springy or softer respectively. The colour of mashed taro makes the dessert appear crystal purple or grey. The mashed taro can be replaced by mashed sweet potato or ground mung bean and becomes the yellow sweet potato ball () or the green mung bean ball ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Native Taiwanese",
        "text": "In contrast to sweet potatoes, people from other provinces who moved to Taiwan from mainland China after the end of the World War II are referred to as \"taro people\". For example, it is common in colloquial speech to call older soldiers from other provinces \"old taro\". The offspring of native Taiwanese and Nationalist era migrants are sometimes jokingly called \"taro sweet potatoes.\" Ironically, Taro has a much longer agricultural and culinary history on the island. It commonly found in some Austronesian and Hoklo diets. \"Taro cookies\" are common in some Formosan diets. Paiwan people use a special kiln roast method to preserve dried taro. Dried taro can be eaten alone or cooked, or ground into powder for cooking. In Paiwan cuisine, taro stems can also be used as food ingredients, but specific parts must be cut and specially processed in order to avoid physical discomfort after ingesting. Hoklo people also make a puree dish with taro: fresh taro is peeled and cut into pieces, steamed in a basket, mashed, mixed with lard and sugar, and finally garnished with peanuts, sesame seeds, and butterflied plums. Taro puree is most commonly served as a dessert at the end of the banquet. Other methods include wire-drawing taro, fried taro cake, Muscovy taro, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Odisha, taro corms are known as \"saru\". Dishes made of taro include \"saru besara\" (taro in mustard and garlic paste). It is also an indispensable ingredient in preparing \"dalma\", an Odia cuisine staple (vegetables cooked with dal). Sliced taro corms, deep fried in oil and mixed with red chili powder and salt, are known as \"'saru\" chips'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In northern Lebanon, it is known as a potato with the name \"borshoushi\" (\"el-orse borshushi\"). It is also prepared as part of a lentil soup with crushed garlic and lemon juice. Also in the north, it is known by the name \"bouzmet\", mainly around Menieh, where it is first peeled, and left to dry in the sun for a couple of days. After that, it is stir-fried in lots of vegetable oil in a casserole until golden brown, then a large amount of wedged, melted onions are added, in addition to water, chickpeas and some seasoning. These are all left to simmer for a few hours, and the result is a stew-like dish. It is considered a hard-to-make delicacy, not only because of the tedious preparation but the consistency and flavour that the taro must reach. The smaller variety of taro is more popular in the north due to its tenderness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In the Odia language, it is called Saru (\u0b38\u0b3e\u0b30\u0b41). In India, it is used in huge quantities in the Odisha region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tarua",
        "text": "Tarua\n--Preparation.\n--Variations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u00f4 K\u00f4no",
        "text": "<contributor>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia",
        "text": "The giant taro (\"Alocasia macrorrhizos\") was originally domesticated in the Philippines, but are known from wild specimens to early Austronesians in Taiwan. From the Philippines, they spread outwards to the rest of Island Southeast Asia and eastward to Oceania where it became one of the staple crops of Pacific Islanders. They are one of the four main species of aroids (taros) cultivated by Austronesians primarily as a source of starch, the others being \"Amorphophallus paeoniifolius\", \"Colocasia esculenta\", and \"Cyrtosperma merkusii\", each with multiple cultivated varieties. Their leaves and stems are also edible if cooked thoroughly, though this is rarely done for giant taro as it contains higher amounts of raphides which cause itching."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u00f4 K\u00f4no",
        "text": "Tar\u00f4 K\u00f4no\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Targho",
        "text": "Targho\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Nishidono",
        "text": "Taro Nishidono\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tariana language",
        "text": "2\"\u00f5\" occurs only in the following words: \"t\u00f5k\u1ebd\" \"firefly\", \"siwirik\u00f5rena\" \"tapiriri, Tapirira guianensis\", \"nuit\u00f5\" \"daughter! (vocative)\", and -t\u00f5reta \"roll into a thin roll, like a cigarette\". It also occurs word-initially in place names of Tucano origin (e.g. \u00d5r\u00f5reana)."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of twin towns and sister cities in Oceania",
        "text": "Tari\n* Band\u014d, Japan"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Assam, a north-eastern state, taro is known as \"kosu\" (\u0995\u099a\u09c1). Various parts of the plant are eaten by making different dishes. The leaf buds called \"kosu loti\" (\u0995\u099a\u09c1 \u09b2\u09a4\u09bf) are cooked with sour dried fruits and called \"thekera\" (\u09a5\u09c7\u0995\u09c7\u09f0\u09be) or sometimes eaten alongside tamarind, elephant apple, a small amount of pulses, or fish. Similar dishes are prepared from the long root-like structures called \"kosu thuri\". A sour fried dish is made from its flower (\"kosu kala\"). Porridges are made from the corms themselves, which may also be boiled, seasoned with salt and eaten as snacks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Mizoram, in north-eastern India, it is called \"b\u00e4l\"; the leaves, stalks and corms are eaten as \"dawl bai\". The leaves and stalks are often traditionally preserved to be eaten in dry season as \"dawl r\u00ebp bai\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro ball",
        "text": "Taro ball () is a traditional Taiwanese cuisine dessert made of taro. It can be found in almost every part of Taiwan and other parts of the world selling Taiwanese desserts, among which Jiufen's taro ball is said to be the most famous."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Himachal Pradesh, in northern India, taro corms are known as \"ghandyali\", and the plant is known as \"kachalu\" in the Kangra and Mandi districts. The dish called \"patrodu\" is made using taro leaves rolled with corn or gram flour and boiled in water. Another dish, \"pujji\" is made with mashed leaves and the trunk of the plant and \"ghandyali\" or taro corms are prepared as a separate dish. In Shimla, a pancake-style dish, called \"patra\" or \"patid\", is made using gram flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bunlap",
        "text": "On the interior slopes of the island, villagers grow taro, a widely cultivated tropical Asian plant (\"Colocasia esculenta\") having broad peltate leaves and a large starchy edible tuber."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asashio Tar\u014d",
        "text": "Asashio Tar\u014d may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Asashio Tar\u014d I",
        "text": "Asashio Tar\u014d I\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In the Spanish-speaking countries of the Spanish West Indies taro is called \"\u00f1ame\", the Portuguese variant of which (\"inhame\") is used in former Portuguese colonies where taro is still cultivated, including the Azores and Brazil. In Puerto Rico and Cuba, and the Dominican Republic it is sometimes called \"malanga\" or \"yautia\". In some countries, such as Trinidad and Tobago, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Dominica, the leaves and stem of the \"dasheen\", or taro, are most often cooked and pureed into a thick liquid called callaloo, which is served as a side dish similar to creamed spinach. \"Callaloo\" is sometimes prepared with crab legs, coconut milk, pumpkin, and okra. It is usually served alongside rice or made into a soup along with various other roots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Egypt, taro is known as \"qolqas\" (, ). The corms are larger than what would be found in North American supermarkets. After being peeled completely, it is cooked in one of two ways: cut into small cubes and cooked in broth with fresh coriander and chard and served as an accompaniment to meat stew, or sliced and cooked with minced meat and tomato sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Kondo",
        "text": "Taro Kondo\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Colocasia esculenta is a tropical plant grown primarily for its edible corms, a root vegetable most commonly known as taro (), among many other names (see below). It is the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the family Araceae that are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, and petioles. Taro corms are a food staple in African, Oceanic, and South Asian cultures (similar to yams), and taro is believed to have been one of the earliest cultivated plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tarahara",
        "text": "It is famous in the eastern region primarily for Sekuwa (roasted meat)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mmuock Leteh",
        "text": "\"aP\u00e1l\u00e1h\" is made from taro (Colocasia esculenta). Two people are usually involved in the mashing or pounding process: one peels and the other one pounds. Traditionally, the taro does not require any ingredient, although today special bananas may be added. The resulting paste is wrapped in fresh taro leaves and served with \"yellow soup.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Tarua",
        "text": "Tarua is made from cutting green vegetables and vegetable leafs into different shapes. They are dipped in a batter made from gram flour or rice flour with added black pepper, red chili powder and salt, which is later deep fried in oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (river)",
        "text": "Taro (river)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro (\"dalo\" in Fijian) has been a staple of the Fijian diet for centuries, and its cultural importance is celebrated on Taro Day. Its growth as an export crop began in 1993 when taro leaf blight decimated the taro industry in neighboring Samoa. Fiji filled the void and was soon supplying taro internationally. Almost 80% of Fiji's exported taro comes from the island of Taveuni where the taro beetle species \"Papuana uninodis\" is absent. The Fijian taro industry on the main islands of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu faces constant damage from the beetles. The Fiji Ministry of Agriculture and the Land Resources Division of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) are researching pest control and instigating quarantine restrictions to prevent the spread of the pest. Taveuni now exports pest-damage-free crops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Island",
        "text": "Taro Island\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u00f4 K\u00f4no",
        "text": "<revision>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u00f4 K\u00f4no",
        "text": "<ns>0</ns>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Ueno",
        "text": "Taro Ueno\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro root is consumed in the south of Spain. Taro has remained popular in the Canary Islands. In the Canary Islands it is known as \"\u00f1ame\" and is often used in thick vegetable stews, like \"potaje de berros\" (cress potage). Taro is called \"\u00f1ame\" (which normally designates yams) in Canarian Spanish and is a common crop in the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands (Canary Islands, Spain)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u00f4 K\u00f4no",
        "text": "<minor />"
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u00f6sti",
        "text": "In Palau, instead of potato, r\u00f6sti is prepared from the grated corm of taro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Binaki",
        "text": "A variant among the Maranao people derived from the Bukidnon is . However, it has diverged greatly and is generally considered a separate dish. It uses grated cassava primarily, with only bits of grated young corn kernels mixed in. It is sold wrapped in banana leaves like \"suman\", although it can also be wrapped in corn husk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asashio Tar\u014d",
        "text": "Asashio Tar\u014d\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyrtosperma merkusii",
        "text": "In Nepal, Giant Swamp Taro is called \"mane\" and grows in the tropical and sub tropical forests along stream banks. It is gathered in January\u2013February and all plant parts (leaf, stem, rhizomes) are savored after being boiled and roasted. The stem requires prolonged boiling and the water is replaced once to remove irritating chemicals. If cooked carefully, the rhizomes taste like taro and the leaves like spinach. But without careful washing, the food causes an unpleasant tingling or scratchy sensation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taroq",
        "text": "Taroq\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d, Iwate",
        "text": "was a town located in Shimohei District, Iwate Prefecture in Japan. Today it is part of the city of Miyako."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where do most taro come from?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "At around 3.3 million metric tons per year, Nigeria is the largest producer of taro in the world."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What kinda of foods are made with taro?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The kinds of food made with taro vary according to different regions of the world like Oceania, East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia. Which region do you want to know more?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Please let me know more about the Oceania region."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Would you like to know more of its use in the Cook Islands, Fiji, Hawaii, or Papua New Guinea?"
    ],
    "topic": "Taro",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Taro:30",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Taro",
          "Uses",
          "Culinary",
          "Oceania",
          "Cook Islands"
        ],
        "ctx": "Taro is the pre-eminent crop of the Cook Islands and surpasses all other crops in terms of land area devoted to production. The prominence of the crop there has led it to be a staple of the population's diet. Taro is grown across the country, but the method of cultivation depends on the nature of the island it is grown on. Taro also plays an important role in the country's export trade. The root is eaten boiled, as is standard across Polynesia. Taro leaves are also eaten, cooked with coconut milk, onion, and meat or fish."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Taro:31",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Taro",
          "Uses",
          "Culinary",
          "Oceania",
          "Fiji"
        ],
        "ctx": "Taro (\"dalo\" in Fijian) has been a staple of the Fijian diet for centuries, and its cultural importance is celebrated on Taro Day. Its growth as an export crop began in 1993 when taro leaf blight decimated the taro industry in neighboring Samoa. Fiji filled the void and was soon supplying taro internationally. Almost 80% of Fiji's exported taro comes from the island of Taveuni where the taro beetle species \"Papuana uninodis\" is absent. The Fijian taro industry on the main islands of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu faces constant damage from the beetles. The Fiji Ministry of Agriculture and the Land Resources Division of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) are researching pest control and instigating quarantine restrictions to prevent the spread of the pest. Taveuni now exports pest-damage-free crops."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Taro:32",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Taro",
          "Uses",
          "Culinary",
          "Oceania",
          "Hawaii"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"Kalo\" is the Hawaiian name for the taro plant. The local crop plays an important role in Hawaiian culture, mythology, and cuisine. Taro is a traditional staple of the native cuisine of Hawaii. Some of the uses for taro include poi, table taro (steamed and served like a potato), taro chips, and l\u016b\u02bbau leaf (to make laulau). In Hawaii, kalo is farmed under either dryland or wetland conditions. Taro farming in the Hawaiian Islands is challenging because of the difficulties of accessing fresh water. Kalo is usually grown in \"pond fields\" known as \"lo\u02bbi\". Typical dryland or \"upland\" varieties (varieties grown in watered but not flooded fields) in Hawaii are \"lehua maoli\" and \"bun long\", the latter widely known as \"Chinese taro\". \"Bun long\" is used for making taro chips. \"Dasheen\" (also called \"eddo\") is another dryland variety of \"C. esculenta\" grown for its edible corms or as an ornamental plant. A contemporary Hawaiian diet consists of many tuberous plants, particularly sweet potato and kalo."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Taro:19",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Taro",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "Taro is one of the most ancient cultivated crops. Taro is found widely in tropical and subtropical regions of South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Papua New Guinea, and northern Australia and is highly polymorphic, making taxonomy and distinction between wild and cultivated types difficult. It is believed that they were domesticated independently multiple times, with authors giving possible locations as New Guinea, Mainland Southeast Asia, and northeastern India, based largely on the assumed native range of the wild plants. However, more recent studies have pointed out that wild taro may have a much larger native distribution than previously believed, and wild breeding types may also likely be indigenous to other parts of Island Southeast Asia."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "The islands situated along the border of the three main parts of Oceania (Polynesia, Micronesia and Melanesia) are more prone to being atolls rather than volcanic islands (most prominently Tuvalu, Tokelau, and Kiribati). As a result of this, Taro was not a part of the traditional diet due to the infertile soil and have only become a staple today through importation from other islands (Taro and Cassava cultivars are usually imported from Fiji or Samoa). The traditional staple however is the Swamp Taro known as Pulaka or Babai, a distant relative of the Taro but with a very long growing phase (3\u20135 years), larger and denser corms and coarser leaves. It is grown in a patch of land dug out to give rise to the freshwater lense beneath the soil. The lengthy growing time of this crop usually confines it as a food during festivities much like Pork although it can be preserved by drying out in the sun and storing it somewhere cool and dry to be enjoyed out of harvesting season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Oceanian Atolls"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro\n--Names and etymology.\n--Taxonomy and ecology.\n----Nomenclature and related plants.\n----Description.\n----Distribution and habitat.\n--History.\n--Cultivation.\n--Uses.\n----Culinary.\n------Oceania.\n--------Cook Islands.\n--------Fiji.\n--------Hawaii.\n--------Papua New Guinea.\n--------Polynesia.\n--------Samoa.\n--------Tonga.\n------East Asia.\n--------P.R.China.\n--------Japan.\n--------Korea.\n--------Taiwan.\n------Southeast Asia.\n--------Indonesia.\n--------Philippines.\n--------Thailand.\n--------Vietnam.\n------South Asia.\n--------Bangladesh.\n--------India.\n--------Maldives.\n--------Nepal.\n--------Pakistan.\n--------Sri Lanka.\n------Middle East and Europe.\n--------Cyprus.\n--------Egypt.\n--------Greece.\n--------Lebanon.\n--------Portugal.\n--------Spain.\n--------Turkey.\n------Africa.\n--------East Africa.\n--------South Africa.\n--------West Africa.\n------Americas.\n--------Brazil.\n--------Central America.\n--------Haiti.\n--------Jamaica.\n--------Suriname.\n--------Trinidad and Tobago.\n--------United States.\n--------Venezuela.\n--------West Indies.\n----Ornamental.\n----Laboratory.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "The English term \"taro\" was borrowed from the M\u0101ori language of New Zealand when Captain Cook first observed plantations of \"Colocasia\" tubers there in 1769. The form \"taro\" or \"talo\" is widespread among Polynesian languages: in Tahitian; in Samoan and Tongan; in Hawaiian; \"tao\" in Marquesan. All these forms originate from Proto-Polynesian \"*talo\", which itself descended from Proto-Oceanic \"*talos\" (cf. in Fijian) and Proto-Austronesian \"*tales\" (cf. in Javanese). However, irregularity in sound correspondences among the cognate forms in Austronesian suggests that the term may have been borrowed from an Austroasiatic language perhaps somewhere in Borneo and spread from there (cf. proto-Mon-Khmer \"*t2raw\u0294\", Khasi , Khmu \"sro\u0294\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Macaronesia this plant has become naturalized, probably as a result of the Portuguese discoveries and is frequently used in the macaronesian diet as an important carb source."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alocasia macrorrhizos",
        "text": "The reconstructed word for giant taro in Proto-Austronesian is \"*biRaq\", which became Proto-Oceanic \"*piRaq\". Modern cognates in Maritime Southeast Asia and Micronesia include Rukai \"vi'a\" or \"bi'a\"; Ifugao \"bila\"; Ilocano, Cebuano, and Bikol \"biga\"; Tiruray \"bira\"; Ngaju \"biha\"; Malagasy \"via\"; Malay and Acehnese \"birah\"; Mongondow \"biga\"; Palauan \"b\u00eds\u0259\"; Chamorro \"piga\"; Bima \"wia\"; Roti and Tetun \"fia\"; Asilulu \"hila\"; and Kowiai \"fira\". In Oceania, cognates for it include Wuvulu and Aua \"pia\"; Motu and 'Are'are \"hira\"; Kilivila and Fijian \"via\"; and Hawaiian \"pia\". Note that in some cases, the cognates have shifted to mean other types of taro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is the pre-eminent crop of the Cook Islands and surpasses all other crops in terms of land area devoted to production. The prominence of the crop there has led it to be a staple of the population's diet. Taro is grown across the country, but the method of cultivation depends on the nature of the island it is grown on. Taro also plays an important role in the country's export trade. The root is eaten boiled, as is standard across Polynesia. Taro leaves are also eaten, cooked with coconut milk, onion, and meat or fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Considered the staple starch of traditional Polynesian cuisine, taro is both a common and prestigious food item that was first introduced to the Polynesian islands by prehistoric seafarers of Southeast Asian derivation. The tuber itself is prepared in various ways, including baking, steaming in earth ovens (\"umu\" or \"imu\"), boiling, and frying. The famous Hawaiian staple poi is made by mashing steamed taro roots with water. Taro also features in traditional desserts such as Samoan \"fa'ausi\", which consists of grated, cooked taro mixed with coconut milk and brown sugar. The leaves of the taro plant also feature prominently in Polynesian cooking, especially as edible wrappings for dishes such as Hawaiian \"laulau\", Fijian and Samoan \"palusami\" (wrapped around onions and coconut milk), and Tongan \"lupulu\" (wrapped corned beef). Ceremonial presentations on occasion of chiefly rites or communal events (weddings, funerals, etc.) traditionally included the ritual presentation of raw and cooked taro roots/plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Samoa, the baby talo leaves and coconut milk are wrapped into parcels and cooked, along with other food, in an earth oven . The parcels are called \"palusami\" or \"lu'au\". The resulting taste is smoky, sweet, savory and has a unique creamy texture. The root is also baked (\"Talo tao\") in the \"umu\" or boiled with coconut cream (\"Fa\u00e1lifu Talo\"). It has a slightly bland and starchy flavor. It is sometimes called the Polynesian potato."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poi (food)",
        "text": "Although many of the world's people consume taro, only Hawaiians make poi. Hawaiians traditionally cook the starchy, potato-like heart of the taro corm for hours in an underground oven called an \"imu\", which is also used to cook other types of food such as pork, carrots, and sweet potatoes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia",
        "text": "The reconstructed word for giant taro in Proto-Austronesian is \"*biRaq\", which became Proto-Oceanic \"*piRaq\". Modern cognates for it in Island Southeast Asia and Micronesia include Rukai \"vi'a\" or \"bi'a\"; Ifugao \"bila\"; Ilocano, Cebuano, and Bikol \"biga\"; Tiruray \"bira\"; Ngaju \"biha\"; Malagasy \"via\"; Malay and Acehnese \"birah\"; Mongondow \"biga\"; Palauan \"b\u00eds\u0259\"; Chamorro \"piga\"; Bima \"wia\"; Roti and Tetun \"fia\"; Asilulu \"hila\"; and Kowiai \"fira\". In Oceania, cognates for it include Wuvulu and Aua \"pia\"; Motu and 'Are'are \"hira\"; Kilivila and Fijian \"via\"; and Hawaiian \"pia\". Note that in some cases, the cognates have shifted to mean other types of taro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ampullariidae",
        "text": "Hawaii experienced the same introduction of \"Pomacea\" for culinary purposes, and its taro industry is now suffering because of it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyrtosperma merkusii",
        "text": "Cyrtosperma merkusii or giant swamp taro, is a crop grown throughout Oceania and into South and Southeast Asia. It is a riverine and \"swamp crop\" similar to taro, but \"with bigger leaves and larger, coarser roots.\" There are no demonstrably wild populations today, but it is believed to be native to Indonesia. It is known as \"puraka\" in Cook Islands, \"lak\" in Yap (Federated States of Micronesia), \"babai\" in Kiribati, \"iaraj\" in the Marshall Islands, \"brak\" in Palau, \"baba\" in the Marianas Islands, \"pula\u2019a\" in Samoa, \"via kana\", Pulaka in Lau is not edible it has no corm but Leaves and stalk is used for cooking and making Lovo in Fiji, \"pulaka\" in Tokelau and Tuvalu, \"mwahng\" in Pohnpei, \"pasruk\" in Kosrae, \"simiden\" in Chuuk, \"swam taro\" in Papua New Guinea, \"navia\" in Vanuatu and \"palawan\" in the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro has been grown for centuries in the United States, though it has never attained the same popularity as in Asian and Pacific nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "The Hawaiian \"laulau\" traditionally contains pork, fish, and \"lu'au\" (cooked taro leaf). The wrapping is inedible \"ti\" leaves (Hawaiian: \"lau ki\"). Cooked taro leaf has the consistency of cooked spinach and is therefore unsuitable for use as a wrapping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "\"Kalo\" is the Hawaiian name for the taro plant. The local crop plays an important role in Hawaiian culture, mythology, and cuisine. Taro is a traditional staple of the native cuisine of Hawaii. Some of the uses for taro include poi, table taro (steamed and served like a potato), taro chips, and l\u016b\u02bbau leaf (to make laulau). In Hawaii, kalo is farmed under either dryland or wetland conditions. Taro farming in the Hawaiian Islands is challenging because of the difficulties of accessing fresh water. Kalo is usually grown in \"pond fields\" known as \"lo\u02bbi\". Typical dryland or \"upland\" varieties (varieties grown in watered but not flooded fields) in Hawaii are \"lehua maoli\" and \"bun long\", the latter widely known as \"Chinese taro\". \"Bun long\" is used for making taro chips. \"Dasheen\" (also called \"eddo\") is another dryland variety of \"C. esculenta\" grown for its edible corms or as an ornamental plant. A contemporary Hawaiian diet consists of many tuberous plants, particularly sweet potato and kalo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "It is a food staple in African, Oceanic and South Asian cultures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Hawaii",
        "text": "Samoans arrived in 1919, building their earth ovens above ground instead of below like the \"imu\", and made \"poi\" from fruit instead of taro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia",
        "text": "There are numerous terms for taro in the Austronesian languages, both specific and generalized. The reconstructed Proto-Austronesian term for taro is \"*cali\", with cognates in Formosan languages including Seediq \"sali\", Thao \"lhari\"; Bunun \"tai\"; and Amis \"tali\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Indonesia, taro is widely used for snacks, cakes, crackers, and even macarons, thus it can be easily found everywhere. Some varieties are specially cultivated in accordance with social or geographical traditions. Taro is usually known as \"keladi\", although other varieties are also known as \"talas\", among others. Chinese descendants in Indonesia often eat taro with stewed rice and dried shrimp. The taro is diced and cooked along with the rice, the shrimp, and sesame oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alocasia brisbanensis",
        "text": "The plant, related to Taro, is edible when well cooked. The closely related and almost indistinguishable plant \"Alocasia macrorrhizos\" is cultivated as a food plant in some parts of Oceania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "\"L\u016b\" is the Tongan word for the edible leaves of the taro plant (called \"talo\" in Tonga), as well as the traditional dish made using them. This meal is still prepared for special occasions and especially on Sunday. The dish consists of chopped meat, onions, and coconut milk wrapped in a number of taro leaves (\"l\u016b talo\"). This is then wrapped traditionally in a banana leaf (nowadays, aluminum foil is often used) and put in the \"\u02bbumu\" to cook. It has a number of named varieties, dependent on the filling:\n* \"L\u016b pulu\" \u2013 \"l\u016b\" with beef, commonly using imported corned beef (\"kapapulu\")\n* \"L\u016b sipi\" \u2013 \"l\u016b\" with lamb\n* \"L\u016b moa\" \u2013 \"l\u016b\" with chicken\n* \"L\u016b hoosi\" \u2013 \"l\u016b\" with horse meat"
      },
      {
        "title": "Guettarda speciosa",
        "text": "Alternate names in the Cook Islands include \"Ano\", \"Hano\", \"Fano\", and \"Puapua\". The last is also used in Samoa, and the similar \"Puopua\" in Tonga. It is known as \"\" in the Marshall Islands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In the Odia language, it is called Saru (\u0b38\u0b3e\u0b30\u0b41). In India, it is used in huge quantities in the Odisha region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "The taro corm is a traditional staple crop for large parts of Papua New Guinea, with a domestic trade extending its consumption to areas where it is not traditionally grown. Taro from some regions has developed particularly good reputations with (for instance) Lae taro being highly prized."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "One mythological version of Hawaiian ancestry cites the taro plant as an ancestor to Hawaiians. Legend joins the two siblings of high and divine rank: Papah\u0101naumoku (\"Papa from whom lands are born\", or Earth mother) and W\u0101kea (Sky father). Together they create the islands of Hawaii and a beautiful woman, Ho\u02bbohokukalani (The Heavenly one who made the stars)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "When kalo was brought to Hawai\u02bbi, there were about 300 varieties (about 100 remain). The kalo plant takes seven months to grow until harvest, so \"lo`i\" fields are used in rotation and the soil can be replenished while the \"lo\u02bbi\" in use has sufficient water. The stems are typically replanted in the \"lo`i\" for future kalo harvests. Once harvested, kalo is incorporated into many foods. The leaves are used to make laulau, from the corm poi or \"pa\u02bbi\u02bbai\".\n; History"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyrtosperma merkusii",
        "text": "In the harsh atoll environments of the Central Pacific, especially Tuvalu and Kiribati, swamp taro is an important source of carbohydrates in a diet dominated by fish and coconut. Its cultivation is difficult and time-consuming, and the plant has deep cultural as well as practical significance. The roots need to be cooked for hours to reduce toxicity in the corms, but are rich in nutrients, especially calcium. The cultivation of Pulaka in Tuvalu, and babai in Kiribati, is an important cultural and culinary tradition, now under threat from rising sea level and displacement from the growing use of imported food products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iyo language",
        "text": "'Seeing it simply as the type of taro they always planted they added it to the taro they are planting now.'"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Important aspects of Hawaiian culture revolve around \"kalo\" cultivation and consumption. For example, the newer name for a traditional Hawaiian feast, the l\u016b\u02bbau, comes from the \"kalo\". Young \"kalo\" tops baked with coconut milk and chicken meat or octopus arms are frequently served at \"luaus\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Hawaii",
        "text": "For centuries taro, and the \"poi\" made from it, was the main staple of their diet, and it is still much loved today. In addition to taro the Polynesians brought sweet potatoes. These are believed to have come from Polynesian contact with the New World."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro no To",
        "text": "\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Alocasia macrorrhizos",
        "text": "The giant taro was originally domesticated in the Philippines, but are known from wild specimens to early Austronesians in Taiwan. From the Philippines, they spread outwards to the rest of Maritime Southeast Asia and eastward to Oceania where it became one of the staple crops of Pacific Islanders. They are one of the four main species of aroids (taros) cultivated by Austronesians primarily as a source of starch, the others being \"Amorphophallus paeoniifolius\", \"Colocasia esculenta\", and \"Cyrtosperma merkusii\", each with multiple cultivated varieties. Their leaves and stems are also edible if cooked thoroughly, though this is rarely done for giant taro as it contains higher amounts of raphides which cause itching."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pineapple tart",
        "text": "Pineapple tart\n--General description.\n--Regions.\n----Indonesia.\n----Malaysia and Singapore.\n----Taiwan.\n----Australia.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia",
        "text": "The giant taro (\"Alocasia macrorrhizos\") was originally domesticated in the Philippines, but are known from wild specimens to early Austronesians in Taiwan. From the Philippines, they spread outwards to the rest of Island Southeast Asia and eastward to Oceania where it became one of the staple crops of Pacific Islanders. They are one of the four main species of aroids (taros) cultivated by Austronesians primarily as a source of starch, the others being \"Amorphophallus paeoniifolius\", \"Colocasia esculenta\", and \"Cyrtosperma merkusii\", each with multiple cultivated varieties. Their leaves and stems are also edible if cooked thoroughly, though this is rarely done for giant taro as it contains higher amounts of raphides which cause itching."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fijian cuisine",
        "text": "Taro is a cool dry starchy root crop, which has a taste similar to artichokes, and is the most important staple for special occasions. It is available in 70 different varieties; some turn pink or yellow or remain white after cooking. It can be grown in any soil conditions. Taro is a rich source of fiber."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro (\"dalo\" in Fijian) has been a staple of the Fijian diet for centuries, and its cultural importance is celebrated on Taro Day. Its growth as an export crop began in 1993 when taro leaf blight decimated the taro industry in neighboring Samoa. Fiji filled the void and was soon supplying taro internationally. Almost 80% of Fiji's exported taro comes from the island of Taveuni where the taro beetle species \"Papuana uninodis\" is absent. The Fijian taro industry on the main islands of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu faces constant damage from the beetles. The Fiji Ministry of Agriculture and the Land Resources Division of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) are researching pest control and instigating quarantine restrictions to prevent the spread of the pest. Taveuni now exports pest-damage-free crops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Taro (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Island",
        "text": "Taro Island\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Taro (\"Colocasia esculenta\") is a tropical plant grown primarily for its edible corms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "The \"lo\u02bbi\" is part of an \"ahupua\u02bba\", a division of land from the mountain to the sea. Ahupua\u02bba means \"pig altar\", and was named for stone altars with pig head carvings that marked the boundaries of each Hawaiian land division. Ideally, an ahupua\u02bba has all the necessities within its borders. From the mountains, materials such as wood are provided for thatching roofs and twining rope. The uplands produce crops like sugar cane and sweet potatoes, while the lowlands provide taro and fish. This system typically satisfies the large populations in each \"ahupua\u02bba\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro were carried into the Pacific Islands by Austronesian peoples from around 1300 BC, where they became a staple crop of Polynesians, along with other types of \"taros\", like \"Alocasia macrorrhizos\", \"Amorphophallus paeoniifolius\", and \"Cyrtosperma merkusii\". They are the most important and the most preferred among the four, because they were less likely to contain the irritating raphides present in the other plants. Taro is also identified as one of the staples of Micronesia, from archaeological evidence dating back to the pre-colonial Latte Period (c. 900 - 1521 AD), indicating that it was also carried by Micronesians when they colonized the islands. Taro pollen and starch residue have also been identified in Lapita sites, dated to between 1100 BC and 550 BC. Taro was later spread to Madagascar as early as the 1st century AD."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 in Oceania",
        "text": "2020 in Oceania\n--Sovereign states.\n----Australia.\n------Ashmore and Cartier Islands.\n------Christmas Island.\n------Cocos (Keeling) Islands.\n------Coral Sea Islands.\n------Norfolk Island.\n----East Timor / Timor-Leste.\n----Fiji.\n----Kiribati.\n----Marshall Islands.\n----Micronesia.\n----Nauru.\n----Palau.\n----Papua New Guinea.\n----Realm of New Zealand.\n------New Zealand.\n------Cook Islands.\n------Niue.\n------Tokelau.\n----Samoa.\n----Solomon Islands.\n----Tonga.\n----Tuvalu.\n----Vanuatu.\n--Dependencies.\n----British Overseas Territories.\n------Pitcairn Islands.\n----Chile.\n----France.\n------French Polynesia.\n------New Caledonia.\n------Wallis and Futuna.\n----United States.\n------American Samoa.\n------Guam.\n------Hawaii.\n------Northern Mariana Islands.\n------United States Minor Outlying Islands.\n--Culture.\n----Television.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d As\u014d",
        "text": "\"Incorporates information from the Japanese Wikipedia article\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Manipur, another north-eastern state, taro is known as \"pan\". The Kukis calls it \"bal\". Boiled \"bal\" is a snack at lunch along with chutney or hot chili-flakes besides being cooked as a main dish along with smoked or dried meat, beans, and mustard leaves. Sun-dried taro leaves are later used in broth and stews. It is widely available and is eaten in many forms, either baked, boiled, or cooked into a curry with hilsa or with fermented soybeans called \"hawai-zaar\". The leaves are also used in a special traditional dish called \"utti\", cooked with peas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tariana language",
        "text": "2\"\u00f5\" occurs only in the following words: \"t\u00f5k\u1ebd\" \"firefly\", \"siwirik\u00f5rena\" \"tapiriri, Tapirira guianensis\", \"nuit\u00f5\" \"daughter! (vocative)\", and -t\u00f5reta \"roll into a thin roll, like a cigarette\". It also occurs word-initially in place names of Tucano origin (e.g. \u00d5r\u00f5reana)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Taro may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "A \"lo\u02bbi\" is a patch of wetland dedicated to growing \"kalo\". Hawaiians have traditionally used water irrigation systems to produce kalo. Wetland fields produce ten to fifteen times more kalo per acre than dry fields. Wetland-grown kalo need a constant flow of water, and to get this water, fields are usually positioned between the \"mauka\" (mountains) and \"makai\" (sea). A \"lo'i\" specifically denotes wetland kalo growing, not dry land."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "The second child born of W\u0101kea and Ho\u02bbohokukalani was named H\u0101loa after his older brother. The kalo of the earth was the sustenance for the young brother and became the principal food for successive generations. Now, as man continues to work the wetlands for this sacred crop, he remembers Haloanaka, the ancestor that nourishes him. The Hawaiian word for family, \"\", is derived from \"\u02bboh\u0101\", the shoot which grows from the kalo corm. The reason being: as young shoots grow from the corm of the kalo plant, so people, too, grow from their family."
      },
      {
        "title": "Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia",
        "text": "It became \"*tales\" in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, which in turn became \"*talos\" or \"*talo\" in Proto-Oceanian. Modern cognates include Hanun\u00f3'o \"t\u00e1lus\"; Aborlan Tagbanwa \"talis\"; Palawan Batak \"t\u00e4l\u00e4s\"; Nias \"tal\u00f5\"; Minangkabau \"talas\"; Rejang and Sundanese \"taleus\"; Javanese \"tales\"; Palauan \"d\u00e1it\"; Rotinese \"tale\"; and Tetun \"talas\". In Polynesian languages, the cognates include Motu, Marovo, Tongan, Samoan, Niue, Futunan, Tuvaluan \"talo\"; Kwaio, Lau (Malaita), and Toqabaqita \"alo\"; '\u0100re'\u0101re, Arosi, and Bauro \"aro\"; Nakanamanga \"na-tale\"; Sye \"tal\" or \"nal\"; Fijian and Nukuoro \"dalo\"; Rennellese \"tago\"; Anuta, Rarotongan, and M\u0101ori \"taro\"; and Hawaiian \"kalo\". The English name for the plant is itself derived from the Polynesian names. A red variety of taro also has names derived from reconstructed Proto-Polynesian \"*pongi\", with cognates including Niue \"pongi\"; Marquesan \"poki\"; Hawaiian \"poni\"; and M\u0101ori \"pongi\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Native cuisine of Hawaii",
        "text": "There is no fighting when eating from a bowl of \"poi\". It is shared and is connected to the concept because \"H\u0101loa\" (Taro), the first-born son of the parents who begat the human race."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is one of the most ancient cultivated crops. Taro is found widely in tropical and subtropical regions of South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Papua New Guinea, and northern Australia and is highly polymorphic, making taxonomy and distinction between wild and cultivated types difficult. It is believed that they were domesticated independently multiple times, with authors giving possible locations as New Guinea, Mainland Southeast Asia, and northeastern India, based largely on the assumed native range of the wild plants. However, more recent studies have pointed out that wild taro may have a much larger native distribution than previously believed, and wild breeding types may also likely be indigenous to other parts of Island Southeast Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d, Iwate",
        "text": "was a town located in Shimohei District, Iwate Prefecture in Japan. Today it is part of the city of Miyako."
      },
      {
        "title": "Patrick Richardson",
        "text": "Pacific: French Polynesia, the Cook Islands, Tonga, Fiji, Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, Western Samoa, Kiribati and Easter Island (Chile)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Morelotia",
        "text": "It is native to New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rangatira (Cook Islands)",
        "text": "A \"rangatira\" could only be created by the \"ariki\" who delegated authority to the \"rangatira\" in order to create a structure of support from within the \"tapere\" for the \"ariki\". This \"tapere\" support mechanism was stronger than that of the \"mataiapo\" because its population was larger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar Nawai",
        "text": "Tar Nawai\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tarwai",
        "text": "Tarwai\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u00f4 K\u00f4no",
        "text": "</contributor>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tarua",
        "text": "Tarua\n--Preparation.\n--Variations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ke\u02bbanae, Hawaii",
        "text": "Keanae is a peninsula known best for being one of Hawaii's major taro farm growing regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atuna racemosa",
        "text": "The fruit is made into a putty for sealing canoes in the Pacific islands. Oil from the seeds is used as a scent. Leaves are used as thatch in Fiji."
      },
      {
        "title": "Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia",
        "text": "The taro (\"Colocasia esculenta\"), sometimes referred to as the \"true taro\", is one of the most ancient cultivated crops and pre-dated the Austronesian expansion. Taro is found widely in tropical and subtropical regions of South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Papua New Guinea, and northern Australia and is highly polymorphic, making taxonomy and distinction between wild and cultivated types difficult. It is believed that they were domesticated independently multiple times, with authors giving possible locations as New Guinea, Mainland Southeast Asia, and northeastern India, based largely on the assumed native range of the wild plants. However, more recent studies have pointed out that wild taro may have a much larger native distribution than previously believed, and wild breeding types may also likely be indigenous to other parts of Island Southeast Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro was probably first native to the lowland wetlands of Malaysia, where it is called \"taloes\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "L\u016b\u02bbau (food)",
        "text": "L\u016bau, known alternatively as Poulet fafa in French Polynesia, Rourou in Fiji and Rukau in the Cook Islands is a traditional Polynesian stew. The name of this dish in Hawaii and other parts of the pacific is derived from its main ingredient, Taro leaves, which are cooked down and coconut milk added. Variations of this dish differ between islands. In Hawaii, octopus is added to this dish alongside onion and garlic, the dish being referred to as Squid L\u016b'au."
      },
      {
        "title": "Earth oven",
        "text": "In some part-Melanesian, Polynesian, and other closely related languages, the general term is \"umu,\" from the Proto-Oceanic root *qumun (e.g. Tongan \"umu\", M\u0101ori \"umu\" or \"h\u0101ngi\", Hawaiian imu, S\u0101moan \"umu\", Cook Island M\u0101ori umu). In some non-Polynesian, part-Polynesian, and Micronesian parts of the Pacific, which some islands use the similar word umu, but not all Micronesian islands having many different languages use that base word umu, however, other words are used instead of umu - in Fiji it is a \"lovo\", in Rotuman it is a \"koua\" and in Tahiti, it is a \"ahima'a\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tarkawica",
        "text": "Tarkawica\n--References.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "K\u014dmono",
        "text": "The k\u014dmono is a title in the Cook Islands for a spokesman, representative or deputy for a \"mata'iapo\" (a chiefly title and the head of a family) under the \"ariki\" (paramount chief). Often a younger brother who acts for the \"mata'iapo\" when necessary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hikule\u02bbo",
        "text": "However, u'amea in S\u0101moan is also an archaic word for a type of lava (known in Hawai'i as \u02bba\u02bb\u0101), from u'a (\"viscous, glutinous\") and mea (\"red-brown,\" as in the color of the manumea, the \"reddish-brown bird\"). U'a was used in colonial times to refer to iron because it turns the same color (\"mea\") as it oxidizes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hanalei Pier",
        "text": "The wetlands of Hanalei Bay were used to grow taro by ancient Hawaiians. By the 1860s, the shrinking population of native Hawaiians was being replaced by ethnic Chinese people when their contracts expired on sugarcane plantations in Hawaii, such as the one directly to the north in Princeville. The new crop was rice, which was shipped to Honolulu to become the second largest export crop of the islands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u00f4 K\u00f4no",
        "text": "<model>wikitext</model>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u00f4 K\u00f4no",
        "text": "<ns>0</ns>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro () is grown in the south coast of Turkey, especially in Mersin, Bozyaz\u0131, Anamur and Antalya. It is boiled in a tomato sauce or cooked with meat, beans and chickpeas. It is often used as a substitute for potato."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cook Islands M\u0101ori",
        "text": "The following list indicates the types of things in the different categories:\n* \"a\" is used in speaking of\n** Movable property, instruments,\n** Food and drink,\n** Husband, wife, children, grandchildren, girlfriend, boyfriend,\n** Animals and pets, (except for horses)\n** People in an inferior position\n: Te puaka a t\u0113r\u0101 va\ua78cine : the pig belonging to that woman;\n: \u0101 Tere tamariki : Tere's children;\n: K\u0101re \u0101 Tupe m\u0101 ika inap\u014d : Tupe and the rest didn't get any fish last night\n: T\u0101ku ; T\u0101\ua78cau ; T\u0101na ; T\u0101 t\u0101ua ; T\u0101 m\u0101ua\u2026. : my, mine ; your, yours ; his, her, hers, our ours\u2026\n: Ko t\u0101ku va\ua78cine t\u0113ia : This is my wife;\n: Ko t\u0101na t\u0101ne t\u0113r\u0101 : That's her husband;\n: T\u0101 kotou \ua78capinga : your possession(s);\n: T\u0101 Tare \ua78capinga : T\u0113r\u0101 possession(s);\n* \"o\" is used in speaking of\n** Parts of anything\n** Feelings\n** Buildings and transport (including horses)\n** Clothes\n** Parents or other relatives (not husband, wife, children\u2026)\n** Superiors\n: Te 'are o Tere : The house belonging to Tere;\n: \u014d Tere pare : Tere's hat;\n: K\u0101re \u014d Tina no'o anga e no'o ei : Tina hasn't got anywhere to sit;\n: T\u014dku ; T\u014d'ou ; T\u014dna ; T\u014d t\u0101ua ; T\u014d m\u0101ua\u2026: my, mine ; your, yours ; his, her, hers ; our, ours \u2026\n: Ko t\u014dku 'are t\u0113ia : This is my house;\n: I t\u014dku manako, ka tika t\u0101na : In my opinion, he'll be right;\n: T\u0113ia t\u014dku, t\u0113r\u0101 t\u014d'ou : This is mine here, that's yours over there"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of twin towns and sister cities in Oceania",
        "text": "Tari\n* Band\u014d, Japan"
      },
      {
        "title": "Myoporum wilderi",
        "text": "Myoporum wilderi, commonly known as Cook Islands myoporum or ngaio, is a plant in the figwort family, Scrophulariaceae and is endemic to the islands of Mangaia and Mitiaro in the Cook Islands. It is similar to \"Myoporum stokesii\" and \"Myoporum rimatarense\" which grow on other Pacific Islands. On the island of Raratonga it is used to add a scent to coconut oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Belize, Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Panama, taro is eaten in soups, as a replacement for potatoes, and as chips. It is known locally as \"malanga\" (also \"malanga coco\") and \"dasheen\" in Belize and Costa Rica, \"quiquizque\" in Nicaragua, and as \"otoe\" in Panama."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tarkawica",
        "text": "<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cordia subcordata",
        "text": "The seeds are edible and have been eaten during famine. \"C. subcordata\" burns readily, and this led to the nickname of \"Kerosene Tree\" in Papua New Guinea. The wood of the tree has a specific gravity of 0.45, is soft, durable, easily worked, and resistant to termites. In ancient Hawaii \"kou\" wood was used to make \"umeke\" (bowls), utensils, and \"umeke l\u0101au\" (large calabashes) because it did not impart a foul taste to food. \"Umeke l\u0101au\" were 8\u201316 litres (2\u20134 gal) and used to store and ferment \"poi\". The flowers were used to make \"lei\", while a dye for \"kapa\" cloth and \"aho\" (fishing lines) was derived from the leaves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u00f4 K\u00f4no",
        "text": "<contributor>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Nankairy\u016b Tar\u014d",
        "text": "Nankairyu told a Japanese weekly newspaper after he had returned to Western Samoa that \"there are too many rules in sumo. After a match, you go back to the stable and all they do is order you around like a child.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Native Taiwanese",
        "text": "In contrast to sweet potatoes, people from other provinces who moved to Taiwan from mainland China after the end of the World War II are referred to as \"taro people\". For example, it is common in colloquial speech to call older soldiers from other provinces \"old taro\". The offspring of native Taiwanese and Nationalist era migrants are sometimes jokingly called \"taro sweet potatoes.\" Ironically, Taro has a much longer agricultural and culinary history on the island. It commonly found in some Austronesian and Hoklo diets. \"Taro cookies\" are common in some Formosan diets. Paiwan people use a special kiln roast method to preserve dried taro. Dried taro can be eaten alone or cooked, or ground into powder for cooking. In Paiwan cuisine, taro stems can also be used as food ingredients, but specific parts must be cut and specially processed in order to avoid physical discomfort after ingesting. Hoklo people also make a puree dish with taro: fresh taro is peeled and cut into pieces, steamed in a basket, mashed, mixed with lard and sugar, and finally garnished with peanuts, sesame seeds, and butterflied plums. Taro puree is most commonly served as a dessert at the end of the banquet. Other methods include wire-drawing taro, fried taro cake, Muscovy taro, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Niue",
        "text": "Agriculture is very important to the lifestyle of Niueans and the economy, and around 204 square kilometres of the land area are available for agriculture. Subsistence agriculture is very much part of Niue's culture, where nearly all the households have plantations of taro. Taro is a staple food, and the pink taro now dominant in the taro markets in New Zealand and Australia is a product of Niue. This is one of the naturally occurring taro varieties on Niue, and has a strong resistance to pests. The Niue taro is known in Samoa as \"talo Niue\" and in international markets as pink taro. Niue exports taro to New Zealand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Greece, taro grows on Icaria. Icarians credit taro for saving them from famine during World War II. They boil it until tender and serve it as a salad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tararua Range",
        "text": "Pukeamoamo / Mitre 1,571m,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Hawaii",
        "text": "The modern name for such feasts, \"l\u016b\u2018au\", was not used until 1856, replacing the Hawaiian words \"\u2018aha\u2018aina\" and \"p\u0101\u2018ina\". The name \"l\u016b\u2018au\" came from the name of a food always served at a \"\u2018aha\u2018aina,\" young taro tops baked with coconut milk and chicken or octopus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Among the Urapmin people of Papua New Guinea, taro (known in Urap as \"ima\") is the main source of sustenance along with the sweet potato (Urap: \"wan\"). In fact, the word for \"food\" in Urap is a compound of these two words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seal of Hawaii",
        "text": "Below the heraldic shield, the bird phoenix has it wings outstretched arising from flames. The phoenix's body is black and wings half yellow and half dark red. Below the heraldic shield are eight taro leaves having on either side banana foliage and sprays of maidenhair fern trailed upwardly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taruho Inagaki",
        "text": "Taruho Inagaki\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia",
        "text": "Taro is also identified as one of the staples of Micronesia, from archaeological evidence dating back to the pre-colonial Latte Period (c.\u00a0900 \u2013 1521 AD), indicating that it was also carried by Micronesians when they colonized the islands. Due to the unsuitability of the low-lying atoll islands of most of Micronesia, Micronesians innovated by digging pits that could then be filled up with compost suitable for taro cultivation. Taro pollen and starch residue have also been identified in earlier Lapita sites, dated to around c. 3,050 \u2013 2,500 cal BP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u00f4 K\u00f4no",
        "text": "<timestamp>2021-01-27T02:40:43Z</timestamp>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u00f4 K\u00f4no",
        "text": "<format>text/x-wiki</format>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "A similar plant in Japan is called . The \"child\" and \"grandchild\" corms (cormels, cormlets) which bud from the parent \"satoimo\", are called and , respectively, or more generally . \"Satoimo\" has been propagated in Southeast Asia since the late J\u014dmon period. It was a regional staple before rice became predominant. The tuber, \"satoimo\", is often prepared through simmering in fish stock (\"dashi\") and soy sauce. The stalk, , can also be prepared a number of ways, depending on the variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fijian cuisine",
        "text": "Taro leaf, rourou, is the most important cash crop for Fijian communities. It is used in everyday meals and also used for ceremonial meals to make palusami."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ho\u02bboponopono",
        "text": "Similar traditions are found in Samoa, Tahiti, and among the Maori of New Zealand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Raka-maomao",
        "text": "Raka-maomao is equivalent to Ra\u2018a (Society Islands), Raka (Cook Islands), La'a Maomao (Hawaii) and Fa'atiu (Samoa)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, taro is commonly known as \"arrow root\", , or and in some local Bantu languages. It is usually boiled and eaten with tea or other beverages, or as the main starch of a meal. It is also cultivated in Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosrae crake",
        "text": "Controversial data exists as to its ability to fly. X-ray measurements of the carpometacarpi lead to the assumption that it was flightless. However its native name \"nay-tay-mai-not\" which means \"the one who lands in the taro plot\" might imply that the ability to fly was present."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u00f4 K\u00f4no",
        "text": "<minor />"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u00f4 K\u00f4no",
        "text": "<parentid>710662276</parentid>"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where do most taro come from?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "At around 3.3 million metric tons per year, Nigeria is the largest producer of taro in the world."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What kinda of foods are made with taro?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The kinds of food made with taro vary according to different regions of the world like Oceania, East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia. Which region do you want to know more?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Please let me know more about the Oceania region."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know more of its use in the Cook Islands, Fiji, Hawaii, or Papua New Guinea?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me how it's used in Hawaii."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The local crop plays an important role in Hawaiian culture, mythology, and cuisine, being a traditional staple. Some of the uses for taro include poi, table taro (steamed and served like a potato), taro chips, and l\u016b\u02bbau leaf (to make laulau).",
      "Some of the uses for taro include poi, table taro (steamed and served like a potato), taro chips, and l\u016b\u02bbau leaf (to make laulau)."
    ],
    "topic": "Taro",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Taro:32",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Taro",
          "Uses",
          "Culinary",
          "Oceania",
          "Hawaii"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"Kalo\" is the Hawaiian name for the taro plant. The local crop plays an important role in Hawaiian culture, mythology, and cuisine. Taro is a traditional staple of the native cuisine of Hawaii. Some of the uses for taro include poi, table taro (steamed and served like a potato), taro chips, and l\u016b\u02bbau leaf (to make laulau). In Hawaii, kalo is farmed under either dryland or wetland conditions. Taro farming in the Hawaiian Islands is challenging because of the difficulties of accessing fresh water. Kalo is usually grown in \"pond fields\" known as \"lo\u02bbi\". Typical dryland or \"upland\" varieties (varieties grown in watered but not flooded fields) in Hawaii are \"lehua maoli\" and \"bun long\", the latter widely known as \"Chinese taro\". \"Bun long\" is used for making taro chips. \"Dasheen\" (also called \"eddo\") is another dryland variety of \"C. esculenta\" grown for its edible corms or as an ornamental plant. A contemporary Hawaiian diet consists of many tuberous plants, particularly sweet potato and kalo."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Taro:32",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Taro",
          "Uses",
          "Culinary",
          "Oceania",
          "Hawaii"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"Kalo\" is the Hawaiian name for the taro plant. The local crop plays an important role in Hawaiian culture, mythology, and cuisine. Taro is a traditional staple of the native cuisine of Hawaii. Some of the uses for taro include poi, table taro (steamed and served like a potato), taro chips, and l\u016b\u02bbau leaf (to make laulau). In Hawaii, kalo is farmed under either dryland or wetland conditions. Taro farming in the Hawaiian Islands is challenging because of the difficulties of accessing fresh water. Kalo is usually grown in \"pond fields\" known as \"lo\u02bbi\". Typical dryland or \"upland\" varieties (varieties grown in watered but not flooded fields) in Hawaii are \"lehua maoli\" and \"bun long\", the latter widely known as \"Chinese taro\". \"Bun long\" is used for making taro chips. \"Dasheen\" (also called \"eddo\") is another dryland variety of \"C. esculenta\" grown for its edible corms or as an ornamental plant. A contemporary Hawaiian diet consists of many tuberous plants, particularly sweet potato and kalo."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Considered the staple starch of traditional Polynesian cuisine, taro is both a common and prestigious food item that was first introduced to the Polynesian islands by prehistoric seafarers of Southeast Asian derivation. The tuber itself is prepared in various ways, including baking, steaming in earth ovens (\"umu\" or \"imu\"), boiling, and frying. The famous Hawaiian staple poi is made by mashing steamed taro roots with water. Taro also features in traditional desserts such as Samoan \"fa'ausi\", which consists of grated, cooked taro mixed with coconut milk and brown sugar. The leaves of the taro plant also feature prominently in Polynesian cooking, especially as edible wrappings for dishes such as Hawaiian \"laulau\", Fijian and Samoan \"palusami\" (wrapped around onions and coconut milk), and Tongan \"lupulu\" (wrapped corned beef). Ceremonial presentations on occasion of chiefly rites or communal events (weddings, funerals, etc.) traditionally included the ritual presentation of raw and cooked taro roots/plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Important aspects of Hawaiian culture revolve around \"kalo\" cultivation and consumption. For example, the newer name for a traditional Hawaiian feast, the l\u016b\u02bbau, comes from the \"kalo\". Young \"kalo\" tops baked with coconut milk and chicken meat or octopus arms are frequently served at \"luaus\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is mashed in the dessert known as taro pur\u00e9e."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taros are often prepared like potatoes, eaten boiled, stewed or mashed, generally with salt and sometimes garlic as a condiment, as part of a meal (most often lunch or dinner)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "\"L\u016b\" is the Tongan word for the edible leaves of the taro plant (called \"talo\" in Tonga), as well as the traditional dish made using them. This meal is still prepared for special occasions and especially on Sunday. The dish consists of chopped meat, onions, and coconut milk wrapped in a number of taro leaves (\"l\u016b talo\"). This is then wrapped traditionally in a banana leaf (nowadays, aluminum foil is often used) and put in the \"\u02bbumu\" to cook. It has a number of named varieties, dependent on the filling:\n* \"L\u016b pulu\" \u2013 \"l\u016b\" with beef, commonly using imported corned beef (\"kapapulu\")\n* \"L\u016b sipi\" \u2013 \"l\u016b\" with lamb\n* \"L\u016b moa\" \u2013 \"l\u016b\" with chicken\n* \"L\u016b hoosi\" \u2013 \"l\u016b\" with horse meat"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Indonesia, taro is widely used for snacks, cakes, crackers, and even macarons, thus it can be easily found everywhere. Some varieties are specially cultivated in accordance with social or geographical traditions. Taro is usually known as \"keladi\", although other varieties are also known as \"talas\", among others. Chinese descendants in Indonesia often eat taro with stewed rice and dried shrimp. The taro is diced and cooked along with the rice, the shrimp, and sesame oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tesg\u00fcino",
        "text": "The general Tarahumara term for an alcoholic beverage is \"Sug\u00edki\"; and \"bat\u00e1ri\" is used when the beer is specifically made from corn or lichen flour; \"paciki\" is used when the beer is made from fresh corn stalks. While tesg\u00fcino made from corn is considered the most sacred, the Tarahumara also make beer from agave and wheat, as well as other alcoholic beverages made from fruits such as peaches, berries, crab apples, cactus fruits, and mesquite seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro ball",
        "text": "The taro balls can be made by mixing mashed taro with water and sweet potato flour or potato flour, making the taro balls more springy or softer respectively. The colour of mashed taro makes the dessert appear crystal purple or grey. The mashed taro can be replaced by mashed sweet potato or ground mung bean and becomes the yellow sweet potato ball () or the green mung bean ball ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "The Hawaiian \"laulau\" traditionally contains pork, fish, and \"lu'au\" (cooked taro leaf). The wrapping is inedible \"ti\" leaves (Hawaiian: \"lau ki\"). Cooked taro leaf has the consistency of cooked spinach and is therefore unsuitable for use as a wrapping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poi (food)",
        "text": "Although many of the world's people consume taro, only Hawaiians make poi. Hawaiians traditionally cook the starchy, potato-like heart of the taro corm for hours in an underground oven called an \"imu\", which is also used to cook other types of food such as pork, carrots, and sweet potatoes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro paste, a traditional Cantonese cuisine, which originated from the Chaoshan region in the eastern part of China's Guangdong Province is a dessert made primarily from taro. The taro is steamed and then mashed into a thick paste, which forms the base of the dessert. Lard or fried onion oil is then added for fragrance. The dessert is traditionally sweetened with water chestnut syrup, and served with ginkgo nuts. Modern versions of the dessert include the addition of coconut cream and sweet corn. The dessert is commonly served at traditional Teochew wedding banquet dinners as the last course, marking the end of the banquet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro () is grown in the south coast of Turkey, especially in Mersin, Bozyaz\u0131, Anamur and Antalya. It is boiled in a tomato sauce or cooked with meat, beans and chickpeas. It is often used as a substitute for potato."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "\"Kalo\" is the Hawaiian name for the taro plant. The local crop plays an important role in Hawaiian culture, mythology, and cuisine. Taro is a traditional staple of the native cuisine of Hawaii. Some of the uses for taro include poi, table taro (steamed and served like a potato), taro chips, and l\u016b\u02bbau leaf (to make laulau). In Hawaii, kalo is farmed under either dryland or wetland conditions. Taro farming in the Hawaiian Islands is challenging because of the difficulties of accessing fresh water. Kalo is usually grown in \"pond fields\" known as \"lo\u02bbi\". Typical dryland or \"upland\" varieties (varieties grown in watered but not flooded fields) in Hawaii are \"lehua maoli\" and \"bun long\", the latter widely known as \"Chinese taro\". \"Bun long\" is used for making taro chips. \"Dasheen\" (also called \"eddo\") is another dryland variety of \"C. esculenta\" grown for its edible corms or as an ornamental plant. A contemporary Hawaiian diet consists of many tuberous plants, particularly sweet potato and kalo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fijian cuisine",
        "text": "Taro is a cool dry starchy root crop, which has a taste similar to artichokes, and is the most important staple for special occasions. It is available in 70 different varieties; some turn pink or yellow or remain white after cooking. It can be grown in any soil conditions. Taro is a rich source of fiber."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Samoa, the baby talo leaves and coconut milk are wrapped into parcels and cooked, along with other food, in an earth oven . The parcels are called \"palusami\" or \"lu'au\". The resulting taste is smoky, sweet, savory and has a unique creamy texture. The root is also baked (\"Talo tao\") in the \"umu\" or boiled with coconut cream (\"Fa\u00e1lifu Talo\"). It has a slightly bland and starchy flavor. It is sometimes called the Polynesian potato."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, taro is commonly known as \"arrow root\", , or and in some local Bantu languages. It is usually boiled and eaten with tea or other beverages, or as the main starch of a meal. It is also cultivated in Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe."
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u00f6sti",
        "text": "In Palau, instead of potato, r\u00f6sti is prepared from the grated corm of taro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Mithila, Bihar, taro corms are known as \"\u0259dua\" (\u0905\u0921\u0941\u0906) and its leaves are called \"\u0259dikunch ke paat\" (\u0905\u0921\u093c\u093f\u0915\u0902\u091a \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0924). A curry of taro leaves is made with mustard paste and sour sun-dried mango pulp (\u0906\u092e\u093f\u0932; )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In the Spanish-speaking countries of the Spanish West Indies taro is called \"\u00f1ame\", the Portuguese variant of which (\"inhame\") is used in former Portuguese colonies where taro is still cultivated, including the Azores and Brazil. In Puerto Rico and Cuba, and the Dominican Republic it is sometimes called \"malanga\" or \"yautia\". In some countries, such as Trinidad and Tobago, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Dominica, the leaves and stem of the \"dasheen\", or taro, are most often cooked and pureed into a thick liquid called callaloo, which is served as a side dish similar to creamed spinach. \"Callaloo\" is sometimes prepared with crab legs, coconut milk, pumpkin, and okra. It is usually served alongside rice or made into a soup along with various other roots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is cultivated and eaten by the Tharu people in the Inner Terai as well. Roots are mixed with dried fish and turmeric, then dried in cakes called \"sidhara\" which are curried with radish, chili, garlic and other spices to accompany rice. The Tharu prepare the leaves in a fried vegetable side-dish that also shows up in Maithili cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "It is a food staple in African, Oceanic and South Asian cultures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro ball",
        "text": "Taro ball () is a traditional Taiwanese cuisine dessert made of taro. It can be found in almost every part of Taiwan and other parts of the world selling Taiwanese desserts, among which Jiufen's taro ball is said to be the most famous."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Hawaii",
        "text": "For centuries taro, and the \"poi\" made from it, was the main staple of their diet, and it is still much loved today. In addition to taro the Polynesians brought sweet potatoes. These are believed to have come from Polynesian contact with the New World."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Corms of the small, round variety are peeled and boiled, then sold either frozen, bagged in their own liquids, or canned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro ball",
        "text": "The dessert can be served with syrup either icy or hot. It is also very common to use taro balls and sweet potato balls to top other Taiwanese desserts like douhua or tshuah-ping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Cyprus, taro has been in use since the time of the Roman Empire. Today it is known as \"kolokas\" in Turkish or \"kolokasi\" (\u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03ba\u03ac\u03c3\u03b9) in Greek, which comes from the Ancient Greek name \u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03ba\u03ac\u03c3\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd (\"kolokasion\") for lotus root. It is usually sauteed with celery and onion with pork, chicken or lamb, in a tomato sauce \u2013 a vegetarian version is also available. The cormlets are called \"poulles\" (sing. \"poulla\"), and they are prepared by first being sauteed, followed by decaramelising the vessel with dry red wine and coriander seeds, and finally served with freshly squeezed lemon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Okolehao",
        "text": "Tiki drink expert Jeff Berry lists a recipe similar to Vic's Scorpion and Kava Bowls named the \"Polynesian Paralysis\", among others. The cocktail calls for 3 oz. okolehao, 3 oz. orange juice, 3 oz. unsweetened pineapple juice, and 3/4 oz. lemon juice along with orgeat syrup and other sweeteners blended with crushed ice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Manipur, another north-eastern state, taro is known as \"pan\". The Kukis calls it \"bal\". Boiled \"bal\" is a snack at lunch along with chutney or hot chili-flakes besides being cooked as a main dish along with smoked or dried meat, beans, and mustard leaves. Sun-dried taro leaves are later used in broth and stews. It is widely available and is eaten in many forms, either baked, boiled, or cooked into a curry with hilsa or with fermented soybeans called \"hawai-zaar\". The leaves are also used in a special traditional dish called \"utti\", cooked with peas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kyabetsu Tar\u014d",
        "text": "is a Japanese snack food made by the \"Kad\u014d\" (\u83d3\u9053) company of Ibaraki Prefecture. It consists of balls of corn about 3\u00a0cm in diameter flavoured with small pieces of nori and Japanese brown sauce. It is a relatively low cost snack aimed at children. It is sold in two bag sizes, a 20 yen and a 100 yen bag. The package shows a frog wearing a policeman's hat. Despite the name, the snack does not list cabbage in its ingredients. Its name may be a pun on Momotaro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Macaronesia this plant has become naturalized, probably as a result of the Portuguese discoveries and is frequently used in the macaronesian diet as an important carb source."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d As\u014d",
        "text": "In October 2008, the Japanese media reported that As\u014d dined out or drank in restaurants and bars in luxury hotels almost nightly. When asked about it, As\u014d stated, \"I won't change my style. Luckily I have my money and can afford it.\" As\u014d added that if he went anywhere else, he would have to be accompanied by security guards which would cause trouble."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "The islands situated along the border of the three main parts of Oceania (Polynesia, Micronesia and Melanesia) are more prone to being atolls rather than volcanic islands (most prominently Tuvalu, Tokelau, and Kiribati). As a result of this, Taro was not a part of the traditional diet due to the infertile soil and have only become a staple today through importation from other islands (Taro and Cassava cultivars are usually imported from Fiji or Samoa). The traditional staple however is the Swamp Taro known as Pulaka or Babai, a distant relative of the Taro but with a very long growing phase (3\u20135 years), larger and denser corms and coarser leaves. It is grown in a patch of land dug out to give rise to the freshwater lense beneath the soil. The lengthy growing time of this crop usually confines it as a food during festivities much like Pork although it can be preserved by drying out in the sun and storing it somewhere cool and dry to be enjoyed out of harvesting season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Trinidad and Tobago, it is called \"dasheen\". The leaves of the taro plant are used to make the Trinidadian variant of the Caribbean dish known as callaloo (which is made with okra, \"dasheen\"/taro leaves, coconut milk or creme and aromatic herbs) and it is also prepared similarly to steamed spinach. The root of the taro plant is often served boiled, accompanied by stewed fish or meat, curried, often with peas and eaten with roti, or in soups. The leaves are also sauteed with onions, hot pepper and garlic til they are melted to make a dish called \"bhaji\". This dish is popular with Indo-Trinidadian people. The leaves are also fried in a split pea batter to make \"saheena\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro was consumed by the early Romans in much the same way the potato is today. They called this root vegetable \"colocasia\". The Roman cookbook \"Apicius\" mentions several methods for preparing taro, including boiling, preparing with sauces, and cooking with meat or fowl. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the use of taro dwindled in Europe. This was largely due to the decline of trade and commerce with Egypt, previously controlled by Rome. When the Spanish and Portuguese sailed to the new world, they brought taro along with them. Recently there has been renewed interest in exotic foods and consumption is increasing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro () is commonly used as a main course as steamed taro with or without sugar, as a substitute for other cereals, in Chinese cuisine in a variety of styles and provinces steamed, boiled or stir-fried as a main dish and as a flavor-enhancing ingredient. In Northern China, it is often boiled or steamed then peeled and eaten with or without sugar much like a potato. It is commonly braised with pork or beef. It is used in the Cantonese dim sum to make a small plated dish called taro dumpling as well as a pan-fried dish called taro cake. It can also be shredded into long strips which are woven together to form a seafood birdsnest. In Fujian cuisine, it is steamed or boiled and mixed with starch to form a dough for dumpling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Thai cuisine, taro (\"pheuak\") is used in a variety of ways depending on the region. Boiled taro is readily available in the market packaged in small cellophane bags, already peeled and diced, and eaten as a snack. Pieces of boiled taro with coconut milk are a traditional Thai dessert. Raw taro is also often sliced and deep fried and sold in bags as chips (\u0e40\u0e1c\u0e37\u0e2d\u0e01\u0e17\u0e2d\u0e14). As in other Asian countries, taro is a popular flavor for ice cream in Thailand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Native Taiwanese",
        "text": "In contrast to sweet potatoes, people from other provinces who moved to Taiwan from mainland China after the end of the World War II are referred to as \"taro people\". For example, it is common in colloquial speech to call older soldiers from other provinces \"old taro\". The offspring of native Taiwanese and Nationalist era migrants are sometimes jokingly called \"taro sweet potatoes.\" Ironically, Taro has a much longer agricultural and culinary history on the island. It commonly found in some Austronesian and Hoklo diets. \"Taro cookies\" are common in some Formosan diets. Paiwan people use a special kiln roast method to preserve dried taro. Dried taro can be eaten alone or cooked, or ground into powder for cooking. In Paiwan cuisine, taro stems can also be used as food ingredients, but specific parts must be cut and specially processed in order to avoid physical discomfort after ingesting. Hoklo people also make a puree dish with taro: fresh taro is peeled and cut into pieces, steamed in a basket, mashed, mixed with lard and sugar, and finally garnished with peanuts, sesame seeds, and butterflied plums. Taro puree is most commonly served as a dessert at the end of the banquet. Other methods include wire-drawing taro, fried taro cake, Muscovy taro, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro cake",
        "text": "A similar dish is prepared in the cuisine of Vietnam, where it is called \"b\u00e1nh khoai m\u00f4n\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Odisha, taro corms are known as \"saru\". Dishes made of taro include \"saru besara\" (taro in mustard and garlic paste). It is also an indispensable ingredient in preparing \"dalma\", an Odia cuisine staple (vegetables cooked with dal). Sliced taro corms, deep fried in oil and mixed with red chili powder and salt, are known as \"'saru\" chips'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poi (food)",
        "text": "Taro is low in fat, high in vitamin A, and abounds in complex carbohydrates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Belize, Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Panama, taro is eaten in soups, as a replacement for potatoes, and as chips. It is known locally as \"malanga\" (also \"malanga coco\") and \"dasheen\" in Belize and Costa Rica, \"quiquizque\" in Nicaragua, and as \"otoe\" in Panama."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro pur\u00e9e",
        "text": "Taro pur\u00e9e, also known as taro mash or taro paste, () is a traditional dessert in Fujianese cuisine and Teochew cuisine. Made from pur\u00e9ed taro and lard and served on a flat plate, the dessert is normally topped with toasted sesame seeds, and occasionally with candied ginkgo, red dates, or melon seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In the Philippines taro is usually called \"gabi\", \"abi\", or \"avi\" and is widely available throughout the archipelago. Its adaptability to marshland and swamps make it one of the most common vegetables in the Philippines. The leaves, stems, and corms are all consumed and form part of the local cuisine. A popular recipe for taro is \"laing\" from the Bicol Region; the dish's main ingredients are taro leaves (at times including stems) cooked in coconut milk, and salted with fermented shrimp or fish \"bagoong\". It is sometimes heavily spiced with red hot chilies called \"siling labuyo\". Another dish in which taro is commonly used is the Philippine national stew, \"sinigang\", although radish can be used if taro is not available. This stew is made with pork and beef, shrimp, or fish, a souring agent (tamarind fruit, \"kamias\", etc.) with the addition of peeled and diced corms as thickener. The corm is also prepared as a basic ingredient for \"ginataan\", a coconut milk and taro dessert."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Taro may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Taro (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Taro (\"Colocasia esculenta\") is a tropical plant grown primarily for its edible corms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro pur\u00e9e",
        "text": "Taro pur\u00e9e\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "By ancient Hawaiian custom, fighting is not allowed when a bowl of \"poi\" is \"open\". Similarly, it is also considered disrespectful to fight in front of an elder and one should not raise their voice, speak angrily, or make rude comments or gestures.\n;\"Lo\u02bbi\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "People usually consume its edible corm and leaves. The corms, which have a light purple color due to phenolic pigments, are roasted, baked or boiled. The natural sugars give a sweet, nutty flavor. The starch is easily digestible, and since the grains are fine and small it is often used for baby food. Young taro leaves and stems can be eaten after boiling twice to remove the acrid flavor. The leaves are a good source of vitamins A and C and contain more protein than the corms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro no To",
        "text": "\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Scorpion bowl",
        "text": "Volcano versions were also rebranded as \"The Mystery Drink\" at tiki bars such as the Kahiki and the Mai Kai, with ingredients very similar to a Scorpion Bowl. Variations such as these proliferated and were on the menu in some manner at virtually all subsequent tiki bars. The \"Luau Scorpion\" for two people called for 2 oz gold Puerto Rican rum, 2 oz gin, 1 oz Cognac, 2 oz orange juice, 1 oz lime juice, 1 oz sugar syrup, and 3/4 oz orgeat syrup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In India, taro or eddoe is a common dish served in many ways."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is the pre-eminent crop of the Cook Islands and surpasses all other crops in terms of land area devoted to production. The prominence of the crop there has led it to be a staple of the population's diet. Taro is grown across the country, but the method of cultivation depends on the nature of the island it is grown on. Taro also plays an important role in the country's export trade. The root is eaten boiled, as is standard across Polynesia. Taro leaves are also eaten, cooked with coconut milk, onion, and meat or fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro cake",
        "text": "Taro cake () is a Cantonese dish made from the vegetable taro. While it is denser in texture than radish cakes, both of these savory cakes are made in similar ways, with rice flour as the main ingredient. As a dim sum, it is usually cut into rectangular slices and pan-fried before serving. It is found in Hong Kong, China, and overseas Chinatown restaurants. Other ingredients often include pork and Chinese black mushroom, or even Chinese sausages. It is usually topped with chopped scallions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tarua",
        "text": "Tarua can be made from any green vegetable. The most popular varieties of Tarua include Tilkor tarua, made from Tilkor leaves, and Aloo tarua, made from potato. Other varieties of tarua include Bhindi tarua, made from okra, Kobi tarua, made from cauliflower, Baigan tarua, made from brinjal, Kadima tarua, made from pumpkin, Kaddu tarua, made from bottle gourd, Karela tarua, made from bitter gourd, Ol tarua, made from elephant foot yam, Aurabi tarua, made from taro, Kumahar tarua, made from ash gourd, Khamharua tarua, made from Dioscorea satiea, Parwal tarua, made from pointed gourd."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is grown in the Terai and the hilly regions of Nepal. The root (corm) of taro is known as \"pindalu\" (\u092a\u093f\u0901\u0921\u093e\u0932\u0941) and petioles with leaves are known as \"karkalo\" (\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0915\u0932\u094b), \"Gava\" (\u0917\u093e\u092d\u093e) and also Kaichu (\u0915\u0947\u0947\u0947\u0948\u091a\u0941 ) in Maithili. Almost all parts are eaten in different dishes. Boiled corm of Taro is commonly served with salt, spices, and chilies. Taro is a popular dish in the hilly region. Chopped leaves and petioles are mixed with \"Urad\" bean flour to make dried balls called \"maseura\" (\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u094c\u0930\u093e). Large taro leaves are used as an alternative to an umbrella when unexpected rain occurs. Popular attachment to taro since ancient times is reflected in popular culture, such as in songs and textbooks. \"Jivan hamro karkala ko pani jastai ho\" (\u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u0939\u093e\u092e\u094d\u0930\u094b \u0915\u0930\u094d\u0915\u0932\u093e\u0915\u094b \u092a\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u091c\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0948 \u0939\u094b) means, \"Our life is as vulnerable as water stuck in the leaf of taro\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro has been grown for centuries in the United States, though it has never attained the same popularity as in Asian and Pacific nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "One mythological version of Hawaiian ancestry cites the taro plant as an ancestor to Hawaiians. Legend joins the two siblings of high and divine rank: Papah\u0101naumoku (\"Papa from whom lands are born\", or Earth mother) and W\u0101kea (Sky father). Together they create the islands of Hawaii and a beautiful woman, Ho\u02bbohokukalani (The Heavenly one who made the stars)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In northern Lebanon, it is known as a potato with the name \"borshoushi\" (\"el-orse borshushi\"). It is also prepared as part of a lentil soup with crushed garlic and lemon juice. Also in the north, it is known by the name \"bouzmet\", mainly around Menieh, where it is first peeled, and left to dry in the sun for a couple of days. After that, it is stir-fried in lots of vegetable oil in a casserole until golden brown, then a large amount of wedged, melted onions are added, in addition to water, chickpeas and some seasoning. These are all left to simmer for a few hours, and the result is a stew-like dish. It is considered a hard-to-make delicacy, not only because of the tedious preparation but the consistency and flavour that the taro must reach. The smaller variety of taro is more popular in the north due to its tenderness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In the Azores taro is known as \"inhame\" or \"inhame-coco\" and is commonly steamed with potatoes, vegetables and meats or fish. The leaves are sometimes cooked into soups and stews. It is also consumed as a dessert after first being steamed and peeled, then fried in vegetable oil or lard, and finally sprinkled with sugar, cinnamon and nutmeg. Taro grows abundantly in the fertile land of the Azores, as well as in creeks that are fed by mineral springs. Through migration to other countries, the \"inhame\" is found in the Azorean diaspora."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "The English term \"taro\" was borrowed from the M\u0101ori language of New Zealand when Captain Cook first observed plantations of \"Colocasia\" tubers there in 1769. The form \"taro\" or \"talo\" is widespread among Polynesian languages: in Tahitian; in Samoan and Tongan; in Hawaiian; \"tao\" in Marquesan. All these forms originate from Proto-Polynesian \"*talo\", which itself descended from Proto-Oceanic \"*talos\" (cf. in Fijian) and Proto-Austronesian \"*tales\" (cf. in Javanese). However, irregularity in sound correspondences among the cognate forms in Austronesian suggests that the term may have been borrowed from an Austroasiatic language perhaps somewhere in Borneo and spread from there (cf. proto-Mon-Khmer \"*t2raw\u0294\", Khasi , Khmu \"sro\u0294\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taho",
        "text": "In Baguio, there is also a strawberry variety of \"tah\u00f4\", wherein strawberry syrup is used instead of \"arnibal\". Other varieties use white cane sugar syrup, or chocolate sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Greece, taro grows on Icaria. Icarians credit taro for saving them from famine during World War II. They boil it until tender and serve it as a salad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro cake is a delicacy traditionally eaten during Chinese New Year celebrations. As a dessert, it can be mashed into a pur\u00e9e or used as a flavoring in \"tong sui\", ice cream, and other desserts such as Sweet Taro Pie. McDonald's sells taro-flavored pies in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breadfruit",
        "text": "In the Hawaiian staple food called , the traditional ingredient of mashed taro root can be replaced by, or augmented with, mashed breadfruit. The resulting \"breadfruit poi\" is called ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Pakistan, taro or \"eddoe\" or \"arvi\" is a very common dish served with or without gravy; a popular dish is \"arvi gosht\", which includes beef, lamb or mutton. The leaves are rolled along with gram flour batter and then fried or steamed to make a dish called \"Pakora\", which is finished by tempering with red chilies and carrom (ajwain) seeds. Taro or \"arvi\" is also cooked with chopped spinach. The dish called \"Arvi Palak\" is the second most renowned dish made of Taro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In the Odia language, it is called Saru (\u0b38\u0b3e\u0b30\u0b41). In India, it is used in huge quantities in the Odisha region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Since the late 20th century, taro chips have been available in many supermarkets and natural food stores, and taro is often used in American Chinatowns, in Chinese cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mmuock Leteh",
        "text": "\"aP\u00e1l\u00e1h\" is made from taro (Colocasia esculenta). Two people are usually involved in the mashing or pounding process: one peels and the other one pounds. Traditionally, the taro does not require any ingredient, although today special bananas may be added. The resulting paste is wrapped in fresh taro leaves and served with \"yellow soup.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Mizoram, in north-eastern India, it is called \"b\u00e4l\"; the leaves, stalks and corms are eaten as \"dawl bai\". The leaves and stalks are often traditionally preserved to be eaten in dry season as \"dawl r\u00ebp bai\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro cake",
        "text": "Taro cake\n--Variety.\n----Regional home-style.\n----Frozen taro cake.\n--In other cultures.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "B\u00e1nh khoai m\u00ec",
        "text": "A similar cake made from taro is called \"b\u00e1nh khoai m\u00f4n\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Himachal Pradesh, in northern India, taro corms are known as \"ghandyali\", and the plant is known as \"kachalu\" in the Kangra and Mandi districts. The dish called \"patrodu\" is made using taro leaves rolled with corn or gram flour and boiled in water. Another dish, \"pujji\" is made with mashed leaves and the trunk of the plant and \"ghandyali\" or taro corms are prepared as a separate dish. In Shimla, a pancake-style dish, called \"patra\" or \"patid\", is made using gram flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of alcoholic drinks",
        "text": "Okolehao is produced by Native Hawaiians from juice extracted from the roots of the ti plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Maharashtra, in western India, the leaves, called \"alu che paana\", are de-veined and rolled with a paste of gram flour. Then seasoned with tamarind paste, red chili powder, turmeric, coriander, asafoetida and salt, and finally steamed. These can be eaten whole, cut into pieces, or shallow fried and eaten as a snack known as \"alu chi wadi\". \"Alu chya panan chi patal bhaji\" a lentil and colocasia leaves curry, is also popular. In Goan as well as Konkani cuisine taro leaves are very popular. A tall-growing variety of taro is extensively used on the western coast of India to make \"patrode\", \"patrade\", or \"patrada\" (lit. \"leaf-pancake\") a dish with gram flour, tamarind and other spices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia",
        "text": "There are numerous terms for taro in the Austronesian languages, both specific and generalized. The reconstructed Proto-Austronesian term for taro is \"*cali\", with cognates in Formosan languages including Seediq \"sali\", Thao \"lhari\"; Bunun \"tai\"; and Amis \"tali\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Okolehao",
        "text": "Despite its Hawaiian origins, it is not commonly used in tiki drinks, likely because it was hard to get in California during the early days of Don the Beachcomber. Hawaiian bartender Harry Yee is attributed with inventing the Hot Buttered Okolehao, which may have been similar to Trader Vic's Hot buttered rum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fijian cuisine",
        "text": "Taro leaf, rourou, is the most important cash crop for Fijian communities. It is used in everyday meals and also used for ceremonial meals to make palusami."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citron",
        "text": "In Samoa a refreshing drink called \"vai tipolo\" is made from squeezed juice. It is also added to a raw fish dish called \"oka\" and to a variation of palusami or lu\u00e1u."
      },
      {
        "title": "Okolehao",
        "text": "No recipes listing okolehao appeared in either of Trader Vic's drink guides. It is however sometimes used in Scorpion Bowls served in Hawaii, a nod to authenticism and the Scorpion cocktail's historical roots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tartufo",
        "text": "To this day, the Bar Dante and Bar Ercole activities are managed by family, passing from father to son the secret recipe for making their gelato products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tiki mugs",
        "text": "Although some mugs can be quite big, larger vessels are required for drinks meant to be shared. A scorpion bowl (also known as a kava bowl or tarantula bowl) is an oversized ceramic bowl meant for communal drinking through straws. A variation is the flaming volcano bowl, which has a raised crater reservoir. This reservoir is typically filled with a small amount of overproof rum (151 or 160) and carefully lit on fire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "When kalo was brought to Hawai\u02bbi, there were about 300 varieties (about 100 remain). The kalo plant takes seven months to grow until harvest, so \"lo`i\" fields are used in rotation and the soil can be replenished while the \"lo\u02bbi\" in use has sufficient water. The stems are typically replanted in the \"lo`i\" for future kalo harvests. Once harvested, kalo is incorporated into many foods. The leaves are used to make laulau, from the corm poi or \"pa\u02bbi\u02bbai\".\n; History"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Kerala, a state in southern India, taro corms are known as \"chembu kizhangu\" (\u0d1a\u0d47\u0d2e\u0d4d\u0d2a\u0d4d \u0d15\u0d3f\u0d34\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d4d) and are a staple food, a side dish, and an ingredient in various side dishes like sambar. As a staple food, it is steamed and eaten with a spicy chutney of green chilies, tamarind, and shallots. The leaves and stems of certain varieties of taro are also used as a vegetable in Kerala. In Dakshin Kannada in Karnataka, it is used as a breakfast dish, either made like fritters or steamed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bunlap",
        "text": "On the interior slopes of the island, villagers grow taro, a widely cultivated tropical Asian plant (\"Colocasia esculenta\") having broad peltate leaves and a large starchy edible tuber."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "\"Ala\" was widely grown in the southern atolls of Addu Atoll, Fuvahmulah, Huvadhu Atoll, and Laamu Atoll and is considered a staple even after rice was introduced. \"Ala\" and \"olhu ala\" are still widely eaten all over the Maldives, cooked or steamed with salt to taste, and eaten with grated coconut along with chili paste and fish soup. It is also prepared as a curry. The corms are sliced and fried to make chips and are also used to prepare varieties of sweets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro ball",
        "text": "Taro ball\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iyo language",
        "text": "'Seeing it simply as the type of taro they always planted they added it to the taro they are planting now.'"
      },
      {
        "title": "Alocasia macrorrhizos",
        "text": "The reconstructed word for giant taro in Proto-Austronesian is \"*biRaq\", which became Proto-Oceanic \"*piRaq\". Modern cognates in Maritime Southeast Asia and Micronesia include Rukai \"vi'a\" or \"bi'a\"; Ifugao \"bila\"; Ilocano, Cebuano, and Bikol \"biga\"; Tiruray \"bira\"; Ngaju \"biha\"; Malagasy \"via\"; Malay and Acehnese \"birah\"; Mongondow \"biga\"; Palauan \"b\u00eds\u0259\"; Chamorro \"piga\"; Bima \"wia\"; Roti and Tetun \"fia\"; Asilulu \"hila\"; and Kowiai \"fira\". In Oceania, cognates for it include Wuvulu and Aua \"pia\"; Motu and 'Are'are \"hira\"; Kilivila and Fijian \"via\"; and Hawaiian \"pia\". Note that in some cases, the cognates have shifted to mean other types of taro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Taiwan, taro\u2014 \"y\u00f9t\u00f3u\" () in Mandarin, and \"\u014d\u0358-\u00e1\" () in Taiwanese\u2014is well-adapted to Taiwanese climate and can grow almost anywhere in the country with minimal maintenance. Before the Taiwan Miracle made rice affordable to everyone, taro was one of the main staples in Taiwan. Nowadays taro is used more often in desserts. Supermarket varieties range from about the size and shape of a brussels sprout to longer, larger varieties the size of a football. Taro chips are often used as a potato-chip-like snack. Compared to potato chips, taro chips are harder and have a nuttier flavor. Another popular traditional Taiwanese snack is taro ball, served on ice or deep-fried. It is common to see taro as a flavor in desserts and drinks, such as bubble tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Egypt, taro is known as \"qolqas\" (, ). The corms are larger than what would be found in North American supermarkets. After being peeled completely, it is cooked in one of two ways: cut into small cubes and cooked in broth with fresh coriander and chard and served as an accompaniment to meat stew, or sliced and cooked with minced meat and tomato sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro cake",
        "text": "Some restaurants offer taro cakes cut into small cubes as part of a main course appetizer to a major Chinese cuisine. These are sometimes frozen to a more solid state, though it is not nearly as common as the other forms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcohol in Indonesia",
        "text": "In the Toraja lands of South Sulawesi, their version of \"tuak\" \u2014 made from fermented sugar palm sap, is called \"ballo\". In Torajan traditional ceremonies, rituals and celebrations, \"ballo\" is always served, either as a prerequisite for the ritual; as an offering for ancestral spirits, as well as for drinks for guests. \"Ballo\" is also commonly consumed by the neighboring Bugis ethnic group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alocasia macrorrhizos",
        "text": "The giant taro was originally domesticated in the Philippines, but are known from wild specimens to early Austronesians in Taiwan. From the Philippines, they spread outwards to the rest of Maritime Southeast Asia and eastward to Oceania where it became one of the staple crops of Pacific Islanders. They are one of the four main species of aroids (taros) cultivated by Austronesians primarily as a source of starch, the others being \"Amorphophallus paeoniifolius\", \"Colocasia esculenta\", and \"Cyrtosperma merkusii\", each with multiple cultivated varieties. Their leaves and stems are also edible if cooked thoroughly, though this is rarely done for giant taro as it contains higher amounts of raphides which cause itching."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tariana language",
        "text": "2\"\u00f5\" occurs only in the following words: \"t\u00f5k\u1ebd\" \"firefly\", \"siwirik\u00f5rena\" \"tapiriri, Tapirira guianensis\", \"nuit\u00f5\" \"daughter! (vocative)\", and -t\u00f5reta \"roll into a thin roll, like a cigarette\". It also occurs word-initially in place names of Tucano origin (e.g. \u00d5r\u00f5reana)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Takihi",
        "text": "Takihi is a Niuean dish made from thinly sliced taro and papaya, layered and dressed with coconut milk and baked. It is considered the national dish of Niue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asashio Tar\u014d",
        "text": "Asashio Tar\u014d may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Talo (food)",
        "text": "Nowadays it is eaten with txistorra (a type of thin chorizo) while drinking txakoli. It is sometimes accompanied with milk, eaten with fried egg, fried pancetta (in Basque \"xingar\", in French \"Ventr\u00eache\") or fried Bayonne Ham, cheese like Ossau-Iraty, chocolate or honey. In Bayonne, France, street vendors purvey talo during its annual Bayonne Ham Fair."
      },
      {
        "title": "Teso people",
        "text": "The cultural drink of the Iteso people is \"'ajon\"', a fermented brew made from dried finger millet (usually the \"emiroiti\" variety) that is commonly consumed in local ceremonies, social gatherings and important events. It can be consumed in a calabash, or a communal pot where participants sip the drink from long tubes. It is custom to keep a mother whose recently given birth confined to the home for three days, and afterwards, \"ajon\" is placed in the mouth of the infant. Some Christian Iteso criticize the customs surrounding \"ajon\". In the modern age, the production of \"ajon\" has become commercialized, and its production and sale are an important source of income for the families that specialize in making it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "The taro corm is a traditional staple crop for large parts of Papua New Guinea, with a domestic trade extending its consumption to areas where it is not traditionally grown. Taro from some regions has developed particularly good reputations with (for instance) Lae taro being highly prized."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where do most taro come from?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "At around 3.3 million metric tons per year, Nigeria is the largest producer of taro in the world."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What kinda of foods are made with taro?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The kinds of food made with taro vary according to different regions of the world like Oceania, East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia. Which region do you want to know more?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Please let me know more about the Oceania region."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know more of its use in the Cook Islands, Fiji, Hawaii, or Papua New Guinea?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me how it's used in Hawaii."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The local crop plays an important role in Hawaiian culture, mythology, and cuisine, being a traditional staple. Some of the uses for taro include poi, table taro (steamed and served like a potato), taro chips, and l\u016b\u02bbau leaf (to make laulau)."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any drinks that are made with Taro?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "It is common to see taro as a flavor in desserts and drinks, such as bubble tea in Taiwan.",
      "It is common to see taro as a flavor in desserts and drinks, such as bubble tea."
    ],
    "topic": "Taro",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Taro:56",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Taro",
          "Uses",
          "Culinary",
          "East Asia",
          "Taiwan"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Taiwan, taro\u2014 \"y\u00f9t\u00f3u\" () in Mandarin, and \"\u014d\u0358-\u00e1\" () in Taiwanese\u2014is well-adapted to Taiwanese climate and can grow almost anywhere in the country with minimal maintenance. Before the Taiwan Miracle made rice affordable to everyone, taro was one of the main staples in Taiwan. Nowadays taro is used more often in desserts. Supermarket varieties range from about the size and shape of a brussels sprout to longer, larger varieties the size of a football. Taro chips are often used as a potato-chip-like snack. Compared to potato chips, taro chips are harder and have a nuttier flavor. Another popular traditional Taiwanese snack is taro ball, served on ice or deep-fried. It is common to see taro as a flavor in desserts and drinks, such as bubble tea."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Taro:56",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Taro",
          "Uses",
          "Culinary",
          "East Asia",
          "Taiwan"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Taiwan, taro\u2014 \"y\u00f9t\u00f3u\" () in Mandarin, and \"\u014d\u0358-\u00e1\" () in Taiwanese\u2014is well-adapted to Taiwanese climate and can grow almost anywhere in the country with minimal maintenance. Before the Taiwan Miracle made rice affordable to everyone, taro was one of the main staples in Taiwan. Nowadays taro is used more often in desserts. Supermarket varieties range from about the size and shape of a brussels sprout to longer, larger varieties the size of a football. Taro chips are often used as a potato-chip-like snack. Compared to potato chips, taro chips are harder and have a nuttier flavor. Another popular traditional Taiwanese snack is taro ball, served on ice or deep-fried. It is common to see taro as a flavor in desserts and drinks, such as bubble tea."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro is mashed in the dessert known as taro pur\u00e9e."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro ball",
        "text": "The taro balls can be made by mixing mashed taro with water and sweet potato flour or potato flour, making the taro balls more springy or softer respectively. The colour of mashed taro makes the dessert appear crystal purple or grey. The mashed taro can be replaced by mashed sweet potato or ground mung bean and becomes the yellow sweet potato ball () or the green mung bean ball ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taros are often prepared like potatoes, eaten boiled, stewed or mashed, generally with salt and sometimes garlic as a condiment, as part of a meal (most often lunch or dinner)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro pur\u00e9e",
        "text": "Taro pur\u00e9e\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro paste, a traditional Cantonese cuisine, which originated from the Chaoshan region in the eastern part of China's Guangdong Province is a dessert made primarily from taro. The taro is steamed and then mashed into a thick paste, which forms the base of the dessert. Lard or fried onion oil is then added for fragrance. The dessert is traditionally sweetened with water chestnut syrup, and served with ginkgo nuts. Modern versions of the dessert include the addition of coconut cream and sweet corn. The dessert is commonly served at traditional Teochew wedding banquet dinners as the last course, marking the end of the banquet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro ball",
        "text": "The dessert can be served with syrup either icy or hot. It is also very common to use taro balls and sweet potato balls to top other Taiwanese desserts like douhua or tshuah-ping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kyabetsu Tar\u014d",
        "text": "is a Japanese snack food made by the \"Kad\u014d\" (\u83d3\u9053) company of Ibaraki Prefecture. It consists of balls of corn about 3\u00a0cm in diameter flavoured with small pieces of nori and Japanese brown sauce. It is a relatively low cost snack aimed at children. It is sold in two bag sizes, a 20 yen and a 100 yen bag. The package shows a frog wearing a policeman's hat. Despite the name, the snack does not list cabbage in its ingredients. Its name may be a pun on Momotaro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro no To",
        "text": "\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d As\u014d",
        "text": "In October 2008, the Japanese media reported that As\u014d dined out or drank in restaurants and bars in luxury hotels almost nightly. When asked about it, As\u014d stated, \"I won't change my style. Luckily I have my money and can afford it.\" As\u014d added that if he went anywhere else, he would have to be accompanied by security guards which would cause trouble."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro () is grown in the south coast of Turkey, especially in Mersin, Bozyaz\u0131, Anamur and Antalya. It is boiled in a tomato sauce or cooked with meat, beans and chickpeas. It is often used as a substitute for potato."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Corms of the small, round variety are peeled and boiled, then sold either frozen, bagged in their own liquids, or canned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Taro may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro ball",
        "text": "Taro ball () is a traditional Taiwanese cuisine dessert made of taro. It can be found in almost every part of Taiwan and other parts of the world selling Taiwanese desserts, among which Jiufen's taro ball is said to be the most famous."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Taro (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Indonesia, taro is widely used for snacks, cakes, crackers, and even macarons, thus it can be easily found everywhere. Some varieties are specially cultivated in accordance with social or geographical traditions. Taro is usually known as \"keladi\", although other varieties are also known as \"talas\", among others. Chinese descendants in Indonesia often eat taro with stewed rice and dried shrimp. The taro is diced and cooked along with the rice, the shrimp, and sesame oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro ball",
        "text": "Taro ball\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro pur\u00e9e",
        "text": "Taro pur\u00e9e, also known as taro mash or taro paste, () is a traditional dessert in Fujianese cuisine and Teochew cuisine. Made from pur\u00e9ed taro and lard and served on a flat plate, the dessert is normally topped with toasted sesame seeds, and occasionally with candied ginkgo, red dates, or melon seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gerda Taro",
        "text": "Notes"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro () is commonly used as a main course as steamed taro with or without sugar, as a substitute for other cereals, in Chinese cuisine in a variety of styles and provinces steamed, boiled or stir-fried as a main dish and as a flavor-enhancing ingredient. In Northern China, it is often boiled or steamed then peeled and eaten with or without sugar much like a potato. It is commonly braised with pork or beef. It is used in the Cantonese dim sum to make a small plated dish called taro dumpling as well as a pan-fried dish called taro cake. It can also be shredded into long strips which are woven together to form a seafood birdsnest. In Fujian cuisine, it is steamed or boiled and mixed with starch to form a dough for dumpling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Thai cuisine, taro (\"pheuak\") is used in a variety of ways depending on the region. Boiled taro is readily available in the market packaged in small cellophane bags, already peeled and diced, and eaten as a snack. Pieces of boiled taro with coconut milk are a traditional Thai dessert. Raw taro is also often sliced and deep fried and sold in bags as chips (\u0e40\u0e1c\u0e37\u0e2d\u0e01\u0e17\u0e2d\u0e14). As in other Asian countries, taro is a popular flavor for ice cream in Thailand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "People usually consume its edible corm and leaves. The corms, which have a light purple color due to phenolic pigments, are roasted, baked or boiled. The natural sugars give a sweet, nutty flavor. The starch is easily digestible, and since the grains are fine and small it is often used for baby food. Young taro leaves and stems can be eaten after boiling twice to remove the acrid flavor. The leaves are a good source of vitamins A and C and contain more protein than the corms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro cake is a delicacy traditionally eaten during Chinese New Year celebrations. As a dessert, it can be mashed into a pur\u00e9e or used as a flavoring in \"tong sui\", ice cream, and other desserts such as Sweet Taro Pie. McDonald's sells taro-flavored pies in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Taiwan, taro\u2014 \"y\u00f9t\u00f3u\" () in Mandarin, and \"\u014d\u0358-\u00e1\" () in Taiwanese\u2014is well-adapted to Taiwanese climate and can grow almost anywhere in the country with minimal maintenance. Before the Taiwan Miracle made rice affordable to everyone, taro was one of the main staples in Taiwan. Nowadays taro is used more often in desserts. Supermarket varieties range from about the size and shape of a brussels sprout to longer, larger varieties the size of a football. Taro chips are often used as a potato-chip-like snack. Compared to potato chips, taro chips are harder and have a nuttier flavor. Another popular traditional Taiwanese snack is taro ball, served on ice or deep-fried. It is common to see taro as a flavor in desserts and drinks, such as bubble tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gerda Taro",
        "text": "Further reading"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro cake",
        "text": "Taro cake\n--Variety.\n----Regional home-style.\n----Frozen taro cake.\n--In other cultures.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Belize, Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Panama, taro is eaten in soups, as a replacement for potatoes, and as chips. It is known locally as \"malanga\" (also \"malanga coco\") and \"dasheen\" in Belize and Costa Rica, \"quiquizque\" in Nicaragua, and as \"otoe\" in Panama."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asashio Tar\u014d",
        "text": "Asashio Tar\u014d may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d As\u014d",
        "text": "\"Incorporates information from the Japanese Wikipedia article\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Nishidono",
        "text": "Taro Nishidono\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dessert",
        "text": "Dessert nowadays are made into drinks as well. Bubble tea, which originated in Taiwan, is a kind of dessert made with flavored tea or milk and tapioca. It is well known across the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tartufo",
        "text": "To this day, the Bar Dante and Bar Ercole activities are managed by family, passing from father to son the secret recipe for making their gelato products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Since the late 20th century, taro chips have been available in many supermarkets and natural food stores, and taro is often used in American Chinatowns, in Chinese cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Taro (\"Colocasia esculenta\") is a tropical plant grown primarily for its edible corms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro cake",
        "text": "The other version is the more home-style baked version. Usually it uses the same ingredients and steamed for long periods of time in a deep pan until it is ultra soft and pasty. The formula varies greatly depending on the family recipe or regional tastes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tarso Toon",
        "text": "Tarso Toon\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In the Spanish-speaking countries of the Spanish West Indies taro is called \"\u00f1ame\", the Portuguese variant of which (\"inhame\") is used in former Portuguese colonies where taro is still cultivated, including the Azores and Brazil. In Puerto Rico and Cuba, and the Dominican Republic it is sometimes called \"malanga\" or \"yautia\". In some countries, such as Trinidad and Tobago, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Dominica, the leaves and stem of the \"dasheen\", or taro, are most often cooked and pureed into a thick liquid called callaloo, which is served as a side dish similar to creamed spinach. \"Callaloo\" is sometimes prepared with crab legs, coconut milk, pumpkin, and okra. It is usually served alongside rice or made into a soup along with various other roots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Ueno",
        "text": "Taro Ueno\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tartufo",
        "text": "\"Tartufo\" is usually composed of two flavors of gelato that are sculpted together by hand. If there is fruit in the middle, the gelato may be scooped out from the middle and the fruit placed inside, or fruit syrup may be used to paste the two scoops together. If its shell is chocolate, special chocolate is usually melted and either dipped or poured over the gelato ball after being cooled to lukewarm\u00a0\u2014 although it can also be rolled in the chocolate\u00a0\u2014 and then frozen. If its shell is cinnamon or cocoa, it is usually rolled in cinnamon or cocoa before freezing. If nuts are used, they are usually put on by hand if large or, if smaller, rolled on. For a better shape, circular molds are sometimes used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asashio Tar\u014d",
        "text": "Asashio Tar\u014d\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iyo language",
        "text": "'Seeing it simply as the type of taro they always planted they added it to the taro they are planting now.'"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Goto",
        "text": "is a former Japanese football player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asashio Tar\u014d I",
        "text": "Asashio Tar\u014d I\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In the Azores taro is known as \"inhame\" or \"inhame-coco\" and is commonly steamed with potatoes, vegetables and meats or fish. The leaves are sometimes cooked into soups and stews. It is also consumed as a dessert after first being steamed and peeled, then fried in vegetable oil or lard, and finally sprinkled with sugar, cinnamon and nutmeg. Taro grows abundantly in the fertile land of the Azores, as well as in creeks that are fed by mineral springs. Through migration to other countries, the \"inhame\" is found in the Azorean diaspora."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro no To",
        "text": "Taro no To\n--Overview.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Chiezo",
        "text": "Taro Chiezo\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Trinidad and Tobago, it is called \"dasheen\". The leaves of the taro plant are used to make the Trinidadian variant of the Caribbean dish known as callaloo (which is made with okra, \"dasheen\"/taro leaves, coconut milk or creme and aromatic herbs) and it is also prepared similarly to steamed spinach. The root of the taro plant is often served boiled, accompanied by stewed fish or meat, curried, often with peas and eaten with roti, or in soups. The leaves are also sauteed with onions, hot pepper and garlic til they are melted to make a dish called \"bhaji\". This dish is popular with Indo-Trinidadian people. The leaves are also fried in a split pea batter to make \"saheena\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Native Taiwanese",
        "text": "In contrast to sweet potatoes, people from other provinces who moved to Taiwan from mainland China after the end of the World War II are referred to as \"taro people\". For example, it is common in colloquial speech to call older soldiers from other provinces \"old taro\". The offspring of native Taiwanese and Nationalist era migrants are sometimes jokingly called \"taro sweet potatoes.\" Ironically, Taro has a much longer agricultural and culinary history on the island. It commonly found in some Austronesian and Hoklo diets. \"Taro cookies\" are common in some Formosan diets. Paiwan people use a special kiln roast method to preserve dried taro. Dried taro can be eaten alone or cooked, or ground into powder for cooking. In Paiwan cuisine, taro stems can also be used as food ingredients, but specific parts must be cut and specially processed in order to avoid physical discomfort after ingesting. Hoklo people also make a puree dish with taro: fresh taro is peeled and cut into pieces, steamed in a basket, mashed, mixed with lard and sugar, and finally garnished with peanuts, sesame seeds, and butterflied plums. Taro puree is most commonly served as a dessert at the end of the banquet. Other methods include wire-drawing taro, fried taro cake, Muscovy taro, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro has been grown for centuries in the United States, though it has never attained the same popularity as in Asian and Pacific nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro no To",
        "text": "\"Taro no To\" (Japanese title TARO\u306e\u5854) is a 2011 dorama created by NHK. Directed by NHK employees Yoshihiko Nagikawa and Mitsuhiro Fukui, it stars Suzuki Matsuo as Okamoto Taro during his rise to fame and the construction of the Tower of the Sun in Osaka."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tareco",
        "text": "Tareco\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tartano",
        "text": "Tartano\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of desserts",
        "text": "T\n* Tarta de Santiago\n* Treacle tart"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro was consumed by the early Romans in much the same way the potato is today. They called this root vegetable \"colocasia\". The Roman cookbook \"Apicius\" mentions several methods for preparing taro, including boiling, preparing with sauces, and cooking with meat or fowl. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the use of taro dwindled in Europe. This was largely due to the decline of trade and commerce with Egypt, previously controlled by Rome. When the Spanish and Portuguese sailed to the new world, they brought taro along with them. Recently there has been renewed interest in exotic foods and consumption is increasing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Masushio",
        "text": "Taro Masushio\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro cake",
        "text": "Some restaurants offer taro cakes cut into small cubes as part of a main course appetizer to a major Chinese cuisine. These are sometimes frozen to a more solid state, though it is not nearly as common as the other forms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Achi",
        "text": "Taro Achi\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Samoa, the baby talo leaves and coconut milk are wrapped into parcels and cooked, along with other food, in an earth oven . The parcels are called \"palusami\" or \"lu'au\". The resulting taste is smoky, sweet, savory and has a unique creamy texture. The root is also baked (\"Talo tao\") in the \"umu\" or boiled with coconut cream (\"Fa\u00e1lifu Talo\"). It has a slightly bland and starchy flavor. It is sometimes called the Polynesian potato."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tartufo",
        "text": "Tartufo (, ; meaning \"truffle\") is an Italian dessert of gelato (a type of ice cream) that originated in Pizzo, Calabria. The dessert takes the form of a ball that is composed of two or more flavors of gelato, often with melted chocolate inserted into the center (following the original recipe) or alternatively, with either fruit syrup or frozen fruit\u00a0\u2014 typically raspberry, strawberry, or cherry\u00a0\u2014 in the center. Typically, the desert is covered in a shell made of chocolate or cocoa, but sometimes cinnamon or nuts are used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "It is a food staple in African, Oceanic and South Asian cultures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro cake",
        "text": "A similar dish is prepared in the cuisine of Vietnam, where it is called \"b\u00e1nh khoai m\u00f4n\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u00f4 K\u00f4no",
        "text": "<ns>0</ns>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lungo",
        "text": "Lungo\n--Related beverages.\n--Flavour.\n--Brewing.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Akebono Tar\u014d",
        "text": "While an \"oyakata\", Akebono also appeared in TV commercials and opened a restaurant called ZUNA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Tan",
        "text": "Taro Tan\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Teavaro",
        "text": "Teavaro\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Jamaica, taro is known as \"coco\", \"cocoyam\" and \"dasheen\". Corms with flesh which is white throughout are referred to as \"minty-coco\". The leaves are also used to make Pepper Pot Soup which may include callaloo."
      },
      {
        "title": "P\u00e3o de queijo",
        "text": "Some recipes use potato."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d Kimura",
        "text": "Tar\u014d Kimura may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Popo (beverage)",
        "text": "Everything together is grounded in metate (a mealing stone) or in the nixtamal mill until a kind of dense paste remains. The paste is mixed with water and strained several times with a tusor rag (of cotton) or colander. Finally, sugar and ices are added, and foamed with a molinillo (wooden whisk). It is traditional to serve it in a j\u00edcara bowl and eat it with spoonfuls accompanied by tamale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tareco",
        "text": "The tareco () is a little tough biscuit, made of wheat flour, eggs and sugar; that, when put into the oven, get the disk shape."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro cake",
        "text": "Taro cake () is a Cantonese dish made from the vegetable taro. While it is denser in texture than radish cakes, both of these savory cakes are made in similar ways, with rice flour as the main ingredient. As a dim sum, it is usually cut into rectangular slices and pan-fried before serving. It is found in Hong Kong, China, and overseas Chinatown restaurants. Other ingredients often include pork and Chinese black mushroom, or even Chinese sausages. It is usually topped with chopped scallions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Korea, taro is called \"toran\" (: \"earth egg\"), and the corm is stewed and the leaf stem is stir-fried. Taro roots can be used for medicinal purposes, particularly for treating insect bites. It is made into the Korean traditional soup \"toranguk\" (\ud1a0\ub780\uad6d). Taro stems are often used as an ingredient in yukgaejang (\uc721\uac1c\uc7a5)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Targho",
        "text": "Targho\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Portuguese, it is known as , , , , , or and in Spanish it is called ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bubble tea",
        "text": "Some shops offer milk or cheese foam on top of the drink, giving the drink a consistency similar to that of whipped cream, and a saltier flavor profile."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Ando (athlete)",
        "text": "Taro Ando (athlete)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d (given name)",
        "text": "Tar\u014d (given name)\n--Possible writings.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "It is also sold as an ornamental aquatic plant. It can be grown indoors with high humidity. In the UK, it has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tardeo",
        "text": "Tardeo\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "\"L\u016b\" is the Tongan word for the edible leaves of the taro plant (called \"talo\" in Tonga), as well as the traditional dish made using them. This meal is still prepared for special occasions and especially on Sunday. The dish consists of chopped meat, onions, and coconut milk wrapped in a number of taro leaves (\"l\u016b talo\"). This is then wrapped traditionally in a banana leaf (nowadays, aluminum foil is often used) and put in the \"\u02bbumu\" to cook. It has a number of named varieties, dependent on the filling:\n* \"L\u016b pulu\" \u2013 \"l\u016b\" with beef, commonly using imported corned beef (\"kapapulu\")\n* \"L\u016b sipi\" \u2013 \"l\u016b\" with lamb\n* \"L\u016b moa\" \u2013 \"l\u016b\" with chicken\n* \"L\u016b hoosi\" \u2013 \"l\u016b\" with horse meat"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sato (beverage)",
        "text": "is prepared by breaking the seal in the mouth of the jar and adding clean water, then immediately drunk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u00f4 K\u00f4no",
        "text": "Tar\u00f4 K\u00f4no\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u00f4 K\u00f4no",
        "text": "</contributor>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In India, taro or eddoe is a common dish served in many ways."
      },
      {
        "title": "B\u00e1nh khoai m\u00ec",
        "text": "A similar cake made from taro is called \"b\u00e1nh khoai m\u00f4n\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Kono",
        "text": "Kono's favorite food is durian. He was named the Honorary Chairman of the Japan Durian Promotion Association when it was established in January 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In the Odia language, it is called Saru (\u0b38\u0b3e\u0b30\u0b41). In India, it is used in huge quantities in the Odisha region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taho",
        "text": "In Baguio, there is also a strawberry variety of \"tah\u00f4\", wherein strawberry syrup is used instead of \"arnibal\". Other varieties use white cane sugar syrup, or chocolate sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro (river)",
        "text": "Taro (river)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Kudo",
        "text": "Taro Kudo\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro root is consumed in the south of Spain. Taro has remained popular in the Canary Islands. In the Canary Islands it is known as \"\u00f1ame\" and is often used in thick vegetable stews, like \"potaje de berros\" (cress potage). Taro is called \"\u00f1ame\" (which normally designates yams) in Canarian Spanish and is a common crop in the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands (Canary Islands, Spain)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taroq",
        "text": "Taroq\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d As\u014d",
        "text": "According to the \"Asahi Shimbun\", As\u014d dined out or drank at bars 32 times in September 2008, mainly at exclusive hotels. As\u014d's predecessor, Yasuo Fukuda, dined out only seven times in his first month in office. Both of the LDP's opposition parties have called As\u014d's frequent outings inappropriate. As\u014d's Chief Cabinet Secretary, Jun Matsumoto, commented on the issue by saying that As\u014d's frequent trips to restaurants \"is his lifestyle and philosophy, and I am not in a position to express my opinion. If only there were more appropriate places when considering security issues and not causing trouble for other customers.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro Chiezo",
        "text": "Taro Chiezo (\u5343\u6075\u85cf \u592a\u90ce \"Chiez\u014d Tar\u014d\") is a Japanese artist based in Manhattan. His works include SuperLambBanana, a sculpture in Liverpool, England of a Lamb with its back as a banana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tiki mugs",
        "text": "Although some mugs can be quite big, larger vessels are required for drinks meant to be shared. A scorpion bowl (also known as a kava bowl or tarantula bowl) is an oversized ceramic bowl meant for communal drinking through straws. A variation is the flaming volcano bowl, which has a raised crater reservoir. This reservoir is typically filled with a small amount of overproof rum (151 or 160) and carefully lit on fire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Mithila, Bihar, taro corms are known as \"\u0259dua\" (\u0905\u0921\u0941\u0906) and its leaves are called \"\u0259dikunch ke paat\" (\u0905\u0921\u093c\u093f\u0915\u0902\u091a \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0924). A curry of taro leaves is made with mustard paste and sour sun-dried mango pulp (\u0906\u092e\u093f\u0932; )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Manipur, another north-eastern state, taro is known as \"pan\". The Kukis calls it \"bal\". Boiled \"bal\" is a snack at lunch along with chutney or hot chili-flakes besides being cooked as a main dish along with smoked or dried meat, beans, and mustard leaves. Sun-dried taro leaves are later used in broth and stews. It is widely available and is eaten in many forms, either baked, boiled, or cooked into a curry with hilsa or with fermented soybeans called \"hawai-zaar\". The leaves are also used in a special traditional dish called \"utti\", cooked with peas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Macaronesia this plant has become naturalized, probably as a result of the Portuguese discoveries and is frequently used in the macaronesian diet as an important carb source."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tar\u014d As\u014d",
        "text": "An anatomy professor from the University of Tokyo, Takeshi Yoro, speculated that As\u014d could possibly have dyslexia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "In Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, taro is commonly known as \"arrow root\", , or and in some local Bantu languages. It is usually boiled and eaten with tea or other beverages, or as the main starch of a meal. It is also cultivated in Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where do most taro come from?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "At around 3.3 million metric tons per year, Nigeria is the largest producer of taro in the world."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What kinda of foods are made with taro?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The kinds of food made with taro vary according to different regions of the world like Oceania, East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia. Which region do you want to know more?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Please let me know more about the Oceania region."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know more of its use in the Cook Islands, Fiji, Hawaii, or Papua New Guinea?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me how it's used in Hawaii."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The local crop plays an important role in Hawaiian culture, mythology, and cuisine, being a traditional staple. Some of the uses for taro include poi, table taro (steamed and served like a potato), taro chips, and l\u016b\u02bbau leaf (to make laulau)."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any drinks that are made with Taro?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It is common to see taro as a flavor in desserts and drinks, such as bubble tea."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How is Taro used in bubble tea?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
    ],
    "topic": "Taro",
    "ground_truth_ctx": []
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Exercise prescription",
        "text": "Exercise is not only recommended for preventing many types of cancer, but is now recommended as part of treatment for many cancers based on the results of scientific trials."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "Exercise may contribute to a reduction of cancer-related fatigue in survivors of breast cancer. Although there is only limited scientific evidence on the subject, people with cancer cachexia are encouraged to engage in physical exercise. Due to various factors, some individuals with cancer cachexia have a limited capacity for physical exercise. Compliance with prescribed exercise is low in individuals with cachexia and clinical trials of exercise in this population often suffer from high drop-out rates. Many go as far as to argue that supervised high-intensity resistance training should be made a critical part of rehabilitation for breast cancer survivors as it increases overall quality of life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Benefits of physical activity",
        "text": "Exercise increases the chances of surviving cancer. If one exercise during the early stages of cancer treatment it may allow time to reduce the detrimental side effects of the chemotherapy. It also improves physical functions along with reducing distress and fatigue. Studies have shown that exercise has the possibility to improve the chemotherapy drug uptake, thanks to the increase in the peripheral circulation. This also makes changes to tumors vasculature from the increase of cardio and blood pressure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cancer prevention",
        "text": "Research shows that regular physical activity helps to reduce up to 30% the risk of a variety of cancer types, such as colon cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer and endometrium cancer. The biological mechanisms underlying this association are still not well understood but different biological pathways involved in cancer have been studied suggesting that physical activity reduces cancer risk by helping weight control, reducing hormones such as estrogen and insulin, reducing inflammation and strengthening the immune system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevent Breast Cancer",
        "text": "Diet & Lifestyle \u2013 Research into lifestyle factors that contribute to breast cancer risk and how diet and exercise can reduce this."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "A systematic review evaluated 45 studies that examined the relationship between physical activity and cancer survival rates. According to the review, \"[there] was consistent evidence from 27 observational studies that physical activity is associated with reduced all-cause, breast cancer\u2013specific, and colon cancer\u2013specific mortality. There is currently insufficient evidence regarding the association between physical activity and mortality for survivors of other cancers.\" Evidence suggests that exercise may positively affect the quality of life in cancer survivors, including factors such as anxiety, self-esteem and emotional well-being. For people with cancer undergoing active treatment, exercise may also have positive effects on health-related quality of life, such as fatigue and physical functioning. This is likely to be more pronounced with higher intensity exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise medicine",
        "text": "Exercise prescription is now a recognized treatment for cancer, as studies have shown that exercise is associated with superior mortality outcomes and lower recurrence rates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Treatment of cancer",
        "text": "Exercise prescription is becoming a mainstream adjunct treatment for cancer, based on studies which show that exercise (compared to no exercise) is associated with reduced recurrence rates, improved mortality outcomes, reduction of side effects from traditional cancer treatments. Although it is uncertain whether improved outcomes with exercise are correlated or causative, the benefit-risk ratio of including exercise as part of cancer treatment is large, as exercise has further benefits (e.g. cardiovascular, mental health) without major risks, although there is a small risk of overuse injury if added too aggressively. Exercise physiologists and exercise medicine specialists can assist oncologists and primary care practitioners with exercise prescription in cancer patients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kerry Courneya",
        "text": "In 2007, Courneya published the START trial, a randomized controlled trial comparing aerobic and resistance exercise to usual care in breast cancer patients on chemotherapy. The START trial was the first to show that exercise may improve chemotherapy completion in breast cancer patients. Following this, Courneya published the findings of his Healthy Exercise for Lymphoma Patients (HELP) trial which found that a regimen of aerobic exercise training produced significant improvements in physical functioning and overall quality of life benefits in patients with lymphoma whether they were receiving chemotherapy or no treatments. In 2013, Courneya published the CARE trial, a randomized controlled trial of combined aerobic and resistance exercise in breast cancer survivors receiving chemotherapy. In addition to these single center and multicenter trials, Courneya also co-led the Colon Health and Life-Long Exercise Change (Challenge) trial, a multi-national trial involving participants in Canada and Australia. As a result of his research, Courneya and Christine Friedenreich of Alberta Health Services received a $2.5 million team grant over five years from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) to conduct the Alberta Moving Beyond Breast Cancer (AMBER) cohort study."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prostate cancer",
        "text": "Regular exercise may slightly lower risk, especially vigorous activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Management of prostate cancer",
        "text": "There is some evidence that exercise may be beneficial for people with prostate cancer, however the effects are not clear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kerry Courneya",
        "text": "Courneya was again renewed as a CRC in Physical Activity and Cancer in 2018. Following this, he received a CIHR Foundation Grant to fund a series of studies to determine if exercise can lower the risk of cancer recurring and improve the effects of cancer treatment on overall survival. Courneya was named the winner of the 2019 Manulife Prize as a \"trailblazing researcher who put exercise front and centre in cancer treatment.\" He was also the co-recipient of the Canadian Cancer Society's O.Harold Warwick Prize for his outstanding achievement in cancer control research."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cancer survivor",
        "text": "However, adherence to diet and exercise recommendations among cancer survivors is often poor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lymphoma",
        "text": "Adding physical exercises to the standard treatment for adult patients with haematological malignancies like lymphomas may result in little to no difference in the mortality, the quality of life and the physical functioning. These exercises may result in a slight reduction in depression. Furthermore, aerobic physical exercises probably reduce fatigue. The evidence is very uncertain about the effect on anxiety and serious adverse events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical fitness",
        "text": "These recommendations are also widely supported by the American Cancer Society. The guidelines have been evaluated and individuals that have higher guideline adherence scores substantially reduce cancer risk as well as help control a multitude of chronic health problems. Regular physical activity is a factor that helps reduce an individual's blood pressure and improves cholesterol levels, two key components that correlate with heart disease and type 2 diabetes. The American Cancer Society encourages the public to \"adopt a physically active lifestyle\" by meeting the criteria in a variety of physical activities such as hiking, swimming, circuit training, resistance training, lifting, etc. It is understood that cancer is not a disease that can be cured by physical fitness alone, however, because it is a multifactorial disease, physical fitness is a controllable prevention. The large associations tied with being physically fit and reduced cancer risk are enough to provide a strategy to reduce cancer risk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jogging",
        "text": "The National Cancer Institute has performed studies that suggest jogging and other types of aerobic exercise can reduce the risk of lung, colon, breast and prostate cancers, among others. It is suggested by the American Cancer Society that jogging for at least 30 minutes five days a week can help in cancer prevention."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colorectal cancer",
        "text": "Exercise may be recommended in the future as secondary therapy to cancer survivors. In epidemiological studies, exercise may decrease colorectal cancer-specific mortality and all-cause mortality. Results for the specific amounts of exercise needed to observe a benefit were conflicting. These differences may reflect differences in tumour biology and the expression of biomarkers. People with tumors that lacked CTNNB1 expression (\u03b2-catenin), involved in Wnt signalling pathway, required more than 18 Metabolic equivalent (MET) hours per week, a measure of exercise, to observe a reduction in colorectal cancer mortality. The mechanism of how exercise benefits survival may be involved in immune surveillance and inflammation pathways. In clinical studies, a pro-inflammatory response was found in people with stage II-III colorectal cancer who underwent 2 weeks of moderate exercise after completing their primary therapy. Oxidative balance may be another possible mechanism for benefits observed. A significant decrease in 8-oxo-dG was found in the urine of people who underwent 2 weeks of moderate exercise after primary therapy. Other possible mechanisms may involve metabolic hormone and sex-steroid hormones, although these pathways may be involved in other types of cancers"
      },
      {
        "title": "Nurses' Health Study",
        "text": "Exercise: lack of physical activity correlated to an increased the likelihood of subjects developing type 2 diabetes. Exercise related directly to breast cancer survival. Physical activity was related to a decreased risk of the development of CVD."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breast cancer",
        "text": "A lack of physical activity has been linked to about 10% of cases. Sitting regularly for prolonged periods is associated with higher mortality from breast cancer. The risk is not negated by regular exercise, though it is lowered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xifeng Wu",
        "text": "Wu is known for designing cohort studies for the purpose of discovering the causes of cancer and potential prevention measures. She and her colleagues conducted studies showing that fifteen minutes of moderate exercise per day can increase lifespan by an average of three years, that eating highly cooked meat can contribute to kidney cancer, that high-carbohydrate diets can contribute to lung cancer in non-smokers, and that chronic diseases such as high blood pressure or diabetes can also contribute to cancer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of health articles",
        "text": "\u2013 Exercise"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise medicine",
        "text": "There is an enormous amount of evidence proving that exercise (when prescribed as a medical treatment) is effective at preventing and treating most of the major chronic diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, arthritis, osteoporosis, back pain, diabetes, depression and other mental illnesses and falls in the elderly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kathryn H. Schmitz",
        "text": "As an associate professor in the department of biostatistics and epidemiology, Schmitz established the SHE study (for Strong, Healthy and Empowered), to prove that resistance exercise significantly slowed middle-age weight gain. By June, she was appointed the lead author of the first American College of Sports Medicine Roundtable on Exercise for Cancer Survivors, which published guidance for exercise testing and prescription for cancer survivors. Formally, upper body exercises were discouraged for survivors, but Schmitz's research suggested that patients avoid inactivity both during and after cancer treatment. She later co-published a randomized trial study which was aimed at determining the benefits breast cancer survivors without lymphedema could enjoy through weightlifting. Her research team compared the results one year of weight lifting intervention could have on survivors at risk for breast cancer\u2013related lymphedema. Her research was recognized by the National Lymphedema Network with the awarding of the Catalyst Award for \"being a researcher whose work has stimulated thought, discussion, and debate that leads to improvement in patient care for those with lymphedema.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Colorectal cancer",
        "text": "Higher physical activity is recommended. Physical exercise is associated with a modest reduction in colon but not rectal cancer risk. High levels of physical activity reduce the risk of colon cancer by about 21%. Sitting regularly for prolonged periods is associated with higher mortality from colon cancer. The risk is not negated by regular exercise, though it is lowered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kerry Courneya",
        "text": "Upon completing his formal education in 1992, Courneya spent five years as an assistant/associate professor at the University of Calgary before accepting a similar position at the University of Alberta (U of A) in 1997. As a kinesiologist at U of A, Courneya received funding for numerous clinical trials to study cancer patients reactions to exercise during and after cancer therapy. One of his early clinical trials involved trying to determine whether weight training may be of benefit to patients undergoing treatment for prostate cancer. He was among the first researchers to systematically study the field of exercise oncology and demonstrated that physical activity is a safe and effective method for improving fitness and quality of life. He was granted a Canada Research Chair (CRC) in 2004 to fund and continue his research in the field."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical fitness",
        "text": "The American Cancer Society asserts different levels of activity ranging from moderate to vigorous to clarify the recommended time spent on a physical activity. These classifications of physical activity consider intentional exercise and basic activities performed on a daily basis and give the public a greater understanding of what fitness levels suffice as future disease prevention."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hodgkin lymphoma",
        "text": "Adding physical exercises to the standard treatment for adult patients with haematological malignancies like Hodgkin lymphoma may result in little to no difference in the mortality, the quality of life and the physical functioning. These exercises may result in a slight reduction in depression. Furthermore, aerobic physical exercises probably reduce fatigue. The evidence is very uncertain about the effect on anxiety and serious adverse events."
      },
      {
        "title": "CagA",
        "text": "CagA\n--Role in Cancer.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Acute lymphoblastic leukemia",
        "text": "Adding physical exercises to the standard treatment for adult patients with haematologicl malignancies like ALL may result in little to no difference in mortality, the quality of life, and physical functioning. These exercises may result in a slight reduction in depression. Furthermore, aerobic physical exercises probably reduce fatigue. The evidence is very uncertain about the effect on anxiety and serious adverse events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical fitness",
        "text": "Centers for disease control and prevention provide lifestyle guidelines for maintaining a balanced diet and engaging in physical activity to reduce the risk of disease. The WCRF/ American Institute for Cancer Research (AICR) published a list of recommendations that reflect the evidence they have found through consistency in fitness and dietary factors that directly relate to cancer prevention."
      },
      {
        "title": "Epigenetics of physical exercise",
        "text": "Physical exercise leads to epigenetic modifications that can have beneficial effects in cancer patients. The effect of physical exercise on DNA methylation patterns leads to increased expression of genes associated with tumor suppression and decreased expression of oncogenes. Cancer cells have non-normal patterns of DNA methylation including hypermethylation in promoter regions for tumor-suppressing genes and hypomethylation in promoter regions of oncogenes. These epigenetic mutations in cancer cells cause the cell to grow and divide uncontrollably, resulting in tumorigenesis. Physical exercise has been shown to reduce and even reverse these epigenetic mutations, increasing expression levels of tumor-suppressing genes and decreasing expression levels of oncogenes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Epigenetics of physical exercise",
        "text": "As summarized in the 2017 review, in rats, exercise enhances the expression of the gene \"Bdnf\", which has an essential role in memory formation. Enhanced expression of \"Bdnf\" occurs through demethylation of its CpG island promoter at exon IV. Demethylation is implemented in part through the actions of thymine-DNA glycosylase and the base excision repair system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "Exercise\n--Classification.\n--Health effects.\n----Fitness.\n----Cardiovascular system.\n----Immune system.\n----Cancer.\n----Neurobiological.\n------Depression.\n----Sleep.\n----Libido.\n--Mechanism of effects.\n----Skeletal muscle.\n----Other peripheral organs.\n----Central nervous system.\n--Public health measures.\n--Exercise trends.\n----Social and cultural variation.\n--Nutrition and recovery.\n--Excessive exercise.\n--History.\n--Other animals.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cardiothoracic surgery",
        "text": "There is weak evidence to indicate that participation in exercise programs before lung cancer surgery may reduce the risk of complications after surgery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breast cancer",
        "text": "Women can reduce their risk of breast cancer by maintaining a healthy weight, reducing alcohol use, increasing physical activity, and breast-feeding. These modifications might prevent 38% of breast cancers in the US, 42% in the UK, 28% in Brazil, and 20% in China. The benefits with moderate exercise such as brisk walking are seen at all age groups including postmenopausal women. High levels of physical activity reduce the risk of breast cancer by about 14%. Strategies that encourage regular physical activity and reduce obesity could also have other benefits, such as reduced risks of cardiovascular disease and diabetes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harold D. Foster",
        "text": "role against many specific cancers."
      },
      {
        "title": "HS3ST2",
        "text": "Role in breast cancer"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cancer prevention",
        "text": "Cancer prevention\n--Focuses.\n----Dietary.\n----Physical activity.\n----Medication and supplements.\n----Vaccination.\n----Screening.\n------Cervical cancer.\n------Colorectal cancer.\n------Breast cancer.\n--Preventable causes of cancer.\n--History of cancer prevention.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cancer survivor",
        "text": "Cancer survivors are encouraged to meet the same guidelines for physical activity as the rest of the population. However, less than 1/3 of US cancer survivors met Physical Activity Guideline for Americans. Increased physical activity reduces both all-cause and cancer-specific mortality in breast and colo-rectal cancer survivors as well as all cancer survivors. In addition, sedentary behaviors, particularly prolonged sitting, were associated with worse survival outcomes. Physical activity improves quality of life among a range of cancer survivors and may also assist with cancer-related fatigue and common co-morbidities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sociedad de Lucha Contra el Cancer",
        "text": "Not only it's important the fight against cancer, but it also is the prevention of it. Hence, the operation of this activity has been giving through interactive lectures, conferences, graphics and demonstrations among people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of health articles",
        "text": "\u2013 Aerobic exercise"
      },
      {
        "title": "Breast cancer management",
        "text": "Some patients develop lymphedema, as a result of axillary node dissection or of radiation treatment to the lymph nodes. Although traditional recommendations limited exercise, a new study shows that participating in a safe, structured weight-lifting routine can help women with lymphedema take control of their symptoms and reap the many rewards that resistance training has on their overall health as they begin life as a cancer survivor. It recommends that women start with a slowly progressive program, supervised by a certified fitness professional, in order to learn how to do these types of exercises properly. Women with lymphedema should also wear a well-fitting compression garment during all exercise sessions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hastings Gilford",
        "text": "Gilford recommended people to exercise and avoid using cars. According to Gilford \"the luxurious car brings with it the evils which arise out of inadequate exercise of the muscles... In the end, the man who walks and marries is the gainer. He is healthier and in every way better for the exercise, and both he and his wife are less likely to become cancerous.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Reactive oxygen species",
        "text": "James Watson and others have proposed that lack of intracellular ROS due to a lack of physical exercise may contribute to the malignant progression of cancer, because spikes of ROS are needed to correctly fold proteins in the endoplasmatic reticulum and low ROS levels may thus aspecifically hamper the formation of tumor suppressor proteins. Since physical exercise induces temporary spikes of ROS, this may explain why physical exercise is beneficial for cancer patient prognosis. Moreover, high inducers of ROS such as 2-deoxy-D-glucose and carbohydrate-based inducers of cellular stress induce cancer cell death more potently because they exploit the cancer cell's high avidity for sugars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of health articles",
        "text": "\u2013 Physical exercise"
      },
      {
        "title": "The C Word (2016 film)",
        "text": "The film identifies four factors to reduce the risk of cancer\u2014 diet, exercise, stress management, and toxin avoidance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of exercise",
        "text": "Exercise \u2013 any bodily activity that enhances or log physical fitness and overall health and wellness. It is performed for various reasons including strengthening muscles and the cardiovascular system, honing athletic skills, weight loss or maintenance, as well as for the purpose of enjoyment. Frequent and regular physical exercise boosts the immune system, and helps prevent the \"diseases of affluence\" such as heart disease, cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes and obesity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of health articles",
        "text": "\u2013 Anaerobic exercise"
      },
      {
        "title": "Epigenetics of physical exercise",
        "text": "In a study on the epigenetic effects of physical exercise on breast cancer in women, blood samples from breast cancer patients were collected before and after 6 months of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise. The test group experienced 129 minutes of exercise on average per week compared to the control group\u2019s 21.8 minutes a week. The study found 43 genes having significant changes in DNA methylation. Of the 43 genes, 3 of the genes experiencing reduced methylation levels were directly correlated with increased survival of breast cancer. The gene L3MBTL1, a known tumor suppressor, had methylation levels decreased by 1.48% in the exercise group while the limited exercise control group experienced a 2.15% increase in methylation. The 1.48% decrease in methylation of L3MBTL1 resulted in greater expression of the tumor suppressor while the 2.15% increase in methylation experienced by the limited exercise control group led to a decrease in expression. The findings of the study showed patients who exercised regularly had lower methylation levels and higher gene expression of L3MBTL1. These patients also experienced a greater than 60% reduction in risk of breast cancer death compared to patients in the limited exercise group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cancer prevention",
        "text": "As of 2017, tobacco use, diet and nutrition, physical activity, obesity/overweight status, infectious agents, and chemical and physical carcinogens have been reported to be the leading areas where cancer prevention can be practiced through enacting positive lifestyle changes, getting appropriate regular screening, and getting vaccinated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kathryn H. Schmitz",
        "text": "In 2011, the National Cancer Institute granted the Perelman School of Medicine a $10 million grant to establish a new center focusing on the relationship between exercise, weight loss, and improving the length and quality of life. Schmitz was appointed the leader of one trial in the center which focused on examining the relationship between lymphedema and weight loss in overweight breast cancer survivors. She later transferred her Transdisciplinary Research on Energetics and Cancer (TREC) Center grant to the Penn State Cancer Institute and became the associate director of population sciences. In 2017, Schmitz became the president-elect of the American College of Sports Medicine and was nominated for UPenn's Innovator of the Year Award. In her role as associate director, Schmitz co-developed updated guidelines and exercise recommendations for people living with cancer or survivors of the disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of health articles",
        "text": "\u2013 Exercise physiology"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cancer-related fatigue",
        "text": "Patients who are not at the end of life may benefit from physical exercise or physical therapy. Engaging in moderate activity reduces fatigue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevent Breast Cancer",
        "text": "The charity's research is focused on four distinct pillars:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Non-Hodgkin lymphoma",
        "text": "It is not clear if including aerobic physical exercise, in addition to the standard treatment for adult patients with haematological malignancies, is effective at reducing anxiety and serious adverse effects. Aerobic physical exercises may result in little to no difference in the mortality, in the quality of life and in the physical functioning. These exercises may result in a slight reduction in depression and most likely reduce fatigue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Epigenetics of physical exercise",
        "text": "Physical exercise increases levels of eustress, or good stress, on the body. This eustress stimulates epigenetic modifications affecting the DNA genome of cancer cells. Environmental conditions, such as eustress, strongly induces expression of the tumor suppressor TP53 gene by influencing epigenetic modifications to be made to the cancer cells genome. The TP53 gene codes for the p53 protein, a protein important in the apoptotic pathway of programmed cell death. The p53 protein is important for the regulation of cell growth and apoptosis, so hypermethylation of the TP53 promoter region are common markers associated with the development of cancer. Other than methylation patterns affecting expression of TP53, microRNAs and antisense RNAs control the levels of the p53 protein by regulating expression of the p53 coding TP53 gene."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise medicine",
        "text": "Exercise has been shown to reduce all-cause mortality in a large number of primary studies and meta-analyses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean-Pierre Willem",
        "text": "Experiments on rats or rabbits shows :\n* 93% of cancer decrease with Acidosis protocol, fasting and nutriments.\n* 50% of cancer decrease with an annual fasting: one month of abstaining from the third of the food ration when the spring begins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Epigenetics of physical exercise",
        "text": "With further knowledge of epigenetic pathways, exercise will continue to show its benefits in all phases of life including but not limited to cancer prevention and treatment, aging, metabolism and metabolic disorders like diabetes and cognition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cachexia",
        "text": "Therapy that includes regular physical exercise can be recommended for the treatment of cachexia due to the positive effects of exercise on skeletal muscle but current evidence remains uncertain as to its effectiveness, acceptability and safety for cancer patients. Randomised controlled trials are needed to better determine if exercise can improve cancer cachexia in a broad range of cancer types. Individuals with cachexia generally report low levels of physical activity and few engage in an exercise routine, owing to low motivation to exercise and a belief that exercising may worsen their symptoms or cause harm."
      },
      {
        "title": "CD146",
        "text": "CD146\n--Function.\n--Relevance in cancer.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Keep A Breast Foundation",
        "text": "Fit 4 Prevention is a national movement to raise awareness about breast cancer prevention through fitness and wellness. The goal of F4P is to inspire people to reduce their risk of cancers by adopting a healthier, more active lifestyle. KAB works with studios, gyms and individuals around the country to raise funds and increase awareness for The Keep A Breast Foundation and their mission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical fitness",
        "text": "Physical fitness\n--Overview.\n--Activity guidelines.\n--Exercise.\n----Aerobic exercise.\n----Anaerobic exercise.\n--Training.\n----High intensity interval training.\n--Effects.\n----Controlling blood pressure.\n----Cancer prevention.\n----Inflammation.\n----Immune system.\n----Weight control.\n----Menopause and physical fitness.\n----Mental health.\n--History.\n--Education.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "National Physical Activity Guidelines",
        "text": "Cancer -Duch as endometrial, breast, prostate, and colon cancers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Exercise physiologists study the effect of exercise on pathology, and the mechanisms by which exercise can reduce or reverse disease progression."
      },
      {
        "title": "Multiple myeloma",
        "text": "Adding physical exercises to the standard treatment for adult patients with haematological malignancies like multiple myeloma may result in little to no difference in the mortality, in the quality of life and in the physical functioning. These exercises may result in a slight reduction in depression. Furthermore, aerobic physical exercises probably reduce fatigue. The evidence is very uncertain about the effect and serious adverse events"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "Physical exercise is important for maintaining physical fitness and can contribute to maintaining a healthy weight, regulating the digestive system, building and maintaining healthy bone density, muscle strength, and joint mobility, promoting physiological well-being, reducing surgical risks, and strengthening the immune system. Some studies indicate that exercise may increase life expectancy and the overall quality of life. People who participate in moderate to high levels of physical exercise have a lower mortality rate compared to individuals who by comparison are not physically active. Moderate levels of exercise have been correlated with preventing aging by reducing inflammatory potential. The majority of the benefits from exercise are achieved with around 3500 metabolic equivalent (MET) minutes per week, with diminishing returns at higher levels of activity. For example, climbing stairs 10 minutes, vacuuming 15 minutes, gardening 20 minutes, running 20 minutes, and walking or bicycling for transportation 25 minutes on a daily basis would \"together\" achieve about 3000 MET minutes a week. A lack of physical activity causes approximately 6% of the burden of disease from coronary heart disease, 7% of type 2 diabetes, 10% of breast cancer and 10% of colon cancer worldwide. Overall, physical inactivity causes 9% of premature mortality worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lymphedema",
        "text": "In those with lymphedema or at risk of developing lymphedema, following breast cancer treatment, resistance training did not increase swelling and decreases in some, in addition to other potential beneficial effects on cardiovascular health. Moreover, resistance training and other forms of exercise were not associated with an increased risk of developing lymphedema in people who previously received breast cancer-related treatment. Compression garments should be worn during exercise (with the possible exception of swimming)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "Exercise is any bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness."
      },
      {
        "title": "FAT1",
        "text": "FAT1\n--Function.\n--Structure.\n--Clinical significance.\n----Cancer.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "World Cancer Research Fund UK",
        "text": "WCRF UK funds scientific research into how diet, physical activity and weight affect cancer risk and also funds health information programmes to raise awareness so people can reduce their cancer risk by eating a healthy diet, being physically active and maintaining a healthy weight. Its stated vision is to live in a world where no one develops a preventable cancer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breast cancer",
        "text": "Multidisciplinary rehabilitation programmes, often including exercise, education and psychological help, may produce short-term improvements in functional ability, psychosocial adjustment and social participation in people with breast cancer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Men's health",
        "text": "Cancer:\n* Prostate cancer\n* Testicular cancer\n* Colorectal cancer\n* Skin cancer"
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevent Breast Cancer",
        "text": "Prevent Breast Cancer\n--History.\n----The Nightingale Centre.\n--Research.\n----Predicting Risk of Cancer at Screening (PROCAS) SNP study.\n------The Angelina Jolie Effect.\n----The 2-Day Diet.\n--Partnerships.\n----Manchester City Football Club.\n----Stagecoach Manchester.\n--Fundraising Events.\n----\"Stars In Their Eyes\".\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Epigenetics of physical exercise",
        "text": "Epigenetics of physical exercise\n--Effects on cancer.\n----Breast cancer.\n--Effects on aging.\n----DNA methylation.\n--Effects on metabolic processes.\n----Diabetes.\n--Effects on cognition.\n----DNA methylation.\n----Histone H3 acetylation.\n----Histone H3 methylation.\n----microRNA.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Exercise",
        "text": "The Exercise is a 1968 American play about an acting exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Cancer Prevention and Education Society",
        "text": "The charity works hard to promote prevention as a way of reducing cancer and other diseases. It sees the success of reducing lung cancer by smoking cessation programmes as a text book example of how prevention can work effectively. It would like to see healthcare professionals advocating for the reduction of human exposure to hazardous agents found in pesticides, consumer products, the home & work place, and pollution. It sees as \u2018role models\u2019 the work of the Canadian Cancer Society and the resolution of the American Medical Association to \u2018encourage the training of medical students, physicians and other health professionals on the human health effects of toxic chemical exposures\u2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cancer Prevention Research",
        "text": "Cancer Prevention Research\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Deoxycholic acid",
        "text": "Exercise decreases deoxycholate in the colon. Humans whose level of physical activity placed them in the top third had a 17% decrease in fecal bile acid concentration compared to those whose level of physical activity placed them in the lowest third. Rats provided with an exercise wheel had a lower ratio of secondary bile acids to primary bile acids than sedentary rats in their feces. There is a positive association of exercise and physical activity with cancer prevention, tolerance to cancer-directed therapies (radiation and chemotherapy), reduction in recurrence, and improvement in survival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Epigenetics of physical exercise",
        "text": "Hypermethylation in the promoter regions of tumor suppressor genes is thought to help cause some forms of cancer. The hypermethylation in the promoter regions of the tumor suppressing genes APC and RASSF1A are common epigenetic markers for cancer. The APC gene functions to make sure cells divide properly and maintain a correct number of chromosomes after division has completed. The RASSF1A gene product interacts with the DNA repair protein XPA. Physical exercise has been shown to decrease and even reverse these promoter hypermethylation, lowering the risk of the development of cancer. Decreased hypermethylation patterns reveal a transcriptionally accessible promoter region, allowing for increased expression of the tumor suppressing genes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise",
        "text": "Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise medicine",
        "text": "Exercise medicine\n--Evidence for the efficacy of exercise as a medical treatment.\n----Exercise and cardiovascular disease.\n----Exercise and cancer.\n----Exercise and mental illness.\n--Exercise dosing.\n--Differentiation from Sports medicine.\n--Establishment as a medical specialty.\n--Exercise as an alternative treatment to low-value care.\n----Exercise as a method to reduce carbon emissions from healthcare.\n--Differentiation from \"Exercise Is Medicine\" (EIM).\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Genevi\u00e8ve Almouzni",
        "text": "Her research focuses on cancer prevention, including the role of certain proteins in tumor development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Obesity and cancer",
        "text": "Obesity and cancer\n--Importance of obesity in causing cancer.\n--Mechanisms.\n----Reduced DNA repair.\n----Increased DNA damage.\n--Association by cancer site.\n----Bladder cancer.\n----Breast cancer.\n----Colorectal cancer.\n----Lung cancer.\n----Liver cancer.\n----Renal cell cancer.\n----Thyroid cancer.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Diabetes and exercise",
        "text": "This article describes the influence of exercise on the persons who suffer from diabetes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "It is performed for various reasons, to aid growth and improve strength, prevent aging, develop muscles and the cardiovascular system, hone athletic skills, weight loss or maintenance, improve health, or simply for enjoyment. Many individuals choose to exercise outdoors where they can congregate in groups, socialize, and improve well-being as well as mental health."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Exercise",
        "text": "The Exercise\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Julia Bradbury",
        "text": "Bradbury also works with the British Heart Foundation to encourage people to exercise more."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cancer",
        "text": "Cancer prevention is defined as active measures to decrease cancer risk. The vast majority of cancer cases are due to environmental risk factors. Many of these environmental factors are controllable lifestyle choices. Thus, cancer is generally preventable. Between 70% and 90% of common cancers are due to environmental factors and therefore potentially preventable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carlos Caldas",
        "text": "Professor Caldas leads the Personalised Breast Cancer Programme in Cambridge, where woman diagnosed with breast cancer have a sample of their tumour and blood sent for DNA and RNA sequencing. The sequencing results help determine the best course of treatment for patients and can reveal if their tumour is developing resistance to treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "ZNF366",
        "text": "ZNF366\n--Function.\n--Breast cancer.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Help Defeat Cancer",
        "text": "Help Defeat Cancer\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "CXCR5",
        "text": "CXCR5\n--Tissue distribution and function.\n--Role in cancer development.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Agata Tuszy\u0144ska",
        "text": "A story of her struggle with her husband's cancer is the subject of \"Exercises of Loss\", very intimate book by Agata Tuszynska (2007), also published in French (Grasset, 2009) and Korean (2012)."
      },
      {
        "title": "That! Medical Quiz Show",
        "text": "Deals with nutrition and exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nutrition and Cancer",
        "text": "Nutrition and Cancer\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of health articles",
        "text": "Cancer"
      },
      {
        "title": "LAMP1",
        "text": "LAMP1\n--Structure.\n--Function.\n--Role in cancer.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "MiR-224",
        "text": "MiR-224\n--Function.\n--Role in cancer.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Nun Study",
        "text": "Snowdon found that exercise was inversely correlated with development of Alzheimer\u2019s disease, showing that participants who engaged in some sort of daily exercise were more likely to retain cognitive abilities during aging. Participants who started exercising later in life were more likely to retain cognitive abilities, even if not having exercised before."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What role does exercise play in aiding with the prevention of cancer?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Research shows that regular physical activity helps to reduce up to 30% the risk of a variety of cancer types, such as colon cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer and endometrium cancer. Exercise may contribute to a reduction of cancer-related fatigue in survivors of breast cancer, though there is currently insufficient evidence regarding the association between physical activity and mortality for survivors of other cancers."
    ],
    "topic": "Exercise",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Cancer prevention:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cancer prevention",
          "Focuses",
          "Physical activity"
        ],
        "ctx": "Research shows that regular physical activity helps to reduce up to 30% the risk of a variety of cancer types, such as colon cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer and endometrium cancer. The biological mechanisms underlying this association are still not well understood but different biological pathways involved in cancer have been studied suggesting that physical activity reduces cancer risk by helping weight control, reducing hormones such as estrogen and insulin, reducing inflammation and strengthening the immune system."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise:16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise",
          "Health effects",
          "Cancer"
        ],
        "ctx": "A systematic review evaluated 45 studies that examined the relationship between physical activity and cancer survival rates. According to the review, \"[there] was consistent evidence from 27 observational studies that physical activity is associated with reduced all-cause, breast cancer\u2013specific, and colon cancer\u2013specific mortality. There is currently insufficient evidence regarding the association between physical activity and mortality for survivors of other cancers.\" Evidence suggests that exercise may positively affect the quality of life in cancer survivors, including factors such as anxiety, self-esteem and emotional well-being. For people with cancer undergoing active treatment, exercise may also have positive effects on health-related quality of life, such as fatigue and physical functioning. This is likely to be more pronounced with higher intensity exercise."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise",
          "Health effects",
          "Cancer"
        ],
        "ctx": "Exercise may contribute to a reduction of cancer-related fatigue in survivors of breast cancer. Although there is only limited scientific evidence on the subject, people with cancer cachexia are encouraged to engage in physical exercise. Due to various factors, some individuals with cancer cachexia have a limited capacity for physical exercise. Compliance with prescribed exercise is low in individuals with cachexia and clinical trials of exercise in this population often suffer from high drop-out rates. Many go as far as to argue that supervised high-intensity resistance training should be made a critical part of rehabilitation for breast cancer survivors as it increases overall quality of life."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "Physical factors that can affect libido include endocrine issues such as hypothyroidism, the effect of certain prescription medications (for example flutamide), and the attractiveness and biological fitness of one's partner, among various other lifestyle factors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Obesity and sexuality",
        "text": "An increased body weight can lead to an increase in sex hormone-binding globulin, which causes testosterone to fail. That can cause the libido to decrease. It can also narrow down the blood vessels, which makes it harder to climax. Sex positions tend to be more limited."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "In males, the frequency of ejaculations affects the levels of serum testosterone, a hormone which promotes libido. A study of 28 males aged 21\u201345 found that all but one of them had a peak (145.7% of baseline [117.8%\u2013197.3%]) in serum testosterone on the 7th day of abstinence from ejaculation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sexual desire",
        "text": "In males, the frequency of ejaculation affects libido. If roughly a week passes between ejaculations, there will be a stronger desire for sexual activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "Smoking, alcohol abuse, and the use of certain drugs can also lead to a decreased libido. Moreover, specialists suggest that several lifestyle changes such as exercising, quitting smoking, lowering consumption of alcohol or using prescription drugs may help increase one's sexual desire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "One 2013 study found that exercising improved sexual arousal problems related to antidepressant use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "Exercise\n--Classification.\n--Health effects.\n----Fitness.\n----Cardiovascular system.\n----Immune system.\n----Cancer.\n----Neurobiological.\n------Depression.\n----Sleep.\n----Libido.\n--Mechanism of effects.\n----Skeletal muscle.\n----Other peripheral organs.\n----Central nervous system.\n--Public health measures.\n--Exercise trends.\n----Social and cultural variation.\n--Nutrition and recovery.\n--Excessive exercise.\n--History.\n--Other animals.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "Certain psychological or social factors can reduce the desire for sex. These factors can include lack of privacy or intimacy, stress or fatigue, distraction, or depression. Environmental stress, such as prolonged exposure to elevated sound levels or bright light, can also affect libido. Other causes include experience of sexual abuse, assault, trauma, or neglect, body image issues, and anxiety about engaging in sexual activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prostate cancer",
        "text": "Regular exercise may slightly lower risk, especially vigorous activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Masturbation",
        "text": "Some professionals consider masturbation equivalent to a cardiovascular workout. Though research remains scant, those suffering from cardiovascular disorders, particularly those recovering from heart attacks, should resume physical activity gradually and with the frequency and rigor which their physical status will allow. This limitation can serve as encouragement to follow through with physical therapy sessions to help improve endurance. In general, sex slightly increases energy consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "Other neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, and sex hormones that affect sex drive by modulating activity in or acting upon this pathway include:\n* Testosterone (directly correlated) \u2013 and other androgens\n* Estrogen (directly correlated) \u2013 and related female sex hormones\n* Progesterone (inversely correlated)\n* Oxytocin (directly correlated)\n* Serotonin (inversely correlated)\n* Norepinephrine (directly correlated)\n* Acetylcholine"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sexual dysfunction",
        "text": "Physical factors that can lead to sexual dysfunctions include the use of drugs, such as alcohol, nicotine, narcotics, stimulants, antihypertensives, antihistamines, and some psychotherapeutic drugs. For women, almost any physiological change that affects the reproductive system\u2014premenstrual syndrome, pregnancy and the postpartum period, and menopause\u2014can have an adverse effect on libido. Back injuries may also impact sexual activity, as can problems with an enlarged prostate gland, problems with blood supply, or nerve damage (as in sexual dysfunction after spinal cord injuries). Diseases such as diabetic neuropathy, multiple sclerosis, tumors, and, rarely, tertiary syphilis may also impact activity, as can the failure of various organ systems (such as the heart and lungs), endocrine disorders (thyroid, pituitary, or adrenal gland problems), hormonal deficiencies (low testosterone, other androgens, or estrogen), and some birth defects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Female promiscuity",
        "text": "Libido is correlated with the menstrual cycle so that many women experience an increase in sexual desire several days immediately before ovulation. Testosterone levels rise gradually from about the 24th day of a woman's menstrual cycle until ovulation on about the 14th day of the next cycle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cindy Meston",
        "text": "Lorenz, T. K., & Meston, C. M. (2012). Acute exercise improves physical sexual arousal in women taking antidepressants. \"Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 43,\" 352-361."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "Although some specialists disagree with this theory, menopause is still considered by the majority a factor that can cause decreased sexual desire in women. The levels of estrogen decrease at menopause and this usually causes a lower interest in sex and vaginal dryness which makes sex painful. However, the levels of testosterone increase at menopause and this may be why some women may experience a contrary effect of an increased libido."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lymphoma",
        "text": "Adding physical exercises to the standard treatment for adult patients with haematological malignancies like lymphomas may result in little to no difference in the mortality, the quality of life and the physical functioning. These exercises may result in a slight reduction in depression. Furthermore, aerobic physical exercises probably reduce fatigue. The evidence is very uncertain about the effect on anxiety and serious adverse events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "Also, during the week following ovulation, progesterone levels increase, resulting in a woman experiencing difficulty achieving orgasm. Although the last days of the menstrual cycle are marked by a constant testosterone level, women's libido may get a boost as a result of the thickening of the uterine lining which stimulates nerve endings and makes a woman feel aroused. Also, during these days, estrogen levels decline, resulting in a decrease of natural lubrication."
      },
      {
        "title": "Puberty",
        "text": "The average level of daily physical activity has also been shown to affect timing of puberty, especially in females. A high level of exercise, whether for athletic or body image purposes, or for daily subsistence, reduces energy calories available for reproduction and slows puberty. The exercise effect is often amplified by a lower body fat mass and cholesterol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "Actual testosterone and estrogen levels that affect a person's sex drive vary considerably."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aphrodisiac",
        "text": "Libido in males is linked to levels of sex hormones, particularly testosterone. When a reduced sex drive occurs in individuals with relatively low levels of testosterone, particularly in postmenopausal women or men over age 60, dietary supplements that are purported to increase serum testosterone concentrations have been used with intent to increase libido, although with limited benefit. Long-term therapy with synthetic oral testosterone is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular diseases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orgasm",
        "text": "Kinsey, in his 1953 book \"Sexual Behavior in the Human Female\", stated that exercise could bring about sexual pleasure, including orgasm. A review in 1990 on the sexual response itself as exercise, reviewed the literature and stated that the field was poorly researched; it also said that studies had found that aerobic or isotonic exercise that resembles sexual activity or sexual positions can induce sexual pleasure, including orgasm. A 2007 review of the relationship between pelvic floor dysfunction and sexual problems in men and women found that they are commonly linked and suggested that physical therapy strengthening the pelvic floor could help address the sexual problems but that it was not well studied enough to recommend. Starting in at least 2007, the term, \"coregasm\" was used in popular media to refer to exercise-induced orgasm or in academic parlance termed \"exercise-induced sexual pleasure\" or EISP, and an extensive discussion of the \"yogasm\" occurred in a 2011 \"Daily Beast\" posting. A paper published in 2012 presented results of an online survey of women who had experienced an orgasm or other sexual pleasure during exercise. The paper was widely discussed in popular media when it was published. The authors of the paper said that research on the relationship between exercise and sexual response was still lacking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Acute lymphoblastic leukemia",
        "text": "Adding physical exercises to the standard treatment for adult patients with haematologicl malignancies like ALL may result in little to no difference in mortality, the quality of life, and physical functioning. These exercises may result in a slight reduction in depression. Furthermore, aerobic physical exercises probably reduce fatigue. The evidence is very uncertain about the effect on anxiety and serious adverse events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "Libido (; colloquial: sex drive) is a person's overall sexual drive or desire for sexual activity. Libido is influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors. Biologically, the sex hormones and associated neurotransmitters that act upon the nucleus accumbens (primarily testosterone and dopamine, respectively) regulate libido in humans. Social factors, such as work and family, and internal psychological factors, such as personality and stress, can affect libido. Libido can also be affected by medical conditions, medications, lifestyle and relationship issues, and age (e.g., puberty). A person who has extremely frequent sexual urges, or a suddenly increased sex drive may be experiencing hypersexuality, while the opposite condition is hyposexuality. In psychoanalytic theory, libido is psychic drive or energy, particularly associated with sexual instinct, but also present in other instinctive desires and drives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hodgkin lymphoma",
        "text": "Adding physical exercises to the standard treatment for adult patients with haematological malignancies like Hodgkin lymphoma may result in little to no difference in the mortality, the quality of life and the physical functioning. These exercises may result in a slight reduction in depression. Furthermore, aerobic physical exercises probably reduce fatigue. The evidence is very uncertain about the effect on anxiety and serious adverse events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "A systematic review evaluated 45 studies that examined the relationship between physical activity and cancer survival rates. According to the review, \"[there] was consistent evidence from 27 observational studies that physical activity is associated with reduced all-cause, breast cancer\u2013specific, and colon cancer\u2013specific mortality. There is currently insufficient evidence regarding the association between physical activity and mortality for survivors of other cancers.\" Evidence suggests that exercise may positively affect the quality of life in cancer survivors, including factors such as anxiety, self-esteem and emotional well-being. For people with cancer undergoing active treatment, exercise may also have positive effects on health-related quality of life, such as fatigue and physical functioning. This is likely to be more pronounced with higher intensity exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "SCAN",
        "text": "Section 8 asks direct questions about weight and weight gain or loss, appetite, sleep patterns, and libido."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "Libido is governed primarily by activity in the mesolimbic dopamine pathway (ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens). Consequently, dopamine and related trace amines (primarily phenethylamine) that modulate dopamine neurotransmission play a critical role in regulating libido."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "A sexual desire disorder is more common in women than in men, and women tend to exhibit less frequent and less intense sexual desires than men. Erectile dysfunction may happen to the penis because of lack of sexual desire, but these two should not be confused. For example, large recreational doses of amphetamine or methamphetamine can simultaneously cause erectile dysfunction and significantly increase libido. However, men can also experience a decrease in their libido as they age."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "Exercise has an effect on appetite, but whether it increases or decreases appetite varies from individual to individual, and is affected by the intensity and duration of the exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "Libido\n--Psychological perspectives.\n----Psychoanalysis.\n----Analytical psychology.\n--Factors that affect libido.\n----Endogenous compounds.\n------Sex hormone levels and the menstrual cycle.\n----Psychological and social factors.\n----Physical factors.\n------Medications.\n------Effects of age.\n--Sexual desire disorders.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pompoir",
        "text": "In part this was due to blood flow increasing in exercised muscles, and the increase in blood flow is related to the ease of arousal and orgasm. When the strength of a muscle increases, the blood supply increases, with the side effect being an increase of blood flow to the pelvis resulting in higher levels of arousal and more intense orgasms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise and androgen levels",
        "text": "Physical exercise has been found to be associated with changes in androgen levels. In cross-sectional analyses, aerobic exercisers have lower basal total and free testosterone compared to the sedentary. Anaerobic exercisers also have lower testosterone compared to the sedentary but a slight increase in basal testosterone with resistance training over time. There is some correlation between testosterone and physical activity in the middle aged and elderly. Acutely, testosterone briefly increases when comparing aerobic, anaerobic and mixed forms of exercise. A study assessed men who were resistance trained, endurance trained, or sedentary in which they either rested, ran or did a resistance session. Androgens increased in response to exercise, particularly resistance, while cortisol only increased with resistance. DHEA increased with resistance exercise and remained elevated during recovery in resistance-trained subjects. After initial post-exercise increase, there was decline in free and total testosterone during resistance recovery, particularly in resistance-trained subjects. Endurance-trained subjects showed less change in hormone levels in response to exercise than resistance-trained subjects. Another study found relative short term effects of aerobic, anaerobic and combined anaerobic-aerobic exercise protocols on hormone levels did not change. The study noted increases in testosterone and cortisol immediately after exercise, which in 2 hours returned to baseline levels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "A person may have a desire for sex, but not have the opportunity to act on that desire, or may on personal, moral or religious reasons refrain from acting on the urge. Psychologically, a person's urge can be repressed or sublimated. Conversely, a person can engage in sexual activity without an actual desire for it. Multiple factors affect human sex drive, including stress, illness, pregnancy, and others. A 2001 review found that, on average, men have a higher desire for sex than women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "There is low-quality evidence for an effect of aerobic physical exercises on anxiety and serious adverse events in adults with hematological malignancies. Aerobic physical exercise may result in little to no difference in the mortality, quality of life, or physical functioning. These exercises may result in a slight reduction in depression and reduction in fatigue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sexercise",
        "text": "Sexercise is physical exercise performed in preparation for sexual activity and designed to tone, build, and strengthen muscles. Sexercises are often performed as part of a sex diet lifestyle, which seeks to maximize the health benefits of regular sexual activity. Exercise is known to improve and quicken the flow of oxygenated blood, in higher and consistent amounts, along with other beneficial chemical compounds, to the genitalia, which is important for fertility and important during intercourse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nurses' Health Study",
        "text": "Exercise: lack of physical activity correlated to an increased the likelihood of subjects developing type 2 diabetes. Exercise related directly to breast cancer survival. Physical activity was related to a decreased risk of the development of CVD."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kegel exercise",
        "text": "Premature ejaculation is when male ejaculation occurs after less than one minute of penetration. The perineal muscles are involved in ejaculation when they are involuntarily contracted. The ischiocavernosus are responsible for the male erection and the bulbocavernosus is responsible for ejaculation. By actively contracting the perineal muscles with kegels regularly, strength and control of these muscles will increase, which can aid in reducing premature ejaculation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Semen quality",
        "text": "Lack of exercise, as well as excessive exercise, are minor factors. In professional sports, semen quality parameters tend to decrease as training requirements increase. The effect differs substantially between different professional sport types. For example, water polo appears substantially less harmful to semen quality than triathlon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Multiple myeloma",
        "text": "Adding physical exercises to the standard treatment for adult patients with haematological malignancies like multiple myeloma may result in little to no difference in the mortality, in the quality of life and in the physical functioning. These exercises may result in a slight reduction in depression. Furthermore, aerobic physical exercises probably reduce fatigue. The evidence is very uncertain about the effect and serious adverse events"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise trends",
        "text": "A 2005 population study in south Brazil showed physical inactivity during leisure time to be more prevalent among females and those living with a partner; with a positive correlation associated with age and number of cigarettes smoked, and a negative correlation (decreased levels of physical inactivity) associated with years of formal education, body mass index, and increasing socioeconomic status."
      },
      {
        "title": "Affirmations (L. Ron Hubbard)",
        "text": "Sex and relationships are a major theme in Course I. Hubbard writes that he is ashamed of his frequent affairs and his determination to succeed with the \"young, beautiful, desirable\" Sara, though he admits that he is hindered by impotence: \"I want her always. But I am 13 years older than she. She is heavily sexed. My libido is so low I hardly admire her naked.\" He had suffered sexually transmitted diseases and was treating his impotence with testosterone supplements. He wrote: \"By eliminating certain fears of hypnosis, curing my rheumatism and laying off hormones, I hope to restore my former libido. I must!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Broiler",
        "text": "Examining the frequency of all sexual behaviour shows a large decrease with age, suggestive of a decline in libido. The decline in libido is not enough to account for reduced fertility in heavy cocks at 58 weeks and is probably a consequence of the large bulk or the conformation of the males at this age interfering in some way with the transfer of semen during copulations which otherwise look normal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diabetes and exercise",
        "text": "The New England Journal of Health performed a study on the effect of physical activity on men with diabetes mellitus. The study was one in which questionnaires were given to 5,990 males who had attended the University of Pennsylvania. These men were chosen based on their lifestyles and their risk for getting diabetes. The men ranged from ages 39 to 68 and their body mass indexes ranged from 14.1 to 46.0. To measure physical activity, their kilocalories per week were measured. The energy expenditure in kilocalories was measured, and the results showed that the more physical activity done, the lower the chance of diabetes. About 50 percent of the men who increased their kilocalorie rate by increasing their physical activity were able to avoid getting the disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "Testosterone is one of the hormones controlling libido in human beings. Emerging research is showing that hormonal contraception methods like oral contraceptive pills (which rely on estrogen and progesterone together) are causing low libido in females by elevating levels of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG). SHBG binds to sex hormones, including testosterone, rendering them unavailable. Research is showing that even after ending a hormonal contraceptive method, SHBG levels remain elevated and no reliable data exists to predict when this phenomenon will diminish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "\u03b2-Endorphin (contracted from \"endogenous morphine\") is an endogenous opioid neuropeptide that binds to \u03bc-opioid receptors, in turn producing euphoria and pain relief. A meta-analytic review found that exercise significantly increases the secretion of and that this secretion is correlated with improved mood states. Moderate intensity exercise produces the greatest increase in synthesis, while higher and lower intensity forms of exercise are associated with smaller increases in synthesis. A review on and exercise noted that an individual's mood improves for the remainder of the day following physical exercise and that one's mood is positively correlated with overall daily physical activity level."
      },
      {
        "title": "Obesity-associated morbidity",
        "text": "Obese male individuals can experience erectile dysfunction, and weight loss can improve their sexual functioning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise and androgen levels",
        "text": "Interval and quality of exercise also affect hormonal response. Sessions of moderate to high intensity with multiple sets and short time intervals, during which energy is derived from glycolytic lactate metabolism, appear to be the greatest stimulus for steroid hormone response. Hormonal response in young men varies with the number of sets in the exercise session. However, when the number increased from 4 to 6, anabolic levels stabilized and cortisol continued to rise, suggesting that alterations in anaerobic volume could alter anabolic and catabolic hormonal balance. When sets are performed at maximum repetitions, interval has no influence at a certain intensity range, with no acute hormone response difference between protocols at 10 maximum reps with 2- and 5-minute intervals. There is a higher total testosterone response in hypertrophy protocols compared to those for strength and power, despite equalization of total work load (defined as load x sets x repetitions). There is a 27% greater testosterone response using protocols with simultaneous use of all four limbs. Androgenic response was also noted in protocols using upper and lower limbs separately to a lesser degree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise and androgen levels",
        "text": "In trained long term aerobic exercisers, basal levels are unchanged, or decreased. Acutely, endurance based aerobic efforts cause testosterone to rise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Estrogen",
        "text": "Estrogens are involved in libido (sex drive) in both women and men."
      },
      {
        "title": "Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption",
        "text": "The EPOC effect clearly increases with the intensity of the exercise, and (at least in the case of aerobic exercise, perhaps also for anaerobic) the duration of the exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "Exercise may contribute to a reduction of cancer-related fatigue in survivors of breast cancer. Although there is only limited scientific evidence on the subject, people with cancer cachexia are encouraged to engage in physical exercise. Due to various factors, some individuals with cancer cachexia have a limited capacity for physical exercise. Compliance with prescribed exercise is low in individuals with cachexia and clinical trials of exercise in this population often suffer from high drop-out rates. Many go as far as to argue that supervised high-intensity resistance training should be made a critical part of rehabilitation for breast cancer survivors as it increases overall quality of life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deoxycholic acid",
        "text": "Exercise decreases deoxycholate in the colon. Humans whose level of physical activity placed them in the top third had a 17% decrease in fecal bile acid concentration compared to those whose level of physical activity placed them in the lowest third. Rats provided with an exercise wheel had a lower ratio of secondary bile acids to primary bile acids than sedentary rats in their feces. There is a positive association of exercise and physical activity with cancer prevention, tolerance to cancer-directed therapies (radiation and chemotherapy), reduction in recurrence, and improvement in survival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Management of prostate cancer",
        "text": "There is some evidence that exercise may be beneficial for people with prostate cancer, however the effects are not clear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cindy Meston",
        "text": "Lorenz, T. K., & Meston, C. M. (2014) Exercise improves sexual function in women taking antidepressants: results from a randomized crossover trial. \"Depression and Anxiety, 31,\" 188-195."
      },
      {
        "title": "Non-Hodgkin lymphoma",
        "text": "It is not clear if including aerobic physical exercise, in addition to the standard treatment for adult patients with haematological malignancies, is effective at reducing anxiety and serious adverse effects. Aerobic physical exercises may result in little to no difference in the mortality, in the quality of life and in the physical functioning. These exercises may result in a slight reduction in depression and most likely reduce fatigue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea",
        "text": "Exercise alone is known to hyperactivate the HPA axis, but the fact that LH pulsatility is altered in amenorrheic female athletes indicates the role of negative energy balance, rather than exercise intensity per se, in menstrual irregularities. When energy balance is maintained, exercise alone has not been indicated as a factor which leads to menstrual dysfunction; however, disturbances are common in weight-stable exercising women without extreme caloric deficiency who experience negative energy balance due to high energy expenditure. This negative energy balance, in turn, causes both a state of hypometabolism as well as hormonal and metabolic alterations. Genetic predisposition, psychological stress, and hypoleptinemia caused by low FFM may in some cases some combine with the negative energy state to inhibit the hypothalamic generation of GnRH pulses required for regular menstrual cycling, thereby causing hypoestrogenism. Additionally, in athletes with exercise-induced FHA, there have been specific associations between hypercortisolism and decreased LH pulsatility. In endurance athletes with varying menstrual status, the number of menses in the past 12 months has been found to be negatively associated with diurnal cortisol secretion. It is also possible that factors such as exercise intensity and duration as well as athletic discipline have differing effects on GnRH pulsatility; this may be especially relevant for women participating in sports that emphasize strength over leanness. However, excessive exercise can cause FHA in normal weight patients who present no abnormal metabolic or gonadotropic laboratory results. In these cases, combined hormonal contraceptive pills will not address the primary cause of menstrual cessation: inhibition of the HPO axis due to excessive exercise. Thus, behavioral modifications should be pursued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "The Caerphilly Prospective study followed 2,375\u00a0male subjects over 30\u00a0years and examined the association between healthy lifestyles and dementia, among other factors. Analyses of the Caerphilly study data have found that exercise is associated with a lower incidence of dementia and a reduction in cognitive impairment. A subsequent systematic review of longitudinal studies also found higher levels of physical activity to be associated with a reduction in the risk of dementia and cognitive decline; this review further asserted that increased physical activity appears to be causally related with these reduced risks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Menopause",
        "text": "Exercise has been thought to reduce postmenopausal symptoms through the increase of endorphin levels, which decrease as estrogen production decreases. Additionally, high BMI is a risk factor for vasomotor symptoms in particular. However, there is insufficient evidence to support the benefits of weight loss for symptom management. There are mixed perspectives on the benefits of physical exercise. While one review found that there was a lack of quality evidence supporting a benefit of exercise, another review recommended regular healthy exercise to reduce comorbidities, improve mood and anxiety symptoms, enhance cognition, and decrease the risk of fractures. Yoga may help with postmenopausal symptoms similar to other exercise. There is insufficient evidence to suggest that relaxation techniques reduce menopausal symptoms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "Some people purposefully attempt to decrease their libido through the usage of anaphrodisiacs. Aphrodisiacs, such as dopaminergic psychostimulants, are a class of drugs which can increase libido. On the other hand, a reduced libido is also often iatrogenic and can be caused by many medications, such as hormonal contraception, SSRIs and other antidepressants, antipsychotics, opioids, beta blockers and Isotretinoin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise trends",
        "text": "A study of Swedish males found a significant decrease in total physical exercise even though recreational exercise has increased. This was due to a decrease in work place exercise and physical exercise in transportation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aphrodisiac",
        "text": "Amphetamine and methamphetamine are phenethylamine derivatives which are known to increase libido and cause frequent or prolonged erections as potential side effects, particularly at high supratherapeutic doses where sexual hyperexcitability and hypersexuality can occur; however, in some individuals who use these drugs, libido is reduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "Defined more narrowly, libido also refers to an individual's urge to engage in sexual activity, and its antonym is the force of destruction termed mortido or destrudo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oligomenorrhea",
        "text": "Endurance exercises such as running or swimming can affect the reproductive physiology of female athletes. Female runners, swimmers and ballet dancers either menstruate infrequently in comparison to non-athletic females of comparable age or exhibit amenorrhea. A more recent study shows that athletes competing in sports that emphasise thinness or a specific weight exhibit a higher rate of menstrual dysfunction than either athletes competing in sports with less focus on these or control subjects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human penis size",
        "text": "The penis and scrotum can contract involuntarily in reaction to cold temperatures, anxious or nervous level and participation in sports. This decrease of flaccid penis size is referred to by the slang term \"shrinkage\", due to action by the cremaster muscle. The same phenomenon affects cyclists and exercise bike users, with prolonged pressure on the perineum from the bicycle saddle and the straining of the exercise causing the penis and scrotum to contract involuntarily. An incorrect saddle may ultimately cause erectile dysfunction (see crotch pressure for more information). Individuals with hard flaccid syndrome or other pelvic floor disorders may temporarily have an abnormally small penis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dysmenorrhea",
        "text": "There is some evidence that exercises performed 3 times a week for about 45 to 60 minutes, without particular intensity, reduces menstrual pain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "A woman's desire for sex is correlated to her menstrual cycle, with many women experiencing a heightened sexual desire in the several days immediately before ovulation, which is her peak fertility period, which normally occurs two days before and until two days after the ovulation. This cycle has been associated with changes in a woman's testosterone levels during the menstrual cycle. According to Gabrielle Lichterman, testosterone levels have a direct impact on a woman's interest in sex. According to her, testosterone levels rise gradually from about the 24th day of a woman's menstrual cycle until ovulation on about the 14th day of the next cycle, and during this period the woman's desire for sex increases consistently. The 13th day is generally the day with the highest testosterone levels. In the week following ovulation, the testosterone level is the lowest and as a result women will experience less interest in sex."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "Anemia is a cause of lack of libido in women due to the loss of iron during the period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Self-image",
        "text": "Regular practice of endurance exercise was related to a more favourable body-image. There was a strong association between participation in sports and the type of personality that tends to be resistant to drug and alcohol addiction. Physical exercise was further significantly related to scores for physical and psychological well-being. Adolescents who engaged regularly in physical activity were characterised by lower anxiety-depression scores, and displayed much less social behavioural inhibition than their less active counterparts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Myokine",
        "text": "Physical exercise rapidly triggers substantial changes at the organismal level, including the secretion of myokines and metabolites by muscle cells. For instance, aerobic exercise in humans leads to significant structural alterations in the brain, while wheel-running in rodents promotes neurogenesis and improves synaptic transmission in particular in the hippocampus. Moreover, physical exercise triggers histone modifications and protein synthesis which ultimately positively influence mood and cognitive abilities. Notably, regular exercise is somewhat associated with a better sleep quality, which could be mediated by the muscle secretome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pl\u00e1cido Navas Lloret",
        "text": "In young people, higher physical activity correlated with lower Coenzyme Q10 levels in plasma; in older adults, higher activity was associated with higher plasma Q10 levels and higher Coenzyme Q10/Cholesterol ratios."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breast cancer",
        "text": "A lack of physical activity has been linked to about 10% of cases. Sitting regularly for prolonged periods is associated with higher mortality from breast cancer. The risk is not negated by regular exercise, though it is lowered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "However, data from rodents and humans have shown that pharmacological blockade of endogenous endorphins does not prevent the development of a runner's high, while blockade of endocannabinoids does."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sexuality in older age",
        "text": "Both male and female libidos tend to decline with increasing age, and women tend to lose their libido faster than men. However, desire for sexual activity is not lost completely. Neither does it decrease for everyone. Menopause, a female biological process, has been linked to a loss of interest in sexual activity and to a desensitization of the genital area. In some cases, vaginal penetration can be painful for older women (see, for example, vaginismus). However, with the advent of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) treatments, the effects of menopause have lessened and women have more opportunities to continue experiencing an active sex life. Similarly, treatments for erectile dysfunction can make it possible for men to enjoy sexual activity again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "Oral contraceptives lower androgen levels in users, and lowered androgen levels generally lead to a decrease in sexual desire. However, usage of oral contraceptives has shown to typically not have a connection with lowered libido in women. Multiple studies have shown that usage of oral contraceptives is associated with either a small increase or decrease in libido, with most users reporting a stable sex drive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sexual arousal",
        "text": "Reduced estrogen levels may be associated with increased vaginal dryness and less clitoral erection when aroused, but are not directly related to other aspects of sexual interest or arousal. In older women, decreased pelvic muscle tone may mean that it takes longer for arousal to lead to orgasm, may diminish the intensity of orgasms, and then cause more rapid resolution. The uterus typically contracts during orgasm and, with advancing age, those contractions may actually become painful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Androgen",
        "text": "Researchers also examined how mild exercise affected androgen synthesis which in turn causes AHN activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Persicaria odorata",
        "text": "No scientific studies have measured \"P. odorata\"'s effects on libido. Traditionally, in Vietnam, the herb is believed to repress sexual urges. A saying in Vietnamese states, \"rau r\u0103m, gi\u00e1 s\u1ed1ng\" (\"Vietnamese coriander, raw bean sprouts\"), which refers to the common belief that Vietnamese coriander reduces sexual desire, while bean sprouts have the opposite effect. Many Buddhist monks grow coriander in their private gardens and eat it frequently, believing it helps them remain celibate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sexuality after spinal cord injury",
        "text": "Secondary dysfunction results from factors that follow from the injury, such as loss of bladder and bowel control or impaired movement. The main barrier to sexual activity that people with SCI cite is physical limitation; e.g. balance problems and muscle weakness cause difficulty with positioning. Spasticity, tightening of muscles due to increased muscle tone, is another complication that interferes with sex. Some medications have side effects that impede sexual pleasure or interfere with sexual function: antidepressants, muscle relaxants, sleeping pills and drugs that treat spasticity. Hormonal changes that alter sexual function may take place after SCI; levels of prolactin heighten, women temporarily stop menstruating (amenorrhea), and men experience reduced levels of testosterone. Testosterone deficiency causes reduced libido, increased weakness, fatigue, and failure to respond to erection-enhancing drugs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "The American Medical Association has estimated that several million US women suffer from a female sexual arousal disorder, though arousal is not at all synonymous with desire, so this finding is of limited relevance to the discussion of libido. Some specialists claim that women may experience low libido due to some hormonal abnormalities such as lack of luteinising hormone or androgenic hormones, although these theories are still controversial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pompoir",
        "text": "A similar exercise was developed in the 1950s by gynecologist Arnold Kegel, who in 1952 developed some exercises for women who had a problem with urinary incontinence. With the research he discovered that the pubococcygeus muscle was out of shape and not working properly. By exercising these muscles, the medical problem was solved and the potential for genital sensations and orgasm increased."
      },
      {
        "title": "Epigenetics of physical exercise",
        "text": "In a study on the epigenetic effects of physical exercise on breast cancer in women, blood samples from breast cancer patients were collected before and after 6 months of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise. The test group experienced 129 minutes of exercise on average per week compared to the control group\u2019s 21.8 minutes a week. The study found 43 genes having significant changes in DNA methylation. Of the 43 genes, 3 of the genes experiencing reduced methylation levels were directly correlated with increased survival of breast cancer. The gene L3MBTL1, a known tumor suppressor, had methylation levels decreased by 1.48% in the exercise group while the limited exercise control group experienced a 2.15% increase in methylation. The 1.48% decrease in methylation of L3MBTL1 resulted in greater expression of the tumor suppressor while the 2.15% increase in methylation experienced by the limited exercise control group led to a decrease in expression. The findings of the study showed patients who exercised regularly had lower methylation levels and higher gene expression of L3MBTL1. These patients also experienced a greater than 60% reduction in risk of breast cancer death compared to patients in the limited exercise group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Acute myeloid leukemia",
        "text": "Adding aerobic physical exercises to the standard of care may result in little to no difference in the mortality, in the quality of life and in the physical functioning. These exercises may result in a slight reduction in depression. Furthermore, aerobic physical exercises probably reduce fatigue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Obesity and sexuality",
        "text": "In men, it can lead to erectile dysfunction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Underweight",
        "text": "Exercise is catabolic, which results in a brief reduction in mass. However, during recovery, anabolic overcompensation causes muscle hypertrophy, which results in an overall increase in mass. This can happen through an increase in muscle proteins, or through enhanced storage of glycogen in muscles. Exercise can also help stimulate the appetite of a person who is not inclined to eat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "In healthy adults, aerobic exercise has been shown to induce transient effects on cognition after a single exercise session and persistent effects on cognition following regular exercise over the course of several months. People who regularly perform aerobic exercise (e.g., running, jogging, brisk walking, swimming, and cycling) have greater scores on neuropsychological function and performance tests that measure certain cognitive functions, such as attentional control, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, working memory updating and capacity, declarative memory, spatial memory, and information processing speed. The transient effects of exercise on cognition include improvements in most executive functions (e.g., attention, working memory, cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, problem solving, and decision making) and information processing speed for a period of up to 2\u00a0hours after exercising."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of health articles",
        "text": "\u2013 Physical exercise"
      },
      {
        "title": "Disposition index",
        "text": "Disposition index can be increased by aerobic exercise, but only to the extent that insulin sensitivity is improved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glycine propionyl-L-carnitine",
        "text": "In another study, GPLC or a placebo was provided to resistance trained men for four weeks each, with a two-week washout period between each four-week period, using a double blind design. At the end of each four-week period, resting blood samples were obtained, in addition to blood samples following Isometric exercise, showing significant increases in plasma nitrate/nitrite among those who were given GPLC. It is possible that this increase in nitrate/nitrite may have implications related to enhanced blood flow during acute bouts of exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Psychological dependence",
        "text": "Another study tested whether swimming exercises affected the intensity of perceivable psychological symptoms in rodents during morphine withdrawal. It concluded that the anxious and depressive states of the withdrawal were reduced in rats from the exercise group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diabetes and exercise",
        "text": "This article describes the influence of exercise on the persons who suffer from diabetes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lymphangioleiomyomatosis",
        "text": "Cardiopulmonary exercise testing in a much larger cohort of patients with LAM revealed a reduced maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) and anaerobic threshold in 217 patients. Exercise-induced hypoxemia was found even in patients who did not have resting abnormalities in FEV1 and DLCO. In most patients, exercise was thought to be ventilation limited, owing to airflow obstruction and increased dead-space ventilation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise and androgen levels",
        "text": "A number of studies have looked at effects of anaerobic exercise over months to years, showing it to be constant or slightly increased. A small case-control of anaerobic training in young untrained males over six weeks found decline in free testosterone of 17 percent. With men in their 60s, resistive training over 16 weeks did not affect baseline anabolic hormone levels, although GH increased acutely with exercise. A study over 21 weeks in male strength athletes showed basal hormone levels to be constant, despite strength increase. A follow up study looked at a larger group of weight trainers over 24 weeks, with 12-week decompensation. Training caused no change in total testosterone, but there were decreases in free testosterone, progesterone, androstendione, DHEA, cortisol, transcortin, and in the cortisol:CBG ratio, suggesting androgen turnover increased with training intensity, without change in total testosterone. A study looking at young men and resistance training over 48 weeks found increases in baseline serum testosterone from 20 \u00b1 5 to 25 \u00b1 5 nmol/l, and an increase in testosterone:SHBG ratio, LH and FSH."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "The various functions of the brain structures that show exercise-induced increases in gray matter volume include:\n* Prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortices\u00a0\u2013 required for the cognitive control of behavior, particularly: working memory, attentional control, decision-making, cognitive flexibility, social cognition, and inhibitory control of behavior; implicated in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and addiction\n* Nucleus accumbens\u00a0\u2013 responsible for incentive salience (\"wanting\" or desire, the form of motivation associated with reward) and positive reinforcement; implicated in addiction\n* Hippocampus\u00a0\u2013 responsible for storage and consolidation of declarative memory and spatial memory; implicated in depression\n* Cerebellum\u00a0\u2013 responsible for motor coordination and motor learning\n* Caudate nucleus\u00a0\u2013 responsible for stimulus-response learning and inhibitory control; implicated in Parkinson's disease and ADHD\n* Parietal cortex\u00a0\u2013 responsible for sensory perception, working memory, and attention"
      },
      {
        "title": "Premature ejaculation",
        "text": "Several techniques have been developed and applied by sex therapists, including Kegel exercises (to strengthen the muscles of the pelvic floor) and Masters and Johnson's \"stop-start technique\" (to desensitize the man's responses) and \"squeeze technique\" (to reduce excessive arousal)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protriptyline",
        "text": "\"Endocrine\": Impotence, increased or decreased libido: gynecomastia in the male; breast enlargement and galactorrhea in the female; testicular swelling; elevation or depression of blood sugar levels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sexual intercourse",
        "text": "Sexual activity can directly cause death, particularly due to coronary circulation complications, which is sometimes called \"coital death,\" \"coital sudden death\" or \"coital coronary.\" However, coital deaths are significantly rare. People, especially those who get little or no physical exercise, have a slightly increased risk of triggering a heart attack or sudden cardiac death when they engage in sexual intercourse or any vigorous physical exercise that is engaged in on a sporadic basis. Regular exercise reduces, but does not eliminate, the increased risk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sexuality after spinal cord injury",
        "text": "Tertiary sexual dysfunction results from psychological and social factors. Reduced libido, desire, or experience of arousal could be due to psychological or situational factors such as depression, anxiety, and changes in relationships. Both sexes experience reduced sexual desire after SCI, and almost half of men and almost three quarters of women have trouble becoming psychologically aroused. Depression is the most common cause of problems with arousal in people with SCI. People frequently experience grief and despair initially after the injury. Anxiety, substance use disorders and alcohol use disorder may increase after discharge from a hospital as new challenges occur, which can exacerbate sexual difficulties. Substance use increase unhealthy behaviors, straining relationships and social functioning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Postmenopausal confusion",
        "text": "Regular physical exercise may prevent symptoms of postmenopausal confusion. Studies have shown an association between exercise and \"lower rates of cognitive decline\" in postmenopausal women. On the other hand, an inactive lifestyle has been strongly associated with \"higher rates of cognitive decline\" in postmenopausal women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Body odour and sexual attraction",
        "text": "However, the same attraction and mate preferences are not held by males for heterozygous females. Males are, however, more attracted to the scent of females with rare HLA alleles. Men's arousal can be influenced by a variety of odours. For example; pumpkin pie, liquorice, doughnuts, and lavender can increase penile blood flow consequently causing arousal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shavparosnebi",
        "text": "Physical exercises: recreation measures, breathing activities, physical and psychological exercises."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What role does exercise play in aiding with the prevention of cancer?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Research shows that regular physical activity helps to reduce up to 30% the risk of a variety of cancer types, such as colon cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer and endometrium cancer. Exercise may contribute to a reduction of cancer-related fatigue in survivors of breast cancer, though there is currently insufficient evidence regarding the association between physical activity and mortality for survivors of other cancers."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How does exercise affect libido?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "A study in 2013 found that exercise improved libido problems related to antidepressant use.",
      "A study done in 2013  found that exercising improved sexual arousal problems related to antidepressant use."
    ],
    "topic": "Exercise",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise:21",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise",
          "Health effects",
          "Libido"
        ],
        "ctx": "One 2013 study found that exercising improved sexual arousal problems related to antidepressant use."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise:21",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise",
          "Health effects",
          "Libido"
        ],
        "ctx": "One 2013 study found that exercising improved sexual arousal problems related to antidepressant use."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "One 2013 study found that exercising improved sexual arousal problems related to antidepressant use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cindy Meston",
        "text": "Lorenz, T. K., & Meston, C. M. (2012). Acute exercise improves physical sexual arousal in women taking antidepressants. \"Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 43,\" 352-361."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "Sexual side effects are also common with SSRIs, such as loss of sexual drive, failure to reach orgasm, and erectile dysfunction. Although usually reversible, these sexual side-effects can, in rare cases, continue after the drug has been completely withdrawn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sex and drugs",
        "text": "The side effects on sexual functioning can impact mental health and quality of life. However, the decrease in depressive symptoms from antidepressants make it worth the sexual side effects for many people. They can be managed by changing the dose, switching drugs, or taking \u201cantidotes\u201d. Maca, a plant that grows in central Peru, aids with sexual dysfunction caused by antidepressant drugs for women. There are specific Maca products that can also increase sexual desire in men."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sex and drugs",
        "text": "Psychiatrists and doctors commonly prescribe different types of antidepressants to patients. SSRIs, SNRIs, and NDRIs are the most common types of antidepressants. Each has slightly different effects on sexual functioning, but generally, it has been found that antidepressants can delay/decrease orgasms and cause females to have breast enlargement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cindy Meston",
        "text": "Lorenz, T. K., & Meston, C. M. (2014) Exercise improves sexual function in women taking antidepressants: results from a randomized crossover trial. \"Depression and Anxiety, 31,\" 188-195."
      },
      {
        "title": "Selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor",
        "text": "An increase in heart rate and blood pressure have been reported but are usually not clinically important. Sexual adverse effects are mostly related to male arousal difficulties and decreased libido in both men and women, but they are significantly less common than with serotonergic drugs. Other side effects are urinary retention, constipation, sweating and insomnia. What can be considered serious side effects are thoughts of suicide, aggressiveness and hallucinations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anaphrodisiac",
        "text": "Side effects of certain antidepressant medications commonly include those taking anaphrodisiac form (there is even a term for the phenomenon among one particularly notorious group\u2014 SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction); however, psychotropic drugs are not currently prescribed for reliable anaphroditic effects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "Antidepressants are medications used to treat major depressive disorder, some anxiety disorders, some chronic pain conditions, and to help manage some addictions. Common side-effects of antidepressants include dry mouth, weight gain, dizziness, headaches, sexual dysfunction, and emotional blunting. There is a slight increased risk of suicidal thinking and behavior when taken by children, adolescents, and young adults. A discontinuation syndrome can occur after stopping any antidepressant which resembles recurrent depression."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major depressive episode",
        "text": "Below are listed the main classes of antidepressant medications, some of the most common drugs in each category, and their major side effects:\n* Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (citalopram, escitalopram, paroxetine, fluoxetine, sertraline): major side effects include nausea, diarrhea, and sexual dysfunction such as erectile dysfunction or anorgasmia\n* Serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (duloxetine, venlafaxine, desvenlafaxine): major side effects include nausea, diarrhea, increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, and tremor\n* Tricyclic antidepressants (amitryptiline, desipramine, doxepin, imipramine, nortriptyline): major side effects include sedation, low blood pressure when moving from sitting to standing (orthostatic hypotension), tremor, and heart issues like conduction delays or arrythmias\n* Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (isocarboxazid, phenelzine, selegiline): major side effects include high blood pressure (emergency) if eaten with foods rich in tyramine (e.g. cheeses, some meats, and home-brewed beer), sedation, tremor, and orthostatic hypotension"
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Taylor Segraves",
        "text": "Much of Segraves' work focuses on female sexual arousal disorder (FSAD). Noting that \"somehow depression and libido are interconnected,\" Segraves has examined the interplay between antidepressants and libido. He has conducted pilot studies and clinical trials on drugs that show promise in improving female sexual response, including bupropion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "Changes in appetite or weight are common among antidepressants, but are largely drug-dependent and related to which neurotransmitters they affect. Mirtazapine and paroxetine, for example, may be associated with weight gain and/or increased appetite, while others (such as bupropion and venlafaxine) achieve the opposite effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aphrodisiac",
        "text": "Amphetamine and methamphetamine are phenethylamine derivatives which are known to increase libido and cause frequent or prolonged erections as potential side effects, particularly at high supratherapeutic doses where sexual hyperexcitability and hypersexuality can occur; however, in some individuals who use these drugs, libido is reduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Duloxetine",
        "text": "In four clinical trials of duloxetine for the treatment of MDD, sexual dysfunction occurred significantly more frequently in patients treated with duloxetine than those treated with placebo, and this difference occurred only in men. Specifically, common side effects include difficulty becoming aroused, lack of interest in sex, and anorgasmia (trouble achieving orgasm). Loss of or decreased response to sexual stimuli and ejaculatory anhedonia are also reported. Frequency of treatment-emergent sexual dysfunction were similar for duloxetine and SSRIs when compared in a 6-month observational study in depressed patients. Rates of sexual dysfunction in MDD patients treated with duloxetine vs escitalopram did not differ significantly at 4, 8, and 12 weeks of treatment, although the trend favored duloxetine (33.3% of duloxetine patients experienced sexual side effects compared to 43.6% of those receiving escitalopram and 25% of those receiving placebo)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "In a study of 1022 outpatients, overall sexual dysfunction with all antidepressants averaged 59.1% with SSRI values between 57% and 73%, mirtazapine 24%, nefazodone 8%, amineptine 7% and moclobemide 4%. Moclobemide, a selective reversible MAO-A inhibitor, does not cause sexual dysfunction, and can actually lead to an improvement in all aspects of sexual function."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "Biochemical mechanisms suggested as causative include increased serotonin, particularly affecting 5-HT2 and 5-HT3 receptors; decreased dopamine; decreased norepinephrine; blockade of cholinergic and \u03b11adrenergic receptors; inhibition of nitric oxide synthetase; and elevation of prolactin levels. Mirtazapine is reported to have fewer sexual side effects, most likely because it antagonizes 5-HT2 and 5-HT3 receptors and may, in some cases, reverse sexual dysfunction induced by SSRIs by the same mechanism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Treatment of bipolar disorder",
        "text": "Exercise has also been shown to have antidepressant effects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antiestrogen",
        "text": "Side effects of antiestrogens include hot flashes, osteoporosis, breast atrophy, vaginal dryness, and vaginal atrophy. In addition, they may cause depression and reduced libido."
      },
      {
        "title": "Weight training",
        "text": "One side-effect of any intense exercise is increased levels of dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine, which can help to improve mood and counter feelings of depression."
      },
      {
        "title": "Helen Fisher (anthropologist)",
        "text": "Fisher also maintains that taking certain antidepressants can potentially dampen feelings of romantic love and attachment (as well as sex drive)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vilazodone",
        "text": "Incidence of adverse effects include:\n;Very common adverse effects (incidence >10%):\n* Nausea\n* Diarrhea\n* Headache\n;Common adverse effects (1\u201310% incidence)\n* Vomiting\n* Dry mouth\n* Dizziness\n* Insomnia\n;Uncommon adverse effects (0.1\u20131% incidence):\n* Somnolence\n* Paraesthesia\n* Tremor\n* Abnormal dreams\n* Libido decreased\n* Restlessness\n* Akathisia\n* Restless legs syndrome\n* Abnormal orgasms (men only)\n* Delayed ejaculations (men only)\n* Erectile dysfunction (men only)\n* Fatigue\n* Feeling jittery\n* Palpitations\n* Ventricular premature contractions\n* Arthralgia\n* Increased appetite\n;Rare adverse effects (<0.1% incidence):\n* Serotonin syndrome\u2014a serious adverse effect characterised by:\n**Nausea\n**Vomiting\n**Mental status change (e.g. confusion, hallucinations, agitation, coma, stupor)\n**Muscle rigidity\n**Tremor\n**Myoclonus\n**Hyperreflexia\u2014overresponsive/overactive reflexes\n**Hyperthermia\u2014elevated body temperature\n**Autonomic instability (e.g. tachycardia, dizziness, abnormally excessive sweating, etc.)\n* Mania/hypomania\u2014a potentially dangerously elated/agitated mood. Every antidepressant has the potential to induce these psychiatric reactions. They are particularly problematic in those with a history of hypomania/mania such as those with bipolar disorder.\n;Unknown-incidence adverse effects:\n* Suicidal ideation\u2014all antidepressants can cause suicidal ideation especially in young adults and adolescents under the age of 25.\n* Abnormal bleeding\u2014the SSRIs are known for their ability to increase the incidence of gastrointestinal bleeds and other bleeding abnormalities.\n* Seizures\n* Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH)\u2014a condition characterised by an abnormally excessive secretion of antidiuretic hormone causing potentially-fatal electrolyte abnormalities (such as hyponatraemia).\n* Hyponatraemia (a complication of the former)\u2014low blood sodium."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "It is unknown if undergoing psychological therapy at the same time as taking anti-depressants enhances the anti-depressive effect of the medication."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "Isotretinoin and many SSRIs can cause a long-term decrease in libido and other sexual functions, even after users of those drugs have shown improvement in their depression and have stopped usage. Multiple studies have shown that with the exception of bupropion (Wellbutrin), trazodone (Desyrel) and nefazodone (Serzone), antidepressants generally will lead to lowered libido. SSRIs that typically lead to decreased libido are fluoxetine (Prozac), paroxetine (Paxil), fluvoxamine (Luvox), citalopram (Celexa) and sertraline (Zoloft). There are several ways to try to reap the benefits of the antidepressants while maintaining high enough sex drive levels. Some antidepressant users have tried decreasing their dosage in the hopes of maintaining an adequate sex drive. Results of this are often positive, with both drug effectiveness not reduced and libido preserved. Other users try enrolling in psychotherapy to solve depression-related issues of libido. However, the effectiveness of this therapy is mixed, with many reporting that it had no or little effect on sexual drive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Escitalopram",
        "text": "Some people experience persistent sexual side effects after they stop taking SSRIs. This is known as post-SSRI sexual dysfunction (PSSD). Common symptoms include genital anesthesia, erectile dysfunction, anhedonia, decreased libido, premature ejaculation, vaginal lubrication issues, and nipple insensitivity in women. Rates are unknown, and there is no established treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drugs and sexual desire",
        "text": "These drugs are expected to restore a normal libido in patients. Targeting acquired and generalized hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD), improvement in sexual desire, and alleviation of psychological stress are to relieve the correlated symptoms. However, the treatments cannot cope with medically or psychiatrically related conditions, nor the effects from other medications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor",
        "text": "The mechanism by which SSRIs may cause sexual side effects is not well understood . The range of possible mechanisms includes (1) nonspecific neurological effects (e.g., sedation) that globally impair behavior including sexual function; (2) specific effects on brain systems mediating sexual function; (3) specific effects on peripheral tissues and organs, such as the penis, that mediate sexual function; and (4) direct or indirect effects on hormones mediating sexual function. Management strategies include: for erectile dysfunction the addition of a PDE5 inhibitor such as sildenafil; for decreased libido, possibly adding or switching to bupropion; and for overall sexual dysfunction, switching to nefazodone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major depressive episode",
        "text": "Sometimes, people stop taking antidepressant medications due to side effects, although side effects often become less severe over time. Suddenly stopping treatment or missing several doses may cause withdrawal-like symptoms. Some studies have shown that antidepressants may increase short-term suicidal thoughts or actions, especially in children, adolescents, and young adults. However, antidepressants are more likely to reduce a person's risk of suicide in the long run."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sertraline",
        "text": "Like other SSRIs, sertraline is associated with sexual side effects, including sexual arousal disorder, erectile dysfunction and difficulty achieving orgasm. While nefazodone and bupropion do not have negative effects on sexual functioning, 67% of men on sertraline experienced ejaculation difficulties versus 18% before the treatment. Sexual arousal disorder, defined as \"inadequate lubrication and swelling for women and erectile difficulties for men\", occurred in 12% of people on sertraline as compared with 1% of patients on placebo. The mood improvement resulting from the treatment with sertraline sometimes counteracted these side effects, so that sexual desire and overall satisfaction with sex stayed the same as before the sertraline treatment. However, under the action of placebo the desire and satisfaction slightly improved. Some people continue experiencing sexual side effects after they stop taking SSRIs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Serotonin\u2013norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor",
        "text": "Antidepressants affect variable neuronal receptors like muscarinic-cholinergic, \u03b11- and \u03b12-adrenergic, and H1-histaminergic receptors, and sodium channels in the cardiac muscle, leading to decreased cardiac conduction and cardiotoxicity {source needed}. Selectivity of antidepressant agents are based on the neurotransmitters that are thought to influence symptoms of depression."
      },
      {
        "title": "Escitalopram",
        "text": "Escitalopram, like other SSRIs, has been shown to affect sexual functions causing side effects such as decreased libido, delayed ejaculation, and anorgasmia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "For a partial response, the American Psychiatric Association guidelines suggest augmentation, or adding a drug from a different class. These include lithium and thyroid augmentation, dopamine agonists, sex steroids, NRIs, glucocorticoid-specific agents, or the newer anticonvulsants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Idiopathic hypersomnia",
        "text": "Antidepressants seems to have some therapeutic effects as they enhance synaptic levels of noradrenaline and serotonin and for same reason enhancing the levels of acetylcholine may have some therapeutic effect. Donepezil showed improvement in one patient by decreasing ESS score from 20 up to 14. Memantine has also shown some positive effect on a patient suffering from narcolepsy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "Bupropion, a weak NDRI and nicotinic antagonist, may be useful in treating reduced libido as a result of SSRI treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "The effects of antidepressants typically do not continue once the course of medication ends. This results in a high rate of relapse. A 2003 meta-analysis found that 18% of people who had responded to an antidepressant relapsed while still taking it, compared to 41% whose antidepressant was switched for a placebo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cognitive psychology",
        "text": "1. Despite the prevalent use of antidepressants, the fact remains that not all patients respond to them. Beck cites (in 1987) that only 60 to 65% of patients respond to antidepressants, and recent meta-analyses (a statistical breakdown of multiple studies) show very similar numbers.2. Many of those who do respond to antidepressants end up not taking their medications, for various reasons. They may develop side-effects or have some form of personal objection to taking the drugs.3. Beck posits that the use of psychotropic drugs may lead to an eventual breakdown in the individual's coping mechanisms. His theory is that the person essentially becomes reliant on the medication as a means of improving mood and fails to practice those coping techniques typically practiced by healthy individuals to alleviate the effects of depressive symptoms. By failing to do so, once the patient is weaned off of the antidepressants, they often are unable to cope with normal levels of depressed mood and feel driven to reinstate use of the antidepressants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hypoactive sexual desire disorder",
        "text": "A few studies suggest that the antidepressant, bupropion, can improve sexual function in women who are not depressed, if they have HSDD. The same is true for the anxiolytic, buspirone, which is a 5-HT1A receptor agonist similarly to flibanserin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strength training",
        "text": "One side effect of intense exercise is improved mood, with the effect being most noticeable when mood is poor before exercise. When exercise is competitive, effects depend on the degree of success. Regular physical exercise has been shown to be related to lower depression, fewer symptoms of anxiety, lower emotional distress, and lower fatigue. Even physically fit people who did not regularly exercise were in poorer mood than physically fit people who did. People who did not regularly exercise were more likely to have developed depression after an 8-year follow-up."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise prescription",
        "text": "A large body of research indicates that exercise prescription has beneficial effects for patients suffering depression. One study shows a significant improvement for a randomized group of women with major depressive disorder engaging in a twice-weekly resistance training program compared to a control group. The reasons for this marked change is thought to have biochemical, physiological and psychosocial aspects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "Antidepressants can cause various adverse effects, depending on the individual and the drug in question."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citalopram",
        "text": "Some people experience persistent sexual side effects after they stop taking SSRIs. This is known as Post-SSRI Sexual Dysfunction (PSSD). Common symptoms in these cases include genital anesthesia, erectile dysfunction, anhedonia, decreased libido, premature ejaculation, vaginal lubrication issues, and nipple insensitivity in women. The prevalence of PSSD is unknown, and there is no established treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mirtazapine",
        "text": "A 2011 Cochrane review found that compared with other antidepressants, it is more likely to cause weight gain and sleepiness, but it is less likely to cause tremor than tricyclic antidepressants, and less likely to cause nausea and sexual dysfunction than SSRIs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paroxetine",
        "text": "Sexual dysfunction, including loss of libido, anorgasmia, lack of vaginal lubrication, and erectile dysfunction, is one of the most commonly encountered adverse effects of treatment with paroxetine and other SSRIs. While early clinical trials suggested a relatively low rate of sexual dysfunction, more recent studies in which the investigator actively inquires about sexual problems suggest that the incidence is higher than 70%. Symptoms of sexual dysfunction have been reported to persist after discontinuing SSRIs, although this is thought to be occasional."
      },
      {
        "title": "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor",
        "text": "SSRIs can cause various types of sexual dysfunction such as anorgasmia, erectile dysfunction, diminished libido, genital numbness, and sexual anhedonia (pleasureless orgasm). Sexual problems are common with SSRIs. While initial trials showed side effects in 5-15% of users (based on spontaneous reporting by users), later studies (based on asking patients directly) have shown side effect rates from 36% to 98%. Poor sexual function is also one of the most common reasons people stop the medication."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "Some people purposefully attempt to decrease their libido through the usage of anaphrodisiacs. Aphrodisiacs, such as dopaminergic psychostimulants, are a class of drugs which can increase libido. On the other hand, a reduced libido is also often iatrogenic and can be caused by many medications, such as hormonal contraception, SSRIs and other antidepressants, antipsychotics, opioids, beta blockers and Isotretinoin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Twin study",
        "text": "Take for instance the case of an observed link between depression and exercise (See Figure above on right). People who are depressed also reporting doing little physical activity. One might \"hypothesise\" that this is a causal link: that \"dosing\" patients with exercise would raise their mood and protect against depression. The next figure shows what empirical tests of this hypothesis have found: a null result."
      },
      {
        "title": "Enzalutamide",
        "text": "Notable side effects of enzalutamide seen in clinical trials have included gynecomastia, breast pain/tenderness, fatigue, diarrhea, hot flashes, headache, sexual dysfunction, and, less commonly, seizures. Other \"common\" side effects reported in clinical trials have included neutropenia, visual hallucinations, anxiety, cognitive disorder, memory impairment, hypertension, dry skin, and pruritus (itching). Enzalutamide monotherapy is regarded as having a moderate negative effect on sexual function and activity, significantly less than that of GnRH analogues but similar to that of other NSAAs such as bicalutamide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pharmacology of antidepressants",
        "text": "The delayed onset of clinical effects from antidepressants indicates involvement of adaptive changes in antidepressant effects. Rodent studies have consistently shown upregulation of the 3, 5-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) system induced by different types of chronic but not acute antidepressant treatment, including serotonin and norepinephrine uptake inhibitors, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants, lithium and electroconvulsions. cAMP is synthesized from adenosine 5-triphosphate (ATP) by adenylyl cyclase and metabolized by cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Recreational drug use",
        "text": "Stimulants or \"uppers\", such as amphetamines or cocaine, which increase mental or physical function, have an opposite effect to depressants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Viloxazine",
        "text": "Side effects included nausea, vomiting, insomnia, loss of appetite, increased erythrocyte sedimentation, EKG and EEG anomalies, epigastric pain, diarrhea, constipation, vertigo, orthostatic hypotension, edema of the lower extremities, dysarthria, tremor, psychomotor agitation, mental confusion, inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone, increased transaminases, seizure, (there were three cases worldwide, and most animal studies [and clinical trials that included epilepsy patients] indicated the presence of anticonvulsant properties, so was not completely contraindicated in epilepsy) and increased libido."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "A 2017 meta-analysis found that antidepressants were associated with significantly increased risk of death (+33%) and new cardiovascular complications (+14%) in the general population. Conversely, risks were not greater in people with existing cardiovascular disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amphetamine",
        "text": "Cardiovascular side effects can include hypertension or hypotension from a vasovagal response, Raynaud's phenomenon (reduced blood flow to the hands and feet), and tachycardia (increased heart rate). Sexual side effects in males may include erectile dysfunction, frequent erections, or prolonged erections. Gastrointestinal side effects may include abdominal pain, constipation, diarrhea, and nausea. Other potential physical side effects include appetite loss, blurred vision, dry mouth, excessive grinding of the teeth, nosebleed, profuse sweating, rhinitis medicamentosa (drug-induced nasal congestion), reduced seizure threshold, tics (a type of movement disorder), and weight loss. Dangerous physical side effects are rare at typical pharmaceutical doses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Serotonin\u2013norepinephrine\u2013dopamine reuptake inhibitor",
        "text": "There remains a need for more efficacious antidepressant agents. Although two-thirds of patients will ultimately respond to antidepressant treatment, one-third of patients respond to placebo, and remission is frequently sub-maximal (\"residual\" symptoms). In addition to post-treatment relapse, depressive symptoms can even recur in the course of long-term therapy (\"tachyphylaxis\"). Also, currently available antidepressants all elicit undesirable side-effects, and new agents should be divested of the distressing side-effects of both first and second-generation antidepressants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aphrodisiac",
        "text": "The name comes from the Greek \u1f00\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03c3\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd, \"aphrodisiakon\", i.e. \"sexual, aphrodisiac\", from \"aphrodisios\", i.e. \"pertaining to Aphrodite\", the Greek goddess of love. Throughout human history, food, drinks, and behaviors have had a reputation for making sex more attainable and/or pleasurable. However, from a historical and scientific standpoint, the alleged results may have been mainly due to mere belief by their users that they would be effective (placebo effect). Likewise, many medicines are reported to \"affect\" libido in inconsistent or idiopathic ways: enhancing or diminishing overall sexual desire depending on the situation of the subject. For example, Bupropion (Wellbutrin) is known as an antidepressant that can counteract other co-prescribed antidepressants having libido-diminishing effects. However, because Wellbutrin only increases the libido in the special case that it is already impaired by related medications, it is not generally classed as an aphrodisiac."
      },
      {
        "title": "Generalized anxiety disorder",
        "text": "Common side effects include nausea, sexual dysfunction, headache, diarrhea, constipation, restlessness, increased risk of suicide in young adults and adolescents, among others. Sexual side effects, weight gain, and higher risk of withdrawal are more common in paroxetine than escitalopram and sertraline. In older populations or those taking concomitant medications that increase risk of bleeding, SSRIs may further increase the risk of bleeding. Overdose of an SSRI or concomitant use with another agent that causes increased levels of serotonin can result in serotonin syndrome, which can be life-threatening."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "Between 30% and 50% of individuals treated with a given antidepressant do not show a response. Approximately one-third of people achieve a full remission, one-third experience a response and one-third are nonresponders. Partial remission is characterized by the presence of poorly defined residual symptoms. These symptoms typically include depressed mood, anxiety, sleep disturbance, fatigue and diminished interest or pleasure. It is currently unclear which factors predict partial remission. However, it is clear that residual symptoms are powerful predictors of relapse, with relapse rates 3\u20136\u00a0times higher in people with residual symptoms than in those who experience full remission. In addition, antidepressant drugs tend to lose efficacy over the course of treatment. According to data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, less than one-third of Americans taking one antidepressant medication have seen a mental health professional in the previous year. A number of strategies are used in clinical practice to try to overcome these limits and variations. They include switching medication, augmentation, and combination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Piracetam",
        "text": "Symptoms of general excitability, including anxiety, insomnia, irritability, headache, agitation, nervousness, tremor, and hyperkinesia, are occasionally reported. Other reported side effects include somnolence, weight gain, clinical depression, weakness, increased libido, and hypersexuality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "A gradual loss of therapeutic benefit occurs in a minority of people during the course of treatment. A strategy involving the use of pharmacotherapy in the treatment of the acute episode, followed by psychotherapy in its residual phase, has been suggested by some studies. For patients who wish to stop their antidepressants, engaging in brief psychological interventions such as Preventive Cognitive Therapy or Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy while tapering down has been found to diminish the risk for relapse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Obesogen",
        "text": "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) (e.g. paroxetine), tricyclic antidepressants (e.g. amitriptyline), tetracyclic antidepressants (e.g. mirtazapine) and atypical antipsychotics (e.g. clozapine) are all neuropharmaceuticals that target neurotransmitter receptors that are involved with brain circuits that regulate behavior. Often the function of these receptors overlaps with metabolism regulation, such as that of the H1 receptor which when activated decreases AMPK activity. As a result, the administration of these drugs can have side effects including increased lipid accumulation that can result in obesity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "In 1952, learning of the stimulating side effects of isoniazid, the Cincinnati psychiatrist Max Lurie tried it on his patients. In the following year, he and Harry Salzer reported that isoniazid improved depression in two-thirds of their patients and coined the term \"antidepressant\" to refer to its action. A similar incident took place in Paris, where Jean Delay, head of psychiatry at Sainte-Anne Hospital, heard of this effect from his pulmonology colleagues at Cochin Hospital. In 1952 (before Lurie and Salzer), Delay, with the resident Jean-Francois Buisson, reported the positive effect of isoniazid on depressed patients. The mode of antidepressant action of isoniazid is still unclear. It is speculated that its effect is due to the inhibition of diamine oxidase, coupled with a weak inhibition of monoamine oxidase A."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ronald Duman",
        "text": "Ron Duman's research centered around the biological mechanisms behind antidepressants. In his landmark 1995 paper, he discovered that antidepressants increase the gene expression of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor, or (BDNF) in the hippocampus. In a later paper he discovered that the downstream effect of BDNF is to increase neurogenesis or the formation of new neurons in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drugs and sexual desire",
        "text": "Common adverse effects elicited by these drugs include hot flushes, bone loss, headache, unpredictable mood changes, depression, vaginal dryness, or even atrophy for females and penile atrophy for males. These adverse effects can be counteracted and treated by add-back therapy, also known as hormone replacement therapy. People treated with GnRH agonists are suggested to undergo this therapy simultaneously by taking adequate progestin, vitamin D, and calcium supplement pills daily."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "Antidepressant\n--Medical uses.\n----Major depressive disorder.\n----Anxiety disorders.\n------Generalized anxiety disorder.\n------Social anxiety disorder.\n------Obsessive\u2013compulsive disorder.\n------Post traumatic stress disorder.\n------Panic disorder.\n----Eating disorders.\n----Pain.\n------Fibromyalgia.\n------Neuropathic pain.\n----Other.\n----Limitations and strategies.\n----Switching antidepressants.\n----Augmentation and combination.\n----Long-term use and stopping.\n--Adverse effects.\n----Pregnancy.\n----Antidepressant-induced mania.\n----Suicide.\n----Sexual dysfunction.\n----Emotional blunting.\n----Changes in weight.\n----Risk of death.\n----Discontinuation syndrome.\n--Pharmacology.\n--Types.\n----Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.\n----Serotonin\u2013norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors.\n----Serotonin modulators and stimulators.\n----Serotonin antagonists and reuptake inhibitors.\n----Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors.\n----Norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitors.\n----Tricyclic antidepressants.\n----Tetracyclic antidepressants.\n----Monoamine oxidase inhibitors.\n----NMDA receptor antagonists.\n----Others.\n--Adjuncts.\n----Less common adjuncts.\n--History.\n----Isoniazid, iproniazid, and imipramine.\n----Second generation antidepressants.\n----Rapid-acting antidepressants.\n------Research.\n--Society and culture.\n----Prescription trends.\n----Adherence.\n----Social science perspective.\n----Environmental impacts.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Drugs and sexual desire",
        "text": "Apart from SSRIs, other types of drugs that could lower sexual desire are not intended to suppress libido originally. Thus, sexually active people are suggested to avoid the usage of the following drugs:\n* Antihypertensive drugs\n* Anti-anxiety drugs (e.g. benzodiazepines)\n* Antipsychotic drugs\n* Anticonvulsants\n* Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (e.g. Antihistamine)\n* Opioid\n* Medical marijuana\n*Recreational drugs"
      },
      {
        "title": "Antiandrogen",
        "text": "In males, the major side effects of antiandrogens are demasculinization and feminization. These side effects include breast pain/tenderness and gynecomastia (breast development/enlargement), reduced body hair growth/density, decreased muscle mass and strength, feminine changes in fat mass and distribution, and reduced penile length and testicular size. The rates of gynecomastia in men with selective AR antagonist monotherapy have been found to range from 30 to 85%. In addition, antiandrogens can cause infertility, osteoporosis, hot flashes, sexual dysfunction (including loss of libido and erectile dysfunction), depression, fatigue, anemia, and decreased semen/ejaculate volume in males. Conversely, the side effects of selective AR antagonists in women are minimal. However, antigonadotropic antiandrogens like cyproterone acetate can produce hypoestrogenism, amenorrhea, and osteoporosis in premenopausal women, among other side effects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pharmacology of antidepressants",
        "text": "Although there is evidence that antidepressants inhibit the reuptake of serotonin, norepinephrine, and to a lesser extent dopamine, the significance of this phenomenon in the amelioration of psychiatric symptoms is not known. Given the low overall response rates of antidepressants, and the poorly understood causes of depression, it is premature to assume a putative mechanism of action of antidepressants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citalopram",
        "text": "Sexual dysfunction is often a side effect with SSRIs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Depressant",
        "text": "A depressant, or central depressant, is a drug that lowers neurotransmission levels, which is to depress or reduce arousal or stimulation, in various areas of the brain. Depressants are also colloquially referred to as downers as they lower the level of arousal when taken. Stimulants or \"uppers\" increase mental and/or physical function, hence the opposite drug class of depressants is stimulants, not antidepressants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libido",
        "text": "Individuals with PTSD may find themselves with reduced sexual desire. Struggling to find pleasure, as well as having trust issues, many with PTSD experience feelings of vulnerability, rage and anger, and emotional shutdowns, which have been shown to inhibit sexual desire in those with PTSD. Reduced sex drive may also be present in trauma victims due to issues arising in sexual function. For women, it has been found that treatment can improve sexual function, thus helping restore sexual desire. Depression and libido decline often coincide, with reduced sex drive being one of the symptoms of depression. Those suffering from depression often report the decline in libido to be far reaching and more noticeable than other symptoms. In addition, those with depression often are reluctant to report their reduced sex drive, often normalizing it with cultural/social values, or by the failure of the physician to inquire about it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Obesity and sexuality",
        "text": "An increased body weight can lead to an increase in sex hormone-binding globulin, which causes testosterone to fail. That can cause the libido to decrease. It can also narrow down the blood vessels, which makes it harder to climax. Sex positions tend to be more limited."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major depressive disorder",
        "text": "The combined use of antidepressants plus benzodiazepines demonstrates improved effectiveness when compared to antidepressants alone, but these effects may not endure. The addition of a benzodiazepine is balanced against possible harms and other alternative treatment strategies when antidepressant mono-therapy is considered inadequate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sexual arousal disorder",
        "text": "Certain medications like SSRIs may be a contributing factor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Recreational drug use",
        "text": "Depressants are psychoactive drugs that temporarily diminish the function or activity of a specific part of the body or mind. Colloquially, depressants are known as \"downers\", and users generally take them to feel more relaxed and less tense. Examples of these kinds of effects may include anxiolysis, sedation, and hypotension. Depressants are widely used throughout the world as prescription medicines and as illicit substances. When these are used, effects may include anxiolysis (reduction of anxiety), analgesia (pain relief), sedation, somnolence, cognitive/memory impairment, dissociation, muscle relaxation, lowered blood pressure/heart rate, respiratory depression, anesthesia, and anticonvulsant effects. Depressants exert their effects through a number of different pharmacological mechanisms, the most prominent of which include potentiation of GABA or opioid activity, and inhibition of adrenergic, histamine or acetylcholine activity. Some are also capable of inducing feelings of euphoria. The most widely used depressant by far is alcohol (i.e. ethanol)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mental health",
        "text": "Studies have shown that in some cases, physical activity can have the same impact as antidepressants when treating depression and anxiety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ross J. Baldessarini",
        "text": "Schalkwijk S, Undurraga J, Tondo L, Baldessarini RJ. Declining efficacy in controlled trials of antidepressants: effects of placebo dropout. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 2014;17(8):1343-1352."
      },
      {
        "title": "Depressant",
        "text": "Depressants exert their effects through a number of different pharmacological mechanisms, the most prominent of which include facilitation of GABA, and inhibition of glutamatergic or monoaminergic activity. Other examples are chemicals that modify the electrical signaling inside the body, the most prominent of these being bromides and channel blockers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trazodone",
        "text": "Clinical reports have described trazodone-associated psychosexual side effects in women as well, including increased libido, priapism of the clitoris, and spontaneous orgasms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anorgasmia",
        "text": "A common cause of anorgasmia, in both men and women, is the use of anti-depressants, particularly selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Though reporting of anorgasmia as a side effect of SSRIs is not precise, studies have found that 17\u201341% of users of such medications are affected by some form of sexual dysfunction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "Aerobic exercise induces short- and long-term effects on mood and emotional states by promoting positive affect, inhibiting negative affect, and decreasing the biological response to acute psychological stress. Over the short-term, aerobic exercise functions as both an antidepressant and euphoriant, whereas consistent exercise produces general improvements in mood and self-esteem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tricyclic antidepressant",
        "text": "Other side effects may include drowsiness, anxiety, emotional blunting (apathy/anhedonia), confusion, restlessness, dizziness, akathisia, hypersensitivity, changes in appetite and weight, sweating, muscle twitches, weakness, nausea and vomiting, hypotension, tachycardia, and rarely, irregular heart rhythms. Twitching, hallucinations, delirium and coma are also some of the toxic effects caused by overdose. Rhabdomyolysis or muscle breakdown has been rarely reported with this class of drugs as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rs7997012",
        "text": "A research study found it to be related to antidepressant treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pompoir",
        "text": "In part this was due to blood flow increasing in exercised muscles, and the increase in blood flow is related to the ease of arousal and orgasm. When the strength of a muscle increases, the blood supply increases, with the side effect being an increase of blood flow to the pelvis resulting in higher levels of arousal and more intense orgasms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abirritant",
        "text": "Serotonin reuptake inhibitors, including both serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), are generally well tolerated. Common side effects include:\n* Sexual dysfunction, which is the most common side effect of all serotonin reuptake inhibitors, manifesting as delayed ejaculation, inability to achieve orgasm and decreased libido.\n* Gastrointestinal effects such as nausea and vomiting, which depend on the dose and usually resolve within the first two weeks of treatment.\n* Central nervous system disturbances such as anxiety, insomnia and sedation.\n* Suicide risk: a combined analysis of placebo-controlled trials of various antidepressants including SSRIs in children and adolescents showed a doubled risk of suicide in those taking antidepressants. In response, the United States Food and Drug Administration issued a warning in 2004 regarding the elevated risk of suicidal thoughts and behavior in children and adolescents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Management of depression",
        "text": "There is evidence a prominent side-effect of antidepressants, emotional blunting, is confused with a symptom of depression itself. The cited study, according to Professor Linda Gask was:"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of antidepressants",
        "text": "\"Discontinued/withdrawn\"\n* Benmoxin (Neuralex)\n* Iproclozide (Sursum)\n* Iproniazid (Marsilid)\n* Mebanazine (Actomol)\n* Nialamide (Niamid)\n* Octamoxin (Ximaol)\n* Pheniprazine (Catron)\n* Phenoxypropazine (Drazine)\n* Pivhydrazine (Tersavid)\n* Safrazine (Safra)\n* Selegiline (Eldepryl, Zelapar, Emsam)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Well-being contributing factors",
        "text": "Meta-analyses published between 2013 and 2017 show that exercise is associated with reductions in depressive symptoms, fatigue and QoL plus improvements in attention, hyperactivity, impulsivity, social functioning, schizophrenic symptoms, and verbal fluency in various special populations. However, aerobic exercise has no significant effect on anxiety disorders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Persistent genital arousal disorder",
        "text": "Women with PGAD report having unstable mental health with thoughts of suicide and difficulty completing daily activities. Before the start of their PGAD, many women were seen to have higher stress scores as well as symptoms of depression and anxiety. Panic attacks (31.6%) and major depression (57.9%) were reported commonalities between patients occurring at least one year prior to the onset of PGAD symptoms. Up to 45% of women with the disorder have reported having a history with antidepressants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Serotonin\u2013norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor",
        "text": "SNRIs, similarly to SSRIs, can cause several types of sexual dysfunction, such as erectile dysfunction, decreased libido, sexual anhedonia, and anorgasmia. The two common sexual side effects are diminished interest in sex (libido) and difficulty reaching climax (anorgasmia), which are usually somewhat milder with SNRIs compared to SSRIs. To manage sexual dysfunction, studies have shown that switching to or augmenting with bupropion or adding a PDE5 Inhibitor have decreased symptoms of sexual dysfunction. Studies have shown that PDE5 Inhibitors, such as sildenafil (Viagra), tadalafil (Cialis), vardenafil (Levitra), and avanafil (Stendra), have sometimes been helpful to decrease the sexual dysfunction, including erectile dysfunction, although they have been shown to be more effective in men than women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Depressogen",
        "text": "Examples of drugs commonly associated with depressogenic effects include ethanol, some anticonvulsants such as the barbiturates (e.g. phenobarbital), benzodiazepines (e.g. diazepam), vigabatrin, and topiramate, corticosteroids like dexamethasone and prednisone, cytokines like interferon-\u03b1 and interleukin-2, certain antihypertensives such as amiodarone, clonidine, methyldopa, reserpine, and tetrabenazine (used as an antipsychotic/antihyperkinetic), and agents with antiandrogen, antiestrogen, and/or anti-neurosteroid activities such as GnRH agonists (e.g., leuprorelin, goserelin), anastrozole (an aromatase inhibitor), finasteride (a 5\u03b1-reductase inhibitor), and clomiphene (a SERM), as well as others including flunarizine, mefloquine, and efavirenz. Another notable agent is rimonabant, a cannabinoid receptor antagonist marketed as an anti-obesity agent which was withdrawn shortly after its introduction due to the incidence of severe psychiatric side effects associated with its use including depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drugs and sexual desire",
        "text": "There are many types of drugs that unintentionally lower sexual desire through indirect mechanisms. It is one of their side-effects as the outcome of libido suppression is not intended. However, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), being one of them, are indeed often prescribed to people who have immense sexual desire. SSRIs reduce the re-uptake of serotonin back to the neurons, leading to an increase in serotonin level in the body. Due to the fact that serotonin can interfere with other neurotransmitters and hormones, for instance, sex hormones, SSRIs can therefore lower sexual desire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical activity",
        "text": "For people with a severe depressive episode and anxiety disorder, long and short walks proved to be the most effective; for people with substance abuse disorders, bipolar disorder and frequent psychotic decompensation, \"strenuous\" gymnastics and riding proved to be the most effective."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebound effect",
        "text": "Many antidepressants, including SSRIs, can cause rebound depression, panic attacks, anxiety, and insomnia when discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bupropion",
        "text": "Bupropion is less likely than other antidepressants to cause sexual dysfunction. A range of studies indicate that bupropion not only produces fewer sexual side effects than other antidepressants but can actually help to alleviate sexual dysfunction including sexual dysfunction induced by SSRI antidepressants. There have also been small studies suggesting that bupropion or a bupropion/trazodone combination may improve some measures of sexual function in women who have hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD) and are not depressed. According to an expert consensus recommendation from the International Society for the Study of Women's Sexual Health, bupropion can be considered as an off-label treatment for HSDD despite limited safety and efficacy data."
      },
      {
        "title": "David D. Burns",
        "text": "Burns is critical on existing antidepressant medication. In published research and in his blog he contends that most research on antidepressants is plagued by many drug-favoring biases, among them the lack of active placebos in double-blind studies, use of flawed assessment instruments like the HRSD, non-systematic recording of adverse effects, use of \"placebo washout\" periods to exclude placebo responders, selective publication and submission of results, strong economic interests involved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant discontinuation syndrome",
        "text": "People with antidepressant discontinuation syndrome have been on an antidepressant for at least four weeks and have recently stopped taking the medication, whether abruptly, after a fast taper, or each time the medication is reduced on a slow taper. Commonly reported symptoms include flu-like symptoms (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headaches, sweating) and sleep disturbances (insomnia, nightmares, constant sleepiness). Sensory and movement disturbances have also been reported, including imbalance, tremors, vertigo, dizziness, and electric-shock-like experiences in the brain, often described by people who have them as \"brain zaps\". These \"brain zaps\" have been described as an electric shock felt in the skull, potentially triggered by lateral eye movement, and at times accompanied by vertigo, pain, or dissociative symptoms. Some individuals consider it as a pleasant experience akin to an orgasm, however it is more often reported as an unpleasant experience that interferes with daily function. Mood disturbances such as dysphoria, anxiety, or agitation are also reported, as are cognitive disturbances such as confusion and hyperarousal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Treatment of bipolar disorder",
        "text": "Side effects vary greatly among different classes of antidepressants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amphetamine",
        "text": "At normal therapeutic doses, the most common psychological side effects of amphetamine include increased alertness, apprehension, concentration, initiative, self-confidence and sociability, mood swings (elated mood followed by mildly depressed mood), insomnia or wakefulness, and decreased sense of fatigue. Less common side effects include anxiety, change in libido, grandiosity, irritability, repetitive or obsessive behaviors, and restlessness; these effects depend on the user's personality and current mental state. Amphetamine psychosis (e.g., delusions and paranoia) can occur in heavy users. Although very rare, this psychosis can also occur at therapeutic doses during long-term therapy. According to the USFDA, \"there is no systematic evidence\" that stimulants produce aggressive behavior or hostility."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major depressive disorder",
        "text": "In 2014 the US Food and Drug Administration published a systematic review of all antidepressant maintenance trials submitted to the agency between 1985 and 2012. The authors concluded that maintenance treatment reduced the risk of relapse by 52% compared to placebo, and that this effect was primarily due to recurrent depression in the placebo group rather than a drug withdrawal effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amitriptyline",
        "text": "Amitriptyline-associated sexual dysfunction (occurring at a frequency of 6.9%) seems to be mostly confined to males with depression and is expressed predominantly as erectile dysfunction and low libido disorder, with lesser frequency of ejaculatory and orgasmic problems. The rate of sexual dysfunction in males treated for indications other than depression and in females is not significantly different from placebo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Serotonin\u2013norepinephrine\u2013dopamine reuptake inhibitor",
        "text": "Depression has been associated with impaired neurotransmission of serotonergic (5-HT), noradrenergic (NE), and dopaminergic (DA) pathways, although most pharmacologic treatment strategies directly enhance only 5-HT and NE neurotransmission. In some patients with depression, DA-related disturbances improve upon treatment with antidepressants, it is presumed by acting on serotonergic or noradrenergic circuits, which then affect DA function. However, most antidepressant treatments do not \"directly\" enhance DA neurotransmission, which may contribute to residual symptoms, including impaired motivation, concentration, and pleasure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sexual fetishism",
        "text": "Antiandrogens may be prescribed to lower sex drive. Cyproterone acetate is the most commonly used antiandrogen, except in the United States, where it may not be available. A large body of literature has shown that it reduces general sexual fantasies. Side effects may include osteoporosis, liver dysfunction, and feminization. Case studies have found that the antiandrogen medroxyprogesterone acetate is successful in reducing sexual interest, but can have side effects including osteoporosis, diabetes, deep vein thrombosis, feminization, and weight gain. Some hospitals use leuprorelin and goserelin to reduce libido, and while there is presently little evidence for their efficacy, they have fewer side effects than other antiandrogens. A number of studies support the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which may be preferable over antiandrogens because of their relatively benign side effects. Pharmacological agents are an adjunctive treatment which are usually combined with other approaches for maximum effect."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What role does exercise play in aiding with the prevention of cancer?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Research shows that regular physical activity helps to reduce up to 30% the risk of a variety of cancer types, such as colon cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer and endometrium cancer. Exercise may contribute to a reduction of cancer-related fatigue in survivors of breast cancer, though there is currently insufficient evidence regarding the association between physical activity and mortality for survivors of other cancers."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How does exercise affect libido?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A study done in 2013  found that exercising improved sexual arousal problems related to antidepressant use."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Other than arousal problems, what side effects are common with antidepressant use?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Anti-depressants can have various effects depending on the person and the drugs, for example, serotonin toxicity, interactions with other drugs, and drug-induced QT prolongation. Which of these side effects are you interested n learning more about?",
      "Common side-effects of antidepressants include dry mouth, weight gain, dizziness, headaches, and emotional blunting. There are also adverse effects in pregnancy and antidepressant-induced mania, would you like to know more about one of these topics?"
    ],
    "topic": "Exercise",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Antidepressant:28",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Antidepressant",
          "Adverse effects"
        ],
        "ctx": "Antidepressants can cause various adverse effects, depending on the individual and the drug in question."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Antidepressant:29",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Antidepressant",
          "Adverse effects"
        ],
        "ctx": "Almost any medication involved with serotonin regulation has the potential to cause serotonin toxicity (also known as \"serotonin syndrome\") \u2014 an excess of serotonin that can induce mania, restlessness, agitation, emotional lability, insomnia and confusion as its primary symptoms. Although the condition is serious, it is not particularly common, generally only appearing at high doses or while on other medications. Assuming proper medical intervention has been taken (within about 24\u00a0hours) it is rarely fatal. Antidepressants appear to increase the risk of diabetes by about 1.3 fold."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Antidepressant:30",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Antidepressant",
          "Adverse effects"
        ],
        "ctx": "MAOIs tend to have pronounced (sometimes fatal) interactions with a wide variety of medications and over-the-counter drugs. If taken with foods that contain very high levels of tyramine (e.g., mature cheese, cured meats, or yeast extracts), they may cause a potentially lethal hypertensive crisis. At lower doses, the person may only experience a headache due to an increase in blood pressure."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Antidepressant:32",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Antidepressant",
          "Adverse effects"
        ],
        "ctx": "Tricyclics and SSRI can cause the so-called drug-induced QT prolongation, especially in older adults; this condition can degenerate into a specific type of abnormal heart rhythm called torsades de points which can potentially lead to sudden cardiac arrest."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Antidepressant:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Antidepressant"
        ],
        "ctx": "Antidepressants are medications used to treat major depressive disorder, some anxiety disorders, some chronic pain conditions, and to help manage some addictions. Common side-effects of antidepressants include dry mouth, weight gain, dizziness, headaches, sexual dysfunction, and emotional blunting. There is a slight increased risk of suicidal thinking and behavior when taken by children, adolescents, and young adults. A discontinuation syndrome can occur after stopping any antidepressant which resembles recurrent depression."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Antidepressant:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Antidepressant",
          "Adverse effects",
          "Pregnancy"
        ],
        "ctx": "SSRI use in pregnancy has been associated with a variety of risks with varying degrees of proof of causation. As depression is independently associated with negative pregnancy outcomes, determining the extent to which observed associations between antidepressant use and specific adverse outcomes reflects a causative relationship has been difficult in some cases. In other cases, the attribution of adverse outcomes to antidepressant exposure seems fairly clear."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Antidepressant:40",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Antidepressant",
          "Adverse effects",
          "Antidepressant-induced mania"
        ],
        "ctx": "Another possible problem with antidepressants is the chance of antidepressant-induced mania or hypomania in people with or without a diagnosis of bipolar disorder. Many cases of bipolar depression are very similar to those of unipolar depression. Therefore, the person can be misdiagnosed with unipolar depression and be given antidepressants. Studies have shown that antidepressant-induced mania can occur in 20\u201340% of people with bipolar disorder. For bipolar depression, antidepressants (most frequently SSRIs) can exacerbate or trigger symptoms of hypomania and mania."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Escitalopram",
        "text": "Antidepressant exposure (including escitalopram) is associated with shorter duration of pregnancy (by three days), increased risk of preterm delivery (by 55%), lower birth weight (by 75\u00a0g), and lower Apgar scores (by <0.4 points). Antidepressant exposure is not associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion. There is a tentative association of SSRI use during pregnancy with heart problems in the baby. The advantages of their use during pregnancy may thus outweigh the possible negative effects on the baby."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citalopram",
        "text": "Antidepressant exposure (including citalopram) during pregnancy is associated with shorter duration of gestation (by three days), increased risk of preterm delivery (by 55%), lower birth weight (by 75\u00a0g), and lower Apgar scores (by <0.4 points). Antidepressant exposure is not associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion. It is uncertain whether there is an increased prevalence of septal heart defects among children whose mothers were prescribed an SSRI in early pregnancy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paroxetine",
        "text": "Antidepressant exposure (including paroxetine) is associated with shorter duration of pregnancy (by three days), increased risk of preterm delivery (by 55%), lower birth weight (by ), and lower Apgar scores (by <0.4 points). The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommends that for pregnant women and women planning to become pregnant, paroxetine \"be avoided, if possible\", as it may be associated with increased risk of birth defects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "SSRI use in pregnancy has been associated with a variety of risks with varying degrees of proof of causation. As depression is independently associated with negative pregnancy outcomes, determining the extent to which observed associations between antidepressant use and specific adverse outcomes reflects a causative relationship has been difficult in some cases. In other cases, the attribution of adverse outcomes to antidepressant exposure seems fairly clear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vilazodone",
        "text": "Antidepressant exposure (including vilazodone) is associated with shorter average duration of pregnancy (by three days), increased risk of preterm delivery (by 55%), lower birth weight (by 75\u00a0g), and lower Apgar scores (by <0.4 points). It is uncertain whether there is an increased rate of septal heart defects among children whose mothers were prescribed an SSRI in early pregnancy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "A 2013 systematic review and meta-analysis found that antidepressant use during pregnancy was statistically significantly associated with some pregnancy outcomes, such as gestational age and preterm birth, but not with other outcomes. The same review cautioned that because differences between the exposed and unexposed groups were small, it was doubtful whether they were clinically significant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "SSRI use in pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion of about 1.7-fold, and is associated with preterm birth and low birth weight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "One 2013 study found that exercising improved sexual arousal problems related to antidepressant use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cindy Meston",
        "text": "Lorenz, T. K., & Meston, C. M. (2012). Acute exercise improves physical sexual arousal in women taking antidepressants. \"Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 43,\" 352-361."
      },
      {
        "title": "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor",
        "text": "SSRI use in pregnancy has been associated with a variety of risks with varying degrees of proof of causation. As depression is independently associated with negative pregnancy outcomes, determining the extent to which observed associations between antidepressant use and specific adverse outcomes reflects a causative relationship has been difficult in some cases. In other cases, the attribution of adverse outcomes to antidepressant exposure seems fairly clear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Duloxetine",
        "text": "Common side effects include dry mouth, nausea, feeling tired, dizziness, agitation, sexual problems, and increased sweating. Severe side effects include an increased risk of suicide, serotonin syndrome, mania, and liver problems. Antidepressant withdrawal syndrome may occur if stopped. There are concerns that use during the later part of pregnancy can harm the baby. Similarly to SSRIs and other SNRIs, a precise mechanism for duloxetine's antidepressant and anxiolytic effects is not known."
      },
      {
        "title": "Serotonin\u2013norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor",
        "text": "Currently, no antidepressants are FDA approved during pregnancy. All SSRIs and SNRIs are Category C, except paroxetine, which is Category D since it has shown association with congenital heart disorders. Use of antidepressants during pregnancy may result in fetus abnormalities affecting functional development of the brain and behavior. Untreated depression may also affect birth outcomes, so it is recommended to discuss options with a provider to weigh the risks and benefits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fluoxetine",
        "text": "Antidepressant exposure (including fluoxetine) is associated with shorter average duration of pregnancy (by three days), increased risk of preterm delivery (by 55%), lower birth weight (by 75\u00a0g), and lower Apgar scores (by <0.4 points). There is 30\u201336% increase in congenital heart defects among children whose mothers were prescribed fluoxetine during pregnancy, with fluoxetine use in the first trimester associated with 38\u201365% increase in septal heart defects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major depressive episode",
        "text": "Below are listed the main classes of antidepressant medications, some of the most common drugs in each category, and their major side effects:\n* Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (citalopram, escitalopram, paroxetine, fluoxetine, sertraline): major side effects include nausea, diarrhea, and sexual dysfunction such as erectile dysfunction or anorgasmia\n* Serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (duloxetine, venlafaxine, desvenlafaxine): major side effects include nausea, diarrhea, increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, and tremor\n* Tricyclic antidepressants (amitryptiline, desipramine, doxepin, imipramine, nortriptyline): major side effects include sedation, low blood pressure when moving from sitting to standing (orthostatic hypotension), tremor, and heart issues like conduction delays or arrythmias\n* Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (isocarboxazid, phenelzine, selegiline): major side effects include high blood pressure (emergency) if eaten with foods rich in tyramine (e.g. cheeses, some meats, and home-brewed beer), sedation, tremor, and orthostatic hypotension"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cindy Meston",
        "text": "Lorenz, T. K., & Meston, C. M. (2014) Exercise improves sexual function in women taking antidepressants: results from a randomized crossover trial. \"Depression and Anxiety, 31,\" 188-195."
      },
      {
        "title": "Venlafaxine",
        "text": "Common side effects include loss of appetite, constipation, dry mouth, dizziness, sweating, insomnia, priapism and sexual problems. Severe side effects include an increased risk of suicide, mania, and serotonin syndrome. Antidepressant withdrawal syndrome may occur if stopped. There are concerns that use during the later part of pregnancy can harm the baby. How it works is not entirely clear, but it seems to be related to the potentiation of the activity of some neurotransmitters in the brain. Venlafaxine might have alpha and beta blocking properties, depending on the dosage and the CYP2D6 metabolism of each user, resulting in adverse events like bradycardia or priapism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "Changes in appetite or weight are common among antidepressants, but are largely drug-dependent and related to which neurotransmitters they affect. Mirtazapine and paroxetine, for example, may be associated with weight gain and/or increased appetite, while others (such as bupropion and venlafaxine) achieve the opposite effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Postpartum depression",
        "text": "Caution should be exercised when administering antidepressant medications during breastfeeding. Most antidepressants are excreted in breast milk in low quantities which can have adverse effect on babies. Regarding allopregnanolone, very limited data did not indicate a risk for the infant."
      },
      {
        "title": "False pregnancy",
        "text": "Psychiatric disorders, such as anxiety or mood disorders, personality disorders, and schizophrenia are common among women with false pregnancy, and may be linked to its development. Some women with depression may gain weight due to decreased physical activity and poor eating habits. Antipsychotics can induce pregnancy-like symptoms such as amenorrhea, galactorrhea, breast tenderness, and weight gain via raising prolactin levels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "Moreover, SSRIs inhibit nitric oxide synthesis, which plays an important role in setting vascular tone. Several studies have pointed to an increased risk of prematurity associated with SSRI use, and this association may be due to an increase risk of pre-eclampsia of pregnancy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sex and drugs",
        "text": "Psychiatrists and doctors commonly prescribe different types of antidepressants to patients. SSRIs, SNRIs, and NDRIs are the most common types of antidepressants. Each has slightly different effects on sexual functioning, but generally, it has been found that antidepressants can delay/decrease orgasms and cause females to have breast enlargement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pre-existing disease in pregnancy",
        "text": "The effects of depression during pregnancy are difficult to parse from depression before pregnancy as the symptoms of the two overlap. However, the biggest risk factor of depression during pregnancy is a prior history of depression. Most of the research is focused on the consequences of untreated depression regardless if the depression developed during pregnancy or if it was there before conception. Untreated depression has been linked to premature birth, low birth weight, fetal growth restriction, and postnatal complications. On the other hand however, anti-depressant medications also come with a small risk of pre-term birth, low birth weight, and persistent pulmonary hypertension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vilazodone",
        "text": "Incidence of adverse effects include:\n;Very common adverse effects (incidence >10%):\n* Nausea\n* Diarrhea\n* Headache\n;Common adverse effects (1\u201310% incidence)\n* Vomiting\n* Dry mouth\n* Dizziness\n* Insomnia\n;Uncommon adverse effects (0.1\u20131% incidence):\n* Somnolence\n* Paraesthesia\n* Tremor\n* Abnormal dreams\n* Libido decreased\n* Restlessness\n* Akathisia\n* Restless legs syndrome\n* Abnormal orgasms (men only)\n* Delayed ejaculations (men only)\n* Erectile dysfunction (men only)\n* Fatigue\n* Feeling jittery\n* Palpitations\n* Ventricular premature contractions\n* Arthralgia\n* Increased appetite\n;Rare adverse effects (<0.1% incidence):\n* Serotonin syndrome\u2014a serious adverse effect characterised by:\n**Nausea\n**Vomiting\n**Mental status change (e.g. confusion, hallucinations, agitation, coma, stupor)\n**Muscle rigidity\n**Tremor\n**Myoclonus\n**Hyperreflexia\u2014overresponsive/overactive reflexes\n**Hyperthermia\u2014elevated body temperature\n**Autonomic instability (e.g. tachycardia, dizziness, abnormally excessive sweating, etc.)\n* Mania/hypomania\u2014a potentially dangerously elated/agitated mood. Every antidepressant has the potential to induce these psychiatric reactions. They are particularly problematic in those with a history of hypomania/mania such as those with bipolar disorder.\n;Unknown-incidence adverse effects:\n* Suicidal ideation\u2014all antidepressants can cause suicidal ideation especially in young adults and adolescents under the age of 25.\n* Abnormal bleeding\u2014the SSRIs are known for their ability to increase the incidence of gastrointestinal bleeds and other bleeding abnormalities.\n* Seizures\n* Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH)\u2014a condition characterised by an abnormally excessive secretion of antidiuretic hormone causing potentially-fatal electrolyte abnormalities (such as hyponatraemia).\n* Hyponatraemia (a complication of the former)\u2014low blood sodium."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "A neonate (infant less than 28\u00a0days old) may experience a withdrawal syndrome from abrupt discontinuation of the antidepressant at birth. Antidepressants have been shown to be present in varying amounts in breast milk, but their effects on infants are currently unknown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miscarriage",
        "text": "There is no significant association between antidepressant medication exposure and spontaneous abortion. The risk of miscarriage is not likely decreased by discontinuing SSRIs prior to pregnancy. Some available data suggest that there is a small increased risk of miscarriage for women taking any antidepressant, though this risk becomes less statistically significant when excluding studies of poor quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "Antidepressants are medications used to treat major depressive disorder, some anxiety disorders, some chronic pain conditions, and to help manage some addictions. Common side-effects of antidepressants include dry mouth, weight gain, dizziness, headaches, sexual dysfunction, and emotional blunting. There is a slight increased risk of suicidal thinking and behavior when taken by children, adolescents, and young adults. A discontinuation syndrome can occur after stopping any antidepressant which resembles recurrent depression."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pharmacology of antidepressants",
        "text": "The delayed onset of clinical effects from antidepressants indicates involvement of adaptive changes in antidepressant effects. Rodent studies have consistently shown upregulation of the 3, 5-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) system induced by different types of chronic but not acute antidepressant treatment, including serotonin and norepinephrine uptake inhibitors, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants, lithium and electroconvulsions. cAMP is synthesized from adenosine 5-triphosphate (ATP) by adenylyl cyclase and metabolized by cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ethosuximide",
        "text": "As with other anticonvulsants, ethosuximide carries a warning about use during pregnancy. Although a causal relationship with birth defects has not be established, the potential for harm to the baby is weighed against the known harm caused by a mother having even minor seizures.\n* drowsiness\n* mental confusion\n* insomnia\n* headache\n* ataxia\n* paranoid psychosis\n* increased libido\n* exacerbation of depression\n* dyspepsia\n* vomiting\n* nausea\n* cramps\n* constipation\n* diarrhea\n* stomach pain\n* loss of appetite\n* weight loss\n* gum enlargement\n* swelling of tongue\n* abnormal liver function\n* microscopic hematuria\n* vaginal bleeding"
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant discontinuation syndrome",
        "text": "Antidepressants, including SSRIs, can cross the placenta and have the potential to affect the fetus and newborn, including an increased chance of miscarriage, presenting a dilemma for pregnant women to decide whether to continue to take antidepressants at all, or if they do, considering if tapering and discontinuing during pregnancy could have a protective effect for the newborn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "Antidepressants can cause various adverse effects, depending on the individual and the drug in question."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drugs and sexual desire",
        "text": "Common adverse effects elicited by these drugs include hot flushes, bone loss, headache, unpredictable mood changes, depression, vaginal dryness, or even atrophy for females and penile atrophy for males. These adverse effects can be counteracted and treated by add-back therapy, also known as hormone replacement therapy. People treated with GnRH agonists are suggested to undergo this therapy simultaneously by taking adequate progestin, vitamin D, and calcium supplement pills daily."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antenatal depression",
        "text": "Depression during pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion. In a review by Frazier et al., acute and chronic stress during pregnancy can diminish proper immunological activity crucial during pregnancy, and can possibly induce spontaneous abortion. There is still a debate on whether the miscarriage is due to the depressive disease state or the anti-depressant medication. A large study conducted in Denmark observed that there was a higher incidence of first trimester miscarriage in depressed women not exposed to SSRI compared to non-depressed women exposed to SSRI, indicating that the miscarriage may be associated with the psychological state of the mother rather than the anti-depressant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anaphrodisiac",
        "text": "Side effects of certain antidepressant medications commonly include those taking anaphrodisiac form (there is even a term for the phenomenon among one particularly notorious group\u2014 SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction); however, psychotropic drugs are not currently prescribed for reliable anaphroditic effects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tricyclic antidepressant",
        "text": "Many side effects may be related to the antimuscarinic properties of the TCAs. Such side effects are relatively common and may include dry mouth, dry nose, blurry vision, lowered gastrointestinal motility or constipation, urinary retention, cognitive and/or memory impairment, and increased body temperature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Unintended pregnancy",
        "text": "Women with an unintended pregnancy are more likely to suffer depression during or after pregnancy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sex and drugs",
        "text": "The side effects on sexual functioning can impact mental health and quality of life. However, the decrease in depressive symptoms from antidepressants make it worth the sexual side effects for many people. They can be managed by changing the dose, switching drugs, or taking \u201cantidotes\u201d. Maca, a plant that grows in central Peru, aids with sexual dysfunction caused by antidepressant drugs for women. There are specific Maca products that can also increase sexual desire in men."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antenatal depression",
        "text": "Studies suggest that forms of exercise can help with depressive symptoms both before and after birth, but not prevent it entirely."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diabetes insipidus",
        "text": "Central DI and gestational DI respond to desmopressin which is given as intranasal or oral tablets. Carbamazepine, an anticonvulsive medication, has also had some success in this type of DI. Also, gestational DI tends to abate on its own four to six weeks following labor, though some women may develop it again in subsequent pregnancies. In dipsogenic DI, desmopressin is not usually an option."
      },
      {
        "title": "Duloxetine",
        "text": "In a trial for major depressive disorder (MDD), the most commonly reported treatment-emergent adverse events among duloxetine-treated patients were nausea (34.7%), dry mouth (22.7%), headache (20.0%) and dizziness (18.7%), and except for headache, these were reported significantly more often than in the placebo group. In a long-term study of fibromyalgia patients receiving duloxetine, frequency and type of adverse effects was similar to that reported in the MDD trial above. Side effects tended to be mild-to-moderate, and tended to decrease in intensity over time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paroxetine",
        "text": "Common side effects include drowsiness, dry mouth, loss of appetite, sweating, trouble sleeping, and sexual dysfunction. Serious side effects may include suicide in those under the age of 25, serotonin syndrome, and mania. While the rate of side effects appears similar compared to other SSRIs and SNRIs, antidepressant discontinuation syndromes may occur more often. Use in pregnancy is not recommended while use during breastfeeding is relatively safe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter Breggin",
        "text": "61. Breggin, Peter and Breggin, Ginger Ross. \u201cExposure to SSRI antidepressants in utero causes birth defects, neonatal withdrawal symptoms and brain damage.\u201d Ethical Human Psychology and Psychiatry, 10, 5-9, 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Epidemiology of depression",
        "text": "association between hormonal contraception and depression."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "It is unknown if undergoing psychological therapy at the same time as taking anti-depressants enhances the anti-depressive effect of the medication."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jeannette Ickovics",
        "text": "10. \u00a0 Felder JN, Epel E, Lewis JB, et al. Depressive symptoms and gestational length among pregnant adolescents: Cluster randomized control trial of CenteringPregnancy\u00ae Plus group prenatal care. \"Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.\" 2017;85(6):574-584."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mirtazapine",
        "text": "A 2011 Cochrane review found that compared with other antidepressants, it is more likely to cause weight gain and sleepiness, but it is less likely to cause tremor than tricyclic antidepressants, and less likely to cause nausea and sexual dysfunction than SSRIs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "Sexual side effects are also common with SSRIs, such as loss of sexual drive, failure to reach orgasm, and erectile dysfunction. Although usually reversible, these sexual side-effects can, in rare cases, continue after the drug has been completely withdrawn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "A 2017 meta-analysis found that antidepressants were associated with significantly increased risk of death (+33%) and new cardiovascular complications (+14%) in the general population. Conversely, risks were not greater in people with existing cardiovascular disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Promazine",
        "text": "Common side effects include agitation, absent menstruation, arrhythmias, constipation, drowsiness and dizziness, dry mouth, problems with erection, tiredness, milky nipple discharge, large breasts, high sugars, difficulty sleeping, low blood pressure, prolonged QT, fits, shaking, vomiting and weight gain, among others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paroxetine",
        "text": "Common side effects include drowsiness, dry mouth, loss of appetite, sweating, trouble sleeping, and sexual dysfunction. Serious side effects may include suicidal thoughts in those under the age of 25, serotonin syndrome, and mania. While the rate of side effects appears similar compared to other SSRIs and SNRIs, antidepressant discontinuation syndromes may occur more often. Use in pregnancy is not recommended, while use during breastfeeding is relatively safe. It is believed to work by blocking the re-uptake of the chemical serotonin by neurons in the brain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pharmacology of antidepressants",
        "text": "One manifestation of depression is an altered hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis) that resembles the neuro-endocrine (cortisol) response to stress, that of increased cortisol production and a subsequent impaired negative feedback mechanism. It is not known whether this HPA axis dysregulation is reactive or causative for depression. This briefing suggests that the mode of action of antidepressants may be in regulating HPA axis function."
      },
      {
        "title": "Selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor",
        "text": "An increase in heart rate and blood pressure have been reported but are usually not clinically important. Sexual adverse effects are mostly related to male arousal difficulties and decreased libido in both men and women, but they are significantly less common than with serotonergic drugs. Other side effects are urinary retention, constipation, sweating and insomnia. What can be considered serious side effects are thoughts of suicide, aggressiveness and hallucinations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "Antidepressant\n--Medical uses.\n----Major depressive disorder.\n----Anxiety disorders.\n------Generalized anxiety disorder.\n------Social anxiety disorder.\n------Obsessive\u2013compulsive disorder.\n------Post traumatic stress disorder.\n------Panic disorder.\n----Eating disorders.\n----Pain.\n------Fibromyalgia.\n------Neuropathic pain.\n----Other.\n----Limitations and strategies.\n----Switching antidepressants.\n----Augmentation and combination.\n----Long-term use and stopping.\n--Adverse effects.\n----Pregnancy.\n----Antidepressant-induced mania.\n----Suicide.\n----Sexual dysfunction.\n----Emotional blunting.\n----Changes in weight.\n----Risk of death.\n----Discontinuation syndrome.\n--Pharmacology.\n--Types.\n----Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.\n----Serotonin\u2013norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors.\n----Serotonin modulators and stimulators.\n----Serotonin antagonists and reuptake inhibitors.\n----Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors.\n----Norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitors.\n----Tricyclic antidepressants.\n----Tetracyclic antidepressants.\n----Monoamine oxidase inhibitors.\n----NMDA receptor antagonists.\n----Others.\n--Adjuncts.\n----Less common adjuncts.\n--History.\n----Isoniazid, iproniazid, and imipramine.\n----Second generation antidepressants.\n----Rapid-acting antidepressants.\n------Research.\n--Society and culture.\n----Prescription trends.\n----Adherence.\n----Social science perspective.\n----Environmental impacts.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Helen Fisher (anthropologist)",
        "text": "Fisher also maintains that taking certain antidepressants can potentially dampen feelings of romantic love and attachment (as well as sex drive)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antenatal depression",
        "text": "An interesting and informative area of research has been done to see the role of confounding variables in relationship of maternal prenatal depression with infant health concerns. Age of mother, romantic partner, education, household income, immigrant status, and number of other children, breastfeeding, gestational age, birth weight are some of the mediating or moderating factors which are found correlated with infant health concerns. The studies of post-partum depressive symptoms are relatively more than those of prenatal depression and the studies should look into the role of various factors during pregnancy that may impact the health of infants, even continuing into adulthood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "Biochemical mechanisms suggested as causative include increased serotonin, particularly affecting 5-HT2 and 5-HT3 receptors; decreased dopamine; decreased norepinephrine; blockade of cholinergic and \u03b11adrenergic receptors; inhibition of nitric oxide synthetase; and elevation of prolactin levels. Mirtazapine is reported to have fewer sexual side effects, most likely because it antagonizes 5-HT2 and 5-HT3 receptors and may, in some cases, reverse sexual dysfunction induced by SSRIs by the same mechanism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor",
        "text": "A systematic review of the risk of major birth defects in antidepressant-exposed pregnancies found a small increase (3% to 24%) in the risk of major malformations and a risk of cardiovascular birth defects that did not differ from non-exposed pregnancies. Other studies have found an increased risk of cardiovascular birth defects among depressed mothers not undergoing SSRI treatment, suggesting the possibility of ascertainment bias, e.g. that worried mothers may pursue more aggressive testing of their infants. Another study found no increase in cardiovascular birth defects and a 27% increased risk of major malformations in SSRI exposed pregnancies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prolactin",
        "text": "Physiological\n* Coitus\n* Exercise\n* Lactation\n* Pregnancy\n* Sleep\n* Stress\n* Depression"
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "In a study of 1022 outpatients, overall sexual dysfunction with all antidepressants averaged 59.1% with SSRI values between 57% and 73%, mirtazapine 24%, nefazodone 8%, amineptine 7% and moclobemide 4%. Moclobemide, a selective reversible MAO-A inhibitor, does not cause sexual dysfunction, and can actually lead to an improvement in all aspects of sexual function."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antenatal depression",
        "text": "Antenatal depression can be caused by many factors. Often it is associated with the fear and stress of the pregnancy. Other factors include unintended pregnancy, hyperemesis gravidarum, financial issues, living arrangements and relationships with the father and family. Typically, depression symptoms associated with pregnancy are categorized as postnatal depression, due to the onset of symptoms occurring after childbirth has occurred. The following is a breakdown of when a group of various women began to feel the onset of symptoms associated with depression:\n*11.8 percent at 18 weeks\n* 13.5 percent at 32 weeks\n* 9.1 percent 8 weeks after the birth\n* 8.1 percent 8 months after the birth"
      },
      {
        "title": "Serotonin\u2013norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor",
        "text": "Antidepressants affect variable neuronal receptors like muscarinic-cholinergic, \u03b11- and \u03b12-adrenergic, and H1-histaminergic receptors, and sodium channels in the cardiac muscle, leading to decreased cardiac conduction and cardiotoxicity {source needed}. Selectivity of antidepressant agents are based on the neurotransmitters that are thought to influence symptoms of depression."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rs7997012",
        "text": "A research study found it to be related to antidepressant treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antiestrogen",
        "text": "Side effects of antiestrogens include hot flashes, osteoporosis, breast atrophy, vaginal dryness, and vaginal atrophy. In addition, they may cause depression and reduced libido."
      },
      {
        "title": "David D. Burns",
        "text": "Burns is critical on existing antidepressant medication. In published research and in his blog he contends that most research on antidepressants is plagued by many drug-favoring biases, among them the lack of active placebos in double-blind studies, use of flawed assessment instruments like the HRSD, non-systematic recording of adverse effects, use of \"placebo washout\" periods to exclude placebo responders, selective publication and submission of results, strong economic interests involved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ross J. Baldessarini",
        "text": "Schalkwijk S, Undurraga J, Tondo L, Baldessarini RJ. Declining efficacy in controlled trials of antidepressants: effects of placebo dropout. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 2014;17(8):1343-1352."
      },
      {
        "title": "Treatment of bipolar disorder",
        "text": "Exercise has also been shown to have antidepressant effects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Twin study",
        "text": "Take for instance the case of an observed link between depression and exercise (See Figure above on right). People who are depressed also reporting doing little physical activity. One might \"hypothesise\" that this is a causal link: that \"dosing\" patients with exercise would raise their mood and protect against depression. The next figure shows what empirical tests of this hypothesis have found: a null result."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "A systematic review of the risk of major birth defects in antidepressant-exposed pregnancies found a small increase (3% to 24%) in the risk of major malformations and a risk of cardiovascular birth defects that did not differ from non-exposed pregnancies. A study of fluoxetine-exposed pregnancies found a 12% increase in the risk of major malformations that did not reach statistical significance. Other studies have found an increased risk of cardiovascular birth defects among depressed mothers not undergoing SSRI treatment, suggesting the possibility of ascertainment bias, e.g. that worried mothers may pursue more aggressive testing of their infants. Another study found no increase in cardiovascular birth defects and a 27% increased risk of major malformations in SSRI exposed pregnancies. The FDA advises for the risk of birth defects with the use of paroxetine and the MAOI should be avoided."
      },
      {
        "title": "Postpartum depression",
        "text": "Evidence suggests that hormonal changes may play a role. Understanding the neuroendocrinology characteristic of PPD has proven to be particularly challenging given the erratic changes to the brain and biological systems during pregnancy and postpartum. A review of exploratory studies in PPD have observed that women with PPD, have more dramatic changes in HPA axis activity, however directionality of specific hormone increases or decreases remain mixed. Hormones which have been studied include estrogen, progesterone, thyroid hormone, testosterone, corticotropin releasing hormone, endorphins, and cortisol. Estrogen and progesterone levels drop back to pre-pregnancy levels within 24 hours of giving birth, and that sudden change may cause it. Aberrant steroid hormone\u2013dependent regulation of neuronal calcium influx via extracellular matrix proteins and membrane receptors involved in responding to the cell\u2019s microenvironment might be important in conferring biological risk. The use of synthetic oxytocin, a birth-inducing drug, has been linked to increased rates of postpartum depression and anxiety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antenatal depression",
        "text": "When discussing medication options for antenatal depression, it is important to ask the prescribing healthcare provider to share more details about all the risks and benefits of the available medications. During pregnancy, there are two main kinds of antidepressants used during pregnancy; tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Once prescribed, anti-depressant medication has been found to be extremely effective in treating antenatal depression. Patients can expect to feel an improvement in mood in roughly 2 to 3 weeks on average, and can begin to feel themselves truly connect with their baby. Reported benefits of medication include returned appetite, increased mood, increased energy, and better concentration. Side effects are minor, though they are reported in some cases. Currently, no abnormalities of the baby have been associated with the use of antidepressants during pregnancy. It may be true that maternal SSRI use during pregnancy can lead to difficulty for their newborn adjusting to conditions outside of the womb immediately following birth. Some studies indicate that infants with exposure to SSRIs in the second and third trimester were more likely to be admitted to intensive care following their birth for respiratory, cardiac, low weight and other reasons, and that infants with prenatal SSRI exposure exhibited less motor control upon delivery than infants who were not exposed to SSRIs. Newborns who were exposed to SSRIs for five months or more prior to birth were at a greater risk for lower Apgar scores 1 and 5 minutes after delivery, indicating they were of lesser health than newborns who were not exposed to SSRIs before birth. However, prenatal SSRI exposure was not found to have a significant impact the long-term mental and physical health of the children. These results are not independent of any effects of prenatal depression on infants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lori L. Altshuler",
        "text": "She has also devoted her career to focusing on how these disorders are best managed among women in different phases of their life. In particular, she has studied non-depressed women (who have previously had at least one episode of unipolar depression), following them during pregnancy and the post-partum period. Her work found that women who discontinued antidepressant medication relapsed significantly more frequently (68%) over the course of their pregnancy compared with women who maintained their medication (26%). This study dispelled the myth that pregnancy was protective against depression and, more importantly, provided an evidence-based foundation for women and their physicians to weigh the risks and benefits of continuing versus discontinuing antidepressant medications during pregnancy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Management of depression",
        "text": "Aside from effects in the brain, the general physical risks of ECT are similar to those of brief general anesthesia. Immediately following treatment, the most common adverse effects are confusion and memory loss. ECT is considered one of the least harmful treatment options available for severely depressed pregnant women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trimipramine",
        "text": "Heavy exposure to any tricyclic antidepressants was associated with an elevated rate ratio for breast cancer 11\u201315 years later. However, on tests done on Drosophila melanogaster, nongenotoxic TCAs (amitriptyline, maprotiline, nortriptyline, and protriptyline), and genotoxic TCAs (amoxapine, clomipramine, desipramine, doxepin, imipramine, and trimipramine) were identified."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biology of depression",
        "text": "Blood levels of BDNF in people with MDD increase significantly with antidepressant treatment and correlate with decrease in symptoms. Post mortem studies and rat models demonstrate decreased neuronal density in the prefrontal cortex thickness in people with MDD. Rat models demonstrate histological changes consistent with MRI findings in humans, however studies on neurogenesis in humans are limited. Antidepressants appear to reverse the changes in neurogenesis in both animal models and humans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor",
        "text": "SSRI use in pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion of about 1.7-fold. Use is also associated with preterm birth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geniposide",
        "text": "Studies on depressive rats (induced by chronic unpredictable mild stress) have shown that the antidepressant effect of geniposide is similar to fluoxetine. This effect could be mediated by geniposide's effects on the hypothalamus\u2013pituitary\u2013adrenal (HPA) axis, whose dysfunction has been associated with the pathogenesis of depression. In a depressive state the serum levels of adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol are increased, as well as hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone gene expression. The dysfunction of the HPA axis plays an important rule in the serotonergic system. When HPA axis shows high levels of activity, this leads to an hyper secretion of cortisol and corticotropin-releasing hormone, in the opposite case the serotonergic system suffers a downregulation and decreases its activity. Low serotonergic system activity results in hyporesponsivity of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) in the hippocampus.\","
      },
      {
        "title": "Pharmacology of antidepressants",
        "text": "The neurogenic hypothesis states that molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the regulation of adult neurogenesis is required for remission from depression and that neurogenesis is mediated by the action of antidepressants. Chronic use of antidepressant increased neurogenesis in the hippocampus of rats. Other animal research suggests that long term drug-induced antidepressants effects modulate the expression of genes mediated by clock genes, possibly by regulating the expression of a second set of genes (i.e. clock-controlled genes)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Obesogen",
        "text": "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) (e.g. paroxetine), tricyclic antidepressants (e.g. amitriptyline), tetracyclic antidepressants (e.g. mirtazapine) and atypical antipsychotics (e.g. clozapine) are all neuropharmaceuticals that target neurotransmitter receptors that are involved with brain circuits that regulate behavior. Often the function of these receptors overlaps with metabolism regulation, such as that of the H1 receptor which when activated decreases AMPK activity. As a result, the administration of these drugs can have side effects including increased lipid accumulation that can result in obesity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prenatal development",
        "text": "Similar to stress, Reilly stated that in recent studies, researchers have found that pregnant women who show depressive symptoms are not as attached and bonded to their child while it is in the womb (2017)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "For a partial response, the American Psychiatric Association guidelines suggest augmentation, or adding a drug from a different class. These include lithium and thyroid augmentation, dopamine agonists, sex steroids, NRIs, glucocorticoid-specific agents, or the newer anticonvulsants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea",
        "text": "Exercise alone is known to hyperactivate the HPA axis, but the fact that LH pulsatility is altered in amenorrheic female athletes indicates the role of negative energy balance, rather than exercise intensity per se, in menstrual irregularities. When energy balance is maintained, exercise alone has not been indicated as a factor which leads to menstrual dysfunction; however, disturbances are common in weight-stable exercising women without extreme caloric deficiency who experience negative energy balance due to high energy expenditure. This negative energy balance, in turn, causes both a state of hypometabolism as well as hormonal and metabolic alterations. Genetic predisposition, psychological stress, and hypoleptinemia caused by low FFM may in some cases some combine with the negative energy state to inhibit the hypothalamic generation of GnRH pulses required for regular menstrual cycling, thereby causing hypoestrogenism. Additionally, in athletes with exercise-induced FHA, there have been specific associations between hypercortisolism and decreased LH pulsatility. In endurance athletes with varying menstrual status, the number of menses in the past 12 months has been found to be negatively associated with diurnal cortisol secretion. It is also possible that factors such as exercise intensity and duration as well as athletic discipline have differing effects on GnRH pulsatility; this may be especially relevant for women participating in sports that emphasize strength over leanness. However, excessive exercise can cause FHA in normal weight patients who present no abnormal metabolic or gonadotropic laboratory results. In these cases, combined hormonal contraceptive pills will not address the primary cause of menstrual cessation: inhibition of the HPO axis due to excessive exercise. Thus, behavioral modifications should be pursued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "The antihistaminic properties of certain TCA- and TeCA-class antidepressants have been shown to contribute to the common side effects of increased appetite and weight gain associated with these classes of medication."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thalidomide",
        "text": "Common side effects include sleepiness, rash, and dizziness. Severe side effects include tumor lysis syndrome, blood clots, and peripheral neuropathy. Use in pregnancy may harm the fetus, including resulting in malformation of the limbs. In males who are taking the medication, contraception is essential if a partner could become pregnant. It is an immunomodulatory medication and works by a number of mechanisms, including stimulating T cells and decreasing TNF-\u03b1 production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tricyclic antidepressant",
        "text": "Tolerance to these adverse effects of these drugs often develops if treatment is continued. Side effects may also be less troublesome if treatment is initiated with low doses and then gradually increased, although this may also delay the beneficial effects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maprotiline",
        "text": "Increased drug actions:\n* Other antidepressants, barbiturates, narcotics, sedating antihistamines, anticonvulsive drugs, alcohol - resulting in increased central depression\n* Anticholinergics (antiparkinsonian agents, TCAs and TeCAs) - resulting in increased anticholinergic action (dry mouth, constipation etc.)\n* Sympathomimetics (also those used in local anesthetics like noradrenaline) : sympathomimetic effects increased (increased blood pressure, pulse rate, paleness of skin etc.)\n* Nitrates and antihypertensives (e.g. beta-blockers) - increased antihypertensive action with pronounced fall in blood pressure"
      },
      {
        "title": "TLQP-62",
        "text": "Intrahippocampal TLQP-62 infusion produces both rapid and sustained antidepressant-like effects in the forced swim test. TLQP-62's processed peptide AQEE-30, when given via intracerebroventricular route, also elicits antidepressant-like effects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Loperamide",
        "text": "Common side effects include abdominal pain, constipation, sleepiness, vomiting, and a dry mouth. It may increase the risk of toxic megacolon. Loperamide's safety in pregnancy is unclear, but no evidence of harm has been found. It appears to be safe in breastfeeding. It is an opioid with no significant absorption from the gut and does not cross the blood\u2013brain barrier when used at normal doses. It works by slowing the contractions of the intestines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Desmopressin",
        "text": "Common side effects include headaches, diarrhea, and low blood sodium. The low blood sodium that results may cause seizures. It should not be used in people with significant kidney problems or low blood sodium. It appears to be safe to use during pregnancy. It is a synthetic analogue of vasopressin, the hormone that plays roles in the control of the body\u2019s osmotic balance, blood pressure regulation, kidney function, and reduction of urine production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major depressive disorder",
        "text": "HPA-axis abnormalities have been suggested in depression given the association of CRHR1 with depression and the increased frequency of dexamethasone test non-suppression in people who are depressed. However, this abnormality is not adequate as a diagnosis tool, because its sensitivity is only 44%. These stress-related abnormalities are thought to be the cause of hippocampal volume reductions seen in people who are depressed. Furthermore, a meta-analysis yielded decreased dexamethasone suppression, and increased response to psychological stressors. Further abnormal results have been obscured with the cortisol awakening response, with increased response being associated with depression."
      },
      {
        "title": "Obstetric medicine",
        "text": "A common ailment of pregnant women is postpartum depression. Depression can cause pregnant women to have poor nutrition or inadequate strength to nurture herself and her baby. The result of this can be problems in development and health of the fetus. The use of medicine to treat postpartum depression is a subject for debate, since some research indicates that the use of antidepressants during pregnancy can lead to physical malformations and long-term health problems of the baby Other forms of treatment include support groups and psychotherapy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arousal",
        "text": "Altered experiences of arousal are associated with both anxiety and depression."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gordon G. Gallup",
        "text": "Since the 1990s, Gallup has researched human evolutionary psychology exclusively. Gallup's article entitled \"Does Semen Have Antidepressant Properties?\" attracted the attention of the media when it was published in 2002. Gallup commented, \"I want to make it clear that we are not advocating that people abstain from using condoms. Clearly, an unwanted pregnancy or a sexually transmitted disease would more than offset any advantageous psychological effects of semen.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Depressogen",
        "text": "Examples of drugs commonly associated with depressogenic effects include ethanol, some anticonvulsants such as the barbiturates (e.g. phenobarbital), benzodiazepines (e.g. diazepam), vigabatrin, and topiramate, corticosteroids like dexamethasone and prednisone, cytokines like interferon-\u03b1 and interleukin-2, certain antihypertensives such as amiodarone, clonidine, methyldopa, reserpine, and tetrabenazine (used as an antipsychotic/antihyperkinetic), and agents with antiandrogen, antiestrogen, and/or anti-neurosteroid activities such as GnRH agonists (e.g., leuprorelin, goserelin), anastrozole (an aromatase inhibitor), finasteride (a 5\u03b1-reductase inhibitor), and clomiphene (a SERM), as well as others including flunarizine, mefloquine, and efavirenz. Another notable agent is rimonabant, a cannabinoid receptor antagonist marketed as an anti-obesity agent which was withdrawn shortly after its introduction due to the incidence of severe psychiatric side effects associated with its use including depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apremilast",
        "text": "Common, usually mild to moderate adverse effects associated with apremilast include headache, back pain, nausea, diarrhoea, fatigue, nasopharyngitis, and upper respiratory tract infections."
      },
      {
        "title": "Duloxetine",
        "text": "In four clinical trials of duloxetine for the treatment of MDD, sexual dysfunction occurred significantly more frequently in patients treated with duloxetine than those treated with placebo, and this difference occurred only in men. Specifically, common side effects include difficulty becoming aroused, lack of interest in sex, and anorgasmia (trouble achieving orgasm). Loss of or decreased response to sexual stimuli and ejaculatory anhedonia are also reported. Frequency of treatment-emergent sexual dysfunction were similar for duloxetine and SSRIs when compared in a 6-month observational study in depressed patients. Rates of sexual dysfunction in MDD patients treated with duloxetine vs escitalopram did not differ significantly at 4, 8, and 12 weeks of treatment, although the trend favored duloxetine (33.3% of duloxetine patients experienced sexual side effects compared to 43.6% of those receiving escitalopram and 25% of those receiving placebo)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adverse effect",
        "text": "The Medication Appropriateness Tool for Comorbid Health Conditions in Dementia (MATCH-D) warns that people with dementia are more likely to experience adverse effects, and that they are less likely to be able to reliably report symptoms.\n* Abortion, miscarriage or uterine hemorrhage associated with misoprostol (Cytotec), a labor-inducing drug (this is a case where the adverse effect has been used legally and illegally for performing abortions)\n* Addiction to many sedatives and analgesics, such as diazepam, morphine, etc.\n* Birth defects associated with thalidomide\n* Bleeding of the intestine associated with aspirin therapy\n* Cardiovascular disease associated with COX-2 inhibitors (i.e. Vioxx)\n* Deafness and kidney failure associated with gentamicin (an antibiotic)\n* Death, following sedation, in children using propofol (Diprivan)\n* Depression or hepatic injury caused by interferon\n* Diabetes caused by atypical antipsychotic medications (neuroleptic psychiatric drugs)\n* Diarrhea caused by the use of orlistat (Xenical)\n* Erectile dysfunction associated with many drugs, such as antidepressants\n* Fever associated with vaccination\n* Glaucoma associated with corticosteroid-based eye drops\n* Hair loss and anemia may be caused by chemotherapy against cancer, leukemia, etc.\n* Headache following spinal anaesthesia\n* Hypertension in ephedrine users, which prompted FDA to remove the dietary supplement status of ephedra extracts\n* Insomnia caused by stimulants, methylphenidate (Ritalin), Adderall, etc.\n* Lactic acidosis associated with the use of stavudine (Zerit, for HIV therapy) or metformin (for diabetes)\n* Mania caused by corticosteroids\n* Liver damage from paracetamol\n* Melasma and thrombosis associated with use of estrogen-containing hormonal contraception, such as the combined oral contraceptive pill\n* Priapism associated with the use of sildenafil\n* Rhabdomyolysis associated with statins (anticholesterol drugs)\n* Seizures caused by withdrawal from benzodiazepines\n* Drowsiness or increase in appetite due to antihistamine use. Some antihistamines are used in sleep aids explicitly because they cause drowsiness.\n* Stroke or heart attack associated with sildenafil (Viagra), when used with nitroglycerin\n* Suicide, increased tendency associated to the use of fluoxetine and other selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressants\n* Tardive dyskinesia associated with use of metoclopramide and many antipsychotic medications"
      },
      {
        "title": "Persistent genital arousal disorder",
        "text": "Women with PGAD report having unstable mental health with thoughts of suicide and difficulty completing daily activities. Before the start of their PGAD, many women were seen to have higher stress scores as well as symptoms of depression and anxiety. Panic attacks (31.6%) and major depression (57.9%) were reported commonalities between patients occurring at least one year prior to the onset of PGAD symptoms. Up to 45% of women with the disorder have reported having a history with antidepressants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mirtazapine",
        "text": "Common side effects include sleepiness, dizziness, increased appetite and weight gain. Serious side effects may include mania, low white blood cell count, and increased suicide among children. Withdrawal symptoms may occur with stopping. It is not recommended together with an MAO inhibitor, although evidence supporting the danger of this combination has been refuted. It is unclear if use during pregnancy is safe. How it works is not clear, but it may involve blocking certain adrenergic and serotonin receptors. Chemically, it is a tetracyclic antidepressant (TeCA), and is closely related to mianserin. It also has strong antihistaminergic effects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Infertility in polycystic ovary syndrome",
        "text": "For overweight women with PCOS who are anovulatory, diet adjustments and weight loss are associated with resumption of spontaneous ovulation. Preliminary evidence suggests that exercise may improve menstrual regularity, pregnancy and ovulation rates, but more research is needed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jane Norman (professor)",
        "text": "Her research focusses on the pregnancy \u201cstressors\u201d of obesity, maternal depression/stress, inflammation and hypoxia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antenatal depression",
        "text": "Studies suggest that obese woman tend to suffer more frequently from mental health issues and should discuss any symptoms with their doctor at the first prenatal appointment."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What role does exercise play in aiding with the prevention of cancer?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Research shows that regular physical activity helps to reduce up to 30% the risk of a variety of cancer types, such as colon cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer and endometrium cancer. Exercise may contribute to a reduction of cancer-related fatigue in survivors of breast cancer, though there is currently insufficient evidence regarding the association between physical activity and mortality for survivors of other cancers."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How does exercise affect libido?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A study done in 2013  found that exercising improved sexual arousal problems related to antidepressant use."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Other than arousal problems, what side effects are common with antidepressant use?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Common side-effects of antidepressants include dry mouth, weight gain, dizziness, headaches, and emotional blunting. There are also adverse effects in pregnancy and antidepressant-induced mania, would you like to know more about one of these topics?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Yes, I am interested in the adverse effects associated with pregnancy."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "SSRI use in pregnancy has been associated with a variety of risks with varying degrees of proof of causation. SSRI use in pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion of about 1.7-fold, and is associated with preterm birth and low birth weight; SSRIs inhibit nitric oxide synthesis, which plays an important role in setting vascular tone.",
      "SSRI use in pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion of about 1.7-fold, and is associated with preterm birth and low birth weight. Also, A systematic review of the risk of major birth defects in antidepressant-exposed pregnancies found a small increase (3% to 24%) in the risk of major malformations and a risk of cardiovascular birth defects that did not differ from non-exposed pregnancies."
    ],
    "topic": "Exercise",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Antidepressant:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Antidepressant",
          "Adverse effects",
          "Pregnancy"
        ],
        "ctx": "SSRI use in pregnancy has been associated with a variety of risks with varying degrees of proof of causation. As depression is independently associated with negative pregnancy outcomes, determining the extent to which observed associations between antidepressant use and specific adverse outcomes reflects a causative relationship has been difficult in some cases. In other cases, the attribution of adverse outcomes to antidepressant exposure seems fairly clear."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Antidepressant:35",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Antidepressant",
          "Adverse effects",
          "Pregnancy"
        ],
        "ctx": "SSRI use in pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion of about 1.7-fold, and is associated with preterm birth and low birth weight."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Antidepressant:39",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Antidepressant",
          "Adverse effects",
          "Pregnancy"
        ],
        "ctx": "Moreover, SSRIs inhibit nitric oxide synthesis, which plays an important role in setting vascular tone. Several studies have pointed to an increased risk of prematurity associated with SSRI use, and this association may be due to an increase risk of pre-eclampsia of pregnancy."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Antidepressant:35",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Antidepressant",
          "Adverse effects",
          "Pregnancy"
        ],
        "ctx": "SSRI use in pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion of about 1.7-fold, and is associated with preterm birth and low birth weight."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Antidepressant:36",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Antidepressant",
          "Adverse effects",
          "Pregnancy"
        ],
        "ctx": "A systematic review of the risk of major birth defects in antidepressant-exposed pregnancies found a small increase (3% to 24%) in the risk of major malformations and a risk of cardiovascular birth defects that did not differ from non-exposed pregnancies. A study of fluoxetine-exposed pregnancies found a 12% increase in the risk of major malformations that did not reach statistical significance. Other studies have found an increased risk of cardiovascular birth defects among depressed mothers not undergoing SSRI treatment, suggesting the possibility of ascertainment bias, e.g. that worried mothers may pursue more aggressive testing of their infants. Another study found no increase in cardiovascular birth defects and a 27% increased risk of major malformations in SSRI exposed pregnancies. The FDA advises for the risk of birth defects with the use of paroxetine and the MAOI should be avoided."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption",
        "text": "Studies comparing intermittent and continuous exercise consistently show a greater EPOC response for higher intensity, intermittent exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exertional rhabdomyolysis",
        "text": "Military data suggest that the risk of exertional rhabdomyolysis can be lowered by engaging in prolonged lower-intensity exercise, as opposed to high-intensity exercise over a shorter time period. In all athletic programs, three features should be present: (1) emphasizing prolonged lower-intensity exercise, as opposed to repetitive max intensity exercises; (2) adequate rest periods and a high-carbohydrate diet, to replenish glycogen stores; and (3) proper hydration, to enhance renal clearance of myoglobin. Also, exercise in above-average temperature and humidity can increase risk for ER. ER can be avoided by gradually increasing intensity during new exercise regimens, properly hydrating, acclimatization, and avoidance of diuretics during times of strenuous activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "Excessive exercise or overtraining occurs when a person exceeds their body's ability to recover from strenuous exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iranian traditional medicine",
        "text": "High-intensity exercise drives the body to excessive coldness and weakness, and after heavy exercise the heart rate takes much longer to return to its base level, which is not healthy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Running",
        "text": "Although an optimal amount of vigorous aerobic exercise such as running might bring benefits related to lower cardiovascular disease and life extension, an excessive dose (e.g., marathons) might have an opposite effect associated with cardiotoxicity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise addiction",
        "text": "Three main types of disorders are associated with excessive exercise:\n# Anorexia athletica (obligatory exercise) - When an individual feels compelled to exercise beyond the point of benefitting one's body. Individuals will participate in athletic activities regardless of pain, injury, illness, etc., and will try to arrange their lives in order to maximize workout time.\n# Exercise bulimia - When an individual has binge eating sessions that are followed by periods of high-intensity exercise.\n# Body dysmorphic disorder - When an individual is obsessed with parts of their body and perceive them to be different or odd. These individuals will create highly regimented routines in order to improve their perception of the \"flawed\" body part."
      },
      {
        "title": "Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption",
        "text": "The EPOC effect clearly increases with the intensity of the exercise, and (at least in the case of aerobic exercise, perhaps also for anaerobic) the duration of the exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Dearlove",
        "text": "If I gained 5kg of muscle mass - even when I went off the drugs - I would keep three of those kilos. If I increased my explosiveness which allowed me to reduce my 100 metres time by one second, even if I never did another cycle of steroids, I would remain 0.6 of a second faster."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise addiction",
        "text": "In addition, excessive training may cause exhaustion of the autonomic nervous system. Some symptoms include decreased total testosterone level, an imbalance between testosterone and cortisol, decreased sympathetic tone, and decreased exercise-induced lactate. These chemical balances can lead to premature osteoporosis, where the lack of testosterone accelerates bone loss, and elevated levels of cortisol alters calcium and bone metabolism by \u201cincreasing bone reabsorption and decreasing bone formation or intestinal absorption of calcium\u201d. Calcium undernutrition may eventually occur, accelerating premature osteoporosis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diastasis recti",
        "text": "A systematic review of the evidence found that exercise may or may not reduce the size of the gap in pregnant or postpartum women. The authors looked at 8 studies totaling 336 women and concluded: \u201cDue to the low number and quality of included articles, there is insufficient evidence to recommend that exercise may help to prevent or reduce DRAM,\u201d also stating that \"non-specific exercise may or may not help to prevent or reduce DRAM during the ante- and postnatal periods.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Supravalvular aortic stenosis",
        "text": "With increased metabolic demands (e.g. exercise) such individuals may develop subendocardial or myocardial ischemia due to increased myocardial oxygen demand and seek medical help with symptoms of exercise induced angina."
      },
      {
        "title": "Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption",
        "text": "Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption\n--Duration of the effect.\n--Size of the EPOC effect.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Myalgia",
        "text": "Overuse of a muscle is using it too much, too soon or too often. One example is repetitive strain injury. See also:\n* Exercise\n* Weight lifting"
      },
      {
        "title": "Antidepressant",
        "text": "Moreover, SSRIs inhibit nitric oxide synthesis, which plays an important role in setting vascular tone. Several studies have pointed to an increased risk of prematurity associated with SSRI use, and this association may be due to an increase risk of pre-eclampsia of pregnancy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise-associated hyponatremia",
        "text": "However, since this can risk dehydration, an alternative approach is possible of consuming a substantial amount of salt prior to exercise. It is still important not to overconsume water to the extent of requiring urination, because urination would cause the extra salt to be excreted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Epigenetics of physical exercise",
        "text": "In general, even a small amount of exercise can induce hypomethylation of the whole genome within muscle cells. This means that many regulatory genes can be turned on for pathways like muscle repair and growth. The intensity of the exercise directly correlates to the amount of promoter demethylation, so more strenuous exercise activates more genes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Twin study",
        "text": "Take for instance the case of an observed link between depression and exercise (See Figure above on right). People who are depressed also reporting doing little physical activity. One might \"hypothesise\" that this is a causal link: that \"dosing\" patients with exercise would raise their mood and protect against depression. The next figure shows what empirical tests of this hypothesis have found: a null result."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hastings Gilford",
        "text": "Gilford recommended people to exercise and avoid using cars. According to Gilford \"the luxurious car brings with it the evils which arise out of inadequate exercise of the muscles... In the end, the man who walks and marries is the gainer. He is healthier and in every way better for the exercise, and both he and his wife are less likely to become cancerous.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Cerebral autoregulation usually ensures the brain has priority to cardiac output, though this is impaired slightly by exhaustive exercise. During submaximal exercise, cardiac output increases and cerebral blood flow increases beyond the brain's oxygen needs. However, this is not the case for continuous maximal exertion: \"Maximal exercise is, despite the increase in capillary oxygenation [in the brain], associated with a reduced mitochondrial O2 content during whole body exercise\" The autoregulation of the brain's blood supply is impaired particularly in warm environments"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "Exercise\n--Classification.\n--Health effects.\n----Fitness.\n----Cardiovascular system.\n----Immune system.\n----Cancer.\n----Neurobiological.\n------Depression.\n----Sleep.\n----Libido.\n--Mechanism of effects.\n----Skeletal muscle.\n----Other peripheral organs.\n----Central nervous system.\n--Public health measures.\n--Exercise trends.\n----Social and cultural variation.\n--Nutrition and recovery.\n--Excessive exercise.\n--History.\n--Other animals.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Breast cancer",
        "text": "A lack of physical activity has been linked to about 10% of cases. Sitting regularly for prolonged periods is associated with higher mortality from breast cancer. The risk is not negated by regular exercise, though it is lowered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Disposition index",
        "text": "Disposition index can be increased by aerobic exercise, but only to the extent that insulin sensitivity is improved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise intolerance",
        "text": "Certain conditions exist where exercise may be contraindicated or should be performed under the direction of an experienced and licensed medical professional acting within his or her scope of practice. These conditions include:\n* Decompensated heart failure\n* Recent myocardial infarction\n* Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy or cardiomyopathy from recent myocarditis\n* Active or suspected myocarditis or pericarditis\n* Low left-ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF)\n* Severe aortic stenosis\n* Unstable ischemia\n* Unstable arrythmia\n* Irregular or resting pulse greater than 100 bpm\n* Resting systolic blood pressure >200\u00a0mm Hg or resting diastolic blood pressure >110\u00a0mm Hg\n* Severe pulmonary hypertension\n* Chronic fatigue syndrome\n* Suspected or known dissecting aortic aneurysm\n* Recent systemic or pulmonary embolus\n* Pneumothorax and haemoptysis\n* Thrombophlebitis"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hyperventilation syndrome",
        "text": "There is insufficient evidence for or against breathing exercises."
      },
      {
        "title": "PDK4",
        "text": "Exercise has been shown to induce changes in this gene as well, and that transient changes can have a cumulative effect across many exercise sessions. The mRNA of PDK4, along with PPARGC1A, increase in both types of muscle tissue after exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise addiction",
        "text": "Those who succumb to exercise addiction may experience overtraining, which is best defined as a \u201ccondition of poor adaptation to a chronic period of excessive stress caused by a physical exertion, resulting in the development of the syndrome, compromising the health and sports performance\u201d."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amphetamine",
        "text": "Additionally, research on the neurobiological effects of physical exercise suggests that daily aerobic exercise, especially endurance exercise (e.g., marathon running), prevents the development of drug addiction and is an effective adjunct therapy (i.e., a supplemental treatment) for amphetamine addiction. Exercise leads to better treatment outcomes when used as an adjunct treatment, particularly for psychostimulant addictions. In particular, aerobic exercise decreases psychostimulant self-administration, reduces the reinstatement (i.e., relapse) of drug-seeking, and induces increased dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2) density in the striatum. This is the opposite of pathological stimulant use, which induces decreased striatal DRD2 density. One review noted that exercise may also prevent the development of a drug addiction by altering \u0394FosB or immunoreactivity in the striatum or other parts of the reward system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mitral stenosis",
        "text": "Fatigue and weakness increase with exercise and pregnancy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise addiction",
        "text": "Five indicators of exercise addiction are:\n# An increase in exercise that may be labeled as detrimental, or becomes harmful.\n# A desire to experience euphoria; exercise may be increased as tolerance of the euphoric state increases.\n# Not participating in physical activity will cause dysfunction in one's daily life.\n# Severe withdrawal symptoms following exercise deprivation including anxiety, restlessness, depression, guilt, tension, discomfort, loss of appetite, sleeplessness, and headaches.\n# Exercising through trauma and despite physical injuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drunkorexia",
        "text": "Excessive exercise is often perceived as a symptom of anorexia nervosa and other associated eating disorders, which further exemplifies the existence of drunkorexia, particularly in college-age individuals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage",
        "text": "The lowest intensities of exercise which may cause EIPH are intense trotting (40\u201360% maximal oxygen uptake) and cantering at speeds of ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adenosine monophosphate deaminase deficiency type 1",
        "text": "If a large group of muscles is still actively drawing fuels from blood after the most recent continuous exercise, in order to replenish the ATP and the phosphocreatine reserve, it may become sour without any additional exercise by the time the carbohydrate meal is finished."
      },
      {
        "title": "Infertility in polycystic ovary syndrome",
        "text": "For overweight women with PCOS who are anovulatory, diet adjustments and weight loss are associated with resumption of spontaneous ovulation. Preliminary evidence suggests that exercise may improve menstrual regularity, pregnancy and ovulation rates, but more research is needed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise addiction",
        "text": "Griffiths' findings suggest that once exercise occurs at high frequencies, it must be maintained in a similar manner and is very difficult to break the pattern. Similarly,\u00a0 it can be argued that with reduced voluptuary pleasure from other activities, it is likely that a person may have to maintain such levels of intense exercise in order to optimize and activate certain reward systems within the mesolimbic dopamine system in the brain. If they are not activated, the person will continue feeling the original level of distress prior to exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hyperextension (exercise)",
        "text": "Hyperextension (exercise)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mitral stenosis",
        "text": "Almost all signs increase with exercise and pregnancy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea",
        "text": "Exercise alone is known to hyperactivate the HPA axis, but the fact that LH pulsatility is altered in amenorrheic female athletes indicates the role of negative energy balance, rather than exercise intensity per se, in menstrual irregularities. When energy balance is maintained, exercise alone has not been indicated as a factor which leads to menstrual dysfunction; however, disturbances are common in weight-stable exercising women without extreme caloric deficiency who experience negative energy balance due to high energy expenditure. This negative energy balance, in turn, causes both a state of hypometabolism as well as hormonal and metabolic alterations. Genetic predisposition, psychological stress, and hypoleptinemia caused by low FFM may in some cases some combine with the negative energy state to inhibit the hypothalamic generation of GnRH pulses required for regular menstrual cycling, thereby causing hypoestrogenism. Additionally, in athletes with exercise-induced FHA, there have been specific associations between hypercortisolism and decreased LH pulsatility. In endurance athletes with varying menstrual status, the number of menses in the past 12 months has been found to be negatively associated with diurnal cortisol secretion. It is also possible that factors such as exercise intensity and duration as well as athletic discipline have differing effects on GnRH pulsatility; this may be especially relevant for women participating in sports that emphasize strength over leanness. However, excessive exercise can cause FHA in normal weight patients who present no abnormal metabolic or gonadotropic laboratory results. In these cases, combined hormonal contraceptive pills will not address the primary cause of menstrual cessation: inhibition of the HPO axis due to excessive exercise. Thus, behavioral modifications should be pursued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exertional rhabdomyolysis",
        "text": "ER is more likely to occur when strenuous exercise is performed under high temperatures and humidity. Poor hydration levels before, during, and after strenuous bouts of exercise have also been reported to lead to ER. This condition and its signs and symptoms are not well known amongst the sport and fitness community and because of this it is believed that the incidence is greater but highly underreported."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of health articles",
        "text": "\u2013 Aerobic exercise"
      },
      {
        "title": "Underweight",
        "text": "Exercise is catabolic, which results in a brief reduction in mass. However, during recovery, anabolic overcompensation causes muscle hypertrophy, which results in an overall increase in mass. This can happen through an increase in muscle proteins, or through enhanced storage of glycogen in muscles. Exercise can also help stimulate the appetite of a person who is not inclined to eat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of exercise",
        "text": "Exercise physiology\n* Aerobic exercise\n* Anaerobic exercise\n* Exercise induced nausea\n* Grip strength\n* Muscle hypertrophy\n* Overtraining\n* Stretching\n* Supercompensation\n* Warming up\n* Weight cutting\n* Weight loss"
      },
      {
        "title": "Endorphins",
        "text": "Endorphin production can be triggered by vigorous aerobic exercise. The release of \u03b2-endorphin has been postulated to contribute to the phenomenon known as a \"runner's high.\" However, several studies have supported the hypothesis that the runner's high is due to the release of endocannabinoids rather than that of endorphins. Endorphins may contribute to the positive effect of exercise on anxiety and depression. The same phenomenon may also play a role in exercise addiction. Regular intense exercise may cause the brain to downregulate the production of endorphins in periods of rest to maintain homeostasis, causing a person to exercise more intensely in order to receive the same feeling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pregnancy",
        "text": "The Clinical Practice Obstetrics Committee of Canada recommends that \"All women without contraindications should be encouraged to participate in aerobic and strength-conditioning exercises as part of a healthy lifestyle during their pregnancy\". Although an upper level of safe exercise intensity has not been established, women who were regular exercisers before pregnancy and who have uncomplicated pregnancies should be able to engage in high intensity exercise programs, without a higher risk of prematurity, lower birth weight, or gestational weight gain. In general, participation in a wide range of recreational activities appears to be safe, with the avoidance of those with a high risk of falling such as horseback riding or skiing or those that carry a risk of abdominal trauma, such as soccer or hockey."
      },
      {
        "title": "FNDC5",
        "text": "Exercise causes increased expression in muscle of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1 alpha (PGC-1alpha), which is involved in adaptation to exercise. In mice, this causes production of the FNDC5 protein which is cleaved to give a new product irisin. Due to its production through a mechanism initiated by muscular contraction, irisin has been classified as a myokine.\n;Fat"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pre-eclampsia",
        "text": "There is insufficient evidence to recommend either exercise or strict bedrest as preventive measures of pre-eclampsia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prostate cancer",
        "text": "Regular exercise may slightly lower risk, especially vigorous activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Untethered regimen",
        "text": "Different water sports place different demands on the patient. Sailing might be thought of as long dry periods of sitting down \u2014 interrupted by unpredictable wet periods. Swimming laps is a great aerobic activity. Yet a toddler in a pool partially filled with water may get the most intense workout of any. Each situation demands that the pump user adjusts the basal rate. If a portion of the basal insulin is combined with a long-acting insulin there can be even more trial-and-error. This allows the pump to be removed for longer periods and blood glucose control is adequately maintained."
      },
      {
        "title": "ROHHAD",
        "text": "Attempting to control weight through diet and exercise can be exceedingly difficult in patients with ROHHAD due to a number of factors. Encouraging ROHHAD patients to exercise vigorously can be dangerous, as their breathing will not increase with exertion and this can cause hypoxia. Therefore, it is important for ROHHAD patients to exercise at a moderate intensity and for their oxygen levels to be monitored throughout. Typically, the obesity associated with ROHHAD is managed by preventing further weight gain as the child grows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbohydrate loading",
        "text": "Carbohydrate ingestion within 2 hours before aerobic exercise triggers elevated levels of insulin in the blood which may dramatically decrease serum glucose levels. This can limit aerobic performance, especially in events lasting longer than 60 minutes. This is known as transient or reactive hypoglycemia, and can be a limiting factor in elite athletes. Individuals susceptible to hypoglycemia are especially at risk for elevated insulin responses and thus will likely suffer from performance-limiting transient hypoglycemia if they do not follow the correct regimen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Self-image",
        "text": "Regular practice of endurance exercise was related to a more favourable body-image. There was a strong association between participation in sports and the type of personality that tends to be resistant to drug and alcohol addiction. Physical exercise was further significantly related to scores for physical and psychological well-being. Adolescents who engaged regularly in physical activity were characterised by lower anxiety-depression scores, and displayed much less social behavioural inhibition than their less active counterparts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise and music",
        "text": "Max strength is unaffected by the use of music during exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Overtraining",
        "text": "Like pharmacological drugs, physical exercise may be chemically addictive. Addiction can be defined as the frequent engaging in the behavior to a greater extent or for a longer time period than intended. It is theorized that this addiction is due to natural endorphins and dopamine generated and regulated by the exercise. Whether strictly due to this chemical by-product or not, some people can be said to become addicted to or fixated on psychological/physical effects of physical exercise and fitness. This may lead to over exercise, resulting in the \"overtraining\" syndrome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise addiction",
        "text": "Overtraining includes one or more of the following:\n*Persistent muscle soreness\n*Elevated resting heart rate\n*Increased susceptibility to infections\n*Increased incidence of injuries\n*Insomnia\n*Decreased appetite\n*Weight loss\n*Impaired performance\n*Decreased motor coordination and force production"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of health articles",
        "text": "\u2013 Exercise physiology"
      },
      {
        "title": "Diastasis recti",
        "text": "Incorrect exercises, including crunches, can increase the diastasis recti separation. All corrective exercises should be in the form of pulling in the abdominal muscles rather than pushing them outwards. Consultation of a professional physiotherapist is recommended for correct exercise routines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of health articles",
        "text": "\u2013 Exercise"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise addiction",
        "text": "A concrete classification of exercise addiction has proven to be difficult due to the lack of a specific and widely accepted diagnostic model. Most interpretations of addiction have traditionally been limited to drugs and alcohol, which makes it even more difficult to identify addictive tendencies in exercise. While excessive exercise is the overarching theme with exercise addiction, the term also includes a variety of symptoms like withdrawal, \"exercise buzz\", and impaired physical function. Excessive exercise has been classified in different ways; sometimes as an addiction and sometimes as a more general compulsive behavior. Psychiatric case studies have shown that exaggerated exercise could lead to negligence of work and family life. With an addiction, individuals become \"hooked\" to the feeling of euphoria and pleasure that exercise provides. This pleasure keeps the individual from stopping and leads to excessive exercise. With a compulsion people often do not necessarily enjoy repeating certain tasks, as they may feel like performing it will fulfill a duty that is required of them. There are many opinions on whether concrete diagnostic criteria should be created for this type of addiction. Some say preoccupation with exercise that causes significant impairment in a person's life, not due to another disorder, may be enough criteria to label this disorder. Others say there is not enough information about exercise addiction to develop diagnostic criteria. , the term \"excessive exercise\" continues to be used while the \"exercise addiction\" model continues to be debated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert W. Smith (writer)",
        "text": "\u201cIf you exercise, make sure you do it consistently, whether twice a day or twice a week.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of health articles",
        "text": "\u2013 Physical exercise"
      },
      {
        "title": "Epigenetics of physical exercise",
        "text": "Exercise causes acetylation of histone H3 in the exon IV promoter region of the \"Bdnf\" gene essential for memory formation. This acetylation contributes to upregulation of \"Bdnf\" in the brain hippocampi of rats. Two weeks of treadmill exercise improves memory performance in an inhibitory avoidance task."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nurses' Health Study",
        "text": "Exercise: lack of physical activity correlated to an increased the likelihood of subjects developing type 2 diabetes. Exercise related directly to breast cancer survival. Physical activity was related to a decreased risk of the development of CVD."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vascular recruitment",
        "text": "Being overweight or obese may negatively interfere with vascular recruitment in skeletal muscle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ripping (bodybuilding)",
        "text": "Too much cardiovascular exercise can directly affect muscle tissue if it is used excessively and without eating the correct food. The reason for this is because if the human body doesn't have sufficient energy stored in the form of glucose, then it will begin using energy from other sources, e.g. fats or muscles. For example, eating a little extra carbohydrates (which eventually transforms into glucose) will help the body to divert away from muscle tissue and extract energy from the glucose supplies. The time in which one eats is an important factor in ripping where cardiovascular training is concerned. Particular foods take a certain amount of time to extract the glucose in the digestive system. This means that there is limited amount of time to use the glucose before it gets stored as fat. Also there is a certain amount of time after cardiovascular exercise is being performed when the body's energy source runs out. This is when the process of muscle breakdown also comes into play."
      },
      {
        "title": "Troponin",
        "text": "Strenuous endurance exercise such as marathons or triathlons can lead to increased troponin levels in up to one-third of subjects, but it is not linked to adverse health effects in these competitors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lymphangioleiomyomatosis",
        "text": "Cardiopulmonary exercise testing in a much larger cohort of patients with LAM revealed a reduced maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) and anaerobic threshold in 217 patients. Exercise-induced hypoxemia was found even in patients who did not have resting abnormalities in FEV1 and DLCO. In most patients, exercise was thought to be ventilation limited, owing to airflow obstruction and increased dead-space ventilation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "However, data from rodents and humans have shown that pharmacological blockade of endogenous endorphins does not prevent the development of a runner's high, while blockade of endocannabinoids does."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amenorrhea",
        "text": "Women who perform extraneous exercise on a regular basis or lose a significant amount of weight are at risk of developing hypothalamic amenorrhoea. Functional Hypothalamic Amenorrhoea (FHA) can be caused by stress, weight loss, or excessive exercise. Many women who diet or who exercise at a high level do not take in enough calories to maintain their normal menstrual cycles. The threshold of developing amenorrhoea appears to be dependent on low energy availability rather than absolute weight because a critical minimum amount of stored, easily mobilized energy is necessary to maintain regular menstrual cycles. Amenorrhoea is often associated with anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders. The female athlete triad is when a woman experiences amenorrhoea, disordered eating, and osteoporosis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of health articles",
        "text": "\u2013 Anaerobic exercise"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise ball",
        "text": "There is no scientific evidence of benefits occur by just sitting without additional exercises."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "In mice it was demonstrated that certain features of a runner's high depend on cannabinoid receptors. Pharmacological or genetic disruption of cannabinoid signaling via cannabinoid receptors prevents the analgesic and anxiety-reducing effects of running."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hypernasal speech",
        "text": "These exercises only work as treatments if hypernasality is small. Severe deviations should be treated surgically."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bulimia nervosa",
        "text": "People with bulimia nervosa may also exercise to a point that excludes other activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Intraocular pressure",
        "text": "There is some inconclusive research that indicates that exercise could possibly affect IOP (some positively and some negatively)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "Glutamate, one of the most common neurochemicals in the brain, is an excitatory neurotransmitter involved in many aspects of brain function, including learning and memory. Based upon animal models, exercise appears to normalize the excessive levels of glutamate neurotransmission into the nucleus accumbens that occurs in drug addiction. A review of the effects of exercise on neurocardiac function in preclinical models noted that exercise-induced neuroplasticity of the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) has an inhibitory effect on glutamatergic neurotransmission in this region, in turn reducing sympathetic activity; the review hypothesized that this neuroplasticity in the RVLM is a mechanism by which regular exercise prevents inactivity-related cardiovascular disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Repetitive strain injury",
        "text": "General exercise has been shown to decrease the risk of developing RSI. Doctors sometimes recommend that RSI sufferers engage in specific strengthening exercises, for example to improve sitting posture, reduce excessive kyphosis, and potentially thoracic outlet syndrome. Modifications of posture and arm use are often recommended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption",
        "text": "The EPOC effect is greatest soon after the exercise is completed and decays to a lower level over time. One experiment, involving exertion above baseline, found EPOC increasing metabolic rate to an excess level that decays to 13% three hours after exercise, and 4% after 16 hours, for the studied exercise dose. Another study, specifically designed to test whether the effect existed for more than 16 hours, conducted tests for 48 hours after the conclusion of the exercise and found measurable effects existed up to the 38-hour post-exercise measurement, for the studied exercise dose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "Continuous aerobic exercise can induce a transient state of euphoria, colloquially known as a \"runner's high\" in distance running or a \"rower's high\" in crew, through the increased biosynthesis of at least three euphoriant neurochemicals: anandamide (an endocannabinoid), \u03b2-endorphin (an endogenous opioid), and phenethylamine (a trace amine and amphetamine analog)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Social influences on fitness behavior",
        "text": "Inactivity can contribute to a range of health related problems including: obesity, heart disease, metabolic syndrome, and other disorders. Researches have shown, \"49 percent of heart disease in sedentary patients is due to lack of exercise\" (Perkins, Whitehead, Steptoe 725) and the relative risk of metabolic syndrome was, \"1.7 (95% CI 0.9\u20132.8) for lack of exercise, 1.5 (95% CI 1.1\u20132.1) for a positive family history and 2.0 (95% CI 1.2\u20133.4) in individuals with none or only an elementary school education versus university graduation\" (Lee et al. 48)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure",
        "text": "There is much more information available regarding aerobic exercise and ICP. The only known study to examine ICP during aerobic exercise by invasive means showed that ICP decreased in patients with intracranial hypertension and those with normal ICP. They suggested that because aerobic exercise is generally done without Valsalva maneuvers, it is unlikely that ICP will increase during exercise. Other studies show global brain blood flow increases 20\u201330% during the transition from rest to moderate exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "At rest, the human brain receives 15% of total cardiac output, and uses 20% of the body's energy consumption. The brain is normally dependent for its high energy expenditure upon aerobic metabolism. The brain as a result is highly sensitive to failure of its oxygen supply with loss of consciousness occurring within six to seven seconds, with its EEG going flat in 23 seconds. Therefore, the brain's function would be disrupted if exercise affected its supply of oxygen and glucose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adenosine monophosphate deaminase deficiency type 1",
        "text": "Most of the AMP probably spills into blood unchanged, and is gradually returned to the muscle cell, if its concentration there falls due to gradual recharge to ATP. The blood thus plays a role of a big AMP buffer. Idle muscles may also take up some free AMP. The spillover also limits, how much the residual AMPD activity can be amplified in this state. Thus, it may take the residual AMPD activity less time to build up citric acid cycle intermediates, when the whole body is warmed up for an exercise at the same time, rather than a specific group of muscles needed in the exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise addiction",
        "text": "High risk groups that appear to be addicted to exercise include athletes in sports encouraging thinness or appearance standards, young and middle-age women, and young men."
      },
      {
        "title": "Underweight",
        "text": "In women, being severely underweight, as a result of an eating disorder or due to excessive strenuous exercise, can result in amenorrhea (absence of menstruation), infertility or complications during pregnancy if gestational weight gain is too low."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise-associated muscle cramps",
        "text": "It is widely believed that excessive sweating due to strenuous exercise can lead to muscle cramps. Deficiency of sodium and other electrolytes may lead to contracted interstitial fluid compartments, which may exacerbate the muscle cramping. According to this theory, the increased blood plasma osmolality from sweating sodium losses causes a fluid shift from the interstitial space to the intervascular space, which causes the interstitial fluid compartment to deform and contributes to muscle hyperexcitability and risk of spontaneous muscle activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Masturbation",
        "text": "Some professionals consider masturbation equivalent to a cardiovascular workout. Though research remains scant, those suffering from cardiovascular disorders, particularly those recovering from heart attacks, should resume physical activity gradually and with the frequency and rigor which their physical status will allow. This limitation can serve as encouragement to follow through with physical therapy sessions to help improve endurance. In general, sex slightly increases energy consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emma Carney",
        "text": "After her ICD implant, doctors told her that she could not exercise at all, but Carney found that not exercising made her heart worse and that instead it was better to exercise a little every day to keep it under control. She then found that she could do \"quite a lot\" of training, provided she avoids damaging high-intensity spurts. For example, she completed an iroman-length (180\u00a0km) bike ride, and hopes eventually to complete a full iron-distance race. Occasionally, she exercised too hard, causing her ICD to \"shock\" her heart, as happened once when she was out running with her father. It also happened in 2008 when she was taking part in the 299\u00a0km Melbourne-to-Warrnambool bike race, when she forgot about her condition and attempted to chase down the leading pack."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise addiction",
        "text": "The Obligatory Exercise Questionnaire was created by Thompson and Pasman in 1991, consisting of 20 questions on exercise habits and attitudes toward exercise and body image. Patients respond to statements on a scale of 1 (never) to 4 (always). This questionnaire aided in the development of another assessment tool, the Exercise Addiction Inventory."
      },
      {
        "title": "C-reactive protein",
        "text": "In a meta-analysis of 20 studies involving 1,466 patients with coronary artery disease, CRP levels were found to be reduced after exercise interventions. Among those studies, higher CRP concentrations or poorer lipid profiles before beginning exercise were associated with greater reductions in CRP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Equine exertional rhabdomyolysis",
        "text": "Other factors that will pair with exercise to form potential ER can be dependent on the type of ER."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anorexia athletica",
        "text": "Someone with anorexia athletica can experience numerous signs and symptoms, a few of which are listed below. The seriousness of the symptoms is dependent on the individual, and more symptoms come with the length the athlete excessively exercises. If anorexia athletica persists for long enough, the individual can become malnourished, which eventually leads to further complications in major organs such as the liver, kidney, heart and brain.\n*Excessive exercise\n* Obsessive behavior with calories, fat, and weight\n* Self-worth is based on physical performance\n* Enjoyment of sports is diminished or gone\n* Denying the over exercising is a problem"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cannabinoid",
        "text": "The runner's high, the feeling of euphoria that sometimes accompanies aerobic exercise, has often been attributed to the release of endorphins, but newer research suggests that it might be due to endocannabinoids instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fergus I. M. Craik",
        "text": "It is currently hypothesized that these higher outputs of activity may be necessary for older people to perform sufficiently."
      },
      {
        "title": "Equine exertional rhabdomyolysis",
        "text": "A horse ideally should receive exercise once, or possibly twice a day, every day, to prevent the recurrence of ER. If possible, avoid breaks in the horse's exercise schedule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hormesis",
        "text": "Physical exercise intensity exhibits a hormetic curve regarding oxidative stress levels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sushruta Samhita",
        "text": "Sushruta, states Tipton, asserts that a physician should invest the effort to prevent diseases as much as curative remedial procedures. An important means for prevention, states Sushruta, is physical exercise and hygienic practices. The text adds that excessive strenuous exercise can be injurious and make one more susceptible to diseases, cautioning against such excess. Regular moderate exercise, suggests Sushruta, improves resistance to disease and physical decay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise addiction",
        "text": "Exercise addiction is a state characterized by a compulsive engagement in any form of physical exercise, despite negative consequences. While regular exercise is generally a healthy activity, exercise addiction generally involves performing excessive amounts of exercise to the detriment of physical health, spending too much time exercising to the detriment of personal and professional life, and exercising regardless of physical injury. It may also involve a state of dependence upon regular exercise which involves the occurrence of severe withdrawal symptoms when the individual is unable to exercise. Differentiating between addictive and healthy exercise behaviors is difficult but there are key factors in determining which category a person may fall into. Exercise addiction shows a high comorbidity with eating disorders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elin Ekblom Bak",
        "text": "She also works as a scientist, publishing research in the British Journal of Sports Medicine which posited that sedentary behaviour such as sitting at a desk is harmful even for people who exercise regularly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise addiction",
        "text": "Exercise addiction, however, has long been known to begin with a desire for physical fitness. An eating disorder, such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia supports an unhealthy obsession with exercise, as such. A body image disorder can likely cause exercise addiction as well. One of the prevailing mechanisms for this addiction lies within these activities that expose individuals to the mood-altering effects of this behavior, and can many times deposit dopamine directly into the blood flow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Addiction",
        "text": "Clinical and preclinical evidence indicate that consistent aerobic exercise, especially endurance exercise (e.g., marathon running), actually prevents the development of certain drug addictions and is an effective adjunct treatment for drug addiction, and for psychostimulant addiction in particular. Consistent aerobic exercise magnitude-dependently (i.e., by duration and intensity) reduces drug addiction risk, which appears to occur through the reversal of drug induced addiction-related neuroplasticity. One review noted that exercise may prevent the development of drug addiction by altering \u0394FosB or immunoreactivity in the striatum or other parts of the reward system. Aerobic exercise decreases drug self-administration, reduces the likelihood of relapse, and induces opposite effects on striatal dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2) signaling (increased DRD2 density) to those induced by addictions to several drug classes (decreased DRD2 density). Consequently, consistent aerobic exercise may lead to better treatment outcomes when used as an adjunct treatment for drug addiction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prolactin",
        "text": "Levels can rise after exercise, high-protein meals, minor surgical procedures, following epileptic seizures or due to physical or emotional stress. In a study on female volunteers under hypnosis, prolactin surges resulted from the evocation, with rage, of humiliating experiences, but not from the fantasy of nursing."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What role does exercise play in aiding with the prevention of cancer?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Research shows that regular physical activity helps to reduce up to 30% the risk of a variety of cancer types, such as colon cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer and endometrium cancer. Exercise may contribute to a reduction of cancer-related fatigue in survivors of breast cancer, though there is currently insufficient evidence regarding the association between physical activity and mortality for survivors of other cancers."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How does exercise affect libido?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A study done in 2013  found that exercising improved sexual arousal problems related to antidepressant use."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Other than arousal problems, what side effects are common with antidepressant use?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Common side-effects of antidepressants include dry mouth, weight gain, dizziness, headaches, and emotional blunting. There are also adverse effects in pregnancy and antidepressant-induced mania, would you like to know more about one of these topics?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Yes, I am interested in the adverse effects associated with pregnancy."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "SSRI use in pregnancy has been associated with a variety of risks with varying degrees of proof of causation. SSRI use in pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion of about 1.7-fold, and is associated with preterm birth and low birth weight; SSRIs inhibit nitric oxide synthesis, which plays an important role in setting vascular tone."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you exercise too much\u2026e.g\u2026excessively?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Yes, overtraining occurs when someone exercises excessively, and can be described as a point where a person may have a decrease in performance and plateauing due to a training load which exceeds their recovery capacity. It can cause muscle soreness that doesn't go away, chronic fatigue, elevated resting heart rate, susceptibility to injuries and infections, depression, irritability, mental breakdowns, and burnout.",
      "Yes, you can, exercise addiction is a state characterized by a compulsive engagement in any form of physical exercise, despite negative consequences. Would you like to know more about anorexia athletica, when an individual feels compelled to exercise beyond the point of benefitting one's body; exercise bulimia,when an individual has binge eating sessions that are followed by periods of high-intensity exercise or body dysmorphic disorder, individuals will create highly regimented routines in order to improve their perception of the \"flawed\" body part?"
    ],
    "topic": "Exercise",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Overtraining:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Overtraining"
        ],
        "ctx": "Overtraining occurs when a person exceeds their body's ability to recover from strenuous exercise. Overtraining can be described as a point where a person may have a decrease in performance and plateauing as a result of failure to consistently perform at a certain level or training load; a load which exceeds their recovery capacity. People who are overtrained cease making progress, and can even begin to lose strength and fitness. Overtraining is also known as chronic fatigue, burnout and overstress in athletes. It is suggested that there are different variations of overtraining, firstly monotonous program over training suggest that repetition of the same movement such as certain weight lifting and baseball batting can cause performance plateau due to an adaption of the central nervous system which results from a lack of stimulation. A second example of overtraining is described as chronic overwork type training where the subject may be training with too high intensity or high volume and not allowing sufficient recovery time for the body. Up to 10% of elite endurance athletes and 10% of American college swimmers are affected by overtraining syndrome (unexplained underperformance for approximately 2 weeks even after having adequate resting time)."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Overtraining:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Overtraining",
          "Signs and symptoms"
        ],
        "ctx": "Overtraining may be accompanied by one or more concomitant symptoms:\n* Persistent muscle soreness\n* Persistent fatigue, different from just being tired from a hard training session, occurs when fatigue continues even after adequate rest.\n* Elevated resting heart rate, a persistently high heart rate after adequate rest such as in the morning after sleep, can be an indicator of overtraining.\n* Reduced heart rate variability\n* Increased susceptibility to infections\n* Increased incidence of injuries\n* Irritability\n* Depression\n* Mental breakdown\n* Burnout"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise addiction:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise addiction"
        ],
        "ctx": "Exercise addiction is a state characterized by a compulsive engagement in any form of physical exercise, despite negative consequences. While regular exercise is generally a healthy activity, exercise addiction generally involves performing excessive amounts of exercise to the detriment of physical health, spending too much time exercising to the detriment of personal and professional life, and exercising regardless of physical injury. It may also involve a state of dependence upon regular exercise which involves the occurrence of severe withdrawal symptoms when the individual is unable to exercise. Differentiating between addictive and healthy exercise behaviors is difficult but there are key factors in determining which category a person may fall into. Exercise addiction shows a high comorbidity with eating disorders."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise addiction:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise addiction",
          "Classification"
        ],
        "ctx": "Three main types of disorders are associated with excessive exercise:\n# Anorexia athletica (obligatory exercise) - When an individual feels compelled to exercise beyond the point of benefitting one's body. Individuals will participate in athletic activities regardless of pain, injury, illness, etc., and will try to arrange their lives in order to maximize workout time.\n# Exercise bulimia - When an individual has binge eating sessions that are followed by periods of high-intensity exercise.\n# Body dysmorphic disorder - When an individual is obsessed with parts of their body and perceive them to be different or odd. These individuals will create highly regimented routines in order to improve their perception of the \"flawed\" body part."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise addiction:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise addiction",
          "Classification"
        ],
        "ctx": "Three main types of disorders are associated with excessive exercise:\n# Anorexia athletica (obligatory exercise) - When an individual feels compelled to exercise beyond the point of benefitting one's body. Individuals will participate in athletic activities regardless of pain, injury, illness, etc., and will try to arrange their lives in order to maximize workout time.\n# Exercise bulimia - When an individual has binge eating sessions that are followed by periods of high-intensity exercise.\n# Body dysmorphic disorder - When an individual is obsessed with parts of their body and perceive them to be different or odd. These individuals will create highly regimented routines in order to improve their perception of the \"flawed\" body part."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise addiction:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise addiction",
          "Classification"
        ],
        "ctx": "Three main types of disorders are associated with excessive exercise:\n# Anorexia athletica (obligatory exercise) - When an individual feels compelled to exercise beyond the point of benefitting one's body. Individuals will participate in athletic activities regardless of pain, injury, illness, etc., and will try to arrange their lives in order to maximize workout time.\n# Exercise bulimia - When an individual has binge eating sessions that are followed by periods of high-intensity exercise.\n# Body dysmorphic disorder - When an individual is obsessed with parts of their body and perceive them to be different or odd. These individuals will create highly regimented routines in order to improve their perception of the \"flawed\" body part."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Bodybuilding",
        "text": "Intensive weight training causes micro-tears to the muscles being trained; this is generally known as microtrauma. These micro-tears in the muscle contribute to the soreness felt after exercise, called delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). It is the repair of these micro-traumas that results in muscle growth. Normally, this soreness becomes most apparent a day or two after a workout. However, as muscles become adapted to the exercises, soreness tends to decrease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Microtrauma",
        "text": "After microtrauma from stress (such as lifting weights) to muscles, they can be rebuilt and overcompensate to reduce the likeliness of re-injury."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stronger with Each Tear",
        "text": "Notes"
      },
      {
        "title": "Strength training",
        "text": "These variables are important because they are all mutually conflicting, as the muscle only has so much strength and endurance, and takes time to recover due to microtrauma. Increasing one by any significant amount necessitates the decrease of the other two, e.g. increasing weight means a reduction of reps, and will require more recovery time and therefore fewer workouts per week. Trying to push too much intensity, volume and frequency will result in overtraining, and eventually lead to injury and other health issues such as chronic soreness and general lethargy, illness or even acute trauma such as avulsion fractures. A high-medium-low formula can be used to avoid overtraining, with either intensity, volume, or frequency being high, one of the others being medium, and the other being low. One example of this training strategy can be found in the following chart:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Meniscus tear",
        "text": "Exercises can strengthen the muscles around the knee, especially the quadriceps. Stronger and bigger muscles will protect the meniscus cartilage by absorbing a part of the weight. The patient may be given paracetamol or anti-inflammatory medications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscle memory",
        "text": "On subsequent detraining, the fibers maintain an elevated number of nuclei that might provide resistance to atrophy; on retraining, a gain in size can be"
      },
      {
        "title": "Strength training",
        "text": "Strength training typically produces lactate in the muscles, which is a limiting factor of exercise performance. Regular endurance exercise leads to adaptations in skeletal muscle which can prevent lactate levels from rising during strength training."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rotator cuff tear",
        "text": "One article observed the influence of stretching techniques on preventive methods of shoulder injuries. Increased velocity of exercise increases injury, but beginning a fast-movement exercise with a slow stretch may cause muscle/tendon attachment to become more resistant to tearing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strength training",
        "text": "Exercises of 6\u201312 reps cause hypertrophy of the sarcoplasm in slow-twitch and high-twitch muscle fibers, contributing to overall increased muscle bulk. This is not to be confused with myofibril hypertrophy which leads to strength gains. Both, however, can occur to an extent during this rep range. \"Even though most are of the opinion that higher repetitions are best for producing the desired effect of muscle firmness or tone, it is not.\" Low volume strength training of 5 repetitions or fewer will increase strength by increasing actin and myosin cross filaments thereby increasing muscle firmness or tone. The low volume of this training will inhibit the hypertrophy effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Skeletal muscle",
        "text": "Independent of strength and performance measures, muscles can be induced to grow larger by a number of factors, including hormone signaling, developmental factors, strength training, and disease. Contrary to popular belief, the number of muscle fibres cannot be increased through exercise. Instead, muscles grow larger through a combination of muscle cell growth as new protein filaments are added along with additional mass provided by undifferentiated satellite cells alongside the existing muscle cells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscle hypertrophy",
        "text": "One theory is that microtrauma plays a significant role in muscle growth. When microtrauma occurs (from weight training or other strenuous activities), the body responds by overcompensating, replacing the damaged tissue and adding more, so that the risk of repeat damage is reduced. Damage to these fibers has been theorized as the possible cause for the symptoms of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), and is why progressive overload is essential to continued improvement, as the body adapts and becomes more resistant to stress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Weakness",
        "text": "For extremely powerful contractions that are close to the upper limit of a muscle's ability to generate force, neuromuscular fatigue can become a limiting factor in untrained individuals. In novice strength trainers, the muscle's ability to generate force is most strongly limited by nerve's ability to sustain a high-frequency signal. After an extended period of maximum contraction, the nerve's signal reduces in frequency and the force generated by the contraction diminishes. There is no sensation of pain or discomfort, the muscle appears to simply \u2018stop listening\u2019 and gradually cease to move, often lengthening. As there is insufficient stress on the muscles and tendons, there will often be no delayed onset muscle soreness following the workout. Part of the process of strength training is increasing the nerve's ability to generate sustained, high frequency signals which allow a muscle to contract with their greatest force. It is this \"neural training\" that causes several weeks worth of rapid gains in strength, which level off once the nerve is generating maximum contractions and the muscle reaches its physiological limit. Past this point, training effects increase muscular strength through myofibrillar or sarcoplasmic hypertrophy and metabolic fatigue becomes the factor limiting contractile force."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eccentric training",
        "text": "Proof of muscle strengthening without damage:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscle hypertrophy",
        "text": "Strength training (resistance training) causes neural and muscular adaptations which increase the capacity of an athlete to exert force through voluntary muscular contraction: After an initial period of neuro-muscular adaptation, the muscle tissue expands by creating sarcomeres (contractile elements) and increasing non-contractile elements like sarcoplasmic fluid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscle weakness",
        "text": "For extremely powerful contractions that are close to the upper limit of a muscle's ability to generate force, neuromuscular fatigue can become a limiting factor in untrained individuals. In novice strength trainers, the muscle's ability to generate force is most strongly limited by nerve\u2019s ability to sustain a high-frequency signal. After an extended period of maximum contraction, the nerve\u2019s signal reduces in frequency and the force generated by the contraction diminishes. There is no sensation of pain or discomfort, the muscle appears to simply \u2018stop listening\u2019 and gradually cease to move, often lengthening. As there is insufficient stress on the muscles and tendons, there will often be no delayed onset muscle soreness following the workout. Part of the process of strength training is increasing the nerve's ability to generate sustained, high frequency signals which allow a muscle to contract with their greatest force. It is this \"neural training\" that causes several weeks worth of rapid gains in strength, which level off once the nerve is generating maximum contractions and the muscle reaches its physiological limit. Past this point, training effects increase muscular strength through myofibrillar or sarcoplasmic hypertrophy and metabolic fatigue becomes the factor limiting contractile force."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kaatsu",
        "text": "According to physical therapist Nicholas Rolnick, if someone exercises while restricting blood flow, blood and metabolic byproducts become \"stuck in the muscle, unable to leave.\" Due to the presence of the metabolites, the muscles become 'fatigued', forcing the muscle to work harder than it normally would need to, to produce contractions under light loads. The extra effort created together with the blood flow restriction, speeds up the process of building muscle mass, increasing strength."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tearing",
        "text": "\"The value of tear strength obtained depends on the shape of the test piece, speed of stretching and temperature of test.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscle hypertrophy",
        "text": "During a workout, increased blood flow to metabolically active areas causes muscles to temporarily increase in size. This phenomenon is referred to as transient hypertrophy, or more commonly known as being \"pumped up\" or getting \"a pump\". About two hours after a workout and typically for seven to eleven days, muscles swell due to an inflammation response as tissue damage is repaired. Longer-term hypertrophy occurs due to more permanent changes in muscle structure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Weakness",
        "text": "Substrates produce metabolic fatigue by being depleted during exercise, resulting in a lack of intracellular energy sources to fuel contractions. In essence, the muscle stops contracting because it lacks the energy to do so.\n* True weakness (or neuromuscular) describes a condition where the force exerted by the muscles is less than would be expected, for example muscular dystrophy.\n* Perceived weakness (or non-neuromuscular) describes a condition where a person feels more effort than normal is required to exert a given amount of force but actual muscle strength is normal, for example chronic fatigue syndrome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Davis's law",
        "text": "However, excessive loading during the recovery process may lead to material failure, i.e. partial tears or complete rupture. Additionally, studies show that tendons have a maximum modulus of approximately 800 MPa; thus, any additional loading will not result in a significant increase in modulus strength. These results may change current physical therapy practices, since aggressive training of the tendon does not strengthen the structure beyond its baseline mechanical properties; therefore, patients are still as susceptible to tendon overuse and injuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Weakness",
        "text": "In some conditions, such as myasthenia gravis, muscle strength is normal when resting, but \"true weakness\" occurs after the muscle has been subjected to exercise. This is also true for some cases of chronic fatigue syndrome, where objective post-exertion muscle weakness with delayed recovery time has been measured and is a feature of some of the published definitions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscle memory",
        "text": "Evidence has shown that increases in strength occur well before muscle hypertrophy, and decreases in strength due to detraining or ceasing to repeat the exercise over an extended period of time precede muscle atrophy. To be specific, strength training enhances motor neuron excitability and induces synaptogenesis, both of which would help in enhancing communication between the nervous system and the muscles themselves. However, neuromuscular efficacy is not altered within a two-week time period following cessation of the muscle usage; instead, it is merely the neuron's ability to excite the muscle that declines in correlation with the muscle's decrease in strength. This confirms that muscle strength is first influenced by the inner neural circuitry, rather than by external physiological changes in the muscle size."
      },
      {
        "title": "La Question",
        "text": "I felt a difference in quality. Instead of sharp and quick bites that seemed to rip my body apart, it was now a larger pain that sank more deeply into all my muscles and twisted them for longer ()"
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscle hypertrophy",
        "text": "The message filters down to alter the pattern of gene expression. The additional contractile proteins appear to be incorporated into existing myofibrils (the chains of sarcomeres within a muscle cell). There appears to be some limit to how large a myofibril can become: at some point, they split. These events appear to occur within each muscle fiber. That is hypertrophy results primarily from the growth of each muscle cell rather than an increase in the number of cells. Skeletal muscle cells are however unique in the body in that they can contain multiple nuclei, and the number of nuclei can increase."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strength training",
        "text": "For many people in rehabilitation or with an acquired disability, such as following stroke or orthopaedic surgery, strength training for weak muscles is a key factor to optimise recovery. For people with such a health condition, their strength training is likely to need to be designed by an appropriate health professional, such as a physiotherapist or an occupational therapist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strength training",
        "text": "Muscle tone or firmness is derived from the increase in actin and myosin cross filaments in the sarcomere. When this occurs the same amount of neurological input creates a greater firmness or tone in the resting continuous and passive partial contraction in the muscle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strength reduction",
        "text": "becomes"
      },
      {
        "title": "Artificial muscle",
        "text": "Tiny artificial muscles composed of twisted carbon nanotubes filled with paraffin are 200 times stronger than human muscle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Myofilament",
        "text": "More recently, myofilament protein changes have been studied in humans in response to resistance training. Again, researchers are not completely clear about the molecular mechanisms of change, and an alteration of fiber-type composition in the myofilament may not be the answer many athletes have long assumed. This study looked at the muscle specific tension in the quadriceps femoris and vastus lateralis of forty-two young men. Researchers report a 17% increase in specific muscle tension after a period of resistance training, despite a decrease in the presence of MyHC, myosin heavy-chain. This study concludes that there is no clear relationship between fiber-type composition and in vivo muscle tension, nor was there evidence of myofilament packing in the trained muscles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscle memory",
        "text": "Previously untrained muscles acquire newly formed nuclei by fusion of satellite cells preceding the hypertrophy. Subsequent detraining leads to atrophy but no loss of myo-nuclei. The elevated number of nuclei in muscle fibers that had experienced a hypertrophic episode would provide a mechanism for muscle memory, explaining the long-lasting effects of training and the ease with which previously trained individuals are more easily retrained."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meniscus tear",
        "text": "Adequate muscle mass and strength may also aid in maintaining healthy knees. The use of the parallel squat increases much needed stability in the knee if executed properly. Execution of the parallel squat will develop the lower body muscles that will strengthen the hips, knees, and ankles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Progressive overload",
        "text": "The goal of strength-training programs is to increase one\u2019s physical strength and performance. This is achieved through resistance training. By placing the exercise musculature under greater-than-normal demand, the body will start a natural adaptation process, improving its capabilities to endure that higher amount of stress. Neuromuscular adaptation will occur first, which will already increase the individual\u2019s strength when lifting. With consistency in the training sessions, what will follow will be an increase in overall muscle mass and the strengthening of connective tissue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Osgood\u2013Schlatter disease",
        "text": "Other exercises can include leg raises, squats, and wall stretches to increase quadriceps and hamstring strength. This helps to avoid pain, stress, and tight muscles that lead to further injury that oppose healing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strength training",
        "text": "It is widely accepted that strength training must be matched by changes in diet in order to be effective. Although aerobic exercise is often observed to have an effect on the dietary intake of macronutrients, strength training has not and an increase in dietary protein is generally believed to be required for building skeletal muscle."
      },
      {
        "title": "PDK4",
        "text": "Exercise has been shown to induce changes in this gene as well, and that transient changes can have a cumulative effect across many exercise sessions. The mRNA of PDK4, along with PPARGC1A, increase in both types of muscle tissue after exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscle fatigue",
        "text": "In novice strength trainers, the muscle's ability to generate force is most strongly limited by nerve\u2019s ability to sustain a high-frequency signal. After a period of maximum contraction, the nerve\u2019s signal reduces in frequency and the force generated by the contraction diminishes. There is no sensation of pain or discomfort, the muscle appears to simply \u2018stop listening\u2019 and gradually cease to contract, often going backwards. Often there is insufficient stress on the muscles and tendons to cause delayed onset muscle soreness following the workout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Weight training",
        "text": "For many people in rehabilitation or with an acquired disability, such as following stroke or orthopaedic surgery, strength training for weak muscles is a key factor to optimise recovery. For people with such a health condition, their strength training is likely to need to be designed by an appropriate health professional, such as a physiotherapist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biceps",
        "text": "Tears of the biceps brachii may occur during athletic activities, however avulsion injuries of the distal biceps tendon are frequently occupational in nature and sustained during forceful, eccentric contraction of the biceps muscle while lifting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reciprocal inhibition",
        "text": "If opposing muscles were to contract at the same time, a muscle tear can occur. This may occur during physical activities such as running, during which opposing muscles engage and disengage sequentially to produce coordinated movement. Reciprocal inhibition facilitates ease of movement and is a safeguard against injury. However, if a \"misfiring\" of motor neurons occurs, causing simultaneous contraction of opposing muscles, a tear can occur. For example, if the quadriceps femoris and hamstring contract simultaneously at a high intensity, the stronger muscle (traditionally the quadriceps) overpowers the weaker muscle group (hamstrings). This can result in a common muscular injury known as a pulled hamstring, more accurately called a muscle strain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscle weakness",
        "text": "In some conditions, such as myasthenia gravis, muscle strength is normal when resting, but \"true\" weakness occurs after the muscle has been subjected to exercise. This is also true for some cases of chronic fatigue syndrome, where objective post-exertion muscle weakness with delayed recovery time has been measured and is a feature of some of the published definitions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pedro Mart\u00ednez",
        "text": "On November 3, 2006, Mart\u00ednez stated that if he could not return to full strength, he might end up retiring after the 2007 season. \"It's getting better, and progress is above all what is hoped for\", Mart\u00ednez told the Associated Press. \"To go back, I have to recover, I have to be healthy. But if God doesn't want that, then I would have to think about giving it all up.\" Mart\u00ednez added, \"It's going to be a bitter winter because I am going to have to do a lot of work. The pain I feel was one of the worst I have felt with any injury in my career.\" But by December 30, 2006, Mart\u00ednez was more optimistic: \"The progress has been excellent. I don't have problems anymore with my reach or flexibility, and so far everything is going very well. The problem has to do with the calcification of the bone that was broken with the tear, and that had to be operated on. You have to let it run its course.\" Mart\u00ednez also reported bulking up as part of his recuperative regimen: \"I've put on about 10 pounds of muscle, because that's one of our strategies.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Tendon transfer",
        "text": "The donor muscle must have enough strength (work capacity) to duplicate the recipient function. The work capacity depends upon muscle fibre's length and cross sectional area, which are proportional to muscle mass and volume. In other words, a larger muscle produces more force and a longer muscle has a greater excursion. There are potential factors that may result in loss of muscle strength including postoperative adhesion, difference in vector of motion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscle fatigue",
        "text": "Part of the process of strength training is increasing the nerve's ability to generate sustained, high frequency signals which allow a muscle to contract with its greatest force. This neural training can cause several weeks of rapid gains in strength, which level off once the nerve is generating maximum contractions and the muscle reaches its physiological limit. Past this point, training effects increase muscular strength through myofibrillar or sarcoplasmic hypertrophy and metabolic fatigue becomes the factor limiting contractile force."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscle hypertrophy",
        "text": "Training variables, in the context of strength training, such as frequency, intensity, and total volume also directly affect the increase of muscle hypertrophy. A gradual increase in all of these training variables will yield the muscular hypertrophy."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Biggest Loser (American TV series)",
        "text": "Nutritionist Dr. Barry Sears sums up the wellness paradox: \"First, eating less can cause stress to the system causing more hunger. Second, the more people exercise, the hungrier they become.\" Dr. Sears continues by claiming that \"even with the most intense training, people are unlikely to add more than five pounds of muscle in 12 weeks of weight training. The reason viewers see their muscles emerging as the show goes on is because as the layer of fat surrounding the muscles is lost, muscles become more visible. Those muscles were always there but covered by a mass of fat tissue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Weight training",
        "text": "Beginners are advised to build up slowly to a weight training program. Untrained individuals may have some muscles that are comparatively stronger than others; nevertheless, an injury can result if (in a particular exercise) the primary muscle is stronger than its stabilizing muscles. Building up slowly allows muscles time to develop appropriate strengths relative to each other. This can also help to minimize delayed onset muscle soreness. A sudden start to an intense program can cause significant muscular soreness. Unexercised muscles contain cross-linkages that are torn during intense exercise. A regimen of flexibility exercises should be implemented before and after workouts. Since weight training puts great strain on the muscles, it is necessary to warm-up properly. Kinetic stretching before a workout and static stretching after are a key part of flexibility and injury prevention."
      },
      {
        "title": "Platysma muscle",
        "text": "In a similar fashion to other muscles, the platysma muscle is vulnerable to tears, strains and muscle atrophy, among many other possible conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Researchers once attributed fatigue to a build-up of lactic acid in muscles. However, this is no longer believed. Rather, lactate may stop muscle fatigue by keeping muscles fully responding to nerve signals. The available oxygen and energy supply, and disturbances of muscle ion homeostasis are the main factor determining exercise performance, at least during brief very intense exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of medical mnemonics",
        "text": "Loss of muscle strength"
      },
      {
        "title": "Strength training",
        "text": "A manipulation of the number of repetitions, sets, tempo, exercises and force are suggested to cause specific and desired changes in strength, endurance or size, although recent scientific studies have weakened the support for such anticipations. The specific combinations of reps, sets, exercises, resistance and force depend on the purpose of the individual performing the exercise: to gain size and strength multiple (4+) sets with fewer reps must be performed using more force."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spasm",
        "text": "A spasm may lead to muscle strains or tears in tendons and ligaments if the force of the spasm exceeds the tensile strength of the underlying connective tissue. This can occur with a particularly strong spasm or with weakened connective tissue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meniscus tear",
        "text": "The second way to prevent a meniscus tear is to strengthen and stretch the major leg muscles. Those muscles include the hamstrings, quadriceps, and calf muscles. One popular exercise used to strengthen the hamstrings is the leg curl. It is also important to properly stretch the hamstrings; doing standing toe touches can do this. Seated leg extensions strengthen the quadriceps and doing the quadriceps stretch will help loosen the muscles. Toe raises are used to strengthen and stretch the calves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscle memory (strength training)",
        "text": "The muscle cells are the largest cells in the body with a volume thousands of times larger than most other body cells. To support this large volume, the muscle cells are one of the very few in the mammalian body that contain several cell nuclei. Such multinucleated cells are called syncytia. Strength-training increases muscle mass and force mainly by changing the caliber of each fiber rather than increasing the number of fibers. During such fiber enlargement muscle stem cells in the muscle tissue multiply and fuse with pre-existing fibers as to support the larger cellular volume. It has often been assumed that each nucleus can support a certain volume of cytoplasm, and hence that there is a constant volume domain served by each nucleus, although recent evidence suggests that this is an oversimplification. Until recently it was believed that during muscle wasting (atrophy) muscle cells lost nuclei by a nuclear self-destruct mechanism called apoptosis, but recent observations using time lapse in vivo imaging in mice do not support this model. Direct observation indicated that no nuclei are lost under such conditions, and the apoptosis observed in the muscle tissue were demonstrated to occur only in other cell nuclei in the tissue, e.g. connective tissue and muscle stem cells called satellite cells. Since in vivo imaging has confirmed that cell nuclei are added during strength training and not lost upon subsequent detraining, the nuclei might provide a mechanism for muscle memory. Thus, upon retraining the extra nuclei are already there and can rapidly start synthesizing new protein to build muscle mass and strength."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pectoralis major",
        "text": "Tears of the pectoralis major are rare and typically affect otherwise healthy individuals. This type of injury is known to affect the athletic population, namely in high-impact contact sports such as powerlifting, and may result in pain, weakness, and disability. Most lesions are located at the musculotendinous junction and result from violent, eccentric contraction of the muscle, such as during bench press. A less frequent rupture site is the muscle belly, usually as a result of a direct blow. In developed countries, most lesions occur in male athletes, especially those practicing contact sports and weight-lifting (particularly during a bench press maneuver). Women are less susceptible to these tears because of larger tendon-to-muscle diameter, greater muscular elasticity, and less energetic injuries. The injury is characterized by sudden and acute pain in the chest wall and shoulder area, bruising and loss of strength of the muscle. High grade partial or full thickness tears warrant surgical repair as the preferred treatment if function is to be preserved, particularly in the athletic population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Skeletal muscle",
        "text": "It has been suggested that various types of exercise can induce changes in the fibers of a skeletal muscle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meniscus tear",
        "text": "The suggested exercises target increasing the patient's ROM, muscular and neuromuscular strength, and cardiovascular endurance. Aquatic therapy, or swimming, can be used to rehab patients because it encompasses ROM, strength, and cardiovascular exercises while relieving stress on the body. It has also been shown to significantly improve dependent edema and pain symptoms. No pain gait without crutches, swelling and 4\u20136 weeks after surgery are the criteria to begin the next phase (Ulrich G.S., and S Aroncyzk, 1993)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Skeletal muscle",
        "text": "Muscular, spinal and neural factors all affect muscle building. Sometimes a person may notice an increase in strength in a given muscle even though only its opposite has been subject to exercise, such as when a bodybuilder finds her left biceps stronger after completing a regimen focusing only on the right biceps. This phenomenon is called cross education."
      },
      {
        "title": "Isometric exercise",
        "text": "In the 1950s, German scientists Dr. Erich Albert M\u00fcller and Theodor Hettinger \"observed that contractions involving less than about one third of maximum strength do not train the muscle. If the contraction of a muscle exceeds one third of its maximum strength, its mass grows and hence also its strength\". The study at the Max Planck Institute consisted of over 200 experiments over a ten-year period. Theodor Hettinger published his book \"Physiology of Strength\". They both developed a training program based on isometrics exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Myofilament",
        "text": "While the research on muscle fiber remodeling is on-going, there are generally accepted facts about the myofilament from the American College of Sports Medicine. It is thought that an increase in muscle strength is due to an increase in muscle fiber size, not an increase in number of muscle fibers and myofilaments. However, there is some evidence of animal satellite cells differentiating into new muscle fibers and not merely providing a support function to muscle cells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical strength",
        "text": "Individual muscle fiber ratios can be determined through a muscle biopsy. Other considerations are the ability to recruit muscle fibers for a particular activity, joint angles, and the length of each limb. For a given cross-section, shorter limbs are able to lift more weight. The ability to gain muscle also varies person to person, based mainly upon genes dictating the amounts of hormones secreted, but also on sex, age, health of the person, and adequate nutrients in the diet. A one-repetition maximum test is the most accurate way to determine maximum muscular strength."
      },
      {
        "title": "Micro-g environment",
        "text": "In the first two weeks that the muscles are unloaded from carrying the weight of the human frame during space flight, whole muscle atrophy begins. Postural muscles contain more slow fibers, and are more prone to atrophy than non-postural muscle groups. The loss of muscle mass occurs because of imbalances in protein synthesis and breakdown. The loss of muscle mass is also accompanied by a loss of muscle strength, which was observed after only 2\u20135 days of spaceflight during the Soyuz-3 and Soyuz-8 missions. Decreases in the generation of contractile forces and whole muscle power have also been found in response to microgravity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Skeletal muscle",
        "text": "Muscle fibers grow when exercised and shrink when not in use. This is due to the fact that exercise stimulates the increase in myofibrils which increase the overall size of muscle cells. Well exercised muscles can not only add more size but can also develop more mitochondria, myoglobin, glycogen and a higher density of capillaries. However muscle cells cannot divide to produce new cells, and as a result there are fewer muscle cells in an adult than in a newborn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "There is some preliminary evidence to suggest that moderate intensity continuous training has the ability to increase someone's pain threshold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stronger with Each Tear",
        "text": "Stronger with Each Tear\n--Background.\n--Release and promotion.\n--Critical reception.\n--Commercial performance.\n--Track listing.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscle memory (strength training)",
        "text": "The extra muscle nuclei obtained by a strength training episode seems to be very long lasting, perhaps permanent, even in muscles that are inactive for a long time. The ability to recruit new nuclei is impaired in the elderly, so it might be beneficial to strength train before senescence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strength training",
        "text": "Due to the androgenic hormonal differences between males and females, women are generally unable to develop large muscles regardless of the training program used. Normally the most that can be achieved is a look similar to that of a fitness model. Muscle is denser than fat, so someone who builds muscle while keeping the same body weight will occupy less volume; if two people weigh the same (and are the same height) but have different lean body mass percentages, the one with more muscle will appear thinner."
      },
      {
        "title": "Overtraining",
        "text": "A number of possible mechanisms for overtraining have been proposed. One stipulates that microtrauma to the muscles are created faster than the body can heal them. Another proposes that amino acids are used up faster than they are supplied in the diet, a condition sometimes referred to as \"protein deficiency\". Finally, systemic inflammation has been considered as a mechanism in which the release of cytokines activates an excessive immune response."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stretch Arm Strong",
        "text": "Splits"
      },
      {
        "title": "Football strength",
        "text": "If strength exercises are not used effectively, there will be a disparity between the functional levels of the skeletal muscle system and the capabilities of the neuromuscular system. Specialized strength work produces a strong training effect on the intramuscular system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Isotonic contraction",
        "text": "Muscle injury and soreness are selectively associated with eccentric contraction. Muscle strengthening using exercises that involve eccentric contractions is lower than using concentric exercises. However because higher levels of tension are easier to attain during exercises that involve eccentric contractions it may be that, by generating higher signals for muscle strengthening, muscle hypertrophy is better than exercises that involve concentric contractions, albeit at a higher level of resistance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Motor unit plasticity",
        "text": "Muscle fibers have the ability to drastically increase in size as a result of all types of training. Muscle size is not directly related to muscle strength (force output) as would most likely be assumed. Endurance training can increase the size of low force-producing slow twitch muscle by as much as resistance training can increase the size of high force-producing fast twitch muscle. These situations have the ability to result in two muscles of equal size, but the slow twitch muscle produces only a small fraction of the maximum contractile strength produced by the fast twitch muscle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscle memory (strength training)",
        "text": "Until recently it was generally assumed that the effects of exercise on muscle was reversible, and that after a long period of de-training the muscle fibers returned to their previous state. For strength training this view was recently challenged by using in vivo imaging techniques revealing specific long lasting structural changes in muscle fibers after a strength-training episode. The notion of a memory mechanism residing in the muscle fibers might have implications for health related exercise advice, and for exclusion times after doping offences. Muscle memory is probably related to the cell nuclei residing inside the muscle fibers, as is described below."
      },
      {
        "title": "No pain, no gain",
        "text": "It expresses the belief that solid large muscle is the result of training hard. Delayed onset muscle soreness is often used as a measure of the effectiveness of a workout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Intensive care medicine",
        "text": "Interventions such as early mobilization or exercises to improve muscle strength are sometimes suggested."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscle fatigue",
        "text": "Muscle fatigue may be due to precise molecular changes that occur \"in vivo\" with sustained exercise. It has been found that the ryanodine receptor present in skeletal muscle undergoes a conformational change during exercise, resulting in \"leaky\" channels that are deficient in calcium release. These \"leaky\" channels may be a contributor to muscle fatigue and decreased exercise capacity."
      },
      {
        "title": "TPM2",
        "text": "The muscle weakness observed in these patients may be due to a change in mutated \"TPM2\" affinity for actin or decreased calcium-induced activation of contractility. Moreover, studies unveiled alterations in cross-bridge attachment and detachment rates, as well as changes in ATPase rates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical strength",
        "text": "An individual's physical strength is determined by two factors: the cross-sectional area of muscle fibers recruited to generate force and the intensity of the recruitment. Individuals with a high proportion of type I slow twitch muscle fibers will be relatively weaker than a similar individual with a high proportion of type II fast twitch fibers, but would have greater endurance. The genetic inheritance of muscle fiber type sets the outermost boundaries of physical strength possible (barring the use of enhancing agents such as testosterone), although the unique position within this envelope is determined by training."
      },
      {
        "title": "Skeletal muscle",
        "text": "Delayed onset muscle soreness is pain or discomfort that may be felt one to three days after exercising and generally subsides two to three days later. Once thought to be caused by lactic acid build-up, a more recent theory is that it is caused by tiny tears in the muscle fibers caused by eccentric contraction, or unaccustomed training levels. Since lactic acid disperses fairly rapidly, it could not explain pain experienced days after exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strength training",
        "text": "Typically, failure to use good form during a training set can result in injury or an inability to meet training goals. When the desired muscle group is not challenged sufficiently, the threshold of overload is never reached and the muscle does not gain in strength. There are cases when cheating is beneficial, as is the case where weaker groups become the weak link in the chain and the target muscles are never fully exercised as a result."
      },
      {
        "title": "Delayed onset muscle soreness",
        "text": "As a result of this effect, not only is the soreness reduced the next time the exercise is performed, but other indicators of muscle damage, such as swelling, reduced strength and reduced range of motion, are also more quickly recovered from. The effect is mostly, but not wholly, specific to the exercised muscle; experiments have shown that some of the protective effect is also conferred on other muscles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ripping (bodybuilding)",
        "text": "Too much cardiovascular exercise can directly affect muscle tissue if it is used excessively and without eating the correct food. The reason for this is because if the human body doesn't have sufficient energy stored in the form of glucose, then it will begin using energy from other sources, e.g. fats or muscles. For example, eating a little extra carbohydrates (which eventually transforms into glucose) will help the body to divert away from muscle tissue and extract energy from the glucose supplies. The time in which one eats is an important factor in ripping where cardiovascular training is concerned. Particular foods take a certain amount of time to extract the glucose in the digestive system. This means that there is limited amount of time to use the glucose before it gets stored as fat. Also there is a certain amount of time after cardiovascular exercise is being performed when the body's energy source runs out. This is when the process of muscle breakdown also comes into play."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hernia",
        "text": "Also, if muscles are weakened due to poor nutrition, smoking, and overexertion, hernias are more likely to occur."
      },
      {
        "title": "Metabolic window",
        "text": "Muscle protein synthesis (MPS) is the metabolic process of building muscle mass. Muscle protein breakdown (MPB) is the opposite process of breaking down muscular tissue. Muscle protein breakdown and muscle protein synthesis occur concurrently, meaning there is a constant renewal of protein in the body. The net muscle protein balance (NBAL) is the relationship between muscle protein breakdown and muscle protein synthesis. It is determined by the stability between the two processes. The anabolic state theory suggests that it is critical to consume proteins and carbohydrates immediately after resistance training to increase muscle protein synthesis, reduce muscle protein breakdown, and replenish glycogen levels in the muscle. In response to resistance training, muscle protein breakdown increases but it does not increase as much as protein synthesis. Since eating proteins and carbs immediately after exercising is known to reduce MPB, it is also assumed that in doing so, this will increase lean muscle mass by increasing the net protein balance. Muscle protein breakdown targets many types of proteins including damaged proteins and proteins that are rapidly turning over. To increase mass muscle size, changes depend on myofibrillar proteins and MPB would need to target these proteins specifically. Since MPB affects multiple types of protein, limiting protein breakdown through post-workout nutrition will hinder proper recovery by degrading the essential proteins for rebuilding muscle. According to a study performed in 2010, it found that it is not necessary to include large amounts of carbohydrates in post-workout nutrition since there are nutrient solutions that contain enough Essential amino acids and an adequate amount of carbohydrates to produce the maximum anabolic protein response."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eccentric training",
        "text": "Tearing an anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) in the knee causes serious damage that can last several years and often requires surgery. The ACL is one of the four main stabilizing ligaments of the knee. During the post-operative rehabilitation of patients, eccentric training can be used as a cornerstone of developing muscle size and strength. According to tests conducted by J. Parry Gerber in 2007, structural changes in the muscles greatly exceeded those achieved with standard concentric rehabilitation. The success of the involvement of gradual progressive exposure to negative work ultimately led to the production of high muscle force."
      },
      {
        "title": "Acute muscle soreness",
        "text": "Another causes of AMS would be from cramps during or after workout, which has been theorized to have been caused by two pathways:\n* Dehydration\n* Electrolyte imbalance"
      },
      {
        "title": "Training to failure",
        "text": "A 2010 study concluded that training to failure with \"lower loads\" with more repetitions can be \"more beneficial\" for muscle building than using higher loads with fewer repetitions. In this study, participants who trained to failure with a weight equal to 30 per cent of their single repetition maximum (1RM) had higher levels of muscle-building proteins 24 hours after their training session than participants who trained to failure with a weight that was 90 per cent of their maximum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rotator cuff tear",
        "text": "When exercising, exercising the shoulder as a whole and not one or two muscle groups is also found to be imperative. When the shoulder muscle is exercised in all directions, such as external rotation, flexion, and extension, or vertical abduction, it is less likely to suffer from a tear of the tendon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscle memory",
        "text": "obtained by a moderate increase in the protein synthesis rate of each of these many nuclei, skipping the step of adding newly formed nuclei. This shortcut may contribute to the relative ease of retraining compared with the first training of individuals with no"
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscle hypertrophy",
        "text": "The best approach to specifically achieve muscle growth remains controversial (as opposed to focusing on gaining strength, power, or endurance); it was generally considered that consistent anaerobic strength training will produce hypertrophy over the long term, in addition to its effects on muscular strength and endurance. Muscular hypertrophy can be increased through strength training and other short-duration, high-intensity anaerobic exercises. Lower-intensity, longer-duration aerobic exercise generally does not result in very effective tissue hypertrophy; instead, endurance athletes enhance storage of fats and carbohydrates within the muscles, as well as neovascularization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rhizotomy",
        "text": "Because the muscles may have been depending on the spasticity to function, there is almost always extreme weakness after a rhizotomy, and the patient will have to work very hard to strengthen the weak muscles with intensive physical therapy, and to learn habits of movement and daily tasks in a body without the spasticity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chin-up",
        "text": "Initiating the pulling action with scapular depression may help avoid this problem. The exercise is most effective in stretching the working muscles when the body is lowered down to a full extension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stopping power",
        "text": "Temporary cavitation can also cause the tearing of tissues if a very large amount of force is involved. The tensile strength of muscle ranges roughly from 1 to 4 MPa (145 to 580\u00a0lbf/in2), and minimal damage will result if the pressure exerted by the temporary cavitation is below this. Gelatin and other less elastic media have much lower tensile strengths, thus they exhibit more damage after being struck with the same amount of force. At typical handgun velocities, bullets will create temporary cavities with much less than 1 MPa of pressure, and thus are incapable of causing damage to elastic tissues that they do not directly contact."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adenosine monophosphate deaminase deficiency type 1",
        "text": "If a large group of muscles is still actively drawing fuels from blood after the most recent continuous exercise, in order to replenish the ATP and the phosphocreatine reserve, it may become sour without any additional exercise by the time the carbohydrate meal is finished."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscle memory (strength training)",
        "text": "The mechanisms implied for the muscle memory suggest that it mainly related to strength training, and a 2016 study conducted at Karolinska Institutet in Stockholm, Sweden failed to find a memory effect of endurance training."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meniscus tear",
        "text": "Patients begin exercises in phase III 14 to 22 weeks after surgery. Phase III's goal and final criterion is to perform sport/work specific movements with no pain or swelling (Fowler, PJ and D. Pompan, 1993). Drills for maximal muscle control, strength, flexibility, movements specific to patient's work/sport, low to high rate exercises, and abdominal and back strengthening exercises are all recommended exercises (Ulrich G.S., and S Aroncyzk, 1993). Exercises to increase cardiovascular fitness are also applied to fully prepare the patients to return to their desired activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Istvan Javorek",
        "text": "\"Methods to Enhance Recovery and Avoid Over-training\" National Strength And Conditioning Association Journal, June\u2013July 1987, page numbers 43 - 47."
      },
      {
        "title": "Plateau principle",
        "text": "Any athlete who has trained for a sport has probably experienced plateaus, and this has given rise to various strategies to continue improving. Voluntary skeletal muscle is in balance between the amount of muscle synthesized or renewed each day and the amount that is degraded. Muscle fibers respond to repetition and load, and increased training causes the quantity of exercised muscle fiber to increase exponentially (simply meaning that the greatest gains are seen during the first weeks of training). Successful training produces hypertrophy of muscle fibers as an adaptation to the training regimen. In order to make further gains, greater workout intensity is required with heavier loads and more repetitions, although improvement in skill can contribute to gains in ability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rotator cuff tear",
        "text": "In terms of the size of tears, a study compared the ages of patient to the size of tears. It was emphasized the older you are, the more massive of a tear you will have. It was found that mean age increased with larger tear sizes (small tears 59 years, medium tears 62 years, large tears 64 years, and massive tears 66 years)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscle weakness",
        "text": "Substrates produce metabolic fatigue by being depleted during exercise, resulting in a lack of intracellular energy sources to fuel contractions. In essence, the muscle stops contracting because it lacks the energy to do so."
      },
      {
        "title": "Myofilament",
        "text": "Other promising areas of research that may illumine the exact molecular nature of exercise-induced protein remodeling in muscle may be the study of related proteins involved with cell architecture, such as desmin and dystrophin. These proteins are thought to provide the cellular scaffolding necessary for the actin-myosin complex to undergo contraction. Research on desmin revealed that its presence increased greatly in a test group exposed to resistance training, while there was no evidence of desmin increase with endurance training. According to this study, there was no detectable increase in dystrophin in resistance or endurance training. It may be that exercise-induced myofilament alterations involve more than the contractile proteins actin & myosin."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What role does exercise play in aiding with the prevention of cancer?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Research shows that regular physical activity helps to reduce up to 30% the risk of a variety of cancer types, such as colon cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer and endometrium cancer. Exercise may contribute to a reduction of cancer-related fatigue in survivors of breast cancer, though there is currently insufficient evidence regarding the association between physical activity and mortality for survivors of other cancers."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How does exercise affect libido?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A study done in 2013  found that exercising improved sexual arousal problems related to antidepressant use."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Other than arousal problems, what side effects are common with antidepressant use?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Common side-effects of antidepressants include dry mouth, weight gain, dizziness, headaches, and emotional blunting. There are also adverse effects in pregnancy and antidepressant-induced mania, would you like to know more about one of these topics?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Yes, I am interested in the adverse effects associated with pregnancy."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "SSRI use in pregnancy has been associated with a variety of risks with varying degrees of proof of causation. SSRI use in pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion of about 1.7-fold, and is associated with preterm birth and low birth weight; SSRIs inhibit nitric oxide synthesis, which plays an important role in setting vascular tone."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you exercise too much\u2026e.g\u2026excessively?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes, overtraining occurs when someone exercises excessively, and can be described as a point where a person may have a decrease in performance and plateauing due to a training load which exceeds their recovery capacity. It can cause muscle soreness that doesn't go away, chronic fatigue, elevated resting heart rate, susceptibility to injuries and infections, depression, irritability, mental breakdowns, and burnout."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me how micro-tears to muscles from exercise actually cause muscles to become stronger?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "After microtrauma from stress (such as lifting weights) to muscles, they can be rebuilt and overcompensate to reduce the likeliness of re-injury.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I don't have a direct answer about the muscle tears but two factors contribute to hypertrophy and are a major part of the bodybuilding-related activities: sarcoplasmic hypertrophy, which focuses more on increased muscle glycogen storage; and myofibrillar hypertrophy, which focuses more on increased myofibril size; would you like to learn more about one of these topics?"
    ],
    "topic": "Exercise",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Microtrauma:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Microtrauma",
          "Positive effects"
        ],
        "ctx": "After microtrauma from stress (such as lifting weights) to muscles, they can be rebuilt and overcompensate to reduce the likeliness of re-injury."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Muscle hypertrophy:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Muscle hypertrophy"
        ],
        "ctx": "Muscle hypertrophy or muscle building involves a hypertrophy or increase in size of skeletal muscle through a growth in size of its component cells. Two factors contribute to hypertrophy: sarcoplasmic hypertrophy, which focuses more on increased muscle glycogen storage; and myofibrillar hypertrophy, which focuses more on increased myofibril size. It is the most major part of the bodybuilding-related activities."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Sarcoplasm:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sarcoplasm"
        ],
        "ctx": "Sarcoplasm is the cytoplasm of a muscle cell. It is comparable to the cytoplasm of other cells, but it contains unusually large amounts of glycogen (a polymer of glucose), myoglobin, a red-colored protein necessary for binding oxygen molecules that diffuse into muscle fibers, and mitochondria. The calcium ion concentration in sarcoplasma is also a special element of the muscle fiber; it is the means by which muscle contractions take place and are regulated. The sarcoplasm plays a critical role in muscle contraction as an increase in Ca2+ concentration in the sarcoplasm begins the process of filament sliding. A decrease in Ca2+ in the sarcoplasm subsequently ceases filament sliding. The sarcoplasm also aids in pH and ion balance within muscle cells."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Myofibril:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Myofibril"
        ],
        "ctx": "A myofibril (also known as a muscle fibril or sarcostyle) is a basic rod-like organelle of a muscle cell. Skeletal muscles are composed of long, tubular cells known as muscle fibers, and these cells contain many chains of myofibrils. Each myofibril has a diameter of 1\u20132 micrometres. They are created during embryonic development in a process known as myogenesis."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Many traditional styles of sausage from Asia and mainland Europe use no bread-based filler and include only meat (lean meat and fat) and flavorings. In the United Kingdom and other countries with English cuisine traditions, many sausages contain a significant proportion of bread and starch-based fillers, which may comprise 30% of ingredients. The filler in many sausages helps them to keep their shape as they are cooked. As the meat contracts in the heat, the filler expands and absorbs moisture and fat from the meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Europe and the Americas, typical fillers include meat, fat, suet, bread, cornmeal, onion, chestnuts, barley, oatmeal and buckwheat. On the Iberian Peninsula and in Latin America and Asia, fillers are often made with rice. Sweet variants with sugar, honey, orange peel and spices are also regional specialties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "A sausage is a type of meat product usually made from ground meat, often pork, beef, or poultry, along with salt, spices and other flavourings. Other ingredients such as grains or breadcrumbs may be included as fillers or extenders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "A sausage consists of meat cut into pieces or ground, mixed with other ingredients, and filled into a casing. Ingredients may include a cheap starch filler such as breadcrumbs or grains, seasoning and flavourings such as spices, and sometimes others such as apple and leek. The meat may be from any animal but is often pork, beef or veal, or poultry. The lean meat-to-fat ratio depends upon the style and producer. The meat content as labelled may exceed 100%, which happens when the weight of meat exceeds the total weight of the sausage after it has been made, sometimes including a drying process which reduces water content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Nowadays many types of mutura, especially commercial street food versions, do not contain blood. The meat used in the filling can be any fleshy part, but like any other type of sausage, prime cuts are not ordinarily used for the stuffing. Instead the tougher, leaner cuts \u2013 for example the neck \u2013 are trimmed off the bone. The casing for the stuffing is the stomach sac and larger intestines. These are flushed many times with water to clean them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Due to their habit of often exploding due to shrinkage of the tight skin during cooking, they are often referred to as \"bangers\", particularly when served with the most common accompaniment of mashed potatoes to form a bi-national dish known as bangers and mash."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "When the food processing industry produces sausages for a low price point, almost any part of the animal can end up in sausages, varying from cheap, fatty specimens stuffed with meat blasted off the carcasses (mechanically recovered meat, MRM) and rusk. On the other hand, the finest quality contain only choice cuts of meat and seasoning. In Britain, \"meat\" declared on labels could in the past include fat, connective tissue, and MRM. These ingredients may still be used but must be labelled as such, and up to 10% water may be included without being labelled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "Blood sausage is any sausage made by cooking animal blood with a filler until it is thick enough to congeal when cooled. Pig or cattle blood is most often used. Typical fillers include meat, fat, suet, bread, rice, barley and oatmeal. Varieties include biroldo, black pudding, blood tongue, blutwurst, drisheen, kishka (kaszanka), morcilla, moronga, mustamakkara, sundae, verivorst, and many types of boudin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausages may be served as hors d'\u0153uvres, in a sandwich, in a bread roll as a hot dog, wrapped in a tortilla, or as an ingredient in dishes such as stews and casseroles. It can be served on a stick (like the corn dog) or on a bone as well. Sausage without casing is called \"sausage meat\" and can be fried or used as stuffing for poultry, or for wrapping foods like Scotch eggs. Similarly, sausage meat encased in puff pastry is called a \"sausage roll\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vacuum filler",
        "text": "Hanging lines in the field of sausage production are auxiliary devices for linking and hanging portions of sausage. In principle, the application is similar to that of a holding device, however significantly higher filling capacities can be achieved. Hanging lines are available with various different degrees of automation.\n; Cutting lines: Cutting lines in the field of sausage production have the same basic structure as hanging lines. Cutting lines are used to chop linked strings of sausages into portioned sausages.\n; Clippers: Clippers for the production of portioned sausages are used in conjunction with vacuum fillers. The filling product is taken from the vacuum filler and through a filling pipe connected to the clipper and an appropriate sausage casing brake, where it is portioned into appropriate casings. The portion is then sealed by the clipper with the aid of metal clips. Sometimes, loops for hanging the portions are also attached simultaneously. Strings of sausages as well as individual portions can be produced.\n; Forming devices: Forming devices are used for the production of formed products, such as dumplings and burgers. There are two types. With \"free-forming devices\", the filling product is filled via tubing with an attached separating device. The separating device and the portion output are synchronised in such a way that it is possible to form the filling flow. The separating devices can be diaphragms (which function in a similar way to a photographic iris diaphragm; opening and closing creates a round shape during portioning), forming blades that move against each other or simple wire cutters or blades. The portion is ejected when the separating unit is opened. The separating devices then close in synchronisation with the end of the portion. This synchronised, adjustable process allows various different shapes to be created. The products can be directly transported for packaging or for thermal treatment on conveyor belts. With \"devices with forming dies\", the filling product is filled into forming dies (plastic mould that is filled to the base). The filled mould is \u201cmoved\u201d away from the filling area, it is detached from the flow of product by means of a simultaneous clipping movement and then ejected mechanically or pneumatically into transportation containers or into thermal treatment media.\n; Co-extrusion systems: Co-extrusion means the synchronous feeding of two or more product flows with the aim of producing filled products (e.g. meatballs with ketchup filling, sausages with mustard filling and potato dumplings with a meat filling). Two or more vacuum fillers are always required. Co-extrusion systems are available for the forming, clipping and linking applications.\n; ConPro systems: ConPro systems (continuous production systems) are special continuous co-extrusion systems for producing sausages with alginate skin. With this application, two vacuum fillers are operated in synchronisation and their filling flows are combined into one continuous product flow. Further down the process, the continuous string is divided into individual portions or strings of portions. One vacuum filler pumps the filling product while a second one deposits the skin (a paste containing alginate) via an annular gap. This is solidified by means of a fixing solution containing calcium ions. Depending on the degree of automation, the portions can be hung or collated or transported further for continuous thermal treatment or packaging. The most important advantage of the ConPro systems in comparison to traditional production methods is that sausage skins or casings no longer have to be changed. Due to continuous co-extrusion there are no casing change times and therefore the filling time is maximised.\n; Inline grinding systems: In the meat processing industry, grinding systems are used for grinding meat and are to be found ahead of the filling process in the product preparation phase. With inline grinding systems, a grinding system is integrated into the vacuum filler's filling flow as an auxiliary device. The filling and grinding process steps can therefore be combined in a single machine. This means that the filling product is moved by the vacuum filler and, during filling, it is chopped to the final grain size within the grinding system. An important application for inline grinding systems is dry sausage or fresh sausage production.\n; Minced meat lines: Minced meat lines are a combination of vacuum fillers, inline grinding systems and devices for separating the minced meat flow into individual portions. A continuous, formed product flow is filled onto a conveyor belt and a cutting blade divides the filling flow into portions. The portions can then be packed straight away.\n; Filling flow dividers: A filling flow divider can separate a single product flow from a pump into several equal flows. Feed systems similar to a vane cell feed system are integrated into filling flow dividers. Filling flow dividers are required, for example, for simultaneous depositing into several containers.\n; Valves: Valves or cutting devices are used as sealing devices at the end of tubing or filling flow dividers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Traditionally, sausage casings were made of the cleaned intestines, or stomachs in the case of haggis and other traditional puddings. Today, however, natural casings are often replaced by collagen, cellulose, or even plastic casings, especially in the case of industrially manufactured sausages. Some forms of sausage, such as sliced sausage, are prepared without a casing. Additionally, luncheon meat and sausage meat are now available without casings in tin cans and jars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mortadella",
        "text": "A similar commercial sausage product that omits the cubes of pork fat, called bologna, is popular in Canada and the United States. A variety that includes olives and pimentos is called olive loaf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Cured meat products typically contain less than 40 ppm nitrites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rookworst",
        "text": "A recipe from a Dutch cookbook of 1940 gives the proportions of ground meat as 4 parts of pork to 3 parts of veal and 3 parts of bacon. The mixture is salted and saltpeter, sugar and nutmeg are added before the meat is forced into pig intestines. The sausages are air-dried at 12 to 15 degrees C and then smoked at 18 to 20 degrees C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lorne sausage",
        "text": "Sausage meat, (beef, pork or more usually a combination of the two) is minced with rusk and spices, packed into a rectangular tin with a cross-section of about square, and sliced about thick before cooking. Square sausage has no casing, unlike traditional sausages, and must be tightly packed into the mould to hold it together; slices are often not truly square."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Embutidos (or enchidos) and lingui\u00e7a generally contain hashed meat, particularly pork, seasoned with aromatic herbs or spices (pepper, red pepper, paprika, garlic, rosemary, thyme, cloves, ginger, nutmeg, etc.)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regensburger Wurst",
        "text": "The sausage is prepared using pork without fat which is finely ground and mixed with salt and spices as well as some dices of pork. The sausage filling is put into sausage casing made from beef intestines, bound into short sausages, smoked and then boiled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausage making is a natural outcome of efficient butchery. Traditionally, sausage makers salted various tissues and organs such as scraps, organ meats, blood, and fat to help preserve them. They then stuffed them into tubular casings made from the cleaned intestines of the animal, producing the characteristic cylindrical shape. Hence, sausages, puddings, and salami are among the oldest of prepared foods, whether cooked and eaten immediately or dried to varying degrees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cotechino",
        "text": "It is prepared by filling the natural casing with rind, pork meat (usually of secondary preference), and fat mixed with salt and spices; in industrial production, nitrites and nitrates are added as preservatives. Some similar sausages exist in the Italian cooking tradition, for example musetto and zampone which are made with different meat and parts of the pig, musetto being made with meat taken from the pig's muzzle and zampone being held together by the pig's rear leg skin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cumberland sausage",
        "text": "Cumberland sausage is typically filled with chopped or coarsely minced pork, to which is added pepper, thyme, sage, nutmeg and cayenne, and some rusk as a binder. The meat content is usually 85\u201398%. However, the popularity of the Cumberland sausage has become so widespread in recent years that many large food producers started to mass-produce it and sacrificed its original quality with a meat content as low as 45%, containing emulsified rather than coarse-cut meat and being sold in thin links rather than thick, continuous lengths."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage casing",
        "text": "Sausage casing, also known as sausage skin or simply casing, is the material that encloses the filling of a sausage. Natural casings are made from animal intestines or skin; artificial casings, introduced in the early 20th century, are made of collagen and cellulose. The material is then shaped via a continuous extrusion process \u2013 producing a single sausage casing of indefinite length \u2013 which is then cut into desired lengths, usually while the extrusion process continues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "The procedure of stuffing meat into casings remains basically the same today, but sausage recipes have been greatly refined and sausage making has become a highly respected culinary art."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meat-free sausage roll",
        "text": "The basic composition of a meat-free sausage roll is sheets of puff pastry formed into tubes around a meat substitute filling, before being baked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "In some jurisdictions foods described as sausages must meet regulations governing their content. For example, in the United States The Department of Agriculture specifies that the fat content of different defined types of sausage may not exceed 30%, 35% or 50% by weight; some sausages may contain binders or extenders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fillet (cut)",
        "text": "Fillet (cut)\n--Meat.\n----Beef.\n----Chicken.\n--Fish.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vacuum filler",
        "text": "The aforementioned problems can be eradicated by modifying upstream process steps, adapting recipes and making technical modifications.\n; Holding devices: Holding devices in the field of sausage production are used for automatic sausage linking. A holding device comprises a rotating linking nozzle and an appropriate sausage casing brake. The movement of the linking nozzle is achieved by a drive integrated into the vacuum filler. The sausage casing brake ensures that the sausage casings are extracted evenly, thus creating equal portions.\n; Hanging lines:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Carniolan sausage",
        "text": "The Carniolan sausage contains at least 75 to 80% pork (aside from bacon) and at most 20% bacon. It may contain as much as 5% water, the sea salt from Se\u010dovlje salt pans, little garlic, saltpetre and black pepper. No other ingredients are permitted. The meat must be cut in small pieces 10 to 13\u00a0mm and bacon 8 to 10\u00a0mm. The filling is stuffed into pork intestine with a diameter of 32 to 36\u00a0mm. They are formed in pairs of lengths and a weight of 180 to 220\u00a0grams. Pairs are linked together with a wooden skewer. The sausages are hot smoked and heat-cured at about ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "When used as an adjective, the word \"sausage\" can refer to the loose sausage meat, which can be formed into patties or stuffed into a skin. When referred to as \"a sausage\", the product is usually cylindrical and encased in a skin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "A blood sausage is a sausage filled with blood that is cooked or dried and mixed with a filler until it is thick enough to solidify when cooled. Most commonly, the blood of pigs, sheep, lamb, cow, chicken, or goose is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "The meat for the stuffing is finely chopped or minced, and the mandatory fat is often trimmed from other parts. The meat is slightly fried, mixed with finely chopped red onions, salt and optionally fresh chili. Other additions include freshly chopped coriander (dhania or cilantro), garlic, pepper and even beef stock. This is then mixed thoroughly with the fresh blood from the animal, and stuffed into the stomach and intestines, with the openings sewn or tied together with string."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frankfurter W\u00fcrstchen",
        "text": "Originally, Frankfurters were made without nitrite curing salt. After the special ageing and smoking methods, the sausages, now of a golden colour, are put into wooden boxes with small sheet of parchment paper between layers. Therefore, the traditional sausages have a square cross-section, but there are a few exceptions where the sausage is round."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dokki",
        "text": "4. Kedba and sausage: for example Ezz El Menoufy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Nordic sausages (, , , ) are usually made of 60\u201380% very finely ground pork, very sparsely spiced with pepper, nutmeg, allspice or similar sweet spices (ground mustard seed, onion and sugar may also be added). Water, lard, rind, potato starch flour and soy or milk protein are often added for binding and filling. In southern Norway, grill and wiener sausages are often wrapped in a \"lompe\", a potato flatbread somewhat similar to a \"lefse\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pork",
        "text": "Pork is particularly common as an ingredient in sausages. Many traditional European sausages are made with pork, including chorizo, fuet, Cumberland sausage and salami giving it a succulent finish. Many brands of American hot dogs and most breakfast sausages are made from pork. Processing of pork into sausages and other products in France is described as charcuterie."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage casing",
        "text": "The collagen for artificial casings is processed extensively. It is formed by extrusion through a die to the desired diameter, dried and shirred into short sticks up to long that contain as much as of casing. In a newer process, a form of dough is coextruded with the meat blend, and a coating is formed by treating the outside with a calcium solution to set the coating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jiaozi",
        "text": "Common dumpling meat fillings include chicken, pork, beef, shrimp, and fish which are usually mixed with chopped vegetables. Popular vegetable fillings include napa cabbage, scallion (spring onions), celery, leek, spinach, mushroom, carrot, garlic chives, and edible black fungus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fermented meat",
        "text": "A particularly common form of fermented meat product is the sausage, with notable examples including chorizo, salami, sucuk, pepperoni, nem chua, som moo, and saucisson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maultasche",
        "text": "Some recipes for use bacon for the meat filling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vacuum filler",
        "text": "To produce individual portions from homogeneous product via a feed system, a \u201csealing device\u201d is always required at the feed system outlet. This device separates portions and is controlled in synchronisation with the portion output. These devices could be linking devices for sausages, clippers for portionable sausages, dosing valves for tubs and cans, cutting devices for dough as well as forming equipment for dumplings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Potassium nitrite and potassium nitrate additions allow the production of sausages with lower levels of sodium. When using the potassium form, it is necessary to include other ingredients to mask the bitter flavours it imparts. Old recipes use saltpetre which is not recommended. The primary reason is that often these old recipes contain many times more curing ingredients than are appropriate. Modern techniques are readily available and do a much better job."
      },
      {
        "title": "Filler (animal food)",
        "text": "Filler (animal food)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Note: The volume-to-weight ratio applies to the herbs and spices only. This in no way indicates the particular amount for a given recipe."
      },
      {
        "title": "False advertising",
        "text": "Some products are sold with fillers, which increase the legal weight of the product with something that costs the producer very little compared to what the consumer thinks that he or she is buying. Some food advertisements, for instance, incorporate this deceptive technique in products like meat, which can be injected with broth or brine (up to 15%), or TV dinners filled with gravy or other sauce instead of meat. Malt and ham have been used as filler in peanut butter. There are also non-meat fillers which may look starchy in their makeup, yet are high in carbohydrates and low in nutritional value. One example is cereal binder, and usually contains some combination of flours and oatmeal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sausage is a type of prepared meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u00f8d p\u00f8lse",
        "text": "Scandinavian sausages are usually made of 60\u201380% finely ground pork, spiced with pepper, nutmeg, allspice or similar sweet spices (ground mustard seed, onions and sugar may also be added). Water, lard, pork rind, potato starch flour and soybean or milk protein are often added as fillers. Nearly all commercially available sausages are industrially precooked to be subsequently fried or heated in boiling water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Szczecin pasztecik",
        "text": "The filling consists of either: minced beef (the oldest and the most popular), or sauerkraut and dried mushrooms, or cheese and champignons. During the time of the PPR, when a lack of meat on the market was a frequent occurrence, it was common to replace the meat stuffing with egg paste. The dough is crispy on the outside and soft inside."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor's sausage",
        "text": "In accordance with the legislation of the Eurasian Economic Union, no meat products may be released using names that are similar to the names of meat products established by interstate (regional) standards, with the exception of meat products manufactured according to these standards. In the technical regulations, as an example of such a name, \"Doctor's sausage\" (along with some others) is given."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frankfurter Rindswurst",
        "text": "The meat content of the sausage consists of 100% beef, with some lean meat being replaced by fat. For the production of the frankfurter, the coarsely ground meat is slowly minced for a short time in the grinder with nitrite curing salt and cutter aids. Then, fat and ice snow is added, and the chopping speed is increased until the mass is finely ground. Finally, it is seasoned with white pepper and paprika and color stabilizer is added if deemed necessary. The sausages are smoked for 60\u201390 minutes. They have a unit weight of 100 g and are cased in beef intestines with a diameter of 32\u201334\u00a0mm and are tied off. For the production of beef bratwurst, table salt is used instead of the nitrite curing salt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "A British fresh sausage typically contains around 10% butcher's rusk, 10% water, 2.5% seasoning, and 77.5% meat. At the point of sale, British sausages will often be labelled as \"actual meat content X%\". As meat can be fatty or lean, the X% is calculated using reference tables with the intention to give a fairer representation of the \"visual lean\" meat content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sausage (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Euromyth",
        "text": "Euromyth\n--Examples.\n----Straight bananas.\n----British sausage as an \"Emulsified High Fat Offal Tube\".\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "A variety of fresh meats may be used for making sausage, the most common are from beef, pork, lamb, chicken, turkey, and game. Meat should be fresh, high quality, have the proper lean-to-fat ratio and good binding qualities. The meat should not be contaminated with bacteria or other microorganisms. Combining spices and seasonings in amounts that complement each other is important."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of sausage dishes",
        "text": "This is a list of notable sausage dishes, in which sausage is used as a primary ingredient or as a significant component of a dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Finite sphere packing",
        "text": "One or two spheres always make a sausage. With three, a pizza packing (that is not also a sausage) becomes possible, and with four or more, clusters (that are not also pizzas) become possible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "There are various laws concerning the meat content of sausages in the UK. The minimum meat content to be labelled pork sausages is 42% (30% for other types of meat sausages), although to be classed as meat, the pork can contain 30% fat and 25% connective tissue. Often the cheapest supermarket pork sausages do not have the necessary meat content to be described as pork sausages and are simply labelled \"sausages\"; with even less meat content they are described as \"bangers\" (an unregulated name). These typically contain MRM which was previously included in meat content, but under later EU law cannot be so described."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor's sausage",
        "text": "Starting in the 1980s, due to food shortages and other economic downturns in the Soviet Union, the industry standard for Doctor's Sausage was altered to include fillers and other low-cost ingredients to stretch the meat. The alteration of the Doctor's Sausage recipe is sometimes cited as one of the events presaging the eventual downfall of the Soviet Union."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage roll",
        "text": "A vegetarian or vegan approximation of a sausage roll can be made in the same manner, using a meat substitute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devon (sausage)",
        "text": "Typical commercial preparations list the major ingredient as \"meat including pork\". It is usually composed of several types of pork, basic spices, and a binder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage and peppers",
        "text": "Sausage and peppers\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage casing",
        "text": "Beef casings are primarily available only salted or in brine, they are measured in sets not hanks and the length is 32 meters, this is for beef \"rounds\" and \"middles\" only, beef bung caps are only about 1 meter in length."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of sausage dishes",
        "text": "List of sausage dishes\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage casing",
        "text": "Artificial casings are made of collagen (often derived from cattle skin), cellulose, or plastic. Artificial casings from animal collagen are generally edible, though some are not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Usinger's",
        "text": "Usinger's produces many kinds of sausages and meats, in many cases using traditional 19th-century recipes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausages are made in a wide range of national and regional varieties, which differ by the types of meats that are used, the flavouring or spicing ingredients (garlic, peppers, wine, etc.), and the manner of preparation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meat-free sausage roll",
        "text": "Meat-free sausage roll\n--Composition.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vacuum filler",
        "text": "Many problems may occur when filling viscous media. The problems are often product-specific and are revealed when the product to be filled takes on an a-typical appearance. Examples of this are an inhomogeneous product appearance with sausage goods or when inserts are ground too finely during the pumping process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mitraillette",
        "text": "Originally \"mitraillettes\" only contained a sausage or sliced meat. Alternatives quickly became available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage casing",
        "text": "Casings made from cellulose and plastics are peeled off food products and are not eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Filler (animal food)",
        "text": "In processed animal foods, a filler is an ingredient added to provide dietary fiber, bulk or some other non-nutritive purpose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kohlwurst",
        "text": "To make \"Kohlwurst\", pork (often the remains of the carcass) and fat are minced; then a similar amount of raw, cleaned lights is also minced. It is then all mixed together and, depending on the specific recipe, seasoned with onions, salt, pepper, marjoram, thyme, mustard seeds and allspice. Finally the sausage meat is loosely filled in casings of natural intestine and smoked for one to two weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cumberland sausage",
        "text": "Seasonings are prepared from a variety of spices and herbs, though the flavour palate is commonly dominated by pepper, both black and white, in contrast to more herb-dominated varieties such as Lincolnshire sausage. Traditionally no colourings or preservatives are added. The distinctive feature is that the meat is chopped, not ground or minced, giving the sausage a chunky texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Discada",
        "text": "Once an ideal cooking heat is reached on the disk (usually medium to low heat works best) the first meat to be introduced is the bacon. This is placed at the center of the concave disk where the heat is concentrated. The natural fat from the bacon will prevent the meats from sticking. Beer or dark cola is added to create a broth for simmering the meats which also acts as a non stick agent. The bacon is placed away from direct heat onto the side of the disk once its cooked, and the sausage links are introduced to the remaining broth. As each piece of meat is removed from the direct heat, the meat's natural juices and the beer or cola create a broth for the next meat piece to be introduced to. Once cooked, the sausage is also set aside and the ham is added. The ham is set aside, and the chorizo is added next. The beef as well as the cook's choice of seasoning is finally added to the collective broth. Each meat is cooked for about 10 to 15 minutes. The beef is covered with a lid during the cooking process to contain its natural flavor and juices. The lid is then removed to allow the broth to reduce, and the meats can now be combined with the beef and the collective broth from the different meats. The onions, peppers, and tomatoes are chopped and added to the mix providing the dish with color and the meats with flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bra sausage",
        "text": "The sausage is prepared with lean beef (70-80%) and pork fat for the remainder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Helzel",
        "text": "Chicken or goose necks are commonly used but duck or turkey necks can be substituted. The stuffing can also include internal meats, such as chopped heart, gizzard, liver. Sometimes the stuffing is flavored with garlic and black pepper. Helzel may be cooked in chicken soup or used as an ingredient in cholent. Because of its sausage shape and the flour-based stuffing, helzel is sometimes called \"false kishke\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "The United States has a particular shelf stable type called pickled sausages, commonly sold in establishments such as gas stations and delicatessens. These are usually smoked or boiled sausages of a highly processed hot dog or kielbasa style plunged into a boiling brine of vinegar, salt, spices, and often a pink coloring, then canned in Mason jars. They are usually packaged in single blister packs or jars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meates",
        "text": "Meates\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "An Akkadian cuneiform tablet records a dish of intestine casings filled with some sort of forcemeat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bierwurst",
        "text": "The meat is partially cured and then made into the sausage with the other ingredients, after which, the sausage is further cured, smoked and then blanched."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage casing",
        "text": "Sheep and lamb and hog are also available in a net, commonly referred to as net pack, these are available salted or in brine and they are primarily used by medium to large sausage makers who do not want to pay the additional cost for the tubed casing and don't have automatic sausage stuffing and linking machines (which require tubed casings to operate efficiently). These are available in all diameters and in lengths greater than 2 meters (as that is the shortest length sold for commercial use)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rappie pie",
        "text": "Common meat fillings include beef, chicken, or bar clams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morc\u00f3n",
        "text": "In the Philippines, the sausage has evolved into a stuffed meat roulade. The meat, which could be beef or pork, is cut into thin sheets and wrapped around hard-boiled eggs, ham, sausages, carrots, pickled cucumber slices and other ingredients to form a solid sausage. The roulade is usually cooked using a stewing and frying technique, and sliced when cool."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausages are emulsion-type products. They are composed of solid fat globules, dispersed in protein solution. The proteins function by coating the fat and stabilizing them in water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Many nations and regions have their own characteristic sausages, using meats and other ingredients native to the region and employed in traditional dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sausage may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Euromyth",
        "text": "A 1984 episode of the satirical television programme \"Yes Minister\" included a plotline in which the Commission would require the renaming of the British sausage as an \"emulsified high fat offal tube\" on account of it not containing enough meat. The \"eurosausage\" story is used as an amusing but fictional example of a Euromyth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mold",
        "text": "Some sausages, such as salami, incorporate starter cultures of molds to improve flavour and reduce bacterial spoilage during curing. \"Penicillium nalgiovense\", for example, may appear as a powdery white coating on some varieties of dry-cured sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Galicia, blood pancakes are called filloas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rinderroulade",
        "text": "The filling is a mixture of smoked and cooked pork belly, chopped onions and chopped pickles (gherkins) which is at times varied by adding minced meat or sausage meat. The mixture varies from region to region. Rouladen are traditionally served for dinner. Red wine is often used for the gravy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Braunschweiger (sausage)",
        "text": "The USDA requires that the product contain a minimum of 30% liver. A typical commercial formula is about 40% pork liver or scalded beef liver, 30% scalded pork jowl, 20% lean pork trimmings and 10% bacon ends and pieces. Added seasonings include salt and often include white pepper, onion powder or chopped onion, and mace. Curing ingredients (sodium erythorbate and sodium nitrite) are optional."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungarian sausages",
        "text": "The smoked sausages may contain bacon, ground pork, beef, boar or lamb, paprika, salt, garlic, black pepper, allspice, white pepper, caraway, nutmeg, zest, marjoram, cayenne pepper, sugar, white wine or cognac. Sausages may have additional ingredients like liver, mushroom, bread, rice, lemon juice, eggs, cream or milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Filler (animal food)",
        "text": "Products like corncobs, feathers, soy, cottonseed hulls, peanut hulls, citrus pulp, screening, weeds, straw, and cereal by-products are often included as inexpensive fillers or low-grade fiber content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage gravy",
        "text": "Sausage gravy\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Provoleta",
        "text": "Stuffed provoleta () is provoleta stuffed with assorted fillings that could include ham, barbecue sausage or \"morcilla\" blood sausage, cheese, vegetables, peppers and onions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast sausage",
        "text": "It is essentially a highly seasoned ground meat, so it does not keep and should be stored and handled appropriately. Newer variations made from pork and beef mixtures as well as poultry (turkey or chicken) can also be found. There are also vegetarian varieties that use textured vegetable protein in place of meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adulterant",
        "text": "Past and present examples of adulterated food, some dangerous, include:\n* Apple jellies (jams), as substitutes for more expensive fruit jellies, with added colorant and sometimes even specks of wood that simulate raspberry or strawberry seeds\n* High fructose corn syrup or cane sugar, used to adulterate honey\n* Red ochre\u2013soaked brown bread to give the appearance of beef sausage for sausage roll filling.\n* Roasted chicory roots used as an adulterant for coffee\n* Water, for diluting milk and alcoholic beverages\n* Water or brine injected into chicken, pork, or other meats to increase their weight\n* Urea, melamine and other nonprotein nitrogen sources, added to protein products to inflate crude protein content measurements"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate are limited to 1.7\u00a0gram per kilogram (2.75 ounces per 100 pounds)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Specific include:\n* Fresh sausages, mostly grilled, sometimes stewed\n** Boudin blanc, a soft, light-colored sausage made of chicken, pork, or veal, or a mixture, and usually also containing eggs and milk;\n** Boudin noir, a blood sausage;\n** Andouillette, made of pork intestines;\n** Cervelas de Lyon, with pistachios or truffles;\n** Chipolata, thin and long;\n** Cr\u00e9pinette, a small, flattened sausage wrapped in caul fat rather than a casing;\n** Merguez, a spicy mutton- or beef-based sausage;\n** Saucisse de Toulouse, often used in cassoulet\n* Cured or smoked sausages, \"saucisson\", served thinly sliced\n** Andouille, usually smoked, made primarily of pork intestines\n** Rosette de Lyon\n** Saucisse de Morteau, smoked\n** Saucisson de Lyon"
      },
      {
        "title": "Meat extenders",
        "text": "Meat extenders are non-meat substances with substantial protein content. Extenders are distinguished from fillers by their high protein content, compared to the high carbohydrate content of fillers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meat",
        "text": "Meat is prepared in many ways, as steaks, in stews, fondue, or as dried meat like beef jerky. It may be ground then formed into patties (as hamburgers or croquettes), loaves, or sausages, or used in loose form (as in \"sloppy joe\" or Bolognese sauce)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sundae (sausage)",
        "text": "Traditional South Korean varieties, as well as all North Korean, Russian Korean (Koryo-saram and Sakhalin Korean), and Chinese Korean \"sundae\" fillings include \"seonji\" (blood), minced meat, rice, and vegetables. Modern South Korean \"bunsik\" (snack food) varieties often use \"dangmyeon\" (glass noodles) instead of meat, rice, and vegetables. Other fillings include \"kkaennip\" (perilla leaves), scallions, \"doenjang\" (soybean paste), kimchi, and soybean sprouts."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is an example of none meat item that is added to a sausages as fillers?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "An example of a sausage filler are breadcrumbs and grains."
    ],
    "topic": "Sausage",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Sausage:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sausage",
          "Ingredients"
        ],
        "ctx": "A sausage consists of meat cut into pieces or ground, mixed with other ingredients, and filled into a casing. Ingredients may include a cheap starch filler such as breadcrumbs or grains, seasoning and flavourings such as spices, and sometimes others such as apple and leek. The meat may be from any animal but is often pork, beef or veal, or poultry. The lean meat-to-fat ratio depends upon the style and producer. The meat content as labelled may exceed 100%, which happens when the weight of meat exceeds the total weight of the sausage after it has been made, sometimes including a drying process which reduces water content."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausage making is a natural outcome of efficient butchery. Traditionally, sausage makers salted various tissues and organs such as scraps, organ meats, blood, and fat to help preserve them. They then stuffed them into tubular casings made from the cleaned intestines of the animal, producing the characteristic cylindrical shape. Hence, sausages, puddings, and salami are among the oldest of prepared foods, whether cooked and eaten immediately or dried to varying degrees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Italian sausage",
        "text": "Initially known as \"lucanica\", the first evidence of the sausage dates back to the 1st century BC, when the Roman historian Marcus Terentius Varro described stuffing spiced and salted meat into pig intestines, as follows: \"They call lucanica a minced meat stuffed into a casing, because our soldiers learned how to prepare it\". Confirmation of the birth in Basilicata are also the writings of Cicero and Martial that mention Lucania as the birthplace of the sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "The origins of meat preservation are lost to the ages but probably began when humans began to realize the preservative value of salt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "The word \"sausage\" was first used in English in the mid-15th century, spelled . This word came from Old North French (Modern French ). The French word came from Vulgar Latin (\"sausage\"), from (\"seasoned with salt\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Daily Cleveland Herald",
        "text": "It is noted as the first to publish a remark relating the process of law making to sausages. The March 29, 1869 edition of the paper quoted poet John Godfrey Saxe as stating: \"Laws, like sausages, cease to inspire respect in proportion as we know how they are made.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Bullens pilsnerkorv",
        "text": "The first \"Pilsnerkorv\" sausages were produced by Alvesta butchery association in 1953. The launch was preceded by a large nationwide salmonella outbreak that originated in Alvesta's butchery. In total 9 000 people became infected and 90 people died during the epidemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Vegetarian and vegan sausages are also available in some countries, or can be made from scratch at home. These may be made from tofu, seitan, nuts, pulses, mycoprotein, soya protein, vegetables or any combination of similar ingredients that will hold together during cooking. These sausages, like most meat-replacement products, generally fall into two categories: some are shaped, colored, flavored, and spiced to replicate the taste and texture of meat as accurately as possible; others such as the Glamorgan sausage rely on spices and vegetables to lend their natural flavor to the product and no attempt is made to imitate meat. While not vegetarian, the soya sausage was invented 1916 in Germany. First known as \"K\u00f6lner Wurst\" (\"Cologne Sausage\") by later German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer (1876\u20131967)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "A sausage is a type of meat product usually made from ground meat, often pork, beef, or poultry, along with salt, spices and other flavourings. Other ingredients such as grains or breadcrumbs may be included as fillers or extenders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage roll",
        "text": "On 20 September 1809, the \"Bury and Norwich Post\" mentions T. Ling, aged 75, (an industrious vendor of saloop, buns, and sausage rolls). The Times first mentions the food item in 1864 when William Johnstone, \"wholesale pork pie manufacturer and sausage roll maker\", was fined \u00a315 (\"2015: \u00a3\"), under the Nuisances Removal Act (Amendment) Act 1863, for having on his premises a large quantity of meat unsound, unwholesome and unfit for food. In 1894, a theft case provided further insights into the Victorian sausage roll production whereby the accused apprentice was taught to soak brown bread in red ochre, salt, and pepper to give the appearance of beef sausage for the filling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "A sausage consists of meat cut into pieces or ground, mixed with other ingredients, and filled into a casing. Ingredients may include a cheap starch filler such as breadcrumbs or grains, seasoning and flavourings such as spices, and sometimes others such as apple and leek. The meat may be from any animal but is often pork, beef or veal, or poultry. The lean meat-to-fat ratio depends upon the style and producer. The meat content as labelled may exceed 100%, which happens when the weight of meat exceeds the total weight of the sausage after it has been made, sometimes including a drying process which reduces water content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Several varieties of meat-and-grain sausages developed in the US. Scrapple is a pork-and-cornmeal sausage that originated in the Mid-Atlantic States. Goetta is a pork-and-oats sausage that originated in Cincinnati. Livermush, originating in North Carolina, is made with pork, liver, and cornmeal or rice. All were developed by German immigrants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "An early example of Italian sausage is \"lucanica\", discovered by Romans after the conquest of Lucania. Lucanica's recipe changed over the centuries and spread throughout Italy and the world with slightly different names. Today, lucanica sausage is identified as \"Lucanica di Picerno\", produced in Basilicata (whose territory was part of the ancient Lucania)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Many traditional styles of sausage from Asia and mainland Europe use no bread-based filler and include only meat (lean meat and fat) and flavorings. In the United Kingdom and other countries with English cuisine traditions, many sausages contain a significant proportion of bread and starch-based fillers, which may comprise 30% of ingredients. The filler in many sausages helps them to keep their shape as they are cooked. As the meat contracts in the heat, the filler expands and absorbs moisture and fat from the meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Sausage making originally developed as a means to preserve and transport meat. Primitive societies learned that dried berries and spices could be added to dried meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bratwurst",
        "text": "While sausage recipes can be found as early as 228 AD, the first documented evidence of the \"Bratwurst\" in Germany dates to 1313 and can be found in the Franconian city of Nuremberg, which is still an internationally renowned center for the production of grilling sausages."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Finer Points of Sausage Dogs",
        "text": "The first story was first published in a limited edition of 400 copies in 1998."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor's sausage",
        "text": "This sausage was first produced in 1936, after the All-Russian Research Institute of the Meat Industry developed a recipe for sausage and the technology for its production. Its first production run was carried out at the Moscow Meat Processing Plant named after Anastas Mikoyan. The sausage was intended to be a dietary supplement for people exhibiting signs of prolonged starvation (specifically \"patients with compromised health as a result of the Civil War\"), hence its name. Because it was a mild-tasting, inexpensive and relatively healthy source of meat, Doctor's Sausage became very popular in the USSR."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herta Heuwer",
        "text": "Food historians such as Petra Foede believe that, as with most culinary creation myths, several rather than a single person were involved in developing this dish, sausage sellers experimenting with various spice mixes in order to replace the tomato ketchup that was unavailable during the immediate postwar years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage roll",
        "text": "The wrapping of meat or other foodstuffs into dough can be traced back to the Classical Greek or Roman eras. However sausage rolls in the modern sense of meat surrounded by rolled pastry, appear to have been conceived at the beginning of the 19th century in France. From the beginning, use was made of flaky pastry, which in turn originated with the Austrian croissant of the late 17th century. Early versions of the roll with pork as a filling proved popular in London during the Napoleonic Wars and it became identified as an English dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Traditionally, sausage casings were made of the cleaned intestines, or stomachs in the case of haggis and other traditional puddings. Today, however, natural casings are often replaced by collagen, cellulose, or even plastic casings, especially in the case of industrially manufactured sausages. Some forms of sausage, such as sliced sausage, are prepared without a casing. Additionally, luncheon meat and sausage meat are now available without casings in tin cans and jars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor's sausage",
        "text": "The exact recipe for Doctor's Sausage, which was used as an industry standard from 1936 to 1974:\n* 25 kg beef\n* 70 kg semi-fat pork\n* 3 liters milk\n* 2 liters eggs\n* 2 kg salt\n* 200 grams sugar\n* 30 grams cardamom\n* 50 g ascorbic acid (color stabilizer)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Viskase",
        "text": "Edwin O. Freund founder of what would become Viskase sought a readily available replacement for animal intestine casing. Upon creating a cellulose casing, using the \"viscose\" process (also used in rayon) he realized the product stuffed well, linked, and was able to withstand the smokehouse. Quite by accident, he discovered that when the casing was removed from the product the sausages retained their shape and were firm. This was the beginning of the skinless frankfurter or hot dog."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oxford sausage",
        "text": "As first produced, the Oxford sausage did not have a skin or other casing, but was hand-formed and floured before frying. However, modern forms are commonly made in a conventional, linked \"banger\" style, with natural pork or sheep casings. Beeton mentions both methods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "When the food processing industry produces sausages for a low price point, almost any part of the animal can end up in sausages, varying from cheap, fatty specimens stuffed with meat blasted off the carcasses (mechanically recovered meat, MRM) and rusk. On the other hand, the finest quality contain only choice cuts of meat and seasoning. In Britain, \"meat\" declared on labels could in the past include fat, connective tissue, and MRM. These ingredients may still be used but must be labelled as such, and up to 10% water may be included without being labelled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mititei",
        "text": "Regardless, the dish is first mentioned in 1870 by French-Romanian journalist Ulysse de Marsillac, and around 1872 they get their name from writer and humorist N. T. Or\u0103\u0219anu, who writes about eating them in Ionescu's pub. Similar varieties of skinless sausages appear in contemporary cooking books by Ecaterina Steriady (1871) and J.C. Hin\u021bescu (1877)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Literaturwurst",
        "text": "Roth made the first Literature Sausage from a copy of the \"Daily Mirror\", whilst living in Iceland, and gave it to his friend and colleague Daniel Spoerri in 1961. This makes it contemporaneous with his book \"Daily Mirror\" that Roth constructed this year, and was part of a series of books that used found printed matter, such as comics and off-set run up sheets, and rebound them to disrupt their visual authority."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glamorgan sausage",
        "text": "Newspaper advertisements promoting the sale of Glamorgan sausages begin to appear from 1869 onwards, with the first advert placed by pork butcher Henry S. Hammond of 288 Bute Street, Cardiff, placed in the \"Western Mail\" on 15 December. Hammond continued to advertise over the next several years, and by 1873 was claiming that the demand necessitated making the sausages on an hourly basis, and referenced other makers of the sausages making theirs days in advance prior to sale. The advert makes it clear that the sausages were made from \"choice dairy-fed pork\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Linda McCartney Foods",
        "text": "The products changed ingredients in circa August 1993, ceasing TVP and switching to wheat protein. This was marketed as providing a more meat-like taste than other meat analogue brands. However in 1995, it was noted that the sausages (available internationally) were manufactured from TVP seasoned with parsley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rookworst",
        "text": "A recipe from a Dutch cookbook of 1940 gives the proportions of ground meat as 4 parts of pork to 3 parts of veal and 3 parts of bacon. The mixture is salted and saltpeter, sugar and nutmeg are added before the meat is forced into pig intestines. The sausages are air-dried at 12 to 15 degrees C and then smoked at 18 to 20 degrees C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marcus Trescothick",
        "text": "My diet was sausages then, in no particular order, sausages, chips, sausages, toast, sausages, beans, sausages, cheese, sausages, eggs, and the occasional sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andouillette",
        "text": "The original composition of \"andouillette sausages\" is not known and there is no record of the andouillette's composition from earlier than the nineteenth century. Nineteenth century dictionaries simply describe them as \"small andouilles\" (\"\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "The procedure of stuffing meat into casings remains basically the same today, but sausage recipes have been greatly refined and sausage making has become a highly respected culinary art."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bullens pilsnerkorv",
        "text": "Erik \"Bullen\" Berglund did also help with the recipe for the canned sausage. During the 1950s, over thirty products were released under the \"Bullens\" label, including pigs' feet and dill meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Br\u00fchwurst",
        "text": "The consistency of a scalded sausage depends on the water binding capacity of the meat. This is particularly high immediately after slaughter, so that sausages were traditionally made from \"still warm, freshly slaughtered\" meat. In contemporary times, sausages are mainly produced using chilled or matured meat. In addition, fat stabilization and structure formation (gelation) are crucial factors in cooked sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dieter Roth",
        "text": "This processing of found text reached a logical conclusion in his book \"Literaturwurst\" (\"Literature Sausage\") 1961. The first copy was made out of a Daily Mirror mixed with spices and foodstuffs from genuine sausage recipes, and stuffed in a sausage skin which he sent to his friend Spoerri. Later copies took books or magazines to create an \"ironic\" reference to literature. This marked the beginnings of his use of foodstuffs in art, which brought him increasing notoriety throughout the 1960s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cervelat",
        "text": "The sausages are spelled \"cervelas\" in the French-speaking part of Switzerland, \"Cervelat\" in the German-speaking part, and \"servelat\" in the Italian-speaking part. The terms ultimately derive from \"cerebrum\", the Latin word for brain, which was used in early recipes. The term \"Cervelat\" is the oldest of the three. It was first recorded in 1552 by Rabelais, and is derived from \"zervelada\", a Milanese word meaning a \"large, short sausage filled with meat and pork brains.\" Modern recipes do not include brains, and arose towards the end of the 19th century in Basel, as a reworking of the traditional recipe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oxford sausage",
        "text": "The first published reference to a sausage that closely resembles the modern Oxford sausage is by John Nott in his book \"The Cook's and Confectioner's Dictionary: Or, the Accomplish'd Housewife's Companion\", published in London in 1723. In the text Nott, cook to the Duke of Bolton, refers to the sausages as \"Oxford Skates\" (or \"Kates\", as listed in the index). Whether this was a common local recipe or one created by Nott is unclear. By the late 18th century the spice-rich nature of the Oxford sausage had entered popular consciousness to such an extent that Thomas Warton used \"The Oxford Sausage\" as the title for his compilation of \"highly spiced\" political and satirical college verse, first published in 1764 and republished a number of times in the following 50 years. A number of variations on the recipe were published over the years, until Isabella Beeton selected the Oxford style as her exemplar for a typical pork sausage in her 1861 \"Book of Household Management\". With the popularity of this book the recipe reached a much wider audience, and Oxford sausage was for a time available as a canned, processed product. However, with the rise of mass-production, supermarkets and global distribution, the Oxford sausage fell out of favour. The modern rise of local food movements have resulted in the Oxford sausage being revived, albeit in a revised form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palethorpes",
        "text": "Palethorpe decided to move into value-added meat processing products, specialising in sausages, with which he had success. The company moved to Tipton in 1896, claiming at the time to be the world's largest sausage producer. The company expanded during World War I, supplying canned meat products to the British Army. However, it lost market share during and after World War II, with restrictions on meat sales due to the amount of meat that was being imported; this gave an advantage to fishmongers such as Mac Fisheries, who boomed during the war."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Typically, a sausage is formed in a casing traditionally made from intestine but sometimes from synthetic materials. Sausages that are sold raw are cooked in many ways, including pan-frying, broiling and barbecuing. Some sausages are cooked during processing, and the casing may then be removed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glamorgan sausage",
        "text": "The first published mention of them was by George Borrow in his book \"Wild Wales\", written in the 1850s and published in the next decade. He described them as \"not a whit inferior to those of Epping\"; Epping sausages were skinless meat-based sausages. Borrow visited Y Gwter Fawr (now known as Brynamman); the Tregib Arms has been suggested as the location at which Borrow ate his sausages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "An Akkadian cuneiform tablet records a dish of intestine casings filled with some sort of forcemeat."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of sausages",
        "text": "This is a list of notable sausages. Sausage is a food usually made from ground meat with a skin around it. Typically, a sausage is formed in a casing traditionally made from intestine, but sometimes synthetic. Some sausages are cooked during processing and the casing may be removed after. Sausage making is a traditional food preservation technique. Sausages may be preserved.\n* Blood sausage\n* Boerewors\n* Fermented sausage \u2013 a type of sausage that is created by salting chopped or ground meat to remove moisture, while allowing beneficial bacteria to break down sugars into flavorful molecules.\n* Garlic sausage\n* Gyurma\n* Helzel\n* Hot dog\n* Kranjska klobasa\n* Loukaniko\n* Lucanica\n* Merguez\n* Panchuker\n* Pepperette\n* Sai ua\n* Summer sausage\n* Tr\u00e4ipen\n* Vegetarian sausage \u2013 may be made from tofu, seitan, nuts, pulses, mycoprotein, soya protein, vegetables or any combination of similar ingredients that will hold together during cooking\n* Volkswagen currywurst \u2013 a brand of sausage manufactured by the Volkswagen car maker since 1973\n* White pudding\n* Winter salami"
      },
      {
        "title": "Braughing",
        "text": "The Braughing Pork Sausage was first made in 1954 by Douglas White and his wife Anna. The recipe remained the same until the company was sold to Musk's of Newmarket. Local sausages are served in the village's pubs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor's sausage",
        "text": "Doctor's sausage\n--History.\n--The recipe.\n----Later changes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Frankfurter W\u00fcrstchen",
        "text": "Originally, Frankfurters were made without nitrite curing salt. After the special ageing and smoking methods, the sausages, now of a golden colour, are put into wooden boxes with small sheet of parchment paper between layers. Therefore, the traditional sausages have a square cross-section, but there are a few exceptions where the sausage is round."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "After the Revolution, the sausage-making was largely concentrated in large, governmentally controlled meat processing plants, often built from the American examples, which introduced new, medically controlled and industrially made styles such as omnipresent Soviet bolognas \u2014 Doktorskaya sausage and its fatter Lyubitelskaya variant, as well as generic wieners and very status-loaded and scarce smoked sausages and salamis. Traditional sausages continued to be made for local consumption by the farmers and such, often sold on Kolkhoz markets, like the home-style sausage, made from roughly minced pork and its fat, spiced with garlic and black pepper \u2014 this was a raw sausage, intended for roasting or grilling, but sometimes cooked by hot smoking for preservation and flavour (this variant is often called Ukrainian)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Europe and the Americas, typical fillers include meat, fat, suet, bread, cornmeal, onion, chestnuts, barley, oatmeal and buckwheat. On the Iberian Peninsula and in Latin America and Asia, fillers are often made with rice. Sweet variants with sugar, honey, orange peel and spices are also regional specialties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sausage (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pigs in culture",
        "text": "German cities such as Nuremberg have made pork sausages since at least 1315 AD, when the \"W\u00fcrstlein\" (sausage controller) office was introduced. Some 1500 types of sausage are produced in the country. The Nuremberg bratwurst is required to be at most long and to weigh at most ; it is flavoured with mace, pepper, and marjoram. In Early Modern times starting in 1614, Nuremberg's butchers paraded through the city each year carrying a long sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bangers and mash",
        "text": "Although it is sometimes stated that the term \"bangers\" has its origins in World War II, the term was actually in use at least as far back as 1919. The term \"bangers\" is attributed (in common usage in the UK) to the fact that sausages made during World War I, when there were meat shortages, were made with such a high water content that they were liable to pop under high heat when cooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Usinger's",
        "text": "Usinger's produces many kinds of sausages and meats, in many cases using traditional 19th-century recipes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oxford sausage",
        "text": "Oxford sausage\n--History.\n--Ingredients and manufacture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sausage is a type of prepared meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausages are made in a wide range of national and regional varieties, which differ by the types of meats that are used, the flavouring or spicing ingredients (garlic, peppers, wine, etc.), and the manner of preparation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor's sausage",
        "text": "Starting in the 1980s, due to food shortages and other economic downturns in the Soviet Union, the industry standard for Doctor's Sausage was altered to include fillers and other low-cost ingredients to stretch the meat. The alteration of the Doctor's Sausage recipe is sometimes cited as one of the events presaging the eventual downfall of the Soviet Union."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hormel Foods",
        "text": "In 1915, Hormel began selling dry sausages under the names of Cedar Cervelat, Holsteiner and Noxall Salami. Hormel products began appearing in national magazines such as \"Good Housekeeping\" as early as 1916."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage casing",
        "text": "Sausage casing, also known as sausage skin or simply casing, is the material that encloses the filling of a sausage. Natural casings are made from animal intestines or skin; artificial casings, introduced in the early 20th century, are made of collagen and cellulose. The material is then shaped via a continuous extrusion process \u2013 producing a single sausage casing of indefinite length \u2013 which is then cut into desired lengths, usually while the extrusion process continues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bra sausage",
        "text": "The Bra sausage was once produced without using pork fat and was mainly intended for the Jewish community of Cherasco, which supplied itself with meat at the nearby market of Bra. As members of the Jewish religion, they were prevented from consuming pork-based sausages. A royal decree of 1847 acknowledged the Braidese custom allowing the butchers of the municipality to produce fresh beef sausage, which was prohibited in the rest of the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kumhausen",
        "text": "There was a sausage baked that was and 1.7 tons made there. It broke the record on June 27, 1999. It was made by 15 butchers, leading was Bernhard Ossner. To go with it, there was a long loaf of bread. Also said to set a record. Spectators had a chance to buy the sausage at the price of five German marks (US$2.65) per meter, with proceeds going to a charity for Romanian children."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Invention of Curried Sausage",
        "text": "The Invention of Curried Sausage\n--Plot.\n----Chapter 1.\n----Chapter 2.\n----Chapter 3.\n----Chapter 4.\n--Characters.\n--Critical Reception.\n--Actual Invention.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Metworst",
        "text": "The sausage is the direct ancestor of the better-known South African \"dro\u00eb wors\", which is near identical in its way of production, though the meat used is beef and mutton rather than pork."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Famously, they are an essential component of a full English, Scottish or Irish breakfast. Some are made to traditional regional recipes such as those from Cumberland or Lincolnshire and, increasingly, to modern recipes which combine fruit such as apples or apricots with the meat or are influenced by other European styles such as the Toulouse sausage or chorizo. Vegetarian sausages are also now very widely available, although traditional meatless recipes such as the Welsh \"Selsig Morgannwg\" also exist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ham sausage",
        "text": "The Christian Klinck Packing Company, established around 1868 in Buffalo, New York, by German immigrants, sold a ham sausage and other sausage products by 1905. During the 1910s the Edelweiss brand included ham sausage in its product line. In the late 1800s in the U.S., Parisian ham sausage was prepared using pork ham or shoulder, beef and spices. Parisian ham sausage at this time was smoked and then boiled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Italian sausage",
        "text": "Italian sausage\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "In the UK and Ireland, sausages are a very popular and common feature of the national diet and popular culture. British sausages and Irish sausages are normally made from raw (i.e., uncooked, uncured, unsmoked) pork, beef, venison or other meats mixed with a variety of herbs and spices and cereals, many recipes of which are traditionally associated with particular regions (for example Cumberland sausages). They normally contain a certain amount of rusk or bread-rusk, and are traditionally cooked by frying, grilling or baking. They are most typically long, the filling compressed by twisting the casing into concatenated \"links\" into the sausage skin, traditionally made from the prepared intestine of the slaughtered animal; most commonly a pig."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "In some jurisdictions foods described as sausages must meet regulations governing their content. For example, in the United States The Department of Agriculture specifies that the fat content of different defined types of sausage may not exceed 30%, 35% or 50% by weight; some sausages may contain binders or extenders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "A Chinese type of sausage has been described, \"lup cheong\" () from the Northern and Southern dynasties (589 BC420 BC), made from goat and lamb meat with salt, and flavoured with green onion, bean sauce, ginger, and pepper. The modern type of \"lup cheong\" has a comparatively long shelf life, mainly because of a high content of lactobacilli; so high that it is considered sour by many."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Many nations and regions have their own characteristic sausages, using meats and other ingredients native to the region and employed in traditional dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dog meat",
        "text": "During severe meat shortages coinciding with the German occupation from 1940 to 1945, sausages found to have been made of dog meat were confiscated by Nazi authorities in the Netherlands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Sausage making is sometimes looked at for being messy in the broader culture. There are common sayings such as \"how the sausage gets made\" to refer to a process that someone might rather not know all the gory details. This line of quotation stems from American poet John Godfrey Saxe, who said \"Laws, like sausages, cease to inspire respect in proportion as we know how they are made\" (1869)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Botulinum toxin",
        "text": "One of the earliest recorded outbreaks of foodborne botulism occurred in 1793 in the village of Wildbad in what is now Baden-W\u00fcrttemberg, Germany. Thirteen people became sick and six died after eating pork stomach filled with blood sausage, a local delicacy. Additional cases of fatal food poisoning in W\u00fcrttemberg led the authorities to issue a public warning against consuming smoked blood sausages in 1802 and to collect case reports of \"sausage poisoning\". Between 1817 and 1822, the German physician Justinus Kerner published the first complete description of the symptoms of botulism, based on extensive clinical observations and animal experiments. He concluded that the toxin develops in bad sausages under anaerobic conditions, is a biological substance, acts on the nervous system, and is lethal even in small amounts. Kerner hypothesized that this \"sausage toxin\" could be used to treat a variety of diseases caused by an overactive nervous system, making him the first to suggest that it could be used therapeutically. In 1870, the German physician M\u00fcller coined the term \"botulism\" to describe the disease caused by sausage poisoning, from the Latin word \"botulus\", meaning \"sausage\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steve Outtrim",
        "text": "Outtrim founded Sausage Software in 1995. At that stage of the Internet's development, graphics had only just come to the World Wide Web, with Marc Andreessen's breakthrough NCSA Mosaic, which later became Netscape. There were very few pages with images, and not much search capability. Yahoo was just a list of interesting content, before it was a search engine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "The most famous sausage in ancient Italy was from Lucania (modern Basilicata) and was called \"lucanica\", a name which lives on in a variety of modern sausages in the Mediterranean. During the reign of the Roman emperor Nero, sausages were associated with the Lupercalia festival. Early in the 10th century during the Byzantine Empire, Leo VI the Wise outlawed the production of blood sausages following cases of food poisoning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wall's (meat)",
        "text": "Still a prominent manufacturer of sausages and meat pies, their advert for \"Wall's Balls\" mimic a scene from the film \"There's Something About Mary.\" Wall's Balls was introduced in February 2003 with a series of humorous TV adverts."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Invention of Curried Sausage",
        "text": "The narrator believes that a woman whose food stand he went to as a child was the inventor of the German snack food curried sausage. He seeks out the woman, Lena Br\u00fccker, who is now an elderly woman living in a nursing home in Hamburg. The narrator asks Lena to tell him the story of how she invented curried sausage. She agrees and she begins to tell her story."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sausage may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot dog",
        "text": "An early use of the term \"hot dog\" in reference to the sausage-meat appears in the \"Evansville\" (Indiana) \"Daily Courier\" (September 14, 1884): even the innocent 'wienerworst' man will be barred from dispensing hot dog on the street corner. It was used to mean a sausage in casing in the \"Paterson\" (New Jersey) \"Daily Press\" (31 December 1892): the 'hot dog' was quickly inserted in a gash in a roll. Subsequent uses include the \"New Brunswick \"(New Jersey)\" Daily Times\" (May 20, 1893), the \"New York World\" (May 26, 1893), and the \"Knoxville \"(Tennessee)\" Journal\" (September 28, 1893)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Schmidt's Sausage Haus",
        "text": "Schmidt's first operated as the J. Fred Schmidt Meat Packing House, opened in 1886."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "In some cases cold smoke is used. If so, then the sausage may have been previously cooked in a water bath held at the proper temperature. An example of this process is the preparation of Braunschweiger. In this style of sausage, after stuffing into to hog buns or fiberous casings, the sausage is submerged in water for 2 to hours until the internal temperature reaches . At this point the sausage should be chilled in ice water, then cold smoked at a temperature of for 2\u20133 hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cotechino",
        "text": "It is prepared by filling the natural casing with rind, pork meat (usually of secondary preference), and fat mixed with salt and spices; in industrial production, nitrites and nitrates are added as preservatives. Some similar sausages exist in the Italian cooking tradition, for example musetto and zampone which are made with different meat and parts of the pig, musetto being made with meat taken from the pig's muzzle and zampone being held together by the pig's rear leg skin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gustavus Franklin Swift",
        "text": "The absence of federal inspection led to abuses. Sausages might incorporate sawdust, and meat that had spoiled was sometimes packed and sold. (Swift once bragged that his slaughterhouses had become so sophisticated that they used \"everything but the squeal.\") Transgressions such as these were first documented in Upton Sinclair's fictional novel \"The Jungle\", the publication of which shocked the nation and led to the passing of the Federal Meat Inspection Act of 1906."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor's sausage",
        "text": "In accordance with the legislation of the Eurasian Economic Union, no meat products may be released using names that are similar to the names of meat products established by interstate (regional) standards, with the exception of meat products manufactured according to these standards. In the technical regulations, as an example of such a name, \"Doctor's sausage\" (along with some others) is given."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "It is not known when the first restaurant recipe for steak tartare appeared. While not providing a clear name, the first description of steak tartare was given by Jules Verne in 1875 in his novel \"Michael Strogoff\". There are certain similarities between steak tartare and the German dishes Labskaus and Mett. Other similar raw, chopped meats appeared in the 20th century. One of the oldest references to a Hamburgh [\"sic\"] Sausage appeared in 1763 in Hannah Glasse's \"Art of Cookery, Made Plain and Easy\". Hamburgh Sausage is made with minced meat and a variety of spices, including nutmeg, cloves, black pepper, garlic, and salt, and is typically served with toast. Other dishes are also made with minced meat, such as meatloaf, the Serbian pljeskavica, the Arab kofta, and meatballs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Euromyth",
        "text": "A 1984 episode of the satirical television programme \"Yes Minister\" included a plotline in which the Commission would require the renaming of the British sausage as an \"emulsified high fat offal tube\" on account of it not containing enough meat. The \"eurosausage\" story is used as an amusing but fictional example of a Euromyth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "A British fresh sausage typically contains around 10% butcher's rusk, 10% water, 2.5% seasoning, and 77.5% meat. At the point of sale, British sausages will often be labelled as \"actual meat content X%\". As meat can be fatty or lean, the X% is calculated using reference tables with the intention to give a fairer representation of the \"visual lean\" meat content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charcuterie",
        "text": "The word \"sausage\" is derived through French from the Latin , as the sausage-making technique involves placing ground or chopped meat along with salt into a tube. The tubes can vary, but the more common animal-derived tubes include sheep, hog, or cattle intestinal linings. Additionally, animal stomachs and bladders, as well as edible artificial casings produced from collagen and inedible plant cellulose or paper are also used. Inedible casings are primarily used to shape, store, and age the sausage. The two main variants of sausage are fresh and cooked. Fresh sausages involve the production of raw meat placed into casings to be cooked at a later time, whereas cooked sausages are heated during production and are ready to eat at the end of production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baldrick",
        "text": "Baldrick later presented this story to Dr. Samuel Johnson as a replacement for the first dictionary (which he burned by mistake). The story had an unexpected effect on Johnson \u2013 he was reminded that he had forgotten to put the word \"sausage\" (and \"aardvark\") in his dictionary, and ran off in horror."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Potassium nitrite and potassium nitrate additions allow the production of sausages with lower levels of sodium. When using the potassium form, it is necessary to include other ingredients to mask the bitter flavours it imparts. Old recipes use saltpetre which is not recommended. The primary reason is that often these old recipes contain many times more curing ingredients than are appropriate. Modern techniques are readily available and do a much better job."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medisterp\u00f8lse",
        "text": "The word \"medister\" is derived from a combination of \"med\" and \"ister\", respectively meaning 'with' and 'suet'. It was first used in print in a Swedish housekeeping book from the early 16th century. The sausage recipe has changed since then as the meat filling used to be hand-chopped with a knife, while today it is chopped very finely by machine, giving the sausage a different texture. It is made in one very long piece and then cut up after cooking, before serving. In contrast to many other types of sausage, \"medister\" is kept fresh and only cooked or fried during the final preparation. For this reason \"medister\" must be kept cool (or frozen) until preparation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage (band)",
        "text": "Sausage (band)\n--History.\n----Primus.\n----\"Riddles Are Abound Tonight\".\n------Critical reception.\n------Music video.\n----After Sausage.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Food extrusion",
        "text": "The first extruder was designed to manufacture sausages in the 1870s. Dry pasta and breakfast cereals have been produced by extrusion since the 1930s, and the method has been applied to pet food production since the 1950s (first extruded dog food: Purina Dog Chow in 1957, and first extruded cat food: Purina Friskies in 1962). Some domestic kitchen appliances such as meat grinders and some types of pasta makers use extrusion. Pastry bags (piping bags), squeezed by hand, operate by extrusion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frikandel",
        "text": "However, the present recipe with very fine mince is derived from Bekker's 1958 version. The de Vries 1954 sausage, named \"fricadelle\", contained chunkier minced meat and essentially was a minced meat patty shaped like a sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "When used as an adjective, the word \"sausage\" can refer to the loose sausage meat, which can be formed into patties or stuffed into a skin. When referred to as \"a sausage\", the product is usually cylindrical and encased in a skin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Democracy sausage",
        "text": "CNN quoted historian Judith Brett, author of \"From secret ballot to democracy sausage: How Australia got compulsory voting\" as saying \"Certainly, there's a photo in the 1930s of a polling booth with a cake stall outside, so I think community organizations saw it was an opportunity to fund-raise.\" Brett is further quoted as saying that sausages started appearing in the early 1980s when portable barbecue grills became available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Cured meat products typically contain less than 40 ppm nitrites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alheira",
        "text": "The type of sausage that became known as \"alheira\" was invented by the Jews of Portugal, who in 1497 were given the choice of either being expelled from the country or converting to Christianity. Those \"conversos\" who remained and secretly retained their beliefs avoided eating pork, forbidden in Judaism; this put them at risk of being noticed not to hang sausages, traditionally made of pork, in their \"fumeiros\" (smokehouses). As a way to avoid attracting the attention of the Portuguese Inquisition or in rural areas the Portuguese Christians, they began to make sausages from other meats such as poultry and game, mixed with bread for texture. With time, the dish spread to the remaining population and became an example of typical Portuguese cuisine, though nowadays its preparation is no longer strictly guided by Jewish dietary precepts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Offal",
        "text": "Sausage is made from the small intestine of a goat, cow or sheep, stuffed with chilli and small chunks of meat, fatty meat, and blood (although some people prefer the bloodless kind). In Kenya, it is commonly referred to as 'mutura', which is the Kikuyu name for it. Sheep's or goat's stomach is also stuffed in a similar way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "Meats were preserved by curing, as in corned beef, sugar-cured ham and bacon, or smoking. Pork sausages were flavored with black pepper and sage and smoked to make frankfurters. To make breakfast sausages, liver, heart and bread were added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Italian sausages (\"salsiccia\" \u2013 plural \"salsicce\") are often made of pure pork. Sometimes they may contain beef. Fennel seeds and chilli are generally used as the primary spices in the South of Italy, while in the center and North of the country black pepper and garlic are more often used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Columbus Craft Meats",
        "text": "Italian immigrants Peter Domenici and Enrico Parducci founded what was then the San Francisco Sausage Company in 1969. The company moved their production facilities to South San Francisco in 1967. They introduced deli meats to their product line in 1974. Albert Piccetti was president of the company for 40 years, and died in 1998."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is an example of none meat item that is added to a sausages as fillers?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "An example of a sausage filler are breadcrumbs and grains."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When were the first sausages made?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Which specific sausage would you like to know about: lup cheong, lucanica or blood sausage?"
    ],
    "topic": "Sausage",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Sausage:9",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sausage",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "A Chinese type of sausage has been described, \"lup cheong\" () from the Northern and Southern dynasties (589 BC420 BC), made from goat and lamb meat with salt, and flavoured with green onion, bean sauce, ginger, and pepper. The modern type of \"lup cheong\" has a comparatively long shelf life, mainly because of a high content of lactobacilli; so high that it is considered sour by many."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Sausage:10",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sausage",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Greek poet Homer mentioned a kind of blood sausage in the \"Odyssey\", Epicharmus wrote a comedy titled \"The Sausage\", and Aristophanes' play \"The Knights\" is about a sausage vendor who is elected leader. Evidence suggests that sausages were already popular both among the ancient Greeks and Romans and most likely with the various tribes occupying the larger part of Europe."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Sausage:11",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sausage",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "The most famous sausage in ancient Italy was from Lucania (modern Basilicata) and was called \"lucanica\", a name which lives on in a variety of modern sausages in the Mediterranean. During the reign of the Roman emperor Nero, sausages were associated with the Lupercalia festival. Early in the 10th century during the Byzantine Empire, Leo VI the Wise outlawed the production of blood sausages following cases of food poisoning."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Italian sausage",
        "text": "Initially known as \"lucanica\", the first evidence of the sausage dates back to the 1st century BC, when the Roman historian Marcus Terentius Varro described stuffing spiced and salted meat into pig intestines, as follows: \"They call lucanica a minced meat stuffed into a casing, because our soldiers learned how to prepare it\". Confirmation of the birth in Basilicata are also the writings of Cicero and Martial that mention Lucania as the birthplace of the sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "A Chinese type of sausage has been described, \"lup cheong\" () from the Northern and Southern dynasties (589 BC420 BC), made from goat and lamb meat with salt, and flavoured with green onion, bean sauce, ginger, and pepper. The modern type of \"lup cheong\" has a comparatively long shelf life, mainly because of a high content of lactobacilli; so high that it is considered sour by many."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "The most famous sausage in ancient Italy was from Lucania (modern Basilicata) and was called \"lucanica\", a name which lives on in a variety of modern sausages in the Mediterranean. During the reign of the Roman emperor Nero, sausages were associated with the Lupercalia festival. Early in the 10th century during the Byzantine Empire, Leo VI the Wise outlawed the production of blood sausages following cases of food poisoning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "An early example of Italian sausage is \"lucanica\", discovered by Romans after the conquest of Lucania. Lucanica's recipe changed over the centuries and spread throughout Italy and the world with slightly different names. Today, lucanica sausage is identified as \"Lucanica di Picerno\", produced in Basilicata (whose territory was part of the ancient Lucania)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lucanica",
        "text": "Today, lucanica sausage is identified as \"Lucanica di Picerno\", produced in Basilicata (whose territory was part of the ancient Lucania)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sausage (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausage making is a natural outcome of efficient butchery. Traditionally, sausage makers salted various tissues and organs such as scraps, organ meats, blood, and fat to help preserve them. They then stuffed them into tubular casings made from the cleaned intestines of the animal, producing the characteristic cylindrical shape. Hence, sausages, puddings, and salami are among the oldest of prepared foods, whether cooked and eaten immediately or dried to varying degrees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In many languages, there is a general term such as \"blood sausage\" (American English) that is used for all sausages that are made from blood, whether or not they include non-animal material such as bread, cereal, and nuts. Sausages that include such material are often referred to with more specific terms, such as \"black pudding\" in English."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Fran\u00e7ois Rabelais in France mentions in his \"fourth book\" (1552) carnavalesque figures called \"forest-dwelling Blood-puddings\" (Saulcis- sons montig\u00e8nes, Boudins sylvatiques) as a farce representing the Swiss and German Protestants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "Blood sausage is any sausage made by cooking animal blood with a filler until it is thick enough to congeal when cooled. Pig or cattle blood is most often used. Typical fillers include meat, fat, suet, bread, rice, barley and oatmeal. Varieties include biroldo, black pudding, blood tongue, blutwurst, drisheen, kishka (kaszanka), morcilla, moronga, mustamakkara, sundae, verivorst, and many types of boudin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "The word \"sausage\" was first used in English in the mid-15th century, spelled . This word came from Old North French (Modern French ). The French word came from Vulgar Latin (\"sausage\"), from (\"seasoned with salt\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Italian sausage",
        "text": "Italian sausage\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood Sausage (band)",
        "text": "Blood Sausage (band)\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor's sausage",
        "text": "Doctor's sausage\n--History.\n--The recipe.\n----Later changes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lucanica",
        "text": "Lucanica was a rustic pork sausage in Ancient Roman cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausage is known generically as \"longganisang dugo\" (lit. \"blood longaniza\") in the Philippines. A notable type of native pre-colonial blood sausage is \"pinuneg\", which is composed of minced pork and innards in a pork casing made from large intestines that is prepared in the Cordillera Administrative Region of the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of sausages",
        "text": "This is a list of notable sausages. Sausage is a food usually made from ground meat with a skin around it. Typically, a sausage is formed in a casing traditionally made from intestine, but sometimes synthetic. Some sausages are cooked during processing and the casing may be removed after. Sausage making is a traditional food preservation technique. Sausages may be preserved.\n* Blood sausage\n* Boerewors\n* Fermented sausage \u2013 a type of sausage that is created by salting chopped or ground meat to remove moisture, while allowing beneficial bacteria to break down sugars into flavorful molecules.\n* Garlic sausage\n* Gyurma\n* Helzel\n* Hot dog\n* Kranjska klobasa\n* Loukaniko\n* Lucanica\n* Merguez\n* Panchuker\n* Pepperette\n* Sai ua\n* Summer sausage\n* Tr\u00e4ipen\n* Vegetarian sausage \u2013 may be made from tofu, seitan, nuts, pulses, mycoprotein, soya protein, vegetables or any combination of similar ingredients that will hold together during cooking\n* Volkswagen currywurst \u2013 a brand of sausage manufactured by the Volkswagen car maker since 1973\n* White pudding\n* Winter salami"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Across Asia, various people create food from congealed animal blood. Most of these food types do not have casings and might be considered a version of sliced sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Certain countries classify sausage types according to the region in which the sausage was traditionally produced:\n* Austria: Vienna, etc.\n* France: Montb\u00e9liard, Morteau, Strasbourg, Toulouse, etc.\n* Germany: Frankfurt am Main, Thuringian sausage, Nuremberg, Pomerania, etc.\n* Hungary: kolb\u00e1sz gyulai (after the town of Gyula), csabai (after the city of B\u00e9k\u00e9scsaba), Debrecener (after the city of Debrecen).\n* Italy: Merano (Meraner Wurst)\n*Philippines: Alaminos longganisa (Pangasinan); Cabanatuan longganisa (Nueva Ecija); Calumpit longganisa (Bulacan); chorizo de Cebu (Cebu); chorizo Negrense (Negros Island); longaniza de Guinobatan (Guinobatan, Albay); Lucban longganisa (Quezon); Pampanga longganisa (Pampanga); \"Pinuneg\" (Cordillera Administrative Region); Longganisang Ybanag (Cagayan Valley); Vigan longganisa (Ilocos Region), etc.\n* Poland: kie\u0142basa krakowska (Krak\u00f3w-style), toru\u0144ska (Toru\u0144), \u017cywiecka (\u017bywiec), bydgoska (Bydgoszcz), krotoszy\u0144ska (Krotoszyn), podwawelska (literally: \"from under Wawel\"), zielonog\u00f3rska (Zielona G\u00f3ra), rzeszowska (Rzesz\u00f3w), \u015bl\u0105ska (Silesia), swojska, wiejska, ja\u0142owcowa, zwyczajna, polska, kraja\u0144ska, szynkowa, par\u00f3wkowa.\n* Serbia: Sremska kobasica, Sremska salama, Sremski kulen (after the region of Srem/Sirmium), Po\u017eareva\u010dka kobasica (after the city of Po\u017earevac)\n* Slovenia: Kranjska (klobasa), after the Slovenian name for the province of Carniola\n* Spain: botifarra catalana, chorizo riojano, chorizo gallego, chorizo de Teror, longaniza de Arag\u00f3n, morcilla de Burgos, morcilla de Ronda, morcilla extreme\u00f1a, morcilla dulce canaria, llonganissa de Vic, fuet d'Olot, sobrassada mallorquina, botillo de Le\u00f3n, llonganissa de Valencia, farinato de Salamanca, etc.\n* United Kingdom: Cumberland, Chiltern, Glamorgan, Lincolnshire, Lorne, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Other varieties of blood sausage include \"blodp\u00f8lse\" (Norway and Denmark), \"tongenworst\" (with added pigs tongues) (Netherlands), \"mazzit\" (Malta), \"krvavica\" (Balkans), \"krovianka\" (Russia and Ukraine), and \"v\u0117darai\" (Lithuania)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Other varieties of blood sausage include \"boudin rouge\" (Creole and Cajun), \"rellena\" or \"moronga\" (Mexico) and \"sanganel\" (Friuli)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lucanica",
        "text": "Apicius documents it as a spicy, smoked beef or pork sausage originally from Lucania; according to Cicero and Martial, it was brought by Roman troops or slaves from Lucania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Italy, regional varieties of blood sausage are known as \"sanguinaccio\". In Tuscany, is a sausage made with pig's blood and fat cooked in a pig's stomach. It is not reheated and is often spread on bread. It is found only in the south of Tuscany in the winter months and even there it can be difficult to come by. \"Biroldo\" is another type of black pudding which can be found in Tuscany, while the version made in southern Lombardy is called \"marsapan\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "A blood sausage is a sausage filled with blood that is cooked or dried and mixed with a filler until it is thick enough to solidify when cooled. Most commonly, the blood of pigs, sheep, lamb, cow, chicken, or goose is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Similarly, in Czech cuisine, \"jelito\" is made from second-rate pork, pig's blood and peeled barley; the stuffing served by itself, unformed, is called \"prejt\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "While \"blood sausage\" in English is understood in Britain, the term is applied only to foreign usage (e.g., in the story \"The Name-Day\" by Saki), or to similar blood-based sausages elsewhere in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage (band)",
        "text": "Sausage (band)\n--History.\n----Primus.\n----\"Riddles Are Abound Tonight\".\n------Critical reception.\n------Music video.\n----After Sausage.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "The origins of meat preservation are lost to the ages but probably began when humans began to realize the preservative value of salt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "In Italy, the basic distinctions are:\n* Raw sausage (\"salsiccia\") with a thin casing\n* Cured and aged sausage (\"salsiccia stagionata\" or \"salsiccia secca\")\n* Cooked sausage (\"wuerstel\")\n* Blood sausage (\"sanguinaccio\" or \"boudin\")\n* Liver sausage (\"salsiccia di fegato\")\n* Salami (in Italy, \"salami\" is the plural of \"salame\", a big, cured, fermented and air-dried sausage)\n* \"Cheese sausage\" (\"casalsiccia\") with cheese inside"
      },
      {
        "title": "Offal",
        "text": "Sausage is made from the small intestine of a goat, cow or sheep, stuffed with chilli and small chunks of meat, fatty meat, and blood (although some people prefer the bloodless kind). In Kenya, it is commonly referred to as 'mutura', which is the Kikuyu name for it. Sheep's or goat's stomach is also stuffed in a similar way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luganega",
        "text": "Luganega (also \"luganiga\", \"luganica\" or \"lucanica\") is an Italian fresh sausage made with pork; it is a traditional food from Lombardy, Veneto and northern Italy and is usually rolled up to appear like a snail."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "A similar blood sausage to \"karvavitsa\", called \"krvavica\" (\u043a\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430), made out of similar ingredients, is eaten in Bosnia, Croatia, Serbia, and Slovenia in wintertime, usually with sauerkraut and potatoes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sausage may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Tibetan cuisine, sausages or \"gyurma\" refer to blood sausages and are made with yak or sheep's blood which may or may not include either rice or roasted barley flour as filler. The sausage uses natural casing employing the use of yak or sheep's intestine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bullens pilsnerkorv",
        "text": "The first \"Pilsnerkorv\" sausages were produced by Alvesta butchery association in 1953. The launch was preceded by a large nationwide salmonella outbreak that originated in Alvesta's butchery. In total 9 000 people became infected and 90 people died during the epidemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Panama, blood sausage is called \"morcilla\", \"rellena\" or \"tuber\u00eda negra\", and is usually filled with rice. In El Salvador and Nicaragua, it is called \"moronga\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Daily Cleveland Herald",
        "text": "It is noted as the first to publish a remark relating the process of law making to sausages. The March 29, 1869 edition of the paper quoted poet John Godfrey Saxe as stating: \"Laws, like sausages, cease to inspire respect in proportion as we know how they are made.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In France, there is \", a solidified/curd blood in a pan, and \", a sort of sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor's sausage",
        "text": "This sausage was first produced in 1936, after the All-Russian Research Institute of the Meat Industry developed a recipe for sausage and the technology for its production. Its first production run was carried out at the Moscow Meat Processing Plant named after Anastas Mikoyan. The sausage was intended to be a dietary supplement for people exhibiting signs of prolonged starvation (specifically \"patients with compromised health as a result of the Civil War\"), hence its name. Because it was a mild-tasting, inexpensive and relatively healthy source of meat, Doctor's Sausage became very popular in the USSR."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "The Greek poet Homer mentioned a kind of blood sausage in the \"Odyssey\", Epicharmus wrote a comedy titled \"The Sausage\", and Aristophanes' play \"The Knights\" is about a sausage vendor who is elected leader. Evidence suggests that sausages were already popular both among the ancient Greeks and Romans and most likely with the various tribes occupying the larger part of Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Limbu cuisine, \"sargemba\" or \"sargyangma\" is a type of blood sausage made mostly from pork intestines, pork fat, rice and \"yangben\", a type of edible wild lichen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lucanica",
        "text": "It has given its name to a variety of sausages (fresh, cured, and smoked) in Mediterranean cuisine and its colonial offshoots, including:\n* Italian \"luganega\" or \"lucanica\"\n* Portuguese and Brazilian \"lingui\u00e7a\"\n* Bulgarian \"lukanka\" or \"loukanka\"\n* Macedonian (Western dialects) \"lukanec/\u043b\u0443\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0446\" or \"lukanci/\u043b\u0443\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0438\"\n* Albanian (Arb\u00ebresh community in Italy) \"lik\u00ebng\u00eb\" or \"lek\u00ebng\u00eb\", also llukanik in Albania.\n* Greek \"loukaniko\", a fresh sausage usually flavored with orange peel\n* Spanish, Latin American, and Philippine \"longaniza\", a name which covers both fresh and cured sausages\n* Arabic \"laq\u0101niq\", \"naq\u0101niq\", or \"maq\u0101niq\", made of mutton and some semolina\n*Modern Hebrew \"naqniq\" (\u05e0\u05e7\u05e0\u05d9\u05e7), an umbrella term for \"sausage\".\n* Basque \"lukainka\"\n*Croatian \"luganiga,\" flavored with cinnamon"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Hong Kong, the dish closest to blood sausage is pig blood curd, which is only made from pig's blood and is not considered a sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of sausages",
        "text": "Notes:\n* Many sausages do not have a unique name. E.g. \"salchicha\", \"country sausage\", etc.\n* Sausages with the same name in different countries may be identical, similar, or significantly different. This also applies to names with different spellings in different regions, e.g. lukanka, loukaniko; bloedworst, blutwurst. The chorizo of many South American countries is different from the Spanish chorizo.\n* Chorizo\n* Longaniza\n* Morcilla\n* Salamin\n* Chipolata\n* Devon (also known as 'Polony' or 'Fritz')\n* Saveloy\n* Eden Sausage\n* Blunze\n* Extrawurst\n* Jausenwurst\n* K\u00e4sekrainer\n* Vienna sausage\n* Bloedworst\n* Cervela\n* Chouri\u00e7o doce\n* Lingui\u00e7a\n* Salsich\u00e3o\n* Brativurst\n* Belutak\n* Lukanka\n* Sujuk\n* Lunenburg pudding\n* Chorizo\n* Longaniza\n* Butifarra Solede\u00f1as\n* Longaniza\n* Chorizo, chorizo santarrosano\n* Morcilla (Rellena)\n* Chunchullo\n* \u010ce\u0161novka\n* Kulen\n* \u0160vargl\n* \u010cajna\n* Chorizo\n* Moronga\n* Jelito\n* \u0160pek\u00e1\u010dek\n* Tali\u00e1n\n* Trampsk\u00e9 cig\u00e1ro\n* Ostravsk\u00e1 klob\u00e1sa\n* Vinn\u00e1 klob\u00e1sa\n* Blodp\u00f8lse\n* Medisterp\u00f8lse\n* R\u00f8d p\u00f8lse\n* Ringriderp\u00f8lse\n* S\u00f8nderjysk spegep\u00f8lse\n* Sardel\n* Verivorst\n* Bl\u00f3\u00f0pylsa\n* Mustamakkara\n* Ryynimakkara\n* Siskonmakkara\n* Andouille\n* Andouillette\n* Boudin\n* Boudin blanc de Rethel\n* Cervelas de Lyon\n* Chipolata\n* Diot\n* Morteau sausage\n* Rosette de Lyon\n* Saucisse de Toulouse\n* Saucisse de Strasbourg ()\n* Sabodet\n* Saucisson\n* Saucisson de Lyon\n* Kupati\n* Ahle Wurst\n* Beutelwurst\n* Bierschinken\n* Bierwurst\n* Blutwurst\n* Bockwurst\n* Bratwurst\n* Braunschweiger\n* Bregenwurst\n* Br\u00fchwurst\n* Cervelatwurst\n* Fleischwurst / Lyoner\n* Frankfurter Rindswurst\n* Frankfurter W\u00fcrstchen\n* Gelbwurst\n* Jagdwurst\n* Knackwurst\n* Knipp\n* Kochwurst\n* Kohlwurst\n* Landj\u00e4ger\n* Leberk\u00e4se\n* Leberwurst\n* Mettwurst\n* M\u00f6pkenbrot\n* N\u00fcrnberger Bratw\u00fcrste\n* Pinkel\n* Regensburger Wurst\n* Saumagen\n* Schinkenwurst\n* Stippgr\u00fctze\n* Teewurst\n* Th\u00fcringer Rostbratwurst\n* Th\u00fcringer Rotwurst\n* Wiener W\u00fcrstchen\n* Weckewerk\n* Weisswurst\n* Westf\u00e4lische Rinderwurst\n* Wollwurst\n* Zungenwurst\n* Zwiebelwurst\n* Loukaniko\n* Noumboulo\n* Csabai\n* Gyulai\n* Pick\n* Debrecener\n* Hungarian sausages\n* Liverwurst\n* Winter salami\n* Goan Sausage\n*Doh snam\n* Frikandel\n* Saren\n* \"Urutan\" \u2013 traditional Balinese smoked or air-dried sausage, made from pork stuffed into pig intestines\n* Black pudding\n* Drisheen\n* White pudding\n* Biroldo\n*Ciauscolo\n*Cervellata\n*Ciav\u00e0r\n*Cotechino\n*Cotechino Modena\n*Genoa salami\n* Kaminwurz or kaminwurze \u2013 air-dried and cold-smoked sausage (\"Rohwurst\") made of beef and fatback or pork, produced in the South Tyrol region of northern Italy. Occasionally, kaminwurz is also made of lamb, goat or venison. The name of the sausage comes from the custom of curing the sausages in a smokehouse attached to the chimney up on the roof truss of Tyrolean houses.\n*Lik\u00ebng\u00eb\n*Luganega\n*Mortadella\n*Mazzafegati\n*'Nduja\n*Salami\n*Soppressata\n*Zampina"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausages are made in a wide range of national and regional varieties, which differ by the types of meats that are used, the flavouring or spicing ingredients (garlic, peppers, wine, etc.), and the manner of preparation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Prietas are easily found at supermarkets throughout the country and are available from practically any butcher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "As in Europe, several varieties of blood sausage are also popular in Mexico, Newfoundland and Labrador and the southwest United States (moronga), Chile (prietas, \u00f1ache), Argentina, Uruguay, Cuba, and Puerto Rico (morcilla)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausage\n--Africa.\n--Americas.\n----North America.\n------Caribbean.\n------Central America.\n------Mexico.\n------United States.\n----Latin America.\n----South America.\n------Andean.\n------Argentina, Uruguay.\n------Brazil.\n------Chile.\n------Guianas.\n--Asia.\n----East Asia.\n------Hong Kong.\n------Korea.\n------Manchuria and China.\n------Mongolia.\n------Taiwan.\n------Tibet.\n----Southeast Asia.\n------Indonesia.\n------Malaysia.\n------Philippines.\n------Thailand.\n------Vietnam.\n----South Asia.\n------Nepal.\n------India.\n--Europe.\n----Central and Eastern Europe.\n----Northern Europe.\n------Denmark.\n------Estonia.\n------Finland.\n------Iceland.\n------Latvia.\n------Sweden.\n----Southern Europe.\n------Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia, Slovenia.\n------Italy.\n------Portugal.\n------Spain.\n----Western Europe.\n------Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg.\n------France and southern Belgium.\n------Germany and Austria.\n------United Kingdom and Ireland.\n----Symbol of Carnival.\n----Additional varieties.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lorne sausage",
        "text": "Lorne sausage\n--Name.\n--History.\n--Preparation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sausage is a type of prepared meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausage\n--Etymology.\n--History.\n--Casings.\n--Ingredients.\n--Classifications.\n--National varieties.\n----Africa.\n------North Africa.\n------South Africa.\n----Asia.\n------Brunei.\n------China.\n------Japan.\n------Korea.\n------Philippines.\n------Thailand.\n----Eurasia.\n------Turkey.\n----Europe.\n------Britain and Ireland.\n--------Scotland.\n------Bulgaria.\n------Croatia.\n------Denmark.\n------Finland.\n------France and Belgium.\n------Germany.\n------Greece.\n------Hungary.\n------Iceland.\n------Italy.\n------Macedonia.\n------Malta.\n------Netherlands.\n------Nordic countries.\n------Norway.\n------Poland.\n------Portugal and Brazil.\n------Russia.\n------Serbia.\n------Spain.\n------Sweden.\n------Switzerland.\n------Ukraine.\n----Latin America.\n------Argentina and Uruguay.\n------Chile.\n------Colombia.\n------Mexico.\n------El Salvador.\n----North America.\n----Oceania.\n------Australia.\n------New Zealand.\n--Other variations.\n--Vegetarian versions.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Corumbela",
        "text": "The blood sausages are very good as well as the \"cateto\" bread, made in a traditional wood oven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oxford sausage",
        "text": "Oxford sausage\n--History.\n--Ingredients and manufacture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Linda McCartney Foods",
        "text": "The products changed ingredients in circa August 1993, ceasing TVP and switching to wheat protein. This was marketed as providing a more meat-like taste than other meat analogue brands. However in 1995, it was noted that the sausages (available internationally) were manufactured from TVP seasoned with parsley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Romania, the traditional \"s\u00e2ngerete\" (from \"s\u00e2nge\", \"blood\" in Romanian) is made from shoulder butt pork meat, pork blood and a filler such as pre-boiled rice seasoned with pepper, garlic and basil. It has many regional variants, but the most common are the \"s\u00e2ngerete\" from Transylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "A European-style smoked savory \"h\u00f3ng ch\u00e1ng\" ( \"red sausage\") is produced in Harbin, China's northernmost major city. It is similar to Lithuanian and Polish sausages including kie\u0142basa and \"podhala\u0144ska\" and tends to have a more European flavour than other Chinese sausages. This kind of sausage was first produced in a Russian-capitalized factory named Churin sausage factory in 1909. Harbin-style sausage has become popular in China, especially in northern regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Portuguese cuisine, there are many varieties of blood sausage. Sausages made of blood are usually called \"morcela\" or \"negrinha\" (a slang term from Portuguese \"negro\" meaning dark or black). There are many varieties around the Portuguese world. There are varieties local to mainland Portugal, the Azores, Hawaii, China, US and India, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Vegetarian and vegan sausages are also available in some countries, or can be made from scratch at home. These may be made from tofu, seitan, nuts, pulses, mycoprotein, soya protein, vegetables or any combination of similar ingredients that will hold together during cooking. These sausages, like most meat-replacement products, generally fall into two categories: some are shaped, colored, flavored, and spiced to replicate the taste and texture of meat as accurately as possible; others such as the Glamorgan sausage rely on spices and vegetables to lend their natural flavor to the product and no attempt is made to imitate meat. While not vegetarian, the soya sausage was invented 1916 in Germany. First known as \"K\u00f6lner Wurst\" (\"Cologne Sausage\") by later German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer (1876\u20131967)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Throughout Central and Eastern Europe, blood sausage, known as \"kishka\" (meaning \"intestine\"), is made with pig's blood and buckwheat kasha. It is also known in Russia as \"krovyanka\" (\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430), or \"krovyanaya kolbasa\" (\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044f\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0431\u0430\u0441\u0430, literally \"blood sausage\"), and includes buckwheat as a main filler, instead of oats or oatmeal. In Ukraine it's called \"krov'yanka\" (\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432'\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430) or \"kryvava kyshka\" (\u043a\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u043a\u0438\u0448\u043a\u0430), and \"kiszka\" or \"kaszanka\" in Poland; \"krvavni\u010dka\" in Slovakia and \"krupniok\" in Silesia. Polish \"salceson\" (\"black\" and \"\") are a type of head cheese (\"brawn\") that contains blood. In Hungary, \"v\u00e9res hurka\" is typically made with pig's blood and barleycorn or cubed bread (typically zsemle) as filler as such also known as \"zseml\u00e9s hurka\" and \"gerslis hurka\". In Bulgaria, \"karvavitsa\" (\u043a\u044a\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0446\u0430) is usually prepared with pig's blood, fat and a variety of mountain herbs and spices and eaten warm during the winter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ambanitsena",
        "text": "It is know for its sausages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Serbian cuisine",
        "text": "Various kinds of sausages and similar more complex meat products were created under Austrian influence in Vojvodina. They include:\n* Sausage (\"kobasica\")\n** Srem sausage (\"sremska doma\u0107a kobasica\"), from Srem\n** Srem salami (\"sremska salama\"), from Srem\n** Po\u017earevac sausage (\"po\u017eareva\u010dka kobasica\"), from Po\u017earevac\n** Petrovac sausage (\"petrova\u010dka kobasica\"), from Petrovac\n** Srpska kobasica (Serbian sausage)\n** Njegu\u0161ki pr\u0161ut\n** Kulen\n*** Srem kulen, from Srem\n* Blood sausage (\"krvavice\")\n* Head cheese (\"\u0161vargla\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Nowadays many types of mutura, especially commercial street food versions, do not contain blood. The meat used in the filling can be any fleshy part, but like any other type of sausage, prime cuts are not ordinarily used for the stuffing. Instead the tougher, leaner cuts \u2013 for example the neck \u2013 are trimmed off the bone. The casing for the stuffing is the stomach sac and larger intestines. These are flushed many times with water to clean them."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of sausage dishes",
        "text": "List of sausage dishes\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood as food",
        "text": "In Romania there is a traditional sausage prepared with blood named \"s\u00e2ngerete\", literally meaning \"a thing from hemoragy\" (it came from \"s\u00e2ngera\" \u2013 \"hemoragy\" from \"s\u00e2nge\" \u2013 \"blood\")), and it is prepared especially during the Ignat (the pig carving holiday)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Many nations and regions have their own characteristic sausages, using meats and other ingredients native to the region and employed in traditional dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Vietnamese 'd\u1ed3i ti\u1ebft' (Northern) or 'd\u1ed3i huy\u1ebft' (Southern) is blood sausage, boiled or fried, made with pork blood, pork fat and basil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage Capital",
        "text": "Sausage Capital\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Marcus Trescothick",
        "text": "My diet was sausages then, in no particular order, sausages, chips, sausages, toast, sausages, beans, sausages, cheese, sausages, eggs, and the occasional sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "For the enormous variety of German sausages follow the specific links on the"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Brazil there is a version of the blood sausage called \"chouri\u00e7o\" or \"morcela\" (sometimes the Castillian Spanish version \"morcilla\" is used as well), consisting of a fresh sausage made of the blood and fat from pork and usually rice. It is a variation of the Portuguese blood sausage, and it is known for its deep dark color. In some regions, it is popular on barbecues (\"Churrascos\") as a starter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage and peppers",
        "text": "Sausage and peppers\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausage is popular in Mongolia. In Mongolia a special method of killing sheep was made mandatory by Genghis Khan to save blood for sausage. It appears in the Yasa and is still used today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glamorgan sausage",
        "text": "The first published mention of them was by George Borrow in his book \"Wild Wales\", written in the 1850s and published in the next decade. He described them as \"not a whit inferior to those of Epping\"; Epping sausages were skinless meat-based sausages. Borrow visited Y Gwter Fawr (now known as Brynamman); the Tregib Arms has been suggested as the location at which Borrow ate his sausages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Specific include:\n* Fresh sausages, mostly grilled, sometimes stewed\n** Boudin blanc, a soft, light-colored sausage made of chicken, pork, or veal, or a mixture, and usually also containing eggs and milk;\n** Boudin noir, a blood sausage;\n** Andouillette, made of pork intestines;\n** Cervelas de Lyon, with pistachios or truffles;\n** Chipolata, thin and long;\n** Cr\u00e9pinette, a small, flattened sausage wrapped in caul fat rather than a casing;\n** Merguez, a spicy mutton- or beef-based sausage;\n** Saucisse de Toulouse, often used in cassoulet\n* Cured or smoked sausages, \"saucisson\", served thinly sliced\n** Andouille, usually smoked, made primarily of pork intestines\n** Rosette de Lyon\n** Saucisse de Morteau, smoked\n** Saucisson de Lyon"
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor's sausage",
        "text": "The exact recipe for Doctor's Sausage, which was used as an industry standard from 1936 to 1974:\n* 25 kg beef\n* 70 kg semi-fat pork\n* 3 liters milk\n* 2 liters eggs\n* 2 kg salt\n* 200 grams sugar\n* 30 grams cardamom\n* 50 g ascorbic acid (color stabilizer)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devon (sausage)",
        "text": "Devon (sausage)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Chinese cuisines, whole coagulated blood is fried or steamed as a snack or cooked in a hot pot. In mainland China, \"blood tofu\" (), or \"red tofu\" (), is most often made with pig's or duck's blood. Like the above dishes, this has no casing but is simply cut into rectangular pieces and cooked. In Northeast China, the \"blood sausage\" was a traditional food which is cooked with sheep or goat blood. In Tibet, congealed yak's blood is a traditional food. Chinese people also used pig blood curd that was consumed by laborers in Kaifeng over 1,000 years ago in the south of China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Ecuador and Bolivia the blood sausage is also called \"morcilla\", and is usually filled with rice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiolbassa Sausage",
        "text": "Kiolbassa Sausage\n--History.\n--Products.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Typically, a sausage is formed in a casing traditionally made from intestine but sometimes from synthetic materials. Sausages that are sold raw are cooked in many ways, including pan-frying, broiling and barbecuing. Some sausages are cooked during processing, and the casing may then be removed."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of sausages",
        "text": "List of sausages\n--By country.\n----Italy.\n------Italian salami.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Italian sausages (\"salsiccia\" \u2013 plural \"salsicce\") are often made of pure pork. Sometimes they may contain beef. Fennel seeds and chilli are generally used as the primary spices in the South of Italy, while in the center and North of the country black pepper and garlic are more often used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dinuguan",
        "text": "This dish is rather similar to European-style blood sausage, or British and Irish black pudding in a saucy stew form. It is perhaps closer in appearance and preparation to the Polish soup Czernina or an even more ancient Spartan dish known as \"melas zomos\" (black soup) whose primary ingredients were pork, vinegar and blood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kovbasa",
        "text": "#REDIRECT Sausage"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "The meat for the stuffing is finely chopped or minced, and the mandatory fat is often trimmed from other parts. The meat is slightly fried, mixed with finely chopped red onions, salt and optionally fresh chili. Other additions include freshly chopped coriander (dhania or cilantro), garlic, pepper and even beef stock. This is then mixed thoroughly with the fresh blood from the animal, and stuffed into the stomach and intestines, with the openings sewn or tied together with string."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bosna (sausage)",
        "text": "Several variations of the dish exist:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lorne sausage",
        "text": "Sausage meat, (beef, pork or more usually a combination of the two) is minced with rusk and spices, packed into a rectangular tin with a cross-section of about square, and sliced about thick before cooking. Square sausage has no casing, unlike traditional sausages, and must be tightly packed into the mould to hold it together; slices are often not truly square."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Since the return of capitalism, all imaginable types of sausage are produced and imported in Russia, but the traditional styles, be it a factory made Doctor's bologna, artisanal links of delicately smoked Ukrainian or boldly red Krakow, or buckwheat-stuffed blood sausage, still endure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cumberland sausage",
        "text": "Cumberland sausage\n--History.\n--Ingredients.\n--Protected Geographical Status.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "A sausage is a type of meat product usually made from ground meat, often pork, beef, or poultry, along with salt, spices and other flavourings. Other ingredients such as grains or breadcrumbs may be included as fillers or extenders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Trinidad and Tobago, the local style of blood sausage is heavily seasoned with local peppers and traditionally prepared from pig's blood, often replaced by pig's liver today. It is sold by local producers as a popular accompaniment to rolls of crusty hops bread or served as an accompaniment to \"trotter souse\", a stew based on trotters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lorne sausage",
        "text": "It is thought that the sausage is named after the region of Lorne in Argyll; advertisements for 'Lorne Sausage' have been found in newspapers as early as 1896. This was long before comedian Tommy Lorne, after whom the sausage has been said to be named, became well-known."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glamorgan sausage",
        "text": "Newspaper advertisements promoting the sale of Glamorgan sausages begin to appear from 1869 onwards, with the first advert placed by pork butcher Henry S. Hammond of 288 Bute Street, Cardiff, placed in the \"Western Mail\" on 15 December. Hammond continued to advertise over the next several years, and by 1873 was claiming that the demand necessitated making the sausages on an hourly basis, and referenced other makers of the sausages making theirs days in advance prior to sale. The advert makes it clear that the sausages were made from \"choice dairy-fed pork\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "In Galicia, blood pancakes are called filloas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Br\u00fchwurst",
        "text": "The consistency of a scalded sausage depends on the water binding capacity of the meat. This is particularly high immediately after slaughter, so that sausages were traditionally made from \"still warm, freshly slaughtered\" meat. In contemporary times, sausages are mainly produced using chilled or matured meat. In addition, fat stabilization and structure formation (gelation) are crucial factors in cooked sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungarian sausages",
        "text": "Hungarian sausages\n--Sausages.\n----Kolb\u00e1sz.\n----Hurka.\n----Szal\u00e1mi.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Blood sausages are very difficult to find in US supermarkets. Brussels and Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin are both home to local grocers who produce blood sausage, due to their large Belgian American populations. Supermarkets throughout Maine also carry locally produced blood pudding due to the state's large French Canadian population. In southeastern Michigan, Polish-style \"kaszanka\" can be found in supermarkets throughout the year and is very popular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Stornoway black pudding produced on the Isle of Lewis, Scotland, is one of the most renowned varieties and has been granted Protected Geographical Indicator of Origin (PGI) status. Ireland also has two distinctive varieties of black pudding: Sneem Black Pudding from County Kerry, and drisheen, which is distinguished by its gelatinous texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage roll",
        "text": "On 20 September 1809, the \"Bury and Norwich Post\" mentions T. Ling, aged 75, (an industrious vendor of saloop, buns, and sausage rolls). The Times first mentions the food item in 1864 when William Johnstone, \"wholesale pork pie manufacturer and sausage roll maker\", was fined \u00a315 (\"2015: \u00a3\"), under the Nuisances Removal Act (Amendment) Act 1863, for having on his premises a large quantity of meat unsound, unwholesome and unfit for food. In 1894, a theft case provided further insights into the Victorian sausage roll production whereby the accused apprentice was taught to soak brown bread in red ochre, salt, and pepper to give the appearance of beef sausage for the filling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "An Italian-American version of blood sausage in the San Francisco Bay Area is called \"biroldo\" and has pine nuts, raisins, spices, and pig snouts and is made using either pig's or cow's blood. German-style blood sausage and Zungenwurst can be found in Fresno and Santa Rosa, where Russian and Armenian delis offer a wide range of Central European foods. Also, Alpine Village in Torrance, California has Blutwurst due to a considerable German-American population in the South Bay area of Los Angeles County."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is an example of none meat item that is added to a sausages as fillers?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "An example of a sausage filler are breadcrumbs and grains."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When were the first sausages made?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Which specific sausage would you like to know about: lup cheong, lucanica or blood sausage?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Blood sausage sounds interesting!"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "The blood sausage was mentioned in the Odyssey, written by the Greek poet Homer. Evidence suggests that sausages were already popular among the ancient Gereks and Romans but I can't say when they were first made.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I was not able to determine when blood sausage was first made. I did find a reference to the Greek poet Homer mentioning blood sausage in the Odyssey however, and that was written around the 8th or 7th century BCE."
    ],
    "topic": "Sausage",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Sausage:10",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sausage",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Greek poet Homer mentioned a kind of blood sausage in the \"Odyssey\", Epicharmus wrote a comedy titled \"The Sausage\", and Aristophanes' play \"The Knights\" is about a sausage vendor who is elected leader. Evidence suggests that sausages were already popular both among the ancient Greeks and Romans and most likely with the various tribes occupying the larger part of Europe."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Sausage:10",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sausage",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Greek poet Homer mentioned a kind of blood sausage in the \"Odyssey\", Epicharmus wrote a comedy titled \"The Sausage\", and Aristophanes' play \"The Knights\" is about a sausage vendor who is elected leader. Evidence suggests that sausages were already popular both among the ancient Greeks and Romans and most likely with the various tribes occupying the larger part of Europe."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Odyssey:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Odyssey"
        ],
        "ctx": "The \"Odyssey\" was originally composed in Homeric Greek in around the 8th or 7th century BCE and, by the mid-6th century BCE, had become part of the Greek literary canon. In antiquity, Homer's authorship of the poem was not questioned, but contemporary scholarship predominantly assumes that the \"Iliad\" and the \"Odyssey\" were composed independently, and the stories themselves formed as part of a long oral tradition. Given widespread illiteracy, the poem was performed by an \"aoidos\" or rhapsode, and more likely to be heard than read."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "The Greek poet Homer mentioned a kind of blood sausage in the \"Odyssey\", Epicharmus wrote a comedy titled \"The Sausage\", and Aristophanes' play \"The Knights\" is about a sausage vendor who is elected leader. Evidence suggests that sausages were already popular both among the ancient Greeks and Romans and most likely with the various tribes occupying the larger part of Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Herodotus describes a \"large fish... of the sort called Antacaei, without any prickly bones, and good for pickling,\" probably beluga found in Greek colonies along the Dnieper River. Other ancient writers mention skipjack tuna (pelamys); tuna (thynnoi); swordfish (xifiai); sea raven (korakinoi); black carp (melanes kyprinoi), porpoise (phykaina), mackerel (scomber)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Meat is much less prominent in texts of the 5th century BC onwards than in the earliest poetry, but this may be a matter of genre rather than real evidence of changes in farming and food customs. Fresh meat was most commonly eaten at sacrifices, though sausage was much more common, consumed by people across the economic spectrum. In addition to the flesh of animals, the ancient Greeks often ate inner organs, many of which were considered delicacies such as paunches and tripe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Syssitia",
        "text": "The banquets spoken of by Homer relate to the tradition. Some reference to similar meals can be found in Carthage and according to Aristotle (\"Politics\" VII. 9), it prevailed still earlier amongst the Oenotrians of Calabria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Filo",
        "text": "Some claim it may be derived from the Greeks; Homer's Odyssey written around 800 B.C. mentions thin breads sweetened with walnuts and honey. In the fifth century B.C. Philoxenos states in his poem \"Dinner\" that, in the final drinking course of a meal, hosts would prepare and serve cheesecake made with milk and honey that was baked into a pie."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kykeon",
        "text": "Kykeon is mentioned in Homeric texts: the Iliad describes it as consisting of Pramnian wine, barley, and grated goat's cheese. In the Odyssey, Circe adds some honey and pours her magic potion into it. In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, the goddess refuses red wine but accepts kykeon made from water, barley, and pennyroyal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Hippolochus (3rd Century BCE) describes a wedding banquet in Macedonia with \"chickens and ducks, and ringdoves, too, and a goose, and an abundance of suchlike viands piled high... following which came a second platter of silver, on which again lay a huge loaf, and geese, hares, young goats, and curiously moulded cakes besides, pigeons, turtle-doves, partridges, and other fowl in plenty...\" and \"a roast pig \u2014 a big one, too \u2014 which lay on its back upon it; the belly, seen from above, disclosed that it was full of many bounties. For, roasted inside it, were thrushes, ducks, and warblers in unlimited number, pease pur\u00e9e poured over eggs, oysters, and scallops\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "The Greeks also drank kykeon (, from \"kyka\u014d\", \"to shake, to mix\"), which was both a beverage and a meal. It was a barley gruel, to which water and herbs were added. In the \"Iliad\", the beverage also contained grated goat cheese. In the \"Odyssey\", Circe adds honey and a magic potion to it. In the \"Homeric Hymn to Demeter\", the goddess refuses red wine but accepts a kykeon made of water, flour, and pennyroyal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "In the cities, fresh vegetables were expensive, and therefore, the poorer city dwellers had to make do with dried vegetables. Lentil soup ( \"phak\u0113\") was the workman's typical dish. Cheese, garlic, and onions were the soldier's traditional fare. In Aristophanes' \"Peace\", the smell of onions typically represents soldiers; the chorus, celebrating the end of war, sings \"Oh! joy, joy! No more helmet, no more cheese nor onions!\" Bitter vetch ( \"orobos\") was considered a famine food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Lentils and chickpeas are the most frequently mentioned legumes in classical literature.\n*Bitter vetch \u2013 This plant was present in Greece from at least 8000 BCE, and was occasionally eaten in Classical times. Most ancient literature that mentions it describes it as animal food and having a disagreeable taste. Several classical authors suggest medicinal uses for it.\n*Black beans \u2013 Homer mentions the threshing a black bean (not black turtle beans) as a metaphor in the Iliad\n*Broad beans \u2013 Broad, or Fava Beans are rare in archeological sites, but are common in classical literature. They were eaten both as main dishes and also included in desserts (mixed with figs). In addition to describing them as food, classical authors attribute various medicinal qualities to the beans.\n*Chickpeas \u2013 Chickpeas are mentioned almost as frequently in classical literature as lentils (by Aristophanes and Theophrastus among others), but are found rarely in archeological sites in Greece. As they are found in prehistoric sites in the Middle East and India, it is likely their use was a late addition to the Ancient Greek diet\n*Grass peas \u2013 Like bitter vetch, grass peas were grown in ancient Greece mainly for animal fodder, however they were occasionally eaten in times of famine\n*Lentils \u2013 Theophrastus states that \"of the leguminous plants, the lentil is the most prolific\"\n*Lupin bean \u2013 Lupin (or Lupine, Lupini) beans were present in the Mediterranean region from prehistoric times and were cultivated in Egypt by at least 2000 bce. By classical times, the Greeks were using them for both food and animal fodder.\n*Garden peas \u2013 Peas are commonly found in some of the earliest archaeological sites in Greece, but are rarely mentioned in classical literature. However Hesiod and Theophrastus both include them as food eaten by Greeks"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegetable",
        "text": "The mainstay of the Ancient Greek diet was bread, and this was accompanied by goat's cheese, olives, figs, fish, and occasionally meat. The vegetables grown included onions, garlic, cabbages, melons, and lentils. In Ancient Rome, a thick porridge was made of emmer wheat or beans, accompanied by green vegetables but little meat, and fish was not esteemed. The Romans grew broad beans, peas, onions and turnips and ate the leaves of beets rather than their roots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables were eaten as soups, boiled or mashed ( \"etnos\"), seasoned with olive oil, vinegar, herbs or \"g\u00e1ron\", a fish sauce similar to Vietnamese \"n\u01b0\u1edbc m\u1eafm\". In the comedies of Aristophanes, Heracles was portrayed as a glutton with a fondness for mashed beans. Poor families ate oak acorns ( \"balanoi\"). Raw or preserved olives were a common appetizer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Homer describes the preparation of a wine and cheese drink: taking \"Pramnian wine she grated goat's milk cheese into it with a bronze grater [and] threw in a handful of white barley meal.\" (Book 11 of the Iliad)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Assemblywomen",
        "text": "Jeffrey Henderson translated the word as a stew of \"limpets and saltfish and sharksteak and dogfish and mullets and oddfish with savory pickle sauce and thrushes with blackbirds and various pigeons and roosters and pan-roasted wagtails and larks and nice chunks of hare marinated in mulled wine and all of it drizzled with honey and silphium and vinegar, oil and spices galore.\" The Greek word contains 171 letters, which far surpasses that of Shakespeare's 27-letter long word, \"honorificabilitudinitatibus\" in his Love's Labour's Lost V.I."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Hesiod (7th-8th century BCE) describes many crops eaten by the ancient Greeks, among these are artichokes and peas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "The consumption of fish and meat varied in accordance with the wealth and location of the household; in the country, hunting (primarily trapping) allowed for consumption of birds and hares. Peasants also had farmyards to provide them with chickens and geese. Slightly wealthier landowners could raise goats, pigs, or sheep. In the city, meat was expensive except for pork. In Aristophanes' day a piglet cost three drachmas, which was three days' wages for a public servant. Sausages were common both for the poor and the rich. Archaeological excavations at Kavousi Kastro, Lerna, and Kastanas have shown that dogs were sometimes consumed in Bronze Age Greece, in addition to the more commonly-consumed pigs, cattle, sheep, and goats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "The most famous sausage in ancient Italy was from Lucania (modern Basilicata) and was called \"lucanica\", a name which lives on in a variety of modern sausages in the Mediterranean. During the reign of the Roman emperor Nero, sausages were associated with the Lupercalia festival. Early in the 10th century during the Byzantine Empire, Leo VI the Wise outlawed the production of blood sausages following cases of food poisoning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Archestratus (4th Century BCE), the self-titled \"inventor of made dishes,\" describes a recipe for paunch and tripe, cooked in \"cumin juice, and vinegar and sharp, strong-smelling silphium\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arapian",
        "text": "Arapian's \"louza\" or \"loutza\", a kind of sausage made of pork sirloin found in the Cyclades and also Cyprus, and \"apaki\" smoked sausage made of pork marinated in vinegar and a traditional Cretan sausage, are on the list of recommended products by \"Kathimerini\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Odyssey (1968 miniseries)",
        "text": "Having landed on another island, Ulysses and twelve of his companions go to get supplies and so they go hunting until, following enormous human footsteps, they discover a huge and rough cave. Intrigued, the sailors enter and discover a huge deposit of cheese, milk and ricotta, and utensils belonging to a giant: the bowls that contain the food are huge, and so are an ax and the bed. However, Ulysses, deaf to the insistence of his companions who would like to leave after having taken the cheese, believes he can establish a dialogue with the inhabitant whose skills in making knots and producing good ricotta he appreciates. In any case, there is no more time to escape because the animals of the flock arrive in the cave."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "In ancient Greece, fruit and vegetables were a significant part of the diet, as the ancient Greeks consumed much less meat than in the typical diet of modern societies. Legumes would have been important crops, as their ability to replenish exhausted soil was known at least by the time of Xenophon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Spartans primarily ate a soup made from pigs' legs and blood, known as \"melas z\u014dmos\" (), which means \"black soup\". According to Plutarch, it was \"so much valued that the elderly men fed only upon that, leaving what flesh there was to the younger\". It was famous amongst the Greeks. \"Naturally Spartans are the bravest men in the world,\" joked a Sybarite, \"anyone in his senses would rather die ten thousand times than take his share of such a sorry diet\". It was made with pork, salt, vinegar and blood. The dish was served with \"maza\", figs and cheese sometimes supplemented with game and fish. The 2nd\u20133rd century author Aelian claims that Spartan cooks were prohibited from cooking anything other than meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Roman cuisine",
        "text": "Butcher's meat was an uncommon luxury. The most popular meat was pork, especially sausages. Beef was uncommon in ancient Rome, being more common in ancient Greece \u2013 it is not mentioned by Juvenal or Horace. Seafood, game, and poultry, including ducks and geese, were more usual. For instance, on his triumph, Caesar gave a public feast to 260,000 humiliores (poorer people) which featured all three of these foods, but no butcher's meat. John E. Stambaugh writes that meat \"was scarce except at sacrifices and the dinner parties of the rich\". Cows were prized for their milk; bulls as plough and draft animals. Meat of working animals was tough and unappetizing. Veal was eaten occasionally. Apicius gives only four recipes for beef but the same recipes call for lamb or pork as options. There is only one recipe for beef stew and another for veal scallopini."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthimus (physician)",
        "text": "Though not a true recipe book, the text includes detailed instructions for making at least one Byzantine specialty (), using whipped egg whites, and a beef stew using honey, vinegar and spices. Preparations are described in more cursory terms for a number of other foods. Most of the preparations reflect Roman methods (using ingredients such as oxymel and oenomel), but the Frankish love of raw bacon is also cited. The author also specifically references whether specific foods were then available in Theodoric's region (near Metz in Northeastern France). Among other ingredients, the mention of several spices makes it clear that these were available in France long after the fall of Rome and centuries before the Crusades."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Legumes were essential to the Greek diet, and were harvested in the Mediterranean region from prehistoric times: the earliest and most common being lentils - which have been found in archeological sites in Greece dating to the Upper Paleolithic period. As one of the first domesticated crops to be introduced to Greece, lentils are commonly found at regional archaeological sites from the Upper Paleolithic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dinuguan",
        "text": "This dish is rather similar to European-style blood sausage, or British and Irish black pudding in a saucy stew form. It is perhaps closer in appearance and preparation to the Polish soup Czernina or an even more ancient Spartan dish known as \"melas zomos\" (black soup) whose primary ingredients were pork, vinegar and blood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haloa",
        "text": "The feast, or banquet, consisted of \u201cgentle\u201d or civilized foods\u2014cereals, fish, possibly fowl, and \u201ccakes shaped like the symbols of sex,\u201d but nothing of flesh. Other forbidden Eleusinian foods included pomegranate, which was considered dead-man's food and inappropriate for a feast honouring Demeter, as it was the fruit that drew her Persephone back into the shades of Hades. The Archons in Eleusis would prepare the tables for the women, and then wait outside to show visiting foreigners that civilized foods originated in Eleusis and were dispersed to the rest of mankind from Eleusis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "The cuisine was founded on the \"Mediterranean triad\" of cereals, olives, and grapes, which had many uses and great commercial value, but other ingredients were as important, if not more so, to the average diet: most notably legumes. Research suggests that the agricultural system of Ancient Greece could not have succeeded without the cultivation of legumes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nymphaea nouchali",
        "text": "\"N. nouchali\" might have been one of the plants eaten by the Lotophagi of Homer's \"Odyssey\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Curing (food preservation)",
        "text": "Several sources describe the salting of meat in the ancient Mediterranean world. Diodore of Sicily in his \"Bibliotheca historica\" wrote that the Coss\u00e9ens in the mountains of Persia salted the flesh of carnivorous animals. Strabo indicates that people at Borsippa were catching bats and salting them to eat. The ancient Greeks prepared \"tarichos\" (), which was meat and fish conserved by salt or other means. The Romans called this dish ' \u2013 which term later included salted fat, the sauces and spices used for its preparation. Also evidence of ancient sausage production exists. The Roman gourmet Apicius speaks of a sausage-making technique involving ' (a mixture of the fermented fish sauce with oil or wine). Preserved meats were furthermore a part of religious traditions: resulting meat for offerings to the gods was salted before being given to priests, after which it could be picked up again by the offerer, or even sold in the butcher's."
      },
      {
        "title": "Celery",
        "text": "M. Fragiska mentions an archeological find of celery dating to the 9th century BC, at Kastanas; however, the literary evidence for ancient Greece is far more abundant. In Homer's \"Iliad\", the horses of the Myrmidons graze on wild celery that grows in the marshes of Troy, and in \"Odyssey\", there is mention of the meadows of violet and wild celery surrounding the cave of Calypso."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lucanica",
        "text": "Lucanica was a rustic pork sausage in Ancient Roman cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Byzantine Greeks",
        "text": "Their diet consisted of mainly grains and beans and in fishing communities fish was usually substituted for meat. Bread, wine, and olives were important staples of Byzantine diet with soldiers on campaign eating double-baked and dried bread called \"paximadion\" (Greek: \u03c0\u03b1\u03be\u03b9\u03bc\u03ac\u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd). As in antiquity and modern times, the most common cultivations in the \"choraphia\" (Greek: \u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03b9\u03b1) were olive groves and vineyards. While Liutprand of Cremona, a visitor from Italy, found Greek wine irritating as it was often flavoured with resin (retsina) most other Westerners admired Greek wines, Cretan in particular being famous."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Ancient Greeks consumed a much wider variety of birds than is typical today. Pheasants were present as early as 2000 BCE. Domestic chickens were brought to Greece from Asia Minor as early as 600 BCE, and domesticated geese are described in \"The Odyssey\" (800 BCE). Quail, moorhen, capon, mallards, pheasants, larks, pigeons and doves were all domesticated in classical times, and were even for sale in markets. Additionally, thrush, blackbirds, chaffinch, lark, starling, jay, jackdaw, sparrow, siskin, blackcap, Rock partridge, grebe, plover, coot, wagtail, francolin, and even cranes were hunted, or trapped, and eaten, and sometimes available in markets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Butter ( \"bouturon\") was known but seldom used: Greeks saw it as a culinary trait of the Thracians of the northern Aegean coast, whom the Middle Comic poet Anaxandrides dubbed \"butter eaters\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "In \"Peace\", Aristophanes employs the expression , literally \"to eat only barley\", with a meaning equivalent to the English \"diet of bread and water\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Food played an important part in the Greek mode of thought. Classicist John Wilkins notes that \"in the \"Odyssey\" for example, good men are distinguished from bad and Greeks from foreigners partly in terms of how and what they ate. Herodotus identified people partly in terms of food and eating\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jane Grigson",
        "text": "In each chapter Grigson mixes the well known and the offbeat. In the opening Greek chapter, recipes for taramasalata, moussaka and dolmades sit alongside hare in walnut sauce and salad of calf brains. Italian recipes include classics such as osso buco with risotto milanese, Parmigiana di melanzane and vitello tonnato, but also grilled eel, sole with Parmesan, tripe with pig's trotters, and lamb saut\u00e9ed with olives. Similar juxtapositions are found in other chapters\u2014Portuguese cuisine beyond sardines, British beyond steak and kidney pudding, and Scandinavian beyond sm\u00f6rg\u00e5sbord. Among the less well-known dishes described by Grigson are beef fillet with gentleman's sauce,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Syssitia",
        "text": "Each member was required to contribute a monthly share to the common pot, the \u03c6\u03b9\u03b4\u03af\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \"phid\u00edtes\", of which the composition has been noted by Dicaearchus (through Athenaeus and Plutarch \"ibid.\", 12): 77 litres of barley, 39 litres of wine, three kilograms of cheese, 1.5 kilograms of figs, and ten Aegina obols, which served to purchase meat. That served to prepare the main dish, the black soup, of which Athenaeus noted the ingredients: pork, salt, vinegar and blood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Many dishes can be traced back to ancient Greece: lentil soup, fasolada (though the modern version is made with white beans and tomatoes, both New World plants), tiganites, retsina (white or ros\u00e9 wine flavored with pine resin) and pasteli (candy bar with sesame seeds baked with honey); some to the Hellenistic and Roman periods: loukaniko (dried pork sausage); and Byzantium: feta cheese, avgotaraho (cured fish roe), moustalevria and paximadi (traditional hard bread baked from wheat, barley and rye). There are also many ancient and Byzantine dishes which are no longer consumed: porridge (\"chil\u00f3s\" in Greek) as the main staple, fish sauce (\"garos\"), and salt water mixed into wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "An Akkadian cuneiform tablet records a dish of intestine casings filled with some sort of forcemeat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greek riddles",
        "text": "Byzantine riddles include many whose solution is arrived at through clues based on spelling. In some cases, this involves subtracting a letter from a word. Thus a riddle attributed to Basilos Megalomites says 'A tiny animal, I am not edible; my name consists of three letters only; should you take away the first of my letters, I'd be a large one, and ready for eating'. The answer is both \u03bc\u03c5\u03c2 ('mouse') and \u03c5\u03c2 ('hog')."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Hesiod describes \"milk cake, and milk of goats drained dry\" in his \"Works and Days\". Country dwellers drank milk ( \"gala\"), but it was seldom used in cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apicius",
        "text": "The foods described in the book are useful for reconstructing the dietary habits of the ancient world around the Mediterranean Basin. But the recipes are geared for the wealthiest classes, and a few contain what were exotic ingredients at that time (e.g., flamingo). A sample recipe from Apicius (8.6.2\u20133) follows:\n* Aliter haedinam sive agninam excaldatam: mittes in caccabum copadia. cepam, coriandrum minutatim succides, teres piper, ligusticum, cuminum, liquamen, oleum, vinum. coques, exinanies in patina, amulo obligas. [Aliter haedinam sive agninam excaldatam] <agnina> a crudo trituram mortario accipere debet, caprina autem cum coquitur accipit trituram.\n* Hot kid or lamb stew. Put the pieces of meat into a pan. Finely chop an onion and coriander, pound pepper, lovage, cumin, garum, oil, and wine. Cook, turn out into a shallow pan, thicken with wheat starch. If you take lamb you should add the contents of the mortar while the meat is still raw, if kid, add it while it is cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Ancient Greek cuisine\n--Meals.\n----At home.\n------Breakfast.\n------Lunch.\n------Dinner.\n------Eating customs.\n----Social dining.\n------Symposium.\n------Syssitia.\n--Ingredients and dishes.\n----Grains.\n------Breads and cakes.\n------Wheat.\n------Barley.\n------Millet.\n------Emmer.\n----Legumes.\n----Fruit and vegetables.\n----Animals.\n------Meat.\n------Fish.\n------Fowl.\n----Eggs and dairy products.\n------Eggs.\n------Milk.\n------Butter.\n------Cheese and yogurt.\n----Spices and seasonings.\n----Recipes.\n--Drink.\n----Wine.\n----Kykeon.\n--Ancient writers.\n--Cultural beliefs about the role of food.\n--Specific diets.\n----Vegetarianism.\n----Athlete diets.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Napkin",
        "text": "Summaries of napkin history often say that the ancient Greeks used bread to wipe their hands . This is suggested by a passage in one of Alciphron's letters (3:44), and some remarks by the sausage seller in Aristophanes' play, \"The Knights\". The bread in both texts is referred to as \"apomagdalia\" which simply means bread from inside the crust known as \"the crumb\" and not special \"napkin bread\". Napkins were also used in ancient Roman times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apulian cuisine",
        "text": "In the past meat was a scarcity due to its expense. For this reason, it is not an important component of the cuisine of Apulia. Beef was lacking almost entirely from the diet in the past, because cattle was used for farm work or reared for milk. It was slaughtered only when it was very old. Likewise, the prevalence of horse meat is explained by the slaughter of lame horses which were no longer able to work. Lamb, poultry and rabbit (often reared on farms) and to a lesser degree game were the main sources of meat. A farm used to raise a single pig, of which every part would be used when it was slaughtered. Some of its meat would be consumed directly, but most of it would be preserved as ham, sausages and \"salami\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mediterranean cuisine",
        "text": "Greek cookery makes wide use of vegetables, olive oil, grains, fish, wine and meat (white and red, including lamb, poultry, rabbit and pork). Other important ingredients include olives, cheese, aubergine, courgette, lemon juice, vegetables, herbs, bread and yoghurt. Some more dishes that can be traced back to Ancient Greece are: lentil soup, fasolada, retsina (white or ros\u00e9 wine flavoured with pine resin) and pasteli (sesame seeds baked with honey); some to the Hellenistic and Roman periods include: loukaniko (dried pork sausage); and Byzantium: feta cheese, avgotaraho (bottarga) and paximadhia (rusk). Lakerda (pickled fish), mizithra cheese and desserts like diples, koulourakia, moustokouloura and melomakarono also date back to the Byzantine period, while the variety of different pitas probably dates back to ancient times. Much of Greek cuisine is part of the larger tradition of Ottoman cuisine, the names of the dishes revealing Arabic, Persian or Turkish roots: moussaka, tzatziki, yuvarlakia, keftes and so on. Many dishes' names probably entered the Greek vocabulary during Ottoman times, or earlier in contact with the Persians and the Arabs. However, some dishes may be pre-Ottoman, only taking Turkish names later; the historians of food John Ash and Andrew Dalby, for example, speculate that grape-leaf dolmadhes were made by the early Byzantine period, while Alan Davidson traces trahana to the ancient Greek \"tragos\" and skordalia to the ancient Athenian \"skorothalmi\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Greeks enjoyed other dairy products. \"pyriat\u0113\" and Oxygala () were curdled milk products, similar to cottage cheese or perhaps to yogurt. Most of all, goat's and ewe's cheese ( \"tyros\") was a staple food. Fresh cheeses (sometimes wrapped in Drakontion leaves to retain freshness) and hard cheeses were sold in different shops; the former cost about two thirds of the latter's price."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black soup",
        "text": "Other references to black soup are indirect. For example, in Aristophane's \"Knights,\" one of the lines in this comedy is \"He has had tasty stews exported from Athens for the Spartan fleet.\" Although the reference is not explicit, the fifth century BC poet was suggesting that the Spartan version of stew was not as good as the stew cooked by the Athenians. Classics scholar David Harvey stated that the playwright was likely making fun of Spartan black broth in this passage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Cheesemaking was widespread by the 8th Century BCE, as the technical vocabulary associated with it is included in \"The Odyssey\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hestia",
        "text": "There was a tradition where Hestia received a small offering before any sacrifice, however this was not universal among the Greeks. In \"Odyssey\"\u00a0\"14\", 432\u2013436, the loyal swineherd Eumaeus begins the feast for his master Odysseus by plucking tufts from a boar's head and throwing them into the fire with a prayer addressed to all the powers, then carved the meat into seven equal portions: \"one he set aside, lifting up a prayer to the forest nymphs and Hermes, Maia's son.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Noumenia",
        "text": "According to Herodotus, in Sparta, meat, barley meal and wine were distributed to the citizens by the Kings on the Noumenia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Fran\u00e7ois Rabelais in France mentions in his \"fourth book\" (1552) carnavalesque figures called \"forest-dwelling Blood-puddings\" (Saulcis- sons montig\u00e8nes, Boudins sylvatiques) as a farce representing the Swiss and German Protestants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Myma",
        "text": "Athenaeus indicates\u02d0 \"such a food now is the \"myma\", which I, my friends, am bringing you; concerning which Artemidorus, the pupil of Aristophanes, speaks in his Dictionary of Cookery, saying that it is prepared with meat and blood, w\u03b9th the addition also of a great deal of seasoning. And Epaenetus, in his treatise on Cookery, speaks as follows\":\n: A myma of any sacrificial animal, or chicken, is to be made by chopping the lean meat finely, mincing liver and offal with blood, and flavouring with vinegar, melted cheese, silphium, cumin, thyme leaf, thyme seed, Roman hyssop, coriander leaf, coriander seed, Welsh onion, peeled fried onion (or poppy seed), raisins (or honey) and the seeds of a sour pomegranate. You may also use it as a relish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black soup",
        "text": "How often the Spartans consumed black soup and whether it could be considered a delicacy are both debated questions in ancient sources. Seventh-century BC Spartan poet Alcman inferred that the food ordinary people in Sparta consumed was a pea soup, not the meat-based black soup. On this basis, the historian, Hans Van Wees, suggested that black soup could not be a dish that the average Spartans regularly consumed since it would entail the slaughtering of an animal. For example, it was during royal sacrifices that pigs were part of the offerings. There is also other contrary evidence suggesting that black soup was, in fact, a modest dish. In one of Matro of Pitane's poems, black soup appeared in the text alongside a dish named \"akrok\u00f3lia\" (\"\u1f00\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03ba\u03ce\u03bb\u03b9\u03b1\"). \"Akrok\u00f3lia\" were boiled animal off-cuts, such as the skin, ears, and snouts, suggesting black soup belonged in the category of inexpensive dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agoracritus",
        "text": "Agoracritus is also a character (the sausage seller) in Greek playwright Aristophanes' play \"The Knights\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Breakfast ( \"akratism\u00f3s\") consisted of barley bread dipped in wine ( \"\u00e1kratos\"), sometimes complemented by figs or olives. They also ate a sort of pancake called (\"t\u0113gan\u00edt\u0113s\"), (\"tag\u0113n\u00edt\u0113s\") or (\"tag\u0113n\u00edas\"), all words deriving from (\"t\u00e1g\u0113non\"), \"frying pan\". The earliest attested references on \"tagenias\" are in the works of the 5th century BC poets Cratinus and Magnes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Souvlaki",
        "text": "In Mycenaean Greece, \"souvlaki trays\" were discovered in Gla, Mycenae, and Pylos. The \"souvlaki trays\" (or portable grills) used by the Mycenaean Greeks were rectangular ceramic pans that sat underneath skewers of meat. It is not clear whether these trays would have been placed directly over a fire or if the pans would have held hot coals like a portable barbecue pit. Spit supports appear to \"continue in use into the Early Iron Age at Nichoria.\" In Greek literature, Homer in the \"Iliad\" (1.465) mentions pieces of meat roasted on spits (\u1f40\u03b2\u03b5\u03bb\u03cc\u03c2); this is also mentioned in the works of Aristophanes, Xenophon, Aristotle, and others. In Classical Greece, a small spit or skewer was known as (), and Aristophanes mentions such skewers being used to roast thrushes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Theophrastus lists several plants in his book as \"pot herbs\" including dill, coriander, anise, cumin, fennel, rue, celery and celery seed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food and dining in the Roman Empire",
        "text": "While there were prominent Romans who discouraged meat eating\u2013 the Emperors Didius Julianus and Septimius Severus disdained meat\u2013Roman butchers sold a variety of fresh meats, including pork, beef, and mutton or lamb. Due to the lack of refrigeration, techniques of preservation for meat, fish, and dairy were developed. No portion of the animal was allowed to go to waste, resulting in blood puddings, meatballs \"(isicia)\", sausages, and stews. Rural people cured ham and bacon, and regional specialties such as the fine salted hams of Gaul were items of trade. The sausages of Lucania were made from a mixture of ground meats, herbs, and nuts, with eggs as a binding ingredient, and then aged in a smoker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black soup",
        "text": "No recording of black soup's exact recipe exists today. Ancient literary sources, including historical, medical, and lexicographic, contain descriptions of black soup and its ingredients. Through interpreting these sources, it can be concluded that the Spartans cooked this dish using pig's blood and meat, with salt and vinegar as the only condiments. According to Plutarch's descriptions, the solid meat chunks in the soup were to be taken out and served separately to the younger attendees during banquets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "The first spice mentioned in Ancient Greek writings is cassia: Sappho (6th-7th Century BCE) mentions it in her poem on the marriage of Hector and Andromache. The ancient Greeks made a distinction between Ceylon cinnamon and cassia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lucanica",
        "text": "Apicius documents it as a spicy, smoked beef or pork sausage originally from Lucania; according to Cicero and Martial, it was brought by Roman troops or slaves from Lucania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Recipe",
        "text": "Many ancient Greek recipes are known. Mithaecus's cookbook was an early one, but most of it has been lost; Athenaeus quotes one short recipe in his \"Deipnosophistae\". Athenaeus mentions many other cookbooks, all of them lost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conditum",
        "text": "A 10th-century redaction of an earlier Greek Byzantine agricultural work brings down the relative portions of each ingredient:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Greek cuisine",
        "text": "The most characteristic and ancient element of Greek cuisine is olive oil, which is used in most dishes. It is produced from the olive trees prominent throughout the region, and adds to the distinctive taste of Greek food. The olives themselves are also widely eaten. The basic grain in Greece is wheat, though barley is also grown. Important vegetables include tomato, aubergine (eggplant), potato, green beans, okra, green peppers (capsicum), and onions. Honey in Greece is mainly honey from the nectar of fruit trees and citrus trees: lemon, orange, bigarade (bitter orange) trees, thyme honey, and pine honey. \"Mastic\" (aromatic, ivory-coloured resin) is grown on the Aegean island of Chios."
      },
      {
        "title": "Struffoli",
        "text": "A similar dish is described by Archestratus, a Greek poet from Gela in Sicily. It was called \"enkris\" () \u2014 a dough-ball fried in olive oil, which he details in his \"Gastronomy\"; a work now lost, but partially preserved in the Deipnosophists of Athenaeus, which mentions \"enkris\" thirteen times, in various inflected forms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Macedonians",
        "text": "Ancient Macedonia produced very few fine foods or beverages that were highly appreciated elsewhere in the Greek world, namely eels from the Strymonian Gulf and special wine brewed in Chalcidice. The earliest known use of flat bread as a plate for meat was made in Macedonia during the 3rd century BC, which perhaps influenced the later 'trencher' bread of medieval Europe if not Greek pita and Italian pizza. Cattle and goats were consumed, although there was no notice of Macedonian mountain cheeses in literature until the Middle Ages. As exemplified by works such as the plays by the comedic playwright Menander, Macedonian dining habits penetrated Athenian high society; for instance, the introduction of meats into the dessert course of a meal. The Macedonians also most likely introduced \"mattye\" to Athenian cuisine, a dish usually made of chicken or other spiced, salted, and sauced meats served during the wine course. This particular dish was derided and connected with licentiousness and drunkenness in a play by the Athenian comic poet Alexis about the declining morals of Athenians in the age of Demetrius I of Macedon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Cereals formed the staple diet. The two main grains were wheat ( \"s\u012btos\") and barley ( \"krith\u0113\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Bread wheat, difficult to grow in Mediterranean climates, and the white bread made from it, were associated with the upper classes in the ancient Mediterranean, while the poor ate coarse brown breads made from emmer wheat and barley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Ancient Greek mythology credited Aristaeus with the discovery of cheese. Homer's \"Odyssey\" (8th century BCE) describes the Cyclops making and storing sheep's and goats' milk cheese (translation by Samuel Butler):"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lopado\u00adtemacho\u00adselacho\u00adgaleo\u00adkranio\u00adleipsano\u00addrim\u00adhypo\u00adtrimmato\u00adsilphio\u00adkarabo\u00admelito\u00adkatakechy\u00admeno\u00adkichl\u00adepi\u00adkossypho\u00adphatto\u00adperister\u00adalektryon\u00adopte\u00adkephallio\u00adkigklo\u00adpeleio\u00adlagoio\u00adsiraio\u00adbaphe\u00adtragano\u00adpterygon",
        "text": "is a fictional dish mentioned in Aristophanes' 391 B.C. comedy \"Assemblywomen.\" It is a transliteration of the Ancient Greek word . In one dictionary, it is defined as a \"name of a dish compounded of all kinds of dainties, fish, flesh, fowl, and sauces\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cabbage",
        "text": "Chrysippus of Cnidos wrote a treatise on cabbage, which Pliny knew, but it has not survived. The Greeks were convinced that cabbages and grapevines were inimical, and that cabbage planted too near the vine would impart its unwelcome odor to the grapes; this Mediterranean sense of antipathy survives today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barley",
        "text": "Pliny also noted barley was a special food of gladiators known as \"hordearii\", \"barley-eaters\". However, by Roman times, he added that wheat had replaced barley as a staple."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "The information from Pythagoras (6th century BC) is more difficult to define. The Comedic authors such as Aristophanes and Alexis described Pythagoreans as strictly vegetarian, with some of them living on bread and water alone. Other traditions contented themselves with prohibiting the consumption of certain vegetables, such as the broad bean, or of sacred animals such as the white cock or selected animal parts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Macedonia (ancient kingdom)",
        "text": "Ancient Macedonia produced only a few fine foods or beverages that were highly appreciated elsewhere in the Greek world, including eels from the Strymonian Gulf and special wine produced in Chalcidice. The earliest known use of flat bread as a plate for meat was made in Macedonia during the 3rdcenturyBC, which perhaps influenced the later trencher bread of medieval Europe. Cattle and goats were consumed, although there was no notice of Macedonian mountain cheeses in literature until the Middle Ages. The comedic playwright Menander wrote that Macedonian dining habits penetrated Athenian high society; for instance, the introduction of meats into the dessert course of a meal. The Macedonians also most likely introduced \"mattye\" to Athenian cuisine, a dish usually made of chicken or other spiced, salted, and sauced meats served during the wine course. This particular dish was derided and connected with licentiousness and drunkenness in a play by the Athenian comic poet Alexis about the declining morals of Athenians in the age of Demetrius I of Macedon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Wheat grains were softened by soaking, then either reduced into gruel, or ground into flour ( \"ale\u00edata\") and kneaded and formed into loaves ( \"\u00e1rtos\") or flatbreads, either plain or mixed with cheese or honey. Leavening was known; the Greeks later used an alkali ( \"n\u00edtron\") and wine yeast as leavening agents. Dough loaves were baked at home in a clay oven ( \"ipn\u00f3s\") set on legs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pizza",
        "text": "Foods similar to pizza have been made since the Neolithic Age. Records of people adding other ingredients to bread to make it more flavorful can be found throughout ancient history. In the 6th century BC, the Persian soldiers of the Achaemenid Empire during the rule of Darius the Great baked flatbreads with cheese and dates on top of their battle shields and the ancient Greeks supplemented their bread with oils, herbs, and cheese. An early reference to a pizza-like food occurs in the \"Aeneid\", when Celaeno, queen of the Harpies, foretells that the Trojans would not find peace until they are forced by hunger to eat their tables (Book III). In Book VII, Aeneas and his men are served a meal that includes round cakes (like pita bread) topped with cooked vegetables. When they eat the bread, they realize that these are the \"tables\" prophesied by Celaeno."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "In contrast, Greeks as a whole stressed the austerity of their own diet. Plutarch tells how the king of Pontus, eager to try the Spartan \"black gruel\", bought a Laconian cook; 'but had no sooner tasted it than he found it extremely bad, which the cook observing, told him, \"Sir, to make this broth relish, you should have bathed yourself first in the river Eurotas\"'. According to Polyaenus, on discovering the dining hall of the Persian royal palace, Alexander the Great mocked their taste and blamed it for their defeat. Pausanias, on discovering the dining habits of the Persian commander Mardonius, equally ridiculed the Persians, \"who having so much, came to rob the Greeks of their miserable living\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Knights",
        "text": "Returning to the stage, the sausage-seller reports to the knights on his battle with Cleon for control of the Council: he has outbid Cleon for the support of the councillors with offers of meals at the state's expense. Indignant at his defeat, Cleon rushes onto the stage and challenges the sausage-seller to submit their differences to Demos. The sausage-seller accepts the challenge. They call Demos outdoors and compete with each other in flattering him like rivals for the affections of an eromenos. He agrees to hear them debating their differences, and he takes up his position on the Pnyx (here represented possibly as a bench). The sausage-seller makes some serious accusations in the first half of the debate: (i) Cleon is indifferent to the war-time sufferings of ordinary people, (ii) he has used the war as an opportunity for corruption, and (iii) he prolongs the war out of fear that he will be prosecuted when peace returns. Demos is won over by these arguments, and he spurns Cleon's wheedling appeals for sympathy. Thereafter the sausage-seller's accusations become increasingly absurd: Cleon is accused of waging a campaign against buggery in order to stifle opposition (because all the best orators are buggers), and he is said to have brought down the price of silphium so that jurors who bought it would suffocate each other with their flatulence. Cleon loses the debate, but he doesn't lose hope, and there are two further contests in which he competes with the sausage-seller for Demos's favour: (i) the reading of oracles flattering to Demos; (ii) a race to see which of them can best serve pampered Demos's every need. The sausage-seller wins each contest by outdoing Cleon in shamelessness. Cleon makes one last effort to retain his privileged position in the household: he possesses an oracle that describes his successor, and he questions the sausage-seller to see if he matches the description in all its vulgar details. The sausage-seller does match the description. In tragic dismay, Cleon at last accepts his fate, and he surrenders his authority to the sausage-seller. Demos asks the sausage-seller for his name, and we learn that it is Agoracritus, confirming his lowly origin. The actors depart and the Chorus treats us to another parabasis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "The food of the lower classes was mostly vegetarian and limited to olives, fruit, onions, and the occasional piece of cheese, or stews made from cabbage and salted pork. The standard meal of a shoemaker was described in a Byzantine poem, one of the \"Prodromic Poems\", as consisting of some cooked foods and an omelette followed by hot salted pork with an unspecified garlic dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Over time, more and more Greeks presented themselves as gourmets. From the Hellenistic to the Roman period, the Greeks \u2014 at least the rich \u2014 no longer appeared to be any more austere than others. The cultivated guests of the feast hosted by Athenaeus in the 2nd or 3rd century devoted a large part of their conversation to wine and gastronomy. They discussed the merits of various wines, vegetables, and meats, mentioning renowned dishes (stuffed cuttlefish, red tuna belly, prawns, lettuce watered with mead) and great cooks such as Soterides, chef to king Nicomedes I of Bithynia (who reigned from the 279 to 250 BC). When his master was inland, he pined for anchovies; Soterides simulated them from carefully carved turnips, oiled, salted and sprinkled with poppy seeds. \"Suidas\" (an encyclopaedia from the Byzantine period) mistakenly attributes this exploit to the celebrated Roman gourmet Apicius (1st century BC) \u2014 which may be taken as evidence that the Greeks had reached the same level as the Romans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Favre",
        "text": "It included a with b\u00e9chamel sauce and an unusual dish of duck stuffed with . After the meal, the bishop told the that he could not have eaten better on Olympus, and no doubt the cook was capable and religious. The said he was certainly capable, and he worked religiously. The bishop laughed and said he suspected as much, for the was \"diabolically good\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stuffed peppers",
        "text": "Sometimes vine leaves, cabbage leaves and lettuce leaves are also used. Stuffed onions with minced meat are also popular, while quinces get stuffed with lamb meat and pine nuts. Except stuffed vegetables, stuffed squid is also a popular dish in Greece."
      },
      {
        "title": "Molyvoti Site",
        "text": "The 2013 excavation uncovered eight cereal grains and 19 fragments of charred food residues, both indicative of cooking and food preparation during the Classical period. Other crops found include vetch, goatgrass, and cleavers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antagoras of Rhodes",
        "text": "In one account of the story Plutarch first writes of the value of seafood above the common staple (lentils) and, showing the relative costs of foods against each other, uses the examples of the persons Philoxenus the son of Eryxis, Androcydes the painter and Antagoras as examples for the preference of fish (a delicious food):\n*Thebaid (a region of ancient Egypt)\n*Thebais (a poem ) by Publius Papinius Statius\n*\u0398\u03b7\u03b2\u03b1\u0390\u03c2 (Thebaid)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Greece",
        "text": "The Byzantine cuisine was similar to the classical cuisine including however new ingredients that were not available before, like caviar, nutmeg and lemons, basil, with fish continuing to be an integral part of the diet. Culinary advice was influenced by the theory of humors, first put forth by the ancient Greek doctor Claudius Aelius Galenus."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of ancient dishes",
        "text": "This section is limited to dishes that \"originated\" during the time of ancient history (the beginning of recorded human history) up to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD.\n* Anfu ham is a dry-cured ham from Anfu, Jiangxi, China that originated from the Qin Dynasty. It is eaten alone and also used as an ingredient to add flavor to various dishes.\n*Ashishim \u2013 Israeli red lentil pancake dish of Ancient Israelite origin that was commonly eaten by Jews in antiquity.\n* Babaofan or Eight Treasure Glutinous Rice was first created for a banquet celebrating King Wu of Zhou's defeat of the last King of the Shang Dynasty King Zhou of Shang in the Battle of Muye (circa 1123 BC).\n* Bread\n** Flatbread\n** Focaccia \u2013 dates to ancient Rome\n** Mantou \u2013 dates to 307 BC \u2013 250 BC\n* Chutney\n* Congee\n* Curry\n* Fish sauce, \"see\" garum\n* Forcemeat\n* Garum \u2013 Phoenicia, ancient Greece (where it was known as \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2) and the Roman Empire, known from before Pompeii's destruction in 79 AD.\n* Ham \u2013 dry-cured ham has been produced since ancient times.\n* Hardtack \u2013 versions using various grains date back to ancient Rome, and as far back as ancient Egypt.\n* Harissa \u2013 an Arab staple dish known to go back at least to the original Caliphates, and likely pre-dates Islam on the Arabian Peninsula.\n* Jeok\n* Jusselle\n* Lamb Stew \u2013 Described in ancient Babylonian tablets from 1700 BC\n* Liquamen, \"see\" garum\n* Lucanica \u2013 Roman Italy, mentioned by Cicero, 1st century BC\n* Maccu\n* Misu karu or Misugaru\n* Moretum\n*Nettle stew\n* Noodles \u2013 existent since at least 2,000 BC in Northwest China, the noodle was developed independently in ancient China and ancient Rome, and remained common in both areas \"through the centuries\".\n* Oatcake \u2013 known to exist at least from Roman times in Britain.\n* Olive, olive oil is at least known from the Eastern Mediterranean in the Bronze Age, c. 3000 BC\n* Oxygala \u2013 a dairy product in ancient Greece and Rome. It was also consumed by ancient Persians.\n* Papadzules \u2013 a common dish in Maya cuisine that may be \"one of the most ancient traditional dishes of Yucat\u00e1n, Mexico.\n* Placenta cake \u2013 a layered cake of pastry, cheese and honey originating in ancient Greece and Rome\n* Rice \u2013 existed, but was \"little-used in the ancient world\" outside of Asia.\n* Sauerkraut\n* Sausage\n* Scrapple \u2013 originally called \"panhas\", of ancient Germanic origin.\n* Sop\n* Soup\n** Acquacotta\n** Black soup\n** French onion soup\n** Vegetable soup\n* Soy Sauce\n* Tamale\n* Testaroli\n* Tharida\n* Tofu\n* Tracta was a kind of bread, pastry, or pancake in ancient Greece and perhaps Rome.\n* Wonton\n* Zongzi\n*Beer is recorded in the written history of Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt and is one of the world's oldest prepared beverages.\n* Kykeon was a common beverage of sustenance in ancient Greece, most often consisting mainly of a barley gruel mixture with various additives, sometimes written as having psychoactive properties associated with religious visions.\n* Kombucha originated in what is now Manchuria around 220 BC\n* Soy milk has been consumed in China since ancient times.\n*Wine consumption and production has been found through archaeological evidence as early as BC.\n* Butter \u2013 documented as existent since at least 2,000 BC\n* Buttermilk \u2013 existed before 1 AD in ancient India\n* Kumis \u2013 documented as existing in ancient Scythia\n* Milk\n* \"Opus lactarium\" \u2013 documented as existing during the ancient Roman Empire\n* Quark (\"lac concretum\") \u2013 documented as existing in ancient Scythia\n* \"Schiston\" \u2013 \"separated milk\" purported to have been invented by physicians during the time of the Ancient Roman Empire and Pliny the Elder It was prepared by boiling milk or whey along with pebbles.\n* Shrikhand \u2013 documented as existing circa 800 to 300 B.C. in ancient India\n* Smy \u2013 thickened milk documented as existent in ancient Egypt\n* Yogurt \u2013 documented in upper Mesopotamia from the Neolithic era.\n* Cheese \u2013 Possibly as early as 8000 BC after the domestication of the Sheep in the Fertile Crescent\n* Br\u00e2nz\u0103 \u2013 an ancient Romanian cheese dating to \"before the time of the Romans\"\n* Caciocavallo\n*Cantal \u2013 one of the oldest French cheeses, it is named after the Cantal mountain range\n*Emmental\n* Feta \u2013 existed during the times of Homer in ancient Greece\n** \"Touloumotiri\" is an ancient cheese that is considered as the \"forerunner to feta\".\n* Kefalotyri \u2013 dates to the Byzantine Empire\n* Pecorino Romano \u2013 is one of the world's most ancient cheeses\n* Pecorino Sardo (Flore sardo) \u2013 one of the world's oldest cheeses that is believed to date back to the Bronze Age\n* Pecorino Siciliano\n* Roquefort\n* Salers\n* Tomme\n** Tomme de Savoie"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Timachidas the Rhodian wrote 11 books with dinner recipes. Noumenios, Matreas the Pitanean, Hegemon the Thasian, who was called Lentil-soup, Artemidoros, who was called the Pseudoaristophanean, and Philoxenos, son of Leukadios, wrote cookbooks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hippocras",
        "text": "In the 16th century, food was classified along two axes: cold or hot, dry or wet. People at that time believed in such \u201cbalance\u201d, that is to say, to stew dry ingredients like root vegetables and to roast wet food like suckling pig can achieve balance. Wine was regarded to be cold and dry, and so to this warm ingredients like sugar, ginger and cinnamon were added into wine, creating \"hypocras\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Ancient writers mention \"melitoutta\" (), which was a honeycake."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Broad beans, chickpeas, and lentils are the only legumes mentioned in the Bible but lentils, broad beans, chickpeas, fenugreek, field peas and bitter vetch have been found at Iron Age Israelite sites. By the Roman period, legumes are mentioned frequently in other texts. They are cited as one of the elements of the \u201cwife\u2019s food basket\u201d in the \"Mishna\" (Ketubot 5:8), by which it is estimated that legumes supplied 17% of daily calories at that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Italian sausage",
        "text": "Initially known as \"lucanica\", the first evidence of the sausage dates back to the 1st century BC, when the Roman historian Marcus Terentius Varro described stuffing spiced and salted meat into pig intestines, as follows: \"They call lucanica a minced meat stuffed into a casing, because our soldiers learned how to prepare it\". Confirmation of the birth in Basilicata are also the writings of Cicero and Martial that mention Lucania as the birthplace of the sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pear",
        "text": "Pears grow in the sublime orchard of Alcinous, in \"Odyssey\" vii: \"Therein grow trees, tall and luxuriant, pears and pomegranates and apple-trees with their bright fruit, and sweet figs, and luxuriant olives. Of these the fruit perishes not nor fails in winter or in summer, but lasts throughout the year.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Serbia in the Middle Ages",
        "text": "Byzantine statesmen Theodore Metochites describes the rich lunch prepared at the court of King Milutin, which consisted of the fish from the Danube, boar meat, venison, and bird meat. He also mentions other food served at the court, like other game (roe deer and rabbit meat), broths made from numerous birds (partridge, snipe, wild pigeon) and a special treat, poga\u010da kneaded with honey. Aromatic wines and spring water were served, too. Dessert consisted of apples, pears, black and white grapes, figs (both fresh and dried) and watermelons, kept in the pit (\"trap\"), to stay cool. Other delicacies included: millet balls with porcini; squares of duck and goose meat cooked in the cauldron with black wine, honey and spices; prunes filled with goat cheese, covered with walnuts and baked under the \"sa\u010d\"; baked apples with walnuts and honey; barley balls with dried fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black soup",
        "text": "\"Suda Lexicon\", a Byzantine Greek historical encyclopedia compiled much later during the tenth century AD, states that \"zom\u00f3s\" was a stock cooked using pig, cow, goat, sheep, or bear meat. Julius Pollux's lexicographic work, \"Onomasticon\", notes that the black broth was a Spartan dish cooked with meat and blood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Odyssey",
        "text": "Afterwards, Odysseus and his men landed on a lush, uninhabited island near the land of the Cyclopes. The men then landed on shore and entered the cave of Polyphemus, where they found all the cheeses and meat they desired. Upon returning home, Polyphemus sealed the entrance with a massive boulder and proceeded to eat Odysseus' men. Odysseus devised an escape plan in which he, identifying himself as \"Nobody,\" plied Polyphemus with wine and blinded him with a wooden stake. When Polyphemus cried out, his neighbors left after Polyphemus claimed that \"Nobody\" had attacked him. Odysseus and his men finally escaped the cave by hiding on the underbellies of the sheep as they were let out of the cave."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gonnosfanadiga",
        "text": "His productions of excellence are the olive oil and table olive of the cultivar (always famous throughout the island and now also beyond its borders as a consequence of the very high quality that distinguishes them from industrial production ), the typical bread and craft confectionery, meat and sausages derived from the common herd of sheep and goats and pigs, honey, and a decent production, although a significant decrease compared to the past, high-quality fruit and vegetables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Egyptian cuisine",
        "text": "Mutton and pork were more common, despite Herodotus' affirmations that swine were held by the Egyptians to be unclean and avoided. Poultry, both wild and domestic and fish were available to all but the most destitute. The alternative protein sources would rather have been legumes, eggs, cheese and the amino acids available in the tandem staples of bread and beer. Mice and hedgehogs were also eaten and a common way to cook the latter was to encase a hedgehog in clay and bake it. When the clay was then cracked open and removed, it took the prickly spikes with it."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is an example of none meat item that is added to a sausages as fillers?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "An example of a sausage filler are breadcrumbs and grains."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When were the first sausages made?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Which specific sausage would you like to know about: lup cheong, lucanica or blood sausage?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Blood sausage sounds interesting!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The blood sausage was mentioned in the Odyssey, written by the Greek poet Homer. Evidence suggests that sausages were already popular among the ancient Gereks and Romans but I can't say when they were first made."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where there any other notable foods mentioned in the Odyssey?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Both Necter and Ambrosia are mentioned.",
      "Odyssey mentions a few foods, including birds, cheese, and a drink called kykeon. Which of these foods do you want to learn more about?"
    ],
    "topic": "Sausage",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Ambrosia:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ambrosia",
          "Definition"
        ],
        "ctx": "Both nectar and ambrosia are fragrant, and may be used as perfume: in the \"Odyssey\" Menelaus and his men are disguised as seals in untanned seal skins, \"...and the deadly smell of the seal skins vexed us sore; but the goddess saved us; she brought ambrosia and put it under our nostrils.\" Homer speaks of ambrosial raiment, ambrosial locks of hair, even the gods' ambrosial sandals."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ancient Greek cuisine:49",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ancient Greek cuisine",
          "Ingredients and dishes",
          "Animals",
          "Fowl"
        ],
        "ctx": "Ancient Greeks consumed a much wider variety of birds than is typical today. Pheasants were present as early as 2000 BCE. Domestic chickens were brought to Greece from Asia Minor as early as 600 BCE, and domesticated geese are described in \"The Odyssey\" (800 BCE). Quail, moorhen, capon, mallards, pheasants, larks, pigeons and doves were all domesticated in classical times, and were even for sale in markets. Additionally, thrush, blackbirds, chaffinch, lark, starling, jay, jackdaw, sparrow, siskin, blackcap, Rock partridge, grebe, plover, coot, wagtail, francolin, and even cranes were hunted, or trapped, and eaten, and sometimes available in markets."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ancient Greek cuisine:53",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ancient Greek cuisine",
          "Ingredients and dishes",
          "Eggs and dairy products",
          "Cheese and yogurt"
        ],
        "ctx": "Cheesemaking was widespread by the 8th Century BCE, as the technical vocabulary associated with it is included in \"The Odyssey\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ancient Greek cuisine:71",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ancient Greek cuisine",
          "Drink",
          "Kykeon"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Greeks also drank kykeon (, from \"kyka\u014d\", \"to shake, to mix\"), which was both a beverage and a meal. It was a barley gruel, to which water and herbs were added. In the \"Iliad\", the beverage also contained grated goat cheese. In the \"Odyssey\", Circe adds honey and a magic potion to it. In the \"Homeric Hymn to Demeter\", the goddess refuses red wine but accepts a kykeon made of water, flour, and pennyroyal."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "The Greek poet Homer mentioned a kind of blood sausage in the \"Odyssey\", Epicharmus wrote a comedy titled \"The Sausage\", and Aristophanes' play \"The Knights\" is about a sausage vendor who is elected leader. Evidence suggests that sausages were already popular both among the ancient Greeks and Romans and most likely with the various tribes occupying the larger part of Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Knights",
        "text": "Returning to the stage, the sausage-seller reports to the knights on his battle with Cleon for control of the Council: he has outbid Cleon for the support of the councillors with offers of meals at the state's expense. Indignant at his defeat, Cleon rushes onto the stage and challenges the sausage-seller to submit their differences to Demos. The sausage-seller accepts the challenge. They call Demos outdoors and compete with each other in flattering him like rivals for the affections of an eromenos. He agrees to hear them debating their differences, and he takes up his position on the Pnyx (here represented possibly as a bench). The sausage-seller makes some serious accusations in the first half of the debate: (i) Cleon is indifferent to the war-time sufferings of ordinary people, (ii) he has used the war as an opportunity for corruption, and (iii) he prolongs the war out of fear that he will be prosecuted when peace returns. Demos is won over by these arguments, and he spurns Cleon's wheedling appeals for sympathy. Thereafter the sausage-seller's accusations become increasingly absurd: Cleon is accused of waging a campaign against buggery in order to stifle opposition (because all the best orators are buggers), and he is said to have brought down the price of silphium so that jurors who bought it would suffocate each other with their flatulence. Cleon loses the debate, but he doesn't lose hope, and there are two further contests in which he competes with the sausage-seller for Demos's favour: (i) the reading of oracles flattering to Demos; (ii) a race to see which of them can best serve pampered Demos's every need. The sausage-seller wins each contest by outdoing Cleon in shamelessness. Cleon makes one last effort to retain his privileged position in the household: he possesses an oracle that describes his successor, and he questions the sausage-seller to see if he matches the description in all its vulgar details. The sausage-seller does match the description. In tragic dismay, Cleon at last accepts his fate, and he surrenders his authority to the sausage-seller. Demos asks the sausage-seller for his name, and we learn that it is Agoracritus, confirming his lowly origin. The actors depart and the Chorus treats us to another parabasis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haloa",
        "text": "The feast, or banquet, consisted of \u201cgentle\u201d or civilized foods\u2014cereals, fish, possibly fowl, and \u201ccakes shaped like the symbols of sex,\u201d but nothing of flesh. Other forbidden Eleusinian foods included pomegranate, which was considered dead-man's food and inappropriate for a feast honouring Demeter, as it was the fruit that drew her Persephone back into the shades of Hades. The Archons in Eleusis would prepare the tables for the women, and then wait outside to show visiting foreigners that civilized foods originated in Eleusis and were dispersed to the rest of mankind from Eleusis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ambrosia",
        "text": "Ambrosia is very closely related to the gods' other form of sustenance, \"nectar\". The two terms may not have originally been distinguished; though in Homer's poems nectar is usually the drink and ambrosia the food of the gods; it was with ambrosia that Hera \"cleansed all defilement from her lovely flesh\", and with ambrosia Athena prepared Penelope in her sleep, so that when she appeared for the final time before her suitors, the effects of years had been stripped away, and they were inflamed with passion at the sight of her. On the other hand, in Alcman, nectar is the food, and in Sappho and Anaxandrides, ambrosia is the drink. A character in Aristophanes' \"Knights\" says, \"I dreamed the goddess poured ambrosia over your head\u2014out of a ladle.\" Both descriptions could be correct, as ambrosia could be a liquid considered a food (such as honey)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kykeon",
        "text": "Kykeon is mentioned in Homeric texts: the Iliad describes it as consisting of Pramnian wine, barley, and grated goat's cheese. In the Odyssey, Circe adds some honey and pours her magic potion into it. In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, the goddess refuses red wine but accepts kykeon made from water, barley, and pennyroyal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ambrosia (fruit salad)",
        "text": "The name references the food of the Greek gods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "In the cities, fresh vegetables were expensive, and therefore, the poorer city dwellers had to make do with dried vegetables. Lentil soup ( \"phak\u0113\") was the workman's typical dish. Cheese, garlic, and onions were the soldier's traditional fare. In Aristophanes' \"Peace\", the smell of onions typically represents soldiers; the chorus, celebrating the end of war, sings \"Oh! joy, joy! No more helmet, no more cheese nor onions!\" Bitter vetch ( \"orobos\") was considered a famine food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Syssitia",
        "text": "The banquets spoken of by Homer relate to the tradition. Some reference to similar meals can be found in Carthage and according to Aristotle (\"Politics\" VII. 9), it prevailed still earlier amongst the Oenotrians of Calabria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lucanica",
        "text": "Lucanica was a rustic pork sausage in Ancient Roman cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "In \"Peace\", Aristophanes employs the expression , literally \"to eat only barley\", with a meaning equivalent to the English \"diet of bread and water\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lopado\u00adtemacho\u00adselacho\u00adgaleo\u00adkranio\u00adleipsano\u00addrim\u00adhypo\u00adtrimmato\u00adsilphio\u00adkarabo\u00admelito\u00adkatakechy\u00admeno\u00adkichl\u00adepi\u00adkossypho\u00adphatto\u00adperister\u00adalektryon\u00adopte\u00adkephallio\u00adkigklo\u00adpeleio\u00adlagoio\u00adsiraio\u00adbaphe\u00adtragano\u00adpterygon",
        "text": "is a fictional dish mentioned in Aristophanes' 391 B.C. comedy \"Assemblywomen.\" It is a transliteration of the Ancient Greek word . In one dictionary, it is defined as a \"name of a dish compounded of all kinds of dainties, fish, flesh, fowl, and sauces\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Butter ( \"bouturon\") was known but seldom used: Greeks saw it as a culinary trait of the Thracians of the northern Aegean coast, whom the Middle Comic poet Anaxandrides dubbed \"butter eaters\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ambrosia (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Ambrosia is the food (sometimes the drink) of the gods of Greek mythology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mealsechlainn \u00d3 hEodhasa",
        "text": "Mealsechlainn \u00d3 hEodhasa\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Odyssey (1968 miniseries)",
        "text": "Having landed on another island, Ulysses and twelve of his companions go to get supplies and so they go hunting until, following enormous human footsteps, they discover a huge and rough cave. Intrigued, the sailors enter and discover a huge deposit of cheese, milk and ricotta, and utensils belonging to a giant: the bowls that contain the food are huge, and so are an ax and the bed. However, Ulysses, deaf to the insistence of his companions who would like to leave after having taken the cheese, believes he can establish a dialogue with the inhabitant whose skills in making knots and producing good ricotta he appreciates. In any case, there is no more time to escape because the animals of the flock arrive in the cave."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Hippolochus (3rd Century BCE) describes a wedding banquet in Macedonia with \"chickens and ducks, and ringdoves, too, and a goose, and an abundance of suchlike viands piled high... following which came a second platter of silver, on which again lay a huge loaf, and geese, hares, young goats, and curiously moulded cakes besides, pigeons, turtle-doves, partridges, and other fowl in plenty...\" and \"a roast pig \u2014 a big one, too \u2014 which lay on its back upon it; the belly, seen from above, disclosed that it was full of many bounties. For, roasted inside it, were thrushes, ducks, and warblers in unlimited number, pease pur\u00e9e poured over eggs, oysters, and scallops\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Apicius",
        "text": "The foods described in the book are useful for reconstructing the dietary habits of the ancient world around the Mediterranean Basin. But the recipes are geared for the wealthiest classes, and a few contain what were exotic ingredients at that time (e.g., flamingo). A sample recipe from Apicius (8.6.2\u20133) follows:\n* Aliter haedinam sive agninam excaldatam: mittes in caccabum copadia. cepam, coriandrum minutatim succides, teres piper, ligusticum, cuminum, liquamen, oleum, vinum. coques, exinanies in patina, amulo obligas. [Aliter haedinam sive agninam excaldatam] <agnina> a crudo trituram mortario accipere debet, caprina autem cum coquitur accipit trituram.\n* Hot kid or lamb stew. Put the pieces of meat into a pan. Finely chop an onion and coriander, pound pepper, lovage, cumin, garum, oil, and wine. Cook, turn out into a shallow pan, thicken with wheat starch. If you take lamb you should add the contents of the mortar while the meat is still raw, if kid, add it while it is cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hestia",
        "text": "There was a tradition where Hestia received a small offering before any sacrifice, however this was not universal among the Greeks. In \"Odyssey\"\u00a0\"14\", 432\u2013436, the loyal swineherd Eumaeus begins the feast for his master Odysseus by plucking tufts from a boar's head and throwing them into the fire with a prayer addressed to all the powers, then carved the meat into seven equal portions: \"one he set aside, lifting up a prayer to the forest nymphs and Hermes, Maia's son.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Food in the Chronicles of Narnia",
        "text": "Tea is a prominent feature of Narnia's food landscape. When Lucy first steps through the wardrobe she is invited to \"a wonderful tea\" with a faun with \"a nice brown egg...sardines on toast, and then buttered toast, and then toast with honey, and then a sugar topped-cake\". James Herbert Brennan has contrasted this scene against the backdrop of food rations during World War II, when the books were written:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Greek riddles",
        "text": "Byzantine riddles include many whose solution is arrived at through clues based on spelling. In some cases, this involves subtracting a letter from a word. Thus a riddle attributed to Basilos Megalomites says 'A tiny animal, I am not edible; my name consists of three letters only; should you take away the first of my letters, I'd be a large one, and ready for eating'. The answer is both \u03bc\u03c5\u03c2 ('mouse') and \u03c5\u03c2 ('hog')."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ambrosia",
        "text": "In the ancient Greek myths, ambrosia (, ), the food or drink of the Greek gods, is often depicted as conferring longevity or immortality upon whoever consumed it. It was brought to the gods in Olympus by doves and served either by Hebe or by Ganymede at the heavenly feast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ambanitsena",
        "text": "It is know for its sausages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Noumenia",
        "text": "According to Herodotus, in Sparta, meat, barley meal and wine were distributed to the citizens by the Kings on the Noumenia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "An Akkadian cuneiform tablet records a dish of intestine casings filled with some sort of forcemeat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conditum",
        "text": "A 10th-century redaction of an earlier Greek Byzantine agricultural work brings down the relative portions of each ingredient:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dinuguan",
        "text": "This dish is rather similar to European-style blood sausage, or British and Irish black pudding in a saucy stew form. It is perhaps closer in appearance and preparation to the Polish soup Czernina or an even more ancient Spartan dish known as \"melas zomos\" (black soup) whose primary ingredients were pork, vinegar and blood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arapian",
        "text": "Arapian's \"louza\" or \"loutza\", a kind of sausage made of pork sirloin found in the Cyclades and also Cyprus, and \"apaki\" smoked sausage made of pork marinated in vinegar and a traditional Cretan sausage, are on the list of recommended products by \"Kathimerini\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Syssitia",
        "text": "Each member was required to contribute a monthly share to the common pot, the \u03c6\u03b9\u03b4\u03af\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \"phid\u00edtes\", of which the composition has been noted by Dicaearchus (through Athenaeus and Plutarch \"ibid.\", 12): 77 litres of barley, 39 litres of wine, three kilograms of cheese, 1.5 kilograms of figs, and ten Aegina obols, which served to purchase meat. That served to prepare the main dish, the black soup, of which Athenaeus noted the ingredients: pork, salt, vinegar and blood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lucanica",
        "text": "Apicius documents it as a spicy, smoked beef or pork sausage originally from Lucania; according to Cicero and Martial, it was brought by Roman troops or slaves from Lucania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Assemblywomen",
        "text": "Jeffrey Henderson translated the word as a stew of \"limpets and saltfish and sharksteak and dogfish and mullets and oddfish with savory pickle sauce and thrushes with blackbirds and various pigeons and roosters and pan-roasted wagtails and larks and nice chunks of hare marinated in mulled wine and all of it drizzled with honey and silphium and vinegar, oil and spices galore.\" The Greek word contains 171 letters, which far surpasses that of Shakespeare's 27-letter long word, \"honorificabilitudinitatibus\" in his Love's Labour's Lost V.I."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "The most famous sausage in ancient Italy was from Lucania (modern Basilicata) and was called \"lucanica\", a name which lives on in a variety of modern sausages in the Mediterranean. During the reign of the Roman emperor Nero, sausages were associated with the Lupercalia festival. Early in the 10th century during the Byzantine Empire, Leo VI the Wise outlawed the production of blood sausages following cases of food poisoning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Meat is much less prominent in texts of the 5th century BC onwards than in the earliest poetry, but this may be a matter of genre rather than real evidence of changes in farming and food customs. Fresh meat was most commonly eaten at sacrifices, though sausage was much more common, consumed by people across the economic spectrum. In addition to the flesh of animals, the ancient Greeks often ate inner organs, many of which were considered delicacies such as paunches and tripe."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Golden Crab",
        "text": "She had three pairs of iron shoes made and wandered the world until she had worn out two. Then she built an inn and asked all travellers for news. Two beggars came. One told how he had tried to eat some bread, but when he dipped it into a stream to soften it, the current bore it off. He had chased it to a palace, where he was forbidden to eat until the lords had eaten. Three doves flew in and turned to young men. Two toasted the health of a fair one who could not keep a secret, and ordered the windows and doors to weep; they wept, and the young men wept with them. The third toasted the fair lady who could not keep her promise for one more day, and wept with the windows and doors. When they were done, the beggar ate and left. The princess asked him to lead her there. The oven and cauldron welcomed her, and the door told her to hide behind it. When the first two men gave their toasts, the doors and windows wept, but when the third did, they laughed. He went to break them, and found his wife. She threw his wings on the fire and saved him from possible danger or death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "The consumption of fish and meat varied in accordance with the wealth and location of the household; in the country, hunting (primarily trapping) allowed for consumption of birds and hares. Peasants also had farmyards to provide them with chickens and geese. Slightly wealthier landowners could raise goats, pigs, or sheep. In the city, meat was expensive except for pork. In Aristophanes' day a piglet cost three drachmas, which was three days' wages for a public servant. Sausages were common both for the poor and the rich. Archaeological excavations at Kavousi Kastro, Lerna, and Kastanas have shown that dogs were sometimes consumed in Bronze Age Greece, in addition to the more commonly-consumed pigs, cattle, sheep, and goats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food in the Chronicles of Narnia",
        "text": "\"...the first sense you get in Narnia about Lewis's attitude toward food is an air of profound nostalgia for the lost paradise of a varied, ample diet, and a willingness to wallow in the nostalgia somewhat.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pig stele of Edessa",
        "text": "[\u1f10\u03bd\u03b8\u03ac\u03b4\u03b5] \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 [\u03c4\u1ff7] \u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03ac\u03c4\u1ff3 \u03bc\u03b7\u03ba\u03ad\u03c4\u2019 \u1f40\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bb\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2."
      },
      {
        "title": "Myma",
        "text": "Athenaeus indicates\u02d0 \"such a food now is the \"myma\", which I, my friends, am bringing you; concerning which Artemidorus, the pupil of Aristophanes, speaks in his Dictionary of Cookery, saying that it is prepared with meat and blood, w\u03b9th the addition also of a great deal of seasoning. And Epaenetus, in his treatise on Cookery, speaks as follows\":\n: A myma of any sacrificial animal, or chicken, is to be made by chopping the lean meat finely, mincing liver and offal with blood, and flavouring with vinegar, melted cheese, silphium, cumin, thyme leaf, thyme seed, Roman hyssop, coriander leaf, coriander seed, Welsh onion, peeled fried onion (or poppy seed), raisins (or honey) and the seeds of a sour pomegranate. You may also use it as a relish."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Food of the Gods (short story)",
        "text": "The title is in reference to \"ambrosia\", the mythical food of the ancient Greek gods and the name of the controversial food product discussed in this story. The title could also be seen as a tribute to the novel \"The Food of the Gods and How It Came to Earth\" by H.\u00a0G.\u00a0Wells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Herodotus describes a \"large fish... of the sort called Antacaei, without any prickly bones, and good for pickling,\" probably beluga found in Greek colonies along the Dnieper River. Other ancient writers mention skipjack tuna (pelamys); tuna (thynnoi); swordfish (xifiai); sea raven (korakinoi); black carp (melanes kyprinoi), porpoise (phykaina), mackerel (scomber)."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Knights",
        "text": "Short summary: A sausage seller, Agoracritus, vies with Cleon for the confidence and approval of Demos (\"The People\" in Greek), an elderly man who symbolizes the Athenian citizenry. Agoracritus emerges triumphant from a series of contests, and he restores Demos to his former glory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pig stele of Edessa",
        "text": "\u03c7\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c6\u03af\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2, \u03c4\u03b5\u03c4\u03c1\u03ac\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03bd\u03ad\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f10\u03bd\u03b8\u03ac\u03b4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9"
      },
      {
        "title": "Agoracritus",
        "text": "Agoracritus is also a character (the sausage seller) in Greek playwright Aristophanes' play \"The Knights\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Lentils and chickpeas are the most frequently mentioned legumes in classical literature.\n*Bitter vetch \u2013 This plant was present in Greece from at least 8000 BCE, and was occasionally eaten in Classical times. Most ancient literature that mentions it describes it as animal food and having a disagreeable taste. Several classical authors suggest medicinal uses for it.\n*Black beans \u2013 Homer mentions the threshing a black bean (not black turtle beans) as a metaphor in the Iliad\n*Broad beans \u2013 Broad, or Fava Beans are rare in archeological sites, but are common in classical literature. They were eaten both as main dishes and also included in desserts (mixed with figs). In addition to describing them as food, classical authors attribute various medicinal qualities to the beans.\n*Chickpeas \u2013 Chickpeas are mentioned almost as frequently in classical literature as lentils (by Aristophanes and Theophrastus among others), but are found rarely in archeological sites in Greece. As they are found in prehistoric sites in the Middle East and India, it is likely their use was a late addition to the Ancient Greek diet\n*Grass peas \u2013 Like bitter vetch, grass peas were grown in ancient Greece mainly for animal fodder, however they were occasionally eaten in times of famine\n*Lentils \u2013 Theophrastus states that \"of the leguminous plants, the lentil is the most prolific\"\n*Lupin bean \u2013 Lupin (or Lupine, Lupini) beans were present in the Mediterranean region from prehistoric times and were cultivated in Egypt by at least 2000 bce. By classical times, the Greeks were using them for both food and animal fodder.\n*Garden peas \u2013 Peas are commonly found in some of the earliest archaeological sites in Greece, but are rarely mentioned in classical literature. However Hesiod and Theophrastus both include them as food eaten by Greeks"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pig stele of Edessa",
        "text": "\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u03b3\u03b1\u03af\u03b7\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03ad\u03b2\u03b7\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u1f76 \u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bb\u03b9\u03c0\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Asterix and the Banquet",
        "text": "Eventually, Asterix and Obelix reach the stockade outside their village and, after beating up the Romans yet again, give them a message to tell Overanxius they have won their side of the bet. That night, Asterix shows the food and wine to Overanxius and Lotuseatus, before demonstrating the village's specialty, 'the uppercut', which knocks out Overanxius. Moments before the punch, Dogmatix barks for the first time, making Obelix notice him. Dogmatix is given a bone and the villagers enjoy their banquet.\n* Lutetia (Paris): ham\n* Camaracum (Cambrai): humbugs (in the English translation; in the original a similar sweet called \"B\u00eatises de Cambrai\")\n* Durocortorum (Reims): Champagne (not named as such)\n* Lugdunum (Lyon): sausages and quenelles\n* Nic\u00e6 (Nice): Ni\u00e7oise salad (named \"Nic\u00e6oise\" salad)\n* Massilia (Marseille) fish stew (i.e. bouillabaisse)\n* Tolosa (Toulouse): sausages\n* Aginum (Agen): prunes\n* Burdigala (Bordeaux): oysters and white wine\n*The idea of the story (and its French title) was inspired by the \"Tour de France\" bicycle race. The sack carried by Obelix reflects the race leader's jersey colour (yellow \u2014 with a patch for the number).\n*The Latin phrase \"Exegi monumentum aere perennius\" is uttered by a legionnaire during the construction of a wall (page 7). This is a reference to the same quote made by the Roman poet Horace. Translated, it means: \"I have erected a monument more lasting than bronze.\"\n*Fun is poked at various French regional stereotypes:\n**The inhabitants of Normandy are shown as being unable to give a direct answer.\n** The traffic jams in Paris (Lutetia in the comic strip) are spoofed.\n** The phrase: \"Je vous promets qu'on n'a pas fini d'en parler de l'affaire du courrier de Lugdunum!\" is a reference to the trial \"Le courrier de Lyon\", where an innocent man was executed for the robbery of a mail coach and the murder of its occupants in 1796.\n** The inhabitants of Lutetia (Paris) are shown going to Nic\u00e6 (Nice) for their summer holiday. (Obelix refers to Nicae as the \"Gaulish Riviera\".) Like modern Parisian travelers, the visitors from Lutetia cause huge traffic jams with their carts on the road into Nic\u00e6, and huge crowds on the beach.\n** The inhabitants of Massilia (Marseille) are hot-blooded and shown to exaggerate enormously.\n*The maze of back alleys in Lugdunum is a reference to the traboules of Lyon and the role they played during the French Resistance.\n*The idea of using pebbles to find one's way back is a reference to \"Hansel and Gretel\" or the French fairy tale \"Hop o' My Thumb\". However a 'helpful' Roman Soldier picks up the pebbles for the Roman Official, trapping him in the maze also.\n*The scenes in the tavern in Massilia on page 36 are references to the films \"Marius\" (1931), \"Fanny (1932)\" and \"C\u00e9sar\" (1936) by Marcel Pagnol, which all take place in Marseille. The characters are caricatures of the actors in the film, including Raimu. . The card game scene is a reference to \"Marius\" and the p\u00e9tanque sc\u00e8ne to \"\"Fanny\".\"\n*After Asterix and Obelix sink the pirates' ship, Pegleg quotes Lucan in \"The Pharsalia\": \"Victrix causa diis placuit, sed victa catoni.\" (\"The victorious cause was pleasing to the gods, but the lost cause was pleasing to Cato.\")\n* On the cover of the album, the sack is coloured incorrectly (\"green with a yellow patch\").\n* In the original French version, the camp centurion in this story (\"Gracchus Nenjet\u00e9pus\") is the same as that of the previous volume, \"Asterix the Gladiator\" \u2014 the only time a centurion appears in more than one album. However, in all major translations, he is given a different name in this volume (in the English version, he is named \"Gracchus Armisurplus\" in \"Asterix the Gladiator\", and \"Lotuseatus\" in this album).\n* Dogmatix is introduced in this book. He is first seen outside the pork butcher's shop in Lutetia. He follows Asterix and Obelix (who do not notice him during the entire journey) all across Gaul back to their village. Obelix notices him before the victory feast because he barks for the very first time and is rewarded with a bone.\n* Dogmatix was originally supposed to be a literal running gag for this story alone. However, the authors decided he should stay in the series as a mascot, thus violating Goscinny's original no-pets rule.\n* In the first version, the tour was supposed to go the other way around.\n* In another initial version, other towns were considered but eliminated for lack of space:\n** C\u00e6sarodunum (Tours): rillettes\n** Vesunna (P\u00e9rigueux): foie gras\n** B\u00e6terr\u00e6 (B\u00e9ziers): wine\n** Arelate (Arles): sausage\n** Cabello (Cavaillon): melons\n** Cularo (Grenoble): walnuts (in French, \"Grenoble nuts\")\n** Genabum (Orl\u00e9ans): aromatic vinegar\n** Suindinum (Le Mans): chicken.\n* This marks the introduction of the running gag of Obelix vehemently protesting the implication that he is fat; while he had referred to himself as 'medium' in size in \"Asterix and the Goths\", in \"Asterix the Gladiator\" Asterix informed him that he was too fat to pose as a lion to infiltrate the Circus and Obelix merely commented that he wished he had known that, while here he shows evident anger at anyone who calls him fat or even indirectly refers to him as 'the fat man', claiming that he is 'just not skinny'.\n* First time an Asterix book makes reference to past adventures. The first instance being after Overanxius agrees to lift the stockade if the Gauls win the bet, Obelix tells him to give Asterix and Obelix's best regards to Caius Fatuous, whom the pair humiliated in \"Asterix the Gladiator\". The second reference to a previous adventure comes when Asterix and Obelix discover Lutetia's traffic problems haven't been sorted out since their last visit there, of which a footnote tells readers to look back at the book \"Asterix and the Golden Sickle\".\n*The candy shop owner at Cambrai sings the Beatles' song Golden Slumbers after Asterix and Obelix knock out the Roman patrol.\n* In October 2017, the book's original cover illustration, signed by the authors, was sold at a Paris auction for a record \u20ac1.4 million.\n* And they never get Divodurum's specialties, like charcuterie or pate or even quiche."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "The Greeks also drank kykeon (, from \"kyka\u014d\", \"to shake, to mix\"), which was both a beverage and a meal. It was a barley gruel, to which water and herbs were added. In the \"Iliad\", the beverage also contained grated goat cheese. In the \"Odyssey\", Circe adds honey and a magic potion to it. In the \"Homeric Hymn to Demeter\", the goddess refuses red wine but accepts a kykeon made of water, flour, and pennyroyal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barley",
        "text": "Pliny also noted barley was a special food of gladiators known as \"hordearii\", \"barley-eaters\". However, by Roman times, he added that wheat had replaced barley as a staple."
      },
      {
        "title": "Darkover",
        "text": "Snap-beans are mentioned in Traitor's Sun, chapter 17, when Domenic volunteers to help in the kitchen of an inn, and he is shown how to \"string\" them. He is told the cook \"fries them with bacon\" implying that there are pigs on Darkover."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables were eaten as soups, boiled or mashed ( \"etnos\"), seasoned with olive oil, vinegar, herbs or \"g\u00e1ron\", a fish sauce similar to Vietnamese \"n\u01b0\u1edbc m\u1eafm\". In the comedies of Aristophanes, Heracles was portrayed as a glutton with a fondness for mashed beans. Poor families ate oak acorns ( \"balanoi\"). Raw or preserved olives were a common appetizer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Afikoman",
        "text": "After the eating of the \"afikoman\", no other food may be eaten for the rest of the night, other than the last two cups of wine at the Seder and coffee, tea, or water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Recipe",
        "text": "Many ancient Greek recipes are known. Mithaecus's cookbook was an early one, but most of it has been lost; Athenaeus quotes one short recipe in his \"Deipnosophistae\". Athenaeus mentions many other cookbooks, all of them lost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Epodes (Horace)",
        "text": "In \"Epode\" 3, Horace reacts to an excessive amount of garlic he has consumed at one of Maecenas' dinner parties: its strong taste has set his stomach on fire. Comparing the ingredient to the poison used by witches such as Medea, he playfully wishes that his host be stricken by the same condition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pig stele of Edessa",
        "text": "\u1f28\u03bc\u03b1\u03b8\u03af\u03b7\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u1fd6\u03bf \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f05\u03c1\u03bc\u03b1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Food in the Chronicles of Narnia",
        "text": "Food in the Chronicles of Narnia\n--Enchanted and wholesome foods.\n--Tea.\n--Turkish Delight.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pig stele of Edessa",
        "text": "\u0394\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03b7\u03c2 \u03b4\u03ac\u03c0\u03b5\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03c0\u1f7c\u03bd \u03b4\u1ff6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03c2,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Black soup",
        "text": "Other references to black soup are indirect. For example, in Aristophane's \"Knights,\" one of the lines in this comedy is \"He has had tasty stews exported from Athens for the Spartan fleet.\" Although the reference is not explicit, the fifth century BC poet was suggesting that the Spartan version of stew was not as good as the stew cooked by the Athenians. Classics scholar David Harvey stated that the playwright was likely making fun of Spartan black broth in this passage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey",
        "text": "In ancient Greek religion, the food of Zeus and the twelve Gods of Olympus was honey in the form of nectar and ambrosia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food in the Chronicles of Narnia",
        "text": "The first meal Lucy has with Mr. Tumnus the faun is a classic middle-class British tea, and the simple fresh eggs, buttered toast and sardines would have been out of reach for Lucy, who escapes to Narnia in the midst of the war."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Amphictyons",
        "text": "I will, then, tell of the life of old which I provided for mortals. First, there was peace over all, like water over hands. The earth produced no terror and no disease; on the other hand, things needful came of their own accord. Every torrent flowed with wine, barley-cakes strove with wheat-loaves for men's lips, beseeching that they be swallowed if men loved the whitest. Fishes would come to the house and bake themselves, then serve themselves on the tables. A river of broth, whirling hot slices of meat, would flow by the couches; conduits full of piquant sauces for the meat were close at hand for the asking, so that there was plenty for moistening a mouthful and swallowing it tender. On dishes there would be honey-cakes all sprinkled with spices, and roast thrushes served up with milk-cakes were flying into the gullet. The flat-cakes jostled each other at the jaws and set up a racket, the slaves would shoot dice with slices of paunch and tid-bits. Men were fat in those days and every bit mighty giants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegetable",
        "text": "The mainstay of the Ancient Greek diet was bread, and this was accompanied by goat's cheese, olives, figs, fish, and occasionally meat. The vegetables grown included onions, garlic, cabbages, melons, and lentils. In Ancient Rome, a thick porridge was made of emmer wheat or beans, accompanied by green vegetables but little meat, and fish was not esteemed. The Romans grew broad beans, peas, onions and turnips and ate the leaves of beets rather than their roots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Babiole",
        "text": "Finding no food, she opened the glass chest and went to eat an olive inside it. Oil flowed from it and turned her into a beautiful princess. But still hungry, she went to eat the hazel nut in the box, and out of it came people who made her a castle and attended her in it. She lived there as a queen. Several tournaments were held in her honor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antagoras of Rhodes",
        "text": "Whilst on campaign in the Balkans, King Antigonos Gonatas\u2014who had journeyed with Antagoras\u2014found Antagoras inside camp to be cooking conger eels. When asked as to the likelihood of Homer being able to produce the Iliad should he have decided instead to use his time in cookery, Antagoras replied that he thought it unlikely that Agammemnon would have involved himself in any exploits at all if he had chosen to wander around his camp looking for men cooking conger eels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Homer describes the preparation of a wine and cheese drink: taking \"Pramnian wine she grated goat's milk cheese into it with a bronze grater [and] threw in a handful of white barley meal.\" (Book 11 of the Iliad)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gnathaena",
        "text": "Once, when a man came to see her, and saw some eggs on a dish, and said, \"Are these raw, Gnathaena, or boiled?\" \"They are made of brass, my boy,\" said she. On one occasion, when Chaerephon came to sup with her without an invitation, Gnathaena pledged him in a cup of wine. \"Take it,\" said she, \"you proud fellow.\" And he said, \"I proud?\" \"Who can be more so,\" said she, \"when you come without even being invited?\" [...] On one occasion, some men were drinking in her house, and were eating some lentils dressed with onions (\u03b2\u03bf\u03bb\u03b2\u03bf\u03c6\u03ac\u03ba\u03b7); as the maidservant was clearing the table, and putting some of the lentils in her bosom (\u03ba\u03cc\u03bb\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd), Gnathaena said, \"She is thinking of making some bosom-lentils (\u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03c0\u03bf\u03c6\u03ac\u03ba\u03b7).\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Gonnosfanadiga",
        "text": "His productions of excellence are the olive oil and table olive of the cultivar (always famous throughout the island and now also beyond its borders as a consequence of the very high quality that distinguishes them from industrial production ), the typical bread and craft confectionery, meat and sausages derived from the common herd of sheep and goats and pigs, honey, and a decent production, although a significant decrease compared to the past, high-quality fruit and vegetables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pig stele of Edessa",
        "text": "\u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c7\u03bf\u1fd6\u03bf \u03b2\u03af\u1fc3 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c6\u03ac\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03bb\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1 (u -)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pig stele of Edessa",
        "text": "[\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76] \u0394\u03c5\u03c1\u03c1\u03ac\u03c7\u03b9(o)\u03bd \u03b4' \u1f10\u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7\u03c3' \u1f08\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb[\u03bb]\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Napkin",
        "text": "Summaries of napkin history often say that the ancient Greeks used bread to wipe their hands . This is suggested by a passage in one of Alciphron's letters (3:44), and some remarks by the sausage seller in Aristophanes' play, \"The Knights\". The bread in both texts is referred to as \"apomagdalia\" which simply means bread from inside the crust known as \"the crumb\" and not special \"napkin bread\". Napkins were also used in ancient Roman times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Will Studd",
        "text": "Episode 14. GREECE \u2013 Feta: Food of the Gods"
      },
      {
        "title": "Syldavia",
        "text": "Syldavian cuisine appears to be typical of Eastern Europe; blini, herbs, sausage and garnish are seen in the kitchen of a Syldavian restaurant in \"King Ottokar's Sceptre\". Mineral water is an important export, and alcohol is scarce, much to Captain Haddock's disgust. When Haddock tries to bring in alcohol with him when visiting Calculus at the research facility, he is hit with high alcohol duty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Spartans primarily ate a soup made from pigs' legs and blood, known as \"melas z\u014dmos\" (), which means \"black soup\". According to Plutarch, it was \"so much valued that the elderly men fed only upon that, leaving what flesh there was to the younger\". It was famous amongst the Greeks. \"Naturally Spartans are the bravest men in the world,\" joked a Sybarite, \"anyone in his senses would rather die ten thousand times than take his share of such a sorry diet\". It was made with pork, salt, vinegar and blood. The dish was served with \"maza\", figs and cheese sometimes supplemented with game and fish. The 2nd\u20133rd century author Aelian claims that Spartan cooks were prohibited from cooking anything other than meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tyrnavos",
        "text": "At the same time, they lit a fire on which they prepared the \u201cBourani\u201d, a spinach soup. After the \u201cBourani\u201d had been served to the \u201cinitiates\u201d, people started dancing, singing, joking and teasing each other using obscene language. Everyone who passes by must stop and stir the soup with a long wooden ladle of a particular shape, take a sip of soup straight from the ladle and then drink a shot of tsipouro from a ceramic phallic-shaped tumbler. Next to the cauldron, there is a rocking throne in the shape of a phallus, which attracts flocks of laughing festivalgoers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Giasone",
        "text": "Orestes asks Isifile to return and feed her hungry twins. She does so, but then hurries on to the Valley of Orseno."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "The food of the lower classes was mostly vegetarian and limited to olives, fruit, onions, and the occasional piece of cheese, or stews made from cabbage and salted pork. The standard meal of a shoemaker was described in a Byzantine poem, one of the \"Prodromic Poems\", as consisting of some cooked foods and an omelette followed by hot salted pork with an unspecified garlic dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Ceredigion",
        "text": "Dau enaid mewn un corff"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Mouse, the Bird, and the Sausage",
        "text": "\"The Mouse, the Bird, and the Sausage\" () is Tale 23 of the Grimm's Fairy Tales. It is Aarne-Thompson number 85."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Ancient Greek cuisine\n--Meals.\n----At home.\n------Breakfast.\n------Lunch.\n------Dinner.\n------Eating customs.\n----Social dining.\n------Symposium.\n------Syssitia.\n--Ingredients and dishes.\n----Grains.\n------Breads and cakes.\n------Wheat.\n------Barley.\n------Millet.\n------Emmer.\n----Legumes.\n----Fruit and vegetables.\n----Animals.\n------Meat.\n------Fish.\n------Fowl.\n----Eggs and dairy products.\n------Eggs.\n------Milk.\n------Butter.\n------Cheese and yogurt.\n----Spices and seasonings.\n----Recipes.\n--Drink.\n----Wine.\n----Kykeon.\n--Ancient writers.\n--Cultural beliefs about the role of food.\n--Specific diets.\n----Vegetarianism.\n----Athlete diets.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Food played an important part in the Greek mode of thought. Classicist John Wilkins notes that \"in the \"Odyssey\" for example, good men are distinguished from bad and Greeks from foreigners partly in terms of how and what they ate. Herodotus identified people partly in terms of food and eating\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baron Ambrosia",
        "text": "Culinary Focus: In this break away episode Baron puts forth the possibility the Durian was the true forbidden fruit in the garden of Eden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Donkey Cabbages",
        "text": "Three giants saw him and talked of killing him, but the third said that a cloud would carry him away. He climbed up the mountain and rode off on a cloud. It took him to a cabbage/lettuce garden. He was so hungry that he ate some, and it turned him into a donkey. He went on and found a different patch of cabbage/lettuce which turned him back into a man. He took both kinds of vegetables and went back to the castle. He told the witch that he was a royal messenger sent to fetch the finest vegetables for the king, but he was afraid that the heat would make it wither. The witch asked for some. He gave it to her and she, her maidservant, and the daughter all ate the cooked vegetables and became donkeys. The huntsman sold them to a miller, telling him to give the old one (the witch) one meal a day and three beatings, the younger one (the maidservant) three meals and two beatings, and the youngest (the witch's daughter) three meals and one beating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black soup",
        "text": "How often the Spartans consumed black soup and whether it could be considered a delicacy are both debated questions in ancient sources. Seventh-century BC Spartan poet Alcman inferred that the food ordinary people in Sparta consumed was a pea soup, not the meat-based black soup. On this basis, the historian, Hans Van Wees, suggested that black soup could not be a dish that the average Spartans regularly consumed since it would entail the slaughtering of an animal. For example, it was during royal sacrifices that pigs were part of the offerings. There is also other contrary evidence suggesting that black soup was, in fact, a modest dish. In one of Matro of Pitane's poems, black soup appeared in the text alongside a dish named \"akrok\u00f3lia\" (\"\u1f00\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03ba\u03ce\u03bb\u03b9\u03b1\"). \"Akrok\u00f3lia\" were boiled animal off-cuts, such as the skin, ears, and snouts, suggesting black soup belonged in the category of inexpensive dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Breakfast ( \"akratism\u00f3s\") consisted of barley bread dipped in wine ( \"\u00e1kratos\"), sometimes complemented by figs or olives. They also ate a sort of pancake called (\"t\u0113gan\u00edt\u0113s\"), (\"tag\u0113n\u00edt\u0113s\") or (\"tag\u0113n\u00edas\"), all words deriving from (\"t\u00e1g\u0113non\"), \"frying pan\". The earliest attested references on \"tagenias\" are in the works of the 5th century BC poets Cratinus and Magnes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gaia Sausage",
        "text": "The Gaia Sausage or Gaia Enceladus is the remains of a dwarf galaxy (the Sausage Galaxy, or Gaia-Enceladus-Sausage, or Gaia-Sausage-Enceladus) that merged with the Milky Way about 8\u201311\u00a0billion years ago. At least eight globular clusters were added to the Milky Way along with 50\u00a0billion solar masses of stars, gas and dark matter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pizza",
        "text": "Foods similar to pizza have been made since the Neolithic Age. Records of people adding other ingredients to bread to make it more flavorful can be found throughout ancient history. In the 6th century BC, the Persian soldiers of the Achaemenid Empire during the rule of Darius the Great baked flatbreads with cheese and dates on top of their battle shields and the ancient Greeks supplemented their bread with oils, herbs, and cheese. An early reference to a pizza-like food occurs in the \"Aeneid\", when Celaeno, queen of the Harpies, foretells that the Trojans would not find peace until they are forced by hunger to eat their tables (Book III). In Book VII, Aeneas and his men are served a meal that includes round cakes (like pita bread) topped with cooked vegetables. When they eat the bread, they realize that these are the \"tables\" prophesied by Celaeno."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ambrosia",
        "text": "Both nectar and ambrosia are fragrant, and may be used as perfume: in the \"Odyssey\" Menelaus and his men are disguised as seals in untanned seal skins, \"...and the deadly smell of the seal skins vexed us sore; but the goddess saved us; she brought ambrosia and put it under our nostrils.\" Homer speaks of ambrosial raiment, ambrosial locks of hair, even the gods' ambrosial sandals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Filo",
        "text": "Some claim it may be derived from the Greeks; Homer's Odyssey written around 800 B.C. mentions thin breads sweetened with walnuts and honey. In the fifth century B.C. Philoxenos states in his poem \"Dinner\" that, in the final drinking course of a meal, hosts would prepare and serve cheesecake made with milk and honey that was baked into a pie."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lelluri",
        "text": "A so-called \"amba\u0161\u0161i\" offering to her consisted out of a lamb, a goose, a sheep and a loaf of bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Ridiculous Wishes",
        "text": "In some different types of versions of this tale, black pudding is used instead of sausages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soldier of the Mist",
        "text": "The cooks talk about some Rope Makers (Spartans) they've heard of, who are making the rounds of the houses of Thought asking what people had for breakfast the previous day, clearly looking for a man with daily memory loss."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baron Ambrosia",
        "text": "Culinary Focus: Italian Food"
      },
      {
        "title": "Baron Ambrosia",
        "text": "Culinary Focus: Irish Foods"
      },
      {
        "title": "Nymphaea nouchali",
        "text": "\"N. nouchali\" might have been one of the plants eaten by the Lotophagi of Homer's \"Odyssey\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Giaour",
        "text": "Yet loathe the banquet which perforce"
      },
      {
        "title": "Asterix",
        "text": "With rare exceptions, the ending of the albums usually shows a big banquet with the village's inhabitants gathering - the sole exception is the bard Cacofonix restrained and gagged to prevent him from singing (but in Asterix and the Normans the blacksmith Fulliautomatix was tied up). Mostly the banquets are held under the starry nights in the village, where roast boar is devoured and all (but one) are set about in merrymaking. However, there are a few exceptions, such as in Asterix and Cleopatra."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marcus Trescothick",
        "text": "My diet was sausages then, in no particular order, sausages, chips, sausages, toast, sausages, beans, sausages, cheese, sausages, eggs, and the occasional sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asterix and the Banquet",
        "text": "Rheims (Reims): Asterix and Obelix abandon the breakdown chariot and buy some wines. They are found by Spongefingus, who has recovered from his \"accident,\" but Asterix knocks him down by using a cork exploding from an amphora."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn",
        "text": "Though it is not stated explicitly, it is inferred that this was a Salmon of Wisdom that probably ate the hazelnuts at the Well of Segais.\n;Fairy mound attack"
      },
      {
        "title": "Asterix and the Banquet",
        "text": "Nicae (Nice): En route to Nicae, Asterix and Obelix become stuck in holiday traffic bound for the Gaulish Riviera and stop at an inn for lunch. In Nicae, they buy salad and are once again spotted by a Roman patrol. They escape by sea and commandeer a vacationing Lutetian's rowboat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegetable Lamb of Tartary",
        "text": "And icy bosoms feel the secret fire,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek cuisine",
        "text": "Used as a ritual beverage in the Eleusinian Mysteries, kykeon was also a popular beverage, especially in the countryside: Theophrastus, in his \"Characters\", describes a boorish peasant as having drunk much kykeon and inconveniencing the Assembly with his bad breath. It also had a reputation as a good digestive, and as such, in \"Peace\", Hermes recommends it to the main character who has eaten too much dried fruit."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is an example of none meat item that is added to a sausages as fillers?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "An example of a sausage filler are breadcrumbs and grains."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When were the first sausages made?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Which specific sausage would you like to know about: lup cheong, lucanica or blood sausage?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Blood sausage sounds interesting!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The blood sausage was mentioned in the Odyssey, written by the Greek poet Homer. Evidence suggests that sausages were already popular among the ancient Gereks and Romans but I can't say when they were first made."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where there any other notable foods mentioned in the Odyssey?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Both Necter and Ambrosia are mentioned."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are they? I've never heard of either."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Nectar is a sugar-rich liquid produced by plants to attract pollinating animals, and Ambrosia is the food or drink of Greek gods and is often depicted as conferring longevity or immortality upon whoever consumed it.",
      "Ambrosia is very closely related to the gods' other form of sustenance, nectar. Both nectar and ambrosia are fragrant, and may be used as perfume; the consumption of ambrosia was typically reserved for divine beings."
    ],
    "topic": "Sausage",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Nectar:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Nectar"
        ],
        "ctx": "Nectar is a sugar-rich liquid produced by plants in glands called nectaries or nectarines, either within the flowers with which it attracts pollinating animals, or by extrafloral nectaries, which provide a nutrient source to animal mutualists, which in turn provide herbivore protection. Common nectar-consuming pollinators include mosquitoes, hoverflies, wasps, bees, butterflies and moths, hummingbirds, honeyeaters and bats. Nectar plays a crucial role in the foraging economics and evolution of nectar-eating species; for example, nectar foraging behavior is largely responsible for the divergent evolution of the African honey bee, \"A. m. scutellata\" and the western honey bee."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ambrosia:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ambrosia"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the ancient Greek myths, ambrosia (, ), the food or drink of the Greek gods, is often depicted as conferring longevity or immortality upon whoever consumed it. It was brought to the gods in Olympus by doves and served either by Hebe or by Ganymede at the heavenly feast."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ambrosia:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ambrosia",
          "Definition"
        ],
        "ctx": "Ambrosia is very closely related to the gods' other form of sustenance, \"nectar\". The two terms may not have originally been distinguished; though in Homer's poems nectar is usually the drink and ambrosia the food of the gods; it was with ambrosia that Hera \"cleansed all defilement from her lovely flesh\", and with ambrosia Athena prepared Penelope in her sleep, so that when she appeared for the final time before her suitors, the effects of years had been stripped away, and they were inflamed with passion at the sight of her. On the other hand, in Alcman, nectar is the food, and in Sappho and Anaxandrides, ambrosia is the drink. A character in Aristophanes' \"Knights\" says, \"I dreamed the goddess poured ambrosia over your head\u2014out of a ladle.\" Both descriptions could be correct, as ambrosia could be a liquid considered a food (such as honey)."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ambrosia:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ambrosia",
          "Definition"
        ],
        "ctx": "Both nectar and ambrosia are fragrant, and may be used as perfume: in the \"Odyssey\" Menelaus and his men are disguised as seals in untanned seal skins, \"...and the deadly smell of the seal skins vexed us sore; but the goddess saved us; she brought ambrosia and put it under our nostrils.\" Homer speaks of ambrosial raiment, ambrosial locks of hair, even the gods' ambrosial sandals."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ambrosia:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ambrosia",
          "Definition"
        ],
        "ctx": "The consumption of ambrosia was typically reserved for divine beings. Upon his assumption into immortality on Olympus, Heracles is given ambrosia by Athena, while the hero Tydeus is denied the same thing when the goddess discovers him eating human brains. In one version of the myth of Tantalus, part of Tantalus' crime is that after tasting ambrosia himself, he attempts to steal some to give to other mortals. Those who consume ambrosia typically have ichor, not blood, in their veins."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Typically, a sausage is formed in a casing traditionally made from intestine but sometimes from synthetic materials. Sausages that are sold raw are cooked in many ways, including pan-frying, broiling and barbecuing. Some sausages are cooked during processing, and the casing may then be removed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausage making is a natural outcome of efficient butchery. Traditionally, sausage makers salted various tissues and organs such as scraps, organ meats, blood, and fat to help preserve them. They then stuffed them into tubular casings made from the cleaned intestines of the animal, producing the characteristic cylindrical shape. Hence, sausages, puddings, and salami are among the oldest of prepared foods, whether cooked and eaten immediately or dried to varying degrees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage casing",
        "text": "The collagen for artificial casings is processed extensively. It is formed by extrusion through a die to the desired diameter, dried and shirred into short sticks up to long that contain as much as of casing. In a newer process, a form of dough is coextruded with the meat blend, and a coating is formed by treating the outside with a calcium solution to set the coating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Sausage making is sometimes looked at for being messy in the broader culture. There are common sayings such as \"how the sausage gets made\" to refer to a process that someone might rather not know all the gory details. This line of quotation stems from American poet John Godfrey Saxe, who said \"Laws, like sausages, cease to inspire respect in proportion as we know how they are made\" (1869)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausage making is a traditional food preservation technique. Sausages may be preserved by curing, drying (often in association with fermentation or culturing, which can contribute to preservation), smoking, or freezing. Some cured or smoked sausages can be stored without refrigeration. Most fresh sausages must be refrigerated or frozen until they are cooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "The procedure of stuffing meat into casings remains basically the same today, but sausage recipes have been greatly refined and sausage making has become a highly respected culinary art."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Making dry sausages involves curing salts, which contain sodium nitrite and sodium nitrate. Nitrites are used for all types of sausages and are the most common. Nitrates are used only in the preparation of the cured dry style of sausages. Over a period of time the nitrates are converted into nitrites by endogenous or added bacteria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salami",
        "text": "Dry fermented sausage ('salami aeros') is an important product of the Greek meat industry with an annual production of about 10,000 tons. Its manufacture varies depending on the skill and experience of the meat manufacturer rather than a process solely based on scientific and technological means of production. This type of traditional sausage, which undergoes an adventitious fermentation, is of superior quality compared to those inoculated with starters and made in industrial scale. The quality of this type of traditional salami is often more expensive due to its high quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fermented sausage",
        "text": "Fermented sausage, or dry sausage, is a type of sausage that is created by salting chopped or ground meat to remove moisture, while allowing beneficial bacteria to break down sugars into flavorful molecules. Bacteria, including \"Lactobacillus\" species and \"Leuconostoc\" species, break down these sugars to produce lactic acid, which not only affects the flavor of the sausage, but also lowers the pH from 6.0 to 4.5\u20135.0, preventing the growth of bacteria that could spoil the sausage. These effects are magnified during the drying process, as the salt and acidity are concentrated as moisture is extracted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Br\u00fchwurst",
        "text": "The consistency of a scalded sausage depends on the water binding capacity of the meat. This is particularly high immediately after slaughter, so that sausages were traditionally made from \"still warm, freshly slaughtered\" meat. In contemporary times, sausages are mainly produced using chilled or matured meat. In addition, fat stabilization and structure formation (gelation) are crucial factors in cooked sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charcuterie",
        "text": "The word \"sausage\" is derived through French from the Latin , as the sausage-making technique involves placing ground or chopped meat along with salt into a tube. The tubes can vary, but the more common animal-derived tubes include sheep, hog, or cattle intestinal linings. Additionally, animal stomachs and bladders, as well as edible artificial casings produced from collagen and inedible plant cellulose or paper are also used. Inedible casings are primarily used to shape, store, and age the sausage. The two main variants of sausage are fresh and cooked. Fresh sausages involve the production of raw meat placed into casings to be cooked at a later time, whereas cooked sausages are heated during production and are ready to eat at the end of production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charcuterie",
        "text": "Fermented sausages are created by salting chopped or ground meat to remove moisture, while allowing beneficial bacteria to break down sugars into flavorful molecules. Bacteria, including \"Lactobacillus\" species and \"Leuconostoc\" species, break down these sugars to produce lactic acid, which not only affects the flavor of the sausage, but also lowers the pH from 6.0 to 4.5\u20135.0, preventing the growth of bacteria that could spoil the sausage. These effects are magnified during the drying process, as the salt and acidity are concentrated as moisture is extracted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Sausage making originally developed as a means to preserve and transport meat. Primitive societies learned that dried berries and spices could be added to dried meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kohlwurst",
        "text": "To make \"Kohlwurst\", pork (often the remains of the carcass) and fat are minced; then a similar amount of raw, cleaned lights is also minced. It is then all mixed together and, depending on the specific recipe, seasoned with onions, salt, pepper, marjoram, thyme, mustard seeds and allspice. Finally the sausage meat is loosely filled in casings of natural intestine and smoked for one to two weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage casing",
        "text": "The process begins at the slaughter plant where \"green\" (uncleaned) runners (ungraded casings) are removed from the animal during the slaughter process and they are subsequently cleaned, which involves breaking the inner mucosa usually with a machine that they go through and rollers break the inner mucosa so it can be flushed out and removed. The cleaning process can also be done by hand but primarily casings are machine cleaned. This is a very water intensive process as the casings are vigorously flushed with cold water to remove blood from the mucosa which if not properly flushed during the initial processing can lead to \"staining\" of the casing where it becomes pink. The cleaned runners are then tied in bundles and packed in plastic drums and filled with a saturated salt brine for preservation. The runners are then sold to the company which processes natural casings by grading and packaging them to create finished units called hanks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage casing",
        "text": "Sausage casing, also known as sausage skin or simply casing, is the material that encloses the filling of a sausage. Natural casings are made from animal intestines or skin; artificial casings, introduced in the early 20th century, are made of collagen and cellulose. The material is then shaped via a continuous extrusion process \u2013 producing a single sausage casing of indefinite length \u2013 which is then cut into desired lengths, usually while the extrusion process continues."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of sausages",
        "text": "This is a list of notable sausages. Sausage is a food usually made from ground meat with a skin around it. Typically, a sausage is formed in a casing traditionally made from intestine, but sometimes synthetic. Some sausages are cooked during processing and the casing may be removed after. Sausage making is a traditional food preservation technique. Sausages may be preserved.\n* Blood sausage\n* Boerewors\n* Fermented sausage \u2013 a type of sausage that is created by salting chopped or ground meat to remove moisture, while allowing beneficial bacteria to break down sugars into flavorful molecules.\n* Garlic sausage\n* Gyurma\n* Helzel\n* Hot dog\n* Kranjska klobasa\n* Loukaniko\n* Lucanica\n* Merguez\n* Panchuker\n* Pepperette\n* Sai ua\n* Summer sausage\n* Tr\u00e4ipen\n* Vegetarian sausage \u2013 may be made from tofu, seitan, nuts, pulses, mycoprotein, soya protein, vegetables or any combination of similar ingredients that will hold together during cooking\n* Volkswagen currywurst \u2013 a brand of sausage manufactured by the Volkswagen car maker since 1973\n* White pudding\n* Winter salami"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "In some cases cold smoke is used. If so, then the sausage may have been previously cooked in a water bath held at the proper temperature. An example of this process is the preparation of Braunschweiger. In this style of sausage, after stuffing into to hog buns or fiberous casings, the sausage is submerged in water for 2 to hours until the internal temperature reaches . At this point the sausage should be chilled in ice water, then cold smoked at a temperature of for 2\u20133 hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spaghetti",
        "text": "Spaghetti can be made by hand by manually rolling a ball of dough on a surface to make a long sausage shape. The ends of the sausage are pulled apart to make a long thin sausage. The ends are brought together and the loop pulled to make two long sausages. The process is repeated until the pasta is sufficiently thin. The pasta knobs at each end are cut off leaving many strands which may be hung up to dry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fermented sausage",
        "text": "The ingredients found in a fermented sausage include meat, fat, bacterial culture, salt, spices, sugar and nitrite. Nitrite is commonly added to fermented sausages to prevent the formation of botulism-causing bacteria, while some traditional and artisanal producers avoid nitrites. Sugar is added to aid the bacterial production of lactic acid during the 18-hour to three-day fermentation process; the fermentation time depends on the temperature at which the sausage is stored: the lower the temperature, the longer the required fermentation period. A white mold and yeast sometimes adheres to the outside of the sausage during the drying process. This mold adds to the flavor of the sausage and aids in preventing harmful bacteria from attaching to the sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salami",
        "text": "After fermentation, the sausage must be dried. This changes the casings from water-permeable to reasonably airtight. A white covering of either mold or flour helps prevent photo-oxidation of the meat and rancidity in the fat."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of smoked foods",
        "text": "Sausage is a food usually made from ground meat with a skin around it. Typically, a sausage is formed in a casing traditionally made from intestine, but sometimes synthetic. Sausage making is a traditional food preservation technique. Sausages may be preserved by curing, drying, or smoking. Many types and varieties of sausages are smoked to help preserve them and to add flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oxford sausage",
        "text": "As first produced, the Oxford sausage did not have a skin or other casing, but was hand-formed and floured before frying. However, modern forms are commonly made in a conventional, linked \"banger\" style, with natural pork or sheep casings. Beeton mentions both methods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "The human digestive system manufactures nitrites, which is thought to be what prevents botulism, which would thrive in the anaerobic conditions and temperature range of the digestive system (gut)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "The origins of meat preservation are lost to the ages but probably began when humans began to realize the preservative value of salt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kabanos",
        "text": "Production of \"kabanosy\" requires a minimum of 150 grams of best grade pork meat to make 100 grams of sausage, which is known today as the \"minimum of 3:2 ratio\". This is required because of the loss of some of the water contained within the meat used to prepare the raw sausage, which evaporates during the long process of meat smoking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Traditionally, sausage casings were made of the cleaned intestines, or stomachs in the case of haggis and other traditional puddings. Today, however, natural casings are often replaced by collagen, cellulose, or even plastic casings, especially in the case of industrially manufactured sausages. Some forms of sausage, such as sliced sausage, are prepared without a casing. Additionally, luncheon meat and sausage meat are now available without casings in tin cans and jars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charcuterie",
        "text": "Emulsified sausages are cooked sausages with a very fine texture, using the combination of pork, beef, or poultry with fat, salt, cure, flavorings, and water. These ingredients are emulsified at high speed in a food processor or blender. During this process, the salt dissolves the muscle proteins, which helps to suspend the fat molecules. Temperature is an important part of the process: if the temperature rises above 60\u00a0\u00b0F (16\u00a0\u00b0C) for pork or 70\u00a0\u00b0F (21\u00a0\u00b0C) for beef, the emulsion will not hold and fat will leak from the sausage during the cooking process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silage",
        "text": "In the UK, baled silage is most often made in round bales about 4 feet by 4 feet, individually wrapped with four to six layers of \"bale wrap plastic\" (black, white or green 25-micrometre stretch film). The percentage of dry matter can vary from about 20% dry matter upwards. The continuous \"sausage\" referred to above is made with a special machine which wraps the bales as they are pushed through a rotating hoop which applies the bale wrap to the outside of the bales (round or square) in a continuous wrap. The machine places the bales on the ground after wrapping by moving forward slowly during the wrapping process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Offal",
        "text": "Sausage is made from the small intestine of a goat, cow or sheep, stuffed with chilli and small chunks of meat, fatty meat, and blood (although some people prefer the bloodless kind). In Kenya, it is commonly referred to as 'mutura', which is the Kikuyu name for it. Sheep's or goat's stomach is also stuffed in a similar way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausages are made in a wide range of national and regional varieties, which differ by the types of meats that are used, the flavouring or spicing ingredients (garlic, peppers, wine, etc.), and the manner of preparation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "A sausage consists of meat cut into pieces or ground, mixed with other ingredients, and filled into a casing. Ingredients may include a cheap starch filler such as breadcrumbs or grains, seasoning and flavourings such as spices, and sometimes others such as apple and leek. The meat may be from any animal but is often pork, beef or veal, or poultry. The lean meat-to-fat ratio depends upon the style and producer. The meat content as labelled may exceed 100%, which happens when the weight of meat exceeds the total weight of the sausage after it has been made, sometimes including a drying process which reduces water content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sujuk",
        "text": "Sucuk is then prepared for ripening process, which consists of fermentation and post-fermentation stages. In the first day of fermentation stage the product is left in a high relative humidity (RH) environment around . After that the RH and the temperature is gradually dropped each day, resulting to and 88% RH in the last and third day of fermentation. At the end of the stage pH of the product must be dropped to 4.9\u20135.0. In the post-fermentation stage sucuk is matured and dried until the moisture content of the sausage is under 40%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "A sausage is a type of meat product usually made from ground meat, often pork, beef, or poultry, along with salt, spices and other flavourings. Other ingredients such as grains or breadcrumbs may be included as fillers or extenders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "The specific regulations are quite complex. They depend on the thickness of the cuts of meat, the packaging method, and other factors. In addition there are very specific requirements as to the times in the drying rooms and the temperatures in the smoke rooms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "The primary seasoning agents in fresh sausages are salt and sugar along with various savory herbs and spices, and often vegetables, including onion and garlic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Sausages come in two main types: fresh and cured. Cured sausages may be either cooked or dried. Many cured sausages are smoked, but this is not mandatory. The curing process itself changes the meat and imparts its own flavors. An example is the difference in taste between a pork roast and a ham."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frankfurter W\u00fcrstchen",
        "text": "Originally, Frankfurters were made without nitrite curing salt. After the special ageing and smoking methods, the sausages, now of a golden colour, are put into wooden boxes with small sheet of parchment paper between layers. Therefore, the traditional sausages have a square cross-section, but there are a few exceptions where the sausage is round."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thuringian sausage",
        "text": "In North America, the term \"Thuringer\" refers to Thuringer cervelat, a type of smoked semi-dry sausage similar to summer sausage. It is made from a medium grind of beef, blended with salt, cure ingredients, spices (usually including dry mustard), and a lactic acid starter culture. After stuffing into a fibrous casing, it is smoked and dried, then cooked. Hormel Foods Corporation and Usinger's, as well as many regional processors and some small butcher shops, produce the sausage in this fashion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungarian sausages",
        "text": "The meat is coarsely ground and salted. If garlic is added, it is mashed in water to produce a slurry and added to the meat along with spices. The sausage is then stuffed into natural casings in 1-foot links - usually using the small intestine of the pig. This traditionally took place outside on the fall day when a pig was slaughtered. The sausage is then hung overnight to allow the flavors to meld and some of the grease to drip out. It is now ready to be used fresh and unsmoked. The unsmoked sausages are typically roasted with sauerkraut or red or green cabbage, and served with mashed potatoes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "In the UK and Ireland, sausages are a very popular and common feature of the national diet and popular culture. British sausages and Irish sausages are normally made from raw (i.e., uncooked, uncured, unsmoked) pork, beef, venison or other meats mixed with a variety of herbs and spices and cereals, many recipes of which are traditionally associated with particular regions (for example Cumberland sausages). They normally contain a certain amount of rusk or bread-rusk, and are traditionally cooked by frying, grilling or baking. They are most typically long, the filling compressed by twisting the casing into concatenated \"links\" into the sausage skin, traditionally made from the prepared intestine of the slaughtered animal; most commonly a pig."
      },
      {
        "title": "Discada",
        "text": "Once an ideal cooking heat is reached on the disk (usually medium to low heat works best) the first meat to be introduced is the bacon. This is placed at the center of the concave disk where the heat is concentrated. The natural fat from the bacon will prevent the meats from sticking. Beer or dark cola is added to create a broth for simmering the meats which also acts as a non stick agent. The bacon is placed away from direct heat onto the side of the disk once its cooked, and the sausage links are introduced to the remaining broth. As each piece of meat is removed from the direct heat, the meat's natural juices and the beer or cola create a broth for the next meat piece to be introduced to. Once cooked, the sausage is also set aside and the ham is added. The ham is set aside, and the chorizo is added next. The beef as well as the cook's choice of seasoning is finally added to the collective broth. Each meat is cooked for about 10 to 15 minutes. The beef is covered with a lid during the cooking process to contain its natural flavor and juices. The lid is then removed to allow the broth to reduce, and the meats can now be combined with the beef and the collective broth from the different meats. The onions, peppers, and tomatoes are chopped and added to the mix providing the dish with color and the meats with flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rookworst",
        "text": "A recipe from a Dutch cookbook of 1940 gives the proportions of ground meat as 4 parts of pork to 3 parts of veal and 3 parts of bacon. The mixture is salted and saltpeter, sugar and nutmeg are added before the meat is forced into pig intestines. The sausages are air-dried at 12 to 15 degrees C and then smoked at 18 to 20 degrees C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage casing",
        "text": "Some innovative coextrusion processes have been developed in recent years, allowing 100% plant-based vegetarian casings to be created. Some special alginate coextrusion equipment is required to make casings that can be used in halal or kosher food making."
      },
      {
        "title": "Knackwurst",
        "text": "As part of the production process, the sausages are aged for two to five days, then smoked over oak wood. Knockwurst is often prepared highly seasoned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ambanitsena",
        "text": "It is know for its sausages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salama da sugo",
        "text": "The curing of the mixture ends with the addition of a generous amount of robust, non-sweetened, unpasteurized red wine without added sulfites which, in addition to aromatizing the sausage, also characterizes the seasoning process, directing the formation of the typical flavor of salama da sugo. The mixture thus obtained is stuffed into the bladder of the pig itself, in a characteristic round shape. The type of binding allows for the formation of eight or sixteen slices depending on the size; after a few days of initial drying, the seasoning continues for about a year in suitable environments with a cellar climate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Weisswurst",
        "text": "The sausages are heated in water\u2014well short of boiling\u2014for about ten minutes, which will turn them greyish-white because no color-preserving nitrite is used in Weisswurst preparation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Potassium nitrite and potassium nitrate additions allow the production of sausages with lower levels of sodium. When using the potassium form, it is necessary to include other ingredients to mask the bitter flavours it imparts. Old recipes use saltpetre which is not recommended. The primary reason is that often these old recipes contain many times more curing ingredients than are appropriate. Modern techniques are readily available and do a much better job."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Next the product is typically hot smoked. However, similar effects can be achieved by incorporating liquid smoke in the recipe. Smoking temperatures vary and are typically less than . At a temperature of 152\u00a0\u00b0F (67\u00a0\u00b0C) these sausages are fully cooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pig slaughter",
        "text": "The bulk of the meat is cut and ground to produce various sausages, which are traditionally wrapped into the intestines of various sizes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soppressata",
        "text": "\"Soppressata Toscana\", soppressata from Tuscany, is made from the leftover parts of the pig. First, the head is boiled for a few hours. When it is done, it is picked of meat and skin. All of the meat and skin, including the tongue, are chopped, seasoned, and then stuffed into a large casing. The cooking liquid is poured in to cover the mixture and it is then hung and the cooking liquid (high in gelatin) thickens to bind everything together. It is similar to the English brawn, Polish salceson and the German \"presskopf\" (Austrian \"Presswurst\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Sausage making\n--Fresh sausages.\n--Cured cooked sausages.\n--Cured dry sausages.\n--Equipment.\n--Meats and other ingredients.\n--Curing salts.\n--Culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bierwurst",
        "text": "The meat is partially cured and then made into the sausage with the other ingredients, after which, the sausage is further cured, smoked and then blanched."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lebanon bologna",
        "text": "Typically, curing salts are added to the ground and spiced beef to control microbial growth during processing. The blended and stuffed sausage is then aged for 10 days prior to smoking to enrich lactic acid bacteria and allow for the reduction of nitrate to nitrite. Fermentation occurs during a slow cold smoke (kept at a temperature below ) that can last for up to four days. A one pH unit (or more) decline is observed during this step, as well as the development of nitrosohemochrome, the pigment responsible for the red color of cured meats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ahle Wurst",
        "text": "Ahle sausage is a sausage made of pork meat and bacon. Seasoned only with salt and pepper, there are regional differences and some add nutmeg, cloves, pepper, sugar, garlic, cumin and rum or brandy. In traditional manufacturing only heavy pigs are processed and quality cuts of meat produced. The slow maturation at relatively high humidity is the distinguishing mark of the sausage. The sausage can be smoked or made air-dried."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vacuum filler",
        "text": "Hanging lines in the field of sausage production are auxiliary devices for linking and hanging portions of sausage. In principle, the application is similar to that of a holding device, however significantly higher filling capacities can be achieved. Hanging lines are available with various different degrees of automation.\n; Cutting lines: Cutting lines in the field of sausage production have the same basic structure as hanging lines. Cutting lines are used to chop linked strings of sausages into portioned sausages.\n; Clippers: Clippers for the production of portioned sausages are used in conjunction with vacuum fillers. The filling product is taken from the vacuum filler and through a filling pipe connected to the clipper and an appropriate sausage casing brake, where it is portioned into appropriate casings. The portion is then sealed by the clipper with the aid of metal clips. Sometimes, loops for hanging the portions are also attached simultaneously. Strings of sausages as well as individual portions can be produced.\n; Forming devices: Forming devices are used for the production of formed products, such as dumplings and burgers. There are two types. With \"free-forming devices\", the filling product is filled via tubing with an attached separating device. The separating device and the portion output are synchronised in such a way that it is possible to form the filling flow. The separating devices can be diaphragms (which function in a similar way to a photographic iris diaphragm; opening and closing creates a round shape during portioning), forming blades that move against each other or simple wire cutters or blades. The portion is ejected when the separating unit is opened. The separating devices then close in synchronisation with the end of the portion. This synchronised, adjustable process allows various different shapes to be created. The products can be directly transported for packaging or for thermal treatment on conveyor belts. With \"devices with forming dies\", the filling product is filled into forming dies (plastic mould that is filled to the base). The filled mould is \u201cmoved\u201d away from the filling area, it is detached from the flow of product by means of a simultaneous clipping movement and then ejected mechanically or pneumatically into transportation containers or into thermal treatment media.\n; Co-extrusion systems: Co-extrusion means the synchronous feeding of two or more product flows with the aim of producing filled products (e.g. meatballs with ketchup filling, sausages with mustard filling and potato dumplings with a meat filling). Two or more vacuum fillers are always required. Co-extrusion systems are available for the forming, clipping and linking applications.\n; ConPro systems: ConPro systems (continuous production systems) are special continuous co-extrusion systems for producing sausages with alginate skin. With this application, two vacuum fillers are operated in synchronisation and their filling flows are combined into one continuous product flow. Further down the process, the continuous string is divided into individual portions or strings of portions. One vacuum filler pumps the filling product while a second one deposits the skin (a paste containing alginate) via an annular gap. This is solidified by means of a fixing solution containing calcium ions. Depending on the degree of automation, the portions can be hung or collated or transported further for continuous thermal treatment or packaging. The most important advantage of the ConPro systems in comparison to traditional production methods is that sausage skins or casings no longer have to be changed. Due to continuous co-extrusion there are no casing change times and therefore the filling time is maximised.\n; Inline grinding systems: In the meat processing industry, grinding systems are used for grinding meat and are to be found ahead of the filling process in the product preparation phase. With inline grinding systems, a grinding system is integrated into the vacuum filler's filling flow as an auxiliary device. The filling and grinding process steps can therefore be combined in a single machine. This means that the filling product is moved by the vacuum filler and, during filling, it is chopped to the final grain size within the grinding system. An important application for inline grinding systems is dry sausage or fresh sausage production.\n; Minced meat lines: Minced meat lines are a combination of vacuum fillers, inline grinding systems and devices for separating the minced meat flow into individual portions. A continuous, formed product flow is filled onto a conveyor belt and a cutting blade divides the filling flow into portions. The portions can then be packed straight away.\n; Filling flow dividers: A filling flow divider can separate a single product flow from a pump into several equal flows. Feed systems similar to a vane cell feed system are integrated into filling flow dividers. Filling flow dividers are required, for example, for simultaneous depositing into several containers.\n; Valves: Valves or cutting devices are used as sealing devices at the end of tubing or filling flow dividers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage casing",
        "text": "Artificial casings are made of collagen (often derived from cattle skin), cellulose, or plastic. Artificial casings from animal collagen are generally edible, though some are not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bundz",
        "text": "The production process of bundz in the first phase looks the same as the production of oscypek. The milk poured into the \"putara\" is hagged, which means that the protein is truncated by enzymes contained in rennet, extracted from the stomachs of young calves. The resulting cheese curd is then brewed for a few minutes at a temperature of about 70 \u00b0 C. The cheese is strained on the canvas in the form of large lumps. A mild cheese is obtained."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goan sausage",
        "text": "The Goan sausage is prepared starting with large chunks of boneless pork that are sliced or chopped and heavily salted. The chopped meat is allowed to dry in the sun for one to two days. Following this, a mixture of spices, ground hot chili peppers, palm vinegar, and feni, a local liquor, is added. After filling into casings, the resulting sausages are again dried in the sun or smoked slowly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mortadella di Campotosto",
        "text": "Mortadella is made only of pork, which shepherds and various farmers raised in the territory of the Monti della Laga. It has an ovoid shape (and a weight traditionally identified as 330 gr). It has a fine grain and inside, it has a lard bar inserted over its entire length that characterizes the product compared to other cured meats. When cut, the section has a pink color, while the central bar of lard has a white color. The preparation of the sausage takes place in the following way:\n*very fine grinding of the meat;\n*seasoning with salt, pepper and white wine;\n*maturation of the mixture for at least 24 hours inside a wooden container (the scifone ) or steel. The dough is mixed several times with an infusion of cloves and cinnamon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regensburger Wurst",
        "text": "The sausage is prepared using pork without fat which is finely ground and mixed with salt and spices as well as some dices of pork. The sausage filling is put into sausage casing made from beef intestines, bound into short sausages, smoked and then boiled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Macedonian sausages (\"kolbas, lukanec\") are made from fried pork, onions, and leeks, with herbs and spices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prime Cut",
        "text": "A slaughterhouse process follows the unloading of cattle to the making of sausages. A wristwatch and a shoe appear on a conveyor line, making it clear that a human cadaver is processed among the cattle. A woman operating the sausage machine is interrupted by \"Weenie\", who has timed the machine using his watch. He wraps up a string of sausages, then marks the package with an address in Chicago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Regarded as the three most important pieces of equipment, regardless of the amount of sausage being made are an accurate thermometer, a calibrated scale, and a meat grinder. Smoked or smoke/cooked sausages require a smoker (small batches) or a commercial smokehouse. Emulsion-type cooked sausages, such as frankfurters or bologna, use a bowl chopper to make finely ground meat batter that is put into casings and cooked or smoked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "After the Revolution, the sausage-making was largely concentrated in large, governmentally controlled meat processing plants, often built from the American examples, which introduced new, medically controlled and industrially made styles such as omnipresent Soviet bolognas \u2014 Doktorskaya sausage and its fatter Lyubitelskaya variant, as well as generic wieners and very status-loaded and scarce smoked sausages and salamis. Traditional sausages continued to be made for local consumption by the farmers and such, often sold on Kolkhoz markets, like the home-style sausage, made from roughly minced pork and its fat, spiced with garlic and black pepper \u2014 this was a raw sausage, intended for roasting or grilling, but sometimes cooked by hot smoking for preservation and flavour (this variant is often called Ukrainian)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sausage is a type of prepared meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Metworst",
        "text": "The sausage is the direct ancestor of the better-known South African \"dro\u00eb wors\", which is near identical in its way of production, though the meat used is beef and mutton rather than pork."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage casing",
        "text": "Natural sausage casings are made from the sub-mucosa of the small intestine of meat animals, a layer of the intestine that consists mainly of naturally occurring collagen. In Western European cuisine and Chinese cuisine, most casings come from pigs, but elsewhere the intestines of sheep, goats, cattle and sometimes horses are also used. To prepare the intestines as casings, they are flushed, scraped and cleaned with water and salt by hand or with machinery; today they are primarily machine cleaned. The outer fat and the inner mucosa lining are removed during processing. They are salted to lower the water activity (which inhibits microbial growth) and preserve the casing. Natural casings have been used in the production of meat specialties for centuries and have remained virtually unchanged in function, appearance, and composition. US and EU organic food regulations only allow natural casings, they can be derived from non organically raised animals as there are no large scale slaughter plants which handle and process only organic animals and sell their casings as certified organic casings. As a result all large scale natural casing companies buy casings from around the world and send them to their selection facilities to be graded and packaged. There are four primary animal genera which are used to manufacture natural casings (although all mammals raised for meat could potentially be used to produce natural casing): cows, pigs, and lambs and sheep."
      },
      {
        "title": "Italian sausage",
        "text": "Initially known as \"lucanica\", the first evidence of the sausage dates back to the 1st century BC, when the Roman historian Marcus Terentius Varro described stuffing spiced and salted meat into pig intestines, as follows: \"They call lucanica a minced meat stuffed into a casing, because our soldiers learned how to prepare it\". Confirmation of the birth in Basilicata are also the writings of Cicero and Martial that mention Lucania as the birthplace of the sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "The distinct flavor of some sausages is due to fermentation by \"Lactobacillus\", \"Pediococcus\", or \"Micrococcus\" (added as starter cultures) or natural flora during curing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bougatsa",
        "text": "The process of making bougatsa by hand was featured on an episode of \"\" filmed in Greece."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biroldo",
        "text": "It was traditionally made from parts of the pig, offal such as heart, lungs and tongue, that wouldn't be used for other sausages. Because offal was used, the sausage would start being made right away as soon as the pig was slaughtered so that the taste of the offal would be at its freshest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "When the food processing industry produces sausages for a low price point, almost any part of the animal can end up in sausages, varying from cheap, fatty specimens stuffed with meat blasted off the carcasses (mechanically recovered meat, MRM) and rusk. On the other hand, the finest quality contain only choice cuts of meat and seasoning. In Britain, \"meat\" declared on labels could in the past include fat, connective tissue, and MRM. These ingredients may still be used but must be labelled as such, and up to 10% water may be included without being labelled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cairo Montenotte",
        "text": "It is made of a loaf of bread baked in the oven, in the inside there is a sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salami",
        "text": "In Germany, Westphalian salami is made with fast technology from pork meat, pepper, garlic, and sometimes mustard seeds, and is smoked, firm, sliceable product with a distinct fermentation/sour flavor. The sausages are stuffed into large-diameter casings and ripened by lowering the temperature from 24\u00a0\u00b0C to 12\u201314\u00a0\u00b0C until a water loss of 25% is obtained."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "The Greek poet Homer mentioned a kind of blood sausage in the \"Odyssey\", Epicharmus wrote a comedy titled \"The Sausage\", and Aristophanes' play \"The Knights\" is about a sausage vendor who is elected leader. Evidence suggests that sausages were already popular both among the ancient Greeks and Romans and most likely with the various tribes occupying the larger part of Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage casing",
        "text": "Casings made from cellulose and plastics are peeled off food products and are not eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cervelas de Lyon",
        "text": "The indigenous sausages from Lyon are, however, made to be cooked. One of the sausages, the Cervelas, are produced short and broad with prime pork stuffing with either pistachios or truffles. It derived its name from brains, since it was initially made from pork brains. On the other hand, the Sabodet, with its coarser texture, comes from Is\u00e8re and is made from pork head, rind, and meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gaia Sausage",
        "text": "The \"Gaia Sausage\" reconstructed the Milky Way by puffing up the thin disk to make it a thick disk, whilst the gas it brought into the Milky Way triggered a fresh round of star formation and replenished the thin disk. The debris from the dwarf galaxy provides most of the metal-rich part of the galactic halo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stracciata",
        "text": "The curd is kneaded with a wooden spoon (heaped), with movements of ironing, pressure, and modeled by hand. After about 10 minutes of spinning, the dough is formed into long strips to form large and flattened, firmer in cold water and then placed in brine. Subsequently the strip is portioned, tearing pieces of length of about 50\u00a0cm, which are then packaged bowing back three times on themselves, in pieces of about 400\u2013500 g, to be consumed within a few days. The tattered is produced in all periods of the year even if particularly appreciated is the one produced in the summer months when the animals are conducted in the green pastures of Molise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Literaturwurst",
        "text": "\"If you follow these instructions carefully i shall give you these two sausages to sell and soil and slice and save and save and do whatever else you wish without restriction! so; (don't be or get angry now) get a recipe from a butcher a recipe for sausages and follow this recipe (exactly), so that everything in the recipe that is not MEAT, in the doug or the mass (whatever that's called) included- spices, water, gelatine, onions, garlic etc etc; PUT IT ALL IN, and then in place of meat use the pages of the book!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumbala",
        "text": "The fabrication process involves boiling, cleaning and then packing away to ferment - the fermentation process giving it a pungent smell. Salt can be added to the finished product to facilitate storage life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ciauscolo",
        "text": "Ciauscolo is a smoked and dry-cured sausage, made from pork meat and fat cut from the shoulder and belly. It is spiced with black pepper and garlic, and white wine. The meat is finely ground, mixed with the spices and cure, stuffed into wide hog middles, and left for a 12- to 24-hour drying period. Once the surface has become tacky, the sausage is cold-smoked over juniper branches for two days, then hung to cure. Although it can be aged for a month or more, it is typically eaten after only a brief two weeks. The result is a very soft, moist sausage which can be spread on bread, in a manner similar to some \"p\u00e2t\u00e9s\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morc\u00f3n",
        "text": "In the Philippines, the sausage has evolved into a stuffed meat roulade. The meat, which could be beef or pork, is cut into thin sheets and wrapped around hard-boiled eggs, ham, sausages, carrots, pickled cucumber slices and other ingredients to form a solid sausage. The roulade is usually cooked using a stewing and frying technique, and sliced when cool."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Italian sausages (\"salsiccia\" \u2013 plural \"salsicce\") are often made of pure pork. Sometimes they may contain beef. Fennel seeds and chilli are generally used as the primary spices in the South of Italy, while in the center and North of the country black pepper and garlic are more often used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketwurst",
        "text": "Its preparation involves the heating of a special Bockwurst, larger than regular hot dogs, in water. A long roll is pierced by a hot metal cylinder, which creates an appropriate sized hole. The sausage is then dunked in ketchup and put inside of the roll."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wat's Pig",
        "text": "He explained some of the production process:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cotechino",
        "text": "It is prepared by filling the natural casing with rind, pork meat (usually of secondary preference), and fat mixed with salt and spices; in industrial production, nitrites and nitrates are added as preservatives. Some similar sausages exist in the Italian cooking tradition, for example musetto and zampone which are made with different meat and parts of the pig, musetto being made with meat taken from the pig's muzzle and zampone being held together by the pig's rear leg skin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Malloreddus",
        "text": "The manual processing of malloreddus in the home was done by mixing durum wheat semolina with water, and rolled up strips of pasta about long, which were cut into cubes. Then the shape was obtained by pressing the cubes of dough against the end of a straw basket, called su ciuliri (the sieve) in order to get them striped, or to have them smooth it was enough to simply press them against a wooden base. The result was a pot-bellied product that in the imagination of the agro-pastoral world took the form of small calves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "A variety of fresh meats may be used for making sausage, the most common are from beef, pork, lamb, chicken, turkey, and game. Meat should be fresh, high quality, have the proper lean-to-fat ratio and good binding qualities. The meat should not be contaminated with bacteria or other microorganisms. Combining spices and seasonings in amounts that complement each other is important."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sobrassada",
        "text": "Sobrassada in Balearic or Sobrasada in Spanish, is a raw, cured sausage from the Balearic Islands (Spain) made with ground pork, paprika and salt and other spices. Sobrassada, along with , are traditional Balearic meat products prepared in the laborious but festive rites that still mark the autumn and winter pig slaughter known as a in Minorca, Majorca and Ibiza. The chemical principle that makes is the dehydration of meat under certain weather conditions (high humidity and mild cold) which are typical of the late Balearic autumn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage casing",
        "text": "Cellulose, usually from cotton linters or wood pulp, is processed to make viscose, which is then extruded into clear, tough casings for making wieners and franks. They also are shirred for easier use and can be treated with dye to make \"red hots\". The casing is peeled off after cooking, resulting in \"skinless\" franks. Cellulosic viscose solutions are combined with wood or for example abaca pulp to make large diameter fibrous casings for bologna, cotto salami, smoked ham and other products sliced for sandwiches. This type is also permeable to smoke and water vapor. They can be flat or shirred, depending on application, and can be pretreated with smoke, caramel color, or other surface treatments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Curing (food preservation)",
        "text": "Several sources describe the salting of meat in the ancient Mediterranean world. Diodore of Sicily in his \"Bibliotheca historica\" wrote that the Coss\u00e9ens in the mountains of Persia salted the flesh of carnivorous animals. Strabo indicates that people at Borsippa were catching bats and salting them to eat. The ancient Greeks prepared \"tarichos\" (), which was meat and fish conserved by salt or other means. The Romans called this dish ' \u2013 which term later included salted fat, the sauces and spices used for its preparation. Also evidence of ancient sausage production exists. The Roman gourmet Apicius speaks of a sausage-making technique involving ' (a mixture of the fermented fish sauce with oil or wine). Preserved meats were furthermore a part of religious traditions: resulting meat for offerings to the gods was salted before being given to priests, after which it could be picked up again by the offerer, or even sold in the butcher's."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pichelsteiner",
        "text": "In the first step, beef, pork and mutton are seared. Then the vegetables are added, which are usually potatoes, diced carrots and parsley roots, cut cabbage and leek. Subsequently meat broth is poured over the mixture and everything is cooked together (some recipes also add diced onions and garlic)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "All smoked sausages are cured. The reason is the threat of botulism. The bacterium responsible, \"Clostridium botulinum\", is ubiquitous in the environment, grows in the anaerobic conditions created in the interior of the sausage, and thrives in the to temperature range common in the smoke house and subsequent ambient storage. Thus, for safety reasons, sausages are cured before smoking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hoopes process",
        "text": "The cell used in this process consists of an iron tank lined with carbon at the bottom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palencia",
        "text": "Morcilla is a form of black sausage made from pig's blood. In Castile the pig blood is often flavoured with pieces of pork fat, onions herbs and spices; the addition of rice gives a distinctive texture and flavour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Botifarra",
        "text": "\"Botifarra\" is based on ancient recipes, either the Roman sausage \"botulu\" or the \"lucanica\", made of raw pork and spices, with variants today in Italy and in the Portuguese and Brazilian \"lingui\u00e7a\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Codex",
        "text": "The first stage in creating a codex is to prepare the animal skin. The skin is washed with water and lime but not together. The skin is soaked in the lime for a couple of days. The hair is removed, and the skin is dried by attaching it to a frame, called a herse. The parchment maker attaches the skin at points around the circumference. The skin attaches to the herse by cords. To prevent it from being torn, the maker wraps the area of the skin attached to the cord around a pebble called a pippin. After completing that, the maker uses a crescent shaped knife called a \"lunarium\" or \"lunellum\" to remove any remaining hairs. Once the skin completely dries, the maker gives it a deep clean and processes it into sheets. The number of sheets from a piece of skin depends on the size of the skin and the final product dimensions. For example, the average calfskin can provide three-and-a-half medium sheets of writing material, which can be doubled when they are folded into two conjoint leaves, also known as a \"bifolium\". Historians have found evidence of manuscripts in which the scribe wrote down the medieval instructions now followed by modern membrane makers. Defects can often be found in the membrane, whether they are from the original animal, human error during the preparation period, or from when the animal was killed. Defects can also appear during the writing process. Unless the manuscript is kept in perfect condition, defects can also appear later in its life."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is an example of none meat item that is added to a sausages as fillers?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "An example of a sausage filler are breadcrumbs and grains."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When were the first sausages made?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Which specific sausage would you like to know about: lup cheong, lucanica or blood sausage?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Blood sausage sounds interesting!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The blood sausage was mentioned in the Odyssey, written by the Greek poet Homer. Evidence suggests that sausages were already popular among the ancient Gereks and Romans but I can't say when they were first made."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where there any other notable foods mentioned in the Odyssey?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Both Necter and Ambrosia are mentioned."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are they? I've never heard of either."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Nectar is a sugar-rich liquid produced by plants to attract pollinating animals, and Ambrosia is the food or drink of Greek gods and is often depicted as conferring longevity or immortality upon whoever consumed it."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the process of how sausage is made?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sausage making is a traditional food preservation technique. Typically, a sausage is formed in a casing traditionally made from intestine but sometimes from synthetic materials; sausages are made in a wide range of national and regional varieties, which differ by the types of meats that are used, the flavouring or spicing ingredients (garlic, peppers, wine, etc.), and the manner of preparation.",
      "Sausage is made from meat cut into pieces or ground, mixed with other ingredients, and filled into a casing.  There are different types of sausages that require different processes, though, do you want to know about cooked sausages, cooked smoked sausages, fresh sausage, dry sausage, bulk sausage, or vegetarian sausage?"
    ],
    "topic": "Sausage",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Sausage:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sausage"
        ],
        "ctx": "Typically, a sausage is formed in a casing traditionally made from intestine but sometimes from synthetic materials. Sausages that are sold raw are cooked in many ways, including pan-frying, broiling and barbecuing. Some sausages are cooked during processing, and the casing may then be removed."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Sausage:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sausage"
        ],
        "ctx": "Sausage making is a traditional food preservation technique. Sausages may be preserved by curing, drying (often in association with fermentation or culturing, which can contribute to preservation), smoking, or freezing. Some cured or smoked sausages can be stored without refrigeration. Most fresh sausages must be refrigerated or frozen until they are cooked."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Sausage:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sausage"
        ],
        "ctx": "Sausages are made in a wide range of national and regional varieties, which differ by the types of meats that are used, the flavouring or spicing ingredients (garlic, peppers, wine, etc.), and the manner of preparation."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Sausage:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sausage",
          "Ingredients"
        ],
        "ctx": "A sausage consists of meat cut into pieces or ground, mixed with other ingredients, and filled into a casing. Ingredients may include a cheap starch filler such as breadcrumbs or grains, seasoning and flavourings such as spices, and sometimes others such as apple and leek. The meat may be from any animal but is often pork, beef or veal, or poultry. The lean meat-to-fat ratio depends upon the style and producer. The meat content as labelled may exceed 100%, which happens when the weight of meat exceeds the total weight of the sausage after it has been made, sometimes including a drying process which reduces water content."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Sausage:18",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sausage",
          "Classifications"
        ],
        "ctx": "Sausages classification is subject to regional differences of opinion. Various metrics such as types of ingredients, consistency, and preparation are used. In the English-speaking world, the following distinction between \"fresh\", \"cooked\", and \"dry\" sausages seems to be more or less accepted:\n* Cooked sausages are made with fresh meats and then fully cooked. They are either eaten immediately after cooking or must be refrigerated. Examples include hot dogs, Braunschweiger, and liver sausage. Meat-and-grain sausages such as goetta, scrapple, and kishka are also cooked sausages.\n* Cooked smoked sausages are cooked and then smoked or smoke-cooked. They are eaten hot or cold but need to be refrigerated. Examples include kielbasa and mortadella. Some are slow cooked while smoking, in which case the process takes several days or longer, such as the case for \"Gyulai kolb\u00e1sz\".\n* Fresh sausages are made from meats that have not been previously cured. They must be refrigerated and thoroughly cooked before eating. Examples include \"Boerewors\", Italian pork sausage, siskonmakkara, and breakfast sausage.\n* Fresh smoked sausages are fresh sausages that are smoked and cured. They do not normally require refrigeration and do not require any further cooking before eating. Examples include Mettwurst and Teewurst which are meat preparations packed in sausage casing but squeezed out of it (just like any other spread from a tube).\n* Dry sausages are cured sausages that are fermented and dried. Some are smoked as well at the beginning of the drying process. They are generally eaten cold and will keep for a long time. Examples include salami, Dro\u00eb wors, Finnish \"meetvursti\", Sucuk, Landj\u00e4ger (smoked), Slim Jims, and summer sausage.\n* Bulk sausage, or sometimes \"sausage meat\" or \"skinless sausage\", refers to raw, ground, spiced meat, usually sold without any casing.\n* Vegetarian sausage are made without meat, for example, based on soya protein or tofu, with herbs and spices. Some vegetarian sausages are not necessarily vegan and may contain ingredients such as eggs."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Br\u00fchwurst",
        "text": "The consistency of a scalded sausage depends on the water binding capacity of the meat. This is particularly high immediately after slaughter, so that sausages were traditionally made from \"still warm, freshly slaughtered\" meat. In contemporary times, sausages are mainly produced using chilled or matured meat. In addition, fat stabilization and structure formation (gelation) are crucial factors in cooked sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Typically, a sausage is formed in a casing traditionally made from intestine but sometimes from synthetic materials. Sausages that are sold raw are cooked in many ways, including pan-frying, broiling and barbecuing. Some sausages are cooked during processing, and the casing may then be removed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausage making is a natural outcome of efficient butchery. Traditionally, sausage makers salted various tissues and organs such as scraps, organ meats, blood, and fat to help preserve them. They then stuffed them into tubular casings made from the cleaned intestines of the animal, producing the characteristic cylindrical shape. Hence, sausages, puddings, and salami are among the oldest of prepared foods, whether cooked and eaten immediately or dried to varying degrees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausages classification is subject to regional differences of opinion. Various metrics such as types of ingredients, consistency, and preparation are used. In the English-speaking world, the following distinction between \"fresh\", \"cooked\", and \"dry\" sausages seems to be more or less accepted:\n* Cooked sausages are made with fresh meats and then fully cooked. They are either eaten immediately after cooking or must be refrigerated. Examples include hot dogs, Braunschweiger, and liver sausage. Meat-and-grain sausages such as goetta, scrapple, and kishka are also cooked sausages.\n* Cooked smoked sausages are cooked and then smoked or smoke-cooked. They are eaten hot or cold but need to be refrigerated. Examples include kielbasa and mortadella. Some are slow cooked while smoking, in which case the process takes several days or longer, such as the case for \"Gyulai kolb\u00e1sz\".\n* Fresh sausages are made from meats that have not been previously cured. They must be refrigerated and thoroughly cooked before eating. Examples include \"Boerewors\", Italian pork sausage, siskonmakkara, and breakfast sausage.\n* Fresh smoked sausages are fresh sausages that are smoked and cured. They do not normally require refrigeration and do not require any further cooking before eating. Examples include Mettwurst and Teewurst which are meat preparations packed in sausage casing but squeezed out of it (just like any other spread from a tube).\n* Dry sausages are cured sausages that are fermented and dried. Some are smoked as well at the beginning of the drying process. They are generally eaten cold and will keep for a long time. Examples include salami, Dro\u00eb wors, Finnish \"meetvursti\", Sucuk, Landj\u00e4ger (smoked), Slim Jims, and summer sausage.\n* Bulk sausage, or sometimes \"sausage meat\" or \"skinless sausage\", refers to raw, ground, spiced meat, usually sold without any casing.\n* Vegetarian sausage are made without meat, for example, based on soya protein or tofu, with herbs and spices. Some vegetarian sausages are not necessarily vegan and may contain ingredients such as eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of sausages",
        "text": "This is a list of notable sausages. Sausage is a food usually made from ground meat with a skin around it. Typically, a sausage is formed in a casing traditionally made from intestine, but sometimes synthetic. Some sausages are cooked during processing and the casing may be removed after. Sausage making is a traditional food preservation technique. Sausages may be preserved.\n* Blood sausage\n* Boerewors\n* Fermented sausage \u2013 a type of sausage that is created by salting chopped or ground meat to remove moisture, while allowing beneficial bacteria to break down sugars into flavorful molecules.\n* Garlic sausage\n* Gyurma\n* Helzel\n* Hot dog\n* Kranjska klobasa\n* Loukaniko\n* Lucanica\n* Merguez\n* Panchuker\n* Pepperette\n* Sai ua\n* Summer sausage\n* Tr\u00e4ipen\n* Vegetarian sausage \u2013 may be made from tofu, seitan, nuts, pulses, mycoprotein, soya protein, vegetables or any combination of similar ingredients that will hold together during cooking\n* Volkswagen currywurst \u2013 a brand of sausage manufactured by the Volkswagen car maker since 1973\n* White pudding\n* Winter salami"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sausage is a type of prepared meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charcuterie",
        "text": "The word \"sausage\" is derived through French from the Latin , as the sausage-making technique involves placing ground or chopped meat along with salt into a tube. The tubes can vary, but the more common animal-derived tubes include sheep, hog, or cattle intestinal linings. Additionally, animal stomachs and bladders, as well as edible artificial casings produced from collagen and inedible plant cellulose or paper are also used. Inedible casings are primarily used to shape, store, and age the sausage. The two main variants of sausage are fresh and cooked. Fresh sausages involve the production of raw meat placed into casings to be cooked at a later time, whereas cooked sausages are heated during production and are ready to eat at the end of production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "A sausage consists of meat cut into pieces or ground, mixed with other ingredients, and filled into a casing. Ingredients may include a cheap starch filler such as breadcrumbs or grains, seasoning and flavourings such as spices, and sometimes others such as apple and leek. The meat may be from any animal but is often pork, beef or veal, or poultry. The lean meat-to-fat ratio depends upon the style and producer. The meat content as labelled may exceed 100%, which happens when the weight of meat exceeds the total weight of the sausage after it has been made, sometimes including a drying process which reduces water content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Traditionally, sausage casings were made of the cleaned intestines, or stomachs in the case of haggis and other traditional puddings. Today, however, natural casings are often replaced by collagen, cellulose, or even plastic casings, especially in the case of industrially manufactured sausages. Some forms of sausage, such as sliced sausage, are prepared without a casing. Additionally, luncheon meat and sausage meat are now available without casings in tin cans and jars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausage making is a traditional food preservation technique. Sausages may be preserved by curing, drying (often in association with fermentation or culturing, which can contribute to preservation), smoking, or freezing. Some cured or smoked sausages can be stored without refrigeration. Most fresh sausages must be refrigerated or frozen until they are cooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Sausage making\n--Fresh sausages.\n--Cured cooked sausages.\n--Cured dry sausages.\n--Equipment.\n--Meats and other ingredients.\n--Curing salts.\n--Culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Next the product is typically hot smoked. However, similar effects can be achieved by incorporating liquid smoke in the recipe. Smoking temperatures vary and are typically less than . At a temperature of 152\u00a0\u00b0F (67\u00a0\u00b0C) these sausages are fully cooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Other countries use different systems of classification. Germany, for instance, which produces more than 1200 types of sausage, distinguishes \"raw\", \"cooked\" and \"precooked\" sausages.\n* Raw sausages are made with raw meat and are not cooked. They are preserved by lactic acid fermentation, and they may be dried, brined or smoked. Most raw sausages will keep for a long time. Examples include Mettwurst and salami.\n* Cooked sausages (\"Br\u00fchwurst\") may include water and emulsifiers and are always cooked. They will not keep long. Examples include cervelat, Jagdwurst, and Wei\u00dfwurst.\n* Precooked sausages (\"Kochwurst\") are made with precooked meat but may also include raw organ meat. They may be heated after casing, and they will keep only for a few days. Examples include Saumagen and Blutwurst."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Regarded as the three most important pieces of equipment, regardless of the amount of sausage being made are an accurate thermometer, a calibrated scale, and a meat grinder. Smoked or smoke/cooked sausages require a smoker (small batches) or a commercial smokehouse. Emulsion-type cooked sausages, such as frankfurters or bologna, use a bowl chopper to make finely ground meat batter that is put into casings and cooked or smoked."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of smoked foods",
        "text": "Sausage is a food usually made from ground meat with a skin around it. Typically, a sausage is formed in a casing traditionally made from intestine, but sometimes synthetic. Sausage making is a traditional food preservation technique. Sausages may be preserved by curing, drying, or smoking. Many types and varieties of sausages are smoked to help preserve them and to add flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "In the UK and Ireland, sausages are a very popular and common feature of the national diet and popular culture. British sausages and Irish sausages are normally made from raw (i.e., uncooked, uncured, unsmoked) pork, beef, venison or other meats mixed with a variety of herbs and spices and cereals, many recipes of which are traditionally associated with particular regions (for example Cumberland sausages). They normally contain a certain amount of rusk or bread-rusk, and are traditionally cooked by frying, grilling or baking. They are most typically long, the filling compressed by twisting the casing into concatenated \"links\" into the sausage skin, traditionally made from the prepared intestine of the slaughtered animal; most commonly a pig."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "North American breakfast or country sausage is made from uncooked ground pork, breadcrumbs and salt mixed with pepper, sage, and other spices. It is widely sold in grocery stores in a large synthetic plastic casing, or in links which may have a protein casing. It is also available sold by the pound without a casing. It can often be found on a smaller scale in rural regions, especially in southern states, where it is either in fresh patties or in links with either natural or synthetic casings as well as smoked. This sausage is most similar to English-style sausages and has been made in the United States since colonial days. It is commonly sliced into small patties and pan-fried, or cooked and crumbled into scrambled eggs or gravy. Other uncooked sausages are available in certain regions in link form, including Italian, bratwurst, chorizo, and linguica."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Sausages come in two main types: fresh and cured. Cured sausages may be either cooked or dried. Many cured sausages are smoked, but this is not mandatory. The curing process itself changes the meat and imparts its own flavors. An example is the difference in taste between a pork roast and a ham."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sausage (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fermented sausage",
        "text": "Fermented sausage, or dry sausage, is a type of sausage that is created by salting chopped or ground meat to remove moisture, while allowing beneficial bacteria to break down sugars into flavorful molecules. Bacteria, including \"Lactobacillus\" species and \"Leuconostoc\" species, break down these sugars to produce lactic acid, which not only affects the flavor of the sausage, but also lowers the pH from 6.0 to 4.5\u20135.0, preventing the growth of bacteria that could spoil the sausage. These effects are magnified during the drying process, as the salt and acidity are concentrated as moisture is extracted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kochwurst",
        "text": "Kochwurst is the name given to the German pre-cooked sausage, a class of sausage whose ingredients are largely cooked before the preparation of the sausage meat. The individual ingredients are held together by solidified fat (as in \"Streichw\u00fcrste\" or string sausages), gelatine (as in \"Sulz\" - cured meat in gelatine) or blood proteins coagulated by heating (as in \"Blutwurst\" or blood sausage). In contrast with cooked sausages (\"Br\u00fchwurst\"), \"Kochwurst\" does not remain solid on heating, but more or less liquefies. After being filled into intestines, jars or tins, the whole sausage is cooked through again in hot water or steam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Br\u00fchwurst",
        "text": "In the English-speaking world such sausages are usually divided into two classes: cooked sausages (e.g. hot dogs) and cooked smoked sausages (e.g. kielbasa)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausages are made in a wide range of national and regional varieties, which differ by the types of meats that are used, the flavouring or spicing ingredients (garlic, peppers, wine, etc.), and the manner of preparation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "A sausage is a type of meat product usually made from ground meat, often pork, beef, or poultry, along with salt, spices and other flavourings. Other ingredients such as grains or breadcrumbs may be included as fillers or extenders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "In some cases cold smoke is used. If so, then the sausage may have been previously cooked in a water bath held at the proper temperature. An example of this process is the preparation of Braunschweiger. In this style of sausage, after stuffing into to hog buns or fiberous casings, the sausage is submerged in water for 2 to hours until the internal temperature reaches . At this point the sausage should be chilled in ice water, then cold smoked at a temperature of for 2\u20133 hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of sausage dishes",
        "text": "List of sausage dishes\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Charcuterie",
        "text": "Emulsified sausages are cooked sausages with a very fine texture, using the combination of pork, beef, or poultry with fat, salt, cure, flavorings, and water. These ingredients are emulsified at high speed in a food processor or blender. During this process, the salt dissolves the muscle proteins, which helps to suspend the fat molecules. Temperature is an important part of the process: if the temperature rises above 60\u00a0\u00b0F (16\u00a0\u00b0C) for pork or 70\u00a0\u00b0F (21\u00a0\u00b0C) for beef, the emulsion will not hold and fat will leak from the sausage during the cooking process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "In Spain, fresh sausages, \"salchichas\", which are eaten cooked, and cured sausages, \"embutidos\", which are eaten uncooked, are two distinct categories. Among the cured sausages are found products like chorizo, salchich\u00f3n, and sobrasada. Blood sausage, morcilla, is found in both cured and fresh varieties. They are made with pork meat and blood, usually adding rice, garlic, paprika and other spices. There are many regional variations, and in general they are either fried or cooked in cocidos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "When the food processing industry produces sausages for a low price point, almost any part of the animal can end up in sausages, varying from cheap, fatty specimens stuffed with meat blasted off the carcasses (mechanically recovered meat, MRM) and rusk. On the other hand, the finest quality contain only choice cuts of meat and seasoning. In Britain, \"meat\" declared on labels could in the past include fat, connective tissue, and MRM. These ingredients may still be used but must be labelled as such, and up to 10% water may be included without being labelled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sausage may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bregenwurst",
        "text": "The sausage is eaten raw or stewed, which gives it a spreadable consistency once broken from its casing. In winter it is also served with \"Gr\u00fcnkohl\" (kale)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "A popular and widespread snack is the sausage roll made from sausage-meat rolled in puff pastry; they are sold from most bakeries and often made at home. Sausages may be baked in a Yorkshire pudding batter to create toad in the hole, often served with gravy and onions, or they may be cooked with other ingredients in a sausage casserole. In most areas, sausage meat for frying and stuffing into poultry or other meats is sold as ground, spiced meat without casing. Battered sausage, consisting of a sausage dipped in batter, and fried, is sold throughout Britain from fish and chip shops. In England, the saveloy is a type of pre-cooked sausage, larger than a typical hot-dog, which is served hot. A saveloy skin was traditionally colored with bismarck-brown dye giving saveloy a distinctive bright red color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "All smoked sausages are cured. The reason is the threat of botulism. The bacterium responsible, \"Clostridium botulinum\", is ubiquitous in the environment, grows in the anaerobic conditions created in the interior of the sausage, and thrives in the to temperature range common in the smoke house and subsequent ambient storage. Thus, for safety reasons, sausages are cured before smoking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausages are almost always fried in oil, served for any meal, particularly breakfast or lunch and often \"sweet sausages\" have been created which are made with any of the above: dried fruit, nuts, caramel and chocolate, bound with butter and sugar. These sweet sausages are refrigerated rather than fried and usually, however, served for dessert rather than as part of a savory course. Sausages can also be modified to use indigenous ingredients. Mexican styles add oregano and the \"guajillo\" red pepper to the Spanish chorizo to give it an even hotter spicy touch. Certain sausages also contain ingredients such as cheese and apple, or types of vegetable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Fresh sausages are simply seasoned ground meats that are cooked before serving. Fresh sausages normally do not use cure (Prague powder #1) although cure can be used if desired. In addition fresh sausages typically do not use smoke flavors, although liquid smoke can be used. Fresh sausages are never smoked in a cold smoker because of the danger of botulism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "A British fresh sausage typically contains around 10% butcher's rusk, 10% water, 2.5% seasoning, and 77.5% meat. At the point of sale, British sausages will often be labelled as \"actual meat content X%\". As meat can be fatty or lean, the X% is calculated using reference tables with the intention to give a fairer representation of the \"visual lean\" meat content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Making dry sausages involves curing salts, which contain sodium nitrite and sodium nitrate. Nitrites are used for all types of sausages and are the most common. Nitrates are used only in the preparation of the cured dry style of sausages. Over a period of time the nitrates are converted into nitrites by endogenous or added bacteria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Sausages may be served as hors d'\u0153uvres, in a sandwich, in a bread roll as a hot dog, wrapped in a tortilla, or as an ingredient in dishes such as stews and casseroles. It can be served on a stick (like the corn dog) or on a bone as well. Sausage without casing is called \"sausage meat\" and can be fried or used as stuffing for poultry, or for wrapping foods like Scotch eggs. Similarly, sausage meat encased in puff pastry is called a \"sausage roll\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lorne sausage",
        "text": "Sausage meat, (beef, pork or more usually a combination of the two) is minced with rusk and spices, packed into a rectangular tin with a cross-section of about square, and sliced about thick before cooking. Square sausage has no casing, unlike traditional sausages, and must be tightly packed into the mould to hold it together; slices are often not truly square."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Cured dry sausages are prepared in a fashion similar to cured cooked sausages. The major difference is that Prague powder #2 will be used in place of Prague powder #1. In addition, certified meats must be used. Since these products are never heated to a temperature that can kill trichinella parasites, it is necessary to accomplish this by other methods. The usual method is via freezing. Pork may be rendered acceptable for use in dry sausages by freezing it using the following guidelines:\n* 20\u201330 days\n* 10\u201320 days\n* 6\u201312 days"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Specific include:\n* Fresh sausages, mostly grilled, sometimes stewed\n** Boudin blanc, a soft, light-colored sausage made of chicken, pork, or veal, or a mixture, and usually also containing eggs and milk;\n** Boudin noir, a blood sausage;\n** Andouillette, made of pork intestines;\n** Cervelas de Lyon, with pistachios or truffles;\n** Chipolata, thin and long;\n** Cr\u00e9pinette, a small, flattened sausage wrapped in caul fat rather than a casing;\n** Merguez, a spicy mutton- or beef-based sausage;\n** Saucisse de Toulouse, often used in cassoulet\n* Cured or smoked sausages, \"saucisson\", served thinly sliced\n** Andouille, usually smoked, made primarily of pork intestines\n** Rosette de Lyon\n** Saucisse de Morteau, smoked\n** Saucisson de Lyon"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Hot dogs, also known as frankfurters or wieners, are the most common pre-cooked sausage in the United States and Canada. Another popular variation is the corn dog, which is a hot dog that is deep fried in cornmeal batter and served on a stick. A common and popular regional sausage in New Jersey and surrounding areas is pork roll, usually thinly sliced and grilled as a breakfast meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Cured sausages differ from fresh sausages by including 2 teaspoons of cure (Prague powder #1) per 10\u00a0pounds of finished product. This is usually interpreted per 10\u00a0pounds of meat. This works out to 4\u00a0ounces of cure for 100\u00a0pounds of sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kohlwurst",
        "text": "To make \"Kohlwurst\", pork (often the remains of the carcass) and fat are minced; then a similar amount of raw, cleaned lights is also minced. It is then all mixed together and, depending on the specific recipe, seasoned with onions, salt, pepper, marjoram, thyme, mustard seeds and allspice. Finally the sausage meat is loosely filled in casings of natural intestine and smoked for one to two weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cervelas de Lyon",
        "text": "The indigenous sausages from Lyon are, however, made to be cooked. One of the sausages, the Cervelas, are produced short and broad with prime pork stuffing with either pistachios or truffles. It derived its name from brains, since it was initially made from pork brains. On the other hand, the Sabodet, with its coarser texture, comes from Is\u00e8re and is made from pork head, rind, and meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fermented sausage",
        "text": "The ingredients found in a fermented sausage include meat, fat, bacterial culture, salt, spices, sugar and nitrite. Nitrite is commonly added to fermented sausages to prevent the formation of botulism-causing bacteria, while some traditional and artisanal producers avoid nitrites. Sugar is added to aid the bacterial production of lactic acid during the 18-hour to three-day fermentation process; the fermentation time depends on the temperature at which the sausage is stored: the lower the temperature, the longer the required fermentation period. A white mold and yeast sometimes adheres to the outside of the sausage during the drying process. This mold adds to the flavor of the sausage and aids in preventing harmful bacteria from attaching to the sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Br\u00fchwurst",
        "text": "According to German guidelines, parboiled sausages are divided for meat and meat products, broadly divided into four groups:\n* Cooked sausages (frankfurters, \"Debrecener\")\n* Boiled sausage, minced (Lyon, \"Weisswurst\" (white sausage), meatloaf, \"Burenwurst\")\n* Coarse cooked sausage (smoked sausage, Krainer sausage, beer sausage, \"Krakauer\")\n* Cooked sausage with inserts (\"K\u00e4sekrainer\", ham sausage)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kovbasa",
        "text": "#REDIRECT Sausage"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "After the Revolution, the sausage-making was largely concentrated in large, governmentally controlled meat processing plants, often built from the American examples, which introduced new, medically controlled and industrially made styles such as omnipresent Soviet bolognas \u2014 Doktorskaya sausage and its fatter Lyubitelskaya variant, as well as generic wieners and very status-loaded and scarce smoked sausages and salamis. Traditional sausages continued to be made for local consumption by the farmers and such, often sold on Kolkhoz markets, like the home-style sausage, made from roughly minced pork and its fat, spiced with garlic and black pepper \u2014 this was a raw sausage, intended for roasting or grilling, but sometimes cooked by hot smoking for preservation and flavour (this variant is often called Ukrainian)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "The United States has a particular shelf stable type called pickled sausages, commonly sold in establishments such as gas stations and delicatessens. These are usually smoked or boiled sausages of a highly processed hot dog or kielbasa style plunged into a boiling brine of vinegar, salt, spices, and often a pink coloring, then canned in Mason jars. They are usually packaged in single blister packs or jars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rookworst",
        "text": "A recipe from a Dutch cookbook of 1940 gives the proportions of ground meat as 4 parts of pork to 3 parts of veal and 3 parts of bacon. The mixture is salted and saltpeter, sugar and nutmeg are added before the meat is forced into pig intestines. The sausages are air-dried at 12 to 15 degrees C and then smoked at 18 to 20 degrees C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "In Italy, the basic distinctions are:\n* Raw sausage (\"salsiccia\") with a thin casing\n* Cured and aged sausage (\"salsiccia stagionata\" or \"salsiccia secca\")\n* Cooked sausage (\"wuerstel\")\n* Blood sausage (\"sanguinaccio\" or \"boudin\")\n* Liver sausage (\"salsiccia di fegato\")\n* Salami (in Italy, \"salami\" is the plural of \"salame\", a big, cured, fermented and air-dried sausage)\n* \"Cheese sausage\" (\"casalsiccia\") with cheese inside"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "A variety of fresh meats may be used for making sausage, the most common are from beef, pork, lamb, chicken, turkey, and game. Meat should be fresh, high quality, have the proper lean-to-fat ratio and good binding qualities. The meat should not be contaminated with bacteria or other microorganisms. Combining spices and seasonings in amounts that complement each other is important."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dro\u00ebwors",
        "text": "The recipe used for these dried sausages is similar to that for boerewors, though pork and veal are usually replaced by beef, as the former can go rancid when dried, mutton fat replaces the pork fat used in boerewors. Drying makes the sausage ideal for unrefrigerated storage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "French distinguishes between \"saucisson (sec)\", cured sausage eaten uncooked, and \"saucisse\", fresh sausage that needs cooking. Saucisson is almost always made of pork cured with salt, spices, and occasionally wine or spirits, but it has many variants which may be based on other meats and include nuts, alcohol, and other ingredients. It also differentiates between \"saucisson\" and \"boudin\" (\"pudding\") which are similar to the British Black, White and Red puddings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot dog",
        "text": "As with most sausages, hot dogs must be in a casing to be cooked. Traditional casing is made from the small intestines of sheep. The products are known as \"natural casing\" hot dogs or frankfurters. These hot dogs have firmer texture and a \"snap\" that releases juices and flavor when the product is bitten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast sausage",
        "text": "Breakfast sausage is normally fried in a pan, grilled, or microwaved. Some people like to put maple syrup onto their breakfast sausages. Cooked breakfast sausage is also mixed into egg casseroles before baking. Crumbled sausage added to white gravy is the central component of sausage gravy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jeff's Gourmet Sausage Factory",
        "text": "Jeff's Gourmet's full menu\u2014which was put on hold in 2021\u2014includes a variety of prepared Eastern European\u2013 and Mediterranean-style sausages. All of its meats are made in-house, including kielbasa, veal bratwurst, Italian sausage, boerewors sausage, and delicatessen meats such as corned beef, roast beef, salami, and pastrami. Sausages are made from whole cuts of beef, lamb, chicken, turkey, and veal, which are then ground with fruits and spices. Those meats were among the forty-odd that Rohatiner produced, which included fifteen sausages and eight deli-style meats. All sausages are served on buns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morc\u00f3n",
        "text": "In the Philippines, the sausage has evolved into a stuffed meat roulade. The meat, which could be beef or pork, is cut into thin sheets and wrapped around hard-boiled eggs, ham, sausages, carrots, pickled cucumber slices and other ingredients to form a solid sausage. The roulade is usually cooked using a stewing and frying technique, and sliced when cool."
      },
      {
        "title": "Discada",
        "text": "Once an ideal cooking heat is reached on the disk (usually medium to low heat works best) the first meat to be introduced is the bacon. This is placed at the center of the concave disk where the heat is concentrated. The natural fat from the bacon will prevent the meats from sticking. Beer or dark cola is added to create a broth for simmering the meats which also acts as a non stick agent. The bacon is placed away from direct heat onto the side of the disk once its cooked, and the sausage links are introduced to the remaining broth. As each piece of meat is removed from the direct heat, the meat's natural juices and the beer or cola create a broth for the next meat piece to be introduced to. Once cooked, the sausage is also set aside and the ham is added. The ham is set aside, and the chorizo is added next. The beef as well as the cook's choice of seasoning is finally added to the collective broth. Each meat is cooked for about 10 to 15 minutes. The beef is covered with a lid during the cooking process to contain its natural flavor and juices. The lid is then removed to allow the broth to reduce, and the meats can now be combined with the beef and the collective broth from the different meats. The onions, peppers, and tomatoes are chopped and added to the mix providing the dish with color and the meats with flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungarian sausages",
        "text": "The meat is coarsely ground and salted. If garlic is added, it is mashed in water to produce a slurry and added to the meat along with spices. The sausage is then stuffed into natural casings in 1-foot links - usually using the small intestine of the pig. This traditionally took place outside on the fall day when a pig was slaughtered. The sausage is then hung overnight to allow the flavors to meld and some of the grease to drip out. It is now ready to be used fresh and unsmoked. The unsmoked sausages are typically roasted with sauerkraut or red or green cabbage, and served with mashed potatoes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salami",
        "text": "After fermentation, the sausage must be dried. This changes the casings from water-permeable to reasonably airtight. A white covering of either mold or flour helps prevent photo-oxidation of the meat and rancidity in the fat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast sausage",
        "text": "It is essentially a highly seasoned ground meat, so it does not keep and should be stored and handled appropriately. Newer variations made from pork and beef mixtures as well as poultry (turkey or chicken) can also be found. There are also vegetarian varieties that use textured vegetable protein in place of meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Hungarian sausages, when smoked and cured, are called kolb\u00e1sz \u2013 different types are often distinguished by their typical regions, e.g. \"gyulai\" and \"csabai\" sausage. As no collective word for \"sausage\" in the English sense exists in Hungarian, local salamis (see e.g. winter salami) and boiled sausages \"hurka\" are often not considered when listing regional sausage varieties. The most common boiled sausages are rice liver sausage (\"M\u00e1jas Hurka\") and blood sausage (\"V\u00e9res Hurka\"). In the first case, the main ingredient is liver, mixed with rice stuffing. In the latter, the blood is mixed with rice, or pieces of bread rolls. Spices, pepper, salt and marjoram are added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fermented sausage",
        "text": "The two main types of fermented sausage are the dry, salted, spiced sausages found in warmer climates and fermented semidry sausages found in cooler, more humid climates. Since the dry sausages of the Mediterranean, in countries such as Italy, Spain, and Portugal contain 25\u201335% water and more than 4% salt, they may be stored at room temperature. The sausages of northern Europe usually contain less salt (around 3%) and 40\u201350% water, and as such do not dry well in the humid climate of countries such as Germany."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Vegetarian and vegan sausages are also available in some countries, or can be made from scratch at home. These may be made from tofu, seitan, nuts, pulses, mycoprotein, soya protein, vegetables or any combination of similar ingredients that will hold together during cooking. These sausages, like most meat-replacement products, generally fall into two categories: some are shaped, colored, flavored, and spiced to replicate the taste and texture of meat as accurately as possible; others such as the Glamorgan sausage rely on spices and vegetables to lend their natural flavor to the product and no attempt is made to imitate meat. While not vegetarian, the soya sausage was invented 1916 in Germany. First known as \"K\u00f6lner Wurst\" (\"Cologne Sausage\") by later German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer (1876\u20131967)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "The procedure of stuffing meat into casings remains basically the same today, but sausage recipes have been greatly refined and sausage making has become a highly respected culinary art."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage casing",
        "text": "Sausage casing, also known as sausage skin or simply casing, is the material that encloses the filling of a sausage. Natural casings are made from animal intestines or skin; artificial casings, introduced in the early 20th century, are made of collagen and cellulose. The material is then shaped via a continuous extrusion process \u2013 producing a single sausage casing of indefinite length \u2013 which is then cut into desired lengths, usually while the extrusion process continues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Offal",
        "text": "Sausage is made from the small intestine of a goat, cow or sheep, stuffed with chilli and small chunks of meat, fatty meat, and blood (although some people prefer the bloodless kind). In Kenya, it is commonly referred to as 'mutura', which is the Kikuyu name for it. Sheep's or goat's stomach is also stuffed in a similar way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "The cervelat, a cooked sausage, is often referred to as Switzerland's national sausage. A great number of regional sausage specialties exist as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morteau sausage",
        "text": "Morteau sausage is produced using only pork from the Franche-Comt\u00e9 region, because in this mountainous region the animals are fattened traditionally. In addition, to be permitted to use the label \"Saucisse de Morteau\", the sausages must be smoked for at least 48 hours with sawdust from conifer and juniper within the tuy\u00e9. It is not cooked, however, as the combustion is accompanied by a strong current of air."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "The specific regulations are quite complex. They depend on the thickness of the cuts of meat, the packaging method, and other factors. In addition there are very specific requirements as to the times in the drying rooms and the temperatures in the smoke rooms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Br\u00fchwurst",
        "text": "Br\u00fchwurst (\"scalded sausage\" or \"parboiled sausage\") is the collective name for several types of sausages according to the German classification. They are a cooked sausage that are scalded (parboiled), as opposed to being raw. They are typically prepared from raw meat that is finely chopped, are sometimes smoked, and are typically served hot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage casing",
        "text": "The collagen for artificial casings is processed extensively. It is formed by extrusion through a die to the desired diameter, dried and shirred into short sticks up to long that contain as much as of casing. In a newer process, a form of dough is coextruded with the meat blend, and a coating is formed by treating the outside with a calcium solution to set the coating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bra sausage",
        "text": "The sausage is prepared with lean beef (70-80%) and pork fat for the remainder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thuringian sausage",
        "text": "According to German minced meat law, the \"Hackfleischverordnung\", raw sausages must be sold on the day of their creation or until the closing of a late-night establishment. Previously grilled sausages have a shelf-life of 15 days, and sausages immediately frozen after their creation may be stored for 6 months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thuringian sausage",
        "text": "In North America, the term \"Thuringer\" refers to Thuringer cervelat, a type of smoked semi-dry sausage similar to summer sausage. It is made from a medium grind of beef, blended with salt, cure ingredients, spices (usually including dry mustard), and a lactic acid starter culture. After stuffing into a fibrous casing, it is smoked and dried, then cooked. Hormel Foods Corporation and Usinger's, as well as many regional processors and some small butcher shops, produce the sausage in this fashion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Many nations and regions have their own characteristic sausages, using meats and other ingredients native to the region and employed in traditional dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "While it is quite feasible for the small sausage kitchen or hobbyist to produce excellent cured dry sausages, a great deal of technical information is required. Alternatively, certified pork can be simply purchased."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regensburger Wurst",
        "text": "The sausage is prepared using pork without fat which is finely ground and mixed with salt and spices as well as some dices of pork. The sausage filling is put into sausage casing made from beef intestines, bound into short sausages, smoked and then boiled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage casing",
        "text": "Casings made from cellulose and plastics are peeled off food products and are not eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungarian sausages",
        "text": "The smoked sausages may contain bacon, ground pork, beef, boar or lamb, paprika, salt, garlic, black pepper, allspice, white pepper, caraway, nutmeg, zest, marjoram, cayenne pepper, sugar, white wine or cognac. Sausages may have additional ingredients like liver, mushroom, bread, rice, lemon juice, eggs, cream or milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ambanitsena",
        "text": "It is know for its sausages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ham sausage",
        "text": "New England ham sausage, also referred to as pressed ham, is prepared using ham or pork shoulder trimmings, and lean pork that is ground, smoked and then boiled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fermented sausage",
        "text": "Fermented sausage\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Cured meat products typically contain less than 40 ppm nitrites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frankfurter Rindswurst",
        "text": "The meat content of the sausage consists of 100% beef, with some lean meat being replaced by fat. For the production of the frankfurter, the coarsely ground meat is slowly minced for a short time in the grinder with nitrite curing salt and cutter aids. Then, fat and ice snow is added, and the chopping speed is increased until the mass is finely ground. Finally, it is seasoned with white pepper and paprika and color stabilizer is added if deemed necessary. The sausages are smoked for 60\u201390 minutes. They have a unit weight of 100 g and are cased in beef intestines with a diameter of 32\u201334\u00a0mm and are tied off. For the production of beef bratwurst, table salt is used instead of the nitrite curing salt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "When used as an adjective, the word \"sausage\" can refer to the loose sausage meat, which can be formed into patties or stuffed into a skin. When referred to as \"a sausage\", the product is usually cylindrical and encased in a skin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "In South Africa, traditional sausages are known as \"boerewors\", or farmer's sausage. Ingredients include game and beef, usually mixed with pork or lamb and with a high percentage of fat. Coriander and vinegar are the two most common seasoning ingredients, although many variations exist. The coarsely-ground nature of the meat as well as the long continuous spiral of sausage are two of its recognisable qualities. Boerewors is traditionally cooked on a \"braai\" (barbecue)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kishka (food)",
        "text": "The stuffed sausage is usually placed on top of the assembled cholent and cooked overnight in the same pot. Alternatively it can be cooked in salted water with vegetable oil added or baked in a dish, and served separately with flour-thickened gravy made from the cooking liquids."
      },
      {
        "title": "Metworst",
        "text": "Metworst () or droge worst (; \"dry sausage\") is a type of traditional Dutch sausage. The sausages have a strong flavor, and are made from raw minced pork which is then air dried."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage casing",
        "text": "Artificial casings are made of collagen (often derived from cattle skin), cellulose, or plastic. Artificial casings from animal collagen are generally edible, though some are not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "The distinct flavor of some sausages is due to fermentation by \"Lactobacillus\", \"Pediococcus\", or \"Micrococcus\" (added as starter cultures) or natural flora during curing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cotechino",
        "text": "It is prepared by filling the natural casing with rind, pork meat (usually of secondary preference), and fat mixed with salt and spices; in industrial production, nitrites and nitrates are added as preservatives. Some similar sausages exist in the Italian cooking tradition, for example musetto and zampone which are made with different meat and parts of the pig, musetto being made with meat taken from the pig's muzzle and zampone being held together by the pig's rear leg skin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood sausage",
        "text": "Across Asia, various people create food from congealed animal blood. Most of these food types do not have casings and might be considered a version of sliced sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage sandwich",
        "text": "A sausage sandwich is a sandwich containing cooked sausage. It may consist of an oblong bread roll such as a baguette or ciabatta roll, and sliced or whole links of sausage, such as hot or sweet Italian sausage, Polish sausage, German sausage (knackwurst, weisswurst, bratwurst, bockwurst), Mediterranean merguez, andouille or chorizo. Popular toppings include mustard, brown sauce, ketchup, BBQ sauce, steak sauce, peppers, onions, sauerkraut, chili, and salsa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charcuterie",
        "text": "Fermented sausages are created by salting chopped or ground meat to remove moisture, while allowing beneficial bacteria to break down sugars into flavorful molecules. Bacteria, including \"Lactobacillus\" species and \"Leuconostoc\" species, break down these sugars to produce lactic acid, which not only affects the flavor of the sausage, but also lowers the pH from 6.0 to 4.5\u20135.0, preventing the growth of bacteria that could spoil the sausage. These effects are magnified during the drying process, as the salt and acidity are concentrated as moisture is extracted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage making",
        "text": "Sausage making is sometimes looked at for being messy in the broader culture. There are common sayings such as \"how the sausage gets made\" to refer to a process that someone might rather not know all the gory details. This line of quotation stems from American poet John Godfrey Saxe, who said \"Laws, like sausages, cease to inspire respect in proportion as we know how they are made\" (1869)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Summer sausage",
        "text": "Summer sausage is an American term for any sausage that can be kept without refrigeration until opened. Summer sausage is usually a mixture of pork, but may be made of or contain other meats such as beef or venison. Summer sausage is fermented, and can be dried or smoked, and while curing ingredients vary significantly, curing salt is almost always used. Seasonings may include mustard seeds, black pepper, garlic salt, or sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Italian dishes",
        "text": "Unique ham and sausage specialties\n* \"Coppa\" \u2013 coppa in this region refers to a boiling sausage made from pig's head, bacon, orange peel, nutmeg and sometimes pinenuts or almonds. It is meant to be eaten within a month of preparation\n* \"Ciauscolo\" \u2013 made from the belly and shoulder of pig with half its weight in pork fat and seasoned with salt, pepper, orange peel and fennel. It is stuffed into an intestine casing, dried in a smoking chamber and cured for three weeks.\n* \"Fegatino\" \u2013 a liver sausage with pork belly and shoulder, where the liver replaces the fat of other sausages\n* \"Mazzafegato di Fabriano\" \u2013 mortadella made from fat and lean pork with liver and lung added to the fine-grained emulsification. It is seasoned with salt and pepper, stuffed into casings and smoked. This sausage is often served at festivals.\n* \"Prosciutto del Montefeltro\" \u2013 made from free-range black pigs, this is a smoked Prosciutto washed with vinegar and ground black pepper\n* \"Salame del Montefeltro\" \u2013 made from the leg and loin meat of the black pig, this sausage is highly seasoned with peppercorns and hung to dry\n* \"Salame di Fabriano\" \u2013 similar to \"salame lardellato\" except that it is made solely from leg of pork with pepper and salt\n* \"Salame lardellato\" \u2013 made with lean pork shoulder, or leg meat, along with diced bacon, salt, pepper, and whole peppercorns. It is cased in hog's intestines, dried for one-and-a-half days and then placed in a warm room for 3\u20134 days, two days in a cold room and then two months in a ventilated storage room\n* \"Soppressata di Fabriano\" \u2013 finely emulsified pork flavored with bacon, salt and pepper, the sausage is smoked and then aged\n* \"Bucatini all'amatriciana\" \u2013 bucatini with guanciale, tomatoes and pecorino\n* \"Carciofi alla giudia\" \u2013 artichokes fried in olive oil, typical of Roman Jewish cooking\n* \"Carciofi alla Romana\" \u2013 artichokes Roman-style; outer leaves removed, stuffed with mint, garlic, breadcrumbs and braised\n* \"Coda di bue alla vaccinara\" \u2013 oxtail ragout\n* \"Saltimbocca alla Romana\" \u2013 Veal cutlet, Roman-style; topped with raw ham and sage and simmered with white wine and butter\n* \"Spaghetti alla carbonara\" \u2013 spaghetti with eggs, guanciale and pecorino\n* \"Agnello casc' e ove\" \u2013 Lamb stuffed with grated Pecorino cheese and eggs\n* \"Agnello con le olive\" \u2013\n* \"Arrosticini\" \u2013 skewered pieces of meat\n* \"Maccheroni alla chitarra\" \u2013 a narrow stripped pasta served with a sauce of tomatoes, bacon and Pecorino cheese\n* Maccheroni alla molinara - also \"la pasta alla mugnaia\" is a long (single) hand made pasta served with tomato sauce\n* \"Mozzarelline allo zafferano\" \u2013 mini mozzarella cheese coated with a batter flavored with saffron\n* Parrozzo - a cake-like dessert made from a mixture of flour and crushed almonds, and coated in chocolate\n* \"Pizza Dolce\" - A layered (with two or three cream fillings - white custard, chocolate or almond) sponge cake, that is soaked with alchermes (if you can find it) or rum.\n* Pizzelle - (also known as \"Ferratelle\"). A thin, cookie made with a waffle iron device, often flavored with anise.\n* Spaghetti all' aglio, olio e peperoncino\n* \"Scripelle 'Mbusse\" - Abruzzo cr\u00eapes (flour, water and eggs), seasoned with Pecorino cheese, rolled and served in chicken broth.\n* \"Sugo di castrato\" \u2013 mutton sauce made with onion, rosemary, bacon, white wine, and tomatoes\n* \"Timballo teremana\" - A \"lasagne\" made with scripelle (Abruzzo cr\u00eapes) layered with a ragout of beef, pork, onion, carrot and celery, also layered with mushrooms, crumbled hard boiled egg, peas and besciamella.\n* \"Bab\u00e0\" \u2013 Neapolitan rum-dippe dessert\n* \"Braciole di maiale\" \u2013 Pork loin with tomatoes sauce, garlic, capers and pine nuts\n* \"Caponata di pesce\" \u2013 Fish \"Caponata\"; bread (baked in the shape of a donut), anchovies, tuna, lemon juice, olive oil and pepper\n* \"Casatiello\" \u2013 Neapolitan Easter pie with Parmesan cheese, Pecorino cheese, eggs, \"salame\", bacon, and pepper\n* \"Gatt\u00f2\" \u2013 A Neapolitan potato casserole with ham, Parmesan cheese and Pecorino cheese.\n* \"Graffe\" \u2013 fried Neapolitan \"doughnuts\" made with flour, potato, yeast and sugar.\n* \"Insalata caprese\" \u2013 salad of tomatoes, Mozzarella di Bufala (buffalo mozzarella) and basil\n* \"Limoncello\" \u2013 Lemon liqueur\n* \"Maccheroni alla napoletana\" \u2013 macaroni with Neapolitan sauce; a sauce of braised beef, carrot, celery, onion, garlic, white wine, tomato paste and fresh basil.\n* \"Melanzane a Scapece\" \u2013 \"Scapece\" eggplant; marinated eggplant with red pepper and olive oil\n* \"Melanzane al cioccolato\" \u2013 mid-August dessert; eggplants with chocolate and almonds\n* \"Mozzarella di Bufala Campana\" \u2013 Particular variety of cheese products made exclusively with milk from buffalo\n* \"Mozzarella in carrozza\" \u2013 fried mozzarella with slices of toasted bread and olive oil\n* \"Mustacciuoli\" \u2013 Neapolitan Christmas dessert; cookies with almonds and coffee covered with chocolate\n* \"Parmigiana\" \u2013 Sliced eggplant pan fried in oil, layered with tomato sauce and cheese, and baked in an oven\n* \"Pastiera napoletana\" \u2013 Neapolitan ricotta cake\n* \"Pepata di cozze\" \u2013 Mussel and Clam soup with tomato sauce, served with slices of toasted bread.\n* \"Pizza napoletana\" \u2013 neapolitan pizza; the most popular is \"Pizza Margherita\": pizza topped with tomatoes sauce, mozzarella cheese, Parmesan cheese, basil and olive oil\n* \"Polipo alla Luciana\" \u2013 \"Luciana\" Octopus; octopus with tomatoes sauce, chopped tomatoes, olives and garlic\n* \"Rag\u00f9 napoletano\" \u2013 Neapolitan rag\u00f9; tomatoes sauce, onions, olive oil, carrots, celery, veal shank, pork ribs, lard, basil, salt and pepper\n* \"Roccoc\u00f2\" \u2013 Neapolitan Christmas dessert; almond crunch cookies\n* \"Sart\u00f9 di riso\" \u2013 Rice \"Sart\u00f9\"; rice with mushrooms, onions, tomato-paste, beef, peas, Parmesan cheese and Mozzarella cheese and olive oil\n* \"Sfogliatelle\" \u2013 Neapolitan ricotta dessert; seashell-shaped pastry with ricotta cheese.\n* \"Sfogliatella Santarosa\" \u2013 Neapolitan dessert; Slightly larger than a traditional sfogliatella, it is filled with a \"crema pasticciera\" and garnished with \"crema di amarene\" (sour black cherry)\n* \"Spaghetti alle vongole\" \u2013 Spaghetti with clams in a white sauce with garlic, olive oil and pepper\n* \"Struffoli\" \u2013 Neapolitan Christmas dessert; honey balls with lemon juice and colored candy\n* \"Torta caprese\" \u2013 Chocolate cake with almonds\n* \"Zeppole di San Giuseppe\" \u2013 Fritters for Saint Joseph's Day; Cream-filled with \"crema pasticciera\"\n* \"Burrata\" \u2013 an Italian cow milk cheese (occasionally buffalo milk) made from mozzarella and cream. The outer casing is solid cheese, while the inside contains stracciatella and cream, giving it an unusual, soft texture. It is typical of Apulia.\n* \"Caciocavallo podolico\" \u2013 a variety of cheese products made exclusively with Podolica cow milk.\n* \"Cacioricotta\" \u2013 a cheese produced throughout Apulia.\n*\"Calzone\" (in Lecce) or \"Panzerotto\" (in Bari and Taranto) - puff pastry with oil which in its typicality contemplated the use of olives, ham, onions, mozzarella, cheese and tomato sauce for filling. Cooked either in the oven as savory pie, or deep fried\n* \"Cartellate\" \u2013 a pastry, particularly prepared around Christmas, made of a thin strip of a dough made of flour, olive oil, and white wine that is wrapped upon itself, intentionally leaving cavities and openings, to form a sort of \"rose\" shape; the dough is then deep-fried, dried, and soaked in either lukewarm vincotto or honey.\n* \"Muscisca\" \u2013 bacon or boneless meat from sheep or goat (and in some cases veal), which is cut into long (20\u201330\u00a0cm) and thin (3\u20134\u00a0cm) strips, and seasoned with salt, chili, and fennel seeds before being sun-dried.\n* \"Orecchiette alle cime di rapa\" \u2013 Ear-like pasta with rapini.\n* \"Ostriche arrosto\" \u2013 oysters broiled with parsley, garlic, oregano, breadcrumbs, olive oil, and lemon juice.\n* \"Pancotto\" \u2013 an ancient dish of Capitanata, made from a base of stale bread and accompanied with a wide variety of wild vegetables, fennel seeds, oil of Tavoliere, and chili peppers.\n*\"Pasticciotto leccese - shortcrust pastry shell and a custard heart.\"\n*\"Pitta di patate -\" potato focaccia stuffed with tomatoes, onions, bacon, mozzarella, parsley, and covered with breadcrumbs\n* \"Purea di fave\" \"(\"or \"fave e cicorie, also known as \"fave e fogghije\", fava beans and leaves)\" \u2013 fava bean puree with stewed cicory. During Christmas festivities, cicory is stewed in red wine instead of water.\n* \"Riso, patate e cozze\" or \"Tiella barese\" \u2013 a Bari specialty made with rice, potatoes, and mussels, similar to paella, cooked in an earthenware pan or in the oven. It has a Salento variant called \"Tajeddha.\" It is likely that this recipe is a variant of Paella given the long Spanish domination in the kingdom of Naples.\n*\"Rustico leccese - typical street food of Salento: a puff pastry filled with b\u00e9chamel, mozzarella and tomato\"\n*\"Sagne 'ncannulate\" or \"sagne torte\" - home made pasta typical of Salento in the shape of long lagane rolled up on themselves that are served with fresh tomato sauce, basil and cacio-ricotta (someone adds a little breadcrumbs to dry any residual draining water), others use \"ricotta-shcante\" (a spicy ricotta cream), or with meat sauce (pork or lamb) with the addition of chilli, to taste.\n* \"Tiella di verdure\" \u2013 a casserole of baked vegetables topped with mozzarella cheese and fresh basil.\n* \"Torcinelli\" \u2013 lamb intestines wrapped around lamb liver or offal, typically testicles, generally grilled on a skewer, sometimes stewed in tomato and onions.\n* \"Zuppa di cozze alla Tarantina\" \u2013 mussels steamed with peperoncino, garlic, tomatoes, and white wine. Often eaten with short pasta types. Variations prepared in the hinterland of Taranto may include white beans or kidney beans."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is an example of none meat item that is added to a sausages as fillers?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "An example of a sausage filler are breadcrumbs and grains."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When were the first sausages made?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Which specific sausage would you like to know about: lup cheong, lucanica or blood sausage?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Blood sausage sounds interesting!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The blood sausage was mentioned in the Odyssey, written by the Greek poet Homer. Evidence suggests that sausages were already popular among the ancient Gereks and Romans but I can't say when they were first made."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where there any other notable foods mentioned in the Odyssey?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Both Necter and Ambrosia are mentioned."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are they? I've never heard of either."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Nectar is a sugar-rich liquid produced by plants to attract pollinating animals, and Ambrosia is the food or drink of Greek gods and is often depicted as conferring longevity or immortality upon whoever consumed it."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the process of how sausage is made?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sausage is made from meat cut into pieces or ground, mixed with other ingredients, and filled into a casing.  There are different types of sausages that require different processes, though, do you want to know about cooked sausages, cooked smoked sausages, fresh sausage, dry sausage, bulk sausage, or vegetarian sausage?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Yes, tell me more about cooked sausages."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Cooked sausages are made with fresh meats and then fully cooked; They are either eaten immediately after cooking or must be refrigerated. Examples include hot dogs, Braunschweiger, and liver sausage.",
      "Cooked sausages are made with fresh meats and then fully cooked, they are either eaten immediately after cooking or must be refrigerated, examples include hot dogs, Braunschweiger, and liver sausage, meat-and-grain sausages such as goetta, scrapple, and kishka are also cooked sausages. Would you like more information about the origin of any of these examples?"
    ],
    "topic": "Sausage",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Sausage:18",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sausage",
          "Classifications"
        ],
        "ctx": "Sausages classification is subject to regional differences of opinion. Various metrics such as types of ingredients, consistency, and preparation are used. In the English-speaking world, the following distinction between \"fresh\", \"cooked\", and \"dry\" sausages seems to be more or less accepted:\n* Cooked sausages are made with fresh meats and then fully cooked. They are either eaten immediately after cooking or must be refrigerated. Examples include hot dogs, Braunschweiger, and liver sausage. Meat-and-grain sausages such as goetta, scrapple, and kishka are also cooked sausages.\n* Cooked smoked sausages are cooked and then smoked or smoke-cooked. They are eaten hot or cold but need to be refrigerated. Examples include kielbasa and mortadella. Some are slow cooked while smoking, in which case the process takes several days or longer, such as the case for \"Gyulai kolb\u00e1sz\".\n* Fresh sausages are made from meats that have not been previously cured. They must be refrigerated and thoroughly cooked before eating. Examples include \"Boerewors\", Italian pork sausage, siskonmakkara, and breakfast sausage.\n* Fresh smoked sausages are fresh sausages that are smoked and cured. They do not normally require refrigeration and do not require any further cooking before eating. Examples include Mettwurst and Teewurst which are meat preparations packed in sausage casing but squeezed out of it (just like any other spread from a tube).\n* Dry sausages are cured sausages that are fermented and dried. Some are smoked as well at the beginning of the drying process. They are generally eaten cold and will keep for a long time. Examples include salami, Dro\u00eb wors, Finnish \"meetvursti\", Sucuk, Landj\u00e4ger (smoked), Slim Jims, and summer sausage.\n* Bulk sausage, or sometimes \"sausage meat\" or \"skinless sausage\", refers to raw, ground, spiced meat, usually sold without any casing.\n* Vegetarian sausage are made without meat, for example, based on soya protein or tofu, with herbs and spices. Some vegetarian sausages are not necessarily vegan and may contain ingredients such as eggs."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Sausage:18",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sausage",
          "Classifications"
        ],
        "ctx": "Sausages classification is subject to regional differences of opinion. Various metrics such as types of ingredients, consistency, and preparation are used. In the English-speaking world, the following distinction between \"fresh\", \"cooked\", and \"dry\" sausages seems to be more or less accepted:\n* Cooked sausages are made with fresh meats and then fully cooked. They are either eaten immediately after cooking or must be refrigerated. Examples include hot dogs, Braunschweiger, and liver sausage. Meat-and-grain sausages such as goetta, scrapple, and kishka are also cooked sausages.\n* Cooked smoked sausages are cooked and then smoked or smoke-cooked. They are eaten hot or cold but need to be refrigerated. Examples include kielbasa and mortadella. Some are slow cooked while smoking, in which case the process takes several days or longer, such as the case for \"Gyulai kolb\u00e1sz\".\n* Fresh sausages are made from meats that have not been previously cured. They must be refrigerated and thoroughly cooked before eating. Examples include \"Boerewors\", Italian pork sausage, siskonmakkara, and breakfast sausage.\n* Fresh smoked sausages are fresh sausages that are smoked and cured. They do not normally require refrigeration and do not require any further cooking before eating. Examples include Mettwurst and Teewurst which are meat preparations packed in sausage casing but squeezed out of it (just like any other spread from a tube).\n* Dry sausages are cured sausages that are fermented and dried. Some are smoked as well at the beginning of the drying process. They are generally eaten cold and will keep for a long time. Examples include salami, Dro\u00eb wors, Finnish \"meetvursti\", Sucuk, Landj\u00e4ger (smoked), Slim Jims, and summer sausage.\n* Bulk sausage, or sometimes \"sausage meat\" or \"skinless sausage\", refers to raw, ground, spiced meat, usually sold without any casing.\n* Vegetarian sausage are made without meat, for example, based on soya protein or tofu, with herbs and spices. Some vegetarian sausages are not necessarily vegan and may contain ingredients such as eggs."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamales originated in Mesoamerica as early as 8000 to 5000 BC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamale\n--Origin.\n--Caribbean.\n----Cuba.\n----Dominican Republic.\n----Puerto Rico.\n----Trinidad and Tobago.\n--Central America.\n----Belize.\n----Guatemala.\n------Pre-Columbian Guatemala.\n----Nicaragua.\n--Mexico.\n----Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica.\n------Pre-Columbian Mayas.\n------Aztecs.\n----Modern Mexico.\n--South America.\n----Venezuela.\n--Philippines and Guam.\n--United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "A tamale is a traditional Mesoamerican dish, made of masa, a dough made from nixtamalized corn, which is steamed in a corn husk or banana leaf. The wrapping can either be discarded prior to eating or used as a plate. Tamales can be filled with meats, cheeses, fruits, vegetables, herbs, chilies, or any preparation according to taste, and both the filling and the cooking liquid may be seasoned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The preparation of tamales is likely to have spread from the indigenous cultures in Guatemala and Mexico to the rest of Latin America. According to archaeologists Karl Taube, William Saturno, and David Stuart, tamales may date from around 100 AD. They found pictorial references in the \"Mural of San Bartolo\", in Pet\u00e9n, Guatemala."
      },
      {
        "title": "Santiago Teyahualco",
        "text": "Tamales is a traditional Mesoamerican dish made of \u201cmasa\u201d or dough (starchy, and usually corn-based), which is steamed in a corn husk or banana leaf"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The is also related to the pastel, a root tamale dating to around the same time as the native Ta\u00edno ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the classical times of the Maya of Central America (Guatemala in particular), the great Mayan lords delighted in a baked dough bun during the winter solstice, made of maize mixed with turkey, \"tepezcuintle\" (lowland paca) or venison, spices, and chili pepper, among other ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the pre-Columbian era, the Aztecs ate tamales with fillings such as turkey, flamingo, frog, \"axolotl\", pocket gopher, rabbit, fish, turkey eggs, honey, fruits, squash, and beans, and even no filling. Aztec tamales differed from modern tamales by not having added fat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the pre-Columbian era, the Mayas ate tamales and often served them at feasts and festivals. The Classic Maya hieroglyph for tamales has been identified on pots and other objects dating back to the Classic Era (200\u20131000 CE), although they likely were eaten much earlier. While tortillas are the basis for the contemporary Maya diet, remarkably little evidence exists for tortilla production among the Classic period Maya. A lack of griddles in the archaeological record suggests that the primary foodstuff of the Mesoamerican diet may have been the \"tamal\", a cooked, vegetal-wrapped mass of maize dough. Tamales are cooked without the use of ceramic technologies and therefore the form of the tamale is thought to predate the tortilla. Similarities between the two maize products can be found in both the ingredients and preparation techniques, and the linguistic ambiguity exhibited by the pan-Mayan term \"wa\" referring to a basic, daily consumed maize product that can refer to either tortillas or tamales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The Aztec and Maya civilizations, as well as the Olmec and Toltec before them, used tamales as easily portable food, for hunting trips, and for traveling large distances, as well as supporting their armies. Tamales were also considered sacred, as they were seen as the food of the gods. Aztec, Maya, Olmeca, and Tolteca all considered themselves to be people of corn, so tamales played a large part in their rituals and festivals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the Mississippi Delta, African Americans developed a spicy tamale made from cornmeal instead of masa, which is boiled in corn husks. This is sometimes called a \"hot tamale\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guale",
        "text": "Guale\n--Language.\n--History.\n----Prehistory.\n----European contact.\n------Effect on health.\n----La Tama and Yamasee amalgamation.\n----Destruction and dispersal.\n----Emergence of the Yamasee.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "\"Tamale\" is an anglicized version of the Spanish word (plural: ). comes from the Nahuatl . The English \"tamale\" is a back-formation of , with English speakers interpreting the \"-e-\" as part of the stem, rather than part of the plural suffix \"-es\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Instead of corn husks, banana or plantain leaves are used in tropical parts of the country, such as Oaxaca, Chiapas, Veracruz, and the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula. These tamales are rather square in shape, often very large\u201415\u00a0inches (40\u00a0cm)\u2014and these larger tamales are commonly known as \"pibs\" in the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula. Another very large type of tamale is , made in the Huasteca region of Mexico. Depending on the size, can feed between 50 and 200 people; they are made during festivals and holidays, for quincea\u00f1eras, and on Sundays to be sold at the markets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "While Mexican-style and other Latin American-style tamales are featured at ethnic restaurants throughout the United States, some distinctly indigenous styles also are made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother-in-law (sandwich)",
        "text": "Mexican-Americans brought the tamale to Chicago, and African-Americans from the Mississippi Delta area brought the hot tamale to the city. But no one knows how the mother-in-law sandwich developed. Some speculate it may have had its beginnings in Mexico City's \"torta de tamal,\" a tamale on a bolillo. The precise origins of the Chicago-style tamale are also obscure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Cherokee tamales, also known as bean bread or \"broadswords\", were made with hominy (in the case of the Cherokee, the masa was made from corn boiled in water treated with wood ashes instead of lime) and beans, and wrapped in green corn leaves or large tree leaves and boiled, similar to the meatless pre-Columbian bean and masa tamales still prepared in Chiapas, central Mexico, and Guatemala."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In northern Louisiana, tamales have been made for several centuries. The Spanish established presidio Los Adaes in 1721 in modern-day Robeline, Louisiana. The descendants of these Spanish settlers from central Mexico were the first tamale makers to arrive in the eastern US. Zwolle, Louisiana, has a Tamale Fiesta every year in October."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of maize dishes",
        "text": "Tamales are a dish of nixtamalized maize that is ground, wrapped in a corn husk, and steamed. Tamales originated in Mesoamerica as early as 8000 to 5000 BC. There are many regional variants and related dishes.\n*\n*\n*\n*"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Maya cuisine",
        "text": "Once nixtamalized, maize was typically ground up on a \"metate\" and prepared in a number of ways. Tortillas, cooked on a \"comal\" and used to wrap other foods (meat, beans, etc.), were common and are perhaps the best-known pre-Columbian Mesoamerican food. \"Tamales\" consist of corn dough, often containing a filling, that is wrapped in a corn husk and steam-cooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "One of the most significant rituals for the Aztecs was the feast of Atamalcualiztli (eating of water tamales). This ritual, held every eight years for a whole week, was done by eating tamales without any seasoning, spices, or filling, which allowed the maize freedom from being overworked in the usual tamale cooking methods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamale-making is a ritual that has been part of Mexican life since pre-Hispanic times, when special fillings and forms were designated for each specific festival or life event. Today, tamales are typically filled with meats, cheese, or vegetables, especially chilies. Preparation is complex and time-consuming, and an excellent example of Mexican communal cooking, where this task usually falls to the women. Tamales are a favorite comfort food in Mexico, eaten as both breakfast and dinner, and often accompanied by hot \"atole\" or \"champurrado\" and \"arroz con leche\" (rice porridge, \"rice with milk\") or maize-based beverages of indigenous origin. Street vendors can be seen serving them from huge, steaming, covered pots () or \"ollas\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In Cuba, before the 1959 Revolution, street vendors sold Mexican-style tamales wrapped in corn husks, usually made without any kind of spicy seasoning. Cuban tamales being identical in form to those made in Mexico City suggests they were brought over to Cuba during the period of intense cultural and musical exchange between Cuba and Mexico after the 1920s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Around the beginning of the 20th century, the name \"tamale pie\" was given to meat pies and casseroles made with a cornmeal crust and typical tamale fillings arranged in layers. Although characterized as Mexican food, these forms are not popular in Mexican American culture in which the individually wrapped style is preferred."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In Mexico, tamales begin with a dough made from ground nixtamalized corn (hominy), called \"masa\", or alternatively a rehydrated \"masa\" powder, such as Maseca. It is combined with lard or vegetable shortening, along with broth or water, to bring the dough to the consistency of a very thick batter. It is traditional to whisk the lard, and whisk the resulting batter, with the intent of producing the signature soft and fluffy texture. Modern recipes may use baking powder to achieve a similar effect. Chili purees or dried chili powders are also occasionally added to the batter, which in addition to the spice can cause some tamales to appear red in color. Tamales are generally wrapped in corn husks or plantain leaves before being steamed, with the choice of husk depending on the region. They usually have a sweet or savory filling and are usually steamed until firm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamales have been eaten in the United States since at least 1893, when they were featured at the World's Columbian Exposition. In 1894, when tamales were the most popular ethnic food in Los Angeles, XLNT Foods started making them. The company is the oldest continuously operating Mexican food brand in the United States, and one of the oldest companies in Southern California."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana leaf",
        "text": "Tamales made throughout Central America are traditionally wrapped in banana leaves prior to cooking, which imparts a distinctive taste to the nixtamalized corn dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteles",
        "text": "Related to alcapurria, tamale, hallacas, and guanimes, pasteles are believed to have been made by natives of Boriquen (Puerto Rico). Tainos made masa from cassava, yaut\u00eda and squash. The masa was then filled with beans, fruit, chilies, corn, nuts, meat, fish and wrapped in corn husk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "\"Guanime\" is a Puerto Rican dish that can be traced back to pre-Columbian times. It consists of corn masa that is stuffed with beans, seafood, nuts, or meat, and then wrapped in corn husks slowly cooked on a grill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uchepos",
        "text": "Although it is considered to have originated in the Mexican state of Michoacan, chepo can be found in other states of the republic where it is called corn tamal. In other regions of Central America it is also called corn tamal. In some regions in South America these tamales are called humitas where the recipes may call for some spices, raisins, other sweet ingredients such as cajeta blanca/arequipe/dulce de leche/manjar, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Las Flores (archaeological site)",
        "text": "According to paleontological and archaeological records, the earliest settlements in Tamaulipas are dated to twelve thousand years before the Christian era, and are identified in the so-called \"complex Devil\", in allusion to a Canyon of the Sierra of Tamaulipas. Later, at the Tropic of cancer level, are the first manifestations of native civilization, linked to the discovery and domestication of corn and thus to the beginning of agricultural life and the grouping of permanent settlements. As a result, in this period began to appear manifestations of Mesoamerican cultures in this region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Humitas (from Quechua humint'a) is a Native South American dish from pre-Hispanic times, a traditional food from the Andes and it can be found in Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, and Northwest Argentina. It consists of fresh choclo (Peruvian corn) pounded to a paste, wrapped in a fresh corn husk, and slowly steamed or boiled in a pot of water. In Bolivia it is known as huminta and in Brazil as pamonha."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "are prepared in a plain version, without the stuffing, and served with stewed salted cod fish. Since the arrival of Europeans, have lost their stuffing. Contemporary are made with corn masa seasoned with coconut milk, lard, broth, and annatto, wrapped in a banana leaf or corn husk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Huasteca",
        "text": "Huastec is derived from the Spanish Huasteca which is derived from the Nahuatl word for the ethnicity Kuextlan. The Huastecs were the northernmost Mesoamerican group on the Gulf coast, and their contact with the Chichimeca led to Aridoamerican influences in their culture. The pre-Hispanic sculpture of the region is distinct, with well-known pieces such as the \"Adolescente de Tamu\u00edn\" and the goddess of life and health Tlazolteotl. Traditionally crops here have been corn, beans, squash, various chili peppers and tubers such as yucca, camotes and jicamas. However, gathering of wild foods played a more important role here in the Mesoamerican period, especially roots, small chili peppers and a fruit (Brosimum alicastrum) as well as fish from lakes, rivers and ocean. The production of salt was important at Chila Lake."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chiapas",
        "text": "Tamales are a major part of the diet and often include chipil\u00edn mixed into the dough and hoja santa, within the tamale itself or used to wrap it. One tamale native to the state is the \"picte\", a fresh sweet corn tamale. Tamales juacanes are filled with a mixture of black beans, dried shrimp, and pumpkin seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn tortilla",
        "text": "The \"tamal\" (or tamale) of Mexico is also made from \"nixtamal\" (the Nahuatl word for hominy is the source of the term 'nixtamalization'), but is much thicker and a dish unto itself, usually including other ingredients and flavors."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of food origins",
        "text": "Corn, beans and squash were domesticated in Mesoamerica around 3500 BCE. Potatoes, quinoa and manioc were domesticated in South America. In what is now the eastern United States, Native Americans domesticated sunflower and sumpweed around 2500 BCE.\n* Acorn (\"Quercus alba\", \"Quercus gambelii\", \"Quercus kelloggii\", \"Notholithocarpus densiflorus\"; Fagaceae)\n* American chestnut (\"Castanea dentata\"; Fagaceae)\n* Black walnut (\"Juglans nigra\"; Juglandaceae)\n* Hazelnut (\"Corylus americana\"; Corylaceae)\n* Hickory nut (\"Carya\"; Juglandaceae)\n* Pecans (\"Carya illinoinensis\"; Juglandaceae)\n* Shagbark hickory (\"Carya ovata\"; Juglandaceae)\n* White walnut (\"Juglans cinerea\"; Juglandaceae)\n* American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius)\n* Araliaceae\n* Chives (\"Allium schoenoprasum\"; Amaryllidaceae)\n* Dandelions\n* Echinacea (Asteroideae; Heliantheae; Asteraceae)\n* Erect knotweed\n* Jerusalem artichoke (\"Helianthus tuberosus\"; Asteraceae), also known as topinambour\n* Little barley\n* Maple sap (\"Acer\"; Hippocastanoideae)\n* Maygrass\n* Pole beans (\"Phaseolus coccineus\"; Faboideae)\n* Sage (\"Salvia apiana\"; Lamiaceae)\n* Sumpweed\n* Sunflowers (\"Helianthus annuus\"; Asteraceae)\n* Wild rice (\"Zizania palustris\"; Poaceae)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Balc\u00f3n de Montezuma",
        "text": "According to paleontological and archaeological records, the earliest settlements in Tamaulipas are dated to twelve thousand years before the Christian era, and are identified in the so-called \"complex Devil\", in allusion to a Canyon of the Sierra of Tamaulipas. Later, at the Tropic of cancer level, are the first manifestations of native civilization, linked to the discovery and domestication of corn and thus to the beginning of agricultural life and the grouping of permanent settlements. As a result, in this period began to appear manifestations of Mesoamerican cultures in this region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "This meal was later integrated into modern Guatemalan traditions. For example, on Christmas Eve, families prepare black, red, or sweet tamales for family and friends to show gratitude. The tamales are often accompanied with chocolate, yolk bread, and punch, and participate in the Mass of Gallo, at midnight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamtoc",
        "text": "Originally it was estimated that the flowering of this site took place between AD 900 and 1100, that is, during the Mesoamerican Postclassic Period, however recent findings - particularly Monument 32 - have led archaeologists to think that the flowering could have occurred in 600 AD C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Santander Department",
        "text": "The tamale is a dish that is eaten in various parts of Colombia, but in Santander it is prepared with peeled corn dough and filled with beef, chicken or pork, chickpeas, onions, and paprika. It is then wrapped in banana leaf giving it a rectangular shape."
      },
      {
        "title": "Common bush tanager",
        "text": "It appears as if the group north of the Isthmus of Panama originated before the final bout of the Great American Interchange, by island-hopping across the emerging mountain ranges that now make up the isthmus, some 6 million years ago (mya). The direct descendants of the original colonizers of Mesoamerica are the southernmost Mesoamerican group, as is to be expected. Some 5.5 mya, the Sierra de los Tuxtlas population originated. The other groups west of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec radiated rather synchronously between 3 and 4 mya."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The several versions of can be made with green plantains, cassava, and a sweet version made with sweet plantains and cornmeal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamalito",
        "text": "The \"tamalito\" or \"tamalitos\" is a common dish prepared by the Mestizo people who are descendants of the Maya (Yucatec). The appearance of the \"tamalitos\" is of the tamales which is wrapped with leaves but without meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The Choctaw and Chickasaw make a dish called \"banaha\", which can be stuffed or not (plain). Usually, the filling (range from none, fried bacon, turkey, deer, nuts, and vegetables such as onions, potatoes, squash, and sweet potatoes) can either be filled or mixed with the masa and steamed in a corn husk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atamalqualiztli",
        "text": "Atamalqualiztli (The Eating of Water Tamales or the Festival of the Water Pancakes) was an Aztec festival held every eight years, either in the month of Quecholli (late October-early November) or in Tepeilhuitl (beginning of October). It involved a week-long period of fasting, in which people ate nothing except for a daily midday portion of unseasoned tamales soaked in water. The festival was celebrated in order to allow the food to rest from being treated and cooked, with the belief that in this way the food would be revitalised. It was believed that those who did not celebrate the festival would be struck with leprosy, and thus anyone who did not participate was disciplined. The morning after the festival was known as 'It is sprinkled with the acid of pepper', in honour of the end of the fast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Capacha",
        "text": "Archaeologists recognize the origin of Mesoamerica in a \"mother culture\" represented by the Olmec style and culture. But in the western region no evidence has been found to date nothing that can be identified as such. Indeed, there is no evidence even of Teotihuacan (central Mesoamerican influence from the Classic period.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Guale",
        "text": "The La Tama Yamasee, Guale, and other refugees scattered in the southeast. Some relocated to new missions in Spanish Florida, but most rejected Spanish authority. They felt Spain had been unable to protect them and resented their failure to provide firearms. The Indians of Guale Province moved mostly to the Apalachee or Apalachicola regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamoanchan",
        "text": "Tamoanchan is a mythical location of origin known to the Mesoamerican cultures of the central Mexican region in the Late Postclassic period. In the mythological traditions and creation accounts of Late Postclassic peoples such as the Aztec, Tamoanchan was conceived as a paradise where the gods created the first of the present human race out of sacrificed blood and ground human bones which had been stolen from the Underworld of Mictlan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexican cuisine",
        "text": "Another important festive food is the tamale, also known as \"tamal\" in Spanish. This is a filled cornmeal dumpling, steamed in a wrapping (usually a corn husk or banana leaf) and one of the basic staples in most regions of Mexico. It has its origins in the pre-Hispanic era and today is found in many varieties in all of Mexico. Like mole, it is complicated to prepare and best done in large amounts. Tamales are associated with certain celebrations such as Candlemas. They are wrapped in corn husks in the highlands and desert areas of Mexico and in banana leaves in the tropics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tlamemeh",
        "text": "In pre-Hispanic Mexico, and generally throughout Mesoamerica, there was not any animal capable of being used in the loading and transport of goods and so manpower had to be used, this is how the \"tameme\" emerged. From the arrival of the Spanish in the area (first expeditions starting in 1493), they began to replace porters with animals such as horses carrying the conquerors, but were not specifically brought to be used for burden but for combat, so the porters were still widely used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Maya cuisine",
        "text": "Tamales: Crafted from masa, or corn dough, and a mix of meat and vegetables, tamales have historically been one of the world's most convenient foods because of their ease of transport. Like many popular dishes in ancient Maya culture, the \"tamal\" included the use of the corn husks to ferment and enhance the cooking process of the meal. After the cooking process, the \"tamal\" would be unwrapped and topped with \"salsa,\" which could be eaten on the go."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paqariq Tampu",
        "text": "This \"house of production\" was located on the hill called Tampu T'uqu (Quechua \"t'uqu\" a niche, hole or gap in the wall, today also the modern word for window, hispanicized \"Tambotoco, Tamputoco\"). It had three windows. According to the myth, the tribe of Maras emerged from one of the niches, called Maras T'uqu \"(Maras tocco)\" by spontaneous generation. The tribe of Tampus emerged from the \"sut'i t'uqu\" window. Manco Capac, his three Ayar brothers, and his four Mama sisters, emerged from the chief window in the middle, the \"qhapaq t'uqu\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the Dominican Republic, are Dominican tamales stuffed with \"picadillo\". The name has its origin from the native Ta\u00ednos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Maya cuisine",
        "text": "Often, tamales would be served at Maya holiday celebrations. Maya women would also sell freshly made tamales, often in exchange for cocoa seeds. Ancient evidence of tamales are prominent on many Maya artifacts and paintings. The modern \"tamal\" is enjoyed in much the same way as in ancient Maya cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mesoamerican creation myths",
        "text": "Other creation myths that are commonly known to natives of the Mesoamerican region include \"The Emergence of the Ancestors\" (Aztec), \"The Man of the Crops\" (Jicaque), \"Why the Earth Eats the Dead\" (Bribri), and \"Opossum Steals Fire\" (Mazatec)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mesoamerica",
        "text": "Companion planting was practiced in various forms by the indigenous peoples of the Americas. They domesticated squash 8,000 to 10,000 years ago, then maize, then common beans, forming the Three Sisters agricultural technique. The cornstalk served as a trellis for the beans to climb, and the beans fixed nitrogen, benefitting the maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "La Pintada (archaeological site)",
        "text": "The story of the origins of the cultural super area of Mesoamerica takes place some 2000 years after the separation of Mesoamerica and Aridoamerica. Some of the Aridoamerican communities farmed as a complement to their hunter-gatherer economy. Those communities, among whom one finds adherents to the Desert Tradition, later would become more truly agricultural and form Oasisamerica. The process of introducing agriculture in the desert-like land of northern Mexico and the southern United States was gradual and extensive: by the year 600 AD (a time which coincides with the twilight of Teotihuacan), several groups had already acquired agricultural techniques."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "A well-known Cuban song from the 1950s, \"\", (a cha-cha-cha sung by Orquesta Arag\u00f3n) celebrated the delicious tamales sold by a street vendor in Cienfuegos. A peculiarly Cuban invention is the dish known as , basically consisting of tamale masa with the meat stuffing stirred into the masa, and then cooked in a pot on the stove to form a kind of hearty cornmeal porridge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Domesticated plants of Mesoamerica",
        "text": "Fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chiefdom of Ameca",
        "text": "Maize, which was either boiled or roasted, was the staple food of the Amecans; it was the main ingredient for their cuisine which included tamales (\"tamalli\") and atole (\"cacalotl\" or \"izquitl\"). Their diet also included pumpkins, beans, chili peppers, and chives. They hunted deer, rabbits, fowl, small dogs (\"chichitones\"), snakes, mice, badgers, and big cats; the game meat was cooked in holes with many pebbles. Pulque, an intoxicating milk-like drink from the maguey plant, was a popular beverage. They gathered red and yellow plums, mezquites, zapotes, guam\u00fachiles, avocados, guavas, and bananas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mesoamerica",
        "text": "By roughly 6000 BCE, hunter-gatherers living in the highlands and lowlands of Mesoamerica began to develop agricultural practices with early cultivation of squash and chilli. The earliest example of maize dates to c. 4000 BCE and comes from Guil\u00e1 Naquitz, a cave in Oaxaca. Earlier maize samples have been documented at the Los Ladrones cave site in Panama, c. 5500 BCE. Slightly thereafter, semi-agrarian communities began to cultivate other crops throughout Mesoamerica. Maize was the most common domesticate, but the common bean, tepary bean, scarlet runner bean, jicama, tomato and squash all became common cultivates by 3500 BCE. At the same time, these communities exploited cotton, yucca, and agave for fibers and textile materials. By 2000 BCE, corn was the staple crop in the region, and remained so through modern times. The Ram\u00f3n or Breadnut tree (\"Brosimum alicastrum\") was an occasional substitute for maize in producing flour. Fruit was also important in the daily diet of Mesoamerican cultures. Some of the main ones consumed include avocado, papaya, guava, mamey, zapote, and annona."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hallaca",
        "text": "Hallaca is a Mesoamerican dish of similar appearance to a tamal that goes by various names and spread throughout the Spanish Empire in the Americas as far south as Argentina in the decades following the conquest. It is said to have been invented by slaves during the colonial era. The slaves would prepare the Christmas Eve meal for the landowners and with leftover meat they made the hallacas filling for their own Christmas meal. One version of the dishes origin tale has it that the daughter of the landowning family asked to taste the hallacas. She and her family liked the dish so much they requested for it to be made for their dinner party and ever since it has been part of the traditional holiday meal for all classes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The most popular version of the Tamal in Nicaragua is the \"nacatamal\" and sometimes serves as an entire meal in itself. It is a traditional dish with indigenous origins. The name comes from the Nawat language spoken by the Nicarao, who were situated on the Southern Pacific coast of Nicaragua, and translates to \"meat tamale\". The is perhaps the most produced within traditional Nicaraguan cuisine and it is an event often reserved for Sundays at mid-morning. It is usually eaten together with fresh bread and coffee. Enjoying during special occasions and to invite extended family and neighbors to also partake is a common occurrence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Guatemala has many tamale varieties, from the traditional corn-husked tamale called a , to a sweet version of tamale, which uses the same corn dough, but is seasoned with honey or sugar combined with chocolate, almonds, plums, seeds, and peppers. Tamales are sold in stores and private homes (especially on Saturdays). A red light on a home at night is a sign that tamales are for sale at that home.\n*Red tamales owe their name to achiote and tomato and are made with corn dough stuffed with \"recado rojo\", raisins, chili peppers, chicken, beef' or pork wrapped in banana leaves.\n*Cambray tamales contain raisins and almonds. Sweet tamales are filled with sweet . Black tamales are named after the color that chocolate gives them. Chipilin tamales wrapped in corn husks, parrot tamales, and corn tamales among others are also made. Cream tamales and cheese and anise seeds are also mixed with corn tamales.\n* is a typical and emblematic dish of Guatemala. It is a variation of the tamale made with corn dough, but a firmer consistency, although lard can be added to the dough to generate a more pleasant taste and consistency. It is usually mixed with of tomato and with a filling that can be with chicken, beef, or pork. It is wrapped with dried cob leaves (tusa or bender). In some places, it is accompanied by cheese, sauce, or both.\n*Rice tamales come from the Guatemalan highlands, where the typical corn dough is replaced by a thick dough of annealed rice with water and salt. The preparation of the does not differ much from the original, since only some regions have the ingredients with which it is made.\n* is a tamale particularly from the highlands of Guatemala that uses potato instead of maize for the dough.\n* or is dough only, with no meats or other fillings. This dish is used to accompany a meal and used to scoop food on the plate, or just eaten plain along with the main dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the Philippines and Guam, which were governed by Spain as a province of Mexico, different forms of tamale-like foods exist. In the Philippines, they merged with the native leaf-wrapped rice cakes (\"kakanin\") and are made with a dough derived from ground rice and are filled with seasoned chicken or pork with the addition of peanuts and other seasonings such as sugar. In some places, such as the Pampanga, where it is popularly known as \"bobotu\", and Batangas provinces, the tamales are wrapped in banana leaves, but sweet corn varieties from the Visayas region are wrapped in corn husks similar to the sweet corn tamales of the American Southwest and Mexico. Because of the work involved in the preparation of tamales, they usually only appear during the special holidays or other big celebrations. Various recipes have practically disappeared under the pressures of modern life and the ease of fast food. Several varieties of tamales are also found in the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tangale language",
        "text": "In addition, verbs in some TAM can take an Altrilocal-Ventive or Distance suffix."
      },
      {
        "title": "Domesticated plants of Mesoamerica",
        "text": "Domesticated plants of Mesoamerica\n--Maize.\n--Capsicum.\n--Squash.\n--Pinto bean.\n--Tomato.\n--Potato.\n--Avocado.\n--Chicle.\n--Vanilla.\n--Pineapple.\n--Nopales.\n--Tunas.\n--Jicama.\n--Papaya.\n--Guayaba.\n--Huautli.\n--Cherimoya.\n--Mamey.\n--Sunflower seeds.\n--Cassava.\n--Chaya.\n--Tepary bean.\n--Tobacco.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taco",
        "text": "Indigenous origins are also proposed. One possibility is that the word derives from the Nahuatl word \"tlahco\", meaning \"half\" or \"in the middle,\" in the sense that food would be placed in the middle of a tortilla. Furthermore, dishes analogous to the taco were known to have existed in Pre-Columbian society\u2014for example, the Nahuatl word \"tlaxcalli\" (a type of corn tortilla)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in Mesoamerica",
        "text": "Rubber trees and cotton plants were useful for making culturally significant products such as rubber balls for Mesoamerican ball games and textiles, respectively. Evidence of these ball games is found throughout Mesoamerica, and the performance of these games is related to many origin myths of the Mesoamerican people. The game had a ritualistic significance and was often accompanied with human sacrifice. The domestication of cotton allowed for textiles of vibrant colors to be created. These textiles are evidence of the Mesoamerican peoples' fascination with adornment and the cultural value they placed on appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamaulipas",
        "text": "Tamaulipas was originally populated by the nomad Chichimec and sedentary Huastec, in addition to non-Chichimec hunter-gatherer and fishing tribes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Las Flores (archaeological site)",
        "text": "In the Tamaulipas sierras, three mesoamerican related archaeological phases are present; Laguna, Eslabones and Salta, covering a chronological period from 650 BCE to 1000 CE."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Andr\u00e9s (Mesoamerican site)",
        "text": "Their findings include:\n*Early maize (\"Zea\" species) pollen from as early as 5100 BCE.\n*A single manioc pollen grain dated to roughly 4600 BCE. Since manioc pollen is rare in sediments, its discovery was either \"fortuitous, or abundant stands of manioc were growing close to the site\".\n*A domesticated sunflower seed and fruit dated to roughly 2650 BCE and 2550 BCE respectively. This is the earliest record yet of the domesticated sunflower.\n*Cotton (\"Gossypium\") pollen from roughly 2500 BCE. The researchers suggest that this cotton was domesticated, although wild cotton does occur naturally along the Gulf Coast to the east."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarind",
        "text": "In the 16th century, it was introduced to Mexico and Central America, and to a lesser degree to South America, by Spanish and Portuguese colonists, to the degree that it became a staple ingredient in the region's cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The tamale is a staple in Belize, where it is also known as \"dukunu\", a sweet corn tamale that gets its name from the Garifuna people. Dukunus are mostly vegetarian and consist of roasted corn kernels blended with coconut milk as a base. Butter, salt, and sugar are also added. Dukunus filled with different meats are also made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "are much larger in size in comparison to their counterparts, and made up of mostly nixtamalized corn (a kind of dough traditionally made from a process called ) and lard). The masa and liquified concoction of onion, garlic, tomato, salt, (annatto), naranja agria and bell pepper is cooked and the result becomes the base for the nacatamal and it is also referred to as . This base is ladled onto plantain leaves used for wrapping into large individual portions. The filling usually consists of annatto-seasoned pork meat, rice, slices of potatoes, bell peppers, tomatoes, and onions; olives, spearmint sprigs, and chile, a very small, egg-shaped chile found in Nicaragua. On occasion, prunes, raisins, or capers can be added. The \"masa\" and filling are then wrapped in plantain leaves, tied with a string, and made into pillow-shaped bundles \u2013 . They are then steamed or pressure-cooked for several hours. The entire process is very labor-intensive, and it often requires preparation over the course of two days; involving the whole family may be needed to complete it.\n* Are a much simpler version of a tamal in Nicaragua, they are wrapped in a banana leaf, and are eaten with cheese and cooked red beans.\n* have a sweet flavor, filled with a mixture of ground beans sweetened with cane sugar or rapadura and are wrapped in banana leaves. They serve as a dessert.\n* Is made with tender corn grains that gives it a slightly sweet flavor and wrapped in corn husks. It is generally eaten accompanied by quesillo or cheese, and sour cream.\n*. A variety of the above stuffed with a mixture of rapadura and grated or ground cheese.\n*. A Northern Nicaraguan tamal make with chicken or hen meat, wrapped in a banana leaf and tied\n* Is a Western Nicaraguan tamal mostly found in Le\u00f3n. that consists of masa mixed with mashed green plantain, sugar, honey and salt. It's wrapped in tempisque or fig leaf and cooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tl\u0101huizcalpantecuhtli",
        "text": "Tl\u0101huizcalpantecuhtli\n--Origin Story.\n--Effects.\n--Calendar.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mesoamerican feasts",
        "text": "Pulque, a fermented drink that is made from sap of the maguey plant was consumed often at Aztec rituals and feasts, but usually only at night. Codices also picture alcoholic drinks, tortillas, tamales and cacao. Meat stews, tamales, and maize, which was believed to be a link between the sun and people and to carry the sun\u2019s energy, were all consumed at feasts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Domesticated plants of Mesoamerica",
        "text": "A member of the nightshade or potato family. The word refers both to the plant and the fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexican-American cuisine",
        "text": "Maize (corn) was the foundation of the diet of indigenous Aztec people due to its drought-resistance and plentiful yields. Indigenous people found several uses for \"maize\", such as:\n*Atole - thick, paste-like gruel made from boiled \"maize\"\n*Tortillas - flatbread made from ground \"maize\" and cooked over heat on clay surfaces\n*Tamales - steamed \"maize\" dough (\"masa\"\")\" with a spongy consistency"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ixil Community",
        "text": "Their diet primarily consists of maize based products. Small round tortillas or corn dumplings known as tamalitos are a staple at almost every meal. This love of corn is ingrained in the culture, so much so that many of the Ixil refer to themselves as \"men of corn\". Stating that the first humans were rolled from masa or ground up maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamu\u00edn",
        "text": ", which was an uncredited use of the \"Enciclopedia de los Municipios de M\u00e9xico\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamonea",
        "text": "Its native range is Mexico to Tropical America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tlamemeh",
        "text": "In colonial times the tradition implied the servitude of the Indians, who in most cases became vassals of the Spanish which became widespread. Today, in Mexican Spanish, the word tameme is usually a derogatory connotation of \"subordinate\" that denotes the discrimination from the Indian that was consolidated in the new Colony of Spain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cutzamala (Mesoamerican site)",
        "text": "Cutzamala (Mesoamerican site)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamu\u00edn",
        "text": "Tamtok enjoyed its period of maximum splendor between 200 y 1300 A.D., during which period its population rose to 4,000. To judge by the artefacts discovered, it was a well-organized society based on agriculture. In the complex, an urbanism unique in Mesoamerica has been identified."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natagaima",
        "text": "Tamale (Tolimense), almoj\u00e1bana, yucca bread with oats, Lechona, bizcochuelo, Mistela, Chanfaina, Corn Chicha, Masato, Poporoi are the most important dishes of the zone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guanime",
        "text": "Guanimes are related to tamales and hallacas. Cornmeal masa is wrapped in corn husk stuffed with meat, nuts, fish, beans, or nothing at all. They are then boiled like tamales and hallacas. Ta\u00ednos in Puerto Rico also mashed a variety of tubers and squash into the cornmeal masa. This later became the modern day \"pasteles\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tampilisan",
        "text": "The name Tampilisan originated from a tree called \"Tampilis\". This tree is about one (1) to three (3) meters in height, belongs to the palm family. Its sturdy part when split was used by the natives, Subanen, as a substitute for betel nuts. Since this tree were abundant in the area, the place thus called by the native as \"Tampilisan\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Domesticated plants of Mesoamerica",
        "text": "Chiles were a part of trade and gift giving. Chiefs or other elite members would use foods and stews spiced with chiles when involved in a feast. Using such strongly spiced foods was to show a stylistic and powerful approach to those receiving the dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale pie",
        "text": "Tamale pie is a pie and casserole dish in the cuisine of the Southwestern United States. It is prepared with a cornmeal crust and ingredients typically used in tamales. It has been described as a comfort food. The dish, invented sometime in the early 1900s in the United States, may have originated in Texas, and its first known published recipe dates to 1911."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamazunchale",
        "text": "With the help of Cortez' 100 Spanish soldiers and 15 thousand Acolhua warriors under the leadership of Yoyotzin and the younger brother of Ixtlixochitl, and 15 thousand Aztec warriors under the command of a nephew of Cuauhtemoc, they conquered Panuco and Xatxapala. They then burned to death 400 Huastec noblemen, despite the protest from the nobles of Tamanzunchale, Tacetuco, and Huahutla, The Huastec culture dispersed and left Tamanzunchale for other areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aztec cuisine",
        "text": "The food served during this feast was traditionally spicy. Noted by Sahagun was: \"And the sauce of the tamales was called 'red chilli sauce'. And when the good common folk ate, they sat about sweating, they sat about burning themselves. And the tamales stuffed with greens were indeed hot, gleaming hot.\" The wedding process also contained many ceremonies, the parents of a young male, when marriage was desired, had to ask permission of his \"calmecac\" school leaders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Patolli",
        "text": "Patolli and its variants were played by a wide range of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures and were known all over Mesoamerica: it was played by the Teotihuacanos (the builders of Teotihuacan, ca. 200 BC - 650 AD), the Toltecs (ca. 750 - 1000), the inhabitants of Chichen Itza (founded by refugee Toltec nobles, ca. 1100 - 1300), the Aztecs (who claimed Toltec descent, 1168 - 1521) and all of the people they conquered (practically all of Mesoamerica, including the Zapotecs and the Mixtecs). The ancient Mayans also played a version of patolli. Anthropologists Edward Burnett Tylor (1896) and E. Adamson Hoebel (1966) believed the Aztec patolli derives from the East Indian game of pachisi, but R.B. Lewis of the Department of Anthropology at the University of Illinois (1988) contends that the two games were independently developed and that the similarity between them is merely due to the limitations of a board game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Domesticated plants of Mesoamerica",
        "text": "A member of the nightshade family. The word refers to both the plant and the tuber. It is related to the tomato and eggplant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oasisamerica",
        "text": "The story of the origins of the cultural superarea of Mesoamerica takes place some 2000 years after the separation of Mesoamerica and Aridoamerica. Some of the Aridoamerican communities farmed as a complement to their hunter-gatherer economy. Those communities, among whom one finds adherents to the Desert Tradition, later would become more truly agricultural and form Oasisamerica."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guale",
        "text": "In 1675 the Spanish first used the term Yamasee to refer to the newcomer refugees. They thought them similar to the La Tama. In Guale Province, some of the Yamasee joined the existing missions, while others settled on the periphery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Duckanoo",
        "text": "Similar to the Meso American 'dulce de tamale', this was a highly popular indigenous dessert in the Americas. Adapted by the Afro-Caribbean people (who were brought to Antigua and Barbuda as well as other Caribbean Islands in the slave trade), ingredients such as eddoes, okra, dasheen, eggplant, and the bonavista bean are used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Popol Vuh",
        "text": "Like the \"Chilam Balam\" and similar texts, the \"Popol Vuh\" is of particular importance given the scarcity of early accounts dealing with Mesoamerican mythologies. After the Spanish conquest, missionaries and colonists destroyed many documents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maria Elena Lorenzo",
        "text": "After coming to the U.S., Maria and Juan began to cook and sell their native Afro-Mexican style tamales from a small cart in the Watts neighborhood of Bell Gardens, California. Maria started off selling her tamales at the local Grape Street Elementary School and the Imperial courts housing projects, where her and her family resided. In 2007, Maria upgraded to a food truck which continued to serve the Watts neighborhood with an expanded menu."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which Mesoamerican tribe is responsible for the origin of the tamale?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "According to archaeologists Karl Taube, William Saturno, and David Stuart, tamales may date from around 100 AD. They found pictorial references in the Mural of San Bartolo, in Pet\u00e9n, Guatemala and the preparation of tamales is likely to have spread from the indigenous cultures in Guatemala and Mexico to the rest of Latin America."
    ],
    "topic": "Tamale",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Tamale:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tamale",
          "Origin"
        ],
        "ctx": "The preparation of tamales is likely to have spread from the indigenous cultures in Guatemala and Mexico to the rest of Latin America. According to archaeologists Karl Taube, William Saturno, and David Stuart, tamales may date from around 100 AD. They found pictorial references in the \"Mural of San Bartolo\", in Pet\u00e9n, Guatemala."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The preparation of tamales is likely to have spread from the indigenous cultures in Guatemala and Mexico to the rest of Latin America. According to archaeologists Karl Taube, William Saturno, and David Stuart, tamales may date from around 100 AD. They found pictorial references in the \"Mural of San Bartolo\", in Pet\u00e9n, Guatemala."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamales originated in Mesoamerica as early as 8000 to 5000 BC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamale\n--Origin.\n--Caribbean.\n----Cuba.\n----Dominican Republic.\n----Puerto Rico.\n----Trinidad and Tobago.\n--Central America.\n----Belize.\n----Guatemala.\n------Pre-Columbian Guatemala.\n----Nicaragua.\n--Mexico.\n----Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica.\n------Pre-Columbian Mayas.\n------Aztecs.\n----Modern Mexico.\n--South America.\n----Venezuela.\n--Philippines and Guam.\n--United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In northern Louisiana, tamales have been made for several centuries. The Spanish established presidio Los Adaes in 1721 in modern-day Robeline, Louisiana. The descendants of these Spanish settlers from central Mexico were the first tamale makers to arrive in the eastern US. Zwolle, Louisiana, has a Tamale Fiesta every year in October."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the classical times of the Maya of Central America (Guatemala in particular), the great Mayan lords delighted in a baked dough bun during the winter solstice, made of maize mixed with turkey, \"tepezcuintle\" (lowland paca) or venison, spices, and chili pepper, among other ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In Cuba, before the 1959 Revolution, street vendors sold Mexican-style tamales wrapped in corn husks, usually made without any kind of spicy seasoning. Cuban tamales being identical in form to those made in Mexico City suggests they were brought over to Cuba during the period of intense cultural and musical exchange between Cuba and Mexico after the 1920s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "A tamale is a traditional Mesoamerican dish, made of masa, a dough made from nixtamalized corn, which is steamed in a corn husk or banana leaf. The wrapping can either be discarded prior to eating or used as a plate. Tamales can be filled with meats, cheeses, fruits, vegetables, herbs, chilies, or any preparation according to taste, and both the filling and the cooking liquid may be seasoned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the pre-Columbian era, the Aztecs ate tamales with fillings such as turkey, flamingo, frog, \"axolotl\", pocket gopher, rabbit, fish, turkey eggs, honey, fruits, squash, and beans, and even no filling. Aztec tamales differed from modern tamales by not having added fat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the Mississippi Delta, African Americans developed a spicy tamale made from cornmeal instead of masa, which is boiled in corn husks. This is sometimes called a \"hot tamale\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamales have been eaten in the United States since at least 1893, when they were featured at the World's Columbian Exposition. In 1894, when tamales were the most popular ethnic food in Los Angeles, XLNT Foods started making them. The company is the oldest continuously operating Mexican food brand in the United States, and one of the oldest companies in Southern California."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the pre-Columbian era, the Mayas ate tamales and often served them at feasts and festivals. The Classic Maya hieroglyph for tamales has been identified on pots and other objects dating back to the Classic Era (200\u20131000 CE), although they likely were eaten much earlier. While tortillas are the basis for the contemporary Maya diet, remarkably little evidence exists for tortilla production among the Classic period Maya. A lack of griddles in the archaeological record suggests that the primary foodstuff of the Mesoamerican diet may have been the \"tamal\", a cooked, vegetal-wrapped mass of maize dough. Tamales are cooked without the use of ceramic technologies and therefore the form of the tamale is thought to predate the tortilla. Similarities between the two maize products can be found in both the ingredients and preparation techniques, and the linguistic ambiguity exhibited by the pan-Mayan term \"wa\" referring to a basic, daily consumed maize product that can refer to either tortillas or tamales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Santiago Teyahualco",
        "text": "Tamales is a traditional Mesoamerican dish made of \u201cmasa\u201d or dough (starchy, and usually corn-based), which is steamed in a corn husk or banana leaf"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The Aztec and Maya civilizations, as well as the Olmec and Toltec before them, used tamales as easily portable food, for hunting trips, and for traveling large distances, as well as supporting their armies. Tamales were also considered sacred, as they were seen as the food of the gods. Aztec, Maya, Olmeca, and Tolteca all considered themselves to be people of corn, so tamales played a large part in their rituals and festivals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Around the beginning of the 20th century, the name \"tamale pie\" was given to meat pies and casseroles made with a cornmeal crust and typical tamale fillings arranged in layers. Although characterized as Mexican food, these forms are not popular in Mexican American culture in which the individually wrapped style is preferred."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "While Mexican-style and other Latin American-style tamales are featured at ethnic restaurants throughout the United States, some distinctly indigenous styles also are made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Cherokee tamales, also known as bean bread or \"broadswords\", were made with hominy (in the case of the Cherokee, the masa was made from corn boiled in water treated with wood ashes instead of lime) and beans, and wrapped in green corn leaves or large tree leaves and boiled, similar to the meatless pre-Columbian bean and masa tamales still prepared in Chiapas, central Mexico, and Guatemala."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In Mexico, tamales begin with a dough made from ground nixtamalized corn (hominy), called \"masa\", or alternatively a rehydrated \"masa\" powder, such as Maseca. It is combined with lard or vegetable shortening, along with broth or water, to bring the dough to the consistency of a very thick batter. It is traditional to whisk the lard, and whisk the resulting batter, with the intent of producing the signature soft and fluffy texture. Modern recipes may use baking powder to achieve a similar effect. Chili purees or dried chili powders are also occasionally added to the batter, which in addition to the spice can cause some tamales to appear red in color. Tamales are generally wrapped in corn husks or plantain leaves before being steamed, with the choice of husk depending on the region. They usually have a sweet or savory filling and are usually steamed until firm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uchepos",
        "text": "Although it is considered to have originated in the Mexican state of Michoacan, chepo can be found in other states of the republic where it is called corn tamal. In other regions of Central America it is also called corn tamal. In some regions in South America these tamales are called humitas where the recipes may call for some spices, raisins, other sweet ingredients such as cajeta blanca/arequipe/dulce de leche/manjar, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana leaf",
        "text": "Tamales made throughout Central America are traditionally wrapped in banana leaves prior to cooking, which imparts a distinctive taste to the nixtamalized corn dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother-in-law (sandwich)",
        "text": "Mexican-Americans brought the tamale to Chicago, and African-Americans from the Mississippi Delta area brought the hot tamale to the city. But no one knows how the mother-in-law sandwich developed. Some speculate it may have had its beginnings in Mexico City's \"torta de tamal,\" a tamale on a bolillo. The precise origins of the Chicago-style tamale are also obscure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Instead of corn husks, banana or plantain leaves are used in tropical parts of the country, such as Oaxaca, Chiapas, Veracruz, and the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula. These tamales are rather square in shape, often very large\u201415\u00a0inches (40\u00a0cm)\u2014and these larger tamales are commonly known as \"pibs\" in the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula. Another very large type of tamale is , made in the Huasteca region of Mexico. Depending on the size, can feed between 50 and 200 people; they are made during festivals and holidays, for quincea\u00f1eras, and on Sundays to be sold at the markets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteles",
        "text": "Related to alcapurria, tamale, hallacas, and guanimes, pasteles are believed to have been made by natives of Boriquen (Puerto Rico). Tainos made masa from cassava, yaut\u00eda and squash. The masa was then filled with beans, fruit, chilies, corn, nuts, meat, fish and wrapped in corn husk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The is also related to the pastel, a root tamale dating to around the same time as the native Ta\u00edno ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maria Elena Lorenzo",
        "text": "After coming to the U.S., Maria and Juan began to cook and sell their native Afro-Mexican style tamales from a small cart in the Watts neighborhood of Bell Gardens, California. Maria started off selling her tamales at the local Grape Street Elementary School and the Imperial courts housing projects, where her and her family resided. In 2007, Maria upgraded to a food truck which continued to serve the Watts neighborhood with an expanded menu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "This meal was later integrated into modern Guatemalan traditions. For example, on Christmas Eve, families prepare black, red, or sweet tamales for family and friends to show gratitude. The tamales are often accompanied with chocolate, yolk bread, and punch, and participate in the Mass of Gallo, at midnight."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of maize dishes",
        "text": "Tamales are a dish of nixtamalized maize that is ground, wrapped in a corn husk, and steamed. Tamales originated in Mesoamerica as early as 8000 to 5000 BC. There are many regional variants and related dishes.\n*\n*\n*\n*"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the Philippines and Guam, which were governed by Spain as a province of Mexico, different forms of tamale-like foods exist. In the Philippines, they merged with the native leaf-wrapped rice cakes (\"kakanin\") and are made with a dough derived from ground rice and are filled with seasoned chicken or pork with the addition of peanuts and other seasonings such as sugar. In some places, such as the Pampanga, where it is popularly known as \"bobotu\", and Batangas provinces, the tamales are wrapped in banana leaves, but sweet corn varieties from the Visayas region are wrapped in corn husks similar to the sweet corn tamales of the American Southwest and Mexico. Because of the work involved in the preparation of tamales, they usually only appear during the special holidays or other big celebrations. Various recipes have practically disappeared under the pressures of modern life and the ease of fast food. Several varieties of tamales are also found in the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sprang",
        "text": "The sprang technique also survives as a traditional method for making hammocks in Guatemala, Mexico, and Colombia, and also in Colombia for making a shopping bag known as \"mechita\". The work in these locations is generally performed on a backstrap loom. Handmade Mesoamerican sprang hammocks continue to be produced for export to a variety of international markets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "One of the most significant rituals for the Aztecs was the feast of Atamalcualiztli (eating of water tamales). This ritual, held every eight years for a whole week, was done by eating tamales without any seasoning, spices, or filling, which allowed the maize freedom from being overworked in the usual tamale cooking methods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarind",
        "text": "In the 16th century, it was introduced to Mexico and Central America, and to a lesser degree to South America, by Spanish and Portuguese colonists, to the degree that it became a staple ingredient in the region's cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale pie",
        "text": "Tamale pie was invented sometime in the early 1900s in the United States, and around the mid-1910s the dish was included in the curricula of some home economics classes in U.S. high schools. The dish may have originated in the U.S. state of Texas. John F. Mariani's 1983 title \"The Encyclopedia of American Food and Drink\" claims the first published recipe for tamale pie dates to 1911. Recipes for this style of dish were also published before then. The 1899 book \"The Capitol Cook Book\", published in Austin, Texas, included a recipe for a similar pot pie prepared with a wheat flour crust on the top of the dish, and the 1905 book \"The Times Cook Book #2\", published by the \"Los Angeles Times\", included a recipe for a casserole with \"cornmeal crusts above and below\". Another cookbook published around the time of World War I has a tamale pie recipe, stating that the dish can be utilized to save wheat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Maya cuisine",
        "text": "Once nixtamalized, maize was typically ground up on a \"metate\" and prepared in a number of ways. Tortillas, cooked on a \"comal\" and used to wrap other foods (meat, beans, etc.), were common and are perhaps the best-known pre-Columbian Mesoamerican food. \"Tamales\" consist of corn dough, often containing a filling, that is wrapped in a corn husk and steam-cooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamtoc",
        "text": "Originally it was estimated that the flowering of this site took place between AD 900 and 1100, that is, during the Mesoamerican Postclassic Period, however recent findings - particularly Monument 32 - have led archaeologists to think that the flowering could have occurred in 600 AD C."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of food origins",
        "text": "Corn, beans and squash were domesticated in Mesoamerica around 3500 BCE. Potatoes, quinoa and manioc were domesticated in South America. In what is now the eastern United States, Native Americans domesticated sunflower and sumpweed around 2500 BCE.\n* Acorn (\"Quercus alba\", \"Quercus gambelii\", \"Quercus kelloggii\", \"Notholithocarpus densiflorus\"; Fagaceae)\n* American chestnut (\"Castanea dentata\"; Fagaceae)\n* Black walnut (\"Juglans nigra\"; Juglandaceae)\n* Hazelnut (\"Corylus americana\"; Corylaceae)\n* Hickory nut (\"Carya\"; Juglandaceae)\n* Pecans (\"Carya illinoinensis\"; Juglandaceae)\n* Shagbark hickory (\"Carya ovata\"; Juglandaceae)\n* White walnut (\"Juglans cinerea\"; Juglandaceae)\n* American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius)\n* Araliaceae\n* Chives (\"Allium schoenoprasum\"; Amaryllidaceae)\n* Dandelions\n* Echinacea (Asteroideae; Heliantheae; Asteraceae)\n* Erect knotweed\n* Jerusalem artichoke (\"Helianthus tuberosus\"; Asteraceae), also known as topinambour\n* Little barley\n* Maple sap (\"Acer\"; Hippocastanoideae)\n* Maygrass\n* Pole beans (\"Phaseolus coccineus\"; Faboideae)\n* Sage (\"Salvia apiana\"; Lamiaceae)\n* Sumpweed\n* Sunflowers (\"Helianthus annuus\"; Asteraceae)\n* Wild rice (\"Zizania palustris\"; Poaceae)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Humitas (from Quechua humint'a) is a Native South American dish from pre-Hispanic times, a traditional food from the Andes and it can be found in Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, and Northwest Argentina. It consists of fresh choclo (Peruvian corn) pounded to a paste, wrapped in a fresh corn husk, and slowly steamed or boiled in a pot of water. In Bolivia it is known as huminta and in Brazil as pamonha."
      },
      {
        "title": "Common bush tanager",
        "text": "It appears as if the group north of the Isthmus of Panama originated before the final bout of the Great American Interchange, by island-hopping across the emerging mountain ranges that now make up the isthmus, some 6 million years ago (mya). The direct descendants of the original colonizers of Mesoamerica are the southernmost Mesoamerican group, as is to be expected. Some 5.5 mya, the Sierra de los Tuxtlas population originated. The other groups west of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec radiated rather synchronously between 3 and 4 mya."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chiapas",
        "text": "Tamales are a major part of the diet and often include chipil\u00edn mixed into the dough and hoja santa, within the tamale itself or used to wrap it. One tamale native to the state is the \"picte\", a fresh sweet corn tamale. Tamales juacanes are filled with a mixture of black beans, dried shrimp, and pumpkin seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn tortilla",
        "text": "The \"tamal\" (or tamale) of Mexico is also made from \"nixtamal\" (the Nahuatl word for hominy is the source of the term 'nixtamalization'), but is much thicker and a dish unto itself, usually including other ingredients and flavors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tlamemeh",
        "text": "In pre-Hispanic Mexico, and generally throughout Mesoamerica, there was not any animal capable of being used in the loading and transport of goods and so manpower had to be used, this is how the \"tameme\" emerged. From the arrival of the Spanish in the area (first expeditions starting in 1493), they began to replace porters with animals such as horses carrying the conquerors, but were not specifically brought to be used for burden but for combat, so the porters were still widely used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamale-making is a ritual that has been part of Mexican life since pre-Hispanic times, when special fillings and forms were designated for each specific festival or life event. Today, tamales are typically filled with meats, cheese, or vegetables, especially chilies. Preparation is complex and time-consuming, and an excellent example of Mexican communal cooking, where this task usually falls to the women. Tamales are a favorite comfort food in Mexico, eaten as both breakfast and dinner, and often accompanied by hot \"atole\" or \"champurrado\" and \"arroz con leche\" (rice porridge, \"rice with milk\") or maize-based beverages of indigenous origin. Street vendors can be seen serving them from huge, steaming, covered pots () or \"ollas\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Virginia Ramos",
        "text": "She was born in Jalisco, Mexico in 1953. In 1980, she migrated to the United States. She started selling tamales at San Francisco bars in the early 1990s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Las Flores (archaeological site)",
        "text": "According to paleontological and archaeological records, the earliest settlements in Tamaulipas are dated to twelve thousand years before the Christian era, and are identified in the so-called \"complex Devil\", in allusion to a Canyon of the Sierra of Tamaulipas. Later, at the Tropic of cancer level, are the first manifestations of native civilization, linked to the discovery and domestication of corn and thus to the beginning of agricultural life and the grouping of permanent settlements. As a result, in this period began to appear manifestations of Mesoamerican cultures in this region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Guatemala",
        "text": "There are reportedly hundreds of varieties of tamales throughout Guatemala. The key variations are what is in the \"masa\" or dough (corn, potatoes, rice), what's in the filling (meat, fruits, nuts), and what it is wrapped with (leaves, husks). The masa is made out of corn that is not sweet, such as what is known as feed corn in the U.S.A. In Guatemala, this non-sweet corn is called maize and the corn that Americans from the USA are used to eating on the cob, sweet corn, they call \"elote\". Tamales in Guatemala are more typically wrapped in plantain or banana leaves and mashan leaves than corn husks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guatemalans",
        "text": "There are reportedly hundreds of varieties of tamales throughout Guatemala. They key variations are what is in the \"masa\" or dough (maize, potatoes, rice), what's in the filling (meat, fruits, nuts), and what is it wrapped with (leaves, husks). The masa is made out of corn that is not sweet, such as what is known as feed corn in the U.S.A. In Guatemala, this non-sweet corn is called maize and the corn that Americans from the USA are used to eating on the cob, sweet corn, they call \"elote\". Tamales in Guatemala are more typically wrapped in plantain, banana, or maxan leaves rather than corn husks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trade in Maya civilization",
        "text": "Both methods were used in the production of salt, as has been proved in Nueve Cerros by Andrews and Dillon. The salt was then transported using the river routes, such as the Chixoy, that forms the Usumacinta when it confluences with the Pasi\u00f3n river near Altar de Sacrificios."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "\"Tamale\" is an anglicized version of the Spanish word (plural: ). comes from the Nahuatl . The English \"tamale\" is a back-formation of , with English speakers interpreting the \"-e-\" as part of the stem, rather than part of the plural suffix \"-es\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guale",
        "text": "Guale\n--Language.\n--History.\n----Prehistory.\n----European contact.\n------Effect on health.\n----La Tama and Yamasee amalgamation.\n----Destruction and dispersal.\n----Emergence of the Yamasee.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale pie",
        "text": "Tamale pie is a pie and casserole dish in the cuisine of the Southwestern United States. It is prepared with a cornmeal crust and ingredients typically used in tamales. It has been described as a comfort food. The dish, invented sometime in the early 1900s in the United States, may have originated in Texas, and its first known published recipe dates to 1911."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tampico (song)",
        "text": "The song takes a satirical look at the Mexican city of its title, suggesting that at the time, Tampico, Tamaulipas, had become more Americanized than the U.S. itself, and that many of the souvenirs which could be bought there had been manufactured in the United States. \"You buy a beautiful shawl; a souvenir for Aunt Flo. Authentic Mexican art \u2013 made in Idaho.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Maya cuisine",
        "text": "Tamales: Crafted from masa, or corn dough, and a mix of meat and vegetables, tamales have historically been one of the world's most convenient foods because of their ease of transport. Like many popular dishes in ancient Maya culture, the \"tamal\" included the use of the corn husks to ferment and enhance the cooking process of the meal. After the cooking process, the \"tamal\" would be unwrapped and topped with \"salsa,\" which could be eaten on the go."
      },
      {
        "title": "Datura metel",
        "text": "...it is important to note that, given \"Datura\" was in Asia by the 4th century CE, it must have been transported from America at least 600 or so years before the putative trans-Pacific transport of the sweet potato by 1000 CE. Clearly, these hypotheses regarding the ancient transport of Datura from somewhere in Mesoamerica to somewhere in India, via either Southeast Asia or Africa, need to be tested using a range of methods: botanical, genetic, cultural, and historical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Native Americans in the United States",
        "text": "Maize or corn, first cultivated in what is now Mexico was traded north into Aridoamerica and Oasisamerica, southwest. From there, maize cultivation spread throughout the Great Plains and Eastern Woodlands by 200 CE. Native farmers practiced polycropping maize, beans, and squash; these crops are known as the Three Sisters. The beans would replace the nitrogen, which the maize leached from the ground, as well as using corn stalks for support for climbing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pre-Columbian cuisine",
        "text": "Maize dough made up a majority of Maya cuisine, used for tortillas and tamales. The technique that Maya used was to use a stone slab and a rolling pin-like object to grind up ingredients. The ground maize created by this process was used in the tortillas. Popular drinks included chocolate drinks, made from ground cacao in water, and \"atoles\" and \"pinoles,\" which were made from ground up seeds. The Mayans were likely the first group of people to depict cacao in writing. A popular tradition was to prepare unique tamales in commemoration of special events. In addition, corn was a symbol of life and health. Each family took one ear of corn and did not plant it or eat it. Rather, they blessed it at the beginning of the harvest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "A well-known Cuban song from the 1950s, \"\", (a cha-cha-cha sung by Orquesta Arag\u00f3n) celebrated the delicious tamales sold by a street vendor in Cienfuegos. A peculiarly Cuban invention is the dish known as , basically consisting of tamale masa with the meat stuffing stirred into the masa, and then cooked in a pot on the stove to form a kind of hearty cornmeal porridge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Maya cuisine",
        "text": "Often, tamales would be served at Maya holiday celebrations. Maya women would also sell freshly made tamales, often in exchange for cocoa seeds. Ancient evidence of tamales are prominent on many Maya artifacts and paintings. The modern \"tamal\" is enjoyed in much the same way as in ancient Maya cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "Hot Tamales is a soft, cinnamon flavored, oblong-shaped candy introduced in 1950. It is manufactured and marketed in the United States by Just Born, a family-owned, Pennsylvania-based candy company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamalito",
        "text": "The \"tamalito\" or \"tamalitos\" is a common dish prepared by the Mestizo people who are descendants of the Maya (Yucatec). The appearance of the \"tamalitos\" is of the tamales which is wrapped with leaves but without meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mesoamerica",
        "text": "Companion planting was practiced in various forms by the indigenous peoples of the Americas. They domesticated squash 8,000 to 10,000 years ago, then maize, then common beans, forming the Three Sisters agricultural technique. The cornstalk served as a trellis for the beans to climb, and the beans fixed nitrogen, benefitting the maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guale",
        "text": "The La Tama Yamasee, Guale, and other refugees scattered in the southeast. Some relocated to new missions in Spanish Florida, but most rejected Spanish authority. They felt Spain had been unable to protect them and resented their failure to provide firearms. The Indians of Guale Province moved mostly to the Apalachee or Apalachicola regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Guatemala has many tamale varieties, from the traditional corn-husked tamale called a , to a sweet version of tamale, which uses the same corn dough, but is seasoned with honey or sugar combined with chocolate, almonds, plums, seeds, and peppers. Tamales are sold in stores and private homes (especially on Saturdays). A red light on a home at night is a sign that tamales are for sale at that home.\n*Red tamales owe their name to achiote and tomato and are made with corn dough stuffed with \"recado rojo\", raisins, chili peppers, chicken, beef' or pork wrapped in banana leaves.\n*Cambray tamales contain raisins and almonds. Sweet tamales are filled with sweet . Black tamales are named after the color that chocolate gives them. Chipilin tamales wrapped in corn husks, parrot tamales, and corn tamales among others are also made. Cream tamales and cheese and anise seeds are also mixed with corn tamales.\n* is a typical and emblematic dish of Guatemala. It is a variation of the tamale made with corn dough, but a firmer consistency, although lard can be added to the dough to generate a more pleasant taste and consistency. It is usually mixed with of tomato and with a filling that can be with chicken, beef, or pork. It is wrapped with dried cob leaves (tusa or bender). In some places, it is accompanied by cheese, sauce, or both.\n*Rice tamales come from the Guatemalan highlands, where the typical corn dough is replaced by a thick dough of annealed rice with water and salt. The preparation of the does not differ much from the original, since only some regions have the ingredients with which it is made.\n* is a tamale particularly from the highlands of Guatemala that uses potato instead of maize for the dough.\n* or is dough only, with no meats or other fillings. This dish is used to accompany a meal and used to scoop food on the plate, or just eaten plain along with the main dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phaseolus acutifolius",
        "text": "In the United States, the tepary bean was introduced to Anglo farmers in the 19th century by Tohono O'Odham (Papago) farmers. The Native American method of planting in the American Southwest was to plant three to five seeds in hills six to eight feet apart. Beans were planted in arroyos that had been recently flooded by summer rain."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Andr\u00e9s (Mesoamerican site)",
        "text": "Their findings include:\n*Early maize (\"Zea\" species) pollen from as early as 5100 BCE.\n*A single manioc pollen grain dated to roughly 4600 BCE. Since manioc pollen is rare in sediments, its discovery was either \"fortuitous, or abundant stands of manioc were growing close to the site\".\n*A domesticated sunflower seed and fruit dated to roughly 2650 BCE and 2550 BCE respectively. This is the earliest record yet of the domesticated sunflower.\n*Cotton (\"Gossypium\") pollen from roughly 2500 BCE. The researchers suggest that this cotton was domesticated, although wild cotton does occur naturally along the Gulf Coast to the east."
      },
      {
        "title": "La Pintada (archaeological site)",
        "text": "The story of the origins of the cultural super area of Mesoamerica takes place some 2000 years after the separation of Mesoamerica and Aridoamerica. Some of the Aridoamerican communities farmed as a complement to their hunter-gatherer economy. Those communities, among whom one finds adherents to the Desert Tradition, later would become more truly agricultural and form Oasisamerica. The process of introducing agriculture in the desert-like land of northern Mexico and the southern United States was gradual and extensive: by the year 600 AD (a time which coincides with the twilight of Teotihuacan), several groups had already acquired agricultural techniques."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of agriculture",
        "text": "In Mesoamerica, wild teosinte was transformed through human selection into the ancestor of modern maize, about 7,000 BC. It gradually spread across North America and to South America and was the most important crop of Native Americans at the time of European exploration. Other Mesoamerican crops include hundreds of varieties of locally domesticated squash and beans, while cocoa, also domesticated in the region, was a major crop. The turkey, one of the most important meat birds, was probably domesticated in Mexico or the U.S. Southwest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Los Haro",
        "text": "Prior to the arrival of the Spanish, the Jerez Valley was home to Chichimecas who cultivated corn and squash adjacent to the river and streams. However, for the most part this vast region of semi-arid land was the domain of bands of hunter-gatherers who successfully resisted any attempts at control by the Aztec empire in the south. The Chichimecas instilled fear upon Meso-American sedentary people thanks to their fierce tactics of lightning raids and scalping of enemies. These marksmen hunted, with bow and arrow, deer, rabbits, snakes, and rats. The nopal cactus and mesquite were vital to their subsistence. From the nopal, they ate its leaves, hearts, flowers and the fruit called \"tunas\" and from the mesquite they made bread cakes that could be stored. Unlike their neighbors to the South, whose rich volcanic soils and rainfall made possible agriculture that could generate a considerable surplus, their semi-arid ecosystem forced substantial mobility."
      },
      {
        "title": "Balc\u00f3n de Montezuma",
        "text": "According to paleontological and archaeological records, the earliest settlements in Tamaulipas are dated to twelve thousand years before the Christian era, and are identified in the so-called \"complex Devil\", in allusion to a Canyon of the Sierra of Tamaulipas. Later, at the Tropic of cancer level, are the first manifestations of native civilization, linked to the discovery and domestication of corn and thus to the beginning of agricultural life and the grouping of permanent settlements. As a result, in this period began to appear manifestations of Mesoamerican cultures in this region."
      },
      {
        "title": "HaMerotz LaMillion 4",
        "text": "This season's final Detour was a choice between \u05d1\u05e0\u05e0\u05d4 (\"Banana\") or \u05d0\u05e0\u05e0\u05e1 (\"Ananas\" \u2013 Pineapple). In Banana, teams made their way to Finca La Rebusca, a banana plantation, and entered the field of banana trees. Each team was given a number, and teams would have to find five bushels of bananas that were marked with this number and harvest them. They would then load the five bushels onto a hanging track and use the local pulley system to deliver them to the preparation plant, where they would receive their next clue. In Pineapple, teams made their way to a nearby pineapple field where they would have to harvest 100 pineapples and then load them into a truck to receive their next clue.\n;Additional tasks\n*At the start of the leg, teams traveled by taxi to a marked area of the Hacienda Sue\u00f1o Azul. At the bottom of a grassy valley, teams would find a pile of coconuts and some local baskets and tools, and teams had to use these tools and whatever other means available to them to transport 200 coconuts up the uneven hillside of the valley to a marked drop off point. Once 200 coconuts had been delivered, a man dressed as Baloo would give them their next clue.\n*Teams then traveled to the reserve's suspension bridge and crossed it to enter the jungle. There, they would observe a sign with Spanish names and pictures for 12 creatures that could be found in the jungle, including bugs, frogs and a snake. Then, one team member would have to pick up six of these same living creatures from a cage and pass them to their partner, who had to place them correctly in 12 labeled cages. If all of the creatures were placed in the correct cages, teams would get their next clue from Mowgli.\n*At Ticari Village, teams would discover the results of the Yield. Afterwards, teams would have to choose a local vending device that was essentially a tabletop attached to the top of a bicycle. They had to use this unwieldy device to transport glasses of juice, a maximum of 80 at a time, across a rugged path through the village. At the end of the path, teams had to pour the juice into a container, trying to fill it up to 8 quarts of juice. There was enough juice in 80 glasses for 8 quarts, so if teams did not spill anything they would only have to make one trip. After filling 8 quarts, teams would get their next clue.\n*At San Isidro El General, teams had to find a cattle-drawn Sarapiqu\u00ed cart in Santa Elena and convince two locals to take a ride in it. Teams would help lead the cattle through the streets to the town's church, where they received their next clue.\n*At Parque Moraz\u00e1n in San Jos\u00e9, teams would have to dress in \"gigantes y cabezudos\" costumes and dance to the music of a local band. As soon as the band stopped playing, teams could then run to the Pit Stop, while still wearing the costume, at the Edificio Metallica. The Yielded team had to wait for an hourglass to empty before beginning the task."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamales, \"tamalis\", \"tamalos\", and \"pasteles\" are different varieties found throughout the region. Some are sweet, some are savory, and some are sweet and savory. Mostly wrapped in banana leaves and made of rice, either the whole grain or ground and cooked with coconut milk and other seasonings, they are sometimes filled with meat and seafood, or are plain and have no filling. There are certain varieties, such as \"tamalos\", that are made of a sweet corn masa wrapped in a corn husk or leaf. There are also varieties made without masa, like \"tamalis\", which are made with small fish fry wrapped in banana leaves and steamed, similar to the from Mexico, where the small fish are cooked whole with herbs and seasonings wrapped inside a corn husk without masa. The number of varieties has dwindled through the years so certain types of tamales that were once popular in the Philippines have become lost or are simply memories. The variety found in Guam, known as \"tamales guiso\", is made with corn masa and wrapped in corn husks, and as with the Philippine tamales, are clear evidence of the influence of the galleon trade that occurred between the ports of Manila and Acapulco."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agave",
        "text": "But the miracle of nature was the great Mexican aloe, or maguey, whose clustering pyramids of flowers, towering above their dark coronals of leaves, were seen sprinkled over many a broad acre of the table-land. As we have already noticed its bruised leaves afforded a paste from which paper was manufactured, its juice was fermented into an intoxicating beverage, pulque, of which the natives, to this day, are extremely fond; its leaves further supplied an impenetrable thatch for the more humble dwellings; thread, of which coarse stuffs were made, and strong cords, were drawn from its tough and twisted fibers; pins and needles were made from the thorns at the extremity of its leaves; and the root, when properly cooked, was converted into a palatable and nutritious food. The agave, in short, was meat, drink, clothing, and writing materials for the Aztec! Surely, never did Nature enclose in so compact a form so many of the elements of human comfort and civilization!"
      },
      {
        "title": "Guanime",
        "text": "Guanimes are related to tamales and hallacas. Cornmeal masa is wrapped in corn husk stuffed with meat, nuts, fish, beans, or nothing at all. They are then boiled like tamales and hallacas. Ta\u00ednos in Puerto Rico also mashed a variety of tubers and squash into the cornmeal masa. This later became the modern day \"pasteles\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Southwestern United States",
        "text": "By the early 20th-century \"tostadas\", \"chile joints\" and home-cooked \"chile suppers\" and \"tamale\" vendors had become part of the cultural landscape."
      },
      {
        "title": "Domesticated plants of Mesoamerica",
        "text": "Fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michele Felice Corn\u00e8",
        "text": "The tomato is native to western South America, and was formally cultivated by the Aztecs and other peoples in Mesoamerica."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarillo",
        "text": "The tamarillo is native to the Andes of Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, Chile, Argentina and Bolivia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guale",
        "text": "Indians throughout the American southeast were drawn to the Spanish mission provinces for their trade in European manufactured goods. Various non-Guale Indians settled in or near the Guale missions during the 17th century. Most were from an Indian province of north-central Georgia called \"La Tama\" by the Spanish. In the 1660s the well-armed Westo attacked La Tama and neighboring regions, dispersing the La Tama in several directions. Some migrated to the lower Chattahoochee River towns of Coweta and Cussita, the Apalachee mission provinces, and the Guale province. The La Tama spoke a dialect of \"Hitchiti\", a Muskogean language, as did the Coweta, Cussita, and Apalachicola. The Guale language may or may not have been related."
      },
      {
        "title": "Santander Department",
        "text": "The tamale is a dish that is eaten in various parts of Colombia, but in Santander it is prepared with peeled corn dough and filled with beef, chicken or pork, chickpeas, onions, and paprika. It is then wrapped in banana leaf giving it a rectangular shape."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tomatillo",
        "text": "Tomatillos are native to Central America and Mexico. The plant is grown mostly in the Mexican states of Hidalgo and Morelos, and in the highlands of Guatemala where it is known as \"miltomate\". In the United States, tomatillos have been cultivated since 1863, with one dubbed \"jamberry\" in 1945 and others with the names \"Mayan husk tomato\" and \"jumbo husk tomato\". Further distribution occurred in the Bahamas, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and Florida. By the middle of the 20th century, the plant was further exported to India, Australia, South Africa, and Kenya."
      },
      {
        "title": "Capsicum chinense",
        "text": "Seeds of \"C. chinense\" have been found in cave dwellings in Central America that indicate the natives have been consuming peppers since 7,000 B.C. In Eastern Mexico, dry pepper fruits and seeds have been recovered from 9,000 years old burials in Tamaulipas and Tehuac\u00e1n, further indicating their use since 7,000 B.C. Domestication might have taken place 10,000 to 12,000 years ago in Central\u2013East Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aztec cuisine",
        "text": "This was an imitation of how a warrior received his \"atlatl\" darts and shield. The flowers passed out bore different names depending on how they were handed out; \"sword flowers\" went from left hand to hand to left. When eating, guests would hold their individual bowls filled with dipping sauce in the center of the right hand and then dip corn tortillas or tamales (which were served from baskets) with the left. The meal was concluded by serving chocolate, often served in a calabash cup along with a stirring stick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "are prepared in a plain version, without the stuffing, and served with stewed salted cod fish. Since the arrival of Europeans, have lost their stuffing. Contemporary are made with corn masa seasoned with coconut milk, lard, broth, and annatto, wrapped in a banana leaf or corn husk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castilleja exserta",
        "text": "The seeds were harvested by indigenous peoples of California for food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fleur de sel",
        "text": "\"Flor de sal\" is also harvested along the beaches of Celestun in Yucatan, Mexico where Mayans cultivated salt 1,500 years ago for its distribution throughout Mesoamerican trade routes extending to Guatemala, Central America and the Caribbean."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mesoamerica",
        "text": "By roughly 6000 BCE, hunter-gatherers living in the highlands and lowlands of Mesoamerica began to develop agricultural practices with early cultivation of squash and chilli. The earliest example of maize dates to c. 4000 BCE and comes from Guil\u00e1 Naquitz, a cave in Oaxaca. Earlier maize samples have been documented at the Los Ladrones cave site in Panama, c. 5500 BCE. Slightly thereafter, semi-agrarian communities began to cultivate other crops throughout Mesoamerica. Maize was the most common domesticate, but the common bean, tepary bean, scarlet runner bean, jicama, tomato and squash all became common cultivates by 3500 BCE. At the same time, these communities exploited cotton, yucca, and agave for fibers and textile materials. By 2000 BCE, corn was the staple crop in the region, and remained so through modern times. The Ram\u00f3n or Breadnut tree (\"Brosimum alicastrum\") was an occasional substitute for maize in producing flour. Fruit was also important in the daily diet of Mesoamerican cultures. Some of the main ones consumed include avocado, papaya, guava, mamey, zapote, and annona."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexican-American cuisine",
        "text": "Maize (corn) was the foundation of the diet of indigenous Aztec people due to its drought-resistance and plentiful yields. Indigenous people found several uses for \"maize\", such as:\n*Atole - thick, paste-like gruel made from boiled \"maize\"\n*Tortillas - flatbread made from ground \"maize\" and cooked over heat on clay surfaces\n*Tamales - steamed \"maize\" dough (\"masa\"\")\" with a spongy consistency"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pre-Columbian cuisine",
        "text": "Foodways typically included the hunting of wild animals, gathering of wild plants, and cultivating of fruits and vegetables. The Southwestern region of the United States, now made up of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and parts of Texas, was initially settled by different groups of Native Americans. The Puebloan people turned to agriculture, holding small farms along the Rio Grande in New Mexico, with a diet consisting of corn, beans, and squash. Conversely, other groups retained their hunter-gatherer roots, including the Navajo, Apache, and Utes."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Pedro Lagunillas",
        "text": "Due to the seasonal nature of the agriculture there has been intensive emigration in the last twenty years, especially to the United States of America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tzotzil",
        "text": "Based on linguistic and archaeological data, scholars believe that the common ancestors of the contemporary Tzotzil and Tzeltal peoples entered Chiapas between 100 BCE and 300 CE. According to Spanish chronicles, just before the Spanish Conquest the Tzotzil exported quetzal feathers and amber to the Aztec capital of Tenochtitl\u00e1n. They also produced salt from wells near Ixtapa and traded it throughout the Chiapas highlands, and continued to do so after the Conquest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Take-out",
        "text": "Aztec marketplaces had vendors that sold beverages such as \"atolli\" (\"a gruel made from maize dough\"), almost 50 types of tamales (with ingredients that ranged from the meat of turkey, rabbit, gopher, frog, and fish to fruits, eggs, and maize flowers), as well as insects and stews. After Spanish colonization of Peru and importation of European food stocks including wheat, sugarcane and livestock, most commoners continued primarily to eat their traditional diets, but did add grilled beef hearts sold by street vendors. Some of Lima's 19th century street vendors such as \"Erasmo, the 'negro' sango vendor\" and Na Aguedita are still remembered today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Puebloans",
        "text": "Maize reached the present-day Southwest via an unknown route from Mesoamerica (i.e., present-day Mexico) and was rapidly adopted by peoples in the region. One theory states that maize cultivation was carried northward from central Mexico by migrating farmers, most likely speakers of a Uto-Aztecan language. Another theory, more accepted among scholars, is that between 4300 BCE and 2100 BCE maize was diffused northward from group to group between rather than migrants. There is evidence that maize was initially cultivated in the Southwest during a climatic period when precipitation was relatively high."
      },
      {
        "title": "Acapulco",
        "text": "Later, Teotihuacan influence made its way here via Cuernavaca and Chilpancingo. Then Mayan influence arrived from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and through what is now Oaxaca. This history is known through the archaeological artifacts that have been found here, especially at \"Playa Hornos, Pie de la Cuesta\", and \"Tambuco\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Avocado",
        "text": "\"Persea americana\", or the avocado, possibly originated in the Tehuacan Valley in the state of Puebla, Mexico, although fossil evidence suggests similar species were much more widespread millions of years ago. However, there is evidence for three possible separate domestications of the avocado, resulting in the currently recognized Mexican (\"aoacatl\"), Guatemalan (\"quilaoacatl\"), and West Indian (\"tlacacolaocatl\") landraces. The Mexican and Guatemalan landraces originated in the highlands of those countries, while the West Indian landrace is a lowland variety that ranges from Guatemala, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador to Peru, achieving a wide range through human agency before the arrival of the Europeans. The three separate landraces were most likely to have already intermingled in pre-Columbian America and were described in the Florentine Codex."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jalisco",
        "text": "The pre-Hispanic cuisine of the state features: fish from the various lakes, birds including wild turkey often eaten with salsas made from a wide variety of ground or crushed chili peppers. The Spanish introduced European staples of bread, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, dairy products, rice and various fruits and vegetables. The European settlers quickly adopted local foodstuffs such as chili peppers and tomatoes to create hybrid dishes such as barbacoa and puchero. Accepting corn as a staple, the Spanish created today's enchiladas, quesadillas and gorditas. They also adopted pre-Hispanic tamales, but these were significantly altered with the addition of large quantities of lard. Tonal\u00e1 is said to be the origin of pozole, and it is claimed that the local Tonaltecas originally prepared it with human flesh as religious rite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamonea",
        "text": "Its native range is Mexico to Tropical America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The several versions of can be made with green plantains, cassava, and a sweet version made with sweet plantains and cornmeal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burrito",
        "text": "Before the development of the modern burrito, the Maya civilization of Mexico used corn tortillas as early as 1500 B.C. to wrap foods, with fillings of chili peppers, tomatoes, mushrooms, squash, and avocados. Historically, the Pueblo peoples of the Southwestern US also made tortillas filled with beans and meat sauce and prepared much like the modern burrito. But these preparations could also be said to be the origin of the simpler taco, rather than the modern burrito."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dioon",
        "text": "In Honduras, the female cones of \"D. mejiae\" are picked to harvest the seeds. These are processed by about 33,000 indigenous people into tamales or tortillas and replace the cornmeal. The fronds are traditionally used on Palm Sunday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexican-American cuisine",
        "text": "Some of Mexican cuisine's entrance into the United States can in part be attributed to the United States' expansion into what was then Northern Mexico as a result of the Mexican-American War and its termination with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. As the U.S. border crossed many Mexican citizens located in what is now the American Southwest, they maintained their culinary traditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the United States",
        "text": "By 10,000 BCE, humans were relatively well-established throughout North America. Originally, Paleo-Indian hunted Ice Age megafauna like mammoths, but as they began to go extinct, people turned instead to bison as a food source. As time went on, foraging for berries and seeds became an important alternative to hunting. Paleo-Indians in central Mexico were the first in the Americas to farm, starting to plant corn, beans, and squash around 8,000 BCE. Eventually, the knowledge began to spread northward. By 3,000 BCE, corn was being grown in the valleys of Arizona and New Mexico, followed by primitive irrigation systems and early villages of the Hohokam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexican cuisine",
        "text": "Another important festive food is the tamale, also known as \"tamal\" in Spanish. This is a filled cornmeal dumpling, steamed in a wrapping (usually a corn husk or banana leaf) and one of the basic staples in most regions of Mexico. It has its origins in the pre-Hispanic era and today is found in many varieties in all of Mexico. Like mole, it is complicated to prepare and best done in large amounts. Tamales are associated with certain celebrations such as Candlemas. They are wrapped in corn husks in the highlands and desert areas of Mexico and in banana leaves in the tropics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn tortilla",
        "text": "Traditionally throughout Mesoamerica from pre-Hispanic times into the mid-20th century, the \"masa\" was prepared by women using a \"mano\" (a cylinder-shaped stone like a rolling pin) and \"metate\" (a stone base with a slightly concave top for holding the corn). This method is still used in some places in Mexico."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which Mesoamerican tribe is responsible for the origin of the tamale?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "According to archaeologists Karl Taube, William Saturno, and David Stuart, tamales may date from around 100 AD. They found pictorial references in the Mural of San Bartolo, in Pet\u00e9n, Guatemala and the preparation of tamales is likely to have spread from the indigenous cultures in Guatemala and Mexico to the rest of Latin America."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did tamales make their way to the USA?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Tamales have been eaten in the United States since at least 1893, when they were featured at the World's Columbian Exposition. African Americans in the Mississippi Delta developed a spicy tamale made from cornmeal instead of masa and in northern Louisiana, tamales have been made for several centuries."
    ],
    "topic": "Tamale",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Tamale:31",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tamale",
          "United States"
        ],
        "ctx": "Tamales have been eaten in the United States since at least 1893, when they were featured at the World's Columbian Exposition. In 1894, when tamales were the most popular ethnic food in Los Angeles, XLNT Foods started making them. The company is the oldest continuously operating Mexican food brand in the United States, and one of the oldest companies in Southern California."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Tamale:36",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tamale",
          "United States"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the Mississippi Delta, African Americans developed a spicy tamale made from cornmeal instead of masa, which is boiled in corn husks. This is sometimes called a \"hot tamale\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Tamale:37",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tamale",
          "United States"
        ],
        "ctx": "In northern Louisiana, tamales have been made for several centuries. The Spanish established presidio Los Adaes in 1721 in modern-day Robeline, Louisiana. The descendants of these Spanish settlers from central Mexico were the first tamale makers to arrive in the eastern US. Zwolle, Louisiana, has a Tamale Fiesta every year in October."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the Mississippi Delta, African Americans developed a spicy tamale made from cornmeal instead of masa, which is boiled in corn husks. This is sometimes called a \"hot tamale\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamales have been eaten in the United States since at least 1893, when they were featured at the World's Columbian Exposition. In 1894, when tamales were the most popular ethnic food in Los Angeles, XLNT Foods started making them. The company is the oldest continuously operating Mexican food brand in the United States, and one of the oldest companies in Southern California."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamale\n--Origin.\n--Caribbean.\n----Cuba.\n----Dominican Republic.\n----Puerto Rico.\n----Trinidad and Tobago.\n--Central America.\n----Belize.\n----Guatemala.\n------Pre-Columbian Guatemala.\n----Nicaragua.\n--Mexico.\n----Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica.\n------Pre-Columbian Mayas.\n------Aztecs.\n----Modern Mexico.\n--South America.\n----Venezuela.\n--Philippines and Guam.\n--United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "While Mexican-style and other Latin American-style tamales are featured at ethnic restaurants throughout the United States, some distinctly indigenous styles also are made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Instead of corn husks, banana or plantain leaves are used in tropical parts of the country, such as Oaxaca, Chiapas, Veracruz, and the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula. These tamales are rather square in shape, often very large\u201415\u00a0inches (40\u00a0cm)\u2014and these larger tamales are commonly known as \"pibs\" in the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula. Another very large type of tamale is , made in the Huasteca region of Mexico. Depending on the size, can feed between 50 and 200 people; they are made during festivals and holidays, for quincea\u00f1eras, and on Sundays to be sold at the markets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The preparation of tamales is likely to have spread from the indigenous cultures in Guatemala and Mexico to the rest of Latin America. According to archaeologists Karl Taube, William Saturno, and David Stuart, tamales may date from around 100 AD. They found pictorial references in the \"Mural of San Bartolo\", in Pet\u00e9n, Guatemala."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In northern Louisiana, tamales have been made for several centuries. The Spanish established presidio Los Adaes in 1721 in modern-day Robeline, Louisiana. The descendants of these Spanish settlers from central Mexico were the first tamale makers to arrive in the eastern US. Zwolle, Louisiana, has a Tamale Fiesta every year in October."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamales originated in Mesoamerica as early as 8000 to 5000 BC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yerba mate",
        "text": "Mate has also become popular outside of South America. In the tiny hamlet of Groot Marico, North West Province, South Africa, mate was introduced to the local tourism office by the returning descendants of the Boers, who in 1902 had emigrated to Patagonia in Argentina after losing the Anglo Boer War. It is also commonly consumed in Lebanon, Syria, and some other parts of the Middle East, mainly by Druze and Alawite people. Most of its popularity outside South America is a result of historical emigration to South America and subsequent return. It is consumed worldwide by expatriates from the Southern Cone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the Philippines and Guam, which were governed by Spain as a province of Mexico, different forms of tamale-like foods exist. In the Philippines, they merged with the native leaf-wrapped rice cakes (\"kakanin\") and are made with a dough derived from ground rice and are filled with seasoned chicken or pork with the addition of peanuts and other seasonings such as sugar. In some places, such as the Pampanga, where it is popularly known as \"bobotu\", and Batangas provinces, the tamales are wrapped in banana leaves, but sweet corn varieties from the Visayas region are wrapped in corn husks similar to the sweet corn tamales of the American Southwest and Mexico. Because of the work involved in the preparation of tamales, they usually only appear during the special holidays or other big celebrations. Various recipes have practically disappeared under the pressures of modern life and the ease of fast food. Several varieties of tamales are also found in the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uchepos",
        "text": "Although it is considered to have originated in the Mexican state of Michoacan, chepo can be found in other states of the republic where it is called corn tamal. In other regions of Central America it is also called corn tamal. In some regions in South America these tamales are called humitas where the recipes may call for some spices, raisins, other sweet ingredients such as cajeta blanca/arequipe/dulce de leche/manjar, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamburello",
        "text": "Tamburello and its variations remain popular today in many nations of the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarillo",
        "text": "Today it is still cultivated in gardens and small orchards for local production, and it is one of the most popular fruits in these regions. Other regions of cultivation are the subtropical areas throughout the world, such as Kenya, Rwanda, South Africa, Nagaland, Manipur , Darjeeling and Sikkim in India, Nepal, Hong Kong, China, the United States, Australia, Bhutan and New Zealand. It has also been seen in Cantabria, a province in Spain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In Cuba, before the 1959 Revolution, street vendors sold Mexican-style tamales wrapped in corn husks, usually made without any kind of spicy seasoning. Cuban tamales being identical in form to those made in Mexico City suggests they were brought over to Cuba during the period of intense cultural and musical exchange between Cuba and Mexico after the 1920s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Around the beginning of the 20th century, the name \"tamale pie\" was given to meat pies and casseroles made with a cornmeal crust and typical tamale fillings arranged in layers. Although characterized as Mexican food, these forms are not popular in Mexican American culture in which the individually wrapped style is preferred."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "A tamale is a traditional Mesoamerican dish, made of masa, a dough made from nixtamalized corn, which is steamed in a corn husk or banana leaf. The wrapping can either be discarded prior to eating or used as a plate. Tamales can be filled with meats, cheeses, fruits, vegetables, herbs, chilies, or any preparation according to taste, and both the filling and the cooking liquid may be seasoned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Santiago Teyahualco",
        "text": "Tamales is a traditional Mesoamerican dish made of \u201cmasa\u201d or dough (starchy, and usually corn-based), which is steamed in a corn husk or banana leaf"
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana leaf",
        "text": "Tamales made throughout Central America are traditionally wrapped in banana leaves prior to cooking, which imparts a distinctive taste to the nixtamalized corn dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "Hot Tamales\n--Variations.\n--Ingredients.\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the classical times of the Maya of Central America (Guatemala in particular), the great Mayan lords delighted in a baked dough bun during the winter solstice, made of maize mixed with turkey, \"tepezcuintle\" (lowland paca) or venison, spices, and chili pepper, among other ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamales, \"tamalis\", \"tamalos\", and \"pasteles\" are different varieties found throughout the region. Some are sweet, some are savory, and some are sweet and savory. Mostly wrapped in banana leaves and made of rice, either the whole grain or ground and cooked with coconut milk and other seasonings, they are sometimes filled with meat and seafood, or are plain and have no filling. There are certain varieties, such as \"tamalos\", that are made of a sweet corn masa wrapped in a corn husk or leaf. There are also varieties made without masa, like \"tamalis\", which are made with small fish fry wrapped in banana leaves and steamed, similar to the from Mexico, where the small fish are cooked whole with herbs and seasonings wrapped inside a corn husk without masa. The number of varieties has dwindled through the years so certain types of tamales that were once popular in the Philippines have become lost or are simply memories. The variety found in Guam, known as \"tamales guiso\", is made with corn masa and wrapped in corn husks, and as with the Philippine tamales, are clear evidence of the influence of the galleon trade that occurred between the ports of Manila and Acapulco."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Humitas (from Quechua humint'a) is a Native South American dish from pre-Hispanic times, a traditional food from the Andes and it can be found in Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, and Northwest Argentina. It consists of fresh choclo (Peruvian corn) pounded to a paste, wrapped in a fresh corn husk, and slowly steamed or boiled in a pot of water. In Bolivia it is known as huminta and in Brazil as pamonha."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Cherokee tamales, also known as bean bread or \"broadswords\", were made with hominy (in the case of the Cherokee, the masa was made from corn boiled in water treated with wood ashes instead of lime) and beans, and wrapped in green corn leaves or large tree leaves and boiled, similar to the meatless pre-Columbian bean and masa tamales still prepared in Chiapas, central Mexico, and Guatemala."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tammsia",
        "text": "It is native to Colombia, Peru and Venezuela in western South America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marimba",
        "text": "Marimbas have become widely popular around the world being used throughout Africa, South East Asia, Europe, North America, South America and Central America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pi\u00f1ata",
        "text": "Pi\u00f1atas are similarly popular in a number of other Latin American countries as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexican street food",
        "text": "Tamales are one of the most popular street foods in the world. They feature a filling and are wrapped in corn-based masa dough and steamed in corn husks. Tamales come in sweet and savory versions, some spicy and some bland. Versions with pork or chicken with a salsa or mole sauce are the most popular along with a version called 'rajas' which are strips of poblano chili pepper and cheese. It is one of the safer street foods for novices to try as it is cooked and kept in a steam vat while being sold. Corundas are a variety of tamale in Michoac\u00e1n in a triangle shape wrapped in corn stalk leaves. They can be eaten alone, with salsa or as an accompaniment to a meal. The Chiapas version of the tamale have a distinct flavor, often containing ingredients such as pibil, mole sauce, carrot, corn grains, egg, raisins, almonds (the locally named \"nacatamales\", a regional version of Nicaraguan well-known version), a version with the regional herb chipil\u00edn with chicken or queso blanco and versions wrapped in banana leaves. They are often sold by vendors on specially made tricycles for street vendors. Uchepos are tamales made with fresh corn, generally made in Michoac\u00e1n in July and August."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fanhunter",
        "text": "As time goes by, its popularity rises, and then becomes a nationwide phenomenon, and nowadays it went outside the Spanish frontiers attracting the interest of the Southamerican readers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "A well-known Cuban song from the 1950s, \"\", (a cha-cha-cha sung by Orquesta Arag\u00f3n) celebrated the delicious tamales sold by a street vendor in Cienfuegos. A peculiarly Cuban invention is the dish known as , basically consisting of tamale masa with the meat stuffing stirred into the masa, and then cooked in a pot on the stove to form a kind of hearty cornmeal porridge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the Dominican Republic, are Dominican tamales stuffed with \"picadillo\". The name has its origin from the native Ta\u00ednos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tameletjie",
        "text": "As the sweet became more popular it was adopted in different cultures which resulted in variations of the tameletjie. It is popular in different cultures and has a history unlike the sweets found in stores today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Huicochea",
        "text": "It's most prevalent in Mexico, but a few occurrences can also be found on the United States, Peru or Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tlnovelas",
        "text": "TLNovelas Am\u00e9rica available in Mexico and other parts of Latin America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "Deriving its name from the sometimes pungent (spicy hot) flavor of tamales, Hot Tamales was the top selling cinnamon candy in 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamonea",
        "text": "Its native range is Mexico to Tropical America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "Hot Tamales is a soft, cinnamon flavored, oblong-shaped candy introduced in 1950. It is manufactured and marketed in the United States by Just Born, a family-owned, Pennsylvania-based candy company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chiapas",
        "text": "Tamales are a major part of the diet and often include chipil\u00edn mixed into the dough and hoja santa, within the tamale itself or used to wrap it. One tamale native to the state is the \"picte\", a fresh sweet corn tamale. Tamales juacanes are filled with a mixture of black beans, dried shrimp, and pumpkin seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale pie",
        "text": "Tamale pie is a pie and casserole dish in the cuisine of the Southwestern United States. It is prepared with a cornmeal crust and ingredients typically used in tamales. It has been described as a comfort food. The dish, invented sometime in the early 1900s in the United States, may have originated in Texas, and its first known published recipe dates to 1911."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarillo",
        "text": "The tamarillo is native to the Andes of Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, Chile, Argentina and Bolivia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Azalea Qui\u00f1ones",
        "text": "and have been shown in Buenos Aires, Colombia, Cuba, Mexico, Spain, Switzerland, Germany, and the United States as well as Venezuela."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tampico (song)",
        "text": "The song takes a satirical look at the Mexican city of its title, suggesting that at the time, Tampico, Tamaulipas, had become more Americanized than the U.S. itself, and that many of the souvenirs which could be bought there had been manufactured in the United States. \"You buy a beautiful shawl; a souvenir for Aunt Flo. Authentic Mexican art \u2013 made in Idaho.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The is also related to the pastel, a root tamale dating to around the same time as the native Ta\u00edno ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the pre-Columbian era, the Aztecs ate tamales with fillings such as turkey, flamingo, frog, \"axolotl\", pocket gopher, rabbit, fish, turkey eggs, honey, fruits, squash, and beans, and even no filling. Aztec tamales differed from modern tamales by not having added fat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarillo",
        "text": "In Nepal, a version of the South American fruit is decently popular. It is typically consumed as a chutney or a pickle during the autumn and winter months. It is known as \"Tammatar\" and \"Ram Bheda\". Similar to Nepal, the Indian regions of Ooty, Darjeeling and Sikkim also consume Tamarillo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarind",
        "text": "In the 16th century, it was introduced to Mexico and Central America, and to a lesser degree to South America, by Spanish and Portuguese colonists, to the degree that it became a staple ingredient in the region's cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The Aztec and Maya civilizations, as well as the Olmec and Toltec before them, used tamales as easily portable food, for hunting trips, and for traveling large distances, as well as supporting their armies. Tamales were also considered sacred, as they were seen as the food of the gods. Aztec, Maya, Olmeca, and Tolteca all considered themselves to be people of corn, so tamales played a large part in their rituals and festivals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Papa rellena",
        "text": "Papas rellenas (English: stuffed potatoes) are the most popular type of croquettes in Latin American regions such as Ecuador, Bolivia, Mexico, Chile, Colombia, & the Caribbean (more so the Dominican Republic, Cuba & Puerto Rico). The first recorded Latin American recipes were printed in the late 19th century, during a time when French cuisine (among others, e.g. Italian) was influencing those of Latin America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Guatemala has many tamale varieties, from the traditional corn-husked tamale called a , to a sweet version of tamale, which uses the same corn dough, but is seasoned with honey or sugar combined with chocolate, almonds, plums, seeds, and peppers. Tamales are sold in stores and private homes (especially on Saturdays). A red light on a home at night is a sign that tamales are for sale at that home.\n*Red tamales owe their name to achiote and tomato and are made with corn dough stuffed with \"recado rojo\", raisins, chili peppers, chicken, beef' or pork wrapped in banana leaves.\n*Cambray tamales contain raisins and almonds. Sweet tamales are filled with sweet . Black tamales are named after the color that chocolate gives them. Chipilin tamales wrapped in corn husks, parrot tamales, and corn tamales among others are also made. Cream tamales and cheese and anise seeds are also mixed with corn tamales.\n* is a typical and emblematic dish of Guatemala. It is a variation of the tamale made with corn dough, but a firmer consistency, although lard can be added to the dough to generate a more pleasant taste and consistency. It is usually mixed with of tomato and with a filling that can be with chicken, beef, or pork. It is wrapped with dried cob leaves (tusa or bender). In some places, it is accompanied by cheese, sauce, or both.\n*Rice tamales come from the Guatemalan highlands, where the typical corn dough is replaced by a thick dough of annealed rice with water and salt. The preparation of the does not differ much from the original, since only some regions have the ingredients with which it is made.\n* is a tamale particularly from the highlands of Guatemala that uses potato instead of maize for the dough.\n* or is dough only, with no meats or other fillings. This dish is used to accompany a meal and used to scoop food on the plate, or just eaten plain along with the main dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale pie",
        "text": "Tamale pie is prepared with a cornmeal crust and typical tamale fillings arranged in several layers. Beef is traditionally used, but it can also be prepared using other meats such as chicken and turkey meat, and can also be prepared as a meatless dish. Although sometimes characterized as Mexican food, these forms are not popular in Mexican-American culture, in which the individually wrapped style is preferred. Tamale pie has been described as a \"comfort-food classic\" in the book \"The Ultimate Casseroles Book\", published by \"Better Homes and Gardens\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale Guy",
        "text": "Claudio Velez, often referred to as the Tamale Guy, Authentic Tamale Guy or the Tamale Man, is a cook and mobile caterer of tamales in Chicago. Originally from Acapulco, Mexico, Velez has a longstanding reputation in the city's North Side nightlife as a food provider outside and inside of clubs, bars, and other establishments open late at night. He has been called \"Santa Claus for the drunk and hungry\" and sells up to 250 pork, chicken or cheese tamales a night. A mobile app through a Twitter account was developed by a customer intended to help others track his location across the city."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamale-making is a ritual that has been part of Mexican life since pre-Hispanic times, when special fillings and forms were designated for each specific festival or life event. Today, tamales are typically filled with meats, cheese, or vegetables, especially chilies. Preparation is complex and time-consuming, and an excellent example of Mexican communal cooking, where this task usually falls to the women. Tamales are a favorite comfort food in Mexico, eaten as both breakfast and dinner, and often accompanied by hot \"atole\" or \"champurrado\" and \"arroz con leche\" (rice porridge, \"rice with milk\") or maize-based beverages of indigenous origin. Street vendors can be seen serving them from huge, steaming, covered pots () or \"ollas\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In Mexico, tamales begin with a dough made from ground nixtamalized corn (hominy), called \"masa\", or alternatively a rehydrated \"masa\" powder, such as Maseca. It is combined with lard or vegetable shortening, along with broth or water, to bring the dough to the consistency of a very thick batter. It is traditional to whisk the lard, and whisk the resulting batter, with the intent of producing the signature soft and fluffy texture. Modern recipes may use baking powder to achieve a similar effect. Chili purees or dried chili powders are also occasionally added to the batter, which in addition to the spice can cause some tamales to appear red in color. Tamales are generally wrapped in corn husks or plantain leaves before being steamed, with the choice of husk depending on the region. They usually have a sweet or savory filling and are usually steamed until firm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maria Elena Lorenzo",
        "text": "After coming to the U.S., Maria and Juan began to cook and sell their native Afro-Mexican style tamales from a small cart in the Watts neighborhood of Bell Gardens, California. Maria started off selling her tamales at the local Grape Street Elementary School and the Imperial courts housing projects, where her and her family resided. In 2007, Maria upgraded to a food truck which continued to serve the Watts neighborhood with an expanded menu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ataulfo (mango)",
        "text": "Ataulfo mangoes gained popularity in the United States beginning in the late 1990s, though they have been a major crop in Mexico for decades. As of 2009, they were the second-most popular variety of mango sold in the U.S., behind the Tommy Atkins. As of 2018, they represented a little less than 20% of all mangoes imported into the U.S."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamayorkis",
        "text": "Its native range is from Arizona and New Mexico to Texas, USA and also Mexico and Guatemala in South America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Falafel",
        "text": "In North America, prior to the 1970s, falafel was found only in Middle Eastern, Mediterranean and Jewish neighborhoods and restaurants. Today, the dish is a common and popular street food in many cities throughout North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother-in-law (sandwich)",
        "text": "Mexican-Americans brought the tamale to Chicago, and African-Americans from the Mississippi Delta area brought the hot tamale to the city. But no one knows how the mother-in-law sandwich developed. Some speculate it may have had its beginnings in Mexico City's \"torta de tamal,\" a tamale on a bolillo. The precise origins of the Chicago-style tamale are also obscure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In Trinidad and Tobago, it is called a \"pastelle\" and is popular in many households during the entire Christmas season and New Year celebrations. It is usually made with cornmeal and filled with cooked, seasoned meat (chicken and beef being the most popular), raisins, olives, capers, and other seasonings. The entire \"pastelle\" is wrapped in a banana leaf, bound with twine and steamed. When fully cooked, the banana leaf is removed to reveal the brightly yellow-colored dish. It is often indulged as is or along with a meal. The sweet version is called \"paymee\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taro",
        "text": "Taro has been grown for centuries in the United States, though it has never attained the same popularity as in Asian and Pacific nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the pre-Columbian era, the Mayas ate tamales and often served them at feasts and festivals. The Classic Maya hieroglyph for tamales has been identified on pots and other objects dating back to the Classic Era (200\u20131000 CE), although they likely were eaten much earlier. While tortillas are the basis for the contemporary Maya diet, remarkably little evidence exists for tortilla production among the Classic period Maya. A lack of griddles in the archaeological record suggests that the primary foodstuff of the Mesoamerican diet may have been the \"tamal\", a cooked, vegetal-wrapped mass of maize dough. Tamales are cooked without the use of ceramic technologies and therefore the form of the tamale is thought to predate the tortilla. Similarities between the two maize products can be found in both the ingredients and preparation techniques, and the linguistic ambiguity exhibited by the pan-Mayan term \"wa\" referring to a basic, daily consumed maize product that can refer to either tortillas or tamales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zongzi",
        "text": "In some areas of the United States, particularly California and Texas, \"zongzi\" are often known as \"Chinese tamales\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexican cuisine",
        "text": "Another important festive food is the tamale, also known as \"tamal\" in Spanish. This is a filled cornmeal dumpling, steamed in a wrapping (usually a corn husk or banana leaf) and one of the basic staples in most regions of Mexico. It has its origins in the pre-Hispanic era and today is found in many varieties in all of Mexico. Like mole, it is complicated to prepare and best done in large amounts. Tamales are associated with certain celebrations such as Candlemas. They are wrapped in corn husks in the highlands and desert areas of Mexico and in banana leaves in the tropics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pachyrhizus ahipa",
        "text": "Today, it is still in use in small native communities in Bolivia and northern Argentina. The crop was never widely distributed which could have to do with the very specific climatic adaptions it exhibits. Another reason could be the acquisition of Latin America by the Spanish and Portuguese conquest, which had the general policy to destroy the traditional Andean agricultural systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tim Tam",
        "text": "In the United States, the original, dark chocolate, dark chocolate mint, and caramel varieties are available for sale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guatemalans",
        "text": "There are reportedly hundreds of varieties of tamales throughout Guatemala. They key variations are what is in the \"masa\" or dough (maize, potatoes, rice), what's in the filling (meat, fruits, nuts), and what is it wrapped with (leaves, husks). The masa is made out of corn that is not sweet, such as what is known as feed corn in the U.S.A. In Guatemala, this non-sweet corn is called maize and the corn that Americans from the USA are used to eating on the cob, sweet corn, they call \"elote\". Tamales in Guatemala are more typically wrapped in plantain, banana, or maxan leaves rather than corn husks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Virginia Ramos",
        "text": "She was born in Jalisco, Mexico in 1953. In 1980, she migrated to the United States. She started selling tamales at San Francisco bars in the early 1990s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yolanda Montes",
        "text": "Her career was sheltered by theatrical success in the main theaters and cabarets of Mexico City. \"Tongolele\" boosted the success of the \"Exoticas\", a group of vedettes that caused sensation in Mexico in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Although other vedettes that became popular at the time (like \"Kalant\u00e1n\", \"Bongala\" and Su Muy Key) appeared, none reached the levels of popularity of \"Tongolele\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Guatemala",
        "text": "There are reportedly hundreds of varieties of tamales throughout Guatemala. The key variations are what is in the \"masa\" or dough (corn, potatoes, rice), what's in the filling (meat, fruits, nuts), and what it is wrapped with (leaves, husks). The masa is made out of corn that is not sweet, such as what is known as feed corn in the U.S.A. In Guatemala, this non-sweet corn is called maize and the corn that Americans from the USA are used to eating on the cob, sweet corn, they call \"elote\". Tamales in Guatemala are more typically wrapped in plantain or banana leaves and mashan leaves than corn husks."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Tams",
        "text": "Still quite popular in the Southeastern United States, they continue to record new music and perform at well-attended concerts. In 1999, they were featured performers with Jimmy Buffett on his CD, \"Beach House on the Moon\", and also toured with him around the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "are prepared in a plain version, without the stuffing, and served with stewed salted cod fish. Since the arrival of Europeans, have lost their stuffing. Contemporary are made with corn masa seasoned with coconut milk, lard, broth, and annatto, wrapped in a banana leaf or corn husk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quincea\u00f1era",
        "text": "While in the United States it is more customary to celebrate a sweet sixteen, many Hispanics may also celebrate a as a sweet sixteen but call it a . Quincea\u00f1eras were noted to be celebrated in the mid- to late 1970s in Los Angeles and San Diego and in the early 1980s in different parts of Texas. Though they may not have been widespread, many working-class families could afford because the and pitch in for the costs. In recent years, have gained popularity in the United States. Books and other publications about distributed in the United States increasingly include English versions to the original works in Spanish. This shows the increasing influence of Hispanic and Latino culture within the broader American culture. The increasing popularity of the celebration has begun to lead to an uptick in retailers and businesses catering directly to young Hispanic or Latina women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tapioca",
        "text": "Specifically in rural Cuba early in Spanish rule, tapioca's popularity grew because it was easy to cultivate the crop and to transport to nearby Spanish settlements, eventually influencing the way land and people were divided in that early imperial era."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The several versions of can be made with green plantains, cassava, and a sweet version made with sweet plantains and cornmeal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chimol",
        "text": "Modifications to the recipe exist depending on different regions of Central America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Santander Department",
        "text": "The tamale is a dish that is eaten in various parts of Colombia, but in Santander it is prepared with peeled corn dough and filled with beef, chicken or pork, chickpeas, onions, and paprika. It is then wrapped in banana leaf giving it a rectangular shape."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "In addition to the original variant, Just Born also markets \"Hot Tamales Fire\" (originally \"Super Hot Hot Tamales\") with a hotter flavor and darker color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "\"Tamale\" is an anglicized version of the Spanish word (plural: ). comes from the Nahuatl . The English \"tamale\" is a back-formation of , with English speakers interpreting the \"-e-\" as part of the stem, rather than part of the plural suffix \"-es\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tex-Mex",
        "text": "Tex-Mex has also spread to Canada, where it has become as naturalized as in the United States. The cuisine is also readily found in Argentina, India, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, Thailand, and many other countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Menagerie",
        "text": "Also in North America travelling menageries became even more popular during that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laura Chinchilla",
        "text": "In 2013, the Mexican opinion poll firm Consulta Mitofsky released a survey that placed Chinchilla as the least popular president in Latin America with a 13% approval rate, just behind Porfirio Lobo of Honduras."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christmas dinner",
        "text": "In Honduras, tamales are traditionally eaten on Christmas Eve evening. Turkey has become popular in the last few years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monopyle",
        "text": "Its native range is south-eastern Mexico to southern Tropical America. It is found in the countries of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Panam\u00e1, Peru and Venezuela."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamale (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Hot Tamale (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Agave amica",
        "text": "The tuberose is believed to be native to central and southern Mexico. It is no longer found in the wild, probably as a result of being domesticated by the Aztecs. It is currently grown in many tropical and temperate countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thompson Field",
        "text": "Tellez Tamales is a local tamaleria that has served the community for decades. It is well known in the area for its Mexican breakfast foods including tamales, barbacoa and other standard Mexican fare."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "A spearmint version, Hot Tamales Ice, was marketed in the late 2000s, but was subsequently discontinued. It was reintroduced again in 2018 combined with the regular Hot Tamales and marketed as Hot Tamales Fire & Ice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biscochos",
        "text": "Biscochos\n--Overview.\n--History.\n--Preparation.\n--Popularity.\n----Popularity in the United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "This meal was later integrated into modern Guatemalan traditions. For example, on Christmas Eve, families prepare black, red, or sweet tamales for family and friends to show gratitude. The tamales are often accompanied with chocolate, yolk bread, and punch, and participate in the Mass of Gallo, at midnight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamborera",
        "text": "The Tamborera became known throughout Latin America with the famous song \"Guarar\u00e9\" that is today part of the classics of Latin American music, with \"Santiague\u00f1ita\", \"Chiricanita\", \"Ag\u00fcita de canela\", \"Mi negro\", \"El filo\", \"Chichaco por los aires\" and \" Tan Bella y Presumida\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Chifle",
        "text": "Every tropical country where the plantain is in high consumption has its local version of this snack. It is known as \"chipilo\" in Bolivia; \"plataninas\" in Guatemala; \"parndh chips\" in South India; \"mariquitas\" (English: lady bugs) in Cuba; in Puerto Rico \"platanutres\", \"platanitos\" in the Dominican Republic, and \"tostones\" or \"tostoncitos\" in Venezuela."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tomatillo",
        "text": "Tomatillos are native to Central America and Mexico. The plant is grown mostly in the Mexican states of Hidalgo and Morelos, and in the highlands of Guatemala where it is known as \"miltomate\". In the United States, tomatillos have been cultivated since 1863, with one dubbed \"jamberry\" in 1945 and others with the names \"Mayan husk tomato\" and \"jumbo husk tomato\". Further distribution occurred in the Bahamas, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and Florida. By the middle of the 20th century, the plant was further exported to India, Australia, South Africa, and Kenya."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarin",
        "text": "Tamarins range from southern Central America through central South America, where they are found in northwestern Colombia, the Amazon basin, and the Guianas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chorizo",
        "text": "Chorizo\n--Names.\n--Varieties by region.\n----Western Europe.\n------Spain.\n------Portugal.\n----Americas.\n------Mexico.\n------Central America and the Caribbean.\n------United States.\n--------Louisiana.\n------South America.\n----South and Southeast Asia.\n------East Timor.\n------Goa.\n------Philippines.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Latin American music in the United States",
        "text": "Artists such as Carmen Miranda and Desi Arnaz were popular with audiences of all cultures. Judy Garland's first hit, as a member of the \"Gumm Sisters\", was \"La Cucaracha\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cumbia (Colombia)",
        "text": "Since the 1940s, commercial or modern Colombian cumbia expanded to the rest of Latin America, after which it became popular throughout the continent, including in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, El Salvador, United States, Uruguay, and Venezuela."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agonum decorum",
        "text": "It is very widespread in North America (Canada, United States, Mexico), and the Caribbean. It can also be found on Cuba."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tangerine (1941 song)",
        "text": "The song portrays a fictitious South American woman with universally recognized allure: \"When she dances by, / Se\u00f1oritas stare / And caballeros sigh.\" As one of Mercer's biographers explained the initial popularity: \"Latin America, the one part of the world not engulfed in World War II, became a favorite topic for songs and films for Americans who wanted momentarily to forget about the conflagration.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarillo",
        "text": "The tamarillo (\"Solanum betaceum\") is a small tree or shrub in the flowering plant family Solanaceae (the nightshade family). It is best known as the species that bears the tamarillo, an egg-shaped edible fruit. It is also known as the tree tomato, tomate de \u00e1rbol, tomate andino, tomate serrano, blood fruit, tomate de yuca, tomate de espa\u00f1a, sachatomate, berenjena, chilto and tamamoro in South America, and terong Belanda (Dutch eggplant) in Indonesia. It is popular globally, especially in Peru, Colombia, New Zealand, Ecuador, Rwanda, Australia, and the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tres leches cake",
        "text": "Recipes for soaked-cake desserts were seen in Mexico as early as the 19th century, likely a result of the large cross-cultural transfer which took place between Europe and the Americas. Nicaragua is one of the countries where tres leches cake has become popular. Recipes appeared on Nestl\u00e9 condensed milk can labels in the 1940s, which may explain the cake's widely disseminated popularity throughout Latin America as the company had created subsidiaries in Chile, Cuba, Colombia, Mexico, and Venezuela in the 1930s. The cake is popular in Central and South America, North America, and many parts of the Caribbean, Canary Islands, as well as in Albania, North Macedonia, and some other parts of Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of maize dishes",
        "text": "Tamales are a dish of nixtamalized maize that is ground, wrapped in a corn husk, and steamed. Tamales originated in Mesoamerica as early as 8000 to 5000 BC. There are many regional variants and related dishes.\n*\n*\n*\n*"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which Mesoamerican tribe is responsible for the origin of the tamale?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "According to archaeologists Karl Taube, William Saturno, and David Stuart, tamales may date from around 100 AD. They found pictorial references in the Mural of San Bartolo, in Pet\u00e9n, Guatemala and the preparation of tamales is likely to have spread from the indigenous cultures in Guatemala and Mexico to the rest of Latin America."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did tamales make their way to the USA?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Tamales have been eaten in the United States since at least 1893, when they were featured at the World's Columbian Exposition. African Americans in the Mississippi Delta developed a spicy tamale made from cornmeal instead of masa and in northern Louisiana, tamales have been made for several centuries."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are tamales popular anywhere else, other than North and South America?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "They are popular in the Caribbean, Central America, the Philippines, and Guam."
    ],
    "topic": "Tamale",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Tamale:0",
        "passage_titles": [],
        "ctx": "Tamale\n--Origin.\n--Caribbean.\n----Cuba.\n----Dominican Republic.\n----Puerto Rico.\n----Trinidad and Tobago.\n--Central America.\n----Belize.\n----Guatemala.\n------Pre-Columbian Guatemala.\n----Nicaragua.\n--Mexico.\n----Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica.\n------Pre-Columbian Mayas.\n------Aztecs.\n----Modern Mexico.\n--South America.\n----Venezuela.\n--Philippines and Guam.\n--United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Tamale:15",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tamale",
          "Central America",
          "Guatemala",
          "Pre-Columbian Guatemala"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the classical times of the Maya of Central America (Guatemala in particular), the great Mayan lords delighted in a baked dough bun during the winter solstice, made of maize mixed with turkey, \"tepezcuintle\" (lowland paca) or venison, spices, and chili pepper, among other ingredients."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Tamale:29",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tamale",
          "Philippines and Guam"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the Philippines and Guam, which were governed by Spain as a province of Mexico, different forms of tamale-like foods exist. In the Philippines, they merged with the native leaf-wrapped rice cakes (\"kakanin\") and are made with a dough derived from ground rice and are filled with seasoned chicken or pork with the addition of peanuts and other seasonings such as sugar. In some places, such as the Pampanga, where it is popularly known as \"bobotu\", and Batangas provinces, the tamales are wrapped in banana leaves, but sweet corn varieties from the Visayas region are wrapped in corn husks similar to the sweet corn tamales of the American Southwest and Mexico. Because of the work involved in the preparation of tamales, they usually only appear during the special holidays or other big celebrations. Various recipes have practically disappeared under the pressures of modern life and the ease of fast food. Several varieties of tamales are also found in the Philippines."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamale\n--Origin.\n--Caribbean.\n----Cuba.\n----Dominican Republic.\n----Puerto Rico.\n----Trinidad and Tobago.\n--Central America.\n----Belize.\n----Guatemala.\n------Pre-Columbian Guatemala.\n----Nicaragua.\n--Mexico.\n----Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica.\n------Pre-Columbian Mayas.\n------Aztecs.\n----Modern Mexico.\n--South America.\n----Venezuela.\n--Philippines and Guam.\n--United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the Philippines and Guam, which were governed by Spain as a province of Mexico, different forms of tamale-like foods exist. In the Philippines, they merged with the native leaf-wrapped rice cakes (\"kakanin\") and are made with a dough derived from ground rice and are filled with seasoned chicken or pork with the addition of peanuts and other seasonings such as sugar. In some places, such as the Pampanga, where it is popularly known as \"bobotu\", and Batangas provinces, the tamales are wrapped in banana leaves, but sweet corn varieties from the Visayas region are wrapped in corn husks similar to the sweet corn tamales of the American Southwest and Mexico. Because of the work involved in the preparation of tamales, they usually only appear during the special holidays or other big celebrations. Various recipes have practically disappeared under the pressures of modern life and the ease of fast food. Several varieties of tamales are also found in the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamales, \"tamalis\", \"tamalos\", and \"pasteles\" are different varieties found throughout the region. Some are sweet, some are savory, and some are sweet and savory. Mostly wrapped in banana leaves and made of rice, either the whole grain or ground and cooked with coconut milk and other seasonings, they are sometimes filled with meat and seafood, or are plain and have no filling. There are certain varieties, such as \"tamalos\", that are made of a sweet corn masa wrapped in a corn husk or leaf. There are also varieties made without masa, like \"tamalis\", which are made with small fish fry wrapped in banana leaves and steamed, similar to the from Mexico, where the small fish are cooked whole with herbs and seasonings wrapped inside a corn husk without masa. The number of varieties has dwindled through the years so certain types of tamales that were once popular in the Philippines have become lost or are simply memories. The variety found in Guam, known as \"tamales guiso\", is made with corn masa and wrapped in corn husks, and as with the Philippine tamales, are clear evidence of the influence of the galleon trade that occurred between the ports of Manila and Acapulco."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Instead of corn husks, banana or plantain leaves are used in tropical parts of the country, such as Oaxaca, Chiapas, Veracruz, and the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula. These tamales are rather square in shape, often very large\u201415\u00a0inches (40\u00a0cm)\u2014and these larger tamales are commonly known as \"pibs\" in the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula. Another very large type of tamale is , made in the Huasteca region of Mexico. Depending on the size, can feed between 50 and 200 people; they are made during festivals and holidays, for quincea\u00f1eras, and on Sundays to be sold at the markets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "While Mexican-style and other Latin American-style tamales are featured at ethnic restaurants throughout the United States, some distinctly indigenous styles also are made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamales originated in Mesoamerica as early as 8000 to 5000 BC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the Dominican Republic, are Dominican tamales stuffed with \"picadillo\". The name has its origin from the native Ta\u00ednos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The preparation of tamales is likely to have spread from the indigenous cultures in Guatemala and Mexico to the rest of Latin America. According to archaeologists Karl Taube, William Saturno, and David Stuart, tamales may date from around 100 AD. They found pictorial references in the \"Mural of San Bartolo\", in Pet\u00e9n, Guatemala."
      },
      {
        "title": "Santiago Teyahualco",
        "text": "Tamales is a traditional Mesoamerican dish made of \u201cmasa\u201d or dough (starchy, and usually corn-based), which is steamed in a corn husk or banana leaf"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In Cuba, before the 1959 Revolution, street vendors sold Mexican-style tamales wrapped in corn husks, usually made without any kind of spicy seasoning. Cuban tamales being identical in form to those made in Mexico City suggests they were brought over to Cuba during the period of intense cultural and musical exchange between Cuba and Mexico after the 1920s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamales have been eaten in the United States since at least 1893, when they were featured at the World's Columbian Exposition. In 1894, when tamales were the most popular ethnic food in Los Angeles, XLNT Foods started making them. The company is the oldest continuously operating Mexican food brand in the United States, and one of the oldest companies in Southern California."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The is also related to the pastel, a root tamale dating to around the same time as the native Ta\u00edno ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "A tamale is a traditional Mesoamerican dish, made of masa, a dough made from nixtamalized corn, which is steamed in a corn husk or banana leaf. The wrapping can either be discarded prior to eating or used as a plate. Tamales can be filled with meats, cheeses, fruits, vegetables, herbs, chilies, or any preparation according to taste, and both the filling and the cooking liquid may be seasoned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In northern Louisiana, tamales have been made for several centuries. The Spanish established presidio Los Adaes in 1721 in modern-day Robeline, Louisiana. The descendants of these Spanish settlers from central Mexico were the first tamale makers to arrive in the eastern US. Zwolle, Louisiana, has a Tamale Fiesta every year in October."
      },
      {
        "title": "Santander Department",
        "text": "The tamale is a dish that is eaten in various parts of Colombia, but in Santander it is prepared with peeled corn dough and filled with beef, chicken or pork, chickpeas, onions, and paprika. It is then wrapped in banana leaf giving it a rectangular shape."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In Trinidad and Tobago, it is called a \"pastelle\" and is popular in many households during the entire Christmas season and New Year celebrations. It is usually made with cornmeal and filled with cooked, seasoned meat (chicken and beef being the most popular), raisins, olives, capers, and other seasonings. The entire \"pastelle\" is wrapped in a banana leaf, bound with twine and steamed. When fully cooked, the banana leaf is removed to reveal the brightly yellow-colored dish. It is often indulged as is or along with a meal. The sweet version is called \"paymee\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Around the beginning of the 20th century, the name \"tamale pie\" was given to meat pies and casseroles made with a cornmeal crust and typical tamale fillings arranged in layers. Although characterized as Mexican food, these forms are not popular in Mexican American culture in which the individually wrapped style is preferred."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana leaf",
        "text": "Tamales made throughout Central America are traditionally wrapped in banana leaves prior to cooking, which imparts a distinctive taste to the nixtamalized corn dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "\"Guanime\" is a Puerto Rican dish that can be traced back to pre-Columbian times. It consists of corn masa that is stuffed with beans, seafood, nuts, or meat, and then wrapped in corn husks slowly cooked on a grill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "Hot Tamales\n--Variations.\n--Ingredients.\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "\"Tamale\" is an anglicized version of the Spanish word (plural: ). comes from the Nahuatl . The English \"tamale\" is a back-formation of , with English speakers interpreting the \"-e-\" as part of the stem, rather than part of the plural suffix \"-es\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "A well-known Cuban song from the 1950s, \"\", (a cha-cha-cha sung by Orquesta Arag\u00f3n) celebrated the delicious tamales sold by a street vendor in Cienfuegos. A peculiarly Cuban invention is the dish known as , basically consisting of tamale masa with the meat stuffing stirred into the masa, and then cooked in a pot on the stove to form a kind of hearty cornmeal porridge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The several versions of can be made with green plantains, cassava, and a sweet version made with sweet plantains and cornmeal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamal (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Tamal or tamale may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Humitas (from Quechua humint'a) is a Native South American dish from pre-Hispanic times, a traditional food from the Andes and it can be found in Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, and Northwest Argentina. It consists of fresh choclo (Peruvian corn) pounded to a paste, wrapped in a fresh corn husk, and slowly steamed or boiled in a pot of water. In Bolivia it is known as huminta and in Brazil as pamonha."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamale (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Hot Tamale (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "are prepared in a plain version, without the stuffing, and served with stewed salted cod fish. Since the arrival of Europeans, have lost their stuffing. Contemporary are made with corn masa seasoned with coconut milk, lard, broth, and annatto, wrapped in a banana leaf or corn husk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thompson Field",
        "text": "Tellez Tamales is a local tamaleria that has served the community for decades. It is well known in the area for its Mexican breakfast foods including tamales, barbacoa and other standard Mexican fare."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Guatemala has many tamale varieties, from the traditional corn-husked tamale called a , to a sweet version of tamale, which uses the same corn dough, but is seasoned with honey or sugar combined with chocolate, almonds, plums, seeds, and peppers. Tamales are sold in stores and private homes (especially on Saturdays). A red light on a home at night is a sign that tamales are for sale at that home.\n*Red tamales owe their name to achiote and tomato and are made with corn dough stuffed with \"recado rojo\", raisins, chili peppers, chicken, beef' or pork wrapped in banana leaves.\n*Cambray tamales contain raisins and almonds. Sweet tamales are filled with sweet . Black tamales are named after the color that chocolate gives them. Chipilin tamales wrapped in corn husks, parrot tamales, and corn tamales among others are also made. Cream tamales and cheese and anise seeds are also mixed with corn tamales.\n* is a typical and emblematic dish of Guatemala. It is a variation of the tamale made with corn dough, but a firmer consistency, although lard can be added to the dough to generate a more pleasant taste and consistency. It is usually mixed with of tomato and with a filling that can be with chicken, beef, or pork. It is wrapped with dried cob leaves (tusa or bender). In some places, it is accompanied by cheese, sauce, or both.\n*Rice tamales come from the Guatemalan highlands, where the typical corn dough is replaced by a thick dough of annealed rice with water and salt. The preparation of the does not differ much from the original, since only some regions have the ingredients with which it is made.\n* is a tamale particularly from the highlands of Guatemala that uses potato instead of maize for the dough.\n* or is dough only, with no meats or other fillings. This dish is used to accompany a meal and used to scoop food on the plate, or just eaten plain along with the main dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In Mexico, tamales begin with a dough made from ground nixtamalized corn (hominy), called \"masa\", or alternatively a rehydrated \"masa\" powder, such as Maseca. It is combined with lard or vegetable shortening, along with broth or water, to bring the dough to the consistency of a very thick batter. It is traditional to whisk the lard, and whisk the resulting batter, with the intent of producing the signature soft and fluffy texture. Modern recipes may use baking powder to achieve a similar effect. Chili purees or dried chili powders are also occasionally added to the batter, which in addition to the spice can cause some tamales to appear red in color. Tamales are generally wrapped in corn husks or plantain leaves before being steamed, with the choice of husk depending on the region. They usually have a sweet or savory filling and are usually steamed until firm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uchepos",
        "text": "Although it is considered to have originated in the Mexican state of Michoacan, chepo can be found in other states of the republic where it is called corn tamal. In other regions of Central America it is also called corn tamal. In some regions in South America these tamales are called humitas where the recipes may call for some spices, raisins, other sweet ingredients such as cajeta blanca/arequipe/dulce de leche/manjar, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarillo",
        "text": "Today it is still cultivated in gardens and small orchards for local production, and it is one of the most popular fruits in these regions. Other regions of cultivation are the subtropical areas throughout the world, such as Kenya, Rwanda, South Africa, Nagaland, Manipur , Darjeeling and Sikkim in India, Nepal, Hong Kong, China, the United States, Australia, Bhutan and New Zealand. It has also been seen in Cantabria, a province in Spain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The tamale is a staple in Belize, where it is also known as \"dukunu\", a sweet corn tamale that gets its name from the Garifuna people. Dukunus are mostly vegetarian and consist of roasted corn kernels blended with coconut milk as a base. Butter, salt, and sugar are also added. Dukunus filled with different meats are also made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guamatela",
        "text": "Guamatela\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "This meal was later integrated into modern Guatemalan traditions. For example, on Christmas Eve, families prepare black, red, or sweet tamales for family and friends to show gratitude. The tamales are often accompanied with chocolate, yolk bread, and punch, and participate in the Mass of Gallo, at midnight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the Mississippi Delta, African Americans developed a spicy tamale made from cornmeal instead of masa, which is boiled in corn husks. This is sometimes called a \"hot tamale\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bollo",
        "text": "Panamanian bollo has been described as a type of tamale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale pie",
        "text": "Tamale pie is a pie and casserole dish in the cuisine of the Southwestern United States. It is prepared with a cornmeal crust and ingredients typically used in tamales. It has been described as a comfort food. The dish, invented sometime in the early 1900s in the United States, may have originated in Texas, and its first known published recipe dates to 1911."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "Hot Tamales is a soft, cinnamon flavored, oblong-shaped candy introduced in 1950. It is manufactured and marketed in the United States by Just Born, a family-owned, Pennsylvania-based candy company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "Sugar, corn syrup, modified food starch, contains less than 0.5% of the following ingredients: dextrin, medium chain triglycerides, fruit juice from concentrate (pear, orange, strawberry, cherry, lemon, lime), sodium citrate, pectin, citric acid, malic acid, fumaric acid, confectioners glaze, carnauba wax, white mineral oil, artificial flavors, artificial color, sodium citrate, magnesium hydroxide, red #3, red #40, yellow #5 (tartrazine), yellow #6, blue #1."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamale (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Hot Tamale may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Guamal",
        "text": "Gentilicio: Guamalero \u00f3 Guamalense"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chiapas",
        "text": "Tamales are a major part of the diet and often include chipil\u00edn mixed into the dough and hoja santa, within the tamale itself or used to wrap it. One tamale native to the state is the \"picte\", a fresh sweet corn tamale. Tamales juacanes are filled with a mixture of black beans, dried shrimp, and pumpkin seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guanime",
        "text": "Guanimes are related to tamales and hallacas. Cornmeal masa is wrapped in corn husk stuffed with meat, nuts, fish, beans, or nothing at all. They are then boiled like tamales and hallacas. Ta\u00ednos in Puerto Rico also mashed a variety of tubers and squash into the cornmeal masa. This later became the modern day \"pasteles\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamale-making is a ritual that has been part of Mexican life since pre-Hispanic times, when special fillings and forms were designated for each specific festival or life event. Today, tamales are typically filled with meats, cheese, or vegetables, especially chilies. Preparation is complex and time-consuming, and an excellent example of Mexican communal cooking, where this task usually falls to the women. Tamales are a favorite comfort food in Mexico, eaten as both breakfast and dinner, and often accompanied by hot \"atole\" or \"champurrado\" and \"arroz con leche\" (rice porridge, \"rice with milk\") or maize-based beverages of indigenous origin. Street vendors can be seen serving them from huge, steaming, covered pots () or \"ollas\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana leaf",
        "text": "Guanimos are Dominican tamales made with cornmeal, stuffed with ground meat and wrapped with banana leaves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale pie",
        "text": "Tamale pie is prepared with a cornmeal crust and typical tamale fillings arranged in several layers. Beef is traditionally used, but it can also be prepared using other meats such as chicken and turkey meat, and can also be prepared as a meatless dish. Although sometimes characterized as Mexican food, these forms are not popular in Mexican-American culture, in which the individually wrapped style is preferred. Tamale pie has been described as a \"comfort-food classic\" in the book \"The Ultimate Casseroles Book\", published by \"Better Homes and Gardens\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guajolota",
        "text": "Most vendors sell a variety of tamales stuffed with different ingredients, such as red \"mole\" with chicken, \"salsa verde\" with pork, cheese and chile poblano \"rajas con queso,\" or a \"tamal de dulce,\" which is a sweet flavored tamal, to accompany the bolillo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarillo",
        "text": "The tamarillo is also successfully grown at higher elevations of Malaysia and the Philippines, and in Puerto Rico. In the hot tropical lowlands, it develops only small fruits and fruit setting is seldom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamshiyacu",
        "text": "This also is a land of humari, pineapple, cassava, banana, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guale",
        "text": "Guale\n--Language.\n--History.\n----Prehistory.\n----European contact.\n------Effect on health.\n----La Tama and Yamasee amalgamation.\n----Destruction and dispersal.\n----Emergence of the Yamasee.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Guajolota",
        "text": "Vendors are commonly found selling tortas de tamal throughout the day near offices, markets, schools, and especially near churches on Sunday mornings."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c1lamo, Veracruz",
        "text": "Regional dish is the \"zacahuil\" a type of tamal (tamale is not the right word), made of dough, chili, pork or chicken wrapped in a bed of banana leaf and cooked in clay oven ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quezon",
        "text": "\"Quezon tamales\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Aguardiente",
        "text": "In Guam and the Mariana Islands, a distilled version of \"tub\u00e2\" (coconut palm wine introduced from the Philippines) is known as \"aguajente\" (also \"aguayente\" or \"agi\"). It is similar to Filipino \"lamban\u00f3g\". It used to be prevalent among the Chamorro people but is now largely extinct, after the United States banned its manufacture soon after the acquisition of Guam from the Spanish Empire in 1899."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "A spearmint version, Hot Tamales Ice, was marketed in the late 2000s, but was subsequently discontinued. It was reintroduced again in 2018 combined with the regular Hot Tamales and marketed as Hot Tamales Fire & Ice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guamal",
        "text": "Otros nombres que ha recibido el municipio: Barranca Nueva del Carme, Nuestra Se\u00f1ora del Carmen de Barrancas"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the classical times of the Maya of Central America (Guatemala in particular), the great Mayan lords delighted in a baked dough bun during the winter solstice, made of maize mixed with turkey, \"tepezcuintle\" (lowland paca) or venison, spices, and chili pepper, among other ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tangale language",
        "text": "In addition, verbs in some TAM can take an Altrilocal-Ventive or Distance suffix."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexican street food",
        "text": "Tamales are one of the most popular street foods in the world. They feature a filling and are wrapped in corn-based masa dough and steamed in corn husks. Tamales come in sweet and savory versions, some spicy and some bland. Versions with pork or chicken with a salsa or mole sauce are the most popular along with a version called 'rajas' which are strips of poblano chili pepper and cheese. It is one of the safer street foods for novices to try as it is cooked and kept in a steam vat while being sold. Corundas are a variety of tamale in Michoac\u00e1n in a triangle shape wrapped in corn stalk leaves. They can be eaten alone, with salsa or as an accompaniment to a meal. The Chiapas version of the tamale have a distinct flavor, often containing ingredients such as pibil, mole sauce, carrot, corn grains, egg, raisins, almonds (the locally named \"nacatamales\", a regional version of Nicaraguan well-known version), a version with the regional herb chipil\u00edn with chicken or queso blanco and versions wrapped in banana leaves. They are often sold by vendors on specially made tricycles for street vendors. Uchepos are tamales made with fresh corn, generally made in Michoac\u00e1n in July and August."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Cherokee tamales, also known as bean bread or \"broadswords\", were made with hominy (in the case of the Cherokee, the masa was made from corn boiled in water treated with wood ashes instead of lime) and beans, and wrapped in green corn leaves or large tree leaves and boiled, similar to the meatless pre-Columbian bean and masa tamales still prepared in Chiapas, central Mexico, and Guatemala."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "In 2011, Just Born released \"Hot Tamales 3 ALARM\" containing a mix of three candies: orange (hot), pinkish (hotter) and dark red (hottest). In 2014, Just Born released \"Hot Tamales Tropical Heat\" that contains three candies, combining the original pungent, spicy flavor with lemon, mango and pineapple flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "As listed on the original Hot Tamales and Hot Tamales Fire boxes:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Virginia Ramos",
        "text": "She was born in Jalisco, Mexico in 1953. In 1980, she migrated to the United States. She started selling tamales at San Francisco bars in the early 1990s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamonea",
        "text": "Its native range is Mexico to Tropical America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natagaima",
        "text": "Tamale (Tolimense), almoj\u00e1bana, yucca bread with oats, Lechona, bizcochuelo, Mistela, Chanfaina, Corn Chicha, Masato, Poporoi are the most important dishes of the zone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pong-Tamale",
        "text": "Pong-Tamale\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In Guatemala, eating tamales at midnight on December 24 and 31 is customary. Guatemalans also eat tamales for holiday celebrations, birthdays, and baptisms, so the tamale is considered an important dish in the culture of Guatemala."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarind",
        "text": "In Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, Peru, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Italy, Spain, and throughout the Lusosphere, it is called \"tamarindo\". In those countries it is often used to make the beverage of the same name (or \"agua de tamarindo\"). In the Caribbean, tamarind is sometimes called \"tam\u00f3n\". Countries in the Malay world like Indonesia call it \"asam jawa\" (Javanese sour fruit) or simply \"asam\", and \"sukaer\" in Timor. While in the Philippines, it is called \"sampalok\" or \"sampaloc\" in Filipino, and \"sambag\" in Cebuano. Tamarind (\"Tamarindus indica\") is sometimes confused with \"Manila tamarind\" (\"Pithecellobium dulce\"). While in the same taxonomic family Fabaceae, Manila tamarind is a different plant native to Mexico and known locally as \"guam\u00fachili\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baron Ambrosia",
        "text": "Culinary Focus: The Puerto Rican tamale known as a pastel"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The most popular version of the Tamal in Nicaragua is the \"nacatamal\" and sometimes serves as an entire meal in itself. It is a traditional dish with indigenous origins. The name comes from the Nawat language spoken by the Nicarao, who were situated on the Southern Pacific coast of Nicaragua, and translates to \"meat tamale\". The is perhaps the most produced within traditional Nicaraguan cuisine and it is an event often reserved for Sundays at mid-morning. It is usually eaten together with fresh bread and coffee. Enjoying during special occasions and to invite extended family and neighbors to also partake is a common occurrence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "In addition to the original variant, Just Born also markets \"Hot Tamales Fire\" (originally \"Super Hot Hot Tamales\") with a hotter flavor and darker color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexican cuisine",
        "text": "Another important festive food is the tamale, also known as \"tamal\" in Spanish. This is a filled cornmeal dumpling, steamed in a wrapping (usually a corn husk or banana leaf) and one of the basic staples in most regions of Mexico. It has its origins in the pre-Hispanic era and today is found in many varieties in all of Mexico. Like mole, it is complicated to prepare and best done in large amounts. Tamales are associated with certain celebrations such as Candlemas. They are wrapped in corn husks in the highlands and desert areas of Mexico and in banana leaves in the tropics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guamal",
        "text": "Pueblo de gente amable, cordial y pujante. de hermosos paisajes y diversidad de sitios turisticos naturales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tootsies and Tamales",
        "text": "Tootsies and Tamales\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pithecellobium dulce",
        "text": "Pithecellobium dulce, commonly known as Manila tamarind, Madras thorn, or camachile, is a species of flowering plant in the pea family, Fabaceae, that is native to the Pacific Coast and adjacent highlands of Mexico, Central America, and northern South America. It is also sometimes known as monkeypod, but that name is also used for several other plants, including \"Samanea saman\". It is an introduced species and extensively naturalized in the Caribbean and Florida, as well as the Philippines and Guam via the Manila galleons. It has also been introduced to Thailand and South Asia, It is considered an invasive species in Hawaii."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zongzi",
        "text": "In some areas of the United States, particularly California and Texas, \"zongzi\" are often known as \"Chinese tamales\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guamal",
        "text": "Nombre del municipio: GUAMAL"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamu\u00edn",
        "text": "Agriculture: The most common crops are corn, sorghum, beans, sugar cane, papaya, and some produce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Micronesian myzomela",
        "text": "It is distributed throughout the Northern Mariana Islands, including Rota, Tinian and Saipan, as well as Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae in Micronesia, and the islands of Palau. The species once also occurred in Guam, but that population is now almost certainly extinct."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the pre-Columbian era, the Aztecs ate tamales with fillings such as turkey, flamingo, frog, \"axolotl\", pocket gopher, rabbit, fish, turkey eggs, honey, fruits, squash, and beans, and even no filling. Aztec tamales differed from modern tamales by not having added fat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamas Galambos",
        "text": "Tamas Galambos\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuqu\u00edo",
        "text": "Corn tamales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "are much larger in size in comparison to their counterparts, and made up of mostly nixtamalized corn (a kind of dough traditionally made from a process called ) and lard). The masa and liquified concoction of onion, garlic, tomato, salt, (annatto), naranja agria and bell pepper is cooked and the result becomes the base for the nacatamal and it is also referred to as . This base is ladled onto plantain leaves used for wrapping into large individual portions. The filling usually consists of annatto-seasoned pork meat, rice, slices of potatoes, bell peppers, tomatoes, and onions; olives, spearmint sprigs, and chile, a very small, egg-shaped chile found in Nicaragua. On occasion, prunes, raisins, or capers can be added. The \"masa\" and filling are then wrapped in plantain leaves, tied with a string, and made into pillow-shaped bundles \u2013 . They are then steamed or pressure-cooked for several hours. The entire process is very labor-intensive, and it often requires preparation over the course of two days; involving the whole family may be needed to complete it.\n* Are a much simpler version of a tamal in Nicaragua, they are wrapped in a banana leaf, and are eaten with cheese and cooked red beans.\n* have a sweet flavor, filled with a mixture of ground beans sweetened with cane sugar or rapadura and are wrapped in banana leaves. They serve as a dessert.\n* Is made with tender corn grains that gives it a slightly sweet flavor and wrapped in corn husks. It is generally eaten accompanied by quesillo or cheese, and sour cream.\n*. A variety of the above stuffed with a mixture of rapadura and grated or ground cheese.\n*. A Northern Nicaraguan tamal make with chicken or hen meat, wrapped in a banana leaf and tied\n* Is a Western Nicaraguan tamal mostly found in Le\u00f3n. that consists of masa mixed with mashed green plantain, sugar, honey and salt. It's wrapped in tempisque or fig leaf and cooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Azalea Qui\u00f1ones",
        "text": "and have been shown in Buenos Aires, Colombia, Cuba, Mexico, Spain, Switzerland, Germany, and the United States as well as Venezuela."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Pablo Atlazalpan",
        "text": "The \"Tamale Fair\" is held in December, lasting one week. The makers of the typical Mexican dish tamale come together in order to compete on whose is the best-prepared, as well as to sell their wares to local diners who gather there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christmas dinner",
        "text": "In Honduras, tamales are traditionally eaten on Christmas Eve evening. Turkey has become popular in the last few years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamburello",
        "text": "Tamburello and its variations remain popular today in many nations of the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "Deriving its name from the sometimes pungent (spicy hot) flavor of tamales, Hot Tamales was the top selling cinnamon candy in 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guatemalans",
        "text": "There are reportedly hundreds of varieties of tamales throughout Guatemala. They key variations are what is in the \"masa\" or dough (maize, potatoes, rice), what's in the filling (meat, fruits, nuts), and what is it wrapped with (leaves, husks). The masa is made out of corn that is not sweet, such as what is known as feed corn in the U.S.A. In Guatemala, this non-sweet corn is called maize and the corn that Americans from the USA are used to eating on the cob, sweet corn, they call \"elote\". Tamales in Guatemala are more typically wrapped in plantain, banana, or maxan leaves rather than corn husks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camal\u00e8s",
        "text": "Camal\u00e8s\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour tortilla",
        "text": "In Guam, it is called and it is paired with ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother-in-law (sandwich)",
        "text": "Mexican-Americans brought the tamale to Chicago, and African-Americans from the Mississippi Delta area brought the hot tamale to the city. But no one knows how the mother-in-law sandwich developed. Some speculate it may have had its beginnings in Mexico City's \"torta de tamal,\" a tamale on a bolillo. The precise origins of the Chicago-style tamale are also obscure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale Guy",
        "text": "Claudio Velez, often referred to as the Tamale Guy, Authentic Tamale Guy or the Tamale Man, is a cook and mobile caterer of tamales in Chicago. Originally from Acapulco, Mexico, Velez has a longstanding reputation in the city's North Side nightlife as a food provider outside and inside of clubs, bars, and other establishments open late at night. He has been called \"Santa Claus for the drunk and hungry\" and sells up to 250 pork, chicken or cheese tamales a night. A mobile app through a Twitter account was developed by a customer intended to help others track his location across the city."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maria Elena Lorenzo",
        "text": "After coming to the U.S., Maria and Juan began to cook and sell their native Afro-Mexican style tamales from a small cart in the Watts neighborhood of Bell Gardens, California. Maria started off selling her tamales at the local Grape Street Elementary School and the Imperial courts housing projects, where her and her family resided. In 2007, Maria upgraded to a food truck which continued to serve the Watts neighborhood with an expanded menu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Am\u00e9rica, Tamaulipas",
        "text": "Am\u00e9rica, Tamaulipas\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarillo",
        "text": "The tamarillo (\"Solanum betaceum\") is a small tree or shrub in the flowering plant family Solanaceae (the nightshade family). It is best known as the species that bears the tamarillo, an egg-shaped edible fruit. It is also known as the tree tomato, tomate de \u00e1rbol, tomate andino, tomate serrano, blood fruit, tomate de yuca, tomate de espa\u00f1a, sachatomate, berenjena, chilto and tamamoro in South America, and terong Belanda (Dutch eggplant) in Indonesia. It is popular globally, especially in Peru, Colombia, New Zealand, Ecuador, Rwanda, Australia, and the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarillo",
        "text": "The tamarillo is native to the Andes of Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, Chile, Argentina and Bolivia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guatemalan cuisine",
        "text": "There are reportedly hundreds of varieties of tamales throughout Guatemala. The key variations include the ingredients in the \"masa\" or dough (corn, potatoes, rice), in the filling (meat, fruits, nuts), and what it is wrapped with (leaves, husks). Tamales in Guatemala tend to be wrapped in green 'maxan' leaves (\"Calathea lutea\"), while Chuchitos \u2014 which resemble Mexican tamales \u2014 are wrapped in corn husks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteles",
        "text": "Related to alcapurria, tamale, hallacas, and guanimes, pasteles are believed to have been made by natives of Boriquen (Puerto Rico). Tainos made masa from cassava, yaut\u00eda and squash. The masa was then filled with beans, fruit, chilies, corn, nuts, meat, fish and wrapped in corn husk."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which Mesoamerican tribe is responsible for the origin of the tamale?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "According to archaeologists Karl Taube, William Saturno, and David Stuart, tamales may date from around 100 AD. They found pictorial references in the Mural of San Bartolo, in Pet\u00e9n, Guatemala and the preparation of tamales is likely to have spread from the indigenous cultures in Guatemala and Mexico to the rest of Latin America."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did tamales make their way to the USA?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Tamales have been eaten in the United States since at least 1893, when they were featured at the World's Columbian Exposition. African Americans in the Mississippi Delta developed a spicy tamale made from cornmeal instead of masa and in northern Louisiana, tamales have been made for several centuries."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are tamales popular anywhere else, other than North and South America?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They are popular in the Caribbean, Central America, the Philippines, and Guam."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about tamale in Guam please!"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The variety found in Guam, known as tamales guiso, is made with corn masa and wrapped in corn husks.",
      "The variety found in Guam, known as tamales guiso, is made with corn masa and wrapped in corn husks, and as with the Philippine tamales, are clear evidence of the influence of the galleon trade that occurred between the ports of Manila and Acapulco."
    ],
    "topic": "Tamale",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Tamale:30",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tamale",
          "Philippines and Guam"
        ],
        "ctx": "Tamales, \"tamalis\", \"tamalos\", and \"pasteles\" are different varieties found throughout the region. Some are sweet, some are savory, and some are sweet and savory. Mostly wrapped in banana leaves and made of rice, either the whole grain or ground and cooked with coconut milk and other seasonings, they are sometimes filled with meat and seafood, or are plain and have no filling. There are certain varieties, such as \"tamalos\", that are made of a sweet corn masa wrapped in a corn husk or leaf. There are also varieties made without masa, like \"tamalis\", which are made with small fish fry wrapped in banana leaves and steamed, similar to the from Mexico, where the small fish are cooked whole with herbs and seasonings wrapped inside a corn husk without masa. The number of varieties has dwindled through the years so certain types of tamales that were once popular in the Philippines have become lost or are simply memories. The variety found in Guam, known as \"tamales guiso\", is made with corn masa and wrapped in corn husks, and as with the Philippine tamales, are clear evidence of the influence of the galleon trade that occurred between the ports of Manila and Acapulco."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Tamale:30",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tamale",
          "Philippines and Guam"
        ],
        "ctx": "Tamales, \"tamalis\", \"tamalos\", and \"pasteles\" are different varieties found throughout the region. Some are sweet, some are savory, and some are sweet and savory. Mostly wrapped in banana leaves and made of rice, either the whole grain or ground and cooked with coconut milk and other seasonings, they are sometimes filled with meat and seafood, or are plain and have no filling. There are certain varieties, such as \"tamalos\", that are made of a sweet corn masa wrapped in a corn husk or leaf. There are also varieties made without masa, like \"tamalis\", which are made with small fish fry wrapped in banana leaves and steamed, similar to the from Mexico, where the small fish are cooked whole with herbs and seasonings wrapped inside a corn husk without masa. The number of varieties has dwindled through the years so certain types of tamales that were once popular in the Philippines have become lost or are simply memories. The variety found in Guam, known as \"tamales guiso\", is made with corn masa and wrapped in corn husks, and as with the Philippine tamales, are clear evidence of the influence of the galleon trade that occurred between the ports of Manila and Acapulco."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamales, \"tamalis\", \"tamalos\", and \"pasteles\" are different varieties found throughout the region. Some are sweet, some are savory, and some are sweet and savory. Mostly wrapped in banana leaves and made of rice, either the whole grain or ground and cooked with coconut milk and other seasonings, they are sometimes filled with meat and seafood, or are plain and have no filling. There are certain varieties, such as \"tamalos\", that are made of a sweet corn masa wrapped in a corn husk or leaf. There are also varieties made without masa, like \"tamalis\", which are made with small fish fry wrapped in banana leaves and steamed, similar to the from Mexico, where the small fish are cooked whole with herbs and seasonings wrapped inside a corn husk without masa. The number of varieties has dwindled through the years so certain types of tamales that were once popular in the Philippines have become lost or are simply memories. The variety found in Guam, known as \"tamales guiso\", is made with corn masa and wrapped in corn husks, and as with the Philippine tamales, are clear evidence of the influence of the galleon trade that occurred between the ports of Manila and Acapulco."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the Philippines and Guam, which were governed by Spain as a province of Mexico, different forms of tamale-like foods exist. In the Philippines, they merged with the native leaf-wrapped rice cakes (\"kakanin\") and are made with a dough derived from ground rice and are filled with seasoned chicken or pork with the addition of peanuts and other seasonings such as sugar. In some places, such as the Pampanga, where it is popularly known as \"bobotu\", and Batangas provinces, the tamales are wrapped in banana leaves, but sweet corn varieties from the Visayas region are wrapped in corn husks similar to the sweet corn tamales of the American Southwest and Mexico. Because of the work involved in the preparation of tamales, they usually only appear during the special holidays or other big celebrations. Various recipes have practically disappeared under the pressures of modern life and the ease of fast food. Several varieties of tamales are also found in the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamale\n--Origin.\n--Caribbean.\n----Cuba.\n----Dominican Republic.\n----Puerto Rico.\n----Trinidad and Tobago.\n--Central America.\n----Belize.\n----Guatemala.\n------Pre-Columbian Guatemala.\n----Nicaragua.\n--Mexico.\n----Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica.\n------Pre-Columbian Mayas.\n------Aztecs.\n----Modern Mexico.\n--South America.\n----Venezuela.\n--Philippines and Guam.\n--United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Instead of corn husks, banana or plantain leaves are used in tropical parts of the country, such as Oaxaca, Chiapas, Veracruz, and the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula. These tamales are rather square in shape, often very large\u201415\u00a0inches (40\u00a0cm)\u2014and these larger tamales are commonly known as \"pibs\" in the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula. Another very large type of tamale is , made in the Huasteca region of Mexico. Depending on the size, can feed between 50 and 200 people; they are made during festivals and holidays, for quincea\u00f1eras, and on Sundays to be sold at the markets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The is also related to the pastel, a root tamale dating to around the same time as the native Ta\u00edno ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Santiago Teyahualco",
        "text": "Tamales is a traditional Mesoamerican dish made of \u201cmasa\u201d or dough (starchy, and usually corn-based), which is steamed in a corn husk or banana leaf"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "A tamale is a traditional Mesoamerican dish, made of masa, a dough made from nixtamalized corn, which is steamed in a corn husk or banana leaf. The wrapping can either be discarded prior to eating or used as a plate. Tamales can be filled with meats, cheeses, fruits, vegetables, herbs, chilies, or any preparation according to taste, and both the filling and the cooking liquid may be seasoned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamales originated in Mesoamerica as early as 8000 to 5000 BC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "\"Tamale\" is an anglicized version of the Spanish word (plural: ). comes from the Nahuatl . The English \"tamale\" is a back-formation of , with English speakers interpreting the \"-e-\" as part of the stem, rather than part of the plural suffix \"-es\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Santander Department",
        "text": "The tamale is a dish that is eaten in various parts of Colombia, but in Santander it is prepared with peeled corn dough and filled with beef, chicken or pork, chickpeas, onions, and paprika. It is then wrapped in banana leaf giving it a rectangular shape."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In Mexico, tamales begin with a dough made from ground nixtamalized corn (hominy), called \"masa\", or alternatively a rehydrated \"masa\" powder, such as Maseca. It is combined with lard or vegetable shortening, along with broth or water, to bring the dough to the consistency of a very thick batter. It is traditional to whisk the lard, and whisk the resulting batter, with the intent of producing the signature soft and fluffy texture. Modern recipes may use baking powder to achieve a similar effect. Chili purees or dried chili powders are also occasionally added to the batter, which in addition to the spice can cause some tamales to appear red in color. Tamales are generally wrapped in corn husks or plantain leaves before being steamed, with the choice of husk depending on the region. They usually have a sweet or savory filling and are usually steamed until firm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In Cuba, before the 1959 Revolution, street vendors sold Mexican-style tamales wrapped in corn husks, usually made without any kind of spicy seasoning. Cuban tamales being identical in form to those made in Mexico City suggests they were brought over to Cuba during the period of intense cultural and musical exchange between Cuba and Mexico after the 1920s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamal (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Tamal or tamale may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In northern Louisiana, tamales have been made for several centuries. The Spanish established presidio Los Adaes in 1721 in modern-day Robeline, Louisiana. The descendants of these Spanish settlers from central Mexico were the first tamale makers to arrive in the eastern US. Zwolle, Louisiana, has a Tamale Fiesta every year in October."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "While Mexican-style and other Latin American-style tamales are featured at ethnic restaurants throughout the United States, some distinctly indigenous styles also are made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pithecellobium dulce",
        "text": "Pithecellobium dulce, commonly known as Manila tamarind, Madras thorn, or camachile, is a species of flowering plant in the pea family, Fabaceae, that is native to the Pacific Coast and adjacent highlands of Mexico, Central America, and northern South America. It is also sometimes known as monkeypod, but that name is also used for several other plants, including \"Samanea saman\". It is an introduced species and extensively naturalized in the Caribbean and Florida, as well as the Philippines and Guam via the Manila galleons. It has also been introduced to Thailand and South Asia, It is considered an invasive species in Hawaii."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the Dominican Republic, are Dominican tamales stuffed with \"picadillo\". The name has its origin from the native Ta\u00ednos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bollo",
        "text": "Panamanian bollo has been described as a type of tamale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The several versions of can be made with green plantains, cassava, and a sweet version made with sweet plantains and cornmeal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Guatemala has many tamale varieties, from the traditional corn-husked tamale called a , to a sweet version of tamale, which uses the same corn dough, but is seasoned with honey or sugar combined with chocolate, almonds, plums, seeds, and peppers. Tamales are sold in stores and private homes (especially on Saturdays). A red light on a home at night is a sign that tamales are for sale at that home.\n*Red tamales owe their name to achiote and tomato and are made with corn dough stuffed with \"recado rojo\", raisins, chili peppers, chicken, beef' or pork wrapped in banana leaves.\n*Cambray tamales contain raisins and almonds. Sweet tamales are filled with sweet . Black tamales are named after the color that chocolate gives them. Chipilin tamales wrapped in corn husks, parrot tamales, and corn tamales among others are also made. Cream tamales and cheese and anise seeds are also mixed with corn tamales.\n* is a typical and emblematic dish of Guatemala. It is a variation of the tamale made with corn dough, but a firmer consistency, although lard can be added to the dough to generate a more pleasant taste and consistency. It is usually mixed with of tomato and with a filling that can be with chicken, beef, or pork. It is wrapped with dried cob leaves (tusa or bender). In some places, it is accompanied by cheese, sauce, or both.\n*Rice tamales come from the Guatemalan highlands, where the typical corn dough is replaced by a thick dough of annealed rice with water and salt. The preparation of the does not differ much from the original, since only some regions have the ingredients with which it is made.\n* is a tamale particularly from the highlands of Guatemala that uses potato instead of maize for the dough.\n* or is dough only, with no meats or other fillings. This dish is used to accompany a meal and used to scoop food on the plate, or just eaten plain along with the main dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tangale language",
        "text": "In addition, verbs in some TAM can take an Altrilocal-Ventive or Distance suffix."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "Sugar, corn syrup, modified food starch, contains less than 0.5% of the following ingredients: dextrin, medium chain triglycerides, fruit juice from concentrate (pear, orange, strawberry, cherry, lemon, lime), sodium citrate, pectin, citric acid, malic acid, fumaric acid, confectioners glaze, carnauba wax, white mineral oil, artificial flavors, artificial color, sodium citrate, magnesium hydroxide, red #3, red #40, yellow #5 (tartrazine), yellow #6, blue #1."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the Mississippi Delta, African Americans developed a spicy tamale made from cornmeal instead of masa, which is boiled in corn husks. This is sometimes called a \"hot tamale\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "are prepared in a plain version, without the stuffing, and served with stewed salted cod fish. Since the arrival of Europeans, have lost their stuffing. Contemporary are made with corn masa seasoned with coconut milk, lard, broth, and annatto, wrapped in a banana leaf or corn husk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamale (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Hot Tamale (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarind",
        "text": "In Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, Peru, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Italy, Spain, and throughout the Lusosphere, it is called \"tamarindo\". In those countries it is often used to make the beverage of the same name (or \"agua de tamarindo\"). In the Caribbean, tamarind is sometimes called \"tam\u00f3n\". Countries in the Malay world like Indonesia call it \"asam jawa\" (Javanese sour fruit) or simply \"asam\", and \"sukaer\" in Timor. While in the Philippines, it is called \"sampalok\" or \"sampaloc\" in Filipino, and \"sambag\" in Cebuano. Tamarind (\"Tamarindus indica\") is sometimes confused with \"Manila tamarind\" (\"Pithecellobium dulce\"). While in the same taxonomic family Fabaceae, Manila tamarind is a different plant native to Mexico and known locally as \"guam\u00fachili\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In Trinidad and Tobago, it is called a \"pastelle\" and is popular in many households during the entire Christmas season and New Year celebrations. It is usually made with cornmeal and filled with cooked, seasoned meat (chicken and beef being the most popular), raisins, olives, capers, and other seasonings. The entire \"pastelle\" is wrapped in a banana leaf, bound with twine and steamed. When fully cooked, the banana leaf is removed to reveal the brightly yellow-colored dish. It is often indulged as is or along with a meal. The sweet version is called \"paymee\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The preparation of tamales is likely to have spread from the indigenous cultures in Guatemala and Mexico to the rest of Latin America. According to archaeologists Karl Taube, William Saturno, and David Stuart, tamales may date from around 100 AD. They found pictorial references in the \"Mural of San Bartolo\", in Pet\u00e9n, Guatemala."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarillo",
        "text": "The tamarillo is also successfully grown at higher elevations of Malaysia and the Philippines, and in Puerto Rico. In the hot tropical lowlands, it develops only small fruits and fruit setting is seldom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Around the beginning of the 20th century, the name \"tamale pie\" was given to meat pies and casseroles made with a cornmeal crust and typical tamale fillings arranged in layers. Although characterized as Mexican food, these forms are not popular in Mexican American culture in which the individually wrapped style is preferred."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quezon",
        "text": "\"Quezon tamales\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Chiapas",
        "text": "Tamales are a major part of the diet and often include chipil\u00edn mixed into the dough and hoja santa, within the tamale itself or used to wrap it. One tamale native to the state is the \"picte\", a fresh sweet corn tamale. Tamales juacanes are filled with a mixture of black beans, dried shrimp, and pumpkin seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana leaf",
        "text": "Tamales made throughout Central America are traditionally wrapped in banana leaves prior to cooking, which imparts a distinctive taste to the nixtamalized corn dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guatemalans",
        "text": "There are reportedly hundreds of varieties of tamales throughout Guatemala. They key variations are what is in the \"masa\" or dough (maize, potatoes, rice), what's in the filling (meat, fruits, nuts), and what is it wrapped with (leaves, husks). The masa is made out of corn that is not sweet, such as what is known as feed corn in the U.S.A. In Guatemala, this non-sweet corn is called maize and the corn that Americans from the USA are used to eating on the cob, sweet corn, they call \"elote\". Tamales in Guatemala are more typically wrapped in plantain, banana, or maxan leaves rather than corn husks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamale (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Hot Tamale may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Binaki",
        "text": "\"Binaki\" and \"pintos\" are sweet variants of Philippine tamales without fillings. They arose independently in Bukidnon and Bogo. Both are traditionally wrapped in corn husks, but can usually be distinguished from each other by the method of wrapping. \"Binaki\" has a longer and narrower wrapping, while \"pintos\" is shorter and rectangular with additional cross-wise ties. Both the names and \"pintos\" literally mean \"wrapped [in a pouch]\"; from Cebuano \"bakibaki\" (\"[pouch made of leaves] shaped like a frog\"), and a contracted form of (\"wrapped\"), respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamu\u00edn",
        "text": "Agriculture: The most common crops are corn, sorghum, beans, sugar cane, papaya, and some produce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "\"Guanime\" is a Puerto Rican dish that can be traced back to pre-Columbian times. It consists of corn masa that is stuffed with beans, seafood, nuts, or meat, and then wrapped in corn husks slowly cooked on a grill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the pre-Columbian era, the Aztecs ate tamales with fillings such as turkey, flamingo, frog, \"axolotl\", pocket gopher, rabbit, fish, turkey eggs, honey, fruits, squash, and beans, and even no filling. Aztec tamales differed from modern tamales by not having added fat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Binaki",
        "text": "Binaki () or pintos is a type of steamed corn sweet tamales from two regions in the Philippines \u2013 Bukidnon and Bogo, Cebu. They are distinctively wrapped in corn husks and are commonly sold as \"pasalubong\" and street food in Northern Mindanao and Cebu. It is sometimes anglicized as \"steamed corn cakes\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Humitas (from Quechua humint'a) is a Native South American dish from pre-Hispanic times, a traditional food from the Andes and it can be found in Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, and Northwest Argentina. It consists of fresh choclo (Peruvian corn) pounded to a paste, wrapped in a fresh corn husk, and slowly steamed or boiled in a pot of water. In Bolivia it is known as huminta and in Brazil as pamonha."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pithecellobium dulce",
        "text": "The English names \"Manila tamarind\" and \"Madras thorn\" are both misleading since it is neither related to the tamarind nor native to Manila (though it was introduced early to the Philippines) or Madras. Other English names include blackbead, sweet Inga, and monkeypod."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Guatemala",
        "text": "There are reportedly hundreds of varieties of tamales throughout Guatemala. The key variations are what is in the \"masa\" or dough (corn, potatoes, rice), what's in the filling (meat, fruits, nuts), and what it is wrapped with (leaves, husks). The masa is made out of corn that is not sweet, such as what is known as feed corn in the U.S.A. In Guatemala, this non-sweet corn is called maize and the corn that Americans from the USA are used to eating on the cob, sweet corn, they call \"elote\". Tamales in Guatemala are more typically wrapped in plantain or banana leaves and mashan leaves than corn husks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Umeboshi",
        "text": "In the Philippines, this is called kiamoy or tsampoy, and is usually drier. Kiamoy and tsampoy were two types of Filipino-Chinese plum pickle that was transported to Mexico via the Manila galleon, where it is known as \"chamoy\" and is usually made with apricot, ume or tamarind and a mix of salt and dry chili."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamu\u00edn",
        "text": "Manufacturing: there is a cement plant of Grupo Cemex, two 260 MW electric generating stations operated by the AES Corporation, and a meat packing plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pus\u00f4",
        "text": "Pus\u00f4 or tamu, sometimes known in Philippine English as \"hanging rice\", is a Filipino rice cake made by boiling rice in a woven pouch of palm leaves. It is most commonly found in octahedral, diamond, or rectangular shapes, but it can also come in various other intricately woven complex forms. It is known under many different names throughout the Philippines with numerous variations, but it is usually associated with the street food cultures of the Visayan and Moro peoples."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guanime",
        "text": "Guanimes are related to tamales and hallacas. Cornmeal masa is wrapped in corn husk stuffed with meat, nuts, fish, beans, or nothing at all. They are then boiled like tamales and hallacas. Ta\u00ednos in Puerto Rico also mashed a variety of tubers and squash into the cornmeal masa. This later became the modern day \"pasteles\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "Hot Tamales is a soft, cinnamon flavored, oblong-shaped candy introduced in 1950. It is manufactured and marketed in the United States by Just Born, a family-owned, Pennsylvania-based candy company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "A well-known Cuban song from the 1950s, \"\", (a cha-cha-cha sung by Orquesta Arag\u00f3n) celebrated the delicious tamales sold by a street vendor in Cienfuegos. A peculiarly Cuban invention is the dish known as , basically consisting of tamale masa with the meat stuffing stirred into the masa, and then cooked in a pot on the stove to form a kind of hearty cornmeal porridge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trupanea decepta",
        "text": "Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guajolota",
        "text": "Most vendors sell a variety of tamales stuffed with different ingredients, such as red \"mole\" with chicken, \"salsa verde\" with pork, cheese and chile poblano \"rajas con queso,\" or a \"tamal de dulce,\" which is a sweet flavored tamal, to accompany the bolillo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mesa de Cacahuatenco",
        "text": "Hence, Ixhuatl\u00e1n means \u201cPlace of papatlas\u201d; papalta is a plant that frows in moist places and its leaves are used to wrap tamales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexican cuisine",
        "text": "Another important festive food is the tamale, also known as \"tamal\" in Spanish. This is a filled cornmeal dumpling, steamed in a wrapping (usually a corn husk or banana leaf) and one of the basic staples in most regions of Mexico. It has its origins in the pre-Hispanic era and today is found in many varieties in all of Mexico. Like mole, it is complicated to prepare and best done in large amounts. Tamales are associated with certain celebrations such as Candlemas. They are wrapped in corn husks in the highlands and desert areas of Mexico and in banana leaves in the tropics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hampala lopezi",
        "text": "It is found only in the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guale",
        "text": "Guale\n--Language.\n--History.\n----Prehistory.\n----European contact.\n------Effect on health.\n----La Tama and Yamasee amalgamation.\n----Destruction and dispersal.\n----Emergence of the Yamasee.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteles",
        "text": "Related to alcapurria, tamale, hallacas, and guanimes, pasteles are believed to have been made by natives of Boriquen (Puerto Rico). Tainos made masa from cassava, yaut\u00eda and squash. The masa was then filled with beans, fruit, chilies, corn, nuts, meat, fish and wrapped in corn husk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pong-Tamale",
        "text": "Pong-Tamale\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Tamale",
        "text": "The seat of the archbishop is Our Lady of Annunciation Cathedral in Tamale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamale-making is a ritual that has been part of Mexican life since pre-Hispanic times, when special fillings and forms were designated for each specific festival or life event. Today, tamales are typically filled with meats, cheese, or vegetables, especially chilies. Preparation is complex and time-consuming, and an excellent example of Mexican communal cooking, where this task usually falls to the women. Tamales are a favorite comfort food in Mexico, eaten as both breakfast and dinner, and often accompanied by hot \"atole\" or \"champurrado\" and \"arroz con leche\" (rice porridge, \"rice with milk\") or maize-based beverages of indigenous origin. Street vendors can be seen serving them from huge, steaming, covered pots () or \"ollas\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The tamale is a staple in Belize, where it is also known as \"dukunu\", a sweet corn tamale that gets its name from the Garifuna people. Dukunus are mostly vegetarian and consist of roasted corn kernels blended with coconut milk as a base. Butter, salt, and sugar are also added. Dukunus filled with different meats are also made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Cherokee tamales, also known as bean bread or \"broadswords\", were made with hominy (in the case of the Cherokee, the masa was made from corn boiled in water treated with wood ashes instead of lime) and beans, and wrapped in green corn leaves or large tree leaves and boiled, similar to the meatless pre-Columbian bean and masa tamales still prepared in Chiapas, central Mexico, and Guatemala."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamonea",
        "text": "Its native range is Mexico to Tropical America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sampaloc, Manila",
        "text": "\"Sampaloc\" or \"Sampalok\" is the native Tagalog word for the tamarind fruit. The place was likely named after it due to tamarind trees that may have been rampant in the area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tampilisan",
        "text": "Tampilisan\n--History.\n--Geography.\n----Barangays.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamales have been eaten in the United States since at least 1893, when they were featured at the World's Columbian Exposition. In 1894, when tamales were the most popular ethnic food in Los Angeles, XLNT Foods started making them. The company is the oldest continuously operating Mexican food brand in the United States, and one of the oldest companies in Southern California."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale pie",
        "text": "Tamale pie\n--Overview.\n----Ingredients and preparation.\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale pie",
        "text": "Ingredients that are used include beef and ground beef, pork, chorizo, chicken, beans, cheese, cornmeal, corn, creamed corn, beans, black olives, onion, garlic, tomato, bell peppers, chili peppers, salsa, butter, seasonings such as chili powder, salt and pepper. Standard fine cornmeal can be used, as can \"masa harina\", a corn-based tortilla flour. Cheese may be used to top the dish, or inside the pie. The dish is typically baked in an oven. Garnishes used include cheese, sliced tomatoes, avocado slices, cilantro and olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boruca",
        "text": "Tamales can be prepared using rice, corn, or beans. All three types are considered special and served only at specific occasions, such as birthdays and when guests come to Boruca. The rice tamale is made by mixing uncooked rice with salt and oil. This compound can also be seasoned with chili, onion, ayote, or additional salt. Once finished, the rice is placed on a leaf, followed by pork and a final layer of rice. The leaf is then folded around the rice and pork and tied. The dish must cook for at least six hours. The corn variant is prepared in the same way, except that corn is used instead of rice and must only be cooked for one hour. The bean version can be made in the same manner but uses mashed beans instead of corn. The rice is most common."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale pie",
        "text": "Tamale pie is a pie and casserole dish in the cuisine of the Southwestern United States. It is prepared with a cornmeal crust and ingredients typically used in tamales. It has been described as a comfort food. The dish, invented sometime in the early 1900s in the United States, may have originated in Texas, and its first known published recipe dates to 1911."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tampilisan",
        "text": "The name Tampilisan originated from a tree called \"Tampilis\". This tree is about one (1) to three (3) meters in height, belongs to the palm family. Its sturdy part when split was used by the natives, Subanen, as a substitute for betel nuts. Since this tree were abundant in the area, the place thus called by the native as \"Tampilisan\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Swinglea",
        "text": "It is native to the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baron Ambrosia",
        "text": "Culinary Focus: The Puerto Rican tamale known as a pastel"
      },
      {
        "title": "Guatemalan cuisine",
        "text": "There are reportedly hundreds of varieties of tamales throughout Guatemala. The key variations include the ingredients in the \"masa\" or dough (corn, potatoes, rice), in the filling (meat, fruits, nuts), and what it is wrapped with (leaves, husks). Tamales in Guatemala tend to be wrapped in green 'maxan' leaves (\"Calathea lutea\"), while Chuchitos \u2014 which resemble Mexican tamales \u2014 are wrapped in corn husks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "are much larger in size in comparison to their counterparts, and made up of mostly nixtamalized corn (a kind of dough traditionally made from a process called ) and lard). The masa and liquified concoction of onion, garlic, tomato, salt, (annatto), naranja agria and bell pepper is cooked and the result becomes the base for the nacatamal and it is also referred to as . This base is ladled onto plantain leaves used for wrapping into large individual portions. The filling usually consists of annatto-seasoned pork meat, rice, slices of potatoes, bell peppers, tomatoes, and onions; olives, spearmint sprigs, and chile, a very small, egg-shaped chile found in Nicaragua. On occasion, prunes, raisins, or capers can be added. The \"masa\" and filling are then wrapped in plantain leaves, tied with a string, and made into pillow-shaped bundles \u2013 . They are then steamed or pressure-cooked for several hours. The entire process is very labor-intensive, and it often requires preparation over the course of two days; involving the whole family may be needed to complete it.\n* Are a much simpler version of a tamal in Nicaragua, they are wrapped in a banana leaf, and are eaten with cheese and cooked red beans.\n* have a sweet flavor, filled with a mixture of ground beans sweetened with cane sugar or rapadura and are wrapped in banana leaves. They serve as a dessert.\n* Is made with tender corn grains that gives it a slightly sweet flavor and wrapped in corn husks. It is generally eaten accompanied by quesillo or cheese, and sour cream.\n*. A variety of the above stuffed with a mixture of rapadura and grated or ground cheese.\n*. A Northern Nicaraguan tamal make with chicken or hen meat, wrapped in a banana leaf and tied\n* Is a Western Nicaraguan tamal mostly found in Le\u00f3n. that consists of masa mixed with mashed green plantain, sugar, honey and salt. It's wrapped in tempisque or fig leaf and cooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamal de olla",
        "text": "In Panamanian cuisine, tamal de olla (), which is Spanish for \"tamale of the pot/pan,\" is best described as a Panamanian-style tamale that fills the baking pan in which it is cooked, and is not wrapped in a banana or plantain leaf. The ingredients include pork or chicken cooked with corn-stuffed cornmeal (with \"maiz nuevo\"), vegetables (onion, tomato, and bell pepper), olives, and raisins. Some also add chopped prunes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "This meal was later integrated into modern Guatemalan traditions. For example, on Christmas Eve, families prepare black, red, or sweet tamales for family and friends to show gratitude. The tamales are often accompanied with chocolate, yolk bread, and punch, and participate in the Mass of Gallo, at midnight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn tortilla",
        "text": "The \"tamal\" (or tamale) of Mexico is also made from \"nixtamal\" (the Nahuatl word for hominy is the source of the term 'nixtamalization'), but is much thicker and a dish unto itself, usually including other ingredients and flavors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uchepos",
        "text": "Although it is considered to have originated in the Mexican state of Michoacan, chepo can be found in other states of the republic where it is called corn tamal. In other regions of Central America it is also called corn tamal. In some regions in South America these tamales are called humitas where the recipes may call for some spices, raisins, other sweet ingredients such as cajeta blanca/arequipe/dulce de leche/manjar, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tambja olivaria",
        "text": "This species occurs in the Philippines, Maldives, Thailand, and Taiwan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Manila galleon",
        "text": "Around 80% of the goods shipped back from Acapulco to Manila were from the Americas - silver, cochineal, seeds, sweet potato, corn, tomato, tobacco, chickpea, chocolate and cocoa, watermelon, vine and fig trees. The remaining 20% were goods transshipped from Europe and North Africa such as wine and olive oil, and metal goods such as weapons, knobs and spurs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salvadoran cuisine",
        "text": "El Salvador is known for different types of tamales, which are usually wrapped in plantain leaves. These tamales include:\n* \"Tamales de elote\" (Fresh corn cakes)\n* \"Tamales pisques\" (Tamales stuffed with black beans)\n* \"Tamales de pollo\" (Tamales stuffed with chicken and potatoes)\n* \"Ticucos\" (\"Travelers\" tamales )"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aglaia luzoniensis",
        "text": "Aglaia luzoniensis is a species of plant in the family Meliaceae. It is found in Indonesia and the Philippines. It can grow up to 10 meters tall and its bole can be up to 15 centimeters of diameter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "As listed on the original Hot Tamales and Hot Tamales Fire boxes:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Guamal",
        "text": "Gentilicio: Guamalero \u00f3 Guamalense"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamshiyacu",
        "text": "This also is a land of humari, pineapple, cassava, banana, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Acrotaeniostola megispilota",
        "text": "Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamas Galambos",
        "text": "Tamas Galambos\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "San Pablo Atlazalpan",
        "text": "The \"Tamale Fair\" is held in December, lasting one week. The makers of the typical Mexican dish tamale come together in order to compete on whose is the best-prepared, as well as to sell their wares to local diners who gather there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "Hot Tamales\n--Variations.\n--Ingredients.\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Roselle (plant)",
        "text": "In the Philippines, the leaves and flowers are used to add sourness to the chicken dish \"tinola\" (chicken stew)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thompson Field",
        "text": "Tellez Tamales is a local tamaleria that has served the community for decades. It is well known in the area for its Mexican breakfast foods including tamales, barbacoa and other standard Mexican fare."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of maize dishes",
        "text": "Tamales are a dish of nixtamalized maize that is ground, wrapped in a corn husk, and steamed. Tamales originated in Mesoamerica as early as 8000 to 5000 BC. There are many regional variants and related dishes.\n*\n*\n*\n*"
      },
      {
        "title": "Anacolosa frutescens",
        "text": "The fruit and seeds of galo (also known as \"aluloy\") is eaten in the Philippines. The fruit is usually boiled before consumption and has a taste similar to avocado. The seeds have a flavor described as being similar to a mixture of sweet corn and chestnuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pithecellobium dulce",
        "text": "In South Asia and the rest of Southeast Asia, it is known by many names, most of which literally translate to \"foreign tamarind\". These include: in Thai; in Khmer; or in (Tamil); in Telugu; or in Kannada; or in Gujarati; or \"chinch bilai\" or \"cheese bilai\" in Marathi; in Hindi; in Odia; in Sindhi; and in Bengali. In Pakistan, it is also known as \"jungle jalebi\", after the resemblance of its fruits to the jalebi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tammispea",
        "text": "Tammispea\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Guamatela",
        "text": "Guamatela\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Munai",
        "text": "Location of mosques:\n*Tambo (Poblacion), can accommodate 200 to 300 people\n*Old Poblacion, Can accommodate 100 to 200 people\n;List of local products:\n*Corn, primary business for agriculture\n*Rice farm (Basak in Maranao Term), primary business for agriculture\n*Coconut, primary business for agriculture\n*Abaca\n*Lumber\n*Livestock\n*Falcata\n*Banana\n*Fish Pond"
      },
      {
        "title": "Theales",
        "text": "Theales\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Tamale",
        "text": "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Tamale\n--Special churches.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tagoloan, Misamis Oriental",
        "text": "The major agricultural crops in the area are corn, coconut, mango, peanut, rice, banana, and papaya."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which Mesoamerican tribe is responsible for the origin of the tamale?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "According to archaeologists Karl Taube, William Saturno, and David Stuart, tamales may date from around 100 AD. They found pictorial references in the Mural of San Bartolo, in Pet\u00e9n, Guatemala and the preparation of tamales is likely to have spread from the indigenous cultures in Guatemala and Mexico to the rest of Latin America."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did tamales make their way to the USA?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Tamales have been eaten in the United States since at least 1893, when they were featured at the World's Columbian Exposition. African Americans in the Mississippi Delta developed a spicy tamale made from cornmeal instead of masa and in northern Louisiana, tamales have been made for several centuries."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are tamales popular anywhere else, other than North and South America?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They are popular in the Caribbean, Central America, the Philippines, and Guam."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about tamale in Guam please!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The variety found in Guam, known as tamales guiso, is made with corn masa and wrapped in corn husks, and as with the Philippine tamales, are clear evidence of the influence of the galleon trade that occurred between the ports of Manila and Acapulco."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How about in the Philippines, can you tell me about tamale there?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In the Philippines, they merged with the native leaf-wrapped rice cakes and are made with a dough derived from ground rice and are filled with seasoned chicken or pork with the addition of peanuts and other seasonings such as sugar. Because of the work involved in the preparation of tamales, they usually only appear during the special holidays or other big celebrations.",
      "In the Philippines, they merged with the native leaf-wrapped rice cakes and are made with a dough derived from ground rice and are filled with seasoned chicken or pork with the addition of peanuts and other seasonings such as sugar."
    ],
    "topic": "Tamale",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Tamale:29",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tamale",
          "Philippines and Guam"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the Philippines and Guam, which were governed by Spain as a province of Mexico, different forms of tamale-like foods exist. In the Philippines, they merged with the native leaf-wrapped rice cakes (\"kakanin\") and are made with a dough derived from ground rice and are filled with seasoned chicken or pork with the addition of peanuts and other seasonings such as sugar. In some places, such as the Pampanga, where it is popularly known as \"bobotu\", and Batangas provinces, the tamales are wrapped in banana leaves, but sweet corn varieties from the Visayas region are wrapped in corn husks similar to the sweet corn tamales of the American Southwest and Mexico. Because of the work involved in the preparation of tamales, they usually only appear during the special holidays or other big celebrations. Various recipes have practically disappeared under the pressures of modern life and the ease of fast food. Several varieties of tamales are also found in the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Tamale:29",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tamale",
          "Philippines and Guam"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the Philippines and Guam, which were governed by Spain as a province of Mexico, different forms of tamale-like foods exist. In the Philippines, they merged with the native leaf-wrapped rice cakes (\"kakanin\") and are made with a dough derived from ground rice and are filled with seasoned chicken or pork with the addition of peanuts and other seasonings such as sugar. In some places, such as the Pampanga, where it is popularly known as \"bobotu\", and Batangas provinces, the tamales are wrapped in banana leaves, but sweet corn varieties from the Visayas region are wrapped in corn husks similar to the sweet corn tamales of the American Southwest and Mexico. Because of the work involved in the preparation of tamales, they usually only appear during the special holidays or other big celebrations. Various recipes have practically disappeared under the pressures of modern life and the ease of fast food. Several varieties of tamales are also found in the Philippines."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamale\n--Origin.\n--Caribbean.\n----Cuba.\n----Dominican Republic.\n----Puerto Rico.\n----Trinidad and Tobago.\n--Central America.\n----Belize.\n----Guatemala.\n------Pre-Columbian Guatemala.\n----Nicaragua.\n--Mexico.\n----Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica.\n------Pre-Columbian Mayas.\n------Aztecs.\n----Modern Mexico.\n--South America.\n----Venezuela.\n--Philippines and Guam.\n--United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the Philippines and Guam, which were governed by Spain as a province of Mexico, different forms of tamale-like foods exist. In the Philippines, they merged with the native leaf-wrapped rice cakes (\"kakanin\") and are made with a dough derived from ground rice and are filled with seasoned chicken or pork with the addition of peanuts and other seasonings such as sugar. In some places, such as the Pampanga, where it is popularly known as \"bobotu\", and Batangas provinces, the tamales are wrapped in banana leaves, but sweet corn varieties from the Visayas region are wrapped in corn husks similar to the sweet corn tamales of the American Southwest and Mexico. Because of the work involved in the preparation of tamales, they usually only appear during the special holidays or other big celebrations. Various recipes have practically disappeared under the pressures of modern life and the ease of fast food. Several varieties of tamales are also found in the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamales, \"tamalis\", \"tamalos\", and \"pasteles\" are different varieties found throughout the region. Some are sweet, some are savory, and some are sweet and savory. Mostly wrapped in banana leaves and made of rice, either the whole grain or ground and cooked with coconut milk and other seasonings, they are sometimes filled with meat and seafood, or are plain and have no filling. There are certain varieties, such as \"tamalos\", that are made of a sweet corn masa wrapped in a corn husk or leaf. There are also varieties made without masa, like \"tamalis\", which are made with small fish fry wrapped in banana leaves and steamed, similar to the from Mexico, where the small fish are cooked whole with herbs and seasonings wrapped inside a corn husk without masa. The number of varieties has dwindled through the years so certain types of tamales that were once popular in the Philippines have become lost or are simply memories. The variety found in Guam, known as \"tamales guiso\", is made with corn masa and wrapped in corn husks, and as with the Philippine tamales, are clear evidence of the influence of the galleon trade that occurred between the ports of Manila and Acapulco."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "are prepared in a plain version, without the stuffing, and served with stewed salted cod fish. Since the arrival of Europeans, have lost their stuffing. Contemporary are made with corn masa seasoned with coconut milk, lard, broth, and annatto, wrapped in a banana leaf or corn husk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Instead of corn husks, banana or plantain leaves are used in tropical parts of the country, such as Oaxaca, Chiapas, Veracruz, and the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula. These tamales are rather square in shape, often very large\u201415\u00a0inches (40\u00a0cm)\u2014and these larger tamales are commonly known as \"pibs\" in the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula. Another very large type of tamale is , made in the Huasteca region of Mexico. Depending on the size, can feed between 50 and 200 people; they are made during festivals and holidays, for quincea\u00f1eras, and on Sundays to be sold at the markets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In Cuba, before the 1959 Revolution, street vendors sold Mexican-style tamales wrapped in corn husks, usually made without any kind of spicy seasoning. Cuban tamales being identical in form to those made in Mexico City suggests they were brought over to Cuba during the period of intense cultural and musical exchange between Cuba and Mexico after the 1920s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The several versions of can be made with green plantains, cassava, and a sweet version made with sweet plantains and cornmeal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Duckanoo",
        "text": "Similar to the Meso American 'dulce de tamale', this was a highly popular indigenous dessert in the Americas. Adapted by the Afro-Caribbean people (who were brought to Antigua and Barbuda as well as other Caribbean Islands in the slave trade), ingredients such as eddoes, okra, dasheen, eggplant, and the bonavista bean are used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guttural R",
        "text": "In most Spanish-speaking territories and regions, guttural or uvular realizations of are considered a speech defect. Generally the single flap , spelled \"r\" as in \"cara\", undergoes no defective pronunciations, but the alveolar trill in \"rata\" or \"perro\" is one of the last sounds learned by children and uvularization is likely among individuals who fail to achieve the alveolar articulation. This said, back variants for (, or ) are widespread in rural Puerto Rican Spanish and in the dialect of Ponce, whereas they are heavily stigmatized in the dialect of the capital. To a lesser extent, velar variants of are found in some rural Cuban (Yatera, Guant\u00e1namo Province) and Dominican vernaculars (El Cibao, eastern rural regions of the country) In the 1937 parsley massacre, Dominican troops attacked Haitians in Cibao and the northwestern border. The popular name of the massacre comes from the shibboleth applied to distinguish Dominicans from Haitians: the suspects were ordered to name some parsley (). If they used a French or Haitian Creole pronunciation for or , they would be executed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the Dominican Republic, are Dominican tamales stuffed with \"picadillo\". The name has its origin from the native Ta\u00ednos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In Trinidad and Tobago, it is called a \"pastelle\" and is popular in many households during the entire Christmas season and New Year celebrations. It is usually made with cornmeal and filled with cooked, seasoned meat (chicken and beef being the most popular), raisins, olives, capers, and other seasonings. The entire \"pastelle\" is wrapped in a banana leaf, bound with twine and steamed. When fully cooked, the banana leaf is removed to reveal the brightly yellow-colored dish. It is often indulged as is or along with a meal. The sweet version is called \"paymee\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Encyclia tampensis",
        "text": "There are some variations in color and markings that exist such as Cuba's encyclia tampense var amesiana and the \"alba\" or white variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Guatemala has many tamale varieties, from the traditional corn-husked tamale called a , to a sweet version of tamale, which uses the same corn dough, but is seasoned with honey or sugar combined with chocolate, almonds, plums, seeds, and peppers. Tamales are sold in stores and private homes (especially on Saturdays). A red light on a home at night is a sign that tamales are for sale at that home.\n*Red tamales owe their name to achiote and tomato and are made with corn dough stuffed with \"recado rojo\", raisins, chili peppers, chicken, beef' or pork wrapped in banana leaves.\n*Cambray tamales contain raisins and almonds. Sweet tamales are filled with sweet . Black tamales are named after the color that chocolate gives them. Chipilin tamales wrapped in corn husks, parrot tamales, and corn tamales among others are also made. Cream tamales and cheese and anise seeds are also mixed with corn tamales.\n* is a typical and emblematic dish of Guatemala. It is a variation of the tamale made with corn dough, but a firmer consistency, although lard can be added to the dough to generate a more pleasant taste and consistency. It is usually mixed with of tomato and with a filling that can be with chicken, beef, or pork. It is wrapped with dried cob leaves (tusa or bender). In some places, it is accompanied by cheese, sauce, or both.\n*Rice tamales come from the Guatemalan highlands, where the typical corn dough is replaced by a thick dough of annealed rice with water and salt. The preparation of the does not differ much from the original, since only some regions have the ingredients with which it is made.\n* is a tamale particularly from the highlands of Guatemala that uses potato instead of maize for the dough.\n* or is dough only, with no meats or other fillings. This dish is used to accompany a meal and used to scoop food on the plate, or just eaten plain along with the main dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "A well-known Cuban song from the 1950s, \"\", (a cha-cha-cha sung by Orquesta Arag\u00f3n) celebrated the delicious tamales sold by a street vendor in Cienfuegos. A peculiarly Cuban invention is the dish known as , basically consisting of tamale masa with the meat stuffing stirred into the masa, and then cooked in a pot on the stove to form a kind of hearty cornmeal porridge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asopao",
        "text": "Versions of are found in many Caribbean locales, including the Dominican Republic, where the addition of (small bits of fried chicken or chicken skin) is characteristic or coconut milk and shrimp."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Hallaca is a traditional meal from Venezuela that resembles the aspect of a tamal. It consists of corn dough stuffed with a stew of beef, pork, or chicken and other ingredients such as raisins, capers, and olives, fresh onion rings, red and green bell pepper slices. There are also vegetarian options with black beans or tofu. Hallacas are folded in plantain leaves, tied with strings, and boiled. The dish is traditionally served during the Christmas season and has several regional variants in Venezuela. It has been described as a national dish of Venezuela but it can be found also in variants. A characteristic of the hallaca is the delicate corn dough made with consomm\u00e9 or broth and lard colored with annatto."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteles",
        "text": "Pasteles\n--Puerto Rican pasteles.\n--Other regional variations.\n----Colombia.\n----Dominican Republic.\n----Hawaii.\n----Trinidad and Tobago.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Binaki",
        "text": "\"Binaki\" and \"pintos\" are sweet variants of Philippine tamales without fillings. They arose independently in Bukidnon and Bogo. Both are traditionally wrapped in corn husks, but can usually be distinguished from each other by the method of wrapping. \"Binaki\" has a longer and narrower wrapping, while \"pintos\" is shorter and rectangular with additional cross-wise ties. Both the names and \"pintos\" literally mean \"wrapped [in a pouch]\"; from Cebuano \"bakibaki\" (\"[pouch made of leaves] shaped like a frog\"), and a contracted form of (\"wrapped\"), respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "While Mexican-style and other Latin American-style tamales are featured at ethnic restaurants throughout the United States, some distinctly indigenous styles also are made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In Mexico, tamales begin with a dough made from ground nixtamalized corn (hominy), called \"masa\", or alternatively a rehydrated \"masa\" powder, such as Maseca. It is combined with lard or vegetable shortening, along with broth or water, to bring the dough to the consistency of a very thick batter. It is traditional to whisk the lard, and whisk the resulting batter, with the intent of producing the signature soft and fluffy texture. Modern recipes may use baking powder to achieve a similar effect. Chili purees or dried chili powders are also occasionally added to the batter, which in addition to the spice can cause some tamales to appear red in color. Tamales are generally wrapped in corn husks or plantain leaves before being steamed, with the choice of husk depending on the region. They usually have a sweet or savory filling and are usually steamed until firm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Santiago Teyahualco",
        "text": "Tamales is a traditional Mesoamerican dish made of \u201cmasa\u201d or dough (starchy, and usually corn-based), which is steamed in a corn husk or banana leaf"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "Sugar, corn syrup, modified food starch, contains less than 0.5% of the following ingredients: dextrin, medium chain triglycerides, fruit juice from concentrate (pear, orange, strawberry, cherry, lemon, lime), sodium citrate, pectin, citric acid, malic acid, fumaric acid, confectioners glaze, carnauba wax, white mineral oil, artificial flavors, artificial color, sodium citrate, magnesium hydroxide, red #3, red #40, yellow #5 (tartrazine), yellow #6, blue #1."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the Mississippi Delta, African Americans developed a spicy tamale made from cornmeal instead of masa, which is boiled in corn husks. This is sometimes called a \"hot tamale\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cinquillo",
        "text": "The biguine uses a cinquillo variant related to that found in other Caribbean genres."
      },
      {
        "title": "Santander Department",
        "text": "The tamale is a dish that is eaten in various parts of Colombia, but in Santander it is prepared with peeled corn dough and filled with beef, chicken or pork, chickpeas, onions, and paprika. It is then wrapped in banana leaf giving it a rectangular shape."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arroz a la cubana",
        "text": "There are many minor variations, even within the same regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamburello",
        "text": "Tamburello and its variations remain popular today in many nations of the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chrysobalanus icaco",
        "text": "The clustered flowers are small, greenish-white, and appear intermittently throughout the year but more abundantly in late spring. The fruit that follows (a drupe) is variable, with that of the coastal form being round, up to 5\u00a0cm in diameter, white, pale-yellow with a rose blush or dark-purple in color, while that of the inland form is oval, up to 2.5\u00a0cm long, and dark-purple. The fruit is edible, with an almost tasteless to mildly sweet flavor, and is sometimes used for jam. It contains a five- or six-ridged brown stone with an edible white seed. The common name for this fruit in Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana is \"fat pork\". The seed's kernel is used ground into a powder and dried, as a spice (variously called \"gbafilo\", \"itsekiri\", \"umilo\",\"emilo\" or \"omilo\") as part of West African Pepper Soup Mix."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cr\u00e8me caramel",
        "text": "Cr\u00e8me caramel\n--History.\n--Etymology of names.\n--Preparation, cooking and presentation.\n----Preparation.\n----Imitations.\n--Regional varieties.\n----Argentina and Uruguay.\n----Brazil and Venezuela.\n----Caribbean.\n----Chile.\n----Costa Rica.\n----Croatia.\n----Cuba.\n----Dominican Republic.\n----India.\n----Japan.\n----Malaysia.\n----Mexico.\n----Peru.\n----Philippines.\n----Portugal.\n----Puerto Rico.\n----Spain.\n----Vietnam.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "\"Tamale\" is an anglicized version of the Spanish word (plural: ). comes from the Nahuatl . The English \"tamale\" is a back-formation of , with English speakers interpreting the \"-e-\" as part of the stem, rather than part of the plural suffix \"-es\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarind",
        "text": "In Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, Peru, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Italy, Spain, and throughout the Lusosphere, it is called \"tamarindo\". In those countries it is often used to make the beverage of the same name (or \"agua de tamarindo\"). In the Caribbean, tamarind is sometimes called \"tam\u00f3n\". Countries in the Malay world like Indonesia call it \"asam jawa\" (Javanese sour fruit) or simply \"asam\", and \"sukaer\" in Timor. While in the Philippines, it is called \"sampalok\" or \"sampaloc\" in Filipino, and \"sambag\" in Cebuano. Tamarind (\"Tamarindus indica\") is sometimes confused with \"Manila tamarind\" (\"Pithecellobium dulce\"). While in the same taxonomic family Fabaceae, Manila tamarind is a different plant native to Mexico and known locally as \"guam\u00fachili\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In northern Louisiana, tamales have been made for several centuries. The Spanish established presidio Los Adaes in 1721 in modern-day Robeline, Louisiana. The descendants of these Spanish settlers from central Mexico were the first tamale makers to arrive in the eastern US. Zwolle, Louisiana, has a Tamale Fiesta every year in October."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pilaf",
        "text": "In the Eastern Caribbean and other Caribbean territories there are variations of \"pelau\" which include a wide range of ingredients such as pigeon peas, green peas, green beans, corn, carrots, pumpkin, and meat such as beef or chicken, or cured pig tail. The seasoned meat is usually cooked in a stew, with the rice and other vegetables added afterwards. Coconut milk and spices are also key additions in some islands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guatemalans",
        "text": "There are reportedly hundreds of varieties of tamales throughout Guatemala. They key variations are what is in the \"masa\" or dough (maize, potatoes, rice), what's in the filling (meat, fruits, nuts), and what is it wrapped with (leaves, husks). The masa is made out of corn that is not sweet, such as what is known as feed corn in the U.S.A. In Guatemala, this non-sweet corn is called maize and the corn that Americans from the USA are used to eating on the cob, sweet corn, they call \"elote\". Tamales in Guatemala are more typically wrapped in plantain, banana, or maxan leaves rather than corn husks."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c1lamo, Veracruz",
        "text": "Regional dish is the \"zacahuil\" a type of tamal (tamale is not the right word), made of dough, chili, pork or chicken wrapped in a bed of banana leaf and cooked in clay oven ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maja blanca",
        "text": "Other common variants include maja de ube (or \"maja ube\"), a deep purple variant of \"maja blanca\" which uses \"ube\" (purple yam); and maja buko pandan, a light green variant which is flavored with pandan leaves and coconut meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bollo",
        "text": "Panamanian bollo has been described as a type of tamale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "A tamale is a traditional Mesoamerican dish, made of masa, a dough made from nixtamalized corn, which is steamed in a corn husk or banana leaf. The wrapping can either be discarded prior to eating or used as a plate. Tamales can be filled with meats, cheeses, fruits, vegetables, herbs, chilies, or any preparation according to taste, and both the filling and the cooking liquid may be seasoned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the pre-Columbian era, the Aztecs ate tamales with fillings such as turkey, flamingo, frog, \"axolotl\", pocket gopher, rabbit, fish, turkey eggs, honey, fruits, squash, and beans, and even no filling. Aztec tamales differed from modern tamales by not having added fat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pithecellobium dulce",
        "text": "In South Asia and the rest of Southeast Asia, it is known by many names, most of which literally translate to \"foreign tamarind\". These include: in Thai; in Khmer; or in (Tamil); in Telugu; or in Kannada; or in Gujarati; or \"chinch bilai\" or \"cheese bilai\" in Marathi; in Hindi; in Odia; in Sindhi; and in Bengali. In Pakistan, it is also known as \"jungle jalebi\", after the resemblance of its fruits to the jalebi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Around the beginning of the 20th century, the name \"tamale pie\" was given to meat pies and casseroles made with a cornmeal crust and typical tamale fillings arranged in layers. Although characterized as Mexican food, these forms are not popular in Mexican American culture in which the individually wrapped style is preferred."
      },
      {
        "title": "Acar",
        "text": "Variations of Malaysian and Singaporean \"acar\" include \"acar awak\" or Nyonya \"acar\" and Malay \"acar\". \"Acar awak\" is more elaborate, containing additional vegetables such as eggplants as well as aromatic spices in the pickling mix."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional variations of barbecue",
        "text": "The indigenous Native Ta\u00edno peoples method has involved slowly cooking meat over a wooden mesh of sticks. In Spanish-speaking islands of the Caribbean, such as Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and especially Puerto Rico, \"lechon\" is a common delicacy. \"Lechon\" consists of taking a whole pig, slicing it from the head to tail along the chest and stomach, and slow-grilling the hog as it is turned on a rod."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uchepos",
        "text": "Although it is considered to have originated in the Mexican state of Michoacan, chepo can be found in other states of the republic where it is called corn tamal. In other regions of Central America it is also called corn tamal. In some regions in South America these tamales are called humitas where the recipes may call for some spices, raisins, other sweet ingredients such as cajeta blanca/arequipe/dulce de leche/manjar, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "Hot Tamales\n--Variations.\n--Ingredients.\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Atole",
        "text": "Salvadoran varieties include \"atol shuco\" (\"dirty\" \"atol\", a reference to its darker color), particularly popular in the Caba\u00f1as region. The Nicaraguan homologue is \"pinolillo\". In some parts of Honduras, fresh corn is ground and the expressed liquid is used as the base (instead of \"masa\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The tamale is a staple in Belize, where it is also known as \"dukunu\", a sweet corn tamale that gets its name from the Garifuna people. Dukunus are mostly vegetarian and consist of roasted corn kernels blended with coconut milk as a base. Butter, salt, and sugar are also added. Dukunus filled with different meats are also made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cendol",
        "text": "In Indonesia, the most famous variant is Javanese \"es dawet ayu\" from Banjarnegara, Central Java. Another variant is a black cendol called \"es dawet ireng\" from Purworejo, Central Java. \"Ireng\" is Javanese word for \"black\". Instead of green pandan leaf, this black cendol acquired its colour from \"merang\" or the ash of burned rice stalk mixed with water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Cherokee tamales, also known as bean bread or \"broadswords\", were made with hominy (in the case of the Cherokee, the masa was made from corn boiled in water treated with wood ashes instead of lime) and beans, and wrapped in green corn leaves or large tree leaves and boiled, similar to the meatless pre-Columbian bean and masa tamales still prepared in Chiapas, central Mexico, and Guatemala."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baron Ambrosia",
        "text": "Culinary Focus: The Puerto Rican tamale known as a pastel"
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana leaf",
        "text": "Tamales made throughout Central America are traditionally wrapped in banana leaves prior to cooking, which imparts a distinctive taste to the nixtamalized corn dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guatemalan cuisine",
        "text": "There are reportedly hundreds of varieties of tamales throughout Guatemala. The key variations include the ingredients in the \"masa\" or dough (corn, potatoes, rice), in the filling (meat, fruits, nuts), and what it is wrapped with (leaves, husks). Tamales in Guatemala tend to be wrapped in green 'maxan' leaves (\"Calathea lutea\"), while Chuchitos \u2014 which resemble Mexican tamales \u2014 are wrapped in corn husks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamales originated in Mesoamerica as early as 8000 to 5000 BC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rice and beans",
        "text": "Worldwide, there are many dishes with a base of beans and rice, which vary in their cooking and additional ingredients. Variations exist regionally, as cultures shape the dishes to their own preferences. In countries near or in the Caribbean, these dishes are simply known as \"rice and beans\", in which the dish is cooked in coconut milk, the following is a list of variations:\n* Brazil: \"feijoada\"\n* Chile: \"arroz con porotos.\"\n* Caribbean: \"Rice and peas\", a staple dish of the region.\n* Colombia: \"calentao\"\n** Archipelago of San Andr\u00e9s, Providencia and Santa Catalina: \"rice and beans\"\n** Bandeja Paisa, a traditional dish made with kidney beans and rice\n* Costa Rica: \"gallo pinto\" and in the Caribbean (Puerto Lim\u00f3n and Puerto Viejo) there is \"rice and beans\" in which rice and beans are cooked with coconut milk and habanero chili (locally known as Panamanian chile) is added.\n* Cuba: There are two main variations:\n** Moros y cristianos: also known as just \"moros\", it is made with black beans. If made with red beans, it would be considered \"congris\".\n** Congris: made with red beans, the beans are cooked first with onion, green chili, garlic, tomato, bay leaf, touch of cumin and oregano, salt, and dry wine; before they soften completely, the raw rice is added, letting them cook together, until they consume the broth and the rice is dry and loose. The beans are also prepared in their broth with the rice separate.\n* Dominican Republic: \"Moro de guandules\", a Dominican rice and pigeon peas, similar to Panama and Puerto Rico dishes\n* El Salvador: \"Casamiento\"; despite not having a Caribbean coast, this dish is very typical in El Salvador.;\n* Ghana: Waakye, a Ghanaian beans and rice dish\n* Guatemala: \"casado\"; regionally known as \"gallo pinto\" and \"rice and beans\"\n** On the Caribbean coast and parts of eastern or eastern Guatemala (Izabal): it is known as \"rice and beans\" and it includes coconut milk.\n* Honduras: \"Casamiento\", on the Caribbean coast it is known as Rice and Beans and it includes coconut milk and chilli flakes.\n* India: Rajma, an Indian bean dish usually served with rice\n* Israel: Orez Shu'it, a traditional Israeli beans and rice dish\n** Caribbean coast: \"rice and beans\"\n* Japan: Okowa, specifically sekihan, azuki beans and glutinous rice. Of course there's also the ubiquitous red bean mochi, but there the rice is processed into a bun form.\n*Jamaica: \"rice and peas\".\n* Korea, \"Kongbap\" (bean rice), \"patbap\" (red bean rice)\n* Mexico: \"pispiote, rice and beans\"\n* Nicaragua: \"gallo pinto\", and in the Nicaraguan Caribbean Coast, as in other countries, it is called \"rice and beans\" (rice and beans) and is made with coconut milk.\n* Panama: \"gallopinto\"\n** Caribbean coast (Col\u00f3n, Bocas del Toro): known as \"rice and beans,\" and prepared with coconut milk, like in the Dominican Republic.\n* Peru: There are two main variations:\n** \"calentado\"\n* Puerto Rico:\n** \"arroz junto\"; made with red beans or pigeon beans, and prepared with meat all in same pot.\n** \"arroz con gandules\" a part of Puerto Rico's national dish which is rice with pigeon peas.\n* Spain: Paella\n* Suriname: \"bruine bonen met rijst\", one-pot dish with mixed meats and kidney beans, served with rice.\n* Trinidad and Tobago: \"rice and peas\".\n* United States:\n** \"Hoppin' John\", a black-eyed peas dish from the southern United States\n** \"Red beans and rice\", the most common beans and rice dish in Louisiana Creole cuisine\n* Venezuela: These dishes may include fried plantains called \"tajadas\" as it is commonly found in many Venezuelan dishes:\n** \"Pabell\u00f3n criollo\": Made with rice, beans or refried black beans and well seasoned shredded beef. It is then surrounded by slices of ripe fried plantain. The plantain give the name \"Pabellon con barandas\".\n** \"Arroz con Caraotas\": When Pabell\u00f3n Criollo omits the fried plantains, it has a different name. It is colloquially known as \"poor man's lunch\" since it is more common in low-income families. However, it can be made and enjoyed by whomever. Fried eggs can also be included.\n** \"Palo A Pique Llanero\": Made with rice, brown beans and well seasoned shredded beef, chicken and pork. It is surrounded by slices of ripe plantain and pieces of potatoes. Some areas like Barinas, Apure or Bolivar add green plantains."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The is also related to the pastel, a root tamale dating to around the same time as the native Ta\u00edno ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pithecellobium dulce",
        "text": "The English names \"Manila tamarind\" and \"Madras thorn\" are both misleading since it is neither related to the tamarind nor native to Manila (though it was introduced early to the Philippines) or Madras. Other English names include blackbead, sweet Inga, and monkeypod."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Dancing Water, the Singing Apple, and the Speaking Bird",
        "text": "A preliminary report by Terrence Hansen on the Chilean variants listed 14 tales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The preparation of tamales is likely to have spread from the indigenous cultures in Guatemala and Mexico to the rest of Latin America. According to archaeologists Karl Taube, William Saturno, and David Stuart, tamales may date from around 100 AD. They found pictorial references in the \"Mural of San Bartolo\", in Pet\u00e9n, Guatemala."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philippine adobo",
        "text": "More exotic versions include \"adobong saw\u00e2\" (snake), \"adobong palak\u00e2\" (frog), Kapampangan \"adobung kamaru\" (mole cricket), and the \"adobong at\u00e1y at bal\u00fanbalunan\" (chicken liver and gizzard)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vigor\u00f3n",
        "text": "Many familial and cultural variants have arisen, especially in the variations of \"curtido\". In addition, variants of vigor\u00f3n exist in other surrounding countries, notably Costa Rica, where the dish is quite popular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chilaquiles",
        "text": "Chilaquiles\n--Ingredients and variations.\n--Regional variations.\n--History in the United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Peanut",
        "text": "Cultivars of the Spanish group include 'Dixie Spanish', 'Improved Spanish 2B', 'GFA Spanish', 'Argentine', 'Spantex', 'Spanette', 'Shaffers Spanish', 'Natal Common (Spanish)', \"White Kernel Varieties', 'Starr', 'Comet', 'Florispan', 'Spanhoma', 'Spancross', 'OLin', 'Tamspan 90', 'AT 9899\u201314', 'Spanco', 'Wilco I', 'GG 2', 'GG 4', 'TMV 2', and 'Tamnut 06'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamal de olla",
        "text": "In Panamanian cuisine, tamal de olla (), which is Spanish for \"tamale of the pot/pan,\" is best described as a Panamanian-style tamale that fills the baking pan in which it is cooked, and is not wrapped in a banana or plantain leaf. The ingredients include pork or chicken cooked with corn-stuffed cornmeal (with \"maiz nuevo\"), vegetables (onion, tomato, and bell pepper), olives, and raisins. Some also add chopped prunes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chimol",
        "text": "Modifications to the recipe exist depending on different regions of Central America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boruca",
        "text": "Tamales can be prepared using rice, corn, or beans. All three types are considered special and served only at specific occasions, such as birthdays and when guests come to Boruca. The rice tamale is made by mixing uncooked rice with salt and oil. This compound can also be seasoned with chili, onion, ayote, or additional salt. Once finished, the rice is placed on a leaf, followed by pork and a final layer of rice. The leaf is then folded around the rice and pork and tied. The dish must cook for at least six hours. The corn variant is prepared in the same way, except that corn is used instead of rice and must only be cooked for one hour. The bean version can be made in the same manner but uses mashed beans instead of corn. The rice is most common."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ensa\u00efmada",
        "text": "Among the variants of ensaimada the most common are:\n* \"Llisa\" (literally \"plain\") with no extra ingredient.\n* \"Cabell d'\u00e0ngel\" (literally \"angel's hair\"), the stringy orange strands found inside pumpkins are cooked with sugar to make a sweet filling that is rolled inside the dough.\n* \"Tallades\" (literally \"sliced\") covered with sobrassada and pumpkin, obtaining a bittersweet taste. It is typical of Carnival days, just before Lent, when meat (including lard and sobrassada) are not supposed to be eaten.\n* \"Crema\" (literally \"cream\") with cream made with eggs.\n* Filled with sweet cream, chocolate or turr\u00f3n paste.\n* Covered with apricot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cojito",
        "text": "Cojito\n--Variants.\n--Locales.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Colombian tiple",
        "text": "The modern variant most closely related to the Colombian tiple is the \"requinto tiple\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Humitas (from Quechua humint'a) is a Native South American dish from pre-Hispanic times, a traditional food from the Andes and it can be found in Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, and Northwest Argentina. It consists of fresh choclo (Peruvian corn) pounded to a paste, wrapped in a fresh corn husk, and slowly steamed or boiled in a pot of water. In Bolivia it is known as huminta and in Brazil as pamonha."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aztec cuisine",
        "text": "There were many variations of \"\u0101t\u014dle\": a mixture of 1/10 maguey syrup made \"nequ\u0101t\u014dle\"; adding chili ground with salt and tomato would make \"iztac \u0101t\u014dle\"; letting maize dough sour for 4\u20135 days and then adding more fresh dough with chili and salt would make \"xoco\u0101t\u014dle\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the classical times of the Maya of Central America (Guatemala in particular), the great Mayan lords delighted in a baked dough bun during the winter solstice, made of maize mixed with turkey, \"tepezcuintle\" (lowland paca) or venison, spices, and chili pepper, among other ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Duple Caribbean",
        "text": "Duple Caribbean\n--Variants.\n--Replacement.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Guatemala",
        "text": "There are reportedly hundreds of varieties of tamales throughout Guatemala. The key variations are what is in the \"masa\" or dough (corn, potatoes, rice), what's in the filling (meat, fruits, nuts), and what it is wrapped with (leaves, husks). The masa is made out of corn that is not sweet, such as what is known as feed corn in the U.S.A. In Guatemala, this non-sweet corn is called maize and the corn that Americans from the USA are used to eating on the cob, sweet corn, they call \"elote\". Tamales in Guatemala are more typically wrapped in plantain or banana leaves and mashan leaves than corn husks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamboo bamboo",
        "text": "Tamboo bamboo is a Caribbean percussion instrument (idiophone) created in the Caribbean, and is a notable precursor to the creation of steelpan. Its name derives from the French word for drum (\"tambour\") and the material from which the instrument is predominantly made from. It is still played by carnival-goers in Trinidad today, although it was the dominant instrument at carnival at the turn of the twentieth century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quesadilla",
        "text": "Regional variations to specific recipes exist throughout the Southwest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cendol",
        "text": "The Singaporean and Malaysian versions usually have sweetened red beans added, and are served in a bowl instead of a glass. The palm sugar, often added as a dark syrup, is referred to as \"gula melaka\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flattened rice",
        "text": "A notable variant of the \"pinipig\" from Pampanga is the \"duman\", which differs in that it is toasted first before being pounded. It is celebrated annually in the Duman Festival of Santa Rita, Pampanga."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "\"Guanime\" is a Puerto Rican dish that can be traced back to pre-Columbian times. It consists of corn masa that is stuffed with beans, seafood, nuts, or meat, and then wrapped in corn husks slowly cooked on a grill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Latin American cuisine",
        "text": "Another Caribbean mainstay is rice, but the rice on each island may be a little different. Some season their rice, or add peas and other ingredients such as coconut. Sometimes the yellow rice is served as a side, but it is oftentimes part of a dish. Though it comes in many forms, it is a common side dish throughout the region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sopa de mondongo",
        "text": "Many variations of \"sopa de mondongo\" exist in Latin America, the Philippines and the Caribbean. Some add rice or maize late in the process. Bone marrow or hoof jelly may be used. The tripe may be soaked in citrus juice or a paste of sodium bicarbonate before cooking. The vegetables and spices used vary with availability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kinilaw",
        "text": "Some of the oldest surviving \"kinilaw\" variants are from the southern Visayas and Northern Mindanao, like Cagayan de Oro's \"kinilaw\" (sometimes stylized as \"kinilaw de Oro\") and Dumaguete's \"binakhaw\". Both are direct descendants of ancient Visayan preparation methods as displayed in the Butuan archeological finds. These are the original versions that use \"tabon-tabon\" and \"dungon\" fruits respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paella",
        "text": "The Philippine version uses glutinous rice, otherwise the ingredients are the same. In the Philippines, \"arroz a la valenciana\" refers to chicken, and \"longganisa\" (\"chorizo\") versions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteles",
        "text": "Pasteles (; singular pastel), also pastelles in the English-speaking Caribbean, are a traditional dish in several Latin American and Caribbean countries. In Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Panama, Trinidad and Tobago, and the Caribbean coast of Colombia, the dish looks like a tamal. In Hawaii, they are called \"pateles\" in a phonetic rendering of the Puerto Rican pronunciation of \"pasteles\", as discussed below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guajolota",
        "text": "Most vendors sell a variety of tamales stuffed with different ingredients, such as red \"mole\" with chicken, \"salsa verde\" with pork, cheese and chile poblano \"rajas con queso,\" or a \"tamal de dulce,\" which is a sweet flavored tamal, to accompany the bolillo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketupat",
        "text": "In the Philippines, similar rice pouches are known as \"puso\" (literally \"heart\") and had their origins from pre-colonial animistic ritual offerings as recorded by Spanish historians. Unlike \"ketupat\", however, they are not restricted to diamond shapes and can come in a wide variety of weaving styles which still survive among various ethnic groups in the Philippines today. \"Ketupat\" are also woven differently, the leaf base and the loose leaf strands do not exit at the same point, as in most Filipino \"puso\". \"Ketupat\" somewhat resemble the \"tamu pinad\" version among Muslim Filipinos the most, which are shaped like a flattened diamond, although they are also woven differently. Patupat, despite having the same form, is cooked differently. Patupat is cooked in sugarcane juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quincea\u00f1era",
        "text": "Quincea\u00f1era\n--Origin.\n--Changes over the years.\n--In specific countries.\n----Cuba.\n----Colombia.\n----French Guiana and French Caribbean.\n----Mexico.\n----Spain.\n----United States.\n--New traditions.\n--specials.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mazamorra",
        "text": "Mazamorra\n--Regional variations.\n----Argentina.\n----Colombia.\n----Dominican Republic and Cuba.\n----Paraguay.\n----Peru.\n----Costa Rica.\n----Puerto Rico.\n----Spain.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "In 2011, Just Born released \"Hot Tamales 3 ALARM\" containing a mix of three candies: orange (hot), pinkish (hotter) and dark red (hottest). In 2014, Just Born released \"Hot Tamales Tropical Heat\" that contains three candies, combining the original pungent, spicy flavor with lemon, mango and pineapple flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexican street food",
        "text": "Tamales are one of the most popular street foods in the world. They feature a filling and are wrapped in corn-based masa dough and steamed in corn husks. Tamales come in sweet and savory versions, some spicy and some bland. Versions with pork or chicken with a salsa or mole sauce are the most popular along with a version called 'rajas' which are strips of poblano chili pepper and cheese. It is one of the safer street foods for novices to try as it is cooked and kept in a steam vat while being sold. Corundas are a variety of tamale in Michoac\u00e1n in a triangle shape wrapped in corn stalk leaves. They can be eaten alone, with salsa or as an accompaniment to a meal. The Chiapas version of the tamale have a distinct flavor, often containing ingredients such as pibil, mole sauce, carrot, corn grains, egg, raisins, almonds (the locally named \"nacatamales\", a regional version of Nicaraguan well-known version), a version with the regional herb chipil\u00edn with chicken or queso blanco and versions wrapped in banana leaves. They are often sold by vendors on specially made tricycles for street vendors. Uchepos are tamales made with fresh corn, generally made in Michoac\u00e1n in July and August."
      },
      {
        "title": "Champorado",
        "text": "\"Tinughong\" is a variant of champorado in the Visayan-speaking regions of the Philippines. It is usually made by boiling sticky rice with sugar instead of tablea. Coffee or milk are sometimes added to it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Col\u00f3quios dos simples e drogas da India",
        "text": "This listing of contents gives the foliation of the first edition, which generally corresponds with that of the 1872 reprint.\n# Preamble. Introducing Garcia de Orta and his fictional visitor, Doctor Ruano: 1r\n# , Aloe: 2r (The juice of \"Aloe Socotrina\", Lam.; \"A. vulgaris\", Lam. etc.)\n# , Ambergris: 10v - Here he reports seeing pieces as big as a man, 90 palms in circumference and 18 long and one weighing 30 quintals (3000kg) near Cape Comorin. He specifically ruled out any fish or whale origins.\n# , Amomum: 14v\n# , Cashew: 16v\n# , Night jasmine (\"Nyctanthes arbortristis\"): 17v\n# , Asafoetida, Licorice, Storax, Indigo: 19r\n# , Cannabis: 26r\n# , Gum benzoin: 28r\n# , Bael: 32v\n# , Sweet flag: 37v\n# , Camphor, Carambola: 41r\n# , Cardamom, Melegueta pepper, Karanda: 47r\n# , Senna: 54r\n# , Cinnamon, Cassia: 56v\n# , Coconut: 66r\n# , Costus, Asiatic cholera: 71v\n# , Borax and Curcuma longa: 78r\n# , Cubebs: 80r\n# , Datura, Durian: 83r\n# , Ivory, Elephant: 85r\n# , Areca, Banana: 91r\n# , Malabathrum: 95r\n# , Galanga: 98v\n# , Cloves: 100v\n# , Ginger: 105v\n# : 107v\n# , Jackfruit, Jambolan, Rose apple: 111r\n# , Lac: 112v\n# , Aloeswood: 118v\n# : 125r\n# , Apple, Nutmeg: 129r\n# : 131v\n# , Mango: 133v\n# , Pearl, Conch, Mother of pearl: 138v\n# , Watermelon, Urad bean: 141v\n# , Beleric, Emblic, Chebulic myrobalan: 148r\n# , Mangosteen: 151r\n# , \"Vitex negundo\": 151v\n# , \"Melia azedarach\": 153r\n# , Opium: 153v\n# : 155v\n# , Diamond: 159r\n# , precious stones: 165r\n# , Bezoar: 169r\n# , Black and white pepper, Long pepper, Peach: 171v\n# , China root: 177r\n# , Rhubarb: 184r\n# , Sandalwood, Red sanders: 185v\n# , Spikenard: 189v\n# , minerals: 193r\n# , \"Cymbopogon\": 197r\n# , Tamarind: 200r\n# , Turpeth: 203v\n# , Frankincense, Myrrh: 213v\n# , Tutty: 215v\n# , Zedoary, Zerumbet: 216v\n# Miscellaneous observations: 219v"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bananaquit",
        "text": "There are 41 currently recognized subspecies:\n* \"C. f. bahamensis\" : Bahamas\n* \"C. f. caboti\" : east Yucatan Peninsula and nearby islands\n* \"C. f. flaveola\" : nominate, Jamaica\n* \"C. f. sharpei\" : Cayman Is.\n* \"C. f. bananivora\" : Hispaniola and nearby islands\n* \"C. f. nectarea\" : Tortue I.\n* \"C. f. portoricensis\" : Puerto Rico\n* \"C. f. sanctithomae\" : north Virgin Is.\n* \"C. f. newtoni\" : Saint Croix (south Virgin Is.)\n* \"C. f. bartholemica\" : north and central Lesser Antilles\n* \"C. f. martinicana\" : Martinique and Saint Lucia (south central Lesser Antilles)\n* \"C. f. barbadensis\" : Barbados\n* \"C. f. atrata\" : St. Vincent (south Lesser Antilles)\n* \"C. f. aterrima\" : Grenada and the Grenadines (south Lesser Antilles)\n* \"C. f. uropygialis\" : Aruba and Cura\u00e7ao (Netherlands Antilles)\n* \"C. f. tricolor\" : Providencia I. (off east Nicaragua)\n* \"C. f. oblita\" : San Andr\u00e9s I. (off east Nicaragua)\n* \"C. f. mexicana\" : southeastern Mexico to western Panama\n* \"C. f. cerinoclunis\" : Pearl Is. (south of Panama)\n* \"C. f. columbiana\" : eastern Panama to southwestern Colombia and southern Venezuela\n* \"C. f. bonairensis\" : Bonaire I. (Netherlands Antilles)\n* \"C. f. melanornis\" : Cayo Sal I. (off Venezuela)\n* \"C. f. lowii\" : Los Roques Is. (off Venezuela)\n* \"C. f. ferryi\" : La Tortuga I. (off Venezuela)\n* \"C. f. frailensis\" : Los Frailes and Los Hermanos Is. (off Venezuela)\n* \"C. f. laurae\" : Los Testigos (off Venezuela)\n* \"C. f. luteola\" : coastal northern Colombia and Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago\n* \"C. f. obscura\" : northeastern Colombia and western Venezuela\n* \"C. f. minima\" : eastern Colombia and southern Venezuela to French Guiana and north central Brazil\n* \"C. f. montana\" : Andes of northwestern Venezuela\n* \"C. f. caucae\" : western Colombia\n* \"C. f. gorgonae\" : Gorgona I. (off western Colombia)\n* \"C. f. intermedia\" : southwestern Colombia, western Ecuador and northern Peru east to southern Venezuela and western Brazil\n* \"C. f. bolivari\" : eastern Venezuela\n* \"C. f. guianensis\" : southeastern Venezuela to Guyana\n* \"C. f. roraimae\" : tepui regions of southeastern Venezuela, southwestern Guyana and northern Brazil\n* \"C. f. pacifica\" : eastern Peru\n* \"C. f. magnirostris\" : northern Peru\n* \"C. f. dispar\" : north central Peru to western Bolivia\n* \"C. f. chloropyga\" : east central Peru to central Bolivia and east to eastern Brazil, northern Uruguay, northeastern Argentina and Paraguay\n* \"C. f. alleni\" : eastern Bolivia to central Brazil"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bananaquit",
        "text": "In the subspecies \"bahamensis\" and \"caboti\" from the Bahamas and Cozumel, respectively, the throat and upper chest are white or very pale grey, while \"ferryi\" from La Tortuga Island has a white forehead. The subspecies \"laurae\", \"lowii\" and \"melanornis\" from small islands off northern Venezuela are overall blackish, while the subspecies \"aterrima\" and \"atrata\" from Grenada and Saint Vincent have two plumage morphs, one \"normal\" and another blackish. The pink gape is usually very prominent in the subspecies from islands in the Caribbean Sea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guanime",
        "text": "Guanimes are related to tamales and hallacas. Cornmeal masa is wrapped in corn husk stuffed with meat, nuts, fish, beans, or nothing at all. They are then boiled like tamales and hallacas. Ta\u00ednos in Puerto Rico also mashed a variety of tubers and squash into the cornmeal masa. This later became the modern day \"pasteles\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chorizo",
        "text": "Chorizo\n--Names.\n--Varieties by region.\n----Western Europe.\n------Spain.\n------Portugal.\n----Americas.\n------Mexico.\n------Central America and the Caribbean.\n------United States.\n--------Louisiana.\n------South America.\n----South and Southeast Asia.\n------East Timor.\n------Goa.\n------Philippines.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pineapple",
        "text": "Many cultivars are known. The leaves of the commonly grown \"smooth cayenne\" are smooth, and it is the most commonly grown worldwide. Many cultivars have become distributed from its origins in Paraguay and the southern part of Brazil, and later improved stocks were introduced into the Americas, the Azores, Africa, India, Malaysia and Australia. Varieties include:\n* \"Hilo\" is a compact, 1.0- to 1.5-kg (2\u2013 to 3-lb) Hawaiian variant of smooth cayenne; the fruit is more cylindrical and produces many suckers, but no slips.\n* \"Kona sugarloaf\", at 2.5 to 3.0\u00a0kg (5\u20136\u00a0lb), has white flesh with no woodiness in the center, is cylindrical in shape, and has a high sugar content but no acid; it has an unusually sweet fruit.\n* \"Natal queen\", at 1.0 to 1.5\u00a0kg (2 to 3\u00a0lb), has golden yellow flesh, crisp texture, and delicate mild flavor; well-adapted to fresh consumption, it keeps well after ripening. It has spiny leaves, and is grown in Australia, Malaysia, and South Africa.\n* \"Pernambuco\" (\"eleuthera\") weighs 1\u20132\u00a0kg (2\u20134\u00a0lb), and has pale yellow to white flesh. It is sweet, melting in texture, and excellent for eating fresh; it is poorly adapted for shipping, has spiny leaves, and is grown in Latin America.\n* \"Red Spanish\", at 1\u20132\u00a0kg (2\u20134\u00a0lb), has pale yellow flesh with a pleasant aroma, is squarish in shape, and well-adapted for shipping as fresh fruit to distant markets; it has spiny leaves and is grown in Latin America and the Philippines. It was the original pineapple cultivar in the Philippines grown for their leaf fibers (\"pi\u00f1a\") in the traditional Philippine textile industry.\n* \"Smooth cayenne\", a 2.5- to 3.0-kg (5- to 6-lb), pale yellow\u2013 to yellow-fleshed, cylindrical fruit with high sugar and acid content, is well-adapted to canning and processing; its leaves are without spines. It is an ancient cultivar developed by Amerind peoples. In some parts of Asia, this cultivar is known as Sarawak, after an area of Malaysia in which it is grown. It is one of the ancestors of cultivars \"73-50\" (also called \"MD-1\" and \"CO-2\") and \"73\u2013114\" (also called \"MD-2\"). Smooth cayenne was previously the variety produced in Hawaii, and the most easily obtainable in U.S. grocery stores, but was replaced over the course of the mid-1990s and 2000s by MD-2.\n* Some \"Ananas\" species are grown as ornamentals for color, novel fruit size, and other aesthetic qualities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiamoy",
        "text": "A local variant of the kiamoy that evolved in the Bicol Region of the Philippines is champ\u00f3y (also spelled tsamp\u00f3y, samp\u00f3y, or cham-poi, names which can also apply to kiamoy). It differs from kiamoy in that champ\u00f3y is made from the locally available berry \"Myrica rubra\" (which is also known as \"champ\u00f3y\"). Champ\u00f3y is also dark red to black in color and has a predominantly sweet and tart flavor profile, in contrast to the saltier flavor profile of kiamoy. In modern times, the term \"champ\u00f3y\" has also come to include the similar-tasting sampalok candy (sometimes differentiated as champ\u00f3y na sampalok), which are sweets made from tamarind balls cooked in sugar and/or salt. Champoy is derived from Cantonese , referring to \"chenpi\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarillo",
        "text": "Today it is still cultivated in gardens and small orchards for local production, and it is one of the most popular fruits in these regions. Other regions of cultivation are the subtropical areas throughout the world, such as Kenya, Rwanda, South Africa, Nagaland, Manipur , Darjeeling and Sikkim in India, Nepal, Hong Kong, China, the United States, Australia, Bhutan and New Zealand. It has also been seen in Cantabria, a province in Spain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hallaca",
        "text": "Hallaca filling is more elaborate than the standard tamal filling. Ingredients differ from region to region and from family to family but may include a combination of beef, pork, bacon, lard, onion, sweet pepper, red pepper, scallion, garlic, salt, pepper, oregano, cumin and some type of cooking wine or vinegar. In the version from the Venezuelan Andes hallacas are made with \"guiso crudo\" which differ from other versions because the meat filling is not pre-cooked. Some versions of the filling include leeks, Worcestershire sauce, mustard pickles, panela, or dark brown sugar. The stew is simmered over low heat slowly for several hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fortunatus (book)",
        "text": "Professor Stanley Robe collected, in 1947, a variant named \"La fruta extranjera\" (English: \"The foreign fruit\") from a 24-year-old housewife from Tepatitl\u00e1n de Morelos, Jalisco who provided many tales, later published in 1970. In this version, the hero inherits a little sombrero and the purse, and the pair of magic fruits are bananas and prunes."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which Mesoamerican tribe is responsible for the origin of the tamale?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "According to archaeologists Karl Taube, William Saturno, and David Stuart, tamales may date from around 100 AD. They found pictorial references in the Mural of San Bartolo, in Pet\u00e9n, Guatemala and the preparation of tamales is likely to have spread from the indigenous cultures in Guatemala and Mexico to the rest of Latin America."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did tamales make their way to the USA?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Tamales have been eaten in the United States since at least 1893, when they were featured at the World's Columbian Exposition. African Americans in the Mississippi Delta developed a spicy tamale made from cornmeal instead of masa and in northern Louisiana, tamales have been made for several centuries."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are tamales popular anywhere else, other than North and South America?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They are popular in the Caribbean, Central America, the Philippines, and Guam."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about tamale in Guam please!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The variety found in Guam, known as tamales guiso, is made with corn masa and wrapped in corn husks, and as with the Philippine tamales, are clear evidence of the influence of the galleon trade that occurred between the ports of Manila and Acapulco."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How about in the Philippines, can you tell me about tamale there?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In the Philippines, they merged with the native leaf-wrapped rice cakes and are made with a dough derived from ground rice and are filled with seasoned chicken or pork with the addition of peanuts and other seasonings such as sugar. Because of the work involved in the preparation of tamales, they usually only appear during the special holidays or other big celebrations."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about Caribbean variations of the tamale?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "There are regional varieties of tamale in Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, and Trinidad and Tobago. Which of variations of tamale in the Caribbean are you interested?"
    ],
    "topic": "Tamale",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Tamale:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tamale",
          "Caribbean",
          "Cuba"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Cuba, before the 1959 Revolution, street vendors sold Mexican-style tamales wrapped in corn husks, usually made without any kind of spicy seasoning. Cuban tamales being identical in form to those made in Mexico City suggests they were brought over to Cuba during the period of intense cultural and musical exchange between Cuba and Mexico after the 1920s."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Tamale:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tamale",
          "Caribbean",
          "Dominican Republic"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the Dominican Republic, are Dominican tamales stuffed with \"picadillo\". The name has its origin from the native Ta\u00ednos."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Tamale:9",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tamale",
          "Caribbean",
          "Puerto Rico"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"Guanime\" is a Puerto Rican dish that can be traced back to pre-Columbian times. It consists of corn masa that is stuffed with beans, seafood, nuts, or meat, and then wrapped in corn husks slowly cooked on a grill."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Tamale:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tamale",
          "Caribbean",
          "Trinidad and Tobago"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Trinidad and Tobago, it is called a \"pastelle\" and is popular in many households during the entire Christmas season and New Year celebrations. It is usually made with cornmeal and filled with cooked, seasoned meat (chicken and beef being the most popular), raisins, olives, capers, and other seasonings. The entire \"pastelle\" is wrapped in a banana leaf, bound with twine and steamed. When fully cooked, the banana leaf is removed to reveal the brightly yellow-colored dish. It is often indulged as is or along with a meal. The sweet version is called \"paymee\"."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamale\n--Origin.\n--Caribbean.\n----Cuba.\n----Dominican Republic.\n----Puerto Rico.\n----Trinidad and Tobago.\n--Central America.\n----Belize.\n----Guatemala.\n------Pre-Columbian Guatemala.\n----Nicaragua.\n--Mexico.\n----Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica.\n------Pre-Columbian Mayas.\n------Aztecs.\n----Modern Mexico.\n--South America.\n----Venezuela.\n--Philippines and Guam.\n--United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the Dominican Republic, are Dominican tamales stuffed with \"picadillo\". The name has its origin from the native Ta\u00ednos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Instead of corn husks, banana or plantain leaves are used in tropical parts of the country, such as Oaxaca, Chiapas, Veracruz, and the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula. These tamales are rather square in shape, often very large\u201415\u00a0inches (40\u00a0cm)\u2014and these larger tamales are commonly known as \"pibs\" in the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula. Another very large type of tamale is , made in the Huasteca region of Mexico. Depending on the size, can feed between 50 and 200 people; they are made during festivals and holidays, for quincea\u00f1eras, and on Sundays to be sold at the markets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In Cuba, before the 1959 Revolution, street vendors sold Mexican-style tamales wrapped in corn husks, usually made without any kind of spicy seasoning. Cuban tamales being identical in form to those made in Mexico City suggests they were brought over to Cuba during the period of intense cultural and musical exchange between Cuba and Mexico after the 1920s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The several versions of can be made with green plantains, cassava, and a sweet version made with sweet plantains and cornmeal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "\"Guanime\" is a Puerto Rican dish that can be traced back to pre-Columbian times. It consists of corn masa that is stuffed with beans, seafood, nuts, or meat, and then wrapped in corn husks slowly cooked on a grill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bollo",
        "text": "Panamanian bollo has been described as a type of tamale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "are prepared in a plain version, without the stuffing, and served with stewed salted cod fish. Since the arrival of Europeans, have lost their stuffing. Contemporary are made with corn masa seasoned with coconut milk, lard, broth, and annatto, wrapped in a banana leaf or corn husk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the Philippines and Guam, which were governed by Spain as a province of Mexico, different forms of tamale-like foods exist. In the Philippines, they merged with the native leaf-wrapped rice cakes (\"kakanin\") and are made with a dough derived from ground rice and are filled with seasoned chicken or pork with the addition of peanuts and other seasonings such as sugar. In some places, such as the Pampanga, where it is popularly known as \"bobotu\", and Batangas provinces, the tamales are wrapped in banana leaves, but sweet corn varieties from the Visayas region are wrapped in corn husks similar to the sweet corn tamales of the American Southwest and Mexico. Because of the work involved in the preparation of tamales, they usually only appear during the special holidays or other big celebrations. Various recipes have practically disappeared under the pressures of modern life and the ease of fast food. Several varieties of tamales are also found in the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "While Mexican-style and other Latin American-style tamales are featured at ethnic restaurants throughout the United States, some distinctly indigenous styles also are made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The is also related to the pastel, a root tamale dating to around the same time as the native Ta\u00edno ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamales, \"tamalis\", \"tamalos\", and \"pasteles\" are different varieties found throughout the region. Some are sweet, some are savory, and some are sweet and savory. Mostly wrapped in banana leaves and made of rice, either the whole grain or ground and cooked with coconut milk and other seasonings, they are sometimes filled with meat and seafood, or are plain and have no filling. There are certain varieties, such as \"tamalos\", that are made of a sweet corn masa wrapped in a corn husk or leaf. There are also varieties made without masa, like \"tamalis\", which are made with small fish fry wrapped in banana leaves and steamed, similar to the from Mexico, where the small fish are cooked whole with herbs and seasonings wrapped inside a corn husk without masa. The number of varieties has dwindled through the years so certain types of tamales that were once popular in the Philippines have become lost or are simply memories. The variety found in Guam, known as \"tamales guiso\", is made with corn masa and wrapped in corn husks, and as with the Philippine tamales, are clear evidence of the influence of the galleon trade that occurred between the ports of Manila and Acapulco."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "\"Tamale\" is an anglicized version of the Spanish word (plural: ). comes from the Nahuatl . The English \"tamale\" is a back-formation of , with English speakers interpreting the \"-e-\" as part of the stem, rather than part of the plural suffix \"-es\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Santander Department",
        "text": "The tamale is a dish that is eaten in various parts of Colombia, but in Santander it is prepared with peeled corn dough and filled with beef, chicken or pork, chickpeas, onions, and paprika. It is then wrapped in banana leaf giving it a rectangular shape."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In Trinidad and Tobago, it is called a \"pastelle\" and is popular in many households during the entire Christmas season and New Year celebrations. It is usually made with cornmeal and filled with cooked, seasoned meat (chicken and beef being the most popular), raisins, olives, capers, and other seasonings. The entire \"pastelle\" is wrapped in a banana leaf, bound with twine and steamed. When fully cooked, the banana leaf is removed to reveal the brightly yellow-colored dish. It is often indulged as is or along with a meal. The sweet version is called \"paymee\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "A tamale is a traditional Mesoamerican dish, made of masa, a dough made from nixtamalized corn, which is steamed in a corn husk or banana leaf. The wrapping can either be discarded prior to eating or used as a plate. Tamales can be filled with meats, cheeses, fruits, vegetables, herbs, chilies, or any preparation according to taste, and both the filling and the cooking liquid may be seasoned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baron Ambrosia",
        "text": "Culinary Focus: The Puerto Rican tamale known as a pastel"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamales originated in Mesoamerica as early as 8000 to 5000 BC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The preparation of tamales is likely to have spread from the indigenous cultures in Guatemala and Mexico to the rest of Latin America. According to archaeologists Karl Taube, William Saturno, and David Stuart, tamales may date from around 100 AD. They found pictorial references in the \"Mural of San Bartolo\", in Pet\u00e9n, Guatemala."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guanime",
        "text": "Guanimes are related to tamales and hallacas. Cornmeal masa is wrapped in corn husk stuffed with meat, nuts, fish, beans, or nothing at all. They are then boiled like tamales and hallacas. Ta\u00ednos in Puerto Rico also mashed a variety of tubers and squash into the cornmeal masa. This later became the modern day \"pasteles\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "A well-known Cuban song from the 1950s, \"\", (a cha-cha-cha sung by Orquesta Arag\u00f3n) celebrated the delicious tamales sold by a street vendor in Cienfuegos. A peculiarly Cuban invention is the dish known as , basically consisting of tamale masa with the meat stuffing stirred into the masa, and then cooked in a pot on the stove to form a kind of hearty cornmeal porridge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guajolota",
        "text": "Most vendors sell a variety of tamales stuffed with different ingredients, such as red \"mole\" with chicken, \"salsa verde\" with pork, cheese and chile poblano \"rajas con queso,\" or a \"tamal de dulce,\" which is a sweet flavored tamal, to accompany the bolillo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Santiago Teyahualco",
        "text": "Tamales is a traditional Mesoamerican dish made of \u201cmasa\u201d or dough (starchy, and usually corn-based), which is steamed in a corn husk or banana leaf"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarillo",
        "text": "The tamarillo is also successfully grown at higher elevations of Malaysia and the Philippines, and in Puerto Rico. In the hot tropical lowlands, it develops only small fruits and fruit setting is seldom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteles",
        "text": "Pasteles\n--Puerto Rican pasteles.\n--Other regional variations.\n----Colombia.\n----Dominican Republic.\n----Hawaii.\n----Trinidad and Tobago.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Longaniza",
        "text": "Longaniza\n--Varieties by country.\n----Spain.\n----Argentina and Uruguay.\n----Chile and Peru.\n----Mexico.\n----Puerto Rico.\n----Dominican Republic.\n----Philippines.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the Mississippi Delta, African Americans developed a spicy tamale made from cornmeal instead of masa, which is boiled in corn husks. This is sometimes called a \"hot tamale\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "Sugar, corn syrup, modified food starch, contains less than 0.5% of the following ingredients: dextrin, medium chain triglycerides, fruit juice from concentrate (pear, orange, strawberry, cherry, lemon, lime), sodium citrate, pectin, citric acid, malic acid, fumaric acid, confectioners glaze, carnauba wax, white mineral oil, artificial flavors, artificial color, sodium citrate, magnesium hydroxide, red #3, red #40, yellow #5 (tartrazine), yellow #6, blue #1."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In Mexico, tamales begin with a dough made from ground nixtamalized corn (hominy), called \"masa\", or alternatively a rehydrated \"masa\" powder, such as Maseca. It is combined with lard or vegetable shortening, along with broth or water, to bring the dough to the consistency of a very thick batter. It is traditional to whisk the lard, and whisk the resulting batter, with the intent of producing the signature soft and fluffy texture. Modern recipes may use baking powder to achieve a similar effect. Chili purees or dried chili powders are also occasionally added to the batter, which in addition to the spice can cause some tamales to appear red in color. Tamales are generally wrapped in corn husks or plantain leaves before being steamed, with the choice of husk depending on the region. They usually have a sweet or savory filling and are usually steamed until firm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarind",
        "text": "In Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, Peru, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Italy, Spain, and throughout the Lusosphere, it is called \"tamarindo\". In those countries it is often used to make the beverage of the same name (or \"agua de tamarindo\"). In the Caribbean, tamarind is sometimes called \"tam\u00f3n\". Countries in the Malay world like Indonesia call it \"asam jawa\" (Javanese sour fruit) or simply \"asam\", and \"sukaer\" in Timor. While in the Philippines, it is called \"sampalok\" or \"sampaloc\" in Filipino, and \"sambag\" in Cebuano. Tamarind (\"Tamarindus indica\") is sometimes confused with \"Manila tamarind\" (\"Pithecellobium dulce\"). While in the same taxonomic family Fabaceae, Manila tamarind is a different plant native to Mexico and known locally as \"guam\u00fachili\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Azalea Qui\u00f1ones",
        "text": "and have been shown in Buenos Aires, Colombia, Cuba, Mexico, Spain, Switzerland, Germany, and the United States as well as Venezuela."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana leaf",
        "text": "Tamales made throughout Central America are traditionally wrapped in banana leaves prior to cooking, which imparts a distinctive taste to the nixtamalized corn dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasteles",
        "text": "Related to alcapurria, tamale, hallacas, and guanimes, pasteles are believed to have been made by natives of Boriquen (Puerto Rico). Tainos made masa from cassava, yaut\u00eda and squash. The masa was then filled with beans, fruit, chilies, corn, nuts, meat, fish and wrapped in corn husk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamale (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Hot Tamale (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamal (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Tamal or tamale may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Trupanea ageratae",
        "text": "United States, Cuba."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Around the beginning of the 20th century, the name \"tamale pie\" was given to meat pies and casseroles made with a cornmeal crust and typical tamale fillings arranged in layers. Although characterized as Mexican food, these forms are not popular in Mexican American culture in which the individually wrapped style is preferred."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trupanea mevarna",
        "text": "United States, Mexico, Puerto Rico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "are much larger in size in comparison to their counterparts, and made up of mostly nixtamalized corn (a kind of dough traditionally made from a process called ) and lard). The masa and liquified concoction of onion, garlic, tomato, salt, (annatto), naranja agria and bell pepper is cooked and the result becomes the base for the nacatamal and it is also referred to as . This base is ladled onto plantain leaves used for wrapping into large individual portions. The filling usually consists of annatto-seasoned pork meat, rice, slices of potatoes, bell peppers, tomatoes, and onions; olives, spearmint sprigs, and chile, a very small, egg-shaped chile found in Nicaragua. On occasion, prunes, raisins, or capers can be added. The \"masa\" and filling are then wrapped in plantain leaves, tied with a string, and made into pillow-shaped bundles \u2013 . They are then steamed or pressure-cooked for several hours. The entire process is very labor-intensive, and it often requires preparation over the course of two days; involving the whole family may be needed to complete it.\n* Are a much simpler version of a tamal in Nicaragua, they are wrapped in a banana leaf, and are eaten with cheese and cooked red beans.\n* have a sweet flavor, filled with a mixture of ground beans sweetened with cane sugar or rapadura and are wrapped in banana leaves. They serve as a dessert.\n* Is made with tender corn grains that gives it a slightly sweet flavor and wrapped in corn husks. It is generally eaten accompanied by quesillo or cheese, and sour cream.\n*. A variety of the above stuffed with a mixture of rapadura and grated or ground cheese.\n*. A Northern Nicaraguan tamal make with chicken or hen meat, wrapped in a banana leaf and tied\n* Is a Western Nicaraguan tamal mostly found in Le\u00f3n. that consists of masa mixed with mashed green plantain, sugar, honey and salt. It's wrapped in tempisque or fig leaf and cooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Humitas (from Quechua humint'a) is a Native South American dish from pre-Hispanic times, a traditional food from the Andes and it can be found in Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, and Northwest Argentina. It consists of fresh choclo (Peruvian corn) pounded to a paste, wrapped in a fresh corn husk, and slowly steamed or boiled in a pot of water. In Bolivia it is known as huminta and in Brazil as pamonha."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarillo",
        "text": "The tamarillo (\"Solanum betaceum\") is a small tree or shrub in the flowering plant family Solanaceae (the nightshade family). It is best known as the species that bears the tamarillo, an egg-shaped edible fruit. It is also known as the tree tomato, tomate de \u00e1rbol, tomate andino, tomate serrano, blood fruit, tomate de yuca, tomate de espa\u00f1a, sachatomate, berenjena, chilto and tamamoro in South America, and terong Belanda (Dutch eggplant) in Indonesia. It is popular globally, especially in Peru, Colombia, New Zealand, Ecuador, Rwanda, Australia, and the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Guatemala has many tamale varieties, from the traditional corn-husked tamale called a , to a sweet version of tamale, which uses the same corn dough, but is seasoned with honey or sugar combined with chocolate, almonds, plums, seeds, and peppers. Tamales are sold in stores and private homes (especially on Saturdays). A red light on a home at night is a sign that tamales are for sale at that home.\n*Red tamales owe their name to achiote and tomato and are made with corn dough stuffed with \"recado rojo\", raisins, chili peppers, chicken, beef' or pork wrapped in banana leaves.\n*Cambray tamales contain raisins and almonds. Sweet tamales are filled with sweet . Black tamales are named after the color that chocolate gives them. Chipilin tamales wrapped in corn husks, parrot tamales, and corn tamales among others are also made. Cream tamales and cheese and anise seeds are also mixed with corn tamales.\n* is a typical and emblematic dish of Guatemala. It is a variation of the tamale made with corn dough, but a firmer consistency, although lard can be added to the dough to generate a more pleasant taste and consistency. It is usually mixed with of tomato and with a filling that can be with chicken, beef, or pork. It is wrapped with dried cob leaves (tusa or bender). In some places, it is accompanied by cheese, sauce, or both.\n*Rice tamales come from the Guatemalan highlands, where the typical corn dough is replaced by a thick dough of annealed rice with water and salt. The preparation of the does not differ much from the original, since only some regions have the ingredients with which it is made.\n* is a tamale particularly from the highlands of Guatemala that uses potato instead of maize for the dough.\n* or is dough only, with no meats or other fillings. This dish is used to accompany a meal and used to scoop food on the plate, or just eaten plain along with the main dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamal de olla",
        "text": "In Panamanian cuisine, tamal de olla (), which is Spanish for \"tamale of the pot/pan,\" is best described as a Panamanian-style tamale that fills the baking pan in which it is cooked, and is not wrapped in a banana or plantain leaf. The ingredients include pork or chicken cooked with corn-stuffed cornmeal (with \"maiz nuevo\"), vegetables (onion, tomato, and bell pepper), olives, and raisins. Some also add chopped prunes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana leaf",
        "text": "Guanimos are Dominican tamales made with cornmeal, stuffed with ground meat and wrapped with banana leaves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarillo",
        "text": "Today it is still cultivated in gardens and small orchards for local production, and it is one of the most popular fruits in these regions. Other regions of cultivation are the subtropical areas throughout the world, such as Kenya, Rwanda, South Africa, Nagaland, Manipur , Darjeeling and Sikkim in India, Nepal, Hong Kong, China, the United States, Australia, Bhutan and New Zealand. It has also been seen in Cantabria, a province in Spain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uchepos",
        "text": "Although it is considered to have originated in the Mexican state of Michoacan, chepo can be found in other states of the republic where it is called corn tamal. In other regions of Central America it is also called corn tamal. In some regions in South America these tamales are called humitas where the recipes may call for some spices, raisins, other sweet ingredients such as cajeta blanca/arequipe/dulce de leche/manjar, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamonea",
        "text": "Its native range is Mexico to Tropical America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In northern Louisiana, tamales have been made for several centuries. The Spanish established presidio Los Adaes in 1721 in modern-day Robeline, Louisiana. The descendants of these Spanish settlers from central Mexico were the first tamale makers to arrive in the eastern US. Zwolle, Louisiana, has a Tamale Fiesta every year in October."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the pre-Columbian era, the Aztecs ate tamales with fillings such as turkey, flamingo, frog, \"axolotl\", pocket gopher, rabbit, fish, turkey eggs, honey, fruits, squash, and beans, and even no filling. Aztec tamales differed from modern tamales by not having added fat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuqu\u00edo",
        "text": "Corn tamales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guajolota",
        "text": "There are different types of tamales that can be used to fill a guajolota:\n* Green tamale\n* Oaxacan tamale\n* Sweet tamale\n* Tamal de rajas\n* Fried tamale\n* Mole Tamale"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dracaena surculosa",
        "text": "The following varieties are accepted:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Passiflora tulae",
        "text": "It is native to Puerto Rico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamale (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Hot Tamale may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c1lamo, Veracruz",
        "text": "Regional dish is the \"zacahuil\" a type of tamal (tamale is not the right word), made of dough, chili, pork or chicken wrapped in a bed of banana leaf and cooked in clay oven ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pereskia aculeata",
        "text": "Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Martinique, Montserrat, Puerto Rico, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, Virgin Islands (U.S.), United States, Mexico, South Africa and Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natillas",
        "text": "Natillas\n--Etymology.\n--Varieties.\n----Spain.\n----New Mexico.\n----Colombia.\n----Peru.\n----Mexico.\n----Costa Rica.\n----Cuba.\n----Puerto Rico.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "Hot Tamales\n--Variations.\n--Ingredients.\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Torralbasia",
        "text": "It is native to the Caribbean and is found in the countries of Cuba, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tangale language",
        "text": "In addition, verbs in some TAM can take an Altrilocal-Ventive or Distance suffix."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Hallaca is a traditional meal from Venezuela that resembles the aspect of a tamal. It consists of corn dough stuffed with a stew of beef, pork, or chicken and other ingredients such as raisins, capers, and olives, fresh onion rings, red and green bell pepper slices. There are also vegetarian options with black beans or tofu. Hallacas are folded in plantain leaves, tied with strings, and boiled. The dish is traditionally served during the Christmas season and has several regional variants in Venezuela. It has been described as a national dish of Venezuela but it can be found also in variants. A characteristic of the hallaca is the delicate corn dough made with consomm\u00e9 or broth and lard colored with annatto."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tampea acanthocera",
        "text": "Tampea acanthocera\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "The tamale is a staple in Belize, where it is also known as \"dukunu\", a sweet corn tamale that gets its name from the Garifuna people. Dukunus are mostly vegetarian and consist of roasted corn kernels blended with coconut milk as a base. Butter, salt, and sugar are also added. Dukunus filled with different meats are also made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Cherokee tamales, also known as bean bread or \"broadswords\", were made with hominy (in the case of the Cherokee, the masa was made from corn boiled in water treated with wood ashes instead of lime) and beans, and wrapped in green corn leaves or large tree leaves and boiled, similar to the meatless pre-Columbian bean and masa tamales still prepared in Chiapas, central Mexico, and Guatemala."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guale",
        "text": "Guale\n--Language.\n--History.\n----Prehistory.\n----European contact.\n------Effect on health.\n----La Tama and Yamasee amalgamation.\n----Destruction and dispersal.\n----Emergence of the Yamasee.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tambacara",
        "text": "Tambacara\n--References.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "This meal was later integrated into modern Guatemalan traditions. For example, on Christmas Eve, families prepare black, red, or sweet tamales for family and friends to show gratitude. The tamales are often accompanied with chocolate, yolk bread, and punch, and participate in the Mass of Gallo, at midnight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tampea reversa",
        "text": "Tampea reversa\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarillo",
        "text": "The tamarillo is native to the Andes of Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, Chile, Argentina and Bolivia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "In the classical times of the Maya of Central America (Guatemala in particular), the great Mayan lords delighted in a baked dough bun during the winter solstice, made of maize mixed with turkey, \"tepezcuintle\" (lowland paca) or venison, spices, and chili pepper, among other ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trupanea eclipta",
        "text": "United States, Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, Greater & Lesser Antilles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinturas de Tamayo",
        "text": "He continued:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Natagaima",
        "text": "Tamale (Tolimense), almoj\u00e1bana, yucca bread with oats, Lechona, bizcochuelo, Mistela, Chanfaina, Corn Chicha, Masato, Poporoi are the most important dishes of the zone."
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u00e1fales",
        "text": "R\u00e1fales\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Tamales",
        "text": "As listed on the original Hot Tamales and Hot Tamales Fire boxes:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Thouinia",
        "text": "They are native to Mexico to Central America (within Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua) and the Caribbean (within Bahamas, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico and the Turks-Caicos Islands)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trema lamarckiana",
        "text": "After it grows up to 1 m, it begins to produce flowers and fruits. During the time it favors moisture, it produces abundant numbers of fruits and seeds. The average weight of fruits collected in Puerto Rico was 0.0077 \u00b1 0.0001 g/fruit. The average weight of air-dried seeds was 0.0024 \u00b1 0.0000 g/seed, in other words, 1\u00a0kg held 416,000 seeds. Approximately, 60\u2013120 days after sowing in commercial potting mix, 38 percent of seeds have germinated. Birds scatter the seeds. Seedlings are usually seen on disturbed area where seed-bearing plants exist. Young plants tend to grow when forest lands are cut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Encyclia tampensis",
        "text": "There are some variations in color and markings that exist such as Cuba's encyclia tampense var amesiana and the \"alba\" or white variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale pie",
        "text": "Tamale pie\n--Overview.\n----Ingredients and preparation.\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamayoa decolorata",
        "text": "The distribution of \"Tamayoa decolorata\" includes:\n* Jamaica\n* Guadeloupe\n* Dominica This species is probably an introduced one in Dominica, as it was found only in disturbed habitats.\n* Martinique\n* Barbados\n* Saint Vincent\n* Tobago\n* Trinidad\n* French Guiana\n* Brazil"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamarillo",
        "text": "In Rwanda, tree tomatoes are often served alongside other tropical fruits, such as mango and pineapple."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boruca",
        "text": "Tamales can be prepared using rice, corn, or beans. All three types are considered special and served only at specific occasions, such as birthdays and when guests come to Boruca. The rice tamale is made by mixing uncooked rice with salt and oil. This compound can also be seasoned with chili, onion, ayote, or additional salt. Once finished, the rice is placed on a leaf, followed by pork and a final layer of rice. The leaf is then folded around the rice and pork and tied. The dish must cook for at least six hours. The corn variant is prepared in the same way, except that corn is used instead of rice and must only be cooked for one hour. The bean version can be made in the same manner but uses mashed beans instead of corn. The rice is most common."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamas Galambos",
        "text": "Tamas Galambos\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cubanola",
        "text": "[[Category:Flora of the Caribbean]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Melanella conoidea",
        "text": "This species occurs in the following locations:\n* Caribbean Sea\n* Colombia\n* Costa Rica\n* Cuba\n* Gulf of Mexico\n* Lesser Antilles\n* Mexico\n* Puerto Rico\n* Venezuela"
      },
      {
        "title": "Thompson Field",
        "text": "Tellez Tamales is a local tamaleria that has served the community for decades. It is well known in the area for its Mexican breakfast foods including tamales, barbacoa and other standard Mexican fare."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trupanea polyclona",
        "text": "Cuba."
      },
      {
        "title": "Annona squamosa",
        "text": "\"Annona squamosa\" is native to the tropical Americas and West Indies, but the exact origin is unknown. It is now the most widely cultivated of all the species of \"Annona\", being grown for its fruit throughout the tropics and warmer subtropics, such as Indonesia, Thailand, Taiwan, and China as far north as Suzhou; it was introduced to southern Asia before 1590. It is naturalized as far north as southern Florida in the United States and as south as Bahia in Brazil, Bangladesh, and is an invasive species in some areas.\n;Native\n:Neotropic\n::Caribbean: Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Jamaica, Martinique, Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles, Puerto Rico, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Surinam, Trinidad and Tobago, Virgin Islands.\n::Central America: El Salvador, Guatemala\n::Northern South America: Suriname, French Guiana, Guyana, Venezuela\n::Western South America: Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru\n::Southern South America: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay\n;Current (naturalized and native)\n:Neotropic\n::Caribbean: Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Florida, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Jamaica, Martinique, Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles, Puerto Rico, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Surinam, Trinidad and Tobago, Virgin Islands.\n::Pacific: Samoa, Tonga\n::North America: Mexico\n::Central America: Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama\n::Northern South America: French Guiana, Guyana, Venezuela\n::Western South America: Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru\n::Southern South America: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay\n:Afrotropic: Angola, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zanzibar, Kenya\n:Australasia: Australia, Fiji, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands\n:Indomalaya: Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam\n:Palearctic: Cyprus, Greece, Lebanon, Malta, Israel"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tampea",
        "text": "<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamaulipan mezquital",
        "text": "tropical sage (\"Salvia coccinea\"), and blue boneset (\"Tamaulipa azurea\"), or dead palm fronds may restrict the development of the ground layer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diaprepes",
        "text": "Distributed in the Caribbean, Central America and Florida: Trinidad, Venezuela; Honduras, Nicaragua; Antigua, Barbados, Cuba, Dominica, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Hispaniola, Martinique, Mona, Montserrat, Nevis, Puerto Rico, St. Barthelemy, St. Croix, St. Kitts, St. Lucia, St. Thomas, St. Vincent, Vieques; SE USA (Florida)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corunda",
        "text": "Corunda is a Mexican type of tamale, but wrapped in a long corn or reed plant leaf, and folded, making a triangular shape or spherical shape. They are typically steamed until golden and eaten with sour cream (Mexican crema)and red salsa. Unlike typical tamales, they do not always have a filling. They are usually made using corn masa, salt, lard, and water. Some corundas are filled with salsa on the inside. They are commonly sold by the dozen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ensa\u00efmada",
        "text": "Ensa\u00efmada\n--Variants.\n----The Balearic Islands.\n----The Philippines.\n----Puerto Rico.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Helicopsyche",
        "text": "Americas: Dominican Republic, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Dominica, Peru, Canada, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama, United States, Chile, Brazil, Cuba, Jamaica, Nicaragua, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Martinique, St. Lucia, Haiti, El Salvador, Hispaniola, Trinidad, Paraguay, Puerto Rico, Honduras, Surinam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamale",
        "text": "Tamale-making is a ritual that has been part of Mexican life since pre-Hispanic times, when special fillings and forms were designated for each specific festival or life event. Today, tamales are typically filled with meats, cheese, or vegetables, especially chilies. Preparation is complex and time-consuming, and an excellent example of Mexican communal cooking, where this task usually falls to the women. Tamales are a favorite comfort food in Mexico, eaten as both breakfast and dinner, and often accompanied by hot \"atole\" or \"champurrado\" and \"arroz con leche\" (rice porridge, \"rice with milk\") or maize-based beverages of indigenous origin. Street vendors can be seen serving them from huge, steaming, covered pots () or \"ollas\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Duckanoo",
        "text": "Similar to the Meso American 'dulce de tamale', this was a highly popular indigenous dessert in the Americas. Adapted by the Afro-Caribbean people (who were brought to Antigua and Barbuda as well as other Caribbean Islands in the slave trade), ingredients such as eddoes, okra, dasheen, eggplant, and the bonavista bean are used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trupanea omphale",
        "text": "Chile."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thylacella cubana",
        "text": "Thylacella cubana\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Salvadoran cuisine",
        "text": "El Salvador is known for different types of tamales, which are usually wrapped in plantain leaves. These tamales include:\n* \"Tamales de elote\" (Fresh corn cakes)\n* \"Tamales pisques\" (Tamales stuffed with black beans)\n* \"Tamales de pollo\" (Tamales stuffed with chicken and potatoes)\n* \"Ticucos\" (\"Travelers\" tamales )"
      },
      {
        "title": "Qualea tessmannii",
        "text": "It can be found in countries like Brazil, Bolivia, and Peru."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which Mesoamerican tribe is responsible for the origin of the tamale?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "According to archaeologists Karl Taube, William Saturno, and David Stuart, tamales may date from around 100 AD. They found pictorial references in the Mural of San Bartolo, in Pet\u00e9n, Guatemala and the preparation of tamales is likely to have spread from the indigenous cultures in Guatemala and Mexico to the rest of Latin America."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did tamales make their way to the USA?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Tamales have been eaten in the United States since at least 1893, when they were featured at the World's Columbian Exposition. African Americans in the Mississippi Delta developed a spicy tamale made from cornmeal instead of masa and in northern Louisiana, tamales have been made for several centuries."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are tamales popular anywhere else, other than North and South America?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They are popular in the Caribbean, Central America, the Philippines, and Guam."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about tamale in Guam please!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The variety found in Guam, known as tamales guiso, is made with corn masa and wrapped in corn husks, and as with the Philippine tamales, are clear evidence of the influence of the galleon trade that occurred between the ports of Manila and Acapulco."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How about in the Philippines, can you tell me about tamale there?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In the Philippines, they merged with the native leaf-wrapped rice cakes and are made with a dough derived from ground rice and are filled with seasoned chicken or pork with the addition of peanuts and other seasonings such as sugar. Because of the work involved in the preparation of tamales, they usually only appear during the special holidays or other big celebrations."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about Caribbean variations of the tamale?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are regional varieties of tamale in Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, and Trinidad and Tobago. Which of variations of tamale in the Caribbean are you interested?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in the varieties of tamale in Puerto Rico."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Guanime is a Puerto Rican dish that can be traced back to pre-Columbian times. It consists of corn masa that is stuffed with beans, seafood, nuts, or meat, and then wrapped in corn husks slowly cooked on a grill, The several versions of guanimes can be made with green plantains, cassava, and a sweet version made with sweet plantains and cornmeal.",
      "An example is the Guanime, which has an origin that can be traced back to pre-Columbian times and consists of corn masa that is stuffed with beans, seafood, nuts, or meat, and then wrapped in corn husks slowly cooked on a grill. There are several versions of it, and it can be made with green plantains, cassava, and a sweet version made with sweet plantains and cornmeal."
    ],
    "topic": "Tamale",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Tamale:9",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tamale",
          "Caribbean",
          "Puerto Rico"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"Guanime\" is a Puerto Rican dish that can be traced back to pre-Columbian times. It consists of corn masa that is stuffed with beans, seafood, nuts, or meat, and then wrapped in corn husks slowly cooked on a grill."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Tamale:9",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tamale",
          "Caribbean",
          "Puerto Rico"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"Guanime\" is a Puerto Rican dish that can be traced back to pre-Columbian times. It consists of corn masa that is stuffed with beans, seafood, nuts, or meat, and then wrapped in corn husks slowly cooked on a grill."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Tamale:11",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tamale",
          "Caribbean",
          "Puerto Rico"
        ],
        "ctx": "The several versions of can be made with green plantains, cassava, and a sweet version made with sweet plantains and cornmeal."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Dumpster diving\n--Etymology.\n--Participants.\n--Overview.\n----Dumpster diving with criminal intentions.\n--Legal status.\n----By country.\n--Items.\n--Notable instances.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "In Germany, dumpster diving is referred to as \"containern\", and a waste container's contents are regarded as the property of the container's owner. Therefore, taking items from such a container is viewed as theft. However, the police will routinely disregard the illegality of garbage picking since the items found are generally of low value. There has only been one known instance where people were prosecuted. In 2009 individuals were arrested on assumed burglary as they had surmounted a supermarket's fence which was then followed by a theft complaint by the owner; the case was suspended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster",
        "text": "Dumpster diving involves persons voluntarily climbing into a dumpster to find valuables, such as discarded metal scrap, or simply useful items, including food and used clothing. It can also be a method of investigation (e.g., looking for discarded financial records, private papers, or evidence of a crime). Going through garbage containers that are not strictly speaking dumpsters is nevertheless often referred to as dumpster diving."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "In October 2013, in North London, three men were arrested and charged under the 1824 Vagrancy Act when they were caught taking discarded food: tomatoes, mushrooms, cheese and cakes from bins behind an Iceland supermarket. The charges were dropped on 29 January 2014 after much public criticism as well as a request by Iceland's chief executive, Malcolm Walker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Dumpster diving (also totting, skipping, skip diving or skip salvage) is salvaging from large commercial, residential, industrial and construction containers for unused items discarded by their owners but deemed useful to the picker. It is not confined to dumpsters and skips specifically and may cover standard household waste containers, curb sides, landfills or small dumps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Police searches of discarded waste as well as similar methods are also generally not considered violations; evidence seized in this manner has been permitted in many criminal trials. In the United States this has been affirmed by numerous courts including and up to the Supreme Court, in the decision \"California v. Greenwood\". The doctrine is not as well established in regards to civil litigation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Since dumpsters are usually located on private premises, divers may occasionally get in trouble for trespassing while dumpster diving, though the law is enforced with varying degrees of rigor. Some businesses may lock dumpsters to prevent pickers from congregating on their property, vandalism to their property, and to limit potential liability if a dumpster diver is injured while on their property."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Companies run by private investigators specializing in such techniques have emerged as a result of the need for discreet, undetected retrieval of documents and evidence for civil and criminal trials. Private investigators have also written books on \"P.I. technique\" in which dumpster diving or its equivalent \"wastebasket recovery\" figures prominently."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical information security",
        "text": "Dumpster diving is the practice of searching through trash in the hope of obtaining something valuable such as information carelessly discarded on paper, computer disks or other hardware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "People dumpster dive for items such as clothing, furniture, food, and similar items in good working condition. Some people do this out of necessity due to poverty, others do it for ideological reasons or professionally and systematically for profit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Information diving",
        "text": "Today, files, letters, memos, photographs, IDs, passwords, credit cards, and more can be found in dumpsters. Many people do not consider that sensitive information on items they discarded may be recovered. Such information, when recovered, is sometimes usable for fraudulent purposes (see also \"identity theft\" and physical information security). This method of dumpster diving is also sometimes used by attorneys or their agents when seeking to enforce court-ordered money judgments: the judgment debtor's trash may contain information about assets that can then be more-readily located for levying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Dumpster diving can be hazardous, due to potential exposure to biohazardous matter, broken glass, and overall unsanitary conditions that may exist in dumpsters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Skipping in England and Wales may qualify as theft within the Theft Act 1968 or as common-law theft in Scotland, though there is very little enforcement in practice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "In the United States, the 1988 \"California v. Greenwood\" case in the U.S. Supreme Court held that there is no common law expectation of privacy for discarded materials. There are, however, limits to what can legally be taken from a company's refuse. In a 1983 Minnesota case involving the theft of customer lists from a garbage can, \"Tennant Company v. Advance Machine Company\" (355 N.W.2d 720), the owner of the discarded information was awarded $500,000 in damages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Criminals have been known to dumpster dive for cash receipts as part of a scheme to steal items and return them for cash, a form of return fraud known as \"shoplisting.\" Police investigating shoplifting in Bellingham, Washington found dozens of receipts from retailers such as The Home Depot, Rite Aid and Fred Meyer, along with a list of items on the receipts. Suspects believed to have taken receipts from trash receptacles near Walmart locations were arrested for return fraud in 2016 in Madison, Wisconsin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "In Ontario, Canada, the \"Trespass to Property Act\"\u2014legislation dating back to the \"British North America Act\" of 1867\u2014grants property owners and security guards the power to ban anyone from their premises, for any reason, permanently. This is done by issuing a notice to the intruder, who will only be breaking the law upon return. Similar laws exist in Prince Edward Island and Saskatchewan. A recent case in Canada, which involved a police officer who retrieved a discarded weapon from a trash receptacle as evidence, created some controversy. The judge ruled the policeman's actions as legal although there was no warrant present, which led some to speculate the event as validation for any Canadian citizen to raid garbage disposals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "In 2009, a Belgian dumpster diver and eco-activist nicknamed Ollie was detained for a month for removing food from a garbage can, and was accused of theft and burglary. On February 25, 2009, he was arrested for removing food from a garbage can at an AD Delhaize supermarket in Bruges. Ollie's trial evoked protests in Belgium against restrictions from taking discarded food items."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Different terms are used to refer to different forms of this activity. For picking materials from the curbside trash collection, expressions such as curb shopping, trash picking or street scavenging are sometimes used. In the UK, if someone is primarily seeking recyclable metal, they are scrapping, and if they are picking the leftover food from farming left in the fields, they are gleaning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "The activity is performed by people out of necessity in the developing world. Some scavengers perform in organized groups, and some organize on various internet forums and social networking websites. By reusing, or repurposing, resources destined for the landfill, dumpster diving is sometimes considered to be an environmentalist endeavor, and is thus practiced by many pro-green communities. The wastefulness of consumer society and throw-away culture compels some individuals to rescue usable items (for example, computers or smartphones, which are frequently discarded due to the extensive use of planned obsolescence in the technology industry) from destruction and divert them to those who can make use of the items."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Arguments against garbage picking often focus on the health and cleanliness implications of people rummaging in trash. This exposes the dumpster divers to potential health risks, and, especially if the dumpster diver does not return the non-usable items to their previous location, may leave trash scattered around. Divers can also be seriously injured or killed by garbage collection vehicles; in January 2012, in La Jolla, Swiss-American man Alfonso de Bourbon was killed by a truck while dumpster diving."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "In the 1960s, Jerry Schneider, using recovered instruction manuals from The Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Company, used the company's own procedures to acquire hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of telephone equipment over several years until his arrest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "The karung guni, Zabbaleen, the rag and bone man, waste picker, junk man or bin hoker are terms for people who make their living by sorting and trading trash. A similar process known as gleaning was practised in rural areas and some ancient agricultural societies, where the residue from farmers' fields was collected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Information diving",
        "text": "Dumpster diving is commonly practiced by \"watchdog\" organizations seeking information on groups they are investigating. The Trinity Foundation successfully used this technique to report on the activities of televangelist Robert Tilton and was also able to obtain information on Benny Hinn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "The term \"dumpster diving\" emerged in the 1980s, combining \"diving\" with \"dumpster\", a large commercial trash bin. The term \"Dumpster\" itself comes from the Dempster Dumpster, a brand of bins manufactured by Dempster Brothers beginning in 1937. \"Dumpster\" became genericized by the 1970s. According to the \"Oxford English Dictionary\", the term \"dumpster diving\" is chiefly found in American English and first appeared in print in 1983, with the verb \"dumpster-dive\" appearing a few years later. In British English, the practice may be known as \"skipping\", from skip, another term for this type of container."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waste picker",
        "text": "\"Dumpster diving\" generally refers to the practice of anti-consumer and freegan activists who reclaim items such as food and clothes from the waste stream as a form of protest against consumer culture. \"Waste picking\" generally refers to activity motivated purely by economic need."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Students have been known to partake in dumpster diving to obtain high tech items for technical projects, or simply to indulge their curiosity for unusual items. Dumpster diving can additionally be used in support of academic research. Garbage picking serves as the main tool for garbologists, who study the sociology and archeology of trash in modern life. Private and government investigators may pick through garbage to obtain information for their inquiries. Illegal cigarette consumption may be deduced from discarded packages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Some dumpster divers, who self-identify as freegans, aim to reduce their ecological footprint by living from dumpster-dived-goods, sometimes exclusively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Discarded billing records may be used for identity theft. As a privacy violation, discarded medical records as trash led to a $140,000 penalty against Massachusetts billing company Goldthwait Associates and a group of pathology offices in 2013 and a $400,000 settlement between Midwest Women's Healthcare Specialists and 1,532 clients in Kansas City in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster",
        "text": "Dumpster\n--History.\n--Function.\n--Dumpster diving.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Theft by finding",
        "text": "Thus Garbology (the examination and analysis of trash) and Dumpster diving are legal in the United States. Consequently, the abandonment of private medical records by placing them in trash has resulted in civil penalties against companies doing so."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "The term \"binner\" is often used to describe individuals who collect recyclable materials for their deposit value. For example, in Vancouver, British Columbia, binners, or bottle collectors, search garbage cans and dumpsters for recyclable materials that can be redeemed for their deposit value. On average, these binners earn about $40 a day for several garbage bags full of discarded containers. Some are scammers seeking for receipts to use in committing return fraud."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Alternative names for the practice include bin-diving, containering, D-mart, dumpstering, totting, and skipping. In Australia, garbage picking is called \"skip dipping.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Information diving",
        "text": "Information diving\n--Cases.\n----Printed manuals.\n----Discarded computers.\n----Dumpster diving.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dive! (film)",
        "text": "The film follows director Jeremy Seifert and his friends as they dumpster dive behind several grocery stores in the Los Angeles area to demonstrate the massive amount of food that is wasted each year in America. After showing that much of the food found in dumpsters is perfectly edible, Seifert confronts the managers of the stores to question why they don't donate more of it to local food banks, especially in light of the 1996 Federal Bill Emerson Good Samaritan Food Donation Act, which protects them from liability for such donations. The legality and ethics of dumpster diving are discussed when the stores begin locking up their dumpsters. Finally, Seifert considers the waste created by individual consumers when they throw out food that is only partly bad or just past its expiration date."
      },
      {
        "title": "Garbage theft",
        "text": "Garbage theft is a colloquial term for the illegitimate removal of items from a dumpster, or other waste disposal container. Another colloquial phrase is dumpster diving."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food waste in New Zealand",
        "text": "Dumpster diving, especially at supermarkets, does still occur to gather discarded food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Information diving",
        "text": "Supposedly, information diving was more common in the 1980s due to lax security; when businesses became aware of the need for increased security in the early 1990s, sensitive documents were shredded before being placed in dumpsters. There is still considerable Internet activity on the subject of dumpster diving, so it is unlikely to have stopped with the widespread introduction of document shredding. Security mythology has it that curious hackers or malicious crackers commonly use this technique."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philadelphia Dumpster Divers",
        "text": "Philadelphia Dumpster Divers\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Freeganism",
        "text": "Freeganism is often presented as synonymous with \"dumpster diving\" for discarded food, although freegans are distinguished by their association with an anti-consumerist and anti-capitalist ideology and their engagement in a wider range of alternative living strategies, such as voluntary unemployment, squatting in abandoned buildings, and \"guerrilla gardening\" in unoccupied city parks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Industrial espionage",
        "text": "A spy may break into the premises to steal data and may search through waste paper and refuse, known as \"dumpster diving\". Information may be compromised via unsolicited requests for information, marketing surveys, or use of technical support or research or software facilities. Outsourced industrial producers may ask for information outside the agreed-upon contract."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "The \"Castle Infinity\" videogame, after its shutdown in 2005, was brought back from the dead by a fan rescuing its servers from the trash."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philadelphia Dumpster Divers",
        "text": "The Philadelphia Dumpster Divers are a group of about 40 Philadelphia-area based artists, collectors and friends who work largely with found objects and recycled materials. They are notable for their extensive works and group efforts throughout a 20+ year history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "In 1996, the source code for the Atari 7800 was discovered in the dumpster of the Atari office when the company closed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Dumpster diving is practiced differently in developed countries than in developing countries.\n* Food. In many developing countries, food is rarely thrown away unless it is rotten as food is scarce in comparison to developed nations. In countries like the United States, where 40 to 50 percent of food is wasted, the trash contains a lot more food to gather. In many countries, charities collect excess food from supermarkets and restaurants and distribute it to impoverished neighbourhoods. Trash pickers, Karung guni, Zabaleen, and rag and bone men in these countries may concentrate on looking for usable items or scrap materials to sell rather than food items. In the United States, Canada, and Europe, some bakeries, grocery stores, or restaurants will routinely donate food according to a Good Samaritan Food Donation Act, but more often, because of health laws or company policy, they are required to discard food items by the expiration date, because of overstock, being overly ripened, spoiled, cosmetically imperfect, or blemished.\n* Books and periodicals. As proof to publishing houses of unsold merchandise, booksellers will routinely remove the front covers of printed materials to render them destroyed prior to disposing of their remains in the garbage. Though readable, many damaged publications have disclaimers and legal notices against their existence or sale.\n* Irregular or damaged goods. Offices, factories, department stores, and other commercial establishments may equally throw out non-perishable items that are irregular, were returned, have minor damages, or are replaced by newer inventory. Many items tend to be in such a state of disrepair or cosmetically flawed that they will require some work to make the items functionally usable. For this reason, employees will at times intentionally destroy their items prior to being discarded to prevent them from being reused or resold.\n* Returned items. Manufacturers often find it cheaper to routinely discard items returned as defective under warranty instead of repairing them, although a device is often repairable or usable as a source of spare parts to repair other, similar discarded devices.\n* School supplies. At the end of each school year many people throw away perfectly useful supplies like pencils, pens, notebooks and art supplies.\n* Electronic waste. Some consumer electronics are dumped because of their rapid depreciation, obsolescence, cost to repair, or expense to upgrade. Owners of functional computers may find it easier to dump them rather than donate because many nonprofit organizations and schools are unable, or unwilling, to work with used equipment. Occasionally, vendors dispose of unsaleable, non-defective new merchandise as landfill. The Atari video game burial in Alamogordo, New Mexico after the video game crash of 1983 is a well-known example; a 2014 excavation recovered about 1300 games for curation as museum exhibits or auction.\n* Clothing. While thrift stores routinely refuse used goods which they cannot cheaply and easily resell, the items which they do accept cost them nothing. There is therefore no shrinkage cost associated with discarding mendable garments, repairable appliances or even working donated items which are overstock or find no buyer after some arbitrary length of time.\n* Metal. Sometimes waste may contain recyclable metals and materials that can be reused or sold to recycling plants and scrap yards. The most common recyclable metals found are steel and aluminum.\n* Wood. Called urban lumberjacking, to salvage wood either for home heating, or home construction projects.\n* Empty cans and bottles. Several countries, particularly in Northern Europe have enforced a system in which empty cans and bottles can be returned to stores for money. Usually the amount received per can/bottle is relatively low, so many simply discard them in dumpsters.\n* Residential buildings. Clothing, furniture, appliances, and other housewares may be found at residential buildings.\n* College dormitories. Items may be found at colleges with dormitories at the end of the semester when students throw away many items such as furniture, clothes and electronics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "A wide variety of things may be disposed while still repairable or in working condition, making salvage of them a source of potentially free items for personal use, or to sell for profit. Irregular, blemished or damaged items that are still otherwise functional are regularly thrown away. Discarded food that might have slight imperfections, near its expiration date, or that is simply being replaced by newer stock is often tossed out despite being still edible. Many retailers are reluctant to sell this stock at reduced prices because of the risks that people will buy it instead of the higher-priced newer stock, that extra handling time is required, and that there are liability risks. In the United Kingdom, cookery books have been written on the cooking and consumption of such foods, which has contributed to the popularity of skipping. Artists often use discarded materials retrieved from trash receptacles to create works of found objects or assemblage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rummu quarry",
        "text": "Jump-diving into the lake off derelict buildings is very dangerous, and professional divers have made public recommendations against this practice, because the lake bed contains pieces of thick concrete, tree branches, rebar spikes, metal construction (including machinery), and plenty of barbed wire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freeganism",
        "text": "The legality of freegan practices of reclaiming wasted food, space, or buildings varies depending on local laws around property, trespassing, and waste removal. In some places, like New York City, freegans dumpster dive publicly; in other locations, urban foraging is a secretive activity. In recent years, there have been arrests of people dumpster diving for political reasons in the United Kingdom, Belgium, and France, although in most locations charges have eventually been dropped. These actions could be seen as part of a broader criminalization of acts of survival\u2014like sleeping in public places, sharing food without a permit, or recovering aluminum cans to re-sell\u2014that has affected freegans as well as affiliated groups like Food Not Bombs and the homeless. Freegans report that stores have responded to waste recovery as well, including deliberately destroying products prior to disposing of them, locking dumpsters, or pouring bleach on food to make it inedible. In France, a new national law bans the practice of destroying food in this way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roll-off (dumpster)",
        "text": "There are usually prohibited items that are commonly not allowed for disposal, such as hazardous materials, tires, freon appliances, televisions, paint, asbestos, batteries, oils, fuels, and tar-treated railroad ties because of regulations affecting final waste disposal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Social hacking",
        "text": "Sifting through garbage is a popular tactic for social hackers to recover information about the habits, activities, and interactions of organizations and individuals. Information retrieved from discarded property allows social hackers to create effective profiles of their targets. Personal contact information such as employee titles and phone numbers can be appropriated from discarded phone books or directories and used to gain further technical information such as login data and security passwords. Another advantageous find for social hackers is discarded hardware, especially hard drives that have not properly been scrubbed clean and still contain private and accurate information about corporations or individuals. Since surfing through people's curbside garbage is not a criminal offence and does not require a warrant, it is a rich resource for social hackers, as well as a legally accessible one. Dumpster diving can yield fruitful, albeit smelly results for information seekers such as private investigators, stalkers, nosy neighbours, and the police."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foodsharing.de",
        "text": "In contrast to dumpster diving, which is about taking non-spoiled food from waste containers, foodsaving.de wants to prevent food from being thrown away in the first place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil liability in recreational diving",
        "text": "Failure to identify, preserve, and produce critical evidence such as dive computer data can result in sanctions against the responsible party, including findings in favour of the party requesting the lost information. Investigators without a sufficient knowledge of diving equipment have been known to destroy or lose critical evidence through mishandling of equipment, even when it survived rescue and recovery efforts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Triangle of death (Italy)",
        "text": "By December 1999, all regional landfills had reached capacity. Reports in 2008 stated that the crisis was caused at least in part by the Camorra, the powerful Campania-based mafia, which created a lucrative business in the municipal waste disposal business, mostly in the triangle of death. With the complicity of industrial companies, the illegal dumpers frequently mix heavy metals, industrial waste, and chemicals and household waste together, and then dump them near roads and burn them to avoid detection, leading to severe soil and air pollution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Craig Izzard",
        "text": "A former investigator with the Western Sydney Regional Illegal Dumping Squad (RIDS), was found to have engaged in \"serious corrupt conduct\" by the commission on Tuesday. The matter has now been referred to the Director of Public Prosecutions for the consideration of criminal charges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Securities fraud",
        "text": "According to enforcement officials of the Securities and Exchange Commission, criminals engage in pump-and-dump schemes, in which false and/or fraudulent information is disseminated in chat rooms, forums, internet boards and via email (spamming), with the purpose of causing a dramatic price increase in thinly traded stocks or stocks of shell companies (the \"pump\"). In other instances, fraudsters disseminate materially false information about a company in hopes of urging investors to sell their shares so that the stock price plummets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caverion",
        "text": "The incident was investigated by Statsbygg in Norway and though several regulatory violations were found, among them violating subcontractors pay and working conditions, the violations were not of the nature that Caverion was considered to have engaged in social dumping."
      },
      {
        "title": "R v Stephens",
        "text": "The court held the quarry owner as \"master\" would be liable for acts of his servant, regardless of knowledge. He was convicted and faced the usual financial penalty. The offence was upheld as being one where no knowledge of the dumping was required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster",
        "text": "A dumpster is a type of movable waste container designed to be brought and taken away by a special collection vehicle, or to a bin that a specially designed garbage truck lifts, empties into its hopper, and lowers, on the spot. The word is a generic trademark of \"Dumpster\", an American brand name for a specific design. Generic usage of \"skip\" or \"skip bin\" is common in the UK, Australia and Ireland, as Dumpster is neither an established nor well-known brand in those countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boulton and Park",
        "text": "further that they did unlawfully conspire together, and with divers other persons, feloniously, to commit the said crimes further that they did unlawfully conspire together, and with divers other persons to induce and incite other persons feloniously with them to commit the said crime<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Illegal dumping",
        "text": "Open dumps are locations where illegally dumped, abandoned piles of waste and debris are left in noticeable quantities. Fines are a common punishment for a person caught dumping at an open dump. Open dumps are commonly found in forests, backyards and abandoned buildings. Open dumps are sometimes removed shortly after they are created, but most will persist for an indefinite period of time when the site is situated in the wilderness or in public space without adequate public services."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecomafia",
        "text": "In Italy, the term \"ecomafia\" is generally used to describe criminal syndicates which traffic and illegally dispose of industrial, commercial, and radioactive waste. Mafia-related organizations frequently illegally bury waste in southern Italy and build real estate on top of the dumps. Between 2008 and 2010, an estimated 17,000 houses were built on illegal waste dumps."
      },
      {
        "title": "R v Sault Ste-Marie (City of)",
        "text": "The Court then noted that the dumping offences were of a public welfare nature and were from a provincial statute, thus, were Strict Liability offences and do not require mens rea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster",
        "text": "Many businesses, apartment buildings, schools, offices, and industrial sites have one or more dumpsters, generally ranging from , to store the waste that they generate. Most dumpsters are emptied by front-loading garbage trucks. These trucks have large prongs on the front which are aligned and inserted into arms (or slots) on the dumpster. Hydraulics then lift the prongs and the dumpster, eventually flipping the dumpster upside-down and emptying its contents into the garbage truck hopper (storage compartment). Other dumpsters are smaller and are emptied by rear-loading trucks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Garden waste dumping",
        "text": "The new section of the \"POEO Act\" (The Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997) now imposes further penalties for offences including polluting waters with waste, polluting land, illegally dumping waste or using land as an illegal waste facility (Parrino, Maysaa, Kaoutarani & Salam, 2014). Communities are encouraged to report illegal dumping. In accordance with NSW Illegal Dumping Strategy 2014\u201316, hefty fines and a maximum jail sentence of 2 years can be handed down to repeat offenders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Illegal dumping",
        "text": "Illegal dumping involves the unauthorized disposal of numerous types of waste. Typical materials dumped include building materials from construction sites, such as drywall, roofing shingles, lumber, brick, concrete, and siding. Other frequently dumped materials include automobile parts, household appliances, household waste, furniture, yard scraps, and medical waste."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Dump (saloon)",
        "text": "Like other dive bars, such as Patrick \"Burly\" Bohan's \"The Doctor's\", \"The Dump\" provided sleeping quarters, or \"velvet rooms\", for its customers. But while Bohan's place and others usually provided cots, Lee and Reynolds made different arrangements, as described by Herbert Asbury in \"The Gangs of New York\" (1928), by screwing \"short iron stanchions into the floor about seven feet from the rear wall, and into the wall affixed an iron framework. From the latter to the stanchions was a net of coarse rope, and when a bum passed out from dope or the effects of whiskey and camphor, he was simply tossed into the net to sleep it off\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freeganism",
        "text": "Contact with waste is seen as a taboo and socially unacceptable in most developed countries, and freegans are often associated with stigmatized and racialized groups like the homeless or even compared to scavenging \"pest\" animals like raccoons. Some public health officials, like those in New York City, have explicitly discouraged dumpster diving for sanitation reasons and media coverage occasionally focuses on the \"ick\" factor of dumpster diving while (explicitly or implicitly) ignoring its political content. This discourse has been deployed more broadly to discredit anarchist movements by claiming they are unhygienic and thus dangerous. While some freegans argue that dumpster dived food is safe\u2014noting it is usually thrown out because it cannot be profitably sold, not because it is no longer edible\u2014others embrace the \"dirtiness\" of recovered food as a symbolic rejection of capitalist norms. The group freegan.info has made the disgust attached to wasted food part of its messaging, arguing that social disapprobation should instead fall on those who throw out food, rather than those who recover it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecomafia",
        "text": "In response to the emergence of widespread environmental crimes, the Carabinieri, a police branch of Italy's military, has created a separate branch which specializes in environmental crime. In 2015, environmental police discovered a dump containing industrial waste, medical waste, asbestos, and building materials behind a house in Casal di Principe connected to the Camorra organized crime syndicate. The region of Caserta, where the dump was found, has been associated with the ecomafia since the 1980s when illegal dumping began. The region became known as the \"Land of pyres\" (\"terra dei fuochi\") because of the common criminal practice of burning toxic waste to dispose of it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Los Stompers",
        "text": "to descend into the city's most dissolute dives...facetious and filthy,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Freeganism",
        "text": "Freegans are best known for recovering discarded food from commercial establishments, a practice known as \"dumpster diving\" or \"urban foraging\" in North America, \"skipping\", \"bin raiding\", or \"skipitarianism\" in the UK, \"skip dipping\" in Australia, \"containern\" in Germany, or \"doing the duck\" in New Zealand. Freegan diets are thus made possible by the range of practices that produce commercial food waste that is nonetheless still edible, such as conservative sell-by dates, the deliberate overstocking of certain perishable products (like baked goods), or aesthetic criteria for fruits and vegetables. However, dumpster diving is not limited to rummaging for food; freegans report recovering clothing, books, appliances, bicycles, and furniture from commercial dumpsters as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camerton, Somerset",
        "text": "In 2007 Camerton was the site of a prosecution by the Environment Agency for the illegal dumping of waste including concrete, tarmac, bricks, blocks, subsoil, metal, fluorescent light tubes, electrical cable and asbestos sheets on the site."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Gehrke",
        "text": "\u201cPeople think you run around digging through dumpsters looking for things. In general, researchers just can\u2019t take much credit or blame. What we do now is manage and figure out how to use what\u2019s generally public information that anyone has access to.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wreck diving",
        "text": "In many countries, wrecks are legally protected from unauthorized salvage or desecration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jarno Elg",
        "text": "The criminal investigation started when a leg was found from a dump site, thus giving the name \"dump site murder\" to the case. The case was generally described as the most gruesome homicide in Finnish history."
      },
      {
        "title": "SS Castilian (1919)",
        "text": "An exclusion zone under section 2 of the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973 (Prohibition on approaching dangerous wrecks) forbids scuba diving within of the wreck because her explosive cargo remains dangerous."
      },
      {
        "title": "Curb mining",
        "text": "In many jurisdictions, ownership of domestic waste changes once it is placed into a container for collection. It is thus illegal (although rarely enforced) to skip dive. Curb mining gets round this because the items offered are not yet placed (in a legal sense) into the \"waste\" stream, thus their ownership has not yet been transferred. It is often legal to curb mine, but illegal to skip dive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster",
        "text": "The main purpose of a dumpster is to store garbage until it is emptied by a garbage truck and disposed of. Dumpsters can be used for all kinds of waste, or for recycling purposes. Most dumpsters are emptied weekly by a hired garbage removal service."
      },
      {
        "title": "Big Dig ceiling collapse",
        "text": "Attorney General Martha Coakley on March 1, 2007 named Paul Ware from Goodwin Procter, a Boston law firm to lead the criminal investigation into whether there is criminal culpability in the Big Dig tunnel collapse. Paul Ware will be appointed as a special assistant attorney general."
      },
      {
        "title": "Police diving",
        "text": "Due to the conditions in which accidents may happen, or where criminals may choose to dispose of evidence or their victims, police divers might need to dive:\n* In murky canals, lakes, and rivers\n* Currents that can run as fast as 6 knots\n* In intake pipes and sewers\n* In water towers"
      },
      {
        "title": "Drew Park",
        "text": "On June 13, 1992, two nine-year-old boys, Scotty Perez and Anthony Storman, died after climbing into an open dumpster containing toxic chemicals. The dumpster was used by Durex Industrial, Inc. at 4815 N West Shore Blvd. to illegally dispose of toluene which was used in the manufacturing of printing rollers. Two employees, William C. Whitman and Duane C. Whitman, were sentenced to 27-month prison sentences for illegally handling, storing or disposing of toluene. Durex Industries was fined $1.5-million. A Hillsborough county jury awarded the families a $500-million verdict against the company. The corporation itself was broke and no money was paid to the families. In 1998, the owner William Recht Jr. agreed to pay each family $400,000 and a $200,000 fine after pleading guilty to storing hazardous wastes without a permit. He was sentenced to 30 months of probation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Toxic waste dumping by the 'Ndrangheta",
        "text": "However, the vessel they surveyed off Cetraro in deep waters off the coast of Calabria turned out to be a passenger steamship sunk by a German submarine in 1917. Consequently, one of the prosecutors questioned the reliability of Fonti on the alleged sinkings, although his collaboration with the authorities since 1994 had resulted in high-profile arrests of 'Ndrangheta members involved in drug trafficking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Triangle of death (Italy)",
        "text": "According to Giacomo D'Alisa et al., \"the situation worsened during this period as the Camorra diversified their illegal waste disposal strategy: 1) transporting and dumping hazardous waste in the countryside by truck; 2) dumping waste in illegal caves or holes; 3) mixing toxic waste with textiles to avoid explosions and then burning it; and 4) mixing toxic with urban waste for disposal in landfills and incinerators.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpville",
        "text": "When the city needed land for a rail yard and wished to push crime and poverty further away from town, a murder was the pretext for a police crackdown. On November 9, 1895, a troop of twenty police from the southern district under the command of Captain John Spillane marched down sixth street late at night, burned the shanties and evicted the scavengers from the site which was quickly filled to be used as part of the huge southern Pacific railroad yards along Channel Street."
      },
      {
        "title": "R v Stephens",
        "text": "The defendant owned a quarry where refuse was dumped (by servants, employees, agents, land licensees or subcontractors) into a nearby river. The owner claimed he had no knowledge of the dumping and so should not be liable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freeganism",
        "text": "Freeganism is also critiqued both by other radical movements and by mainstream commentators for the fact that its signature practice\u2014dumpster diving\u2014depends on the capitalist food system that freegans claim to be rejecting. A typical response is that freegan practices are not limited to dumpster diving, but include also actions like guerilla gardening, wild food foraging, or sewing or bike repair \"skill shares\" that are more fully autonomous from the conventional economy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Illegal dumping",
        "text": "Illegal dumping, also called fly dumping or fly tipping (UK), is the dumping of waste illegally instead of using an authorized method such as curbside collection or using an authorized rubbish dump. It is the illegal deposit of any waste onto land, including waste dumped or tipped on a site with no license to accept waste. The United States Environmental Protection Agency developed a \u201cprofile\u201d of the typical illegal dumper. Characteristics of offenders include local residents, construction and landscaping contractors, waste removers, scrap yard operators, and automobile and tire repair shops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Privy digging",
        "text": "Dumps are commonly associated with bottles and trash manufactured between the 1880s-1920s. This was a time when everyday bottles were being mass-produced annually by the hundreds of millions. They were reused less and often thrown away rather than recycled due to their relatively inexpensive production costs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roll-off (dumpster)",
        "text": "There may also be additional fees for improper loading and the loading of regulated or banned materials. The dumpster rental company may also make additional revenue from the spread between the allotted tonnage limit multiplied by the dump rate and the actual dump fees paid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dean Corll",
        "text": "Two prison trustees began digging through the soft, shell-crushed earth of the boat shed and soon uncovered the body of a young blond-haired teenaged boy, lying on his side, encased in clear plastic and buried beneath a layer of lime. Police continued excavating through the earth of the shed, unearthing the remains of more victims in varying stages of decomposition. Most of the bodies found were wrapped in thick, clear plastic sheeting. Some victims had been shot, others strangled, the ligature still wrapped tightly around their necks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumped",
        "text": "11 participants, who were not initially informed of their task, must live on a purpose-made rubbish dump adjacent to a working landfill site for 21 days after being left equipped only with a sleeping bag, drinking can and one roll of lavatory paper each. Rob Holdway, director of environmental consultancy Giraffe Innovation, presented the programme and set the contestants regular challenges. The participants had to wear Kevlar gloves, protective boots and face masks when working on the real landfill site. Every person working on the programme was given tetanus, polio and hepatitis vaccinations for their safety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster fire",
        "text": "The term \"dumpster fire\" derives from fires that start in large trash bins. These bins are often termed \"dumpsters\" after the Dempster Dumpster brand of trash bin in the United States, which eventually came to be colloquialized as \"dumpster\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roll-off (dumpster)",
        "text": "Roll-off (dumpster)\n--Size.\n--Operation.\n--Cost factors.\n--Disadvantages.\n--Legal issues.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Commercial diving",
        "text": "Typical work involves diving into raw sewage or dangerous chemicals, such as paper pulp, liquid cement, or oil sludge. This leads to special requirements:\n* The divers may need to be vaccinated against diseases such as hepatitis and tetanus.\n* Suitable equipment and competent personnel are required for decontamination of the diver and diving equipment after a dive.\n* Emergency procedures appropriate to the specific hazmat environment must be planned and equipment and personnel in place to safely recover the diver if something goes wrong.\n* Personnel must be monitored after exposure for possible long term effects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vomit fraud",
        "text": "Vomit fraud\n--History.\n--Criminality.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Derek Hutch",
        "text": "Initially both defendants had claimed to have been attacked and trying to dispose of the knives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil liability in recreational diving",
        "text": "To establish negligence in a civil court there must be a breach of duty which can be shown to have caused harm to the other person."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wade Dump",
        "text": "In 1980, Melvin Wade was convicted of risking a catastrophe, failing to prevent a catastrophe, and violating the Clean Water Act by polluting the Delaware River. He was sentenced to one to two years in prison and fined $30,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Day of the Dumpster",
        "text": "In the city of Angel Grove, California, five teenagers - Jason Lee Scott, Zack Taylor, Billy Cranston, Trini Kwan, and Kimberly Hart - are hanging out at the Angel Grove Youth Center. The guys are working on karate, while the girls are practicing gymnastics. Farkas Bulkmeier and Eugene Skullovitch (a.k.a. \"Bulk\" and \"Skull\") come to harass them, but end up making fools of themselves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Investigation of diving accidents",
        "text": "Failure to identify, preserve, and produce critical evidence such as dive computer data can result in sanctions against the responsible party, including findings in favour of the party requesting the lost information. Investigators without a sufficient knowledge of diving equipment have been known to destroy or lose critical evidence through mishandling of equipment, even when it survived rescue and recovery efforts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calling All Cars!",
        "text": "The criminals in question have escaped from a local high-security prison by tunneling out. Criminals emerge from the ground somewhere on the current level and begin to walk around."
      },
      {
        "title": "Illegal dumping",
        "text": "Adding barriers such as fencing, rocks, locked gates, and concrete blocks prevents offenders from accessing dump sites with their vehicles, completely deterring illegal dumping or reducing the volume of disposed materials. For example, Maitland, New South Wales erected fences around rural dumping sites prevented vehicles from gaining access. Continued monitoring 12 months later showed that 80% of dump sites protected by the fences experienced negligible illegal waste disposal activity."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the criminal intentions of dumpster diving?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Discarded billing records may be used for identity theft.  Furthermore, Criminals have been known to dumpster dive for cash receipts as part of a scheme to steal items and return them for cash, a form of return fraud known as shoplisting.",
      "Criminals have been known to dumpster dive for cash receipts as part of a scheme to steal items and return them for cash, a form of return fraud known as \"shoplisting."
    ],
    "topic": "Dumpster diving",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Dumpster diving:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Dumpster diving",
          "Overview",
          "Dumpster diving with criminal intentions"
        ],
        "ctx": "Discarded billing records may be used for identity theft. As a privacy violation, discarded medical records as trash led to a $140,000 penalty against Massachusetts billing company Goldthwait Associates and a group of pathology offices in 2013 and a $400,000 settlement between Midwest Women's Healthcare Specialists and 1,532 clients in Kansas City in 2014."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Dumpster diving:15",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Dumpster diving",
          "Overview",
          "Dumpster diving with criminal intentions"
        ],
        "ctx": "Criminals have been known to dumpster dive for cash receipts as part of a scheme to steal items and return them for cash, a form of return fraud known as \"shoplisting.\" Police investigating shoplifting in Bellingham, Washington found dozens of receipts from retailers such as The Home Depot, Rite Aid and Fred Meyer, along with a list of items on the receipts. Suspects believed to have taken receipts from trash receptacles near Walmart locations were arrested for return fraud in 2016 in Madison, Wisconsin."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Dumpster diving:15",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Dumpster diving",
          "Overview",
          "Dumpster diving with criminal intentions"
        ],
        "ctx": "Criminals have been known to dumpster dive for cash receipts as part of a scheme to steal items and return them for cash, a form of return fraud known as \"shoplisting.\" Police investigating shoplifting in Bellingham, Washington found dozens of receipts from retailers such as The Home Depot, Rite Aid and Fred Meyer, along with a list of items on the receipts. Suspects believed to have taken receipts from trash receptacles near Walmart locations were arrested for return fraud in 2016 in Madison, Wisconsin."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "In Germany, dumpster diving is referred to as \"containern\", and a waste container's contents are regarded as the property of the container's owner. Therefore, taking items from such a container is viewed as theft. However, the police will routinely disregard the illegality of garbage picking since the items found are generally of low value. There has only been one known instance where people were prosecuted. In 2009 individuals were arrested on assumed burglary as they had surmounted a supermarket's fence which was then followed by a theft complaint by the owner; the case was suspended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Skipping in England and Wales may qualify as theft within the Theft Act 1968 or as common-law theft in Scotland, though there is very little enforcement in practice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Since dumpsters are usually located on private premises, divers may occasionally get in trouble for trespassing while dumpster diving, though the law is enforced with varying degrees of rigor. Some businesses may lock dumpsters to prevent pickers from congregating on their property, vandalism to their property, and to limit potential liability if a dumpster diver is injured while on their property."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Criminals have been known to dumpster dive for cash receipts as part of a scheme to steal items and return them for cash, a form of return fraud known as \"shoplisting.\" Police investigating shoplifting in Bellingham, Washington found dozens of receipts from retailers such as The Home Depot, Rite Aid and Fred Meyer, along with a list of items on the receipts. Suspects believed to have taken receipts from trash receptacles near Walmart locations were arrested for return fraud in 2016 in Madison, Wisconsin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "In Ontario, Canada, the \"Trespass to Property Act\"\u2014legislation dating back to the \"British North America Act\" of 1867\u2014grants property owners and security guards the power to ban anyone from their premises, for any reason, permanently. This is done by issuing a notice to the intruder, who will only be breaking the law upon return. Similar laws exist in Prince Edward Island and Saskatchewan. A recent case in Canada, which involved a police officer who retrieved a discarded weapon from a trash receptacle as evidence, created some controversy. The judge ruled the policeman's actions as legal although there was no warrant present, which led some to speculate the event as validation for any Canadian citizen to raid garbage disposals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Dumpster diving\n--Etymology.\n--Participants.\n--Overview.\n----Dumpster diving with criminal intentions.\n--Legal status.\n----By country.\n--Items.\n--Notable instances.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Information diving",
        "text": "Today, files, letters, memos, photographs, IDs, passwords, credit cards, and more can be found in dumpsters. Many people do not consider that sensitive information on items they discarded may be recovered. Such information, when recovered, is sometimes usable for fraudulent purposes (see also \"identity theft\" and physical information security). This method of dumpster diving is also sometimes used by attorneys or their agents when seeking to enforce court-ordered money judgments: the judgment debtor's trash may contain information about assets that can then be more-readily located for levying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster",
        "text": "Dumpster diving involves persons voluntarily climbing into a dumpster to find valuables, such as discarded metal scrap, or simply useful items, including food and used clothing. It can also be a method of investigation (e.g., looking for discarded financial records, private papers, or evidence of a crime). Going through garbage containers that are not strictly speaking dumpsters is nevertheless often referred to as dumpster diving."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "In the United States, the 1988 \"California v. Greenwood\" case in the U.S. Supreme Court held that there is no common law expectation of privacy for discarded materials. There are, however, limits to what can legally be taken from a company's refuse. In a 1983 Minnesota case involving the theft of customer lists from a garbage can, \"Tennant Company v. Advance Machine Company\" (355 N.W.2d 720), the owner of the discarded information was awarded $500,000 in damages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "In October 2013, in North London, three men were arrested and charged under the 1824 Vagrancy Act when they were caught taking discarded food: tomatoes, mushrooms, cheese and cakes from bins behind an Iceland supermarket. The charges were dropped on 29 January 2014 after much public criticism as well as a request by Iceland's chief executive, Malcolm Walker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Dumpster diving (also totting, skipping, skip diving or skip salvage) is salvaging from large commercial, residential, industrial and construction containers for unused items discarded by their owners but deemed useful to the picker. It is not confined to dumpsters and skips specifically and may cover standard household waste containers, curb sides, landfills or small dumps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Police searches of discarded waste as well as similar methods are also generally not considered violations; evidence seized in this manner has been permitted in many criminal trials. In the United States this has been affirmed by numerous courts including and up to the Supreme Court, in the decision \"California v. Greenwood\". The doctrine is not as well established in regards to civil litigation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Dumpster diving can be hazardous, due to potential exposure to biohazardous matter, broken glass, and overall unsanitary conditions that may exist in dumpsters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical information security",
        "text": "Dumpster diving is the practice of searching through trash in the hope of obtaining something valuable such as information carelessly discarded on paper, computer disks or other hardware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Companies run by private investigators specializing in such techniques have emerged as a result of the need for discreet, undetected retrieval of documents and evidence for civil and criminal trials. Private investigators have also written books on \"P.I. technique\" in which dumpster diving or its equivalent \"wastebasket recovery\" figures prominently."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "People dumpster dive for items such as clothing, furniture, food, and similar items in good working condition. Some people do this out of necessity due to poverty, others do it for ideological reasons or professionally and systematically for profit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Different terms are used to refer to different forms of this activity. For picking materials from the curbside trash collection, expressions such as curb shopping, trash picking or street scavenging are sometimes used. In the UK, if someone is primarily seeking recyclable metal, they are scrapping, and if they are picking the leftover food from farming left in the fields, they are gleaning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Arguments against garbage picking often focus on the health and cleanliness implications of people rummaging in trash. This exposes the dumpster divers to potential health risks, and, especially if the dumpster diver does not return the non-usable items to their previous location, may leave trash scattered around. Divers can also be seriously injured or killed by garbage collection vehicles; in January 2012, in La Jolla, Swiss-American man Alfonso de Bourbon was killed by a truck while dumpster diving."
      },
      {
        "title": "Theft by finding",
        "text": "Thus Garbology (the examination and analysis of trash) and Dumpster diving are legal in the United States. Consequently, the abandonment of private medical records by placing them in trash has resulted in civil penalties against companies doing so."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "The term \"dumpster diving\" emerged in the 1980s, combining \"diving\" with \"dumpster\", a large commercial trash bin. The term \"Dumpster\" itself comes from the Dempster Dumpster, a brand of bins manufactured by Dempster Brothers beginning in 1937. \"Dumpster\" became genericized by the 1970s. According to the \"Oxford English Dictionary\", the term \"dumpster diving\" is chiefly found in American English and first appeared in print in 1983, with the verb \"dumpster-dive\" appearing a few years later. In British English, the practice may be known as \"skipping\", from skip, another term for this type of container."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "In 2009, a Belgian dumpster diver and eco-activist nicknamed Ollie was detained for a month for removing food from a garbage can, and was accused of theft and burglary. On February 25, 2009, he was arrested for removing food from a garbage can at an AD Delhaize supermarket in Bruges. Ollie's trial evoked protests in Belgium against restrictions from taking discarded food items."
      },
      {
        "title": "Information diving",
        "text": "Supposedly, information diving was more common in the 1980s due to lax security; when businesses became aware of the need for increased security in the early 1990s, sensitive documents were shredded before being placed in dumpsters. There is still considerable Internet activity on the subject of dumpster diving, so it is unlikely to have stopped with the widespread introduction of document shredding. Security mythology has it that curious hackers or malicious crackers commonly use this technique."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Discarded billing records may be used for identity theft. As a privacy violation, discarded medical records as trash led to a $140,000 penalty against Massachusetts billing company Goldthwait Associates and a group of pathology offices in 2013 and a $400,000 settlement between Midwest Women's Healthcare Specialists and 1,532 clients in Kansas City in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "The activity is performed by people out of necessity in the developing world. Some scavengers perform in organized groups, and some organize on various internet forums and social networking websites. By reusing, or repurposing, resources destined for the landfill, dumpster diving is sometimes considered to be an environmentalist endeavor, and is thus practiced by many pro-green communities. The wastefulness of consumer society and throw-away culture compels some individuals to rescue usable items (for example, computers or smartphones, which are frequently discarded due to the extensive use of planned obsolescence in the technology industry) from destruction and divert them to those who can make use of the items."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "In the 1960s, Jerry Schneider, using recovered instruction manuals from The Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Company, used the company's own procedures to acquire hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of telephone equipment over several years until his arrest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "The term \"binner\" is often used to describe individuals who collect recyclable materials for their deposit value. For example, in Vancouver, British Columbia, binners, or bottle collectors, search garbage cans and dumpsters for recyclable materials that can be redeemed for their deposit value. On average, these binners earn about $40 a day for several garbage bags full of discarded containers. Some are scammers seeking for receipts to use in committing return fraud."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Alternative names for the practice include bin-diving, containering, D-mart, dumpstering, totting, and skipping. In Australia, garbage picking is called \"skip dipping.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Students have been known to partake in dumpster diving to obtain high tech items for technical projects, or simply to indulge their curiosity for unusual items. Dumpster diving can additionally be used in support of academic research. Garbage picking serves as the main tool for garbologists, who study the sociology and archeology of trash in modern life. Private and government investigators may pick through garbage to obtain information for their inquiries. Illegal cigarette consumption may be deduced from discarded packages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "The karung guni, Zabbaleen, the rag and bone man, waste picker, junk man or bin hoker are terms for people who make their living by sorting and trading trash. A similar process known as gleaning was practised in rural areas and some ancient agricultural societies, where the residue from farmers' fields was collected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waste picker",
        "text": "\"Dumpster diving\" generally refers to the practice of anti-consumer and freegan activists who reclaim items such as food and clothes from the waste stream as a form of protest against consumer culture. \"Waste picking\" generally refers to activity motivated purely by economic need."
      },
      {
        "title": "Information diving",
        "text": "Dumpster diving is commonly practiced by \"watchdog\" organizations seeking information on groups they are investigating. The Trinity Foundation successfully used this technique to report on the activities of televangelist Robert Tilton and was also able to obtain information on Benny Hinn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Some dumpster divers, who self-identify as freegans, aim to reduce their ecological footprint by living from dumpster-dived-goods, sometimes exclusively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food waste in New Zealand",
        "text": "Dumpster diving, especially at supermarkets, does still occur to gather discarded food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Information diving",
        "text": "Information diving\n--Cases.\n----Printed manuals.\n----Discarded computers.\n----Dumpster diving.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Garbage theft",
        "text": "Garbage theft is a colloquial term for the illegitimate removal of items from a dumpster, or other waste disposal container. Another colloquial phrase is dumpster diving."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freeganism",
        "text": "The legality of freegan practices of reclaiming wasted food, space, or buildings varies depending on local laws around property, trespassing, and waste removal. In some places, like New York City, freegans dumpster dive publicly; in other locations, urban foraging is a secretive activity. In recent years, there have been arrests of people dumpster diving for political reasons in the United Kingdom, Belgium, and France, although in most locations charges have eventually been dropped. These actions could be seen as part of a broader criminalization of acts of survival\u2014like sleeping in public places, sharing food without a permit, or recovering aluminum cans to re-sell\u2014that has affected freegans as well as affiliated groups like Food Not Bombs and the homeless. Freegans report that stores have responded to waste recovery as well, including deliberately destroying products prior to disposing of them, locking dumpsters, or pouring bleach on food to make it inedible. In France, a new national law bans the practice of destroying food in this way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster",
        "text": "Dumpster\n--History.\n--Function.\n--Dumpster diving.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Dumpster diving is practiced differently in developed countries than in developing countries.\n* Food. In many developing countries, food is rarely thrown away unless it is rotten as food is scarce in comparison to developed nations. In countries like the United States, where 40 to 50 percent of food is wasted, the trash contains a lot more food to gather. In many countries, charities collect excess food from supermarkets and restaurants and distribute it to impoverished neighbourhoods. Trash pickers, Karung guni, Zabaleen, and rag and bone men in these countries may concentrate on looking for usable items or scrap materials to sell rather than food items. In the United States, Canada, and Europe, some bakeries, grocery stores, or restaurants will routinely donate food according to a Good Samaritan Food Donation Act, but more often, because of health laws or company policy, they are required to discard food items by the expiration date, because of overstock, being overly ripened, spoiled, cosmetically imperfect, or blemished.\n* Books and periodicals. As proof to publishing houses of unsold merchandise, booksellers will routinely remove the front covers of printed materials to render them destroyed prior to disposing of their remains in the garbage. Though readable, many damaged publications have disclaimers and legal notices against their existence or sale.\n* Irregular or damaged goods. Offices, factories, department stores, and other commercial establishments may equally throw out non-perishable items that are irregular, were returned, have minor damages, or are replaced by newer inventory. Many items tend to be in such a state of disrepair or cosmetically flawed that they will require some work to make the items functionally usable. For this reason, employees will at times intentionally destroy their items prior to being discarded to prevent them from being reused or resold.\n* Returned items. Manufacturers often find it cheaper to routinely discard items returned as defective under warranty instead of repairing them, although a device is often repairable or usable as a source of spare parts to repair other, similar discarded devices.\n* School supplies. At the end of each school year many people throw away perfectly useful supplies like pencils, pens, notebooks and art supplies.\n* Electronic waste. Some consumer electronics are dumped because of their rapid depreciation, obsolescence, cost to repair, or expense to upgrade. Owners of functional computers may find it easier to dump them rather than donate because many nonprofit organizations and schools are unable, or unwilling, to work with used equipment. Occasionally, vendors dispose of unsaleable, non-defective new merchandise as landfill. The Atari video game burial in Alamogordo, New Mexico after the video game crash of 1983 is a well-known example; a 2014 excavation recovered about 1300 games for curation as museum exhibits or auction.\n* Clothing. While thrift stores routinely refuse used goods which they cannot cheaply and easily resell, the items which they do accept cost them nothing. There is therefore no shrinkage cost associated with discarding mendable garments, repairable appliances or even working donated items which are overstock or find no buyer after some arbitrary length of time.\n* Metal. Sometimes waste may contain recyclable metals and materials that can be reused or sold to recycling plants and scrap yards. The most common recyclable metals found are steel and aluminum.\n* Wood. Called urban lumberjacking, to salvage wood either for home heating, or home construction projects.\n* Empty cans and bottles. Several countries, particularly in Northern Europe have enforced a system in which empty cans and bottles can be returned to stores for money. Usually the amount received per can/bottle is relatively low, so many simply discard them in dumpsters.\n* Residential buildings. Clothing, furniture, appliances, and other housewares may be found at residential buildings.\n* College dormitories. Items may be found at colleges with dormitories at the end of the semester when students throw away many items such as furniture, clothes and electronics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dive! (film)",
        "text": "The film follows director Jeremy Seifert and his friends as they dumpster dive behind several grocery stores in the Los Angeles area to demonstrate the massive amount of food that is wasted each year in America. After showing that much of the food found in dumpsters is perfectly edible, Seifert confronts the managers of the stores to question why they don't donate more of it to local food banks, especially in light of the 1996 Federal Bill Emerson Good Samaritan Food Donation Act, which protects them from liability for such donations. The legality and ethics of dumpster diving are discussed when the stores begin locking up their dumpsters. Finally, Seifert considers the waste created by individual consumers when they throw out food that is only partly bad or just past its expiration date."
      },
      {
        "title": "Curb mining",
        "text": "In many jurisdictions, ownership of domestic waste changes once it is placed into a container for collection. It is thus illegal (although rarely enforced) to skip dive. Curb mining gets round this because the items offered are not yet placed (in a legal sense) into the \"waste\" stream, thus their ownership has not yet been transferred. It is often legal to curb mine, but illegal to skip dive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Industrial espionage",
        "text": "A spy may break into the premises to steal data and may search through waste paper and refuse, known as \"dumpster diving\". Information may be compromised via unsolicited requests for information, marketing surveys, or use of technical support or research or software facilities. Outsourced industrial producers may ask for information outside the agreed-upon contract."
      },
      {
        "title": "Illegal dumping",
        "text": "Open dumps are locations where illegally dumped, abandoned piles of waste and debris are left in noticeable quantities. Fines are a common punishment for a person caught dumping at an open dump. Open dumps are commonly found in forests, backyards and abandoned buildings. Open dumps are sometimes removed shortly after they are created, but most will persist for an indefinite period of time when the site is situated in the wilderness or in public space without adequate public services."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roll-off (dumpster)",
        "text": "There are usually prohibited items that are commonly not allowed for disposal, such as hazardous materials, tires, freon appliances, televisions, paint, asbestos, batteries, oils, fuels, and tar-treated railroad ties because of regulations affecting final waste disposal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "A wide variety of things may be disposed while still repairable or in working condition, making salvage of them a source of potentially free items for personal use, or to sell for profit. Irregular, blemished or damaged items that are still otherwise functional are regularly thrown away. Discarded food that might have slight imperfections, near its expiration date, or that is simply being replaced by newer stock is often tossed out despite being still edible. Many retailers are reluctant to sell this stock at reduced prices because of the risks that people will buy it instead of the higher-priced newer stock, that extra handling time is required, and that there are liability risks. In the United Kingdom, cookery books have been written on the cooking and consumption of such foods, which has contributed to the popularity of skipping. Artists often use discarded materials retrieved from trash receptacles to create works of found objects or assemblage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wreck diving",
        "text": "In many countries, wrecks are legally protected from unauthorized salvage or desecration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Social hacking",
        "text": "Sifting through garbage is a popular tactic for social hackers to recover information about the habits, activities, and interactions of organizations and individuals. Information retrieved from discarded property allows social hackers to create effective profiles of their targets. Personal contact information such as employee titles and phone numbers can be appropriated from discarded phone books or directories and used to gain further technical information such as login data and security passwords. Another advantageous find for social hackers is discarded hardware, especially hard drives that have not properly been scrubbed clean and still contain private and accurate information about corporations or individuals. Since surfing through people's curbside garbage is not a criminal offence and does not require a warrant, it is a rich resource for social hackers, as well as a legally accessible one. Dumpster diving can yield fruitful, albeit smelly results for information seekers such as private investigators, stalkers, nosy neighbours, and the police."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "In 1996, the source code for the Atari 7800 was discovered in the dumpster of the Atari office when the company closed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freeganism",
        "text": "Freegans are best known for recovering discarded food from commercial establishments, a practice known as \"dumpster diving\" or \"urban foraging\" in North America, \"skipping\", \"bin raiding\", or \"skipitarianism\" in the UK, \"skip dipping\" in Australia, \"containern\" in Germany, or \"doing the duck\" in New Zealand. Freegan diets are thus made possible by the range of practices that produce commercial food waste that is nonetheless still edible, such as conservative sell-by dates, the deliberate overstocking of certain perishable products (like baked goods), or aesthetic criteria for fruits and vegetables. However, dumpster diving is not limited to rummaging for food; freegans report recovering clothing, books, appliances, bicycles, and furniture from commercial dumpsters as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Illegal dumping",
        "text": "Illegal dumping, also called fly dumping or fly tipping (UK), is the dumping of waste illegally instead of using an authorized method such as curbside collection or using an authorized rubbish dump. It is the illegal deposit of any waste onto land, including waste dumped or tipped on a site with no license to accept waste. The United States Environmental Protection Agency developed a \u201cprofile\u201d of the typical illegal dumper. Characteristics of offenders include local residents, construction and landscaping contractors, waste removers, scrap yard operators, and automobile and tire repair shops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freeganism",
        "text": "Freeganism is often presented as synonymous with \"dumpster diving\" for discarded food, although freegans are distinguished by their association with an anti-consumerist and anti-capitalist ideology and their engagement in a wider range of alternative living strategies, such as voluntary unemployment, squatting in abandoned buildings, and \"guerrilla gardening\" in unoccupied city parks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philadelphia Dumpster Divers",
        "text": "Philadelphia Dumpster Divers\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Illegal dumping",
        "text": "The majority of illegal dumpers engage in illicit waste disposal at night, as darkness helps them avoid detection. Installing lighting around known or potential illegal dumping sites deters the practice. In Canada Bay, New South Wales, the city installed solar powered lights in dumping \u201chot spots\u201d. Following installation of the lights, the city received fewer complaints regarding illegal dumping in those areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Illegal dumping",
        "text": "Adding barriers such as fencing, rocks, locked gates, and concrete blocks prevents offenders from accessing dump sites with their vehicles, completely deterring illegal dumping or reducing the volume of disposed materials. For example, Maitland, New South Wales erected fences around rural dumping sites prevented vehicles from gaining access. Continued monitoring 12 months later showed that 80% of dump sites protected by the fences experienced negligible illegal waste disposal activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Illegal dumping",
        "text": "Illegal dumping involves the unauthorized disposal of numerous types of waste. Typical materials dumped include building materials from construction sites, such as drywall, roofing shingles, lumber, brick, concrete, and siding. Other frequently dumped materials include automobile parts, household appliances, household waste, furniture, yard scraps, and medical waste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philadelphia Dumpster Divers",
        "text": "The Philadelphia Dumpster Divers are a group of about 40 Philadelphia-area based artists, collectors and friends who work largely with found objects and recycled materials. They are notable for their extensive works and group efforts throughout a 20+ year history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logrolling",
        "text": "Logrolling is illegal in numerous jurisdictions, and in some instances is a crime. Sophisticated computational techniques have been developed for the detection and prosecution of this crime."
      },
      {
        "title": "Illegal dumping",
        "text": "Increasing offenders\u2019 risk of getting caught is also a way to combat illegal dumping. The most common way to accomplish this is through surveillance measures, such as video cameras. Camera footage can help law enforcement officials identify dumpers while also collecting data on peak dumping periods. Installation of fake cameras has also been shown to be a deterrent. Police patrols, helicopter and plane surveillance, and community surveillance are also options for increasing risk. Police presence generally deters illegal activity, while community surveillance depends upon residents reporting known illegal dumpers to law enforcement for a monetary reward. The cities of Los Angeles, Sacramento, and Oakland all implement similar reporting schemes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marine salvage",
        "text": "In the United Kingdom under the Merchant Shipping Act 1995, jetsam, flotsam, lagan and all other cargo and wreckage remain the property of their original owners. Anyone, including recreational divers and beachcombers, removing those goods must inform the Receiver of Wreck to avoid the accusation of theft. As the leisure activity of wreck diving is common, there are laws to protect historic wrecks of archaeological importance and the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986 protects ships and aircraft that are the last resting place of the remains of members of the armed forces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rummu quarry",
        "text": "Jump-diving into the lake off derelict buildings is very dangerous, and professional divers have made public recommendations against this practice, because the lake bed contains pieces of thick concrete, tree branches, rebar spikes, metal construction (including machinery), and plenty of barbed wire."
      },
      {
        "title": "SS Castilian (1919)",
        "text": "An exclusion zone under section 2 of the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973 (Prohibition on approaching dangerous wrecks) forbids scuba diving within of the wreck because her explosive cargo remains dangerous."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freeganism",
        "text": "Contact with waste is seen as a taboo and socially unacceptable in most developed countries, and freegans are often associated with stigmatized and racialized groups like the homeless or even compared to scavenging \"pest\" animals like raccoons. Some public health officials, like those in New York City, have explicitly discouraged dumpster diving for sanitation reasons and media coverage occasionally focuses on the \"ick\" factor of dumpster diving while (explicitly or implicitly) ignoring its political content. This discourse has been deployed more broadly to discredit anarchist movements by claiming they are unhygienic and thus dangerous. While some freegans argue that dumpster dived food is safe\u2014noting it is usually thrown out because it cannot be profitably sold, not because it is no longer edible\u2014others embrace the \"dirtiness\" of recovered food as a symbolic rejection of capitalist norms. The group freegan.info has made the disgust attached to wasted food part of its messaging, arguing that social disapprobation should instead fall on those who throw out food, rather than those who recover it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Illegal dumping",
        "text": "Cities can implement periodic compliance campaigns, which involve randomly conducted \u201ccrackdowns\u201d by law enforcement. Increased police patrols, anti-dumping signage posted in known illegal disposal sites, random inspections of property, and publicity regarding convicted illegal dumpers and the use surveillance can deter illegal dumping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "The \"Castle Infinity\" videogame, after its shutdown in 2005, was brought back from the dead by a fan rescuing its servers from the trash."
      },
      {
        "title": "Illegal dumping",
        "text": "The triangle of death in Campania, Italy is Europe's largest illegal waste dump. The area, which encompasses Italian municipalities Acerra, Marigliano, and Nola, experiences illegal waste disposal practices by the Camorra such as unauthorized burying of toxic waste under places frequented by humans. Frequent fires at dumping sites and illegal waste fires set by residents have resulted in contamination of the air and drinking water. Additionally, the land has deteriorated due to the illegal waste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foodsharing.de",
        "text": "In contrast to dumpster diving, which is about taking non-spoiled food from waste containers, foodsaving.de wants to prevent food from being thrown away in the first place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dive computer",
        "text": "Their acceptance of dive computers for use in commercial diving varies between countries and industrial sectors. Validation criteria have been a major obstacle to acceptance of diving computers for commercial diving. Millions of recreational and scientific dives each year are successful and without incident, but the use of dive computers remains prohibited for commercial diving operations in several jurisdictions because the algorithms used cannot be guaranteed safe to use, and the legislative bodies who can authorise their use have a duty of care to workers. Manufacturers do not want to invest in the expensive and tedious process of official validation, while regulatory bodies will not accept dive computers until a validation process has been documented."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freeganism",
        "text": "Freeganism is also critiqued both by other radical movements and by mainstream commentators for the fact that its signature practice\u2014dumpster diving\u2014depends on the capitalist food system that freegans claim to be rejecting. A typical response is that freegan practices are not limited to dumpster diving, but include also actions like guerilla gardening, wild food foraging, or sewing or bike repair \"skill shares\" that are more fully autonomous from the conventional economy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diving cylinder",
        "text": "Legal constraints to filling scuba cylinders will vary by jurisdiction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roll-off (dumpster)",
        "text": "There may also be additional fees for improper loading and the loading of regulated or banned materials. The dumpster rental company may also make additional revenue from the spread between the allotted tonnage limit multiplied by the dump rate and the actual dump fees paid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roll-off (dumpster)",
        "text": "Some municipalities require that a permit be obtained in order to have a roll-off dumpster delivered. If the container is being set on private property, most cities will not require a permit. Some municipalities require the permit to be obtained by the customer, while others require the permit to be obtained by the roll-off provider. However, many cities do not require permits to have a dumpster delivered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Illegal dumping",
        "text": "Corporations such as Nokia and Lenovo instituted free return services for Chinese customers who wish to dispose of old electronic products from the two companies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil liability in recreational diving",
        "text": "Failure to identify, preserve, and produce critical evidence such as dive computer data can result in sanctions against the responsible party, including findings in favour of the party requesting the lost information. Investigators without a sufficient knowledge of diving equipment have been known to destroy or lose critical evidence through mishandling of equipment, even when it survived rescue and recovery efforts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster",
        "text": "A dumpster is a type of movable waste container designed to be brought and taken away by a special collection vehicle, or to a bin that a specially designed garbage truck lifts, empties into its hopper, and lowers, on the spot. The word is a generic trademark of \"Dumpster\", an American brand name for a specific design. Generic usage of \"skip\" or \"skip bin\" is common in the UK, Australia and Ireland, as Dumpster is neither an established nor well-known brand in those countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camerton, Somerset",
        "text": "In 2007 Camerton was the site of a prosecution by the Environment Agency for the illegal dumping of waste including concrete, tarmac, bricks, blocks, subsoil, metal, fluorescent light tubes, electrical cable and asbestos sheets on the site."
      },
      {
        "title": "Garbage theft",
        "text": "Due to the typically low value of stolen items, in most countries garbage theft is not treated as a major crime, with the laws against theft of garbage often focused on preventing identity theft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Police diving",
        "text": "Due to the conditions in which accidents may happen, or where criminals may choose to dispose of evidence or their victims, police divers might need to dive:\n* In murky canals, lakes, and rivers\n* Currents that can run as fast as 6 knots\n* In intake pipes and sewers\n* In water towers"
      },
      {
        "title": "Roll-off (dumpster)",
        "text": "There are many items that are not accepted by roll-off rental companies. These items include but are not limited to chemicals, including paint and petroleum products, tires, and electronics. The prohibition of items is often to comply with laws and regulations concerning disposal of hazardous materials. Roll-off drivers may refuse to pick up loads containing prohibited materials. If the load is picked up, the roll-off rental company may charge the customer additional for cleaning the load and proper handling of the contaminating material."
      },
      {
        "title": "False Bay",
        "text": "Penguin eggs were collected until 1968, whaling operations took place until 1975, seals were hunted for fur until 1984, and guano was collected until 1991. All of these activities had a severely detrimental effect on the targeted populations and are now illegal. Commercial abalone diving has been severely restricted as the resource was overfished but illegal exploitation of the resource continues. Recreational abalone extraction has been discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Recreational diving",
        "text": "Legal constraints on recreational diving vary considerably across jurisdictions. In many countries recreational diving is either not mentioned at all in laws and regulations, or specifically excluded from regulations covering occupational diving. In others, only diver training and dive-leading activities where the diver is either employed or takes a leadership position where they are responsible for the safety of others is covered by legislation. At the other extreme, countries such as Israel have statutory law covering all recreational diving activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Privy digging",
        "text": "Moreover, it was generally acceptable to dump reeking trash just about anywhere then without worrying about legal consequences. Preferred places were lowland areas near the edges of towns and cities, down embankments and into ravines, rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, bogs, shorelines, backyard burning pits and other locales. For example, New York City sent scows brimming with garbage out into the harbor everyday where very cheap labor shoveled it directly into the water without a second thought. This process went on for centuries and an endless supply of collectable items, antiques and archaeological information alike remain in these dumping places to this day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carding (fraud)",
        "text": "Stolen data may be bundled as a 'Base' or 'First-hand base' if the seller participated in the theft themselves. Resellers may buy 'packs' of dumps from multiple sources. Ultimately, the data may be sold on darknet markets and other carding sites and forums specialising in these types of illegal goods. Teenagers have gotten involved in fraud such as using card details to order pizzas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Malaysian lock-up detainee abuse scandal",
        "text": "The next day, the weekday edition of the newspaper, the \"New Straits Times\", reported that although such procedures were permitted by the standard operating procedures of the police, the Lock-up Rules 1953 did not permit a body cavity search nor ear squats for any purpose. This would thereby make it illegal for the police to employ such procedures after making an arrest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Garden waste dumping",
        "text": "The new section of the \"POEO Act\" (The Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997) now imposes further penalties for offences including polluting waters with waste, polluting land, illegally dumping waste or using land as an illegal waste facility (Parrino, Maysaa, Kaoutarani & Salam, 2014). Communities are encouraged to report illegal dumping. In accordance with NSW Illegal Dumping Strategy 2014\u201316, hefty fines and a maximum jail sentence of 2 years can be handed down to repeat offenders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legality of piggybacking",
        "text": "In Canadian law, unauthorized access is addressed the \"Criminal Code\", s 342.1, which provides that: \"Every one who, fraudulently and without colour of right\" obtains \"computer services\" from an access point is subject to criminal charges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Landfill diversion",
        "text": "An open dump is an area where unwanted waste is disposed of with no regulations or restrictions; they often produce adverse effects on the environment. The Resources Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 prohibited open dumping, therefore making it illegal in many states."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caverion",
        "text": "The incident was investigated by Statsbygg in Norway and though several regulatory violations were found, among them violating subcontractors pay and working conditions, the violations were not of the nature that Caverion was considered to have engaged in social dumping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Illegal dumping",
        "text": "Other methods of limiting access include re-landscaping and beautifying illegal dump sites. Adding aesthetic amenities such as grass, flowers, and benches demonstrates that the site is well maintained, discouraging dumpers. Additionally, increasing community use of the area will adjust locals\u2019 perception of the site from dumping ground to valued open space."
      },
      {
        "title": "Illegal dumping",
        "text": "Taxes on landfill in the UK have led to illegal waste dumping. Materials illegally disposed of can range from green waste and domestic items to abandoned cars and construction waste, much of which may be hazardous or toxic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Illegal dumping",
        "text": "Illegal dumping is typically distinguished from littering by the type and amount of material and/or the manner in which it is discarded. An example of littering could be throwing a cigarette on the ground. However, emptying a rubbish bin with no permission in a public or private area can be classified as illegal dumping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Little Tobago, British Virgin Islands",
        "text": "There are over fifteen scuba diving sites. Though it's legal to snorkel and dive around the island, it is illegal to anchor because all potential anchoring locations are coral reefs that would be destroyed by an anchor. Large fines can occur if you violate this no-anchor zone, which is frequently patrolled by the BVI Marine Police."
      },
      {
        "title": "Curb mining",
        "text": "Terms similar to curb mining include \"dumpster diving\" and \"freeganism\". In June 2007, The New York Times wrote:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Illegal dumping",
        "text": "Materials disposed of in illegal dumps, specifically tires and electronic waste, are combustible. Outbreaks of fire at illegal dump sites can lead to forest fires, causing erosion and destroying habitat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Illegal dumping",
        "text": "In addition to decreasing property values and, therefore, tax revenue for governments, illegal dumping costs governments millions of dollars in clean up costs. In the United Kingdom, the Environmental Protection Agency spends \u00a3100\u2013150 million annually to investigate and clean up illegal dump sites. The United States Environmental Protection Agency estimates several million in costs each year nationwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wreck diving",
        "text": "In the United Kingdom, three Acts protect wrecks:\n* Protection of Wrecks Act 1973 : certain designated, charted, historic or dangerous sites may not be dived without a license\n* Protection of Military Remains Act 1986 : all military aircraft and 16 designated ships are considered war graves that can only be dived with a license. Other non-designated ships may be dived providing the divers do not enter, disturb or remove artifacts\n* Merchant Shipping Act 1995 : all wrecks and cargoes are owned: each artifact removed must be reported to the Receiver of Wreck"
      },
      {
        "title": "Illegal dumping",
        "text": "Efforts to combat illegal dumping vary in each situation as solutions are crafted with specific community dynamics in mind. However, common approaches include a combination of limiting access to illegal dumping sites, surveillance, enforcement, and increasing access to legal waste disposal opportunities. Listed below are common techniques employed by governing bodies:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Commercial diving",
        "text": "Typical work involves diving into raw sewage or dangerous chemicals, such as paper pulp, liquid cement, or oil sludge. This leads to special requirements:\n* The divers may need to be vaccinated against diseases such as hepatitis and tetanus.\n* Suitable equipment and competent personnel are required for decontamination of the diver and diving equipment after a dive.\n* Emergency procedures appropriate to the specific hazmat environment must be planned and equipment and personnel in place to safely recover the diver if something goes wrong.\n* Personnel must be monitored after exposure for possible long term effects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legality of piggybacking",
        "text": "Under HK Laws. Chapter 200 \"Crimes Ordinance\" Section 161 \"Access to computer with criminal or dishonest intent\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Suicide bag",
        "text": "It is not illegal to own a suicide bag in any jurisdiction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Information diving",
        "text": "Information diving is the practice of recovering technical data, sometimes confidential or secret, from discarded material. In recent times, this has chiefly been from data storage elements in discarded computers, most notably recoverable data remaining on hard drives. Those in charge of discarding computers usually neglect to erase the hard drive. It is often in such circumstances for an information diver to copy installed software (e.g., word processors, operating systems, computer games, etc.). Other data may also be available, such as credit card information that was stored on the machine. Companies claim to be especially careful with customer data, but the number of data breaches by any type of entity (e.g., education, health care, insurance, government, ...) suggest otherwise. In the UK, information diving has been referred to as \"binology.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster fire",
        "text": "The term \"dumpster fire\" derives from fires that start in large trash bins. These bins are often termed \"dumpsters\" after the Dempster Dumpster brand of trash bin in the United States, which eventually came to be colloquialized as \"dumpster\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the criminal intentions of dumpster diving?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Discarded billing records may be used for identity theft.  Furthermore, Criminals have been known to dumpster dive for cash receipts as part of a scheme to steal items and return them for cash, a form of return fraud known as shoplisting."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is dumpster diving illegal anywhere?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "There's no official list or status but a Belgian dumpster diver was arrested and accused of theft and burglary, in Ontario, Canada, property owners and security guards have the power to ban anyone from their premise, trespassers would be breaking the law upon returning. It may also be considered theft in England, Scotland, and Wales but it isn't really enforced and it is also theft in Germany but not really enforced either.",
      "Would you like to know about Belgium, Canada, England, Germany, or the US?"
    ],
    "topic": "Dumpster diving",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Dumpster diving:19",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Dumpster diving",
          "Legal status",
          "By country"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2009, a Belgian dumpster diver and eco-activist nicknamed Ollie was detained for a month for removing food from a garbage can, and was accused of theft and burglary. On February 25, 2009, he was arrested for removing food from a garbage can at an AD Delhaize supermarket in Bruges. Ollie's trial evoked protests in Belgium against restrictions from taking discarded food items."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Dumpster diving:20",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Dumpster diving",
          "Legal status",
          "By country"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Ontario, Canada, the \"Trespass to Property Act\"\u2014legislation dating back to the \"British North America Act\" of 1867\u2014grants property owners and security guards the power to ban anyone from their premises, for any reason, permanently. This is done by issuing a notice to the intruder, who will only be breaking the law upon return. Similar laws exist in Prince Edward Island and Saskatchewan. A recent case in Canada, which involved a police officer who retrieved a discarded weapon from a trash receptacle as evidence, created some controversy. The judge ruled the policeman's actions as legal although there was no warrant present, which led some to speculate the event as validation for any Canadian citizen to raid garbage disposals."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Dumpster diving:21",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Dumpster diving",
          "Legal status",
          "By country"
        ],
        "ctx": "Skipping in England and Wales may qualify as theft within the Theft Act 1968 or as common-law theft in Scotland, though there is very little enforcement in practice."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Dumpster diving:22",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Dumpster diving",
          "Legal status",
          "By country"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Germany, dumpster diving is referred to as \"containern\", and a waste container's contents are regarded as the property of the container's owner. Therefore, taking items from such a container is viewed as theft. However, the police will routinely disregard the illegality of garbage picking since the items found are generally of low value. There has only been one known instance where people were prosecuted. In 2009 individuals were arrested on assumed burglary as they had surmounted a supermarket's fence which was then followed by a theft complaint by the owner; the case was suspended."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Dumpster diving:0",
        "passage_titles": [],
        "ctx": "Dumpster diving\n--Etymology.\n--Participants.\n--Overview.\n----Dumpster diving with criminal intentions.\n--Legal status.\n----By country.\n--Items.\n--Notable instances.\n"
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "In Germany, dumpster diving is referred to as \"containern\", and a waste container's contents are regarded as the property of the container's owner. Therefore, taking items from such a container is viewed as theft. However, the police will routinely disregard the illegality of garbage picking since the items found are generally of low value. There has only been one known instance where people were prosecuted. In 2009 individuals were arrested on assumed burglary as they had surmounted a supermarket's fence which was then followed by a theft complaint by the owner; the case was suspended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "In October 2013, in North London, three men were arrested and charged under the 1824 Vagrancy Act when they were caught taking discarded food: tomatoes, mushrooms, cheese and cakes from bins behind an Iceland supermarket. The charges were dropped on 29 January 2014 after much public criticism as well as a request by Iceland's chief executive, Malcolm Walker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster",
        "text": "Dumpster diving involves persons voluntarily climbing into a dumpster to find valuables, such as discarded metal scrap, or simply useful items, including food and used clothing. It can also be a method of investigation (e.g., looking for discarded financial records, private papers, or evidence of a crime). Going through garbage containers that are not strictly speaking dumpsters is nevertheless often referred to as dumpster diving."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Since dumpsters are usually located on private premises, divers may occasionally get in trouble for trespassing while dumpster diving, though the law is enforced with varying degrees of rigor. Some businesses may lock dumpsters to prevent pickers from congregating on their property, vandalism to their property, and to limit potential liability if a dumpster diver is injured while on their property."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "In 2009, a Belgian dumpster diver and eco-activist nicknamed Ollie was detained for a month for removing food from a garbage can, and was accused of theft and burglary. On February 25, 2009, he was arrested for removing food from a garbage can at an AD Delhaize supermarket in Bruges. Ollie's trial evoked protests in Belgium against restrictions from taking discarded food items."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Dumpster diving can be hazardous, due to potential exposure to biohazardous matter, broken glass, and overall unsanitary conditions that may exist in dumpsters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Dumpster diving (also totting, skipping, skip diving or skip salvage) is salvaging from large commercial, residential, industrial and construction containers for unused items discarded by their owners but deemed useful to the picker. It is not confined to dumpsters and skips specifically and may cover standard household waste containers, curb sides, landfills or small dumps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Dumpster diving\n--Etymology.\n--Participants.\n--Overview.\n----Dumpster diving with criminal intentions.\n--Legal status.\n----By country.\n--Items.\n--Notable instances.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Skipping in England and Wales may qualify as theft within the Theft Act 1968 or as common-law theft in Scotland, though there is very little enforcement in practice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "People dumpster dive for items such as clothing, furniture, food, and similar items in good working condition. Some people do this out of necessity due to poverty, others do it for ideological reasons or professionally and systematically for profit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "In Ontario, Canada, the \"Trespass to Property Act\"\u2014legislation dating back to the \"British North America Act\" of 1867\u2014grants property owners and security guards the power to ban anyone from their premises, for any reason, permanently. This is done by issuing a notice to the intruder, who will only be breaking the law upon return. Similar laws exist in Prince Edward Island and Saskatchewan. A recent case in Canada, which involved a police officer who retrieved a discarded weapon from a trash receptacle as evidence, created some controversy. The judge ruled the policeman's actions as legal although there was no warrant present, which led some to speculate the event as validation for any Canadian citizen to raid garbage disposals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "The term \"dumpster diving\" emerged in the 1980s, combining \"diving\" with \"dumpster\", a large commercial trash bin. The term \"Dumpster\" itself comes from the Dempster Dumpster, a brand of bins manufactured by Dempster Brothers beginning in 1937. \"Dumpster\" became genericized by the 1970s. According to the \"Oxford English Dictionary\", the term \"dumpster diving\" is chiefly found in American English and first appeared in print in 1983, with the verb \"dumpster-dive\" appearing a few years later. In British English, the practice may be known as \"skipping\", from skip, another term for this type of container."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Criminals have been known to dumpster dive for cash receipts as part of a scheme to steal items and return them for cash, a form of return fraud known as \"shoplisting.\" Police investigating shoplifting in Bellingham, Washington found dozens of receipts from retailers such as The Home Depot, Rite Aid and Fred Meyer, along with a list of items on the receipts. Suspects believed to have taken receipts from trash receptacles near Walmart locations were arrested for return fraud in 2016 in Madison, Wisconsin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "In the 1960s, Jerry Schneider, using recovered instruction manuals from The Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Company, used the company's own procedures to acquire hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of telephone equipment over several years until his arrest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Arguments against garbage picking often focus on the health and cleanliness implications of people rummaging in trash. This exposes the dumpster divers to potential health risks, and, especially if the dumpster diver does not return the non-usable items to their previous location, may leave trash scattered around. Divers can also be seriously injured or killed by garbage collection vehicles; in January 2012, in La Jolla, Swiss-American man Alfonso de Bourbon was killed by a truck while dumpster diving."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Different terms are used to refer to different forms of this activity. For picking materials from the curbside trash collection, expressions such as curb shopping, trash picking or street scavenging are sometimes used. In the UK, if someone is primarily seeking recyclable metal, they are scrapping, and if they are picking the leftover food from farming left in the fields, they are gleaning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Companies run by private investigators specializing in such techniques have emerged as a result of the need for discreet, undetected retrieval of documents and evidence for civil and criminal trials. Private investigators have also written books on \"P.I. technique\" in which dumpster diving or its equivalent \"wastebasket recovery\" figures prominently."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical information security",
        "text": "Dumpster diving is the practice of searching through trash in the hope of obtaining something valuable such as information carelessly discarded on paper, computer disks or other hardware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Information diving",
        "text": "Today, files, letters, memos, photographs, IDs, passwords, credit cards, and more can be found in dumpsters. Many people do not consider that sensitive information on items they discarded may be recovered. Such information, when recovered, is sometimes usable for fraudulent purposes (see also \"identity theft\" and physical information security). This method of dumpster diving is also sometimes used by attorneys or their agents when seeking to enforce court-ordered money judgments: the judgment debtor's trash may contain information about assets that can then be more-readily located for levying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Information diving",
        "text": "Supposedly, information diving was more common in the 1980s due to lax security; when businesses became aware of the need for increased security in the early 1990s, sensitive documents were shredded before being placed in dumpsters. There is still considerable Internet activity on the subject of dumpster diving, so it is unlikely to have stopped with the widespread introduction of document shredding. Security mythology has it that curious hackers or malicious crackers commonly use this technique."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "The activity is performed by people out of necessity in the developing world. Some scavengers perform in organized groups, and some organize on various internet forums and social networking websites. By reusing, or repurposing, resources destined for the landfill, dumpster diving is sometimes considered to be an environmentalist endeavor, and is thus practiced by many pro-green communities. The wastefulness of consumer society and throw-away culture compels some individuals to rescue usable items (for example, computers or smartphones, which are frequently discarded due to the extensive use of planned obsolescence in the technology industry) from destruction and divert them to those who can make use of the items."
      },
      {
        "title": "Information diving",
        "text": "Dumpster diving is commonly practiced by \"watchdog\" organizations seeking information on groups they are investigating. The Trinity Foundation successfully used this technique to report on the activities of televangelist Robert Tilton and was also able to obtain information on Benny Hinn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Alternative names for the practice include bin-diving, containering, D-mart, dumpstering, totting, and skipping. In Australia, garbage picking is called \"skip dipping.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "In the United States, the 1988 \"California v. Greenwood\" case in the U.S. Supreme Court held that there is no common law expectation of privacy for discarded materials. There are, however, limits to what can legally be taken from a company's refuse. In a 1983 Minnesota case involving the theft of customer lists from a garbage can, \"Tennant Company v. Advance Machine Company\" (355 N.W.2d 720), the owner of the discarded information was awarded $500,000 in damages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "The karung guni, Zabbaleen, the rag and bone man, waste picker, junk man or bin hoker are terms for people who make their living by sorting and trading trash. A similar process known as gleaning was practised in rural areas and some ancient agricultural societies, where the residue from farmers' fields was collected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "The term \"binner\" is often used to describe individuals who collect recyclable materials for their deposit value. For example, in Vancouver, British Columbia, binners, or bottle collectors, search garbage cans and dumpsters for recyclable materials that can be redeemed for their deposit value. On average, these binners earn about $40 a day for several garbage bags full of discarded containers. Some are scammers seeking for receipts to use in committing return fraud."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "The \"Castle Infinity\" videogame, after its shutdown in 2005, was brought back from the dead by a fan rescuing its servers from the trash."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster",
        "text": "Dumpster\n--History.\n--Function.\n--Dumpster diving.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Students have been known to partake in dumpster diving to obtain high tech items for technical projects, or simply to indulge their curiosity for unusual items. Dumpster diving can additionally be used in support of academic research. Garbage picking serves as the main tool for garbologists, who study the sociology and archeology of trash in modern life. Private and government investigators may pick through garbage to obtain information for their inquiries. Illegal cigarette consumption may be deduced from discarded packages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Some dumpster divers, who self-identify as freegans, aim to reduce their ecological footprint by living from dumpster-dived-goods, sometimes exclusively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Police searches of discarded waste as well as similar methods are also generally not considered violations; evidence seized in this manner has been permitted in many criminal trials. In the United States this has been affirmed by numerous courts including and up to the Supreme Court, in the decision \"California v. Greenwood\". The doctrine is not as well established in regards to civil litigation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food waste in New Zealand",
        "text": "Dumpster diving, especially at supermarkets, does still occur to gather discarded food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "In 1996, the source code for the Atari 7800 was discovered in the dumpster of the Atari office when the company closed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waste picker",
        "text": "\"Dumpster diving\" generally refers to the practice of anti-consumer and freegan activists who reclaim items such as food and clothes from the waste stream as a form of protest against consumer culture. \"Waste picking\" generally refers to activity motivated purely by economic need."
      },
      {
        "title": "Information diving",
        "text": "Information diving\n--Cases.\n----Printed manuals.\n----Discarded computers.\n----Dumpster diving.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Discarded billing records may be used for identity theft. As a privacy violation, discarded medical records as trash led to a $140,000 penalty against Massachusetts billing company Goldthwait Associates and a group of pathology offices in 2013 and a $400,000 settlement between Midwest Women's Healthcare Specialists and 1,532 clients in Kansas City in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philadelphia Dumpster Divers",
        "text": "The Philadelphia Dumpster Divers are a group of about 40 Philadelphia-area based artists, collectors and friends who work largely with found objects and recycled materials. They are notable for their extensive works and group efforts throughout a 20+ year history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philadelphia Dumpster Divers",
        "text": "Philadelphia Dumpster Divers\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Deutsches Stadion",
        "text": "Since the dump has no containment and is permeated by ground water, dangerous material is constantly leaking into the Silbersee. The lower layers of water in the lake contain extremely high amounts of hydrogen sulfide, which makes humans unconscious when breathed in. Approximately 50 people have already died in the lake."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dive! (film)",
        "text": "The film follows director Jeremy Seifert and his friends as they dumpster dive behind several grocery stores in the Los Angeles area to demonstrate the massive amount of food that is wasted each year in America. After showing that much of the food found in dumpsters is perfectly edible, Seifert confronts the managers of the stores to question why they don't donate more of it to local food banks, especially in light of the 1996 Federal Bill Emerson Good Samaritan Food Donation Act, which protects them from liability for such donations. The legality and ethics of dumpster diving are discussed when the stores begin locking up their dumpsters. Finally, Seifert considers the waste created by individual consumers when they throw out food that is only partly bad or just past its expiration date."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freeganism",
        "text": "Freegans are best known for recovering discarded food from commercial establishments, a practice known as \"dumpster diving\" or \"urban foraging\" in North America, \"skipping\", \"bin raiding\", or \"skipitarianism\" in the UK, \"skip dipping\" in Australia, \"containern\" in Germany, or \"doing the duck\" in New Zealand. Freegan diets are thus made possible by the range of practices that produce commercial food waste that is nonetheless still edible, such as conservative sell-by dates, the deliberate overstocking of certain perishable products (like baked goods), or aesthetic criteria for fruits and vegetables. However, dumpster diving is not limited to rummaging for food; freegans report recovering clothing, books, appliances, bicycles, and furniture from commercial dumpsters as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dive bomber",
        "text": "The Royal Naval Air Service was bombing the Zeppelin sheds in Germany and in occupied Belgium and found it worthwhile to dive onto these sheds to ensure a hit, despite the increased casualties from ground fire. Again, the angle of dive in these attacks was not recorded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Theft by finding",
        "text": "Thus Garbology (the examination and analysis of trash) and Dumpster diving are legal in the United States. Consequently, the abandonment of private medical records by placing them in trash has resulted in civil penalties against companies doing so."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eccleston Quarry",
        "text": "After it was abandoned and allowed to flood by ground water seeping in, it was an unofficial scuba diving site for a long time. The back of the quarry was cliff standing straight out of the water, and there were no buildings except a stone hut near the entrance, and a machinery shed which was submerged when the quarry flooded. Over the years the shed's sheet-metal walls and roof rusted away, leaving its metal skeleton."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "Dumpster diving is practiced differently in developed countries than in developing countries.\n* Food. In many developing countries, food is rarely thrown away unless it is rotten as food is scarce in comparison to developed nations. In countries like the United States, where 40 to 50 percent of food is wasted, the trash contains a lot more food to gather. In many countries, charities collect excess food from supermarkets and restaurants and distribute it to impoverished neighbourhoods. Trash pickers, Karung guni, Zabaleen, and rag and bone men in these countries may concentrate on looking for usable items or scrap materials to sell rather than food items. In the United States, Canada, and Europe, some bakeries, grocery stores, or restaurants will routinely donate food according to a Good Samaritan Food Donation Act, but more often, because of health laws or company policy, they are required to discard food items by the expiration date, because of overstock, being overly ripened, spoiled, cosmetically imperfect, or blemished.\n* Books and periodicals. As proof to publishing houses of unsold merchandise, booksellers will routinely remove the front covers of printed materials to render them destroyed prior to disposing of their remains in the garbage. Though readable, many damaged publications have disclaimers and legal notices against their existence or sale.\n* Irregular or damaged goods. Offices, factories, department stores, and other commercial establishments may equally throw out non-perishable items that are irregular, were returned, have minor damages, or are replaced by newer inventory. Many items tend to be in such a state of disrepair or cosmetically flawed that they will require some work to make the items functionally usable. For this reason, employees will at times intentionally destroy their items prior to being discarded to prevent them from being reused or resold.\n* Returned items. Manufacturers often find it cheaper to routinely discard items returned as defective under warranty instead of repairing them, although a device is often repairable or usable as a source of spare parts to repair other, similar discarded devices.\n* School supplies. At the end of each school year many people throw away perfectly useful supplies like pencils, pens, notebooks and art supplies.\n* Electronic waste. Some consumer electronics are dumped because of their rapid depreciation, obsolescence, cost to repair, or expense to upgrade. Owners of functional computers may find it easier to dump them rather than donate because many nonprofit organizations and schools are unable, or unwilling, to work with used equipment. Occasionally, vendors dispose of unsaleable, non-defective new merchandise as landfill. The Atari video game burial in Alamogordo, New Mexico after the video game crash of 1983 is a well-known example; a 2014 excavation recovered about 1300 games for curation as museum exhibits or auction.\n* Clothing. While thrift stores routinely refuse used goods which they cannot cheaply and easily resell, the items which they do accept cost them nothing. There is therefore no shrinkage cost associated with discarding mendable garments, repairable appliances or even working donated items which are overstock or find no buyer after some arbitrary length of time.\n* Metal. Sometimes waste may contain recyclable metals and materials that can be reused or sold to recycling plants and scrap yards. The most common recyclable metals found are steel and aluminum.\n* Wood. Called urban lumberjacking, to salvage wood either for home heating, or home construction projects.\n* Empty cans and bottles. Several countries, particularly in Northern Europe have enforced a system in which empty cans and bottles can be returned to stores for money. Usually the amount received per can/bottle is relatively low, so many simply discard them in dumpsters.\n* Residential buildings. Clothing, furniture, appliances, and other housewares may be found at residential buildings.\n* College dormitories. Items may be found at colleges with dormitories at the end of the semester when students throw away many items such as furniture, clothes and electronics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Korean Air Lines Flight 007",
        "text": "ICAO also interviewed a number of these divers for its 1993 report: \"In addition to the scraps of metal, they observed personal items, such as clothing, documents and wallets. Although some evidence of human remains was noticed by the divers, they found no bodies.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpster diving",
        "text": "A wide variety of things may be disposed while still repairable or in working condition, making salvage of them a source of potentially free items for personal use, or to sell for profit. Irregular, blemished or damaged items that are still otherwise functional are regularly thrown away. Discarded food that might have slight imperfections, near its expiration date, or that is simply being replaced by newer stock is often tossed out despite being still edible. Many retailers are reluctant to sell this stock at reduced prices because of the risks that people will buy it instead of the higher-priced newer stock, that extra handling time is required, and that there are liability risks. In the United Kingdom, cookery books have been written on the cooking and consumption of such foods, which has contributed to the popularity of skipping. Artists often use discarded materials retrieved from trash receptacles to create works of found objects or assemblage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caverion",
        "text": "The incident was investigated by Statsbygg in Norway and though several regulatory violations were found, among them violating subcontractors pay and working conditions, the violations were not of the nature that Caverion was considered to have engaged in social dumping."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of wreck diving sites",
        "text": "Italy\n*\"Haven\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Dump (saloon)",
        "text": "Frequent police raids and the general improvement of economic conditions prior to World War I caused \"The Dump\" and many other longtime low Bowery dive bars, as well as the Bowery Bums themselves, to gradually disappear by the turn of the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Garbage theft",
        "text": "Garbage theft is a colloquial term for the illegitimate removal of items from a dumpster, or other waste disposal container. Another colloquial phrase is dumpster diving."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freeganism",
        "text": "The legality of freegan practices of reclaiming wasted food, space, or buildings varies depending on local laws around property, trespassing, and waste removal. In some places, like New York City, freegans dumpster dive publicly; in other locations, urban foraging is a secretive activity. In recent years, there have been arrests of people dumpster diving for political reasons in the United Kingdom, Belgium, and France, although in most locations charges have eventually been dropped. These actions could be seen as part of a broader criminalization of acts of survival\u2014like sleeping in public places, sharing food without a permit, or recovering aluminum cans to re-sell\u2014that has affected freegans as well as affiliated groups like Food Not Bombs and the homeless. Freegans report that stores have responded to waste recovery as well, including deliberately destroying products prior to disposing of them, locking dumpsters, or pouring bleach on food to make it inedible. In France, a new national law bans the practice of destroying food in this way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wreck diving",
        "text": "More unusual are wrecks of structures, such as the wreck of the old cruise ship pier in Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands, destroyed by Hurricane Hugo in 1989. As part of the recovery and replacement of the Frederiksted Pier, the old pier was to be removed and sunk far out at sea in deep waters. Much of the old pier was used to create an artificial reef. Several barges carried the wreckage down the beach, and dumped the wreckage of steel girders, vehicles, concrete tubes, pylons, and pavement into deep waters to create a dive site now known as Armageddon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pluragrotta",
        "text": "On 6 February 2014, two Finnish divers died at the cave, and three other divers suffered decompression sickness. Norwegian authorities called on an international team, which included British divers Richard Stanton, John Volanthen and Jason Mallinson, to recover the bodies. After reconnaissance diving at the site, the operation was judged too difficult, and a diving ban was subsequently placed on the cave. A group of Finnish divers returned later, without official authorization, and recovered the bodies. Their recovery expedition was filmed as the documentary \"Diving Into The Unknown\". The diving ban was lifted on 31 March 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foodsharing.de",
        "text": "In contrast to dumpster diving, which is about taking non-spoiled food from waste containers, foodsaving.de wants to prevent food from being thrown away in the first place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freeganism",
        "text": "Freeganism is often presented as synonymous with \"dumpster diving\" for discarded food, although freegans are distinguished by their association with an anti-consumerist and anti-capitalist ideology and their engagement in a wider range of alternative living strategies, such as voluntary unemployment, squatting in abandoned buildings, and \"guerrilla gardening\" in unoccupied city parks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saturation diving",
        "text": "Some notable saturation diving incidents include:\n*\n*\n*"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rummu quarry",
        "text": "Jump-diving into the lake off derelict buildings is very dangerous, and professional divers have made public recommendations against this practice, because the lake bed contains pieces of thick concrete, tree branches, rebar spikes, metal construction (including machinery), and plenty of barbed wire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Investigation of diving accidents",
        "text": "Explosives are used underwater by commercial divers for demolition and to power tools to attach bolts to a structure. They may also be encountered by divers in the form of unexploded munitions of various ages and unknown stability.\n*Overhead environments where a direct vertical ascent to the surface is not possible. Examples include flooded caves and mines, sewers, closed tanks, culverts, penstocks and the interior of shipwrecks.\n*Strong current and surge\n*Pressure differentials, particularly when they cause flow towards an enclosed space or mechanical hazard. A pressure difference can draw a diver into a hazard, or trap the diver against an opening too small to pass through. In extreme cases the pressure difference across a small opening can cause direct trauma.\n*Entrapment hazards\n*Hazardous materials"
      },
      {
        "title": "Industrial espionage",
        "text": "A spy may break into the premises to steal data and may search through waste paper and refuse, known as \"dumpster diving\". Information may be compromised via unsolicited requests for information, marketing surveys, or use of technical support or research or software facilities. Outsourced industrial producers may ask for information outside the agreed-upon contract."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dorothea quarry",
        "text": "Since quarrying ended in 1970, the Dorothea quarry has flooded and become a popular site for scuba diving (even though there are no facilities provided, and diving is officially banned in the quarry); the unregulated nature and depth of the site has encouraged some divers to overestimate their capabilities \u2013 in the decade 1994\u20132004, 21 divers lost their lives in the quarry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roll-off (dumpster)",
        "text": "There are usually prohibited items that are commonly not allowed for disposal, such as hazardous materials, tires, freon appliances, televisions, paint, asbestos, batteries, oils, fuels, and tar-treated railroad ties because of regulations affecting final waste disposal."
      },
      {
        "title": "RMS Niagara",
        "text": "An engineer from Melbourne, David Isaacs, designed a diving chamber for the salvagers. A company in Castlemaine variously referred to as Thompson's Engineering and Pipe Co or Thompson's Foundry made the chamber in conditions of strict wartime secrecy. It is made of manganese bronze, has several small quartz glass portholes, is built to withstand pressure to a depth of and weighs three tonnes. It is cylindrical, with a bulbous top, and just big enough for one man to stand inside."
      },
      {
        "title": "District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority",
        "text": "Plastic bottles, plastic bags, inflatable toys, baseballs, and environmental debris like tree limbs, are all skimmed from the waterways and deposited into oversized dumpsters for removal. In decades past, there used to be more oversized items, such as sofas and refrigerators. However, over the years, the skimmer boats have removed most of those. Still, there is the occasional unlikely item, such as the live deer that was recently rescued to dry ground."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of wreck diving sites",
        "text": "Ireland\n*, Baltimore, County Cork"
      },
      {
        "title": "Freeganism",
        "text": "Freeganism is also critiqued both by other radical movements and by mainstream commentators for the fact that its signature practice\u2014dumpster diving\u2014depends on the capitalist food system that freegans claim to be rejecting. A typical response is that freegan practices are not limited to dumpster diving, but include also actions like guerilla gardening, wild food foraging, or sewing or bike repair \"skill shares\" that are more fully autonomous from the conventional economy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Information diving",
        "text": "In earlier times, the available discarded data included printed manuals and design records. In a famous case, a student, Jerry Schneider, discovered some discarded manuals for a telephone system ordering/shipping system and was able to build a business selling 'surplus' gear ordered from the telephone company as though it was for an internal company department."
      },
      {
        "title": "Triangle of death (Italy)",
        "text": "By December 1999, all regional landfills had reached capacity. Reports in 2008 stated that the crisis was caused at least in part by the Camorra, the powerful Campania-based mafia, which created a lucrative business in the municipal waste disposal business, mostly in the triangle of death. With the complicity of industrial companies, the illegal dumpers frequently mix heavy metals, industrial waste, and chemicals and household waste together, and then dump them near roads and burn them to avoid detection, leading to severe soil and air pollution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Sound",
        "text": "The most popular wreck for divers is the MV \"Lucy\", which sank in good condition in February 1967 after being abandoned by its crew owing to its cargo of calcium carbide. The Netherlands-registered coaster, , was en route from Uddevalla, Sweden to Barry."
      },
      {
        "title": "High diving",
        "text": "In 1987, Olivier Favre attempted a double back somersault from but broke his back upon impact and had to be rescued. Laso Schaller's 2015 jump from a cliff in Switzerland may not be considered a dive based on ABC's criteria (one somersault needed); however, he is the current record holder for Highest dive from a diving board according to the \"Guinness Book of Records\", simultaneously holding the Highest Cliff Jump record for the same jump."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brazzaville arms dump blasts",
        "text": "As of 7 March, there was still no effective rescue effort. The Red Cross was barred from entering the blast zone because of the risk of further explosions, and soldiers allowed in were concentrating on extinguishing the flames. After inspection, unexploded munitions were found spread over a huge area around the depot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Korean Air Lines Flight 007",
        "text": "Vyacheslav Popov: \"I will confess that we felt great relief when we found out that there were no bodies at the bottom. Not only no bodies; there were also no suitcases or large bags. I did not miss a single dive. I have quite a clear impression: The aircraft was filled with garbage, but there were really no people there. Why? Usually when an aircraft crashes, even a small one... As a rule there are suitcases and bags, or at least the handles of the suitcases.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Penmanshiel Tunnel",
        "text": "It is estimated that approximately of the tunnel arch collapsed, with the resultant rock fall filling of the tunnel from floor to roof and totally enveloping a dumper truck and a JCB, along with the two men operating them. The thirteen other people working inside the tunnel at the time of the collapse were able to escape successfully, but despite the efforts of rescuers (including a specialised mine rescue team) it was not possible to reach the two operators or to recover their bodies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Structural dump",
        "text": "The structural dump (), is a dump in the Federal District, Brazil. It is one of the largest on the continent of America. It was in operation for 67 years and was officially closed on 19 January 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stage diving",
        "text": "Stage diving has occasionally caused serious injuries. One example is when Peter Gabriel of Genesis at the Friars club in Aylesbury on June 19, 1971 stage dove during the end of their song \"The Knife\", landing on his foot, thus breaking his ankle. On 20 August 2010, Charles Haddon, the lead singer of English synthpop band Ou Est Le Swimming Pool, died after a performance at Pukkelpop, Belgium. He committed suicide by jumping from a telecommunications mast in the backstage artists' parking area. Haddon was reported to have been distressed after he feared he had seriously injured a young girl earlier after a stagedive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parliament Hill Lido",
        "text": "In 1976, after the death of a 15-year-old boy, further safety measures were taken, including removing most of the diving facilities and increasing staff. The last diving board was removed in 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of wreck diving sites",
        "text": "Cyprus\n*\"Constandis\"\n*\"Lady Thetis\"\n*\"Zenobia\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of creepypastas",
        "text": "The \"SpongeBob\" Bootleg Episode was a story originally uploaded on the Creepypasta Wiki in 2011. The only surviving evidence of this bootleg tape, found by five teenagers (two have committed suicide and one is reported missing) dumpster diving near an abandoned mental facility, is an edited image from the \"SpongeBob SquarePants\" episode, \"Dumped.\" The image consists of a dimly lit background of SpongeBob's living room and a mouthless SpongeBob with bloodshot eyes. Many images of this are GIFs of SpongeBob blinking if the viewer stares at it for long enough."
      },
      {
        "title": "HMAS Dechaineux (SSG 76)",
        "text": "On 12 February 2003, \"Dechaineux\" was operating near her maximum safe diving depth off the coast of Western Australia when a seawater hose burst. The high-pressure seawater flooded the lower engine room before the hose was sealed off: it was estimated that if the inflow had continued for another twenty seconds, the weight of the water would have prevented \"Dechaineux\" from returning to the surface. The RAN recalled the \"Collins\"-class submarines to base after the incident, and after engineers were unable to determine the flaw in the pipes that caused the incident, instructed that the maximum safe depth of the class be reduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "High diving",
        "text": "On 14 January 1933, Dutchman Lou Vlasblom made a well documented dive from the top of one of the towers of the Rotterdam Koningshaven bridge from a height of 65 meters."
      },
      {
        "title": "SS Berlin (1894)",
        "text": "A second notable victim was Hendrik Spijker of the Spyker car company. Following his death in the sinking, investigations revealed that the company\u2032s finances were in a parlous state, leading to the company declaring bankruptcy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumped",
        "text": "11 participants, who were not initially informed of their task, must live on a purpose-made rubbish dump adjacent to a working landfill site for 21 days after being left equipped only with a sleeping bag, drinking can and one roll of lavatory paper each. Rob Holdway, director of environmental consultancy Giraffe Innovation, presented the programme and set the contestants regular challenges. The participants had to wear Kevlar gloves, protective boots and face masks when working on the real landfill site. Every person working on the programme was given tetanus, polio and hepatitis vaccinations for their safety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dave Shaw",
        "text": "Shaw recorded his dive with an underwater camera, which allowed researchers to determine that he suffered from respiratory issues due to the high pressure. Shaw ran into difficulties when the body unexpectedly began to float. Shaw had been advised by various experts that the body would remain negatively buoyant because the visible parts were reduced to the skeleton. However, within his wetsuit, Dreyer's corpse had turned into a soap-like substance called adipocere, which floats. Shaw had been working with both hands, and so had been resting his can light on the cave floor. The powerful underwater lights that cave divers use are connected by wires to heavy battery canisters, normally worn on the cave diver's waist, or sometimes attached to their tanks. Normally he would have wrapped the wire behind his neck, but he was unable to do so; the lines from the body bag appear to have become entangled with the light head, and the physical effort of trying to free himself led to his death. Three days later, both of the bodies that had become entangled in the lines were pulled up to near the surface as the dive team was retrieving their equipment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Illegal dumping",
        "text": "The triangle of death in Campania, Italy is Europe's largest illegal waste dump. The area, which encompasses Italian municipalities Acerra, Marigliano, and Nola, experiences illegal waste disposal practices by the Camorra such as unauthorized burying of toxic waste under places frequented by humans. Frequent fires at dumping sites and illegal waste fires set by residents have resulted in contamination of the air and drinking water. Additionally, the land has deteriorated due to the illegal waste."
      },
      {
        "title": "SS Castilian (1919)",
        "text": "An exclusion zone under section 2 of the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973 (Prohibition on approaching dangerous wrecks) forbids scuba diving within of the wreck because her explosive cargo remains dangerous."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sinking (behavior)",
        "text": "Variants of the phenomenon have reportedly taken place, such as \"hamburger dumping\" (purchasing a large number of hamburgers at a fast food restaurant, and throwing all but one into the trash)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Little Cayman",
        "text": "Bloody Bay, in particular, is consistently ranked as one of the world's top dive sites. Many dive operations claim the late Philippe Cousteau declared its wall to be one of the three best dives in the world, although this story may be fanciful. At its shallowest point, the drop-off begins at a depth of 18 feet (5.5\u00a0m), allowing divers who plan carefully to achieve a maximum depth of over 100 feet (30.5\u00a0m) but still enjoy exceptionally long dive times. But the wall is so famous primarily because sections of it are so sheer as to be effectively vertical, a rarity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Upper Wharfedale Fell Rescue Association",
        "text": "Major incidents which have occurred in the area for which the Association is responsible include the Mossdale Caverns incident in 1967 during which six cavers drowned when the system suffered catastrophic flooding, and an incident in Sleets Gill Cave in 1992 when rising water levels required two trapped cavers to be dived out through of flooded passages. This was the first major use of diving gear to rescue non-divers in the UK, and in the following year a reconstruction of the incident was shown on Tyne Tees Television. Members attended the team's 1,000th callout in March 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of wreck diving sites",
        "text": "United Kingdom\n* \u2013 The Royal Navy's first British-designed submarine\n* \u2013 A-class submarine of the Royal Navy\n* \u2013 German ship wrecked at the Farne Islands in 1921. Now a dive site\n* \u2013 Greek registered freighter sunk off Dorset after a collision\n* \u2013 Canadian cargo ship, sunk off the Needles during World War II\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n* , Cornwall, United Kingdom\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n* List of shipwrecks of the Isles of Scilly, Cornwall"
      },
      {
        "title": "Edithburgh",
        "text": "Recreational divers from M.E. Dive Club witnessed the early works and arranged a group of divers to informally assess the damage the following weekend. The pylon removal works were not publicly advertised nor was the dive or tourism community consulted on the works. The Scuba Divers Federation of South Australia and the Marine Life Society of South Australia both responded to the issue by drafting letters to responsible Government bodies."
      },
      {
        "title": "JS Chihaya",
        "text": "In May 2008, a member of the explosives disposal corps on board set a record of in depth due to saturated diving, setting the second highest (at that time) record in the world after in France."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Dump (saloon)",
        "text": "Like other dive bars, such as Patrick \"Burly\" Bohan's \"The Doctor's\", \"The Dump\" provided sleeping quarters, or \"velvet rooms\", for its customers. But while Bohan's place and others usually provided cots, Lee and Reynolds made different arrangements, as described by Herbert Asbury in \"The Gangs of New York\" (1928), by screwing \"short iron stanchions into the floor about seven feet from the rear wall, and into the wall affixed an iron framework. From the latter to the stanchions was a net of coarse rope, and when a bum passed out from dope or the effects of whiskey and camphor, he was simply tossed into the net to sleep it off\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nobiskrug",
        "text": "The early 1980s saw the construction of the research vessel Polarstern, and the diving support vessels Seabex One and Seaway Condor. In the mid-1980s the fortunes of the shipyard took a turn for the worse, leading ultimately to the verge of financial collapse in 1986."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of wreck diving sites",
        "text": "Mexico"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stage diving",
        "text": "In 2012, singer Randy Blythe of American heavy metal band Lamb of God was indicted on (and later acquitted of) charges of manslaughter relating to the death of a fan in the Czech Republic after the fan was injured after being pushed off the stage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wreck Alley",
        "text": "In the British Virgin Islands, there is another collection of intentionally sunk wrecks for scuba divers, also referred to as \"wreck alley\", a couple of hundred yards offshore from Cooper Island."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Sheppard (cave diver)",
        "text": "Various attempts were made to enter these underwater cave systems using shore-based pumped-air diving suits, without much success. An initial dive in 1934 was unsuccessful and the first successful dive was the following year at Wookey Hole. They returned with improved equipment and succeeded in further exploration. Sheppard constructed his own dry suit, incorporating an oxygen rebreathing system, and used this to make the first successful cave dive in Swildon's Hole on 4 October 1936."
      },
      {
        "title": "1997 Thredbo landslide",
        "text": "Hirst explained to the press that Diver said he was uninjured, just extremely cold. Police Superintendent Charlie Sanderson explained the difficulty of extracting Diver because they could not risk the concrete slab falling on top of him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sk\u00e5nevikfjorden",
        "text": "On 7 February 1978 a record-breaking dive occurred in the Sk\u00e5nevikfjorden which the divers reaching deep in the fjord. One of the divers died during a break from welding metal pipes; the government had given the dive a dispensation from part of the regulations for occupational safety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diving into the Unknown",
        "text": "An international team of rescue divers attempted to retrieve the bodies but ultimately abandoned the attempt due to the dangers involved, and the caves were closed by the police. Despite this, the survivors of the original diving team planned a covert but well-supported return expedition to retrieve the bodies of their friends. They were accompanied by the documentary crew that had originally begun filming their attempt to swim through the cave, and the dives were recorded on helmet-worn cameras."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the criminal intentions of dumpster diving?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Discarded billing records may be used for identity theft.  Furthermore, Criminals have been known to dumpster dive for cash receipts as part of a scheme to steal items and return them for cash, a form of return fraud known as shoplisting."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is dumpster diving illegal anywhere?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There's no official list or status but a Belgian dumpster diver was arrested and accused of theft and burglary, in Ontario, Canada, property owners and security guards have the power to ban anyone from their premise, trespassers would be breaking the law upon returning. It may also be considered theft in England, Scotland, and Wales but it isn't really enforced and it is also theft in Germany but not really enforced either."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any notable instances of dumpster diving?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Jerry Schneider in the 1960s acquired over hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of telephone equipment through dumpster diving until his arrest.",
      "Jerry Schneider, using recovered instruction manuals from The Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Company, used the company's own procedures to acquire hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of telephone equipment, The Castle Infinity video game was brought back from the dead by a fan rescuing its servers from the trash and the source code for the Atari 7800 was discovered in the dumpster of the Atari office when the company closed."
    ],
    "topic": "Dumpster diving",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Dumpster diving:25",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Dumpster diving",
          "Notable instances"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the 1960s, Jerry Schneider, using recovered instruction manuals from The Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Company, used the company's own procedures to acquire hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of telephone equipment over several years until his arrest."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Dumpster diving:25",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Dumpster diving",
          "Notable instances"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the 1960s, Jerry Schneider, using recovered instruction manuals from The Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Company, used the company's own procedures to acquire hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of telephone equipment over several years until his arrest."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Dumpster diving:26",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Dumpster diving",
          "Notable instances"
        ],
        "ctx": "The \"Castle Infinity\" videogame, after its shutdown in 2005, was brought back from the dead by a fan rescuing its servers from the trash."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Dumpster diving:28",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Dumpster diving",
          "Notable instances"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 1996, the source code for the Atari 7800 was discovered in the dumpster of the Atari office when the company closed."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "Haiti forms the western three-eighths of Hispaniola, the second largest island in the Greater Antilles. At 27,750 km2 Haiti is the third largest country in the Caribbean behind Cuba and the Dominican Republic, the latter sharing a border with Haiti. The country has a roughly horseshoe shape and because of this it has a disproportionately long coastline, second in length () behind Cuba in the Greater Antilles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "Haiti (; French: ; ), officially the Republic of Haiti (; ), and formerly known as Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, to the east of Cuba and Jamaica and south of The Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands. It occupies the western three-eighths of the island which it shares with the Dominican Republic. To its south-west lies the small Navassa Island, which is claimed by Haiti but is disputed as a United States territory under federal administration. Haiti is in size, the third largest country in the Caribbean by area, and has an estimated population of 11.4 million, making it the most populous country in the Caribbean. The capital is Port-au-Prince."
      },
      {
        "title": "International rankings of Haiti",
        "text": "International rankings of Haiti\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "International rankings of Haiti",
        "text": "International rankings of Haiti include economic, health, and political data."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Haiti is a Caribbean country roughly three-eighths of the island of Hispaniola and includes many small islands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian diaspora",
        "text": "Haiti has a sizeable diaspora, present majoritarily in the United States, Dominican Republic, Cuba, Canada, France (including its French Caribbean territories), the Bahamas, Brazil and Chile. They also live in other countries like Belgium, Turks and Caicos, Mexico, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, among others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of Haiti",
        "text": "Geography of Haiti\n* Haiti is: a country, on an island\n* Location:\n** Northern Hemisphere and Western Hemisphere\n*** North America (though not on the mainland)\n** Atlantic Ocean\n*** North Atlantic\n**** Caribbean\n***** Antilles\n****** Greater Antilles\n******* Hispaniola, island (which Haiti shares with the Dominican Republic)\n** Time zone: UTC-05\n** Extreme points of Haiti\n*** High: Pic la Selle\n*** Low: Caribbean Sea 0 m\n** Land boundaries: 360\u00a0km\n** Coastline: 1,771\u00a0km\n* Population of Haiti: 9,598,000 - 85th most populous country\n* Area of Haiti: 27,750\u00a0km2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti at the 1992 Summer Olympics",
        "text": "Men's Lightweight (\u2013 71\u00a0kg)\n* Rubens Joseph\n:* Round 1 \u2014 Bye\n:* Round 2 \u2014 Lost to Massimo Sulli of Italy (\u2192 did not advance)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "Haiti is the most mountainous nation in the Caribbean, its terrain consists of mountains interspersed with small coastal plains and river valleys. The climate is tropical, with some variation depending on altitude. The highest point is Pic la Selle, at ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "Haiti is a founding member of the United Nations, Organization of American States (OAS), Association of Caribbean States, and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. In addition to CARICOM, it is a member of the International Monetary Fund, World Trade Organization, and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. Historically poor and politically unstable, Haiti has the lowest Human Development Index in the Americas. Since the turn of the 21st century, the country has endured a coup d'\u00e9tat, which prompted U.N. intervention, as well as a catastrophic earthquake that killed over 250,000 people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Demographics of Haiti",
        "text": "Large-scale emigration, principally to the Dominican Republic, United States, and Canada (predominantly to Quebec) has created what Haitians refer to as the Eleventh Department or the Diaspora. Significant numbers of Haitians have also immigrated to Cuba, France and French Guiana, Spain, Belgium, the United Kingdom and Ireland, Venezuela, Brazil, Chile, the Bahamas and other Caribbean countries. Approximately one in every six Haitians lives abroad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hispaniola",
        "text": "The island is divided into two separate nations: the Spanish-speaking Dominican Republic (48,445\u00a0km2, 18,705 sq mi) to the east and the French / Haitian Creole-speaking Haiti (27,750\u00a0km2, 10,710 sq mi) to the west. The only other divided island in the Caribbean is Saint Martin, which is shared between France (Saint Martin) and the Netherlands (Sint Maarten)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of Haiti",
        "text": "The Haiti \u2013 sovereign country located on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago. \"Ayiti\" (\"Land of Mountains\") was the indigenous Ta\u00edno name for Hispaniola. The Haitian Creole and French-speaking country of Haiti occupies the western extent of Hispaniola, while the Spanish-speaking Dominican Republic occupies the greater eastern extent of the island. Haiti was the first country of the Americas to win its freedom from European colonization in 1804. The country's highest point is Pic la Selle, at . The total area of Haiti is 27,750\u00a0square kilometres (10,714\u00a0sq\u00a0mi) and its capital is Port-au-Prince.\n* Pronunciation:\n* Common English country name: Haiti\n* Official English country name: The Republic of Haiti\n* Common endonym(s):\n* Official endonym(s):\n* Adjectival(s): Haitian\n* Demonym(s):\n* Etymology: Name of Haiti\n* ISO country codes: HT, HTI, 332\n* ISO region codes: See\n* Internet country code top-level domain: .ht"
      },
      {
        "title": "Poverty in Haiti",
        "text": "Haiti ranks 59.5 in the Gini Coefficient index, with the richest 10% of Haitians receiving 47.83% of the nation's income, while the poorest 10% receive less than 0.9%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "There is a large Haitian diaspora community, predominantly based in the US and Canada, France, and the wealthier Caribbean islands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti at the 2016 Summer Olympics",
        "text": "Haiti qualified one judoka for the men's lightweight category (73\u00a0kg) at the Games. Josue Deprez earned a continental quota spot from the Pan American region as the highest-ranked Haitian judoka outside of direct qualifying position in the IJF World Ranking List of May 30, 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Demographics of Haiti",
        "text": "Structure of the population (01.07.2011) (Estimates):"
      },
      {
        "title": "Demographics of Haiti",
        "text": "Structure of the population (01.07.2010) (Estimates):"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "Millions of Haitian descent live abroad in the United States, Dominican Republic, Cuba, Canada (primarily Montreal), Bahamas, France, the French Antilles, the Turks and Caicos, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Brazil, Suriname and French Guiana. There were an estimated 881,500 people of Haitian ancestry in the United States in 2015, while in the Dominican Republic there were an estimated 800,000 in 2007. There were 300,000 in Cuba in 2013, 100,000 in Canada in 2006, 80,000 in Metropolitan France (2010), and up to 80,000 in the Bahamas (2009). There are also smaller Haitian communities in many other countries, including Chile, Switzerland, Japan and Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti at the 1976 Summer Olympics",
        "text": "Welterweight (\u221267\u00a0kg)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "Haiti is a member of a wide range of international and regional organizations, such as the United Nations, CARICOM, Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, International Monetary Fund, Organisation of American States, Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, OPANAL and the World Trade Organization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti\u2013United States relations",
        "text": "According to the 2011 U.S. Global Leadership Report, 79% of Haitians approved of U.S. leadership, with 18% disapproving and 3% uncertain, the highest rating for any surveyed country in the Americas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "In Haiti, communications include the radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. Haiti ranked last among North American countries in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI) an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. Haiti ranked number 143 out of 148 overall in the 2014 NRI ranking, down from 141 in 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of companies of Haiti",
        "text": "Haiti is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea. Haiti's purchasing power parity GDP fell 8% in 2010 (from US$12.15 billion to US$11.18 billion) and the GDP per capita remained unchanged at PPP US$1,200. Despite having a viable tourist industry, They may have converted into a public company (like listed with the Haitian Stock Exchange), or have seen a decline in sales, or at worst gone into an insolvency procedure, been sold, broken up, or liquidated. Haiti is one of the world's poorest countries and the poorest in the Americas region, with poverty, corruption, poor infrastructure, lack of health care and lack of education cited as the main sources. The economy receded due to the 2010 earthquake and subsequent outbreak of Cholera. Haiti ranked 145 of 182 countries in the 2010 United Nations Human Development Index, with 57.3% of the population being deprived in at least three of the HDI's poverty measures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitia",
        "text": "Haitia\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti at the 2011 Pan American Games",
        "text": "Haiti has qualified one athlete in the 52\u00a0kg women's category.\n;Women\n;Repechage Rounds"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hispaniola",
        "text": "This is a list of Dominican Republic and Haiti regions by Human Development Index as of 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian diaspora",
        "text": "Geographically, Haiti is in the Latin America & Caribbean region, and many slightly better-off Latin American countries have large Haitian populations. Historically, its neighbors, Dominican Republic and Cuba, have had the bulk of the Haitian populations in the region outside of Haiti itself. Part of the reason for the ongoing Dominican-Haitian tension in the present day is because of strong illegal immigration in recent decades. Rapidly emerging Haitian populations have been popping up in Brazil, Mexico, Chile, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica, Argentina, Jamaica, Barbados, Guyana, the Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago, among other places in the region. The US territories of Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands also have sizeable Haitian populations, as well as other Caribbean territories belonging to France or the United Kingdom. In 2021, tens of thousands of Haitians previously residing in South America traveled by caravan from Colombia, through Darien Gap into Panama, then northward through Central America, and Mexico to the U.S. border In September of that year, several caravan participants became unwittingly involved in the Whip Gate controversy along the Del Rio, Texas sector of the U.S.-Mexican border."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti at the 1992 Summer Olympics",
        "text": "Men's Middleweight (\u2013 86\u00a0kg)\n* Hermate Souffrant\n:* Round 1 \u2014 Bye\n:* Round 2 \u2014 Lost to Densign Emmanuel White of the United Kingdom (\u2192 did not advance)"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Caribbean islands",
        "text": "The most densely populated island in the world is Ilet a Brouee in Haiti, at 500 persons in its area of . There are about 59 islands in Haiti, inclulding the following:\n*Gon\u00e2ve Island,\n*Grosse Caye,\n*Hispaniola (Eastern part),\n*Ilet a Brouee,\n*\u00cele-\u00e0-Vache (\"Cow Island\"),\n*Les Cayemites\n**Grand Cayemite,\n**Petite Cayemite,\n*Navassa Island (claimed by both Haiti and the United States),\n*Tortuga Island (\"Turtle Island\"),"
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of Haiti",
        "text": "Demographics of Haiti"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geography of Haiti",
        "text": "The Republic of Haiti comprises the western three-eighths of the island of Hispaniola, west of the Dominican Republic. Haiti is positioned east of the neighboring island of Cuba, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean. Haiti's geographic coordinates are at a longitude of 72\u00b0 25\u2032 west and a latitude of 19\u00b0 00\u2032 north."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Caribbean countries by population",
        "text": "List of Caribbean countries by population\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Haiti (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of Haiti",
        "text": "Regions of Haiti"
      },
      {
        "title": "Military ranks of Haiti",
        "text": "The rank insignia of commissioned officers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "sector:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti at the 1992 Summer Olympics",
        "text": "Men's Half-Lightweight (\u2013 65\u00a0kg)\n* Caleb Jean\n:* Round 1 \u2014 Defeated Joseph Momanyi of Kenya\n:* Round 2 \u2014 Lost to Dambiinyam Maralgerel of Mongolia (\u2192 did not advance)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian units of measurement",
        "text": "Haitian units of measurement\n--Units before the metric system.\n----Length.\n----Area.\n----Volume.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geography of Haiti",
        "text": "Trou Ca\u00efman is a saltwater lake with a total area of 16.2\u00a0km2. Lake Mirago\u00e2ne is one of the largest natural freshwater lakes in the Caribbean, with an area of 25\u00a0km2."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Haitians",
        "text": "List of Haitians\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti at the 1992 Summer Olympics",
        "text": "Men's Half-Heavyweight (\u2013 95\u00a0kg)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign aid to Haiti",
        "text": "Haiti\u2014an island country 600 miles off the coast of the U.S. state of Florida\u2014shares the Caribbean island of Hispaniola with the Dominican Republic. Haiti has received billions in foreign assistance, yet persists as one of the poorest countries and has the lowest human development index in the Americas. There have been more than 15 natural disasters since 2001 including tropical storms, flooding, earthquakes and hurricanes. The international donor community classifies Haiti as a fragile state. Haiti is also considered a post-conflict state\u2014one emerging from a recent coup d'\u00e9tat and civil war."
      },
      {
        "title": "2001 Caribbean Cup",
        "text": "Played in Haiti"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti at the 2019 Pan American Games",
        "text": "Haiti received one wildcard in the women's +67 kg event.\n;Kyorugi\n;Women"
      },
      {
        "title": "2012 Caribbean Cup qualification",
        "text": "Held in Haiti."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti at the 2020 Summer Olympics",
        "text": "Haiti qualified one judoka for the women's half-lightweight category (52 kg) at the Games. Sabiana Anestor accepted a continental berth from the Americas as the nation's top-ranked judoka outside of direct qualifying position in the IJF World Ranking List of June 28, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greater Antilles",
        "text": "The Greater Antilles is considered part of Latin America. With a population of 38\u00a0million, it makes up 6% of Latin America's total population. The capital of the Dominican Republic,Santo Domingo, with a population of over 2\u00a0million, is the largest city in the Greater Antilles. Other large cities include Havana, Port-au-Prince, and San Juan. The quality of life within the Greater Antilles is similar among Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Jamaica, whose Human Development Index categorizes them as \"high human development\". Cuba, the independent nation with the highest HDI, nevertheless ranks below Puerto Rico and the Cayman Islands, both of which are categorized as \"very high\". Haiti is an exception, having the lowest Human Development Index in the Greater Antilles and in all of the Americas at 0.498, which categorizes it as having \"Low human development\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Americans",
        "text": "Significant Haitian populations are located in the US territories of Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands. In Puerto Rico, Haitians receive refugee asylum, similar to the Wet feet, dry feet policy for Cubans going to Florida."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitians",
        "text": "Haiti is similar to the rest of Latin America, in that it is a predominantly Christian country, with 80% Roman Catholic and approximately 16% professing Protestantism. A small population of Muslims and Hindus exist in the country, principally in the capital of Port-au-Prince."
      },
      {
        "title": "Military ranks of Haiti",
        "text": "The historic ranks used by the Armed Forces of Haiti, used until 1995."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti at the 1976 Summer Olympics",
        "text": "Lightweight (\u221260\u00a0kg)\n* Yves Jeudy\n:* Round 1 \u2014 Bye\n:* Round 2 \u2014 Won by forfeit\n:* Round 3 \u2014 Bye\n:* Quarterfinals \u2014 Lost to Ace Rusevski of Yugoslavia, referee stopped fight in the 2nd round (\u2192 did not advance)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti at the 2015 Pan American Games",
        "text": "Haiti received one male universality spot.\n;Men"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian units of measurement",
        "text": "Older units before the Metric system were British, old French, and Spanish."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haitian nationality and citizenship",
        "text": "The Republic of Haiti is located on western portion of the island Hispaniola in the Caribbean. Haiti declared its independence from France in the aftermath of the first successful slave revolution in the Americas in 1804, and their identification as conquerors of a racially repressed society is a theme echoed throughout Haiti's history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of the Caribbean",
        "text": "Cuba ranks second in Olympic boxing and fifth in judo, whereas Jamaica has been a power in Olympic [[sprint running]]. At the [[Pan American Games]], Cuba ranks second in the medal table, Dominican Republic ranks 10th, Puerto Rico 11th and Jamaica 13th. At the [[Central American and Caribbean Games]], Cuba ranks first, Puerto Rico fifth, Dominican Republic sixth, Jamaica seventh and Trinidad and Tobago 11th."
      },
      {
        "title": "Military ranks of Haiti",
        "text": "Military ranks of Haiti\n--Historic ranks.\n----Commissioned officer ranks.\n----Other ranks.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Military ranks of Haiti",
        "text": "The rank insignia of non-commissioned officers and enlisted personnel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of Haiti-related articles",
        "text": "Index of Haiti-related articles\n--O.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caribbean",
        "text": "Haiti was the first Caribbean nation to gain independence from European powers (see Haitian Revolution). Some Caribbean nations gained independence from European powers in the 19th century. Some smaller states are still dependencies of European powers today. Cuba remained a Spanish colony until the Spanish\u2013American War. Between 1958 and 1962, most of the British-controlled Caribbean became the West Indies Federation before they separated into many separate nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lantana, Florida",
        "text": "while Haitians had the thirty-fifth highest percentage, with 5.20% of the population."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (nominal)",
        "text": "List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (nominal)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti at the 1976 Summer Olympics",
        "text": "Light Welterweight (\u221263.5\u00a0kg)\n* Siergot Sully\n:* Round 1 \u2014 Lost to Ismael Martinez of Puerto Rico, 5\u20130 (\u2192 did not advance)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of Haiti-related articles",
        "text": "The following is an alphabetical list of topics related to the Republic of Haiti.\n*.ht \u2013 Internet country code top-level domain for Haiti\n* 2010 Haiti earthquake\n*Adjacent country:\n*Administrative divisions of Haiti\n*Agriculture in Haiti\n*Air Force of Haiti\n*Americas\n**North America\n***North Atlantic Ocean\n****West Indies\n*****\"Mer des Cara\u00efbes\" (Caribbean Sea)\n******\"Antilles\"\n*******\"Grandes Antilles\" (Greater Antilles)\n********\"Hispaniola\"\n*Antilles\n*Architecture of Haiti\n*Arijac, artist, painter\n*Army of Haiti\n*Arrondissements of Haiti\n*Atlantic Ocean\n*Cap-Ha\u00eftien\n*Capital of Haiti: \"Ville de Port-au-Prince\"\n*Caribbean\n*Caribbean Community (CARICOM)\n*Caribbean Sea\n*Categories:\n***\n***\n***\n***\n***\n***\n***\n***\n***\n***\n**\n*Cit\u00e9 Soleil\n*Coat of arms of Haiti\n*Communications in Haiti\n*Communes of Haiti\n*Constitution of Haiti\n*Cuisine of Haiti\n*Culture of Haiti\n*Demographics of Haiti\n*Departments of Haiti\n*Diplomatic missions of Haiti\n*Economy of Haiti\n*Education in Haiti\n*Elections in Haiti\n*Environment of Haiti\n* Earthquake, 2010 see 2010 Haiti earthquake\n*Flag of Haiti\n*Foreign relations of Haiti\n*French America\n*French colonization of the Americas\n*French language\n*Geography of Haiti\n*Gon\u00e2ve Microplate\n*Government of Haiti\n*\"Grandes Antilles\"\n*Greater Antilles\n*Haiti\n*\"Haiti I Am Sorry\"\n*Haiti Partnership\n*Haitian Creole language\n*Haitian cuisine\n*Haitian Revolution\n*Haitian Voodoo\n*Health care in Haiti\n*Hinduism in Haiti\n*\"Hispaniola\"\n*History of Haiti\n*Hospitals see List of hospitals in Haiti and Health care in Haiti\n*Human rights in Haiti\n*Human trafficking in Haiti\n*International Organization for Standardization (ISO)\n**ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code for Haiti: HT\n**ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 country code for Haiti: HTI\n** region codes for Haiti\n*Internet in Haiti\n*Islam in Haiti\n*Islands of Haiti:\n**Western portion of the island of Hispaniola\n**Gon\u00e2ve Island\n**Grande Cayemite\n**\u00cele \u00e0 Vache\n**Petite Cayemite\n**Tortuga\n*Languages of Haiti\n*Law enforcement in Haiti\n*LGBT rights in Haiti (Gay rights)\n**Diplomatic missions of Haiti\n**List of airports in Haiti\n**List of birds of Haiti\n**List of cities in Haiti\n**List of companies of Haiti\n**List of countries by GDP (nominal)\n**List of diplomatic missions in Haiti\n**List of hospitals in Haiti\n**List of islands of Haiti\n**List of mountains of Haiti\n**List of national parks of Haiti\n**List of political parties in Haiti\n**List of rivers of Haiti\n**List of wettest tropical cyclones in Haiti\n**Topic outline of Haiti\n*Media in Haiti\n*\"Mer des Cara\u00efbes\"\n*Military of Haiti\n*Morne Bois-Pin\n*Music of Haiti\n*National Assembly of Haiti\n*National Museum of Haiti\n*National Palace\n*North America\n*North Atlantic Ocean\n*Northern Hemisphere"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian units of measurement",
        "text": "One carreau was equal to 1292.3 square meters according to the legal equivalents during the transition period to metric system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian diaspora",
        "text": "Haitian diaspora\n--North America.\n----Particulars.\n----Present status in the United States.\n------New York City.\n------Miami.\n------Boston.\n------New Jersey.\n------Philadelphia.\n------Chicago.\n------Atlanta.\n------Detroit.\n------Washington, D.C..\n----Canada.\n------Montreal.\n------Ottawa.\n--Latin America and the Caribbean.\n----Cuba.\n----Brazil.\n--Europe.\n--Deaths.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Demographics of Haiti",
        "text": "Structure of the population (DHS 2012) (Males 28,122, Females 29,844 = 57,966):"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dominican Republic",
        "text": "Haiti is the neighboring nation to the Dominican Republic and is considerably poorer, less developed and is additionally the least developed country in the western hemisphere. In 2003, 80% of all Haitians were poor (54% living in abject poverty) and 47.1% were illiterate. The country of nine million people also has a fast growing population, but over two-thirds of the labor force lack formal jobs. Haiti's per capita GDP (PPP) was $1,800 in 2017, or just over one-tenth of the Dominican figure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti at the 1992 Summer Olympics",
        "text": "Men's Half-Middleweight (\u2013 78\u00a0kg)\n* Jean Alix Holmand\n:* Round 1 \u2014 Bye\n:* Round 2 \u2014 Lost to Byung-Joo Kim of South Korea (\u2192 did not advance)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Structural violence in Haiti",
        "text": "The Human Suffering Index (HSI), which examines measures of human welfare ranging from life expectancy to political freedom, listed Haiti to be one of the 27 of 141 countries characterized by \"extreme human suffering\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti at the 2015 Pan American Games",
        "text": "The following table lists Haiti's delegation per sport and gender."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics",
        "text": "Haiti was given a quota to compete by the tripartite committee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti at the 2019 Pan American Games",
        "text": "Haiti qualified three athletes (two men and one woman).\n;Key\n*Note\u2013Ranks given for track events are for the entire round\n*Q = Qualified for the next round\n;Track events\n;Field event\n;Men"
      },
      {
        "title": "Demographics of Haiti",
        "text": "Haiti's population pyramid can be categorized as \"expansive,\" indicating a growing population. However, it is categorized as being at stage 3 of demographic transition, as the birth and death rate are falling and net population is increasing at a slower rate.\n:\"0-14 years:\" 32.27% (male 1,733,920 / female 1,747,387)\n:\"15-24 years:\" 21.11% (male 1,139,188 / female 1,137,754)\n:\"25-54 years:\" 37.32% (male 1,997,816 / female 2,028,495)\n:\"55-64 years:\" 5.1% (male 262,494 / female 287,515)\n:\"65 years and over:\" 4.21% (male 199,617 / female 254,254) (2018 est.)\n;Median age:Overall: 23.3 years. Country ranking: 172/195\n:Male: 23.1 years\n:Female: 23.6 years (2018 est.)\n;Birth rate\n:22.6 births/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country ranking: 65/195\n;Death rate\n:7.5 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 111st\n;Total fertility rate\n:2.66 children born/woman (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 65th\n;Net migration rate\n:-2 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 163rd\n;Population growth rate\n:1.31% (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 84th\n;Mother's mean age at first birth\n:22.8 years (2016/7 est.)\n:note: median age at first birth among women 25-29\n;Contraceptive prevalence rate\n:34.3% (2016/17)\n;Dependency ratios\n:total dependency ratio: 62.3 (2015 est.)\n:youth dependency ratio: 54.8 (2015 est.)\n:elderly dependency ratio: 7.5 (2015 est.)\n:potential support ratio: 13.3 (2015 est.)\n;Life expectancy at birth\n:total population: 64.6 years\n:male: 61.9 years\n:female: 67.2 years (2018 est.)\n;Urbanization\n:urban population: 55.3% of total population (2018)\n:rate of urbanization: 2.9% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.)\n;Religions\n:Roman Catholic 58.7%, Protestant 33.5% (Baptist 15.4%, Pentecostal 14.9%, Adventist 3%, Methodist 1.5%, other 0.7%), vodou 2.1%, other 4.6%, none 1.2% (2018 est.)\n:note: many Haitians practice elements of vodou in addition to another religion, most often Roman Catholicism; vodou was recognized as an official religion in 2003\n;Education expenditures\n:2.4% of GDP (2016) Country comparison to the world: 162nd\n;Literacy"
      },
      {
        "title": "Economy of Haiti",
        "text": "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980\u20132017.\n* List of Haitian companies\n* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (nominal)\n* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (PPP)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Helicopsyche",
        "text": "Americas: Dominican Republic, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Dominica, Peru, Canada, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama, United States, Chile, Brazil, Cuba, Jamaica, Nicaragua, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Martinique, St. Lucia, Haiti, El Salvador, Hispaniola, Trinidad, Paraguay, Puerto Rico, Honduras, Surinam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "Administratively, Haiti is divided into ten departments. The departments are listed below, with the departmental capital cities in parentheses.\n# Nord-Ouest (Port-de-Paix)\n# Nord (Cap-Ha\u00eftien)\n# Nord-Est (Fort-Libert\u00e9)\n# Artibonite (Gona\u00efves)\n# Centre (Hinche)\n# Ouest (Port-au-Prince)\n# Grand'Anse (J\u00e9r\u00e9mie)\n# Nippes (Mirago\u00e2ne)\n# Sud (Les Cayes)\n# Sud-Est (Jacmel)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "In Ta\u00edno society the largest unit of political organization was led by a \"cacique,\" or chief, as the Europeans understood them. The island of Hipaniola was divided among five 'caciquedoms': the Magua in the north east, the Marien in the north west, the Jaragua in the south west, the Maguana in the central regions of Cibao, and the Hig\u00fcey in the south east."
      },
      {
        "title": "Member states of the Caribbean Community",
        "text": "Haiti was admitted as the fifteenth Member State of the Caribbean Community on 2 July 2002 following the deposit of the Instrument of Accession by Haiti for membership at the 23rd Meeting of the Conference of Heads of Government in Georgetown, Guyana after Haiti's parliament ratified the Treaty of Chaguaramas as well as the terms and conditions for Haiti's entry as a full member of the Caribbean Community including the Single Market and Economy in May 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nelourde Nicolas",
        "text": "\"Scores and results list Haiti's goal tally first\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian units of measurement",
        "text": "1 corde = 3.84 m3"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "The Citadelle Laferri\u00e8re, is the largest fortress in the Americas, is located in northern Haiti. It was built between 1805 and 1820 and is today referred to by some Haitians as the eighth wonder of the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "Haiti has a predominantly free market economy, with a GDP of $19.97 billion and per capita GDP of $1,800 (2017 estimates). The country uses the Haitian gourde as its currency. Despite its tourism industry, Haiti is one of the poorest countries in the Americas, with corruption, political instability, poor infrastructure, lack of health care and lack of education cited as the main causes. Unemployment is high and many Haitians seek to emigrate. Trade declined dramatically after the 2010 earthquake and subsequent outbreak of cholera, with the country's purchasing power parity GDP falling by 8% (from US$12.15 billion to US$11.18 billion). Haiti ranked 145th of 182 countries in the 2010 United Nations Human Development Index, with 57.3% of the population being deprived in at least three of the HDI's poverty measures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guerdy J. Pr\u00e9val",
        "text": "1980 \"Haiti-Diaspora\", Quebec University in Montreal (Montreal, Canada)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Demographics of Haiti",
        "text": "In 2004, approximately 300,000 children were restavecs, or indentured servants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geography of Haiti",
        "text": "Numerous smaller islands make up a part of Haiti's total territory. The most notable islands are:\n#\"\u00cele de la Gon\u00e2ve\", the largest offshore island of mainland Hispaniola, is located to the west-northwest of Port-au-Prince in Haiti's Gulf of Gon\u00e2ve, in the Caribbean Sea (the largest gulf of the Antilles). It has an area of 743\u00a0km2. Its Ta\u00edno name was \"Guanabo\". La Gon\u00e2ve was once a pirate base.\n#\"Tortuga\" (\"Turtle\"), the second largest offshore island of the mainland, located off the northwest coast of Hispaniola, it is a Caribbean island. It has an area of 180\u00a0km2. The island was a major center of Caribbean piracy during the 17th century and has become famous in many works of literature and film. The island's name derives from the turtle-like shape of the island.\n#\"\u00cele \u00e0 Vache\" (\"Cow Island\") is a small and lush island located off southwestern of Haiti with a total area is 52\u00a0km2.\n#\"Les Cayemites\", a pair of islands located in the Gulf of Gon\u00e2ve off the coast of southwest Hispaniola. It has a combined area of 45\u00a0km2.\n#\"La Navasse\", is a rocky outcropping that has been subject to an ongoing territorial dispute with the United States. The island is located west of J\u00e9r\u00e9mie on the south west peninsula of Haiti, and measures ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Demographics of Haiti",
        "text": "Number of births and deaths are calculated based on Crude Birth and Death Rates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti at the 2019 Pan American Games",
        "text": "The following is the list of number of competitors (per gender) participating at the games per sport/discipline."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of Haiti",
        "text": "Haiti"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hispaniola",
        "text": "Hispaniola is the second-largest island in the Caribbean (after Cuba), with an area of , of which is under the sovereignty of the Dominican Republic occupying the eastern portion and under the sovereignty of Haiti occupying the western portion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hispaniola",
        "text": "Recent in-depth studies of satellite imagery and environmental analysis regarding forest classification conclude that Haiti actually has approximately 30% tree cover; this is, nevertheless, a stark decrease from the country's 60% forest cover in 1925. The country has been significantly deforested over the last 50 years, resulting in the desertification of many portions of Haitian territory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada\u2013Haiti relations",
        "text": "Haiti is in the west of the island of Hispaniola. In 1797 Toussaint Louverture led a successful revolt against the French and made Haiti the first independent Caribbean nation, although government was unsettled until 1915, when the United States occupied the island. The United States left the island in 1934, returning it to a form of democracy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poverty in Haiti",
        "text": "In 2014, Haiti ranked as the fifteenth most corrupt country in the world by Transparency International's Corruption Perception Index with a CPI score of 19, compared to the United States' score of 74. The Corruption Perceptions Index measures the perceived levels of public sector corruption worldwide. No country achieves a perfect score, and more than two-thirds score below 50 on a scale from 0 (very corrupt) to 100 (very little corruption)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Demographics of Haiti",
        "text": "The registration of vital events in Haiti is incomplete. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geography of Haiti",
        "text": "Haiti's total area is , of which is land and is water. Haiti has of coastline and a -border with the Dominican Republic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of Haiti",
        "text": "Departments of Haiti\n# Artibonite\n# Centre\n# Grand'Anse\n# Nippes\n# Nord\n# Nord-Est\n# Nord-Ouest\n# Ouest\n# Sud\n# Sud-Est"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti at the 1992 Summer Olympics",
        "text": "Men's 100 metres\n* Claude Roumain\n:* Round 1 \u2014 11.07 seconds (\u2192 did not advance)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of Haiti",
        "text": "The Republic of Haiti is a member of:\n*African, Caribbean, and Pacific Group of States (ACP)\n*Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean (OPANAL)\n*Caribbean Community and Common Market (Caricom)\n*Caribbean Development Bank (CDB)\n*Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)\n*Group of 77 (G77)\n*Inter-American Development Bank (IADB)\n*International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)\n*International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)\n*International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)\n*International Criminal Court (ICCt) (signatory)\n*International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol)\n*International Development Association (IDA)\n*International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRCS)\n*International Finance Corporation (IFC)\n*International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)\n*International Hydrographic Organization (IHO)\n*International Maritime Organization (IMO)\n*International Monetary Fund (IMF)\n*International Olympic Committee (IOC)\n*International Organization for Migration (IOM)\n*International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (ICRM)\n*International Telecommunication Union (ITU)\n*International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (ITSO)\n*International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC)\n*Latin American Economic System (LAES)\n*Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)\n*Nonaligned Movement (NAM)\n*\"Organisation internationale de la Francophonie\" (OIF)\n*Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)\n*Organization of American States (OAS)\n*Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA)\n*\"Union Latine\"\n*United Nations (UN)\n*United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)\n*United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)\n*United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)\n*Universal Postal Union (UPU)\n*World Confederation of Labour (WCL)\n*World Customs Organization (WCO)\n*World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU)\n*World Health Organization (WHO)\n*World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)\n*World Meteorological Organization (WMO)\n*World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)\n*World Trade Organization (WTO)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Americans",
        "text": "The 10 U.S. states with the largest Haitian populations in 2019 are:\n# Florida - 533,409 (2.4% of the state population)\n# New York - 192,007 (1.0% of the state population)\n# Massachusetts - 83,791 (1.2% of the state population)\n# New Jersey - 68,848 (0.8% of the state population)\n# Georgia - 31,669 (0.3% of the state population)\n# Pennsylvania - 24,953 (0.2% of the state population)\n# Connecticut - 20,570 (0.6% of the state population)\n# Maryland - 20,273 (0.3% of the state population)\n# California - 13,344 (0.1% of the state population)\n# Illinois - 9,606 (0.1% of the state population)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian units of measurement",
        "text": "A number of units of measurement were used in Haiti to measure length, area, volume, etc. Since 1921, Metric system has been compulsory in Haiti."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where does Haiti rank by size among Caribbean countries?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Haiti is 27,750 km2 (10,714 sq mi) in size, the third largest country in the Caribbean by area, and has an estimated population of 11.4 million, making it the most populous country in the Caribbean.",
      "Haiti is 27,750 km2 (10,714 sq mi) in size, the third largest country in the Caribbean by area."
    ],
    "topic": "Haiti",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Haiti:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Haiti"
        ],
        "ctx": "Haiti (; French: ; ), officially the Republic of Haiti (; ), and formerly known as Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, to the east of Cuba and Jamaica and south of The Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands. It occupies the western three-eighths of the island which it shares with the Dominican Republic. To its south-west lies the small Navassa Island, which is claimed by Haiti but is disputed as a United States territory under federal administration. Haiti is in size, the third largest country in the Caribbean by area, and has an estimated population of 11.4 million, making it the most populous country in the Caribbean. The capital is Port-au-Prince."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Haiti:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Haiti"
        ],
        "ctx": "Haiti (; French: ; ), officially the Republic of Haiti (; ), and formerly known as Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, to the east of Cuba and Jamaica and south of The Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands. It occupies the western three-eighths of the island which it shares with the Dominican Republic. To its south-west lies the small Navassa Island, which is claimed by Haiti but is disputed as a United States territory under federal administration. Haiti is in size, the third largest country in the Caribbean by area, and has an estimated population of 11.4 million, making it the most populous country in the Caribbean. The capital is Port-au-Prince."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "Successive waves of Arawak migrants, moving northward from the Orinoco delta in South America, settled the islands of the Caribbean. Around A.D. 600, the Ta\u00edno, an Arawak culture, arrived on the island, displacing the previous inhabitants, however this view is widely disputed. They were organized into \"cacicazgos\" (chiefdoms), each led by a \"cacique\" (chief)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity in Haiti",
        "text": "Haiti was first colonized by the Spanish, who later abandoned the island's western portion. That region came under French influence after 1630, and was formally recognized as the French colony of Saint-Domingue in 1697. Under French rule, Roman Catholicism was the sole legal religion, though African slaves frequently practiced vodou. Slaves revolted in 1791 and established the first black republic in 1804. Three years later Protestant missionary activity begun. Political control of the island shifted frequently during the 19th century with different European governments, the Dominican republic, Columbia and Haiti itself alternating in power."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "From 1824 to 1826, while the island was under one government, Boyer promoted the largest single free-Black immigration from the United States in which more than 6,000 immigrants settled in different parts of the island. Today remnants of these immigrants live throughout the island, but the larger number reside in Saman\u00e1, a peninsula on the Dominican side of the island. From the government's perspective, the intention of the immigration was to help establish commercial and diplomatic relationships with the US, and to increase the number of skilled and agricultural workers in Haiti."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "In the second half of the 1780s, Saint-Domingue accounted for a third of the entire Atlantic slave trade. The population of the African slaves imported for these plantations is estimated to have been 790,000. Between 1764 and 1771, the average importation of slaves varied between 10,000 and 15,000, by 1786 about 28,000, and, from 1787 onward, the colony received more than 40,000 slaves a year. However, the inability to maintain slave numbers without constant resupply from Africa meant the slave population, by 1789, totaled 500,000, ruled over by a white population that, by 1789, numbered only 32,000. At all times, a majority of slaves in the colony were African-born, as the brutal conditions of slavery prevented the population from experiencing growth through natural increase . African culture thus remained strong among slaves to the end of French rule, in particular the folk-religion of Vodou, which commingled Catholic liturgy and ritual with the beliefs and practices of Guinea, Congo, and Dahomey. Slave traders scoured the Atlantic coast of Africa, and the slaves who arrived came from hundreds of different tribes, their languages often mutually incomprehensible."
      },
      {
        "title": "French colonization of the Americas",
        "text": "A major French settlement lay on the island of Hispaniola, where France established the colony of Saint-Domingue on the western third of the island in 1664. Nicknamed the \"Pearl of the Antilles\", Saint-Domingue became the richest colony in the Caribbean due to slave plantation production of sugar cane. It had the highest slave mortality rate in the western hemisphere. A 1791 slave revolt, the only ever successful slave revolt, began the Haitian Revolution, led to freedom for the colony's slaves in 1794 and, a decade later, complete independence for the country, which renamed itself Haiti. France briefly also ruled the eastern portion of the island, which is now the Dominican Republic."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haitian nationality and citizenship",
        "text": "Until 1915, Haiti followed an isolationist policy. However, in 1915 the United States invaded Haiti and kept occupation until 1934. During this time, interest in Haitian nationality broadened to embrace the rural majority's \"black\" culture. A Haitian historical society was founded in 1924, with a focus on their history through the \"Black Slave Rebellion\" narrative of the Haitian Revolution. Louverture and Dessalines became \"great slave revolutionaries\", showing the world the power of colonized peoples."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "At the time of the Haitian Revolution, an event that involved the eradication of whites (mostly French) in Haiti, many of the blacks in Haiti were African-born and had no non-African ancestry. This was because the average African slave in colonial Haiti had a short life span and France continuously imported thousands of Africans yearly to keep the slave population up, by 1790 there were nearly 600,000 slaves, outnumbering whites about 20 to 1."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "The island was originally inhabited by the indigenous Ta\u00edno people, who originated in South America. The first Europeans arrived on 5 December 1492 during the first voyage of Christopher Columbus, who initially believed he had found India or China. Columbus subsequently founded the first European settlement in the Americas, La Navidad, on what is now the northeastern coast of Haiti. The island was claimed by Spain and named , forming part of the Spanish Empire until the early 17th century. However, competing claims and settlements by the French led to the western portion of the island being ceded to France in 1697, which was subsequently named . French colonists established lucrative sugarcane plantations, worked by vast numbers of slaves brought from Africa, which made the colony one of the richest in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "Following the arrival of Europeans, La Hispaniola's indigenous Taino population suffered greatly to near extinction, in possibly the worst case of depopulation in the Americas. A commonly accepted hypothesis attributes the high mortality of this colony in part to European diseases to which the natives had no immunity. The Taino population declined by up to 95% in the century after the Spanish arrival, from a pre contact population of 8,000,000 to to a few tens of thousands. Many authors have described the treatment of the Taino in Hispaniola under the Spanish Empire as genocide."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haitian nationality and citizenship",
        "text": "Haiti has a unique history of racial ideology. During its colonial period, class structure shifted from one based on wealth, to divisions distinguished by race. Once accepted as elite, families of African descent were rejected because of racist stereotypes. This regression shaped the evolution of the Haitian Revolution as peoples of African descent rose up against the white colonial planters. Haitians are primarily of African descent but a lot of Haitians are also of the indigenous Taino descent (Arawak native Indians) which inhabited the island prior to Christopher Columbus's arrival. The Taino were nearly wiped out due to diseases the Europeans brought with them and because of cruel practices including slavery. The Tainos fled to the mountains just before the Africans arrived on the island. Mixing between the remaining Tainos and some of the Africans occurred and it is believed a lot of Haitians in present-day have some ancestral links to the indigenous Tainos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human rights in Haiti",
        "text": "The land that would become Haiti was first colonized by Spain at the end of the 15th century. The Spanish essentially wiped out the native Ta\u00edno people through slavery and smallpox, to which the Ta\u00edno had no immunity. An early defender of more humane treatment of the Ta\u00edno was the Spanish priest Bartolom\u00e9 de Las Casas. Albeit too late to save the Ta\u00edno, Las Casas was able to persuade the Spanish government that the Ta\u00edno could not withstand such cruel treatment. This had the tragic side effect of the importation of African slaves to replace the labor of the diminishing Ta\u00edno."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "The island of Hispaniola, of which Haiti occupies the western three-eighths, has been inhabited since about 5000 BC by groups of Native Americans thought to have arrived from Central or South America. Genetic studies show that some of these groups were related to the Yanomami of the Amazon Basin. Amongst these early settlers were the Ciboney peoples, followed by the Ta\u00edno, speakers of an Arawakan language, elements of which have been preserved in Haitian Creole. The Ta\u00edno name for the entire island was \"Haiti\", or alternatively \"Quisqeya\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Independence of Haiti",
        "text": "Arawak and Taino people inhabited for more than one thousand years what was later known as Hispaniola. Christopher Columbus arrived to the island on December 5, 1492. The name Haiti (or \"Hayti\") comes from the indigenous Ta\u00edno language which was the native name given to the entire island of Hispaniola to mean, \"land of high mountains.\" Saint-Domingue () became a French colony from 1659 to 1804 on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "Emigrants from Haiti have constituted a segment of American and Canadian society since before the independence of Haiti from France in 1804. Many influential early American settlers and black freemen, including Jean Baptiste Point du Sable and W. E. B. Du Bois, were of Haitian origin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Americans in Haiti",
        "text": "During the antebellum era, many free blacks emigrated to Haiti. Although a few emigrants left for Haiti during the 1810s, it was not until 1824 that with the support of the Haitian President Jean-Pierre Boyer that emigration from the United States increased. Several thousand free blacks left for Haiti in the summer of 1824 and the flow continued until 1826 when the Haitian government stopped paying and defraying the transportation costs."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "In 1595, the Spanish, frustrated by the twenty-year rebellion of their Dutch subjects, closed their home ports to rebel shipping from the Netherlands, cutting them off from the critical salt supplies necessary for their herring industry. The Dutch responded by sourcing new salt supplies from Spanish America where colonists were more than happy to trade. So large numbers of Dutch traders/pirates joined their English and French brethren trading on the remote coasts of Hispaniola. In 1605, Spain was infuriated that Spanish settlements on the northern and western coasts of the island persisted in carrying out large scale and illegal trade with the Dutch, who were at that time fighting a war of independence against Spain in Europe and the English, a very recent enemy state, and so decided to forcibly resettle their inhabitants closer to the city of Santo Domingo. This action, known as the \"Devastaciones de Osorio\", proved disastrous for the colonists; more than half of the resettled colonists died of starvation or disease, over 100,000 cattle were abandoned, and many slaves escaped. Five of the existing thirteen settlements on the island were brutally razed by Spanish troops including the two settlements on the territory of present-day Haiti, La Yaguana, and Bayaja. Many of the inhabitants fought, escaped to the jungle, or fled to the safety of passing Dutch ships."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haitian nationality and citizenship",
        "text": "France recognized Haitian independence in 1825. This recognition was indirect, \"masked by a degree of doublespeak that would have made Talleyrand proud\", and only transpired after a Haiti paid huge reparations. However, Haiti was able to open normal relations with their former colonizers."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haitian nationality and citizenship",
        "text": "The Republic of Haiti is located on western portion of the island Hispaniola in the Caribbean. Haiti declared its independence from France in the aftermath of the first successful slave revolution in the Americas in 1804, and their identification as conquerors of a racially repressed society is a theme echoed throughout Haiti's history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cap-Ha\u00eftien",
        "text": "The island was occupied for thousands of years by cultures of indigenous peoples, who had migrated from present-day Central and South America. In the 16th century, Spanish explorers in the Caribbean began to colonize the island. They adopted the native name, \"Gu\u00e1rico\" for this area that is today known as \"Cap\u2011Ha\u00eftien\". Due to the introduction of new infectious diseases, as well as poor treatment, the indigenous peoples population rapidly declined."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haitian nationality and citizenship",
        "text": "The development of Haitian nationality is marked by its declaration of independence on January 1, 1804. The Caribbean island won its independence from France after a period of harsh colonial rule in the first successful slave rebellion, making Haiti the first independent country in America. As ideas of the French Revolution spread, a movement against the oppressive Black Code developed."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haitian nationality and citizenship",
        "text": "Since the US occupation, Haiti has been unable to establish an independent civilian police force as an entity separate from the army. Every attempt to do so has resulted in a military overthrow of the presidency."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of colonialism",
        "text": "The Haitian Revolution, a slave revolt led by Toussaint L'Ouverture in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, established Ha\u00efti as a free, black republic, the first of its kind. Haiti became the second independent nation that was a former European colony in the Western Hemisphere after the United States. Africans and people of African ancestry freed themselves from slavery and colonization by taking advantage of the conflict among whites over how to implement the reforms of the French Revolution in this slave society. Although independence was declared in 1804, it was not until 1825 that it was formally recognized by King Charles X of France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean-Pierre Boyer",
        "text": "Beginning in September 1824, nearly 6,000 Americans, mostly free people of color, migrated to Haiti within a year, with ships departing from New York, Baltimore and Philadelphia. Due to the poverty of the island and the inability of Boyer's administration to help support the new immigrants in the transition, most returned to the United States within a short period of time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "The French settlers were outnumbered by slaves by almost 10 to 1. According to the 1788 Census, Haiti's population consisted of nearly 25,000 Europeans, 22,000 free coloreds and 700,000 African slaves. In contrast, by 1763 the white population of French Canada, a far larger territory, had numbered only 65,000. In the north of the island, slaves were able to retain many ties to African cultures, religion and language; these ties were continually being renewed by newly imported Africans. Some West African slaves held on to their traditional Vodou beliefs by secretly syncretizing it with Catholicism."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haitian nationality and citizenship",
        "text": "However, after the 1789 Revolution, all developments in French law also pertained to Saint-Domingue as a colony came under a more direct empirical ruling. The important developments of this time period are:\n*The decree of April 4, 1792, which granted political equality to emancipated slaves\n*The decree of February 4, 1794, which abolished slavery"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "This Spanish action was counterproductive as English, Dutch, and French pirates were now free to establish bases on the island's abandoned northern and western coasts, where wild cattle were now plentiful and free. In 1697, after decades of fighting over the territory, the Spanish ceded the western"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haitian nationality and citizenship",
        "text": "During the period from 1820 to 1849, which from 1822 included the territory of Hispaniola now known as the Dominican Republic, the Republic of Haiti replaced the Empire of Haiti. The republic was granted independence from France in 1825, subject to paying reparations. That year the government adopted a Civil Code, which was based on the French Napoleonic Code, but had significant differences. In the Haitian version, only people with African or indigenous blood could be naturalized. It conferred nationality upon anyone born in Haiti, regardless of legitimacy, or born abroad to a Haitian. Foreigners were prohibited from owning property in Haiti, except moveable assets, thus if a foreigner inherited property, they had to pay its value to the heirs. Haitian wives who married foreigners were required to sell any real property that they owned, if by marriage they acquired the nationality of their husband."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Creole",
        "text": "One theory estimates that Haitian Creole developed between 1680 and 1740. During the 16th and 17th centuries, French and Spanish colonizers produced tobacco, cotton, and sugar cane on the island. Throughout this period, the population was made of roughly equal numbers of (white workers), (free people of colour) and slaves. The economy shifted into sugar production in 1690, just before the French colony of was officially formed in 1697. The sugar crops needed a much larger labor force, which led to an increase in slave importation. In the 18th century an estimated 800,000 West-African individuals were enslaved and brought to Saint-Domingue. As the slave population increased, interactions between French-speaking colonists and slaves decreased."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "Almost two years after Boyer had consolidated power in the west, Haiti invaded Santo Domingo (present-day Dominican Republic) and declared the island free from European powers. Boyer, however, responding to a party on the east that preferred Haiti over Colombia, occupied the ex-Spanish colony in January 1822, encountering no military resistance. In this way he accomplished the unity of the island, which was only carried out for a short period of time by Toussaint Louverture in 1801. Boyer's occupation of the Spanish side also responded to internal struggles among Christophe's generals, to which Boyer gave extensive powers and lands in the east. This occupation, however, pitted the Spanish white elite against the iron fisted Haitian administration, and stimulated the emigration of many white wealthy families. The entire island remained under Haitian rule until 1844, when in the east a nationalist group called La Trinitaria led a revolt that partitioned the island into Haiti on the west and Dominican Republic on the east, based on what would appear to be a riverine territorial 'divide' from the pre-contact period."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haitian nationality and citizenship",
        "text": "Prior to Haitian independence, Saint-Domingue was a colony under French rule, but laws were made specifically for Saint-Domingue as a colony. For example:\n*The Constitution of 1765 separated the military from the civil government\n*The Edict of August, 1765 established a judicial system"
      },
      {
        "title": "Afro-Dominicans",
        "text": "During the wars with Haiti (1844\u201356), the government of this country developed a black centrism, a centrism that Dominicans strongly refused in favor of their Hispanic heritage. Historically, Haiti was more densely populated than the Dominican Republic. Due to the lack of free lands in Haiti, as land was held by a small group of landlords, Haitian peasants began to settle in the borderland region, within the Dominican Republic. Through the years, especially after 1899, the Haitian government claimed the territory populated by Haitians, and under a treaty in 1929 several towns and cities in Central Hispaniola officially became Haitian, comprising 4,572\u00a0km2. A Dominican census in 1935 revealed that 3.6% of the population was Haitian. In 1936, the Haitian government claimed more territory and the Dominican Republic ceded another 1,628\u00a0km2 to Haiti; the next year, the Dominican dictatorship ordered the \"Dominicanization of the border\" () and conducted the Parsley Massacre."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian diaspora",
        "text": "Haitian Creole and culture first entered Cuba with the arrival of Haitian immigrants at the start of the 19th century. Haiti was a French colony, and the final years of the 1791\u20131804 Haitian Revolution brought a wave of French settlers and their Haitian slaves to Cuba. They came mainly to the east, and especially Guantanamo, where the French later introduced sugar cultivation, constructed sugar refineries and developed coffee plantations. By 1804, some 30,000 French were living in Baracoa and Mais\u00ed, the furthest eastern municipalities of the province. Later, Haitians continued to come to Cuba to work as braceros (hand workers, from the Spanish word brazo, meaning \"arm\") in the fields cutting cane. Their living and working conditions were not much better than slavery. Although they planned to return to Haiti, most stayed on in Cuba. For years, many Haitians and their descendants in Cuba did not identify themselves as such or speak Creole. In the eastern part of the island, many Haitians suffered discrimination. But according to the Castro regime, since 1959, when he took over, this discrimination has stopped."
      },
      {
        "title": "An Unbroken Agony",
        "text": "So for the next two hundred years, Haiti would be faced with the active hostility from the world's most powerful community of nations.\" The hostilities came in the form of \"military invasions, economic embargoes, gunboat blockades, reparations demands, trade barriers, diplomatic quarantines, subsidized armed subversions.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "The recorded history of Haiti began on 5 December 1492, when the European navigator Christopher Columbus landed on a large island in the region of the western Atlantic Ocean that later came to be known as the Caribbean. It was inhabited by the Ta\u00edno and Arawakan people, who variously called their island \"Ayiti\", \"Bohio\", and \"Kiskeya\" \"(Quisqueya)\". Columbus promptly claimed the island for the Spanish Crown, naming it \"La Isla Espa\u00f1ola\" (\"the Spanish Island\"), later Latinized to \"Hispaniola\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery in Haiti",
        "text": "It is not known how many Taino people were on the island prior to Columbus's arrival \u2013 estimates range from several thousand to eight million \u2013 but overwork in slavery and diseases introduced by the Europeans quickly killed a large part of the population. Between 1492 and 1494, one third of the native population on the island died. Two million had been killed within ten years of the Spaniards' arrival and by 1514, 92% of the native population of the island had died from enslavement and European diseases. By the 1540s, the culture of the natives had disappeared from the island, and by 1548 the native population was under 500."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Forten",
        "text": "After Haiti became established as an independent black republic in 1804, some Americans were interested in emigrating there. In the early 1820s, President Jean-Pierre Boyer united all the island of Hispaniola under Haitian control. He also gained official recognition for the nation from France for the first time, but at the cost of a high indemnity that crippled the country financially for generations. He appealed to American free blacks to immigrate there and help its development. Its independence raised many complex issues for free Blacks in the United States. Despite his support for the new nation, Forten was among important Black leaders who opposed emigration for Americans. He firmly believed that Blacks should be allowed to play an equal role in their land of the United States. He consistently said that it was far better for them to fight for an egalitarian US society rather than to flee the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Jews in Haiti",
        "text": "In 1492, the first Jew to ever set foot in Haiti was Luis de Torres, an interpreter for Christopher Columbus. After Haiti was taken over and colonized by the French in 1633, many Dutch Jews (of whom many were Marrano) emigrated from Brazil in 1634 and became employees of the French sugar plantations and further developed the trade. In 1683, the Jews were expelled from Haiti and all other French colonies, due to the \"Code Noir\" (Black Code), which both restricted the activities of free Negroes and forbade the exercise of any religion other than Roman Catholicism. However, despite the Code Noir, a limited number of Jews remained in French trading companies as leading officials, including foreign citizens (Dutch Jews, Danish Jews, and English Jews) or holders of special residence permits (\"lettres patentes\"). These Jews tended to specialize in agricultural plantations, with Portuguese Jews from Bordeaux and Bayonne settling mainly in the southern part of Haiti (Jacmel, J\u00e9r\u00e9mie, L\u00e9og\u00e2ne, Les Cayes, Petit-Go\u00e2ve, and Port-au-Prince) and Cura\u00e7aoan Jews settling in the northern part (Cap-Haitien and Saint Louis)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "Starting in September 1824, more than 6,000 African Americans migrated to Haiti, with transportation paid by an American philanthropic group similar in function to the American Colonization Society and its efforts in Liberia. Many found the conditions too harsh and returned to the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian emigration",
        "text": "In an attempt to break out from the United States\u2019 racist filled society, antebellum free blacks emigrated to Haiti. Although a few emigrants left for Haiti during the 1810s, it was not until 1824 that with the support of the Haitian President Jean-Pierre Boyer that the emigration began in earnest. The Haitian emigration project ran against the wishes of the American Colonization Society, which attempted to remove free blacks as far as Africa and dreaded the idea of strengthening the black state of Haiti. Several thousand blacks departed towards Haiti in the summer of 1824 and the flow continued until 1826 when the Haitian government stopped paying and defraying the transportation costs. U.S. blacks continued moving to Haiti after this, but the numbers were never as high as those that left between the years of 1824\u20131826. Another Haitian emigration scheme began in 1859 and lasted for about three years. Even though this project had the support of Abraham Lincoln and other political figures, the frustrations of the 1820s and an increasing black identification with the U.S. substantially hindered the enthusiasm this time."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haitian nationality and citizenship",
        "text": "Haitian society has been sharply divided since its independence in 1804. The rural agricultural sector, composing as much as 95% of the population, makes up the base of this society. The elite are then left to dominate national institutions and the governmental apparatus. These two sections are kept separate by income, source of income, language, education, religion, etc. Militarism and republican nationalism formed the basis by which Haitian society was aligned, granting the elite class legitimate power."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Americans",
        "text": "While most of the early 20th-century emigrants from Haiti were from the upper classes, persistent conditions of poverty, as well as political unrest, eventually prodded many lower-class Saint Dominicans to emigrate as well. Altogether, there have been four periods of major migration to the United States in the history of Haiti: the initial wave at the turn of the 20th century, following the U.S. occupation from the 1915 to 1934, during the 1960s and 1970s to escape the Duvalier regime, and following the 2004 overthrow of Jean-Bertrand Aristide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery",
        "text": "Slavery in Haiti started with the arrival of Christopher Columbus on the island in 1492. The practice was devastating to the native population. Following the indigenous Ta\u00edno's near decimation from forced labour, disease and war, the Spanish, under advisement of the Catholic priest Bartolomeu de las Casas, and with the blessing of the Catholic church began engaging in earnest in the kidnapped and forced labour of enslaved Africans. During the French colonial period beginning in 1625, the economy of Haiti (then known as Saint-Domingue) was based on slavery, and the practice there was regarded as the most brutal in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "The revolution led to a wave of emigration. In 1809, 9,000 refugees from Saint-Domingue, both white planters and people of color, settled \"en masse\" in New Orleans, doubling the city's population, having been expelled from their initial refuge in Cuba by Spanish authorities. In addition, the newly arrived slaves added to the city's African population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian diaspora",
        "text": "In modern times, large-scale emigration from Haiti is mostly because they have been steadily migrating in significant numbers to the United States since the late 1950s\u2013early 1960s, soon after Fran\u00e7ois Duvalier (\"Papa Doc\") became the strongman of Haiti. The political repression that characterized Duvalier's regime forced large numbers of Haitians to seek safer harbor in the United States. Sustained political oppression, economic hardship, and lack of opportunity continued to drive contingents of Haitian immigrants out of their homeland throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s"
      },
      {
        "title": "Afro\u2013Latin Americans",
        "text": "The population of Haiti is 9.9\u00a0million, of which 80% are of African descent while 15-20% is mulatto and white. Slavery in Haiti was established by the Spanish and French colonialists. Many Haitians are descendants of Taino or Caribs who cohabited with the African descendant population."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haitian nationality and citizenship",
        "text": "As part of the French Empire, nationality in Saint-Domingue, now the Republic of Haiti, was based on a mixture of economics and race, combining white planter elite, black slaves, and free black planters. Haiti was unusual, as it was the only slave society in the Americas with a significant population of free black planters. Unlike most colonial slave societies, status was based on economics rather than race, creating a unified master class of both races. \"Whereas the freedmen in all other slave societies entered at the lowest ranks of free society, in the French West Indies they were often permitted to enter the class of plantation owners from the beginning.\" Officially, imperial policy and the inequality of slavery's distribution of freedom and wealth excluded all blacks from the civil, public sphere of society. However, those with little or no official power were able to use public law to fight for their security in liberty and justice. For example, many slaves were able to use the French Code Noir marriage provision and claim independence. There was no fine line between the races as interracial relationships were not uncommon; colonists often had sexual relations with their slaves, generally recognizing the paternity of their children and freeing them from slavery. Men and women who escaped slavery were able to assert themselves in civil society; the opportunity to advance economically was not reserved for white Europeans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery in Haiti",
        "text": "Slavery in Haiti after the arrival of Christopher Columbus on the island in 1492 with the European colonists that followed from Portugal, Spain and France. The practice was devastating to the native population. Following the indigenous Tainos' near decimation from forced labor, disease and war, the Spanish, under advisement of the Catholic priest Bartolom\u00e9 de las Casas and with the blessing of the Catholic church, began engaging in earnest during the 17th century in the forced labor of enslaved Africans. During the French colonial period, beginning in 1625, the economy of Saint-Domingue (today Haiti), was based on slavery; slavery was rarely pleasant, but conditions on Saint-Domingue became notoriously bad. The Haitian Revolution of 1791-1803, became the only successful slave revolt in human history, and precipitated the end of slavery not only in Saint-Domingue, but in all French colonies. However, this revolt has only merited a marginal role in the histories of Portuguese and Spanish America. Moreover, it is to this rebellion in Haiti that the struggle for independence in Latin American can be traced to. However, several Haitian leaders following the revolution employed forced labor, believing a plantation-style economy was the only way for Haiti to succeed, and building fortifications to safeguard against attack by the French. During the U.S. occupation between 1915 and 1934, the U.S. military forced Haitians to work building roads for defense against Haitian resistance fighters."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Haitians",
        "text": "In 1777, France and Spain signed a border treaty, in which the western and northwestern coast of Hispaniola would be French and the rest of the island would be Spanish. By 1780 Saint-Domingue was the richest colony in the world, even than all the British Thirteen Colonies and the West Indies together. The French established an economy based on the production and export of sugar sustained on the forced labor of black slaves imported from West and Central Africa. Slavery of blacks was characterized as one of the most ruthless in which terror and severe punishments were applied to slaves."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haitian nationality and citizenship",
        "text": "Prior to the Haitian Revolution, Haiti had been the United States' second largest trading partner, second only to Great Britain. However, in the early nineteenth century America was very much a slave society, and balked at the idea of supporting a slave revolt that took over a nation. The United States was divided; merchants wanted to continue trade while southern slave owners wanted to isolate or even repress the new Haitians. Until Jean-Pierre Boyer unified Haiti in 1820, commercial relations were limited. As the American Civil War progressed and the United States' stance on black liberation began to shift, so did their views of Haiti and Liberia (another free black country). As an imperialistic nation, the US had trouble with a nation that granted civil status to whom they deemed unworthy; while they had slavery, the US could not recognize Haiti."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haitian nationality and citizenship",
        "text": "\"By the 1970s\u2026had begun to think of their homeland in terms that transcended mere nostalgic attachment to a particular outpost of empire. The new\u2026 nationalism precipitates strong tensions between conservative and radical elements within local intelligentsias. Here too, the Haitian experience of the early 1900s, with its armed conflict\u2026Finally, the accelerated urbanization and migration experienced in Haiti, which resulted from the centralizing tendencies of the state, import-dependency, and the extreme exploitation of labor, \u2026trends in the global economy created the impetus for a massive population exodus after World War II.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "White Haitians",
        "text": "Most French colonists died or fled Saint-Domingue during the Haitian Revolution and the surviving remainder were either killed in the 1804 Haiti massacre or were thought to be of some use to the country's development, such as doctors, teachers and engineers. These colonists were considered valuable and were not to be harmed in any way. Prior to the US occupation of 1915 it was hard for white foreigners to become Haitian citizens due to restrictions on owning land in Haiti. Exceptions were made for Germans, Poles and Frenchmen who had fought with the rebels against France in the war and their descendants. White foreigners could become citizens only by marrying Haitians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in Haiti",
        "text": "The amount of irrigated crop land in the 1980s, estimated at between 70,000 and 110,00 hectares, was substantially less than the 140,000 hectares of colonial times. Of the nearly 130 irrigation systems in place, many lacked adequate maintenance, were clogged with silt, or provided irregular supplies to their 80,000 users. By the 1980s, the irrigation network had been extended as far as was possible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Balthazar Inginac",
        "text": "Joseph Balthazar Inginac is most remembered for serving as secretary for President Jean Pierre Boyer. At the time of its independence in 1804, Haiti was not officially recognized by any other nations in the world. Inginac, as the secretary of state for Haiti, made the attempt to get official recognition for the nation by other nations. This was not easy at a time when blacks were believed inherently inferior from whites; and Haiti, as an affront to this belief, was scorned for being the product of the only successful slave revolt in history. Inginac first attempted to get recognition from the United States, as a precursor to the emigration of free American blacks from that nation. At that time, the American Colonization Society was trying to find a new home for American blacks that had been freed from slavery and were not welcomed in American society. After the plan to send them to Liberia on the western coast of Africa proved too costly, Haiti was presented as a viable alternative for black asylum; also, Haiti had the advantage of being a place for civilized blacks, where the former American slaves could greater assimilate to their new environment. This, Haitian envoy Jonathas Granville assured the American Colonization Society, would not be difficult because land was granted freely for black American settlement; English was understood in Haiti; the new arrivals would not be proselytized; and the nation, it was said, would provide easy money for everyone willing to work\u2014especially artisans, who were needed in Haiti. The Haitian president, Jean-Pierre Boyer, paid for the transportation of the freed blacks to Haiti personally with \"fifty thousand weight of coffee\". They were settled there in 1824. The venture ultimately failed, however, because the emigrants could not overcome the language difficulties; experienced persecution from the Haitian natives; and while the land was fertile, Haiti currency was virtually worthless. Most of the emigrants, who numbered about 6,000 before the Haitian emigration was suspended, returned to the United States, where their living conditions were much better."
      },
      {
        "title": "French colonial empire",
        "text": "In 1787, there were 30,000 white colonists on France's colony of Saint-Domingue. In 1804 Dessalines, the first ruler of an independent Haiti (St. Domingue), ordered the massacre of whites remaining on the island. Out of the 40,000 inhabitants on Guadeloupe, at the end of the 17th century, there were more than 26,000 blacks and 9,000 whites. Bill Marshall wrote, \"The first French effort to colonize Guiana, in 1763, failed utterly when tropical diseases and climate killed all but 2,000 of the initial 12,000 settlers.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Americans",
        "text": "Between 1957 and 1986, when the Duvaliers ruled Haiti, their political persecution of the opposition and suspected activists resulted in many Haitian professionals, the middle class, and students to emigrate to others countries, among them the United States, France, Dominican Republic and Canada (primarily Montreal). Between 1972 and 1977, 200,000 Haitians landed in South Florida, many of them settling in the neighborhood of Little Haiti."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Americans",
        "text": "During the 18th century, the French colony of Saint-Domingue was the richest in the Caribbean, due to its massive production of sugar cane. This wealth was concentrated in the hands of a small minority of mostly French and European planters, who used slave labor from Sub-Saharan Africa to cultivate, harvest, and process their crops. Beginning in 1791, slaves (who formed about 90 percent of the population) revolted against their masters, fought against invading forces, and succeeded in forcing France to abolish slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "However, the Haitian peasantry tied their notion of freedom to the land. Because of the mountainous terrain, Haitian slaves were able to cultivate their own small tracts of land. Thus, freedom for them was the ability to cultivate their own land within a subsistence economy. Unfortunately, because of the leaders' desires, a system of coerced plantation agriculture emerged. Furthermore, while all Haitians desired a black republic, the cultural practices of African-Americans were a point of contention. Many within the Haitian population wanted to maintain their African heritage, which is a logical connection to wanting a black republic. However, the elites typically tried to prove the sophistication of Haitians through literature. Some authors wrote that the barbarism of Africa must be expelled, while maintaining African roots."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Haitians",
        "text": "The presence of whites in Haiti dates back to the founding of La Navidad, the first European settlement in the Americas by Christopher Columbus in 1492. It was built from the timbers of his wrecked ship Santa Mar\u00eda, during his first voyage in December 1492. When he returned in 1493 on his second voyage he found the settlement had been destroyed and all 39 settlers killed. Columbus continued east and founded a new settlement at La Isabela on the territory of the present-day Dominican Republic in 1493. The capital of the colony was moved to Santo Domingo in 1496, on the south east coast of the island also in the territory of the present-day Dominican Republic. The Spanish returned to western Hispaniola in 1502, establishing a settlement at Yaguana, near modern-day L\u00e9og\u00e2ne. A second settlement was established on the north coast in 1504 called Puerto Real near modern Fort-Libert\u00e9 \u2013 which in 1578 was relocated to a nearby site and renamed Bayaha."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab Haitians",
        "text": "The first Arab immigrants to arrive in Haiti reached the shores of the Caribbean country during the middle to late 19th century. During the time, Haiti's business sector was dominated by German and Italian immigrants. Many of them migrated to the countryside where they peddled and were very informal economically speaking. World War I, which took place when Lebanon was part of the Germany-allied Ottoman Empire, triggered a Lebanese migration to the Americas, with Haiti receiving a large number of Lebanese immigrants. Haiti received a score of Palestinian refugees during the 1948 Arab\u2013Israeli War. The country was estimated to have about 257,000 residents of Arab heritage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Haiti",
        "text": "Jacmel, the colonial city that was tentatively accepted as a World Heritage site, is reported to be extensively damaged by the 2010 Haiti earthquake."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Dominican Republic",
        "text": "Haiti's constitution forbade whites from owning land, and the major landowning families were forcibly deprived of their properties. Most emigrated to the Spanish colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico, or to independent Gran Colombia, usually with the encouragement of Haitian officials, who acquired their lands. The Haitians, who associated the Catholic Church with the French slave-masters who had exploited them before independence, confiscated all church property, deported all foreign clergy, and severed the ties of the remaining clergy to the Vatican. Santo Domingo's university, the oldest in the Western Hemisphere, lacking students, teachers, and resources, closed down. In order to receive diplomatic recognition from France, Haiti was forced to pay an indemnity of 150 million francs to the former French colonists, which was subsequently lowered to 60 million francs, and Haiti imposed heavy taxes on the eastern part of the island. Since Haiti was unable to adequately provision its army, the occupying forces largely survived by commandeering or confiscating food and supplies at gunpoint."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "On 29 August 1793, Sonthonax took the radical step of proclaiming the freedom of the slaves in the north province (with severe limits on their freedom). In September and October, emancipation was extended throughout the colony. The French National Convention, the first elected Assembly of the First Republic (1792\u20131804), on 4 February 1794, under the leadership of Maximilien de Robespierre, abolished slavery by law in France and all its colonies. The constitution of 1793, which was never applied, and the constitution of 1795, which was put into effect, did both contain an explicit ban on slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery in Haiti",
        "text": "The natives living on the island that would come to be called Hispaniola welcomed Christopher Columbus and his crew when they landed on the island in October 1492. In the Pre-Columbian era, other Caribbean tribes would sometimes attack the island to kidnap people into slavery. After the arrival of Columbus, the European colonists turned slavery on the island into a major business: colonists quickly began establishing sugar plantations dependent on slave labor. The practice of slavery in the Spanish New World colonies would become so large-scale in Spain's colonization of the Americas that imports of African slaves outnumbered Spanish immigration to the New World by the end of the 1500s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Afro-Haitians",
        "text": "The African people of Haiti derived from various areas, spanning from Senegal to the Congo. Most of which were brought from West Africa, with a considerable number also brought from Central Africa. Some of these groups include those from the former Kongo kingdom (Kongo), (Igbo Benin (Ewe and Yoruba) and Togo land. Others in Haiti were brought from Senegal, Guinea (imported by the Spanish since the sixteenth century and then by the French), Sierra Leone, Windward Coast, Angola, Cameroon, Nigeria, Ghana, Togo, and Southeast Africa (such as the Bara tribesmen of Madagascar, who were brought to Haiti in the eighteenth century). Haitian culture is very tied to West African culture, especially that of pre-colonialism Benin, Haitian Vodou mostly has origins from the original West African Vodun of Benin and the French-based Haitian Creole language has influences from several African languages including the Fon language. At the time of the Haitian Revolution war, an event that involved the expulsion of many whites (mostly French) in Haiti, many of the blacks in Haiti were African-born and had no non-African admixture. This was because the average African slave in colonial Haiti had a short life span and France continuously imported thousands of Africans yearly to keep the slave population up, by 1790 there were nearly 600,000 slaves, outnumbering whites about 20 to 1."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "In 1711, the city of Cap-Fran\u00e7ais was formally established by Louis XIV and took over as capital of the colony from Port-de-Paix. In 1726, the city of Les Cayes was founded on the Southern coast which became the biggest settlement in the south. In 1749, the city of Port-au-Prince was established on the West coast, which in 1770 took over as the capital of the colony from Cap-Fran\u00e7ais, however that same year the 1770 Port-au-Prince earthquake and tsunami destroyed the city killing 200 people immediately, and 30,000 later from famine and disease brought on by the natural disaster. This was the second major earthquake to hit Saint-Domingue as it followed the 1751 Port-au-Prince earthquake which had left only a single stone-built building standing in the town."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Vodou",
        "text": "In 1492, Christopher Columbus' Spanish expedition established the first European colony on Hispaniola. A growing European presence decimated the island's indigenous population, which was probably Ta\u00edno, both through introduced diseases and exploitation as laborers. The European colonists then turned to imported West African slaves as a new source of labor; Africans first arrived on Hispaniola circa 1512. Most of the enslaved were prisoners of war. Some were probably priests of traditional religions, helping to transport their rites to the Americas. Others may have practiced Abrahamic religions. Some were probably Muslim, although Islam exerted little influence on Vodou, while others probably practiced traditional religions that had already absorbed Roman Catholic iconographic influences."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "In 1922, Dartiguenave was replaced by Louis Borno, who ruled without a legislature until 1930. That same year, General John H. Russell, Jr., was appointed High Commissioner. The Borno-Russel dictatorship oversaw the expansion of the economy, building over of road, establishing an automatic telephone exchange, modernizing the nation's port facilities, and establishing a public health service. Sisal was introduced to Haiti, and sugar and cotton became significant exports. However, efforts to develop commercial agriculture had limited success, in part because much of Haiti's labor force was employed at seasonal work in the more established sugar industries of Cuba and the Dominican Republic. An estimated 30,000\u201340,000 Haitian laborers, known as \"braceros\", went annually to the Oriente Province of Cuba between 1913 and 1931. Most Haitians continued to resent the loss of sovereignty. At the forefront of opposition among the educated elite was \"L'Union Patriotique,\" which established ties with opponents of the occupation in the US itself, in particular the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Haiti (1820\u20131849)",
        "text": "In the eastern part of Hispaniola, Jos\u00e9 N\u00fa\u00f1ez de C\u00e1ceres declared the independence of the colony as the Republic of Spanish Haiti on 1 December 1821, and applied for admission to the Republic of Gran Colombia. Nine weeks later, Haitian forces led by Jean-Pierre Boyer entered the newly-declared state and occupied Santo Domingo on 9 February 1822. The military occupation of Santo Domingo would last 22 years, until the fall of Boyer."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "A small number of Ta\u00ednos were able to survive and set up villages elsewhere. Spanish interest in Hispaniola began to wane in the 1520s, as more lucrative gold and silver deposits were found in Mexico and South America. Thereafter, the population of Spanish Hispaniola grew at a slow pace."
      },
      {
        "title": "French colonial empire",
        "text": "The slaves, led eventually by Toussaint L'Ouverture and then, following his capture by the French in 1801, by Jean-Jacques Dessalines, held their own against French and British opponents. The French launched a failed expedition in 1802, and were up against a crippling Royal Naval blockade the following year - as a result the Empire of Haiti ultimately achieved independence in 1804 (Haiti became the first black republic in the world, followed by Liberia in 1847). The black and mulatto population of the island (including the Spanish east) had declined from 700,000 in 1789 to 351,819 in 1804. About 80,000 Haitians died in the 1802\u201303 campaign alone. Of the 55,131 French soldiers dispatched to Haiti in 1802\u201303, 45,000, including 18 generals, had died, along with 10,000 sailors, the great majority from disease. Captain [first name unknown] Sorrell of the British navy observed, \"France lost there one of the finest armies she ever sent forth, composed of picked veterans, the conquerors of Italy and of German legions. She is now entirely deprived of her influence and her power in the West Indies.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Caribbean",
        "text": "Haiti, the former French colony of Saint-Domingue on Hispaniola, was the first Caribbean nation to gain independence from European powers in 1804. This followed 13 years of war that started as a slave uprising in 1791 and quickly turned into the Haitian Revolution under the leadership of Toussaint l'Ouverture, where Haitian revolutionaries overthrew the French colonial government, before becoming the world's first and oldest black republic, and also the second-oldest republic in the Western Hemisphere after the United States. This is additionally notable as being the only successful slave uprising in history. The remaining two-thirds of Hispaniola were conquered by Haitian forces in 1821. In 1844, the newly formed Dominican Republic declared its independence from Haiti."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Vodou",
        "text": "By the late 16th century, French colonists were settling in western Hispaniola; Spain recognized French sovereignty over that part of the island, which became Saint-Domingue, in a series of treaties signed in 1697. Moving away from its previous subsistence economy, in the 18th century Saint-Domingue refocused its economy around the mass export of indigo, coffee, sugar, and cocoa to Europe. To work the plantations, the French colonists sought labor from various sources, including a renewed emphasis on importing enslaved Africans; whereas there were twice as many Africans as Europeans in the colony in 1681, by 1790 there were eleven times as many Africans as Europeans. Ultimately, Saint-Domingue became the colony with the largest number of slaves in the Caribbean."
      },
      {
        "title": "Restavek",
        "text": "When Christopher Columbus first landed on the island he called Santo Domingo in 1492, he imprisoned some native people as slaves. Later European colonists, primarily Spanish and French, imported enslaved Africans to work on the sugar cane plantations developed there. The French had a more developed plantation system on their half of the island, known as Saint-Domingue. After a successful slave revolution was conducted for years, France withdrew its troops and Haiti proclaimed independence in 1804."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Dominican Republic",
        "text": "As sugar estates turned to Haiti for seasonal migrant labor, increasing numbers settled in the Dominican Republic permanently. The census of 1920, conducted by the U.S. occupation government, gave a total of 28,258 Haitians living in the country; by 1935 there were 52,657."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "As the Spanish re-focused their colonization efforts on the greater riches of mainland Central and South America, Hispaniola became reduced largely to a trading and refueling post. As a result piracy became widespread, encouraged by European powers hostile to Spain such as France (based on \u00cele de la Tortue) and England. The Spanish largely abandoned the western third of the island, focusing their colonization effort on the eastern two-thirds. The western part of the island was thus gradually settled by French buccaneers; among them was Bertrand d'Ogeron, who succeeded in growing tobacco and recruited many French colonial families from Martinique and Guadeloupe. In 1697 France and Spain settled their hostilities on the island by way of the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, which divided Hispaniola between them."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "As numbers of \"gens de couleur\" grew, the French rulers enacted discriminatory laws. Statutes forbade \"gens de couleur\" from taking up certain professions, marrying whites, wearing European clothing, carrying swords or firearms in public, or attending social functions where whites were present. However, these regulations did not restrict their purchase of land, and many accumulated substantial holdings and became slave-owners. By 1789, they owned one-third of the plantation property and one-quarter of the slaves of Saint-Domingue. Central to the rise of the \"gens de couleur\" planter class was the growing importance of coffee, which thrived on the marginal hillside plots to which they were often relegated. The largest concentration of \"gens de couleur\" was in the southern peninsula, the last region of the colony to be settled, owing to its distance from Atlantic shipping lanes and its formidable terrain, with the highest mountain range in the Caribbean."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Americans",
        "text": "When France attempted later to reintroduce slavery, the former slaves again revolted and won their independence in 1804, declaring the Republic of Haiti, the second republic in the Western Hemisphere. The rebellion proved disruptive to the country's economy, however. Many wealthy colonists left, both white and free people of color. The freedmen wanted to cultivate their own plots rather than work on plantations. Many refugees from Saint-Domingue emigrated to the United States, taking their slaves with them, particularly to the New Orleans region, where they reinforced the existing French-speaking and African populations. Though France and the Spanish-speaking Caribbean (Cuba, Santo Domingo and Puerto Rico) were other major destinations for many immigrants, the United States was a much more popular destination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "Under colonial rule, Haitian mulattoes were generally privileged above the black majority, though they possessed fewer rights than the white population. Following the country's independence, they became the nation's social elite. Numerous leaders throughout Haiti's history have been mulattoes. During this time, the slaves and the affranchis were given limited opportunities toward education, income, and occupations, but even after gaining independence, the social structure remains a legacy today as the disparity between the upper and lower classes have not been reformed significantly since the colonial days. Comprising 5% of the nation's population, mulattoes have retained their preeminence, evident in the political, economic, social and cultural hierarchy in Haiti. As a result, the elite class today consists of a small group of influential people who are generally light in color and continue to establish themselves in high, prestigious positions."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Jews in Haiti",
        "text": "Due to a lack of Jewish community centers, many youth did not grow up with a Jewish education and had to hide their Judaism, as only Catholics were permitted to attend public school. Jews generally preferred to settle on the coastline in port cities, as many were involved in commerce and trade, establishing communities in major industry centers. Recently, archaeologists uncovered an ancient synagogue of Crypto-Jews in the city of J\u00e9r\u00e9mie, the only one found on the island; J\u00e9r\u00e9mie was inhabited by many mixed-race families of Jewish descent. Several Jewish tombstones have also been found in port cities such as Cap-Ha\u00eftien and Jacmel. By the end of the 19th century, approximately thirty mostly Sephardi Jewish families had arrived from Lebanon, Syria, and Egypt; many Jews from the Middle East felt secure emigrating to Haiti, as a law in France had been passed during this period that gave French citizenship to minorities in the Americas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue, the French equivalent of \"Santo Domingo\", the Spanish colony on Hispaniola. The French set about creating sugar and coffee plantations, worked by vast numbers of slaves imported from Africa, and Saint-Domingue grew to become their richest colonial possession."
      },
      {
        "title": "Social class in Haiti",
        "text": "The only group described as an ethnic minority in Haiti were the Arab Haitians, people descended from Syrian, Lebanese, and Palestinian traders who began to arrive in Haiti and elsewhere in the Caribbean in the late nineteenth century. From their beginnings, as itinerant peddlers of fabrics and other dry goods, the Arabs moved into the export-import sector, engendering the hostility of Haitians and foreign rivals. Nevertheless, the Arabs remained. Many adopted French and Creole as their preferred languages, took Haitian citizenship, and integrated themselves into the upper and the middle classes. Formerly spurned by elite Mulatto families and excluded from the best clubs, the Arabs had begun to intermarry with elite Haitians and to take part in all aspects of upper-class life, including entry into the professions, industry, and so on."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haitian nationality and citizenship",
        "text": "When England and Spain invaded in 1793, they were defeated by ex-slave Toussaint Louverture, leader of the French and native army. As the white and black populations mobilized against one another, Louverture led the oppressed slaves in the Haitian Revolution, naming himself Governor-General for Life in the 1801 Constitution. Fighting between blacks and whites would continue, as Napoleon sent General Charles Lecerc to arrest Louverture and re-instate slavery. In 1803, another rebellion against the French colonists was led by Jean-Jacques Dessalines. The successful rebellion ended the civil war in 1804 with the Declaration of Haitian Independence and Dessalines was proclaimed Emperor of Haiti in 1804."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in Haiti",
        "text": "Sephardic Jews arrived in Saint-Domingue during the first days of the colonial period, despite that they were banned in the official Catholic edicts. They became merchants and integrated themselves into the French Catholic society. Waves of Jews continued to immigrate to the Haiti, including a group of Ashkenazi Jews escaping Hitler's Germany in the 1940s; Haiti was one of the few countries to welcome them openly. Haitian Catholics had idiosyncratic ideas about Jews, stemming from Catholic anti-Judaism, although many Vodou practitioners imagined themselves to be the descendants of Jews and to hold esoteric Judaic knowledge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity in Haiti",
        "text": "During Spanish rule, religion was one of the most important aspects of life on the island. Catholic missionaries traveled inland to Christianize most of the island inhabitants. In 1511, three bishoprics formed and the inhabitants appeared enthusiastic. However, missionary work among such impoverished people on a tropical island was challenging. Diseases such as 'yellow fever' and malaria killed many missionaries and their converts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity in Haiti",
        "text": "Haiti saw the introduction of Christianity when Europeans arrived to colonize the island. It was first introduced by the Spanish, later followed by French colonialists. The primary brand of Christianity was Catholicism. In recent years, some Protestant denominations have made an increased number of converts in Haiti, continuing early work done by a small number of Protestant missions since the independence of the island."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "The French enacted the \"Code Noir\" (\"Black Code\"), prepared by Jean-Baptiste Colbert and ratified by Louis XIV, which established rules on slave treatment and permissible freedoms. Saint-Domingue has been described as one of the most brutally efficient slave colonies; one-third of newly imported Africans died within a few years. Many slaves died from diseases such as smallpox and typhoid fever. They had low birth rates, and there is evidence that some women aborted fetuses rather than give birth to children within the bonds of slavery. The colony's environment also suffered, as forests were cleared to make way for plantations and the land was overworked so as to extract maximum profit for French plantation owners."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "By 1801, Toussaint was in control of all of Hispaniola, after conquering French Santo Domingo and proclaiming the abolition of slavery there. He did not, however, proclaim full independence for the country, nor did he seek reprisals against the country's former white slaveholders, convinced that the French would not restore slavery and \"that a population of slaves recently landed from Africa could not attain to civilization by 'going it alone.'\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haitian nationality and citizenship",
        "text": "Recognizing Haiti as a nation was difficult for those countries that did not want to be associated with a free slave society. In dealing with foreign policy, Haiti wanted to be seen as an equal nation. Haiti granted automatic citizenship to anyone of African or Amerindian origin, and even went so far as to invite these oppressed peoples to settle in Haiti. Their fight to be recognized reflects the Haitian desire to be equal, and thus free."
      },
      {
        "title": "Afro-Haitians",
        "text": "Although Haiti averages approximately 250 people per square kilometre (650 per sq mi.), its population is concentrated most heavily in urban areas, coastal plains, and valleys. Haiti's population was about 9.8\u00a0million according to UN 2008 estimates, with half of the population being under 20\u00a0years old. The first formal census, taken in 1950, showed a population of 3.1\u00a0million."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Jews in Haiti",
        "text": "The history of the Jews in Haiti stretches from the beginning of the European settlement until the modern day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Era de Francia",
        "text": "In 1805, after crowning himself Emperor, Jean-Jacques Dessalines invaded, reaching Santo Domingo before retreating in the face of a French naval squadron. The Haitians fell back through the settled area of the interior, sacking the towns of Monte Plata, Cotui and La Vega, and slaughtering the citizens of Moca and Santiago. They left the fields laid waste, the cities ablaze and the churches in ashes behind them. In Moca only two people survived, thanks to corpses having been piled up on those still living in the church where the principal massacre took place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Revolution",
        "text": "The colony's white population numbered 40,000; mulattoes and free blacks, 28,000; and black slaves, an estimated 452,000. This was almost half the total slave population in the Caribbean, estimated at one million that year. Enslaved blacks, regarded as the lowest class of colonial society, outnumbered whites and free people of color by a margin of almost eight to one."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Archives of Haiti",
        "text": "Though Haiti was one of the first colonies in the Americas to declare its independence, the enduring effects of French colonial rule over its national archives are apparent in the dispersion of archival materials outside of Haiti, the political and economic milieus which have dictated the historical development of the ANH, and the language in which much of Haiti's documentary heritage has been recorded. ANH Director Jean Wilfrid Bertrand has commented: \u201cThe Caribbean\u2019s colonial past has weighed and still weighs heavily on the region\u2019s future.\u201d While the ANH possesses some holdings from their colonial era, such as registers of vital statistics, many more historical records central to Haiti's documentary heritage are held by the national archives of France and their trading partners, such as Spain and Britain. For example, no original or official copies of Haiti's Declaration of Independence were known to exist until 2010, when one was located by Julia Gaffield - a doctoral student at the time - in The National Archives (UK)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "Haiti\n--Etymology.\n--History.\n----Pre-Columbian history.\n----Colonial era.\n------Spanish rule (1492\u20131625).\n------French rule (1625\u20131804).\n------Haitian Revolution (1791\u20131804).\n----Independent Haiti.\n------First Empire (1804\u20131806).\n------State of Haiti, Kingdom of Haiti and the Republic (1806\u20131820).\n------Unification of Hispaniola (1821\u20131844).\n------Loss of the Spanish portion of the island.\n------Second Empire (1849\u20131859).\n------Late 19th century\u2013early 20th century.\n------United States occupation (1915\u20131934).\n------Post-occupation era (1934\u20131957).\n------Duvalier dynasty (1957\u20131986).\n------Post-Duvalier era (1986\u20132004).\n------Post-Aristide era (2004\u2013present).\n--Geography.\n----Climate.\n----Geology.\n----Environment.\n------Biodiversity.\n--Government and politics.\n----Administrative divisions.\n----Foreign relations.\n----Military.\n----Law enforcement and crime.\n----Haitian penitentiary system.\n--Economy.\n----Foreign aid.\n----Trade.\n----Energy.\n----Personal income.\n----Real estate.\n----Agriculture.\n----Currency.\n----Tourism.\n----Caracol Industrial Park.\n--Infrastructure.\n----Transportation.\n----Airports.\n----Bus service.\n----Communications.\n----Water supply and sanitation.\n--Demographics.\n----Population genetics.\n------Autosomal DNA.\n------Y-chromosome and mitochondrial DNA.\n------Duffy antigens.\n----Racial discrimination.\n----Religion.\n----Languages.\n----Emigration.\n----Education.\n----Health.\n--Culture.\n----Art.\n----Music and dance.\n----Literature.\n----Cinema.\n----Cuisine.\n----Architecture.\n----Museums.\n----Folklore and mythology.\n----National holidays and festivals.\n----Sports.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in Haiti",
        "text": "After independence from France Alexandre P\u00e9tion (and later Jean-Pierre Boyer) undertook Latin America's first, and perhaps most radical, land reform by subdividing plantations for the use of emancipated slaves. The reform measures were so extensive that by 1842 no plantation was its original size. By the mid-nineteenth century, therefore, Haiti's present-day land structure was largely in place. The basic structures of land tenure remained remarkably stable during the twentieth century, despite steadily increasing pressure for land, the fragmentation of land parcels, and a slight increase in the concentration of ownership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian diaspora",
        "text": "The year 2010 marked the beginning of Haitian immigration in Brazil. The arrival of the Haitians via Tabatinga, in the Amazon, began to be noticed in February 2010, soon after the earthquake, that shook violently Haiti, and in particular the capital, Port-au-Prince. The catastrophe has killed more than 150,000 people and left some 300,000 IDPs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "The sailors carried endemic Eurasian infectious diseases to which the native peoples lacked immunity, causing them to die in great numbers in epidemics. The first recorded smallpox epidemic in the Americas erupted on Hispaniola in 1507. Their numbers were further reduced by the harshness of the \"\" system, in which the Spanish forced natives to work in gold mines and plantations."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "Upon assuming power, General Dessalines authorized the Constitution of 1804. This constitution, in terms of social freedoms, called for:\n# Freedom of religion (Under Toussaint, Catholicism had been declared the official state religion);\n# All citizens of Haiti, regardless of skin color, to be known as \"Black\" (this was an attempt to eliminate the multi-tiered racial hierarchy that had developed in Haiti, with full or near full-blooded Europeans at the top, various levels of light to brown skin in the middle, and dark skinned \"Kongo\" from Africa at the bottom).\n# White men were forbidden from possessing property or domain on Haitian soil. Should the French return to reimpose slavery, Article 5 of the constitution declared: \"At the first shot of the warning gun, the towns shall be destroyed and the nation will rise in arms.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haitian nationality and citizenship",
        "text": "Lasting until 1843, this constitution leveled the power of the three branches and brought in civil ideas from the French declaration in 1789 of fundamental rights. It defined Haitians in Article 44 as all Africans, indigenous people, and their children born in the colonies or abroad who resided in Haiti. Article 39 prohibited any white person, except those who served in the military or performed civil service, or was admitted to the territory prior to 27 December 1806 from being Haitians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian diaspora",
        "text": "With the presence in Haiti of the United Nations Mission for the Stabilization of Haiti - MINUSTAH, led by Brazil since 2004, Haitians have come to see Brazil as a point of reference. After the earthquake of 2010, which triggered a great wave of emigration in Haiti, Brazil became one of the preferential destinations of migrants, given the difficulty of entry into countries of traditional emigration (United States, Canada, Dominican Republic, France, etc.). Currently, around 50 to 100 Haitians enter the country undocumented by the state of Acre."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where does Haiti rank by size among Caribbean countries?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Haiti is 27,750 km2 (10,714 sq mi) in size, the third largest country in the Caribbean by area, and has an estimated population of 11.4 million, making it the most populous country in the Caribbean."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How has Haiti been colonized throughout history?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Would you like to learn more about the colonial era under\tSpanish rule (1492\u20131625), French rule (1625\u20131804) or the\tHaitian Revolution (1791\u20131804)?",
      "Would you like to know more about Haiti during its occupation by Spain, France, or the United States?"
    ],
    "topic": "Haiti",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Haiti:12",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Haiti",
          "History",
          "Colonial era",
          "Spanish rule (1492\u20131625)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Navigator Christopher Columbus landed in Haiti on 6 December 1492, in an area that he named \"M\u00f4le-Saint-Nicolas,\" and claimed the island for the Crown of Castile. Nineteen days later, his ship the \"Santa Mar\u00eda\" ran aground near the present site of Cap-Ha\u00eftien. Columbus left 39 men on the island, who founded the settlement of La Navidad on 25 December 1492. Relations with the native peoples, initially good, broke down and the settlers were later killed by the Ta\u00edno."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Haiti:16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Haiti",
          "History",
          "Colonial era",
          "French rule (1625\u20131804)"
        ],
        "ctx": "France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue, the French equivalent of \"Santo Domingo\", the Spanish colony on Hispaniola. The French set about creating sugar and coffee plantations, worked by vast numbers of slaves imported from Africa, and Saint-Domingue grew to become their richest colonial possession."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Haiti:21",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Haiti",
          "History",
          "Colonial era",
          "Haitian Revolution (1791\u20131804)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Inspired by the French Revolution of 1789 and principles of the rights of man, the French settlers and free people of color pressed for greater political freedom and more civil rights. Tensions between these two groups led to conflict, as a militia of free-coloreds was set up in 1790 by Vincent Og\u00e9, resulting in his capture, torture and execution. Sensing an opportunity, in August 1791 the first slave armies were established in northern Haiti under the leadership of Toussaint Louverture inspired by the Vodou \"houngan\" (priest) Boukman, and backed by the Spanish in Santo Domingo \u2013 soon a full-blown slave rebellion had broken out across the entire colony."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Haiti:12",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Haiti",
          "History",
          "Colonial era",
          "Spanish rule (1492\u20131625)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Navigator Christopher Columbus landed in Haiti on 6 December 1492, in an area that he named \"M\u00f4le-Saint-Nicolas,\" and claimed the island for the Crown of Castile. Nineteen days later, his ship the \"Santa Mar\u00eda\" ran aground near the present site of Cap-Ha\u00eftien. Columbus left 39 men on the island, who founded the settlement of La Navidad on 25 December 1492. Relations with the native peoples, initially good, broke down and the settlers were later killed by the Ta\u00edno."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Haiti:16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Haiti",
          "History",
          "Colonial era",
          "French rule (1625\u20131804)"
        ],
        "ctx": "France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue, the French equivalent of \"Santo Domingo\", the Spanish colony on Hispaniola. The French set about creating sugar and coffee plantations, worked by vast numbers of slaves imported from Africa, and Saint-Domingue grew to become their richest colonial possession."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Haiti:47",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Haiti",
          "History",
          "Independent Haiti",
          "United States occupation (1915\u20131934)"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 1915, Haiti's new President Vilbrun Guillaume Sam sought to strengthen his tenuous rule by a mass execution of 167 political prisoners. Outrage at the killings led to riots, and Sam was captured and killed by a lynch mob. Fearing possible foreign intervention, or the emergence of a new government led by the anti-American Haitian politician Rosalvo Bobo, President Woodrow Wilson sent U.S. Marines into Haiti in July 1915. The , under Rear Admiral Caperton, arrived in Port-au-Prince in an attempt to restore order and protect U.S. interests. Within days, the Marines had taken control of the capital city and its banks and customs house. The Marines declared martial law and severely censored the press. Within weeks, a new pro-U.S. Haitian president, Philippe Sudr\u00e9 Dartiguenave, was installed and a new constitution written that was favorable to the interests of the United States. The constitution (written by future US President Franklin D. Roosevelt) included a clause that allowed, for the first time, foreign ownership of land in Haiti, which was bitterly opposed by the Haitian legislature and citizenry."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "Haitian rule over the entire island lasted 22 years. It wasn't until 1844 that independence was once again proclaimed for the eastern side of Hispaniola until the rise of Juan Pablo Duarte y D\u00edez."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "This Spanish action was counterproductive as English, Dutch, and French pirates were now free to establish bases on the island's abandoned northern and western coasts, where wild cattle were now plentiful and free. In 1697, after decades of fighting over the territory, the Spanish ceded the western"
      },
      {
        "title": "State of Haiti",
        "text": "During this period, the French who remained in the eastern part of the island were defeated by the Hispanic-Creole inhabitants, under the command of Juan S\u00e1nchez Ram\u00edrez, at the battle of Palo Hincado on 7 November 1808. The French surrender in the eastern part of the island took place in Santo Domingo on 9 July 1809. The authorities then re-established the Spanish colony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "The Republic of Spanish Haiti (), also called the Independent State of Spanish Haiti () was the independent state that resulted from the defeat of Spanish colonialists from Santo Domingo on November 9, 1821, led by General Jos\u00e9 N\u00fa\u00f1ez de C\u00e1ceres. The republic lasted only from December 1, 1821, to February 9, 1822, when it was annexed by the Republic of Haiti."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "In 1595, the Spanish, frustrated by the twenty-year rebellion of their Dutch subjects, closed their home ports to rebel shipping from the Netherlands, cutting them off from the critical salt supplies necessary for their herring industry. The Dutch responded by sourcing new salt supplies from Spanish America where colonists were more than happy to trade. So large numbers of Dutch traders/pirates joined their English and French brethren trading on the remote coasts of Hispaniola. In 1605, Spain was infuriated that Spanish settlements on the northern and western coasts of the island persisted in carrying out large scale and illegal trade with the Dutch, who were at that time fighting a war of independence against Spain in Europe and the English, a very recent enemy state, and so decided to forcibly resettle their inhabitants closer to the city of Santo Domingo. This action, known as the \"Devastaciones de Osorio\", proved disastrous for the colonists; more than half of the resettled colonists died of starvation or disease, over 100,000 cattle were abandoned, and many slaves escaped. Five of the existing thirteen settlements on the island were brutally razed by Spanish troops including the two settlements on the territory of present-day Haiti, La Yaguana, and Bayaja. Many of the inhabitants fought, escaped to the jungle, or fled to the safety of passing Dutch ships."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "When the radical revolutionaries in Paris declared war against Spain in January 1793, the Spanish Crown sent its forces in Santo Domingo into battle on the side of the slaves. By the end of 1793, Spain controlled most of the north, except British-held M\u00f4le-Saint-Nicolas and French-held Le Cap Fran\u00e7ois and Port-de-Paix. In 1795, Spain ceded Santo Domingo to France and Spanish attacks on Saint-Domingue ceased."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "History of Haiti\n--Pre-Spanish history.\n--Spanish history (1492\u20131625).\n--French Saint-Domingue (1625\u20131789).\n----The Pearl of the Antilles (1711\u20131789).\n--Revolutionary period (1789\u20131804).\n----Og\u00e9's revolt (1789\u20131791).\n----The rising of the slaves (1791\u20131793).\n----Toussaint Louverture ascendant (1793\u20131802).\n----Napoleon defeated (1802\u20131804).\n--Independence: The early years (1804\u20131843).\n----Black Republic (1804).\n----First Haitian Empire (1804\u20131806).\n----The struggle for unity (1806\u20131820).\n----Boyer's domination of Hispaniola (1820\u20131843).\n--Political struggles (1843\u20131915).\n--United States occupation (1915\u20131934).\n--Elections and coups (1934\u20131957).\n----Vincent's presidency (1934\u20131941).\n----Lescot's presidency (1941\u20131946).\n----Revolution of 1946.\n----Estim\u00e9's presidency (1946\u20131950).\n----Magloire's presidency (1950\u20131956).\n----The rise of Duvalier (1956\u20131957).\n--The Duvalier era (1957\u20131986).\n----'Papa Doc' (1957\u20131971).\n----'Baby Doc' (1971\u20131986).\n--The struggle for democracy (1986\u2013present day).\n----Transitional government (1986\u20131990).\n----The rise of Aristide (1990\u20131991).\n----Military rule (1991\u20131994).\n----The return of Aristide (1994\u20131996).\n----Preval's first Presidency (1996\u20132001).\n----Aristide's second presidency (2001\u20132004).\n----The 2004 coup d'\u00e9tat.\n----The second Pr\u00e9val presidency (2006\u20132011).\n----Earthquake 2010.\n----The Martelly presidency (2011\u20132016).\n----The Mo\u00efse presidency (2017\u20132021).\n--2021 earthquake.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity in Haiti",
        "text": "Haiti was first colonized by the Spanish, who later abandoned the island's western portion. That region came under French influence after 1630, and was formally recognized as the French colony of Saint-Domingue in 1697. Under French rule, Roman Catholicism was the sole legal religion, though African slaves frequently practiced vodou. Slaves revolted in 1791 and established the first black republic in 1804. Three years later Protestant missionary activity begun. Political control of the island shifted frequently during the 19th century with different European governments, the Dominican republic, Columbia and Haiti itself alternating in power."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian occupation of Santo Domingo",
        "text": "On 9 November 1821, Spanish colonial rule over Santo Domingo was overthrown by a group led by Jos\u00e9 N\u00fa\u00f1ez de C\u00e1ceres, the colony's former administrator, and the rebels proclaimed independence from the Spanish crown on 1 December 1821. The new nation was known as Republic of Spanish Haiti (Spanish: \"Rep\u00fablica del Hait\u00ed Espa\u00f1ol\"), as \"Haiti\" had been the indigenous name of the island. On 1 December 1821 a constitutive act was ordered to petition the union of Spanish Haiti with Gran Colombia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Haiti (1820\u20131849)",
        "text": "In the eastern part of Hispaniola, Jos\u00e9 N\u00fa\u00f1ez de C\u00e1ceres declared the independence of the colony as the Republic of Spanish Haiti on 1 December 1821, and applied for admission to the Republic of Gran Colombia. Nine weeks later, Haitian forces led by Jean-Pierre Boyer entered the newly-declared state and occupied Santo Domingo on 9 February 1822. The military occupation of Santo Domingo would last 22 years, until the fall of Boyer."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "Almost two years after Boyer had consolidated power in the west, Haiti invaded Santo Domingo (present-day Dominican Republic) and declared the island free from European powers. Boyer, however, responding to a party on the east that preferred Haiti over Colombia, occupied the ex-Spanish colony in January 1822, encountering no military resistance. In this way he accomplished the unity of the island, which was only carried out for a short period of time by Toussaint Louverture in 1801. Boyer's occupation of the Spanish side also responded to internal struggles among Christophe's generals, to which Boyer gave extensive powers and lands in the east. This occupation, however, pitted the Spanish white elite against the iron fisted Haitian administration, and stimulated the emigration of many white wealthy families. The entire island remained under Haitian rule until 1844, when in the east a nationalist group called La Trinitaria led a revolt that partitioned the island into Haiti on the west and Dominican Republic on the east, based on what would appear to be a riverine territorial 'divide' from the pre-contact period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human rights in Haiti",
        "text": "The land that would become Haiti was first colonized by Spain at the end of the 15th century. The Spanish essentially wiped out the native Ta\u00edno people through slavery and smallpox, to which the Ta\u00edno had no immunity. An early defender of more humane treatment of the Ta\u00edno was the Spanish priest Bartolom\u00e9 de Las Casas. Albeit too late to save the Ta\u00edno, Las Casas was able to persuade the Spanish government that the Ta\u00edno could not withstand such cruel treatment. This had the tragic side effect of the importation of African slaves to replace the labor of the diminishing Ta\u00edno."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "In this period, the eastern part of the island rose against the new powers following general Juan S\u00e1nchez Ram\u00edrez's claims of independence from France, which broke the Treaties of B\u00e2le attacking Spain and prohibited commerce with Haiti. In the Palo Hincado battle (7 November 1808), all the remaining French forces were defeated by Spanish-creole insurrectionists. On 9 July 1809, Santo Domingo was born. The government put itself under the control of Spain, earning it the nickname of \"Espa\u00f1a Boba\" (meaning \"The Idiot Spain\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti\u2013Spain relations",
        "text": "At the beginning of the 17th century, due to the boom that had acquired the informal trade of the Creole settlers of the island and that went against the monopoly that the metropolis intended, the Spanish governor Antonio de Osorio ordered between 1605 and 1606 the depopulation of the central and western part of the island in order to stop this practice. Over time, the \"bucaneros\", men who lived on cattle hunting and maroon pigs, the fur trade and tobacco cultivation, settled down in the unpopulated areas of the western part, as well as the filibusters, both of French origin. They first occupied the Turtle Island and later these settlements determined that the western part of the island was claimed by France. In 1697, Spain ceded that part of the island to France by the Treaty of Ryswick, constituting the French Saint Domingue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "The Spanish passed the Laws of Burgos (1512\u20131513), which forbade the maltreatment of natives, endorsed their conversion to Catholicism, and gave legal framework to \".\" The natives were brought to these sites to work in specific plantations or industries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hinche",
        "text": "On 1 December 1821 it was declared in Santo Domingo the independence of the Republic of Spanish Haiti by the European-born and Criollo white colonial aristocracy, but this action was not supported by the population with any degree of African descent (including many slaves and servants who were phenotypically white), who were wary of the rule of pure whites, and preferred to unite with the \"French\" Haiti, because there was no slavery. On late 1821 and early 1822, Haiti sent emissaries to the central and northern Spanish Haiti to promote the accession of the country to Haiti, and the people began to raise the Haitian flag on public buildings and plazas, among them Hincha, but also in another large cities like Puerto Plata (13 December 1821), Dajab\u00f3n (15 December), Santiago (29 December) and La Vega (4 January 1822). The Haitian government proceed to annex the Eastern side of the island in February 1822 and the Haitian army entered in Santo Domingo city with no resistance on 1 March 1822, commanded by President Jean-Pierre Boyer. After political and economic crises and growing discontent, most people felt cheated. In 1844 the former Spanish Haiti declared its independence and became the Dominican Republic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Independence of Haiti",
        "text": "Arawak and Taino people inhabited for more than one thousand years what was later known as Hispaniola. Christopher Columbus arrived to the island on December 5, 1492. The name Haiti (or \"Hayti\") comes from the indigenous Ta\u00edno language which was the native name given to the entire island of Hispaniola to mean, \"land of high mountains.\" Saint-Domingue () became a French colony from 1659 to 1804 on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "On December 1, 1821, a constitutive act was ordered to petition the union of Spanish Haiti with Gran Colombia. The state of the Republic of Spanish Haiti was not supported by the population of slaves and servants, who were wary of the rule of pure whites, and preferred to unite with \"French\" Haiti, because of their abolition of slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "Haiti\n--Etymology.\n--History.\n----Pre-Columbian history.\n----Colonial era.\n------Spanish rule (1492\u20131625).\n------French rule (1625\u20131804).\n------Haitian Revolution (1791\u20131804).\n----Independent Haiti.\n------First Empire (1804\u20131806).\n------State of Haiti, Kingdom of Haiti and the Republic (1806\u20131820).\n------Unification of Hispaniola (1821\u20131844).\n------Loss of the Spanish portion of the island.\n------Second Empire (1849\u20131859).\n------Late 19th century\u2013early 20th century.\n------United States occupation (1915\u20131934).\n------Post-occupation era (1934\u20131957).\n------Duvalier dynasty (1957\u20131986).\n------Post-Duvalier era (1986\u20132004).\n------Post-Aristide era (2004\u2013present).\n--Geography.\n----Climate.\n----Geology.\n----Environment.\n------Biodiversity.\n--Government and politics.\n----Administrative divisions.\n----Foreign relations.\n----Military.\n----Law enforcement and crime.\n----Haitian penitentiary system.\n--Economy.\n----Foreign aid.\n----Trade.\n----Energy.\n----Personal income.\n----Real estate.\n----Agriculture.\n----Currency.\n----Tourism.\n----Caracol Industrial Park.\n--Infrastructure.\n----Transportation.\n----Airports.\n----Bus service.\n----Communications.\n----Water supply and sanitation.\n--Demographics.\n----Population genetics.\n------Autosomal DNA.\n------Y-chromosome and mitochondrial DNA.\n------Duffy antigens.\n----Racial discrimination.\n----Religion.\n----Languages.\n----Emigration.\n----Education.\n----Health.\n--Culture.\n----Art.\n----Music and dance.\n----Literature.\n----Cinema.\n----Cuisine.\n----Architecture.\n----Museums.\n----Folklore and mythology.\n----National holidays and festivals.\n----Sports.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Territorial evolution of the Caribbean",
        "text": "Spanish Haiti's independence was short-lived, as Haitian forces, led by Jean Pierre Boyer, invaded and took control of the country just nine weeks later in February 1822.\n;1823"
      },
      {
        "title": "First Empire of Haiti",
        "text": "The French kept the eastern part until the Spanish victory at Palo Hincado on 7 November 1808, and the surrender of Santo Domingo on 9 July 1809; the Spanish emerged victorious thanks to assistance from the British."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "In late 1821 and early 1822, Haiti sent emissaries to the central and northern parts of Spanish Haiti to promote its annexation, and the people began to raise the Haitian flag on public buildings and plazas, such as Hincha (present-day Hinche), but also in large cities like Puerto Plata (December 13, 1821), Dajab\u00f3n (December 15), Santiago (December 29) and La Vega (January 4, 1822), whereas other forces which opposed unification with Haiti formally declared independence from Spain on December 1, 1821."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "As the Spanish re-focused their colonization efforts on the greater riches of mainland Central and South America, Hispaniola became reduced largely to a trading and refueling post. As a result piracy became widespread, encouraged by European powers hostile to Spain such as France (based on \u00cele de la Tortue) and England. The Spanish largely abandoned the western third of the island, focusing their colonization effort on the eastern two-thirds. The western part of the island was thus gradually settled by French buccaneers; among them was Bertrand d'Ogeron, who succeeded in growing tobacco and recruited many French colonial families from Martinique and Guadeloupe. In 1697 France and Spain settled their hostilities on the island by way of the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, which divided Hispaniola between them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "In Haiti, the French system of private land ownership guaranteed by the state was the norm, while in the Spanish section, the predominant system was communal grounds, and a hierarchy of tenancy that clashed. By June 15, Boyer was still promising nationally donated land. To donate this land, the Haitian administration prohibited ownership of land by white Dominicans, depriving the main popular families of the country of their lands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "Republic of Spanish Haiti\n--History.\n----Preparations for independence (1820\u20131821).\n----Independence (1821\u20131822).\n----Political reforms.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "White Haitians",
        "text": "In 1595, the Spanish, frustrated by the twenty-year rebellion of their Dutch subjects, closed their home ports to rebel shipping from the Netherlands, cutting them off from the critical salt supplies necessary for their herring industry. The Dutch responded by sourcing new salt supplies from Spanish America where colonists were more than happy to trade. So large numbers of Dutch traders/pirates joined their English and French brethren trading on the remote coasts of Hispaniola. In 1605, Spain was infuriated that Spanish settlements on the northern and western coasts of the island persisted in carrying out large scale and illegal trade with the Dutch, who were at that time fighting a war of independence against Spain in Europe and the English, a very recent enemy state, and so decided to forcibly resettle their inhabitants closer to the city of Santo Domingo. This action, known as the \"Devastaciones de Osorio\", proved disastrous; more than half of the resettled colonists died of starvation or disease, over 100,000 cattle were abandoned and many slaves escaped. Five of the existing thirteen settlements on the island were brutally razed by Spanish troops including the two settlements on the territory of present-day Haiti, La Yaguana and Bayaja. Many of the inhabitants fought, escaped to the jungle or fled to the safety of passing Dutch ships This Spanish action was counterproductive as English, Dutch and French pirates were now free to establish bases on the island's abandoned northern and western coasts, where wild cattle were now plentiful and free."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "The island was originally inhabited by the indigenous Ta\u00edno people, who originated in South America. The first Europeans arrived on 5 December 1492 during the first voyage of Christopher Columbus, who initially believed he had found India or China. Columbus subsequently founded the first European settlement in the Americas, La Navidad, on what is now the northeastern coast of Haiti. The island was claimed by Spain and named , forming part of the Spanish Empire until the early 17th century. However, competing claims and settlements by the French led to the western portion of the island being ceded to France in 1697, which was subsequently named . French colonists established lucrative sugarcane plantations, worked by vast numbers of slaves brought from Africa, which made the colony one of the richest in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery in Haiti",
        "text": "The Spanish ceded control of the western part of the island of Hispaniola to the French in the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697; France named its new colonial possession \"Saint-Domingue\". The colony, based on the export of cash crops, particularly sugar cane, would become the richest in the world. Known as the \"Pearl of the Antilles\", the colony became the world's foremost producer of coffee and sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "Other cultural changes were the restriction of the Spanish language, and traditional customs, like cockfights were outlawed."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Haitians",
        "text": "In 1777, France and Spain signed a border treaty, in which the western and northwestern coast of Hispaniola would be French and the rest of the island would be Spanish. By 1780 Saint-Domingue was the richest colony in the world, even than all the British Thirteen Colonies and the West Indies together. The French established an economy based on the production and export of sugar sustained on the forced labor of black slaves imported from West and Central Africa. Slavery of blacks was characterized as one of the most ruthless in which terror and severe punishments were applied to slaves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean-Pierre Boyer",
        "text": "On 30 November 1821, several frontier towns near the border with Santo Domingo raised the Haitian flag as a show of independence. The new nation was known as the Republic of Spanish Haiti. On 1 December 1821, the leaders of the new nation resolved to unite it with Gran Colombia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint-Domingue",
        "text": "Haiti did not try to support or aid other slave rebellions because they feared that the great powers would take renewed action against them, as happened a few years later with Spain. After the defeat of the French army, wealthy white owners saw the opportunity to preserve their political power and plantations. They attacked the town halls that had representatives of the defeated French authority. Elite planters took control of the former Spanish side of the island, asking Spain for a Spanish government and protection by the Spanish army. Later these planters created trade regulations that would further preserve their own wealth and power."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti\u2013Spain relations",
        "text": "On December 17, 1492 Christopher Columbus arrived at La Espa\u00f1ola, part of what would later be called Greater Antilles, and the island became part of the Spanish Empire. Before the arrival of the Spaniards, it was inhabited by ethnic groups Arawaks, Caribs and Ta\u00ednos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity in Haiti",
        "text": "During Spanish rule, religion was one of the most important aspects of life on the island. Catholic missionaries traveled inland to Christianize most of the island inhabitants. In 1511, three bishoprics formed and the inhabitants appeared enthusiastic. However, missionary work among such impoverished people on a tropical island was challenging. Diseases such as 'yellow fever' and malaria killed many missionaries and their converts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Revolution",
        "text": "The British force that landed in Saint-Domingue in 1793 was too small to conquer the colony, being capable only of holding only few coastal enclaves. The French planters were disappointed as they had hoped to regain power; Sonthonax was relieved, as he had twice refused ultimatums from Commodore John Ford to surrender Port-au-Prince. In the meantime, a Spanish force under Captain-General Joaqu\u00edn Garc\u00eda y Moreno had marched into the Northern Province. Louverture, the ablest of the Haitian generals, had joined the Spanish, accepting an officer's commission in the Spanish Army and being made a knight in the Order of St. Isabella."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dominican Republic nationality law",
        "text": "For three centuries, the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo was ruled by Spain, except for a brief period from 1795 to 1808, when it was ceded to France by the Treaty of Basel. Returned to Spain after the Battle of Palo Hincado, the island continued under Spanish administration and laws until declaring the independence of the Republic of Spanish Haiti in 1821. The Constitutional Act of 1821, provided in Article 9 that all free men of any color or religion who were born in the territory or foreign-born men who were married to native women who had lived in the country for three years were nationals. Article 4, stated that the new nation would align as one of the states of Gran Colombia. Colombia's indifference to the Dominican plan allowed Haitian president Jean-Pierre Boyer who offered protection to Spanish Haiti to annex the country into the Republic of Haiti in 1822."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antihaitianismo",
        "text": "\"Antihaitianismo\" can be traced back to a policy of racial segregation instituted by the Spaniards in the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo (present-day Dominican Republic). Prior to the arrival of Europeans, the island was split into absolutist chiefdoms, three where modern-day Santo Domingo now exists, and two where modern-day Haiti now exists (albeit also including some territory which is currently part of Santo Domingo). Carib people from islands further south were often at war with the Ta\u00edno people. Columbus reached the island in 1492 (slaves imported from Africa arrived from 1503 onwards\u2014many natives were also soon enslaved), and within a few decades the Spanish controlled most of the island. During the 17th century, however, the French also began maneuvering for control, and in 1697 acquired the western portion (now part of Haiti\u2014whereas the Spanish portion encompassed the modern Dominican Republic). During the 1790s and early 19th century, the French and Spanish battled back and forth across the island; by 1809 the Haitian Revolution had resulted in the overthrow of both French and Spanish control. The Spanish briefly retook the eastern portion that same year, but in 1821 lost control again in another rebellion. Shortly afterwards, Haitian forces again briefly controlled the entire island, from 1822 to 1844. In 1844 the secret revolutionary movement called \"La Trinitaria\" took place and the Dominican Republic declared its independence defeating the Haitian forces. After several tumultuous decades, the Spanish briefly acquired nominal control of the Dominican Republic in the 1860s, setting off another war. By the late 19th century, over three hundred years of European control was ended; the modern history of west Hispaniola (Haiti) and east Hispaniola (Dominican Republic) had begun."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue, the French equivalent of \"Santo Domingo\", the Spanish colony on Hispaniola. The French set about creating sugar and coffee plantations, worked by vast numbers of slaves imported from Africa, and Saint-Domingue grew to become their richest colonial possession."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Haitians",
        "text": "In the early seventeenth century, the Spanish government ordered the evacuation of the northern and western coast of the island and forcing the relocation to areas close to the city of Santo Domingo, to prevent the pirates from other European nations. This ended up being counterproductive to Spain, because in 1625 the pirates and French buccaneers began to establish settlements on the island of Tortuga and in a strip north of Hispaniola surrounding Port-de-Paix and were soon joined by like-minded English and Dutch privateers and pirates, who formed a lawless international community that survived by preying on Spanish ships and hunting wild cattle. Although the Spanish destroyed the buccaneers' settlements in 1629, 1635, 1638 and 1654, on each occasion they returned. In 1655, the newly established English administration on Jamaica sponsored the re-occupation of Tortuga under Elias Watts as governor. In 1660, the English made the mistake of replacing Watts as governor by a Frenchman Jeremie Deschamps, on condition he defended English interests. Deschamps on taking control of the island proclaimed for the King of France, set up French colours, and defeated several English attempts to reclaim the island. It is from this point in 1660 that unbroken French rule in Haiti begins. In 1663, Deschamps founded a French settlement L\u00e9og\u00e2ne on the western coast of the island on the abandoned site of the former Spanish town of Yaguana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decolonization",
        "text": "The Haitian Revolution was a revolt in 1789 and subsequent slave uprising in 1791 in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola. In 1804, Haiti secured independence from France as the Empire of Haiti, which later became a republic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Haiti (1820\u20131849)",
        "text": "After the annexation of Spanish Haiti, Boyer took full powers with the title of \"Supreme Chief of the Nation\" with the right to choose his successor."
      },
      {
        "title": "1804 Haiti massacre",
        "text": "Despite the French proclamation of emancipation, the blacks sided with the Spanish who came to occupy the region. In July 1794, Spanish forces stood by while the black troops of Jean-Fran\u00e7ois massacred the French whites in Fort-Dauphin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "A group of politicians and military officers continued to favor uniting the new nation with Haiti, as various elite families sought for political stability under Haitian president Boyer. A large faction based in the northern Cibao region were opposed to the union with Gran Colombia, and also sided with Boyer. Boyer, on the other hand, sought to protect his country from the possibility of either France or Spain retaking the eastern side of the island, and attacking or even re-conquering Haiti. He sought not only to maintain Haitian independence, but to maintain the freedom of its former slaves, as well as to liberate the remaining slaves in Spanish Haiti. After promising his protection to the government of N\u00fa\u00f1ez de C\u00e1ceres, Boyer entered with a force of 12,000 soldiers in February 1822, after most cities and towns proclaimed its annexation to the Republic of Haiti between November 1821 and January 1822, including Puerto Plata (December 13, 1821) and Santiago (December 29, 1821)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Era de Francia",
        "text": "At the time, slaves led by Toussaint Louverture in Saint-Domingue were in revolt against France. In 1801, Toussaint Louverture arrived in Santo Domingo, proclaiming the abolition of slavery on behalf of the French Republic and then captured Santo Domingo from the French, taking control of the entire island. In 1802 an army sent by Napoleon under the command of Charles Leclerc, captured Toussaint Louverture and sent him to France as prisoner. In the event, the Dominicans collaborated with Leclerc and his French troops in order to expel the Haitians. Toussaint's successors and yellow fever succeeded in expelling the French again from Saint-Domingue. The nation declared independence as Haiti in 1804. Even after the Haitians had defeated the French, a small French garrison remained in the former Spanish colony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "Eventually, the Haitian government became very unpopular, due to the severe economic crisis that hit the country after paying a huge indemnity to France, and gave rise to many anti-Haitian plots. It lasted until 1844, when the independent nation of the Dominican Republic was established."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery in Haiti",
        "text": "Slavery in Haiti after the arrival of Christopher Columbus on the island in 1492 with the European colonists that followed from Portugal, Spain and France. The practice was devastating to the native population. Following the indigenous Tainos' near decimation from forced labor, disease and war, the Spanish, under advisement of the Catholic priest Bartolom\u00e9 de las Casas and with the blessing of the Catholic church, began engaging in earnest during the 17th century in the forced labor of enslaved Africans. During the French colonial period, beginning in 1625, the economy of Saint-Domingue (today Haiti), was based on slavery; slavery was rarely pleasant, but conditions on Saint-Domingue became notoriously bad. The Haitian Revolution of 1791-1803, became the only successful slave revolt in human history, and precipitated the end of slavery not only in Saint-Domingue, but in all French colonies. However, this revolt has only merited a marginal role in the histories of Portuguese and Spanish America. Moreover, it is to this rebellion in Haiti that the struggle for independence in Latin American can be traced to. However, several Haitian leaders following the revolution employed forced labor, believing a plantation-style economy was the only way for Haiti to succeed, and building fortifications to safeguard against attack by the French. During the U.S. occupation between 1915 and 1934, the U.S. military forced Haitians to work building roads for defense against Haitian resistance fighters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian occupation of Santo Domingo",
        "text": "Under Toussaint Louverture's government, slavery was abolished for the first time on the eastern portion of Hispaniola until the colony was ceded to France. While the French had lost their former colony of Saint-Domingue by 1804, the French commander of the former Spanish side had been able to repulse the attacks of Jean-Jacques Dessalines, but in 1808 the people revolted and the following year, with the help of a Royal Navy squadron, ended French control of the city of Santo Domingo. Spanish rule was reestablished. However, this short period under which the whole of Hispaniola was \"de jure\" under French rule was to be the chief justification of the freed Haitians in their quest to reunite the island under their rule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Revolution",
        "text": "Toussaint, for reasons that remain obscure, suddenly joined the French and turned against the Spanish, ambushing his allies as they emerged from attending mass in a church at San Raphael on 6 May 1794. The Haitians soon expelled the Spanish from Saint-Domingue. Toussaint proved to be forgiving of the whites, insisting that he was fighting to assert the rights of the slaves as black French people to be free. He said he did not seek independence from France, and urged the surviving whites, including the former slave masters, to stay and work with him in rebuilding Saint-Domingue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juan Pablo Duarte",
        "text": "In December 1821, when Duarte was eight years old, members of a Creole elite of Santo Domingo's capital proclaimed its independence from Spanish rule, calling themselves \"Hait\u00ed Espa\u00f1ol\". Historians today call this elite's brief courtship with sovereignty the Ephemeral Independence. The most prominent leader of the coup against Spanish colonial government was one of its former supporters, Jos\u00e9 N\u00fa\u00f1ez de C\u00e1ceres. These individuals were tired of being ignored by the Crown, and some were also concerned with the new liberal turn in Madrid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "Haitian president Jean-Pierre Boyer decided to prepare for a rumored military advancement by Spain into Haiti, due to repeated rumors that the French and the Spanish were going to invade from the vulnerable east side of the island."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "On December 30, 1821, at 11:30\u00a0p.m. the \"tropas de morenos\" (), led by Pablo Ali and Jos\u00e9 N\u00fa\u00f1ez de C\u00e1ceres, surprised the Fortaleza Ozama's guards and jailed Governor Pascual Real in the Torre de Homenaje (the keep) of Santo Domingo. The next morning, at 6:00\u00a0am, the cannon fire signalled the political change taking place."
      },
      {
        "title": "France\u2013Haiti relations",
        "text": "From 1789 to 1799, France underwent a revolution. The revolution in France had great implications in Haiti. In August 1791, slaves in the northern region of Haiti staged a revolt which would be known as the Haitian Revolution. In 1793, France sent as an envoy L\u00e9ger-F\u00e9licit\u00e9 Sonthonax to maintain control and stabilize the colony from the revolution. In February 1793, Haitian leader Toussaint Louverture joined Spanish forces in fighting the French. In October 1793, Sonthonax emancipated the slaves in all of Haiti. In May 1794, Louverture left the Spanish army after they refused to free their slaves in the eastern part of Hispaniola."
      },
      {
        "title": "French colonial empire",
        "text": "The slaves, led eventually by Toussaint L'Ouverture and then, following his capture by the French in 1801, by Jean-Jacques Dessalines, held their own against French and British opponents. The French launched a failed expedition in 1802, and were up against a crippling Royal Naval blockade the following year - as a result the Empire of Haiti ultimately achieved independence in 1804 (Haiti became the first black republic in the world, followed by Liberia in 1847). The black and mulatto population of the island (including the Spanish east) had declined from 700,000 in 1789 to 351,819 in 1804. About 80,000 Haitians died in the 1802\u201303 campaign alone. Of the 55,131 French soldiers dispatched to Haiti in 1802\u201303, 45,000, including 18 generals, had died, along with 10,000 sailors, the great majority from disease. Captain [first name unknown] Sorrell of the British navy observed, \"France lost there one of the finest armies she ever sent forth, composed of picked veterans, the conquerors of Italy and of German legions. She is now entirely deprived of her influence and her power in the West Indies.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Juan Pablo Duarte",
        "text": "However, the forces of those favoring Spanish sovereignty as protection from continued Haitian threats and invasions, led by general Pedro Santana, a large landowner from the eastern lowlands, took over and exiled Duarte. In 1845, Santana exiled the entire Duarte family. After more but unsuccessful Haitian invasions, internal disorder, and his and others\u2019 misrule, Santana turned the country back into a colony of Spain in 1861, was awarded the hereditary title of Marquess of Las Carreras by the Spanish Queen Isabella II, and died in 1864."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cap-Ha\u00eftien",
        "text": "The French occupied roughly a third of the island of Hispaniola from the Spanish in the early eighteenth century. They established large sugar cane plantations on the northern plains and imported tens of thousands of African slaves to work them. Cap\u2011Fran\u00e7ais became an important port city of the French colonial period and the colony's main commercial centre. It served as the capital of the French colony of Saint-Domingue from the city's formal founding in 1711 until 1770, when the capital was moved to Port-au-Prince on the west coast of the island. After the slave revolution, this was the first capital of the Kingdom of Haiti under King Henri I, when the nation was split apart."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "By 1801, Toussaint was in control of all of Hispaniola, after conquering French Santo Domingo and proclaiming the abolition of slavery there. He did not, however, proclaim full independence for the country, nor did he seek reprisals against the country's former white slaveholders, convinced that the French would not restore slavery and \"that a population of slaves recently landed from Africa could not attain to civilization by 'going it alone.'\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "The recorded history of Haiti began on 5 December 1492, when the European navigator Christopher Columbus landed on a large island in the region of the western Atlantic Ocean that later came to be known as the Caribbean. It was inhabited by the Ta\u00edno and Arawakan people, who variously called their island \"Ayiti\", \"Bohio\", and \"Kiskeya\" \"(Quisqueya)\". Columbus promptly claimed the island for the Spanish Crown, naming it \"La Isla Espa\u00f1ola\" (\"the Spanish Island\"), later Latinized to \"Hispaniola\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Creole",
        "text": "One theory estimates that Haitian Creole developed between 1680 and 1740. During the 16th and 17th centuries, French and Spanish colonizers produced tobacco, cotton, and sugar cane on the island. Throughout this period, the population was made of roughly equal numbers of (white workers), (free people of colour) and slaves. The economy shifted into sugar production in 1690, just before the French colony of was officially formed in 1697. The sugar crops needed a much larger labor force, which led to an increase in slave importation. In the 18th century an estimated 800,000 West-African individuals were enslaved and brought to Saint-Domingue. As the slave population increased, interactions between French-speaking colonists and slaves decreased."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haitian nationality and citizenship",
        "text": "When England and Spain invaded in 1793, they were defeated by ex-slave Toussaint Louverture, leader of the French and native army. As the white and black populations mobilized against one another, Louverture led the oppressed slaves in the Haitian Revolution, naming himself Governor-General for Life in the 1801 Constitution. Fighting between blacks and whites would continue, as Napoleon sent General Charles Lecerc to arrest Louverture and re-instate slavery. In 1803, another rebellion against the French colonists was led by Jean-Jacques Dessalines. The successful rebellion ended the civil war in 1804 with the Declaration of Haitian Independence and Dessalines was proclaimed Emperor of Haiti in 1804."
      },
      {
        "title": "Latin America",
        "text": "Independence in the Americas was not inevitable or uniform in the Americas. Events in Europe had a profound impact on the colonial empires of Spain, Portugal, and France in the Americas. France and Spain had supported the American Revolution that saw the independence of the Thirteen Colonies from Britain, which had defeated them in the Seven Years' War (1757\u201363). The outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, a political and social uprising toppling the Bourbon monarchy and overturning the established order, precipitated events in France's rich Caribbean sugar colony of Saint-Domingue, whose black population rose up, led by Toussaint L'ouverture. The Haitian Revolution had far-reaching consequences. Britain declared war on France and attacked ports in Saint-Domingue. Haiti gained independence in 1804, led by ex-slave Jean-Jacques Dessalines following many years of violent struggle, with huge atrocities on both sides. Haitian independence affected colonial empires in the Americas, as well as the United States. Many white, slave-owning sugar planters of Saint-Domingue fled to the Spanish island of Cuba, where they established sugar plantations that became the basis of Cuba's economy. Uniquely in the hemisphere, the black victors in Haiti abolished slavery at independence. Many thousands of remaining whites were executed on the orders of Dessalines. For other regions with large enslaved populations, the Haitian Revolution was a cautionary tale for the white slave-owning planters. Despite Spain and Britain's satisfaction with France's defeat, they \"were obsessed by the possible impact of the slave uprising on Cuba, Santo Domingo, and Jamaica\", by then a British sugar colony. US President Thomas Jefferson, a wealthy slave owner, refused to recognize Haiti's independence. Recognition only came in 1862 from President Abraham Lincoln. Given France's failure to defeat the slave insurgency and since needing money for the war with Britain, Napoleon Bonaparte sold France's remaining mainland holdings in North America to the United States in the 1803 Louisiana Purchase."
      },
      {
        "title": "French colonization of the Americas",
        "text": "A major French settlement lay on the island of Hispaniola, where France established the colony of Saint-Domingue on the western third of the island in 1664. Nicknamed the \"Pearl of the Antilles\", Saint-Domingue became the richest colony in the Caribbean due to slave plantation production of sugar cane. It had the highest slave mortality rate in the western hemisphere. A 1791 slave revolt, the only ever successful slave revolt, began the Haitian Revolution, led to freedom for the colony's slaves in 1794 and, a decade later, complete independence for the country, which renamed itself Haiti. France briefly also ruled the eastern portion of the island, which is now the Dominican Republic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Captaincy General of Santo Domingo",
        "text": "With the outbreak of the Haitian Revolution, the rich urban families linked to the colonial bureaucracy left the island, while most of the rural (cattle ranchers) remained, even though they lost their principal market. Nevertheless, the Spanish crown back in Europe saw in the unrest an opportunity to seize all, or part, of the western region of the island in an alliance of convenience with the rebellious slaves. The Spanish governor of Santo Domingo purchased the allegiance of mulatto and black rebel leaders and their personal armies. In July 1793, Spanish forces, including former slaves, crossed the border and pushed back the disheveled French forces before them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "After Dessalines' death Haiti became split into two, with the Kingdom of Haiti in the north directed by Henri Christophe, later declaring himself Henri I, and a republic in the south centered on Port-au-Prince, directed by Alexandre P\u00e9tion, an \"homme de couleur\". Christophe established a semi-feudal corv\u00e9e system, with a rigid education and economic code. P\u00e9tion's republic was less absolutist, and he initiated a series of land reforms which benefited the peasant class. President P\u00e9tion also gave military and financial assistance to the revolutionary leader Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar, which were critical in enabling him to liberate the Viceroyalty of New Granada. Meanwhile, the French, who had managed to maintain a precarious control of eastern Hispaniola, were defeated by insurgents led by Juan S\u00e1nchez Ram\u00edrez, with the area returning to Spanish rule in 1809 following the Battle of Palo Hincado."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marcos Xiorro",
        "text": "The Spanish authorities believed that Jean-Pierre Boyer, the president of Haiti, which had gained independence in 1804, following a slave rebellion, contributed to Xiorro's conspiracy. In the years that followed, many of the slaves who had been imprisoned and returned to their masters later escaped from their plantations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian occupation of Santo Domingo",
        "text": "By the late 18th century, the island of Hispaniola had been divided into two European colonies: Saint-Domingue, in the west, governed by France; and Santo Domingo, governed by Spain, occupying the eastern two-thirds of Hispaniola. By the 1790s, large-scale rebellions erupted in the western portion of the island, spearheaded by men such as Toussaint Louverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines which led to the eventual removal of the French and the independence of Haiti. Following the independence of Haiti, large portions of the remaining French population were executed. The eastern portion of the island was preparing itself for an eventual separation from Spain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean-Pierre Boyer",
        "text": "The island of Hispaniola was now united under one government from Cape Tiburon to Cape Samana. By awarding land to Haitian military officers at the expense of former members of the Spanish forces of Santo Domingo, Boyer reduced his influence with the Spanish-Haitian leadership. He continued the policy of P\u00e9tion, his former political mentor, of helping free people of color in other Spanish-American colonies to resist the Spanish crown. Boyer ignored Haitian political opponents who called for reforms, such as parliamentary democracy, and veteran generals of the War of Independence, who believed that the revolution was not complete and that they were being neglected."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Dominican Republic",
        "text": "During this period in time, the Spanish crown wielded little to no influence in the colony of Santo Domingo. Some wealthy cattle ranchers had become leaders, and sought to bring control and order in the southeast of the colony where the \"law of machete\" ruled the land. On December 1, 1821, the former Captain general in charge of the colony, Jos\u00e9 N\u00fa\u00f1ez de C\u00e1ceres, influenced by all the Revolutions that were going on around him, finally decided to overthrow the Spanish government and proclaimed the independence of \"Spanish Haiti\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Papillon",
        "text": "There are many reasons that the Spaniards backed the Haitian revolution from the beginning, providing the insurgents with food and weapons: they knew that the episode would cause chaos in Saint-Domingue, giving Spain the chance to send troops to that territory and re-annex it, since it had been a Spanish possession taken by the French in the Peace Treaty of Ryswick (1697). In October 1791, the black General Toussaint Br\u00e9da admitted his contacts with the Spaniards, who had promised them provisions. As Spain was officially neutral towards the French revolution, of which Saint-Domingue\u2019s revolution was regarded as a mere echo, it kept its contacts with the black leaders in secret."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "In the midst of the French Revolution (1789\u201399), slaves and free people of color launched the Haitian Revolution (1791\u20131804), led by a former slave and the first black general of the French Army, Toussaint Louverture. After 12 years of conflict, Napoleon Bonaparte's forces were defeated by Louverture's successor, Jean-Jacques Dessalines (later Emperor Jacques I), who declared Haiti's sovereignty on 1 January 1804\u2014the first independent nation of Latin America and the Caribbean, the second republic in the Americas, the first country in the Americas to abolish slavery, and the only state in history established by a successful slave revolt. Apart from Alexandre P\u00e9tion, the first President of the Republic, all of Haiti's first leaders were former slaves. After a brief period in which the country was split in two, President Jean-Pierre Boyer united the country and then attempted to bring the whole of Hispaniola under Haitian control, precipitating a long series of wars that ended in the 1870s when Haiti formally recognized the independence of the Dominican Republic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Georges Biassou",
        "text": "Georges was commemorated as a Spanish officer and an honourable veteran, and was recognised with a Guard of Honour at his Funeral. On 1 January 1804, the island of Hispaniola was declared an independent state, divided into the Republic of Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Haiti is the only nation that has emerged from a successful slave rebellion in modern history. Haiti's independence exposed an interdependence between slave emancipation and the construction of a sovereign state, giving rise to issues such as the definition of citizenship and difficulties in laying political foundations. Georges Biassou's impact surpassed the domestic threshold and influenced world politics permanently. The Haitian revolution dictated the structure of international relations in the forthcoming 19th century with its defeat of the French colonial empire, and subsequent impact on Spain and England, who emerged weakened from the conflict and remained cautious for years to come."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery in Haiti",
        "text": "In response to the brutality, the natives fought back. Some Taino escaped into remote parts of the island's mountains and formed communities in hiding as \"maroons\", who organized attacks against Spaniards' settlements. The Spanish responded to the native resistance with severe reprisals, for example destroying crops to starve the natives. The Spaniards brought to the island dogs trained to kill the natives and unleashed them upon those who rebelled against enslavement. In 1495, Spaniards sent 500 captured natives back to Spain as slaves, but 200 did not survive the voyage, and the others died shortly afterwards. In the late 1490s they planned to send 4,000 slaves back to Spain each year, but this expectation failed to take into account the rapid decline the native population would soon suffer and was never achieved."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of colonialism",
        "text": "The Haitian Revolution, a slave revolt led by Toussaint L'Ouverture in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, established Ha\u00efti as a free, black republic, the first of its kind. Haiti became the second independent nation that was a former European colony in the Western Hemisphere after the United States. Africans and people of African ancestry freed themselves from slavery and colonization by taking advantage of the conflict among whites over how to implement the reforms of the French Revolution in this slave society. Although independence was declared in 1804, it was not until 1825 that it was formally recognized by King Charles X of France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Revolution",
        "text": "Spain, which controlled the rest of the island of Hispaniola (Santo Domingo), also joined the conflict and fought with Britain against France. The proportion of slaves was not as high in the Spanish portion of the island. Spanish forces invaded Saint-Domingue and were joined by the rebels. For most of the conflict, the British and Spanish supplied the rebels with food, ammunition, arms, medicine, naval support, and military advisors. By August 1793, there were only 3,500 French soldiers on the island. On 20 September 1793, about 600 British soldiers from Jamaica landed at J\u00e9r\u00e9mie to be greeted with shouts of, \"Vivent les Anglais!\" from the French population. On 22 September 1793, Mole St. Nicolas, the main French naval base in Saint-Domingue, surrendered to the Royal Navy peacefully. However, everywhere the British went, they restored slavery, which made them hated by the mass of common people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Haiti (1859\u20131957)",
        "text": "The US occupation was a costly period in terms of human life. A revolt by disgruntled citizens was put down in 1918, with an estimated 2,000 killed. White foreigners, many with deep racial prejudices, dominated public policy, which angered the historically dominant Mulattos. However, Haiti's infrastructure, including roads, telephone lines, and plumbing, were repaired. Lighthouses, schools, hospitals, and harbors were built. Louis Borno replaced Dartiguenave as president in 1922, after he was forced out of office. He ruled without a legislature until elections were permitted in 1930. This newly formed legislature elected St\u00e9nio Vincent, a mulatto, as president."
      },
      {
        "title": "Era de Francia",
        "text": "In 1805, after crowning himself Emperor, Jean-Jacques Dessalines invaded, reaching Santo Domingo before retreating in the face of a French naval squadron. The Haitians fell back through the settled area of the interior, sacking the towns of Monte Plata, Cotui and La Vega, and slaughtering the citizens of Moca and Santiago. They left the fields laid waste, the cities ablaze and the churches in ashes behind them. In Moca only two people survived, thanks to corpses having been piled up on those still living in the church where the principal massacre took place."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Haitians",
        "text": "In 1664, the newly established French West India Company took control of the new colony and France formally claimed control of the western portion of the island of Hispaniola. In 1665, they established a French settlement on the mainland of Hispaniola opposite Tortuga at Port-de-Paix. In 1670, the headland of Cap-Fran\u00e7ais (now Cap-Ha\u00eftien), was settled further to the east along the northern coast. In 1676, the colonial capital was moved from Tortuga to Port-de-Paix. In 1684, the French and Spanish signed the Treaty of Ratisbon that included provisions to suppress the actions of the Caribbean privateers, which effectively ended the era of the buccaneers on Tortuga, many being employed by the French Crown to hunt down any of their former comrades who preferred to turn outright pirate. Under the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick, Spain officially ceded the western third of Hispaniola to France which renamed the colony Saint-Domingue. By that time, planters outnumbered buccaneers and, with the encouragement of Louis XIV, they had begun to grow tobacco, indigo, cotton and cacao on the fertile northern plain, thus prompting the importation of African slaves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Espa\u00f1a Boba",
        "text": "As the Spanish authorities showed little interest in their restored colony, the great ranching families such as the Santanas came to be the leaders in the south east, and the law of the \"machete\" ruled for a time. Then on 9 November 1821 the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo was toppled by a group led by Spanish lieutenant governor N\u00fa\u00f1ez de C\u00e1ceres, the colony's former administrator, and the rebels proclaimed independence from Spain on 30 November 1821. The new nation was known as Republic of Spanish Haiti. On 1 December 1821 a constitutive act was ordered to petition the union of Spanish Haiti with Simon Bolivar\u2019s Gran Colombia."
      },
      {
        "title": "State of Haiti",
        "text": "From 1791 to 1804, the Haitian revolution against the French colonists raged. After the failure of the French expedition of 1803, General Jean-Jacques Dessalines proclaimed Haiti's independence."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "A small number of Ta\u00ednos were able to survive and set up villages elsewhere. Spanish interest in Hispaniola began to wane in the 1520s, as more lucrative gold and silver deposits were found in Mexico and South America. Thereafter, the population of Spanish Hispaniola grew at a slow pace."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Dominican Republic",
        "text": "Haiti's constitution forbade whites from owning land, and the major landowning families were forcibly deprived of their properties. Most emigrated to the Spanish colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico, or to independent Gran Colombia, usually with the encouragement of Haitian officials, who acquired their lands. The Haitians, who associated the Catholic Church with the French slave-masters who had exploited them before independence, confiscated all church property, deported all foreign clergy, and severed the ties of the remaining clergy to the Vatican. Santo Domingo's university, the oldest in the Western Hemisphere, lacking students, teachers, and resources, closed down. In order to receive diplomatic recognition from France, Haiti was forced to pay an indemnity of 150 million francs to the former French colonists, which was subsequently lowered to 60 million francs, and Haiti imposed heavy taxes on the eastern part of the island. Since Haiti was unable to adequately provision its army, the occupying forces largely survived by commandeering or confiscating food and supplies at gunpoint."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "part of the island to the French, who henceforth called it Saint-Domingue. Saint-Domingue developed into a highly lucrative colony for France. Its economy was based on a labor-intensive sugar industry which rested on vast numbers of African slaves. Meanwhile, the situation on the Spanish part of the island deteriorated. The entire Spanish empire sank into a deep economic crisis, and Santo Domingo was in addition struck by earthquakes, hurricanes and a shrinking population."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "Successive waves of Arawak migrants, moving northward from the Orinoco delta in South America, settled the islands of the Caribbean. Around A.D. 600, the Ta\u00edno, an Arawak culture, arrived on the island, displacing the previous inhabitants, however this view is widely disputed. They were organized into \"cacicazgos\" (chiefdoms), each led by a \"cacique\" (chief)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "Haiti had been offering protection to the Dominicans under the Haitian government in form of jobs, lands, abolition of taxes in the exportation of livestock, in return of accepting the political unification of the two territories."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Revolution",
        "text": "While Haiti suffered major economic setbacks during the early years of the post revolutionary era, the ideals of freedom and anti-colonialism never ceased to be part of the Haitian consciousness. Citizenship was offered to any slave or oppressed person that made it to Haiti's shores as mandated by Dessaline's constitution. All four of Haiti's earlier rulers, Dessalines, Christophe, Petion, and Boyer all had programs that involved swaying African Americans to resettle there and assure their freedom. Slave boats that were captured and brought to Haiti's shores resulted in the liberation and integration of all captives on board into Haitian society. On one occasion, President Alexandre Petion protected Jamaican slaves from re-enslavement after they escaped their plantation and landed in the southern city of J\u00e9r\u00e9mie. On multiple occasions, Haiti's leaders offered asylum to liberal revolutionaries globally. One of the more notable examples of this included Haiti's involvement with Gran Colombia, where Dessalines and Petion both offered aid, ammunitions, and asylum to Francisco de Miranda and Simon Bolivar, who even went as far as to credit Haiti for the liberation of his country. Dessalines offered citizenship and assistance to slaves in Martinique and Guadeloupe so that they could start their own uprisings. Mexican nationalists, Javier Mina and Jose Joaquin de Hererra took asylum in Les Cayes and were welcomed by Petion during Mexico's War of Independence. The Greeks later received support from President Boyer during their fight against the Ottomans."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "On 29 August 1793, Sonthonax took the radical step of proclaiming the freedom of the slaves in the north province (with severe limits on their freedom). In September and October, emancipation was extended throughout the colony. The French National Convention, the first elected Assembly of the First Republic (1792\u20131804), on 4 February 1794, under the leadership of Maximilien de Robespierre, abolished slavery by law in France and all its colonies. The constitution of 1793, which was never applied, and the constitution of 1795, which was put into effect, did both contain an explicit ban on slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fran\u00e7ois d'Alesso d'\u00c9ragny",
        "text": "In January 1691 a Spanish fleet landed 2,600 men at Cap\u2011Fran\u00e7ais on Saint-Domingue (now Haiti), joined by 700 men who had made their way from the Spanish part of the island on foot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dominican Republic\u2013Haiti border",
        "text": "The division of the island of Hispaniola dates to the 16th and 17th centuries, when the Spanish colonised the eastern part of the island and the French the west. After decades of hostilities, mutual acknowledgement by France and Spain of their respective colonies, Saint-Domingue and Santo Domingo, was accomplished by way of the Peace of Ryswick in 1697. A more precise boundary was drawn in 1777 via the Treaty of Aranjuez. The distinction between the two parts of the island was accentuated by differing settlement patterns in the two colonies. Whereas the Spanish developed a settler-based society with limited slavery, the French forcibly settled thousands of African slaves in Saint Domingue, with the slave population coming to dominate demographically. In 1791 the Haitian slaves launched the Haitian Revolution, gaining independence from France in 1804 as the First Empire of Haiti. In 1821 the Dominicans declared independence from Spain; however Haiti then invaded and annexed the colony. The Dominicans fought a war against the Haitians and gained independence on 1844, with the border being restored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hispaniola",
        "text": "The name \"Ha\u00efti\" was adopted by Haitian revolutionary Jean-Jacques Dessalines in 1804, as the official name of independent Saint-Domingue, in tribute to the Amerindian predecessors. It was also adopted as the official name of independent Santo Domingo, as the Republic of Spanish Haiti, a state that existed from November 1821 until its annexation by Haiti in February 1822."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "Following the arrival of Europeans, La Hispaniola's indigenous Taino population suffered greatly to near extinction, in possibly the worst case of depopulation in the Americas. A commonly accepted hypothesis attributes the high mortality of this colony in part to European diseases to which the natives had no immunity. The Taino population declined by up to 95% in the century after the Spanish arrival, from a pre contact population of 8,000,000 to to a few tens of thousands. Many authors have described the treatment of the Taino in Hispaniola under the Spanish Empire as genocide."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Haitians",
        "text": "The story begins with the issuing of French adventurers in the Tortuga Island, which was close to the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo. As a result in the late 17th century, the French had de facto control of the island close to the Spanish colony. The wars of Louis XIV of France in Europe finally convinced the Spaniards to give the island to the French under to the Treaty on Ryswick (1697). The French called their new colony Saint-Domingue. And they began transforming the settlement into a large sugar plantation. Later the Frenchmen began to bring large numbers of African slaves to work on plantations, the destruction of the Taino and African imports changed the demographics of St Domingue. By the late 17th century, the French made up 90% of the nation, with more than 1,000 settlers and their descendants (note that Haiti had a European past), but as the number of black people grew faster, they acceded to a mix between French and black people, which resulted in a fast growth of mulattos, although in some cases the mixing occurred two or more times. The French could notice that some mulatto were clearer than others. By the early 18th century, mulattos and slaves started to compose the majority of the colony, blacks continued to be used as slaves for the production of sugar, which was in demand in Western Europe. That made the French put much pressure and cruelty to blacks to speed the production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Restavek",
        "text": "When Christopher Columbus first landed on the island he called Santo Domingo in 1492, he imprisoned some native people as slaves. Later European colonists, primarily Spanish and French, imported enslaved Africans to work on the sugar cane plantations developed there. The French had a more developed plantation system on their half of the island, known as Saint-Domingue. After a successful slave revolution was conducted for years, France withdrew its troops and Haiti proclaimed independence in 1804."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "In 1922, Dartiguenave was replaced by Louis Borno, who ruled without a legislature until 1930. That same year, General John H. Russell, Jr., was appointed High Commissioner. The Borno-Russel dictatorship oversaw the expansion of the economy, building over of road, establishing an automatic telephone exchange, modernizing the nation's port facilities, and establishing a public health service. Sisal was introduced to Haiti, and sugar and cotton became significant exports. However, efforts to develop commercial agriculture had limited success, in part because much of Haiti's labor force was employed at seasonal work in the more established sugar industries of Cuba and the Dominican Republic. An estimated 30,000\u201340,000 Haitian laborers, known as \"braceros\", went annually to the Oriente Province of Cuba between 1913 and 1931. Most Haitians continued to resent the loss of sovereignty. At the forefront of opposition among the educated elite was \"L'Union Patriotique,\" which established ties with opponents of the occupation in the US itself, in particular the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Haiti (1820\u20131849)",
        "text": "The Republic of Haiti (, ) from 1820 to 1849 was effectively a continuation of the first Republic of Haiti that had been in control of the south of what is now Haiti since 1806. This period of Haitian history commenced with the fall of the Kingdom of Haiti in the north and the reunification of Haiti in 1820 under Jean-Pierre Boyer. This period also encompassed Haitian occupation of Santo Domingo from 1822 to 1844 creating a unified political entity on the island of Hispaniola. Although termed a republic, this period of was dominated by Boyer's authoritarian rule as president-for-life until 1843. The first Republic of Haiti ended in 1849 when president Faustin Soulouque declared himself emperor, thus beginning the Second Empire of Haiti."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "From 1911 to 1915, there were six different presidents, each of whom was killed or forced into exile. The revolutionary armies were formed by \"cacos\", peasant brigands from the mountains of the north, along the porous Dominican border, who were enlisted by rival political factions with promises of money to be paid after a successful revolution and an opportunity to plunder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cap-Ha\u00eftien",
        "text": "The island was occupied for thousands of years by cultures of indigenous peoples, who had migrated from present-day Central and South America. In the 16th century, Spanish explorers in the Caribbean began to colonize the island. They adopted the native name, \"Gu\u00e1rico\" for this area that is today known as \"Cap\u2011Ha\u00eftien\". Due to the introduction of new infectious diseases, as well as poor treatment, the indigenous peoples population rapidly declined."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juan Pablo Duarte",
        "text": "The C\u00e1ceres provisional government requested support from Sim\u00f3n Bolivar's new government, but their petition was ignored given the internal conflicts of the Gran Colombia. Meanwhile, a plan for unification with Haiti grew stronger. Haitian politicians wanted to keep the island out of the hands of European imperial powers and thus a way to safeguard the Haitian Revolution . Haiti's President Jean-Pierre Boyer sent an army that took over the eastern portion of Hispaniola. Haiti then abolished slavery there once and for all, and occupied and absorbed Santo Domingo into the Republic of Haiti. Struggles between Boyer and the old colonial helped produce a migration of planters and elite. It also led to the closing of the university. Following the bourgeoisie custom of sending promising sons abroad for education, the Duartes sent Juan Pablo to the United States and Europe in 1828 ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Revolution",
        "text": "An independent government was created in Haiti, but the country's society remained deeply affected by patterns established under French colonial rule. As in other French colonial societies, a class of free people of color had developed after centuries of French rule here. Many planters or young unmarried men had relations with African or Afro-Caribbean women, sometimes providing for their freedom and that of their children, as well as providing for education of the mixed-race children, especially the boys. Some were sent to France for education and training, and some joined the French military. The mulattoes who returned to Saint-Domingue became the elite of the people of color. As an educated class used to the French political system, they became the elite of Haitian society after the war's end. Many of them had used their social capital to acquire wealth, and some already owned land. Some had identified more with the French colonists than the slaves. Many of the free people of color, by contrast, were raised in French culture, had certain rights within colonial society, and generally spoke French and practiced Catholicism (with syncretic absorption of African religions.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dominican Republic\u2013Haiti relations",
        "text": "Struggles began during colonial times and have developed into nearly constant conflict between the two governments. The political division of the island of Hispaniola is due in part to the European struggle for control of the New World during the 17th century, when France and Spain began fighting for control of the island. They resolved their dispute in 1697 by splitting the island into two colonies. It was not until the 19th century that Haiti became independent from France on 1 January 1804. Spanish colony of Santo Domingo, the predecessor of the Dominican Republic, became independent from Spain on 1 December 1821, after more than 300 years of Spanish rule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian cuisine",
        "text": "Christopher Columbus landed at M\u00f4le Saint-Nicolas on 5 December 1492, and claimed the island he named \"La Isla Espanola\" (later named Hispaniola) for Spain. The Spanish established sugar plantations and made the natives work as slaves, however the harsh conditions and infectious diseases brought over by the Spanish sailors nearly wiped out the indigenous population by 1520 as the natives lacked immunity to these new diseases, The Spaniards imported slaves from Africa to work these plantations instead. The Africans introduced okra (also called \"gumbo\"; edible pods), ackee (red and yellow fruit), taro (an edible root), pigeon peas (seeds of an African shrub), and various spices to the diet. In 1659, the French had established themselves on the western portion of the islands of Hispaniola and Tortuga by the way of buccaneers. The Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, allowed the French to acquire the western portion of the island from the Spanish they had neglected. By the 1700s, the French had situated its control comfortably, successfully cultivating sugarcane, coffee, cotton, and cocoa from the African slave labor. When the Haitian Revolution ended and the First Empire of Haiti was established in 1804, thousands of refugees from the revolution, both whites and free people of color (\"affranchis\" or \"gens de couleur libres\"), fled to New Orleans, often bringing African slaves with them, doubling the city's population. They also introduced such Haitian specialties as the \"red beans and rice\" and mirliton (or called chayote; a pear-shaped vegetable) to the Louisiana Creole cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "At the time of the Haitian Revolution, an event that involved the eradication of whites (mostly French) in Haiti, many of the blacks in Haiti were African-born and had no non-African ancestry. This was because the average African slave in colonial Haiti had a short life span and France continuously imported thousands of Africans yearly to keep the slave population up, by 1790 there were nearly 600,000 slaves, outnumbering whites about 20 to 1."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where does Haiti rank by size among Caribbean countries?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Haiti is 27,750 km2 (10,714 sq mi) in size, the third largest country in the Caribbean by area, and has an estimated population of 11.4 million, making it the most populous country in the Caribbean."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How has Haiti been colonized throughout history?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to learn more about the colonial era under\tSpanish rule (1492\u20131625), French rule (1625\u20131804) or the\tHaitian Revolution (1791\u20131804)?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the era when the Spanish ruled Haiti."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Navigator Christopher Columbus landed in Haiti on 6 December 1492, in an area that he named M\u00f4le-Saint-Nicolas, and claimed the island for the Crown of Castile.  The Spanish passed the Laws of Burgos (1512\u20131513), which forbade the maltreatment of natives, endorsed their conversion to Catholicism, and gave legal framework to encomiendas, while the natives were brought to these sites to work in specific plantations or industries."
    ],
    "topic": "Haiti",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Haiti:12",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Haiti",
          "History",
          "Colonial era",
          "Spanish rule (1492\u20131625)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Navigator Christopher Columbus landed in Haiti on 6 December 1492, in an area that he named \"M\u00f4le-Saint-Nicolas,\" and claimed the island for the Crown of Castile. Nineteen days later, his ship the \"Santa Mar\u00eda\" ran aground near the present site of Cap-Ha\u00eftien. Columbus left 39 men on the island, who founded the settlement of La Navidad on 25 December 1492. Relations with the native peoples, initially good, broke down and the settlers were later killed by the Ta\u00edno."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Haiti:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Haiti",
          "History",
          "Colonial era",
          "Spanish rule (1492\u20131625)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Spanish passed the Laws of Burgos (1512\u20131513), which forbade the maltreatment of natives, endorsed their conversion to Catholicism, and gave legal framework to \".\" The natives were brought to these sites to work in specific plantations or industries."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "The Spanish passed the Laws of Burgos (1512\u20131513), which forbade the maltreatment of natives, endorsed their conversion to Catholicism, and gave legal framework to \".\" The natives were brought to these sites to work in specific plantations or industries."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "When the radical revolutionaries in Paris declared war against Spain in January 1793, the Spanish Crown sent its forces in Santo Domingo into battle on the side of the slaves. By the end of 1793, Spain controlled most of the north, except British-held M\u00f4le-Saint-Nicolas and French-held Le Cap Fran\u00e7ois and Port-de-Paix. In 1795, Spain ceded Santo Domingo to France and Spanish attacks on Saint-Domingue ceased."
      },
      {
        "title": "State of Haiti",
        "text": "During this period, the French who remained in the eastern part of the island were defeated by the Hispanic-Creole inhabitants, under the command of Juan S\u00e1nchez Ram\u00edrez, at the battle of Palo Hincado on 7 November 1808. The French surrender in the eastern part of the island took place in Santo Domingo on 9 July 1809. The authorities then re-established the Spanish colony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Independence of Haiti",
        "text": "Arawak and Taino people inhabited for more than one thousand years what was later known as Hispaniola. Christopher Columbus arrived to the island on December 5, 1492. The name Haiti (or \"Hayti\") comes from the indigenous Ta\u00edno language which was the native name given to the entire island of Hispaniola to mean, \"land of high mountains.\" Saint-Domingue () became a French colony from 1659 to 1804 on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "Haitian rule over the entire island lasted 22 years. It wasn't until 1844 that independence was once again proclaimed for the eastern side of Hispaniola until the rise of Juan Pablo Duarte y D\u00edez."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "This Spanish action was counterproductive as English, Dutch, and French pirates were now free to establish bases on the island's abandoned northern and western coasts, where wild cattle were now plentiful and free. In 1697, after decades of fighting over the territory, the Spanish ceded the western"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "Haiti\n--Etymology.\n--History.\n----Pre-Columbian history.\n----Colonial era.\n------Spanish rule (1492\u20131625).\n------French rule (1625\u20131804).\n------Haitian Revolution (1791\u20131804).\n----Independent Haiti.\n------First Empire (1804\u20131806).\n------State of Haiti, Kingdom of Haiti and the Republic (1806\u20131820).\n------Unification of Hispaniola (1821\u20131844).\n------Loss of the Spanish portion of the island.\n------Second Empire (1849\u20131859).\n------Late 19th century\u2013early 20th century.\n------United States occupation (1915\u20131934).\n------Post-occupation era (1934\u20131957).\n------Duvalier dynasty (1957\u20131986).\n------Post-Duvalier era (1986\u20132004).\n------Post-Aristide era (2004\u2013present).\n--Geography.\n----Climate.\n----Geology.\n----Environment.\n------Biodiversity.\n--Government and politics.\n----Administrative divisions.\n----Foreign relations.\n----Military.\n----Law enforcement and crime.\n----Haitian penitentiary system.\n--Economy.\n----Foreign aid.\n----Trade.\n----Energy.\n----Personal income.\n----Real estate.\n----Agriculture.\n----Currency.\n----Tourism.\n----Caracol Industrial Park.\n--Infrastructure.\n----Transportation.\n----Airports.\n----Bus service.\n----Communications.\n----Water supply and sanitation.\n--Demographics.\n----Population genetics.\n------Autosomal DNA.\n------Y-chromosome and mitochondrial DNA.\n------Duffy antigens.\n----Racial discrimination.\n----Religion.\n----Languages.\n----Emigration.\n----Education.\n----Health.\n--Culture.\n----Art.\n----Music and dance.\n----Literature.\n----Cinema.\n----Cuisine.\n----Architecture.\n----Museums.\n----Folklore and mythology.\n----National holidays and festivals.\n----Sports.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Era de Francia",
        "text": "At the time, slaves led by Toussaint Louverture in Saint-Domingue were in revolt against France. In 1801, Toussaint Louverture arrived in Santo Domingo, proclaiming the abolition of slavery on behalf of the French Republic and then captured Santo Domingo from the French, taking control of the entire island. In 1802 an army sent by Napoleon under the command of Charles Leclerc, captured Toussaint Louverture and sent him to France as prisoner. In the event, the Dominicans collaborated with Leclerc and his French troops in order to expel the Haitians. Toussaint's successors and yellow fever succeeded in expelling the French again from Saint-Domingue. The nation declared independence as Haiti in 1804. Even after the Haitians had defeated the French, a small French garrison remained in the former Spanish colony."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "History of Haiti\n--Pre-Spanish history.\n--Spanish history (1492\u20131625).\n--French Saint-Domingue (1625\u20131789).\n----The Pearl of the Antilles (1711\u20131789).\n--Revolutionary period (1789\u20131804).\n----Og\u00e9's revolt (1789\u20131791).\n----The rising of the slaves (1791\u20131793).\n----Toussaint Louverture ascendant (1793\u20131802).\n----Napoleon defeated (1802\u20131804).\n--Independence: The early years (1804\u20131843).\n----Black Republic (1804).\n----First Haitian Empire (1804\u20131806).\n----The struggle for unity (1806\u20131820).\n----Boyer's domination of Hispaniola (1820\u20131843).\n--Political struggles (1843\u20131915).\n--United States occupation (1915\u20131934).\n--Elections and coups (1934\u20131957).\n----Vincent's presidency (1934\u20131941).\n----Lescot's presidency (1941\u20131946).\n----Revolution of 1946.\n----Estim\u00e9's presidency (1946\u20131950).\n----Magloire's presidency (1950\u20131956).\n----The rise of Duvalier (1956\u20131957).\n--The Duvalier era (1957\u20131986).\n----'Papa Doc' (1957\u20131971).\n----'Baby Doc' (1971\u20131986).\n--The struggle for democracy (1986\u2013present day).\n----Transitional government (1986\u20131990).\n----The rise of Aristide (1990\u20131991).\n----Military rule (1991\u20131994).\n----The return of Aristide (1994\u20131996).\n----Preval's first Presidency (1996\u20132001).\n----Aristide's second presidency (2001\u20132004).\n----The 2004 coup d'\u00e9tat.\n----The second Pr\u00e9val presidency (2006\u20132011).\n----Earthquake 2010.\n----The Martelly presidency (2011\u20132016).\n----The Mo\u00efse presidency (2017\u20132021).\n--2021 earthquake.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "The recorded history of Haiti began on 5 December 1492, when the European navigator Christopher Columbus landed on a large island in the region of the western Atlantic Ocean that later came to be known as the Caribbean. It was inhabited by the Ta\u00edno and Arawakan people, who variously called their island \"Ayiti\", \"Bohio\", and \"Kiskeya\" \"(Quisqueya)\". Columbus promptly claimed the island for the Spanish Crown, naming it \"La Isla Espa\u00f1ola\" (\"the Spanish Island\"), later Latinized to \"Hispaniola\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti\u2013Spain relations",
        "text": "On December 17, 1492 Christopher Columbus arrived at La Espa\u00f1ola, part of what would later be called Greater Antilles, and the island became part of the Spanish Empire. Before the arrival of the Spaniards, it was inhabited by ethnic groups Arawaks, Caribs and Ta\u00ednos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti\u2013Spain relations",
        "text": "At the beginning of the 17th century, due to the boom that had acquired the informal trade of the Creole settlers of the island and that went against the monopoly that the metropolis intended, the Spanish governor Antonio de Osorio ordered between 1605 and 1606 the depopulation of the central and western part of the island in order to stop this practice. Over time, the \"bucaneros\", men who lived on cattle hunting and maroon pigs, the fur trade and tobacco cultivation, settled down in the unpopulated areas of the western part, as well as the filibusters, both of French origin. They first occupied the Turtle Island and later these settlements determined that the western part of the island was claimed by France. In 1697, Spain ceded that part of the island to France by the Treaty of Ryswick, constituting the French Saint Domingue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity in Haiti",
        "text": "During Spanish rule, religion was one of the most important aspects of life on the island. Catholic missionaries traveled inland to Christianize most of the island inhabitants. In 1511, three bishoprics formed and the inhabitants appeared enthusiastic. However, missionary work among such impoverished people on a tropical island was challenging. Diseases such as 'yellow fever' and malaria killed many missionaries and their converts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "In Haiti, the French system of private land ownership guaranteed by the state was the norm, while in the Spanish section, the predominant system was communal grounds, and a hierarchy of tenancy that clashed. By June 15, Boyer was still promising nationally donated land. To donate this land, the Haitian administration prohibited ownership of land by white Dominicans, depriving the main popular families of the country of their lands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity in Haiti",
        "text": "Haiti was first colonized by the Spanish, who later abandoned the island's western portion. That region came under French influence after 1630, and was formally recognized as the French colony of Saint-Domingue in 1697. Under French rule, Roman Catholicism was the sole legal religion, though African slaves frequently practiced vodou. Slaves revolted in 1791 and established the first black republic in 1804. Three years later Protestant missionary activity begun. Political control of the island shifted frequently during the 19th century with different European governments, the Dominican republic, Columbia and Haiti itself alternating in power."
      },
      {
        "title": "Era de Francia",
        "text": "In 1805, after crowning himself Emperor, Jean-Jacques Dessalines invaded, reaching Santo Domingo before retreating in the face of a French naval squadron. The Haitians fell back through the settled area of the interior, sacking the towns of Monte Plata, Cotui and La Vega, and slaughtering the citizens of Moca and Santiago. They left the fields laid waste, the cities ablaze and the churches in ashes behind them. In Moca only two people survived, thanks to corpses having been piled up on those still living in the church where the principal massacre took place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "Other cultural changes were the restriction of the Spanish language, and traditional customs, like cockfights were outlawed."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "In this period, the eastern part of the island rose against the new powers following general Juan S\u00e1nchez Ram\u00edrez's claims of independence from France, which broke the Treaties of B\u00e2le attacking Spain and prohibited commerce with Haiti. In the Palo Hincado battle (7 November 1808), all the remaining French forces were defeated by Spanish-creole insurrectionists. On 9 July 1809, Santo Domingo was born. The government put itself under the control of Spain, earning it the nickname of \"Espa\u00f1a Boba\" (meaning \"The Idiot Spain\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "With slavery abolished, Toussaint Louverture pledged allegiance to France, and he fought off the British and Spanish forces who had taken advantage of the situation and invaded Saint-Domingue. The Spanish were later forced to cede their part of the island to France under the terms of the Peace of Basel in 1795, uniting the island under one government. However an insurgency against French rule broke out in the east, and in the west there was fighting between Louverture's forces and the free people of color led by Andr\u00e9 Rigaud in the War of the Knives (1799\u20131800). Many surviving free people of color left the island as refugees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "The island was originally inhabited by the indigenous Ta\u00edno people, who originated in South America. The first Europeans arrived on 5 December 1492 during the first voyage of Christopher Columbus, who initially believed he had found India or China. Columbus subsequently founded the first European settlement in the Americas, La Navidad, on what is now the northeastern coast of Haiti. The island was claimed by Spain and named , forming part of the Spanish Empire until the early 17th century. However, competing claims and settlements by the French led to the western portion of the island being ceded to France in 1697, which was subsequently named . French colonists established lucrative sugarcane plantations, worked by vast numbers of slaves brought from Africa, which made the colony one of the richest in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint-Domingue",
        "text": "Haiti did not try to support or aid other slave rebellions because they feared that the great powers would take renewed action against them, as happened a few years later with Spain. After the defeat of the French army, wealthy white owners saw the opportunity to preserve their political power and plantations. They attacked the town halls that had representatives of the defeated French authority. Elite planters took control of the former Spanish side of the island, asking Spain for a Spanish government and protection by the Spanish army. Later these planters created trade regulations that would further preserve their own wealth and power."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "The Republic of Spanish Haiti (), also called the Independent State of Spanish Haiti () was the independent state that resulted from the defeat of Spanish colonialists from Santo Domingo on November 9, 1821, led by General Jos\u00e9 N\u00fa\u00f1ez de C\u00e1ceres. The republic lasted only from December 1, 1821, to February 9, 1822, when it was annexed by the Republic of Haiti."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "By 1801, Toussaint was in control of all of Hispaniola, after conquering French Santo Domingo and proclaiming the abolition of slavery there. He did not, however, proclaim full independence for the country, nor did he seek reprisals against the country's former white slaveholders, convinced that the French would not restore slavery and \"that a population of slaves recently landed from Africa could not attain to civilization by 'going it alone.'\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "Almost two years after Boyer had consolidated power in the west, Haiti invaded Santo Domingo (present-day Dominican Republic) and declared the island free from European powers. Boyer, however, responding to a party on the east that preferred Haiti over Colombia, occupied the ex-Spanish colony in January 1822, encountering no military resistance. In this way he accomplished the unity of the island, which was only carried out for a short period of time by Toussaint Louverture in 1801. Boyer's occupation of the Spanish side also responded to internal struggles among Christophe's generals, to which Boyer gave extensive powers and lands in the east. This occupation, however, pitted the Spanish white elite against the iron fisted Haitian administration, and stimulated the emigration of many white wealthy families. The entire island remained under Haitian rule until 1844, when in the east a nationalist group called La Trinitaria led a revolt that partitioned the island into Haiti on the west and Dominican Republic on the east, based on what would appear to be a riverine territorial 'divide' from the pre-contact period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Haiti (1859\u20131957)",
        "text": "The Republic of Haiti (, ) from 1859 to 1957 was an era in Haitian history plagued with political struggles, the period of American occupation and multiple coups and elections until the Duvalier dynasty seized control of the country in 1957."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "In late 1821 and early 1822, Haiti sent emissaries to the central and northern parts of Spanish Haiti to promote its annexation, and the people began to raise the Haitian flag on public buildings and plazas, such as Hincha (present-day Hinche), but also in large cities like Puerto Plata (December 13, 1821), Dajab\u00f3n (December 15), Santiago (December 29) and La Vega (January 4, 1822), whereas other forces which opposed unification with Haiti formally declared independence from Spain on December 1, 1821."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fran\u00e7ois d'Alesso d'\u00c9ragny",
        "text": "In January 1691 a Spanish fleet landed 2,600 men at Cap\u2011Fran\u00e7ais on Saint-Domingue (now Haiti), joined by 700 men who had made their way from the Spanish part of the island on foot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hinche",
        "text": "On 1 December 1821 it was declared in Santo Domingo the independence of the Republic of Spanish Haiti by the European-born and Criollo white colonial aristocracy, but this action was not supported by the population with any degree of African descent (including many slaves and servants who were phenotypically white), who were wary of the rule of pure whites, and preferred to unite with the \"French\" Haiti, because there was no slavery. On late 1821 and early 1822, Haiti sent emissaries to the central and northern Spanish Haiti to promote the accession of the country to Haiti, and the people began to raise the Haitian flag on public buildings and plazas, among them Hincha, but also in another large cities like Puerto Plata (13 December 1821), Dajab\u00f3n (15 December), Santiago (29 December) and La Vega (4 January 1822). The Haitian government proceed to annex the Eastern side of the island in February 1822 and the Haitian army entered in Santo Domingo city with no resistance on 1 March 1822, commanded by President Jean-Pierre Boyer. After political and economic crises and growing discontent, most people felt cheated. In 1844 the former Spanish Haiti declared its independence and became the Dominican Republic."
      },
      {
        "title": "1804 Haiti massacre",
        "text": "Despite the French proclamation of emancipation, the blacks sided with the Spanish who came to occupy the region. In July 1794, Spanish forces stood by while the black troops of Jean-Fran\u00e7ois massacred the French whites in Fort-Dauphin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Haiti (1859\u20131957)",
        "text": "The US occupation was a costly period in terms of human life. A revolt by disgruntled citizens was put down in 1918, with an estimated 2,000 killed. White foreigners, many with deep racial prejudices, dominated public policy, which angered the historically dominant Mulattos. However, Haiti's infrastructure, including roads, telephone lines, and plumbing, were repaired. Lighthouses, schools, hospitals, and harbors were built. Louis Borno replaced Dartiguenave as president in 1922, after he was forced out of office. He ruled without a legislature until elections were permitted in 1930. This newly formed legislature elected St\u00e9nio Vincent, a mulatto, as president."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human rights in Haiti",
        "text": "The land that would become Haiti was first colonized by Spain at the end of the 15th century. The Spanish essentially wiped out the native Ta\u00edno people through slavery and smallpox, to which the Ta\u00edno had no immunity. An early defender of more humane treatment of the Ta\u00edno was the Spanish priest Bartolom\u00e9 de Las Casas. Albeit too late to save the Ta\u00edno, Las Casas was able to persuade the Spanish government that the Ta\u00edno could not withstand such cruel treatment. This had the tragic side effect of the importation of African slaves to replace the labor of the diminishing Ta\u00edno."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "On December 1, 1821, a constitutive act was ordered to petition the union of Spanish Haiti with Gran Colombia. The state of the Republic of Spanish Haiti was not supported by the population of slaves and servants, who were wary of the rule of pure whites, and preferred to unite with \"French\" Haiti, because of their abolition of slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "First Empire of Haiti",
        "text": "The French kept the eastern part until the Spanish victory at Palo Hincado on 7 November 1808, and the surrender of Santo Domingo on 9 July 1809; the Spanish emerged victorious thanks to assistance from the British."
      },
      {
        "title": "Americans in Haiti",
        "text": "During the antebellum era, many free blacks emigrated to Haiti. Although a few emigrants left for Haiti during the 1810s, it was not until 1824 that with the support of the Haitian President Jean-Pierre Boyer that emigration from the United States increased. Several thousand free blacks left for Haiti in the summer of 1824 and the flow continued until 1826 when the Haitian government stopped paying and defraying the transportation costs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "Eventually, the Haitian government became very unpopular, due to the severe economic crisis that hit the country after paying a huge indemnity to France, and gave rise to many anti-Haitian plots. It lasted until 1844, when the independent nation of the Dominican Republic was established."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Haiti (1820\u20131849)",
        "text": "In the eastern part of Hispaniola, Jos\u00e9 N\u00fa\u00f1ez de C\u00e1ceres declared the independence of the colony as the Republic of Spanish Haiti on 1 December 1821, and applied for admission to the Republic of Gran Colombia. Nine weeks later, Haitian forces led by Jean-Pierre Boyer entered the newly-declared state and occupied Santo Domingo on 9 February 1822. The military occupation of Santo Domingo would last 22 years, until the fall of Boyer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dominican Republic nationality law",
        "text": "For three centuries, the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo was ruled by Spain, except for a brief period from 1795 to 1808, when it was ceded to France by the Treaty of Basel. Returned to Spain after the Battle of Palo Hincado, the island continued under Spanish administration and laws until declaring the independence of the Republic of Spanish Haiti in 1821. The Constitutional Act of 1821, provided in Article 9 that all free men of any color or religion who were born in the territory or foreign-born men who were married to native women who had lived in the country for three years were nationals. Article 4, stated that the new nation would align as one of the states of Gran Colombia. Colombia's indifference to the Dominican plan allowed Haitian president Jean-Pierre Boyer who offered protection to Spanish Haiti to annex the country into the Republic of Haiti in 1822."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Haiti (1820\u20131849)",
        "text": "The Republic of Haiti (, ) from 1820 to 1849 was effectively a continuation of the first Republic of Haiti that had been in control of the south of what is now Haiti since 1806. This period of Haitian history commenced with the fall of the Kingdom of Haiti in the north and the reunification of Haiti in 1820 under Jean-Pierre Boyer. This period also encompassed Haitian occupation of Santo Domingo from 1822 to 1844 creating a unified political entity on the island of Hispaniola. Although termed a republic, this period of was dominated by Boyer's authoritarian rule as president-for-life until 1843. The first Republic of Haiti ended in 1849 when president Faustin Soulouque declared himself emperor, thus beginning the Second Empire of Haiti."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian cuisine",
        "text": "Christopher Columbus landed at M\u00f4le Saint-Nicolas on 5 December 1492, and claimed the island he named \"La Isla Espanola\" (later named Hispaniola) for Spain. The Spanish established sugar plantations and made the natives work as slaves, however the harsh conditions and infectious diseases brought over by the Spanish sailors nearly wiped out the indigenous population by 1520 as the natives lacked immunity to these new diseases, The Spaniards imported slaves from Africa to work these plantations instead. The Africans introduced okra (also called \"gumbo\"; edible pods), ackee (red and yellow fruit), taro (an edible root), pigeon peas (seeds of an African shrub), and various spices to the diet. In 1659, the French had established themselves on the western portion of the islands of Hispaniola and Tortuga by the way of buccaneers. The Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, allowed the French to acquire the western portion of the island from the Spanish they had neglected. By the 1700s, the French had situated its control comfortably, successfully cultivating sugarcane, coffee, cotton, and cocoa from the African slave labor. When the Haitian Revolution ended and the First Empire of Haiti was established in 1804, thousands of refugees from the revolution, both whites and free people of color (\"affranchis\" or \"gens de couleur libres\"), fled to New Orleans, often bringing African slaves with them, doubling the city's population. They also introduced such Haitian specialties as the \"red beans and rice\" and mirliton (or called chayote; a pear-shaped vegetable) to the Louisiana Creole cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "On 29 August 1793, Sonthonax took the radical step of proclaiming the freedom of the slaves in the north province (with severe limits on their freedom). In September and October, emancipation was extended throughout the colony. The French National Convention, the first elected Assembly of the First Republic (1792\u20131804), on 4 February 1794, under the leadership of Maximilien de Robespierre, abolished slavery by law in France and all its colonies. The constitution of 1793, which was never applied, and the constitution of 1795, which was put into effect, did both contain an explicit ban on slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Garifuna",
        "text": "This was also in the period of the Haitian Revolution in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, which ultimately led to the enslaved people creating the independent republic of Haiti in 1804. The French lost thousands of troops in an attempt to take back the island in 1803, many to yellow fever epidemics. Thousands of whites and free people of color were killed in the revolution. Europeans throughout the Caribbean and in the Southern United States feared future slave revolts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "After Dessalines' death Haiti became split into two, with the Kingdom of Haiti in the north directed by Henri Christophe, later declaring himself Henri I, and a republic in the south centered on Port-au-Prince, directed by Alexandre P\u00e9tion, an \"homme de couleur\". Christophe established a semi-feudal corv\u00e9e system, with a rigid education and economic code. P\u00e9tion's republic was less absolutist, and he initiated a series of land reforms which benefited the peasant class. President P\u00e9tion also gave military and financial assistance to the revolutionary leader Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar, which were critical in enabling him to liberate the Viceroyalty of New Granada. Meanwhile, the French, who had managed to maintain a precarious control of eastern Hispaniola, were defeated by insurgents led by Juan S\u00e1nchez Ram\u00edrez, with the area returning to Spanish rule in 1809 following the Battle of Palo Hincado."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "Upon assuming power, General Dessalines authorized the Constitution of 1804. This constitution, in terms of social freedoms, called for:\n# Freedom of religion (Under Toussaint, Catholicism had been declared the official state religion);\n# All citizens of Haiti, regardless of skin color, to be known as \"Black\" (this was an attempt to eliminate the multi-tiered racial hierarchy that had developed in Haiti, with full or near full-blooded Europeans at the top, various levels of light to brown skin in the middle, and dark skinned \"Kongo\" from Africa at the bottom).\n# White men were forbidden from possessing property or domain on Haitian soil. Should the French return to reimpose slavery, Article 5 of the constitution declared: \"At the first shot of the warning gun, the towns shall be destroyed and the nation will rise in arms.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Antihaitianismo",
        "text": "\"Antihaitianismo\" can be traced back to a policy of racial segregation instituted by the Spaniards in the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo (present-day Dominican Republic). Prior to the arrival of Europeans, the island was split into absolutist chiefdoms, three where modern-day Santo Domingo now exists, and two where modern-day Haiti now exists (albeit also including some territory which is currently part of Santo Domingo). Carib people from islands further south were often at war with the Ta\u00edno people. Columbus reached the island in 1492 (slaves imported from Africa arrived from 1503 onwards\u2014many natives were also soon enslaved), and within a few decades the Spanish controlled most of the island. During the 17th century, however, the French also began maneuvering for control, and in 1697 acquired the western portion (now part of Haiti\u2014whereas the Spanish portion encompassed the modern Dominican Republic). During the 1790s and early 19th century, the French and Spanish battled back and forth across the island; by 1809 the Haitian Revolution had resulted in the overthrow of both French and Spanish control. The Spanish briefly retook the eastern portion that same year, but in 1821 lost control again in another rebellion. Shortly afterwards, Haitian forces again briefly controlled the entire island, from 1822 to 1844. In 1844 the secret revolutionary movement called \"La Trinitaria\" took place and the Dominican Republic declared its independence defeating the Haitian forces. After several tumultuous decades, the Spanish briefly acquired nominal control of the Dominican Republic in the 1860s, setting off another war. By the late 19th century, over three hundred years of European control was ended; the modern history of west Hispaniola (Haiti) and east Hispaniola (Dominican Republic) had begun."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "In 1595, the Spanish, frustrated by the twenty-year rebellion of their Dutch subjects, closed their home ports to rebel shipping from the Netherlands, cutting them off from the critical salt supplies necessary for their herring industry. The Dutch responded by sourcing new salt supplies from Spanish America where colonists were more than happy to trade. So large numbers of Dutch traders/pirates joined their English and French brethren trading on the remote coasts of Hispaniola. In 1605, Spain was infuriated that Spanish settlements on the northern and western coasts of the island persisted in carrying out large scale and illegal trade with the Dutch, who were at that time fighting a war of independence against Spain in Europe and the English, a very recent enemy state, and so decided to forcibly resettle their inhabitants closer to the city of Santo Domingo. This action, known as the \"Devastaciones de Osorio\", proved disastrous for the colonists; more than half of the resettled colonists died of starvation or disease, over 100,000 cattle were abandoned, and many slaves escaped. Five of the existing thirteen settlements on the island were brutally razed by Spanish troops including the two settlements on the territory of present-day Haiti, La Yaguana, and Bayaja. Many of the inhabitants fought, escaped to the jungle, or fled to the safety of passing Dutch ships."
      },
      {
        "title": "An Unbroken Agony",
        "text": "So for the next two hundred years, Haiti would be faced with the active hostility from the world's most powerful community of nations.\" The hostilities came in the form of \"military invasions, economic embargoes, gunboat blockades, reparations demands, trade barriers, diplomatic quarantines, subsidized armed subversions.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "In February 1915, Vilbrun Guillaume Sam established a dictatorship, but in July, facing a new revolt, he massacred 167 political prisoners, all of whom were from elite families, and was lynched by a mob in Port-au-Prince."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "As the Spanish re-focused their colonization efforts on the greater riches of mainland Central and South America, Hispaniola became reduced largely to a trading and refueling post. As a result piracy became widespread, encouraged by European powers hostile to Spain such as France (based on \u00cele de la Tortue) and England. The Spanish largely abandoned the western third of the island, focusing their colonization effort on the eastern two-thirds. The western part of the island was thus gradually settled by French buccaneers; among them was Bertrand d'Ogeron, who succeeded in growing tobacco and recruited many French colonial families from Martinique and Guadeloupe. In 1697 France and Spain settled their hostilities on the island by way of the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, which divided Hispaniola between them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "At the time of the Haitian Revolution, an event that involved the eradication of whites (mostly French) in Haiti, many of the blacks in Haiti were African-born and had no non-African ancestry. This was because the average African slave in colonial Haiti had a short life span and France continuously imported thousands of Africans yearly to keep the slave population up, by 1790 there were nearly 600,000 slaves, outnumbering whites about 20 to 1."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "Navigator Christopher Columbus landed in Haiti on 6 December 1492, in an area that he named \"M\u00f4le-Saint-Nicolas,\" and claimed the island for the Crown of Castile. Nineteen days later, his ship the \"Santa Mar\u00eda\" ran aground near the present site of Cap-Ha\u00eftien. Columbus left 39 men on the island, who founded the settlement of La Navidad on 25 December 1492. Relations with the native peoples, initially good, broke down and the settlers were later killed by the Ta\u00edno."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "The 1988 elections led to Professor Leslie Manigat becoming president, but three months later he too was ousted by the military. Further instability ensued, with several massacres, including the St Jean Bosco massacre in which the church of Jean-Bertrand Aristide was attacked and burned down. During this period, the Haitian National Intelligence Service (SIN), which had been set up and financed in the 80s by the Central Intelligence Agency as part of the war on drugs, participated in drug trafficking and political violence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Revolution",
        "text": "Toussaint, for reasons that remain obscure, suddenly joined the French and turned against the Spanish, ambushing his allies as they emerged from attending mass in a church at San Raphael on 6 May 1794. The Haitians soon expelled the Spanish from Saint-Domingue. Toussaint proved to be forgiving of the whites, insisting that he was fighting to assert the rights of the slaves as black French people to be free. He said he did not seek independence from France, and urged the surviving whites, including the former slave masters, to stay and work with him in rebuilding Saint-Domingue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "A group of politicians and military officers continued to favor uniting the new nation with Haiti, as various elite families sought for political stability under Haitian president Boyer. A large faction based in the northern Cibao region were opposed to the union with Gran Colombia, and also sided with Boyer. Boyer, on the other hand, sought to protect his country from the possibility of either France or Spain retaking the eastern side of the island, and attacking or even re-conquering Haiti. He sought not only to maintain Haitian independence, but to maintain the freedom of its former slaves, as well as to liberate the remaining slaves in Spanish Haiti. After promising his protection to the government of N\u00fa\u00f1ez de C\u00e1ceres, Boyer entered with a force of 12,000 soldiers in February 1822, after most cities and towns proclaimed its annexation to the Republic of Haiti between November 1821 and January 1822, including Puerto Plata (December 13, 1821) and Santiago (December 29, 1821)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "On December 30, 1821, at 11:30\u00a0p.m. the \"tropas de morenos\" (), led by Pablo Ali and Jos\u00e9 N\u00fa\u00f1ez de C\u00e1ceres, surprised the Fortaleza Ozama's guards and jailed Governor Pascual Real in the Torre de Homenaje (the keep) of Santo Domingo. The next morning, at 6:00\u00a0am, the cannon fire signalled the political change taking place."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "Successive waves of Arawak migrants, moving northward from the Orinoco delta in South America, settled the islands of the Caribbean. Around A.D. 600, the Ta\u00edno, an Arawak culture, arrived on the island, displacing the previous inhabitants, however this view is widely disputed. They were organized into \"cacicazgos\" (chiefdoms), each led by a \"cacique\" (chief)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery in Haiti",
        "text": "Slavery in Haiti after the arrival of Christopher Columbus on the island in 1492 with the European colonists that followed from Portugal, Spain and France. The practice was devastating to the native population. Following the indigenous Tainos' near decimation from forced labor, disease and war, the Spanish, under advisement of the Catholic priest Bartolom\u00e9 de las Casas and with the blessing of the Catholic church, began engaging in earnest during the 17th century in the forced labor of enslaved Africans. During the French colonial period, beginning in 1625, the economy of Saint-Domingue (today Haiti), was based on slavery; slavery was rarely pleasant, but conditions on Saint-Domingue became notoriously bad. The Haitian Revolution of 1791-1803, became the only successful slave revolt in human history, and precipitated the end of slavery not only in Saint-Domingue, but in all French colonies. However, this revolt has only merited a marginal role in the histories of Portuguese and Spanish America. Moreover, it is to this rebellion in Haiti that the struggle for independence in Latin American can be traced to. However, several Haitian leaders following the revolution employed forced labor, believing a plantation-style economy was the only way for Haiti to succeed, and building fortifications to safeguard against attack by the French. During the U.S. occupation between 1915 and 1934, the U.S. military forced Haitians to work building roads for defense against Haitian resistance fighters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free people of color",
        "text": "Under the \"ancien r\u00e9gime\", despite the provisions of equality nominally established in the \"Code Noir\", the \"gens de couleur\" were limited in their freedoms. They did not possess the same rights as white Frenchmen, specifically the right to vote. Most supported slavery on the island, at least up to the time of the French Revolution. But they sought equal rights for free people of color, which became an early central issue of the unfolding Haitian Revolution."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "On 20 May 1802, Napoleon signed a law to maintain slavery where it had not yet disappeared, namely Martinique, Tobago, and Saint Lucia. A confidential copy of this decree was sent to Leclerc, who was authorized to restore slavery in Saint-Domingue when the time was opportune. At the same time, further edicts stripped the \"gens de couleur\" of their newly won civil rights. None of these decrees were published or executed in St. Domingue, but, by midsummer, word began to reach the colony of the French intention to restore slavery. The betrayal of Toussaint and news of French actions in Martinique undermined the collaboration of leaders such as Dessalines, Christophe, and P\u00e9tion. Convinced that the same fate lay in store for Saint-Domingue, these commanders and others once again battled Leclerc. With the French intent on reconquest and re-enslavement of the colony's black population, the war became a bloody struggle of atrocity and attrition. The rainy season brought yellow fever and malaria, which took a heavy toll on the invaders. By November, when Leclerc died of yellow fever, 24,000 French soldiers were dead and 8,000 were hospitalized, the majority from disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery in Haiti",
        "text": "The natives living on the island that would come to be called Hispaniola welcomed Christopher Columbus and his crew when they landed on the island in October 1492. In the Pre-Columbian era, other Caribbean tribes would sometimes attack the island to kidnap people into slavery. After the arrival of Columbus, the European colonists turned slavery on the island into a major business: colonists quickly began establishing sugar plantations dependent on slave labor. The practice of slavery in the Spanish New World colonies would become so large-scale in Spain's colonization of the Americas that imports of African slaves outnumbered Spanish immigration to the New World by the end of the 1500s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery",
        "text": "Slavery in Haiti started with the arrival of Christopher Columbus on the island in 1492. The practice was devastating to the native population. Following the indigenous Ta\u00edno's near decimation from forced labour, disease and war, the Spanish, under advisement of the Catholic priest Bartolomeu de las Casas, and with the blessing of the Catholic church began engaging in earnest in the kidnapped and forced labour of enslaved Africans. During the French colonial period beginning in 1625, the economy of Haiti (then known as Saint-Domingue) was based on slavery, and the practice there was regarded as the most brutal in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Haiti (1820\u20131849)",
        "text": "Republic of Haiti (1820\u20131849)\n--Background.\n--History.\n----Unification of Hispaniola.\n----Rule of Boyer.\n----Fall of Boyer.\n----Return to Republic.\n----End of the Republic.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Decolonization",
        "text": "The Haitian Revolution was a revolt in 1789 and subsequent slave uprising in 1791 in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola. In 1804, Haiti secured independence from France as the Empire of Haiti, which later became a republic."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Dominican Republic",
        "text": "Haiti's constitution forbade whites from owning land, and the major landowning families were forcibly deprived of their properties. Most emigrated to the Spanish colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico, or to independent Gran Colombia, usually with the encouragement of Haitian officials, who acquired their lands. The Haitians, who associated the Catholic Church with the French slave-masters who had exploited them before independence, confiscated all church property, deported all foreign clergy, and severed the ties of the remaining clergy to the Vatican. Santo Domingo's university, the oldest in the Western Hemisphere, lacking students, teachers, and resources, closed down. In order to receive diplomatic recognition from France, Haiti was forced to pay an indemnity of 150 million francs to the former French colonists, which was subsequently lowered to 60 million francs, and Haiti imposed heavy taxes on the eastern part of the island. Since Haiti was unable to adequately provision its army, the occupying forces largely survived by commandeering or confiscating food and supplies at gunpoint."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haitian nationality and citizenship",
        "text": "During the period from 1820 to 1849, which from 1822 included the territory of Hispaniola now known as the Dominican Republic, the Republic of Haiti replaced the Empire of Haiti. The republic was granted independence from France in 1825, subject to paying reparations. That year the government adopted a Civil Code, which was based on the French Napoleonic Code, but had significant differences. In the Haitian version, only people with African or indigenous blood could be naturalized. It conferred nationality upon anyone born in Haiti, regardless of legitimacy, or born abroad to a Haitian. Foreigners were prohibited from owning property in Haiti, except moveable assets, thus if a foreigner inherited property, they had to pay its value to the heirs. Haitian wives who married foreigners were required to sell any real property that they owned, if by marriage they acquired the nationality of their husband."
      },
      {
        "title": "France\u2013Haiti relations",
        "text": "From 1789 to 1799, France underwent a revolution. The revolution in France had great implications in Haiti. In August 1791, slaves in the northern region of Haiti staged a revolt which would be known as the Haitian Revolution. In 1793, France sent as an envoy L\u00e9ger-F\u00e9licit\u00e9 Sonthonax to maintain control and stabilize the colony from the revolution. In February 1793, Haitian leader Toussaint Louverture joined Spanish forces in fighting the French. In October 1793, Sonthonax emancipated the slaves in all of Haiti. In May 1794, Louverture left the Spanish army after they refused to free their slaves in the eastern part of Hispaniola."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Revolution",
        "text": "An independent government was created in Haiti, but the country's society remained deeply affected by patterns established under French colonial rule. As in other French colonial societies, a class of free people of color had developed after centuries of French rule here. Many planters or young unmarried men had relations with African or Afro-Caribbean women, sometimes providing for their freedom and that of their children, as well as providing for education of the mixed-race children, especially the boys. Some were sent to France for education and training, and some joined the French military. The mulattoes who returned to Saint-Domingue became the elite of the people of color. As an educated class used to the French political system, they became the elite of Haitian society after the war's end. Many of them had used their social capital to acquire wealth, and some already owned land. Some had identified more with the French colonists than the slaves. Many of the free people of color, by contrast, were raised in French culture, had certain rights within colonial society, and generally spoke French and practiced Catholicism (with syncretic absorption of African religions.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "White Haitians",
        "text": "In 1777, France and Spain signed a border treaty, in which the western and northwestern coast of Hispaniola would be French and the rest of the island would be Spanish. By 1780 Saint-Domingue was the richest colony in the world, even than all the British Thirteen Colonies and the West Indies together. The French established an economy based on the production and export of sugar sustained on the forced labor of black slaves imported from West and Central Africa. Slavery of blacks was characterized as one of the most ruthless in which terror and severe punishments were applied to slaves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "Republic of Spanish Haiti\n--History.\n----Preparations for independence (1820\u20131821).\n----Independence (1821\u20131822).\n----Political reforms.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "This period of relative stability and prosperity ended in 1911, when revolution broke out and the country slid once again into disorder and debt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Latin America",
        "text": "Independence in the Americas was not inevitable or uniform in the Americas. Events in Europe had a profound impact on the colonial empires of Spain, Portugal, and France in the Americas. France and Spain had supported the American Revolution that saw the independence of the Thirteen Colonies from Britain, which had defeated them in the Seven Years' War (1757\u201363). The outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, a political and social uprising toppling the Bourbon monarchy and overturning the established order, precipitated events in France's rich Caribbean sugar colony of Saint-Domingue, whose black population rose up, led by Toussaint L'ouverture. The Haitian Revolution had far-reaching consequences. Britain declared war on France and attacked ports in Saint-Domingue. Haiti gained independence in 1804, led by ex-slave Jean-Jacques Dessalines following many years of violent struggle, with huge atrocities on both sides. Haitian independence affected colonial empires in the Americas, as well as the United States. Many white, slave-owning sugar planters of Saint-Domingue fled to the Spanish island of Cuba, where they established sugar plantations that became the basis of Cuba's economy. Uniquely in the hemisphere, the black victors in Haiti abolished slavery at independence. Many thousands of remaining whites were executed on the orders of Dessalines. For other regions with large enslaved populations, the Haitian Revolution was a cautionary tale for the white slave-owning planters. Despite Spain and Britain's satisfaction with France's defeat, they \"were obsessed by the possible impact of the slave uprising on Cuba, Santo Domingo, and Jamaica\", by then a British sugar colony. US President Thomas Jefferson, a wealthy slave owner, refused to recognize Haiti's independence. Recognition only came in 1862 from President Abraham Lincoln. Given France's failure to defeat the slave insurgency and since needing money for the war with Britain, Napoleon Bonaparte sold France's remaining mainland holdings in North America to the United States in the 1803 Louisiana Purchase."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian occupation of Santo Domingo",
        "text": "Under Toussaint Louverture's government, slavery was abolished for the first time on the eastern portion of Hispaniola until the colony was ceded to France. While the French had lost their former colony of Saint-Domingue by 1804, the French commander of the former Spanish side had been able to repulse the attacks of Jean-Jacques Dessalines, but in 1808 the people revolted and the following year, with the help of a Royal Navy squadron, ended French control of the city of Santo Domingo. Spanish rule was reestablished. However, this short period under which the whole of Hispaniola was \"de jure\" under French rule was to be the chief justification of the freed Haitians in their quest to reunite the island under their rule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Haiti (1820\u20131849)",
        "text": "After the annexation of Spanish Haiti, Boyer took full powers with the title of \"Supreme Chief of the Nation\" with the right to choose his successor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "The revolution led to a wave of emigration. In 1809, 9,000 refugees from Saint-Domingue, both white planters and people of color, settled \"en masse\" in New Orleans, doubling the city's population, having been expelled from their initial refuge in Cuba by Spanish authorities. In addition, the newly arrived slaves added to the city's African population."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Haitians",
        "text": "For 1791, the first revolt of slaves and mulattos got up, which consisted blacks demanded their rights, to abandon slavery, and equal skin color, this fault with indignation in Paris and whites in Saint-Domingue the white man lynched blacks and mulattos that fell into their hands, no matter their gender or age. Then another stood up to 1804, this time led by the slaves: Toussaint Louverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines, but this what slaves joined and massacred in a brutal form to whites who lived in the colony, as well as their descendants in that colony. This produced a notable reduction of French people in Haiti."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "Toussaint, however, asserted so much independence that in 1802, Napoleon sent a massive invasion force, under his brother-in-law Charles Leclerc, to increase French control. For a time, Leclerc met with some success; he also brought the eastern part of the island of Hispaniola under the direct control of France in accordance with the terms of the 1795 Treaties of B\u00e2le with Spain. With a large expedition that eventually included 40,000 European troops, and receiving help from white colonists and mulatto forces commanded by Alexandre P\u00e9tion, a former lieutenant of Rigaud, the French won several victories after severe fighting. Two of Toussaint's chief lieutenants, Dessalines and Christophe, recognizing their untenable situation, held separate parleys with the invaders and agreed to transfer their allegiance. At this point, Leclerc invited Toussaint to negotiate a settlement. It was a deception; Toussaint was seized and deported to France, where he died of pneumonia while imprisoned at Fort de Joux in the Jura Mountains in April 1803."
      },
      {
        "title": "Georges Biassou",
        "text": "Georges was commemorated as a Spanish officer and an honourable veteran, and was recognised with a Guard of Honour at his Funeral. On 1 January 1804, the island of Hispaniola was declared an independent state, divided into the Republic of Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Haiti is the only nation that has emerged from a successful slave rebellion in modern history. Haiti's independence exposed an interdependence between slave emancipation and the construction of a sovereign state, giving rise to issues such as the definition of citizenship and difficulties in laying political foundations. Georges Biassou's impact surpassed the domestic threshold and influenced world politics permanently. The Haitian revolution dictated the structure of international relations in the forthcoming 19th century with its defeat of the French colonial empire, and subsequent impact on Spain and England, who emerged weakened from the conflict and remained cautious for years to come."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "As numbers of \"gens de couleur\" grew, the French rulers enacted discriminatory laws. Statutes forbade \"gens de couleur\" from taking up certain professions, marrying whites, wearing European clothing, carrying swords or firearms in public, or attending social functions where whites were present. However, these regulations did not restrict their purchase of land, and many accumulated substantial holdings and became slave-owners. By 1789, they owned one-third of the plantation property and one-quarter of the slaves of Saint-Domingue. Central to the rise of the \"gens de couleur\" planter class was the growing importance of coffee, which thrived on the marginal hillside plots to which they were often relegated. The largest concentration of \"gens de couleur\" was in the southern peninsula, the last region of the colony to be settled, owing to its distance from Atlantic shipping lanes and its formidable terrain, with the highest mountain range in the Caribbean."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "The sailors carried endemic Eurasian infectious diseases to which the native peoples lacked immunity, causing them to die in great numbers in epidemics. The first recorded smallpox epidemic in the Americas erupted on Hispaniola in 1507. Their numbers were further reduced by the harshness of the \"\" system, in which the Spanish forced natives to work in gold mines and plantations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bruno Blanchet",
        "text": "During the secession of the North of Haiti by King Henry, the South of the country became a republic under the military authority of Alexander P\u00e9tion. Nevertheless, during the first months of 1807, power was still vacant in the South since the partition of the country in December 1806."
      },
      {
        "title": "Americans in Haiti",
        "text": "Americans in Haiti\n--History.\n----19th century.\n----20th and 21st centuries.\n------U.S. occupation.\n------The Duvalier era to present day.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian occupation of Santo Domingo",
        "text": "On 9 November 1821, Spanish colonial rule over Santo Domingo was overthrown by a group led by Jos\u00e9 N\u00fa\u00f1ez de C\u00e1ceres, the colony's former administrator, and the rebels proclaimed independence from the Spanish crown on 1 December 1821. The new nation was known as Republic of Spanish Haiti (Spanish: \"Rep\u00fablica del Hait\u00ed Espa\u00f1ol\"), as \"Haiti\" had been the indigenous name of the island. On 1 December 1821 a constitutive act was ordered to petition the union of Spanish Haiti with Gran Colombia."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "A small number of Ta\u00ednos were able to survive and set up villages elsewhere. Spanish interest in Hispaniola began to wane in the 1520s, as more lucrative gold and silver deposits were found in Mexico and South America. Thereafter, the population of Spanish Hispaniola grew at a slow pace."
      },
      {
        "title": "French colonial empire",
        "text": "The slaves, led eventually by Toussaint L'Ouverture and then, following his capture by the French in 1801, by Jean-Jacques Dessalines, held their own against French and British opponents. The French launched a failed expedition in 1802, and were up against a crippling Royal Naval blockade the following year - as a result the Empire of Haiti ultimately achieved independence in 1804 (Haiti became the first black republic in the world, followed by Liberia in 1847). The black and mulatto population of the island (including the Spanish east) had declined from 700,000 in 1789 to 351,819 in 1804. About 80,000 Haitians died in the 1802\u201303 campaign alone. Of the 55,131 French soldiers dispatched to Haiti in 1802\u201303, 45,000, including 18 generals, had died, along with 10,000 sailors, the great majority from disease. Captain [first name unknown] Sorrell of the British navy observed, \"France lost there one of the finest armies she ever sent forth, composed of picked veterans, the conquerors of Italy and of German legions. She is now entirely deprived of her influence and her power in the West Indies.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery in Haiti",
        "text": "In response to the brutality, the natives fought back. Some Taino escaped into remote parts of the island's mountains and formed communities in hiding as \"maroons\", who organized attacks against Spaniards' settlements. The Spanish responded to the native resistance with severe reprisals, for example destroying crops to starve the natives. The Spaniards brought to the island dogs trained to kill the natives and unleashed them upon those who rebelled against enslavement. In 1495, Spaniards sent 500 captured natives back to Spain as slaves, but 200 did not survive the voyage, and the others died shortly afterwards. In the late 1490s they planned to send 4,000 slaves back to Spain each year, but this expectation failed to take into account the rapid decline the native population would soon suffer and was never achieved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Revolution",
        "text": "In 1758, the planters began passing legislation restricting the rights of other groups of people until a rigid caste system was defined. Most historians classify the people of the era into three groups:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Free people of color",
        "text": "Dessalines did not forget these people and their sacrifices against Spain and now, France. He named the Haitian army \u201cthe Incas\u201d, \u201cthe Army of the Sun\u201d and eventually \u201cthe Indigenous Army\u201d in honor of them. He also renamed the island \u201cHaiti,\u201d its pre-Columbian name."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery in Haiti",
        "text": "The Spanish ceded control of the western part of the island of Hispaniola to the French in the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697; France named its new colonial possession \"Saint-Domingue\". The colony, based on the export of cash crops, particularly sugar cane, would become the richest in the world. Known as the \"Pearl of the Antilles\", the colony became the world's foremost producer of coffee and sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "Beginning in 1821, President Jean-Pierre Boyer, also an \"homme de couleur\" and successor to P\u00e9tion, reunified the island following the suicide of Henry Christophe. After Santo Domingo declared its independence from Spain on 30 November 1821, Boyer invaded, seeking to unite the entire island by force and ending slavery in Santo Domingo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Spanish Haiti",
        "text": "Haitian president Jean-Pierre Boyer decided to prepare for a rumored military advancement by Spain into Haiti, due to repeated rumors that the French and the Spanish were going to invade from the vulnerable east side of the island."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hispaniola",
        "text": "Under Napoleon, France reimposed slavery in most of its Caribbean islands in 1802 and sent an army to bring Saint-Domingue under tighter control. However, thousands of the French troops succumbed to yellow fever during the summer months, and more than half of the French army died because of disease. After the French removed the surviving 7,000 troops in late 1803, the leaders of the revolution declared western Hispaniola the new nation of independent Haiti in early 1804. France continued to rule Spanish Santo Domingo. In 1805, Haitian troops of General Henri Christophe tried to conquer all of Hispaniola. They invaded Santo Domingo and sacked the towns of Santiago de los Caballeros and Moca, killing most of their residents, but news of a French fleet sailing towards Haiti forced General Christophe to withdraw from the east, leaving it in French hands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in Haiti",
        "text": "After independence from France Alexandre P\u00e9tion (and later Jean-Pierre Boyer) undertook Latin America's first, and perhaps most radical, land reform by subdividing plantations for the use of emancipated slaves. The reform measures were so extensive that by 1842 no plantation was its original size. By the mid-nineteenth century, therefore, Haiti's present-day land structure was largely in place. The basic structures of land tenure remained remarkably stable during the twentieth century, despite steadily increasing pressure for land, the fragmentation of land parcels, and a slight increase in the concentration of ownership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Era de Francia",
        "text": "Ironically, the Dominicans had gone to war against the French to restore Spanish rule to Santo Domingo just as the rest of Hispanic America was preparing to renounce Spanish colonialism. Moreover, the so-called War of Reconquest, following two invasions by the Haitians, had left the colony completely devastated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity in Haiti",
        "text": "Under French rule, Capuchins and Jesuits did most of the missionary work in the 18th century. From 1804, when independence was declared, until 1860, the country was in schism. Relations were regularized by a concordat concluded in 1860, when an archdiocese and four dioceses were established. Most of the population of Haiti adheres to the Catholic faith, though some combine this with elements of vodou."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "In the midst of the French Revolution (1789\u201399), slaves and free people of color launched the Haitian Revolution (1791\u20131804), led by a former slave and the first black general of the French Army, Toussaint Louverture. After 12 years of conflict, Napoleon Bonaparte's forces were defeated by Louverture's successor, Jean-Jacques Dessalines (later Emperor Jacques I), who declared Haiti's sovereignty on 1 January 1804\u2014the first independent nation of Latin America and the Caribbean, the second republic in the Americas, the first country in the Americas to abolish slavery, and the only state in history established by a successful slave revolt. Apart from Alexandre P\u00e9tion, the first President of the Republic, all of Haiti's first leaders were former slaves. After a brief period in which the country was split in two, President Jean-Pierre Boyer united the country and then attempted to bring the whole of Hispaniola under Haitian control, precipitating a long series of wars that ended in the 1870s when Haiti formally recognized the independence of the Dominican Republic."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "After the Dessalines coup d'\u00e9tat, the two main conspirators divided the country in two rival regimes. Christophe created the authoritarian State of Haiti in the north, and the gent de couleur P\u00e9tion established the Republic of Haiti in the south. Christophe attempted to maintain a strict system of labor and agricultural production akin to the former plantations. Although, strictly speaking, he did not establish slavery, he imposed a semi-feudal system, fumage, in which every able man was required to work in plantations (similar to latifundios) to produce goods for the fledgling country. His method, though undoubtedly oppressive, produced the most revenues of the two governments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Restavek",
        "text": "When Christopher Columbus first landed on the island he called Santo Domingo in 1492, he imprisoned some native people as slaves. Later European colonists, primarily Spanish and French, imported enslaved Africans to work on the sugar cane plantations developed there. The French had a more developed plantation system on their half of the island, known as Saint-Domingue. After a successful slave revolution was conducted for years, France withdrew its troops and Haiti proclaimed independence in 1804."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery in Haiti",
        "text": "Slavery in Haiti\n--History.\n----Spanish Hispaniola (1492\u20131625).\n----Saint Domingue (1625\u20131789).\n----Revolutionary period (1789\u20131804).\n----Jean-Jacques Dessalines.\n----Henri Christophe.\n----Jean-Pierre Boyer.\n----US occupation.\n--Reparations for slavery.\n----Haiti indemnity controversy.\n----Reparations for slavery in Haiti.\n--Modern day.\n----Children.\n----Sex slavery.\n----Haitian\u2013Dominican border.\n----Government action.\n------Anti-restavek action.\n------Prosecution and protection.\n------Prevention.\n----Contributing factors.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Human rights in Haiti",
        "text": "In 1697, Spain formally ceded to France control of the part of the island of Hispaniola that would become Haiti, naming it Saint-Domingue. Slavery in Saint-Domingue, France's most lucrative colony, was known to be especially brutal, with a complete turnover of the slave population due to death every 20 years. According to the historian Laurent Dubois, between 5 and 10 percent of slaves died every year due to overwork and disease, a rate that outpaced births. The dead were replaced by new slaves from Africa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Revolution",
        "text": "Haitian Revolution\n--Background.\n----Slave economy in Saint-Domingue.\n----Demographics.\n----Social conflict.\n----Slavery in Enlightenment thought.\n--Situation in 1789.\n----Social stratification.\n----Regional conflicts.\n--Effects of the French Revolution.\n--1791 slave rebellion.\n----Onset of the revolution.\n----Britain and Spain enter the conflict.\n----French declare slavery abolished.\n----Spanish depart Saint Domingue.\n----British \"great push\".\n----British withdrawal.\n----Toussaint consolidates control.\n--Leadership of Louverture.\n----Toussaint Louverture.\n----Napoleon invades Haiti.\n----Haitian resistance and scorched-earth tactics.\n----Cr\u00eate-\u00e0-Pierrot fortress.\n----Capture of Toussaint.\n--War of Independence.\n----Rebellion against reimposition of slavery.\n----Dessalines and P\u00e9tion join Haitian forces.\n----War between France and Britain.\n----Haitian victory.\n--Free republic.\n----1804 massacre of the French.\n--Post Revolution Era.\n--Influence on slavery in the Americas.\n--Relationship between the French and Haitian Revolutions.\n----Reason for revolution.\n----Brutality.\n----Lasting change.\n--Historiographical debates.\n--Contemporary press response.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Georges Biassou",
        "text": "Georges Biassou was born in 1741 on the island of Hispaniola, as a slave on a sugar plantation in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, modern day Haiti. He was an early leader of the 1791 slave revolt in Saint-Domingue, in which he and his fellow leaders, Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Papillon and Jeannot Bullet, killed the plantation owners to whom they were enslaved. This ultimately led to the Haitian revolution (1791-1804). Biassou and Jean-Fran\u00e7ois offered to cease the revolt, in exchange for emancipation, however France was preoccupied with multiple wars, and hence dismissed this proposal. In 1793, a war between France and Spain manifested in Hispaniola. Biassou and his fellow revolutionaries were requested to aid Spain in fighting against France in exchange for freedom, to which they agreed. France abolished slavery throughout its empire in 1794, however Biassou remained loyal to Spain."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where does Haiti rank by size among Caribbean countries?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Haiti is 27,750 km2 (10,714 sq mi) in size, the third largest country in the Caribbean by area, and has an estimated population of 11.4 million, making it the most populous country in the Caribbean."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How has Haiti been colonized throughout history?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to learn more about the colonial era under\tSpanish rule (1492\u20131625), French rule (1625\u20131804) or the\tHaitian Revolution (1791\u20131804)?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the era when the Spanish ruled Haiti."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Navigator Christopher Columbus landed in Haiti on 6 December 1492, in an area that he named M\u00f4le-Saint-Nicolas, and claimed the island for the Crown of Castile.  The Spanish passed the Laws of Burgos (1512\u20131513), which forbade the maltreatment of natives, endorsed their conversion to Catholicism, and gave legal framework to encomiendas, while the natives were brought to these sites to work in specific plantations or industries."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the era when the French ruled Haiti."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "During the French rule (1625\u20131804), France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue, then set about creating sugar and coffee plantations, worked by vast numbers of slaves imported from Africa. The French colonial government allowed some rights to free people of color; the brutality of slave life led many slaves to escape to mountainous regions, where they set up their own autonomous communities and became known as Maroons."
    ],
    "topic": "Haiti",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Haiti:16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Haiti",
          "History",
          "Colonial era",
          "French rule (1625\u20131804)"
        ],
        "ctx": "France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue, the French equivalent of \"Santo Domingo\", the Spanish colony on Hispaniola. The French set about creating sugar and coffee plantations, worked by vast numbers of slaves imported from Africa, and Saint-Domingue grew to become their richest colonial possession."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Haiti:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Haiti",
          "History",
          "Colonial era",
          "French rule (1625\u20131804)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The French settlers were outnumbered by slaves by almost 10 to 1. According to the 1788 Census, Haiti's population consisted of nearly 25,000 Europeans, 22,000 free coloreds and 700,000 African slaves. In contrast, by 1763 the white population of French Canada, a far larger territory, had numbered only 65,000. In the north of the island, slaves were able to retain many ties to African cultures, religion and language; these ties were continually being renewed by newly imported Africans. Some West African slaves held on to their traditional Vodou beliefs by secretly syncretizing it with Catholicism."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Haiti:19",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Haiti",
          "History",
          "Colonial era",
          "French rule (1625\u20131804)"
        ],
        "ctx": "As in its Louisiana colony, the French colonial government allowed some rights to free people of color (\"gens de couleur\"), the mixed-race descendants of European male colonists and African female slaves (and later, mixed-race women). Over time, many were released from slavery and they established a separate social class. White French Creole fathers frequently sent their mixed-race sons to France for their education. Some men of color were admitted into the military. More of the free people of color lived in the south of the island, near Port-au-Prince, and many intermarried within their community. They frequently worked as artisans and tradesmen, and began to own some property, including slaves of their own. The free people of color petitioned the colonial government to expand their rights."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Haiti:20",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Haiti",
          "History",
          "Colonial era",
          "French rule (1625\u20131804)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The brutality of slave life led many slaves to escape to mountainous regions, where they set up their own autonomous communities and became known as Maroons. One Maroon leader, Fran\u00e7ois Mackandal, led a rebellion in the 1750s, however he was later captured and executed by the French."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "The French encountered many forms of slave resistance during the 17th and 18th centuries, in Saint Domingue, which later came to be called Haiti. Enslaved Africans who fled to remote mountainous areas were called \"marron\" (French) or \"mawon\" (Haitian Creole), meaning 'escaped slave'. The maroons formed close-knit communities that practised small-scale agriculture and hunting. They were known to return to plantations to free family members and friends. On a few occasions, they also joined the Ta\u00edno settlements, who had escaped the Spanish in the 17th century. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, there were a large number of maroons living in the Bahoruco mountains. In 1702, a French expedition against them killed three maroons and captured 11, but over 30 evaded capture, and retreated further into the mountainous forests. Further expeditions were carried out against them with limited success, though they did succeed in capturing one of their leaders, Michel, in 1719. In subsequent expeditions, in 1728 and 1733, French forces captured 46 and 32 maroons respectively. No matter how many detachments were sent against these maroons, they continued to attract runaways. Expeditions in 1740, 1742, 1746, 1757 and 1761 had minor successes against these maroons, but failed to destroy their hideaways."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery in Haiti",
        "text": "Enslaved Africans who fled to remote mountainous areas were called \"marron\" (French) or \"mawon\" (Haitian Creole), meaning 'escaped slave'. The maroons formed close-knit communities that practised small-scale agriculture and hunting. They were known to return to plantations to free family members and friends. On a few occasions, they also joined the Ta\u00edno settlements, who had escaped the Spanish in the 17th century. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, there were a large number of maroons living in the Bahoruco mountains. In 1702, a French expedition against them killed three maroons and captured 11, but over 30 evaded capture, and retreated further into the mountainous forests. Further expeditions were carried out against them with limited success, though they did succeed in capturing one of their leaders, Michel, in 1719. In subsequent expeditions, in 1728 and 1733, French forces captured 46 and 32 maroons respectively. No matter how many detachments were sent against these maroons, they continued to attract runaways. Expeditions in 1740, 1742, 1746, 1757 and 1761 had minor successes against these maroons, but failed to destroy their hideaways."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "The early maroon communities were usually displaced. By 1700, maroons had disappeared from the smaller islands. Survival was always difficult, as the maroons had to fight off attackers as well as grow food. One of the most influential maroons was Fran\u00e7ois Mackandal, a houngan or voodoo priest, who led a six-year rebellion against the white plantation owners in Haiti that preceded the Haitian Revolution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint-Domingue",
        "text": "Enslaved Africans who fled to remote mountainous areas were called \"marron\" (French) or \"mawon\" (Haitian Creole), meaning 'escaped slave'. The maroons formed close-knit communities that practised small-scale agriculture and hunting. They were known to return to plantations to free family members and friends. On a few occasions, they also joined the Ta\u00edno settlements, who had escaped the Spanish in the 17th century. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, there were a large number of maroons living in the Bahoruco mountains. In 1702, a French expedition against them killed three maroons and captured 11, but over 30 evaded capture, and retreated further into the mountainous forests. Further expeditions were carried out against them with limited success, though they did succeed in capturing one of their leaders, Michel, in 1719. In subsequent expeditions, in 1728 and 1733, French forces captured 46 and 32 maroons respectively. No matter how many detachments were sent against these maroons, they continued to attract runaways. Expeditions in 1740, 1742, 1746, 1757 and 1761 had minor successes against these maroons, but failed to destroy their hideaways."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "The brutality of slave life led many slaves to escape to mountainous regions, where they set up their own autonomous communities and became known as Maroons. One Maroon leader, Fran\u00e7ois Mackandal, led a rebellion in the 1750s, however he was later captured and executed by the French."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery in Haiti",
        "text": "In 1776-7, a joint French-Spanish expedition ventured into the border regions of the Bahoruco mountains, with the intention of destroying the maroon settlements there. However, the maroons had been alerted of their coming, and had abandoned their villages and caves, retreating further into the mountainous forests where they could not be found. The detachment eventually returned, unsuccessful, and having lost many soldiers to illness and desertion. In the years that followed, the maroons attacked a number of settlements, including Fond-Parisien, for food, weapons, gunpowder and women. It was on one of these excursions that one of the maroon leaders, Kebinda, who had been born in freedom in the mountains, was captured. He later died in captivity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery in Haiti",
        "text": "In 1782, de Saint-Larry decided to offer peace terms to one of the maroon leaders, Santiago, granted them freedom in return for which they would hunt all further runaways and return them to their owners. Eventually, at the end of 1785, terms were agreed, and the more than 100 maroons under Santiago's command stopped making incursions into French colonial territory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery in Haiti",
        "text": "About 48,000 slaves in Saint Domingue escaped from their plantation; slaveholders hired bounty hunters to catch these maroons. Those who were not caught and re-enslaved established communities away from settled areas. Maroons would organize raids called \"mawonag\" on plantations, stealing supplies that their communities needed to survive, such as food, tools and weapons. One famous maroon, Fran\u00e7ois Mackandal, escaped into the mountains in the middle of the 18th century and went on to plan attacks on plantation owners. Mackandal was caught and burned at the stake in 1758, but his legend lived on to inspire rebellion among slaves \u2014 and fear among slaveholders."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "Thousands of slaves found freedom by fleeing from their masters, forming communities of maroons and raiding isolated plantations. The most famous was Mackandal, a one-armed slave, originally from Guinea, who escaped in 1751. A Vodou Houngan (priest), he united many of the different maroon bands. He spent the next six years staging successful raids and evading capture by the French, reputedly killing over 6,000 people while preaching a fanatic vision of the destruction of white civilization in St. Domingue. In 1758, after a failed plot to poison the drinking water of the plantation owners, he was captured and burned alive at the public square in Cap-Fran\u00e7ais."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Revolution",
        "text": "The larger groups of runaway slaves who lived in the hillside woods away from white control often conducted violent raids on the island's sugar and coffee plantations. Although the numbers in these bands grew large (sometimes into the thousands), they generally lacked the leadership and strategy to accomplish large-scale objectives. The first effective maroon leader to emerge was the charismatic Haitian Vodou priest Fran\u00e7ois Mackandal, who inspired his people by drawing on African traditions and religions. He united the maroon bands and established a network of secret organizations among plantation slaves, leading a rebellion from 1751 through 1757. Although Mackandal was captured by the French and burned at the stake in 1758, large armed maroon bands persisted in raids and harassment after his death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "People who escaped from slavery during the Spanish occupation of the island of Jamaica fled to the interior and joined the Ta\u00edno living there, forming refugee communities. Later, many of them gained freedom during the confusion surrounding the 1655 English Invasion of Jamaica. Some refugee enslaved people continued to join them through the decades until the abolition of slavery in 1838, but in the main, after the signing of the treaties of 1739 and 1740, the Maroons hunted runaway slaves in return for payment from the British colonial authorities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "Boukman declared war on the French plantation owners in 1791, setting off the Haitian Revolution. A statue called the \"Le N\u00e8gre Marron\" or the \"N\u00e8g Mawon\" is an iconic bronze bust that was erected in the heart of Port-au-Prince to commemorate the role of maroons in Haitian independence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "Jamaican Maroons descend from Africans who freed themselves from slavery on the Colony of Jamaica and established communities of free black people in the island's mountainous interior, primarily in the eastern parishes. Africans who were enslaved during Spanish rule over Jamaica (1493\u20131656) may have been the first to develop such refugee communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cap-Ha\u00eftien",
        "text": "Bois Ca\u00efman (), south of road RN 1, is the place where Vodou rites were performed under a tree at the beginning of the slave revolution. For decades, maroons had been terrorizing slaveholders on the northern plains by poisoning their food and water. Makandal is the legendary (and perhaps historical) figure associated with the growing resistance movement. By the 1750s, he had organized the maroons, as well as many people enslaved on plantations, into a secret army. Makandal was murdered (or disappeared) in 1758, but the resistance movement grew."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of French Guiana",
        "text": "In 1848, France abolished slavery and the ex-slaves fled into the rainforest, setting up communities similar to the ones they had come from in Africa. Subsequently, called Maroons, they formed a sort of buffer zone between the Europeans (who settled along the coast and main rivers) and the unconquered (and often hostile) Native American tribes of the inland regions. Deprived of slave labor the plantations were soon taken over by the jungle, and the planters ruined."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "Until the mid-1760s, maroon colonies lined the shores of Lake Borgne, just downriver of New Orleans, Louisiana. These fugitive enslaved people controlled many of the canals and back-country passages from Lake Pontchartrain to the Gulf, including the Rigolets. These colonies were eventually eradicated by militia from Spanish-controlled New Orleans led by Francisco Bouligny. Free people of color aided in the capture of these fugitives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "In 1731, enslaved people rose up in revolt at the Cobre mines, and set up an independent community at Sierra del Cobre, which existed untroubled until 1781, when the self-freed population had increased to over 1,000. In 1781, the Spanish colonial authorities agreed to recognise the freedom of the people of this community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery",
        "text": "Many slaves escaped the plantations. With the help of the native South Americans living in the adjoining rain forests, these runaway slaves established a new and unique culture in the interior that was highly successful in its own right. They were known collectively in English as Maroons, in French as \"N\u00e8g'Marrons\" (literally meaning \"brown negroes\", that is \"pale-skinned negroes\"), and in Dutch as \"Marrons.\" The Maroons gradually developed several independent tribes through a process of ethnogenesis, as they were made up of slaves from different African ethnicities. These tribes include the Saramaka, Paramaka, Ndyuka or Aukan, Kwinti, Aluku or Boni, and Matawai."
      },
      {
        "title": "Afro-Caribbean history",
        "text": "Friction between Maroons and plantation owners led to the First Maroon War and contributed to an atmosphere of simmering rebellion and increasingly harsh repression by the authorities. However, for most enslaved Afro-Caribbean people, individual escape or manumission were only partial answers and could not bring general political and social reform. As a result, the harsh conditions, constant inter-imperial warfare and growing revolutionary sentiments in the region eventually resulted in the Haitian Revolution led by Toussaint L'Ouverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "In 1797, one of the captured leaders of a palenque near Jaruco was an Indian from the Yucat\u00e1n."
      },
      {
        "title": "First Maroon War",
        "text": "The success of the Maroons in fighting the British to a standstill was felt far and wide, and half a century later, the creator of independent Haiti, Toussaint L'Ouverture, remarked that, \"in Jamaica there are in the mountains Blacks who have forced the English to make treaties with them. Well, I am black like them, I know how to make war.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Free people of color",
        "text": "By the late 18th century prior to the Haitian Revolution, Saint-Domingue was legally divided into three distinct groups: free whites (who were divided socially between the plantation-class \"grands blancs\" and the working-class \"petits blancs\"); freedmen (\"affranchis\"), and slaves. More than half of the affranchis were \"gens de couleur libres\"; others were considered freed black slaves. In addition, \"maroons\" (runaway slaves) were sometimes able to establish independent small communities and a kind of freedom in the mountains, along with remnants of Haiti's original Taino people. A large group of surviving Native Taino's also supported the Haitian Revolution, they were known as \"indiens esclaves\" which numbered about 5,000. In a 1780 census, there was also a group listed as \u201cindiens sauvages\u201d, which Haitian historians believe were the native Arawak and Taino that were known to live in tiny reclusive mountain communities at this point."
      },
      {
        "title": "Afro-Surinamese people",
        "text": "Escaped enslaved people in Suriname and French Guiana, known as Maroons or Bushinengues, fled to the interior and joined with indigenous peoples to create several independent tribes, among them the Saramaka, the Paramaka, the Ndyuka (Aukan), the Kwinti, the Aluku (Boni), the Matawai, and the Brooskampers. By 1740, the maroons had formed clans and felt strong enough to challenge the Dutch colonists, forcing them to sign peace treaties. Because of their long isolation in interior rainforests, they maintained more African culture than did ethnic Africans in the cities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free people of color",
        "text": "Dessalines talked about people whom he called \u201cRouges\u201d (reds), or sometimes \u201cIncas\u201d in his letters. When they were spoken about in context of the war, he makes mention of cooperation between Africans and Natives in maroon communities that plotted against colonists on the southern peninsula. He\u2019s also spoken about \u201cIncas among his men\u201d showing him secret burial quarters in the Artibonite valley that could be used by rebels as shelter and storage. There were 3,000 known Native peoples (both \u201cesclaves\u201d and \u201csauvages\u201d) living in Haiti in the years before independence, according to a 1802 colonial census."
      },
      {
        "title": "Suriname",
        "text": "With the help of the native South Americans living in the adjoining rain forests, these runaway slaves established a new and unique culture in the interior that was highly successful in its own right. They were known collectively in English as Maroons, in French as \"N\u00e8g'Marrons\" (literally meaning \"brown negroes\", that is \"pale-skinned negroes\"), and in Dutch as \"Marrons.\" The Maroons gradually developed several independent tribes through a process of ethnogenesis, as they were made up of slaves from different African ethnicities. These tribes include the Saramaka, Paramaka, Ndyuka or Aukan, Kwinti, Aluku or Boni, and Matawai."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "In Dominica, escaped slaves joined Kalinago refugees in the island's densely forested interior to create maroon communities, which were constantly in conflict with the British colonial authorities throughout the period of formal chattel slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Vodou",
        "text": "Some enslaved Afro-Haitians escaped to form Maroon groups, which often practiced Vodou in forms influenced by the ethno-cultural background of their leaders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Papillon",
        "text": "He was born in Africa but enslaved and taken in captivity to the North Province of Saint-Domingue (the future nation of Haiti). There he worked in the plantation of Papillon in the last decades of the 18th Century. He escaped from that plantation and became a maroon, so when the revolution started in August 1791 he had already enjoyed a direct experience of freedom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "In addition to escaped enslaved people, survivors from shipwrecks that formed independent communities along rivers of the northern coast and mingled with indigenous communities in areas beyond the reach of the colonial administration. Separate communities can be distinguished from the cantones Cojimies y Tababuela, Esmeraldas, Limones."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Haitians",
        "text": "When the French Revolution started, the ideas of freedom among men spread in Saint-Domingue. Blacks and the majority African descendants such as Jean-Jacques Dessalines, rebelled against their white French masters. The rebels killed more than a thousand French people in 1791. To preserve their lives, they fled Saint-Domingue. The wealthy \"grand-blancs\" returned to France or went to French Louisiana, but the \"petit-blancs\" who did not have many resources were compelled to move to the eastern side of Hispaniola, Cuba and Puerto Rico. Notably, there were many \"sang-mel\u00e9s\" \u2014 some of which fled from Saint-Domingue \u2014 who settled in neighboring islands (mostly Puerto Rico and Cuba)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "The maroons created their own independent communities, which in some cases have survived for centuries, and until recently remained separate from mainstream society. In the 19th and 20th centuries, maroon communities began to disappear as forests were razed, although some countries, such as Guyana and Suriname, still have large maroon populations living in the forests. Recently, many of them moved to cities and towns as the process of urbanization accelerates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean-Jacques Dessalines",
        "text": "After having served enslaved under white masters for 30 years, as well as having seen many atrocities, Dessalines did not trust the white French people. Many white planters and merchants, in addition to free people of color, had already fled the island as refugees, going to Cuba, the United States and France. Between February and April 1804, Dessalines ordered genocide, the 1804 Haiti Massacre of remaining whites. Dessalines declared Haiti to be an all-black nation and forbade whites from owning property or land there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "The other Maroon groups remained independent in the mountainous interior of Jamaica, surviving by subsistence farming and periodic raids of plantations. These initial Maroon groups faded from colonial history records, possibly migrating to more mountainous or remote regions of the interior. Others may have coalesced to form the nucleus of what would later be called the Windward Maroons. Over time, runaway slaves increased the Maroon population, which eventually came to control large areas of the Jamaican mountainous interior."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Haitians",
        "text": "For 1791, the first revolt of slaves and mulattos got up, which consisted blacks demanded their rights, to abandon slavery, and equal skin color, this fault with indignation in Paris and whites in Saint-Domingue the white man lynched blacks and mulattos that fell into their hands, no matter their gender or age. Then another stood up to 1804, this time led by the slaves: Toussaint Louverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines, but this what slaves joined and massacred in a brutal form to whites who lived in the colony, as well as their descendants in that colony. This produced a notable reduction of French people in Haiti."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean Saint Malo",
        "text": "Saint Malo and his band escaped to a marshy area near Lake Borgne, with weapons obtained from free people of color and plantation enslaved. The maroons lived in the swamps east of New Orleans and made their headquarters at Bas du Fleuve, located along Lake Borgne in present-day St. Bernard Parish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "The Second Maroon War began in 1795 against the background of the British-Jamaican planters panicked by the excesses of the French Revolution, and by the corresponding start of a slave revolt in neighboring Saint-Domingue, which ended with the independence of Haiti in 1804. At the same time, an increasing hunger for land among expanding Maroon communities in Jamaica coincided with several more immediate and proximate causes of grievance among the Maroons of Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "The Garifuna are descendants of maroon communities that developed on the island of Saint Vincent. They were deported to the coast of Honduras in 1797."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "In the 1790s, about 600 Jamaican Maroons were deported to British settlements in Nova Scotia, where American slaves who had escaped from the United States were also resettled. Being unhappy with conditions, in 1800, a majority emigrated to what is now Sierra Leone in Africa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "In 1782, de Saint-Larry decided to offer peace terms to one of the maroon leaders, Santiago, granted them freedom in return for which they would hunt all further runaways and return them to their owners. Eventually, at the end of 1785, terms were agreed, and the more than 100 maroons under Santiago's command stopped making incursions into French colonial territory."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of slavery",
        "text": "Enslaved people that escaped formed Maroon communities which played an important role in the histories of Brazil and other countries such as Suriname, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Jamaica. In Brazil, the Maroon villages were called palenques or quilombos. Maroons survived by growing vegetables and hunting. They also raided plantations. At these attacks, the maroons would burn crops, steal livestock and tools, kill slavemasters, and invite other enslaved people to join their communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "In 1776-7, a joint French-Spanish expedition ventured into the border regions of the Bahoruco mountains, with the intention of destroying the maroon settlements there. However, the maroons had been alerted of their coming, and had abandoned their villages and caves, retreating further into the mountainous forests where they could not be found. The detachment eventually returned, unsuccessful, and having lost many soldiers to illness and desertion. In the years that followed, the maroons attacked a number of settlements, including Fond-Parisien, for food, weapons, gunpowder and women. It was on one of these excursions that one of the maroon leaders, Kebinda, who had been born in freedom in the mountains, was captured. He later died in captivity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "In French Guiana and Suriname (where maroons account for about 15% of the population), escaped enslaved people, or Bushinengues, fled to the interior and joined with indigenous peoples and created several independent tribes, among them the Saramaka, the Paramaka, the Ndyuka (Aukan), the Kwinti, the Aluku (Boni), and the Matawai. The Ndyuka were the first to sign a peace treaty offering them territorial autonomy in 1760. In the 1770s, the Aluku also desired a peace treaty, however the Society of Suriname, started a war against them, resulting in an flight into French Guiana. The other tribes signed peace treaties with the Surinamese government, the Kwinti being the last in 1887. On 25 May 1891 the Aluku officially became French citizens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mafate",
        "text": "The very remote and inaccessible cirque was settled in the 19th century by maroon slaves (i.e. slaves who had escaped from their masters), then later by poor white laborers. It owes its name to one maroon leader."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "Maroons are descendants of Africans in the Americas who formed settlements away from slavery. They often mixed with indigenous peoples, eventually evolving into separate creole cultures such as the Garifuna and the Mascogos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "At the time of the Haitian Revolution, an event that involved the eradication of whites (mostly French) in Haiti, many of the blacks in Haiti were African-born and had no non-African ancestry. This was because the average African slave in colonial Haiti had a short life span and France continuously imported thousands of Africans yearly to keep the slave population up, by 1790 there were nearly 600,000 slaves, outnumbering whites about 20 to 1."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Revolution",
        "text": "Many of these conflicts involved slaves who had escaped the plantations. Many runaway slaves\u2014called maroons\u2014hid on the margins of large plantations, living off the land and what they could steal from their former masters. Others fled to towns, to blend in with urban slaves and freed blacks who often migrated to those areas for work. If caught, these runaway slaves would be severely and violently punished. However, some masters tolerated petit marronages, or short-term absences from plantations, knowing these allowed release of tensions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "In what is now Colombia, in the district of Popayan, the palenque of Castillo was successfully established by runaway enslaved people. In 1732, the Spanish authorities tried to secure peace terms with the maroons of Castillo by inserting a clause requiring them to return runaways, but the rulers of Castillo rejected those terms. In 1745, the colonial authorities defeated Castillo, and over 200 African and Indian runaways surreendered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "In Cuba, there were maroon communities in the mountains, where African refugees had escaped the brutality of slavery and joined refugee Ta\u00ednos. Before roads were built into the mountains of Puerto Rico, heavy brush kept many escaped maroons hidden in the southwestern hills where many also intermarried with the natives. Escaped slaves sought refuge away from the coastal plantations of Ponce. Remnants of these communities remain to this day (2006) for example in Vi\u00f1ales, Cuba, and Adjuntas, Puerto Rico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free black people in Jamaica",
        "text": "The Second Maroon War began in 1795 against the background of the British-Jamaican planters panicked by the excesses of the French Revolution, and by the corresponding start of a slave revolt in neighbouring Saint-Domingue, which ended with the independence of Haiti in 1804. At the same time, an increasing hunger for land among expanding Maroon communities in Jamaica coincided with several more immediate and proximate causes of grievance among the Maroons of Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "In Cuba, escaped enslaved people had joined refugee Ta\u00ednos in the mountains to form maroon communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint-Domingue",
        "text": "In 1776-7, a joint French-Spanish expedition ventured into the border regions of the Bahoruco mountains, with the intention of destroying the maroon settlements there. However, the maroons had been alerted of their coming, and had abandoned their villages and caves, retreating further into the mountainous forests where they could not be found. The detachment eventually returned, unsuccessful, and having lost many soldiers to illness and desertion. In the years that followed, the maroons attacked a number of settlements, including Fond-Parisien, for food, weapons, gunpowder and women. It was on one of these excursions that one of the maroon leaders, Kebinda, who had been born in freedom in the mountains, was captured. He later died in captivity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "When representatives of the French East India Company landed on the island in 1715 they also had to face attacks by the Mauritian maroons. Significant events were the 1724 assault on a military outpost in Savannah district, as well as the attack on a military barrack in 1732 at Poste de Flacq. Several deaths resulted from such attacks. Soon after his arrival in 1735 Mah\u00e9 de La Bourdonnais assembled and equipped militia groups made of both civilians and soldiers to fight against the maroons. In 1739 gang leader Sans Souci was captured near Flacq and was burnt alive by the French settlers. A few years later a group of French settlers gave chase to Barbe Blanche, another maroon leader, but lost track of him at Le Morne. Other maroons included Diamamouve and Madame Fran\u00e7oise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saramaka",
        "text": "The word \"Maroon\" comes from the Spanish \"cimarr\u00f3n\", which was derived from an Arawakan root. Since 1990 especially, some of the Saramaka have migrated to French Guiana due to extended civil war in Suriname. By the early 16th century, the term \"maroon\" (\"cimarron\") was used throughout the Americas to designate slaves who had escaped from slavery and set up independent communities beyond colonists' control. Together with five other Maroon tribes in Suriname and French Guiana, the Saramaka form the largest group in the world of Maroon peoples of African descent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Revolution",
        "text": "For a few months, the island was quiet under Napoleonic rule. But when it became apparent that the French intended to re-establish slavery (because they had nearly done so on Guadeloupe), black cultivators revolted in the summer of 1802. Yellow fever had decimated the French; by the middle of July 1802, the French lost about 10,000 dead to yellow fever. By September, Leclerc wrote in his diary that he had only 8,000 fit men left as yellow fever had killed the others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Americans in Haiti",
        "text": "During the antebellum era, many free blacks emigrated to Haiti. Although a few emigrants left for Haiti during the 1810s, it was not until 1824 that with the support of the Haitian President Jean-Pierre Boyer that emigration from the United States increased. Several thousand free blacks left for Haiti in the summer of 1824 and the flow continued until 1826 when the Haitian government stopped paying and defraying the transportation costs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "Several different maroon societies developed around the Gulf of Honduras. Some were found in the interior of modern-day Honduras, along the trade routes by which silver mined on the Pacific side of the isthmus was carried by enslaved people down to coastal towns such as Trujillo or Puerto Caballos to be shipped to Europe. When enslaved people escaped, they went to the mountains for safety. In 1548, in what is now Honduras, enslaved people in San Pedro rebelled, led by a self-freed slave named Miguel, who set up his own capital. The Spaniards had to send in reinforcements to put down the revolt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint-Domingue",
        "text": "Thousands of slaves found freedom by fleeing into the mountains, forming communities of maroons and raiding isolated plantations. The most famous was Mackandal, a one-armed slave, originally from the Guinea region of Africa, who escaped in 1751. A Vodou Houngan (priest), he united many of the different maroon bands. For the next six years, he staged successful raids while evading capture by the French. He and his followers reputedly killed more than 6,000 people. He preached a radical vision of killing the white population of Saint-Domingue. In 1758, after a failed plot to poison the drinking water of the planters, he was captured and burned alive at the public square in Cap-Fran\u00e7ais."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "The Maroon population grew from 664 in 1739 to 1,288 in 1796, at a time when both the slave population and the white settler communities were ravaged by disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Creole",
        "text": "One theory estimates that Haitian Creole developed between 1680 and 1740. During the 16th and 17th centuries, French and Spanish colonizers produced tobacco, cotton, and sugar cane on the island. Throughout this period, the population was made of roughly equal numbers of (white workers), (free people of colour) and slaves. The economy shifted into sugar production in 1690, just before the French colony of was officially formed in 1697. The sugar crops needed a much larger labor force, which led to an increase in slave importation. In the 18th century an estimated 800,000 West-African individuals were enslaved and brought to Saint-Domingue. As the slave population increased, interactions between French-speaking colonists and slaves decreased."
      },
      {
        "title": "Afro-Dominicans (Dominica)",
        "text": "Because of their large quantity and poor treatment, the number of Maroons and runaway slaves increased through time. These ex-slaves were armed and led a rebellion against the British in 1785 and 1786. The rebellion was not successful and the leaders were imprisoned or executed. The conflicts between the Maroons and the British reoccurred several times, persisting until 1815."
      },
      {
        "title": "Llanero",
        "text": "Between 1640 and 1790 the black maroons lived in \"cumbes\", a society of maroons. These ended up mixing with the over the years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "The jungles around the Caribbean Sea offered food, shelter, and isolation for the escaped enslaved people. Maroons sustained themselves by growing vegetables and hunting. Their survival depended upon their cultures, and their military abilities, using guerrilla tactics and heavily fortified dwellings involving traps and diversions. Some defined leaving the community as desertion and therefore punishable by death. They also originally raided plantations. During these attacks, the maroons would burn crops, steal livestock and tools, kill slavemasters, and invite other enslaved people to join their communities. Individual groups of maroons often allied themselves with the local indigenous tribes and occasionally assimilated into these populations. Maroons played an important role in the histories of Brazil, Suriname, Puerto Rico, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Jamaica."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free people of color",
        "text": "The former slaves and the \"anciens libres\" still remained segregated in many respects. Their animosity and struggle for power erupted in 1799. The competition between the \"gens de couleur\" led by Andr\u00e9 Rigaud and the black Haitians led by Toussaint Louverture devolved into the War of the Knives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "As in its Louisiana colony, the French colonial government allowed some rights to free people of color (\"gens de couleur\"), the mixed-race descendants of European male colonists and African female slaves (and later, mixed-race women). Over time, many were released from slavery and they established a separate social class. White French Creole fathers frequently sent their mixed-race sons to France for their education. Some men of color were admitted into the military. More of the free people of color lived in the south of the island, near Port-au-Prince, and many intermarried within their community. They frequently worked as artisans and tradesmen, and began to own some property, including slaves of their own. The free people of color petitioned the colonial government to expand their rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "Bayano, a Mandinka man who had been enslaved and taken to Panama in 1552, led a rebellion that year against the Spanish in Panama. He and his followers escaped to found villages in the lowlands. Viceroy Canete felt unable to subdue these maroons, so he offered them terms that entailed a recognition of their freedom, provided they refused to admit any newcomers and returned runaways to their owners."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint-Domingue",
        "text": "In 1782, de Saint-Larry decided to offer peace terms to one of the maroon leaders, Santiago, granted them freedom in return for which they would hunt all further runaways and return them to their owners. Eventually, at the end of 1785, terms were agreed, and the more than 100 maroons under Santiago's command stopped making incursions into French colonial territory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "American marronage began in Spain's colony on the island of Hispaniola. Governor Nicol\u00e1s de Ovando was already complaining of escaped slaves and their interactions with the Taino Indians by 1503. The first slave rebellion occurred in Hispaniola on the sugar plantations owned by Admiral Diego Columbus, on 26 December 1522, and was brutally crushed by the Admiral."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedman",
        "text": "In addition, there were sizable communities of free people of color in French Caribbean colonies, such as Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) and Guadeloupe. Due to the violence of the Haitian Revolution, many free people of color, who were originally part of the revolution, fled the island as refugees after being attacked by slave rebels, particularly in the north of the island. Some went first to Cuba, from where they immigrated to New Orleans in 1808 and 1809 after being expelled when Napoleon invaded Spanish territory in Europe. Many brought slaves with them. Their numbers strengthened the French-speaking community of enslaved black peoples, as well as the free people of color. Other refugees from Saint-Domingue settled in Charleston, Savannah, and New York."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free people of color",
        "text": "After their loss in that conflict, many wealthy \"gens de couleur\" left as refugees to France, Cuba, Puerto Rico, the United States and elsewhere. Some took slaves with them. Others, however, remained to play an influential role in Haitian politics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "Maroons\n--Etymology.\n--History.\n--Culture.\n--Types of maroons.\n--Relationship with colonial governments.\n--Geographical distribution.\n----Africa.\n------Mauritius.\n------R\u00e9union.\n----North America.\n------Canada.\n--------Nova Scotia.\n------Caribbean.\n--------Cuba.\n--------Dominica, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent.\n--------Dominican Republic.\n--------Haiti.\n--------Jamaica.\n--------Puerto Rico.\n------Central America.\n--------Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua.\n--------Panama.\n------Mexico.\n------United States.\n--------Florida.\n--------Illinois.\n--------Louisiana.\n--------North Carolina and Virginia.\n----South America.\n------Brazil.\n------Colombia.\n------Ecuador.\n------French Guiana and Suriname.\n------Venezuela.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "1804 Haiti massacre",
        "text": "Despite the French proclamation of emancipation, the blacks sided with the Spanish who came to occupy the region. In July 1794, Spanish forces stood by while the black troops of Jean-Fran\u00e7ois massacred the French whites in Fort-Dauphin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fran\u00e7ois Mackandal",
        "text": "Fran\u00e7ois Mackandal (c.1730-c.1758) was a Haitian Maroon leader in Haiti. He is sometimes described as a Haitian vodou priest, or houngan. For joining Maroons to kill slave owners in Saint Domingue, he was captured and burned alive by French colonial authorities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Afro-Vincentians",
        "text": "In 1654, when the French tried to dominate the Caribs, they recorded the presence of 3,000 black people and much fewer pure Caribs (\"Yellow\"), without making any reference to an individual's state of freedom or slavery. The number was ratified 12 years later in a report by the English Colonel Philip Warner: \"In Saint Vicent, a French possession, there are about 3000 black and none of the islands there are that amount of Indians.\" In 1668, the British broke the treaty signed between France and the Caribs in Basse Terre, and tried to impose, as a first measure of domain, that the Indians stopped harbouring the blacks fugitives and delivered them to the British as soon as they were required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "\"Maroon\", which can have a more general sense of being abandoned without resources, entered English around the 1590s, from the French adjective \"marron\", meaning 'feral' or 'fugitive'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Le Marron Inconnu",
        "text": "Le Marron Inconnu de Port au prince, shortened as Le Marron Inconnu (, \"The Unknown Maroon\"), also called Le N\u00e8gre Marron or N\u00e8g Mawon (, \"Maroon Man\"), is a bronze statue of a runaway slave, better known as a maroon, standing in the center of Port-au-Prince, Haiti. Completed on September 22 1967 by Haitian architect Albert Mangon\u00e8s, the statue is regarded as a symbol of black liberation; commemorating in particular, the rallying cry that sparked the Haitian Revolution and the abolishment of slavery. Situated across from the National Palace, it is the nation's most iconic representation of the struggle for freedom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "The linguist Leo Spitzer, writing in the journal \"Language\", says: \"If there is a connection between Eng. \"maroon\", Fr. \"marron\", and Sp. \"cimarr\u00f3n\", Spain (or Spanish America) probably gave the word directly to England (or English America).\" The Cuban philologist Jos\u00e9 Juan Arrom has traced the origins of the word \"maroon\" further than the Spanish \"cimarr\u00f3n\", used first in Hispaniola to refer to feral cattle, then to enslaved Indians who escaped to the hills, and by the early 1530s to enslaved Africans who did the same. He proposes that the American Spanish word derives ultimately from the Arawakan root word \"simarabo\", construed as 'fugitive', in the Arawakan language spoken by the Ta\u00edno people native to the island."
      },
      {
        "title": "Louisiana",
        "text": "Fugitive slaves, called maroons, could easily hide in the backcountry of the bayous and survive in small settlements. The word \"maroon\" comes from the Spanish \"cimarron\", meaning \"fugitive cattle.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Surinamese Maroons",
        "text": "Surinamese Maroons (Marrons or Businenge, meaning \"black people of the forest\") are the descendants of enslaved Africans that escaped from the plantations and settled in the inland of Suriname (Dutch Guiana) and French Guiana. The Surinamese Maroon culture is one of the best-preserved pieces of cultural heritage outside of Africa. Colonial warfare, land grabs, natural disasters and migration have marked Maroon history. In Suriname six Maroon groups -or tribes- can be distinguished from each other."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "In the 1830s, palenques of maroon communities thrived in western Cuba, in particular the areas surrounding San Diego de Nunez. The Office of the Capture of Maroons reported that between 1797 and 1846, there were thousands of runaways living in these palenques. However, the eastern mountains harboured the longer lasting palenques, in particular those of Moa and Maluala, where the maroons thrived until the First War of Independence in 1868, when large numbers of maroons joined the Cuban Liberation Army."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "Similar maroon communities developed on islands across the Caribbean, such as those of the Garifuna people. Many of the Garifuna were deported to the mainland, where some eventually settled along the Mosquito Coast or in Belize. From their original landing place in Roatan Island, the maroons moved to Trujillo. Gradually groups migrated south into the Miskito Kingdom and north into Belize."
      },
      {
        "title": "Afro-Dominicans",
        "text": "In 1522, the first major slave rebellion was led by 20 Senegalese Muslims of Wolof origin, in an ingenio (sugar factory) east of the Santo Domingo colony. Many of the insurgents fled to the mountains and established what would become the first autonomous African Maroon community in America. With the success of this revolt, slave revolts continued and leaders emerged among the African slaves, including people already baptized Christian by the Spanish, as was the case of Juan Vaquero, Diego de Guzm\u00e1n and Diego del Campo. The rebellions and subsequent escapes led to the establishment of African communities in the southwest, north and east of the island, including the first communities of African ex-slaves in western Hispaniola that was Spanish administered until 1697, when it was sold to France and became Saint-Domingue (modern-day Haiti). This caused some concern among slaveholders and contributed to the Spanish emigration to other places. Even as sugarcane increased profitability in the island, the number of escaped Africans continued to rise, mixing with Ta\u00edno people of these regions, and by 1530, Maroon bands were considered dangerous to the Spanish colonists, who traveled in large armed groups outside the plantations and left the mountainous regions to the Maroons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery in Haiti",
        "text": "Below the \"grands blancs\" (white noblemen) were the \"petits blancs\" (white commoners) and the \"gens de couleur libres\" (free people of color). These classes inhabited Saint Domingue and held a lot of local political power and control of the militia. \"Petits blancs\" shared the same societal level as \"gens de couleur libres\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Granman",
        "text": "There was a seventh group of Maroons called Brooskampers (also: Bakabusi Nengre). In the 1740s, they lived in the swamps near Surnau Creek. On 2 September 1863, a peace treaty was signed offering the tribe the abandoned plantations Klaverblad and Rorac. No granman was appointed, and the tribe was led by a \"kabiten\" (captain). Bauxite was discovered on the plantation. In 1917, a deal was negotiated with the tribe by \"kabiten\" Hudukanti and Alcoa, the lands were sold, and the people settled in Tout-Lui-Faut near Paramaribo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean-Pierre Boyer",
        "text": "Beginning in September 1824, nearly 6,000 Americans, mostly free people of color, migrated to Haiti within a year, with ships departing from New York, Baltimore and Philadelphia. Due to the poverty of the island and the inability of Boyer's administration to help support the new immigrants in the transition, most returned to the United States within a short period of time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free people of color",
        "text": "Under the \"ancien r\u00e9gime\", despite the provisions of equality nominally established in the \"Code Noir\", the \"gens de couleur\" were limited in their freedoms. They did not possess the same rights as white Frenchmen, specifically the right to vote. Most supported slavery on the island, at least up to the time of the French Revolution. But they sought equal rights for free people of color, which became an early central issue of the unfolding Haitian Revolution."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Haitians",
        "text": "The story begins with the issuing of French adventurers in the Tortuga Island, which was close to the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo. As a result in the late 17th century, the French had de facto control of the island close to the Spanish colony. The wars of Louis XIV of France in Europe finally convinced the Spaniards to give the island to the French under to the Treaty on Ryswick (1697). The French called their new colony Saint-Domingue. And they began transforming the settlement into a large sugar plantation. Later the Frenchmen began to bring large numbers of African slaves to work on plantations, the destruction of the Taino and African imports changed the demographics of St Domingue. By the late 17th century, the French made up 90% of the nation, with more than 1,000 settlers and their descendants (note that Haiti had a European past), but as the number of black people grew faster, they acceded to a mix between French and black people, which resulted in a fast growth of mulattos, although in some cases the mixing occurred two or more times. The French could notice that some mulatto were clearer than others. By the early 18th century, mulattos and slaves started to compose the majority of the colony, blacks continued to be used as slaves for the production of sugar, which was in demand in Western Europe. That made the French put much pressure and cruelty to blacks to speed the production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "Enslaved people escaped frequently within the first generation of their arrival from Africa and often preserved their African languages and much of their culture and religion. African traditions included such things as the use of certain medicinal herbs together with special drums and dances when the herbs are administered to a sick person. Other African healing traditions and rites have survived through the centuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Creole",
        "text": "Many African slaves in French ownership were from Niger-Congo-speaking territory, and particularly from Kwa languages such as Gbe from West Africa and the Central Tano languages and Bantu languages from Central Africa. Singler suggests that the number of Bantu speakers decreased while the number of Kwa speakers increased, with Gbe being the most dominant group. The first fifty years of 's sugar boom coincided with emergent Gbe predominance in the French Caribbean. In the interval during which Singler hypothesizes the language evolved, the Gbe population was around 50% of the imported slave population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian emigration",
        "text": "In an attempt to break out from the United States\u2019 racist filled society, antebellum free blacks emigrated to Haiti. Although a few emigrants left for Haiti during the 1810s, it was not until 1824 that with the support of the Haitian President Jean-Pierre Boyer that the emigration began in earnest. The Haitian emigration project ran against the wishes of the American Colonization Society, which attempted to remove free blacks as far as Africa and dreaded the idea of strengthening the black state of Haiti. Several thousand blacks departed towards Haiti in the summer of 1824 and the flow continued until 1826 when the Haitian government stopped paying and defraying the transportation costs. U.S. blacks continued moving to Haiti after this, but the numbers were never as high as those that left between the years of 1824\u20131826. Another Haitian emigration scheme began in 1859 and lasted for about three years. Even though this project had the support of Abraham Lincoln and other political figures, the frustrations of the 1820s and an increasing black identification with the U.S. substantially hindered the enthusiasm this time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Louisiana (New Spain)",
        "text": "A group of maroons led by Jean Saint Malo resisted re-enslavement from their base in the swamps east of New Orleans between 1780 and 1784."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "In 1538, runaways helped the French to sack the city of Havana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery in Haiti",
        "text": "Many of the slaves who fought during the Haitian Revolution were warriors who had been captured in war and enslaved by an opposing African ethnic group. Before the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789, there were eight times as many slaves in the colony as there were whites and free people of color people combined. In 1789, the French were importing 30,000 slaves a year and there were half a million slaves in the French part of the island alone, compared to about 40-45,000 whites and 32,000 free people of color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "In 1841, the first ship to arrive in Sierra Leone looking for African workers was the \"Hector\", and several Maroons were so desperate to leave Sierra Leone that they did not wait for the ship to dock, but rowed out to meet it in their canoes. In all, 64 Maroons left Sierra Leone for Jamaica on the \"Hector\" alone. Most Sierra Leone Maroons lived in Freetown, and between 1837 and 1844, Freetown's Maroon population shrank from 650 to 454, suggesting that about 200 made their way back to Jamaica."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Maroons are descendants of Africans in the Americas who formed settlements away from New World chattel slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nanny of the Maroons",
        "text": "After being brought to Jamaica in the course of the Transatlantic slave trade, many enslaved Africans fled from the oppressive conditions of plantations and formed their own communities of Free black people in Jamaica in the rugged, hilly interior of the island. People who escaped from slavery joined these Maroon communities in the mountains of eastern Jamaica, or the Cockpit Country in the west of the island. Up to the 1650s under Spanish rule, enslaved Africans escaped and intermarried with the native islanders, the Taino or Arawak people, in their communities in the Blue Mountains (Jamaica), located in Portland Parish and Saint Thomas Parish, Jamaica, in the eastern end of the island."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "Some Spanish Maroons created \"palenques\", or stockaded mountain farms, first at Lluidas Vale, in modern-day St Catharine Parish, under Juan de Bolas (also known as Lubolo). Toward the western end of Cockpit Country were the \"Varmahaly or Karmahaly Negroes\" under the leadership of Juan de Serras. There were possibly a third group was active in the region of Porus, in modern Manchester Parish; and a fourth in the Blue Mountains. During the first decade of English rule, these groups were active on behalf of the Spanish. But, as it became increasingly obvious that the British would hold their conquest, the group run by de Bolas changed its position."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "When the English invaded Jamaica in 1655, most Spanish colonists fled. Many of their slaves escaped and, together with free blacks and mulattoes, former slaves, and some native Ta\u00edno, coalesced into a number of ethnically diverse groups in the Jamaican interior."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "A large maroon group of runaway slaves established themselves near Hellshire Beach in southern Jamaica, and it thrived there for years until it was finally dispersed by a party of Windward Maroons in 1819."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cudjoe",
        "text": "The Jamaican Maroons are descended from Africans who conquered enslavers and established communities of Free black people in Jamaica in the mountains of the Colony of Jamaica during the era of slavery on the island. African slaves imported during the Spanish period may have provided the first runaways, apparently mixing with the Native American Taino or Arawak people that remained in the country. Some may have gained liberty when the English attacked Jamaica and took it in 1655, and subsequently. Cudjoe was the leader of a community of runaway slaves known as Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town). For nearly a century, until the 1739 and 1740 peace treaties with the British rulers of the island, the Maroons victoriously resisted conquest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Dismal Swamp maroons",
        "text": "Maroonage, self-liberated Africans in isolated or hidden settlements, existed in all the Southern states, and swamp-based maroon communities existed in the Deep South, in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and South Carolina. Maroonage in the Upper South was largely limited to Virginia and the Great Dismal Swamp. The origin of the word \"maroon\" is uncertain, with competing theories linking it to Spanish, Arawak or Taino root words. In all likelihood, the words \"maroon\" and \"Seminole\" share the same etymology in the Spanish word \"cimarr\u00f3n\", meaning \"wild\" or \"untamed\". This word usually referred to self-liberated Africans who escaped enslavement and is ultimately derived from the word for \"thicket\" in Old Spanish."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where does Haiti rank by size among Caribbean countries?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Haiti is 27,750 km2 (10,714 sq mi) in size, the third largest country in the Caribbean by area, and has an estimated population of 11.4 million, making it the most populous country in the Caribbean."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How has Haiti been colonized throughout history?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to learn more about the colonial era under\tSpanish rule (1492\u20131625), French rule (1625\u20131804) or the\tHaitian Revolution (1791\u20131804)?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the era when the Spanish ruled Haiti."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Navigator Christopher Columbus landed in Haiti on 6 December 1492, in an area that he named M\u00f4le-Saint-Nicolas, and claimed the island for the Crown of Castile.  The Spanish passed the Laws of Burgos (1512\u20131513), which forbade the maltreatment of natives, endorsed their conversion to Catholicism, and gave legal framework to encomiendas, while the natives were brought to these sites to work in specific plantations or industries."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the era when the French ruled Haiti."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "During the French rule (1625\u20131804), France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue, then set about creating sugar and coffee plantations, worked by vast numbers of slaves imported from Africa. The French colonial government allowed some rights to free people of color; the brutality of slave life led many slaves to escape to mountainous regions, where they set up their own autonomous communities and became known as Maroons."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How long did Maroons exist?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "By 1700, maroons had disappeared from the smaller islands, in Cuba, there were maroon communities in the mountains, remnants of these communities remain to this day and the Leeward Maroons still possess a vibrant community of about 600.",
      "As early as 1655, escaped Africans had formed their communities in inland Jamaica; early maroon communities were usually displaced and by 1700, maroons had disappeared from the smaller islands. To this day, the Jamaican Maroons are to a significant extent autonomous and separate from Jamaican society."
    ],
    "topic": "Haiti",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Maroons:11",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Maroons",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "Beginning in the late 17th century, Jamaican Maroons fought British colonists to a draw and eventually signed treaties in the mid-18th century, that effectively freed them a century before the Slavery Abolition Act 1833, which came into effect in 1838. To this day, the Jamaican Maroons are to a significant extent autonomous and separate from Jamaican society. The physical isolation used to their advantage by their ancestors has today led to their communities remaining among the most inaccessible on the island. In their largest town, Accompong, in the parish of St\u00a0Elizabeth, the Leeward Maroons still possess a vibrant community of about 600. Tours of the village are offered to foreigners and a large festival is put on every January 6 to commemorate the signing of the peace treaty with the British after the First Maroon War."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Maroons:9",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Maroons",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Cuba, there were maroon communities in the mountains, where African refugees had escaped the brutality of slavery and joined refugee Ta\u00ednos. Before roads were built into the mountains of Puerto Rico, heavy brush kept many escaped maroons hidden in the southwestern hills where many also intermarried with the natives. Escaped slaves sought refuge away from the coastal plantations of Ponce. Remnants of these communities remain to this day (2006) for example in Vi\u00f1ales, Cuba, and Adjuntas, Puerto Rico."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Maroons:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Maroons",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "The early maroon communities were usually displaced. By 1700, maroons had disappeared from the smaller islands. Survival was always difficult, as the maroons had to fight off attackers as well as grow food. One of the most influential maroons was Fran\u00e7ois Mackandal, a houngan or voodoo priest, who led a six-year rebellion against the white plantation owners in Haiti that preceded the Haitian Revolution."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Maroons:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Maroons",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "Sir Francis Drake enlisted several \"cimarrones\" during his raids on the Spanish. As early as 1655, escaped Africans had formed their communities in inland Jamaica, and by the 18th century, Nanny Town and other villages began to fight for independent recognition."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Maroons:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Maroons",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "The early maroon communities were usually displaced. By 1700, maroons had disappeared from the smaller islands. Survival was always difficult, as the maroons had to fight off attackers as well as grow food. One of the most influential maroons was Fran\u00e7ois Mackandal, a houngan or voodoo priest, who led a six-year rebellion against the white plantation owners in Haiti that preceded the Haitian Revolution."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Maroons:11",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Maroons",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "Beginning in the late 17th century, Jamaican Maroons fought British colonists to a draw and eventually signed treaties in the mid-18th century, that effectively freed them a century before the Slavery Abolition Act 1833, which came into effect in 1838. To this day, the Jamaican Maroons are to a significant extent autonomous and separate from Jamaican society. The physical isolation used to their advantage by their ancestors has today led to their communities remaining among the most inaccessible on the island. In their largest town, Accompong, in the parish of St\u00a0Elizabeth, the Leeward Maroons still possess a vibrant community of about 600. Tours of the village are offered to foreigners and a large festival is put on every January 6 to commemorate the signing of the peace treaty with the British after the First Maroon War."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Accompong",
        "text": "Since Jamaica gained independence in 1962, it has recognised the political and cultural rights of Maroons. In the early 21st century, the government has acknowledged these rights in terms of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007), including the \"right to maintain and strengthen their distinct political, legal, economic, social and cultural institutions.\" It also acknowledges the \"right for self-government in matters relating to local affairs,\" as well as \"ways and means for financing autonomous functions\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "The early maroon communities were usually displaced. By 1700, maroons had disappeared from the smaller islands. Survival was always difficult, as the maroons had to fight off attackers as well as grow food. One of the most influential maroons was Fran\u00e7ois Mackandal, a houngan or voodoo priest, who led a six-year rebellion against the white plantation owners in Haiti that preceded the Haitian Revolution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "However, in 1831, another petition was presented by 224 Sierra Leone Maroons to the British government, and this time the Jamaican authorities relented. They responded by saying they would place no obstacle in the way of Maroons returning to Jamaica, but would not pay any passage or for the purchase of lands in the island."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Suriname",
        "text": "In 1985, the ban on opposition parties was lifted, and work began on devising a new constitution. The following year saw the start of an anti-government rebellion of the Maroons in the interior, calling themselves the Jungle Commando and led by Ronnie Brunswijk. The Bouterse government violently tried to suppress the insurgency by burning villages and other similar means. More than 10,000 Maroons fled to French Guiana, and were recognised refugees. The number of illegal refugees is unknown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free black people in Jamaica",
        "text": "In the 1944 Jamaican general election, Bustamante's party won 22 of 32 seats in the first House of Representatives elected by universal suffrage. He became the unofficial government leader, representing his party as Minister for Communications. Under the new charter, the British governor, assisted by the six-member Privy Council and ten-member Executive Council, remained responsible solely to the Crown. The Jamaican Legislative Council became the upper house, or Senate, of the bicameral Parliament. House members were elected by adult suffrage from single-member electoral districts called constituencies. Despite these changes, ultimate power remained concentrated in the hands of the governor and other high officials."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human rights in Jamaica",
        "text": "In 1865 the Morant Bay Rebellion marked a moment in Jamaican history when the dialogue between the government and the oppressed reached a fever pitch, led by Baptist deacon and activist Paul Bogle. There was confusion between the poor black population and the Maroon population as to where the stronger Maroons' allegiance lay during the siege. It has been said that the Maroons ultimately made a decision to support the British in quelling the uprising on the premise that they wanted to stay loyal to the original treaties between the government and the early Maroon population. John Stuart Mill's social influence on the Jamaican government system was profound because he headed the now defunct Jamaica Committee, which helped create a necessary process of intervention on the behalf of the governed and oppressed that would put into question and challenge the necessity of excessive punitive actions against opposition; ultimately, this helped foster the growing sentiment of freedom of speech."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "Jamaican Maroons descend from Africans who freed themselves from slavery on the Colony of Jamaica and established communities of free black people in the island's mountainous interior, primarily in the eastern parishes. Africans who were enslaved during Spanish rule over Jamaica (1493\u20131656) may have been the first to develop such refugee communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons in Sierra Leone",
        "text": "However, in 1831, another petition was presented by 224 Sierra Leone Maroons to the British government, and this time the Jamaican authorities relented. They responded by saying they would place no obstacle in the way of Maroons returning to Jamaica, but would not pay any passage or the purchase of lands in the island."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "Today, the four official Maroon towns still in existence in Jamaica are Accompong Town, Moore Town, Charles Town and Scott's Hall. They hold lands allotted to them in the 1739\u20131740 treaties with the British. These Maroons still maintain their traditional celebrations and practices, some of which have West African origin. For example, the council of a Maroon settlement is called an \"Asofo,\" from the Akan word asafo (assembly, church, society)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "The other Maroon groups remained independent in the mountainous interior of Jamaica, surviving by subsistence farming and periodic raids of plantations. These initial Maroon groups faded from colonial history records, possibly migrating to more mountainous or remote regions of the interior. Others may have coalesced to form the nucleus of what would later be called the Windward Maroons. Over time, runaway slaves increased the Maroon population, which eventually came to control large areas of the Jamaican mountainous interior."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "The English, who invaded the island in 1655, continued the importation of enslaved Africans to work on the island's sugar-cane plantations. Africans in Jamaica continually resisted enslavement, with many who freed themselves becoming maroons. The revolts disrupted the sugar economy in Jamaica and made it less profitable. The revolts decreased after the British colonial authorities signed treaties with the Leeward Maroons in 1739 and the Windward Maroons in 1740, which required them to support the institution of slavery. The importance of the Maroons to the colonial authorities declined after slavery was abolished in 1838."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "To this day, the Maroons in Jamaica are, to a small extent, autonomous and separate from Jamaican culture. Those of Accompong have preserved their land since 1739. The isolation used to their advantage by their ancestors has today resulted in their communities being among the most inaccessible on the island."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "In 1754, Quao attempted to overthrow Edward Crawford, the new Maroon leader of the Windward Maroon town, and in the resulting conflict, Crawford's Town was destroyed. Governor Charles Knowles re-established control over the uprising with the help of other Maroons. He then ordered that the Maroons of Crawford's Town be resettled in the new, nearby Windward Maroon towns of Charles Town (Jamaica) and Scott's Hall (Jamaica)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "People who escaped from slavery during the Spanish occupation of the island of Jamaica fled to the interior and joined the Ta\u00edno living there, forming refugee communities. Later, many of them gained freedom during the confusion surrounding the 1655 English Invasion of Jamaica. Some refugee enslaved people continued to join them through the decades until the abolition of slavery in 1838, but in the main, after the signing of the treaties of 1739 and 1740, the Maroons hunted runaway slaves in return for payment from the British colonial authorities."
      },
      {
        "title": "First Maroon War",
        "text": "The success of the Maroons in fighting the British to a standstill was felt far and wide, and half a century later, the creator of independent Haiti, Toussaint L'Ouverture, remarked that, \"in Jamaica there are in the mountains Blacks who have forced the English to make treaties with them. Well, I am black like them, I know how to make war.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroon Council",
        "text": "On the Island of Jamaica, the Maroon Council is the executive body with administrative powers and obligations for the Maroon communities. Maroon Council members are appointed by the Colonel-in-Chief (Colonel), while the Colonel is officially elected by the community as the Head of Government. Each Maroon Community (Accompong, Nanny Town, Charles Town, Trelawny Town, and Scotts Hall) has its own independent Maroon Council with legislative authority."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "The brutality of slave life led many slaves to escape to mountainous regions, where they set up their own autonomous communities and became known as Maroons. One Maroon leader, Fran\u00e7ois Mackandal, led a rebellion in the 1750s, however he was later captured and executed by the French."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "Sharpe's Baptist War persuaded the British government to end the system of slavery, which they did in the years following the rebellion. After that, the colonial authorities had no use for the Maroons, and they passed the Maroon Allotments Act in 1842, and abolished the post of superintendent in the 1850s. Their attempts to break up the Maroon communal land, while partially successful in Charles Town and Scott's Hall, met with Maroon resistance in Accompong Town and Moore Town."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "The Windward Maroons and those from the Cockpit Country resisted conquest in the First Maroon War ( 1728 to 1740), which the colonial government ended in 1739\u20131740 by making treaties to grant lands and to respect maroon autonomy, in exchange for peace and aiding the colonial militia if needed against external enemies. Tension between Governor Alexander Lindsay, and the majority of the Leeward Maroons resulted in the Second Maroon War from 1795 to 1796. Although the governor promised leniency if the maroons surrendered, he later betrayed them and, supported by the Assembly, insisted on deporting just under 600 Maroons to British settlements in Nova Scotia, where American slaves who escaped from the United States were also resettled. The deported Maroons were unhappy with conditions in Canada, and in 1800 a majority left, having obtained passage to Freetown, eight years after the Sierra Leone Company established it in West Africa (in present-day Sierra Leone) as a British colony, where they formed the Sierra Leone Creole ethnic identity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free black people in Jamaica",
        "text": "Not all the Maroons accepted the treaties. Rebellions occurred in Maroon communities in the years that followed. After the treaties, the white superintendents appointed by the governors eventually took control of the Maroon towns. In the 1740s, some Leeward Maroons who opposed the 1739 treaty rose in revolt, but Cudjoe crushed those rebellions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free black people in Jamaica",
        "text": "Previous historians believed that the Maroons were able to successfully prevent runaway slaves from forming independent communities in the mountainous forests of the interior. However, recent research has shown that free black people in Jamaica were able to escape from bondage and through marronage were able to self-liberate themselves and form their own villages, which thrived for years, and sometimes decades. The leader of one of those unofficial maroon communities was an escaped slave named Ancoma. His community thrived in the forested interior of the eastern edge of the Blue Mountains in the eastern parish of what is now Saint Thomas Parish in the mid-1750s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human rights in Jamaica",
        "text": "During the colonial era, as early as 1512, African slaves who escaped their Spanish conquerors and joined the indigenous people of lands they encountered were called \u201cMaroons\u201d. The slaves who abandoned the Spanish Colonists in 1655 after the British Colonists\u2019 occupation of Jamaica were known as the Jamaican Maroons. These slaves who managed to escape to their freedom became independent groups who set up their own sovereign communities and coalesced into many heterogeneous groups that maintained their own limited self-government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free black people in Jamaica",
        "text": "Juan de Serras' group of Jamaican Maroons established a distinct independent community, and they survived by subsistence farming and periodic raids of plantations. Over time, the Maroons came to control large areas of the Jamaican interior. In the second half of the seventeenth century, de Serras fought regular campaigns against the English colonial forces, even attacking the capital of Spanish Town, and he was never defeated by the English. In the early eighteenth century, Maroons frequently defeated the British in small-scale skrimishes. In response, the British colonial authorities dispatched the colonial militia to attack them, but the Maroons successfully fought a guerrilla campaign against them in the mountainous interior, and forced the colonial authorities to seek peace terms to end the expensive conflict."
      },
      {
        "title": "Government of Haiti",
        "text": "The government of Haiti is a semi-presidential republic, a multiparty system wherein the President of Haiti is head of state elected directly by popular elections. The Prime Minister acts as head of government and is appointed by the President, chosen from the majority party in the National Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the President and Prime Minister who together constitute the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the National Assembly of Haiti. The government is organized unitarily, thus the central government \"delegates\" powers to the departments without a constitutional need for consent. The current structure of Haiti's political system was set forth in the Constitution of March 29, 1987."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "By the 1980s the Bushinengues in Suriname had begun to fight for their land rights. Between 1986 and 1992, the Surinamese Interior War was waged by the Jungle Commando, a guerrilla group fighting for the rights of the maroon minority, against the military dictatorship of D\u00e9si Bouterse. In 2005, following a ruling by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, the Suriname government agreed to compensate survivors of the 1986 Moiwana village massacre, in which soldiers had slaughtered 39 unarmed Ndyuka people, mainly women and children. On 13 June 2020, Ronnie Brunswijk was elected Vice President of Suriname by acclamation in an uncontested election. He was inaugurated on 16 July as the first Maroon in Suriname to serve as vice president."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "White superintendents took command of the Maroon towns, and the Maroon officers were relegated to their subordinates. After Tacky's War, the governor appointed a separate superintendent for each of the five Maroon towns. These superintendents reported to the Superintendent-General, who in turn reported to the governor. The Superintendents-General of all Maroon towns were as follows:\n*1770\u2013c. 1772 William Ross\n*1772\u2013c. 1779 Robert Brereton\n*c. 1779 John Fergusson\n*1779\u20131792/3 John James"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Revolution",
        "text": "The larger groups of runaway slaves who lived in the hillside woods away from white control often conducted violent raids on the island's sugar and coffee plantations. Although the numbers in these bands grew large (sometimes into the thousands), they generally lacked the leadership and strategy to accomplish large-scale objectives. The first effective maroon leader to emerge was the charismatic Haitian Vodou priest Fran\u00e7ois Mackandal, who inspired his people by drawing on African traditions and religions. He united the maroon bands and established a network of secret organizations among plantation slaves, leading a rebellion from 1751 through 1757. Although Mackandal was captured by the French and burned at the stake in 1758, large armed maroon bands persisted in raids and harassment after his death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free black people in Jamaica",
        "text": "In 1754, Quao attempted to overthrow Edward Crawford, the new Maroon leader of the Windward Maroon town, and in the resulting conflict, Crawford's Town was destroyed. Governor Charles Knowles re-established control over the uprising with the help of other Maroons. He then ordered that the Maroons of Crawford's Town be resettled in the new, nearby Windward Maroon towns of Charles Town (Jamaica) and Scott's Hall (Jamaica)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Independence of Jamaica",
        "text": "The island became an imperial colony in 1509 when Spain conquered the Indigenous Arawak people. In 1655, British forces took the island with hardly a fight, and the British Empire claimed it. Over the years, escaped slaves joined the Indigenous Taino in the mountains, forming a society known as Maroons. Maroons won a war against British forces (1728\u20131740) but lost a second war (1795\u20131796). In the 1800s, slavery was abolished and Jamaicans gained suffrage, although the British still held power. Early in the 20th century, Marcus Garvey promoted Black nationalism and became the most notable Black leader of his day. During the Great Depression, workers protested inequality and fought the authorities in Jamaica and other Caribbean colonies. In 1943, labor leader Alexander Bustamante won an electoral victory and established a new, more liberal constitution. After World War II, Jamaican leaders developed the government structure to prepare for independence. In 1962, Bustamante\u2019s party won the election and he became premier. That same year, the UK Parliament officially granted Jamaica independence, and Bustamante became the independent country\u2019s first prime minister."
      },
      {
        "title": "Government of Haiti",
        "text": "The first elections since the overthrow were held on February 8, 2006 to elect a new President. Ren\u00e9 Pr\u00e9val was declared to have won with over 50 percent of the vote. In 2008, Parliament voted to dismiss President Preval's Prime Minister following severe rioting over food prices. His selected replacement for the post was rejected by Parliament, throwing the country into a prolonged period without a government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moore Town, Jamaica",
        "text": "Since Jamaica's independence from the British in 1962, the Government of Jamaica has recognized the sovereignty of the Maroons. Their recognition aligns with the terms of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007) of particular note the \"right for self-government in matters relating to local affairs\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "Not all the Maroons accepted the treaties. Rebellions occurred in Maroon communities in the years that followed. After the treaties, the white superintendents appointed by the governors eventually took control of the Maroon towns. In the 1740s, some Leeward Maroons who opposed the 1739 treaty rose in revolt, but Cudjoe crushed those rebellions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "Beginning in the late 17th century, Jamaican Maroons fought British colonists to a draw and eventually signed treaties in the mid-18th century, that effectively freed them a century before the Slavery Abolition Act 1833, which came into effect in 1838. To this day, the Jamaican Maroons are to a significant extent autonomous and separate from Jamaican society. The physical isolation used to their advantage by their ancestors has today led to their communities remaining among the most inaccessible on the island. In their largest town, Accompong, in the parish of St\u00a0Elizabeth, the Leeward Maroons still possess a vibrant community of about 600. Tours of the village are offered to foreigners and a large festival is put on every January 6 to commemorate the signing of the peace treaty with the British after the First Maroon War."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons in Sierra Leone",
        "text": "However, the situation soured for the Maroons in the 1830s, when they objected to the use of corporal punishment in the military, and a new governor dismissed many Maroons from civil service jobs and gave them to Nova Scotians and Liberated Africans. Many Maroons were traders, but they could not compete with the Liberated Africans who came to the colony in large numbers, and took over the internal trade. European visitors observed that the Maroons were disliked by the other ethnic groups in the colony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Montague James",
        "text": "In 1809, Sierra Leone Governor Thomas Perronet Thompson officially appointed Montague James, still the unofficial leader of the Maroons, a de facto one-man provisional government of the Maroons."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 Jamaican general election",
        "text": "Prior to the election, the Jamaica Labour Party, led by Prime Minister Andrew Holness, formed a majority government. The largest opposition party was the People's National Party, led by Peter Phillips. Either the Jamaica Labour Party or the People's National Party have been in power since universal suffrage was introduced in 1944."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "The maroons created their own independent communities, which in some cases have survived for centuries, and until recently remained separate from mainstream society. In the 19th and 20th centuries, maroon communities began to disappear as forests were razed, although some countries, such as Guyana and Suriname, still have large maroon populations living in the forests. Recently, many of them moved to cities and towns as the process of urbanization accelerates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "When the colonial authorities deported the Maroons of Trelawny Town, they left a void which was filled by communities of runaway slaves. The Maroons of the smaller town of Accompong were unable to cope with the growing numbers of runaways in western Jamaica, who found refuge in the Cockpit Country. The Accompong Maroons tried but failed in their attempts to disperse the runaway community of Cuffee (Jamaica), who established a community of runaway slaves in the Cockpit Country in 1798. When Cuffee's maroon group faded from the colonial records, their place was taken by another group of runaways, who established themselves in the Cockpit Country in 1812. The maroon community of Me-no-Sen-You-no-Come also resisted attempts by the Accompong Maroons and the colonial militias to disperse them in the 1820s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "The Maroon population grew from 664 in 1739 to 1,288 in 1796, at a time when both the slave population and the white settler communities were ravaged by disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town)",
        "text": "However, in 1831, another petition was presented by 224 Sierra Leone Maroons to the British government, and this time the Jamaican authorities relented. They responded by saying they would place no obstacle in the way of Maroons returning to Jamaica, but would not pay any passage or the purchase of lands in the island."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Jamaica",
        "text": "When the English captured Jamaica in 1655, the Spanish colonists fled, leaving a large number of African slaves. These former Spanish slaves organised under the leadership of rival captains Juan de Serras and Juan de Bolas. These Jamaican Maroons intermarried with the Arawak people, and established distinct independent communities in the mountainous interior of Jamaica. They survived by subsistence farming and periodic raids of plantations. Over time, the Maroons came to control large areas of the Jamaican interior."
      },
      {
        "title": "Accompong",
        "text": "In 1739 the Maroon community was granted certain rights and autonomy by treaty with the British colonial authorities in 1739. In two settlements, they set up a traditional form of village government drawn from their Akan (Asante) culture, based on men popularly recognized as leaders. The executive is now called \"Colonel-in-Chief\", who leads the Maroon Council. These men share executive responsibilities for the community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "Under colonial rule, Haitian mulattoes were generally privileged above the black majority, though they possessed fewer rights than the white population. Following the country's independence, they became the nation's social elite. Numerous leaders throughout Haiti's history have been mulattoes. During this time, the slaves and the affranchis were given limited opportunities toward education, income, and occupations, but even after gaining independence, the social structure remains a legacy today as the disparity between the upper and lower classes have not been reformed significantly since the colonial days. Comprising 5% of the nation's population, mulattoes have retained their preeminence, evident in the political, economic, social and cultural hierarchy in Haiti. As a result, the elite class today consists of a small group of influential people who are generally light in color and continue to establish themselves in high, prestigious positions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Currencies of the British West Indies",
        "text": "The people named their community Accompong after an early African Maroon leader. After years of raiding and warfare, they established their autonomy with certain rights for limited self-government by a peace treaty with the British in 1739. Since independence in 1962, the government of Jamaica has continued to recognize the indigenous rights of the Jamaican Maroons in this area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free black people in Jamaica",
        "text": "It is possible that de Serras and the Karmahaly Maroons withdrew further into the Blue Mountains, which were inaccessible to the English colonial authorities, where they lived off the land and avoided further contact with white planters. The runaway slaves from de Serras' group of Karmahaly Maroons may have formed the initial nucleus of the Windward Maroons. From early on, the Jamaican governors considered their settlements an impediment to English development of the interior. They ordered raids on the Maroon settlements in 1686 and 1702, to little effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "At this time, the leaders who emerged in the Eastern Maroons were Quao and Queen Nanny. The Windward Maroons, in the wilder parts of eastern Jamaica, were always composed of separate highly mobile and culturally heterogeneous groups. It is possible that the runaway slaves from de Serras' group of Karmahaly Maroons formed the initial nucleus of the Windward Maroons. From early on, the Jamaican governors considered their settlements an impediment to English development of the interior. They ordered raids on the Maroon settlements in 1686 and 1702, to little effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modern republicanism",
        "text": "Andrew Holness, the current Prime Minister of Jamaica, has announced that his government intends to begin the process of transitioning to a republic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free black people in Jamaica",
        "text": "The community was so large that they occupied several makeshift villages in the Cockpit Country, with their headquarters at a place called High Windward. Even though Cuffee was identified by Governor Alexander Lindsay, 6th Earl of Balcarres, as the headman, slave informers told the colonial authorities that Cuffee's maroon community had a revolving headman leadership structure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haitian Parliament",
        "text": "Under the 1964 and 1971 Duvalier constitutions, the body became a unicameral Legislature with the abolition of the Senate. The Senate was subsequently restored in 1988."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery in Haiti",
        "text": "Enslaved Africans who fled to remote mountainous areas were called \"marron\" (French) or \"mawon\" (Haitian Creole), meaning 'escaped slave'. The maroons formed close-knit communities that practised small-scale agriculture and hunting. They were known to return to plantations to free family members and friends. On a few occasions, they also joined the Ta\u00edno settlements, who had escaped the Spanish in the 17th century. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, there were a large number of maroons living in the Bahoruco mountains. In 1702, a French expedition against them killed three maroons and captured 11, but over 30 evaded capture, and retreated further into the mountainous forests. Further expeditions were carried out against them with limited success, though they did succeed in capturing one of their leaders, Michel, in 1719. In subsequent expeditions, in 1728 and 1733, French forces captured 46 and 32 maroons respectively. No matter how many detachments were sent against these maroons, they continued to attract runaways. Expeditions in 1740, 1742, 1746, 1757 and 1761 had minor successes against these maroons, but failed to destroy their hideaways."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons in Sierra Leone",
        "text": "Following this the two commissioners responsible with credit of 25,000 Jamaican pounds from the government of Jamaica, expended \u00a33,000 on of land and built the community of Preston, Nova Scotia. Governor Wentworth was granted an allowance of \u00a3240 annually from England to provide religious instruction and schooling for the community. After the first winter, the maroons, raised in an independent culture and warmer climate, and not impressed with what they considered the servile aspects of subsistence agriculture, became less tolerant of the conditions in which they were living. The colonel of the Trelawny Town Maroons, Montague James, wrote a number of petitions to England and Jamaica asking for them to be removed from Nova Scotia. The maroon colonel sent one of his junior officers, Charles Samuels (maroon), to London to present information to Whig MP George Walpole about the terrible conditions they had to endure in Nova Scotia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "In the 1790s, about 600 Jamaican Maroons were deported to British settlements in Nova Scotia, where American slaves who had escaped from the United States were also resettled. Being unhappy with conditions, in 1800, a majority emigrated to what is now Sierra Leone in Africa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons in Sierra Leone",
        "text": "At Trelawny Town, and throughout their exile to first Nova Scotia and then Sierra Leone, Montague James continued to command the Trelawny Maroons. In 1809, Sierra Leone Governor Thomas Perronet Thompson officially nominated Montague James as the head of the maroons in Sierra Leone. Montague James died three years later."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human rights in Suriname",
        "text": "\"Maroons\" are the indigenous peoples of Suriname and are descendants from Africa who fled the colonial Dutch forced labour plantations and established independent communities in the interior rainforests. Suriname is the only country in the Americas that has not yet legally recognised the collective rights of the indigenous and tribal peoples to the lands and resources they have occupied and used for centuries. Maroons participate in regional governing bodies, as well as in the National Assembly, and were part of the governing coalition.The individual Maroon and indigenous tribes are recognised by the Suriname government, however hold no separate status under national law, and no effective demarcation of their land. Many Maroons and Amerindians live in rural and under-developed areas with minimal and restricted access to education, employment, and medical and social services. The groups participate in decisions affecting their tradition and culture, however are permitted limited influence over the decisions impacting the exploitation of energy, Minerals, timber and other natural resources on their traditional lands. Thus, these populations continue to face problems regarding illegal and uncontrolled logging and mining. No laws grant the communities the right to share in the profit created from the exploitation of resources on their land."
      },
      {
        "title": "1983 Jamaican general election",
        "text": "The Labour Party government was sworn in on 19 December, and remained in power until the 1989 elections, in which the People's National Party won 45 of the 60 seats."
      },
      {
        "title": "House of Assembly of Jamaica",
        "text": "A law passed in 1840 allowed some blacks and mixed-race men to vote in elections to the Assembly, though they had to own property, so the white planters continued to dominate it. As a result of the Morant Bay Rebellion, the Assembly voted to abolish self-governance in 1865. Jamaica then became a direct-ruled crown colony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Government of Haiti",
        "text": "Government of Haiti\n--Government.\n--History.\n----19th Century.\n----20th Century.\n----21st Century.\n----Today.\n--Branches of government.\n----Executive branch.\n------President.\n------Cabinet.\n----Legislative branch.\n----Judicial branch.\n--Administrative divisions.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "Boukman declared war on the French plantation owners in 1791, setting off the Haitian Revolution. A statue called the \"Le N\u00e8gre Marron\" or the \"N\u00e8g Mawon\" is an iconic bronze bust that was erected in the heart of Port-au-Prince to commemorate the role of maroons in Haitian independence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "The Maroons played a significant role in helping the colonial authorities to suppress the Samuel Sharpe revolt in 1831\u201332, under the leadership of white superintendents such as Alexander Fyfe (Fyffe)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black Canadians",
        "text": "Funds had been provided by the Government of Jamaica to aid in the resettlement of the Maroons in Canada. Five thousand acres were purchased at Preston, Nova Scotia, at a cost of \u00a33000. Small farm lots were provided to the Maroons and they attempted to farm the infertile land. Like the former tenants, they found the land at Preston to be unproductive; as a result they had little success. The Maroons also found farming in Nova Scotia difficult because the climate would not allow cultivation of familiar food crops, such as bananas, yams, pineapples or cocoa. Small numbers of Maroons relocated from Preston to Boydville for better farming land. The British Lieutenant Governor Sir John Wentworth made an effort to change the Maroons' culture and beliefs by introducing them to Christianity. From the monies provided by the Jamaican Government, Wentworth procured an annual stipend of \u00a3240 for the support of a school and religious education."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "In April 1760, the Jamaican government called upon the Maroons to honour their treaties and come to their assistance during the major slave uprising led by the Fante leader, Tacky, in Saint Mary Parish, Jamaica. The Windward Maroons were first to be mobilized. Their intervention at first appeared half-hearted: the Scott's Hall Maroons began by claiming outstanding arrears in bounty, while those Charles Town Maroons at Down's Cove allegedly took cover when attacked by the rebels. However, the Maroon warriors were employing guerrilla warfare tactics, which contradicted the British military tradition of marching into the oncoming fire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaica",
        "text": "The Jamaican Maroons of Accompong and other settlements are the descendants of African slaves who fled the plantations for the interior where they set up their own autonomous communities. Many Maroons continue to have their own traditions and speak their own language, known locally as Kromanti."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "In Dominica, escaped slaves joined Kalinago refugees in the island's densely forested interior to create maroon communities, which were constantly in conflict with the British colonial authorities throughout the period of formal chattel slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Government of Haiti",
        "text": "The government of Haiti is a semi-presidential republic, a multiparty system wherein the President of Haiti is head of state elected directly by popular elections. The Prime Minister acts as head of government and is appointed by the President, chosen from the majority party in the National Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the President and Prime Minister who together constitute the government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free black people in Jamaica",
        "text": "However, in the wake of the Morant Bay rebellion, Governor Eyre, with the support of the Colonial Office, persuaded the Assembly to renounce its charter, thus ending two centuries of elected representation in the Colony of Jamaica. White planters were appointed by the governor. This move deprived the black majority of a voice in the colony's government, and it was condemned by Jordon and Osborn. Jamaica became a Crown Colony, under direct rule from London."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "They established an Ashanti-style polity based in the western parts of the Cockpit Country, notably Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town); the most famous ruler of the Western Maroons was Cudjoe. They incorporated outsiders only after newcomers had satisfied a strict probationary period."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Jamaica",
        "text": "In 1739\u201340, the British government in Jamaica recognised that it could not defeat the Maroons, so they offered them treaties of peace instead. In 1739, the British, led by Governor Edward Trelawny, sued for peace with the Leeward Maroon leader, Cudjoe, described by British planters as a short, almost dwarf-like man who for years fought skilfully and bravely to maintain his people's independence. Some writers maintain that during the conflict, Cudjoe became increasingly disillusioned, and quarrelled with his lieutenants and with other Maroon groups. He felt that the only hope for the future was a peace treaty with the enemy which recognized the independence of the Leeward Maroons. In 1742, Cudjoe had to suppress a rebellion of Leeward Maroons against the treaty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Afro-Caribbean history",
        "text": "Friction between Maroons and plantation owners led to the First Maroon War and contributed to an atmosphere of simmering rebellion and increasingly harsh repression by the authorities. However, for most enslaved Afro-Caribbean people, individual escape or manumission were only partial answers and could not bring general political and social reform. As a result, the harsh conditions, constant inter-imperial warfare and growing revolutionary sentiments in the region eventually resulted in the Haitian Revolution led by Toussaint L'Ouverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haiti",
        "text": "The government of Haiti is a semi-presidential republic, a multiparty system wherein the president of Haiti is head of state and elected directly by popular elections held every five years. The prime minister of Haiti acts as head of government and is appointed by the president, chosen from the majority party in the National Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the president and prime minister who together constitute the government."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Haiti",
        "text": "In the midst of the ongoing controversy and violence, however, the interim government planned legislative and executive elections. After being postponed several times, these were held in February 2006. The elections were won by Ren\u00e9 Pr\u00e9val, who had a strong following among the poor, with 51% of the votes. Pr\u00e9val took office in May 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "The French encountered many forms of slave resistance during the 17th and 18th centuries, in Saint Domingue, which later came to be called Haiti. Enslaved Africans who fled to remote mountainous areas were called \"marron\" (French) or \"mawon\" (Haitian Creole), meaning 'escaped slave'. The maroons formed close-knit communities that practised small-scale agriculture and hunting. They were known to return to plantations to free family members and friends. On a few occasions, they also joined the Ta\u00edno settlements, who had escaped the Spanish in the 17th century. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, there were a large number of maroons living in the Bahoruco mountains. In 1702, a French expedition against them killed three maroons and captured 11, but over 30 evaded capture, and retreated further into the mountainous forests. Further expeditions were carried out against them with limited success, though they did succeed in capturing one of their leaders, Michel, in 1719. In subsequent expeditions, in 1728 and 1733, French forces captured 46 and 32 maroons respectively. No matter how many detachments were sent against these maroons, they continued to attract runaways. Expeditions in 1740, 1742, 1746, 1757 and 1761 had minor successes against these maroons, but failed to destroy their hideaways."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "Some Spanish Maroons created \"palenques\", or stockaded mountain farms, first at Lluidas Vale, in modern-day St Catharine Parish, under Juan de Bolas (also known as Lubolo). Toward the western end of Cockpit Country were the \"Varmahaly or Karmahaly Negroes\" under the leadership of Juan de Serras. There were possibly a third group was active in the region of Porus, in modern Manchester Parish; and a fourth in the Blue Mountains. During the first decade of English rule, these groups were active on behalf of the Spanish. But, as it became increasingly obvious that the British would hold their conquest, the group run by de Bolas changed its position."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 Jamaican general election",
        "text": "The leader of the party commanding a majority of support in the House of Representatives is called on by the Governor General to form a government as Prime Minister, while the leader of the largest group or coalition not in government becomes the Leader of the Opposition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cudjoe",
        "text": "The Jamaican Maroons are descended from Africans who conquered enslavers and established communities of Free black people in Jamaica in the mountains of the Colony of Jamaica during the era of slavery on the island. African slaves imported during the Spanish period may have provided the first runaways, apparently mixing with the Native American Taino or Arawak people that remained in the country. Some may have gained liberty when the English attacked Jamaica and took it in 1655, and subsequently. Cudjoe was the leader of a community of runaway slaves known as Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town). For nearly a century, until the 1739 and 1740 peace treaties with the British rulers of the island, the Maroons victoriously resisted conquest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "In French Guiana and Suriname (where maroons account for about 15% of the population), escaped enslaved people, or Bushinengues, fled to the interior and joined with indigenous peoples and created several independent tribes, among them the Saramaka, the Paramaka, the Ndyuka (Aukan), the Kwinti, the Aluku (Boni), and the Matawai. The Ndyuka were the first to sign a peace treaty offering them territorial autonomy in 1760. In the 1770s, the Aluku also desired a peace treaty, however the Society of Suriname, started a war against them, resulting in an flight into French Guiana. The other tribes signed peace treaties with the Surinamese government, the Kwinti being the last in 1887. On 25 May 1891 the Aluku officially became French citizens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "When the English invaded Jamaica in 1655, most Spanish colonists fled. Many of their slaves escaped and, together with free blacks and mulattoes, former slaves, and some native Ta\u00edno, coalesced into a number of ethnically diverse groups in the Jamaican interior."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free black people in Jamaica",
        "text": "In the 1955 Jamaican general election, the PNP won for the first time, securing 18 out of 32 seats. The JLP ended up with 14 seats, and there were no independents. The voter turnout with 65.1%. As a result, Norman Manley became the new chief minister."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Jamaica",
        "text": "Amendments to the constitution that took effect in May 1953 reconstituted the Executive Council and provided for eight ministers to be selected from among House members. The first ministries were subsequently established. These amendments also enlarged the limited powers of the House of Representatives and made elected members of the governor's executive council responsible to the legislature. Manley, elected chief minister beginning in January 1955, accelerated the process of decolonisation during his able stewardship. Further progress toward self-government was achieved under constitutional amendments in 1955 and 1956, and cabinet government was established on 11 November 1957."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free black people in Jamaica",
        "text": "In 1812, a community of runaways started when a dozen men and some women escaped from the sugar plantations of Trelawny into the Cockpit Country, and they created a village named Me-no-Sen-You-no-Come. It is located near some cliffs and boasted fertile soils in its valleys. The unofficial maroon community grew from its start of less than 20 runaway slaves to a large village that supported 14 buildings with shingle roofs and wood floors, raised poultry, hogs and nearly two hundred acres of cultivated land, thickly planted with provisions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Afro-Surinamese people",
        "text": "Escaped enslaved people in Suriname and French Guiana, known as Maroons or Bushinengues, fled to the interior and joined with indigenous peoples to create several independent tribes, among them the Saramaka, the Paramaka, the Ndyuka (Aukan), the Kwinti, the Aluku (Boni), the Matawai, and the Brooskampers. By 1740, the maroons had formed clans and felt strong enough to challenge the Dutch colonists, forcing them to sign peace treaties. Because of their long isolation in interior rainforests, they maintained more African culture than did ethnic Africans in the cities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "In 1865, poor free blacks, led by Bapist deacon Paul Bogle, rose in revolt against the colonial authorities in the Morant Bay Rebellion. The governor called out the Moore Town Maroons one last time to put down the rebellion. Fyfe was called up once more to lead a combination of Moore Town Maroons, including some who resided in Hayfield and Bath, and they committed a number of atrocities before they captured Bogle. However, their cruelty in suppressing the uprising attracted a lot of criticism from Methodist missionaries and residents of Saint Thomas Parish, Jamaica."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "From the 1830s on some Maroons (or their descendants) returned to Jamaica to work as free labourers, and many of them settled in the village of Flagstaff, near the old site of Trelawny Town (although some of these returnees resettled in Sierra Leone) (see Jamaican Maroons in Sierra Leone). The descendants of the Returned Maroons live in Flagstaff today (see Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town)). Those who remained in Sierra Leone formed the new Creole ethnic group of Sierra Leone which established diaspora communities along the West African shores from Sierra Leone to the Gambia to Fernando P\u00f3."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "The Second Maroon War began in 1795 against the background of the British-Jamaican planters panicked by the excesses of the French Revolution, and by the corresponding start of a slave revolt in neighboring Saint-Domingue, which ended with the independence of Haiti in 1804. At the same time, an increasing hunger for land among expanding Maroon communities in Jamaica coincided with several more immediate and proximate causes of grievance among the Maroons of Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Government of Haiti",
        "text": "Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the National Assembly of Haiti. The government is organized unitarily, thus the central government \"delegates\" powers to the departments without a constitutional need for consent. The current structure of Haiti's political system was set forth in the Constitution of Haiti on 29 March 1987. The current president is Claude Joseph, acting in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free black people in Jamaica",
        "text": "The Second Maroon War began in 1795 against the background of the British-Jamaican planters panicked by the excesses of the French Revolution, and by the corresponding start of a slave revolt in neighbouring Saint-Domingue, which ended with the independence of Haiti in 1804. At the same time, an increasing hunger for land among expanding Maroon communities in Jamaica coincided with several more immediate and proximate causes of grievance among the Maroons of Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free black people in Jamaica",
        "text": "Eventually, tired of war, these Maroons signed treaties with the British colonial authorities in 1739 and 1740. Cudjoe agreed to parley with John Guthrie. This local planter and militia officer was known to and respected by the Maroons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "In the 18th century, Maroons also hunted and killed notorious escaped slaves and their deputies, such as Ancoma, Three Fingered Jack (Jamaica), and Dagger. However, while they were successful in capturing and killing some runaways and their leaders, most members of the runaway maroon communities continued to thrive under new leaders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saramaka",
        "text": "The Saramaka people, like the other Maroon groups, are politically and formally run by men. The 2007 ruling of the Inter-American Court for Human Rights helps define the spheres of influence in which the national government and Saramaka authorities hold sway."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colony of Jamaica",
        "text": "When the English captured Jamaica in 1655, the Spanish colonists fled. Since 1512, though slavery was forbidden due to the laws of Burgos there were no more than 400 African \"free\" workers living in the island. These former Spanish citizens created three \"Palenques\", or settlements. Former citizens organised under the leadership of Juan de Serras allied with the Spanish guerrillas on the western end of the Cockpit Country, while those under Juan de Bolas established themselves in modern-day Clarendon Parish, Jamaica and served as a \"black militia\" for the English. The third chose to join those who had previously escaped from the Spanish to live and intermarry with the Arawak people. Each group of Jamaican Maroons established distinct communities of Free black people in Jamaica in the mountainous interior. They survived by subsistence farming and periodic raids of plantations. Over time, the Maroons came to control large areas of the Jamaican interior."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maroons",
        "text": "The Garifuna are descendants of maroon communities that developed on the island of Saint Vincent. They were deported to the coast of Honduras in 1797."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moore Town, Jamaica",
        "text": "These people became known as the Jamaican Maroons. This migration disrupted the slave plantation, resulting in periodic war between the Maroons and British. After approximately 80 years of warfare, the Maroons controlled a sizeable amount of the mountainous forests of the eastern parts of Jamaica. Eventually, the British recognized their autonomy by offering them peace treaties which brought an end to the First Maroon War."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free black people in Jamaica",
        "text": "As a result of the Baptist War, hundreds of slaves ran away into the Cockpit Country in order to avoid being forced back into slavery. The Maroons were only successful in apprehending a small number of these runaway slaves. Many runaways remained free and at large when the British parliament passed the Act abolishing slavery in 1833."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coromantee",
        "text": "Other Coromantee revolts followed, but these were all quickly suppressed. Coromantees (enslaved and runaway Maroons) and their Akan imported from Ghana (the Gold Coast), ultimately influenced most of black Jamaican culture: language, architecture and food. After British abolition of slavery in 1833, their influence and reputation began to wane as Coromantins were fully integrated into the larger British-influenced Jamaican society."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint-Domingue",
        "text": "Enslaved Africans who fled to remote mountainous areas were called \"marron\" (French) or \"mawon\" (Haitian Creole), meaning 'escaped slave'. The maroons formed close-knit communities that practised small-scale agriculture and hunting. They were known to return to plantations to free family members and friends. On a few occasions, they also joined the Ta\u00edno settlements, who had escaped the Spanish in the 17th century. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, there were a large number of maroons living in the Bahoruco mountains. In 1702, a French expedition against them killed three maroons and captured 11, but over 30 evaded capture, and retreated further into the mountainous forests. Further expeditions were carried out against them with limited success, though they did succeed in capturing one of their leaders, Michel, in 1719. In subsequent expeditions, in 1728 and 1733, French forces captured 46 and 32 maroons respectively. No matter how many detachments were sent against these maroons, they continued to attract runaways. Expeditions in 1740, 1742, 1746, 1757 and 1761 had minor successes against these maroons, but failed to destroy their hideaways."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamaican Maroons",
        "text": "Trelawny Town was the largest Maroon town, so the population of Maroons in Jamaica was significantly dented by their deportation. However, in the nineteenth century the total population of the four remaining Maroon towns grew from 853 in 1808 to 1,563 in 1841. The Maroon towns grew in numbers at a time when the population of black slaves and white slave-holders alike declined from disease. One historian argues that this is due to the healthier environment of the Maroon towns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free black people in Jamaica",
        "text": "Disturbed by plantation raiding, the colonial authorities of Jamaica wanted to eradicate the Maroon communities in order to promote British settlement. Their strategy, beginning in the 1730s, was to break off lines of communication between the Windward and Leeward Maroons, then first pick off the less organized Windward Maroons. In practice, the Maroon troops' command of the territory and skill in guerrilla warfare gave them a strong advantage over colonial forces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles Town, Jamaica",
        "text": "Following the British recognition of Maroon settlements, British Superintendents were assigned as diplomats to settlements to maintain good relations between the Maroons and British. However, in the mid-18th century, these superintendents gradually usurped the authority of the Maroon officers. The British colonial authorities abolished the role of the superintendent in the 1850s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colony of Jamaica",
        "text": "In the early eighteenth century, English-speaking escaped Akan slaves (hailing originally from West Africa, specifically Ghana) were at the forefront of the Maroon fighting against the British. Cudjoe (or \"Kojo\" in the original Akan) led the Leeward Maroons in western Jamaica, while Quao (or \"Yaw\" in the original Akan) and Queen Nanny were the leaders of the Windward Maroons in the Blue Mountains of eastern Jamaica. The rebellion finally ended, however, with the signing of peace agreements in 1739 and 1740."
      },
      {
        "title": "Montague James",
        "text": "The Jamaican Maroons in Sierra Leone proved to be able supporters of the colonial government. On docking in Sierra Leone, the ship officers discovered that the Black Nova Scotians were rebelling against the colonial authorities. They persuaded the Maroons to help them to put down the revolt, in return for which they received the best housing and land in their new home."
      },
      {
        "title": "Me-no-Sen-You-no-Come",
        "text": "In 1812, a community of runaways started when a dozen men and some women escaped from the sugar plantations of Trelawny into the Cockpit Country, and they created a village named Me-no-Sen-You-no-Come. It is located near some cliffs and boasted fertile soils in its valleys. The unofficial maroon community of Free black people in Jamaica grew from its start of less than 20 runaway slaves to a large village that supported 14 buildings with shingle roofs and wood floors, raised poultry, hogs and nearly two hundred acres of cultivated land, thickly planted with provisions."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where does Haiti rank by size among Caribbean countries?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Haiti is 27,750 km2 (10,714 sq mi) in size, the third largest country in the Caribbean by area, and has an estimated population of 11.4 million, making it the most populous country in the Caribbean."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How has Haiti been colonized throughout history?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to learn more about the colonial era under\tSpanish rule (1492\u20131625), French rule (1625\u20131804) or the\tHaitian Revolution (1791\u20131804)?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the era when the Spanish ruled Haiti."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Navigator Christopher Columbus landed in Haiti on 6 December 1492, in an area that he named M\u00f4le-Saint-Nicolas, and claimed the island for the Crown of Castile.  The Spanish passed the Laws of Burgos (1512\u20131513), which forbade the maltreatment of natives, endorsed their conversion to Catholicism, and gave legal framework to encomiendas, while the natives were brought to these sites to work in specific plantations or industries."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the era when the French ruled Haiti."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "During the French rule (1625\u20131804), France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue, then set about creating sugar and coffee plantations, worked by vast numbers of slaves imported from Africa. The French colonial government allowed some rights to free people of color; the brutality of slave life led many slaves to escape to mountainous regions, where they set up their own autonomous communities and became known as Maroons."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How long did Maroons exist?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "As early as 1655, escaped Africans had formed their communities in inland Jamaica; early maroon communities were usually displaced and by 1700, maroons had disappeared from the smaller islands. To this day, the Jamaican Maroons are to a significant extent autonomous and separate from Jamaican society."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What sort of government do the Jamaican Maroons have today?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I'm unsure about present day government but in the past, colonial governments were in a perpetual state of hatred toward the maroon communities, individuals in the colonial system traded goods and services with them. Absolute secrecy and loyalty of members were crucial to the survival of maroon communities; to ensure this loyalty, maroon communities used severe methods to protect against desertion and spies."
    ],
    "topic": "Haiti",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Maroons:23",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Maroons",
          "Relationship with colonial governments"
        ],
        "ctx": "Even though colonial governments were in a perpetual state of hatred toward the maroon communities, individuals in the colonial system traded goods and services with them. Maroons also traded with isolated white settlers and Native American communities. Maroon communities played interest groups off of one another. At the same time, maroon communities were also used as pawns when colonial powers clashed."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Maroons:24",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Maroons",
          "Relationship with colonial governments"
        ],
        "ctx": "Absolute secrecy and loyalty of members were crucial to the survival of maroon communities. To ensure this loyalty, maroon communities used severe methods to protect against desertion and spies. New members were brought to communities by way of detours so they could not find their way back and served probationary periods, often as enslaved people. Crimes such as desertion and adultery were punishable by death."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Victoria and Albert Museum (often abbreviated as the V&A) in London is the world's largest museum of applied arts, decorative arts, and design, housing a permanent collection of over 2.27\u00a0million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of independent research organisations in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "The Victoria and Albert Museum (often abbreviated as the V&A) in London is the world's largest museum of applied and decorative arts and design, as well as sculpture, housing a permanent collection of over 2.27\u00a0million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A covers and 145 galleries. Its collection spans 5000 years of art, from ancient times to the present day, from the cultures of Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa. However, the art of antiquity in most areas is not collected. The holdings of ceramics, glass, textiles, costumes, silver, ironwork, jewellery, furniture, medieval objects, sculpture, prints and printmaking, drawings and photographs are among the largest and most comprehensive in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The museum owns the world's largest collection of post-classical sculpture, with the holdings of Italian Renaissance items being the largest outside Italy. The departments of Asia include art from South Asia, China, Japan, Korea and the Islamic world. The East Asian collections are among the best in Europe, with particular strengths in ceramics and metalwork, while the Islamic collection is amongst the largest in the Western world. Overall, it is one of the largest museums in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A's collection of Art from Asia numbers more than 160,000 objects, one of the largest in existence. It has one of the world's most comprehensive and important collections of Chinese art whilst the collection of South Asian Art is the most important in the West. The museum's coverage includes items from South and South East Asia, Himalayan Kingdoms, China, the Far East and the Islamic world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum Spiral",
        "text": "The Victoria and Albert Museum Spiral (or V&A Spiral, or The Spiral) was a proposed extension to the 19th-century London building which houses the Victoria and Albert Museum, the world's largest museum of decorative arts. It was designed by Daniel Libeskind and the designer, artist, and writer, Cecil Balmond. The museum chose the design over seven others in competition in 1996 but, after much controversy and failing three times to attract the necessary funding, the project was abandoned in 2004."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "This is the largest and most comprehensive ceramics and glass collection in the world, with over 80,000 objects from around the world. Every populated continent is represented. Apart from the many pieces in the Primary Galleries on the ground floor, much of the top floor is devoted to galleries of ceramics of all periods covered, which include display cases with a representative selection, but also massed \"visible storage\" displays of the reserve collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The museum houses the National Art Library, a public library containing over 750,000 books, photographs, drawings, paintings, and prints. It is one of the world's largest libraries dedicated to the study of fine and decorative arts. The library covers all areas and periods of the museum's collections with special collections covering illuminated manuscripts, rare books and artists' letters and archives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "One of the largest objects in the collection is the rood loft from St. John's Cathedral ('s-Hertogenbosch), from the Netherlands, dated 1610\u20131613 this is as much a work of architecture as sculpture, 10.4 metres wide, 7.8 metres high, the architectural framework is of various coloured marbles including columns, arches and balustrade, against which are statues and bas-reliefs and other carvings in alabaster, the work of sculptor Conrad van Norenberch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A is one of 17 museums across Europe and the Mediterranean participating in a project called \"Discover Islamic Art\". Developed by the Brussels-based consortium Museum With No Frontiers, this online \"virtual museum\" brings together more than 1200 works of Islamic art and architecture into a single database. In 2009, the V&A established an art award, the Jameel Prize, for \" contemporary art and design inspired by Islamic tradition\" in partnership with Art Jameel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 2011 the V&A announced that London-based practice AL A had won an international competition to construct a gallery beneath a new entrance courtyard on Exhibition Road. Planning for the scheme was granted in 2012. It replaced the proposed extension designed by Daniel Libeskind with Cecil Balmond but abandoned in 2004 after failing to receive funding from the Heritage Lottery Fund."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A has large galleries devoted to temporary exhibitions. A typical year will see more than a dozen different exhibitions being staged, covering all areas of the collections. Notable exhibitions of recent years have been:\n* \"Britain Can Make It\", 1946\n* \"\", 2009\n* \"Power of Making\", 2011\n* \"Food: Bigger Than the Plate\", 2019"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The museum has 145 galleries, but given the vast extent of the collections, only a small percentage is ever on display. Many acquisitions have been made possible only with the assistance of the National Art Collections Fund."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A came second in London's top paid exhibitions in 2015 with the record-breaking Alexander McQueen show (3,472 a day)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collecting areas of the museum are not easy to summarize, having evolved partly through attempts to avoid too much overlap with other national museums in London. Generally, the classical world of the West and the Ancient Near East is left to the British Museum, and Western paintings to the National Gallery, though there are all sorts of exceptionsfor example, painted portrait miniatures, where the V&A has the main national collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carolein Smit",
        "text": "Three of Smit's works are in the collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, the world's largest museum of the decorative arts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 2004, the V&A alongside Royal Institute of British Architects opened the first permanent gallery in the UK covering the history of architecture with displays using models, photographs, elements from buildings and original drawings. With the opening of the new gallery, the RIBA Drawings and Archives Collection has been transferred to the museum, joining the already extensive collection held by the V&A. With over 600,000 drawings, over 750,000 papers and paraphernalia, and over 700,000 photographs from around the world, together they form the world's most comprehensive architectural resource."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Sculptures"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The exhibition which the museum organised to celebrate the centennial of the 1899 renaming, \"A Grand Design\", first toured in North America from 1997 (Baltimore Museum of Art, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston and the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco), returning to London in 1999. To accompany and support the exhibition, the museum published a book, \"Grand Design\", which it has made available for reading online on its website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Smaller-scale works are displayed in the Gilbert Bayes gallery, covering medieval especially English alabaster sculpture, bronzes, wooden sculptures and has demonstrations of various techniques such as bronze casting using lost-wax casting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A holds the national collection of performing arts in the UK, including drama, dance, opera, circus, puppetry, comedy, musical theatre, costume, set design, pantomime, popular music and other forms of live entertainment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Albertina",
        "text": "The Albertina is a museum in the Innere Stadt (First District) of Vienna, Austria. It houses one of the largest and most important print rooms in the world with approximately 65,000 drawings and approximately 1 million old master prints, as well as more modern graphic works, photographs and architectural drawings. Apart from the graphics collection the museum has recently acquired on permanent loan two significant collections of Impressionist and early 20th-century art, some of which will be on permanent display. The museum also houses temporary exhibitions. The museum had 360,073 visitors in 2020, down 64 percent from 2019 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, but still ranked 55th in the List of most-visited art museums in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection of textiles consists of more than 53,000 examples, mainly western European though all populated continents are represented, dating from the 1st century AD to the present, this is the largest such collection in the world. Techniques represented include weaving, printing, quilting embroidery, lace, tapestry and carpets. These are classified by technique, countries of origin and date of production. The collections are well represented in these areas: early silks from the Near East, lace, European tapestries and English medieval church embroidery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria Park (Hong Kong)",
        "text": "The United Buddy Bears exhibition, which was displayed under the patronage of Jackie Chan in summer of 2004 on the historic lawn of Victoria Park, was the largest \"open air art show\" ever held in Hong Kong. About 2.0 million people saw the international exhibition in Victoria Park. The United Buddy Bears exhibition is probably the biggest of its kind, created by renowned artists from all over the world. Meanwhile, 140 member states of the United Nations are represented in this exhibition that has been shown in 20 metropolises on all 5 continents so far."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection contains more than 500,000 images dating from the advent of photography, the oldest image dating from 1839. The gallery displays a series of changing exhibits and closes between exhibitions to allow full re-display to take place. Already in 1858, when the museum was called the South Kensington Museum, it had the world's first international photographic exhibition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Victoria and Albert Museum\n--History.\n----Foundation.\n----1900\u20131950.\n----Since 1950.\n--Architecture.\n----Edwardian period.\n----Post-war period.\n----Recent years.\n------Garden.\n------Exhibition Road Quarter.\n--Collections.\n----Architecture.\n----Asia.\n------Islamic art.\n------South Asia.\n------East Asia.\n----Books.\n----British galleries.\n----Cast courts.\n----Ceramics and glass.\n----Contemporary.\n----Prints and drawings.\n----Fashion.\n----Furniture.\n----Jewellery.\n----Metalwork.\n----Musical instruments.\n----Paintings (and miniatures).\n----Photography.\n----Sculpture.\n----Textiles.\n----Theatre and performance.\n--Departments.\n----Education.\n------V&A Publishing.\n------Activities for children.\n------Activities for adults.\n----Research and conservation.\n--Partnerships.\n--Exhibitions.\n--Controversies.\n--Media.\n--Galleries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A is located in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, in an area known as \"Albertopolis\" because of its association with Prince Albert, the Albert Memorial and the major cultural institutions with which he was associated. These include the Natural History Museum, the Science Museum, the Royal Albert Hall and Imperial College London. The museum is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. As with other national British museums, entrance is free."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A runs an ongoing textile and dress conservation programme. For example, in 2008, an important but heavily soiled, distorted and water-damaged 1954 Dior outfit called 'Zemire' was restored to displayable condition for the \"Golden Age of Couture\" exhibition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Museum of Applied Arts, Vienna",
        "text": "With over 300.000 objects, the MAK shows the largest online collection within the Austrian Federal Museums."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of largest art museums",
        "text": "List of largest art museums\n--List.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection includes about 1130 British and 650 European oil paintings, 6800 British watercolours, pastels and 2000 miniatures, for which the museum holds the national collection. Also on loan to the museum, from Her Majesty the Queen Elizabeth II, are the Raphael Cartoons: the seven surviving (there were ten) full-scale designs for tapestries in the Sistine Chapel, of the lives of Peter and Paul from the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. There is also on display a fresco by Pietro Perugino, dated 1522, from the church of Castello at Fontignano (Perugia) which is amongst the painter's last works. One of the largest objects in the collection is the Spanish retable of St George, c. 1400, 670 x 486\u00a0cm, in tempera on wood, consisting of numerous scenes and painted by Andr\u00e9s Marzal De Sax in Valencia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 1939, on the outbreak of the Second World War, most of the collection was sent to a quarry in Wiltshire, to Montacute House in Somerset, or to a tunnel near Aldwych tube station, with larger items remaining \"in situ\", sand-bagged and bricked in. Between 1941 and 1944 some galleries were used as a school for children evacuated from Gibraltar. The South Court became a canteen, first for the Royal Air Force and later for Bomb Damage Repair Squads."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "There is a copy of Raphael's \"The School of Athens\" over 4 metres by 8 metres in size, dated 1755 by Anton Raphael Mengs on display in the eastern Cast Court."
      },
      {
        "title": "Art Gallery of Greater Victoria",
        "text": "As of September 2019, the museum has approximately 20,000 works in its permanent collection, providing the institution with the largest collection of works of any art museum in British Columbia. However, because of the limited size of the museum building, only five per cent of the permanent collection is able to be exhibited in the museum's exhibition galleries. Its collection is divided into a number of departments including Asian art, Canadian art, contemporary art, decorative art, and indigenous Canadian art."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "By February 1854 discussions were underway to transfer the museum to the current site and it was renamed South Kensington Museum. In 1855 the German architect Gottfried Semper, at the request of Cole, produced a design for the museum, but it was rejected by the Board of Trade as too expensive. The site was occupied by Brompton Park House; this was extended in 1857, including the first refreshment rooms opened\u2014the museum being the first in the world to provide such a facility."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sea World Culture and Arts Center",
        "text": "Another is the V&A Gallery, managed by Design Society, a group run jointly by the Victoria and Albert Museum and the SWCAC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert",
        "text": "It may also refer to:\n*The Victoria and Albert Museum in London\n*, a Royal Yacht\n*, a Royal Yacht\n*, a Royal Yacht\n*Dr. Bhau Daji Lad Museum, the oldest museum in Mumbai, India, formerly the Victoria and Albert Museum\n*Electoral district of Victoria and Albert, an electorate in South Australia\n*Victoria & Albert's, a restaurant at Disney's Grand Floridian Resort & Spa"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "French paintings"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "An ambitious scheme of decoration was developed for these new areas: a series of mosaic figures depicting famous European artists of the Medieval and Renaissance period. These have now been removed to other areas of the museum. Also started were a series of frescoes by Lord Leighton: \"Industrial Arts as Applied to War\" 1878\u20131880 and \"Industrial Arts Applied to Peace\", which was started but never finished. To the east of this were additional galleries, the decoration of which was the work of another designer, Owen Jones; these were the Oriental Courts (covering India, China and Japan), completed in 1863. None of this decoration survives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The majority of the Medieval and Renaissance sculpture is displayed in the new Medieval and Renaissance galleries (opened December 2009)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In the 1980s, Sir Roy Strong renamed the museum as \"The Victoria and Albert Museum, the National Museum of Art and Design\". Strong's successor Elizabeth Esteve-Coll oversaw a turbulent period for the institution in which the museum's curatorial departments were re-structured, leading to public criticism from some staff. Esteve-Coll's attempts to make the V&A more accessible included a criticised marketing campaign emphasising the caf\u00e9 over the collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Victoria and Albert Museum has its origins in the Great Exhibition of 1851, with which Henry Cole, the museum's first director, was involved in planning. Initially it was known as the Museum of Manufactures, first opening in May 1852 at Marlborough House, but by September had been transferred to Somerset House. At this stage, the collections covered both applied art and science. Several of the exhibits from the Exhibition were purchased to form the nucleus of the collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Gothic Art"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Italian paintings"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The museum also runs the Young V&A at Bethnal Green; it used to run Apsley House, and also the Theatre Museum in Covent Garden. The Theatre Museum is now closed; the V&A Theatre Collections are now displayed within the South Kensington building."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Museum survived the Second World War with only minor bomb damage. The worst loss was the Victorian stained glass on the Ceramics Staircase, which was blown in when bombs fell nearby; pockmarks still visible on the fa\u00e7ade of the museum were caused by fragments from the bombs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection departments are further divided into sixteen display areas, whose combined collection numbers over 6.5\u00a0 million objects, not all items are displayed or stored at the V&A. There is a repository at Blythe House, West Kensington, as well as annex institutions managed by the V&A, also the Museum lends exhibits to other institutions. The following lists each of the collections on display and the number of objects within the collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Auckland",
        "text": "In 2009 the Gallery was promised a gift of fifteen works of art by New York art collectors and philanthropists Julian and Josie Robertson \u2013 including well-known paintings by Paul C\u00e9zanne, Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, Paul Gauguin and Piet Mondrian. This is the largest gift ever made to an art museum in Australasia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "These fifteen galleries\u2014which opened in November 2001\u2014contain around 4,000 items. The displays in these galleries are based around three major themes: \"Style\", \"Who Led Taste\" and \"What Was New\". The period covered is 1500 to 1900, with the galleries divided into three major subdivisions:\n* Tudor and Stuart Britain, 1500\u20131714, covering the Renaissance, Elizabethan, Jacobean, Restoration and Baroque styles\n* Georgian Britain, 1714\u20131837, covering Palladianism, Rococo, Chinoiserie, Neoclassicism, the Regency, the influence of Chinese, Indian and Egyptian styles, and the early Gothic Revival\n* Victorian Britain, 1837\u20131901, covering the later phases of the Gothic Revival, French influences, Classical and Renaissance revivals, Aestheticism, Japanese style, the continuing influence of China, India, and the Islamic world, the Arts and Crafts movement and the Scottish School."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "At night both the planters and the water feature may be illuminated, and the surrounding fa\u00e7ades lit to reveal details normally in shadow. Especially noticeable are the mosaics in the loggia of the north fa\u00e7ade. In summer a caf\u00e9 is set up in the southwest corner. The garden is also used for temporary exhibits of sculpture; for example, a sculpture by Jeff Koons was shown in 2006. It has also played host to the museum's annual contemporary design showcase, the V&A Village Fete, since 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The department holds significant archives documenting current practice and the history of performing arts. These include the English Stage Company at the Royal Court Theatre, D'Oyly Carte and the design collection of the Arts Council. Notable personal archives include Vivien Leigh, Peter Brook, Henry Irving and Ivor Novello."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "English paintings"
      },
      {
        "title": "Albert Museum",
        "text": "Albert Museum may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "John Sorrell (designer)",
        "text": "Sorrell has been a trustee of the Victoria & Albert Museum since 2011, and Chairman of University of the Arts London since 2013. University of the Arts London is Europe's largest specialist arts and design university."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The sculpture collection at the V&A is the most comprehensive holding of post-classical European sculpture in the world. There are approximately 22,000 objects in the collection that cover the period from about 400 AD to 1914. This covers among other periods Byzantine and Anglo Saxon ivory sculptures, British, French and Spanish medieval statues and carvings, the Renaissance, Baroque, Neo-Classical, Victorian and Art Nouveau periods. All uses of sculpture are represented, from tomb and memorial, to portrait, allegorical, religious, mythical, statues for gardens including fountains, as well as architectural decorations. Materials used include, marble, alabaster, stone, terracotta, wood (history of wood carving), ivory, gesso, plaster, bronze, lead and ceramics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Queen Victoria Museum and Art Gallery",
        "text": "The Queen Victoria Museum and Art Gallery (QVMAG) is a museum located in Launceston, Tasmania, Australia. The QVMAG is the largest museum in Australia not located in a capital city."
      },
      {
        "title": "Albertina (disambiguation)",
        "text": "The Albertina is a museum in Vienna, Austria, containing the world's best collection of old master prints and drawings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Albert Museum",
        "text": "Albert Museum\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Rodin is represented by more than 20 works in the museum collection, making it one of the largest collections of the sculptor's work outside France; these were given to the museum by the sculptor in 1914, as acknowledgement of Britain's support of France in the First World War, although the statue of St John the Baptist had been purchased in 1902 by public subscription. Other French sculptors with work in the collection are Hubert Le Sueur, Fran\u00e7ois Girardon, Michel Clodion, Jean-Antoine Houdon, Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux and Jules Dalou."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wang Huangsheng",
        "text": "Victoria and Albert Museum (U.K.), British Museum (U.K.), Ashmolean Museum (U.K.), Uffizi Gallery (Italy), Mantova Museum (Italy), Hoffmann Collection (Germany), National Art Museum of China (China), Art Museum of China Central Academy of Fine Arts (China), Art Museum of Nanjing University of the Arts (China), Guangdong Museum of Art (China), Zhejiang Art Museum (China), Hubei Museum of Art (China), Guangdong Provincial Museum (China), Anhui Provincial Museum (China), Suzhou Museum (China), Lingnan Museum of Fine Art (China)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 2021 plans to cut the museum\u2019s costs by reorganising its collections by date rather than by material were abandoned after critics said it would lead to staff cuts and thereby a loss of expertise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Several areas of the collection have dedicated study rooms, these allow access to items in the collection that are not currently on display, but in some cases require an appointment to be made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mariana (Millais)",
        "text": "The Victoria & Albert Museum holds an 1850 study, in pen and ink on paper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Albert Memorial Museum",
        "text": "Four major collection areas are represented: antiquities, art, natural history and world cultures. The world cultures collections are designated as being of national and international significance by the UK government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "One of the most dramatic parts of the museum is the Cast Courts in the sculpture wing, comprising two large, skylighted rooms two storeys high housing hundreds of plaster casts of sculptures, friezes and tombs. One of these is dominated by a full-scale replica of Trajan's Column, cut in half to fit under the ceiling. The other includes reproductions of various works of Italian Renaissance sculpture and architecture, including a full-size replica of Michelangelo's \"David\". Replicas of two earlier Davids by Donatello and Verrocchio, are also included, although for conservation reasons the Verrocchio replica is displayed in a glass case."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The official opening by Queen Victoria was on 20 June 1857. In the following year, late-night openings were introduced, made possible by the use of gas lighting. This was to enable in the words of Cole \"to ascertain practically what hours are most convenient to the working classes\"\u2014this was linked to the use of the collections of both applied art and science as educational resources to help boost the productive industry. In these early years the practical use of the collection was very much emphasised as opposed to that of \"High Art\" at the National Gallery and scholarship at the British Museum. George Wallis (1811\u20131891), the first Keeper of Fine Art Collection, passionately promoted the idea of wide art education through the museum collections. This led to the transfer to the museum of the School of Design that had been founded in 1837 at Somerset House; after the transfer, it was referred to as the Art School or Art Training School, later to become the Royal College of Art which finally achieved full independence in 1949. From the 1860s to the 1880s the scientific collections had been moved from the main museum site to various improvised galleries to the west of Exhibition Road. In 1893 the \"Science Museum\" had effectively come into existence when a separate director was appointed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leopold Museum",
        "text": "It contains the world's largest Egon Schiele Collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anderson & Low",
        "text": "UK\n* Victoria & Albert Museum, London, UK\n* National Portrait Gallery, London, UK\n* Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts, Norwich, UK\n* The Science Museum, London, UK"
      },
      {
        "title": "Museum of Applied Arts, Vienna",
        "text": "In 1906, Ludwig Baumann designed an extension building for the museum located at Weiskirchnerstra\u00dfe 3, it was completed in 1908. After World War II repair of war-related damage to the museum building lasted until 1949."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A Museum has a large collection of shoes around 2000 pairs from different cultures around the world. The collection shows the chronological progression of shoe height, heel shape and materials, revealing just how many styles we consider to be modern have been in and out of fashion across the centuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pamela Scott Wilkie",
        "text": "the Victoria & Albert Museum, London, UK, Australian National Library, Canberra, the University of California, Santa Barbara, USA, Wolfson College, Oxford, UK, the Graves Art Gallery, Sheffield, UK, the City Art Gallery, Worcester, UK, the Ikon Gallery, Birmingham, UK, University of Birmingham, UK, the Oxford Education Committee, UK, Tenby Museum and Art Gallery, Wales, UK, the Harkness Foundation, New York, USA, Birmingham City Library, UK, Southampton City Art Gallery, UK, Rijksmuseum, The Hague, The Netherlands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Vaughan (art collector)",
        "text": "The Victoria and Albert Museum was bequeathed collections of stained glass and carved panels, six Turner watercolours, and the full-scale studies for Constable's \"The Hay Wain\" and \"The Leaping Horse\", which had been on loan to that museum since 1862."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A works with a small number of partner organisations in Sheffield, Dundee and Blackpool to provide a regional presence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bj\u00f8rn Wiinblad",
        "text": "Museums the world over have Wiinblad's work in their collections. Among these are the Victoria and Albert Museum in London; the Museum of Modern Art in New York; and Stockholm's National Museum. His large ceramics and tapestries have been used for hotel decorations in Japan and the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lehnert & Landrock",
        "text": "Victoria and Albert Museum, London"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Research is a very important area of the museum's work, and includes: identification and interpretation of individual objects; other studies contribute to systematic research, this develops the public understanding of the art and artefacts of many of the great cultures of the world; visitor research and evaluation to discover the needs of visitors and their experiences of the museum. Since 1990, the museum has published research reports; these focus on all areas of the collections."
      },
      {
        "title": "Art Gallery of Greater Victoria",
        "text": "Its collection works from Canadian artists, indigenous Canadian artists, and other artists from across the Pacific Rim. The museum has also organized and hosted a number of travelling arts exhibitions. The Art Gallery of Greater Victoria has the largest collection of works out of any art museum in British Columbia, with approximately 20,000 works in its permanent collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Well represented in the collection is Meissen porcelain, from the first factory in Europe to discover the Chinese method of making porcelain. Among the finest examples are the Meissen Vulture from 1731 and the M\u00f6llendorff Dinner Service, designed in 1762 by Frederick II the Great. Ceramics from the Manufacture nationale de S\u00e8vres are extensive, especially from the 18th and 19th centuries. The collection of 18th-century British porcelain is the largest and finest in the world. Examples from every factory are represented, the collections of Chelsea porcelain and Worcester porcelain being especially fine. All the major 19th-century British factories are also represented. A major boost to the collections was the Salting Bequest made in 1909, which enriched the museum's stock of Chinese and Japanese ceramics. This bequest forms part of the finest collection of East Asian pottery and porcelain in the world, including Kakiemon ware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cast Courts (Victoria and Albert Museum)",
        "text": "In 1864 plans for an international exchange of copies of 'the finest works of art which each country possesses' were drawn up by Henry Cole and the assistance of the Foreign Office was sought to obtain lists of major works in the possession of other European governments. This ambitious scheme culminated in 15 European princes being persuaded to sign up to the \"International Convention of promoting universally Reproductions of Works of Art\" at the Paris International Exhibition of 1867. With this agreement, the Victoria and Albert Museum came to acquire the large and diverse collection of casts that it has today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Art Gallery of Greater Victoria",
        "text": "The Art Gallery of Greater Victoria (AGGV) is an art museum located in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. Situated in Rockland, Victoria, the museum occupies a building complex; made up of the Spencer Mansion, and the Exhibition Galleries. The former building component was built in 1889, while the latter component was erected in the mid-20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bhau Daji",
        "text": "The Mumbai Victoria & Albert Museum was renamed after him in 1975, and stands testimony to his contribution to the field of arts and heritage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Exhibition Road Quarter opened in 2017, with a new entrance providing access for visitors from Exhibition Road. A new courtyard, the Sackler Courtyard, has been created behind the Aston Webb Screen, a colonnade built in 1909 to hide the museum's boilers. The colonnade was kept but the wall in the lower part was removed in the construction to allow public access to the courtyard. The new 1,200-square meter courtyard is the world's first all-porcelain courtyard, which is covered with 11,000 handmade porcelain tiles in fifteen different linear patterns glazed in different tone. A pavilion of Modernist design with glass walls and an angular roof covered with 4,300 tiles is located at the corner and contains a cafe. Skylights on the courtyard provide natural light for the stairwell and the exhibition space located below the courtyard created by digging 15m into the ground. The Sainsbury Gallery's column-less space at 1,100 square metres is one of the largest in the country, providing space for temporary exhibitions. The gallery can be assessed through the existing Western Range building where a new entrance to the Blavatnik Hall and the Museum has been created, and visitors can descend into the gallery via stairs with lacquered tulipwood balustrades."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Since 2001, the museum has embarked on a major \u00a3150m renovation programme. New 17th- and 18th-century European galleries were opened on 9 December 2015. These restored the original Aston Webb interiors and host the European collections 1600\u20131815. The Young V&A in East London is a branch of the museum, and a new branch in London is being planned. The first V&A museum outside London, V&A Dundee opened on 15 September 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Furniture and Woodwork collection also includes complete rooms, musical instruments, and clocks. Among the rooms owned by the Museum are the Boudoir of Madame de S\u00e9villy (Paris, 1781\u201382) by Claude Nicolas Ledoux, with painted panelling by Jean Simeon Rousseau de la Rotti\u00e8re; and Frank Lloyd Wright's Kaufmann Office, designed and constructed between 1934 and 1937 for the owner of a Pittsburgh department store."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Exhibition Building",
        "text": "It received restoration throughout the 1990s and in 2004 became the first building in Australia to be awarded UNESCO World Heritage status, being one of the last remaining major 19th-century exhibition buildings in the world. It is the world's most complete surviving site from the International Exhibition movement 1851\u20131914. It sits adjacent to the Melbourne Museum and is the largest item in Museum Victoria's collection. Today, the building hosts various exhibitions and other events and is closely tied with events at the Melbourne Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicholas Hilliard",
        "text": "By far the largest collection of his work is in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. The National Portrait Gallery and British Museum in London have several others. The conditions in which miniatures have been kept ensure that many remain in excellent condition, and have avoided the attention of restorers, although fading of pigments, and oxidization of silver paint are common."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum Spiral",
        "text": "When the design was chosen in 1996, Libeskind was relatively unknown, but in 1999 he won international acclaim for the Jewish Museum in Berlin, and his master plan for the World Trade Center site in New York has made him a household name there."
      },
      {
        "title": "J\u00f3zef Hecht",
        "text": "Victoria and Albert Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elmgreen & Dragset",
        "text": "2013\n*\"Tomorrow\", Victoria and Albert Museum, London, UK\n*\"A Space Called Public\", Munich (curated by Elmgreen & Dragset), Germany"
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger Hilton",
        "text": "Victoria & Albert Museum"
      },
      {
        "title": "Powerhouse Museum",
        "text": "About 95 percent of the Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences collection is maintained in storage at any one time. From late 2004, 60 percent of this was moved to a new site in the northwestern Sydney suburb of Castle Hill. Built at a cost of , this facility consists of seven huge sheds, including one the size of an aircraft hangar, within which are housed artefacts as a section of the mast of , Nelson's flagship at the Battle of Trafalgar, and the spare wheel from \"Bluebird-Proteus CN7\", the car Donald Campbell drove to break the world land speed record on Lake Eyre in the 1960s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Young V&A",
        "text": "Young V&A, formerly the V&A Museum of Childhood, is a branch of the Victoria and Albert Museum (the \"V&A\"), which is the United Kingdom's national museum of applied arts. It is in Bethnal Green and is located on the Green itself in the East End of London and specialises in objects by and for children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In March 2018, it was announced that the Duchess of Cambridge would become the first royal patron of the museum. on 15 September 2018, the first V&A museum outside London, V&A Dundee, opened. The museum, built as a cost of \u00a380.11m, is located on the Dundee's waterfront, and is focused on Scottish design, furniture, textiles, fashion, architecture, engineering and digital design. Although it uses the V&A name, its operation and funding is independent of the V&A."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ged Quinn",
        "text": "Victoria & Albert Museum, London, UK,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Museum of Applied Arts, Vienna",
        "text": "In 2015 the MAK became the first museum to use bitcoin to acquire art, when it purchased the screensaver \"Event listeners\" of van den Dorpel. With over 300.000 objects displayed online, the MAK presents the largest online collection within the Austrian Federal Museums. The audio guide to this museum is provided as a web-based app."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Many famous potters, such as Josiah Wedgwood, William De Morgan and Bernard Leach as well as Mintons & Royal Doulton are represented in the collection. There is an extensive collection of Delftware produced in both Britain and Holland, which includes a circa 1695 flower pyramid over a metre in height. Bernard Palissy has several examples of his work in the collection including dishes, jugs and candlesticks. The largest objects in the collection are a series of elaborately ornamented ceramic stoves from the 16th and 17th centuries, made in Germany and Switzerland. There is an unrivalled collection of Italian maiolica and lustreware from Spain. The collection of Iznik pottery from Turkey is the largest in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "With the death of Captain Francis Fowke of the Royal Engineers, the next architect to work at the museum was Colonel (later Major General) Henry Young Darracott Scott, also of the Royal Engineers. He designed to the northwest of the garden the five-storey School for Naval Architects (also known as the science schools), now the Henry Cole Wing, in 1867\u20131872. Scott's assistant J. W. Wild designed the impressive staircase that rises the full height of the building. Made from Cadeby stone, the steps are in length, while the balustrades and columns are Portland stone. It is now used to jointly house the prints and architectural drawings of the V&A (prints, drawings, paintings and photographs) and Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA Drawings and Archives Collections), and the Sackler Centre for arts education, which opened in 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "These galleries are dedicated to temporary exhibits showcasing both trends from recent decades and the latest in design and fashion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Albertinum",
        "text": "Albertinum\n--History.\n--Museums.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mughal painting",
        "text": "Many museums have collections, with that of the Victoria and Albert Museum in London especially large."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the name of the world's largest museum of applied arts?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Victoria and Albert Museum in London is the world's largest museum of applied arts, decorative arts, and design, housing a permanent collection of over 2.27 million objects."
    ],
    "topic": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Victoria and Albert Museum:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Victoria and Albert Museum"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Victoria and Albert Museum (often abbreviated as the V&A) in London is the world's largest museum of applied arts, decorative arts, and design, housing a permanent collection of over 2.27\u00a0million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Victoria and Albert Museum (often abbreviated as the V&A) in London is the world's largest museum of applied arts, decorative arts, and design, housing a permanent collection of over 2.27\u00a0million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A covers and 145 galleries. Its collection spans 5000 years of art, from ancient times to the present day, from the cultures of Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa. However, the art of antiquity in most areas is not collected. The holdings of ceramics, glass, textiles, costumes, silver, ironwork, jewellery, furniture, medieval objects, sculpture, prints and printmaking, drawings and photographs are among the largest and most comprehensive in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "This is the largest and most comprehensive ceramics and glass collection in the world, with over 80,000 objects from around the world. Every populated continent is represented. Apart from the many pieces in the Primary Galleries on the ground floor, much of the top floor is devoted to galleries of ceramics of all periods covered, which include display cases with a representative selection, but also massed \"visible storage\" displays of the reserve collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "One of the largest objects in the collection is the rood loft from St. John's Cathedral ('s-Hertogenbosch), from the Netherlands, dated 1610\u20131613 this is as much a work of architecture as sculpture, 10.4 metres wide, 7.8 metres high, the architectural framework is of various coloured marbles including columns, arches and balustrade, against which are statues and bas-reliefs and other carvings in alabaster, the work of sculptor Conrad van Norenberch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The museum houses the National Art Library, a public library containing over 750,000 books, photographs, drawings, paintings, and prints. It is one of the world's largest libraries dedicated to the study of fine and decorative arts. The library covers all areas and periods of the museum's collections with special collections covering illuminated manuscripts, rare books and artists' letters and archives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A's collection of Art from Asia numbers more than 160,000 objects, one of the largest in existence. It has one of the world's most comprehensive and important collections of Chinese art whilst the collection of South Asian Art is the most important in the West. The museum's coverage includes items from South and South East Asia, Himalayan Kingdoms, China, the Far East and the Islamic world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The museum owns the world's largest collection of post-classical sculpture, with the holdings of Italian Renaissance items being the largest outside Italy. The departments of Asia include art from South Asia, China, Japan, Korea and the Islamic world. The East Asian collections are among the best in Europe, with particular strengths in ceramics and metalwork, while the Islamic collection is amongst the largest in the Western world. Overall, it is one of the largest museums in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection departments are further divided into sixteen display areas, whose combined collection numbers over 6.5\u00a0 million objects, not all items are displayed or stored at the V&A. There is a repository at Blythe House, West Kensington, as well as annex institutions managed by the V&A, also the Museum lends exhibits to other institutions. The following lists each of the collections on display and the number of objects within the collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The museum has 145 galleries, but given the vast extent of the collections, only a small percentage is ever on display. Many acquisitions have been made possible only with the assistance of the National Art Collections Fund."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A has large galleries devoted to temporary exhibitions. A typical year will see more than a dozen different exhibitions being staged, covering all areas of the collections. Notable exhibitions of recent years have been:\n* \"Britain Can Make It\", 1946\n* \"\", 2009\n* \"Power of Making\", 2011\n* \"Food: Bigger Than the Plate\", 2019"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Smaller-scale works are displayed in the Gilbert Bayes gallery, covering medieval especially English alabaster sculpture, bronzes, wooden sculptures and has demonstrations of various techniques such as bronze casting using lost-wax casting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection includes about 1130 British and 650 European oil paintings, 6800 British watercolours, pastels and 2000 miniatures, for which the museum holds the national collection. Also on loan to the museum, from Her Majesty the Queen Elizabeth II, are the Raphael Cartoons: the seven surviving (there were ten) full-scale designs for tapestries in the Sistine Chapel, of the lives of Peter and Paul from the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. There is also on display a fresco by Pietro Perugino, dated 1522, from the church of Castello at Fontignano (Perugia) which is amongst the painter's last works. One of the largest objects in the collection is the Spanish retable of St George, c. 1400, 670 x 486\u00a0cm, in tempera on wood, consisting of numerous scenes and painted by Andr\u00e9s Marzal De Sax in Valencia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Some of the oldest items in the collection are medieval vestments, especially Opus Anglicanum. One of the most important items in the collection is the wedding suit of James II of England, which is displayed in the British Galleries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection of textiles consists of more than 53,000 examples, mainly western European though all populated continents are represented, dating from the 1st century AD to the present, this is the largest such collection in the world. Techniques represented include weaving, printing, quilting embroidery, lace, tapestry and carpets. These are classified by technique, countries of origin and date of production. The collections are well represented in these areas: early silks from the Near East, lace, European tapestries and English medieval church embroidery."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of independent research organisations in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "The Victoria and Albert Museum (often abbreviated as the V&A) in London is the world's largest museum of applied and decorative arts and design, as well as sculpture, housing a permanent collection of over 2.27\u00a0million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabeth Morley",
        "text": "The Victoria and Albert Museum owns a variety of pieces by Morley, including a collection of bottle tickets of various sorts. Three pieces are in the collection of the National Museum of Women in the Arts; a George III tea caddy spoon of 1797, another of 1798, and a George III toddy ladle of 1802. Several pieces are owned by the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A runs an ongoing textile and dress conservation programme. For example, in 2008, an important but heavily soiled, distorted and water-damaged 1954 Dior outfit called 'Zemire' was restored to displayable condition for the \"Golden Age of Couture\" exhibition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection contains more than 500,000 images dating from the advent of photography, the oldest image dating from 1839. The gallery displays a series of changing exhibits and closes between exhibitions to allow full re-display to take place. Already in 1858, when the museum was called the South Kensington Museum, it had the world's first international photographic exhibition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Albert Memorial Museum",
        "text": "The museum's zoology collection includes specimens of invertebrates and mammals from across the world. Percy Sladen's collection of echinoderms is held by the museum and considered the most important of its kind outside of any national collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A holds the national collection of performing arts in the UK, including drama, dance, opera, circus, puppetry, comedy, musical theatre, costume, set design, pantomime, popular music and other forms of live entertainment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "There are over 10,000 objects made from silver or gold in the collection, the display (about 15% of the collection) is divided into secular and sacred covering both Christian (Roman Catholic, Anglican and Greek Orthodox) and Jewish liturgical vessels and items. The main silver gallery is divided into these areas: British silver pre-1800; British silver 1800 to 1900; modernist to contemporary silver; European silver. The collection includes the earliest known piece of English silver with a dated hallmark, a silver gilt beaker dated 1496\u20131497."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Vaughan (art collector)",
        "text": "The Victoria and Albert Museum was bequeathed collections of stained glass and carved panels, six Turner watercolours, and the full-scale studies for Constable's \"The Hay Wain\" and \"The Leaping Horse\", which had been on loan to that museum since 1862."
      },
      {
        "title": "Art Gallery of Greater Victoria",
        "text": "As of September 2019, the museum has approximately 20,000 works in its permanent collection, providing the institution with the largest collection of works of any art museum in British Columbia. However, because of the limited size of the museum building, only five per cent of the permanent collection is able to be exhibited in the museum's exhibition galleries. Its collection is divided into a number of departments including Asian art, Canadian art, contemporary art, decorative art, and indigenous Canadian art."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection includes pieces by William Kent, Henry Flitcroft, Matthias Lock, James Stuart, William Chambers, John Gillow, James Wyatt, Thomas Hopper, Charles Heathcote Tatham, Pugin, William Burges, Charles Voysey, Charles Robert Ashbee, Baillie Scott, Edwin Lutyens, Edward Maufe, Wells Coates and Robin Day. The museum also hosts the national collection of wallpaper, which is looked after by the Prints, Drawings and Paintings department."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Rodin is represented by more than 20 works in the museum collection, making it one of the largest collections of the sculptor's work outside France; these were given to the museum by the sculptor in 1914, as acknowledgement of Britain's support of France in the First World War, although the statue of St John the Baptist had been purchased in 1902 by public subscription. Other French sculptors with work in the collection are Hubert Le Sueur, Fran\u00e7ois Girardon, Michel Clodion, Jean-Antoine Houdon, Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux and Jules Dalou."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The museum's jewellery collection, containing over 6000 items is one of the finest and most comprehensive collections of jewellery in the world and includes works dating from Ancient Egypt to the present day, as well as jewellery designs on paper. The museum owns pieces by renowned jewellers Cartier, Jean Schlumberger, Peter Carl Faberg\u00e9, Andrew Grima, Hemmerle and Lalique. Other items in the collection include diamond dress ornaments made for Catherine the Great, bracelet clasps once belonging to Marie Antoinette, and the Beauharnais emerald necklace presented by Napoleon to his adopted daughter Hortense de Beauharnais in 1806. The museum also collects international modern jewellery by designers such as Gijs Bakker, Onno Boekhoudt, Peter Chang, Gerda Flockinger, Lucy Sarneel, Dorothea Pr\u00fchl and Wendy Ramshaw, and African and Asian traditional jewellery. Major bequests include Reverend Chauncy Hare Townshend's collection of 154 gems bequeathed in 1869, Lady Cory's 1951 gift of major diamond jewellery from the 18th and 19th centuries, and jewellery scholar Dame Joan Evans' 1977 gift of more than 800 jewels dating from the Middle Ages to the early 19th century. A new jewellery gallery, funded by William and Judith Bollinger, opened on 24 May 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection includes the work of many photographers from Fox Talbot, Julia Margaret Cameron, Viscountess Clementina Hawarden, Gustave Le Gray, Benjamin Brecknell Turner, Frederick Hollyer, Samuel Bourne, Roger Fenton, Man Ray, Henri Cartier-Bresson, Ilse Bing, Bill Brandt, Cecil Beaton (there are more than 8000 of his negatives), Don McCullin, David Bailey, Jim Lee and Helen Chadwick to the present day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 2002, the Museum acquired the Costiff collection of 178 Vivienne Westwood costumes. Other famous designers with work in the collection include Coco Chanel, Hubert de Givenchy, Christian Dior, Crist\u00f3bal Balenciaga, Yves Saint Laurent, Guy Laroche, Irene Galitzine, Mila Sch\u00f6n, Valentino Garavani, Norman Norell, Norman Hartnell, Zandra Rhodes, Hardy Amies, Mary Quant, Christian Lacroix, Jean Muir and Pierre Cardin. The museum continues to acquire examples of modern fashion to add to the collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "This collection of more than 45,000 items covers decorative ironwork, both wrought and cast, bronze, silverware, arms and armour, pewter, brassware and enamels (including many examples Limoges enamel). The main iron work gallery was redesigned in 1995."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A came second in London's top paid exhibitions in 2015 with the record-breaking Alexander McQueen show (3,472 a day)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Miniaturists represented in the collection include Jean Bourdichon, Hans Holbein the Younger, Nicholas Hilliard, Isaac Oliver, Peter Oliver, Jean Petitot, Alexander Cooper, Samuel Cooper, Thomas Flatman, Rosalba Carriera, Christian Friedrich Zincke, George Engleheart, John Smart, Richard Cosway and William Charles Ross."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum Spiral",
        "text": "The Victoria and Albert Museum Spiral (or V&A Spiral, or The Spiral) was a proposed extension to the 19th-century London building which houses the Victoria and Albert Museum, the world's largest museum of decorative arts. It was designed by Daniel Libeskind and the designer, artist, and writer, Cecil Balmond. The museum chose the design over seven others in competition in 1996 but, after much controversy and failing three times to attract the necessary funding, the project was abandoned in 2004."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The print collection has more than 500,000 items, covering: posters, greetings cards, bookplates, as well as a comprehensive collection of old master prints from the Renaissance to the present, including works by Rembrandt, William Hogarth, Giovanni Battista Piranesi, Canaletto, Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Henri Matisse and Sir William Nicholson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Art Gallery of Greater Victoria",
        "text": "The museum's collection of Asian art is made up of approximately 8,000 works, comprising 40 per cent of the museum's total collection. With approximately 8,000 Asian works, the museum holds the second largest collection of Asian art in Canada, after the Royal Ontario Museum. While the collection of Asian works includes items from all over Asia (including South Asia, and Western Asia), the focus of the Asian collection is primarily on works from China, and Japan. The museum's collection of Chinese works is believed to have increased significantly in value in the first decades of the 21st century, due to China's economic growth, and renewed interests for art from that region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Theatre & Performance collections were founded in the 1920s when private collector, Gabrielle Enthoven, donated her collection of theatrical memorabilia to the V&A. In 1974 two further independent collections were compiled to form a comprehensive performing arts collection at the V&A. The collections were displayed at the Theatre Museum, which operated from Covent Garden until closing in 2007. Theatre & Performance galleries opened at South Kensington in March 2009 tracing the production process of performance and include a temporary exhibition space. Types of items displayed include costumes, set models, wigs, prompt books, and posters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collecting areas of the museum are not easy to summarize, having evolved partly through attempts to avoid too much overlap with other national museums in London. Generally, the classical world of the West and the Ancient Near East is left to the British Museum, and Western paintings to the National Gallery, though there are all sorts of exceptionsfor example, painted portrait miniatures, where the V&A has the main national collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The sculpture collection at the V&A is the most comprehensive holding of post-classical European sculpture in the world. There are approximately 22,000 objects in the collection that cover the period from about 400 AD to 1914. This covers among other periods Byzantine and Anglo Saxon ivory sculptures, British, French and Spanish medieval statues and carvings, the Renaissance, Baroque, Neo-Classical, Victorian and Art Nouveau periods. All uses of sculpture are represented, from tomb and memorial, to portrait, allegorical, religious, mythical, statues for gardens including fountains, as well as architectural decorations. Materials used include, marble, alabaster, stone, terracotta, wood (history of wood carving), ivory, gesso, plaster, bronze, lead and ceramics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Library consists of three large public rooms, with around a hundred individual study desks. These are the West Room, Centre Room and Reading Room. The centre room contains 'special collection material'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The National Art Library (also called Word and Image Department) at the Victoria and Albert Museum collection catalogue used to be kept in different formats including printed exhibit catalogues, and card catalogues. A computer system called MODES cataloguing system was used from the 1980s to the 1990s, but those electronic files were not available to the library users. All of the archival material at the National Art Library is using Encoded Archival Description (EAD). The Victoria and Albert Museum has a computer system but most of the items in the collection, unless those were newly accessioned into the collection, probably do not show up in the computer system. There is a feature on the Victoria and Albert Museum website called \"Search the Collections,\" but not everything is listed there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Soulages collection of Italian and French Renaissance objects was acquired between 1859 and 1865, and includes several cassone. The John Jones Collection of French 18th-century art and furnishings was left to the museum in 1882, then valued at \u00a3250,000. One of the most important pieces in this collection is a marquetry commode by the \"\u00e9b\u00e9niste\" Jean Henri Riesener dated c1780. Other signed pieces of furniture in the collection include a bureau by Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Oeben, a pair of pedestals with inlaid brass work by Andr\u00e9 Charles Boulle, a commode by Bernard Vanrisamburgh and a work-table by Martin Carlin. Other 18th-century \u00e9b\u00e9nistes represented in the Museum collection include Adam Weisweiler, David Roentgen, Gilles Joubert and Pierre Langlois. In 1901, Sir George Donaldson donated several pieces of art Nouveau furniture to the museum, which he had acquired the previous year at the Paris Exposition Universelle. This was criticised at the time, with the result that the museum ceased to collect contemporary items and did not do so again until the 1960s. In 1986 the Lady Abingdon collection of French Empire furniture was bequeathed by Mrs T. R. P. Hole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria Cross",
        "text": "Prior to the November 2010 opening of the Ashcroft Gallery, the largest collection of VCs on public display was held by the Australian War Memorial, whose collection includes all nine VCs awarded to Australians at Gallipoli. Of the 101 medals awarded to Australians (96 VCs, and five VCs for Australia), this collection contains around 70 medals, including three medals awarded to British soldiers (Grady, 1854; Holbrook, 1914; and Whirlpool, 1858), and three of the VCs for Australia (Donaldson, 2008; Keighran, 2010; and Roberts-Smith, 2010)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The furniture collection, while covering Europe and America from the Middle Ages to the present, is predominantly British, dating between 1700 and 1900. Many of the finest examples are displayed in the British Galleries, including pieces by Chippendale, Adam, Morris, and Mackintosh. One of the oldest items is a chair leg from Middle Egypt dated to 200-395AD."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "One of the more unusual collections is that of Eadweard Muybridge's photographs of Animal Locomotion of 1887, this consists of 781 plates. These sequences of photographs taken a fraction of a second apart capture images of different animals and humans performing various actions. There are several of John Thomson's 1876-7 images of Street Life in London in the collection. The museum also holds James Lafayette's society portraits, a collection of more than 600 photographs dating from the late 19th to early 20th centuries and portraying a wide range of society figures of the period, including bishops, generals, society ladies, Indian maharajas, Ethiopian rulers and other foreign leaders, actresses, people posing in their motor cars and a sequence of photographs recording the guests at the famous fancy-dress ball held at Devonshire House in 1897 to celebrate Queen Victoria's diamond jubilee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicholas Hilliard",
        "text": "By far the largest collection of his work is in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. The National Portrait Gallery and British Museum in London have several others. The conditions in which miniatures have been kept ensure that many remain in excellent condition, and have avoided the attention of restorers, although fading of pigments, and oxidization of silver paint are common."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Albert Memorial Museum",
        "text": "The costume and textiles collection of the museum is considerable; according to the University of Brighton, they \"must rank as one of the most important collections outside London\". Due to the delicate nature of these materials, the collection is not on permanent display."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gilbert Collection",
        "text": "The exhibition was fitted out under the supervision of the silver expert Timothy Schroder, and it continued until 27 January 2008. The space then became the Embankment Galleries, an exhibition space for contemporary art. Meanwhile, the collection was incorporated into the Victoria and Albert Museum, where a new display in rooms 70\u201373 opened on 30 June 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 1939, on the outbreak of the Second World War, most of the collection was sent to a quarry in Wiltshire, to Montacute House in Somerset, or to a tunnel near Aldwych tube station, with larger items remaining \"in situ\", sand-bagged and bricked in. Between 1941 and 1944 some galleries were used as a school for children evacuated from Gibraltar. The South Court became a canteen, first for the Royal Air Force and later for Bomb Damage Repair Squads."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria Cross",
        "text": "There are a number of collections of Victoria Crosses. The VC collection of businessman and politician Lord Ashcroft, amassed since 1986, contains 162 medals, over one-tenth of all VCs awarded. It is the largest collection of such decorations. In July 2008 it was announced that Ashcroft was to donate \u00a35million for a permanent gallery at the Imperial War Museum where the 50 VCs held by the museum would be put on display alongside his collection. The Lord Ashcroft Gallery at the Imperial War Museum opened on 12 November 2010, containing a total of 210 VCs and 31 GCs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "These fifteen galleries\u2014which opened in November 2001\u2014contain around 4,000 items. The displays in these galleries are based around three major themes: \"Style\", \"Who Led Taste\" and \"What Was New\". The period covered is 1500 to 1900, with the galleries divided into three major subdivisions:\n* Tudor and Stuart Britain, 1500\u20131714, covering the Renaissance, Elizabethan, Jacobean, Restoration and Baroque styles\n* Georgian Britain, 1714\u20131837, covering Palladianism, Rococo, Chinoiserie, Neoclassicism, the Regency, the influence of Chinese, Indian and Egyptian styles, and the early Gothic Revival\n* Victorian Britain, 1837\u20131901, covering the later phases of the Gothic Revival, French influences, Classical and Renaissance revivals, Aestheticism, Japanese style, the continuing influence of China, India, and the Islamic world, the Arts and Crafts movement and the Scottish School."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The department holds significant archives documenting current practice and the history of performing arts. These include the English Stage Company at the Royal Court Theatre, D'Oyly Carte and the design collection of the Arts Council. Notable personal archives include Vivien Leigh, Peter Brook, Henry Irving and Ivor Novello."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Furniture and Woodwork collection also includes complete rooms, musical instruments, and clocks. Among the rooms owned by the Museum are the Boudoir of Madame de S\u00e9villy (Paris, 1781\u201382) by Claude Nicolas Ledoux, with painted panelling by Jean Simeon Rousseau de la Rotti\u00e8re; and Frank Lloyd Wright's Kaufmann Office, designed and constructed between 1934 and 1937 for the owner of a Pittsburgh department store."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carolein Smit",
        "text": "Three of Smit's works are in the collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, the world's largest museum of the decorative arts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Prints and drawings from the over 750,000 items in the collection can be seen on request at the print room, the \"Prints and Drawings study Room\"; booking an appointment is necessary. The collection of drawings includes over 10,000 British and 2,000 old master works, including works by: D\u00fcrer, Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione, Bernardo Buontalenti, Rembrandt, Antonio Verrio, Paul Sandby, John Russell, Angelica Kauffman, John Flaxman, Hugh Douglas Hamilton, Thomas Rowlandson, William Kilburn, Thomas Girtin, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, David Wilkie, John Martin, Samuel Palmer, Sir Edwin Henry Landseer, Lord Leighton, Sir Samuel Luke Fildes and Aubrey Beardsley. Modern British artists represented in the collection include: Paul Nash, Percy Wyndham Lewis, Eric Gill, Stanley Spencer, John Piper, Robert Priseman, Graham Sutherland, Lucian Freud and David Hockney."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Several areas of the collection have dedicated study rooms, these allow access to items in the collection that are not currently on display, but in some cases require an appointment to be made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Among the more important instruments owned by the museum are a violin by Antonio Stradivari dated 1699, an oboe that belonged to Gioachino Rossini, and a jewelled spinet dated 1571 made by Annibale Rossi. The collection also includes a 1570 virginal said to have belonged to Elizabeth I, and late 19th-century pianos designed by Edward Burne-Jones, and Baillie Scott."
      },
      {
        "title": "Art Gallery of Greater Victoria",
        "text": "Its collection works from Canadian artists, indigenous Canadian artists, and other artists from across the Pacific Rim. The museum has also organized and hosted a number of travelling arts exhibitions. The Art Gallery of Greater Victoria has the largest collection of works out of any art museum in British Columbia, with approximately 20,000 works in its permanent collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Many famous potters, such as Josiah Wedgwood, William De Morgan and Bernard Leach as well as Mintons & Royal Doulton are represented in the collection. There is an extensive collection of Delftware produced in both Britain and Holland, which includes a circa 1695 flower pyramid over a metre in height. Bernard Palissy has several examples of his work in the collection including dishes, jugs and candlesticks. The largest objects in the collection are a series of elaborately ornamented ceramic stoves from the 16th and 17th centuries, made in Germany and Switzerland. There is an unrivalled collection of Italian maiolica and lustreware from Spain. The collection of Iznik pottery from Turkey is the largest in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Several French paintings entered the collection as part of the 260 paintings and miniatures (not all the works were French, for example Carlo Crivelli's \"Virgin and Child\") that formed part of the Jones bequest of 1882 and as such are displayed in the galleries of continental art 1600\u20131800, including the portrait of Fran\u00e7ois, Duc d'Alen\u00e7on by Fran\u00e7ois Clouet, Gaspard Dughet and works by Fran\u00e7ois Boucher including his portrait of Madame de Pompadour dated 1758, Jean Fran\u00e7ois de Troy, Jean-Baptiste Pater and their contemporaries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "V&A Publishing, within the education department, works to raise funds for the museum by publishing around 30 books and digital items each year. The company has around 180 books in print."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection also includes the Oxburgh Hangings, which were made by Mary, Queen of Scots and Bess of Hardwick. However, the Oxburgh Hangings are on permanent long-term loan at Oxburgh Hall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 1857 John Sheepshanks donated 233 paintings, mainly by contemporary British artists, and a similar number of drawings to the museum with the intention of forming a 'A National Gallery of British Art', a role since taken on by Tate Britain; artists represented are William Blake, James Barry, Henry Fuseli, Sir Edwin Henry Landseer, Sir David Wilkie, William Mulready, William Powell Frith, Millais and Hippolyte Delaroche. Although some of Constable's works came to the museum with the Sheepshanks bequest, the majority of the artist's works were donated by his daughter Isabel in 1888, including the large number of sketches in oil, the most significant being the 1821 full size oil sketch for \"The Hay Wain\". Other artists with works in the collection include: Bernardino Fungai, Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger, Domenico di Pace Beccafumi, Fioravante Ferramola, Jan Brueghel the Elder, Anthony van Dyck, Ludovico Carracci, Antonio Verrio, Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Domenico Tiepolo, Canaletto, Francis Hayman, Pompeo Batoni, Benjamin West, Paul Sandby, Richard Wilson, William Etty, Henry Fuseli, Sir Thomas Lawrence, James Barry, Francis Danby, Richard Parkes Bonington and Alphonse Legros."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Well represented in the collection is Meissen porcelain, from the first factory in Europe to discover the Chinese method of making porcelain. Among the finest examples are the Meissen Vulture from 1731 and the M\u00f6llendorff Dinner Service, designed in 1762 by Frederick II the Great. Ceramics from the Manufacture nationale de S\u00e8vres are extensive, especially from the 18th and 19th centuries. The collection of 18th-century British porcelain is the largest and finest in the world. Examples from every factory are represented, the collections of Chelsea porcelain and Worcester porcelain being especially fine. All the major 19th-century British factories are also represented. A major boost to the collections was the Salting Bequest made in 1909, which enriched the museum's stock of Chinese and Japanese ceramics. This bequest forms part of the finest collection of East Asian pottery and porcelain in the world, including Kakiemon ware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Martha Black (art historian)",
        "text": "The Royal Ontario Museum holds a major but little-known collection of Northwest coast native art and artifacts acquired by the Reverend Dr. Richard Whitfield Large at Bella Bella, British Columbia between 1899 and 1906. Although the R. W. Large Collection is one of the most important Heiltsuk collections in existence because of its unique documentation, there had never been a comprehensive study of it\".\". Black undertakes a study of the collection in her book and worked with the Heiltsuk to produce an art exhibit based on the collection with a number of contemporary pieces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hammond & Co.",
        "text": "The Victoria & Albert Museum has a driving coat from 1906 in its permanent collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Plaquette",
        "text": "The Wallace Collection in London has a good smaller display, as do the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Cabinet des m\u00e9dailles, Paris, the Hermitage Museum, the Ashmolean in Oxford, and a number of German museums, although the outstanding Berlin collection was lost in World War II. Not much of the British Museum's important collection is on display, nor that of the Vatican Museums."
      },
      {
        "title": "University of Victoria Legacy Art Galleries",
        "text": "Upon his passing in 2000, Michael Collard Williams bequeathed most of his estate to the University of Victoria. Valued at $17 million, the donation marks the University of Victoria\u2019s largest gift to date. The Williams Collection is made up of over 1100 art objects such as drawings, paintings, and sculptures that include contemporary and historical West Coast art, Aboriginal art, and antique works."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 1971, Cecil Beaton curated an exhibition of 1,200 20th-century high-fashion garments and accessories, including gowns worn by leading socialites such as Patricia Lopez-Willshaw, Gloria Guinness and Lee Radziwill, and actresses such as Audrey Hepburn and Ruth Ford. After the exhibition, Beaton donated most of the exhibits to the Museum in the names of their former owners."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 2004, the V&A alongside Royal Institute of British Architects opened the first permanent gallery in the UK covering the history of architecture with displays using models, photographs, elements from buildings and original drawings. With the opening of the new gallery, the RIBA Drawings and Archives Collection has been transferred to the museum, joining the already extensive collection held by the V&A. With over 600,000 drawings, over 750,000 papers and paraphernalia, and over 700,000 photographs from around the world, together they form the world's most comprehensive architectural resource."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "One of the oldest clocks in the collection is an astronomical clock of 1588 by Francis Nowe. One of the largest is James Markwick the younger's longcase clock of 1725, nearly 3 metres in height and japanned. Other clockmakers with work in the collection include: Thomas Tompion, Benjamin Lewis Vulliamy, John Ellicott and William Carpenter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The main iron work gallery covers European wrought and cast iron from the medieval period to the early 20th century. The master of wrought ironwork Jean Tijou is represented by both examples of his work and designs on paper. One of the largest items is the Hereford Screen, weighing nearly 8 tonnes, 10.5 metres high and 11 metres wide, designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott in 1862 for the chancel in Hereford Cathedral, from which it was removed in 1967. It was made by Skidmore & Company. Its structure of timber and cast iron is embellished with wrought iron, burnished brass and copper. Much of the copper and ironwork is painted in a wide range of colours. The arches and columns are decorated with polished quartz and panels of mosaic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria Art Gallery",
        "text": "The collection includes over 1,500 decorative arts treasures including a display of British oil paintings from 17th century to the present day including works by Thomas Gainsborough, Thomas Jones Barker and Walter Sickert. Other items on display include sculptures, glassware and decorative artistic objects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Not only the work of British artists and craftspeople is on display, but also work produced by European artists that was purchased or commissioned by British patrons, as well as imports from Asia, including porcelain, cloth and wallpaper. Designers and artists whose work is on display in the galleries include Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Grinling Gibbons, Daniel Marot, Louis Laguerre, Antonio Verrio, Sir James Thornhill, William Kent, Robert Adam, Josiah Wedgwood, Matthew Boulton, Canova, Thomas Chippendale, Pugin, William Morris. Patrons who have influenced taste are also represented by works of art from their collections, these include: Horace Walpole (a major influence on the Gothic Revival), William Thomas Beckford and Thomas Hope."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The museum also runs the Young V&A at Bethnal Green; it used to run Apsley House, and also the Theatre Museum in Covent Garden. The Theatre Museum is now closed; the V&A Theatre Collections are now displayed within the South Kensington building."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Albert Memorial Museum",
        "text": "Four major collection areas are represented: antiquities, art, natural history and world cultures. The world cultures collections are designated as being of national and international significance by the UK government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The exhibition which the museum organised to celebrate the centennial of the 1899 renaming, \"A Grand Design\", first toured in North America from 1997 (Baltimore Museum of Art, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston and the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco), returning to London in 1999. To accompany and support the exhibition, the museum published a book, \"Grand Design\", which it has made available for reading online on its website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria Cross",
        "text": "Museums with holdings of ten or more VCs include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wedgwood",
        "text": "The collection with 80,000 works of art, ceramics, manuscripts, letters and photographs faced being sold off to help satisfy pension debts inherited when Waterford Wedgwood plc went into receivership in 2009. The Heritage Lottery Fund, the Art Fund, various trusts and businesses contributed donations to purchase the collection. On 1 December 2014, the collection was purchased and donated to the Victoria and Albert Museum. The collection will continue to be on display at the Wedgwood Museum on loan from the Victoria and Albert Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Some of the more notable works displayed in the galleries include:\n* Pietro Torrigiani's coloured terracotta bust of Henry VII, dated 1509\u20131511\n* Henry VIII's writing desk, dated 1525, made from walnut and oak, lined with leather and painted and gilded with the king's coat of arms\n* A spinet dated 1570\u20131580, made for Elizabeth I\n* The Great Bed of Ware, dated 1590\u20131600, a large, elaborately carved four-poster bed with marquetry headboard\n* Gianlorenzo Bernini's bust of Thomas Baker, from the 1630s\n* 17th-century tapestries from the Sheldon and Mortlake Tapestry Works\n* The wood relief of The Stoning of St Stephen, dated c1670, by Grinling Gibbons\n* The Macclesfield Wine Set, dated 1719\u20131720, made by Anthony Nelme, the only complete set known to survive.\n* The life-size sculpture of George Frederick Handel, dated 1738, by Louis-Fran\u00e7ois Roubiliac\n* Furniture by Thomas Chippendale and Robert Adam\n*The sculpture of Bashaw, dated 1831\u20131834, by Matthew Cotes Wyatt\n* Aesthetic and Arts & Crafts furniture by Edward William Godwin and Charles Rennie Mackintosh; and carpets and interior textiles by William Morris."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "There is a copy of Raphael's \"The School of Athens\" over 4 metres by 8 metres in size, dated 1755 by Anton Raphael Mengs on display in the eastern Cast Court."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The National Art Library also includes a collection of comics and comic art. Notable parts of the collection include the Krazy Kat Arkive, comprising 4,200 comics, and the Rakoff Collection, comprising 17,000 items collected by writer and editor Ian Rakoff."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Brandard",
        "text": "Collections of his work are held at Reading University, at the Theatre Museum in Covent Garden, the Victoria and Albert Museum, the British Library at the Bodleian Library in Oxford and the largest collection in America is with Lynch Resources in Edmonds, Wa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A Museum has a large collection of shoes around 2000 pairs from different cultures around the world. The collection shows the chronological progression of shoe height, heel shape and materials, revealing just how many styles we consider to be modern have been in and out of fashion across the centuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Albert Memorial Museum",
        "text": "The donors who contributed to the collection include Kent Kingdon (an upholsterer and interior designer), Sir Harry Veitch (owner of the horticultural firm Veitch and Sons) and John Lane (founder of the publishing firm The Bodley Head)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "One of the great treasures in the library is the Codex Forster, one of Leonardo da Vinci's note books. The Codex consists of three parchment-bound manuscripts, Forster I, Forster II, and Forster III, quite small in size, dated between 1490 and 1505. Their contents include a large collection of sketches and references to the equestrian sculpture commissioned by the Duke of Milan Ludovico Sforza to commemorate his father Francesco Sforza. These were bequeathed with over 18,000 books to the museum in 1876 by John Forster. The Reverend Alexander Dyce was another benefactor of the library, leaving over 14,000 books to the museum in 1869. Amongst the books he collected are early editions in Greek and Latin of the poets and playwrights Aeschylus, Aristotle, Homer, Livy, Ovid, Pindar, Sophocles and Virgil. More recent authors include Giovanni Boccaccio, Dante, Racine, Rabelais and Moli\u00e8re."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Museum survived the Second World War with only minor bomb damage. The worst loss was the Victorian stained glass on the Ceramics Staircase, which was blown in when bombs fell nearby; pockmarks still visible on the fa\u00e7ade of the museum were caused by fragments from the bombs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Victoria and Albert Museum has its origins in the Great Exhibition of 1851, with which Henry Cole, the museum's first director, was involved in planning. Initially it was known as the Museum of Manufactures, first opening in May 1852 at Marlborough House, but by September had been transferred to Somerset House. At this stage, the collections covered both applied art and science. Several of the exhibits from the Exhibition were purchased to form the nucleus of the collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Silversmiths whose work is represented in the collection include Paul Storr (whose Castlereagh Inkstand, dated 1817\u20131819, is one of his finest works) and Paul de Lamerie."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graily Hewitt",
        "text": "His work is kept in the Victoria and Albert Museum's collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "One of the most dramatic parts of the museum is the Cast Courts in the sculpture wing, comprising two large, skylighted rooms two storeys high housing hundreds of plaster casts of sculptures, friezes and tombs. One of these is dominated by a full-scale replica of Trajan's Column, cut in half to fit under the ceiling. The other includes reproductions of various works of Italian Renaissance sculpture and architecture, including a full-size replica of Michelangelo's \"David\". Replicas of two earlier Davids by Donatello and Verrocchio, are also included, although for conservation reasons the Verrocchio replica is displayed in a glass case."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The new Sackler education suite, occupying the two lower floors of the Henry Cole Wing opened in September 2008. This includes lecture rooms and areas for use by schools, which will be available during school holidays for use by families, and will enable direct handling of items from the collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Benton Seymour Rabinovitch",
        "text": "His collection was given to London's Victoria and Albert Museum in 2005, becoming part of its permanent collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melbourne Museum",
        "text": "In addition to its galleries, the museum features spaces such as \"Curious?\", which is a place to meet staff and find answers relating to the collections, research and behind-the-scenes work of Museums Victoria; as well as a cafe and a gift shop. The back-of-house area houses some of the Victoria's State Collections, which holds over 17 million items, including objects relating to Indigenous Australian and Pacific Islander cultures, geology, historical studies, palaeontology, technology and society, and zoology, as well as a library collection that holds 18th and 19th century scientific monographs and serials. The world's largest IMAX theatre screen, which is also part of the museum complex, shows movies and documentary films in large-screen 3-D format."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A is located in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, in an area known as \"Albertopolis\" because of its association with Prince Albert, the Albert Memorial and the major cultural institutions with which he was associated. These include the Natural History Museum, the Science Museum, the Royal Albert Hall and Imperial College London. The museum is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. As with other national British museums, entrance is free."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Before the return of the collections after the war, the \"Britain Can Make It\" exhibition was held between September and November 1946, attracting nearly a million-and-a-half visitors. This was organised by the Council of Industrial Design, established by the British government in 1944 \"to promote by all practicable means the improvement of design in the products of British industry\". The success of this exhibition led to the planning of the Festival of Britain (1951). By 1948 most of the collections had been returned to the museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "19th-century British artists are well represented. John Constable and J. M. W. Turner are represented by oil paintings, watercolours and drawings. One of the most unusual objects on display is Thomas Gainsborough's experimental showbox with its back-lit landscapes, which he painted on glass, which allowed them to be changed like slides. Other landscape painters with works on display include Philip James de Loutherbourg, Peter De Wint and John Ward."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Victoria and Albert Museum\n--History.\n----Foundation.\n----1900\u20131950.\n----Since 1950.\n--Architecture.\n----Edwardian period.\n----Post-war period.\n----Recent years.\n------Garden.\n------Exhibition Road Quarter.\n--Collections.\n----Architecture.\n----Asia.\n------Islamic art.\n------South Asia.\n------East Asia.\n----Books.\n----British galleries.\n----Cast courts.\n----Ceramics and glass.\n----Contemporary.\n----Prints and drawings.\n----Fashion.\n----Furniture.\n----Jewellery.\n----Metalwork.\n----Musical instruments.\n----Paintings (and miniatures).\n----Photography.\n----Sculpture.\n----Textiles.\n----Theatre and performance.\n--Departments.\n----Education.\n------V&A Publishing.\n------Activities for children.\n------Activities for adults.\n----Research and conservation.\n--Partnerships.\n--Exhibitions.\n--Controversies.\n--Media.\n--Galleries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "International Dunhuang Project",
        "text": "The Victoria and Albert Museum holds a collection of more than 650 textiles collected by Stein from various Silk Road sites, all of which have now been added to the IDP database."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arthur Gilbert (real estate developer)",
        "text": "In 1996, Gilbert took back the collection of \"gold, silver, mosaics, gold boxes and enamel portrait miniatures\", worth about US $300 million, and donated it to the British nation. Jacob Rothschild, 4th Baron Rothschild, the Chairman of the Heritage Lottery Fund, agreed to build a US$30 million gallery inside Somerset House to display the collection and attract visitors. The new gallery was dedicated by Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother in 2001. The Gilbert Collection stayed there from 2001 to 2008. It can now be viewed at the Victoria & Albert Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Since 2001, the museum has embarked on a major \u00a3150m renovation programme. New 17th- and 18th-century European galleries were opened on 9 December 2015. These restored the original Aston Webb interiors and host the European collections 1600\u20131815. The Young V&A in East London is a branch of the museum, and a new branch in London is being planned. The first V&A museum outside London, V&A Dundee opened on 15 September 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Victoria & Albert Museum is split into four curatorial departments: Decorative Art and Sculpture; Performance, Furniture, Textiles and Fashion; Art, Architecture, Photography and Design; and Asia. The museum curators care for the objects in the collection and provide access to objects that are not currently on display to the public and scholars."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the name of the world's largest museum of applied arts?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Victoria and Albert Museum in London is the world's largest museum of applied arts, decorative arts, and design, housing a permanent collection of over 2.27 million objects."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the biggest collection held by the Victoria and Albert Museum?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The museum owns the world's largest collection of post-classical sculpture, with the holdings of Italian Renaissance items being the largest outside Italy.",
      "The museum own the world's largest collection of post-classical sculpture."
    ],
    "topic": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Victoria and Albert Museum:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Victoria and Albert Museum"
        ],
        "ctx": "The museum owns the world's largest collection of post-classical sculpture, with the holdings of Italian Renaissance items being the largest outside Italy. The departments of Asia include art from South Asia, China, Japan, Korea and the Islamic world. The East Asian collections are among the best in Europe, with particular strengths in ceramics and metalwork, while the Islamic collection is amongst the largest in the Western world. Overall, it is one of the largest museums in the world."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Victoria and Albert Museum:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Victoria and Albert Museum"
        ],
        "ctx": "The museum owns the world's largest collection of post-classical sculpture, with the holdings of Italian Renaissance items being the largest outside Italy. The departments of Asia include art from South Asia, China, Japan, Korea and the Islamic world. The East Asian collections are among the best in Europe, with particular strengths in ceramics and metalwork, while the Islamic collection is amongst the largest in the Western world. Overall, it is one of the largest museums in the world."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A covers and 145 galleries. Its collection spans 5000 years of art, from ancient times to the present day, from the cultures of Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa. However, the art of antiquity in most areas is not collected. The holdings of ceramics, glass, textiles, costumes, silver, ironwork, jewellery, furniture, medieval objects, sculpture, prints and printmaking, drawings and photographs are among the largest and most comprehensive in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "One of the largest objects in the collection is the rood loft from St. John's Cathedral ('s-Hertogenbosch), from the Netherlands, dated 1610\u20131613 this is as much a work of architecture as sculpture, 10.4 metres wide, 7.8 metres high, the architectural framework is of various coloured marbles including columns, arches and balustrade, against which are statues and bas-reliefs and other carvings in alabaster, the work of sculptor Conrad van Norenberch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Smaller-scale works are displayed in the Gilbert Bayes gallery, covering medieval especially English alabaster sculpture, bronzes, wooden sculptures and has demonstrations of various techniques such as bronze casting using lost-wax casting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The sculpture collection at the V&A is the most comprehensive holding of post-classical European sculpture in the world. There are approximately 22,000 objects in the collection that cover the period from about 400 AD to 1914. This covers among other periods Byzantine and Anglo Saxon ivory sculptures, British, French and Spanish medieval statues and carvings, the Renaissance, Baroque, Neo-Classical, Victorian and Art Nouveau periods. All uses of sculpture are represented, from tomb and memorial, to portrait, allegorical, religious, mythical, statues for gardens including fountains, as well as architectural decorations. Materials used include, marble, alabaster, stone, terracotta, wood (history of wood carving), ivory, gesso, plaster, bronze, lead and ceramics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A runs an ongoing textile and dress conservation programme. For example, in 2008, an important but heavily soiled, distorted and water-damaged 1954 Dior outfit called 'Zemire' was restored to displayable condition for the \"Golden Age of Couture\" exhibition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Not only the work of British artists and craftspeople is on display, but also work produced by European artists that was purchased or commissioned by British patrons, as well as imports from Asia, including porcelain, cloth and wallpaper. Designers and artists whose work is on display in the galleries include Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Grinling Gibbons, Daniel Marot, Louis Laguerre, Antonio Verrio, Sir James Thornhill, William Kent, Robert Adam, Josiah Wedgwood, Matthew Boulton, Canova, Thomas Chippendale, Pugin, William Morris. Patrons who have influenced taste are also represented by works of art from their collections, these include: Horace Walpole (a major influence on the Gothic Revival), William Thomas Beckford and Thomas Hope."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Some of the more notable works displayed in the galleries include:\n* Pietro Torrigiani's coloured terracotta bust of Henry VII, dated 1509\u20131511\n* Henry VIII's writing desk, dated 1525, made from walnut and oak, lined with leather and painted and gilded with the king's coat of arms\n* A spinet dated 1570\u20131580, made for Elizabeth I\n* The Great Bed of Ware, dated 1590\u20131600, a large, elaborately carved four-poster bed with marquetry headboard\n* Gianlorenzo Bernini's bust of Thomas Baker, from the 1630s\n* 17th-century tapestries from the Sheldon and Mortlake Tapestry Works\n* The wood relief of The Stoning of St Stephen, dated c1670, by Grinling Gibbons\n* The Macclesfield Wine Set, dated 1719\u20131720, made by Anthony Nelme, the only complete set known to survive.\n* The life-size sculpture of George Frederick Handel, dated 1738, by Louis-Fran\u00e7ois Roubiliac\n* Furniture by Thomas Chippendale and Robert Adam\n*The sculpture of Bashaw, dated 1831\u20131834, by Matthew Cotes Wyatt\n* Aesthetic and Arts & Crafts furniture by Edward William Godwin and Charles Rennie Mackintosh; and carpets and interior textiles by William Morris."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The museum houses the National Art Library, a public library containing over 750,000 books, photographs, drawings, paintings, and prints. It is one of the world's largest libraries dedicated to the study of fine and decorative arts. The library covers all areas and periods of the museum's collections with special collections covering illuminated manuscripts, rare books and artists' letters and archives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Victoria and Albert Museum\n--History.\n----Foundation.\n----1900\u20131950.\n----Since 1950.\n--Architecture.\n----Edwardian period.\n----Post-war period.\n----Recent years.\n------Garden.\n------Exhibition Road Quarter.\n--Collections.\n----Architecture.\n----Asia.\n------Islamic art.\n------South Asia.\n------East Asia.\n----Books.\n----British galleries.\n----Cast courts.\n----Ceramics and glass.\n----Contemporary.\n----Prints and drawings.\n----Fashion.\n----Furniture.\n----Jewellery.\n----Metalwork.\n----Musical instruments.\n----Paintings (and miniatures).\n----Photography.\n----Sculpture.\n----Textiles.\n----Theatre and performance.\n--Departments.\n----Education.\n------V&A Publishing.\n------Activities for children.\n------Activities for adults.\n----Research and conservation.\n--Partnerships.\n--Exhibitions.\n--Controversies.\n--Media.\n--Galleries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Victoria and Albert Museum (often abbreviated as the V&A) in London is the world's largest museum of applied arts, decorative arts, and design, housing a permanent collection of over 2.27\u00a0million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "These fifteen galleries\u2014which opened in November 2001\u2014contain around 4,000 items. The displays in these galleries are based around three major themes: \"Style\", \"Who Led Taste\" and \"What Was New\". The period covered is 1500 to 1900, with the galleries divided into three major subdivisions:\n* Tudor and Stuart Britain, 1500\u20131714, covering the Renaissance, Elizabethan, Jacobean, Restoration and Baroque styles\n* Georgian Britain, 1714\u20131837, covering Palladianism, Rococo, Chinoiserie, Neoclassicism, the Regency, the influence of Chinese, Indian and Egyptian styles, and the early Gothic Revival\n* Victorian Britain, 1837\u20131901, covering the later phases of the Gothic Revival, French influences, Classical and Renaissance revivals, Aestheticism, Japanese style, the continuing influence of China, India, and the Islamic world, the Arts and Crafts movement and the Scottish School."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "One of the most dramatic parts of the museum is the Cast Courts in the sculpture wing, comprising two large, skylighted rooms two storeys high housing hundreds of plaster casts of sculptures, friezes and tombs. One of these is dominated by a full-scale replica of Trajan's Column, cut in half to fit under the ceiling. The other includes reproductions of various works of Italian Renaissance sculpture and architecture, including a full-size replica of Michelangelo's \"David\". Replicas of two earlier Davids by Donatello and Verrocchio, are also included, although for conservation reasons the Verrocchio replica is displayed in a glass case."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Vaughan (art collector)",
        "text": "The Victoria and Albert Museum was bequeathed collections of stained glass and carved panels, six Turner watercolours, and the full-scale studies for Constable's \"The Hay Wain\" and \"The Leaping Horse\", which had been on loan to that museum since 1862."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The galleries showcase a number of complete and partial reconstructions of period rooms, from demolished buildings, including:\n* The parlour from 2 Henrietta Street, London, dated 1727\u20131728, designed by James Gibbs\n* The Norfolk House Music Room, St James Square, London, dated 1756, designed by Matthew Brettingham and Giovanni Battista Borra\n* A section of a wall from the Glass Drawing Room of Northumberland House, dated 1773\u20131775, designed by Robert Adam"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A has large galleries devoted to temporary exhibitions. A typical year will see more than a dozen different exhibitions being staged, covering all areas of the collections. Notable exhibitions of recent years have been:\n* \"Britain Can Make It\", 1946\n* \"\", 2009\n* \"Power of Making\", 2011\n* \"Food: Bigger Than the Plate\", 2019"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "As well as period rooms, the collection includes parts of buildings, for example, the two top stories of the facade of Sir Paul Pindar's house dated 1600 from Bishopsgate with elaborately carved woodwork and leaded windows, a rare survivor of the Great Fire of London, there is a brick portal from a London house of the English Restoration period and a fireplace from the gallery of Northumberland house. European examples include a dormer window dated 1523\u20131535 from the chateau of Montal. There are several examples from Italian Renaissance buildings including, portals, fireplaces, balconies and a stone buffet that used to have a built-in fountain. The main architecture gallery has a series of pillars from various buildings and different periods, for example, a column from the Alhambra. Examples covering Asia are in those galleries concerned with those countries, as well as models and photographs in the main architecture gallery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "At night both the planters and the water feature may be illuminated, and the surrounding fa\u00e7ades lit to reveal details normally in shadow. Especially noticeable are the mosaics in the loggia of the north fa\u00e7ade. In summer a caf\u00e9 is set up in the southwest corner. The garden is also used for temporary exhibits of sculpture; for example, a sculpture by Jeff Koons was shown in 2006. It has also played host to the museum's annual contemporary design showcase, the V&A Village Fete, since 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "19th-century British artists are well represented. John Constable and J. M. W. Turner are represented by oil paintings, watercolours and drawings. One of the most unusual objects on display is Thomas Gainsborough's experimental showbox with its back-lit landscapes, which he painted on glass, which allowed them to be changed like slides. Other landscape painters with works on display include Philip James de Loutherbourg, Peter De Wint and John Ward."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Prints and drawings from the over 750,000 items in the collection can be seen on request at the print room, the \"Prints and Drawings study Room\"; booking an appointment is necessary. The collection of drawings includes over 10,000 British and 2,000 old master works, including works by: D\u00fcrer, Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione, Bernardo Buontalenti, Rembrandt, Antonio Verrio, Paul Sandby, John Russell, Angelica Kauffman, John Flaxman, Hugh Douglas Hamilton, Thomas Rowlandson, William Kilburn, Thomas Girtin, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, David Wilkie, John Martin, Samuel Palmer, Sir Edwin Henry Landseer, Lord Leighton, Sir Samuel Luke Fildes and Aubrey Beardsley. Modern British artists represented in the collection include: Paul Nash, Percy Wyndham Lewis, Eric Gill, Stanley Spencer, John Piper, Robert Priseman, Graham Sutherland, Lucian Freud and David Hockney."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection includes pieces by William Kent, Henry Flitcroft, Matthias Lock, James Stuart, William Chambers, John Gillow, James Wyatt, Thomas Hopper, Charles Heathcote Tatham, Pugin, William Burges, Charles Voysey, Charles Robert Ashbee, Baillie Scott, Edwin Lutyens, Edward Maufe, Wells Coates and Robin Day. The museum also hosts the national collection of wallpaper, which is looked after by the Prints, Drawings and Paintings department."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The furniture collection, while covering Europe and America from the Middle Ages to the present, is predominantly British, dating between 1700 and 1900. Many of the finest examples are displayed in the British Galleries, including pieces by Chippendale, Adam, Morris, and Mackintosh. One of the oldest items is a chair leg from Middle Egypt dated to 200-395AD."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Some of the oldest items in the collection are medieval vestments, especially Opus Anglicanum. One of the most important items in the collection is the wedding suit of James II of England, which is displayed in the British Galleries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection includes about 1130 British and 650 European oil paintings, 6800 British watercolours, pastels and 2000 miniatures, for which the museum holds the national collection. Also on loan to the museum, from Her Majesty the Queen Elizabeth II, are the Raphael Cartoons: the seven surviving (there were ten) full-scale designs for tapestries in the Sistine Chapel, of the lives of Peter and Paul from the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. There is also on display a fresco by Pietro Perugino, dated 1522, from the church of Castello at Fontignano (Perugia) which is amongst the painter's last works. One of the largest objects in the collection is the Spanish retable of St George, c. 1400, 670 x 486\u00a0cm, in tempera on wood, consisting of numerous scenes and painted by Andr\u00e9s Marzal De Sax in Valencia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The museum owns the world's largest collection of post-classical sculpture, with the holdings of Italian Renaissance items being the largest outside Italy. The departments of Asia include art from South Asia, China, Japan, Korea and the Islamic world. The East Asian collections are among the best in Europe, with particular strengths in ceramics and metalwork, while the Islamic collection is amongst the largest in the Western world. Overall, it is one of the largest museums in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The museum has 145 galleries, but given the vast extent of the collections, only a small percentage is ever on display. Many acquisitions have been made possible only with the assistance of the National Art Collections Fund."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A's collection of Art from Asia numbers more than 160,000 objects, one of the largest in existence. It has one of the world's most comprehensive and important collections of Chinese art whilst the collection of South Asian Art is the most important in the West. The museum's coverage includes items from South and South East Asia, Himalayan Kingdoms, China, the Far East and the Islamic world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Museum survived the Second World War with only minor bomb damage. The worst loss was the Victorian stained glass on the Ceramics Staircase, which was blown in when bombs fell nearby; pockmarks still visible on the fa\u00e7ade of the museum were caused by fragments from the bombs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Part of these galleries became the new galleries covering the 19th century, opened in December 2006. The last work by Fowke was the design for the range of buildings on the north and west sides of the garden. This includes the refreshment rooms, reinstated as the Museum Caf\u00e9 in 2006, with the silver gallery above (at the time the ceramics gallery); the top floor has a splendid lecture theatre, although this is seldom open to the general public. The ceramic staircase in the northwest corner of this range of buildings was designed by F. W. Moody and has architectural details of moulded and coloured pottery. All the work on the north range was designed and built in 1864\u20131869. The style adopted for this part of the museum was Italian Renaissance; much use was made of terracotta, brick and mosaic. This north fa\u00e7ade was intended as the main entrance to the museum, with its bronze doors, designed by James Gamble and , having six panels, depicting Humphry Davy (chemistry); Isaac Newton (astronomy); James Watt (mechanics); Bramante (architecture); Michelangelo (sculpture); and Titian (painting); The panels thus represent the range of the museum's collections. Godfrey Sykes also designed the terracotta embellishments and the mosaic in the pediment of the North Fa\u00e7ade commemorating the Great Exhibition, the profits from which helped to fund the museum. This is flanked by terracotta statue groups by Percival Ball. This building replaced Brompton Park House, which could then be demolished to make way for the south range."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The print collection has more than 500,000 items, covering: posters, greetings cards, bookplates, as well as a comprehensive collection of old master prints from the Renaissance to the present, including works by Rembrandt, William Hogarth, Giovanni Battista Piranesi, Canaletto, Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Henri Matisse and Sir William Nicholson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Several French paintings entered the collection as part of the 260 paintings and miniatures (not all the works were French, for example Carlo Crivelli's \"Virgin and Child\") that formed part of the Jones bequest of 1882 and as such are displayed in the galleries of continental art 1600\u20131800, including the portrait of Fran\u00e7ois, Duc d'Alen\u00e7on by Fran\u00e7ois Clouet, Gaspard Dughet and works by Fran\u00e7ois Boucher including his portrait of Madame de Pompadour dated 1758, Jean Fran\u00e7ois de Troy, Jean-Baptiste Pater and their contemporaries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A holds the national collection of performing arts in the UK, including drama, dance, opera, circus, puppetry, comedy, musical theatre, costume, set design, pantomime, popular music and other forms of live entertainment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "This collection of more than 45,000 items covers decorative ironwork, both wrought and cast, bronze, silverware, arms and armour, pewter, brassware and enamels (including many examples Limoges enamel). The main iron work gallery was redesigned in 1995."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A holds over 19,000 items from the Islamic world, ranging from the early Islamic period (the 7th century) to the early 20th century. The Jameel Gallery of Islamic Art, opened in 2006, houses a representative display of 400 objects with the highlight being the Ardabil Carpet, the centrepiece of the gallery. The displays in this gallery cover objects from Spain, North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia and Afghanistan. A masterpiece of Islamic art is a 10th-century Rock crystal ewer. Many examples of Qur'\u0101ns with exquisite calligraphy dating from various periods are on display. A 15th-century minbar from a Cairo mosque with ivory forming complex geometrical patterns inlaid in wood is one of the larger objects on display. Extensive examples of ceramics especially Iznik pottery, glasswork including 14th-century lamps from mosques and metalwork are on display. The collection of Middle Eastern and Persian rugs and carpets is amongst the finest in the world, many were part of the Salting Bequest of 1909. Examples of tile work from various buildings including a fireplace dated 1731 from Istanbul made of intricately decorated blue and white tiles and turquoise tiles from the exterior of buildings from Samarkand are also displayed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The department holds significant archives documenting current practice and the history of performing arts. These include the English Stage Company at the Royal Court Theatre, D'Oyly Carte and the design collection of the Arts Council. Notable personal archives include Vivien Leigh, Peter Brook, Henry Irving and Ivor Novello."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Toshiba gallery of Japanese art opened in December 1986. The majority of exhibits date from 1550 to 1900, but one of the oldest pieces displayed is the 13th-century sculpture of Amida Nyorai. Examples of classic Japanese armour from the mid-19th century, steel sword blades (Katana), Inr\u014d, lacquerware including the Mazarin Chest dated c1640 is one of the finest surviving pieces from Kyoto, porcelain including Imari, Netsuke, woodblock prints including the work of And\u014d Hiroshige, graphic works include printed books, as well as a few paintings, scrolls and screens, textiles and dress including kimono are some of the objects on display. One of the finest objects displayed is Suzuki Chokichi's bronze incense burner (koro) dated 1875, standing at over 2.25 metres high and 1.25 metres in diameter it is also one of the largest examples made. The museum also holds some cloisonn\u00e9 pieces from the Japanese art production company, Ando Cloisonn\u00e9."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Sculptures"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria Art Gallery",
        "text": "The collection includes over 1,500 decorative arts treasures including a display of British oil paintings from 17th century to the present day including works by Thomas Gainsborough, Thomas Jones Barker and Walter Sickert. Other items on display include sculptures, glassware and decorative artistic objects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection contains more than 500,000 images dating from the advent of photography, the oldest image dating from 1839. The gallery displays a series of changing exhibits and closes between exhibitions to allow full re-display to take place. Already in 1858, when the museum was called the South Kensington Museum, it had the world's first international photographic exhibition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In the immediate post-war years, there was little money available for other than essential repairs. The 1950s and early 1960s saw little in the way of building work; the first major work was the creation of new storage space for books in the Art Library in 1966 and 1967. This involved flooring over Aston Webb's main hall to form the book stacks, with a new medieval gallery on the ground floor (now the shop, opened in 2006). Then the lower ground-floor galleries in the south-west part of the museum were redesigned, opening in 1978 to form the new galleries covering Continental art 1600\u20131800 (late Renaissance, Baroque through Rococo and neo-Classical). In 1974 the museum had acquired what is now the Henry Cole wing from the Royal College of Science. To adapt the building as galleries, all the Victorian interiors except for the staircase were recast during the remodelling. To link this to the rest of the museum, a new entrance building was constructed on the site of the former boiler house, the intended site of the Spiral, between 1978 and 1982. This building is of concrete and very functional, the only embellishment being the iron gates by Christopher Hay and Douglas Coyne of the Royal College of Art. These are set in the columned screen wall designed by Aston Webb that forms the fa\u00e7ade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 1857 John Sheepshanks donated 233 paintings, mainly by contemporary British artists, and a similar number of drawings to the museum with the intention of forming a 'A National Gallery of British Art', a role since taken on by Tate Britain; artists represented are William Blake, James Barry, Henry Fuseli, Sir Edwin Henry Landseer, Sir David Wilkie, William Mulready, William Powell Frith, Millais and Hippolyte Delaroche. Although some of Constable's works came to the museum with the Sheepshanks bequest, the majority of the artist's works were donated by his daughter Isabel in 1888, including the large number of sketches in oil, the most significant being the 1821 full size oil sketch for \"The Hay Wain\". Other artists with works in the collection include: Bernardino Fungai, Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger, Domenico di Pace Beccafumi, Fioravante Ferramola, Jan Brueghel the Elder, Anthony van Dyck, Ludovico Carracci, Antonio Verrio, Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Domenico Tiepolo, Canaletto, Francis Hayman, Pompeo Batoni, Benjamin West, Paul Sandby, Richard Wilson, William Etty, Henry Fuseli, Sir Thomas Lawrence, James Barry, Francis Danby, Richard Parkes Bonington and Alphonse Legros."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collecting areas of the museum are not easy to summarize, having evolved partly through attempts to avoid too much overlap with other national museums in London. Generally, the classical world of the West and the Ancient Near East is left to the British Museum, and Western paintings to the National Gallery, though there are all sorts of exceptionsfor example, painted portrait miniatures, where the V&A has the main national collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection of textiles consists of more than 53,000 examples, mainly western European though all populated continents are represented, dating from the 1st century AD to the present, this is the largest such collection in the world. Techniques represented include weaving, printing, quilting embroidery, lace, tapestry and carpets. These are classified by technique, countries of origin and date of production. The collections are well represented in these areas: early silks from the Near East, lace, European tapestries and English medieval church embroidery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The main iron work gallery covers European wrought and cast iron from the medieval period to the early 20th century. The master of wrought ironwork Jean Tijou is represented by both examples of his work and designs on paper. One of the largest items is the Hereford Screen, weighing nearly 8 tonnes, 10.5 metres high and 11 metres wide, designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott in 1862 for the chancel in Hereford Cathedral, from which it was removed in 1967. It was made by Skidmore & Company. Its structure of timber and cast iron is embellished with wrought iron, burnished brass and copper. Much of the copper and ironwork is painted in a wide range of colours. The arches and columns are decorated with polished quartz and panels of mosaic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The majority of the Medieval and Renaissance sculpture is displayed in the new Medieval and Renaissance galleries (opened December 2009)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "One of the more unusual collections is that of Eadweard Muybridge's photographs of Animal Locomotion of 1887, this consists of 781 plates. These sequences of photographs taken a fraction of a second apart capture images of different animals and humans performing various actions. There are several of John Thomson's 1876-7 images of Street Life in London in the collection. The museum also holds James Lafayette's society portraits, a collection of more than 600 photographs dating from the late 19th to early 20th centuries and portraying a wide range of society figures of the period, including bishops, generals, society ladies, Indian maharajas, Ethiopian rulers and other foreign leaders, actresses, people posing in their motor cars and a sequence of photographs recording the guests at the famous fancy-dress ball held at Devonshire House in 1897 to celebrate Queen Victoria's diamond jubilee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Far Eastern collections include more than 70 works of art from the countries of East Asia: China, Japan and Korea. The T. T. Tsui Gallery of Chinese art opened in 1991, displaying a representative collection of the V&As approximately 16,000 objects from China, dating from the 4th millennium BC to the present day. Though the majority of artworks on display date from the Ming and Qing dynasties, there are objects dating from the Tang dynasty and earlier periods, among them a metre-high bronze head of the Buddha dated to about 750 AD, and one of the oldest items, a 2000-year-old jade horse head from a burial. Other sculptures include life-size tomb guardians. Classic examples of Chinese manufacturing are displayed that include lacquer, silk, porcelain, jade and cloisonn\u00e9 enamel. Two large ancestor portraits of a husband and wife painted in watercolour on silk date from the 18th century. There is a unique Chinese lacquerware table, made in the imperial workshops during the reign of the Xuande Emperor in the Ming dynasty. Examples of clothing are also displayed. One of the largest objects is a bed from the mid-17th century. The work of contemporary Chinese designers is also displayed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Theatre & Performance collections were founded in the 1920s when private collector, Gabrielle Enthoven, donated her collection of theatrical memorabilia to the V&A. In 1974 two further independent collections were compiled to form a comprehensive performing arts collection at the V&A. The collections were displayed at the Theatre Museum, which operated from Covent Garden until closing in 2007. Theatre & Performance galleries opened at South Kensington in March 2009 tracing the production process of performance and include a temporary exhibition space. Types of items displayed include costumes, set models, wigs, prompt books, and posters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 2004, the V&A alongside Royal Institute of British Architects opened the first permanent gallery in the UK covering the history of architecture with displays using models, photographs, elements from buildings and original drawings. With the opening of the new gallery, the RIBA Drawings and Archives Collection has been transferred to the museum, joining the already extensive collection held by the V&A. With over 600,000 drawings, over 750,000 papers and paraphernalia, and over 700,000 photographs from around the world, together they form the world's most comprehensive architectural resource."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lady Lever Art Gallery",
        "text": "The museum is a significant surviving example of late Victorian and Edwardian taste. It houses major collections of fine and decorative art that are an expression of Lord Leverhulme's personal taste and collecting interests. The collection is strong in British 19th-century painting and sculpture, spilling over to include late 18th-century and early 20th works. There are important collections of English furniture, Wedgwood, especially jasperware, and Chinese ceramics, and smaller groups of other types of objects, such as Ancient Greek vases and Roman sculpture. The majority of objects were part of the original donation, but the collection has continued to expand at a modest rate. The museum displays mostly mixed paintings, sculpture and furniture together, and there are five period rooms recreating typical period interiors from large houses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Miniaturists represented in the collection include Jean Bourdichon, Hans Holbein the Younger, Nicholas Hilliard, Isaac Oliver, Peter Oliver, Jean Petitot, Alexander Cooper, Samuel Cooper, Thomas Flatman, Rosalba Carriera, Christian Friedrich Zincke, George Engleheart, John Smart, Richard Cosway and William Charles Ross."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 1939, on the outbreak of the Second World War, most of the collection was sent to a quarry in Wiltshire, to Montacute House in Somerset, or to a tunnel near Aldwych tube station, with larger items remaining \"in situ\", sand-bagged and bricked in. Between 1941 and 1944 some galleries were used as a school for children evacuated from Gibraltar. The South Court became a canteen, first for the Royal Air Force and later for Bomb Damage Repair Squads."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "An ambitious scheme of decoration was developed for these new areas: a series of mosaic figures depicting famous European artists of the Medieval and Renaissance period. These have now been removed to other areas of the museum. Also started were a series of frescoes by Lord Leighton: \"Industrial Arts as Applied to War\" 1878\u20131880 and \"Industrial Arts Applied to Peace\", which was started but never finished. To the east of this were additional galleries, the decoration of which was the work of another designer, Owen Jones; these were the Oriental Courts (covering India, China and Japan), completed in 1863. None of this decoration survives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 2002, the Museum acquired the Costiff collection of 178 Vivienne Westwood costumes. Other famous designers with work in the collection include Coco Chanel, Hubert de Givenchy, Christian Dior, Crist\u00f3bal Balenciaga, Yves Saint Laurent, Guy Laroche, Irene Galitzine, Mila Sch\u00f6n, Valentino Garavani, Norman Norell, Norman Hartnell, Zandra Rhodes, Hardy Amies, Mary Quant, Christian Lacroix, Jean Muir and Pierre Cardin. The museum continues to acquire examples of modern fashion to add to the collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "There are over 10,000 objects made from silver or gold in the collection, the display (about 15% of the collection) is divided into secular and sacred covering both Christian (Roman Catholic, Anglican and Greek Orthodox) and Jewish liturgical vessels and items. The main silver gallery is divided into these areas: British silver pre-1800; British silver 1800 to 1900; modernist to contemporary silver; European silver. The collection includes the earliest known piece of English silver with a dated hallmark, a silver gilt beaker dated 1496\u20131497."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The main gallery was redesigned in 1994, the glass balustrade on the staircase and mezzanine are the work of Danny Lane, the gallery covering contemporary glass opened in 2004 and the sacred silver and stained-glass gallery in 2005. In this latter gallery stained glass is displayed alongside silverware starting in the 12th century and continuing to the present. Some of the most outstanding stained glass, dated 1243\u20131248 comes from the Sainte-Chapelle, is displayed along with other examples in the new Medieval & Renaissance galleries. The important 13th-century glass beaker known as the Luck of Edenhall is also displayed in these galleries. Examples of British stained glass are displayed in the British Galleries. One of the most spectacular items in the collection is the chandelier by Dale Chihuly in the rotunda at the Museum's main entrance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Prince Albert appears within the main arch above the twin entrances, and Queen Victoria above the frame around the arches and entrance, sculpted by Alfred Drury. These fa\u00e7ades surround four levels of galleries. Other areas designed by Webb include the Entrance Hall and Rotunda, the East and West Halls, the areas occupied by the shop and Asian Galleries, and the Costume Gallery. The interior makes much use of marble in the entrance hall and flanking staircases, although the galleries as originally designed were white with restrained classical detail and mouldings, very much in contrast to the elaborate decoration of the Victorian galleries, although much of this decoration was removed in the early 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Continuing the style of the earlier buildings, various designers were responsible for the decoration. The terracotta embellishments were again the work of Godfrey Sykes, although sgraffito was used to decorate the east side of the building designed by F. W. Moody. A final embellishment was the wrought iron gates made as late as 1885 designed by Starkie Gardner. These lead to a passage through the building. Scott also designed the two Cast Courts (1870\u201373) to the southeast of the garden (the site of the \"Brompton Boilers\"); these vast spaces have ceilings in height to accommodate the plaster casts of parts of famous buildings, including Trajan's Column (in two separate pieces). The final part of the museum designed by Scott was the Art Library and what is now the sculpture gallery on the south side of the garden, built in 1877\u20131883. The exterior mosaic panels in the parapet were designed by Reuben Townroe, who also designed the plaster work in the library. Sir John Taylor designed the bookshelves and cases. This was the first part of the museum to have electric lighting. This completed the northern half of the site, creating a quadrangle with the garden at its centre, but left the museum without a proper fa\u00e7ade. In 1890 the government launched a competition to design new buildings for the museum, with architect Alfred Waterhouse as one of the judges; this would give the museum a new imposing front entrance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Sculptors, both British and European, who were based in Britain and whose work is in the collection include Nicholas Stone, Caius Gabriel Cibber, Grinling Gibbons, John Michael Rysbrack, Louis-Fran\u00e7ois Roubiliac, Peter Scheemakers, Sir Henry Cheere, Agostino Carlini, Thomas Banks, Joseph Nollekens, Joseph Wilton, John Flaxman, Sir Francis Chantrey, John Gibson, Edward Hodges Baily, Lord Leighton, Alfred Stevens, Thomas Brock, Alfred Gilbert, George Frampton, and Eric Gill. A sample of some of these sculptors' work is on display in the British Galleries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Museum's collections of South and South-East Asian art are the most comprehensive and important in the West comprising nearly 60,000 objects, including about 10,000 textiles and 6000 paintings, the range of the collection is immense. The Jawaharlal Nehru gallery of Indian art, opened in 1991, contains art from about 500 BC to the 19th century. There is an extensive collection of sculptures, mainly of a religious nature, Hindu, Buddhist and Jain. The gallery is richly endowed with the art of the Mughal Empire and the Marathas, including fine portraits of the emperors and other paintings and drawings, jade wine cups and gold spoons inset with emeralds, diamonds and rubies, also from this period are parts of buildings such as a jaali and pillars. India was a large producer of textiles, from dyed cotton chintz, muslin to rich embroidery work using gold and silver thread, coloured sequins and beads is displayed, as are carpets from Agra and Lahore. Examples of clothing are also displayed. In 1879\u201380, the collections of the defunct East India Company's India Museum were transferred to the V&A and the British Museum. Items in the collection include Tipu's Tiger, an 18th-century automaton created for Tipu Sultan, the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore. The personal wine cup of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan also on display."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Exhibition",
        "text": "In modern times, the Great Exhibition is a symbol of the Victorian Age, and its thick catalogue, illustrated with steel engravings, is a primary source for High Victorian design. A memorial to the exhibition, crowned with a statue of Prince Albert, is located behind the Royal Albert Hall. It is inscribed with statistics from the exhibition, including the number of visitors and exhibitors (British and foreign), and the profit made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "French paintings"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The National Art Library (also called Word and Image Department) at the Victoria and Albert Museum collection catalogue used to be kept in different formats including printed exhibit catalogues, and card catalogues. A computer system called MODES cataloguing system was used from the 1980s to the 1990s, but those electronic files were not available to the library users. All of the archival material at the National Art Library is using Encoded Archival Description (EAD). The Victoria and Albert Museum has a computer system but most of the items in the collection, unless those were newly accessioned into the collection, probably do not show up in the computer system. There is a feature on the Victoria and Albert Museum website called \"Search the Collections,\" but not everything is listed there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "With the opening of the Dorothy and Michael Hintze sculpture galleries in 2006 it was decided to extend the chronology of the works on display up to 1950; this has involved loans by other museums, including Tate Britain, so works by Henry Moore and Jacob Epstein along with other of their contemporaries are now on view. These galleries concentrate on works dated between 1600 and 1950 by British sculptors, works by continental sculptors who worked in Britain, and works bought by British patrons from the continental sculptors, such as Canova's \"Theseus and the Minotaur\". The galleries overlooking the garden are arranged by theme, tomb sculpture, portraiture, garden sculpture and mythology. Then there is a section that covers late 19th-century and early 20th-century sculpture, this includes work by Rodin and other French sculptors such as Dalou who spent several years in Britain where he taught sculpture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria Gallery & Museum",
        "text": "The museum is open to the public from Tuesday to Saturday each week and admission is free. On the ground floor is the Waterhouse Caf\u00e9 and a shop. On the first floor is the art collection which comprises paintings, sculptures and ceramics. Artists represented include Joseph Wright of Derby, J. M. W. Turner, Jacob Epstein, Lucian Freud, Elisabeth Frink and John James Audubon. A series of special exhibitions is organised. Also on this floor is the Leggate Lecture Theatre in which educational talks are given."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Soulages collection of Italian and French Renaissance objects was acquired between 1859 and 1865, and includes several cassone. The John Jones Collection of French 18th-century art and furnishings was left to the museum in 1882, then valued at \u00a3250,000. One of the most important pieces in this collection is a marquetry commode by the \"\u00e9b\u00e9niste\" Jean Henri Riesener dated c1780. Other signed pieces of furniture in the collection include a bureau by Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Oeben, a pair of pedestals with inlaid brass work by Andr\u00e9 Charles Boulle, a commode by Bernard Vanrisamburgh and a work-table by Martin Carlin. Other 18th-century \u00e9b\u00e9nistes represented in the Museum collection include Adam Weisweiler, David Roentgen, Gilles Joubert and Pierre Langlois. In 1901, Sir George Donaldson donated several pieces of art Nouveau furniture to the museum, which he had acquired the previous year at the Paris Exposition Universelle. This was criticised at the time, with the result that the museum ceased to collect contemporary items and did not do so again until the 1960s. In 1986 the Lady Abingdon collection of French Empire furniture was bequeathed by Mrs T. R. P. Hole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "This is the largest and most comprehensive ceramics and glass collection in the world, with over 80,000 objects from around the world. Every populated continent is represented. Apart from the many pieces in the Primary Galleries on the ground floor, much of the top floor is devoted to galleries of ceramics of all periods covered, which include display cases with a representative selection, but also massed \"visible storage\" displays of the reserve collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabeth Morley",
        "text": "The Victoria and Albert Museum owns a variety of pieces by Morley, including a collection of bottle tickets of various sorts. Three pieces are in the collection of the National Museum of Women in the Arts; a George III tea caddy spoon of 1797, another of 1798, and a George III toddy ladle of 1802. Several pieces are owned by the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "English paintings"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection departments are further divided into sixteen display areas, whose combined collection numbers over 6.5\u00a0 million objects, not all items are displayed or stored at the V&A. There is a repository at Blythe House, West Kensington, as well as annex institutions managed by the V&A, also the Museum lends exhibits to other institutions. The following lists each of the collections on display and the number of objects within the collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Art Gallery of Alberta",
        "text": "The museum's collection of historical Canadian art includes works by Jack Bush, Emily Carr, Henry George Glyde, Illingworth Kerr, Cornelius Krieghoff, Pegi Nicol MacLeod, James Wilson Morrice, Marion Nicoll, Paul Peel, Bill Reid, Jean-Paul Riopelle, Carl Schaefer, Lilias Torrance Newton, and members of the Group of Seven."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Museum",
        "text": "contains many of the original pieces painstakingly collected by Charles Sayers (founder of the museum) for his beloved museum. George was a prosperous market town in Victorian times and in the late 19th century it became the legendary Victoria Hotel. Typical bedroom, dining and drawing room furniture from this period make interesting exhibits. A collection of mechanical musical instruments, ranging from Swiss musical boxes of 1796 to Edison phonographs of the ate 19th century and His Master's Voice gramophones of the 1900s is also on display."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Gothic Art"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "There are a set of beautiful inlaid doors, dated 1580 from Antwerp City Hall, attributed to Hans Vredeman de Vries. One of the finest pieces of continental furniture in the collection is the Rococo Augustus Rex Bureau Cabinet dated c1750 from Germany, with especially fine marquetry and ormolu mounts. One of the grandest pieces of 19th-century furniture is the highly elaborate French Cabinet dated 1861\u20131867 made by M. Fourdinois, made from ebony inlaid with box, lime, holly, pear, walnut and mahogany woods as well as marble with gilded carvings. Furniture designed by Ernest Gimson, Edward William Godwin, Charles Voysey, Adolf Loos and Otto Wagner are among the late 19th-century and early 20th-century examples in the collection. The work of modernists in the collection include Le Corbusier, Marcel Breuer, Charles and Ray Eames, and Gi\u00f2 Ponti."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Victorian parts of the building have a complex history, with piecemeal additions by different architects. Founded in May 1852, it was not until 1857 that the museum moved to its present site. This area of London, previously known as Brompton, had been renamed 'South Kensington'. The land was occupied by Brompton Park House, which was extended, most notably by the \"Brompton Boilers\", which were starkly utilitarian iron galleries with a temporary look and were later dismantled and used to build the V&A Museum of Childhood. The first building to be erected that still forms part of the museum was the Sheepshanks Gallery in 1857 on the eastern side of the garden. Its architect was civil engineer Captain Francis Fowke, Royal Engineers, who was appointed by Cole. The next major expansions were designed by the same architect, the Turner and Vernon galleries built in 1858\u20131859 to house the eponymous collections (later transferred to the Tate Gallery) and now used as the picture galleries and tapestry gallery respectively. The North and South Courts were then built, both of which opened by June 1862. They now form the galleries for temporary exhibitions and are directly behind the Sheepshanks Gallery. On the very northern edge of the site is situated the Secretariat Wing; also built in 1862, this houses the offices and boardroom, etc. and is not open to the public."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection includes the work of many photographers from Fox Talbot, Julia Margaret Cameron, Viscountess Clementina Hawarden, Gustave Le Gray, Benjamin Brecknell Turner, Frederick Hollyer, Samuel Bourne, Roger Fenton, Man Ray, Henri Cartier-Bresson, Ilse Bing, Bill Brandt, Cecil Beaton (there are more than 8000 of his negatives), Don McCullin, David Bailey, Jim Lee and Helen Chadwick to the present day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "With the death of Captain Francis Fowke of the Royal Engineers, the next architect to work at the museum was Colonel (later Major General) Henry Young Darracott Scott, also of the Royal Engineers. He designed to the northwest of the garden the five-storey School for Naval Architects (also known as the science schools), now the Henry Cole Wing, in 1867\u20131872. Scott's assistant J. W. Wild designed the impressive staircase that rises the full height of the building. Made from Cadeby stone, the steps are in length, while the balustrades and columns are Portland stone. It is now used to jointly house the prints and architectural drawings of the V&A (prints, drawings, paintings and photographs) and Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA Drawings and Archives Collections), and the Sackler Centre for arts education, which opened in 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The exhibition which the museum organised to celebrate the centennial of the 1899 renaming, \"A Grand Design\", first toured in North America from 1997 (Baltimore Museum of Art, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston and the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco), returning to London in 1999. To accompany and support the exhibition, the museum published a book, \"Grand Design\", which it has made available for reading online on its website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Albert Memorial Museum",
        "text": "RAMM's art collection comprises over 7,000 objects including paintings, drawings, prints and sculpture, representing important British artists and emphasising RAMM's location in the South West. Significant artists represented in the collection include Gainsborough, Reynolds, Pompeo Batoni, Richard Wilson and Joseph Wright of Derby; Walter Sickert, Barbara Hepworth, John Nash, Edward Burra, David Bomberg and Patrick Heron."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Among the more important instruments owned by the museum are a violin by Antonio Stradivari dated 1699, an oboe that belonged to Gioachino Rossini, and a jewelled spinet dated 1571 made by Annibale Rossi. The collection also includes a 1570 virginal said to have belonged to Elizabeth I, and late 19th-century pianos designed by Edward Burne-Jones, and Baillie Scott."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Albert Memorial Museum",
        "text": "The costume and textiles collection of the museum is considerable; according to the University of Brighton, they \"must rank as one of the most important collections outside London\". Due to the delicate nature of these materials, the collection is not on permanent display."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The interiors of the three refreshment rooms were assigned to different designers. The Green Dining Room (1866\u201368) was the work of Philip Webb and William Morris, and displays Elizabethan influences. The lower part of the walls is paneled in wood with a band of paintings depicting fruit and the occasional figure, with moulded plaster foliage on the main part of the wall and a plaster frieze around the decorated ceiling and stained-glass windows by Edward Burne-Jones. The Centre Refreshment Room (1865\u201377) was designed in a Renaissance style by James Gamble. The walls and even the Ionic columns in this room are covered in decorative and moulded ceramic tile, the ceiling consists of elaborate designs on enamelled metal sheets and matching stained-glass windows, and the marble fireplace was designed and sculpted by Alfred Stevens and was removed from Dorchester House prior to that building's demolition in 1929. The Grill Room (1876\u201381) was designed by Sir Edward Poynter; the lower part of its walls consist of blue and white tiles with various figures and foliage enclosed by wood panelling, while above there are large tiled scenes with figures depicting the four seasons and the twelve months, painted by ladies from the Art School then based in the museum. The windows are also stained glass; there is an elaborate cast-iron grill still in place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Albert Memorial Museum",
        "text": "The museum's zoology collection includes specimens of invertebrates and mammals from across the world. Percy Sladen's collection of echinoderms is held by the museum and considered the most important of its kind outside of any national collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The main fa\u00e7ade, built from red brick and Portland stone, stretches along Cromwell Gardens and was designed by Aston Webb after winning a competition in 1891 to extend the museum. Construction took place between 1899 and 1909. Stylistically it is a strange hybrid: although much of the detail belongs to the Renaissance, there are medieval influences at work. The main entrance, consisting of a series of shallow arches supported by slender columns and niches with twin doors separated by the pier, is Romanesque in form but Classical in detail. Likewise, the tower above the main entrance has an open work crown surmounted by a statue of fame, a feature of late Gothic architecture and a feature common in Scotland, but the detail is Classical. The main windows to the galleries are also mullioned and transomed, again a Gothic feature; the top row of windows are interspersed with statues of many of the British artists whose work is displayed in the museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Furniture and Woodwork collection also includes complete rooms, musical instruments, and clocks. Among the rooms owned by the Museum are the Boudoir of Madame de S\u00e9villy (Paris, 1781\u201382) by Claude Nicolas Ledoux, with painted panelling by Jean Simeon Rousseau de la Rotti\u00e8re; and Frank Lloyd Wright's Kaufmann Office, designed and constructed between 1934 and 1937 for the owner of a Pittsburgh department store."
      },
      {
        "title": "University of Victoria",
        "text": "The University of Victoria houses the Education Heritage Museum, which displays educational history artifacts in the main hallway of the MacLaurin building. The collection consists of manuscripts, texts, photographs, audio-visual material, lesson plans, posters, bells, ink bottles, fountain pens, desks, maps, athletic clothing, photographs, and school yearbooks used in kindergarten to grade 12 schools in Canada from the mid-1800s to the 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria Art Gallery",
        "text": "The Victoria Art Gallery is a public art museum in Bath, Somerset, England. It was opened in 1900 to commemorate Queen Victoria's diamond jubilee. It is a Grade II* listed building and houses over 1500 objects of art including a collection of oil paintings from British artists dating from 1700 onwards. The ground floor was at one time a public library."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A is located in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, in an area known as \"Albertopolis\" because of its association with Prince Albert, the Albert Memorial and the major cultural institutions with which he was associated. These include the Natural History Museum, the Science Museum, the Royal Albert Hall and Imperial College London. The museum is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. As with other national British museums, entrance is free."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Italian paintings"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Rodin is represented by more than 20 works in the museum collection, making it one of the largest collections of the sculptor's work outside France; these were given to the museum by the sculptor in 1914, as acknowledgement of Britain's support of France in the First World War, although the statue of St John the Baptist had been purchased in 1902 by public subscription. Other French sculptors with work in the collection are Hubert Le Sueur, Fran\u00e7ois Girardon, Michel Clodion, Jean-Antoine Houdon, Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux and Jules Dalou."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "One of the rarest items in the collection is the 58\u00a0cm-high Gloucester Candlestick, dated to c1110, made from gilt bronze; with highly elaborate and intricate intertwining branches containing small figures and inscriptions, it is a tour de force of bronze casting. Also of importance is the Becket Casket dated c1180 to contain relics of St Thomas Becket, made from gilt copper, with enamelled scenes of the saint's martyrdom. Another highlight is the 1351 Reichenau Crozier. The Burghley Nef, a salt-cellar, French, dated 1527\u20131528, uses a nautilus shell to form the hull of a vessel, which rests on the tail of a parcelgilt mermaid, who rests on a hexagonal gilt plinth on six claw-and-ball feet. Both masts have main and top-sails, and battlemented fighting-tops are made from gold. These items are displayed in the new Medieval & Renaissance galleries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hammond & Co.",
        "text": "The Victoria & Albert Museum has a driving coat from 1906 in its permanent collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "There is a copy of Raphael's \"The School of Athens\" over 4 metres by 8 metres in size, dated 1755 by Anton Raphael Mengs on display in the eastern Cast Court."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Several areas of the collection have dedicated study rooms, these allow access to items in the collection that are not currently on display, but in some cases require an appointment to be made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cawthorne",
        "text": "The Victoria Jubilee Museum, built to commemorate Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee, was opened in 1889 and contains numerous unusual exhibits including a stuffed cheetah and a two-headed lamb."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "These galleries are dedicated to temporary exhibits showcasing both trends from recent decades and the latest in design and fashion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 2003 and 2007 Penelope Smail and Kathleen Moffat generously donated Curtis Moffat's extensive archive to the museum. He created dynamic abstract photographs, innovative colour still-lives and glamorous society portraits during the 1920s and 1930s. He was also a pivotal figure in Modernist interior design. In Paris during the 1920s, Moffat collaborated with Man Ray, producing portraits and abstract photograms or \"rayographs\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stirling Smith Art Gallery and Museum",
        "text": "\"During the years we lived in Albert Place, the museum appeared to be rather neglected. The galleries seemed quite bare, but my brother and I have memories of a butterfly collection in the first room on the left. In a room on the right there were stuffed animals: particularly memorable were a wild cat and a bird of prey. At the back of the building, there was a very large room which had an enormous painting on the back wall as well as some portraits on the other walls. Occasionally there were special exhibitions; certainly there was a local art exhibition from time to time and one of our neighbours used to regularly contribute paintings to these exhibitions. Very rarely, there would be a concert to attend.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The museum also runs the Young V&A at Bethnal Green; it used to run Apsley House, and also the Theatre Museum in Covent Garden. The Theatre Museum is now closed; the V&A Theatre Collections are now displayed within the South Kensington building."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pamela Scott Wilkie",
        "text": "the Victoria & Albert Museum, London, UK, Australian National Library, Canberra, the University of California, Santa Barbara, USA, Wolfson College, Oxford, UK, the Graves Art Gallery, Sheffield, UK, the City Art Gallery, Worcester, UK, the Ikon Gallery, Birmingham, UK, University of Birmingham, UK, the Oxford Education Committee, UK, Tenby Museum and Art Gallery, Wales, UK, the Harkness Foundation, New York, USA, Birmingham City Library, UK, Southampton City Art Gallery, UK, Rijksmuseum, The Hague, The Netherlands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The two courts are divided by corridors on both storeys, and the partitions that used to line the upper corridor (the Gilbert Bayes sculpture gallery) were removed in 2004 to allow the courts to be viewed from above."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the name of the world's largest museum of applied arts?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Victoria and Albert Museum in London is the world's largest museum of applied arts, decorative arts, and design, housing a permanent collection of over 2.27 million objects."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the biggest collection held by the Victoria and Albert Museum?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The museum own the world's largest collection of post-classical sculpture."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of the historic art displayed at The Victoria and Albert Museum?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "On loan to the museum, from Her Majesty the Queen Elizabeth II, are the Raphael Cartoons: the seven surviving (there were ten) full-scale designs for tapestries in the Sistine Chapel, of the lives of Peter and Paul from the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. There is also on display a fresco by Pietro Perugino, dated 1522, from the church of Castello at Fontignano (Perugia) which is amongst the painter's last works, and 19th-century British artists are well represented as well.",
      "The Victoria and Albert Museum is the world's largest museum of applied arts, decorative arts, and design with over 2.27 million objects, spanning 5000 years of art, from Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa; and it also owns the world's largest collection of post-classical sculpture. Is there a specific era or a region are you interested in?"
    ],
    "topic": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Victoria and Albert Museum:93",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Victoria and Albert Museum",
          "Collections",
          "Paintings (and miniatures)"
        ],
        "ctx": "19th-century British artists are well represented. John Constable and J. M. W. Turner are represented by oil paintings, watercolours and drawings. One of the most unusual objects on display is Thomas Gainsborough's experimental showbox with its back-lit landscapes, which he painted on glass, which allowed them to be changed like slides. Other landscape painters with works on display include Philip James de Loutherbourg, Peter De Wint and John Ward."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Victoria and Albert Museum:92",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Victoria and Albert Museum",
          "Collections",
          "Paintings (and miniatures)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The collection includes about 1130 British and 650 European oil paintings, 6800 British watercolours, pastels and 2000 miniatures, for which the museum holds the national collection. Also on loan to the museum, from Her Majesty the Queen Elizabeth II, are the Raphael Cartoons: the seven surviving (there were ten) full-scale designs for tapestries in the Sistine Chapel, of the lives of Peter and Paul from the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. There is also on display a fresco by Pietro Perugino, dated 1522, from the church of Castello at Fontignano (Perugia) which is amongst the painter's last works. One of the largest objects in the collection is the Spanish retable of St George, c. 1400, 670 x 486\u00a0cm, in tempera on wood, consisting of numerous scenes and painted by Andr\u00e9s Marzal De Sax in Valencia."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Victoria and Albert Museum:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Victoria and Albert Museum"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Victoria and Albert Museum (often abbreviated as the V&A) in London is the world's largest museum of applied arts, decorative arts, and design, housing a permanent collection of over 2.27\u00a0million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Victoria and Albert Museum:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Victoria and Albert Museum"
        ],
        "ctx": "The V&A covers and 145 galleries. Its collection spans 5000 years of art, from ancient times to the present day, from the cultures of Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa. However, the art of antiquity in most areas is not collected. The holdings of ceramics, glass, textiles, costumes, silver, ironwork, jewellery, furniture, medieval objects, sculpture, prints and printmaking, drawings and photographs are among the largest and most comprehensive in the world."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Victoria and Albert Museum:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Victoria and Albert Museum"
        ],
        "ctx": "The museum owns the world's largest collection of post-classical sculpture, with the holdings of Italian Renaissance items being the largest outside Italy. The departments of Asia include art from South Asia, China, Japan, Korea and the Islamic world. The East Asian collections are among the best in Europe, with particular strengths in ceramics and metalwork, while the Islamic collection is amongst the largest in the Western world. Overall, it is one of the largest museums in the world."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A covers and 145 galleries. Its collection spans 5000 years of art, from ancient times to the present day, from the cultures of Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa. However, the art of antiquity in most areas is not collected. The holdings of ceramics, glass, textiles, costumes, silver, ironwork, jewellery, furniture, medieval objects, sculpture, prints and printmaking, drawings and photographs are among the largest and most comprehensive in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Victoria and Albert Museum\n--History.\n----Foundation.\n----1900\u20131950.\n----Since 1950.\n--Architecture.\n----Edwardian period.\n----Post-war period.\n----Recent years.\n------Garden.\n------Exhibition Road Quarter.\n--Collections.\n----Architecture.\n----Asia.\n------Islamic art.\n------South Asia.\n------East Asia.\n----Books.\n----British galleries.\n----Cast courts.\n----Ceramics and glass.\n----Contemporary.\n----Prints and drawings.\n----Fashion.\n----Furniture.\n----Jewellery.\n----Metalwork.\n----Musical instruments.\n----Paintings (and miniatures).\n----Photography.\n----Sculpture.\n----Textiles.\n----Theatre and performance.\n--Departments.\n----Education.\n------V&A Publishing.\n------Activities for children.\n------Activities for adults.\n----Research and conservation.\n--Partnerships.\n--Exhibitions.\n--Controversies.\n--Media.\n--Galleries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The sculpture collection at the V&A is the most comprehensive holding of post-classical European sculpture in the world. There are approximately 22,000 objects in the collection that cover the period from about 400 AD to 1914. This covers among other periods Byzantine and Anglo Saxon ivory sculptures, British, French and Spanish medieval statues and carvings, the Renaissance, Baroque, Neo-Classical, Victorian and Art Nouveau periods. All uses of sculpture are represented, from tomb and memorial, to portrait, allegorical, religious, mythical, statues for gardens including fountains, as well as architectural decorations. Materials used include, marble, alabaster, stone, terracotta, wood (history of wood carving), ivory, gesso, plaster, bronze, lead and ceramics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The furniture collection, while covering Europe and America from the Middle Ages to the present, is predominantly British, dating between 1700 and 1900. Many of the finest examples are displayed in the British Galleries, including pieces by Chippendale, Adam, Morris, and Mackintosh. One of the oldest items is a chair leg from Middle Egypt dated to 200-395AD."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A's collection of Art from Asia numbers more than 160,000 objects, one of the largest in existence. It has one of the world's most comprehensive and important collections of Chinese art whilst the collection of South Asian Art is the most important in the West. The museum's coverage includes items from South and South East Asia, Himalayan Kingdoms, China, the Far East and the Islamic world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A runs an ongoing textile and dress conservation programme. For example, in 2008, an important but heavily soiled, distorted and water-damaged 1954 Dior outfit called 'Zemire' was restored to displayable condition for the \"Golden Age of Couture\" exhibition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collecting areas of the museum are not easy to summarize, having evolved partly through attempts to avoid too much overlap with other national museums in London. Generally, the classical world of the West and the Ancient Near East is left to the British Museum, and Western paintings to the National Gallery, though there are all sorts of exceptionsfor example, painted portrait miniatures, where the V&A has the main national collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The museum owns the world's largest collection of post-classical sculpture, with the holdings of Italian Renaissance items being the largest outside Italy. The departments of Asia include art from South Asia, China, Japan, Korea and the Islamic world. The East Asian collections are among the best in Europe, with particular strengths in ceramics and metalwork, while the Islamic collection is amongst the largest in the Western world. Overall, it is one of the largest museums in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection of textiles consists of more than 53,000 examples, mainly western European though all populated continents are represented, dating from the 1st century AD to the present, this is the largest such collection in the world. Techniques represented include weaving, printing, quilting embroidery, lace, tapestry and carpets. These are classified by technique, countries of origin and date of production. The collections are well represented in these areas: early silks from the Near East, lace, European tapestries and English medieval church embroidery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The galleries showcase a number of complete and partial reconstructions of period rooms, from demolished buildings, including:\n* The parlour from 2 Henrietta Street, London, dated 1727\u20131728, designed by James Gibbs\n* The Norfolk House Music Room, St James Square, London, dated 1756, designed by Matthew Brettingham and Giovanni Battista Borra\n* A section of a wall from the Glass Drawing Room of Northumberland House, dated 1773\u20131775, designed by Robert Adam"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "As well as period rooms, the collection includes parts of buildings, for example, the two top stories of the facade of Sir Paul Pindar's house dated 1600 from Bishopsgate with elaborately carved woodwork and leaded windows, a rare survivor of the Great Fire of London, there is a brick portal from a London house of the English Restoration period and a fireplace from the gallery of Northumberland house. European examples include a dormer window dated 1523\u20131535 from the chateau of Montal. There are several examples from Italian Renaissance buildings including, portals, fireplaces, balconies and a stone buffet that used to have a built-in fountain. The main architecture gallery has a series of pillars from various buildings and different periods, for example, a column from the Alhambra. Examples covering Asia are in those galleries concerned with those countries, as well as models and photographs in the main architecture gallery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "These fifteen galleries\u2014which opened in November 2001\u2014contain around 4,000 items. The displays in these galleries are based around three major themes: \"Style\", \"Who Led Taste\" and \"What Was New\". The period covered is 1500 to 1900, with the galleries divided into three major subdivisions:\n* Tudor and Stuart Britain, 1500\u20131714, covering the Renaissance, Elizabethan, Jacobean, Restoration and Baroque styles\n* Georgian Britain, 1714\u20131837, covering Palladianism, Rococo, Chinoiserie, Neoclassicism, the Regency, the influence of Chinese, Indian and Egyptian styles, and the early Gothic Revival\n* Victorian Britain, 1837\u20131901, covering the later phases of the Gothic Revival, French influences, Classical and Renaissance revivals, Aestheticism, Japanese style, the continuing influence of China, India, and the Islamic world, the Arts and Crafts movement and the Scottish School."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The museum houses the National Art Library, a public library containing over 750,000 books, photographs, drawings, paintings, and prints. It is one of the world's largest libraries dedicated to the study of fine and decorative arts. The library covers all areas and periods of the museum's collections with special collections covering illuminated manuscripts, rare books and artists' letters and archives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Vaughan (art collector)",
        "text": "The Victoria and Albert Museum was bequeathed collections of stained glass and carved panels, six Turner watercolours, and the full-scale studies for Constable's \"The Hay Wain\" and \"The Leaping Horse\", which had been on loan to that museum since 1862."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "One of the largest objects in the collection is the rood loft from St. John's Cathedral ('s-Hertogenbosch), from the Netherlands, dated 1610\u20131613 this is as much a work of architecture as sculpture, 10.4 metres wide, 7.8 metres high, the architectural framework is of various coloured marbles including columns, arches and balustrade, against which are statues and bas-reliefs and other carvings in alabaster, the work of sculptor Conrad van Norenberch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Albert Memorial",
        "text": "At the corners of the central area, and at the corners of the outer area, there are two programmes of allegorical sculpture, or at least sculptures of personifications: four groups depicting Victorian industrial arts and sciences (agriculture, commerce, engineering and manufacturing), and four more groups representing the traditional four continents: Africa, the Americas, Asia and Europe at the four corners, each continent-group including several ethnographic figures and a large animal: A camel for Africa, a bison for the Americas, an elephant for Asia and a bull for Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The museum has 145 galleries, but given the vast extent of the collections, only a small percentage is ever on display. Many acquisitions have been made possible only with the assistance of the National Art Collections Fund."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "At night both the planters and the water feature may be illuminated, and the surrounding fa\u00e7ades lit to reveal details normally in shadow. Especially noticeable are the mosaics in the loggia of the north fa\u00e7ade. In summer a caf\u00e9 is set up in the southwest corner. The garden is also used for temporary exhibits of sculpture; for example, a sculpture by Jeff Koons was shown in 2006. It has also played host to the museum's annual contemporary design showcase, the V&A Village Fete, since 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Art Gallery of Greater Victoria",
        "text": "The museum's collection of Asian art is made up of approximately 8,000 works, comprising 40 per cent of the museum's total collection. With approximately 8,000 Asian works, the museum holds the second largest collection of Asian art in Canada, after the Royal Ontario Museum. While the collection of Asian works includes items from all over Asia (including South Asia, and Western Asia), the focus of the Asian collection is primarily on works from China, and Japan. The museum's collection of Chinese works is believed to have increased significantly in value in the first decades of the 21st century, due to China's economic growth, and renewed interests for art from that region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Victoria and Albert Museum (often abbreviated as the V&A) in London is the world's largest museum of applied arts, decorative arts, and design, housing a permanent collection of over 2.27\u00a0million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Not only the work of British artists and craftspeople is on display, but also work produced by European artists that was purchased or commissioned by British patrons, as well as imports from Asia, including porcelain, cloth and wallpaper. Designers and artists whose work is on display in the galleries include Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Grinling Gibbons, Daniel Marot, Louis Laguerre, Antonio Verrio, Sir James Thornhill, William Kent, Robert Adam, Josiah Wedgwood, Matthew Boulton, Canova, Thomas Chippendale, Pugin, William Morris. Patrons who have influenced taste are also represented by works of art from their collections, these include: Horace Walpole (a major influence on the Gothic Revival), William Thomas Beckford and Thomas Hope."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Part of these galleries became the new galleries covering the 19th century, opened in December 2006. The last work by Fowke was the design for the range of buildings on the north and west sides of the garden. This includes the refreshment rooms, reinstated as the Museum Caf\u00e9 in 2006, with the silver gallery above (at the time the ceramics gallery); the top floor has a splendid lecture theatre, although this is seldom open to the general public. The ceramic staircase in the northwest corner of this range of buildings was designed by F. W. Moody and has architectural details of moulded and coloured pottery. All the work on the north range was designed and built in 1864\u20131869. The style adopted for this part of the museum was Italian Renaissance; much use was made of terracotta, brick and mosaic. This north fa\u00e7ade was intended as the main entrance to the museum, with its bronze doors, designed by James Gamble and , having six panels, depicting Humphry Davy (chemistry); Isaac Newton (astronomy); James Watt (mechanics); Bramante (architecture); Michelangelo (sculpture); and Titian (painting); The panels thus represent the range of the museum's collections. Godfrey Sykes also designed the terracotta embellishments and the mosaic in the pediment of the North Fa\u00e7ade commemorating the Great Exhibition, the profits from which helped to fund the museum. This is flanked by terracotta statue groups by Percival Ball. This building replaced Brompton Park House, which could then be demolished to make way for the south range."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Several French paintings entered the collection as part of the 260 paintings and miniatures (not all the works were French, for example Carlo Crivelli's \"Virgin and Child\") that formed part of the Jones bequest of 1882 and as such are displayed in the galleries of continental art 1600\u20131800, including the portrait of Fran\u00e7ois, Duc d'Alen\u00e7on by Fran\u00e7ois Clouet, Gaspard Dughet and works by Fran\u00e7ois Boucher including his portrait of Madame de Pompadour dated 1758, Jean Fran\u00e7ois de Troy, Jean-Baptiste Pater and their contemporaries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A Museum has a large collection of shoes around 2000 pairs from different cultures around the world. The collection shows the chronological progression of shoe height, heel shape and materials, revealing just how many styles we consider to be modern have been in and out of fashion across the centuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The National Art Library (also called Word and Image Department) at the Victoria and Albert Museum collection catalogue used to be kept in different formats including printed exhibit catalogues, and card catalogues. A computer system called MODES cataloguing system was used from the 1980s to the 1990s, but those electronic files were not available to the library users. All of the archival material at the National Art Library is using Encoded Archival Description (EAD). The Victoria and Albert Museum has a computer system but most of the items in the collection, unless those were newly accessioned into the collection, probably do not show up in the computer system. There is a feature on the Victoria and Albert Museum website called \"Search the Collections,\" but not everything is listed there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Sculptures"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "French paintings"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Gothic Art"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "An ambitious scheme of decoration was developed for these new areas: a series of mosaic figures depicting famous European artists of the Medieval and Renaissance period. These have now been removed to other areas of the museum. Also started were a series of frescoes by Lord Leighton: \"Industrial Arts as Applied to War\" 1878\u20131880 and \"Industrial Arts Applied to Peace\", which was started but never finished. To the east of this were additional galleries, the decoration of which was the work of another designer, Owen Jones; these were the Oriental Courts (covering India, China and Japan), completed in 1863. None of this decoration survives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Museum's collections of South and South-East Asian art are the most comprehensive and important in the West comprising nearly 60,000 objects, including about 10,000 textiles and 6000 paintings, the range of the collection is immense. The Jawaharlal Nehru gallery of Indian art, opened in 1991, contains art from about 500 BC to the 19th century. There is an extensive collection of sculptures, mainly of a religious nature, Hindu, Buddhist and Jain. The gallery is richly endowed with the art of the Mughal Empire and the Marathas, including fine portraits of the emperors and other paintings and drawings, jade wine cups and gold spoons inset with emeralds, diamonds and rubies, also from this period are parts of buildings such as a jaali and pillars. India was a large producer of textiles, from dyed cotton chintz, muslin to rich embroidery work using gold and silver thread, coloured sequins and beads is displayed, as are carpets from Agra and Lahore. Examples of clothing are also displayed. In 1879\u201380, the collections of the defunct East India Company's India Museum were transferred to the V&A and the British Museum. Items in the collection include Tipu's Tiger, an 18th-century automaton created for Tipu Sultan, the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore. The personal wine cup of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan also on display."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Far Eastern collections include more than 70 works of art from the countries of East Asia: China, Japan and Korea. The T. T. Tsui Gallery of Chinese art opened in 1991, displaying a representative collection of the V&As approximately 16,000 objects from China, dating from the 4th millennium BC to the present day. Though the majority of artworks on display date from the Ming and Qing dynasties, there are objects dating from the Tang dynasty and earlier periods, among them a metre-high bronze head of the Buddha dated to about 750 AD, and one of the oldest items, a 2000-year-old jade horse head from a burial. Other sculptures include life-size tomb guardians. Classic examples of Chinese manufacturing are displayed that include lacquer, silk, porcelain, jade and cloisonn\u00e9 enamel. Two large ancestor portraits of a husband and wife painted in watercolour on silk date from the 18th century. There is a unique Chinese lacquerware table, made in the imperial workshops during the reign of the Xuande Emperor in the Ming dynasty. Examples of clothing are also displayed. One of the largest objects is a bed from the mid-17th century. The work of contemporary Chinese designers is also displayed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Art Gallery of Alberta",
        "text": "The museum's collection of historical Canadian art includes works by Jack Bush, Emily Carr, Henry George Glyde, Illingworth Kerr, Cornelius Krieghoff, Pegi Nicol MacLeod, James Wilson Morrice, Marion Nicoll, Paul Peel, Bill Reid, Jean-Paul Riopelle, Carl Schaefer, Lilias Torrance Newton, and members of the Group of Seven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The department holds significant archives documenting current practice and the history of performing arts. These include the English Stage Company at the Royal Court Theatre, D'Oyly Carte and the design collection of the Arts Council. Notable personal archives include Vivien Leigh, Peter Brook, Henry Irving and Ivor Novello."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agnes Etherington Art Centre",
        "text": "The Canadian Historical collection primarily representing the history of Canadian fine art in the Euro-American tradition, it also reflects the evolving Canadian cultural matrix through Inuit and Indigenous art and artifacts, as well as historic dress and decorative arts. The collection is notable for fine early topographical watercolours and major 20th-century paintings, and encompasses material connected to regional history in the Queen's University Collection of Canadian Dress, the Heritage Quilt Collection, and the Silver Collection. The Canadian historical collection includes works by: Andre Charles Bieler, Tom Thomson, Emily Carr, Lawren Harris, Arthur Lismer, Frederick Varley, Edwin Holgate, LeMoine FitzGerald, Fernand Leduc, Ozias Leduc, David Milne, William Ronald, Carl Beam, William Henry Bartlett, William Brymner, Kananginak Pootoogook, Pitseolak Ashoona"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "There are a set of beautiful inlaid doors, dated 1580 from Antwerp City Hall, attributed to Hans Vredeman de Vries. One of the finest pieces of continental furniture in the collection is the Rococo Augustus Rex Bureau Cabinet dated c1750 from Germany, with especially fine marquetry and ormolu mounts. One of the grandest pieces of 19th-century furniture is the highly elaborate French Cabinet dated 1861\u20131867 made by M. Fourdinois, made from ebony inlaid with box, lime, holly, pear, walnut and mahogany woods as well as marble with gilded carvings. Furniture designed by Ernest Gimson, Edward William Godwin, Charles Voysey, Adolf Loos and Otto Wagner are among the late 19th-century and early 20th-century examples in the collection. The work of modernists in the collection include Le Corbusier, Marcel Breuer, Charles and Ray Eames, and Gi\u00f2 Ponti."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Gallery of Canada",
        "text": "The European, American, and Asian collection area includes most of the museum's works by non-Canadian artists. The museum acquired its first European work in 1907, the painting \"Ignatius Sancho\" by Thomas Gainsborough. Conversely, the museum did not begin to develop its collection of American art until the 1970s. The museum's collection includes American and European works dating from the Renaissance through to the 20th century. In addition to Western art, the collection area also has 400 works from India, Nepal, and Tibet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Art & History Museum",
        "text": "During the interwar period, the collections grew considerably due to Belgian scientific expeditions around the world most notably in Apamea (Syria), in Egypt by the Egyptologist Jean Capart, and in Easter Island in 1936, or by excavations in archaeological sites across Belgium. Many wealthy Belgians also donated artworks to the museum. In the mid-20th century, a new wing was built in the west of the building to house the classical antiquity collections."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A has large galleries devoted to temporary exhibitions. A typical year will see more than a dozen different exhibitions being staged, covering all areas of the collections. Notable exhibitions of recent years have been:\n* \"Britain Can Make It\", 1946\n* \"\", 2009\n* \"Power of Making\", 2011\n* \"Food: Bigger Than the Plate\", 2019"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "One of the earliest surviving examples of European quilting, the late 14th-century Sicilian Tristan Quilt, is also held by the collection. The collection has numerous examples of various types of textiles designed by William Morris, including, embroidery, woven fabrics, tapestries (including \"The Forest\" tapestry of 1887), rugs and carpets, as well as pattern books and paper designs. The art deco period is covered by rugs and fabrics designed by Marion Dorn. From the same period there is a rug designed by Serge Chermayeff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "English paintings"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Smaller-scale works are displayed in the Gilbert Bayes gallery, covering medieval especially English alabaster sculpture, bronzes, wooden sculptures and has demonstrations of various techniques such as bronze casting using lost-wax casting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "This is the largest and most comprehensive ceramics and glass collection in the world, with over 80,000 objects from around the world. Every populated continent is represented. Apart from the many pieces in the Primary Galleries on the ground floor, much of the top floor is devoted to galleries of ceramics of all periods covered, which include display cases with a representative selection, but also massed \"visible storage\" displays of the reserve collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hours of Margaret of Foix",
        "text": "Hamburger, J. (2014). Victoria and Albert Museum: Western Illuminated Manuscripts. A Catalogue of Works in the National Art Library from the Eleventh to the Early Twentieth Century, with a Complete Account of the George Reid Collection. \"Medium Aevum,\" \"83\"(2), 306-307."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "There are over 10,000 objects made from silver or gold in the collection, the display (about 15% of the collection) is divided into secular and sacred covering both Christian (Roman Catholic, Anglican and Greek Orthodox) and Jewish liturgical vessels and items. The main silver gallery is divided into these areas: British silver pre-1800; British silver 1800 to 1900; modernist to contemporary silver; European silver. The collection includes the earliest known piece of English silver with a dated hallmark, a silver gilt beaker dated 1496\u20131497."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The print collection has more than 500,000 items, covering: posters, greetings cards, bookplates, as well as a comprehensive collection of old master prints from the Renaissance to the present, including works by Rembrandt, William Hogarth, Giovanni Battista Piranesi, Canaletto, Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Henri Matisse and Sir William Nicholson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Italian paintings"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection departments are further divided into sixteen display areas, whose combined collection numbers over 6.5\u00a0 million objects, not all items are displayed or stored at the V&A. There is a repository at Blythe House, West Kensington, as well as annex institutions managed by the V&A, also the Museum lends exhibits to other institutions. The following lists each of the collections on display and the number of objects within the collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Soulages collection of Italian and French Renaissance objects was acquired between 1859 and 1865, and includes several cassone. The John Jones Collection of French 18th-century art and furnishings was left to the museum in 1882, then valued at \u00a3250,000. One of the most important pieces in this collection is a marquetry commode by the \"\u00e9b\u00e9niste\" Jean Henri Riesener dated c1780. Other signed pieces of furniture in the collection include a bureau by Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Oeben, a pair of pedestals with inlaid brass work by Andr\u00e9 Charles Boulle, a commode by Bernard Vanrisamburgh and a work-table by Martin Carlin. Other 18th-century \u00e9b\u00e9nistes represented in the Museum collection include Adam Weisweiler, David Roentgen, Gilles Joubert and Pierre Langlois. In 1901, Sir George Donaldson donated several pieces of art Nouveau furniture to the museum, which he had acquired the previous year at the Paris Exposition Universelle. This was criticised at the time, with the result that the museum ceased to collect contemporary items and did not do so again until the 1960s. In 1986 the Lady Abingdon collection of French Empire furniture was bequeathed by Mrs T. R. P. Hole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Albert Hall Museum",
        "text": "Albert Hall Museum\n--History.\n--Collection.\n--Gallery.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mint Museum",
        "text": "The American Art collection comprises approximately 900 works created between the late 1700s and circa 1945. It includes portraiture of the Federal era, 19th century landscapes, and paintings from the group known as \"The Eight\" (Robert Henri, George Luks, William Glackens, John Sloan, Everett Shinn, Maurice Prendergast, Ernest Lawson, and Arthur Bowen Davies). Additional highlights in this area include works by John Singleton Copley, Gilbert Stuart, Thomas Sully, and Hudson River School painters Thomas Cole and Sanford Gifford."
      },
      {
        "title": "Albert Hall Museum",
        "text": "The museum has a rich collection of artifacts including paintings, jewelry, carpets, ivory, stone, metal sculptures, and works in crystal. The collection includes coins from the Gupta, Kushan, Delhi Sultanate, Mughal and British periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Albertinum",
        "text": "Albertinum\n--History.\n--Museums.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Victoria & Albert Museum is split into four curatorial departments: Decorative Art and Sculpture; Performance, Furniture, Textiles and Fashion; Art, Architecture, Photography and Design; and Asia. The museum curators care for the objects in the collection and provide access to objects that are not currently on display to the public and scholars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Museum survived the Second World War with only minor bomb damage. The worst loss was the Victorian stained glass on the Ceramics Staircase, which was blown in when bombs fell nearby; pockmarks still visible on the fa\u00e7ade of the museum were caused by fragments from the bombs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 2003 and 2007 Penelope Smail and Kathleen Moffat generously donated Curtis Moffat's extensive archive to the museum. He created dynamic abstract photographs, innovative colour still-lives and glamorous society portraits during the 1920s and 1930s. He was also a pivotal figure in Modernist interior design. In Paris during the 1920s, Moffat collaborated with Man Ray, producing portraits and abstract photograms or \"rayographs\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria Art Gallery",
        "text": "The collection includes over 1,500 decorative arts treasures including a display of British oil paintings from 17th century to the present day including works by Thomas Gainsborough, Thomas Jones Barker and Walter Sickert. Other items on display include sculptures, glassware and decorative artistic objects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 2002, the Museum acquired the Costiff collection of 178 Vivienne Westwood costumes. Other famous designers with work in the collection include Coco Chanel, Hubert de Givenchy, Christian Dior, Crist\u00f3bal Balenciaga, Yves Saint Laurent, Guy Laroche, Irene Galitzine, Mila Sch\u00f6n, Valentino Garavani, Norman Norell, Norman Hartnell, Zandra Rhodes, Hardy Amies, Mary Quant, Christian Lacroix, Jean Muir and Pierre Cardin. The museum continues to acquire examples of modern fashion to add to the collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cast Courts (Victoria and Albert Museum)",
        "text": "Early in the 20th century, there was something of a reaction against copying works of art and interest in the collection \u2014 and other similar collections \u2014 declined. Only more recently has revived interest in the collection led to its once again being fully appreciated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In the immediate post-war years, there was little money available for other than essential repairs. The 1950s and early 1960s saw little in the way of building work; the first major work was the creation of new storage space for books in the Art Library in 1966 and 1967. This involved flooring over Aston Webb's main hall to form the book stacks, with a new medieval gallery on the ground floor (now the shop, opened in 2006). Then the lower ground-floor galleries in the south-west part of the museum were redesigned, opening in 1978 to form the new galleries covering Continental art 1600\u20131800 (late Renaissance, Baroque through Rococo and neo-Classical). In 1974 the museum had acquired what is now the Henry Cole wing from the Royal College of Science. To adapt the building as galleries, all the Victorian interiors except for the staircase were recast during the remodelling. To link this to the rest of the museum, a new entrance building was constructed on the site of the former boiler house, the intended site of the Spiral, between 1978 and 1982. This building is of concrete and very functional, the only embellishment being the iron gates by Christopher Hay and Douglas Coyne of the Royal College of Art. These are set in the columned screen wall designed by Aston Webb that forms the fa\u00e7ade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lady Lever Art Gallery",
        "text": "The museum is a significant surviving example of late Victorian and Edwardian taste. It houses major collections of fine and decorative art that are an expression of Lord Leverhulme's personal taste and collecting interests. The collection is strong in British 19th-century painting and sculpture, spilling over to include late 18th-century and early 20th works. There are important collections of English furniture, Wedgwood, especially jasperware, and Chinese ceramics, and smaller groups of other types of objects, such as Ancient Greek vases and Roman sculpture. The majority of objects were part of the original donation, but the collection has continued to expand at a modest rate. The museum displays mostly mixed paintings, sculpture and furniture together, and there are five period rooms recreating typical period interiors from large houses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Some of the oldest items in the collection are medieval vestments, especially Opus Anglicanum. One of the most important items in the collection is the wedding suit of James II of England, which is displayed in the British Galleries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The exhibition which the museum organised to celebrate the centennial of the 1899 renaming, \"A Grand Design\", first toured in North America from 1997 (Baltimore Museum of Art, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston and the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco), returning to London in 1999. To accompany and support the exhibition, the museum published a book, \"Grand Design\", which it has made available for reading online on its website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection contains more than 500,000 images dating from the advent of photography, the oldest image dating from 1839. The gallery displays a series of changing exhibits and closes between exhibitions to allow full re-display to take place. Already in 1858, when the museum was called the South Kensington Museum, it had the world's first international photographic exhibition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Furniture and Woodwork collection also includes complete rooms, musical instruments, and clocks. Among the rooms owned by the Museum are the Boudoir of Madame de S\u00e9villy (Paris, 1781\u201382) by Claude Nicolas Ledoux, with painted panelling by Jean Simeon Rousseau de la Rotti\u00e8re; and Frank Lloyd Wright's Kaufmann Office, designed and constructed between 1934 and 1937 for the owner of a Pittsburgh department store."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "With the opening of the Dorothy and Michael Hintze sculpture galleries in 2006 it was decided to extend the chronology of the works on display up to 1950; this has involved loans by other museums, including Tate Britain, so works by Henry Moore and Jacob Epstein along with other of their contemporaries are now on view. These galleries concentrate on works dated between 1600 and 1950 by British sculptors, works by continental sculptors who worked in Britain, and works bought by British patrons from the continental sculptors, such as Canova's \"Theseus and the Minotaur\". The galleries overlooking the garden are arranged by theme, tomb sculpture, portraiture, garden sculpture and mythology. Then there is a section that covers late 19th-century and early 20th-century sculpture, this includes work by Rodin and other French sculptors such as Dalou who spent several years in Britain where he taught sculpture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Art Gallery of Greater Victoria",
        "text": "The museum's collection of Asian art features old and new works, including bronze objects, ceramics, textiles, and amber and ivory carvings. The museum's Asian collection was started in 1973 by the museum's first director, Colin Graham. Two Japanese prints, acquired by the museum in the 1950s, were the first two items that formed the Asian collection. Other works from the exhibit includes a Chinese painting valued at C$6 million in 2016, and a Japanese by\u014dbu created by Kan\u014d Sanraku. The by\u014dbu features a depiction of a peacock displaying its plumage next to a pine tree, painted on a gold leaf. The by by\u014dbu was donated to the museum in 1995, and was restored with cooperation from the Government of Japan for approximately C$150,000. The by\u014dbu was valued at C$500,000 in 2016. The museum's outdoor Asian garden includes the only Meiji era Shinto shrine in North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "New England Regional Art Museum",
        "text": "These collections bring together over 4,500 works with particular strengths in nineteenth and twentieth century Australian art. They include significant works by artists including Arthur Streeton, Tom Roberts, Nora Heysen, Elioth Gruner, Margaret Preston, Brett Whiteley, James Gleeson, Tony Tuckson, and Christo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection includes pieces by William Kent, Henry Flitcroft, Matthias Lock, James Stuart, William Chambers, John Gillow, James Wyatt, Thomas Hopper, Charles Heathcote Tatham, Pugin, William Burges, Charles Voysey, Charles Robert Ashbee, Baillie Scott, Edwin Lutyens, Edward Maufe, Wells Coates and Robin Day. The museum also hosts the national collection of wallpaper, which is looked after by the Prints, Drawings and Paintings department."
      },
      {
        "title": "Whyte Museum",
        "text": "The Whyte Museum's art collection spans the early 1800s to present day and includes regionally created and related works by Canadian and international artists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Button",
        "text": "Some museums and art galleries hold culturally, historically, politically, and/or artistically significant buttons in their collections. The Victoria and Albert Museum has many buttons, particularly in its jewellery collection, as does the Smithsonian Institution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Martha Black (art historian)",
        "text": "The Royal Ontario Museum holds a major but little-known collection of Northwest coast native art and artifacts acquired by the Reverend Dr. Richard Whitfield Large at Bella Bella, British Columbia between 1899 and 1906. Although the R. W. Large Collection is one of the most important Heiltsuk collections in existence because of its unique documentation, there had never been a comprehensive study of it\".\". Black undertakes a study of the collection in her book and worked with the Heiltsuk to produce an art exhibit based on the collection with a number of contemporary pieces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Sculptors, both British and European, who were based in Britain and whose work is in the collection include Nicholas Stone, Caius Gabriel Cibber, Grinling Gibbons, John Michael Rysbrack, Louis-Fran\u00e7ois Roubiliac, Peter Scheemakers, Sir Henry Cheere, Agostino Carlini, Thomas Banks, Joseph Nollekens, Joseph Wilton, John Flaxman, Sir Francis Chantrey, John Gibson, Edward Hodges Baily, Lord Leighton, Alfred Stevens, Thomas Brock, Alfred Gilbert, George Frampton, and Eric Gill. A sample of some of these sculptors' work is on display in the British Galleries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "This collection of more than 45,000 items covers decorative ironwork, both wrought and cast, bronze, silverware, arms and armour, pewter, brassware and enamels (including many examples Limoges enamel). The main iron work gallery was redesigned in 1995."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Research is a very important area of the museum's work, and includes: identification and interpretation of individual objects; other studies contribute to systematic research, this develops the public understanding of the art and artefacts of many of the great cultures of the world; visitor research and evaluation to discover the needs of visitors and their experiences of the museum. Since 1990, the museum has published research reports; these focus on all areas of the collections."
      },
      {
        "title": "Art & History Museum",
        "text": "The museum holds the largest collection of Ancient American artifacts in Europe. Through 4000 years of history, from 2000 BC to the present day, statuettes, painted vases, jewellery revive the Inca, Mayan and Aztec civilisations. The ethnographic collections also make it possible to discover the feathered art of the native people of Amazonia (such as the famous Moctezuma coat ) and the first nations of North America, represented in particular by the impressive totem pole which welcomes visitors who enter these rooms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Button collecting",
        "text": "Some museums and art galleries hold culturally, historically, politically, and/or artistically significant buttons in their collections. The Victoria & Albert Museum has many buttons, particularly in its jewellery collection, as does the Smithsonian Institution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection includes about 1130 British and 650 European oil paintings, 6800 British watercolours, pastels and 2000 miniatures, for which the museum holds the national collection. Also on loan to the museum, from Her Majesty the Queen Elizabeth II, are the Raphael Cartoons: the seven surviving (there were ten) full-scale designs for tapestries in the Sistine Chapel, of the lives of Peter and Paul from the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. There is also on display a fresco by Pietro Perugino, dated 1522, from the church of Castello at Fontignano (Perugia) which is amongst the painter's last works. One of the largest objects in the collection is the Spanish retable of St George, c. 1400, 670 x 486\u00a0cm, in tempera on wood, consisting of numerous scenes and painted by Andr\u00e9s Marzal De Sax in Valencia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Albert Memorial Museum",
        "text": "Four major collection areas are represented: antiquities, art, natural history and world cultures. The world cultures collections are designated as being of national and international significance by the UK government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Some of the more notable works displayed in the galleries include:\n* Pietro Torrigiani's coloured terracotta bust of Henry VII, dated 1509\u20131511\n* Henry VIII's writing desk, dated 1525, made from walnut and oak, lined with leather and painted and gilded with the king's coat of arms\n* A spinet dated 1570\u20131580, made for Elizabeth I\n* The Great Bed of Ware, dated 1590\u20131600, a large, elaborately carved four-poster bed with marquetry headboard\n* Gianlorenzo Bernini's bust of Thomas Baker, from the 1630s\n* 17th-century tapestries from the Sheldon and Mortlake Tapestry Works\n* The wood relief of The Stoning of St Stephen, dated c1670, by Grinling Gibbons\n* The Macclesfield Wine Set, dated 1719\u20131720, made by Anthony Nelme, the only complete set known to survive.\n* The life-size sculpture of George Frederick Handel, dated 1738, by Louis-Fran\u00e7ois Roubiliac\n* Furniture by Thomas Chippendale and Robert Adam\n*The sculpture of Bashaw, dated 1831\u20131834, by Matthew Cotes Wyatt\n* Aesthetic and Arts & Crafts furniture by Edward William Godwin and Charles Rennie Mackintosh; and carpets and interior textiles by William Morris."
      },
      {
        "title": "Art & History Museum",
        "text": "Art & History Museum\n--History.\n--Collection.\n----National archaeology.\n------Prehistory.\n------Gallo-Roman Belgium.\n------Merovingian civilisation.\n----Classical antiquity.\n------Middle East.\n------Egypt.\n------Greece.\n------Rome.\n------Byzantine and Oriental Christian arts.\n----Non-European civilisations.\n------Islamic art.\n------Asia.\n------Polynesia and Micronesia.\n------America.\n----European decorative arts.\n------The Treasure room and Mosan art.\n------From the Gothic period to the Baroque period.\n------From the Baroque period to the 20th century.\n------The rooms by subject.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A holds the national collection of performing arts in the UK, including drama, dance, opera, circus, puppetry, comedy, musical theatre, costume, set design, pantomime, popular music and other forms of live entertainment."
      },
      {
        "title": "De Young Museum",
        "text": "The de Young's chronological survey of American art includes galleries devoted to art in the following areas: Native American and Spanish Colonial; Anglo-Colonial; Federal era art and Neoclassical; Victorian genre and realism; \"trompe-l'\u0153il\" still life; the Hudson River School, Barbizon, and Tonalism; Impressionism and the Ashcan School; Arts and Crafts; Modernism; Social Realism and American Scene; Surrealism and Abstraction; Beat, Pop, and Figurative; and Contemporary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The majority of the Medieval and Renaissance sculpture is displayed in the new Medieval and Renaissance galleries (opened December 2009)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The National Art Library also includes a collection of comics and comic art. Notable parts of the collection include the Krazy Kat Arkive, comprising 4,200 comics, and the Rakoff Collection, comprising 17,000 items collected by writer and editor Ian Rakoff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rose Kerr (art historian)",
        "text": "Kerr was Keeper of the Far Eastern Department at the Victoria & Albert Museum until her retirement in 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eloise Kruger",
        "text": "After assessing the number of American Neoclassical, American colonial and Victorian pieces that she commissioned, it can be assumed those were her favorite eras."
      },
      {
        "title": "African art in Western collections",
        "text": "African art in Western collections\n--19th century.\n--European collections.\n----Royal Museum for Central Africa in Belgium.\n----British Museum.\n----Mus\u00e9e d'Ethnographie du Trocad\u00e9ro.\n----Museum of African Art (Belgrade).\n----National Museum of World Cultures in the Netherlands.\n--African art in ethnological collections.\n--African art and Western Modernism.\n--American collections.\n----Brooklyn Museum.\n----Barnes Foundation.\n----Museum of Primitive Art and the Metropolitan Museum of Art.\n----National Museum of African Art.\n--Problems of display.\n--Post-1980s African art.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "There are also several Renaissance works by Northern European sculptors in the collection including work by: Veit Stoss, Tilman Riemenschneider, Hendrick de Keyser, Jan van Schayck, Hans Daucher and Peter Fl\u00f6tner. Baroque works from the same area include the work of Adriaen de Vries and S\u00e9bastien Slodtz. The Spanish sculptors with work in the collection include Alonso Berruguete and Luisa Rold\u00e1n represented by her \"Virgin and Child with St Diego of Alcala\" c. 1695."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Museum of Western Art \u2013 The Anschutz Collection",
        "text": "With a collection that spans nearly two centuries of art history, the museum's holdings include examples of early American expeditionary painting, Hudson River School and Rocky Mountain School landscapes, 19th-century American narrative painting, early American modernism, Expressionism, Cubism and Abstraction, American Regionalism, \u201cNew Deal Art\u201d, and Abstract Expressionism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Theatre & Performance collections were founded in the 1920s when private collector, Gabrielle Enthoven, donated her collection of theatrical memorabilia to the V&A. In 1974 two further independent collections were compiled to form a comprehensive performing arts collection at the V&A. The collections were displayed at the Theatre Museum, which operated from Covent Garden until closing in 2007. Theatre & Performance galleries opened at South Kensington in March 2009 tracing the production process of performance and include a temporary exhibition space. Types of items displayed include costumes, set models, wigs, prompt books, and posters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolton Museum",
        "text": "The Decorative Arts collection comprises 900 mostly British ceramic items dating from the medieval period to present; 180 glass objects dating from the 18th century to present; 85 electrotype reproductions acquired from the Victoria & Albert Museum in the 1870s; and 20 decorative carved panels by the Victorian wood grainer and marbler Thomas Kershaw."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The smaller galleries cover Korea, the Himalayan kingdoms and South East Asia. Korean displays include green-glazed ceramics, silk embroideries from officials' robes and gleaming boxes inlaid with mother-of-pearl made between 500 AD and 2000. Himalayan items include important early Nepalese bronze sculptures, repouss\u00e9 work and embroidery. Tibetan art from the 14th to the 19th century is represented by notable 14th- and 15th-century religious images in wood and bronze, scroll paintings and ritual objects. Art from Thailand, Burma, Cambodia, Indonesia and Sri Lanka in gold, silver, bronze, stone, terracotta and ivory represents these rich and complex cultures, the displays span the 6th to 19th centuries. Refined Hindu and Buddhist sculptures reflect the influence of India; items on the show include betel-nut cutters, ivory combs and bronze palanquin hooks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Miniaturists represented in the collection include Jean Bourdichon, Hans Holbein the Younger, Nicholas Hilliard, Isaac Oliver, Peter Oliver, Jean Petitot, Alexander Cooper, Samuel Cooper, Thomas Flatman, Rosalba Carriera, Christian Friedrich Zincke, George Engleheart, John Smart, Richard Cosway and William Charles Ross."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Prince Albert appears within the main arch above the twin entrances, and Queen Victoria above the frame around the arches and entrance, sculpted by Alfred Drury. These fa\u00e7ades surround four levels of galleries. Other areas designed by Webb include the Entrance Hall and Rotunda, the East and West Halls, the areas occupied by the shop and Asian Galleries, and the Costume Gallery. The interior makes much use of marble in the entrance hall and flanking staircases, although the galleries as originally designed were white with restrained classical detail and mouldings, very much in contrast to the elaborate decoration of the Victorian galleries, although much of this decoration was removed in the early 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Art Gallery of Ontario",
        "text": "The museum's modern art collection includes works from Americans, and Europeans from the 1900s to the 1960s, Works by Canadian artists during this time period are typically exhibited as a part of its Canadian collection, as opposed to the museum's modern art collection. Works from the modern art collection are exhibited in several centres and galleries throughout the museum, including the Joey & Toby Tanenbaum Sculpture Atrium, the Henry Moore Sculpture Centre, and several other galleries on the ground floor of the museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Prints and drawings from the over 750,000 items in the collection can be seen on request at the print room, the \"Prints and Drawings study Room\"; booking an appointment is necessary. The collection of drawings includes over 10,000 British and 2,000 old master works, including works by: D\u00fcrer, Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione, Bernardo Buontalenti, Rembrandt, Antonio Verrio, Paul Sandby, John Russell, Angelica Kauffman, John Flaxman, Hugh Douglas Hamilton, Thomas Rowlandson, William Kilburn, Thomas Girtin, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, David Wilkie, John Martin, Samuel Palmer, Sir Edwin Henry Landseer, Lord Leighton, Sir Samuel Luke Fildes and Aubrey Beardsley. Modern British artists represented in the collection include: Paul Nash, Percy Wyndham Lewis, Eric Gill, Stanley Spencer, John Piper, Robert Priseman, Graham Sutherland, Lucian Freud and David Hockney."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frederic Remington",
        "text": "American museums with significant collections of his paintings, illustrations, and sculptures include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "National Gallery of Victoria",
        "text": "The international collection includes works by Arbus, Bernini, Bordone, Canaletto, Cassatt, C\u00e9zanne, Constable, Correggio, Dal\u00ed, Degas, Delaunay, van Dyck, Emin, Gainsborough, Gentileschi, El Greco, Lange, Manet, Memling, Modigliani, Monet, Picasso, Pissarro, Pittoni, Poussin, Rembrandt, Renoir, Ribera, Riley, Rothko, Rubens, Tiepolo, Tintoretto, Turner, Uccello, Veronese and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prince Albert Historical Museum",
        "text": "The Museum is affiliated with: CMA, CHIN, and Virtual Museum of Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Albert Memorial Museum",
        "text": "RAMM's art collection comprises over 7,000 objects including paintings, drawings, prints and sculpture, representing important British artists and emphasising RAMM's location in the South West. Significant artists represented in the collection include Gainsborough, Reynolds, Pompeo Batoni, Richard Wilson and Joseph Wright of Derby; Walter Sickert, Barbara Hepworth, John Nash, Edward Burra, David Bomberg and Patrick Heron."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the name of the world's largest museum of applied arts?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Victoria and Albert Museum in London is the world's largest museum of applied arts, decorative arts, and design, housing a permanent collection of over 2.27 million objects."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the biggest collection held by the Victoria and Albert Museum?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The museum own the world's largest collection of post-classical sculpture."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of the historic art displayed at The Victoria and Albert Museum?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Victoria and Albert Museum is the world's largest museum of applied arts, decorative arts, and design with over 2.27 million objects, spanning 5000 years of art, from Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa; and it also owns the world's largest collection of post-classical sculpture. Is there a specific era or a region are you interested in?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about its collection of North American art."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I was not able to find a very extensive list, but of the items the museum holds in its collection, there are many American architects' drawings, American glass items, and some American furniture."
    ],
    "topic": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Victoria and Albert Museum:39",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Victoria and Albert Museum",
          "Collections",
          "Architecture"
        ],
        "ctx": "Not only are all the major British architects of the last four hundred years represented, but many European (especially Italian) and American architects' drawings are held in the collection. The RIBA's holdings of over 330 drawings by Andrea Palladio are the largest in the world; other Europeans well represented are Jacques Gentilhatre and Antonio Visentini. British architects whose drawings, and in some cases models of their buildings, in the collection, include: Inigo Jones, Sir Christopher Wren, Sir John Vanbrugh, Nicholas Hawksmoor, William Kent, James Gibbs, Robert Adam, Sir William Chambers, James Wyatt, Henry Holland, John Nash, Sir John Soane, Sir Charles Barry, Charles Robert Cockerell, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin, Sir George Gilbert Scott, John Loughborough Pearson, George Edmund Street, Richard Norman Shaw, Alfred Waterhouse, Sir Edwin Lutyens, Charles Rennie Mackintosh, Charles Holden, Frank Hoar, Lord Richard Rogers, Lord Norman Foster, Sir Nicholas Grimshaw, Zaha Hadid and Alick Horsnell."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Victoria and Albert Museum:64",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Victoria and Albert Museum",
          "Collections",
          "Ceramics and glass"
        ],
        "ctx": "The glass collection covers 4000 years of glassmaking, and has over 6000 items from Africa, Britain, Europe, America and Asia. The earliest glassware on display comes from Ancient Egypt and continues through the Ancient Roman, Medieval, Renaissance covering areas such as Venetian glass and Bohemian glass and more recent periods, including Art Nouveau glass by Louis Comfort Tiffany and \u00c9mile Gall\u00e9, the Art Deco style is represented by several examples by Ren\u00e9 Lalique. There are many examples of crystal chandeliers, both English, displayed in the British galleries, and foreign \u2013 for example, a Venetian one attributed to Giuseppe Briati and dated to about 1750. The stained glass collection is possibly the finest in the world, covering the medieval to modern periods, and covering Europe as well as Britain. Several examples of English 16th-century heraldic glass is displayed in the British Galleries. Many well-known designers of stained glass are represented in the collection including, from the 19th century: Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Edward Burne-Jones and William Morris. There is also an example of Frank Lloyd Wright's work in the collection. 20th-century designers include Harry Clarke, John Piper, Patrick Reyntiens, Veronica Whall and Brian Clarke."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Victoria and Albert Museum:77",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Victoria and Albert Museum",
          "Collections",
          "Furniture"
        ],
        "ctx": "The furniture collection, while covering Europe and America from the Middle Ages to the present, is predominantly British, dating between 1700 and 1900. Many of the finest examples are displayed in the British Galleries, including pieces by Chippendale, Adam, Morris, and Mackintosh. One of the oldest items is a chair leg from Middle Egypt dated to 200-395AD."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Widow's cap",
        "text": "The Victorian era was named for Britain's Queen Victoria. Victoria took the throne in 1837 and died on 22 January 1901. Victoria\u2019s husband, Prince Albert, died of typhoid on 14 December 1861. For forty years Victoria was in mourning. She fully mourned for three years and dressed her whole court the same way. The Victorian era reflected the Queen\u2019s prudence and her personal taste in mourning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dorchester, Boston",
        "text": "In the history of the United Kingdom, the Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. The era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period, and its later half overlaps with the first part of the Belle \u00c9poque era of Continental Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian era",
        "text": "In the history of the United Kingdom, the Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. The era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period, and its later half overlaps with the first part of the \"Belle \u00c9poque\" era of Continental Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland",
        "text": "The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's rule between 1837 and 1901 which signified the height of the British Industrial Revolution and the apex of the British Empire. Scholars debate whether the Victorian period\u2014as defined by a variety of sensibilities and political concerns that have come to be associated with the Victorians\u2014actually begins with the passage of the Reform Act 1832. The era was preceded by the Regency era and succeeded by the Edwardian period. Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign saw Britain reach the zenith of its economic and political power, with the introduction of steam ships, railways, photography and the telegraph. Britain again remained mostly inactive in Continental politics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian era",
        "text": "After weeks of illness, Queen Victoria died on 22 January 1901. By her bedside were her son and heir Edward VII and grandson Kaiser Wilhelm II. Despite their difficult relations, Edward VII never severed ties with the Queen. Like her, he modernised the British monarchy and ensured its survival when so many European royal families collapsed as a result of the First World War."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the British Isles",
        "text": "The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's rule between 1837 and 1901 which signified the height of the British Industrial Revolution and the apex of the British Empire. Scholars debate whether the Victorian period\u2014as defined by a variety of sensibilities and political concerns that have come to be associated with the Victorians\u2014actually begins with the passage of the Reform Act 1832. The era was preceded by the Regency era and succeeded by the Edwardian period. Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign saw Britain reach the zenith of its economic and political power, with the introduction of steam ships, railroads, photography, and the telegraph. Britain again remained mostly inactive in Continental politics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian era",
        "text": "Canada maintained strong ties with the Queen. Victoria in British Columbia and Victoria County in Nova Scotia were named after her, Regina in Saskatchewan in her honour, Prince Edward Island her father, and Alberta her daughter. Her birthday, Victoria Day, is an official public holiday in Canada. In addition, her daughter Princess Louise was chatelaine of Rideau Hall from 1878 to 1883 and her son the Duke of Connaught served as Governor-General of Canada between 1911 and 1916."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The galleries showcase a number of complete and partial reconstructions of period rooms, from demolished buildings, including:\n* The parlour from 2 Henrietta Street, London, dated 1727\u20131728, designed by James Gibbs\n* The Norfolk House Music Room, St James Square, London, dated 1756, designed by Matthew Brettingham and Giovanni Battista Borra\n* A section of a wall from the Glass Drawing Room of Northumberland House, dated 1773\u20131775, designed by Robert Adam"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Victoria and Albert Museum\n--History.\n----Foundation.\n----1900\u20131950.\n----Since 1950.\n--Architecture.\n----Edwardian period.\n----Post-war period.\n----Recent years.\n------Garden.\n------Exhibition Road Quarter.\n--Collections.\n----Architecture.\n----Asia.\n------Islamic art.\n------South Asia.\n------East Asia.\n----Books.\n----British galleries.\n----Cast courts.\n----Ceramics and glass.\n----Contemporary.\n----Prints and drawings.\n----Fashion.\n----Furniture.\n----Jewellery.\n----Metalwork.\n----Musical instruments.\n----Paintings (and miniatures).\n----Photography.\n----Sculpture.\n----Textiles.\n----Theatre and performance.\n--Departments.\n----Education.\n------V&A Publishing.\n------Activities for children.\n------Activities for adults.\n----Research and conservation.\n--Partnerships.\n--Exhibitions.\n--Controversies.\n--Media.\n--Galleries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Women in the Victorian era",
        "text": "Queen Victoria reigned as the monarch of Britain's colonies and as Empress of India. The influence of British imperialism and British culture was powerful throughout the Victorian era. Women's roles in the colonial countries were determined by the expectations associated with loyalty to the Crown and the cultural standards that it symbolised."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian era",
        "text": "In 1861, Prince Albert died. Queen Victoria went into mourning and withdrew from public life for ten years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The galleries also link design to wider trends in British culture. For instance, design in the Tudor period was influenced by the spread of printed books and the work of European artists and craftsmen employed in Britain. In the Stuart period, increasing trade, especially with Asia, enabled wider access to luxuries like carpets, lacquered furniture, silks and porcelain. In the Georgian age there was an increasing emphasis on entertainment and leisure. For example, the increase in tea drinking led to the production of tea paraphernalia such as china and caddies. European styles are seen on the Grand Tour also influenced taste. As the Industrial Revolution took hold, the growth of mass production produced entrepreneurs such as Josiah Wedgwood, Matthew Boulton and Eleanor Coade. In the Victorian era new technology and machinery had a significant effect on manufacturing, and for the first time since the reformation, the Anglican and Roman Catholic Churches had a major effect on art and design such as the Gothic Revival. There is a large display on the Great Exhibition which, among other things, led to the founding of the V&A. In the later 19th century, the increasing backlash against industrialisation, led by John Ruskin, contributed to the Arts and Crafts movement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women in the Victorian era",
        "text": "Upper-class Canadian women emulated British culture and imported as much of it as possible across the Atlantic. Books, magazines, popular music, and theatre productions were all imported to meet women's consumer demand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The furniture collection, while covering Europe and America from the Middle Ages to the present, is predominantly British, dating between 1700 and 1900. Many of the finest examples are displayed in the British Galleries, including pieces by Chippendale, Adam, Morris, and Mackintosh. One of the oldest items is a chair leg from Middle Egypt dated to 200-395AD."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "These fifteen galleries\u2014which opened in November 2001\u2014contain around 4,000 items. The displays in these galleries are based around three major themes: \"Style\", \"Who Led Taste\" and \"What Was New\". The period covered is 1500 to 1900, with the galleries divided into three major subdivisions:\n* Tudor and Stuart Britain, 1500\u20131714, covering the Renaissance, Elizabethan, Jacobean, Restoration and Baroque styles\n* Georgian Britain, 1714\u20131837, covering Palladianism, Rococo, Chinoiserie, Neoclassicism, the Regency, the influence of Chinese, Indian and Egyptian styles, and the early Gothic Revival\n* Victorian Britain, 1837\u20131901, covering the later phases of the Gothic Revival, French influences, Classical and Renaissance revivals, Aestheticism, Japanese style, the continuing influence of China, India, and the Islamic world, the Arts and Crafts movement and the Scottish School."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aechmea victoriana",
        "text": "Aechmea victoriana\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Holloway, University of London",
        "text": "The pieces in the Herringham collection reflect her interests in the old masters, Indian art and women\u2019s suffrage. The collections are a teaching resource for the Victorian Studies Centre for teaching and research in Victorian art, architecture and literature, including a taught MA under the Department of English. It is also used to teach students from departments including history, geography, drama and media arts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Late modern period",
        "text": "The Victorian era of the United Kingdom was the period of Queen Victoria's reign from June 1837 to January 1901. This was a long period of prosperity for the British people, as profits gained from the overseas British Empire, as well as from industrial improvements at home, allowed a large, educated middle class to develop. Some scholars would extend the beginning of the period\u2014as defined by a variety of sensibilities and political games that have come to be associated with the Victorians\u2014back five years to the passage of the Reform Act 1832."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural depictions of Queen Victoria",
        "text": "The Victorian age is experienced through the eyes of the fictional Morland family in \"The Abyss\", \"The Hidden Shore\", \"The Winter Journey\", \"The Outcast\", \"The Mirage\", \"The Cause\", \"The Homecoming\" and \"The Question\", Volumes 18\u201325 respectively of \"The Morland Dynasty\", a series of historical novels by author Cynthia Harrod-Eagles. One of the characters becomes Victoria's devoted lady-in-waiting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Prince Albert appears within the main arch above the twin entrances, and Queen Victoria above the frame around the arches and entrance, sculpted by Alfred Drury. These fa\u00e7ades surround four levels of galleries. Other areas designed by Webb include the Entrance Hall and Rotunda, the East and West Halls, the areas occupied by the shop and Asian Galleries, and the Costume Gallery. The interior makes much use of marble in the entrance hall and flanking staircases, although the galleries as originally designed were white with restrained classical detail and mouldings, very much in contrast to the elaborate decoration of the Victorian galleries, although much of this decoration was removed in the early 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian jewellery",
        "text": "During this era, Queen Victoria also continued to inspire the wearing of mourning jewellery (see )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Queen Victoria Building",
        "text": "Internally some historic fabric remains. However, due to wide scale destruction in the past the interiors, which were constructed between 1982 and 1986, are largely an interpretive reconstruction as opposed to an accurate reconstruction. While some original features and fabric remains, the 1986 \"restoration\" approach intended to recreate the imagery of a grand Victorian style arcade with considerable concessions made to ensure the place was commercially viable as a retail shopping centre."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Exhibition",
        "text": "In modern times, the Great Exhibition is a symbol of the Victorian Age, and its thick catalogue, illustrated with steel engravings, is a primary source for High Victorian design. A memorial to the exhibition, crowned with a statue of Prince Albert, is located behind the Royal Albert Hall. It is inscribed with statistics from the exhibition, including the number of visitors and exhibitors (British and foreign), and the profit made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A runs an ongoing textile and dress conservation programme. For example, in 2008, an important but heavily soiled, distorted and water-damaged 1954 Dior outfit called 'Zemire' was restored to displayable condition for the \"Golden Age of Couture\" exhibition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian era",
        "text": "In 1871, just a year after the France expelled its emperor, republican sentiments grew in Britain. After Prince Edward recovered from typhoid, the Queen decided to give a public thanksgiving service and appear on the balcony of Buckingham Palace. This was the start of her return to public life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women in the Victorian era",
        "text": "Women in the Victorian era\n--\"The Angel in the House\".\n--\"The Household General\".\n--Working-class domestic life.\n--Divorce and legal discrimination.\n----Domestic violence and abuse.\n----Divorce and separation.\n--Sexuality.\n----Cultural taboos surrounding the female body.\n----Victorian morality and sexuality.\n------Contagious Diseases Prevention Acts.\n--Education.\n--Women in the workforce.\n----Working-class employment.\n----Middle-class employment.\n--Leisure activities.\n----Physical activity.\n----Victorian women's fashion.\n--Women subjects of the British Empire.\n----Canada.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian architecture",
        "text": "Victorian architecture is a series of architectural revival styles in the mid-to-late 19th century. \"Victorian\" refers to the reign of Queen Victoria (1837\u20131901), called the Victorian era, during which period the styles known as Victorian were used in construction. However, many elements of what is typically termed \"Victorian\" architecture did not become popular until later in Victoria's reign, roughly from 1850 and later. The styles often included interpretations and eclectic revivals of historic styles \"(see Historicism)\". The name represents the British and French custom of naming architectural styles for a reigning monarch. Within this naming and classification scheme, it followed Georgian architecture and later Regency architecture, and was succeeded by Edwardian architecture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brooch",
        "text": "This period was named for Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom who reigned from 1837 to 1901. Cameos, locket brooches, flowers, nature, animal and hearts were popular jewellery styles in the early Victorian era. When Queen Victoria's husband, Prince Albert died in 1861, jewellery fashion changed to reflect the Queen in mourning. Styles turned heavier and more somber, using materials like black enamel, jet, and black onyx. Mourning brooches were commonly worn until the end of the Victorian period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian era",
        "text": "In the strictest sense, the Victorian era covers the duration of Victoria's reign as Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, from her accession on 20 June 1837\u2014after the death of her uncle, William IV\u2014until her death on 22 January 1901, after which she was succeeded by her eldest son, Edward VII. Her reign lasted for 63 years and seven months, a longer period than any of her predecessors. The term 'Victorian' was in contemporaneous usage to describe the era. The era has also been understood in a more extensive sense as a period that possessed sensibilities and characteristics distinct from the periods adjacent to it, in which case it is sometimes dated to begin before Victoria's accession\u2014typically from the passage of or agitation for (during the 1830s) the Reform Act 1832, which introduced a wide-ranging change to the electoral system of England and Wales. Definitions that purport a distinct sensibility or politics to the era have also created scepticism about the worth of the label \"Victorian\", though there have also been defences of it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria Arches",
        "text": "Victoria Arches\n--History.\n----Background.\n----Packets.\n----Second World War.\n----Connections.\n--References.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian jewellery",
        "text": "The death of Queen Victoria\u2019s husband, Prince Albert in 1861, also inspired the use of mourning jewellery in this period (see )"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "As well as period rooms, the collection includes parts of buildings, for example, the two top stories of the facade of Sir Paul Pindar's house dated 1600 from Bishopsgate with elaborately carved woodwork and leaded windows, a rare survivor of the Great Fire of London, there is a brick portal from a London house of the English Restoration period and a fireplace from the gallery of Northumberland house. European examples include a dormer window dated 1523\u20131535 from the chateau of Montal. There are several examples from Italian Renaissance buildings including, portals, fireplaces, balconies and a stone buffet that used to have a built-in fountain. The main architecture gallery has a series of pillars from various buildings and different periods, for example, a column from the Alhambra. Examples covering Asia are in those galleries concerned with those countries, as well as models and photographs in the main architecture gallery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Queen Victoria",
        "text": "Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 \u2013 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death in 1901. Known as the Victorian era, her reign of 63 years and seven months was longer than any previous British monarch. It was a period of industrial, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. In 1876, the British Parliament voted to grant her the additional title of Empress of India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian era",
        "text": "In 1840, Queen Victoria married her German cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfield. It proved a passionate marriage, whose children were much sought after by royal families across Europe. An astute diplomat, the Queen was only too willing to arrange such marriages. Indeed, she became the \"Grandmother of Europe\" thanks to the nine children she had with Prince Albert in just sixteen years despite suffering from postnatal depression and her dislike of childbirth. Unfortunately, she carried the gene for haemophilia, which affected ten of her male descendants, incuding the heir apparent of Tsar Nicholas II."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian era",
        "text": "On 20 June 1837, Victoria became Queen of the United Kingdom on the death of her uncle, William IV, just weeks after reaching the age of eighteen. Her government was led by the Whig prime minister Lord Melbourne, to whom she was close. But within two years he had resigned, and the Tory politician Sir Robert Peel attempted to form a new ministry. Peel said he was willing to become prime minister provided the Queen replaced her Whig ladies-in-waiting with Tory ones. She refused and re-appointed Lord Melbourne, a decision criticised as unconstitutional. Britain sent Lord Durham to resolve the issue and his 1839 report opened the way for \"responsible government\" (that is, self-government)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A covers and 145 galleries. Its collection spans 5000 years of art, from ancient times to the present day, from the cultures of Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa. However, the art of antiquity in most areas is not collected. The holdings of ceramics, glass, textiles, costumes, silver, ironwork, jewellery, furniture, medieval objects, sculpture, prints and printmaking, drawings and photographs are among the largest and most comprehensive in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Windsor & Eton Central railway station",
        "text": "The last part of the exhibit was the 'Sixty Glorious Years' audio-visual show. The show outlined the growth of Great Britain using slides and projections, before the screen sank to reveal moving animatronic figures of some of the great personalities of the Victorian age, including Queen Victoria herself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In the immediate post-war years, there was little money available for other than essential repairs. The 1950s and early 1960s saw little in the way of building work; the first major work was the creation of new storage space for books in the Art Library in 1966 and 1967. This involved flooring over Aston Webb's main hall to form the book stacks, with a new medieval gallery on the ground floor (now the shop, opened in 2006). Then the lower ground-floor galleries in the south-west part of the museum were redesigned, opening in 1978 to form the new galleries covering Continental art 1600\u20131800 (late Renaissance, Baroque through Rococo and neo-Classical). In 1974 the museum had acquired what is now the Henry Cole wing from the Royal College of Science. To adapt the building as galleries, all the Victorian interiors except for the staircase were recast during the remodelling. To link this to the rest of the museum, a new entrance building was constructed on the site of the former boiler house, the intended site of the Spiral, between 1978 and 1982. This building is of concrete and very functional, the only embellishment being the iron gates by Christopher Hay and Douglas Coyne of the Royal College of Art. These are set in the columned screen wall designed by Aston Webb that forms the fa\u00e7ade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Museum survived the Second World War with only minor bomb damage. The worst loss was the Victorian stained glass on the Ceramics Staircase, which was blown in when bombs fell nearby; pockmarks still visible on the fa\u00e7ade of the museum were caused by fragments from the bombs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Some of the oldest items in the collection are medieval vestments, especially Opus Anglicanum. One of the most important items in the collection is the wedding suit of James II of England, which is displayed in the British Galleries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edwardian era",
        "text": "The Edwardian era or Edwardian period of British history spanned the reign of King Edward VII, 1901 to 1910, and is sometimes extended to the start of the First World War. The death of Queen Victoria in January 1901 marked the end of the Victorian era. Her son and successor, Edward VII, was already the leader of a fashionable elite that set a style influenced by the art and fashions of continental Europe. Samuel Hynes described the Edwardian era as a \"leisurely time when women wore picture hats and did not vote, when the rich were not ashamed to live conspicuously, and the sun really never set on the British flag.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria Vokes",
        "text": "[[Category:Women of the Victorian era]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas Jones Barker",
        "text": "Lynda Nead in the \"Journal of Victorian Culture\" wrote: \"Both the image and its title are emphatic and unambiguous\u2026should there be any remaining traces of uncertainty, however, there is a sub-title: \"Queen Victoria Presenting a Bible in the Audience Chamber at Windsor\"\u2026.although the subject depicted can be related to various colonial visits during Victoria\u2019s reign, it is unlikely that the specific event that is depicted ever took place. It is an 'apocryphal anecdote'\u2026.\" Barker may have been inspired by an image that appeared in 1859 on the front page of the \"British Workman\", in a story that purported to recount the visit of an African ambassador sent by his monarch to discover the secret of England's greatness. Victoria \"did not\u2026show the ambassador her diamonds and her jewels, and her rich ornaments, but handing him a beautifully bound copy of the Bible, she said, 'Tell the Prince that THIS IS THE SECRET OF ENGLAND\u2019S GREATNESS.'\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian era",
        "text": "The middle of the 19th century saw The Great Exhibition of 1851, the first World's Fair, which showcased the greatest innovations of the century. At its centre was the Crystal Palace, a modular glass and iron structure\u00a0\u2013 the first of its kind. It was condemned by Ruskin as the very model of mechanical dehumanisation in design but later came to be presented as the prototype of Modern architecture. The emergence of photography, showcased at the Great Exhibition, resulted in significant changes in Victorian art with Queen Victoria being the first British monarch to be photographed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women in the Victorian era",
        "text": "Fashion trends, in one sense, travelled \"full circle\" over the course of the Victorian era. The popular women's styles during the Georgian era, and at the very beginning of Victoria's reign, emphasised a simple style influenced by flowing gowns worn by women in Ancient Greece and Rome. The Empire waist silhouette was replaced by a trend towards ornate styles and an artificial silhouette, with the restrictiveness of women's clothing reaching its low point during the mid-century passion for narrow corseted waists and hoop skirts. The iconic wide-brimmed women's hats of the later Victorian era also followed the trend towards ostentatious display. Hats began the Victorian era as simple bonnets. By the 1880s, milliners were tested by the competition among women to top their outfits with the most creative (and extravagant) hats, designed with expensive materials such as silk flowers and exotic plumes such as ostrich and peacock. As the Victorian era drew to a close, however, fashions were showing indications of a popular backlash against excessive styles. Model, actress and socialite Lillie Langtry took London by storm in the 1870s, attracting notice for wearing simple black dresses to social events. Combined with her natural beauty, the style appeared dramatic. Fashions followed her example (as well as Queen Victoria's wearing of mourning black later in her reign). According to Harold Koda, the former Curator-in-chief of the Metropolitan Museum of Art's Costume Institute, \"The predominantly black palette of mourning dramatizes the evolution of period silhouettes and the increasing absorption of fashion ideals into this most codified of etiquettes,\" said Koda, \"The veiled widow could elicit sympathy as well as predatory male advances. As a woman of sexual experience without marital constraints, she was often imagined as a potential threat to the social order.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Queen Victoria",
        "text": "Victoria married her first cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1840. Their children married into royal and noble families across the continent, earning Victoria the sobriquet \"the grandmother of Europe\" and spreading haemophilia in European royalty. After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, British republicanism temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity recovered. Her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. She died on the Isle of Wight in 1901. The last British monarch of the House of Hanover, she was succeeded by her son Edward VII of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Gothic Art"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mabel Cawthra",
        "text": "She attended the Victorian Era Ball on 28 December 1897 hosted by the Governor General and the Countess of Aberdeen at the new Militia Armory in Toronto. The ball celebrated Queen Victoria's diamond jubiliee, and proceeds went to the Victorian Order of Nurses. Mabel dressed as Madame Recamier, as depicted in a portrait by Jacques-Louis David."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural depictions of Queen Victoria",
        "text": "Although she did not live to see the Victorian age, Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L. E. L.) wrote a number of poetic tributes to the young princess and queen. These are:\n* Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1832. 'The Princess Victoria', to accompany a plate drawn by Anthony Stewart and engraved by T. Woolnoth. (This plate is in some editions, entitled 'The Princess Alexandrina-Victoria')\n* Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837. 'The Princess Victoria', to accompany a plate engraved by J. Cochran after Sir Geo. Hayter's painting.\n* 'A Birthday Tribute. Addressed to H. R. H. the Princess Alexandrina Victoria, on Attaining Her Eighteenth Year.', 1837.\n* Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838. 'To the Queen'. Frontispiece.\n* Flowers of Loveliness, 1838. 'To Victoria'.\n* Schloss's Bijou Almanack, 1838. 'Her Most Gracious Majesty, Queen Victoria'."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the United Kingdom",
        "text": "Victoria ascended the throne in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 saw Britain reach the zenith of its economic and political power. Exciting new technologies such as steam ships, railways, photography, and telegraphs appeared, making the world much faster-paced. Britain again remained mostly inactive in Continental politics, and it was not affected by the wave of revolutions in 1848. The Victorian era saw the fleshing out of the second British Empire. Scholars debate whether the Victorian period\u2014as defined by a variety of sensibilities and political concerns that have come to be associated with the Victorians\u2014actually begins with her coronation or the earlier passage of the Reform Act 1832. The era was preceded by the Regency era and succeeded by the Edwardian period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian architecture",
        "text": "Although Victoria did not reign over the United States, the term is often used for American styles and buildings from the same period, as well as those from the British Empire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women in the Victorian era",
        "text": "The status of women in the Victorian era was often seen as an illustration of the striking discrepancy between the United Kingdom's national power and wealth and what many, then and now, consider its appalling social conditions. During the era symbolized by the reign of a female monarch, Queen Victoria, women did not have the right to vote, sue, or \u2013 if married \u2013 own property. At the same time, women participated in the paid workforce in increasing numbers following the Industrial Revolution. Feminist ideas spread among the educated middle classes, discriminatory laws were repealed, and the women's suffrage movement gained momentum in the last years of the Victorian era."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barbara Morris",
        "text": "In 1947 she began working at the Victoria and Albert Museum where she was involved with the 1952 exhibition titled \"Victorian and Edwardian Decorative Arts\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian architecture",
        "text": "The Arts and Crafts style and Queen Anne style are considered to be part of the Federation Period, from 1890 to 1915."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the United Kingdom",
        "text": "Queen Victoria played a small role in politics, but became the iconic symbol of the nation, the empire, and proper, restrained behaviour. Her strength lay in good common sense and directness of character; she expressed the qualities of the British nation which at that time made it preeminent in the world. As a symbol of domesticity, endurance and Empire, and as a woman holding the highest public office during an age when middle- and upper-class women were expected to beautify the home while men dominated the public sphere, Queen Victoria's influence has been enduring. Her success as ruler was due to the power of the self-images she successively portrayed of innocent young woman, devoted wife and mother, suffering and patient widow, and grandmotherly matriarch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoriana",
        "text": "Victoriana are items or material from the Victorian period (1837\u20131901), especially those particularly evocative of the design style and outlook of the time. The word is usually used to refer to printed work or to objects such as machinery, house decoration, or furniture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Some of the more notable works displayed in the galleries include:\n* Pietro Torrigiani's coloured terracotta bust of Henry VII, dated 1509\u20131511\n* Henry VIII's writing desk, dated 1525, made from walnut and oak, lined with leather and painted and gilded with the king's coat of arms\n* A spinet dated 1570\u20131580, made for Elizabeth I\n* The Great Bed of Ware, dated 1590\u20131600, a large, elaborately carved four-poster bed with marquetry headboard\n* Gianlorenzo Bernini's bust of Thomas Baker, from the 1630s\n* 17th-century tapestries from the Sheldon and Mortlake Tapestry Works\n* The wood relief of The Stoning of St Stephen, dated c1670, by Grinling Gibbons\n* The Macclesfield Wine Set, dated 1719\u20131720, made by Anthony Nelme, the only complete set known to survive.\n* The life-size sculpture of George Frederick Handel, dated 1738, by Louis-Fran\u00e7ois Roubiliac\n* Furniture by Thomas Chippendale and Robert Adam\n*The sculpture of Bashaw, dated 1831\u20131834, by Matthew Cotes Wyatt\n* Aesthetic and Arts & Crafts furniture by Edward William Godwin and Charles Rennie Mackintosh; and carpets and interior textiles by William Morris."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The sculpture collection at the V&A is the most comprehensive holding of post-classical European sculpture in the world. There are approximately 22,000 objects in the collection that cover the period from about 400 AD to 1914. This covers among other periods Byzantine and Anglo Saxon ivory sculptures, British, French and Spanish medieval statues and carvings, the Renaissance, Baroque, Neo-Classical, Victorian and Art Nouveau periods. All uses of sculpture are represented, from tomb and memorial, to portrait, allegorical, religious, mythical, statues for gardens including fountains, as well as architectural decorations. Materials used include, marble, alabaster, stone, terracotta, wood (history of wood carving), ivory, gesso, plaster, bronze, lead and ceramics."
      },
      {
        "title": "19th century in fashion",
        "text": "Women's fashion at the beginning of Queen Victoria's reign became more modest \u2013 constraining corsets were paired with swelled skirts to depict the female figure as weak and submissive which aligned with early Victorian ideals of the modest domestic lady stereotype. Layered petticoats with crinoline and steel-hoop structures weighed women down making them physically rigid, symbolically representing a restricted participation in society and an imposed passivity. Menswear of the early Victorian Era was understated with the rise of the respectable male bourgeois gentleman. However, soon after both men's and women's fashion became more colourful and relaxed with more exuberant styles and new techniques including passementerie trims thanks to increasing availability of the sewing machine. By the latter half of mid-nineteenth century it becomes clear that fashion technologies revolutionised the designs of particularly womenswear fashion with cage crinoline enabling a larger but more lightweight hoop skirt. In align with the trend of offering greater comfort, menswear 'relaxed into wide, easy cuts'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cast Courts (Victoria and Albert Museum)",
        "text": "In the reign of Queen Victoria, the display of male nudity was contentious and the Queen herself was said to find it shocking. The museum commissioned a suitably proportioned fig leaf that was kept in readiness in case of a visit by the Queen or other female dignitary: the fig leaf was then hung on the figure using a pair of hooks. Today, the fig leaf is no longer used, but it is displayed in a case at the back of the cast's plinth."
      },
      {
        "title": "English and British royal mistress",
        "text": "Queen Victoria married her husband Albert when she was 20, and the two enjoyed a devoted marriage until his death in 1861. In grief-stricken widowhood she largely closed herself away from the world. However, in the latter part of her reign, there was contemporary gossip around her manservant and friend John Brown. Some more far-fetched accounts even suggested a secret marriage. In reality, there is no evidence that the relationship was anything other than platonic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women in the Victorian era",
        "text": "Upper-class women supported philanthropic causes similar to the educational and nursing charities championed by upper-class women in England. The Victorian Order of Nurses, still in existence, was founded in 1897 as a gift to Queen Victoria to commemorate her Diamond Jubilee. The Imperial Order of the Daughters of the Empire, founded in 1900, supports educational bursaries and book awards to promote Canadian patriotism, but also to support knowledge of the British Empire. Both organisations had Queen Victoria as their official patron. One of the patrons of Halifax's Victoria School of Art and Design (founded in 1887 and later named the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design) was Anna Leonowens. Women began making headway in their struggle to gain access to higher education: in 1875, the first woman university graduate in Canada was Grace Annie Lockhart (Mount Allison University). In 1880, Emily Stowe became the first woman licensed to practice medicine in Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monarchy of the United Kingdom",
        "text": "The final transition to a constitutional monarchy was made during the long reign of William IV's successor, Victoria. As a woman, Victoria could not rule Hanover, which only permitted succession in the male line, so the personal union of the United Kingdom and Hanover came to an end. The Victorian era was marked by great cultural change, technological progress, and the establishment of the United Kingdom as one of the world's foremost powers. In recognition of British rule over India, Victoria was declared Empress of India in 1876. However, her reign was also marked by increased support for the republican movement, due in part to Victoria's permanent mourning and lengthy period of seclusion following the death of her husband in 1861."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "There are a set of beautiful inlaid doors, dated 1580 from Antwerp City Hall, attributed to Hans Vredeman de Vries. One of the finest pieces of continental furniture in the collection is the Rococo Augustus Rex Bureau Cabinet dated c1750 from Germany, with especially fine marquetry and ormolu mounts. One of the grandest pieces of 19th-century furniture is the highly elaborate French Cabinet dated 1861\u20131867 made by M. Fourdinois, made from ebony inlaid with box, lime, holly, pear, walnut and mahogany woods as well as marble with gilded carvings. Furniture designed by Ernest Gimson, Edward William Godwin, Charles Voysey, Adolf Loos and Otto Wagner are among the late 19th-century and early 20th-century examples in the collection. The work of modernists in the collection include Le Corbusier, Marcel Breuer, Charles and Ray Eames, and Gi\u00f2 Ponti."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria Boulevard Historic District",
        "text": "areas of casement windows and chimneys laid in decorative patterns. The goal in the design of the Queen Anne house appeared to be historical reminiscences and not references to specific buildings, as an expression of middle class financial comfort."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The interiors of the three refreshment rooms were assigned to different designers. The Green Dining Room (1866\u201368) was the work of Philip Webb and William Morris, and displays Elizabethan influences. The lower part of the walls is paneled in wood with a band of paintings depicting fruit and the occasional figure, with moulded plaster foliage on the main part of the wall and a plaster frieze around the decorated ceiling and stained-glass windows by Edward Burne-Jones. The Centre Refreshment Room (1865\u201377) was designed in a Renaissance style by James Gamble. The walls and even the Ionic columns in this room are covered in decorative and moulded ceramic tile, the ceiling consists of elaborate designs on enamelled metal sheets and matching stained-glass windows, and the marble fireplace was designed and sculpted by Alfred Stevens and was removed from Dorchester House prior to that building's demolition in 1929. The Grill Room (1876\u201381) was designed by Sir Edward Poynter; the lower part of its walls consist of blue and white tiles with various figures and foliage enclosed by wood panelling, while above there are large tiled scenes with figures depicting the four seasons and the twelve months, painted by ladies from the Art School then based in the museum. The windows are also stained glass; there is an elaborate cast-iron grill still in place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural depictions of Queen Victoria",
        "text": "Statues erected to Victoria are common in Canada, where her reign included the original confederation of the country and the addition of three more provinces and two territories. A bas-relief image of Victoria is on the wall of the entrance to the Canadian Parliament, and her statue is in the Parliamentary library as well as on the grounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Queen's Cross",
        "text": "The surrounding buildings and their streets are typical of the Victorian period in which they were built. They are built of the local gray granite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The department holds significant archives documenting current practice and the history of performing arts. These include the English Stage Company at the Royal Court Theatre, D'Oyly Carte and the design collection of the Arts Council. Notable personal archives include Vivien Leigh, Peter Brook, Henry Irving and Ivor Novello."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian non-residential architectural styles",
        "text": "The Victorian period, generally aligned with the reign of Queen Victoria, covers the period from to and comprises fifteen styles, all prefaced by the word \"Victorian\", and are namely, in loose chronological order, Georgian, Regency, Egyptian, Academic Classical, Free Classical, Filigree, Mannerist, Second Empire, Italianate, Romanesque, Byzantine, Academic Gothic, Free Gothic, Tudor, Rustic Gothic, and Carpenter Gothic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Queen Victoria Gardens",
        "text": "Queen Victoria's reign started in 1837, two years after the initial European settlement of Melbourne, and upon her death in 1901 it was thought appropriate to declare an enduring monument to her reign. A memorial statue was commissioned from sculptor James White showing the Queen in ceremonial gowns casting her regal gaze across ornamental lakes, sweeping lawns and rose gardens to the Melbourne Arts Centre Spire and the city skyscrapers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Vaughan (art collector)",
        "text": "The Victoria and Albert Museum was bequeathed collections of stained glass and carved panels, six Turner watercolours, and the full-scale studies for Constable's \"The Hay Wain\" and \"The Leaping Horse\", which had been on loan to that museum since 1862."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women in the Victorian era",
        "text": "Middle-class women's leisure activities included in large part traditional pastimes such as reading, embroidery, music, and traditional handicrafts. Upper-class women donated handicrafts to charity bazaars, which allowed these women to publicly display and sell their handicrafts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "English paintings"
      },
      {
        "title": "Queen Victoria",
        "text": "Albert became an important political adviser as well as the Queen's companion, replacing Melbourne as the dominant influential figure in the first half of her life. Victoria's mother was evicted from the palace, to Ingestre House in Belgrave Square. After the death of Victoria's aunt, Princess Augusta, in 1840, Victoria's mother was given both Clarence and Frogmore Houses. Through Albert's mediation, relations between mother and daughter slowly improved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Windsor & Eton Central railway station",
        "text": "In 1982 British Railways and Madame Tussauds restored the station, creating an exhibition called \"Royalty & Empire\" (initially \"Royalty & Railways\"). The exhibition recalled the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria in 1897, using displays of wax models and an audio-visual show featuring early Audio-Animatronic figures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amanda Foreman (historian)",
        "text": "'Queen Victoria's Palace' opened on 18 July 2019. The exhibition, which coincided with the 200th anniversary of Queen Victoria's birth, argued that Victoria's transformation of Buckingham Palace laid the foundations for the modern Monarchy. The refurbished Palace reflected a new form of gendered power. Victoria replaced the 'male' values of glory, wealth, lineage, and conquest with the 'female' values of family, duty, patriotism, and public service. \"These four \"female\" virtues formed the pillars not only of her reign but of every one that followed\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian house",
        "text": "In the United Kingdom, Victorian houses follow a wide range of architectural styles. Starting from the early classicism inherited from Regency architecture, the Italianate style gained influence in the 1840s and 1850s, and the Gothic Revival style became prevalent by the 1880s. Later in the Victorian era, the Queen Anne style and the Arts and Crafts movement increased in influence, resulting in the transition to styles typically seen in Edwardian houses. Victorian houses are also found in many former British colonies where the style might be adapted to local building materials or customs, for example in Sydney, Australia and Melaka, Malaysia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The main fa\u00e7ade, built from red brick and Portland stone, stretches along Cromwell Gardens and was designed by Aston Webb after winning a competition in 1891 to extend the museum. Construction took place between 1899 and 1909. Stylistically it is a strange hybrid: although much of the detail belongs to the Renaissance, there are medieval influences at work. The main entrance, consisting of a series of shallow arches supported by slender columns and niches with twin doors separated by the pier, is Romanesque in form but Classical in detail. Likewise, the tower above the main entrance has an open work crown surmounted by a statue of fame, a feature of late Gothic architecture and a feature common in Scotland, but the detail is Classical. The main windows to the galleries are also mullioned and transomed, again a Gothic feature; the top row of windows are interspersed with statues of many of the British artists whose work is displayed in the museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian era",
        "text": "Whilst the cabinet leaned toward recognition of the Confederacy during the American Civil War, public opinion was split. Confederate foreign policy planners had hoped that the value of their cotton exports would encourage European powers to intervene in their favour. It was not to be, and the British attitude might have been decisive. Being cut off from cotton did not affect the British economy as much as the Confederates had expected. A considerable supply was available to Great Britain when the American Civil War erupted and she was able to turn to India and Egypt as alternatives when that ran out. In the end, the government decided to remain neutral upon realising that war with the United States would be highly dangerous, for that country provided much of Britain's food supply (especially wheat) and its navy could sink much of the merchant fleet. U.S. ambassador to Britain Charles Francis Adams Sr. succeeded in resolving thorny problems that could have driven the two powers into war. But once it was clear that the United States had the upper hand on the battlefield, the possibility of an Anglo-American war vanished.Her diary entries suggest the Queen had contemplated the possibility of a union of her North American colonies as early as February 1865. She wrote, \"...we must struggle for it, and far the best it would be to let it go as an Independent Kingdom, under an English Prince!\" She also mentioned how her late husband Prince Albert had hoped that one day, their sons would rule over the British colonies. In February 1867, the Queen received a copy of the British North America Act (also known as the Constitution Act 1867). A fortnight later she hosted delegates coming to discuss the question of confederation \"under the name of Canada,\" including the future Prime Minister John A. Macdonald. On 29 March 1867, the Queen granted royal assent to the Act, which became effective on 1 July 1867."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Tanworth Wells",
        "text": "His popular painting \"Victoria Regina\", which depicts Victoria hearing that she had become Queen, was widely reproduced in prints and postcards during her reign. It exists in two versions: one exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1880 (now in the Tate Gallery) and a smaller one, with a different background, painted in 1887 and later presented to Edward VII (Royal Collection)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg-and-dart",
        "text": "As a mass-produced architectural motif at the turn of the 19th to 20th century, it can, when seen alongside dentils (tooth-like blocks of wood in rows) be used to date a building to the Edwardian period which began with the death of Queen Victoria in 1903.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian fashion",
        "text": "Many myths and exaggerations about the period persist to the modern day. Examples include the idea of men's clothing is seen as formal and stiff, women's as elaborate and over-done; clothing covered the entire body, and even the glimpse of an ankle was scandalous. Critics contend that corsets constricted women's bodies and women's lives. Homes are described as gloomy, dark, cluttered with massive and over-ornate furniture and proliferating bric-a-brac. Myth has it that even piano legs were scandalous, and covered with tiny pantalettes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian house",
        "text": "Although the general public often incorrectly refers to a Victorian-era house as a Victorian-\"style\" house, Victorian era refers to a time period and not to a style. Although architectural historians generally agree that about eight primary architectural styles were prominent in the United States and Canada during the Victorian era, Victorian-era residential architecture in the United States and Canada was a procession of styles borrowed from countries and historical styles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabeth I",
        "text": "The picture of Elizabeth painted by her Protestant admirers of the early 17th century has proved lasting and influential. Her memory was also revived during the Napoleonic Wars, when the nation again found itself on the brink of invasion. In the Victorian era, the Elizabethan legend was adapted to the imperial ideology of the day, and in the mid-20th century, Elizabeth was a romantic symbol of the national resistance to foreign threat. Historians of that period, such as J. E. Neale (1934) and A. L. Rowse (1950), interpreted Elizabeth's reign as a golden age of progress. Neale and Rowse also idealised the Queen personally: she always did everything right; her more unpleasant traits were ignored or explained as signs of stress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herbert Hampton",
        "text": "The Queen Victoria Monument in Lancaster, displays a sculpture of the queen guarded by four monumental lions, beneath them are four allegories to freedom, wisdom, truth and justice complete with a generous collection of putti; and four bas-relief friezes of fifty-three eminent Victorians, two of whom were women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Becky Sharp",
        "text": "Unlike Jane Eyre, Sharp is aware of the ways of the world from a very young age. Henkle suggests that Sharp, with her carefree and radical approach to social barriers, is symbolic of the change that Victorian society was undergoing in the mid-19th century. There was greater fluidity than ever before as a result of the massively increased wealth among the middle class as a result of the Industrial Revolution, and this fluidity allowed the courtesan to flourish in the Regency era."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lynda Nead",
        "text": "In the art history book, \"Victorian Babylon\" (2000), Nead examines the gendered lives of people living in Victorian Era London between 1855 and 1870. Nead details different ways of living in urban London of the Victorian Era, looking at architecture and public spaces. She also examines maps, paintings, woodcuts and illustrations in the book. One chapter is devoted to maps of the sewer systems of London, for example, and how accurate maps helped create many of London's improvements. The \"Canadian Journal of History\" wrote that what \"Victorian Babylon\" \"does best is to show how artists, cartoonists, illustrators represented\" Victorian behavior. \"Art Journal\" describes her book as not only looking at behavior through art, but how things and people \"circulate\" throughout London during this time period. \"Art Journal\" also notes how Nead challenges the idea that women were \"invisible\" in Victorian England."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women in the Victorian era",
        "text": "Articles advocating the reform of women's clothing by the British National Health Society, the Ladies' Dress Association, and the Rational Dress Society were reprinted in \"The Canada Lancet\", Canada's medical journal. In 1884, Dr. J. Algernon Temple of Toronto even voiced concern that the fashions were having a negative impact on the health of young women from the working classes. He pointed out that a young working-class woman was likely to spend a large part of her earnings on fine hats and shawls, while \"her feet are improperly protected, and she wears no flannel petticoat or woollen stockings\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The official opening by Queen Victoria was on 20 June 1857. In the following year, late-night openings were introduced, made possible by the use of gas lighting. This was to enable in the words of Cole \"to ascertain practically what hours are most convenient to the working classes\"\u2014this was linked to the use of the collections of both applied art and science as educational resources to help boost the productive industry. In these early years the practical use of the collection was very much emphasised as opposed to that of \"High Art\" at the National Gallery and scholarship at the British Museum. George Wallis (1811\u20131891), the first Keeper of Fine Art Collection, passionately promoted the idea of wide art education through the museum collections. This led to the transfer to the museum of the School of Design that had been founded in 1837 at Somerset House; after the transfer, it was referred to as the Art School or Art Training School, later to become the Royal College of Art which finally achieved full independence in 1949. From the 1860s to the 1880s the scientific collections had been moved from the main museum site to various improvised galleries to the west of Exhibition Road. In 1893 the \"Science Museum\" had effectively come into existence when a separate director was appointed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian jewellery",
        "text": "Victorian jewellery originated in England. Victorian jewellery was produced during the reign of Queen Victoria, whose reign lasted from 1837 to 1901. Queen Victoria was an influential figure who established the different trends in Victorian jewellery. The amount of jewellery acquired throughout the Victorian era established a person\u2019s identity and status.\u00a0Within the Victorian period, jewellery consisted of a diverse variety of styles and fashions. These periods can be categorised into three distinct timeframes: The Romantic period, the Grand period and the Aesthetic period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Writers whose papers are in the library are as diverse as Charles Dickens (that includes the manuscripts of most of his novels) and Beatrix Potter (with the greatest collection of her original manuscripts.in the world). Illuminated manuscripts in the library dating from the 12th to 16th centuries include: a leaf from the Eadwine Psalter, Canterbury; Pocket Book of Hours, Reims; Missal from the Royal Abbey of Saint Denis, Paris; the Simon Marmion Book of Hours, Bruges; 1524 Charter illuminated by Lucas Horenbout, London; the Armagnac manuscript of the trial and rehabilitation of Joan of Arc, Rouen. also the Victorian period is represented by William Morris."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Australia (1851\u20131900)",
        "text": "The Victorian era saw the construction of many other grand public edifices throughout the colonies\u2014including the Parliament buildings of the newly democratic colonies, art galleries, libraries and theatres. The University of Sydney had been founded in 1850 as Australia's first university, and was followed in 1853 by Melbourne University. The National Gallery of Victoria was founded in 1861, becoming an important repository of world and local art within Australia. The Royal Exhibition Building, a World Heritage Site-listed building in Melbourne, was completed in 1880. The opulent Romanesque shopping arcade Queen Victoria Building, was completed in 1898 on the site of the old Sydney markets and built as a monument to the popular and long-reigning monarch, Queen Victoria. The Victorian era remains a seminal period for the historic architecture of many Australian cities and towns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libraries and collections of Stonyhurst College",
        "text": "A sumptuous gold-embroidered cope, decorated with Tudor roses and portcullises, from a set of vestments used by the household of Henry VII and bequeathed by him to Westminster Abbey, has been in the Victoria and Albert Museum since 1999. It is said to have been borrowed back by Henry VIII to wear at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520."
      },
      {
        "title": "Windsor Castle",
        "text": "Queen Victoria and Prince Albert made Windsor Castle their principal royal residence, despite Victoria complaining early in her reign that the castle was \"dull and tiresome\" and \"prison-like\", and preferring Osborne and Balmoral as holiday residences. The growth of the British Empire and Victoria's close dynastic ties to Europe made Windsor the hub for many diplomatic and state visits, assisted by the new railways and steamships of the period. Indeed, it has been argued that Windsor reached its social peak during the Victorian era, seeing the introduction of invitations to numerous prominent figures to \"dine and sleep\" at the castle. Victoria took a close interest in the details of how Windsor Castle was run, including the minutiae of the social events. Few visitors found these occasions comfortable, both due to the design of the castle and the excessive royal formality. Prince Albert died in the Blue Room at Windsor Castle in 1861 and was buried in the Royal Mausoleum built at nearby Frogmore, within the Home Park. The prince's rooms were maintained exactly as they had been at the moment of his death and Victoria kept the castle in a state of mourning for many years, becoming known as the \"Widow of Windsor\", a phrase popularised in the famous poem by Rudyard Kipling. The Queen shunned the use of Buckingham Palace after Albert's death and instead used Windsor Castle as her residence when conducting official business near London. Towards the end of her reign, plays, operas, and other entertainments slowly began to be held at the castle again, accommodating both the Queen's desire for entertainment and her reluctance to be seen in public."
      },
      {
        "title": "Architecture of London",
        "text": "Although Victorian architecture is most closely associated with the Gothic Revival, many other historicist styles were also popular during the Victorian Era, particularly towards the end of the 19th century as Gothic Revival began to wane in popularity. These included Renaissance Revival, British Queen Anne Revival, Moorish Revival, Byzantine Revival, Romanesque Revival, Italianate and Neoclassicism, as well as buildings that often mixed a variety of these different historical influences in a manner that transcended stylistic category. New styles not based on revivals of historic architecture were also avidly adopted, like that of the Second Empire copied from France in the 1870s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frederick Mitchell Mooers House",
        "text": "The Victorian era house combines elements of Queen Anne, Richardsonian Romanesque and Moorish Revival architectural styles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eloise Kruger",
        "text": "After assessing the number of American Neoclassical, American colonial and Victorian pieces that she commissioned, it can be assumed those were her favorite eras."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hours of Margaret of Foix",
        "text": "Hamburger, J. (2014). Victoria and Albert Museum: Western Illuminated Manuscripts. A Catalogue of Works in the National Art Library from the Eleventh to the Early Twentieth Century, with a Complete Account of the George Reid Collection. \"Medium Aevum,\" \"83\"(2), 306-307."
      },
      {
        "title": "Queen Victoria",
        "text": "On 14 December 1878, the anniversary of Albert's death, Victoria's second daughter Alice, who had married Louis of Hesse, died of diphtheria in Darmstadt. Victoria noted the coincidence of the dates as \"almost incredible and most mysterious\". In May 1879, she became a great-grandmother (on the birth of Princess Feodora of Saxe-Meiningen) and passed her \"poor old 60th birthday\". She felt \"aged\" by \"the loss of my beloved child\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the name of the world's largest museum of applied arts?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Victoria and Albert Museum in London is the world's largest museum of applied arts, decorative arts, and design, housing a permanent collection of over 2.27 million objects."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the biggest collection held by the Victoria and Albert Museum?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The museum own the world's largest collection of post-classical sculpture."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of the historic art displayed at The Victoria and Albert Museum?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Victoria and Albert Museum is the world's largest museum of applied arts, decorative arts, and design with over 2.27 million objects, spanning 5000 years of art, from Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa; and it also owns the world's largest collection of post-classical sculpture. Is there a specific era or a region are you interested in?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about its collection of North American art."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I was not able to find a very extensive list, but of the items the museum holds in its collection, there are many American architects' drawings, American glass items, and some American furniture."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is there a connection between Queen Victoria and the Victorian Era?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Yes, in the history of the United Kingdom, the Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901.",
      "The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's reign."
    ],
    "topic": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Victorian era:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Victorian era"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the history of the United Kingdom, the Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. The era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period, and its later half overlaps with the first part of the \"Belle \u00c9poque\" era of Continental Europe."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Victorian era:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Victorian era"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the history of the United Kingdom, the Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. The era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period, and its later half overlaps with the first part of the \"Belle \u00c9poque\" era of Continental Europe."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In the immediate post-war years, there was little money available for other than essential repairs. The 1950s and early 1960s saw little in the way of building work; the first major work was the creation of new storage space for books in the Art Library in 1966 and 1967. This involved flooring over Aston Webb's main hall to form the book stacks, with a new medieval gallery on the ground floor (now the shop, opened in 2006). Then the lower ground-floor galleries in the south-west part of the museum were redesigned, opening in 1978 to form the new galleries covering Continental art 1600\u20131800 (late Renaissance, Baroque through Rococo and neo-Classical). In 1974 the museum had acquired what is now the Henry Cole wing from the Royal College of Science. To adapt the building as galleries, all the Victorian interiors except for the staircase were recast during the remodelling. To link this to the rest of the museum, a new entrance building was constructed on the site of the former boiler house, the intended site of the Spiral, between 1978 and 1982. This building is of concrete and very functional, the only embellishment being the iron gates by Christopher Hay and Douglas Coyne of the Royal College of Art. These are set in the columned screen wall designed by Aston Webb that forms the fa\u00e7ade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Part of these galleries became the new galleries covering the 19th century, opened in December 2006. The last work by Fowke was the design for the range of buildings on the north and west sides of the garden. This includes the refreshment rooms, reinstated as the Museum Caf\u00e9 in 2006, with the silver gallery above (at the time the ceramics gallery); the top floor has a splendid lecture theatre, although this is seldom open to the general public. The ceramic staircase in the northwest corner of this range of buildings was designed by F. W. Moody and has architectural details of moulded and coloured pottery. All the work on the north range was designed and built in 1864\u20131869. The style adopted for this part of the museum was Italian Renaissance; much use was made of terracotta, brick and mosaic. This north fa\u00e7ade was intended as the main entrance to the museum, with its bronze doors, designed by James Gamble and , having six panels, depicting Humphry Davy (chemistry); Isaac Newton (astronomy); James Watt (mechanics); Bramante (architecture); Michelangelo (sculpture); and Titian (painting); The panels thus represent the range of the museum's collections. Godfrey Sykes also designed the terracotta embellishments and the mosaic in the pediment of the North Fa\u00e7ade commemorating the Great Exhibition, the profits from which helped to fund the museum. This is flanked by terracotta statue groups by Percival Ball. This building replaced Brompton Park House, which could then be demolished to make way for the south range."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Victorian parts of the building have a complex history, with piecemeal additions by different architects. Founded in May 1852, it was not until 1857 that the museum moved to its present site. This area of London, previously known as Brompton, had been renamed 'South Kensington'. The land was occupied by Brompton Park House, which was extended, most notably by the \"Brompton Boilers\", which were starkly utilitarian iron galleries with a temporary look and were later dismantled and used to build the V&A Museum of Childhood. The first building to be erected that still forms part of the museum was the Sheepshanks Gallery in 1857 on the eastern side of the garden. Its architect was civil engineer Captain Francis Fowke, Royal Engineers, who was appointed by Cole. The next major expansions were designed by the same architect, the Turner and Vernon galleries built in 1858\u20131859 to house the eponymous collections (later transferred to the Tate Gallery) and now used as the picture galleries and tapestry gallery respectively. The North and South Courts were then built, both of which opened by June 1862. They now form the galleries for temporary exhibitions and are directly behind the Sheepshanks Gallery. On the very northern edge of the site is situated the Secretariat Wing; also built in 1862, this houses the offices and boardroom, etc. and is not open to the public."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "These fifteen galleries\u2014which opened in November 2001\u2014contain around 4,000 items. The displays in these galleries are based around three major themes: \"Style\", \"Who Led Taste\" and \"What Was New\". The period covered is 1500 to 1900, with the galleries divided into three major subdivisions:\n* Tudor and Stuart Britain, 1500\u20131714, covering the Renaissance, Elizabethan, Jacobean, Restoration and Baroque styles\n* Georgian Britain, 1714\u20131837, covering Palladianism, Rococo, Chinoiserie, Neoclassicism, the Regency, the influence of Chinese, Indian and Egyptian styles, and the early Gothic Revival\n* Victorian Britain, 1837\u20131901, covering the later phases of the Gothic Revival, French influences, Classical and Renaissance revivals, Aestheticism, Japanese style, the continuing influence of China, India, and the Islamic world, the Arts and Crafts movement and the Scottish School."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The galleries showcase a number of complete and partial reconstructions of period rooms, from demolished buildings, including:\n* The parlour from 2 Henrietta Street, London, dated 1727\u20131728, designed by James Gibbs\n* The Norfolk House Music Room, St James Square, London, dated 1756, designed by Matthew Brettingham and Giovanni Battista Borra\n* A section of a wall from the Glass Drawing Room of Northumberland House, dated 1773\u20131775, designed by Robert Adam"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The official opening by Queen Victoria was on 20 June 1857. In the following year, late-night openings were introduced, made possible by the use of gas lighting. This was to enable in the words of Cole \"to ascertain practically what hours are most convenient to the working classes\"\u2014this was linked to the use of the collections of both applied art and science as educational resources to help boost the productive industry. In these early years the practical use of the collection was very much emphasised as opposed to that of \"High Art\" at the National Gallery and scholarship at the British Museum. George Wallis (1811\u20131891), the first Keeper of Fine Art Collection, passionately promoted the idea of wide art education through the museum collections. This led to the transfer to the museum of the School of Design that had been founded in 1837 at Somerset House; after the transfer, it was referred to as the Art School or Art Training School, later to become the Royal College of Art which finally achieved full independence in 1949. From the 1860s to the 1880s the scientific collections had been moved from the main museum site to various improvised galleries to the west of Exhibition Road. In 1893 the \"Science Museum\" had effectively come into existence when a separate director was appointed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Victoria and Albert Museum\n--History.\n----Foundation.\n----1900\u20131950.\n----Since 1950.\n--Architecture.\n----Edwardian period.\n----Post-war period.\n----Recent years.\n------Garden.\n------Exhibition Road Quarter.\n--Collections.\n----Architecture.\n----Asia.\n------Islamic art.\n------South Asia.\n------East Asia.\n----Books.\n----British galleries.\n----Cast courts.\n----Ceramics and glass.\n----Contemporary.\n----Prints and drawings.\n----Fashion.\n----Furniture.\n----Jewellery.\n----Metalwork.\n----Musical instruments.\n----Paintings (and miniatures).\n----Photography.\n----Sculpture.\n----Textiles.\n----Theatre and performance.\n--Departments.\n----Education.\n------V&A Publishing.\n------Activities for children.\n------Activities for adults.\n----Research and conservation.\n--Partnerships.\n--Exhibitions.\n--Controversies.\n--Media.\n--Galleries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "By February 1854 discussions were underway to transfer the museum to the current site and it was renamed South Kensington Museum. In 1855 the German architect Gottfried Semper, at the request of Cole, produced a design for the museum, but it was rejected by the Board of Trade as too expensive. The site was occupied by Brompton Park House; this was extended in 1857, including the first refreshment rooms opened\u2014the museum being the first in the world to provide such a facility."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "A few galleries were redesigned in the 1990s including the Indian, Japanese, Chinese, ironwork, the main glass galleries, and the main silverware gallery, which was further enhanced in 2002 when some of the Victorian decoration was recreated. This included two of the ten columns having their ceramic decoration replaced and the elaborate painted designs restored on the ceiling. As part of the 2006 renovation the mosaic floors in the sculpture gallery were restored\u2014most of the Victorian floors were covered in linoleum after the Second World War. After the success of the British Galleries, opened in 2001, it was decided to embark on a major redesign of all the galleries in the museum; this is known as \"FuturePlan\", and was created in consultation with the exhibition designers and masterplanners Metaphor. The plan is expected to take about ten years and was started in 2002. To date several galleries have been redesigned, notably, in 2002: the main Silver Gallery, Contemporary; in 2003: Photography, the main entrance, The Painting Galleries; in 2004: the tunnel to the subway leading to South Kensington tube station, new signage throughout the museum, architecture, V&A and RIBA reading rooms and stores, metalware, Members' Room, contemporary glass, and the Gilbert Bayes sculpture gallery; in 2005: portrait miniatures, prints and drawings, displays in Room 117, the garden, sacred silver and stained glass; in 2006: Central Hall Shop, Islamic Middle East, the new caf\u00e9, and sculpture galleries. Several designers and architects have been involved in this work. Eva Ji\u0159i\u010dn\u00e1 designed the enhancements to the main entrance and rotunda, the new shop, the tunnel and the sculpture galleries. Gareth Hoskins was responsible for contemporary and architecture, Softroom, Islamic Middle East and the Members' Room, McInnes Usher McKnight Architects (MUMA) were responsible for the new Cafe and designed the new Medieval and Renaissance galleries which opened in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The main fa\u00e7ade, built from red brick and Portland stone, stretches along Cromwell Gardens and was designed by Aston Webb after winning a competition in 1891 to extend the museum. Construction took place between 1899 and 1909. Stylistically it is a strange hybrid: although much of the detail belongs to the Renaissance, there are medieval influences at work. The main entrance, consisting of a series of shallow arches supported by slender columns and niches with twin doors separated by the pier, is Romanesque in form but Classical in detail. Likewise, the tower above the main entrance has an open work crown surmounted by a statue of fame, a feature of late Gothic architecture and a feature common in Scotland, but the detail is Classical. The main windows to the galleries are also mullioned and transomed, again a Gothic feature; the top row of windows are interspersed with statues of many of the British artists whose work is displayed in the museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "An ambitious scheme of decoration was developed for these new areas: a series of mosaic figures depicting famous European artists of the Medieval and Renaissance period. These have now been removed to other areas of the museum. Also started were a series of frescoes by Lord Leighton: \"Industrial Arts as Applied to War\" 1878\u20131880 and \"Industrial Arts Applied to Peace\", which was started but never finished. To the east of this were additional galleries, the decoration of which was the work of another designer, Owen Jones; these were the Oriental Courts (covering India, China and Japan), completed in 1863. None of this decoration survives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 2001, the museum embarked on a major \u00a3150m renovation programme, called the \"FuturePlan\". The plan involves redesigning all the galleries and public facilities in the museum that have yet to be remodelled. This is to ensure that the exhibits are better displayed, more information is available, access for visitors is improved, and the museum can meet modern expectations for museum facilities. A planned Spiral building was abandoned, in its place a new Exhibition Road Quarter designed by Amanda Levete's AL A was created. It features a new entrance on Exhibition Road, a porcelain-tiled courtyard (The Sackler Courtyard) and a new 1,100-square-metre underground gallery space (The Sainsbury Gallery) accessed through the Blavatnik Hall. The Exhibition Road Quarter project provided 6,400 square metres of extra space, which is the largest expansion at the museum in over 100 years. It opened on 29 June 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 2011 the V&A announced that London-based practice AL A had won an international competition to construct a gallery beneath a new entrance courtyard on Exhibition Road. Planning for the scheme was granted in 2012. It replaced the proposed extension designed by Daniel Libeskind with Cecil Balmond but abandoned in 2004 after failing to receive funding from the Heritage Lottery Fund."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Prince Albert appears within the main arch above the twin entrances, and Queen Victoria above the frame around the arches and entrance, sculpted by Alfred Drury. These fa\u00e7ades surround four levels of galleries. Other areas designed by Webb include the Entrance Hall and Rotunda, the East and West Halls, the areas occupied by the shop and Asian Galleries, and the Costume Gallery. The interior makes much use of marble in the entrance hall and flanking staircases, although the galleries as originally designed were white with restrained classical detail and mouldings, very much in contrast to the elaborate decoration of the Victorian galleries, although much of this decoration was removed in the early 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The galleries also link design to wider trends in British culture. For instance, design in the Tudor period was influenced by the spread of printed books and the work of European artists and craftsmen employed in Britain. In the Stuart period, increasing trade, especially with Asia, enabled wider access to luxuries like carpets, lacquered furniture, silks and porcelain. In the Georgian age there was an increasing emphasis on entertainment and leisure. For example, the increase in tea drinking led to the production of tea paraphernalia such as china and caddies. European styles are seen on the Grand Tour also influenced taste. As the Industrial Revolution took hold, the growth of mass production produced entrepreneurs such as Josiah Wedgwood, Matthew Boulton and Eleanor Coade. In the Victorian era new technology and machinery had a significant effect on manufacturing, and for the first time since the reformation, the Anglican and Roman Catholic Churches had a major effect on art and design such as the Gothic Revival. There is a large display on the Great Exhibition which, among other things, led to the founding of the V&A. In the later 19th century, the increasing backlash against industrialisation, led by John Ruskin, contributed to the Arts and Crafts movement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Museum survived the Second World War with only minor bomb damage. The worst loss was the Victorian stained glass on the Ceramics Staircase, which was blown in when bombs fell nearby; pockmarks still visible on the fa\u00e7ade of the museum were caused by fragments from the bombs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Victoria and Albert Museum has its origins in the Great Exhibition of 1851, with which Henry Cole, the museum's first director, was involved in planning. Initially it was known as the Museum of Manufactures, first opening in May 1852 at Marlborough House, but by September had been transferred to Somerset House. At this stage, the collections covered both applied art and science. Several of the exhibits from the Exhibition were purchased to form the nucleus of the collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A runs an ongoing textile and dress conservation programme. For example, in 2008, an important but heavily soiled, distorted and water-damaged 1954 Dior outfit called 'Zemire' was restored to displayable condition for the \"Golden Age of Couture\" exhibition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "These galleries are dedicated to temporary exhibits showcasing both trends from recent decades and the latest in design and fashion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Albert Memorial Museum",
        "text": "Founded in 1868, the museum is housed in a Gothic Revival building of local New Red Sandstone that has undergone several extensions during its history; most recently, the museum was re-opened on 15 December 2011 after a redevelopment lasting four years and costing \u00a324M. Since its re-opening the museum has received several awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Exhibition Building",
        "text": "In October 2009, Museum Victoria embarked upon a major project to restore the former German Garden of the Western Forecourt. The area had been covered by asphalt in the 1950s for car parking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Since 2001, the museum has embarked on a major \u00a3150m renovation programme. New 17th- and 18th-century European galleries were opened on 9 December 2015. These restored the original Aston Webb interiors and host the European collections 1600\u20131815. The Young V&A in East London is a branch of the museum, and a new branch in London is being planned. The first V&A museum outside London, V&A Dundee opened on 15 September 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collecting areas of the museum are not easy to summarize, having evolved partly through attempts to avoid too much overlap with other national museums in London. Generally, the classical world of the West and the Ancient Near East is left to the British Museum, and Western paintings to the National Gallery, though there are all sorts of exceptionsfor example, painted portrait miniatures, where the V&A has the main national collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "At night both the planters and the water feature may be illuminated, and the surrounding fa\u00e7ades lit to reveal details normally in shadow. Especially noticeable are the mosaics in the loggia of the north fa\u00e7ade. In summer a caf\u00e9 is set up in the southwest corner. The garden is also used for temporary exhibits of sculpture; for example, a sculpture by Jeff Koons was shown in 2006. It has also played host to the museum's annual contemporary design showcase, the V&A Village Fete, since 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "With the death of Captain Francis Fowke of the Royal Engineers, the next architect to work at the museum was Colonel (later Major General) Henry Young Darracott Scott, also of the Royal Engineers. He designed to the northwest of the garden the five-storey School for Naval Architects (also known as the science schools), now the Henry Cole Wing, in 1867\u20131872. Scott's assistant J. W. Wild designed the impressive staircase that rises the full height of the building. Made from Cadeby stone, the steps are in length, while the balustrades and columns are Portland stone. It is now used to jointly house the prints and architectural drawings of the V&A (prints, drawings, paintings and photographs) and Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA Drawings and Archives Collections), and the Sackler Centre for arts education, which opened in 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In the 1980s, Sir Roy Strong renamed the museum as \"The Victoria and Albert Museum, the National Museum of Art and Design\". Strong's successor Elizabeth Esteve-Coll oversaw a turbulent period for the institution in which the museum's curatorial departments were re-structured, leading to public criticism from some staff. Esteve-Coll's attempts to make the V&A more accessible included a criticised marketing campaign emphasising the caf\u00e9 over the collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 2021 plans to cut the museum\u2019s costs by reorganising its collections by date rather than by material were abandoned after critics said it would lead to staff cuts and thereby a loss of expertise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A covers and 145 galleries. Its collection spans 5000 years of art, from ancient times to the present day, from the cultures of Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa. However, the art of antiquity in most areas is not collected. The holdings of ceramics, glass, textiles, costumes, silver, ironwork, jewellery, furniture, medieval objects, sculpture, prints and printmaking, drawings and photographs are among the largest and most comprehensive in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Several areas of the collection have dedicated study rooms, these allow access to items in the collection that are not currently on display, but in some cases require an appointment to be made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The museum also runs the Young V&A at Bethnal Green; it used to run Apsley House, and also the Theatre Museum in Covent Garden. The Theatre Museum is now closed; the V&A Theatre Collections are now displayed within the South Kensington building."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Research is a very important area of the museum's work, and includes: identification and interpretation of individual objects; other studies contribute to systematic research, this develops the public understanding of the art and artefacts of many of the great cultures of the world; visitor research and evaluation to discover the needs of visitors and their experiences of the museum. Since 1990, the museum has published research reports; these focus on all areas of the collections."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Museums Site",
        "text": "Formerly the site of the university Botanic Garden (which is now between Hills Road and Trumpington Road in the south of the city), the New Museums Site is an eclectic mixture of grand Victorian buildings erected between 1870 and 1909, such as the Old Cavendish Laboratory; yellow-brick buildings from the 1930\u201340s, largely utilitarian with the exception of the Mond Building; and modernist glass-and-concrete buildings dating from the 1970s, such as the Materials Science and Metallurgy tower."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The museum has 145 galleries, but given the vast extent of the collections, only a small percentage is ever on display. Many acquisitions have been made possible only with the assistance of the National Art Collections Fund."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Continuing the style of the earlier buildings, various designers were responsible for the decoration. The terracotta embellishments were again the work of Godfrey Sykes, although sgraffito was used to decorate the east side of the building designed by F. W. Moody. A final embellishment was the wrought iron gates made as late as 1885 designed by Starkie Gardner. These lead to a passage through the building. Scott also designed the two Cast Courts (1870\u201373) to the southeast of the garden (the site of the \"Brompton Boilers\"); these vast spaces have ceilings in height to accommodate the plaster casts of parts of famous buildings, including Trajan's Column (in two separate pieces). The final part of the museum designed by Scott was the Art Library and what is now the sculpture gallery on the south side of the garden, built in 1877\u20131883. The exterior mosaic panels in the parapet were designed by Reuben Townroe, who also designed the plaster work in the library. Sir John Taylor designed the bookshelves and cases. This was the first part of the museum to have electric lighting. This completed the northern half of the site, creating a quadrangle with the garden at its centre, but left the museum without a proper fa\u00e7ade. In 1890 the government launched a competition to design new buildings for the museum, with architect Alfred Waterhouse as one of the judges; this would give the museum a new imposing front entrance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Museums Victoria",
        "text": "Significant events in the Museum's history include:\n* 1854 \u2013 Founding of the \"Museum of Natural and Economic Geology\" by William Blandowski and others; Blandowski oversees the museum\n* 1856 \u2013 Collections moved to the University of Melbourne in Parkville by Frederick McCoy\n* 1858 \u2013 McCoy appointed first \"director\" of the museum\n* 1862 \u2013 New building opens on University site, museum renamed \"National Museum of Victoria\"\n* 1869 \u2013 National Museum, embryotic Industrial & Technological (I&T) Museum, National Gallery of Victoria (NGV) and Public Library of Victoria merged into a single body\n* 1870 \u2013 I&T Museum opened on Swanston Street site (behind the Public Library)\n* 1893 \u2013 I&T Museum opens new building on Russell St as part of Library complex\n* 1899 \u2013 National Museum moved to I&T Museum's building, and takes over its mineral collection; rest of I&T Museum put into storage\n* 1915 \u2013 I&T Museum reopens in Library's now surplus Queens Hall, thanks largely to George Swinburne and John Monash\n* 1927 \u2013 National Museum acquired the H. L. White Collection of Australian native bird eggs\n* 1944 \u2013 Museums organisationally re-separated from Library, NGV and each other; all remain in one building\n* 1945 \u2013 I&T Museum renamed Museum of Applied Science (MAS)\n* 1946 \u2013 MAS takes over Melbourne Observatory\n* 1969 \u2013 NGV moves to St Kilda Rd, MAS moves into its old buildings, Library gets back Queens Hall\n* 1961 \u2013 Museum of Applied Science renamed Institute of Applied Science\n* 1971 \u2013 Institute of Applied Science renamed Science Museum of Victoria\n* 1981 \u2013 Museum Station opened, providing train services\n* 1983 \u2013 National Museum of Victoria and Science Museum of Victoria amalgamated to form the Museum of Victoria (NMV)\n* 1992 \u2013 Scienceworks opened in Spotswood\n* 1997 \u2013 Swanston Street campus closed\n* 1998 \u2013 Museum of Victoria renamed Museum Victoria; Immigration and Hellenic Antiquities Museum opened\n* 2000 \u2013 Melbourne Museum at Carlton Gardens opened\n* 2016 \u2013 Museum Victoria renamed Museums Victoria"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Exhibition Road Quarter opened in 2017, with a new entrance providing access for visitors from Exhibition Road. A new courtyard, the Sackler Courtyard, has been created behind the Aston Webb Screen, a colonnade built in 1909 to hide the museum's boilers. The colonnade was kept but the wall in the lower part was removed in the construction to allow public access to the courtyard. The new 1,200-square meter courtyard is the world's first all-porcelain courtyard, which is covered with 11,000 handmade porcelain tiles in fifteen different linear patterns glazed in different tone. A pavilion of Modernist design with glass walls and an angular roof covered with 4,300 tiles is located at the corner and contains a cafe. Skylights on the courtyard provide natural light for the stairwell and the exhibition space located below the courtyard created by digging 15m into the ground. The Sainsbury Gallery's column-less space at 1,100 square metres is one of the largest in the country, providing space for temporary exhibitions. The gallery can be assessed through the existing Western Range building where a new entrance to the Blavatnik Hall and the Museum has been created, and visitors can descend into the gallery via stairs with lacquered tulipwood balustrades."
      },
      {
        "title": "19th-century London",
        "text": "The great complex of museums at South Kensington began with the purchase of a vast tract of land (known as Albertopolis) at the instigation of the Prince Consort and the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851. The profits from the Exhibition were put toward the purchase of the land, which was intended to host a complex of cultural, scientific and educational institutions. The first of these was the South Kensington Museum (now known as the Victoria & Albert Museum), which opened to the public in 1856. The South Kensington Museum at that time inhabited the 'Brompton Boilers' building designed by William Cubitt, and consisted of the collections of manufactures and decorative art from the Crystal Palace Exhibition and the collections from the Museum of Ornamental Art, previously held in Marlborough House. In 1899 Queen Victoria laid the foundation stone for the current building, designed by Sir Aston Webb, and christened the official change of name to the \"Victoria & Albert\" Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The department holds significant archives documenting current practice and the history of performing arts. These include the English Stage Company at the Royal Court Theatre, D'Oyly Carte and the design collection of the Arts Council. Notable personal archives include Vivien Leigh, Peter Brook, Henry Irving and Ivor Novello."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The new Sackler education suite, occupying the two lower floors of the Henry Cole Wing opened in September 2008. This includes lecture rooms and areas for use by schools, which will be available during school holidays for use by families, and will enable direct handling of items from the collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The exhibition which the museum organised to celebrate the centennial of the 1899 renaming, \"A Grand Design\", first toured in North America from 1997 (Baltimore Museum of Art, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston and the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco), returning to London in 1999. To accompany and support the exhibition, the museum published a book, \"Grand Design\", which it has made available for reading online on its website."
      },
      {
        "title": "State Library Victoria",
        "text": "In 1909, most of the remaining Intercolonial Exhibition buildings were closed and the Great Hall was demolished. On part of the land they occupied, Baldwin Spencer Hall was built (now the \"Russell Street Welcome Zone\"), and work began on the library's famed Domed Reading Room. Opened in 1913, it was designed by Bates, Peebles and Smart, the successor to Joseph Reed's firm, now known as Bates Smart. Its construction led to much less use of Queen's Hall, which led to it becoming the home of a reborn I&T Museum in 1915."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A is located in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, in an area known as \"Albertopolis\" because of its association with Prince Albert, the Albert Memorial and the major cultural institutions with which he was associated. These include the Natural History Museum, the Science Museum, the Royal Albert Hall and Imperial College London. The museum is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. As with other national British museums, entrance is free."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria & Albert Pavilions, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital",
        "text": "In 1907 the operating theatres were completed incorporating the latest design and technology. An undated drawing PH213/48 shows alterations to the operating theatre. The interior is shown in an early photograph. Due to insufficient funds some wards remained closed for some years and nurses were accommodated on the top floor. In 1914 the top two floors were used as accommodation for nurses. Between 1918 and 1926, returned soldiers were accommodated on these floors and the Department of Defence funded and equipped the wards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Victoria and Albert Museum (often abbreviated as the V&A) in London is the world's largest museum of applied arts, decorative arts, and design, housing a permanent collection of over 2.27\u00a0million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A has large galleries devoted to temporary exhibitions. A typical year will see more than a dozen different exhibitions being staged, covering all areas of the collections. Notable exhibitions of recent years have been:\n* \"Britain Can Make It\", 1946\n* \"\", 2009\n* \"Power of Making\", 2011\n* \"Food: Bigger Than the Plate\", 2019"
      },
      {
        "title": "Art Gallery of Greater Victoria",
        "text": "In 2012, the museum announced it was looking for architects to design its expansion of the Exhibition Galleries. In 2015, the municipal government approved the expansion, which included an additional of exhibition space, as well as the construction of a new cafe, and lecture hall. Construction was originally planned to begin in late 2019, although rising materials and construction costs led to the development to be postponed. The museum announced plans to begin construction for the expansion in 2020. The museum plans to close its building during construction, and exhibit its collection at off-site locations throughout Victoria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Exhibition",
        "text": "In modern times, the Great Exhibition is a symbol of the Victorian Age, and its thick catalogue, illustrated with steel engravings, is a primary source for High Victorian design. A memorial to the exhibition, crowned with a statue of Prince Albert, is located behind the Royal Albert Hall. It is inscribed with statistics from the exhibition, including the number of visitors and exhibitors (British and foreign), and the profit made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The interiors of the three refreshment rooms were assigned to different designers. The Green Dining Room (1866\u201368) was the work of Philip Webb and William Morris, and displays Elizabethan influences. The lower part of the walls is paneled in wood with a band of paintings depicting fruit and the occasional figure, with moulded plaster foliage on the main part of the wall and a plaster frieze around the decorated ceiling and stained-glass windows by Edward Burne-Jones. The Centre Refreshment Room (1865\u201377) was designed in a Renaissance style by James Gamble. The walls and even the Ionic columns in this room are covered in decorative and moulded ceramic tile, the ceiling consists of elaborate designs on enamelled metal sheets and matching stained-glass windows, and the marble fireplace was designed and sculpted by Alfred Stevens and was removed from Dorchester House prior to that building's demolition in 1929. The Grill Room (1876\u201381) was designed by Sir Edward Poynter; the lower part of its walls consist of blue and white tiles with various figures and foliage enclosed by wood panelling, while above there are large tiled scenes with figures depicting the four seasons and the twelve months, painted by ladies from the Art School then based in the museum. The windows are also stained glass; there is an elaborate cast-iron grill still in place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In March 2018, it was announced that the Duchess of Cambridge would become the first royal patron of the museum. on 15 September 2018, the first V&A museum outside London, V&A Dundee, opened. The museum, built as a cost of \u00a380.11m, is located on the Dundee's waterfront, and is focused on Scottish design, furniture, textiles, fashion, architecture, engineering and digital design. Although it uses the V&A name, its operation and funding is independent of the V&A."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "As well as period rooms, the collection includes parts of buildings, for example, the two top stories of the facade of Sir Paul Pindar's house dated 1600 from Bishopsgate with elaborately carved woodwork and leaded windows, a rare survivor of the Great Fire of London, there is a brick portal from a London house of the English Restoration period and a fireplace from the gallery of Northumberland house. European examples include a dormer window dated 1523\u20131535 from the chateau of Montal. There are several examples from Italian Renaissance buildings including, portals, fireplaces, balconies and a stone buffet that used to have a built-in fountain. The main architecture gallery has a series of pillars from various buildings and different periods, for example, a column from the Alhambra. Examples covering Asia are in those galleries concerned with those countries, as well as models and photographs in the main architecture gallery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 1939, on the outbreak of the Second World War, most of the collection was sent to a quarry in Wiltshire, to Montacute House in Somerset, or to a tunnel near Aldwych tube station, with larger items remaining \"in situ\", sand-bagged and bricked in. Between 1941 and 1944 some galleries were used as a school for children evacuated from Gibraltar. The South Court became a canteen, first for the Royal Air Force and later for Bomb Damage Repair Squads."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Before the return of the collections after the war, the \"Britain Can Make It\" exhibition was held between September and November 1946, attracting nearly a million-and-a-half visitors. This was organised by the Council of Industrial Design, established by the British government in 1944 \"to promote by all practicable means the improvement of design in the products of British industry\". The success of this exhibition led to the planning of the Festival of Britain (1951). By 1948 most of the collections had been returned to the museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Albert Memorial Museum",
        "text": "Between 2007\u201311 a major redevelopment was completed costing \u00a324\u00a0million. Designed by architects Allies and Morrison, it included repair to the fabric of the building, refurbishment, a complete redisplay of the collections, an extension and a new entrance from the historic Registered gardens at the rear. The Heritage Lottery Fund contributed nearly \u00a310\u00a0million of the cost. In addition a purpose-built off-site collections store called the Ark was built and fitted out. The museum reopened on 15 December 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melbourne Museum",
        "text": "The period in which the Victorian government was led by Rupert Hamer (1972\u20131981) was one of policy development for museums in Victoria. Hamer's Arts Minister Norman Lacy established a Museums Development Committee consisting of representatives of the Science Museum of Victoria, the National Museum of Victoria and the Ministry for the Arts. It considered such matters as the development of a single City Museum complex (leading eventually to the establishment of the new Melbourne Museum in Carlton) and programs in fields such as social history. The committee also joined with a working party of the Victorian Council of the Arts to develop a comprehensive museums policy for Victoria. Lacy also began the establishment of the Heide Museum of Modern Art with the acquisition of the property Heide II (in Bulleen, east of Melbourne) and a collection of 113 art works from John and Sunday Reed in August 1980. It was officially opened in November 1981. He also developed a proposal for a Museum of Social and Political History at the Old Treasury Building for the Executive Committee of Victoria's 150th Anniversary Celebrations in July 1981 which led to the establishment of the City Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The central garden was redesigned by Kim Wilkie and opened as the John Madejski Garden on 5 July 2005. The design is a subtle blend of the traditional and modern: the layout is formal; there is an elliptical water feature lined in stone with steps around the edge which may be drained to use the area for receptions, gatherings or exhibition purposes. This is in front of the bronze doors leading to the refreshment rooms. A central path flanked by lawns leads to the sculpture gallery. The north, east and west sides have herbaceous borders along the museum walls with paths in front which continues along the south fa\u00e7ade. In the two corners by the north fa\u00e7ade, there is planted an American Sweetgum tree. The southern, eastern and western edges of the lawns have glass planters which contain orange and lemon trees in summer, which are replaced by bay trees in winter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Queen Victoria returned to lay the foundation stone of the Aston Webb building (to the left of the main entrance) on 17 May 1899. It was during this ceremony that the change of name from 'South Kensington Museum' to 'Victoria and Albert Museum' was made public. Queen Victoria's address during the ceremony, as recorded in \"The London Gazette\", ended: \"I trust that it will remain for ages a Monument of discerning Liberality and a Source of Refinement and Progress.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Exhibition Building",
        "text": "It received restoration throughout the 1990s and in 2004 became the first building in Australia to be awarded UNESCO World Heritage status, being one of the last remaining major 19th-century exhibition buildings in the world. It is the world's most complete surviving site from the International Exhibition movement 1851\u20131914. It sits adjacent to the Melbourne Museum and is the largest item in Museum Victoria's collection. Today, the building hosts various exhibitions and other events and is closely tied with events at the Melbourne Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In November 2012, the Museum opened its first gallery to be exclusively dedicated to furniture. Prior to this date furniture had been exhibited as part of a greater period context, rather than in isolation to showcase its design and construction merits. Among the designers showcased in the new gallery are Ron Arad, John Henry Belter, Joe Colombo, Eileen Gray, Verner Panton, Thonet, and Frank Lloyd Wright."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The opening ceremony for the Aston Webb building by King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra took place on 26 June 1909. In 1914 the construction commenced of the Science Museum, signaling the final split of the science and art collections."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Gothic Art"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cawthorne",
        "text": "The Victoria Jubilee Museum, built to commemorate Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee, was opened in 1889 and contains numerous unusual exhibits including a stuffed cheetah and a two-headed lamb."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum Spiral",
        "text": "The Victoria and Albert Museum Spiral (or V&A Spiral, or The Spiral) was a proposed extension to the 19th-century London building which houses the Victoria and Albert Museum, the world's largest museum of decorative arts. It was designed by Daniel Libeskind and the designer, artist, and writer, Cecil Balmond. The museum chose the design over seven others in competition in 1996 but, after much controversy and failing three times to attract the necessary funding, the project was abandoned in 2004."
      },
      {
        "title": "19th-century London",
        "text": "The rest of the land belonging to 'Albertopolis', on the site currently occupied by the Natural History and Science Museums, was used to host the 1862 International Exhibition. A substantial portion was given over to the headquarters and gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society, which was based on the site of the modern Science Museum between 1861 and 1888. The exhibition buildings were afterwards repurposed to hold the scientific objects from the South Kensington Museum, a collection which gradually expanded through acquisitions of scientific instruments in 1874, as well as acquisitions of patent models and machinery like the original cotton mills from Arkwright Mill. By 1893 the first director was appointed to oversee these developing science collections, which would become the core of the Science Museum upon its founding as a separate entity in 1909. In the meantime, the decision was made to relocate the natural history specimen collections of the British Museum to a separate and dedicated facility, the Natural History Museum, the building of which lasted between 1873 and 1884. Other enterprises were granted parcels of land on the active patronage of the commission, which aimed to fulfill Prince Albert's vision. By the end of the century the museums were complemented by the Royal Albert Hall (opened in 1871), the Royal College of Music (opened 1894), and the Imperial Institute (opened 1893)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The majority of the Medieval and Renaissance sculpture is displayed in the new Medieval and Renaissance galleries (opened December 2009)."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Museum",
        "text": "contains many of the original pieces painstakingly collected by Charles Sayers (founder of the museum) for his beloved museum. George was a prosperous market town in Victorian times and in the late 19th century it became the legendary Victoria Hotel. Typical bedroom, dining and drawing room furniture from this period make interesting exhibits. A collection of mechanical musical instruments, ranging from Swiss musical boxes of 1796 to Edison phonographs of the ate 19th century and His Master's Voice gramophones of the 1900s is also on display."
      },
      {
        "title": "Old Treasury Building, Melbourne",
        "text": "During the 1970s, the Victorian government, led by Premier Dick Hamer\u00a0was developing policy for museums in Victoria. In 1981, Hamer's Arts Minister, the Hon.\u00a0Norman Lacy,\u00a0established a Museums Development Committee\u00a0to develop a comprehensive museums policy for Victoria. He then also proposed to the Executive Committee of Victoria's 150th Anniversary Celebrations in 1984 that a new Museum of Social and Political History be established\u00a0at the\u00a0Old Treasury Building."
      },
      {
        "title": "Imperial College London",
        "text": "In 1851, the Great Exhibition was organised as an exhibition of culture and industry by Henry Cole and by Prince Albert, husband of the reigning monarch of the United Kingdom, Queen Victoria. An enormously popular and financial success, proceeds from the Great Exhibition were designated to develop an area for cultural and scientific advancement in South Kensington. Within the next six years the Victoria and Albert Museum and Science Museum had opened, joined by new facilities in 1871 for the Royal College of Chemistry, and in 1881 the opening of the Royal School of Mines and Natural History Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "King George III Museum",
        "text": "The scientific collections of George III were previously housed in the Kew Observatory, Kew, which had been the king's private observatory, constructed to observe the Transit of Venus in 1769. In the mid-nineteenth century the government discontinued the maintenance of Kew, giving rise to the need to house the collections elsewhere. The collection of electrical and mechanical apparatus for use in scientific experimentation, which had formed the nucleus of the royal collection and had served for the instruction of the royal children, was donated to the university by Queen Victoria in 1841 and the museum was opened by Albert, Prince Consort on 1 July 1843. The royal gift was presented to the College for the purposes of maintaining \"a general course of experimental philosophy\" with the stipulation that it should remain intact and be associated with the name of its royal founder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Starting in March 2020, BBC Two transmitted a series of six programmes depicting the back-stage work of the curators and restorers of the museum, entitled \"Secrets of the Museum\".\n;General views\n;Museum galleries\n;Asia\n;British galleries\n;Metalwork\n;Paintings"
      },
      {
        "title": "Albert, Prince Consort",
        "text": "The Queen opened the exhibition in a specially designed and built glass building known as the Crystal Palace on 1 May 1851. It proved a colossal success. A surplus of \u00a3180,000 was used to purchase land in South Kensington on which to establish educational and cultural institutions\u2014including the Natural History Museum, Science Museum, Imperial College London and what would later be named the Royal Albert Hall and the Victoria and Albert Museum. The area was referred to as \"Albertopolis\" by sceptics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Exhibition Building",
        "text": "The location of the Melbourne Museum close to the Exhibition Building site was strongly opposed by the Victorian State Labor Party, the Melbourne City Council and some in the local community. Due to the community campaign opposing the museum development, John Brumby, then State opposition leader, with the support of the Melbourne City Council, proposed the nomination of the Royal Exhibition Building for world heritage listing. The world heritage nomination did not progress until the election of the Victorian State Labor Party as the new government in 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 2004, the V&A alongside Royal Institute of British Architects opened the first permanent gallery in the UK covering the history of architecture with displays using models, photographs, elements from buildings and original drawings. With the opening of the new gallery, the RIBA Drawings and Archives Collection has been transferred to the museum, joining the already extensive collection held by the V&A. With over 600,000 drawings, over 750,000 papers and paraphernalia, and over 700,000 photographs from around the world, together they form the world's most comprehensive architectural resource."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gilbert Collection",
        "text": "The exhibition was fitted out under the supervision of the silver expert Timothy Schroder, and it continued until 27 January 2008. The space then became the Embankment Galleries, an exhibition space for contemporary art. Meanwhile, the collection was incorporated into the Victoria and Albert Museum, where a new display in rooms 70\u201373 opened on 30 June 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Museum of Royal Worcester",
        "text": "In contrast, the Victorian gallery has deep colours, extravagant exhibition pieces, and works of great craftsmanship. Here it can be seen how travel influenced design and how with the onslaught of the Industrial Revolution more people could afford to buy fine works."
      },
      {
        "title": "Queen Victoria Museum",
        "text": "Queen Victoria Museum\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "One of the largest objects in the collection is the rood loft from St. John's Cathedral ('s-Hertogenbosch), from the Netherlands, dated 1610\u20131613 this is as much a work of architecture as sculpture, 10.4 metres wide, 7.8 metres high, the architectural framework is of various coloured marbles including columns, arches and balustrade, against which are statues and bas-reliefs and other carvings in alabaster, the work of sculptor Conrad van Norenberch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The two courts are divided by corridors on both storeys, and the partitions that used to line the upper corridor (the Gilbert Bayes sculpture gallery) were removed in 2004 to allow the courts to be viewed from above."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Albert Memorial Museum",
        "text": "Its contents soon outgrew the building, necessitating the construction of extensions in 1894 (by Medley Fulford) and in 1898 (by Tait and Harvey). This second extension, the York Wing, was opened by the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George V and Queen Mary, and at the same time the title of 'Royal' was granted and so from that date the name Royal Albert Memorial Museum was used. Over the course of time locals adopted the abbreviation 'RAMM', and this in turn became the name by which the museum is branded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cast Courts (Victoria and Albert Museum)",
        "text": "Early in the 20th century, there was something of a reaction against copying works of art and interest in the collection \u2014 and other similar collections \u2014 declined. Only more recently has revived interest in the collection led to its once again being fully appreciated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Exhibition Building",
        "text": "The first conservation assessment of the building was undertaken by Alan Willingham in 1987, and over the following decades the Great hall was progressively renovated and restored. In 1996, the then Premier of Victoria, Jeff Kennett, proposed the location and construction of Melbourne's State Museum in the carpark to the north, which involved the demolition of the 1960s annexes in 1997\u201398."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The Theatre & Performance collections were founded in the 1920s when private collector, Gabrielle Enthoven, donated her collection of theatrical memorabilia to the V&A. In 1974 two further independent collections were compiled to form a comprehensive performing arts collection at the V&A. The collections were displayed at the Theatre Museum, which operated from Covent Garden until closing in 2007. Theatre & Performance galleries opened at South Kensington in March 2009 tracing the production process of performance and include a temporary exhibition space. Types of items displayed include costumes, set models, wigs, prompt books, and posters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection departments are further divided into sixteen display areas, whose combined collection numbers over 6.5\u00a0 million objects, not all items are displayed or stored at the V&A. There is a repository at Blythe House, West Kensington, as well as annex institutions managed by the V&A, also the Museum lends exhibits to other institutions. The following lists each of the collections on display and the number of objects within the collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Sculptures"
      },
      {
        "title": "Museums Victoria",
        "text": "The Library, Museums and National Gallery Act 1869 incorporated the Museums with the Public Library and the National Gallery of Victoria; but this administrative connection was severed in 1944 when the Public Library, National Gallery and Museums Act came into force, and they became four separate institutions once again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Albert Memorial Museum",
        "text": "Royal Albert Memorial Museum\n--History.\n----Establishment and early period.\n----RAMM today.\n--Collections.\n--Awards and recognition.\n--Veitch Memorial Lecture.\n--Funding.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "State Library Victoria",
        "text": "The National Museum and what was now known as the Science Museum of Victoria merged in 1983 to form the Museum of Victoria, filling the Russell St end of the site. Part of this combined museum was moved to Spotswood to form Scienceworks in 1992, with the bulk of the galleries remaining until 1997. At that time the remaining museum closed temporarily before part reopened elsewhere as the Immigration Museum in 1998, and the rest as the Melbourne Museum in 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Museums Victoria",
        "text": "The museum traces its history back to the establishment of the \"Museum of Natural and Economic Geology\" by the Government of Victoria, William Blandowski and others in 1854."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Albert Memorial Museum",
        "text": "The costume and textiles collection of the museum is considerable; according to the University of Brighton, they \"must rank as one of the most important collections outside London\". Due to the delicate nature of these materials, the collection is not on permanent display."
      },
      {
        "title": "Art Gallery of Greater Victoria",
        "text": "The interior of the building has undergone significant changes since its construction, either conducted by the museum, or by previous owners of the building. However, the building still retains a number of features from its original construction, including its original fireplace, ornate tiles and woodworking on the southeast corner of the second floor. In 2004, several renovation works undertaken on the building, including the reconstruction of the rooftop Palladian window, and providing a seismic retrofit to the building's chimney."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The V&A is one of 17 museums across Europe and the Mediterranean participating in a project called \"Discover Islamic Art\". Developed by the Brussels-based consortium Museum With No Frontiers, this online \"virtual museum\" brings together more than 1200 works of Islamic art and architecture into a single database. In 2009, the V&A established an art award, the Jameel Prize, for \" contemporary art and design inspired by Islamic tradition\" in partnership with Art Jameel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "The collection contains more than 500,000 images dating from the advent of photography, the oldest image dating from 1839. The gallery displays a series of changing exhibits and closes between exhibitions to allow full re-display to take place. Already in 1858, when the museum was called the South Kensington Museum, it had the world's first international photographic exhibition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "In 2002, the Museum acquired the Costiff collection of 178 Vivienne Westwood costumes. Other famous designers with work in the collection include Coco Chanel, Hubert de Givenchy, Christian Dior, Crist\u00f3bal Balenciaga, Yves Saint Laurent, Guy Laroche, Irene Galitzine, Mila Sch\u00f6n, Valentino Garavani, Norman Norell, Norman Hartnell, Zandra Rhodes, Hardy Amies, Mary Quant, Christian Lacroix, Jean Muir and Pierre Cardin. The museum continues to acquire examples of modern fashion to add to the collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Museum",
        "text": "Adrian van Kervel, the first magistrate built the building in 1812-1815 as the Drostdy (residency). In 1826 it burnt down but was re-built. It became the legendary Victoria hotel in the late 19th century until it was sold to the George Municipality in 1972. In 1976 the museum was established here. The Drostdy or now the museum has amazing exhibitions on display. There are examples of the flourishing local Timber industry, old timber tools, implements, a yellowwood woodcutter\u2019s cottage and an outdoor selection of labeled indigenous trees are on display."
      },
      {
        "title": "Queen Victoria Park",
        "text": "By 1859, Barnett built a substantial building on the site of the present-day Victoria Park Restaurant and began adding to his museum collection there, yet his war with Davis at the Falls would last into the 1870s, when Barnett's riverfront museum went into receivership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cast Courts (Victoria and Albert Museum)",
        "text": "In Britain, from 1841 onwards, a collection of art from all periods and countries was being assembled by the Government School of Design. In 1852 this collection was taken over by the Museum of Manufactures when it was established at Marlborough House. By 1858 the museum had moved to its current location in South Kensington and the casts were displayed in various corridors and galleries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Art Gallery of Greater Victoria",
        "text": "The building of the Art Gallery of Greater Victoria is made up of two components, the Spencer Mansion, and the Exhibition Galleries. The former is a re-purposed Victorian style residence built in 1889, whereas the latter is a modernist style expansion wing of seven galleries, built in phases from the 1950s to 1978. The combined museum building takes up of space."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria Gallery & Museum",
        "text": "VG&M is located in the \"redbrick\" 1892 Victoria Building. The building was designed by the Victorian architect Alfred Waterhouse and is Grade II listed. After restoration of the building at a cost of \u00a38.6 million, the museum opened on 28 May 2008. It houses the University of Liverpool's art and museum collections, donated to and created by the university."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
        "text": "Some of the oldest items in the collection are medieval vestments, especially Opus Anglicanum. One of the most important items in the collection is the wedding suit of James II of England, which is displayed in the British Galleries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851",
        "text": "The Commission invested The profits from the 1851 Exhibition in the purchase of of land in South Kensington. The area was then developed as a centre for educational and cultural institutions, often known as \"Albertopolis\". These include:\n*Imperial College\n*the Natural History Museum\n*Royal Albert Hall\n*the Royal College of Art\n*the Royal College of Music\n*the Science Museum\n*the Victoria and Albert Museum"
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Albert Memorial Museum",
        "text": "The site for the museum was donated by Richard Sommers Gard, MP for Exeter from 1857 to 1864, and a competition for its design attracted twenty-four entries, including one from John Hayward, whose gothic design was the winner. His original plan called for a tall central tower like that at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History, but that feature was rejected and was replaced by a gable and rose window."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the name of the world's largest museum of applied arts?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Victoria and Albert Museum in London is the world's largest museum of applied arts, decorative arts, and design, housing a permanent collection of over 2.27 million objects."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the biggest collection held by the Victoria and Albert Museum?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The museum own the world's largest collection of post-classical sculpture."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of the historic art displayed at The Victoria and Albert Museum?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Victoria and Albert Museum is the world's largest museum of applied arts, decorative arts, and design with over 2.27 million objects, spanning 5000 years of art, from Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa; and it also owns the world's largest collection of post-classical sculpture. Is there a specific era or a region are you interested in?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about its collection of North American art."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I was not able to find a very extensive list, but of the items the museum holds in its collection, there are many American architects' drawings, American glass items, and some American furniture."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is there a connection between Queen Victoria and the Victorian Era?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's reign."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the recent development of the museum ?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "A few galleries were redesigned in the 1990s including the Indian, Japanese, Chinese, ironwork, the main glass galleries, and the main silverware gallery, which was further enhanced in 2002 when some of the Victorian decoration was recreated. After the success of the British Galleries, opened in 2001, it was decided to embark on a major redesign of all the galleries in the museum; this is known as \"FuturePlan\", and was created in consultation with the exhibition designers and masterplanners Metaphor.",
      "Are you wanting to know about gallery upgrades and restorations, the garden, or the exhibiton road quarter?"
    ],
    "topic": "Victoria and Albert Museum",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Victoria and Albert Museum:29",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Victoria and Albert Museum",
          "Architecture",
          "Recent years"
        ],
        "ctx": "A few galleries were redesigned in the 1990s including the Indian, Japanese, Chinese, ironwork, the main glass galleries, and the main silverware gallery, which was further enhanced in 2002 when some of the Victorian decoration was recreated. This included two of the ten columns having their ceramic decoration replaced and the elaborate painted designs restored on the ceiling. As part of the 2006 renovation the mosaic floors in the sculpture gallery were restored\u2014most of the Victorian floors were covered in linoleum after the Second World War. After the success of the British Galleries, opened in 2001, it was decided to embark on a major redesign of all the galleries in the museum; this is known as \"FuturePlan\", and was created in consultation with the exhibition designers and masterplanners Metaphor. The plan is expected to take about ten years and was started in 2002. To date several galleries have been redesigned, notably, in 2002: the main Silver Gallery, Contemporary; in 2003: Photography, the main entrance, The Painting Galleries; in 2004: the tunnel to the subway leading to South Kensington tube station, new signage throughout the museum, architecture, V&A and RIBA reading rooms and stores, metalware, Members' Room, contemporary glass, and the Gilbert Bayes sculpture gallery; in 2005: portrait miniatures, prints and drawings, displays in Room 117, the garden, sacred silver and stained glass; in 2006: Central Hall Shop, Islamic Middle East, the new caf\u00e9, and sculpture galleries. Several designers and architects have been involved in this work. Eva Ji\u0159i\u010dn\u00e1 designed the enhancements to the main entrance and rotunda, the new shop, the tunnel and the sculpture galleries. Gareth Hoskins was responsible for contemporary and architecture, Softroom, Islamic Middle East and the Members' Room, McInnes Usher McKnight Architects (MUMA) were responsible for the new Cafe and designed the new Medieval and Renaissance galleries which opened in 2009."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Victoria and Albert Museum:29",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Victoria and Albert Museum",
          "Architecture",
          "Recent years"
        ],
        "ctx": "A few galleries were redesigned in the 1990s including the Indian, Japanese, Chinese, ironwork, the main glass galleries, and the main silverware gallery, which was further enhanced in 2002 when some of the Victorian decoration was recreated. This included two of the ten columns having their ceramic decoration replaced and the elaborate painted designs restored on the ceiling. As part of the 2006 renovation the mosaic floors in the sculpture gallery were restored\u2014most of the Victorian floors were covered in linoleum after the Second World War. After the success of the British Galleries, opened in 2001, it was decided to embark on a major redesign of all the galleries in the museum; this is known as \"FuturePlan\", and was created in consultation with the exhibition designers and masterplanners Metaphor. The plan is expected to take about ten years and was started in 2002. To date several galleries have been redesigned, notably, in 2002: the main Silver Gallery, Contemporary; in 2003: Photography, the main entrance, The Painting Galleries; in 2004: the tunnel to the subway leading to South Kensington tube station, new signage throughout the museum, architecture, V&A and RIBA reading rooms and stores, metalware, Members' Room, contemporary glass, and the Gilbert Bayes sculpture gallery; in 2005: portrait miniatures, prints and drawings, displays in Room 117, the garden, sacred silver and stained glass; in 2006: Central Hall Shop, Islamic Middle East, the new caf\u00e9, and sculpture galleries. Several designers and architects have been involved in this work. Eva Ji\u0159i\u010dn\u00e1 designed the enhancements to the main entrance and rotunda, the new shop, the tunnel and the sculpture galleries. Gareth Hoskins was responsible for contemporary and architecture, Softroom, Islamic Middle East and the Members' Room, McInnes Usher McKnight Architects (MUMA) were responsible for the new Cafe and designed the new Medieval and Renaissance galleries which opened in 2009."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Victoria and Albert Museum:23",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Victoria and Albert Museum",
          "Architecture"
        ],
        "ctx": "With the death of Captain Francis Fowke of the Royal Engineers, the next architect to work at the museum was Colonel (later Major General) Henry Young Darracott Scott, also of the Royal Engineers. He designed to the northwest of the garden the five-storey School for Naval Architects (also known as the science schools), now the Henry Cole Wing, in 1867\u20131872. Scott's assistant J. W. Wild designed the impressive staircase that rises the full height of the building. Made from Cadeby stone, the steps are in length, while the balustrades and columns are Portland stone. It is now used to jointly house the prints and architectural drawings of the V&A (prints, drawings, paintings and photographs) and Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA Drawings and Archives Collections), and the Sackler Centre for arts education, which opened in 2008."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Victoria and Albert Museum:16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Victoria and Albert Museum",
          "History",
          "Since 1950"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2001, the museum embarked on a major \u00a3150m renovation programme, called the \"FuturePlan\". The plan involves redesigning all the galleries and public facilities in the museum that have yet to be remodelled. This is to ensure that the exhibits are better displayed, more information is available, access for visitors is improved, and the museum can meet modern expectations for museum facilities. A planned Spiral building was abandoned, in its place a new Exhibition Road Quarter designed by Amanda Levete's AL A was created. It features a new entrance on Exhibition Road, a porcelain-tiled courtyard (The Sackler Courtyard) and a new 1,100-square-metre underground gallery space (The Sainsbury Gallery) accessed through the Blavatnik Hall. The Exhibition Road Quarter project provided 6,400 square metres of extra space, which is the largest expansion at the museum in over 100 years. It opened on 29 June 2017."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "The shade maize or corn refers to a specific tone of yellow; it is named for the cereal of the same name\u2014maize (the cereal \"maize\" is called \"corn\" in the USA and Canada. In public usage, maize can be applied to a variety of shades, ranging from light yellow to a dark shade that borders on orange, since the color of maize (the actual corn) may vary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "Later, selection was directed to link molecular markers (pigmentation) to the different kinds of present-day varieties. For instance;\n* semi-flint kernel varieties are yellow,\n* floury kernel varieties are white,\n* soft texture kernel varieties are motley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint corn",
        "text": "The coloration of flint corn is often different from white and yellow dent corns, many of which were bred later. Most flint corn is multi-colored. Like the Linnaeus variant of maize, any kernel may contain the yellow pigment zeaxanthin but at more varying concentrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "While yellow maizes derive their color from lutein and zeaxanthin, in red-colored maizes, the kernel coloration is due to anthocyanins and phlobaphenes. These latter substances are synthesized in the flavonoids synthetic pathway from polymerization of flavan-4-ols by the expression of maize pericarp color1 (p1) gene which encodes an R2R3 myb-like transcriptional activator of the A1 gene encoding for the dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (reducing dihydroflavonols into flavan-4-ols) while another gene (Suppressor of Pericarp Pigmentation 1 or SPP1) acts as a suppressor. The p1 gene encodes an Myb-homologous transcriptional activator of genes required for biosynthesis of red phlobaphene pigments, while the P1-wr allele specifies colorless kernel pericarp and red cobs, and unstable factor for orange1 (Ufo1) modifies P1-wr expression to confer pigmentation in kernel pericarp, as well as vegetative tissues, which normally do not accumulate significant amounts of phlobaphene pigments. The maize P gene encodes a Myb homolog that recognizes the sequence CCT/AACC, in sharp contrast with the C/TAACGG bound by vertebrate Myb proteins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "Maize (color)\n--Usage.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "Sports"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "Chemistry\n* \"For slow cases, one can use the method... in which a solution of thymol blue has had its pH value adjusted so that it is maize in color and any slight increase in the acidity will make the solution turn blue.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn tortilla",
        "text": "Maize kernels naturally occur in many colors, depending on cultivar: from pale white, to yellow, to red and bluish purple. Likewise, corn meal and the tortillas made from it may be similarly colored. White and yellow tortillas are by far the most common, however. In Mexico, there are three colors of maize dough for making tortillas: white maize, yellow maize and blue maize (also referred to as black maize)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue corn",
        "text": "Five Hopi blue corn cultivars identified in the 1950s showed significant differences for several traits, such as plant height, kernel weight, width of kernel, and thickness of kernel. The different varieties have a color range from nearly black to blue-grey, with names derived from the \"standard\" blue (\"sakwaqa'o\"), hard blue (\"huruskwapu\"), and grey-blue (\"maasiqa'o\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint corn",
        "text": "Regional varieties with specific coloration include Blue corn and Purple corn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Elongated stigmas, called silks, emerge from the whorl of husk leaves at the end of the ear. They are often pale yellow and in length, like tufts of hair in appearance. At the end of each is a carpel, which may develop into a \"kernel\" if fertilized by a pollen grain. The pericarp of the fruit is fused with the seed coat referred to as \"caryopsis\", typical of the grasses, and the entire kernel is often referred to as the \"seed\". The cob is close to a multiple fruit in structure, except that the individual fruits (the kernels) never fuse into a single mass. The grains are about the size of peas, and adhere in regular rows around a white, pithy substance, which forms the cob. The maximum size of kernels is reputedly . An ear commonly holds 600 kernels. They are of various colors: blackish, bluish-gray, purple, green, red, white and yellow. When ground into flour, maize yields more flour with much less bran than wheat does. It lacks the protein gluten of wheat and, therefore, makes baked goods with poor rising capability. A genetic variant that accumulates more sugar and less starch in the ear is consumed as a vegetable and is called sweet corn. Young ears can be consumed raw, with the cob and silk, but as the plant matures (usually during the summer months), the cob becomes tougher and the silk dries to inedibility. By the end of the growing season, the kernels dry out and become difficult to chew without cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Many forms of maize are used for food, sometimes classified as various subspecies related to the amount of starch each has:\n* Flour corn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" amylacea\"\n* Popcorn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" everta\"\n* Dent corn : \"Zea mays \"var.\" indentata\"\n* Flint corn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" indurata\"\n* Sweet corn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" saccharata\" and \"Zea mays\" var. \"rugosa\"\n* Waxy corn: \" Zea mays \"var.\" ceratina\"\n* Amylomaize: \" Zea mays\"\n* Pod corn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" tunicata\" Larra\u00f1aga ex A. St. Hil.\n* Striped maize: \"Zea mays \"var.\" japonica\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Collins noted, among others, these unusual traits of the Chinese maize:\n*Several unique structural features that enabled the plants to resist the drying out of the silks by wind at the time of flowering\n*Unusual growth behaviour in that the top four or five leaves all appeared on the same side of the main stem of the plant. Extremely erect leaves of the upper nodes, while the lower leaves were more spread and drooping\n*One of the main things he noted was the composition of the endosperm of the maize kernels. He wrote: \"The texture of the endosperm is one of the unique features of this maize. Cut in any direction it separates with a sort of cleavage, exposing a dull, smooth surface. The texture suggests that of the hardest waxes, though it is still harder and more crystalline. From this optical resemblance to wax the term cereous or waxy endosperm is suggested.\" The moisture content of the kernel must be 16% or lower before the waxy trait can be recognised visually."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pawnee people",
        "text": "In keeping with their cosmology, the Pawnee classify the varieties of corn by color: black, spotted, white, yellow, and red (which, excluding spotted, related to the colors associated with the four semi-cardinal directions). The women kept the different strains separate as they cultivated the corn. While important in agriculture, squash and beans were not given the same theological meaning as corn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn smut",
        "text": "The blueish color transforms into the recognizable black color only with heat. Any dish with \"huitlacoche\" must include a slow simmer of the fungus until it becomes black, which also removes most of the starch of the corn, and what is left is a black oily paste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue corn",
        "text": "Varieties of blue corn cultivated in the Southwestern United States vary in their respective contents of anthocyanins, the polyphenol pigment giving the corn its unique color. Anthocyanins having the highest contents are cyanidin 3-glucoside (most abundant), pelargonidin and peonidin 3-glucoside."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn kernel",
        "text": "Corn kernels are the fruits of maize. Maize is a grain, and the kernels are used in cooking as a vegetable or a source of starch. The kernels can be of various colors: blackish, bluish-gray, purple, green, red, white and yellow. One ear of corn contains roughly 800 kernels in 16 rows. One hundred bushels of corn can contain upwards of 7,280,000 kernels. Transportation and packaging of dried clean corn kernels to non-producing areas adds to the cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Selective sweep",
        "text": "In maize, a recent comparison of yellow and white corn genotypes surrounding \"Y1\"\u2014the phytoene synthetase gene responsible for the yellow endosperm color, shows strong evidence for a selective sweep in yellow germplasm reducing diversity at this locus and linkage disequilibrium in surrounding regions. White maize lines had increased diversity and no evidence of linkage disequilibrium associated with a selective sweep."
      },
      {
        "title": "Purple corn",
        "text": "Purple corn () or purple maize is group of flint maize varieties (Zea mays indurata) originating in South America, descended from a common ancestral variety termed \"k'culli\" in Quechua. It is most commonly grown in the Andes of Peru, Bolivia, Colombia and Ecuador."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "On the basis of these and previous studies, Aureliano Brandolini and collaborators identified the following racial complexes and races of native maize;\n*A. \"Pisanckalla\" (Popcorn)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize is a diploid with 20 chromosomes (n=10). The combined length of the chromosomes is 1500 cM. Some of the maize chromosomes have what are known as \"chromosomal knobs\": highly repetitive heterochromatic domains that stain darkly. Individual knobs are polymorphic among strains of both maize and teosinte."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "Medium to tall plants with usual red stalk. Size, shape (usually large) and color of the kernel greatly variable. Grown in the temperate valleys, 1,500-3,000 masl.\n* Achuchema\n** Achuchema\n* Aisuma\n** Aisuma\n** Arrayan\n** Azulino\n* Amarillo harinoso de 8 hileras\n** Amarillo clice\u00f1o\n** Morocho corriente\n** Ocho rayas\n* Blanco yungue\u00f1o\n** Blanco yungue\u00f1o\n** Blanco de tostar\n** Yunque\u00f1o\n* Checchi o gris de tostar\n** Gris de tostar\n** Jancka sara\n** Jancka sara tuero\n** Puka checchi\n* Chuspillo\n** Chulpi\n** Chulpi amarillo\n** Chulpi blanco\n** Chulpillo\n* Concebide\u00f1o\n** Concebide\u00f1o\n** Huillcaparu breve\n** Morocho Yampar\u00e1ez\n* Colorado\n** Colorado\n** Culli Entre r\u00edos\n** Culli Monteagudo\n* Hualtaco\n** Blanco aiquile\u00f1o\n** Blanco de Monteagudo\n** Blanco pojo\n** Yuraj sara\n* Huillcaparu\n** Huillcaparu\n* Kajbia\n** Kajbia\n** Kajbia huata\n** Kajbia tuero\n* Kellu hillcaparu\n** Kellu huillcaparu\n** Amarillo\n** Hillcaparu patillo\n* Kulli\n** Kulli\n** Collpa culli\n** Colorado potosino\n** Culli\n** Kulli chojnocollo\n** Taimuro\n* Oke\n** Oke\n*D. \"Morocho\" (Dark)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn production in the United States",
        "text": "According to \"Tribes That Slumber\" by Thomas Lewis and Madeline Kneberg, corn was \"the staff of life to the Cherokee\", who grew three types of corn. \"Flour corn\" had \"very large, white kernels\". \"Six weeks corn\" was a type similar to popcorn, roasted at milk stage. \"Hominy corn\" came in different colors of \"smooth, hard kernels\" which might be white, blue, red or yellow, or a mix of any of these."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Chrysanthemin is found in purple corn and is used as a food coloring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecuador maize varieties",
        "text": "This study underlined that:\n* The \"Canguiles\" group from the Andean highlands is not sensitive to photoperiod change, as well as the \"Lima\" varieties of possible recent introduction. These varieties apparently have gametophytic isolation characteristics.\n* The varieties of lowland tropical origin are luxuriant, reaching over 5.5 meters of height, tassel excluded. By comparison, \"Canguiles\" and the flint kernel maize from the highlands sierra, \"Morocho\", \"Patillo\", \"Perlilla\", and \"Tusilla\", have a plant size lower than 2.0 meters.\n* The tassel size varies greatly and is not linked to the environment; the shortest tassel is that of the tropical \"Dentado\", the largest, 55\u00a0cm, is that of the sierra \"Uchima\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize is the domesticated variant of teosinte. The two plants have dissimilar appearance, maize having a single tall stalk with multiple leaves and teosinte being a short, bushy plant. The difference between the two is largely controlled by differences in just two genes, called grassy tillers-1 (\"gt1\", ) and teosinte branched-1 (\"tb1\", )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xenia (plants)",
        "text": "The endosperm tissue, which makes up most of the bulk of a maize seed, is not produced by the mother plant, but is the product of fertilization, and genetic factors carried by the pollen affect its colour. For example, a yellow-seeded race may have its yellow colour determined by a recessive allele. If it receives pollen from a purple-seeded race that has one copy of a dominant allele for purple colour and one copy of the recessive allele for yellow seed, the resulting cob will have some yellow and some purple seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecuador maize varieties",
        "text": "Studies enabled the identification of the following racial complexes and races:\n* \"Zea mays everta\"\n** a. \"formas primitivas\" (primitive forms)\n***Canguil\n** b. \"formas derivadas\" (derived forms)\n*** Canguil grueso\n* \"Zea mays indurata\"\n** a. formas primitivas\n*** Clavito\n*** Enano gigante\n*** Morocho 8 hileras\n*** Pira\n** b. formas derivadas\n*** Andanqui\n*** Morocho Colorado\n*** Uchima\n*** Yungue\u00f1o\n** c. \"formas de reciente introducci\u00f3n\" (recently introduced forms)\n*** Cubano\n* \"Zea mays indentata\"\n** Dentado\n** Sint\u00e9tico\n* \"Zea mays indurata\"\n** a. \"grano blanco\" (white kernel)\n*** Morocho (Sabanero)\n*** Perlilla\n*** Tusilla\n** b. \"Grano colorado y semiv\u00edtreo\" (Reddish and semi-flint kernel)\n*** Kcello / Nal Tel\n*** Patillo\n* \"Zea mays amylacea\"\n** a. grano blanco\n*** Harinoso 8 hileras\n** b. \"grano amarillo\" (yellow kernel)\n*** Mishca\n** c. \"grano rojo\" (red kernel)\n*** Harinoso c\u00f3nico\n*** Harinoso puntiagudo\n*** Racimo de uva\n* \"Zea mays amylosaccharata\"\n** Chullpi\n* \"Zea mays tunicata\"\n** Huaco"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "Biology\n* \"Light maize in color, this wildflower is found only now and then in our area, and treasured for its rarity. The three clumps, two near the east fence under a thriving red-stemmed dogwood and one beside a weathered stump, gave us a thrill last spring with their first buds.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "And when Collins found such a distinct difference in the appearance of normal and waxy maize endosperm, he suspected a difference in chemical composition, but the analysis did not yield any unusual results. The percentages of starch, oil, and protein were all within the normal range. Yet, he was intrigued by the physical nature of the starch, and wrote: \"In view of the recent development of specialised maize products as human food, the unique type of starch may be of some economic importance.\" So actually, for many years the main use of waxy maize was a genetic marker for other maize breeding programs. Breeders were able to use some of the traits to \"tag\" the existence of hidden genes and follow them through breeding programs. It is possible that waxy maize would have become extinct again in the USA without this special application in breeding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecuador maize varieties",
        "text": "The first description of Ecuadorian maize varieties was written by the colonial chronicler Father Juan de Velasco (1727\u20131792);\n* \"Amarillo\" (Yellow) - large and soft,\n* \"Blanco\" (White) - large, long, very soft, used for bread flour,\n* \"Canguil\" - small, hard, pointed, used for popcorn,\n* \"Carapali\" - medium size, white with red apex,\n* \"Chulpi\" or \"Chullpi\" - white, medium, very soft and sweet, sweet corn,\n* \"Morocho\" - small, medium, yellow, hard, used to brew chicha,\n* \"Negro grueso\" - black, large, and hard,\n* \"Negro mediano\" - black and soft,\n* \"Tumbaque\" - large, flat, dark green, and soft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize\n--History.\n----Pre-Columbian development.\n----Columbian exchange.\n--Names.\n--Structure and physiology.\n----Abnormal flowers.\n--Genetics.\n--Evolution.\n--Breeding.\n----Genetic modification.\n----For pest and disease resistance.\n--Origin.\n----Connection with 'parviglumis' subspecies.\n----Spreading to the north.\n--Cultivation.\n----Planting.\n----Harvesting.\n--Production.\n----United States.\n--Pests.\n----Insects.\n----Storage.\n--Uses.\n----Human food.\n----Nutritional value.\n----Feed and fodder for livestock.\n----Chemicals.\n----Bio-fuel.\n----Commodity.\n----Ornamental and other uses.\n----United States usage breakdown.\n--Comparison to other staple foods.\n--Hazards.\n----Pellagra.\n----Allergy.\n----Mycotoxins.\n--Art.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint corn",
        "text": "Flint corn\n--History.\n--Distinctive traits.\n----Coloration.\n--Uses.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "The first recorded use of \"maize\" as a color name in English was in 1861."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bioarchaeology",
        "text": "The 13C and 12C ratio is either depleted (more negative) or enriched (more positive) relative to the international standard, which is set to an arbitrary zero. The different photosynthesis pathways used by C3 and C4 plants cause them to discriminate differently towards 13C The C4 and C3 plants have distinctly different ranges of 13C; C4 plants range between -9 and -16 per mil, and C3 plants range between -22 to -34 per mil. \u03b413C studies have been used in North America to document the transition from a C3 to a C4 (native North American plants to corn) diet. The rapid and dramatic increase in 13C after the adoption of maize agriculture attests to the change in the southeastern American diet by 1300 CE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue corn",
        "text": "Blue corn (also known as Hopi maize, Yoeme Blue, Tarahumara Maiz Azul, and Rio Grande Blue) is several closely related varieties of flint corn grown in Mexico, the Southwestern United States, and the Southeastern United States. It is one of the main types of corn used for the traditional Southern and Central Mexican food known as tlacoyo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Ploidy does not appear to influence EPS or magnitude of selection effect in maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "A striking example of genetic drift in maize is the occurrence in parts of Asia of varieties with waxy endosperm. In maize races of America such a variety is unknown, but the waxy character itself has been discovered in non-waxy varieties: in a New England flint maize and in a South American variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Some forms of the plant are occasionally grown for ornamental use in the garden. For this purpose, variegated and colored leaf forms as well as those with colorful ears are used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Southern corn leaf blight",
        "text": "Lesions when Race O is present are tan in color with buff to brown borders. They begin as small, diamond-shaped lesions and elongate within the veins to become larger and rectangular. Race O's lesions remain within the leaves of the maize plant. Lesion size ranges from 2 to 6 millimeters wide and 3 to 22 millimeters long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Traditional Italian maize varieties",
        "text": "Classification, along the plant cropping and grain cooking characteristics, is summed in the following ear types;\n*Eight-rows (ottofile),\n*Large conic\n*Long-ear cylindric,\n*Polirows-subconic,\n*Short-cycle dwarf conic."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Jose de Gracia, Jalisco",
        "text": "blue for the case of maize in optimal conditions"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dent corn",
        "text": "Dent corn, also known as grain corn, is a type of field corn with a high soft starch content. It received its name because of the small indentation, or \"dent\", at the crown of each kernel on a ripe ear of corn. Reid's Yellow Dent is a variety developed by central Illinois farmer James L. Reid. Reid and his father, Robert Reid, moved from Brown County, Ohio to Tazewell County, Illinois in 1846 bringing with them a red corn variety known as \"Johnny Hopkins\", and crossed it with varieties of flint corn and flour corn. Most of today's hybrid corn varieties and cultivars are derived from it. This variety won a prize at the 1893 World's Fair."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bx1 benzoxazin1",
        "text": "Mutants are viable, but may be distinguished from normal plants by FeCl3 staining: plants able to synthesize benzoxinoids have pale blue color when crushed and treated with FeCl3 solutions (Hamilton 1964, Simcox 1993 ). Mutations in the \"bx1\" gene reduce the resistance to first generation European corn borer (\"Ostrinia nubilalis\") that is conferred by benzoxazinoids (Klun et al 1970 ). \"Bx1\" mutant maize deposited less callose in response to chitosan elicitation than isogenic wildtype plants (Ahmad et al. 2011 ). Genetic mapping using recombinant inbred lines derived from maize inbred lines B73 and Mo17 showed that a 3.9 kb cis-regulatory element that is located approximately 140 kb upstream of \"Bx1\" causes higher 2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one (DIMBOA) accumulation in Mo17 than in B73 seedlings (Zheng et al. 2015 ). This genetic variation is also associated with higher corn leaf aphid (\"Rhopalosiphum maidis\") reproduction on B73 compared to Mo17 maize seedlings (Betsiashvili et al. 2014 ). Relative to maize inbred line W22\", Bx1::Ds\" mutant maize plants are more sensitive to corn leaf aphids (\"Rhopalosiphum maidis\") (Betsiashvili et al. 2014) and beet armyworms (\"Spodoptera exigua\") (Tzin et al. 2017 ). Highly localized induction of benzoxazinoid accumulation in response to Egyptian cotton leafworm (\"Spodoptera littoralis\") feeding is abolished in a maize \"bx1\" mutant (Maag et al. 2016 )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Waxy corn or glutinous corn is a type of field corn characterized by its sticky texture when cooked as a result of larger amounts of amylopectin. The corn was first described from a specimen from China in 1909. As this plant showed many peculiar traits, the American breeders long used it as a genetic marker to tag the existence of hidden genes in other maize breeding programs. In 1922 a researcher found that the endosperm of waxy maize contained only amylopectin and no amylose starch molecule in opposition to normal dent maize varieties that contain both. Until World War II, the main source of starch in the United States was tapioca, but when Japan severed the supply lines of the U.S., they forced processors to turn to waxy maize. Amylopectin or waxy starch is now used mainly in food products, but also in the textile, adhesive, corrugating and paper industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Maize (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Candy corn",
        "text": "Candy corn's traditional colors of yellow, orange, and white represent the colors of the fall harvest, or of corn on the cob, with the wide yellow end resembling a corn kernel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint corn",
        "text": "The six major types of corn are dent corn, flint corn, pod corn, popcorn, flour corn, and sweet corn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Traditional Italian maize varieties",
        "text": "Most Italian agro-ecotypes of maize are from the \"Indurata\" and \"Indentata\" sections and their combinations, characterized by kernels with flint, semi-dent and dent consistency. A few local varieties from the \"Everta\" section (pop-corn) were also grown in Italy. The kernel apex can take different shapes: smooth, horned, cuspidate, rostrum-like or indented."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Experiments by Sprague have shown that ten to twenty plants are required for adequate representation of genetic diversity in an open-pollinated maize variety. Since the number of ears saved for seed by ancient Asian maize cultivators with only small plots of land at their disposal was often smaller than this and, indeed, since new maize populations are sometimes established by growing the progeny of a single ear, it follows that there must often have been genetic drift \u2013 changes in gene frequencies resulting from the creation of small breeding populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "Semi-flint or semi-dent kernels, yellow or orange, thin & hard external starch layer and floury internal layer. Grown in the temperate valleys and subtropical regions, 1,000-3,000 masl.\n* Karapampa\n** Karapampa chico\n* Kellu o amarillo 8 surcos\n** Chuchuquella\n** Amarillo 8 surcos\n** Morocho Aiquile\n** Morocho de chuquisaca\n** Morocho 8 surcos\n** Tarije\u00f1o\n** Tojmac kellu\n* Morochillo de Tarija\n** Kaje\u00f1o\n** Liquene\u00f1o\n** Morocho de Tarija\n* Morocho chaque\u00f1o\n** Amarillo duro\n** Morocho Colorado\n* Morocho chico\n** Amarillo 8 rayas\n** Morocho Panti Pampa\n** Morocho Tarije\u00f1ito\n** Patillo\n** Perla amarillo\n* Morocho grande\n** Morocho grande\n** Amarillo huancan\u00ed\n** Morocho Entre r\u00edos\n* Morocho 8 hileras\n** Amarillo pojo\n** Kara pampa pintado\n** Morocho\n** Morocho criollo\n** Morocho Guadalupe\n** Morocho puente\n** Morocho tomina\n** Suricha\n** Turare\u00f1a\n** Morocho trigal\n* E. \"Amaz\u00f3nico\" (Amazonian)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Purple corn",
        "text": "Purple corn\n--Uses.\n--Color chemistry: anthocyanins.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Corn Is Green (disambiguation)",
        "text": "The Corn Is Green (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize ( ; \"Zea mays\" subsp. \"mays\", from after ), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The leafy stalk of the plant produces pollen inflorescences (or \"tassels\") and separate ovuliferous inflorescences called ears that when fertilized yield kernels or seeds, which are fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic botany",
        "text": "The teosintes are grasses of the genus \"Zea\". Native Americans bred and selected teosinte for the traits we see in corn today (large ears, multiple rows of kernels). The first ears of maize were very short, with only 8 rows of kernels. Modern corn is the result of several thousand generations of selective breeding. Modern corn is incapable of reproducing without human help; the kernels will stay firmly attached to the cob and rot. This does not represent a useful adaptation for the species, but is excellent for harvesting and transporting corn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Retrotransposon",
        "text": "Notably a large number of 100 kilobases in the maize genome show variety due to the presence or absence of retrotransposons. However since maize is unusual genetically as compared to other plants it cannot be used to predict retrotransposition in other plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zea (plant)",
        "text": "According to Matsuoka et al., the available early maize gene pool can be divided into three clusters:\n* An Andean group, that includes the hand-grenade-shaped ear types and some other Andean maize (35 plants);\n* All other South American and Mexican maize (80 plants);\n* U.S. maize (40 plants)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dent corn",
        "text": "The six major types of corn are dent corn, flint corn, pod corn, popcorn, flour corn, and sweet corn.\n* \"Zea mays\" var. \"indentata\", synonym \"Zea indentata\" Sturtev., was identified and published by American agronomist and botanist Edward Lewis Sturtevant (1842\u20131898). It is categorized as a species within the family Poaceae, subfamily Panicoideae, and tribe Andropogoneae\u2014a tribe of grasses that use the NADP\u2013malic enzyme subtype of C4 photosynthesis in carbon fixation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phlobaphene",
        "text": "In maize, phlobaphenes are synthesized in the flavonoids synthetic pathway from polymerisation of flavan-4-ols by the expression of maize pericarp color1 (p1) gene which encodes an R2R3 myb-like transcriptional activator of the A1 gene encoding for the dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (reducing dihydroflavonols into flavan-4-ols) while another gene (Suppressor of Pericarp Pigmentation 1 or SPP1) acts as a suppressor. The p1 gene encodes an Myb-homologous transcriptional activator of genes required for biosynthesis of red phlobaphene pigments, while the P1-wr allele specifies colorless kernel pericarp and red cobs, and unstable factor for orange1 (Ufo1) modifies P1-wr expression to confer pigmentation in kernel pericarp, as well as vegetative tissues, which normally do not accumulate significant amounts of phlobaphene pigments. The maize P gene encodes a Myb homolog that recognizes the sequence CCT/AACC, in sharp contrast with the C/TAACGG bound by vertebrate Myb proteins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Because the waxy mutation is expressed in an easy identifiable nonlethal phenotype, it has been the subject of major research during the 20th century. Nelson made a fine structure genetic map of most of these mutations\n* For waxy maize, a single recessive gene (wx) was located on the short arm of chromosome 9, codes for the waxy endosperm of the kernel (Wx codes for endosperm with normal starch). This was first shown by Collins and Kempton.\n* The structure of the wildtype waxy (wx+) locus has been determined through DNA sequencing. The gene has 3718 bp (14 exons and 13 introns).\n* Waxy endosperm is the counterpart in maize of the \"glutinous\" character in rice.\n* There is a wide range of species also presenting the waxy mutation, including rice, sorghum, millet, barley and wheat, which were characterised by starch granules staining red with iodine.\n* In crosses between heterozygous plants for the waxy character, a small but significant deviation from an expected Mendelian ratio in self-pollination is produced. Bear obtained from 71 segregated ears on the F1 generation 23,77% of waxy kernels and 76,23% of non-waxy kernels. This is evidenced by the two heterozygous types, Wx Wx wx and wx wx Wx."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint corn",
        "text": "Flint corn (\"Zea mays\" var. \"indurata\"; also known as Indian corn or sometimes calico corn) is a variant of maize, the same species as common corn. Because each kernel has a hard outer layer to protect the soft endosperm, it is likened to being hard as flint; hence the name."
      },
      {
        "title": "Popcorn",
        "text": "Popcorn varieties are broadly categorized by the shape of the kernels, the color of the kernels, or the shape of the popped corn. While the kernels may come in a variety of colors, the popped corn is always off-yellow or white as it is only the hull (or pericarp) that is colored. \"Rice\" type popcorn have a long kernel pointed at both ends; \"pearl\" type kernels are rounded at the top. Commercial popcorn production has moved mostly to pearl types. Historically, pearl popcorn were usually yellow and rice popcorn usually white. Today both shapes are available in both colors, as well as others including black, red, mauve, purple, and variegated. Mauve and purple popcorn usually have smaller and nutty kernels. Commercial production is dominated by white and yellow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Desert farming",
        "text": "Owing to the great dependence upon weather, an element considered to be beyond human control, substantial religious beliefs, rites, and prayer evolved around the growing of crops, and in particular the growing of the four principal corn types of the region, characterized by their colors: red, yellow, blue, and white. The presence of corn as a spiritual symbol can often be seen in the hands of the \"Yeh\" spirit figures represented in Navajo rugs, in the rituals associated with the \"Corn Maiden\" and other kachinas of the Hopi, and in various fetish objects of tribes of the region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue corn",
        "text": "Blue corn\n--Varieties.\n--Tortilla protein content.\n--Anthocyanins.\n--Food uses.\n--Symbolic uses.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "Popcorn kernels very small and hard. Grown everywhere. No change in flowering and ripening cycle when grown in temperate latitudes.\n* Pasanckalla\n** Pasanckalla\n** Pasanckalla puca\n* Pisankalla del valle\n** Periquito\n** Periquito rojo\n** Pisanckalla\n* Pura\n** Pura\n* Purito\n** Purito\n** Ma\u00edz purito\n*B. \"Valle alto\" (High valley)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Traditional Italian maize varieties",
        "text": "According to such classification, Italian traditional maize varieties are:\n*Sections \"Indurata\" and \"Indentata\" (9 racial complexes, 35 races & 65 agro-ecotypes)\n**Eight-rowed flints and derived races: 6 races and 10 agro-ecotypes\n***Ottofile puri (true eight-rows)\n****Ottofile\n****Ottofile tardivo\n****Tajolone\n***Razze derivate (derivative races)\n****Cannellino\n****Derivati 12-14 file\n****Monachello\n**Conical flints and derived races: 5 races and 15 agro-ecotypes\n***Barbina\n***Biancone\n***Montano\n***Ostesa\n***Poliranghi\n**Late Southern cylindrical flints: 3 races and 4 agro-ecotypes\n***Montoro\n***Pannaro\n***Rodindia\n**Midseason Southern cylindrical flints: 3 races and 6 agro-ecotypes\n***Altosiculo\n***Dindico\n***Trentinella\n**Extra-early dwarf flints: 4 races and 6 agro-ecotypes\n***Agostinello\n***Poliota\n***Tirolese\n***Trenodi\n**Microsperma flints: 4 races e 8 agro-ecotypes\n***Appenniniche\n****Zeppetello\n***Subalpine\n****Cadore\n****Cinquantino Marano\n****Quarantino estivo\n**Padanians: 4 races and 7 agro-ecotypes\n***Poliranghi\n****Bani-Scaiola\n****Pignolo\n****Rostrato-Scagliolo\n***Longispiga\n****Agostano\n**Pearl white flints: 3 races and 4 agro-ecotypes\n***Bianco Perla\n***Cimalunga\n***Righetta bianco\n**Dent corn: 2 races and 5 agro-ecotypes\n***Dentati bianchi antichi\n***Dentati moderni\n*Section \"Everta\"\n**Pop corn: 3 races and 12 agro-ecotypes\n***Bianco tardivo cremonese\n***Perla prolifico\n***Risiforme precoce"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rheintaler Ribelmais",
        "text": "The colour of the cobs varies across the Swiss landraces and can even change over time due to the high diversity within the landraces and the random fertilisation of the open-flowering plants within the field. The sprinkled corns on the cobs, which can also occur on the cobs of the Rheintaler landrace long were a mystery until American scientist and Nobel Prize winner Barbara McClintock discovered the mechanism of the \u201cjumping genes\u201d Transposons in maize, which were responsible for the sprinkled corns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn kernel",
        "text": "The kernel of maize consists of a pericarp (fruit wall) fused to the seed coat. This type of fruit is typical of the grasses and is called a caryopsis. Maize kernels are frequently and incorrectly referred to as seeds. The kernels are about the size of peas, and adhere in regular rows round a white, pithy substance, which forms the ear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Waxy corn\n--History.\n--Biology.\n----Chinese maize.\n----Genetic drift.\n--Genetics.\n--Genotype and characterisation with iodine.\n--Biochemistry.\n--Agronomic features.\n--Utilization.\n----Food products.\n----Adhesive industry.\n--Livestock, dairy and poultry feeding research.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "The starch of normal dent maize is characterised by a content of about 25% amylose with the remainder being amylopectin and the intermediate fraction (see 3.5 Biochemistry). But these percentages vary among cultivars and with kernel development. For example, amylose percentage ranged from 20 to 36% for 399 cultivars of normal maize. There are maize germplasm collected that range from less than 20 to 100% complement of amylopectin. And waxy maize contains 100% amylopectin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "This system has been replaced (though not entirely displaced) over the last 60 years by multivariable classifications based on ever more data. Agronomic data were supplemented by botanical traits for a robust initial classification, then genetic, cytological, protein and DNA evidence was added. Now, the categories are forms (little used), races, racial complexes, and recently branches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "In 1922, another researcher, P. Weatherwax of Indiana University in Bloomington, reported that the starch in waxy maize was entirely of a \"rare\" form called \"erythrodextrin\", known today as amylopectin. He found that this rare starch stained red with iodine, in contrast to normal starch which stained blue. Bates, French \"et al.\" and Sprague, Brimhall, \"et al.\" confirmed that endosperm starch of waxy maize consists nearly exclusively of amylopectin. The presence of amylopectin in rice had been demonstrated previously by Parnell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweet corn",
        "text": "Often seed producers of the \"sy\" and \"augmented sh2\" types will use brand names or trademarks to distinguish these cultivars instead of mentioning the genetics behind them. Generally these brands or trademarks will offer a choice of white, bi-color and yellow cultivars which otherwise have very similar characteristics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "When feeding trials later on showed that waxy maize could produce more efficient feed gains than normal dent maize, interest in waxy maize suddenly expanded. Geneticists could show that waxy maize has a defect in metabolism precluding the synthesis of amylose in the endosperm. It is coded by a single recessive gene (wx). Waxy maize yield about 3.5% less than their normal dent counterparts and has to be isolated from any nearby normal maize fields by at least 200 meters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue corn",
        "text": "The Hopi used corn in religious rituals, placing blue corn in a framework of directional associations in which yellow corn was associated with the Northwest; blue corn with the Southwest; red corn with the Southeast; white corn with the Northeast; black corn with the Above, and all-colored corn with the Below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Plant genetics",
        "text": "and maize (corn)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint corn",
        "text": "Popcorn (\"Zea mays everta\", \"corn turned inside out\") is considered a variant of this type. It has a hard, slightly translucent kernel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue corn",
        "text": "The traditional Hopi blue corn varieties are extremely drought-tolerant, deep-rooted, and somewhat short plants, seldom exceeding 4 to 5 feet in height. The Rio Grande pueblo blue corn varieties are taller, reaching 5\u20137 feet, higher yielding, and not as drought-tolerant as the Hopi varieties. Both varieties of blue corn prefer deep, sandy soils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "Maize crossed from the Peruvian mountains into Bolivia about 3,000 BCE as a marginal food of the Andean peoples. Primitive maize, with small and popping kernels, and flint endosperm aligned in four distinct rows on the ear, later shifted to a decussed eight row alignment. Prior to the Incan rule of Bolivia, selection of the mean primitive ears with eight rows diversified and underwent qualitative specialization (kernel composition, consistency, shape and color), followed by the increase in the number of the rows. The key events of this process were;\n* the increase in the ear size,\n* the increase in the number of the kernels per ear,\n* the increase in the number of the rows of kernels,\n* the increase in the kernel size,\n* the change in the kernel texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rheintaler Ribelmais",
        "text": "The products of the Rheintaler Ribelmais exclusively use maize produced from the Rheintaler landrace. It belongs to the Flint corn variant, which has hard corns with lower water content and is thus suitable for grinding and milling but not for cob- or popcorn production. Many landraces in Switzerland were named after the colour of their cobs (e.g. weisser Rheintaler). In the Rhine valley, the cobs often have a light-yellowish colour, but also other colour-variants are known, whereas also a small (Kleiner Rheintaler) and big (grosser Rheitnaler) landrace type was defined. The two types differ in the count of the rows (8, 12 or 16) and the size of the corn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pod corn",
        "text": "The six major types of corn are dent corn, flint corn, pod corn, popcorn, flour corn, and sweet corn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Purple corn",
        "text": "The pigment giving purple corn its vivid color derives from an exceptional content of a class of polyphenols called anthocyanins. Cyanidin 3-O-glucoside, also called chrysanthemin, is the major anthocyanin in purple corn kernels, comprising about 73% of all anthocyanins present. Other anthocyanins identified are pelargonidin 3-O-\u03b2-D-glucoside, peonidin 3-O-\u03b2-D-glucoside, cyanidin 3-O-\u03b2-D-(6-malonyl-glucoside), pelargonidin 3-O-\u03b2-D-(6-malonyl-glucoside) and peonidin 3-O-\u03b2-D-(6-malonyl-glucoside). Similar results for anthocyanin content were found from a variety of purple corn grown in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize lethal necrosis disease",
        "text": "Leaves of infected plants become yellow from the tip and margins to the centre. Older leaves (bottom of plant) remain green. Ears and leaves dry up and sometimes look like a mature plant. The whole plant dies and maize cobs remain without kernels. MLND symptoms can be confused with symptoms of nutrient deficiency but plants affected by MLND appear only in some areas and are scattered or clumped in a field while nutrient deficiency appears on many plants over large areas of a field."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "The word \"corn\" outside the US, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand refers to any cereal crop, its meaning understood to vary geographically to refer to the local staple. In the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, \"corn\" primarily means maize; this usage started as a shortening of \"Indian corn\". \"Indian corn\" primarily means maize (the staple grain of indigenous Americans), but can refer more specifically to multicolored \"flint corn\" used for decoration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cornus mas",
        "text": "The appreciation of the early acid-yellow flowers is largely a 20th-century development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour corn",
        "text": "The six major types of corn are dent corn, flint corn, pod corn, popcorn, flour corn, and sweet corn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint corn",
        "text": "With less soft starch than dent corn (\"Zea mays indentata\"), flint corn does not have the dents in each kernel from which dent corn gets its name. This is one of the three types of corn cultivated by Native Americans, both in New England and across the northern tier, including tribes such as the Pawnee on the Great Plains. Archaeologists have found evidence of such corn cultivation in what is now the United States before 1000 BC. Corn was originally domesticated in Mexico by native peoples about 9,000 years ago. They used many generations of selective breeding to transform a wild teosinte grass with small grains into the rich source of food that is modern Zea mays. (Britannica.com)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "In maize and some other plants, there is evidence of a starch molecule that is intermediate in size to amylose and amylopectin. The intermediate fraction contains chains of (1\u20134)-linked alpha-D-anhydroglucose residues, but the average length of these chains and the number of chains per molecule are different from those in either amylopectin or amylose. Several researchers demonstrated the presence in normal maize starch of about 5 to 7% intermediate polysaccharides, basing their conclusions on indirect evidence from IA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quality Protein Maize",
        "text": "Modified maize with higher protein content dated back to the 1920s, and the \"opaque-2\" variety had been developed in 1963. While its lysine and tryptophan levels were better than those of conventional maize, opaque-2 had lower yields and a soft, chalky kernel, which made it more susceptible to ear rot and insect damage. Moreover, the taste and kernel appearance dissatisfied consumers, who ultimately rejected the enhanced-protein varieties in the market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecuador maize varieties",
        "text": "The tripsacoid races of \"everta\", \"indentata\", and \"indurata\", sections were separated from the primitive ones of the \"amilacea\", \"amylosaccharata\","
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "Since the mid-1970s, the \"Centro Fitot\u00e9cnico y Ecogen\u00e9tico de Pairumani\" in Cochabamba collected and characterized over 1,500 maize samples. These were studied by environment, morphology, and cytological analysis of the chromosomes, resulting in the classification of 7 racial complexes, 45 races and hundreds of agro-ecotypes. These accessions are presently stored at the Pairumani germplasm bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Producing waxy maize starch on an industrial scale requires extra measures compared to standard dent maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "Transposable element",
        "text": "In the winter of 1944\u20131945, McClintock planted corn kernels that were self-pollinated, meaning that the silk (style) of the flower received pollen from its own anther. These kernels came from a long line of plants that had been self-pollinated, causing broken arms on the end of their ninth chromosomes. As the maize plants began to grow, McClintock noted unusual color patterns on the leaves. For example, one leaf had two albino patches of almost identical size, located side by side on the leaf. McClintock hypothesized that during cell division certain cells lost genetic material, while others gained what they had lost. However, when comparing the chromosomes of the current generation of plants with the parent generation, she found certain parts of the chromosome had switched position. This refuted the popular genetic theory of the time that genes were fixed in their position on a chromosome. McClintock found that genes could not only move but they could also be turned on or off due to certain environmental conditions or during different stages of cell development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "The discovery in China of a distinct type of maize bears the historical question whether maize was known in the Orient before the discovery of America. The question was considered closed at the end of the 19th century by De Candolle who stated: \"Maize is of American origin, and has only been introduced into the old world since the discovery of the new. I consider these two assertions as positive, in spite of the contrary opinion of some authors.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Corn (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "The maize plant is often in height, though some natural strains can grow , and the tallest recorded plant reached . The stem is commonly composed of 20 internodes of length. The leaves arise from the nodes, alternately on opposite sides on the stalk, and have entire margins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecuador maize varieties",
        "text": "The classification of Ecuadorian maize was based on the following data; location and environment (altitude and photoperiodic response included), plant and ear characteristics, cytological analysis of the chromosomes, and historic and ethnographic information concerning the crop."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "Tall and long cycle plants, with broad ears (Enano excepted), and joint floury or semi-flint kernels, large and brittle rachis. Grown in the Amazon and partially in the Chaco lowlands, 150-1,000 masl.\n* Bayo\n** Bayo\n** Amarillo blando aiquile\u00f1o\n** Bayto\n* Blando amaz\u00f3nico\n** Blando amarillo\n* Blando cruce\u00f1o\n** Amarillo cruce\u00f1o\n** Amarillo blando\n** Blanco blando\n** Blando\n* Canario\n** Aperlado sauci\n* Duro amaz\u00f3nico\n** Blanco aperlado\n** Blanco duro\n** Duro beniano\n** Duro robore\n* Enano\n** Enano\n* Perla pandino\n** Perla pandino\n* F. \"Perla\" (Pearl)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cornus controversa",
        "text": "The variety \"C. controversa\" 'Variegata' has leaves with cream margins, which turn yellow in autumn, and grows to a lesser size than its parent \u2013 typically . It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Some farmers who fed this waxy grain to their beef cattle observed that animals thrived on it. Feeding trials were set up which suggested that the waxy maize produced more efficient weight gains than normal dent. Interest in waxy maize suddenly mushroomed, and this maize type abandoned the status of botanical curiosity and speciality product to become the subject of major research importance."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What color differences is there between the differnt types of corn?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "They are of various colors: blackish, bluish-gray, purple, green, red, white, yellow, and the term \"Indian corn\" can refer to multicolored varieties.",
      "Corn color varieties include maize, a variety of yellow ranging from light yellow to dark orange, the purple corn variety originating from South America, and blue corn, which is grown in the America Southwest and Mexico. Which would you like to know more about?"
    ],
    "topic": "Maize",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Maize:22",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Maize",
          "Structure and physiology"
        ],
        "ctx": "Elongated stigmas, called silks, emerge from the whorl of husk leaves at the end of the ear. They are often pale yellow and in length, like tufts of hair in appearance. At the end of each is a carpel, which may develop into a \"kernel\" if fertilized by a pollen grain. The pericarp of the fruit is fused with the seed coat referred to as \"caryopsis\", typical of the grasses, and the entire kernel is often referred to as the \"seed\". The cob is close to a multiple fruit in structure, except that the individual fruits (the kernels) never fuse into a single mass. The grains are about the size of peas, and adhere in regular rows around a white, pithy substance, which forms the cob. The maximum size of kernels is reputedly . An ear commonly holds 600 kernels. They are of various colors: blackish, bluish-gray, purple, green, red, white and yellow. When ground into flour, maize yields more flour with much less bran than wheat does. It lacks the protein gluten of wheat and, therefore, makes baked goods with poor rising capability. A genetic variant that accumulates more sugar and less starch in the ear is consumed as a vegetable and is called sweet corn. Young ears can be consumed raw, with the cob and silk, but as the plant matures (usually during the summer months), the cob becomes tougher and the silk dries to inedibility. By the end of the growing season, the kernels dry out and become difficult to chew without cooking."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Maize:16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Maize",
          "Names"
        ],
        "ctx": "The word \"corn\" outside the US, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand refers to any cereal crop, its meaning understood to vary geographically to refer to the local staple. In the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, \"corn\" primarily means maize; this usage started as a shortening of \"Indian corn\". \"Indian corn\" primarily means maize (the staple grain of indigenous Americans), but can refer more specifically to multicolored \"flint corn\" used for decoration."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Maize (color):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Maize (color)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The shade maize or corn refers to a specific tone of yellow; it is named for the cereal of the same name\u2014maize (the cereal \"maize\" is called \"corn\" in the USA and Canada. In public usage, maize can be applied to a variety of shades, ranging from light yellow to a dark shade that borders on orange, since the color of maize (the actual corn) may vary."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Purple corn:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Purple corn"
        ],
        "ctx": "Purple corn () or purple maize is group of flint maize varieties (Zea mays indurata) originating in South America, descended from a common ancestral variety termed \"k'culli\" in Quechua. It is most commonly grown in the Andes of Peru, Bolivia, Colombia and Ecuador."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blue corn:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blue corn"
        ],
        "ctx": "Blue corn (also known as Hopi maize, Yoeme Blue, Tarahumara Maiz Azul, and Rio Grande Blue) is several closely related varieties of flint corn grown in Mexico, the Southwestern United States, and the Southeastern United States. It is one of the main types of corn used for the traditional Southern and Central Mexican food known as tlacoyo."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "Chemistry\n* \"For slow cases, one can use the method... in which a solution of thymol blue has had its pH value adjusted so that it is maize in color and any slight increase in the acidity will make the solution turn blue.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "The shade maize or corn refers to a specific tone of yellow; it is named for the cereal of the same name\u2014maize (the cereal \"maize\" is called \"corn\" in the USA and Canada. In public usage, maize can be applied to a variety of shades, ranging from light yellow to a dark shade that borders on orange, since the color of maize (the actual corn) may vary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Elongated stigmas, called silks, emerge from the whorl of husk leaves at the end of the ear. They are often pale yellow and in length, like tufts of hair in appearance. At the end of each is a carpel, which may develop into a \"kernel\" if fertilized by a pollen grain. The pericarp of the fruit is fused with the seed coat referred to as \"caryopsis\", typical of the grasses, and the entire kernel is often referred to as the \"seed\". The cob is close to a multiple fruit in structure, except that the individual fruits (the kernels) never fuse into a single mass. The grains are about the size of peas, and adhere in regular rows around a white, pithy substance, which forms the cob. The maximum size of kernels is reputedly . An ear commonly holds 600 kernels. They are of various colors: blackish, bluish-gray, purple, green, red, white and yellow. When ground into flour, maize yields more flour with much less bran than wheat does. It lacks the protein gluten of wheat and, therefore, makes baked goods with poor rising capability. A genetic variant that accumulates more sugar and less starch in the ear is consumed as a vegetable and is called sweet corn. Young ears can be consumed raw, with the cob and silk, but as the plant matures (usually during the summer months), the cob becomes tougher and the silk dries to inedibility. By the end of the growing season, the kernels dry out and become difficult to chew without cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn smut",
        "text": "The blueish color transforms into the recognizable black color only with heat. Any dish with \"huitlacoche\" must include a slow simmer of the fungus until it becomes black, which also removes most of the starch of the corn, and what is left is a black oily paste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "While yellow maizes derive their color from lutein and zeaxanthin, in red-colored maizes, the kernel coloration is due to anthocyanins and phlobaphenes. These latter substances are synthesized in the flavonoids synthetic pathway from polymerization of flavan-4-ols by the expression of maize pericarp color1 (p1) gene which encodes an R2R3 myb-like transcriptional activator of the A1 gene encoding for the dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (reducing dihydroflavonols into flavan-4-ols) while another gene (Suppressor of Pericarp Pigmentation 1 or SPP1) acts as a suppressor. The p1 gene encodes an Myb-homologous transcriptional activator of genes required for biosynthesis of red phlobaphene pigments, while the P1-wr allele specifies colorless kernel pericarp and red cobs, and unstable factor for orange1 (Ufo1) modifies P1-wr expression to confer pigmentation in kernel pericarp, as well as vegetative tissues, which normally do not accumulate significant amounts of phlobaphene pigments. The maize P gene encodes a Myb homolog that recognizes the sequence CCT/AACC, in sharp contrast with the C/TAACGG bound by vertebrate Myb proteins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "Maize (color)\n--Usage.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "Sports"
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint corn",
        "text": "The coloration of flint corn is often different from white and yellow dent corns, many of which were bred later. Most flint corn is multi-colored. Like the Linnaeus variant of maize, any kernel may contain the yellow pigment zeaxanthin but at more varying concentrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn tortilla",
        "text": "Maize kernels naturally occur in many colors, depending on cultivar: from pale white, to yellow, to red and bluish purple. Likewise, corn meal and the tortillas made from it may be similarly colored. White and yellow tortillas are by far the most common, however. In Mexico, there are three colors of maize dough for making tortillas: white maize, yellow maize and blue maize (also referred to as black maize)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Ploidy does not appear to influence EPS or magnitude of selection effect in maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Collins noted, among others, these unusual traits of the Chinese maize:\n*Several unique structural features that enabled the plants to resist the drying out of the silks by wind at the time of flowering\n*Unusual growth behaviour in that the top four or five leaves all appeared on the same side of the main stem of the plant. Extremely erect leaves of the upper nodes, while the lower leaves were more spread and drooping\n*One of the main things he noted was the composition of the endosperm of the maize kernels. He wrote: \"The texture of the endosperm is one of the unique features of this maize. Cut in any direction it separates with a sort of cleavage, exposing a dull, smooth surface. The texture suggests that of the hardest waxes, though it is still harder and more crystalline. From this optical resemblance to wax the term cereous or waxy endosperm is suggested.\" The moisture content of the kernel must be 16% or lower before the waxy trait can be recognised visually."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn kernel",
        "text": "Corn kernels are the fruits of maize. Maize is a grain, and the kernels are used in cooking as a vegetable or a source of starch. The kernels can be of various colors: blackish, bluish-gray, purple, green, red, white and yellow. One ear of corn contains roughly 800 kernels in 16 rows. One hundred bushels of corn can contain upwards of 7,280,000 kernels. Transportation and packaging of dried clean corn kernels to non-producing areas adds to the cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "Later, selection was directed to link molecular markers (pigmentation) to the different kinds of present-day varieties. For instance;\n* semi-flint kernel varieties are yellow,\n* floury kernel varieties are white,\n* soft texture kernel varieties are motley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue corn",
        "text": "Five Hopi blue corn cultivars identified in the 1950s showed significant differences for several traits, such as plant height, kernel weight, width of kernel, and thickness of kernel. The different varieties have a color range from nearly black to blue-grey, with names derived from the \"standard\" blue (\"sakwaqa'o\"), hard blue (\"huruskwapu\"), and grey-blue (\"maasiqa'o\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn production in the United States",
        "text": "According to \"Tribes That Slumber\" by Thomas Lewis and Madeline Kneberg, corn was \"the staff of life to the Cherokee\", who grew three types of corn. \"Flour corn\" had \"very large, white kernels\". \"Six weeks corn\" was a type similar to popcorn, roasted at milk stage. \"Hominy corn\" came in different colors of \"smooth, hard kernels\" which might be white, blue, red or yellow, or a mix of any of these."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Many forms of maize are used for food, sometimes classified as various subspecies related to the amount of starch each has:\n* Flour corn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" amylacea\"\n* Popcorn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" everta\"\n* Dent corn : \"Zea mays \"var.\" indentata\"\n* Flint corn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" indurata\"\n* Sweet corn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" saccharata\" and \"Zea mays\" var. \"rugosa\"\n* Waxy corn: \" Zea mays \"var.\" ceratina\"\n* Amylomaize: \" Zea mays\"\n* Pod corn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" tunicata\" Larra\u00f1aga ex A. St. Hil.\n* Striped maize: \"Zea mays \"var.\" japonica\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint corn",
        "text": "In the United States the flint corn cultivars that have large proportions of kernels with hues outside the yellow range are primarily used ornamentally as part of Thanksgiving decorations. They are often called either \"ornamental corn\" or \"Indian corn\", although each of those names has other meanings as well. These varieties can be popped and eaten as popcorn, although many people incorrectly believe that such colored varieties are not palatable or are poisonous."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "The word \"corn\" outside the US, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand refers to any cereal crop, its meaning understood to vary geographically to refer to the local staple. In the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, \"corn\" primarily means maize; this usage started as a shortening of \"Indian corn\". \"Indian corn\" primarily means maize (the staple grain of indigenous Americans), but can refer more specifically to multicolored \"flint corn\" used for decoration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xenia (plants)",
        "text": "The endosperm tissue, which makes up most of the bulk of a maize seed, is not produced by the mother plant, but is the product of fertilization, and genetic factors carried by the pollen affect its colour. For example, a yellow-seeded race may have its yellow colour determined by a recessive allele. If it receives pollen from a purple-seeded race that has one copy of a dominant allele for purple colour and one copy of the recessive allele for yellow seed, the resulting cob will have some yellow and some purple seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint corn",
        "text": "Regional varieties with specific coloration include Blue corn and Purple corn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweet corn",
        "text": "Early cultivars, including those used by Native Americans, were the result of the mutant \"su\" (\"sugary\") or \"su1\" () allele of an isoamylase. They contain about 5\u201310% sugar by weight. These varieties are juicy due to the phytoglycogen content, but they lose sugar quickly after harvest, with the content halving in 24 hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Purple corn",
        "text": "Purple corn () or purple maize is group of flint maize varieties (Zea mays indurata) originating in South America, descended from a common ancestral variety termed \"k'culli\" in Quechua. It is most commonly grown in the Andes of Peru, Bolivia, Colombia and Ecuador."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize\n--History.\n----Pre-Columbian development.\n----Columbian exchange.\n--Names.\n--Structure and physiology.\n----Abnormal flowers.\n--Genetics.\n--Evolution.\n--Breeding.\n----Genetic modification.\n----For pest and disease resistance.\n--Origin.\n----Connection with 'parviglumis' subspecies.\n----Spreading to the north.\n--Cultivation.\n----Planting.\n----Harvesting.\n--Production.\n----United States.\n--Pests.\n----Insects.\n----Storage.\n--Uses.\n----Human food.\n----Nutritional value.\n----Feed and fodder for livestock.\n----Chemicals.\n----Bio-fuel.\n----Commodity.\n----Ornamental and other uses.\n----United States usage breakdown.\n--Comparison to other staple foods.\n--Hazards.\n----Pellagra.\n----Allergy.\n----Mycotoxins.\n--Art.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pawnee people",
        "text": "In keeping with their cosmology, the Pawnee classify the varieties of corn by color: black, spotted, white, yellow, and red (which, excluding spotted, related to the colors associated with the four semi-cardinal directions). The women kept the different strains separate as they cultivated the corn. While important in agriculture, squash and beans were not given the same theological meaning as corn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint corn",
        "text": "Flint corn (\"Zea mays\" var. \"indurata\"; also known as Indian corn or sometimes calico corn) is a variant of maize, the same species as common corn. Because each kernel has a hard outer layer to protect the soft endosperm, it is likened to being hard as flint; hence the name."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Chrysanthemin is found in purple corn and is used as a food coloring."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Corn Is Green (disambiguation)",
        "text": "The Corn Is Green (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue corn",
        "text": "Varieties of blue corn cultivated in the Southwestern United States vary in their respective contents of anthocyanins, the polyphenol pigment giving the corn its unique color. Anthocyanins having the highest contents are cyanidin 3-glucoside (most abundant), pelargonidin and peonidin 3-glucoside."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Spice Trail",
        "text": "In the first half we visit India to look at Pepper and find out that Black pepper corns are traditionally sun dried. We are told that White pepper is soaked and de-husked to make it milder. Green pepper is mentioned but not explained and Red is not mentioned at all. We see how the corns are removed by being trodden on and massaged by bare feet. We see the devastation a Fungal disease has brought to what was once the primary area of production. We also see the silent and secret negotiation language of the buyers and sellers who use their hands under a cloth to negotiate without the need for a spoken language (a kind of Tactile signing)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pod corn",
        "text": "Pod corn forms glumes around each kernel which is caused by a mutation at the Tunicate locus. Because of its bizarre appearance, pod corn has had a religious significance to certain Native American tribes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic botany",
        "text": "The teosintes are grasses of the genus \"Zea\". Native Americans bred and selected teosinte for the traits we see in corn today (large ears, multiple rows of kernels). The first ears of maize were very short, with only 8 rows of kernels. Modern corn is the result of several thousand generations of selective breeding. Modern corn is incapable of reproducing without human help; the kernels will stay firmly attached to the cob and rot. This does not represent a useful adaptation for the species, but is excellent for harvesting and transporting corn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Candy corn",
        "text": "Candy corn's traditional colors of yellow, orange, and white represent the colors of the fall harvest, or of corn on the cob, with the wide yellow end resembling a corn kernel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Desert farming",
        "text": "Owing to the great dependence upon weather, an element considered to be beyond human control, substantial religious beliefs, rites, and prayer evolved around the growing of crops, and in particular the growing of the four principal corn types of the region, characterized by their colors: red, yellow, blue, and white. The presence of corn as a spiritual symbol can often be seen in the hands of the \"Yeh\" spirit figures represented in Navajo rugs, in the rituals associated with the \"Corn Maiden\" and other kachinas of the Hopi, and in various fetish objects of tribes of the region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Purple corn",
        "text": "Purple corn\n--Uses.\n--Color chemistry: anthocyanins.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Purple corn",
        "text": "The pigment giving purple corn its vivid color derives from an exceptional content of a class of polyphenols called anthocyanins. Cyanidin 3-O-glucoside, also called chrysanthemin, is the major anthocyanin in purple corn kernels, comprising about 73% of all anthocyanins present. Other anthocyanins identified are pelargonidin 3-O-\u03b2-D-glucoside, peonidin 3-O-\u03b2-D-glucoside, cyanidin 3-O-\u03b2-D-(6-malonyl-glucoside), pelargonidin 3-O-\u03b2-D-(6-malonyl-glucoside) and peonidin 3-O-\u03b2-D-(6-malonyl-glucoside). Similar results for anthocyanin content were found from a variety of purple corn grown in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint corn",
        "text": "Flint corn\n--History.\n--Distinctive traits.\n----Coloration.\n--Uses.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Flavoring",
        "text": "Even the color of food can affect one's experience of the taste significantly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue corn",
        "text": "Blue corn\n--Varieties.\n--Tortilla protein content.\n--Anthocyanins.\n--Food uses.\n--Symbolic uses.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cornus mas",
        "text": "The fruits are red berries. When ripe on the plant, they bear a resemblance to coffee berries, and ripen in mid- to late summer. The fruit is edible, as used in Eastern Europe, the UK, and British Columbia, Canada, but the unripe fruit is astringent. When ripe, the fruit is dark ruby red or a bright yellow. It has an acidic flavor which is best described as a mixture of cranberry and sour cherry; it is mainly used for making jam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "Medium to tall plants with usual red stalk. Size, shape (usually large) and color of the kernel greatly variable. Grown in the temperate valleys, 1,500-3,000 masl.\n* Achuchema\n** Achuchema\n* Aisuma\n** Aisuma\n** Arrayan\n** Azulino\n* Amarillo harinoso de 8 hileras\n** Amarillo clice\u00f1o\n** Morocho corriente\n** Ocho rayas\n* Blanco yungue\u00f1o\n** Blanco yungue\u00f1o\n** Blanco de tostar\n** Yunque\u00f1o\n* Checchi o gris de tostar\n** Gris de tostar\n** Jancka sara\n** Jancka sara tuero\n** Puka checchi\n* Chuspillo\n** Chulpi\n** Chulpi amarillo\n** Chulpi blanco\n** Chulpillo\n* Concebide\u00f1o\n** Concebide\u00f1o\n** Huillcaparu breve\n** Morocho Yampar\u00e1ez\n* Colorado\n** Colorado\n** Culli Entre r\u00edos\n** Culli Monteagudo\n* Hualtaco\n** Blanco aiquile\u00f1o\n** Blanco de Monteagudo\n** Blanco pojo\n** Yuraj sara\n* Huillcaparu\n** Huillcaparu\n* Kajbia\n** Kajbia\n** Kajbia huata\n** Kajbia tuero\n* Kellu hillcaparu\n** Kellu huillcaparu\n** Amarillo\n** Hillcaparu patillo\n* Kulli\n** Kulli\n** Collpa culli\n** Colorado potosino\n** Culli\n** Kulli chojnocollo\n** Taimuro\n* Oke\n** Oke\n*D. \"Morocho\" (Dark)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "On the basis of these and previous studies, Aureliano Brandolini and collaborators identified the following racial complexes and races of native maize;\n*A. \"Pisanckalla\" (Popcorn)"
      },
      {
        "title": "DIMBOA",
        "text": "DIMBOA was first identified in maize in 1962 as the \"corn sweet substance\". Etiolated maize seedlings have a very sweet, almost saccharin-like taste due to their high DIMBOA content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Experiments by Sprague have shown that ten to twenty plants are required for adequate representation of genetic diversity in an open-pollinated maize variety. Since the number of ears saved for seed by ancient Asian maize cultivators with only small plots of land at their disposal was often smaller than this and, indeed, since new maize populations are sometimes established by growing the progeny of a single ear, it follows that there must often have been genetic drift \u2013 changes in gene frequencies resulting from the creation of small breeding populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn Pops",
        "text": "The American version features an irregular, flattened, smooth elliptical, shape; Canadian Corn Pops look very different; they are uniformly spherical and have a porous surface, similar to Kix. The taste and texture of the Canadian and American versions of the cereal differ considerably despite sharing the same name and manufacturer. Kellogg's says this is due to raw ingredients and the regulatory agencies that exist in a particular country, and that its cereal differs by country also by virtue of marketing and culture. Research is done in different countries to determine preferences, and the formula for the cereal is changed accordingly, affecting the texture, color, and nutrition. The fat, cholesterol, and protein content is the same."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint corn",
        "text": "With less soft starch than dent corn (\"Zea mays indentata\"), flint corn does not have the dents in each kernel from which dent corn gets its name. This is one of the three types of corn cultivated by Native Americans, both in New England and across the northern tier, including tribes such as the Pawnee on the Great Plains. Archaeologists have found evidence of such corn cultivation in what is now the United States before 1000 BC. Corn was originally domesticated in Mexico by native peoples about 9,000 years ago. They used many generations of selective breeding to transform a wild teosinte grass with small grains into the rich source of food that is modern Zea mays. (Britannica.com)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn smut",
        "text": "One source derives the meaning as \"corn excrescence\", using \"cu\u012btla\" again and \"maize\" \"tla\u014dlli\" . This requires the linguistically unlikely evolution of \"tlaole\" \"maize\" into \"tlacoche\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dent corn",
        "text": "Dent corn, also known as grain corn, is a type of field corn with a high soft starch content. It received its name because of the small indentation, or \"dent\", at the crown of each kernel on a ripe ear of corn. Reid's Yellow Dent is a variety developed by central Illinois farmer James L. Reid. Reid and his father, Robert Reid, moved from Brown County, Ohio to Tazewell County, Illinois in 1846 bringing with them a red corn variety known as \"Johnny Hopkins\", and crossed it with varieties of flint corn and flour corn. Most of today's hybrid corn varieties and cultivars are derived from it. This variety won a prize at the 1893 World's Fair."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize lethal necrosis disease",
        "text": "Leaves of infected plants become yellow from the tip and margins to the centre. Older leaves (bottom of plant) remain green. Ears and leaves dry up and sometimes look like a mature plant. The whole plant dies and maize cobs remain without kernels. MLND symptoms can be confused with symptoms of nutrient deficiency but plants affected by MLND appear only in some areas and are scattered or clumped in a field while nutrient deficiency appears on many plants over large areas of a field."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "The first recorded use of \"maize\" as a color name in English was in 1861."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn silk",
        "text": "Corn silk can control the types of pollen that an ear of corn will accept through expression of certain forms of the Gametophyte Factor 1 gene. Many races of popcorn, of the everta type, will greatly slow the development of pollen tubes from any pollen that does not carry a similar form of Ga1-S or Ga1-M, thereby preventing the ingression of genes (natural or engineered) from other types of corn. The popcorn remains free to donate its genes via its own pollen to other types of corn. The effectiveness of this restriction can be measured by planting the popcorn beside purple dent corn; the xenia effect would cause the formation of purple aleurones if kernels permitted themselves to be fertilized by pollen from outside the group. Organic farmers are pursuing the transfer of some of these mechanisms into non-popcorn strains for purposes of preventing inadvertent pollination by GMO corn, which under U.S. regulations can cause their product to be rejected as organic corn, and for which they have no recourse against GMO growers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "In 1922, another researcher, P. Weatherwax of Indiana University in Bloomington, reported that the starch in waxy maize was entirely of a \"rare\" form called \"erythrodextrin\", known today as amylopectin. He found that this rare starch stained red with iodine, in contrast to normal starch which stained blue. Bates, French \"et al.\" and Sprague, Brimhall, \"et al.\" confirmed that endosperm starch of waxy maize consists nearly exclusively of amylopectin. The presence of amylopectin in rice had been demonstrated previously by Parnell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize ( ; \"Zea mays\" subsp. \"mays\", from after ), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The leafy stalk of the plant produces pollen inflorescences (or \"tassels\") and separate ovuliferous inflorescences called ears that when fertilized yield kernels or seeds, which are fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cornashamsogue",
        "text": "Cornashamsogue\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "A striking example of genetic drift in maize is the occurrence in parts of Asia of varieties with waxy endosperm. In maize races of America such a variety is unknown, but the waxy character itself has been discovered in non-waxy varieties: in a New England flint maize and in a South American variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue corn",
        "text": "The Hopi used corn in religious rituals, placing blue corn in a framework of directional associations in which yellow corn was associated with the Northwest; blue corn with the Southwest; red corn with the Southeast; white corn with the Northeast; black corn with the Above, and all-colored corn with the Below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Craterellus cornucopioides",
        "text": "They look rather unattractive, but have a very good flavour. When dried their flavour acquires black truffle notes; in this form it can be crumbled as a condiment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mary Draper Ingles",
        "text": "Once the corn ran out, they subsisted on black walnuts, wild grapes, pawpaws, sassafras leaves, blackberries, roots and frogs but, as the weather grew cold, they were forced to eat dead animals they found along the way. On several occasions they saw Indians hunting and each time managed to avoid being seen. On one occasion they were able to obtain deer meat from a kill abandoned by an Indian hunter, having"
      },
      {
        "title": "Nixtamalization",
        "text": "During cooking and soaking, a number of chemical changes take place in the grains of maize. Because plant cell wall components, including hemicellulose and pectin, are highly soluble in alkaline solutions, the kernels soften and their pericarps (hulls) loosen. The grain hydrates and absorbs calcium or potassium (depending on the alkali used) from the cooking solution. Starches swell and gelatinize, and some starches disperse into the liquid. Certain chemicals from the germ are released that allow the cooked grains to be ground more easily, yet make dough made from the grains less likely to tear and break down. Cooking changes the grain's protein matrix, which makes proteins and nutrients from the endosperm of the kernel more available to the human body."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Flavor of Corn",
        "text": "The Flavor of Corn\n--Plot.\n--Reception.\n--Home media.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Corn (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dent corn",
        "text": "The six major types of corn are dent corn, flint corn, pod corn, popcorn, flour corn, and sweet corn.\n* \"Zea mays\" var. \"indentata\", synonym \"Zea indentata\" Sturtev., was identified and published by American agronomist and botanist Edward Lewis Sturtevant (1842\u20131898). It is categorized as a species within the family Poaceae, subfamily Panicoideae, and tribe Andropogoneae\u2014a tribe of grasses that use the NADP\u2013malic enzyme subtype of C4 photosynthesis in carbon fixation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "Popcorn kernels very small and hard. Grown everywhere. No change in flowering and ripening cycle when grown in temperate latitudes.\n* Pasanckalla\n** Pasanckalla\n** Pasanckalla puca\n* Pisankalla del valle\n** Periquito\n** Periquito rojo\n** Pisanckalla\n* Pura\n** Pura\n* Purito\n** Purito\n** Ma\u00edz purito\n*B. \"Valle alto\" (High valley)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Red-winged blackbird",
        "text": "Apparently, the male does more damage to this grain than the female. In some areas of Ohio, corn can account for up to 75% of the diet of males and only 6% of that of females in August and September. In South Dakota, in the late summer, the Gizzards of the males studied contained 29% corn, while in the case of the female that number was limited to 9%."
      },
      {
        "title": "K\u0101nga pirau",
        "text": "The corn is traditionally prepared by soaking whole corn cobs in streams of running water in woven baskets for several weeks, until the corn kernels have settled to the bottom of the basket. In modern preparations, the corn is soaked in containers filled with water. The resulting fermentation process results in the corn having a rather pungent aroma, hence the name \"rotten corn\". Historically, this fermentation process was also used for the preservation of fish and crustaceans such as crayfish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Waxy corn\n--History.\n--Biology.\n----Chinese maize.\n----Genetic drift.\n--Genetics.\n--Genotype and characterisation with iodine.\n--Biochemistry.\n--Agronomic features.\n--Utilization.\n----Food products.\n----Adhesive industry.\n--Livestock, dairy and poultry feeding research.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cornus mas",
        "text": "The appreciation of the early acid-yellow flowers is largely a 20th-century development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Transposable element",
        "text": "In the winter of 1944\u20131945, McClintock planted corn kernels that were self-pollinated, meaning that the silk (style) of the flower received pollen from its own anther. These kernels came from a long line of plants that had been self-pollinated, causing broken arms on the end of their ninth chromosomes. As the maize plants began to grow, McClintock noted unusual color patterns on the leaves. For example, one leaf had two albino patches of almost identical size, located side by side on the leaf. McClintock hypothesized that during cell division certain cells lost genetic material, while others gained what they had lost. However, when comparing the chromosomes of the current generation of plants with the parent generation, she found certain parts of the chromosome had switched position. This refuted the popular genetic theory of the time that genes were fixed in their position on a chromosome. McClintock found that genes could not only move but they could also be turned on or off due to certain environmental conditions or during different stages of cell development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "The starch of normal dent maize is characterised by a content of about 25% amylose with the remainder being amylopectin and the intermediate fraction (see 3.5 Biochemistry). But these percentages vary among cultivars and with kernel development. For example, amylose percentage ranged from 20 to 36% for 399 cultivars of normal maize. There are maize germplasm collected that range from less than 20 to 100% complement of amylopectin. And waxy maize contains 100% amylopectin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "When feeding trials later on showed that waxy maize could produce more efficient feed gains than normal dent maize, interest in waxy maize suddenly expanded. Geneticists could show that waxy maize has a defect in metabolism precluding the synthesis of amylose in the endosperm. It is coded by a single recessive gene (wx). Waxy maize yield about 3.5% less than their normal dent counterparts and has to be isolated from any nearby normal maize fields by at least 200 meters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cornus \u00d7 unalaschkensis",
        "text": "The fruit of this plant is edible, and has been used for food by various Native American groups, such as the Bella Coola and Kitasoo. For example, the Haisla mixed the berries with oolichan grease and served the mash for dessert."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Some farmers who fed this waxy grain to their beef cattle observed that animals thrived on it. Feeding trials were set up which suggested that the waxy maize produced more efficient weight gains than normal dent. Interest in waxy maize suddenly mushroomed, and this maize type abandoned the status of botanical curiosity and speciality product to become the subject of major research importance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Waxy corn or glutinous corn is a type of field corn characterized by its sticky texture when cooked as a result of larger amounts of amylopectin. The corn was first described from a specimen from China in 1909. As this plant showed many peculiar traits, the American breeders long used it as a genetic marker to tag the existence of hidden genes in other maize breeding programs. In 1922 a researcher found that the endosperm of waxy maize contained only amylopectin and no amylose starch molecule in opposition to normal dent maize varieties that contain both. Until World War II, the main source of starch in the United States was tapioca, but when Japan severed the supply lines of the U.S., they forced processors to turn to waxy maize. Amylopectin or waxy starch is now used mainly in food products, but also in the textile, adhesive, corrugating and paper industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Maize (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Callus",
        "text": "The hard part at the center of the corn resembles a funnel with a broad raised top and a pointed bottom. Because of their shape, corns intensify the pressure at the tip and can cause deep tissue damage and ulceration. The scientific name for a corn is \"heloma\" (plural \"helomata\"). A hard corn is called a \"heloma durum\", while a soft corn is called a \"heloma molle\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quality Protein Maize",
        "text": "Modified maize with higher protein content dated back to the 1920s, and the \"opaque-2\" variety had been developed in 1963. While its lysine and tryptophan levels were better than those of conventional maize, opaque-2 had lower yields and a soft, chalky kernel, which made it more susceptible to ear rot and insect damage. Moreover, the taste and kernel appearance dissatisfied consumers, who ultimately rejected the enhanced-protein varieties in the market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn (pathology)",
        "text": "The hard part at the center of the corn resembles a barleycorn or shoe tack, that is, a cone or funnel shape with a broad top and a pointed tip at bottom. Because of their shape, corns intensify the pressure at the tip and can cause deep tissue damage and ulceration. Hard corns are especially problematic for people with insensitive skin due to damaged nerves (e.g., in people with diabetes mellitus), as they more readily become infected and potentially lead to gangrene. In others they may interfere with walking and lead to the medical complications of a lack of movement and exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cacahuazintle",
        "text": "\"Cacahuazintle\" or \"cacahuacintle\" (Spanish, /kakawa'sintle/; N\u00e1huatl \"cacahuacentli\" 'pineapple-cocoa cob/cacao-like corn', from \"cacahuatl\" 'cacao' and \"centli\" or \"cintli\" 'corn on the cob') is the name of an old heirloom variety of white dent maize (corn) originating in Toluca, Mexico. It has a large ear with grains that are more white, round, and tender than the typical field corn grain. The dried grains are soaked and/or cooked in water with lime or wood ash, then rinsed thoroughly to remove the outer seed coat as well as any traces of the alkali salts (from the lime or ash)\u2014this is an ancient process called nixtamalization. This creates a fresh, wet hominy, which can be dried for later use or ground into a flour called \"masa\". \"Masa\" can be used to make tortillas, tamales, atole, pozole, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn pudding",
        "text": "Corn pudding has sometimes been prepared using \"green corn\", which refers to immature ears of corn that have not fully dried. Green corn is not necessarily green in color. The cooking of the corn pulp when preparing the dish can serve to thicken it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue corn",
        "text": "Blue corn (also known as Hopi maize, Yoeme Blue, Tarahumara Maiz Azul, and Rio Grande Blue) is several closely related varieties of flint corn grown in Mexico, the Southwestern United States, and the Southeastern United States. It is one of the main types of corn used for the traditional Southern and Central Mexican food known as tlacoyo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Popcorn",
        "text": "Popcorn varieties are broadly categorized by the shape of the kernels, the color of the kernels, or the shape of the popped corn. While the kernels may come in a variety of colors, the popped corn is always off-yellow or white as it is only the hull (or pericarp) that is colored. \"Rice\" type popcorn have a long kernel pointed at both ends; \"pearl\" type kernels are rounded at the top. Commercial popcorn production has moved mostly to pearl types. Historically, pearl popcorn were usually yellow and rice popcorn usually white. Today both shapes are available in both colors, as well as others including black, red, mauve, purple, and variegated. Mauve and purple popcorn usually have smaller and nutty kernels. Commercial production is dominated by white and yellow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fatalii",
        "text": "Hot chili aficionados who have tasted all four colour varieties report the heat increasing from the white, which has pronounced citrus lime and lemon flavours, through yellow, then red, then to the hottest and sweetest being the chocolate or brown Fatalii. The distinctive \"chinense\" (species) fruit flavour, also present in Habanero, becomes more prominent in the yellow than the white, and increases and becomes more rounded in the red and the chocolate. The effect of the chili heat also differs in the colour forms. White and yellow have more effect on the back of the throat and are slower to decline than the red and brown, which have more of a searing mouth burn, especially the tongue. The initial taste is of the fruit and sweetness, before the heat starts after about 30 seconds, peaking between two and five minutes when it declines. The heat decline of the red and chocolate falls more quickly than the white and yellow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweet corn",
        "text": "Often seed producers of the \"sy\" and \"augmented sh2\" types will use brand names or trademarks to distinguish these cultivars instead of mentioning the genetics behind them. Generally these brands or trademarks will offer a choice of white, bi-color and yellow cultivars which otherwise have very similar characteristics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peruvian corn",
        "text": "Choclo, also referred to as Peruvian corn or Cuzco corn (after Cuzco, the capital city of the Inca empire), is a large-kernel variety of field corn from the Andes. It is consumed in parts of Central America and South America, especially in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Colombia. As field corn, it is not generally regarded in industrialized societies as desirable for human food without commercial pre-processing. When compared to sweet corn, the kernels are larger and chewier and have a starchy, hefty texture, rather than a sweet taste. The taste and appearance are somewhat similar to hominy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bioarchaeology",
        "text": "The 13C and 12C ratio is either depleted (more negative) or enriched (more positive) relative to the international standard, which is set to an arbitrary zero. The different photosynthesis pathways used by C3 and C4 plants cause them to discriminate differently towards 13C The C4 and C3 plants have distinctly different ranges of 13C; C4 plants range between -9 and -16 per mil, and C3 plants range between -22 to -34 per mil. \u03b413C studies have been used in North America to document the transition from a C3 to a C4 (native North American plants to corn) diet. The rapid and dramatic increase in 13C after the adoption of maize agriculture attests to the change in the southeastern American diet by 1300 CE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "It is unknown what precipitated its domestication, because the edible portion of the wild variety is too small, and hard to obtain, to be eaten directly, as each kernel is enclosed in a very hard bivalve shell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweet corn",
        "text": "It is one of the six major types of corn, the others being dent corn, flint corn, pod corn, popcorn, and flour corn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Traditional Italian maize varieties",
        "text": "Most Italian agro-ecotypes of maize are from the \"Indurata\" and \"Indentata\" sections and their combinations, characterized by kernels with flint, semi-dent and dent consistency. A few local varieties from the \"Everta\" section (pop-corn) were also grown in Italy. The kernel apex can take different shapes: smooth, horned, cuspidate, rostrum-like or indented."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint corn",
        "text": "Popcorn (\"Zea mays everta\", \"corn turned inside out\") is considered a variant of this type. It has a hard, slightly translucent kernel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yellow cassava",
        "text": "It is normally risky to change the colour of a staple crop because colour preference can negatively affect consumer adoption rates. This is not the case with yellow cassava. Since local consumers often add palm oil to white cassava flour in their foods, they are normally accustomed to the golden colour. Therefore, the yellow colour has been shown not to deter consumers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sorghum bicolor",
        "text": "Research has been conducted to develop a genetic cross that will make the plant more tolerant to colder temperatures and to unravel the drought tolerance mechanisms, since it is native to tropical climates. In the United States, this is important because the cost of corn was steadily increasing due to its use in ethanol production for addition to gasoline."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint corn",
        "text": "The six major types of corn are dent corn, flint corn, pod corn, popcorn, flour corn, and sweet corn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Planting density affects multiple aspects of maize. Modern farming techniques in developed countries usually rely on dense planting, which produces one ear per stalk. Stands of silage maize are yet denser, and achieve a lower percentage of ears and more plant matter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Retrotransposon",
        "text": "Notably a large number of 100 kilobases in the maize genome show variety due to the presence or absence of retrotransposons. However since maize is unusual genetically as compared to other plants it cannot be used to predict retrotransposition in other plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn (pathology)",
        "text": "Although an excised corn resembles a barleycorn in shape, the two words 'corn' are unrelated. The word 'corn' for a callus derives from the Latin \"cornus\" 'horn', and is related to the Greek \"keras\" (whence keratin). The 'corn' of 'barley corn' descends from the Indo-European word for 'grain'. The similarity in form is a historical accident."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "Maize crossed from the Peruvian mountains into Bolivia about 3,000 BCE as a marginal food of the Andean peoples. Primitive maize, with small and popping kernels, and flint endosperm aligned in four distinct rows on the ear, later shifted to a decussed eight row alignment. Prior to the Incan rule of Bolivia, selection of the mean primitive ears with eight rows diversified and underwent qualitative specialization (kernel composition, consistency, shape and color), followed by the increase in the number of the rows. The key events of this process were;\n* the increase in the ear size,\n* the increase in the number of the kernels per ear,\n* the increase in the number of the rows of kernels,\n* the increase in the kernel size,\n* the change in the kernel texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "Semi-flint or semi-dent kernels, yellow or orange, thin & hard external starch layer and floury internal layer. Grown in the temperate valleys and subtropical regions, 1,000-3,000 masl.\n* Karapampa\n** Karapampa chico\n* Kellu o amarillo 8 surcos\n** Chuchuquella\n** Amarillo 8 surcos\n** Morocho Aiquile\n** Morocho de chuquisaca\n** Morocho 8 surcos\n** Tarije\u00f1o\n** Tojmac kellu\n* Morochillo de Tarija\n** Kaje\u00f1o\n** Liquene\u00f1o\n** Morocho de Tarija\n* Morocho chaque\u00f1o\n** Amarillo duro\n** Morocho Colorado\n* Morocho chico\n** Amarillo 8 rayas\n** Morocho Panti Pampa\n** Morocho Tarije\u00f1ito\n** Patillo\n** Perla amarillo\n* Morocho grande\n** Morocho grande\n** Amarillo huancan\u00ed\n** Morocho Entre r\u00edos\n* Morocho 8 hileras\n** Amarillo pojo\n** Kara pampa pintado\n** Morocho\n** Morocho criollo\n** Morocho Guadalupe\n** Morocho puente\n** Morocho tomina\n** Suricha\n** Turare\u00f1a\n** Morocho trigal\n* E. \"Amaz\u00f3nico\" (Amazonian)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "And when Collins found such a distinct difference in the appearance of normal and waxy maize endosperm, he suspected a difference in chemical composition, but the analysis did not yield any unusual results. The percentages of starch, oil, and protein were all within the normal range. Yet, he was intrigued by the physical nature of the starch, and wrote: \"In view of the recent development of specialised maize products as human food, the unique type of starch may be of some economic importance.\" So actually, for many years the main use of waxy maize was a genetic marker for other maize breeding programs. Breeders were able to use some of the traits to \"tag\" the existence of hidden genes and follow them through breeding programs. It is possible that waxy maize would have become extinct again in the USA without this special application in breeding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stewart's wilt",
        "text": "Stewart's wilt can be a serious disease of many corn types, including: sweet, dent, flint, flour, and popcorn. Sweet corn and popcorn cultivars are more susceptible to Stewart's wilt than field (dent) corn, but some dent corn inbreds and hybrids are susceptible. The production of virulence factors can be caused by the communication system between the bacteria known as quorum sensing. Stewart's wilt causes yield reductions by decreasing the size of corn stand or by limiting its production, resulting in fewer and smaller ears of corn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Nowadays we are able to counterpart both of these arguments. At first we know that the waxy mutation is quite common (see #Genetics). Secondly, the fact that maize, if introduced into Asia in Post-Columbian times, must have been rapidly accepted merely indicates that, like the potato in Ireland, it met an acute and pressing need."
      },
      {
        "title": "Purple corn",
        "text": "Evaluating growing conditions for anthocyanin and total polyphenol content, one research group found that field location was an important determinant, whereas seedling density and soil potassium content were not."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What color differences is there between the differnt types of corn?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They are of various colors: blackish, bluish-gray, purple, green, red, white, yellow, and the term \"Indian corn\" can refer to multicolored varieties."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the color of the corn affect other things about it, like the taste?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "One factor effected by color is while yellow maizes derive their color from lutein and zeaxanthin, in red-colored maizes, the kernel coloration is due to anthocyanins and phlobaphenes."
    ],
    "topic": "Maize",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Maize:27",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Maize",
          "Structure and physiology"
        ],
        "ctx": "While yellow maizes derive their color from lutein and zeaxanthin, in red-colored maizes, the kernel coloration is due to anthocyanins and phlobaphenes. These latter substances are synthesized in the flavonoids synthetic pathway from polymerization of flavan-4-ols by the expression of maize pericarp color1 (p1) gene which encodes an R2R3 myb-like transcriptional activator of the A1 gene encoding for the dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (reducing dihydroflavonols into flavan-4-ols) while another gene (Suppressor of Pericarp Pigmentation 1 or SPP1) acts as a suppressor. The p1 gene encodes an Myb-homologous transcriptional activator of genes required for biosynthesis of red phlobaphene pigments, while the P1-wr allele specifies colorless kernel pericarp and red cobs, and unstable factor for orange1 (Ufo1) modifies P1-wr expression to confer pigmentation in kernel pericarp, as well as vegetative tissues, which normally do not accumulate significant amounts of phlobaphene pigments. The maize P gene encodes a Myb homolog that recognizes the sequence CCT/AACC, in sharp contrast with the C/TAACGG bound by vertebrate Myb proteins."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "While yellow maizes derive their color from lutein and zeaxanthin, in red-colored maizes, the kernel coloration is due to anthocyanins and phlobaphenes. These latter substances are synthesized in the flavonoids synthetic pathway from polymerization of flavan-4-ols by the expression of maize pericarp color1 (p1) gene which encodes an R2R3 myb-like transcriptional activator of the A1 gene encoding for the dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (reducing dihydroflavonols into flavan-4-ols) while another gene (Suppressor of Pericarp Pigmentation 1 or SPP1) acts as a suppressor. The p1 gene encodes an Myb-homologous transcriptional activator of genes required for biosynthesis of red phlobaphene pigments, while the P1-wr allele specifies colorless kernel pericarp and red cobs, and unstable factor for orange1 (Ufo1) modifies P1-wr expression to confer pigmentation in kernel pericarp, as well as vegetative tissues, which normally do not accumulate significant amounts of phlobaphene pigments. The maize P gene encodes a Myb homolog that recognizes the sequence CCT/AACC, in sharp contrast with the C/TAACGG bound by vertebrate Myb proteins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "Chemistry\n* \"For slow cases, one can use the method... in which a solution of thymol blue has had its pH value adjusted so that it is maize in color and any slight increase in the acidity will make the solution turn blue.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Phlobaphene",
        "text": "In maize, phlobaphenes are synthesized in the flavonoids synthetic pathway from polymerisation of flavan-4-ols by the expression of maize pericarp color1 (p1) gene which encodes an R2R3 myb-like transcriptional activator of the A1 gene encoding for the dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (reducing dihydroflavonols into flavan-4-ols) while another gene (Suppressor of Pericarp Pigmentation 1 or SPP1) acts as a suppressor. The p1 gene encodes an Myb-homologous transcriptional activator of genes required for biosynthesis of red phlobaphene pigments, while the P1-wr allele specifies colorless kernel pericarp and red cobs, and unstable factor for orange1 (Ufo1) modifies P1-wr expression to confer pigmentation in kernel pericarp, as well as vegetative tissues, which normally do not accumulate significant amounts of phlobaphene pigments. The maize P gene encodes a Myb homolog that recognizes the sequence CCT/AACC, in sharp contrast with the C/TAACGG bound by vertebrate Myb proteins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "The shade maize or corn refers to a specific tone of yellow; it is named for the cereal of the same name\u2014maize (the cereal \"maize\" is called \"corn\" in the USA and Canada. In public usage, maize can be applied to a variety of shades, ranging from light yellow to a dark shade that borders on orange, since the color of maize (the actual corn) may vary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xenia (plants)",
        "text": "The endosperm tissue, which makes up most of the bulk of a maize seed, is not produced by the mother plant, but is the product of fertilization, and genetic factors carried by the pollen affect its colour. For example, a yellow-seeded race may have its yellow colour determined by a recessive allele. If it receives pollen from a purple-seeded race that has one copy of a dominant allele for purple colour and one copy of the recessive allele for yellow seed, the resulting cob will have some yellow and some purple seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "Maize (color)\n--Usage.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "Sports"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phlobaphene",
        "text": "Phlobaphenes are not present in the model plant \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" but can be studied as the pigment responsible for the red color in some monocot cereals, including wheat, maize or sorghum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "Later, selection was directed to link molecular markers (pigmentation) to the different kinds of present-day varieties. For instance;\n* semi-flint kernel varieties are yellow,\n* floury kernel varieties are white,\n* soft texture kernel varieties are motley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn smut",
        "text": "The blueish color transforms into the recognizable black color only with heat. Any dish with \"huitlacoche\" must include a slow simmer of the fungus until it becomes black, which also removes most of the starch of the corn, and what is left is a black oily paste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Elongated stigmas, called silks, emerge from the whorl of husk leaves at the end of the ear. They are often pale yellow and in length, like tufts of hair in appearance. At the end of each is a carpel, which may develop into a \"kernel\" if fertilized by a pollen grain. The pericarp of the fruit is fused with the seed coat referred to as \"caryopsis\", typical of the grasses, and the entire kernel is often referred to as the \"seed\". The cob is close to a multiple fruit in structure, except that the individual fruits (the kernels) never fuse into a single mass. The grains are about the size of peas, and adhere in regular rows around a white, pithy substance, which forms the cob. The maximum size of kernels is reputedly . An ear commonly holds 600 kernels. They are of various colors: blackish, bluish-gray, purple, green, red, white and yellow. When ground into flour, maize yields more flour with much less bran than wheat does. It lacks the protein gluten of wheat and, therefore, makes baked goods with poor rising capability. A genetic variant that accumulates more sugar and less starch in the ear is consumed as a vegetable and is called sweet corn. Young ears can be consumed raw, with the cob and silk, but as the plant matures (usually during the summer months), the cob becomes tougher and the silk dries to inedibility. By the end of the growing season, the kernels dry out and become difficult to chew without cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "MYB (gene)",
        "text": "In maize, phlobaphenes are synthesized in the flavonoids synthetic pathway from polymerisation of flavan-4-ols which encodes an R2R3 myb-like transcriptional activator of the A1 gene encoding for the dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (reducing dihydroflavonols into flavan-4-ols) while another gene (Suppressor of Pericarp Pigmentation 1 or SPP1) acts as a suppressor. The maize P gene encodes a Myb homolog that recognizes the sequence CCWACC, in sharp contrast with the YAACGG bound by vertebrate Myb proteins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barbara McClintock",
        "text": "She observed the effects of the transposition of \"Ac\" and \"Ds\" by the changing patterns of coloration in maize kernels over generations of controlled crosses, and described the relationship between the two loci through intricate microscopic analysis. She concluded that \"Ac\" controls the transposition of the \"Ds\" from chromosome\u00a09, and that the movement of \"Ds\" is accompanied by the breakage of the chromosome. When \"Ds\" moves, the aleurone-color gene is released from the suppressing effect of the \"Ds\" and transformed into the active form, which initiates the pigment synthesis in cells. The transposition of \"Ds\" in different cells is random, it may move in some but not others, which causes color mosaicism. The size of the colored spot on the seed is determined by stage of the seed development during dissociation. McClintock also found that the transposition of \"Ds\" is determined by the number of \"Ac\" copies in the cell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Selective sweep",
        "text": "In maize, a recent comparison of yellow and white corn genotypes surrounding \"Y1\"\u2014the phytoene synthetase gene responsible for the yellow endosperm color, shows strong evidence for a selective sweep in yellow germplasm reducing diversity at this locus and linkage disequilibrium in surrounding regions. White maize lines had increased diversity and no evidence of linkage disequilibrium associated with a selective sweep."
      },
      {
        "title": "Purple corn",
        "text": "Purple corn\n--Uses.\n--Color chemistry: anthocyanins.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize is a diploid with 20 chromosomes (n=10). The combined length of the chromosomes is 1500 cM. Some of the maize chromosomes have what are known as \"chromosomal knobs\": highly repetitive heterochromatic domains that stain darkly. Individual knobs are polymorphic among strains of both maize and teosinte."
      },
      {
        "title": "Purple corn",
        "text": "The pigment giving purple corn its vivid color derives from an exceptional content of a class of polyphenols called anthocyanins. Cyanidin 3-O-glucoside, also called chrysanthemin, is the major anthocyanin in purple corn kernels, comprising about 73% of all anthocyanins present. Other anthocyanins identified are pelargonidin 3-O-\u03b2-D-glucoside, peonidin 3-O-\u03b2-D-glucoside, cyanidin 3-O-\u03b2-D-(6-malonyl-glucoside), pelargonidin 3-O-\u03b2-D-(6-malonyl-glucoside) and peonidin 3-O-\u03b2-D-(6-malonyl-glucoside). Similar results for anthocyanin content were found from a variety of purple corn grown in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue corn",
        "text": "Varieties of blue corn cultivated in the Southwestern United States vary in their respective contents of anthocyanins, the polyphenol pigment giving the corn its unique color. Anthocyanins having the highest contents are cyanidin 3-glucoside (most abundant), pelargonidin and peonidin 3-glucoside."
      },
      {
        "title": "Retrotransposon",
        "text": "Notably a large number of 100 kilobases in the maize genome show variety due to the presence or absence of retrotransposons. However since maize is unusual genetically as compared to other plants it cannot be used to predict retrotransposition in other plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Chrysanthemin is found in purple corn and is used as a food coloring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint corn",
        "text": "The coloration of flint corn is often different from white and yellow dent corns, many of which were bred later. Most flint corn is multi-colored. Like the Linnaeus variant of maize, any kernel may contain the yellow pigment zeaxanthin but at more varying concentrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quality Protein Maize",
        "text": "The \"opaque-2\" mutation reduces the transcription of lysine-lacking zein-related seed storage proteins and, as a result, increased the abundance of other proteins that are rich in lysine. The lack of zein causes a soft texture, necessitating further development for \"hard endosperm o.2\" that lead to QPM."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mobilome",
        "text": "Eukaryotic transposable elements were first discovered in maize (\"Zea mays\") in which kernels showed a dotted color pattern. Barbara McClintock described the maize Ac/Ds system in which the Ac locus promotes the excision of the Ds locus from the genome, and excised Ds elements can mutate genes responsible for pigment production by inserting into their coding regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn tortilla",
        "text": "Maize kernels naturally occur in many colors, depending on cultivar: from pale white, to yellow, to red and bluish purple. Likewise, corn meal and the tortillas made from it may be similarly colored. White and yellow tortillas are by far the most common, however. In Mexico, there are three colors of maize dough for making tortillas: white maize, yellow maize and blue maize (also referred to as black maize)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bx1 benzoxazin1",
        "text": "Mutants are viable, but may be distinguished from normal plants by FeCl3 staining: plants able to synthesize benzoxinoids have pale blue color when crushed and treated with FeCl3 solutions (Hamilton 1964, Simcox 1993 ). Mutations in the \"bx1\" gene reduce the resistance to first generation European corn borer (\"Ostrinia nubilalis\") that is conferred by benzoxazinoids (Klun et al 1970 ). \"Bx1\" mutant maize deposited less callose in response to chitosan elicitation than isogenic wildtype plants (Ahmad et al. 2011 ). Genetic mapping using recombinant inbred lines derived from maize inbred lines B73 and Mo17 showed that a 3.9 kb cis-regulatory element that is located approximately 140 kb upstream of \"Bx1\" causes higher 2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one (DIMBOA) accumulation in Mo17 than in B73 seedlings (Zheng et al. 2015 ). This genetic variation is also associated with higher corn leaf aphid (\"Rhopalosiphum maidis\") reproduction on B73 compared to Mo17 maize seedlings (Betsiashvili et al. 2014 ). Relative to maize inbred line W22\", Bx1::Ds\" mutant maize plants are more sensitive to corn leaf aphids (\"Rhopalosiphum maidis\") (Betsiashvili et al. 2014) and beet armyworms (\"Spodoptera exigua\") (Tzin et al. 2017 ). Highly localized induction of benzoxazinoid accumulation in response to Egyptian cotton leafworm (\"Spodoptera littoralis\") feeding is abolished in a maize \"bx1\" mutant (Maag et al. 2016 )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize flowers may sometimes exhibit mutations that lead to the formation of female flowers in the tassel. These mutations, \"ts4\" and \"Ts6\", prohibit the development of the stamen while simultaneously promoting pistil development. This may cause inflorescences containing both male and female flowers, or hermaphrodite flowers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Collins noted, among others, these unusual traits of the Chinese maize:\n*Several unique structural features that enabled the plants to resist the drying out of the silks by wind at the time of flowering\n*Unusual growth behaviour in that the top four or five leaves all appeared on the same side of the main stem of the plant. Extremely erect leaves of the upper nodes, while the lower leaves were more spread and drooping\n*One of the main things he noted was the composition of the endosperm of the maize kernels. He wrote: \"The texture of the endosperm is one of the unique features of this maize. Cut in any direction it separates with a sort of cleavage, exposing a dull, smooth surface. The texture suggests that of the hardest waxes, though it is still harder and more crystalline. From this optical resemblance to wax the term cereous or waxy endosperm is suggested.\" The moisture content of the kernel must be 16% or lower before the waxy trait can be recognised visually."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Ploidy does not appear to influence EPS or magnitude of selection effect in maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthocyanin",
        "text": "Anthocyanins (also anthocyans; from Greek: (\"anthos\") \"flower\" and / \"kyaneos/kyanous\" \"dark blue\") are water-soluble vacuolar pigments that, depending on their pH, may appear red, purple, blue, or black. In 1835, the German pharmacist Ludwig Clamor Marquart gave the name Anthokyan to a chemical compound that gives flowers a blue color for the first time in his treatise \u201cDie Farben der Bl\u00fcthen\u201d. Food plants rich in anthocyanins include the blueberry, raspberry, black rice, and black soybean, among many others that are red, blue, purple, or black. Some of the colors of autumn leaves are derived from anthocyanins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthocyanin",
        "text": "In flowers, the coloration that is provided by anthocyanin accumulation may attract a wide variety of animal pollinators, while in fruits, the same coloration may aid in seed dispersal by attracting herbivorous animals to the potentially-edible fruits bearing these red, blue, or purple colors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paramutation",
        "text": "The first described and most extensively researched example is the \"r1\" locus in maize. The gene at this locus, when actively transcribed, codes for a transcription factor that promotes anthocyanin production, resulting in kernels with a purple color. One allele at this locus, referred to as B\u2019, is capable of causing methylation at the other allele, B-I. This methylation results in reduced transcription and, as a result, decreased anthocyanin production. These alleles do not differ in DNA sequence, but they do differ in their degree of DNA methylation. As with other examples of paramutation, this change of the B-I allele to the B\u2019 allele is stable and heritable. Other, similar examples of paramutation exist at other maize loci, as well as in other plants such as the model system \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" and transgenic petunias."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "The apex of the stem ends in the tassel, an inflorescence of male flowers. When the tassel is mature and conditions are suitably warm and dry, anthers on the tassel dehisce and release pollen. Maize pollen is anemophilous (dispersed by wind), and because of its large settling velocity, most pollen falls within a few meters of the tassel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "The first recorded use of \"maize\" as a color name in English was in 1861."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolution Bioengineering",
        "text": "The color of the anthocyanins will be controlled using circadian rhythms, an internal clock system found in many organisms that works to control gene expression over time. Using the principles of synthetic biology, the company will control the expression of a gene that modifies pH. Connecting these systems genetically can potentially create plants that change color throughout the day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zeaxanthin",
        "text": "The name (pronounced \"zee-uh-zan'-thin\") is derived from \"Zea mays\" (common yellow maize corn, in which zeaxanthin provides the primary yellow pigment), plus \"xanthos\", the Greek word for \"yellow\" (see xanthophyll)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ludwig Clamor Marquart",
        "text": "In 1835 Marquart is credited for coining the chemical term \"anthocyanin\" to denote the blue pigment of the cornflower. In 1842, Justus Carl Hasskarl named the genus \"Marquartia\" (family Pandanaceae) in his honor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Southern corn leaf blight",
        "text": "Lesions when Race O is present are tan in color with buff to brown borders. They begin as small, diamond-shaped lesions and elongate within the veins to become larger and rectangular. Race O's lesions remain within the leaves of the maize plant. Lesion size ranges from 2 to 6 millimeters wide and 3 to 22 millimeters long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthocyanin",
        "text": "The absorbance pattern responsible for the red color of anthocyanins may be complementary to that of green chlorophyll in photosynthetically-active tissues such as young \"Quercus coccifera\" leaves. It may protect the leaves from attacks by herbivores that may be attracted by green color."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Jose de Gracia, Jalisco",
        "text": "blue for the case of maize in optimal conditions"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Ears develop above a few of the leaves in the midsection of the plant, between the stem and leaf sheath, elongating by around per day, to a length of with being the maximum alleged in the subspecies. They are female inflorescences, tightly enveloped by several layers of ear leaves commonly called husks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rollins A. Emerson",
        "text": "While at Nebraska he also became interested in using maize for his research, studying the heritability of pericarp variegation in calico maize. Ears on plants grown from variegated kernels show one pattern of striping, but the pigmentation of the kernel varies, as does the red area. Emerson discovered that the more red there was in the kernels planted, the larger the amount of red ears in the progeny. Emerson became one of the first people to suggest that mutations could cause variations in organisms. Cornell University, through Emerson's efforts, became a centre for maize genetics research. His doctoral students include George Wells Beadle, Milislav Demerec, Marcus Morton Rhoades, George F. Sprague, and Lewis Stadler."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zeaxanthin",
        "text": "Zeaxanthin is the pigment that gives paprika, corn, saffron, wolfberries (goji), and many other plants their characteristic colors of red, orange or yellow. Spirulina is also a rich source and can serve as a dietary supplement. Zeaxanthin breaks down to form picrocrocin and safranal, which are responsible for the taste and aroma of saffron."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rheintaler Ribelmais",
        "text": "The colour of the cobs varies across the Swiss landraces and can even change over time due to the high diversity within the landraces and the random fertilisation of the open-flowering plants within the field. The sprinkled corns on the cobs, which can also occur on the cobs of the Rheintaler landrace long were a mystery until American scientist and Nobel Prize winner Barbara McClintock discovered the mechanism of the \u201cjumping genes\u201d Transposons in maize, which were responsible for the sprinkled corns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yellow",
        "text": "Carotenoids are common in many living things; they give the characteristic color to carrots, maize, daffodils, rutabagas, buttercups and bananas. They are responsible for the red of cooked lobsters, the pink of flamingoes and salmon and the yellow of canaries and egg yolks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "In 1922, another researcher, P. Weatherwax of Indiana University in Bloomington, reported that the starch in waxy maize was entirely of a \"rare\" form called \"erythrodextrin\", known today as amylopectin. He found that this rare starch stained red with iodine, in contrast to normal starch which stained blue. Bates, French \"et al.\" and Sprague, Brimhall, \"et al.\" confirmed that endosperm starch of waxy maize consists nearly exclusively of amylopectin. The presence of amylopectin in rice had been demonstrated previously by Parnell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nixtamalization",
        "text": "During cooking and soaking, a number of chemical changes take place in the grains of maize. Because plant cell wall components, including hemicellulose and pectin, are highly soluble in alkaline solutions, the kernels soften and their pericarps (hulls) loosen. The grain hydrates and absorbs calcium or potassium (depending on the alkali used) from the cooking solution. Starches swell and gelatinize, and some starches disperse into the liquid. Certain chemicals from the germ are released that allow the cooked grains to be ground more easily, yet make dough made from the grains less likely to tear and break down. Cooking changes the grain's protein matrix, which makes proteins and nutrients from the endosperm of the kernel more available to the human body."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "The starch of normal dent maize is characterised by a content of about 25% amylose with the remainder being amylopectin and the intermediate fraction (see 3.5 Biochemistry). But these percentages vary among cultivars and with kernel development. For example, amylose percentage ranged from 20 to 36% for 399 cultivars of normal maize. There are maize germplasm collected that range from less than 20 to 100% complement of amylopectin. And waxy maize contains 100% amylopectin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Many forms of maize are used for food, sometimes classified as various subspecies related to the amount of starch each has:\n* Flour corn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" amylacea\"\n* Popcorn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" everta\"\n* Dent corn : \"Zea mays \"var.\" indentata\"\n* Flint corn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" indurata\"\n* Sweet corn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" saccharata\" and \"Zea mays\" var. \"rugosa\"\n* Waxy corn: \" Zea mays \"var.\" ceratina\"\n* Amylomaize: \" Zea mays\"\n* Pod corn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" tunicata\" Larra\u00f1aga ex A. St. Hil.\n* Striped maize: \"Zea mays \"var.\" japonica\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "Maize crossed from the Peruvian mountains into Bolivia about 3,000 BCE as a marginal food of the Andean peoples. Primitive maize, with small and popping kernels, and flint endosperm aligned in four distinct rows on the ear, later shifted to a decussed eight row alignment. Prior to the Incan rule of Bolivia, selection of the mean primitive ears with eight rows diversified and underwent qualitative specialization (kernel composition, consistency, shape and color), followed by the increase in the number of the rows. The key events of this process were;\n* the increase in the ear size,\n* the increase in the number of the kernels per ear,\n* the increase in the number of the rows of kernels,\n* the increase in the kernel size,\n* the change in the kernel texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zea (plant)",
        "text": "Teosintes strongly resemble maize in many ways, notably their tassel (male inflorescence) morphology. Teosintes are distinguished from maize most obviously by their numerous branches each bearing bunches of distinctive, small female inflorescences. These spikes mature to form a two-ranked 'ear' of five to 10 triangular or trapezoidal, black or brown disarticulating segments, each with one seed. Each seed is enclosed by a very hard fruitcase, consisting of a cupule or depression in the rachis and a tough lower glume. This protects them from the digestive processes of ruminants that forage on teosinte and aid in seed distribution through their droppings. Teosinte seed exhibits some resistance to germination, but will quickly germinate if treated with a dilute solution of hydrogen peroxide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize\n--History.\n----Pre-Columbian development.\n----Columbian exchange.\n--Names.\n--Structure and physiology.\n----Abnormal flowers.\n--Genetics.\n--Evolution.\n--Breeding.\n----Genetic modification.\n----For pest and disease resistance.\n--Origin.\n----Connection with 'parviglumis' subspecies.\n----Spreading to the north.\n--Cultivation.\n----Planting.\n----Harvesting.\n--Production.\n----United States.\n--Pests.\n----Insects.\n----Storage.\n--Uses.\n----Human food.\n----Nutritional value.\n----Feed and fodder for livestock.\n----Chemicals.\n----Bio-fuel.\n----Commodity.\n----Ornamental and other uses.\n----United States usage breakdown.\n--Comparison to other staple foods.\n--Hazards.\n----Pellagra.\n----Allergy.\n----Mycotoxins.\n--Art.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dactylopius",
        "text": "The dried bodies of the female insects are roughly 12 to 16% carminic acid. The carmine obtained is a shade of crimson, and this can be turned different shades by adding metal ions or changing the pH; tin salts or acids produce a bright scarlet, while iron or alkaline compounds turn it a deep purple. The Salasacas of Ecuador still use this process to color their textiles, particularly a red woolen garment worn by women around the shoulders, which each woman personalizes by choosing a different shade of red. They collect cochineals, probably \"D. confusus\", from the wild, press them into cakes, and use the dried cakes to dye the garments three at a time. One is left crimson, one is soaked in lemon juice to turn it scarlet, and the third is rubbed with wood ashes to turn it purple."
      },
      {
        "title": "Plant genetics",
        "text": "and maize (corn)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize lethal necrosis disease",
        "text": "Leaves of infected plants become yellow from the tip and margins to the centre. Older leaves (bottom of plant) remain green. Ears and leaves dry up and sometimes look like a mature plant. The whole plant dies and maize cobs remain without kernels. MLND symptoms can be confused with symptoms of nutrient deficiency but plants affected by MLND appear only in some areas and are scattered or clumped in a field while nutrient deficiency appears on many plants over large areas of a field."
      },
      {
        "title": "Purple corn",
        "text": "Evaluating growing conditions for anthocyanin and total polyphenol content, one research group found that field location was an important determinant, whereas seedling density and soil potassium content were not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rhopalosiphum maidis",
        "text": "Maize inbred lines vary in their resistance to \"R. maidis\" and other insect pests. Relative to other maize-feeding aphids (\"Rhopalosiphum padi\", \"Schizaphis graminum\", \"Sitobion avenae\", and \"Metopolophium dirhodum\"), \"R. maidis\" exhibits a greater tolerance of benzoxazinoids, the most abundant class of maize defensive metabolites. Nevertheless, lineage-specific variation in maize resistance to \"R. maidis\" was associated with differences in the abundance of 2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-l,4-benzoxazin-3-one glucoside (DIMBOA-Glc), an abundant maize benzoxazinoid. Both increased DIMBOA-Glc synthesis and reduced conversion to 2-hydroxy-4,7-dimethoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one glucoside (HDMBOA -Glc) can enhance maize seedling resistance to \"R. maidis\". Maize mutations that knock out benzoxazinoid biosynthesis increase \"R. maidis\" reproduction. In some instances, caterpillar feeding can enhance the conversion of DIMBOA-Glc to HDMBOA-Glc, thereby increasing maize resistance against \"R. maidis\". The defense signaling molecules 2-oxo-phytodienoic acid (OPDA) and ethylene are involved in regulating maize resistance to \"R. maidis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "On the basis of these and previous studies, Aureliano Brandolini and collaborators identified the following racial complexes and races of native maize;\n*A. \"Pisanckalla\" (Popcorn)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize is a facultative short-day plant and flowers in a certain number of growing degree days > in the environment to which it is adapted. The magnitude of the influence that long nights have on the number of days that must pass before maize flowers is genetically prescribed and regulated by the phytochrome system. Photoperiodicity can be eccentric in tropical cultivars such that the long days characteristic of higher latitudes allow the plants to grow so tall that they do not have enough time to produce seed before being killed by frost. These attributes, however, may prove useful in using tropical maize for biofuels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aztec cuisine",
        "text": "The process transforms maize from a simple source of carbohydrates into a considerably more complete nutritional package; it increases the amount of calcium, iron, copper, zinc that are added through the alkalide or the vessel used in the process and niacin, riboflavin and more protein already present in the corn that is not digestible to humans are made available through the process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn kernel",
        "text": "Corn kernels are the fruits of maize. Maize is a grain, and the kernels are used in cooking as a vegetable or a source of starch. The kernels can be of various colors: blackish, bluish-gray, purple, green, red, white and yellow. One ear of corn contains roughly 800 kernels in 16 rows. One hundred bushels of corn can contain upwards of 7,280,000 kernels. Transportation and packaging of dried clean corn kernels to non-producing areas adds to the cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Astacinga",
        "text": "It produces maize and beans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthocyanin",
        "text": "Content of anthocyanins in the leaves of colorful plant foods such as purple corn, blueberries, or lingonberries, is about ten times higher than in the edible kernels or fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue corn",
        "text": "Blue corn\n--Varieties.\n--Tortilla protein content.\n--Anthocyanins.\n--Food uses.\n--Symbolic uses.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Helicoverpa zea",
        "text": "A hormone produced in the brain of the female moths controls sex pheromones. The hormone is released into the hemolymph to stimulate pheromone production. Pheromone biosynthesis-activating neuropeptide (PBAN) is a peptide that regulates pheromone production in moths. It acts on the pheromone gland cells using calcium and cyclic AMP. Although the photoperiod regulates the release of PBAN to some extent, the chemical signals from the host plant supersede the effect from the time of day. Female \"Helicoverpa zea\" in corn fields do not produce pheromones during the night until they encounter corn. Several natural corn silk volatiles like the plant hormone Ethylene as a plant hormone#ethylene induce \"H. zea\" pheromone production. The presence of the silk from an ear of corn is enough to cause pheromone production, and physical contact between females and corn is unnecessary. This evolutionary mechanism enables the moths to coordinate their reproductive behavior with the availability of food. Female moths often become depleted of sex pheromone after mating within 2 hours of separation from the male. The pheromonostatic peptide (PSP), a protein 57 amino acids long found in the male accessory gland, is what causes depletion of the female's sex pheromone. This capability in males has been selected for because it increases the reproductive fitness of those that carry it, since other males will not be attracted to a female without a sex pheromone; thus, the female will bear only the first male's offspring. The transfer of a spermatophore without accessory gland products does not stop female pheromone production, but does stop the female's calling behavior. Intense selection acting on males to manipulate female reproductive physiology promotes rapid evolution of specific molecules, and male-derived pheromone suppressing factors exhibit positive selection. When females are infected with the virus \"Helicoverpa zea\" nudivirus 2, they produce 5 to 7 times the amount of sex pheromone than uninfected females."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "Biology\n* \"Light maize in color, this wildflower is found only now and then in our area, and treasured for its rarity. The three clumps, two near the east fence under a thriving red-stemmed dogwood and one beside a weathered stump, gave us a thrill last spring with their first buds.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Some forms of the plant are occasionally grown for ornamental use in the garden. For this purpose, variegated and colored leaf forms as well as those with colorful ears are used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Maize (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Transposable element",
        "text": "In the winter of 1944\u20131945, McClintock planted corn kernels that were self-pollinated, meaning that the silk (style) of the flower received pollen from its own anther. These kernels came from a long line of plants that had been self-pollinated, causing broken arms on the end of their ninth chromosomes. As the maize plants began to grow, McClintock noted unusual color patterns on the leaves. For example, one leaf had two albino patches of almost identical size, located side by side on the leaf. McClintock hypothesized that during cell division certain cells lost genetic material, while others gained what they had lost. However, when comparing the chromosomes of the current generation of plants with the parent generation, she found certain parts of the chromosome had switched position. This refuted the popular genetic theory of the time that genes were fixed in their position on a chromosome. McClintock found that genes could not only move but they could also be turned on or off due to certain environmental conditions or during different stages of cell development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gertrude Maud Robinson",
        "text": "Flowers, fruits, and leaves get their pigments from anthocyanins and copigments (such as tannins and flavonols). The combinations provide the exact colors of various plants at different stages of development. The Robinsons found that, at different ratios of anthocyanins to copigments, the copigments had different effects and they postulated that this was due to the copigments breaking up the anthocyanin complexes, which they observed when they were in solution together. They studied these pigments by comparing color distributions in immiscible solutions after reactions with alkalis or ferric chloride."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bioarchaeology",
        "text": "The 13C and 12C ratio is either depleted (more negative) or enriched (more positive) relative to the international standard, which is set to an arbitrary zero. The different photosynthesis pathways used by C3 and C4 plants cause them to discriminate differently towards 13C The C4 and C3 plants have distinctly different ranges of 13C; C4 plants range between -9 and -16 per mil, and C3 plants range between -22 to -34 per mil. \u03b413C studies have been used in North America to document the transition from a C3 to a C4 (native North American plants to corn) diet. The rapid and dramatic increase in 13C after the adoption of maize agriculture attests to the change in the southeastern American diet by 1300 CE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chrysanthemin",
        "text": "It is the major anthocyanin in purple corn (\"Zea mays\"). Purple corn is approved in Japan and listed in the \"Existing Food Additive List\" as \"purple corn color\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peronosclerospora sorghi",
        "text": "Sorghum and maize express very similar symptoms. In sorghum, chlorosis of the seedlings is very common after infection. As the leaves get older, they can express white striping, which eventually leads to the necrosis of the white striped tissue. When the leaves die, they begin to become shredded in appearance, similar to hail damage. This symptom is associated with the production of oospores in the leaf tissue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "In maize and some other plants, there is evidence of a starch molecule that is intermediate in size to amylose and amylopectin. The intermediate fraction contains chains of (1\u20134)-linked alpha-D-anhydroglucose residues, but the average length of these chains and the number of chains per molecule are different from those in either amylopectin or amylose. Several researchers demonstrated the presence in normal maize starch of about 5 to 7% intermediate polysaccharides, basing their conclusions on indirect evidence from IA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "It is unknown what precipitated its domestication, because the edible portion of the wild variety is too small, and hard to obtain, to be eaten directly, as each kernel is enclosed in a very hard bivalve shell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Evolutionary history of plants",
        "text": "Crosses between a particular teosinte variety and maize yields fertile offspring that are intermediate in phenotype between maize and teosinte. QTL analysis has also revealed some loci that, when mutated in maize, yield a teosinte-like stem or teosinte-like cobs. Molecular clock analysis of these genes estimates their origins to some 9,000 years ago, well in accordance with other records of maize domestication. It is believed that a small group of farmers must have selected some maize-like natural mutant of teosinte some 9,000 years ago in Mexico, and subjected it to continuous selection to yield the familiar maize plant of today."
      },
      {
        "title": "3-Deoxyanthocyanidin",
        "text": "3-Deoxyanthocyanidins are yellow anthocyanidins that can be found primarily in ferns and mosses (Timberlake and Bridle, 1975, 1980), in \"Sorghum bicolor\" and in purple corn (Nakatani et al., 1979) (ma\u00edz morado)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Raw, yellow, sweet maize kernels are composed of 76% water, 19% carbohydrates, 3% protein, and 1% fat (table). In a 100-gram serving, maize kernels provide 86 calories and are a good source (10\u201319% of the Daily Value) of the B vitamins, thiamin, niacin (but see Pellagra warning below), pantothenic acid (B5) and folate (right table for raw, uncooked kernels, USDA Nutrient Database). In moderate amounts, they also supply dietary fiber and the essential minerals, magnesium and phosphorus whereas other nutrients are in low amounts (table)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Normal dent maize has two different pathways for starch formation one leading to branched chain (amylopectin) and the other to straight-chain polysaccharides (amylose).\n* The amylopectin consists of chain of \u03b1-D-(1-4) and \u03b1-D-(1-6)-glucosidic linkages that form a branched molecule.\n* Amylose is primarily linear with \u03b1-D-(1-4)-linked glucose residues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Because the waxy mutation is expressed in an easy identifiable nonlethal phenotype, it has been the subject of major research during the 20th century. Nelson made a fine structure genetic map of most of these mutations\n* For waxy maize, a single recessive gene (wx) was located on the short arm of chromosome 9, codes for the waxy endosperm of the kernel (Wx codes for endosperm with normal starch). This was first shown by Collins and Kempton.\n* The structure of the wildtype waxy (wx+) locus has been determined through DNA sequencing. The gene has 3718 bp (14 exons and 13 introns).\n* Waxy endosperm is the counterpart in maize of the \"glutinous\" character in rice.\n* There is a wide range of species also presenting the waxy mutation, including rice, sorghum, millet, barley and wheat, which were characterised by starch granules staining red with iodine.\n* In crosses between heterozygous plants for the waxy character, a small but significant deviation from an expected Mendelian ratio in self-pollination is produced. Bear obtained from 71 segregated ears on the F1 generation 23,77% of waxy kernels and 76,23% of non-waxy kernels. This is evidenced by the two heterozygous types, Wx Wx wx and wx wx Wx."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Due to the waxy gene being recessive, waxy maize has to be isolated from any nearby dent maize fields by at least 200 meters to prevent cross-pollination. Volunteer dent maize plants sprouting from the previous year's debris are also a problem. A few dent maize volunteers in a waxy field will be enough to contaminate the whole field, resulting in dent grains instead of waxy grains with amylopectin starch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phalaenopsis equestris",
        "text": "The different colors on the lip are obtained through a different expression of both anthocyanins and carotenoids."
      },
      {
        "title": "SUN domain",
        "text": "Maize\n*SUN1, SUN2, SUN3, SUN4, SUN5"
      },
      {
        "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology",
        "text": "Crosses between a particular teosinte variety and maize yield fertile offspring that are intermediate in phenotype between maize and teosinte. QTL analysis has also revealed some loci that when mutated in maize yield a teosinte-like stem or teosinte-like cobs. Molecular clock analysis of these genes estimates their origins to some 9000\u00a0years ago, well in accordance with other records of maize domestication. It is believed that a small group of farmers must have selected some maize-like natural mutant of teosinte some 9000 years ago in Mexico, and subjected it to continuous selection to yield the maize plant as known today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Note: niacin for maize assumes freed niacin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Plant physiology",
        "text": "Anthocyanins (literally \"flower blue\") are water-soluble flavonoid pigments that appear red to blue, according to pH. They occur in all tissues of higher plants, providing color in leaves, stems, roots, flowers, and fruits, though not always in sufficient quantities to be noticeable. Anthocyanins are most visible in the petals of flowers, where they may make up as much as 30% of the dry weight of the tissue. They are also responsible for the purple color seen on the underside of tropical shade plants such as \"Tradescantia zebrina\". In these plants, the anthocyanin catches light that has passed through the leaf and reflects it back towards regions bearing chlorophyll, in order to maximize the use of available light"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "Medium to tall plants with usual red stalk. Size, shape (usually large) and color of the kernel greatly variable. Grown in the temperate valleys, 1,500-3,000 masl.\n* Achuchema\n** Achuchema\n* Aisuma\n** Aisuma\n** Arrayan\n** Azulino\n* Amarillo harinoso de 8 hileras\n** Amarillo clice\u00f1o\n** Morocho corriente\n** Ocho rayas\n* Blanco yungue\u00f1o\n** Blanco yungue\u00f1o\n** Blanco de tostar\n** Yunque\u00f1o\n* Checchi o gris de tostar\n** Gris de tostar\n** Jancka sara\n** Jancka sara tuero\n** Puka checchi\n* Chuspillo\n** Chulpi\n** Chulpi amarillo\n** Chulpi blanco\n** Chulpillo\n* Concebide\u00f1o\n** Concebide\u00f1o\n** Huillcaparu breve\n** Morocho Yampar\u00e1ez\n* Colorado\n** Colorado\n** Culli Entre r\u00edos\n** Culli Monteagudo\n* Hualtaco\n** Blanco aiquile\u00f1o\n** Blanco de Monteagudo\n** Blanco pojo\n** Yuraj sara\n* Huillcaparu\n** Huillcaparu\n* Kajbia\n** Kajbia\n** Kajbia huata\n** Kajbia tuero\n* Kellu hillcaparu\n** Kellu huillcaparu\n** Amarillo\n** Hillcaparu patillo\n* Kulli\n** Kulli\n** Collpa culli\n** Colorado potosino\n** Culli\n** Kulli chojnocollo\n** Taimuro\n* Oke\n** Oke\n*D. \"Morocho\" (Dark)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bx1 benzoxazin1",
        "text": "Molecular characterization reveals that the BX1 protein is a homologue to the alpha-subunit of tryptophan synthase. The reference mutant allele has a deletion of about 900 bp, located at the 5'-terminus and comprising sequence upstream of the transcription start site and the first exon. Additional alleles are given by a \"Mu\" transposon insertion in the fourth exon (Frey et al. 1997 ) and a \"Ds\" transposon insertion in the maize inbred line W22 genetic background (Betsiashvili et al. 2014). Gene sequence diversity analysis has been performed for 281 inbred lines of maize, and the results suggest that bx1 is responsible for much of the natural variation in DIMBOA (a benzoxazinoid compound) synthesis (Butron et al. 2010). Genetic variation in benzoxazinoid content influences maize resistance to several insect pests (Meihls et al 2013; McMullen et al 2009)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "When feeding trials later on showed that waxy maize could produce more efficient feed gains than normal dent maize, interest in waxy maize suddenly expanded. Geneticists could show that waxy maize has a defect in metabolism precluding the synthesis of amylose in the endosperm. It is coded by a single recessive gene (wx). Waxy maize yield about 3.5% less than their normal dent counterparts and has to be isolated from any nearby normal maize fields by at least 200 meters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rhopalosiphum maidis",
        "text": "Dense populations of \"R. maidis\" on maize (\"Zea mays\") can cause direct damage through the removal of photosynthates. Large amounts of honeydew that is deposited by aphid feeding on maize tassels can prevent pollen shed an decrease yield by up to 90%. Several damaging maize viruses, including \"Maize yellow dwarf virus\", \"Barley yellow dwarf virus\", \"Sugarcane mosaic virus\", and \"Cucumber mosaic virus\", are transmitted by \"R. maidis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolution Bioengineering",
        "text": "To create the plants the project will utilize the existing anthocyanins in petunia. Anthocyanins color many flowers and fruits. They absorb light in the visible spectrum and may appear red, purple or blue depending on the pH, the presence or absence of metal ions, and other molecular interactions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic botany",
        "text": "The teosintes are grasses of the genus \"Zea\". Native Americans bred and selected teosinte for the traits we see in corn today (large ears, multiple rows of kernels). The first ears of maize were very short, with only 8 rows of kernels. Modern corn is the result of several thousand generations of selective breeding. Modern corn is incapable of reproducing without human help; the kernels will stay firmly attached to the cob and rot. This does not represent a useful adaptation for the species, but is excellent for harvesting and transporting corn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthocyanin",
        "text": "Some tomatoes also have been modified genetically with transcription factors from snapdragons to produce high levels of anthocyanins in the fruits. Anthocyanins also may be found in naturally ripened olives, and are partly responsible for the red and purple colors of some olives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecuador maize varieties",
        "text": "Studies enabled the identification of the following racial complexes and races:\n* \"Zea mays everta\"\n** a. \"formas primitivas\" (primitive forms)\n***Canguil\n** b. \"formas derivadas\" (derived forms)\n*** Canguil grueso\n* \"Zea mays indurata\"\n** a. formas primitivas\n*** Clavito\n*** Enano gigante\n*** Morocho 8 hileras\n*** Pira\n** b. formas derivadas\n*** Andanqui\n*** Morocho Colorado\n*** Uchima\n*** Yungue\u00f1o\n** c. \"formas de reciente introducci\u00f3n\" (recently introduced forms)\n*** Cubano\n* \"Zea mays indentata\"\n** Dentado\n** Sint\u00e9tico\n* \"Zea mays indurata\"\n** a. \"grano blanco\" (white kernel)\n*** Morocho (Sabanero)\n*** Perlilla\n*** Tusilla\n** b. \"Grano colorado y semiv\u00edtreo\" (Reddish and semi-flint kernel)\n*** Kcello / Nal Tel\n*** Patillo\n* \"Zea mays amylacea\"\n** a. grano blanco\n*** Harinoso 8 hileras\n** b. \"grano amarillo\" (yellow kernel)\n*** Mishca\n** c. \"grano rojo\" (red kernel)\n*** Harinoso c\u00f3nico\n*** Harinoso puntiagudo\n*** Racimo de uva\n* \"Zea mays amylosaccharata\"\n** Chullpi\n* \"Zea mays tunicata\"\n** Huaco"
      },
      {
        "title": "Protocyanin",
        "text": "Protocyanin is an anthocyanin pigment that is responsible for the red colouration of roses, but in cornflowers is blue. The pigment was first isolated in 1913 from the blue cornflower (\"Centaurea cyanus\"), and the identical pigment was isolated from a red rose in 1915. The difference in colour had been explained as a difference in flower-petal pH, but the pigment in the blue cornflower has been shown to be a supermolecular pigment consisting of anthocyanin, flavone, one ferric ion, one magnesium and two calcium ions forming a copigmentation complex."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Immature maize shoots accumulate a powerful antibiotic substance, 2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one (DIMBOA). DIMBOA is a member of a group of hydroxamic acids (also known as benzoxazinoids) that serve as a natural defense against a wide range of pests, including insects, pathogenic fungi and bacteria. DIMBOA is also found in related grasses, particularly wheat. A maize mutant (bx) lacking DIMBOA is highly susceptible to attack by aphids and fungi. DIMBOA is also responsible for the relative resistance of immature maize to the European corn borer (family Crambidae). As maize matures, DIMBOA levels and resistance to the corn borer decline."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "A striking example of genetic drift in maize is the occurrence in parts of Asia of varieties with waxy endosperm. In maize races of America such a variety is unknown, but the waxy character itself has been discovered in non-waxy varieties: in a New England flint maize and in a South American variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize ( ; \"Zea mays\" subsp. \"mays\", from after ), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The leafy stalk of the plant produces pollen inflorescences (or \"tassels\") and separate ovuliferous inflorescences called ears that when fertilized yield kernels or seeds, which are fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "And when Collins found such a distinct difference in the appearance of normal and waxy maize endosperm, he suspected a difference in chemical composition, but the analysis did not yield any unusual results. The percentages of starch, oil, and protein were all within the normal range. Yet, he was intrigued by the physical nature of the starch, and wrote: \"In view of the recent development of specialised maize products as human food, the unique type of starch may be of some economic importance.\" So actually, for many years the main use of waxy maize was a genetic marker for other maize breeding programs. Breeders were able to use some of the traits to \"tag\" the existence of hidden genes and follow them through breeding programs. It is possible that waxy maize would have become extinct again in the USA without this special application in breeding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quality Protein Maize",
        "text": "Integrating cereal chemistry and plant breeding techniques, Drs. Vasal and Villegas collaborated to combine the existing opaque-2 maize with genetic modifiers. Through the 1970s, they produced and analyzed germplasms at an astonishing rate, sometimes processing up to 25,000 samples a year. By the mid-1980s, they had produced a QPM germplasm with hard kernel characteristics and good taste similar to the traditional grain and with much higher quality levels of lysine and tryptophan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn kernel",
        "text": "The kernel of maize consists of a pericarp (fruit wall) fused to the seed coat. This type of fruit is typical of the grasses and is called a caryopsis. Maize kernels are frequently and incorrectly referred to as seeds. The kernels are about the size of peas, and adhere in regular rows round a white, pithy substance, which forms the ear."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What color differences is there between the differnt types of corn?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They are of various colors: blackish, bluish-gray, purple, green, red, white, yellow, and the term \"Indian corn\" can refer to multicolored varieties."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the color of the corn affect other things about it, like the taste?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "One factor effected by color is while yellow maizes derive their color from lutein and zeaxanthin, in red-colored maizes, the kernel coloration is due to anthocyanins and phlobaphenes."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How do anthocyanins and phlobaphenes give color to the maize?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "Anthocyanins is a water-soluble vacuolar pigment, and depending on the pH, can have colors like red, purple, blue, or black. Phlobaphene are reddish, alcohol-soluble and water-insoluble phenolic substances and are natural pigments."
    ],
    "topic": "Maize",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Anthocyanin:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Anthocyanin"
        ],
        "ctx": "Anthocyanins (also anthocyans; from Greek: (\"anthos\") \"flower\" and / \"kyaneos/kyanous\" \"dark blue\") are water-soluble vacuolar pigments that, depending on their pH, may appear red, purple, blue, or black. In 1835, the German pharmacist Ludwig Clamor Marquart gave the name Anthokyan to a chemical compound that gives flowers a blue color for the first time in his treatise \u201cDie Farben der Bl\u00fcthen\u201d. Food plants rich in anthocyanins include the blueberry, raspberry, black rice, and black soybean, among many others that are red, blue, purple, or black. Some of the colors of autumn leaves are derived from anthocyanins."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Phlobaphene:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Phlobaphene"
        ],
        "ctx": "Phlobaphenes (or phlobaphens, CAS No.:71663-19-9) are reddish, alcohol-soluble and water-insoluble phenolic substances. They can be extracted from plants, or be the result from treatment of tannin extracts with mineral acids (tanner's red). The name \"phlobaphen\" come from the Greek roots \u03c6\u03bbo\u03b9\u1f40\u03c2 (\"phloios\") meaning bark and \u03b2\u03b1\u03c6\u03ae (\"baphe\") meaning dye."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Phlobaphene:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Phlobaphene",
          "Naturally formed phlobaphenes"
        ],
        "ctx": "Natural phlobaphenes are the common bark, pericarp, cob glume and seed coat (\"testa\") pigments. They have not been found in flowers, unless the brown and black pigments in the involucrum of certain compositae are found to be of the phlobaphen type."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "Chemistry\n* \"For slow cases, one can use the method... in which a solution of thymol blue has had its pH value adjusted so that it is maize in color and any slight increase in the acidity will make the solution turn blue.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "While yellow maizes derive their color from lutein and zeaxanthin, in red-colored maizes, the kernel coloration is due to anthocyanins and phlobaphenes. These latter substances are synthesized in the flavonoids synthetic pathway from polymerization of flavan-4-ols by the expression of maize pericarp color1 (p1) gene which encodes an R2R3 myb-like transcriptional activator of the A1 gene encoding for the dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (reducing dihydroflavonols into flavan-4-ols) while another gene (Suppressor of Pericarp Pigmentation 1 or SPP1) acts as a suppressor. The p1 gene encodes an Myb-homologous transcriptional activator of genes required for biosynthesis of red phlobaphene pigments, while the P1-wr allele specifies colorless kernel pericarp and red cobs, and unstable factor for orange1 (Ufo1) modifies P1-wr expression to confer pigmentation in kernel pericarp, as well as vegetative tissues, which normally do not accumulate significant amounts of phlobaphene pigments. The maize P gene encodes a Myb homolog that recognizes the sequence CCT/AACC, in sharp contrast with the C/TAACGG bound by vertebrate Myb proteins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "Maize (color)\n--Usage.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Purple corn",
        "text": "Purple corn\n--Uses.\n--Color chemistry: anthocyanins.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn smut",
        "text": "The blueish color transforms into the recognizable black color only with heat. Any dish with \"huitlacoche\" must include a slow simmer of the fungus until it becomes black, which also removes most of the starch of the corn, and what is left is a black oily paste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "The shade maize or corn refers to a specific tone of yellow; it is named for the cereal of the same name\u2014maize (the cereal \"maize\" is called \"corn\" in the USA and Canada. In public usage, maize can be applied to a variety of shades, ranging from light yellow to a dark shade that borders on orange, since the color of maize (the actual corn) may vary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phlobaphene",
        "text": "In maize, phlobaphenes are synthesized in the flavonoids synthetic pathway from polymerisation of flavan-4-ols by the expression of maize pericarp color1 (p1) gene which encodes an R2R3 myb-like transcriptional activator of the A1 gene encoding for the dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (reducing dihydroflavonols into flavan-4-ols) while another gene (Suppressor of Pericarp Pigmentation 1 or SPP1) acts as a suppressor. The p1 gene encodes an Myb-homologous transcriptional activator of genes required for biosynthesis of red phlobaphene pigments, while the P1-wr allele specifies colorless kernel pericarp and red cobs, and unstable factor for orange1 (Ufo1) modifies P1-wr expression to confer pigmentation in kernel pericarp, as well as vegetative tissues, which normally do not accumulate significant amounts of phlobaphene pigments. The maize P gene encodes a Myb homolog that recognizes the sequence CCT/AACC, in sharp contrast with the C/TAACGG bound by vertebrate Myb proteins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "Sports"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue corn",
        "text": "Varieties of blue corn cultivated in the Southwestern United States vary in their respective contents of anthocyanins, the polyphenol pigment giving the corn its unique color. Anthocyanins having the highest contents are cyanidin 3-glucoside (most abundant), pelargonidin and peonidin 3-glucoside."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Jose de Gracia, Jalisco",
        "text": "blue for the case of maize in optimal conditions"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phlobaphene",
        "text": "Phlobaphenes are not present in the model plant \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" but can be studied as the pigment responsible for the red color in some monocot cereals, including wheat, maize or sorghum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Chrysanthemin is found in purple corn and is used as a food coloring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue corn",
        "text": "Blue corn\n--Varieties.\n--Tortilla protein content.\n--Anthocyanins.\n--Food uses.\n--Symbolic uses.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn ethanol",
        "text": "One of the main controversies involving corn ethanol production is the necessity for arable cropland to grow the corn for ethanol, which is then not available to grow corn for human or animal consumption. In the United States, 40% of the acreage designated for corn grain is used for corn ethanol production, of which 25% was converted to ethanol after accounting for co-products, leaving only 60% of the crop yield for human or animal consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn ethanol",
        "text": "Corn ethanol\n--Uses.\n--Production process.\n----Dry milling.\n----Wet milling.\n--Environmental issues.\n----Greenhouse gas emissions.\n----Croplands.\n--Economic impact of corn ethanol.\n--Alternative biomass for ethanol.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize is increasingly used as a feedstock for the production of ethanol fuel. When considering where to construct an ethanol plant, one of the site selection criteria is to ensure there is locally available feedstock. Ethanol is mixed with gasoline to decrease the amount of pollutants emitted when used to fuel motor vehicles. High fuel prices in mid-2007 led to higher demand for ethanol, which in turn led to higher prices paid to farmers for maize. This led to the 2007 harvest being one of the most profitable maize crops in modern history for farmers. Because of the relationship between fuel and maize, prices paid for the crop now tend to track the price of oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "In the US since 2009/2010, maize feedstock use for ethanol production has somewhat exceeded direct use for livestock feed; maize use for fuel ethanol was 5,130 million bushels (130 million tonnes) in the 2013/2014 marketing year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue corn",
        "text": "The Hopi used corn in religious rituals, placing blue corn in a framework of directional associations in which yellow corn was associated with the Northwest; blue corn with the Southwest; red corn with the Southeast; white corn with the Northeast; black corn with the Above, and all-colored corn with the Below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn ethanol",
        "text": "In wet milling, the corn grain is separated into components by steeping in dilute sulfuric acid for 24 to 48 hours. The slurry mix then goes through a series of grinders to separate out the corn germ. The remaining components of fiber, gluten, and starch are segregated using screen, hydroclonic, and centrifugal separators. The corn starch and remaining water can be fermented into ethanol through a similar process as dry milling, dried and sold as modified corn starch, or made into corn syrup. The gluten protein and steeping liquor are dried to make a corn gluten meal that is sold to the livestock industry. The heavy steep water is also sold as a feed ingredient and used as an alternative to salt in the winter months. Corn oil is also extracted and sold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sorghum bicolor",
        "text": "Research has been conducted to develop a genetic cross that will make the plant more tolerant to colder temperatures and to unravel the drought tolerance mechanisms, since it is native to tropical climates. In the United States, this is important because the cost of corn was steadily increasing due to its use in ethanol production for addition to gasoline."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn ethanol",
        "text": "Remnants from food production such as corn stover could be used to produce ethanol instead of food corn. Ethanol derived from sugar-beet as used in Europe or sugar-cane in Brazil has up to 80% reduction in well-to-wheel carbon dioxide. The use of cellulosic biomass to produce ethanol is considered second generation biofuel that are considered by some to be a solution to the food versus fuel debate, and has the potential to cut life cycle greenhouse gas emissions by up to 86 percent relative to gasoline."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "In 1922, another researcher, P. Weatherwax of Indiana University in Bloomington, reported that the starch in waxy maize was entirely of a \"rare\" form called \"erythrodextrin\", known today as amylopectin. He found that this rare starch stained red with iodine, in contrast to normal starch which stained blue. Bates, French \"et al.\" and Sprague, Brimhall, \"et al.\" confirmed that endosperm starch of waxy maize consists nearly exclusively of amylopectin. The presence of amylopectin in rice had been demonstrated previously by Parnell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Purple corn",
        "text": "The pigment giving purple corn its vivid color derives from an exceptional content of a class of polyphenols called anthocyanins. Cyanidin 3-O-glucoside, also called chrysanthemin, is the major anthocyanin in purple corn kernels, comprising about 73% of all anthocyanins present. Other anthocyanins identified are pelargonidin 3-O-\u03b2-D-glucoside, peonidin 3-O-\u03b2-D-glucoside, cyanidin 3-O-\u03b2-D-(6-malonyl-glucoside), pelargonidin 3-O-\u03b2-D-(6-malonyl-glucoside) and peonidin 3-O-\u03b2-D-(6-malonyl-glucoside). Similar results for anthocyanin content were found from a variety of purple corn grown in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basankusu",
        "text": "Maize, although sold steaming hot as a fast food in the market, is primarily produced for alcohol production. Heads of corn are cut up and boiled into a mash, which is then fermented and distilled using improvised stills made from cut oil drums. Because of the woody core of the cobs of corn, the alcohol produced contains high levels of methanol, which is toxic. It is known as \"lotoko\" or \"bompulo\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "The first recorded use of \"maize\" as a color name in English was in 1861."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food vs. fuel",
        "text": "Corn is used to make ethanol and prices went up by a factor of three in less than 3 years (measured in US dollars). Reports in 2007 linked stories as diverse as food riots in Mexico due to rising prices of corn for tortillas, and reduced profits at Heineken the large international brewer, to the increasing use of corn (maize) grown in the US Midwest for ethanol production. (In the case of beer, the barley area was cut in order to increase corn production. Barley is not currently used to produce ethanol.) Wheat is up by almost a factor of 3 in 3 years, while soybeans are up by a factor of 2 in 2 years (both measured in US dollars)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ethanol fuel",
        "text": "During ethanol fermentation, glucose and other sugars in the corn (or sugarcane or other crops) are converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide.\n:C6H12O6 \u2192 2 C2H5OH+ 2 CO2 + heat"
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn ethanol",
        "text": "In the United States, 5.05 billion bushels of corn were used for ethanol production out of 14.99 billion bushels produced in 2020, according to USDA data. According to the U.S. Department of Energy's Alternative Fuels Data Center, \"The increased ethanol [production] seems to have come from the increase in overall corn production and a small decrease in corn used for animal feed and other residual uses. The amount of corn used for other uses, including human consumption, has stayed fairly consistent from year to year.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ethanol fermentation",
        "text": "In the United States, the main feedstock for the production of ethanol is currently corn. Approximately 2.8 gallons of ethanol are produced from one bushel of corn (0.42 liter per kilogram). While much of the corn turns into ethanol, some of the corn also yields by-products such as DDGS (distillers dried grains with solubles) that can be used as feed for livestock. A bushel of corn produces about 18\u00a0pounds of DDGS (320 kilograms of DDGS per metric ton of maize). Although most of the fermentation plants have been built in corn-producing regions, sorghum is also an important feedstock for ethanol production in the Plains states. Pearl millet is showing promise as an ethanol feedstock for the southeastern U.S. and the potential of duckweed is being studied."
      },
      {
        "title": "Retrotransposon",
        "text": "Notably a large number of 100 kilobases in the maize genome show variety due to the presence or absence of retrotransposons. However since maize is unusual genetically as compared to other plants it cannot be used to predict retrotransposition in other plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn ethanol",
        "text": "There are two main types of corn ethanol production: dry milling and wet milling, which differ in the initial grain treatment method and co-products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn kernel",
        "text": "Corn kernels are the fruits of maize. Maize is a grain, and the kernels are used in cooking as a vegetable or a source of starch. The kernels can be of various colors: blackish, bluish-gray, purple, green, red, white and yellow. One ear of corn contains roughly 800 kernels in 16 rows. One hundred bushels of corn can contain upwards of 7,280,000 kernels. Transportation and packaging of dried clean corn kernels to non-producing areas adds to the cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "The corn steep liquor, a plentiful watery byproduct of maize wet milling process, is widely used in the biochemical industry and research as a culture medium to grow many kinds of microorganisms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "Later, selection was directed to link molecular markers (pigmentation) to the different kinds of present-day varieties. For instance;\n* semi-flint kernel varieties are yellow,\n* floury kernel varieties are white,\n* soft texture kernel varieties are motley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn ethanol",
        "text": "Corn ethanol is ethanol produced from corn biomass and is the main source of ethanol fuel in the United States, mandated to be blended with gasoline in the Renewable Fuel Standard. Corn ethanol is produced by ethanol fermentation and distillation. It is debatable whether the production and use of corn ethanol results in lower greenhouse gas emissions than gasoline. Approximately 25% of U.S. corn croplands are used for ethanol production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Increasingly, ethanol is being used at low concentrations (10% or less) as an additive in gasoline (gasohol) for motor fuels to increase the octane rating, lower pollutants, and reduce petroleum use (what is nowadays also known as \"biofuels\" and has been generating an intense debate regarding the human beings' necessity of new sources of energy, on the one hand, and the need to maintain, in regions such as Latin America, the food habits and culture which has been the essence of civilizations such as the one originated in Mesoamerica; the entry, January 2008, of maize among the commercial agreements of NAFTA has increased this debate, considering the bad labor conditions of workers in the fields, and mainly the fact that NAFTA \"opened the doors to the import of maize from the United States, where the farmers who grow it receive multimillion-dollar subsidies and other government supports. ... According to OXFAM UK, after NAFTA went into effect, the price of maize in Mexico fell 70% between 1994 and 2001. The number of farm jobs dropped as well: from 8.1 million in 1993 to 6.8 million in 2002. Many of those who found themselves without work were small-scale maize growers.\"). However, introduction in the northern latitudes of the US of tropical maize for biofuels, and not for human or animal consumption, may potentially alleviate this."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn ethanol",
        "text": "Since 2001, corn ethanol production has increased by more than seven times. Out of 9.50 billions of bushels of corn produced in 2001, 0.71 billions of bushels were used to produce corn ethanol. Compared to 2018, out of 14.62 billions of bushels of corn produced, 5.60 billions of bushels were used to produce corn ethanol, reported by the United States Department of Energy. Overall, 95% of ethanol is produced from corn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Southern Illinois University Edwardsville",
        "text": "The National Corn-to-Ethanol Research Center (NCERC) is the world's only facility dedicated to researching the ways and means of converting corn (maize) to ethanol. Using emerging technologies, the NCERC contains an analytical lab, a fermentation lab, and a pilot-scale production plant for performing research and training future workers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize is a diploid with 20 chromosomes (n=10). The combined length of the chromosomes is 1500 cM. Some of the maize chromosomes have what are known as \"chromosomal knobs\": highly repetitive heterochromatic domains that stain darkly. Individual knobs are polymorphic among strains of both maize and teosinte."
      },
      {
        "title": "Illinois",
        "text": "The National Corn-to-Ethanol Research Center (NCERC), the world's only facility dedicated to researching the ways and means of converting corn (maize) to ethanol is located on the campus of Southern Illinois University Edwardsville."
      },
      {
        "title": "2007\u20132008 world food price crisis",
        "text": "In the United States, government subsidies for ethanol production have prompted many farmers to switch to production for biofuel. Maize is the primary crop used for the production of ethanol, with the United States being the biggest producer of maize ethanol. As a result, 23 percent of United States maize crops were being used for ethanol in 2006\u20132007 (up from 6 percent in 2005\u20132006), and the USDA expects the United States to use 81 million tons of maize for ethanol production in the 2007\u20132008 season, up 37 percent. This not only diverts grains from food, but it diverts agricultural land from food production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Bryce (writer)",
        "text": "In June 2010, in an article for \"Slate\" he expressed dismay at the corn ethanol industry's attempts to use the blowout of the Macondo well in the Gulf of Mexico as an basis to pursue more subsidies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ushnu",
        "text": "It is necessary to highlight the references of certain ethnohist\u00f3rics documents that indicate that they were constructed in squares and inside the road network Inka, mentioning also the offerings alcoholic maize drinks in ceremonies, as the Capac Hucha2. But especially that treats itself about places of sacrifice and drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beet, Maize & Corn",
        "text": "Beet, Maize & Corn\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "1,3-Diphenylisobenzofuran",
        "text": "With ethanol, 1,3-diphenylisobenzofuran forms an orange-yellow, fluorescent solution. On irradiation, it forms a colorless photodimer (upon with exclusion of oxygen), upon discolouration of the solution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ethanol fuel",
        "text": "Currently, the first generation processes for the production of ethanol from corn use only a small part of the corn plant: the corn kernels are taken from the corn plant and only the starch, which represents about 50% of the dry kernel mass, is transformed into ethanol. Two types of second generation processes are under development. The first type uses enzymes and yeast fermentation to convert the plant cellulose into ethanol while the second type uses pyrolysis to convert the whole plant to either a liquid bio-oil or a syngas. Second generation processes can also be used with plants such as grasses, wood or agricultural waste material such as straw."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peruvian corn",
        "text": "Choclo is used in the making of humitas in Bolivia, choclo arepas in Colombia and for pastel de choclo. Peruvian corn is often white in color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "A fraction of the maize feedstock dry matter used for ethanol production is usefully recovered as DDGS (dried distillers grains with solubles). In the 2010/2011 marketing year, about 29.1 million tonnes of DDGS were fed to US livestock and poultry. Because starch utilization in fermentation for ethanol production leaves other grain constituents more concentrated in the residue, the feed value per kg of DDGS, with regard to ruminant-metabolizable energy and protein, exceeds that of the grain. Feed value for monogastric animals, such as swine and poultry, is somewhat lower than for ruminants."
      },
      {
        "title": "E85",
        "text": "E85 critics contend that production of ethanol from corn (maize) drives up world food prices, causing corn to be unaffordable or even unavailable. E85 advocates counter that concern by pointing out that over 93% of all corn grown in the United States is never fed directly to people, but is instead used as livestock feed. Corn used to produce ethanol contains a high amount of starch and is not easily digestible by humans, like sweet corn. American farmers grow more corn than people purchase; there is an annual surplus of corn in the U.S."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn tortilla",
        "text": "Maize kernels naturally occur in many colors, depending on cultivar: from pale white, to yellow, to red and bluish purple. Likewise, corn meal and the tortillas made from it may be similarly colored. White and yellow tortillas are by far the most common, however. In Mexico, there are three colors of maize dough for making tortillas: white maize, yellow maize and blue maize (also referred to as black maize)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Note: niacin for maize assumes freed niacin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Handcrafts and folk art in Michoac\u00e1n",
        "text": "Dried corn husks have long been used to create dolls and other figures. More recently other items such as crowns, bells, nativity scenes and Christmas ornaments and decorations have been added. This is a common craft in Tzintzuntzan, where the husks are often dyed yellow and indigo blue."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of maize dishes",
        "text": "Corn can be fermented into alcoholic drinks, infused as a tisane, or ground and used to thicken drinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint corn",
        "text": "The coloration of flint corn is often different from white and yellow dent corns, many of which were bred later. Most flint corn is multi-colored. Like the Linnaeus variant of maize, any kernel may contain the yellow pigment zeaxanthin but at more varying concentrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Ploidy does not appear to influence EPS or magnitude of selection effect in maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn ethanol",
        "text": "The vast majority (\u224880%) of corn ethanol in the United States is produced by dry milling. In the dry milling process, the entire corn kernel is ground into flour, or \"mash,\" which is then slurried by adding water. Enzymes are added to the mash to hydrolyze the starch into simple sugars. Ammonia is added to control the pH and as a nutrient for the yeast, which is added later. The mixture is processed at high-temperatures to reduce the bacteria levels. The mash is transferred and cooled in fermenters. Yeast are added, which ferment the sugars into ethanol and carbon dioxide. The entire process takes 40 to 50 hours, during which time the mash is kept cool and agitated to promote yeast activity. The ethanol is purified through a combination of distillation and dehydration to create fuel ethanol. The mash is then transferred to distillation columns, where the ethanol is removed from the stillage. The ethanol is dehydrated to about 200 proof using a molecular sieve system. A denaturant such as gasoline is added to render the product undrinkable. The product is then ready to ship to gasoline retailers or terminals. The remaining stillage is processed into a highly nutritious livestock feed known as distiller's dried grains and solubles (DDGS). The carbon dioxide released from the process is used to carbonate beverages and to manufacture dry ice ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bob Maize",
        "text": "Bob Maize\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn-Cob (livery)",
        "text": "TR class:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Purple corn",
        "text": "Evaluating growing conditions for anthocyanin and total polyphenol content, one research group found that field location was an important determinant, whereas seedling density and soil potassium content were not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Selective sweep",
        "text": "In maize, a recent comparison of yellow and white corn genotypes surrounding \"Y1\"\u2014the phytoene synthetase gene responsible for the yellow endosperm color, shows strong evidence for a selective sweep in yellow germplasm reducing diversity at this locus and linkage disequilibrium in surrounding regions. White maize lines had increased diversity and no evidence of linkage disequilibrium associated with a selective sweep."
      },
      {
        "title": "Candy corn",
        "text": "Candy corn's traditional colors of yellow, orange, and white represent the colors of the fall harvest, or of corn on the cob, with the wide yellow end resembling a corn kernel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derek Pell",
        "text": "Corn on Macabre & Other Conundrums"
      },
      {
        "title": "MYB (gene)",
        "text": "In maize, phlobaphenes are synthesized in the flavonoids synthetic pathway from polymerisation of flavan-4-ols which encodes an R2R3 myb-like transcriptional activator of the A1 gene encoding for the dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (reducing dihydroflavonols into flavan-4-ols) while another gene (Suppressor of Pericarp Pigmentation 1 or SPP1) acts as a suppressor. The maize P gene encodes a Myb homolog that recognizes the sequence CCWACC, in sharp contrast with the YAACGG bound by vertebrate Myb proteins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn ethanol",
        "text": "This does not prove there was not an impact on food supplies: Since U.S. corn production doubled (approximately) between 1987 and 2018, it is probable that some cropland previously used to grow other food crops is now used to grow corn. It is also possible or probable that some marginal land has been converted or returned to agricultural use. That may have negative environmental impacts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn ethanol",
        "text": "Corn ethanol results in lower greenhouse gas emissions than gasoline and is fully biodegradable, unlike some fuel additives such as MTBE. However, because energy to run many U.S. distilleries comes mainly from coal plants, there has been considerable debate on the sustainability of corn ethanol in replacing fossil fuels. Additional controversy relates to the large amount of arable land required for crops and its impact on grain supply and direct and indirect land use change effects. Other issues relate to pollution, water use for irrigation and processing, energy balance, and emission intensity for the full life cycle of ethanol production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Southern corn leaf blight",
        "text": "Lesions when Race O is present are tan in color with buff to brown borders. They begin as small, diamond-shaped lesions and elongate within the veins to become larger and rectangular. Race O's lesions remain within the leaves of the maize plant. Lesion size ranges from 2 to 6 millimeters wide and 3 to 22 millimeters long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maizel",
        "text": "Maizel\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chrysanthemin",
        "text": "It is the major anthocyanin in purple corn (\"Zea mays\"). Purple corn is approved in Japan and listed in the \"Existing Food Additive List\" as \"purple corn color\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn production in the United States",
        "text": "Two methods are used to produce ethanol from corn and other plants such as sugar cane. The residual product (DDGS) is about 33% of the input stream and is used as livestock feed. Ethanol is blended with gasoline to produce E10 and E85 fuels for automobile vehicles. The addition of ethanol to gasoline reduces the net greenhouse gases released by an average of 34%. One bushel of corn can produce 2.8 gallons of ethanol in as well as 17-18 pounds of DDGS. Compared to other major sources, corn is the least efficient means of ethanol production. In 2007, the production process used 75% of the energy extracted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glaucium flavum",
        "text": "That dances with the noble corn:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Purple corn",
        "text": "For ease of extractions, scientists have explored components of the purple corn plant for yield, such as kernels, cob and husk, possibly allowing use of a plentiful, non-edible residual biomass in cobs or husks. Husks of the purple corn plant contain about ten times higher content of anthocyanins than do kernels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rollins A. Emerson",
        "text": "While at Nebraska he also became interested in using maize for his research, studying the heritability of pericarp variegation in calico maize. Ears on plants grown from variegated kernels show one pattern of striping, but the pigmentation of the kernel varies, as does the red area. Emerson discovered that the more red there was in the kernels planted, the larger the amount of red ears in the progeny. Emerson became one of the first people to suggest that mutations could cause variations in organisms. Cornell University, through Emerson's efforts, became a centre for maize genetics research. His doctoral students include George Wells Beadle, Milislav Demerec, Marcus Morton Rhoades, George F. Sprague, and Lewis Stadler."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ethanol fuel in the United States",
        "text": "Corn is the main feedstock used for producing ethanol fuel in the United States. Most of the controversies surrounding U.S. ethanol fuel production and use is related to corn ethanol's energy balance and its social and environmental impacts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cellulosic ethanol",
        "text": "Commercial production of cellulosic ethanol, which unlike corn and sugarcane would not compete with food production, would be highly attractive since it would alleviate pressure on these foodcrops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "In maize and some other plants, there is evidence of a starch molecule that is intermediate in size to amylose and amylopectin. The intermediate fraction contains chains of (1\u20134)-linked alpha-D-anhydroglucose residues, but the average length of these chains and the number of chains per molecule are different from those in either amylopectin or amylose. Several researchers demonstrated the presence in normal maize starch of about 5 to 7% intermediate polysaccharides, basing their conclusions on indirect evidence from IA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nixtamalization",
        "text": "Lime and ash are highly alkaline: the alkalinity helps the dissolution of hemicellulose, the major glue-like component of the maize cell walls, and loosens the hulls from the kernels and softens the maize. Corn's hemicellulose-bound niacin is converted to free niacin (a form of vitamin B3), making it available for absorption into the body, thus helping to prevent pellagra."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Due to the waxy gene being recessive, waxy maize has to be isolated from any nearby dent maize fields by at least 200 meters to prevent cross-pollination. Volunteer dent maize plants sprouting from the previous year's debris are also a problem. A few dent maize volunteers in a waxy field will be enough to contaminate the whole field, resulting in dent grains instead of waxy grains with amylopectin starch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mobilome",
        "text": "Eukaryotic transposable elements were first discovered in maize (\"Zea mays\") in which kernels showed a dotted color pattern. Barbara McClintock described the maize Ac/Ds system in which the Ac locus promotes the excision of the Ds locus from the genome, and excised Ds elements can mutate genes responsible for pigment production by inserting into their coding regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Plant genetics",
        "text": "and maize (corn)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "And when Collins found such a distinct difference in the appearance of normal and waxy maize endosperm, he suspected a difference in chemical composition, but the analysis did not yield any unusual results. The percentages of starch, oil, and protein were all within the normal range. Yet, he was intrigued by the physical nature of the starch, and wrote: \"In view of the recent development of specialised maize products as human food, the unique type of starch may be of some economic importance.\" So actually, for many years the main use of waxy maize was a genetic marker for other maize breeding programs. Breeders were able to use some of the traits to \"tag\" the existence of hidden genes and follow them through breeding programs. It is possible that waxy maize would have become extinct again in the USA without this special application in breeding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kamtech Logistics Uganda Limited",
        "text": "Ethanol can be extracted from cassava, maize and sorghum. However, maize is too expensive and sorghum is in short supply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Many forms of maize are used for food, sometimes classified as various subspecies related to the amount of starch each has:\n* Flour corn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" amylacea\"\n* Popcorn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" everta\"\n* Dent corn : \"Zea mays \"var.\" indentata\"\n* Flint corn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" indurata\"\n* Sweet corn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" saccharata\" and \"Zea mays\" var. \"rugosa\"\n* Waxy corn: \" Zea mays \"var.\" ceratina\"\n* Amylomaize: \" Zea mays\"\n* Pod corn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" tunicata\" Larra\u00f1aga ex A. St. Hil.\n* Striped maize: \"Zea mays \"var.\" japonica\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Colorado",
        "text": "Corn grown in the flat eastern part of the state offers potential resources for ethanol production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ethanol fermentation",
        "text": "The dominant ethanol feedstock in warmer regions is sugarcane. In temperate regions, corn or sugar beets are used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bx1 benzoxazin1",
        "text": "Mutants are viable, but may be distinguished from normal plants by FeCl3 staining: plants able to synthesize benzoxinoids have pale blue color when crushed and treated with FeCl3 solutions (Hamilton 1964, Simcox 1993 ). Mutations in the \"bx1\" gene reduce the resistance to first generation European corn borer (\"Ostrinia nubilalis\") that is conferred by benzoxazinoids (Klun et al 1970 ). \"Bx1\" mutant maize deposited less callose in response to chitosan elicitation than isogenic wildtype plants (Ahmad et al. 2011 ). Genetic mapping using recombinant inbred lines derived from maize inbred lines B73 and Mo17 showed that a 3.9 kb cis-regulatory element that is located approximately 140 kb upstream of \"Bx1\" causes higher 2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one (DIMBOA) accumulation in Mo17 than in B73 seedlings (Zheng et al. 2015 ). This genetic variation is also associated with higher corn leaf aphid (\"Rhopalosiphum maidis\") reproduction on B73 compared to Mo17 maize seedlings (Betsiashvili et al. 2014 ). Relative to maize inbred line W22\", Bx1::Ds\" mutant maize plants are more sensitive to corn leaf aphids (\"Rhopalosiphum maidis\") (Betsiashvili et al. 2014) and beet armyworms (\"Spodoptera exigua\") (Tzin et al. 2017 ). Highly localized induction of benzoxazinoid accumulation in response to Egyptian cotton leafworm (\"Spodoptera littoralis\") feeding is abolished in a maize \"bx1\" mutant (Maag et al. 2016 )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Elongated stigmas, called silks, emerge from the whorl of husk leaves at the end of the ear. They are often pale yellow and in length, like tufts of hair in appearance. At the end of each is a carpel, which may develop into a \"kernel\" if fertilized by a pollen grain. The pericarp of the fruit is fused with the seed coat referred to as \"caryopsis\", typical of the grasses, and the entire kernel is often referred to as the \"seed\". The cob is close to a multiple fruit in structure, except that the individual fruits (the kernels) never fuse into a single mass. The grains are about the size of peas, and adhere in regular rows around a white, pithy substance, which forms the cob. The maximum size of kernels is reputedly . An ear commonly holds 600 kernels. They are of various colors: blackish, bluish-gray, purple, green, red, white and yellow. When ground into flour, maize yields more flour with much less bran than wheat does. It lacks the protein gluten of wheat and, therefore, makes baked goods with poor rising capability. A genetic variant that accumulates more sugar and less starch in the ear is consumed as a vegetable and is called sweet corn. Young ears can be consumed raw, with the cob and silk, but as the plant matures (usually during the summer months), the cob becomes tougher and the silk dries to inedibility. By the end of the growing season, the kernels dry out and become difficult to chew without cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Andr\u00e9s Tenejapan",
        "text": "It produces principally maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint corn",
        "text": "Flint corn\n--History.\n--Distinctive traits.\n----Coloration.\n--Uses.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "But in 1970, the Southern corn leaf blight epidemic (Helminthosporium maydis Nisik. and Miyake) swept the U.S. corn belt. At the same time, at least 80% of the maize being grown in the U.S. was susceptible to the blight because this maize contained the \"Texas type\" male-sterile cytoplasm, which allowed production of hybrid seed without mechanical or hand detasseling. As a result, there was a scramble in 1971 to find any kind of maize that had normal cytoplasm \u2013 cytoplasm that would resist the blight. Consequently, some seed of waxy maize worked its way into the market. Through backcrossing, also has been used extensively to transfer individual genes such as wx (waxy), o2 (opaque 2) and the Htl gene for resistance to the leaf blight was transferred to regular dent corn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Maize (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "The starch of normal dent maize is characterised by a content of about 25% amylose with the remainder being amylopectin and the intermediate fraction (see 3.5 Biochemistry). But these percentages vary among cultivars and with kernel development. For example, amylose percentage ranged from 20 to 36% for 399 cultivars of normal maize. There are maize germplasm collected that range from less than 20 to 100% complement of amylopectin. And waxy maize contains 100% amylopectin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "Biology\n* \"Light maize in color, this wildflower is found only now and then in our area, and treasured for its rarity. The three clumps, two near the east fence under a thriving red-stemmed dogwood and one beside a weathered stump, gave us a thrill last spring with their first buds.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ethanol fuel by country",
        "text": "The production of fuel ethanol from corn in the United States is controversial for a few reasons. Production of ethanol from corn is 5 to 6 times less efficient than producing it from sugarcane. The reason that corn has been notoriously used for ethanol production is because farmers are either paid to destroy crops or to not grow corn crops. Another reason is that the cost of processing and transporting raw corn can be more expensive than transporting and processing it in to ethanol fuel. Corn production is highly dependent upon government subsidies, so naturally ethanol derived from corn is also highly dependent on government subsidies. Contrary to what most would claim, ethanol is not a food-versus-fuel issue. Corn, along with other crops that have been distilled are still a usable food source for cattle. Known as dried distillers grains, it is proven to be significantly healthier and easier for cattle to digest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ethanol (data page)",
        "text": "Data obtained from \"CRC Handbook of Chemistry (Page 2117)\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize and cornmeal (ground dried maize) constitute a staple food in many regions of the world. Maize is used to produce cornstarch, a common ingredient in home cooking and many industrialized food products. Maize starch can be hydrolyzed and enzymatically treated to produce syrups, particularly high fructose corn syrup, a sweetener; and also fermented and distilled to produce grain alcohol. Grain alcohol from maize is traditionally the source of Bourbon whiskey. Corn flour is used to make cornbread and other baked products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sorghum bicolor",
        "text": "In some countries, sweet sorghum stalks are used for producing biofuel by squeezing the juice and then fermenting it into ethanol. Texas A&M University in the United States is currently running trials to find the best varieties for ethanol production from sorghum leaves and stalks in the USA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basic Black 2",
        "text": "Basic Black 2 is a dye of the azine class that is soluble in water. The dye is mostly made to obtain black and green. In water, dark green and light blue might be viewed. In ethanol, red light blue can be observed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthotype",
        "text": "An alcoholic tincture of either red carnations, violets or corn poppy turned white behind blue glass in a few days, while it remained unchanged behind red glass after about the same time. Cotton and paper colored with these tinctures exhibited the same differences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Some forms of the plant are occasionally grown for ornamental use in the garden. For this purpose, variegated and colored leaf forms as well as those with colorful ears are used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Choctaw",
        "text": "Other games included using corn, cane, and moccasins. The corn game used five to seven kernels of corn. One side was blackened and the other side white. Players won points based on each color. One point was awarded for the black side and 5\u20137 points for the white side. There were usually only two players."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What color differences is there between the differnt types of corn?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They are of various colors: blackish, bluish-gray, purple, green, red, white, yellow, and the term \"Indian corn\" can refer to multicolored varieties."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the color of the corn affect other things about it, like the taste?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "One factor effected by color is while yellow maizes derive their color from lutein and zeaxanthin, in red-colored maizes, the kernel coloration is due to anthocyanins and phlobaphenes."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How do anthocyanins and phlobaphenes give color to the maize?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Anthocyanins is a water-soluble vacuolar pigment, and depending on the pH, can have colors like red, purple, blue, or black. Phlobaphene are reddish, alcohol-soluble and water-insoluble phenolic substances and are natural pigments."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What color of corn is used for corn ethanol?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I was not able to find information about the color, only that maize is used for corn ethanol."
    ],
    "topic": "Maize",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Maize:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Maize"
        ],
        "ctx": "Maize has become a staple food in many parts of the world, with the total production of maize surpassing that of wheat or rice. In addition to being consumed directly by humans (often in the form of masa), maize is also used for corn ethanol, animal feed and other , such as corn starch and corn syrup. The six major types of maize are dent corn, flint corn, pod corn, popcorn, flour corn, and sweet corn. Sugar-rich varieties called sweet corn are usually grown for human consumption as kernels, while field corn varieties are used for animal feed, various corn-based human food uses (including grinding into cornmeal or masa, pressing into corn oil, and fermentation and distillation into alcoholic beverages like bourbon whiskey), and as chemical feedstocks. Maize is also used in making ethanol and other biofuels."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "Sports"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "While yellow maizes derive their color from lutein and zeaxanthin, in red-colored maizes, the kernel coloration is due to anthocyanins and phlobaphenes. These latter substances are synthesized in the flavonoids synthetic pathway from polymerization of flavan-4-ols by the expression of maize pericarp color1 (p1) gene which encodes an R2R3 myb-like transcriptional activator of the A1 gene encoding for the dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (reducing dihydroflavonols into flavan-4-ols) while another gene (Suppressor of Pericarp Pigmentation 1 or SPP1) acts as a suppressor. The p1 gene encodes an Myb-homologous transcriptional activator of genes required for biosynthesis of red phlobaphene pigments, while the P1-wr allele specifies colorless kernel pericarp and red cobs, and unstable factor for orange1 (Ufo1) modifies P1-wr expression to confer pigmentation in kernel pericarp, as well as vegetative tissues, which normally do not accumulate significant amounts of phlobaphene pigments. The maize P gene encodes a Myb homolog that recognizes the sequence CCT/AACC, in sharp contrast with the C/TAACGG bound by vertebrate Myb proteins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "Maize (color)\n--Usage.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "Chemistry\n* \"For slow cases, one can use the method... in which a solution of thymol blue has had its pH value adjusted so that it is maize in color and any slight increase in the acidity will make the solution turn blue.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Plant genetics",
        "text": "and maize (corn)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize is a diploid with 20 chromosomes (n=10). The combined length of the chromosomes is 1500 cM. Some of the maize chromosomes have what are known as \"chromosomal knobs\": highly repetitive heterochromatic domains that stain darkly. Individual knobs are polymorphic among strains of both maize and teosinte."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "The shade maize or corn refers to a specific tone of yellow; it is named for the cereal of the same name\u2014maize (the cereal \"maize\" is called \"corn\" in the USA and Canada. In public usage, maize can be applied to a variety of shades, ranging from light yellow to a dark shade that borders on orange, since the color of maize (the actual corn) may vary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Retrotransposon",
        "text": "Notably a large number of 100 kilobases in the maize genome show variety due to the presence or absence of retrotransposons. However since maize is unusual genetically as compared to other plants it cannot be used to predict retrotransposition in other plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nested association mapping",
        "text": "Twenty-five diverse corn lines were chosen as the parental lines for the NAM population in order to encompass the remarkable diversity of maize and preserve historic linkage disequilibrium. Each parental line was crossed to the B73 maize inbred (chosen as a reference line due to its use in the public maize sequencing project and wide deployment as one of the most successful commercial inbred lines) to create the F1 population. The F1 plants were then self-fertilized for six generations in order to create a total of 200 homozygous recombinant inbred lines (RILs) per family, for a total of 5000 RILs within the NAM population. The lines are publicly available through the USDA-ARS Maize Stock Center."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize breeding in prehistory resulted in large plants producing large ears. Modern breeding began with individuals who selected highly productive varieties in their fields and then sold seed to other farmers. James L. Reid was one of the earliest and most successful developing Reid's Yellow Dent in the 1860s. These early efforts were based on mass selection. Later breeding efforts included ear to row selection (C. G. Hopkins c. 1896), hybrids made from selected inbred lines (G. H. Shull, 1909), and the highly successful double cross hybrids using four inbred lines (D. F. Jones c. 1918, 1922). University supported breeding programs were especially important in developing and introducing modern hybrids. By the 1930s, companies such as Pioneer devoted to production of hybrid maize had begun to influence long-term development. Internationally important seed banks such as the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and the US bank at the Maize Genetics Cooperation Stock Center University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign maintain germplasm important for future crop development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "The Maize Genetics Cooperation Stock Center, funded by the USDA Agricultural Research Service and located in the Department of Crop Sciences at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, is a stock center of maize mutants. The total collection has nearly 80,000 samples. The bulk of the collection consists of several hundred named genes, plus additional gene combinations and other heritable variants. There are about 1000 chromosomal aberrations (e.g., translocations and inversions) and stocks with abnormal chromosome numbers (e.g., tetraploids). Genetic data describing the maize mutant stocks as well as myriad other data about maize genetics can be accessed at MaizeGDB, the Maize Genetics and Genomics Database."
      },
      {
        "title": "Introduction to evolution",
        "text": "Artificial selection has produced a wide variety of plants. In the case of maize (corn), recent genetic evidence suggests that domestication occurred 10,000\u00a0years ago in central Mexico. Prior to domestication, the edible portion of the wild form was small and difficult to collect. Today \"The Maize Genetics Cooperation \u2022 Stock Center\" maintains a collection of more than 10,000\u00a0genetic variations of maize that have arisen by random mutations and chromosomal variations from the original wild type."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "Later, selection was directed to link molecular markers (pigmentation) to the different kinds of present-day varieties. For instance;\n* semi-flint kernel varieties are yellow,\n* floury kernel varieties are white,\n* soft texture kernel varieties are motley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Experiments by Sprague have shown that ten to twenty plants are required for adequate representation of genetic diversity in an open-pollinated maize variety. Since the number of ears saved for seed by ancient Asian maize cultivators with only small plots of land at their disposal was often smaller than this and, indeed, since new maize populations are sometimes established by growing the progeny of a single ear, it follows that there must often have been genetic drift \u2013 changes in gene frequencies resulting from the creation of small breeding populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize reproduces sexually each year. This randomly selects half the genes from a given plant to propagate to the next generation, meaning that desirable traits found in the crop (like high yield or good nutrition) can be lost in subsequent generations unless certain techniques are used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize\n--History.\n----Pre-Columbian development.\n----Columbian exchange.\n--Names.\n--Structure and physiology.\n----Abnormal flowers.\n--Genetics.\n--Evolution.\n--Breeding.\n----Genetic modification.\n----For pest and disease resistance.\n--Origin.\n----Connection with 'parviglumis' subspecies.\n----Spreading to the north.\n--Cultivation.\n----Planting.\n----Harvesting.\n--Production.\n----United States.\n--Pests.\n----Insects.\n----Storage.\n--Uses.\n----Human food.\n----Nutritional value.\n----Feed and fodder for livestock.\n----Chemicals.\n----Bio-fuel.\n----Commodity.\n----Ornamental and other uses.\n----United States usage breakdown.\n--Comparison to other staple foods.\n--Hazards.\n----Pellagra.\n----Allergy.\n----Mycotoxins.\n--Art.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Barbara McClintock used these knob markers to validate her transposon theory of \"jumping genes\", for which she won the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Maize is still an important model organism for genetics and developmental biology today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Selection methods in plant breeding based on mode of reproduction",
        "text": "mass selection for ear size over 22 cycles has drastically altered plant phenotype in the maize population Zacatecas 58. Plants in the C22 cycle were 50\u00a0 cm taller had twice the leaf area index, reached anthesis 7 days later and had a 30% higher harvest index than C0 (Table 1) Differences in growth were detected early in ontogeny. The root growth of C22 exceeded that of C0 and the ratio of shoot dry mass to root dry mass was reduced by nearly 12%, from 8.0\u00b10.2 to 7.1\u00b10.1 (Table 2). Analysis of yield components revealed that C22 was superior to C0 in grain weight, number of rows per ear, number of grains per row, and total yield per unit area (Table 3). Because the two genotypes were phenologically different, planting density optima are probably different for each population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Ploidy does not appear to influence EPS or magnitude of selection effect in maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bx1 benzoxazin1",
        "text": "Mutants are viable, but may be distinguished from normal plants by FeCl3 staining: plants able to synthesize benzoxinoids have pale blue color when crushed and treated with FeCl3 solutions (Hamilton 1964, Simcox 1993 ). Mutations in the \"bx1\" gene reduce the resistance to first generation European corn borer (\"Ostrinia nubilalis\") that is conferred by benzoxazinoids (Klun et al 1970 ). \"Bx1\" mutant maize deposited less callose in response to chitosan elicitation than isogenic wildtype plants (Ahmad et al. 2011 ). Genetic mapping using recombinant inbred lines derived from maize inbred lines B73 and Mo17 showed that a 3.9 kb cis-regulatory element that is located approximately 140 kb upstream of \"Bx1\" causes higher 2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one (DIMBOA) accumulation in Mo17 than in B73 seedlings (Zheng et al. 2015 ). This genetic variation is also associated with higher corn leaf aphid (\"Rhopalosiphum maidis\") reproduction on B73 compared to Mo17 maize seedlings (Betsiashvili et al. 2014 ). Relative to maize inbred line W22\", Bx1::Ds\" mutant maize plants are more sensitive to corn leaf aphids (\"Rhopalosiphum maidis\") (Betsiashvili et al. 2014) and beet armyworms (\"Spodoptera exigua\") (Tzin et al. 2017 ). Highly localized induction of benzoxazinoid accumulation in response to Egyptian cotton leafworm (\"Spodoptera littoralis\") feeding is abolished in a maize \"bx1\" mutant (Maag et al. 2016 )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic botany",
        "text": "The teosintes are grasses of the genus \"Zea\". Native Americans bred and selected teosinte for the traits we see in corn today (large ears, multiple rows of kernels). The first ears of maize were very short, with only 8 rows of kernels. Modern corn is the result of several thousand generations of selective breeding. Modern corn is incapable of reproducing without human help; the kernels will stay firmly attached to the cob and rot. This does not represent a useful adaptation for the species, but is excellent for harvesting and transporting corn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xenia (plants)",
        "text": "The endosperm tissue, which makes up most of the bulk of a maize seed, is not produced by the mother plant, but is the product of fertilization, and genetic factors carried by the pollen affect its colour. For example, a yellow-seeded race may have its yellow colour determined by a recessive allele. If it receives pollen from a purple-seeded race that has one copy of a dominant allele for purple colour and one copy of the recessive allele for yellow seed, the resulting cob will have some yellow and some purple seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "And when Collins found such a distinct difference in the appearance of normal and waxy maize endosperm, he suspected a difference in chemical composition, but the analysis did not yield any unusual results. The percentages of starch, oil, and protein were all within the normal range. Yet, he was intrigued by the physical nature of the starch, and wrote: \"In view of the recent development of specialised maize products as human food, the unique type of starch may be of some economic importance.\" So actually, for many years the main use of waxy maize was a genetic marker for other maize breeding programs. Breeders were able to use some of the traits to \"tag\" the existence of hidden genes and follow them through breeding programs. It is possible that waxy maize would have become extinct again in the USA without this special application in breeding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "CIMMYT operates a conventional breeding program to provide optimized strains. The program began in the 1980s. Hybrid seeds are distributed in Africa by the Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "It is unknown what precipitated its domestication, because the edible portion of the wild variety is too small, and hard to obtain, to be eaten directly, as each kernel is enclosed in a very hard bivalve shell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "A striking example of genetic drift in maize is the occurrence in parts of Asia of varieties with waxy endosperm. In maize races of America such a variety is unknown, but the waxy character itself has been discovered in non-waxy varieties: in a New England flint maize and in a South American variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "The first recorded use of \"maize\" as a color name in English was in 1861."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantitative genetics",
        "text": "Supposing that the maize example [given earlier] had been constrained on a holme (a narrow riparian meadow), and had partial inbreeding to the extent of f = 0.25, then, using the third version (above) of Gf:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bif2 barren inflorescence2",
        "text": "\"(maize gene reviews submitted to the Maize Genetics Cooperation Newsletter as a way to enable community curation of MaizeGDB are being moved, 2013-14, with author permissions to the wikipedia, and will be grouped to the wiki page maize genes. The initial summary statements for each gene have been previously included in MaizeGDB)\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize streak virus",
        "text": "The development of conventionally resistant maize varieties has been a priority since the 1950s in Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa and elsewhere, with a good deal of success: however, there are several genes associated with resistance, and breeding is complex. Transgenically resistant or genetically modified maize varieties were under development in South Africa, but the project has terminated without field trials of the candidate maize lines that were developed. Maize streak resistance is an important trait to maize breeders. Forward genetics is increasingly being used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fall armyworm",
        "text": "CIMMYT and its partners are using forward genetics to breed for better \"S. frugiperda\" resistance in maize. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) are the most effective method for associating \"S. f.\" resistance to the responsible genomic region, especially used in maize/corn but also wheat, sorghum, millet, rice, and legumes. The first uses of conventional breeding in the first decade of the 1900s were reported by Gernet 1917 and Hinds 1914, improving resistance in maize/corn, sorghum, millet, \"Cynodon dactylon\", and \"Arachis hypogaea\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Selective sweep",
        "text": "In maize, a recent comparison of yellow and white corn genotypes surrounding \"Y1\"\u2014the phytoene synthetase gene responsible for the yellow endosperm color, shows strong evidence for a selective sweep in yellow germplasm reducing diversity at this locus and linkage disequilibrium in surrounding regions. White maize lines had increased diversity and no evidence of linkage disequilibrium associated with a selective sweep."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of varieties of genetically modified maize",
        "text": "59122 is an insect resistant maize expressing the Cry34Ab1 and Cry35Ab1 proteins for corn rootworm insect pest protection and the PAT protein for glufosinate ammonium tolerance as a breeding tool or weed control option. Under license from Pioneer Hi-Bred International Inc. and DOW AgroSciences LLC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rollins A. Emerson",
        "text": "While at Nebraska he also became interested in using maize for his research, studying the heritability of pericarp variegation in calico maize. Ears on plants grown from variegated kernels show one pattern of striping, but the pigmentation of the kernel varies, as does the red area. Emerson discovered that the more red there was in the kernels planted, the larger the amount of red ears in the progeny. Emerson became one of the first people to suggest that mutations could cause variations in organisms. Cornell University, through Emerson's efforts, became a centre for maize genetics research. His doctoral students include George Wells Beadle, Milislav Demerec, Marcus Morton Rhoades, George F. Sprague, and Lewis Stadler."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heterosis",
        "text": "Temperate maize hybrids are derived from two main heterotic groups: 'Iowa Stiff Stalk Synthetic', and nonstiff stalk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "In the late 1930s, Paul Mangelsdorf suggested that domesticated maize was the result of a hybridization event between an unknown wild maize and a species of \"Tripsacum\", a related genus. This theory about the origin of maize has been refuted by modern genetic testing, which refutes Mangelsdorf's model and the fourth listed above."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Many of the maize varieties grown in the United States and Canada are hybrids. Often the varieties have been genetically modified to tolerate glyphosate or to provide protection against natural pests. Glyphosate is an herbicide which kills all plants except those with genetic tolerance. This genetic tolerance is very rarely found in nature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Maize (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Quality Protein Maize",
        "text": "Integrating cereal chemistry and plant breeding techniques, Drs. Vasal and Villegas collaborated to combine the existing opaque-2 maize with genetic modifiers. Through the 1970s, they produced and analyzed germplasms at an astonishing rate, sometimes processing up to 25,000 samples a year. By the mid-1980s, they had produced a QPM germplasm with hard kernel characteristics and good taste similar to the traditional grain and with much higher quality levels of lysine and tryptophan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology",
        "text": "Crosses between a particular teosinte variety and maize yield fertile offspring that are intermediate in phenotype between maize and teosinte. QTL analysis has also revealed some loci that when mutated in maize yield a teosinte-like stem or teosinte-like cobs. Molecular clock analysis of these genes estimates their origins to some 9000\u00a0years ago, well in accordance with other records of maize domestication. It is believed that a small group of farmers must have selected some maize-like natural mutant of teosinte some 9000 years ago in Mexico, and subjected it to continuous selection to yield the maize plant as known today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "In 2009 the government of Mexico created a regulatory pathway for genetically modified maize, but because Mexico is the center of diversity for maize, gene flow could affect a large fraction of the world's maize strains. A 2001 report in \"Nature\" presented evidence that Bt maize was cross-breeding with unmodified maize in Mexico. The data in this paper was later described as originating from an artifact. \"Nature\" later stated, \"the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper\". A 2005 large-scale study failed to find any evidence of contamination in Oaxaca. However, other authors also found evidence of cross-breeding between natural maize and transgenic maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bacillus thuringiensis",
        "text": "A study published in \"Nature\" in 2001 reported Bt-containing maize genes were found in maize in its center of origin, Oaxaca, Mexico. In 2002, paper concluded, \"the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper.\" A significant controversy happened over the paper and \"Nature\"s unprecedented notice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Since the 1940s the best strains of maize have been first-generation hybrids made from inbred strains that have been optimized for specific traits, such as yield, nutrition, drought, pest and disease tolerance. Both conventional cross-breeding and genetic modification have succeeded in increasing output and reducing the need for cropland, pesticides, water and fertilizer. There is conflicting evidence to support the hypothesis that maize yield potential has increased over the past few decades. This suggests that changes in yield potential are associated with leaf angle, lodging resistance, tolerance of high plant density, disease/pest tolerance, and other agronomic traits rather than increase of yield potential per individual plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Primary sequencing of the maize genome was completed in 2008. On November 20, 2009, the consortium published results of its sequencing effort in \"Science\". The genome, 85% of which is composed of transposons, was found to contain 32,540 genes (By comparison, the human genome contains about 2.9 billion bases and 26,000 genes). Much of the maize genome has been duplicated and reshuffled by helitrons\u2014group of rolling circle transposons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karen Koch (plant biologist)",
        "text": "Current projects are testing hypotheses for carbon-partitioning and gene expression in developing maize ovaries from floral differentiation to kernel harvest, and for involvement of key genes in cell wall biosynthesis at strategic stages of development (e.g. root-hair and pollen-tube elongation, early phases of kernel differentiation, and growth of seedlings).\n* Genetic and Genomic Approaches to Understanding Long-Distance Transport and Carbon Partitioning. NSF-PGRP. Braun et al. (2011-2015). Diverse approaches are testing mechanisms of phloem function and carbon partitioning in maize and arabidopsis.\n* Adapting Kernel Metabolism to Enhance Cereal Yield Under Adverse Conditions. NIFA. Hannah et al. (2011-2014). Central focus is heat-tolerance of genes for kernel dry weight.\n* UniformMu: A Transposon Resource for Mutagenesis in Maize. NSF-PGRP. McCarty and Koch. (2007-2011; 2011-2013). Single-gene knock-outs provide an outstanding means of testing gene function, and mutant lines are now available for over a third of maize genes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize flowers may sometimes exhibit mutations that lead to the formation of female flowers in the tassel. These mutations, \"ts4\" and \"Ts6\", prohibit the development of the stamen while simultaneously promoting pistil development. This may cause inflorescences containing both male and female flowers, or hermaphrodite flowers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miniature Inverted-repeat Transposable Elements",
        "text": "Based on the presence or absence of MITE family \"Heartbreaker\" (\"Hbr\") in maize genome, a molecular marker was developed. These \"Hbr\" markers have been proved to be stable, uniformly distributed in maize genome. A study by Casa et al. showed that HBr markers could be used along with other molecular markers to study genotype of related maize inbred lines"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize (color)",
        "text": "Biology\n* \"Light maize in color, this wildflower is found only now and then in our area, and treasured for its rarity. The three clumps, two near the east fence under a thriving red-stemmed dogwood and one beside a weathered stump, gave us a thrill last spring with their first buds.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize is a cultigen; human intervention is required for it to propagate. Whether or not the kernels fall off the cob on their own is a key piece of evidence used in archaeology to distinguish domesticated maize from its naturally-propagating teosinte ancestor. Genetic evidence can also be used to determine when various lineages split."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize ( ; \"Zea mays\" subsp. \"mays\", from after ), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The leafy stalk of the plant produces pollen inflorescences (or \"tassels\") and separate ovuliferous inflorescences called ears that when fertilized yield kernels or seeds, which are fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "When feeding trials later on showed that waxy maize could produce more efficient feed gains than normal dent maize, interest in waxy maize suddenly expanded. Geneticists could show that waxy maize has a defect in metabolism precluding the synthesis of amylose in the endosperm. It is coded by a single recessive gene (wx). Waxy maize yield about 3.5% less than their normal dent counterparts and has to be isolated from any nearby normal maize fields by at least 200 meters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zea (plant)",
        "text": "According to Matsuoka et al., the available early maize gene pool can be divided into three clusters:\n* An Andean group, that includes the hand-grenade-shaped ear types and some other Andean maize (35 plants);\n* All other South American and Mexican maize (80 plants);\n* U.S. maize (40 plants)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Elongated stigmas, called silks, emerge from the whorl of husk leaves at the end of the ear. They are often pale yellow and in length, like tufts of hair in appearance. At the end of each is a carpel, which may develop into a \"kernel\" if fertilized by a pollen grain. The pericarp of the fruit is fused with the seed coat referred to as \"caryopsis\", typical of the grasses, and the entire kernel is often referred to as the \"seed\". The cob is close to a multiple fruit in structure, except that the individual fruits (the kernels) never fuse into a single mass. The grains are about the size of peas, and adhere in regular rows around a white, pithy substance, which forms the cob. The maximum size of kernels is reputedly . An ear commonly holds 600 kernels. They are of various colors: blackish, bluish-gray, purple, green, red, white and yellow. When ground into flour, maize yields more flour with much less bran than wheat does. It lacks the protein gluten of wheat and, therefore, makes baked goods with poor rising capability. A genetic variant that accumulates more sugar and less starch in the ear is consumed as a vegetable and is called sweet corn. Young ears can be consumed raw, with the cob and silk, but as the plant matures (usually during the summer months), the cob becomes tougher and the silk dries to inedibility. By the end of the growing season, the kernels dry out and become difficult to chew without cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "Since the mid-1970s, the \"Centro Fitot\u00e9cnico y Ecogen\u00e9tico de Pairumani\" in Cochabamba collected and characterized over 1,500 maize samples. These were studied by environment, morphology, and cytological analysis of the chromosomes, resulting in the classification of 7 racial complexes, 45 races and hundreds of agro-ecotypes. These accessions are presently stored at the Pairumani germplasm bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of varieties of genetically modified maize",
        "text": "1507 (or TC1507) is an insect resistant maize expressing the CryIF protein for lepidopteran insect pest protection and the PAT protein for glufosinate ammonium tolerance as a breeding tool or weed control option. Under license from Pioneer Hi-Bred International Inc. and Mycogen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Astacinga",
        "text": "It produces maize and beans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "In 1939, George Beadle demonstrated that the kernels of teosinte are readily \"popped\" for human consumption, like modern popcorn. Some have argued it would have taken too many generations of selective breeding to produce large, compressed ears for efficient cultivation. However, studies of the hybrids readily made by intercrossing teosinte and modern maize suggest this objection is not well founded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize is the domesticated variant of teosinte. The two plants have dissimilar appearance, maize having a single tall stalk with multiple leaves and teosinte being a short, bushy plant. The difference between the two is largely controlled by differences in just two genes, called grassy tillers-1 (\"gt1\", ) and teosinte branched-1 (\"tb1\", )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gender roles in agriculture",
        "text": "Another recent controversy in Mexico has to do with the type of maize being grown and consumed. Ma\u00edz criollo, or landrace maize, is the most common type of maize grown in Mexico, although recently genetically modified crops are becoming more widespread. In a focus group meeting conducted among Mexican farmers, the men tended to feel that the genetically modified maize was better, as it was easier to farm, while the women tended to say that the landrace maize was better because it was more nutritional and better tasting than the genetically modified maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gynodioecy",
        "text": "Maize farmers take advantage of gynodioecy to produce favorable hybrid maize seeds. The farmers deliberately make use of the gynodioecy that develops in the maize, resulting in a population of male-sterile and female-fertile individuals. They then introduce a new strain of male-sterile individuals and the breeders are able to collect the more favorable hybrid seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barbara McClintock",
        "text": "In 1957, McClintock received funding from the National Academy of Sciences to start research on indigenous strains of maize in Central America and South America. She was interested in studying the evolution of maize through chromosomal changes, and being in South America would allow her to work on a larger scale. McClintock explored the chromosomal, morphological, and evolutionary characteristics of various races of maize. After extensive work in the 1960s and 1970s, McClintock and her collaborators published the seminal study \"The Chromosomal Constitution of Races of Maize\", leaving their mark on paleobotany, ethnobotany, and evolutionary biology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "A review by Food Standards Australia New Zealand and others of the same study concluded that the results were due to chance alone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "On the basis of these and previous studies, Aureliano Brandolini and collaborators identified the following racial complexes and races of native maize;\n*A. \"Pisanckalla\" (Popcorn)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecuador maize varieties",
        "text": "Studies enabled the identification of the following racial complexes and races:\n* \"Zea mays everta\"\n** a. \"formas primitivas\" (primitive forms)\n***Canguil\n** b. \"formas derivadas\" (derived forms)\n*** Canguil grueso\n* \"Zea mays indurata\"\n** a. formas primitivas\n*** Clavito\n*** Enano gigante\n*** Morocho 8 hileras\n*** Pira\n** b. formas derivadas\n*** Andanqui\n*** Morocho Colorado\n*** Uchima\n*** Yungue\u00f1o\n** c. \"formas de reciente introducci\u00f3n\" (recently introduced forms)\n*** Cubano\n* \"Zea mays indentata\"\n** Dentado\n** Sint\u00e9tico\n* \"Zea mays indurata\"\n** a. \"grano blanco\" (white kernel)\n*** Morocho (Sabanero)\n*** Perlilla\n*** Tusilla\n** b. \"Grano colorado y semiv\u00edtreo\" (Reddish and semi-flint kernel)\n*** Kcello / Nal Tel\n*** Patillo\n* \"Zea mays amylacea\"\n** a. grano blanco\n*** Harinoso 8 hileras\n** b. \"grano amarillo\" (yellow kernel)\n*** Mishca\n** c. \"grano rojo\" (red kernel)\n*** Harinoso c\u00f3nico\n*** Harinoso puntiagudo\n*** Racimo de uva\n* \"Zea mays amylosaccharata\"\n** Chullpi\n* \"Zea mays tunicata\"\n** Huaco"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Recombination is a significant source of diversity in \"Z. mays\". (Note that this finding supersedes previous studies which showed no such correlation.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Cattle Breeding and Dairy Farm",
        "text": "Central Cattle Breeding and Dairy Farm was producing 2000 tones of maize every year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quality Protein Maize",
        "text": "Quality Protein Maize\n--Need for quality protein maize.\n--Development.\n----Vasal-Villegas team.\n----Genetics.\n--Impact.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yuan Longping",
        "text": "Back in 1906, geneticist George Harrison Shull experimented with hybrid maize. He observed that inbreeding reduced vigor and yield among the offspring but crossbreeding did the opposite. Those experiments proved the concept of heterosis. In the 1950s, geneticist J. C. Stephens and a few others hydridized two sorghum varieties found in Africa to create high-yielding offspring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Evolutionary history of plants",
        "text": "Crosses between a particular teosinte variety and maize yields fertile offspring that are intermediate in phenotype between maize and teosinte. QTL analysis has also revealed some loci that, when mutated in maize, yield a teosinte-like stem or teosinte-like cobs. Molecular clock analysis of these genes estimates their origins to some 9,000 years ago, well in accordance with other records of maize domestication. It is believed that a small group of farmers must have selected some maize-like natural mutant of teosinte some 9,000 years ago in Mexico, and subjected it to continuous selection to yield the familiar maize plant of today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maizel",
        "text": "Maizel\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maizet",
        "text": "Maizet\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ronald L. Phillips",
        "text": "He found was possible to introgress individual maize chromosomes into oat, where they were stably inherited. His lab generated a set nine oat lines each carrying the complete oat genome plus one maize chromosome"
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "In 1937, just before World War II, G.F. Sprague and other plant breeders at what was then called Iowa State College had begun a crossbreeding program to attempt to introduce the waxy trait into a regular high-yielding hybrid maize. By this time, the waxy plant no longer had the peculiar structural traits noted by Collins, probably due to years of crossing into various genetic stocks. Only the unique endosperm had been retained. At this time, waxy maize was not so important because the main source of pure amylopectin still was the cassava plant, a tropical shrub with a large underground tuber."
      },
      {
        "title": "Row crop",
        "text": "maize,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Since then, even earlier dates have been published."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Beadle",
        "text": "After retiring, Beadle undertook a remarkable experiment in maize genetics. In several laboratories he grew a series of Teosinte/Maize crosses. Then he crossed these progeny with each other. He looked for the rate of appearance of parent phenotypes among this second generation. The vast majority of these plants were intermediate between maize and Teosinte in their features, but about 1 in 500 of the plants were identical to either the parent maize or the parent teosinte. Using the mathematics of Mendelian genetics, he calculated that this showed a difference between maize and teosinte of about 5 or 6 genetic loci. This demonstration was so compelling that most scientists now agree that Teosinte is the wild progenitor of maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sorghum bicolor",
        "text": "Research has been conducted to develop a genetic cross that will make the plant more tolerant to colder temperatures and to unravel the drought tolerance mechanisms, since it is native to tropical climates. In the United States, this is important because the cost of corn was steadily increasing due to its use in ethanol production for addition to gasoline."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phlobaphene",
        "text": "In maize, phlobaphenes are synthesized in the flavonoids synthetic pathway from polymerisation of flavan-4-ols by the expression of maize pericarp color1 (p1) gene which encodes an R2R3 myb-like transcriptional activator of the A1 gene encoding for the dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (reducing dihydroflavonols into flavan-4-ols) while another gene (Suppressor of Pericarp Pigmentation 1 or SPP1) acts as a suppressor. The p1 gene encodes an Myb-homologous transcriptional activator of genes required for biosynthesis of red phlobaphene pigments, while the P1-wr allele specifies colorless kernel pericarp and red cobs, and unstable factor for orange1 (Ufo1) modifies P1-wr expression to confer pigmentation in kernel pericarp, as well as vegetative tissues, which normally do not accumulate significant amounts of phlobaphene pigments. The maize P gene encodes a Myb homolog that recognizes the sequence CCT/AACC, in sharp contrast with the C/TAACGG bound by vertebrate Myb proteins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified food controversies",
        "text": "US maize yields were flat until the 1930s, when the adoption of conventional hybrid seeds caused them to increase by ~.8 bushels/acre (1937\u20131955). Thereafter a combination of improved genetics, fertilizer and pesticide availability and mechanization raised the rate of increase to 1.9 bushels per acre per year. In the years since the advent of GM maize, the rate increased slightly to 2.0. Average US maize yields were 174.2 bushels per acre in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heritability",
        "text": "For example, imagine that a plant breeder is involved in a selective breeding project with the aim of increasing the number of kernels per ear of corn. For the sake of argument, let us assume that the average ear of corn in the parent generation has 100 kernels. Let us also assume that the selected parents produce corn with an average of 120 kernels per ear. If h2 equals 0.5, then the next generation will produce corn with an average of 0.5(120-100) = 10 additional kernels per ear. Therefore, the total number of kernels per ear of corn will equal, on average, 110."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Some forms of the plant are occasionally grown for ornamental use in the garden. For this purpose, variegated and colored leaf forms as well as those with colorful ears are used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified food controversies",
        "text": "In 2009, Mexico created a regulatory pathway for GM maize, but because Mexico is maize's center of diversity, concerns were raised about GM maize's effects on local strains. A 2001 report found Bt maize cross-breeding with conventional maize in Mexico. The data in this paper was later described as originating from an artifact and the publishing journal \"Nature\" stated that \"the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper\", although it did not retract the paper. A subsequent large-scale study, in 2005, found no evidence of gene flow in Oaxaca. However, other authors claimed to have found evidence of such gene flow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heterosis",
        "text": "Nearly all field corn (maize) grown in most developed nations exhibits heterosis. Modern corn hybrids substantially outyield conventional cultivars and respond better to fertilizer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rafael Lucio",
        "text": "It produces principally maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Waxy corn\n--History.\n--Biology.\n----Chinese maize.\n----Genetic drift.\n--Genetics.\n--Genotype and characterisation with iodine.\n--Biochemistry.\n--Agronomic features.\n--Utilization.\n----Food products.\n----Adhesive industry.\n--Livestock, dairy and poultry feeding research.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint corn",
        "text": "The coloration of flint corn is often different from white and yellow dent corns, many of which were bred later. Most flint corn is multi-colored. Like the Linnaeus variant of maize, any kernel may contain the yellow pigment zeaxanthin but at more varying concentrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Maize is a facultative short-day plant and flowers in a certain number of growing degree days > in the environment to which it is adapted. The magnitude of the influence that long nights have on the number of days that must pass before maize flowers is genetically prescribed and regulated by the phytochrome system. Photoperiodicity can be eccentric in tropical cultivars such that the long days characteristic of higher latitudes allow the plants to grow so tall that they do not have enough time to produce seed before being killed by frost. These attributes, however, may prove useful in using tropical maize for biofuels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hugh Iltis",
        "text": "Photos of maize and teosinte<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "This recombination/diversity effect is seen throughout plants but is also found to not occur \u2013 or not as strongly \u2013 in regions of high gene density. This is likely the reason that domesticated \"Z. mays\" has not seen as much of an increase in diversity within areas of higher density as in regions of lower density, although there is more evidence in other plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Because the waxy mutation is expressed in an easy identifiable nonlethal phenotype, it has been the subject of major research during the 20th century. Nelson made a fine structure genetic map of most of these mutations\n* For waxy maize, a single recessive gene (wx) was located on the short arm of chromosome 9, codes for the waxy endosperm of the kernel (Wx codes for endosperm with normal starch). This was first shown by Collins and Kempton.\n* The structure of the wildtype waxy (wx+) locus has been determined through DNA sequencing. The gene has 3718 bp (14 exons and 13 introns).\n* Waxy endosperm is the counterpart in maize of the \"glutinous\" character in rice.\n* There is a wide range of species also presenting the waxy mutation, including rice, sorghum, millet, barley and wheat, which were characterised by starch granules staining red with iodine.\n* In crosses between heterozygous plants for the waxy character, a small but significant deviation from an expected Mendelian ratio in self-pollination is produced. Bear obtained from 71 segregated ears on the F1 generation 23,77% of waxy kernels and 76,23% of non-waxy kernels. This is evidenced by the two heterozygous types, Wx Wx wx and wx wx Wx."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Nowadays we are able to counterpart both of these arguments. At first we know that the waxy mutation is quite common (see #Genetics). Secondly, the fact that maize, if introduced into Asia in Post-Columbian times, must have been rapidly accepted merely indicates that, like the potato in Ireland, it met an acute and pressing need."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolivia maize varieties",
        "text": "The varieties of Bolivian maize are the result of thousands of years of selective breeding for superior agronomic and cooking traits."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Jose de Gracia, Jalisco",
        "text": "blue for the case of maize in optimal conditions"
      },
      {
        "title": "Plant genetics",
        "text": "Around this same time, genetic and plant breeding experiments in maize began. Maize that has been self-pollinated experiences a phenomenon called inbreeding depression. Researchers, like Nils Heribert-Nilsson, recognized that by crossing plants and forming hybrids, they were not only able to combine traits from two desirable parents, but the crop also experienced heterosis or hybrid vigor. This was the beginning of identifying gene interactions or epistasis. By the early 1920s, Donald Forsha Jones had invented a method that led to the first hybrid maize seed that were available commercially. The large demand for hybrid seed in the U.S. Corn Belt by the mid 1930s led to a rapid growth in the seed production industry and ultimately seed research. The strict requirements for producing hybrid seed led to the development of careful population and inbred line maintenance, keeping plants isolated and unable to out-cross, which produced plants that better allowed researchers to tease out different genetic concepts. The structure of these populations allowed scientist such a T. Dobzhansky, S. Wright, and R.A. Fisher to develop evolutionary biology concepts as well as explore speciation over time and the statistics underlying plant genetics. Their work laid the foundations for future genetic discoveries such as linkage disequilibrium in 1960."
      },
      {
        "title": "Transposable element",
        "text": "In the winter of 1944\u20131945, McClintock planted corn kernels that were self-pollinated, meaning that the silk (style) of the flower received pollen from its own anther. These kernels came from a long line of plants that had been self-pollinated, causing broken arms on the end of their ninth chromosomes. As the maize plants began to grow, McClintock noted unusual color patterns on the leaves. For example, one leaf had two albino patches of almost identical size, located side by side on the leaf. McClintock hypothesized that during cell division certain cells lost genetic material, while others gained what they had lost. However, when comparing the chromosomes of the current generation of plants with the parent generation, she found certain parts of the chromosome had switched position. This refuted the popular genetic theory of the time that genes were fixed in their position on a chromosome. McClintock found that genes could not only move but they could also be turned on or off due to certain environmental conditions or during different stages of cell development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Many forms of maize are used for food, sometimes classified as various subspecies related to the amount of starch each has:\n* Flour corn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" amylacea\"\n* Popcorn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" everta\"\n* Dent corn : \"Zea mays \"var.\" indentata\"\n* Flint corn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" indurata\"\n* Sweet corn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" saccharata\" and \"Zea mays\" var. \"rugosa\"\n* Waxy corn: \" Zea mays \"var.\" ceratina\"\n* Amylomaize: \" Zea mays\"\n* Pod corn: \"Zea mays \"var.\" tunicata\" Larra\u00f1aga ex A. St. Hil.\n* Striped maize: \"Zea mays \"var.\" japonica\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Due to the waxy gene being recessive, waxy maize has to be isolated from any nearby dent maize fields by at least 200 meters to prevent cross-pollination. Volunteer dent maize plants sprouting from the previous year's debris are also a problem. A few dent maize volunteers in a waxy field will be enough to contaminate the whole field, resulting in dent grains instead of waxy grains with amylopectin starch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coetzala",
        "text": "It produces principally maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "Approved Bt genes include single and stacked (event names bracketed) configurations of: Cry1A.105 (MON89034), CryIAb (MON810), CryIF (1507), Cry2Ab (MON89034), Cry3Bb1 (MON863 and MON88017), Cry34Ab1 (59122), Cry35Ab1 (59122), mCry3A (MIR604), and Vip3A (MIR162), in both corn and cotton. Corn genetically modified to produce VIP was first approved in the US in 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "Gene flow is the transfer of genes and/or alleles from one species to another. Concerns focus on the interaction between GM and other maize varieties in Mexico, and of gene flow into refuges."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What color differences is there between the differnt types of corn?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They are of various colors: blackish, bluish-gray, purple, green, red, white, yellow, and the term \"Indian corn\" can refer to multicolored varieties."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the color of the corn affect other things about it, like the taste?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "One factor effected by color is while yellow maizes derive their color from lutein and zeaxanthin, in red-colored maizes, the kernel coloration is due to anthocyanins and phlobaphenes."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How do anthocyanins and phlobaphenes give color to the maize?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Anthocyanins is a water-soluble vacuolar pigment, and depending on the pH, can have colors like red, purple, blue, or black. Phlobaphene are reddish, alcohol-soluble and water-insoluble phenolic substances and are natural pigments."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What color of corn is used for corn ethanol?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I was not able to find information about the color, only that maize is used for corn ethanol."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is there any controversy about breeding of maize?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In September 2000, up to $50 million worth of food products were recalled due to the presence of Starlink genetically modified corn, which had been approved only for animal consumption and had not been approved for human consumption, and was subsequently withdrawn from the market.",
      "In September 2000, up to $50 million worth of food products were recalled due to the presence of Starlink genetically modified corn, which had been approved only for animal consumption and had not been approved for human consumption, and was subsequently withdrawn from the market."
    ],
    "topic": "Maize",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Maize:51",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Maize",
          "Breeding",
          "Genetic modification"
        ],
        "ctx": "In September 2000, up to $50 million worth of food products were recalled due to the presence of Starlink genetically modified corn, which had been approved only for animal consumption and had not been approved for human consumption, and was subsequently withdrawn from the market."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Maize:51",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Maize",
          "Breeding",
          "Genetic modification"
        ],
        "ctx": "In September 2000, up to $50 million worth of food products were recalled due to the presence of Starlink genetically modified corn, which had been approved only for animal consumption and had not been approved for human consumption, and was subsequently withdrawn from the market."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "In September 2000, up to $50 million worth of food products were recalled due to the presence of Starlink genetically modified corn, which had been approved only for animal consumption and had not been approved for human consumption, and was subsequently withdrawn from the market."
      },
      {
        "title": "StarLink corn recall",
        "text": "StarLink is a brand of genetically modified maize containing two modifications: a gene for resistance to glufosinate, and a variant of the \"Bacillus thuringiensis\" (Bt) protein called Cry9C. Cry9C had not been used in a GM crop prior to StarLink, causing heightened regulatory scrutiny. StarLink's creator, Plant Genetic Systems, which became Aventis CropScience during the time of the incident, had applied to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to market StarLink for use in both animal feed and human foods. The Garst Seed Company (part of the Advanta group) was licensed by Aventis to produce and sell StarLink seed in the US."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "Genetically modified maize (corn) is a genetically modified crop. Specific maize strains have been genetically engineered to express agriculturally-desirable traits, including resistance to pests and to herbicides. Maize strains with both traits are now in use in multiple countries. GM maize has also caused controversy with respect to possible health effects, impact on other insects and impact on other plants via gene flow. One strain, called Starlink, was approved only for animal feed in the US but was found in food, leading to a series of recalls starting in 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "StarLink contains Cry9C, which had not previously been used in a GM crop. Starlink's creator, Plant Genetic Systems, had applied to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to market Starlink for use in animal feed and in human food. However, because the Cry9C protein lasts longer in the digestive system than other Bt proteins, the EPA had concerns about its allergenicity, and PGS did not provide sufficient data to prove that Cry9C was not allergenic. As a result, PGS split its application into separate permits for use in food and use in animal feed. Starlink was approved by the EPA for use in animal feed only in May 1998."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "In 2005, aid sent by the UN and the US to Central American nations also contained some StarLink corn. The nations involved, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador and Guatemala refused to accept the aid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "Fifty-one people reported adverse effects to the FDA; US Centers for Disease Control (CDC), which determined that 28 of them were possibly related to Starlink. However, the CDC studied the blood of these 28 individuals and concluded there was no evidence of hypersensitivity to the Starlink Bt protein."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "StarLink corn was subsequently found in food destined for consumption by humans in the US, Japan, and South Korea. This corn became the subject of the widely publicized Starlink corn recall, which started when Taco Bell-branded taco shells sold in supermarkets were found to contain the corn. Sales of StarLink seed were discontinued. The registration for Starlink varieties was voluntarily withdrawn by Aventis in October 2000. Pioneer had been bought by AgrEvo which then became Aventis CropScience at the time of the incident, which was later bought by Bayer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified food",
        "text": "The StarLink corn recalls occurred in the autumn of 2000, when over 300 food products were found to contain a genetically modified maize/corn that had not been approved for human consumption. It was the first-ever recall of a genetically modified food."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of varieties of genetically modified maize",
        "text": "StarLink is a Cry9C Bt corn produced by Plant Genetic Systems.\n*MON 802 is an Insect Resistant maize under license from Monsanto Company. Corn line MON802 was developed through genetic modification to be tolerant to glyphosate herbicide and protect the plant from the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) (the Bt trait).\n*MON 809 is an Insect Resistant maize under license from Monsanto.\n*MON 810 is an Insect resistant maize expressing the CryIAc protein for lepidopteran insect pest protection. Under license from Monsanto.\n*MON 832 is an herbicide tolerant maize under license from Monsanto.\n*MON 863 is an Insect Resistant maize under license from Monsanto.\n*MON-8746\u00d8-4 (MON87460) is a water use efficient maize under license from Monsanto produced for human consumption and livestock feed.\n*MON-877\u00d81-2 (MON87701) - Resistance to lepidopteran pests of soybean including velvetbean caterpillar (Anticarsia gemmatalis) and soybean looper (Pseudoplusia includens). Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated plant transformation.\n*MON 88017 is an Insect resistant maize expressing the Cry3Bb1 protein for corn rootworm protection and the CP4 EPSPS protein for glyphosate tolerance. Under license from the Monsanto Company.\n*MON 89034 is an Insect resistant maize expressing the cry1A.105 and cry2Ab proteins for lepidopteran insect pest protection. Under license from the Monsanto Company.\n*3751IR is an Imidazolinone herbicide tolerance maize under license from Pioneer Hi-Bred International Inc.\n*DP-\u00d8\u00d84114-3 (4114) - Herbicide tolerant, glufosinate ammonium; Insect resistant, Coleoptera; Insect resistant, Lepidoptera.\n*EXP1910IT - Imidazolinone herbicide tolerance, specifically imazethapyr.\n*SYN-EV176-9 (176) is an Insect Resistant and multiple herbicide resistant maize under license from Syngenta Seeds, Inc.\n*SYN-BTO11-1, MON-OOO21-9 (BT11 \u00d7 GA21) is an Insect Resistant and multiple herbicide resistant maize under license from Syngenta Seeds, Inc.\n*SYN-BTO11-1, SYN-IR6O4-5 (BT11 \u00d7 MIR604) is an Insect Resistant and multiple herbicide resistant maize under license from Syngenta Seeds, Inc.\n*SYN-IR6O4-5 (MIR604) is an Insect Resistant maize under license from Syngenta Seeds, Inc.\n*SYN-IR162-4 (MIR162) is an Insect Resistant maize under license from Syngenta Seeds, Inc.\n*SYN-BTO11-1 (BT11 (X4334CBR, X4734CBR)) is an Insect Resistant and herbicide tolerant maize under license from Syngenta Seeds, Inc.\n*SYN-BTO11-1, SYN-IR162-4, SYN-IR6O4-5 (BT11 \u00d7 MIR162 \u00d7 MIR604) is an Insect Resistant and multiple herbicide resistant maize under license from Syngenta Seeds, Inc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "The US corn supply has been monitored for the presence of the Starlink Bt proteins since 2001."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified food controversies",
        "text": "During the Starlink corn recalls in 2000, a variety of GM maize containing the \"Bacillus thuringiensis\" (Bt) protein Cry9C, was found contaminating corn products in U.S. supermarkets and restaurants. It was also found in Japan and South Korea. Starlink corn had only been approved for animal feed as the Cry9C protein lasts longer in the digestive system than other Bt proteins raising concerns about its potential allergenicity. In 2000, Taco Bell-branded taco shells sold in supermarkets were found to contain Starlink, resulting in a recall of those products, and eventually led to the recall of over 300 products. Sales of StarLink seed were discontinued and the registration for the Starlink varieties was voluntarily withdrawn by Aventis in October 2000. Aid sent by the United Nations and the United States to Central African nations was also found to be contaminated with StarLink corn and the aid was rejected. The U.S. corn supply has been monitored for Starlink Bt proteins since 2001 and no positive samples have been found since 2004. In response, GeneWatch UK and Greenpeace set up the GM Contamination Register in 2005. During the recall, the United States Centers for Disease Control evaluated reports of allergic reactions to StarLink corn, and determined that no allergic reactions to the corn had occurred."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biocontainment of genetically modified organisms",
        "text": "In 2000, Aventis StarLink corn, which had been approved only as animal feed due to concerns about possible allergic reactions in humans, was found contaminating corn products in U.S. supermarkets and restaurants. This corn became the subject of a widely publicized recall, when Taco Bell taco shells were found to contain the corn, eventually resulting in the recall of over 300 products. It was the first-ever recall of a genetically modified food. The registration for the Starlink varieties was voluntarily withdrawn by Aventis in October 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified food controversies",
        "text": "In 2000, Aventis StarLink GM corn was found in US markets and restaurants. It became the subject of a recall that started when Taco Bell-branded taco shells sold in supermarkets were found to contain it. StarLink was then discontinued. Registration for Starlink varieties was voluntarily withdrawn by Aventis in October 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Retrotransposon",
        "text": "Notably a large number of 100 kilobases in the maize genome show variety due to the presence or absence of retrotransposons. However since maize is unusual genetically as compared to other plants it cannot be used to predict retrotransposition in other plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "In September and October 2000, during the Starlink corn recalls, up to $50 million worth of corn-based foods were recalled from restaurants as well as supermarkets. The products contained Starlink genetically modified corn that was not approved for human consumption. It was the first-ever recall of a genetically modified food. The environmental group Friends of the Earth that had first detected the contaminated shells was critical of the FDA for not doing its own job."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "Genetically modified maize\n--Marketed products.\n----Herbicide-resistant maize.\n----Insect-resistant corn.\n------Bt maize/corn.\n------Sweet Corn.\n------Cuba.\n----Drought-resistant maize.\n------Health Safety.\n--Products in development.\n--Refuges.\n--Resistance.\n--Regulation.\n--Controversy.\n----Effects on nontarget insects.\n----Gene flow.\n----Food.\n----Starlink corn recalls.\n----Corporate espionage.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified food controversies",
        "text": "In 2001, when the Starlink corn recall became public, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency was criticized for being slow to react by Joseph Mendelson III of the Center for Food Safety. He also criticized the EPA and Aventis CropScience for statements at the time of the recall, that indicated they did not anticipate that such a thing would happen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Combining the recessive mutant (wx) maize variant with other mutant as for example amylose extender (ae)maize and dull (du) maize has an effect on the amylose and amylopectine structure of the starch.\n* The amylose extender waxy (aewx) starch contain 21% apparent amylose and has a lambda max. of 580 for the iodine-starch complex. The aewx outer chains are longer than those of wx mutant and fewer in number per weight of starch. In general, the aewx starch had a unique structure that is similar to the anomalous amylopectin (intermediate fraction) reported in ae starch.\n* Increased dosage at the ae locus, regardless of the genotype at the wx locus, resulted in amylopectin with increased linearity.\n* Short-chained amylose (approximately 100 glucose units) was observed in all ae genotypes in a homozygous Wx background.\n* Amylopectin of the aewx mutants had an increased proportion of long B-chains and a decreased proportion of short B-chains compared with wx amylopectin, whereas amylopectin of the dull waxy (duwx) mutant had a decreased proportion of long B-chains and an increased proportion of short B-chains, thus confirming the novel nature of aewx and duwx amylopectin."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of varieties of genetically modified maize",
        "text": "1507 (or TC1507) is an insect resistant maize expressing the CryIF protein for lepidopteran insect pest protection and the PAT protein for glufosinate ammonium tolerance as a breeding tool or weed control option. Under license from Pioneer Hi-Bred International Inc. and Mycogen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sanofi",
        "text": "In late 2000, in the midst of the recall of Starlink, its genetically modified maize product, Aventis announced that it had determined to sell off Aventis Cropscience, the seed and pesticide business unit it had created from the agriculture businesses of its predecessors. In October 2001, Bayer and Aventis announced that Bayer would acquire the unit for about $6.6 billion, with the unit becoming Bayer CropScience and making Bayer the world's second-largest agrochemical company behind Syngenta."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of varieties of genetically modified maize",
        "text": "59122 is an insect resistant maize expressing the Cry34Ab1 and Cry35Ab1 proteins for corn rootworm insect pest protection and the PAT protein for glufosinate ammonium tolerance as a breeding tool or weed control option. Under license from Pioneer Hi-Bred International Inc. and DOW AgroSciences LLC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "Approved Bt genes include single and stacked (event names bracketed) configurations of: Cry1A.105 (MON89034), CryIAb (MON810), CryIF (1507), Cry2Ab (MON89034), Cry3Bb1 (MON863 and MON88017), Cry34Ab1 (59122), Cry35Ab1 (59122), mCry3A (MIR604), and Vip3A (MIR162), in both corn and cotton. Corn genetically modified to produce VIP was first approved in the US in 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "Corn varieties resistant to glyphosate herbicides were first commercialized in 1996 by Monsanto, and are known as \"Roundup Ready Corn\". They tolerate the use of Roundup. Bayer CropScience developed \"Liberty Link Corn\" that is resistant to glufosinate. Pioneer Hi-Bred has developed and markets corn hybrids with tolerance to imidazoline herbicides under the trademark \"Clearfield\" \u2013 though in these hybrids, the herbicide-tolerance trait was bred using tissue culture selection and the chemical mutagen ethyl methanesulfonate, not genetic engineering. Consequently, the regulatory framework governing the approval of transgenic crops does not apply for Clearfield."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified food controversies",
        "text": "American rice exports to Europe were interrupted in 2006 when the LibertyLink modification was found in commercial rice crops, although it had not been approved for release. An investigation by the USDA's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) failed to determine the cause of the contamination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Some lines of maize have undergone ancient polyploidy events, starting 11m years ago. Over that time ~72% of polyploid duplicated genes have been retained, which is higher than other plants with older polyploidy events. Thus maize \"may\" be due to lose more duplicate genes as time goes along, similar to the course followed by the genomes of other plants. If so - if gene loss has merely not occurred yet - that could explain the lack of observed positive selection and lower negative selection which are observed in otherwise similar plants, i.e. also naturally outcrossing and with similar effective population sizes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sabritas",
        "text": "In 2000, Sabritas made taco shells that inadvertently contained Starlink, a genetically modified corn that was not approved for human consumption. The contaminated flour was supplied by a mill in Texas. The shells were made on behalf of Kraft, which distributed them in Taco Bell-branded packages to supermarkets; Kraft recalled the taco shells when the Starlink was detected by Friends of the Earth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "/ is a variant of maize that has been genetically altered to express one or more proteins from the bacterium \"Bacillus thuringiensis\" including Delta endotoxins. The protein is poisonous to certain insect pests. Spores of the bacillus are widely used in organic gardening, although GM corn is not considered organic. The European corn borer causes about a billion dollars in damage to corn crops each year."
      },
      {
        "title": "MON 810",
        "text": "The MON 810 corn is a genetically modified maize used around the world. It is a \"Zea mays\" line known as YieldGard from the company Monsanto. This plant is a genetically modified organism (GMO) designed to combat crop loss due to insects. There is an inserted gene in the DNA of MON 810 which allows the plant to make a protein that harms insects that try to eat it. The inserted gene is from the \"Bacillus thuringiensis\" which produces the Bt protein that is poisonous to insects in the order Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), including the European Corn Borer."
      },
      {
        "title": "StarLink corn recall",
        "text": "The StarLink corn recalls occurred in the autumn of 2000, when over 300 food products were found to contain a genetically modified corn that had not been approved for human consumption. It was the first-ever recall of a genetically modified food. The anti-GMO activist coalition Genetically Engineered Food Alert, which detected and first reported the contamination, was critical of the FDA for not doing its job. The recall of Taco Bell-branded taco shells, manufactured by Kraft Foods and sold in supermarkets, was the most publicized of the recalls. One settlement resulted in $60 million going to Taco Bell franchisees for lost sales due to the damage to the Taco Bell brand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified food controversies",
        "text": "A study unusually published as correspondence rather than as an article examined maize modified to express four traits (resistance to European corn borer, resistance to corn root worm, glyphosate tolerance and glyfosinate tolerance) singly and in combination in Wisconsin fields from 1990\u20132010. The variance in yield from year to year was reduced, equivalent to a yield increase of 0.8\u20134.2 bushels per acre. Bushel per acre yield changes were +6.4 for European corn borer resistance, +5.76 for glufosinate tolerance, \u22125.98 for glyphosate tolerance and \u221212.22 for corn rootworm resistance. The study found interactions among the genes in multi-trait hybrid strains, such that the net effect varied from the sum of the individual effects. For example, the combination of European corn borer resistance and glufosinate tolerance increased yields by 3.13, smaller than either of the individual traits"
      },
      {
        "title": "Quality Protein Maize",
        "text": "The \"opaque-2\" mutation reduces the transcription of lysine-lacking zein-related seed storage proteins and, as a result, increased the abundance of other proteins that are rich in lysine. The lack of zein causes a soft texture, necessitating further development for \"hard endosperm o.2\" that lead to QPM."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bx1 benzoxazin1",
        "text": "Molecular characterization reveals that the BX1 protein is a homologue to the alpha-subunit of tryptophan synthase. The reference mutant allele has a deletion of about 900 bp, located at the 5'-terminus and comprising sequence upstream of the transcription start site and the first exon. Additional alleles are given by a \"Mu\" transposon insertion in the fourth exon (Frey et al. 1997 ) and a \"Ds\" transposon insertion in the maize inbred line W22 genetic background (Betsiashvili et al. 2014). Gene sequence diversity analysis has been performed for 281 inbred lines of maize, and the results suggest that bx1 is responsible for much of the natural variation in DIMBOA (a benzoxazinoid compound) synthesis (Butron et al. 2010). Genetic variation in benzoxazinoid content influences maize resistance to several insect pests (Meihls et al 2013; McMullen et al 2009)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "In 1996, the first GM maize producing a Bt Cry protein was approved, which killed the European corn borer and related species; subsequent Bt genes were introduced that killed corn rootworm larvae."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biocontainment of genetically modified organisms",
        "text": "In 2006, American exports of rice to Europe were interrupted when the U.S. crop was contaminated with rice containing the LibertyLink modification, which had not been approved for release. An investigation by the USDA's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) was unable to determine the cause of the contamination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "A review by Food Standards Australia New Zealand and others of the same study concluded that the results were due to chance alone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "In 2009 the government of Mexico created a regulatory pathway for genetically modified maize, but because Mexico is the center of diversity for maize, gene flow could affect a large fraction of the world's maize strains. A 2001 report in \"Nature\" presented evidence that Bt maize was cross-breeding with unmodified maize in Mexico. The data in this paper was later described as originating from an artifact. \"Nature\" later stated, \"the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper\". A 2005 large-scale study failed to find any evidence of contamination in Oaxaca. However, other authors also found evidence of cross-breeding between natural maize and transgenic maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "In recent years, traits have been added to ward off corn ear worms and root worms, the latter of which annually causes about a billion dollars in damages."
      },
      {
        "title": "StarLink corn recall",
        "text": "On September 18, 2000, Genetically Engineered Food Alert released a statement that Genetic ID had conducted tests on \"Taco Bell Home Originals\" brand taco shells, made by Kraft Foods that had been purchased in a grocery store near Washington, DC, and had detected StarLink; the story was reported on by The Washington Post. Kraft distributed the Taco Bell-branded taco shells under a 1996 license agreement with Taco Bell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "And when Collins found such a distinct difference in the appearance of normal and waxy maize endosperm, he suspected a difference in chemical composition, but the analysis did not yield any unusual results. The percentages of starch, oil, and protein were all within the normal range. Yet, he was intrigued by the physical nature of the starch, and wrote: \"In view of the recent development of specialised maize products as human food, the unique type of starch may be of some economic importance.\" So actually, for many years the main use of waxy maize was a genetic marker for other maize breeding programs. Breeders were able to use some of the traits to \"tag\" the existence of hidden genes and follow them through breeding programs. It is possible that waxy maize would have become extinct again in the USA without this special application in breeding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified food in the United States",
        "text": "Although there have been no recorded instances of harm to human health due to the consumption of genetically engineered foods, there is concern over their impact on health. One of the largest food recalls in US history, was the Taco Bell GMO recall, where a Bt corn plant not approved for human consumption due its risk as an allergen, had contaminated food products like the tacos at Taco Bell, and a huge percentage of US's seed supply. No health problems were linked to Starlink corn, and subsequent evaluations of the Bt trait determined that there is medium risk to human health."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "The Bt protein is expressed throughout the plant. When a vulnerable insect eats the Bt-containing plant, the protein is activated in its gut, which is alkaline. In the alkaline environment, the protein partially unfolds and is cut by other proteins, forming a toxin that paralyzes the insect's digestive system and forms holes in the gut wall. The insect stops eating within a few hours and eventually starves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified crops",
        "text": "In October 2014 the US EPA registered Dow's Enlist Duo maize, which is genetically modified to be resistant to both glyphosate and 2,4-D, in six states. Inserting a bacterial aryloxyalkanoate dioxygenase gene, \"aad1\" makes the corn resistant to 2,4-D. The USDA had approved maize and soybeans with the mutation in September 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified food controversies",
        "text": "In 2009, Mexico created a regulatory pathway for GM maize, but because Mexico is maize's center of diversity, concerns were raised about GM maize's effects on local strains. A 2001 report found Bt maize cross-breeding with conventional maize in Mexico. The data in this paper was later described as originating from an artifact and the publishing journal \"Nature\" stated that \"the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper\", although it did not retract the paper. A subsequent large-scale study, in 2005, found no evidence of gene flow in Oaxaca. However, other authors claimed to have found evidence of such gene flow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taco Bell",
        "text": "In September 2000, up to $50 million worth of Taco Bell-branded shells were recalled from supermarkets. The shells contained a variety of genetically modified corn called StarLink that was not approved for human consumption. StarLink was approved only for use in animal feed because of questions about whether it can cause allergic reactions in people. It was the first-ever recall of genetically modified food (GMO). Corn was not segregated at grain elevators and the miller in Texas did not order that type. In 2001, Tricon Global announced a $60 million settlement with the suppliers. They stated that it would go to Taco Bell franchisees and TGR would not take any of it."
      },
      {
        "title": "StarLink corn recall",
        "text": "Kraft had bought the shells from a Sabritas plant in Mexicali which used flour supplied from an Azteca mill plant in Plainview, Texas. The Texas mill used flour from six states supplied by elevators that did not segregate their genetically modified and conventionally-grown corn at the time. Kraft also suspended production of the recalled products. \"All of us \u2014 government, industry and the scientific community \u2014 need to work on ways to prevent this kind of situation from ever happening again,\" said Betsy Holden, Kraft's chief executive in September 2000. She also stated that food safety and legal compliance were Kraft's main priority."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bx1 benzoxazin1",
        "text": "Mutants are viable, but may be distinguished from normal plants by FeCl3 staining: plants able to synthesize benzoxinoids have pale blue color when crushed and treated with FeCl3 solutions (Hamilton 1964, Simcox 1993 ). Mutations in the \"bx1\" gene reduce the resistance to first generation European corn borer (\"Ostrinia nubilalis\") that is conferred by benzoxazinoids (Klun et al 1970 ). \"Bx1\" mutant maize deposited less callose in response to chitosan elicitation than isogenic wildtype plants (Ahmad et al. 2011 ). Genetic mapping using recombinant inbred lines derived from maize inbred lines B73 and Mo17 showed that a 3.9 kb cis-regulatory element that is located approximately 140 kb upstream of \"Bx1\" causes higher 2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one (DIMBOA) accumulation in Mo17 than in B73 seedlings (Zheng et al. 2015 ). This genetic variation is also associated with higher corn leaf aphid (\"Rhopalosiphum maidis\") reproduction on B73 compared to Mo17 maize seedlings (Betsiashvili et al. 2014 ). Relative to maize inbred line W22\", Bx1::Ds\" mutant maize plants are more sensitive to corn leaf aphids (\"Rhopalosiphum maidis\") (Betsiashvili et al. 2014) and beet armyworms (\"Spodoptera exigua\") (Tzin et al. 2017 ). Highly localized induction of benzoxazinoid accumulation in response to Egyptian cotton leafworm (\"Spodoptera littoralis\") feeding is abolished in a maize \"bx1\" mutant (Maag et al. 2016 )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miniature Inverted-repeat Transposable Elements",
        "text": "Based on the presence or absence of MITE family \"Heartbreaker\" (\"Hbr\") in maize genome, a molecular marker was developed. These \"Hbr\" markers have been proved to be stable, uniformly distributed in maize genome. A study by Casa et al. showed that HBr markers could be used along with other molecular markers to study genotype of related maize inbred lines"
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "Research has been done on adding a single \"E. coli\" gene to maize to enable it to be grown with an essential amino acid (methionine)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified crops",
        "text": "Crops such as maize reproduce sexually each year. This randomizes which genes get propagated to the next generation, meaning that desirable traits can be lost. To maintain a high-quality crop, some farmers purchase seeds every year. Typically, the seed company maintains two inbred varieties and crosses them into a hybrid strain that is then sold. Related plants like sorghum and gamma grass are able to perform apomixis, a form of asexual reproduction that keeps the plant's DNA intact. This trait is apparently controlled by a single dominant gene, but traditional breeding has been unsuccessful in creating asexually-reproducing maize. Genetic engineering offers another route to this goal. Successful modification would allow farmers to replant harvested seeds that retain desirable traits, rather than relying on purchased seed."
      },
      {
        "title": "StarLink corn recall",
        "text": "However, because the Cry9C protein lingers in animal digestive systems before breaking down, the EPA had concerns about its allergenicity, and PGS did not provide sufficient data to prove that Cry9C was not allergenic. As a result, PGS split its application into separate permits for use in foods intended for human consumption and for use in animal feed only. StarLink was approved by the EPA for use in animal feed in May 1998. Following the recalls, PGS at first tried to get the application for human consumption approved, and then withdrew the product entirely from the market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Primary sequencing of the maize genome was completed in 2008. On November 20, 2009, the consortium published results of its sequencing effort in \"Science\". The genome, 85% of which is composed of transposons, was found to contain 32,540 genes (By comparison, the human genome contains about 2.9 billion bases and 26,000 genes). Much of the maize genome has been duplicated and reshuffled by helitrons\u2014group of rolling circle transposons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "A 2004 study found Bt protein in kernels of refuge corn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Transposable element",
        "text": "In the winter of 1944\u20131945, McClintock planted corn kernels that were self-pollinated, meaning that the silk (style) of the flower received pollen from its own anther. These kernels came from a long line of plants that had been self-pollinated, causing broken arms on the end of their ninth chromosomes. As the maize plants began to grow, McClintock noted unusual color patterns on the leaves. For example, one leaf had two albino patches of almost identical size, located side by side on the leaf. McClintock hypothesized that during cell division certain cells lost genetic material, while others gained what they had lost. However, when comparing the chromosomes of the current generation of plants with the parent generation, she found certain parts of the chromosome had switched position. This refuted the popular genetic theory of the time that genes were fixed in their position on a chromosome. McClintock found that genes could not only move but they could also be turned on or off due to certain environmental conditions or during different stages of cell development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified crops",
        "text": "Genetically modified plants can also be developed using gene knockdown or gene knockout to alter the genetic makeup of a plant without incorporating genes from other plants. In 2014, Chinese researcher Gao Caixia filed patents on the creation of a strain of wheat that is resistant to powdery mildew. The strain lacks genes that encode proteins that repress defenses against the mildew. The researchers deleted all three copies of the genes from wheat's hexaploid genome. Gao used the TALENs and CRISPR gene editing tools without adding or changing any other genes. No field trials were immediately planned. The CRISPR technique has also been used by Penn State researcher Yinong Yang to modify white button mushrooms (\"Agaricus bisporus\") to be non-browning, and by DuPont Pioneer to make a new variety of corn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified crops",
        "text": "Many strains of corn have been developed in recent years to combat the spread of Maize dwarf mosaic virus, a costly virus that causes stunted growth which is carried in Johnson grass and spread by aphid insect vectors. These strands are commercially available although the resistance is not standard among GM corn variants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "GM sweet corn varieties include \"Attribute\", the brand name for insect-resistant sweet corn developed by Syngenta and \"Performance Series\" insect-resistant sweet corn developed by Monsanto."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "In 2013 Monsanto launched the first transgenic drought tolerance trait in a line of corn hybrids called DroughtGard. The MON 87460 trait is provided by the insertion of the cspB gene from the soil microbe \"Bacillus subtilis\"; it was approved by the USDA in 2011 and by China in 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amylose",
        "text": "Researchers have identified the Granule Bound Starch Synthase (GBSS) as the enzyme that specifically elongates amylose during starch biosynthesis in plants. The waxy locus in maize encodes for the GBSS protein. Mutants lacking the GBSS protein produce starch containing only amylopectin, such as in waxy corn. In Arabidopsis leaves, another gene, encoding the Protein Targeting to STarch (PTST) protein, is required in addition to GBSS for amylose synthesis. Mutants lacking either protein produce starch without amylose. GM potato cultivar Amflora by BASF Plant Science was developed to not produce amylose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quality Protein Maize",
        "text": "Integrating cereal chemistry and plant breeding techniques, Drs. Vasal and Villegas collaborated to combine the existing opaque-2 maize with genetic modifiers. Through the 1970s, they produced and analyzed germplasms at an astonishing rate, sometimes processing up to 25,000 samples a year. By the mid-1980s, they had produced a QPM germplasm with hard kernel characteristics and good taste similar to the traditional grain and with much higher quality levels of lysine and tryptophan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mobilome",
        "text": "Eukaryotic transposable elements were first discovered in maize (\"Zea mays\") in which kernels showed a dotted color pattern. Barbara McClintock described the maize Ac/Ds system in which the Ac locus promotes the excision of the Ds locus from the genome, and excised Ds elements can mutate genes responsible for pigment production by inserting into their coding regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "Gene flow is the transfer of genes and/or alleles from one species to another. Concerns focus on the interaction between GM and other maize varieties in Mexico, and of gene flow into refuges."
      },
      {
        "title": "MON 863",
        "text": "MON 863 is a genetically engineered variety of maize produced by Monsanto. It is genetically altered to express a modified version of Cry3Bb1, a delta endotoxin which originates from \"Bacillus thuringiensis\". This protects the plant from corn rootworm. Unlike MON 810, Bt 11, and Bt 176 which each produce a modified Cry1Ab, MON 863 instead produces a modified Cry3Bb1 toxin and contains nptII, a marker gene for antibiotic resistance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rheintaler Ribelmais",
        "text": "However, maize is a cross-pollinator. In countries with small scale agriculture, as it is the case in Switzerland, fields are comparatively small. With decreasing numbers of neighbouring plants, as it is the case on small fields, genetic diversity is reduced. This increases the risk of malformations. In recent years, Ribelmais has become more susceptible to pests, which were unproblematic in earlier days. This contradicts the common assumption mentioned before, that landraces are better adapted to local conditions. To ensure trait quality, nowadays Rheintaler Ribelmais needs to be observed and altered by breeding programmes. Modern varieties could therefore be better adapted than traditional landraces."
      },
      {
        "title": "StarLink corn recall",
        "text": "GeneWatch UK and Greenpeace International set up the GM Contamination Register in 2005 citing these recalls as one of the \"highlights\" of the register."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ac/Ds transposable controlling elements",
        "text": "Genomic analysis of maize show that these elements, which share terminal 11 bp imperfect inverted repeat sequences, have much sequence heterogeneity, both in length and content. They also include a class of DNA elements that do not transpose in the presence of the Ac element (Du et al. 2011). The chromosome breaking property has been shown to come from pairs of closely positioned elements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "In 2007, South African researchers announced the production of transgenic maize resistant to maize streak virus (MSV), although it has not been released as a product. While breeding cultivars for resistance to MSV isn't done in the public, the private sector, international research centers, and national programmes have done all of the breeding. As of 2014, there have been a few MSV-tolerant cultivars released in Africa. A private company \"Seedco\" has released 5 MSV cultivars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "Introduction of Bt maize led to significant reduction of mycotoxin-related poisoning and cancer rates, as they were significantly less prone to contain mycotoxins (29%), fumonisins (31%) and thricotecens (37%), all of which are toxic and carcinogenic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "While yellow maizes derive their color from lutein and zeaxanthin, in red-colored maizes, the kernel coloration is due to anthocyanins and phlobaphenes. These latter substances are synthesized in the flavonoids synthetic pathway from polymerization of flavan-4-ols by the expression of maize pericarp color1 (p1) gene which encodes an R2R3 myb-like transcriptional activator of the A1 gene encoding for the dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (reducing dihydroflavonols into flavan-4-ols) while another gene (Suppressor of Pericarp Pigmentation 1 or SPP1) acts as a suppressor. The p1 gene encodes an Myb-homologous transcriptional activator of genes required for biosynthesis of red phlobaphene pigments, while the P1-wr allele specifies colorless kernel pericarp and red cobs, and unstable factor for orange1 (Ufo1) modifies P1-wr expression to confer pigmentation in kernel pericarp, as well as vegetative tissues, which normally do not accumulate significant amounts of phlobaphene pigments. The maize P gene encodes a Myb homolog that recognizes the sequence CCT/AACC, in sharp contrast with the C/TAACGG bound by vertebrate Myb proteins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oat",
        "text": "The addition lines with alien chromosomes can be used as a source for novel traits in oats, for example has research on Oat-Maize-Addition lines (OMAs) been used to map genes involved in C4 photosynthesis. In order to obtain mendelian inheritance of these novel traits, radiation hybrid lines have been established, where maize chromosome segments have been introgressed in the oat genome. Interestingly, these techniques which potentially transfers thousands of genes from a species that is very distantly related is not considered a GMO according to the European Union definition, since sexual hybridization and radiation-induced introgression are explicitly excluded from the definition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "In January 2013, the European Food Safety Authority released all data submitted by Monsanto in relation to the 2003 authorisation of maize genetically modified for glyphosate tolerance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified food controversies",
        "text": "US maize yields were flat until the 1930s, when the adoption of conventional hybrid seeds caused them to increase by ~.8 bushels/acre (1937\u20131955). Thereafter a combination of improved genetics, fertilizer and pesticide availability and mechanization raised the rate of increase to 1.9 bushels per acre per year. In the years since the advent of GM maize, the rate increased slightly to 2.0. Average US maize yields were 174.2 bushels per acre in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "StarLink corn recall",
        "text": "In 2000, Genetically Engineered Food Alert was launched by seven organizations (Center for Food Safety, Friends of the Earth, Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, National Environmental Trust, Organic Consumers Association, Pesticide Action Network North America, and The State PIRGs) to lobby the FDA, Congress and companies to ban or stop using GMOs. One of their activities was testing food for the presence of GMOs via a lab called Genetic ID, the vice president of which was Jeffrey M. Smith."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of varieties of genetically modified maize",
        "text": "This is a partial list of varieties of maize that have been modified.\n*DK404SR is a Cyclohexanedione herbicide tolerance maize under license from BASF Inc."
      },
      {
        "title": "LibertyLink",
        "text": "The LibertyLink gene is available in a variety of crops including corn, cotton, canola, sugarbeet and soybean. It is not available in rice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biocontainment of genetically modified organisms",
        "text": "In 2009 the government of Mexico created a regulatory pathway for approval of genetically modified maize, but because Mexico is the center of diversity for maize, concerns have been raised about the effect that genetically modified maize could have on local strains. A 2001 report in \"Nature\" presented evidence that Bt maize was cross-breeding with unmodified maize in Mexico, although the data in this paper was later described as originating from an artifact and \"Nature\" stated that \"the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper\". A subsequent large-scale study, in 2005, failed to find any evidence of contamination in Oaxaca. However, other authors have stated that they also found evidence of cross-breeding between natural maize and transgenic maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food allergy",
        "text": "Prior to a new GMO food receiving government approval, certain criteria need to be met. These include: Is the donor species known to be allergenic? Does the amino acid sequence of the transferred proteins resemble the sequence of known allergenic proteins? Are the transferred proteins resistant to digestion - a trait shared by many allergenic proteins? Genes approved for animal use can be restricted from human consumption due to potential for allergic reactions. In 1998 Starlink brand corn restricted to animals was detected in the human food supply, leading to first a voluntary and then a FDA mandated recall. There are requirements in some countries and recommendations in others that all foods containing GMO ingredients be so labeled, and that there be a post-launch monitoring system to report adverse effects (much there exists in some countries for drug and dietary supplement reporting)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Because the waxy mutation is expressed in an easy identifiable nonlethal phenotype, it has been the subject of major research during the 20th century. Nelson made a fine structure genetic map of most of these mutations\n* For waxy maize, a single recessive gene (wx) was located on the short arm of chromosome 9, codes for the waxy endosperm of the kernel (Wx codes for endosperm with normal starch). This was first shown by Collins and Kempton.\n* The structure of the wildtype waxy (wx+) locus has been determined through DNA sequencing. The gene has 3718 bp (14 exons and 13 introns).\n* Waxy endosperm is the counterpart in maize of the \"glutinous\" character in rice.\n* There is a wide range of species also presenting the waxy mutation, including rice, sorghum, millet, barley and wheat, which were characterised by starch granules staining red with iodine.\n* In crosses between heterozygous plants for the waxy character, a small but significant deviation from an expected Mendelian ratio in self-pollination is produced. Bear obtained from 71 segregated ears on the F1 generation 23,77% of waxy kernels and 76,23% of non-waxy kernels. This is evidenced by the two heterozygous types, Wx Wx wx and wx wx Wx."
      },
      {
        "title": "European corn borer",
        "text": "Bt corn, a variety of genetically modified corn, has had its genome modified to include a synthetic version of an insecticidal gene from the \"Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki\". As a result, the corn variety produces a protein that kills the larvae of Lepidoptera, the taxonomic order which includes the European corn borer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology",
        "text": "Crosses between a particular teosinte variety and maize yield fertile offspring that are intermediate in phenotype between maize and teosinte. QTL analysis has also revealed some loci that when mutated in maize yield a teosinte-like stem or teosinte-like cobs. Molecular clock analysis of these genes estimates their origins to some 9000\u00a0years ago, well in accordance with other records of maize domestication. It is believed that a small group of farmers must have selected some maize-like natural mutant of teosinte some 9000 years ago in Mexico, and subjected it to continuous selection to yield the maize plant as known today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Barbara McClintock used these knob markers to validate her transposon theory of \"jumping genes\", for which she won the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Maize is still an important model organism for genetics and developmental biology today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decrease in DNA Methylation I (DDM1)",
        "text": "DDM1 is being further explored in maize. Unlike \"A. thaliana\", maize has two copies of the gene: \"CHR101\" and \"CHR106\". In maize, the double mutant of DDM1 is embryo lethal. However, other studies are using the heterozygote mutant. The maize genome is 80% transposons so DDM1 function is quite important."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "Unmodified crops received most of the economic benefits of Bt corn in the US in 1996\u20132007, because of the overall reduction of pest populations. This reduction came because females laid eggs on modified and unmodified strains alike."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Genetic research of this genetic drift started first with describing the physical appearance (phenotyping) of the mutant maize. Later on these phenotypes were coupled to mutant genes genotypes. More than 40 mutant alleles are known for the waxy locus, making up the finest collection of mutations found among higher plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "The locus Wx codes for a specific starch granule-bound enzyme, NDP-glucose-starch glucosyltransferase. This specific starch synthase enzyme is responsible for amylose biosynthesis. The Wx gen catalyses the 1\u20134 linkage from glucose residues to amylose synthesis in the developing endosperm. This enzyme is located in the amyloplasts and is the major component of the starchbound protein in maize. Nelson showed that starch granules from wx wx wx endosperm had very low starch granule-bound glucosyltransferase activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bacillus thuringiensis",
        "text": "In 1996, genetically modified maize producing Bt Cry protein was approved, which killed the European corn borer and related species; subsequent Bt genes were introduced that killed corn rootworm larvae."
      },
      {
        "title": "Introduction to evolution",
        "text": "Artificial selection has produced a wide variety of plants. In the case of maize (corn), recent genetic evidence suggests that domestication occurred 10,000\u00a0years ago in central Mexico. Prior to domestication, the edible portion of the wild form was small and difficult to collect. Today \"The Maize Genetics Cooperation \u2022 Stock Center\" maintains a collection of more than 10,000\u00a0genetic variations of maize that have arisen by random mutations and chromosomal variations from the original wild type."
      },
      {
        "title": "LibertyLink",
        "text": "In 2006, the U.S. Department of Agriculture announced that Bayer CropScience's LibertyLink genetically modified rice had contaminated the U.S. rice supply. Shortly after the public learned of the contamination, the E.U. banned imports of U.S. long-grain rice and the futures price plunged. In April 2010, a Lonoke County, Arkansas jury awarded a dozen farmers $48 million. The case was appealed to the Arkansas Supreme Court, which affirmed the judgement. On 1 July 2011, Bayer CropScience agreed to a global settlement for up to $750 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pioneer Hi Bred International",
        "text": "Pioneer makes and sells hybrid seed and genetically modified seed, some of which goes on to become genetically modified food. Genes engineered into their products include the LibertyLink gene, which provides resistance to Bayer's Ignite/Liberty herbicides; the Herculex I Insect Protection gene which provides protection against various insects; the Herculex RW insect protection trait, which provides protection against other insects; the YieldGard Corn Borer gene, which provides resistance to another set of insects; and the Roundup Ready Corn 2 trait, which provides crop resistance against glyphosate herbicides. In 2010 Dupont Pioneer received approval to start marketing Plenish soybeans, which contains \"the highest oleic acid content of any commercial soybean product, at more than 75%\". Plenish is genetically engineered to \"block the formation of enzymes that continue the cascade downstream from oleic acid (that produces saturated fats), resulting in an accumulation of the desirable monounsaturated acid.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Waxy corn",
        "text": "Experiments by Sprague have shown that ten to twenty plants are required for adequate representation of genetic diversity in an open-pollinated maize variety. Since the number of ears saved for seed by ancient Asian maize cultivators with only small plots of land at their disposal was often smaller than this and, indeed, since new maize populations are sometimes established by growing the progeny of a single ear, it follows that there must often have been genetic drift \u2013 changes in gene frequencies resulting from the creation of small breeding populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quality Protein Maize",
        "text": "is a family of maize varieties. QPM grain contains nearly twice as much lysine and tryptophan, amino acids that are essential for humans and monogastric animals but are limiting amino acids in grains. QPM is a product of conventional plant breeding (i.e., it is not genetically modified) and an example of biofortification."
      },
      {
        "title": "StarLink corn recall",
        "text": "Following the recalls, 51 people reported adverse effects to the FDA; these reports were reviewed by the US Centers for Disease Control (CDC), which determined that 28 of them were possibly related to StarLink. The CDC studied the blood of these 28 individuals and concluded there was no evidence the reactions these people experienced were associated with hypersensitivity to the StarLink Bt protein."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal leaf beetle",
        "text": "Genetically modified plants are still another option for control. Meissle \"et al.\" found that mortality of \"O. melanopus\" on \"Cry3Bb1\" transgenic maize was double that of the wild type. Many transgenic plants seek to change the physical properties of the plant, making adhering eggs a difficult task."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "This recombination/diversity effect is seen throughout plants but is also found to not occur \u2013 or not as strongly \u2013 in regions of high gene density. This is likely the reason that domesticated \"Z. mays\" has not seen as much of an increase in diversity within areas of higher density as in regions of lower density, although there is more evidence in other plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified crops",
        "text": "Farmers have widely adopted GM technology. Acreage increased from 1.7 million hectares in 1996 to 185.1 million hectares in 2016, some 12% of global cropland. As of 2016, major crop (soybean, maize, canola and cotton) traits consist of herbicide tolerance (95.9 million hectares) insect resistance (25.2 million hectares), or both (58.5 million hectares). In 2015, 53.6 million ha of GM maize were under cultivation (almost 1/3 of the maize crop). GM maize outperformed its predecessors: yield was 5.6 to 24.5% higher with less mycotoxins (\u221228.8%), fumonisin (\u221230.6%) and thricotecens (\u221236.5%). Non-target organisms were unaffected, except for \"Braconidae\", represented by a parasitoid of European corn borer, the target of \"Lepidoptera\" active Bt maize. Biogeochemical parameters such as lignin content did not vary, while biomass decomposition was higher."
      },
      {
        "title": "StarLink corn recall",
        "text": "It was estimated that due to grain mixing StarLink corn could have existed in more than 50% of the US corn supply and that overall, the StarLink incident depressed the price of US corn about 7% for about a year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maize",
        "text": "Since the 1940s the best strains of maize have been first-generation hybrids made from inbred strains that have been optimized for specific traits, such as yield, nutrition, drought, pest and disease tolerance. Both conventional cross-breeding and genetic modification have succeeded in increasing output and reducing the need for cropland, pesticides, water and fertilizer. There is conflicting evidence to support the hypothesis that maize yield potential has increased over the past few decades. This suggests that changes in yield potential are associated with leaf angle, lodging resistance, tolerance of high plant density, disease/pest tolerance, and other agronomic traits rather than increase of yield potential per individual plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified crops",
        "text": "Tobacco, corn, rice and some other crops have been engineered to express genes encoding for insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). The introduction of Bt crops during the period between 1996 and 2005 has been estimated to have reduced the total volume of insecticide active ingredient use in the United States by over 100 thousand tons. This represents a 19.4% reduction in insecticide use."
      },
      {
        "title": "DuPont (1802\u20132017)",
        "text": "The agriculture division, DuPont Pioneer, makes and sells hybrid seed and genetically modified seed, some of which produces genetically modified food. Genes engineered into their products include LibertyLink, which provides resistance to Bayer's Ignite Herbicide/Liberty herbicides; the Herculex I Insect Protection gene, which provides protection against various insects; the Herculex RW insect protection trait, which provides protection against other insects; the YieldGard Corn Borer gene, which provides resistance to another set of insects; and the Roundup Ready Corn 2 trait that provides crop resistance against glyphosate herbicides."
      },
      {
        "title": "Transposable element",
        "text": "Approximately 64% of the maize genome is made up of TEs, as is 44% of the human genome, and almost half of murine genomes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified maize",
        "text": "Critics have objected to GM crops on ecological, economic and health grounds. The economic issues derive from those organisms that are subject to intellectual property law, mostly patents. The first generation of GM crops lose patent protection beginning in 2015. Monsanto has claimed it will not pursue farmers who retain seeds of off-patent varieties. These controversies have led to litigation, international trade disputes, protests and to restrictive legislation in most countries."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What color differences is there between the differnt types of corn?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They are of various colors: blackish, bluish-gray, purple, green, red, white, yellow, and the term \"Indian corn\" can refer to multicolored varieties."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the color of the corn affect other things about it, like the taste?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "One factor effected by color is while yellow maizes derive their color from lutein and zeaxanthin, in red-colored maizes, the kernel coloration is due to anthocyanins and phlobaphenes."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How do anthocyanins and phlobaphenes give color to the maize?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Anthocyanins is a water-soluble vacuolar pigment, and depending on the pH, can have colors like red, purple, blue, or black. Phlobaphene are reddish, alcohol-soluble and water-insoluble phenolic substances and are natural pigments."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What color of corn is used for corn ethanol?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I was not able to find information about the color, only that maize is used for corn ethanol."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is there any controversy about breeding of maize?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In September 2000, up to $50 million worth of food products were recalled due to the presence of Starlink genetically modified corn, which had been approved only for animal consumption and had not been approved for human consumption, and was subsequently withdrawn from the market."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What other things does Starlink genetically modify?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I couldn't find the information you requested, but I did learn that the StarLink corn recalls occurred in the autumn of 2000, when over 300 food products were found to contain a genetically modified corn that had not been approved for human consumption.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I didn't find other specific plants they modify but StarLink is a brand of genetically modified maize by Plant Genetic Systems; the company is best known for its work in the development of insect-resistant transgenic plants. Its origin goes back to the work of Marc Van Montagu and Jeff Schell at the University of Ghent who were among the first to assemble a practical system for genetic engineering of plants."
    ],
    "topic": "Maize",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "StarLink corn recall:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "StarLink corn recall"
        ],
        "ctx": "The StarLink corn recalls occurred in the autumn of 2000, when over 300 food products were found to contain a genetically modified corn that had not been approved for human consumption. It was the first-ever recall of a genetically modified food. The anti-GMO activist coalition Genetically Engineered Food Alert, which detected and first reported the contamination, was critical of the FDA for not doing its job. The recall of Taco Bell-branded taco shells, manufactured by Kraft Foods and sold in supermarkets, was the most publicized of the recalls. One settlement resulted in $60 million going to Taco Bell franchisees for lost sales due to the damage to the Taco Bell brand."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "StarLink corn recall:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "StarLink corn recall",
          "StarLink corn"
        ],
        "ctx": "StarLink is a brand of genetically modified maize containing two modifications: a gene for resistance to glufosinate, and a variant of the \"Bacillus thuringiensis\" (Bt) protein called Cry9C. Cry9C had not been used in a GM crop prior to StarLink, causing heightened regulatory scrutiny. StarLink's creator, Plant Genetic Systems, which became Aventis CropScience during the time of the incident, had applied to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to market StarLink for use in both animal feed and human foods. The Garst Seed Company (part of the Advanta group) was licensed by Aventis to produce and sell StarLink seed in the US."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Plant Genetic Systems:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Plant Genetic Systems"
        ],
        "ctx": "Its origin goes back to the work of Marc Van Montagu and Jeff Schell at the University of Ghent who were among the first to assemble a practical system for genetic engineering of plants. They developed a vector system for transferring foreign genes into the plant genome, by using the Ti plasmid of Agrobacterium tumefaciens. They also found a way to make plant cells resistant to the antibiotic kanamycin by transferring a bacterial neomycin phosphotransferase gene into the plant genome. PGS was the first company (in 1985) to develop genetically engineered (tobacco) plants with insect tolerance by expressing genes encoding for insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Plant Genetic Systems:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Plant Genetic Systems"
        ],
        "ctx": "Plant Genetic Systems (PGS), since 2002 part of Bayer CropScience, is a biotech company located in Ghent, Belgium. The focus of its activities is the genetic engineering of plants. The company is best known for its work in the development of insect-resistant transgenic plants."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "According to an investigation by \"The Guardian\" and \"El Pa\u00eds\", Pegasus software was used by the government of Spain to compromise the phones of several politicians active in the Catalan independence movement, including President of the Parliament of Catalonia Roger Torrent, and former member of the Parliament of Catalonia Anna Gabriel i Sabat\u00e9."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2020, it was reported that Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates deployed a zero-click iMessage Pegasus exploit against two London-based reporters and 36 journalists at the \"Al Jazeera\" television network in Qatar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2020, it was reported that Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates deployed a zero-click iMessage Pegasus exploit against two London-based reporters and 36 journalists at the \"Al Jazeera\" television network in Qatar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus (spyware)\n--Background.\n----Discovery.\n----Chronology.\n--Technical details.\n----Development of capabilities.\n----Vulnerabilities.\n----Pegasus Anonymizing Transmission Network.\n--Use by country.\n----Armenia.\n----Azerbaijan.\n----Bahrain.\n----Estonia.\n----Finland.\n----Germany.\n----Hungary.\n----India.\n----Israel.\n----Jordan.\n----Kazakhstan.\n----Mexico.\n----Morocco.\n----Panama.\n----Palestine.\n----Poland.\n----Rwanda.\n----Saudi Arabia.\n----Spain.\n----Togo.\n----Uganda.\n----Ukraine.\n----United Arab Emirates.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n----Yemen.\n----International organizations.\n------European Union.\n--Pegasus Project.\n--Reactions.\n----NSO Group response.\n----Bug-bounty program skepticism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A joint investigation by \"The Guardian\" and \"Le Monde\" alleged that Pegasus software was used to spy on six critics of the government in Togo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "It has been reported that Muhoozi Kainerugaba brokered a deal to use Pegasus in Uganda, paying between $10 and $20 million in 2019. The software was later used to hack the phones of 11 US diplomats and employees of the US embassy in Uganda some time during 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On 7 October 2021, the NSO Group stated that it had terminated its contract with the UAE to use its Pegasus spyware tool after the ruling by UK\u2019s High Court that Dubai\u2019s ruler misused the firm\u2019s Pegasus software to spy on his ex-wife and her legal advisers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Regarding how widespread the issue was, Lookout explained in a blog post: \"We believe that this spyware has been in the wild for a significant amount of time based on some of the indicators within the code\" and pointed out that the code shows signs of a \"kernel mapping table that has values all the way back to iOS 7\" (released 2013). \"The New York Times\" and \"The Times of Israel\" both reported that it appeared that the United Arab Emirates was using this spyware as early as 2013. It was used in Panama by former president Ricardo Martinelli from 2012 to 2014, who established the \"Consejo de Seguridad P\u00fablica y Defensa\" Nacional (National Security Council) for its use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Mexico was the first country to purchase Pegasus. Early versions of Pegasus were used to surveil the phone of Joaqu\u00edn Guzm\u00e1n, known as El Chapo. In 2011, Mexican President Felipe Calder\u00f3n reportedly called NSO to thank the company for its role in Guzm\u00e1n's capture. When a list of 50,000 phone numbers of potential Pegasus surveillance targets (selected by individual client governments) was leaked in 2021, a third of them were Mexican."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Software",
        "text": "Today there are around 25,000 Pegasus software application licenses in use, its predominant market is the UK and Ireland and the company employs around 80 people. The products are sold through a network of 80 Partners. Pegasus operated as a subsidiary of a larger British software group, Systems Union Group plc. until August 2006, but now operates as a subsidiary business unit of Infor Global Solutions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus is spyware developed by the Israeli cyber-arms company NSO Group that can be covertly installed on mobile phones (and other devices) running most versions of iOS and Android. Pegasus is able to exploit iOS versions up to 14.6, through a zero-click exploit. As of 2022, Pegasus was capable of reading text messages, tracking calls, collecting passwords, location tracking, accessing the target device's microphone and camera, and harvesting information from apps. The spyware is named after Pegasus, the winged horse of Greek mythology. It is a Trojan horse computer virus that can be sent \"flying through the air\" to infect cell phones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Israeli police use"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus licenses were agreed on between Benjamin Netanyahu and Beata Szyd\u0142o in July 2017. Citizen Lab revealed that several members of political opposition groups in Poland were hacked by Pegasus spyware, raising alarming questions about the Polish government's use of the software. A lawyer representing Polish opposition groups and a prosecutor involved in a case against the ruling Law and Justice party were also compromised."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The spyware has been used for surveillance of anti-regime activists, journalists, and political leaders from several nations around the world. In July 2021, the investigation initiative Pegasus Project, along with an in-depth analysis by human rights group Amnesty International, reported that Pegasus was still being widely used against high-profile targets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In November 2021, Lajos K\u00f3sa, head of a parliamentary defense and law enforcement committee, was the first Hungarian senior official who acknowledged that the country's Interior Ministry purchased and used Pegasus. K\u00f3sa admitted that Hungary had indeed purchased and used Pegasus, stating \"I don't see anything objectionable in it [...] large tech companies carry out much broader monitoring of citizens than the Hungarian state does.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "As of August 2016 - according to a former NSO Employee - the U.S. version of Pegasus had 1-click capabilities for all phones except old Blackberry models which could be infiltrated with a 0-click attack."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "The Pegasus spyware was developed by the Israeli cyberarms company NSO Group. It can be covertly installed on mobile phones (and other devices) running most versions of iOS and Android. The spyware is named after the mythical winged horse Pegasus\u2014it is a Trojan horse that can be sent \"flying through the air\" to infect phones. Usages of the Pegasus spyware have been monitored for years. Amnesty has argued that the digital invasion is correlated with real-life consequences for spied targets, via psychological or physical damages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus is in use by German Federal Criminal Police Office (BKA). BKA acquired Pegasus in 2019 with \"utmost secrecy\", and despite hesitations from its legal council. The use of Pegasus by BKA was later revealed by German media."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Estonia entered negotiations to procure Pegasus in 2018, and had made a $30 million down payment for the tool. Estonia hoped to use the tool against Russian phones (presumably for gathering intelligence). Israel initially approved the export of Pegasus to Estonia, but after a senior Russian defense official approached the Israeli defense agencies and revealed that Russia had learned of Estonia's intentions to obtain Pegasus, Israel decided to disallow Estonia from using Pegasus against any Russian phone number (following a heated debate among Israeli officials) so as to avoid damaging Israeli relations with Russia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Use by Mexican drug cartels"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2021, allegations arose that the software may also have been used to spy on members of Kashoggi's family."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2018, a \"New York Times\" investigation concluded that Pegasus software played a role in the Khashoggi's murder, with a friend of Khashoggi stating in a filing that Saudi authorities had used the Israeli-made software to spy on the dissident. NSO CEO Shalev Hulio stated that the company had not been involved in the \"terrible murder\", but declined to comment on reports that he had personally traveled to the Saudi capital Riyadh for a $55 million Pegasus sale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2020, an Al Jazeera investigative show \"The Hidden is More Immense\" covered Pegasus and its penetration into the phones of media professionals and activists; and its use by Israel to eavesdrop on both opponents and allies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "President of Panama Ricardo Martinelli personally sought to obtain cyberespionage tools after his election in 2009. After a rebuff by the U.S. in 2009, Martinelli successfully sought such tools from Israeli vendors, expressing an interest in acquiring a tool capable of hacking into mobile phones in a 2010 private meeting with Israeli PM Netanyahu. In 2012, NSO systems were installed in Panama City. The equipment was subsequently widely used for illicti domestic and foreign spying, including for spying on political opponents, magistrates, union leaders, and business competitors, with Martinelli allegedly going so far as to order the surveillance of his mistress using Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "NSO Group",
        "text": "\"Pegasus\" spyware is classified as a military export by Israel and its sale is controlled by the government. According to The New York Times, \"Israel\u2019s government has long seen Pegasus as a critical tool for its foreign policy.\" Israel has used the sale of NSO products as a diplomatic bargaining chip to advance its foreign policy interests as well as limiting its sale to or its use against certain states to maintain good relations with certain states."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Although Pegasus is stated as intended to be used against criminals and terrorists, it has also been used by both authoritarian and democratic governments to spy on critics and opponents. A UN special rapporteur on freedom of opinion found that the use of the spyware by abusive governments could \"facilitate extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and killings, or enforced disappearance of persons.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Software",
        "text": "Pegasus Software is based in Kettering, England and develops accounting and financial management, supply chain, business intelligence, payroll, crm, construction and service management software applications for small and medium-sized businesses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In August 2016, NSO Group (through its U.S. subsidiary Westbridge) pitched its U.S. version of Pegasus to the San Diego Police Department (SDPD). In the marketing material, Westbridge emphasized that the company is U.S. based and majority owned by a U.S. parent company. An SDPD Sergeant responded to the sales pitch with \"sounds awesome\". The SDPD declined to purchase the spyware as it was too expensive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus was used by Saudi Arabia to spy on Jamal Kashoggi, who was later killed in Turkey. In October 2018, Citizen Lab reported on the use of NSO software to spy on the inner circle of Jamal Khashoggi just before his murder. Citizen Lab's October report stated with high confidence that NSO's Pegasus had been placed on the iPhone of Saudi dissident Omar Abdulaziz, one of Khashoggi's confidantes, months before. Abdulaziz stated that the software revealed Khashoggi's \"private criticisms of the Saudi royal family,\" which according to Abdulaziz \"played a major role\" in Khashoggi's death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Other"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A joint investigation by \"The Guardian\" and \"Le Monde\" alleged political activists in Rwanda were targeted with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus spyware was found in 2021 on the iPhones of at least nine U.S. State Department employees. The US government blacklisted the NSO Group to stop what it called \"transnational repression\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The United Arab Emirates used Pegasus to spy on the members of Saudi-backed Yemeni government according to an investigation published in July 2021. The UAE used the spyware to monitor and spy on the ministers of the internationally recognized government of President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi, including Yemeni president and his family members, former Prime Minister Ahmed Obaid Bin Dagher, former Foreign Minister Abdulmalik Al-Mekhlafi, and current Minister of Youth and Sports, Nayef al-Bakri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Another Saudi exile Omar Abdulaziz in Canada was identified by McKinsey & Company as being an influential dissident, and hence had two brothers imprisoned by the Saudi authorities, and his cell phone hacked by Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "NSO Group pitched its spyware to the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), which declined to purchase it due to its high cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In July 2021, a joint investigation conducted by seventeen media organisations, revealed that Pegasus spyware was used to target and spy on heads of state, activists, journalists, and dissidents, enabling \"human rights violations around the world on a massive scale\". The investigation was launched after a leak of 50,000 phone numbers of potential surveillance targets. Amnesty International carried out forensic analysis of mobile phones of potential targets. The investigation identified 11 countries as NSO clients: Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Hungary, India, Kazakhstan, Mexico, Morocco, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia, Togo, and the United Arab Emirates. The investigation also revealed that journalists from multiple media organizations including \"Al Jazeera\", CNN, the \"Financial Times\", the Associated Press, \"The New York Times\", \"The Wall Street Journal\", \"Bloomberg News\" and \"Le Monde\" were targeted, and identified at least 180 journalists from 20 countries who were selected for targeting with NSO spyware between 2016 and June 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus has been used by drug cartels and cartel-entwined government actors to target and intimidate Mexican journalists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In January 2022 it was reported that the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) had secretly bought the Pegasus spyware in 2019 and was also given a demonstration of Phantom, a newer tool that could hack American phone numbers. They considered using both tools for domestic surveillance in the U.S. Which reportedly led to discussions between the FBI and United States Department of Justice which ultimately lead to the FBI deciding against using it and all NSO spyware in 2021. However, despite ruling against using it, Pegasus equipment is still in the FBI's possession at a New Jersey facility."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "On November 4, 2021, Lajos K\u00f3sa, Member of Parliament and Vice President of Fidesz, member of the Parliamentary Defence and Law Enforcement Committee, admitted that the Ministry of Interior had purchased and used the Pegasus software."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In April 2022, Citizen Lab released a report stating that 10 Downing Street staff had been targeted by Pegasus, and that the United Arab Emirates was suspected of originating the attacks in 2020 and 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Human rights group Amnesty International reported in the 2021 investigation that Pegasus employs a sophisticated command-and-control (C&C) infrastructure to deliver exploit payloads and send commands to Pegasus targets. There are at least four known iterations of the C&C infrastructure, dubbed the \"Pegasus Anonymizing Transmission Network\" (PATN) by NSO group, each encompassing up to 500 domain names, DNS servers, and other network infrastructure. The PATN reportedly utilizes techniques such as registering high port numbers for their online infrastructure as to avoid conventional internet scanning. PATN also uses up to three randomised subdomains unique per exploit attempt as well as randomised URL paths."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2019, two Moroccan pro-democracy campaigners were notified by WhatsApp that their phones had been compromised with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Democratic backsliding",
        "text": "In July 2021, leaked data acquired by the Pegasus Project suggested the Hungarian government may have used NSO Group's Pegasus spyware to target opposition journalists. Hungarian officials acknowledged that they had purchased the spyware, but noted that they had received permission from either the courts or the Ministry of Justice in every case it was used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Other targets"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Google's Project Zero documented another exploit, dubbed FORCEDENTRY, in December 2021. According to Google's researchers, Pegasus sent an iMessage to its targets that contained what appeared to be GIF images, but which in fact contained a JBIG2 image. A vulnerability in the Xpdf implementation of JBIG2, re-used in Apple's iOS phone operating software, allowed Pegasus to construct an emulated computer architecture inside the JBIG2 stream which was then used to implement the zero-click attack. Apple fixed the vulnerability in iOS 14.8 in September 2021 as CVE-2021-30860."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In June 2020, an investigation by Amnesty International alleged that Moroccan journalist Omar Radi was targeted by the Moroccan government using the Israeli spyware Pegasus. The rights group claimed that the journalist was targeted three times and spied on after his device was infected with an NSO tool. Meanwhile, Amnesty also claimed that the attack came after the NSO group updated their policy in September 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "NSO Group",
        "text": "NSO Groups offers the smartphone spyware tool Pegasus to government clients for the exclusive intended purpose of combating crime and terrorism. The first version of Pegasus was finalised in 2011. Pegasus spyware is classified as a weapon by Israel and any export of the technology must be approved by the government. The Israeli Ministry of Defense licenses the export of Pegasus to foreign governments, but not to private entities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The earliest version of Pegasus - which was identified in 2016 - relied on a spear-phishing attack which required the target to click a malicious link in a text message or email."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2021, Citizen Lab announced that Pegasus was used against lawyer Roman Giertych and prosecutor Ewa Wrzosek, both critical of the ruling Law and Justice (PiS) government, with Giertych's phone suffering 18 intrusions. 33 hacks to the phone of Krzysztof Brejza, a senator from the opposition Civic Platform (PO) were uncovered, and confirmed by Amnesty International. Leading to the 2019 European and Polish parliamentary elections, Brejza's text messages were stolen as he was leading the opposition parties' campaign. The texts were doctored by state-run media, notably TVP, and used in a smear campaign against the opposition. This prompted the Polish Senate to begin an inquiry into the deployment of the spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In April 2022, according to two EU officials and documentation obtained by Reuters, the European Justice Commissioner Didier Reynders and other European Commission officials had been targeted by NSO's software. The commision learned of this after Apple notified thousands of iPhone users in November 2021 that they were targeted by state-sponsored hackers. According to the same two sources, IT experts examined some of the smartphones, but the results were inconclusive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "At least since 2019, Ukraine had sought to obtain Pegasus in its effort to counter what it saw as an increasing threat of Russian aggression and espionage, however, Israel had imposed a near-total ban on weapons sales to Ukraine (which also encompassed cyberespionage tools), wary of selling Pegasus to states that would use the tool against Russia so as not to damage relations with Russia. In August 2021, at a time when Russian troops were amassing on the Ukrainian border, Israel again rebuffed a request from a Ukrainian delegation asking to obtain Pegasus; according to a Ukrainian official familiar with the matter, Pegasus could have provided critical support in Ukraine's effort to monitor Russian military activity. In the wake of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Ukrainian officials rebuked Israel's tepid support of Ukraine and Israeli efforts to maintain amicable relations with Russia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Several lawsuits outstanding in 2018 claimed that NSO Group helped clients operate the software and therefore participated in numerous violations of human rights initiated by its clients. Two months after the murder and dismemberment of \"The Washington Post\" journalist Jamal Khashoggi, a Saudi human rights activist, in the Saudi Arabian Consulate in Istanbul, Turkey, Saudi dissident Omar Abdulaziz, a Canadian resident, filed suit in Israel against NSO Group, accusing the firm of providing the Saudi government with the surveillance software to spy on him and his friends, including Khashoggi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In January 2022, it was reported that Pegasus was unlawfully used by the Israeli Police to monitor citizens as well as foreign nationals who were accidentally or intentionally infected by the software. The surveillance was ordered by high-ranking police officers, and was carried out without warrants or judicial supervision. The legal basis for use of spyware against citizens is disputed. The police had allegedly targeted civilians not suspected of any crime, including organisers of antigovernmental protesters, mayors, anti-LBGT parade activists, employees of government-owned companies, an associated of a senior politician, and former government employees. In one case, it was alleged that police targeted an activist who was not suspected of a crime, allegedly to gather information about the activist's extra-marital affairs and use it as leverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In July 2017, the international team assembled to investigate the 2014 Iguala mass kidnapping publicly complained they thought they were being surveilled by the Mexican government. They stated that the Mexican government used Pegasus to send them messages about funeral homes containing links which, when clicked, allowed the government to surreptitiously listen to the investigators. The Mexican government has repeatedly denied any unauthorized hacking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "As of July 2021, Pegasus likely uses many exploits, some not listed in the above CVEs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A leak of a list of more than 50,000 telephone numbers believed to have been identified as those of people of interest by clients of NSO since 2016 became available to Paris-based media nonprofit organisation Forbidden Stories and Amnesty International. They shared the information with seventeen news media organisations in what has been called \"Pegasus Project\", and a months-long investigation was carried out, which reported from mid-July 2021. The Pegasus Project involved 80 journalists from the media partners including \"The Guardian\" (UK), Radio France and \"Le Monde\" (France), \"Die Zeit\" and \"S\u00fcddeutsche Zeitung\" (Germany), \"The Washington Post\" (United States), \"Haaretz\" (Israel), \"Aristegui Noticias\", \"Proceso\" (Mexico), the Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project, \"Knack\", \"Le Soir\", \"The Wire\", \"Daraj\", Direkt36 (Hungary), and \"Frontline\". Evidence was found that many phones with numbers in the list had been targets of Pegasus spyware. However, The CEO of NSO Group categorically claimed that the list in question is unrelated to them, the source of the allegations can't be verified as reliable one. \"This is an attempt to build something on a crazy lack of information... There is something fundamentally wrong with this investigation\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In July 2021, Morocco had targeted more than 6,000 Algerian phones, including those of politicians and high-ranking military officials, with the spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2021, AP reported that 11 U.S. State Department employees stationed in Uganda had their iPhones hacked with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Since 2019, Pegasus has come to rely on iPhone iMessage vulnerabilities to deploy spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "In July 2017, Prime Minister Beata Szyd\u0142o agreed with Benjamin Netanyahu to buy Pegasus licenses. Micha\u0142 Wo\u015b, deputy minister of justice, requested a parliamentary committee to divert funds from a ministry-run fund to \"combat crime.\" Once approved, the Central Anticorruption Bureau (CBA) purchased the licenses for PLN 33.4 million. The transaction with NSO Group was camouflaged with unrelated invoices. The contract for 40 licenses to be used over three years was mediated by Matic, a company established by former Militia and Security Service associates. The spyware was first deployed in November 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pe\u00f1abot",
        "text": "As of February 2018, Reuters published an article stating the Mexican government has not properly investigated the Pegasus spyware usage to spy news journalists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project revelations in India",
        "text": "The Pegasus Project was a collaborative investigative journalism initiative undertaken by 17 media organisations. Pegasus is a spyware developed by the NSO Group, an Israeli technology and cyber-arms firm that can be secretly deployed on mobile phones and other devices, which run most versions of Android and iOS. Pegasus is capable of reading text messages, tracking calls, collecting passwords, location tracking, accessing the target device's microphone and camera, and harvesting information from apps. Since Pegasus is classified as cyber-arms by the Israeli government, only national governments can purchase the spyware after the authorisation of the Israeli government. The Pegasus Project initiative investigated the use of the Pegasus spyware by governments on journalists, opposition politicians, activists and business people. A target list consisting of 50,000 phone numbers, which could have been possibly targeted by the spyware, leaked to Forbidden Stories which spawned this investigation. 300 of these numbers were from India. The presence of a phone number on the list does not confirm the use of Pegasus and only forensic examination of a phone can confirm if the spyware was present. Supreme court appointed a technical committee and asked to submit the phones for investigation of those individuals who suspect snooping by the government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Responding to August 2016 reports of a targeting of an Arab activist, NSO Group stated that they provide \"authorized governments with technology that helps them combat terror and crime\", although the Group told him that they had no knowledge of any incidents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In February 2022, an investigation by Citizen Lab and Amnesty International revealed that the Pegasus spyware was used to infect the devices of a lawyer, an online journalist, and a mental health counsellor in Bahrain. All of the three activists were critical of the Bahraini authorities and were targeted with Pegasus between June and September 2021. One of the three activists remained anonymous, while the other two were Mohammed al-Tajer and Sharifa Swar (mental health counselor)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The government of Viktor Orb\u00e1n authorized the use of Pegasus by Hungarian intelligence and law enforcement services to target the government's political opponents. The Orban government has been accused of using it to spy on members of media as well as on Hungarian opposition. According to the findings released in July 2021, journalists and managers of media holdings appear to have been spied on by the Hungarian government with Pegasus. Phone numbers of at least 10 lawyers, at least 5 journalists, and an opposition politician were included on a leaked list of potential Pegasus surveillance targets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "NSO Group developed its first iteration of Pegasus spyware in 2011. The company states that it provides \"authorized governments with technology that helps them combat terror and crime.\" NSO Group has published sections of contracts which require customers to use its products only for criminal and national security investigations and has stated that it has an industry-leading approach to human rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus' iOS exploitation was identified in August 2016. Arab human rights defender Ahmed Mansoor received a text message promising \"secrets\" about torture happening in prisons in the United Arab Emirates by following a link. Mansoor sent the link to Citizen Lab of the University of Toronto, which investigated, with the collaboration of Lookout, finding that if Mansoor had followed the link it would have jailbroken his phone and implanted the spyware into it, in a form of social engineering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "French intelligence (ANSSI) confirmed that Pegasus spyware had been found on the phones of three journalists, including a journalist of France 24, in what was the first time an independent and official authority corroborated the findings of the investigation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The list of spied-upon citizens included dozens of journalists and activists from Azerbaijan. It was alleged that their mobile phones were tapped. The head of Azerbaijani service of Radio Liberty/Radio Free Europe (Azadliq) Jamie Fly expressed his anger when it was revealed that the phones of his five current and former employees were tapped with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2017, Citizen Lab researchers revealed that NSO exploit links may have been sent to Mexican scientists and public health campaigners. The targets supported measures to reduce childhood obesity, including Mexico's \"Soda Tax.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "NSO Group",
        "text": "In August 2016, NSO (through its U.S. subsidiary Westbridge) pitched its U.S. version of Pegasus to the San Diego Police Department (SDPD) In the marketing material, Westbridge emphasized that the company is U.S. based and majority owned by a U.S. parent company. A SDPD Sergeant responded to the sales pitch with \"sounds awesome\". The SDPD declined to purchase the spyware as it was too expensive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus was also used to spy on Jeff Bezos after Mohammed bin Salman, the crown-prince of Saudi Arabia, exchanged messages with him that exploited then-unknown vulnerabilities in WhatsApp."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2019, WhatsApp revealed Pegasus had employed a vulnerability in its app to launch zero-click attacks (the spyware would be installed onto a target's phone by calling the target phone; the spyware would be installed even if the call was not answered)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In January 2022 Finnish foreign ministry reported that several phones of Finnish diplomats have been infected with the Pegasus spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Targeting of Jeff Bezos"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "2014 Iguala mass kidnapping"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In late 2019, Facebook initiated a suit against NSO, claiming that Pegasus had been used to intercept the WhatsApp communications of a number of activists, journalists, and bureaucrats in India, leading to accusations that the Indian government was involved. 17 individuals including human rights activists, scholars, and journalists confirmed to an Indian publication they had been targeted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In October 2021, the British High Court ruled that agents of Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum used Pegasus to hack the phones of his (ex)-wife, Princess Haya bint Hussein, her solicitors (including baroness Fiona Shackleton), a personal assistant and two members of her security team in the summer of 2020. The court ruled that the agents acted \"with the express or implied authority\" of the sheikh; he denied knowledge of the hacking. The judgment referred to the hacking as \"serial breaches of (UK) domestic criminal law\", \"in violation of fundamental common law and ECHR rights\", \"interference with the process of this court and the mother's access to justice\" and \"abuse of power\" by a head of state. NSO had contacted an intermediary in August 2020 to inform Princess Haya of the hack and is believed to have terminated its contract with the UAE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On January 25, 2022, more victims were confirmed by Citizen Lab, including Micha\u0142 Ko\u0142odziejczak of the agrarian movement Agrounia, and Tomasz Szwejgiert, a journalist and alleged former associate of the CBA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project revelations in India",
        "text": "The government has not denied the usage of Pegasus spyware in their response so far. The government has also denied the request for a probe or investigation or an independent Supreme Court inquiry by the opposition into the matter. The former IT minister of India Ravi Shankar Prasad asked, \"If more than 45 nations are using Pegasus as NSO has said, why is only India being targeted?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Mass surveillance",
        "text": "Media reports published in July 2021 exposed the use of NSO Group's phone malware software, Pegasus, for spying on rights activists, lawyers, and journalists, globally, by authoritarian governments. Bahrain was among the many countries listed as the Israeli firm's clients accused of hacking and conducting unauthorized mass surveillance using phone malware despite a poor human rights record. The software is said to infect devices, allowing its operators to get access to the target's messages, photos, record calls, and activate the microphone and camera."
      },
      {
        "title": "Security policy of the Enrique Pe\u00f1a Nieto administration",
        "text": "On June 19, 2017, \"The New York Times\" in conjunction with news reporter Carmen Aristegui, and even backed by a Televisa news reporter Carlos Loret de Mola, reported that the Mexican Government uses a spyware software known as Pegasus, to spy on targets such as Mexican News reporters (and their families) and Civil Rights Leaders (and their families) using text messages as lures. Since 2011, the Mexican Government invested $80 million worth of spyware. Pegasus spyware infiltrates a persons cellphone and reports every detail of their messages, e-mails, contacts and calendars. After the revelation, the Israeli manufacturer of the Pegasus spyware, NSO Group, re-stated it only sold such technology to governments with an 'explicit agreement', that such technology was meant 'only to combat organized crime' by spying on it; although once it sells the software it cannot control who they use it against and basically leaves the government's on their own to monitor themselves on not abusing the software. The New York Times and independent forensic analysts analyzed the data of 'dozens of messages', multiple times before proving their accusation, and commented of such espionage towards news journalists and civil rights leaders, as 'an effort from the Mexican Government to thwart the battle against corruption infecting every limb of Mexican Society', and how highly unlikely it would be for such espionage it to receive 'Judicial Approval'. Edward Snowden who worked for US government's NSA before revealing it to spy on its citizens, also said all evidence points to the Mexican government being the spy, and on Twitter said it is \"a crime to the public\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "According to the Supreme Audit Office (NIK), 544 of its employees' devices were under surveillance over 7,300 times, some could be infected with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "NSO Group did not deny the presence of its spyware, responding to the report by stating they rigorously vetted its customers' human rights records before allowing them to use its spy tools. It says military-grade Pegasus is only supposed to be used to prevent serious crime and terrorism. NSO stated its purchasing client governments are bidden by a signed contract and licence, agreeing to terms of uses, and contractually limited to legitimate criminal or terrorist targets. Once sold, NSO Group says it does not know nor can see how its client governments use its spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The mobile phones of six Palestinian activists were hacked using Pegasus with some of the attacks reportedly occurring as far back as July 2020, according to a report from Front Line Defenders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "About twenty Armenian citizens were spied on via Pegasus spyware. Media expert Arthur Papyan said it targeted the key figures of the opposition and the government - current and past government employees who knew valuable state secrets and have political influence, including the former director of the National Security Service and current chairman of the center-right Homeland Party. The local experts suspected that they were targeted either by the government of Armenia or Azerbaijan, or perhaps both. Papyan said that NSO group appears to be jailbreaking a phone and provides interface for viewing the obtained data. Minister of high-tech industry Vahagn Khachaturyan also received a warning letter from Apple, he rejected the theory that the spying party could be the current Armenian government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cohesity",
        "text": "The company also develops data management and backup software called DataProtect, which runs on DataPlatform. As of 2019, the most current version was code-named Pegasus. Pegusus v6.3 provides anti-ransomware features including machine learning-based anomaly detection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Targeting of scientists and health campaigners"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Jamal Khashoggi"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2022, sources revealed that a unit of Abu Dhabi\u2019s Mubadala Investment Company, Mubadala Capital was one of the largest investors in \u20ac1 billion Novalpina Capital private equity fund, which bought the NSO Group in 2019. Since then, Mubadala has been an investor in the firm with its commitment of \u20ac50 million, acquiring a seat on the committee of largest investors of the equity fund. Journalists, human rights defenders and the women of Dubai\u2019s royal family were traced to have been hacked using the Pegasus spyware during the same time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (console)",
        "text": "Pegasus is a video game system by Micro Genius. It is a clone of the Nintendo Famicom (Japanese original model of the Nintendo Entertainment System) that was sold in Bosnia-Herzegovina, the Czech Republic, Poland, and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia during the early to mid 1990s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On 24 September 2021, \"The Guardian\" reported that the telephone of Alaa al-Siddiq, executive director of ALQST, who died in a car accident in London on 20 June 2021, was infected with the Pegasus spyware for 5 years until 2020. Citizen Lab confirmed that the Emirati activist was hacked by a government client of Israel's NSO Group. The case represented a worrying trend for activists and dissidents, who escaped the UAE to live in the relative safety, but were never out of the reach of Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "A French journalist noted that \"in a matter of cyber-surveillance, we observe that abuse is \"de facto\" the rule\". Forbidden Stories argues the Pegasus software and its usages \"de facto\" constitute a global weapon to silence journalists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citizen Lab",
        "text": "In \"Million Dollar Dissident\", published in August 2016, researchers discovered that Ahmed Mansoor, one of the UAE Five, a human rights defender in the United Arab Emirates, was targeted with Pegasus software developed by Israeli \"cyber war\" company NSO Group. Prior to the releases of the report, researchers contacted Apple who released a security update that patched the vulnerabilities exploited by the spyware operators. Mansoor was imprisoned one year later and as of 2021, is still in jail."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aamber Pegasus",
        "text": "The hardware was designed by Stewart J Holmes. The software was designed by Paul Gillingwater, Nigel Keam and Paul Carter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Cecilio Pineda Birto, a Mexican freelance journalist was assassinated by hitmen while resting in a hammock by a carwash. Brito had been reporting on the ties between local politicians and criminal organizations, and had received anonymous death threats during the weeks preceding the assassination; at about the same time, his phone number was selected as a possible target for Pegasus surveillance by a Mexican Pegasus client. Pegasus spyware may have been used to ascertain Brito's location to carry out the hit by geolocating his phone; the deployment of Pegasus on his phone could however not be confirmed as his phone disappeared from the scene of the murder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Enrique Pe\u00f1a Nieto",
        "text": "On 19 June 2017, \"The New York Times\", in conjunction with Aristegui and \"Televisa\" news reporter Carlos Loret de Mola, reported that the Mexican government uses spyware known as Pegasus to spy on targets such as Mexican reporters and civil rights leaders using text messages as lures. Since 2011, the Mexican government invested $80 million worth of spyware. Pegasus infiltrates a person's cell phone and reports every detail of their messages, e-mails, contacts and calendars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A widow of slain renowned Mexican journalist was a target of an attempted Pegasus attack 10 days after her husband was assassinated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pe\u00f1abot",
        "text": "On June 19, 2017, \"The New York Times\" in conjunction with news reporter Carmen Aristegui, and even backed by a Televisa news reporter Carlos Loret de Mola, reported that the Mexican Government uses a spyware software known as Pegasus, to spy on targets such as Mexican News reporters (and their families) and Civil Rights Leaders (and their families) using text messages as lures. Since 2011, the Mexican Government invested $80 million worth of spyware. Pegasus spyware infiltrates a persons cellphone and reports every detail of their messages, e-mails, contacts and calendars. After the revelation, the Israeli manufacturer of the Pegasus spyware, NSO Group, re-stated it only sold such technology to governments with an 'explicit agreement', that such technology was meant 'only to combat organized crime' by spying on it; although once it sells the software it cannot control who they use it against and basically leaves the government's on their own to monitor themselves on not abusing the software. The New York Times and independent forensic analysts analyzed the data of 'dozens of messages', multiple times before proving their accusation, and commented of such espionage towards news journalists and civil rights leaders, as 'an effort from the Mexican Government to thwart the battle against corruption infecting every limb of Mexican Society', and how highly unlikely it would be for such espionage it to receive 'Judicial Approval'. Edward Snowden who worked for US government's NSA before revealing it to spy on its citizens, also said all evidence points to the Mexican government being the spy, and on Twitter said it is \"a crime to the public\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "NSO Group",
        "text": "In January 2022, \"Calcalist\" published an investigatory piece detailing the widespread unlawful use of Pegasus by the Israeli Police. Although the Israeli Police formally denied this, some senior police officials have hinted that the claims were true. On February 1, the police admitted that there was, in fact, misuse of the software."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which countries currently employ the Pegasus software?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Pegasus software is used by more than 25 countries including the United States, Mexico and Israel.",
      "Would you like to know about the Pegasus that operates as a subsidiary business unit of Infor Global Solutions, or the Pegasus that is  used by both authoritarian and democratic governments to spy on critics and opponents?"
    ],
    "topic": "Pegasus (spyware)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Pegasus (spyware):93",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pegasus (spyware)",
          "Use by country",
          "United States"
        ],
        "ctx": "In January 2022 it was reported that the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) had secretly bought the Pegasus spyware in 2019 and was also given a demonstration of Phantom, a newer tool that could hack American phone numbers. They considered using both tools for domestic surveillance in the U.S. Which reportedly led to discussions between the FBI and United States Department of Justice which ultimately lead to the FBI deciding against using it and all NSO spyware in 2021. However, despite ruling against using it, Pegasus equipment is still in the FBI's possession at a New Jersey facility."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pegasus (spyware):45",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pegasus (spyware)",
          "Use by country",
          "Mexico"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mexico was the first country to purchase Pegasus. Early versions of Pegasus were used to surveil the phone of Joaqu\u00edn Guzm\u00e1n, known as El Chapo. In 2011, Mexican President Felipe Calder\u00f3n reportedly called NSO to thank the company for its role in Guzm\u00e1n's capture. When a list of 50,000 phone numbers of potential Pegasus surveillance targets (selected by individual client governments) was leaked in 2021, a third of them were Mexican."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pegasus (spyware):39",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pegasus (spyware)",
          "Use by country",
          "Israel"
        ],
        "ctx": "In January 2022, it was reported that Pegasus was unlawfully used by the Israeli Police to monitor citizens as well as foreign nationals who were accidentally or intentionally infected by the software. The surveillance was ordered by high-ranking police officers, and was carried out without warrants or judicial supervision. The legal basis for use of spyware against citizens is disputed. The police had allegedly targeted civilians not suspected of any crime, including organisers of antigovernmental protesters, mayors, anti-LBGT parade activists, employees of government-owned companies, an associated of a senior politician, and former government employees. In one case, it was alleged that police targeted an activist who was not suspected of a crime, allegedly to gather information about the activist's extra-marital affairs and use it as leverage."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pegasus (spyware):22",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pegasus (spyware)",
          "Use by country"
        ],
        "ctx": "Although Pegasus is stated as intended to be used against criminals and terrorists, it has also been used by both authoritarian and democratic governments to spy on critics and opponents. A UN special rapporteur on freedom of opinion found that the use of the spyware by abusive governments could \"facilitate extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and killings, or enforced disappearance of persons.\""
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pegasus Software:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pegasus Software",
          "Market position"
        ],
        "ctx": "Today there are around 25,000 Pegasus software application licenses in use, its predominant market is the UK and Ireland and the company employs around 80 people. The products are sold through a network of 80 Partners. Pegasus operated as a subsidiary of a larger British software group, Systems Union Group plc. until August 2006, but now operates as a subsidiary business unit of Infor Global Solutions."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pegasus (spyware):22",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pegasus (spyware)",
          "Use by country"
        ],
        "ctx": "Although Pegasus is stated as intended to be used against criminals and terrorists, it has also been used by both authoritarian and democratic governments to spy on critics and opponents. A UN special rapporteur on freedom of opinion found that the use of the spyware by abusive governments could \"facilitate extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and killings, or enforced disappearance of persons.\""
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "According to an investigation by \"The Guardian\" and \"El Pa\u00eds\", Pegasus software was used by the government of Spain to compromise the phones of several politicians active in the Catalan independence movement, including President of the Parliament of Catalonia Roger Torrent, and former member of the Parliament of Catalonia Anna Gabriel i Sabat\u00e9."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus (spyware)\n--Background.\n----Discovery.\n----Chronology.\n--Technical details.\n----Development of capabilities.\n----Vulnerabilities.\n----Pegasus Anonymizing Transmission Network.\n--Use by country.\n----Armenia.\n----Azerbaijan.\n----Bahrain.\n----Estonia.\n----Finland.\n----Germany.\n----Hungary.\n----India.\n----Israel.\n----Jordan.\n----Kazakhstan.\n----Mexico.\n----Morocco.\n----Panama.\n----Palestine.\n----Poland.\n----Rwanda.\n----Saudi Arabia.\n----Spain.\n----Togo.\n----Uganda.\n----Ukraine.\n----United Arab Emirates.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n----Yemen.\n----International organizations.\n------European Union.\n--Pegasus Project.\n--Reactions.\n----NSO Group response.\n----Bug-bounty program skepticism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "The Pegasus spyware was developed by the Israeli cyberarms company NSO Group. It can be covertly installed on mobile phones (and other devices) running most versions of iOS and Android. The spyware is named after the mythical winged horse Pegasus\u2014it is a Trojan horse that can be sent \"flying through the air\" to infect phones. Usages of the Pegasus spyware have been monitored for years. Amnesty has argued that the digital invasion is correlated with real-life consequences for spied targets, via psychological or physical damages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Other"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Israeli police use"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Google's Project Zero documented another exploit, dubbed FORCEDENTRY, in December 2021. According to Google's researchers, Pegasus sent an iMessage to its targets that contained what appeared to be GIF images, but which in fact contained a JBIG2 image. A vulnerability in the Xpdf implementation of JBIG2, re-used in Apple's iOS phone operating software, allowed Pegasus to construct an emulated computer architecture inside the JBIG2 stream which was then used to implement the zero-click attack. Apple fixed the vulnerability in iOS 14.8 in September 2021 as CVE-2021-30860."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "On November 4, 2021, Lajos K\u00f3sa, Member of Parliament and Vice President of Fidesz, member of the Parliamentary Defence and Law Enforcement Committee, admitted that the Ministry of Interior had purchased and used the Pegasus software."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2020, it was reported that Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates deployed a zero-click iMessage Pegasus exploit against two London-based reporters and 36 journalists at the \"Al Jazeera\" television network in Qatar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2020, it was reported that Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates deployed a zero-click iMessage Pegasus exploit against two London-based reporters and 36 journalists at the \"Al Jazeera\" television network in Qatar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A joint investigation by \"The Guardian\" and \"Le Monde\" alleged that Pegasus software was used to spy on six critics of the government in Togo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Other targets"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2020, an Al Jazeera investigative show \"The Hidden is More Immense\" covered Pegasus and its penetration into the phones of media professionals and activists; and its use by Israel to eavesdrop on both opponents and allies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "Pegasus Project (investigation)\n--Software.\n--Investigation.\n----Origins and members.\n----Investigative methodology.\n----Findings.\n--Regions and targets.\n----Heads of state and government.\n----Hungary.\n----India.\n----Mexico.\n----Morocco.\n----Poland.\n----Saudi Arabia.\n----United Arab Emirates.\n--Reactions.\n----NSO Group's response.\n------Vetting and licence contract.\n------Involvement denial and deresponsibilisation.\n----Journalists/NGOs.\n----Companies.\n----National governments.\n------Algeria.\n------France.\n------Hungary.\n------India.\n------Israel.\n------Kazakhstan.\n------Morocco.\n------Pakistan.\n------Rwanda.\n------Saudi Arabia.\n------United Arab Emirates.\n----Other reactions.\n----Government investigations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A leak of a list of more than 50,000 telephone numbers believed to have been identified as those of people of interest by clients of NSO since 2016 became available to Paris-based media nonprofit organisation Forbidden Stories and Amnesty International. They shared the information with seventeen news media organisations in what has been called \"Pegasus Project\", and a months-long investigation was carried out, which reported from mid-July 2021. The Pegasus Project involved 80 journalists from the media partners including \"The Guardian\" (UK), Radio France and \"Le Monde\" (France), \"Die Zeit\" and \"S\u00fcddeutsche Zeitung\" (Germany), \"The Washington Post\" (United States), \"Haaretz\" (Israel), \"Aristegui Noticias\", \"Proceso\" (Mexico), the Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project, \"Knack\", \"Le Soir\", \"The Wire\", \"Daraj\", Direkt36 (Hungary), and \"Frontline\". Evidence was found that many phones with numbers in the list had been targets of Pegasus spyware. However, The CEO of NSO Group categorically claimed that the list in question is unrelated to them, the source of the allegations can't be verified as reliable one. \"This is an attempt to build something on a crazy lack of information... There is something fundamentally wrong with this investigation\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "In December 2021, the Israeli Defense Ministry imposed new restrictions on the export of cyber warfare tools as a result of the scandals involving NSO."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "The government has not denied the usage of Pegasus spyware in their response so far. The government has also denied the request for investigation or an independent Supreme Court inquiry by the opposition into the matter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aamber Pegasus",
        "text": "The hardware was designed by Stewart J Holmes. The software was designed by Paul Gillingwater, Nigel Keam and Paul Carter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "The Pegasus Project is an international investigative journalism initiative that revealed governments' espionage on journalists, opposition politicians, activists, business people and others using the private Pegasus spyware developed by the Israeli technology and cyber-arms company NSO Group. Pegasus is ostensibly marketed for surveillance of \"serious crimes and terrorism\". In 2020, a target list of 50,000 phone numbers leaked to Forbidden Stories, and an analysis revealed the list contained the numbers of leading opposition politicians, human rights activists, journalists, lawyers and other political dissidents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On 7 October 2021, the NSO Group stated that it had terminated its contract with the UAE to use its Pegasus spyware tool after the ruling by UK\u2019s High Court that Dubai\u2019s ruler misused the firm\u2019s Pegasus software to spy on his ex-wife and her legal advisers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Use by Mexican drug cartels"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus is spyware developed by the Israeli cyber-arms company NSO Group that can be covertly installed on mobile phones (and other devices) running most versions of iOS and Android. Pegasus is able to exploit iOS versions up to 14.6, through a zero-click exploit. As of 2022, Pegasus was capable of reading text messages, tracking calls, collecting passwords, location tracking, accessing the target device's microphone and camera, and harvesting information from apps. The spyware is named after Pegasus, the winged horse of Greek mythology. It is a Trojan horse computer virus that can be sent \"flying through the air\" to infect cell phones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2021, allegations arose that the software may also have been used to spy on members of Kashoggi's family."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Regarding how widespread the issue was, Lookout explained in a blog post: \"We believe that this spyware has been in the wild for a significant amount of time based on some of the indicators within the code\" and pointed out that the code shows signs of a \"kernel mapping table that has values all the way back to iOS 7\" (released 2013). \"The New York Times\" and \"The Times of Israel\" both reported that it appeared that the United Arab Emirates was using this spyware as early as 2013. It was used in Panama by former president Ricardo Martinelli from 2012 to 2014, who established the \"Consejo de Seguridad P\u00fablica y Defensa\" Nacional (National Security Council) for its use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The spyware has been used for surveillance of anti-regime activists, journalists, and political leaders from several nations around the world. In July 2021, the investigation initiative Pegasus Project, along with an in-depth analysis by human rights group Amnesty International, reported that Pegasus was still being widely used against high-profile targets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Human rights group Amnesty International reported in the 2021 investigation that Pegasus employs a sophisticated command-and-control (C&C) infrastructure to deliver exploit payloads and send commands to Pegasus targets. There are at least four known iterations of the C&C infrastructure, dubbed the \"Pegasus Anonymizing Transmission Network\" (PATN) by NSO group, each encompassing up to 500 domain names, DNS servers, and other network infrastructure. The PATN reportedly utilizes techniques such as registering high port numbers for their online infrastructure as to avoid conventional internet scanning. PATN also uses up to three randomised subdomains unique per exploit attempt as well as randomised URL paths."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A joint investigation by \"The Guardian\" and \"Le Monde\" alleged political activists in Rwanda were targeted with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project revelations in India",
        "text": "The Pegasus Project was a collaborative investigative journalism initiative undertaken by 17 media organisations. Pegasus is a spyware developed by the NSO Group, an Israeli technology and cyber-arms firm that can be secretly deployed on mobile phones and other devices, which run most versions of Android and iOS. Pegasus is capable of reading text messages, tracking calls, collecting passwords, location tracking, accessing the target device's microphone and camera, and harvesting information from apps. Since Pegasus is classified as cyber-arms by the Israeli government, only national governments can purchase the spyware after the authorisation of the Israeli government. The Pegasus Project initiative investigated the use of the Pegasus spyware by governments on journalists, opposition politicians, activists and business people. A target list consisting of 50,000 phone numbers, which could have been possibly targeted by the spyware, leaked to Forbidden Stories which spawned this investigation. 300 of these numbers were from India. The presence of a phone number on the list does not confirm the use of Pegasus and only forensic examination of a phone can confirm if the spyware was present. Supreme court appointed a technical committee and asked to submit the phones for investigation of those individuals who suspect snooping by the government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "NSO Group pitched its spyware to the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), which declined to purchase it due to its high cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "NSO Group did not deny the presence of its spyware, responding to the report by stating they rigorously vetted its customers' human rights records before allowing them to use its spy tools. It says military-grade Pegasus is only supposed to be used to prevent serious crime and terrorism. NSO stated its purchasing client governments are bidden by a signed contract and licence, agreeing to terms of uses, and contractually limited to legitimate criminal or terrorist targets. Once sold, NSO Group says it does not know nor can see how its client governments use its spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "It has been reported that Muhoozi Kainerugaba brokered a deal to use Pegasus in Uganda, paying between $10 and $20 million in 2019. The software was later used to hack the phones of 11 US diplomats and employees of the US embassy in Uganda some time during 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus licenses were agreed on between Benjamin Netanyahu and Beata Szyd\u0142o in July 2017. Citizen Lab revealed that several members of political opposition groups in Poland were hacked by Pegasus spyware, raising alarming questions about the Polish government's use of the software. A lawyer representing Polish opposition groups and a prosecutor involved in a case against the ruling Law and Justice party were also compromised."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Another Saudi exile Omar Abdulaziz in Canada was identified by McKinsey & Company as being an influential dissident, and hence had two brothers imprisoned by the Saudi authorities, and his cell phone hacked by Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Targeting of scientists and health campaigners"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Targeting of Jeff Bezos"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "In a statement released, Algeria's public prosecutor has ordered an investigation into the reports that the country may have been a target of the Pegasus spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On January 25, 2022, more victims were confirmed by Citizen Lab, including Micha\u0142 Ko\u0142odziejczak of the agrarian movement Agrounia, and Tomasz Szwejgiert, a journalist and alleged former associate of the CBA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "A French journalist noted that \"in a matter of cyber-surveillance, we observe that abuse is \"de facto\" the rule\". Forbidden Stories argues the Pegasus software and its usages \"de facto\" constitute a global weapon to silence journalists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In April 2022, Citizen Lab released a report stating that 10 Downing Street staff had been targeted by Pegasus, and that the United Arab Emirates was suspected of originating the attacks in 2020 and 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2017, Citizen Lab researchers revealed that NSO exploit links may have been sent to Mexican scientists and public health campaigners. The targets supported measures to reduce childhood obesity, including Mexico's \"Soda Tax.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "In July 2017, Prime Minister Beata Szyd\u0142o agreed with Benjamin Netanyahu to buy Pegasus licenses. Micha\u0142 Wo\u015b, deputy minister of justice, requested a parliamentary committee to divert funds from a ministry-run fund to \"combat crime.\" Once approved, the Central Anticorruption Bureau (CBA) purchased the licenses for PLN 33.4 million. The transaction with NSO Group was camouflaged with unrelated invoices. The contract for 40 licenses to be used over three years was mediated by Matic, a company established by former Militia and Security Service associates. The spyware was first deployed in November 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "As of August 2016 - according to a former NSO Employee - the U.S. version of Pegasus had 1-click capabilities for all phones except old Blackberry models which could be infiltrated with a 0-click attack."
      },
      {
        "title": "Democratic backsliding",
        "text": "In July 2021, leaked data acquired by the Pegasus Project suggested the Hungarian government may have used NSO Group's Pegasus spyware to target opposition journalists. Hungarian officials acknowledged that they had purchased the spyware, but noted that they had received permission from either the courts or the Ministry of Justice in every case it was used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "2014 Iguala mass kidnapping"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In June 2020, an investigation by Amnesty International alleged that Moroccan journalist Omar Radi was targeted by the Moroccan government using the Israeli spyware Pegasus. The rights group claimed that the journalist was targeted three times and spied on after his device was infected with an NSO tool. Meanwhile, Amnesty also claimed that the attack came after the NSO group updated their policy in September 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus spyware was found in 2021 on the iPhones of at least nine U.S. State Department employees. The US government blacklisted the NSO Group to stop what it called \"transnational repression\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The earliest version of Pegasus - which was identified in 2016 - relied on a spear-phishing attack which required the target to click a malicious link in a text message or email."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Responding to August 2016 reports of a targeting of an Arab activist, NSO Group stated that they provide \"authorized governments with technology that helps them combat terror and crime\", although the Group told him that they had no knowledge of any incidents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In August 2016, NSO Group (through its U.S. subsidiary Westbridge) pitched its U.S. version of Pegasus to the San Diego Police Department (SDPD). In the marketing material, Westbridge emphasized that the company is U.S. based and majority owned by a U.S. parent company. An SDPD Sergeant responded to the sales pitch with \"sounds awesome\". The SDPD declined to purchase the spyware as it was too expensive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Software",
        "text": "Today there are around 25,000 Pegasus software application licenses in use, its predominant market is the UK and Ireland and the company employs around 80 people. The products are sold through a network of 80 Partners. Pegasus operated as a subsidiary of a larger British software group, Systems Union Group plc. until August 2006, but now operates as a subsidiary business unit of Infor Global Solutions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Jamal Khashoggi"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Mexico was the first country to purchase Pegasus. Early versions of Pegasus were used to surveil the phone of Joaqu\u00edn Guzm\u00e1n, known as El Chapo. In 2011, Mexican President Felipe Calder\u00f3n reportedly called NSO to thank the company for its role in Guzm\u00e1n's capture. When a list of 50,000 phone numbers of potential Pegasus surveillance targets (selected by individual client governments) was leaked in 2021, a third of them were Mexican."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "More than half of these phones that were inspected by Amnesty International's cybersecurity team revealed forensic evidence of the Pegasus spyware, a zero-click Trojan virus developed by NSO Group. This malware provides the attacker full access to the targeted smartphone, its data, images, photographs and conversations as well as camera, microphone and geolocation. This information was passed along to 17 media organisations under \"The Pegasus Project\" umbrella name. Reports started to be published by member organisations on 18 July 2021, revealing notable non-criminal targets and analysing the practice as a threat to freedom of the press, freedom of speech, dissidents and democratic opposition. On 20 July, 14 heads of state were revealed as former targets of Pegasus malware. Various parties called for further investigation of the abuses and a limitation on trading such repressive malware, among them the newsrooms involved, the Committee to Protect Journalists, the International Press Institute, and Edward Snowden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2019, two Moroccan pro-democracy campaigners were notified by WhatsApp that their phones had been compromised with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project",
        "text": "Pegasus Project\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "As of July 2021, Pegasus likely uses many exploits, some not listed in the above CVEs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2018, a \"New York Times\" investigation concluded that Pegasus software played a role in the Khashoggi's murder, with a friend of Khashoggi stating in a filing that Saudi authorities had used the Israeli-made software to spy on the dissident. NSO CEO Shalev Hulio stated that the company had not been involved in the \"terrible murder\", but declined to comment on reports that he had personally traveled to the Saudi capital Riyadh for a $55 million Pegasus sale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "The Israeli government denied having access to the information gathered by NSO's clients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": ", an investigative journalist for Al Jazeera Arabic, said, \"[The hacking of the Al Jazeera staffers' and journalists' phones is] a crime against journalism. Based on this spyware, journalists have been arrested, disappeared, or even killed. Khashoggi is just one example\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Although Pegasus is stated as intended to be used against criminals and terrorists, it has also been used by both authoritarian and democratic governments to spy on critics and opponents. A UN special rapporteur on freedom of opinion found that the use of the spyware by abusive governments could \"facilitate extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and killings, or enforced disappearance of persons.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "French intelligence (ANSSI) confirmed that Pegasus spyware had been found on the phones of three journalists, including a journalist of France 24, in what was the first time an independent and official authority corroborated the findings of the investigation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus has been used by drug cartels and cartel-entwined government actors to target and intimidate Mexican journalists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "The Committee to Protect Journalists called for a critical reform of the surveillance software industry and market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus was used by Saudi Arabia to spy on Jamal Kashoggi, who was later killed in Turkey. In October 2018, Citizen Lab reported on the use of NSO software to spy on the inner circle of Jamal Khashoggi just before his murder. Citizen Lab's October report stated with high confidence that NSO's Pegasus had been placed on the iPhone of Saudi dissident Omar Abdulaziz, one of Khashoggi's confidantes, months before. Abdulaziz stated that the software revealed Khashoggi's \"private criticisms of the Saudi royal family,\" which according to Abdulaziz \"played a major role\" in Khashoggi's death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Software",
        "text": "Pegasus Software is based in Kettering, England and develops accounting and financial management, supply chain, business intelligence, payroll, crm, construction and service management software applications for small and medium-sized businesses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project",
        "text": "Pegasus Project may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "Journalists around the world have expressed outrage at the use of anti-criminality tools against non-criminals, journalists, opposition representatives, and other civilians. Edward Snowden has called for governments to impose a global moratorium on the international spyware trade in order to avoid ubiquitous violation of privacy and associated abuses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "The former IT minister of India Ravi Shankar Prasad asked, \"If more than 45 nations are using Pegasus as NSO has said, why is only India being targeted?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A widow of slain renowned Mexican journalist was a target of an attempted Pegasus attack 10 days after her husband was assassinated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "The CEO of NSO Group categorically claimed that the list in question is unrelated to them, the source of the allegations can not be verified as a reliable one. \"This is an attempt to build something based on a crazy lack of information... There is something fundamentally wrong with this investigation.\" The owner of the company that developed the Pegasus spyware categorically refutes all allegations, stating that the list of the phone numbers in question has nothing to do with the Pegasus spyware. NSO denied \"false claims\" about its clients' activities, but said it would \"continue to investigate all credible claims of misuse and take appropriate action\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "This information was passed along to 17 media organisations under the umbrella name \"The Pegasus Project\". Over several months, over 80 journalists from \"The Guardian\" (United Kingdom), \"Le Monde\" and Radio France (France), \"Die Zeit\", \"S\u00fcddeutsche Zeitung\", WDR and NDR (Germany), \"The Washington Post\" and \"Frontline\" (United States), \"Haaretz\" (Israel), \"Aristegui Noticias\" and \"Proceso\" (Mexico), \"Knack\" and \"Le Soir\" (Belgium), \"The Wire\" (India), \"Daraj\" (Syria), Direkt36 (Hungary), and OCCRP investigated the spying abuses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In July 2017, the international team assembled to investigate the 2014 Iguala mass kidnapping publicly complained they thought they were being surveilled by the Mexican government. They stated that the Mexican government used Pegasus to send them messages about funeral homes containing links which, when clicked, allowed the government to surreptitiously listen to the investigators. The Mexican government has repeatedly denied any unauthorized hacking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In July 2021, a joint investigation conducted by seventeen media organisations, revealed that Pegasus spyware was used to target and spy on heads of state, activists, journalists, and dissidents, enabling \"human rights violations around the world on a massive scale\". The investigation was launched after a leak of 50,000 phone numbers of potential surveillance targets. Amnesty International carried out forensic analysis of mobile phones of potential targets. The investigation identified 11 countries as NSO clients: Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Hungary, India, Kazakhstan, Mexico, Morocco, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia, Togo, and the United Arab Emirates. The investigation also revealed that journalists from multiple media organizations including \"Al Jazeera\", CNN, the \"Financial Times\", the Associated Press, \"The New York Times\", \"The Wall Street Journal\", \"Bloomberg News\" and \"Le Monde\" were targeted, and identified at least 180 journalists from 20 countries who were selected for targeting with NSO spyware between 2016 and June 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "In 2018, Citizen Lab suspected that an operator codenamed \"ORZELBIALY\" (Polish for \"white eagle,\" a reference for the coat of arms of Poland) was spreading Pegasus through mobile network operators. In 2020, \"Rzeczpospolita\" reported that the bulk of evidence in a corruption case against former Civic Platform politician S\u0142awomir Nowak was obtained using Pegasus. The CBA denied ever buying the license, still the government assured it had court permission."
      },
      {
        "title": "NSO Group",
        "text": "\"Pegasus\" spyware is classified as a military export by Israel and its sale is controlled by the government. According to The New York Times, \"Israel\u2019s government has long seen Pegasus as a critical tool for its foreign policy.\" Israel has used the sale of NSO products as a diplomatic bargaining chip to advance its foreign policy interests as well as limiting its sale to or its use against certain states to maintain good relations with certain states."
      },
      {
        "title": "NSO Group",
        "text": "NSO Groups offers the smartphone spyware tool Pegasus to government clients for the exclusive intended purpose of combating crime and terrorism. The first version of Pegasus was finalised in 2011. Pegasus spyware is classified as a weapon by Israel and any export of the technology must be approved by the government. The Israeli Ministry of Defense licenses the export of Pegasus to foreign governments, but not to private entities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project revelations in India",
        "text": "The government has not denied the usage of Pegasus spyware in their response so far. The government has also denied the request for a probe or investigation or an independent Supreme Court inquiry by the opposition into the matter. The former IT minister of India Ravi Shankar Prasad asked, \"If more than 45 nations are using Pegasus as NSO has said, why is only India being targeted?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2019, WhatsApp revealed Pegasus had employed a vulnerability in its app to launch zero-click attacks (the spyware would be installed onto a target's phone by calling the target phone; the spyware would be installed even if the call was not answered)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In April 2022, according to two EU officials and documentation obtained by Reuters, the European Justice Commissioner Didier Reynders and other European Commission officials had been targeted by NSO's software. The commision learned of this after Apple notified thousands of iPhone users in November 2021 that they were targeted by state-sponsored hackers. According to the same two sources, IT experts examined some of the smartphones, but the results were inconclusive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2021, Citizen Lab announced that Pegasus was used against lawyer Roman Giertych and prosecutor Ewa Wrzosek, both critical of the ruling Law and Justice (PiS) government, with Giertych's phone suffering 18 intrusions. 33 hacks to the phone of Krzysztof Brejza, a senator from the opposition Civic Platform (PO) were uncovered, and confirmed by Amnesty International. Leading to the 2019 European and Polish parliamentary elections, Brejza's text messages were stolen as he was leading the opposition parties' campaign. The texts were doctored by state-run media, notably TVP, and used in a smear campaign against the opposition. This prompted the Polish Senate to begin an inquiry into the deployment of the spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pe\u00f1abot",
        "text": "As of February 2018, Reuters published an article stating the Mexican government has not properly investigated the Pegasus spyware usage to spy news journalists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Since 2019, Pegasus has come to rely on iPhone iMessage vulnerabilities to deploy spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Several lawsuits outstanding in 2018 claimed that NSO Group helped clients operate the software and therefore participated in numerous violations of human rights initiated by its clients. Two months after the murder and dismemberment of \"The Washington Post\" journalist Jamal Khashoggi, a Saudi human rights activist, in the Saudi Arabian Consulate in Istanbul, Turkey, Saudi dissident Omar Abdulaziz, a Canadian resident, filed suit in Israel against NSO Group, accusing the firm of providing the Saudi government with the surveillance software to spy on him and his friends, including Khashoggi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "A statement released by the UAE's foreign minister stated that the allegations of use of the Pegasus spyware by the UAE on journalists and individuals were \"categorically false\" and that such allegations had no evidentiary basis and they denied all allegations. This despite ample material evidences of UAE dissidents being targeted."
      },
      {
        "title": "USS Pegasus (PHM-1)",
        "text": "The PHM project was not only a US project. Other countries involved included Italy, Germany, Canada and Great Britain. During the initial phase of the project it was planned to build up to 100 hydrofoil boats for the NATO navies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Estonia entered negotiations to procure Pegasus in 2018, and had made a $30 million down payment for the tool. Estonia hoped to use the tool against Russian phones (presumably for gathering intelligence). Israel initially approved the export of Pegasus to Estonia, but after a senior Russian defense official approached the Israeli defense agencies and revealed that Russia had learned of Estonia's intentions to obtain Pegasus, Israel decided to disallow Estonia from using Pegasus against any Russian phone number (following a heated debate among Israeli officials) so as to avoid damaging Israeli relations with Russia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citizen Lab",
        "text": "In \"Million Dollar Dissident\", published in August 2016, researchers discovered that Ahmed Mansoor, one of the UAE Five, a human rights defender in the United Arab Emirates, was targeted with Pegasus software developed by Israeli \"cyber war\" company NSO Group. Prior to the releases of the report, researchers contacted Apple who released a security update that patched the vulnerabilities exploited by the spyware operators. Mansoor was imprisoned one year later and as of 2021, is still in jail."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus, New Zealand",
        "text": "The project was first proposed in 1997 by Southern Capital and was initially developed by Infinity Investment Group of Wanaka. The project ran into financial trouble in late 2012, with the developers going into receivership. Todd Property bought it for an undisclosed sum in December 2012 and undertook infrastructure development to complete the project, selling to the Templeton Group in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "President of Panama Ricardo Martinelli personally sought to obtain cyberespionage tools after his election in 2009. After a rebuff by the U.S. in 2009, Martinelli successfully sought such tools from Israeli vendors, expressing an interest in acquiring a tool capable of hacking into mobile phones in a 2010 private meeting with Israeli PM Netanyahu. In 2012, NSO systems were installed in Panama City. The equipment was subsequently widely used for illicti domestic and foreign spying, including for spying on political opponents, magistrates, union leaders, and business competitors, with Martinelli allegedly going so far as to order the surveillance of his mistress using Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "Saudi Arabia's official Saudi Press Agency has denied all allegations of its use of Pegasus spyware on journalists and human rights activists as \"baseless\". The allegations were dismissed as \"untrue\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Assassination of journalist Cecilio Pineda Birto"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "The investigation suggested that Pegasus continued to be widely used by authoritarian governments to spy on human rights activists, journalists and lawyers worldwide, although NSO claims that it is only intended for use against criminals and terrorists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The mobile phones of six Palestinian activists were hacked using Pegasus with some of the attacks reportedly occurring as far back as July 2020, according to a report from Front Line Defenders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "The NSO Group exports are overseen by the Israeli Ministry of Defense's Defense Exports Control Agency (DECA)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Software",
        "text": "Pegasus Software\n--History.\n--Market position.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "In 2020, a list of over 50,000 phone numbers believed to belong to individuals identified as \"people of interest\" by clients of the Israeli cyberarms firm NSO Group was leaked to Amnesty International and Forbidden Stories, a media nonprofit organisation based in Paris, France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "In India, some news articles were released making claims that Amnesty never claimed that the leaked phone numbers were of NSO's Pegasus spyware list. However, these reports were later proven to be false, and Amnesty issued a statement stating that it categorically stands by the findings of the investigation and that the data is irrefutably linked to potential targets of Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In January 2022 it was reported that the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) had secretly bought the Pegasus spyware in 2019 and was also given a demonstration of Phantom, a newer tool that could hack American phone numbers. They considered using both tools for domestic surveillance in the U.S. Which reportedly led to discussions between the FBI and United States Department of Justice which ultimately lead to the FBI deciding against using it and all NSO spyware in 2021. However, despite ruling against using it, Pegasus equipment is still in the FBI's possession at a New Jersey facility."
      },
      {
        "title": "IMessage",
        "text": "Project Pegasus revelations in July 2021 found the software used iMessage exploits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Independent digital forensic analysis conducted on 10 Indian phones whose numbers were present in the data showed signs of either an attempted or successful Pegasus hack. The results of the forensic analysis threw up shows sequential correlations between the time and date a phone number is entered in the list and the beginning of surveillance. The gap usually ranges between a few minutes and a couple of hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project revelations in India",
        "text": "Shashi Tharoor, a senior leader of the Indian National Congress and the head of the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Information Technology. The Committee summoned officials of Ministry of Information Technology & Ministry of Home Affairs for questioning regarding the matter. However, the committee was unable to meet as the BJP members of the committee refused to register their attendance despite being present, and the quorum was not met. As a reaction to this, a member of a committee stated: \"what happened today shows the lengths to which BJP is willing to go in order to not discuss the Pegasus spyware issue\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which countries currently employ the Pegasus software?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Pegasus software is used by more than 25 countries including the United States, Mexico and Israel."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me something about Pegasus Project!"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Pegasus Project is an international investigative journalism initiative that revealed governments' espionage on journalists, opposition politicians, activists, business people and others using the private Pegasus spyware(developed by the Israeli cyberarms company NSO Group). Amazon's AWS terminated \"relevant infrastructure and accounts\" linked to NSO Group, following an investigation by Amnesty International that discovered Amazon CloudFront was being used to infect targets with the Pegasus malware.",
      "The Pegasus Project is an international journalist investigation into the Pegasus spyware (which is a spyware that can run on most mobile phones) developed by Israeli technology company NSO Group. The investigation revealed that Pegasus was widely used by authoritarian governments to spy on human rights activists, lawyers, and journalists across the world."
    ],
    "topic": "Pegasus (spyware)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Pegasus Project (investigation):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pegasus Project (investigation)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Pegasus Project is an international investigative journalism initiative that revealed governments' espionage on journalists, opposition politicians, activists, business people and others using the private Pegasus spyware developed by the Israeli technology and cyber-arms company NSO Group. Pegasus is ostensibly marketed for surveillance of \"serious crimes and terrorism\". In 2020, a target list of 50,000 phone numbers leaked to Forbidden Stories, and an analysis revealed the list contained the numbers of leading opposition politicians, human rights activists, journalists, lawyers and other political dissidents."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pegasus Project (investigation):34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
          "Reactions",
          "Companies"
        ],
        "ctx": "Amazon's cloud computing subsidiary AWS stated they had terminated \"relevant infrastructure and accounts\" linked to NSO Group, following an investigation by Amnesty International that discovered Amazon CloudFront was being used to infect targets with the Pegasus malware."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pegasus Project (investigation):3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
          "Software"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Pegasus spyware was developed by the Israeli cyberarms company NSO Group. It can be covertly installed on mobile phones (and other devices) running most versions of iOS and Android. The spyware is named after the mythical winged horse Pegasus\u2014it is a Trojan horse that can be sent \"flying through the air\" to infect phones. Usages of the Pegasus spyware have been monitored for years. Amnesty has argued that the digital invasion is correlated with real-life consequences for spied targets, via psychological or physical damages."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pegasus Project (investigation):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pegasus Project (investigation)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Pegasus Project is an international investigative journalism initiative that revealed governments' espionage on journalists, opposition politicians, activists, business people and others using the private Pegasus spyware developed by the Israeli technology and cyber-arms company NSO Group. Pegasus is ostensibly marketed for surveillance of \"serious crimes and terrorism\". In 2020, a target list of 50,000 phone numbers leaked to Forbidden Stories, and an analysis revealed the list contained the numbers of leading opposition politicians, human rights activists, journalists, lawyers and other political dissidents."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pegasus (spyware):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pegasus (spyware)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Pegasus is spyware developed by the Israeli cyber-arms company NSO Group that can be covertly installed on mobile phones (and other devices) running most versions of iOS and Android. Pegasus is able to exploit iOS versions up to 14.6, through a zero-click exploit. As of 2022, Pegasus was capable of reading text messages, tracking calls, collecting passwords, location tracking, accessing the target device's microphone and camera, and harvesting information from apps. The spyware is named after Pegasus, the winged horse of Greek mythology. It is a Trojan horse computer virus that can be sent \"flying through the air\" to infect cell phones."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pegasus Project (investigation):8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
          "Investigation",
          "Findings"
        ],
        "ctx": "The investigation suggested that Pegasus continued to be widely used by authoritarian governments to spy on human rights activists, journalists and lawyers worldwide, although NSO claims that it is only intended for use against criminals and terrorists."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Google's Project Zero documented another exploit, dubbed FORCEDENTRY, in December 2021. According to Google's researchers, Pegasus sent an iMessage to its targets that contained what appeared to be GIF images, but which in fact contained a JBIG2 image. A vulnerability in the Xpdf implementation of JBIG2, re-used in Apple's iOS phone operating software, allowed Pegasus to construct an emulated computer architecture inside the JBIG2 stream which was then used to implement the zero-click attack. Apple fixed the vulnerability in iOS 14.8 in September 2021 as CVE-2021-30860."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Lookout provided details of the three iOS vulnerabilities:\n* CVE-2016-4655: Information leak in kernel \u2013 A kernel base mapping vulnerability that leaks information to the attacker allowing them to calculate the kernel's location in memory.\n* CVE-2016-4656: Kernel memory corruption leads to jailbreak \u2013 32 and 64 bit iOS kernel-level vulnerabilities that allow the attacker to secretly jailbreak the device and install surveillance software \u2013 details in reference.\n* CVE-2016-4657: Memory corruption in the webkit \u2013 A vulnerability in the Safari WebKit that allows the attacker to compromise the device when the user clicks on a link."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2019, WhatsApp revealed Pegasus had employed a vulnerability in its app to launch zero-click attacks (the spyware would be installed onto a target's phone by calling the target phone; the spyware would be installed even if the call was not answered)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Human rights group Amnesty International reported in the 2021 investigation that Pegasus employs a sophisticated command-and-control (C&C) infrastructure to deliver exploit payloads and send commands to Pegasus targets. There are at least four known iterations of the C&C infrastructure, dubbed the \"Pegasus Anonymizing Transmission Network\" (PATN) by NSO group, each encompassing up to 500 domain names, DNS servers, and other network infrastructure. The PATN reportedly utilizes techniques such as registering high port numbers for their online infrastructure as to avoid conventional internet scanning. PATN also uses up to three randomised subdomains unique per exploit attempt as well as randomised URL paths."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In June 2020, an investigation by Amnesty International alleged that Moroccan journalist Omar Radi was targeted by the Moroccan government using the Israeli spyware Pegasus. The rights group claimed that the journalist was targeted three times and spied on after his device was infected with an NSO tool. Meanwhile, Amnesty also claimed that the attack came after the NSO group updated their policy in September 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Citizen Lab and Lookout discovered that the link downloaded software to exploit three previously unknown and unpatched zero-day vulnerabilities in iOS. According to their analysis, the software can jailbreak an iPhone when a malicious URL is opened, a form of attack known as spear phishing. The software installs itself and collects all communications and locations of targeted iPhones. The software can also collect Wi-Fi passwords. The researchers noticed that the software's code referenced an NSO Group product called \"Pegasus\" in leaked marketing materials. Pegasus had previously come to light in a leak of records from Hacking Team, which indicated the software had been supplied to the government of Panama in 2015. Citizen Lab and Lookout notified Apple's security team, which patched the flaws within ten days and released an update for iOS. A patch for macOS was released six days later."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Another Saudi exile Omar Abdulaziz in Canada was identified by McKinsey & Company as being an influential dissident, and hence had two brothers imprisoned by the Saudi authorities, and his cell phone hacked by Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "As of July 2021, Pegasus likely uses many exploits, some not listed in the above CVEs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The earliest version of Pegasus - which was identified in 2016 - relied on a spear-phishing attack which required the target to click a malicious link in a text message or email."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Since 2019, Pegasus has come to rely on iPhone iMessage vulnerabilities to deploy spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "According to an investigation by \"The Guardian\" and \"El Pa\u00eds\", Pegasus software was used by the government of Spain to compromise the phones of several politicians active in the Catalan independence movement, including President of the Parliament of Catalonia Roger Torrent, and former member of the Parliament of Catalonia Anna Gabriel i Sabat\u00e9."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "Amazon's cloud computing subsidiary AWS stated they had terminated \"relevant infrastructure and accounts\" linked to NSO Group, following an investigation by Amnesty International that discovered Amazon CloudFront was being used to infect targets with the Pegasus malware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "As of August 2016 - according to a former NSO Employee - the U.S. version of Pegasus had 1-click capabilities for all phones except old Blackberry models which could be infiltrated with a 0-click attack."
      },
      {
        "title": "Democratic backsliding",
        "text": "In July 2021, leaked data acquired by the Pegasus Project suggested the Hungarian government may have used NSO Group's Pegasus spyware to target opposition journalists. Hungarian officials acknowledged that they had purchased the spyware, but noted that they had received permission from either the courts or the Ministry of Justice in every case it was used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2020, it was reported that Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates deployed a zero-click iMessage Pegasus exploit against two London-based reporters and 36 journalists at the \"Al Jazeera\" television network in Qatar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2020, it was reported that Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates deployed a zero-click iMessage Pegasus exploit against two London-based reporters and 36 journalists at the \"Al Jazeera\" television network in Qatar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus licenses were agreed on between Benjamin Netanyahu and Beata Szyd\u0142o in July 2017. Citizen Lab revealed that several members of political opposition groups in Poland were hacked by Pegasus spyware, raising alarming questions about the Polish government's use of the software. A lawyer representing Polish opposition groups and a prosecutor involved in a case against the ruling Law and Justice party were also compromised."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "According to the Supreme Audit Office (NIK), 544 of its employees' devices were under surveillance over 7,300 times, some could be infected with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus is spyware developed by the Israeli cyber-arms company NSO Group that can be covertly installed on mobile phones (and other devices) running most versions of iOS and Android. Pegasus is able to exploit iOS versions up to 14.6, through a zero-click exploit. As of 2022, Pegasus was capable of reading text messages, tracking calls, collecting passwords, location tracking, accessing the target device's microphone and camera, and harvesting information from apps. The spyware is named after Pegasus, the winged horse of Greek mythology. It is a Trojan horse computer virus that can be sent \"flying through the air\" to infect cell phones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2018, a \"New York Times\" investigation concluded that Pegasus software played a role in the Khashoggi's murder, with a friend of Khashoggi stating in a filing that Saudi authorities had used the Israeli-made software to spy on the dissident. NSO CEO Shalev Hulio stated that the company had not been involved in the \"terrible murder\", but declined to comment on reports that he had personally traveled to the Saudi capital Riyadh for a $55 million Pegasus sale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A widow of slain renowned Mexican journalist was a target of an attempted Pegasus attack 10 days after her husband was assassinated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Other"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "2014 Iguala mass kidnapping"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus was discovered in August 2016 after a failed installation attempt on the iPhone of a human rights activist led to an investigation revealing details about the spyware, its abilities, and the security vulnerabilities it exploited. News of the spyware caused significant media coverage. It was called the \"most sophisticated\" smartphone attack ever, and was the first time that a malicious remote exploit used jailbreaking to gain unrestricted access to an iPhone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A leak of a list of more than 50,000 telephone numbers believed to have been identified as those of people of interest by clients of NSO since 2016 became available to Paris-based media nonprofit organisation Forbidden Stories and Amnesty International. They shared the information with seventeen news media organisations in what has been called \"Pegasus Project\", and a months-long investigation was carried out, which reported from mid-July 2021. The Pegasus Project involved 80 journalists from the media partners including \"The Guardian\" (UK), Radio France and \"Le Monde\" (France), \"Die Zeit\" and \"S\u00fcddeutsche Zeitung\" (Germany), \"The Washington Post\" (United States), \"Haaretz\" (Israel), \"Aristegui Noticias\", \"Proceso\" (Mexico), the Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project, \"Knack\", \"Le Soir\", \"The Wire\", \"Daraj\", Direkt36 (Hungary), and \"Frontline\". Evidence was found that many phones with numbers in the list had been targets of Pegasus spyware. However, The CEO of NSO Group categorically claimed that the list in question is unrelated to them, the source of the allegations can't be verified as reliable one. \"This is an attempt to build something on a crazy lack of information... There is something fundamentally wrong with this investigation\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A joint investigation by \"The Guardian\" and \"Le Monde\" alleged political activists in Rwanda were targeted with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2021, allegations arose that the software may also have been used to spy on members of Kashoggi's family."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Other targets"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "It has been reported that Muhoozi Kainerugaba brokered a deal to use Pegasus in Uganda, paying between $10 and $20 million in 2019. The software was later used to hack the phones of 11 US diplomats and employees of the US embassy in Uganda some time during 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2021, AP reported that 11 U.S. State Department employees stationed in Uganda had their iPhones hacked with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2019, two Moroccan pro-democracy campaigners were notified by WhatsApp that their phones had been compromised with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "The Pegasus spyware was developed by the Israeli cyberarms company NSO Group. It can be covertly installed on mobile phones (and other devices) running most versions of iOS and Android. The spyware is named after the mythical winged horse Pegasus\u2014it is a Trojan horse that can be sent \"flying through the air\" to infect phones. Usages of the Pegasus spyware have been monitored for years. Amnesty has argued that the digital invasion is correlated with real-life consequences for spied targets, via psychological or physical damages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "More than half of these phones that were inspected by Amnesty International's cybersecurity team revealed forensic evidence of the Pegasus spyware, a zero-click Trojan virus developed by NSO Group. This malware provides the attacker full access to the targeted smartphone, its data, images, photographs and conversations as well as camera, microphone and geolocation. This information was passed along to 17 media organisations under \"The Pegasus Project\" umbrella name. Reports started to be published by member organisations on 18 July 2021, revealing notable non-criminal targets and analysing the practice as a threat to freedom of the press, freedom of speech, dissidents and democratic opposition. On 20 July, 14 heads of state were revealed as former targets of Pegasus malware. Various parties called for further investigation of the abuses and a limitation on trading such repressive malware, among them the newsrooms involved, the Committee to Protect Journalists, the International Press Institute, and Edward Snowden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Two other attacks were launched against him in 2020 and 2021 using the zero-click hacking capabilities. Lastly, on June 13, 2021, an iPhone belonging to Hubbard was successfully hacked using the FORCEDENTRY exploit. Citizen Lab said in \u201chigh confidence\u201d that the four attacks were attempted using Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus was used by Saudi Arabia to spy on Jamal Kashoggi, who was later killed in Turkey. In October 2018, Citizen Lab reported on the use of NSO software to spy on the inner circle of Jamal Khashoggi just before his murder. Citizen Lab's October report stated with high confidence that NSO's Pegasus had been placed on the iPhone of Saudi dissident Omar Abdulaziz, one of Khashoggi's confidantes, months before. Abdulaziz stated that the software revealed Khashoggi's \"private criticisms of the Saudi royal family,\" which according to Abdulaziz \"played a major role\" in Khashoggi's death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "About twenty Armenian citizens were spied on via Pegasus spyware. Media expert Arthur Papyan said it targeted the key figures of the opposition and the government - current and past government employees who knew valuable state secrets and have political influence, including the former director of the National Security Service and current chairman of the center-right Homeland Party. The local experts suspected that they were targeted either by the government of Armenia or Azerbaijan, or perhaps both. Papyan said that NSO group appears to be jailbreaking a phone and provides interface for viewing the obtained data. Minister of high-tech industry Vahagn Khachaturyan also received a warning letter from Apple, he rejected the theory that the spying party could be the current Armenian government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Several lawsuits outstanding in 2018 claimed that NSO Group helped clients operate the software and therefore participated in numerous violations of human rights initiated by its clients. Two months after the murder and dismemberment of \"The Washington Post\" journalist Jamal Khashoggi, a Saudi human rights activist, in the Saudi Arabian Consulate in Istanbul, Turkey, Saudi dissident Omar Abdulaziz, a Canadian resident, filed suit in Israel against NSO Group, accusing the firm of providing the Saudi government with the surveillance software to spy on him and his friends, including Khashoggi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A joint investigation by \"The Guardian\" and \"Le Monde\" alleged that Pegasus software was used to spy on six critics of the government in Togo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In April 2022, according to two EU officials and documentation obtained by Reuters, the European Justice Commissioner Didier Reynders and other European Commission officials had been targeted by NSO's software. The commision learned of this after Apple notified thousands of iPhone users in November 2021 that they were targeted by state-sponsored hackers. According to the same two sources, IT experts examined some of the smartphones, but the results were inconclusive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus was also used to spy on Jeff Bezos after Mohammed bin Salman, the crown-prince of Saudi Arabia, exchanged messages with him that exploited then-unknown vulnerabilities in WhatsApp."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On January 25, 2022, more victims were confirmed by Citizen Lab, including Micha\u0142 Ko\u0142odziejczak of the agrarian movement Agrounia, and Tomasz Szwejgiert, a journalist and alleged former associate of the CBA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Use by Mexican drug cartels"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In January 2022 Finnish foreign ministry reported that several phones of Finnish diplomats have been infected with the Pegasus spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "NSO Group pitched its spyware to the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), which declined to purchase it due to its high cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2021, Citizen Lab announced that Pegasus was used against lawyer Roman Giertych and prosecutor Ewa Wrzosek, both critical of the ruling Law and Justice (PiS) government, with Giertych's phone suffering 18 intrusions. 33 hacks to the phone of Krzysztof Brejza, a senator from the opposition Civic Platform (PO) were uncovered, and confirmed by Amnesty International. Leading to the 2019 European and Polish parliamentary elections, Brejza's text messages were stolen as he was leading the opposition parties' campaign. The texts were doctored by state-run media, notably TVP, and used in a smear campaign against the opposition. This prompted the Polish Senate to begin an inquiry into the deployment of the spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On 7 October 2021, the NSO Group stated that it had terminated its contract with the UAE to use its Pegasus spyware tool after the ruling by UK\u2019s High Court that Dubai\u2019s ruler misused the firm\u2019s Pegasus software to spy on his ex-wife and her legal advisers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus hides itself as far as is possible and self-destructs in an attempt to eliminate evidence if unable to communicate with its command-and-control server for more than 60 days, or if on the wrong device. Pegasus also can self-destruct on command. If it is not possible to compromise a target device by simpler means, Pegasus can be installed by setting up a wireless transceiver near a target device, or by gaining physical access to the device."
      },
      {
        "title": "IOS 9",
        "text": "The discovery of the vulnerabilities dated 10 days before the 9.3.5 update was released. Arab human rights defender Ahmed Mansoor received a suspicious text message with a link and sent it to Citizen Lab. An investigation ensued with collaboration from Lookout that revealed that if Mansoor clicked the link, it would have jailbroken his phone and implanted it with the spyware. Citizen Lab linked the attack to an Israeli surveillance company known as NSO Group that sells Pegasus to governments for \"lawful interception.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On 26 January 2022, the reports revealed that mobile phones of Lama Fakih, a US-Lebanese citizen and director of crisis and conflict at Human Rights Watch, were repeatedly hacked by a client of NSO Group at a time when she was investigating the catastrophic August 2020 explosion that killed more than 200 people in Beirut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus has been used by drug cartels and cartel-entwined government actors to target and intimidate Mexican journalists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Targeting of Jeff Bezos"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Assassination of journalist Cecilio Pineda Birto"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus (spyware)\n--Background.\n----Discovery.\n----Chronology.\n--Technical details.\n----Development of capabilities.\n----Vulnerabilities.\n----Pegasus Anonymizing Transmission Network.\n--Use by country.\n----Armenia.\n----Azerbaijan.\n----Bahrain.\n----Estonia.\n----Finland.\n----Germany.\n----Hungary.\n----India.\n----Israel.\n----Jordan.\n----Kazakhstan.\n----Mexico.\n----Morocco.\n----Panama.\n----Palestine.\n----Poland.\n----Rwanda.\n----Saudi Arabia.\n----Spain.\n----Togo.\n----Uganda.\n----Ukraine.\n----United Arab Emirates.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n----Yemen.\n----International organizations.\n------European Union.\n--Pegasus Project.\n--Reactions.\n----NSO Group response.\n----Bug-bounty program skepticism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Antivirus software",
        "text": "Examples of serious false-positives:\n* May 2007: a faulty virus signature issued by Symantec mistakenly removed essential operating system files, leaving thousands of PCs unable to boot.\n* May 2007: the executable file required by Pegasus Mail on Windows was falsely detected by Norton AntiVirus as being a Trojan and it was automatically removed, preventing Pegasus Mail from running. Norton AntiVirus had falsely identified three releases of Pegasus Mail as malware, and would delete the Pegasus Mail installer file when that happened. In response to this Pegasus Mail stated:\n* April 2010: McAfee VirusScan detected svchost.exe, a normal Windows binary, as a virus on machines running Windows XP with Service Pack 3, causing a reboot loop and loss of all network access.\n* December 2010: a faulty update on the AVG anti-virus suite damaged 64-bit versions of Windows 7, rendering it unable to boot, due to an endless boot loop created.\n* October 2011: Microsoft Security Essentials (MSE) removed the Google Chrome web browser, rival to Microsoft's own Internet Explorer. MSE flagged Chrome as a Zbot banking trojan.\n* September 2012: Sophos' anti-virus suite identified various update-mechanisms, including its own, as malware. If it was configured to automatically delete detected files, Sophos Antivirus could render itself unable to update, required manual intervention to fix the problem.\n* September 2017: the Google Play Protect anti-virus started identifying Motorola's Moto G4 Bluetooth application as malware, causing Bluetooth functionality to become disabled."
      },
      {
        "title": "JBIG2",
        "text": "A vulnerability in the Xpdf implementation of JBIG2, re-used in Apple's iOS phone operating software, was used by the Pegasus spyware to implement a zero-click attack on iPhones by constructing an emulated computer architecture inside a JBIG2 stream. Apple fixed this \"FORCEDENTRY\" vulnerability in iOS 14.8 in September 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The forensic analysis of UN independent investigator Kamel Jendoubi\u2019s mobile phone revealed on 20 December 2021 that he was targeted using spyware while probing war crimes of Yemen. Jendoubi was targeted while he was examining possible war crimes in Yemen. Jendoubi's mobile number was also found in the leaked database of the Pegasus Project. According to the data, Jendoubi was one of the potential targets of one of NSO Group's long-time clients, Saudi Arabia. However, NSO spokesperson denied Kamel Jendoubi as any of its client's targets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On 24 September 2021, \"The Guardian\" reported that the telephone of Alaa al-Siddiq, executive director of ALQST, who died in a car accident in London on 20 June 2021, was infected with the Pegasus spyware for 5 years until 2020. Citizen Lab confirmed that the Emirati activist was hacked by a government client of Israel's NSO Group. The case represented a worrying trend for activists and dissidents, who escaped the UAE to live in the relative safety, but were never out of the reach of Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Israeli police use"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus spyware was found in 2021 on the iPhones of at least nine U.S. State Department employees. The US government blacklisted the NSO Group to stop what it called \"transnational repression\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The mobile phones of six Palestinian activists were hacked using Pegasus with some of the attacks reportedly occurring as far back as July 2020, according to a report from Front Line Defenders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citizen Lab",
        "text": "In \"Million Dollar Dissident\", published in August 2016, researchers discovered that Ahmed Mansoor, one of the UAE Five, a human rights defender in the United Arab Emirates, was targeted with Pegasus software developed by Israeli \"cyber war\" company NSO Group. Prior to the releases of the report, researchers contacted Apple who released a security update that patched the vulnerabilities exploited by the spyware operators. Mansoor was imprisoned one year later and as of 2021, is still in jail."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "NSO Group did not deny the presence of its spyware, responding to the report by stating they rigorously vetted its customers' human rights records before allowing them to use its spy tools. It says military-grade Pegasus is only supposed to be used to prevent serious crime and terrorism. NSO stated its purchasing client governments are bidden by a signed contract and licence, agreeing to terms of uses, and contractually limited to legitimate criminal or terrorist targets. Once sold, NSO Group says it does not know nor can see how its client governments use its spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2017, Citizen Lab researchers revealed that NSO exploit links may have been sent to Mexican scientists and public health campaigners. The targets supported measures to reduce childhood obesity, including Mexico's \"Soda Tax.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The spyware can be installed on devices running certain versions of iOS, Apple's mobile operating system, as well as some Android devices. Rather than being a specific exploit, Pegasus is a suite of exploits that uses many vulnerabilities in the system. Infection vectors include clicking links, the Photos app, the Apple Music app, and iMessage. Some of the exploits Pegasus uses are zero-click\u2014that is, they can run without any interaction from the victim. Once installed, Pegasus has been reported to be able to run arbitrary code, extract contacts, call logs, messages, photos, web browsing history, settings, as well as gather information from apps including but not limited to communications apps iMessage, Gmail, Viber, Facebook, WhatsApp, Telegram, and Skype."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2020, an Al Jazeera investigative show \"The Hidden is More Immense\" covered Pegasus and its penetration into the phones of media professionals and activists; and its use by Israel to eavesdrop on both opponents and allies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In July 2017, the international team assembled to investigate the 2014 Iguala mass kidnapping publicly complained they thought they were being surveilled by the Mexican government. They stated that the Mexican government used Pegasus to send them messages about funeral homes containing links which, when clicked, allowed the government to surreptitiously listen to the investigators. The Mexican government has repeatedly denied any unauthorized hacking."
      },
      {
        "title": "IOS 9",
        "text": "The release of iOS 9.3.5 in August 2016 fixed three critical security vulnerabilities. The vulnerabilities could be exploited to silently enable a jailbreak and allow the malicious installation of a spyware called \"Pegasus\". Pegasus could intercept and read text messages, emails, track calls, trace phone location, activate the microphone, and gather information from apps, including (but not limited to) iMessage, Gmail, Viber, Facebook, WhatsApp, Telegram, and Skype."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "By 2020, Pegasus shifted towards zero-click exploits and network-based attacks. These methods allowed clients to break into target phones without requiring user interaction and without leaving any detectable traces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Although Pegasus is stated as intended to be used against criminals and terrorists, it has also been used by both authoritarian and democratic governments to spy on critics and opponents. A UN special rapporteur on freedom of opinion found that the use of the spyware by abusive governments could \"facilitate extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and killings, or enforced disappearance of persons.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In February 2022, an investigation by Citizen Lab and Amnesty International revealed that the Pegasus spyware was used to infect the devices of a lawyer, an online journalist, and a mental health counsellor in Bahrain. All of the three activists were critical of the Bahraini authorities and were targeted with Pegasus between June and September 2021. One of the three activists remained anonymous, while the other two were Mohammed al-Tajer and Sharifa Swar (mental health counselor)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In late 2019, Facebook initiated a suit against NSO, claiming that Pegasus had been used to intercept the WhatsApp communications of a number of activists, journalists, and bureaucrats in India, leading to accusations that the Indian government was involved. 17 individuals including human rights activists, scholars, and journalists confirmed to an Indian publication they had been targeted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Cecilio Pineda Birto, a Mexican freelance journalist was assassinated by hitmen while resting in a hammock by a carwash. Brito had been reporting on the ties between local politicians and criminal organizations, and had received anonymous death threats during the weeks preceding the assassination; at about the same time, his phone number was selected as a possible target for Pegasus surveillance by a Mexican Pegasus client. Pegasus spyware may have been used to ascertain Brito's location to carry out the hit by geolocating his phone; the deployment of Pegasus on his phone could however not be confirmed as his phone disappeared from the scene of the murder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In July 2021, a joint investigation conducted by seventeen media organisations, revealed that Pegasus spyware was used to target and spy on heads of state, activists, journalists, and dissidents, enabling \"human rights violations around the world on a massive scale\". The investigation was launched after a leak of 50,000 phone numbers of potential surveillance targets. Amnesty International carried out forensic analysis of mobile phones of potential targets. The investigation identified 11 countries as NSO clients: Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Hungary, India, Kazakhstan, Mexico, Morocco, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia, Togo, and the United Arab Emirates. The investigation also revealed that journalists from multiple media organizations including \"Al Jazeera\", CNN, the \"Financial Times\", the Associated Press, \"The New York Times\", \"The Wall Street Journal\", \"Bloomberg News\" and \"Le Monde\" were targeted, and identified at least 180 journalists from 20 countries who were selected for targeting with NSO spyware between 2016 and June 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A \"New York Times\" correspondent covering the Middle East, Ben Hubbard revealed in October 2021 that Saudi Arabia used the NSO Group's Pegasus software to hack into his phone. Hubbard was targeted repeatedly over a three-year period between June 2018 to June 2021 while he was reporting on Saudi Arabia, and writing a book about the Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman. Hubbard was possibly targeted for writing the book about the Crown Prince, and for his involvement in revealing the UAE's hacking and surveillance attempt of Project Raven. Saudis attempted to peek into Hubbard's personal information twice in 2018, one through a suspicious text message and the other through an Arabic WhatsApp message inviting him to a protest at a Saudi embassy in Washington."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In October 2021, the British High Court ruled that agents of Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum used Pegasus to hack the phones of his (ex)-wife, Princess Haya bint Hussein, her solicitors (including baroness Fiona Shackleton), a personal assistant and two members of her security team in the summer of 2020. The court ruled that the agents acted \"with the express or implied authority\" of the sheikh; he denied knowledge of the hacking. The judgment referred to the hacking as \"serial breaches of (UK) domestic criminal law\", \"in violation of fundamental common law and ECHR rights\", \"interference with the process of this court and the mother's access to justice\" and \"abuse of power\" by a head of state. NSO had contacted an intermediary in August 2020 to inform Princess Haya of the hack and is believed to have terminated its contract with the UAE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cohesity",
        "text": "The company also develops data management and backup software called DataProtect, which runs on DataPlatform. As of 2019, the most current version was code-named Pegasus. Pegusus v6.3 provides anti-ransomware features including machine learning-based anomaly detection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Norton AntiVirus",
        "text": "Another incident occurred in May 2007, when Norton AntiVirus flagged components of the Pegasus email client as malicious, rendering the program corrupted. Symantec customer service addressed the problem by running through a checklist of troubleshooting steps which were not always successful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "The CEO of NSO Group categorically claimed that the list in question is unrelated to them, the source of the allegations can not be verified as a reliable one. \"This is an attempt to build something based on a crazy lack of information... There is something fundamentally wrong with this investigation.\" The owner of the company that developed the Pegasus spyware categorically refutes all allegations, stating that the list of the phone numbers in question has nothing to do with the Pegasus spyware. NSO denied \"false claims\" about its clients' activities, but said it would \"continue to investigate all credible claims of misuse and take appropriate action\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aamber Pegasus",
        "text": "The hardware was designed by Stewart J Holmes. The software was designed by Paul Gillingwater, Nigel Keam and Paul Carter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Regarding how widespread the issue was, Lookout explained in a blog post: \"We believe that this spyware has been in the wild for a significant amount of time based on some of the indicators within the code\" and pointed out that the code shows signs of a \"kernel mapping table that has values all the way back to iOS 7\" (released 2013). \"The New York Times\" and \"The Times of Israel\" both reported that it appeared that the United Arab Emirates was using this spyware as early as 2013. It was used in Panama by former president Ricardo Martinelli from 2012 to 2014, who established the \"Consejo de Seguridad P\u00fablica y Defensa\" Nacional (National Security Council) for its use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Independent digital forensic analysis conducted on 10 Indian phones whose numbers were present in the data showed signs of either an attempted or successful Pegasus hack. The results of the forensic analysis threw up shows sequential correlations between the time and date a phone number is entered in the list and the beginning of surveillance. The gap usually ranges between a few minutes and a couple of hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": ", an investigative journalist for Al Jazeera Arabic, said, \"[The hacking of the Al Jazeera staffers' and journalists' phones is] a crime against journalism. Based on this spyware, journalists have been arrested, disappeared, or even killed. Khashoggi is just one example\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Dam Youth Escort",
        "text": "On 11 June 2009, a BBC News article reported that potential faults in the software could lead to a large-scale disaster. The report included comments by Isaac Mao, who said that there were \"a series of software flaws\", including the unencrypted communications between the software and the company's servers, which could allow hackers access to people's private data or place malicious script on machines on the network to \"affect [a] large scale disaster\". The software runs only on Microsoft Windows x86, so Microsoft Windows x86-64, Mac OS X, Linux and users of other operating systems are ignored. Even on Microsoft Windows, the software is known to interfere with Internet Explorer and Google Chrome, and is incompatible with Mozilla Firefox."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2022, sources revealed that a unit of Abu Dhabi\u2019s Mubadala Investment Company, Mubadala Capital was one of the largest investors in \u20ac1 billion Novalpina Capital private equity fund, which bought the NSO Group in 2019. Since then, Mubadala has been an investor in the firm with its commitment of \u20ac50 million, acquiring a seat on the committee of largest investors of the equity fund. Journalists, human rights defenders and the women of Dubai\u2019s royal family were traced to have been hacked using the Pegasus spyware during the same time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Targeting of journalist Ben Hubbard"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The spyware has been used for surveillance of anti-regime activists, journalists, and political leaders from several nations around the world. In July 2021, the investigation initiative Pegasus Project, along with an in-depth analysis by human rights group Amnesty International, reported that Pegasus was still being widely used against high-profile targets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In April 2022, Citizen Lab released a report stating that 10 Downing Street staff had been targeted by Pegasus, and that the United Arab Emirates was suspected of originating the attacks in 2020 and 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "French intelligence (ANSSI) confirmed that Pegasus spyware had been found on the phones of three journalists, including a journalist of France 24, in what was the first time an independent and official authority corroborated the findings of the investigation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In August 2016, NSO Group (through its U.S. subsidiary Westbridge) pitched its U.S. version of Pegasus to the San Diego Police Department (SDPD). In the marketing material, Westbridge emphasized that the company is U.S. based and majority owned by a U.S. parent company. An SDPD Sergeant responded to the sales pitch with \"sounds awesome\". The SDPD declined to purchase the spyware as it was too expensive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "On November 4, 2021, Lajos K\u00f3sa, Member of Parliament and Vice President of Fidesz, member of the Parliamentary Defence and Law Enforcement Committee, admitted that the Ministry of Interior had purchased and used the Pegasus software."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "President of Panama Ricardo Martinelli personally sought to obtain cyberespionage tools after his election in 2009. After a rebuff by the U.S. in 2009, Martinelli successfully sought such tools from Israeli vendors, expressing an interest in acquiring a tool capable of hacking into mobile phones in a 2010 private meeting with Israeli PM Netanyahu. In 2012, NSO systems were installed in Panama City. The equipment was subsequently widely used for illicti domestic and foreign spying, including for spying on political opponents, magistrates, union leaders, and business competitors, with Martinelli allegedly going so far as to order the surveillance of his mistress using Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "NSO Group",
        "text": "In November 2021, Apple Inc. filed a complaint against NSO Group and its parent company Q Cyber Technologies in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California in relation to the FORCEDENTRY exploit used to deploy the Pegasus spyware package, requesting injunctive relief, compensatory damages, punitive damages, and disgorgement of profits. The \"zero-click\" exploit was discovered by the Canadian Citizen Lab after Saudi activist Loujain al-Hathloul's iPhone was hacked. Technical information uncovered by Bill Marczak's team at the lab allowed Apple to warn thousands of its users, including U.S. State Department employees in Uganda. Researchers also discovered that spyware from QuaDream, another Israeli vendor, took advantage of the same vulnerability in iPhones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xpdf",
        "text": "A vulnerability in the Xpdf implementation of the JBIG2 file format, re-used in Apple's iOS phone operating software, was used by the Pegasus spyware to implement a zero-click attack on iPhones by constructing an emulated computer architecture inside a JBIG2 stream. Apple fixed this \"FORCEDENTRY\" vulnerability in iOS 14.8 in September 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "In India, some news articles were released making claims that Amnesty never claimed that the leaked phone numbers were of NSO's Pegasus spyware list. However, these reports were later proven to be false, and Amnesty issued a statement stating that it categorically stands by the findings of the investigation and that the data is irrefutably linked to potential targets of Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "A French journalist noted that \"in a matter of cyber-surveillance, we observe that abuse is \"de facto\" the rule\". Forbidden Stories argues the Pegasus software and its usages \"de facto\" constitute a global weapon to silence journalists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus' iOS exploitation was identified in August 2016. Arab human rights defender Ahmed Mansoor received a text message promising \"secrets\" about torture happening in prisons in the United Arab Emirates by following a link. Mansoor sent the link to Citizen Lab of the University of Toronto, which investigated, with the collaboration of Lookout, finding that if Mansoor had followed the link it would have jailbroken his phone and implanted the spyware into it, in a form of social engineering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "In July 2017, Prime Minister Beata Szyd\u0142o agreed with Benjamin Netanyahu to buy Pegasus licenses. Micha\u0142 Wo\u015b, deputy minister of justice, requested a parliamentary committee to divert funds from a ministry-run fund to \"combat crime.\" Once approved, the Central Anticorruption Bureau (CBA) purchased the licenses for PLN 33.4 million. The transaction with NSO Group was camouflaged with unrelated invoices. The contract for 40 licenses to be used over three years was mediated by Matic, a company established by former Militia and Security Service associates. The spyware was first deployed in November 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "French intelligence (ANSSI) confirmed that Pegasus spyware had been found on the phones of three journalists, including a journalist of France 24, in what was the first time an independent and official authority corroborated the findings of the investigation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In the aftermath of the news, critics asserted that Apple's bug-bounty program, which rewards people for finding flaws in its software, might not have offered sufficient rewards to prevent exploits being sold on the black market, rather than being reported back to Apple. Russell Brandom of \"The Verge\" commented that the reward offered in Apple's bug-bounty program maxes out at $200,000, \"just a fraction of the millions that are regularly spent for iOS exploits on the black market\". He goes on to ask why Apple doesn't \"spend its way out of security vulnerabilities?\", but also writes that \"as soon as [the Pegasus] vulnerabilities were reported, Apple patched them\u2014but there are plenty of other bugs left. While spyware companies see an exploit purchase as a one-time payout for years of access, Apple's bounty has to be paid out every time a new vulnerability pops up.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "IMessage",
        "text": "Project Pegasus revelations in July 2021 found the software used iMessage exploits."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which countries currently employ the Pegasus software?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Pegasus software is used by more than 25 countries including the United States, Mexico and Israel."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me something about Pegasus Project!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Pegasus Project is an international investigative journalism initiative that revealed governments' espionage on journalists, opposition politicians, activists, business people and others using the private Pegasus spyware(developed by the Israeli cyberarms company NSO Group). Amazon's AWS terminated \"relevant infrastructure and accounts\" linked to NSO Group, following an investigation by Amnesty International that discovered Amazon CloudFront was being used to infect targets with the Pegasus malware."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the vulnerabilities of Pegasus software?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The reported vulnerabilities were information leak in kernel,  kernel memory corruption leads to jailbreak, memory corruption in the webkit, and Google's Project Zero documented another exploit, dubbed FORCEDENTRY, in December 2021.",
      "I couldn't find the information you requested. Are you interested in vulnerabilities the spyware exploits?"
    ],
    "topic": "Pegasus (spyware)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Pegasus (spyware):2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pegasus (spyware)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Pegasus was discovered in August 2016 after a failed installation attempt on the iPhone of a human rights activist led to an investigation revealing details about the spyware, its abilities, and the security vulnerabilities it exploited. News of the spyware caused significant media coverage. It was called the \"most sophisticated\" smartphone attack ever, and was the first time that a malicious remote exploit used jailbreaking to gain unrestricted access to an iPhone."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pegasus (spyware):2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pegasus (spyware)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Pegasus was discovered in August 2016 after a failed installation attempt on the iPhone of a human rights activist led to an investigation revealing details about the spyware, its abilities, and the security vulnerabilities it exploited. News of the spyware caused significant media coverage. It was called the \"most sophisticated\" smartphone attack ever, and was the first time that a malicious remote exploit used jailbreaking to gain unrestricted access to an iPhone."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Google's Project Zero documented another exploit, dubbed FORCEDENTRY, in December 2021. According to Google's researchers, Pegasus sent an iMessage to its targets that contained what appeared to be GIF images, but which in fact contained a JBIG2 image. A vulnerability in the Xpdf implementation of JBIG2, re-used in Apple's iOS phone operating software, allowed Pegasus to construct an emulated computer architecture inside the JBIG2 stream which was then used to implement the zero-click attack. Apple fixed the vulnerability in iOS 14.8 in September 2021 as CVE-2021-30860."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Several lawsuits outstanding in 2018 claimed that NSO Group helped clients operate the software and therefore participated in numerous violations of human rights initiated by its clients. Two months after the murder and dismemberment of \"The Washington Post\" journalist Jamal Khashoggi, a Saudi human rights activist, in the Saudi Arabian Consulate in Istanbul, Turkey, Saudi dissident Omar Abdulaziz, a Canadian resident, filed suit in Israel against NSO Group, accusing the firm of providing the Saudi government with the surveillance software to spy on him and his friends, including Khashoggi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project revelations in India",
        "text": "Shashi Tharoor, a senior leader of the Indian National Congress and the head of the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Information Technology. The Committee summoned officials of Ministry of Information Technology & Ministry of Home Affairs for questioning regarding the matter. However, the committee was unable to meet as the BJP members of the committee refused to register their attendance despite being present, and the quorum was not met. As a reaction to this, a member of a committee stated: \"what happened today shows the lengths to which BJP is willing to go in order to not discuss the Pegasus spyware issue\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2017, Citizen Lab researchers revealed that NSO exploit links may have been sent to Mexican scientists and public health campaigners. The targets supported measures to reduce childhood obesity, including Mexico's \"Soda Tax.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "About twenty Armenian citizens were spied on via Pegasus spyware. Media expert Arthur Papyan said it targeted the key figures of the opposition and the government - current and past government employees who knew valuable state secrets and have political influence, including the former director of the National Security Service and current chairman of the center-right Homeland Party. The local experts suspected that they were targeted either by the government of Armenia or Azerbaijan, or perhaps both. Papyan said that NSO group appears to be jailbreaking a phone and provides interface for viewing the obtained data. Minister of high-tech industry Vahagn Khachaturyan also received a warning letter from Apple, he rejected the theory that the spying party could be the current Armenian government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citizen Lab",
        "text": "In \"Million Dollar Dissident\", published in August 2016, researchers discovered that Ahmed Mansoor, one of the UAE Five, a human rights defender in the United Arab Emirates, was targeted with Pegasus software developed by Israeli \"cyber war\" company NSO Group. Prior to the releases of the report, researchers contacted Apple who released a security update that patched the vulnerabilities exploited by the spyware operators. Mansoor was imprisoned one year later and as of 2021, is still in jail."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2021, Citizen Lab announced that Pegasus was used against lawyer Roman Giertych and prosecutor Ewa Wrzosek, both critical of the ruling Law and Justice (PiS) government, with Giertych's phone suffering 18 intrusions. 33 hacks to the phone of Krzysztof Brejza, a senator from the opposition Civic Platform (PO) were uncovered, and confirmed by Amnesty International. Leading to the 2019 European and Polish parliamentary elections, Brejza's text messages were stolen as he was leading the opposition parties' campaign. The texts were doctored by state-run media, notably TVP, and used in a smear campaign against the opposition. This prompted the Polish Senate to begin an inquiry into the deployment of the spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus was used by Saudi Arabia to spy on Jamal Kashoggi, who was later killed in Turkey. In October 2018, Citizen Lab reported on the use of NSO software to spy on the inner circle of Jamal Khashoggi just before his murder. Citizen Lab's October report stated with high confidence that NSO's Pegasus had been placed on the iPhone of Saudi dissident Omar Abdulaziz, one of Khashoggi's confidantes, months before. Abdulaziz stated that the software revealed Khashoggi's \"private criticisms of the Saudi royal family,\" which according to Abdulaziz \"played a major role\" in Khashoggi's death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "According to an investigation by \"The Guardian\" and \"El Pa\u00eds\", Pegasus software was used by the government of Spain to compromise the phones of several politicians active in the Catalan independence movement, including President of the Parliament of Catalonia Roger Torrent, and former member of the Parliament of Catalonia Anna Gabriel i Sabat\u00e9."
      },
      {
        "title": "Democratic backsliding",
        "text": "In July 2021, leaked data acquired by the Pegasus Project suggested the Hungarian government may have used NSO Group's Pegasus spyware to target opposition journalists. Hungarian officials acknowledged that they had purchased the spyware, but noted that they had received permission from either the courts or the Ministry of Justice in every case it was used."
      },
      {
        "title": "NSO Group",
        "text": "In January 2022, \"Calcalist\" published an investigatory piece detailing the widespread unlawful use of Pegasus by the Israeli Police. Although the Israeli Police formally denied this, some senior police officials have hinted that the claims were true. On February 1, the police admitted that there was, in fact, misuse of the software."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In late 2019, Facebook initiated a suit against NSO, claiming that Pegasus had been used to intercept the WhatsApp communications of a number of activists, journalists, and bureaucrats in India, leading to accusations that the Indian government was involved. 17 individuals including human rights activists, scholars, and journalists confirmed to an Indian publication they had been targeted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Responding to August 2016 reports of a targeting of an Arab activist, NSO Group stated that they provide \"authorized governments with technology that helps them combat terror and crime\", although the Group told him that they had no knowledge of any incidents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On January 25, 2022, more victims were confirmed by Citizen Lab, including Micha\u0142 Ko\u0142odziejczak of the agrarian movement Agrounia, and Tomasz Szwejgiert, a journalist and alleged former associate of the CBA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Two other attacks were launched against him in 2020 and 2021 using the zero-click hacking capabilities. Lastly, on June 13, 2021, an iPhone belonging to Hubbard was successfully hacked using the FORCEDENTRY exploit. Citizen Lab said in \u201chigh confidence\u201d that the four attacks were attempted using Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roman Giertych",
        "text": "On 10 February 2022, the European People's Party organised a public hearing on the threats posed by the Pegasus spyware to democracy and the rule of law. Roman Giertych spoke at the public hearing in the European Parliament about, among other things, the abuse of Pegasus in Poland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2018, a \"New York Times\" investigation concluded that Pegasus software played a role in the Khashoggi's murder, with a friend of Khashoggi stating in a filing that Saudi authorities had used the Israeli-made software to spy on the dissident. NSO CEO Shalev Hulio stated that the company had not been involved in the \"terrible murder\", but declined to comment on reports that he had personally traveled to the Saudi capital Riyadh for a $55 million Pegasus sale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In February 2022, an investigation by Citizen Lab and Amnesty International revealed that the Pegasus spyware was used to infect the devices of a lawyer, an online journalist, and a mental health counsellor in Bahrain. All of the three activists were critical of the Bahraini authorities and were targeted with Pegasus between June and September 2021. One of the three activists remained anonymous, while the other two were Mohammed al-Tajer and Sharifa Swar (mental health counselor)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Another Saudi exile Omar Abdulaziz in Canada was identified by McKinsey & Company as being an influential dissident, and hence had two brothers imprisoned by the Saudi authorities, and his cell phone hacked by Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On 26 January 2022, the reports revealed that mobile phones of Lama Fakih, a US-Lebanese citizen and director of crisis and conflict at Human Rights Watch, were repeatedly hacked by a client of NSO Group at a time when she was investigating the catastrophic August 2020 explosion that killed more than 200 people in Beirut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "More than half of these phones that were inspected by Amnesty International's cybersecurity team revealed forensic evidence of the Pegasus spyware, a zero-click Trojan virus developed by NSO Group. This malware provides the attacker full access to the targeted smartphone, its data, images, photographs and conversations as well as camera, microphone and geolocation. This information was passed along to 17 media organisations under \"The Pegasus Project\" umbrella name. Reports started to be published by member organisations on 18 July 2021, revealing notable non-criminal targets and analysing the practice as a threat to freedom of the press, freedom of speech, dissidents and democratic opposition. On 20 July, 14 heads of state were revealed as former targets of Pegasus malware. Various parties called for further investigation of the abuses and a limitation on trading such repressive malware, among them the newsrooms involved, the Committee to Protect Journalists, the International Press Institute, and Edward Snowden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In June 2020, an investigation by Amnesty International alleged that Moroccan journalist Omar Radi was targeted by the Moroccan government using the Israeli spyware Pegasus. The rights group claimed that the journalist was targeted three times and spied on after his device was infected with an NSO tool. Meanwhile, Amnesty also claimed that the attack came after the NSO group updated their policy in September 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A leak of a list of more than 50,000 telephone numbers believed to have been identified as those of people of interest by clients of NSO since 2016 became available to Paris-based media nonprofit organisation Forbidden Stories and Amnesty International. They shared the information with seventeen news media organisations in what has been called \"Pegasus Project\", and a months-long investigation was carried out, which reported from mid-July 2021. The Pegasus Project involved 80 journalists from the media partners including \"The Guardian\" (UK), Radio France and \"Le Monde\" (France), \"Die Zeit\" and \"S\u00fcddeutsche Zeitung\" (Germany), \"The Washington Post\" (United States), \"Haaretz\" (Israel), \"Aristegui Noticias\", \"Proceso\" (Mexico), the Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project, \"Knack\", \"Le Soir\", \"The Wire\", \"Daraj\", Direkt36 (Hungary), and \"Frontline\". Evidence was found that many phones with numbers in the list had been targets of Pegasus spyware. However, The CEO of NSO Group categorically claimed that the list in question is unrelated to them, the source of the allegations can't be verified as reliable one. \"This is an attempt to build something on a crazy lack of information... There is something fundamentally wrong with this investigation\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In July 2017, the international team assembled to investigate the 2014 Iguala mass kidnapping publicly complained they thought they were being surveilled by the Mexican government. They stated that the Mexican government used Pegasus to send them messages about funeral homes containing links which, when clicked, allowed the government to surreptitiously listen to the investigators. The Mexican government has repeatedly denied any unauthorized hacking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dartmouth College student groups",
        "text": "Established as an elaborate ruse in the fall of 2000, the Order of Epeios was invented as a means for comic relief. Two friends enlisted the help of approximately 20 other Dartmouth students to induct two other friends (and three \"planted\" candidates)into a hypothetical Senior Society. After 4 weeks, development of a detailed backstory (with roots in 1789 French Revolutionary Resistance), participation in The \"Quest of Worthiness\", and several intricately staged ceremonies; the practical joke was revealed to the intended subjects. The name is a misspelled version of the name \"Epeius\" to honor his building of the Trojan Horse (the Original prank). Thus, the Society was officially founded with open membership to all those who value humor and respect in a dynamic equilibrium."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2021, allegations arose that the software may also have been used to spy on members of Kashoggi's family."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Citizen Lab revealed the government of Bahrain used the NSO Group's Pegasus to hack activists, bloggers, members of Waad (a secular Bahraini political society), a member of Al Wefaq (a Shiite Bahraini political society), and members of the Bahrain Center for Human Rights. Bahrain reportedly acquired access to spyware in 2017. As per the report, the mobile phones of a total of nine rights activists were \u201csuccessfully hacked\u201d between June 2020 and February 2021. Those hacked included three members of Waad, three of the BCHR, one of Al Wefaq, and two of the exiled dissidents who reside in London. The Citizen Lab attributed \u201cwith high confidence\u201d that a Pegasus operator, LULU, was used by the Bahraini government to breach the phones of at least four of the nine activists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project revelations in India",
        "text": "Advocate M L Sharma and John Brittas, a member of the Rajya Sabha of the CPI (M) party filed a petition that sought a court-monitored probe into the allegations of unauthorised use of the Pegasus spyware on Indian citizens. The petition alleged that the use of Pegasus on Indian citizens was a \"serious attack upon Indian democracy, judiciary and country\u2019s security.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In August 2016, NSO Group (through its U.S. subsidiary Westbridge) pitched its U.S. version of Pegasus to the San Diego Police Department (SDPD). In the marketing material, Westbridge emphasized that the company is U.S. based and majority owned by a U.S. parent company. An SDPD Sergeant responded to the sales pitch with \"sounds awesome\". The SDPD declined to purchase the spyware as it was too expensive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Computer Conservation Society",
        "text": "London Science Museum:\n* Ferranti Pegasus (Not currently being displayed working)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In October 2021, the British High Court ruled that agents of Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum used Pegasus to hack the phones of his (ex)-wife, Princess Haya bint Hussein, her solicitors (including baroness Fiona Shackleton), a personal assistant and two members of her security team in the summer of 2020. The court ruled that the agents acted \"with the express or implied authority\" of the sheikh; he denied knowledge of the hacking. The judgment referred to the hacking as \"serial breaches of (UK) domestic criminal law\", \"in violation of fundamental common law and ECHR rights\", \"interference with the process of this court and the mother's access to justice\" and \"abuse of power\" by a head of state. NSO had contacted an intermediary in August 2020 to inform Princess Haya of the hack and is believed to have terminated its contract with the UAE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus' iOS exploitation was identified in August 2016. Arab human rights defender Ahmed Mansoor received a text message promising \"secrets\" about torture happening in prisons in the United Arab Emirates by following a link. Mansoor sent the link to Citizen Lab of the University of Toronto, which investigated, with the collaboration of Lookout, finding that if Mansoor had followed the link it would have jailbroken his phone and implanted the spyware into it, in a form of social engineering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus spyware was found in 2021 on the iPhones of at least nine U.S. State Department employees. The US government blacklisted the NSO Group to stop what it called \"transnational repression\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "NSO Group pitched its spyware to the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), which declined to purchase it due to its high cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus licenses were agreed on between Benjamin Netanyahu and Beata Szyd\u0142o in July 2017. Citizen Lab revealed that several members of political opposition groups in Poland were hacked by Pegasus spyware, raising alarming questions about the Polish government's use of the software. A lawyer representing Polish opposition groups and a prosecutor involved in a case against the ruling Law and Justice party were also compromised."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Citizen Lab and Lookout discovered that the link downloaded software to exploit three previously unknown and unpatched zero-day vulnerabilities in iOS. According to their analysis, the software can jailbreak an iPhone when a malicious URL is opened, a form of attack known as spear phishing. The software installs itself and collects all communications and locations of targeted iPhones. The software can also collect Wi-Fi passwords. The researchers noticed that the software's code referenced an NSO Group product called \"Pegasus\" in leaked marketing materials. Pegasus had previously come to light in a leak of records from Hacking Team, which indicated the software had been supplied to the government of Panama in 2015. Citizen Lab and Lookout notified Apple's security team, which patched the flaws within ten days and released an update for iOS. A patch for macOS was released six days later."
      },
      {
        "title": "NSO Group",
        "text": "In November 2021, Apple Inc. filed a complaint against NSO Group and its parent company Q Cyber Technologies in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California in relation to the FORCEDENTRY exploit used to deploy the Pegasus spyware package, requesting injunctive relief, compensatory damages, punitive damages, and disgorgement of profits. The \"zero-click\" exploit was discovered by the Canadian Citizen Lab after Saudi activist Loujain al-Hathloul's iPhone was hacked. Technical information uncovered by Bill Marczak's team at the lab allowed Apple to warn thousands of its users, including U.S. State Department employees in Uganda. Researchers also discovered that spyware from QuaDream, another Israeli vendor, took advantage of the same vulnerability in iPhones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In April 2022, according to two EU officials and documentation obtained by Reuters, the European Justice Commissioner Didier Reynders and other European Commission officials had been targeted by NSO's software. The commision learned of this after Apple notified thousands of iPhone users in November 2021 that they were targeted by state-sponsored hackers. According to the same two sources, IT experts examined some of the smartphones, but the results were inconclusive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On 24 September 2021, \"The Guardian\" reported that the telephone of Alaa al-Siddiq, executive director of ALQST, who died in a car accident in London on 20 June 2021, was infected with the Pegasus spyware for 5 years until 2020. Citizen Lab confirmed that the Emirati activist was hacked by a government client of Israel's NSO Group. The case represented a worrying trend for activists and dissidents, who escaped the UAE to live in the relative safety, but were never out of the reach of Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On 7 October 2021, the NSO Group stated that it had terminated its contract with the UAE to use its Pegasus spyware tool after the ruling by UK\u2019s High Court that Dubai\u2019s ruler misused the firm\u2019s Pegasus software to spy on his ex-wife and her legal advisers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Princess Haya bint Hussein",
        "text": "On 6 October 2021, the High Court found that agents of Sheikh Mohammed used the Pegasus spyware to hack the phones of Princess Haya, her solicitors, a personal assistant and two members of her security team in the summer of 2020 \"with the express or implied authority\" of the sheikh. The spyware's developer, NSO Group, itself had contacted an intermediary in August 2020 to inform Princess Haya of the hacking, of which Sheikh Mohammed denied knowledge. The judgment referred to the hacking as \"serial breaches of (UK) domestic criminal law\", \"in violation of fundamental common law and ECHR rights\", \"interference with the process of this court and the mother's access to justice\" and \"abuse of power\" by a head of state. It was also revealed that Sheikh Mohammed attempted to purchase a property near to Princess Haya's home, that \"if anyone chose to use it, it is in prime position for direct or electronic surveillance\". Princess Haya told the court: \"It feels as if I am being stalked, that there is literally nowhere for me to go to be safe from [Sheikh Mohammed], or those acting in his interests. It is hugely oppressive.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Regarding how widespread the issue was, Lookout explained in a blog post: \"We believe that this spyware has been in the wild for a significant amount of time based on some of the indicators within the code\" and pointed out that the code shows signs of a \"kernel mapping table that has values all the way back to iOS 7\" (released 2013). \"The New York Times\" and \"The Times of Israel\" both reported that it appeared that the United Arab Emirates was using this spyware as early as 2013. It was used in Panama by former president Ricardo Martinelli from 2012 to 2014, who established the \"Consejo de Seguridad P\u00fablica y Defensa\" Nacional (National Security Council) for its use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Human rights group Amnesty International reported in the 2021 investigation that Pegasus employs a sophisticated command-and-control (C&C) infrastructure to deliver exploit payloads and send commands to Pegasus targets. There are at least four known iterations of the C&C infrastructure, dubbed the \"Pegasus Anonymizing Transmission Network\" (PATN) by NSO group, each encompassing up to 500 domain names, DNS servers, and other network infrastructure. The PATN reportedly utilizes techniques such as registering high port numbers for their online infrastructure as to avoid conventional internet scanning. PATN also uses up to three randomised subdomains unique per exploit attempt as well as randomised URL paths."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In January 2022, it was reported that Pegasus was unlawfully used by the Israeli Police to monitor citizens as well as foreign nationals who were accidentally or intentionally infected by the software. The surveillance was ordered by high-ranking police officers, and was carried out without warrants or judicial supervision. The legal basis for use of spyware against citizens is disputed. The police had allegedly targeted civilians not suspected of any crime, including organisers of antigovernmental protesters, mayors, anti-LBGT parade activists, employees of government-owned companies, an associated of a senior politician, and former government employees. In one case, it was alleged that police targeted an activist who was not suspected of a crime, allegedly to gather information about the activist's extra-marital affairs and use it as leverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus was discovered in August 2016 after a failed installation attempt on the iPhone of a human rights activist led to an investigation revealing details about the spyware, its abilities, and the security vulnerabilities it exploited. News of the spyware caused significant media coverage. It was called the \"most sophisticated\" smartphone attack ever, and was the first time that a malicious remote exploit used jailbreaking to gain unrestricted access to an iPhone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The mobile phones of six Palestinian activists were hacked using Pegasus with some of the attacks reportedly occurring as far back as July 2020, according to a report from Front Line Defenders."
      },
      {
        "title": "IOS 9",
        "text": "The discovery of the vulnerabilities dated 10 days before the 9.3.5 update was released. Arab human rights defender Ahmed Mansoor received a suspicious text message with a link and sent it to Citizen Lab. An investigation ensued with collaboration from Lookout that revealed that if Mansoor clicked the link, it would have jailbroken his phone and implanted it with the spyware. Citizen Lab linked the attack to an Israeli surveillance company known as NSO Group that sells Pegasus to governments for \"lawful interception.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Citizen Lab",
        "text": "Since 2016, Citizen Lab has published a number of reports on \"Pegasus\", a spyware for mobile devices that was developed by the NSO Group, an Israeli-based cyber intelligence firm. Citizen Lab's ten part series on the NSO Group ran from 2016 through 2018. The August 2018 report was timed to coordinate with Amnesty International's in-depth report on the NSO Group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "NSO Group did not deny the presence of its spyware, responding to the report by stating they rigorously vetted its customers' human rights records before allowing them to use its spy tools. It says military-grade Pegasus is only supposed to be used to prevent serious crime and terrorism. NSO stated its purchasing client governments are bidden by a signed contract and licence, agreeing to terms of uses, and contractually limited to legitimate criminal or terrorist targets. Once sold, NSO Group says it does not know nor can see how its client governments use its spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "The government has not denied the usage of Pegasus spyware in their response so far. The government has also denied the request for investigation or an independent Supreme Court inquiry by the opposition into the matter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A \"New York Times\" correspondent covering the Middle East, Ben Hubbard revealed in October 2021 that Saudi Arabia used the NSO Group's Pegasus software to hack into his phone. Hubbard was targeted repeatedly over a three-year period between June 2018 to June 2021 while he was reporting on Saudi Arabia, and writing a book about the Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman. Hubbard was possibly targeted for writing the book about the Crown Prince, and for his involvement in revealing the UAE's hacking and surveillance attempt of Project Raven. Saudis attempted to peek into Hubbard's personal information twice in 2018, one through a suspicious text message and the other through an Arabic WhatsApp message inviting him to a protest at a Saudi embassy in Washington."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project revelations in India",
        "text": "The Pegasus Project was a collaborative investigative journalism initiative undertaken by 17 media organisations. Pegasus is a spyware developed by the NSO Group, an Israeli technology and cyber-arms firm that can be secretly deployed on mobile phones and other devices, which run most versions of Android and iOS. Pegasus is capable of reading text messages, tracking calls, collecting passwords, location tracking, accessing the target device's microphone and camera, and harvesting information from apps. Since Pegasus is classified as cyber-arms by the Israeli government, only national governments can purchase the spyware after the authorisation of the Israeli government. The Pegasus Project initiative investigated the use of the Pegasus spyware by governments on journalists, opposition politicians, activists and business people. A target list consisting of 50,000 phone numbers, which could have been possibly targeted by the spyware, leaked to Forbidden Stories which spawned this investigation. 300 of these numbers were from India. The presence of a phone number on the list does not confirm the use of Pegasus and only forensic examination of a phone can confirm if the spyware was present. Supreme court appointed a technical committee and asked to submit the phones for investigation of those individuals who suspect snooping by the government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The list of spied-upon citizens included dozens of journalists and activists from Azerbaijan. It was alleged that their mobile phones were tapped. The head of Azerbaijani service of Radio Liberty/Radio Free Europe (Azadliq) Jamie Fly expressed his anger when it was revealed that the phones of his five current and former employees were tapped with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A joint investigation by \"The Guardian\" and \"Le Monde\" alleged political activists in Rwanda were targeted with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In April 2017, after a Lookout report, Google researchers discovered Android malware \"believed to be created by NSO Group Technologies\" and named it Chrysaor (Pegasus' brother in Greek mythology). According to Google, \"Chrysaor is believed to be related to the Pegasus spyware\". At the 2017 Security Analyst Summit held by Kaspersky Lab, researchers revealed that Pegasus was available for Android in addition to iOS. Its functionality is similar to the iOS version, but the mode of attack is different. The Android version tries to gain root access (similar to jailbreaking in iOS); if it fails, it asks the user for permissions that enable it to harvest at least some data. At the time Google said that only a few Android devices had been infected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project revelations in India",
        "text": "The government has not denied the usage of Pegasus spyware in their response so far. The government has also denied the request for a probe or investigation or an independent Supreme Court inquiry by the opposition into the matter. The former IT minister of India Ravi Shankar Prasad asked, \"If more than 45 nations are using Pegasus as NSO has said, why is only India being targeted?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project revelations in India",
        "text": "Some news articles were released making claims that Amnesty never claimed that the leaked phone numbers were of NSO's Pegasus spyware list. These claims where repeated by some BJP leaders. However, these reports were later proven to be false, and Amnesty issued a statement stating that it categorically stands by the findings of the investigation and that the data is irrefutably linked to potential targets of NSO Group's Pegasus spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Phone numbers of Indian ministers, opposition leaders, ex-election commissioners and journalists were allegedly found on a database of NSO hacking targets by Pegasus Project in 2021. Phone numbers of Koregaon Bhima activists who had compromising data implanted on their computers through a hack found on a Pegasus surveillance phone number list."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The earliest version of Pegasus - which was identified in 2016 - relied on a spear-phishing attack which required the target to click a malicious link in a text message or email."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "11 phone numbers associated with a female employee of the Supreme Court of India and her immediate family, who accused the former Chief Justice of India, Ranjan Gogoi, of sexual harassment, are also allegedly found on a database indicating possibility of their phones being snooped."
      },
      {
        "title": "NSO Group",
        "text": "In August 2016, NSO (through its U.S. subsidiary Westbridge) pitched its U.S. version of Pegasus to the San Diego Police Department (SDPD) In the marketing material, Westbridge emphasized that the company is U.S. based and majority owned by a U.S. parent company. A SDPD Sergeant responded to the sales pitch with \"sounds awesome\". The SDPD declined to purchase the spyware as it was too expensive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2020, it was reported that Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates deployed a zero-click iMessage Pegasus exploit against two London-based reporters and 36 journalists at the \"Al Jazeera\" television network in Qatar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2020, it was reported that Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates deployed a zero-click iMessage Pegasus exploit against two London-based reporters and 36 journalists at the \"Al Jazeera\" television network in Qatar."
      },
      {
        "title": "NSO Group",
        "text": "In June 2018, an Israeli court indicted a former employee of NSO for allegedly stealing a copy of Pegasus and attempting to sell it online for $50 million worth of cryptocurrency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project revelations in India",
        "text": "CJAR further stated that the allegations of hacking of a sitting Supreme Court judge of ex-CJI Ranjan Gogoi's staffer, who accused Gogoi of sexual harassment, and her family members were of \"grave seriousness\". It raised the question asking why a software that was reported sold only to \"vetted governments\" for national security issues was used to spy on Gogoi's staffer and also demanded a probe into improper collusion between the executive and judiciary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "The leaked list of targeted phone numbers provides an indication of being a \"person of interest\" and a first indication of possible hacking, to be confirmed via direct forensic examination of the phone. Amnesty has published \"Forensic Methodology Report: How to catch NSO Group's Pegasus\". According to Amnesty, \"The Citizen Lab at the University of Toronto has independently peer-reviewed a draft of the forensic methodology outlined in this report. Their review can be found here Independent Peer Review of Amnesty International's Forensic Methods for Identifying Pegasus Spyware\". Amnesty also published various tools or data from this investigation, including a Mobile Verification Toolkit (MVT) and a GitHub repository listing indicators of NSO/Pegasus compromised devices. Some emerging unverified online services claim to be able to assess an infection by Pegasus, but their usage is discouraged as possible scams themselves. Amnesty and Forbidden Stories received numerous queries for checking devices but were not able to satisfy the demand for assistance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "The Pegasus spyware was developed by the Israeli cyberarms company NSO Group. It can be covertly installed on mobile phones (and other devices) running most versions of iOS and Android. The spyware is named after the mythical winged horse Pegasus\u2014it is a Trojan horse that can be sent \"flying through the air\" to infect phones. Usages of the Pegasus spyware have been monitored for years. Amnesty has argued that the digital invasion is correlated with real-life consequences for spied targets, via psychological or physical damages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Although Pegasus is stated as intended to be used against criminals and terrorists, it has also been used by both authoritarian and democratic governments to spy on critics and opponents. A UN special rapporteur on freedom of opinion found that the use of the spyware by abusive governments could \"facilitate extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and killings, or enforced disappearance of persons.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In April 2022, Citizen Lab released a report stating that 10 Downing Street staff had been targeted by Pegasus, and that the United Arab Emirates was suspected of originating the attacks in 2020 and 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2019, two Moroccan pro-democracy campaigners were notified by WhatsApp that their phones had been compromised with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A widow of slain renowned Mexican journalist was a target of an attempted Pegasus attack 10 days after her husband was assassinated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Israeli police use"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Other"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "In India, some news articles were released making claims that Amnesty never claimed that the leaked phone numbers were of NSO's Pegasus spyware list. However, these reports were later proven to be false, and Amnesty issued a statement stating that it categorically stands by the findings of the investigation and that the data is irrefutably linked to potential targets of Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Serpent Society",
        "text": "Two charter members soon left the Society. Princess Python fled during the MODOK assignment and was soon after expelled from their ranks. Death Adder was killed by Scourge of the Underworld when he was sent to ransom the Princess to her Circus of Crime cohorts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus is spyware developed by the Israeli cyber-arms company NSO Group that can be covertly installed on mobile phones (and other devices) running most versions of iOS and Android. Pegasus is able to exploit iOS versions up to 14.6, through a zero-click exploit. As of 2022, Pegasus was capable of reading text messages, tracking calls, collecting passwords, location tracking, accessing the target device's microphone and camera, and harvesting information from apps. The spyware is named after Pegasus, the winged horse of Greek mythology. It is a Trojan horse computer virus that can be sent \"flying through the air\" to infect cell phones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "The Committee to Protect Journalists called for a critical reform of the surveillance software industry and market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aamber Pegasus",
        "text": "A network version of the Aamber Pegasus provided connectivity to a 6809-based server (SWTPC-6809). Especially the networking version attempted to address the New Zealand Government's computers in schools initiative, but never produced the hoped-for large orders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Security policy of the Enrique Pe\u00f1a Nieto administration",
        "text": "On June 19, 2017, \"The New York Times\" in conjunction with news reporter Carmen Aristegui, and even backed by a Televisa news reporter Carlos Loret de Mola, reported that the Mexican Government uses a spyware software known as Pegasus, to spy on targets such as Mexican News reporters (and their families) and Civil Rights Leaders (and their families) using text messages as lures. Since 2011, the Mexican Government invested $80 million worth of spyware. Pegasus spyware infiltrates a persons cellphone and reports every detail of their messages, e-mails, contacts and calendars. After the revelation, the Israeli manufacturer of the Pegasus spyware, NSO Group, re-stated it only sold such technology to governments with an 'explicit agreement', that such technology was meant 'only to combat organized crime' by spying on it; although once it sells the software it cannot control who they use it against and basically leaves the government's on their own to monitor themselves on not abusing the software. The New York Times and independent forensic analysts analyzed the data of 'dozens of messages', multiple times before proving their accusation, and commented of such espionage towards news journalists and civil rights leaders, as 'an effort from the Mexican Government to thwart the battle against corruption infecting every limb of Mexican Society', and how highly unlikely it would be for such espionage it to receive 'Judicial Approval'. Edward Snowden who worked for US government's NSA before revealing it to spy on its citizens, also said all evidence points to the Mexican government being the spy, and on Twitter said it is \"a crime to the public\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In January 2022, Bahrain was accused of using the Pegasus spyware to hack a human rights defender, Ebtisam al-Saegh. The prominent activist's phone was hacked at least eight times between August and November 2019. As per the Citizen Lab, following the hacking attempt, al-Saegh faced incidents where she was harassed by the Bahrain authorities. It included being summoned to a police station, interrogation, rape threats, and physical and sexual assault. The attack left the rights defender in a state of \u201cdaily fear and terror\u201d."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A joint investigation by \"The Guardian\" and \"Le Monde\" alleged that Pegasus software was used to spy on six critics of the government in Togo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2022, sources revealed that a unit of Abu Dhabi\u2019s Mubadala Investment Company, Mubadala Capital was one of the largest investors in \u20ac1 billion Novalpina Capital private equity fund, which bought the NSO Group in 2019. Since then, Mubadala has been an investor in the firm with its commitment of \u20ac50 million, acquiring a seat on the committee of largest investors of the equity fund. Journalists, human rights defenders and the women of Dubai\u2019s royal family were traced to have been hacked using the Pegasus spyware during the same time."
      },
      {
        "title": "University of Cambridge",
        "text": "In October 2021, the university paused the \u00a3400m collaboration with the United Arab Emirates, citing the claims of the Arab nation's involvement in the controversial hacking using the NSO Group's Pegasus software. As per the reports, the Emirates was the major country involved in the leak of over 50,000 phone numbers, including hundreds belonging to the British. The university's outgoing Vice-Chancellor, Stephen Toope said the decision to reconsider plans with the UAE was caused by further revelations about the Pegasus software hacking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "In December 2021, Citizen Lab announced to have found multiple hacks into phones of prominent opposition figures during the 2019 parliamentary elections that the right-wing populist party Law and Justice (PiS) of Jaros\u0142aw Kaczy\u0144ski won by a slim margin, which lead to a further erosion of judicial independence and press freedom. As of January 25, 2022, the reported victims include:\n* Roman Giertych, a lawyer representing top opposition politicians, and the deputy prime minister in 2006\u20132007 Kaczy\u0144ski's Cabinet,\n* Ewa Wrzosek, a prosecutor who challenged the PiS government's attempts to purge the judiciary,\n* Krzysztof Brejza, an attorney and at the time, a Civic Platform MP who ran the Civic Coalition campaign, and won his Senate seat. The hack against Brejza was later confirmed by Amnesty International.\n* , a farmer and leader of the social movement Agrounia,\n* Tomasz Szwejgiert, a journalist and alleged former associate of the CBA, hacked while co-authoring a book about Mariusz Kaminski, head of the CBA.\n* Adam Hofman, former PiS spokesman,\n* Dawid Jackiewicz, former PiS treasury minister in the Cabinet of Beata Szyd\u0142o,\n* , former PiS MP,\n* , former head of the PiS cabinet and former spokesman of the Ministry of National Defence,\n* Katarzyna Kaczmarek, wife of (referred to as \"agent Tomek\"), former policeman and former CBA officer, later a PiS MP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2021, AP reported that 11 U.S. State Department employees stationed in Uganda had their iPhones hacked with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus (spyware)\n--Background.\n----Discovery.\n----Chronology.\n--Technical details.\n----Development of capabilities.\n----Vulnerabilities.\n----Pegasus Anonymizing Transmission Network.\n--Use by country.\n----Armenia.\n----Azerbaijan.\n----Bahrain.\n----Estonia.\n----Finland.\n----Germany.\n----Hungary.\n----India.\n----Israel.\n----Jordan.\n----Kazakhstan.\n----Mexico.\n----Morocco.\n----Panama.\n----Palestine.\n----Poland.\n----Rwanda.\n----Saudi Arabia.\n----Spain.\n----Togo.\n----Uganda.\n----Ukraine.\n----United Arab Emirates.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n----Yemen.\n----International organizations.\n------European Union.\n--Pegasus Project.\n--Reactions.\n----NSO Group response.\n----Bug-bounty program skepticism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Lookout provided details of the three iOS vulnerabilities:\n* CVE-2016-4655: Information leak in kernel \u2013 A kernel base mapping vulnerability that leaks information to the attacker allowing them to calculate the kernel's location in memory.\n* CVE-2016-4656: Kernel memory corruption leads to jailbreak \u2013 32 and 64 bit iOS kernel-level vulnerabilities that allow the attacker to secretly jailbreak the device and install surveillance software \u2013 details in reference.\n* CVE-2016-4657: Memory corruption in the webkit \u2013 A vulnerability in the Safari WebKit that allows the attacker to compromise the device when the user clicks on a link."
      },
      {
        "title": "Censorship in Saudi Arabia",
        "text": "In May 2019, Amnesty International claimed that Saudi Arabia used NSO Group's Pegasus software to target activists and journalists, including Khashoggi. Deputy Director of Amnesty Tech claimed that \"governments who are known for outrageous human rights abuses\" use this software to track down the dissidents and human rights defenders. \"The Kingdom Came to Canada\", a Citizen Lab's report, shows how Omar Abdulaziz, another Saudi activist residing in Canada, was targeted by the Saudi government to access the sensitive conversations he had with his friend Jamal Khashoggi. Abdulaziz had also filed a lawsuit in December 2018, alleging that the Saudi authorities used Pegasus spyware to hack his phone and access his conversations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "In 2020, a list of over 50,000 phone numbers believed to belong to individuals identified as \"people of interest\" by clients of the Israeli cyberarms firm NSO Group was leaked to Amnesty International and Forbidden Stories, a media nonprofit organisation based in Paris, France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "NSO Group developed its first iteration of Pegasus spyware in 2011. The company states that it provides \"authorized governments with technology that helps them combat terror and crime.\" NSO Group has published sections of contracts which require customers to use its products only for criminal and national security investigations and has stated that it has an industry-leading approach to human rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2020, an Al Jazeera investigative show \"The Hidden is More Immense\" covered Pegasus and its penetration into the phones of media professionals and activists; and its use by Israel to eavesdrop on both opponents and allies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "President of Panama Ricardo Martinelli personally sought to obtain cyberespionage tools after his election in 2009. After a rebuff by the U.S. in 2009, Martinelli successfully sought such tools from Israeli vendors, expressing an interest in acquiring a tool capable of hacking into mobile phones in a 2010 private meeting with Israeli PM Netanyahu. In 2012, NSO systems were installed in Panama City. The equipment was subsequently widely used for illicti domestic and foreign spying, including for spying on political opponents, magistrates, union leaders, and business competitors, with Martinelli allegedly going so far as to order the surveillance of his mistress using Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2019, WhatsApp revealed Pegasus had employed a vulnerability in its app to launch zero-click attacks (the spyware would be installed onto a target's phone by calling the target phone; the spyware would be installed even if the call was not answered)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project revelations in India",
        "text": "Ashwini Vaishnaw in a statement in parliament stated that the reports were \"highly sensational\" and that they had \"no factual basis\". He further stated that NSO themselves had rubbished the claims. He stated that the existence of numbers in a list was not sufficient evidence to indicate that the spyware was used and said that the report itself stated the same and without the physical examination of the phone such claims cannot be corroborated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "The CEO of NSO Group categorically claimed that the list in question is unrelated to them, the source of the allegations can not be verified as a reliable one. \"This is an attempt to build something based on a crazy lack of information... There is something fundamentally wrong with this investigation.\" The owner of the company that developed the Pegasus spyware categorically refutes all allegations, stating that the list of the phone numbers in question has nothing to do with the Pegasus spyware. NSO denied \"false claims\" about its clients' activities, but said it would \"continue to investigate all credible claims of misuse and take appropriate action\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "In a tweet, the Press Club of India (PCI) issued a statement: This is the first time in the history of this country that all pillars of our democracy \u2014 judiciary, Parliamentarians, media, executives & ministers \u2014 have been spied upon. This is unprecedented and the PCI condemns unequivocally. The snooping has been done for ulterior motives. What is disturbing is that a foreign agency, which has nothing to do with the national interest of the country, was engaged to spy on its citizens. This breeds distrust and will invite anarchy. The Govt should come out clean on this front and clarify. Similarly, the Editor's Guild of India also released a statement directed against the alleged spying made by the Indian government, saying:"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Society in Dedham for Apprehending Horse Thieves",
        "text": "At one time membership of the \"ancient and well known society\" was limited to \"the pillars of society\" and the \"very flower and pick of the vigor, manhood and rising youth of the vicinity.\" It has also been said that \"for sheer whimsy, the Society... is without peer.\" Today it is a tax exempt non-profit social organization that continues to meet \"just in case.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The forensic analysis of UN independent investigator Kamel Jendoubi\u2019s mobile phone revealed on 20 December 2021 that he was targeted using spyware while probing war crimes of Yemen. Jendoubi was targeted while he was examining possible war crimes in Yemen. Jendoubi's mobile number was also found in the leaked database of the Pegasus Project. According to the data, Jendoubi was one of the potential targets of one of NSO Group's long-time clients, Saudi Arabia. However, NSO spokesperson denied Kamel Jendoubi as any of its client's targets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Assassination of journalist Cecilio Pineda Birto"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In July 2021, a joint investigation conducted by seventeen media organisations, revealed that Pegasus spyware was used to target and spy on heads of state, activists, journalists, and dissidents, enabling \"human rights violations around the world on a massive scale\". The investigation was launched after a leak of 50,000 phone numbers of potential surveillance targets. Amnesty International carried out forensic analysis of mobile phones of potential targets. The investigation identified 11 countries as NSO clients: Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Hungary, India, Kazakhstan, Mexico, Morocco, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia, Togo, and the United Arab Emirates. The investigation also revealed that journalists from multiple media organizations including \"Al Jazeera\", CNN, the \"Financial Times\", the Associated Press, \"The New York Times\", \"The Wall Street Journal\", \"Bloomberg News\" and \"Le Monde\" were targeted, and identified at least 180 journalists from 20 countries who were selected for targeting with NSO spyware between 2016 and June 2021."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which countries currently employ the Pegasus software?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Pegasus software is used by more than 25 countries including the United States, Mexico and Israel."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me something about Pegasus Project!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Pegasus Project is an international investigative journalism initiative that revealed governments' espionage on journalists, opposition politicians, activists, business people and others using the private Pegasus spyware(developed by the Israeli cyberarms company NSO Group). Amazon's AWS terminated \"relevant infrastructure and accounts\" linked to NSO Group, following an investigation by Amnesty International that discovered Amazon CloudFront was being used to infect targets with the Pegasus malware."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the vulnerabilities of Pegasus software?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The reported vulnerabilities were information leak in kernel,  kernel memory corruption leads to jailbreak, memory corruption in the webkit, and Google's Project Zero documented another exploit, dubbed FORCEDENTRY, in December 2021."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did Pegasus software receive any comment from the society?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The spyware has been used for surveillance of anti-regime activists, journalists, and political leaders from several nations around the world. In July 2021, the investigation initiative Pegasus Project, along with an in-depth analysis by human rights group Amnesty International, reported that Pegasus was still being widely used against high-profile targets."
    ],
    "topic": "Pegasus (spyware)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Pegasus (spyware):3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pegasus (spyware)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The spyware has been used for surveillance of anti-regime activists, journalists, and political leaders from several nations around the world. In July 2021, the investigation initiative Pegasus Project, along with an in-depth analysis by human rights group Amnesty International, reported that Pegasus was still being widely used against high-profile targets."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Censorship in Saudi Arabia",
        "text": "In May 2019, Amnesty International claimed that Saudi Arabia used NSO Group's Pegasus software to target activists and journalists, including Khashoggi. Deputy Director of Amnesty Tech claimed that \"governments who are known for outrageous human rights abuses\" use this software to track down the dissidents and human rights defenders. \"The Kingdom Came to Canada\", a Citizen Lab's report, shows how Omar Abdulaziz, another Saudi activist residing in Canada, was targeted by the Saudi government to access the sensitive conversations he had with his friend Jamal Khashoggi. Abdulaziz had also filed a lawsuit in December 2018, alleging that the Saudi authorities used Pegasus spyware to hack his phone and access his conversations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Another Saudi exile Omar Abdulaziz in Canada was identified by McKinsey & Company as being an influential dissident, and hence had two brothers imprisoned by the Saudi authorities, and his cell phone hacked by Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus was used by Saudi Arabia to spy on Jamal Kashoggi, who was later killed in Turkey. In October 2018, Citizen Lab reported on the use of NSO software to spy on the inner circle of Jamal Khashoggi just before his murder. Citizen Lab's October report stated with high confidence that NSO's Pegasus had been placed on the iPhone of Saudi dissident Omar Abdulaziz, one of Khashoggi's confidantes, months before. Abdulaziz stated that the software revealed Khashoggi's \"private criticisms of the Saudi royal family,\" which according to Abdulaziz \"played a major role\" in Khashoggi's death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "According to an investigation by \"The Guardian\" and \"El Pa\u00eds\", Pegasus software was used by the government of Spain to compromise the phones of several politicians active in the Catalan independence movement, including President of the Parliament of Catalonia Roger Torrent, and former member of the Parliament of Catalonia Anna Gabriel i Sabat\u00e9."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Several lawsuits outstanding in 2018 claimed that NSO Group helped clients operate the software and therefore participated in numerous violations of human rights initiated by its clients. Two months after the murder and dismemberment of \"The Washington Post\" journalist Jamal Khashoggi, a Saudi human rights activist, in the Saudi Arabian Consulate in Istanbul, Turkey, Saudi dissident Omar Abdulaziz, a Canadian resident, filed suit in Israel against NSO Group, accusing the firm of providing the Saudi government with the surveillance software to spy on him and his friends, including Khashoggi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A joint investigation by \"The Guardian\" and \"Le Monde\" alleged that Pegasus software was used to spy on six critics of the government in Togo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2018, a \"New York Times\" investigation concluded that Pegasus software played a role in the Khashoggi's murder, with a friend of Khashoggi stating in a filing that Saudi authorities had used the Israeli-made software to spy on the dissident. NSO CEO Shalev Hulio stated that the company had not been involved in the \"terrible murder\", but declined to comment on reports that he had personally traveled to the Saudi capital Riyadh for a $55 million Pegasus sale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The spyware has been used for surveillance of anti-regime activists, journalists, and political leaders from several nations around the world. In July 2021, the investigation initiative Pegasus Project, along with an in-depth analysis by human rights group Amnesty International, reported that Pegasus was still being widely used against high-profile targets."
      },
      {
        "title": "NSO Group",
        "text": "In January 2022, \"Calcalist\" published an investigatory piece detailing the widespread unlawful use of Pegasus by the Israeli Police. Although the Israeli Police formally denied this, some senior police officials have hinted that the claims were true. On February 1, the police admitted that there was, in fact, misuse of the software."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In February 2022, an investigation by Citizen Lab and Amnesty International revealed that the Pegasus spyware was used to infect the devices of a lawyer, an online journalist, and a mental health counsellor in Bahrain. All of the three activists were critical of the Bahraini authorities and were targeted with Pegasus between June and September 2021. One of the three activists remained anonymous, while the other two were Mohammed al-Tajer and Sharifa Swar (mental health counselor)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2021, allegations arose that the software may also have been used to spy on members of Kashoggi's family."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Regarding how widespread the issue was, Lookout explained in a blog post: \"We believe that this spyware has been in the wild for a significant amount of time based on some of the indicators within the code\" and pointed out that the code shows signs of a \"kernel mapping table that has values all the way back to iOS 7\" (released 2013). \"The New York Times\" and \"The Times of Israel\" both reported that it appeared that the United Arab Emirates was using this spyware as early as 2013. It was used in Panama by former president Ricardo Martinelli from 2012 to 2014, who established the \"Consejo de Seguridad P\u00fablica y Defensa\" Nacional (National Security Council) for its use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Although Pegasus is stated as intended to be used against criminals and terrorists, it has also been used by both authoritarian and democratic governments to spy on critics and opponents. A UN special rapporteur on freedom of opinion found that the use of the spyware by abusive governments could \"facilitate extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and killings, or enforced disappearance of persons.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In July 2017, the international team assembled to investigate the 2014 Iguala mass kidnapping publicly complained they thought they were being surveilled by the Mexican government. They stated that the Mexican government used Pegasus to send them messages about funeral homes containing links which, when clicked, allowed the government to surreptitiously listen to the investigators. The Mexican government has repeatedly denied any unauthorized hacking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Mexico was the first country to purchase Pegasus. Early versions of Pegasus were used to surveil the phone of Joaqu\u00edn Guzm\u00e1n, known as El Chapo. In 2011, Mexican President Felipe Calder\u00f3n reportedly called NSO to thank the company for its role in Guzm\u00e1n's capture. When a list of 50,000 phone numbers of potential Pegasus surveillance targets (selected by individual client governments) was leaked in 2021, a third of them were Mexican."
      },
      {
        "title": "Technological and industrial history of 20th-century Canada",
        "text": "The Communications Security Establishment (CSE), Canada's \"electronic spy\" agency has been a notable user of supercomputers. CSE code breaking capabilities degraded substantially in the 1960s and 1970s but were upgraded with the acquisition of a Cray X-MP/11 (modified) supercomputer delivered to the Sir Leonard Tilley Building in Ottawa, in March 1985. It was, at the time, the most powerful computer in Canada. In the early 1990s, the Establishment purchased a Floating Point Systems FPS 522-EA supercomputer at a cost of $1,620,371. This machine was upgraded to a Cray S-MP superserver after Cray acquired Floating Point Systems in December 1991 and used the Folklore Operating System supplied by the NSA in the US. These machines are now retired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In late 2019, Facebook initiated a suit against NSO, claiming that Pegasus had been used to intercept the WhatsApp communications of a number of activists, journalists, and bureaucrats in India, leading to accusations that the Indian government was involved. 17 individuals including human rights activists, scholars, and journalists confirmed to an Indian publication they had been targeted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Israeli police use"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Software",
        "text": "Today there are around 25,000 Pegasus software application licenses in use, its predominant market is the UK and Ireland and the company employs around 80 people. The products are sold through a network of 80 Partners. Pegasus operated as a subsidiary of a larger British software group, Systems Union Group plc. until August 2006, but now operates as a subsidiary business unit of Infor Global Solutions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In June 2020, an investigation by Amnesty International alleged that Moroccan journalist Omar Radi was targeted by the Moroccan government using the Israeli spyware Pegasus. The rights group claimed that the journalist was targeted three times and spied on after his device was infected with an NSO tool. Meanwhile, Amnesty also claimed that the attack came after the NSO group updated their policy in September 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "It has been reported that Muhoozi Kainerugaba brokered a deal to use Pegasus in Uganda, paying between $10 and $20 million in 2019. The software was later used to hack the phones of 11 US diplomats and employees of the US embassy in Uganda some time during 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "NSO Group did not deny the presence of its spyware, responding to the report by stating they rigorously vetted its customers' human rights records before allowing them to use its spy tools. It says military-grade Pegasus is only supposed to be used to prevent serious crime and terrorism. NSO stated its purchasing client governments are bidden by a signed contract and licence, agreeing to terms of uses, and contractually limited to legitimate criminal or terrorist targets. Once sold, NSO Group says it does not know nor can see how its client governments use its spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "NSO Group",
        "text": "\"Pegasus\" spyware is classified as a military export by Israel and its sale is controlled by the government. According to The New York Times, \"Israel\u2019s government has long seen Pegasus as a critical tool for its foreign policy.\" Israel has used the sale of NSO products as a diplomatic bargaining chip to advance its foreign policy interests as well as limiting its sale to or its use against certain states to maintain good relations with certain states."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In January 2022, it was reported that Pegasus was unlawfully used by the Israeli Police to monitor citizens as well as foreign nationals who were accidentally or intentionally infected by the software. The surveillance was ordered by high-ranking police officers, and was carried out without warrants or judicial supervision. The legal basis for use of spyware against citizens is disputed. The police had allegedly targeted civilians not suspected of any crime, including organisers of antigovernmental protesters, mayors, anti-LBGT parade activists, employees of government-owned companies, an associated of a senior politician, and former government employees. In one case, it was alleged that police targeted an activist who was not suspected of a crime, allegedly to gather information about the activist's extra-marital affairs and use it as leverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus is in use by German Federal Criminal Police Office (BKA). BKA acquired Pegasus in 2019 with \"utmost secrecy\", and despite hesitations from its legal council. The use of Pegasus by BKA was later revealed by German media."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "As of August 2016 - according to a former NSO Employee - the U.S. version of Pegasus had 1-click capabilities for all phones except old Blackberry models which could be infiltrated with a 0-click attack."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "The Pegasus spyware was developed by the Israeli cyberarms company NSO Group. It can be covertly installed on mobile phones (and other devices) running most versions of iOS and Android. The spyware is named after the mythical winged horse Pegasus\u2014it is a Trojan horse that can be sent \"flying through the air\" to infect phones. Usages of the Pegasus spyware have been monitored for years. Amnesty has argued that the digital invasion is correlated with real-life consequences for spied targets, via psychological or physical damages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On 7 October 2021, the NSO Group stated that it had terminated its contract with the UAE to use its Pegasus spyware tool after the ruling by UK\u2019s High Court that Dubai\u2019s ruler misused the firm\u2019s Pegasus software to spy on his ex-wife and her legal advisers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "In 2018, Citizen Lab suspected that an operator codenamed \"ORZELBIALY\" (Polish for \"white eagle,\" a reference for the coat of arms of Poland) was spreading Pegasus through mobile network operators. In 2020, \"Rzeczpospolita\" reported that the bulk of evidence in a corruption case against former Civic Platform politician S\u0142awomir Nowak was obtained using Pegasus. The CBA denied ever buying the license, still the government assured it had court permission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "On November 4, 2021, Lajos K\u00f3sa, Member of Parliament and Vice President of Fidesz, member of the Parliamentary Defence and Law Enforcement Committee, admitted that the Ministry of Interior had purchased and used the Pegasus software."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus was also used to spy on Jeff Bezos after Mohammed bin Salman, the crown-prince of Saudi Arabia, exchanged messages with him that exploited then-unknown vulnerabilities in WhatsApp."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2021, Citizen Lab announced that Pegasus was used against lawyer Roman Giertych and prosecutor Ewa Wrzosek, both critical of the ruling Law and Justice (PiS) government, with Giertych's phone suffering 18 intrusions. 33 hacks to the phone of Krzysztof Brejza, a senator from the opposition Civic Platform (PO) were uncovered, and confirmed by Amnesty International. Leading to the 2019 European and Polish parliamentary elections, Brejza's text messages were stolen as he was leading the opposition parties' campaign. The texts were doctored by state-run media, notably TVP, and used in a smear campaign against the opposition. This prompted the Polish Senate to begin an inquiry into the deployment of the spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus (spyware)\n--Background.\n----Discovery.\n----Chronology.\n--Technical details.\n----Development of capabilities.\n----Vulnerabilities.\n----Pegasus Anonymizing Transmission Network.\n--Use by country.\n----Armenia.\n----Azerbaijan.\n----Bahrain.\n----Estonia.\n----Finland.\n----Germany.\n----Hungary.\n----India.\n----Israel.\n----Jordan.\n----Kazakhstan.\n----Mexico.\n----Morocco.\n----Panama.\n----Palestine.\n----Poland.\n----Rwanda.\n----Saudi Arabia.\n----Spain.\n----Togo.\n----Uganda.\n----Ukraine.\n----United Arab Emirates.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n----Yemen.\n----International organizations.\n------European Union.\n--Pegasus Project.\n--Reactions.\n----NSO Group response.\n----Bug-bounty program skepticism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On January 25, 2022, more victims were confirmed by Citizen Lab, including Micha\u0142 Ko\u0142odziejczak of the agrarian movement Agrounia, and Tomasz Szwejgiert, a journalist and alleged former associate of the CBA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Human rights group Amnesty International reported in the 2021 investigation that Pegasus employs a sophisticated command-and-control (C&C) infrastructure to deliver exploit payloads and send commands to Pegasus targets. There are at least four known iterations of the C&C infrastructure, dubbed the \"Pegasus Anonymizing Transmission Network\" (PATN) by NSO group, each encompassing up to 500 domain names, DNS servers, and other network infrastructure. The PATN reportedly utilizes techniques such as registering high port numbers for their online infrastructure as to avoid conventional internet scanning. PATN also uses up to three randomised subdomains unique per exploit attempt as well as randomised URL paths."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus has been used by drug cartels and cartel-entwined government actors to target and intimidate Mexican journalists."
      },
      {
        "title": "NSO Group",
        "text": "NSO Groups offers the smartphone spyware tool Pegasus to government clients for the exclusive intended purpose of combating crime and terrorism. The first version of Pegasus was finalised in 2011. Pegasus spyware is classified as a weapon by Israel and any export of the technology must be approved by the government. The Israeli Ministry of Defense licenses the export of Pegasus to foreign governments, but not to private entities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Use by Mexican drug cartels"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus spyware was found in 2021 on the iPhones of at least nine U.S. State Department employees. The US government blacklisted the NSO Group to stop what it called \"transnational repression\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "The government has not denied the usage of Pegasus spyware in their response so far. The government has also denied the request for investigation or an independent Supreme Court inquiry by the opposition into the matter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project revelations in India",
        "text": "The government has not denied the usage of Pegasus spyware in their response so far. The government has also denied the request for a probe or investigation or an independent Supreme Court inquiry by the opposition into the matter. The former IT minister of India Ravi Shankar Prasad asked, \"If more than 45 nations are using Pegasus as NSO has said, why is only India being targeted?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "About twenty Armenian citizens were spied on via Pegasus spyware. Media expert Arthur Papyan said it targeted the key figures of the opposition and the government - current and past government employees who knew valuable state secrets and have political influence, including the former director of the National Security Service and current chairman of the center-right Homeland Party. The local experts suspected that they were targeted either by the government of Armenia or Azerbaijan, or perhaps both. Papyan said that NSO group appears to be jailbreaking a phone and provides interface for viewing the obtained data. Minister of high-tech industry Vahagn Khachaturyan also received a warning letter from Apple, he rejected the theory that the spying party could be the current Armenian government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Telidon",
        "text": "The Canadian government also invested in Telidon as a way of distributing graphical information. Transport Canada ran a system called \"TABS\" that installed terminals in many airports, where pilots could quickly look up weather information and NOTAMs. Statistics Canada also used Telidon as a way to distribute graphs and other information in their CANSIM system using their TELICHART software that converted tables of data into NAPLPS commands. Environment Canada used Telidon terminals to produce video feeds that could then be broadcast on local cable feeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2020, it was reported that Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates deployed a zero-click iMessage Pegasus exploit against two London-based reporters and 36 journalists at the \"Al Jazeera\" television network in Qatar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2020, it was reported that Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates deployed a zero-click iMessage Pegasus exploit against two London-based reporters and 36 journalists at the \"Al Jazeera\" television network in Qatar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human rights in the United Arab Emirates",
        "text": "According to Amnesty International, Israeli company NSO Group's Pegasus spyware was used to target human rights activist Ahmed Mansoor. citizen Lab's August 2016 report, \"The Million Dollar Dissident\", documents the attempts made to infect Mansoor's phone with Pegasus spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project revelations in India",
        "text": "The Pegasus Project was a collaborative investigative journalism initiative undertaken by 17 media organisations. Pegasus is a spyware developed by the NSO Group, an Israeli technology and cyber-arms firm that can be secretly deployed on mobile phones and other devices, which run most versions of Android and iOS. Pegasus is capable of reading text messages, tracking calls, collecting passwords, location tracking, accessing the target device's microphone and camera, and harvesting information from apps. Since Pegasus is classified as cyber-arms by the Israeli government, only national governments can purchase the spyware after the authorisation of the Israeli government. The Pegasus Project initiative investigated the use of the Pegasus spyware by governments on journalists, opposition politicians, activists and business people. A target list consisting of 50,000 phone numbers, which could have been possibly targeted by the spyware, leaked to Forbidden Stories which spawned this investigation. 300 of these numbers were from India. The presence of a phone number on the list does not confirm the use of Pegasus and only forensic examination of a phone can confirm if the spyware was present. Supreme court appointed a technical committee and asked to submit the phones for investigation of those individuals who suspect snooping by the government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus is spyware developed by the Israeli cyber-arms company NSO Group that can be covertly installed on mobile phones (and other devices) running most versions of iOS and Android. Pegasus is able to exploit iOS versions up to 14.6, through a zero-click exploit. As of 2022, Pegasus was capable of reading text messages, tracking calls, collecting passwords, location tracking, accessing the target device's microphone and camera, and harvesting information from apps. The spyware is named after Pegasus, the winged horse of Greek mythology. It is a Trojan horse computer virus that can be sent \"flying through the air\" to infect cell phones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pe\u00f1abot",
        "text": "On June 19, 2017, \"The New York Times\" in conjunction with news reporter Carmen Aristegui, and even backed by a Televisa news reporter Carlos Loret de Mola, reported that the Mexican Government uses a spyware software known as Pegasus, to spy on targets such as Mexican News reporters (and their families) and Civil Rights Leaders (and their families) using text messages as lures. Since 2011, the Mexican Government invested $80 million worth of spyware. Pegasus spyware infiltrates a persons cellphone and reports every detail of their messages, e-mails, contacts and calendars. After the revelation, the Israeli manufacturer of the Pegasus spyware, NSO Group, re-stated it only sold such technology to governments with an 'explicit agreement', that such technology was meant 'only to combat organized crime' by spying on it; although once it sells the software it cannot control who they use it against and basically leaves the government's on their own to monitor themselves on not abusing the software. The New York Times and independent forensic analysts analyzed the data of 'dozens of messages', multiple times before proving their accusation, and commented of such espionage towards news journalists and civil rights leaders, as 'an effort from the Mexican Government to thwart the battle against corruption infecting every limb of Mexican Society', and how highly unlikely it would be for such espionage it to receive 'Judicial Approval'. Edward Snowden who worked for US government's NSA before revealing it to spy on its citizens, also said all evidence points to the Mexican government being the spy, and on Twitter said it is \"a crime to the public\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2017, Citizen Lab researchers revealed that NSO exploit links may have been sent to Mexican scientists and public health campaigners. The targets supported measures to reduce childhood obesity, including Mexico's \"Soda Tax.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Security policy of the Enrique Pe\u00f1a Nieto administration",
        "text": "On June 19, 2017, \"The New York Times\" in conjunction with news reporter Carmen Aristegui, and even backed by a Televisa news reporter Carlos Loret de Mola, reported that the Mexican Government uses a spyware software known as Pegasus, to spy on targets such as Mexican News reporters (and their families) and Civil Rights Leaders (and their families) using text messages as lures. Since 2011, the Mexican Government invested $80 million worth of spyware. Pegasus spyware infiltrates a persons cellphone and reports every detail of their messages, e-mails, contacts and calendars. After the revelation, the Israeli manufacturer of the Pegasus spyware, NSO Group, re-stated it only sold such technology to governments with an 'explicit agreement', that such technology was meant 'only to combat organized crime' by spying on it; although once it sells the software it cannot control who they use it against and basically leaves the government's on their own to monitor themselves on not abusing the software. The New York Times and independent forensic analysts analyzed the data of 'dozens of messages', multiple times before proving their accusation, and commented of such espionage towards news journalists and civil rights leaders, as 'an effort from the Mexican Government to thwart the battle against corruption infecting every limb of Mexican Society', and how highly unlikely it would be for such espionage it to receive 'Judicial Approval'. Edward Snowden who worked for US government's NSA before revealing it to spy on its citizens, also said all evidence points to the Mexican government being the spy, and on Twitter said it is \"a crime to the public\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A joint investigation by \"The Guardian\" and \"Le Monde\" alleged political activists in Rwanda were targeted with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "Journalists around the world have expressed outrage at the use of anti-criminality tools against non-criminals, journalists, opposition representatives, and other civilians. Edward Snowden has called for governments to impose a global moratorium on the international spyware trade in order to avoid ubiquitous violation of privacy and associated abuses."
      },
      {
        "title": "PLA Unit 61486",
        "text": "They primarily have done their work through a technique known as spear-phishing, also known as Remote Access Tools (RAT), targeting members of industries noted above, specifically members that had played golf as major targets in their operations. They would use emails that had PDF and word documents that detailed information related to conferences, from there the Remote Access Tool would be installed allowing for the victims computer to be accessed. An example of this operation can be seen when an email brochure that appeared to be for a yoga studio in Toulouse would steal the personal information of the person who opened the email. From Crowdstrike's report, they claim that the Unit 61486 used the Adobe Reader and Microsoft office as the vessels for the malware. According to Crowdstrike, the attack on the Canadian National Research Council in 2014 could also be attributed to Unit 61486. Crowdstrike's Chief Technology Officer Dmitri Alperovitch would say that the attack was similar to ones that had been conducted by Unit 61486 in the past, claiming \"It certainly looks like one of the actors we track out of China that we\u2019ve seen going after aircraft manufacturers in the past,\". However, Canada has only stated the attack was done by state actors working for China, saying \"a highly sophisticated Chinese state-sponsored actor\" had been responsible for the attack. Their statement did not directly attribute it to Unit 61486."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "In July 2017, Prime Minister Beata Szyd\u0142o agreed with Benjamin Netanyahu to buy Pegasus licenses. Micha\u0142 Wo\u015b, deputy minister of justice, requested a parliamentary committee to divert funds from a ministry-run fund to \"combat crime.\" Once approved, the Central Anticorruption Bureau (CBA) purchased the licenses for PLN 33.4 million. The transaction with NSO Group was camouflaged with unrelated invoices. The contract for 40 licenses to be used over three years was mediated by Matic, a company established by former Militia and Security Service associates. The spyware was first deployed in November 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project revelations in India",
        "text": "In India, the Pegasus Project investigations alleged that the Pegasus spyware was used on ministers, opposition leaders, political strategist and tacticians, journalists, activists, minority leaders, supreme court judges, religious leaders, administrators like Election Commissioners and heads of Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI). Some of these phones were later analysed and were confirmed to have been targeted by the Pegasus spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "The investigation suggested that Pegasus continued to be widely used by authoritarian governments to spy on human rights activists, journalists and lawyers worldwide, although NSO claims that it is only intended for use against criminals and terrorists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "A French journalist noted that \"in a matter of cyber-surveillance, we observe that abuse is \"de facto\" the rule\". Forbidden Stories argues the Pegasus software and its usages \"de facto\" constitute a global weapon to silence journalists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pe\u00f1abot",
        "text": "As of February 2018, Reuters published an article stating the Mexican government has not properly investigated the Pegasus spyware usage to spy news journalists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II Canadian procurement",
        "text": "Despite the apparent copying of the F-35 in the Chinese Shenyang J-31, NDP MP Matthew Kellway said that since Canada would never oppose China, there was no need for Canada to have advanced fighters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Democratic backsliding",
        "text": "In July 2021, leaked data acquired by the Pegasus Project suggested the Hungarian government may have used NSO Group's Pegasus spyware to target opposition journalists. Hungarian officials acknowledged that they had purchased the spyware, but noted that they had received permission from either the courts or the Ministry of Justice in every case it was used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In July 2021, a joint investigation conducted by seventeen media organisations, revealed that Pegasus spyware was used to target and spy on heads of state, activists, journalists, and dissidents, enabling \"human rights violations around the world on a massive scale\". The investigation was launched after a leak of 50,000 phone numbers of potential surveillance targets. Amnesty International carried out forensic analysis of mobile phones of potential targets. The investigation identified 11 countries as NSO clients: Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Hungary, India, Kazakhstan, Mexico, Morocco, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia, Togo, and the United Arab Emirates. The investigation also revealed that journalists from multiple media organizations including \"Al Jazeera\", CNN, the \"Financial Times\", the Associated Press, \"The New York Times\", \"The Wall Street Journal\", \"Bloomberg News\" and \"Le Monde\" were targeted, and identified at least 180 journalists from 20 countries who were selected for targeting with NSO spyware between 2016 and June 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mass surveillance",
        "text": "Media reports published in July 2021 exposed the use of NSO Group's phone malware software, Pegasus, for spying on rights activists, lawyers, and journalists, globally, by authoritarian governments. Bahrain was among the many countries listed as the Israeli firm's clients accused of hacking and conducting unauthorized mass surveillance using phone malware despite a poor human rights record. The software is said to infect devices, allowing its operators to get access to the target's messages, photos, record calls, and activate the microphone and camera."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus licenses were agreed on between Benjamin Netanyahu and Beata Szyd\u0142o in July 2017. Citizen Lab revealed that several members of political opposition groups in Poland were hacked by Pegasus spyware, raising alarming questions about the Polish government's use of the software. A lawyer representing Polish opposition groups and a prosecutor involved in a case against the ruling Law and Justice party were also compromised."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The United Arab Emirates used Pegasus to spy on the members of Saudi-backed Yemeni government according to an investigation published in July 2021. The UAE used the spyware to monitor and spy on the ministers of the internationally recognized government of President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi, including Yemeni president and his family members, former Prime Minister Ahmed Obaid Bin Dagher, former Foreign Minister Abdulmalik Al-Mekhlafi, and current Minister of Youth and Sports, Nayef al-Bakri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Software",
        "text": "Pegasus Software is based in Kettering, England and develops accounting and financial management, supply chain, business intelligence, payroll, crm, construction and service management software applications for small and medium-sized businesses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Cecilio Pineda Birto, a Mexican freelance journalist was assassinated by hitmen while resting in a hammock by a carwash. Brito had been reporting on the ties between local politicians and criminal organizations, and had received anonymous death threats during the weeks preceding the assassination; at about the same time, his phone number was selected as a possible target for Pegasus surveillance by a Mexican Pegasus client. Pegasus spyware may have been used to ascertain Brito's location to carry out the hit by geolocating his phone; the deployment of Pegasus on his phone could however not be confirmed as his phone disappeared from the scene of the murder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Software copyright",
        "text": "In Canada, software is protected as a literary work under the Copyright Act of Canada. Copyright is acquired automatically when an original work is generated; the creator is not required to register or mark the work with the copyright symbol in order to be protected. The rights holder is granted: the exclusive right of reproduction, the right to rent the software, the right to restrain others from renting the software and the right to assign or license the copyright to others. Exceptions to these rights are set out by the terms of Fair Dealing; these exempt users from copyright liability covering usage and reproduction when performed for research, private study, education, parody or satire. Changes to the Copyright Act in regard to digital copyright were debated in the Canadian Parliament in 2008. Bill C-61 proposed alterations of the breadth and depth of exemptions for uses such as personal back-ups, reverse engineering and security testing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Responding to August 2016 reports of a targeting of an Arab activist, NSO Group stated that they provide \"authorized governments with technology that helps them combat terror and crime\", although the Group told him that they had no knowledge of any incidents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Communications Security Establishment",
        "text": "CSE code breaking capabilities degraded substantially in the 1960s and 1970s but were upgraded with the acquisition of a Cray X-MP/11 (modified) supercomputer delivered to the Sir Leonard Tilley building in March 1985 and the hiring of code breaking analysts. It was, at the time, the most powerful computer in Canada. In the early 1990s, the Establishment purchased a Floating Point Systems FPS 522-EA supercomputer at a cost of $1,620,371. This machine was upgraded to a Cray S-MP superserver after Cray acquired Floating Point Systems in December 1991 and used the Folklore Operating System supplied by the NSA in the US. These machines are now retired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamal Khashoggi",
        "text": "Saudi Arabia used a reputed troll farm in Riyadh, employing hundreds of people, to harass Khashoggi and other critics of the Saudi regime. Former U.S. intelligence contractor Edward Snowden accused the Saudi Government of using spyware known as \"Pegasus\" to monitor Khashoggi's cell phone.<ref name=\"Shezaf_11/7/2018\"></ref>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The list of spied-upon citizens included dozens of journalists and activists from Azerbaijan. It was alleged that their mobile phones were tapped. The head of Azerbaijani service of Radio Liberty/Radio Free Europe (Azadliq) Jamie Fly expressed his anger when it was revealed that the phones of his five current and former employees were tapped with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In January 2022 it was reported that the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) had secretly bought the Pegasus spyware in 2019 and was also given a demonstration of Phantom, a newer tool that could hack American phone numbers. They considered using both tools for domestic surveillance in the U.S. Which reportedly led to discussions between the FBI and United States Department of Justice which ultimately lead to the FBI deciding against using it and all NSO spyware in 2021. However, despite ruling against using it, Pegasus equipment is still in the FBI's possession at a New Jersey facility."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natural scientific research in Canada",
        "text": "Cutbacks in funding hit Canada's premier astronomical research organization the Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics hard. Money could not be found to resurface the Algonquin Park Radio Telescope and it along with the solar telescope near Ottawa were closed in 1986. However that same year, the HIA did establish the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre (CADC) which created special software for the archiving of astronomical date. In 1987, the HAI took a 25 percent stake in the 15-m James Clerk Maxwell Telescope (submillimetre radio) and in the nineties a 15 percent stake in the optical 8 metre Gemini Telescope, which became operational in 1999. Headquarters for the HIA moved from Ottawa to Victoria in 1995. In the 21st century, the Institute designed instruments for its international telescope programme, including the Gemini multi-object spectrograph, the JCMT auto-correlation spectrometer and imaging system and the CFHT adaptive optics bonnette. Of note is the initiation of the CFHT Legacy Survey in 2003. Using the telescope's wide field Megacam the survey consists of three studies, \"Very Wide\", \"Wide\", and \"Deep\", and investigates a number of phenomena including the nature of dark matter and dark energy. The University of Calgary is participating in the development of the software to be used for data acquisition and image production at the Atacama Large Millimeter Array Telescope under construction in the Atacama Desert in Chile. First light is expected in 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natural scientific research in Canada",
        "text": "Canadian instruments have also flown aboard a number of international satellites. Akebono, a Japanese satellite launched in 1989 to study the Earth's magnetosphere, was equipped with the Canadian suprathermal ion mass spectrometer. In 1996, the Canadian auroral ultra-violet imager, flew aboard the Russian satellite Interball-2. FUSE, an international ultraviolet space observatory launched in 1999, has aboard the Canadian-designed and built Fine Error Sensor camera system for tracking the telescope. Canada provided the $37 million \"weather station\" aboard the Phoenix Mars unmanned mission scheduled to land on that planet in 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian Bacon",
        "text": "Hacker, seeking revenge on the president for shutting down his business, uses a software program (\"Hacker Hellstorm\") to activate missile silos across the country. The president learns that the signal causing the activation of the silos originated from Canada, and summons Hacker. Hacker offers to sell a program to the president that can cancel out the Hellstorm\u2014for $1 trillion. With seven minutes til launch, and the president trying to figure out what\u2019s going on, Stuart, fed up with the president being too busy to give Hacker the money, realizes that Hacker, getting up to leave, is the one controlling the silos, not Canada, and, after storming up, takes the operating codes from him required to stop the Hellstorm (accidentally killing Hacker in the process). The president orders Stuart's arrest, despite the latter\u2018s protests that he is now able to give the codes to the president so they could deactivate the missiles, which are aimed at Moscow. As the launch time approaches, and the American government loses contact with the Omega Force, the president pleads with Canadian Prime Minister Clark MacDonald (Wallace Shawn) over the phone to stop the launch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aamber Pegasus",
        "text": "The hardware was designed by Stewart J Holmes. The software was designed by Paul Gillingwater, Nigel Keam and Paul Carter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "President of Panama Ricardo Martinelli personally sought to obtain cyberespionage tools after his election in 2009. After a rebuff by the U.S. in 2009, Martinelli successfully sought such tools from Israeli vendors, expressing an interest in acquiring a tool capable of hacking into mobile phones in a 2010 private meeting with Israeli PM Netanyahu. In 2012, NSO systems were installed in Panama City. The equipment was subsequently widely used for illicti domestic and foreign spying, including for spying on political opponents, magistrates, union leaders, and business competitors, with Martinelli allegedly going so far as to order the surveillance of his mistress using Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "NSO Group",
        "text": "Israel, wary of angering the U.S. in the wake of the Snowden revelations, required NSO to prevent Pegasus from targeting American phone numbers. Israel has used Pegasus to advance its interests in the region, with Pegasus playing a role in negotiating the Abraham Accords. A \"New York Times\" investigation highlighted several instances in which the sale of Pegasus to a particular government coincided with that government's increased support of Israel. The Israeli government also blocked the sale of Pegasus to Estonia and Ukraine for fear that Israel's relations with Russia would be damaged if the spyware was used against Russia. After a senior Russian official approached the Israeli security agencies and informed them that Russia had learned of Estonia's attempts to obtain Pegasus, the Israeli Ministry of Defense decided to disallow Estonia from using Pegasus against any Russian phone numbers following a heated debate on the issue among Israeli officials."
      },
      {
        "title": "General Dynamics Mission Systems - Canada",
        "text": "Computing Devices Canada was incorporated on August 31, 1948 as a global defence contractor. The company was founded by two Polish immigrants to Canada, George Glinski and Joe Norton, to support the rebuilding of Canada's military after the Second World War. The company got its start by manufacturing the Position and Homing Indicator (PHI), a device developed at the National Research Council that kept track of an aircraft's position and indicated its return route to base. One large contract that had a significant influence on the company's growth was for the \"Kicksorter\", a digital-pulse counter designed for the Atomic Energy of Canada Laboratories (AECL) in Chalk River. If the Kicksorter had been slightly modified to do simple arithmetic operations, it would have been a rudimentary computer. AECL purchased a large number of these devices between 1957 and 1963, when they were replaced by one of the early computers in the PDP series manufactured by the Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). Another contract was to design and construct a large digital simulator for the Royal Canadian Navy that was never completed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In November 2021, Lajos K\u00f3sa, head of a parliamentary defense and law enforcement committee, was the first Hungarian senior official who acknowledged that the country's Interior Ministry purchased and used Pegasus. K\u00f3sa admitted that Hungary had indeed purchased and used Pegasus, stating \"I don't see anything objectionable in it [...] large tech companies carry out much broader monitoring of citizens than the Hungarian state does.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "De Havilland Canada DHC-5 Buffalo",
        "text": "The hot flow was directed through Pegasus-engine swivelling nozzles to ensure it deflected with the flap downwash. The cold flow was directed into the flap venturi and entrained extra airflow. Beginning in 1972 with its first flight in this experimental configuration, this aircraft was used jointly by the NASA Ames Research Center and the Canadian Department of Industry, Trade and Commerce for STOL research."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On 26 January 2022, the reports revealed that mobile phones of Lama Fakih, a US-Lebanese citizen and director of crisis and conflict at Human Rights Watch, were repeatedly hacked by a client of NSO Group at a time when she was investigating the catastrophic August 2020 explosion that killed more than 200 people in Beirut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2020, an Al Jazeera investigative show \"The Hidden is More Immense\" covered Pegasus and its penetration into the phones of media professionals and activists; and its use by Israel to eavesdrop on both opponents and allies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The forensic analysis of UN independent investigator Kamel Jendoubi\u2019s mobile phone revealed on 20 December 2021 that he was targeted using spyware while probing war crimes of Yemen. Jendoubi was targeted while he was examining possible war crimes in Yemen. Jendoubi's mobile number was also found in the leaked database of the Pegasus Project. According to the data, Jendoubi was one of the potential targets of one of NSO Group's long-time clients, Saudi Arabia. However, NSO spokesperson denied Kamel Jendoubi as any of its client's targets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus' iOS exploitation was identified in August 2016. Arab human rights defender Ahmed Mansoor received a text message promising \"secrets\" about torture happening in prisons in the United Arab Emirates by following a link. Mansoor sent the link to Citizen Lab of the University of Toronto, which investigated, with the collaboration of Lookout, finding that if Mansoor had followed the link it would have jailbroken his phone and implanted the spyware into it, in a form of social engineering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In August 2016, NSO Group (through its U.S. subsidiary Westbridge) pitched its U.S. version of Pegasus to the San Diego Police Department (SDPD). In the marketing material, Westbridge emphasized that the company is U.S. based and majority owned by a U.S. parent company. An SDPD Sergeant responded to the sales pitch with \"sounds awesome\". The SDPD declined to purchase the spyware as it was too expensive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natural scientific research in Canada",
        "text": "At the beginning of the 21st century, due to financial restraints, token funding efforts were made to give Canada a place with the construction and operation of the Gemini astronomical telescopes and the Large Hadron Collider in Geneva. Canada's participation in the international fusion reactor project was cancelled. Funding restraints also disrupted the supply of medical isotopes produced at Chalk River in 2007, and Canadian astronaut and former head of the Canadian Space Agency Marc Garneau called for the creation of a national space policy to revive Canada's flagging space programme."
      },
      {
        "title": "Enrique Pe\u00f1a Nieto",
        "text": "On 19 June 2017, \"The New York Times\", in conjunction with Aristegui and \"Televisa\" news reporter Carlos Loret de Mola, reported that the Mexican government uses spyware known as Pegasus to spy on targets such as Mexican reporters and civil rights leaders using text messages as lures. Since 2011, the Mexican government invested $80 million worth of spyware. Pegasus infiltrates a person's cell phone and reports every detail of their messages, e-mails, contacts and calendars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alastair G. W. Cameron",
        "text": "Cameron returned to Canada in 1954, taking a position at the Chalk River Laboratory operated by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited. There he hoped to apply advances from the rapidly developing field of nuclear physics to the field of astrophysics. In particular, he wished to calculate the nuclear cross sections involved in helium fusion reactions inside the cores of red giant stars, which could produce the neutrons necessary to produce the technetium observed by Merrill. He quickly realized that traditional computational methods and slide rules were insufficient to calculate complex networks of nuclear reactions. He used of some of the first computers in Canada, originally purchased for use by the accounting department at the laboratory, to do the calculations. At first, he was able to give programs on trays of punch cards to the accountants to run on his behalf. However, as his calculations increased in sophistication and the computing resources at Chalk River improved, he switched to work during the night and on weekends when the machines were not in use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pirate decryption",
        "text": "There is also a small \"reverse gray market\" for Canadian signals, transmitted with a footprint which sends full-strength DBS signals to many if not all of the contiguous 48 US states. This is desirable not only to receive Canadian-only content, but because some US-produced programs air in Canada in advance of their US broadcast. The question of signal substitution, by which Canadian cable and satellite providers substitute the signal of a local or domestic channel over a foreign or distant channel carrying the same program, is rendered more complex by the existence of a reverse grey market. Signal substitution had already been the cause of strong diplomatic protests by the United States, which considers the practice to constitute theft of advertising revenue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II Canadian procurement",
        "text": "Public Works Minister Rona Ambrose stated the government's acceptance of the Auditor General's report. Defence Minister Peter MacKay said the program had been \"reset\". Officials confirmed that sole sourced F-35 buy was off the table and that all fighters in, or close to, production would be considered for the CF-18 replacement. The Eurofighter Typhoon and the Super Hornet were specifically named, while the Dassault Rafale and Saab Gripen may also be considered. Other manufacturers indicated they will not provide data to Canada without a full competition. Officials also confirmed that CF-18 life extensions were under analysis. NDP MP Jack Harris responded: \"This is a charade ... They're not going to put it out to a fair and transparent public tendering process\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On February 1, the police admitted that there was, in fact, misuse of the software. On February 7, the widespread extent of the warrantless surveillance was further revealed to have included politicians and government officials, heads of corporations, journalists, activists, and even , the son of then-Prime Minister, Benjamin Netanyahu. This has led to renewed calls for a public inquiry, including from the current police commissioner Kobi Shabtai himself (appointed January 2021), as well as from the Minister of the Interior, Ayelet Shaked and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "2014 Iguala mass kidnapping"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In January 2022 Finnish foreign ministry reported that several phones of Finnish diplomats have been infected with the Pegasus spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dunlap Institute for Astronomy & Astrophysics",
        "text": "Telescope, instrumentation and software projects with leadership from Dunlap scientists include:\n*The Dragonfly Telephoto Array, which comprises many telephoto lens and is designed to detect dim astronomical objects. Dragonfly was co-designed by the U of T\u2019s Roberto Abraham and Yale\u2019s Pieter van Dokkum.\n*The Canadian Hydrogen Intensity Mapping Experiment (CHIME)\n*The South Pole Telescope, designed to study the Cosmic Microwave Background from its location at the South Pole\n*The Gemini InfraRed Multi-Object Spectrograph (GIRMOS), to be deployed on the Gemini South telescope in Chile in 2024\n*The Canadian Initiative for Radio Astronomy Data Analysis (CIRADA), which is producing advanced data products for the CHIME, ASKAP and VLA radio telescopes, and which is a pilot project for a Canadian Square Kilometre Array data centre."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II Canadian procurement",
        "text": "The New Democratic Party of Canada released their election platform on 9 October 2015: \"The attempt to sole-source the F-35 fighter jet while hiding the full costs was just one of several major procurement failures on the Conservatives' watch ... [we will] launch a comprehensive review, as part of the Defence White Paper, to determine how best to meet Canada's needs in the replacement of our aging fleet of CF-18 Fighters, and ensure that any new program is subject to a competitive process.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A \"New York Times\" correspondent covering the Middle East, Ben Hubbard revealed in October 2021 that Saudi Arabia used the NSO Group's Pegasus software to hack into his phone. Hubbard was targeted repeatedly over a three-year period between June 2018 to June 2021 while he was reporting on Saudi Arabia, and writing a book about the Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman. Hubbard was possibly targeted for writing the book about the Crown Prince, and for his involvement in revealing the UAE's hacking and surveillance attempt of Project Raven. Saudis attempted to peek into Hubbard's personal information twice in 2018, one through a suspicious text message and the other through an Arabic WhatsApp message inviting him to a protest at a Saudi embassy in Washington."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supermarine Stranraer",
        "text": "After the end of World War II, 13 examples were sold through Crown Assets (Canadian government) and passed into civilian use; several served with Queen Charlotte Airlines (QCA) in British Columbia, operating until 1958. A re-engine project by the airline substituted Wright GR-1820-G202GA engines in place of the original Pegasus units."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On 24 September 2021, \"The Guardian\" reported that the telephone of Alaa al-Siddiq, executive director of ALQST, who died in a car accident in London on 20 June 2021, was infected with the Pegasus spyware for 5 years until 2020. Citizen Lab confirmed that the Emirati activist was hacked by a government client of Israel's NSO Group. The case represented a worrying trend for activists and dissidents, who escaped the UAE to live in the relative safety, but were never out of the reach of Pegasus."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which countries currently employ the Pegasus software?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Pegasus software is used by more than 25 countries including the United States, Mexico and Israel."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me something about Pegasus Project!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Pegasus Project is an international investigative journalism initiative that revealed governments' espionage on journalists, opposition politicians, activists, business people and others using the private Pegasus spyware(developed by the Israeli cyberarms company NSO Group). Amazon's AWS terminated \"relevant infrastructure and accounts\" linked to NSO Group, following an investigation by Amnesty International that discovered Amazon CloudFront was being used to infect targets with the Pegasus malware."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the vulnerabilities of Pegasus software?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The reported vulnerabilities were information leak in kernel,  kernel memory corruption leads to jailbreak, memory corruption in the webkit, and Google's Project Zero documented another exploit, dubbed FORCEDENTRY, in December 2021."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did Pegasus software receive any comment from the society?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The spyware has been used for surveillance of anti-regime activists, journalists, and political leaders from several nations around the world. In July 2021, the investigation initiative Pegasus Project, along with an in-depth analysis by human rights group Amnesty International, reported that Pegasus was still being widely used against high-profile targets."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is the Pegasus software used in Canada?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I do not know how widespread it is, but there was an example of its use coming out of Canada. Saudi exile Omar Abdulaziz in Canada had his cell phone hacked by Pegasus."
    ],
    "topic": "Pegasus (spyware)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Pegasus (spyware):77",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pegasus (spyware)",
          "Use by country",
          "Saudi Arabia"
        ],
        "ctx": "Another Saudi exile Omar Abdulaziz in Canada was identified by McKinsey & Company as being an influential dissident, and hence had two brothers imprisoned by the Saudi authorities, and his cell phone hacked by Pegasus."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Another Saudi exile Omar Abdulaziz in Canada was identified by McKinsey & Company as being an influential dissident, and hence had two brothers imprisoned by the Saudi authorities, and his cell phone hacked by Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus was used by Saudi Arabia to spy on Jamal Kashoggi, who was later killed in Turkey. In October 2018, Citizen Lab reported on the use of NSO software to spy on the inner circle of Jamal Khashoggi just before his murder. Citizen Lab's October report stated with high confidence that NSO's Pegasus had been placed on the iPhone of Saudi dissident Omar Abdulaziz, one of Khashoggi's confidantes, months before. Abdulaziz stated that the software revealed Khashoggi's \"private criticisms of the Saudi royal family,\" which according to Abdulaziz \"played a major role\" in Khashoggi's death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2020, it was reported that Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates deployed a zero-click iMessage Pegasus exploit against two London-based reporters and 36 journalists at the \"Al Jazeera\" television network in Qatar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2020, it was reported that Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates deployed a zero-click iMessage Pegasus exploit against two London-based reporters and 36 journalists at the \"Al Jazeera\" television network in Qatar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In June 2020, an investigation by Amnesty International alleged that Moroccan journalist Omar Radi was targeted by the Moroccan government using the Israeli spyware Pegasus. The rights group claimed that the journalist was targeted three times and spied on after his device was infected with an NSO tool. Meanwhile, Amnesty also claimed that the attack came after the NSO group updated their policy in September 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On 24 September 2021, \"The Guardian\" reported that the telephone of Alaa al-Siddiq, executive director of ALQST, who died in a car accident in London on 20 June 2021, was infected with the Pegasus spyware for 5 years until 2020. Citizen Lab confirmed that the Emirati activist was hacked by a government client of Israel's NSO Group. The case represented a worrying trend for activists and dissidents, who escaped the UAE to live in the relative safety, but were never out of the reach of Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The list of spied-upon citizens included dozens of journalists and activists from Azerbaijan. It was alleged that their mobile phones were tapped. The head of Azerbaijani service of Radio Liberty/Radio Free Europe (Azadliq) Jamie Fly expressed his anger when it was revealed that the phones of his five current and former employees were tapped with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Several lawsuits outstanding in 2018 claimed that NSO Group helped clients operate the software and therefore participated in numerous violations of human rights initiated by its clients. Two months after the murder and dismemberment of \"The Washington Post\" journalist Jamal Khashoggi, a Saudi human rights activist, in the Saudi Arabian Consulate in Istanbul, Turkey, Saudi dissident Omar Abdulaziz, a Canadian resident, filed suit in Israel against NSO Group, accusing the firm of providing the Saudi government with the surveillance software to spy on him and his friends, including Khashoggi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "According to an investigation by \"The Guardian\" and \"El Pa\u00eds\", Pegasus software was used by the government of Spain to compromise the phones of several politicians active in the Catalan independence movement, including President of the Parliament of Catalonia Roger Torrent, and former member of the Parliament of Catalonia Anna Gabriel i Sabat\u00e9."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus was also used to spy on Jeff Bezos after Mohammed bin Salman, the crown-prince of Saudi Arabia, exchanged messages with him that exploited then-unknown vulnerabilities in WhatsApp."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2020, an Al Jazeera investigative show \"The Hidden is More Immense\" covered Pegasus and its penetration into the phones of media professionals and activists; and its use by Israel to eavesdrop on both opponents and allies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In February 2022, an investigation by Citizen Lab and Amnesty International revealed that the Pegasus spyware was used to infect the devices of a lawyer, an online journalist, and a mental health counsellor in Bahrain. All of the three activists were critical of the Bahraini authorities and were targeted with Pegasus between June and September 2021. One of the three activists remained anonymous, while the other two were Mohammed al-Tajer and Sharifa Swar (mental health counselor)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Mexico was the first country to purchase Pegasus. Early versions of Pegasus were used to surveil the phone of Joaqu\u00edn Guzm\u00e1n, known as El Chapo. In 2011, Mexican President Felipe Calder\u00f3n reportedly called NSO to thank the company for its role in Guzm\u00e1n's capture. When a list of 50,000 phone numbers of potential Pegasus surveillance targets (selected by individual client governments) was leaked in 2021, a third of them were Mexican."
      },
      {
        "title": "Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi",
        "text": "In summer 2018, Abdulaziz's cellphone was infected with a surveillance tool. This was first revealed on 1 October 2018 in a detailed forensic report by Citizen Lab, a University of Toronto project that investigates digital espionage against civil society. Citizen Lab concluded with a \"high degree of confidence\" that his cellphone was successfully targeted with NSO Group's Pegasus spyware and attributed this infection to an operator linked to \"Saudi Arabia's government and security services\". NSO's Pegasus, of which KSA has emerged as one of its biggest operators, is one of the most advanced spyware tools available. It is designed to infect cell phones without being detected. Among other known cases, KSA is believed to have used NSO software to target London-based Saudi dissident Yahya Assiri, a former Royal Saudi Air Force officer and founder the human rights organisation ALQST and an Amnesty International researcher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2018, a \"New York Times\" investigation concluded that Pegasus software played a role in the Khashoggi's murder, with a friend of Khashoggi stating in a filing that Saudi authorities had used the Israeli-made software to spy on the dissident. NSO CEO Shalev Hulio stated that the company had not been involved in the \"terrible murder\", but declined to comment on reports that he had personally traveled to the Saudi capital Riyadh for a $55 million Pegasus sale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Cecilio Pineda Birto, a Mexican freelance journalist was assassinated by hitmen while resting in a hammock by a carwash. Brito had been reporting on the ties between local politicians and criminal organizations, and had received anonymous death threats during the weeks preceding the assassination; at about the same time, his phone number was selected as a possible target for Pegasus surveillance by a Mexican Pegasus client. Pegasus spyware may have been used to ascertain Brito's location to carry out the hit by geolocating his phone; the deployment of Pegasus on his phone could however not be confirmed as his phone disappeared from the scene of the murder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A \"New York Times\" correspondent covering the Middle East, Ben Hubbard revealed in October 2021 that Saudi Arabia used the NSO Group's Pegasus software to hack into his phone. Hubbard was targeted repeatedly over a three-year period between June 2018 to June 2021 while he was reporting on Saudi Arabia, and writing a book about the Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman. Hubbard was possibly targeted for writing the book about the Crown Prince, and for his involvement in revealing the UAE's hacking and surveillance attempt of Project Raven. Saudis attempted to peek into Hubbard's personal information twice in 2018, one through a suspicious text message and the other through an Arabic WhatsApp message inviting him to a protest at a Saudi embassy in Washington."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The United Arab Emirates used Pegasus to spy on the members of Saudi-backed Yemeni government according to an investigation published in July 2021. The UAE used the spyware to monitor and spy on the ministers of the internationally recognized government of President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi, including Yemeni president and his family members, former Prime Minister Ahmed Obaid Bin Dagher, former Foreign Minister Abdulmalik Al-Mekhlafi, and current Minister of Youth and Sports, Nayef al-Bakri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On 26 January 2022, the reports revealed that mobile phones of Lama Fakih, a US-Lebanese citizen and director of crisis and conflict at Human Rights Watch, were repeatedly hacked by a client of NSO Group at a time when she was investigating the catastrophic August 2020 explosion that killed more than 200 people in Beirut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In October 2021, the British High Court ruled that agents of Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum used Pegasus to hack the phones of his (ex)-wife, Princess Haya bint Hussein, her solicitors (including baroness Fiona Shackleton), a personal assistant and two members of her security team in the summer of 2020. The court ruled that the agents acted \"with the express or implied authority\" of the sheikh; he denied knowledge of the hacking. The judgment referred to the hacking as \"serial breaches of (UK) domestic criminal law\", \"in violation of fundamental common law and ECHR rights\", \"interference with the process of this court and the mother's access to justice\" and \"abuse of power\" by a head of state. NSO had contacted an intermediary in August 2020 to inform Princess Haya of the hack and is believed to have terminated its contract with the UAE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus' iOS exploitation was identified in August 2016. Arab human rights defender Ahmed Mansoor received a text message promising \"secrets\" about torture happening in prisons in the United Arab Emirates by following a link. Mansoor sent the link to Citizen Lab of the University of Toronto, which investigated, with the collaboration of Lookout, finding that if Mansoor had followed the link it would have jailbroken his phone and implanted the spyware into it, in a form of social engineering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In July 2021, Morocco had targeted more than 6,000 Algerian phones, including those of politicians and high-ranking military officials, with the spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The earliest version of Pegasus - which was identified in 2016 - relied on a spear-phishing attack which required the target to click a malicious link in a text message or email."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In April 2022, Citizen Lab released a report stating that 10 Downing Street staff had been targeted by Pegasus, and that the United Arab Emirates was suspected of originating the attacks in 2020 and 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Regarding how widespread the issue was, Lookout explained in a blog post: \"We believe that this spyware has been in the wild for a significant amount of time based on some of the indicators within the code\" and pointed out that the code shows signs of a \"kernel mapping table that has values all the way back to iOS 7\" (released 2013). \"The New York Times\" and \"The Times of Israel\" both reported that it appeared that the United Arab Emirates was using this spyware as early as 2013. It was used in Panama by former president Ricardo Martinelli from 2012 to 2014, who established the \"Consejo de Seguridad P\u00fablica y Defensa\" Nacional (National Security Council) for its use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Omar Radi",
        "text": "In June 2020, Amnesty International reported it had found evidence that Omar Radi's personal cellphone had been infected with the Pegasus spyware of the Israeli technology firm NSO Group. The program can covertly access a phone\u2019s camera, microphone, text messages, emails, applications, and location. As NSO Group publicly states that it sells its software exclusively to governments, Amnesty International concluded in its report that the surveillance was conducted by Moroccan authorities. Israel classifies this technology as a weapon and its approval is required for any exports."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On January 25, 2022, more victims were confirmed by Citizen Lab, including Micha\u0142 Ko\u0142odziejczak of the agrarian movement Agrounia, and Tomasz Szwejgiert, a journalist and alleged former associate of the CBA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "French intelligence (ANSSI) confirmed that Pegasus spyware had been found on the phones of three journalists, including a journalist of France 24, in what was the first time an independent and official authority corroborated the findings of the investigation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Independent digital forensic analysis conducted on 10 Indian phones whose numbers were present in the data showed signs of either an attempted or successful Pegasus hack. The results of the forensic analysis threw up shows sequential correlations between the time and date a phone number is entered in the list and the beginning of surveillance. The gap usually ranges between a few minutes and a couple of hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum",
        "text": "In 2021, investigative reporting into the Pegasus spyware found that Latifa's name was added to a list of names that were potential targets of the spyware just days before she was seized by Sheikh Maktoum's commandos on a yacht in an attempt to flee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On 7 October 2021, the NSO Group stated that it had terminated its contract with the UAE to use its Pegasus spyware tool after the ruling by UK\u2019s High Court that Dubai\u2019s ruler misused the firm\u2019s Pegasus software to spy on his ex-wife and her legal advisers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The mobile phones of six Palestinian activists were hacked using Pegasus with some of the attacks reportedly occurring as far back as July 2020, according to a report from Front Line Defenders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The forensic analysis of UN independent investigator Kamel Jendoubi\u2019s mobile phone revealed on 20 December 2021 that he was targeted using spyware while probing war crimes of Yemen. Jendoubi was targeted while he was examining possible war crimes in Yemen. Jendoubi's mobile number was also found in the leaked database of the Pegasus Project. According to the data, Jendoubi was one of the potential targets of one of NSO Group's long-time clients, Saudi Arabia. However, NSO spokesperson denied Kamel Jendoubi as any of its client's targets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Censorship in Saudi Arabia",
        "text": "In May 2019, Amnesty International claimed that Saudi Arabia used NSO Group's Pegasus software to target activists and journalists, including Khashoggi. Deputy Director of Amnesty Tech claimed that \"governments who are known for outrageous human rights abuses\" use this software to track down the dissidents and human rights defenders. \"The Kingdom Came to Canada\", a Citizen Lab's report, shows how Omar Abdulaziz, another Saudi activist residing in Canada, was targeted by the Saudi government to access the sensitive conversations he had with his friend Jamal Khashoggi. Abdulaziz had also filed a lawsuit in December 2018, alleging that the Saudi authorities used Pegasus spyware to hack his phone and access his conversations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": ", an investigative journalist for Al Jazeera Arabic, said, \"[The hacking of the Al Jazeera staffers' and journalists' phones is] a crime against journalism. Based on this spyware, journalists have been arrested, disappeared, or even killed. Khashoggi is just one example\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "As of August 2016 - according to a former NSO Employee - the U.S. version of Pegasus had 1-click capabilities for all phones except old Blackberry models which could be infiltrated with a 0-click attack."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2019, two Moroccan pro-democracy campaigners were notified by WhatsApp that their phones had been compromised with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus spyware was found in 2021 on the iPhones of at least nine U.S. State Department employees. The US government blacklisted the NSO Group to stop what it called \"transnational repression\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citizen Lab",
        "text": "In \"Million Dollar Dissident\", published in August 2016, researchers discovered that Ahmed Mansoor, one of the UAE Five, a human rights defender in the United Arab Emirates, was targeted with Pegasus software developed by Israeli \"cyber war\" company NSO Group. Prior to the releases of the report, researchers contacted Apple who released a security update that patched the vulnerabilities exploited by the spyware operators. Mansoor was imprisoned one year later and as of 2021, is still in jail."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus is spyware developed by the Israeli cyber-arms company NSO Group that can be covertly installed on mobile phones (and other devices) running most versions of iOS and Android. Pegasus is able to exploit iOS versions up to 14.6, through a zero-click exploit. As of 2022, Pegasus was capable of reading text messages, tracking calls, collecting passwords, location tracking, accessing the target device's microphone and camera, and harvesting information from apps. The spyware is named after Pegasus, the winged horse of Greek mythology. It is a Trojan horse computer virus that can be sent \"flying through the air\" to infect cell phones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In January 2022, it was reported that Pegasus was unlawfully used by the Israeli Police to monitor citizens as well as foreign nationals who were accidentally or intentionally infected by the software. The surveillance was ordered by high-ranking police officers, and was carried out without warrants or judicial supervision. The legal basis for use of spyware against citizens is disputed. The police had allegedly targeted civilians not suspected of any crime, including organisers of antigovernmental protesters, mayors, anti-LBGT parade activists, employees of government-owned companies, an associated of a senior politician, and former government employees. In one case, it was alleged that police targeted an activist who was not suspected of a crime, allegedly to gather information about the activist's extra-marital affairs and use it as leverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "President of Panama Ricardo Martinelli personally sought to obtain cyberespionage tools after his election in 2009. After a rebuff by the U.S. in 2009, Martinelli successfully sought such tools from Israeli vendors, expressing an interest in acquiring a tool capable of hacking into mobile phones in a 2010 private meeting with Israeli PM Netanyahu. In 2012, NSO systems were installed in Panama City. The equipment was subsequently widely used for illicti domestic and foreign spying, including for spying on political opponents, magistrates, union leaders, and business competitors, with Martinelli allegedly going so far as to order the surveillance of his mistress using Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamal Khashoggi",
        "text": "Saudi Arabia used a reputed troll farm in Riyadh, employing hundreds of people, to harass Khashoggi and other critics of the Saudi regime. Former U.S. intelligence contractor Edward Snowden accused the Saudi Government of using spyware known as \"Pegasus\" to monitor Khashoggi's cell phone.<ref name=\"Shezaf_11/7/2018\"></ref>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Responding to August 2016 reports of a targeting of an Arab activist, NSO Group stated that they provide \"authorized governments with technology that helps them combat terror and crime\", although the Group told him that they had no knowledge of any incidents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Israeli police use"
      },
      {
        "title": "Human rights in the United Arab Emirates",
        "text": "According to Amnesty International, Israeli company NSO Group's Pegasus spyware was used to target human rights activist Ahmed Mansoor. citizen Lab's August 2016 report, \"The Million Dollar Dissident\", documents the attempts made to infect Mansoor's phone with Pegasus spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2021, Citizen Lab announced that Pegasus was used against lawyer Roman Giertych and prosecutor Ewa Wrzosek, both critical of the ruling Law and Justice (PiS) government, with Giertych's phone suffering 18 intrusions. 33 hacks to the phone of Krzysztof Brejza, a senator from the opposition Civic Platform (PO) were uncovered, and confirmed by Amnesty International. Leading to the 2019 European and Polish parliamentary elections, Brejza's text messages were stolen as he was leading the opposition parties' campaign. The texts were doctored by state-run media, notably TVP, and used in a smear campaign against the opposition. This prompted the Polish Senate to begin an inquiry into the deployment of the spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "It has been reported that Muhoozi Kainerugaba brokered a deal to use Pegasus in Uganda, paying between $10 and $20 million in 2019. The software was later used to hack the phones of 11 US diplomats and employees of the US embassy in Uganda some time during 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2021, allegations arose that the software may also have been used to spy on members of Kashoggi's family."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "The spyware has been used for surveillance of anti-regime activists, journalists, and political leaders from several nations around the world. In July 2021, the investigation initiative Pegasus Project, along with an in-depth analysis by human rights group Amnesty International, reported that Pegasus was still being widely used against high-profile targets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "About twenty Armenian citizens were spied on via Pegasus spyware. Media expert Arthur Papyan said it targeted the key figures of the opposition and the government - current and past government employees who knew valuable state secrets and have political influence, including the former director of the National Security Service and current chairman of the center-right Homeland Party. The local experts suspected that they were targeted either by the government of Armenia or Azerbaijan, or perhaps both. Papyan said that NSO group appears to be jailbreaking a phone and provides interface for viewing the obtained data. Minister of high-tech industry Vahagn Khachaturyan also received a warning letter from Apple, he rejected the theory that the spying party could be the current Armenian government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "The Pegasus spyware was developed by the Israeli cyberarms company NSO Group. It can be covertly installed on mobile phones (and other devices) running most versions of iOS and Android. The spyware is named after the mythical winged horse Pegasus\u2014it is a Trojan horse that can be sent \"flying through the air\" to infect phones. Usages of the Pegasus spyware have been monitored for years. Amnesty has argued that the digital invasion is correlated with real-life consequences for spied targets, via psychological or physical damages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A leak of a list of more than 50,000 telephone numbers believed to have been identified as those of people of interest by clients of NSO since 2016 became available to Paris-based media nonprofit organisation Forbidden Stories and Amnesty International. They shared the information with seventeen news media organisations in what has been called \"Pegasus Project\", and a months-long investigation was carried out, which reported from mid-July 2021. The Pegasus Project involved 80 journalists from the media partners including \"The Guardian\" (UK), Radio France and \"Le Monde\" (France), \"Die Zeit\" and \"S\u00fcddeutsche Zeitung\" (Germany), \"The Washington Post\" (United States), \"Haaretz\" (Israel), \"Aristegui Noticias\", \"Proceso\" (Mexico), the Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project, \"Knack\", \"Le Soir\", \"The Wire\", \"Daraj\", Direkt36 (Hungary), and \"Frontline\". Evidence was found that many phones with numbers in the list had been targets of Pegasus spyware. However, The CEO of NSO Group categorically claimed that the list in question is unrelated to them, the source of the allegations can't be verified as reliable one. \"This is an attempt to build something on a crazy lack of information... There is something fundamentally wrong with this investigation\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Jamal Khashoggi"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In January 2022 it was reported that the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) had secretly bought the Pegasus spyware in 2019 and was also given a demonstration of Phantom, a newer tool that could hack American phone numbers. They considered using both tools for domestic surveillance in the U.S. Which reportedly led to discussions between the FBI and United States Department of Justice which ultimately lead to the FBI deciding against using it and all NSO spyware in 2021. However, despite ruling against using it, Pegasus equipment is still in the FBI's possession at a New Jersey facility."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A widow of slain renowned Mexican journalist was a target of an attempted Pegasus attack 10 days after her husband was assassinated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In 2022, sources revealed that a unit of Abu Dhabi\u2019s Mubadala Investment Company, Mubadala Capital was one of the largest investors in \u20ac1 billion Novalpina Capital private equity fund, which bought the NSO Group in 2019. Since then, Mubadala has been an investor in the firm with its commitment of \u20ac50 million, acquiring a seat on the committee of largest investors of the equity fund. Journalists, human rights defenders and the women of Dubai\u2019s royal family were traced to have been hacked using the Pegasus spyware during the same time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Two other attacks were launched against him in 2020 and 2021 using the zero-click hacking capabilities. Lastly, on June 13, 2021, an iPhone belonging to Hubbard was successfully hacked using the FORCEDENTRY exploit. Citizen Lab said in \u201chigh confidence\u201d that the four attacks were attempted using Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Google's Project Zero documented another exploit, dubbed FORCEDENTRY, in December 2021. According to Google's researchers, Pegasus sent an iMessage to its targets that contained what appeared to be GIF images, but which in fact contained a JBIG2 image. A vulnerability in the Xpdf implementation of JBIG2, re-used in Apple's iOS phone operating software, allowed Pegasus to construct an emulated computer architecture inside the JBIG2 stream which was then used to implement the zero-click attack. Apple fixed the vulnerability in iOS 14.8 in September 2021 as CVE-2021-30860."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus was discovered in August 2016 after a failed installation attempt on the iPhone of a human rights activist led to an investigation revealing details about the spyware, its abilities, and the security vulnerabilities it exploited. News of the spyware caused significant media coverage. It was called the \"most sophisticated\" smartphone attack ever, and was the first time that a malicious remote exploit used jailbreaking to gain unrestricted access to an iPhone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Citizen Lab revealed the government of Bahrain used the NSO Group's Pegasus to hack activists, bloggers, members of Waad (a secular Bahraini political society), a member of Al Wefaq (a Shiite Bahraini political society), and members of the Bahrain Center for Human Rights. Bahrain reportedly acquired access to spyware in 2017. As per the report, the mobile phones of a total of nine rights activists were \u201csuccessfully hacked\u201d between June 2020 and February 2021. Those hacked included three members of Waad, three of the BCHR, one of Al Wefaq, and two of the exiled dissidents who reside in London. The Citizen Lab attributed \u201cwith high confidence\u201d that a Pegasus operator, LULU, was used by the Bahraini government to breach the phones of at least four of the nine activists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A joint investigation by \"The Guardian\" and \"Le Monde\" alleged that Pegasus software was used to spy on six critics of the government in Togo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In July 2021, a joint investigation conducted by seventeen media organisations, revealed that Pegasus spyware was used to target and spy on heads of state, activists, journalists, and dissidents, enabling \"human rights violations around the world on a massive scale\". The investigation was launched after a leak of 50,000 phone numbers of potential surveillance targets. Amnesty International carried out forensic analysis of mobile phones of potential targets. The investigation identified 11 countries as NSO clients: Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Hungary, India, Kazakhstan, Mexico, Morocco, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia, Togo, and the United Arab Emirates. The investigation also revealed that journalists from multiple media organizations including \"Al Jazeera\", CNN, the \"Financial Times\", the Associated Press, \"The New York Times\", \"The Wall Street Journal\", \"Bloomberg News\" and \"Le Monde\" were targeted, and identified at least 180 journalists from 20 countries who were selected for targeting with NSO spyware between 2016 and June 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "A joint investigation by \"The Guardian\" and \"Le Monde\" alleged political activists in Rwanda were targeted with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum",
        "text": "In October 2021, the High Court ruled that agents of Sheikh Mohammed used the Israeli Pegasus spyware to hack the phones of Princess Haya, her solicitors, a personal assistant and two members of her security team in the summer of 2020. The court ruled that the agents acted \"with the express or implied authority\" of the sheikh; he denied knowledge of the hacking. The judgment referred to the hacking as \"serial breaches of (UK) domestic criminal law\", \"in violation of fundamental common law and ECHR rights\", \"interference with the process of this court and the mother's access to justice\" and \"abuse of power\" by a head of state."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "According to the Supreme Audit Office (NIK), 544 of its employees' devices were under surveillance over 7,300 times, some could be infected with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "On February 1, the police admitted that there was, in fact, misuse of the software. On February 7, the widespread extent of the warrantless surveillance was further revealed to have included politicians and government officials, heads of corporations, journalists, activists, and even , the son of then-Prime Minister, Benjamin Netanyahu. This has led to renewed calls for a public inquiry, including from the current police commissioner Kobi Shabtai himself (appointed January 2021), as well as from the Minister of the Interior, Ayelet Shaked and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus licenses were agreed on between Benjamin Netanyahu and Beata Szyd\u0142o in July 2017. Citizen Lab revealed that several members of political opposition groups in Poland were hacked by Pegasus spyware, raising alarming questions about the Polish government's use of the software. A lawyer representing Polish opposition groups and a prosecutor involved in a case against the ruling Law and Justice party were also compromised."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In January 2022, Bahrain was accused of using the Pegasus spyware to hack a human rights defender, Ebtisam al-Saegh. The prominent activist's phone was hacked at least eight times between August and November 2019. As per the Citizen Lab, following the hacking attempt, al-Saegh faced incidents where she was harassed by the Bahrain authorities. It included being summoned to a police station, interrogation, rape threats, and physical and sexual assault. The attack left the rights defender in a state of \u201cdaily fear and terror\u201d."
      },
      {
        "title": "Enrique Pe\u00f1a Nieto",
        "text": "On 19 June 2017, \"The New York Times\", in conjunction with Aristegui and \"Televisa\" news reporter Carlos Loret de Mola, reported that the Mexican government uses spyware known as Pegasus to spy on targets such as Mexican reporters and civil rights leaders using text messages as lures. Since 2011, the Mexican government invested $80 million worth of spyware. Pegasus infiltrates a person's cell phone and reports every detail of their messages, e-mails, contacts and calendars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In July 2017, the international team assembled to investigate the 2014 Iguala mass kidnapping publicly complained they thought they were being surveilled by the Mexican government. They stated that the Mexican government used Pegasus to send them messages about funeral homes containing links which, when clicked, allowed the government to surreptitiously listen to the investigators. The Mexican government has repeatedly denied any unauthorized hacking."
      },
      {
        "title": "IOS 9",
        "text": "The discovery of the vulnerabilities dated 10 days before the 9.3.5 update was released. Arab human rights defender Ahmed Mansoor received a suspicious text message with a link and sent it to Citizen Lab. An investigation ensued with collaboration from Lookout that revealed that if Mansoor clicked the link, it would have jailbroken his phone and implanted it with the spyware. Citizen Lab linked the attack to an Israeli surveillance company known as NSO Group that sells Pegasus to governments for \"lawful interception.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "NSO Group",
        "text": "\"Pegasus\" spyware is classified as a military export by Israel and its sale is controlled by the government. According to The New York Times, \"Israel\u2019s government has long seen Pegasus as a critical tool for its foreign policy.\" Israel has used the sale of NSO products as a diplomatic bargaining chip to advance its foreign policy interests as well as limiting its sale to or its use against certain states to maintain good relations with certain states."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ghanem al-Dosari",
        "text": "In 2018 Almasarir, were the target of hacking attempts. His phones were targeted by the Pegasus spyware, likely on the behalf of the Saudi authorities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Human rights group Amnesty International reported in the 2021 investigation that Pegasus employs a sophisticated command-and-control (C&C) infrastructure to deliver exploit payloads and send commands to Pegasus targets. There are at least four known iterations of the C&C infrastructure, dubbed the \"Pegasus Anonymizing Transmission Network\" (PATN) by NSO group, each encompassing up to 500 domain names, DNS servers, and other network infrastructure. The PATN reportedly utilizes techniques such as registering high port numbers for their online infrastructure as to avoid conventional internet scanning. PATN also uses up to three randomised subdomains unique per exploit attempt as well as randomised URL paths."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus has been used by drug cartels and cartel-entwined government actors to target and intimidate Mexican journalists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Pegasus (spyware)\n--Background.\n----Discovery.\n----Chronology.\n--Technical details.\n----Development of capabilities.\n----Vulnerabilities.\n----Pegasus Anonymizing Transmission Network.\n--Use by country.\n----Armenia.\n----Azerbaijan.\n----Bahrain.\n----Estonia.\n----Finland.\n----Germany.\n----Hungary.\n----India.\n----Israel.\n----Jordan.\n----Kazakhstan.\n----Mexico.\n----Morocco.\n----Panama.\n----Palestine.\n----Poland.\n----Rwanda.\n----Saudi Arabia.\n----Spain.\n----Togo.\n----Uganda.\n----Ukraine.\n----United Arab Emirates.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n----Yemen.\n----International organizations.\n------European Union.\n--Pegasus Project.\n--Reactions.\n----NSO Group response.\n----Bug-bounty program skepticism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In January 2022, lawyer and activist Hala Ahed Deeb's phone was targeted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Other"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Although Pegasus is stated as intended to be used against criminals and terrorists, it has also been used by both authoritarian and democratic governments to spy on critics and opponents. A UN special rapporteur on freedom of opinion found that the use of the spyware by abusive governments could \"facilitate extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and killings, or enforced disappearance of persons.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Targeting of Jeff Bezos"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus Project (investigation)",
        "text": "French intelligence (ANSSI) confirmed that Pegasus spyware had been found on the phones of three journalists, including a journalist of France 24, in what was the first time an independent and official authority corroborated the findings of the investigation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "11 phone numbers associated with a female employee of the Supreme Court of India and her immediate family, who accused the former Chief Justice of India, Ranjan Gogoi, of sexual harassment, are also allegedly found on a database indicating possibility of their phones being snooped."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Since 2019, Pegasus has come to rely on iPhone iMessage vulnerabilities to deploy spyware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mass surveillance",
        "text": "Media reports published in July 2021 exposed the use of NSO Group's phone malware software, Pegasus, for spying on rights activists, lawyers, and journalists, globally, by authoritarian governments. Bahrain was among the many countries listed as the Israeli firm's clients accused of hacking and conducting unauthorized mass surveillance using phone malware despite a poor human rights record. The software is said to infect devices, allowing its operators to get access to the target's messages, photos, record calls, and activate the microphone and camera."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In December 2021, AP reported that 11 U.S. State Department employees stationed in Uganda had their iPhones hacked with Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Assassination of journalist Cecilio Pineda Birto"
      },
      {
        "title": "Security policy of the Enrique Pe\u00f1a Nieto administration",
        "text": "On June 19, 2017, \"The New York Times\" in conjunction with news reporter Carmen Aristegui, and even backed by a Televisa news reporter Carlos Loret de Mola, reported that the Mexican Government uses a spyware software known as Pegasus, to spy on targets such as Mexican News reporters (and their families) and Civil Rights Leaders (and their families) using text messages as lures. Since 2011, the Mexican Government invested $80 million worth of spyware. Pegasus spyware infiltrates a persons cellphone and reports every detail of their messages, e-mails, contacts and calendars. After the revelation, the Israeli manufacturer of the Pegasus spyware, NSO Group, re-stated it only sold such technology to governments with an 'explicit agreement', that such technology was meant 'only to combat organized crime' by spying on it; although once it sells the software it cannot control who they use it against and basically leaves the government's on their own to monitor themselves on not abusing the software. The New York Times and independent forensic analysts analyzed the data of 'dozens of messages', multiple times before proving their accusation, and commented of such espionage towards news journalists and civil rights leaders, as 'an effort from the Mexican Government to thwart the battle against corruption infecting every limb of Mexican Society', and how highly unlikely it would be for such espionage it to receive 'Judicial Approval'. Edward Snowden who worked for US government's NSA before revealing it to spy on its citizens, also said all evidence points to the Mexican government being the spy, and on Twitter said it is \"a crime to the public\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pe\u00f1abot",
        "text": "On June 19, 2017, \"The New York Times\" in conjunction with news reporter Carmen Aristegui, and even backed by a Televisa news reporter Carlos Loret de Mola, reported that the Mexican Government uses a spyware software known as Pegasus, to spy on targets such as Mexican News reporters (and their families) and Civil Rights Leaders (and their families) using text messages as lures. Since 2011, the Mexican Government invested $80 million worth of spyware. Pegasus spyware infiltrates a persons cellphone and reports every detail of their messages, e-mails, contacts and calendars. After the revelation, the Israeli manufacturer of the Pegasus spyware, NSO Group, re-stated it only sold such technology to governments with an 'explicit agreement', that such technology was meant 'only to combat organized crime' by spying on it; although once it sells the software it cannot control who they use it against and basically leaves the government's on their own to monitor themselves on not abusing the software. The New York Times and independent forensic analysts analyzed the data of 'dozens of messages', multiple times before proving their accusation, and commented of such espionage towards news journalists and civil rights leaders, as 'an effort from the Mexican Government to thwart the battle against corruption infecting every limb of Mexican Society', and how highly unlikely it would be for such espionage it to receive 'Judicial Approval'. Edward Snowden who worked for US government's NSA before revealing it to spy on its citizens, also said all evidence points to the Mexican government being the spy, and on Twitter said it is \"a crime to the public\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Imran Khan",
        "text": "In July 2021, the Project Pegasus revealed a spyware surveillance list that included at least one number once used by Khan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Princess Haya bint Hussein",
        "text": "On 6 October 2021, the High Court found that agents of Sheikh Mohammed used the Pegasus spyware to hack the phones of Princess Haya, her solicitors, a personal assistant and two members of her security team in the summer of 2020 \"with the express or implied authority\" of the sheikh. The spyware's developer, NSO Group, itself had contacted an intermediary in August 2020 to inform Princess Haya of the hacking, of which Sheikh Mohammed denied knowledge. The judgment referred to the hacking as \"serial breaches of (UK) domestic criminal law\", \"in violation of fundamental common law and ECHR rights\", \"interference with the process of this court and the mother's access to justice\" and \"abuse of power\" by a head of state. It was also revealed that Sheikh Mohammed attempted to purchase a property near to Princess Haya's home, that \"if anyone chose to use it, it is in prime position for direct or electronic surveillance\". Princess Haya told the court: \"It feels as if I am being stalked, that there is literally nowhere for me to go to be safe from [Sheikh Mohammed], or those acting in his interests. It is hugely oppressive.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In April 2022, according to two EU officials and documentation obtained by Reuters, the European Justice Commissioner Didier Reynders and other European Commission officials had been targeted by NSO's software. The commision learned of this after Apple notified thousands of iPhone users in November 2021 that they were targeted by state-sponsored hackers. According to the same two sources, IT experts examined some of the smartphones, but the results were inconclusive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "In November 2021, Lajos K\u00f3sa, head of a parliamentary defense and law enforcement committee, was the first Hungarian senior official who acknowledged that the country's Interior Ministry purchased and used Pegasus. K\u00f3sa admitted that Hungary had indeed purchased and used Pegasus, stating \"I don't see anything objectionable in it [...] large tech companies carry out much broader monitoring of citizens than the Hungarian state does.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Latifa bint Mohammed Al Maktoum",
        "text": "In July 2021, leaked data from surveillance firm NSO Group Pegasus spyware revealed the presence of Latifa's among UAE-targeted phone numbers, as well as several of her close friends, as being possible targets. Pegasus spyware allows full access, including GPS, to target phones, and may have helped to track Latifa's escape route."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "2014 Iguala mass kidnapping"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "By 2020, Pegasus shifted towards zero-click exploits and network-based attacks. These methods allowed clients to break into target phones without requiring user interaction and without leaving any detectable traces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Democratic backsliding",
        "text": "In July 2021, leaked data acquired by the Pegasus Project suggested the Hungarian government may have used NSO Group's Pegasus spyware to target opposition journalists. Hungarian officials acknowledged that they had purchased the spyware, but noted that they had received permission from either the courts or the Ministry of Justice in every case it was used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "NSO Group pitched its spyware to the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), which declined to purchase it due to its high cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "Use by Mexican drug cartels"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pegasus (spyware)",
        "text": "As of July 2021, Pegasus likely uses many exploits, some not listed in the above CVEs."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which countries currently employ the Pegasus software?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Pegasus software is used by more than 25 countries including the United States, Mexico and Israel."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me something about Pegasus Project!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Pegasus Project is an international investigative journalism initiative that revealed governments' espionage on journalists, opposition politicians, activists, business people and others using the private Pegasus spyware(developed by the Israeli cyberarms company NSO Group). Amazon's AWS terminated \"relevant infrastructure and accounts\" linked to NSO Group, following an investigation by Amnesty International that discovered Amazon CloudFront was being used to infect targets with the Pegasus malware."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the vulnerabilities of Pegasus software?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The reported vulnerabilities were information leak in kernel,  kernel memory corruption leads to jailbreak, memory corruption in the webkit, and Google's Project Zero documented another exploit, dubbed FORCEDENTRY, in December 2021."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did Pegasus software receive any comment from the society?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The spyware has been used for surveillance of anti-regime activists, journalists, and political leaders from several nations around the world. In July 2021, the investigation initiative Pegasus Project, along with an in-depth analysis by human rights group Amnesty International, reported that Pegasus was still being widely used against high-profile targets."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is the Pegasus software used in Canada?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I do not know how widespread it is, but there was an example of its use coming out of Canada. Saudi exile Omar Abdulaziz in Canada had his cell phone hacked by Pegasus."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you give me early examples of spyware, well before Pegasus?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The earliest example I could find was in 2000 when parent using ZoneAlarm was alerted to the fact that \"Reader Rabbit,\" educational software marketed to children by the Mattel toy company, was surreptitiously sending data back to Mattel. According to a 2005 study by AOL and the National Cyber-Security Alliance, 61 percent of surveyed users' computers were infected with form of spyware.",
      "In 2000, a parent using ZoneAlarm was alerted to the fact that \"Reader Rabbit,\" educational software marketed to children by the Mattel toy company, was surreptitiously sending data back to Mattel."
    ],
    "topic": "Pegasus (spyware)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Spyware:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Spyware",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "The first recorded use of the term spyware occurred on October 16, 1995 in a Usenet post that poked fun at Microsoft's business model. \"Spyware\" at first denoted \"software\" meant for espionage purposes. However, in early 2000 the founder of Zone Labs, Gregor Freund, used the term in a press release for the ZoneAlarm Personal Firewall. Later in 2000, a parent using ZoneAlarm was alerted to the fact that \"Reader Rabbit,\" educational software marketed to children by the Mattel toy company, was surreptitiously sending data back to Mattel. Since then, \"spyware\" has taken on its present sense."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Spyware:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Spyware",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "According to a 2005 study by AOL and the National Cyber-Security Alliance, 61 percent of surveyed users' computers were infected with form of spyware. 92 percent of surveyed users with spyware reported that they did not know of its presence, and 91 percent reported that they had not given permission for the installation of the spyware."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Spyware:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Spyware",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "The first recorded use of the term spyware occurred on October 16, 1995 in a Usenet post that poked fun at Microsoft's business model. \"Spyware\" at first denoted \"software\" meant for espionage purposes. However, in early 2000 the founder of Zone Labs, Gregor Freund, used the term in a press release for the ZoneAlarm Personal Firewall. Later in 2000, a parent using ZoneAlarm was alerted to the fact that \"Reader Rabbit,\" educational software marketed to children by the Mattel toy company, was surreptitiously sending data back to Mattel. Since then, \"spyware\" has taken on its present sense."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus is a genus of flowering trees and shrubs in the rue family, Rutaceae. Plants in the genus produce citrus fruits, including important crops such as oranges, lemons, grapefruits, pomelos, and limes. The genus \"Citrus\" is native to South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Melanesia, and Australia. Various citrus species have been used and domesticated by indigenous cultures in these areas since ancient times. From there its cultivation spread into Micronesia and Polynesia by the Austronesian expansion (c. 3000\u20131500 BCE); and to the Middle East and the Mediterranean (c. 1200 BCE) via the incense trade route, and onwards to Europe and the Americas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian lime",
        "text": "Australian limes are species of the plant genus \"Citrus\" that are native to Australia and Papua New Guinea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The genus \"Citrus\" has been suggested to originate in the eastern Himalayan foothills. Prior to human cultivation, it consisted of just a few species, though the status of some as distinct species has yet to be confirmed:\n* \"Citrus crenatifolia\" \u2013 species name is unresolved, from Sri Lanka\n* \"Citrus japonica\" \u2013 kumquats, from East Asia ranging into Southeast Asia (sometimes separated into four-five \"Fortunella\" species)\n* \"Citrus mangshanensis\" \u2013 species name is unresolved, from Hunan, China\n* \"Citrus maxima\" \u2013 pomelo (pummelo, shaddock), from the Island Southeast Asia\n* \"Citrus medica\" \u2013 citron, from India\n* \"Citrus platymamma\" \u2013 \"byeonggyul\", from Jeju Island, Korea\n* \"Citrus reticulata\" \u2013 mandarin orange, from China\n* \"Citrus trifoliata\" \u2013 trifoliate orange, from Korea and adjacent China (often separated as \"Poncirus\")\n* Australian limes\n**\"Citrus australasica\" \u2013 Australian finger lime\n** \"Citrus australis\" \u2013 Australian round lime\n** \"Citrus garrawayi \" \u2013 Mount White lime\n** \"Citrus glauca\" \u2013 Australian desert lime\n** \"Citrus gracilis\" \u2013 Kakadu lime or Humpty Doo lime\n** \"Citrus inodora\" \u2013 Russel River lime and Maiden's Australian lime\n** \"Citrus warburgiana \" \u2013 New Guinea wild lime\n** \"Citrus wintersii \" \u2013 Brown River finger lime\n* Papedas, including\n**\"Citrus halimii\" \u2013 \"limau kadangsa\", \"limau kedut kera\", from Thailand and Malaya\n** \"Citrus hystrix\" \u2013 Kaffir lime, \"makrut\", from Mainland Southeast Asia to Island Southeast Asia\n** \"Citrus cavaleriei\" \u2013 Ichang papeda from southern China\n** \"Citrus celebica\" \u2013 Celebes papeda\n** \"Citrus indica\" \u2013 Indian wild orange, from the Indian subcontinent\n** \"Citrus latipes\" \u2013 Khasi papeda, from Assam, Meghalaya, Burma\n** \"Citrus longispina\" \u2013 Megacarpa papeda, winged lime, blacktwig lime\n** \"Citrus macrophylla\" \u2013 Alemow\n** \"Citrus macroptera\" \u2013 Melanesian papeda from Indochina to Melanesia\n** \"Citrus micrantha, Citrus westeri\" \u2013 \"biasong\" or \"samuyao\" from the southern Philippines\n** \"Citrus webberi\" \u2013 Kalpi, Malayan lemon"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Australian and New Guinean citrus species had been viewed as belonging to separate genera by Swingle, who placed in \"Microcitrus\" all but the desert lime, which he assigned to \"Eremocitrus\". However, genomic analysis shows that though they form a distinct clade from other citrus, this is nested within the citrus phylogenetic tree, most closely related to kumquats, suggesting that all these species should be included in the genus \"Citrus\". Wu, \"et al.\", found that several of the finger lime cultivars were actually hybrids with round lime, and concluded there were just three species among those tested, desert lime (\"C. glauca\"), round lime (\"C. australis\") and the finger lime (\"C. australasica\"), though their analysis did not include other types previously identified as distinct species. In more limited genomic analysis, the New Guinea wild lime, \"Clymenia\" and \"Oxanthera\" (false orange) all cluster with the Australian limes as members of \"Citrus\". The outback lime is a desert lime agriculturally selected for more commercial traits, while some commercial varieties of the Australian lime are hybrids with mandarins, lemons, and/or sweet oranges. \"Clymenia\", will hybridize with kumquats and some limes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus plants are native to subtropical and tropical regions of Asia, Island Southeast Asia, Near Oceania, and northeastern Australia. Domestication of citrus species involved much hybridization and introgression, leaving much uncertainty about when and where domestication first happened. A genomic, phylogenic, and biogeographical analysis by Wu \"et al.\" (2018) has shown that the center of origin of the genus \"Citrus\" is likely the southeast foothills of the Himalayas, in a region stretching from eastern Assam, northern Myanmar, to western Yunnan. It diverged from a common ancestor with \"Poncirus trifoliata\". A change in climate conditions during the Late Miocene (11.63 to 5.33 mya) resulted in a sudden speciation event. The species resulting from this event include the citrons (\"Citrus\u00a0medica\") of South Asia; the pomelos (\"C.\u00a0maxima\") of Mainland Southeast Asia; the mandarins (\"C.\u00a0reticulata\"), kumquats (\"C.\u00a0japonica\"), mangshanyegan (\"C.\u00a0mangshanensis\"), and ichang papedas (\"C.\u00a0cavaleriei\") of southeastern China; the kaffir limes (\"C.\u00a0hystrix\") of Island Southeast Asia; and the biasong and samuyao (\"C.\u00a0micrantha\") of the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "\"Citrus australis\" is a tree up to tall. Fruits are spherical or slightly pear-shaped, across, with a thick green or yellow skin and pale green pulp. The 1889 book \"The Useful Native Plants of Australia\" records that \"The fruit, which is an inch and a-half in diameter and almost globular, yields an agreeable beverage from its acid juice.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Apart from these core citrus species, Australian limes and the recently discovered mangshanyegan are grown. Kumquats and \"Clymenia\" spp. are now generally considered to belong within the genus \"Citrus\". Trifoliate orange, which is often used as commercial rootstock, is an outgroup and may or may not be categorized as a citrus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australasica",
        "text": "Citrus australasica, the Australian finger lime or caviar lime, is a thorny understorey shrub or small tree of lowland subtropical rainforest and rainforest in the coastal border region of Queensland and New South Wales, Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "The \"Citrus australis\" is a Microcitrus, which is a cluster that contains the \"Citrus australis\" as well as other limes such as the New Guinea lime or the New Guinea wild lime. Through DNA replication and phylogenetic relationships, it is believed that the \"Citrus australis\" has evolved over millions of years, from a primitive ancestral type that underwent speciation in Australia and New Guinea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australasica",
        "text": "Historically the finger lime was viewed as a member of the genus \"Citrus\". The Swingle system of taxonomy instead divided the historical true citrus into seven genera, placing the finger lime along with the round lime in a novel genus, \"Microcitrus\". However, subsequent studies have favored a broader concept of \"Citrus\" that reunites the genera separated by Swingle, restoring the finger lime to \"Citrus\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus glauca",
        "text": "Under the Swingle system, the desert lime was classified in the genus \"Eremocitrus\", a close relative of the genus \"Citrus\". More recent taxonomy considers all the Australian limes to be included in the genus \"Citrus\", and most authorities treat the desert lime this way. \"Citrus glauca\" is one of the most resilient \"Citrus\" species, and is comparatively heat, drought, and cold tolerant. Hence the species is potentially important for \"Citrus\" breeding programs, and readily hybridises with many common \"Citrus\" species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "There are two phases of speciation, where the first phase comes from the late Miocene of East and Southeast Asia. These include the \"Citrus medica\" (citrons), \"Citrus maxima\", \"Citrus reticulata\", \"Citrus hystrix\", \"Citrus ichangensis\", \"Citrus japonica\", and \"Citrus mangshanensis\". The second phase of speciation is from the early\u00a0Pliocene\u00a0of\u00a0Oceania\u00a0and\u00a0include\u00a0three\u00a0Australian\u00a0species\u00a0of \"Citrus\u00a0glauca\",\u00a0\"Citrus\u00a0australasica\", and \"Citrus\u00a0australis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "This was later followed by the spread of citrus species into Taiwan and Japan in the Early Pliocene (5.33 to 3.6 mya), resulting in the tachibana orange (\"C.\u00a0tachibana\"); and beyond the Wallace Line into Papua New Guinea and Australia during the Early Pleistocene (2.5\u00a0million to 800,000 years ago), where further speciation events occurred resulting in the Australian limes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "These initial attempts at \"Citrus\" systematization all predated the recognition, which began to gain traction in the mid-1970s, that the majority of cultivars represent hybrids of just three species, citron, mandarin and pomelo. Phylogenetic analysis confirms this hybrid origin of most citrus cultivars, indicating a small number of founder species. While the subgenera suggested by Tanaka proved similar to the phylogenetic divisions of pure founder species, Swingle's subgenera were polyphyletic, and hence do not represent valid taxonomy. His novel genera also fail to withstand phylogenetic analysis. Swingle had elevated kumquats into a separate genus \"Fortunella\", while two genera were suggested by him for the Australian limes, \"Microcitrus\" and \"Eremocitrus\". However, genomic analysis shows these groups nested within the phylogenetic tree of \"Citrus\". Since their placement in distinct genera would make \"Citrus\" a paraphyletic grouping, it has been suggested that all of these are correctly members of the genus \"Citrus\". Similarly, genomic analysis has suggested that other genera previously split off from \"Citrus\" likewise belong within this expanded phylogenetic concept of the genus \"Citrus\", including \"Clymenia\", \"Oxanthera\" (false oranges, moved out of \"Citrus\" to a different branch of the tribe Citreae and given a new genus by Swingle) and more controversially \"Poncirus\", which is the earliest branching of Swingle's genera, and a genus not previously recognized as a close citrus relative, \"Feroniella\". There remains a lack of consensus as to which wild plants and hybrids merit distinct species status, a phenomenon exacerbated by the prior failure to correctly identify the genetically pure citrus strains and distinguish them from hybrids."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "A member of the Rutaceae family, \"Citrus australis\" is also known as the Australian round lime, Australia sweet, dooja, Gympie lime, native lime, native orange, or the round lime. It is part of the three main types of indigenous limes that can be found in Australia: the first is the Australian finger lime (\"Citrus australasica\"), the second is the Australian desert lime (\"Citrus glauca\"), and finally the Australian round lime. The citruses can hybridize with other citrus species and develop other characteristics, such as drought resistance, salinity tolerance, and disease resistance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian lime",
        "text": "Species include:\n*\"Citrus australasica\" (Finger lime), a species from rainforest regions of northern New South Wales and Southern Queensland with elongated yellow-green to purple fruits.\n*\"Citrus australis\" (Round lime or Dooja), a species from south-eastern Australia with round, green fruits\n*\"Citrus glauca\" (Desert lime), from arid inland areas of inland Australia. Small round fruits are produced in summer.\n* \"Citrus garrawayi\", (Mount White lime) is rare and endemic to the Cook District of Cape York Peninsula.\n* \"Citrus gracilis\" (Kakadu lime or Humpty Doo lime) grows in eucalypt woodland in the Northern Territory and was first described in the scientific literature in 1998.\n* \"Citrus inodora\" (Russell River lime or large-leaf Australian wild lime) is rare, and endemic to northern Queensland.\n* \"Citrus maideniana\" (Maiden's Australian wild lime) may be a subspecies of \"C. inodora\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Phylogenetic analysis suggested the species of \"Oxanthera\" from New Caledonia, commonly known as false oranges, should be transferred to the genus \"Citrus\". The transfer has been accepted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "Citrus australis, the Dooja, round lime, Australian lime or Australian round lime, is a large shrub or small tree producing an edible fruit. It grows in forest margins in the Beenleigh area and northwards, in Queensland, Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus warburgiana",
        "text": "This wild lime is a species of \"Microcitrus\" according to the Swingle system, called \"Microcitrus warburgiana\", and according to the classification of David Mabberley, it is to be called \"Citrus warburgiana\". It is the only \"Microcitrus\" coming from outside Australia. Being native to New Guinea, the closest \"Microcitrus\" to it is away, namely \"Citrus garrawayi\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian lime",
        "text": "Citrus species in Papua New Guinea have not been extensively studied, so the true number of species is unknown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "All of the wild 'pure' citrus species trace to a common ancestor that lived in the Himalayan foothills, where a late-Miocene citrus fossil, \"Citrus linczangensis\", has been found. At that time, a lessening of the monsoons and resultant drier climate in the region allowed the citrus ancestor to expand across south and east Asia in a rapid genetic radiation. After the plant crossed the Wallace line a second radiation took place in the early Pliocene (about 4 million years ago) to give rise to the Australian species. Most modern cultivars are actually hybrids derived from a small number of 'pure' original species. Though hundreds of species names have been assigned, a recent genomic study by Wu, \"et al.\" identified just ten ancestral species of citrus among more than a hundred cultivars studied. Of these ten, seven were native to Asia: pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\"), the 'pure' mandarins (\"C. reticulata\" \u2013 most mandarin cultivars were hybrids of this species with pomelo), citrons (\"C. medica\"), micranthas (\"C. micrantha\"), the Ichang papeda (\"C. cavaleriei\"), the mangshanyegan (\"C. mangshanensis\"), and the oval (Nagami) kumquat (\"Fortunella margarita\" or \"C. japonica\" var. \"margarita\"). Three from Australia were identified: the desert lime (\"C. glauca\"), round lime (\"C. australis\") and the finger lime (\"C. australasica\"). Many other cultivars previously identified as species were found to be closely related variants (subspecies or varieties) or hybrids of these species, though not all cultivars were evaluated. Subsequent studies have added two additional species to this list of pure species: a mandarin native to the Ryukyu Islands designated \"C. ryukyuensis\", and a rare wild species from Southeast Asia, the mountain citron. A number of further species originally placed in other genera have recently been subsumed into \"Citrus\" as a result of phylogenetic analysis, but these have yet to be characterized on a phylogenomic level to confirm their status as unique pure species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus warburgiana",
        "text": "It is a poorly known tree species. It has dark green, spherical fruits about in diameter. It is taxonomically an Australian lime:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "While not necessarily the most primary use, the \"Citrus australis\" can also be used for creating hybrids. As it is one of the most commonly seen vigorous native Australian species, it is worth noting that they are not resistant to viroid infection. This makes them an ideal target for trying to trace the history of the \"Citrus australis\". An example of this is the Sydney hybrid. The Sydney hybrid is a result of a hybrid between the \"Citrus australis\" and the \"Citrus australasica\", and is found primarily in Australia. Other names for the Sydney hybrid include \"Microcitrus x virgate\" H.\u00a0Hume or \"Citrus x virgate\" Mabb. The appearance of the lime when compared to its parents most commonly resembles the \"Citrus australasica\" with the size of the leaves and the shape of the fruit. The Sydney hybrid is elongated, about with a rounded apex, compared to the \"Citrus australis\" which is more circular in shape. It is also known to be very drought-resistant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Kumquats do not naturally interbreed with core taxa due to different flowering times, but hybrids (such as the calamansi) exist. Australian limes are native to Australia and Papua New Guinea, so they did not naturally interbreed with the core taxa, but they have been crossbred with mandarins and calamansis by modern breeders. Humans have deliberately bred new citrus fruits by propagating seedlings of spontaneous crosses (e.g. clementines), creating or selecting mutations of hybrids, (e.g. Meyer lemon), and crossing different varieties (e.g. 'Australian Sunrise', a finger lime and calamansi cross)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australasica",
        "text": "The plant is in height. Leaves are small, long and wide, glabrous, with a notched tip and crenate towards the apex. Flowers are white with petals long. The fruit is cylindrical, long, sometimes slightly curved, coming in different colours, including pink and green."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australasica",
        "text": "It has edible fruits which are under development as a commercial crop."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus indica",
        "text": "It is native to South Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "Citrus australis\n--Taxonomy.\n--Agroecology.\n--Uses.\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Citrus taxonomy\n--Genetic history.\n--Citrus naming systems.\n--Core species and hybrids.\n----Ancestral species.\n------Mandarins.\n------Pomelos.\n------Citrons.\n------Papedas.\n------Kumquats.\n------Australian and New Guinean species.\n------Trifoliate orange.\n--Hybrids.\n----Labelling of hybrids.\n----Major citrus hybrids.\n----Hybrids from other citrus species.\n------\"Citrofortunella\".\n------\"Citroncirus\".\n--Graft hybrids.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus glauca",
        "text": "Citrus glauca, commonly known as the desert lime, is a thorny shrub or small tree native to Queensland, New South Wales, and South Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "The \"Citrus australis\" can be found in southeast Queensland, especially from Brisbane northwards in the lowland sub-tropical rainforests. The lime's characteristics include growing slowly and needing protection, especially when the plant is still young. The thorns on the stems provide protection from wild animals. It is also preferable for the continued preservation of soil moisture to improve fertility of the species, and for health of the soil. This is also most required during dry seasons. Despite this, it is still considered to be a hardy plant, and will thrive during the winter, being moderately frost tolerant. The plant will be scattered most commonly by scavengers who eat the fruits and tear it apart."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The taxonomy and systematics of the genus are complex and the precise number of natural species is unclear, as many of the named species are hybrids clonally propagated through seeds (by apomixis), and genetic evidence indicates that even some wild, true-breeding species are of hybrid origin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus inodora",
        "text": "Citrus inodora or \"Microcitrus inodora\", commonly known as Russell River lime or large leaf Australian wild lime, is a tree native to the Bellenden-Ker Range in northern Queensland, Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus wintersii",
        "text": "Citrus wintersii, the Brown River finger lime, is a shrub native to the Brown River region in Papua-New Guinea. It was previously known as Microcitrus papuana. It has, as the \"finger\" name suggests, a small, thin fruit, pointed at both ends. It grows near Port Moresby."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phlebocarya ciliata",
        "text": "native to Western Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian lime",
        "text": "These species were formerly included in the genera \"Microcitrus\" and \"Eremocitrus\". They have been used as a food source by indigenous Australians as well as early settlers and are used in modern Australian cuisine, including marmalade and sauces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus garrawayi",
        "text": "Citrus garrawayi, the Mount White lime, is a tree native to the Cape York region of northern Queensland in Australia. It is an understory tree in tropical rainforests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus gracilis",
        "text": "Citrus gracilis, the Humpty Doo lime or Kakadu lime, is a straggly shrub endemic to eucalypt savannah woodlands of Northern Territory, Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australasica",
        "text": "Early settlers consumed the fruit and retained the trees when clearing for agriculture. Colonial botanists suggested that they should be cultivated, due to the lack of citrus alternatives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australasica",
        "text": "The finger lime has been recently grown on a commercial basis in Australia in response to high demand for the fruit. There is an increasing range of genetic selections which are budded onto citrus rootstock. With the sudden high market demand for the fruit the primary source of genetic material for propagation has been selections from wild stock."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Swingle's system divided the Citrinae subtribe into three groups, the 'primitive citrus' distant relatives, the closer 'near citrus' including citrus-related genera like \"Atalantia\", and the \"true citrus\", for the species that had historically been placed in \"Citrus\" but many of which he elevated to separate genera: \"Poncirus\" (trifoliate orange), \"Fortunella\" (kumquat), \"Eremocitrus\" (desert limes), \"Microcitrus\" (finger and round limes), as well as an additional genus, \"Clymenia\", formerly thought to be a citrus hybrid. His \"Citrus\" he likewise subdivided into two subgenera: citrons, pomelos, mandarins, oranges, grapefruits and lemons were placed in subgenus \"Eucitrus\" (later called simply subgenus \"Citrus\"), while the hardy but slow-growing trees with relatively unpalatable fruit he placed in subgenus \"Papeda\". His genus \"Citrus\" consisted of just 16 species, dividing them further into varieties, and lastly cultivars or hybrids. The Swingle system is generally followed globally today with much modification; there are still large differences in nomenclature between countries and individual scientists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus glauca",
        "text": "The Australian Outback lime was selected by CSIRO scientists from the regular desert lime. It is characterised by its upright habit, relatively large, flavoursome fruit, high yield, uniform ripening time, lack of thorns, and suitability for mechanical harvesting. The Australian Outback lime was cultivated at the former CSIRO Plant Industry site at Merbein, Victoria by Steve Sykes."
      },
      {
        "title": "False orange",
        "text": "Though previously viewed as members of \"Citrus\", Swingle moved the false oranges into their own genus, \"Oxanthera\". He placed the genus within the Triphasiinae subtribe of Citreae based on the similar size of their fruit. However, subsequent phylogenetic analysis showed them to cluster in the Citrinae subtribe within the same clade as Swingle's genus \"Clymenia\" and the Australian limes, as members of an enlarged monophyletic \"Citrus\", with the suggested relegation of the \"Oxanthera\" taxon as a \"Citrus\" subgenus. Bayer observed the presence of prominent pulp vesicles in the false oranges, and that their flowers had three to four times as many stamens as petals in their flowers, are both traits similar to other \"Citrus\". The false orange lacks the thorns typical of the \"Citrus\" genus, a difference often seen on islands without endiginous herbivores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus undulata",
        "text": "Citrus undulata, synonym Oxanthera undulata, the wavy-leaf oxanthera, is a species of plant in the family Rutaceae. It is endemic to New Caledonia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richmond William Hullett",
        "text": "Prior to human cultivation the genus citrus originated in South East Asia and consisted of just a few specimens. The leaves and fruit were brought back by Hullett but they seemed to have been \u2018lost\u2019 for over 70 years, nobody knows quite what happened to them. However, when the seedling was \u2018rediscovered\u2019 in the Herbarium of the Botanic Gardens Singapore, it was documented, and named in 1973. Erroneous labelling of some specimens may account for the seeming disappearance of some varieties of plants. Important varieties of Hullett\u2019s collection remain to this day in the Herbarium of the Botanic Gardens Singapore. \"Citrus halimii\", was named after the King of Malaysia His Majesty Duli Yang Maha Mulia Seri Paduka Baginda Yang DiPertuan Agong of Malaysia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Detailed genomic analysis of wild and domesticated citrus cultivars has suggested that the progenitor of modern citrus species expanded out of the Himalayan foothills in a rapid radiation that has produced at least 11 wild species in South and East Asia and Australia, with more than a half-dozen additional candidates for which either insufficient characterization prevents definitive species designation, or there is a lack of consensus for their placement within the \"Citrus\" genus rather than sister genera. Most commercial cultivars are the product of hybridization among these wild species, with most coming from crosses involving citrons, mandarins and pomelos. Many different phylogenies for the non-hybrid citrus have been proposed, and the phylogeny based on their nuclear genome does not match that derived from their chloroplast DNA, probably a consequence of the rapid initial divergence. Taxonomic terminology is not yet settled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus glauca",
        "text": "Citrus glauca\n--Taxonomy.\n--Description.\n--Economic uses.\n----Taxonomy, cultivars, and hybrids.\n------Australian outback lime.\n------Hybrids.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Senecio pinnatifolius",
        "text": "It is native to Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The three ancestral (sometimes characterized as \"original\" or \"fundamental\") species in the genus \"Citrus\" associated with modern \"Citrus\" cultivars are the mandarin orange, pomelo, and citron. Almost all of the common commercially important citrus fruits (sweet oranges, lemons, grapefruit, limes, and so on) are hybrids involving these three species with each other, their main progenies, and other wild \"Citrus\" species within the last few thousand years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The earliest introductions of citrus species by human migrations was during the Austronesian expansion (c. 3000\u20131500 BCE), where \"Citrus hystrix\", \"Citrus macroptera\", and \"Citrus maxima\" were among the canoe plants carried by Austronesian voyagers eastwards into Micronesia and Polynesia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "A fossil leaf from the Pliocene of Valdarno (Italy) is described as \u2020\"Citrus meletensis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rutaceae",
        "text": "The most economically important genus in the family is \"Citrus\", which includes the orange (\"C.\" \u00d7 \"sinensis\"), lemon (\"C.\" \u00d7 \"limon\"), grapefruit (\"C.\" \u00d7 \"paradisi\"), and lime (various, mostly \"C. aurantifolia\", the key lime). \"Boronia\" is a large Australian genus, some members of which are plants with highly fragrant flowers and are used in commercial oil production. Other large genera include \"Zanthoxylum\", \"Melicope\", and \"Agathosma\". About 160 genera are in the family Rutaceae."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Citrus is a genus of flowering plants including the orange and lemon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boronia lanuginosa",
        "text": "is a plant in the citrus family Rutaceae and is endemic to northern Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus garrawayi",
        "text": "The species is often included in the genus \"Microcitrus\" rather than in the genus \"Citrus\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "The \"Citrus australis\" can be distinguished from other species by its pear-like shape of being slightly narrower at the top and wider at the bottom, compared to the spherical shape that is more commonly seen in limes. It is also about wide in diameter, making it easier to distinguish against common limes which tend to be bigger in size. They also differ from other common citrus fruits by the amount of yellow oil that they possess, which can be seen from inside the vesicles of these fruits. Compared to other citruses such as the finger lime, \"Citrus australasica\", or other Australian species of citrus, the vesicles differ in shape. Near the central axis of the \"Citrus australis\", larger vesicles can be seen, which secretes the oil. In nature, citruses that have higher oil yields have larger leaves compared to those that have lower oil yields. For example, the \"Citrus australis\" was found to have an oil yield of 0.3-0.5%, and the \"Citrus glauca\" was found to have an yield of 0.6%. These both have a leaf size of about than 3 to 4 x 2 long. Conversely, the \"Citrus inodora\" has an oil yield of 0.1%, the \"Citrus garrawayi\" has an oil yield of 0.1-0.2%, and both have smaller leaves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The large citrus fruit of today evolved originally from small, edible berries over millions of years. Citrus species began to diverge from a common ancestor about 15 million years ago, at about the same time that \"Severinia\" (such as the Chinese box orange) diverged from the same ancestor. About 7 million years ago, the ancestors of \"Citrus\" split into the main genus, \"Citrus\", and the genus \"Poncirus\" (such as the trifoliate orange), which is closely enough related that it can still be hybridized with all other citrus and used as rootstock. These estimates are made using genetic mapping of plant chloroplasts. A DNA study published in \"Nature\" in 2018 concludes that the genus \"Citrus\" first evolved in the foothills of the Himalayas, in the area of Assam (India), western Yunnan (China), and northern Myanmar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Acantholophus",
        "text": "The species of this genus are found in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zacorus",
        "text": "The species of this genus are found in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citropsis",
        "text": "This genus is in the subfamily Aurantioideae, which also includes genus \"Citrus\". It is in the tribe Citreae and subtribe Citrinae, which are known technically as the citrus fruit trees. \"Citropsis\" and the genus \"Atalantia\" are also called near-citrus fruit trees. The genus \"Citropsis\" is thought to be an ancestral group of genus \"Citrus\". Fruit-bearing intergeneric hybrids have been established between \"Citropsis gabunensis\" and \"Citrus wakonai\". Demand for the roots may lead to the overexploitation of the tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lime (fruit)",
        "text": "The difficulty in identifying exactly which species of fruit are called lime in different parts of the English-speaking world (and the same problem applies to synonyms in other European languages) is increased by the botanical complexity of the citrus genus itself, to which the majority of limes belong. Species of this genus hybridise readily, and it is only recently that genetic studies have started to shed light on the structure of the genus. The majority of cultivated species are in reality hybrids, produced from the citron (\"Citrus medica\"), the mandarin orange (\"Citrus reticulata\"), the pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\") and in particular with many lime varieties, the micrantha (\"Citrus hystrix\" var. micrantha).\n* Australian limes (former \"Microcitrus\" and \"Eremocitrus\")\n** Australian desert lime (\"Citrus glauca\")\n** Australian finger lime (\"Citrus australasica\")\n** Australian lime (\"Citrus australis\")\n** Blood lime (red finger lime \u00d7 (sweet orange \u00d7 mandarin))\n* Makrut lime (\"Citrus hystrix\"); a papeda relative, is one of the three most widely produced limes globally.\n* Key lime (\"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"aurantiifolia\"=\"Citrus micrantha\" \u00d7 \"Citrus medica\") is also one of the three most widely produced limes globally.\n* Philippine lime (\"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"microcarpa\"), a kumquat \u00d7 mandarin hybrid\n* Persian lime (\"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"latifolia\") a key lime \u00d7 lemon hybrid, is the single most widely produced lime globally, with Mexico being the largest producer.\n* Rangpur lime (Mandarin lime, lemandarin, \"Citrus limonia\"), a mandarin orange \u00d7 citron hybrid\n* Spanish lime (\"Melicoccus bijugatus\"); not a citrus\n* Sweet lime etc. (\"Citrus limetta\", etc.); several distinct citrus hybrids\n* Wild lime (\"Adelia ricinella\"); not a citrus\n* Wild lime (\"Zanthoxylum fagara\"); not a citrus\n* Limequat (lime \u00d7 kumquat)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Musgraveia sulciventris",
        "text": "Its native host plants include the desert lime (\"Citrus glauca\"), the Australian finger lime (\"Citrus australasica\"), and Correas. It has become a major pest of cultivated citrus crops, where it sucks the fluid from new growth and young fruit, causing them to turn yellow and drop off. Whole crops can be devastated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian lime",
        "text": "Australian lime\n--Species from Australia.\n----Cultivars.\n--Species from Papua New Guinea.\n--Identification.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phlebocarya pilosissima",
        "text": "native to Western Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "Its nutritive properties include: \"energy 91 g, moisture 74.8 g, protein 2.2g, nitrogen 0.35 g, , ash 0.8 g, dietary fibre 6.7 g, carbohydrates 15.5 g, Ca 46 mg, Cu 0.2 mg, Fe 0.5 mg, Mg 24 mg, K 270 mg, Na 4 mg, Zn 0.1 mg, niacin 0.37 mg\". Due to this, it is still used in cooking today in Australia. The fruit can be eaten raw, and is acidic in nature. However, it is more commonly used in cooking for making marmalades or as lime flavouring. The peels can also be cut to make an accent for pastas, or can be ground for a subtle integration into the sauce. It can also go well with seafood. The flowering season is restricted to spring, and fruits are ripe from November to March when the skin turns greenish-yellow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cucumerunio",
        "text": "The species of this genus are found in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyanothamnus baeckeaceus",
        "text": "Cyanothamnus baeckeaceus is a plant in the citrus family, Rutaceae and is endemic to eastern Australia. It is a slender or straggling shrub with simple or trifoliate leaves and pink and white four-petalled flowers. It is endemic to the south-west of Western Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus inodora",
        "text": "Citrus maideniana, also known as Microcitrus maideniana, Citrus inodora var. maideniana, and Maiden's Australian lime, is sometimes considered a variety or subspecies of \"Citrus inodora\". The two have similar distributions and the deeply depressed apex of the fruit of \"Citrus maideniana\" is the only difference between it and \"Citrus inodora\". It is sometimes considered a synonym of \"Citrus inodora\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ascorhis",
        "text": "The species of this genus are found in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Most commercial varieties are descended from one or more of the 'core species', citrons, mandarins, and pomelos, which share in common a complex floral anatomy that gives rise to more complex fruit. These core species, and to a lesser extent other citrus, have given rise to a wide variety of hybrids for which the naming is inconsistent. The same common names may be given to different species, citrus hybrids or mutations. For example, citrus with green fruit tend to be called 'limes' independent of their origin: Australian limes, musk limes, Key limes, kaffir limes, Rangpur limes, sweet limes and wild limes are all genetically distinct. Fruit with similar ancestry may be quite different in name and traits (e.g. grapefruit, common oranges, and ponkans, all pomelo-mandarin hybrids). Many traditional citrus groups, such as true sweet oranges and lemons, seem to be bud sports, clonal families of cultivars that have arisen from distinct spontaneous mutations of a single hybrid ancestor. Novel varieties, and in particular seedless or reduced-seed varieties, have also been generated from these unique hybrid ancestral lines using gamma irradiation of budwood to induce mutations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus neocaledonica",
        "text": "\"Citrus neocaledonica\" was originally named as a member of the genus \"Citrus\" by Andr\u00e9 Guillaumin in 1911, but the false oranges were moved to a novel genus \"Oxanthera\" in the Swingle and Tanaka systems of citrus taxonomy. Phylogenetic analysis showed that \"Oxanthera\" species clustered within \"Citrus\", which makes this species a member of that genus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saprus",
        "text": "The species of this genus are found in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange chat",
        "text": "It is endemic to Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aurantioideae",
        "text": "Aurantioideae (sometimes known as Citroideae) is the subfamily within the rue and citrus family (Rutaceae) that contains the citrus. The subfamily's center of diversity is in the monsoon region of eastern Australasia, extending west through South Asia into Africa, and eastwards into Polynesia."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of plants known as orange",
        "text": "Several species of \"Capparis\", wild orange, native to Australia, including:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian lime",
        "text": "Grafted standards are available for some varieties. The cultivars include:\n*'Australian Outback' (or 'Australian Desert'), developed from several desert lime varieties\n*'Australian Red Centre' (or 'Australian Blood' or Blood Lime), a cross of finger lime and a mandarin-lemon or mandarin-sweet orange hybrid\n*'Australian Sunrise', a hybrid cross of finger lime and a calomondin which is pear shaped and orange inside\n* 'Rainforest Pearl', a pink-fruited form of finger lime from Bangalow, New South Wales\n* 'Sunrise Lime ', parentage unknown\n* 'Outback Lime', a desert lime cultivar\n* \"Citrus warburgiana\" (Kakamadu or New Guinea wild lime) grows on the south coast of the Papuan Peninsula near Alatau (pictures).\n*\"Citrus wakonai\" (also locally called kakamadu) has been reported from Goodenough Island.\n* \"Citrus wintersii\", also known as \"Citrus papuana\" (Brown River finger lime) has, as the name suggests, a small, thin fruit, pointed at both ends (pictures, more pictures). It grows near Port Moresby.\n* \"Clymenia sp.\" are native to the Bismarck Archipelago but are cultivated in other areas. \"Clymenia\" is now often considered to belong within the citrus genus.\n**\"Clymenia platypoda\"\n**\"Clymenia polyandra\" has a lemon-sized round fruit, pointed at one end (pictures)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Epigrus",
        "text": "The species of this genus are found in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "The \"Citrus australis\", contrary to its name, can also be found in the US, in California. While the \"Citrus australis\" can be take time to take root, it can be propagated similarly to other plants through leaf cuttings, usually by getting a clean stem cut after around the fourth node. The propagated plant can be slow to develop roots, and can also be budded onto \"Citrus\" rootstock. The lime can be propagated in order to bear more fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian lime",
        "text": "A number of cultivars have been developed in recent years. These can be grafted on to standard citrus rootstocks. They may be grown as ornamental trees in the garden or in containers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus oxanthera",
        "text": "Citrus oxanthera, synonym Oxanthera aurantium, is a species of plant in the family Rutaceae. Sometimes referred to commonly as the orange-flowered oxanthera, it is endemic to New Caledonia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyanothamnus subsessilis",
        "text": "Cyanothamnus subsessilis is a species of plant in the citrus family, Rutaceae and is endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. It is a woody, mostly glabrous shrub with simple leaves and flowers with four petals that are white on the front and green to blue on the back."
      },
      {
        "title": "Capparis mitchellii",
        "text": "\"The Useful Native Plants of Australia\" (1889) records that the plant was also commonly referred to as \"small native pomegranate,\" \"native orange\", and \"mondo\", and that \"The fruit is from one to two inches in diameter, and the pulp, which has an agreeable perfume, is eaten by the natives. It was found in all the colonies, except Tasmania and Western Australia\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arenopsaltria",
        "text": "The species of this genus are found in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Loxocarya",
        "text": "The entire genus is endemic to the State of Western Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyanothamnus acanthocladus",
        "text": "Cyanothamnus acanthocladus is a plant in the citrus family, Rutaceae and is endemic to a small area in the south-west of Western Australia. It is a low, prickly shrub with small leaves and white, four-petalled flowers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyanothamnus ramosus",
        "text": "Cyanothamnus ramosus is a species of plant in the citrus family Rutaceae and is endemic to the southwest of Western Australia. It is an erect, mostly glabrous shrub with pinnate leaves with up to seven leaflets, and white, four-petalled flowers with blue or pale green backs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sagocoris",
        "text": "The species of this genus are found in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyanothamnus defoliatus",
        "text": "Cyanothamnus defoliatus is a plant in the citrus family, Rutaceae and is endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. It is a straggly shrub with simple, thread-like leaves and white to pink, four-petalled flowers that are pale blue on the back."
      },
      {
        "title": "Backhousia",
        "text": "Sourced from the authoritative \"Australian Plant Name Index\" and \"Australian Plant Census\" . For taxa including undescribed species further afield outside Australia, for example likely in New Guinea, this list lacks them\u2014refer also to the genus \"Kania\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Symonanthus",
        "text": "Its native range is Western Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyanothamnus inconspicuus",
        "text": "Cyanothamnus inconspicuus is a plant in the citrus family, Rutaceae and is endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. It is a shrub with pinnate leaves and small white or creamy green flowers with four petals and eight stamens and occurs from the Stirling Range to Mount Ragged."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monanthocitrus",
        "text": "It is a member of the tribe Citreae in the subfamily Aurantioideae, which includes the genus \"Citrus\". It is one of several genera in the subtribe Triphasiinae, which are known technically as the minor citroid fruit trees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyanothamnus fabianoides",
        "text": "Cyanothamnus fabianoides is a plant in the citrus family, Rutaceae and is endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. It is a compact shrub with many branches, simple, more or less cylindrical leaves and single white, pink or pale blue four-petalled flowers in the leaf axils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australasica",
        "text": "Citrus australasica\n--Description.\n--Cultivation and uses.\n----History.\n----Rising demand.\n----Diseases.\n--Taxonomy.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Keyacris",
        "text": "The species of this genus are found in Southern Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus cavaleriei",
        "text": "It is native to southwestern and west-central China and is likely named for the city of Yichang (\u5b9c\u660c), in China's Hubei province."
      },
      {
        "title": "Confluphyllia",
        "text": "The species of this genus are found in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pittosporum multiflorum",
        "text": "The 1889 book 'The Useful Native Plants of Australia records that common names included \"Native Orange\" and \"Orange Thorn\" and that \"The fruit is an orange berry with a leathery skin, about one inch and a half in diameter. The seeds are large. It is eaten by the aboriginals [sic.].\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus glauca",
        "text": "A shrub or small tree to , it has several unusual characteristics. It is cold, heat, drought and salinity tolerant and thought evergreen. If the rains should fail it will shed its leaves and live off the green bark on the plant branches. It will set fruit almost immediately after flowering and is the earliest citrus to do so. Fruit is small and variable and depends on current climatic conditions and genetic make-up. Thorns appear on low-growing branches to prevent grazing by rabbits, kangaroos, cattle etc. but cease on branches above the grazing level. The limes are small with an intense piquant flavour, and good rainfall years produce an abundance of fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Onychosepalum",
        "text": "The entire genus is endemic to the State of Western Australia."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is the genus Citrus native to Australia?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Citrus plants are native to subtropical and tropical regions of Asia, Island Southeast Asia, Near Oceania, and northeastern Australia. Some native varieties in Austrailia are Australian finger, round desert limes, Mount White limes, Kakadu lime or Humpty Doo lime, and Russel River limes and Maiden's Australian limes."
    ],
    "topic": "Citrus",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Citrus:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Citrus",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "Citrus plants are native to subtropical and tropical regions of Asia, Island Southeast Asia, Near Oceania, and northeastern Australia. Domestication of citrus species involved much hybridization and introgression, leaving much uncertainty about when and where domestication first happened. A genomic, phylogenic, and biogeographical analysis by Wu \"et al.\" (2018) has shown that the center of origin of the genus \"Citrus\" is likely the southeast foothills of the Himalayas, in a region stretching from eastern Assam, northern Myanmar, to western Yunnan. It diverged from a common ancestor with \"Poncirus trifoliata\". A change in climate conditions during the Late Miocene (11.63 to 5.33 mya) resulted in a sudden speciation event. The species resulting from this event include the citrons (\"Citrus\u00a0medica\") of South Asia; the pomelos (\"C.\u00a0maxima\") of Mainland Southeast Asia; the mandarins (\"C.\u00a0reticulata\"), kumquats (\"C.\u00a0japonica\"), mangshanyegan (\"C.\u00a0mangshanensis\"), and ichang papedas (\"C.\u00a0cavaleriei\") of southeastern China; the kaffir limes (\"C.\u00a0hystrix\") of Island Southeast Asia; and the biasong and samuyao (\"C.\u00a0micrantha\") of the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Citrus:16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Citrus",
          "Taxonomy"
        ],
        "ctx": "Apart from these core citrus species, Australian limes and the recently discovered mangshanyegan are grown. Kumquats and \"Clymenia\" spp. are now generally considered to belong within the genus \"Citrus\". Trifoliate orange, which is often used as commercial rootstock, is an outgroup and may or may not be categorized as a citrus."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus plants are native to subtropical and tropical regions of Asia, Island Southeast Asia, Near Oceania, and northeastern Australia. Domestication of citrus species involved much hybridization and introgression, leaving much uncertainty about when and where domestication first happened. A genomic, phylogenic, and biogeographical analysis by Wu \"et al.\" (2018) has shown that the center of origin of the genus \"Citrus\" is likely the southeast foothills of the Himalayas, in a region stretching from eastern Assam, northern Myanmar, to western Yunnan. It diverged from a common ancestor with \"Poncirus trifoliata\". A change in climate conditions during the Late Miocene (11.63 to 5.33 mya) resulted in a sudden speciation event. The species resulting from this event include the citrons (\"Citrus\u00a0medica\") of South Asia; the pomelos (\"C.\u00a0maxima\") of Mainland Southeast Asia; the mandarins (\"C.\u00a0reticulata\"), kumquats (\"C.\u00a0japonica\"), mangshanyegan (\"C.\u00a0mangshanensis\"), and ichang papedas (\"C.\u00a0cavaleriei\") of southeastern China; the kaffir limes (\"C.\u00a0hystrix\") of Island Southeast Asia; and the biasong and samuyao (\"C.\u00a0micrantha\") of the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus is a genus of flowering trees and shrubs in the rue family, Rutaceae. Plants in the genus produce citrus fruits, including important crops such as oranges, lemons, grapefruits, pomelos, and limes. The genus \"Citrus\" is native to South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Melanesia, and Australia. Various citrus species have been used and domesticated by indigenous cultures in these areas since ancient times. From there its cultivation spread into Micronesia and Polynesia by the Austronesian expansion (c. 3000\u20131500 BCE); and to the Middle East and the Mediterranean (c. 1200 BCE) via the incense trade route, and onwards to Europe and the Americas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The genus \"Citrus\" has been suggested to originate in the eastern Himalayan foothills. Prior to human cultivation, it consisted of just a few species, though the status of some as distinct species has yet to be confirmed:\n* \"Citrus crenatifolia\" \u2013 species name is unresolved, from Sri Lanka\n* \"Citrus japonica\" \u2013 kumquats, from East Asia ranging into Southeast Asia (sometimes separated into four-five \"Fortunella\" species)\n* \"Citrus mangshanensis\" \u2013 species name is unresolved, from Hunan, China\n* \"Citrus maxima\" \u2013 pomelo (pummelo, shaddock), from the Island Southeast Asia\n* \"Citrus medica\" \u2013 citron, from India\n* \"Citrus platymamma\" \u2013 \"byeonggyul\", from Jeju Island, Korea\n* \"Citrus reticulata\" \u2013 mandarin orange, from China\n* \"Citrus trifoliata\" \u2013 trifoliate orange, from Korea and adjacent China (often separated as \"Poncirus\")\n* Australian limes\n**\"Citrus australasica\" \u2013 Australian finger lime\n** \"Citrus australis\" \u2013 Australian round lime\n** \"Citrus garrawayi \" \u2013 Mount White lime\n** \"Citrus glauca\" \u2013 Australian desert lime\n** \"Citrus gracilis\" \u2013 Kakadu lime or Humpty Doo lime\n** \"Citrus inodora\" \u2013 Russel River lime and Maiden's Australian lime\n** \"Citrus warburgiana \" \u2013 New Guinea wild lime\n** \"Citrus wintersii \" \u2013 Brown River finger lime\n* Papedas, including\n**\"Citrus halimii\" \u2013 \"limau kadangsa\", \"limau kedut kera\", from Thailand and Malaya\n** \"Citrus hystrix\" \u2013 Kaffir lime, \"makrut\", from Mainland Southeast Asia to Island Southeast Asia\n** \"Citrus cavaleriei\" \u2013 Ichang papeda from southern China\n** \"Citrus celebica\" \u2013 Celebes papeda\n** \"Citrus indica\" \u2013 Indian wild orange, from the Indian subcontinent\n** \"Citrus latipes\" \u2013 Khasi papeda, from Assam, Meghalaya, Burma\n** \"Citrus longispina\" \u2013 Megacarpa papeda, winged lime, blacktwig lime\n** \"Citrus macrophylla\" \u2013 Alemow\n** \"Citrus macroptera\" \u2013 Melanesian papeda from Indochina to Melanesia\n** \"Citrus micrantha, Citrus westeri\" \u2013 \"biasong\" or \"samuyao\" from the southern Philippines\n** \"Citrus webberi\" \u2013 Kalpi, Malayan lemon"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "This was later followed by the spread of citrus species into Taiwan and Japan in the Early Pliocene (5.33 to 3.6 mya), resulting in the tachibana orange (\"C.\u00a0tachibana\"); and beyond the Wallace Line into Papua New Guinea and Australia during the Early Pleistocene (2.5\u00a0million to 800,000 years ago), where further speciation events occurred resulting in the Australian limes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "All of the wild 'pure' citrus species trace to a common ancestor that lived in the Himalayan foothills, where a late-Miocene citrus fossil, \"Citrus linczangensis\", has been found. At that time, a lessening of the monsoons and resultant drier climate in the region allowed the citrus ancestor to expand across south and east Asia in a rapid genetic radiation. After the plant crossed the Wallace line a second radiation took place in the early Pliocene (about 4 million years ago) to give rise to the Australian species. Most modern cultivars are actually hybrids derived from a small number of 'pure' original species. Though hundreds of species names have been assigned, a recent genomic study by Wu, \"et al.\" identified just ten ancestral species of citrus among more than a hundred cultivars studied. Of these ten, seven were native to Asia: pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\"), the 'pure' mandarins (\"C. reticulata\" \u2013 most mandarin cultivars were hybrids of this species with pomelo), citrons (\"C. medica\"), micranthas (\"C. micrantha\"), the Ichang papeda (\"C. cavaleriei\"), the mangshanyegan (\"C. mangshanensis\"), and the oval (Nagami) kumquat (\"Fortunella margarita\" or \"C. japonica\" var. \"margarita\"). Three from Australia were identified: the desert lime (\"C. glauca\"), round lime (\"C. australis\") and the finger lime (\"C. australasica\"). Many other cultivars previously identified as species were found to be closely related variants (subspecies or varieties) or hybrids of these species, though not all cultivars were evaluated. Subsequent studies have added two additional species to this list of pure species: a mandarin native to the Ryukyu Islands designated \"C. ryukyuensis\", and a rare wild species from Southeast Asia, the mountain citron. A number of further species originally placed in other genera have recently been subsumed into \"Citrus\" as a result of phylogenetic analysis, but these have yet to be characterized on a phylogenomic level to confirm their status as unique pure species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "The \"Citrus australis\" is a Microcitrus, which is a cluster that contains the \"Citrus australis\" as well as other limes such as the New Guinea lime or the New Guinea wild lime. Through DNA replication and phylogenetic relationships, it is believed that the \"Citrus australis\" has evolved over millions of years, from a primitive ancestral type that underwent speciation in Australia and New Guinea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "A member of the Rutaceae family, \"Citrus australis\" is also known as the Australian round lime, Australia sweet, dooja, Gympie lime, native lime, native orange, or the round lime. It is part of the three main types of indigenous limes that can be found in Australia: the first is the Australian finger lime (\"Citrus australasica\"), the second is the Australian desert lime (\"Citrus glauca\"), and finally the Australian round lime. The citruses can hybridize with other citrus species and develop other characteristics, such as drought resistance, salinity tolerance, and disease resistance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The large citrus fruit of today evolved originally from small, edible berries over millions of years. Citrus species began to diverge from a common ancestor about 15 million years ago, at about the same time that \"Severinia\" (such as the Chinese box orange) diverged from the same ancestor. About 7 million years ago, the ancestors of \"Citrus\" split into the main genus, \"Citrus\", and the genus \"Poncirus\" (such as the trifoliate orange), which is closely enough related that it can still be hybridized with all other citrus and used as rootstock. These estimates are made using genetic mapping of plant chloroplasts. A DNA study published in \"Nature\" in 2018 concludes that the genus \"Citrus\" first evolved in the foothills of the Himalayas, in the area of Assam (India), western Yunnan (China), and northern Myanmar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Australian and New Guinean citrus species had been viewed as belonging to separate genera by Swingle, who placed in \"Microcitrus\" all but the desert lime, which he assigned to \"Eremocitrus\". However, genomic analysis shows that though they form a distinct clade from other citrus, this is nested within the citrus phylogenetic tree, most closely related to kumquats, suggesting that all these species should be included in the genus \"Citrus\". Wu, \"et al.\", found that several of the finger lime cultivars were actually hybrids with round lime, and concluded there were just three species among those tested, desert lime (\"C. glauca\"), round lime (\"C. australis\") and the finger lime (\"C. australasica\"), though their analysis did not include other types previously identified as distinct species. In more limited genomic analysis, the New Guinea wild lime, \"Clymenia\" and \"Oxanthera\" (false orange) all cluster with the Australian limes as members of \"Citrus\". The outback lime is a desert lime agriculturally selected for more commercial traits, while some commercial varieties of the Australian lime are hybrids with mandarins, lemons, and/or sweet oranges. \"Clymenia\", will hybridize with kumquats and some limes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "In China, fossil leaf specimens of \u2020\"Citrus linczangensis\" have been collected from coal-bearing strata of the Bangmai Formation in the Bangmai village, about 10\u00a0km (6 miles) northwest of Lincang City, Yunnan. The Bangmai Formation contains abundant fossil plants and is considered to be of late Miocene age. \"Citrus linczangensis\" and \"C. meletensis\" share some important characters, such as an intramarginal vein, an entire margin, and an articulated and distinctly winged petiole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "These initial attempts at \"Citrus\" systematization all predated the recognition, which began to gain traction in the mid-1970s, that the majority of cultivars represent hybrids of just three species, citron, mandarin and pomelo. Phylogenetic analysis confirms this hybrid origin of most citrus cultivars, indicating a small number of founder species. While the subgenera suggested by Tanaka proved similar to the phylogenetic divisions of pure founder species, Swingle's subgenera were polyphyletic, and hence do not represent valid taxonomy. His novel genera also fail to withstand phylogenetic analysis. Swingle had elevated kumquats into a separate genus \"Fortunella\", while two genera were suggested by him for the Australian limes, \"Microcitrus\" and \"Eremocitrus\". However, genomic analysis shows these groups nested within the phylogenetic tree of \"Citrus\". Since their placement in distinct genera would make \"Citrus\" a paraphyletic grouping, it has been suggested that all of these are correctly members of the genus \"Citrus\". Similarly, genomic analysis has suggested that other genera previously split off from \"Citrus\" likewise belong within this expanded phylogenetic concept of the genus \"Citrus\", including \"Clymenia\", \"Oxanthera\" (false oranges, moved out of \"Citrus\" to a different branch of the tribe Citreae and given a new genus by Swingle) and more controversially \"Poncirus\", which is the earliest branching of Swingle's genera, and a genus not previously recognized as a close citrus relative, \"Feroniella\". There remains a lack of consensus as to which wild plants and hybrids merit distinct species status, a phenomenon exacerbated by the prior failure to correctly identify the genetically pure citrus strains and distinguish them from hybrids."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lime (fruit)",
        "text": "Most species and hybrids of citrus plants called \"limes\" have varying origins within tropical Southeast Asia and South Asia. They were spread throughout the world via migration and trade. The makrut lime, in particular, was one of the earliest citrus fruits introduced to other parts of the world by humans. They were spread into Micronesia and Polynesia via the Austronesian expansion (c. 3000\u20131500 BCE). They were also later spread into Middle East, and the Mediterranean region via the spice trade and the incense trade routes from as early as ~1200 BCE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The three ancestral (sometimes characterized as \"original\" or \"fundamental\") species in the genus \"Citrus\" associated with modern \"Citrus\" cultivars are the mandarin orange, pomelo, and citron. Almost all of the common commercially important citrus fruits (sweet oranges, lemons, grapefruit, limes, and so on) are hybrids involving these three species with each other, their main progenies, and other wild \"Citrus\" species within the last few thousand years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richmond William Hullett",
        "text": "One of the most significant cases of lost plants is that of the wild Malaysian citrus tree believed to be 12 million years old (now endangered). \"Citrus halimii\" (a close relative of the kumquat and pomelo variety of citrus), was collected by William Tatton Egerton on Mount Ophir, 28 December 1902. In a letter to Henry Nicholas Ridley, Egerton writes:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The earliest introductions of citrus species by human migrations was during the Austronesian expansion (c. 3000\u20131500 BCE), where \"Citrus hystrix\", \"Citrus macroptera\", and \"Citrus maxima\" were among the canoe plants carried by Austronesian voyagers eastwards into Micronesia and Polynesia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus warburgiana",
        "text": "This wild lime is a species of \"Microcitrus\" according to the Swingle system, called \"Microcitrus warburgiana\", and according to the classification of David Mabberley, it is to be called \"Citrus warburgiana\". It is the only \"Microcitrus\" coming from outside Australia. Being native to New Guinea, the closest \"Microcitrus\" to it is away, namely \"Citrus garrawayi\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richmond William Hullett",
        "text": "Prior to human cultivation the genus citrus originated in South East Asia and consisted of just a few specimens. The leaves and fruit were brought back by Hullett but they seemed to have been \u2018lost\u2019 for over 70 years, nobody knows quite what happened to them. However, when the seedling was \u2018rediscovered\u2019 in the Herbarium of the Botanic Gardens Singapore, it was documented, and named in 1973. Erroneous labelling of some specimens may account for the seeming disappearance of some varieties of plants. Important varieties of Hullett\u2019s collection remain to this day in the Herbarium of the Botanic Gardens Singapore. \"Citrus halimii\", was named after the King of Malaysia His Majesty Duli Yang Maha Mulia Seri Paduka Baginda Yang DiPertuan Agong of Malaysia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian lime",
        "text": "Species include:\n*\"Citrus australasica\" (Finger lime), a species from rainforest regions of northern New South Wales and Southern Queensland with elongated yellow-green to purple fruits.\n*\"Citrus australis\" (Round lime or Dooja), a species from south-eastern Australia with round, green fruits\n*\"Citrus glauca\" (Desert lime), from arid inland areas of inland Australia. Small round fruits are produced in summer.\n* \"Citrus garrawayi\", (Mount White lime) is rare and endemic to the Cook District of Cape York Peninsula.\n* \"Citrus gracilis\" (Kakadu lime or Humpty Doo lime) grows in eucalypt woodland in the Northern Territory and was first described in the scientific literature in 1998.\n* \"Citrus inodora\" (Russell River lime or large-leaf Australian wild lime) is rare, and endemic to northern Queensland.\n* \"Citrus maideniana\" (Maiden's Australian wild lime) may be a subspecies of \"C. inodora\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "The \"Citrus australis\" can be found in southeast Queensland, especially from Brisbane northwards in the lowland sub-tropical rainforests. The lime's characteristics include growing slowly and needing protection, especially when the plant is still young. The thorns on the stems provide protection from wild animals. It is also preferable for the continued preservation of soil moisture to improve fertility of the species, and for health of the soil. This is also most required during dry seasons. Despite this, it is still considered to be a hardy plant, and will thrive during the winter, being moderately frost tolerant. The plant will be scattered most commonly by scavengers who eat the fruits and tear it apart."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australasica",
        "text": "Citrus australasica, the Australian finger lime or caviar lime, is a thorny understorey shrub or small tree of lowland subtropical rainforest and rainforest in the coastal border region of Queensland and New South Wales, Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australasica",
        "text": "Historically the finger lime was viewed as a member of the genus \"Citrus\". The Swingle system of taxonomy instead divided the historical true citrus into seven genera, placing the finger lime along with the round lime in a novel genus, \"Microcitrus\". However, subsequent studies have favored a broader concept of \"Citrus\" that reunites the genera separated by Swingle, restoring the finger lime to \"Citrus\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus glauca",
        "text": "A shrub or small tree to , it has several unusual characteristics. It is cold, heat, drought and salinity tolerant and thought evergreen. If the rains should fail it will shed its leaves and live off the green bark on the plant branches. It will set fruit almost immediately after flowering and is the earliest citrus to do so. Fruit is small and variable and depends on current climatic conditions and genetic make-up. Thorns appear on low-growing branches to prevent grazing by rabbits, kangaroos, cattle etc. but cease on branches above the grazing level. The limes are small with an intense piquant flavour, and good rainfall years produce an abundance of fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "\"Citrus australis\" is a tree up to tall. Fruits are spherical or slightly pear-shaped, across, with a thick green or yellow skin and pale green pulp. The 1889 book \"The Useful Native Plants of Australia\" records that \"The fruit, which is an inch and a-half in diameter and almost globular, yields an agreeable beverage from its acid juice.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "Citrus australis, the Dooja, round lime, Australian lime or Australian round lime, is a large shrub or small tree producing an edible fruit. It grows in forest margins in the Beenleigh area and northwards, in Queensland, Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Apart from these core citrus species, Australian limes and the recently discovered mangshanyegan are grown. Kumquats and \"Clymenia\" spp. are now generally considered to belong within the genus \"Citrus\". Trifoliate orange, which is often used as commercial rootstock, is an outgroup and may or may not be categorized as a citrus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Most commercial varieties are descended from one or more of the 'core species', citrons, mandarins, and pomelos, which share in common a complex floral anatomy that gives rise to more complex fruit. These core species, and to a lesser extent other citrus, have given rise to a wide variety of hybrids for which the naming is inconsistent. The same common names may be given to different species, citrus hybrids or mutations. For example, citrus with green fruit tend to be called 'limes' independent of their origin: Australian limes, musk limes, Key limes, kaffir limes, Rangpur limes, sweet limes and wild limes are all genetically distinct. Fruit with similar ancestry may be quite different in name and traits (e.g. grapefruit, common oranges, and ponkans, all pomelo-mandarin hybrids). Many traditional citrus groups, such as true sweet oranges and lemons, seem to be bud sports, clonal families of cultivars that have arisen from distinct spontaneous mutations of a single hybrid ancestor. Novel varieties, and in particular seedless or reduced-seed varieties, have also been generated from these unique hybrid ancestral lines using gamma irradiation of budwood to induce mutations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Swingle's system divided the Citrinae subtribe into three groups, the 'primitive citrus' distant relatives, the closer 'near citrus' including citrus-related genera like \"Atalantia\", and the \"true citrus\", for the species that had historically been placed in \"Citrus\" but many of which he elevated to separate genera: \"Poncirus\" (trifoliate orange), \"Fortunella\" (kumquat), \"Eremocitrus\" (desert limes), \"Microcitrus\" (finger and round limes), as well as an additional genus, \"Clymenia\", formerly thought to be a citrus hybrid. His \"Citrus\" he likewise subdivided into two subgenera: citrons, pomelos, mandarins, oranges, grapefruits and lemons were placed in subgenus \"Eucitrus\" (later called simply subgenus \"Citrus\"), while the hardy but slow-growing trees with relatively unpalatable fruit he placed in subgenus \"Papeda\". His genus \"Citrus\" consisted of just 16 species, dividing them further into varieties, and lastly cultivars or hybrids. The Swingle system is generally followed globally today with much modification; there are still large differences in nomenclature between countries and individual scientists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "There are two phases of speciation, where the first phase comes from the late Miocene of East and Southeast Asia. These include the \"Citrus medica\" (citrons), \"Citrus maxima\", \"Citrus reticulata\", \"Citrus hystrix\", \"Citrus ichangensis\", \"Citrus japonica\", and \"Citrus mangshanensis\". The second phase of speciation is from the early\u00a0Pliocene\u00a0of\u00a0Oceania\u00a0and\u00a0include\u00a0three\u00a0Australian\u00a0species\u00a0of \"Citrus\u00a0glauca\",\u00a0\"Citrus\u00a0australasica\", and \"Citrus\u00a0australis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus glauca",
        "text": "Under the Swingle system, the desert lime was classified in the genus \"Eremocitrus\", a close relative of the genus \"Citrus\". More recent taxonomy considers all the Australian limes to be included in the genus \"Citrus\", and most authorities treat the desert lime this way. \"Citrus glauca\" is one of the most resilient \"Citrus\" species, and is comparatively heat, drought, and cold tolerant. Hence the species is potentially important for \"Citrus\" breeding programs, and readily hybridises with many common \"Citrus\" species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Citrus taxonomy\n--Genetic history.\n--Citrus naming systems.\n--Core species and hybrids.\n----Ancestral species.\n------Mandarins.\n------Pomelos.\n------Citrons.\n------Papedas.\n------Kumquats.\n------Australian and New Guinean species.\n------Trifoliate orange.\n--Hybrids.\n----Labelling of hybrids.\n----Major citrus hybrids.\n----Hybrids from other citrus species.\n------\"Citrofortunella\".\n------\"Citroncirus\".\n--Graft hybrids.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "While most citrus hybrids derive from the three core species, hybrids have also been derived from the micrantha, Ichang papeda, kumquat, Australian limes, and trifoliate orange. The best known hybrid from micrantha is the Key lime (or Mexican lime), derived from the breeding of a male citron and a female micrantha. Several citrus varieties are Ichang papeda/mandarin crosses (for which Swingle coined the term ichandarin), including Sudachi and Yuzu (which also includes smaller contributions from pomelo and kumquat). Other more exotic citrus have likewise proved hybrids that include papeda. For example, the Indian wild orange, once suggested as a possible ancestor of today's cultivated citrus fruits, yielded conflicting phylogenetic placements in more limited genetic analysis, but study of nuclear markers and chloroplast DNA showed it to be of maternal citron lineage, with further genetic contributions from mandarin and papeda."
      },
      {
        "title": "Papeda (citrus)",
        "text": "It is believed, based on molecular studies, that the citron, pomelo, mandarin and papedas were the ancestors of most hybrid citrus species and their varieties, which resulted from breeding or natural hybridization among the parental species. For example, the Key lime, a hybrid between a papeda, the micrantha, and a citron, has in turn given rise to many commercial types of limes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "While not necessarily the most primary use, the \"Citrus australis\" can also be used for creating hybrids. As it is one of the most commonly seen vigorous native Australian species, it is worth noting that they are not resistant to viroid infection. This makes them an ideal target for trying to trace the history of the \"Citrus australis\". An example of this is the Sydney hybrid. The Sydney hybrid is a result of a hybrid between the \"Citrus australis\" and the \"Citrus australasica\", and is found primarily in Australia. Other names for the Sydney hybrid include \"Microcitrus x virgate\" H.\u00a0Hume or \"Citrus x virgate\" Mabb. The appearance of the lime when compared to its parents most commonly resembles the \"Citrus australasica\" with the size of the leaves and the shape of the fruit. The Sydney hybrid is elongated, about with a rounded apex, compared to the \"Citrus australis\" which is more circular in shape. It is also known to be very drought-resistant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus\n--History.\n----Etymology.\n----Evolution.\n----Fossil record.\n--Taxonomy.\n--Description.\n----Tree.\n----Fruit.\n--Cultivation.\n----Production.\n----As ornamental plants.\n----Pests and diseases.\n------Deficiency diseases.\n--Uses.\n----Culinary.\n----Phytochemicals and research.\n--List of citrus fruits.\n----Hybrids and cultivars.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "A fossil leaf from the Pliocene of Valdarno (Italy) is described as \u2020\"Citrus meletensis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus warburgiana",
        "text": "It is a poorly known tree species. It has dark green, spherical fruits about in diameter. It is taxonomically an Australian lime:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Detailed genomic analysis of wild and domesticated citrus cultivars has suggested that the progenitor of modern citrus species expanded out of the Himalayan foothills in a rapid radiation that has produced at least 11 wild species in South and East Asia and Australia, with more than a half-dozen additional candidates for which either insufficient characterization prevents definitive species designation, or there is a lack of consensus for their placement within the \"Citrus\" genus rather than sister genera. Most commercial cultivars are the product of hybridization among these wild species, with most coming from crosses involving citrons, mandarins and pomelos. Many different phylogenies for the non-hybrid citrus have been proposed, and the phylogeny based on their nuclear genome does not match that derived from their chloroplast DNA, probably a consequence of the rapid initial divergence. Taxonomic terminology is not yet settled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian lime",
        "text": "Australian limes are species of the plant genus \"Citrus\" that are native to Australia and Papua New Guinea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citron",
        "text": "The citron is an old and original citrus species. There is molecular evidence that most cultivated citrus species arose by hybridization of a small number of ancestral types, including citron, pomelo, mandarin and to a lesser extent, papedas and kumquat. The citron is usually fertilized by self-pollination, which results in their displaying a high degree of genetic homozygosity. It is the male parent of any citrus hybrid rather than a female one."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lime (fruit)",
        "text": "The difficulty in identifying exactly which species of fruit are called lime in different parts of the English-speaking world (and the same problem applies to synonyms in other European languages) is increased by the botanical complexity of the citrus genus itself, to which the majority of limes belong. Species of this genus hybridise readily, and it is only recently that genetic studies have started to shed light on the structure of the genus. The majority of cultivated species are in reality hybrids, produced from the citron (\"Citrus medica\"), the mandarin orange (\"Citrus reticulata\"), the pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\") and in particular with many lime varieties, the micrantha (\"Citrus hystrix\" var. micrantha).\n* Australian limes (former \"Microcitrus\" and \"Eremocitrus\")\n** Australian desert lime (\"Citrus glauca\")\n** Australian finger lime (\"Citrus australasica\")\n** Australian lime (\"Citrus australis\")\n** Blood lime (red finger lime \u00d7 (sweet orange \u00d7 mandarin))\n* Makrut lime (\"Citrus hystrix\"); a papeda relative, is one of the three most widely produced limes globally.\n* Key lime (\"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"aurantiifolia\"=\"Citrus micrantha\" \u00d7 \"Citrus medica\") is also one of the three most widely produced limes globally.\n* Philippine lime (\"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"microcarpa\"), a kumquat \u00d7 mandarin hybrid\n* Persian lime (\"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"latifolia\") a key lime \u00d7 lemon hybrid, is the single most widely produced lime globally, with Mexico being the largest producer.\n* Rangpur lime (Mandarin lime, lemandarin, \"Citrus limonia\"), a mandarin orange \u00d7 citron hybrid\n* Spanish lime (\"Melicoccus bijugatus\"); not a citrus\n* Sweet lime etc. (\"Citrus limetta\", etc.); several distinct citrus hybrids\n* Wild lime (\"Adelia ricinella\"); not a citrus\n* Wild lime (\"Zanthoxylum fagara\"); not a citrus\n* Limequat (lime \u00d7 kumquat)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australasica",
        "text": "Research conducted since the 1970s indicated that a wild selection of \"C. australasica\" was highly resistant to \"Phytophthora citrophthora\" root disease, which has resulted in a cross-breeding program with finger lime to develop disease-resistant citrus rootstock. In 2020, researchers began working with \"C. australasica\" to develop solutions for Citrus greening disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Most cultivated \"Citrus\" spp. seem to be natural or artificial hybrids of a small number of core ancestral species, including the citron, pomelo, mandarin, and papeda (see image). Natural and cultivated citrus hybrids include commercially important fruit such as oranges, grapefruit, lemons, limes, and some tangerines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "\"Citrus reticulata\"\u2013based\n* Bergamot orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"bergamia\" (\"C.\" \u00d7\"limon\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"aurantium\")\n* Bitter orange, Seville Orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"aurantium\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C. reticulata\")\n* Blood orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"sinensis\" cultivars\n* Calamansi, Calamondin \u2013 (\"Citrus reticulata\" \u00d7 \"Citrus japonica\")\n* Cam s\u00e0nh \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Chinotto \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"aurantium\" var. \"myrtifolia\" or \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"myrtifolia\"\n* ChungGyun \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cultivar\n* Clementine \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"clementina\"\n* Cleopatra Mandarin \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"reshni\"\n* Siranui \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cv. 'Dekopon' (ChungGyun \u00d7 Ponkan)\n* Daidai \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"aurantium\" var. \"daidai\" or \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"daidai\"\n* Encore \u2013 ((\"Citrus reticulata\" x \"sinensis\") x \"C. deliciosa\")\n* Grapefruit \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"paradisi\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Hermandina \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cv. 'Hermandina'\n* Imperial lemon \u2013 ((\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C. medica\") \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Iyokan, \"anadomikan\" \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"iyo\"\n* Jabara \u2013 (\"Citrus jabara\")\n* Kanpei \u2013 (\"Citrus reticulata\" 'Kanpei')\n* Kinkoji unshiu \u2013 (\"Citrus obovoidea\" x \"unshiu\")\n* Kinnow, Wilking \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"nobilis\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"deliciosa\")\n* Kishumikan \u2013 (\"Citrus kinokuni\")\n* Kiyomi \u2013 (\"C. sinensis\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"unshiu\")\n* Kobayashi mikan \u2013 (\"Citrus natsudaidai\" x \"unshiu\")\n* Koji orange \u2013 (\"Citrus leiocarpa\")\n* Kuchinotsu No.37 \u2013 ('Kiyomi' x 'Encore')\n* Laraha \u2013 \"\"C.\" \u00d7\"aurantium\" ssp. \"currassuviencis\"\n* Mediterranean mandarin, Willow Leaf \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"deliciosa\"\n* Meyer lemon, Valley Lemon \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"meyeri\" (\"C. medica\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Michal mandarin \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cv. 'Michal'\n* Mikan, Satsuma \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"unshiu\"\n* Murcott \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" x \"sinensis\")\n* Naartjie \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. nobilis\")\n* Nova mandarin, Clemenvilla\n* Orangelo, Chironja \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Oroblanco, Sweetie \u2013 (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"limettioides\" (\"C. medica\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Ponkan \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cv. 'Ponkan'\n* Rangpur, Lemanderin, Mandarin Lime \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"limonia\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. medica\")\n* Reikou \u2013 (Kuchinotsu No.37 x 'Murcott')\n* Rough lemon \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"jambhiri\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. medica\")\n* Sanbokan \u2013 \"Citrus sulcata\"\n* Setoka \u2013 (Kuchinotsu No.37 x 'Murcott')\n* Shekwasha, Hirami Lemon, Taiwan Tangerine \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"depressa\"\n* Sunki, Suenkat \u2013 \"Citrus\" \"sunki\" or \"C. reticulata\" var. \"sunki\"\n* Sweet orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"sinensis\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C. reticulata\")\n* Tachibana orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \"tachibana\" or \"C. reticulata\" var. \"tachibana\"\n* Tangelo \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"tangelo\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\" or \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Tangerine \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"tangerina\"\n* Tangor \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"nobilis\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Ugli \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\" or \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Volkamer lemon \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"volkameriana\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. medica\")\n* Yukou \u2013 (\"Citrus yuko\")\n* Yuzu \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"junos\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"cavaleriei\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "All citrus trees belong to the single genus \"Citrus\" and remain almost entirely interfertile. This includes grapefruits, lemons, limes, oranges, and various other types and hybrids. As the interfertility of oranges and other citrus has produced numerous hybrids and cultivars, and bud mutations have also been selected, citrus taxonomy is fairly controversial, confusing or inconsistent. The fruit of any citrus tree is considered a hesperidium, a kind of modified berry; it is covered by a rind originated by a rugged thickening of the ovary wall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Berry (botany)",
        "text": "The history of cultivated citrus fruit remains unclear, although some recent research suggests a possible origin in Papuasia rather than continental southeast Asia. Chinese documents show that mandarins and pomelos were established in cultivation there by around 4,200 BP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus indica",
        "text": "This wild orange plant was originally characterized as one of the likely ancestors of today's cultivated citrus fruits, if not the main one. It was considered to be the most \"primitive\" citrus. However, genomic analysis has revealed it to be a citrus hybrid, with maternal citron ancestry and also mandarin orange and unspecified papeda contributions. It can be used as a citrus rootstock for cultivated citrus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australasica",
        "text": "Early settlers consumed the fruit and retained the trees when clearing for agriculture. Colonial botanists suggested that they should be cultivated, due to the lack of citrus alternatives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Artificial interbreeding seems possible among all citrus plants, though there are certain limitations to natural interbreeding due to plant physiology and differences in natural breeding seasons. This ability to cross-pollinate extends to some related species that some classifications place in distinct genera. The ability of citrus hybrids to self-pollinate and to reproduce sexually also helps create new varieties, as does spontaneous mutation and genome duplication. The three most predominant ancestral citrus taxa are citron (\"C. medica\"), pomelo (\"C. maxima\"), and mandarin (\"C. reticulata\"). These taxa interbreed freely, despite being quite genetically distinct, having arisen through allopatric speciation, with citrons evolving in northern Indochina, pomelos in the Malay Archipelago, and mandarins in Vietnam, southern China, and Japan. The hybrids of these taxa include familiar citrus fruits like oranges, grapefruit, lemons, and some limes and tangerines. These three have also been hybridized with other citrus taxa, for example, the Key lime arose from a citron crossing with a micrantha. In many cases, the varieties are propagated asexually, and lose their characteristic traits if bred. Some of the hybrids have in turn interbred with one another hybrid or with the original taxa, making the citrus family tree a complicated network."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus neocaledonica",
        "text": "\"Citrus neocaledonica\" was originally named as a member of the genus \"Citrus\" by Andr\u00e9 Guillaumin in 1911, but the false oranges were moved to a novel genus \"Oxanthera\" in the Swingle and Tanaka systems of citrus taxonomy. Phylogenetic analysis showed that \"Oxanthera\" species clustered within \"Citrus\", which makes this species a member of that genus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Kumquats do not naturally interbreed with core taxa due to different flowering times, but hybrids (such as the calamansi) exist. Australian limes are native to Australia and Papua New Guinea, so they did not naturally interbreed with the core taxa, but they have been crossbred with mandarins and calamansis by modern breeders. Humans have deliberately bred new citrus fruits by propagating seedlings of spontaneous crosses (e.g. clementines), creating or selecting mutations of hybrids, (e.g. Meyer lemon), and crossing different varieties (e.g. 'Australian Sunrise', a finger lime and calamansi cross)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hemerochory",
        "text": "Many of the old cultivated plants have spread around the world, primarily through emigrants from Europe. Grown for at least 4,000 years, wheat was introduced to America in the 16th century and Australia in the 19th century. Orange, lemons, apricots and peaches were originally native to China. They probably came via the Silk Road as early as the 3rd century BC. In Asia Minor and from there through the Romans to the Mediterranean. European settlers, in turn, used these species to grow fruit in suitable regions of America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus inodora",
        "text": "Citrus maideniana, also known as Microcitrus maideniana, Citrus inodora var. maideniana, and Maiden's Australian lime, is sometimes considered a variety or subspecies of \"Citrus inodora\". The two have similar distributions and the deeply depressed apex of the fruit of \"Citrus maideniana\" is the only difference between it and \"Citrus inodora\". It is sometimes considered a synonym of \"Citrus inodora\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus wintersii",
        "text": "Citrus wintersii, the Brown River finger lime, is a shrub native to the Brown River region in Papua-New Guinea. It was previously known as Microcitrus papuana. It has, as the \"finger\" name suggests, a small, thin fruit, pointed at both ends. It grows near Port Moresby."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Lemons, pomelos, and sour oranges are believed to have been introduced to the Mediterranean later by Arab traders at around the 10th century CE; and sweet oranges by the Genoese and Portuguese from Asia during the 15th to 16th century. Mandarins were not introduced until the 19th century. This group of species has reached great importance in some of the Mediterranean countries, and in the case of orange, mandarin, and lemon trees, they found here soil and climatic conditions which allow them to achieve a high level of fruit quality, even better than in the regions from where they came."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The taxonomy and systematics of the genus are complex and the precise number of natural species is unclear, as many of the named species are hybrids clonally propagated through seeds (by apomixis), and genetic evidence indicates that even some wild, true-breeding species are of hybrid origin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian lime",
        "text": "These species were formerly included in the genera \"Microcitrus\" and \"Eremocitrus\". They have been used as a food source by indigenous Australians as well as early settlers and are used in modern Australian cuisine, including marmalade and sauces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus gracilis",
        "text": "Citrus gracilis, the Humpty Doo lime or Kakadu lime, is a straggly shrub endemic to eucalypt savannah woodlands of Northern Territory, Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rutaceae",
        "text": "The most economically important genus in the family is \"Citrus\", which includes the orange (\"C.\" \u00d7 \"sinensis\"), lemon (\"C.\" \u00d7 \"limon\"), grapefruit (\"C.\" \u00d7 \"paradisi\"), and lime (various, mostly \"C. aurantifolia\", the key lime). \"Boronia\" is a large Australian genus, some members of which are plants with highly fragrant flowers and are used in commercial oil production. Other large genera include \"Zanthoxylum\", \"Melicope\", and \"Agathosma\". About 160 genera are in the family Rutaceae."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The generic name originated from Latin, where it referred to either the plant now known as citron (\"C. medica\") or a conifer tree (\"Thuja\"). It is related to the ancient Greek word for cedar, \u03ba\u03ad\u03b4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 (\"k\u00e9dros\"). This may be due to perceived similarities in the smell of citrus leaves and fruit with that of cedar. Collectively, \"Citrus\" fruits and plants are also known by the Romance loanword \"agrumes\" (literally \"sour fruits\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian lime",
        "text": "Citrus species in Papua New Guinea have not been extensively studied, so the true number of species is unknown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus inodora",
        "text": "Citrus inodora or \"Microcitrus inodora\", commonly known as Russell River lime or large leaf Australian wild lime, is a tree native to the Bellenden-Ker Range in northern Queensland, Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citropsis",
        "text": "This genus is in the subfamily Aurantioideae, which also includes genus \"Citrus\". It is in the tribe Citreae and subtribe Citrinae, which are known technically as the citrus fruit trees. \"Citropsis\" and the genus \"Atalantia\" are also called near-citrus fruit trees. The genus \"Citropsis\" is thought to be an ancestral group of genus \"Citrus\". Fruit-bearing intergeneric hybrids have been established between \"Citropsis gabunensis\" and \"Citrus wakonai\". Demand for the roots may lead to the overexploitation of the tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Limeburner Point",
        "text": "It was in the vicinity of Limeburner Point that the first known specimens of \"Cephalotus follicularis\" (Western Australian Pitcher Plant) were collected by Ferdinand Bauer and William Westall in January 1802."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus glauca",
        "text": "Citrus glauca, commonly known as the desert lime, is a thorny shrub or small tree native to Queensland, New South Wales, and South Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian lime",
        "text": "An identification key (p.\u00a06 or 338) exists for the known Australian limes (not including species from Papua New Guinea). The leaves of some species broaden dramatically with age."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australasica",
        "text": "The CSIRO has also developed several \"Citrus\" hybrids by crossing the finger lime with standard \"Citrus\" species. These hybrids have created many cultivars which generate finger limes in many different colors ranging from light pink to deep blue-green. Finger lime is thought to have the widest range of color variation within any \"Citrus\" species. The color of the pulp (juice vesicles) comes in shades of green or pink including pale lime-green, pale pink, coral, and scarlet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quercus palmeri",
        "text": "\"Quercus palmeri\" usually grows in small populations, some of which are actually cloned growths of a single plant. One such clone in the Jurupa Mountains in Riverside County, California, named the Jurupa Oak, was determined to be over 13,000 years old, a single individual living as a relict from the Pleistocene. It is therefore one of the oldest living plants in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Etrog",
        "text": "Archaeological evidence for Citrus fruits is limited, as neither seeds nor pollen are likely to be routinely recovered in archaeology. The earliest evidence of \"etrogim\" in Israel is the 2012 discovery of citron pollen from the second century BCE in excavations at the Ramat Rachel site."
      },
      {
        "title": "University of California Citrus Experiment Station",
        "text": "The last quarter-century has also seen the release of several patented new varieties of citrus, starting with the 'Oroblanco' grapefruit in 1981 and continuing with the recent release of the 'Tango' mandarin. Another breeding program has yielded cowpea lines that are early-maturing and heat-tolerant, making them particularly well-suited to the drought conditions of West Africa, helping to reduce hunger and poverty there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Musgraveia sulciventris",
        "text": "Its native host plants include the desert lime (\"Citrus glauca\"), the Australian finger lime (\"Citrus australasica\"), and Correas. It has become a major pest of cultivated citrus crops, where it sucks the fluid from new growth and young fruit, causing them to turn yellow and drop off. Whole crops can be devastated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zanthoxylum fagara",
        "text": "Zanthoxylum fagara or wild lime, is a species of flowering plant that\u2014despite its name\u2014is not part of the genus \"Citrus\" with real limes and other fruit, but is a close cousin in the larger citrus family, Rutaceae. It is native to southern Florida and Texas in the United States, and to Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, and South America as far south as Paraguay. Common names include: lime prickly-ash, wild lime, colima, u\u00f1a de gato, and corriosa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Citrus is a genus of flowering plants including the orange and lemon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australasica",
        "text": "The plant is in height. Leaves are small, long and wide, glabrous, with a notched tip and crenate towards the apex. Flowers are white with petals long. The fruit is cylindrical, long, sometimes slightly curved, coming in different colours, including pink and green."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "The \"Citrus australis\" can be distinguished from other species by its pear-like shape of being slightly narrower at the top and wider at the bottom, compared to the spherical shape that is more commonly seen in limes. It is also about wide in diameter, making it easier to distinguish against common limes which tend to be bigger in size. They also differ from other common citrus fruits by the amount of yellow oil that they possess, which can be seen from inside the vesicles of these fruits. Compared to other citruses such as the finger lime, \"Citrus australasica\", or other Australian species of citrus, the vesicles differ in shape. Near the central axis of the \"Citrus australis\", larger vesicles can be seen, which secretes the oil. In nature, citruses that have higher oil yields have larger leaves compared to those that have lower oil yields. For example, the \"Citrus australis\" was found to have an oil yield of 0.3-0.5%, and the \"Citrus glauca\" was found to have an yield of 0.6%. These both have a leaf size of about than 3 to 4 x 2 long. Conversely, the \"Citrus inodora\" has an oil yield of 0.1%, the \"Citrus garrawayi\" has an oil yield of 0.1-0.2%, and both have smaller leaves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Phylogenetic analysis suggested the species of \"Oxanthera\" from New Caledonia, commonly known as false oranges, should be transferred to the genus \"Citrus\". The transfer has been accepted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "In general, three \"Citrus\" ancestral species (pomelos, citrons, and papedas) synthesize relatively high quantities of furanocoumarins, whereas a fourth ancestral species (mandarins) is practically devoid of these compounds. Since the production of furanocoumarins in plants is believed to be heritable, the descendants of mandarins (such as sweet oranges, tangerines, and other small mandarin hybrids) are expected to have low quantities of furanocoumarins, whereas other hybrids (such as limes, grapefruit, and sour oranges) are expected to have relatively high quantities of these compounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The citron (\"Citrus medica\") was also introduced early into the Mediterranean basin from India and Southeast Asia. It was introduced via two ancient trade routes: an overland route through Persia, the Levant and the Mediterranean islands; and a maritime route through the Arabian Peninsula and Ptolemaic Egypt into North Africa. Although the exact date of the original introduction is unknown due to the sparseness of archaeobotanical remains, the earliest evidence are seeds recovered from the Hala Sultan Tekke site of Cyprus, dated to around 1200 BCE. Other archaeobotanical evidence include pollen from Carthage dating back to the 4th century BCE; and carbonized seeds from Pompeii dated to around the 3rd to 2nd century BCE. The earliest complete description of the citron was first attested from Theophrastus, c. 310 BCE. The agronomists of classical Rome made many references to the cultivation of citrus fruits within the limits of their empire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parthenocarpy",
        "text": "Some parthenocarpic cultivars are of ancient origin. The oldest known cultivated plant is a parthenocarpic fig that was first grown at least 11,200 years ago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian lime",
        "text": "Grafted standards are available for some varieties. The cultivars include:\n*'Australian Outback' (or 'Australian Desert'), developed from several desert lime varieties\n*'Australian Red Centre' (or 'Australian Blood' or Blood Lime), a cross of finger lime and a mandarin-lemon or mandarin-sweet orange hybrid\n*'Australian Sunrise', a hybrid cross of finger lime and a calomondin which is pear shaped and orange inside\n* 'Rainforest Pearl', a pink-fruited form of finger lime from Bangalow, New South Wales\n* 'Sunrise Lime ', parentage unknown\n* 'Outback Lime', a desert lime cultivar\n* \"Citrus warburgiana\" (Kakamadu or New Guinea wild lime) grows on the south coast of the Papuan Peninsula near Alatau (pictures).\n*\"Citrus wakonai\" (also locally called kakamadu) has been reported from Goodenough Island.\n* \"Citrus wintersii\", also known as \"Citrus papuana\" (Brown River finger lime) has, as the name suggests, a small, thin fruit, pointed at both ends (pictures, more pictures). It grows near Port Moresby.\n* \"Clymenia sp.\" are native to the Bismarck Archipelago but are cultivated in other areas. \"Clymenia\" is now often considered to belong within the citrus genus.\n**\"Clymenia platypoda\"\n**\"Clymenia polyandra\" has a lemon-sized round fruit, pointed at one end (pictures)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Citrus taxonomy is complex and controversial. Cultivated citrus are derived from various citrus species found in the wild. Some are only selections of the original wild types, many others are hybrids between two or more original species, and some are backcrossed hybrids between a hybrid and one of the hybrid's parent species. Citrus plants hybridize easily between species with completely different morphologies, and similar-looking citrus fruits may have quite different ancestries. Some differ only in disease resistance. Conversely, different-looking varieties may be nearly genetically identical, and differ only by a bud mutation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "Citrus australis\n--Taxonomy.\n--Agroecology.\n--Uses.\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vitaceae",
        "text": "Well preserved-fruits of \"Indovitis chitaleyae\" containing seeds with similar morphology to the Vitaceae have been recovered from Late Cretaceous Deccan Intertrappean beds of several sites in central India. These fruits and their dispersed seeds found in the same sediments, about 66 million years old, represent the oldest known fossils of the grape family. The fossil fruits containing 4 to 6 seeds are very similar to extant \"Vitis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "According to genetic studies, the mandarin was one of the original citrus species; through breeding or natural hybridization, it is the ancestor of many hybrid citrus cultivars. With the citron and pomelo, it is the ancestor of the most commercially important hybrids (such as sweet and sour oranges, grapefruit, and many lemons and limes). The mandarin has also been hybridized with other citrus species, such as the desert lime and the kumquat. Though the ancestral mandarin was bitter, most commercial mandarin strains derive from hybridization with pomelo, which give them a sweet fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "All of these hybrids have in turn been bred back with their parent stocks or with other pure or hybrid citrus to form a broad array of fruits. Naming of these is inconsistent, with some bearing a variant of the name of one of the parents or simply another citrus with superficially-similar fruit, a distinct name, or a portmanteau of ancestral species. The Ponderosa lemon (\"Citrus limon\" \u00d7 \"medica\") and Florentine citron (\"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"limonimedica\") are both true lemon/citron hybrids, the Bergamot orange is a sweet orange/lemon hybrid and the Oroblanco is a grapefruit/pomelo mix, while tangelos are tangerine (mandarin)/pomelo or mandarin/grapefruit hybrids, orangelos result from grapefruit backcrossed with sweet orange, and a sweet orange backcrossed with a tangerine gives the tangor. One lumia, a member of the sweet lemons, is the product of crossing a lemon with a pomelo/citron hybrid, though another lumia variety, the Pomme d'Adam, is a micrantha/citron cross, like the Key lime. The most common and commercially popular 'limes', the Persian limes, are Key lime/lemon hybrids that combine the genetic lineages of four ancestral citrus species: mandarin, pomelo, citron and micrantha."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus glauca",
        "text": "The Australian Outback lime was selected by CSIRO scientists from the regular desert lime. It is characterised by its upright habit, relatively large, flavoursome fruit, high yield, uniform ripening time, lack of thorns, and suitability for mechanical harvesting. The Australian Outback lime was cultivated at the former CSIRO Plant Industry site at Merbein, Victoria by Steve Sykes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus garrawayi",
        "text": "Citrus garrawayi, the Mount White lime, is a tree native to the Cape York region of northern Queensland in Australia. It is an understory tree in tropical rainforests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kishu mikan",
        "text": "The fruit is thought to have arisen in Southern China, where its name was recorded in the records of Jianchang during the Ming Dynasty, and its agricultural growth is widespread in Jiangxi province. Japanese oranges were cultivated from the cherry orange about 700 years ago. Genetic studies have found it to be closely related to the Huanglingmiao mandarin, carrying the same pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\") introgression, indicating that the two diverged from the same backcrossed domesticated ancestor. Under the Tanaka system of citrus taxonomy, it is a separate species, \"Citrus kinokuni\", while the Swingle system groups it with other pure and hybrid mandarins as a single species, \"Citrus reticulata\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "\"Citrus maxima\"-based\n* Amanatsu, natsumikan \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"natsudaidai\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 unknown)\n* Cam s\u00e0nh \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Dangyuja \u2013 (\"Citrus grandis Osbeck\")\n* Grapefruit \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"paradisi\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Haruka \u2013 \"Citrus tamurana\" x \"natsudaidai\"\n* Hassaku orange \u2013 (\"Citrus hassaku\")\n* Ichang lemon \u2013 (\"Citrus wilsonii\")\n* Imperial lemon \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"limon\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Kawachi Bankan \u2013 (\"Citrus kawachiensis\")\n* Kinnow \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"nobilis\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"deliciosa\")\n* Kiyomi \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"unshiu\")\n* Minneola tangelo \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Orangelo, Chironja \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Oroblanco, Sweetie \u2013 (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Sweet orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"sinensis\" (probably \"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C. reticulata\")\n* Tangelo \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"tangelo\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\" or \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Tangor \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"nobilis\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Ugli \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\" or \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Other/Unresolved\n* Djeruk limau \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"amblycarpa\"\n* Gajanimma, Carabao Lime \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"pennivesiculata\"\n* Hyuganatsu, Hyuganatsu pumelo \u2013 \"Citrus tamurana\"\n* Ichang lemon \u2013 (\"C.\" \"cavaleriei\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\")\n* Kabosu \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"sphaerocarpa\"\n* Odichukuthi \u2013 \"Citrus Odichukuthi\" from Malayalam\n* Ougonkan \u2013 \"Citrus flaviculpus\" hort ex. Tanaka\n* Sakurajima komikan orange\n* Shonan gold \u2013 (Ougonkan) \"Citrus flaviculpus\" hort ex. Tanaka \u00d7 (Imamura unshiu), \"Citrus unshiu\" Marc\n* Sudachi \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"sudachi\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cook Park, Orange",
        "text": "Tree plantings that are among the oldest remaining today include: English elms (\"Ulmus procera\"); London planes (\"Platanus x hybrida\"); New Zealand cabbage tree (\"Cordyline australis\"); Lawson cypress (\"Chamaecyparis lawsoniana\"); English oak (\"Quercus robur\"); linden/lime (\"Tilia cordata\"); redwood or big tree (\"Sequoiadendron giganteum\") - one of the oldest trees in the park; holly (\"Ilex aquifolium\"); stone pine (\"Pinus pinea\") and bull bay/ evergreen magnolia (\"M.grandiflora\") both near Spencer Road; Algerian oak (\"Quercus macrocarpa\"); two large Himalayan cedars (\"Cedrus deodara\"); Bunya pine (\"Araucaria bidwillii\"); Arizona cypress (\"Cupressus glabra/C.lusitanica\"); English ash (\"Fraxinus excelsior\"); blue Atlas cedar (\"Cedrus atlantica 'Glauca' \"); Bhutan cypress (\"Cupressus torulosa\"); cherry laurel (\"Prunus laurocerasus\"); swamp cypress (\"Taxodium distichum\"); Western yellow pine (\"Pinus ponderosa\"); golden willow (\"Salix matsudana 'Aurea' \"); NZ flax (\"Phormium tenax\"); strawberry tree (\"Arbutus unedo\"); \"Photinia glabra\" (trunk over diameter); bay laurel hedge (\"Laurus nobilis\"); sweet gum (\"Liquidambar styraciflua\"); Indiana bean tree (\"Catalpa bignonioides\"); coastal redwood (\"Sequoia sempervirens\"); camphor laurel (\"Cinnamomum camphora\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dolcetto",
        "text": "Australia is home to the oldest current plantings of Dolcetto, with vines dating back to the 1860s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calamansi",
        "text": "Calamansi was formerly identified as \"Citrus mitis\" Blanco, \"C. microcarpa\" Bunge or \"C. madurensis\" Lour., all those referred to it as a citrus. Swingle's system of citrus classification would put kumquats into a separate genus, \"Fortunella\", making the calamansi an intergeneric hybrid, and in 1975 it was given the hybrid name \u00d7 \"Citrofortunella mitis\" by John Ingram & Harold E. Moore based on Blanco's species name, but in 1984, D. Onno Wijnands pointed out that Bunge's species name, \"C. microcarpa\" (1832), predated Blanco's \"Citrus mitis\" (1837), making \u00d7 \"Citrofortunella microcarpa\" the proper name. Phylogenetic analysis now places the kumquat within the same genus as other citrus, meaning that its hybrids, including those formerly named as \u00d7 \"Citrofortunella\", likewise belong in \"Citrus\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "False orange",
        "text": "Though previously viewed as members of \"Citrus\", Swingle moved the false oranges into their own genus, \"Oxanthera\". He placed the genus within the Triphasiinae subtribe of Citreae based on the similar size of their fruit. However, subsequent phylogenetic analysis showed them to cluster in the Citrinae subtribe within the same clade as Swingle's genus \"Clymenia\" and the Australian limes, as members of an enlarged monophyletic \"Citrus\", with the suggested relegation of the \"Oxanthera\" taxon as a \"Citrus\" subgenus. Bayer observed the presence of prominent pulp vesicles in the false oranges, and that their flowers had three to four times as many stamens as petals in their flowers, are both traits similar to other \"Citrus\". The false orange lacks the thorns typical of the \"Citrus\" genus, a difference often seen on islands without endiginous herbivores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Campynema",
        "text": "\"C. lineare\" is approximately 57 million years old. It is considered to a key member of Tasmania's palaeoendemic flora. A study of the gene sequences of RuBisCO in \"C. lineare\", found that the familyCampynemataceae is the oldest of the order Liliales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus glauca",
        "text": "\"Citrus\" plants hybridise readily. The eremolemon is thought to be a natural true-breeding cross between the desert lime and the Meyer lemon. Other hybrids include eremoranges, eremoradias (hybrid with a sour orange) and citrangeremos (hybrid with a citrange)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Celtis australis",
        "text": "A large specimen planted in 1550 stands before the church in the village perch\u00e9 of Fox-Amphoux in the Provence region of southern France. The tree was 18\u00a0m in height with a circumference at breast height of 5\u00a0m in 2013. In Islamic tradition, hackberry trees are considered holy and amulets made from their wood are employed to exorcise demons. The hackberry trees on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem are said to be the oldest in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus undulata",
        "text": "Originally characterized and named as \"Citrus undulata\" by Andr\u00e9 Guillaumin in 1938, this species along with the other false oranges were moved to a novel genus, \"Oxanthera\", in the Swingle and Tanaka systems of citrus taxonomy. Phylogenetic analysis showed that \"Oxanthera\" species clustered within \"Citrus\", which makes this species a member of that genus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus limetta",
        "text": "\"C. limetta\" grows in tropical and subtropical climates. It begins bearing fruit at 5 to 7 years old, with peak production at 10 to 20 years. It is propagated by seed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lime (fruit)",
        "text": "There are several species of citrus trees whose fruits are called limes, including the Key lime (\"Citrus aurantiifolia\"), Persian lime, Makrut lime, and desert lime. Limes are a rich source of vitamin C, are sour, and are often used to accent the flavours of foods and beverages. They are grown year-round. Plants with fruit called \"limes\" have diverse genetic origins; limes do not form a monophyletic group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Acacia",
        "text": "Oldest records of fossil \"Acacia\" pollen in Australia are from the late Oligocene epoch, 25 million years ago."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is the genus Citrus native to Australia?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Citrus plants are native to subtropical and tropical regions of Asia, Island Southeast Asia, Near Oceania, and northeastern Australia. Some native varieties in Austrailia are Australian finger, round desert limes, Mount White limes, Kakadu lime or Humpty Doo lime, and Russel River limes and Maiden's Australian limes."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the oldest living species of citrus plant?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The three ancestral (sometimes characterized as \"original\" or \"fundamental\") species in the genus Citrus associated with modern Citrus cultivars are the mandarin orange, pomelo, and citron. Which would you like to know more about?"
    ],
    "topic": "Citrus",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Citrus:11",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Citrus",
          "History",
          "Evolution"
        ],
        "ctx": "The three ancestral (sometimes characterized as \"original\" or \"fundamental\") species in the genus \"Citrus\" associated with modern \"Citrus\" cultivars are the mandarin orange, pomelo, and citron. Almost all of the common commercially important citrus fruits (sweet oranges, lemons, grapefruit, limes, and so on) are hybrids involving these three species with each other, their main progenies, and other wild \"Citrus\" species within the last few thousand years."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The three ancestral (sometimes characterized as \"original\" or \"fundamental\") species in the genus \"Citrus\" associated with modern \"Citrus\" cultivars are the mandarin orange, pomelo, and citron. Almost all of the common commercially important citrus fruits (sweet oranges, lemons, grapefruit, limes, and so on) are hybrids involving these three species with each other, their main progenies, and other wild \"Citrus\" species within the last few thousand years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "According to genetic studies, the mandarin was one of the original citrus species; through breeding or natural hybridization, it is the ancestor of many hybrid citrus cultivars. With the citron and pomelo, it is the ancestor of the most commercially important hybrids (such as sweet and sour oranges, grapefruit, and many lemons and limes). The mandarin has also been hybridized with other citrus species, such as the desert lime and the kumquat. Though the ancestral mandarin was bitter, most commercial mandarin strains derive from hybridization with pomelo, which give them a sweet fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kishu mikan",
        "text": "The fruit is thought to have arisen in Southern China, where its name was recorded in the records of Jianchang during the Ming Dynasty, and its agricultural growth is widespread in Jiangxi province. Japanese oranges were cultivated from the cherry orange about 700 years ago. Genetic studies have found it to be closely related to the Huanglingmiao mandarin, carrying the same pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\") introgression, indicating that the two diverged from the same backcrossed domesticated ancestor. Under the Tanaka system of citrus taxonomy, it is a separate species, \"Citrus kinokuni\", while the Swingle system groups it with other pure and hybrid mandarins as a single species, \"Citrus reticulata\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "In general, three \"Citrus\" ancestral species (pomelos, citrons, and papedas) synthesize relatively high quantities of furanocoumarins, whereas a fourth ancestral species (mandarins) is practically devoid of these compounds. Since the production of furanocoumarins in plants is believed to be heritable, the descendants of mandarins (such as sweet oranges, tangerines, and other small mandarin hybrids) are expected to have low quantities of furanocoumarins, whereas other hybrids (such as limes, grapefruit, and sour oranges) are expected to have relatively high quantities of these compounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "The most common citrus hybrids that are sometimes treated as a species by themselves, especially in folk taxonomy, are:\n* Orange: a name used for several distinct crosses between pomelo and a mandarin orange. They have the orange color of the mandarin in their outer peels and segments, and are easier to peel than the pomelos. Oranges are all intermediate between the two ancestors in size, flavor and shape. The bitter orange and sweet orange both arose from mandarin-pomelo crosses, the former involving a pure mandarin, the latter with a mandarin already containing small amounts of pomelo.\n* Grapefruit: grapefruits, like oranges, include genetic contributions from both mandarin and pomelo, but more of the latter, arising from a natural backcross of a sweet orange with a pomelo. The 'cocktail grapefruit', or mandelo, is distinct, instead the product of a low-acid pomelo variety hybridized with a mandarin that itself was a cross between two distinct mandarin stocks.\n* Lemon: \"true\" lemons derive from one common hybrid ancestor, having diverged by mutation. The original lemon was a hybrid between a male citron and a female sour orange, itself a pomelo/pure-mandarin hybrid; citrons contribute half of the genome, while the other half is divided between pomelo and mandarin. There are other hybrids also known as 'lemons'. Rough lemons arose from a cross between citron and mandarin, without the pomelo contribution found in true lemons, while the Meyer lemon comes from a citron crossed with a sweet (as opposed to sour) orange.\n* Limes: A highly diverse group of hybrids go by this name. Rangpur limes, like rough lemons, arose from crosses between citron and mandarin. The sweet limes, so-called due to their low acid pulp and juice, come from crosses of citron with either sweet or sour oranges, while the Key lime arose from a cross between a citron and a micrantha."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "All of the wild 'pure' citrus species trace to a common ancestor that lived in the Himalayan foothills, where a late-Miocene citrus fossil, \"Citrus linczangensis\", has been found. At that time, a lessening of the monsoons and resultant drier climate in the region allowed the citrus ancestor to expand across south and east Asia in a rapid genetic radiation. After the plant crossed the Wallace line a second radiation took place in the early Pliocene (about 4 million years ago) to give rise to the Australian species. Most modern cultivars are actually hybrids derived from a small number of 'pure' original species. Though hundreds of species names have been assigned, a recent genomic study by Wu, \"et al.\" identified just ten ancestral species of citrus among more than a hundred cultivars studied. Of these ten, seven were native to Asia: pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\"), the 'pure' mandarins (\"C. reticulata\" \u2013 most mandarin cultivars were hybrids of this species with pomelo), citrons (\"C. medica\"), micranthas (\"C. micrantha\"), the Ichang papeda (\"C. cavaleriei\"), the mangshanyegan (\"C. mangshanensis\"), and the oval (Nagami) kumquat (\"Fortunella margarita\" or \"C. japonica\" var. \"margarita\"). Three from Australia were identified: the desert lime (\"C. glauca\"), round lime (\"C. australis\") and the finger lime (\"C. australasica\"). Many other cultivars previously identified as species were found to be closely related variants (subspecies or varieties) or hybrids of these species, though not all cultivars were evaluated. Subsequent studies have added two additional species to this list of pure species: a mandarin native to the Ryukyu Islands designated \"C. ryukyuensis\", and a rare wild species from Southeast Asia, the mountain citron. A number of further species originally placed in other genera have recently been subsumed into \"Citrus\" as a result of phylogenetic analysis, but these have yet to be characterized on a phylogenomic level to confirm their status as unique pure species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Papeda (citrus)",
        "text": "It is believed, based on molecular studies, that the citron, pomelo, mandarin and papedas were the ancestors of most hybrid citrus species and their varieties, which resulted from breeding or natural hybridization among the parental species. For example, the Key lime, a hybrid between a papeda, the micrantha, and a citron, has in turn given rise to many commercial types of limes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The large citrus fruit of today evolved originally from small, edible berries over millions of years. Citrus species began to diverge from a common ancestor about 15 million years ago, at about the same time that \"Severinia\" (such as the Chinese box orange) diverged from the same ancestor. About 7 million years ago, the ancestors of \"Citrus\" split into the main genus, \"Citrus\", and the genus \"Poncirus\" (such as the trifoliate orange), which is closely enough related that it can still be hybridized with all other citrus and used as rootstock. These estimates are made using genetic mapping of plant chloroplasts. A DNA study published in \"Nature\" in 2018 concludes that the genus \"Citrus\" first evolved in the foothills of the Himalayas, in the area of Assam (India), western Yunnan (China), and northern Myanmar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Most commercial varieties are descended from one or more of the 'core species', citrons, mandarins, and pomelos, which share in common a complex floral anatomy that gives rise to more complex fruit. These core species, and to a lesser extent other citrus, have given rise to a wide variety of hybrids for which the naming is inconsistent. The same common names may be given to different species, citrus hybrids or mutations. For example, citrus with green fruit tend to be called 'limes' independent of their origin: Australian limes, musk limes, Key limes, kaffir limes, Rangpur limes, sweet limes and wild limes are all genetically distinct. Fruit with similar ancestry may be quite different in name and traits (e.g. grapefruit, common oranges, and ponkans, all pomelo-mandarin hybrids). Many traditional citrus groups, such as true sweet oranges and lemons, seem to be bud sports, clonal families of cultivars that have arisen from distinct spontaneous mutations of a single hybrid ancestor. Novel varieties, and in particular seedless or reduced-seed varieties, have also been generated from these unique hybrid ancestral lines using gamma irradiation of budwood to induce mutations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Most cultivated \"Citrus\" spp. seem to be natural or artificial hybrids of a small number of core ancestral species, including the citron, pomelo, mandarin, and papeda (see image). Natural and cultivated citrus hybrids include commercially important fruit such as oranges, grapefruit, lemons, limes, and some tangerines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus plants are native to subtropical and tropical regions of Asia, Island Southeast Asia, Near Oceania, and northeastern Australia. Domestication of citrus species involved much hybridization and introgression, leaving much uncertainty about when and where domestication first happened. A genomic, phylogenic, and biogeographical analysis by Wu \"et al.\" (2018) has shown that the center of origin of the genus \"Citrus\" is likely the southeast foothills of the Himalayas, in a region stretching from eastern Assam, northern Myanmar, to western Yunnan. It diverged from a common ancestor with \"Poncirus trifoliata\". A change in climate conditions during the Late Miocene (11.63 to 5.33 mya) resulted in a sudden speciation event. The species resulting from this event include the citrons (\"Citrus\u00a0medica\") of South Asia; the pomelos (\"C.\u00a0maxima\") of Mainland Southeast Asia; the mandarins (\"C.\u00a0reticulata\"), kumquats (\"C.\u00a0japonica\"), mangshanyegan (\"C.\u00a0mangshanensis\"), and ichang papedas (\"C.\u00a0cavaleriei\") of southeastern China; the kaffir limes (\"C.\u00a0hystrix\") of Island Southeast Asia; and the biasong and samuyao (\"C.\u00a0micrantha\") of the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Mandarin oranges (tangerines, satsumas \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\") are one of the basic species, but the name mandarin is also used more generally for all small, easily peeled citrus, including a large range of hybrids. Swingle saw three species of mandarin, while Tanaka identified five groups with a total of 36 species. Webber (1948) divided them into four groups, king, satsuma, mandarin, and tangerine, and Hodgson (1967) saw in them four species. Genomic analysis suggests just one mainland-Asian species, \"Citrus reticulata\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus indica",
        "text": "This wild orange plant was originally characterized as one of the likely ancestors of today's cultivated citrus fruits, if not the main one. It was considered to be the most \"primitive\" citrus. However, genomic analysis has revealed it to be a citrus hybrid, with maternal citron ancestry and also mandarin orange and unspecified papeda contributions. It can be used as a citrus rootstock for cultivated citrus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "While most citrus hybrids derive from the three core species, hybrids have also been derived from the micrantha, Ichang papeda, kumquat, Australian limes, and trifoliate orange. The best known hybrid from micrantha is the Key lime (or Mexican lime), derived from the breeding of a male citron and a female micrantha. Several citrus varieties are Ichang papeda/mandarin crosses (for which Swingle coined the term ichandarin), including Sudachi and Yuzu (which also includes smaller contributions from pomelo and kumquat). Other more exotic citrus have likewise proved hybrids that include papeda. For example, the Indian wild orange, once suggested as a possible ancestor of today's cultivated citrus fruits, yielded conflicting phylogenetic placements in more limited genetic analysis, but study of nuclear markers and chloroplast DNA showed it to be of maternal citron lineage, with further genetic contributions from mandarin and papeda."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "All of these hybrids have in turn been bred back with their parent stocks or with other pure or hybrid citrus to form a broad array of fruits. Naming of these is inconsistent, with some bearing a variant of the name of one of the parents or simply another citrus with superficially-similar fruit, a distinct name, or a portmanteau of ancestral species. The Ponderosa lemon (\"Citrus limon\" \u00d7 \"medica\") and Florentine citron (\"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"limonimedica\") are both true lemon/citron hybrids, the Bergamot orange is a sweet orange/lemon hybrid and the Oroblanco is a grapefruit/pomelo mix, while tangelos are tangerine (mandarin)/pomelo or mandarin/grapefruit hybrids, orangelos result from grapefruit backcrossed with sweet orange, and a sweet orange backcrossed with a tangerine gives the tangor. One lumia, a member of the sweet lemons, is the product of crossing a lemon with a pomelo/citron hybrid, though another lumia variety, the Pomme d'Adam, is a micrantha/citron cross, like the Key lime. The most common and commercially popular 'limes', the Persian limes, are Key lime/lemon hybrids that combine the genetic lineages of four ancestral citrus species: mandarin, pomelo, citron and micrantha."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citron",
        "text": "The citron is an old and original citrus species. There is molecular evidence that most cultivated citrus species arose by hybridization of a small number of ancestral types, including citron, pomelo, mandarin and to a lesser extent, papedas and kumquat. The citron is usually fertilized by self-pollination, which results in their displaying a high degree of genetic homozygosity. It is the male parent of any citrus hybrid rather than a female one."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Citrus taxonomy\n--Genetic history.\n--Citrus naming systems.\n--Core species and hybrids.\n----Ancestral species.\n------Mandarins.\n------Pomelos.\n------Citrons.\n------Papedas.\n------Kumquats.\n------Australian and New Guinean species.\n------Trifoliate orange.\n--Hybrids.\n----Labelling of hybrids.\n----Major citrus hybrids.\n----Hybrids from other citrus species.\n------\"Citrofortunella\".\n------\"Citroncirus\".\n--Graft hybrids.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "Mandarins are one of the core ancestral citrus taxa, and are thought to have evolved in regions including South China and Japan in East Asia, and Vietnam in Southeast Asia. Mandarins appear to have been domesticated at least twice, in the north and south Nanling Mountains, derived from separate wild subspecies. Wild mandarins are still found there, including Daoxian mandarines (sometimes given the species name \"Citrus daoxianensis\") as well as some members of the group traditionally called 'Mangshan wild mandarins', a generic grouping for the wild mandarin-like fruit of the Mangshan area that includes both true mandarins (\"mangshanyeju\", the southern subspecies) and the genetically-distinct and only distantly-related Mangshanyegan. The wild mandarins were found to be free of the introgressed pomelo (\"C. maxima\") DNA found in domestic mandarins but they did appear to have small amounts (~1.8%) of introgression from the ichang papeda, which grows wild in the same region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "\"Citrus reticulata\"\u2013based\n* Bergamot orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"bergamia\" (\"C.\" \u00d7\"limon\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"aurantium\")\n* Bitter orange, Seville Orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"aurantium\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C. reticulata\")\n* Blood orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"sinensis\" cultivars\n* Calamansi, Calamondin \u2013 (\"Citrus reticulata\" \u00d7 \"Citrus japonica\")\n* Cam s\u00e0nh \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Chinotto \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"aurantium\" var. \"myrtifolia\" or \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"myrtifolia\"\n* ChungGyun \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cultivar\n* Clementine \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"clementina\"\n* Cleopatra Mandarin \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"reshni\"\n* Siranui \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cv. 'Dekopon' (ChungGyun \u00d7 Ponkan)\n* Daidai \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"aurantium\" var. \"daidai\" or \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"daidai\"\n* Encore \u2013 ((\"Citrus reticulata\" x \"sinensis\") x \"C. deliciosa\")\n* Grapefruit \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"paradisi\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Hermandina \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cv. 'Hermandina'\n* Imperial lemon \u2013 ((\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C. medica\") \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Iyokan, \"anadomikan\" \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"iyo\"\n* Jabara \u2013 (\"Citrus jabara\")\n* Kanpei \u2013 (\"Citrus reticulata\" 'Kanpei')\n* Kinkoji unshiu \u2013 (\"Citrus obovoidea\" x \"unshiu\")\n* Kinnow, Wilking \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"nobilis\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"deliciosa\")\n* Kishumikan \u2013 (\"Citrus kinokuni\")\n* Kiyomi \u2013 (\"C. sinensis\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"unshiu\")\n* Kobayashi mikan \u2013 (\"Citrus natsudaidai\" x \"unshiu\")\n* Koji orange \u2013 (\"Citrus leiocarpa\")\n* Kuchinotsu No.37 \u2013 ('Kiyomi' x 'Encore')\n* Laraha \u2013 \"\"C.\" \u00d7\"aurantium\" ssp. \"currassuviencis\"\n* Mediterranean mandarin, Willow Leaf \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"deliciosa\"\n* Meyer lemon, Valley Lemon \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"meyeri\" (\"C. medica\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Michal mandarin \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cv. 'Michal'\n* Mikan, Satsuma \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"unshiu\"\n* Murcott \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" x \"sinensis\")\n* Naartjie \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. nobilis\")\n* Nova mandarin, Clemenvilla\n* Orangelo, Chironja \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Oroblanco, Sweetie \u2013 (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"limettioides\" (\"C. medica\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Ponkan \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cv. 'Ponkan'\n* Rangpur, Lemanderin, Mandarin Lime \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"limonia\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. medica\")\n* Reikou \u2013 (Kuchinotsu No.37 x 'Murcott')\n* Rough lemon \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"jambhiri\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. medica\")\n* Sanbokan \u2013 \"Citrus sulcata\"\n* Setoka \u2013 (Kuchinotsu No.37 x 'Murcott')\n* Shekwasha, Hirami Lemon, Taiwan Tangerine \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"depressa\"\n* Sunki, Suenkat \u2013 \"Citrus\" \"sunki\" or \"C. reticulata\" var. \"sunki\"\n* Sweet orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"sinensis\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C. reticulata\")\n* Tachibana orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \"tachibana\" or \"C. reticulata\" var. \"tachibana\"\n* Tangelo \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"tangelo\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\" or \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Tangerine \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"tangerina\"\n* Tangor \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"nobilis\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Ugli \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\" or \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Volkamer lemon \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"volkameriana\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. medica\")\n* Yukou \u2013 (\"Citrus yuko\")\n* Yuzu \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"junos\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"cavaleriei\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "The mandarin orange (\"Citrus reticulata\"), also known as the mandarin or mandarine, is a small citrus tree fruit. Treated as a distinct species of orange, it is usually eaten plain or in fruit salads. Tangerines are a group of orange-coloured citrus fruit consisting of hybrids of mandarin orange with some pomelo contribution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "All citrus trees belong to the single genus \"Citrus\" and remain almost entirely interfertile. This includes grapefruits, lemons, limes, oranges, and various other types and hybrids. As the interfertility of oranges and other citrus has produced numerous hybrids and cultivars, and bud mutations have also been selected, citrus taxonomy is fairly controversial, confusing or inconsistent. The fruit of any citrus tree is considered a hesperidium, a kind of modified berry; it is covered by a rind originated by a rugged thickening of the ovary wall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "These initial attempts at \"Citrus\" systematization all predated the recognition, which began to gain traction in the mid-1970s, that the majority of cultivars represent hybrids of just three species, citron, mandarin and pomelo. Phylogenetic analysis confirms this hybrid origin of most citrus cultivars, indicating a small number of founder species. While the subgenera suggested by Tanaka proved similar to the phylogenetic divisions of pure founder species, Swingle's subgenera were polyphyletic, and hence do not represent valid taxonomy. His novel genera also fail to withstand phylogenetic analysis. Swingle had elevated kumquats into a separate genus \"Fortunella\", while two genera were suggested by him for the Australian limes, \"Microcitrus\" and \"Eremocitrus\". However, genomic analysis shows these groups nested within the phylogenetic tree of \"Citrus\". Since their placement in distinct genera would make \"Citrus\" a paraphyletic grouping, it has been suggested that all of these are correctly members of the genus \"Citrus\". Similarly, genomic analysis has suggested that other genera previously split off from \"Citrus\" likewise belong within this expanded phylogenetic concept of the genus \"Citrus\", including \"Clymenia\", \"Oxanthera\" (false oranges, moved out of \"Citrus\" to a different branch of the tribe Citreae and given a new genus by Swingle) and more controversially \"Poncirus\", which is the earliest branching of Swingle's genera, and a genus not previously recognized as a close citrus relative, \"Feroniella\". There remains a lack of consensus as to which wild plants and hybrids merit distinct species status, a phenomenon exacerbated by the prior failure to correctly identify the genetically pure citrus strains and distinguish them from hybrids."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The orange is a hybrid between pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\") and mandarin (\"Citrus reticulata\"). The chloroplast genome, and therefore the maternal line, is that of pomelo. The sweet orange has had its full genome sequenced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Lemons, pomelos, and sour oranges are believed to have been introduced to the Mediterranean later by Arab traders at around the 10th century CE; and sweet oranges by the Genoese and Portuguese from Asia during the 15th to 16th century. Mandarins were not introduced until the 19th century. This group of species has reached great importance in some of the Mediterranean countries, and in the case of orange, mandarin, and lemon trees, they found here soil and climatic conditions which allow them to achieve a high level of fruit quality, even better than in the regions from where they came."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Artificial interbreeding seems possible among all citrus plants, though there are certain limitations to natural interbreeding due to plant physiology and differences in natural breeding seasons. This ability to cross-pollinate extends to some related species that some classifications place in distinct genera. The ability of citrus hybrids to self-pollinate and to reproduce sexually also helps create new varieties, as does spontaneous mutation and genome duplication. The three most predominant ancestral citrus taxa are citron (\"C. medica\"), pomelo (\"C. maxima\"), and mandarin (\"C. reticulata\"). These taxa interbreed freely, despite being quite genetically distinct, having arisen through allopatric speciation, with citrons evolving in northern Indochina, pomelos in the Malay Archipelago, and mandarins in Vietnam, southern China, and Japan. The hybrids of these taxa include familiar citrus fruits like oranges, grapefruit, lemons, and some limes and tangerines. These three have also been hybridized with other citrus taxa, for example, the Key lime arose from a citron crossing with a micrantha. In many cases, the varieties are propagated asexually, and lose their characteristic traits if bred. Some of the hybrids have in turn interbred with one another hybrid or with the original taxa, making the citrus family tree a complicated network."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "(Species names are those from the Tanaka system. Recent genomic analysis would place them all in \"Citrus reticulata\", except the \"C. ryukyuensis\" hybrids)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Individual hybrids of each type are then distinguished by a variety name. Thus hybrids that are crosses between mandarin (\"C. reticulata\") and pomelo (\"C. maxima\") would all be \"C.\" \u00d7 \"aurantium\", with specific crosses including: \"C.\" \u00d7 \"aurantium\" var. \"sinensis\" for the sweet orange, \"C.\" \u00d7 \"aurantium\" var. \"paradisi\" for grapefruit, and \"C.\" \u00d7 \"aurantium\" var. \"clementina\" for the clementine. Likewise, hybrids combining mandarins and citrons would all be varieties of \"C.\" \u00d7 \"limonia\", those of pomelo and citron, \"C.\" x \"lumia\", while tri-species hybrids of citrons, pomelos and mandarins would be \"C.\" \u00d7 \"limon\", and a tetra-species cross involving these three species along with \"C. micrantha\" would be \"C.\" \u00d7 \"latifolia\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The genus \"Citrus\" has been suggested to originate in the eastern Himalayan foothills. Prior to human cultivation, it consisted of just a few species, though the status of some as distinct species has yet to be confirmed:\n* \"Citrus crenatifolia\" \u2013 species name is unresolved, from Sri Lanka\n* \"Citrus japonica\" \u2013 kumquats, from East Asia ranging into Southeast Asia (sometimes separated into four-five \"Fortunella\" species)\n* \"Citrus mangshanensis\" \u2013 species name is unresolved, from Hunan, China\n* \"Citrus maxima\" \u2013 pomelo (pummelo, shaddock), from the Island Southeast Asia\n* \"Citrus medica\" \u2013 citron, from India\n* \"Citrus platymamma\" \u2013 \"byeonggyul\", from Jeju Island, Korea\n* \"Citrus reticulata\" \u2013 mandarin orange, from China\n* \"Citrus trifoliata\" \u2013 trifoliate orange, from Korea and adjacent China (often separated as \"Poncirus\")\n* Australian limes\n**\"Citrus australasica\" \u2013 Australian finger lime\n** \"Citrus australis\" \u2013 Australian round lime\n** \"Citrus garrawayi \" \u2013 Mount White lime\n** \"Citrus glauca\" \u2013 Australian desert lime\n** \"Citrus gracilis\" \u2013 Kakadu lime or Humpty Doo lime\n** \"Citrus inodora\" \u2013 Russel River lime and Maiden's Australian lime\n** \"Citrus warburgiana \" \u2013 New Guinea wild lime\n** \"Citrus wintersii \" \u2013 Brown River finger lime\n* Papedas, including\n**\"Citrus halimii\" \u2013 \"limau kadangsa\", \"limau kedut kera\", from Thailand and Malaya\n** \"Citrus hystrix\" \u2013 Kaffir lime, \"makrut\", from Mainland Southeast Asia to Island Southeast Asia\n** \"Citrus cavaleriei\" \u2013 Ichang papeda from southern China\n** \"Citrus celebica\" \u2013 Celebes papeda\n** \"Citrus indica\" \u2013 Indian wild orange, from the Indian subcontinent\n** \"Citrus latipes\" \u2013 Khasi papeda, from Assam, Meghalaya, Burma\n** \"Citrus longispina\" \u2013 Megacarpa papeda, winged lime, blacktwig lime\n** \"Citrus macrophylla\" \u2013 Alemow\n** \"Citrus macroptera\" \u2013 Melanesian papeda from Indochina to Melanesia\n** \"Citrus micrantha, Citrus westeri\" \u2013 \"biasong\" or \"samuyao\" from the southern Philippines\n** \"Citrus webberi\" \u2013 Kalpi, Malayan lemon"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "This was later followed by the spread of citrus species into Taiwan and Japan in the Early Pliocene (5.33 to 3.6 mya), resulting in the tachibana orange (\"C.\u00a0tachibana\"); and beyond the Wallace Line into Papua New Guinea and Australia during the Early Pleistocene (2.5\u00a0million to 800,000 years ago), where further speciation events occurred resulting in the Australian limes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Swingle's system divided the Citrinae subtribe into three groups, the 'primitive citrus' distant relatives, the closer 'near citrus' including citrus-related genera like \"Atalantia\", and the \"true citrus\", for the species that had historically been placed in \"Citrus\" but many of which he elevated to separate genera: \"Poncirus\" (trifoliate orange), \"Fortunella\" (kumquat), \"Eremocitrus\" (desert limes), \"Microcitrus\" (finger and round limes), as well as an additional genus, \"Clymenia\", formerly thought to be a citrus hybrid. His \"Citrus\" he likewise subdivided into two subgenera: citrons, pomelos, mandarins, oranges, grapefruits and lemons were placed in subgenus \"Eucitrus\" (later called simply subgenus \"Citrus\"), while the hardy but slow-growing trees with relatively unpalatable fruit he placed in subgenus \"Papeda\". His genus \"Citrus\" consisted of just 16 species, dividing them further into varieties, and lastly cultivars or hybrids. The Swingle system is generally followed globally today with much modification; there are still large differences in nomenclature between countries and individual scientists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "A separate species, \"Citrus ryukyuensis\" that diverged from the mainland species between 2 and 3 million years ago when cut off by rising sea levals was found growing on the island of Okinawa, and its natural and agricultural hybridization with the mainland mandarin species has produced some of the unique island mandarin cultivars of Japan and Taiwan, such as the Tachibana orange, previously classified as a subspecies of pure mandarin before its parent was identified, and the Shekwasha. Some of the small number of cultivars were found to be pure in initial gemonic analysis, including Sun Chu Sha mandarin and Nanfengmiju, but Wang detected in them not only an apparent Ichang papeda introgression found in all examined mandarins but also the distinct pomelo DNA of the domesticated mandarins. Following initial hybridization, natural or cultivated backcrosses of the initial mandarin-pomelo hybrids with the mandarin stock produced mandarins with limited pomelo contribution, that differed between the northern and southern domesticates. An 'acidic' group of cultivars including Sunki and Cleopatra mandarins that likewise previously were thought to be pure but since found to contain small regions of introgressed pomelo DNA are too sour to be edible, but are widely used as rootstock and grown for juice. Another group of mandarins, including some tangerines, Satsuma and King mandarins, show a greater pomelo contribution and derive from the limited-pomelo hybrids being crossed again, with sweet orange or pomelo, and likewise backcrossing in some cases, producing cultivars with moderate to high levels of pomelo introgression. Hybrid mandarins thus fall on a continuum of increasing pomelo contribution with clementines, sweet and sour oranges, and grapefruit. Mandarins and their hybrids are sold under a variety of names.\n* Mangshan wild mandarins (only some, others being the genetically-distinct mangshanyegan)\n* Daoxian mandarines\n* Suanpangan"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus ryukyuensis",
        "text": "\"C. ryukyuensis\" persists to the present, but is also of importance due to its contribution to Japanese and neighboring island mandarin hybrids."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Detailed genomic analysis of wild and domesticated citrus cultivars has suggested that the progenitor of modern citrus species expanded out of the Himalayan foothills in a rapid radiation that has produced at least 11 wild species in South and East Asia and Australia, with more than a half-dozen additional candidates for which either insufficient characterization prevents definitive species designation, or there is a lack of consensus for their placement within the \"Citrus\" genus rather than sister genera. Most commercial cultivars are the product of hybridization among these wild species, with most coming from crosses involving citrons, mandarins and pomelos. Many different phylogenies for the non-hybrid citrus have been proposed, and the phylogeny based on their nuclear genome does not match that derived from their chloroplast DNA, probably a consequence of the rapid initial divergence. Taxonomic terminology is not yet settled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "An enormous number of cultivars have, like the sweet orange, a mix of pomelo and mandarin ancestry. Some cultivars are mandarin-pomelo hybrids, bred from the same parents as the sweet orange (e.g. the tangor and ponkan tangerine). Other cultivars are sweet orange x mandarin hybrids (e.g. clementines). Mandarin traits generally include being smaller and oblate, easier to peel, and less acidic. Pomelo traits include a thick white albedo (rind pith, mesocarp) that is more closely attached to the segments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus ryukyuensis",
        "text": "Previous genetic studies that characterized the mandarin oranges of the Asian mainland left unexplained the unusual genetic characteristics of those from Japan and nearby islands. A followup study designed at filling this gap in understanding produced an unexpected result, the identification of a pure wild species of mandarin, the hybridization of which with the mainland species has given rise to multiple distinct mandarin orange hybrid clusters. Because the identified specimens were native to the Ryukyu islands, the species was christened \"C. ryukyuensis\". Comparison with \"C. reticulata\" showed a calculated divergence time from mainland citrus between 2.2 and 2.8 million years ago, roughly corresponding to a Pleistocene era sea level rise that would have cut off the islands, providing the isolation necessary for speciation. As a consequence of this isolation, the Ryukyu mandarin continued to reproduce sexually, while the mainland species experienced a genetic mutation that eventually spread throughout the mainland species and allowed them to reproduce asexually by apomixis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "In China, fossil leaf specimens of \u2020\"Citrus linczangensis\" have been collected from coal-bearing strata of the Bangmai Formation in the Bangmai village, about 10\u00a0km (6 miles) northwest of Lincang City, Yunnan. The Bangmai Formation contains abundant fossil plants and is considered to be of late Miocene age. \"Citrus linczangensis\" and \"C. meletensis\" share some important characters, such as an intramarginal vein, an entire margin, and an articulated and distinctly winged petiole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pomelo",
        "text": "The pomelo is one of the original citrus species from which cultivated citrus fruits have been hybridized, others being citron, mandarin, and to a lesser extent, papedas and kumquat. In particular, the common orange is presumed to be a naturally occurring hybrid between the pomelo and the mandarin with the pomelo providing the larger size and greater firmness. The grapefruit was originally also presumed to be a naturally occurring hybrid of the pomelo and the mandarin; however, genome analysis conducted more than two centuries after this presumption was made shows that it is actually a backcrossed hybrid between a pomelo and a sweet orange which is why 63% of the grapefruit's genome comes from the pomelo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus\n--History.\n----Etymology.\n----Evolution.\n----Fossil record.\n--Taxonomy.\n--Description.\n----Tree.\n----Fruit.\n--Cultivation.\n----Production.\n----As ornamental plants.\n----Pests and diseases.\n------Deficiency diseases.\n--Uses.\n----Culinary.\n----Phytochemicals and research.\n--List of citrus fruits.\n----Hybrids and cultivars.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "In an observation originally made in a study of their hybrid progeny, a subspecies-level division has been characterized in this mainland-Asian species. Wang, \"et al.\", found that domesticated mandarins fell into two genetic clusters that linked to different branches of the tree of wild mandarins, had different deduced population histories and had distinct patterns of pomelo introgression, suggesting that they derive from separate domestication events. Wu, \"et al.\", would later extend this observation, similarly detecting two divergent subspecies within the wild populations that gave rise to Wang's northern and southern domesticate classes, which they described as 'common mandarins' and \"mangshanyeju\" (Mangshan wild mandarins). It was specifically in the latter that a genetic mutation caused by the insertion of a transposable element adjacent to the \"CitRKD1\" gene led to the ability of these mandarins to reproduce asexually through apomixis, a characteristic passed down to the subspecies' hybrid descendants such as hybrid mandarins, oranges, lemons and grapefruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus unshiu",
        "text": "Citrus unshiu is a semi-seedless and easy-peeling citrus species, also known as miyagawa mandarin, unshu mikan, cold hardy mandarin, satsuma mandarin, satsuma orange, naartjie, and tangerine. \"Citrus unshiu\" was named after Unshu (Wenzhou), a famous production area of mandarin oranges in China, in the late Edo period of Japan. It is said to have originated in either Japan or China, and because of its name, it is often described as originating in China; however, due to multiple genetic studies conducted in the 2010s, the theory that the maternal species of \"Citrus unshiu\" was \"Kishu\" (\"Citrus kinokuni\") and the paternal species was \"Kunenbo\" (\"Citrus nobilis\" Lour. var. \"kunip\") and that it was created in the Satsuma province in Japan became more credible. During the Edo period, \"Kishu\" was the most popular because there was a popular superstition that eating \"Citrus unshiu (Satsuma)\" without seeds made people more prone to infertility. \"Citrus unshiu\" became popular in Japan after the modernization started in the Meiji period. It was introduced to the West from the Satsuma region of Japan in 1878."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus ryukyuensis",
        "text": "Beginning between 40,000 and 200,000 years ago, either a subsequent sea level fall or oceanic dispersal brought the Ryukyu species back into contact with mainland mandarins, and they interbred, producing different groupings of related hybrids. In one case, a mainland mandarin hybrid with similar contribution from the northerrn and southern mainland subspecies, and already containing some introgressed DNA from the Ryukyu mandarin but no introgressed pomello DNA like that found in most mainland mandarins, would form numerous crosses with the Ryukyu species. The mainland orange passed to its progeny the mutation allowing asexual reproduction, producing a cluster of similar clonal Tachibana orange cultivars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "The Tanaka classification system divided domestic mandarins and similar fruit into numerous species, giving distinct names to cultivars such as willowleaf mandarins (\"C. deliciosa\"), satsumas (\"C. unshiu\"), tangerines (\"C. tangerina\"). Under the Swingle system, all these are considered to be varieties of a single species, \"Citrus reticulata\". Hodgson represented them as several subgroups: common (\"C. reticulata\"), Satsuma, King (\"C. nobilis\"), Mediterranean (willowleaf), small-fruited (\"C. indica\", \"C. tachibana\" and \"C. reshni\"), and mandarin hybrids. In the genomic-based species taxonomy of Ollitrault et al., only pure mandarins would fall under \"C. reticulata\", while the pomelo admixture found in the majority of mandarins would cause them to be classified as varieties of \"C. aurantium\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "University of California Citrus Experiment Station",
        "text": "The last quarter-century has also seen the release of several patented new varieties of citrus, starting with the 'Oroblanco' grapefruit in 1981 and continuing with the recent release of the 'Tango' mandarin. Another breeding program has yielded cowpea lines that are early-maturing and heat-tolerant, making them particularly well-suited to the drought conditions of West Africa, helping to reduce hunger and poverty there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "The pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\"), a second of the core species from which most citrus hybrids have derived, is native to southeast Asia. Among the hybrids deriving from mandarin/pomelo crosses, there is a direct correlation between the proportion of pomelo DNA in the hybrid and fruit size, while the more palatable mandarins are those that have received specific genes from pomelos that alter their acidity. Some of the more common pomelos are genetically pure, while a number have a single small region of introgressed mandarin DNA on one chromosome, the result of a cross followed by extensive backcrossing with pomelo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The sweet orange is not a wild fruit, having arisen in domestication from a cross between a non-pure mandarin orange and a hybrid pomelo that had a substantial mandarin component. Since its chloroplast DNA is that of pomelo, it was likely the hybrid pomelo, perhaps a BC1 pomelo backcross, that was the maternal parent of the first orange. Based on genomic analysis, the relative proportions of the ancestral species in the sweet orange is approximately 42% pomelo and 58% mandarin. All varieties of the sweet orange descend from this original cross, differing only by mutations selected for during agricultural propagation. Sweet oranges have a distinct origin from the bitter orange, which arose independently, perhaps in the wild, from a cross between pure mandarin and pomelo parents. The earliest mention of the sweet orange in Chinese literature dates from 314 B.C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "Mandarin orange\n--Etymology.\n--Botany.\n--Fruit.\n--Production.\n--Uses.\n----Fresh.\n----Peel.\n----Canning.\n----Traditional medicine.\n--Nutrition.\n--Cultural significance.\n----Literature.\n--Genetics and origin.\n--Varieties.\n----Domesticated mandarins and hybrids.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "\"Citrus reticulata\" is from Latin, where reticulata means \"netted\". The name \"mandarin orange\" is a calque of Swedish \"mandarin apelsin\" [\"apelsin\" from German \"Apfelsine\" (\"Apfel\" + \"Sina\"), meaning \"Chinese apple\"], first attested in the 18th century. The form \"mandarine\" derives from the French name for this fruit. The reason for the epithet \"mandarin\" is not clear; it may relate to the yellow colour of some robes worn by mandarin dignitaries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "The Nanling Mountains are also home to northern and southern genetic clusters of domestic mandarins that have similar levels of sugars in the fruit compared to their wild relatives, but appreciably (in some almost 90-fold) lower levels of citric acid. The clusters display different patterns of pomelo introgression, have different deduced historical population histories, and are most closely related to distinct wild mandarins, suggesting two independent domestications in the north and south. All tested domesticated cultivars were found to belong to one of these two genetic clusters, with varieties such as Nanfengmiju, Kishu and Satsuma deriving from the northern domestication event producing larger, redder fruit, while Willowleaf, Dancy, Sunki, Cleopatra, King, Ponkan, and others derived from the smaller, yellower-fruited southern cluster."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus \u00d7 deliciosa",
        "text": "The production of Mediterranean mandarin has suffered a sharp decline since the middle of the 20th century because of the perishability of the fruits and the tendency for an alternating production with years of low production and years of excessive tree load, but consumers who require more intense citrus aromas and fragrances continue to enjoy this mandarin. Therefore, this mandarin has a commercial space for different markets that value the traditional cultivars. This is the case of the PGI \"Citrinos do Algarve\". These characteristics and its time of maturity, which implies being little affected by \"Ceratitis capitata\", make Mediterranean mandarin recommended for organic farming.\n* Avana\n* Emperor\n* Yousef Effendi\n* Comuna/commune\n* Natal (Mexico)\n* Paterno\n* Willowleaf (in USA)\n* Setubalense"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Other citrus groups also known as oranges are:\n* Bergamot orange (\"Citrus bergamia Risso\"), grown mainly in Italy for its peel, producing a primary essence for perfumes, also used to flavor Earl Grey tea. It is a hybrid of bitter orange x lemon.\n* Bitter orange (\"Citrus aurantium\"), also known as Seville orange, sour orange (especially when used as rootstock for a sweet orange tree), bigarade orange and marmalade orange. Like the sweet orange, it is a pomelo x mandarin hybrid, but arose from a distinct hybridization event.\n* Mandarin orange (\"Citrus reticulata\") is an original species of citrus, and is a progenitor of the common orange.\n* Trifoliate orange (\"Poncirus trifoliata\"), sometimes included in the genus (classified as \"Citrus trifoliata\"). It often serves as a rootstock for sweet orange trees and other \"Citrus\" cultivars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrumelo",
        "text": "Trifoliate orange, according to Swingle, belongs to a citrus related genera, called Poncirus, while grapefruit equivocally belongs to the genus citrus, hence the botanical name \"X citroncirus\" is a hybrid genus, derived from citrus and poncirus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus is a genus of flowering trees and shrubs in the rue family, Rutaceae. Plants in the genus produce citrus fruits, including important crops such as oranges, lemons, grapefruits, pomelos, and limes. The genus \"Citrus\" is native to South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Melanesia, and Australia. Various citrus species have been used and domesticated by indigenous cultures in these areas since ancient times. From there its cultivation spread into Micronesia and Polynesia by the Austronesian expansion (c. 3000\u20131500 BCE); and to the Middle East and the Mediterranean (c. 1200 BCE) via the incense trade route, and onwards to Europe and the Americas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "All characterized commercial varieties called mandarins are actually inter-species hybrids. Wu, \"et al.\", divided mandarins into three types, based on their degree of hybridization. In addition to genetically pure mandarins, a second type are the result of hybridization with pomelos followed by subsequent backcrossing with mandarins to retain only a few pomelo traits. The third type arose more recently from the crossing of these hybrids again with pomelos or sweet oranges (which are themselves crosses of hybrid mandarins and pomelos). This produces mandarins with more, longer stretches of pomelo DNA. Some commercial mandarins are hybrids with lemons, while several were found to have a significant contribution (35\u201365%) from papedas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus \u00d7 deliciosa",
        "text": "Citrus\" \u00d7 \"deliciosa (thorny (Australia), amarillo, beladi, \"Willowleaf Mandarin\", \"Mediterranean Mandarin\") is a citrus hybrid mandarin orange with just under 6 % pomelo ancestry. It is related to the ponkan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nanfang Caomu Zhuang",
        "text": "The \"Nanfang caomu zhuang\" has two entries (62 and 63) for \"Citrus\" trees: \"J\u00fa\" (\u6a58 \"Citrus \u00d7 sinensis\", Sweet Orange) and \"G\u0101n\" (\u67d1 \"Citrus reticulata\", Mandarin Orange)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Hybrid taxonomy is inconsistent. There is disagreement over whether to assign species names to hybrids, and even modern hybrids of known parentage are sold under general common names that give little information about their ancestry, or even imply technically incorrect identity. This can be a problem for those who cannot eat some citrus varieties. Drug interactions with chemicals found in some citrus, including grapefruit and Seville oranges, make the ancestry of citrus fruit of interest: many commonly sold citrus varieties are grapefruit hybrids or pomelo-descended grapefruit relatives. One medical review has advised patients on medication to avoid all citrus juice, although some citrus fruits contain none of the problematic furanocoumarins. Citrus allergies can also be specific to only some fruit or some parts of some fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "\"Citrus maxima\"-based\n* Amanatsu, natsumikan \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"natsudaidai\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 unknown)\n* Cam s\u00e0nh \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Dangyuja \u2013 (\"Citrus grandis Osbeck\")\n* Grapefruit \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"paradisi\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Haruka \u2013 \"Citrus tamurana\" x \"natsudaidai\"\n* Hassaku orange \u2013 (\"Citrus hassaku\")\n* Ichang lemon \u2013 (\"Citrus wilsonii\")\n* Imperial lemon \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"limon\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Kawachi Bankan \u2013 (\"Citrus kawachiensis\")\n* Kinnow \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"nobilis\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"deliciosa\")\n* Kiyomi \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"unshiu\")\n* Minneola tangelo \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Orangelo, Chironja \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Oroblanco, Sweetie \u2013 (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Sweet orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"sinensis\" (probably \"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C. reticulata\")\n* Tangelo \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"tangelo\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\" or \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Tangor \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"nobilis\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Ugli \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\" or \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "A distinct class of mandarins are native to the Japanese and neighboring islands. Initial characterization of one of these, the Tachibana orange (Tanaka's \"Citrus tachibana\"), native to Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands and southern Japan, classified it as a subspecies nesting within the wild mandarins of the East-Asian mainland. However, a directed study of these island cultivars revealed the existence of a second mandarin true-species that diverged from the mainland species between 2.2 and 2.8 million years ago, following the geographical isolation of the islands through rising sea levels. Unlike the mainland species, this Ryukyu mandarin, named \"C. ryukyuensis\", reproduces sexually. The previously-characterized island cultivars, including the Tachibana, proved to be either natural F1 hybrids between this native Ryukyu mandarin and mainland mandarin species that had recolonized the islands after a period of isolation, or else later agricultural hybrids with introduced Asian cultivars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus ryukyuensis",
        "text": "Citrus ryukyuensis is a newly characterized wild citrus species native to the Ryukyus and adjacent islands, most closely related to the mainland mandarin orange, \"C. reticulata\". As with other citrus, it is a member of the Rutaceae family. The Ryukyu and mainland species have diverged for more than 2 million years, and unlike the mainland mandarin, the Ryukyu mandarin reproduces sexually. Its hybridization with the mainland species has given rise to the unique mandarin hybrids of the islands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Apart from these core citrus species, Australian limes and the recently discovered mangshanyegan are grown. Kumquats and \"Clymenia\" spp. are now generally considered to belong within the genus \"Citrus\". Trifoliate orange, which is often used as commercial rootstock, is an outgroup and may or may not be categorized as a citrus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Citrus taxonomy is complex and controversial. Cultivated citrus are derived from various citrus species found in the wild. Some are only selections of the original wild types, many others are hybrids between two or more original species, and some are backcrossed hybrids between a hybrid and one of the hybrid's parent species. Citrus plants hybridize easily between species with completely different morphologies, and similar-looking citrus fruits may have quite different ancestries. Some differ only in disease resistance. Conversely, different-looking varieties may be nearly genetically identical, and differ only by a bud mutation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Berry (botany)",
        "text": "The history of cultivated citrus fruit remains unclear, although some recent research suggests a possible origin in Papuasia rather than continental southeast Asia. Chinese documents show that mandarins and pomelos were established in cultivation there by around 4,200 BP."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of plants known as orange",
        "text": "Orange identifies various species of trees, some with edible fruit and some not. \"Citrus sinensis\" includes many of the cultivated oranges used for their fruit, the common supermarket orange. Other species called oranges include:\n* \"Aegle marmelos\", Japanese bitter orange\n*Some of the \"Citrus\" species, including:\n** \"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"sinensis\", sweet oranges, Valencia oranges, Navel oranges, and blood oranges\n**\"Citrus ampullacea\", flask-shaped orange\n** \"Citrus aurantium\", bitter orange, Seville orange, Indian lemon\n**\"Citrus bergamia\", bergamot orange\n**\"Citrus bigaradia\", bigarade orange\n**\"Citrus clementina\", clementine orange\n**\"Citrus indica\", Indian wild orange\n**\"Citrus leiocarpa\", koji orange, smooth-fruited orange\n**\"Citrus medioglobosa\", naruto orange\n**\"Citrus micrantha\", small-flowered bitter orange\n**\"Citrus myrtifolia\", myrtle-leafed orange\n**\"Citrus natsudaidai\", Japanese summer orange\n**\"Citrus nobilis\", mandarin orange\n**\"Citrus pyriformis\", pear-shaped orange\n**\"Citrus reticulata\", mandarin orange\n**\"Citrus suavissima\", pleasant orange\n**\"Citrus succosa\", sappy orange\n**\"Citrus suhuiensis\", suhui orange\n*\"Hortia\" species\n*\"Poncirus trifoliata\", Chinese bitter orange"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus neocaledonica",
        "text": "\"Citrus neocaledonica\" was originally named as a member of the genus \"Citrus\" by Andr\u00e9 Guillaumin in 1911, but the false oranges were moved to a novel genus \"Oxanthera\" in the Swingle and Tanaka systems of citrus taxonomy. Phylogenetic analysis showed that \"Oxanthera\" species clustered within \"Citrus\", which makes this species a member of that genus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Today, navel oranges continue to be propagated through cutting and grafting. This does not allow for the usual selective breeding methodologies, and so all navel oranges can be considered fruits from that single, nearly 200-year-old tree: they have exactly the same genetic make-up as the original tree and are clones. This case is similar to that of the common yellow seedless banana, the Cavendish, or that of the Granny Smith apple. On rare occasions, however, further mutations can lead to new varieties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Most hybrids express different ancestral traits when planted from seeds (F2 hybrids) and can continue a stable lineage only through vegetative propagation. Some hybrids do reproduce true to type via nucellar seeds in a process called apomixis. As such, many hybrid species represent the clonal progeny of a single original F1 cross, though others combine fruit with similar characteristics that have arisen from distinct crosses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "The trifoliate orange is a cold-hardy plant distinguishable by its compound leaves with three leaflets and its deciduous nature, but is close enough to the genus \"Citrus\" to be used as a rootstock. Swingle moved the trifoliate orange from \"Citrus\" to its own genus, \"Poncirus\", but Mabberley and Zhang reunited the genera Swingle had separated back into \"Citrus\". Early phylogenetic analysis nested \"Poncirus\" within the citrus, consistent with a single genus, but the genomic sequencing of Wu, \"et al.\", placed it outside the cluster representing \"Citrus\", and the authors retained a separate genus \"Poncirus\". Ollitrault, Curk and Krueger indicate that the majority of data are consistent with the enlarged \"Citrus\" that includes the trifoliate orange, though they recognize that many botanists still follow Swingle. A further complication to the placement of \"Poncirus\" is the conflicting phylogenetic data: its nuclear genome places \"Poncirus\" as an outgroup to other citrus, while its chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) nests within a \"Citrus\" subclade. This led Talon, \"et al.\" to conclude that the trifoliate orange likely is either the progeny of an ancient hybridization between a core citrus and an unidentified more distant relative, or at some time in its history acquired an introgressed cpDNA genome from another species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ponkan",
        "text": "Ponkan (); \"Citrus poonensis\"; \"Chinese Honey Orange\") is a high-yield sweet \"Citrus\" cultivar with large fruits in the size of an orange. It is a citrus hybrid (mandarin \u00d7 pomelo), though it was once thought to be a pure mandarin."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus fruits",
        "text": "This is a list of citrus fruits:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "'Mangshan wild mandarin' is a name used for all of the similar-looking wild mandarin-like fruit of the Mangshan area, but has been found to include two genetically-distinct groups, one representing pure, wild \"true\" mandarins (the \"mangshanyeju\" subspecies of \"C. reticulata\"), and the other the genetically-distinct and only distantly-related species, the \"mangshanyegan\" (\"C. mangshanensis\"), akin to another local fruit known as the \"yuanju\", and found to be the most distant branch of all the citrus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "This naming system focused on the four species ancestral to most commercial hybrids, and did not include similar species designations for more exotic hybrids involving other citrus species, such as the Ichang papeda, kumquat, or trifoliate orange. Likewise, Ollitrault, Curk and Krueger accepted that the whole-genome characterization necessary to unambiguously assign a hybrid species name under their system is not available for many varieties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Byeonggyul",
        "text": "Genomic evidence has suggested that byeonggyul, sweet oranges, and key limes shared a common ancestor. Byeonggyul is known to be more resistant to cold, blight and insect attack than other related citrus fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus undulata",
        "text": "Originally characterized and named as \"Citrus undulata\" by Andr\u00e9 Guillaumin in 1938, this species along with the other false oranges were moved to a novel genus, \"Oxanthera\", in the Swingle and Tanaka systems of citrus taxonomy. Phylogenetic analysis showed that \"Oxanthera\" species clustered within \"Citrus\", which makes this species a member of that genus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lime (fruit)",
        "text": "The difficulty in identifying exactly which species of fruit are called lime in different parts of the English-speaking world (and the same problem applies to synonyms in other European languages) is increased by the botanical complexity of the citrus genus itself, to which the majority of limes belong. Species of this genus hybridise readily, and it is only recently that genetic studies have started to shed light on the structure of the genus. The majority of cultivated species are in reality hybrids, produced from the citron (\"Citrus medica\"), the mandarin orange (\"Citrus reticulata\"), the pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\") and in particular with many lime varieties, the micrantha (\"Citrus hystrix\" var. micrantha).\n* Australian limes (former \"Microcitrus\" and \"Eremocitrus\")\n** Australian desert lime (\"Citrus glauca\")\n** Australian finger lime (\"Citrus australasica\")\n** Australian lime (\"Citrus australis\")\n** Blood lime (red finger lime \u00d7 (sweet orange \u00d7 mandarin))\n* Makrut lime (\"Citrus hystrix\"); a papeda relative, is one of the three most widely produced limes globally.\n* Key lime (\"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"aurantiifolia\"=\"Citrus micrantha\" \u00d7 \"Citrus medica\") is also one of the three most widely produced limes globally.\n* Philippine lime (\"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"microcarpa\"), a kumquat \u00d7 mandarin hybrid\n* Persian lime (\"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"latifolia\") a key lime \u00d7 lemon hybrid, is the single most widely produced lime globally, with Mexico being the largest producer.\n* Rangpur lime (Mandarin lime, lemandarin, \"Citrus limonia\"), a mandarin orange \u00d7 citron hybrid\n* Spanish lime (\"Melicoccus bijugatus\"); not a citrus\n* Sweet lime etc. (\"Citrus limetta\", etc.); several distinct citrus hybrids\n* Wild lime (\"Adelia ricinella\"); not a citrus\n* Wild lime (\"Zanthoxylum fagara\"); not a citrus\n* Limequat (lime \u00d7 kumquat)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citron",
        "text": "The citron has been cultivated since ancient times, predating the cultivation of other citrus species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus unshiu",
        "text": "Under the Tanaka classification system, \"Citrus unshiu\" is considered a separate species from the mandarin. Under the Swingle system, unshius are considered to be a group of mandarin varieties. Genetic analysis has shown the Satsuma to be a highly inbred mandarin-pomelo hybrid, with 22% of its genome, a larger proportion than seen in most mandarins, coming from pomelo. It arose when a mandarin of the low-pomelo huanglingmiao/kishu variety (placed in \"C. reticulata\" by Tanaka) was crossed with a pomelo or pomelo hybrid, then the resulting cultivar was backcrossed with another huanglingmiao/kishu mandarin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "\"Citrus reticulata\" is a moderate-sized tree some in height. The tree trunk and major branches have thorns. The leaves are shiny, green, and rather small. The petioles are short, almost wingless or slightly winged. The flowers are borne singly or in small groups in the leaf-axils. Citrus are usually self-fertile (needing only a bee to move pollen within the same flower) or parthenocarpic (not needing pollination and therefore seedless, such as the satsuma). A mature mandarin tree can yield up to of fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mangshanyegan",
        "text": "The mangshanyegan is native to mountain forests in Mangshan, Hunan province, China, where it was first reported in the 1980s. It is genetically distinct from the mandarin orange, with which it has morphological similarities, and the term 'Mangshan wild mandarins' as well as the species name \"C. mangshanensis\" have been used both for the mangshanyegan and for wild true mandarins of the same region. Genomic sequencing shows the mangshanyegan to be one of a small number of pure (non-hybrid) citrus species, having diverged from other members of the genus at the initial branching of \"Citrus\" radiation in the Late Miocene. It is genetically similar to another wild citrus of the region, the \"yuanju\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The taxonomy and systematics of the genus are complex and the precise number of natural species is unclear, as many of the named species are hybrids clonally propagated through seeds (by apomixis), and genetic evidence indicates that even some wild, true-breeding species are of hybrid origin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "A second trifoliate orange, \"Poncirus polyandra\", was discovered in Yunnan (China) in the 1980s. Zhang and Mabberley later concluded this was likely a hybrid between the trifoliate orange and some other \"Citrus\". However, recent genomic analysis of \"P. polyandra\" showed low heterozygosity, the opposite of what one would expect for a hybrid. Were \"Poncirus\" subsumed into \"Citrus\", \"C. polyandra\" would be unavailable, so \"C. polytrifolia\" has been suggested as a replacement species name for this Yunnan trifoliate orange."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Citrus is a genus of flowering plants including the orange and lemon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The generic name originated from Latin, where it referred to either the plant now known as citron (\"C. medica\") or a conifer tree (\"Thuja\"). It is related to the ancient Greek word for cedar, \u03ba\u03ad\u03b4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 (\"k\u00e9dros\"). This may be due to perceived similarities in the smell of citrus leaves and fruit with that of cedar. Collectively, \"Citrus\" fruits and plants are also known by the Romance loanword \"agrumes\" (literally \"sour fruits\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "The \"Citrus australis\" is a Microcitrus, which is a cluster that contains the \"Citrus australis\" as well as other limes such as the New Guinea lime or the New Guinea wild lime. Through DNA replication and phylogenetic relationships, it is believed that the \"Citrus australis\" has evolved over millions of years, from a primitive ancestral type that underwent speciation in Australia and New Guinea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Orange (fruit)\n--Taxonomy and terminology.\n--Etymology.\n--History.\n--Varieties.\n----Common.\n------Valencia.\n------Hamlin.\n----Navel.\n------Cara cara.\n----Blood.\n----Acidless.\n----Hybrid.\n--Attributes.\n----Sensory factors.\n----Nutritional value and phytochemicals.\n----Grading.\n--Cultivation.\n----Climate.\n----Propagation.\n----Harvest.\n----Degreening.\n----Storage.\n----Pests and diseases.\n------Cottony cushion scale.\n------Citrus greening disease.\n------Greasy spot.\n--Production.\n--Products.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus trees are not generally frost hardy. Mandarin oranges (\"C. reticulata\") tend to be the hardiest of the common \"Citrus\" species and can withstand short periods down to as cold as , but realistically temperatures not falling below are required for successful cultivation. Tangerines, tangors and yuzu can be grown outside even in regions with more marked subfreezing temperatures in winter, although this may affect fruit quality. A few hardy hybrids can withstand temperatures well below freezing, but do not produce quality fruit. Lemons can be commercially grown in cooler-summer/moderate-winter, coastal Southern California, because sweetness is neither attained nor expected in retail lemon fruit. The related trifoliate orange (\"C. trifoliata\") can survive below ; its fruit are astringent and inedible unless cooked, but a few better-tasting cultivars and hybrids have been developed (see citranges)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citron",
        "text": "In Indo-Iranian languages, it is called , as against ('bitter orange'). Both names were borrowed into Arabic and introduced into Spain and Portugal after their occupation by Muslims in AD 711, whence the former became the source of the name \"orange\" through rebracketing (and the latter of 'toronja', which today describes the grapefruit in Spanish)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oranges and Lemons",
        "text": "When I am Old,"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus fruits",
        "text": "List of citrus fruits\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Varieties of true (non-hybrid) citron (\"Citrus medica\") have distinctly different forms. The citron usually propagates by cleistogamy, a self-pollination within an unopened flower, and this results in the lowest levels of heterozygosity among the citrus species. Because of this, it will generally serve as the male parent of any hybrid progeny. Many citron varieties were proven to be non-hybrids despite their rather dramatic morphological differences; however, the florentine citron is probably of hybrid origin. Genetic analysis of citrons has shown that they divide into three groups. One cluster consists of wild citrons that originated in China and produce non-fingered fruit with pulp and seeds. A second cluster, also native to China, consist of the fingered citrons, most of which are seedless and must be propagated artificially. The third cluster represents the Mediterranean citrons, thought to have originally been introduced there from India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus reticulata x medica",
        "text": "\"Citrus reticulata\" x \"medica\" may refer to one of several hybrids between a mandarin orange and citron:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Anastrepha ludens",
        "text": "<br>\n* \"Anacardium occidentale\" (cashew)\n* \"Annona cherimola\" (cherimoya)\n* \"Annona reticulata\" (custard apple)\n* \"Annona squamosa\" (sugar-apple)\n* \"Carica papaya\" (papaya)\n* \"Casimiroa edulis\" (white sapote)\n* \"Casimiroa tetrameria\" (matasano)\n* \"Citrus aurantiifolia\" (lime)\n* \"Citrus maxima\" (pummelo)\n* \"Citrus aurantium\" (sour orange)\n* \"Citrus limetta\" (sweet lime)\n* \"Citrus x paradisi\" (grapefruit)\n* \"Citrus medica\" (citron)\n* \"Citrus reticulata\" (tangerine)\n* \"Citrus sinensis\" (sweet orange)\n* \"Coffea arabica\" (arabica coffee)\n* \"Cydonia oblonga\" (quince)\n* \"Diospyros kaki\" (Japanese persimmon)\n* \"Feijoa sellowiana\" (feijoa)\n* Inga (shimbillo)\n* \"Malus domestica\" (apple)\n* \"Malus pumila\" (paradise apple)\n* \"Mammea americana\" (mammey apple)\n* \"Mangifera indica\" (mango)\n* \"Sideroxylon capiri\" (bully tree)\n* \"Passiflora edulis\" (purple granadilla)\n* \"Persea americana\" (avocado)\n* \"Pouteria sapota\" (sapote)\n* \"Prunus persica\" (peach)\n* \"Psidium guajava\" (common guava)\n* \"Psidium littorale\" (strawberry guava)\n* \"Punica granatum\" (pomegranate)\n* \"Pyrus communis\" (pear)\n* \"Sargentia greggii\" (yellow chapote)\n* \"Spondias purpurea\" (red mombin)\n* \"Syzygium jambos\" (rose-apple)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Richmond William Hullett",
        "text": "One of the most significant cases of lost plants is that of the wild Malaysian citrus tree believed to be 12 million years old (now endangered). \"Citrus halimii\" (a close relative of the kumquat and pomelo variety of citrus), was collected by William Tatton Egerton on Mount Ophir, 28 December 1902. In a letter to Henry Nicholas Ridley, Egerton writes:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus ryukyuensis",
        "text": "The third important group of Ryukyu mandarin clones, referred to as \"yukunibu\", derive instead from a cross with a \"kunenbo\"-type mandarin orange with higher levels of pomello introgression, probably introduced agriculturally from South-East Asia or Indonesia in historical times. The Ryukyu mandarin has also contributed to more complex citrus hybrids, such as the \"rokugatsu\", a bitter orange/Ryukyu mandarin cross, and the \"deedee\", a \"shiikuwasha\"/pomello cross."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "According to a 1917 study by Palemon Dorsett, Archibald Dixon Shamel and Wilson Popenoe of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), a single mutation in a Selecta orange tree planted on the grounds of a monastery in Bahia, Brazil, probably yielded the first navel orange between 1810 and 1820. Nevertheless, a researcher at the University of California, Riverside, has suggested that the parent variety was more likely the Portuguese navel orange (\"Umbigo\"), described by Antoine Risso and Pierre Antoine Poiteau in their book \"Histoire naturelle des orangers\" (\"Natural History of Orange Trees\", 1818\u20131822). The mutation caused the orange to develop a second fruit at its base, opposite the stem, embedded within the peel of the primary orange. Navel oranges were introduced in Australia in 1824 and in Florida in 1835. In 1873, Eliza Tibbets planted two cuttings of the original tree in Riverside, California, where the fruit became known as \"Washington\". This cultivar was very successful, and rapidly spread to other countries. Because the mutation left the fruit seedless, therefore sterile, the only method to cultivate navel oranges was to graft cuttings onto other varieties of citrus trees. The California Citrus State Historic Park and the Orcutt Ranch Horticulture Center preserve the history of navel oranges in Riverside."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rangpur (fruit)",
        "text": "\"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"limonia\" was introduced into Florida in the late nineteenth century by Reasoner Brothers of Oneco, which obtained seed from northwestern India. Though often described as a lemon hybrid, genomic analysis has shown it to be an F1 hybrid of a female citron (\"Citrus medica\") and a male mandarin orange (\"Citrus reticulata\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "A fossil leaf from the Pliocene of Valdarno (Italy) is described as \u2020\"Citrus meletensis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "An orange is a fruit of various citrus species in the family Rutaceae (see list of plants known as orange); it primarily refers to \"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"sinensis\", which is also called sweet orange, to distinguish it from the related \"Citrus \u00d7 aurantium\", referred to as bitter orange. The sweet orange reproduces asexually (apomixis through nucellar embryony); varieties of sweet orange arise through mutations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "As with kumquats, the trifoliate orange does not naturally interbreed with core taxa due to different flowering times, but hybrids have been produced artificially between \"Poncirus\" and members of the genus \"Citrus\". Genomic analysis of several such hybrids showed all to have involved \"P. trifoliata\" and not \"P. polyandra\". In the Swingle system the name coined for these intra-generic crosses, represented as a hybrid genus, is \"\u00d7 \"Citroncirus\"\". The group includes the citrange, a hybrid between the trifoliate and sweet oranges, and the citrumelo, a hybrid of trifoliate orange and 'Duncan' grapefruit. As with Citrofortunella, were \"Poncirus\" subsumed into \"Citrus\", these hybrids would no longer be intergeneric, and would likewise fall within \"Citrus\", rendering \"Citroncirus\" invalid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The colour of citrus fruits only develops in climates with a (diurnal) cool winter. In tropical regions with no winter at all, citrus fruits remain green until maturity, hence the tropical \"green oranges\". The Persian lime in particular is extremely sensitive to cool conditions, thus it is not usually exposed to cool enough conditions to develop a mature colour. If they are left in a cool place over winter, the fruits will change colour to yellow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus reshni",
        "text": "Citrus reshni also known as Cleopatra mandarin is a citrus tree that is commonly used in agriculture as a rootstock of different cultivated species of citrus, mostly orange, grapefruit, tangerine and lemon. It originated in India and later was introduced to Florida from Jamaica in the mid-nineteenth century."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is the genus Citrus native to Australia?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Citrus plants are native to subtropical and tropical regions of Asia, Island Southeast Asia, Near Oceania, and northeastern Australia. Some native varieties in Austrailia are Australian finger, round desert limes, Mount White limes, Kakadu lime or Humpty Doo lime, and Russel River limes and Maiden's Australian limes."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the oldest living species of citrus plant?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The three ancestral (sometimes characterized as \"original\" or \"fundamental\") species in the genus Citrus associated with modern Citrus cultivars are the mandarin orange, pomelo, and citron. Which would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me more about mandarin oranges please."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Mandarins are smaller and oblate, unlike the spherical common oranges; the mandarin was one of the original citrus species; through breeding or natural hybridization, it is the ancestor of many hybrid citrus cultivars. Just like with other citrus fruits, the endocarp (inner flesh) is separated into segments, which in their turn consist of a large number of elongated cells.",
      "Mandarins are one of the core ancestral citrus taxa, and believed to have evolved in regions in South China, Japan, and Vietnam. They've been domesticated at least twice and wild mandarins still exist in the Nanling Mountains."
    ],
    "topic": "Citrus",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Mandarin orange:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mandarin orange"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mandarins are smaller and oblate, unlike the spherical common oranges (which are a mandarin\u2013pomelo hybrid). The taste is considered sweeter and stronger than the common orange. A ripe mandarin is firm to slightly soft, heavy for its size, and pebbly-skinned. The peel is thin, loose, with little white mesocarp, so they are usually easier to peel and to split into segments. Hybrids usually have these traits to a lesser degree. The mandarin is tender and is damaged easily by cold. It can be grown in tropical and subtropical areas."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Mandarin orange:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mandarin orange"
        ],
        "ctx": "According to genetic studies, the mandarin was one of the original citrus species; through breeding or natural hybridization, it is the ancestor of many hybrid citrus cultivars. With the citron and pomelo, it is the ancestor of the most commercially important hybrids (such as sweet and sour oranges, grapefruit, and many lemons and limes). The mandarin has also been hybridized with other citrus species, such as the desert lime and the kumquat. Though the ancestral mandarin was bitter, most commercial mandarin strains derive from hybridization with pomelo, which give them a sweet fruit."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Mandarin orange:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mandarin orange",
          "Fruit"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mandarin orange fruits are small . Their colour is orange, yellow-orange, or red-orange. The skin is thin and peels off easily. Their easiness to peel is an important advantage of mandarin oranges over other citrus fruits. Just like with other citrus fruits, the endocarp (inner flesh) is separated into segments, which in their turn consist of a large number of elongated cells. The fruits may be seedless or contain a small number of seeds. Mandarin orange fruits are sweet to taste, and can be eaten as whole or squeezed to make juice."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Mandarin orange:19",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mandarin orange",
          "Genetics and origin"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mandarins are one of the core ancestral citrus taxa, and are thought to have evolved in regions including South China and Japan in East Asia, and Vietnam in Southeast Asia. Mandarins appear to have been domesticated at least twice, in the north and south Nanling Mountains, derived from separate wild subspecies. Wild mandarins are still found there, including Daoxian mandarines (sometimes given the species name \"Citrus daoxianensis\") as well as some members of the group traditionally called 'Mangshan wild mandarins', a generic grouping for the wild mandarin-like fruit of the Mangshan area that includes both true mandarins (\"mangshanyeju\", the southern subspecies) and the genetically-distinct and only distantly-related Mangshanyegan. The wild mandarins were found to be free of the introgressed pomelo (\"C. maxima\") DNA found in domestic mandarins but they did appear to have small amounts (~1.8%) of introgression from the ichang papeda, which grows wild in the same region."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Citrus \u00d7 deliciosa",
        "text": "The production of Mediterranean mandarin has suffered a sharp decline since the middle of the 20th century because of the perishability of the fruits and the tendency for an alternating production with years of low production and years of excessive tree load, but consumers who require more intense citrus aromas and fragrances continue to enjoy this mandarin. Therefore, this mandarin has a commercial space for different markets that value the traditional cultivars. This is the case of the PGI \"Citrinos do Algarve\". These characteristics and its time of maturity, which implies being little affected by \"Ceratitis capitata\", make Mediterranean mandarin recommended for organic farming.\n* Avana\n* Emperor\n* Yousef Effendi\n* Comuna/commune\n* Natal (Mexico)\n* Paterno\n* Willowleaf (in USA)\n* Setubalense"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus trees are not generally frost hardy. Mandarin oranges (\"C. reticulata\") tend to be the hardiest of the common \"Citrus\" species and can withstand short periods down to as cold as , but realistically temperatures not falling below are required for successful cultivation. Tangerines, tangors and yuzu can be grown outside even in regions with more marked subfreezing temperatures in winter, although this may affect fruit quality. A few hardy hybrids can withstand temperatures well below freezing, but do not produce quality fruit. Lemons can be commercially grown in cooler-summer/moderate-winter, coastal Southern California, because sweetness is neither attained nor expected in retail lemon fruit. The related trifoliate orange (\"C. trifoliata\") can survive below ; its fruit are astringent and inedible unless cooked, but a few better-tasting cultivars and hybrids have been developed (see citranges)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "According to genetic studies, the mandarin was one of the original citrus species; through breeding or natural hybridization, it is the ancestor of many hybrid citrus cultivars. With the citron and pomelo, it is the ancestor of the most commercially important hybrids (such as sweet and sour oranges, grapefruit, and many lemons and limes). The mandarin has also been hybridized with other citrus species, such as the desert lime and the kumquat. Though the ancestral mandarin was bitter, most commercial mandarin strains derive from hybridization with pomelo, which give them a sweet fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The three ancestral (sometimes characterized as \"original\" or \"fundamental\") species in the genus \"Citrus\" associated with modern \"Citrus\" cultivars are the mandarin orange, pomelo, and citron. Almost all of the common commercially important citrus fruits (sweet oranges, lemons, grapefruit, limes, and so on) are hybrids involving these three species with each other, their main progenies, and other wild \"Citrus\" species within the last few thousand years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chenpi",
        "text": "Starting from around 2010, extensive land development for commercial and residential use in China has caused the decrease of farmland, especially in Xinhui, affecting the supply of Xinhui citrus and consequently Chenpi production. This in turn has contributed to a steep increase in the price of Chenpi. Based on data in late 2014, Xinhui Chenpi aged one year costs around 140 HKD per kilogram while those aged 10 years cost 600 to 800 HKD per kilo. Chenpi stored for more than 20 years can reach as nearly as 24,000 RMB per kilogram. 65-year Chenpi even costs 23,000 RMB per tael. Wholesale price of Chenpi costs 40 to 70 HKD per pound."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kishu mikan",
        "text": "The fruit is thought to have arisen in Southern China, where its name was recorded in the records of Jianchang during the Ming Dynasty, and its agricultural growth is widespread in Jiangxi province. Japanese oranges were cultivated from the cherry orange about 700 years ago. Genetic studies have found it to be closely related to the Huanglingmiao mandarin, carrying the same pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\") introgression, indicating that the two diverged from the same backcrossed domesticated ancestor. Under the Tanaka system of citrus taxonomy, it is a separate species, \"Citrus kinokuni\", while the Swingle system groups it with other pure and hybrid mandarins as a single species, \"Citrus reticulata\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "The most common citrus hybrids that are sometimes treated as a species by themselves, especially in folk taxonomy, are:\n* Orange: a name used for several distinct crosses between pomelo and a mandarin orange. They have the orange color of the mandarin in their outer peels and segments, and are easier to peel than the pomelos. Oranges are all intermediate between the two ancestors in size, flavor and shape. The bitter orange and sweet orange both arose from mandarin-pomelo crosses, the former involving a pure mandarin, the latter with a mandarin already containing small amounts of pomelo.\n* Grapefruit: grapefruits, like oranges, include genetic contributions from both mandarin and pomelo, but more of the latter, arising from a natural backcross of a sweet orange with a pomelo. The 'cocktail grapefruit', or mandelo, is distinct, instead the product of a low-acid pomelo variety hybridized with a mandarin that itself was a cross between two distinct mandarin stocks.\n* Lemon: \"true\" lemons derive from one common hybrid ancestor, having diverged by mutation. The original lemon was a hybrid between a male citron and a female sour orange, itself a pomelo/pure-mandarin hybrid; citrons contribute half of the genome, while the other half is divided between pomelo and mandarin. There are other hybrids also known as 'lemons'. Rough lemons arose from a cross between citron and mandarin, without the pomelo contribution found in true lemons, while the Meyer lemon comes from a citron crossed with a sweet (as opposed to sour) orange.\n* Limes: A highly diverse group of hybrids go by this name. Rangpur limes, like rough lemons, arose from crosses between citron and mandarin. The sweet limes, so-called due to their low acid pulp and juice, come from crosses of citron with either sweet or sour oranges, while the Key lime arose from a cross between a citron and a micrantha."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Most cultivated \"Citrus\" spp. seem to be natural or artificial hybrids of a small number of core ancestral species, including the citron, pomelo, mandarin, and papeda (see image). Natural and cultivated citrus hybrids include commercially important fruit such as oranges, grapefruit, lemons, limes, and some tangerines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "In general, three \"Citrus\" ancestral species (pomelos, citrons, and papedas) synthesize relatively high quantities of furanocoumarins, whereas a fourth ancestral species (mandarins) is practically devoid of these compounds. Since the production of furanocoumarins in plants is believed to be heritable, the descendants of mandarins (such as sweet oranges, tangerines, and other small mandarin hybrids) are expected to have low quantities of furanocoumarins, whereas other hybrids (such as limes, grapefruit, and sour oranges) are expected to have relatively high quantities of these compounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus fruits",
        "text": "This is a list of citrus fruits:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus cavaleriei",
        "text": "Relatively rare in cultivation, the Ichang papeda is a large shrub or small tree, growing to , and produces a small, mandarin-like fruit. Leaves feature a broad petiole, and resemble the leaves of the yuzu and the kaffir lime in appearance. The fruit has a fragrant, but rugged rind, and may be oval, spherical, or flattened in shape, ripening to yellow or orange. It contains many large monoembryonic seeds and a small quantity of bitter or sour juice; some fruits lack juice entirely and are instead filled with a mass of pith and seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus unshiu",
        "text": "Citrus unshiu is a semi-seedless and easy-peeling citrus species, also known as miyagawa mandarin, unshu mikan, cold hardy mandarin, satsuma mandarin, satsuma orange, naartjie, and tangerine. \"Citrus unshiu\" was named after Unshu (Wenzhou), a famous production area of mandarin oranges in China, in the late Edo period of Japan. It is said to have originated in either Japan or China, and because of its name, it is often described as originating in China; however, due to multiple genetic studies conducted in the 2010s, the theory that the maternal species of \"Citrus unshiu\" was \"Kishu\" (\"Citrus kinokuni\") and the paternal species was \"Kunenbo\" (\"Citrus nobilis\" Lour. var. \"kunip\") and that it was created in the Satsuma province in Japan became more credible. During the Edo period, \"Kishu\" was the most popular because there was a popular superstition that eating \"Citrus unshiu (Satsuma)\" without seeds made people more prone to infertility. \"Citrus unshiu\" became popular in Japan after the modernization started in the Meiji period. It was introduced to the West from the Satsuma region of Japan in 1878."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beluga caviar",
        "text": "The most expensive caviar is \"Almas\", a golden caviar produced by very rare female albino sturgeon between 60 and 100 years old, which swims in the southern Caspian Sea near Iran where apparently less pollution exists. Very few of the albino variety are left in the wild since the lack of melanin is a genetic disorder that only affects a few members of the species. A kilogram (2\u00a0lb 3 oz) is regularly sold for \u00a320,000 (then USD 34,500)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Productivity of a citrus groves can be retained at pre-Huanglongbing levels through a three pronged strategy. Current research is aimed at the goal of giving the greatest yields for the lowest costs. Indeed, these lower costs are necessitated by the increased per acre cost of caretaking brought upon by Huanglongbing infection. Huanglongbing forces the commercial citrus caretaker to spray his/her block of citrus many more times a year than normal, considerably increasing costs. Per pound prices of citrus must continue increasing for citrus to remain profitable due to disease pressure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "The mandarin orange (\"Citrus reticulata\"), also known as the mandarin or mandarine, is a small citrus tree fruit. Treated as a distinct species of orange, it is usually eaten plain or in fruit salads. Tangerines are a group of orange-coloured citrus fruit consisting of hybrids of mandarin orange with some pomelo contribution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "Historically, the Christmas fruit sold in North America was mostly Dancys, but now it is more often a hybrid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "China could be a major player in the orange juice and processed citrus markets, except for high tariffs on citrus that make domestic sale more profitable. Though citrus originated in southeast Asia, current citrus production is low due to lower-than-average yields, high production and marketing costs, and disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus fruits",
        "text": "List of citrus fruits\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Essential oil",
        "text": "Most citrus peel oils are expressed mechanically or cold-pressed (similar to olive oil extraction). Due to the relatively large quantities of oil in citrus peel and low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils. Lemon or sweet orange oils are obtained as byproducts of the citrus industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ventura County, California",
        "text": "Lemons are the number two crop in the county according to the 2018 crop and livestock report. The economic value of lemons is more than $244 million a year, Valencia oranges are nearly $20 million a year, and mandarins/tangelos are more than $17 million a year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anastrepha ludens",
        "text": "<br>\n* \"Anacardium occidentale\" (cashew)\n* \"Annona cherimola\" (cherimoya)\n* \"Annona reticulata\" (custard apple)\n* \"Annona squamosa\" (sugar-apple)\n* \"Carica papaya\" (papaya)\n* \"Casimiroa edulis\" (white sapote)\n* \"Casimiroa tetrameria\" (matasano)\n* \"Citrus aurantiifolia\" (lime)\n* \"Citrus maxima\" (pummelo)\n* \"Citrus aurantium\" (sour orange)\n* \"Citrus limetta\" (sweet lime)\n* \"Citrus x paradisi\" (grapefruit)\n* \"Citrus medica\" (citron)\n* \"Citrus reticulata\" (tangerine)\n* \"Citrus sinensis\" (sweet orange)\n* \"Coffea arabica\" (arabica coffee)\n* \"Cydonia oblonga\" (quince)\n* \"Diospyros kaki\" (Japanese persimmon)\n* \"Feijoa sellowiana\" (feijoa)\n* Inga (shimbillo)\n* \"Malus domestica\" (apple)\n* \"Malus pumila\" (paradise apple)\n* \"Mammea americana\" (mammey apple)\n* \"Mangifera indica\" (mango)\n* \"Sideroxylon capiri\" (bully tree)\n* \"Passiflora edulis\" (purple granadilla)\n* \"Persea americana\" (avocado)\n* \"Pouteria sapota\" (sapote)\n* \"Prunus persica\" (peach)\n* \"Psidium guajava\" (common guava)\n* \"Psidium littorale\" (strawberry guava)\n* \"Punica granatum\" (pomegranate)\n* \"Pyrus communis\" (pear)\n* \"Sargentia greggii\" (yellow chapote)\n* \"Spondias purpurea\" (red mombin)\n* \"Syzygium jambos\" (rose-apple)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Most commercial varieties are descended from one or more of the 'core species', citrons, mandarins, and pomelos, which share in common a complex floral anatomy that gives rise to more complex fruit. These core species, and to a lesser extent other citrus, have given rise to a wide variety of hybrids for which the naming is inconsistent. The same common names may be given to different species, citrus hybrids or mutations. For example, citrus with green fruit tend to be called 'limes' independent of their origin: Australian limes, musk limes, Key limes, kaffir limes, Rangpur limes, sweet limes and wild limes are all genetically distinct. Fruit with similar ancestry may be quite different in name and traits (e.g. grapefruit, common oranges, and ponkans, all pomelo-mandarin hybrids). Many traditional citrus groups, such as true sweet oranges and lemons, seem to be bud sports, clonal families of cultivars that have arisen from distinct spontaneous mutations of a single hybrid ancestor. Novel varieties, and in particular seedless or reduced-seed varieties, have also been generated from these unique hybrid ancestral lines using gamma irradiation of budwood to induce mutations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "All of these hybrids have in turn been bred back with their parent stocks or with other pure or hybrid citrus to form a broad array of fruits. Naming of these is inconsistent, with some bearing a variant of the name of one of the parents or simply another citrus with superficially-similar fruit, a distinct name, or a portmanteau of ancestral species. The Ponderosa lemon (\"Citrus limon\" \u00d7 \"medica\") and Florentine citron (\"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"limonimedica\") are both true lemon/citron hybrids, the Bergamot orange is a sweet orange/lemon hybrid and the Oroblanco is a grapefruit/pomelo mix, while tangelos are tangerine (mandarin)/pomelo or mandarin/grapefruit hybrids, orangelos result from grapefruit backcrossed with sweet orange, and a sweet orange backcrossed with a tangerine gives the tangor. One lumia, a member of the sweet lemons, is the product of crossing a lemon with a pomelo/citron hybrid, though another lumia variety, the Pomme d'Adam, is a micrantha/citron cross, like the Key lime. The most common and commercially popular 'limes', the Persian limes, are Key lime/lemon hybrids that combine the genetic lineages of four ancestral citrus species: mandarin, pomelo, citron and micrantha."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grapefruit\u2013drug interactions",
        "text": "Marketing classifications often do not correspond to taxonomic ones. The \"Ambersweet\" cultivar is classified and sold as an orange, but does not descend from the same common ancestor as sweet oranges; it has grapefruit, orange, and mandarin ancestry. Fruits are often sold as mandarin, tangerine, or satsuma (which may be synonyms). Fruit sold under these names include many which are, like Sunbursts and Murcotts, hybrids with grapefruit ancestry. The diversity of fruits called limes is remarkable; some, like the Spanish lime and Wild lime, are not even citrus fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "\"Citrus reticulata\" is a moderate-sized tree some in height. The tree trunk and major branches have thorns. The leaves are shiny, green, and rather small. The petioles are short, almost wingless or slightly winged. The flowers are borne singly or in small groups in the leaf-axils. Citrus are usually self-fertile (needing only a bee to move pollen within the same flower) or parthenocarpic (not needing pollination and therefore seedless, such as the satsuma). A mature mandarin tree can yield up to of fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "\"Citrus reticulata\"\u2013based\n* Bergamot orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"bergamia\" (\"C.\" \u00d7\"limon\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"aurantium\")\n* Bitter orange, Seville Orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"aurantium\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C. reticulata\")\n* Blood orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"sinensis\" cultivars\n* Calamansi, Calamondin \u2013 (\"Citrus reticulata\" \u00d7 \"Citrus japonica\")\n* Cam s\u00e0nh \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Chinotto \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"aurantium\" var. \"myrtifolia\" or \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"myrtifolia\"\n* ChungGyun \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cultivar\n* Clementine \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"clementina\"\n* Cleopatra Mandarin \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"reshni\"\n* Siranui \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cv. 'Dekopon' (ChungGyun \u00d7 Ponkan)\n* Daidai \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"aurantium\" var. \"daidai\" or \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"daidai\"\n* Encore \u2013 ((\"Citrus reticulata\" x \"sinensis\") x \"C. deliciosa\")\n* Grapefruit \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"paradisi\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Hermandina \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cv. 'Hermandina'\n* Imperial lemon \u2013 ((\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C. medica\") \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Iyokan, \"anadomikan\" \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"iyo\"\n* Jabara \u2013 (\"Citrus jabara\")\n* Kanpei \u2013 (\"Citrus reticulata\" 'Kanpei')\n* Kinkoji unshiu \u2013 (\"Citrus obovoidea\" x \"unshiu\")\n* Kinnow, Wilking \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"nobilis\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"deliciosa\")\n* Kishumikan \u2013 (\"Citrus kinokuni\")\n* Kiyomi \u2013 (\"C. sinensis\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"unshiu\")\n* Kobayashi mikan \u2013 (\"Citrus natsudaidai\" x \"unshiu\")\n* Koji orange \u2013 (\"Citrus leiocarpa\")\n* Kuchinotsu No.37 \u2013 ('Kiyomi' x 'Encore')\n* Laraha \u2013 \"\"C.\" \u00d7\"aurantium\" ssp. \"currassuviencis\"\n* Mediterranean mandarin, Willow Leaf \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"deliciosa\"\n* Meyer lemon, Valley Lemon \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"meyeri\" (\"C. medica\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Michal mandarin \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cv. 'Michal'\n* Mikan, Satsuma \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"unshiu\"\n* Murcott \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" x \"sinensis\")\n* Naartjie \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. nobilis\")\n* Nova mandarin, Clemenvilla\n* Orangelo, Chironja \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Oroblanco, Sweetie \u2013 (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"limettioides\" (\"C. medica\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Ponkan \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cv. 'Ponkan'\n* Rangpur, Lemanderin, Mandarin Lime \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"limonia\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. medica\")\n* Reikou \u2013 (Kuchinotsu No.37 x 'Murcott')\n* Rough lemon \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"jambhiri\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. medica\")\n* Sanbokan \u2013 \"Citrus sulcata\"\n* Setoka \u2013 (Kuchinotsu No.37 x 'Murcott')\n* Shekwasha, Hirami Lemon, Taiwan Tangerine \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"depressa\"\n* Sunki, Suenkat \u2013 \"Citrus\" \"sunki\" or \"C. reticulata\" var. \"sunki\"\n* Sweet orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"sinensis\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C. reticulata\")\n* Tachibana orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \"tachibana\" or \"C. reticulata\" var. \"tachibana\"\n* Tangelo \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"tangelo\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\" or \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Tangerine \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"tangerina\"\n* Tangor \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"nobilis\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Ugli \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\" or \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Volkamer lemon \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"volkameriana\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. medica\")\n* Yukou \u2013 (\"Citrus yuko\")\n* Yuzu \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"junos\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"cavaleriei\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "All citrus trees belong to the single genus \"Citrus\" and remain almost entirely interfertile. This includes grapefruits, lemons, limes, oranges, and various other types and hybrids. As the interfertility of oranges and other citrus has produced numerous hybrids and cultivars, and bud mutations have also been selected, citrus taxonomy is fairly controversial, confusing or inconsistent. The fruit of any citrus tree is considered a hesperidium, a kind of modified berry; it is covered by a rind originated by a rugged thickening of the ovary wall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "'Mangshan wild mandarin' is a name used for all of the similar-looking wild mandarin-like fruit of the Mangshan area, but has been found to include two genetically-distinct groups, one representing pure, wild \"true\" mandarins (the \"mangshanyeju\" subspecies of \"C. reticulata\"), and the other the genetically-distinct and only distantly-related species, the \"mangshanyegan\" (\"C. mangshanensis\"), akin to another local fruit known as the \"yuanju\", and found to be the most distant branch of all the citrus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "Mandarin orange fruits are small . Their colour is orange, yellow-orange, or red-orange. The skin is thin and peels off easily. Their easiness to peel is an important advantage of mandarin oranges over other citrus fruits. Just like with other citrus fruits, the endocarp (inner flesh) is separated into segments, which in their turn consist of a large number of elongated cells. The fruits may be seedless or contain a small number of seeds. Mandarin orange fruits are sweet to taste, and can be eaten as whole or squeezed to make juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ponkan",
        "text": "Ponkan (); \"Citrus poonensis\"; \"Chinese Honey Orange\") is a high-yield sweet \"Citrus\" cultivar with large fruits in the size of an orange. It is a citrus hybrid (mandarin \u00d7 pomelo), though it was once thought to be a pure mandarin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus indica",
        "text": "This wild orange plant was originally characterized as one of the likely ancestors of today's cultivated citrus fruits, if not the main one. It was considered to be the most \"primitive\" citrus. However, genomic analysis has revealed it to be a citrus hybrid, with maternal citron ancestry and also mandarin orange and unspecified papeda contributions. It can be used as a citrus rootstock for cultivated citrus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rangpur (fruit)",
        "text": "\"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"limonia\" was introduced into Florida in the late nineteenth century by Reasoner Brothers of Oneco, which obtained seed from northwestern India. Though often described as a lemon hybrid, genomic analysis has shown it to be an F1 hybrid of a female citron (\"Citrus medica\") and a male mandarin orange (\"Citrus reticulata\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "'Encore' mandarin",
        "text": "The fruit is of excellent internal quality, although its vitamin C content is relatively low when compared to an orange. Each fruit can contain 25 or more seeds. In some orchards, the number of seeds is reduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "While most citrus hybrids derive from the three core species, hybrids have also been derived from the micrantha, Ichang papeda, kumquat, Australian limes, and trifoliate orange. The best known hybrid from micrantha is the Key lime (or Mexican lime), derived from the breeding of a male citron and a female micrantha. Several citrus varieties are Ichang papeda/mandarin crosses (for which Swingle coined the term ichandarin), including Sudachi and Yuzu (which also includes smaller contributions from pomelo and kumquat). Other more exotic citrus have likewise proved hybrids that include papeda. For example, the Indian wild orange, once suggested as a possible ancestor of today's cultivated citrus fruits, yielded conflicting phylogenetic placements in more limited genetic analysis, but study of nuclear markers and chloroplast DNA showed it to be of maternal citron lineage, with further genetic contributions from mandarin and papeda."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "An enormous number of cultivars have, like the sweet orange, a mix of pomelo and mandarin ancestry. Some cultivars are mandarin-pomelo hybrids, bred from the same parents as the sweet orange (e.g. the tangor and ponkan tangerine). Other cultivars are sweet orange x mandarin hybrids (e.g. clementines). Mandarin traits generally include being smaller and oblate, easier to peel, and less acidic. Pomelo traits include a thick white albedo (rind pith, mesocarp) that is more closely attached to the segments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The fruit is a hesperidium, a specialised berry, globose to elongated, long and diameter, with a leathery rind or \"peel\" called a pericarp. The outermost layer of the pericarp is an \"exocarp\" called the flavedo, commonly referred to as the zest. The middle layer of the pericarp is the mesocarp, which in citrus fruits consists of the white, spongy \"albedo\", or \"pith\". The innermost layer of the pericarp is the endocarp. The space inside each segment is a locule filled with juice vesicles, or \"pulp\". From the endocarp, string-like \"hairs\" extend into the locules, which provide nourishment to the fruit as it develops. Many citrus cultivars have been developed to be seedless (see nucellar embryony and parthenocarpy) and easy to peel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elaeocarpus serratus",
        "text": "Both ripe and unripe fruit are also sold in local markets, in the years 2005-2007 they fetched Rs.20/- to 30/- per kilogram (cheap, but not in the cheapest price range)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Mandarin oranges (tangerines, satsumas \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\") are one of the basic species, but the name mandarin is also used more generally for all small, easily peeled citrus, including a large range of hybrids. Swingle saw three species of mandarin, while Tanaka identified five groups with a total of 36 species. Webber (1948) divided them into four groups, king, satsuma, mandarin, and tangerine, and Hodgson (1967) saw in them four species. Genomic analysis suggests just one mainland-Asian species, \"Citrus reticulata\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shangjuan",
        "text": "According to some it is the best bet for cold-hardy citrus with edible fruit. It is believed to be a hybrid of pomelo and Ichang papeda and thus may also be called \"Ichang pomelo\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "'Encore' mandarin",
        "text": "Sometimes fruit present peel pitting, which is a problem for its commercialization, especially in markets where this fruit is not known. There are orchards where no pitting appear until harvest, or peel pitting is not notorious."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rangpur (fruit)",
        "text": "Rangpur, Citrus\" \u00d7 \"limonia or Citrus reticulata\" \u00d7 \"medica, sometimes called the rangpur lime, mandarin lime or lemandarin, is a hybrid between the mandarin orange and the citron. It is a citrus fruit with a very acidic taste and an orange peel and flesh."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "\"Citrus maxima\"-based\n* Amanatsu, natsumikan \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"natsudaidai\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 unknown)\n* Cam s\u00e0nh \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Dangyuja \u2013 (\"Citrus grandis Osbeck\")\n* Grapefruit \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"paradisi\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Haruka \u2013 \"Citrus tamurana\" x \"natsudaidai\"\n* Hassaku orange \u2013 (\"Citrus hassaku\")\n* Ichang lemon \u2013 (\"Citrus wilsonii\")\n* Imperial lemon \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"limon\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Kawachi Bankan \u2013 (\"Citrus kawachiensis\")\n* Kinnow \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"nobilis\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"deliciosa\")\n* Kiyomi \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"unshiu\")\n* Minneola tangelo \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Orangelo, Chironja \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Oroblanco, Sweetie \u2013 (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Sweet orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"sinensis\" (probably \"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C. reticulata\")\n* Tangelo \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"tangelo\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\" or \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Tangor \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"nobilis\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Ugli \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\" or \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus leprosis disease",
        "text": "This disease is considered an important problem in citriculture in countries where it has been established, and is considered the major viral disease in citrus in Brazil. Damage by leprosis in plants and in orange production has caused an annual cost of approximately US$90 million for miticides to control the disease, this represents about 40% of fertilizer and pesticide expenses and about 16% of the total costs of a grove. Because of its widespread occurrence and potential for high damage, the disease can cause 100% yield losses, depending on the susceptibility of the citrus variety, isolate and control of the vector. Because CL is considered a quarantine disease, international marketing is restricted to those regions where the disease is not reported."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus \u00d7 deliciosa",
        "text": "This species produce those which are perhaps the tastiest of all citrus fruits. That's why its scientific name is \"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"deliciosa\", which means delicious citrus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Hybrid taxonomy is inconsistent. There is disagreement over whether to assign species names to hybrids, and even modern hybrids of known parentage are sold under general common names that give little information about their ancestry, or even imply technically incorrect identity. This can be a problem for those who cannot eat some citrus varieties. Drug interactions with chemicals found in some citrus, including grapefruit and Seville oranges, make the ancestry of citrus fruit of interest: many commonly sold citrus varieties are grapefruit hybrids or pomelo-descended grapefruit relatives. One medical review has advised patients on medication to avoid all citrus juice, although some citrus fruits contain none of the problematic furanocoumarins. Citrus allergies can also be specific to only some fruit or some parts of some fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Costus curvibracteatus",
        "text": "Costus curvibracteatus is a tropical rhizomatous perennial native to Costa Rica and Panama. A member of the spiral ginger family of plants, its common name is orange tulip ginger. It is also sometimes referred to as spiral ginger; however, this common name is better associated with \"Costus barbatus\", a more widely cultivated and very similar species. Despite the name and its relation to the ginger family (Zingiberaceae), the rhizomes of the orange tulip ginger are not edible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "\"Citrus reticulata\" is from Latin, where reticulata means \"netted\". The name \"mandarin orange\" is a calque of Swedish \"mandarin apelsin\" [\"apelsin\" from German \"Apfelsine\" (\"Apfel\" + \"Sina\"), meaning \"Chinese apple\"], first attested in the 18th century. The form \"mandarine\" derives from the French name for this fruit. The reason for the epithet \"mandarin\" is not clear; it may relate to the yellow colour of some robes worn by mandarin dignitaries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nanfengmiju",
        "text": "A small, sweet fruit, it is one of the most widely cultivated varieties of mandarin orange in China. It is thought to be a descendant of the Tang and Song Dynasty ruju, and related to the Japanese kishu, which is now also grown and sold in North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus trees hybridise very readily \u2013 depending on the pollen source, plants grown from a Persian lime's seeds can produce fruit similar to grapefruit. Thus, all commercial citrus cultivation uses trees produced by grafting the desired fruiting cultivars onto rootstocks selected for disease resistance and hardiness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The orange is a hybrid between pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\") and mandarin (\"Citrus reticulata\"). The chloroplast genome, and therefore the maternal line, is that of pomelo. The sweet orange has had its full genome sequenced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus reshni",
        "text": "The Cleopatra mandarin fruit belong to the \"acidic\" group of mandarins, which are too sour to be edible. When they are grown it is for the rootstock or for juice production. The rootstock can handle multiple soil conditions including tolerance to the presence of limestone, salinity and soil alkalinity along with being suitable for shallow soils. It is resistant to citrus tristeza virus and exocortis but is sensitive to root asphyxia and Phytophthora. One of the down sides to using the rootstock is it grows slow in the early years. In the right conditions it can induce high productivity and excellent fruit quality, although these are usually somewhat smaller than with others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lime (fruit)",
        "text": "The difficulty in identifying exactly which species of fruit are called lime in different parts of the English-speaking world (and the same problem applies to synonyms in other European languages) is increased by the botanical complexity of the citrus genus itself, to which the majority of limes belong. Species of this genus hybridise readily, and it is only recently that genetic studies have started to shed light on the structure of the genus. The majority of cultivated species are in reality hybrids, produced from the citron (\"Citrus medica\"), the mandarin orange (\"Citrus reticulata\"), the pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\") and in particular with many lime varieties, the micrantha (\"Citrus hystrix\" var. micrantha).\n* Australian limes (former \"Microcitrus\" and \"Eremocitrus\")\n** Australian desert lime (\"Citrus glauca\")\n** Australian finger lime (\"Citrus australasica\")\n** Australian lime (\"Citrus australis\")\n** Blood lime (red finger lime \u00d7 (sweet orange \u00d7 mandarin))\n* Makrut lime (\"Citrus hystrix\"); a papeda relative, is one of the three most widely produced limes globally.\n* Key lime (\"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"aurantiifolia\"=\"Citrus micrantha\" \u00d7 \"Citrus medica\") is also one of the three most widely produced limes globally.\n* Philippine lime (\"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"microcarpa\"), a kumquat \u00d7 mandarin hybrid\n* Persian lime (\"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"latifolia\") a key lime \u00d7 lemon hybrid, is the single most widely produced lime globally, with Mexico being the largest producer.\n* Rangpur lime (Mandarin lime, lemandarin, \"Citrus limonia\"), a mandarin orange \u00d7 citron hybrid\n* Spanish lime (\"Melicoccus bijugatus\"); not a citrus\n* Sweet lime etc. (\"Citrus limetta\", etc.); several distinct citrus hybrids\n* Wild lime (\"Adelia ricinella\"); not a citrus\n* Wild lime (\"Zanthoxylum fagara\"); not a citrus\n* Limequat (lime \u00d7 kumquat)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Persian lime",
        "text": "Although there are other citrus species that are referred to as \"limes\", the Persian lime is the most widely cultivated lime species commercially, and accounts for the largest share of the fruits sold as limes. The fruit turns yellow as it ripens, but it is universally sold while still green."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Swingle's system divided the Citrinae subtribe into three groups, the 'primitive citrus' distant relatives, the closer 'near citrus' including citrus-related genera like \"Atalantia\", and the \"true citrus\", for the species that had historically been placed in \"Citrus\" but many of which he elevated to separate genera: \"Poncirus\" (trifoliate orange), \"Fortunella\" (kumquat), \"Eremocitrus\" (desert limes), \"Microcitrus\" (finger and round limes), as well as an additional genus, \"Clymenia\", formerly thought to be a citrus hybrid. His \"Citrus\" he likewise subdivided into two subgenera: citrons, pomelos, mandarins, oranges, grapefruits and lemons were placed in subgenus \"Eucitrus\" (later called simply subgenus \"Citrus\"), while the hardy but slow-growing trees with relatively unpalatable fruit he placed in subgenus \"Papeda\". His genus \"Citrus\" consisted of just 16 species, dividing them further into varieties, and lastly cultivars or hybrids. The Swingle system is generally followed globally today with much modification; there are still large differences in nomenclature between countries and individual scientists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus macroptera",
        "text": "Many of the \"C. macroptera\" var. \"annamensis\" fruits are exported from Bangladesh, exacting a high price because their oil is used in the perfume industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Apart from these core citrus species, Australian limes and the recently discovered mangshanyegan are grown. Kumquats and \"Clymenia\" spp. are now generally considered to belong within the genus \"Citrus\". Trifoliate orange, which is often used as commercial rootstock, is an outgroup and may or may not be categorized as a citrus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in China",
        "text": "Citrus is a major cash crop in southern China, with production scattered along and south of the Yangtze River valley. Mandarins are the most popular citrus in China, with roughly double the output of oranges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Artificial interbreeding seems possible among all citrus plants, though there are certain limitations to natural interbreeding due to plant physiology and differences in natural breeding seasons. This ability to cross-pollinate extends to some related species that some classifications place in distinct genera. The ability of citrus hybrids to self-pollinate and to reproduce sexually also helps create new varieties, as does spontaneous mutation and genome duplication. The three most predominant ancestral citrus taxa are citron (\"C. medica\"), pomelo (\"C. maxima\"), and mandarin (\"C. reticulata\"). These taxa interbreed freely, despite being quite genetically distinct, having arisen through allopatric speciation, with citrons evolving in northern Indochina, pomelos in the Malay Archipelago, and mandarins in Vietnam, southern China, and Japan. The hybrids of these taxa include familiar citrus fruits like oranges, grapefruit, lemons, and some limes and tangerines. These three have also been hybridized with other citrus taxa, for example, the Key lime arose from a citron crossing with a micrantha. In many cases, the varieties are propagated asexually, and lose their characteristic traits if bred. Some of the hybrids have in turn interbred with one another hybrid or with the original taxa, making the citrus family tree a complicated network."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grapefruit",
        "text": "Related citrus fruits include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Papeda (citrus)",
        "text": "It is believed, based on molecular studies, that the citron, pomelo, mandarin and papedas were the ancestors of most hybrid citrus species and their varieties, which resulted from breeding or natural hybridization among the parental species. For example, the Key lime, a hybrid between a papeda, the micrantha, and a citron, has in turn given rise to many commercial types of limes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "The Nanling Mountains are also home to northern and southern genetic clusters of domestic mandarins that have similar levels of sugars in the fruit compared to their wild relatives, but appreciably (in some almost 90-fold) lower levels of citric acid. The clusters display different patterns of pomelo introgression, have different deduced historical population histories, and are most closely related to distinct wild mandarins, suggesting two independent domestications in the north and south. All tested domesticated cultivars were found to belong to one of these two genetic clusters, with varieties such as Nanfengmiju, Kishu and Satsuma deriving from the northern domestication event producing larger, redder fruit, while Willowleaf, Dancy, Sunki, Cleopatra, King, Ponkan, and others derived from the smaller, yellower-fruited southern cluster."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "The pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\"), a second of the core species from which most citrus hybrids have derived, is native to southeast Asia. Among the hybrids deriving from mandarin/pomelo crosses, there is a direct correlation between the proportion of pomelo DNA in the hybrid and fruit size, while the more palatable mandarins are those that have received specific genes from pomelos that alter their acidity. Some of the more common pomelos are genetically pure, while a number have a single small region of introgressed mandarin DNA on one chromosome, the result of a cross followed by extensive backcrossing with pomelo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus \u00d7 deliciosa",
        "text": "Citrus\" \u00d7 \"deliciosa (thorny (Australia), amarillo, beladi, \"Willowleaf Mandarin\", \"Mediterranean Mandarin\") is a citrus hybrid mandarin orange with just under 6 % pomelo ancestry. It is related to the ponkan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nucellar embryony",
        "text": "Seedless fruits have been made popular as they are sought-after in the citrus industry. To be seedless, a citrus must exhibit self-incompatibility, another reproductive trait within citrus fruits and many seed plants. Self incompatibility is the phenomena where hermaphroditic plants are not able to produce fertile embryos after self-pollination. Self-incompatibility is regulated by the S-loci; if pollen is rendered incompatible, it is determined by its haploid S genotype, or if its sporophyte is rendered incompatible, it would be determined by its diploid S genotype. This is also termed and associated with parthenocarpy, the production of fruit without fertilization. Self-incompatible fruits are able to undergo parthenocarpy to yield seedless fruits. In citrus specifically, there have been other modes developed to reduce seeding as well: gibberellic acid enhances ovule abortion and copper sulfate has been shown to reduce seed number in fruit. An example is the \u2018Afourer\u2019 mandarin that contains a haploid self-incompatibility system and parthenocarpy. Under conditions where cross-pollination is not present, the \u2018Afourer\u2019 mandarin produces a seedless fruit by undergoing parthenocarpy. Where cross-pollination is present, gibberellic acid is applied and produces a decreased seeding fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus longispina",
        "text": "Fruits comes in clusters and the flesh has a fair amount of natural sugar and a lime flavor. However it still lacks the intensity of acid found in more common citrus fruits, so some people might find it insipid. The fruit is spherical, about in diameter. The tree has many long, strong thorns, as implicated from the botanical name, longispina."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fragrance extraction",
        "text": "Expression as a method of fragrance extraction where raw materials are pressed, squeezed or compressed and the essential oils are collected. In contemporary times, the only fragrant oils obtained using this method are the peels of fruits in the citrus family. This is due to the large quantity of oil is present in the peels of these fruits as to make this extraction method economically feasible. Citrus peel oils are expressed mechanically, or \"cold-pressed\". Due to the large quantities of oil in citrus peel and the relatively low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils to the extent that purified limonene extracted from these fruit is available as an affordable naturally-derived solvent. Lemon or sweet orange oils that are obtained as by-products of the commercial citrus industry are among the cheapest citrus oils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Individual hybrids of each type are then distinguished by a variety name. Thus hybrids that are crosses between mandarin (\"C. reticulata\") and pomelo (\"C. maxima\") would all be \"C.\" \u00d7 \"aurantium\", with specific crosses including: \"C.\" \u00d7 \"aurantium\" var. \"sinensis\" for the sweet orange, \"C.\" \u00d7 \"aurantium\" var. \"paradisi\" for grapefruit, and \"C.\" \u00d7 \"aurantium\" var. \"clementina\" for the clementine. Likewise, hybrids combining mandarins and citrons would all be varieties of \"C.\" \u00d7 \"limonia\", those of pomelo and citron, \"C.\" x \"lumia\", while tri-species hybrids of citrons, pomelos and mandarins would be \"C.\" \u00d7 \"limon\", and a tetra-species cross involving these three species along with \"C. micrantha\" would be \"C.\" \u00d7 \"latifolia\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus unshiu",
        "text": "Its fruit is one of the sweetest citrus varieties. It is usually seedless, and is about the size of other mandarin oranges (\"Citrus reticulata\"). Satsumas are known for their loose, leathery skin; the fruit is very easily peeled in comparison to other citrus fruits. The rind is often smooth to slightly rough with the shape of a medium to small flattened sphere. Satsumas usually have 10 to 12 easily separable segments with tough membranes. The flesh is particularly delicate, and cannot withstand the effects of careless handling. Coloring of the fruit is often dependent on climate; Satsumas grown in humid areas may be ripe while the skin is still green while those grown in areas with cool night temperatures may see a brilliant reddish orange skin at peak."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grapefruit\u2013drug interactions",
        "text": "Common lemons are the product of orange/citron hybridization, and hence have pomelo ancestry, and although Key limes are papeda/citron hybrids, the more commercially prevalent Persian limes and similar varieties are crosses of the Key lime with lemons, and hence likewise have pomelo ancestry. These limes can also inhibit drug metabolism. Other less-common citrus species also referred to as lemons or limes are genetically distinct from the more common varieties, with different proportions of pomelo ancestry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Komikan (fruit)",
        "text": "The is a type of mandarin orange grown in Japan. \"Ko\" means \"little\", and \"mikan\" a type of citrus cultivar; komikans are unusually small. It is almost the same as the Kishumikan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrumelo",
        "text": "Trifoliate orange, according to Swingle, belongs to a citrus related genera, called Poncirus, while grapefruit equivocally belongs to the genus citrus, hence the botanical name \"X citroncirus\" is a hybrid genus, derived from citrus and poncirus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colletotrichum acutatum",
        "text": "It also causes the disease postbloom fruit drop on many varieties of citrus, especially Valencia and navel oranges in Florida."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "All of the wild 'pure' citrus species trace to a common ancestor that lived in the Himalayan foothills, where a late-Miocene citrus fossil, \"Citrus linczangensis\", has been found. At that time, a lessening of the monsoons and resultant drier climate in the region allowed the citrus ancestor to expand across south and east Asia in a rapid genetic radiation. After the plant crossed the Wallace line a second radiation took place in the early Pliocene (about 4 million years ago) to give rise to the Australian species. Most modern cultivars are actually hybrids derived from a small number of 'pure' original species. Though hundreds of species names have been assigned, a recent genomic study by Wu, \"et al.\" identified just ten ancestral species of citrus among more than a hundred cultivars studied. Of these ten, seven were native to Asia: pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\"), the 'pure' mandarins (\"C. reticulata\" \u2013 most mandarin cultivars were hybrids of this species with pomelo), citrons (\"C. medica\"), micranthas (\"C. micrantha\"), the Ichang papeda (\"C. cavaleriei\"), the mangshanyegan (\"C. mangshanensis\"), and the oval (Nagami) kumquat (\"Fortunella margarita\" or \"C. japonica\" var. \"margarita\"). Three from Australia were identified: the desert lime (\"C. glauca\"), round lime (\"C. australis\") and the finger lime (\"C. australasica\"). Many other cultivars previously identified as species were found to be closely related variants (subspecies or varieties) or hybrids of these species, though not all cultivars were evaluated. Subsequent studies have added two additional species to this list of pure species: a mandarin native to the Ryukyu Islands designated \"C. ryukyuensis\", and a rare wild species from Southeast Asia, the mountain citron. A number of further species originally placed in other genera have recently been subsumed into \"Citrus\" as a result of phylogenetic analysis, but these have yet to be characterized on a phylogenomic level to confirm their status as unique pure species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Other citrus groups also known as oranges are:\n* Bergamot orange (\"Citrus bergamia Risso\"), grown mainly in Italy for its peel, producing a primary essence for perfumes, also used to flavor Earl Grey tea. It is a hybrid of bitter orange x lemon.\n* Bitter orange (\"Citrus aurantium\"), also known as Seville orange, sour orange (especially when used as rootstock for a sweet orange tree), bigarade orange and marmalade orange. Like the sweet orange, it is a pomelo x mandarin hybrid, but arose from a distinct hybridization event.\n* Mandarin orange (\"Citrus reticulata\") is an original species of citrus, and is a progenitor of the common orange.\n* Trifoliate orange (\"Poncirus trifoliata\"), sometimes included in the genus (classified as \"Citrus trifoliata\"). It often serves as a rootstock for sweet orange trees and other \"Citrus\" cultivars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Citrus production encompasses the production of citrus fruit, which are the highest-value fruit crop in terms of international trade. There are two main markets for citrus fruit:\n* The fresh fruit market\n* The processed citrus fruits market (mainly orange juice)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reikou",
        "text": "The fruit can be easily peeled by hand. It has a sugar content of between 12% and 13%, with some fruits reaching 15%. The fruit weighs around , relatively large for a tangor, and is a reddish-orange colour. It fruits in late January. It does not produce pollen, so it must be pollinated by another species of citrus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus wintersii",
        "text": "It is reportedly rarely more than tall in the wild though specimens cultivated from seed in California have attained heights of over . Leaves are narrowly lanceolate, up to long. Fruit is green, never yellow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "Mandarins are smaller and oblate, unlike the spherical common oranges (which are a mandarin\u2013pomelo hybrid). The taste is considered sweeter and stronger than the common orange. A ripe mandarin is firm to slightly soft, heavy for its size, and pebbly-skinned. The peel is thin, loose, with little white mesocarp, so they are usually easier to peel and to split into segments. Hybrids usually have these traits to a lesser degree. The mandarin is tender and is damaged easily by cold. It can be grown in tropical and subtropical areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "'Encore' mandarin",
        "text": "It is cultivated in Japan, in greenhouses. In Portugal, its area has increased due to the high prices of the fruits, but at the moment it is stabilized or diminishing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cam s\u00e0nh",
        "text": "It is one among many citrus fruits from the region. These include the closely related yellow \"cam canh\" and reddish to yellow \"cam bo ha\" mandarin\u2013pomelos hybrids; the orange-colored \"chun\" or \"sen\", yellow \"bak son\", and pink \"hong\" orange\u2013mandarin hybrids or \"king mandarins\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. sinensis\"); as well as at least three non-hybridized mandarin (\"C. reticulata\") varietals. The term \"king mandarin\" is sometimes applied to the \"cam s\u00e0nh\" itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus stubborn disease",
        "text": "As the name indicates, citrus stubborn disease affects citrus plants, most severely oranges (especially naval and mandarin varieties), grapefruit, and tangelo trees. Lemon and lime are also affected, but much less severely."
      },
      {
        "title": "Actinidia chinensis",
        "text": "\"Actinidia chinensis\" has a smooth, bronze skin, with a beak shape at the stem attachment. Flesh colour varies from bright green to a clear, intense yellow. This species is sweeter and more aromatic in flavour compared to \"A. deliciosa\", similar to some subtropical fruits. One of the most attractive varieties has a red 'iris' around the centre of the fruit and yellow flesh outside. The yellow fruit obtains a higher market price and, being less hairy than the fuzzy kiwifruit, is more palatable for consumption without peeling. A commercially viable variety of this red-ringed kiwifruit, patented as \"EnzaRed\", is a cultivar of the Chinese hong yang variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fruit",
        "text": "Seedlessness is an important feature of some fruits of commerce. Commercial cultivars of bananas and pineapples are examples of seedless fruits. Some cultivars of citrus fruits (especially grapefruit, mandarin oranges, navel oranges), satsumas, table grapes, and of watermelons are valued for their seedlessness. In some species, seedlessness is the result of \"parthenocarpy\", where fruits set without fertilization. Parthenocarpic fruit-set may (or may not) require pollination, but most seedless citrus fruits require a stimulus from pollination to produce fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Lemons, pomelos, and sour oranges are believed to have been introduced to the Mediterranean later by Arab traders at around the 10th century CE; and sweet oranges by the Genoese and Portuguese from Asia during the 15th to 16th century. Mandarins were not introduced until the 19th century. This group of species has reached great importance in some of the Mediterranean countries, and in the case of orange, mandarin, and lemon trees, they found here soil and climatic conditions which allow them to achieve a high level of fruit quality, even better than in the regions from where they came."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "As with kumquats, the trifoliate orange does not naturally interbreed with core taxa due to different flowering times, but hybrids have been produced artificially between \"Poncirus\" and members of the genus \"Citrus\". Genomic analysis of several such hybrids showed all to have involved \"P. trifoliata\" and not \"P. polyandra\". In the Swingle system the name coined for these intra-generic crosses, represented as a hybrid genus, is \"\u00d7 \"Citroncirus\"\". The group includes the citrange, a hybrid between the trifoliate and sweet oranges, and the citrumelo, a hybrid of trifoliate orange and 'Duncan' grapefruit. As with Citrofortunella, were \"Poncirus\" subsumed into \"Citrus\", these hybrids would no longer be intergeneric, and would likewise fall within \"Citrus\", rendering \"Citroncirus\" invalid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "(Species names are those from the Tanaka system. Recent genomic analysis would place them all in \"Citrus reticulata\", except the \"C. ryukyuensis\" hybrids)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kishu mikan",
        "text": "The kishu mikan (\"Citrus kinokuni\" ex Tanaka) is a hybrid variety of mikan, or mandarin orange (\"Citrus reticulata\"), found in Southern China and also grown in Japan. It is not closely related to the common sweet orange, but it is closely related to the mandarin orange."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "This cultivar was discovered by A. G. Hamlin near Glenwood, Florida, in 1879. The fruit is small, smooth, not highly colored, and juicy, with a pale yellow colored juice, especially in fruits that come from lemon rootstock. The fruit may be seedless, or may contain a number of small seeds. The tree is high-yielding and cold-tolerant and it produces good quality fruit, which is harvested from October to December. It thrives in humid subtropical climates. In cooler, more arid areas, the trees produce edible fruit, but too small for commercial use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dancy (citrus)",
        "text": "It has an intense, medium-sweet flavour, and its juice is more strongly-flavoured than orange juice. It is known (and sometimes named) for its loose, pliable peel, which is mainly orange flavedo, with very little bitter white mesocarp (also called albedo or pith). This allows the peel to be eaten fresh and used to flavour dishes like tangerine beef. The Dancy may be a pure mandarin, unlike many commercial citrus cultivars, which are hybrids."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cam s\u00e0nh",
        "text": "This tree is referred to as the \"King Tangor\" or \"King Mandarin\" in most horticultural literature. Scion for grafting is available through the University of California Citrus Clonal Protection Program. One notable difference is that in temperate climates the fruit will turn a bright orange in response to colder temperatures when the fruits ripen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cervara Abbey",
        "text": "The Garden of the Hesperides contains citrus trees, including: lemon, bergamot orange, bitter orange, grapefruit, variegated calamondin, mandarin orange, Nagami kumquat, oval kumquat (\"Fortunella margarita\"), and Buddha's hand citron (\"Citrus medica\" var. \"sarcodactylis\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kumquat",
        "text": "The Hong Kong kumquat (\"Citrus hindsii\" or \"Fortunella hindsii\") produces only pea-sized bitter and acidic fruit with very little pulp and large seeds. It is primarily grown as an ornamental plant, though it is also found in southern China growing in the wild. Not only is it the most primitive of the kumquats, but with the kumquats being the most primitive citrus, Swingle described it as the closest to the ancestral species from which all citrus evolved. While the wild Hong Kong kumquat is tetraploid, there is a commercial diploid variety, the Golden Bean kumquat with slightly larger fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus reshni",
        "text": "Citrus reshni also known as Cleopatra mandarin is a citrus tree that is commonly used in agriculture as a rootstock of different cultivated species of citrus, mostly orange, grapefruit, tangerine and lemon. It originated in India and later was introduced to Florida from Jamaica in the mid-nineteenth century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Other/Unresolved\n* Djeruk limau \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"amblycarpa\"\n* Gajanimma, Carabao Lime \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"pennivesiculata\"\n* Hyuganatsu, Hyuganatsu pumelo \u2013 \"Citrus tamurana\"\n* Ichang lemon \u2013 (\"C.\" \"cavaleriei\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\")\n* Kabosu \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"sphaerocarpa\"\n* Odichukuthi \u2013 \"Citrus Odichukuthi\" from Malayalam\n* Ougonkan \u2013 \"Citrus flaviculpus\" hort ex. Tanaka\n* Sakurajima komikan orange\n* Shonan gold \u2013 (Ougonkan) \"Citrus flaviculpus\" hort ex. Tanaka \u00d7 (Imamura unshiu), \"Citrus unshiu\" Marc\n* Sudachi \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"sudachi\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "A separate species, \"Citrus ryukyuensis\" that diverged from the mainland species between 2 and 3 million years ago when cut off by rising sea levals was found growing on the island of Okinawa, and its natural and agricultural hybridization with the mainland mandarin species has produced some of the unique island mandarin cultivars of Japan and Taiwan, such as the Tachibana orange, previously classified as a subspecies of pure mandarin before its parent was identified, and the Shekwasha. Some of the small number of cultivars were found to be pure in initial gemonic analysis, including Sun Chu Sha mandarin and Nanfengmiju, but Wang detected in them not only an apparent Ichang papeda introgression found in all examined mandarins but also the distinct pomelo DNA of the domesticated mandarins. Following initial hybridization, natural or cultivated backcrosses of the initial mandarin-pomelo hybrids with the mandarin stock produced mandarins with limited pomelo contribution, that differed between the northern and southern domesticates. An 'acidic' group of cultivars including Sunki and Cleopatra mandarins that likewise previously were thought to be pure but since found to contain small regions of introgressed pomelo DNA are too sour to be edible, but are widely used as rootstock and grown for juice. Another group of mandarins, including some tangerines, Satsuma and King mandarins, show a greater pomelo contribution and derive from the limited-pomelo hybrids being crossed again, with sweet orange or pomelo, and likewise backcrossing in some cases, producing cultivars with moderate to high levels of pomelo introgression. Hybrid mandarins thus fall on a continuum of increasing pomelo contribution with clementines, sweet and sour oranges, and grapefruit. Mandarins and their hybrids are sold under a variety of names.\n* Mangshan wild mandarins (only some, others being the genetically-distinct mangshanyegan)\n* Daoxian mandarines\n* Suanpangan"
      },
      {
        "title": "Durian",
        "text": "Prices of durians are high due to postharvest changes and having a short shelf life in normal temperatures. In Singapore in 2007, the strong demand for high quality cultivars such as the D24 (\"Sultan\"), and Musang King (\"Mao Shan Wang\") resulted in high retail prices. The edible portion of the fruit, known as the aril and usually referred to as the \"flesh\" or \"pulp\", only accounts for about 15\u201330% of the mass of the entire fruit. By 2018, Musang King farmers saw very large increases in the prices they received, making the fruit far more lucrative than palm oil or rubber. This led to an increase in durian plantation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flhorban 920",
        "text": "The smaller size and distinctive taste of the FB920 cultivar have been found to fetch higher prices in European markets, with increased prices of 50.6% ($0.75-$1.13) observed in one study. Given the high aforementioned volume of international trade in bananas and their high international presence, a price increase of this magnitude could have enormous ramifications for subsistence farmers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Citrus taxonomy\n--Genetic history.\n--Citrus naming systems.\n--Core species and hybrids.\n----Ancestral species.\n------Mandarins.\n------Pomelos.\n------Citrons.\n------Papedas.\n------Kumquats.\n------Australian and New Guinean species.\n------Trifoliate orange.\n--Hybrids.\n----Labelling of hybrids.\n----Major citrus hybrids.\n----Hybrids from other citrus species.\n------\"Citrofortunella\".\n------\"Citroncirus\".\n--Graft hybrids.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Zest (ingredient)",
        "text": "The zest and mesocarp vary with the genetics of the fruit. Fruit with peels that are almost all flavedo are generally mandarines; relatives of pomelos and citrons tend to have thicker mesocarp. The mesocarp of pomelo relatives (grapefruit, orange, etc.) is generally more bitter; the mesocarp of citron relatives (Mexican and Persian limes, alemows etc.) is milder. The lemon is a hybrid of pummelo, citron, and mandarin. The mesocarp is also edible, and is used to make succade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus \u00d7 deliciosa",
        "text": "It has been widely grown around the Mediterranean since it appeared in Italy (between 1810 and 1818), but was not found in the orient until it was exported there. It is one of the most commercially important citrus. Its sweet fruit is eaten, its rind oil is used to flavour food and drinks, and petitgrain oil is extracted from the pruned leaves. Flower (particularly petals) are also rich in essential oils."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is the genus Citrus native to Australia?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Citrus plants are native to subtropical and tropical regions of Asia, Island Southeast Asia, Near Oceania, and northeastern Australia. Some native varieties in Austrailia are Australian finger, round desert limes, Mount White limes, Kakadu lime or Humpty Doo lime, and Russel River limes and Maiden's Australian limes."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the oldest living species of citrus plant?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The three ancestral (sometimes characterized as \"original\" or \"fundamental\") species in the genus Citrus associated with modern Citrus cultivars are the mandarin orange, pomelo, and citron. Which would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me more about mandarin oranges please."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mandarins are smaller and oblate, unlike the spherical common oranges; the mandarin was one of the original citrus species; through breeding or natural hybridization, it is the ancestor of many hybrid citrus cultivars. Just like with other citrus fruits, the endocarp (inner flesh) is separated into segments, which in their turn consist of a large number of elongated cells."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the most expensive citrus fruit?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information.",
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
    ],
    "topic": "Citrus",
    "ground_truth_ctx": []
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Productivity of a citrus groves can be retained at pre-Huanglongbing levels through a three pronged strategy. Current research is aimed at the goal of giving the greatest yields for the lowest costs. Indeed, these lower costs are necessitated by the increased per acre cost of caretaking brought upon by Huanglongbing infection. Huanglongbing forces the commercial citrus caretaker to spray his/her block of citrus many more times a year than normal, considerably increasing costs. Per pound prices of citrus must continue increasing for citrus to remain profitable due to disease pressure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Citrus production encompasses the production of citrus fruit, which are the highest-value fruit crop in terms of international trade. There are two main markets for citrus fruit:\n* The fresh fruit market\n* The processed citrus fruits market (mainly orange juice)"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus fruits",
        "text": "This is a list of citrus fruits:"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus fruits",
        "text": "List of citrus fruits\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Oranges account for the majority of citrus production but the industry also sees significant quantities of grapefruits, pomeloes, lemons, and limes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus\n--History.\n----Etymology.\n----Evolution.\n----Fossil record.\n--Taxonomy.\n--Description.\n----Tree.\n----Fruit.\n--Cultivation.\n----Production.\n----As ornamental plants.\n----Pests and diseases.\n------Deficiency diseases.\n--Uses.\n----Culinary.\n----Phytochemicals and research.\n--List of citrus fruits.\n----Hybrids and cultivars.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "China could be a major player in the orange juice and processed citrus markets, except for high tariffs on citrus that make domestic sale more profitable. Though citrus originated in southeast Asia, current citrus production is low due to lower-than-average yields, high production and marketing costs, and disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Essential oil",
        "text": "Most citrus peel oils are expressed mechanically or cold-pressed (similar to olive oil extraction). Due to the relatively large quantities of oil in citrus peel and low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils. Lemon or sweet orange oils are obtained as byproducts of the citrus industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus \u00d7 vulgaris",
        "text": "Citrus \u00d7 vulgaris\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus \u00d7 deliciosa",
        "text": "This species produce those which are perhaps the tastiest of all citrus fruits. That's why its scientific name is \"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"deliciosa\", which means delicious citrus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "In the United States, most orange juice and grapefruit is produced in Florida, while citrus fruits for consumption as fresh fruit are grown mainly in California, Arizona, and Texas. Smaller markets for citrus growth in the United States originate in South Carolina, Georgia, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and the gulf coastal states, including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, and Georgia, as well as North Carolina. Independent cultivars are found in Kentucky, Virginia, and even Missouri, Southern Illinois, and far Southern Kansas. The farther north the range, the more seasonal the cultivation. Florida produces approximately 100 million boxes annually (each box is 90 lbs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus trees hybridise very readily \u2013 depending on the pollen source, plants grown from a Persian lime's seeds can produce fruit similar to grapefruit. Thus, all commercial citrus cultivation uses trees produced by grafting the desired fruiting cultivars onto rootstocks selected for disease resistance and hardiness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Most cultivated \"Citrus\" spp. seem to be natural or artificial hybrids of a small number of core ancestral species, including the citron, pomelo, mandarin, and papeda (see image). Natural and cultivated citrus hybrids include commercially important fruit such as oranges, grapefruit, lemons, limes, and some tangerines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Citrus fruits are produced all over the world; according to the FAO, as of 2016, about 79% of the world's total citrus production was grown in the Northern Hemisphere, with countries of the Mediterranean Basin contributing the largest volumes, while Brazil was the largest citrus producer in the Southern Hemisphere and the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Citrus production is often cut short in many areas by outbreaks of bacteria known as \"Xanthomonas axonopodis\", or citrus canker, which cause unsightly lesions on all parts of the plant, affecting tree vitality and early drop of fruit. While not harmful to human consumption, the fruit becomes too unsightly to be sold, and entire orchards are often destroyed to protect the outbreak from spreading."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "About a third of citrus fruit production goes for processing: more than 80% of this is for orange juice production. Demand for fresh and processed oranges continues to rise in excess of production, especially in developed countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Citrus production\n--History.\n--Volume.\n--Countries involved.\n--Oranges and orange juice.\n--Citrus canker.\n--Citrus greening disease in Florida.\n----Introductory and effects of disease.\n----Symptoms.\n----Ecology of spread.\n----New care-taking strategies.\n--Citrus nutrition.\n----Citrus malnutrition.\n----Citrus micronutrients.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "All citrus trees belong to the single genus \"Citrus\" and remain almost entirely interfertile. This includes grapefruits, lemons, limes, oranges, and various other types and hybrids. As the interfertility of oranges and other citrus has produced numerous hybrids and cultivars, and bud mutations have also been selected, citrus taxonomy is fairly controversial, confusing or inconsistent. The fruit of any citrus tree is considered a hesperidium, a kind of modified berry; it is covered by a rind originated by a rugged thickening of the ovary wall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fragrance extraction",
        "text": "Expression as a method of fragrance extraction where raw materials are pressed, squeezed or compressed and the essential oils are collected. In contemporary times, the only fragrant oils obtained using this method are the peels of fruits in the citrus family. This is due to the large quantity of oil is present in the peels of these fruits as to make this extraction method economically feasible. Citrus peel oils are expressed mechanically, or \"cold-pressed\". Due to the large quantities of oil in citrus peel and the relatively low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils to the extent that purified limonene extracted from these fruit is available as an affordable naturally-derived solvent. Lemon or sweet orange oils that are obtained as by-products of the commercial citrus industry are among the cheapest citrus oils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus are the main macronutrients needed in citrus production, as well as calcium, magnesium and sulfur.\n*Nitrogen: Nitrogen is important for overall tree and leaf growth and peel thickness, and fruit acidity.\n*Phosphorus: Phosphorus improves root growth, fruit yield and weight and juice while it reduces peel thickness.\n*Potassium: Potassium maintains fruit size, acidity, juice and disease tolerance, and it is taken up largely by the citrus fruit; too little K can lead to splitting and plugging of the fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic botany",
        "text": "Citrus has been a major commercial product in Florida since the 19th century. Florida produces over 70% of the U.S. citrus supply. The color of oranges is not related to ripening, but is a serious component for sales. The orange color only develops in areas with cool nighttime temperatures. In tropical climates, growers often expose the fruit to ethylene, to promote the loss of chlorophyll and expose the beta-carotenes (the orange color)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus is a genus of flowering trees and shrubs in the rue family, Rutaceae. Plants in the genus produce citrus fruits, including important crops such as oranges, lemons, grapefruits, pomelos, and limes. The genus \"Citrus\" is native to South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Melanesia, and Australia. Various citrus species have been used and domesticated by indigenous cultures in these areas since ancient times. From there its cultivation spread into Micronesia and Polynesia by the Austronesian expansion (c. 3000\u20131500 BCE); and to the Middle East and the Mediterranean (c. 1200 BCE) via the incense trade route, and onwards to Europe and the Americas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus leprosis disease",
        "text": "This disease is considered an important problem in citriculture in countries where it has been established, and is considered the major viral disease in citrus in Brazil. Damage by leprosis in plants and in orange production has caused an annual cost of approximately US$90 million for miticides to control the disease, this represents about 40% of fertilizer and pesticide expenses and about 16% of the total costs of a grove. Because of its widespread occurrence and potential for high damage, the disease can cause 100% yield losses, depending on the susceptibility of the citrus variety, isolate and control of the vector. Because CL is considered a quarantine disease, international marketing is restricted to those regions where the disease is not reported."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The three ancestral (sometimes characterized as \"original\" or \"fundamental\") species in the genus \"Citrus\" associated with modern \"Citrus\" cultivars are the mandarin orange, pomelo, and citron. Almost all of the common commercially important citrus fruits (sweet oranges, lemons, grapefruit, limes, and so on) are hybrids involving these three species with each other, their main progenies, and other wild \"Citrus\" species within the last few thousand years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Apart from these core citrus species, Australian limes and the recently discovered mangshanyegan are grown. Kumquats and \"Clymenia\" spp. are now generally considered to belong within the genus \"Citrus\". Trifoliate orange, which is often used as commercial rootstock, is an outgroup and may or may not be categorized as a citrus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grapefruit",
        "text": "Related citrus fruits include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus \u00d7 vulgaris",
        "text": "Citrus\" \u00d7 \"vulgaris can refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Citrus taxonomy is complex and controversial. Cultivated citrus are derived from various citrus species found in the wild. Some are only selections of the original wild types, many others are hybrids between two or more original species, and some are backcrossed hybrids between a hybrid and one of the hybrid's parent species. Citrus plants hybridize easily between species with completely different morphologies, and similar-looking citrus fruits may have quite different ancestries. Some differ only in disease resistance. Conversely, different-looking varieties may be nearly genetically identical, and differ only by a bud mutation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus \u00d7 deliciosa",
        "text": "It has been widely grown around the Mediterranean since it appeared in Italy (between 1810 and 1818), but was not found in the orient until it was exported there. It is one of the most commercially important citrus. Its sweet fruit is eaten, its rind oil is used to flavour food and drinks, and petitgrain oil is extracted from the pruned leaves. Flower (particularly petals) are also rich in essential oils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus macroptera",
        "text": "Many of the \"C. macroptera\" var. \"annamensis\" fruits are exported from Bangladesh, exacting a high price because their oil is used in the perfume industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Citrus Research Institute, Nagpur",
        "text": "Central India has appropriate conditions for growing citrus. The city of Nagpur and the region of Vidarbha produces the bulk of India's citrus tonnage, which is the fifth largest producer in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The fruit is a hesperidium, a specialised berry, globose to elongated, long and diameter, with a leathery rind or \"peel\" called a pericarp. The outermost layer of the pericarp is an \"exocarp\" called the flavedo, commonly referred to as the zest. The middle layer of the pericarp is the mesocarp, which in citrus fruits consists of the white, spongy \"albedo\", or \"pith\". The innermost layer of the pericarp is the endocarp. The space inside each segment is a locule filled with juice vesicles, or \"pulp\". From the endocarp, string-like \"hairs\" extend into the locules, which provide nourishment to the fruit as it develops. Many citrus cultivars have been developed to be seedless (see nucellar embryony and parthenocarpy) and easy to peel."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus diseases",
        "text": "The following is a list of diseases in citrus plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australasica",
        "text": "It has edible fruits which are under development as a commercial crop."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus diseases",
        "text": "List of citrus diseases\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus fruits are notable for their fragrance, partly due to flavonoids and limonoids (which in turn are terpenes) contained in the rind, and most are juice-laden. The juice contains a high quantity of citric acid and other organic acids giving them their characteristic sharp flavour. The genus is commercially important as many species are cultivated for their fruit, which is eaten fresh, pressed for juice, or preserved in marmalades and pickles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "\"Citrus reticulata\"\u2013based\n* Bergamot orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"bergamia\" (\"C.\" \u00d7\"limon\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"aurantium\")\n* Bitter orange, Seville Orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"aurantium\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C. reticulata\")\n* Blood orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"sinensis\" cultivars\n* Calamansi, Calamondin \u2013 (\"Citrus reticulata\" \u00d7 \"Citrus japonica\")\n* Cam s\u00e0nh \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Chinotto \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"aurantium\" var. \"myrtifolia\" or \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"myrtifolia\"\n* ChungGyun \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cultivar\n* Clementine \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"clementina\"\n* Cleopatra Mandarin \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"reshni\"\n* Siranui \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cv. 'Dekopon' (ChungGyun \u00d7 Ponkan)\n* Daidai \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"aurantium\" var. \"daidai\" or \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"daidai\"\n* Encore \u2013 ((\"Citrus reticulata\" x \"sinensis\") x \"C. deliciosa\")\n* Grapefruit \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"paradisi\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Hermandina \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cv. 'Hermandina'\n* Imperial lemon \u2013 ((\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C. medica\") \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Iyokan, \"anadomikan\" \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"iyo\"\n* Jabara \u2013 (\"Citrus jabara\")\n* Kanpei \u2013 (\"Citrus reticulata\" 'Kanpei')\n* Kinkoji unshiu \u2013 (\"Citrus obovoidea\" x \"unshiu\")\n* Kinnow, Wilking \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"nobilis\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"deliciosa\")\n* Kishumikan \u2013 (\"Citrus kinokuni\")\n* Kiyomi \u2013 (\"C. sinensis\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"unshiu\")\n* Kobayashi mikan \u2013 (\"Citrus natsudaidai\" x \"unshiu\")\n* Koji orange \u2013 (\"Citrus leiocarpa\")\n* Kuchinotsu No.37 \u2013 ('Kiyomi' x 'Encore')\n* Laraha \u2013 \"\"C.\" \u00d7\"aurantium\" ssp. \"currassuviencis\"\n* Mediterranean mandarin, Willow Leaf \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"deliciosa\"\n* Meyer lemon, Valley Lemon \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"meyeri\" (\"C. medica\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Michal mandarin \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cv. 'Michal'\n* Mikan, Satsuma \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"unshiu\"\n* Murcott \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" x \"sinensis\")\n* Naartjie \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. nobilis\")\n* Nova mandarin, Clemenvilla\n* Orangelo, Chironja \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Oroblanco, Sweetie \u2013 (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"limettioides\" (\"C. medica\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Ponkan \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cv. 'Ponkan'\n* Rangpur, Lemanderin, Mandarin Lime \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"limonia\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. medica\")\n* Reikou \u2013 (Kuchinotsu No.37 x 'Murcott')\n* Rough lemon \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"jambhiri\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. medica\")\n* Sanbokan \u2013 \"Citrus sulcata\"\n* Setoka \u2013 (Kuchinotsu No.37 x 'Murcott')\n* Shekwasha, Hirami Lemon, Taiwan Tangerine \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"depressa\"\n* Sunki, Suenkat \u2013 \"Citrus\" \"sunki\" or \"C. reticulata\" var. \"sunki\"\n* Sweet orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"sinensis\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C. reticulata\")\n* Tachibana orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \"tachibana\" or \"C. reticulata\" var. \"tachibana\"\n* Tangelo \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"tangelo\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\" or \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Tangerine \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"tangerina\"\n* Tangor \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"nobilis\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Ugli \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\" or \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Volkamer lemon \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"volkameriana\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. medica\")\n* Yukou \u2013 (\"Citrus yuko\")\n* Yuzu \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"junos\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"cavaleriei\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Citrus (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Most commercial varieties are descended from one or more of the 'core species', citrons, mandarins, and pomelos, which share in common a complex floral anatomy that gives rise to more complex fruit. These core species, and to a lesser extent other citrus, have given rise to a wide variety of hybrids for which the naming is inconsistent. The same common names may be given to different species, citrus hybrids or mutations. For example, citrus with green fruit tend to be called 'limes' independent of their origin: Australian limes, musk limes, Key limes, kaffir limes, Rangpur limes, sweet limes and wild limes are all genetically distinct. Fruit with similar ancestry may be quite different in name and traits (e.g. grapefruit, common oranges, and ponkans, all pomelo-mandarin hybrids). Many traditional citrus groups, such as true sweet oranges and lemons, seem to be bud sports, clonal families of cultivars that have arisen from distinct spontaneous mutations of a single hybrid ancestor. Novel varieties, and in particular seedless or reduced-seed varieties, have also been generated from these unique hybrid ancestral lines using gamma irradiation of budwood to induce mutations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Simat de la Valldigna",
        "text": "Simat economy depends on citrus intensively, and this product has lower prices every year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lime (fruit)",
        "text": "The difficulty in identifying exactly which species of fruit are called lime in different parts of the English-speaking world (and the same problem applies to synonyms in other European languages) is increased by the botanical complexity of the citrus genus itself, to which the majority of limes belong. Species of this genus hybridise readily, and it is only recently that genetic studies have started to shed light on the structure of the genus. The majority of cultivated species are in reality hybrids, produced from the citron (\"Citrus medica\"), the mandarin orange (\"Citrus reticulata\"), the pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\") and in particular with many lime varieties, the micrantha (\"Citrus hystrix\" var. micrantha).\n* Australian limes (former \"Microcitrus\" and \"Eremocitrus\")\n** Australian desert lime (\"Citrus glauca\")\n** Australian finger lime (\"Citrus australasica\")\n** Australian lime (\"Citrus australis\")\n** Blood lime (red finger lime \u00d7 (sweet orange \u00d7 mandarin))\n* Makrut lime (\"Citrus hystrix\"); a papeda relative, is one of the three most widely produced limes globally.\n* Key lime (\"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"aurantiifolia\"=\"Citrus micrantha\" \u00d7 \"Citrus medica\") is also one of the three most widely produced limes globally.\n* Philippine lime (\"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"microcarpa\"), a kumquat \u00d7 mandarin hybrid\n* Persian lime (\"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"latifolia\") a key lime \u00d7 lemon hybrid, is the single most widely produced lime globally, with Mexico being the largest producer.\n* Rangpur lime (Mandarin lime, lemandarin, \"Citrus limonia\"), a mandarin orange \u00d7 citron hybrid\n* Spanish lime (\"Melicoccus bijugatus\"); not a citrus\n* Sweet lime etc. (\"Citrus limetta\", etc.); several distinct citrus hybrids\n* Wild lime (\"Adelia ricinella\"); not a citrus\n* Wild lime (\"Zanthoxylum fagara\"); not a citrus\n* Limequat (lime \u00d7 kumquat)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Orange juice is traded internationally in the form of frozen concentrated orange juice to reduce the volume used, so that storage and transportation costs are lower."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus rootstocks",
        "text": "#REDIRECT Citrus rootstock"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Hybrid taxonomy is inconsistent. There is disagreement over whether to assign species names to hybrids, and even modern hybrids of known parentage are sold under general common names that give little information about their ancestry, or even imply technically incorrect identity. This can be a problem for those who cannot eat some citrus varieties. Drug interactions with chemicals found in some citrus, including grapefruit and Seville oranges, make the ancestry of citrus fruit of interest: many commonly sold citrus varieties are grapefruit hybrids or pomelo-descended grapefruit relatives. One medical review has advised patients on medication to avoid all citrus juice, although some citrus fruits contain none of the problematic furanocoumarins. Citrus allergies can also be specific to only some fruit or some parts of some fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Packing house",
        "text": "Bulk fruit (such as apples, oranges, pears, and the like) is delivered to the plant via trucks or wagons, where it is dumped into receiving bins and sorted for quality and size. In the case of citrus, ripe fruit with a greenish tint is placed in special storage rooms where ethylene gas is used to bring out the color. Obvious \"culls\" (fruit that is not suitable to sell for eating due to cosmetic defects) is removed and sold for juice or other uses. Fruit that is ready to be packed into crates or flats is run through a washer and then air-dried. A light coating of natural wax is applied to help the fruit retain moisture and enhance its appeal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The generic name originated from Latin, where it referred to either the plant now known as citron (\"C. medica\") or a conifer tree (\"Thuja\"). It is related to the ancient Greek word for cedar, \u03ba\u03ad\u03b4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 (\"k\u00e9dros\"). This may be due to perceived similarities in the smell of citrus leaves and fruit with that of cedar. Collectively, \"Citrus\" fruits and plants are also known by the Romance loanword \"agrumes\" (literally \"sour fruits\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus jabara",
        "text": "This is a redirect from the botanical name to the common name of a fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Citrus is a genus of flowering plants including the orange and lemon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Key lime",
        "text": "When the fruit have grown to harvesting size and begin to turn yellow they are picked and not clipped. To achieve produce of the highest market value, it is important not to pick the fruit too early in the morning; the turgor is high then, and handling turgid fruit releases the peel oils and may cause spoilage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Citrus may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus longispina",
        "text": "Fruits comes in clusters and the flesh has a fair amount of natural sugar and a lime flavor. However it still lacks the intensity of acid found in more common citrus fruits, so some people might find it insipid. The fruit is spherical, about in diameter. The tree has many long, strong thorns, as implicated from the botanical name, longispina."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, world production of all citrus fruits in 2016 was 124 million tons, with about half of this production as oranges. According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), citrus production grew during the early 21st century mainly by the increase in cultivation areas, improvements in transportation and packaging, rising incomes and consumer preference for healthy foods. In 2019\u201320, world production of oranges was estimated to be 47.5\u00a0million tons, led by Brazil, Mexico, the European Union, and China as the largest producers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Orange (fruit)\n--Taxonomy and terminology.\n--Etymology.\n--History.\n--Varieties.\n----Common.\n------Valencia.\n------Hamlin.\n----Navel.\n------Cara cara.\n----Blood.\n----Acidless.\n----Hybrid.\n--Attributes.\n----Sensory factors.\n----Nutritional value and phytochemicals.\n----Grading.\n--Cultivation.\n----Climate.\n----Propagation.\n----Harvest.\n----Degreening.\n----Storage.\n----Pests and diseases.\n------Cottony cushion scale.\n------Citrus greening disease.\n------Greasy spot.\n--Production.\n--Products.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus fruits are nonclimacteric and respiration slowly declines and the production and release of ethylene is gradual. The fruits do not go through a ripening process in the sense that they become \"tree ripe\". Some fruits, for example cherries, physically mature and then continue to ripen on the tree. Other fruits, such as pears, are picked when mature, but before they ripen, then continue to ripen off the tree. Citrus fruits pass from immaturity to maturity to overmaturity while still on the tree. Once they are separated from the tree, they do not increase in sweetness or continue to ripen. The only way change may happen after being picked is that they eventually start to decay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Berry (botany)",
        "text": "According to FAOSTAT, in 2001, bananas (including plantains) and citrus comprised over 25% by value of the world's exported fruits and vegetables, citrus fruits being more valuable than bananas. Export quantities of fruit are not entirely comparable with production quantities, since slightly different categories are used. The top five fruit exports by weight in 2012 are shown in the table below. The top two places are again occupied by bananas and citrus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus indica",
        "text": "This wild orange plant was originally characterized as one of the likely ancestors of today's cultivated citrus fruits, if not the main one. It was considered to be the most \"primitive\" citrus. However, genomic analysis has revealed it to be a citrus hybrid, with maternal citron ancestry and also mandarin orange and unspecified papeda contributions. It can be used as a citrus rootstock for cultivated citrus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economy of Florida",
        "text": "The top 5 citrus-producing counties, according to data in 2019, was \"DeSoto (12.8 million boxes), Polk (12.5 million boxes), Highlands (10.8 million boxes), Hendry (10.5 million boxes) and Hardee (8.16 million boxes)\", according to \"Florida Agriculture by the Numbers\". Together they contribute 71% of Florida's total citrus production. The Central produced the most citrus, followed by the Western area and the Southern areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus trees are not generally frost hardy. Mandarin oranges (\"C. reticulata\") tend to be the hardiest of the common \"Citrus\" species and can withstand short periods down to as cold as , but realistically temperatures not falling below are required for successful cultivation. Tangerines, tangors and yuzu can be grown outside even in regions with more marked subfreezing temperatures in winter, although this may affect fruit quality. A few hardy hybrids can withstand temperatures well below freezing, but do not produce quality fruit. Lemons can be commercially grown in cooler-summer/moderate-winter, coastal Southern California, because sweetness is neither attained nor expected in retail lemon fruit. The related trifoliate orange (\"C. trifoliata\") can survive below ; its fruit are astringent and inedible unless cooked, but a few better-tasting cultivars and hybrids have been developed (see citranges)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "\"Citrus maxima\"-based\n* Amanatsu, natsumikan \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"natsudaidai\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 unknown)\n* Cam s\u00e0nh \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Dangyuja \u2013 (\"Citrus grandis Osbeck\")\n* Grapefruit \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"paradisi\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Haruka \u2013 \"Citrus tamurana\" x \"natsudaidai\"\n* Hassaku orange \u2013 (\"Citrus hassaku\")\n* Ichang lemon \u2013 (\"Citrus wilsonii\")\n* Imperial lemon \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"limon\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Kawachi Bankan \u2013 (\"Citrus kawachiensis\")\n* Kinnow \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"nobilis\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"deliciosa\")\n* Kiyomi \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"unshiu\")\n* Minneola tangelo \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Orangelo, Chironja \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Oroblanco, Sweetie \u2013 (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Sweet orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"sinensis\" (probably \"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C. reticulata\")\n* Tangelo \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"tangelo\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\" or \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Tangor \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"nobilis\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Ugli \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\" or \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "While the origin of citrus fruits cannot be precisely identified, researchers believe they began to appear in Southeast Asia at least 4,000 BC. From there, they slowly spread to northern Africa, mainly through migration and trade. During the period of the Roman Empire, demand by higher-ranking members of society, along with increased trade, allowed the fruits to spread to southern Europe. Citrus fruits spread throughout Europe during the Middle Ages, and were then brought to the Americas by Spanish explorers. Worldwide trade in citrus fruits did not appear until the 20th century, and trade in orange juice developed as late as 1940."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "These plants are large shrubs or small to moderate-sized trees, reaching tall, with spiny shoots and alternately arranged evergreen leaves with an entire margin. The flowers are solitary or in small corymbs, each flower diameter, with five (rarely four) white petals and numerous stamens; they are often very strongly scented, due to the presence of essential oil glands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cold-hardy citrus",
        "text": "Varieties of true citrus considered cold-hardy, ordered from most to least hardy:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus rootstocks",
        "text": "Citrus rootstocks\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus industry in the Caribbean",
        "text": "The citrus industry in the Caribbean is a major one in the Caribbean. Citrus fruits consists of oranges, grapefruit, tangerines, limes, and lemons. The Caribbean countries which export citrus fruit are Belize, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique & Trinidad and Tobago.\n*Temperatures = Warm temperatures averaging 33\u00a0\u00b0C\n*Rainfall = Rainfall averaging 1,250 to 1,500 \u00a0m per annum is best suitable\n*Fertility = A high degree of soil fertility is required. It requires a high pH level (12.5-13.2) chemical and organic fertilizers are sometimes used to improve fertility.\n*Soil = A clayey loam which must be well-drenched is most suitable. Soils must be loose and friable and rich in poisons and gases.\n*Sheltered Location = Sheltered locations totally destroy a caribbean lemon. Hurricanes and strong storms a preferable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kevlar",
        "text": "Kevlar production is expensive because of the difficulties arising from using concentrated sulfuric acid, needed to keep the water-insoluble polymer in solution during its synthesis and spinning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "In cooler parts of Europe, citrus fruit was grown in orangeries starting in the 17th century; many were as much status symbols as functional agricultural structures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Historic Spanish Point",
        "text": "Citrus fruit was washed, cured, sorted and crated in the Packing House for shipment to Key West, Florida or Cedar Key, Florida, where it then was shipped to northern markets. The building is an authentic reconstruction of the original."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Swingle's system divided the Citrinae subtribe into three groups, the 'primitive citrus' distant relatives, the closer 'near citrus' including citrus-related genera like \"Atalantia\", and the \"true citrus\", for the species that had historically been placed in \"Citrus\" but many of which he elevated to separate genera: \"Poncirus\" (trifoliate orange), \"Fortunella\" (kumquat), \"Eremocitrus\" (desert limes), \"Microcitrus\" (finger and round limes), as well as an additional genus, \"Clymenia\", formerly thought to be a citrus hybrid. His \"Citrus\" he likewise subdivided into two subgenera: citrons, pomelos, mandarins, oranges, grapefruits and lemons were placed in subgenus \"Eucitrus\" (later called simply subgenus \"Citrus\"), while the hardy but slow-growing trees with relatively unpalatable fruit he placed in subgenus \"Papeda\". His genus \"Citrus\" consisted of just 16 species, dividing them further into varieties, and lastly cultivars or hybrids. The Swingle system is generally followed globally today with much modification; there are still large differences in nomenclature between countries and individual scientists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anastrepha ludens",
        "text": "<br>\n* \"Anacardium occidentale\" (cashew)\n* \"Annona cherimola\" (cherimoya)\n* \"Annona reticulata\" (custard apple)\n* \"Annona squamosa\" (sugar-apple)\n* \"Carica papaya\" (papaya)\n* \"Casimiroa edulis\" (white sapote)\n* \"Casimiroa tetrameria\" (matasano)\n* \"Citrus aurantiifolia\" (lime)\n* \"Citrus maxima\" (pummelo)\n* \"Citrus aurantium\" (sour orange)\n* \"Citrus limetta\" (sweet lime)\n* \"Citrus x paradisi\" (grapefruit)\n* \"Citrus medica\" (citron)\n* \"Citrus reticulata\" (tangerine)\n* \"Citrus sinensis\" (sweet orange)\n* \"Coffea arabica\" (arabica coffee)\n* \"Cydonia oblonga\" (quince)\n* \"Diospyros kaki\" (Japanese persimmon)\n* \"Feijoa sellowiana\" (feijoa)\n* Inga (shimbillo)\n* \"Malus domestica\" (apple)\n* \"Malus pumila\" (paradise apple)\n* \"Mammea americana\" (mammey apple)\n* \"Mangifera indica\" (mango)\n* \"Sideroxylon capiri\" (bully tree)\n* \"Passiflora edulis\" (purple granadilla)\n* \"Persea americana\" (avocado)\n* \"Pouteria sapota\" (sapote)\n* \"Prunus persica\" (peach)\n* \"Psidium guajava\" (common guava)\n* \"Psidium littorale\" (strawberry guava)\n* \"Punica granatum\" (pomegranate)\n* \"Pyrus communis\" (pear)\n* \"Sargentia greggii\" (yellow chapote)\n* \"Spondias purpurea\" (red mombin)\n* \"Syzygium jambos\" (rose-apple)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Grapefruit",
        "text": "Grapefruit\n--Description.\n--History.\n--Varieties.\n--Production.\n--Parasites.\n--Colors and flavors.\n--Drug interactions.\n--Nutrition.\n--Cuisine.\n--Related citruses.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "In most \"Citrus\" species, the peel contains a greater diversity and a higher concentration of furanocoumarins than the pulp of the same fruit. An exception is bergamottin, a furanocoumarin implicated in grapefruit-drug interactions, which is more concentrated in the pulp of certain varieties of pomelo, grapefruit, and sour orange."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greek citron",
        "text": "This was not completely false, since those not supervised were grafted also onto bitter orange or limetta. Also, even with supervision it is very hard to detect the rootstock type, while not the same as the scion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Araruama",
        "text": "Rural - planted and grown in the districts of Saint Vincent and the Morro Grande, representing the lowest percentage of the city's economy, has its cultivation such as banana, passion fruit, aipim, coco, tangerine, lemon and orange. Even with a reduction in production, Araruama remains the largest producer of citrus in the state of Rio de Janeiro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Etrog",
        "text": "Archaeological evidence for Citrus fruits is limited, as neither seeds nor pollen are likely to be routinely recovered in archaeology. The earliest evidence of \"etrogim\" in Israel is the 2012 discovery of citron pollen from the second century BCE in excavations at the Ramat Rachel site."
      },
      {
        "title": "Benicull de X\u00faquer",
        "text": "Agriculture prevails with the cultivation of citrus fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australis",
        "text": "The \"Citrus australis\" can be distinguished from other species by its pear-like shape of being slightly narrower at the top and wider at the bottom, compared to the spherical shape that is more commonly seen in limes. It is also about wide in diameter, making it easier to distinguish against common limes which tend to be bigger in size. They also differ from other common citrus fruits by the amount of yellow oil that they possess, which can be seen from inside the vesicles of these fruits. Compared to other citruses such as the finger lime, \"Citrus australasica\", or other Australian species of citrus, the vesicles differ in shape. Near the central axis of the \"Citrus australis\", larger vesicles can be seen, which secretes the oil. In nature, citruses that have higher oil yields have larger leaves compared to those that have lower oil yields. For example, the \"Citrus australis\" was found to have an oil yield of 0.3-0.5%, and the \"Citrus glauca\" was found to have an yield of 0.6%. These both have a leaf size of about than 3 to 4 x 2 long. Conversely, the \"Citrus inodora\" has an oil yield of 0.1%, the \"Citrus garrawayi\" has an oil yield of 0.1-0.2%, and both have smaller leaves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus glauca",
        "text": "The fruit is beginning to be domesticated. Commercial cultivation of this fruit is beginning to reduce the reliance on wild-harvested product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus wintersii",
        "text": "Citrus wintersii\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Citrus micronutrients include Boron, Copper, Iron and Managanese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fruit tree pollination",
        "text": "Many citrus cultivars are seedless and are produced parthenocarpically without pollination. Some cultivars may be capable of producing fruit either way, having seeds in the segments, if pollinated, and no seeds if not. Citrus that requires pollination may be self-compatible, thus pollen must be moved only a short distance from the anther to the stigma by a pollinator. Some citrus, such as Meyer Lemons, are popular container plants. When these bloom indoors, they often suffer from blossom drop because no pollinators have access. Hand pollination by a human pollinator is a solution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Citrus taxonomy\n--Genetic history.\n--Citrus naming systems.\n--Core species and hybrids.\n----Ancestral species.\n------Mandarins.\n------Pomelos.\n------Citrons.\n------Papedas.\n------Kumquats.\n------Australian and New Guinean species.\n------Trifoliate orange.\n--Hybrids.\n----Labelling of hybrids.\n----Major citrus hybrids.\n----Hybrids from other citrus species.\n------\"Citrofortunella\".\n------\"Citroncirus\".\n--Graft hybrids.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrumelo",
        "text": "Trifoliate orange, according to Swingle, belongs to a citrus related genera, called Poncirus, while grapefruit equivocally belongs to the genus citrus, hence the botanical name \"X citroncirus\" is a hybrid genus, derived from citrus and poncirus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "The two main producers are Florida in the United States and S\u00e3o Paulo in Brazil. Production of orange juice between these two makes up roughly 85% of the world market. Brazil exports 99 percent of its production, while 90 percent of Florida's production is consumed in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus industry in the Caribbean",
        "text": "Citrus production, along with sugar and bananas are the main agricultural exports. The main producing areas are the Pomona Valley and the Stann Creek Valley in the Stann Creek District. The 1999 output included 170,000 tons of oranges and 41,000 tons of grapefruit. About 40 square kilometres are under cultivation in the Stann Creek Valley with grapefruit occupying 25% of this area. Citrus is canned in the Stann Creek Valley where there are two processing plants. The harvesting season extends from August until the early part of the following year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus rootstock",
        "text": "Citrus rootstock\n--Principal rootstocks.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The citrus industry (book)",
        "text": "This is a redirect from small caption to title case."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus Center",
        "text": "The original cost of construction was $8 million. Two workers were killed in its construction, one of which was an iron-worker who fell to his death on the Orange Avenue side a month before the topping-out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, world production of all citrus fruits in 2020 was , with about half of this production as oranges. According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), citrus production grew during the early 21st century mainly by the increase in cultivation areas, improvements in transportation and packaging, rising incomes and consumer preference for healthful foods. In 2019\u201320, world production of oranges was estimated to be , led by Brazil, China, India, EU, USA, Mexico, Egypt as the largest producers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus plants are native to subtropical and tropical regions of Asia, Island Southeast Asia, Near Oceania, and northeastern Australia. Domestication of citrus species involved much hybridization and introgression, leaving much uncertainty about when and where domestication first happened. A genomic, phylogenic, and biogeographical analysis by Wu \"et al.\" (2018) has shown that the center of origin of the genus \"Citrus\" is likely the southeast foothills of the Himalayas, in a region stretching from eastern Assam, northern Myanmar, to western Yunnan. It diverged from a common ancestor with \"Poncirus trifoliata\". A change in climate conditions during the Late Miocene (11.63 to 5.33 mya) resulted in a sudden speciation event. The species resulting from this event include the citrons (\"Citrus\u00a0medica\") of South Asia; the pomelos (\"C.\u00a0maxima\") of Mainland Southeast Asia; the mandarins (\"C.\u00a0reticulata\"), kumquats (\"C.\u00a0japonica\"), mangshanyegan (\"C.\u00a0mangshanensis\"), and ichang papedas (\"C.\u00a0cavaleriei\") of southeastern China; the kaffir limes (\"C.\u00a0hystrix\") of Island Southeast Asia; and the biasong and samuyao (\"C.\u00a0micrantha\") of the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citron",
        "text": "The citron has been cultivated since ancient times, predating the cultivation of other citrus species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bergamot orange",
        "text": "Adulteration with cheaper products such as oil of rosewood and bergamot mint has been a problem for consumers. To protect the reputation of their produce, the Italian government introduced tight controls, including testing and certificates of purity. The \"Stazione Sperimentale per le Industrie delle Essenze e dei Derivati dagli Agrumi\" (Experimental Station for Essential Oil and Citrus By-Products) located in Reggio di Calabria, was the quality control body for the essential oil \"Bergamotto di Reggio Calabria\" DOP. During World War II, Italy was unable to export to countries such as the Allied powers. Rival products from Brazil and Mexico came on to the market as a substitute, but these were produced from other citrus fruits such as sweet lime."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cold-hardy citrus",
        "text": "Cold-hardy citrus\n--Varieties.\n----Interspecific hybrids.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Market for Lemons",
        "text": "The article draws some conclusions about the cost of dishonesty in markets in general:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "In August 2005, citrus greening disease was discovered in the south Florida region around Homestead and Florida City. The disease has since spread to every commercial citrus grove in Florida. In 2004\u20132005, USDA statistics reported the total Florida citrus production to be 169.1\u00a0million boxes of fruit. The estimate for all Florida citrus production in the 2015\u20132016 season is 94.2\u00a0million boxes, a 44.3% drop. Carolyn Slupsky, a professor of nutrition and food science at the University of California, Davis has said that \"we could lose all fresh citrus within 10 to 15 years\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "BBCH-scale (citrus)",
        "text": "The phenological growth stages and BBCH-identification keys of citrus plants are:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus reticulata Blanco",
        "text": "Citrus reticulata Blanco\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus plants can also develop a deficiency condition called chlorosis, characterized by yellowing leaves highlighted by contrasting leaf veins. The shriveling leaves eventually fall, and if the plant loses too many, it will slowly die. This condition is often caused by an excessively high pH (alkaline soil), which prevents the plant from absorbing iron, magnesium, zinc, or other nutrients it needs to produce chlorophyll. This condition can be cured by adding an appropriate acidic fertilizer formulated for citrus, which can sometimes revive a plant to produce new leaves and even flower buds within a few weeks under optimum conditions. A soil which is too acidic can also cause problems; citrus prefers neutral soil (pH between 6 and 8). Citrus plants are also sensitive to excessive salt in the soil. Soil testing may be necessary to properly diagnose nutrient-deficiency diseases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "These keystone citriculture practices vector control, soil and foliar nutrition, and certified young trees make up the new best management practices for commercial citrus growers against the citrus greening disease fight. A total management approach appears to provide the best hope of reducing financial impact of this disease. Currently, the best hope for the industry is resistant varieties. The challenge for the commercial producer is to identify low cost strategies that can prolong infected trees until they can be replaced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nafion",
        "text": "This production process is fairly expensive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Costus curvibracteatus",
        "text": "\"Costus productus\" is more common in the ornamental plant trade, but is often incorrectly labelled as \"C. curvibracteatus\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is the genus Citrus native to Australia?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Citrus plants are native to subtropical and tropical regions of Asia, Island Southeast Asia, Near Oceania, and northeastern Australia. Some native varieties in Austrailia are Australian finger, round desert limes, Mount White limes, Kakadu lime or Humpty Doo lime, and Russel River limes and Maiden's Australian limes."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the oldest living species of citrus plant?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The three ancestral (sometimes characterized as \"original\" or \"fundamental\") species in the genus Citrus associated with modern Citrus cultivars are the mandarin orange, pomelo, and citron. Which would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me more about mandarin oranges please."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mandarins are smaller and oblate, unlike the spherical common oranges; the mandarin was one of the original citrus species; through breeding or natural hybridization, it is the ancestor of many hybrid citrus cultivars. Just like with other citrus fruits, the endocarp (inner flesh) is separated into segments, which in their turn consist of a large number of elongated cells."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the most expensive citrus fruit?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me what care is taken in producing citrus?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Would you like to know of pests or diseases of citrus fruits?",
      "Would you like to know more about citrus caretaking with regard to Huanglongbing levels, Foliar fertilizers or vector control?"
    ],
    "topic": "Citrus",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Citrus:33",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Citrus",
          "Cultivation",
          "Pests and diseases"
        ],
        "ctx": "Citrus plants are very liable to infestation by aphids, whitefly, and scale insects (e.g. California red scale). Also rather important are the viral infections to which some of these ectoparasites serve as vectors such as the aphid-transmitted \"Citrus tristeza virus\", which when unchecked by proper methods of control is devastating to citrine plantations. The newest threat to citrus groves in the United States is the Asian citrus psyllid."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Citrus:41",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Citrus",
          "Cultivation",
          "Pests and diseases",
          "Deficiency diseases"
        ],
        "ctx": "Citrus plants can also develop a deficiency condition called chlorosis, characterized by yellowing leaves highlighted by contrasting leaf veins. The shriveling leaves eventually fall, and if the plant loses too many, it will slowly die. This condition is often caused by an excessively high pH (alkaline soil), which prevents the plant from absorbing iron, magnesium, zinc, or other nutrients it needs to produce chlorophyll. This condition can be cured by adding an appropriate acidic fertilizer formulated for citrus, which can sometimes revive a plant to produce new leaves and even flower buds within a few weeks under optimum conditions. A soil which is too acidic can also cause problems; citrus prefers neutral soil (pH between 6 and 8). Citrus plants are also sensitive to excessive salt in the soil. Soil testing may be necessary to properly diagnose nutrient-deficiency diseases."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Citrus production:16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Citrus production",
          "Citrus greening disease in Florida",
          "New care-taking strategies"
        ],
        "ctx": "Productivity of a citrus groves can be retained at pre-Huanglongbing levels through a three pronged strategy. Current research is aimed at the goal of giving the greatest yields for the lowest costs. Indeed, these lower costs are necessitated by the increased per acre cost of caretaking brought upon by Huanglongbing infection. Huanglongbing forces the commercial citrus caretaker to spray his/her block of citrus many more times a year than normal, considerably increasing costs. Per pound prices of citrus must continue increasing for citrus to remain profitable due to disease pressure."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Citrus production:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Citrus production",
          "Citrus greening disease in Florida",
          "New care-taking strategies"
        ],
        "ctx": "Foliar fertilizers are now being sprayed on citrus trees at considerably higher rates than before citrus greening disease. Inspiration for the mixture of foliar nutrients was drawn from a local citrus grower, Maury Boyd. Mr. Boyd was the first to try a strategy of not removing greening positive citrus trees, and instead attempt aggressive nutritional sprays. His grove was as a result the first to remain economical with a high percentage rate of greening disease infection. His spray program is under considerable research by the University of Florida\u2019s IFAS department. Further research is still needed, and being carried out to determine which specific fertilizer compounds, and the quantities used are the most efficient. Soil applied fertilizers appear to hold promise as well. In two-year studies carried out by the University of Florida\u2019s IFAS department a combination of sulfur, zinc, manganese, iron and boron applied three times a year to the base of the tree are promising. The third year of research should be available in 2019."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Citrus production:18",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Citrus production",
          "Citrus greening disease in Florida",
          "New care-taking strategies"
        ],
        "ctx": "Vector control of the psyllid, which is the sole means for citrus greening to spread is now done routinely. Before citrus greening disease was introduced, commercial citrus growers did not have to spray pesticides targeting insects. Current research is aimed at pesticide application timing, and pesticide choice for efficacy."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus\n--History.\n----Etymology.\n----Evolution.\n----Fossil record.\n--Taxonomy.\n--Description.\n----Tree.\n----Fruit.\n--Cultivation.\n----Production.\n----As ornamental plants.\n----Pests and diseases.\n------Deficiency diseases.\n--Uses.\n----Culinary.\n----Phytochemicals and research.\n--List of citrus fruits.\n----Hybrids and cultivars.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Citrus production is often cut short in many areas by outbreaks of bacteria known as \"Xanthomonas axonopodis\", or citrus canker, which cause unsightly lesions on all parts of the plant, affecting tree vitality and early drop of fruit. While not harmful to human consumption, the fruit becomes too unsightly to be sold, and entire orchards are often destroyed to protect the outbreak from spreading."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus diseases",
        "text": "The following is a list of diseases in citrus plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Citrus production\n--History.\n--Volume.\n--Countries involved.\n--Oranges and orange juice.\n--Citrus canker.\n--Citrus greening disease in Florida.\n----Introductory and effects of disease.\n----Symptoms.\n----Ecology of spread.\n----New care-taking strategies.\n--Citrus nutrition.\n----Citrus malnutrition.\n----Citrus micronutrients.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus fruits",
        "text": "This is a list of citrus fruits:"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus fruits",
        "text": "List of citrus fruits\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus diseases",
        "text": "List of citrus diseases\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus \u00d7 vulgaris",
        "text": "Citrus \u00d7 vulgaris\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus plants can also develop a deficiency condition called chlorosis, characterized by yellowing leaves highlighted by contrasting leaf veins. The shriveling leaves eventually fall, and if the plant loses too many, it will slowly die. This condition is often caused by an excessively high pH (alkaline soil), which prevents the plant from absorbing iron, magnesium, zinc, or other nutrients it needs to produce chlorophyll. This condition can be cured by adding an appropriate acidic fertilizer formulated for citrus, which can sometimes revive a plant to produce new leaves and even flower buds within a few weeks under optimum conditions. A soil which is too acidic can also cause problems; citrus prefers neutral soil (pH between 6 and 8). Citrus plants are also sensitive to excessive salt in the soil. Soil testing may be necessary to properly diagnose nutrient-deficiency diseases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus canker",
        "text": "\"X. axonopodis\" pv. \"citri\" can be transmitted by mechanical means such as humans and machinery. As a sanitation measure, the workers in citrus orchards are required to do thorough decontamination of personnel and equipment to prevent the spread of bacteria from the infected areas. Aerosol inoculum is able to cause infection in wetted foliage in the zone of bacterial dispersal. Vehicles can also become contaminated by contacting the wet foliage. Contaminated equipment and machines can be disinfected by spraying bactericide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Oranges account for the majority of citrus production but the industry also sees significant quantities of grapefruits, pomeloes, lemons, and limes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Vector control of the psyllid, which is the sole means for citrus greening to spread is now done routinely. Before citrus greening disease was introduced, commercial citrus growers did not have to spray pesticides targeting insects. Current research is aimed at pesticide application timing, and pesticide choice for efficacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus canker",
        "text": "Citrus canker\n--Biology.\n--Pathology.\n--Pathogenicity.\n--Disease cycle.\n----Favorable environmental conditions.\n----Detection.\n----Susceptibility.\n--Management.\n----Exclusion.\n----Eradication.\n----Sanitation.\n--Distribution and economic impact.\n----Australia.\n----Brazil.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Productivity of a citrus groves can be retained at pre-Huanglongbing levels through a three pronged strategy. Current research is aimed at the goal of giving the greatest yields for the lowest costs. Indeed, these lower costs are necessitated by the increased per acre cost of caretaking brought upon by Huanglongbing infection. Huanglongbing forces the commercial citrus caretaker to spray his/her block of citrus many more times a year than normal, considerably increasing costs. Per pound prices of citrus must continue increasing for citrus to remain profitable due to disease pressure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Orange (fruit)\n--Taxonomy and terminology.\n--Etymology.\n--History.\n--Varieties.\n----Common.\n------Valencia.\n------Hamlin.\n----Navel.\n------Cara cara.\n----Blood.\n----Acidless.\n----Hybrid.\n--Attributes.\n----Sensory factors.\n----Nutritional value and phytochemicals.\n----Grading.\n--Cultivation.\n----Climate.\n----Propagation.\n----Harvest.\n----Degreening.\n----Storage.\n----Pests and diseases.\n------Cottony cushion scale.\n------Citrus greening disease.\n------Greasy spot.\n--Production.\n--Products.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus plants are very liable to infestation by aphids, whitefly, and scale insects (e.g. California red scale). Also rather important are the viral infections to which some of these ectoparasites serve as vectors such as the aphid-transmitted \"Citrus tristeza virus\", which when unchecked by proper methods of control is devastating to citrine plantations. The newest threat to citrus groves in the United States is the Asian citrus psyllid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus \u00d7 vulgaris",
        "text": "Citrus\" \u00d7 \"vulgaris can refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "\"Citrus reticulata\"\u2013based\n* Bergamot orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"bergamia\" (\"C.\" \u00d7\"limon\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"aurantium\")\n* Bitter orange, Seville Orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"aurantium\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C. reticulata\")\n* Blood orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"sinensis\" cultivars\n* Calamansi, Calamondin \u2013 (\"Citrus reticulata\" \u00d7 \"Citrus japonica\")\n* Cam s\u00e0nh \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Chinotto \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"aurantium\" var. \"myrtifolia\" or \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"myrtifolia\"\n* ChungGyun \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cultivar\n* Clementine \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"clementina\"\n* Cleopatra Mandarin \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"reshni\"\n* Siranui \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cv. 'Dekopon' (ChungGyun \u00d7 Ponkan)\n* Daidai \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"aurantium\" var. \"daidai\" or \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"daidai\"\n* Encore \u2013 ((\"Citrus reticulata\" x \"sinensis\") x \"C. deliciosa\")\n* Grapefruit \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"paradisi\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Hermandina \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cv. 'Hermandina'\n* Imperial lemon \u2013 ((\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C. medica\") \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Iyokan, \"anadomikan\" \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"iyo\"\n* Jabara \u2013 (\"Citrus jabara\")\n* Kanpei \u2013 (\"Citrus reticulata\" 'Kanpei')\n* Kinkoji unshiu \u2013 (\"Citrus obovoidea\" x \"unshiu\")\n* Kinnow, Wilking \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"nobilis\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"deliciosa\")\n* Kishumikan \u2013 (\"Citrus kinokuni\")\n* Kiyomi \u2013 (\"C. sinensis\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"unshiu\")\n* Kobayashi mikan \u2013 (\"Citrus natsudaidai\" x \"unshiu\")\n* Koji orange \u2013 (\"Citrus leiocarpa\")\n* Kuchinotsu No.37 \u2013 ('Kiyomi' x 'Encore')\n* Laraha \u2013 \"\"C.\" \u00d7\"aurantium\" ssp. \"currassuviencis\"\n* Mediterranean mandarin, Willow Leaf \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"deliciosa\"\n* Meyer lemon, Valley Lemon \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"meyeri\" (\"C. medica\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Michal mandarin \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cv. 'Michal'\n* Mikan, Satsuma \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"unshiu\"\n* Murcott \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" x \"sinensis\")\n* Naartjie \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. nobilis\")\n* Nova mandarin, Clemenvilla\n* Orangelo, Chironja \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Oroblanco, Sweetie \u2013 (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"limettioides\" (\"C. medica\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Ponkan \u2013 \"Citrus reticulata\" cv. 'Ponkan'\n* Rangpur, Lemanderin, Mandarin Lime \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"limonia\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. medica\")\n* Reikou \u2013 (Kuchinotsu No.37 x 'Murcott')\n* Rough lemon \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"jambhiri\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. medica\")\n* Sanbokan \u2013 \"Citrus sulcata\"\n* Setoka \u2013 (Kuchinotsu No.37 x 'Murcott')\n* Shekwasha, Hirami Lemon, Taiwan Tangerine \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"depressa\"\n* Sunki, Suenkat \u2013 \"Citrus\" \"sunki\" or \"C. reticulata\" var. \"sunki\"\n* Sweet orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"sinensis\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C. reticulata\")\n* Tachibana orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \"tachibana\" or \"C. reticulata\" var. \"tachibana\"\n* Tangelo \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"tangelo\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\" or \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Tangerine \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"tangerina\"\n* Tangor \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"nobilis\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Ugli \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\" or \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Volkamer lemon \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"volkameriana\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. medica\")\n* Yukou \u2013 (\"Citrus yuko\")\n* Yuzu \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"junos\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"cavaleriei\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus trees hybridise very readily \u2013 depending on the pollen source, plants grown from a Persian lime's seeds can produce fruit similar to grapefruit. Thus, all commercial citrus cultivation uses trees produced by grafting the desired fruiting cultivars onto rootstocks selected for disease resistance and hardiness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "All citrus trees belong to the single genus \"Citrus\" and remain almost entirely interfertile. This includes grapefruits, lemons, limes, oranges, and various other types and hybrids. As the interfertility of oranges and other citrus has produced numerous hybrids and cultivars, and bud mutations have also been selected, citrus taxonomy is fairly controversial, confusing or inconsistent. The fruit of any citrus tree is considered a hesperidium, a kind of modified berry; it is covered by a rind originated by a rugged thickening of the ovary wall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus is a genus of flowering trees and shrubs in the rue family, Rutaceae. Plants in the genus produce citrus fruits, including important crops such as oranges, lemons, grapefruits, pomelos, and limes. The genus \"Citrus\" is native to South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Melanesia, and Australia. Various citrus species have been used and domesticated by indigenous cultures in these areas since ancient times. From there its cultivation spread into Micronesia and Polynesia by the Austronesian expansion (c. 3000\u20131500 BCE); and to the Middle East and the Mediterranean (c. 1200 BCE) via the incense trade route, and onwards to Europe and the Americas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "In eastern Australia, the bronze-orange bug (\"Musgraveia sulciventris\") can be a major pest of citrus trees, particularly grapefruit. In heavy infestations it can cause flower and fruit drop and general tree stress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cilevirus",
        "text": "This virus causes Citrus leprosis disease and is transmitted by species of the mite genus \"Brevipalpus\" (Acari: Tenuipalpidae). This disease is endemic in Brazil and has recently spread to Central America. Its spread there represents a threat to citrus industry in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus stubborn disease",
        "text": "In addition, it is important to closely monitor the weeds in young orchards to ensure that they are not susceptible to \"Spiroplasma citri\", and if susceptible ones appear, to remove them as soon as possible\".\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Brevipalpus phoenicis",
        "text": "Damage to citrus is more severe. When cholorotic spots are great in number, production of the host plants may be severely reduced. Characteristic galls at the nodes may be observed, and the buds may be unable to sprout. Shoots may be grossly misshapen, and very few leaves may develop. This can result in the death of the entire tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus plants are native to subtropical and tropical regions of Asia, Island Southeast Asia, Near Oceania, and northeastern Australia. Domestication of citrus species involved much hybridization and introgression, leaving much uncertainty about when and where domestication first happened. A genomic, phylogenic, and biogeographical analysis by Wu \"et al.\" (2018) has shown that the center of origin of the genus \"Citrus\" is likely the southeast foothills of the Himalayas, in a region stretching from eastern Assam, northern Myanmar, to western Yunnan. It diverged from a common ancestor with \"Poncirus trifoliata\". A change in climate conditions during the Late Miocene (11.63 to 5.33 mya) resulted in a sudden speciation event. The species resulting from this event include the citrons (\"Citrus\u00a0medica\") of South Asia; the pomelos (\"C.\u00a0maxima\") of Mainland Southeast Asia; the mandarins (\"C.\u00a0reticulata\"), kumquats (\"C.\u00a0japonica\"), mangshanyegan (\"C.\u00a0mangshanensis\"), and ichang papedas (\"C.\u00a0cavaleriei\") of southeastern China; the kaffir limes (\"C.\u00a0hystrix\") of Island Southeast Asia; and the biasong and samuyao (\"C.\u00a0micrantha\") of the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "These plants are large shrubs or small to moderate-sized trees, reaching tall, with spiny shoots and alternately arranged evergreen leaves with an entire margin. The flowers are solitary or in small corymbs, each flower diameter, with five (rarely four) white petals and numerous stamens; they are often very strongly scented, due to the presence of essential oil glands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus fruits are nonclimacteric and respiration slowly declines and the production and release of ethylene is gradual. The fruits do not go through a ripening process in the sense that they become \"tree ripe\". Some fruits, for example cherries, physically mature and then continue to ripen on the tree. Other fruits, such as pears, are picked when mature, but before they ripen, then continue to ripen off the tree. Citrus fruits pass from immaturity to maturity to overmaturity while still on the tree. Once they are separated from the tree, they do not increase in sweetness or continue to ripen. The only way change may happen after being picked is that they eventually start to decay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus leprosis disease",
        "text": "CiLV-C was long considered restricted to the genus \"Citrus\", where species exhibit different grades of susceptibility, with sweet oranges (\"Citrus sinensis\" (L.) Osbeck) being highly susceptible, mandarins (\"C. reticulata\" Blanco) and grapefruits (\"C. paradisi\" Macfad.) moderately susceptible, and lemons (\"C. limon\" (L.) Osbeck) practically immune. Nevertheless, CiLV-C was also found naturally infecting non-Citrus species as \"Swinglea glutinosa\" Merr., used as hedgerows around citrus orchards in Villavicencio, Colombia, and \"Commelina benghalensis\" L., a weed present in citrus orchards in Brazil. Mechanical transmission experiments have showed that CiLV-C could be transmitted to other species, causing localized lesions, and it also can be mite transmitted to a quite wide range of experimental plant species. \"B. phoenicis\" transmission to the common bean was also demonstrated and this species has been proposed as an experimental indicator."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australasica",
        "text": "It has edible fruits which are under development as a commercial crop."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Management of citrus greening disease is difficult and requires an integrated approach that includes use of clean stock, elimination of inoculum via voluntary and regulatory means, use of pesticides to control psyllid vectors in the citrus crop, and biological control of psyllid vectors in non-crop reservoirs. Citrus greening disease is not under completely successful management."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus leprosis disease",
        "text": "This disease is considered an important problem in citriculture in countries where it has been established, and is considered the major viral disease in citrus in Brazil. Damage by leprosis in plants and in orange production has caused an annual cost of approximately US$90 million for miticides to control the disease, this represents about 40% of fertilizer and pesticide expenses and about 16% of the total costs of a grove. Because of its widespread occurrence and potential for high damage, the disease can cause 100% yield losses, depending on the susceptibility of the citrus variety, isolate and control of the vector. Because CL is considered a quarantine disease, international marketing is restricted to those regions where the disease is not reported."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Citrus taxonomy is complex and controversial. Cultivated citrus are derived from various citrus species found in the wild. Some are only selections of the original wild types, many others are hybrids between two or more original species, and some are backcrossed hybrids between a hybrid and one of the hybrid's parent species. Citrus plants hybridize easily between species with completely different morphologies, and similar-looking citrus fruits may have quite different ancestries. Some differ only in disease resistance. Conversely, different-looking varieties may be nearly genetically identical, and differ only by a bud mutation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus are the main macronutrients needed in citrus production, as well as calcium, magnesium and sulfur.\n*Nitrogen: Nitrogen is important for overall tree and leaf growth and peel thickness, and fruit acidity.\n*Phosphorus: Phosphorus improves root growth, fruit yield and weight and juice while it reduces peel thickness.\n*Potassium: Potassium maintains fruit size, acidity, juice and disease tolerance, and it is taken up largely by the citrus fruit; too little K can lead to splitting and plugging of the fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus black spot",
        "text": "Fruit infections remain latent until fruit maturity. Upon maturing, the mycelium grows into the outer rind, also known as a flavedo. Here in the flavedo, circular lesions form, which are sometimes accompanied by pycnidia. It is important to note that while ascospores can infect fruit, they have not yet been observed developing on fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus stubborn disease",
        "text": "The Citrus stubborn disease is a plant disease affecting species in the genus \"Citrus\". \"Spiroplasma citri\", a Mollicute bacterium species, is the causative agent of the disease. It is present in the phloem of the affected plant and transmitted by several leafhoppers including \"Circulifer tenellus\" (beet leafhopper) and \"Scaphytopius nitridus\" in citrus-growing regions of California and Arizona and \"Circulifer haematoceps\" in the Mediterranean region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anastrepha ludens",
        "text": "<br>\n* \"Anacardium occidentale\" (cashew)\n* \"Annona cherimola\" (cherimoya)\n* \"Annona reticulata\" (custard apple)\n* \"Annona squamosa\" (sugar-apple)\n* \"Carica papaya\" (papaya)\n* \"Casimiroa edulis\" (white sapote)\n* \"Casimiroa tetrameria\" (matasano)\n* \"Citrus aurantiifolia\" (lime)\n* \"Citrus maxima\" (pummelo)\n* \"Citrus aurantium\" (sour orange)\n* \"Citrus limetta\" (sweet lime)\n* \"Citrus x paradisi\" (grapefruit)\n* \"Citrus medica\" (citron)\n* \"Citrus reticulata\" (tangerine)\n* \"Citrus sinensis\" (sweet orange)\n* \"Coffea arabica\" (arabica coffee)\n* \"Cydonia oblonga\" (quince)\n* \"Diospyros kaki\" (Japanese persimmon)\n* \"Feijoa sellowiana\" (feijoa)\n* Inga (shimbillo)\n* \"Malus domestica\" (apple)\n* \"Malus pumila\" (paradise apple)\n* \"Mammea americana\" (mammey apple)\n* \"Mangifera indica\" (mango)\n* \"Sideroxylon capiri\" (bully tree)\n* \"Passiflora edulis\" (purple granadilla)\n* \"Persea americana\" (avocado)\n* \"Pouteria sapota\" (sapote)\n* \"Prunus persica\" (peach)\n* \"Psidium guajava\" (common guava)\n* \"Psidium littorale\" (strawberry guava)\n* \"Punica granatum\" (pomegranate)\n* \"Pyrus communis\" (pear)\n* \"Sargentia greggii\" (yellow chapote)\n* \"Spondias purpurea\" (red mombin)\n* \"Syzygium jambos\" (rose-apple)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Toxoptera citricida",
        "text": "If you would like to know more visit my website at http://www.pestnet.org/fact_sheets/citrus_aphids_249.htm"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Most cultivated \"Citrus\" spp. seem to be natural or artificial hybrids of a small number of core ancestral species, including the citron, pomelo, mandarin, and papeda (see image). Natural and cultivated citrus hybrids include commercially important fruit such as oranges, grapefruit, lemons, limes, and some tangerines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Citrus production encompasses the production of citrus fruit, which are the highest-value fruit crop in terms of international trade. There are two main markets for citrus fruit:\n* The fresh fruit market\n* The processed citrus fruits market (mainly orange juice)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus black spot",
        "text": "The infection in leaves usually remains latent until the leaves drop, but leaf spots may be found on older leaves. The leaf lesions usually produce ascospores, but sometimes produce pycnidia. These pycnidia release pycnidiospores (conidia) in a gelatinous mass. Under wet conditions, the gelatinous mass dissolves and the spores are dispersed by splashes of water. This splash-dispersal method limits reinfection to nearby fruit or leaves of the same tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Citrus is a genus of flowering plants including the orange and lemon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Euzopherodes vapidella",
        "text": "Adults are fruit piercers and are considered a pest on \"Citrus\" species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus wintersii",
        "text": "Citrus wintersii\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "\"Citrus maxima\"-based\n* Amanatsu, natsumikan \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"natsudaidai\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 unknown)\n* Cam s\u00e0nh \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Dangyuja \u2013 (\"Citrus grandis Osbeck\")\n* Grapefruit \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"paradisi\" (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Haruka \u2013 \"Citrus tamurana\" x \"natsudaidai\"\n* Hassaku orange \u2013 (\"Citrus hassaku\")\n* Ichang lemon \u2013 (\"Citrus wilsonii\")\n* Imperial lemon \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"limon\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Kawachi Bankan \u2013 (\"Citrus kawachiensis\")\n* Kinnow \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"nobilis\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"deliciosa\")\n* Kiyomi \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"unshiu\")\n* Minneola tangelo \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Orangelo, Chironja \u2013 (\"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Oroblanco, Sweetie \u2013 (\"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Sweet orange \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"sinensis\" (probably \"C. maxima\" \u00d7 \"C. reticulata\")\n* Tangelo \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"tangelo\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\" or \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")\n* Tangor \u2013 \"Citrus\" \u00d7\"nobilis\" (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C.\" \u00d7\"sinensis\")\n* Ugli \u2013 (\"C. reticulata\" \u00d7 \"C. maxima\" or \"C.\" \u00d7\"paradisi\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "In August 2005, citrus greening disease was discovered in the south Florida region around Homestead and Florida City. The disease has since spread to every commercial citrus grove in Florida. In 2004\u20132005, USDA statistics reported the total Florida citrus production to be 169.1\u00a0million boxes of fruit. The estimate for all Florida citrus production in the 2015\u20132016 season is 94.2\u00a0million boxes, a 44.3% drop. Carolyn Slupsky, a professor of nutrition and food science at the University of California, Davis has said that \"we could lose all fresh citrus within 10 to 15 years\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The generic name originated from Latin, where it referred to either the plant now known as citron (\"C. medica\") or a conifer tree (\"Thuja\"). It is related to the ancient Greek word for cedar, \u03ba\u03ad\u03b4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 (\"k\u00e9dros\"). This may be due to perceived similarities in the smell of citrus leaves and fruit with that of cedar. Collectively, \"Citrus\" fruits and plants are also known by the Romance loanword \"agrumes\" (literally \"sour fruits\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus jabara",
        "text": "This is a redirect from the botanical name to the common name of a fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus black spot",
        "text": "Leaf symptoms are generally observed on highly susceptible citrus varieties, such as lemons, as well in poorly-managed orchards. The symptoms generally develop from latent infections after the leaves have died. Red-brown, pin-point dots may develop into larger, circular necrotic lesions with gray centers and red or brown margins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penicillium italicum",
        "text": "Inoculation of healthy fruit can be diminished and controlled by careful picking, handling, and packaging of the citrus so that the rinds are not damaged. Without chance of injury inflicted on the fruit, the conidia are unable to gain access, and thus unable to germinate into infectious pathogens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Most commercial varieties are descended from one or more of the 'core species', citrons, mandarins, and pomelos, which share in common a complex floral anatomy that gives rise to more complex fruit. These core species, and to a lesser extent other citrus, have given rise to a wide variety of hybrids for which the naming is inconsistent. The same common names may be given to different species, citrus hybrids or mutations. For example, citrus with green fruit tend to be called 'limes' independent of their origin: Australian limes, musk limes, Key limes, kaffir limes, Rangpur limes, sweet limes and wild limes are all genetically distinct. Fruit with similar ancestry may be quite different in name and traits (e.g. grapefruit, common oranges, and ponkans, all pomelo-mandarin hybrids). Many traditional citrus groups, such as true sweet oranges and lemons, seem to be bud sports, clonal families of cultivars that have arisen from distinct spontaneous mutations of a single hybrid ancestor. Novel varieties, and in particular seedless or reduced-seed varieties, have also been generated from these unique hybrid ancestral lines using gamma irradiation of budwood to induce mutations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Citrus fruits are produced all over the world; according to the FAO, as of 2016, about 79% of the world's total citrus production was grown in the Northern Hemisphere, with countries of the Mediterranean Basin contributing the largest volumes, while Brazil was the largest citrus producer in the Southern Hemisphere and the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus \u00d7 deliciosa",
        "text": "This species produce those which are perhaps the tastiest of all citrus fruits. That's why its scientific name is \"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"deliciosa\", which means delicious citrus."
      },
      {
        "title": "BBCH-scale (citrus)",
        "text": "The phenological growth stages and BBCH-identification keys of citrus plants are:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus longispina",
        "text": "Fruits comes in clusters and the flesh has a fair amount of natural sugar and a lime flavor. However it still lacks the intensity of acid found in more common citrus fruits, so some people might find it insipid. The fruit is spherical, about in diameter. The tree has many long, strong thorns, as implicated from the botanical name, longispina."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penicillium digitatum",
        "text": "Post-harvest decays are a main source of fruit loss following harvesting, with the most common source of \"Citrus\" fruit decay being infections caused by \"P. digitatum\" and \"P. italicum.\" \"Penicillium digitatum\" is responsible for 90% of citrus fruits lost to infection after harvesting and considered the largest cause of post-harvest diseases occurring in Californian citrus fruits. Its widespread impact relates to the post-harvest disease it causes in citrus fruits known as green rot or mould. As a wound pathogen, the disease cycle begins when \"P. digitatum\" conidia germinate with release of water and nutrients from the site of injury on the fruit surface. After infection at 24\u00a0\u00b0C, rapid growth ensues with active infection taking place within 48 hours and initial symptom onset occurring within 3 days. As temperature at time of infection decreases, the delay of initial symptom onset increases. Initial symptoms include a moist depression on the surface which expands as white mycelium colonizes much of its surface. The centre of the mycelial mass eventually turns olive as conidial production begins. Near the end of the disease cycle, the fruit eventually decreases in size and develops into an empty, dry shell. This end result is commonly used to distinguish \"P. digitatum\" infections from those of \"P. italicum\" which produce a blue-green mould and ultimately render the fruit slimy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agricultural policy",
        "text": "Citrus canker is a disease affecting citrus species that is caused by the bacterium \"Xanthomonas axonopodis\". The infection causes lesions on the leaves, stems, and fruit of citrus trees, including lime, oranges, and grapefruit. While not harmful to humans, canker significantly affects the vitality of citrus trees, causing leaves and fruit to drop prematurely; a fruit infected with canker is safe to eat but too unsightly to be sold. The disease, which is believed to have originated in South East Asia, is extremely persistent when it becomes established in an area, making it necessary for all citrus orchards to be destroyed for the successful eradication of the disease. Australia, Brazil and the United States are currently suffering from canker outbreaks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The colour of citrus fruits only develops in climates with a (diurnal) cool winter. In tropical regions with no winter at all, citrus fruits remain green until maturity, hence the tropical \"green oranges\". The Persian lime in particular is extremely sensitive to cool conditions, thus it is not usually exposed to cool enough conditions to develop a mature colour. If they are left in a cool place over winter, the fruits will change colour to yellow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The trees thrive in a consistently sunny, humid environment with fertile soil and adequate rainfall or irrigation. Abandoned trees in valleys may suffer, yet survive, the dry summer of Central California's Inner Coast Ranges. At any age, citrus grows well enough with infrequent irrigation in partial shade, but the fruit crop is smaller. Being of tropical and subtropical origin, oranges, like all citrus, are broadleaved and evergreen. They do not drop leaves except when stressed. The stems of many varieties have large sharp thorns. The trees flower in the spring, and fruit is set shortly afterward. Fruit begins to ripen in fall or early winter, depending on cultivar, and develops increasing sweetness afterward. Some cultivars of tangerines ripen by winter. Some, such as the grapefruit, may take up to 18 months to ripen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The fruit is a hesperidium, a specialised berry, globose to elongated, long and diameter, with a leathery rind or \"peel\" called a pericarp. The outermost layer of the pericarp is an \"exocarp\" called the flavedo, commonly referred to as the zest. The middle layer of the pericarp is the mesocarp, which in citrus fruits consists of the white, spongy \"albedo\", or \"pith\". The innermost layer of the pericarp is the endocarp. The space inside each segment is a locule filled with juice vesicles, or \"pulp\". From the endocarp, string-like \"hairs\" extend into the locules, which provide nourishment to the fruit as it develops. Many citrus cultivars have been developed to be seedless (see nucellar embryony and parthenocarpy) and easy to peel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Apart from these core citrus species, Australian limes and the recently discovered mangshanyegan are grown. Kumquats and \"Clymenia\" spp. are now generally considered to belong within the genus \"Citrus\". Trifoliate orange, which is often used as commercial rootstock, is an outgroup and may or may not be categorized as a citrus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colletotrichum acutatum",
        "text": "It also causes the disease postbloom fruit drop on many varieties of citrus, especially Valencia and navel oranges in Florida."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "In the United States, most orange juice and grapefruit is produced in Florida, while citrus fruits for consumption as fresh fruit are grown mainly in California, Arizona, and Texas. Smaller markets for citrus growth in the United States originate in South Carolina, Georgia, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and the gulf coastal states, including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, and Georgia, as well as North Carolina. Independent cultivars are found in Kentucky, Virginia, and even Missouri, Southern Illinois, and far Southern Kansas. The farther north the range, the more seasonal the cultivation. Florida produces approximately 100 million boxes annually (each box is 90 lbs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrumelo",
        "text": "Trifoliate orange, according to Swingle, belongs to a citrus related genera, called Poncirus, while grapefruit equivocally belongs to the genus citrus, hence the botanical name \"X citroncirus\" is a hybrid genus, derived from citrus and poncirus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Citrus (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The three ancestral (sometimes characterized as \"original\" or \"fundamental\") species in the genus \"Citrus\" associated with modern \"Citrus\" cultivars are the mandarin orange, pomelo, and citron. Almost all of the common commercially important citrus fruits (sweet oranges, lemons, grapefruit, limes, and so on) are hybrids involving these three species with each other, their main progenies, and other wild \"Citrus\" species within the last few thousand years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus tristeza virus",
        "text": "CTV infects several species of the plant genus, \"Citrus\", including sour orange (\"Citrus aurantium\") and any \"Citrus\" grafted onto sour orange rootstock, key lime and Seville orange (\"C. \u00d7 aurantifolia\"), Hassaku orange and sweet orange (\"C. \u00d7 sinensis\"), grapefruit (\"C. \u00d7 paradisi\"), and mandarin (\"C. reticulata\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus canker",
        "text": "The disease can be detected in groves and on fruit by the appearance of lesions. Early detection is critical in quarantine situations. Bacteria can be tested for pathogenicity by inoculating multiple citrus species with them. Additional diagnostic tests (antibody detection), fatty-acid profiling, and genetic procedures using polymerase chain reaction can be conducted to confirm diagnosis and may help to identify the particular canker strain. Clara H. Hasse determined that citrus canker was not of fungoid origin but was caused by a bacterial parasite. Her research published in the 1915 \"Journal of Agricultural Research\" played a major part in saving citrus crops in multiple states."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Citrus may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus fruits are notable for their fragrance, partly due to flavonoids and limonoids (which in turn are terpenes) contained in the rind, and most are juice-laden. The juice contains a high quantity of citric acid and other organic acids giving them their characteristic sharp flavour. The genus is commercially important as many species are cultivated for their fruit, which is eaten fresh, pressed for juice, or preserved in marmalades and pickles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Swingle's system divided the Citrinae subtribe into three groups, the 'primitive citrus' distant relatives, the closer 'near citrus' including citrus-related genera like \"Atalantia\", and the \"true citrus\", for the species that had historically been placed in \"Citrus\" but many of which he elevated to separate genera: \"Poncirus\" (trifoliate orange), \"Fortunella\" (kumquat), \"Eremocitrus\" (desert limes), \"Microcitrus\" (finger and round limes), as well as an additional genus, \"Clymenia\", formerly thought to be a citrus hybrid. His \"Citrus\" he likewise subdivided into two subgenera: citrons, pomelos, mandarins, oranges, grapefruits and lemons were placed in subgenus \"Eucitrus\" (later called simply subgenus \"Citrus\"), while the hardy but slow-growing trees with relatively unpalatable fruit he placed in subgenus \"Papeda\". His genus \"Citrus\" consisted of just 16 species, dividing them further into varieties, and lastly cultivars or hybrids. The Swingle system is generally followed globally today with much modification; there are still large differences in nomenclature between countries and individual scientists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus glauca",
        "text": "A shrub or small tree to , it has several unusual characteristics. It is cold, heat, drought and salinity tolerant and thought evergreen. If the rains should fail it will shed its leaves and live off the green bark on the plant branches. It will set fruit almost immediately after flowering and is the earliest citrus to do so. Fruit is small and variable and depends on current climatic conditions and genetic make-up. Thorns appear on low-growing branches to prevent grazing by rabbits, kangaroos, cattle etc. but cease on branches above the grazing level. The limes are small with an intense piquant flavour, and good rainfall years produce an abundance of fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus stubborn disease",
        "text": "As the name indicates, citrus stubborn disease affects citrus plants, most severely oranges (especially naval and mandarin varieties), grapefruit, and tangelo trees. Lemon and lime are also affected, but much less severely."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus exocortis",
        "text": "Citrus exocortis is a disease of citrus plants, caused by the Citrus exocortis viroid (CEVd). It can cause stunted growth and reduced yields in affected plants. The disease is also sometimes called \"scalybutt\". CEVd can also infect tomato plants. The resulting disease is sometimes called \"tomato bunchy top disease.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Diaporthe citri",
        "text": "Diaporthe citri is a plant pathogen infecting citruses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus stubborn disease",
        "text": "Symptoms on citrus trees are variable but typically include small size with upright position. Fruits harvested from citrus trees with severe symptoms of citrus stubborn disease can be acorn-shaped or lopsided."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus variegation virus",
        "text": "Citrus variegation virus (CVV) is a plant pathogenic virus, a member of subgroup 2 of ilarviruses in the family \"Bromoviridae\", is the causal agent of infectious variegation, a disease occurring all over the world, causing problems for production especially in some susceptible varieties of lemon and mandarin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic botany",
        "text": "Citrus has been a major commercial product in Florida since the 19th century. Florida produces over 70% of the U.S. citrus supply. The color of oranges is not related to ripening, but is a serious component for sales. The orange color only develops in areas with cool nighttime temperatures. In tropical climates, growers often expose the fruit to ethylene, to promote the loss of chlorophyll and expose the beta-carotenes (the orange color)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "About a third of citrus fruit production goes for processing: more than 80% of this is for orange juice production. Demand for fresh and processed oranges continues to rise in excess of production, especially in developed countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phyllocnistis citrella",
        "text": "Citrus leafminer (CLM) are native to Asia and are found throughout the continent and beyond. Japan, the Philippines, New Guinea, India and Taiwan are some of the countries in which the pest is distributed. The pest is not exclusively found in these countries having spread to nearly every citrus growing area in the world. Recent spread into North and South America was reported in the early 1990s. This is especially important because major citrus growing operations are found in Brazil and the US. These two countries account for half of the world's citrus production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phytophotodermatitis",
        "text": "Numerous citrus fruits in the family Rutaceae exhibit phototoxic effects. Of these, perhaps the best known is lime. Phytophotodermatitis associated with limes is sometimes colloquially referred to as \"lime disease,\" not to be confused with Lyme disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agricultural policy",
        "text": "The disease can be detected in orchards and on fruit by the appearance of lesions. Early detection is critical in quarantine situations. Bacteria are tested for pathogenicity by inoculating multiple citrus species with the bacterium. Simultaneously, other diagnostic tests (antibody detection, fatty-acid profiling, and genetic procedures using PCR) are conducted to identify the particular canker strain. Citrus canker outbreaks are prevented and managed in a number of ways. In countries that do not have canker, the disease is prevented from entering the country by quarantine measures. In countries with new outbreaks, eradication programs that are started soon after the disease has been discovered have been successful; such programs rely on the destruction of affected orchards. When eradication has been unsuccessful and the disease has become established, management options include replacing susceptible citrus cultivars with resistant cultivars, applying preventive sprays of copper-based bactericides, and destroying infected trees and all surrounding trees within an appropriate radius."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xanthomonas",
        "text": "Citrus canker, caused by \"Xanthomonas citri\" subsp. \"citri\" is an economically important disease of many citrus species (lime, orange, lemon, pamelo, etc.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "BBCH-scale (citrus)",
        "text": "The BBCH-scale for citrus is a classification system used in biology to describe the phenological development of citrus plants using the BBCH-scale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus taxonomy",
        "text": "Citrus taxonomy refers to the botanical classification of the species, varieties, cultivars, and graft hybrids within the genus \"Citrus\" and related genera, found in cultivation and in the wild."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus undulata",
        "text": "Citrus undulata\n--Taxonomy.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "After the introduction of citrus greening disease, all commercial nurseries, where new young trees are purchased, were relocated indoors and a bud wood registration program was enacted. Previously young citrus trees were grown outdoors before disease pressure became an issue. This is to certify that Florida grove owners are able to purchase clean citrus trees for the planting of citrus groves. A greening positive young citrus tree will never reach maturity, even with intensive sprays."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus exocortis",
        "text": "Infected trees should be culled from the orchard. When pruning in infected orchards, tools must be vigorously bleached between cuts to prevent cross-contamination and the spread of infections. Heat does not kill the viroid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. citri",
        "text": "Fusarium oxysporum\" f.sp. \"citri is a fungus which reproduces by cell fission. It is a well known plant pathogen infecting citruses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phytophthora citrophthora",
        "text": "Phytophthora citrophthora, also known as brown rot of citrus, is a soil borne oomycete that infects several economically important citrus crops. A diagnostic symptom of \"P. citrophthora\" is gummosis, wherein lesions around the base of the tree exude sap. Other common symptoms include dark longitudinal lesions forming at the soil line, a sour smell, and eventual cracking of the bark. Advanced symptoms include yellowing and necrosis of the tree canopy. Girdling action caused by the pathogen around the trunk can often cause the collapse of the tree. Resistant lemon varieties have been developed and their implementation has been effective at controlling the spread of the disease. Fruits that have been infected with \"P. citrophthora\" exhibit symptoms of brown rot characterized by a distinct odor. This disease is most active in the moderate temperatures of spring, fall, and winter months, opposite of most other \"Phytophthora\" species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diaphorina citri",
        "text": "Feeding can vector bacteria that causes one of the most devastating of citrus diseases, citrus greening disease. Affected trees bear small, asymmetrical fruit which are partially green and which are unsellable because of their poor size and quality. There is laboratory evidence indicating it can also transmit another serious citrus disease caused by the Tristeza virus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Benicull de X\u00faquer",
        "text": "Agriculture prevails with the cultivation of citrus fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mark L. Nelson",
        "text": "In agriculture and with the USDA and the Citrus Research Development Foundation his research has led to series of compounds active against Huanglongbing, known as Citrus Greening, an infectious disease in citrus caused by this invasive species of alpha-proteobacteria that has devastated the Florida citrus industry, and compounds from his labs completed field studies showing potent activity in sparing citrus trees from this pathogen also known as \"Liberibacter asiaticus\" (Candidatus)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus exocortis",
        "text": "Citrus exocortis\n--Symptoms.\n--Management.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "In most \"Citrus\" species, the peel contains a greater diversity and a higher concentration of furanocoumarins than the pulp of the same fruit. An exception is bergamottin, a furanocoumarin implicated in grapefruit-drug interactions, which is more concentrated in the pulp of certain varieties of pomelo, grapefruit, and sour orange."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aonidiella aurantii",
        "text": "Although citrus is the main crop attacked by red scale, it can also be found on species from at least seventy-seven plant families and has been successfully reared in the laboratory on potato tubers and pumpkin. Scale insects of all ages feed by sucking sap. They are found on all parts of the plant but are most noticeable on the fruit. Heavy infestations may cause discoloration, shoot distortion and leaf drop. The fruit may become pitted and unmarketable. The tree's bark may split and the twigs and branches may die back and this sometimes results in the death of the tree. Chemical control is difficult because the insects are protected by their hard waxy covers. They are also becoming resistant to many insecticides and indiscriminate use of pesticides has adverse effects on their natural predators."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tylenchulus semipenetrans",
        "text": "Tylenchulus semipenetrans (Citrus nematode, Citrus root nematode) is a species of plant pathogenic nematodes and the causal agent of slow decline of citrus. \"T. semipenetrans\" is found in most citrus production areas and diverse soil textures worldwide. Their feeding strategy is semi-endoparasitic and has a very narrow host range among commonly grown crops. These nematodes are considered as major plant-parasitic nematode because they can cause 10-30% losses reported on citrus trees. They also parasitize other hosts such as olive, grape, persimmon and lilac. The citrus nematode was first discovered in California in 1913 by J.R. Hodges and was later described and named by Nathan Cobb that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citripestis sagittiferella",
        "text": "The larvae feed on \"Citrus\" species and are considered a pest. They penetrate the fruit of their host plant, causing rotting and premature dropping of the infested fruit. The larvae are orange to dark reddish brown with dark brown head. They reach a length of about ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus industry in the Caribbean",
        "text": "The citrus industry in the Caribbean is a major one in the Caribbean. Citrus fruits consists of oranges, grapefruit, tangerines, limes, and lemons. The Caribbean countries which export citrus fruit are Belize, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique & Trinidad and Tobago.\n*Temperatures = Warm temperatures averaging 33\u00a0\u00b0C\n*Rainfall = Rainfall averaging 1,250 to 1,500 \u00a0m per annum is best suitable\n*Fertility = A high degree of soil fertility is required. It requires a high pH level (12.5-13.2) chemical and organic fertilizers are sometimes used to improve fertility.\n*Soil = A clayey loam which must be well-drenched is most suitable. Soils must be loose and friable and rich in poisons and gases.\n*Sheltered Location = Sheltered locations totally destroy a caribbean lemon. Hurricanes and strong storms a preferable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus australasica",
        "text": "Citrus australasica\n--Description.\n--Cultivation and uses.\n----History.\n----Rising demand.\n----Diseases.\n--Taxonomy.\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is the genus Citrus native to Australia?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Citrus plants are native to subtropical and tropical regions of Asia, Island Southeast Asia, Near Oceania, and northeastern Australia. Some native varieties in Austrailia are Australian finger, round desert limes, Mount White limes, Kakadu lime or Humpty Doo lime, and Russel River limes and Maiden's Australian limes."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the oldest living species of citrus plant?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The three ancestral (sometimes characterized as \"original\" or \"fundamental\") species in the genus Citrus associated with modern Citrus cultivars are the mandarin orange, pomelo, and citron. Which would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me more about mandarin oranges please."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mandarins are smaller and oblate, unlike the spherical common oranges; the mandarin was one of the original citrus species; through breeding or natural hybridization, it is the ancestor of many hybrid citrus cultivars. Just like with other citrus fruits, the endocarp (inner flesh) is separated into segments, which in their turn consist of a large number of elongated cells."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the most expensive citrus fruit?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me what care is taken in producing citrus?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know of pests or diseases of citrus fruits?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I would like to know about pests."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Current research is aimed at pesticide application timing, and pesticide choice for efficacy, all commercial nurseries, where new young trees are purchased, were relocated indoors and a bud wood registration program was enacted.",
      "All commercial citrus growers are advised in applying two dormancy pesticide sprays, which are broad-spectrum pesticide sprays that are applied in winter when adult psyllid populations decline to almost exclusive overwintering adults. More aggressive citrus grove care-takers may employ a wide host of pesticides to try to keep psyllid populations low yearround."
    ],
    "topic": "Citrus",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Citrus production:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Citrus production",
          "Citrus greening disease in Florida",
          "Introductory and effects of disease"
        ],
        "ctx": "Huanglongbing (HLB), called citrus greening within the industry, is recognized as the deadliest citrus disease the Florida citrus industry has ever faced. This can be attributed to the economic costs of implementing new care-taking strategies, and overall tree loss creating a loss of revenues. A look at total Florida citrus-growing acreage provides a tangible impression to the hardships citrus greening provides; in 2000 there was 665,529 commercially producing citrus acres, while in 2011 there were 473,086 commercially producing citrus acres in Florida. Every year citrus reports indicate a continued loss of citrus production. Citrus greening is being attributed for a total output impact of \u22124.51\u00a0billion, and a loss of 8,257 jobs within Florida. The disease has now spread throughout the entire state, and affects every Florida citrus grower. The disease is spread through an insect vector, the Asian citrus psyllid. The psyllid was previously introduced into Florida in 1998. Prior to 1998 citrus greening was unknown in the state, thus the psyllids spread was left unchecked. By the time citrus greening had reached Florida psyllid populations were well established throughout the state of Florida. The first positive case of greening disease was in August 2005, when a greening positive citrus tree was discovered in Miami-Dade County. It was at this time the entire Florida citrus industry changed its citriculture practices overnight. Intensive pesticide applications, aggressive removal of citrus greening positive trees, and the complete switch from outdoor to indoor citrus nursery operations transpired."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Citrus production:15",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Citrus production",
          "Citrus greening disease in Florida",
          "Ecology of spread"
        ],
        "ctx": "Vector control of citrus greening began when the disease was first introduced in 2005. All commercial citrus growers are advised in applying two dormancy pesticide sprays. These broad-spectrum pesticide sprays are applied in winter when adult psyllid populations decline to almost exclusive overwintering adults. With this strategy, significant reductions of populations withhold for up to 6 months. This fact is crucial as it protects the spring flush, which accounts for over 70% of new leaves for the year, from the infectious psyllid attacks. The spring flush typically occurs 3 months past winter. More aggressive citrus grove care-takers may employ a wide host of pesticides to try to keep psyllid populations low yearround. These growers may spray pesticides up to seven times a year rotating various pesticides to employ different modes of actions against the psyllid. This is done in an attempt to prevent resistances of psyllids to the various pesticides. The spraying of pesticides is the only method of control for the citrus greening vector, the psyllid. It is impossible to kill all psyllids through pesticides; thus, strategic timing of pesticide sprays is done to try to slow the gradual spread of HLB throughout the citrus grove. Unfortunately, at this time it is inevitable that a commercial citrus grove will reach 100 percent infection rates even with aggressive sprays."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Worldwide breakfast",
        "text": "Traditional Russian breakfast are concentrated on kashas, or porridges \u2013 the most important staple in Russian nutritional culture, with buckwheat and oat, as well as semolina, serving as the three most important bases of such dishes, usually cooked using water or milk, as well as consumed with or without milk. Breakfast foods also include pancakes or oladushki. Oladushki are made from flour and rise on yeast. Blini, or crepes, are also popular for breakfast and are also made with flour, but without yeast. Sirniki, is a cheese form of pancake. Sirniki are made of tvorog (quark cheese), which can be eaten separately with honey for breakfast. Also, a popular dish is buterbrod, open sandwiches with cold cuts and cheeses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The Russian people have become skilled in different techniques for the preparation of a wide variety of whole-grain cereals. The most popular cereals are buckwheat, millet, semolina, oats, barley, and rice. Traditionally, such cereal porrige is cooked in milk, especially if it is cooked to be served for breakfast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "In Russia, a breakfast is kasha, a porridge of buckwheat (, \"grechka\"), farina (, \"manka\"), or other grains. Kasha is found throughout much of Eastern Europe, including Poland and Croatia. Russia does not value breakfast cereals as much as other places. Most instances of cereal consumption is due to the desire for weight loss."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russia",
        "text": "Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and the vast geography of the nation; and it shares similarities with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries. Crops of rye, wheat, barley, and millet provide the ingredients for various breads, pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks. Bread, of many varieties, is very popular across Russia. Flavourful soups and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, and okroshka. Smetana (a heavy sour cream) and mayonnaise are often added to soups and salads. Pirozhki, blini, and syrniki are native types of pancakes. Beef Stroganoff, Chicken Kiev, pelmeni, and shashlyk are popular meat dishes. Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls (golubtsy) usually filled with meat. Salads include Olivier salad, vinegret, and dressed herring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Alternative approach is to add butter, salt, sugar, different jams, fresh fruit and berries for alternating the taste; in case of plain buckwheat porrige, Russians may put it into a soup plate/soup bowl and add a mugful of milk, creating a soup-like kasha (or rather, a dish close to \"cornflakes in milk\" breakfast)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Russia",
        "text": "Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and the vast geography of the nation; and it shares similarities with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries. Crops of rye, wheat, barley, and millet provide the ingredients for various breads, pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks. Bread, of many varieties, is very popular across Russia. Flavourful soups and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, and okroshka. Smetana (a heavy sour cream) and mayonnaise are often added to soups and salads. Pirozhki, blini, and syrniki are native types of pancakes. Beef Stroganoff, Chicken Kiev, pelmeni, and shashlyk are popular meat dishes. Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls \"(golubtsy)\" usually filled with meat. Salads include Olivier salad, vinegret, and dressed herring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Its foundations were laid by the peasant food of the rural population in an often harsh climate, with a combination of plentiful fish, pork, poultry, caviar, mushrooms, berries, and honey. Crops of rye, wheat, barley and millet provided the ingredients for a plethora of breads, pancakes, pies, cereals, beer and vodka. Soups and stews are centered on seasonal or storable produce, fish and meats. Such food remained the staple for the vast majority of Russians well into the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "As a garnish to meat dishes in the past the most common were porridges and cereals, in which the meat was boiled, later on boiled or rather steamed and baked root vegetables (turnips, carrots) as well as mushrooms; additionally the meat, without taking account its type, was garnished with pickled products\u2014pickled cabbage, or sour and \"soaked\" (marinated) apples (mochoniye yabloki) or cranberries. Pan juices, alone or mixed with sour cream or melted butter, were used as gravy to pour on garnishing vegetables and porridges. Meat sauces, i.e. gravies based on flour, butter, eggs and milk, are not common for traditional Russian cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Porridge is one of the most important dishes in traditional Russian cuisine. Variety of cereals is based on a variety of local crops. In Russian, the word kasha refers to any kind of porridge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The Russian cuisine itself is also geographically diverse, its variations dependent on raw materials and cooking methods available locally. In the North of Russia, it incorporates local berries such as cloudberry or crowberry, fish such as cod, game meat such as elk, or even edible moss known as yagel. Conversely, in Siberia it includes the local fish varieties, particularly those of the coregonus genus such as arctic cisco or muksun, and borrows the local cooking methods, to result in raw fish eaten frozen or combined with spices. Further East, local specialties are added such as eagle fern, kolomikta fruit, scallops and Kamchatka crabs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dessert",
        "text": "In Ukraine and Russia, breakfast foods such as nalysnyky or blintz or oladi (pancake), and syrniki are served with honey and jam as desserts."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Russian dishes",
        "text": "This is a list of notable dishes found in Russian cuisine. Russian cuisine is a collection of the different cooking traditions of the Russian Empire. The cuisine is diverse, with Northeast European/Baltic, Caucasian, Central Asian, Siberian, East Asian and Middle Eastern influences. Russian cuisine derives its varied character from the vast and multi-ethnic expanse of Russia."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of English words of Russian origin",
        "text": "Blini (Russian plural: \u0431\u043b\u0438\u043d\u044b, singular: \u0431\u043b\u0438\u043d), are thin pancakes or crepes traditionally made with yeasted batter, although non-yeasted batter has become widespread in recent times. Blini are often served in connection with a religious rite or festival, but also constitute a common breakfast dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Cabbage, potatoes, and cold tolerant greens are common in Russian and other Eastern European cuisines. Pickling cabbage (sauerkraut), cucumbers, tomatoes and other vegetables in brine is used to preserve vegetables for winter use. Pickled apples and some other fruit also used to be widely popular. These are sources of vitamins during periods when fresh fruit and vegetables are traditionally not available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "There is a dish in modern Russian cuisine resembling a mix of \"svekolnik\" and pickled herring: \"selyodka pod shuboi\", literally \"[fur]coated herring\", where picked herring is coated with a layer of potatoes, a layer of mayo and/or \"smetana\" sour cream, with grated beet added on top for coating (hence \"fur\"-coat\" word, \"shuba\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fried egg",
        "text": "The two most popular fried egg dishes commonly eaten in Russia are \"\" (Russian: ), a generic term for pure fried eggs, and \"omlet\" (Russian: ), an omelet distinguished from simple eggs by addition of milk or other liquids."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Russian restaurants",
        "text": "This is a list of notable Russian restaurants. Russian cuisine is a collection of the different cooking traditions of the Russian people. Russian cuisine derives its varied character from the vast and multi-cultural expanse of Russia. Moreover, it is necessary to divide Russian traditional cuisine and Soviet cuisine, which has its own peculiarity. Its foundations were laid by the peasant food of the rural population in an often harsh climate, with a combination of plentiful fish, poultry, game, mushrooms, berries, and honey. Crops of rye, wheat, barley and millet provided the ingredients for a plethora of breads, pancakes, cereals, beer and vodka. Soups and stews full of flavor are centered on seasonal or storable produce, fish and meats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comfort food",
        "text": "Russian comfort foods may include:\n* Bliny \u2013 pancakes\n* Borscht\n* Dressed herring \u2013 layered herring salad\n* Golubtsy \u2013 cabbage rolls\n* Kasha \u2013 buckwheat porridge\n* Kotlety \u2013 meatballs\n* Kholodets \u2013 savory gelatin\n* Kvass \u2013 fermented drink made with bread\n* Napoleon \u2013 layered pastry\n* Okroshka \u2013 cold vegetable soup\n* Oladyi \u2013 small thick pancakes or fritters\n* Olivier salad \u2013 vegetable salad\n* Pelmeni \u2013 meat-filled dumpling\n* Pirozhki \u2013 buns with various fillings\n* Rassolnik \u2013 pickled soup\n* Shashlik \u2013 skewered and grilled cubes of meat\n* Shchi \u2013 cabbage soup\n* Solyanka \u2013 spicy and sour soup\n* Syrniki \u2013 cottage cheese pancakes\n* Ukha \u2013 clear, fish-based soup\n* Vareniki \u2013 filled dumplings (pierogi)\n* Tteokbokki \u2013 rice cakes in spicy chili stew\n* Shin Ramyun \u2013 instant noodles by Nongshim\n* Kimbap \u2013 cooked rice rolled in seaweed and stuffed with vegetables and/or meat\n* Samgyeopsal \u2013 roasted pork belly\n* Mandu \u2013 dumplings with various fillings\n* Soups and stews\n** Kimchi jjigae \u2013 spicy stew made with kimchi\n** Haejang-guk \u2013 vegetables and meat in beef broth\n** Sundubu-jjigae \u2013 soft tofu stew\n** Seolleongtang \u2013 ox bone soup\n** Budae-jjigae \u2013 \"army stew\" with noodles, Spam, vegetables and other ingredients\n** Kalguksu \u2013 soup with handmade noodles"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Many traditional drinks are indigenous to Russia and are not present in other national cuisines. The most notable of these are vodka, sbiten', kvass, medovukha and mors. Many of them are no longer common and have been replaced by drinks originating in Europe. Nonetheless, these beverages were formerly drunk as a complement to meat and poultry dishes, sweet porridge, and dessert. Of particular note is sbiten, an immensely popular medieval drink which has since been replaced by tea as the Russian mainstay beverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "at affluent households also mentions sausage-making, spit-roasted meats, stews and many other meat dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Russian cuisine is a collection of the different dishes and cooking traditions of the Russian people as well as a list of culinary products popular in Russia, with most names being known since pre-Soviet times, coming from all kinds of social circles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "In traditional Russian cuisine three basic variations of meat dishes can be highlighted:\n* a large boiled piece of meat cooked in a soup or porridge, and then used as the second course or served cold (particularly in jellied stock\u2014see Kholodets below)\n* offal dishes (liver, tripe, etc.), baked in pots together with cereals;\n* whole fowl dishes or parts of fowl (legs or breasts), or a large piece of meat (rump) baked on a baking tray in an oven, so-called \"zharkoye\" (from the word \"zhar\"(\u0436\u0430\u0440) meaning \"heat\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Fish was important in pre-revolutionary cuisine, especially on Russian Orthodox fast days when meat was forbidden, similar to the Catholic custom of eating fish instead of meat on Fridays. Strictly freshwater fish such as carp and sudak (Sander lucioperca, Zander) were commonly eaten in inland areas, as well as anadromous sturgeon and in northern areas salmon, pike and trout. A greater variety of fish\u2014including saltwater species\u2014were preserved by salting, pickling or smoking and consumed as \"zakuski\" (hors d'oeuvres)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Very popular New Year dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "(from French ), a salad made of boiled beets, potatoes, carrots, pickles, onions, sauerkraut, and sometimes peas or white beans. Dressed with sunflower or olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The history of Russian cuisine was divided in four groups: Old Russian cuisine (ninth to sixteenth century), Old Moscow cuisine (seventeenth century), the cuisine that existed during the ruling of Peter and Catherine Great (eighteenth century), and finally Petersburg cuisine, which took place from the end of the eighteenth century to the 1860s. In the Old Russian period, the main food groups were bread, lots of grains, and lots of foods that contained starch. Women baked pies with lots of different fillings, such as mushrooms or berries. During gatherings, a loaf of bread and salt was always present. Kasha, such as buckwheat, oats, etc.were represented as wellbeing to the household. Lots of Russians used honey and berries and made them into gingerbread, which to this day is a popular Russian dessert. Lots of current Russian cuisines were inspired from Asian cultures, such as pelmeni. In the seventeenth century, cuisine was separated based on economical class. The rich had meat and delicacies, such as caviar, while the poor had the most simple dishes. During this century, more food appeared, because new countries were annexed. During the Peter and Catherine the Great era, minced meat was incorporated into dishes and other European country's cuisine was also mixed into Russian foods. In the last era(Petersburg Cuisine) lots of French, German, Dutch, and Italian meals were incorporated into Russian foods, such as lamb and pork. The French popularized potatoes and tomatoes in dishes. Due to the long lasting cold weather in Russia, many dishes were made to be preserved, so they wouldn't have to take extra trips in the freezing snowy days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Russian cuisine\n--History.\n--Ethnic and regional variations and influences.\n--Soups.\n----Cold soups.\n----Hot soups.\n--Salads.\n--Porridge.\n--Main dishes.\n----Meat.\n----Fish.\n------Selyodka pod shuboi.\n----Vegetables.\n--Desserts and pastries.\n--Beverages.\n----Alcoholic.\n----Non-alcoholic.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Various minced meat dishes were adopted from other cuisines and became popular only in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries; for traditional Russian cuisine, they are not typical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Coffee is also popular but has never caught up to tea in popularity. Peter the Great is credited with introducing coffee to Russia, with the drink becoming steadily more pervasive since that time. Coffee is commonly made either using the Turkish or common European methods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Olivier salad (also known as Russian salad), a mayonnaise-based potato salad distinguished by its diced texture and the contrasting flavors of pickles, hard-boiled eggs, boiled carrots, boiled potatoes, meat, and peas. This dish is one of the main New Year buffets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosovan cuisine",
        "text": "Common dishes include pies, flija, stuffed peppers, legume, sarma, kebab/qebapa etc. Notwithstanding, the cuisine varies slightly between different regions of the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet cuisine",
        "text": "Green vegetables and salads were seasonal, and with some exceptions (like sauerkraut-based ones, as sauerkraut was available year-round) uncommon at the table. Spices were rarely used, aside from moderate amounts of mustard and black pepper, and food had a generally mild taste. There were no differences between breakfast, lunch, and dinner meals. Lunch was always consumed with a soup as a first course. A tradition of a \"fish day\" on Thursdays, when fish or other seafood was consumed instead of meat, was started in State-run canteens and cafeterias to alleviate a shortage of meat, but nevertheless filtered to many private households. The common approach, which still somewhat holds today in Russia is: eat a lot at each meal, few times a day. Eat nothing between meals \u2013 the reason for this was that the State-run eateries in the Soviet time was largely under the control of doctors, and the medical wisdom at the time was that snacking between major meals would ruin the appetite (especially for children) and will lead to indigestion and intestinal distress. A typical lunch meal could consist of chicken-broth-based soup or borscht for a first course and fried meatballs or goulash served with boiled potatoes or buckwheat porridge as a main course. Butter or sour cream was typically used as a sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rusk",
        "text": "The Russian version is called \"sukhar' \" (Cyrillic: \u0441\u0443\u0445\u0430\u0440\u044c) from \"\u0441\u0443\u0445\u043e\u0439\" - \"dry\". They are either baked a second time from sweet challah-like bread, sliced in biscotti fashion or made of leftover stale bread, cut into small cubes and air-dried or baked at a very low temperature. The first one is like a cookie, which can be served with milk, kefir, tea, coffee or cacao. The second one is usually added to soup, clear or otherwise, softening up from absorbed liquids and accompanying it instead of bread. It became a tradition to avoid wasting leftover bread that always was a staple in Russian cuisine. There is much folklore about bread in the Russian language, paying respect to this grain food that is one of the cornerstones of Slavic nations' life and history. Rye bread rusks are the major ingredient in making of the Russian Kvass, a traditional fermented beverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Beef Stroganoff: Saut\u00e9ed pieces of beef served in a sauce with smetana (sour cream). From its origins in mid-19th-century Russia, it has become popular around the world, with considerable variation from the original recipe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet cuisine",
        "text": "Holiday meals were typically derived from old French and Russian cuisines with extensive use of heavy sauces, marinated meats, and melted cheese. Mixing ingredients and extensive cooking was common, just as in classic French cuisine. Generally, much effort was made in order to prepare such meals. Often, the richness of a holiday table was an issue of honor for the family.\n* Olivier (also known as Russian salad)\n* Herring under a fur coat\n* Kholodets\n* Vinegret (from French vinaigrette) - red beet root salad with onions, pickles, boiled potatoes, carrots, dressed with sunflower oil.\n* \"Vitaminniy salat\" (Vitamin salad) - a cabbage-based salad with seasonal vegetables like tomatoes, cucumbers, onions, carrots, etc.\n* Various pickles, such as cucumbers, tomatoes, ramsons, and mushrooms.\n* Sauerkraut mixed with carrots and served as a salad.\n* Morkovcha (also known as \"Korean carrot salad\") - a spicy carrot salad (a Koryo-saram dish).\n* Borscht - (Ukrainian)\n* Chicken noodle soup\n* Kharcho\n* Okroshka\n* Pacha - (Armenian/Azerbaijani/Georgian)\n* Pea soup\n* Rassolnik\n* Shchi - (Russian)\n* Solyanka\n* Sorrel soup\n* Ukha\n* Beef Stroganoff\n* Chicken Kiev (Russian) - a filled chicken cutlet\n* Cutlet or meat ball\n* Various kinds of dumplings, like pelmeni (Russian), vareniki (Ukrainian), or manti (Central Asian)\n* Goulash, ragout, or another kind of stew\n* Golubtsy - cabbage rolls stuffed with rice and meat and served in tomato sauce\n* Plov (Uzbek) - rice dish\n* Sausages\n* Shashlik - (Caucasus)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Worldwide breakfast",
        "text": "In southeast Europe, in countries such as Bulgaria, Bosnia, Montenegro, North Macedonia and parts of Croatia breakfast usually consists of various kinds of savory or sweet pastry, with cheese, meat or jam filling. The most typical breakfast consists of two slices of burek and a glass of yogurt. Breakfast also often consists of open sandwiches. The sandwich is spread with margarine, with toppings added such as prosciutto and yellow cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lunch",
        "text": "In Russia, the midday meal is taken in the afternoon. Usually, lunch is the biggest meal and consists of a first course, usually a soup, and a second course which would be meat and a garnish. Tea is standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Russian desserts",
        "text": "This is a list of Russian desserts. Russian cuisine is a collection of the different cooking traditions of the Russian people. The cuisine is diverse, as Russia is by area the largest country in the world. Russian cuisine derives its varied character from the vast and multi-cultural expanse of Russia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional street food",
        "text": "The cuisine of Russia's Turkic minorities is popular, with dishes like chebureki, shashlik, shawerma, tandoor bread, and plov (pilaf)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Despite such deep mutual influence, many national cuisines within the borders of the Russian Federation maintain their uniqueness, and thus have their own separate articles dedicated to them, such as Tatar cuisine, Sakha cuisine, or Yamal cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Russian dishes",
        "text": "List of Russian dishes\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "A minimum of vegetables is added in preparation, and in classical cooking, ukha was simply a rich fish broth served to accompany fish pies (rasstegai, kuliebiaka, etc.). These days it is more often a fish soup, cooked with potatoes and other vegetables. A wide variety of freshwater fish is traditionally used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mennonite cuisine",
        "text": "Russian Mennonites also commonly participate in a late afternoon lunch called \"faspa\", which usually consists of zwieback, deli meat, raisin buns, pickles, and cheese (especially cheese curds). This meal is easy to prepare and intended to give farmers a mid-afternoon lunch and Mennonite women a rest on Sunday."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of English words of Russian origin",
        "text": "Rassolnik (Russian: \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a), is a hot soup in a salty-sour cucumber base. This dish formed in Russian cuisine quite late\u2014only in the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Worldwide breakfast",
        "text": "Typical Latvian breakfast usually consists of open sandwiches with toppings made of vegetables, fish, eggs, or cheese. As in Finland they are often buttered with margarine. Curd mixed with vegetables and salt as well as other sour milk products are very popular as well. Very often light oat porridge is eaten too. In general light, sour, and salty tasting food is common for morning meal. Latvians usually drink coffee for breakfast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "(or , from Russian , fur coat)), also known as \"dressed herring\", is chopped salted herring under a \"coat\" of shredded cooked beet, sometimes with a layer of egg or other vegetables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Worldwide breakfast",
        "text": "In Serbia, breakfast may include eggs in different forms (e.g. omelet with bacon, onion and feta cheese), canned fish or opened sandwiches with prosciutto or ham, feta cheese and salad (e.g. pickles). Different types of pies and pastry with various filings (e.g. proja, gibanica, burek) are also served as the main dish. Yogurt and coffee are preferred breakfast drinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asian cuisine",
        "text": "North Asian cuisine is often synonymous with Russian cuisine, due to all of Northern Asia being a part of the Russian Federation. However, some cultures or areas of Siberia have in-depth cuisine, such as the Yakuts (or Sakha) and Yamal cuisine. Buryats also have their own cuisine, although it is very similar to that of the related Mongolians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The kvass most commonly used in cooking is white okroshka kvass, which is much more sour than drinking kvass. Spices used include mustard, black pepper and pickled cucumber (specifically, the liquid from the pickles), solely or in combination. For the final touch, boiled eggs and smetana (similar to cr\u00e8me fra\u00eeche) are added. Often, the mustard, chopped hard-boiled yolks, pepper and pickle brine are combined into a spicy sauce that is added to the soup to taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pease pudding",
        "text": "Traditional Russian cuisine has several pea-based dishes, including pease pudding/puree/soups known as \"gorohovaya kasha\" () or \"goroshnitsa\" ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kasha",
        "text": "The most popular kasha recipe in Russia is that of crumbly cooked buckwheat seasoned with butter. Buckwheat kasha can be eaten at any time of the day, either as a separate dish or as a side dish. Other popular kasha recipes are made with millet, semolina (\u043c\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u0430\u0448\u0430) and oatmeal. Cooked with milk and sugar, they are often seen as a breakfast staple, especially for children. Pearl barley porridge is less popular but also eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Vatrushka is a kind of cake with a ring of dough and tvorog (cottage cheese) in the middle, often with raisins or bits of fruit, from about five inches to two and a half feet in diameter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Svyokolnik (also known as Kholodnik) is a cold borscht. It consists of beet sour or beet juice blended with sour cream, buttermilk, soured milk, kefir or yogurt. The mixture has a distinctive orange or pink color. It is served chilled, typically over finely chopped beetroot, cucumbers, radishes and spring onion, together with halved hard-boiled eggs and sprinkled with fresh dill. Chopped veal, ham, or crawfish tails may be added as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Traditional Russian cuisine eschews the fine cutting or grounding of meat. Thus sausagemaking, though generally known in Russia since at least 12th century, was not popular and largely started in earnest with the Petrine reforms, when a lot of Western products and practices were introduced. Traditional sausages were based on mixing meat with cereals, much like modern kishka and Polish kaszanka, while the newer purely meat varieties were made in German and Polish styles, often highly spiced and loaded with preservatives for non-refrigerated storage. One of the pre-revolutionary recipes specified as much as half pound of saltpetre per a pood of meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Pelmeni are a traditional Eastern European (mainly Russian) dish usually made with minced meat filling, wrapped in thin dough (made out of flour and eggs, sometimes with milk or water added). For filling, pork, lamb, beef, or any other kind of meat can be used; mixing several kinds is popular. The traditional Ural recipe requires the filling be made with 45% of beef, 35% of lamb, and 20% of pork. Traditionally, various spices, such as pepper, onions, and garlic, are mixed into the filling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Soups have always played an important role in Russian cuisine. The traditional staple of soups such as shchi (), borsch (), ukha (), rassolnik (), solyanka (), botvinya (), okroshka (), and tyurya () was enlarged in the 18th to 20th centuries by both European and Central Asian staples like clear soups, pureed soups, stews, and many others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kissel or kisel is a viscous fruit dish, popular as a dessert and as a drink. It consists of the sweetened juice of berries, like mors, but it is thickened with cornstarch, potato starch or arrowroot; sometimes red wine or fresh or dried fruits are added. It is similar to the Danish \"r\u00f8dgr\u00f8d\" and German \"Rote Gr\u00fctze\". Swedish \"bl\u00e5b\u00e4rssoppa\" is a similarly prepared bilberry dessert, although only fresh or frozen bilberries, not dried berries are used to prepare it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The 16th through 18th centuries brought more refined culinary techniques. It was during this time period that smoked meats and fish, pastry cooking, salads and green vegetables, chocolate, ice cream, wines, and juice were imported from abroad. At least for the urban aristocracy and provincial gentry, this opened the doors for the creative integration of these new foodstuffs with traditional Russian dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Krupenik",
        "text": "A () is a sweet or savory casserole made of groats (wheat, buckwheat, barley or rice) and \"\", or Russian farmer cheese. It is a dish that is typical for Russian cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cr\u00eape",
        "text": "During the Russian celebration of Maslenitsa (Russian Butter Week), one of the most popular foods are blini, or cr\u00eapes. Since they are made from butter, eggs, and milk, cr\u00eapes are allowed to be consumed during the celebration by the Orthodox church. White flour can be replaced with buckwheat flour and milk can be switched for kefir, and oils can be added or substituted. Blini are served with a piece of butter and topped with caviar, cheese, meat, potatoes, mushrooms, honey, berry jam, or often a dollop of sour cream. The dish is supposed to represent the sun since the holiday is about the beginning of the spring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Typical rassolnik is based on kidneys, brine (and pickles), vegetables and barley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Also, plain cooked porridges, especially buckwheat and rice, can be served as a side dish.\n* Canned meat, \"tushonka\", is made with buckwheat/rice \"kasha\" traditions in mind, unlike bully beef type of canned meat: while average-priced \"tushyonka\" contains a large portion of lard and jelly, this very non-meaty addition to meat can be used as a sauce for enriching rice/buckwheat kasha's taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Syrniki are fried curd fritters, garnished with sour cream, jam, honey or applesauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doughnut",
        "text": "In Russia and the other Post-Soviet countries, \"ponchiki\" (, plural form of \u043f\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0438\u043a, \"ponchik\") or (, especially in St. Petersburg) are a very popular sweet doughnut, with many fast and simple recipes available in Russian cookbooks for making them at home as a breakfast or coffee pastry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fried egg",
        "text": "Yaichnitsa has two main varieties, a ' (Russian: ), usually referring to the sunny-side up but generally meaning any variant with the unbroken yolk, and a scramble called ' (Russian: ), which may have various toppings such as fried bacon, ham, salt pork or other cold cuts, fried bread or onion, or other vegetables added. A common way of preparing both types is to have multiple eggs cracked into a saucepan or frying pan and cooked without flipping. The whites flow together and individual portions are divided up after the whole pan-full has cooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borscht",
        "text": "Many regional recipes for borscht have also developed in Russian cuisine. Examples include the Moscow borscht, served with pieces of beef, ham and Vienna sausages; Siberian borscht with meatballs; and Pskov borscht with dried smelt from the local lakes. Other unique Russian variants include a monastic Lenten borscht with marinated kelp instead of cabbage and the Russian Navy borscht (\"), the defining characteristic of which is that the vegetables are cut into square or diamond-shaped chunks rather than julienned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Finnish cuisine",
        "text": "Breakfast is seen as a substantial meal and usually consists of open sandwiches. The sandwich is often buttered, with savoury toppings such as hard cheese or cold cuts. Sour milk products such as yoghurt or \"viili\" are also common breakfast foods, usually served in a bowl with cereals such as corn flakes, muesli, and sometimes with sugar, fruit or jam. A third food that is commonly eaten at breakfast is porridge (), often made of rolled oats, and eaten with a pat of butter (, lit. 'butter eye') or with milk, or fruit or jam, especially the sort made of raspberries or strawberries (sometimes lingonberries). Drinks are milk, juice, tea, or coffee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Azerbaijani cuisine",
        "text": "The Azerbaijani breakfast is heavy in dairy products, consisting of butter, various types of white cheese, cream, as well as honey, tandoori bread and eggs, traditionally prepared into kuku, but alternatively, also scrambled. Eastern European breakfast traditions which were adopted under the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union are also occasionally seen in the Republic of Azerbaijan households, with foods such as kasha, porridge, quark and crepes being included on the breakfast table."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Blini are thin griddle cakes similar to crepes traditionally made with buckwheat flour and yeasted batter, although non-yeasted batter has become widespread in recent times. They may be topped or filled with butter, smetana (sour cream), fruit preserves or caviar. Blini are often served in connection with \"Maslenitsa\" (\u041c\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430, Butter Week; also known as Pancake Week), a springtime religious festival celebrated before Lent, but it's also a common breakfast dish. The word \"blin\" (singular of blini) comes from Old Slavic \"mlin\", which means \"to mill\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Most non-alcoholic Russian drinks are based on fruits and berries. Those include kompot, made by boiling fruit with sweetened water; uzvar, in which dried fruit is used instead; mors, made of berries such as lingonberry, cranberry, blueberries, or raspberries; and kisel, a viscous fruit drink thickened with cornstarch, potato starch or arrowroot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The national Russian cuisine has evolved in a multicultural and multiethnic state, with strong mutual influence from the cuisines of other ethnic groups that live within the nation's borders or had been a part of the Russian state historically."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Shashlyk is a form of Shish kebab (marinated meat grilled on a skewer) popular in former Soviet Union countries, notably in Georgia, Russia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Uzbekistan. It often features alternating slices of meat and onions. Even though the word \"shashlyk\" was apparently borrowed from the Crimean Tatars by the Cossacks as early as the 18th century, kebabs did not reach Moscow until the late 19th century, according to Vladimir Gilyarovsky's \"Moscow and Moscovites\". From then on, their popularity spread rapidly; by the 1910s they were a staple in St Petersburg restaurants and by the 1920s they were already a pervasive street food all over urban Russia. Shashlik is also used in Russia as a food to be cooked in an outdoor environment, similarly to barbecue in English-speaking countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "There are typically two types of vegetables in okroshka. The first must have a neutral taste, such as boiled potatoes, turnips, rutabagas, carrots, or fresh cucumbers. The second must be spicy and aromatic, like radishes or green onion as well as other herbs\u2014greens of dill, parsley, chervil, celery, or tarragon. Different meat and poultry can be used in the same soup. The most common ingredient is beef alone or with poultry. A mild bologna-like sausage is sometimes used. If it is made with fish, the best choice would be tench, European perch, pike-perch, cod, or other neutral-tasting fish. In the coastal areas smoked and/or salted salmon is preferred instead, often in combination with other meats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kruzhka",
        "text": "Several main dishes include kebabs (\"Shashlik\") or Shaurma, usually with potato fries and/or sauerkraut. Sauces like ketchup and mayonnaise are typically included free with most meals (though that is not always the case in Moscow.) Perhaps a slightly more unusual offering is \"grilled trout\" for 160 roubles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blini",
        "text": "The Old Slavic term for the Russian pancakes was probably \"mlin\u016d,\" which transformed in Old Russian into \"mlin\u044a, blin\u044a\",(\u043c\u043b\u0438\u043d\u044a/\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043d\u044a), (cf. \"mlynets\u2019\" (\u043c\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0446\u044c), Ukrainian for \"blin\"). While the Russian word \"blin\u00fd\" (plural of \"blin\") refers in modern Russian also to the introduced foreign pancakes in general, meanwhile the term \u0420\u0443\u0301\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0431\u043b\u0438\u043d\u044b\u0301 \"R\u00fasskiye blin\u00fd\" (Russian pancakes) is often emphasized in Russia for differentiation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Table d'h\u00f4te",
        "text": "In Russia, the most typical fixed-price menu is called business lunch (\"\u0431\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0441-\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0447\") or fixed lunch (\"\u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u0435\u0434\"), taken in the daytime."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Lapsha (noodle soup) was adopted by Russians from Tatars, and after some transformation became widespread in Russia. It comes in three variations: chicken, mushroom, and milk. Cooking all three is simple, including preparation of noodles, cooking of corresponding broth, and boiling of noodles in broth. Noodles are based on the same wheat flour or buckwheat/wheat flour mix. Mixed flour noodles go better with mushroom or milk broth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Soups such as borsht were considered a staple in Russia. Soups like \"krupnik\" were made of barley, potatoes and fat. This was the staple food of the poor students of the \"yeshivot\"; in richer families, meat was added to this soup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kal'ya was a very common dish first served in the 16th\u201317th centuries. Subsequently, it almost completely disappeared from Russian cuisine. Often it was incorrectly called \"fish rassolnik\". The cooking technique is mostly the same as of ukha, but to the broth were added pickled cucumbers, pickle water, lemons and lemon juice, either separately or all together. The main characteristic of kal'ya is that only fat, rich fish was used; sometimes caviar was added along with the fish. More spices are added, and the soup turns out more piquant and thicker than ukha. Formerly kal'ya was considered a festivity dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Zefir is somewhat similar in its consistency to marshmallows, Schokokuss or krembo. It is derived from the traditional Russian pastila but with added egg white foam and a gelling agent. The form typically resembles traditional meringue. However, in contrast to commercial meringue, it is never crisp. It is usually of white or rose color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Tyurya is very similar to okroshka, the main difference being that instead of vegetables, bread, sometimes with addition of onion and vegetable oil, is soaked in kvass, similar to Silesian wodzionka or Portuguese a\u00e7orda. It was commonly consumed during rough times such as (the Russian Revolution, World War I, World War II) and by poor peasants. Also, due to its simplicity, it was very common as a meal during religious fasting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uovo sbattuto",
        "text": "Uovo sbattuto (), also known as \"resumada\" or \"rusumada\" in Lombardy, is a common Italian breakfast item dating back to rustic times. Similar to \"zabaione\", uovo sbattuto consists of egg yolk and sugar, ingredients readily available in most villages and farms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosovan cuisine",
        "text": "Kosovan cuisine\n--Dishes.\n--Bread.\n--Pies.\n--Salads.\n--Main dishes.\n--Fish.\n--Desserts.\n--Drinks.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Armenian cuisine",
        "text": "Traditional Armenian breakfast dishes were hearty. They included:\n* \"Khash\", sometimes colloquially called the \"Armenian hangover cure\", is a basic dish of simmered cow's hooves. \"Khash\" is mentioned in 12th century medieval Armenian texts.\n* Kalagyosh: There are many variants of this dish. It can be a meat and yogurt stew or it can be a vegetarian stew made with lentils, fried onions, and matzoon. In either case, it was traditionally eaten by crumbling stale lavash bread over it and eating it with a spoon.\n* Loligov Dzvadzekh (Tomato & Egg Scramble): This is a very common breakfast item. Essentially a simple scramble with tomato as the base. Some iterations of this dish can include, most commonly, onions and bell peppers. This is usually served with traditional lavash bread, ani panir (Armenian Feta) and herbs (Tarragon, Purple Basil, Cilantro)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet cuisine",
        "text": "Usually served in a glass in common diners of \"obshchepit\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Swedish cuisine",
        "text": "Breakfast usually consists of open sandwiches (\"sm\u00f6rg\u00e5s\"), possibly on crisp bread (\"kn\u00e4ckebr\u00f6d\"). The sandwich is most often buttered, with toppings such as hard cheese, cold cuts, caviar, \"messm\u00f6r\" (a Norwegian sweet spread made from butter and whey), ham (\"skinka\"), and tomatoes or cucumber. \"Filmj\u00f6lk\" (fermented milk/buttermilk), or sometimes yogurt, is also traditional breakfast food, usually served in a bowl with cereals such as corn flakes, muesli, or porridge (\"gr\u00f6t\") is sometimes eaten at breakfast, made of oat meal, cream of wheat eaten with milk and jam or cinnamon with sugar. Common drinks for breakfast are milk, juice, tea, or coffee. Swedes are among the most avid milk and coffee drinkers in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rusk",
        "text": "In Pakistan, Rusk is colloquially known as \"Russ\" (Urdu: \u0631\u0633). It is either available as a spherical shape that is akin to a bun or as separate rectangular pieces. It is a popular breakfast food and is usually eaten with milk tea. It is called papay (Shahmukhi: \u067e\u0627\u067e\u06d2) in Punjabi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Infomania (Russian TV series)",
        "text": "The most healthy national cuisines of the world, according to the Forbes magazine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Worldwide breakfast",
        "text": "Breakfast usually consists of coffee or tea with open sandwiches. The sandwich is often buttered (with margarine), with toppings such as hard cheese or cold cuts. Finns usually do not have sweets on their breads such as jam, or chocolate. Sour milk products such as yogurt or viili are also common breakfast foods, usually served in a bowl with cereals such as corn flakes, muesli, and sometimes with sugar, fruit, or jam. Oatmeal or mixed grain porridge may also be served, usually topped with butter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Tea is by far the most common drink in almost all parts of Russia. First introduced from China in the 17th century, its popularity has since spread throughout the country. Black tea has always been the dominant variety, but after the Russian acquisition of Central Asia, awareness of and interest in green tea began to increase slowly. Today Russia remains one of the largest tea consumers in the world. Russian Caravan is perhaps the most well-known type of Russian tea around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Syrniki",
        "text": "Syrniki (; ) or syrnyky (Ukrainian: \u0441\u0438\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438) are fried Eastern Slavic quark (curd cheese) pancakes. In Russia, they are also known as tvorozhniki (\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0301\u0436\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438). They are a part of Belarusian, Russian, Ukrainian, Latvian (\"sir\u0146iki\") and Serbian cuisine. Their simplicity and delicious taste have made them very popular in Eastern Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The fall of the Soviet Union saw the end of state monopoly on food service, and a corresponding diversification of culinary. As average prosperity grew starting with the second decade after the collapse, so did the demand for fresh culinary experiences, prompting a renaissance of Imperial-era elite cuisine, as well as a wide search for novelty, local specialties, and creative reinterpretations, leading to the birth of what has been dubbed the New Russian cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Worldwide breakfast",
        "text": "In Turkish Cuisine, a typical breakfast consists of bread, cheese (\"beyaz peynir\", \"ka\u015far\" etc.), butter, olives, eggs, tomatoes, cucumbers, jam, honey, and kaymak. \"Sucuk\" (spicy Turkish sausage), \"past\u0131rma\", \"b\u00f6rek\", \"simit\", \"po\u011fa\u00e7a\" and soups are eaten as a morning meal in Turkey. A common Turkish specialty for breakfast is called \"menemen\", which is prepared with tomatoes, green peppers, onion, olive oil and eggs. Various soups (\u00e7orba) are also very common and traditional for Turkish breakfast; mainly chicken broth, lentil soup, and a national delicacy, \"tarhana\" soup (Turkish cereal food consisting of flour, yogurt and vegetables fermented then dried; it is consumed as a soup by mixing it with stock or water) are most well known soups. Tripe soup, trotter soup, and sheep's head soup are also traditionally very common all over Turkey for breakfast. The Turkish word for breakfast, \"kahvalt\u0131\", means \"before coffee,\" (\"kahve\", 'coffee'; \"alt\u0131\", 'under'). but after the First World War, during which the Ottoman Empire lost its coffee-producing territories, tea has displaced coffee as the everyday hot drink in Turkey. In the Sirkeci district of Istanbul, Pide is a popular morning meal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "In the early 20th century the Revolution saw a rapid decline of elite cuisine, driven both by the new egalitarian state ideology and by disappearance of the old Imperial elites who used to be its consumers. The distinct Soviet cuisine was born, emphasizing fusion of the Union's national cuisines, scientific approach to a diet, and industrial approach to food preparation and serving."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Russian desserts",
        "text": "List of Russian desserts\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mongolian cuisine",
        "text": "Milk is boiled to separate the cream (\"\u00f6r\u00f6m\", clotted cream). The remaining skimmed milk is processed into cheese (\"byaslag\"), dried curds (aaruul), yogurt, kefir, and a light milk liquor (\"shimiin arkhi\"). The most prominent national beverage is airag, which is fermented mare's milk. A popular cereal is barley, which is fried and malted. The resulting flour (arvain guril) is eaten as a porridge in milk fat and sugar or drunk mixed in milky tea. The everyday beverage is salted milk tea (s\u00fc\u00fctei tsai), which may turn into a robust soup by adding rice, meat, or bansh. As a result of the Russian influence during socialism, vodka has also gained some popularity with a surprising number of local brands (usually grain spirits)\". Boortsog\" or baw\u00efrsaq is a type of \"fried dough\" food found in the cuisines of Central Asia, Idel-Ural, Mongolia and the Middle East. It is shaped into either triangles or sometimes spheres. The dough consists of flour, yeast, milk, eggs, margarine, salt, sugar, and fat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baked milk",
        "text": "Ryazhenka and varenets are fermented baked milk products, a sort of traditional yoghurt. It is a common breakfast drink in Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet cuisine",
        "text": "An everyday Soviet full course meal (lunch or dinner) consisted of three courses, typically referred to as \"first\", \"second\", and \"third\"; an optional salad was not numbered (in the Russian cuisine, which largely formed a base for a Soviet one, salads belong to the separate zakuski course). In a restaurant, one could eat anything one liked in any order, but in a typical canteen, especially in a workers' or students' canteen, one would normally have received what was called a \"combined lunch\" (\"kompleksny obed\"). The first course was a soup or broth, i.e., \"liquid\" food (notice the difference from the Italian cuisine, where a \"primo piatto\" could also include a pasta dish \u2014 under a Soviet approach the pasta dishes belonged to the second course). The second was some kind of \"solid\" food: meat, fish, or poultry with a side dish, called \"garnish\" (). Garnishes typically included potatoes in a variety of forms, buckwheat kasha, macaroni, etc. Bliny, baked dishes ( \"zapekanka\"), or eggs could also be served as the second course (alternatively, dishes like deviled eggs may count as zakuski too). The third was theoretically a dessert, but in the simplified canteen cooking this usually boiled down to some substantial, often sweetened drink: tea, coffee, kompot, milk, kefir, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Veal Orloff",
        "text": "Similar dishes are popular in Russia today where they usually go by the name French-style meat (). In these varieties, veal is often replaced by cheaper sorts of meat, such as beef or pork, and the Mornay sauce may be replaced by mayonnaise. A layer of sliced potatoes is also often added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Worldwide breakfast",
        "text": "European breakfasts are generally lighter than in America or the UK, and apart from drinks are often all cold. Bread with boiled eggs, cheese and cold meat slices may be found, and pastries and preserves are normal. Muesli, a Germanic breakfast invention, is popular in many places, and fruit and fruit juices common. Coffee or tea are near-universal."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are common Russian Breakfast foods?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I couldn't find a comprehensive list but cereal porridge can be served for breakfast and Blini is a common breakfast dish.",
      "Cereal porridge cooked in milk, and Blini, thin griddle cakes similar to crepes, are served for breakfast commonly. Kulich is an Easter bread blessed by a priest is eaten before breakfast each day on Easter."
    ],
    "topic": "Russian cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Russian cuisine:37",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Russian cuisine",
          "Porridge"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Russian people have become skilled in different techniques for the preparation of a wide variety of whole-grain cereals. The most popular cereals are buckwheat, millet, semolina, oats, barley, and rice. Traditionally, such cereal porrige is cooked in milk, especially if it is cooked to be served for breakfast."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Russian cuisine:58",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Russian cuisine",
          "Desserts and pastries"
        ],
        "ctx": "Blini are thin griddle cakes similar to crepes traditionally made with buckwheat flour and yeasted batter, although non-yeasted batter has become widespread in recent times. They may be topped or filled with butter, smetana (sour cream), fruit preserves or caviar. Blini are often served in connection with \"Maslenitsa\" (\u041c\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430, Butter Week; also known as Pancake Week), a springtime religious festival celebrated before Lent, but it's also a common breakfast dish. The word \"blin\" (singular of blini) comes from Old Slavic \"mlin\", which means \"to mill\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Russian cuisine:37",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Russian cuisine",
          "Porridge"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Russian people have become skilled in different techniques for the preparation of a wide variety of whole-grain cereals. The most popular cereals are buckwheat, millet, semolina, oats, barley, and rice. Traditionally, such cereal porrige is cooked in milk, especially if it is cooked to be served for breakfast."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Russian cuisine:58",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Russian cuisine",
          "Desserts and pastries"
        ],
        "ctx": "Blini are thin griddle cakes similar to crepes traditionally made with buckwheat flour and yeasted batter, although non-yeasted batter has become widespread in recent times. They may be topped or filled with butter, smetana (sour cream), fruit preserves or caviar. Blini are often served in connection with \"Maslenitsa\" (\u041c\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430, Butter Week; also known as Pancake Week), a springtime religious festival celebrated before Lent, but it's also a common breakfast dish. The word \"blin\" (singular of blini) comes from Old Slavic \"mlin\", which means \"to mill\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Russian cuisine:63",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Russian cuisine",
          "Desserts and pastries"
        ],
        "ctx": "Kulich is a kind of Easter bread that is traditional in the Orthodox Christian faith and is eaten in countries like Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Romania, Georgia, Moldova, North Macedonia and Serbia."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kulich is baked in tall, cylindrical tins (like coffee or fruit juice tins). When cooled, kulich is decorated with white icing (which slightly drizzles down the sides) and colorful flowers. Historically, it was often served with cheese paska bearing the symbol XB (from the traditional Easter greeting of \"\u0425\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0441 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0435\", \"Christ is Risen\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kulich is a kind of Easter bread that is traditional in the Orthodox Christian faith and is eaten in countries like Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Romania, Georgia, Moldova, North Macedonia and Serbia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kulich is only eaten between Easter and Pentecost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Traditionally after the Easter service, the kulich, which has been put into a basket and decorated with colorful flowers, is blessed by the priest. Blessed kulich is eaten before breakfast each day. Any leftover kulich that is not blessed is eaten with Paskha for dessert."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The recipe for kulich is similar to that of Italian panettone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kulich",
        "text": "Kulich is baked in tall, cylindrical tins (like coffee or fruit juice tins). When cooled, kulich is decorated with white icing (which slightly drizzles down the sides) and colorful flowers. Historically, it was often served with cheese paska bearing the symbol \u0425\u0412 (from the traditional Easter greeting of (, \"Christ is risen\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter cake",
        "text": "In Russia \"kulich\" is baked on Holy Thursday. Holy Saturday is strictly a fast day; nothing is eaten and there is a church service at midnight and Easter Mass at dawn. The \"kulich\" is blessed and it is taken home and eaten with \"paskha\" and other foods for a big breakfast with the family. According to Alan Davidson it is \"the most famous Russian Easter bread.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Kulich",
        "text": "Kulich is the Russian name for Easter bread. For the Eastern Slavs, festive bread was round and tall, and dough decorations were made on top of it. The cylindrical shape of the cake is associated with the church practice of baking artos. The Paska bread tradition spread in cultures which were connected to the Byzantine Empire and it's a traditional cultural part of countries with an Orthodox Christian population. It is eaten in countries like Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Romania, Georgia, Moldova, North Macedonia and Serbia. Kulich is a variant of paska Easter breads and represents not only Easter but also the spring. Easter is a very important celebration in Eastern European countries, even more important than Christmas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kulich",
        "text": "Traditionally after the Easter service, the kulich, which has been put into a basket and decorated with colorful flowers, is blessed by the priest. Blessed kulich is eaten before breakfast each day. Any leftover kulich that is not blessed is eaten with paskha for dessert."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sobornaya Square (Rostov-on-Don)",
        "text": "The tradition of making a grand kulich continued in 2014 and 2016, when the 500\u00a0kg pudding, baked in Rostov-on-Don, was delivered, respectively, to Sevastopol and Simferopol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Easter bread (kulic'aaq from Russian kul\u00edch) Russian Orthodox Easter bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kulich",
        "text": "Kulich is only eaten between Easter and Pentecost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kulich",
        "text": "The recipe for kulich is similar to that of Italian panettone, but is more dense and thus weighs considerably more."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "Popular German-Russian cuisine includes \"kuchen\", a thin, cheesecake-like custard pastry often filled with fruit such as cherries, apricot, prunes, and sometimes cottage cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter bread",
        "text": "A \"Kozunak\" is the traditional Easter bread in Bulgaria, \"kulich\" is one of different traditional Russian \"paska\" Easter breads. \"Kolach\" is a traditional Czech bread made at Christmas in the shape of a ring. Usually, three rings are stack on top of each other to represent the Holy Trinity. Ukrainian Easter breads are also called \"paska\", where often a rich, white bread is served and decorated on the top with symbols, including crosses, flowers, braids, wheat, or other designs representing aspects of Orthodox and Eastern Catholic faith."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kulich",
        "text": "Kulich\n--Preparation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter food",
        "text": "In Russia, red eggs, kulich and paskha are Easter traditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Cheese paskha is a traditional Easter dish made from quark (curd cheese, ), which is white, symbolizing the purity of Christ, the Paschal Lamb, and the joy of the Resurrection. It is formed in a mould, traditionally in the shape of a truncated pyramid (a symbol of the Church; this form is also said to represent the Tomb of Christ). It is usually served as an accompaniment to a rich Easter bread called paska in Ukrainian and kulich in Russian."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "There is a dish in modern Russian cuisine resembling a mix of \"svekolnik\" and pickled herring: \"selyodka pod shuboi\", literally \"[fur]coated herring\", where picked herring is coated with a layer of potatoes, a layer of mayo and/or \"smetana\" sour cream, with grated beet added on top for coating (hence \"fur\"-coat\" word, \"shuba\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "\"Fleischkuekle\" (or \"fleischkuechle\") is a popular meat-filled thin flatbread that is deep-fried and served hot. Another German-Russian specialty in the area is \"knoephla\", a dumpling soup that almost always includes potatoes, and to a lesser extent, celery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kuchen",
        "text": "People who trace their ancestry to the group known as Germans from Russia call a pastry like the first half of this definition \"Kuchen.\" It is not called Obstkuchen. It is not at all like a fruit cake and it does not have an icing. It is the official South Dakota State Desert. (See the Germans from Russia Heritage Society [grls.org] and on Facebook, Germans from Russia Food and Culture.)\n* A rolled-pastry, specifically called Kuchenrolle, with a long spiral of dough sometimes filled with cream and/or jam, rolled, baked and then sliced to serve. This is sometimes known as a nut roll when nuts are added.\n* A coffee cake-like pastry, marbled with veins and pockets of cinnamon, baked throughout; its primary components are butter and sugar. A marble cake or pound cake would be variations of this form, specifically known as a Marmorkuchen and R\u00fchrkuchen respectively. Streuselkuchen is a variation of this form.\n* A cheese cake-like pastry, specifically called K\u00e4sekuchen, with a yeast raised crust, sometimes filled with fruit (cherry is most popular), and a creamy filling made from the German cheese Quark.\n* A pan-fried pastry, specifically known as Pfannkuchen, a German pancake thicker than French Crepes and often filled with a sweet or savory filling. An egg based variation is called Eierkuchen.\n* A layered pastry, commonly known as a Baumkuchen, made over a spit while brushing on layers of batter.\n* A sheet-cake-like pastry, specifically known as Blechkuchen, with variations similar to other forms of Kuchen with the key difference being that this form is baked on a sheet. Can be butter based, known as Butterkuchen, or filled with fruit. Lebkuchen is one such variation commonly made during Christmas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian Mennonite zwieback",
        "text": "Russian Mennonite zwieback, called Tweebak in Plautdietsch, is a yeast bread roll formed from two pieces of dough that are pulled apart when eaten. Placing the two balls of dough one on top of the other so that the top one does not fall off during the baking process is part of the art and challenge that must be mastered by the baker. Traditionally, this type of zwieback is baked Saturday and eaten Sunday morning and for afternoon \"Faspa\" (Standard German: \"Vesper\"), a light meal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kholodets (or Studen'): Jellied chopped pieces of pork or veal meat with some spices added (pepper, parsley, garlic, bay leaf) and minor amounts of vegetables (carrots, onions). The meat is boiled in large pieces for long periods of time, then chopped, boiled a few times again and finally chilled for 3\u20134 hours (hence the name) forming a jelly mass, though gelatin is not used because calves' feet, pigs' heads and other such offal is gelatinous enough on its own. It is served with horseradish, mustard, or ground garlic with smetana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Borscht is made of broth, beets, and tomatoes with various vegetables, including onions, cabbage, tomato, carrots, and celery. Borscht usually includes meat, particularly beef in Russia, and pork in Ukraine. Borscht is generally served very hot, with sour cream, chopped chives or parsley, and crushed garlic. Borscht is traditionally served with black bread. Borscht is associated as national cuisine in various different Eastern European countries such as Ukraine, Poland, Belarus, and Lithuania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Svyokolnik (also known as Kholodnik) is a cold borscht. It consists of beet sour or beet juice blended with sour cream, buttermilk, soured milk, kefir or yogurt. The mixture has a distinctive orange or pink color. It is served chilled, typically over finely chopped beetroot, cucumbers, radishes and spring onion, together with halved hard-boiled eggs and sprinkled with fresh dill. Chopped veal, ham, or crawfish tails may be added as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Khuushuur",
        "text": "Khuushuur ( ; ; ) is a meat pastry or dumpling popular in Mongolia that is relatively similar to Russian and other cuisines like chiburekki or Garlic chives wrap. The meat, beef, mutton, or camel, is ground up and mixed with onion (or garlic), salt and other spices. The cook rolls the dough into circles, then places the meat inside the dough and folds the dough in half, creating a flat half-circular pocket. The cook then closes the pockets by pressing the edges together. A variety of Khuushuur has a round shape produced by pressing the dough and mince together using the dough roller."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of English words of Russian origin",
        "text": "Blini (Russian plural: \u0431\u043b\u0438\u043d\u044b, singular: \u0431\u043b\u0438\u043d), are thin pancakes or crepes traditionally made with yeasted batter, although non-yeasted batter has become widespread in recent times. Blini are often served in connection with a religious rite or festival, but also constitute a common breakfast dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kugelis",
        "text": "Similar dishes include the Jewish kugel and Belarusian potato babka."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of English words of Russian origin",
        "text": "Coulibiac (origin 1895-1900, from Russian: \u043a\u0443\u043b\u0435\u0431\u044f\u0301\u043a\u0430 \"kuleby\u00e1ka\", an oblong loaf of fish, meat, or vegetables, baked in a pastry shell; of uncert. orig) A Russian fish pie typically made with salmon or sturgeon, hard-boiled eggs, mushrooms, and dill, baked in a yeast or puff pastry shell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian Mennonite zwieback",
        "text": "Traditionally, zwieback are made using lard instead of butter or a mixture of the two. As such, zwieback is very rich and does not need butter when being eaten, although jelly or jam both go quite well. Many zwieback recipes do not use modern units of measurement, instead relying on anecdotal measurements handed down through the generations. The following recipe is a translation of a traditional recipe using modern measurements:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Traditional Russian cuisine eschews the fine cutting or grounding of meat. Thus sausagemaking, though generally known in Russia since at least 12th century, was not popular and largely started in earnest with the Petrine reforms, when a lot of Western products and practices were introduced. Traditional sausages were based on mixing meat with cereals, much like modern kishka and Polish kaszanka, while the newer purely meat varieties were made in German and Polish styles, often highly spiced and loaded with preservatives for non-refrigerated storage. One of the pre-revolutionary recipes specified as much as half pound of saltpetre per a pood of meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Swabian cuisine",
        "text": "Kirschenplotzer comprises stale white buns, worked into a dough with butter, egg, milk, and sugar, into which cherries are folded before the casserole is baked, and then served hot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Pelmeni are a traditional Eastern European (mainly Russian) dish usually made with minced meat filling, wrapped in thin dough (made out of flour and eggs, sometimes with milk or water added). For filling, pork, lamb, beef, or any other kind of meat can be used; mixing several kinds is popular. The traditional Ural recipe requires the filling be made with 45% of beef, 35% of lamb, and 20% of pork. Traditionally, various spices, such as pepper, onions, and garlic, are mixed into the filling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pampushka",
        "text": "According to William Pokhlyobkin, the technology of making pampushky points to German cuisine, and these buns were possibly created by German colonists in Ukraine. They spread through the country in the second half of the 19th century and later reached the \"status\" of a Ukrainian traditional dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Porridge is one of the most important dishes in traditional Russian cuisine. Variety of cereals is based on a variety of local crops. In Russian, the word kasha refers to any kind of porridge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kotlety (minced cutlets), are pan-fried cutlet-shaped patties, not dissimilar from Salisbury steak and other such dishes. Kotlety are made from pork and beef, or from chicken, sometimes also from fish. In common recipes, ground meat, pork, onions and bread are put in a bowl and mixed thoroughly until it becomes relatively consistent. Once this effect is achieved, patties are formed and then put into a hot frying pan to cook. Pozharsky cutlet is a more elaborated version which was adopted by French haute cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "(or , from Russian , fur coat)), also known as \"dressed herring\", is chopped salted herring under a \"coat\" of shredded cooked beet, sometimes with a layer of egg or other vegetables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kalach (food)",
        "text": "In modern Russian, \"kalach\" refers to a specific type of twisted white bread. Historically, kalach meant any kind of white bread, and before modern methods of grinding wheat came into use, white bread was classed as a type of fancy bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kugel",
        "text": "Kugel ( , pronounced ) is a baked pudding or casserole, most commonly made from lokshen or Jewish egg noodles ( ) or potato. It is a traditional Ashkenazi Jewish dish, often served on Shabbat and Jewish holidays."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bukharan Jews",
        "text": "Bukharan cuisine consists of many unique dishes, distinctly influenced by ethnic dishes historically and currently found along the Silk Road and many parts of Central and even Southeast Asia. Shish kabob, or shashlik, as it is often referred to in Russian, are popular, made of chicken, beef or lamb. Pulled noodles, often thrown into a hearty stew of meat and vegetables known as \"lagman\", are similar in style to Chinese lamian, also traditionally served in a meat broth. \"Samsa\", pastries filled with spiced meat or vegetables, are baked in a unique, hollowed out tandoor oven, and greatly resemble the preparation and shape of Indian samosas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dalieba",
        "text": "The Russian influence on the cuisine of Northeast China may be observed in Dalieba bread and Hongchang sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kichel",
        "text": "Kichel (, plural kichlach , the diminutive of \"kukhn\" \"cake\") is a slightly sweet cracker or cookie in Jewish cuisine. Made from eggs, flour, and sugar, the dough is rolled out flat and cut into bow-tie shapes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Krupenik",
        "text": "A () is a sweet or savory casserole made of groats (wheat, buckwheat, barley or rice) and \"\", or Russian farmer cheese. It is a dish that is typical for Russian cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kulich, Iran",
        "text": "Kulich, Iran\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rusk",
        "text": "The Russian version is called \"sukhar' \" (Cyrillic: \u0441\u0443\u0445\u0430\u0440\u044c) from \"\u0441\u0443\u0445\u043e\u0439\" - \"dry\". They are either baked a second time from sweet challah-like bread, sliced in biscotti fashion or made of leftover stale bread, cut into small cubes and air-dried or baked at a very low temperature. The first one is like a cookie, which can be served with milk, kefir, tea, coffee or cacao. The second one is usually added to soup, clear or otherwise, softening up from absorbed liquids and accompanying it instead of bread. It became a tradition to avoid wasting leftover bread that always was a staple in Russian cuisine. There is much folklore about bread in the Russian language, paying respect to this grain food that is one of the cornerstones of Slavic nations' life and history. Rye bread rusks are the major ingredient in making of the Russian Kvass, a traditional fermented beverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gagauz cuisine",
        "text": "Many family holidays and rituals are connected with the baking of bread, wheat loaves (\"kalaches\"), and unleavened flatcakes. Pies are also common, with popular variants being layered pies stuffed with sheep milk cheese and doused with sour cream before baking, pies with crumbled pumpkin, and sweet pies made from the first milk of a cow that had just calved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kalduny",
        "text": "Kalduny, dumplings of unleavened dough filled with meat, mushrooms, or other stuffings, are related to similar dishes in the West and in the East alike, from Italian ravioli, Hungarian derelye, and Ashkenazi Jewish pirogen to Russian pelmeni and Central Asian manti or chuchvara. Kalduny made with a stuffing of smoked ham and mushrooms (\"Kalduny Count Tyshkevich\", named after a Belarusian noble family from Lahojsk near Minsk) were long considered Belarus's \u201cvisiting card\u201d, although decades of Soviet rule almost erased their trace from public memory and now they are only served in a few local restaurants. Currently the Russian pelmeni and the Ukrainian vareniki are served in more restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "As a garnish to meat dishes in the past the most common were porridges and cereals, in which the meat was boiled, later on boiled or rather steamed and baked root vegetables (turnips, carrots) as well as mushrooms; additionally the meat, without taking account its type, was garnished with pickled products\u2014pickled cabbage, or sour and \"soaked\" (marinated) apples (mochoniye yabloki) or cranberries. Pan juices, alone or mixed with sour cream or melted butter, were used as gravy to pour on garnishing vegetables and porridges. Meat sauces, i.e. gravies based on flour, butter, eggs and milk, are not common for traditional Russian cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kal'ya was a very common dish first served in the 16th\u201317th centuries. Subsequently, it almost completely disappeared from Russian cuisine. Often it was incorrectly called \"fish rassolnik\". The cooking technique is mostly the same as of ukha, but to the broth were added pickled cucumbers, pickle water, lemons and lemon juice, either separately or all together. The main characteristic of kal'ya is that only fat, rich fish was used; sometimes caviar was added along with the fish. More spices are added, and the soup turns out more piquant and thicker than ukha. Formerly kal'ya was considered a festivity dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kalach (food)",
        "text": "Ukrainian kolaches are made by braiding dough made with wheat flour into ring-shaped or oblong forms. They are a symbol of luck, prosperity, and good bounty, and are traditionally prepared for \"Svyat Vechir (Holy Supper)\", the Ukrainian Christmas Eve ritual."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kislye\" (sour) schi are made from pickled cabbage (sauerkraut), \"serye\" (grey) schi from the green outer leaves of the cabbage head. \"Zelyonye\" (green) schi are made from sorrel leaves, not cabbage, and used to be a popular summer soup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kuchen",
        "text": "Rugelach is a form of the rolled-pastry variation of Kuchen. They are usually filled with nuts and raisins, with a pastry composed of cheese curds and sour cream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fleischkuekle",
        "text": "Fleischkuekle (also Fleischkuechle, from Alemannic/South Franconian and East Franconian \"Fleischk\u00fcchle\", \"little meat pie\") is a deep-fried turnover similar to Crimean Tatar cheburek. The dish is a traditional Black Sea Germans / Crimea Germans recipe, and through immigration became an addition to the cuisine of North Dakota. This dish is popular among the many Russian-German immigrant families of North Dakota."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kissel or kisel is a viscous fruit dish, popular as a dessert and as a drink. It consists of the sweetened juice of berries, like mors, but it is thickened with cornstarch, potato starch or arrowroot; sometimes red wine or fresh or dried fruits are added. It is similar to the Danish \"r\u00f8dgr\u00f8d\" and German \"Rote Gr\u00fctze\". Swedish \"bl\u00e5b\u00e4rssoppa\" is a similarly prepared bilberry dessert, although only fresh or frozen bilberries, not dried berries are used to prepare it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosovan cuisine",
        "text": "Typical salad ingredients include tomatoes, onion, garlic, pepper, cucumber, potato, cabbage, lettuce, carrots, and beans.\n* Potato salad\n* Tarator - a traditional salad made with cucumbers, garlic and yogurt. Very popular dish for summer.\n* Tomato and cucumber salad\n* Dried nettle salad\n* Bean salad\n* \"Shope\" salad - a simple salad made of tomato, cucumber, onions and white cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosovan cuisine",
        "text": "Bread, dairy, meat, fruits and vegetables are important staples in Kosovan cuisine. With diversity of recipes, the Kosovan daily cuisine adjusts well to the country's occasional hot summers and the frequent long winters. As a result of its continental climate, fresh vegetables are consumed in summer while pickles throughout autumn and winter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Worldwide breakfast",
        "text": "Traditional Russian breakfast are concentrated on kashas, or porridges \u2013 the most important staple in Russian nutritional culture, with buckwheat and oat, as well as semolina, serving as the three most important bases of such dishes, usually cooked using water or milk, as well as consumed with or without milk. Breakfast foods also include pancakes or oladushki. Oladushki are made from flour and rise on yeast. Blini, or crepes, are also popular for breakfast and are also made with flour, but without yeast. Sirniki, is a cheese form of pancake. Sirniki are made of tvorog (quark cheese), which can be eaten separately with honey for breakfast. Also, a popular dish is buterbrod, open sandwiches with cold cuts and cheeses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cutlet",
        "text": "In Ukrainian cuisine, a variety called \"sichenyk\" () is made of minced meat or fish and vegetables and covered with bread crumbs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kuchenne rewolucje",
        "text": "Renamed \"\u015aled\u017a i chleb\" (eng. Herring and bread) during production"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fleischschnacka",
        "text": "The meat stuffing is spread on the fresh egg pasta and rolled. The tube obtained is then cut into slices of 1.5\u20132\u00a0cm, the \"Fleischschnacka\"s. The slices are cooked on each face with butter in a frying pan then broth (usually pot-au-feu broth) is added and the rolls are cooked ca. 12 minutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vorschmack",
        "text": "Although nowadays vorschmack is mainly associated with Jewish cuisine in Russia, historically different versions of this dish () were known there. These were usually hot zakuski (appetizers) or breakfast dishes. \"A Gift to Young Housewives\", a classical Russian cookbook by Elena Molokhovets, provides three recipes of hot vorschmack in its first edition (1861) and further variants were added in subsequent editions. In one recipe, meat (veal or beef), herring, white bread and onions are minced, mixed with smetana (sour cream) or cream and baked. Other recipes include only herring (without meat), as well as other ingredients, such as potatoes, eggs and apples. Even more elaborate recipes with further details on cooking techniques are given in another classical Russian cookery textbook, \"The Practical Fundamentals of the Cookery Art\" (1899\u20131916) by Pelageya Alexandrova-Ignatieva. It was in particular proposed to place the mixture of minced ingredients inside a kalach, cover it with grated cheese and bake it au gratin. Similar recipes also appear in \"Cookery\" (1955), a major cookbook of Soviet cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pampuchy",
        "text": "In the Kalisz Region the dough for , or is made from millet yeast with the addition of milk, sugar, flour, eggs, butter and salt. Traditionally these are served with pork chops and sweet-sour fried white cabbage, or stuffed with fruit and melted butter, sugar and cinnamon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kuchen",
        "text": "In the United States, back when Jewish immigrants were first arriving in the country, many of the recipes that they brought with them utilized dried fruits as it was difficult to come across fresh ones in their home countries. One that was particularly favored is compote. Desserts have long since changed to become more sophisticated as fresh fruits are now abundant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kulen",
        "text": "The meat is stuffed and pressed into bags made of pork intestine, and formed into links that are usually around ten centimeters in diameter, and up to three times as long, weighing around a kilogram."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The kvass most commonly used in cooking is white okroshka kvass, which is much more sour than drinking kvass. Spices used include mustard, black pepper and pickled cucumber (specifically, the liquid from the pickles), solely or in combination. For the final touch, boiled eggs and smetana (similar to cr\u00e8me fra\u00eeche) are added. Often, the mustard, chopped hard-boiled yolks, pepper and pickle brine are combined into a spicy sauce that is added to the soup to taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The Russian people have become skilled in different techniques for the preparation of a wide variety of whole-grain cereals. The most popular cereals are buckwheat, millet, semolina, oats, barley, and rice. Traditionally, such cereal porrige is cooked in milk, especially if it is cooked to be served for breakfast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yamal cuisine",
        "text": "\"Bread is head for everything\" is a saying of Russians and Selkups. It symbolizes hospitality of the house. Bread of Selkup is mentioned from the 8th-9th centuries. The bread is baked not in an oven as Russians do although the initial stages are the same. Flour is mixed with water and salt. Soda is used instead of yeast to raise the dough and it is baked in very hot sand on the fire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cutlet",
        "text": "In modern Russian, the word \"kotleta\" (\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0430) refers almost exclusively to pan-fried minced meat croquettes / cutlet-shaped patties. Bread soaked in milk, onions, garlic, and herbs is usually present in the recipe. When in a hurry, a \"cutlet\" can be eaten between bread slices like a hamburger, but this fast meal is rarely served in restaurants. It is usually served with pan-fried potatoes, mashed potatoes, pasta, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kugel (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Kugel is a traditional Jewish baked dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "Jerusalem \"kugel\" (\"kugel yerushalmi\") is an Israeli version of the traditional noodle pudding, \"kugel\", made with caramelized sugar and spiced with black pepper. It was originally a specialty of the Ashkenazi Jews of the Old Yishuv. It is typically baked in a very low oven overnight and eaten after synagogue services on Shabbat morning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doughnut",
        "text": "In Ukraine doughnuts are called \"pampushky\" (). \"Pampushky\" are made of yeast dough containing wheat, rye or buckwheat flour. Traditionally they are baked, but may also be fried. According to William Pokhlyobkin, the technology of making \"pampushky\" points to German cuisine, and these buns were possibly created by German colonists in Ukraine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breaded cutlet",
        "text": "In modern Russian and Ukrainian, the word \"kotleta\" (\u043a\u043e\u0442\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0430; pl. \"kotlety\") refers almost exclusively to pan-fried minced meat croquettes / cutlet-shaped patties. Bread soaked in milk, onions, garlic, and herbs is usually present in the recipe. In some recipes, the patties are covered with bread crumbs. In Ukrainian cuisine, a breaded variety called \"sichenyk\" () is made of minced meat or fish and vegetables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bublik",
        "text": "A class of such ring-shaped rolls is common for Eastern European cuisines. Ukrainian bublik is similar to an Ashkenazi Jewish bagel, but is somewhat bigger and has a larger hole. Bubliks usually have a drier, denser and \"chewier\" texture than bagels. Russian baranka (; pl. baranki) is a dough ring somewhat smaller than a bublik, but also thinner and drier. Sushka (; pl. sushki) is an even smaller and drier type, generally about 5\u00a0cm in size, and has the consistency of a hard cracker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kugel",
        "text": "While Litvaks (Jews from Lithuania, northeastern Poland and northern Russia) call the pudding , Galitzianers (Jews from southeastern Poland and western Ukraine) call it ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kruzhka",
        "text": "Several main dishes include kebabs (\"Shashlik\") or Shaurma, usually with potato fries and/or sauerkraut. Sauces like ketchup and mayonnaise are typically included free with most meals (though that is not always the case in Moscow.) Perhaps a slightly more unusual offering is \"grilled trout\" for 160 roubles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Blini are thin griddle cakes similar to crepes traditionally made with buckwheat flour and yeasted batter, although non-yeasted batter has become widespread in recent times. They may be topped or filled with butter, smetana (sour cream), fruit preserves or caviar. Blini are often served in connection with \"Maslenitsa\" (\u041c\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430, Butter Week; also known as Pancake Week), a springtime religious festival celebrated before Lent, but it's also a common breakfast dish. The word \"blin\" (singular of blini) comes from Old Slavic \"mlin\", which means \"to mill\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Khlebnikov",
        "text": "Khlebnikov, Khlebnikova () or Klebnikov is a Russian surname, meaning a maker of bread (, khleb), may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blini",
        "text": "Traditional Russian blini are made with yeasted batter, which is left to rise and then diluted with milk, soured milk, cold or boiling water. When diluted with boiling water, they are referred to as zavarniye bliny. A lighter and thinner form made from unyeasted batter (usually made of flour, eggs, milk or soured milk, kefir, ryazhenka, varenets), is also common in Russia. Traditionally, blini are baked in a Russian oven. The process of preparing blini is still referred to as baking in Russian, even though they are nowadays pan-fried, like pancakes. All kinds of flour may be used, from wheat and buckwheat to oatmeal and millet, although wheat is currently the most popular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosovan cuisine",
        "text": "Common dishes include pies, flija, stuffed peppers, legume, sarma, kebab/qebapa etc. Notwithstanding, the cuisine varies slightly between different regions of the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belarusian cuisine",
        "text": "Kalduny, small boiled dumplings related to Russian pelmeni and Italian ravioli, were produced in endless combinations of dough, filling and sauce. Especially popular were kalduny Count Tyshkevich (filled with a mixture of fried local mushrooms and smoked ham). In the late 19th century kalduny began to be made with grated potato rather than with a flour-based dough and the former huge variety of fillings shrank considerably. Today, kalduny have to struggle vigorously to regain their former popularity, now overtaken by the Russian pelmeni."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kreplach\", similar to Russian \"pelmeni\", are ravioli-like dumplings made from flour and eggs mixed into a dough, rolled into sheets, cut into squares and then filled with finely chopped, seasoned meat or cheese. They are most often served in soup, but may be fried. \"Kreplech\" are eaten on various holidays, among them Purim and Hosha'na Rabbah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kalduny",
        "text": "Kalduny or kolduny (, , , used in plural only) are stuffed dumplings made of unleavened dough in Belarusian, Lithuanian, and Polish cuisines, akin to the Polish pierogi, Russian pelmeni and the Ukrainian vareniki."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "(from French ), a salad made of boiled beets, potatoes, carrots, pickles, onions, sauerkraut, and sometimes peas or white beans. Dressed with sunflower or olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kelich",
        "text": "Kelich () is a rural locality (a village) in Yurlinskoye Rural Settlement, Yurlinsky District, Perm Krai, Russia. The population was 177 as of 2010. There are 5 streets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Khrushchev dough",
        "text": "Khrushchev dough () was the result of introducing flour rationing in the Soviet Union after a crop failure, which led to the food irregularities in 1963, under Nikita Khrushchev. Products made from the Khrushchev dough were called Khrushchev loaves or Khrushchev pies. The Khrushchev pie was made by extracting the pulp out of a loaf of wheat bread, injecting filling, and baking in an oven. In 1963\u20131964, that pie became common on New Year tables. The color of the Khrushchev loaves in Leningrad was nearly blue. In some recipes from Runet, the dough was supposed to be long-lasting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kulich (surname)",
        "text": "Kulich is surname. Notable people with the surname include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Erez Komarovsky",
        "text": "Komarovsky's dishes emphasize seasonal ingredients; organic herbs, vegetables, seeds, and fruits; and the meat and cheeses of locally raised lamb and goat. His recipes incorporate a limited number of ingredients and spices, but are known for their intense flavor. Komarovsky draws his inspiration from Ashkenazi, Sephardi, Palestinian, Syrian, Lebanese, and Druze cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Soups such as borsht were considered a staple in Russia. Soups like \"krupnik\" were made of barley, potatoes and fat. This was the staple food of the poor students of the \"yeshivot\"; in richer families, meat was added to this soup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borscht",
        "text": "Many regional recipes for borscht have also developed in Russian cuisine. Examples include the Moscow borscht, served with pieces of beef, ham and Vienna sausages; Siberian borscht with meatballs; and Pskov borscht with dried smelt from the local lakes. Other unique Russian variants include a monastic Lenten borscht with marinated kelp instead of cabbage and the Russian Navy borscht (\"), the defining characteristic of which is that the vegetables are cut into square or diamond-shaped chunks rather than julienned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Paskha is a festive dish made in Eastern Orthodox countries which consists of food that is forbidden during the fast of Great Lent. It is made during Holy Week and then brought to Church on Great Saturday to be blessed after the Paschal Vigil. The name of the dish comes from Pascha, the Eastern Orthodox celebration of Easter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Cabbage, potatoes, and cold tolerant greens are common in Russian and other Eastern European cuisines. Pickling cabbage (sauerkraut), cucumbers, tomatoes and other vegetables in brine is used to preserve vegetables for winter use. Pickled apples and some other fruit also used to be widely popular. These are sources of vitamins during periods when fresh fruit and vegetables are traditionally not available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosovan cuisine",
        "text": "Kosovan cuisine\n--Dishes.\n--Bread.\n--Pies.\n--Salads.\n--Main dishes.\n--Fish.\n--Desserts.\n--Drinks.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rusk",
        "text": "\"Beschuiten\" are made by first baking a flat round bread (\"beschuitbol\"), slicing it in half, and then baking each half again, usually at a lower heat. It is almost always sold in rolls; a roll typically has 13 rusks (a baker's dozen). Etymologically, \"biscotto\" (16th-century Italian), biscuit (19th century, from 16th-century \"bisket\") and \"beschuit\" come from the Latin phrase \"(panis)\" \"bis-coctus\", (bread, twice cooked)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kulich, Iran",
        "text": "Kulich (, also Romanized as K\u016bl\u012bch; also known as Kalj\u012b, Kol\u012bshg, Kolishk, and K\u016bl\u012bj) is a village in Zherizhah Rural District, in the Central District of Sarvabad County, Kurdistan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 201, in 41 families. The village is populated by Kurds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kugel",
        "text": "The first kugels were made from bread and flour and were savory rather than sweet. About 800 years ago, Jewish cooks in Germany replaced bread mixtures with lokshen noodles or farfel. Eventually eggs were incorporated. The addition of cottage cheese and milk created a custard-like consistency common in today's dessert dishes. In Poland, Jewish homemakers added raisins, cinnamon and sweet curd cheese to noodle kugel recipes. In the late 19th century, Jerusalemites combined caramelized sugar and black pepper in a noodle kugel known as the Jerusalem kugel (), which is a commonly served at Shabbat kiddushes and is a popular side dish served with cholent during Shabbat lunch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rusk",
        "text": "Rusk is called sukhary ( - a loanword from Russian via Persian) in Azerbaijani. It is usually (but not always) made from stale bread and buns. In Baku, some bakeries use their stale buns and bread for making rusks. The price of rusk in those bakeries is usually low, as the bakeries do this to avoid wasting the leftover bread and buns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet cuisine",
        "text": "Holiday meals were typically derived from old French and Russian cuisines with extensive use of heavy sauces, marinated meats, and melted cheese. Mixing ingredients and extensive cooking was common, just as in classic French cuisine. Generally, much effort was made in order to prepare such meals. Often, the richness of a holiday table was an issue of honor for the family.\n* Olivier (also known as Russian salad)\n* Herring under a fur coat\n* Kholodets\n* Vinegret (from French vinaigrette) - red beet root salad with onions, pickles, boiled potatoes, carrots, dressed with sunflower oil.\n* \"Vitaminniy salat\" (Vitamin salad) - a cabbage-based salad with seasonal vegetables like tomatoes, cucumbers, onions, carrots, etc.\n* Various pickles, such as cucumbers, tomatoes, ramsons, and mushrooms.\n* Sauerkraut mixed with carrots and served as a salad.\n* Morkovcha (also known as \"Korean carrot salad\") - a spicy carrot salad (a Koryo-saram dish).\n* Borscht - (Ukrainian)\n* Chicken noodle soup\n* Kharcho\n* Okroshka\n* Pacha - (Armenian/Azerbaijani/Georgian)\n* Pea soup\n* Rassolnik\n* Shchi - (Russian)\n* Solyanka\n* Sorrel soup\n* Ukha\n* Beef Stroganoff\n* Chicken Kiev (Russian) - a filled chicken cutlet\n* Cutlet or meat ball\n* Various kinds of dumplings, like pelmeni (Russian), vareniki (Ukrainian), or manti (Central Asian)\n* Goulash, ragout, or another kind of stew\n* Golubtsy - cabbage rolls stuffed with rice and meat and served in tomato sauce\n* Plov (Uzbek) - rice dish\n* Sausages\n* Shashlik - (Caucasus)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Khrushchev dough",
        "text": "Khrushchev dough\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of desserts",
        "text": "K\n* Kichel\n* Kleicha\n* Koloocheh and Masgati\n* Krumkake\n* Kuih semperit"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "at affluent households also mentions sausage-making, spit-roasted meats, stews and many other meat dishes."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are common Russian Breakfast foods?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Cereal porridge cooked in milk, and Blini, thin griddle cakes similar to crepes, are served for breakfast commonly. Kulich is an Easter bread blessed by a priest is eaten before breakfast each day on Easter."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How is Kulich made?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Kulich is baked in tall, cylindrical tins (like coffee or fruit juice tins). Traditionally after the Easter service, the kulich, which has been put into a basket and decorated with colorful flowers, is blessed by the priest."
    ],
    "topic": "Russian cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Kulich:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Kulich",
          "Preparation"
        ],
        "ctx": "Kulich is baked in tall, cylindrical tins (like coffee or fruit juice tins). When cooled, kulich is decorated with white icing (which slightly drizzles down the sides) and colorful flowers. Historically, it was often served with cheese paska bearing the symbol \u0425\u0412 (from the traditional Easter greeting of (, \"Christ is risen\")."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Kulich:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Kulich",
          "Preparation"
        ],
        "ctx": "Traditionally after the Easter service, the kulich, which has been put into a basket and decorated with colorful flowers, is blessed by the priest. Blessed kulich is eaten before breakfast each day. Any leftover kulich that is not blessed is eaten with paskha for dessert."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kulich is baked in tall, cylindrical tins (like coffee or fruit juice tins). When cooled, kulich is decorated with white icing (which slightly drizzles down the sides) and colorful flowers. Historically, it was often served with cheese paska bearing the symbol XB (from the traditional Easter greeting of \"\u0425\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0441 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0435\", \"Christ is Risen\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kulich is a kind of Easter bread that is traditional in the Orthodox Christian faith and is eaten in countries like Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Romania, Georgia, Moldova, North Macedonia and Serbia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Traditionally after the Easter service, the kulich, which has been put into a basket and decorated with colorful flowers, is blessed by the priest. Blessed kulich is eaten before breakfast each day. Any leftover kulich that is not blessed is eaten with Paskha for dessert."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "A minimum of vegetables is added in preparation, and in classical cooking, ukha was simply a rich fish broth served to accompany fish pies (rasstegai, kuliebiaka, etc.). These days it is more often a fish soup, cooked with potatoes and other vegetables. A wide variety of freshwater fish is traditionally used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "(from French ), a salad made of boiled beets, potatoes, carrots, pickles, onions, sauerkraut, and sometimes peas or white beans. Dressed with sunflower or olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Pelmeni are a traditional Eastern European (mainly Russian) dish usually made with minced meat filling, wrapped in thin dough (made out of flour and eggs, sometimes with milk or water added). For filling, pork, lamb, beef, or any other kind of meat can be used; mixing several kinds is popular. The traditional Ural recipe requires the filling be made with 45% of beef, 35% of lamb, and 20% of pork. Traditionally, various spices, such as pepper, onions, and garlic, are mixed into the filling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "In traditional Russian cuisine three basic variations of meat dishes can be highlighted:\n* a large boiled piece of meat cooked in a soup or porridge, and then used as the second course or served cold (particularly in jellied stock\u2014see Kholodets below)\n* offal dishes (liver, tripe, etc.), baked in pots together with cereals;\n* whole fowl dishes or parts of fowl (legs or breasts), or a large piece of meat (rump) baked on a baking tray in an oven, so-called \"zharkoye\" (from the word \"zhar\"(\u0436\u0430\u0440) meaning \"heat\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosovan cuisine",
        "text": "Typical salad ingredients include tomatoes, onion, garlic, pepper, cucumber, potato, cabbage, lettuce, carrots, and beans.\n* Potato salad\n* Tarator - a traditional salad made with cucumbers, garlic and yogurt. Very popular dish for summer.\n* Tomato and cucumber salad\n* Dried nettle salad\n* Bean salad\n* \"Shope\" salad - a simple salad made of tomato, cucumber, onions and white cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kholodets (or Studen'): Jellied chopped pieces of pork or veal meat with some spices added (pepper, parsley, garlic, bay leaf) and minor amounts of vegetables (carrots, onions). The meat is boiled in large pieces for long periods of time, then chopped, boiled a few times again and finally chilled for 3\u20134 hours (hence the name) forming a jelly mass, though gelatin is not used because calves' feet, pigs' heads and other such offal is gelatinous enough on its own. It is served with horseradish, mustard, or ground garlic with smetana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "As a garnish to meat dishes in the past the most common were porridges and cereals, in which the meat was boiled, later on boiled or rather steamed and baked root vegetables (turnips, carrots) as well as mushrooms; additionally the meat, without taking account its type, was garnished with pickled products\u2014pickled cabbage, or sour and \"soaked\" (marinated) apples (mochoniye yabloki) or cranberries. Pan juices, alone or mixed with sour cream or melted butter, were used as gravy to pour on garnishing vegetables and porridges. Meat sauces, i.e. gravies based on flour, butter, eggs and milk, are not common for traditional Russian cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kulich is only eaten between Easter and Pentecost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Cabbage, potatoes, and cold tolerant greens are common in Russian and other Eastern European cuisines. Pickling cabbage (sauerkraut), cucumbers, tomatoes and other vegetables in brine is used to preserve vegetables for winter use. Pickled apples and some other fruit also used to be widely popular. These are sources of vitamins during periods when fresh fruit and vegetables are traditionally not available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The recipe for kulich is similar to that of Italian panettone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "There is a dish in modern Russian cuisine resembling a mix of \"svekolnik\" and pickled herring: \"selyodka pod shuboi\", literally \"[fur]coated herring\", where picked herring is coated with a layer of potatoes, a layer of mayo and/or \"smetana\" sour cream, with grated beet added on top for coating (hence \"fur\"-coat\" word, \"shuba\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kruzhka",
        "text": "Several main dishes include kebabs (\"Shashlik\") or Shaurma, usually with potato fries and/or sauerkraut. Sauces like ketchup and mayonnaise are typically included free with most meals (though that is not always the case in Moscow.) Perhaps a slightly more unusual offering is \"grilled trout\" for 160 roubles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Russian cuisine\n--History.\n--Ethnic and regional variations and influences.\n--Soups.\n----Cold soups.\n----Hot soups.\n--Salads.\n--Porridge.\n--Main dishes.\n----Meat.\n----Fish.\n------Selyodka pod shuboi.\n----Vegetables.\n--Desserts and pastries.\n--Beverages.\n----Alcoholic.\n----Non-alcoholic.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "There are typically two types of vegetables in okroshka. The first must have a neutral taste, such as boiled potatoes, turnips, rutabagas, carrots, or fresh cucumbers. The second must be spicy and aromatic, like radishes or green onion as well as other herbs\u2014greens of dill, parsley, chervil, celery, or tarragon. Different meat and poultry can be used in the same soup. The most common ingredient is beef alone or with poultry. A mild bologna-like sausage is sometimes used. If it is made with fish, the best choice would be tench, European perch, pike-perch, cod, or other neutral-tasting fish. In the coastal areas smoked and/or salted salmon is preferred instead, often in combination with other meats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Porridge is one of the most important dishes in traditional Russian cuisine. Variety of cereals is based on a variety of local crops. In Russian, the word kasha refers to any kind of porridge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Soups have always played an important role in Russian cuisine. The traditional staple of soups such as shchi (), borsch (), ukha (), rassolnik (), solyanka (), botvinya (), okroshka (), and tyurya () was enlarged in the 18th to 20th centuries by both European and Central Asian staples like clear soups, pureed soups, stews, and many others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Many traditional drinks are indigenous to Russia and are not present in other national cuisines. The most notable of these are vodka, sbiten', kvass, medovukha and mors. Many of them are no longer common and have been replaced by drinks originating in Europe. Nonetheless, these beverages were formerly drunk as a complement to meat and poultry dishes, sweet porridge, and dessert. Of particular note is sbiten, an immensely popular medieval drink which has since been replaced by tea as the Russian mainstay beverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Typical rassolnik is based on kidneys, brine (and pickles), vegetables and barley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morkovcha",
        "text": "The typical ingredients are finely julienned carrots, garlic, onion, ground red pepper, ground coriander seeds, vinegar, vegetable oil, salt and pepper. It may also include sesame seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "Popular German-Russian cuisine includes \"kuchen\", a thin, cheesecake-like custard pastry often filled with fruit such as cherries, apricot, prunes, and sometimes cottage cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Russian restaurants",
        "text": "This is a list of notable Russian restaurants. Russian cuisine is a collection of the different cooking traditions of the Russian people. Russian cuisine derives its varied character from the vast and multi-cultural expanse of Russia. Moreover, it is necessary to divide Russian traditional cuisine and Soviet cuisine, which has its own peculiarity. Its foundations were laid by the peasant food of the rural population in an often harsh climate, with a combination of plentiful fish, poultry, game, mushrooms, berries, and honey. Crops of rye, wheat, barley and millet provided the ingredients for a plethora of breads, pancakes, cereals, beer and vodka. Soups and stews full of flavor are centered on seasonal or storable produce, fish and meats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The richer variant of shchi includes several ingredients, but the first and last components are a must:\n# Cabbage.\n# Meat (very rarely fish or mushrooms).\n# Carrots, basil or parsley roots.\n# Spicy herbs (onions, celery, dill, garlic, pepper, bay leaf).\n# Sour components (smetana, apples, sauerkraut, pickle water)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sobornaya Square (Rostov-on-Don)",
        "text": "The tradition of making a grand kulich continued in 2014 and 2016, when the 500\u00a0kg pudding, baked in Rostov-on-Don, was delivered, respectively, to Sevastopol and Simferopol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russia",
        "text": "Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and the vast geography of the nation; and it shares similarities with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries. Crops of rye, wheat, barley, and millet provide the ingredients for various breads, pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks. Bread, of many varieties, is very popular across Russia. Flavourful soups and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, and okroshka. Smetana (a heavy sour cream) and mayonnaise are often added to soups and salads. Pirozhki, blini, and syrniki are native types of pancakes. Beef Stroganoff, Chicken Kiev, pelmeni, and shashlyk are popular meat dishes. Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls (golubtsy) usually filled with meat. Salads include Olivier salad, vinegret, and dressed herring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Its foundations were laid by the peasant food of the rural population in an often harsh climate, with a combination of plentiful fish, pork, poultry, caviar, mushrooms, berries, and honey. Crops of rye, wheat, barley and millet provided the ingredients for a plethora of breads, pancakes, pies, cereals, beer and vodka. Soups and stews are centered on seasonal or storable produce, fish and meats. Such food remained the staple for the vast majority of Russians well into the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Borscht is made of broth, beets, and tomatoes with various vegetables, including onions, cabbage, tomato, carrots, and celery. Borscht usually includes meat, particularly beef in Russia, and pork in Ukraine. Borscht is generally served very hot, with sour cream, chopped chives or parsley, and crushed garlic. Borscht is traditionally served with black bread. Borscht is associated as national cuisine in various different Eastern European countries such as Ukraine, Poland, Belarus, and Lithuania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Most non-alcoholic Russian drinks are based on fruits and berries. Those include kompot, made by boiling fruit with sweetened water; uzvar, in which dried fruit is used instead; mors, made of berries such as lingonberry, cranberry, blueberries, or raspberries; and kisel, a viscous fruit drink thickened with cornstarch, potato starch or arrowroot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet cuisine",
        "text": "An everyday Soviet full course meal (lunch or dinner) consisted of three courses, typically referred to as \"first\", \"second\", and \"third\"; an optional salad was not numbered (in the Russian cuisine, which largely formed a base for a Soviet one, salads belong to the separate zakuski course). In a restaurant, one could eat anything one liked in any order, but in a typical canteen, especially in a workers' or students' canteen, one would normally have received what was called a \"combined lunch\" (\"kompleksny obed\"). The first course was a soup or broth, i.e., \"liquid\" food (notice the difference from the Italian cuisine, where a \"primo piatto\" could also include a pasta dish \u2014 under a Soviet approach the pasta dishes belonged to the second course). The second was some kind of \"solid\" food: meat, fish, or poultry with a side dish, called \"garnish\" (). Garnishes typically included potatoes in a variety of forms, buckwheat kasha, macaroni, etc. Bliny, baked dishes ( \"zapekanka\"), or eggs could also be served as the second course (alternatively, dishes like deviled eggs may count as zakuski too). The third was theoretically a dessert, but in the simplified canteen cooking this usually boiled down to some substantial, often sweetened drink: tea, coffee, kompot, milk, kefir, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "(or , from Russian , fur coat)), also known as \"dressed herring\", is chopped salted herring under a \"coat\" of shredded cooked beet, sometimes with a layer of egg or other vegetables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tatar cuisine",
        "text": "Main dishes are usually based on meat, grains, and potatoes. Meat or chicken boiled in the broth is cut into small pieces and served as a main course, sometimes quickly fried in oil with onions, carrots, and bell peppers. Boiled potatoes are a favorite side dish, with grated horseradish served as an accompaniment. A chicken stuffed with eggs in milk (\"tut\u0131r\u011fan taw\u0131q\") is a special dish for holidays."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Soups such as borsht were considered a staple in Russia. Soups like \"krupnik\" were made of barley, potatoes and fat. This was the staple food of the poor students of the \"yeshivot\"; in richer families, meat was added to this soup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosovan cuisine",
        "text": "Kosovan cuisine\n--Dishes.\n--Bread.\n--Pies.\n--Salads.\n--Main dishes.\n--Fish.\n--Desserts.\n--Drinks.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sm\u00f6rg\u00e5sbord",
        "text": "The fourth course is often a selection of cold sliced meats, the most important cold cut being the Christmas ham (\"julskinka\") with mustard. Other traditional cuts include smoked sausages, leverpastej, wild game cuts, smoked leg of lamb (\"f\u00e5rfiol\"), p\u00e2t\u00e9s and several types of brawn (\"sylta\"). It is also common to serve the cold meats with sliced cheese, pickled cucumbers and soft (v\u00f6rtbr\u00f6d) and crisp breads."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The kvass most commonly used in cooking is white okroshka kvass, which is much more sour than drinking kvass. Spices used include mustard, black pepper and pickled cucumber (specifically, the liquid from the pickles), solely or in combination. For the final touch, boiled eggs and smetana (similar to cr\u00e8me fra\u00eeche) are added. Often, the mustard, chopped hard-boiled yolks, pepper and pickle brine are combined into a spicy sauce that is added to the soup to taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Okroshka is a cold soup based on kvass or (less frequently) various kinds of sour milk, kefir is often preferred nowadays. Okroshka is also a salad. The main ingredients are two types of vegetables that can be mixed with cold boiled meat or fish in a 1:1 proportion. Thus vegetable, meat, poultry, and fish varieties of okroshka are made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Pirozhki (singular: pirozhok; diminutive of pirog [pie]) are small stuffed buns (pies) made of either yeast dough or short pastry. They are filled with one of many different fillings and are either baked (the ancient Slavic method) or shallow-fried (known as \"priazhenie\", this method was borrowed from the Tatars in the 13th century). One feature of pirozhki that sets them apart from, for example, English pies is that the fillings used are almost invariably fully cooked. The use of chopped hard-boiled eggs in fillings is another interesting feature. Six typical fillings for traditional pirozhki are:\n# Chopped boiled meat mixed with saut\u00e9ed onions\n# Rice and boiled eggs with dill\n# Fish saut\u00e9ed with onions and mixed with hard-boiled chopped eggs and rice\n# Mashed potatoes mixed with dill and green onion\n# Saut\u00e9ed cabbage\n# Saut\u00e9ed mushrooms with onions and sometimes carrots"
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Russia",
        "text": "Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and the vast geography of the nation; and it shares similarities with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries. Crops of rye, wheat, barley, and millet provide the ingredients for various breads, pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks. Bread, of many varieties, is very popular across Russia. Flavourful soups and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, and okroshka. Smetana (a heavy sour cream) and mayonnaise are often added to soups and salads. Pirozhki, blini, and syrniki are native types of pancakes. Beef Stroganoff, Chicken Kiev, pelmeni, and shashlyk are popular meat dishes. Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls \"(golubtsy)\" usually filled with meat. Salads include Olivier salad, vinegret, and dressed herring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Alternative approach is to add butter, salt, sugar, different jams, fresh fruit and berries for alternating the taste; in case of plain buckwheat porrige, Russians may put it into a soup plate/soup bowl and add a mugful of milk, creating a soup-like kasha (or rather, a dish close to \"cornflakes in milk\" breakfast)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Also, plain cooked porridges, especially buckwheat and rice, can be served as a side dish.\n* Canned meat, \"tushonka\", is made with buckwheat/rice \"kasha\" traditions in mind, unlike bully beef type of canned meat: while average-priced \"tushyonka\" contains a large portion of lard and jelly, this very non-meaty addition to meat can be used as a sauce for enriching rice/buckwheat kasha's taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kyrgyz cuisine",
        "text": "Kuurdak is one of the main meat dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "at affluent households also mentions sausage-making, spit-roasted meats, stews and many other meat dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Worldwide breakfast",
        "text": "Traditional Russian breakfast are concentrated on kashas, or porridges \u2013 the most important staple in Russian nutritional culture, with buckwheat and oat, as well as semolina, serving as the three most important bases of such dishes, usually cooked using water or milk, as well as consumed with or without milk. Breakfast foods also include pancakes or oladushki. Oladushki are made from flour and rise on yeast. Blini, or crepes, are also popular for breakfast and are also made with flour, but without yeast. Sirniki, is a cheese form of pancake. Sirniki are made of tvorog (quark cheese), which can be eaten separately with honey for breakfast. Also, a popular dish is buterbrod, open sandwiches with cold cuts and cheeses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Cheese paskha is a traditional Easter dish made from quark (curd cheese, ), which is white, symbolizing the purity of Christ, the Paschal Lamb, and the joy of the Resurrection. It is formed in a mould, traditionally in the shape of a truncated pyramid (a symbol of the Church; this form is also said to represent the Tomb of Christ). It is usually served as an accompaniment to a rich Easter bread called paska in Ukrainian and kulich in Russian."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet cuisine",
        "text": "Holiday meals were typically derived from old French and Russian cuisines with extensive use of heavy sauces, marinated meats, and melted cheese. Mixing ingredients and extensive cooking was common, just as in classic French cuisine. Generally, much effort was made in order to prepare such meals. Often, the richness of a holiday table was an issue of honor for the family.\n* Olivier (also known as Russian salad)\n* Herring under a fur coat\n* Kholodets\n* Vinegret (from French vinaigrette) - red beet root salad with onions, pickles, boiled potatoes, carrots, dressed with sunflower oil.\n* \"Vitaminniy salat\" (Vitamin salad) - a cabbage-based salad with seasonal vegetables like tomatoes, cucumbers, onions, carrots, etc.\n* Various pickles, such as cucumbers, tomatoes, ramsons, and mushrooms.\n* Sauerkraut mixed with carrots and served as a salad.\n* Morkovcha (also known as \"Korean carrot salad\") - a spicy carrot salad (a Koryo-saram dish).\n* Borscht - (Ukrainian)\n* Chicken noodle soup\n* Kharcho\n* Okroshka\n* Pacha - (Armenian/Azerbaijani/Georgian)\n* Pea soup\n* Rassolnik\n* Shchi - (Russian)\n* Solyanka\n* Sorrel soup\n* Ukha\n* Beef Stroganoff\n* Chicken Kiev (Russian) - a filled chicken cutlet\n* Cutlet or meat ball\n* Various kinds of dumplings, like pelmeni (Russian), vareniki (Ukrainian), or manti (Central Asian)\n* Goulash, ragout, or another kind of stew\n* Golubtsy - cabbage rolls stuffed with rice and meat and served in tomato sauce\n* Plov (Uzbek) - rice dish\n* Sausages\n* Shashlik - (Caucasus)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Traditional Russian cuisine eschews the fine cutting or grounding of meat. Thus sausagemaking, though generally known in Russia since at least 12th century, was not popular and largely started in earnest with the Petrine reforms, when a lot of Western products and practices were introduced. Traditional sausages were based on mixing meat with cereals, much like modern kishka and Polish kaszanka, while the newer purely meat varieties were made in German and Polish styles, often highly spiced and loaded with preservatives for non-refrigerated storage. One of the pre-revolutionary recipes specified as much as half pound of saltpetre per a pood of meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Russian dishes",
        "text": "This is a list of notable dishes found in Russian cuisine. Russian cuisine is a collection of the different cooking traditions of the Russian Empire. The cuisine is diverse, with Northeast European/Baltic, Caucasian, Central Asian, Siberian, East Asian and Middle Eastern influences. Russian cuisine derives its varied character from the vast and multi-ethnic expanse of Russia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kulich",
        "text": "Kulich is baked in tall, cylindrical tins (like coffee or fruit juice tins). When cooled, kulich is decorated with white icing (which slightly drizzles down the sides) and colorful flowers. Historically, it was often served with cheese paska bearing the symbol \u0425\u0412 (from the traditional Easter greeting of (, \"Christ is risen\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Serbian cuisine",
        "text": "The main course is most commonly a meat dish. Besides \"ro\u0161tilj\" (barbecue) which is very popular, braising, stewing, and roasting in an oven are the most common cooking methods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The Russian cuisine itself is also geographically diverse, its variations dependent on raw materials and cooking methods available locally. In the North of Russia, it incorporates local berries such as cloudberry or crowberry, fish such as cod, game meat such as elk, or even edible moss known as yagel. Conversely, in Siberia it includes the local fish varieties, particularly those of the coregonus genus such as arctic cisco or muksun, and borrows the local cooking methods, to result in raw fish eaten frozen or combined with spices. Further East, local specialties are added such as eagle fern, kolomikta fruit, scallops and Kamchatka crabs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pease pudding",
        "text": "Traditional Russian cuisine has several pea-based dishes, including pease pudding/puree/soups known as \"gorohovaya kasha\" () or \"goroshnitsa\" ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Since the turn of the millennium Russia issues the Individual Food Rations (Individual'nyi Ratsion Pitaniya (\"IRP\") (\u0418\u043d\u0434\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0443\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d \u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f/\u0418\u0420\u041f), a new self-contained ration, containing the whole daily food intake for an individual soldier in the field. However, in its most frequent form it is not dietary complete, and is intended only as a stop-gap measure to be issued until the normal supply lines (with their field kitchens) are established and the hot food delivery started, to be issued for no more than six days straight. Russian Ministry of defence does not strictly prescribe the contents of the ration, only some basic packaging and inventory requirements, so every producer issues their own version. Most commonly it is packaged into a sturdy plastic blister box (nicknamed \"The Frog\" in the field for its olive-green color), or plastic-sealed cardboard box that contains five to six entrees in laminated foil cans or retort pouches, four to six pack of crackers or preserved bread, two to three dessert items in form of a spread or fruit bar, four beverage concentrate pouches, some seasonings (salt, pepper, sugar, ketchup), and various sundry items like sanitizing wipes/paper towels, spoons, can opener, four hexamine fuel tablets, folding heater, matches and water purifier tablets. The types of entrees vary with the producer and the issued menu (of which there are usually 7 to 12), but the common set is based on a traditional Russian outdoorsmen fare, is largely formed out of the commercially available canned food, and usually includes 1 portion of stewed beef or pork, two meat-with-vegetables dishes, like various porridges, stews or canned fish, and one or two spreads, such as liver p\u00e2t\u00e9, sausage stuffing or processed cheese. Desserts may include fruit jams, chocolate and/or walnut spreads, chocolate bars, sweetened condensed milk, etc., but baked goods are usually avoided out of concerns about their shelf life. Other variants may add canned speck and/or dried fish or exchange the hexamine tablets for the flameless heater."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Easter bread (kulic'aaq from Russian kul\u00edch) Russian Orthodox Easter bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kislye\" (sour) schi are made from pickled cabbage (sauerkraut), \"serye\" (grey) schi from the green outer leaves of the cabbage head. \"Zelyonye\" (green) schi are made from sorrel leaves, not cabbage, and used to be a popular summer soup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Svyokolnik (also known as Kholodnik) is a cold borscht. It consists of beet sour or beet juice blended with sour cream, buttermilk, soured milk, kefir or yogurt. The mixture has a distinctive orange or pink color. It is served chilled, typically over finely chopped beetroot, cucumbers, radishes and spring onion, together with halved hard-boiled eggs and sprinkled with fresh dill. Chopped veal, ham, or crawfish tails may be added as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asian cuisine",
        "text": "Pelmeni, originally a Permic or Ugric dish, has entered into mainstream Russian cuisine as a well-known dish, but it can still be considered part of the Yamal cuisine for its area of origin. Some speculate them to be a simplified version of the Chinese wonton. In Siberia, pelmeni is frozen outdoors to preserve the meat inside throughout the long winter. In Yamal, other types of drying and preservation are common. Key ingredients in most northern Siberian cuisine include fish and cowberries, sometimes known as lingonberries in Europe and North America. Yakuts, like many other Turkic-speaking peoples, traditionally enjoy kumis as a common drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dacha",
        "text": "The most common dacha fruits in cool temperate regions of Russia are apple, blackcurrant, redcurrant, gooseberry, raspberry and strawberry (sometimes also sour cherry, downy cherry, rose hips, plum, bird cherry, pear, sea-buckthorn, \"Actinidia kolomikta\", black chokeberry, serviceberry, barberry, sweetberry honeysuckle, blackberry and grape, but many of them are either rare or not hardy enough and require winter protection). Popular vegetables and herbs are potato, cucumber, zucchini, pumpkin, tomato, carrot, red bell peppers (capsicum), beetroot, cabbage, cauliflower, radish, turnip, onion, garlic, dill, parsley, rhubarb, sorrel, papaver, earth apple, horseradish and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter food",
        "text": "In Russia, red eggs, kulich and paskha are Easter traditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uzbekistan",
        "text": "Other notable national dishes include shurpa (\"shurva\" or \"shorva\"), a soup made of large pieces of fatty meat (usually mutton), and fresh vegetables; norin and laghman, noodle-based dishes that may be served as a soup or a main course; manti, chuchvara, and somsa, stuffed pockets of dough served as an appetizer or a main course; dimlama, a meat and vegetable stew; and various kebabs, usually served as a main course."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Shchi (cabbage soup) had been the predominant first course in Russian cuisine for over a thousand years. Although tastes have changed, it steadily made its way through several kitchen dwellers. Shchi knew no social class boundaries, and even if the rich had richer ingredients and the poor made it solely of cabbage and onions, all these \"poor\" and \"rich\" variations were cooked in the same tradition. The unique taste of this cabbage soup was from the fact that after cooking it was left to draw (stew) in a Russian stove. The \"Spirit of shchi\" was inseparable from a Russian izba (log hut). Many Russian proverbs are connected to this soup, such as (, \"Shchi and porridge are our staples\"). It can be eaten regularly, and at any time of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Russian soups can be divided into at least seven large groups:\n* Chilled soups based on kvass, such as tyurya, okroshka, and botvinya.\n* Light soups and stews based on water and vegetables, such as svekolnik.\n* Noodle soups with meat, mushrooms, or milk.\n* Soups based on cabbage, most prominently shchi.\n* Thick soups based on meat broth, with a salty-sour base like rassolnik and solyanka.\n* Fish soups such as ukha.\n* Grain- and vegetable-based soups."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional street food",
        "text": "The cuisine of Russia's Turkic minorities is popular, with dishes like chebureki, shashlik, shawerma, tandoor bread, and plov (pilaf)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet cuisine",
        "text": "Soviet cuisine\n--Approach.\n--Typical dishes.\n----Third course.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vinegret",
        "text": "Vinegret () or Russian vinaigrette is a salad in Russian cuisine which is also popular in other post-Soviet states. This type of food includes diced cooked vegetables (red beets, potatoes, carrots), chopped onions, as well as sauerkraut and/or brined pickles. Other ingredients, such as green peas or beans, are sometimes also added. The naming comes from vinaigrette, which is used as a dressing. However, in spite of the name, vinegar is often omitted in modern cooking, and sunflower or other vegetable oil is just used. Some cooks add the brine from the pickled cucumbers or sauerkraut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "\"Fleischkuekle\" (or \"fleischkuechle\") is a popular meat-filled thin flatbread that is deep-fried and served hot. Another German-Russian specialty in the area is \"knoephla\", a dumpling soup that almost always includes potatoes, and to a lesser extent, celery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eliseyev Emporium (Saint Petersburg)",
        "text": "The shop is now called Kupetz Eliseevs Food Hall and under its current management it has been restored to its former glory to the finest of details. The food hall preserves the original 7 departments, including 33 meters of display counters of loose produce and exquisite delicacies varying from modern French patisserie, bakery, cheese, charcuterie, smoked salmon, caviar wines & spirits and tea & coffee. The largest display is dedicated to confectionery and home-made patisserie including classic macaroons. To complement the fresh food displays, 12 mobile etageres hold over 3,000 varieties of exclusive products. Each department is beautifully decorated with gilded stucco ceilings and glitzy chandeliers and many of the original features and equipment used in its golden era!"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rusk",
        "text": "The Russian version is called \"sukhar' \" (Cyrillic: \u0441\u0443\u0445\u0430\u0440\u044c) from \"\u0441\u0443\u0445\u043e\u0439\" - \"dry\". They are either baked a second time from sweet challah-like bread, sliced in biscotti fashion or made of leftover stale bread, cut into small cubes and air-dried or baked at a very low temperature. The first one is like a cookie, which can be served with milk, kefir, tea, coffee or cacao. The second one is usually added to soup, clear or otherwise, softening up from absorbed liquids and accompanying it instead of bread. It became a tradition to avoid wasting leftover bread that always was a staple in Russian cuisine. There is much folklore about bread in the Russian language, paying respect to this grain food that is one of the cornerstones of Slavic nations' life and history. Rye bread rusks are the major ingredient in making of the Russian Kvass, a traditional fermented beverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borscht",
        "text": "Many regional recipes for borscht have also developed in Russian cuisine. Examples include the Moscow borscht, served with pieces of beef, ham and Vienna sausages; Siberian borscht with meatballs; and Pskov borscht with dried smelt from the local lakes. Other unique Russian variants include a monastic Lenten borscht with marinated kelp instead of cabbage and the Russian Navy borscht (\"), the defining characteristic of which is that the vegetables are cut into square or diamond-shaped chunks rather than julienned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The Russian people have become skilled in different techniques for the preparation of a wide variety of whole-grain cereals. The most popular cereals are buckwheat, millet, semolina, oats, barley, and rice. Traditionally, such cereal porrige is cooked in milk, especially if it is cooked to be served for breakfast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Olivier salad (also known as Russian salad), a mayonnaise-based potato salad distinguished by its diced texture and the contrasting flavors of pickles, hard-boiled eggs, boiled carrots, boiled potatoes, meat, and peas. This dish is one of the main New Year buffets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Beef Stroganoff: Saut\u00e9ed pieces of beef served in a sauce with smetana (sour cream). From its origins in mid-19th-century Russia, it has become popular around the world, with considerable variation from the original recipe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosovan cuisine",
        "text": "Bread, dairy, meat, fruits and vegetables are important staples in Kosovan cuisine. With diversity of recipes, the Kosovan daily cuisine adjusts well to the country's occasional hot summers and the frequent long winters. As a result of its continental climate, fresh vegetables are consumed in summer while pickles throughout autumn and winter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Khrenovina sauce",
        "text": "Khrenovina sauce (Russian: \u0445\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0430) is a spicy horseradish sauce served with a main course, popular in Siberia. It is prepared by blending fresh tomatoes, horseradish, garlic and salt. Ground black pepper, ground paprika, sweet bell pepper, vinegar, and sugar may also be added. It may be served with traditional Russian meat dishes, including pelmeni."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Rassolnik is a hot soup in a salty-sour cucumber base. This dish formed in Russian cuisine quite late\u2014only in the 19th century. About this time the name rassolnik was attached to it, originating from the Russian word \"rassol\" which means \"brine\" (pickle water). Pickle water was known to be used as a base for soups from the 15th century at the latest. Its concentration and ratio with other liquids and soup components gave birth to different soups: solyanka, shchi, and of course rassolnik. The latest is moderately sour-salty soups on pickled cucumber base. Some are vegetarian, but more often with products like veal or beef kidneys or all poultry giblets (stomach, liver, heart, neck, feet). For best taste, there has to be a balance between the sour part and neutral absorbers (cereals, potatoes, root vegetables)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The history of Russian cuisine was divided in four groups: Old Russian cuisine (ninth to sixteenth century), Old Moscow cuisine (seventeenth century), the cuisine that existed during the ruling of Peter and Catherine Great (eighteenth century), and finally Petersburg cuisine, which took place from the end of the eighteenth century to the 1860s. In the Old Russian period, the main food groups were bread, lots of grains, and lots of foods that contained starch. Women baked pies with lots of different fillings, such as mushrooms or berries. During gatherings, a loaf of bread and salt was always present. Kasha, such as buckwheat, oats, etc.were represented as wellbeing to the household. Lots of Russians used honey and berries and made them into gingerbread, which to this day is a popular Russian dessert. Lots of current Russian cuisines were inspired from Asian cultures, such as pelmeni. In the seventeenth century, cuisine was separated based on economical class. The rich had meat and delicacies, such as caviar, while the poor had the most simple dishes. During this century, more food appeared, because new countries were annexed. During the Peter and Catherine the Great era, minced meat was incorporated into dishes and other European country's cuisine was also mixed into Russian foods. In the last era(Petersburg Cuisine) lots of French, German, Dutch, and Italian meals were incorporated into Russian foods, such as lamb and pork. The French popularized potatoes and tomatoes in dishes. Due to the long lasting cold weather in Russia, many dishes were made to be preserved, so they wouldn't have to take extra trips in the freezing snowy days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Botvinya is another type of cold soup. The name of the soup comes from the Russian word \"botva\", which means \"leafy tops of root vegetables\", and, true to its name, it is made with the leafy tops of young beets, sorrel, scallions, dill, cucumbers, and two types of kvass. Mustard, garlic, and horseradish are then added for flavor. The vegetables are blanched, then rubbed through a sieve and kvass is poured over."
      },
      {
        "title": "Do\u011frug\u00f6z",
        "text": "Most of the town's agricultural area is composed of fruit orchards. The most important crops are cherries and sour cherries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet cuisine",
        "text": "Usually served in a glass in common diners of \"obshchepit\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Turkmen cuisine",
        "text": "Chegdermeh, a mixture of rice, meat, tomato and onions, is a uniquely Turkmen dish. Shashlyk, skewered chunks of mutton, lamb, chicken, or sometimes fish, grilled over charcoal and garnished with raw sliced onion and a special vinegar-based sauce, is served in restaurants and often sold in the street. Restaurants in Turkmenistan serve mainly Russian fare such as pelmeni, buckwheat (\"grechka\"), golubtsy, and a wide variety of mayonnaise-based salads. Lagman, an Uyghur noodle dish, can also be found in some areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christmas in Russia",
        "text": "Principal dishes on the Christmas table in old Russia included a variety of pork (roasted pig), stuffed pig's head, roasted meat chunks, jelly (kholodets), and aspic. Christmas dinner also included many other meats: goose with apples, sour cream hare, venison, lamb, whole fish, etc. The abundance of fried and baked meats, whole baked chicken, and fish on the festive table was associated with features of the Russian oven, which allowed successful preparation of large portions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mennonite cuisine",
        "text": "Russian Mennonite cuisine combines features of various countries due to the history of migrations and most dishes would generally fall under the umbrella of Polish, Ukrainian and Russian cuisine. Common ingredients in Russian Mennonite dishes include cabbage, potatoes, sausage, and a range of dairy products. One common dish is zwieback, which is roasted and dried to become two-layered white buns. Zwieback can be stored for several months and was the main food eaten during Mennonite migrations. Other common dishes for Russian Mennonites include cottage cheese vereniki (a kind of pierogi or dumpling), chicken soup made with star anise, green bean soup, sunflower seeds or \"zoat\", a sweet fried pastry called roll kuchen, cold plum soup called plumemoos, pork cracklings or jreewe, perishki, dill pickles, komst borscht (cabbage soup), rice pudding, noodles known as kjiekle, a white cream gravy called schmaundt fat, waffles with a sweet white vanilla sauce, a fried sweet dumpling called New Year's Cookies, a sweet bread served at Easter called paska, and smoked pork sausage, commonly called Mennonite farmer sausage or formavorscht. Mennonite-style cheese is also famous worldwide. Queso Chihuahua or queso Chester are produced by Mennonites in northern Mexico and Bothwell Cheese is created by Mennonites in Manitoba, Canada. Mennonites also brought yerba mate with them from Paraguay to Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Okroshka",
        "text": "The classic soup is a mix of mostly raw vegetables (like cucumbers, radishes and spring onions), boiled potatoes, eggs, and a cooked meat such as beef, veal, sausages, or ham with kvass, which is a non-alcoholic (1.5% or less) beverage made from fermented black or rye bread. Okroshka is usually garnished with sour cream (smetana). Later versions that first appeared in Soviet times use light or diluted kefir, whey, ayran, or mineral water instead of kvass."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uzbek cuisine",
        "text": "Other notable national dishes include: shurpa (\"shurva\" or \"shorva\"), a soup made of large pieces of fatty meat (usually mutton) and fresh vegetables; norin and lagman, noodle-based dishes that may be served as a soup or a main course; manti (also called \"qasqoni\"), chuchvara, and somsa, stuffed pockets of dough served as an appetizer or a main course; dimlama (a meat and vegetable stew) and various kebabs, usually served as a main course."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet cuisine",
        "text": "Green vegetables and salads were seasonal, and with some exceptions (like sauerkraut-based ones, as sauerkraut was available year-round) uncommon at the table. Spices were rarely used, aside from moderate amounts of mustard and black pepper, and food had a generally mild taste. There were no differences between breakfast, lunch, and dinner meals. Lunch was always consumed with a soup as a first course. A tradition of a \"fish day\" on Thursdays, when fish or other seafood was consumed instead of meat, was started in State-run canteens and cafeterias to alleviate a shortage of meat, but nevertheless filtered to many private households. The common approach, which still somewhat holds today in Russia is: eat a lot at each meal, few times a day. Eat nothing between meals \u2013 the reason for this was that the State-run eateries in the Soviet time was largely under the control of doctors, and the medical wisdom at the time was that snacking between major meals would ruin the appetite (especially for children) and will lead to indigestion and intestinal distress. A typical lunch meal could consist of chicken-broth-based soup or borscht for a first course and fried meatballs or goulash served with boiled potatoes or buckwheat porridge as a main course. Butter or sour cream was typically used as a sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Meat or Flesh (\"kemek\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"kemeg\" in Cup'ig) is primary main food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukha",
        "text": "Ukha () is a clear Russian soup, made from various types of fish such as bream, wels catfish, northern pike, or even ruffe. It usually contains root vegetables, parsley root, leek, potato, bay leaf, dill, tarragon, and green parsley, and is spiced with black pepper, saffron, nutmeg, and fennel seed. Fish such as perch, tench, sheatfish, and burbot are sometimes used to add flavour to the soup. The roots of the soup originated in the culture of the Russian Cossack steppe riders and the soup is mostly associated in Russia with the Don region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosovan cuisine",
        "text": "Common dishes include pies, flija, stuffed peppers, legume, sarma, kebab/qebapa etc. Notwithstanding, the cuisine varies slightly between different regions of the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter cake",
        "text": "In Russia \"kulich\" is baked on Holy Thursday. Holy Saturday is strictly a fast day; nothing is eaten and there is a church service at midnight and Easter Mass at dawn. The \"kulich\" is blessed and it is taken home and eaten with \"paskha\" and other foods for a big breakfast with the family. According to Alan Davidson it is \"the most famous Russian Easter bread.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kal'ya was a very common dish first served in the 16th\u201317th centuries. Subsequently, it almost completely disappeared from Russian cuisine. Often it was incorrectly called \"fish rassolnik\". The cooking technique is mostly the same as of ukha, but to the broth were added pickled cucumbers, pickle water, lemons and lemon juice, either separately or all together. The main characteristic of kal'ya is that only fat, rich fish was used; sometimes caviar was added along with the fish. More spices are added, and the soup turns out more piquant and thicker than ukha. Formerly kal'ya was considered a festivity dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Armenian cuisine",
        "text": "Soups of Russian heritage include borscht, a beet root soup with meat and vegetables (served hot in Armenia, with fresh sour cream) and okroshka, a matzoon or kefir based soup with chopped cucumber, green onion, and garlic.\n* \"Arganak\" ( \"arganak\") \u2013 chicken soup with small meatballs, garnished before serving with beaten egg yolks, lemon juice, and parsley.\n* \"Blghourapour\" ( \"bl\u0121urapur\") \u2013 a sweet soup made of hulled wheat cooked in grape juice; served hot or cold.\n* \"Bozbash\" ( \"bozba\u0161\") \u2013 a mutton or lamb soup that exists in several regional varieties with the addition of different vegetables and fruits.\n* \"Brndzapour\" ( \"brndzapur\") \u2013 rice and potato soup, garnished with coriander.\n* \"Dzavarapour\" ( \"dzavarapur\") \u2013 hulled wheat, potatoes, tomato pur\u00e9e; egg yolks diluted with water are stirred into the soup before serving.\n* \"Flol\" \u2013 beef soup with coarsely chopped spinach leaves and cherry-sized dumplings () made from oatmeal or wheat flour.\n* Harissa ( \"harisa\", also known as \u0573\u056b\u057f\u0561\u057a\u0578\u0582\u0580) \u2013 porridge of coarsely ground wheat with pieces of boned chicken\n* \"Katnapour\" ( \"kat\u2019napur\") \u2013 a milk-based rice soup, sweetened with sugar.\n* \"Katnov\" ( \"kat\u2019nov\") \u2013 a milk-based rice soup with cinnamon and sugar.\n* \"Kololak\" ( \"kololak\") \u2013 soup cooked from mutton bones with ground mutton dumplings, rice, and fresh tarragon garnish; a beaten egg is stirred into the soup before serving.\n* \"Krchik\" ( \"k\u1e59\u010dik\") \u2013 soup made from sauerkraut, pickled cabbage, hulled wheat, potatoes, and tomato pur\u00e9e.\n* \"Mantapour\" ( \"mant\u02bfapur\") \u2013 beef soup with manti; the manti are typically served with matzoon or sour cream (\"ttvaser\"), accompanied by clear soup.\n* Matsnaprtosh ( \"matsnaprt'o\u0161\") - this is the same as okroshka, referenced earlier, with sour clotted milk diluted with cold water, with less vegetation than okroshka itself. Matsnaprtosh is served cold as a refreshment and supposedly normalizes blood pressure.\n* \"Putuk\" ( \"putuk\") \u2013 mutton cut into pieces, dried peas, potatoes, leeks, and tomato pur\u00e9e, cooked and served in individual crocks.\n* \"Sarnapour\" ( \"sa\u1e59napur\") \u2013 pea soup with rice, beets and matzoon.\n* \"Snkapur\" ( \"snkapur\") \u2013 a mushroom soup.\n* Tarkhana ( \"t\u2019arxana\") \u2013 flour and matzoon soup\n* \"Vospapour\" ( \"ospapur\") \u2013 lentil soup with dried fruits and ground walnuts.\n* \"Pekhapour\" (mustache soup) \u2013 chick peas, shelled wheat (\u056e\u0565\u056e\u0561\u056e), lentils, in a vegetarian broth and fresh tarragon. This soup originates from Aintab."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ulupamir",
        "text": "The traditional foods include manti stuffed with Five Fingers, Kyrgyz rice, bread and meat, different types of meat and cheese b\u00f6rek and various types of doughy food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Azerbaijani cuisine",
        "text": "The typical Azerbaijani meal involves three courses. One of the most highly esteemed dishes of Azerbaijani cuisine is plov prepared with saffron-covered rice, served with various herbs and greens, a combination distinct from those found in Uzbek plovs. Other second courses include a variety of kebabs and shashlik, including lamb, beef, chicken, duck and fish (\"baliq\") kebabs. Sturgeon, a common fish, is normally skewered and grilled as a shashlik, served with a tart pomegranate sauce called \"narsharab\". Dried fruits and walnuts are used in many dishes. The traditional condiments are salt, black pepper, sumac, and especially saffron, which is grown on the Absheron Peninsula domestically. The third courses include soups, of which there are more than 30 types. These include kufta bozbash, piti prepared of meat and dovga, ovdukh, dogramach, bolva prepared of greens and yoghurt. Some soups are served in national or interesting and unusually-shaped bowls."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of English words of Russian origin",
        "text": "Rassolnik (Russian: \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a), is a hot soup in a salty-sour cucumber base. This dish formed in Russian cuisine quite late\u2014only in the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of English words of Russian origin",
        "text": "Ukha (Russian: \u0423\u0445\u0430), is a clear Russian soup, made from various types of fish such as bream, wels catfish, northern pike, or even ruffe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Various minced meat dishes were adopted from other cuisines and became popular only in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries; for traditional Russian cuisine, they are not typical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Vatrushka is a kind of cake with a ring of dough and tvorog (cottage cheese) in the middle, often with raisins or bits of fruit, from about five inches to two and a half feet in diameter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Uzbekistan",
        "text": "Uzbekistan's signature dish is palov (\"plov\" or \"osh\"), a main course typically made with rice, pieces of meat, and grated carrots and onions. \"Oshi Nahor\", or \"Morning Plov\", is served in the early morning (between 6 and 9 am) to large gatherings of guests, typically as part of an ongoing wedding celebration. Other notable national dishes include: shurpa (\"shurva\" or \"shorva\"), a soup made of large pieces of fatty meat (usually mutton) and vegetables; norin and lagman, noodle-based dishes that may be served as a soup or a main course; manti, chuchvara, and somsa, stuffed pockets of dough served as an appetizer or a main course; dimlama (a meat and vegetable stew) and various kebabs, usually served as a main course."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rugova (region)",
        "text": "Traditional foods that continue to be prepared include flia, leqeniku (cornbread), sh\u00ebllira, maza e zier and cheese produced by traditional methods by local farmers."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are common Russian Breakfast foods?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Cereal porridge cooked in milk, and Blini, thin griddle cakes similar to crepes, are served for breakfast commonly. Kulich is an Easter bread blessed by a priest is eaten before breakfast each day on Easter."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How is Kulich made?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Kulich is baked in tall, cylindrical tins (like coffee or fruit juice tins). Traditionally after the Easter service, the kulich, which has been put into a basket and decorated with colorful flowers, is blessed by the priest."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is a typical Russian main course?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Would you like to know about meat dishes, fish dishes, or vegetables?",
      "There are many! Would you like to know more about pelmeni, Kotley, Beef Stroganoff, Shashlyk or some other main dish?"
    ],
    "topic": "Russian cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Russian cuisine:40",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Russian cuisine",
          "Main dishes",
          "Meat"
        ],
        "ctx": "In traditional Russian cuisine three basic variations of meat dishes can be highlighted:\n* a large boiled piece of meat cooked in a soup or porridge, and then used as the second course or served cold (particularly in jellied stock\u2014see Kholodets below)\n* offal dishes (liver, tripe, etc.), baked in pots together with cereals;\n* whole fowl dishes or parts of fowl (legs or breasts), or a large piece of meat (rump) baked on a baking tray in an oven, so-called \"zharkoye\" (from the word \"zhar\"(\u0436\u0430\u0440) meaning \"heat\")"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Russian cuisine:52",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Russian cuisine",
          "Main dishes",
          "Fish"
        ],
        "ctx": "Fish was important in pre-revolutionary cuisine, especially on Russian Orthodox fast days when meat was forbidden, similar to the Catholic custom of eating fish instead of meat on Fridays. Strictly freshwater fish such as carp and sudak (Sander lucioperca, Zander) were commonly eaten in inland areas, as well as anadromous sturgeon and in northern areas salmon, pike and trout. A greater variety of fish\u2014including saltwater species\u2014were preserved by salting, pickling or smoking and consumed as \"zakuski\" (hors d'oeuvres)."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Russian cuisine:54",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Russian cuisine",
          "Main dishes",
          "Vegetables"
        ],
        "ctx": "Cabbage, potatoes, and cold tolerant greens are common in Russian and other Eastern European cuisines. Pickling cabbage (sauerkraut), cucumbers, tomatoes and other vegetables in brine is used to preserve vegetables for winter use. Pickled apples and some other fruit also used to be widely popular. These are sources of vitamins during periods when fresh fruit and vegetables are traditionally not available."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Russian cuisine:43",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Russian cuisine",
          "Main dishes",
          "Meat"
        ],
        "ctx": "Pelmeni are a traditional Eastern European (mainly Russian) dish usually made with minced meat filling, wrapped in thin dough (made out of flour and eggs, sometimes with milk or water added). For filling, pork, lamb, beef, or any other kind of meat can be used; mixing several kinds is popular. The traditional Ural recipe requires the filling be made with 45% of beef, 35% of lamb, and 20% of pork. Traditionally, various spices, such as pepper, onions, and garlic, are mixed into the filling."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Russian cuisine:48",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Russian cuisine",
          "Main dishes",
          "Meat"
        ],
        "ctx": "Kotlety (minced cutlets), are pan-fried cutlet-shaped patties, not dissimilar from Salisbury steak and other such dishes. Kotlety are made from pork and beef, or from chicken, sometimes also from fish. In common recipes, ground meat, pork, onions and bread are put in a bowl and mixed thoroughly until it becomes relatively consistent. Once this effect is achieved, patties are formed and then put into a hot frying pan to cook. Pozharsky cutlet is a more elaborated version which was adopted by French haute cuisine."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Russian cuisine:49",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Russian cuisine",
          "Main dishes",
          "Meat"
        ],
        "ctx": "Beef Stroganoff: Saut\u00e9ed pieces of beef served in a sauce with smetana (sour cream). From its origins in mid-19th-century Russia, it has become popular around the world, with considerable variation from the original recipe."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Russian cuisine:50",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Russian cuisine",
          "Main dishes",
          "Meat"
        ],
        "ctx": "Shashlyk is a form of Shish kebab (marinated meat grilled on a skewer) popular in former Soviet Union countries, notably in Georgia, Russia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Uzbekistan. It often features alternating slices of meat and onions. Even though the word \"shashlyk\" was apparently borrowed from the Crimean Tatars by the Cossacks as early as the 18th century, kebabs did not reach Moscow until the late 19th century, according to Vladimir Gilyarovsky's \"Moscow and Moscovites\". From then on, their popularity spread rapidly; by the 1910s they were a staple in St Petersburg restaurants and by the 1920s they were already a pervasive street food all over urban Russia. Shashlik is also used in Russia as a food to be cooked in an outdoor environment, similarly to barbecue in English-speaking countries."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "In traditional Russian cuisine three basic variations of meat dishes can be highlighted:\n* a large boiled piece of meat cooked in a soup or porridge, and then used as the second course or served cold (particularly in jellied stock\u2014see Kholodets below)\n* offal dishes (liver, tripe, etc.), baked in pots together with cereals;\n* whole fowl dishes or parts of fowl (legs or breasts), or a large piece of meat (rump) baked on a baking tray in an oven, so-called \"zharkoye\" (from the word \"zhar\"(\u0436\u0430\u0440) meaning \"heat\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Russian cuisine\n--History.\n--Ethnic and regional variations and influences.\n--Soups.\n----Cold soups.\n----Hot soups.\n--Salads.\n--Porridge.\n--Main dishes.\n----Meat.\n----Fish.\n------Selyodka pod shuboi.\n----Vegetables.\n--Desserts and pastries.\n--Beverages.\n----Alcoholic.\n----Non-alcoholic.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "A minimum of vegetables is added in preparation, and in classical cooking, ukha was simply a rich fish broth served to accompany fish pies (rasstegai, kuliebiaka, etc.). These days it is more often a fish soup, cooked with potatoes and other vegetables. A wide variety of freshwater fish is traditionally used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "(from French ), a salad made of boiled beets, potatoes, carrots, pickles, onions, sauerkraut, and sometimes peas or white beans. Dressed with sunflower or olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "at affluent households also mentions sausage-making, spit-roasted meats, stews and many other meat dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "As a garnish to meat dishes in the past the most common were porridges and cereals, in which the meat was boiled, later on boiled or rather steamed and baked root vegetables (turnips, carrots) as well as mushrooms; additionally the meat, without taking account its type, was garnished with pickled products\u2014pickled cabbage, or sour and \"soaked\" (marinated) apples (mochoniye yabloki) or cranberries. Pan juices, alone or mixed with sour cream or melted butter, were used as gravy to pour on garnishing vegetables and porridges. Meat sauces, i.e. gravies based on flour, butter, eggs and milk, are not common for traditional Russian cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Russian dishes",
        "text": "This is a list of notable dishes found in Russian cuisine. Russian cuisine is a collection of the different cooking traditions of the Russian Empire. The cuisine is diverse, with Northeast European/Baltic, Caucasian, Central Asian, Siberian, East Asian and Middle Eastern influences. Russian cuisine derives its varied character from the vast and multi-ethnic expanse of Russia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Various minced meat dishes were adopted from other cuisines and became popular only in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries; for traditional Russian cuisine, they are not typical."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Russian restaurants",
        "text": "This is a list of notable Russian restaurants. Russian cuisine is a collection of the different cooking traditions of the Russian people. Russian cuisine derives its varied character from the vast and multi-cultural expanse of Russia. Moreover, it is necessary to divide Russian traditional cuisine and Soviet cuisine, which has its own peculiarity. Its foundations were laid by the peasant food of the rural population in an often harsh climate, with a combination of plentiful fish, poultry, game, mushrooms, berries, and honey. Crops of rye, wheat, barley and millet provided the ingredients for a plethora of breads, pancakes, cereals, beer and vodka. Soups and stews full of flavor are centered on seasonal or storable produce, fish and meats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kholodets (or Studen'): Jellied chopped pieces of pork or veal meat with some spices added (pepper, parsley, garlic, bay leaf) and minor amounts of vegetables (carrots, onions). The meat is boiled in large pieces for long periods of time, then chopped, boiled a few times again and finally chilled for 3\u20134 hours (hence the name) forming a jelly mass, though gelatin is not used because calves' feet, pigs' heads and other such offal is gelatinous enough on its own. It is served with horseradish, mustard, or ground garlic with smetana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The Russian cuisine itself is also geographically diverse, its variations dependent on raw materials and cooking methods available locally. In the North of Russia, it incorporates local berries such as cloudberry or crowberry, fish such as cod, game meat such as elk, or even edible moss known as yagel. Conversely, in Siberia it includes the local fish varieties, particularly those of the coregonus genus such as arctic cisco or muksun, and borrows the local cooking methods, to result in raw fish eaten frozen or combined with spices. Further East, local specialties are added such as eagle fern, kolomikta fruit, scallops and Kamchatka crabs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Russian cuisine is a collection of the different dishes and cooking traditions of the Russian people as well as a list of culinary products popular in Russia, with most names being known since pre-Soviet times, coming from all kinds of social circles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russia",
        "text": "Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and the vast geography of the nation; and it shares similarities with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries. Crops of rye, wheat, barley, and millet provide the ingredients for various breads, pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks. Bread, of many varieties, is very popular across Russia. Flavourful soups and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, and okroshka. Smetana (a heavy sour cream) and mayonnaise are often added to soups and salads. Pirozhki, blini, and syrniki are native types of pancakes. Beef Stroganoff, Chicken Kiev, pelmeni, and shashlyk are popular meat dishes. Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls (golubtsy) usually filled with meat. Salads include Olivier salad, vinegret, and dressed herring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Its foundations were laid by the peasant food of the rural population in an often harsh climate, with a combination of plentiful fish, pork, poultry, caviar, mushrooms, berries, and honey. Crops of rye, wheat, barley and millet provided the ingredients for a plethora of breads, pancakes, pies, cereals, beer and vodka. Soups and stews are centered on seasonal or storable produce, fish and meats. Such food remained the staple for the vast majority of Russians well into the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Cabbage, potatoes, and cold tolerant greens are common in Russian and other Eastern European cuisines. Pickling cabbage (sauerkraut), cucumbers, tomatoes and other vegetables in brine is used to preserve vegetables for winter use. Pickled apples and some other fruit also used to be widely popular. These are sources of vitamins during periods when fresh fruit and vegetables are traditionally not available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Porridge is one of the most important dishes in traditional Russian cuisine. Variety of cereals is based on a variety of local crops. In Russian, the word kasha refers to any kind of porridge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet cuisine",
        "text": "Soviet cuisine\n--Approach.\n--Typical dishes.\n----Third course.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Russian dishes",
        "text": "List of Russian dishes\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The 16th through 18th centuries brought more refined culinary techniques. It was during this time period that smoked meats and fish, pastry cooking, salads and green vegetables, chocolate, ice cream, wines, and juice were imported from abroad. At least for the urban aristocracy and provincial gentry, this opened the doors for the creative integration of these new foodstuffs with traditional Russian dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Alternative approach is to add butter, salt, sugar, different jams, fresh fruit and berries for alternating the taste; in case of plain buckwheat porrige, Russians may put it into a soup plate/soup bowl and add a mugful of milk, creating a soup-like kasha (or rather, a dish close to \"cornflakes in milk\" breakfast)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Russia",
        "text": "Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and the vast geography of the nation; and it shares similarities with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries. Crops of rye, wheat, barley, and millet provide the ingredients for various breads, pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks. Bread, of many varieties, is very popular across Russia. Flavourful soups and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, and okroshka. Smetana (a heavy sour cream) and mayonnaise are often added to soups and salads. Pirozhki, blini, and syrniki are native types of pancakes. Beef Stroganoff, Chicken Kiev, pelmeni, and shashlyk are popular meat dishes. Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls \"(golubtsy)\" usually filled with meat. Salads include Olivier salad, vinegret, and dressed herring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Very popular New Year dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Beef Stroganoff: Saut\u00e9ed pieces of beef served in a sauce with smetana (sour cream). From its origins in mid-19th-century Russia, it has become popular around the world, with considerable variation from the original recipe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet cuisine",
        "text": "An everyday Soviet full course meal (lunch or dinner) consisted of three courses, typically referred to as \"first\", \"second\", and \"third\"; an optional salad was not numbered (in the Russian cuisine, which largely formed a base for a Soviet one, salads belong to the separate zakuski course). In a restaurant, one could eat anything one liked in any order, but in a typical canteen, especially in a workers' or students' canteen, one would normally have received what was called a \"combined lunch\" (\"kompleksny obed\"). The first course was a soup or broth, i.e., \"liquid\" food (notice the difference from the Italian cuisine, where a \"primo piatto\" could also include a pasta dish \u2014 under a Soviet approach the pasta dishes belonged to the second course). The second was some kind of \"solid\" food: meat, fish, or poultry with a side dish, called \"garnish\" (). Garnishes typically included potatoes in a variety of forms, buckwheat kasha, macaroni, etc. Bliny, baked dishes ( \"zapekanka\"), or eggs could also be served as the second course (alternatively, dishes like deviled eggs may count as zakuski too). The third was theoretically a dessert, but in the simplified canteen cooking this usually boiled down to some substantial, often sweetened drink: tea, coffee, kompot, milk, kefir, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Despite such deep mutual influence, many national cuisines within the borders of the Russian Federation maintain their uniqueness, and thus have their own separate articles dedicated to them, such as Tatar cuisine, Sakha cuisine, or Yamal cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "There are typically two types of vegetables in okroshka. The first must have a neutral taste, such as boiled potatoes, turnips, rutabagas, carrots, or fresh cucumbers. The second must be spicy and aromatic, like radishes or green onion as well as other herbs\u2014greens of dill, parsley, chervil, celery, or tarragon. Different meat and poultry can be used in the same soup. The most common ingredient is beef alone or with poultry. A mild bologna-like sausage is sometimes used. If it is made with fish, the best choice would be tench, European perch, pike-perch, cod, or other neutral-tasting fish. In the coastal areas smoked and/or salted salmon is preferred instead, often in combination with other meats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borscht",
        "text": "Many regional recipes for borscht have also developed in Russian cuisine. Examples include the Moscow borscht, served with pieces of beef, ham and Vienna sausages; Siberian borscht with meatballs; and Pskov borscht with dried smelt from the local lakes. Other unique Russian variants include a monastic Lenten borscht with marinated kelp instead of cabbage and the Russian Navy borscht (\"), the defining characteristic of which is that the vegetables are cut into square or diamond-shaped chunks rather than julienned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kruzhka",
        "text": "Several main dishes include kebabs (\"Shashlik\") or Shaurma, usually with potato fries and/or sauerkraut. Sauces like ketchup and mayonnaise are typically included free with most meals (though that is not always the case in Moscow.) Perhaps a slightly more unusual offering is \"grilled trout\" for 160 roubles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet cuisine",
        "text": "Holiday meals were typically derived from old French and Russian cuisines with extensive use of heavy sauces, marinated meats, and melted cheese. Mixing ingredients and extensive cooking was common, just as in classic French cuisine. Generally, much effort was made in order to prepare such meals. Often, the richness of a holiday table was an issue of honor for the family.\n* Olivier (also known as Russian salad)\n* Herring under a fur coat\n* Kholodets\n* Vinegret (from French vinaigrette) - red beet root salad with onions, pickles, boiled potatoes, carrots, dressed with sunflower oil.\n* \"Vitaminniy salat\" (Vitamin salad) - a cabbage-based salad with seasonal vegetables like tomatoes, cucumbers, onions, carrots, etc.\n* Various pickles, such as cucumbers, tomatoes, ramsons, and mushrooms.\n* Sauerkraut mixed with carrots and served as a salad.\n* Morkovcha (also known as \"Korean carrot salad\") - a spicy carrot salad (a Koryo-saram dish).\n* Borscht - (Ukrainian)\n* Chicken noodle soup\n* Kharcho\n* Okroshka\n* Pacha - (Armenian/Azerbaijani/Georgian)\n* Pea soup\n* Rassolnik\n* Shchi - (Russian)\n* Solyanka\n* Sorrel soup\n* Ukha\n* Beef Stroganoff\n* Chicken Kiev (Russian) - a filled chicken cutlet\n* Cutlet or meat ball\n* Various kinds of dumplings, like pelmeni (Russian), vareniki (Ukrainian), or manti (Central Asian)\n* Goulash, ragout, or another kind of stew\n* Golubtsy - cabbage rolls stuffed with rice and meat and served in tomato sauce\n* Plov (Uzbek) - rice dish\n* Sausages\n* Shashlik - (Caucasus)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Olivier salad (also known as Russian salad), a mayonnaise-based potato salad distinguished by its diced texture and the contrasting flavors of pickles, hard-boiled eggs, boiled carrots, boiled potatoes, meat, and peas. This dish is one of the main New Year buffets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "There is a dish in modern Russian cuisine resembling a mix of \"svekolnik\" and pickled herring: \"selyodka pod shuboi\", literally \"[fur]coated herring\", where picked herring is coated with a layer of potatoes, a layer of mayo and/or \"smetana\" sour cream, with grated beet added on top for coating (hence \"fur\"-coat\" word, \"shuba\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Also, plain cooked porridges, especially buckwheat and rice, can be served as a side dish.\n* Canned meat, \"tushonka\", is made with buckwheat/rice \"kasha\" traditions in mind, unlike bully beef type of canned meat: while average-priced \"tushyonka\" contains a large portion of lard and jelly, this very non-meaty addition to meat can be used as a sauce for enriching rice/buckwheat kasha's taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosovan cuisine",
        "text": "Kosovan cuisine\n--Dishes.\n--Bread.\n--Pies.\n--Salads.\n--Main dishes.\n--Fish.\n--Desserts.\n--Drinks.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet cuisine",
        "text": "Green vegetables and salads were seasonal, and with some exceptions (like sauerkraut-based ones, as sauerkraut was available year-round) uncommon at the table. Spices were rarely used, aside from moderate amounts of mustard and black pepper, and food had a generally mild taste. There were no differences between breakfast, lunch, and dinner meals. Lunch was always consumed with a soup as a first course. A tradition of a \"fish day\" on Thursdays, when fish or other seafood was consumed instead of meat, was started in State-run canteens and cafeterias to alleviate a shortage of meat, but nevertheless filtered to many private households. The common approach, which still somewhat holds today in Russia is: eat a lot at each meal, few times a day. Eat nothing between meals \u2013 the reason for this was that the State-run eateries in the Soviet time was largely under the control of doctors, and the medical wisdom at the time was that snacking between major meals would ruin the appetite (especially for children) and will lead to indigestion and intestinal distress. A typical lunch meal could consist of chicken-broth-based soup or borscht for a first course and fried meatballs or goulash served with boiled potatoes or buckwheat porridge as a main course. Butter or sour cream was typically used as a sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Fish was important in pre-revolutionary cuisine, especially on Russian Orthodox fast days when meat was forbidden, similar to the Catholic custom of eating fish instead of meat on Fridays. Strictly freshwater fish such as carp and sudak (Sander lucioperca, Zander) were commonly eaten in inland areas, as well as anadromous sturgeon and in northern areas salmon, pike and trout. A greater variety of fish\u2014including saltwater species\u2014were preserved by salting, pickling or smoking and consumed as \"zakuski\" (hors d'oeuvres)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "(or , from Russian , fur coat)), also known as \"dressed herring\", is chopped salted herring under a \"coat\" of shredded cooked beet, sometimes with a layer of egg or other vegetables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The history of Russian cuisine was divided in four groups: Old Russian cuisine (ninth to sixteenth century), Old Moscow cuisine (seventeenth century), the cuisine that existed during the ruling of Peter and Catherine Great (eighteenth century), and finally Petersburg cuisine, which took place from the end of the eighteenth century to the 1860s. In the Old Russian period, the main food groups were bread, lots of grains, and lots of foods that contained starch. Women baked pies with lots of different fillings, such as mushrooms or berries. During gatherings, a loaf of bread and salt was always present. Kasha, such as buckwheat, oats, etc.were represented as wellbeing to the household. Lots of Russians used honey and berries and made them into gingerbread, which to this day is a popular Russian dessert. Lots of current Russian cuisines were inspired from Asian cultures, such as pelmeni. In the seventeenth century, cuisine was separated based on economical class. The rich had meat and delicacies, such as caviar, while the poor had the most simple dishes. During this century, more food appeared, because new countries were annexed. During the Peter and Catherine the Great era, minced meat was incorporated into dishes and other European country's cuisine was also mixed into Russian foods. In the last era(Petersburg Cuisine) lots of French, German, Dutch, and Italian meals were incorporated into Russian foods, such as lamb and pork. The French popularized potatoes and tomatoes in dishes. Due to the long lasting cold weather in Russia, many dishes were made to be preserved, so they wouldn't have to take extra trips in the freezing snowy days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Soups have always played an important role in Russian cuisine. The traditional staple of soups such as shchi (), borsch (), ukha (), rassolnik (), solyanka (), botvinya (), okroshka (), and tyurya () was enlarged in the 18th to 20th centuries by both European and Central Asian staples like clear soups, pureed soups, stews, and many others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Soups such as borsht were considered a staple in Russia. Soups like \"krupnik\" were made of barley, potatoes and fat. This was the staple food of the poor students of the \"yeshivot\"; in richer families, meat was added to this soup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Pelmeni are a traditional Eastern European (mainly Russian) dish usually made with minced meat filling, wrapped in thin dough (made out of flour and eggs, sometimes with milk or water added). For filling, pork, lamb, beef, or any other kind of meat can be used; mixing several kinds is popular. The traditional Ural recipe requires the filling be made with 45% of beef, 35% of lamb, and 20% of pork. Traditionally, various spices, such as pepper, onions, and garlic, are mixed into the filling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Veal Orloff",
        "text": "Similar dishes are popular in Russia today where they usually go by the name French-style meat (). In these varieties, veal is often replaced by cheaper sorts of meat, such as beef or pork, and the Mornay sauce may be replaced by mayonnaise. A layer of sliced potatoes is also often added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tatar cuisine",
        "text": "Main dishes are usually based on meat, grains, and potatoes. Meat or chicken boiled in the broth is cut into small pieces and served as a main course, sometimes quickly fried in oil with onions, carrots, and bell peppers. Boiled potatoes are a favorite side dish, with grated horseradish served as an accompaniment. A chicken stuffed with eggs in milk (\"tut\u0131r\u011fan taw\u0131q\") is a special dish for holidays."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Borscht is made of broth, beets, and tomatoes with various vegetables, including onions, cabbage, tomato, carrots, and celery. Borscht usually includes meat, particularly beef in Russia, and pork in Ukraine. Borscht is generally served very hot, with sour cream, chopped chives or parsley, and crushed garlic. Borscht is traditionally served with black bread. Borscht is associated as national cuisine in various different Eastern European countries such as Ukraine, Poland, Belarus, and Lithuania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The Russian people have become skilled in different techniques for the preparation of a wide variety of whole-grain cereals. The most popular cereals are buckwheat, millet, semolina, oats, barley, and rice. Traditionally, such cereal porrige is cooked in milk, especially if it is cooked to be served for breakfast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Lapsha (noodle soup) was adopted by Russians from Tatars, and after some transformation became widespread in Russia. It comes in three variations: chicken, mushroom, and milk. Cooking all three is simple, including preparation of noodles, cooking of corresponding broth, and boiling of noodles in broth. Noodles are based on the same wheat flour or buckwheat/wheat flour mix. Mixed flour noodles go better with mushroom or milk broth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet cuisine",
        "text": "In the West, Soviet cuisine is frequently conflated with Russian cuisine, though the particular national cuisine of Russia can be thought of as discrete."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Russian soups can be divided into at least seven large groups:\n* Chilled soups based on kvass, such as tyurya, okroshka, and botvinya.\n* Light soups and stews based on water and vegetables, such as svekolnik.\n* Noodle soups with meat, mushrooms, or milk.\n* Soups based on cabbage, most prominently shchi.\n* Thick soups based on meat broth, with a salty-sour base like rassolnik and solyanka.\n* Fish soups such as ukha.\n* Grain- and vegetable-based soups."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Russian desserts",
        "text": "This is a list of Russian desserts. Russian cuisine is a collection of the different cooking traditions of the Russian people. The cuisine is diverse, as Russia is by area the largest country in the world. Russian cuisine derives its varied character from the vast and multi-cultural expanse of Russia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Many traditional drinks are indigenous to Russia and are not present in other national cuisines. The most notable of these are vodka, sbiten', kvass, medovukha and mors. Many of them are no longer common and have been replaced by drinks originating in Europe. Nonetheless, these beverages were formerly drunk as a complement to meat and poultry dishes, sweet porridge, and dessert. Of particular note is sbiten, an immensely popular medieval drink which has since been replaced by tea as the Russian mainstay beverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The national Russian cuisine has evolved in a multicultural and multiethnic state, with strong mutual influence from the cuisines of other ethnic groups that live within the nation's borders or had been a part of the Russian state historically."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pease pudding",
        "text": "Traditional Russian cuisine has several pea-based dishes, including pease pudding/puree/soups known as \"gorohovaya kasha\" () or \"goroshnitsa\" ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian Meat",
        "text": "Russian Meat\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional street food",
        "text": "The cuisine of Russia's Turkic minorities is popular, with dishes like chebureki, shashlik, shawerma, tandoor bread, and plov (pilaf)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asian cuisine",
        "text": "North Asian cuisine is often synonymous with Russian cuisine, due to all of Northern Asia being a part of the Russian Federation. However, some cultures or areas of Siberia have in-depth cuisine, such as the Yakuts (or Sakha) and Yamal cuisine. Buryats also have their own cuisine, although it is very similar to that of the related Mongolians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sausage",
        "text": "Traditional Russian cuisine eschews the fine cutting or grounding of meat. Thus sausagemaking, though generally known in Russia since at least 12th century, was not popular and largely started in earnest with the Petrine reforms, when a lot of Western products and practices were introduced. Traditional sausages were based on mixing meat with cereals, much like modern kishka and Polish kaszanka, while the newer purely meat varieties were made in German and Polish styles, often highly spiced and loaded with preservatives for non-refrigerated storage. One of the pre-revolutionary recipes specified as much as half pound of saltpetre per a pood of meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vinegret",
        "text": "Vinegret () or Russian vinaigrette is a salad in Russian cuisine which is also popular in other post-Soviet states. This type of food includes diced cooked vegetables (red beets, potatoes, carrots), chopped onions, as well as sauerkraut and/or brined pickles. Other ingredients, such as green peas or beans, are sometimes also added. The naming comes from vinaigrette, which is used as a dressing. However, in spite of the name, vinegar is often omitted in modern cooking, and sunflower or other vegetable oil is just used. Some cooks add the brine from the pickled cucumbers or sauerkraut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Typical rassolnik is based on kidneys, brine (and pickles), vegetables and barley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uzbekistan",
        "text": "Other notable national dishes include shurpa (\"shurva\" or \"shorva\"), a soup made of large pieces of fatty meat (usually mutton), and fresh vegetables; norin and laghman, noodle-based dishes that may be served as a soup or a main course; manti, chuchvara, and somsa, stuffed pockets of dough served as an appetizer or a main course; dimlama, a meat and vegetable stew; and various kebabs, usually served as a main course."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The fall of the Soviet Union saw the end of state monopoly on food service, and a corresponding diversification of culinary. As average prosperity grew starting with the second decade after the collapse, so did the demand for fresh culinary experiences, prompting a renaissance of Imperial-era elite cuisine, as well as a wide search for novelty, local specialties, and creative reinterpretations, leading to the birth of what has been dubbed the New Russian cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comfort food",
        "text": "Russian comfort foods may include:\n* Bliny \u2013 pancakes\n* Borscht\n* Dressed herring \u2013 layered herring salad\n* Golubtsy \u2013 cabbage rolls\n* Kasha \u2013 buckwheat porridge\n* Kotlety \u2013 meatballs\n* Kholodets \u2013 savory gelatin\n* Kvass \u2013 fermented drink made with bread\n* Napoleon \u2013 layered pastry\n* Okroshka \u2013 cold vegetable soup\n* Oladyi \u2013 small thick pancakes or fritters\n* Olivier salad \u2013 vegetable salad\n* Pelmeni \u2013 meat-filled dumpling\n* Pirozhki \u2013 buns with various fillings\n* Rassolnik \u2013 pickled soup\n* Shashlik \u2013 skewered and grilled cubes of meat\n* Shchi \u2013 cabbage soup\n* Solyanka \u2013 spicy and sour soup\n* Syrniki \u2013 cottage cheese pancakes\n* Ukha \u2013 clear, fish-based soup\n* Vareniki \u2013 filled dumplings (pierogi)\n* Tteokbokki \u2013 rice cakes in spicy chili stew\n* Shin Ramyun \u2013 instant noodles by Nongshim\n* Kimbap \u2013 cooked rice rolled in seaweed and stuffed with vegetables and/or meat\n* Samgyeopsal \u2013 roasted pork belly\n* Mandu \u2013 dumplings with various fillings\n* Soups and stews\n** Kimchi jjigae \u2013 spicy stew made with kimchi\n** Haejang-guk \u2013 vegetables and meat in beef broth\n** Sundubu-jjigae \u2013 soft tofu stew\n** Seolleongtang \u2013 ox bone soup\n** Budae-jjigae \u2013 \"army stew\" with noodles, Spam, vegetables and other ingredients\n** Kalguksu \u2013 soup with handmade noodles"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "In the early 20th century the Revolution saw a rapid decline of elite cuisine, driven both by the new egalitarian state ideology and by disappearance of the old Imperial elites who used to be its consumers. The distinct Soviet cuisine was born, emphasizing fusion of the Union's national cuisines, scientific approach to a diet, and industrial approach to food preparation and serving."
      },
      {
        "title": "Krupenik",
        "text": "A () is a sweet or savory casserole made of groats (wheat, buckwheat, barley or rice) and \"\", or Russian farmer cheese. It is a dish that is typical for Russian cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Okroshka is a cold soup based on kvass or (less frequently) various kinds of sour milk, kefir is often preferred nowadays. Okroshka is also a salad. The main ingredients are two types of vegetables that can be mixed with cold boiled meat or fish in a 1:1 proportion. Thus vegetable, meat, poultry, and fish varieties of okroshka are made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lunch",
        "text": "In Russia, the midday meal is taken in the afternoon. Usually, lunch is the biggest meal and consists of a first course, usually a soup, and a second course which would be meat and a garnish. Tea is standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of English words of Russian origin",
        "text": "Rassolnik (Russian: \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a), is a hot soup in a salty-sour cucumber base. This dish formed in Russian cuisine quite late\u2014only in the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The richer variant of shchi includes several ingredients, but the first and last components are a must:\n# Cabbage.\n# Meat (very rarely fish or mushrooms).\n# Carrots, basil or parsley roots.\n# Spicy herbs (onions, celery, dill, garlic, pepper, bay leaf).\n# Sour components (smetana, apples, sauerkraut, pickle water)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Shashlyk is a form of Shish kebab (marinated meat grilled on a skewer) popular in former Soviet Union countries, notably in Georgia, Russia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Uzbekistan. It often features alternating slices of meat and onions. Even though the word \"shashlyk\" was apparently borrowed from the Crimean Tatars by the Cossacks as early as the 18th century, kebabs did not reach Moscow until the late 19th century, according to Vladimir Gilyarovsky's \"Moscow and Moscovites\". From then on, their popularity spread rapidly; by the 1910s they were a staple in St Petersburg restaurants and by the 1920s they were already a pervasive street food all over urban Russia. Shashlik is also used in Russia as a food to be cooked in an outdoor environment, similarly to barbecue in English-speaking countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Shchi (cabbage soup) had been the predominant first course in Russian cuisine for over a thousand years. Although tastes have changed, it steadily made its way through several kitchen dwellers. Shchi knew no social class boundaries, and even if the rich had richer ingredients and the poor made it solely of cabbage and onions, all these \"poor\" and \"rich\" variations were cooked in the same tradition. The unique taste of this cabbage soup was from the fact that after cooking it was left to draw (stew) in a Russian stove. The \"Spirit of shchi\" was inseparable from a Russian izba (log hut). Many Russian proverbs are connected to this soup, such as (, \"Shchi and porridge are our staples\"). It can be eaten regularly, and at any time of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet cuisine",
        "text": "Usually served in a glass in common diners of \"obshchepit\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of English words of Russian origin",
        "text": "Beef Stroganoff or Stroganov (Russian: \u0431\u0435\u0444\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432, \"befstr\u00f3ganov\") is a Russian dish of saut\u00e9ed pieces of beef served in a sauce with smetana (sour cream)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Schnitzel",
        "text": "In Russia, the dish is called \u043e\u0442\u0431\u0438\u0432\u043d\u0430\u044f (\"otbivnaya\"), which literally means a piece of meat that has been beaten. Russian cuisine includes recipes of schnitzel prepared from pork, as well as beef, veal, and chicken."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Syrniki are fried curd fritters, garnished with sour cream, jam, honey or applesauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosovan cuisine",
        "text": "Typical salad ingredients include tomatoes, onion, garlic, pepper, cucumber, potato, cabbage, lettuce, carrots, and beans.\n* Potato salad\n* Tarator - a traditional salad made with cucumbers, garlic and yogurt. Very popular dish for summer.\n* Tomato and cucumber salad\n* Dried nettle salad\n* Bean salad\n* \"Shope\" salad - a simple salad made of tomato, cucumber, onions and white cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Serbian cuisine",
        "text": "The main course is most commonly a meat dish. Besides \"ro\u0161tilj\" (barbecue) which is very popular, braising, stewing, and roasting in an oven are the most common cooking methods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Vatrushka is a kind of cake with a ring of dough and tvorog (cottage cheese) in the middle, often with raisins or bits of fruit, from about five inches to two and a half feet in diameter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kotlety (minced cutlets), are pan-fried cutlet-shaped patties, not dissimilar from Salisbury steak and other such dishes. Kotlety are made from pork and beef, or from chicken, sometimes also from fish. In common recipes, ground meat, pork, onions and bread are put in a bowl and mixed thoroughly until it becomes relatively consistent. Once this effect is achieved, patties are formed and then put into a hot frying pan to cook. Pozharsky cutlet is a more elaborated version which was adopted by French haute cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The kvass most commonly used in cooking is white okroshka kvass, which is much more sour than drinking kvass. Spices used include mustard, black pepper and pickled cucumber (specifically, the liquid from the pickles), solely or in combination. For the final touch, boiled eggs and smetana (similar to cr\u00e8me fra\u00eeche) are added. Often, the mustard, chopped hard-boiled yolks, pepper and pickle brine are combined into a spicy sauce that is added to the soup to taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morkovcha",
        "text": "The typical ingredients are finely julienned carrots, garlic, onion, ground red pepper, ground coriander seeds, vinegar, vegetable oil, salt and pepper. It may also include sesame seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uzbek cuisine",
        "text": "Other notable national dishes include: shurpa (\"shurva\" or \"shorva\"), a soup made of large pieces of fatty meat (usually mutton) and fresh vegetables; norin and lagman, noodle-based dishes that may be served as a soup or a main course; manti (also called \"qasqoni\"), chuchvara, and somsa, stuffed pockets of dough served as an appetizer or a main course; dimlama (a meat and vegetable stew) and various kebabs, usually served as a main course."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Tyurya is very similar to okroshka, the main difference being that instead of vegetables, bread, sometimes with addition of onion and vegetable oil, is soaked in kvass, similar to Silesian wodzionka or Portuguese a\u00e7orda. It was commonly consumed during rough times such as (the Russian Revolution, World War I, World War II) and by poor peasants. Also, due to its simplicity, it was very common as a meal during religious fasting."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Russian restaurants",
        "text": "List of Russian restaurants\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Paskha is a festive dish made in Eastern Orthodox countries which consists of food that is forbidden during the fast of Great Lent. It is made during Holy Week and then brought to Church on Great Saturday to be blessed after the Paschal Vigil. The name of the dish comes from Pascha, the Eastern Orthodox celebration of Easter."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of sauces",
        "text": "Sauces in Russian cuisine include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Armenian cuisine",
        "text": "Soups of Russian heritage include borscht, a beet root soup with meat and vegetables (served hot in Armenia, with fresh sour cream) and okroshka, a matzoon or kefir based soup with chopped cucumber, green onion, and garlic.\n* \"Arganak\" ( \"arganak\") \u2013 chicken soup with small meatballs, garnished before serving with beaten egg yolks, lemon juice, and parsley.\n* \"Blghourapour\" ( \"bl\u0121urapur\") \u2013 a sweet soup made of hulled wheat cooked in grape juice; served hot or cold.\n* \"Bozbash\" ( \"bozba\u0161\") \u2013 a mutton or lamb soup that exists in several regional varieties with the addition of different vegetables and fruits.\n* \"Brndzapour\" ( \"brndzapur\") \u2013 rice and potato soup, garnished with coriander.\n* \"Dzavarapour\" ( \"dzavarapur\") \u2013 hulled wheat, potatoes, tomato pur\u00e9e; egg yolks diluted with water are stirred into the soup before serving.\n* \"Flol\" \u2013 beef soup with coarsely chopped spinach leaves and cherry-sized dumplings () made from oatmeal or wheat flour.\n* Harissa ( \"harisa\", also known as \u0573\u056b\u057f\u0561\u057a\u0578\u0582\u0580) \u2013 porridge of coarsely ground wheat with pieces of boned chicken\n* \"Katnapour\" ( \"kat\u2019napur\") \u2013 a milk-based rice soup, sweetened with sugar.\n* \"Katnov\" ( \"kat\u2019nov\") \u2013 a milk-based rice soup with cinnamon and sugar.\n* \"Kololak\" ( \"kololak\") \u2013 soup cooked from mutton bones with ground mutton dumplings, rice, and fresh tarragon garnish; a beaten egg is stirred into the soup before serving.\n* \"Krchik\" ( \"k\u1e59\u010dik\") \u2013 soup made from sauerkraut, pickled cabbage, hulled wheat, potatoes, and tomato pur\u00e9e.\n* \"Mantapour\" ( \"mant\u02bfapur\") \u2013 beef soup with manti; the manti are typically served with matzoon or sour cream (\"ttvaser\"), accompanied by clear soup.\n* Matsnaprtosh ( \"matsnaprt'o\u0161\") - this is the same as okroshka, referenced earlier, with sour clotted milk diluted with cold water, with less vegetation than okroshka itself. Matsnaprtosh is served cold as a refreshment and supposedly normalizes blood pressure.\n* \"Putuk\" ( \"putuk\") \u2013 mutton cut into pieces, dried peas, potatoes, leeks, and tomato pur\u00e9e, cooked and served in individual crocks.\n* \"Sarnapour\" ( \"sa\u1e59napur\") \u2013 pea soup with rice, beets and matzoon.\n* \"Snkapur\" ( \"snkapur\") \u2013 a mushroom soup.\n* Tarkhana ( \"t\u2019arxana\") \u2013 flour and matzoon soup\n* \"Vospapour\" ( \"ospapur\") \u2013 lentil soup with dried fruits and ground walnuts.\n* \"Pekhapour\" (mustache soup) \u2013 chick peas, shelled wheat (\u056e\u0565\u056e\u0561\u056e), lentils, in a vegetarian broth and fresh tarragon. This soup originates from Aintab."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kislye\" (sour) schi are made from pickled cabbage (sauerkraut), \"serye\" (grey) schi from the green outer leaves of the cabbage head. \"Zelyonye\" (green) schi are made from sorrel leaves, not cabbage, and used to be a popular summer soup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Svyokolnik (also known as Kholodnik) is a cold borscht. It consists of beet sour or beet juice blended with sour cream, buttermilk, soured milk, kefir or yogurt. The mixture has a distinctive orange or pink color. It is served chilled, typically over finely chopped beetroot, cucumbers, radishes and spring onion, together with halved hard-boiled eggs and sprinkled with fresh dill. Chopped veal, ham, or crawfish tails may be added as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Most non-alcoholic Russian drinks are based on fruits and berries. Those include kompot, made by boiling fruit with sweetened water; uzvar, in which dried fruit is used instead; mors, made of berries such as lingonberry, cranberry, blueberries, or raspberries; and kisel, a viscous fruit drink thickened with cornstarch, potato starch or arrowroot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "During much of the year when the Orthodox Christian Church prescribes abstinence from meat and dairy, a vegan version of shchi is made."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Russian desserts",
        "text": "List of Russian desserts\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tatar cuisine",
        "text": "Tatar cuisine\n--History.\n--Traditional Tatar cuisine.\n----Soups.\n----Main courses.\n----Baked foods.\n----Sweets.\n----Beverages.\n--Cooking methods and utensils.\n--Modern cuisine.\n--References.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Polish pierogi (type: dimplings) aren't really related to Russian \"pirogi\" (type: pies) and \"pirozhki\" (type: buns, small pies)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosovan cuisine",
        "text": "Common dishes include pies, flija, stuffed peppers, legume, sarma, kebab/qebapa etc. Notwithstanding, the cuisine varies slightly between different regions of the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Worldwide breakfast",
        "text": "Traditional Russian breakfast are concentrated on kashas, or porridges \u2013 the most important staple in Russian nutritional culture, with buckwheat and oat, as well as semolina, serving as the three most important bases of such dishes, usually cooked using water or milk, as well as consumed with or without milk. Breakfast foods also include pancakes or oladushki. Oladushki are made from flour and rise on yeast. Blini, or crepes, are also popular for breakfast and are also made with flour, but without yeast. Sirniki, is a cheese form of pancake. Sirniki are made of tvorog (quark cheese), which can be eaten separately with honey for breakfast. Also, a popular dish is buterbrod, open sandwiches with cold cuts and cheeses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vorschmack",
        "text": "Although nowadays vorschmack is mainly associated with Jewish cuisine in Russia, historically different versions of this dish () were known there. These were usually hot zakuski (appetizers) or breakfast dishes. \"A Gift to Young Housewives\", a classical Russian cookbook by Elena Molokhovets, provides three recipes of hot vorschmack in its first edition (1861) and further variants were added in subsequent editions. In one recipe, meat (veal or beef), herring, white bread and onions are minced, mixed with smetana (sour cream) or cream and baked. Other recipes include only herring (without meat), as well as other ingredients, such as potatoes, eggs and apples. Even more elaborate recipes with further details on cooking techniques are given in another classical Russian cookery textbook, \"The Practical Fundamentals of the Cookery Art\" (1899\u20131916) by Pelageya Alexandrova-Ignatieva. It was in particular proposed to place the mixture of minced ingredients inside a kalach, cover it with grated cheese and bake it au gratin. Similar recipes also appear in \"Cookery\" (1955), a major cookbook of Soviet cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Vodka is the best known of Russia's alcoholic products and is produced, with some variation, throughout the country. Vodka can be either grain or potato based and is frequently flavored with a great variety of ingredients ranging from hot-pepper and horseradish to fruits and berries."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of English words of Russian origin",
        "text": "Ukha (Russian: \u0423\u0445\u0430), is a clear Russian soup, made from various types of fish such as bream, wels catfish, northern pike, or even ruffe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Pirozhki (singular: pirozhok; diminutive of pirog [pie]) are small stuffed buns (pies) made of either yeast dough or short pastry. They are filled with one of many different fillings and are either baked (the ancient Slavic method) or shallow-fried (known as \"priazhenie\", this method was borrowed from the Tatars in the 13th century). One feature of pirozhki that sets them apart from, for example, English pies is that the fillings used are almost invariably fully cooked. The use of chopped hard-boiled eggs in fillings is another interesting feature. Six typical fillings for traditional pirozhki are:\n# Chopped boiled meat mixed with saut\u00e9ed onions\n# Rice and boiled eggs with dill\n# Fish saut\u00e9ed with onions and mixed with hard-boiled chopped eggs and rice\n# Mashed potatoes mixed with dill and green onion\n# Saut\u00e9ed cabbage\n# Saut\u00e9ed mushrooms with onions and sometimes carrots"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aspic",
        "text": "The dish is part of winter holiday celebrations such as the traditional Russian New Year (\"novy god\") or Christmas meal. However, modern refrigeration allows for its year-round production, and it is not uncommon to see on a Russian table in summer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Service \u00e0 la russe",
        "text": "\"S.D.\" are \"side dishes\", i.e. hors d'\u0153uvre. There is a separate fish course, then relev\u00e9s and entr\u00e9es. Cold dishes, such as mayonnaise salads and aspics, had become very popular at this time, as is evident in the menu. Roasts could be of butchers' meat, fowl, or game (rarely, if ever, fish). When more than one dish was appointed for a course (e.g. 2 Soups, 2 Fish, 2 roasts, 2 colds), the guest was expected to choose one or the other, not both. A guest might decline one or more of the courses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Turkmen cuisine",
        "text": "Chegdermeh, a mixture of rice, meat, tomato and onions, is a uniquely Turkmen dish. Shashlyk, skewered chunks of mutton, lamb, chicken, or sometimes fish, grilled over charcoal and garnished with raw sliced onion and a special vinegar-based sauce, is served in restaurants and often sold in the street. Restaurants in Turkmenistan serve mainly Russian fare such as pelmeni, buckwheat (\"grechka\"), golubtsy, and a wide variety of mayonnaise-based salads. Lagman, an Uyghur noodle dish, can also be found in some areas."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are common Russian Breakfast foods?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Cereal porridge cooked in milk, and Blini, thin griddle cakes similar to crepes, are served for breakfast commonly. Kulich is an Easter bread blessed by a priest is eaten before breakfast each day on Easter."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How is Kulich made?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Kulich is baked in tall, cylindrical tins (like coffee or fruit juice tins). Traditionally after the Easter service, the kulich, which has been put into a basket and decorated with colorful flowers, is blessed by the priest."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is a typical Russian main course?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about meat dishes, fish dishes, or vegetables?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about vegetables please!"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Cabbage, potatoes, and cold tolerant greens are common in Russian cuisines; pickling cabbage, cucumbers, tomatoes and other vegetables in brine is used to preserve vegetables for winter use. Pickled apples and some other fruit also used to be widely popular and provided vitamins during periods when fresh fruit and vegetables are traditionally not available.",
      "Cabbage, potatoes, and cold tolerant greens are common in Russian and other Eastern European cuisines. Pickling cabbage (sauerkraut), cucumbers, tomatoes and other vegetables in brine is used to preserve vegetables for winter use."
    ],
    "topic": "Russian cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Russian cuisine:54",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Russian cuisine",
          "Main dishes",
          "Vegetables"
        ],
        "ctx": "Cabbage, potatoes, and cold tolerant greens are common in Russian and other Eastern European cuisines. Pickling cabbage (sauerkraut), cucumbers, tomatoes and other vegetables in brine is used to preserve vegetables for winter use. Pickled apples and some other fruit also used to be widely popular. These are sources of vitamins during periods when fresh fruit and vegetables are traditionally not available."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Russian cuisine:54",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Russian cuisine",
          "Main dishes",
          "Vegetables"
        ],
        "ctx": "Cabbage, potatoes, and cold tolerant greens are common in Russian and other Eastern European cuisines. Pickling cabbage (sauerkraut), cucumbers, tomatoes and other vegetables in brine is used to preserve vegetables for winter use. Pickled apples and some other fruit also used to be widely popular. These are sources of vitamins during periods when fresh fruit and vegetables are traditionally not available."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Cabbage, potatoes, and cold tolerant greens are common in Russian and other Eastern European cuisines. Pickling cabbage (sauerkraut), cucumbers, tomatoes and other vegetables in brine is used to preserve vegetables for winter use. Pickled apples and some other fruit also used to be widely popular. These are sources of vitamins during periods when fresh fruit and vegetables are traditionally not available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "There is a dish in modern Russian cuisine resembling a mix of \"svekolnik\" and pickled herring: \"selyodka pod shuboi\", literally \"[fur]coated herring\", where picked herring is coated with a layer of potatoes, a layer of mayo and/or \"smetana\" sour cream, with grated beet added on top for coating (hence \"fur\"-coat\" word, \"shuba\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "North Caucasian, Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian pickled items include beets, mushrooms, tomatoes, sauerkraut, cucumbers, ramsons, garlic, eggplant (which is typically stuffed with julienned carrots), custard squash, and watermelon. Garden produce is commonly pickled using salt, dill, blackcurrant leaves, bay leaves and garlic and is stored in a cool, dark place. The leftover brine (called \"rassol\" (\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043b) in Russian) has a number of culinary uses in these countries, especially for cooking traditional soups, such as shchi, rassolnik, and solyanka. \"Rassol\", especially cucumber or sauerkraut rassol, is also a favorite traditional remedy against morning hangover."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vinegret",
        "text": "Vinegret () or Russian vinaigrette is a salad in Russian cuisine which is also popular in other post-Soviet states. This type of food includes diced cooked vegetables (red beets, potatoes, carrots), chopped onions, as well as sauerkraut and/or brined pickles. Other ingredients, such as green peas or beans, are sometimes also added. The naming comes from vinaigrette, which is used as a dressing. However, in spite of the name, vinegar is often omitted in modern cooking, and sunflower or other vegetable oil is just used. Some cooks add the brine from the pickled cucumbers or sauerkraut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "(from French ), a salad made of boiled beets, potatoes, carrots, pickles, onions, sauerkraut, and sometimes peas or white beans. Dressed with sunflower or olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kislye\" (sour) schi are made from pickled cabbage (sauerkraut), \"serye\" (grey) schi from the green outer leaves of the cabbage head. \"Zelyonye\" (green) schi are made from sorrel leaves, not cabbage, and used to be a popular summer soup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Rassolnik is a hot soup in a salty-sour cucumber base. This dish formed in Russian cuisine quite late\u2014only in the 19th century. About this time the name rassolnik was attached to it, originating from the Russian word \"rassol\" which means \"brine\" (pickle water). Pickle water was known to be used as a base for soups from the 15th century at the latest. Its concentration and ratio with other liquids and soup components gave birth to different soups: solyanka, shchi, and of course rassolnik. The latest is moderately sour-salty soups on pickled cucumber base. Some are vegetarian, but more often with products like veal or beef kidneys or all poultry giblets (stomach, liver, heart, neck, feet). For best taste, there has to be a balance between the sour part and neutral absorbers (cereals, potatoes, root vegetables)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickled cucumber",
        "text": "In Russia and Ukraine, pickles are used in rassolnik: a traditional soup made from pickled cucumbers, pearl barley, pork or beef kidneys, and various herbs. The dish is known to have existed as far back as the 15th century when it was called kalya."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickle soup",
        "text": "\"Rassolnik\" is a sour soup in Russian cuisine prepared with primary ingredients of stock, dill pickle, veal or lamb kidneys, pearl barley and potato. The key part of rassolnik is the pickle brine called \"rassol\" in Russian. Additional ingredients may include beef stock, carrot, leek, salt, pepper, and others. It may be served garnished with sour cream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese pickles",
        "text": "Chinese pickles or Chinese preserved vegetables consist of various vegetables or fruits that have been fermented by pickling with salt and brine (), or marinated in mixtures based on soy sauce or savory bean pastes (). The former is usually done using high-fiber vegetables and fruits, such as Chinese cabbage, carrot, apple and pineapple, while the latter marinated group is made using a wide variety of vegetables, ranging from mustards and cucumbers to winter melon and radishes. As of now, there are more than 130 kinds of pickles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "Polish, Czech and Slovak traditional pickles are cucumbers, sauerkraut, peppers, beetroot, tomatoes, but other pickled fruits and vegetables, including plums, pumpkins and mushrooms are also common."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickled herring",
        "text": "Pickled herring, especially brined herring, is common in Russia and Ukraine, where it is served cut into pieces and seasoned with sunflower oil and onions, or can be part of herring salads, such as dressed herring (, , lit. 'herring under a fur coat'), which are usually prepared with vegetables and seasoned with mayonnaise dressing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "(or , from Russian , fur coat)), also known as \"dressed herring\", is chopped salted herring under a \"coat\" of shredded cooked beet, sometimes with a layer of egg or other vegetables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "As a garnish to meat dishes in the past the most common were porridges and cereals, in which the meat was boiled, later on boiled or rather steamed and baked root vegetables (turnips, carrots) as well as mushrooms; additionally the meat, without taking account its type, was garnished with pickled products\u2014pickled cabbage, or sour and \"soaked\" (marinated) apples (mochoniye yabloki) or cranberries. Pan juices, alone or mixed with sour cream or melted butter, were used as gravy to pour on garnishing vegetables and porridges. Meat sauces, i.e. gravies based on flour, butter, eggs and milk, are not common for traditional Russian cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "There are typically two types of vegetables in okroshka. The first must have a neutral taste, such as boiled potatoes, turnips, rutabagas, carrots, or fresh cucumbers. The second must be spicy and aromatic, like radishes or green onion as well as other herbs\u2014greens of dill, parsley, chervil, celery, or tarragon. Different meat and poultry can be used in the same soup. The most common ingredient is beef alone or with poultry. A mild bologna-like sausage is sometimes used. If it is made with fish, the best choice would be tench, European perch, pike-perch, cod, or other neutral-tasting fish. In the coastal areas smoked and/or salted salmon is preferred instead, often in combination with other meats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Typical rassolnik is based on kidneys, brine (and pickles), vegetables and barley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese pickles",
        "text": "Vegetables are usually marinated in a soy sauce mixture with sugar, vinegar, salt, and additional spices. The vegetable are lightly boiled in the soy mixture before being left to cool and absorb the marinade:\n*Pao cai ()\n*Cucumbers ()\n*Radishes ()\n*Bitter melon ()\n*Garlic ()"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "Romanian pickles (mur\u0103turi) are made out of beetroot, cucumbers, green tomatoes (\"gogonele\"), carrots, cabbage, garlic, sauerkraut (bell peppers stuffed with cabbage), bell peppers, melons, mushrooms, turnips, celery and cauliflower. Meat, like pork, can also be preserved in salt and lard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meigan cai",
        "text": "The pickle consists of a whole head of various varieties of Chinese mustards and cabbages (\u82a5\u83dc (leaf mustard), \u6cb9\u83dc (rape), \u767d\u83dc (Chinese cabbage) that has undergone an elaborate process consisting of drying, steaming, and salting. The vegetables are harvested, trimmed before the Qingming Festival, and sun-dried until limp. It is then salted or brined, kneaded until the juices are exuded, and left to ferment in large clay urns for 15 to 20 days. The vegetable is then repeatedly steamed and dried until reddish brown in colour and highly fragrant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mur\u0103turi",
        "text": "Mur\u0103turi (Romanian for \"pickles\") are vegetables or fruit pickled in brine or vinegar, as found in the Romanian cuisine of Romania and Moldova. The pickles are ordinarily made of locally grown foodstuffs such as beetroot, cucumber, green tomatoes (Romanian: \"gogonele\"), carrots, cabbage, bell peppers, melons, mushrooms, turnips, celery and cauliflower."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "In Iran, Turkey, Arab countries, the Balkans, and the South Caucasus, pickles (called torshi in Persian, \"tur\u015fu\" in Turkish language and \"mekhallel\" in Arabic) are commonly made from turnips, peppers, carrots, green olives, cucumbers, eggplants, cabbage, green tomatoes, lemons, and cauliflower."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of Russian innovation",
        "text": "Rassolnik\n* Rassolnik is a Russian soup made from pickled cucumbers, pearl barley and pork or beef kidneys, though a vegetarian version also exists. The dish is known from the 15th century, when it was initially called \"kalya\". The key part of rassolnik is \"rassol\", a liquid based on the juice of pickled cucumbers with some additions, famous for its usage in hangover treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The kvass most commonly used in cooking is white okroshka kvass, which is much more sour than drinking kvass. Spices used include mustard, black pepper and pickled cucumber (specifically, the liquid from the pickles), solely or in combination. For the final touch, boiled eggs and smetana (similar to cr\u00e8me fra\u00eeche) are added. Often, the mustard, chopped hard-boiled yolks, pepper and pickle brine are combined into a spicy sauce that is added to the soup to taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lithuanian cuisine",
        "text": "Pickling is a popular way to prepare vegetables for winter or just to give them a particular flavour. Cucumbers, beets, dills, homegrown tomatoes, onions, garlic is pickled and available all year round."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet cuisine",
        "text": "Holiday meals were typically derived from old French and Russian cuisines with extensive use of heavy sauces, marinated meats, and melted cheese. Mixing ingredients and extensive cooking was common, just as in classic French cuisine. Generally, much effort was made in order to prepare such meals. Often, the richness of a holiday table was an issue of honor for the family.\n* Olivier (also known as Russian salad)\n* Herring under a fur coat\n* Kholodets\n* Vinegret (from French vinaigrette) - red beet root salad with onions, pickles, boiled potatoes, carrots, dressed with sunflower oil.\n* \"Vitaminniy salat\" (Vitamin salad) - a cabbage-based salad with seasonal vegetables like tomatoes, cucumbers, onions, carrots, etc.\n* Various pickles, such as cucumbers, tomatoes, ramsons, and mushrooms.\n* Sauerkraut mixed with carrots and served as a salad.\n* Morkovcha (also known as \"Korean carrot salad\") - a spicy carrot salad (a Koryo-saram dish).\n* Borscht - (Ukrainian)\n* Chicken noodle soup\n* Kharcho\n* Okroshka\n* Pacha - (Armenian/Azerbaijani/Georgian)\n* Pea soup\n* Rassolnik\n* Shchi - (Russian)\n* Solyanka\n* Sorrel soup\n* Ukha\n* Beef Stroganoff\n* Chicken Kiev (Russian) - a filled chicken cutlet\n* Cutlet or meat ball\n* Various kinds of dumplings, like pelmeni (Russian), vareniki (Ukrainian), or manti (Central Asian)\n* Goulash, ragout, or another kind of stew\n* Golubtsy - cabbage rolls stuffed with rice and meat and served in tomato sauce\n* Plov (Uzbek) - rice dish\n* Sausages\n* Shashlik - (Caucasus)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese pickles",
        "text": "Vegetables and plums are salted and allowed to ferment with the help of Lactic acid bacteria. Depending on the desired product, the vegetable may also be fermented with Chinese wine and spices. Some types of these preserved vegetables are produced through being repeatedly dried after the fermentation.\n*Gongcai ()\n*Meigan cai ()\n*Suan cai ()\n*Tianjin preserved vegetable ()\n*Prunus mume ()\n*Zhacai ()\n*Ya cai ()\n*Changzhou dried turnip ("
      },
      {
        "title": "Sauerkraut",
        "text": "In Azerbaijani, Belarusian, Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Moravian, Polish, Russian, and Ukrainian cuisine, chopped cabbage is often pickled together with shredded carrots. Other ingredients may include caraway seeds, whole or quartered apples for additional flavor or cranberry for flavor and better keeping (the benzoic acid in cranberries is a common preservative). Bell peppers and beets are added in some recipes for color. The resulting sauerkraut salad is typically served cold, as \"zakuski\" or a side dish. A homemade type of very mild sauerkraut is available, where white cabbage is pickled with salt in a refrigerator for only three to seven days. This process results in very little lactic acid production. Sometimes in Russia double fermentation is used, with the initial step producing an exceptionally sour product, which is then \"corrected\" by adding 30-50% more fresh cabbage and fermenting the mix again. The flavor additives like apples, beets, cranberries, and sometimes even watermelons are usually introduced at this step."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "China is home to a huge variety of pickled vegetables, including radish, \"baicai\" (Chinese cabbage, notably \"suan cai\", \"la bai cai\", \"pao cai\", and Tianjin preserved vegetable), \"zha cai\", chili pepper (e.g. \"duo jiao\"), and cucumbers, among many others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Danish cuisine",
        "text": "Although the potato is the central vegetable in traditional Danish cooking, it is by no means the only vegetable associated with Danish cuisine. Those other vegetables that play an important role often had to be preserved for long periods of time in cold rooms, or were pickled or marinated for storage. Cauliflower, carrots and a variety of cabbages were often a part of the daily meal, especially when in season, in the days prior to widespread refrigeration.\n*Beans (\"b\u00f8nner\")\n*Peas (\"\u00e6rter\") Especially popular when freshly picked.\n*Brussels sprouts (\"rosenk\u00e5l\")\n*Cabbage (\"k\u00e5l\")\n*Carrots (\"guler\u00f8dder\")\n*Creamed kale (\"gr\u00f8nlangk\u00e5l\"), spinach or white cabbage\n*Cauliflower (\"blomk\u00e5l\")\n*Cucumber salad (\"agurkesalat\")\n*Italian salad (\"italiensk salat\"), a mixture of vegetables in a mayonnaise dressing, served on ham and other cold cuts. The name comes from the red-white-green coloring, the colors of the Italian flag. The salad's colouring originates from carrots, mayonnaise and asparagus, and green peas.\n*Onion (\"l\u00f8g\")\n*Pickled red beet slices (\"r\u00f8dbeder\")\n*Pickles, a mixture of pickled vegetables in a yellow gelatinous sauce, served with corned beef\n* Russian salad (\"russisk salat\"), a red beet salad (not to be confused with Olivier salad, which is also known as Russian salad).\n*Sweet and sour red cabbage (\"r\u00f8dk\u00e5l\"). Saut\u00e9ed red cabbage, boiled with red currant juice, apples and vinegar. Additional sugar may be added, and sometimes cinnamon or cloves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "A minimum of vegetables is added in preparation, and in classical cooking, ukha was simply a rich fish broth served to accompany fish pies (rasstegai, kuliebiaka, etc.). These days it is more often a fish soup, cooked with potatoes and other vegetables. A wide variety of freshwater fish is traditionally used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Olivier salad (also known as Russian salad), a mayonnaise-based potato salad distinguished by its diced texture and the contrasting flavors of pickles, hard-boiled eggs, boiled carrots, boiled potatoes, meat, and peas. This dish is one of the main New Year buffets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kholodets (or Studen'): Jellied chopped pieces of pork or veal meat with some spices added (pepper, parsley, garlic, bay leaf) and minor amounts of vegetables (carrots, onions). The meat is boiled in large pieces for long periods of time, then chopped, boiled a few times again and finally chilled for 3\u20134 hours (hence the name) forming a jelly mass, though gelatin is not used because calves' feet, pigs' heads and other such offal is gelatinous enough on its own. It is served with horseradish, mustard, or ground garlic with smetana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kal'ya was a very common dish first served in the 16th\u201317th centuries. Subsequently, it almost completely disappeared from Russian cuisine. Often it was incorrectly called \"fish rassolnik\". The cooking technique is mostly the same as of ukha, but to the broth were added pickled cucumbers, pickle water, lemons and lemon juice, either separately or all together. The main characteristic of kal'ya is that only fat, rich fish was used; sometimes caviar was added along with the fish. More spices are added, and the soup turns out more piquant and thicker than ukha. Formerly kal'ya was considered a festivity dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese cuisine",
        "text": "A variety of dried or pickled vegetables are also processed, especially in drier or colder regions where fresh vegetables were hard to get out of season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "In Albania, Bulgaria, Serbia, North Macedonia and Turkey, mixed pickles, known as \"turshi\", \"tursija\" or \"turshu\" form popular appetizers, which are typically eaten with \"rakia\". Pickled green tomatoes, cucumbers, carrots, bell peppers, peppers, eggplants, and sauerkraut are also popular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The Russian cuisine itself is also geographically diverse, its variations dependent on raw materials and cooking methods available locally. In the North of Russia, it incorporates local berries such as cloudberry or crowberry, fish such as cod, game meat such as elk, or even edible moss known as yagel. Conversely, in Siberia it includes the local fish varieties, particularly those of the coregonus genus such as arctic cisco or muksun, and borrows the local cooking methods, to result in raw fish eaten frozen or combined with spices. Further East, local specialties are added such as eagle fern, kolomikta fruit, scallops and Kamchatka crabs."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of English words of Russian origin",
        "text": "Rassolnik (Russian: \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a), is a hot soup in a salty-sour cucumber base. This dish formed in Russian cuisine quite late\u2014only in the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Russian cuisine\n--History.\n--Ethnic and regional variations and influences.\n--Soups.\n----Cold soups.\n----Hot soups.\n--Salads.\n--Porridge.\n--Main dishes.\n----Meat.\n----Fish.\n------Selyodka pod shuboi.\n----Vegetables.\n--Desserts and pastries.\n--Beverages.\n----Alcoholic.\n----Non-alcoholic.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Torshi",
        "text": "\"Selska turshiya\" is made with green peppers, green tomatoes, carrots, cauliflower, cabbage, and celery. The vegetables are put in a container, pressed down with some twigs and a stone, and a marinade made of salt, vinegar and water is poured on. The pickles are left to ferment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "\"Khamutzim\" are pickled vegetables made by soaking in water and salt (and sometimes olive oil) in a pot and withdrawing them from air. Ingredients can include cucumber, cabbage, eggplant, carrot, turnip, radish, onion, caper, lemon, olives, cauliflower, tomatoes, chili pepper, bell pepper, garlic and beans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "In Vietnamese cuisine, vegetable pickles are called (\"salted vegetables\") or (\"sour vegetables\"). or is made from a variety of fruits and vegetables, including , eggplant, Napa cabbage, kohlrabi, carrots, radishes, papaya, cauliflower, and . made from carrots and radishes are commonly added to sandwiches. is made by pressing and sun-drying vegetables such as and bok choy. is a specialty of Ngh\u1ec7 An and H\u00e3 T\u0129nh provinces made from jackfruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Northeastern Chinese cuisine",
        "text": "Pickling is a very common form of food preservation. \"Suan cai\", or pickled Chinese cabbage, is traditionally made by most households in giant clay pickling vats. Another distinct feature that distinguishes Northeastern cuisine from other Chinese cuisines is the serving of more raw vegetables and raw seafood in the coastal areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The richer variant of shchi includes several ingredients, but the first and last components are a must:\n# Cabbage.\n# Meat (very rarely fish or mushrooms).\n# Carrots, basil or parsley roots.\n# Spicy herbs (onions, celery, dill, garlic, pepper, bay leaf).\n# Sour components (smetana, apples, sauerkraut, pickle water)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "at affluent households also mentions sausage-making, spit-roasted meats, stews and many other meat dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "An Italian pickled vegetable dish is giardiniera, which includes onions, carrots, celery and cauliflower. Many places in southern Italy, particularly in Sicily, pickle eggplants and hot peppers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rassolnik",
        "text": "Rassolnik () is a traditional Russian soup made from pickled cucumbers, pearl barley, and pork or beef kidneys. A vegetarian variant of rassolnik also exists, usually made during Lent. The dish is known to have existed as far back as the 15th century, when it was called \"kalya\". Rassolnik became part of the common Soviet cuisine and today it is also popular in Ukraine and Belarus. A similar dish is common in Poland, where it is known as \"zupa og\u00f3rkowa\" (literally \"cucumber soup\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Botvinya is another type of cold soup. The name of the soup comes from the Russian word \"botva\", which means \"leafy tops of root vegetables\", and, true to its name, it is made with the leafy tops of young beets, sorrel, scallions, dill, cucumbers, and two types of kvass. Mustard, garlic, and horseradish are then added for flavor. The vegetables are blanched, then rubbed through a sieve and kvass is poured over."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "Sauerkraut, as well as cabbage pickled in vinegar, with carrot and other vegetables is commonly consumed as a kosher dish in Israel and is considered pareve, meaning that it contains no meat or dairy so it can be consumed with either."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ottoman cuisine",
        "text": "Dernschwam wrote that, while cabbage was found, the Turks did not know how to cook it with beef like the Hungarians, saying they instead pickled it, a common preparation in those days. Pickled cabbage was known as early as Byzantine times according to the description of a Byzantine feast recorded in 'Danishmendname\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Solyanka is a thick, piquant soup that combines components from shchi (cabbage, smetana) and rassolnik (pickle water and cucumbers), spices such as olives, capers, tomatoes, lemons, lemon juice, kvass, salted and pickled mushrooms make up a considerably strong sour-salty base of the soup. Solyanka is much thicker than other soups, about 1/3 less liquid ratio. Three types are distinguished: meat, fish, and simple solyanka. The first two are cooked on strong meat or fish broths, and the last on mushroom or vegetable broth. All the broths are mixed with cucumber pickle water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Alternative approach is to add butter, salt, sugar, different jams, fresh fruit and berries for alternating the taste; in case of plain buckwheat porrige, Russians may put it into a soup plate/soup bowl and add a mugful of milk, creating a soup-like kasha (or rather, a dish close to \"cornflakes in milk\" breakfast)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kissel or kisel is a viscous fruit dish, popular as a dessert and as a drink. It consists of the sweetened juice of berries, like mors, but it is thickened with cornstarch, potato starch or arrowroot; sometimes red wine or fresh or dried fruits are added. It is similar to the Danish \"r\u00f8dgr\u00f8d\" and German \"Rote Gr\u00fctze\". Swedish \"bl\u00e5b\u00e4rssoppa\" is a similarly prepared bilberry dessert, although only fresh or frozen bilberries, not dried berries are used to prepare it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banitsa",
        "text": "Vegetable fillings include spinach, sorrel, docks, mangold, chards, beet leaves, nettles, leaves of the radishes, leeks, onions and green part of spring onions, parsley, cabbage or sauerkraut. All these variants, including cabbage, are called (\u0437\u0435\u043b\u043d\u0438\u043a), from the word \u0437\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d () 'green'. The leek variant is called (\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0438\u043a) and onion variant is called (\u043b\u0443\u0447\u043d\u0438\u043a)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "A 2017 study in \"Chinese Journal of Cancer\" has linked salted vegetables ( common among Chinese cuisine) to a fourfold increase in nasopharynx cancer. The researchers believe possible mechanisms include production of nitrosamines (a type of N-nitroso compound) by fermentation and activation of Epstein\u2013Barr virus by fermentation products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borscht",
        "text": "Many regional recipes for borscht have also developed in Russian cuisine. Examples include the Moscow borscht, served with pieces of beef, ham and Vienna sausages; Siberian borscht with meatballs; and Pskov borscht with dried smelt from the local lakes. Other unique Russian variants include a monastic Lenten borscht with marinated kelp instead of cabbage and the Russian Navy borscht (\"), the defining characteristic of which is that the vegetables are cut into square or diamond-shaped chunks rather than julienned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "In Hungary the main meal \"(lunch)\" usually includes some kind of pickles \"(savany\u00fas\u00e1g)\", but pickles are also commonly consumed at other times of the day. The most commonly consumed pickles are sauerkraut \"(savany\u00fa k\u00e1poszta)\", pickled cucumbers and peppers, and \"csalam\u00e1d\u00e9\", but tomatoes, carrots, beetroot, baby corn, onions, garlic, certain squashes and melons, and a few fruits like plums and apples are used to make pickles too. Stuffed pickles are specialties usually made of peppers or melons pickled after being stuffed with a cabbage filling. Pickled plum stuffed with garlic is a unique Hungarian type of pickle just like \"csalam\u00e1d\u00e9\" and leavened cucumber \"(kov\u00e1szos uborka)\". \"Csalam\u00e1d\u00e9\" is a type of mixed pickle made of cabbage, cucumber, paprika, onion, carrot, tomatoes, and bay leaf mixed up with vinegar as the fermenting agent. Leavened cucumber, unlike other types of pickled cucumbers that are around all year long, is rather a seasonal pickle produced in the summer. Cucumbers, spices, herbs, and slices of bread are put in a glass jar with salt water and kept in direct sunlight for a few days. The yeast from the bread, along with other pickling agents and spices fermented under the hot sun, give the cucumbers a unique flavor, texture, and slight carbonation. Its juice can be used instead of carbonated water to make a special type of spritzer \"('\u00dajh\u00e1zy fr\u00f6ccs')\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dacha",
        "text": "The most common dacha fruits in cool temperate regions of Russia are apple, blackcurrant, redcurrant, gooseberry, raspberry and strawberry (sometimes also sour cherry, downy cherry, rose hips, plum, bird cherry, pear, sea-buckthorn, \"Actinidia kolomikta\", black chokeberry, serviceberry, barberry, sweetberry honeysuckle, blackberry and grape, but many of them are either rare or not hardy enough and require winter protection). Popular vegetables and herbs are potato, cucumber, zucchini, pumpkin, tomato, carrot, red bell peppers (capsicum), beetroot, cabbage, cauliflower, radish, turnip, onion, garlic, dill, parsley, rhubarb, sorrel, papaver, earth apple, horseradish and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "Turkish pickles, called \"tur\u015fu\", are made out of vegetables, roots, and fruits such as peppers, cucumber, Armenian cucumber, cabbage, tomato, eggplant (aubergine), carrot, turnip, beetroot, green almond, baby watermelon, baby cantaloupe, garlic, cauliflower, bean and green plum. A mixture of spices flavor the pickles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese pickles",
        "text": "A 2017 study in \"Chinese Journal of Cancer\" has linked salted vegetables (common among Chinese cuisine) to a fourfold increase in nasopharynx cancer, where fermentation was a critical step in creating nitrosamines, which some are confirmed carcinogens, as well as activation of Epstein\u2013Barr virus by fermentation products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Torshi",
        "text": "\"Tsarska turshiya\" is made with cauliflower, red peppers, carrots, and celery. The vegetables are mixed with some salt and sugar and left overnight. The next day the juice is mixed with vinegar and boiled for several minutes. The vegetables are put in glass jars and pressed down with cherry twigs and a round river stone, then the jars are filled with the cooled pickle marinade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "In traditional Russian cuisine three basic variations of meat dishes can be highlighted:\n* a large boiled piece of meat cooked in a soup or porridge, and then used as the second course or served cold (particularly in jellied stock\u2014see Kholodets below)\n* offal dishes (liver, tripe, etc.), baked in pots together with cereals;\n* whole fowl dishes or parts of fowl (legs or breasts), or a large piece of meat (rump) baked on a baking tray in an oven, so-called \"zharkoye\" (from the word \"zhar\"(\u0436\u0430\u0440) meaning \"heat\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Olivier salad",
        "text": "Olivier salad () is a traditional salad dish in Russian cuisine, which is also popular in other post-Soviet countries and around the world. In different modern recipes, it is usually made with diced boiled potatoes, carrots, brined dill pickles (or cucumber), green peas, eggs, celeriac, onions, diced boiled chicken or bologna sausage (sometimes ham or hot dogs), and tart apples, with salt, pepper, and mustard added to enhance flavor, dressed with mayonnaise. In many countries, the dish is commonly referred to as Russian salad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milt",
        "text": "In Russian cuisine, herring milt (\u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043a\u0430, \"Moloka\") is pickled the same way as the rest of the fish, but eaten separately, sometimes combined with pickled herring roe. Various whitefish soft roes are usually consumed fried and it is an inexpensive everyday dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "In traditional pickling, fruit or vegetables are submerged in brine (20\u201340 grams/L of salt (3.2\u20136.4 oz/imp gal or 2.7\u20135.3 oz/US gal)), or shredded and salted as in sauerkraut preparation, and held underwater by flat stones layered on top. Alternatively, a lid with an airtrap or a tight lid may be used if the lid is able to release pressure which may result from carbon dioxide buildup. Mold or (white) kahm yeast may form on the surface; kahm yeast is mostly harmless but can impart an off taste and may be removed without affecting the pickling process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Borscht is made of broth, beets, and tomatoes with various vegetables, including onions, cabbage, tomato, carrots, and celery. Borscht usually includes meat, particularly beef in Russia, and pork in Ukraine. Borscht is generally served very hot, with sour cream, chopped chives or parsley, and crushed garlic. Borscht is traditionally served with black bread. Borscht is associated as national cuisine in various different Eastern European countries such as Ukraine, Poland, Belarus, and Lithuania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Azerbaijani cuisine",
        "text": "Consumption of pickled foods, particularly pickled vegetables is common in Azerbaijan. A plate of pickled foods is served as one of the snacks prior to the main dish, or alternatively as a side dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Russia",
        "text": "Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and the vast geography of the nation; and it shares similarities with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries. Crops of rye, wheat, barley, and millet provide the ingredients for various breads, pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks. Bread, of many varieties, is very popular across Russia. Flavourful soups and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, and okroshka. Smetana (a heavy sour cream) and mayonnaise are often added to soups and salads. Pirozhki, blini, and syrniki are native types of pancakes. Beef Stroganoff, Chicken Kiev, pelmeni, and shashlyk are popular meat dishes. Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls \"(golubtsy)\" usually filled with meat. Salads include Olivier salad, vinegret, and dressed herring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morkovcha",
        "text": "The typical ingredients are finely julienned carrots, garlic, onion, ground red pepper, ground coriander seeds, vinegar, vegetable oil, salt and pepper. It may also include sesame seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carrot salad",
        "text": "The Koryo-saram, ethnic Koreans in the post-Soviet Union states, popularized spicy pickled carrot salad, known throughout the Soviet Union as Korean-style carrots. It is said to have been unknown in South Korea until recently, but has gained an international following and is served in many cafeterias throughout the CIS where it is also sold in supermarkets, and featured regularly as a side dish on dinner tables and at holiday feasts set by many ethnicities of the former Soviet Union."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Russian dishes",
        "text": "This is a list of notable dishes found in Russian cuisine. Russian cuisine is a collection of the different cooking traditions of the Russian Empire. The cuisine is diverse, with Northeast European/Baltic, Caucasian, Central Asian, Siberian, East Asian and Middle Eastern influences. Russian cuisine derives its varied character from the vast and multi-ethnic expanse of Russia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Pirozhki (singular: pirozhok; diminutive of pirog [pie]) are small stuffed buns (pies) made of either yeast dough or short pastry. They are filled with one of many different fillings and are either baked (the ancient Slavic method) or shallow-fried (known as \"priazhenie\", this method was borrowed from the Tatars in the 13th century). One feature of pirozhki that sets them apart from, for example, English pies is that the fillings used are almost invariably fully cooked. The use of chopped hard-boiled eggs in fillings is another interesting feature. Six typical fillings for traditional pirozhki are:\n# Chopped boiled meat mixed with saut\u00e9ed onions\n# Rice and boiled eggs with dill\n# Fish saut\u00e9ed with onions and mixed with hard-boiled chopped eggs and rice\n# Mashed potatoes mixed with dill and green onion\n# Saut\u00e9ed cabbage\n# Saut\u00e9ed mushrooms with onions and sometimes carrots"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Various minced meat dishes were adopted from other cuisines and became popular only in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries; for traditional Russian cuisine, they are not typical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coleslaw",
        "text": "In Russia and Ukraine, a salad of fresh shredded cabbage, mixed with carrots, apples, cranberries etc., is traditionally dressed with unrefined sunflower oil. The cabbage can be marinated before with vinegar producing \"cabbage proven\u00e7al\" (). A similar salad is also made of sauerkraut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eggplant salads and appetizers",
        "text": "A typical zakuska in Russia and Ukraine is known as \"bakla\u017eannaja ikra\" (, \"aubergine caviar\"). Some versions add chopped tomatoes to the basic recipe. Another eggplant salad popular in Russia is called \"he iz bakla\u017eanov\" (Russian: \"\u0445\u0435 \u0438\u0437 \u0431\u0430\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0436\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\"), and it is probably influenced by Korean cuisine. Eggplant \"he\" is based on julienned (instead of mashed) cooked aubergines and other vegetables, prepared with concentrated vinegar. After adding the vinegar, it is set aside for several hours to cure before eating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "In Greece, pickles, called \"\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03c3\u03af(\u03b1)\", are made out of carrots, celery, eggplants stuffed with diced carrots, cauliflower, tomatoes, and peppers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tianjin preserved vegetable",
        "text": "Tianjin preserved vegetable (; also called tung tsai (), Tientsin preserved vegetable or Tianjin preserved cabbage) is a type of pickled Chinese cabbage originating in Tianjin, China. It consists of finely chopped Tianjin cabbage (\u7bad\u6746\u83dc; a variety of Chinese cabbage with an elongated shape) and salt. Garlic is also generally added in the pickling process, although it is omitted in versions prepared for consumption by members of certain Chinese Buddhist sects, who practice strict Buddhist vegetarianism and do not consume garlic or other spicy foods. This pickled vegetable is used to flavor soups, stir fries or stewed dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borscht",
        "text": "Green borscht (\"), a light soup made from leaf vegetables, is an example common in Ukrainian and Russian cuisines. The naturally tart-tasting sorrel is most commonly used, but spinach, chard, nettle, garden orache and occasionally dandelion, goutweed or ramsons, may be added as well, especially after the spring season for sorrel has passed. Like beetroot borscht, it is based on meat or vegetable broth and is typically served with boiled potatoes and hard-boiled eggs, sprinkled with dill. There is also a variety of Ukrainian green borscht which includes both sorrel and beetroots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Fish was important in pre-revolutionary cuisine, especially on Russian Orthodox fast days when meat was forbidden, similar to the Catholic custom of eating fish instead of meat on Fridays. Strictly freshwater fish such as carp and sudak (Sander lucioperca, Zander) were commonly eaten in inland areas, as well as anadromous sturgeon and in northern areas salmon, pike and trout. A greater variety of fish\u2014including saltwater species\u2014were preserved by salting, pickling or smoking and consumed as \"zakuski\" (hors d'oeuvres)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russia",
        "text": "Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and the vast geography of the nation; and it shares similarities with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries. Crops of rye, wheat, barley, and millet provide the ingredients for various breads, pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks. Bread, of many varieties, is very popular across Russia. Flavourful soups and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, and okroshka. Smetana (a heavy sour cream) and mayonnaise are often added to soups and salads. Pirozhki, blini, and syrniki are native types of pancakes. Beef Stroganoff, Chicken Kiev, pelmeni, and shashlyk are popular meat dishes. Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls (golubtsy) usually filled with meat. Salads include Olivier salad, vinegret, and dressed herring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Svyokolnik (also known as Kholodnik) is a cold borscht. It consists of beet sour or beet juice blended with sour cream, buttermilk, soured milk, kefir or yogurt. The mixture has a distinctive orange or pink color. It is served chilled, typically over finely chopped beetroot, cucumbers, radishes and spring onion, together with halved hard-boiled eggs and sprinkled with fresh dill. Chopped veal, ham, or crawfish tails may be added as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Polish pierogi (type: dimplings) aren't really related to Russian \"pirogi\" (type: pies) and \"pirozhki\" (type: buns, small pies)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Olivier salad",
        "text": "In Slovakia it is called \"zemiakov\u00fd \u0161al\u00e1t\" (\"potato salad\"). There are several versions; however, it typically consists of boiled and cubed vegetables (potatoes, carrots), finely chopped onions and pickles in a mayonnaise dressing, often with diced hard-boiled eggs and canned green peas. It is seasoned with salt, black pepper and mustard. Some fluid from the pickles may also be added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Its foundations were laid by the peasant food of the rural population in an often harsh climate, with a combination of plentiful fish, pork, poultry, caviar, mushrooms, berries, and honey. Crops of rye, wheat, barley and millet provided the ingredients for a plethora of breads, pancakes, pies, cereals, beer and vodka. Soups and stews are centered on seasonal or storable produce, fish and meats. Such food remained the staple for the vast majority of Russians well into the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Shchi (cabbage soup) had been the predominant first course in Russian cuisine for over a thousand years. Although tastes have changed, it steadily made its way through several kitchen dwellers. Shchi knew no social class boundaries, and even if the rich had richer ingredients and the poor made it solely of cabbage and onions, all these \"poor\" and \"rich\" variations were cooked in the same tradition. The unique taste of this cabbage soup was from the fact that after cooking it was left to draw (stew) in a Russian stove. The \"Spirit of shchi\" was inseparable from a Russian izba (log hut). Many Russian proverbs are connected to this soup, such as (, \"Shchi and porridge are our staples\"). It can be eaten regularly, and at any time of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Russian restaurants",
        "text": "This is a list of notable Russian restaurants. Russian cuisine is a collection of the different cooking traditions of the Russian people. Russian cuisine derives its varied character from the vast and multi-cultural expanse of Russia. Moreover, it is necessary to divide Russian traditional cuisine and Soviet cuisine, which has its own peculiarity. Its foundations were laid by the peasant food of the rural population in an often harsh climate, with a combination of plentiful fish, poultry, game, mushrooms, berries, and honey. Crops of rye, wheat, barley and millet provided the ingredients for a plethora of breads, pancakes, cereals, beer and vodka. Soups and stews full of flavor are centered on seasonal or storable produce, fish and meats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "Japanese \"tsukemono\" (pickled foods) include \"takuan\" (daikon), \"umeboshi\" (ume plum), \"tataki gobo\" (burdock root), \"gari\" & \"beni sh\u014dga\" (ginger), turnip, cucumber, and Chinese cabbage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Norwegian cuisine",
        "text": "Tomato pickled herring: this pickle features a thick sauce: 4 Tablespoons tomato paste, 3 Tablespoons sugar, and 3 Tablespoons vinegar are mixed and thinned with about 4 Tablespoons water, flavoured with black pepper and bay leaf. Salt-cured herring is rinsed, cut in 1\u00a0cm (1/3in) thick slices and a raw, sliced onion added. Let stand for at least 24 hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Torshi",
        "text": "Torshi ( \"torshi\", meaning \"sourness\") are the pickled vegetables of many Middle Eastern and Balkan cuisines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Russian cuisine is a collection of the different dishes and cooking traditions of the Russian people as well as a list of culinary products popular in Russia, with most names being known since pre-Soviet times, coming from all kinds of social circles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Armenian cuisine",
        "text": "Soups of Russian heritage include borscht, a beet root soup with meat and vegetables (served hot in Armenia, with fresh sour cream) and okroshka, a matzoon or kefir based soup with chopped cucumber, green onion, and garlic.\n* \"Arganak\" ( \"arganak\") \u2013 chicken soup with small meatballs, garnished before serving with beaten egg yolks, lemon juice, and parsley.\n* \"Blghourapour\" ( \"bl\u0121urapur\") \u2013 a sweet soup made of hulled wheat cooked in grape juice; served hot or cold.\n* \"Bozbash\" ( \"bozba\u0161\") \u2013 a mutton or lamb soup that exists in several regional varieties with the addition of different vegetables and fruits.\n* \"Brndzapour\" ( \"brndzapur\") \u2013 rice and potato soup, garnished with coriander.\n* \"Dzavarapour\" ( \"dzavarapur\") \u2013 hulled wheat, potatoes, tomato pur\u00e9e; egg yolks diluted with water are stirred into the soup before serving.\n* \"Flol\" \u2013 beef soup with coarsely chopped spinach leaves and cherry-sized dumplings () made from oatmeal or wheat flour.\n* Harissa ( \"harisa\", also known as \u0573\u056b\u057f\u0561\u057a\u0578\u0582\u0580) \u2013 porridge of coarsely ground wheat with pieces of boned chicken\n* \"Katnapour\" ( \"kat\u2019napur\") \u2013 a milk-based rice soup, sweetened with sugar.\n* \"Katnov\" ( \"kat\u2019nov\") \u2013 a milk-based rice soup with cinnamon and sugar.\n* \"Kololak\" ( \"kololak\") \u2013 soup cooked from mutton bones with ground mutton dumplings, rice, and fresh tarragon garnish; a beaten egg is stirred into the soup before serving.\n* \"Krchik\" ( \"k\u1e59\u010dik\") \u2013 soup made from sauerkraut, pickled cabbage, hulled wheat, potatoes, and tomato pur\u00e9e.\n* \"Mantapour\" ( \"mant\u02bfapur\") \u2013 beef soup with manti; the manti are typically served with matzoon or sour cream (\"ttvaser\"), accompanied by clear soup.\n* Matsnaprtosh ( \"matsnaprt'o\u0161\") - this is the same as okroshka, referenced earlier, with sour clotted milk diluted with cold water, with less vegetation than okroshka itself. Matsnaprtosh is served cold as a refreshment and supposedly normalizes blood pressure.\n* \"Putuk\" ( \"putuk\") \u2013 mutton cut into pieces, dried peas, potatoes, leeks, and tomato pur\u00e9e, cooked and served in individual crocks.\n* \"Sarnapour\" ( \"sa\u1e59napur\") \u2013 pea soup with rice, beets and matzoon.\n* \"Snkapur\" ( \"snkapur\") \u2013 a mushroom soup.\n* Tarkhana ( \"t\u2019arxana\") \u2013 flour and matzoon soup\n* \"Vospapour\" ( \"ospapur\") \u2013 lentil soup with dried fruits and ground walnuts.\n* \"Pekhapour\" (mustache soup) \u2013 chick peas, shelled wheat (\u056e\u0565\u056e\u0561\u056e), lentils, in a vegetarian broth and fresh tarragon. This soup originates from Aintab."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickled carrot",
        "text": "Japanese cuisine may use pickled carrots alongside many traditional Japanese meals. Pickled fruits and vegetables (tsukemono) are a quintessential part of the Japanese diet. Pickling in Japan has taken place since before refrigeration, so tsukemono such as pickled carrots was made to last long amounts of time. The different methods used to make tsukemono vary from simple salting or vinegar brining, to other various processes involving cultured molds and fermentation. A common method of pickling carrots is called misozuke. Misozuke pickles are made by covering vegetables in miso so give them the salty, miso flavor. Alternatively, you may find pickled carrots prepared in the nukazuke fashion \u2014 fermented in a mixture of roasted rice bran, salt, konbu, and other ingredients. Nukazuke pickled carrots are usually served alongside set meals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The 16th through 18th centuries brought more refined culinary techniques. It was during this time period that smoked meats and fish, pastry cooking, salads and green vegetables, chocolate, ice cream, wines, and juice were imported from abroad. At least for the urban aristocracy and provincial gentry, this opened the doors for the creative integration of these new foodstuffs with traditional Russian dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Offal",
        "text": "In Russia, beef liver and tongue are considered valuable delicacies, which may be cooked and served on their own. Kidneys and brains are sometimes used in cooking. The heart is often eaten on its own or used as an additive to the ground meat, as do lungs which give a lighter, airier texture to it. Pig's or sheep's stomach is sometimes used for \"nyanya\", a dish similar to haggis. Head and collagen-rich extremities are used to make \"kholodets\"\u2014a version of aspic, whereby these body parts are slowly boiled for several hours with meat and spices, removed and discarded, and the remaining broth is cooled until it congeals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lithuanian cuisine",
        "text": "Cucumbers, dill pickles, radishes and greens are quite popular. Beets (\"burokai\") are grown more widely than in other areas of the world and are often used for making borscht and side dishes. Cabbage is another popular vegetable, used as a basis for soups, or wrapped around fillings (\"baland\u0117liai\"). Tomatoes are now available year-round in stores, but those home-grown in family greenhouses are still considered superior. Sorrel is grown in the gardens for soup and salad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asazuke",
        "text": "Because of its short preparation time, asazuke generally lacks the pungency created by other, more lengthy pickling methods but retains more of the fresh taste of the vegetable. Commonly used vegetables include daikon, hakusai, cucumbers, or eggplant. Kimuchi, much like the similarly named Korean kimchi, is a cabbage asazuke but milder in flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Pelmeni are a traditional Eastern European (mainly Russian) dish usually made with minced meat filling, wrapped in thin dough (made out of flour and eggs, sometimes with milk or water added). For filling, pork, lamb, beef, or any other kind of meat can be used; mixing several kinds is popular. The traditional Ural recipe requires the filling be made with 45% of beef, 35% of lamb, and 20% of pork. Traditionally, various spices, such as pepper, onions, and garlic, are mixed into the filling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mordovian cuisine",
        "text": "Many farms grew cabbage, cucumbers, potatoes, garlic, carrots, beans, beets, turnips, radishes, and pumpkins. In summer and autumn, a great deal of fruit were eaten fresh. Pickled cucumbers were used for preparing dishes. Beets and pumpkins were eaten steamed as a dessert. \"Shschi\" (cabbage soup) was a traditional soup consisting of cabbage and potatoes cooked in chicken broth with onions and carrots added at the end. Herbs such as watercress, horseradish, onion, cow parsnip, horsetail, nettle, and wild goutweed were used for preparing dishes instead of spices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brining",
        "text": "Pickled vegetables are immersed in brine, vinegar or vinaigrette for extended periods of time, where they undergo anaerobic fermentation which affects their texture and flavor. Pickling can preserve perishable foods for months. Antimicrobial herbs and spices, such as mustard seed, garlic, cinnamon or cloves, are often added. Unlike the canning process, pickling (which includes fermentation) does not require that the food be completely sterile before it is sealed. The acidity or salinity of the solution, the temperature of fermentation, and the exclusion of oxygen determine which microorganisms dominate, and determine the flavor of the end product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Shashlyk is a form of Shish kebab (marinated meat grilled on a skewer) popular in former Soviet Union countries, notably in Georgia, Russia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Uzbekistan. It often features alternating slices of meat and onions. Even though the word \"shashlyk\" was apparently borrowed from the Crimean Tatars by the Cossacks as early as the 18th century, kebabs did not reach Moscow until the late 19th century, according to Vladimir Gilyarovsky's \"Moscow and Moscovites\". From then on, their popularity spread rapidly; by the 1910s they were a staple in St Petersburg restaurants and by the 1920s they were already a pervasive street food all over urban Russia. Shashlik is also used in Russia as a food to be cooked in an outdoor environment, similarly to barbecue in English-speaking countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borscht",
        "text": "According to Meek: Pokhlebkin and the Soviet Union are dead, yet Borshchland lives on. Recipes, like birds, ignore political boundaries.\u00a0... The faint outline of the Tsarist-Soviet imperium still glimmers in the collective steam off bowls of beetroot and cabbage in meat stock, and the soft sound of dollops of sour cream slipping into soup, from the Black Sea to the Sea of Japan and, in emigration, from Brooklyn to Berlin."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are common Russian Breakfast foods?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Cereal porridge cooked in milk, and Blini, thin griddle cakes similar to crepes, are served for breakfast commonly. Kulich is an Easter bread blessed by a priest is eaten before breakfast each day on Easter."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How is Kulich made?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Kulich is baked in tall, cylindrical tins (like coffee or fruit juice tins). Traditionally after the Easter service, the kulich, which has been put into a basket and decorated with colorful flowers, is blessed by the priest."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is a typical Russian main course?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about meat dishes, fish dishes, or vegetables?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about vegetables please!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Cabbage, potatoes, and cold tolerant greens are common in Russian cuisines; pickling cabbage, cucumbers, tomatoes and other vegetables in brine is used to preserve vegetables for winter use. Pickled apples and some other fruit also used to be widely popular and provided vitamins during periods when fresh fruit and vegetables are traditionally not available."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How is a vegetable is pickled (in simple terms)?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Pickling is done by either anaerobic fermentation in brine or immersion in vinegar.",
      "Pickling is the process of preserving or extending the shelf life of food by either anaerobic fermentation in brine or immersion in vinegar; if the food contains sufficient moisture, a pickling brine may be produced simply by adding dry salt; for example, sauerkraut and Korean kimchi are produced by salting the vegetables to draw out excess water. Natural fermentation at room temperature, by lactic acid bacteria, produces the required acidity; other pickles are made by placing vegetables in vinegar."
    ],
    "topic": "Russian cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Pickling:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pickling"
        ],
        "ctx": "Pickling is the process of preserving or extending the shelf life of food by either anaerobic fermentation in brine or immersion in vinegar. The pickling procedure typically affects the food's texture and flavor. The resulting food is called a \"pickle\", or, to prevent ambiguity, prefaced with \"pickled\". Foods that are pickled include vegetables, fruits, meats, fish, dairy and eggs."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pickling:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pickling"
        ],
        "ctx": "A distinguishing characteristic is a pH of 4.6 or lower, which is sufficient to kill most bacteria. Pickling can preserve perishable foods for months. Antimicrobial herbs and spices, such as mustard seed, garlic, cinnamon or cloves, are often added. If the food contains sufficient moisture, a pickling brine may be produced simply by adding dry salt. For example, sauerkraut and Korean kimchi are produced by salting the vegetables to draw out excess water. Natural fermentation at room temperature, by lactic acid bacteria, produces the required acidity. Other pickles are made by placing vegetables in vinegar. Like the canning process, pickling (which includes fermentation) does not require that the food be completely sterile before it is sealed. The acidity or salinity of the solution, the temperature of fermentation, and the exclusion of oxygen determine which microorganisms dominate, and determine the flavor of the end product."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pickling:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pickling"
        ],
        "ctx": "Pickling is the process of preserving or extending the shelf life of food by either anaerobic fermentation in brine or immersion in vinegar. The pickling procedure typically affects the food's texture and flavor. The resulting food is called a \"pickle\", or, to prevent ambiguity, prefaced with \"pickled\". Foods that are pickled include vegetables, fruits, meats, fish, dairy and eggs."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Cabbage, potatoes, and cold tolerant greens are common in Russian and other Eastern European cuisines. Pickling cabbage (sauerkraut), cucumbers, tomatoes and other vegetables in brine is used to preserve vegetables for winter use. Pickled apples and some other fruit also used to be widely popular. These are sources of vitamins during periods when fresh fruit and vegetables are traditionally not available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese pickles",
        "text": "Vegetables and plums are salted and allowed to ferment with the help of Lactic acid bacteria. Depending on the desired product, the vegetable may also be fermented with Chinese wine and spices. Some types of these preserved vegetables are produced through being repeatedly dried after the fermentation.\n*Gongcai ()\n*Meigan cai ()\n*Suan cai ()\n*Tianjin preserved vegetable ()\n*Prunus mume ()\n*Zhacai ()\n*Ya cai ()\n*Changzhou dried turnip ("
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "(from French ), a salad made of boiled beets, potatoes, carrots, pickles, onions, sauerkraut, and sometimes peas or white beans. Dressed with sunflower or olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vinegret",
        "text": "Vinegret () or Russian vinaigrette is a salad in Russian cuisine which is also popular in other post-Soviet states. This type of food includes diced cooked vegetables (red beets, potatoes, carrots), chopped onions, as well as sauerkraut and/or brined pickles. Other ingredients, such as green peas or beans, are sometimes also added. The naming comes from vinaigrette, which is used as a dressing. However, in spite of the name, vinegar is often omitted in modern cooking, and sunflower or other vegetable oil is just used. Some cooks add the brine from the pickled cucumbers or sauerkraut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "A 2017 study in \"Chinese Journal of Cancer\" has linked salted vegetables ( common among Chinese cuisine) to a fourfold increase in nasopharynx cancer. The researchers believe possible mechanisms include production of nitrosamines (a type of N-nitroso compound) by fermentation and activation of Epstein\u2013Barr virus by fermentation products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "There is a dish in modern Russian cuisine resembling a mix of \"svekolnik\" and pickled herring: \"selyodka pod shuboi\", literally \"[fur]coated herring\", where picked herring is coated with a layer of potatoes, a layer of mayo and/or \"smetana\" sour cream, with grated beet added on top for coating (hence \"fur\"-coat\" word, \"shuba\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "North Caucasian, Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian pickled items include beets, mushrooms, tomatoes, sauerkraut, cucumbers, ramsons, garlic, eggplant (which is typically stuffed with julienned carrots), custard squash, and watermelon. Garden produce is commonly pickled using salt, dill, blackcurrant leaves, bay leaves and garlic and is stored in a cool, dark place. The leftover brine (called \"rassol\" (\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043b) in Russian) has a number of culinary uses in these countries, especially for cooking traditional soups, such as shchi, rassolnik, and solyanka. \"Rassol\", especially cucumber or sauerkraut rassol, is also a favorite traditional remedy against morning hangover."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese pickles",
        "text": "A 2017 study in \"Chinese Journal of Cancer\" has linked salted vegetables (common among Chinese cuisine) to a fourfold increase in nasopharynx cancer, where fermentation was a critical step in creating nitrosamines, which some are confirmed carcinogens, as well as activation of Epstein\u2013Barr virus by fermentation products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Rassolnik is a hot soup in a salty-sour cucumber base. This dish formed in Russian cuisine quite late\u2014only in the 19th century. About this time the name rassolnik was attached to it, originating from the Russian word \"rassol\" which means \"brine\" (pickle water). Pickle water was known to be used as a base for soups from the 15th century at the latest. Its concentration and ratio with other liquids and soup components gave birth to different soups: solyanka, shchi, and of course rassolnik. The latest is moderately sour-salty soups on pickled cucumber base. Some are vegetarian, but more often with products like veal or beef kidneys or all poultry giblets (stomach, liver, heart, neck, feet). For best taste, there has to be a balance between the sour part and neutral absorbers (cereals, potatoes, root vegetables)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese pickles",
        "text": "Chinese pickles or Chinese preserved vegetables consist of various vegetables or fruits that have been fermented by pickling with salt and brine (), or marinated in mixtures based on soy sauce or savory bean pastes (). The former is usually done using high-fiber vegetables and fruits, such as Chinese cabbage, carrot, apple and pineapple, while the latter marinated group is made using a wide variety of vegetables, ranging from mustards and cucumbers to winter melon and radishes. As of now, there are more than 130 kinds of pickles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brining",
        "text": "Pickled vegetables are immersed in brine, vinegar or vinaigrette for extended periods of time, where they undergo anaerobic fermentation which affects their texture and flavor. Pickling can preserve perishable foods for months. Antimicrobial herbs and spices, such as mustard seed, garlic, cinnamon or cloves, are often added. Unlike the canning process, pickling (which includes fermentation) does not require that the food be completely sterile before it is sealed. The acidity or salinity of the solution, the temperature of fermentation, and the exclusion of oxygen determine which microorganisms dominate, and determine the flavor of the end product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese cuisine",
        "text": "A variety of dried or pickled vegetables are also processed, especially in drier or colder regions where fresh vegetables were hard to get out of season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickled cucumber",
        "text": "In Russia and Ukraine, pickles are used in rassolnik: a traditional soup made from pickled cucumbers, pearl barley, pork or beef kidneys, and various herbs. The dish is known to have existed as far back as the 15th century when it was called kalya."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "Polish, Czech and Slovak traditional pickles are cucumbers, sauerkraut, peppers, beetroot, tomatoes, but other pickled fruits and vegetables, including plums, pumpkins and mushrooms are also common."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kislye\" (sour) schi are made from pickled cabbage (sauerkraut), \"serye\" (grey) schi from the green outer leaves of the cabbage head. \"Zelyonye\" (green) schi are made from sorrel leaves, not cabbage, and used to be a popular summer soup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "As a garnish to meat dishes in the past the most common were porridges and cereals, in which the meat was boiled, later on boiled or rather steamed and baked root vegetables (turnips, carrots) as well as mushrooms; additionally the meat, without taking account its type, was garnished with pickled products\u2014pickled cabbage, or sour and \"soaked\" (marinated) apples (mochoniye yabloki) or cranberries. Pan juices, alone or mixed with sour cream or melted butter, were used as gravy to pour on garnishing vegetables and porridges. Meat sauces, i.e. gravies based on flour, butter, eggs and milk, are not common for traditional Russian cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Typical rassolnik is based on kidneys, brine (and pickles), vegetables and barley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Masahiko Nomi",
        "text": "Type A people are pickles. Properties of original vegetables remain even if fresh vegetables are processed to pickles. However, common properties of pickles do not change even if properties of fresh vegetables are controlled to a certain degree by processing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "In Vietnamese cuisine, vegetable pickles are called (\"salted vegetables\") or (\"sour vegetables\"). or is made from a variety of fruits and vegetables, including , eggplant, Napa cabbage, kohlrabi, carrots, radishes, papaya, cauliflower, and . made from carrots and radishes are commonly added to sandwiches. is made by pressing and sun-drying vegetables such as and bok choy. is a specialty of Ngh\u1ec7 An and H\u00e3 T\u0129nh provinces made from jackfruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese pickles",
        "text": "Vegetables are usually marinated in a soy sauce mixture with sugar, vinegar, salt, and additional spices. The vegetable are lightly boiled in the soy mixture before being left to cool and absorb the marinade:\n*Pao cai ()\n*Cucumbers ()\n*Radishes ()\n*Bitter melon ()\n*Garlic ()"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "China is home to a huge variety of pickled vegetables, including radish, \"baicai\" (Chinese cabbage, notably \"suan cai\", \"la bai cai\", \"pao cai\", and Tianjin preserved vegetable), \"zha cai\", chili pepper (e.g. \"duo jiao\"), and cucumbers, among many others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "An Italian pickled vegetable dish is giardiniera, which includes onions, carrots, celery and cauliflower. Many places in southern Italy, particularly in Sicily, pickle eggplants and hot peppers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mur\u0103turi",
        "text": "Mur\u0103turi (Romanian for \"pickles\") are vegetables or fruit pickled in brine or vinegar, as found in the Romanian cuisine of Romania and Moldova. The pickles are ordinarily made of locally grown foodstuffs such as beetroot, cucumber, green tomatoes (Romanian: \"gogonele\"), carrots, cabbage, bell peppers, melons, mushrooms, turnips, celery and cauliflower."
      },
      {
        "title": "Northeastern Chinese cuisine",
        "text": "Pickling is a very common form of food preservation. \"Suan cai\", or pickled Chinese cabbage, is traditionally made by most households in giant clay pickling vats. Another distinct feature that distinguishes Northeastern cuisine from other Chinese cuisines is the serving of more raw vegetables and raw seafood in the coastal areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "In traditional pickling, fruit or vegetables are submerged in brine (20\u201340 grams/L of salt (3.2\u20136.4 oz/imp gal or 2.7\u20135.3 oz/US gal)), or shredded and salted as in sauerkraut preparation, and held underwater by flat stones layered on top. Alternatively, a lid with an airtrap or a tight lid may be used if the lid is able to release pressure which may result from carbon dioxide buildup. Mold or (white) kahm yeast may form on the surface; kahm yeast is mostly harmless but can impart an off taste and may be removed without affecting the pickling process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lithuanian cuisine",
        "text": "Pickling is a popular way to prepare vegetables for winter or just to give them a particular flavour. Cucumbers, beets, dills, homegrown tomatoes, onions, garlic is pickled and available all year round."
      },
      {
        "title": "Danish cuisine",
        "text": "Although the potato is the central vegetable in traditional Danish cooking, it is by no means the only vegetable associated with Danish cuisine. Those other vegetables that play an important role often had to be preserved for long periods of time in cold rooms, or were pickled or marinated for storage. Cauliflower, carrots and a variety of cabbages were often a part of the daily meal, especially when in season, in the days prior to widespread refrigeration.\n*Beans (\"b\u00f8nner\")\n*Peas (\"\u00e6rter\") Especially popular when freshly picked.\n*Brussels sprouts (\"rosenk\u00e5l\")\n*Cabbage (\"k\u00e5l\")\n*Carrots (\"guler\u00f8dder\")\n*Creamed kale (\"gr\u00f8nlangk\u00e5l\"), spinach or white cabbage\n*Cauliflower (\"blomk\u00e5l\")\n*Cucumber salad (\"agurkesalat\")\n*Italian salad (\"italiensk salat\"), a mixture of vegetables in a mayonnaise dressing, served on ham and other cold cuts. The name comes from the red-white-green coloring, the colors of the Italian flag. The salad's colouring originates from carrots, mayonnaise and asparagus, and green peas.\n*Onion (\"l\u00f8g\")\n*Pickled red beet slices (\"r\u00f8dbeder\")\n*Pickles, a mixture of pickled vegetables in a yellow gelatinous sauce, served with corned beef\n* Russian salad (\"russisk salat\"), a red beet salad (not to be confused with Olivier salad, which is also known as Russian salad).\n*Sweet and sour red cabbage (\"r\u00f8dk\u00e5l\"). Saut\u00e9ed red cabbage, boiled with red currant juice, apples and vinegar. Additional sugar may be added, and sometimes cinnamon or cloves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickle soup",
        "text": "\"Rassolnik\" is a sour soup in Russian cuisine prepared with primary ingredients of stock, dill pickle, veal or lamb kidneys, pearl barley and potato. The key part of rassolnik is the pickle brine called \"rassol\" in Russian. Additional ingredients may include beef stock, carrot, leek, salt, pepper, and others. It may be served garnished with sour cream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "Pickling\n--History.\n----Etymology.\n--In world cuisines.\n----Asia.\n------South Asia.\n------Southeast Asia.\n------East Asia.\n------Western Asia.\n----Europe.\n------Central and Eastern Europe.\n------Southern Europe.\n------Northern Europe.\n----North America.\n----Mexico, Central America, and South America.\n--Process.\n--Possible health hazards of pickled vegetables.\n----Risk reduction.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "\"Khamutzim\" are pickled vegetables made by soaking in water and salt (and sometimes olive oil) in a pot and withdrawing them from air. Ingredients can include cucumber, cabbage, eggplant, carrot, turnip, radish, onion, caper, lemon, olives, cauliflower, tomatoes, chili pepper, bell pepper, garlic and beans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zdenka Samish",
        "text": "Other research projects included a joint U.S.-Israeli study of microorganisms found in fruit and vegetable pulp; techniques for squeezing olives and producing olive oil; tomato paste production; industrial processing of potatoes and peaches; and freezing and dehydrating vegetables. Her research on \"bloaters\" \u2013 cucumbers that float to the surface instead of staying in the brine during the pickling process \u2013 was reported in the U.S. publications \"Science News\" and \"Organic Gardening and Farming\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "In Iran, Turkey, Arab countries, the Balkans, and the South Caucasus, pickles (called torshi in Persian, \"tur\u015fu\" in Turkish language and \"mekhallel\" in Arabic) are commonly made from turnips, peppers, carrots, green olives, cucumbers, eggplants, cabbage, green tomatoes, lemons, and cauliflower."
      },
      {
        "title": "Azerbaijani cuisine",
        "text": "Consumption of pickled foods, particularly pickled vegetables is common in Azerbaijan. A plate of pickled foods is served as one of the snacks prior to the main dish, or alternatively as a side dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meigan cai",
        "text": "The pickle consists of a whole head of various varieties of Chinese mustards and cabbages (\u82a5\u83dc (leaf mustard), \u6cb9\u83dc (rape), \u767d\u83dc (Chinese cabbage) that has undergone an elaborate process consisting of drying, steaming, and salting. The vegetables are harvested, trimmed before the Qingming Festival, and sun-dried until limp. It is then salted or brined, kneaded until the juices are exuded, and left to ferment in large clay urns for 15 to 20 days. The vegetable is then repeatedly steamed and dried until reddish brown in colour and highly fragrant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickled herring",
        "text": "Pickled herring, especially brined herring, is common in Russia and Ukraine, where it is served cut into pieces and seasoned with sunflower oil and onions, or can be part of herring salads, such as dressed herring (, , lit. 'herring under a fur coat'), which are usually prepared with vegetables and seasoned with mayonnaise dressing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "A minimum of vegetables is added in preparation, and in classical cooking, ukha was simply a rich fish broth served to accompany fish pies (rasstegai, kuliebiaka, etc.). These days it is more often a fish soup, cooked with potatoes and other vegetables. A wide variety of freshwater fish is traditionally used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dacha",
        "text": "Many Russians prefer to grow vegetables themselves because of the widespread belief in the excessive use of agrochemicals in the vegetables from supermarkets and grocery stores, and the higher costs of the vegetables in stores and bazaars, especially among the older part of the population. Also, growing one's own food supplies is a long-lived Russian tradition practised even by many affluent Russians. It is seen as a way to have a connection to the land, to be self-sufficient, and for many, to find some escape from a capitalist economy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet cuisine",
        "text": "Holiday meals were typically derived from old French and Russian cuisines with extensive use of heavy sauces, marinated meats, and melted cheese. Mixing ingredients and extensive cooking was common, just as in classic French cuisine. Generally, much effort was made in order to prepare such meals. Often, the richness of a holiday table was an issue of honor for the family.\n* Olivier (also known as Russian salad)\n* Herring under a fur coat\n* Kholodets\n* Vinegret (from French vinaigrette) - red beet root salad with onions, pickles, boiled potatoes, carrots, dressed with sunflower oil.\n* \"Vitaminniy salat\" (Vitamin salad) - a cabbage-based salad with seasonal vegetables like tomatoes, cucumbers, onions, carrots, etc.\n* Various pickles, such as cucumbers, tomatoes, ramsons, and mushrooms.\n* Sauerkraut mixed with carrots and served as a salad.\n* Morkovcha (also known as \"Korean carrot salad\") - a spicy carrot salad (a Koryo-saram dish).\n* Borscht - (Ukrainian)\n* Chicken noodle soup\n* Kharcho\n* Okroshka\n* Pacha - (Armenian/Azerbaijani/Georgian)\n* Pea soup\n* Rassolnik\n* Shchi - (Russian)\n* Solyanka\n* Sorrel soup\n* Ukha\n* Beef Stroganoff\n* Chicken Kiev (Russian) - a filled chicken cutlet\n* Cutlet or meat ball\n* Various kinds of dumplings, like pelmeni (Russian), vareniki (Ukrainian), or manti (Central Asian)\n* Goulash, ragout, or another kind of stew\n* Golubtsy - cabbage rolls stuffed with rice and meat and served in tomato sauce\n* Plov (Uzbek) - rice dish\n* Sausages\n* Shashlik - (Caucasus)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "Romanian pickles (mur\u0103turi) are made out of beetroot, cucumbers, green tomatoes (\"gogonele\"), carrots, cabbage, garlic, sauerkraut (bell peppers stuffed with cabbage), bell peppers, melons, mushrooms, turnips, celery and cauliflower. Meat, like pork, can also be preserved in salt and lard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "A distinguishing characteristic is a pH of 4.6 or lower, which is sufficient to kill most bacteria. Pickling can preserve perishable foods for months. Antimicrobial herbs and spices, such as mustard seed, garlic, cinnamon or cloves, are often added. If the food contains sufficient moisture, a pickling brine may be produced simply by adding dry salt. For example, sauerkraut and Korean kimchi are produced by salting the vegetables to draw out excess water. Natural fermentation at room temperature, by lactic acid bacteria, produces the required acidity. Other pickles are made by placing vegetables in vinegar. Like the canning process, pickling (which includes fermentation) does not require that the food be completely sterile before it is sealed. The acidity or salinity of the solution, the temperature of fermentation, and the exclusion of oxygen determine which microorganisms dominate, and determine the flavor of the end product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "at affluent households also mentions sausage-making, spit-roasted meats, stews and many other meat dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "Sauerkraut, as well as cabbage pickled in vinegar, with carrot and other vegetables is commonly consumed as a kosher dish in Israel and is considered pareve, meaning that it contains no meat or dairy so it can be consumed with either."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Olivier salad (also known as Russian salad), a mayonnaise-based potato salad distinguished by its diced texture and the contrasting flavors of pickles, hard-boiled eggs, boiled carrots, boiled potatoes, meat, and peas. This dish is one of the main New Year buffets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables are often eaten raw or pickled, as well as cooked. While the cuisine does not boast a multitude of sauces, it focuses on herbs, spices, and the freshness of ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The Russian cuisine itself is also geographically diverse, its variations dependent on raw materials and cooking methods available locally. In the North of Russia, it incorporates local berries such as cloudberry or crowberry, fish such as cod, game meat such as elk, or even edible moss known as yagel. Conversely, in Siberia it includes the local fish varieties, particularly those of the coregonus genus such as arctic cisco or muksun, and borrows the local cooking methods, to result in raw fish eaten frozen or combined with spices. Further East, local specialties are added such as eagle fern, kolomikta fruit, scallops and Kamchatka crabs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The kvass most commonly used in cooking is white okroshka kvass, which is much more sour than drinking kvass. Spices used include mustard, black pepper and pickled cucumber (specifically, the liquid from the pickles), solely or in combination. For the final touch, boiled eggs and smetana (similar to cr\u00e8me fra\u00eeche) are added. Often, the mustard, chopped hard-boiled yolks, pepper and pickle brine are combined into a spicy sauce that is added to the soup to taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Various minced meat dishes were adopted from other cuisines and became popular only in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries; for traditional Russian cuisine, they are not typical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ottoman cuisine",
        "text": "Dernschwam wrote that, while cabbage was found, the Turks did not know how to cook it with beef like the Hungarians, saying they instead pickled it, a common preparation in those days. Pickled cabbage was known as early as Byzantine times according to the description of a Byzantine feast recorded in 'Danishmendname\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Russian cuisine\n--History.\n--Ethnic and regional variations and influences.\n--Soups.\n----Cold soups.\n----Hot soups.\n--Salads.\n--Porridge.\n--Main dishes.\n----Meat.\n----Fish.\n------Selyodka pod shuboi.\n----Vegetables.\n--Desserts and pastries.\n--Beverages.\n----Alcoholic.\n----Non-alcoholic.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kal'ya was a very common dish first served in the 16th\u201317th centuries. Subsequently, it almost completely disappeared from Russian cuisine. Often it was incorrectly called \"fish rassolnik\". The cooking technique is mostly the same as of ukha, but to the broth were added pickled cucumbers, pickle water, lemons and lemon juice, either separately or all together. The main characteristic of kal'ya is that only fat, rich fish was used; sometimes caviar was added along with the fish. More spices are added, and the soup turns out more piquant and thicker than ukha. Formerly kal'ya was considered a festivity dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "There are typically two types of vegetables in okroshka. The first must have a neutral taste, such as boiled potatoes, turnips, rutabagas, carrots, or fresh cucumbers. The second must be spicy and aromatic, like radishes or green onion as well as other herbs\u2014greens of dill, parsley, chervil, celery, or tarragon. Different meat and poultry can be used in the same soup. The most common ingredient is beef alone or with poultry. A mild bologna-like sausage is sometimes used. If it is made with fish, the best choice would be tench, European perch, pike-perch, cod, or other neutral-tasting fish. In the coastal areas smoked and/or salted salmon is preferred instead, often in combination with other meats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of Russian innovation",
        "text": "Rassolnik\n* Rassolnik is a Russian soup made from pickled cucumbers, pearl barley and pork or beef kidneys, though a vegetarian version also exists. The dish is known from the 15th century, when it was initially called \"kalya\". The key part of rassolnik is \"rassol\", a liquid based on the juice of pickled cucumbers with some additions, famous for its usage in hangover treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lactobacillus",
        "text": "In many traditional pickling processes, vegetables are submerged in brine, and salt-tolerant lactobacilli feed on natural sugars found in the vegetables. The resulting mix of salt and lactic acid is a hostile environment for other microbes, such as fungi, and the vegetables are thus preserved\u2014remaining edible for long periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tsukemono",
        "text": "According to EU and US trade code definitions, tsukemono are classified as 'preserved vegetables' rather than 'pickles' because they are not primarily preserved in acetic acid or distilled vinegar. They have a different tax rate than western pickles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Giardiniera",
        "text": "The Italian version includes bell peppers, celery, carrots, cauliflower and gherkins. The pickled vegetables are marinated in oil, red- or white-wine vinegar, herbs and spices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Podravka",
        "text": "Podravka also produces pickled vegetables and Ajvar relish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Torshi",
        "text": "\"Selska turshiya\" is made with green peppers, green tomatoes, carrots, cauliflower, cabbage, and celery. The vegetables are put in a container, pressed down with some twigs and a stone, and a marinade made of salt, vinegar and water is poured on. The pickles are left to ferment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rmeileh",
        "text": "Fruits and vegetables are grown, including almkhovh, olives, olive oil, citrus fruits, bananas, guava."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morkovcha",
        "text": "The typical ingredients are finely julienned carrots, garlic, onion, ground red pepper, ground coriander seeds, vinegar, vegetable oil, salt and pepper. It may also include sesame seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickled cucumber",
        "text": "The fermentation process is dependent on the Lactobacillus bacteria that naturally occur on the skin of a growing cucumber. These may be removed during commercial harvesting and packing processes. Bacteria cultures can be reintroduced to the vegetables by adding already fermented foods such as yogurt or other fermented milk products, pieces of sourdough bread, or pickled vegetables such as sauerkraut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Torshi",
        "text": "Torshi ( \"torshi\", meaning \"sourness\") are the pickled vegetables of many Middle Eastern and Balkan cuisines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bogdanovdol",
        "text": "There is a very well-developed vegetable production, and fruit growing in the village."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kissel or kisel is a viscous fruit dish, popular as a dessert and as a drink. It consists of the sweetened juice of berries, like mors, but it is thickened with cornstarch, potato starch or arrowroot; sometimes red wine or fresh or dried fruits are added. It is similar to the Danish \"r\u00f8dgr\u00f8d\" and German \"Rote Gr\u00fctze\". Swedish \"bl\u00e5b\u00e4rssoppa\" is a similarly prepared bilberry dessert, although only fresh or frozen bilberries, not dried berries are used to prepare it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "In Albania, Bulgaria, Serbia, North Macedonia and Turkey, mixed pickles, known as \"turshi\", \"tursija\" or \"turshu\" form popular appetizers, which are typically eaten with \"rakia\". Pickled green tomatoes, cucumbers, carrots, bell peppers, peppers, eggplants, and sauerkraut are also popular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "Pickling is the process of preserving or extending the shelf life of food by either anaerobic fermentation in brine or immersion in vinegar. The pickling procedure typically affects the food's texture and flavor. The resulting food is called a \"pickle\", or, to prevent ambiguity, prefaced with \"pickled\". Foods that are pickled include vegetables, fruits, meats, fish, dairy and eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asazuke",
        "text": "Because of its short preparation time, asazuke generally lacks the pungency created by other, more lengthy pickling methods but retains more of the fresh taste of the vegetable. Commonly used vegetables include daikon, hakusai, cucumbers, or eggplant. Kimuchi, much like the similarly named Korean kimchi, is a cabbage asazuke but milder in flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Fish was important in pre-revolutionary cuisine, especially on Russian Orthodox fast days when meat was forbidden, similar to the Catholic custom of eating fish instead of meat on Fridays. Strictly freshwater fish such as carp and sudak (Sander lucioperca, Zander) were commonly eaten in inland areas, as well as anadromous sturgeon and in northern areas salmon, pike and trout. A greater variety of fish\u2014including saltwater species\u2014were preserved by salting, pickling or smoking and consumed as \"zakuski\" (hors d'oeuvres)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Alternative approach is to add butter, salt, sugar, different jams, fresh fruit and berries for alternating the taste; in case of plain buckwheat porrige, Russians may put it into a soup plate/soup bowl and add a mugful of milk, creating a soup-like kasha (or rather, a dish close to \"cornflakes in milk\" breakfast)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickled carrot",
        "text": "Japanese cuisine may use pickled carrots alongside many traditional Japanese meals. Pickled fruits and vegetables (tsukemono) are a quintessential part of the Japanese diet. Pickling in Japan has taken place since before refrigeration, so tsukemono such as pickled carrots was made to last long amounts of time. The different methods used to make tsukemono vary from simple salting or vinegar brining, to other various processes involving cultured molds and fermentation. A common method of pickling carrots is called misozuke. Misozuke pickles are made by covering vegetables in miso so give them the salty, miso flavor. Alternatively, you may find pickled carrots prepared in the nukazuke fashion \u2014 fermented in a mixture of roasted rice bran, salt, konbu, and other ingredients. Nukazuke pickled carrots are usually served alongside set meals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carrot salad",
        "text": "The Koryo-saram, ethnic Koreans in the post-Soviet Union states, popularized spicy pickled carrot salad, known throughout the Soviet Union as Korean-style carrots. It is said to have been unknown in South Korea until recently, but has gained an international following and is served in many cafeterias throughout the CIS where it is also sold in supermarkets, and featured regularly as a side dish on dinner tables and at holiday feasts set by many ethnicities of the former Soviet Union."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese pickles",
        "text": "Chinese pickles\n--History.\n--Flavor.\n--Consumption.\n--Fermented.\n--Marinated.\n--Possible health hazards of pickled vegetables.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "(or , from Russian , fur coat)), also known as \"dressed herring\", is chopped salted herring under a \"coat\" of shredded cooked beet, sometimes with a layer of egg or other vegetables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "In Hungary the main meal \"(lunch)\" usually includes some kind of pickles \"(savany\u00fas\u00e1g)\", but pickles are also commonly consumed at other times of the day. The most commonly consumed pickles are sauerkraut \"(savany\u00fa k\u00e1poszta)\", pickled cucumbers and peppers, and \"csalam\u00e1d\u00e9\", but tomatoes, carrots, beetroot, baby corn, onions, garlic, certain squashes and melons, and a few fruits like plums and apples are used to make pickles too. Stuffed pickles are specialties usually made of peppers or melons pickled after being stuffed with a cabbage filling. Pickled plum stuffed with garlic is a unique Hungarian type of pickle just like \"csalam\u00e1d\u00e9\" and leavened cucumber \"(kov\u00e1szos uborka)\". \"Csalam\u00e1d\u00e9\" is a type of mixed pickle made of cabbage, cucumber, paprika, onion, carrot, tomatoes, and bay leaf mixed up with vinegar as the fermenting agent. Leavened cucumber, unlike other types of pickled cucumbers that are around all year long, is rather a seasonal pickle produced in the summer. Cucumbers, spices, herbs, and slices of bread are put in a glass jar with salt water and kept in direct sunlight for a few days. The yeast from the bread, along with other pickling agents and spices fermented under the hot sun, give the cucumbers a unique flavor, texture, and slight carbonation. Its juice can be used instead of carbonated water to make a special type of spritzer \"('\u00dajh\u00e1zy fr\u00f6ccs')\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Russian dishes",
        "text": "List of Russian dishes\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Guizhou cuisine",
        "text": "Guizhou cuisine features various pickled vegetable, or \" (). The pickled vegetables are refreshing and healthy, and more importantly, bring the sour sensation. Fresh vegetables are dried without exposure to sunlight after being cleaned. Afterwards, they are salted and sealed in containers for four or five days to allow proper fermentation. Pickled cabbage and radish are served as side dishes, and popular to be consumed with noodles and rice-noodles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Krupenik",
        "text": "A () is a sweet or savory casserole made of groats (wheat, buckwheat, barley or rice) and \"\", or Russian farmer cheese. It is a dish that is typical for Russian cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Offal",
        "text": "In Russia, beef liver and tongue are considered valuable delicacies, which may be cooked and served on their own. Kidneys and brains are sometimes used in cooking. The heart is often eaten on its own or used as an additive to the ground meat, as do lungs which give a lighter, airier texture to it. Pig's or sheep's stomach is sometimes used for \"nyanya\", a dish similar to haggis. Head and collagen-rich extremities are used to make \"kholodets\"\u2014a version of aspic, whereby these body parts are slowly boiled for several hours with meat and spices, removed and discarded, and the remaining broth is cooled until it congeals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "In Greece, pickles, called \"\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03c3\u03af(\u03b1)\", are made out of carrots, celery, eggplants stuffed with diced carrots, cauliflower, tomatoes, and peppers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Soups such as borsht were considered a staple in Russia. Soups like \"krupnik\" were made of barley, potatoes and fat. This was the staple food of the poor students of the \"yeshivot\"; in richer families, meat was added to this soup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Despite such deep mutual influence, many national cuisines within the borders of the Russian Federation maintain their uniqueness, and thus have their own separate articles dedicated to them, such as Tatar cuisine, Sakha cuisine, or Yamal cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet cuisine",
        "text": "In the West, Soviet cuisine is frequently conflated with Russian cuisine, though the particular national cuisine of Russia can be thought of as discrete."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borscht",
        "text": "According to Meek: Pokhlebkin and the Soviet Union are dead, yet Borshchland lives on. Recipes, like birds, ignore political boundaries.\u00a0... The faint outline of the Tsarist-Soviet imperium still glimmers in the collective steam off bowls of beetroot and cabbage in meat stock, and the soft sound of dollops of sour cream slipping into soup, from the Black Sea to the Sea of Japan and, in emigration, from Brooklyn to Berlin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Its foundations were laid by the peasant food of the rural population in an often harsh climate, with a combination of plentiful fish, pork, poultry, caviar, mushrooms, berries, and honey. Crops of rye, wheat, barley and millet provided the ingredients for a plethora of breads, pancakes, pies, cereals, beer and vodka. Soups and stews are centered on seasonal or storable produce, fish and meats. Such food remained the staple for the vast majority of Russians well into the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "South Asian pickle",
        "text": "In Southern India, most vegetables are sun-dried with spices, taking advantage of immensely hot and sunny days throughout the year, thus making pickles an everyday staple. The sun-drying naturally preserves the vegetable, along with spices such as mustard, fenugreek seeds, chili powder, salt, asafoetida, and turmeric. To speed up the process, vegetables may be cooked first.The states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh are famous for their spicy pickles. Unripe mango with garlic and ginger ( in Telugu), unripe tamarind coupled sometimes with green chillies ( in Telugu) and red chillies ( in Telugu) are a staple with everyday meals. Gooseberry ( in Telugu) and lemon ( in Telugu) are also widely eaten pickles as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese pickles",
        "text": "Chinese pickles have a long history that dates back to 1100 B.C.E., during the Zhou dynasty. The word \u201cpickle\u201d, \u201ctsu ('zi' in Pinyin)\u201d in Chinese, means \u201csalt and incubate\u201d. The pickled vegetables and fruit we refer to today date in practice back to the sixth century B.C.E. Ancient people pickled mainly to preserve their vegetables and fruit because pickling preserves food far past the natural date of expiration. Foods would often be pickled during the harvest season for consumption during later parts of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "A wide variety of foods are pickled throughout East Asia. The pickles are often sweet, salty, and/or spicy and preserved in sweetened solutions or oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "South Asia has a large variety of pickles (known as \"achar\" (\u0905\u091a\u093e\u0930, \u0627\u0686\u0627\u0631) in Nepali, Assamese, Bengali, Hindi (\u0905\u091a\u093e\u0930), Punjabi, Gujarati, Urdu (\u0627\u0686\u0627\u0631) \"uppinakaayi\" in Kannada, \"lonacha\" (\u0932\u094b\u0923\u091a\u0902) in Marathi, \"uppilittathu\" or \"achar\" in Malayalam, \"oorukai\" in Tamil, pacchadi or \"ooragaya\" in Telugu, which are mainly made from varieties of mango, lemon, lime, gongura (a sour leafy shrub), tamarind, Indian gooseberry (amla), and chilli. Vegetables such as eggplant, carrots, cauliflower, tomato, bitter gourd, green tamarind, ginger, garlic, onion, and citron are also occasionally used. These fruits and vegetables are generally mixed with ingredients like salt, spices, and vegetable oils and are set to mature in a moistureless medium."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Kholodets (or Studen'): Jellied chopped pieces of pork or veal meat with some spices added (pepper, parsley, garlic, bay leaf) and minor amounts of vegetables (carrots, onions). The meat is boiled in large pieces for long periods of time, then chopped, boiled a few times again and finally chilled for 3\u20134 hours (hence the name) forming a jelly mass, though gelatin is not used because calves' feet, pigs' heads and other such offal is gelatinous enough on its own. It is served with horseradish, mustard, or ground garlic with smetana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "Japanese \"tsukemono\" (pickled foods) include \"takuan\" (daikon), \"umeboshi\" (ume plum), \"tataki gobo\" (burdock root), \"gari\" & \"beni sh\u014dga\" (ginger), turnip, cucumber, and Chinese cabbage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "The richer variant of shchi includes several ingredients, but the first and last components are a must:\n# Cabbage.\n# Meat (very rarely fish or mushrooms).\n# Carrots, basil or parsley roots.\n# Spicy herbs (onions, celery, dill, garlic, pepper, bay leaf).\n# Sour components (smetana, apples, sauerkraut, pickle water)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soviet cuisine",
        "text": "Green vegetables and salads were seasonal, and with some exceptions (like sauerkraut-based ones, as sauerkraut was available year-round) uncommon at the table. Spices were rarely used, aside from moderate amounts of mustard and black pepper, and food had a generally mild taste. There were no differences between breakfast, lunch, and dinner meals. Lunch was always consumed with a soup as a first course. A tradition of a \"fish day\" on Thursdays, when fish or other seafood was consumed instead of meat, was started in State-run canteens and cafeterias to alleviate a shortage of meat, but nevertheless filtered to many private households. The common approach, which still somewhat holds today in Russia is: eat a lot at each meal, few times a day. Eat nothing between meals \u2013 the reason for this was that the State-run eateries in the Soviet time was largely under the control of doctors, and the medical wisdom at the time was that snacking between major meals would ruin the appetite (especially for children) and will lead to indigestion and intestinal distress. A typical lunch meal could consist of chicken-broth-based soup or borscht for a first course and fried meatballs or goulash served with boiled potatoes or buckwheat porridge as a main course. Butter or sour cream was typically used as a sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milt",
        "text": "In Russian cuisine, herring milt (\u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043a\u0430, \"Moloka\") is pickled the same way as the rest of the fish, but eaten separately, sometimes combined with pickled herring roe. Various whitefish soft roes are usually consumed fried and it is an inexpensive everyday dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dacha",
        "text": "While a large portion of urban Russians grow some vegetables in their dacha gardens, the perception in some parts of society that urban Russians are becoming increasingly self-sufficient is a myth, and only some 15 percent of vegetables are grown by urban dwellers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tianjin preserved vegetable",
        "text": "Tianjin preserved vegetable (; also called tung tsai (), Tientsin preserved vegetable or Tianjin preserved cabbage) is a type of pickled Chinese cabbage originating in Tianjin, China. It consists of finely chopped Tianjin cabbage (\u7bad\u6746\u83dc; a variety of Chinese cabbage with an elongated shape) and salt. Garlic is also generally added in the pickling process, although it is omitted in versions prepared for consumption by members of certain Chinese Buddhist sects, who practice strict Buddhist vegetarianism and do not consume garlic or other spicy foods. This pickled vegetable is used to flavor soups, stir fries or stewed dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Norwegian cuisine",
        "text": "Pickled herring: a pickle is made with vinegar, sugar, herbs and spices like dill, mustard seed, black peppercorns, onion and so on. The pickle must be acidic enough to prevent bacterial growth. Rinsed, salt-cured herring is added and allowed to stand for at least 24 hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pao cai",
        "text": "Vegetables have been a food resource for human survival since ancient times, and many of them have been consumed by working people since primitive societies. In order to supply people with the most basic food needs, it was necessary to store some vegetables during the peak harvest season for consumption in the off-season. Therefore, in practice, people used salt to preserve the fresh vegetables by salting and pickling them. The vegetables pickled with salt are called salted vegetables, hence salted vegetables are the prototype of pao cai, which is the most traditional biological fermented product in China and is a precious national heritage that continues to this day."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of English words of Russian origin",
        "text": "Rassolnik (Russian: \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a), is a hot soup in a salty-sour cucumber base. This dish formed in Russian cuisine quite late\u2014only in the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borscht",
        "text": "Many regional recipes for borscht have also developed in Russian cuisine. Examples include the Moscow borscht, served with pieces of beef, ham and Vienna sausages; Siberian borscht with meatballs; and Pskov borscht with dried smelt from the local lakes. Other unique Russian variants include a monastic Lenten borscht with marinated kelp instead of cabbage and the Russian Navy borscht (\"), the defining characteristic of which is that the vegetables are cut into square or diamond-shaped chunks rather than julienned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickling",
        "text": "Turkish pickles, called \"tur\u015fu\", are made out of vegetables, roots, and fruits such as peppers, cucumber, Armenian cucumber, cabbage, tomato, eggplant (aubergine), carrot, turnip, beetroot, green almond, baby watermelon, baby cantaloupe, garlic, cauliflower, bean and green plum. A mixture of spices flavor the pickles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sauerkraut",
        "text": "In Azerbaijani, Belarusian, Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Moravian, Polish, Russian, and Ukrainian cuisine, chopped cabbage is often pickled together with shredded carrots. Other ingredients may include caraway seeds, whole or quartered apples for additional flavor or cranberry for flavor and better keeping (the benzoic acid in cranberries is a common preservative). Bell peppers and beets are added in some recipes for color. The resulting sauerkraut salad is typically served cold, as \"zakuski\" or a side dish. A homemade type of very mild sauerkraut is available, where white cabbage is pickled with salt in a refrigerator for only three to seven days. This process results in very little lactic acid production. Sometimes in Russia double fermentation is used, with the initial step producing an exceptionally sour product, which is then \"corrected\" by adding 30-50% more fresh cabbage and fermenting the mix again. The flavor additives like apples, beets, cranberries, and sometimes even watermelons are usually introduced at this step."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are common Russian Breakfast foods?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Cereal porridge cooked in milk, and Blini, thin griddle cakes similar to crepes, are served for breakfast commonly. Kulich is an Easter bread blessed by a priest is eaten before breakfast each day on Easter."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How is Kulich made?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Kulich is baked in tall, cylindrical tins (like coffee or fruit juice tins). Traditionally after the Easter service, the kulich, which has been put into a basket and decorated with colorful flowers, is blessed by the priest."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is a typical Russian main course?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about meat dishes, fish dishes, or vegetables?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about vegetables please!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Cabbage, potatoes, and cold tolerant greens are common in Russian cuisines; pickling cabbage, cucumbers, tomatoes and other vegetables in brine is used to preserve vegetables for winter use. Pickled apples and some other fruit also used to be widely popular and provided vitamins during periods when fresh fruit and vegetables are traditionally not available."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How is a vegetable is pickled (in simple terms)?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Pickling is done by either anaerobic fermentation in brine or immersion in vinegar."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are pickled vegetables less nutritious than fresh vegetables?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Pickling may also improve the nutritional value of food by introducing B vitamins produced by bacteria.",
      "Pickling may improve the nutritional value of food by introducing B vitamins produced by bacteria."
    ],
    "topic": "Russian cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Pickling:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pickling",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "Pickling was used as a way to preserve food for out-of-season use and for long journeys, especially by sea. Salt pork and salt beef were common staples for sailors before the days of steam engines. Although the process was invented to preserve foods, pickles are also made and eaten because people enjoy the resulting flavors. Pickling may also improve the nutritional value of food by introducing B vitamins produced by bacteria."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pickling:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pickling",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "Pickling was used as a way to preserve food for out-of-season use and for long journeys, especially by sea. Salt pork and salt beef were common staples for sailors before the days of steam engines. Although the process was invented to preserve foods, pickles are also made and eaten because people enjoy the resulting flavors. Pickling may also improve the nutritional value of food by introducing B vitamins produced by bacteria."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Bachman mentioned that when the young groundhogs are a few months old, they prepare for separation, digging a number of holes in the area of their early home. Some of these holes were only a few feet deep and never occupied but the numerous burrows gave the impression that groundhogs live in communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "The groundhog is a lowland creature of North America; it is found through much of the Eastern United States, across Canada and into Alaska."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Buckeye Chuck\", Ohio's official State Groundhog, is one of two weather predicting groundhogs. He resides in Marion, Ohio."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The day is observed with various ceremonies at other locations in North America beyond the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Great Neck Greta\", of Great Neck, Long Island, New York, predicted in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "One theory states that the groundhog naturally comes out of hibernation in central Pennsylvania in early February because of the increasing average temperature. Under this theory, if German settlement had been centered further north, Groundhog Day would take place at a later date. However, the observed behavior of groundhogs in central New Jersey was that they mostly come out of their burrows in mid-March, regardless of Groundhog Day weather."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "The groundhog prefers open country and the edges of woodland, and is rarely far from a burrow entrance. \"Marmota monax\" has a wide geographic range. It is typically found in low-elevation forests, small woodlots, fields, pastures and hedgerows. It constructs dens in well-drained soil, and most have summer and winter dens. Human activity has increased food access and abundance, allowing \"M. monax\" to thrive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Quigley\", of The Hamptons (resident of the \"Save the Animals Rescue Foundation\"), predicts at Quogue Village Fire Department."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Groundhog Day (, , , ; Nova Scotia: Daks Day) is a popular North American tradition observed in the United States and Canada on February 2. It derives from the Pennsylvania Dutch superstition that if a groundhog emerges from its burrow on this day and sees its shadow due to clear weather, it will retreat to its den, and winter will go on for six more weeks; if it does not see its shadow because of cloudiness, spring will arrive early."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Groundhog Day (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Groundhog Day is a holiday celebrated on February 2 in the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The largest Groundhog Day celebration is held in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, where crowds as large as 40,000 gather each year (nearly eight times the year-round population of the town). The average draw had been about 2,000 until the 1993 film \"Groundhog Day\", which is set at the festivities in Punxsutawney, after which attendance rose to about 10,000. The official Phil is pretended to be a supercentenarian, having been the same forecasting beast since 1887."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In the Midwest, Sun Prairie, Wisconsin, is the self-proclaimed \"Groundhog Capital of the World\". This title taken in response to the \"Punxsutawney Spirit\"'s 1952 newspaper article describing Sun Prairie as a \"remote two cow village buried somewhere in the wilderness...\" In 2015, \"Jimmy the Groundhog\" bit the ear of Mayor Jon Freund and the story quickly went viral worldwide. The next day a mayoral proclamation absolved Jimmy XI of any wrongdoing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In Raleigh, NC, an annual event at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences includes \"Sir Walter Wally\". According to museum officials, Wally has been correct 58% of the time vs. Punxsutawney Phil's 39%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In 2019, the 133rd year of the tradition, the groundhog was summoned to come out at 7:25\u00a0am on February 2, but did not see its shadow. Fans of Punxsutawney Phil awaited his arrival starting at 6:00\u00a0am, thanks to a live stream provided by Visit Pennsylvania. The live stream has been a tradition for the past several years, allowing more people than ever to watch the animal meteorologist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania",
        "text": "A groundhog known as Punxsutawney Phil is kept in the town, and is said to predict the weather annually on Groundhog Day (February 2). The event provided the premise for the 1993 film \"Groundhog Day\", although nearly all of the film was shot in Woodstock, Illinois."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Clymer Freas (1867\u20131942) who was city editor at the \"Punxsutawney Spirit\" is credited as the \"father\" who conceived the idea of \"Groundhog Day\". It has also been suggested that Punxsutawney was where all the Groundhog Day events originated, from where it spread to other parts of the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "L'ours rentre en sa caverne.'"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The Groundhog Day ceremony held at Punxsutawney in western Pennsylvania, centering on a semi-mythical groundhog named Punxsutawney Phil, has become the most frequently attended ceremony. \"Grundsow Lodges\" in Pennsylvania Dutch Country in the southeastern part of the state observe the occasion as well. Other cities in the United States and Canada also have adopted the event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Groundhog Day may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The observance of Groundhog Day in the United States first occurred in German communities in Pennsylvania, according to known records. The earliest mention of Groundhog Day is an entry on February 2, 1840, in the diary of James L. Morris of Morgantown, in Pennsylvania Dutch Country, according to the book on the subject by Don Yoder. This was a Welsh enclave but the diarist was commenting on his neighbors who were of German stock."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "In the United States and Canada, the yearly February 2 Groundhog Day celebration has given the groundhog recognition and popularity. The most popularly known of these groundhogs are Punxsutawney Phil, Wiarton Willie, Jimmy the Groundhog, Dunkirk Dave, and Staten Island Chuck kept as part of Groundhog Day festivities in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania; Wiarton, Ontario; Sun Prairie, Wisconsin; Dunkirk, New York; and Staten Island respectively. The 1993 comedy film \"Groundhog Day\" references several events related to Groundhog Day, and portrays both Punxsutawney Phil himself, and the annual Groundhog Day ceremony. Famous Southern groundhogs include General Beauregard Lee, based at Dauset Trails Nature Center outside Atlanta, Georgia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The Slumbering Groundhog Lodge, which was formed in 1907, has carried out the ceremonies that take place in Quarryville, Pennsylvania. It used to be a contending rival to Punxsutawney over the Groundhog Day fame. It employs a taxidermic specimen (stuffed woodchuck)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (musical)",
        "text": "It tells the story of Phil Connors, an arrogant Pittsburgh TV weatherman who, during an assignment covering the annual Groundhog Day event in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, finds himself in a time loop, repeating the same day again and again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Stonewall Jackson\" predicts at Space Farms Zoo and Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Groundhog Day\n--History.\n----Origins.\n------Germany.\n------Groundhog as badger.\n------Bear-rat.\n------Simpler Candlemas lore.\n------British and Gaelic calendars.\n----Pennsylvania.\n------Punxsutawney beginnings.\n------Punxsutawney today.\n--Regional celebrations.\n----United States.\n----Canada.\n--Accuracy.\n----Statistics.\n----Pseudoscientific evaluation.\n--Similar customs.\n--Popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stormy Marmot",
        "text": "Flatiron Freddy also represents Groundhog Day prognostication in Colorado. He makes his home at Chautauqua Park in Boulder, CO."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Due to Nova Scotia's Atlantic Time Zone, Shubenacadie Sam makes the first Groundhog Day prediction in North America. \"Daks Day\" (from the German \"dachs\") is Groundhog Day in the dialect of Lunenburg, Nova Scotia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Balzac Billy",
        "text": "Balzac Billy is the \"Prairie Prognosticator\", a man-sized groundhog mascot who prognosticates weather on Groundhog Day. He lives in Balzac, Alberta, 8 km north of Calgary, Alberta, Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In Milltown, New Jersey, \"Milltown Mel\" was purchased in 2008 in Sunbury, Pennsylvania, by Jerry and Cathy Guthlein, and lived in a cage in the Guthleins' back yard. Mel's first event was at the family business, the Bronson and Guthlein Funeral Home, with later events moved to the American Legion Post, with free coffee and doughnuts served afterwards. Mel died in 2021.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Elsewhere in the American South, the \"General Beauregard Lee\" makes predictions from Lilburn, Georgia (later Butts County, Georgia). The University of Dallas in Irving, Texas has boasted of hosting the second largest Groundhog celebration in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (film)",
        "text": "Groundhog Day is a 1993 American fantasy comedy film directed by Harold Ramis, with a screenplay by him and Danny Rubin. It stars Bill Murray, Andie MacDowell, and Chris Elliott. Murray portrays Phil Connors, a cynical television weatherman covering the annual Groundhog Day event in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, who becomes trapped in a time loop, forcing him to relive February2nd repeatedly. The film also stars Stephen Tobolowsky, Brian Doyle-Murray, Marita Geraghty, Angela Paton, Rick Ducommun, Rick Overton, and Robin Duke."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cary, Illinois",
        "text": "The interior of the bed and breakfast room that Bill Murray's character stays in, in the 1993 film Groundhog Day, was built in a warehouse in Cary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Groundhog burrows have revealed at least two archaeological sites, the Ufferman Site in the U.S. state of Ohio and Meadowcroft Rockshelter in Pennsylvania. Archaeologists have never excavated the Ufferman Site, but the activities of local groundhogs have revealed numerous artifacts. They favor the loose soil of the esker at the site lies, and their burrow digging has brought many objects to the surface: human and animal bones, pottery, and bits of stone. Woodchuck remains were found in the Indian mounds at Aztalan, Jefferson County, Wisconsin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morgantown, Pennsylvania",
        "text": "The earliest mention of Groundhog Day is an entry on February 2, 1840, in the diary of James L. Morris of Morgantown, in Pennsylvania Dutch Country, according to the book on the subject by Don Yoder. This was a Welsh enclave but the diarist was commenting on his neighbors who were of German stock. February 2, 1840, read: \"Today the Germans say the groundhog comes out of his winter quarters and if he sees his shadow he returns in and remains there 40 days.\" Some sources stated that Morris's entry of February 4, 1841, was the oldest. It read: \"Last Tuesday, the 2nd, was Candlemas day, the day on which, according to the Germans, the Groundhog peeps out of his winter quarters and if he sees his shadow he pops back for another six weeks nap, but if the day be cloudy he remains out, as the weather is to be moderate.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In Pennsylvania, Punxsutawney Phil has become a popular tradition. On February 2, people within the city will gather to find out whether or not Phil's shadow is revealed. With that, he will allegedly determine whether spring will soon begin by not seeing his shadow, or if winter will ensue for six more weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog (disambiguation)",
        "text": "A groundhog is a small mammal (\"Marmota monax\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carolyn Maitland",
        "text": "Groundhog Day premiered in London in 2016 at The Old Vic in London where Carolyn created the role of Joelle and understudied the part of Rita Hanson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Dunkirk Dave\" (a stage name for numerous groundhogs that have filled the role since 1960) is the local groundhog for Western New York, handled by Bob Will, a typewriter repairman who runs a rescue shelter for groundhogs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The first reported news of a Groundhog Day observance was arguably made by the \"Punxsutawney Spirit\" newspaper of Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, in 1886: \"up to the time of going to press, the beast has not seen its shadow\". However, it was not until the following year in 1887 that the first Groundhog Day considered \"official\" was commemorated there, with a group making a trip to the Gobbler's Knob part of town to consult the groundhog. People have gathered annually at the spot for the event ever since."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (film)",
        "text": "On February 1, television weatherman Phil Connors reassures his Pittsburgh viewers that an approaching blizzard will miss Western Pennsylvania. Alongside his producer Rita Hanson and cameraman Larry, Phil travels to Punxsutawney for his annual coverage of the Groundhog Day festivities. He makes no secret of his contempt for the assignment, the small town, and the \"hicks\" who live there, asserting that he will soon be leaving his station for a new job."
      },
      {
        "title": "Staten Island Zoo",
        "text": "The zoo is also the home of Staten Island Chuck, a groundhog who is the official Groundhog Day forecaster for New York City, and Grandpa, a Black-handed Spider Monkey who made local newspapers when he accurately \"predicted\" the outcome of six out of nine matches during the U.S. Open Tennis Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "There did exist a belief among Roman Catholics in Britain that the hedgehog predicted the length of winter, or so it has been claimed, but without demonstration of its age, in a publication by the Scotland-born American journalist Thomas C. MacMillan in 1886, and American writer/journalist Samuel Adams Drake's book published in 1900."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "The groundhog, being a lowland animal, is exceptional among marmots. Other marmots, such as the yellow-bellied and hoary marmots, live in rocky and mountainous areas. Groundhogs play an important role maintaining healthy soil in woodland and plain areas. The groundhog is considered a crucial habitat engineer. Groundhogs are considered the most solitary of the marmot species. They live in aggregations, and their social organization also varies across populations. Groundhogs do not form stable, long-term pair-bonds, and during mating season male-female interactions are limited to copulation. In Ohio, adult males and females associate with each other throughout the year and often from year to year. Groundhogs are an extremely intelligent animal forming complex social networks, able to understand social behavior, form kinship with their young, understand and communicate threats through whistling, and work cooperatively to solve tasks such as burrowing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Essex Ed\" the groundhog and \"Otis the Hedgehog\" predict at Turtle Back Zoo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The form \"grundsow\" has been used by the lodge in Allentown and elsewhere. Brendle also recorded the name \"Grundsaudag\" (Groundhog day in Lebanon County) and \"Daxdaag\" (Groundhog day in Northampton County)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In \"The Thomas R. Brendle Collection of Pennsylvania German Folklore\", Brendle preserved the following lore from the local Pennsylvania German dialect:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "In the wild, groundhogs can live up to six years with two or three being average. In captivity, groundhogs reportedly live up to 14 years. Human development, which often produces openings juxtaposed with second growth trees that are incidentally also favored by groundhogs, often ensures that groundhogs in well-developed areas are nearly free of predators, beyond humans (through various forms of pest control or roadkills) or mid-to-large sized dogs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The groundhog was once also known by the obsolete Latin alias \"Arctomys monax\". The genus name signified \"bear-rat\". The European marmot is of the same genus and was formerly called \"Arctomys alpinus\". It was speculated that the European counterpart might have lore similar to the groundhog attached to it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Woodstock Willie\", in Woodstock, Illinois, the shooting location for the 1993 film \"Groundhog Day\".\n; The South"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In Southeastern Pennsylvania, Groundhog Lodges (\"Grundsow Lodges\") celebrate the holiday with \"fersommlinge\", social events in which food is served, speeches are made, and one or more \"g'spiel\" (plays or skits) are performed for entertainment. The Pennsylvania German dialect is the only language spoken at the event, and those who speak English pay a penalty, usually in the form of a nickel, dime, or quarter per word spoken, with the money put into a bowl in the center of the table."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (musical)",
        "text": "The first professional non-replica regional production was performed at San Francisco Playhouse in November 2019, directed by Susi Damilano, with Ryan Drummond in the role of Phil. The production ran from 20 November 2019 to 18 January 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "An adult groundhog can eat more than a pound of vegetation daily. In early June, woodchucks' metabolism slows, and while their food intake decreases, their weight increases by as much as 100% as they produce fat deposits to sustain them during hibernation and late winter. Instead of storing food, groundhogs stuff themselves to survive the winter without eating. Thought not to drink water, groundhogs are reported to obtain needed liquids from the juices of food-plants, aided by their sprinkling with rain or dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fauna of the United States",
        "text": "The groundhog is widespread throughout Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, and Minnesota. Virginia opossum is found is states such as Missouri, Indiana, Iowa, Oklahoma, Nebraska and Kansas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Scholar Rhys Carpenter in 1946 emphasized that the Badger Day tradition was strong in Germany, but absent in the British Isles, and he referred to this as a reason that the U.S. Groundhog Day was not brought by immigrants from these places."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Groundhog\n--Description.\n--Etymology.\n--Distribution and habitat.\n--Survival.\n--Behavior.\n----Diet.\n----Burrows.\n----Hibernation.\n----Reproduction.\n--Relationship with humans.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Shubenacadie Wildlife Park",
        "text": "The Wildlife Park is home to Shubenacadie Sam, one of the first groundhogs in North America to predict the weather for the upcoming year. Every year on February 2 at sunrise, Sam leaves his house and checks for his shadow. This fun event always attracts a large crowd eager to see what the spring holds in store for us."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In French Canada, where the day is known as , Fred la marmotte of Val-d'Espoir has been the representative forecaster for the province of Quebec since 2009. A study also shows that in Quebec, the marmot or groundhog () are regarded as Candlemas weather-predicting beasts in some scattered spots, but the bear is the more usual animal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The bear goes back into his cave.)\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Hope, Indiana",
        "text": "Groundhog Day (February 2) is celebrated in Hope on the town square with local dignitaries in costume viewing the prediction of a local groundhog, currently Hope the Groundhog, or her brother Frank, from the local Utopia Wildlife Rehabilitators."
      },
      {
        "title": "Staten Island Chuck",
        "text": "Staten Island Chuck, also referred to more formally as Charles G. Hogg, is a groundhog who resided in the Staten Island Zoo in Staten Island, New York City. He serves as the official groundhog meteorologist of New York City, who predicts the duration of winter each February 2 on Groundhog Day. The tradition dates back to 1981. He makes the prediction based on whether or not he sees his shadow during the ceremony between 7:00 A.M. and 7:30 A.M. on Groundhog Day. The ceremony at the zoo is sometimes attended and officiated by the Mayor of New York City. Chuck's prediction for 2022 was early spring; opposite the prediction made by Punxsutawney Phil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The standard term for \"groundhog\" was \"grun\u2032daks\" (from German \"dachs\"), with the regional variant in York County being \"grundsau\", a direct translation of the English name, according to a 19th-century book on the dialect. The form was a regional variant according to one 19th century source. However, the weather superstition that begins \"Der zwet H\u00e6r\u2032ning is Grund\u2032sau d\u00e5k. W\u00e2nn di grundsau \u00eer sch\u00e2tte sent...\" (\"February second is Groundhog day. If the groundhog sees its shadow...\") is given as common to all 14 counties in Dutch Pennsylvania Country, in a 1915 monograph."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (film)",
        "text": "As a Chicago native, Ramis enjoyed filming in Illinois and knew the area could meet their needs. These included being closer to a major metropolitan area with access to highways, a winter aesthetic, and the ability to complete the production as quickly as possible. Ramis also wanted a main street like Punxsutawney's. Location scout Bob Hudgins thought that Mineral Point, Wisconsin, could meet their requirements. During the scouting journey there, the team stopped in the city of Baraboo, Wisconsin, which happened to have a town square. The filmmakers could see the benefits of a town square over a main street. Ramis asked for something similar but in closer proximity to Chicago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Groundhog (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Shubenacadie Sam",
        "text": "Shubenacadie Sam is a famous Canadian groundhog who lives at the Shubenacadie Wildlife Park in the town of Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia. Every February 2, on Groundhog Day, Sam's shadow is closely observed at 08:00 AST to make the traditional prediction whether there will be an early spring. Due to Nova Scotia's Atlantic Time Zone, Sam makes the first Groundhog Day prediction in North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The Pennsylvanians maintained the same tradition as the Germans on Groundhog Day, except that winter's spell would be prolonged for six weeks instead of four. For the Pennsylvania Dutch, the badger became the \"dox\" which in Deitsch referred to \"groundhog\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Balzac Billy is the \"Prairie Prognosticator\", a man-sized groundhog mascot who prognosticates weather on Groundhog Day from Balzac, Alberta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rhoga",
        "text": "They are native to the Neotropics."
      },
      {
        "title": "2011 Groundhog Day blizzard",
        "text": "Localized flooding occurred in northeastern Illinois, near the coast of Lake Michigan where strong winds brought storm surge and lakeshore flooding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Prediction based on an animal's behavior used to be given more credence in the past when stores of food became scarce as winter progressed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Groundhogs are one of the few species that enter into true hibernation, and often build a separate \"winter burrow\" for this purpose. This burrow is usually in a wooded or brushy area and is dug below the frost line and remains at a stable temperature well above freezing during the winter months. In most areas, groundhogs hibernate from October to March or April, but in more temperate areas, they may hibernate as little as three months. Groundhogs hibernate longer in northern latitudes than southern latitudes. To survive the winter, they are at their maximum weight shortly before entering hibernation. When the groundhog enters hibernation, there is a drop in body temperature to as low as 35 degrees Fahrenheit, heart rate falls to 4\u201310 beats per minute and breathing rate falls to one breath every six minutes. During hibernation, they experience periods of torpor and arousal. Hibernating woodchucks lose as much as half their body weight by February. They emerge from hibernation with some remaining body fat to live on until the warmer spring weather produces abundant plant materials for food. Males emerge from hibernation before females. Groundhogs are mostly diurnal, and are often active early in the morning or late afternoon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Nanaimo a ferry port city on Vancouver Island in British Columbia, Canada present \"Chopper\", \"Marlu\", and \"Van Isle Violet\", all wild Vancouver Island marmots, for forecasts, via the \"Marmot Recovery Foundation\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "'Qu'il luise ou qu'il luiserne,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (film)",
        "text": "Principal photography began on March 16, 1992 and concluded on June10, after 86 days. The budget was reported to be between $14.6million and $30million. Filming took place mainly in Woodstock, as well as on sets in Cary, Illinois, and Hollywood, California."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (film)",
        "text": "The premiere of \"Groundhog Day\" took place on February4, 1993, at the Fox Theater in Westwood, Los Angeles. Murray did not attend the low-budget event, whose guests included comedian Rodney Dangerfield and actresses Catherine O'Hara, Mimi Rogers, and Virginia Madsen. $40,000 of the entry ticket sales profits were donated to the Scleroderma Research Foundation and Turning Point Shelter. A second premiere took place the following day in Crystal Lake, Illinois, followed by an auction of props and signed equipment from the film. All proceeds were donated to the Woodstock school district."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ground squirrel",
        "text": "Open areas including rocky outcrops, fields, pastures, and sparsely wooded hillsides comprise their habitat. Ground squirrels also live in grassy areas such as pastures, golf courses, cemeteries, and parks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "While the tradition remains popular in the 21st century, studies have found no consistent association between a groundhog seeing its shadow and the subsequent arrival time of spring-like weather."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mummichog",
        "text": "Mummichogs live in dense shoals that can include several hundred individuals."
      },
      {
        "title": "HMH-769",
        "text": "On May 1, 1999, the Roadhogs relocated to Edwards Air Force Base located in Rosamond, California."
      },
      {
        "title": "Live Read",
        "text": "\"Groundhog Day\" by Danny Rubin and Harold Ramis. Reitman chose this reading as a tribute to Harold Ramis, who died the previous month. He also chose an earlier draft of the screenplay rather than the final shooting script.\n;Cast\n* Jason Bateman as Phil Connors (originally played by Bill Murray)\n* Elizabeth Reaser as Rita (originally played by Andie MacDowell)\n* Jeff Ross as Larry (originally played by Chris Elliott) and others\n* Stephen Tobolowsky as Ned Ryerson (originally played by Stephen Tobolowsky)\n* Mae Whitman as Nancy (originally played by Marita Geraghty) and others"
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney Phil",
        "text": "Prior to 1993, the Groundhog Day event in Punxsutawney attracted crowds of approximately 2,000. The popularity of the film \"Groundhog Day\" brought significantly more attention to the event, with annual crowds rising to 10,000\u201320,000 (with the notable exception of 2021 where the event took place without any crowds due to the COVID-19 pandemic). The event is also streamed online each year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney Phil",
        "text": "The Groundhog Day celebration is rooted in a Celtic and Germanic tradition that says that if a hibernating animal casts a shadow on February 2, the pagan holiday of Imbolc (known among Christians as Candlemas), winter and cold weather will last another six weeks. If no shadow is seen, legend says, spring will come early. In Germany, the tradition evolved into a myth that if the sun came out on Candlemas, a hedgehog would cast its shadow, predicting snow all the way into May. When German immigrants settled in Pennsylvania, they transferred the tradition onto local fauna, replacing hedgehogs with groundhogs. Several other towns in the region hold similar Groundhog Day events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Part of the problem with pinning down an accuracy rate for the groundhog is that what constitutes an early spring is not clearly defined. Assessments of the accuracy of other groundhogs such as Staten Island Chuck do use an objective formula (in Chuck's case, a majority of days that reach in New York City between Groundhog Day and the March equinox)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (film)",
        "text": "RITA \"So, you still think you've been here before?\" \"Phil nods.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney Phil",
        "text": "Punxsutawney Phil is a groundhog in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, who is the central figure in the borough's annual Groundhog Day celebration. On February 2 each year, Punxsutawney holds a civic festival with music and food. During the ceremony, which begins well before the winter sunrise, Phil emerges from his temporary home on Gobbler's Knob, located in a rural area about southeast of the town. According to the tradition, if Phil sees his shadow and returns to his hole, he has predicted six more weeks of winter-like weather. If Phil does not see his shadow, he has predicted an \"early spring.\" Punxsutawney's event is the most famous of many Groundhog Day festivals held in the United States and Canada. The event formally began in 1887, although its roots go back even further."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The weather lore was brought from German-speaking areas where the badger () is the forecasting animal. This appears to be an enhanced version of the lore that clear weather on the Christian festival of Candlemas forebodes a prolonged winter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (musical)",
        "text": "The show's premiere production was scheduled to begin previews at The Old Vic in London, on 11 July 2016, with its official opening night coming on 16 August, booking for a limited period until 17 September 2016, with an extra performance added on 19 September 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In the Gaelic calendar of Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man, Brigid's Day (February 1) is a day for predicting the weather. While in Scotland the animal that heralds spring on this day is a snake, and on the Isle of Man a large bird, in Ireland folklorist Kevin Danaher records lore of hedgehogs being observed for this omen:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (musical)",
        "text": "The musical was produced by Slow Burn Theatre Company Co in Fort Lauderdale, Florida from 31 January to 16 February 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Staten Island Chuck\" is the stage name for the official weather-forecasting woodchuck for New York City, housed in the Staten Island Zoo. In 2009, Chuck bit then-NYC-Mayor Mike Bloomberg, prompting zoo officials to quietly replace him with his daughter Charlotte. In 2014, NYC Mayor Bill de Blasio, famously dropped Charlotte during the ceremony, visibly disturbing many of the children present for the event. Charlotte's untimely death a week later prompted rumors she was killed by the fall, although the zoo later said this was unlikely to be the cause of Charlotte\u2018s demise. As a result, Bill de Blasio has not participated in the tradition since."
      },
      {
        "title": "2011 Groundhog Day blizzard",
        "text": "A state of emergency was declared in several American states, including Illinois, Oklahoma, and Missouri."
      },
      {
        "title": "European hedgehog",
        "text": "Hedgehogs are most abundant within the gardens, parks and amenity land close to or within human settlements. They are generally scarce in areas of coniferous woodland, marshes and moorland, probably because of a lack of suitable sites and materials for the construction of winter nests (or hibernacula), which have specific requirements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Groundhog may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squid-Jiggin' Ground",
        "text": "They congregate here on the squid-jiggin' ground."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cinema Research Corporation",
        "text": "Groundhog Day 1993,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (film)",
        "text": "PHIL \"I'll tell you what I do know. Even in a day as long as this, even in a lifetime of endless repetition, there's still room for possibilities.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "(Let it gleam or let it glimmer,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Wiarton Willie forecasts annually from Wiarton, Ontario."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (film)",
        "text": "PHIL \"This is a man we're talking about, right?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Similarity to the groundhog lore has been noted for the German formula \"Sonnt sich der Dachs in der Lichtme\u00dfwoche, so geht er auf vier Wochen wieder zu Loche\" (If the badger sunbathes during Candlemas-week, for four more weeks he will be back in his hole). A slight variant is found in a collection of weather lore (\"\", lit. \"farmers' rules\") printed in Austria in 1823."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where do groundhogs live?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Groundhogs have a wide range, typically found in low-elevation forests, small woodlots, fields, pastures and hedgerows.",
      "Groundhogs live in lowlands in much of the Eastern United States, across Canada and into Alaska."
    ],
    "topic": "Groundhog Day",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Groundhog:10",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Groundhog",
          "Distribution and habitat"
        ],
        "ctx": "The groundhog prefers open country and the edges of woodland, and is rarely far from a burrow entrance. \"Marmota monax\" has a wide geographic range. It is typically found in low-elevation forests, small woodlots, fields, pastures and hedgerows. It constructs dens in well-drained soil, and most have summer and winter dens. Human activity has increased food access and abundance, allowing \"M. monax\" to thrive."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Groundhog:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Groundhog"
        ],
        "ctx": "The groundhog (\"Marmota monax\"), also known as a woodchuck, is a rodent of the family Sciuridae, belonging to the group of large ground squirrels known as marmots."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "The groundhog is a lowland creature of North America; it is found through much of the Eastern United States, across Canada and into Alaska."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rhoga",
        "text": "They are native to the Neotropics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Groundhog Day\n--History.\n----Origins.\n------Germany.\n------Groundhog as badger.\n------Bear-rat.\n------Simpler Candlemas lore.\n------British and Gaelic calendars.\n----Pennsylvania.\n------Punxsutawney beginnings.\n------Punxsutawney today.\n--Regional celebrations.\n----United States.\n----Canada.\n--Accuracy.\n----Statistics.\n----Pseudoscientific evaluation.\n--Similar customs.\n--Popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Scholar Rhys Carpenter in 1946 emphasized that the Badger Day tradition was strong in Germany, but absent in the British Isles, and he referred to this as a reason that the U.S. Groundhog Day was not brought by immigrants from these places."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "One theory states that the groundhog naturally comes out of hibernation in central Pennsylvania in early February because of the increasing average temperature. Under this theory, if German settlement had been centered further north, Groundhog Day would take place at a later date. However, the observed behavior of groundhogs in central New Jersey was that they mostly come out of their burrows in mid-March, regardless of Groundhog Day weather."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "The groundhog prefers open country and the edges of woodland, and is rarely far from a burrow entrance. \"Marmota monax\" has a wide geographic range. It is typically found in low-elevation forests, small woodlots, fields, pastures and hedgerows. It constructs dens in well-drained soil, and most have summer and winter dens. Human activity has increased food access and abundance, allowing \"M. monax\" to thrive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Groundhog Day (, , , ; Nova Scotia: Daks Day) is a popular North American tradition observed in the United States and Canada on February 2. It derives from the Pennsylvania Dutch superstition that if a groundhog emerges from its burrow on this day and sees its shadow due to clear weather, it will retreat to its den, and winter will go on for six more weeks; if it does not see its shadow because of cloudiness, spring will arrive early."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The day is observed with various ceremonies at other locations in North America beyond the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The Pennsylvania Dutch were immigrants from German speaking areas of Europe. The Germans had a tradition of marking Candlemas (February 2) as \"Badger Day\" (\"Dachstag\"), where if a badger emerging found it to be a sunny day thereby casting a shadow, it foreboded the prolonging of winter by four more weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In \"The Thomas R. Brendle Collection of Pennsylvania German Folklore\", Brendle preserved the following lore from the local Pennsylvania German dialect:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The groundhog was once also known by the obsolete Latin alias \"Arctomys monax\". The genus name signified \"bear-rat\". The European marmot is of the same genus and was formerly called \"Arctomys alpinus\". It was speculated that the European counterpart might have lore similar to the groundhog attached to it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ground mantis",
        "text": "Examples native to North America include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The observance of Groundhog Day in the United States first occurred in German communities in Pennsylvania, according to known records. The earliest mention of Groundhog Day is an entry on February 2, 1840, in the diary of James L. Morris of Morgantown, in Pennsylvania Dutch Country, according to the book on the subject by Don Yoder. This was a Welsh enclave but the diarist was commenting on his neighbors who were of German stock."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney Phil",
        "text": "The Groundhog Day celebration is rooted in a Celtic and Germanic tradition that says that if a hibernating animal casts a shadow on February 2, the pagan holiday of Imbolc (known among Christians as Candlemas), winter and cold weather will last another six weeks. If no shadow is seen, legend says, spring will come early. In Germany, the tradition evolved into a myth that if the sun came out on Candlemas, a hedgehog would cast its shadow, predicting snow all the way into May. When German immigrants settled in Pennsylvania, they transferred the tradition onto local fauna, replacing hedgehogs with groundhogs. Several other towns in the region hold similar Groundhog Day events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hedgehogs in culture",
        "text": "As animals native to Europe and Africa, hedgehogs hold a place in European folklore."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The Pennsylvanians maintained the same tradition as the Germans on Groundhog Day, except that winter's spell would be prolonged for six weeks instead of four. For the Pennsylvania Dutch, the badger became the \"dox\" which in Deitsch referred to \"groundhog\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The standard term for \"groundhog\" was \"grun\u2032daks\" (from German \"dachs\"), with the regional variant in York County being \"grundsau\", a direct translation of the English name, according to a 19th-century book on the dialect. The form was a regional variant according to one 19th century source. However, the weather superstition that begins \"Der zwet H\u00e6r\u2032ning is Grund\u2032sau d\u00e5k. W\u00e2nn di grundsau \u00eer sch\u00e2tte sent...\" (\"February second is Groundhog day. If the groundhog sees its shadow...\") is given as common to all 14 counties in Dutch Pennsylvania Country, in a 1915 monograph."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Groundhog burrows have revealed at least two archaeological sites, the Ufferman Site in the U.S. state of Ohio and Meadowcroft Rockshelter in Pennsylvania. Archaeologists have never excavated the Ufferman Site, but the activities of local groundhogs have revealed numerous artifacts. They favor the loose soil of the esker at the site lies, and their burrow digging has brought many objects to the surface: human and animal bones, pottery, and bits of stone. Woodchuck remains were found in the Indian mounds at Aztalan, Jefferson County, Wisconsin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Bachman mentioned that when the young groundhogs are a few months old, they prepare for separation, digging a number of holes in the area of their early home. Some of these holes were only a few feet deep and never occupied but the numerous burrows gave the impression that groundhogs live in communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In 2019, the 133rd year of the tradition, the groundhog was summoned to come out at 7:25\u00a0am on February 2, but did not see its shadow. Fans of Punxsutawney Phil awaited his arrival starting at 6:00\u00a0am, thanks to a live stream provided by Visit Pennsylvania. The live stream has been a tradition for the past several years, allowing more people than ever to watch the animal meteorologist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ground squirrel",
        "text": "Whether the Marmotini dispersed between North America and Eurasia via \"island-hopping\" across the Bering Straits or the Greenland region\u2014both of which were temperate habitat at that time\u2014and from which continent they dispersed to which, or if both continents brought forth distinct subtribes which then spread to the other, is not known and would probably require more fossil material to be resolved. In any case, the fairly comprehensive fossil record of Europe - at the relevant time separated from Asia by the Turgai Sea - lacks ancient Marmotini except the indeterminate \"Palaeosciurus\", which might be taken to indicate an East Asian or western North American origin with trans-Beringia dispersal being the slightly more satisfying hypothesis. This is also supported by the enigmatic Chinese genus \"Sciurotamias\", which may be the most ancient living lineage of this group, or\u2014if the chipmunks are not included here\u2014close to the common ancestor of the Tamiini and the Marmotini \"sensu stricto\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morgantown, Pennsylvania",
        "text": "The earliest mention of Groundhog Day is an entry on February 2, 1840, in the diary of James L. Morris of Morgantown, in Pennsylvania Dutch Country, according to the book on the subject by Don Yoder. This was a Welsh enclave but the diarist was commenting on his neighbors who were of German stock. February 2, 1840, read: \"Today the Germans say the groundhog comes out of his winter quarters and if he sees his shadow he returns in and remains there 40 days.\" Some sources stated that Morris's entry of February 4, 1841, was the oldest. It read: \"Last Tuesday, the 2nd, was Candlemas day, the day on which, according to the Germans, the Groundhog peeps out of his winter quarters and if he sees his shadow he pops back for another six weeks nap, but if the day be cloudy he remains out, as the weather is to be moderate.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Fauna of the United States",
        "text": "The groundhog is widespread throughout Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, and Minnesota. Virginia opossum is found is states such as Missouri, Indiana, Iowa, Oklahoma, Nebraska and Kansas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "The groundhog is also referred to as a chuck, wood-shock, groundpig, whistlepig, whistler, thickwood badger, Canada marmot, monax, moonack, weenusk, red monk, land beaver, and, among French Canadians in eastern Canada, siffleux. The name \"thickwood badger\" was given in the Northwest to distinguish the animal from the prairie badger. Monax (\"M\u00f3onack\") is an Algonquian name of the woodchuck, which means \"digger\" (cf. Lenape \"monachgeu\"). Young groundhogs may be called chucklings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Imbolc",
        "text": "The festival was traditionally a time of weather divination, and the old tradition of watching to see if serpents or badgers came from their winter dens may be a forerunner of the North American Groundhog Day. A Scottish Gaelic proverb about the day is:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Groundhog Day is a holiday celebrated on February 2 in the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Clymer Freas (1867\u20131942) who was city editor at the \"Punxsutawney Spirit\" is credited as the \"father\" who conceived the idea of \"Groundhog Day\". It has also been suggested that Punxsutawney was where all the Groundhog Day events originated, from where it spread to other parts of the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebrides",
        "text": "Hedgehogs are not native to the Outer Hebrides\u2014they were introduced in the 1970s to reduce garden pests\u2014and their spread poses a threat to the eggs of ground nesting wading birds. In 2003, Scottish Natural Heritage undertook culls of hedgehogs in the area although these were halted in 2007 due to protests. Trapped animals were relocated to the mainland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Animal worship",
        "text": "A popular North American tradition is Groundhog Day, in which on February 2 each year a groundhog is used to predict whether there will be an early spring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "While the tradition remains popular in the 21st century, studies have found no consistent association between a groundhog seeing its shadow and the subsequent arrival time of spring-like weather."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "In the United States and Canada, the yearly February 2 Groundhog Day celebration has given the groundhog recognition and popularity. The most popularly known of these groundhogs are Punxsutawney Phil, Wiarton Willie, Jimmy the Groundhog, Dunkirk Dave, and Staten Island Chuck kept as part of Groundhog Day festivities in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania; Wiarton, Ontario; Sun Prairie, Wisconsin; Dunkirk, New York; and Staten Island respectively. The 1993 comedy film \"Groundhog Day\" references several events related to Groundhog Day, and portrays both Punxsutawney Phil himself, and the annual Groundhog Day ceremony. Famous Southern groundhogs include General Beauregard Lee, based at Dauset Trails Nature Center outside Atlanta, Georgia."
      },
      {
        "title": "European hedgehog in New Zealand",
        "text": "Their diet includes the eggs and chicks of ground-nesting birds, so they may have already contributed to the decline and extinction of up to fifteen bird species and are a threat to those that remain. Also they are yet another threat to endangered native skinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "There did exist a belief among Roman Catholics in Britain that the hedgehog predicted the length of winter, or so it has been claimed, but without demonstration of its age, in a publication by the Scotland-born American journalist Thomas C. MacMillan in 1886, and American writer/journalist Samuel Adams Drake's book published in 1900."
      },
      {
        "title": "Weather lore",
        "text": "Groundhog Day, observed in the U. S. and Canada, also falls on February 2 and is thought to derive from the Candlemas weather lore in Europe, particularly the German which features the badger as the predictor. An example of such German weather rhyme translates as:\n:\"If the badger is in the sun at Candlemas,\"\n:\"he will have to go back into his hole for another four weeks\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The weather lore was brought from German-speaking areas where the badger () is the forecasting animal. This appears to be an enhanced version of the lore that clear weather on the Christian festival of Candlemas forebodes a prolonged winter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ground squirrel",
        "text": "Where the Marmotini originated is unclear. The subtribes probably diverged in the early to mid-Oligocene, as primitive marmots and chipmunks are known from the Late Oligocene of North America. Unfortunately, the fossil record of the \"true\" ground squirrels is less well known, beginning only in the mid-Miocene, when modern susliks and prairie dogs are known to have inhabited their present-day range already."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In Raleigh, NC, an annual event at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences includes \"Sir Walter Wally\". According to museum officials, Wally has been correct 58% of the time vs. Punxsutawney Phil's 39%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Due to Nova Scotia's Atlantic Time Zone, Shubenacadie Sam makes the first Groundhog Day prediction in North America. \"Daks Day\" (from the German \"dachs\") is Groundhog Day in the dialect of Lunenburg, Nova Scotia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Groundhog Day (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog (disambiguation)",
        "text": "A groundhog is a small mammal (\"Marmota monax\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "European ground squirrel",
        "text": "The European ground squirrel is native to central and southeastern Europe where its range is divided by the Carpathian Mountains. Its range includes land at altitudes of up to in southern Ukraine, Asia Minor, Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, North Macedonia and north as far as Poland. It has become locally extinct in Germany and Poland but was reintroduced successfully into the wild in Poland in 2005. Some of the animals were sourced from the Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "The groundhog is by far the largest sciurid in its geographical range, excepting British Columbia where its range may that of its somewhat larger cousin, the hoary marmot. Adults may measure from in total length, including a tail of . Weights of adult groundhogs typically fall between ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Similarity to the groundhog lore has been noted for the German formula \"Sonnt sich der Dachs in der Lichtme\u00dfwoche, so geht er auf vier Wochen wieder zu Loche\" (If the badger sunbathes during Candlemas-week, for four more weeks he will be back in his hole). A slight variant is found in a collection of weather lore (\"\", lit. \"farmers' rules\") printed in Austria in 1823."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hedgehogs in culture",
        "text": "In a number of Balkan (Bulgarian,"
      },
      {
        "title": "European hedgehog",
        "text": "Hedgehogs are most abundant within the gardens, parks and amenity land close to or within human settlements. They are generally scarce in areas of coniferous woodland, marshes and moorland, probably because of a lack of suitable sites and materials for the construction of winter nests (or hibernacula), which have specific requirements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richardson's ground squirrel",
        "text": "Native to the short grass prairies, Richardson's ground squirrel is found mainly in the northern states of the United States, such as North Dakota and Montana, and in western Canada, including central and southern Alberta and southern Saskatchewan. The range of this animal expanded as forests were cleared to create farmland. They are not simply restricted to prairie; sometimes they adapt to suburban environments, causing them to be seen as pests because of the burrows they dig. It is not unusual to find squirrels digging tunnels under the sidewalks and patios of urban homes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hedgehogs in culture",
        "text": "Hedgehogs in culture\n--Europe.\n--United States.\n--Oceania.\n--Technology.\n--Cuisine.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Quigley\", of The Hamptons (resident of the \"Save the Animals Rescue Foundation\"), predicts at Quogue Village Fire Department."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mummichog",
        "text": "This species ranges along the Atlantic coast of North America, from Gasp\u00e9 Peninsula, Anticosti Island and Port au Port Bay in the north to northeastern Florida in the south. It is present on Sable Island, southeast of the closest point of mainland Nova Scotia in the Atlantic Ocean. The approximate geographical division between the two subspecies lies in New Jersey, Delaware and Virginia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hugh's hedgehog",
        "text": "Hugh's hedgehog (\"Mesechinus hughi\"), also sometimes referred to as the central Chinese hedgehog, is native to central China and Manchuria. It prefers open areas of dry steppe, but can be found in shrubland and forests. It is known to look for food even in daytime on rainy days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The Groundhog Day ceremony held at Punxsutawney in western Pennsylvania, centering on a semi-mythical groundhog named Punxsutawney Phil, has become the most frequently attended ceremony. \"Grundsow Lodges\" in Pennsylvania Dutch Country in the southeastern part of the state observe the occasion as well. Other cities in the United States and Canada also have adopted the event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In the Midwest, Sun Prairie, Wisconsin, is the self-proclaimed \"Groundhog Capital of the World\". This title taken in response to the \"Punxsutawney Spirit\"'s 1952 newspaper article describing Sun Prairie as a \"remote two cow village buried somewhere in the wilderness...\" In 2015, \"Jimmy the Groundhog\" bit the ear of Mayor Jon Freund and the story quickly went viral worldwide. The next day a mayoral proclamation absolved Jimmy XI of any wrongdoing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Dunkirk Dave\" (a stage name for numerous groundhogs that have filled the role since 1960) is the local groundhog for Western New York, handled by Bob Will, a typewriter repairman who runs a rescue shelter for groundhogs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Buckeye Chuck\", Ohio's official State Groundhog, is one of two weather predicting groundhogs. He resides in Marion, Ohio."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Groundhogs",
        "text": "The band was originally formed as The Dollar Bills in New Cross, London in 1962 by brothers Pete and John Cruickshank (born in 1943 and 1945 respectively in Calcutta, West Bengal, India). Tony McPhee (born 22 March 1944), the lead guitarist in an instrumental group called the Seneschals, joined the group later that same year. McPhee steered them towards the blues and renamed them after a John Lee Hooker song, \"Groundhog's Blues\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In Southeastern Pennsylvania, Groundhog Lodges (\"Grundsow Lodges\") celebrate the holiday with \"fersommlinge\", social events in which food is served, speeches are made, and one or more \"g'spiel\" (plays or skits) are performed for entertainment. The Pennsylvania German dialect is the only language spoken at the event, and those who speak English pay a penalty, usually in the form of a nickel, dime, or quarter per word spoken, with the money put into a bowl in the center of the table."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rhopobota stagnana",
        "text": "It is native to the Palearctic including Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "European hedgehog in New Zealand",
        "text": "By 1972 they may have reached their maximum range. Today hedgehogs are present in almost all habitats, including urban, rural, braided river and forests areas. The few areas they are not present in are inhospitable environments like above the permanent snow line and in the wettest parts of Fiordland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Male groundhogs average slightly larger than females and, like all marmots, they are considerably heavier during autumn (when engaged in autumn hyperphagia) than when emerging from hibernation in spring. Adult males average year-around weight , with spring to fall average weights of while females average , with spring to fall averages of . Seasonal weight changes indicate circannual deposition and use of fat. Groundhogs attain progressively higher weights each year for the first two or three years, after which weight plateaus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Groundhogs are one of the few species that enter into true hibernation, and often build a separate \"winter burrow\" for this purpose. This burrow is usually in a wooded or brushy area and is dug below the frost line and remains at a stable temperature well above freezing during the winter months. In most areas, groundhogs hibernate from October to March or April, but in more temperate areas, they may hibernate as little as three months. Groundhogs hibernate longer in northern latitudes than southern latitudes. To survive the winter, they are at their maximum weight shortly before entering hibernation. When the groundhog enters hibernation, there is a drop in body temperature to as low as 35 degrees Fahrenheit, heart rate falls to 4\u201310 beats per minute and breathing rate falls to one breath every six minutes. During hibernation, they experience periods of torpor and arousal. Hibernating woodchucks lose as much as half their body weight by February. They emerge from hibernation with some remaining body fat to live on until the warmer spring weather produces abundant plant materials for food. Males emerge from hibernation before females. Groundhogs are mostly diurnal, and are often active early in the morning or late afternoon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Groundhog Day may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "In the wild, groundhogs can live up to six years with two or three being average. In captivity, groundhogs reportedly live up to 14 years. Human development, which often produces openings juxtaposed with second growth trees that are incidentally also favored by groundhogs, often ensures that groundhogs in well-developed areas are nearly free of predators, beyond humans (through various forms of pest control or roadkills) or mid-to-large sized dogs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Groundhog\n--Description.\n--Etymology.\n--Distribution and habitat.\n--Survival.\n--Behavior.\n----Diet.\n----Burrows.\n----Hibernation.\n----Reproduction.\n--Relationship with humans.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Large predators such as gray wolf and eastern cougar are basically extirpated in the east but still may hunt groundhogs on occasion in Canada. Golden eagles can also prey on adult groundhogs, but seldom occur in the same range or in the same habitats as this marmot. Likewise, great horned owls can reportedly, per Bent (1938), prey upon groundhogs, but this owl rarely does so, especially given the temporal differences in their behaviors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Live Read",
        "text": "\"Groundhog Day\" by Danny Rubin and Harold Ramis. Reitman chose this reading as a tribute to Harold Ramis, who died the previous month. He also chose an earlier draft of the screenplay rather than the final shooting script.\n;Cast\n* Jason Bateman as Phil Connors (originally played by Bill Murray)\n* Elizabeth Reaser as Rita (originally played by Andie MacDowell)\n* Jeff Ross as Larry (originally played by Chris Elliott) and others\n* Stephen Tobolowsky as Ned Ryerson (originally played by Stephen Tobolowsky)\n* Mae Whitman as Nancy (originally played by Marita Geraghty) and others"
      },
      {
        "title": "Plagiorhegma",
        "text": "Its native range is Russian Far East to Korea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (musical)",
        "text": "The first professional non-replica regional production was performed at San Francisco Playhouse in November 2019, directed by Susi Damilano, with Ryan Drummond in the role of Phil. The production ran from 20 November 2019 to 18 January 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (musical)",
        "text": "The musical had been scheduled to transfer to Broadway, opening on 9 March 2017, following previews from 23 January 2017. However, \"Playbill\" reported on 22 June 2016, that the musical \"may not make it to Broadway in January 2017\" because the lead producer, Scott Rudin, had withdrawn from the production. After the opening night of the production at The Old Vic in London, \"The New York Times\" revealed that the production was still intended to transfer to Broadway, produced by Andr\u00e9 Ptaszynski and Lia Vollack with Whistle Pig and Columbia Live Stage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Groundhog (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wyoming ground squirrel",
        "text": "It is endemic to the Northwestern United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Balzac Billy is the \"Prairie Prognosticator\", a man-sized groundhog mascot who prognosticates weather on Groundhog Day from Balzac, Alberta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Groundhog may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "2011 Groundhog Day blizzard",
        "text": "Localized flooding occurred in northeastern Illinois, near the coast of Lake Michigan where strong winds brought storm surge and lakeshore flooding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agaricophagus cephalotes",
        "text": "It is native to Europe and Greenland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Wild predators of adult groundhogs in most of eastern North America include coyotes, badgers, bobcats, and foxes (largely only red fox). Many of these predators are successful stealth stalkers so can catch groundhogs by surprise before the large rodents can escape to their burrows; badgers likely hunt them by digging them out from their burrows. Coyotes in particular are sizable enough to overpower any groundhog, with the latter being the third most significant prey species per a statewide study in Pennsylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "European hedgehog",
        "text": "The European hedgehog is endemic to Europe (including European Russia), with a global distribution extending from the British Isles and the Iberian Peninsula eastwards through much of western to central Europe, and from southern Fennoscandia and the northern Baltic to north-west Russia. Present also on Mediterranean islands (Corsica, Sardinia, Elba, Sicily), on most of the French Atlantic islands as well as on British Islands (autochthonous and introduced). It is an invasive exotic species in New Zealand and has probably been introduced to Ireland and many of the smaller islands where it occurs."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Groundhogs",
        "text": "Th Groundhogs are an English blues and rock band founded in late 1963, that toured extensively in the 1960s, achieved prominence in the early 1970s and continued sporadically into the 21st century. Tony McPhee (guitar and vocals) is the sole constant member of the group, which has gone through many personnel changes but usually records and performs as a power trio."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sitabhog",
        "text": "Sitabhog\n--History.\n--Popularity.\n--Geographical Indications.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Balzac Billy",
        "text": "Balzac Billy is the \"Prairie Prognosticator\", a man-sized groundhog mascot who prognosticates weather on Groundhog Day. He lives in Balzac, Alberta, 8 km north of Calgary, Alberta, Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Great Neck Greta\", of Great Neck, Long Island, New York, predicted in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gomphaeschna furcillata",
        "text": "\"Gomphaeschna furcillata\" is found in North America. It is native to Canada and the Continental US."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rhogogaster punctulata",
        "text": "It is widespread in most of Europe. It can be found along hedgerows and woodland rides."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (musical)",
        "text": "Groundhog Day (musical)\n--Background.\n--Productions.\n----London (2016).\n----Broadway (2017).\n----US regional productions.\n----International productions.\n--Synopsis.\n----Act I.\n----Act II.\n--Musical numbers.\n----Original Broadway cast recording.\n--Characters and original cast.\n--Critical reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Part of the problem with pinning down an accuracy rate for the groundhog is that what constitutes an early spring is not clearly defined. Assessments of the accuracy of other groundhogs such as Staten Island Chuck do use an objective formula (in Chuck's case, a majority of days that reach in New York City between Groundhog Day and the March equinox)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian hedgehog",
        "text": "The Indian hedgehog (\"Paraechinus micropus\") is a species of hedgehog native to India and Pakistan. It mainly lives in sandy desert areas but can be found in other environments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ground sloth",
        "text": "The last ground sloths in North America belonging to \"Nothrotheriops\" died so recently that their subfossil dung has remained undisturbed in some caves. One of the skeletons, found in a lava tube (cave) at Aden Crater, adjacent to Kilbourne Hole, New Mexico, still had skin and hair preserved, and is now at the Yale Peabody Museum. The largest samples of \"Nothrotheriops\" dung can be found in the collections of the Smithsonian Museum. Another \"Nothrotheriops\" was excavated at Shelter Cave, also in Do\u00f1a Ana County, New Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great American Interchange",
        "text": "Megalonychid and mylodontid ground sloths island-hopped to North America by 9 Ma ago. A basal group of sloths had colonized the Antilles previously, by the early Miocene. In contrast, megatheriid and nothrotheriid ground sloths did not migrate north until the formation of the isthmus. Terror birds may have also island-hopped to North America as early as 5 Ma ago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chrysanthoglossum",
        "text": "Its native range is Northern Africa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthopteropsis",
        "text": "Its native range is Central America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hedgehog",
        "text": "A hedgehog is a spiny mammal of the subfamily Erinaceinae, in the eulipotyphlan family Erinaceidae. There are seventeen species of hedgehog in five genera found throughout parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and in New Zealand by introduction. There are no hedgehogs native to Australia and no living species native to the Americas. However, the extinct genus \"Amphechinus\" was once present in North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holographis",
        "text": "Its native range is Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "L'ours rentre en sa caverne.'"
      },
      {
        "title": "Shubenacadie Sam",
        "text": "While Shubenacadie offers the earliest prediction every year, it is one of many towns throughout North America known for their winter-predicting groundhogs. The most famous is Punxsutawney Phil of Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, United States. The most famous Canadian groundhog is Wiarton Willie in Ontario, Canada. Sam shares the Nova Scotia prediction every year with \"Two Rivers Tunnel\" in Cape Breton at the Two Rivers Wildlife Park in Mira River, Nova Scotia, although \"Two Rivers Tunnel\" is awakened for its prediction just after 11 am instead of 8 am. Promoters of a lobster festival in Barrington Passage, Nova Scotia created a \"Lucy the Lobster\" ritual in 2018 with a lobster that crawled from the water to a lobster trap on Groundhog Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day gale of 1976",
        "text": "Groundhog Day gale of 1976\n--Meteorologist synopsis.\n--Effects in the United States.\n----Maine.\n----Massachusetts.\n----New York.\n----Vermont.\n--Canada effects.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (film)",
        "text": "As a Chicago native, Ramis enjoyed filming in Illinois and knew the area could meet their needs. These included being closer to a major metropolitan area with access to highways, a winter aesthetic, and the ability to complete the production as quickly as possible. Ramis also wanted a main street like Punxsutawney's. Location scout Bob Hudgins thought that Mineral Point, Wisconsin, could meet their requirements. During the scouting journey there, the team stopped in the city of Baraboo, Wisconsin, which happened to have a town square. The filmmakers could see the benefits of a town square over a main street. Ramis asked for something similar but in closer proximity to Chicago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crataegus brainerdii",
        "text": "It is native to eastern North America, including eastern Canada and the eastern United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Young groundhogs (usually those less than a couple months in age) may also be taken by an American mink, perhaps other smallish mustelids, cats, timber rattlesnakes, and hawks. Red-tailed hawks can take groundhogs at least of up to the size of yearling juveniles, and northern goshawks can take them up to perhaps weak emergent-adult groundhogs in the Spring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Very often, the dens of groundhogs provide homes for other animals, including skunks, red foxes, and cottontail rabbits. Foxes and skunks feed upon field mice, grasshoppers, beetles and other creatures that destroy farm crops. In aiding these animals, the groundhog indirectly helps the farmer. In addition to providing homes for itself and other animals, the groundhog aids in soil improvement by bringing subsoil to the surface. The groundhog is also a valuable game animal and is considered a difficult sport when hunted in a fair manner. In some parts of the U.S., they have been eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arctic ground squirrel",
        "text": "The Arctic ground squirrel is native to the North American Arctic tundra, where its main habitats are on mountain slopes, river flats, banks, lakeshores and tundra ridges of the arctic tundra. Ground squirrels live in sandy soil due to easy digging and good drainage. Arctic ground squirrels make shallow burrows in areas where the permafrost does not prevent them from digging."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "An adult groundhog can eat more than a pound of vegetation daily. In early June, woodchucks' metabolism slows, and while their food intake decreases, their weight increases by as much as 100% as they produce fat deposits to sustain them during hibernation and late winter. Instead of storing food, groundhogs stuff themselves to survive the winter without eating. Thought not to drink water, groundhogs are reported to obtain needed liquids from the juices of food-plants, aided by their sprinkling with rain or dew."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where do groundhogs live?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Groundhogs live in lowlands in much of the Eastern United States, across Canada and into Alaska."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are groundhogs native to any other countries besides North America?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "No, I cannot find any incident of groundhogs found naturally outside of North America."
    ],
    "topic": "Groundhog Day",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Groundhog:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Groundhog"
        ],
        "ctx": "The groundhog (\"Marmota monax\"), also known as a woodchuck, is a rodent of the family Sciuridae, belonging to the group of large ground squirrels known as marmots."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Punxsutawney Phil's statistics are kept by the Pennsylvania's Groundhog Club which cares for the animal. Phil has predicted 103 forecasts for winter and just 17 for an early spring. Most assessments of Phil's accuracy have given accuracy lower than would be expected with random chance, with Stormfax Almanac giving an estimate of 39%, and meteorologist Tim Roche of \"Weather Underground\" giving a 36% accuracy rate between 1969 and 2016 (a range chosen because local weather data was most reliable from 1969 onward) and a 47% record in that time span when predicting early spring. The National Centers for Environmental Information, using a basic metric of above-normal temperatures for early spring and below-normal temperatures for more winter, placed Punxsutawney Phil's accuracy at 40% for the ten-year period preceding 2019. Other poor results from analysis are reported by the \"Farmer's Almanac\" (which itself has been known for forecasts of questionable accuracy) as \"exactly 50 percent\" accuracy, and The National Geographic Society reporting only 28% success. But a Middlebury College team found that a long-term analysis of temperature high/low predictions were 70% accurate, although when the groundhog predicted early spring it was usually wrong. Canadian meteorologist Cindy Day has estimated that Nova Scotia's \"Shubenacadie Sam\" has an accuracy rate of about 45% compared to 25% for Wiarton Willy in Ontario."
      },
      {
        "title": "North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences",
        "text": "On Groundhog Day, February 2, Sir Walter Wally makes his annual prediction for the arrival of the upcoming spring. Sir Walter has a 58% accuracy rating, which has earned him nationwide recognition for his prognostication ability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shubenacadie Sam",
        "text": "Shubenacadie Sam's prediction, like all weather-predicting groundhogs, bears little relation to seasonal weather trends as it is based on random location conditions, according to Meteorologist Cindy Day. Shubenacadie Sam has an accuracy rate of about 45%, according to Day, compared to 39% for Punxsutawney Phil and 25% for Wiarton Willie."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Due to Nova Scotia's Atlantic Time Zone, Shubenacadie Sam makes the first Groundhog Day prediction in North America. \"Daks Day\" (from the German \"dachs\") is Groundhog Day in the dialect of Lunenburg, Nova Scotia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Part of the problem with pinning down an accuracy rate for the groundhog is that what constitutes an early spring is not clearly defined. Assessments of the accuracy of other groundhogs such as Staten Island Chuck do use an objective formula (in Chuck's case, a majority of days that reach in New York City between Groundhog Day and the March equinox)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "There did exist a belief among Roman Catholics in Britain that the hedgehog predicted the length of winter, or so it has been claimed, but without demonstration of its age, in a publication by the Scotland-born American journalist Thomas C. MacMillan in 1886, and American writer/journalist Samuel Adams Drake's book published in 1900."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Prediction based on an animal's behavior used to be given more credence in the past when stores of food became scarce as winter progressed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Farmers' Almanac",
        "text": "Most scientific analyses of the accuracy of \"Farmers' Almanac\" forecasts have shown a 50% rate of accuracy, which is higher than that of groundhog prognostication, a folklore method of forecasting. USA Today states that \"according to numerous media analyses neither the Old Farmer's Almanac nor the Farmers' Almanac gets it right\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Essex Ed\" the groundhog and \"Otis the Hedgehog\" predict at Turtle Back Zoo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shubenacadie Sam",
        "text": "While Shubenacadie offers the earliest prediction every year, it is one of many towns throughout North America known for their winter-predicting groundhogs. The most famous is Punxsutawney Phil of Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, United States. The most famous Canadian groundhog is Wiarton Willie in Ontario, Canada. Sam shares the Nova Scotia prediction every year with \"Two Rivers Tunnel\" in Cape Breton at the Two Rivers Wildlife Park in Mira River, Nova Scotia, although \"Two Rivers Tunnel\" is awakened for its prediction just after 11 am instead of 8 am. Promoters of a lobster festival in Barrington Passage, Nova Scotia created a \"Lucy the Lobster\" ritual in 2018 with a lobster that crawled from the water to a lobster trap on Groundhog Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Stonewall Jackson\" predicts at Space Farms Zoo and Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney Phil",
        "text": "The Inner Circle, in keeping with the suspension of disbelief, claims a 100% accuracy rate, and an approximately 80% accuracy rate in recorded predictions (claiming in turn that whenever the prediction is wrong, the person in charge of translating the message must have made a mistake in their interpretation). Impartial estimates place the groundhog's accuracy between 35% and 41%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Weather lore",
        "text": "One case where weather lore has been studied for reliability against actual weather observations is the Groundhog Day lore. It predicts that if the groundhog sees its shadow on this day (February 2), six weeks of winter remain. One analysis concluded the creature demonstrated no ability to predict. Other studies gave accuracy percentages, but differing figures. and some of the numbers were slightly better than hasarded guess (33% accurate), according to one source. In other words, there is no appreciable correlation between cloud cover on that day, and the imminence of springlike weather."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stormy Marmot",
        "text": "Punxsutawney Phil has been making predictions since the 1880s. However, this method of prognostication did not gain mass notoriety until the release of the 1993 comedy Groundhog Day (film) with Bill Murray and Andie MacDowell. The movie became the 13th highest grossing of the year, with over $70 million at the box office. Over time, the movie became a cult classic and significantly increased awareness and attendance at Groundhog Day events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In Washington, D.C., the Dupont Circle Groundhog Day event features \"Potomac Phil\", another taxidermic specimen. From his first appearance in 2012 to 2018, Phil's spring predictions invariably agreed with those of the more lively Punxsutawney Phil, who made his predictions half an hour earlier. In addition, Phil always predicted correctly six more months of political gridlock. However, after being accused of collusion in 2018, Potomac Phil contradicted Punxsutawney Phil in 2019 and, further, predicted two more years of political insanity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Great Neck Greta\", of Great Neck, Long Island, New York, predicted in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stormy Marmot",
        "text": "Statistical analysis of groundhog predictions show that Stormy Marmot and Poor Richard (a groundhog based in York, Pennsylvania) have the best correlation to observed weather trends. \"When Stormy Marmot predicts an early spring, we can expect March to be on average 6 \u00b0F warmer, and April to be 2.5 \u00b0F warmer. When Poor Richard predicts an early spring, we can expect February to be 4 \u00b0F warmer and March to be 8 \u00b0F warmer.\" Dover Doug, a groundhog from Dover, Pennsylvania, was also noted for having a strong correlation between the sign of his shadow and the arrival of spring conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shubenacadie Wildlife Park",
        "text": "The Wildlife Park is home to Shubenacadie Sam, one of the first groundhogs in North America to predict the weather for the upcoming year. Every year on February 2 at sunrise, Sam leaves his house and checks for his shadow. This fun event always attracts a large crowd eager to see what the spring holds in store for us."
      },
      {
        "title": "Weather lore",
        "text": "Groundhog Day, observed in the U. S. and Canada, also falls on February 2 and is thought to derive from the Candlemas weather lore in Europe, particularly the German which features the badger as the predictor. An example of such German weather rhyme translates as:\n:\"If the badger is in the sun at Candlemas,\"\n:\"he will have to go back into his hole for another four weeks\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "2022 saw the 136th time of the event and the groundhog saw its shadow, predicting six more weeks of winter.\n; Mid-Atlantic"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In French Canada, where the day is known as , Fred la marmotte of Val-d'Espoir has been the representative forecaster for the province of Quebec since 2009. A study also shows that in Quebec, the marmot or groundhog () are regarded as Candlemas weather-predicting beasts in some scattered spots, but the bear is the more usual animal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Groundhog Day (, , , ; Nova Scotia: Daks Day) is a popular North American tradition observed in the United States and Canada on February 2. It derives from the Pennsylvania Dutch superstition that if a groundhog emerges from its burrow on this day and sees its shadow due to clear weather, it will retreat to its den, and winter will go on for six more weeks; if it does not see its shadow because of cloudiness, spring will arrive early."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Quigley\", of The Hamptons (resident of the \"Save the Animals Rescue Foundation\"), predicts at Quogue Village Fire Department."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Birmingham Bill\", at Birmingham Zoo, was \"taking a break\" from predicting in 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Staten Island Chuck",
        "text": "Staten Island Chuck, also referred to more formally as Charles G. Hogg, is a groundhog who resided in the Staten Island Zoo in Staten Island, New York City. He serves as the official groundhog meteorologist of New York City, who predicts the duration of winter each February 2 on Groundhog Day. The tradition dates back to 1981. He makes the prediction based on whether or not he sees his shadow during the ceremony between 7:00 A.M. and 7:30 A.M. on Groundhog Day. The ceremony at the zoo is sometimes attended and officiated by the Mayor of New York City. Chuck's prediction for 2022 was early spring; opposite the prediction made by Punxsutawney Phil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Buckeye Chuck",
        "text": "According to the legend of Groundhog Day, the groundhog's behavior is a way of forecasting the weather. If the groundhog pops out from its burrow, sees his shadow, and then disappears again, it will mean that winter is to continue for six more weeks. But if the groundhog does not see its shadow, then it will not be scared to come out of its burrow and winter will soon end."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Wiarton Willie forecasts annually from Wiarton, Ontario."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Groundhog Day\n--History.\n----Origins.\n------Germany.\n------Groundhog as badger.\n------Bear-rat.\n------Simpler Candlemas lore.\n------British and Gaelic calendars.\n----Pennsylvania.\n------Punxsutawney beginnings.\n------Punxsutawney today.\n--Regional celebrations.\n----United States.\n----Canada.\n--Accuracy.\n----Statistics.\n----Pseudoscientific evaluation.\n--Similar customs.\n--Popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Buckeye Chuck",
        "text": "Buckeye Chuck, Ohio's official weather-predicting groundhog, resides in Marion, Ohio. He is one of two whistlepigs (another name for groundhogs) in Ohio known for predicting the arrival of spring on Groundhog Day (February 2). A native of Ohio, Chuck began predicting the arrival of spring in the 1970s. In addition, the Ohio General Assembly declared Buckeye Chuck the official State Groundhog in 1979. However, from 2006 to 2015, Chuck's forecast was correct only twice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In the Gaelic calendar of Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man, Brigid's Day (February 1) is a day for predicting the weather. While in Scotland the animal that heralds spring on this day is a snake, and on the Isle of Man a large bird, in Ireland folklorist Kevin Danaher records lore of hedgehogs being observed for this omen:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Balzac, Alberta",
        "text": "Balzac Billy, a Groundhog Day prognosticator, resides in the town, and is considered one of Canada's most prominent forecasting groundhogs (Shubenacadie Sam and Wiarton Willie being among the others)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Elsewhere in the American South, the \"General Beauregard Lee\" makes predictions from Lilburn, Georgia (later Butts County, Georgia). The University of Dallas in Irving, Texas has boasted of hosting the second largest Groundhog celebration in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney Phil",
        "text": "The practices and lore of Punxsutawney Phil's predictions are predicated on a light-hearted suspension of disbelief by those involved. According to the lore, there is only one Phil, and all other groundhogs are impostors. It is claimed that this one groundhog has lived to make weather prognostications since 1886, sustained by drinks of \"groundhog punch\" or \"elixir of life\" administered at the annual Groundhog Picnic in the fall. The lifespan of a groundhog in the wild is roughly six years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Balzac Billy is the \"Prairie Prognosticator\", a man-sized groundhog mascot who prognosticates weather on Groundhog Day from Balzac, Alberta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "One theory states that the groundhog naturally comes out of hibernation in central Pennsylvania in early February because of the increasing average temperature. Under this theory, if German settlement had been centered further north, Groundhog Day would take place at a later date. However, the observed behavior of groundhogs in central New Jersey was that they mostly come out of their burrows in mid-March, regardless of Groundhog Day weather."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Buckeye Chuck\", Ohio's official State Groundhog, is one of two weather predicting groundhogs. He resides in Marion, Ohio."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In Raleigh, NC, an annual event at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences includes \"Sir Walter Wally\". According to museum officials, Wally has been correct 58% of the time vs. Punxsutawney Phil's 39%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania",
        "text": "A groundhog known as Punxsutawney Phil is kept in the town, and is said to predict the weather annually on Groundhog Day (February 2). The event provided the premise for the 1993 film \"Groundhog Day\", although nearly all of the film was shot in Woodstock, Illinois."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wiarton Willie",
        "text": "Wiarton Willie himself is a more recent addition to the festivities. In the early years, prognostication was provided by the \"mythical\" trio of groundhogs Grundoon, Muldoon and Sand Dune. Willie appeared on the scene in the 1980s. Wiarton Willie's predictive powers are attributed (by his followers) to his situation on the 45th parallel, exactly halfway between the Equator and the North Pole. He is claimed locally to be accurate in his prognostications around 90% of the time; scientists have estimated Willie's accuracy at 25%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney Phil",
        "text": "The Groundhog Day celebration is rooted in a Celtic and Germanic tradition that says that if a hibernating animal casts a shadow on February 2, the pagan holiday of Imbolc (known among Christians as Candlemas), winter and cold weather will last another six weeks. If no shadow is seen, legend says, spring will come early. In Germany, the tradition evolved into a myth that if the sun came out on Candlemas, a hedgehog would cast its shadow, predicting snow all the way into May. When German immigrants settled in Pennsylvania, they transferred the tradition onto local fauna, replacing hedgehogs with groundhogs. Several other towns in the region hold similar Groundhog Day events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"French Creek Freddie\" is West Virginia's resident groundhog meteorologist. A resident of the West Virginia State Wildlife Center in French Creek, West Virginia, Freddie made his debut in 1978, and boasts an accuracy rate of approximately 50%. On Groundhog Day, 2022, Freddie predicted six more weeks of winter, with the mayor of Buckhannon and members of the community in attendance.\n; Midwest"
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney Phil",
        "text": "The event is based upon a communal light-hearted suspension of disbelief. It is organized by the \"Inner Circle\" \u2013 recognizable from their top hats and tuxedos \u2013 who ostensibly communicate with Phil to receive his prognostication. This suspension of disbelief extends to the assertion that the same groundhog has been making predictions since the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Balzac Billy",
        "text": "According to the legend of Groundhog Day, the groundhog's behavior is a way of forecasting the weather. If the groundhog sees his shadow, it will mean that winter is to continue for six more weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fred la marmotte",
        "text": "Fred la marmotte is a Canadian groundhog located in near Perc\u00e9, Quebec who predicts weather on Groundhog Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney Phil",
        "text": "According to the Groundhog Club, Phil, after the prediction, speaks to the club president in the language of 'Groundhogese', which supposedly only the current president can understand, and then his prediction is translated and revealed to all."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The weather-predicting animal on Candlemas usually was the badger, although regionally the animal was the bear or the fox. The original weather-predicting animal in Germany had been the bear, another hibernating mammal, but when they grew scarce the lore became altered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Similarity to the groundhog lore has been noted for the German formula \"Sonnt sich der Dachs in der Lichtme\u00dfwoche, so geht er auf vier Wochen wieder zu Loche\" (If the badger sunbathes during Candlemas-week, for four more weeks he will be back in his hole). A slight variant is found in a collection of weather lore (\"\", lit. \"farmers' rules\") printed in Austria in 1823."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "While the tradition remains popular in the 21st century, studies have found no consistent association between a groundhog seeing its shadow and the subsequent arrival time of spring-like weather."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney Phil",
        "text": "The Inner Circle scripts the Groundhog Day ceremonies in advance, with the Inner Circle deciding beforehand whether Phil will see his shadow. The Stormfax Almanac has made note of the weather conditions on each Groundhog Day since 1999; the almanac has recorded 12 incidents in a 20-year span in which the Inner Circle said the groundhog saw his shadow while the sky was cloudy or there was rain or snow coming down, and in one case said the groundhog did not see his shadow despite sunshine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shubenacadie Sam",
        "text": "Shubenacadie Sam is a famous Canadian groundhog who lives at the Shubenacadie Wildlife Park in the town of Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia. Every February 2, on Groundhog Day, Sam's shadow is closely observed at 08:00 AST to make the traditional prediction whether there will be an early spring. Due to Nova Scotia's Atlantic Time Zone, Sam makes the first Groundhog Day prediction in North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The weather lore was brought from German-speaking areas where the badger () is the forecasting animal. This appears to be an enhanced version of the lore that clear weather on the Christian festival of Candlemas forebodes a prolonged winter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In 2019, the 133rd year of the tradition, the groundhog was summoned to come out at 7:25\u00a0am on February 2, but did not see its shadow. Fans of Punxsutawney Phil awaited his arrival starting at 6:00\u00a0am, thanks to a live stream provided by Visit Pennsylvania. The live stream has been a tradition for the past several years, allowing more people than ever to watch the animal meteorologist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Balzac Billy",
        "text": "Balzac Billy is the \"Prairie Prognosticator\", a man-sized groundhog mascot who prognosticates weather on Groundhog Day. He lives in Balzac, Alberta, 8 km north of Calgary, Alberta, Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The day is observed with various ceremonies at other locations in North America beyond the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The standard term for \"groundhog\" was \"grun\u2032daks\" (from German \"dachs\"), with the regional variant in York County being \"grundsau\", a direct translation of the English name, according to a 19th-century book on the dialect. The form was a regional variant according to one 19th century source. However, the weather superstition that begins \"Der zwet H\u00e6r\u2032ning is Grund\u2032sau d\u00e5k. W\u00e2nn di grundsau \u00eer sch\u00e2tte sent...\" (\"February second is Groundhog day. If the groundhog sees its shadow...\") is given as common to all 14 counties in Dutch Pennsylvania Country, in a 1915 monograph."
      },
      {
        "title": "Animal worship",
        "text": "A popular North American tradition is Groundhog Day, in which on February 2 each year a groundhog is used to predict whether there will be an early spring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Imbolc",
        "text": "The festival was traditionally a time of weather divination, and the old tradition of watching to see if serpents or badgers came from their winter dens may be a forerunner of the North American Groundhog Day. A Scottish Gaelic proverb about the day is:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fred la marmotte",
        "text": "Fred is unique in being the only weather-predicting groundhog whose habitat is located on a World Heritage Site. The original Fred \"Gros Fred\" was used from 2010 to 2017 and again in 2019 but was replaced by his son \"Petit Fred\" in 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wiarton Willie",
        "text": "Groundhog Day, featuring Wiarton Willie, is a popular annual festival in Wiarton and is similar to events in other locations in North America. A midwinter celebration involving an animal with predictive powers was an element of Celtic culture. The link between weather prediction and the day is said to have been inspired by an old Scottish couplet: \"If Candlemas Day is bright and clear/ There'll be two winters in the year.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day gale of 1976",
        "text": "Groundhog Day gale of 1976\n--Meteorologist synopsis.\n--Effects in the United States.\n----Maine.\n----Massachusetts.\n----New York.\n----Vermont.\n--Canada effects.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Morgantown, Pennsylvania",
        "text": "The earliest mention of Groundhog Day is an entry on February 2, 1840, in the diary of James L. Morris of Morgantown, in Pennsylvania Dutch Country, according to the book on the subject by Don Yoder. This was a Welsh enclave but the diarist was commenting on his neighbors who were of German stock. February 2, 1840, read: \"Today the Germans say the groundhog comes out of his winter quarters and if he sees his shadow he returns in and remains there 40 days.\" Some sources stated that Morris's entry of February 4, 1841, was the oldest. It read: \"Last Tuesday, the 2nd, was Candlemas day, the day on which, according to the Germans, the Groundhog peeps out of his winter quarters and if he sees his shadow he pops back for another six weeks nap, but if the day be cloudy he remains out, as the weather is to be moderate.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Groundhog Day (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fred la marmotte",
        "text": "According to the tradition of Groundhog Day, if the groundhog sees his shadow then spring will be delayed; if he does not see his shadow, then spring will be early."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Clymer Freas (1867\u20131942) who was city editor at the \"Punxsutawney Spirit\" is credited as the \"father\" who conceived the idea of \"Groundhog Day\". It has also been suggested that Punxsutawney was where all the Groundhog Day events originated, from where it spread to other parts of the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In Pennsylvania, Punxsutawney Phil has become a popular tradition. On February 2, people within the city will gather to find out whether or not Phil's shadow is revealed. With that, he will allegedly determine whether spring will soon begin by not seeing his shadow, or if winter will ensue for six more weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney Phil",
        "text": "Punxsutawney Phil's prediction for 2022 was \"six more weeks of winter.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "General Beauregard Lee",
        "text": "General Beauregard Lee is a groundhog in the US state of Georgia widely considered to be the Groundhog Day weather prognosticator for the Southern United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robot",
        "text": "Generally such predictions are overly optimistic in timescale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Staten Island Zoo",
        "text": "The zoo is also the home of Staten Island Chuck, a groundhog who is the official Groundhog Day forecaster for New York City, and Grandpa, a Black-handed Spider Monkey who made local newspapers when he accurately \"predicted\" the outcome of six out of nine matches during the U.S. Open Tennis Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Groundhog Day is a holiday celebrated on February 2 in the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Similarly in Germany, on the June 27, they recognize the Seven Sleepers' Day (\"Siebenschl\u00e4fertag\"). If it rains that day, the rest of summer is supposedly going to be rainy. As well, in the United Kingdom, July 15 is known as St. Swithin's day. It was traditionally believed that, if it rained on that day, it would rain for the next 40 days and nights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim Berkland",
        "text": "Up to June 2010 Berkland made many predictions in his newsletter and on his website, for which he has claimed a \"75 percent accuracy rate\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (film)",
        "text": "On February 1, television weatherman Phil Connors reassures his Pittsburgh viewers that an approaching blizzard will miss Western Pennsylvania. Alongside his producer Rita Hanson and cameraman Larry, Phil travels to Punxsutawney for his annual coverage of the Groundhog Day festivities. He makes no secret of his contempt for the assignment, the small town, and the \"hicks\" who live there, asserting that he will soon be leaving his station for a new job."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The Pennsylvania Dutch were immigrants from German speaking areas of Europe. The Germans had a tradition of marking Candlemas (February 2) as \"Badger Day\" (\"Dachstag\"), where if a badger emerging found it to be a sunny day thereby casting a shadow, it foreboded the prolonging of winter by four more weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Nanaimo a ferry port city on Vancouver Island in British Columbia, Canada present \"Chopper\", \"Marlu\", and \"Van Isle Violet\", all wild Vancouver Island marmots, for forecasts, via the \"Marmot Recovery Foundation\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The largest Groundhog Day celebration is held in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, where crowds as large as 40,000 gather each year (nearly eight times the year-round population of the town). The average draw had been about 2,000 until the 1993 film \"Groundhog Day\", which is set at the festivities in Punxsutawney, after which attendance rose to about 10,000. The official Phil is pretended to be a supercentenarian, having been the same forecasting beast since 1887."
      },
      {
        "title": "Old Farmer's Almanac",
        "text": "A number of analyses have concluded that the forecasts in \"The Old Farmer's Almanac\" are not very accurate. For example, \"USA Today\" stated that \"according to numerous media analyses neither \"The Old Farmer's Almanac\" nor the \"Farmers' Almanac\" gets it right.\" John Walsh at the University of Illinois reviewed five years of monthly forecasts and found 50.7% of the temperature forecasts and 51.9% of precipitation forecasts were in the correct direction, whereas a randomly generated forecast would be correct 50% of the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "2011 Groundhog Day blizzard",
        "text": "The temperatures overnight went from at 7:00PM to at 5:00 AM turning the freezing rain to liquid rain, and the NWS canceled the Winter Storm Warning earlier at 5:00. On Wednesday morning as the low moved to New England, cold air advected behind the low and temperatures had plummeted to the middle-20s Fahrenheit by 4:00 PM with Cleveland receiving of snow and breezy conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "2011 Groundhog Day blizzard",
        "text": "2011 Groundhog Day blizzard\n--Meteorological synopsis.\n--Areas affected.\n----Canada.\n------Nova Scotia.\n------New Brunswick.\n------Ontario.\n------Quebec.\n------Newfoundland.\n----Mexico.\n------Chihuahua.\n------Nuevo Le\u00f3n.\n----United States.\n------Connecticut.\n------Illinois.\n------Indiana.\n------Iowa.\n------Kansas.\n------Maryland.\n------Massachusetts.\n------Michigan.\n------Missouri.\n------New Jersey.\n------New Mexico.\n------New York.\n------Ohio.\n------Oklahoma.\n------Pennsylvania.\n--------Snowfall amounts.\n--------Power outages.\n--------Travel.\n------Texas.\n------Wisconsin.\n--Non-winter weather events.\n----High winds.\n----Flash freeze.\n----Storm surge.\n----Severe thunderstorms and tornadoes.\n--Impact.\n----Preparations.\n----States of emergency.\n----Airport traffic.\n----Power outages.\n----Impact on Super Bowl XLV.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hope, Indiana",
        "text": "Groundhog Day (February 2) is celebrated in Hope on the town square with local dignitaries in costume viewing the prediction of a local groundhog, currently Hope the Groundhog, or her brother Frank, from the local Utopia Wildlife Rehabilitators."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Groundhog Day may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day gale of 1976",
        "text": "Boston, Massachusetts, set their lowest February pressure on record, with a reading of ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Snake worship",
        "text": "Imbolc was traditionally a time of weather divination, and the old tradition of watching to see if serpents or badgers came from their winter dens may be a forerunner of the North American Groundhog Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marion, Ohio",
        "text": "Marion is also home to Buckeye Chuck, Ohio's official weather-predicting and State Groundhog known for predicting the arrival of spring on Groundhog Day (February 2)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The groundhog was once also known by the obsolete Latin alias \"Arctomys monax\". The genus name signified \"bear-rat\". The European marmot is of the same genus and was formerly called \"Arctomys alpinus\". It was speculated that the European counterpart might have lore similar to the groundhog attached to it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Scholar Rhys Carpenter in 1946 emphasized that the Badger Day tradition was strong in Germany, but absent in the British Isles, and he referred to this as a reason that the U.S. Groundhog Day was not brought by immigrants from these places."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Male groundhogs average slightly larger than females and, like all marmots, they are considerably heavier during autumn (when engaged in autumn hyperphagia) than when emerging from hibernation in spring. Adult males average year-around weight , with spring to fall average weights of while females average , with spring to fall averages of . Seasonal weight changes indicate circannual deposition and use of fat. Groundhogs attain progressively higher weights each year for the first two or three years, after which weight plateaus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In \"The Thomas R. Brendle Collection of Pennsylvania German Folklore\", Brendle preserved the following lore from the local Pennsylvania German dialect:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Dunkirk Dave\" (a stage name for numerous groundhogs that have filled the role since 1960) is the local groundhog for Western New York, handled by Bob Will, a typewriter repairman who runs a rescue shelter for groundhogs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wiarton Willie",
        "text": "Wiarton Willie is the name given to a Canadian groundhog who lives in the community of Wiarton in Bruce County, Ontario. Every February 2, on Groundhog Day, Willie takes part in the local \"Wiarton Willie Festival\". His role is to predict whether there will be an early spring. Although the original Wiarton Willie died in 1999, the Wiarton Groundhog Day celebrations continue each year with a successor of the original Willie (except in 1999 and 2021 where, due to the previous Willies' deaths, no groundhog was used), and each successor is also referred to as Wiarton Willie."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The German version, with the introduction of the badger (or other beasts) was an expansion on a more simple tradition that if the weather was sunny and clear on Candlemas Day people expected winter to continue. The simpler version is summarized in the English (Scots dialect) couplet that runs \"If Candlemas is fair and clear / There'll be winters in the year\", with equivalent phrases in French and German. And the existence of a corresponding Latin couplet has been suggested as evidence of the great antiquity of this tradition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Staten Island Chuck",
        "text": "The Staten Island Zoo has claimed that Chuck correctly predicted the duration of winter 26 out of 32 years as of 2013, an 82% success rate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "The groundhog is a lowland creature of North America; it is found through much of the Eastern United States, across Canada and into Alaska."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ember days",
        "text": "The prediction methods differ in the regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (musical)",
        "text": "The first professional non-replica regional production was performed at San Francisco Playhouse in November 2019, directed by Susi Damilano, with Ryan Drummond in the role of Phil. The production ran from 20 November 2019 to 18 January 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Staten Island Chuck\" is the stage name for the official weather-forecasting woodchuck for New York City, housed in the Staten Island Zoo. In 2009, Chuck bit then-NYC-Mayor Mike Bloomberg, prompting zoo officials to quietly replace him with his daughter Charlotte. In 2014, NYC Mayor Bill de Blasio, famously dropped Charlotte during the ceremony, visibly disturbing many of the children present for the event. Charlotte's untimely death a week later prompted rumors she was killed by the fall, although the zoo later said this was unlikely to be the cause of Charlotte\u2018s demise. As a result, Bill de Blasio has not participated in the tradition since."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stormy Marmot",
        "text": "Flatiron Freddy also represents Groundhog Day prognostication in Colorado. He makes his home at Chautauqua Park in Boulder, CO."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In the Midwest, Sun Prairie, Wisconsin, is the self-proclaimed \"Groundhog Capital of the World\". This title taken in response to the \"Punxsutawney Spirit\"'s 1952 newspaper article describing Sun Prairie as a \"remote two cow village buried somewhere in the wilderness...\" In 2015, \"Jimmy the Groundhog\" bit the ear of Mayor Jon Freund and the story quickly went viral worldwide. The next day a mayoral proclamation absolved Jimmy XI of any wrongdoing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (musical)",
        "text": "The Broadway production closed on 17 September 2017, after 176 performances and 32 previews. An 18-month national tour beginning in 2018 had been planned. On 8 January 2018, Tim Minchin posted to his Twitter account that \"Sadly (despicably) there\u2019ll be no US tour\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Live Read",
        "text": "\"Groundhog Day\" by Danny Rubin and Harold Ramis. Reitman chose this reading as a tribute to Harold Ramis, who died the previous month. He also chose an earlier draft of the screenplay rather than the final shooting script.\n;Cast\n* Jason Bateman as Phil Connors (originally played by Bill Murray)\n* Elizabeth Reaser as Rita (originally played by Andie MacDowell)\n* Jeff Ross as Larry (originally played by Chris Elliott) and others\n* Stephen Tobolowsky as Ned Ryerson (originally played by Stephen Tobolowsky)\n* Mae Whitman as Nancy (originally played by Marita Geraghty) and others"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where do groundhogs live?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Groundhogs live in lowlands in much of the Eastern United States, across Canada and into Alaska."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are groundhogs native to any other countries besides North America?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "No, I cannot find any incident of groundhogs found naturally outside of North America."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How accurate are Groundhog day predictions?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Most assessments of Phil's accuracy have given accuracy lower than would be expected with random chance, with Stormfax Almanac giving an estimate of 39%, meteorologist Tim Roche of Weather Underground giving a 36% accuracy rate between 1969 and 2016 and a 47% record in that time span when predicting early spring. The National Centers for Environmental Information, using a basic metric of above-normal temperatures for early spring and below-normal temperatures for more winter, placed Punxsutawney Phil's accuracy at 40% for the ten-year period preceding 2019, the Farmer's Almanac as \"exactly 50 percent\",  The National Geographic Society reporting only 28% success, and a Middlebury College team found that a long-term analysis of temperature high/low predictions were 70% accurate.",
      "Impartial estimates place the groundhog's accuracy between 35% and 41%."
    ],
    "topic": "Groundhog Day",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Groundhog Day:62",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Groundhog Day",
          "Accuracy",
          "Statistics"
        ],
        "ctx": "Punxsutawney Phil's statistics are kept by the Pennsylvania's Groundhog Club which cares for the animal. Phil has predicted 103 forecasts for winter and just 17 for an early spring. Most assessments of Phil's accuracy have given accuracy lower than would be expected with random chance, with Stormfax Almanac giving an estimate of 39%, and meteorologist Tim Roche of \"Weather Underground\" giving a 36% accuracy rate between 1969 and 2016 (a range chosen because local weather data was most reliable from 1969 onward) and a 47% record in that time span when predicting early spring. The National Centers for Environmental Information, using a basic metric of above-normal temperatures for early spring and below-normal temperatures for more winter, placed Punxsutawney Phil's accuracy at 40% for the ten-year period preceding 2019. Other poor results from analysis are reported by the \"Farmer's Almanac\" (which itself has been known for forecasts of questionable accuracy) as \"exactly 50 percent\" accuracy, and The National Geographic Society reporting only 28% success. But a Middlebury College team found that a long-term analysis of temperature high/low predictions were 70% accurate, although when the groundhog predicted early spring it was usually wrong. Canadian meteorologist Cindy Day has estimated that Nova Scotia's \"Shubenacadie Sam\" has an accuracy rate of about 45% compared to 25% for Wiarton Willy in Ontario."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Punxsutawney Phil:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Punxsutawney Phil",
          "Past predictions",
          "Predictive accuracy"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Inner Circle, in keeping with the suspension of disbelief, claims a 100% accuracy rate, and an approximately 80% accuracy rate in recorded predictions (claiming in turn that whenever the prediction is wrong, the person in charge of translating the message must have made a mistake in their interpretation). Impartial estimates place the groundhog's accuracy between 35% and 41%."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Wild predators of adult groundhogs in most of eastern North America include coyotes, badgers, bobcats, and foxes (largely only red fox). Many of these predators are successful stealth stalkers so can catch groundhogs by surprise before the large rodents can escape to their burrows; badgers likely hunt them by digging them out from their burrows. Coyotes in particular are sizable enough to overpower any groundhog, with the latter being the third most significant prey species per a statewide study in Pennsylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Beyond their large size, groundhogs have several successful anti-predator behaviors, usually retreating to the safety of their burrow which most predators will not attempt to enter, but also being ready to fight off with their sharp claws and large incisors any who press the attack. They can also scale trees to escape a threat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Large predators such as gray wolf and eastern cougar are basically extirpated in the east but still may hunt groundhogs on occasion in Canada. Golden eagles can also prey on adult groundhogs, but seldom occur in the same range or in the same habitats as this marmot. Likewise, great horned owls can reportedly, per Bent (1938), prey upon groundhogs, but this owl rarely does so, especially given the temporal differences in their behaviors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Despite their heavy-bodied appearance, groundhogs are accomplished swimmers and occasionally climb trees when escaping predators or when they want to survey their surroundings. They prefer to retreat to their burrows when threatened; if the burrow is invaded, the groundhog tenaciously defends itself with its two large incisors and front claws. Groundhogs are generally agonistic and territorial among their own species and may skirmish to establish dominance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian hedgehog",
        "text": "The known predators of Indian hedgehogs include foxes, Indian grey mongooses (\"Herpestes edwardsi\"), and rock-horned owls (\"Bubo bubo turcomanus\"). Predators have to be quick and resourceful to snatch the hedgehog before it curls up into its prickly ball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hedgehog",
        "text": "In Britain, the main predator is the European badger. European hedgehog populations in the United Kingdom are lower in areas where badgers are numerous, and British hedgehog rescue societies will not release hedgehogs into known badger territories. Badgers also compete with hedgehogs for food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Prediction based on an animal's behavior used to be given more credence in the past when stores of food became scarce as winter progressed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Part of the problem with pinning down an accuracy rate for the groundhog is that what constitutes an early spring is not clearly defined. Assessments of the accuracy of other groundhogs such as Staten Island Chuck do use an objective formula (in Chuck's case, a majority of days that reach in New York City between Groundhog Day and the March equinox)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Double-banded plover",
        "text": "Hedgehogs are a common predator that pose a serious threat to the banded dotterels as they have ravenous appetites and are known to eat the eggs and chicks of these ground-nesting birds. These creatures can move up to two kilometers each night causing a number of these birds to be in danger from attacks in the area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Young groundhogs (usually those less than a couple months in age) may also be taken by an American mink, perhaps other smallish mustelids, cats, timber rattlesnakes, and hawks. Red-tailed hawks can take groundhogs at least of up to the size of yearling juveniles, and northern goshawks can take them up to perhaps weak emergent-adult groundhogs in the Spring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richardson's ground squirrel",
        "text": "Predators include hawks, owls, snakes, weasels, badgers and coyotes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Costelytra giveni",
        "text": "Because they are insects, Grass Grub fall prey to almost all bird species present in the same areas, some examples of avian predators are; \"Larus marinus\", Great black backed gull, especially when the areas inhabited by Grass Grub, undergo cultivation, Starlings \"Sturnus vulgaris\" and Black Birds \"Turdus merula\" seem to favour Grass Grub larvae in their third instar phase, as well as the adult beetle, and are often seen actively digging through the soil in areas with a high Grass Grub population. Another common predator of the Grass Grub is the Hedgehog \"Erinaceus europaeus\" whose intake of Grass Grub can be up to 40% of the total diet of an adult hedgehog. There are few invertebrate predators but they are not common in pastures.\n;Parasites"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "An adult groundhog can eat more than a pound of vegetation daily. In early June, woodchucks' metabolism slows, and while their food intake decreases, their weight increases by as much as 100% as they produce fat deposits to sustain them during hibernation and late winter. Instead of storing food, groundhogs stuff themselves to survive the winter without eating. Thought not to drink water, groundhogs are reported to obtain needed liquids from the juices of food-plants, aided by their sprinkling with rain or dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shubenacadie Sam",
        "text": "Shubenacadie Sam's prediction, like all weather-predicting groundhogs, bears little relation to seasonal weather trends as it is based on random location conditions, according to Meteorologist Cindy Day. Shubenacadie Sam has an accuracy rate of about 45%, according to Day, compared to 39% for Punxsutawney Phil and 25% for Wiarton Willie."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "The groundhog prefers open country and the edges of woodland, and is rarely far from a burrow entrance. \"Marmota monax\" has a wide geographic range. It is typically found in low-elevation forests, small woodlots, fields, pastures and hedgerows. It constructs dens in well-drained soil, and most have summer and winter dens. Human activity has increased food access and abundance, allowing \"M. monax\" to thrive."
      },
      {
        "title": "North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences",
        "text": "On Groundhog Day, February 2, Sir Walter Wally makes his annual prediction for the arrival of the upcoming spring. Sir Walter has a 58% accuracy rating, which has earned him nationwide recognition for his prognostication ability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "The time spent observing groundhogs by field biologists represents only a small fraction of time devoted to the field research. W.J. Schoonmaker reports that groundhogs may hide when they see, smell or hear the observer. Marmot researcher Ken Armitage states that the social biology of the groundhog is poorly studied."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Outside their burrow, individuals are alert when not actively feeding. It is common to see one or more nearly motionless individuals standing erect on their hind feet watching for danger. When alarmed, they use a high-pitched whistle to warn the rest of the colony, hence the name \"whistle-pig\". Groundhogs may squeal when fighting, seriously injured, or caught by a predator. Other sounds groundhogs may make include low barks and a sound produced by grinding their teeth. David P. Barash wrote that he witnessed only two occasions of upright play-fighting among woodchucks and that the upright posture of play-fighting involves sustained physical contact between individuals and may require a degree of social tolerance virtually unknown in \"M. monax\". He said it was possible to conclude, alternatively, that upright play-fighting is part of the woodchuck's behavioral repertory but rarely shown because of physical spacing and/or low social tolerance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stormy Marmot",
        "text": "Statistical analysis of groundhog predictions show that Stormy Marmot and Poor Richard (a groundhog based in York, Pennsylvania) have the best correlation to observed weather trends. \"When Stormy Marmot predicts an early spring, we can expect March to be on average 6 \u00b0F warmer, and April to be 2.5 \u00b0F warmer. When Poor Richard predicts an early spring, we can expect February to be 4 \u00b0F warmer and March to be 8 \u00b0F warmer.\" Dover Doug, a groundhog from Dover, Pennsylvania, was also noted for having a strong correlation between the sign of his shadow and the arrival of spring conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthopleura xanthogrammica",
        "text": "Main predators of \"A. xanthogrammica\" include: the leather seastar \"Dermasterias imbricata\", the nudibranch \"Aeolidia papillosa\" and the snail \"Epitonium tinctum\" (both feed on the tentacles), and the snails \"Opalia chacei\" and \"Opalia funiculata\" and the sea spider \"Pycnogonum stearnsi\" (that feed on the column)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Both their diet and their habit of burrowing make groundhogs serious nuisance animals around farms and gardens. They will eat many commonly grown vegetables, and their burrows can undermine foundations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hedgehog",
        "text": "The various species are prey to different predators: while forest hedgehogs are prey primarily to birds (especially owls) and ferrets, smaller species like the long-eared hedgehog are prey to foxes, wolves, and mongooses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Male groundhogs average slightly larger than females and, like all marmots, they are considerably heavier during autumn (when engaged in autumn hyperphagia) than when emerging from hibernation in spring. Adult males average year-around weight , with spring to fall average weights of while females average , with spring to fall averages of . Seasonal weight changes indicate circannual deposition and use of fat. Groundhogs attain progressively higher weights each year for the first two or three years, after which weight plateaus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Groundhog Day (, , , ; Nova Scotia: Daks Day) is a popular North American tradition observed in the United States and Canada on February 2. It derives from the Pennsylvania Dutch superstition that if a groundhog emerges from its burrow on this day and sees its shadow due to clear weather, it will retreat to its den, and winter will go on for six more weeks; if it does not see its shadow because of cloudiness, spring will arrive early."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Mostly herbivorous, groundhogs eat primarily wild grasses and other vegetation, including berries and agricultural crops, when available. In early spring, dandelion and coltsfoot are important groundhog food items. Some additional foods include sheep sorrel, timothy-grass, buttercup, tearthumb, agrimony, red and black raspberries, mulberries, buckwheat, plantain, wild lettuce, all varieties of clover, and alfalfa. Groundhogs also occasionally eat small animals, such as grubs, grasshoppers, snails, and even baby birds, but are not as omnivorous as many other Sciuridae."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Essex Ed\" the groundhog and \"Otis the Hedgehog\" predict at Turtle Back Zoo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Buckeye Chuck",
        "text": "According to the legend of Groundhog Day, the groundhog's behavior is a way of forecasting the weather. If the groundhog pops out from its burrow, sees his shadow, and then disappears again, it will mean that winter is to continue for six more weeks. But if the groundhog does not see its shadow, then it will not be scared to come out of its burrow and winter will soon end."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harpactognathus",
        "text": "The authors hypothesized that Scaphognathines specialized as aerial predators in inland freshwater habitats. However, more recent publications have suggested scaphognathines lacked specializations for piscivory, and were likely terrestrial predators of small vertebrates or corvid-like generalists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Punxsutawney Phil's statistics are kept by the Pennsylvania's Groundhog Club which cares for the animal. Phil has predicted 103 forecasts for winter and just 17 for an early spring. Most assessments of Phil's accuracy have given accuracy lower than would be expected with random chance, with Stormfax Almanac giving an estimate of 39%, and meteorologist Tim Roche of \"Weather Underground\" giving a 36% accuracy rate between 1969 and 2016 (a range chosen because local weather data was most reliable from 1969 onward) and a 47% record in that time span when predicting early spring. The National Centers for Environmental Information, using a basic metric of above-normal temperatures for early spring and below-normal temperatures for more winter, placed Punxsutawney Phil's accuracy at 40% for the ten-year period preceding 2019. Other poor results from analysis are reported by the \"Farmer's Almanac\" (which itself has been known for forecasts of questionable accuracy) as \"exactly 50 percent\" accuracy, and The National Geographic Society reporting only 28% success. But a Middlebury College team found that a long-term analysis of temperature high/low predictions were 70% accurate, although when the groundhog predicted early spring it was usually wrong. Canadian meteorologist Cindy Day has estimated that Nova Scotia's \"Shubenacadie Sam\" has an accuracy rate of about 45% compared to 25% for Wiarton Willy in Ontario."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "There did exist a belief among Roman Catholics in Britain that the hedgehog predicted the length of winter, or so it has been claimed, but without demonstration of its age, in a publication by the Scotland-born American journalist Thomas C. MacMillan in 1886, and American writer/journalist Samuel Adams Drake's book published in 1900."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heliciculture",
        "text": "Possible predators include rats, mice, moles, skunks, weasels, birds, frogs and toads, lizards, walking insects (e.g., some beetle and cricket species), some types of flies, centipedes, and even certain carnivorous snail species, such as \"Strangesta capillacea\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The groundhog was once also known by the obsolete Latin alias \"Arctomys monax\". The genus name signified \"bear-rat\". The European marmot is of the same genus and was formerly called \"Arctomys alpinus\". It was speculated that the European counterpart might have lore similar to the groundhog attached to it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Four-toed hedgehog",
        "text": "The main predators of four-toed hedgehogs within their natural habitat are Verreaux's eagle-owl, jackals, hyenas, and honey badgers."
      },
      {
        "title": "One Meat Brawl",
        "text": "In a forest dwells Grover Groundhog and today is Groundhog Day. Grover Groundhog does a dance with his shadow saying that his shadow means nothing in relation to the weather forecast. A radio broadcast prompts Grover to leave his burrow for photographers to see if his shadow appears or not. Upon leaving his burrow the cameras switch to guns (revealing the pretend photographers are hunters) and begin firing at Grover, but he manages to retreat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In French Canada, where the day is known as , Fred la marmotte of Val-d'Espoir has been the representative forecaster for the province of Quebec since 2009. A study also shows that in Quebec, the marmot or groundhog () are regarded as Candlemas weather-predicting beasts in some scattered spots, but the bear is the more usual animal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "The groundhog is by far the largest sciurid in its geographical range, excepting British Columbia where its range may that of its somewhat larger cousin, the hoary marmot. Adults may measure from in total length, including a tail of . Weights of adult groundhogs typically fall between ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shubenacadie Sam",
        "text": "While Shubenacadie offers the earliest prediction every year, it is one of many towns throughout North America known for their winter-predicting groundhogs. The most famous is Punxsutawney Phil of Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, United States. The most famous Canadian groundhog is Wiarton Willie in Ontario, Canada. Sam shares the Nova Scotia prediction every year with \"Two Rivers Tunnel\" in Cape Breton at the Two Rivers Wildlife Park in Mira River, Nova Scotia, although \"Two Rivers Tunnel\" is awakened for its prediction just after 11 am instead of 8 am. Promoters of a lobster festival in Barrington Passage, Nova Scotia created a \"Lucy the Lobster\" ritual in 2018 with a lobster that crawled from the water to a lobster trap on Groundhog Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The weather-predicting animal on Candlemas usually was the badger, although regionally the animal was the bear or the fox. The original weather-predicting animal in Germany had been the bear, another hibernating mammal, but when they grew scarce the lore became altered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Layard's palm squirrel",
        "text": "The main predators of this little creature are snakes, raptor birds, civets and small cats. Mongooses can be predators when they land on the ground floor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Very often, the dens of groundhogs provide homes for other animals, including skunks, red foxes, and cottontail rabbits. Foxes and skunks feed upon field mice, grasshoppers, beetles and other creatures that destroy farm crops. In aiding these animals, the groundhog indirectly helps the farmer. In addition to providing homes for itself and other animals, the groundhog aids in soil improvement by bringing subsoil to the surface. The groundhog is also a valuable game animal and is considered a difficult sport when hunted in a fair manner. In some parts of the U.S., they have been eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In 2019, the 133rd year of the tradition, the groundhog was summoned to come out at 7:25\u00a0am on February 2, but did not see its shadow. Fans of Punxsutawney Phil awaited his arrival starting at 6:00\u00a0am, thanks to a live stream provided by Visit Pennsylvania. The live stream has been a tradition for the past several years, allowing more people than ever to watch the animal meteorologist."
      },
      {
        "title": "European hedgehog in New Zealand",
        "text": "Wild pigs, dogs, cats are predators of the hedgehog, and the flightless, endemic weka and pukeko will prey on nestlings. The Australasian harrier hawk scavenges road killed hedgehogs (along with anything else killed on the roads), but it is unknown whether they actively prey on them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haminoeoidea",
        "text": "Their predators include species of carnivorous aglajids such as \"Navanax inermis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stormy Marmot",
        "text": "Punxsutawney Phil has been making predictions since the 1880s. However, this method of prognostication did not gain mass notoriety until the release of the 1993 comedy Groundhog Day (film) with Bill Murray and Andie MacDowell. The movie became the 13th highest grossing of the year, with over $70 million at the box office. Over time, the movie became a cult classic and significantly increased awareness and attendance at Groundhog Day events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Least chipmunk",
        "text": "Predators include hawks, owls, and mustelids."
      },
      {
        "title": "European hedgehog in New Zealand",
        "text": "Hedgehogs prey on the endangered, endemic giant snails (\"Powelliphanta\"), the endemic w\u0113t\u0101 species, and various other native invertebrates. The critically endangered Cromwell chafer beetle (\"Prodontria lewisi\") is threatened due to predation by hedgehogs as well as other introduced species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Stonewall Jackson\" predicts at Space Farms Zoo and Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Groundhogs are excellent burrowers, using burrows for sleeping, rearing young, and hibernating. W. J. Schoonmaker excavated 11 dens, finding that the volume of earth removed from these averaged per den. The longest burrow measured plus two short side galleries. The volume of soil taken from this den was , weighing . The average weight of the earth taken from all eleven dens was . Though groundhogs are the most solitary of the marmots, several individuals may occupy the same burrow. Groundhog burrows usually have two to five entrances, providing groundhogs their primary means of escape from predators. Burrows can pose a serious threat to agricultural and residential development by damaging farm machinery and even undermining building foundations. In a June 7, 2009, Humane Society of the United States article, \"How to Humanely Chuck a Woodchuck Out of Your Yard\", John Griffin, director of Humane Wildlife Services, stated you would have to have a lot of woodchucks working over a lot of years to create tunnel systems that would pose any risk to a structure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deinacrida elegans",
        "text": "After the colonization of New Zealand, mammalian predators were introduced. These quickly became efficient predators of w\u0113t\u0101. Hedgehogs are an example of an introduced predator. These predators have learnt how to quickly kill w\u0113t\u0101 by suppressing or avoiding the w\u0113t\u0101's defense mechanisms. The hedgehog can hold the w\u0113t\u0101 with its front paws to prevent the w\u0113t\u0101 defense mechanism, which is to raise its hind legs. Then the hedgehog will bite the w\u0113t\u0101 with its powerful jaw."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In Raleigh, NC, an annual event at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences includes \"Sir Walter Wally\". According to museum officials, Wally has been correct 58% of the time vs. Punxsutawney Phil's 39%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney Phil",
        "text": "The practices and lore of Punxsutawney Phil's predictions are predicated on a light-hearted suspension of disbelief by those involved. According to the lore, there is only one Phil, and all other groundhogs are impostors. It is claimed that this one groundhog has lived to make weather prognostications since 1886, sustained by drinks of \"groundhog punch\" or \"elixir of life\" administered at the annual Groundhog Picnic in the fall. The lifespan of a groundhog in the wild is roughly six years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Quigley\", of The Hamptons (resident of the \"Save the Animals Rescue Foundation\"), predicts at Quogue Village Fire Department."
      },
      {
        "title": "Staten Island Chuck",
        "text": "Staten Island Chuck, also referred to more formally as Charles G. Hogg, is a groundhog who resided in the Staten Island Zoo in Staten Island, New York City. He serves as the official groundhog meteorologist of New York City, who predicts the duration of winter each February 2 on Groundhog Day. The tradition dates back to 1981. He makes the prediction based on whether or not he sees his shadow during the ceremony between 7:00 A.M. and 7:30 A.M. on Groundhog Day. The ceremony at the zoo is sometimes attended and officiated by the Mayor of New York City. Chuck's prediction for 2022 was early spring; opposite the prediction made by Punxsutawney Phil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Dunkirk Dave\" (a stage name for numerous groundhogs that have filled the role since 1960) is the local groundhog for Western New York, handled by Bob Will, a typewriter repairman who runs a rescue shelter for groundhogs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In Washington, D.C., the Dupont Circle Groundhog Day event features \"Potomac Phil\", another taxidermic specimen. From his first appearance in 2012 to 2018, Phil's spring predictions invariably agreed with those of the more lively Punxsutawney Phil, who made his predictions half an hour earlier. In addition, Phil always predicted correctly six more months of political gridlock. However, after being accused of collusion in 2018, Potomac Phil contradicted Punxsutawney Phil in 2019 and, further, predicted two more years of political insanity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Common nighthawk",
        "text": "Like other members of the caprimulgid clan, the nighthawk's ground nesting habits endanger eggs and nestlings to predation by ground carnivores, such as skunks, raccoons and opossums. Confirmed predation on adults is restricted to domestic cats, golden eagles, and great horned owls. Peregrine falcons have also been confirmed to attack nighthawks as prey, although the one recorded predation attempt was unsuccessful. Other suspected predators are likely to attack them, such as dogs, coyotes, foxes, hawks, American kestrels, owls, crows and ravens, and snakes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "One theory states that the groundhog naturally comes out of hibernation in central Pennsylvania in early February because of the increasing average temperature. Under this theory, if German settlement had been centered further north, Groundhog Day would take place at a later date. However, the observed behavior of groundhogs in central New Jersey was that they mostly come out of their burrows in mid-March, regardless of Groundhog Day weather."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "While the tradition remains popular in the 21st century, studies have found no consistent association between a groundhog seeing its shadow and the subsequent arrival time of spring-like weather."
      },
      {
        "title": "Woodland jumping mouse",
        "text": "Eastern screech owls, timber rattlesnakes, bobcats, broad-banded copperheads, American mink, weasels, and striped skunks are known predators."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fred la marmotte",
        "text": "Fred is unique in being the only weather-predicting groundhog whose habitat is located on a World Heritage Site. The original Fred \"Gros Fred\" was used from 2010 to 2017 and again in 2019 but was replaced by his son \"Petit Fred\" in 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great horned owl",
        "text": "The squirrels, including ground squirrels, marmots (\"Marmota\"), prairie dogs (\"Cynomys\"), chipmunks and tree squirrels, are diurnal and so are largely unavailable to great horned owls as prey. Occasionally though, one will be caught from their leaf nest, nest hole or burrow entrance first thing in the morning or in the late afternoon and approximately 35 species have been successfully predated by these owls. In general larger sized than other rodent families, the species hunting range from the gray-collared chipmunk (\"Tamias cinereicollis\") to the hoary marmot (\"Marmota caligata\"); thus, squirrels can be provide a very fulfilling meal. An even larger rodent is sometimes attacked as prey by great horned owls, the North American porcupine (\"Erethizon dorsatum\"), in which average adults range from . This has been determined from owls who have porcupine quills imbedded in them, sometimes resulting in death. On occasion, they are successful in killing porcupine, even adults as determined by the size of the quills left behind and prey remains at bloodied kill sites. Other rodents recorded as secondary prey in North America include flying squirrels (\"Glaucomys\" ssp.), the golden mouse (\"Ochrotomys nuttalli\"), red-backed voles & bog lemmings (\"Myodes\" & \"Synaptomys\" ssp.), the muskrat (\"Ondatra zibethicus\"), the northern grasshopper mouse (\"Onychomys leucogaster\"), the northern pygmy mouse (\"Baiomys taylori\") and jumping mice (\"Zapus\" & \"Napaeozapus\" ssp.)."
      },
      {
        "title": "European hedgehog",
        "text": "This species has become a serious pest in areas where it has been introduced outside of its native range. One such location is the Western Isles of Scotland, where introduced hedgehogs eat the eggs of ground-nesting waders such as common snipe, dunlin, common redshank and northern lapwing. It is also considered a pest in New Zealand where it preys upon various native fauna, including insects, snails, lizards and ground-nesting birds, particularly shore birds. As with many introduced animals, it lacks natural predators."
      },
      {
        "title": "Columbian ground squirrel",
        "text": "Predators of the Colombian ground squirrel include the grizzly bear (\"Ursus arctos horribilis\"), coyote (\"Canis latrans\"), Pacific marten (\"Martes caurina\"), grey wolf (\"Canis lupus\") American badger (\"Taxidea taxus\"), weasels (\"Mustela\" and \"Neogale\" sp.), and mountain lion (\"Puma concolor\"). Predatory birds include the golden eagle (\"Aquila chrysaetos\"), red-tailed hawk (\"Buteo jamaicensis\"), and goshawk (\"Accipiter gentilis\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Skunk",
        "text": "Most predators of the Americas, such as wolves, foxes, and badgers, seldom attack skunks, presumably out of fear of being sprayed. The exceptions are reckless predators whose attacks fail once they are sprayed, dogs, and the great horned owl, which is the skunk's only regular predator. In one case, the remains of 57 striped skunks were found in a single great horned owl nest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In the Gaelic calendar of Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man, Brigid's Day (February 1) is a day for predicting the weather. While in Scotland the animal that heralds spring on this day is a snake, and on the Isle of Man a large bird, in Ireland folklorist Kevin Danaher records lore of hedgehogs being observed for this omen:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Balzac Billy",
        "text": "According to the legend of Groundhog Day, the groundhog's behavior is a way of forecasting the weather. If the groundhog sees his shadow, it will mean that winter is to continue for six more weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adelphocoris rapidus",
        "text": "Little is known about the predators that hunt this species. In Ontario, they might get eaten by a \"Peristenus pallipes\", a species of parasitoids. The assassin and ambush bugs are common predators too, especially in Alberta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sarcophaga bullata",
        "text": "\"S. bullata\" has few, if any, specific natural predators due to their dispersal throughout the North American continent. Predators of \"S. bullata\" are carnivores, ranging from mammals and reptiles to carnivorous plants. However, a few primary predators are the \"Stagmomantis californica\" or the California Mantis, \"Catopsis berteroniana,\" \"Sceloporus undulatus\" or Eastern Fence Lizard, and the \"Perimyotis subflavus\" (Eastern Pipistrelle)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "The groundhog is a lowland creature of North America; it is found through much of the Eastern United States, across Canada and into Alaska."
      },
      {
        "title": "Golden-mantled ground squirrel",
        "text": "Predators of this squirrel include snakes, foxes, weasels, and bears. It may carry the Rocky Mountain wood tick, a vector of Rocky Mountain spotted fever and other diseases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shubenacadie Wildlife Park",
        "text": "The Wildlife Park is home to Shubenacadie Sam, one of the first groundhogs in North America to predict the weather for the upcoming year. Every year on February 2 at sunrise, Sam leaves his house and checks for his shadow. This fun event always attracts a large crowd eager to see what the spring holds in store for us."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red-tailed hawk",
        "text": "By far, the most important prey among rodents are squirrels, as they are almost fully diurnal. All told, nearly 50 species from the squirrel family have turned up as food. In particular, where they are distributed, ground squirrels are doubly attractive as a primary food source due to their ground dwelling habits, as red-tails prefer to attack prey that is terrestrial. There are also many disadvantages to ground squirrels as prey: they can escape quickly to the security of their burrows, they tend to be highly social and they are very effective and fast in response to alarm calls, and a good deal of species enter hibernation that in the coldest climates can range up to a 6 to 9-month period (although those in warmer climates with little to no snowy weather often have brief dormancy and no true hibernation). Nonetheless, red-tailed hawks are devoted predators of ground squirrels, especially catching incautious ones as they go out foraging (which more often than not are younger animals). A multi-year study conducted on San Joaquin Experimental Range in California, seemingly still the largest food study to date done for red-tailed hawks with 4031 items examined, showed that throughout the seasons the California ground squirrel (\"Otospermophilus beecheyi\") was the most significant prey, accounting for 60.8% of the breeding season diet and about 27.2% of the diet for hawks year-around. Because of the extremely high density of red-tailed hawks on this range, some pairs came to specialize on diverse alternate prey, which consisted variously of kangaroo rats, lizards, snakes or chipmunks. One pair apparently lessened competition by focusing on pocket gophers instead despite being near the center of ground squirrel activity. In Snake River NCA, the primary food of red-tailed hawks was the Townsend's ground squirrel (\"Urocitellus townsendii\"), which made up nearly 21% of the food in 382 prey items across several years despite sharp spikes and crashes of the ground squirrel population there. The same species was the main food of red-tailed hawks in southeastern Washington, making up 31.2% of 170 items. An even closer predatory relationship was reported in the Centennial valley of Montana and south-central Montana, where 45.4% of 194 prey items and 40.2% of 261 items, respectively, of the food of red-tails consisted of the Richardson's ground squirrel (\"Urocitellus richardsonii\"). Locally in Rochester, Alberta, Richardson's ground squirrel, estimated to average , were secondary in number to unidentified small rodents but red-tails in the region killed an estimated 22\u201360% of the area\u2019s ground squirrel, a large dent in the squirrel\u2019s population. Further east, ground squirrels are not so reliably distributed, but one study in southern Wisconsin, in one of several quite different dietary studies in that state, the thirteen-lined ground squirrel (\"Ictidomys tridecemlineatus\") was the main prey species, making up 29.7% of the diet (from a sample of 165)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Balzac Billy is the \"Prairie Prognosticator\", a man-sized groundhog mascot who prognosticates weather on Groundhog Day from Balzac, Alberta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada goose",
        "text": "Known predators of eggs and goslings include coyotes (\"Canis latrans\"), Arctic foxes (\"Vulpes lagopus\"), northern raccoons (\"Procyon lotor\"), red foxes (\"Vulpes vulpes\"), large gulls (\"Larus\" species), common ravens (\"Corvus corax\"), American crows (\"Corvus brachyrhynchos\"), carrion crows (in Europe, \"Corvus corone\") and both brown (\"Ursus arctos\") and American black bears (\"Ursus americanus\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Weather lore",
        "text": "Groundhog Day, observed in the U. S. and Canada, also falls on February 2 and is thought to derive from the Candlemas weather lore in Europe, particularly the German which features the badger as the predictor. An example of such German weather rhyme translates as:\n:\"If the badger is in the sun at Candlemas,\"\n:\"he will have to go back into his hole for another four weeks\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oligosoma salmo",
        "text": "The greatest threat to the skinks currently is mice, which will attack lizards that are too cold to move and eat them alive. Other predators include cats, hedgehogs, rats, mustelids, and weka. Their habitat is threatened by vehicle damage, fire, and storms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Due to Nova Scotia's Atlantic Time Zone, Shubenacadie Sam makes the first Groundhog Day prediction in North America. \"Daks Day\" (from the German \"dachs\") is Groundhog Day in the dialect of Lunenburg, Nova Scotia."
      },
      {
        "title": "European hedgehog in New Zealand",
        "text": "Their diet includes the eggs and chicks of ground-nesting birds, so they may have already contributed to the decline and extinction of up to fifteen bird species and are a threat to those that remain. Also they are yet another threat to endangered native skinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Four-toed hedgehog",
        "text": "When encountering a predator, its standard defensive reaction is to tense up all the muscles on its back to cause its spines to stand erect, and then roll into a ball protecting its limbs and head. If it is harassed further, it will twitch in an attempt to jab spines into the predator and make snuffling/grunting noises. Its spines are not released into the skin of an attacker, as those of a porcupine. Hedgehogs only rarely lose quills during adulthood; heavy quill loss is usually a warning sign as to the animal's health."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cape ground squirrel",
        "text": "The burrows of Cape ground squirrels are also used by meerkats and yellow mongooses. While Cape ground squirrels and meerkats appear to have a mutual relationship, mongoose and squirrel relations appear to be more commensal. Predators of ground squirrels include jackals, snakes and monitor lizards. Ground squirrels may be able to scent the differences in the dropping of predators and non-predators. When threatened by predators ground squirrels engage in mobbing behaviour: several squirrels rush at the predator while using their bushy tails to block it. When the predator strikes back, all the squirrels back off. However, multiple mobbings are usually successful in driving away predators."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fred la marmotte",
        "text": "According to the tradition of Groundhog Day, if the groundhog sees his shadow then spring will be delayed; if he does not see his shadow, then spring will be early."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harpaphe haydeniana",
        "text": "\"Harpaphe haydeniana\" has few predators, due to its aposematic coloration and its ability to secrete hydrogen cyanide when threatened. This behaviour gives rise to the common names \"cyanide millipede\" and \"almond-scented millipede\" (since cyanide smells of almonds), although cyanide secretion is not unique to \"H. haydeniana\". Nonetheless, at least one species, the ground beetle \"Promecognathus laevissimus\", is a specialised predator of \"H. haydeniana\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Craugastor rugosus",
        "text": "It is likely an ambush predator which generally preys on beetles, but may also attack lizards and other frogs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belding's ground squirrel",
        "text": "Belding's ground squirrels are prey for various predators such as coyotes, bobcats, weasels, eagles and badgers. Ground squirrels will also perceive humans, livestock and cars as threats. Ground squirrels have two specific alarm calls used to warn others of predators. One call, known as the churr call or the trill, is made of a series of more than five notes given rapidly. These calls are given for predators that pose less immediate threats, usually terrestrial predators. Individuals that are close to the alarm caller will respond by standing on their back legs (posting), running on a rock to get a better view of the predator or by returning to their core area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soybean",
        "text": "Soybeans are consumed by whitetail deer which may damage soybean plants through feeding, trampling and bedding, reducing crop yields by as much as 15%. Groundhogs are also a common pest in soybean fields, living in burrows underground and feeding nearby. One den of groundhogs can consume a tenth to a quarter of an acre of soybeans. Chemical repellents or firearms are effective for controlling pests in soybean fields."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allegheny woodrat",
        "text": "Their diets primarily consist of plant materials including buds, leaves, stems, fruits, seeds, acorns, and other nuts. They store their food in caches and eat about 5% of their body weight a day. Predators include owls, skunks, weasels, foxes, raccoons, bobcats, large snakes, and humans. At one point, the Allegheny rat was hunted for food and sometimes killed due to false identification based on its resemblance to more problematic European rats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vitrina pellucida",
        "text": "Predators: This snail is eaten by hedgehogs."
      },
      {
        "title": "American red squirrel",
        "text": "Chief predators include Canada lynx (\"Lynx canadensis\"), bobcat (\"Lynx rufus\"), coyote (\"Canis latrans\"), great horned owl (\"Bubo virginianus\"), northern goshawk (\"Accipiter gentilis\"), red-tailed hawk (\"Buteo jamaicensis\"), American crow (\"Corvus brachyrynchos\"), American marten (\"Martes americana\"), pacific marten (\"Martes caurina\"), red fox (\"Vulpes vulpes\"), gray fox (\"Urocyon cinereoargenteus\"), wolf (\"Canis lupus\"), and weasel (\"Mustela\" sp.)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bogdo-Baskunchak Nature Reserve",
        "text": "Numerous Rodents serve as prey for the hunters, among them are various ground squirrels (Spermophilus), meriones (such as Meriones tamariscinus and Meriones meridianus), jerboas (Allactaga major and Allactaga elater), hamsters (Cricetus cricetus and Cricetulus migratorius), as well as some mice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Great Neck Greta\", of Great Neck, Long Island, New York, predicted in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Groundhog\n--Description.\n--Etymology.\n--Distribution and habitat.\n--Survival.\n--Behavior.\n----Diet.\n----Burrows.\n----Hibernation.\n----Reproduction.\n--Relationship with humans.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tripod stance",
        "text": "The common dwarf mongoose (\"Helogale parvula\") adopts a tripod stance when being vigilant for predators. In a similar mammal, the thirteen-lined ground squirrel"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fred la marmotte",
        "text": "Fred la marmotte is a Canadian groundhog located in near Perc\u00e9, Quebec who predicts weather on Groundhog Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "The groundhog (\"Marmota monax\"), also known as a woodchuck, is a rodent of the family Sciuridae, belonging to the group of large ground squirrels known as marmots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Podogymnura truei",
        "text": "Since \"Podogymnura truei\" are ground dwellers, their typical diet includes earthworms, insects, and arthropods. Although primarily carnivorous, they will occasionally eat fungi and fruit. \"P. truei\" are nocturnal or crepuscular, which means that they remain in their burrows during the day, but come out to forage by searching the forest floor at twilight or night. Foraging with little visibility requires their sense of smell to be their primary sense. They exhibit more similar behaviors to that of the elusive shrews than their spiky relatives. \"P. truei\" move faster but are not as efficient at digging as hedgehogs. They are also territorial and live in solitude, with exception to breeding season. In order to mark their territory or to deter predators, they will release a strong odor, typically described as a rancid onion or garlic smell."
      },
      {
        "title": "White-tailed jackrabbit",
        "text": "White-tailed jackrabbits influence the composition of the turf through their selective grazing activities. They are important prey species for various mammalian predators. Red (\"Vulpes vulpes\") and grey foxes (\"Urocyon cinereoargenteus\") occasionally capture one, though not many large adults. They are perhaps most important prey for mid-sized carnivores such as the American badger (\"Taxidea taxus\"), the coyote (\"Canis latrans\"), and the bobcat (\"Lynx rufus\") and small supplemental prey for larger ones such as the mountain lion (\"Puma concolor\") and the gray wolf (\"Canis lupus\"). Snakes sometimes attack them (usually young ones) and bird predators include eagles, hawks, and owls. Golden eagles (\"Aquila chrysaetos\") are the only avian predators large enough to regularly take full-grown white-tailed jackrabbits, though ferruginous hawks (\"Buteo regalis\") and great horned owls (\"Bubo virginianus\") may occasionally take an adult, though these latter two species and other largish raptorial birds typically attack young. They attempt to evade detection by crouching in the vegetation where their cryptic colouration makes them difficult to observe. They may slink away, but if detected, they bound away at speed, adopting a zigzag course. They can run up to 55\u00a0km/hr (34\u00a0mi/hr) and leap up to . They are also hunted and eaten by humans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Celestus warreni",
        "text": "The giant Hispaniolan galliwasp is an opportunistic predator that feed on insects, earthworms, small mammals, and other reptiles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "2022 saw the 136th time of the event and the groundhog saw its shadow, predicting six more weeks of winter.\n; Mid-Atlantic"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Buckeye Chuck\", Ohio's official State Groundhog, is one of two weather predicting groundhogs. He resides in Marion, Ohio."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pardosa milvina",
        "text": "Larger wolf spiders like \"Tigrosa helluo\" and \"Hogna helluo\" are predators of \"P. milvina\". Ground beetles such as \"Scarites quadriceps\" are also predators of the shore spider. The adult \"Hogna helluo\" is 20 times larger than \"Pardosa\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where do groundhogs live?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Groundhogs live in lowlands in much of the Eastern United States, across Canada and into Alaska."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are groundhogs native to any other countries besides North America?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "No, I cannot find any incident of groundhogs found naturally outside of North America."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How accurate are Groundhog day predictions?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Impartial estimates place the groundhog's accuracy between 35% and 41%."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the most common predators of a groundhog?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Wild predators of adult groundhogs in most of eastern North America include coyotes, badgers, bobcats, and foxes; large predators such as gray wolf and eastern cougar are basically extirpated in the east but still may hunt groundhogs on occasion in Canada. Young groundhogs may also be taken by American mink, cats, timber rattlesnakes, and hawks."
    ],
    "topic": "Groundhog Day",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Groundhog:12",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Groundhog",
          "Survival"
        ],
        "ctx": "Wild predators of adult groundhogs in most of eastern North America include coyotes, badgers, bobcats, and foxes (largely only red fox). Many of these predators are successful stealth stalkers so can catch groundhogs by surprise before the large rodents can escape to their burrows; badgers likely hunt them by digging them out from their burrows. Coyotes in particular are sizable enough to overpower any groundhog, with the latter being the third most significant prey species per a statewide study in Pennsylvania."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Groundhog:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Groundhog",
          "Survival"
        ],
        "ctx": "Large predators such as gray wolf and eastern cougar are basically extirpated in the east but still may hunt groundhogs on occasion in Canada. Golden eagles can also prey on adult groundhogs, but seldom occur in the same range or in the same habitats as this marmot. Likewise, great horned owls can reportedly, per Bent (1938), prey upon groundhogs, but this owl rarely does so, especially given the temporal differences in their behaviors."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Groundhog:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Groundhog",
          "Survival"
        ],
        "ctx": "Young groundhogs (usually those less than a couple months in age) may also be taken by an American mink, perhaps other smallish mustelids, cats, timber rattlesnakes, and hawks. Red-tailed hawks can take groundhogs at least of up to the size of yearling juveniles, and northern goshawks can take them up to perhaps weak emergent-adult groundhogs in the Spring."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Groundhog Day (, , , ; Nova Scotia: Daks Day) is a popular North American tradition observed in the United States and Canada on February 2. It derives from the Pennsylvania Dutch superstition that if a groundhog emerges from its burrow on this day and sees its shadow due to clear weather, it will retreat to its den, and winter will go on for six more weeks; if it does not see its shadow because of cloudiness, spring will arrive early."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Groundhog Day\n--History.\n----Origins.\n------Germany.\n------Groundhog as badger.\n------Bear-rat.\n------Simpler Candlemas lore.\n------British and Gaelic calendars.\n----Pennsylvania.\n------Punxsutawney beginnings.\n------Punxsutawney today.\n--Regional celebrations.\n----United States.\n----Canada.\n--Accuracy.\n----Statistics.\n----Pseudoscientific evaluation.\n--Similar customs.\n--Popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The Pennsylvanians maintained the same tradition as the Germans on Groundhog Day, except that winter's spell would be prolonged for six weeks instead of four. For the Pennsylvania Dutch, the badger became the \"dox\" which in Deitsch referred to \"groundhog\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Similarity to the groundhog lore has been noted for the German formula \"Sonnt sich der Dachs in der Lichtme\u00dfwoche, so geht er auf vier Wochen wieder zu Loche\" (If the badger sunbathes during Candlemas-week, for four more weeks he will be back in his hole). A slight variant is found in a collection of weather lore (\"\", lit. \"farmers' rules\") printed in Austria in 1823."
      },
      {
        "title": "Imbolc",
        "text": "The festival was traditionally a time of weather divination, and the old tradition of watching to see if serpents or badgers came from their winter dens may be a forerunner of the North American Groundhog Day. A Scottish Gaelic proverb about the day is:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney Phil",
        "text": "The Groundhog Day celebration is rooted in a Celtic and Germanic tradition that says that if a hibernating animal casts a shadow on February 2, the pagan holiday of Imbolc (known among Christians as Candlemas), winter and cold weather will last another six weeks. If no shadow is seen, legend says, spring will come early. In Germany, the tradition evolved into a myth that if the sun came out on Candlemas, a hedgehog would cast its shadow, predicting snow all the way into May. When German immigrants settled in Pennsylvania, they transferred the tradition onto local fauna, replacing hedgehogs with groundhogs. Several other towns in the region hold similar Groundhog Day events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The German version, with the introduction of the badger (or other beasts) was an expansion on a more simple tradition that if the weather was sunny and clear on Candlemas Day people expected winter to continue. The simpler version is summarized in the English (Scots dialect) couplet that runs \"If Candlemas is fair and clear / There'll be winters in the year\", with equivalent phrases in French and German. And the existence of a corresponding Latin couplet has been suggested as evidence of the great antiquity of this tradition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Animal worship",
        "text": "A popular North American tradition is Groundhog Day, in which on February 2 each year a groundhog is used to predict whether there will be an early spring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "While the tradition remains popular in the 21st century, studies have found no consistent association between a groundhog seeing its shadow and the subsequent arrival time of spring-like weather."
      },
      {
        "title": "Weather lore",
        "text": "Groundhog Day, observed in the U. S. and Canada, also falls on February 2 and is thought to derive from the Candlemas weather lore in Europe, particularly the German which features the badger as the predictor. An example of such German weather rhyme translates as:\n:\"If the badger is in the sun at Candlemas,\"\n:\"he will have to go back into his hole for another four weeks\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Scholar Rhys Carpenter in 1946 emphasized that the Badger Day tradition was strong in Germany, but absent in the British Isles, and he referred to this as a reason that the U.S. Groundhog Day was not brought by immigrants from these places."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The Pennsylvania Dutch were immigrants from German speaking areas of Europe. The Germans had a tradition of marking Candlemas (February 2) as \"Badger Day\" (\"Dachstag\"), where if a badger emerging found it to be a sunny day thereby casting a shadow, it foreboded the prolonging of winter by four more weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Either way, the Punxsutawney Groundhog Club was formed in 1899, and continued the hunt and \"Groundhog Feast\", which took place annually in September. The \"hunt\" portion of it became increasingly a ritualized formality, because the practical procurement of meat had to occur well ahead of time for marinating. A drink called the \"groundhog punch\" was also served. The flavor has been described as a \"cross between pork and chicken\". The hunt and feast did not attract enough outside interest, and the practice discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The day is observed with various ceremonies at other locations in North America beyond the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The weather lore was brought from German-speaking areas where the badger () is the forecasting animal. This appears to be an enhanced version of the lore that clear weather on the Christian festival of Candlemas forebodes a prolonged winter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Snake worship",
        "text": "Imbolc was traditionally a time of weather divination, and the old tradition of watching to see if serpents or badgers came from their winter dens may be a forerunner of the North American Groundhog Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In \"The Thomas R. Brendle Collection of Pennsylvania German Folklore\", Brendle preserved the following lore from the local Pennsylvania German dialect:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The Groundhog Day ceremony held at Punxsutawney in western Pennsylvania, centering on a semi-mythical groundhog named Punxsutawney Phil, has become the most frequently attended ceremony. \"Grundsow Lodges\" in Pennsylvania Dutch Country in the southeastern part of the state observe the occasion as well. Other cities in the United States and Canada also have adopted the event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The Groundhog Day celebrations of the 1880s were carried out by the Punxsutawney Elks Lodge. The lodge members were the \"genesis\" of the Groundhog Club formed later, which continued the Groundhog Day tradition. But the lodge started out being interested in the groundhog as a game animal for food. It had started to serve groundhog at the lodge, and had been organizing a hunting party on a day each year in late summer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In Pennsylvania, Punxsutawney Phil has become a popular tradition. On February 2, people within the city will gather to find out whether or not Phil's shadow is revealed. With that, he will allegedly determine whether spring will soon begin by not seeing his shadow, or if winter will ensue for six more weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The standard term for \"groundhog\" was \"grun\u2032daks\" (from German \"dachs\"), with the regional variant in York County being \"grundsau\", a direct translation of the English name, according to a 19th-century book on the dialect. The form was a regional variant according to one 19th century source. However, the weather superstition that begins \"Der zwet H\u00e6r\u2032ning is Grund\u2032sau d\u00e5k. W\u00e2nn di grundsau \u00eer sch\u00e2tte sent...\" (\"February second is Groundhog day. If the groundhog sees its shadow...\") is given as common to all 14 counties in Dutch Pennsylvania Country, in a 1915 monograph."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In Southeastern Pennsylvania, Groundhog Lodges (\"Grundsow Lodges\") celebrate the holiday with \"fersommlinge\", social events in which food is served, speeches are made, and one or more \"g'spiel\" (plays or skits) are performed for entertainment. The Pennsylvania German dialect is the only language spoken at the event, and those who speak English pay a penalty, usually in the form of a nickel, dime, or quarter per word spoken, with the money put into a bowl in the center of the table."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "2021 was the 135th, and for the first time, much of the Inner Circle members were required to wear a mask. The groundhog was summoned at 7:25\u00a0am on February 2 and saw its shadow. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the ceremony was held behind closed doors, with no fans allowed to attend."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Groundhog Day is a holiday celebrated on February 2 in the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In 2019, the 133rd year of the tradition, the groundhog was summoned to come out at 7:25\u00a0am on February 2, but did not see its shadow. Fans of Punxsutawney Phil awaited his arrival starting at 6:00\u00a0am, thanks to a live stream provided by Visit Pennsylvania. The live stream has been a tradition for the past several years, allowing more people than ever to watch the animal meteorologist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney Phil",
        "text": "The Inner Circle scripts the Groundhog Day ceremonies in advance, with the Inner Circle deciding beforehand whether Phil will see his shadow. The Stormfax Almanac has made note of the weather conditions on each Groundhog Day since 1999; the almanac has recorded 12 incidents in a 20-year span in which the Inner Circle said the groundhog saw his shadow while the sky was cloudy or there was rain or snow coming down, and in one case said the groundhog did not see his shadow despite sunshine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Prediction based on an animal's behavior used to be given more credence in the past when stores of food became scarce as winter progressed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "There did exist a belief among Roman Catholics in Britain that the hedgehog predicted the length of winter, or so it has been claimed, but without demonstration of its age, in a publication by the Scotland-born American journalist Thomas C. MacMillan in 1886, and American writer/journalist Samuel Adams Drake's book published in 1900."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"...it was the second of February, that ancient Candlemas-day whose treacherous sun, the precursor of six weeks of cold, inspired Matthew Laensberg with the two lines, which have deservedly become classic:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Morgantown, Pennsylvania",
        "text": "The earliest mention of Groundhog Day is an entry on February 2, 1840, in the diary of James L. Morris of Morgantown, in Pennsylvania Dutch Country, according to the book on the subject by Don Yoder. This was a Welsh enclave but the diarist was commenting on his neighbors who were of German stock. February 2, 1840, read: \"Today the Germans say the groundhog comes out of his winter quarters and if he sees his shadow he returns in and remains there 40 days.\" Some sources stated that Morris's entry of February 4, 1841, was the oldest. It read: \"Last Tuesday, the 2nd, was Candlemas day, the day on which, according to the Germans, the Groundhog peeps out of his winter quarters and if he sees his shadow he pops back for another six weeks nap, but if the day be cloudy he remains out, as the weather is to be moderate.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "One Meat Brawl",
        "text": "In a forest dwells Grover Groundhog and today is Groundhog Day. Grover Groundhog does a dance with his shadow saying that his shadow means nothing in relation to the weather forecast. A radio broadcast prompts Grover to leave his burrow for photographers to see if his shadow appears or not. Upon leaving his burrow the cameras switch to guns (revealing the pretend photographers are hunters) and begin firing at Grover, but he manages to retreat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fred la marmotte",
        "text": "According to the tradition of Groundhog Day, if the groundhog sees his shadow then spring will be delayed; if he does not see his shadow, then spring will be early."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The first reported news of a Groundhog Day observance was arguably made by the \"Punxsutawney Spirit\" newspaper of Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, in 1886: \"up to the time of going to press, the beast has not seen its shadow\". However, it was not until the following year in 1887 that the first Groundhog Day considered \"official\" was commemorated there, with a group making a trip to the Gobbler's Knob part of town to consult the groundhog. People have gathered annually at the spot for the event ever since."
      },
      {
        "title": "Buckeye Chuck",
        "text": "According to the legend of Groundhog Day, the groundhog's behavior is a way of forecasting the weather. If the groundhog pops out from its burrow, sees his shadow, and then disappears again, it will mean that winter is to continue for six more weeks. But if the groundhog does not see its shadow, then it will not be scared to come out of its burrow and winter will soon end."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Outside their burrow, individuals are alert when not actively feeding. It is common to see one or more nearly motionless individuals standing erect on their hind feet watching for danger. When alarmed, they use a high-pitched whistle to warn the rest of the colony, hence the name \"whistle-pig\". Groundhogs may squeal when fighting, seriously injured, or caught by a predator. Other sounds groundhogs may make include low barks and a sound produced by grinding their teeth. David P. Barash wrote that he witnessed only two occasions of upright play-fighting among woodchucks and that the upright posture of play-fighting involves sustained physical contact between individuals and may require a degree of social tolerance virtually unknown in \"M. monax\". He said it was possible to conclude, alternatively, that upright play-fighting is part of the woodchuck's behavioral repertory but rarely shown because of physical spacing and/or low social tolerance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The chronologies given are somewhat inconsistent in the literature. The first \"Groundhog Picnic\" was held in 1887 according to one source, but given as post-circa-1889 by a local historian in a journal. The historian states that around 1889 the meat was served in the lodge's banquet, and the organized hunt started after that."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The groundhog was once also known by the obsolete Latin alias \"Arctomys monax\". The genus name signified \"bear-rat\". The European marmot is of the same genus and was formerly called \"Arctomys alpinus\". It was speculated that the European counterpart might have lore similar to the groundhog attached to it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In the Gaelic calendar of Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man, Brigid's Day (February 1) is a day for predicting the weather. While in Scotland the animal that heralds spring on this day is a snake, and on the Isle of Man a large bird, in Ireland folklorist Kevin Danaher records lore of hedgehogs being observed for this omen:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In Croatia and Serbia, Orthodox Christians have a tradition that on February 2 (Candlemas) or February 15 (\"Sretenje\", The Meeting of the Lord), the bear will awaken from winter dormancy, and if it sees (meets) its own shadow in this sleepy and confused state, it will get scared and go back to sleep for an additional 40 days, thus prolonging the winter. Thus, if it is sunny on Sretenje, it is a sign that the winter is not over yet. If it is cloudy, it is a good sign that the winter is about to end."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "In the United States and Canada, the yearly February 2 Groundhog Day celebration has given the groundhog recognition and popularity. The most popularly known of these groundhogs are Punxsutawney Phil, Wiarton Willie, Jimmy the Groundhog, Dunkirk Dave, and Staten Island Chuck kept as part of Groundhog Day festivities in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania; Wiarton, Ontario; Sun Prairie, Wisconsin; Dunkirk, New York; and Staten Island respectively. The 1993 comedy film \"Groundhog Day\" references several events related to Groundhog Day, and portrays both Punxsutawney Phil himself, and the annual Groundhog Day ceremony. Famous Southern groundhogs include General Beauregard Lee, based at Dauset Trails Nature Center outside Atlanta, Georgia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "The groundhog is also referred to as a chuck, wood-shock, groundpig, whistlepig, whistler, thickwood badger, Canada marmot, monax, moonack, weenusk, red monk, land beaver, and, among French Canadians in eastern Canada, siffleux. The name \"thickwood badger\" was given in the Northwest to distinguish the animal from the prairie badger. Monax (\"M\u00f3onack\") is an Algonquian name of the woodchuck, which means \"digger\" (cf. Lenape \"monachgeu\"). Young groundhogs may be called chucklings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "One theory states that the groundhog naturally comes out of hibernation in central Pennsylvania in early February because of the increasing average temperature. Under this theory, if German settlement had been centered further north, Groundhog Day would take place at a later date. However, the observed behavior of groundhogs in central New Jersey was that they mostly come out of their burrows in mid-March, regardless of Groundhog Day weather."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hedgehogs in culture",
        "text": "\"Hedgehogs\" may also be created by moulding ground meat in a teardrop shape, embedding pastry slivers or slivered almonds in the surface to resemble quills, and adding eyes and ears of peppercorns, olives, or whole almonds. The technique dates back to at least 1390, and was referenced in an episode of \"Two Fat Ladies\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The observance of Groundhog Day in the United States first occurred in German communities in Pennsylvania, according to known records. The earliest mention of Groundhog Day is an entry on February 2, 1840, in the diary of James L. Morris of Morgantown, in Pennsylvania Dutch Country, according to the book on the subject by Don Yoder. This was a Welsh enclave but the diarist was commenting on his neighbors who were of German stock."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Clymer Freas (1867\u20131942) who was city editor at the \"Punxsutawney Spirit\" is credited as the \"father\" who conceived the idea of \"Groundhog Day\". It has also been suggested that Punxsutawney was where all the Groundhog Day events originated, from where it spread to other parts of the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Groundhog Day (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presentation of Jesus at the Temple",
        "text": "In the United States, Candlemas coincides with Groundhog Day, the earliest American reference to which can be found at the Pennsylvania Dutch Folklore Center at Franklin and Marshall College. The reference implies that Groundhog Day may have come from a German-American Candlemas tradition:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Large predators such as gray wolf and eastern cougar are basically extirpated in the east but still may hunt groundhogs on occasion in Canada. Golden eagles can also prey on adult groundhogs, but seldom occur in the same range or in the same habitats as this marmot. Likewise, great horned owls can reportedly, per Bent (1938), prey upon groundhogs, but this owl rarely does so, especially given the temporal differences in their behaviors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The weather-predicting animal on Candlemas usually was the badger, although regionally the animal was the bear or the fox. The original weather-predicting animal in Germany had been the bear, another hibernating mammal, but when they grew scarce the lore became altered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shubenacadie Sam",
        "text": "The Shubenacadie Sam tradition began about 1987 and differs from most other famous groundhogs as he is not woken from hibernation for Groundhog Day. By 2018, four ground hogs had served as \"Shubenacadie Sam\" since the practice began in Nova Scotia, as groundhogs usually live 10-15 years in captivity. In 2021, Sam was a 7-year-old female groundhog. Park employee Carole Custance served as the caretaker for Shubenacadie Sam and the park's groundhogs for almost 17 years. She provided breakfast for the groundhog, usually yogurt and melon. Custance also read to the groundhog who has been designated an advocate for Family Literacy Day. Shubenacadie Sam usually draws around 200 spectators for his or her prediction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The largest Groundhog Day celebration is held in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, where crowds as large as 40,000 gather each year (nearly eight times the year-round population of the town). The average draw had been about 2,000 until the 1993 film \"Groundhog Day\", which is set at the festivities in Punxsutawney, after which attendance rose to about 10,000. The official Phil is pretended to be a supercentenarian, having been the same forecasting beast since 1887."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The Slumbering Groundhog Lodge, which was formed in 1907, has carried out the ceremonies that take place in Quarryville, Pennsylvania. It used to be a contending rival to Punxsutawney over the Groundhog Day fame. It employs a taxidermic specimen (stuffed woodchuck)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hogmanay",
        "text": "There are many customs, both national and local, associated with Hogmanay. The most widespread national custom is the practice of first-footing, which starts immediately after midnight. This involves being the first person to cross the threshold of a friend or neighbour and often involves the giving of symbolic gifts such as salt (less common today), coal, shortbread, whisky, and black bun (a rich fruit cake), intended to bring different kinds of luck to the householder. Food and drink (as the gifts) are then given to the guests. This may go on throughout the early hours of the morning and well into the next day (although modern days see people visiting houses well into the middle of January). The first-foot is supposed to set the luck for the rest of the year. Traditionally, tall, dark-haired men are preferred as the first-foot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Wann der Dachs sei Schadde seht im Lichtmess Marye, dann geht er widder in's Loch un beleibt noch sechs Woche drin. Wann Lichtmess Marye awwer drieb is, dann bleibt der dachs haus un's watt noch enanner Friehyaahr. (When the groundhog sees his shadow on the morning of February 2, he will again go into his hole and remain there for six weeks. But if the morning of February 2 is overcast, the groundhog will remain outside and there will be another spring.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Groundhog Day may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney Phil",
        "text": "The vice president of the Inner Circle prepares two scrolls in advance of the actual ceremony, one proclaiming six more weeks of winter and one proclaiming an early spring. At daybreak on February 2, Punxsutawney Phil awakens from his burrow on Gobbler's Knob, is helped to the top of the stump by his handlers, and purportedly explains to the president of the Inner Circle, in a language known as \"Groundhogese\", whether he has seen his shadow. The president of the Inner Circle, the only person able to understand Groundhogese through his possession of an ancient acacia wood cane, then interprets Phil's message, and directs the vice president to read the proper scroll to the crowd gathered on Gobbler's Knob and the masses of \"phaithphil phollowers\" tuned in to live broadcasts around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Top hat",
        "text": "The members of the \"Inner Circle\" of the Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania Groundhog Club wear top hats on February 2 of every year when they perform the Groundhog Day ceremonies with Punxsutawney Phil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Wild predators of adult groundhogs in most of eastern North America include coyotes, badgers, bobcats, and foxes (largely only red fox). Many of these predators are successful stealth stalkers so can catch groundhogs by surprise before the large rodents can escape to their burrows; badgers likely hunt them by digging them out from their burrows. Coyotes in particular are sizable enough to overpower any groundhog, with the latter being the third most significant prey species per a statewide study in Pennsylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "An adult groundhog can eat more than a pound of vegetation daily. In early June, woodchucks' metabolism slows, and while their food intake decreases, their weight increases by as much as 100% as they produce fat deposits to sustain them during hibernation and late winter. Instead of storing food, groundhogs stuff themselves to survive the winter without eating. Thought not to drink water, groundhogs are reported to obtain needed liquids from the juices of food-plants, aided by their sprinkling with rain or dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In French Canada, where the day is known as , Fred la marmotte of Val-d'Espoir has been the representative forecaster for the province of Quebec since 2009. A study also shows that in Quebec, the marmot or groundhog () are regarded as Candlemas weather-predicting beasts in some scattered spots, but the bear is the more usual animal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In Raleigh, NC, an annual event at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences includes \"Sir Walter Wally\". According to museum officials, Wally has been correct 58% of the time vs. Punxsutawney Phil's 39%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Quigley\", of The Hamptons (resident of the \"Save the Animals Rescue Foundation\"), predicts at Quogue Village Fire Department."
      },
      {
        "title": "Candlemas",
        "text": "The Roman church's custom of blessing candles by the clergy found its way to Germany. The German conclusion that if the sun appeared on Candlemas, a hedgehog would cast a shadow, making a \"second winter\", was the origin for the modern American festival of Groundhog Day, as many of Pennsylvania's early settlers were German."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Due to Nova Scotia's Atlantic Time Zone, Shubenacadie Sam makes the first Groundhog Day prediction in North America. \"Daks Day\" (from the German \"dachs\") is Groundhog Day in the dialect of Lunenburg, Nova Scotia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "(Let it gleam or let it glimmer,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wiarton Willie",
        "text": "Groundhog Day, featuring Wiarton Willie, is a popular annual festival in Wiarton and is similar to events in other locations in North America. A midwinter celebration involving an animal with predictive powers was an element of Celtic culture. The link between weather prediction and the day is said to have been inspired by an old Scottish couplet: \"If Candlemas Day is bright and clear/ There'll be two winters in the year.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney Phil",
        "text": "Each year two scrolls are prepared by the vice president of the Inner Circle: One says early spring and the other says six more weeks of winter. These scrolls are placed during the ceremony on the stump and after Phil is awakened by the crowd, Phil communicates in Groundhogese to the president, who is then directed by Phil to the proper scroll and forecast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Young groundhogs (usually those less than a couple months in age) may also be taken by an American mink, perhaps other smallish mustelids, cats, timber rattlesnakes, and hawks. Red-tailed hawks can take groundhogs at least of up to the size of yearling juveniles, and northern goshawks can take them up to perhaps weak emergent-adult groundhogs in the Spring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "'Qu'il luise ou qu'il luiserne,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (film)",
        "text": "The phrase \"Groundhog Day\" has become a common term to reference a repetitive, unpleasant, and monotonous situation. It is recognized by dictionaries under two definitions: the holiday itself, and \"a situation in which events are or appear to be continually repeated.\" The term's use is such that it has been defined as a clich\u00e9 to refer to a situation in this way. It has been invoked (sometimes inaccurately) by singers, sports stars, comedians, actors, politicians, archbishops, and former Guantanamo Bay detention camp inmates. Then-President Bill Clinton referenced the film in a 1996 speech to troops stationed in Bosnia. The term was used during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, to refer to the monotony of quarantine and isolation associated with attempts to stem the spread of the virus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shubenacadie Sam",
        "text": "While Shubenacadie offers the earliest prediction every year, it is one of many towns throughout North America known for their winter-predicting groundhogs. The most famous is Punxsutawney Phil of Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, United States. The most famous Canadian groundhog is Wiarton Willie in Ontario, Canada. Sam shares the Nova Scotia prediction every year with \"Two Rivers Tunnel\" in Cape Breton at the Two Rivers Wildlife Park in Mira River, Nova Scotia, although \"Two Rivers Tunnel\" is awakened for its prediction just after 11 am instead of 8 am. Promoters of a lobster festival in Barrington Passage, Nova Scotia created a \"Lucy the Lobster\" ritual in 2018 with a lobster that crawled from the water to a lobster trap on Groundhog Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "There are several different ways of defining when spring begins, but by some common methods of doing so, the first day of spring is around March 20, which is always just under seven weeks after February 2, even in leap years. Also the idea of \"spring arriving early\" is a highly subjective notion which could arguably refer to almost anything, from several days to several weeks. At any rate, Groundhog Day serves as a convenient and whimsical milestone to mark the end of the darkest three months of the year (November, December, and January in the Northern Hemisphere), and bookends nicely with Halloween, the two holidays being opposite and roughly equidistant in time from the Winter Solstice, with Halloween festivities starting after sunset and taking place in the nighttime, and Groundhog Day being a celebration of sunrise and morning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (film)",
        "text": "Murray endured physical discomfort for some scenes. To prepare for his step into the water-filled pothole, he wrapped his foot in cling wrap, neoprene, and two pairs of socks. As soon as the scene finished, he began an expletive-filled rant until the costume department dried his foot with hairdryers to avoid frostbite. For another scene, Murray asked MacDowell to really slap him, and Ramis instructed the children Murray confronts in a snowball fight to throw hard. During the scene in which Phil drives off with Punxsutawney Phil, the groundhog bit Murray on the knuckle. Despite wearing gloves, the bite broke the skin. It bit him again in the same spot on a later take."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney Phil",
        "text": "Punxsutawney Phil is a groundhog in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, who is the central figure in the borough's annual Groundhog Day celebration. On February 2 each year, Punxsutawney holds a civic festival with music and food. During the ceremony, which begins well before the winter sunrise, Phil emerges from his temporary home on Gobbler's Knob, located in a rural area about southeast of the town. According to the tradition, if Phil sees his shadow and returns to his hole, he has predicted six more weeks of winter-like weather. If Phil does not see his shadow, he has predicted an \"early spring.\" Punxsutawney's event is the most famous of many Groundhog Day festivals held in the United States and Canada. The event formally began in 1887, although its roots go back even further."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shubenacadie Wildlife Park",
        "text": "The Wildlife Park is home to Shubenacadie Sam, one of the first groundhogs in North America to predict the weather for the upcoming year. Every year on February 2 at sunrise, Sam leaves his house and checks for his shadow. This fun event always attracts a large crowd eager to see what the spring holds in store for us."
      },
      {
        "title": "Felipa Hernandez Barragan",
        "text": "After the cigarettes are tied to the animal figures, each one is passed over the patient as a kind of cleansing, while prayers are said. Then each animal is placed in a basket made of red crepe paper. This part of the ceremony is to remove the bad air from the patient. Then the basket is taken outside to an ants\u2019 nets, with offerings of food such as mole and tamales and candles. The dove whistle is sounded to the four cardinal directions. The goal here is to ground the bad air into the earth, using the ants as agents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Springtime Serenade",
        "text": "As the two inn operators are at the open and spending time with some animals, the groundhog approached and warn them once more about more winter days coming. Again, they all thought it was just a bluff and began to laugh. But they would stop laughing when snowflakes fall to the ground. Finally realizing the truth of the groundhog's warning, everybody hurried back indoors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "L'ours rentre en sa caverne.'"
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney Phil",
        "text": "Prior to 1993, the Groundhog Day event in Punxsutawney attracted crowds of approximately 2,000. The popularity of the film \"Groundhog Day\" brought significantly more attention to the event, with annual crowds rising to 10,000\u201320,000 (with the notable exception of 2021 where the event took place without any crowds due to the COVID-19 pandemic). The event is also streamed online each year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roadkill cuisine",
        "text": "Hedgehog was traditionally eaten roasted with a nettle pudding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In the Midwest, Sun Prairie, Wisconsin, is the self-proclaimed \"Groundhog Capital of the World\". This title taken in response to the \"Punxsutawney Spirit\"'s 1952 newspaper article describing Sun Prairie as a \"remote two cow village buried somewhere in the wilderness...\" In 2015, \"Jimmy the Groundhog\" bit the ear of Mayor Jon Freund and the story quickly went viral worldwide. The next day a mayoral proclamation absolved Jimmy XI of any wrongdoing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Male groundhogs average slightly larger than females and, like all marmots, they are considerably heavier during autumn (when engaged in autumn hyperphagia) than when emerging from hibernation in spring. Adult males average year-around weight , with spring to fall average weights of while females average , with spring to fall averages of . Seasonal weight changes indicate circannual deposition and use of fat. Groundhogs attain progressively higher weights each year for the first two or three years, after which weight plateaus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hope, Indiana",
        "text": "Groundhog Day (February 2) is celebrated in Hope on the town square with local dignitaries in costume viewing the prediction of a local groundhog, currently Hope the Groundhog, or her brother Frank, from the local Utopia Wildlife Rehabilitators."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Groundhog burrows have revealed at least two archaeological sites, the Ufferman Site in the U.S. state of Ohio and Meadowcroft Rockshelter in Pennsylvania. Archaeologists have never excavated the Ufferman Site, but the activities of local groundhogs have revealed numerous artifacts. They favor the loose soil of the esker at the site lies, and their burrow digging has brought many objects to the surface: human and animal bones, pottery, and bits of stone. Woodchuck remains were found in the Indian mounds at Aztalan, Jefferson County, Wisconsin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hedgehogs in culture",
        "text": "Hedgehogs are also often seen in pictures with an autumn-themed background, since the animal hibernates in piles of leaves. This also adds to the cute reputation of hedgehogs. In Great Britain, however, the human habit of lighting bonfires to celebrate Bonfire Night on 5 November has led to an increased risk to hedgehogs, who often choose to sleep in the piles of wood accumulated in gardens and parks beforehand. Television messages now remind viewers who might be lighting bonfires to check them first for the presence of hibernating hedgehogs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Balzac Billy",
        "text": "According to the legend of Groundhog Day, the groundhog's behavior is a way of forecasting the weather. If the groundhog sees his shadow, it will mean that winter is to continue for six more weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fan fiction",
        "text": "\"Groundhog Day\", named after the film, is a variation of this trope, in which the time travel happens repeatedly (typically until the time-traveling character \"gets it right\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"Staten Island Chuck\" is the stage name for the official weather-forecasting woodchuck for New York City, housed in the Staten Island Zoo. In 2009, Chuck bit then-NYC-Mayor Mike Bloomberg, prompting zoo officials to quietly replace him with his daughter Charlotte. In 2014, NYC Mayor Bill de Blasio, famously dropped Charlotte during the ceremony, visibly disturbing many of the children present for the event. Charlotte's untimely death a week later prompted rumors she was killed by the fall, although the zoo later said this was unlikely to be the cause of Charlotte\u2018s demise. As a result, Bill de Blasio has not participated in the tradition since."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Candlemas is a primarily Catholic festival but also known in the German Protestant (Lutheran) churches. In folk religion, various traditions and superstitions continue to be linked with the holiday, although this was discouraged by the Protestant Reformers in the 16th century. Notably, several traditions akin to weather lores use Candlemas' weather to predict the start of spring."
      },
      {
        "title": "2011 Groundhog Day blizzard",
        "text": "Because the storm dumped some of snow in parts of Nova Scotia, and winds up to some 50\u00a0km/h (31\u00a0mph) to some areas in eastern Canada, schools and businesses were closed on Thursday morning, the 3rd of February. Lower Sackville near Halifax received of snow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "Groundhogs are one of the few species that enter into true hibernation, and often build a separate \"winter burrow\" for this purpose. This burrow is usually in a wooded or brushy area and is dug below the frost line and remains at a stable temperature well above freezing during the winter months. In most areas, groundhogs hibernate from October to March or April, but in more temperate areas, they may hibernate as little as three months. Groundhogs hibernate longer in northern latitudes than southern latitudes. To survive the winter, they are at their maximum weight shortly before entering hibernation. When the groundhog enters hibernation, there is a drop in body temperature to as low as 35 degrees Fahrenheit, heart rate falls to 4\u201310 beats per minute and breathing rate falls to one breath every six minutes. During hibernation, they experience periods of torpor and arousal. Hibernating woodchucks lose as much as half their body weight by February. They emerge from hibernation with some remaining body fat to live on until the warmer spring weather produces abundant plant materials for food. Males emerge from hibernation before females. Groundhogs are mostly diurnal, and are often active early in the morning or late afternoon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Springtime Serenade",
        "text": "Upon coming out and hearing what the squirrel told him, the groundhog turned around and was surprised to see his shadow on the wall of his house. He then warns the squirrel and the other animals nearby that if his shadow is visible, more days of snow await. The other animals, however, were doubtful of his advice and therefore took it as a joke."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dink Smallwood",
        "text": "In \"\", a reference to \"Dink Smallwood\" can be found: \"(Facetiously) I am Dinkamus Littlelog and I come in search of the holy groundhog.\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney Phil",
        "text": "The practices and lore of Punxsutawney Phil's predictions are predicated on a light-hearted suspension of disbelief by those involved. According to the lore, there is only one Phil, and all other groundhogs are impostors. It is claimed that this one groundhog has lived to make weather prognostications since 1886, sustained by drinks of \"groundhog punch\" or \"elixir of life\" administered at the annual Groundhog Picnic in the fall. The lifespan of a groundhog in the wild is roughly six years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (film)",
        "text": "As a Chicago native, Ramis enjoyed filming in Illinois and knew the area could meet their needs. These included being closer to a major metropolitan area with access to highways, a winter aesthetic, and the ability to complete the production as quickly as possible. Ramis also wanted a main street like Punxsutawney's. Location scout Bob Hudgins thought that Mineral Point, Wisconsin, could meet their requirements. During the scouting journey there, the team stopped in the city of Baraboo, Wisconsin, which happened to have a town square. The filmmakers could see the benefits of a town square over a main street. Ramis asked for something similar but in closer proximity to Chicago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (musical)",
        "text": "Phil Connors, an arrogant TV weatherman, is dreading his trip to Punxsutawney, PA to do a report on the annual Groundhog Day Ceremony, believing it is beneath him. As his weather van arrives in town, the people of Punxsutawney are hoping that the groundhog, Punxsutawney Phil, will not see his shadow signifying an end to winter and the start of spring (\"There Will Be Sun\"). The next morning, Phil wakes on 2 February full of scorn for everything and everyone he encounters on his way to Gobbler's Knob where the annual ceremony takes place (\"Small Town, U.S.A.\"). When he arrives on location he meets up with cameraman Larry and his new producer Rita before the groundhog's forecast of six more weeks of winter (\"Punxsutawney Phil\"). While Phil and Rita eat lunch at a diner, Larry packs the van preparing for their departure, and the sheriff enters and tells them that a bad snowstorm has closed every road out of town, keeping them from leaving. Rita makes an entry in her journal before the Groundhog Day banquet and the townspeople remain ever hopeful for the coming spring (\"February 2nd/There Will Be Sun\"). The next morning, Phil wakes on 2 February and he confusedly relives his morning over again, including a run-in with an obnoxious high school classmate Ned Ryerson (\"Small Town, U.S.A.\"). Phil begrudgingly reports on the ceremony again which has the same result as the day before (\"Punxsutawney Phil\") and Rita enjoys the festivities after commenting in her journal about Phil's odd behavior (\"February 2nd/There Will Be Sun\"). The next morning, Phil wakes on 2 February and fearing a mental breakdown, consults every doctor and healer in town, none of whom are medically qualified, and who all suggest a variety of ridiculous remedies (\"Stuck\"). Phil decides to self-medicate at the bar instead, and finds camaraderie with two drunks who are stuck in a rut and live every day just the same as the day before. The trio take advantage of not having a future and drive recklessly on train tracks and evade cops before they are caught and Phil is arrested (\"Nobody Cares\"). The next morning, Phil wakes on 2 February with a newfound skip in his step as he openly treats others terribly, does as he pleases, and uses his repeated days to meet and reintroduce himself to Nancy Taylor, a local woman that he tricks into sleeping with him (\"Philandering\"). After settling into a hedonistic groove, Phil sets his sights on Rita, determined to sleep with her. He spends several days trying to manufacture her perfect date, and grows more manic as he invariably keeps failing. With success never in sight, Phil wonders why he couldn't repeat a better day, Rita wonders if she'll ever find someone she could love, and the townspeople wonder if they will ever do all the things they've been putting off, waiting for some idealized future (\"One Day\"). The next morning, Phil wakes on 2 February and smashes his alarm clock."
      },
      {
        "title": "2011 Groundhog Day blizzard",
        "text": "Local governments ahead of the storm prepared residents on procedures to follow during the storm. This included parking and driving restrictions and preparation of road clearing equipment. Street clearing crews applied chemicals to the roadways to pre-melt ice and snow and checked equipment prior to the event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The bear goes back into his cave.)\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Hop-tu-Naa",
        "text": "Some of the older customs are similar to those now attached to the January New Year. It was a time for prophesying, weather prediction and fortune-telling. Last thing at night, the ashes of a fire were smoothed out on the hearth to receive the imprint of a foot. If, next morning, the track pointed towards the door, someone in the house would die, but if the footprint pointed inward, it indicated a birth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (film)",
        "text": "PHIL \"More like\u2014d\u00e9j\u00e0, d\u00e9j\u00e0, d\u00e9j\u00e0, d\u00e9j\u00e0...\""
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where do groundhogs live?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Groundhogs live in lowlands in much of the Eastern United States, across Canada and into Alaska."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are groundhogs native to any other countries besides North America?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "No, I cannot find any incident of groundhogs found naturally outside of North America."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How accurate are Groundhog day predictions?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Impartial estimates place the groundhog's accuracy between 35% and 41%."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the most common predators of a groundhog?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Wild predators of adult groundhogs in most of eastern North America include coyotes, badgers, bobcats, and foxes; large predators such as gray wolf and eastern cougar are basically extirpated in the east but still may hunt groundhogs on occasion in Canada. Young groundhogs may also be taken by American mink, cats, timber rattlesnakes, and hawks."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any similar customs to Groundhog day?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In Serbia and Croatia there is a similar ritual, but instead of groundhogs they observe bears.",
      "Yes, there are similar traditions in Croatia, Serbia, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Which one would you like to learn about?"
    ],
    "topic": "Groundhog Day",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Groundhog Day:67",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Groundhog Day",
          "Similar customs"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Croatia and Serbia, Orthodox Christians have a tradition that on February 2 (Candlemas) or February 15 (\"Sretenje\", The Meeting of the Lord), the bear will awaken from winter dormancy, and if it sees (meets) its own shadow in this sleepy and confused state, it will get scared and go back to sleep for an additional 40 days, thus prolonging the winter. Thus, if it is sunny on Sretenje, it is a sign that the winter is not over yet. If it is cloudy, it is a good sign that the winter is about to end."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Groundhog Day:67",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Groundhog Day",
          "Similar customs"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Croatia and Serbia, Orthodox Christians have a tradition that on February 2 (Candlemas) or February 15 (\"Sretenje\", The Meeting of the Lord), the bear will awaken from winter dormancy, and if it sees (meets) its own shadow in this sleepy and confused state, it will get scared and go back to sleep for an additional 40 days, thus prolonging the winter. Thus, if it is sunny on Sretenje, it is a sign that the winter is not over yet. If it is cloudy, it is a good sign that the winter is about to end."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Groundhog Day:68",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Groundhog Day",
          "Similar customs"
        ],
        "ctx": "Similarly in Germany, on the June 27, they recognize the Seven Sleepers' Day (\"Siebenschl\u00e4fertag\"). If it rains that day, the rest of summer is supposedly going to be rainy. As well, in the United Kingdom, July 15 is known as St. Swithin's day. It was traditionally believed that, if it rained on that day, it would rain for the next 40 days and nights."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Scholar Rhys Carpenter in 1946 emphasized that the Badger Day tradition was strong in Germany, but absent in the British Isles, and he referred to this as a reason that the U.S. Groundhog Day was not brought by immigrants from these places."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Groundhog Day\n--History.\n----Origins.\n------Germany.\n------Groundhog as badger.\n------Bear-rat.\n------Simpler Candlemas lore.\n------British and Gaelic calendars.\n----Pennsylvania.\n------Punxsutawney beginnings.\n------Punxsutawney today.\n--Regional celebrations.\n----United States.\n----Canada.\n--Accuracy.\n----Statistics.\n----Pseudoscientific evaluation.\n--Similar customs.\n--Popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The Pennsylvanians maintained the same tradition as the Germans on Groundhog Day, except that winter's spell would be prolonged for six weeks instead of four. For the Pennsylvania Dutch, the badger became the \"dox\" which in Deitsch referred to \"groundhog\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The Pennsylvania Dutch were immigrants from German speaking areas of Europe. The Germans had a tradition of marking Candlemas (February 2) as \"Badger Day\" (\"Dachstag\"), where if a badger emerging found it to be a sunny day thereby casting a shadow, it foreboded the prolonging of winter by four more weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The German version, with the introduction of the badger (or other beasts) was an expansion on a more simple tradition that if the weather was sunny and clear on Candlemas Day people expected winter to continue. The simpler version is summarized in the English (Scots dialect) couplet that runs \"If Candlemas is fair and clear / There'll be winters in the year\", with equivalent phrases in French and German. And the existence of a corresponding Latin couplet has been suggested as evidence of the great antiquity of this tradition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Candlemas",
        "text": "The Roman church's custom of blessing candles by the clergy found its way to Germany. The German conclusion that if the sun appeared on Candlemas, a hedgehog would cast a shadow, making a \"second winter\", was the origin for the modern American festival of Groundhog Day, as many of Pennsylvania's early settlers were German."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Similarity to the groundhog lore has been noted for the German formula \"Sonnt sich der Dachs in der Lichtme\u00dfwoche, so geht er auf vier Wochen wieder zu Loche\" (If the badger sunbathes during Candlemas-week, for four more weeks he will be back in his hole). A slight variant is found in a collection of weather lore (\"\", lit. \"farmers' rules\") printed in Austria in 1823."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In \"The Thomas R. Brendle Collection of Pennsylvania German Folklore\", Brendle preserved the following lore from the local Pennsylvania German dialect:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Punxsutawney Phil",
        "text": "The Groundhog Day celebration is rooted in a Celtic and Germanic tradition that says that if a hibernating animal casts a shadow on February 2, the pagan holiday of Imbolc (known among Christians as Candlemas), winter and cold weather will last another six weeks. If no shadow is seen, legend says, spring will come early. In Germany, the tradition evolved into a myth that if the sun came out on Candlemas, a hedgehog would cast its shadow, predicting snow all the way into May. When German immigrants settled in Pennsylvania, they transferred the tradition onto local fauna, replacing hedgehogs with groundhogs. Several other towns in the region hold similar Groundhog Day events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The observance of Groundhog Day in the United States first occurred in German communities in Pennsylvania, according to known records. The earliest mention of Groundhog Day is an entry on February 2, 1840, in the diary of James L. Morris of Morgantown, in Pennsylvania Dutch Country, according to the book on the subject by Don Yoder. This was a Welsh enclave but the diarist was commenting on his neighbors who were of German stock."
      },
      {
        "title": "Weather lore",
        "text": "Groundhog Day, observed in the U. S. and Canada, also falls on February 2 and is thought to derive from the Candlemas weather lore in Europe, particularly the German which features the badger as the predictor. An example of such German weather rhyme translates as:\n:\"If the badger is in the sun at Candlemas,\"\n:\"he will have to go back into his hole for another four weeks\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The day is observed with various ceremonies at other locations in North America beyond the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In Southeastern Pennsylvania, Groundhog Lodges (\"Grundsow Lodges\") celebrate the holiday with \"fersommlinge\", social events in which food is served, speeches are made, and one or more \"g'spiel\" (plays or skits) are performed for entertainment. The Pennsylvania German dialect is the only language spoken at the event, and those who speak English pay a penalty, usually in the form of a nickel, dime, or quarter per word spoken, with the money put into a bowl in the center of the table."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The weather lore was brought from German-speaking areas where the badger () is the forecasting animal. This appears to be an enhanced version of the lore that clear weather on the Christian festival of Candlemas forebodes a prolonged winter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presentation of Jesus at the Temple",
        "text": "In the United States, Candlemas coincides with Groundhog Day, the earliest American reference to which can be found at the Pennsylvania Dutch Folklore Center at Franklin and Marshall College. The reference implies that Groundhog Day may have come from a German-American Candlemas tradition:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The standard term for \"groundhog\" was \"grun\u2032daks\" (from German \"dachs\"), with the regional variant in York County being \"grundsau\", a direct translation of the English name, according to a 19th-century book on the dialect. The form was a regional variant according to one 19th century source. However, the weather superstition that begins \"Der zwet H\u00e6r\u2032ning is Grund\u2032sau d\u00e5k. W\u00e2nn di grundsau \u00eer sch\u00e2tte sent...\" (\"February second is Groundhog day. If the groundhog sees its shadow...\") is given as common to all 14 counties in Dutch Pennsylvania Country, in a 1915 monograph."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Candlemas is a primarily Catholic festival but also known in the German Protestant (Lutheran) churches. In folk religion, various traditions and superstitions continue to be linked with the holiday, although this was discouraged by the Protestant Reformers in the 16th century. Notably, several traditions akin to weather lores use Candlemas' weather to predict the start of spring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "While the tradition remains popular in the 21st century, studies have found no consistent association between a groundhog seeing its shadow and the subsequent arrival time of spring-like weather."
      },
      {
        "title": "Animal worship",
        "text": "A popular North American tradition is Groundhog Day, in which on February 2 each year a groundhog is used to predict whether there will be an early spring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Imbolc",
        "text": "The festival was traditionally a time of weather divination, and the old tradition of watching to see if serpents or badgers came from their winter dens may be a forerunner of the North American Groundhog Day. A Scottish Gaelic proverb about the day is:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The Groundhog Day ceremony held at Punxsutawney in western Pennsylvania, centering on a semi-mythical groundhog named Punxsutawney Phil, has become the most frequently attended ceremony. \"Grundsow Lodges\" in Pennsylvania Dutch Country in the southeastern part of the state observe the occasion as well. Other cities in the United States and Canada also have adopted the event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fersommling",
        "text": "A Fersommling (plural, Fersommlinge) (also spelled Versammling or Fersammling) is a Pennsylvania Dutch social event in which food is served, speeches are made, and one or more \"g'spiel\" (plays or skits) are performed for entertainment. \"A high degree of theatricality and ceremony is involved, especially in the groundhog lodges: pledging loyalty to the lodge and the groundhog, listening to a weather report, singing patriotic songs in Deitsch, and ending every meeting by asking God to allow them to keep their way of life and their merriment.\" as described by William W. Donner. Among these traditions is the singing of the German folk song \"Schnitzelbank\" and the patriotic \"My Country, 'Tis of Thee\", in Pennsylvania German, as translated by John Birmelin. \" there is continual creativity, as current events are incorporated into the versammling performances, speeches, and skits.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Clymer Freas (1867\u20131942) who was city editor at the \"Punxsutawney Spirit\" is credited as the \"father\" who conceived the idea of \"Groundhog Day\". It has also been suggested that Punxsutawney was where all the Groundhog Day events originated, from where it spread to other parts of the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Groundhog Day (, , , ; Nova Scotia: Daks Day) is a popular North American tradition observed in the United States and Canada on February 2. It derives from the Pennsylvania Dutch superstition that if a groundhog emerges from its burrow on this day and sees its shadow due to clear weather, it will retreat to its den, and winter will go on for six more weeks; if it does not see its shadow because of cloudiness, spring will arrive early."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morgantown, Pennsylvania",
        "text": "The earliest mention of Groundhog Day is an entry on February 2, 1840, in the diary of James L. Morris of Morgantown, in Pennsylvania Dutch Country, according to the book on the subject by Don Yoder. This was a Welsh enclave but the diarist was commenting on his neighbors who were of German stock. February 2, 1840, read: \"Today the Germans say the groundhog comes out of his winter quarters and if he sees his shadow he returns in and remains there 40 days.\" Some sources stated that Morris's entry of February 4, 1841, was the oldest. It read: \"Last Tuesday, the 2nd, was Candlemas day, the day on which, according to the Germans, the Groundhog peeps out of his winter quarters and if he sees his shadow he pops back for another six weeks nap, but if the day be cloudy he remains out, as the weather is to be moderate.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Similarly in Germany, on the June 27, they recognize the Seven Sleepers' Day (\"Siebenschl\u00e4fertag\"). If it rains that day, the rest of summer is supposedly going to be rainy. As well, in the United Kingdom, July 15 is known as St. Swithin's day. It was traditionally believed that, if it rained on that day, it would rain for the next 40 days and nights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "There did exist a belief among Roman Catholics in Britain that the hedgehog predicted the length of winter, or so it has been claimed, but without demonstration of its age, in a publication by the Scotland-born American journalist Thomas C. MacMillan in 1886, and American writer/journalist Samuel Adams Drake's book published in 1900."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Either way, the Punxsutawney Groundhog Club was formed in 1899, and continued the hunt and \"Groundhog Feast\", which took place annually in September. The \"hunt\" portion of it became increasingly a ritualized formality, because the practical procurement of meat had to occur well ahead of time for marinating. A drink called the \"groundhog punch\" was also served. The flavor has been described as a \"cross between pork and chicken\". The hunt and feast did not attract enough outside interest, and the practice discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The weather-predicting animal on Candlemas usually was the badger, although regionally the animal was the bear or the fox. The original weather-predicting animal in Germany had been the bear, another hibernating mammal, but when they grew scarce the lore became altered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "\"...it was the second of February, that ancient Candlemas-day whose treacherous sun, the precursor of six weeks of cold, inspired Matthew Laensberg with the two lines, which have deservedly become classic:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The Groundhog Day celebrations of the 1880s were carried out by the Punxsutawney Elks Lodge. The lodge members were the \"genesis\" of the Groundhog Club formed later, which continued the Groundhog Day tradition. But the lodge started out being interested in the groundhog as a game animal for food. It had started to serve groundhog at the lodge, and had been organizing a hunting party on a day each year in late summer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In Pennsylvania, Punxsutawney Phil has become a popular tradition. On February 2, people within the city will gather to find out whether or not Phil's shadow is revealed. With that, he will allegedly determine whether spring will soon begin by not seeing his shadow, or if winter will ensue for six more weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sorbs",
        "text": "In some villages, following traditions are observed: Shrovetide, \"Maik\", Easter bonfires, Roosters catching/hunting. In J\u00e4nschwalde (Sorbian: Jan\u0161ojcach) so-called Jan\u0161ojki bog (disguised young girl) gives Christmas presents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In Croatia and Serbia, Orthodox Christians have a tradition that on February 2 (Candlemas) or February 15 (\"Sretenje\", The Meeting of the Lord), the bear will awaken from winter dormancy, and if it sees (meets) its own shadow in this sleepy and confused state, it will get scared and go back to sleep for an additional 40 days, thus prolonging the winter. Thus, if it is sunny on Sretenje, it is a sign that the winter is not over yet. If it is cloudy, it is a good sign that the winter is about to end."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Groundhog Day (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Weihnachtsm\u00e4rchen",
        "text": "This tradition is comparable with pantomime in the English-speaking world, having much less cross-dressing and slapstick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fastelavn",
        "text": "The custom was known in 18th century in Germany and it has several roots. It may originate from an old pagan fertility ritual, which has been absorbed into Christianity. The more serious one is that after the reformation, particularly pious people used to lightly flog their children on Good Friday to remind them of the sufferings of Christ on the cross."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The chronologies given are somewhat inconsistent in the literature. The first \"Groundhog Picnic\" was held in 1887 according to one source, but given as post-circa-1889 by a local historian in a journal. The historian states that around 1889 the meat was served in the lodge's banquet, and the organized hunt started after that."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Groundhog Day is a holiday celebrated on February 2 in the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "L'ours rentre en sa caverne.'"
      },
      {
        "title": "Father's Day",
        "text": "These traditions are probably rooted in Christian Ascension Day's processions to the farmlands, which has been celebrated since the 18th century. Men would be seated in a wooden cart and carried to the village's plaza, and the mayor would award a prize to the father who had the most children, usually a big piece of ham. In the late 19th century the religious component was progressively lost, especially in urban areas such as Berlin, and groups of men organized walking excursions with beer and ham. By the 20th century, alcohol consumption had become a major part of the tradition. Many people will take the following Friday off at work, and some schools are closed on that Friday as well; many people then use the resulting four-day-long weekend for a short vacation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "2021 was the 135th, and for the first time, much of the Inner Circle members were required to wear a mask. The groundhog was summoned at 7:25\u00a0am on February 2 and saw its shadow. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the ceremony was held behind closed doors, with no fans allowed to attend."
      },
      {
        "title": "Epiphany (holiday)",
        "text": "The Dutch and Flemish call this day \"Driekoningen\", while German speakers call it \"Dreik\u00f6nigstag\" (Three Kings' Day). In the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and neighboring Germany, children in groups of three (symbolizing the Biblical Magi) proceed in costume from house to house while singing songs typical for the occasion, and receiving a coin or some sweets at each door. They may each carry a paper lantern symbolizing the star. In some places, especially Holland, these troupes gather for competitions and present their skits/songs for an audience. As in Belgium, \"Koningentaart\" (Kings' tart), puff pastry with almond filling, is prepared with a black bean hidden inside. Whoever finds the bean in his or her piece is king or queen for the day. A more typically Dutch version is \"Koningenbrood\", or Kings' bread. In the Netherlands, the traditions have died out, except for very few places. Another Low Countries tradition on Epiphany is to open up doors and windows to let good luck in for the coming year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The first reported news of a Groundhog Day observance was arguably made by the \"Punxsutawney Spirit\" newspaper of Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, in 1886: \"up to the time of going to press, the beast has not seen its shadow\". However, it was not until the following year in 1887 that the first Groundhog Day considered \"official\" was commemorated there, with a group making a trip to the Gobbler's Knob part of town to consult the groundhog. People have gathered annually at the spot for the event ever since."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hedgehog slice",
        "text": "Many German histories refer to a 1920s recipe from baking firm Bahlsen that combined chocolate with packaged cookies. The name \u201cKalter Hund\u201d has been theorized to have passed into German through the Slovakian word \u201chyntow\u201d (box-shaped trolley), which might have been a reference to the rectangular pans in which the dessert is often made. In Germany, it is often described as a retro food that conjures nostalgic associations of the 1950s. In 2017, inhabitants of Ronneburg made a 994.9 meter long cake, the longest to date in Germany."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hedgehogs in culture",
        "text": "\"Hedgehogs\" may also be created by moulding ground meat in a teardrop shape, embedding pastry slivers or slivered almonds in the surface to resemble quills, and adding eyes and ears of peppercorns, olives, or whole almonds. The technique dates back to at least 1390, and was referenced in an episode of \"Two Fat Ladies\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hedgehogs in culture",
        "text": "A similar legend is attested among the Banat Bulgarians and among Romanians as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "'Qu'il luise ou qu'il luiserne,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Badnjak (Croatian)",
        "text": "Another old tradition is sowing wheat seeds in a bowl of water (usually on St. Lucy's day), which will grow until Christmas and is then used to decorate the table on Christmas. The wheat is trimmed and usually wrapped with a red, white, and blue ribbon of the Croatian tricolour. Most Croats put candles or other objects such as apples in the middle of the wheat, with candles symbolizing the birth of Christ. A bundle of straw is brought into the house by the head of the family, who greets the home with a Christmas wish, and the straw is then spread under the table and throughout the house, symbolizing the birth of Christ in the manger. Families usually sit on the straw after dinner when gathered around the badnjak."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christmas in Serbia",
        "text": "Until the beginning of the 20th century in the Pirot District, south-eastern Serbia, the head of household would go out to his woodpile, where he would invite \"German\" (pronounced ) \u2013 a male mythological being associated with bringing rain and hail. He would take with him a loaf of bread called good luck, prepared particularly for this ritual, rakia, wine, and a wax candle. At the woodpile, he would shout three times, \"\"German\", \"German\", wherever you are, come to dinner right now, and in the summer do not let me see your eyes anywhere!\" He would then light the candle, take a sip of rakia, taste some bread, drink wine, and go back into his house. Asked what happened with \"German\", he would answer, \"He came, so we dined and drank amply of rakia and wine, and then we parted.\" This ritual was intended to prevent summer hailstorms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "One theory states that the groundhog naturally comes out of hibernation in central Pennsylvania in early February because of the increasing average temperature. Under this theory, if German settlement had been centered further north, Groundhog Day would take place at a later date. However, the observed behavior of groundhogs in central New Jersey was that they mostly come out of their burrows in mid-March, regardless of Groundhog Day weather."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bad Aussee",
        "text": "Another local custom takes place on 5 January. During the day, children, called \"Gl\u00f6ckler\", go door to door with little bells and sacks and receive \"Faschingskrapfen\" (donuts), oranges, chocolate or nuts. In the evening, it's the adults' turn! They take to the streets dressed as \"Berigeln\", in raggedy traditional dress clothes, their faces covered with a black clothe mask. They carry with them large cow bells, with which they announce their arrival in front of those who open their homes to the Berigeln. Once the Berigeln enter a home, they refrain from speaking in order to conceal their identity. Usually the host tries to guess their identity, as they proceed to fill them up with home-made schnapps, beer, Faschingskrapfen, and other foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jugendweihe",
        "text": "After the war the secular communities tried to revive the tradition. \"Jugendweihen\" were continued by small groups in the freethought tradition, in which many representatives of Party and state took part, and despite frequent proposals, \"Jugendweihen\" were not forbidden in the GDR until 1954."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The Slumbering Groundhog Lodge, which was formed in 1907, has carried out the ceremonies that take place in Quarryville, Pennsylvania. It used to be a contending rival to Punxsutawney over the Groundhog Day fame. It employs a taxidermic specimen (stuffed woodchuck)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christmas in Serbia",
        "text": "Immediately after the badnjak has been brought in, or immediately before in some places, an armful of straw is spread over the floor. The straw is usually brought in with the same greetings and throwing of grain as the badnjak. The person spreading it may imitate a hen clucking to call her chicks, \"\"Kvo\", \"kvo\", \"kvo\", with the family's children imitating chicks, \"Piju\", \"piju\", \"piju\"\", while they pick at the straw. A common custom is to scatter a handful of walnuts over the straw."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fersommling",
        "text": "The first Fersommling was held by Dr. John I. Woodruff of Susquehanna University in 1933. Shortly afterward, on March 13, 1933, a second was held in Allentown, Pennsylvania at the home of William S. Troxell, who wrote a daily column on Pennsylvania German culture for the Allentown \"Morning Call\" under the pseudonym \"Pumpernickle Bill.\" The purpose of the gathering was to plan the formation of the first Grundsow (Groundhog) Lodge. On the next Groundhog Day, February 2, 1934, the first Fersommling of Grundsow Lodge Nummer Ains an Da Lechaw (Number One on the Lehigh) took place in Northampton, Pennsylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nardoqan",
        "text": "Europeans, Muazzez Ilmiye \u00c7\u0131\u011f argues, adopted a rite to their own holiday ritual that stems from an old Turkish custom in which people decorated a special tree to offer their thanks to God."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christmas in Serbia",
        "text": "The following custom was recorded at the end of the 19th century in the north Dalmatian region of Bukovica. Early in the morning of Little Christmas, children of the family spread Christmas straw from their house around the stake in the center of their village's threshing floor. The use of this stake was to tether a horse to it; the animal was then driven around to thresh grain by treading with its hooves. The woman of the house baked a big round unleavened loaf of bread with a hole in its center, inscribed with circles, crosses, hooks, and other symbols on its surface. The loaf was taken to the threshing floor, and fixed round the stake. The oldest man of the family would take hold of the stake with his right hand above the loaf. With his left hand he held the right hand of the next oldest man, and so on to the youngest boy who could walk steadily. Holding hands in this manner, they would run around the stake three times. During the running they would shout in unison as loud as possible, \"Ajd ajde, koba moja!\" meaning \"Giddy-up, my mare!\" \u2013 except for the man holding the stake, who would shout, \"De! De! De!\" meaning \"Go! Go! Go!\" They would then take the hollow loaf back home, and put it near the fireplace beside the remnant of \"badnjak\". The woman of the house would \"feed them fodder\", i.e., prepare a meal for them, consisting of \"\u0111evenica\" (a sort of dried sausage), roast pork, and the hollow loaf, plus rakia for the adults. Having eaten, they would go back to the threshing floor and repeat the whole ritual, only this time without the loaf. In the end, they would collect Christmas straw from the threshing floor; it was put in hens' nests to prevent them from laying eggs outside the nests. This custom was considered as especially joyful for children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hennebergisches Gymnasium "Georg Ernst"",
        "text": "The year 1947 then marked the beginning of the tradition how it is still practiced today (it was not practiced in the GDR from 1974 to 1989. The handcart is decorated by ninth-graders with twigs, flowers, balloons and also references to the graduate riding in the cart. Two Tenth-grade students pull the cart around the school, through the city to the market square. The procession is led by the city band. At the fountain in the center of the market a short, peer composed rime is read for each of the graduates. Students of the eleventh grade, dressed up as \"Klostert\u00e4ufer\" (monastery baptists), poor water from the Elisabethenbrunnen over handcart passengers. Occasionally, graduates will be completely submerged in a substitute fountain (an old, ornate, colorfully painted bathtub) that is filled with water from the market fountain already. In the past, the graduates were thrown straight into the fountain; however, today, in order to protect the historic fountain and the statue of Countess Elisabeth, that is not permitted anymore. To protect Saint Elisabeth from having to observe this unseemly custom, she is blindfolded ahead of the event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Victor Hugo, in \"Les Mis\u00e9rables,\" (1864) discusses the day as follows:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Groundhog Day may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hedgehogs in culture",
        "text": "In a number of Balkan (Bulgarian,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fat Thursday",
        "text": "Fat Thursday\n--By country.\n----Poland.\n----Germany.\n----Greece.\n----Italy.\n----Spain.\n----Other traditions.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wiarton Willie",
        "text": "Groundhog Day, featuring Wiarton Willie, is a popular annual festival in Wiarton and is similar to events in other locations in North America. A midwinter celebration involving an animal with predictive powers was an element of Celtic culture. The link between weather prediction and the day is said to have been inspired by an old Scottish couplet: \"If Candlemas Day is bright and clear/ There'll be two winters in the year.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In 2019, the 133rd year of the tradition, the groundhog was summoned to come out at 7:25\u00a0am on February 2, but did not see its shadow. Fans of Punxsutawney Phil awaited his arrival starting at 6:00\u00a0am, thanks to a live stream provided by Visit Pennsylvania. The live stream has been a tradition for the past several years, allowing more people than ever to watch the animal meteorologist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (musical)",
        "text": "A non-replica Swedish production presented by Wermland Opera in Karlstad opened 27 February running until 17 May 2020 (however due to the coronavirus pandemic, performances were cancelled from 16 March to 21 April)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hans My Hedgehog",
        "text": "In a Croatian tale translated by August Leskien with the title \"Der Igelbr\u00e4utigam\" (\"The Hedgehog Bridegroom\"), a woman gives birth to a hedgehog who her husband expels from home. The hedgehog spends his days in the woods herding and fattening his father's pigs. When he returns home, he asks his parents to find him a human bride. They marry, and he takes off his skin at night. The tale, however, ends abruptly with the burning of his hedgehog's skin, and him complaining to his wife. Leskien supposed that the tale could have led into another sequence, but the second part was apparently missing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wigilia",
        "text": "Another tradition, is to make an extra place-setting for the \"unexpected guest\", to celebrate hospitality. The feast begins with Grace and breaking of the \"Christmas wafer\" \"op\u0142atek\" - to symbolize the gift of daily bread and wishing each other blessings for the coming year. In the country, it was customary to share a special (pink) wafer with livestock and dogs and cats as the animals of the household were to be treated with special reverence on that day, in honour of the animals in the Bethlehem stable. There was a belief that at midnight they were granted the power of human speech."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hanukkah bush",
        "text": "The above comments reflect the history of the Hanukkah bush, but current-day usage of both the phrase and the custom itself is more that of an in-joke: not really important as a custom per se (although many still do it), but humorous to note when non-Jews ask if you have one. A similar Christmas-time in-joke among American Jews are the customs of eating at a Chinese restaurant on Christmas, or Jewish singles going out to a \"Matzah Ball\" party on Christmas Eve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "The largest Groundhog Day celebration is held in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, where crowds as large as 40,000 gather each year (nearly eight times the year-round population of the town). The average draw had been about 2,000 until the 1993 film \"Groundhog Day\", which is set at the festivities in Punxsutawney, after which attendance rose to about 10,000. The official Phil is pretended to be a supercentenarian, having been the same forecasting beast since 1887."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shrovetide",
        "text": "In Northern Germany, local tradition states that if \"sausages and sauerkraut are eaten at Shrovetide, good luck will follow\". On the last day of Shrovetide, in Bohemia, a man personifies \"Shrovetide\" in a procession of masqueraders and whoever is able to snatch straw from his hat and place it under a hen in the coming Spring is said to have eggs that surely will hatch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Powder Day",
        "text": "A more likely origin of the tradition is said to have its roots in a Christian/Moorish riot in the 16th century when Tolox, then under Christian control, had a large Moorish population. During Christmas of 1539 there was civil strife between the predominantly Moorish peasants and the Christian landholders. One chronicler states that this custom originated in a dispute between a Moorish and a Christian girl who were in love with the same man. Both worked in a bakery and as the argument grew more heated, they ended up throwing all the flour they could find at each other."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickled pigs' feet",
        "text": "https://library.ndsu.edu/grhc/history_culture/custom_traditions/kholodetz.html"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Bear Went Over the Mountain (song)",
        "text": "Deitsch folklorist Don Yoder postulates that the song may have its origins in Germanic traditions similar to Grundsaudaag, or Groundhog Day. Groundhog Day is known to have its roots in the behavior of badgers in Germany. In some German-speaking areas, however, the foxes or bears were seen as the weather prognosticators. When the behavior of the bear was considered, the belief was that the bear would come out of his lair to check whether he could see \"over the mountain.\" If the weather was clear, the bear would put an end to hibernation and demolish his lair. If it rained or snowed, however, the bear would return to his lair for six more weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "German (mythology)",
        "text": "In Eastern Serbia, when a drought developed, girls would make such a doll, and bring it to a river bank. Depending on the regional custom, they would either bury it by the river, or put it in a little coffin and let it float down the river. Two of the girls would then start lamenting for the doll. Asked by the others why they were crying, they would answer, \"We are crying for German; because of the drought German has died so that the rain may fall.\" If the amount of rain falling should then become excessive, the doll would be dug up again. In northern Bulgaria, the rituals with German usually followed immediately after the Dodola rituals, but could be performed independently from them. In some villages they were carried out on the Feast of Saint Germanus. Girls would make the doll, 20 to 50\u00a0cm long, and lay it on a slate or in a little coffin. Having adorned it with flowers, they would bury it with funeral observances. After three, nine, or forty days, the doll was dug up and thrown into water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Badnjak (Serbian)",
        "text": "Since the early 20th\u00a0century, the Serbian \"badnjak\" tradition has also been celebrated more publicly. Before World War I, soldiers of the Kingdom of Serbia developed the custom of laying a \"badnjak\" on a fire in their barracks. In the succeeding Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the military \"badnjak\" ceremony was further elaborated and standardized in army service regulations, but the tradition ended at the outbreak of World War II. Since the early 1990s, the Serbian Orthodox Church has, together with local communities, organized public celebrations on Christmas Eve in which the \"badnjak\" plays a central role. Parishioners festively cut the sapling to be used as the \"badnjak\" and take it to their church, where it is consecrated by a priest before being ceremonially placed on a fire pit in the churchyard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hogmanay",
        "text": "There are many customs, both national and local, associated with Hogmanay. The most widespread national custom is the practice of first-footing, which starts immediately after midnight. This involves being the first person to cross the threshold of a friend or neighbour and often involves the giving of symbolic gifts such as salt (less common today), coal, shortbread, whisky, and black bun (a rich fruit cake), intended to bring different kinds of luck to the householder. Food and drink (as the gifts) are then given to the guests. This may go on throughout the early hours of the morning and well into the next day (although modern days see people visiting houses well into the middle of January). The first-foot is supposed to set the luck for the rest of the year. Traditionally, tall, dark-haired men are preferred as the first-foot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Konken",
        "text": "Konken holds its four-day-long kermis (church consecration festival) on the last weekend in August. \"Strau\u00dfbuben\" (\u201cBouquet Lads\u201d) decorate a bouquet and carry it through the village, after which the \"Strau\u00dfrede\" (\u201cBouquet Speech\u201d) is given. Another custom that is still kept is the \"Wanderstag\" (\u201cHiking Day\u201d, 27 December), on which the young men go about while the locals offer them schnapps. Other old customs, however, are slowly being forgotten. Ever less often nowadays do children go door to door with a toy gun \u201cshooting\u201d the New Year in. In earlier days, the children would receive a great big pretzel for their efforts, although more recently the reward has been money. On Epiphany, at Shrovetide (\"Fastnacht\") and at Whitsuntide, too, children demand small gifts. At this last holiday, the children observe a custom called the \"Pfingstquack\" (\u201cWhitsun\u201d is \"Pfingsten\" in German). The \"\u2014quack\" part of the custom\u2019s name refers to a rhyme that the children recite as they go door to door begging for money with their gorse-decked wagon. The rhyme generally begins with the line \u201cQuack, Quack, Quack\u201d. Further customs are detailed in Rudi H\u00e4\u00dfel\u2019s \"Chronik der Gemeinde Konken\", a village chronicle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Suckling pig",
        "text": "The European cuisines of Austria, Croatia, Georgia, Germany, Macedonia, the Netherlands, Russia, Serbia, Slovenia, Switzerland and Sweden favor the dish highly as well. It accompanies goose as the traditional Christmas feast of families in Russia and Serbia, while the Russian Navy maintains a tradition of presenting a roast piglet (or several) to the crew of a ship returning from deployment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fred la marmotte",
        "text": "According to the tradition of Groundhog Day, if the groundhog sees his shadow then spring will be delayed; if he does not see his shadow, then spring will be early."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg rolling",
        "text": "In eastern Europe, there are other traditions such as egg tapping and egg decorating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Children's Day",
        "text": "The customs of Children's Day was also significantly different in West and East Germany. In East Germany, the holiday was introduced in 1950 and was then held on a yearly basis for the children. On this day of the year, children would typically be congratulated and would receive presents from their parents and did special activities in school, such as field trips and the like."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nagelbalken",
        "text": "Nagelbalken\n--History.\n--Similar customs.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day (film)",
        "text": "The phrase \"Groundhog Day\" has become a common term to reference a repetitive, unpleasant, and monotonous situation. It is recognized by dictionaries under two definitions: the holiday itself, and \"a situation in which events are or appear to be continually repeated.\" The term's use is such that it has been defined as a clich\u00e9 to refer to a situation in this way. It has been invoked (sometimes inaccurately) by singers, sports stars, comedians, actors, politicians, archbishops, and former Guantanamo Bay detention camp inmates. Then-President Bill Clinton referenced the film in a 1996 speech to troops stationed in Bosnia. The term was used during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, to refer to the monotony of quarantine and isolation associated with attempts to stem the spread of the virus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "In Raleigh, NC, an annual event at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences includes \"Sir Walter Wally\". According to museum officials, Wally has been correct 58% of the time vs. Punxsutawney Phil's 39%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wimpel",
        "text": "This custom is still observed today by most members of the German community. It is an extremely joyous occasion, and its main purpose is to instill a love and enthusiasm for shul and Judaism within the child."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hans Majestet Pinnsvinet",
        "text": "The hedgehog is also head of Pinnsvinordenen (lat. \"Ordo Erinacei\"), an order of honour awarded to selected former members of the Student Society for their commitment and work for the organization. The order started as a parody of the royal orders and academic ceremony. The only human to receive the highest decoration of Pinnsvinordenen is Olav V of Norway, who was the Crown Prince of Norway at the time of the ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Straw bear",
        "text": "Straw bear\n--History.\n--Similar customs in Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Nigeria and Poland.\n----Examples from \"The Golden Bough\".\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pfefferpotthast",
        "text": "Pfefferpotthast\n--Preparation.\n--History and customs.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint Lucy",
        "text": "A Hungarian custom is to plant wheat in a small pot on St. Lucy's feast. By Christmas green sprouts appear, signs of life coming from death. The wheat is then carried to the manger scene as the symbol of Christ in the Eucharist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hedgehogs in culture",
        "text": "Hedgehogs in culture\n--Europe.\n--United States.\n--Oceania.\n--Technology.\n--Cuisine.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Flitch of bacon custom",
        "text": "It is possible that the \"flitch of bacon\" custom was at one time quite widespread. There was a flitch of bacon tradition at the Abbey of St Melaine, Rennes, Brittany, where the bacon is said to have hung for six centuries without being claimed. In Vienna, there was a similar tradition in which the prize was a ham of bacon rather than a flitch. The ham was hung over the city gate, from where the winner was expected to climb up and remove it himself. One such winner had the prize revoked after winning it, after he inadvertently let slip that his wife would rebuke him for staining his coat while bringing down the ham."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog Day",
        "text": "Wann der Dachs sei Schadde seht im Lichtmess Marye, dann geht er widder in's Loch un beleibt noch sechs Woche drin. Wann Lichtmess Marye awwer drieb is, dann bleibt der dachs haus un's watt noch enanner Friehyaahr. (When the groundhog sees his shadow on the morning of February 2, he will again go into his hole and remain there for six weeks. But if the morning of February 2 is overcast, the groundhog will remain outside and there will be another spring.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Midsummer",
        "text": "Bonfires are still a custom in many areas of Germany. People gather to watch the bonfire and celebrate solstice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Groundhog",
        "text": "In the United States and Canada, the yearly February 2 Groundhog Day celebration has given the groundhog recognition and popularity. The most popularly known of these groundhogs are Punxsutawney Phil, Wiarton Willie, Jimmy the Groundhog, Dunkirk Dave, and Staten Island Chuck kept as part of Groundhog Day festivities in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania; Wiarton, Ontario; Sun Prairie, Wisconsin; Dunkirk, New York; and Staten Island respectively. The 1993 comedy film \"Groundhog Day\" references several events related to Groundhog Day, and portrays both Punxsutawney Phil himself, and the annual Groundhog Day ceremony. Famous Southern groundhogs include General Beauregard Lee, based at Dauset Trails Nature Center outside Atlanta, Georgia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wedding customs by country",
        "text": "There are also traditions of broom jumping in Europe, in the Wicca and Celtic communities especially."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wedding customs by country",
        "text": "In Bavaria and Western Austria another tradition is to wake up the bride early in the morning with a gun shoot or firecrackers on wedding day. Friends and neighbours meet at dawn at the brides house to \"greet\" her on her special day."
      },
      {
        "title": "German name",
        "text": "The practice persists among German nobility, e.g."
      },
      {
        "title": "Armistice Day",
        "text": "Similar ceremonies developed in other countries during the inter-war period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Snake worship",
        "text": "Imbolc was traditionally a time of weather divination, and the old tradition of watching to see if serpents or badgers came from their winter dens may be a forerunner of the North American Groundhog Day."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where do groundhogs live?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Groundhogs live in lowlands in much of the Eastern United States, across Canada and into Alaska."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are groundhogs native to any other countries besides North America?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "No, I cannot find any incident of groundhogs found naturally outside of North America."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How accurate are Groundhog day predictions?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Impartial estimates place the groundhog's accuracy between 35% and 41%."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the most common predators of a groundhog?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Wild predators of adult groundhogs in most of eastern North America include coyotes, badgers, bobcats, and foxes; large predators such as gray wolf and eastern cougar are basically extirpated in the east but still may hunt groundhogs on occasion in Canada. Young groundhogs may also be taken by American mink, cats, timber rattlesnakes, and hawks."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any similar customs to Groundhog day?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes, there are similar traditions in Croatia, Serbia, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Which one would you like to learn about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Could you tell me about the one in Germany, like what it's called and who started it?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The similar tradition in Germany is called Seven Sleepers' Day, and the atmospheric conditions on that day are supposed to determine or predict the average summer weather of the next seven weeks. The legend was first presented by Jacob of Serugh around 500 AD and later popularized by Gregory of Tours.",
      "Yes, apparently if it rains on the 27th of June, the Seven Sleepers' Day, the rest of summer is supposedly going to be rainy."
    ],
    "topic": "Groundhog Day",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Seven Sleepers' Day:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Seven Sleepers' Day"
        ],
        "ctx": "Seven Sleepers' Day () on June 27 is a feast day commemorating the legend of the Seven Sleepers as well as one of the best-known bits of traditional weather lore (expressed as a proverb) remaining in German-speaking Europe. The atmospheric conditions on that day are supposed to determine or predict the average summer weather of the next seven weeks."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Seven Sleepers' Day:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Seven Sleepers' Day",
          "Origins"
        ],
        "ctx": "The legend of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus was first presented by Jacob of Serugh around 500 AD and later popularized by Gregory of Tours. Its Western version was part of the widely distributed \"Golden Legend\" hagiography collection compiled by Jacobus de Voragine about 1260. The cult became common during the Crusades of the High and Late Middle Ages, and June 27 was declared a commemoration day in most of the Catholic dioceses. Contrary to popular belief, the name of the day does not refer to the edible dormouse (\"Glis glis\"), a rodent known as \"Siebenschl\u00e4fer\" in German for its seven-month hibernation."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Groundhog Day:68",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Groundhog Day",
          "Similar customs"
        ],
        "ctx": "Similarly in Germany, on the June 27, they recognize the Seven Sleepers' Day (\"Siebenschl\u00e4fertag\"). If it rains that day, the rest of summer is supposedly going to be rainy. As well, in the United Kingdom, July 15 is known as St. Swithin's day. It was traditionally believed that, if it rained on that day, it would rain for the next 40 days and nights."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Between 12 and 14 January 2021, the number of Signal installations listed on Google Play increased from over 10 million to over 50 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal's userbase started in May 2010, when its predecessor TextSecure was launched by Whisper Systems. According to App Annie, Signal had approximately 20 million monthly active users at the end of December 2020. In January 2022, the BBC reported that Signal was used by over 40 million people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In February 2020, the European Commission recommended that its staff use Signal. Following the George Floyd protests, which began in May 2020, Signal was downloaded 121,000\u00a0times in the U.S. between 25 May and 4 June. In July 2020, Signal became the most downloaded app in Hong Kong on both the Apple App Store and the Google Play Store after the passage of the Hong Kong national security law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Between November 2019 and February 2020, Signal added iPad support, view-once images and videos, stickers, and reactions. They also announced plans for a new group messaging system and an \"experimental method for storing encrypted contacts in the cloud.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "On 7 January 2021, Signal saw a surge in new user registrations, which temporarily overwhelmed Signal's capacity to deliver account verification messages. CNN and MacRumors linked the surge with a WhatsApp privacy policy change and a Signal endorsement by Elon Musk and Edward Snowden via Twitter. International newspapers reported similar trends in the United Arab Emirates. Reuters reported that more than 100,000\u00a0people had installed Signal between 7 and 8 January."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal allows users to make one-to-one and group voice and video calls with up to 40 people on iOS, Android, and desktop. All calls are made over a Wi-Fi or data connection and (with the exception of data fees) are free of charge, including long distance and international. Signal also allows users to send text messages, files, voice notes, pictures, GIFs, and video messages over a Wi-Fi or data connection to other Signal users on iOS, Android and a desktop program. The platform also supports group messaging."
      },
      {
        "title": "IOS",
        "text": "By the middle of 2012, there were 410\u00a0million devices activated. At WWDC 2014, Tim Cook said 800\u00a0million devices had been sold by June 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal's software is free and open-source. Its mobile clients are published under the GPL-3.0-only license, while the desktop client and server are published under the AGPL-3.0-only license. The official Android app generally uses the proprietary Google Play Services (installed on most Android devices), though it is designed to still work without them installed. Signal also has an official client app for iOS and desktop programs for Windows, macOS and Linux (although registration requires an iOS or Android device)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "The complete source code of the Signal clients for Android, iOS and desktop is available on GitHub under a free software license. This enables interested parties to examine the code and help the developers verify that everything is behaving as expected. It also allows advanced users to compile their own copies of the applications and compare them with the versions that are distributed by Signal Messenger. In March 2016, Moxie Marlinspike wrote that, apart from some shared libraries that are not compiled with the project build due to a lack of Gradle\u00a0NDK support, Signal for Android is reproducible. Signal's servers are partially open source, but the server software's anti-spam component is proprietary and closed source due to security concerns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ask.fm",
        "text": "Number of installations 50,000,000+\n* IOS app: rating 4.0 (based on reviews from 8.3k users)\n* Huawei App: rating 5.0"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In February 2014, Open Whisper Systems introduced the second version of their TextSecure Protocol (now Signal Protocol), which added end-to-end encrypted group chat and instant messaging capabilities to TextSecure. Toward the end of July 2014, they announced plans to merge the RedPhone and TextSecure applications as Signal. This announcement coincided with the initial release of Signal as a RedPhone counterpart for iOS. The developers said that their next steps would be to provide TextSecure instant messaging capabilities for iOS, unify the RedPhone and TextSecure applications on Android, and launch a web client. Signal was the first iOS app to enable end-to-end encrypted voice calls for free. TextSecure compatibility was added to the iOS application in March 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "The non-profit Signal Foundation was launched in February 2018 with initial funding of $50\u00a0million from Brian Acton. , the platform had approximately 40\u00a0million monthly active users. , it was downloaded more than 105 million times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal requires that the user provides a phone number for verification, eliminating the need for user names or passwords and facilitating contact discovery (see below). The number does not have to be the same as on the device's SIM card; it can also be a VoIP number or a landline as long as the user can receive the verification code and have a separate device to set up the software. A number can only be registered on one mobile device at a time. Account registration requires an iOS or Android device."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "On 15 January 2021, due to the surge of new users, Signal was overwhelmed with the new traffic and was down for all users. On the afternoon of 16 January, Signal announced via Twitter that service had been restored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In January 2021, Iran removed the app from app stores, and blocked Signal. Signal was later blocked by China in March 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In 2016, authorities in India arrested members of a suspected ISIS-affiliated terrorist cell that communicated via Signal and Telegram."
      },
      {
        "title": "IOS 11",
        "text": "iOS 11 switches the top-left cellular network strength icons from five dots to four signal bars, similar to that before iOS 7."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In November 2015, the TextSecure and RedPhone applications on Android were merged to become Signal for Android. A month later, Open Whisper Systems announced Signal Desktop, a Chrome app that could link with a Signal mobile client. At launch, the app could only be linked with the Android version of Signal. On September 26, 2016, Open Whisper Systems announced that Signal Desktop could now be linked with the iOS version of Signal as well. On October 31, 2017, Open Whisper Systems announced that the Chrome app was deprecated. At the same time, they announced the release of a standalone desktop client (based on the Electron framework) for Windows, macOS and certain Linux distributions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iostat",
        "text": "codice_1 displays output where each line (row) gives numerical data for one device. The first column lists the device name, and subsequent columns show various statistics for that device. Columns include the average service time (\"svc_t\", which includes not only the time a request is in the service queue, but also the seek time and transfer time), the average busy percentage (\"%b\", essentially the proportion of time that the device is in use), and the percentage of time that the queue is not empty (\"%w\", which means the proportion of time in which requests from the device have not yet been fulfilled)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "TextSecure allowed the user to set a passphrase that encrypted the local message database and the user's encryption keys. This did not encrypt the user's contact database or message timestamps. The Signal applications on Android and iOS can be locked with the phone's pin, passphrase, or biometric authentication. The user can define a \"screen lock timeout\" interval, providing an additional protection mechanism in case the phone is lost or stolen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Once the messages are received and decrypted on a user's device, they are stored locally in a SQLite database that is encrypted with SQLCipher. The key to decrypt this database is also stored locally on the user's device and can be accessed if the device is unlocked. In December 2020, Cellebrite published a blog post announcing that one of their products could now access this key and use it to \"decrypt the Signal app\". Technology reporters later published articles about how Cellebrite had claimed to have the ability to \"break into the Signal app\" and \"crack Signal's encryption\". This latter interpretation was rejected by several experts, as well as representatives from Signal, who said the original post by Cellebrite had been about accessing data on \"an unlocked Android phone in their physical possession\" and that they \"could have just opened the app to look at the messages\". Similar extraction tools also exist for iOS devices and Signal Desktop."
      },
      {
        "title": "SixSixSix",
        "text": "A2 The Signal"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "Signal Messenger maintains the following Signal Protocol libraries under the GPLv3 license on GitHub:\n*libsignal-protocol-c: A library written in C with additional licensing permissions for Apple's App Store.\n*libsignal-protocol-java: A library written in Java.\n*libsignal-protocol-javascript: A library written in JavaScript."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hardware restriction",
        "text": "Apple's iOS devices (iPhone, iPad, iPod Touch, and Apple TV) require signatures for firmware installation, intended to verify that only the latest official firmware can be installed on those devices. Official firmware allows third-party software to be installed only from the App Store."
      },
      {
        "title": "One Unique Signal",
        "text": "One Unique Signal\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal averaging",
        "text": "for ii=1:256 % number of replicates"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In July 2016, the Internet Society published a user study that assessed the ability of Signal users to detect and deter man-in-the-middle attacks. The study concluded that 21 out of 28 participants failed to correctly compare public key fingerprints in order to verify the identity of other Signal users, and that the majority of these users still believed they had succeeded, while in reality they failed. Four months later, Signal's user interface was updated to make verifying the identity of other Signal users simpler."
      },
      {
        "title": "IOS",
        "text": "During Apple's quarterly earnings call in January 2015, the company announced that they had sold over one billion iOS devices since 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal",
        "text": "formula_13 or formula_14"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sandes (software)",
        "text": "2. Signal (software)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In March 2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the British Ministry of Defence ordered that its troops switch from WhatsApp to Signal, having been favoured by MI6 to avoid soldiers' phones being hacked by Russia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In March 2017, Signal was approved by the sergeant at arms of the U.S. Senate for use by senators and their staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal is a cross-platform centralized encrypted instant messaging service developed by the non-profit Signal Foundation and Signal Messenger LLC. Users can send one-to-one and group messages, which can include files, voice notes, images and videos. It can also be used to make one-to-one and group voice and video calls, and the Android version can optionally function as an SMS app."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Aout 42",
        "text": "Singles"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal excludes users' messages from non-encrypted cloud backups by default."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of iOS and iPadOS devices",
        "text": "This is a list and comparison of devices designed and marketed by Apple Inc. that run two Unix-like operating systems, iOS and iPadOS. The devices include the iPhone, the iPod Touch which, in design, is similar to the iPhone, but has no cellular radio or other cell phone hardware, and the iPad. All three devices function as digital audio and portable media players and Internet clients. The Apple TV, which runs tvOS, is a set-top box for streaming media from local sources and from certain internet services to a connected television set, and has no screen of its own. About 1.35 billion iOS devices have been sold worldwide as of March 2015. As of September 2018, about 2 billion iOS devices have been sold worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal",
        "text": "Where:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal",
        "text": "formula_1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal is the successor of the RedPhone encrypted voice calling app and the TextSecure encrypted texting program. The beta versions of RedPhone and TextSecure were first launched in May 2010 by Whisper Systems, a startup company co-founded by security researcher Moxie Marlinspike and roboticist Stuart Anderson. Whisper Systems also produced a firewall and tools for encrypting other forms of data. All of these were proprietary enterprise mobile security software and were only available for Android."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red Pitaya (hardware)",
        "text": "It has two 125MS/s RF input and two 125MS/s RF outputs, with 50\u00a0MHz analogue bandwidth and 14 bit analog-to-digital (ADC) and digital-to-analog converters. The software includes oscilloscope, spectrum analyzer, signal generator, LCR meter (the LCR add on costs an additional 400 euros), and 50\u00a0MHz 2x2 MIMO PID controller. It can be re-programmed to become other devices, as all the IO ports are connected to a common field-programmable gate array (FPGA). There are also auxiliary ADC (250kS/s) and digital IO."
      },
      {
        "title": "Open Whisper Systems",
        "text": "In February 2014, Open Whisper Systems introduced the second version of their TextSecure Protocol (now Signal Protocol), which added end-to-end encrypted group chat and instant messaging capabilities to TextSecure. Toward the end of July 2014, Open Whisper Systems announced plans to unify its RedPhone and TextSecure applications as Signal. These announcements coincided with the initial release of Signal as a RedPhone counterpart for iOS. The developers said that their next steps would be to provide TextSecure instant messaging capabilities for iOS, unify the RedPhone and TextSecure applications on Android, and launch a web client. Signal was the first iOS app to enable easy, strongly encrypted voice calls for free. TextSecure compatibility was added to the iOS application in March 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "SHSH blob",
        "text": "When iTunes restores or updates an iOS firmware, Apple has added many checkpoints before the iOS version is installed and on-device consolidation begins. At the first \"Verifying iPhone software\" iTunes communicates with \"gs.apple.com\" to verify that the IPSW file provided is still being signed. The TATSU server will give back a list of versions being signed. If the version is not being signed, then iBEC and iBoot will decline the image, giving an error of \"error 3194\" or \"declined to authorize the image\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal",
        "text": "formula_2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sigaction",
        "text": "int sa_flags; /* signal options */"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dynamic Signal",
        "text": "Dynamic Signal released an iOS application for VoiceStorm in February 2014. In August 2014, the company closed a $12 million funding round led by Rembrandt Venture and participation from Venrock, Trinity Ventures, Time Warner Ventures and Cox Enterprises. Some of the funds were used to acquire PaperShare, a content marketing start-up based in Washington."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "By design, Signal is not able to read user messages, which precludes attempts at moderation. This has been confirmed by independent audits of Signal's algorithms. According to CNN, \"[t]he same technology that keeps a conversation private between you and a family member also gives a safe haven to a terrorist in Syria and the person in the United States he's trying to recruit to commit an act of mass murder.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal was reportedly popularized in the United States during the George Floyd protests. Heightened awareness of police monitoring led protesters to use the platform to communicate. Black Lives Matter organizers had used the platform \"for several years\". During the first week of June, the encrypted messaging app was downloaded over five times more than it had been during the week prior to the murder of George Floyd. In June 2020, Signal Foundation announced a new feature that enables users to blur faces in photos, in response to increased federal efforts to monitor protesters."
      },
      {
        "title": "LiQin Tan",
        "text": "\"Digital Prints Installation w/\" Signal Devices"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (IPC)",
        "text": "Signal handlers can be installed with the or system call. If a signal handler is not installed for a particular signal, the default handler is used. Otherwise the signal is intercepted and the signal handler is invoked. The process can also specify two default behaviors, without creating a handler: ignore the signal (SIG_IGN) and use the default signal handler (SIG_DFL). There are two signals which cannot be intercepted and handled: SIGKILL and SIGSTOP."
      },
      {
        "title": "IOS 11",
        "text": "iOS 11 adds support for 8-bit and 10-bit HEVC. Devices with an Apple A9 chip or newer support hardware decoding, while older devices support software-based decoding."
      },
      {
        "title": "C signal handling",
        "text": "Additional signals may be specified in the codice_1 header by the implementation. For example, Unix and Unix-like operating systems (such as Linux) define more than 15 additional signals; see Unix signal.\n*codice_10 for debugging purposes. It's platform-dependent and may be used on Unix-like operating systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of electronics articles",
        "text": "Overshoot (signal)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (IPC)",
        "text": "These default key combinations with modern operating systems can be changed with the command."
      },
      {
        "title": "TextSecure",
        "text": "In February 2014, Open Whisper Systems introduced the second version of their TextSecure Protocol (now Signal Protocol), which added group chat and push messaging capabilities to TextSecure. Toward the end of July 2014, Open Whisper Systems announced plans to unify its RedPhone and TextSecure applications as Signal. This announcement coincided with the initial release of Signal as a RedPhone counterpart for iOS. The developers said that their next steps would be to provide TextSecure instant messaging capabilities for iOS, unify the RedPhone and TextSecure applications on Android, and launch a web client. Signal was the first iOS app to enable easy, strongly encrypted voice calls for free."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal averaging",
        "text": "N=1000; % signal length"
      },
      {
        "title": "Media-independent interface",
        "text": "The interface requires 18 signals, out of which only two (MDIO and MDC) can be shared among multiple PHYs. This presents a problem, especially for multiport devices; for example, an eight-port switch using MII would need 8\u00a0\u00d7 16\u00a0+ 2\u00a0= 130 signals."
      },
      {
        "title": "IOS 9",
        "text": "In February 2016, news outlets reported that users who updated to iOS 9 on a particular device that had components repaired by a third-party (notably the Touch ID fingerprint recognition sensor) rendered their phone unusable. The issue, named \"Error 53\", was, according to iFixIt, limited to iPhone 6 and 6 Plus devices. Apple stated:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal also allows users to set timers to messages. After a specified time interval, the messages will be deleted from both the sender's and the receivers' devices. The time interval can be between five seconds and one week long, and the timer begins for each recipient once they have read their copy of the message. The developers have stressed that this is meant to be \"a collaborative feature for conversations where all participants want to automate minimalist data hygiene, not for situations where your contact is your adversary\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "IOS 15",
        "text": "On devices with an Apple A12 chip or later, Siri now converts audio into words on the device itself instead of sending it to Apple servers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal/One",
        "text": "The surviving Signal/One products are sought after and actively collected. These include the CX7, CX7A, CX7B, CX11 and Milspec models. The last Signal/One radio was a re-engineered ICOM IC-781. Information available indicates there were 1152 Signal Ones built: 850 CX7, 112 CX11, 168 MS1030 (number of \"C\" versions is not known), 6 MilSpec1030C, 15 MilSpec1030CI Icom IC-781 conversions and 1 Milspec1030E DSP Icom IC-756 Pro conversion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In May 2016, Moxie Marlinspike requested that a third-party client called LibreSignal not use the Signal service or the Signal name. As a result, on 24 May 2016 the LibreSignal project posted that the project was \"abandoned\". The functionality provided by LibreSignal was subsequently incorporated into Signal by Marlinspike."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Open Whisper Systems' website was launched in January 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": ", the Signal Protocol has been implemented into WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, Skype, and Google Allo, making it possible for the conversations of \"more than a billion people worldwide\" to be end-to-end encrypted. In Google Allo, Skype and Facebook Messenger, conversations are not encrypted with the Signal Protocol by default; they only offer end-to-end encryption in an optional mode."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Signal",
        "text": "The Signal may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Signal (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "VIT signals",
        "text": "<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "IPhone 12",
        "text": "Sensors"
      },
      {
        "title": "Configurable mixed-signal IC",
        "text": "Configurable mixed-signal IC\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "IOS",
        "text": "Apple has significantly extended the cycle of updates for iOS supported devices over the years. The iPhone (1st generation) and iPhone 3G only received two iOS updates, while later models had support for five, six, and seven years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal/One",
        "text": "Signal/One\n--History.\n--Collectors.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "IOS 11",
        "text": "Two months after release, 52% of iOS devices were running iOS 11, a slower adoption rate than previous iOS versions. The number increased to 85% of devices by September 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Digital signal (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Digital signal (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": ", Signal is a contact method for securely providing tips to major news outlets such as \"The Washington Post\", \"The Guardian\", \"The New York Times\", and \"The Wall Street Journal\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "IOS 14",
        "text": "All the devices that supported iOS 13 also support iOS 14."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of electronics articles",
        "text": "Start signal \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal operating instructions",
        "text": "Signal operating instructions\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Signal",
        "text": "The Signal\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Digital Access Signalling System 2",
        "text": "transported in addition to Q.931 messages. There are a number of additional"
      },
      {
        "title": "IMessage",
        "text": "On October 23, 2012, Apple CEO, Tim Cook announced that Apple device users have sent 300 billion messages using iMessage and that Apple delivers an average of 28,000 messages per second. In February 2016, Eddy Cue announced that the number of iMessages sent per second had grown to 200,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Media-independent interface",
        "text": "This interface requires 9 signals, versus MII's 18. Of those 9, on multiport devices, MDIO, MDC, and REF_CLK may be shared leaving 6 or 7 pins per port."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mobile phone signal",
        "text": "In GSM networks, ASU maps to RSSI (received signal strength indicator, see TS 27.007 sub clause 8.5).\n:dBm = 2 \u00d7 ASU - 113, ASU in the range of 0.31 and 99 (for not known or not detectable)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Digital Signal 1",
        "text": "A DS1 telecommunication circuit multiplexes 24 DS0s. The twenty-four DS0s sampled 8,000 times per second (one 8bit PCM sample from each DSO per DS1 frame) consume 1.536 Mbit/s of bandwidth. One framing bit adds 8 kbit/s of overhead, for a total of 1.544 Mbit/s, calculated as follows:\n:formula_1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Received signal strength indication",
        "text": "RSSI is usually invisible to a user of a receiving device. However, because signal strength can vary greatly and affect functionality in wireless networking, IEEE 802.11 devices often make the measurement available to users."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ask.fm",
        "text": "Number of installations 1,000,000"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (IPC)",
        "text": "Version 1 Unix had separate system calls to catch interrupts, quits, and machine traps. Version 4 combined all traps into one call, , and each numbered trap received a symbolic name in Version 7. appeared in Version 2, and in Version 5 could send arbitrary signals. Plan 9 from Bell Labs replaced signals with \"notes\", which permit sending short, arbitrary strings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal (software)\n--History.\n----2010\u20132013: Origins.\n----2013\u20132018: Open Whisper Systems.\n----2018\u2013present: Signal Technology Foundation.\n----Usage numbers.\n--Features.\n--Limitations.\n--Usability.\n--Architecture.\n----Encryption protocols.\n------Authentication.\n----Local storage.\n----Servers.\n------Contact discovery.\n------Metadata.\n------Federation.\n----Licensing.\n--Reception.\n----Security.\n----In-app payments.\n----Blocking.\n----Audience.\n------Use by activists.\n------Use by criminals.\n--Developers and funding.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "IPhone 8",
        "text": "IPhone 8\n--History.\n--Specifications.\n----Hardware.\n------Display.\n------Camera.\n------Chipset.\n------Other.\n----Software.\n--Reception.\n--Issues.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Redpine Signals",
        "text": "The company also introduced a simultaneous dual-band 450 Mbit/s 3x3 802.11n chipset for digital home and enterprise applications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal generator",
        "text": "In addition to the above general-purpose devices, there are several classes of signal generators designed for specific applications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Digital Signal 0",
        "text": "Digital Signal 0\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "IPhone 4",
        "text": "The iPhone 4 received largely positive reception, with critics praising its revamped design and more powerful hardware, in comparison to previous models. While it was a market success (with over 600,000 pre-orders within 24 hours), the release of the iPhone 4 was plagued by highly publicized reports concerning abnormalities in its new antenna design that caused the device to lose its cellular signal if held in a certain way. Most direct contact with the phone's outer edge would cause a significant decrease in signal strength. Apple released iOS 4.0.1 to try to fix these issues, but unsuccessfully."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sigaction",
        "text": "/* signal main thread */"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of electronics articles",
        "text": "Jam signal \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "On the 27 September 2019, Natalie Silvanovich, a security engineer working in Google's vulnerability research team at Project Zero, disclosed how a bug in the Android Signal client could let an attacker spy on a user without their knowledge. The bug allowed an attacker to phone a target device, mute the call, and the call would complete - keeping the audio open but without the owner being aware of that (however they would still be aware of a ring and / or a vibration from the initial call). The bug was fixed the same day that it was reported and patched in release 4.47.7 of the app for Android."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asynchronous I/O",
        "text": "device = IO.open(ios)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Asynchronous I/O",
        "text": "device = IO.open(ios)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signalkuppe",
        "text": "Signalkuppe\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal overspill",
        "text": "Signal overspill\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "IOS 12",
        "text": "Any device that supports iOS 11 can be upgraded to iOS 12. However, devices with an A7 or A8 chip and 1GB of RAM, such as the iPhone 5S, 6, 6 Plus, and the iPod Touch (6th generation), all have limited support."
      },
      {
        "title": "IPhone hardware",
        "text": "IPhone hardware\n--Screen and input.\n----3D Touch and Haptic Touch.\n--Sensors.\n----Proximity sensor.\n----Ambient light sensor.\n----Accelerometer.\n----Magnetometer.\n----Gyroscopic sensor.\n----Radio.\n----Fingerprint sensor.\n----Barometer.\n----Facial recognition sensor.\n--Audio and output.\n--Battery.\n--Camera.\n--SIM card.\n--Liquid contact indicators.\n--Included items.\n--Payments.\n--Taptic Engine.\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many iOS devices has Signal been installed on?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I couldn't find the iOS devices have it installed but Google Play states that Signal has been installed over 50 million times and that there were 40 million active monthly users in January 2021 and as of May 2021, it has been downloaded over 105 million times.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "As of January 2021, the signal platform had approximately 40 million monthly active users and as of May 2021, it was downloaded more than 105 million times, but I don't have the actual number of iOS devices with signal app installed on them."
    ],
    "topic": "Signal (software)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):18",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)",
          "History",
          "2018\u2013present: Signal Technology Foundation"
        ],
        "ctx": "Between 12 and 14 January 2021, the number of Signal installations listed on Google Play increased from over 10 million to over 50 million."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The non-profit Signal Foundation was launched in February 2018 with initial funding of $50\u00a0million from Brian Acton. , the platform had approximately 40\u00a0million monthly active users. , it was downloaded more than 105 million times."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The non-profit Signal Foundation was launched in February 2018 with initial funding of $50\u00a0million from Brian Acton. , the platform had approximately 40\u00a0million monthly active users. , it was downloaded more than 105 million times."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal's software is free and open-source. Its mobile clients are published under the GPL-3.0-only license, while the desktop client and server are published under the AGPL-3.0-only license. The official Android app generally uses the proprietary Google Play Services (installed on most Android devices), though it is designed to still work without them installed. Signal also has an official client app for iOS and desktop programs for Windows, macOS and Linux (although registration requires an iOS or Android device)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal's userbase started in May 2010, when its predecessor TextSecure was launched by Whisper Systems. According to App Annie, Signal had approximately 20 million monthly active users at the end of December 2020. In January 2022, the BBC reported that Signal was used by over 40 million people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal allows users to make one-to-one and group voice and video calls with up to 40 people on iOS, Android, and desktop. All calls are made over a Wi-Fi or data connection and (with the exception of data fees) are free of charge, including long distance and international. Signal also allows users to send text messages, files, voice notes, pictures, GIFs, and video messages over a Wi-Fi or data connection to other Signal users on iOS, Android and a desktop program. The platform also supports group messaging."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "The complete source code of the Signal clients for Android, iOS and desktop is available on GitHub under a free software license. This enables interested parties to examine the code and help the developers verify that everything is behaving as expected. It also allows advanced users to compile their own copies of the applications and compare them with the versions that are distributed by Signal Messenger. In March 2016, Moxie Marlinspike wrote that, apart from some shared libraries that are not compiled with the project build due to a lack of Gradle\u00a0NDK support, Signal for Android is reproducible. Signal's servers are partially open source, but the server software's anti-spam component is proprietary and closed source due to security concerns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Between November 2019 and February 2020, Signal added iPad support, view-once images and videos, stickers, and reactions. They also announced plans for a new group messaging system and an \"experimental method for storing encrypted contacts in the cloud.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In February 2020, the European Commission recommended that its staff use Signal. Following the George Floyd protests, which began in May 2020, Signal was downloaded 121,000\u00a0times in the U.S. between 25 May and 4 June. In July 2020, Signal became the most downloaded app in Hong Kong on both the Apple App Store and the Google Play Store after the passage of the Hong Kong national security law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal is the successor of the RedPhone encrypted voice calling app and the TextSecure encrypted texting program. The beta versions of RedPhone and TextSecure were first launched in May 2010 by Whisper Systems, a startup company co-founded by security researcher Moxie Marlinspike and roboticist Stuart Anderson. Whisper Systems also produced a firewall and tools for encrypting other forms of data. All of these were proprietary enterprise mobile security software and were only available for Android."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In November 2015, the TextSecure and RedPhone applications on Android were merged to become Signal for Android. A month later, Open Whisper Systems announced Signal Desktop, a Chrome app that could link with a Signal mobile client. At launch, the app could only be linked with the Android version of Signal. On September 26, 2016, Open Whisper Systems announced that Signal Desktop could now be linked with the iOS version of Signal as well. On October 31, 2017, Open Whisper Systems announced that the Chrome app was deprecated. At the same time, they announced the release of a standalone desktop client (based on the Electron framework) for Windows, macOS and certain Linux distributions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In May 2016, Moxie Marlinspike requested that a third-party client called LibreSignal not use the Signal service or the Signal name. As a result, on 24 May 2016 the LibreSignal project posted that the project was \"abandoned\". The functionality provided by LibreSignal was subsequently incorporated into Signal by Marlinspike."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal is a cross-platform centralized encrypted instant messaging service developed by the non-profit Signal Foundation and Signal Messenger LLC. Users can send one-to-one and group messages, which can include files, voice notes, images and videos. It can also be used to make one-to-one and group voice and video calls, and the Android version can optionally function as an SMS app."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In February 2014, Open Whisper Systems introduced the second version of their TextSecure Protocol (now Signal Protocol), which added end-to-end encrypted group chat and instant messaging capabilities to TextSecure. Toward the end of July 2014, they announced plans to merge the RedPhone and TextSecure applications as Signal. This announcement coincided with the initial release of Signal as a RedPhone counterpart for iOS. The developers said that their next steps would be to provide TextSecure instant messaging capabilities for iOS, unify the RedPhone and TextSecure applications on Android, and launch a web client. Signal was the first iOS app to enable end-to-end encrypted voice calls for free. TextSecure compatibility was added to the iOS application in March 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In January 2021, Iran removed the app from app stores, and blocked Signal. Signal was later blocked by China in March 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dynamic Signal",
        "text": "Dynamic Signal released an iOS application for VoiceStorm in February 2014. In August 2014, the company closed a $12 million funding round led by Rembrandt Venture and participation from Venrock, Trinity Ventures, Time Warner Ventures and Cox Enterprises. Some of the funds were used to acquire PaperShare, a content marketing start-up based in Washington."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "Signal Messenger maintains the following Signal Protocol libraries under the GPLv3 license on GitHub:\n*libsignal-protocol-c: A library written in C with additional licensing permissions for Apple's App Store.\n*libsignal-protocol-java: A library written in Java.\n*libsignal-protocol-javascript: A library written in JavaScript."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Between 12 and 14 January 2021, the number of Signal installations listed on Google Play increased from over 10 million to over 50 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "The non-profit Signal Foundation was launched in February 2018 with initial funding of $50\u00a0million from Brian Acton. , the platform had approximately 40\u00a0million monthly active users. , it was downloaded more than 105 million times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal's server architecture was federated between December 2013 and February 2016. In December 2013, it was announced that the messaging protocol Signal uses had successfully been integrated into the Android-based open-source operating system CyanogenMod. Since CyanogenMod 11.0, the client logic was contained in a system app called WhisperPush. According to Signal's developers, the Cyanogen team ran their own Signal messaging server for WhisperPush clients, which federated with the main server, so that both clients could exchange messages with each other. The WhisperPush source code was available under the GPLv3 license. In February 2016, the CyanogenMod team discontinued WhisperPush and recommended that its users switch to Signal. In May 2016, Moxie Marlinspike wrote that federation with the CyanogenMod servers had degraded the user experience and held back development, and that their servers will probably not federate with other servers again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In March 2017, Open Whisper Systems transitioned Signal's calling system from RedPhone to WebRTC, also adding the ability to make video calls with the mobile apps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "On 7 January 2021, Signal saw a surge in new user registrations, which temporarily overwhelmed Signal's capacity to deliver account verification messages. CNN and MacRumors linked the surge with a WhatsApp privacy policy change and a Signal endorsement by Elon Musk and Edward Snowden via Twitter. International newspapers reported similar trends in the United Arab Emirates. Reuters reported that more than 100,000\u00a0people had installed Signal between 7 and 8 January."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "On the 27 September 2019, Natalie Silvanovich, a security engineer working in Google's vulnerability research team at Project Zero, disclosed how a bug in the Android Signal client could let an attacker spy on a user without their knowledge. The bug allowed an attacker to phone a target device, mute the call, and the call would complete - keeping the audio open but without the owner being aware of that (however they would still be aware of a ring and / or a vibration from the initial call). The bug was fixed the same day that it was reported and patched in release 4.47.7 of the app for Android."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "The development of Signal and its predecessors at Open Whisper Systems was funded by a combination of consulting contracts, donations and grants. The Freedom of the Press Foundation acted as Signal's fiscal sponsor. Between 2013 and 2016, the project received grants from the Knight Foundation, the Shuttleworth Foundation, and almost $3\u00a0million from the US government\u2013sponsored Open Technology Fund. Signal is now developed by Signal Messenger LLC, a software company founded by Moxie Marlinspike and Brian Acton in 2018, which is wholly owned by a tax-exempt nonprofit corporation called the Signal Technology Foundation, also created by them in 2018. The Foundation was funded with an initial loan of $50\u00a0million from Acton, \"to support, accelerate, and broaden Signal's mission of making private communication accessible and ubiquitous\". All of the organization's products are published as free and open-source software."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "In September 2015, G Data Software launched a new messaging app called Secure Chat which used the Signal Protocol. G Data discontinued the service in May 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comparison of user features of messaging platforms",
        "text": "Signal is a cross-platform encrypted messaging service developed by the Signal Foundation and Signal Messenger LLC. It uses the Internet to send one-to-one and group messages, which can include files, voice notes, images and videos. It can also be used to make one-to-one voice and video calls, and the Android version can optionally function as an SMS app."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal averaging",
        "text": "else"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "By design, Signal is not able to read user messages, which precludes attempts at moderation. This has been confirmed by independent audits of Signal's algorithms. According to CNN, \"[t]he same technology that keeps a conversation private between you and a family member also gives a safe haven to a terrorist in Syria and the person in the United States he's trying to recruit to commit an act of mass murder.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Twitter released TextSecure as free and open-source software under the GPLv3 license in December 2011. RedPhone was also released under the same license in July 2012. Marlinspike later left Twitter and founded Open Whisper Systems as a collaborative Open Source project for the continued development of TextSecure and RedPhone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Whisper Systems",
        "text": "Marlinspike later left Twitter and founded Open Whisper Systems as a collaborative Open Source project for the continued development of TextSecure and RedPhone. Open Whisper Systems consisted of a large community of volunteer Open Source contributors, as well as a small team of dedicated grant-funded developers. In November 2015, Open Whisper Systems merged TextSecure with RedPhone and renamed it as Signal. In 2018, Signal Messenger was incorporated as an LLC by Moxie Marlinspike and Brian Acton and then rolled under the independent non-profit Signal Technology Foundation. Today, the Signal app is developed by Signal Messenger LLC, which is funded by the Signal Foundation. The foundation has stated publicly that they are not tied to any major technology companies and \"can never be acquired by one either.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Open Whisper Systems",
        "text": "In November 2015, the TextSecure and RedPhone applications on Android were merged to become Signal for Android. A month later, Open Whisper Systems announced Signal Desktop, a Chrome app that could link with a Signal client. At launch, the app could only be linked with the Android version of Signal. On 26 September 2016, Open Whisper Systems announced that Signal Desktop could now be linked with the iOS version of Signal as well. On 31 October 2017, Open Whisper Systems announced that the Chrome app was deprecated. At the same time, they announced the release of a standalone desktop client for certain Windows, MacOS and Linux distributions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Open Whisper Systems",
        "text": "Over its five-year existence from 2013 to 2018, the Open Whisper Systems group managed multiple projects, which included:\n* Signal: An instant messaging, voice calling and video calling application for Android, iOS and desktop. It uses end-to-end encryption protocols to secure all communications to other Signal users. Signal can be used to send end-to-end encrypted group messages, attachments and media messages to other Signal users. The app uses 4 encryption algorithms to encrypt all text and media sent to and from the app: XEdDSA and VXEdDSA, Double Ratchet, X3DH, and Sesame. All calls are made over a Wi-Fi or data connection and are free of charge, including long distance and international. Signal has a built-in mechanism for verifying that no man-in-the-middle attack has occurred. Signal Messenger has set up dozens of servers to handle the encrypted calls in more than 10 countries around the world to minimize latency. The clients are published under the GPLv3 license.\n* Signal Protocol: A non-federated cryptographic protocol that can be used to provide end-to-end encryption. It combines the Double Ratchet algorithm, prekeys, and a 3-DH handshake. Signal Messenger maintains several open source Signal Protocol libraries on GitHub.\n* Signal Server: The software is published under the AGPLv3 license.\n* Contact Discovery Service: A microservice that \"allows clients to discover which of their contacts are registered users, but does not reveal their contacts to the service operator or any party that may have compromised the service.\" The software is published under the AGPLv3 license. , the service is in beta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": ", Signal is a contact method for securely providing tips to major news outlets such as \"The Washington Post\", \"The Guardian\", \"The New York Times\", and \"The Wall Street Journal\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In early 2018, Google App Engine made an internal change to stop domain fronting for all countries. Due to this issue, Signal made a public change to use Amazon CloudFront for domain fronting. However, AWS also announced that they would be making changes to their service to prevent domain fronting. As a result, Signal said that they would start investigating new methods/approaches. Signal switched from AWS back to Google in April 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Open Whisper Systems",
        "text": "In February 2014, Open Whisper Systems introduced the second version of their TextSecure Protocol (now Signal Protocol), which added end-to-end encrypted group chat and instant messaging capabilities to TextSecure. Toward the end of July 2014, Open Whisper Systems announced plans to unify its RedPhone and TextSecure applications as Signal. These announcements coincided with the initial release of Signal as a RedPhone counterpart for iOS. The developers said that their next steps would be to provide TextSecure instant messaging capabilities for iOS, unify the RedPhone and TextSecure applications on Android, and launch a web client. Signal was the first iOS app to enable easy, strongly encrypted voice calls for free. TextSecure compatibility was added to the iOS application in March 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "TextSecure",
        "text": "In February 2014, Open Whisper Systems introduced the second version of their TextSecure Protocol (now Signal Protocol), which added group chat and push messaging capabilities to TextSecure. Toward the end of July 2014, Open Whisper Systems announced plans to unify its RedPhone and TextSecure applications as Signal. This announcement coincided with the initial release of Signal as a RedPhone counterpart for iOS. The developers said that their next steps would be to provide TextSecure instant messaging capabilities for iOS, unify the RedPhone and TextSecure applications on Android, and launch a web client. Signal was the first iOS app to enable easy, strongly encrypted voice calls for free."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": ", Signal was blocked in Iran. Signal's domain fronting feature relies on the Google App Engine (GAE) service. This does not work in Iran because Google has blocked Iranian access to GAE in order to comply with U.S. sanctions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Up until March 2017, Signal's voice calls were encrypted with SRTP and the ZRTP key-agreement protocol, which was developed by Phil Zimmermann. In March 2017, Signal transitioned to a new WebRTC-based calling system that introduced the ability to make video calls. Signal's voice and video calling functionalities use the Signal Protocol channel for authentication instead of ZRTP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal requires that the user provides a phone number for verification, eliminating the need for user names or passwords and facilitating contact discovery (see below). The number does not have to be the same as on the device's SIM card; it can also be a VoIP number or a landline as long as the user can receive the verification code and have a separate device to set up the software. A number can only be registered on one mobile device at a time. Account registration requires an iOS or Android device."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cellebrite",
        "text": "In 2021, Moxie Marlinspike, creator of the encrypted messaging app Signal, pointed to a number of vulnerabilities in Cellebrite's UFED and Physical Analyzer software that allowed for arbitrary code execution on Windows computers running the software. One exploit he detailed involved the UFED scanning a specially formatted file which could then be used to execute arbitrary code on the computer running the UFED. Marlinspike wrote that the code could then \"[modify] not just the Cellebrite report being created in that scan, but also \"all previous and future generated Cellebrite reports\" from all previously scanned devices and all future scanned devices in any arbitrary way\". Marlinspike also found that Cellebrite software was bundled with out-of-date FFmpeg DLL files from 2012, which lacked over 100 subsequent security updates. Windows Installer packages, extracted from the Windows installer for iTunes and signed by Apple, were also found, which he said raised legal concerns. Cellebrite responded that the company \"is committed to protecting the integrity of our customers\u2019 data, and we continually audit and update our software in order to equip our customers with the best digital intelligence solutions available.\" The report by Signal followed an announcement by Cellebrite in 2020 that it had developed technology to crack encrypted messages in the Signal app, a claim the company later retracted and downplayed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Redpine Signals",
        "text": "The company offers a comprehensive Internet of Things IoT platform that includes hardware boards, application development environment, cloud software and services framework as well as a product synthesis solution for synthesizing the final product. The platform significantly reduces the time it takes to develop and bring to market new IoT devices by providing integrated sensing, computing, communication, power management, cloud and application support."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cellebrite UFED",
        "text": "In 2021, Moxie Marlinspike, creator of the encrypted messaging app Signal, released a blog post on the app's website detailing a number of vulnerabilities in Cellebrite's UFED and Physical Analyzer software that allowed for arbitrary code execution on Windows computers running the software. One exploit he detailed involved the UFED scanning a specially formatted file which could then be used to execute arbitrary code on the computer running the UFED. Marlinspike wrote that the code could then \"[modify] not just the Cellebrite report being created in that scan, but also \"all previous and future generated Cellebrite reports\" from all previously scanned devices and all future scanned devices in any arbitrary way\". Marlinspike also found that Cellebrite software was bundled with out-of-date FFmpeg DLL files from 2012, which lacked over 100 subsequent security updates. Windows Installer packages, extracted from the Windows installer for iTunes and signed by Apple, were also found, which he said raised legal concerns. Cellebrite issued a statement in response, saying the company \"is committed to protecting the integrity of our customers\u2019 data, and we continually audit and update our software in order to equip our customers with the best digital intelligence solutions available.\" The report by Signal followed an announcement by Cellebrite in 2020 that it had developed technology to crack encrypted messages in the Signal app, a claim the company later retracted and downplayed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "On 15 January 2021, due to the surge of new users, Signal was overwhelmed with the new traffic and was down for all users. On the afternoon of 16 January, Signal announced via Twitter that service had been restored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "On Android, users can opt into making Signal the default SMS/MMS application, allowing them to send and receive unencrypted SMS messages in addition to the standard end-to-end encrypted Signal messages. Users can then use the same application to communicate with contacts who do not have Signal. Sending a message unencrypted is also available as an override between Signal users."
      },
      {
        "title": "Machine translation of sign languages",
        "text": "SignAloud is a technology that incorporates a pair of gloves made by a group of students at University of Washington that transliterate American Sign Language (ASL) into English. In February 2015 Thomas Pryor, a hearing student from the University of Washington, created the first prototype for this device at Hack Arizona, a hackathon at the University of Arizona. Pryor continued to develop the invention and in October 2015, Pryor brought Navid Azodi onto the SignAloud project for marketing and help with public relations. Azodi has a rich background and involvement in business administration, while Pryor has a wealth of experience in engineering. In May 2016, the duo told NPR that they are working more closely with people who use ASL so that they can better understand their audience and tailor their product to the needs of these people rather than the assumed needs. However, no further versions have been released since then. The invention was one of seven to win the Lemelson-MIT Student Prize, which seeks to award and applaud young inventors. Their invention fell under the \"Use it!\" category of the award which includes technological advances to existing products. They were awarded $10,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Open Whisper Systems",
        "text": "In January 2021, the tech billionaire Elon Musk tweeted his support for the Signal app with two words \"Use Signal\", showing his favor for the app as an alternative to WhatsApp. Musk doubled down stating he had financially supported Signal in the past and that he will continue to do so. In addition to other platform mass migrations, Signal saw a large influx of new users and user donations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Redpine Signals",
        "text": "Redpine Signals is a fabless semiconductor company that started its operation in 2001. The company makes chipsets and system-level products for wireless networks. It serves the Internet of Things and wireless embedded systems market, enabling all volume levels of chipsets and modules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "On 21 February 2018, Moxie Marlinspike and WhatsApp co-founder Brian Acton announced the formation of the Signal Technology Foundation, a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization whose mission is \"to support, accelerate, and broaden Signal's mission of making private communication accessible and ubiquitous\". Acton started the foundation with $50\u00a0million in funding and became the foundation's executive chairman after leaving WhatsApp's parent company Facebook in September 2017. Marlinspike continued as Signal Messenger's first CEO. , Signal ran entirely on donations, as a nonprofit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "TextSecure allowed the user to set a passphrase that encrypted the local message database and the user's encryption keys. This did not encrypt the user's contact database or message timestamps. The Signal applications on Android and iOS can be locked with the phone's pin, passphrase, or biometric authentication. The user can define a \"screen lock timeout\" interval, providing an additional protection mechanism in case the phone is lost or stolen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dynamic Signal",
        "text": "Dynamic Signal is a technology company, offering a mobile-first company communications platform, based in San Bruno, California. Russ Fradin, Steve Heyman and Jim Larrison founded the company in 2010. Fradin is the Chairman of the Board of Dynamic Signal. while Eric Brown serves as CEO."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal excludes users' messages from non-encrypted cloud backups by default."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "From its launch in May 2010 until March 2015, the Android version of Signal (then called TextSecure) included support for encrypted SMS/MMS messaging. From version 2.7.0 onward, the Android application only supported sending and receiving encrypted messages via the data channel. Reasons for this included security flaws of SMS/MMS and problems with the key exchange. Open Whisper Systems' abandonment of SMS/MMS encryption prompted some users to create a fork named Silence (initially called SMSSecure) that is meant solely for the exchange of encrypted SMS and MMS messages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Domain fronting",
        "text": "According to Signal's founder, Moxie Marlinspike, Google management came to question whether they wanted to act as a front for sites and services entire nation states wanted to block as domain fronting gained popular attention with apps like Signal implementing it. He called fronting a circumvention tool \"now largely non-viable\" in the countries it was needed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Open Whisper Systems' website was launched in January 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "FreeSWITCH",
        "text": "SignalWire Inc was founded in 2018 to provide commercial cloud telecommunication services utilizing an elastic FreeSWITCH core, and provide a permanent commercial sponsor for the open source project that was controlled by the founders of FreeSWITCH. It then acquired FreeSWITCH Solutions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Foundation",
        "text": "The foundation shares its name with the Signal messaging app."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Once the messages are received and decrypted on a user's device, they are stored locally in a SQLite database that is encrypted with SQLCipher. The key to decrypt this database is also stored locally on the user's device and can be accessed if the device is unlocked. In December 2020, Cellebrite published a blog post announcing that one of their products could now access this key and use it to \"decrypt the Signal app\". Technology reporters later published articles about how Cellebrite had claimed to have the ability to \"break into the Signal app\" and \"crack Signal's encryption\". This latter interpretation was rejected by several experts, as well as representatives from Signal, who said the original post by Cellebrite had been about accessing data on \"an unlocked Android phone in their physical possession\" and that they \"could have just opened the app to look at the messages\". Similar extraction tools also exist for iOS devices and Signal Desktop."
      },
      {
        "title": "SignalR",
        "text": "SignalR is a free and open-source software library for Microsoft ASP.NET that allows server code to send asynchronous notifications to client-side web applications. The library includes server-side and client-side JavaScript components."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In 2016, authorities in India arrested members of a suspected ISIS-affiliated terrorist cell that communicated via Signal and Telegram."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Entertainment Group",
        "text": "Founded in 1991 as Signal Information & Communication Corp. () (Signal I&C), the company was the national licensee of the now-defunct American company Motorola. In 1997, it partnered with the now-defunct Korea Telecom Freetel (a Korea Telecom (KT) company) for PCS service."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal relies on centralized servers that are maintained by Signal Messenger. In addition to routing Signal's messages, the servers also facilitate the discovery of contacts who are also registered Signal users and the automatic exchange of users' public keys. By default, Signal's voice and video calls are peer-to-peer. If the caller is not in the receiver's address book, the call is routed through a server in order to hide the users' IP addresses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Code Rebel",
        "text": "As the company grew, it began catering software to companies such as Intuit, \"Bloomberg\" and Wells Fargo. Code Rebel later relocated to the United States mainland, setting up an office in New York City. In October 2010, University of Alabama\u2019s Management Information Systems program announced a partnership with Code Rebel, LLC to create Apple iPod Touch, iPhone, and iPad applications. Kane was supervising around 50 software engineers and designers by 2014, largely in the United States and Europe. Customers included Fortune 500 companies by late 2014, including AT&T, Microsoft, Cisco, IBM, Bloomberg, Lloyds Bank, Merck, Panasonic and IKEA, as well as organizations such as the University of California, University of Texas and University of Missouri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dynamic Signal",
        "text": "Dynamic Signal is headquartered in San Bruno, California and has approximately 170 employees. The company has delivered impressions for brands such as Hitachi Data Systems, Salesforce, Deloitte and Gamestop. According to a company press release in May 2017, Dynamic Signal was then servicing \"nearly 20 percent of the Fortune 500, and 20 percent of the Fortune 50\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In November 2011, Whisper Systems announced that it had been acquired by Twitter. Neither company disclosed the financial terms of the deal. The acquisition was done \"primarily so that Mr. Marlinspike could help the then-startup improve its security\". Shortly after the acquisition, Whisper Systems' RedPhone service was made unavailable. Some criticized the removal, arguing that the software was \"specifically targeted [to help] people under repressive regimes\" and that it left people like the Egyptians in \"a dangerous position\" during the events of the Egyptian revolution of 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal (software)\n--History.\n----2010\u20132013: Origins.\n----2013\u20132018: Open Whisper Systems.\n----2018\u2013present: Signal Technology Foundation.\n----Usage numbers.\n--Features.\n--Limitations.\n--Usability.\n--Architecture.\n----Encryption protocols.\n------Authentication.\n----Local storage.\n----Servers.\n------Contact discovery.\n------Metadata.\n------Federation.\n----Licensing.\n--Reception.\n----Security.\n----In-app payments.\n----Blocking.\n----Audience.\n------Use by activists.\n------Use by criminals.\n--Developers and funding.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": ", the Signal Protocol has been implemented into WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, Skype, and Google Allo, making it possible for the conversations of \"more than a billion people worldwide\" to be end-to-end encrypted. In Google Allo, Skype and Facebook Messenger, conversations are not encrypted with the Signal Protocol by default; they only offer end-to-end encryption in an optional mode."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dynamic Signal",
        "text": "In November 2010, Russ Fradin, Steve Heyman and Jim Larrison founded Dynamic Signal. They previously worked for Adify, an advertising infrastructure company. In February 2011, Dynamic Signal raised $8 million in equity-based financing from a group of 30 investors. That July, \"Business Insider\" included Dynamic Signal on its list of \"The 20 Hot Silicon Valley Startups You Need To Watch.\" The company closed a $13.3 million funding round led by Venrock in July 2012. Time Warner, Trinity Ventures and Cox Enterprises also participated. In March 2013, the company announced VoiceStorm, a product that manages and measures employees' efforts to promote a company on social networks. That November, Intel partnered with Dynamic Signal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal uses standard cellular telephone numbers as identifiers and secures all communications to other Signal users with end-to-end encryption. The client software includes mechanisms by which users can independently verify the identity of their contacts and the integrity of the data channel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Foundation",
        "text": "Signal Messenger LLC was founded simultaneously with the Signal Technology Foundation and operates as its subsidiary. It is responsible for the development of the Signal messaging app and the Signal Protocol. Moxie Marlinspike served as Signal Messenger's first CEO until stepping down on January 10, 2022. Brian Acton has volunteered to serve as interim CEO while the organization searches for a new CEO."
      },
      {
        "title": "TextSecure",
        "text": "In November 2015, the RedPhone application was merged into TextSecure and it was renamed as Signal for Android."
      },
      {
        "title": "Open Whisper Systems",
        "text": "Open Whisper Systems (abbreviated OWS) was a software development group that was founded by Moxie Marlinspike in 2013. The group picked up the open source development of TextSecure and RedPhone, and was later responsible for starting the development of the Signal Protocol and the Signal messaging app. In 2018, Signal Messenger was incorporated as an LLC by Moxie Marlinspike and Brian Acton and then rolled under the independent 501c3 non-profit Signal Technology Foundation. Today, the Signal app is developed by Signal Messenger LLC, which is funded by the Signal Technology Foundation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In October 2014, the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) included Signal in their updated surveillance self-defense guide. In November 2014, Signal received a perfect score on the EFF's secure messaging scorecard; it received points for having communications encrypted in transit, having communications encrypted with keys the provider does not have access to (end-to-end encryption), making it possible for users to independently verify their correspondents' identities, having past communications secure if the keys are stolen (forward secrecy), having the code open to independent review (open source), having the security designs well-documented, and having a recent independent security audit. At the time, \"ChatSecure + Orbot\", Pidgin (with OTR), Silent Phone, and Telegram's optional \"secret chats\" also received seven out of seven points on the scorecard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal was reportedly popularized in the United States during the George Floyd protests. Heightened awareness of police monitoring led protesters to use the platform to communicate. Black Lives Matter organizers had used the platform \"for several years\". During the first week of June, the encrypted messaging app was downloaded over five times more than it had been during the week prior to the murder of George Floyd. In June 2020, Signal Foundation announced a new feature that enables users to blur faces in photos, in response to increased federal efforts to monitor protesters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sandes (software)",
        "text": "2. Signal (software)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal also includes a cryptocurrency wallet functionality that allows users to store, send and receive in-app payments. Apart from certain regions and countries, the feature was enabled globally in November 2021. , the only supported payment method is MobileCoin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In July 2016, the Internet Society published a user study that assessed the ability of Signal users to detect and deter man-in-the-middle attacks. The study concluded that 21 out of 28 participants failed to correctly compare public key fingerprints in order to verify the identity of other Signal users, and that the majority of these users still believed they had succeeded, while in reality they failed. Four months later, Signal's user interface was updated to make verifying the identity of other Signal users simpler."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Studios",
        "text": "Signal Studios is a developer of both video games and interactive software applications. The studio was founded by industry veterans, with experience working at some of the world's top studios and publishers, combining many years of knowledge across all disciplines of the games industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "J & L Randall",
        "text": "The company used two trading names:\n* Merit for general toys\n* SEL (Signalling Equipment Ltd) for technical toys, e.g. electric motors, steam engines and student microscopes. It is believed that the term \"signalling equipment\" originally related to items such as Morse keys and sounders."
      },
      {
        "title": "General Signal",
        "text": "General Signal Technology Corp. was a technology manufacturing company making control equipment and systems. It traded on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol GSX."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "On January 10, 2022, Moxie Marlinspike announced that he was stepping down from his role as CEO of Signal Messenger. He continues to remain on the Signal Foundation's board of directors and Brian Acton has volunteered to serve as interim CEO during the search for a new CEO."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "In September 2016, Google launched a new messaging app called Allo, which featured an optional Incognito Mode that used the Signal Protocol for end-to-end encryption. In March 2019, Google discontinued Allo in favor of their Messages app on Android. In November 2020, Google announced that they would be using the Signal Protocol to provide end-to-end encryption by default to all RCS-based conversations between users of their Messages app, starting with one-to-one conversations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "The servers store registered users' phone numbers, public key material and push tokens which are necessary for setting up calls and transmitting messages. In order to determine which contacts are also Signal users, cryptographic hashes of the user's contact numbers are periodically transmitted to the server. The server then checks to see if those match any of the SHA256 hashes of registered users and tells the client if any matches are found. The hashed numbers are thereafter discarded from the server. In 2014, Moxie Marlinspike wrote that it is easy to calculate a map of all possible hash inputs to hash outputs and reverse the mapping because of the limited preimage space (the set of all possible hash inputs) of phone numbers, and that a \"practical privacy preserving contact discovery remains an unsolved problem.\" In September 2017, Signal's developers announced that they were working on a way for the Signal client applications to \"efficiently and scalably determine whether the contacts in their address book are Signal users without revealing the contacts in their address book to the Signal service.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "ProntoForms",
        "text": "In 2007, the company launched their Pronto app in the United States for BlackBerry and Windows Mobile devices. Later, it included support for Android and iOS devices. The firm also entered into a strategic partnership with AT&T that made the telecommunications company a distributor of the ProntoForms software. TrueContext had around 1,800 business clients by the end of 2012. Other strategic partnerships that ProntoForms has formed include those with Nextel, Rogers, and Bell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In December 2016, Egypt blocked access to Signal. In response, Signal's developers added domain fronting to their service. This allows Signal users in a specific country to circumvent censorship by making it look like they are connecting to a different internet-based service. , Signal's domain fronting is enabled by default in Egypt, the United Arab Emirates, Oman, Qatar, and Iran."
      },
      {
        "title": "General Signal",
        "text": "General Signal Corporation (formerly ) was a publicly traded control equipment and systems company based in Stamford, Connecticut, and was listed in Standard & Poor's S&P 500 Composite Index of 500 of the largest public companies in the United States. It was a leading manufacturer of control systems technology primarily serving the transportation and telecommunication industries. In late 1998 it was bought for US$2 billion by a much smaller company, SPX Corporation."
      },
      {
        "title": "TextSecure",
        "text": "TextSecure was first developed by Whisper Systems, who were later acqui-hired by Twitter. The application's source code was then released under a free and open-source software license. In 2013, TextSecure's development was picked up by an independent group called Open Whisper Systems, who merged it with an encrypted voice calling application called RedPhone and renamed the product as Signal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In March 2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the British Ministry of Defence ordered that its troops switch from WhatsApp to Signal, having been favoured by MI6 to avoid soldiers' phones being hacked by Russia."
      },
      {
        "title": "General Signal",
        "text": "In 1995 SPX Corporation of Muskegon, Michigan, had been a slow growth Standard & Poor's SmallCap 600 company, primarily making tools for servicing automobile engine parts such as piston rings by vehicle dealers and service shops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Feeld",
        "text": "In 2017, an experimental augmented reality dating app called Signal was announced by Feeld, but was since discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comparison of user features of messaging platforms",
        "text": "Signal uses standard cellular telephone numbers as identifiers and secures all communications to other Signal users with end-to-end encryption. The apps include mechanisms by which users can independently verify the identity of their contacts and the integrity of the data channel."
      },
      {
        "title": "General Railway Signal",
        "text": "General Railway Signal was one of the 30 stocks when the Dow Jones Industrial Average was expanded from a 20-stock average on October 1, 1928. It was replaced in the DJIA by Liggett & Myers on July 18, 1930. In 1965, General Signal Corporation (GSX) was created with the intent to diversify into areas other than railway signaling. GRS was a wholly owned subsidiary of GSX."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Entertainment Group",
        "text": "In 2001, Signal I&C signed a business partnership with Lucent (presently Alcatel-Lucent), then partnered with SK Telecom for IMT Advanced service."
      },
      {
        "title": "SignalFx",
        "text": "SignalFx was co-founded by Karthik Rau and Phillip Liu in February 2013. Phillip Liu previously worked at Facebook for four years as a software architect and Karthik Rau worked at Delphix and VMware. SignalFx received $8.5 million in a Series A investment from Andreessen Horowitz, adding Ben Horowitz to its board. In 2015 Signal Fx received $20 million in Series B investment led by Charles River Ventures with participation from Andreessen Horowitz, adding Devdutt Yellurkar to its board. In May 2018, SignalFx announced its Series D funding of $45 million led by General Catalyst with participation from the existing investors Andreessen Horowitz and Charles River Ventures. This round brings total funding for SignalFx to $103.5 million since its founding in 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Britton Lee, Inc.",
        "text": "SmartStar is Signal Technology Inc (STI)'s application development environment"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signals intelligence operational platforms by nation",
        "text": "India Air Force Netra AEW&CS platform is equipped with SIGINT equipment developed by DRDO."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cellebrite",
        "text": "The announcement by Marlinspike raised questions about the integrity of data extracted by the software, and prompted Cellebrite to patch some of the vulnerabilities found by Signal and to remove full support for analyzing iPhones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "There also exist alternative libraries written by third-parties in other languages, such as TypeScript."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal.MD",
        "text": "is a Japanese animation studio founded in October 2014 by Production I.G holding company IG Port."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Alliance Technology Holding",
        "text": "Signal Alliance Technology Holding was founded in 1996 and started its operations the same year. The company started out as Signal Alliance, and its main activity was the sales of network switches before expanding its operation into software application based services."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal",
        "text": "Where:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In March 2017, Signal was approved by the sergeant at arms of the U.S. Senate for use by senators and their staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Redpine Signals",
        "text": "The company also introduced a simultaneous dual-band 450 Mbit/s 3x3 802.11n chipset for digital home and enterprise applications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "All communications between Signal users are automatically end-to-end encrypted (the encryption keys are generated and stored on the phones, not on the servers). To verify that a correspondent is really the person that they claim to be, Signal users can compare key fingerprints (or scan QR codes) out-of-band. The platform employs a trust-on-first-use mechanism in order to notify the user if a correspondent's key changes."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many iOS devices has Signal been installed on?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I couldn't find the iOS devices have it installed but Google Play states that Signal has been installed over 50 million times and that there were 40 million active monthly users in January 2021 and as of May 2021, it has been downloaded over 105 million times."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the company that makes Signal make other apps or services?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I did not find any developer apps, but I did find several closed-source applications have implemented the protocol, such as WhatsApp, Facebook messenger, and Skype.",
      "The company that made Signal, Signal Messenger LLC, also created the Signal Protocol."
    ],
    "topic": "Signal (software)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal Protocol:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal Protocol"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Signal Protocol (formerly known as the TextSecure Protocol) is a non-federated cryptographic protocol that can be used to provide end-to-end encryption for voice calls and instant messaging conversations. The protocol was developed by Open Whisper Systems in 2013 and was first introduced in the open-source TextSecure app, which later became Signal. Several closed-source applications have implemented the protocol, such as WhatsApp, which is said to encrypt the conversations of \"more than a billion people worldwide\" or Google who provides end-to-end encryption by default to all RCS-based conversations between users of their Messages app for one-to-one conversations. Facebook Messenger also say they offer the protocol for optional Secret Conversations, as does Skype for its Private Conversations."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)",
          "History",
          "2018\u2013present: Signal Technology Foundation"
        ],
        "ctx": "On 21 February 2018, Moxie Marlinspike and WhatsApp co-founder Brian Acton announced the formation of the Signal Technology Foundation, a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization whose mission is \"to support, accelerate, and broaden Signal's mission of making private communication accessible and ubiquitous\". Acton started the foundation with $50\u00a0million in funding and became the foundation's executive chairman after leaving WhatsApp's parent company Facebook in September 2017. Marlinspike continued as Signal Messenger's first CEO. , Signal ran entirely on donations, as a nonprofit."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal is a cross-platform centralized encrypted instant messaging service developed by the non-profit Signal Foundation and Signal Messenger LLC. Users can send one-to-one and group messages, which can include files, voice notes, images and videos. It can also be used to make one-to-one and group voice and video calls, and the Android version can optionally function as an SMS app."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal relies on centralized servers that are maintained by Signal Messenger. In addition to routing Signal's messages, the servers also facilitate the discovery of contacts who are also registered Signal users and the automatic exchange of users' public keys. By default, Signal's voice and video calls are peer-to-peer. If the caller is not in the receiver's address book, the call is routed through a server in order to hide the users' IP addresses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "By design, Signal is not able to read user messages, which precludes attempts at moderation. This has been confirmed by independent audits of Signal's algorithms. According to CNN, \"[t]he same technology that keeps a conversation private between you and a family member also gives a safe haven to a terrorist in Syria and the person in the United States he's trying to recruit to commit an act of mass murder.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Comparison of user features of messaging platforms",
        "text": "Signal is a cross-platform encrypted messaging service developed by the Signal Foundation and Signal Messenger LLC. It uses the Internet to send one-to-one and group messages, which can include files, voice notes, images and videos. It can also be used to make one-to-one voice and video calls, and the Android version can optionally function as an SMS app."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "Signal Messenger maintains the following Signal Protocol libraries under the GPLv3 license on GitHub:\n*libsignal-protocol-c: A library written in C with additional licensing permissions for Apple's App Store.\n*libsignal-protocol-java: A library written in Java.\n*libsignal-protocol-javascript: A library written in JavaScript."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "The complete source code of the Signal clients for Android, iOS and desktop is available on GitHub under a free software license. This enables interested parties to examine the code and help the developers verify that everything is behaving as expected. It also allows advanced users to compile their own copies of the applications and compare them with the versions that are distributed by Signal Messenger. In March 2016, Moxie Marlinspike wrote that, apart from some shared libraries that are not compiled with the project build due to a lack of Gradle\u00a0NDK support, Signal for Android is reproducible. Signal's servers are partially open source, but the server software's anti-spam component is proprietary and closed source due to security concerns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Between November 2019 and February 2020, Signal added iPad support, view-once images and videos, stickers, and reactions. They also announced plans for a new group messaging system and an \"experimental method for storing encrypted contacts in the cloud.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "PAL",
        "text": "For PAL-B/G the signal has these characteristics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal excludes users' messages from non-encrypted cloud backups by default."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal's software is free and open-source. Its mobile clients are published under the GPL-3.0-only license, while the desktop client and server are published under the AGPL-3.0-only license. The official Android app generally uses the proprietary Google Play Services (installed on most Android devices), though it is designed to still work without them installed. Signal also has an official client app for iOS and desktop programs for Windows, macOS and Linux (although registration requires an iOS or Android device)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal is the successor of the RedPhone encrypted voice calling app and the TextSecure encrypted texting program. The beta versions of RedPhone and TextSecure were first launched in May 2010 by Whisper Systems, a startup company co-founded by security researcher Moxie Marlinspike and roboticist Stuart Anderson. Whisper Systems also produced a firewall and tools for encrypting other forms of data. All of these were proprietary enterprise mobile security software and were only available for Android."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal allows users to make one-to-one and group voice and video calls with up to 40 people on iOS, Android, and desktop. All calls are made over a Wi-Fi or data connection and (with the exception of data fees) are free of charge, including long distance and international. Signal also allows users to send text messages, files, voice notes, pictures, GIFs, and video messages over a Wi-Fi or data connection to other Signal users on iOS, Android and a desktop program. The platform also supports group messaging."
      },
      {
        "title": "SignalR",
        "text": "SignalR is a free and open-source software library for Microsoft ASP.NET that allows server code to send asynchronous notifications to client-side web applications. The library includes server-side and client-side JavaScript components."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": ", Signal was blocked in Iran. Signal's domain fronting feature relies on the Google App Engine (GAE) service. This does not work in Iran because Google has blocked Iranian access to GAE in order to comply with U.S. sanctions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comparison of user features of messaging platforms",
        "text": "Signal uses standard cellular telephone numbers as identifiers and secures all communications to other Signal users with end-to-end encryption. The apps include mechanisms by which users can independently verify the identity of their contacts and the integrity of the data channel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal messages are encrypted with the Signal Protocol (formerly known as the TextSecure Protocol). The protocol combines the Double Ratchet Algorithm, prekeys, and an Extended Triple Diffie\u2013Hellman (X3DH) handshake. It uses Curve25519, AES-256, and HMAC-SHA256 as primitives. The protocol provides confidentiality, integrity, authentication, participant consistency, destination validation, forward secrecy, backward secrecy ( future secrecy), causality preservation, message unlinkability, message repudiation, participation repudiation, and asynchronicity. It does not provide anonymity preservation, and requires servers for the relaying of messages and storing of public key material."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal",
        "text": "Where:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Up until March 2017, Signal's voice calls were encrypted with SRTP and the ZRTP key-agreement protocol, which was developed by Phil Zimmermann. In March 2017, Signal transitioned to a new WebRTC-based calling system that introduced the ability to make video calls. Signal's voice and video calling functionalities use the Signal Protocol channel for authentication instead of ZRTP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": ", Signal is a contact method for securely providing tips to major news outlets such as \"The Washington Post\", \"The Guardian\", \"The New York Times\", and \"The Wall Street Journal\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In May 2016, Moxie Marlinspike requested that a third-party client called LibreSignal not use the Signal service or the Signal name. As a result, on 24 May 2016 the LibreSignal project posted that the project was \"abandoned\". The functionality provided by LibreSignal was subsequently incorporated into Signal by Marlinspike."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Signal",
        "text": "The Signal\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal's userbase started in May 2010, when its predecessor TextSecure was launched by Whisper Systems. According to App Annie, Signal had approximately 20 million monthly active users at the end of December 2020. In January 2022, the BBC reported that Signal was used by over 40 million people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal (software)\n--History.\n----2010\u20132013: Origins.\n----2013\u20132018: Open Whisper Systems.\n----2018\u2013present: Signal Technology Foundation.\n----Usage numbers.\n--Features.\n--Limitations.\n--Usability.\n--Architecture.\n----Encryption protocols.\n------Authentication.\n----Local storage.\n----Servers.\n------Contact discovery.\n------Metadata.\n------Federation.\n----Licensing.\n--Reception.\n----Security.\n----In-app payments.\n----Blocking.\n----Audience.\n------Use by activists.\n------Use by criminals.\n--Developers and funding.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Signal",
        "text": "The Signal may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sigaction",
        "text": "int sa_flags; /* signal options */"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal also allows users to set timers to messages. After a specified time interval, the messages will be deleted from both the sender's and the receivers' devices. The time interval can be between five seconds and one week long, and the timer begins for each recipient once they have read their copy of the message. The developers have stressed that this is meant to be \"a collaborative feature for conversations where all participants want to automate minimalist data hygiene, not for situations where your contact is your adversary\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "All communications between Signal users are automatically end-to-end encrypted (the encryption keys are generated and stored on the phones, not on the servers). To verify that a correspondent is really the person that they claim to be, Signal users can compare key fingerprints (or scan QR codes) out-of-band. The platform employs a trust-on-first-use mechanism in order to notify the user if a correspondent's key changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sandes (software)",
        "text": "2. Signal (software)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal also includes a cryptocurrency wallet functionality that allows users to store, send and receive in-app payments. Apart from certain regions and countries, the feature was enabled globally in November 2021. , the only supported payment method is MobileCoin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal uses standard cellular telephone numbers as identifiers and secures all communications to other Signal users with end-to-end encryption. The client software includes mechanisms by which users can independently verify the identity of their contacts and the integrity of the data channel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal",
        "text": "formula_2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal",
        "text": "formula_1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal allows users to automatically blur faces of people in photos to protect their identities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In October 2014, the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) included Signal in their updated surveillance self-defense guide. In November 2014, Signal received a perfect score on the EFF's secure messaging scorecard; it received points for having communications encrypted in transit, having communications encrypted with keys the provider does not have access to (end-to-end encryption), making it possible for users to independently verify their correspondents' identities, having past communications secure if the keys are stolen (forward secrecy), having the code open to independent review (open source), having the security designs well-documented, and having a recent independent security audit. At the time, \"ChatSecure + Orbot\", Pidgin (with OTR), Silent Phone, and Telegram's optional \"secret chats\" also received seven out of seven points on the scorecard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In February 2014, Open Whisper Systems introduced the second version of their TextSecure Protocol (now Signal Protocol), which added end-to-end encrypted group chat and instant messaging capabilities to TextSecure. Toward the end of July 2014, they announced plans to merge the RedPhone and TextSecure applications as Signal. This announcement coincided with the initial release of Signal as a RedPhone counterpart for iOS. The developers said that their next steps would be to provide TextSecure instant messaging capabilities for iOS, unify the RedPhone and TextSecure applications on Android, and launch a web client. Signal was the first iOS app to enable end-to-end encrypted voice calls for free. TextSecure compatibility was added to the iOS application in March 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "SignalR",
        "text": "SignalR\n--Details.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "TextSecure allowed the user to set a passphrase that encrypted the local message database and the user's encryption keys. This did not encrypt the user's contact database or message timestamps. The Signal applications on Android and iOS can be locked with the phone's pin, passphrase, or biometric authentication. The user can define a \"screen lock timeout\" interval, providing an additional protection mechanism in case the phone is lost or stolen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": ", the Signal Protocol has been implemented into WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, Skype, and Google Allo, making it possible for the conversations of \"more than a billion people worldwide\" to be end-to-end encrypted. In Google Allo, Skype and Facebook Messenger, conversations are not encrypted with the Signal Protocol by default; they only offer end-to-end encryption in an optional mode."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal averaging",
        "text": "else"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Open Whisper Systems' website was launched in January 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "SixSixSix",
        "text": "A2 The Signal"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "To verify that a correspondent is really the person that they claim to be, Signal users can compare key fingerprints (or scan QR codes) out-of-band. The platform employs a trust on first use mechanism in order to notify the user if a correspondent's key changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (typeface)",
        "text": "Signal (typeface)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Join Java",
        "text": "signal D() & E() {"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Signal (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal averaging",
        "text": "hold on;"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal for Help",
        "text": "Signal for Help\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "C signal handling",
        "text": "if (raise(SIGINT) != 0) {"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "In September 2015, G Data Software launched a new messaging app called Secure Chat which used the Signal Protocol. G Data discontinued the service in May 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signalkuppe",
        "text": "Signalkuppe\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "In October 2018, Signal Messenger announced that they had implemented a \"sealed sender\" feature into Signal, which reduces the amount of metadata that the Signal servers have access to by concealing the sender's identifier. The sender's identity is conveyed to the recipient in each message, but is encrypted with a key that the server does not have. This is done automatically if the sender is in the recipient's contacts or has access to their Signal Profile. Users can also enable an option to receive \"sealed sender\" messages from non-contacts and people who do not have access to their Signal Profile. A contemporaneous wiretap of the user's device and/or the Signal servers may still reveal that the device's IP address accessed a Signal server to send or receive messages at certain times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In January 2021, Iran removed the app from app stores, and blocked Signal. Signal was later blocked by China in March 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "There also exist alternative libraries written by third-parties in other languages, such as TypeScript."
      },
      {
        "title": "Verilog",
        "text": "// executes any time the signals"
      },
      {
        "title": "Digital Signal 0",
        "text": "Digital Signal 0\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In December 2016, Egypt blocked access to Signal. In response, Signal's developers added domain fronting to their service. This allows Signal users in a specific country to circumvent censorship by making it look like they are connecting to a different internet-based service. , Signal's domain fronting is enabled by default in Egypt, the United Arab Emirates, Oman, Qatar, and Iran."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In March 2017, Open Whisper Systems transitioned Signal's calling system from RedPhone to WebRTC, also adding the ability to make video calls with the mobile apps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal averaging",
        "text": "odd=even; % odd buffer"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "The development of Signal and its predecessors at Open Whisper Systems was funded by a combination of consulting contracts, donations and grants. The Freedom of the Press Foundation acted as Signal's fiscal sponsor. Between 2013 and 2016, the project received grants from the Knight Foundation, the Shuttleworth Foundation, and almost $3\u00a0million from the US government\u2013sponsored Open Technology Fund. Signal is now developed by Signal Messenger LLC, a software company founded by Moxie Marlinspike and Brian Acton in 2018, which is wholly owned by a tax-exempt nonprofit corporation called the Signal Technology Foundation, also created by them in 2018. The Foundation was funded with an initial loan of $50\u00a0million from Acton, \"to support, accelerate, and broaden Signal's mission of making private communication accessible and ubiquitous\". All of the organization's products are published as free and open-source software."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal operating instructions",
        "text": "Signal operating instructions\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "KYCS",
        "text": "KYCS\n--Signal.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "User-in-the-loop",
        "text": "Besides, the average signal quality and/or the spectral efficiency"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "From its launch in May 2010 until March 2015, the Android version of Signal (then called TextSecure) included support for encrypted SMS/MMS messaging. From version 2.7.0 onward, the Android application only supported sending and receiving encrypted messages via the data channel. Reasons for this included security flaws of SMS/MMS and problems with the key exchange. Open Whisper Systems' abandonment of SMS/MMS encryption prompted some users to create a fork named Silence (initially called SMSSecure) that is meant solely for the exchange of encrypted SMS and MMS messages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal",
        "text": "formula_13 or formula_14"
      },
      {
        "title": "SIGNAL (programming language)",
        "text": "Using SIGNAL allows one to specify an application, to design an architecture, to refine detailed components down to RTOS or hardware description. The SIGNAL model supports a design methodology which goes from specification to implementation, from abstraction to concretization, from synchrony to asynchrony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "On 15 January 2021, due to the surge of new users, Signal was overwhelmed with the new traffic and was down for all users. On the afternoon of 16 January, Signal announced via Twitter that service had been restored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "On Android, users can opt into making Signal the default SMS/MMS application, allowing them to send and receive unencrypted SMS messages in addition to the standard end-to-end encrypted Signal messages. Users can then use the same application to communicate with contacts who do not have Signal. Sending a message unencrypted is also available as an override between Signal users."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal 2",
        "text": "Signal 2\n--History.\n--Technical.\n--Programming.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In April 2021, Signal announced the addition of a cryptocurrency wallet feature that would allow users to send and receive payments in MobileCoin. This received criticism from security expert Bruce Schneier, who had previously praised the software. Schneier stated that this would bloat the client and attract unwanted attention from the authorities. The wallet functionality was initially only available in certain countries, but was later enabled globally in November 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "The Signal Protocol also supports end-to-end encrypted group chats. The group chat protocol is a combination of a pairwise double ratchet and multicast encryption. In addition to the properties provided by the one-to-one protocol, the group chat protocol provides speaker consistency, out-of-order resilience, dropped message resilience, computational equality, trust equality, subgroup messaging, as well as contractible and expandable membership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "All client-server communications are protected by TLS. Signal's developers have asserted that their servers do not keep logs about who called whom and when. In June 2016, Marlinspike told \"The Intercept\" that \"the closest piece of information to metadata that the Signal server stores is the last time each user connected to the server, and the precision of this information is reduced to the day, rather than the hour, minute, and second\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "On 7 January 2021, Signal saw a surge in new user registrations, which temporarily overwhelmed Signal's capacity to deliver account verification messages. CNN and MacRumors linked the surge with a WhatsApp privacy policy change and a Signal endorsement by Elon Musk and Edward Snowden via Twitter. International newspapers reported similar trends in the United Arab Emirates. Reuters reported that more than 100,000\u00a0people had installed Signal between 7 and 8 January."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal averaging",
        "text": "end"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal averaging",
        "text": "end"
      },
      {
        "title": "P.I.P.S.",
        "text": "The P.I.P.S. environment does not support true signalling. Basic signal support is emulated using threads."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "On the 27 September 2019, Natalie Silvanovich, a security engineer working in Google's vulnerability research team at Project Zero, disclosed how a bug in the Android Signal client could let an attacker spy on a user without their knowledge. The bug allowed an attacker to phone a target device, mute the call, and the call would complete - keeping the audio open but without the owner being aware of that (however they would still be aware of a ring and / or a vibration from the initial call). The bug was fixed the same day that it was reported and patched in release 4.47.7 of the app for Android."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal's server architecture was federated between December 2013 and February 2016. In December 2013, it was announced that the messaging protocol Signal uses had successfully been integrated into the Android-based open-source operating system CyanogenMod. Since CyanogenMod 11.0, the client logic was contained in a system app called WhisperPush. According to Signal's developers, the Cyanogen team ran their own Signal messaging server for WhisperPush clients, which federated with the main server, so that both clients could exchange messages with each other. The WhisperPush source code was available under the GPLv3 license. In February 2016, the CyanogenMod team discontinued WhisperPush and recommended that its users switch to Signal. In May 2016, Moxie Marlinspike wrote that federation with the CyanogenMod servers had degraded the user experience and held back development, and that their servers will probably not federate with other servers again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (disambiguation)",
        "text": "A signal is any variation of a medium that conveys information."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Signal or signaling may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "VIT signals",
        "text": "<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Clutter (software)",
        "text": "\"signals\": [{"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (IPC)",
        "text": "A signal is an asynchronous notification sent to a process or to a specific thread within the same process to notify it of an event. Common uses of signals are to interrupt, suspend, terminate or kill a process. Signals originated in 1970s Bell Labs Unix and were later specified in the POSIX standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "SIGNAL (programming language)",
        "text": "SIGNAL is a programming language based on synchronized data-flow (flows + synchronization): a process is a set of equations on elementary flows describing both data and control."
      },
      {
        "title": "C signal handling",
        "text": "if (signal(SIGINT, catch_function) == SIG_ERR) {"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (IPC)",
        "text": "Signals are standardized messages sent to a running program to trigger specific behavior, such as quitting or error handling. They are a limited form of inter-process communication (IPC), typically used in Unix, Unix-like, and other POSIX-compliant operating systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "C signal handling",
        "text": "int main(void) {"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sigaction",
        "text": "/* signal main thread */"
      },
      {
        "title": "SignalR",
        "text": "ASP.NET SignalR is a library for ASP.NET developers to add real-time web functionality to their applications. Real-time web functionality is the ability to have server-side code push content to the connected clients as it happens, in real-time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal averaging",
        "text": "even = even+n+x;"
      },
      {
        "title": "Messenger (software)",
        "text": "The following is a table of features available in Messenger, as well as their geographical coverage and what devices they are available on. In addition there is a vanishing message feature. In addition there is an audio recording feature which allows audio recordings of up to one minute which may or may not be vanishing:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In July 2016, the Internet Society published a user study that assessed the ability of Signal users to detect and deter man-in-the-middle attacks. The study concluded that 21 out of 28 participants failed to correctly compare public key fingerprints in order to verify the identity of other Signal users, and that the majority of these users still believed they had succeeded, while in reality they failed. Four months later, Signal's user interface was updated to make verifying the identity of other Signal users simpler."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal",
        "text": "An even signal satisfies the condition formula_3"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal programming",
        "text": "In software development, a \"signal\" can mean synchronous events (sequences of samples, video frames, etc., with constant sample rate or frame rate) rather than asynchronous events, while the word \"event\" and \"data flow\" is often used for asynchronous event queues, but this is by no means universal. This language was created in the 1950s Konrad Zuse. Especially in telecommunications, electrical engineering and signal processing, a digital signal is a sampled representation of an analog physical entity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Studios",
        "text": "Signal Studios\n--History.\n--Games.\n--Technology.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal requires that the user provides a phone number for verification, eliminating the need for user names or passwords and facilitating contact discovery (see below). The number does not have to be the same as on the device's SIM card; it can also be a VoIP number or a landline as long as the user can receive the verification code and have a separate device to set up the software. A number can only be registered on one mobile device at a time. Account registration requires an iOS or Android device."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hjorth parameters",
        "text": "Where \"y(t)\" represents the signal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In March 2017, Signal was approved by the sergeant at arms of the U.S. Senate for use by senators and their staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (IPC)",
        "text": "These default key combinations with modern operating systems can be changed with the command."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In November 2015, the TextSecure and RedPhone applications on Android were merged to become Signal for Android. A month later, Open Whisper Systems announced Signal Desktop, a Chrome app that could link with a Signal mobile client. At launch, the app could only be linked with the Android version of Signal. On September 26, 2016, Open Whisper Systems announced that Signal Desktop could now be linked with the iOS version of Signal as well. On October 31, 2017, Open Whisper Systems announced that the Chrome app was deprecated. At the same time, they announced the release of a standalone desktop client (based on the Electron framework) for Windows, macOS and certain Linux distributions."
      },
      {
        "title": "One Unique Signal",
        "text": "One Unique Signal\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many iOS devices has Signal been installed on?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I couldn't find the iOS devices have it installed but Google Play states that Signal has been installed over 50 million times and that there were 40 million active monthly users in January 2021 and as of May 2021, it has been downloaded over 105 million times."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the company that makes Signal make other apps or services?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The company that made Signal, Signal Messenger LLC, also created the Signal Protocol."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some of Signal's features?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Users can send one-to-one and group messages, which can include files, voice notes, images and videos, as well as participate in one-to-one and group messages. Users can also blur faces, make view-once images and videos, stickers, and reactions.",
      "There are features that enable users to blur faces in photos, make one-to-one and group voice and video calls with up to 40 people on iOS, Android, and desktop, communications are automatically end-to-end encrypted, and also allows users to set timers to messages."
    ],
    "topic": "Signal (software)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)",
          "History",
          "2018\u2013present: Signal Technology Foundation"
        ],
        "ctx": "Signal was reportedly popularized in the United States during the George Floyd protests. Heightened awareness of police monitoring led protesters to use the platform to communicate. Black Lives Matter organizers had used the platform \"for several years\". During the first week of June, the encrypted messaging app was downloaded over five times more than it had been during the week prior to the murder of George Floyd. In June 2020, Signal Foundation announced a new feature that enables users to blur faces in photos, in response to increased federal efforts to monitor protesters."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):15",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)",
          "History",
          "2018\u2013present: Signal Technology Foundation"
        ],
        "ctx": "Between November 2019 and February 2020, Signal added iPad support, view-once images and videos, stickers, and reactions. They also announced plans for a new group messaging system and an \"experimental method for storing encrypted contacts in the cloud.\""
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Signal is a cross-platform centralized encrypted instant messaging service developed by the non-profit Signal Foundation and Signal Messenger LLC. Users can send one-to-one and group messages, which can include files, voice notes, images and videos. It can also be used to make one-to-one and group voice and video calls, and the Android version can optionally function as an SMS app."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)",
          "History",
          "2018\u2013present: Signal Technology Foundation"
        ],
        "ctx": "Signal was reportedly popularized in the United States during the George Floyd protests. Heightened awareness of police monitoring led protesters to use the platform to communicate. Black Lives Matter organizers had used the platform \"for several years\". During the first week of June, the encrypted messaging app was downloaded over five times more than it had been during the week prior to the murder of George Floyd. In June 2020, Signal Foundation announced a new feature that enables users to blur faces in photos, in response to increased federal efforts to monitor protesters."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):22",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)",
          "Features"
        ],
        "ctx": "Signal allows users to make one-to-one and group voice and video calls with up to 40 people on iOS, Android, and desktop. All calls are made over a Wi-Fi or data connection and (with the exception of data fees) are free of charge, including long distance and international. Signal also allows users to send text messages, files, voice notes, pictures, GIFs, and video messages over a Wi-Fi or data connection to other Signal users on iOS, Android and a desktop program. The platform also supports group messaging."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):23",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)",
          "Features"
        ],
        "ctx": "All communications between Signal users are automatically end-to-end encrypted (the encryption keys are generated and stored on the phones, not on the servers). To verify that a correspondent is really the person that they claim to be, Signal users can compare key fingerprints (or scan QR codes) out-of-band. The platform employs a trust-on-first-use mechanism in order to notify the user if a correspondent's key changes."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):26",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)",
          "Features"
        ],
        "ctx": "Signal also allows users to set timers to messages. After a specified time interval, the messages will be deleted from both the sender's and the receivers' devices. The time interval can be between five seconds and one week long, and the timer begins for each recipient once they have read their copy of the message. The developers have stressed that this is meant to be \"a collaborative feature for conversations where all participants want to automate minimalist data hygiene, not for situations where your contact is your adversary\"."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "All communications between Signal users are automatically end-to-end encrypted (the encryption keys are generated and stored on the phones, not on the servers). To verify that a correspondent is really the person that they claim to be, Signal users can compare key fingerprints (or scan QR codes) out-of-band. The platform employs a trust-on-first-use mechanism in order to notify the user if a correspondent's key changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal messages are encrypted with the Signal Protocol (formerly known as the TextSecure Protocol). The protocol combines the Double Ratchet Algorithm, prekeys, and an Extended Triple Diffie\u2013Hellman (X3DH) handshake. It uses Curve25519, AES-256, and HMAC-SHA256 as primitives. The protocol provides confidentiality, integrity, authentication, participant consistency, destination validation, forward secrecy, backward secrecy ( future secrecy), causality preservation, message unlinkability, message repudiation, participation repudiation, and asynchronicity. It does not provide anonymity preservation, and requires servers for the relaying of messages and storing of public key material."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "TextSecure allowed the user to set a passphrase that encrypted the local message database and the user's encryption keys. This did not encrypt the user's contact database or message timestamps. The Signal applications on Android and iOS can be locked with the phone's pin, passphrase, or biometric authentication. The user can define a \"screen lock timeout\" interval, providing an additional protection mechanism in case the phone is lost or stolen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": ", the Signal Protocol has been implemented into WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, Skype, and Google Allo, making it possible for the conversations of \"more than a billion people worldwide\" to be end-to-end encrypted. In Google Allo, Skype and Facebook Messenger, conversations are not encrypted with the Signal Protocol by default; they only offer end-to-end encryption in an optional mode."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "From its launch in May 2010 until March 2015, the Android version of Signal (then called TextSecure) included support for encrypted SMS/MMS messaging. From version 2.7.0 onward, the Android application only supported sending and receiving encrypted messages via the data channel. Reasons for this included security flaws of SMS/MMS and problems with the key exchange. Open Whisper Systems' abandonment of SMS/MMS encryption prompted some users to create a fork named Silence (initially called SMSSecure) that is meant solely for the exchange of encrypted SMS and MMS messages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Once the messages are received and decrypted on a user's device, they are stored locally in a SQLite database that is encrypted with SQLCipher. The key to decrypt this database is also stored locally on the user's device and can be accessed if the device is unlocked. In December 2020, Cellebrite published a blog post announcing that one of their products could now access this key and use it to \"decrypt the Signal app\". Technology reporters later published articles about how Cellebrite had claimed to have the ability to \"break into the Signal app\" and \"crack Signal's encryption\". This latter interpretation was rejected by several experts, as well as representatives from Signal, who said the original post by Cellebrite had been about accessing data on \"an unlocked Android phone in their physical possession\" and that they \"could have just opened the app to look at the messages\". Similar extraction tools also exist for iOS devices and Signal Desktop."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal is the successor of the RedPhone encrypted voice calling app and the TextSecure encrypted texting program. The beta versions of RedPhone and TextSecure were first launched in May 2010 by Whisper Systems, a startup company co-founded by security researcher Moxie Marlinspike and roboticist Stuart Anderson. Whisper Systems also produced a firewall and tools for encrypting other forms of data. All of these were proprietary enterprise mobile security software and were only available for Android."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal excludes users' messages from non-encrypted cloud backups by default."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "The Signal Protocol (formerly known as the TextSecure Protocol) is a non-federated cryptographic protocol that can be used to provide end-to-end encryption for voice calls and instant messaging conversations. The protocol was developed by Open Whisper Systems in 2013 and was first introduced in the open-source TextSecure app, which later became Signal. Several closed-source applications have implemented the protocol, such as WhatsApp, which is said to encrypt the conversations of \"more than a billion people worldwide\" or Google who provides end-to-end encryption by default to all RCS-based conversations between users of their Messages app for one-to-one conversations. Facebook Messenger also say they offer the protocol for optional Secret Conversations, as does Skype for its Private Conversations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "By design, Signal is not able to read user messages, which precludes attempts at moderation. This has been confirmed by independent audits of Signal's algorithms. According to CNN, \"[t]he same technology that keeps a conversation private between you and a family member also gives a safe haven to a terrorist in Syria and the person in the United States he's trying to recruit to commit an act of mass murder.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal is a cross-platform centralized encrypted instant messaging service developed by the non-profit Signal Foundation and Signal Messenger LLC. Users can send one-to-one and group messages, which can include files, voice notes, images and videos. It can also be used to make one-to-one and group voice and video calls, and the Android version can optionally function as an SMS app."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In February 2014, Open Whisper Systems introduced the second version of their TextSecure Protocol (now Signal Protocol), which added end-to-end encrypted group chat and instant messaging capabilities to TextSecure. Toward the end of July 2014, they announced plans to merge the RedPhone and TextSecure applications as Signal. This announcement coincided with the initial release of Signal as a RedPhone counterpart for iOS. The developers said that their next steps would be to provide TextSecure instant messaging capabilities for iOS, unify the RedPhone and TextSecure applications on Android, and launch a web client. Signal was the first iOS app to enable end-to-end encrypted voice calls for free. TextSecure compatibility was added to the iOS application in March 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Between November 2019 and February 2020, Signal added iPad support, view-once images and videos, stickers, and reactions. They also announced plans for a new group messaging system and an \"experimental method for storing encrypted contacts in the cloud.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "In September 2016, Google launched a new messaging app called Allo, which featured an optional Incognito Mode that used the Signal Protocol for end-to-end encryption. In March 2019, Google discontinued Allo in favor of their Messages app on Android. In November 2020, Google announced that they would be using the Signal Protocol to provide end-to-end encryption by default to all RCS-based conversations between users of their Messages app, starting with one-to-one conversations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Privacy",
        "text": "Individuals can encrypt e-mails via enabling either two encryption protocols, S/MIME, which is built into companies like Apple or Outlook and thus most common, or PGP. The Signal messaging app, which encrypts messages so that only the recipient can read the message, is notable for being available on many mobile devices and implementing a form of perfect forward secrecy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "On Android, users can opt into making Signal the default SMS/MMS application, allowing them to send and receive unencrypted SMS messages in addition to the standard end-to-end encrypted Signal messages. Users can then use the same application to communicate with contacts who do not have Signal. Sending a message unencrypted is also available as an override between Signal users."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In October 2014, the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) included Signal in their updated surveillance self-defense guide. In November 2014, Signal received a perfect score on the EFF's secure messaging scorecard; it received points for having communications encrypted in transit, having communications encrypted with keys the provider does not have access to (end-to-end encryption), making it possible for users to independently verify their correspondents' identities, having past communications secure if the keys are stolen (forward secrecy), having the code open to independent review (open source), having the security designs well-documented, and having a recent independent security audit. At the time, \"ChatSecure + Orbot\", Pidgin (with OTR), Silent Phone, and Telegram's optional \"secret chats\" also received seven out of seven points on the scorecard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "The Signal Protocol has had an influence on other cryptographic protocols. In May 2016, Viber said that their encryption protocol is a custom implementation that \"uses the same concepts\" as the Signal Protocol. Forsta's developers have said that their app uses a custom implementation of the Signal Protocol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Open Whisper Systems",
        "text": "Over its five-year existence from 2013 to 2018, the Open Whisper Systems group managed multiple projects, which included:\n* Signal: An instant messaging, voice calling and video calling application for Android, iOS and desktop. It uses end-to-end encryption protocols to secure all communications to other Signal users. Signal can be used to send end-to-end encrypted group messages, attachments and media messages to other Signal users. The app uses 4 encryption algorithms to encrypt all text and media sent to and from the app: XEdDSA and VXEdDSA, Double Ratchet, X3DH, and Sesame. All calls are made over a Wi-Fi or data connection and are free of charge, including long distance and international. Signal has a built-in mechanism for verifying that no man-in-the-middle attack has occurred. Signal Messenger has set up dozens of servers to handle the encrypted calls in more than 10 countries around the world to minimize latency. The clients are published under the GPLv3 license.\n* Signal Protocol: A non-federated cryptographic protocol that can be used to provide end-to-end encryption. It combines the Double Ratchet algorithm, prekeys, and a 3-DH handshake. Signal Messenger maintains several open source Signal Protocol libraries on GitHub.\n* Signal Server: The software is published under the AGPLv3 license.\n* Contact Discovery Service: A microservice that \"allows clients to discover which of their contacts are registered users, but does not reveal their contacts to the service operator or any party that may have compromised the service.\" The software is published under the AGPLv3 license. , the service is in beta."
      },
      {
        "title": "TextSecure",
        "text": "TextSecure was the first application to use the Signal Protocol (then called the TextSecure Protocol), which has since been implemented into WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, and Google Allo, encrypting the conversations of \"more than a billion people worldwide\". The protocol combines the Double Ratchet Algorithm, prekeys, and a 3-DH handshake. It uses Curve25519, AES-256, and HMAC-SHA256 as primitives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comparison of user features of messaging platforms",
        "text": "Signal uses standard cellular telephone numbers as identifiers and secures all communications to other Signal users with end-to-end encryption. The apps include mechanisms by which users can independently verify the identity of their contacts and the integrity of the data channel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Instant messaging",
        "text": "Messaging applications on the market that use end-to-end encryption include Signal, WhatsApp, Wire and iMessage. Applications that have been criticized for lacking or poor encryption methods include Telegram and Confide, as both are prone to error."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal uses standard cellular telephone numbers as identifiers and secures all communications to other Signal users with end-to-end encryption. The client software includes mechanisms by which users can independently verify the identity of their contacts and the integrity of the data channel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Up until March 2017, Signal's voice calls were encrypted with SRTP and the ZRTP key-agreement protocol, which was developed by Phil Zimmermann. In March 2017, Signal transitioned to a new WebRTC-based calling system that introduced the ability to make video calls. Signal's voice and video calling functionalities use the Signal Protocol channel for authentication instead of ZRTP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comparison of user features of messaging platforms",
        "text": "Signal is a cross-platform encrypted messaging service developed by the Signal Foundation and Signal Messenger LLC. It uses the Internet to send one-to-one and group messages, which can include files, voice notes, images and videos. It can also be used to make one-to-one voice and video calls, and the Android version can optionally function as an SMS app."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In 2016, authorities in India arrested members of a suspected ISIS-affiliated terrorist cell that communicated via Signal and Telegram."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vault 7",
        "text": "According to WikiLeaks, once an Android smartphone is penetrated the agency can collect \"audio and message traffic before encryption is applied\". Some of the agency's software is reportedly able to gain access to messages sent by instant messaging services. This method of accessing messages differs from obtaining access by decrypting an already encrypted message. While the encryption of messengers that offer end-to-end encryption, such as Telegram, WhatsApp and Signal, wasn't reported to be cracked, their encryption can be bypassed by capturing input before their encryption is applied, by methods such as keylogging and recording the touch input from the user. Commentators, among them Snowden and cryptographer and security pundit Bruce Schneier, observed that Wikileaks incorrectly implied that the messaging apps themselves, and their underlying encryption, had been compromised - an implication which was in turn reported for a period by the New York Times and other mainstream outlets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal was reportedly popularized in the United States during the George Floyd protests. Heightened awareness of police monitoring led protesters to use the platform to communicate. Black Lives Matter organizers had used the platform \"for several years\". During the first week of June, the encrypted messaging app was downloaded over five times more than it had been during the week prior to the murder of George Floyd. In June 2020, Signal Foundation announced a new feature that enables users to blur faces in photos, in response to increased federal efforts to monitor protesters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Forward secrecy",
        "text": "The Signal Protocol uses the Double Ratchet Algorithm to provide forward secrecy. \"Puncturable encryption\" scheme, introduced by Green and Miers in 2015, makes use of Hierarchical identity-based encryption and Attribute-based encryption to provide forward secrecy without requiring \"pre-keys\", unlike the Signal Protocol which is vulnerable to \"pre-key exhaustion\" attacks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "The Signal Protocol also supports end-to-end encrypted group chats. The group chat protocol is a combination of a pairwise double ratchet and multicast encryption. In addition to the properties provided by the one-to-one protocol, the group chat protocol provides speaker consistency, out-of-order resilience, dropped message resilience, computational equality, trust equality, subgroup messaging, as well as contractible and expandable membership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "In October 2018, Signal Messenger announced that they had implemented a \"sealed sender\" feature into Signal, which reduces the amount of metadata that the Signal servers have access to by concealing the sender's identifier. The sender's identity is conveyed to the recipient in each message, but is encrypted with a key that the server does not have. This is done automatically if the sender is in the recipient's contacts or has access to their Signal Profile. Users can also enable an option to receive \"sealed sender\" messages from non-contacts and people who do not have access to their Signal Profile. A contemporaneous wiretap of the user's device and/or the Signal servers may still reveal that the device's IP address accessed a Signal server to send or receive messages at certain times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Open Whisper Systems",
        "text": "In February 2014, Open Whisper Systems introduced the second version of their TextSecure Protocol (now Signal Protocol), which added end-to-end encrypted group chat and instant messaging capabilities to TextSecure. Toward the end of July 2014, Open Whisper Systems announced plans to unify its RedPhone and TextSecure applications as Signal. These announcements coincided with the initial release of Signal as a RedPhone counterpart for iOS. The developers said that their next steps would be to provide TextSecure instant messaging capabilities for iOS, unify the RedPhone and TextSecure applications on Android, and launch a web client. Signal was the first iOS app to enable easy, strongly encrypted voice calls for free. TextSecure compatibility was added to the iOS application in March 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "In November 2014, Open Whisper Systems announced a partnership with WhatsApp to provide end-to-end encryption by incorporating the Signal Protocol into each WhatsApp client platform. Open Whisper Systems said that they had already incorporated the protocol into the latest WhatsApp client for Android and that support for other clients, group/media messages, and key verification would be coming soon after. On April 5, 2016, WhatsApp and Open Whisper Systems announced that they had finished adding end-to-end encryption to \"every form of communication\" on WhatsApp, and that users could now verify each other's keys. In February 2017, WhatsApp announced a new feature, WhatsApp Status, which uses the Signal Protocol to secure its contents. In October 2016, WhatsApp's parent company Facebook also deployed an optional mode called Secret Conversations in Facebook Messenger which provides end-to-end encryption using an implementation of the Signal Protocol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Messages (Google)",
        "text": "Initially, the app did not support end-to-end encryption. In June 2021 Google introduced end-to-end encryption in Messages, supported only if two users are on Messages in a 1:1 chat (not group chat), both with RCS turned on. All one-to-one RCS-based conversations between users of Messages are end-to-end encrypted by default using the Signal Protocol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "The complete source code of the Signal clients for Android, iOS and desktop is available on GitHub under a free software license. This enables interested parties to examine the code and help the developers verify that everything is behaving as expected. It also allows advanced users to compile their own copies of the applications and compare them with the versions that are distributed by Signal Messenger. In March 2016, Moxie Marlinspike wrote that, apart from some shared libraries that are not compiled with the project build due to a lack of Gradle\u00a0NDK support, Signal for Android is reproducible. Signal's servers are partially open source, but the server software's anti-spam component is proprietary and closed source due to security concerns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal relies on centralized servers that are maintained by Signal Messenger. In addition to routing Signal's messages, the servers also facilitate the discovery of contacts who are also registered Signal users and the automatic exchange of users' public keys. By default, Signal's voice and video calls are peer-to-peer. If the caller is not in the receiver's address book, the call is routed through a server in order to hide the users' IP addresses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal (software)\n--History.\n----2010\u20132013: Origins.\n----2013\u20132018: Open Whisper Systems.\n----2018\u2013present: Signal Technology Foundation.\n----Usage numbers.\n--Features.\n--Limitations.\n--Usability.\n--Architecture.\n----Encryption protocols.\n------Authentication.\n----Local storage.\n----Servers.\n------Contact discovery.\n------Metadata.\n------Federation.\n----Licensing.\n--Reception.\n----Security.\n----In-app payments.\n----Blocking.\n----Audience.\n------Use by activists.\n------Use by criminals.\n--Developers and funding.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "TextSecure",
        "text": "TextSecure was an encrypted messaging application for Android that was developed from 2010 to 2015. It was a predecessor to Signal and the first application to use the Signal Protocol, which has since been implemented into WhatsApp and other applications. TextSecure used end-to-end encryption to secure the transmission of text messages, group messages, attachments and media messages to other TextSecure users."
      },
      {
        "title": "Skype protocol",
        "text": "Signaling is encrypted using RC4; however, the method only obfuscates the traffic as the key can be recovered from the packet. Voice data is encrypted with AES."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "Open Whisper Systems first introduced the protocol in their TextSecure app. They later merged an encrypted voice calling application called RedPhone into the TextSecure app and renamed it as Signal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal's userbase started in May 2010, when its predecessor TextSecure was launched by Whisper Systems. According to App Annie, Signal had approximately 20 million monthly active users at the end of December 2020. In January 2022, the BBC reported that Signal was used by over 40 million people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "Signal Messenger maintains the following Signal Protocol libraries under the GPLv3 license on GitHub:\n*libsignal-protocol-c: A library written in C with additional licensing permissions for Apple's App Store.\n*libsignal-protocol-java: A library written in Java.\n*libsignal-protocol-javascript: A library written in JavaScript."
      },
      {
        "title": "IOS",
        "text": "As mentioned above, one use of encryption in iOS is in the memory of the Secure Enclave. When a passcode is utilized on an iOS device, the contents of the device are encrypted. This is done by using a hardware AES 256 implementation that is very efficient because it is placed directly between the flash storage and RAM."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signalling System No. 7",
        "text": "In 2014, the media reported a protocol vulnerability of SS7 by which anyone can track the movements of cell phone users from virtually anywhere in the world with a success rate of approximately 70%. In addition, eavesdropping is possible by using the protocol to forward calls and also facilitate decryption by requesting that each caller's carrier release a temporary encryption key to unlock the communication after it has been recorded. The software tool \"SnoopSnitch\" can warn when certain SS7 attacks occur against a phone, and detect IMSI-catchers that allow call interception and other activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "TextSecure",
        "text": "In February 2014, Open Whisper Systems introduced the second version of their TextSecure Protocol (now Signal Protocol), which added group chat and push messaging capabilities to TextSecure. Toward the end of July 2014, Open Whisper Systems announced plans to unify its RedPhone and TextSecure applications as Signal. This announcement coincided with the initial release of Signal as a RedPhone counterpart for iOS. The developers said that their next steps would be to provide TextSecure instant messaging capabilities for iOS, unify the RedPhone and TextSecure applications on Android, and launch a web client. Signal was the first iOS app to enable easy, strongly encrypted voice calls for free."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In October 2014, researchers from Ruhr University Bochum published an analysis of the Signal Protocol. Among other findings, they presented an unknown key-share attack on the protocol, but in general, they found that it was secure. In October 2016, researchers from UK's University of Oxford, Queensland University of Technology in Australia, and Canada's McMaster University published a formal analysis of the protocol. They concluded that the protocol was cryptographically sound. In July 2017, researchers from Ruhr University Bochum found during another analysis of group messengers a purely theoretic attack against the group protocol of Signal: A user who knows the secret group ID of a group (due to having been a group member previously or stealing it from a member's device) can become a member of the group. Since the group ID cannot be guessed and such member changes are displayed to the remaining members, this attack is likely to be difficult to carry out without being detected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bridgefy",
        "text": "In response to the disclosures, developers acknowledged that \"no part of the Bridgefy app is encrypted now\" and gave a vague promise to release a new version \"encrypted with top security protocols\". Later developers said they plan to switch to Signal protocol, which is widely recognized by cryptographers and used by Signal and WhatsApp, achieving it in both the Bridgefy App and SDK by late October 2020. Several of the improvements include the impossibility of a third person impersonating any other user, man-in-the-middle attacks done by modifying stored keys, and historical proximity tracking; among others."
      },
      {
        "title": "BID 150",
        "text": "In secure mode the analogue speech signal is digitized, then encrypted by combination with the digital key generated by the BID/150; the digital stream is then fed to the transmitter, to pulse modulate the carrier. On receive, the sequence is reversed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal allows users to automatically blur faces of people in photos to protect their identities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "On the 27 September 2019, Natalie Silvanovich, a security engineer working in Google's vulnerability research team at Project Zero, disclosed how a bug in the Android Signal client could let an attacker spy on a user without their knowledge. The bug allowed an attacker to phone a target device, mute the call, and the call would complete - keeping the audio open but without the owner being aware of that (however they would still be aware of a ring and / or a vibration from the initial call). The bug was fixed the same day that it was reported and patched in release 4.47.7 of the app for Android."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal also includes a cryptocurrency wallet functionality that allows users to store, send and receive in-app payments. Apart from certain regions and countries, the feature was enabled globally in November 2021. , the only supported payment method is MobileCoin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pirate decryption",
        "text": "Initial attempts to encrypt broadcast signals were based on analogue techniques of questionable security, the most common being one or a combination of techniques such as:\n* Weakening or attenuating specific portions of the video signal, typically those required to maintain synchronization.\n* Inverting video signals so that white becomes black (and vice versa).\n* Adding an interfering signal at one specific frequency which could be simply filtered out at a suitably equipped receiver.\n* Moving the audio portion of the signal to some other frequency or sending it in a non-standard format."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wire (software)",
        "text": "Wire provides end-to-end encryption for all features. Wire's instant messages are encrypted with Proteus, a protocol that Wire Swiss developed based on the Signal Protocol. Wire's voice calls are encrypted with DTLS and SRTP. In addition to this, client-server communication is protected by Transport Layer Security."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": ", the Signal Protocol is based on TextSecure v3, but with additional cryptographic changes. In October 2016, researchers from the UK's University of Oxford, Australia's Queensland University of Technology, and Canada's McMaster University published a formal analysis of the protocol, concluding that the protocol was cryptographically sound."
      },
      {
        "title": "Telegram (software)",
        "text": "Secret chats have to be initiated and accepted via an invitation, upon which the encryption keys for the session are exchanged. Users in a secret chat can verify that no man-in-the-middle attack has occurred by comparing pictures that visualize their public key fingerprints."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "The servers store registered users' phone numbers, public key material and push tokens which are necessary for setting up calls and transmitting messages. In order to determine which contacts are also Signal users, cryptographic hashes of the user's contact numbers are periodically transmitted to the server. The server then checks to see if those match any of the SHA256 hashes of registered users and tells the client if any matches are found. The hashed numbers are thereafter discarded from the server. In 2014, Moxie Marlinspike wrote that it is easy to calculate a map of all possible hash inputs to hash outputs and reverse the mapping because of the limited preimage space (the set of all possible hash inputs) of phone numbers, and that a \"practical privacy preserving contact discovery remains an unsolved problem.\" In September 2017, Signal's developers announced that they were working on a way for the Signal client applications to \"efficiently and scalably determine whether the contacts in their address book are Signal users without revealing the contacts in their address book to the Signal service.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Upptalk",
        "text": "Yuilop used a 2048 bit encryption to encrypt data traffic and call signalling over any transport medium (Wi-Fi, 2G, 3G, 4G LTE). A STARTTLS extension is used through a Transport Layer Security protocol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In July 2016, the Internet Society published a user study that assessed the ability of Signal users to detect and deter man-in-the-middle attacks. The study concluded that 21 out of 28 participants failed to correctly compare public key fingerprints in order to verify the identity of other Signal users, and that the majority of these users still believed they had succeeded, while in reality they failed. Four months later, Signal's user interface was updated to make verifying the identity of other Signal users simpler."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "The protocol provides confidentiality, integrity, authentication, participant consistency, destination validation, forward secrecy, post-compromise security (aka future secrecy), causality preservation, message unlinkability, message repudiation, participation repudiation, and asynchronicity. It does not provide anonymity preservation and requires servers for the relaying of messages and storing of public key material."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Twitter released TextSecure as free and open-source software under the GPLv3 license in December 2011. RedPhone was also released under the same license in July 2012. Marlinspike later left Twitter and founded Open Whisper Systems as a collaborative Open Source project for the continued development of TextSecure and RedPhone."
      },
      {
        "title": "LastPass",
        "text": "A user's content in LastPass, including passwords and secure notes, is protected by one master password. The content is synchronized to any device the user uses the LastPass software or app extensions on. Information is encrypted with AES-256 encryption with PBKDF2 SHA-256, salted hashes, and the ability to increase password iterations value. Encryption and decryption takes place at the device level."
      },
      {
        "title": "WhatsApp",
        "text": "On April 5, 2016, WhatsApp and Open Whisper Systems announced that they had finished adding end-to-end encryption to \"every form of communication\" on WhatsApp, and that users could now verify each other's keys. Users were also given the option to enable a trust on first use mechanism in order to be notified if a correspondent's key changes. According to a white paper that was released along with the announcement, WhatsApp messages are encrypted with the Signal Protocol. WhatsApp calls are encrypted with SRTP, and all client-server communications are \"layered within a separate encrypted channel\". The Signal Protocol library used by WhatsApp is open-source and published under the GPLv3 license."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "To verify that a correspondent is really the person that they claim to be, Signal users can compare key fingerprints (or scan QR codes) out-of-band. The platform employs a trust on first use mechanism in order to notify the user if a correspondent's key changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "ACE Encrypt",
        "text": "Output: Decrypted message formula_135.\n# If formula_166, then return formula_117.\n# Initialize a pseudo-random generator state:\n# Generate the key formula_118:\n# formula_169.\n# While formula_170, do the following:\n## formula_171.\n## If formula_172, then return formula_137.\n## Generate mask values for the encryption and MAC:\n### formula_122.\n### formula_123.\n## Verify the message authentication code:\n### If formula_176, then formula_177; else formula_178.\n### formula_179.\n### If formula_180, then return formula_137.\n## Update the plaintext: formula_182.\n## formula_183.\n# Return formula_184."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cellebrite",
        "text": "In 2021, Moxie Marlinspike, creator of the encrypted messaging app Signal, pointed to a number of vulnerabilities in Cellebrite's UFED and Physical Analyzer software that allowed for arbitrary code execution on Windows computers running the software. One exploit he detailed involved the UFED scanning a specially formatted file which could then be used to execute arbitrary code on the computer running the UFED. Marlinspike wrote that the code could then \"[modify] not just the Cellebrite report being created in that scan, but also \"all previous and future generated Cellebrite reports\" from all previously scanned devices and all future scanned devices in any arbitrary way\". Marlinspike also found that Cellebrite software was bundled with out-of-date FFmpeg DLL files from 2012, which lacked over 100 subsequent security updates. Windows Installer packages, extracted from the Windows installer for iTunes and signed by Apple, were also found, which he said raised legal concerns. Cellebrite responded that the company \"is committed to protecting the integrity of our customers\u2019 data, and we continually audit and update our software in order to equip our customers with the best digital intelligence solutions available.\" The report by Signal followed an announcement by Cellebrite in 2020 that it had developed technology to crack encrypted messages in the Signal app, a claim the company later retracted and downplayed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal's software is free and open-source. Its mobile clients are published under the GPL-3.0-only license, while the desktop client and server are published under the AGPL-3.0-only license. The official Android app generally uses the proprietary Google Play Services (installed on most Android devices), though it is designed to still work without them installed. Signal also has an official client app for iOS and desktop programs for Windows, macOS and Linux (although registration requires an iOS or Android device)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal also allows users to set timers to messages. After a specified time interval, the messages will be deleted from both the sender's and the receivers' devices. The time interval can be between five seconds and one week long, and the timer begins for each recipient once they have read their copy of the message. The developers have stressed that this is meant to be \"a collaborative feature for conversations where all participants want to automate minimalist data hygiene, not for situations where your contact is your adversary\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal allows users to make one-to-one and group voice and video calls with up to 40 people on iOS, Android, and desktop. All calls are made over a Wi-Fi or data connection and (with the exception of data fees) are free of charge, including long distance and international. Signal also allows users to send text messages, files, voice notes, pictures, GIFs, and video messages over a Wi-Fi or data connection to other Signal users on iOS, Android and a desktop program. The platform also supports group messaging."
      },
      {
        "title": "TextSecure",
        "text": "TextSecure was first developed by Whisper Systems, who were later acqui-hired by Twitter. The application's source code was then released under a free and open-source software license. In 2013, TextSecure's development was picked up by an independent group called Open Whisper Systems, who merged it with an encrypted voice calling application called RedPhone and renamed the product as Signal."
      },
      {
        "title": "CipherSaber",
        "text": "In the original version of CipherSaber (now called CipherSaber-1 or CS1), each encrypted message begins with a random ten-byte initialization vector (IV). This IV is appended to the CipherSaber key to form the input to the RC4 key setup algorithm. The message, XORed with the RC4 keystream, immediately follows."
      },
      {
        "title": "End-to-end encryption",
        "text": "Other applications such as Telegram, instead, encode fingerprints using emojis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Use of social media by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant",
        "text": "During 2014, ISIS became very active on Telegram after many major social media platforms banned ISIS content and sympathetic accounts. Telegram is an encrypted messaging application. The platform by nature is created as an end-to-end user encryption platform. Further, it also has special features such as the self-destruct timer which erase all evidence and messages. The app has a user data protection policy because violating this policy could potentially damage the app\u2019s brand of customer privacy. Government agencies have been unable to break Telegram's encryption technology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In December 2016, Egypt blocked access to Signal. In response, Signal's developers added domain fronting to their service. This allows Signal users in a specific country to circumvent censorship by making it look like they are connecting to a different internet-based service. , Signal's domain fronting is enabled by default in Egypt, the United Arab Emirates, Oman, Qatar, and Iran."
      },
      {
        "title": "Active SETI",
        "text": "the signal should have maximum openness, which is understood here as an antonym of the term security. This branch of signal synthesis can be named anticryptography."
      },
      {
        "title": "IPhone",
        "text": "According to an article in \"The New York Times\" titled \"Signaling Post-Snowden Era, New iPhone Locks Out N.S.A.\", Apple has developed a new encryption method for iOS 8, described as \"so deep that Apple could no longer comply with government warrants asking for customer information to be extracted from devices.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "In September 2015, G Data Software launched a new messaging app called Secure Chat which used the Signal Protocol. G Data discontinued the service in May 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Open Whisper Systems",
        "text": "On 18 November 2014, Open Whisper Systems announced a partnership with WhatsApp to provide end-to-end encryption by incorporating the Signal Protocol into each WhatsApp client platform. Open Whisper Systems said that they had already incorporated the protocol into the latest WhatsApp client for Android and that support for other clients, group/media messages, and key verification would be coming soon after. WhatsApp confirmed the partnership to reporters, but there was no announcement or documentation about the encryption feature on the official website, and further requests for comment were declined. On 5 April 2016, WhatsApp and Open Whisper Systems announced that they had finished adding end-to-end encryption to \"every form of communication\" on WhatsApp, and that users could now verify each other's keys. In September 2016, Google launched a new messaging app called Allo, which features an optional \"incognito mode\" that uses the Signal Protocol for end-to-end encryption. In October 2016, Facebook deployed an optional mode called \"secret conversations\" in Facebook Messenger mobile apps which provides end-to-end encryption using an implementation of the Signal Protocol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Television encryption",
        "text": "An older Nagravision system for scrambling analogue satellite and terrestrial television programs was used in the 1990s, for example by the German pay-TV broadcaster Premiere. In this line-shuffling system, 32 lines of the PAL TV signal are temporarily stored in both the encoder and decoder and read out in permuted order under the control of a pseudorandom number generator. A smartcard security microcontroller (in a key-shaped package) decrypts data that is transmitted during the blanking intervals of the TV signal and extracts the random seed value needed for controlling the random number generation. The system also permitted the audio signal to be scrambled by inverting its spectrum at 12.8\u00a0kHz using a frequency mixer."
      },
      {
        "title": "KY-57",
        "text": "The KY-57 can accept signal fades of up to 12 seconds without losing synchronization with the transmitting station. There are storage positions for 6 keys. Keys 1 to 5 are traffic encryption keys (TEK). Key 6 is a key encryption key (KEK) used for over the air rekeying (OTAR) of the other 5 keys. Key 6 must be loaded manually using a fill device such as the AN/CYZ-10."
      },
      {
        "title": "ZRTP",
        "text": "ZRTP has been implemented as\n* GNU ZRTP which is used in Twinkle\n* GNU ZRTP4J which is used in Jitsi (formerly SIP Communicator).\n* ortp for use in Linphone.\n* libzrtp which can be used in FreeSWITCH.\n* Signal and its predecessor, RedPhone, used ZRTP for encrypted calls on Android and iOS. As of March 2017, Signal's voice and video calling functionality uses the app's Signal Protocol channel for authentication instead of ZRTP.\n* CSipSimple is a free application for Android OS which fully supports ZRTP\n* PhonerLite softphone for Windows supports ZRTP"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "All client-server communications are protected by TLS. Signal's developers have asserted that their servers do not keep logs about who called whom and when. In June 2016, Marlinspike told \"The Intercept\" that \"the closest piece of information to metadata that the Signal server stores is the last time each user connected to the server, and the precision of this information is reduced to the day, rather than the hour, minute, and second\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cellebrite UFED",
        "text": "In 2021, Moxie Marlinspike, creator of the encrypted messaging app Signal, released a blog post on the app's website detailing a number of vulnerabilities in Cellebrite's UFED and Physical Analyzer software that allowed for arbitrary code execution on Windows computers running the software. One exploit he detailed involved the UFED scanning a specially formatted file which could then be used to execute arbitrary code on the computer running the UFED. Marlinspike wrote that the code could then \"[modify] not just the Cellebrite report being created in that scan, but also \"all previous and future generated Cellebrite reports\" from all previously scanned devices and all future scanned devices in any arbitrary way\". Marlinspike also found that Cellebrite software was bundled with out-of-date FFmpeg DLL files from 2012, which lacked over 100 subsequent security updates. Windows Installer packages, extracted from the Windows installer for iTunes and signed by Apple, were also found, which he said raised legal concerns. Cellebrite issued a statement in response, saying the company \"is committed to protecting the integrity of our customers\u2019 data, and we continually audit and update our software in order to equip our customers with the best digital intelligence solutions available.\" The report by Signal followed an announcement by Cellebrite in 2020 that it had developed technology to crack encrypted messages in the Signal app, a claim the company later retracted and downplayed."
      },
      {
        "title": "XcodeGhost",
        "text": "XcodeGhost can be remotely controlled via commands sent by an attacker from a Command and control server through HTTP. This data is encrypted using the DES algorithm in ECB mode. Not only is this encryption mode known to be weak, the encryption keys can also be found using reverse engineering. An attacker could perform a man in the middle attack and transmit fake HTTP traffic to the device (to open a dialog box or open specific app for example)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Forward secrecy",
        "text": "The Signal messaging application employs forward secrecy in its protocol, notably differentiating it from messaging protocols based on PGP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Former NSA contractor Edward Snowden has endorsed Signal on multiple occasions. In his keynote speech at SXSW in March 2014, he praised Signal's predecessors (TextSecure and RedPhone) for their ease of use. In December 2014, \"Der Spiegel\" leaked slides from an internal NSA presentation dating to June 2012 in which the NSA deemed Signal's encrypted voice calling component (RedPhone) on its own as a \"major threat\" to its mission of accessing users' private data, and when used in conjunction with other privacy tools such as Cspace, Tor, Tails, and TrueCrypt was ranked as \"catastrophic\" and led to a \"near-total loss/lack of insight to target communications [and] presence\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reception and criticism of WhatsApp security and privacy features",
        "text": "In May 2012 security researchers noticed that new updates of WhatsApp sent messages with encryption, but described the cryptographic method used as \"broken.\" In August of the same year, the WhatsApp support staff stated that messages sent in the \"latest version\" of the WhatsApp software for iOS and Android (but not BlackBerry, Windows Phone, and Symbian) were encrypted, but did not specify the cryptographic method."
      },
      {
        "title": "Integrated Encryption Scheme",
        "text": "To encrypt a message formula_8 Alice does the following:\n# generates a random number formula_29 and calculates formula_30\n# derives a shared secret: formula_31, where formula_32 (and formula_33)\n# uses a KDF to derive symmetric encryption keys and MAC keys: formula_34\n# encrypts the message: formula_35\n# computes the tag of encrypted message and formula_26: formula_37\n# outputs formula_38"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "The Signal Protocol also supports end-to-end encrypted group chats. The group chat protocol is a combination of a pairwise double ratchet and multicast encryption. In addition to the properties provided by the one-to-one protocol, the group chat protocol provides speaker consistency, out-of-order resilience, dropped message resilience, computational equality, trust equality, subgroup messaging, as well as contractible and expandable membership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blum\u2013Goldwasser cryptosystem",
        "text": "To encrypt the six-bit message formula_56, we break it into two 3-bit blocks formula_57, so formula_58. We select a random formula_59 and compute formula_60. Now we compute the formula_28 values as follows:\n: formula_62"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vocoder",
        "text": "By encrypting the control signals, voice transmission can be secured against interception. Its primary use in this fashion is for secure radio communication. The advantage of this method of encryption is that none of the original signal is sent, only envelopes of the bandpass filters. The receiving unit needs to be set up in the same filter configuration to re-synthesize a version of the original signal spectrum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In January 2021, Iran removed the app from app stores, and blocked Signal. Signal was later blocked by China in March 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comparison of user features of messaging platforms",
        "text": "Telegram's video and voice calls are secure and end-to-end encrypted."
      },
      {
        "title": "High-bandwidth Digital Content Protection",
        "text": "In August 2012 version 2.1 was proved to be broken. The attack used the fact that the pairing process sends the \"Km\" key obfuscated with an XOR. That makes the encryptor (receiver) unaware of whether it encrypts or decrypts the key. Further, the input parameters for the XOR and the AES above it are fixed from the receiver side, meaning the transmitter can enforce repeating the same operation. Such a setting allows an attacker to monitor the pairing protocol, repeat it with a small change and extract the \"Km\" key. The small change is to pick the \"random\" key to be the encrypted key from the previous flow. Now, the attacker runs the protocol and in its pairing message it gets \"E(E(Km))\". Since \"E()\" is based on XOR it undoes itself, thus exposing the \"Km\" of the legitimate device."
      },
      {
        "title": "One-way compression function",
        "text": "It feeds each block of the message (formula_32) as the plaintext to be encrypted. The output ciphertext is then XORed (\u2295) with the same message block (formula_32) and then also XORed with the previous hash value (formula_33) to produce the next hash value (formula_35). The previous hash value (formula_33) is fed as the key to the block cipher. In the first round when there is no previous hash value it uses a constant pre-specified initial value (formula_36)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Network eavesdropping",
        "text": "It is a cipher block chaining (CBC) mode for ciphered messages and hash-based message codes. The AES-256 contains 256 keys for identifying the actual user, and it represents the standard used for securing many layers on the internet. AES-256 is used by Zoom Phone apps that help encrypt chat messages sent by Zoom users. If this feature is used in the app, users will only see encrypted chats when they use the app, and notifications of an encrypted chat will be sent with no content involved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "On 7 January 2021, Signal saw a surge in new user registrations, which temporarily overwhelmed Signal's capacity to deliver account verification messages. CNN and MacRumors linked the surge with a WhatsApp privacy policy change and a Signal endorsement by Elon Musk and Edward Snowden via Twitter. International newspapers reported similar trends in the United Arab Emirates. Reuters reported that more than 100,000\u00a0people had installed Signal between 7 and 8 January."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "The Double Ratchet algorithm that was introduced as part of the Signal Protocol has also been adopted by other protocols. OMEMO is an XMPP Extension Protocol (XEP) that was introduced in the Conversations messaging app and approved by the XMPP Standards Foundation (XSF) in December 2016 as XEP-0384. Matrix is an open communications protocol that includes Olm, a library that provides for optional end-to-end encryption on a room-by-room basis via a Double Ratchet algorithm implementation. The developers of Wire have said that their app uses a custom implementation of the Double Ratchet algorithm."
      },
      {
        "title": "WhatsApp",
        "text": "On November 18, 2014, Open Whisper Systems announced a partnership with WhatsApp to provide end-to-end encryption by incorporating the encryption protocol used in Signal into each WhatsApp client platform. Open Whisper Systems said that they had already incorporated the protocol into the latest WhatsApp client for Android, and that support for other clients, group/media messages, and key verification would be coming soon after. WhatsApp confirmed the partnership to reporters, but there was no announcement or documentation about the encryption feature on the official website, and further requests for comment were declined. In April 2015, German magazine \"Heise Security\" used ARP spoofing to confirm that the protocol had been implemented for Android-to-Android messages, and that WhatsApp messages from or to iPhones running iOS were still not end-to-end encrypted. They expressed the concern that regular WhatsApp users still could not tell the difference between end-to-end encrypted messages and regular messages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": ", Signal was blocked in Iran. Signal's domain fronting feature relies on the Google App Engine (GAE) service. This does not work in Iran because Google has blocked Iranian access to GAE in order to comply with U.S. sanctions."
      },
      {
        "title": "End-to-end encryption",
        "text": "Following terrorist attacks in San Bernardino in 2015 and Pensacola in 2019, the FBI requested backdoors to Apple's iPhone software. The company, however, refused to create a backdoor for the government, citing concern that such a tool could pose risk for its consumer's privacy."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many iOS devices has Signal been installed on?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I couldn't find the iOS devices have it installed but Google Play states that Signal has been installed over 50 million times and that there were 40 million active monthly users in January 2021 and as of May 2021, it has been downloaded over 105 million times."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the company that makes Signal make other apps or services?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The company that made Signal, Signal Messenger LLC, also created the Signal Protocol."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some of Signal's features?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are features that enable users to blur faces in photos, make one-to-one and group voice and video calls with up to 40 people on iOS, Android, and desktop, communications are automatically end-to-end encrypted, and also allows users to set timers to messages."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How does encryption work in the Signal app?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Signal messages are encrypted with the Signal Protocol, which combines the Double Ratchet Algorithm, prekeys, and an Extended Triple Diffie\u2013Hellman (X3DH) handshake. It also supports end-to-end encrypted group chats, this protocol is a combination of a pairwise double ratchet and multicast encryption.",
      "Signal messages are encrypted with the Signal Protocol (formerly known as the TextSecure Protocol). The protocol combines the Double Ratchet Algorithm, prekeys, and an Extended Triple Diffie\u2013Hellman (X3DH) handshake.[125][126] It uses Curve25519, AES-256, and HMAC-SHA256 as primitives."
    ],
    "topic": "Signal (software)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)",
          "Architecture",
          "Encryption protocols"
        ],
        "ctx": "Signal messages are encrypted with the Signal Protocol (formerly known as the TextSecure Protocol). The protocol combines the Double Ratchet Algorithm, prekeys, and an Extended Triple Diffie\u2013Hellman (X3DH) handshake. It uses Curve25519, AES-256, and HMAC-SHA256 as primitives. The protocol provides confidentiality, integrity, authentication, participant consistency, destination validation, forward secrecy, backward secrecy ( future secrecy), causality preservation, message unlinkability, message repudiation, participation repudiation, and asynchronicity. It does not provide anonymity preservation, and requires servers for the relaying of messages and storing of public key material."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):35",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)",
          "Architecture",
          "Encryption protocols"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Signal Protocol also supports end-to-end encrypted group chats. The group chat protocol is a combination of a pairwise double ratchet and multicast encryption. In addition to the properties provided by the one-to-one protocol, the group chat protocol provides speaker consistency, out-of-order resilience, dropped message resilience, computational equality, trust equality, subgroup messaging, as well as contractible and expandable membership."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)",
          "Architecture",
          "Encryption protocols"
        ],
        "ctx": "Signal messages are encrypted with the Signal Protocol (formerly known as the TextSecure Protocol). The protocol combines the Double Ratchet Algorithm, prekeys, and an Extended Triple Diffie\u2013Hellman (X3DH) handshake. It uses Curve25519, AES-256, and HMAC-SHA256 as primitives. The protocol provides confidentiality, integrity, authentication, participant consistency, destination validation, forward secrecy, backward secrecy ( future secrecy), causality preservation, message unlinkability, message repudiation, participation repudiation, and asynchronicity. It does not provide anonymity preservation, and requires servers for the relaying of messages and storing of public key material."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal messages are encrypted with the Signal Protocol (formerly known as the TextSecure Protocol). The protocol combines the Double Ratchet Algorithm, prekeys, and an Extended Triple Diffie\u2013Hellman (X3DH) handshake. It uses Curve25519, AES-256, and HMAC-SHA256 as primitives. The protocol provides confidentiality, integrity, authentication, participant consistency, destination validation, forward secrecy, backward secrecy ( future secrecy), causality preservation, message unlinkability, message repudiation, participation repudiation, and asynchronicity. It does not provide anonymity preservation, and requires servers for the relaying of messages and storing of public key material."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "The Signal Protocol also supports end-to-end encrypted group chats. The group chat protocol is a combination of a pairwise double ratchet and multicast encryption. In addition to the properties provided by the one-to-one protocol, the group chat protocol provides speaker consistency, out-of-order resilience, dropped message resilience, computational equality, trust equality, subgroup messaging, as well as contractible and expandable membership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "The protocol combines the Double Ratchet algorithm, prekeys, and a triple Elliptic-curve Diffie\u2013Hellman (3-DH) handshake, and uses Curve25519, AES-256, and HMAC-SHA256 as primitives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "The Double Ratchet algorithm that was introduced as part of the Signal Protocol has also been adopted by other protocols. OMEMO is an XMPP Extension Protocol (XEP) that was introduced in the Conversations messaging app and approved by the XMPP Standards Foundation (XSF) in December 2016 as XEP-0384. Matrix is an open communications protocol that includes Olm, a library that provides for optional end-to-end encryption on a room-by-room basis via a Double Ratchet algorithm implementation. The developers of Wire have said that their app uses a custom implementation of the Double Ratchet algorithm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "The Signal Protocol also supports end-to-end encrypted group chats. The group chat protocol is a combination of a pairwise double ratchet and multicast encryption. In addition to the properties provided by the one-to-one protocol, the group chat protocol provides speaker consistency, out-of-order resilience, dropped message resilience, computational equality, trust equality, subgroup messaging, as well as contractible and expandable membership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": ", the Signal Protocol has been implemented into WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, Skype, and Google Allo, making it possible for the conversations of \"more than a billion people worldwide\" to be end-to-end encrypted. In Google Allo, Skype and Facebook Messenger, conversations are not encrypted with the Signal Protocol by default; they only offer end-to-end encryption in an optional mode."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In October 2014, the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) included Signal in their updated surveillance self-defense guide. In November 2014, Signal received a perfect score on the EFF's secure messaging scorecard; it received points for having communications encrypted in transit, having communications encrypted with keys the provider does not have access to (end-to-end encryption), making it possible for users to independently verify their correspondents' identities, having past communications secure if the keys are stolen (forward secrecy), having the code open to independent review (open source), having the security designs well-documented, and having a recent independent security audit. At the time, \"ChatSecure + Orbot\", Pidgin (with OTR), Silent Phone, and Telegram's optional \"secret chats\" also received seven out of seven points on the scorecard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "From its launch in May 2010 until March 2015, the Android version of Signal (then called TextSecure) included support for encrypted SMS/MMS messaging. From version 2.7.0 onward, the Android application only supported sending and receiving encrypted messages via the data channel. Reasons for this included security flaws of SMS/MMS and problems with the key exchange. Open Whisper Systems' abandonment of SMS/MMS encryption prompted some users to create a fork named Silence (initially called SMSSecure) that is meant solely for the exchange of encrypted SMS and MMS messages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In October 2014, researchers from Ruhr University Bochum published an analysis of the Signal Protocol. Among other findings, they presented an unknown key-share attack on the protocol, but in general, they found that it was secure. In October 2016, researchers from UK's University of Oxford, Queensland University of Technology in Australia, and Canada's McMaster University published a formal analysis of the protocol. They concluded that the protocol was cryptographically sound. In July 2017, researchers from Ruhr University Bochum found during another analysis of group messengers a purely theoretic attack against the group protocol of Signal: A user who knows the secret group ID of a group (due to having been a group member previously or stealing it from a member's device) can become a member of the group. Since the group ID cannot be guessed and such member changes are displayed to the remaining members, this attack is likely to be difficult to carry out without being detected."
      },
      {
        "title": "TextSecure",
        "text": "TextSecure was the first application to use the Signal Protocol (then called the TextSecure Protocol), which has since been implemented into WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, and Google Allo, encrypting the conversations of \"more than a billion people worldwide\". The protocol combines the Double Ratchet Algorithm, prekeys, and a 3-DH handshake. It uses Curve25519, AES-256, and HMAC-SHA256 as primitives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "The Signal Protocol has had an influence on other cryptographic protocols. In May 2016, Viber said that their encryption protocol is a custom implementation that \"uses the same concepts\" as the Signal Protocol. Forsta's developers have said that their app uses a custom implementation of the Signal Protocol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "By design, Signal is not able to read user messages, which precludes attempts at moderation. This has been confirmed by independent audits of Signal's algorithms. According to CNN, \"[t]he same technology that keeps a conversation private between you and a family member also gives a safe haven to a terrorist in Syria and the person in the United States he's trying to recruit to commit an act of mass murder.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Forward secrecy",
        "text": "The Signal Protocol uses the Double Ratchet Algorithm to provide forward secrecy. \"Puncturable encryption\" scheme, introduced by Green and Miers in 2015, makes use of Hierarchical identity-based encryption and Attribute-based encryption to provide forward secrecy without requiring \"pre-keys\", unlike the Signal Protocol which is vulnerable to \"pre-key exhaustion\" attacks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "All communications between Signal users are automatically end-to-end encrypted (the encryption keys are generated and stored on the phones, not on the servers). To verify that a correspondent is really the person that they claim to be, Signal users can compare key fingerprints (or scan QR codes) out-of-band. The platform employs a trust-on-first-use mechanism in order to notify the user if a correspondent's key changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": ", the Signal Protocol is based on TextSecure v3, but with additional cryptographic changes. In October 2016, researchers from the UK's University of Oxford, Australia's Queensland University of Technology, and Canada's McMaster University published a formal analysis of the protocol, concluding that the protocol was cryptographically sound."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal's userbase started in May 2010, when its predecessor TextSecure was launched by Whisper Systems. According to App Annie, Signal had approximately 20 million monthly active users at the end of December 2020. In January 2022, the BBC reported that Signal was used by over 40 million people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Former NSA contractor Edward Snowden has endorsed Signal on multiple occasions. In his keynote speech at SXSW in March 2014, he praised Signal's predecessors (TextSecure and RedPhone) for their ease of use. In December 2014, \"Der Spiegel\" leaked slides from an internal NSA presentation dating to June 2012 in which the NSA deemed Signal's encrypted voice calling component (RedPhone) on its own as a \"major threat\" to its mission of accessing users' private data, and when used in conjunction with other privacy tools such as Cspace, Tor, Tails, and TrueCrypt was ranked as \"catastrophic\" and led to a \"near-total loss/lack of insight to target communications [and] presence\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In July 2016, the Internet Society published a user study that assessed the ability of Signal users to detect and deter man-in-the-middle attacks. The study concluded that 21 out of 28 participants failed to correctly compare public key fingerprints in order to verify the identity of other Signal users, and that the majority of these users still believed they had succeeded, while in reality they failed. Four months later, Signal's user interface was updated to make verifying the identity of other Signal users simpler."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "The Signal Protocol (formerly known as the TextSecure Protocol) is a non-federated cryptographic protocol that can be used to provide end-to-end encryption for voice calls and instant messaging conversations. The protocol was developed by Open Whisper Systems in 2013 and was first introduced in the open-source TextSecure app, which later became Signal. Several closed-source applications have implemented the protocol, such as WhatsApp, which is said to encrypt the conversations of \"more than a billion people worldwide\" or Google who provides end-to-end encryption by default to all RCS-based conversations between users of their Messages app for one-to-one conversations. Facebook Messenger also say they offer the protocol for optional Secret Conversations, as does Skype for its Private Conversations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Double Ratchet Algorithm",
        "text": "Combined with public key infrastructure for the retention of pregenerated one-time keys (prekeys), it allows for the initialization of messaging sessions without the presence of the remote peer (asynchronous communication). The usage of triple Diffie\u2013Hellman key exchange (3-DH) as initial key exchange method improves the deniability properties. An example of this is the Signal Protocol, which combines the Double Ratchet Algorithm, prekeys, and a 3-DH handshake. The protocol provides confidentiality, integrity, authentication, participant consistency, destination validation, forward secrecy, backward secrecy (aka future secrecy), causality preservation, message unlinkability, message repudiation, participation repudiation, and asynchronicity. It does not provide anonymity preservation, and requires servers for the relaying of messages and storing of public key material."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Up until March 2017, Signal's voice calls were encrypted with SRTP and the ZRTP key-agreement protocol, which was developed by Phil Zimmermann. In March 2017, Signal transitioned to a new WebRTC-based calling system that introduced the ability to make video calls. Signal's voice and video calling functionalities use the Signal Protocol channel for authentication instead of ZRTP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal was reportedly popularized in the United States during the George Floyd protests. Heightened awareness of police monitoring led protesters to use the platform to communicate. Black Lives Matter organizers had used the platform \"for several years\". During the first week of June, the encrypted messaging app was downloaded over five times more than it had been during the week prior to the murder of George Floyd. In June 2020, Signal Foundation announced a new feature that enables users to blur faces in photos, in response to increased federal efforts to monitor protesters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "On 7 January 2021, Signal saw a surge in new user registrations, which temporarily overwhelmed Signal's capacity to deliver account verification messages. CNN and MacRumors linked the surge with a WhatsApp privacy policy change and a Signal endorsement by Elon Musk and Edward Snowden via Twitter. International newspapers reported similar trends in the United Arab Emirates. Reuters reported that more than 100,000\u00a0people had installed Signal between 7 and 8 January."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "Messaging Layer Security, an IETF proposal, uses \"Asynchronous ratcheting trees\" to efficiently improve upon security guarantees over Signal's \"Double Ratchet\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "On 15 January 2021, due to the surge of new users, Signal was overwhelmed with the new traffic and was down for all users. On the afternoon of 16 January, Signal announced via Twitter that service had been restored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "The third version of the protocol, TextSecure v3, made some changes to the cryptographic primitives and the wire protocol. In October 2014, researchers from Ruhr University Bochum published an analysis of TextSecure v3. Among other findings, they presented an unknown key-share attack on the protocol, but in general, they found that it was secure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In February 2014, Open Whisper Systems introduced the second version of their TextSecure Protocol (now Signal Protocol), which added end-to-end encrypted group chat and instant messaging capabilities to TextSecure. Toward the end of July 2014, they announced plans to merge the RedPhone and TextSecure applications as Signal. This announcement coincided with the initial release of Signal as a RedPhone counterpart for iOS. The developers said that their next steps would be to provide TextSecure instant messaging capabilities for iOS, unify the RedPhone and TextSecure applications on Android, and launch a web client. Signal was the first iOS app to enable end-to-end encrypted voice calls for free. TextSecure compatibility was added to the iOS application in March 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal is the successor of the RedPhone encrypted voice calling app and the TextSecure encrypted texting program. The beta versions of RedPhone and TextSecure were first launched in May 2010 by Whisper Systems, a startup company co-founded by security researcher Moxie Marlinspike and roboticist Stuart Anderson. Whisper Systems also produced a firewall and tools for encrypting other forms of data. All of these were proprietary enterprise mobile security software and were only available for Android."
      },
      {
        "title": "Open Whisper Systems",
        "text": "Over its five-year existence from 2013 to 2018, the Open Whisper Systems group managed multiple projects, which included:\n* Signal: An instant messaging, voice calling and video calling application for Android, iOS and desktop. It uses end-to-end encryption protocols to secure all communications to other Signal users. Signal can be used to send end-to-end encrypted group messages, attachments and media messages to other Signal users. The app uses 4 encryption algorithms to encrypt all text and media sent to and from the app: XEdDSA and VXEdDSA, Double Ratchet, X3DH, and Sesame. All calls are made over a Wi-Fi or data connection and are free of charge, including long distance and international. Signal has a built-in mechanism for verifying that no man-in-the-middle attack has occurred. Signal Messenger has set up dozens of servers to handle the encrypted calls in more than 10 countries around the world to minimize latency. The clients are published under the GPLv3 license.\n* Signal Protocol: A non-federated cryptographic protocol that can be used to provide end-to-end encryption. It combines the Double Ratchet algorithm, prekeys, and a 3-DH handshake. Signal Messenger maintains several open source Signal Protocol libraries on GitHub.\n* Signal Server: The software is published under the AGPLv3 license.\n* Contact Discovery Service: A microservice that \"allows clients to discover which of their contacts are registered users, but does not reveal their contacts to the service operator or any party that may have compromised the service.\" The software is published under the AGPLv3 license. , the service is in beta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Between November 2019 and February 2020, Signal added iPad support, view-once images and videos, stickers, and reactions. They also announced plans for a new group messaging system and an \"experimental method for storing encrypted contacts in the cloud.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Signal",
        "text": "Green Signal\n--Critical reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "BID 150",
        "text": "In secure mode the analogue speech signal is digitized, then encrypted by combination with the digital key generated by the BID/150; the digital stream is then fed to the transmitter, to pulse modulate the carrier. On receive, the sequence is reversed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal excludes users' messages from non-encrypted cloud backups by default."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal is a cross-platform centralized encrypted instant messaging service developed by the non-profit Signal Foundation and Signal Messenger LLC. Users can send one-to-one and group messages, which can include files, voice notes, images and videos. It can also be used to make one-to-one and group voice and video calls, and the Android version can optionally function as an SMS app."
      },
      {
        "title": "Off-the-Record Messaging",
        "text": "In 2013, the Signal Protocol was introduced, which is based on OTR Messaging and the Silent Circle Instant Messaging Protocol (SCIMP). It brought about support for asynchronous communication (\"offline messages\") as its major new feature, as well as better resilience with distorted order of messages and simpler support for conversations with multiple participants. OMEMO, introduced in an Android XMPP client called Conversations in 2015, integrates the Double Ratchet Algorithm used in Signal into the instant messaging protocol XMPP (\"Jabber\") and also enables encryption of file transfers. In the autumn of 2015 it was submitted to the XMPP Standards Foundation for standardisation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signals intelligence in modern history",
        "text": "At its peak, GC&CS was reading approximately 4,000 messages per day. As a hedge against enemy attack most bombes were dispersed to installations at Adstock and Wavendon (both later supplanted by installations at Stanmore and Eastcote), and Gayhurst."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "In September 2016, Google launched a new messaging app called Allo, which featured an optional Incognito Mode that used the Signal Protocol for end-to-end encryption. In March 2019, Google discontinued Allo in favor of their Messages app on Android. In November 2020, Google announced that they would be using the Signal Protocol to provide end-to-end encryption by default to all RCS-based conversations between users of their Messages app, starting with one-to-one conversations."
      },
      {
        "title": "VIMCAS",
        "text": "The encoded audio was transmitted over 6 horizontal scan lines during that interval, the digitally encoded signal being placed onto a series of mid-grey pedestals, in much the same way that the colour subcarrier is placed on top of the monochrome signal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "TextSecure allowed the user to set a passphrase that encrypted the local message database and the user's encryption keys. This did not encrypt the user's contact database or message timestamps. The Signal applications on Android and iOS can be locked with the phone's pin, passphrase, or biometric authentication. The user can define a \"screen lock timeout\" interval, providing an additional protection mechanism in case the phone is lost or stolen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal averaging",
        "text": "hold on;"
      },
      {
        "title": "SCORE (satellite)",
        "text": "The broadcast signal for Eisenhower's greeting was fairly weak, and only very sensitive radio receivers were able to detect it. Most Americans heard the message as it was rebroadcast on commercial news programs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (EP)",
        "text": "Signal (EP)\n--Background and release.\n--Composition.\n--Promotion.\n--Commercial performance.\n--Personnel.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "The protocol provides confidentiality, integrity, authentication, participant consistency, destination validation, forward secrecy, post-compromise security (aka future secrecy), causality preservation, message unlinkability, message repudiation, participation repudiation, and asynchronicity. It does not provide anonymity preservation and requires servers for the relaying of messages and storing of public key material."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Signal (2014 film)",
        "text": "\"Entertainment Weekly\" gave the film a \"B\" rating, saying, \"Hard science fiction meets tender hearts in a slow-burn, twist-filled thriller... The trio wind up in an abandoned shack in the middle of the Nevada desert, where they are attacked by forces unknown. It gets worse!... What is happening? Will Nic escape? And do we even want him to, given that the facility's workers all wear protective suits when interacting with their guests/test subjects?\" The review concludes that \"all this sounds like a souped-up episode of \"The Twilight Zone\" or \"The X-Files\".\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "In September 2015, G Data Software launched a new messaging app called Secure Chat which used the Signal Protocol. G Data discontinued the service in May 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Viber",
        "text": "On April 19, 2016 with the announcement of Viber version 6.0, Rakuten added end-to-end encryption to their service, but only for one-to-one and group conversations in which all participants are using the latest Viber version for Android, iOS, Windows (Win32) or Windows 10 (UWP). The company said that the encryption protocol had only been audited internally, and promised to commission external audits \"in the coming weeks\". In May 2016, Viber published an overview of their encryption protocol, saying that it is a custom implementation that \"uses the same concepts\" as the Signal Protocol."
      },
      {
        "title": "S2n",
        "text": "s2n was released on June 30, 2015 on GitHub. AWS said that the name \"s2n\" stand for signal to noise as a nod \"to the almost magical act of encryption\u2014disguising meaningful signals, like your critical data, as seemingly random noise\". It has been the subject of several external reviews as well as penetration testing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Telegram (software)",
        "text": "According to Telegram, secret chats have supported perfect forward secrecy since December 2014. Encryption keys are periodically changed after a key has been used more than 100 times or has been in use for more than a week. Old encryption keys are destroyed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "Open Whisper Systems first introduced the protocol in their TextSecure app. They later merged an encrypted voice calling application called RedPhone into the TextSecure app and renamed it as Signal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal strength and readability report",
        "text": "These reporting systems are usable for, but perhaps not completely appropriate for, rating digital signal quality. This is because digital signals have fairly consistent quality as the receiver moves away from the transmitter until reaching a threshold distance. At this threshold point, sometimes called the \"digital cliff,\"the signal quality takes a severe drop and is lost\". This difference in reception reduces attempts to ascertain subjective signal quality to simply asking, \"Can you hear me now?\" or similar. The only possible response is \"yes\"; otherwise, there is just dead air. This sudden signal drop was also one of the primary arguments of analog proponents against moving to digital systems. However, the \"five bars\" displayed on many cell phones does directly correlate to the signal strength rating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Telegram (software)",
        "text": "The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) listed Telegram on its \"Secure Messaging Scorecard\" in February 2015. Telegram's default chat function received a score of 4 out of 7 points on the scorecard. It received points for having communications encrypted in transit, having its code open to independent review, having the security design properly documented, and having completed a recent independent security audit. Telegram's default chat function missed points because the communications were not encrypted with keys the provider didn't have access to, users could not verify contacts' identities, and past messages were not secure if the encryption keys were stolen. Telegram's optional secret chat function, which provides end-to-end encryption, received a score of 7 out of 7 points on the scorecard. The EFF said that the results \"should not be read as endorsements of individual tools or guarantees of their security\", and that they were merely indications that the projects were \"on the right track\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "In October 2018, Signal Messenger announced that they had implemented a \"sealed sender\" feature into Signal, which reduces the amount of metadata that the Signal servers have access to by concealing the sender's identifier. The sender's identity is conveyed to the recipient in each message, but is encrypted with a key that the server does not have. This is done automatically if the sender is in the recipient's contacts or has access to their Signal Profile. Users can also enable an option to receive \"sealed sender\" messages from non-contacts and people who do not have access to their Signal Profile. A contemporaneous wiretap of the user's device and/or the Signal servers may still reveal that the device's IP address accessed a Signal server to send or receive messages at certain times."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Signal (2014 film)",
        "text": ", the film holds a 61% approval rating on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on 89 reviews with an average rating of 5.84 out of 10. The site's consensus says, \"Director William Eubank clearly has big ideas and an impressive level of technical expertise; unfortunately, \"The Signal\" fritters them away on a poorly constructed story.\" The film received a score of 54 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 34 reviews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silent Circle (software)",
        "text": "In November 2014, Silent Phone and Silent Text received top scores on the Electronic Frontier Foundation's secure messaging scorecard, along with \"ChatSecure + Orbot\", Cryptocat, TextSecure, and \"Signal / RedPhone\". They received points for having communications encrypted in transit, having communications encrypted with keys the providers don't have access to (end-to-end encryption), making it possible for users to independently verify their correspondent's identities, having past communications secure if the keys are stolen (forward secrecy), having their code open to independent review (open source), having their security designs well-documented, and having recent independent security audits."
      },
      {
        "title": "OpenIndiana",
        "text": "The announcement of OpenIndiana was met with a mainly positive response; over 350 people viewed the online announcement, the ISO image was downloaded over 2000 times, the Twitter account obtained over 500 followers, and numerous notable IT press websites wrote about the release. The broadcast bandwidth of the announcement was substantial, noted to top 350Mbit/second. The network package depot server experienced 20x as much traffic interested in their distribution than they originally planned for, resulting in more threads later being provisioned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pirate decryption",
        "text": "Initial attempts to encrypt broadcast signals were based on analogue techniques of questionable security, the most common being one or a combination of techniques such as:\n* Weakening or attenuating specific portions of the video signal, typically those required to maintain synchronization.\n* Inverting video signals so that white becomes black (and vice versa).\n* Adding an interfering signal at one specific frequency which could be simply filtered out at a suitably equipped receiver.\n* Moving the audio portion of the signal to some other frequency or sending it in a non-standard format."
      },
      {
        "title": "Television encryption",
        "text": "Added an interfering sine wave of a frequency circa 93.750 kHz to the video signal. This interfering signal was approximately six times the frequency of the horizontal refresh. It had an optional sound scrambling using Spectrum Inversion. Used in the UK by BBC for its world service broadcasts and by the now defunct UK movie channel \"Premiere\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signals intelligence in modern history",
        "text": "In the 1920s, GC&CS was successfully reading Soviet Union diplomatic ciphers. However, in May 1927, during a row over clandestine Soviet support for the General Strike and the distribution of subversive propaganda, Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin made details from the decrypts public."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal (software)\n--History.\n----2010\u20132013: Origins.\n----2013\u20132018: Open Whisper Systems.\n----2018\u2013present: Signal Technology Foundation.\n----Usage numbers.\n--Features.\n--Limitations.\n--Usability.\n--Architecture.\n----Encryption protocols.\n------Authentication.\n----Local storage.\n----Servers.\n------Contact discovery.\n------Metadata.\n------Federation.\n----Licensing.\n--Reception.\n----Security.\n----In-app payments.\n----Blocking.\n----Audience.\n------Use by activists.\n------Use by criminals.\n--Developers and funding.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (EP)",
        "text": "Signal (stylized as SIGNAL) is the fourth extended play (EP) by South Korean girl group Twice. The EP was released on May 15, 2017, by JYP Entertainment and distributed by Genie Music."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal's server architecture was federated between December 2013 and February 2016. In December 2013, it was announced that the messaging protocol Signal uses had successfully been integrated into the Android-based open-source operating system CyanogenMod. Since CyanogenMod 11.0, the client logic was contained in a system app called WhisperPush. According to Signal's developers, the Cyanogen team ran their own Signal messaging server for WhisperPush clients, which federated with the main server, so that both clients could exchange messages with each other. The WhisperPush source code was available under the GPLv3 license. In February 2016, the CyanogenMod team discontinued WhisperPush and recommended that its users switch to Signal. In May 2016, Moxie Marlinspike wrote that federation with the CyanogenMod servers had degraded the user experience and held back development, and that their servers will probably not federate with other servers again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Messages (Google)",
        "text": "Initially, the app did not support end-to-end encryption. In June 2021 Google introduced end-to-end encryption in Messages, supported only if two users are on Messages in a 1:1 chat (not group chat), both with RCS turned on. All one-to-one RCS-based conversations between users of Messages are end-to-end encrypted by default using the Signal Protocol."
      },
      {
        "title": "RT America",
        "text": "RT stated that while it was testing its systems in preparation for the inauguration of Donald Trump, its signal was \"mistakenly routed onto the primary encoder feeding C-SPAN 1's signal to the internet, rather than to an unused backup.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cryptocat",
        "text": "Cryptocat uses a Double Ratchet Algorithm in order to obtain forward and future secrecy across messages, after a session is established using a four-way Elliptic-curve Diffie\u2013Hellman handshake. The handshake mixes in long-term identity keys, an intermediate-term signed pre-key, and a one-time use prekey. The approach is similar to the encryption protocol adopted for encrypted messaging by the Signal mobile application. Cryptocat's goal is for its messages to obtain confidentiality, integrity, source authenticity, forward and future secrecy and indistinguishability even over a network controlled by an active attacker. The forward secrecy features of the protocol that Cryptocat uses are similar to those first introduced by Off-the-Record Messaging."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of cryptography articles",
        "text": "Signal Protocol \u2022"
      },
      {
        "title": "Telegram (software)",
        "text": "Secret chats have to be initiated and accepted via an invitation, upon which the encryption keys for the session are exchanged. Users in a secret chat can verify that no man-in-the-middle attack has occurred by comparing pictures that visualize their public key fingerprints."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In March 2017, Signal was approved by the sergeant at arms of the U.S. Senate for use by senators and their staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Open Whisper Systems",
        "text": "In February 2014, Open Whisper Systems introduced the second version of their TextSecure Protocol (now Signal Protocol), which added end-to-end encrypted group chat and instant messaging capabilities to TextSecure. Toward the end of July 2014, Open Whisper Systems announced plans to unify its RedPhone and TextSecure applications as Signal. These announcements coincided with the initial release of Signal as a RedPhone counterpart for iOS. The developers said that their next steps would be to provide TextSecure instant messaging capabilities for iOS, unify the RedPhone and TextSecure applications on Android, and launch a web client. Signal was the first iOS app to enable easy, strongly encrypted voice calls for free. TextSecure compatibility was added to the iOS application in March 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Once the messages are received and decrypted on a user's device, they are stored locally in a SQLite database that is encrypted with SQLCipher. The key to decrypt this database is also stored locally on the user's device and can be accessed if the device is unlocked. In December 2020, Cellebrite published a blog post announcing that one of their products could now access this key and use it to \"decrypt the Signal app\". Technology reporters later published articles about how Cellebrite had claimed to have the ability to \"break into the Signal app\" and \"crack Signal's encryption\". This latter interpretation was rejected by several experts, as well as representatives from Signal, who said the original post by Cellebrite had been about accessing data on \"an unlocked Android phone in their physical possession\" and that they \"could have just opened the app to look at the messages\". Similar extraction tools also exist for iOS devices and Signal Desktop."
      },
      {
        "title": "Skype protocol",
        "text": "Signaling is encrypted using RC4; however, the method only obfuscates the traffic as the key can be recovered from the packet. Voice data is encrypted with AES."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In February 2020, the European Commission recommended that its staff use Signal. Following the George Floyd protests, which began in May 2020, Signal was downloaded 121,000\u00a0times in the U.S. between 25 May and 4 June. In July 2020, Signal became the most downloaded app in Hong Kong on both the Apple App Store and the Google Play Store after the passage of the Hong Kong national security law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal averaging",
        "text": "plot((even_avg-odd_avg)/2)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal averaging",
        "text": "even_avg = even/(ii/2); % even buffer average"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Between 12 and 14 January 2021, the number of Signal installations listed on Google Play increased from over 10 million to over 50 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal averaging",
        "text": "else"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal also allows users to set timers to messages. After a specified time interval, the messages will be deleted from both the sender's and the receivers' devices. The time interval can be between five seconds and one week long, and the timer begins for each recipient once they have read their copy of the message. The developers have stressed that this is meant to be \"a collaborative feature for conversations where all participants want to automate minimalist data hygiene, not for situations where your contact is your adversary\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In 2016, authorities in India arrested members of a suspected ISIS-affiliated terrorist cell that communicated via Signal and Telegram."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Entertainment Group",
        "text": "JR ENT"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (South Korean TV series)",
        "text": "The series received widespread acclaim from audience and critics alike for its story and performances. It is also the fifteenth highest-rated Korean drama in cable television history with a peak audience viewership of 12.544%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Messaging Layer Security",
        "text": "Initial ideas were based on pairwise encryption for secure 1:1 and group communication. In 2017, an academic paper introducing Asynchronous Ratcheting Trees was published by University of Oxford setting the focus on more efficient encryption schemes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Received signal code power",
        "text": "Received signal code power\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Double Ratchet Algorithm",
        "text": "The Double Ratchet Algorithm features properties that have been commonly available in end-to-end encryption systems for a long time: encryption of contents on the entire way of transport as well as authentication of the remote peer and protection against manipulation of messages. As a hybrid of DH and KDF ratchets, it combines several desired features of both principles. From OTR messaging it takes the properties of forward secrecy and automatically reestablishing secrecy in case of compromise of a session key, forward secrecy with a compromise of the secret persistent main key, and plausible deniability for the authorship of messages. Additionally, it enables session key renewal without interaction with the remote peer by using secondary KDF ratchets. An additional key-derivation step is taken to enable retaining session keys for out-of-order messages without endangering the following keys."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal averaging",
        "text": "end"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal averaging",
        "text": "end"
      },
      {
        "title": "Time from NPL (MSF)",
        "text": "Currently, the signal is encoded as follows:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In April 2021, Signal announced the addition of a cryptocurrency wallet feature that would allow users to send and receive payments in MobileCoin. This received criticism from security expert Bruce Schneier, who had previously praised the software. Schneier stated that this would bloat the client and attract unwanted attention from the authorities. The wallet functionality was initially only available in certain countries, but was later enabled globally in November 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Viterbi error rate",
        "text": "The following, \"distorted\" signal is received."
      },
      {
        "title": "Verilog",
        "text": "// executes any time the signals"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ronald Hugh Barker",
        "text": "Many of these technologies use DSSS. This technique incorporates Barker code to improve the received signal quality and improve security."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal averaging",
        "text": "plot((odd_avg+even_avg));"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bitsbox",
        "text": "Bitsbox\n--Background.\n--Reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wow! signal",
        "text": "The string 6EQUJ5, commonly misinterpreted as a message encoded in the radio signal, represents in fact the signal's intensity variation over time, expressed in the particular measuring system adopted for the experiment. The signal itself appeared to be an unmodulated continuous wave, although any modulation with a period of less than 10 seconds or longer than 72 seconds would not have been detectable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conversations (software)",
        "text": "Since version 0.2, released on May 12, image messages (file transfers, in plain text or OpenPGP-encrypted) are supported, from version 0.4 (June 30) also OTR-encrypted. Version 1.0 followed on February 1, 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal averaging",
        "text": "odd=even; % odd buffer"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "In November 2014, Open Whisper Systems announced a partnership with WhatsApp to provide end-to-end encryption by incorporating the Signal Protocol into each WhatsApp client platform. Open Whisper Systems said that they had already incorporated the protocol into the latest WhatsApp client for Android and that support for other clients, group/media messages, and key verification would be coming soon after. On April 5, 2016, WhatsApp and Open Whisper Systems announced that they had finished adding end-to-end encryption to \"every form of communication\" on WhatsApp, and that users could now verify each other's keys. In February 2017, WhatsApp announced a new feature, WhatsApp Status, which uses the Signal Protocol to secure its contents. In October 2016, WhatsApp's parent company Facebook also deployed an optional mode called Secret Conversations in Facebook Messenger which provides end-to-end encryption using an implementation of the Signal Protocol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal averaging",
        "text": "odd_avg = odd/(ii/2); % odd buffer average"
      },
      {
        "title": "CipherSaber",
        "text": "In the original version of CipherSaber (now called CipherSaber-1 or CS1), each encrypted message begins with a random ten-byte initialization vector (IV). This IV is appended to the CipherSaber key to form the input to the RC4 key setup algorithm. The message, XORed with the RC4 keystream, immediately follows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "On 24 February 2014, Open Whisper Systems introduced TextSecure v2, which migrated to the Axolotl Ratchet. The design of the Axolotl Ratchet is based on the ephemeral key exchange that was introduced by OTR and combines it with a symmetric-key ratchet modeled after the Silent Circle Instant Messaging Protocol (SCIMP). It brought about support for asynchronous communication (\"offline messages\") as its major new feature, as well as better resilience with distorted order of messages and simpler support for conversations with multiple participants. The Axolotl Ratchet was named after the critically endangered aquatic salamander Axolotl, which has extraordinary self-healing capabilities. The developers refer to the algorithm as self-healing because it automatically disables an attacker from accessing the cleartext of later messages after having compromised a session key."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "On the 27 September 2019, Natalie Silvanovich, a security engineer working in Google's vulnerability research team at Project Zero, disclosed how a bug in the Android Signal client could let an attacker spy on a user without their knowledge. The bug allowed an attacker to phone a target device, mute the call, and the call would complete - keeping the audio open but without the owner being aware of that (however they would still be aware of a ring and / or a vibration from the initial call). The bug was fixed the same day that it was reported and patched in release 4.47.7 of the app for Android."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal Protocol",
        "text": "Signal Messenger maintains the following Signal Protocol libraries under the GPLv3 license on GitHub:\n*libsignal-protocol-c: A library written in C with additional licensing permissions for Apple's App Store.\n*libsignal-protocol-java: A library written in Java.\n*libsignal-protocol-javascript: A library written in JavaScript."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many iOS devices has Signal been installed on?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I couldn't find the iOS devices have it installed but Google Play states that Signal has been installed over 50 million times and that there were 40 million active monthly users in January 2021 and as of May 2021, it has been downloaded over 105 million times."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the company that makes Signal make other apps or services?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The company that made Signal, Signal Messenger LLC, also created the Signal Protocol."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some of Signal's features?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are features that enable users to blur faces in photos, make one-to-one and group voice and video calls with up to 40 people on iOS, Android, and desktop, communications are automatically end-to-end encrypted, and also allows users to set timers to messages."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How does encryption work in the Signal app?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Signal messages are encrypted with the Signal Protocol, which combines the Double Ratchet Algorithm, prekeys, and an Extended Triple Diffie\u2013Hellman (X3DH) handshake. It also supports end-to-end encrypted group chats, this protocol is a combination of a pairwise double ratchet and multicast encryption."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What has the audience reception of Signal been?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Audience reception by activists resulted in the United Nations recommending Myanmar residents use Signal and ProtonMail to pass and preserve evidence of human rights violations committed during the 2021 coup; criminals utilize it since by design, Signal is not able to read user messages, the same technology that keeps a conversation private between you and a family member also gives a safe haven to a terrorist in Syria and the person in the United States he's trying to recruit to commit an act of mass murder. In 2016, authorities in India arrested members of a suspected ISIS-affiliated terrorist cell that communicated via Signal and Telegram.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I'm not really sure, but in March 2021, the United Nations recommended Myanmar residents use Signal and ProtonMail to pass and preserve evidence of human rights violations committed during the 2021 coup."
    ],
    "topic": "Signal (software)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):61",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)",
          "Reception",
          "Audience",
          "Use by activists"
        ],
        "ctx": "In March 2021, the United Nations recommended Myanmar residents use Signal and ProtonMail to pass and preserve evidence of human rights violations committed during the 2021 coup."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):62",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)",
          "Reception",
          "Audience",
          "Use by criminals"
        ],
        "ctx": "By design, Signal is not able to read user messages, which precludes attempts at moderation. This has been confirmed by independent audits of Signal's algorithms. According to CNN, \"[t]he same technology that keeps a conversation private between you and a family member also gives a safe haven to a terrorist in Syria and the person in the United States he's trying to recruit to commit an act of mass murder.\""
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):63",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)",
          "Reception",
          "Audience",
          "Use by criminals"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2016, authorities in India arrested members of a suspected ISIS-affiliated terrorist cell that communicated via Signal and Telegram."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):61",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)",
          "Reception",
          "Audience",
          "Use by activists"
        ],
        "ctx": "In March 2021, the United Nations recommended Myanmar residents use Signal and ProtonMail to pass and preserve evidence of human rights violations committed during the 2021 coup."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In 2016, authorities in India arrested members of a suspected ISIS-affiliated terrorist cell that communicated via Signal and Telegram."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In March 2021, the United Nations recommended Myanmar residents use Signal and ProtonMail to pass and preserve evidence of human rights violations committed during the 2021 coup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "By design, Signal is not able to read user messages, which precludes attempts at moderation. This has been confirmed by independent audits of Signal's algorithms. According to CNN, \"[t]he same technology that keeps a conversation private between you and a family member also gives a safe haven to a terrorist in Syria and the person in the United States he's trying to recruit to commit an act of mass murder.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Telecommunications in India",
        "text": "In 2013 the home ministry stated that legislation must ensure that law enforcement agencies are empowered to intercept communications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ampon Tangnoppakul",
        "text": "In mid-2010, Somkiat Khrongwattanasuk made a denunciation before the National Police Headquarters\u2019 Technology-Related Offence Suppression Division (TROSD) that four short messages were sent to his mobile phone by an unknown person and their contents were likely to constitute an offence. The TROSD then set up an investigation team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act",
        "text": "For Voice and Text messaging, CALEA software in the central office enables wiretap. If a call comes in for a number on the target phone a \"conference bridge\" is created and the second leg is sent to law enforcement at the place of their choosing. By law this must be outside of phone company. This prevents law enforcement from being inside the phone company and possibly illegally tapping other phones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal crime",
        "text": "Signal crime\n--Different signals.\n--Application to policing.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Government censorship of Telegram Messenger",
        "text": "Internet Freedom Foundation, an Indian digital liberties organisation filed an RTI on whether Department of Telecommunications (DoT) had banned Telegram or requested ISPs to block traffic. The response from DoT said that it had no information on why the ISPs were blocking Telegram. The High Court of Kerala asked about the central government's view on a plea for banning Telegram for allegedly disseminating child abuse videos and communicating through it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act",
        "text": "Text messages are also sent to law enforcement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electronic tagging",
        "text": "Typically, offenders are fitted with an electronic tag around their ankle which sends a regular signal to a receiver unit installed in their home. Some systems are connected to a landline in the case where GSM is not available, whilst most arrangements utilize the mobile phone system to communicate with the monitoring company. If the tag is not functioning or within range of the base station during curfew hours, or if the base is disconnected from the power supply, or the base station is moved then the monitoring company are alerted, who in turn, notify the appropriate authority such as the police, the National Probation Service or the prison the person was released from."
      },
      {
        "title": "MAINWAY",
        "text": "President Clinton signed into law the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act of 1994, after it was passed in both the House and Senate by a voice vote. That law is an act \"to make clear a telecommunications carrier's duty to cooperate in the interception of communications for law enforcement purposes, and for other purposes.\" The act states that a court order isn't the only lawful way of obtaining call information, saying, \"A telecommunications carrier shall ensure that any interception of communications or access to call-identifying information effected within its switching premises can be activated only in accordance with a court order or other lawful authorization.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "2017 Faizabad sit-in",
        "text": "The written verdict stated that the person issuing an edict or fatwa, which harms another or puts another in harm's way, \u2018must be criminally prosecuted under the Pakistan Penal Code, the Anti-Terrorism Act, 1997 or the Prevention of Electronic Crimes Act, 2016\u2019. The top court further stated in the verdict that Inter-Services Intelligence, the Intelligence Bureau, Military Intelligence, and the Inter-Services Public Relations must not exceed their respective mandates. \u201cAll intelligence agencies do not have the authority to interfere with broadcasts and publications, in the management of broadcasters/publishers and in the distribution of newspapers.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Java Anon Proxy",
        "text": "As a reaction to the threat from local authorities, the system has spread internationally. If the Mixes of a cascade are spread over several countries, the law enforcement agencies of all these countries would have to work together to reveal someone's identity. AN.ON publishes every year the number of successful and unsuccessful surveillance court orders. Further research is being done by AN.ON to make the crime detection functionality more privacy-friendly."
      },
      {
        "title": "US signals intelligence in the Cold War",
        "text": "While the methods were not yet called MASINT, there was a Special Identification Techniques (SIT) facility at the ASA site at Clark AFB could use to do \"radio fingerprinting\" to recognize unique Morse code operator \"fists\". This revealed little, and the problem was traced to inadequate direction finding. After deletions, it is observed that NSA concluded it needed another 105 intercept stations, giving over 2400 hours of coverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "All communications between Signal users are automatically end-to-end encrypted (the encryption keys are generated and stored on the phones, not on the servers). To verify that a correspondent is really the person that they claim to be, Signal users can compare key fingerprints (or scan QR codes) out-of-band. The platform employs a trust-on-first-use mechanism in order to notify the user if a correspondent's key changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "ARRL Radiogram",
        "text": "Messages for served agencies, particularly during disasters, generally require an authorizing signature in full. Messages without same may be refused. It is important for originating stations to get full information about persons for whom messages are originated in order to be able to re-contact them should a problem arise in the delivery of their message, or if a reply is received."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citation signal",
        "text": "If a cited case has subsequent history or other relevant authority, it follows the parenthetical: \"Anderson v. Terhune\", 467 F.3d 1208 (9th Cir.2006) (claiming that a police officer's continued questioning violated due process rights), \"rehearing en banc granted\", 486 F.3d 1115 (9th Cir.2007)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prasanna Chandrasekera",
        "text": "\u2022 Signal Officer - Security Force Headquarters, West - May 1988 - November 1988.<br><br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Clandestine HUMINT operational techniques",
        "text": "Signals to tell a courier, or a case officer if there is no intermediate courier, that the dead drop needs service can be as simple as a piece of colored tape on a lamp post or perhaps a set of window shades raised and lowered in a specific pattern. While \"wrong number\" calls with a predefined apology can be used, they are more vulnerable to surveillance if the phone in question is tapped."
      },
      {
        "title": "Telephone tapping",
        "text": "In India, the lawful interception of communication by authorized law enforcement agencies (LEAs) is carried out in accordance with Section 5(2) of the Indian Telegraph Act, 1885 read with Rule 419A of Indian Telegraph (Amendment) Rules, 2007. Directions for interception of any message or class of messages under sub-section (2) of Section 5 of the Indian Telegraph Act, 1885 shall not be issued except by an order made by the Secretary to the Government of India in the Ministry of Home Affairs in the case of Government of India and by the Secretary to the State Government in-charge of the Home Department in the case of a state government. The government has set up the Centralized Monitoring System (CMS) to automate the process of lawful interception and monitoring of telecommunications technology. The government of India on 2015 December 2 in a reply to parliament question no. 595 on scope, objectives and framework of the CMS has struck a balance between national security, online privacy and free speech informed that to take care of the privacy of citizens, lawful interception and monitoring is governed by the Section 5(2) of Indian Telegraph Act, 1885 read with Rule 419A of Indian Telegraph (Amendment) Rules, 2007 wherein oversight mechanism exists in form of review committee under chairmanship of the Cabinet Secretary at Central Government level and Chief Secretary of the State at the state government level. Section 5(2) also allows the government to intercept messages that are public emergencies or for public safety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In December 2016, Egypt blocked access to Signal. In response, Signal's developers added domain fronting to their service. This allows Signal users in a specific country to circumvent censorship by making it look like they are connecting to a different internet-based service. , Signal's domain fronting is enabled by default in Egypt, the United Arab Emirates, Oman, Qatar, and Iran."
      },
      {
        "title": "Consular Lookout and Support System",
        "text": "Information from the following law enforcement agencies may be forwarded to CLASS:\n* Interpol\n* United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS)\n* U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS)\n* United States Marshals Service (USMS)\n* Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)\n* Terrorist Screening Center (TSC)\n* Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA)\n* Treasury Enforcement Communications System (TECS)\n* Social Security Administration (SSA)\n* Internal Revenue Service (IRS)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "On October 4, 2016, the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and Open Whisper Systems published a series of documents revealing that OWS had received a subpoena requiring them to provide information associated with two phone numbers for a federal grand jury investigation in the first half of 2016. Only one of the two phone numbers was registered on Signal, and because of how the service is designed, OWS was only able to provide \"the time the user's account had been created and the last time it had connected to the service\". Along with the subpoena, OWS received a gag order requiring OWS not to tell anyone about the subpoena for one year. OWS approached the ACLU, and they were able to lift part of the gag order after challenging it in court. OWS said it was the first time they had received a subpoena, and that they were committed to treat \"any future requests the same way\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal International",
        "text": "In May 2013 suits were filed by 83 other workers with similar claims. In August 2013 the Southern Poverty Law Center filed additional suits representing 500 more workers. In February 2015, a federal court jury awarded $14.1 million in damages to 5 workers arising from the original suit. Following the lawsuits, Signal international filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection on July 12th, 2015. At the time of claiming bankruptcy, Signal had 11 similar lawsuits involving 227 other migrant workers from India under similar circumstances. Another $20 million was settled by the company to trafficked workers in early July 2015 just before filing bankruptcy."
      },
      {
        "title": "IMSI-catcher",
        "text": "A targeted mobile phone is sent signals where the user will not be able to tell apart the device from authentic cell service provider infrastructure. This means that the device will be able to retrieve data that a normal cell tower receives from mobile phones if registered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extradition case of Meng Wanzhou",
        "text": "On October 1, 2019, Crown lawyers argued that the CBSA handed over Meng's passcodes to the RCMP by mistake and took steps to remedy this error. Crown prosecutor Diba Majzub described this as \"not a deliberate action but an error\" and provided an email by a CBSA officer describing it as such. The email sent from CBSA agent Nicole Goodman to Crown prosecutor John Gibb-Carsley, says:I became aware the passcodes for the phone were provided in error to the RCMP at the time of the transfer of Ms Meng and her belongings. ... I advised the RCMP the passcodes should not have been provided by CBSA as the passcodes were CBSA information obtained during the CBSA examination, and the passcodes could not be used to access the devices nor shared with a third party (ie: other law enforcement agency).The CBSA asked for the passcodes to be returned but the RCMP refused, stating that this was impossible as they had already become part of the court record of Meng's case. The next day, Gibb-Carsley argued that there is no evidence the RCMP ever requested or used the passcodes while there is evidence they were given by the CBSA in error. Justice Holmes questioned CBSA's use of Mylar bags (anti-tampering equipment) to contain the seized devices and their association with the U.S. extradition request. Notes by the RCMP from the morning of December 1 say the CBSA will locate Meng's phones as requested by the FBI and put them in Mylar bags at their suggestion. Gibb-Carsley said the CBSA had \"legitimate purpose\" to bag them."
      },
      {
        "title": "StopExecutionsinIran",
        "text": "StopExecutionsinIran\n--History.\n--Bandwidth interruption.\n--Outcomes.\n----Announcement (and the Consequential Denying) of Retrial and Stopping the Execution.\n----Appointed Attorney's Right to Access their Clients' Case Files.\n----Unrest in Behbahan.\n----Temporarily stopping the verdict.\n--Reactions.\n----Iranian Government.\n------Threatening text messages.\n------More arrests.\n----International support.\n------United Nations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Monitoring System",
        "text": "Interception of communication by authorized Law Enforcement Agencies (LEAs) is carried out in accordance with Section 5(2) of the Indian Telegraph Act, 1885 read with Rule 419A of Indian Telegraph (Amendment) Rules, 2007. Following is the list of authorised Law Enforcement Agencies for Lawful Interception:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Traffic policing (communications)",
        "text": "The recipient of traffic that has been \"policed\" will observe packet loss distributed throughout periods when incoming traffic exceeded the contract. If the source does not limit its sending rate (for example, through a feedback mechanism), this will continue, and may appear to the recipient as if link errors or some other disruption is causing random packet loss. The received traffic, which has experienced policing en route, will typically comply with the contract, although jitter may be introduced by elements in the network downstream of the policer."
      },
      {
        "title": "State Security Service (Nigeria)",
        "text": "Due to the disproportionately large GSM mobile phone subscriber base in Nigeria and the use of cellphones as the principal means of communication by kidnappers and terrorists, the agency has had to develop telephone call intercept capability. IMSI number catchers and signal direction finders have been deployed for intercepting and tracking GSM and satellite phone communications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal International",
        "text": "Signal International\n--Corporate.\n--Human Trafficking Controversy.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rule 55",
        "text": "However, you may wait for up to two minutes before contacting the signaller if you can see an obvious reason for the signal being at danger, or not having an MA[,] such as:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Public safety answering point",
        "text": "There is also now the ability to answer text messages at some PSAPs, which is useful in areas where weak signal strength due to distance from the nearest cell site causes fringe reception, resulting in blocked or dropped calls. Since SMS messages only require an instant to send, a brief peak in radio propagation (such as due to changing cloud cover) is often enough to get a message sent. Text messages are also useful for the deaf or speech disabled, as it does not require a TTY device."
      },
      {
        "title": "Megaupload",
        "text": "On 24 September 2012, New Zealand's Prime Minister John Key ordered an inquiry into whether staff at the Government Communications Security Bureau had unlawfully spied on Kim Dotcom and the other defendants in the case. Key commented \"I expect our intelligence agencies to operate always within the law. Their operations depend on public trust.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": ", Signal was blocked in Iran. Signal's domain fronting feature relies on the Google App Engine (GAE) service. This does not work in Iran because Google has blocked Iranian access to GAE in order to comply with U.S. sanctions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In October 2014, the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) included Signal in their updated surveillance self-defense guide. In November 2014, Signal received a perfect score on the EFF's secure messaging scorecard; it received points for having communications encrypted in transit, having communications encrypted with keys the provider does not have access to (end-to-end encryption), making it possible for users to independently verify their correspondents' identities, having past communications secure if the keys are stolen (forward secrecy), having the code open to independent review (open source), having the security designs well-documented, and having a recent independent security audit. At the time, \"ChatSecure + Orbot\", Pidgin (with OTR), Silent Phone, and Telegram's optional \"secret chats\" also received seven out of seven points on the scorecard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mada Masr",
        "text": "According to Article 64 of the law, the Armed Forces are also considered an agency concerned with national security, when it comes to technical capabilities that include telecommunications equipment, systems and programs. As media regulatory bodies continued to deny involvement in the blocking of access to its website, Mada Masr Media requested that the court add the president of Egypt, the defense minister, deputy head of the General Intelligence Service, the interior minister and head of the Supreme Media Regulatory Council as respondents in the case."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio scanner",
        "text": "A situation that occurred in the Toronto area on 28 June 2011 involving York Regional Police officer Constable Garrett Styles was picked up by scanners. On-line streaming of communications between the officer and police dispatch while the fatally injured officer was in urgent need of emergency help were picked up by local media. The tragedy was widely reported before the officer's family was notified. Several media outlets rebroadcast the recorded emergency transmission. A police initiative pressuring the government to create legislation to stop online streaming of scanner captured police communications was announced in April 2012. Although it is currently legal to stream information from a scanner in Canada, using the information for profit is not legal. Some Canadian police forces use encrypted communications which cannot legally be decrypted and streamed onto the Internet. Applications are available permitting anyone with an Internet ready computer or smart phone to access scanner communications that are streamed onto the Internet by private individuals who possess the appropriate scanner and computer equipment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "To verify that a correspondent is really the person that they claim to be, Signal users can compare key fingerprints (or scan QR codes) out-of-band. The platform employs a trust on first use mechanism in order to notify the user if a correspondent's key changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act",
        "text": "In order to be compliant, IP-based service providers (broadband, cable, VoIP) must choose either a self-contained probe, or a \"dumb\" probe component plus a mediation device, or they must implement the delivery of correctly formatted data for a named subscriber on their own."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "In July 2016, the Internet Society published a user study that assessed the ability of Signal users to detect and deter man-in-the-middle attacks. The study concluded that 21 out of 28 participants failed to correctly compare public key fingerprints in order to verify the identity of other Signal users, and that the majority of these users still believed they had succeeded, while in reality they failed. Four months later, Signal's user interface was updated to make verifying the identity of other Signal users simpler."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Spilker",
        "text": "The civil signals are based on clear unencrypted codes published and available to all. A terrorist or other troublemakers can attempt to jam or spoof the true signal. The spoofer would attempt to transmit a similar signal so that it is received by the user with a similar delay and Doppler shift to the true signal. This is a very simple operation if the user is employing a conventional receiver that tracks each satellite signal separately one at a time with a separate correlator for each satellite. However, if the attack should happen undetected, the task is none-trivial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Monitoring System",
        "text": "Earlier the provisioning of Interception of the Telephone was being done by the Telecom operators on the basis of duly authorized order by the competent authority in accordance with 419A telephone rule. Traditionally, the Law Enforcement Agency was approaching the various telecom companies based on the numbering scheme of the target telephone number. In CMS setup there is no change in the Interception authorization order envisaged in 419A telephone rule except that now the Law Enforcement Agency will go to only TERM Cell for any interception order provisioning irrespective of telephone numbering scheme. There is no change in the existing LIS / LIM system in the telecom network. The TERM Cell who are the field unit of DOT and carries the enforcement and regulation of licensing conditions in the field will be sole authority to provision the interception orders but interception orders will be obtained by Law Enforcement Agencies in according to the 419A telephone rule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunil Mittal",
        "text": "In 2013, Mittal was ordered to appear before a special Delhi court to answer questions about the additional allocation of airwaves to certain companies. Allegations against Mittal state that there had been collusion with key telecoms officials in the government to illegally secure an extra spectrum. No charges were issued against Mittal, however the trial court judge noted that there was enough material on record to proceed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red-tagging in the Philippines",
        "text": "The Commission on Human Rights follows the definition laid down by the International Peace Observers Network (IPON), which defines it as:An act of State actors, particularly law enforcement agencies, to publicly brand individuals, groups, or institutions as\u2026 affiliated to communist or leftist terrorists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freenet",
        "text": "A court case in the Peel Region of Ontario, \"Canada R. v. Owen\", 2017 ONCJ 729 (CanLII), illustrated that law enforcement do in fact have a presence, after Peel Regional Police located who had been downloading illegal material on the Freenet network. The court decision indicates that a Canadian Law Enforcement agency operates nodes running modified Freenet software in the hope of determining who is requesting illegal material.\n*Routing Table Insertion (RTI) Attack."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diplomatic Security Service",
        "text": "In 1995 DSS Special Agents Jeff Riner and Bill Miller, the RSOs assigned to the U.S. Embassy in Pakistan, along with Pakistani police and Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), arrested Ramzi Yousef, who was wanted in connection with the 1993 World Trade Center bombing in New York City."
      },
      {
        "title": "Communications management unit",
        "text": "It was physically situated in the former death row section, and all but two of the inmates are Arab Muslims, leading the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) to raise a concern about racial profiling. The ACLU also charged that the communication restrictions are unduly harsh for prisoners who are not sufficiently serious security threats to warrant placement in ADX Florence, the Supermax facility in Colorado."
      },
      {
        "title": "In re Application of the United States for Historical Cell Site Data",
        "text": "In early October 2010, law enforcement agents in Texas applied for three court orders under section 2703(d) of the Stored Communications Act, seeking to compel cell phone service providers to disclose cell site information for three phones for the past 60 days. According to the district court:"
      },
      {
        "title": "L\u00e8se-majest\u00e9 in Thailand",
        "text": "The Office of Prevention and Suppression of Information Technology Crimes maintains a \"war room\" to monitor for pages which disparage the monarchy. A web crawler is used to search the internet. When an offending image or language is found, the office obtains a court order blocking the site. On 28\u00a0October 2008, The Ministry of Information and Communication Technology (MICT) announced plans to spend about 100\u2013500\u00a0million baht to build a gateway to block websites with contents defaming the royal institution."
      },
      {
        "title": "CIA Security International SA v Signalson SA and Securitel SPRL",
        "text": "Signalson and Securitel publicly claimed that a competitor, CIA Security, had acted contrary to a Belgian law of 1990, which required security firms to get government authority to operate, and a decree in 1991 that alarm systems be authorised. Directive 83/189 said all \u2018technical regulations\u2019 had to be notified to the Commission, and some provisions would not come in force for specified periods. The Belgian 1990 law and 1991 decree had not been notified. CIA Security sought an order to prevent Signalson and Securitel making statements that it did not comply with the law. They counterclaimed that CIA did not comply with Belgian law. CIA argued that because the 1990 law and 1991 decree was not notified, it did not apply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Law enforcement in Syria",
        "text": "Despite ISIL claims that its officers \"do not rule on any case, but rather transfer cases to the court,\" the reality is that extrajudicial detainment and torture are commonplace in ISIL-held territory. According to a report released by Amnesty International in December 2013, ISIL maintained at least seven large detention facilities throughout Raqqa and Aleppo provinces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Telephone tapping",
        "text": "As technologies emerge, including VoIP, new questions are raised about law enforcement access to communications (see VoIP recording). In 2004, the Federal Communications Commission was asked to clarify how the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) related to Internet service providers. The FCC stated that \u201cproviders of broadband Internet access and voice over Internet protocol (\u201cVoIP\u201d) services are regulable as \u201ctelecommunications carriers\u201d under the Act.\u201d Those affected by the Act will have to provide access to law enforcement officers who need to monitor or intercept communications transmitted through their networks. As of 2009, warrantless surveillance of internet activity has consistently been upheld in FISA court."
      },
      {
        "title": "Telecommunications (Interception and Access) Amendment (Data Retention) Act 2015",
        "text": "\"In an increased threat environment characterised by a higher operational tempo, there is a narrower margin for error in law enforcement and national security investigations. The narrower margin is particularly evident in relation to lone wolf threats: such persons have limited, if any, contact with other known extremists, giving authorities fewer opportunities to detect their activities and intentions. As such, any missed opportunity to identify and prevent these attacks represents a significant risk.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Messenger (software)",
        "text": "The court decided against the Justice Department, but sealed the case."
      },
      {
        "title": "Law enforcement agency powers",
        "text": "The interception of communications is usually the interception of electronic voice or data connections, and is typically called telecommunications interception (TI). In some countries TI is called wire tapping. Other forms of communications interception can be intercepting radio transmissions and opening physical mail items."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blocking Telegram in Russia",
        "text": "Russia's Supreme Court rejected Telegram's lawsuit to FSB on March 20, 2018. After the court ruling, the Russian watchdog Roskomnadzor said the messaging service had 15 days to provide the required information to the country's security agencies. The FSB defended its position, saying that providing the FSB with the technical ability to decode messages does not annul legal procedures such as obtaining court rules in order to perlustrate specific messages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signals Intelligence Agency",
        "text": "A January 2019 report by \"Reuters\" revealed that the agency participated in Project Raven, a confidential initiative to help the UAE surveil other governments, militants, and human rights activists. In 2014, Project Raven helped the SIA (NESA at the time) break up an ISIS network in the UAE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Use of social media by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant",
        "text": "In July 2017, Telegram came under scrutiny from the media and news media outlets. It has been documented that ISIS gunmen have used this app to maintain contact with ISIS leaders in Raqqa days before terror attacks in Turkey, Berlin, and St. Petersburg. Despite concerns from Western media, there has been little to no action taken against ISIS accounts on Telegram."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ragbir Bhathal",
        "text": "Bhathal carries out research in nanosecond laser pulsed communications, astrophysics, galactic surveys, astronomical image analysis and processing at UWS. In December 2008, he observed a sharp 'laser look-alike' signal emanating from the globular cluster 47 Tucanae. However, despite further searches, the signal has yet to be replicated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Government censorship of Telegram Messenger",
        "text": "In 2019, it was reported that some internet service providers in India were blocking Telegram traffic, including its official website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mahmoud Jaballah",
        "text": "In December 2007, security officials petitioned Layden-Stevenson to allow them to install 14 surveillance cameras inside the Jaballah home to watch the day-to-day activities of the family. When asked to review clandestine photographs the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA) identified as his house, Jaballah \"stunned the court\" by appearing perplexed and answering that these were not even photos of his house. The agents had accidentally submit photos from the wrong stakeout, instead labeling photos of Tamil gang-leader Jothiravi Sittampalam's house as being the Jaballah residence, The court also noted complaints that Muslim women are only able to walk around without their niqab or hijab inside the home away from the eyes of strangers; and that federal agents would be intruding on their privacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jammu and Kashmir Public Safety Act, 1978",
        "text": "An RTI application to the J&K Home Department filed by members of the J&K RTI Movement revealed that the State Government of J&K has not made any Rules or Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) under PSA, during the four decades of its existence. Every year the detaining authorities have been issuing detention orders without any SOPs to guide them except the reports and dossiers prepared by the J&K Police."
      },
      {
        "title": "Government censorship of Telegram Messenger",
        "text": "In 2019 Mohammad Ali Movahedi Kermani in Tehran Friday prayer declared that Telegram is haram and requested National Information Network deployment like Great Firewall of China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ligado Networks",
        "text": "On February 14, 2012, the FCC initiated proceedings to vacate LightSquared's Conditional Waiver Order based on the NTIA's conclusion that there was currently no practical way to mitigate potential GPS interference."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "Signal messages are encrypted with the Signal Protocol (formerly known as the TextSecure Protocol). The protocol combines the Double Ratchet Algorithm, prekeys, and an Extended Triple Diffie\u2013Hellman (X3DH) handshake. It uses Curve25519, AES-256, and HMAC-SHA256 as primitives. The protocol provides confidentiality, integrity, authentication, participant consistency, destination validation, forward secrecy, backward secrecy ( future secrecy), causality preservation, message unlinkability, message repudiation, participation repudiation, and asynchronicity. It does not provide anonymity preservation, and requires servers for the relaying of messages and storing of public key material."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal International",
        "text": "In 2008 the company was sued in United States federal court on allegations related to human trafficking and infringement of visa policies for migrant workers. Allegations centered on 12 guest workers (among 500) who claimed that Signal forced them to live in squalid living conditions. Around 500 skilled Indian nationals were promised a descent living in workers quarters only to later find out an overcrowded setup in which around 24 men shared a space the size of a double-wide trailer. The workers were hired to rebuild infrastructure damaged after hurricane Katrina. The \"camps\", in Orange, Texas were guarded at all times and workers were subject to inspection upon entry and exit. Signal also deducted $1050 per month from employees pay-check towards \"rent\". In their testimony, affected migrant employees details further infringements such as regular searches in the camps, no alcohol or visitor policies, and guards addressing workers by numbers. Signal profited for an estimated $8 million in labor costs as a result of this scheme."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signals intelligence in modern history",
        "text": "Under the George W. Bush administration, there was a large-scale and controversial capture and analysis of domestic and international telephone calls, claimed to be targeted against terrorism. It is generally accepted that warrants have not been obtained for this activity, sometimes called Room 641A after a location, in San Francisco, where AT&T provides NSA access. While very little is known about this system, it may be focused more on the signaling channel and Call detail records than the actual content of conversations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pujith Jayasundara",
        "text": "However in a 20-page complaint Jayasundara claimed that there were serious communication gaps between intelligence agencies and security arms of the government, all which fall under Sirisena. He also stated that the State Intelligence Service (SIS) which reports directly to the president ordered him to stop ongoing police investigations into Islamic militants including the National Thowheeth Jama'ath (NTJ)."
      },
      {
        "title": "All-points bulletin",
        "text": "In the \"event the radio is not a viable means for transmitting data (i.e., radio traffic is busy)\", the police officer will use the digital all-points bulletin. The officer enters the same exact information into the mobile computer terminal. By doing this, they are able to make the message equivalent to a radio message, with the same codes. This allows the same automated information to be gathered by other police officers who are receiving the bulletin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (IPC)",
        "text": "Signal handling is vulnerable to race conditions. As signals are asynchronous, another signal (even of the same type) can be delivered to the process during execution of the signal handling routine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Airtel Bangladesh",
        "text": "But If automatic network registration fails in any phone & no signal appears, following this step will help to get Robi Network."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mobile phone signal",
        "text": "In areas where signal reception would normally be strong, other factors can have an effect on reception or may cause complete failure (see RF interference). From inside a building with thick walls or of mostly metal construction (or with dense rebar in concrete), signal attenuation may prevent a mobile phone from being used. Underground areas, such as tunnels and subway stations, will lack reception unless they are wired for cell signals. There may also be gaps where the service contours of the individual base stations (Cell towers) of the mobile provider (and/or its roaming partners) do not completely overlap."
      },
      {
        "title": "R v Tse",
        "text": "Generally, the police cannot intercept a person's private telecommunications (such as a wiretap), with certain exceptions, such as the consent of one of the parties to the communications in combination with judicial authorization, or with a warrant. and"
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal (software)",
        "text": "All client-server communications are protected by TLS. Signal's developers have asserted that their servers do not keep logs about who called whom and when. In June 2016, Marlinspike told \"The Intercept\" that \"the closest piece of information to metadata that the Signal server stores is the last time each user connected to the server, and the precision of this information is reduced to the day, rather than the hour, minute, and second\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regulation of Interception of Communications and Provision of Communication-related Information Act, 2002",
        "text": "It also regulates applications for interception of communications and provision of communication-related information under certain circumstances. It regulates law enforcement where interception of communications is involved and prohibits the provision of telecommunication services which do not have the capability to be intercepted and requires telecommunication service providers to store communication-related information (CRI). The law specifies costs to be borne by telecommunication service providers related to these requirements and compensation to services providers. It provides for the establishment of interception centres an Office for Interception Centres and an Internet Service Providers Assistance Fund. Lastly it prohibits the manufacturing, assembling, possessing, selling, purchasing or advertising of interception equipment without a certificate of exemption issued by the relevant Minister."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ampon Tangnoppakul",
        "text": "The Court held that the four messages constituted four acts concurrently in violation of the Criminal Code and the Act on Computer-Related Offences, BE 2550 (2007), and delivered a sentence only on a basis of the Criminal Code, the most serious law, that the Defendant was to be imprisoned for five years on account of each act (twenty years in total)."
      },
      {
        "title": "MAINWAY",
        "text": "MAINWAY\n--Content.\n--Usage.\n--Internet monitoring.\n----\"Wired\" magazine.\n----Partial retraction.\n--Denials.\n--Lawsuits.\n----Claims.\n----Justice Department response.\n--Legal status.\n----Stored Communications Act.\n----Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act.\n----Historical background.\n----Legality.\n--Political action.\n--Qwest Communications.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "R v Tse",
        "text": "Section 184.4 of the \"Criminal Code\" does not require any prior judicial authorization. Instead, three requirements must be met:\n#The police officer has reasonable grounds that due to the urgency of the situation, prior judicial authorization cannot be obtained with reasonable diligence,\n#The police officer has reasonable grounds that the interception is necessary to prevent an unlawful act that would cause serious harm to any person or property, and\n#Either the person sending the communication or the person intended to receive the communication is the person who would perform the unlawful act in question, or is the victim or intended victim of the harm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal for Help",
        "text": "The campaign advises that if someone sees a person using the signal on a video call, they should reach out using another form of contact (such as a text message or email), to ask yes-or-no questions that are easier to respond to, and to only contact emergency services if the signaler explicitly asks them to."
      },
      {
        "title": "Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act",
        "text": "USA telecommunications providers must install new hardware or software, as well as modify old equipment, so that it doesn't interfere with the ability of a law enforcement agency (LEA) to perform real-time surveillance of any telephone or Internet traffic. Modern voice switches now have this capability built in, yet Internet equipment almost always requires some kind of intelligent deep packet inspection probe to get the job done. In both cases, the intercept function must single out a subscriber named in a warrant for intercept and then immediately send some (headers-only) or all (full content) of the intercepted data to an LEA. The LEA will then process this data with analysis software that is specialized towards criminal investigations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mahmudur Rahman",
        "text": "On 2 October 2009, \"Amar Desh\" reported that the Bangladesh Telecommunication Regulatory Commission had hired Indian employees, and that their presence threatened state security. The BTRC sued the paper for defamation on 28 October, noting that the Indian nationals had been appointed by the United Nations, rather than the commission."
      },
      {
        "title": "SignalDemand",
        "text": "SignalDemand\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Prasanna Chandrasekera",
        "text": "\u2022 Signal Officer - Security Force Headquarters, Vavuniya - May 1990 to April 1991.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection",
        "text": "This in turn means: A station noting a collision has occurred is sending a 4 to 6 byte long pattern composed of 16 1-0 bit combinations. Note: The size of this jam signal is clearly above the minimum allowed frame-size of 64 bytes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signals intelligence operational platforms by nation",
        "text": "Former press and media statements that the facility is being operated by the CIA have never been confirmed; there is no proof of US civilian presence at JDFPG."
      },
      {
        "title": "Telephone tapping",
        "text": "The contracts or licenses by which the state controls telephone companies often require that the companies must provide access to tapping lines to law enforcement. In the U.S., telecommunications carriers are required by law to cooperate in the interception of communications for law enforcement purposes under the terms of Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Telegraph Act, 1885",
        "text": "Signal acquisition of any category within the radio spectrum outside of public licence-free broadcast frequencies needs approval from Wireless Planning & Coordination (WPC) wing of the DoT. Reception of radio traffic from Government or law-enforcement and defence organisations is strictly forbidden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Law Commission of India",
        "text": "C. Keep under review the system of judicial administration to ensure that it is responsive to the reasonable demands of the times and in particular to secure:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ampon Tangnoppakul",
        "text": "Police Lieutenant General Tha-ngai Prasajaksatru, chief of the police team arresting Ampon, remarked that in the course of the inquiry, Ampon pleaded not guilty, but admitted that the exhibited mobile phones were his. He stated that he had not used them for a long time and did not know how to send a text message. Tha-ngai also said that he believes Ampon was a member of the United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship (UDD) or Red Shirts, and that the Internal Security Operations Command has blacklisted him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Government censorship of Telegram Messenger",
        "text": "On 19 October 2020, the National Broadcasting and Telecommunications Commission was ordered to block Telegram due to its use in the 2020 Thai protests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alpine distress signal",
        "text": "Any abuse of emergency signals may lead to prosecution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada Border Services Agency",
        "text": "On November 12, 2019, a federal court in Boston, USA ruled that the government must have reasonable suspicion of digital contraband before searching electronic devices at U.S. border crossings. The judgement has ignited speculation that Canada should have updated legislation surrounding this area of law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chatter (signals intelligence)",
        "text": "Even if they cannot decrypt what suspects are saying to one another, a change in the volume of traffic may raise alarm, since a large increase may indicate increased preparation for action, while a sudden decrease may indicate the end of planning and the imminence of action. These considerations do not apply when the targets of analysis follow the military practice of maintaining a steady flow of encrypted communications whether they are needed or not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ram Prasad Nautiyal",
        "text": "He said \"When Ibbotson is available in the court not as a DCP but as a petitioner than why he does not come to witness box and narrate the incident.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "National Traffic System",
        "text": "As traffic trickles back down through the area, region, section, and local nets, messages are typically delivered via a local telephone call, depending on handling instructions. Messages can also be delivered by hand or via message carrier, including the postal service, however Part 97 dictates that ham radio operators cannot receive financial restitution for their service. If a message is undeliverable, handling instructions may dictate that a service message be originated back to the sending station."
      },
      {
        "title": "BlackBerry",
        "text": "Research in Motion agreed to give access to private communications to the governments of United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia in 2010, and India in 2012. The Saudi and UAE governments had threatened to ban certain services because their law enforcement agencies could not decrypt messages between people of interest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ampon Tangnoppakul",
        "text": "From the investigation, the team learned that Ampon owned the number from which the messages were sent, and successfully applied to the Criminal Court for a warrant of arrest on 29 July. Ampon was arrested at his rented house in Samut Prakan, and police seized three of his mobile phones together with their supplementary equipment. The Criminal Court placed Ampon in detention at the Khlong Prem Prison and turned down his relatives' request for provisional release. However, Ampon's relatives lodged a successful appeal with the Court of Appeal. Ampon was detained for sixty-three days prior to the release granted by the Court of Appeal on 4 October 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Batla House encounter case",
        "text": "The Batla House encounter case was an armed Delhi Police operation to arrest terrorists of the Indian terror outfit Indian Mujahideen, hiding in a flat in the Batla House area of Jamia Nagar, Okhla, on 19 September 2008. The operation resulted in the deaths of two terrorists and one police officer, Inspector Mohan Chand Sharma, with the remaining terrorists arrested. On 15 March 2021, one of the arrested Ariz Khan alias Junaid, was sentenced to death for the murder of Inspector Sharma."
      },
      {
        "title": "SORM",
        "text": "In cases where an FSB operative is required to get an eavesdropping warrant, he is under no obligation to show it to anyone. Telecom providers have no right to demand that the FSB provide a warrant, and are denied access to the surveillance boxes. The security service calls on the special controller at the FSB headquarters that is connected by a protected cable directly to the SORM device installed on the ISP network."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many iOS devices has Signal been installed on?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I couldn't find the iOS devices have it installed but Google Play states that Signal has been installed over 50 million times and that there were 40 million active monthly users in January 2021 and as of May 2021, it has been downloaded over 105 million times."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the company that makes Signal make other apps or services?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The company that made Signal, Signal Messenger LLC, also created the Signal Protocol."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some of Signal's features?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are features that enable users to blur faces in photos, make one-to-one and group voice and video calls with up to 40 people on iOS, Android, and desktop, communications are automatically end-to-end encrypted, and also allows users to set timers to messages."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How does encryption work in the Signal app?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Signal messages are encrypted with the Signal Protocol, which combines the Double Ratchet Algorithm, prekeys, and an Extended Triple Diffie\u2013Hellman (X3DH) handshake. It also supports end-to-end encrypted group chats, this protocol is a combination of a pairwise double ratchet and multicast encryption."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What has the audience reception of Signal been?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Audience reception by activists resulted in the United Nations recommending Myanmar residents use Signal and ProtonMail to pass and preserve evidence of human rights violations committed during the 2021 coup; criminals utilize it since by design, Signal is not able to read user messages, the same technology that keeps a conversation private between you and a family member also gives a safe haven to a terrorist in Syria and the person in the United States he's trying to recruit to commit an act of mass murder. In 2016, authorities in India arrested members of a suspected ISIS-affiliated terrorist cell that communicated via Signal and Telegram."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Do law enforcement agencies have any ways of dealing with Signal or similar messaging services?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I don't have any information on how the law enforcement agencies deal with Signal and the likes, but Signal requires mandatory connection to a phone number, which has been criticized as a \"major issue\" for privacy-conscious users who are not comfortable with giving out their private phone number.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I'm not sure what you meant by law enforcement dealing with Signal but Former NSA contractor Edward Snowden has endorsed Signal on multiple occasions; in March 2017, Signal was approved by the sergeant at arms of the U.S. Senate for use by senators and their staff. In March 2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the British Ministry of Defence ordered that its troops switch from WhatsApp to Signal, having been favoured by MI6 to avoid soldiers' phones being hacked by Russia.."
    ],
    "topic": "Signal (software)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):31",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)",
          "Limitations"
        ],
        "ctx": "This mandatory connection to a phone number (a feature Signal shares with WhatsApp, KakaoTalk, and others) has been criticized as a \"major issue\" for privacy-conscious users who are not comfortable with giving out their private phone number. A workaround is to use a secondary phone number. The ability to choose a public, changeable username instead of sharing one's phone number is a widely-requested feature."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):49",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)",
          "Reception",
          "Security"
        ],
        "ctx": "Former NSA contractor Edward Snowden has endorsed Signal on multiple occasions. In his keynote speech at SXSW in March 2014, he praised Signal's predecessors (TextSecure and RedPhone) for their ease of use. In December 2014, \"Der Spiegel\" leaked slides from an internal NSA presentation dating to June 2012 in which the NSA deemed Signal's encrypted voice calling component (RedPhone) on its own as a \"major threat\" to its mission of accessing users' private data, and when used in conjunction with other privacy tools such as Cspace, Tor, Tails, and TrueCrypt was ranked as \"catastrophic\" and led to a \"near-total loss/lack of insight to target communications [and] presence\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):51",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)",
          "Reception",
          "Security"
        ],
        "ctx": "In March 2017, Signal was approved by the sergeant at arms of the U.S. Senate for use by senators and their staff."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Signal (software):55",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Signal (software)",
          "Reception",
          "Security"
        ],
        "ctx": "In March 2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the British Ministry of Defence ordered that its troops switch from WhatsApp to Signal, having been favoured by MI6 to avoid soldiers' phones being hacked by Russia."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "With time, the shortage economy led to scarcity of meat, coffee, tea and other ingredients of daily use. Many products like chocolate, sugar and meat were rationed, with a specific limit depending on social class and health requirements. Physical workers and pregnant women were generally entitled to more food products. Imports were restricted, so much of the food supply was domestic. Cuisine became homogeneous, to be a chef was no longer a prestigious profession and for decades the country became basically disconnected from any foreign cuisine. Tropical fruits (citrus, banana, pineapple, etc.) were available during holidays and local fruits and vegetables were mostly seasonal but were available at private stands. For most of the year the Poles had to get by with only domestic winter fruit and vegetables: apples, plums, currants, onions, potatoes, cabbage, root vegetables and frozen products. Other food products (of foreign origins) were available at markets at high prices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish Americans",
        "text": "The Polish culture left also culinary marks in the United States \u2013 the inclusion of traditional Polish cuisine such as pierogi, kie\u0142basa, go\u0142\u0105bki. Some of these Polish foods were tweaked and reinvented in the new American environment, such as Chicago's Maxwell Street Polish Sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "When Poles came to Chicago and surrounding cities from Europe, they brought with them long ropes of kielbasa, cabbage rolls, and pierogis. Poles that left Poland after the fall of the Berlin Wall and descendants of earlier immigrants still make them, and they remain common in local diners and delis."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "Historian Karen Aroian has identified a bump in Polish immigration in the 1960s and 1970s as the \"Third Wave\". Poland was liberalized during the Gierek era when emigration was loosened, and U.S. immigration policy remained relatively kind to Poles. Interviews with immigrants from this wave found that they were consistently shocked at how important materialism and careerism was in the United States. Compared to Poland, as they experienced it, the United States had a very meager social welfare system and neighbors did not recognize the neighborly system of favors and bartering common in Poland. Polish immigrants saw a major difference in the variety of consumer goods in America, whereas in Poland shopping for consumer goods was less a luxury and more a means of survival. Aroian identifies his interviewees may have been skewed by the relatively recent immigrant status of his subjects, as every immigrant faces some setbacks in social standing when entering a new country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "With the subsequent decline of Poland, and the grain production crisis that followed The Deluge, potatoes began to replace the traditional use of cereal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "After the end of World War II, Poland became a communist country which joined the Warsaw Pact. Some restaurants were nationalized. The communists envisioned a net of lunch rooms called \"bufet\" for the workers at various companies, and milk bars for the public. The majority of restaurants that survived the 1940s and 1950s were state-owned. Workplace lunch rooms promoted mostly inexpensive meals, including soups of all kinds, meatballs and pork chops, and staples such as placki ziemniaczane/kartoflane (potato pancakes), placki z jablkami (apple pancakes), kopytka (potato gnocchi), leniwe (farmer's cheese gnocchi served sweet) and pierogi. A typical second course consisted of meat cutlet served with potatoes or buckwheat and \"sur\u00f3wka\" (raw, julienned vegetables). The popular Polish \"kotlet schabowy\" is a breaded cutlet similar to the Austrian Wiener schnitzel and the Italian and Spanish Milanesa."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "Helena Lopata argued that a Polish nationalism grew in Polish Americans during World War I, but fell sharply afterward. Polish immigrants to the United States did not know much about Poland aside from their local villages. In preparation for World War I, the Polish government asked for donations using appeals on behalf of the safety of their loved ones back home, as well as promises of a good high status back in Poland when they returned home. Lopata found that after World War I, many Polish Americans continued to receive requests for aid in Poland, and feelings of anger for all the years they had delayed bettering their own situation were common. Return immigrants who had dreamed of using their American savings to buy status symbols in Poland (farmlands, houses, etc.) were still treated as peasants in Poland, creating resentment towards the motherland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zapiekanka",
        "text": "' first appeared in the streets of Polish towns in the 1970s. Under Edward Gierek's leadership of the Polish United Workers' Party, Poland's Communist authorities allowed a degree of private enterprise in the catering industry. This move led to quick proliferation of small family-owned foodservice establishments, known in Polish as ', or \"small gastronomy\". Their spread continued during the food shortages of the following decade. They usually took the form of stands or travel trailers turned food trucks serving ' along with simple dishes of Polish cuisine, such as ' sausage, boiled ham hock or tripe soup, and American fast food staples, like hot dogs, hamburgers and French fries. The American journalist Anne Applebaum, who first came to Poland in 1988, described the \"\" of that time as \"a pizzalike substance\" and \"a poor relative of its distant Italian cousin\", \"a mushy white sandwich roll\" with \"a few overcooked mushrooms\" beneath \"melted cheese and a squeeze of ketchup\", which she ate nonetheless because little else was available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish joke",
        "text": "Polish Americans became the subject of derogatory jokes at the time when Polish immigrants moved to America in considerable numbers fleeing mass persecution at home perpetrated by Frederick the Great and Tsar Nicholas I. They took the only jobs available to them, usually requiring physical labor. The same job-related stereotypes persisted even as Polish Americans joined the middle class in the mid 20th century. During the Cold War era, despite the sympathy in the US for Poland being subjected to communism, negative stereotypes about Polish Americans endured, mainly because of Hollywood/TV media involvement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poland\u2013United States relations",
        "text": "The partitions of Poland erased Poland from the map in 1795 and long prevented the establishment of official diplomatic relations between Poland and the new United States. However, Poland, which enacted the world's second-oldest constitution in 1791, always considered the United States a positive influence. Even in the 18th century, important Polish figures such as Tadeusz Ko\u015bciuszko and Casimir Pulaski became closely involved with shaping US history. Haym Salomon, a Polish Jew, was the prime financier of the American side during the American Revolutionary War against Great Britain. Many Poles also emigrated to the United States in the 19th century and formed a large Polish American community in urban centres such as Chicago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "Jewish immigrants from eastern Europe ate a type of oatmeal cereal called \"krupnik\" that sometimes had barley, potatoes and fat added, and milk when it was available. Orthodox Jews continued to observe \"kashrut\" sweatshop laborers carried bagels, knish and herring to work."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "American-style pickles, now a common addition to hamburgers and sandwiches, were brought by Polish Jews, and Austro-Hungarian Jews brought a recipe for almond horns that now is a common regional cookie, diverting from the original recipe in dipping the ends in dark chocolate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Records show that her visiting guests were entertained with forest game, and the following fowl: waxwings; fieldfares; snow bunting; hazel grouse; partridges; black grouse; capercaillies; plus fish and molluscs: loach; various trout; grayling; salmon fresh and smoked; flounder, salted herring; lampreys in vinegar; oysters; snails; and Genoese p\u00e2t\u00e9, not to mention fresh fruit and chestnuts. French and Italian wines were served, as well as mead and local beers. The dishes were made only according to French recipes. The royal court with all its innovations exerted a broad influence over the rest of aristocratic residences and noble palaces across Poland. French cuisine was in fashion and many families willingly employed French cooks and p\u00e2t\u00e9 makers. In the mid-18th century on Polish tables appeared the French champagne. Also, among the most influential in that period were Lithuanian, Jewish, German and Hungarian cuisine, not to mention Armenian, which arrived in Poland before the 17th century along with many settlers especially in the south-eastern part of the Commonwealth. Signature dishes of the Western Asia reached Polish tables thanks to the Armenian trade and cultural exchange with Poland's neighbour - the Ottoman Empire. Rare delicacies were brought to royal court as gifts from sultans and royal envoys. The strongest influences were noted in the cities of Lw\u00f3w, Krak\u00f3w, Kamieniec Podolski and Zamo\u015b\u0107 due to many Armenians living there permanently. Also, because of the close contact with the Ottoman Empire, coffee (\"kawa\") and boza became popular."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "According to James S. Pula, \"the drastic reduction in Polish immigration served not only to cut off the external source of immigrants used to perpetuate the urban ethnic communities, but also cut off direct access to cultural renewal from Poland.\" He said, \"increasingly, Polonia's image of Poland became fixed, delimited by the indistinct images of the nineteenth century agricultural villages their ancestors left rather than the developing modern nation that Poland was moving toward during the interwar period.\" Family members who traveled to Poland to see their families risked not being allowed back if they were not citizens. Polonia leader Rev. Lucyan B\u00f3jnowski wrote in the 1920s, \"In a few decades, unless immigration from Poland is upheld, Polish American life will disappear, and we shall be like a branch cut off from its trunk.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "The largest wave of Polish immigration to America occurred in the years after the American Civil War until World War I. Polish immigration began \"en masse\" from Prussia in 1870 following the Franco-Prussian War. Prussia retaliated against Polish support for France with increasing Germanization following the war. This wave of immigrants are referred to as \"\" (for bread) immigrants because they were primarily peasants facing starvation and poverty in occupied Poland. A study by the U.S. Immigration Commission found that in 1911, 98.8% of Polish immigrants to the United States said that they would be joining relatives or friends, leading to conclusions that letters sent back home played a major role in promoting immigration. They arrived first from the German Polish partition, and then from the Russian partition and Austrian partition. U.S. restrictions on European immigration during the 1920s and the general chaos of World War I cut off immigration significantly until World War II. Estimates for the large wave of Polish immigrants from about 1870s to 1920s are given at about 1.5 million. In addition, many Polish immigrants arrived at the port of Baltimore. The actual numbers of ethnically Polish arrivals at that time is difficult to estimate due to prolonged occupation of Poland by neighboring states, with total loss of its international status. Similar circumstances developed in the following decades: during the Nazi German occupation of Poland in World War II; and further, in the communist period, under the Soviet military and political dominance with re-drawn national borders. During the Partitions of Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth (1795\u20131918), the Polish nation was forced to define itself as a disjointed and oppressed minority, within three neighboring empires, in the Austrian Partition, Prussian Partition, and Russian Partition. The Polish diaspora in the United States, however, was founded on a unified national culture and society. Consequently, it assumed the place and moral role of the \"fourth province\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Commission for Polish Relief",
        "text": "Soon after Poland's defeat in October 1939, controversies arose on whether the Nazis could be trusted to distribute the food properly. Contributions from the Polish-American community dropped, as the community became split over that issue. By early spring 1940, CPR efforts were much reduced in effectiveness as a result of the drop in donations and Nazi government opposition."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "Among American-born citizens of Polish ancestry, roughly 50% report eating Polish dishes, and many can name a variety of Polish foods unprompted. Whereas over 60% of Italian Americans reported eating Italian food at least once a week, less than 10% of Polish Americans ate Polish food once a week. This figure is still a higher occurrence than Irish Americans, who can only name a few traditional Irish foods (typically corned beef and cabbage), and only 30% report eating Irish food each year. Even fewer English, Dutch, and Scottish Americans can report that they eat ethnic cuisine regularly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peel Commission",
        "text": "The Commission found that the drafters of the Mandate could not have foreseen the advent of massive Jewish immigration, that they considered due to \"drastic restriction of immigration into the United States, the advent of the National Socialist Government in Germany in 1933 and the increasing economic pressure on the Jews in Poland.\" They wrote that \"The continued impact of a highly intelligent and enterprising race, backed by large financial resources, on a comparatively poor indigenous community, on a different cultural level, may produce in time serious reactions.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Commission for Polish Relief",
        "text": "The shipments were sent using from the United States to Sweden and then to German ports like Hamburg or Danzig. After the German invasion of Norway the route was changed to Genoa or Lisbon, from where the food was shipped by rail to occupied Poland. After , Italian railroads no longer carried aid, and the shipments were rerouted to Vilnius."
      },
      {
        "title": "Friedrich-Wilhelm Kr\u00fcger",
        "text": "Due to harsh \"politics\" of the occupants, the shortage of the food and medications in the cities and towns was extremal. The Poles were starving (average food allocation amounted to 2,600 calories for Germans, 700 for Poles and 400 for Jews). The worst situation was in the ghettos, where the mortality was much higher than among \"free\" Poles. Farmers in GG were obliged to deliver draconian amount of grain, meat, milk and potatoes, which were sent straight to Germany. No pay was given to the victims. Just in the year 1942\u20131943 around 633,000 tons of the grain were confiscated from Polish villages. In the Autumn period of 1944 nearly 388,000 tons of potatoes were stolen. The contingents were taken by force and in the whole process military or para-military forces were used, acting on orders of local SS or police commander. In the case of refusal to deliver on time, a severe punishments like beatings or arrests were applied. Some of them were resulting in sending to a concentration camps. All sorts of repressions were introduced, including the death penalty (without formal accusation or a lawful trial)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "Throughout the northern Midwest, northern European immigrant groups predominated, so Swedish pancakes and Polish pierogi are common. Wisconsin, Missouri, Kansas, Ohio and Illinois were destinations for many ethnic German immigrants, so pork sausages and potatoes are prevalent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture in post-communist Poland",
        "text": "With the end of pro-Soviet totalitarianism in Poland, new restaurants opened and the basic foodstuffs were once again easily obtainable. This led to a gradual return of rich traditional Polish cuisine, both in home cooking and in restaurants. At the same time, restaurants and supermarkets promoted the use of ingredients typical of other cuisines of the world. Notable foods in Polish cuisine include Polish sausage, red beet soup, Polish dumplings, flaczki (tripe soup), cabbage rolls, Oscypek, Polish pork chops, Polish traditional stew, various potato dishes, a fast food sandwich zapiekanka, and many more. Traditional Polish desserts include Polish doughnuts, Polish gingerbread and many similar others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hunger Plan",
        "text": "The Hunger Plan directed against the population of Soviet cities and grain-deficit territories was unique\u2014the Nazis formulated no other plan against the inhabitants of other German-occupied territories. However, starvation affected other parts of German-occupied Europe, including Greece (more than 300,000 Greeks died of starvation during the Great Famine) and the General Government of Poland. Unlike in the Soviet Union, in Poland the Jewish population in ghettos (especially in the Warsaw Ghetto) suffered the most, although ethnic Poles also faced increasing levels of starvation. Raul Hilberg estimated that \"in the whole of occupied Poland 500,000 to 600,000 Jews died in ghettos and labor camps\", in part due to starvation. In early 1943, Hans Frank, the German governor of Poland, estimated that three million Poles would face starvation as a result of the Plan. In August, the Polish capital Warsaw was cut off from grain deliveries. Only the bumper harvest of 1943 and the collapsing Eastern Front of 1944 saved the Poles from starvation. Western Europe was third on the German list for the re-distribution of food, which was also shipped to Germany from France and other occupied territories in the West but these were never subjected to the genocidal starvation experienced in the East. As many as 22,000 people died during the Dutch famine of 1944 as a result of an embargo placed by the Germans on transporting food into the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "Together with earlier arrivals to the United States (including the indigenous Native Americans, Hispanic and Latino Americans, particularly in the West, Southwest, and Texas; African Americans who came to the United States in the Atlantic slave trade; and early colonial migrants from Europe), these new waves of immigrants had a profound impact on national or regional cuisine. Some of these more prominent groups include the following:\n* Arab Americans, particularly Lebanese Americans (the largest ethnic Arab group in the United States)\u2014Arab cuisine, Lebanese cuisine\n* Chinese Americans\u2014American Chinese cuisine, Chinese cuisine\n* Cuban Americans\u2014Cuban cuisine\n* Dominican Americans\u2014Dominican Republic cuisine\n* Ethiopian Americans\u2014Eritrean Americans: Ethiopian cuisine, Eritrean cuisine in Los Angeles, Washington, D.C., Denver, New York.\n* German Americans\u2014German cuisine (the Pennsylvania Dutch, although descended from Germans, arrived earlier than the bulk of German migrants and have distinct culinary traditions)\n* Greek Americans\u2014Greek-American cuisine, Greek cuisine, Mediterranean cuisine\n* Haitian Americans\u2014Haitian cuisine\n* Hungarian Americans\u2014Hungarian cuisine\n* Indian Americans\u2014Indian cuisine\n* Irish Americans\u2014Irish cuisine\n* Italian Americans\u2014Italian-American cuisine, Italian cuisine\n* Japanese Americans\u2014Japanese cuisine, with influences on the Hawaiian cuisine\n* Jewish Americans\u2014Jewish cuisine, with particular influence on New York City cuisine\n* Korean Americans\u2014Korean cuisine\n* Lithuanian Americans\u2014Lithuanian cuisine, Midwest\n* Nicaraguan American\u2014Nicaraguan cuisine\n* Pakistani Americans\u2014Pakistani cuisine\n* Polish Americans\u2014Polish cuisine, with particular impact on Midwest\n* Polynesian Americans\u2014Hawaiian cuisine\n* Portuguese Americans\u2014Portuguese cuisine\n* Romanian Americans\u2014Romanian cuisine\n* Russian Americans\u2014Russian cuisine, with particular impact on Midwest\n* Salvadoran Americans\u2014Salvadoran cuisine\n* Scottish Americans\u2014Scottish cuisine\n* Thai Americans\u2014Thai cuisine\n* Turkish Americans\u2014Turkish cuisine, Balkan cuisine\n* Vietnamese Americans\u2014Vietnamese cuisine\n* West Indian Americans\u2014Caribbean cuisine, Jamaican cuisine, Trinidad and Tobago cuisine"
      },
      {
        "title": "Commission for Polish Relief",
        "text": "Both Polish and Jewish population in areas of Nazi Germany occupied was considered by German authorities to be \"sub-human\" (Untermensch) and as such targeted for extermination and slavery. Under Nazi plans, deliberate starvation of what were considered \"sub-humans\" was considered. From the beginning of Nazi occupation of Poland food was forcefully confiscated from Polish population by Nazi authorities to be used for benefit of Nazi Germany By mid 1941, the German minority in Poland received 2613 calories per day while Poles received 699 and Jews in the ghetto 184. The Jewish ration fulfilled 7.5 percent of their daily needs; Polish rations only 26 percent. Only the ration allocated to Germans fulfilled the full needs of their daily calorie intake."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "There are many restaurants serving various Polish dishes like polish sausage, pierogies and stuffed cabbage rolls. and typical German foods like \"rippchen\", \"knackwurst\", and \"wienerschnitzel\". Traditionally, potato salad and kraut were served alongside an entree of bratwurst or ham hocks. A side of \"spaetzle\" and red cabbage would accompany \"sauerbraten\" or \"rouladen\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "Following World War I, the reborn Polish state began the process of economic recovery and some Poles tried to return. Since all the ills of life in Poland could be blamed on foreign occupation, the migrants did not resent the Polish upper classes. Their relation with the mother country was generally more positive than among migrants of other European countries. It is estimated that 30% of the Polish emigrants from lands occupied by the Russian Empire returned home. The return rate for non-Jews was closer to 50\u201360%. More than two-thirds of emigrants from Polish Galicia (freed from under the Austrian occupation) also returned."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Polish Peasant in Europe and America",
        "text": "It was a major influence on the Chicago school, providing a model for much future research. It contributed to the development of the social disorganization theory and became a landmark study of Americanization (in the word's original meaning, i.e. how do new immigrants to United States become \"Americans\"). It was also one of the earliest works to study the topic of immigration to the United States, particularly with regards to trying to understand both the European and the American social context."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-Polish sentiment",
        "text": "For decades, Polish Americans have been the subject of derogatory jokes originating in anti-immigrant stereotypes that had developed in the U.S. before the 1920s. During the Partitions of Poland, Polish immigrants came to the United States in considerable numbers, fleeing mass persecution at home. They were taking the only jobs available to them, usually requiring physical labor. The same ethnic and job-related stereotypes persisted even as Polish Americans joined the middle class in the mid-20th century. \"The constant derision, often publicly disseminated through the mass media, caused serious identity crises, feeling of inadequacy, and low self-esteem for many Polish Americans.\" In spite of the plight of Polish people under Cold War communism, negative stereotypes about Polish Americans endured."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "The first group of Poles to emigrate to the United States were those in German-occupied Poland. The German territories advanced their agricultural technologies in 1849, creating a surplus of agricultural labor, first in Silesia, then in eastern Prussian territories. The rise in agricultural yields created the unintended effect of boosting the Polish population, as infant mortality and starvation decreased, increasing the Polish birth rate. In 1886, Otto von Bismarck gave a speech to the Lower House of the Prussian Parliament defending his policies of anti-polonism, and warning of the ominous position Silesia was in with over 1 million Poles who could fight Germany \"within twenty four hour notice\". Citing the November Uprising of 1830\u201331, Bismarck introduced measures to limit freedoms of press and political representation that Poles enjoyed within the Empire. Bismarck forced the deportation of an estimated 30,000\u201340,000 Poles out of German territory in 1885, with a five-year ban on any Polish immigration back into Germany. Many Poles did return in 1890, when the ban was lifted, but others left for the United States during this time. Bismarck's anti-Catholic \"Kulturkampf\" policies aimed at Polish Catholics increased political unrest and interrupted Polish life, also causing emigration. Around 152,000 Poles left for United States during the \"Kulturkampf\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish Americans",
        "text": "Historian John Bukowczyk noted that Polish immigrants in America were highly mobile, and 40 to 60 percent were likely to move from any given urban neighborhood within 10 years. The reasons for this are very individualistic; Bukowczyk's theory is that many immigrants with agricultural backgrounds were eager to migrate because they were finally freed from the local plots of land they had owned in Poland. Others ventured into business and entrepreneurship, and the majority of them opened small retail shops such as bakeries, butcher shops, saloons, and print shops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "This situation led in turn to gradual replacement of traditional Polish cuisine with food prepared from anything available at the moment. Among the popular dishes introduced by the public restaurants was \"kotlet mielony\"\" meatball\", a sort of a hamburger often served with beet puree and fresh carrots. The traditional recipes were mostly preserved during the Wigilia feast (Christmas Eve), for which many families tried to prepare 12 traditional courses."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "Historians divide Polish American immigration into three \"waves\", the largest from 1870 to 1914, a second after World War II, and a third after Poland's independence in 1989. Most Polish Americans are descended from the first wave, when millions of Poles fled Polish districts of Germany, Russia, and Austria. This group is often called the \"\" (for bread) immigrants because most were peasants in Poland who did not own land and lacked basic subsistence. Austrian Poles were from Galicia, unarguably the most destitute region in Europe at the time. Up to a third of Poles living in the United States returned to Poland after a few years, but the majority stayed. Substantial research and sociological works such as \"The Polish Peasant in Europe and America\" found that many Polish immigrants shared a common objective of someday owning land in the U.S. or back in Poland. Anti-Slavic legislation cut Polish immigration from 1921 to World War II, but opened up after World War II to include many displaced persons from the Holocaust. A third wave, much smaller, came in 1989 when Poland was freed from Communist rule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "With the fall of communism in Poland in 1989, a wave of new restaurants opened and the basic foodstuffs were once again easily obtainable. This led to a gradual return of rich traditional Polish cuisine, both in home cooking and in restaurants. At the same time, restaurants and supermarkets promoted the use of ingredients typical of other cuisines of the world. Among the most notable foods that started to become common in Poland were cucurbits, zucchini and all kinds of fish. During communist times, these were available fresh mostly in the seaside regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "Polish pianist Ignacy Paderewski came to the U.S. and asked immigrants for help. He raised awareness of the plight and suffering in Poland before and after World War I. Paderewski used his name recognition to promote the sale of dolls to benefit Poland. The dolls, dressed in traditional Polish garb, had \"Halka and Jan\" as main characters. Sales provided enough money for the Polish refugees in Paris who designed the dolls to survive, and extra profits were used to purchase and distribute food to the poor in Poland."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "The influence of ethnicity-specific cuisines like Italian cuisine and Mexican cuisine was present in the United States by World War I. There are recipes for Chilean meat pies, chicken chop suey, chow mein, Mexican pork pastries and Italian meatballs going back to at least the 1930s, but many of the recipes were Anglicized and they appeared relatively infrequently compared to Northern European recipes."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "Immigration from Poland was primarily conducted at Ellis Island, New York, although some people entered via Castle Garden and to a lesser extent, in Baltimore. Ellis Island developed an infamous reputation among Polish immigrants and their children. An American reporter in the 1920s found that Polish immigrants were treated as \"third class\", and were subject to humiliation, profanity, and brutality at Ellis Island. The Cleveland Polish language daily \"\" (Polish Daily News) reported that officers at Ellis Island demanded women to strip from the waist up in public view. The immigration of paupers was forbidden by the U.S. Congress beginning with the Immigration Act of 1882. A newsman at Castle Garden found in a single ship of arriving passengers, 265 were \"Poles and Slavonians\", and 60 were detained as \"destitute and likely to become public charges.\" Polish Americans were disgusted by the Immigration Act of 1924 which restricted Polish immigration to 1890 levels, when there was no Polish nation. A Polish American newspaper stated, \"...If the Americans wish to have more Germans and fewer Slavs, why don't they admit that publicly!?\" It further went to examine the recent World War with Germany, which was America's enemy, whereas the Polish had been patriotic and loyal to the U.S. Armed Services. Polish Americans were unconvinced that the immigration decreases of the 1920s were for the \"protection\" of American workers, and Polish language newspapers reflected their distrust and suspicion of racial undertones behind immigration legislation."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "Other dishes came about during the early 20th century and have much to do with delicatessen fare, set up largely by Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe who came to America incredibly poor, often illiterate in any other language but Yiddish, and often banished from mainstream society in their place of origin for centuries. Most often they were completely unable to partake in the outdoor food markets that the general population utilized as most of the food for sale was not kosher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polonophile",
        "text": "The large Polish-American community maintains some traditional folk customs and contemporary observances, such as Dyngus Day and Pulaski Day, which became well known in American culture. It also includes the influence of Polish cuisine and the spread of famous specialties from Poland like pierogi, kielbasa, Kabana sausage and bagels."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "The clothing industry in New York City was staffed by many immigrants from Eastern and Southern Europe. Historian Witold Kula found that many Jewish immigrants, and to a much lesser extent, Italians, were identified upon their arrival to the United States as having work background as tailors even if they did not. Kula identified several letters written by Jewish immigrants back to their families in Poland indicating that they were just learning the trade, when in fact, they had papers stating that it was their native profession. The new immigrants generally did not speak English nor did the immigration agents speak any Polish, Yiddish, or Italian. Kula suggests that the Immigration agents were influenced by the demands of the workforce and essentially staffed the industries based on their expectations of each ethnic group. By 1912, the needle trades were the largest employer of Polish Jews in the United States, and 85% of the needle trade employees were Eastern European Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "Polish immigration was increasing rapidly in the early 20th century until 1911 when it was drastically cut by new legislation. Immigration from Europe was cut severely in 1911, and the quota for Polish immigrants was shrunk drastically. Poles were restricted from coming to the United States for decades, and only after World War II were the immigration laws reversed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish-American vote",
        "text": "Following Woodrow Wilson, Polish voters swung Republican starting in 1920, electing Warren Harding. Poles were upset with the borders set up by the Treaty of Versailles, as were the Germans, Italian, Czech, and Irish immigrants living in the United States. Poles were also frustrated by the Little Treaty of Versailles, which was signed at the same time as the official Treaty of Versailles. The \"little treaty\" placed on Poland's independence a contingent minority clause, stated as: \"Poland accepts ... provisions ... to protect the interests of inhabitants of Poland who differ from the majority of the population in race, language, or religion\". The new Polish nation, which contained many Russians, Ukrainians, Jews, and Germans, was made especially weak by the clause granting these groups a protected class distinction in Poland. Ethnic strife with the Ukrainians and Russians were made very tense as the result of ongoing wars, including the Polish\u2013Ukrainian War and the Polish\u2013Soviet War. The Treaty provided minority safeguards to Jewish Poles, and Wilson sent Henry Morgenthau, Sr. and other Jewish-American diplomats to Poland to defend Jews against any anti-semitism. These 1919 investigations were called \"humiliating invasions upon the internal affairs of Poland through the granting of privileges for the Jews\" by the Polish National Alliance. Poles felt they were held in a double standard, as their national minorities were protected by the League of Nations, whereas Polish minorities in Germany or Russia did not experience corresponding protections, despite continuous ethnic strife. \"Dziennik Zwiakowy\", a Polish-American newspaper, endorsed Harding, who campaigned as being against the League of Nations, as \"the next in a line of great and wise [Republican] presidents.\" The postwar economy suffered from double digit unemployment and 15% inflation, and a rise in violence and labor protests served as a rebuke of the Democratic Party. Warren Harding's argument that this poor economic situation was the \"new normalcy\" under Democratic administrations attracted many urban voters, including Chicago Poles."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "Meatpacking was dominated by Polish immigrants in the Midwestern United States during the late 19th century until World War II."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "A wave of Polish immigrants came to the United States following World War II. They differed from the first wave in that they did not want to, and often could not, return to Poland. They assimilated rather quickly, learned English and moved into the American middle class with less of the discrimination faced by the first wave. This group of immigrants also had a strong Polish identity; Poland created a strong national and cultural identity during the 1920s and 1930s when it gained independence, and immigrants carried much of this cultural influx to the United States. Poles in the second wave were much more likely to seek white-collar and professional positions, took pride in expressing Poland's cultural and historical successes, and did not submit to the low status American Poles had taken in previous generations. The background of these immigrants varied widely. Historically, 5 or 6 million Poles lived in territories annexed by the Soviet Union during World War II. Many were aristocrats, students, university graduates, and middle-class citizens who were systematically categorized by the Soviet police; Polish military officers were killed in Katyn, the civilians were deported to remote territories in Central Asia or Nazi concentration camps. During the War, Poles attempted to seek refuge in the United States, and some were allowed in. Following the War, many Poles escaped Soviet oppression by fleeing to sympathetic Western nations such as the United Kingdom, France, and the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "Polish immigration to the United States experienced a small wave in the years following 1989. Specifically, the fall of the Berlin Wall and the subsequent fall of Soviet control freed emigration from Poland. A pent-up demand of Poles who previously were not allowed to emigrate was satisfied, and many left for Germany or America. The United States Immigration Act of 1990 admitted immigrants from 34 countries adversely affected by a previous piece of immigration legislation; in 1992, when the Act was implemented, over a third of Polish immigrants were approved under this measure. The most popular destination for Polish immigrants following 1989 was Chicago, followed by New York City. This was the oldest cohort of immigrants from Poland, averaging 29.3 years in 1992."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philadelphia Polish American Festival",
        "text": "Food also plays a central role in Polish culture and traditions. Because of this, the festival places special emphasis on presenting authentic traditional Polish food based on recipes that were brought to America by Polish immigrants and are still preserved by their Polish-American descendants today. During each festival, a wide variety of Polish dishes is prepared on site. This includes: pierogi, go\u0142\u0105bki (stuffed cabbage rolls), kielbasa, placki (potato pancakes), bigos (cabbage and meat stew), chrusciki (pastry) and babka (a type of coffee cake)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ethnobotany of Poland",
        "text": "Green vegetables from around 58 taxa (43 genera) appear but half are only used when food is scare. Sorrel is among the most common, with data from 1948 describing the preservation of leaves for the winter. \"Chenopodium\" and \"Atriplex\" species were eaten fried, blanched or boiled, mixed with potatoes or dairy. The perception of survey respondents was generally that it was a wartime food or mostly eaten by the poor, and its consumption is rare in modern times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish Americans",
        "text": "Their history is divided into three stages:\n# From the colonial era down to 1870, small numbers of Poles and Polish subjects came to America as individuals or in small family groups, and they quickly assimilated and did not form separate communities. For instance, Polish settlers came to the Virginia Colony as skilled craftsmen as early as 1608. Some Jews from Poland even assimilated into cities which were Polish (and also other Slavic, and sometimes additionally Jewish) bastions in order to conceal their Jewish identities.\n# From 1870 to 1914, Poles and Polish subjects formed a significant part of the wave of immigration from Germany, Imperial Russia, and Austria Hungary. The Ethnic Poles and Jews in particular came in family groups, settled in and/or blended into largely Polish neighborhoods and other Slavic bastions, and aspired to earn relatively high wages compared to what they could earn back in Europe (thus why many took the ample job opportunities for unskilled manual labor in industry and mining). The main Ethnically-Polish-American organizations were founded because of high Polish interest in the Catholic church, parochial schools, and local community affairs. Relatively few were politically active.\n# Since 1914, the United States has seen mass emigration from Poland, and the coming of age of several generations of fully assimilated Polish Americans. Immigration from Poland has continued into the early 2000s, and began to decline after Poland joined the European Union in 2004. The income levels have gone up from well below average, to above average. Poles became active members of the liberal New Deal Coalition from the 1930s to the 1960s, but since then, many have moved to the suburbs, and have become more conservative and vote less often Democratic. Outside of Republican and Democratic politics, politics such as those of Agudath Israel of America have heavily involved Polish-Jewish Americans."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "Anti-Polish sentiment in the early 20th century relegated Polish immigrants to a very low status in American society. Other white ethnic groups such as the Irish and Germans had assimilated to the American language and gained powerful positions in the Catholic Church and in various government positions by this time, and Poles were seen with disdain. Poles did not share in any political or religious say in the United States until 1908, when the first American bishop of Polish descent was appointed in Chicago, Illinois - Most Rev. Father Rhode. His appointment was the result of growing pressure placed on the Illinois Archdiochese by Polish Americans eager to have a bishop of their own background. The Pope himself finally acquiesced when Chicago Archbishop James Edward Quigley finally lobbied on behalf of his Polish parishioners in Rome. Poles were viewed as powerful workers, suited for their uncommonly good physical health, endurance, and stubborn character, capable of heavy work from dawn to dusk. The majority of Polish immigrants were young men of in superior physical health, feeding well into the stereotype, and the lack of a significant immigration of intelligentsia perpetuated this perception in the United States. Historian Adam Urbanski drew an observation through \"The Immigrant Press and its Control\", which stated, \"Loneliness in an unfamiliar environment turns the wanderers' thoughts and affections back upon his native land. The strangeness of his new surroundings emphasizes his kinship with those he has lost.\" Polish immigrants viewed themselves as common workers and carried an inferiority complex where they saw themselves as outsiders and only wanted peace and security within their own Polish communities; many found comfort in the economic opportunities and religious freedoms that made living in the United States a less strange experience. When Poles moved into non-Polish communities, the natives moved out, forcing immigrants to live in the United States as separate communities, often near other eastern European ethnics."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Polish Peasant in Europe and America",
        "text": "Thomas and Znaniecki intended to explore the relation between individuals and society, focusing on groups such as families and neighborhoods, and community ties, which they believed were key to social change. They argue that the Polish community was shaped less by US government policies, and more by its own culture and social ties. They stress the importance of the group, and attribute social disorganization to cases when individuals become isolated from a group (see also anomie). The authors start by analyzing the circumstances of Polish countryside and reasons for immigration, and in conclusion discuss the transformation of said immigrants, show that the Poles are becoming not American but Polish-Americans, a new ethnic group, as their culture is changing to fit the American context, but retaining some unique characteristics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "The oldest surviving Polish cook-book, \"Compendium ferculorum, albo Zebranie potraw\" (\"Collection of Dishes\") by Stanis\u0142aw Czerniecki was published in Krak\u00f3w in 1682. Under the partitions, the cuisine of Poland became heavily influenced by cuisines of the surrounding empires. This included Russian and German cuisines, but also the culinary traditions of most nations of the Austro-Hungarian empire. The 19th century also saw the creation of many Polish cookbooks, by Jan Szyttler, Anna Ciundziewicka, Wincenta Zawadzka, Lucyna \u0106wierczakiewiczowa and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "Immigrants from Southern Europe, namely Sicily, Campania, Lazio, and Calabria, appeared between 1880 and 1960 in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Eastern Maryland hoping to escape the extreme poverty and corruption endemic to Italy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Commission for Polish Relief",
        "text": "The Commission provided food (such as evaporated milk, rye flour, vegetable fats, sugar and hominy grits) and clothing to Polish refugees throughout Europe, such as the 50,000 Polish refugees in France, and to 200,000 malnourished children, women and elderly inside occupied Poland that were fed daily from canteens. The Commission is said to have delivered 150 tonnes of supplies within a few months, and in early 1940 CPR organized kitchens served 200,000 meals a day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franciszek Cha\u0142upka",
        "text": "When the church was under construction, the United States were hit by the hardest, although short-term Depression in American history. The whole industry collapsed during the panic on the stock exchange in 1893. There was high unemployment among immigrants, which meant that many Poles in Chicopee resulting in starvation condition. During those hard times, young Fr. Cha\u0142upka, visited the homes of wealthy people, begging for financial assistance. Money he collected, were used to pay for food and coal. The efforts of the young priest earned him legendary status in the community of Polish immigrants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sztafeta",
        "text": "When in mid-1920 Soviet offensive against Poland began, the government of Czechoslovakia prohibited all transports of weapons, so needed by Poland. On July 28, 1920, the Conference of Ambassadors accepted the temporary demarcation line as a border between the two nations: \"Our delegate, Ignacy Paderewski, while signing the decision of the Council, stated that Polish nation would never be convinced that it was a just decision, while Marshall Pi\u0142sudski told the Poles of Zaolzie: Wait, be patient. We will never renounce you (...) As soon as Czechs took control of this land, they closed down 17 Polish schools with 4,135 students, expelling 100 Polish teachers (...) The Czechs did not exert direct pressure. Instead, they used the slogan: We have jobs only for our people. So, a Pole, sending his kids to Polish school, a Pole involved in Polish associations, lost his job (...) So local Poles decided to organize themselves. At \u0141azy I saw the main office of a Polish association of food producers. It has its own rail track, large car park, bakery, slaughterhouse, mill, lemonade plant, 120 stores spread across three counties\". (pages 465\u2013468)\n* Oczekiwany dzie\u0144"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "Polish jokes were everywhere in the 1960s and 1970s. In the late '60s, a book of Polish jokes was published and copyrighted, and commercial goods, gift cards, and merchandise followed that profited at the expense of Poles. Polish stereotyping was deeply pervasive in America and assimilation, upward mobility, higher education, and even intermarriage did not solve the problem. In 1985, Bukowczyk recalled meeting a college student from largely Polish Detroit, Michigan who lived in a home where her Irish-American mother would sometimes call her Polish-American father a \"dumb Polack.\" Polish Americans were ashamed of their identities, and thousands changed their names to fit into American society. The American media spread an image of the Polish male as a \"jock\", typically large, strong, and tough athletically, but lacking in intelligence."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "Poles arriving in America frequently had years of experience working in agriculture and gained a reputation as skilled farmers in the United States. Polish immigrants traveled to the Northern United States intentionally with hopes of working in industrial trades. Stereotypes casting them as \"farm people\" and economic necessities in many cases predetermined their careers, which continued them in agricultural roles. Polish immigrants to Massachusetts and Connecticut came seeking jobs in New England's mills, but the local American population in Connecticut River Valley was actively seeking those jobs and effectively opened agricultural opportunities for them. In New England, Poles came and used land that had been abandoned by Yankee farmers. Poles had even higher crop yields than the local Americans because of their labor-intensive efforts and willingness to try lands previously disregarded as worthless. Poles succeeded rapidly; in Northampton in 1905, Poles were 4.9% of the population and owned 5.2% of the farmland. By 1930, they made up 7.1% of the town and owned 89.2% of the farmland. The Polish farmers' success is due to their large families, where children helped in agriculture, and their long hours of work, as many spent hours clearing abandoned land after a full day's work. Louis Adamic in \"A Nation of Nations\" wrote that Poles \"restored hundreds of thousands of apparently hopeless acres to productivity\". Lenders viewed Polish immigrants as low credit risks because of their thrift, work ethic, and honesty. Polish immigrants were said to embody \"immigrant Puritanism\", demonstrating economic puritanism better than the original New Englanders. Author Elizabeth Stearns Tyler in 1909 found that Polish children attending American schools did on par or better than the American-born, yet most went back to farming after high school, continuing a self-fulfilling prophecy:\n:\"Since the economic value of the Pole for us is through the tilling of our farms, it is fortunate that the Pole himself likes the farm and shows himself ready to fall in with the plans already made for him. We do not want him to go to the city, nor to enter a profession, but we want him to buy up the deserted farms.\" Elizabeth Stearns Tyler, 1909."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish Americans",
        "text": "Polish Americans have also contributed to altering the physical landscape of the cities they have inhabited, erecting monuments to Polish-American heroes such as Ko\u015bciuszko and Pulaski. Distinctive cultural phenomena such as Polish flats or the Polish Cathedral style of architecture became part and parcel of the areas where Polish settlement occurred."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poland (1945\u20131989)",
        "text": "As a result of the 1970 worker rebellion food prices remained frozen and were artificially low. The demand for food products exceeded the supply also because of the higher real wages, which already in the first two years of Gierek's government increased more than during the entire decade of the 1960s. In June 1976, in an attempt to reduce consumption, the government introduced a long-announced and several times delayed, but radical price increase: basic foodstuffs had their prices raised by an average of 60%, three times the rate of Gomu\u0142ka'a increases from six years before. The compensatory wage rises were skewed toward the better-off part of the population. The result was an immediate nationwide wave of strikes, with violent demonstrations, looting and other labor unrest at the Ursus Factory near Warsaw, in Radom, P\u0142ock and other places. The government quickly backed down and repealed the price rises, but the strike leaders were arrested and put on trial. A series of \"spontaneous\" large scale public gatherings, intended to convey the \"anger of the people\" at the \"trouble-makers\" was staged by the party leadership in a number of cities, but the Soviet pressure prevented further attempts at raising prices. Gierek's cordial in the past relations with Leonid Brezhnev were now seriously damaged. Food ration cards, introduced because of the destabilized market in August 1976, were to remain a feature of life in Poland for the duration of the People's Republic. The regime's retreat, having occurred for the second time in several years, amounted to an unprecedented defeat. Within the rigid political system, the government was neither able to reform (it would lose control and power) nor to satisfy society's staple needs, because it had to sell abroad all it could to make foreign debt and interests payments. The government was in a quandary, the population suffered from the lack of necessities, and organized opposition found room to expand and consolidate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burzyn, Podlaskie Voivodeship",
        "text": "During the early 20th century, there was immigration to the United States which further contributed to the population decline. The descendants of former Mayor Stanislaus Karwowski moved to the New York metropolitan area in the United States and now outnumber their hometown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Commission for Polish Relief",
        "text": "Following the conquest of Poland by Nazi Germany and the USSR, the country's most fertile agricultural land was annexed to Germany in October 1939. The remaining area of German-occupied Poland (the General Government) did not produce enough food to feed its population. National Socialist People's Welfare, Nazi Germany relief service, was not providing adequate service and very soon started to exclude Jews from its aid programmes. Herbert Hoover testified before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs that around 400 to 500 million US dollars would be needed to feed approximately 7 million of destitute people in Poland, and argued that at least a quarter of that should be provided by the US."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Committee of Americans of Polish Extraction",
        "text": "The task of this new organization was to influence the government of the United States to conduct policies beneficial to the Polish nation and to persuade the public opinion that Polish independence was compatible with the American \"raison d'\u00eatre\". The American-born (Wilkes Barre, Pennsylvania) Karol Rozmarek was elected president of the Polish-American Congress. Rozmarek had been the first American-born president of the largest Polish-American immigrant organization, the Polish National Alliance since 1939."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poland\u2013United States relations",
        "text": "After Gomu\u0142ka's arrival to power in 1956, relations with the United States improved considerably. However, in the 1960s, the reversion to a policy of full and unquestioning support for Soviet foreign policy objectives and the negative attitude toward Israel during the Six-Day War caused those relations to stagnate. Polish-American relations improved once more after Edward Gierek had succeeded Gomu\u0142ka. A consular agreement was signed under in 1972. In 1974, Gierek was the first Polish communist head of state to visit the United States. That action, among others, demonstrated that both sides wished to facilitate better relations."
      },
      {
        "title": "August Cieszkowski Street in Bydgoszcz",
        "text": "In 1923, the \"Union of Poles from the Eastern Borderlands\" () opened a charity kitchen to help the displaced Poles victims of the borders changes after the Peace of Riga with USSR: in 1929, it had served a total of 30014 meals. The kitchen was led by Anna von Helmersen, living at Jan and J\u0119drzej \u015aniadecki Street N\u00b012."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poland",
        "text": "To revitalize the economy, from 1971 the Gierek regime introduced wide-ranging reforms that involved large-scale foreign borrowing. These actions initially caused improved conditions for consumers, but in a few years the strategy backfired and the economy deteriorated. Another attempt to raise food prices resulted in the June 1976 protests. The Workers' Defence Committee (KOR), established in response to the crackdown that followed, consisted of dissident intellectuals determined to support industrial workers, farmers and students persecuted by the authorities. The opposition circles active in the late 1970s were emboldened by the Helsinki Conference processes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "American food in Poland, most commonly McDonald's, KFC and Pizza Hut, are declining in popularity as Polish people prefer their own cuisine, including fast food. Meanwhile, Doner kebabs are gaining popularity. Nonetheless, in most of Poland one can still get traditional and very popular Polish street food such as the \"zapiekanka\", a pizza-like baguette with cheese, mushrooms, onion, sometimes meat and ketchup. There are also many small-scale, quick-service restaurants which usually serve kebabs, hamburgers, hot dogs and Polish kie\u0142basa sausage. In the southern mountainous region, the oscypek served with cranberry jam is a popular street food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish American Immigration and Relief Committee",
        "text": "As this organization continued to grow they had sure that each Polish immigrant that entered received a hot meal and a bed to sleep in upon arrival. But with the number of people that were coming over they had proposed a new tactic of organizing professional courses to help ease any of the uncertainty of any of the new immigrants that came over. As a result, this strengthen the Polish ethnic group that was beginning to form in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Jews in Poland",
        "text": "Matters improved for a time under the rule of J\u00f3zef Pi\u0142sudski (1926\u20131935). Pi\u0142sudski countered Endecja's 'ethnic assimilation' with the 'state assimilation' policy: citizens were judged by their loyalty to the state, not by their nationality. The years 1926\u20131935 were favourably viewed by many Polish Jews, whose situation improved especially under the cabinet of Pilsudski's appointee Kazimierz Bartel. However, a combination of various factors, including the Great Depression, meant that the situation of Jewish Poles was never very satisfactory, and it deteriorated again after Pi\u0142sudski's death in May 1935, which many Jews regarded as a tragedy. The Jewish industries were negatively affected by the development of mass production and the advent of department stores offering ready-made products. The traditional sources of livelihood for the estimated 300,000 Jewish family-run businesses in the country began to vanish, contributing to a growing trend toward isolationism and internal self-sufficiency. The difficult situation in the private sector led to enrolment growth in higher education. In 1923 the Jewish students constituted 62.9% of all students of stomatology, 34% of medical sciences, 29.2% of philosophy, 24.9% of chemistry and 22.1% of law (26% by 1929) at all Polish universities. It is speculated that such disproportionate numbers were the probable cause of a backlash."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish Americans",
        "text": "Poles' cultural ties to Roman Catholicism have also influenced the adoption of such distinctive rites like the blessing of the baskets before Easter in many areas of the United States by fellow Roman Catholics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish Americans",
        "text": "Polish-Americans have influenced American culture in many ways. Most prominent among these is that Jefferson drafting the Constitution of the United States was inspired by religious tolerance of the Warsaw Confederation, which guaranteed freedom of conscience."
      },
      {
        "title": "P\u0105czki",
        "text": "These pastries have become popular in the United States as a result of Polish immigrants and marketing by the bakery industry. Sold in bakeries mainly on both Fat Tuesday and Fat Thursday throughout Detroit and Chicago, they are particularly popular in areas where there is a large concentration of Polish immigrants: Milwaukee, Northcentral and Southeastern Wisconsin, Chicago, Northern Illinois, Northwest Indiana, Metro Detroit, Greater Grand Rapids, Mid Michigan, Toledo, Greater Cincinnati, Greater Cleveland, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Scranton/Wilkes-Barre, Northern and Central New Jersey, Central Connecticut, and Western Massachusetts. The Polish community in Buffalo has the largest Fat Thursday event outside of Poland, which is run in cooperation with the monthly Polish Happy Hour Buffalo event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "The bagel, which originated in Poland, is a popular Ashkenazi food and became widespread in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Mid-Atlantic states",
        "text": "Other dishes came about during the early 20th century and have much to do with delicatessen fare, set up largely by Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe who came to America incredibly poor and most often unable to partake in the outdoor food markets that the general population utilized. The influence of European Jewry on modern mid-Atlantic cooking remains extremely strong and reinforced by their many descendants in the region. American-style pickles were brought by Polish Jews, now a common addition to hamburgers and sandwiches, and Hungarian Jews brought a recipe for almond horns that now is a common regional cookie, diverting from the original recipe in dipping the ends in dark chocolate. New York-style cheesecake has copious amounts of cream and eggs because animal rennet is not kosher and thus could not be sold to a large number of the deli's clientele. New York inherited its bagels and bialys from Jews, as well as Challah bread, the bread today most favored for making french toast in New York, New Jersey, and eastern Pennsylvania. Pastrami first entered the country via Romanian Jews, and is a feature of many sandwiches, often eaten on marble rye, a bread that was born in the mid Atlantic. Whitefish salad, lox, and matzoh ball soup are now standard fare made to order at local diners and delicatessens, but started their life as foods that made up a strict dietary code."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "Russian-occupied Poles experienced increasingly abusive Russification in the mid-19th century. From 1864 onward, all education was mandated to be in Russian, and private education in Polish was illegal. Polish newspapers, periodicals, books, and theater plays were permitted, but were frequently censored by the authorities. All high school students were required to pass national exams in Russian; young men who failed these exams were forced into the Russian Army. In 1890, Russia introduced tariffs to protect the Russian textile industry, which began a period of economic decline and neglect towards Poland. The decline of Russia's economy after the Russo-Japanese War and the 1905 Russian Revolution further pushed Polish emigration. Polish nationalists at first discouraged emigration. In many respects, the nationalists were succeeding, creating secret Polish language schools so children could learn Polish, and leading insurrectionist activity against the Russian occupiers. However, when emigrants in the United States began sending back money to their poor relatives in Russia and Galicia, attitudes against emigration subsided. Polish National Party leader Roman Dmowski saw emigration in a positive light, as an \"improvement of the fortunes of the masses who are leaving Europe.\" At its peak, in 1912\u20131913, annual emigration to the U.S., from the Polish provinces of the Russian Empire, exceeded 112,345 (including large numbers of Jews, Lithuanians and Belarusians)."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Polish Peasant in Europe and America",
        "text": "At the turn of the 20th century, Poles accounted for about a quarter of all new immigrants to the United States. Chicago was host to about 350,000 Poles and had the third largest population of Poles (after Warsaw and \u0141\u00f3d\u017a)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "Arriving in the 19th century, immigrants from Eastern Europe opened delicatessens, bakeries and restaurants, and introduced dishes like \"varenyky\", \"krakowski\", poppy seed roll, \"kluski\", kolaches and stuffed cabbage rolls to the Midwest. German immigrants brought kohlrabi with them. Slovenian and Croatian immigrants brought the honey-nut bread called \"potica\" to the Iron Range region, which is also known for Cornish pasties. Porketta, a pork roast seasoned with fennel and garlic and served with either sliced or shredded like a pulled pork sandwich was brought to Minnesota and the Iron Range region by Italian immigrants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philadelphia Polish American Festival",
        "text": "The fall of Polish communism in 1989 initiated a large increase in the immigration of Polish nationals to the United States that continues to this day. Many of the new immigrants settled in Pennsylvania, in areas such as the Port Richmond neighborhood of Philadelphia, and in the Brooklyn area of New York City, known as Greenpoint. Many Polish immigrants also immigrated to New Jersey and Connecticut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Commission for Polish Relief",
        "text": "Prior to the war the General Government was not self-sufficient in agricultural production and was a net importer of food from other regions of Poland. Despite this food deficit the German occupiers confiscated 27% of the agricultural output in the General Government, thus reducing the food available for the civilian population. This Nazi policy caused a humanitarian crisis in Poland's urban areas. In 1940 20 to 25% of the population the Government General depended on outside relief aid. This crisis was made worse by the German expulsion of 923,000 Polish citizens from Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany into the General Government. The Germans \"showed no concern for the destination of the dislocated families\" who depended on the local Polish welfare services.Richard C. Lukas points out \"To be sure, the Poles would have starved to death if they had to depend on the food rationed to them To supplement the meager rations allocated by the Germans ( see table above) Poles depended on the black market in order to survive. During the war 80% of the population's needs were met by the black market Poles involved in the black market \"risked arrest, deportation to a concentration camp, and even death\" The German occupiers maintained a large police force to eliminate the black market. During the war there was an increase in infectious diseases caused by the general malnutrition among the Polish population. In 1940 the tuberculosis rate among Poles, not including Jews, was 420 per 100,000 compared to 136 per 100,000 prior to the war. Also Poles were pressured to sign up for work in Germany hoping to improve their living standards, but most were disappointed when they found low wages and humiliating treatment in Germany."
      },
      {
        "title": "World War II casualties of Poland",
        "text": "Prior to the war the area which became the General Government was not self sufficient in agricultural production and was a net importer of food from other regions of Poland. Despite this food deficit the German occupiers confiscated 27% of the agricultural output in the General Government, thus reducing the food available for the civilian population. This Nazi policy caused a humanitarian crisis in Poland\u2019s urban areas. By 1940, between 20 and 25% of the population within the Government General depended on outside relief aid. Richard C. Lukas points out \u201cTo be sure, the Poles would have starved to death if they had to depend on the food rationed to them.\" To supplement the meager rations allocated by the Germans, Poles depended on the black market in order to survive. During the war 80% of the population\u2019s needs were met by the black market. During the war there was an increase in infectious diseases caused by the general malnutrition among the Polish population. In 1940 the tuberculosis rate among Poles, not including Jews, was 420 per 100,000 compared to 136 per 100,000 prior to the war. During the occupation the natural death rate in the General Government increased to 1.7% per annum compared to the prewar level of 1.4%\n;Kidnapping of children by Nazi Germany"
      },
      {
        "title": "Americanization (immigration)",
        "text": "The study of Polish immigrants to the United States, \"The Polish Peasant in Europe and America\" (1918\u20131920), became the landmark first study of this process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Compendium ferculorum, albo Zebranie potraw",
        "text": "The book was republished several times during the 18th and 19th centuries, sometimes under new titles, and had an important impact on the development of Polish cuisine. It also served as an inspiration for the portrayal of an Old Polish banquet in \"Pan Tadeusz\", the Polish national epic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "In Polish communities throughout the state \"p\u0105czki\" can be found every year on Fat Tuesday (Mardi Gras) in a wide assortment of flavors including lemon, blueberry to custard. Pierogis, goulash, and Polish-style sausage are common specialties in many restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poland\u2013United States relations",
        "text": "The United States never initiated the creation of a military force for supporting Poland. Financial support and gifts were sent from the United States to the American-Polish Committee in France, which intended to purchase supplies and transport aid to Poland. The American writer James Fenimore Cooper wrote an appeal for the organization at the height of his popularity and motivated a nationwide collection for Poland in American cities. The"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bar mleczny",
        "text": "After the fall of the Nazi regime, Poland became a communist state in the Eastern Bloc. Contrary to official propaganda, the majority of the population was poor, and even moderately-priced restaurants were derided as \"capitalist\". During the post-war years, most restaurants were nationalized and then closed down by the communist authorities. In the mid-1960s, milk bars were common as a means of offering cheap meals to people working in companies that had no official canteen. They still served mostly dairy-based and vegetarian meals, especially during the period of martial law in the early 1980s, when meat was rationed."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "Jewish immigrants from Germany soon followed suit, replacing pork dishes with corned beef (salt-cured beef) and pastrami. Ice cream soda was served at soda fountains, along with various other early \"soda water\" recipes like the Garden Sass Sundae (rhubarb) or the Oh-Oh-Cindy Sundae (strawberry ice cream topped with chocolate syrup, chopped nuts, whipped cream and candied cherries)."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "Polish immigrants to the United States were typically poor peasants who did not have significant involvement in Polish civic life, politics, or education. Poland had not been independent since 1795, and peasants historically had little trust or concern for the State as it was dominated by the Polish nobility. Most 18th- and 19th-century Polish peasants had a great apathy towards nationalist movements and did not find importance or great promise in joining them. Peasants had great reservations identifying with any szlachta, and were reluctant to support any national figures. When Kosciuszko came to liberate Poland\u2013after the success and admiration he gained in the American Revolution\u2013he only succeeded in bringing a handful of supporters, \"not even his appearance in peasant attire and his proclamation of individual liberty of the peasants, provided they pay their former landlord their debt and taxes, was able to marshal the masses of burgesses and peasants in the struggle for Polish independence. Joseph Swastek speculated that \"an attitude of apprehensive distrust of civil authority\" was conditioned by the \"political and cultural bondage\" of peasants within the 18th- and 19th-century partitioned territories."
      },
      {
        "title": "Martial law in Poland",
        "text": "In 1976, the communist government introduced ration cards for sugar, meat, processed food and dairy followed. Confectionery, cocoa, coffee, rice, tobacco and other goods not produced in Poland were so heavily rationed that they were almost permanently unavailable. Due to the constant lack of tobacco, ordinary cigarettes became a form of new currency on the black market. The living standards began to sharply decline; the supply of imported goods was kept to a low minimum and the country was forced to export everything it could, including coal necessary for basic heating and power plants. Power outages were commonplace. By 1980, the debt accounted to over US$23 billion, then almost half of Poland's nominal GDP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Poland",
        "text": "In the Middle Ages, as the cities of Poland grew larger in size and the food markets developed, the culinary exchange of ideas progressed & people got acquainted with new dishes and recipes. Some regions became well known for the type of sausage they made and many sausages of today still carry those original names. The peasants acknowledged their honorable judgment, allowing them to maintain nourished for longer periods of time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dziennik Ludowy (People's Daily)",
        "text": "Most Polish immigrants were peasants coming from underdeveloped rural areas. After arriving to the US, they stayed in urban regions and tended to work in fabrics and manufactures. Their identity slowly changed from peasants to a working-class. A Polish immigrant worker identified himself, basing on his economic status, as a member of a larger labor movement that had people of various ethnicities."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth (1764\u20131795)",
        "text": "Because of conservative resistance to changes, despite a multitude of self-help books available, agricultural economy and agrarian social relations were changing slowly. Potato cultivation was becoming more common first in Silesia and Pomerania. More typically agricultural improvements were being introduced in the western provinces of the Commonwealth, Greater Poland and Pomerelia (Gda\u0144sk Pomerania), but overall grain yields had not yet reached the productivity of the Renaissance economy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poland\u2013United States relations",
        "text": "Following the collapse of the insurrection, American newspapers continued to publish news from British and French sources documenting oppression of Poles by the Russian and German Empires. Newspaper editors made mention of the Russians as \"brutal\" and \"evil,\" and the Poles were \"gallant\" and \"heroic\" in their efforts. The American public was apprised of the ongoing suppression of the Polish Catholic Church and the conscription of Poles into the Imperial Russian Army, which hurt Russian-American relations. An American writer in Boston, Robin Carver, wrote a children's book in 1831, \"Stories of Poland\", which said that for Polish children, \"Their houses are not peaceful and happy homes, but are open to the spies and soldiers of a cruel and revengeful government... There is no confidence, no repose, no hope for them, and will not be, till, by some more fortunate struggle, they shall drive the Russians from their borders, and become an independent people.\" Poetic tributes to Poland were written in America, and literature denouncing the Russian treatment towards Poland continued after the Uprising. Russian Emperor Nicholas I and his emissaries asked the US Secretary of State for a formal rebuke of American newspapers reporting the mistreatment of Poles. US Secretary of State Edward Livingston chose to wait two months before responding to Russia's demands, but the US ambassador to Russia, James Buchanan, made promises to the Russians that the American press would circulate evidence that Russian cruelty had been \"much overplayed.\" The historian Jerzy Jan Lerski was critical of Buchanan's pro-Russian stance on the Polish issue and said that he made statements on Poland without visiting the country or \"listening to Polish testimony.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish question",
        "text": "The term became once again relevant during World War\u00a0II, as after the German invasion of Poland the future of occupied Poland became once again an issue of debate between the Great Powers of the time, namely the United Kingdom, the United States and the Soviet Union."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish-American vote",
        "text": "As a result of Poland's independence following World War I, American Poles became more conscious of their heritage and developed stronger connection to their nation. Previously, Poland had been under domination by Germany, Prussia, Austria-Hungary and Russia, without its independence since 1792. Polish-Americans grew highly patriotic towards the United States during World War I, and turned to Woodrow Wilson with a strong 74% of the vote in 1916 for his support of Polish independence. A similar ethnic experience occurred for other Slavic immigrants in the United States during World War I, particularly Czech and Slovak, when the Pittsburgh Agreement was drafted with backing from the Allies."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "Immigrants in all three waves were attracted by the high wages and ample job opportunities for unskilled manual labor in the United States, and were driven to jobs in American mining, meatpacking, construction, steelwork, and heavy industry\u2014in many cases dominating these fields until the mid-20th century. Over 90% of Poles arrived and settled in communities with other Polish immigrants. These communities are called Polonia and the largest such community historically was in Chicago, Illinois. A key feature of Polish life in the Old World had been religion, and in the United States, Catholicism often became an integral part of Polish identity. In the United States, Polish immigrants created communities centered on Catholic religious services, and built hundreds of churches and parish schools in the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Jews in Poland",
        "text": "Food rations for the Poles were small (669 kcal per day in 1941) compared to other occupied nations throughout Europe and black market prices of necessary goods were high, factors which made it difficult to hide people and almost impossible to hide entire families, especially in the cities. Despite these draconian measures imposed by the Nazis, Poland has the highest number of Righteous Among The Nations awards at the Yad Vashem Museum (6,339)."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "Polish men in particular were romanticized as objects of raw sexual energy in the early 20th century. Many first wave Polish immigrants were single males or married men who left their wives to strike fortune in the United States. Some were \"birds of passage\" who sought to return to Poland and their families with strong financial savings. They built a reputation in the United States for hard work, physical strength, and vigorous energy. The 1896 novel \"Yekl: A Tale of the New York Ghetto\" describes the life of Jake who left his wife and children in Poland behind and began an affair in the United States, when soon his wife meets him in New York. Central to the 1931 romance novel \"American Beauty\" is a theme of attractive Polish men. In one instance, main character Temmie Oakes says, \"...You saw the sinews rippling beneath the cheap stuff of their sweaty shirts. Far, far too heady a draught for the indigestion of this timorous New England remnant of a dying people. For the remaining native men were stringly of withers, lean shanked, of vinegar blood, and hard wrung.\" Historian John Radzilowski notes that the theme of vivacious young immigrants replacing dying old white ethnic populations was common in America until the 1960s and 70s."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "American Poles had a reinvigorated interest in Poland during and after World War II. Polish American newspapers, both anti and pro-Soviet in persuasion, wrote articles supporting Poland's acquisition of the Oder-Neisse line from Germany at the close of the war. The borders of Poland were in flux after the war, since Nazi occupying forces were mainly withdrawn, and Poland's claims did not have German recognition. Polish Americans were apprehensive about the U.S. commitment to assuring them the western territories. The Potsdam Agreement specifically stated that Poland's borders would be \"provisional\" until an agreement with Germany was signed. At the close of the war, America occupied West Germany and relations with the Eastern bloc became increasingly difficult because of Soviet domination. Polish Americans feared that America's occupation of, and close relations with, West Germany would mean a distancing from Poland. West Germany received many German refugees who escaped Communist hostility in Poland, and their stories of persecution and hostility were not helpful to Polish-German relations. The Polish American Congress (PAC) was established in 1944 to ensure that Polish Americans (6 million at the time) had a political voice to support Poland following World War II. The traveled to Paris in 1946 to stop the United States Secretary of State, James F. Byrnes, from making further agreements with Germany. Byrnes and Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs Vyacheslav Molotov both were making speeches expressing support for an economically and politically unified Germany, and both invoked the \"provisional\" nature of the Oder-Neisse line in their talks. Polish Americans were outraged when Byrnes stated in Germany that German public opinion should be accounted for in territorial claims. The Polish newspaper \"\" made a cartoon of Byrnes in front of an American flag with Swatstikas and black heads instead of stars, criticizing his support of Germany as a \"sell-out\". Even pro-Soviet Polish Americans called those lands \"Recovered Territories\", suggesting wide and popular support among American Poles. The remained distrustful of the United States government during the Truman administration and afterwards. In 1950, after East Germany and Poland signed an agreement on the Oder-Neisse line making it officially Polish territory, the U.S. Commissioner in Germany, John J. McCloy, issued a statement saying that a final resolution on the border would require another peace conference."
      },
      {
        "title": "Patrick Gasienica",
        "text": "He was born in the United States to a family of Polish immigrants from Zakopane."
      },
      {
        "title": "General Government",
        "text": "While scholars debate whether from September 1939 to June 1941 the mass-starvation of the Jewish people of Europe was an attempt to conduct mass murder, it is agreed upon that this starvation did kill a large amount of this population. There was a shift in the amount of resources that were being used by the Generalgouvernement from 1939 to 1940. For example, in 1939, seven million tons of coal were used but in 1940 this was reduced to four million tons of coal used by the Generalgouvernement. This shift was emblematic of the shortages in supplies, depriving the Jews and Poles of their only heating source. Although before the war, Poland exported mass quantities of food, in 1940 the Generalgouvernement was unable to supply enough food for the country, nonetheless exporting food supplies. In December 1939, the Polish and Jewish reception committees, as well as the native local officials, all within the Generalgouvernement, were responsible for providing food and shelter to the Poles and Jews that evacuated. In the expulsion process, the help provided to the evacuated Poles and Jews by the Generalgouvernement was considered a weak branch of the overall process. Throughout 1939, the Reichsbahn was responsible for many of the other important tasks including the deportations of Poles and Jews to concentration camps as well as the delivery of food and raw materials to different places. In December 1940, 87,833 Poles and Jews were deported which added stress to different administrations which were now responsible for these deportees. During the deportations, people were forced to reside on the trains for days until a place was found for them to stay. Between the cold and lack of food, masses of deportees died due to transport deaths caused by malnutrition, cold, and moreover unlivable transportation conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "Polish Americans are largely assimilated to American society and personal connections to Poland and Polish culture are scarce. Of the 10 million Polish Americans, only about 4% are immigrants; the American-born Poles predominate."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Was Poland affected the potatoe famine that brought immigrants to the United States?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Are you asking about the European Potato Failure in the mid-1840's? Immigration at that time was mostly from Ireland and the Scottish Highlands.",
      "Are you wanting to know about the Great Famine (Ireland), Scotland's Highland Potato Famine?"
    ],
    "topic": "Polish cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "European Potato Failure:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "European Potato Failure"
        ],
        "ctx": "The European Potato Failure was a food crisis caused by potato blight that struck Northern and Western Europe in the mid-1840s. The time is also known as the Hungry Forties. While the crisis produced excess mortality and suffering across the affected areas, particularly affected were the Scottish Highlands and, even more harshly, Ireland. Many people starved due to lack of access to other staple food sources."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "European Potato Failure:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "European Potato Failure",
          "Population Decline"
        ],
        "ctx": "Emigration to escape the famine centred mainly on Ireland and the Scottish Highlands. Elsewhere in the United Kingdom and on the continent, conditions were not so harsh as to completely eradicate the basics of survival so as to require mass migration of the sort experienced in Ireland and Scotland. Over 16,500 emigrated from the Scottish Highlands (out of a population affected by famine of no more than 200,000), many assisted by landlords and the Highland and Island Emigration Society, mainly to North America and Australia, this forming part of the second phase of the Highland Clearances. The global consequence of this was the creation of a substantial Irish diaspora."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Great Famine (Ireland):0",
        "passage_titles": [],
        "ctx": "Great Famine (Ireland)\n--Causes and contributing factors.\n----Landlords and tenants.\n----Tenants and subdivisions.\n----Potato dependency.\n----Blight in Ireland.\n--Reaction in Ireland.\n--Government response.\n----Government responses to previous food shortages.\n----Tory government.\n----Whig government.\n--Food exports.\n--Charity.\n--Eviction.\n--Emigration.\n--Death toll.\n--After the famine.\n--Analysis of the government's role.\n----Contemporary analysis.\n----Historical analysis.\n----Position of the British government.\n----Genocide question.\n--Memorials.\n--References.\n"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "European Potato Failure:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "European Potato Failure"
        ],
        "ctx": "The European Potato Failure was a food crisis caused by potato blight that struck Northern and Western Europe in the mid-1840s. The time is also known as the Hungry Forties. While the crisis produced excess mortality and suffering across the affected areas, particularly affected were the Scottish Highlands and, even more harshly, Ireland. Many people starved due to lack of access to other staple food sources."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Highland Potato Famine:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Highland Potato Famine"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Highland Potato Famine () was a period of 19th-century Highland and Scottish history (1846 to roughly 1856) over which the agricultural communities of the Hebrides and the western Scottish Highlands () saw their potato crop (upon which they had become over-reliant) repeatedly devastated by potato blight. It was part of the wider food crisis facing Northern Europe caused by potato blight during the mid-1840s, whose most famous manifestation is the Great Irish Famine, but compared with its Irish counterpart, it was much less extensive (the population seriously at risk was never more than 200,000 \u2013 and often much less) and took many fewer lives as prompt and major charitable efforts by the rest of the United Kingdom ensured relatively little starvation. The terms on which charitable relief was given, however, led to destitution and malnutrition amongst its recipients. A government enquiry could suggest no short-term solution other than reduction of the population of the area at risk by emigration to Canada or Australia. Highland landlords organised and paid for the emigration of more than 16,000 of their tenants and a significant but unknown number paid for their own passage. Evidence suggests that the majority of Highlanders who permanently left the famine-struck regions emigrated, rather than moving to other parts of Scotland. It is estimated that about a third of the population of the western Scottish Highlands emigrated between 1841 and 1861."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Irish cuisine",
        "text": "In 1845, the Great Famine began when many potato crops in Ireland had been infected with the mold that causes potato blight. This had turned their potatoes diseased and useless, putting many who are already in poverty into deeper poverty . The crop had failed due to potato blight in 1845\u201346, had little success in 1847, and failed once again in 1848."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish cuisine",
        "text": "The over-reliance on potatoes as a staple crop meant that the people of Ireland were vulnerable to poor potato harvests. The first Great Famine of 1739 was the result of extreme cold weather, but the famine of 1845\u20131849 (see Great Irish Famine) was caused by potato blight which spread throughout the Irish crop which consisted largely of a single variety, the Lumper. During the famine approximately one million people died and a million more emigrated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish people",
        "text": "Known as \"An G\u00f3rta M\u00f3r\" (\"The Great Hurt\") in the Irish language, during the famine millions of Irish people died and emigrated during Ireland's largest famine. The famine lasted from 1845 - 1849, and it was worst in the year 1847, which became known as Black '47. The famine occurred due to the extremely impoverished Irish population's staple food the potato being infected with Blight, and the British administration appropriating all other crops and livestock to feed her armies abroad. This meant the crop failed and turned black. Starving people who tried to eat them would only vomit it back up soon afterwards. Soup kitchens were set up but made little difference. The British government produced little aid, only sending raw corn known as 'Peel's Brimstone' to Ireland. It was known by this name after the British Prime Minister at the time, Robert Peel, and the fact that many Irish weren't aware on how to cook corn. This led to little or no improvement. The British government set up workhouses which were disease ridden (with cholera, TB and others) but they also failed as little food was available and many died on arrival as they were overworked. Some British political figures at the time saw the famine as a purge from God to exterminate the majority of the native Irish population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Great Famine (Ireland)\n--Causes and contributing factors.\n----Landlords and tenants.\n----Tenants and subdivisions.\n----Potato dependency.\n----Blight in Ireland.\n--Reaction in Ireland.\n--Government response.\n----Government responses to previous food shortages.\n----Tory government.\n----Whig government.\n--Food exports.\n--Charity.\n--Eviction.\n--Emigration.\n--Death toll.\n--After the famine.\n--Analysis of the government's role.\n----Contemporary analysis.\n----Historical analysis.\n----Position of the British government.\n----Genocide question.\n--Memorials.\n--References.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "The famine of 1740\u20131741 is different from the Great Famine of the 19th century. By the mid-19th century, potatoes made up a greater portion of Irish diets, with adverse consequences when the crop failed, causing famine from 1845 to 1852. The Great Famine differed by \"cause, scale and timing\" from the Irish Famine of 1740\u20131741. It was caused by an oomycete infection which destroyed much of the potato crop for several years running, a crisis exacerbated by laissez-faire government policies, continued exportation of food, insufficient relief and rigid government regulations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "The famine remains a controversial event in Irish history. Debate and discussion about whether the British government's response to the failure of the potato crop, and the continued exportation of food crops and livestock, constituted a genocide, remains a subject of political debate. Most historians reject the claim that the famine constituted a genocide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "It would be impossible adequately to describe the privations which they [the Irish labourer and his family] habitually and silently endure\u00a0... in many districts their only food is the potato, their only beverage water\u00a0... their cabins are seldom a protection against the weather\u00a0... a bed or a blanket is a rare luxury\u00a0... and nearly in all their pig and a manure heap constitute their only property."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Many Irish people, notably Mitchel, believed that Ireland continued to produce sufficient food to feed its population during the famine, and starvation resulted from exports. According to historian James Donnelly, \"the picture of Irish people starving as food was exported was the most powerful image in the nationalist construct of the Famine\". However, according to statistics, food imports exceeded exports during the famine. Though grain imports only really became significant after the spring of 1847 and much of the debate \"has been conducted within narrow parameters,\" focusing \"almost exclusively on national estimates with little attempt to disaggregate the data by region or by product.\" The amount of food exported in late 1846 was only one-tenth the amount of potato harvest lost to blight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "The famine of 1740\u20131741 was due to extremely cold and then dry weather in successive years, resulting in food losses in three categories: a series of poor grain harvests, a shortage of milk, and frost damage to potatoes. At this time, grains, particularly oats, were more important than potatoes as staples in the diet of most workers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "The Irish state broadcaster RT\u00c9 aired a two-part documentary titled \"The Hunger: The Story of the Irish Famine\" in November 2020. In it, Brendan O'Leary, Lauder Professor of political science, offered to use the term 'genoslaughter' rather than the term 'genocide' because, in his view, the term 'genoslaughter' is a more accurately descriptive term for the British response to the potato blight than the term 'genocide' is. O'Leary pointed out that the decision-making by the government of the day was based on capitalist principles rather than ethnicity; its aim was to reduce the tax burden on the middle-class (who were of both main ethnicities) by clearing the 'unproductive' landless poor from Ireland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "Grains were so scarce that the Irish hierarchy of the Catholic Church allowed Catholics to eat meat four days each week during Lent, but not everyone could afford meat. The potato crisis caused an increase in grain prices, resulting in smaller and smaller loaves of bread for the old price. Dickson explains that the \"wholesale rise in the price of wheat, oats and barley reflected not just the current supply position, but the dealers' assessment as to the state of things later in the year.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ireland",
        "text": "The \"Great Frost\" struck Ireland and the rest of Europe between December 1739 and September 1741, after a decade of relatively mild winters. The winters destroyed stored crops of potatoes and other staples, and the poor summers severely damaged harvests. This resulted in the famine of 1740. An estimated 250,000 people (about one in eight of the population) died from the ensuing pestilence and disease. The Irish government halted export of corn and kept the army in quarters but did little more. Local gentry and charitable organisations provided relief but could do little to prevent the ensuing mortality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "According to Professor Liam Kennedy, an editorial in the \"Irish Echo\" by James Pius Sweeney stated: 'The genocide of the Great Famine is distinct in the fact that the British created the conditions of dire hopelessness, and desperate dependence on the potato crop through a series of sadistic, debasing, premeditated and barbarous Penal Laws, which deliberately and systematically stripped the Irish of even the least semblance of basic human freedom.' When blight struck the Irish were 'totally vulnerable'. This was a 'nuanced genocide', he continues, one that manipulated fate 'by pushing a people to the brink of annihilation and turning away so not to hear the wailing \u2026'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chronology of the Great Famine",
        "text": "The chronology of the Great Famine ( or \"An Drochshaol\", litt: \"The Bad Life\") documents a period of Irish history between 29 November 1845 and 1852 during which time the population of Ireland was reduced by 20 to 25 percent. The proximate cause was famine resulting from a potato disease commonly known as late blight. Although blight ravaged potato crops throughout Europe during the 1840s, the impact and human cost in Irelandwhere a third of the population was entirely dependent on the potato for food but which also produced an abundance of other foodwas exacerbated by a host of political, social and economic factors which remain the subject of historical debate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "I have called it an artificial famine: that is to say, it was a famine which desolated a rich and fertile island that produced every year abundance and superabundance to sustain all her people and many more. The English, indeed, call the famine a \"dispensation of Providence\"; and ascribe it entirely to the blight on potatoes. But potatoes failed in like manner all over Europe; yet there was no famine save in Ireland. The British account of the matter, then, is first, a fraud; second, a blasphemy. The Almighty, indeed, sent the potato blight, but the English created the famine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genocides in history (before World War I)",
        "text": "A small minority of historians regard the Great Famine of Ireland (1845\u20131852) as an example of genocide. During the famine, approximately 1 million people died and a million more emigrated from Ireland, causing the island's population to fall by between 20% and 25%. The proximate cause of famine was a potato disease commonly known as potato blight. Although blight ravaged potato crops throughout Europe during the 1840s, the impact and human cost in Irelandwhere one-third of the population was entirely dependent on the potato for foodwas exacerbated by a host of political, social, and economic factors that remain the subject of historical debate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legacy of the Great Irish Famine",
        "text": "Debated greatly, there are public records that there was enough grain and meal in Ireland during that period to have prevented the food shortage caused by the potato blight. Famine conditions were allowed to continue for a number of years in the 1840s, while the surplus food was not distributed. There has been the assertion that because emigration was allowed, the Famine period does not qualify as genocide. The poverty, evictions, slave-like workshops where workers paid off the cost of their tickets, and the overcrowding and unhygienic conditions on emigration ships, all combined to make the journey of emigrating as great a risk as staying and trying to survive starvation. By modern definitions, the term \"refugee\" would be more accurate than \"emigrant\" to describe those who fled Ireland. Whether the British Empire made a conscious decision to allow 1 million Irish people to die, or whether the government was negligent, are issues in the debate over whether that episode of Irish history was due primarily to famine or genocide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "By summer 1740, the Frost had decimated the potatoes, and the drought had decimated the grain harvest and herds of cattle and sheep. Starving rural dwellers started a \"mass vagrancy\" towards the better-supplied towns, such as Cork in southern Ireland. By mid-June 1740, beggars lined the streets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "In 1846, three-quarters of the harvest was lost to blight. By December, a third of a million destitute people were employed in public works. According to Cormac \u00d3 Gr\u00e1da, the first attack of potato blight caused considerable hardship in rural Ireland, from the autumn of 1846, when the first deaths from starvation were recorded. Seed potatoes were scarce in 1847. Few had been sown, so, despite average yields, hunger continued. 1848 yields were only two-thirds of normal. Since over three million Irish people were totally dependent on potatoes for food, hunger and famine were inevitable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish issue in British politics",
        "text": "When potato blight struck the island in 1846, much of the peasant population lost their staple food, as cash crops were reserved for export to Great Britain. While large sums for relief were raised by private individuals and charities, inadequate action by the Government, which believed in \"laissez-faire\" policies, and the protectionist Corn Laws, which made wheat unaffordable, let the problem metastasize into a catastrophe. The class of cottiers, or farm labourers, was virtually wiped out through death and emigration, in what became known in Britain as 'The Irish Potato Famine' and in Ireland as the Great Hunger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Among the memorials in the US is the Irish Hunger Memorial near a section of the Manhattan waterfront in New York City, where many Irish arrived and the National Memorial to An Gorta M\u00f3r, in Philadelphia, a sculpture suggesting the multitudes with 35 life-size bronze figures arranged in clusters of vignettes. Ireland's Great Hunger Institute, at Quinnipiac University fosters a deeper understanding of the Great Hunger of Ireland and its causes and consequences through a strategic program of lectures, conferences, course offerings and publications. Ireland's Great Hunger Museum, at Quinnipiac University, hosts the world's largest collection of Great Hunger-related art including artefacts and printed materials. An annual Great Famine walk from Doolough to Louisburgh, County Mayo was inaugurated in 1988 and has been led by such notable personalities as Archbishop Desmond Tutu of South Africa and the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma. The walk, organised by Afri, takes place on the first or second Saturday of May and links the memory of the Great Hunger with a contemporary Human Rights issue.\n* Anti-British sentiment\n* Anti-Irish sentiment\n* Bengal famine of 1943, a famine exacerbated by similar British policy\n* Great Famine's effect on the American economy\n* Highland Potato Famine (an agrarian crisis which existed in Scotland at the same time)\n* History of the potato\n* Great Chinese Famine\n* Holodomor\n* North Korean famine\n* List of famines\n* List of natural disasters in the British Isles"
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "The proximate cause of the famine was a potato blight which infected potato crops throughout Europe during the 1840s, causing an additional 100,000 deaths outside Ireland and influencing much of the unrest in the widespread European Revolutions of 1848. From 1846, the impact of the blight was exacerbated by the British Whig government's obstinate faith in \"laissez-faire\" economic policy, free from intervention by government. Longer-term causes include the system of absentee landlordism and single-crop dependence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish food shortages (1925)",
        "text": "The Executive Council of the Irish Free State denied that people faced starvation. Speaking in the D\u00e1il, the Minister for Lands and Agriculture Patrick Hogan stated that \"There is no abnormal distress in the West this year. I say that definitely and deliberately. There is always distress in the West, but the distress this year is not ... particularly unique ... There is never real famine in the West unless there is a failure of potatoes, and there was no failure of potatoes this year.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "With the \"expansion of the economy\" between 1760 and 1815 due to the Napoleonic wars (1805\u201315), which had increased the demand for food in Britain, the tillage increased to such an extent, that there was less and less land for small farmers, and the potato was chiefly adopted by the people because of its quick growth on a comparatively small space. By 1800, for one in three of the population, the potato had become a staple food, especially in winter. It eventually became a staple year-round for farmers. The widespread dependency on this single crop, and a disproportionate share of the potatoes grown in Ireland being of a single variety, the Irish Lumper i.e. the lack of genetic variability among the potato plants in Ireland and Europe, were two of the reasons why the emergence of \"Phytophthora infestans\" had such devastating effects in Ireland and in similar areas of Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Great Western Railway in West Wales",
        "text": "In 1845 there was a catastrophic failure of the potato crop on which a majority of Irish people depended for a living; this resulted in mass starvation and commercial depression, which deepened the following year. The catastrophe is known as the Great Famine. The economy in Ireland worsened considerably, and coincidentally the general economic climate throughout the United Kingdom worsened considerably making the raising of money extremely difficult."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "It was politics that turned a disease of potatoes and tomatoes into famine, and it was politics which ensured its disastrous aftereffects would disfigure numerous future generations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "According to Charles Gavan Duffy, \"The Nation\" insisted that the proper remedy, retaining in the country the food raised by her people until the people were fed, was one which the rest of Europe had adopted, and one which even the parliaments of the Pale (i.e., before the union with Great Britain in 1801) had adopted in periods of distress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "By the end of April, it destroyed much of the tillage crops (wheat and barley) sown the previous autumn, and grains were more important in the diet than were potatoes. The important corn crop also failed, which resulted in greater mortality in Ireland than in Britain or the Continent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Year Without a Summer",
        "text": "As a result of the series of volcanic eruptions, crops had been poor for several years; the final blow came in 1815 with the eruption of Tambora. Europe, still recuperating from the Napoleonic Wars, suffered from food shortages. The impoverished especially suffered during this time. Low temperatures and heavy rains resulted in failed harvests in Great Britain and Ireland. Families in Wales traveled long distances begging for food. Famine was prevalent in north and southwest Ireland, following the failure of wheat, oat, and potato harvests. In Germany, the crisis was severe. Food prices rose sharply throughout Europe. With the cause of the problems unknown, hungry people demonstrated in front of grain markets and bakeries. Later riots, arson, and looting took place in many European cities. On some occasions, rioters carried flags reading \"Bread or Blood\". Though riots were common during times of hunger, the food riots of 1816 and 1817 were the highest levels of violence since the French Revolution. It was the worst famine of 19th-century mainland Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "1840s",
        "text": "The Great Famine of the 1840s caused the deaths of one million Irish people and over a million more emigrated to escape it. It is sometimes referred to, mostly outside Ireland, as the \"Irish Potato Famine\" because one-third of the population was then solely reliant on this cheap crop for a number of historical reasons. The proximate cause of famine was a potato disease commonly known as potato blight. A census taken in 1841 revealed a population of slightly over 8 million. A census immediately after the famine in 1851 counted 6,552,385, a drop of almost 1.5 million in 10 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish famine (disambiguation)",
        "text": "The Great Famine (Ireland) (1845\u201349) is sometimes referred to as the Irish Potato Famine or \"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "The Great Famine ( ), also known as the Great Hunger, the Famine (mostly within Ireland) or the Irish Potato Famine (mostly outside Ireland), was a period of mass starvation and disease in Ireland from 1845 to 1852. With the most severely affected areas in the west and south of Ireland, where the Irish language was dominant, the period was contemporaneously known in Irish as , loosely translated as \"the hard times\" (or literally \"the bad life\"). The worst year of the period was 1847, known as \"Black '47\". During the Great Hunger, about 1 million people died and more than a million fled the country, causing the country's population to fall by 20\u201325%, in some towns falling as much as 67% between 1841 and 1871. Between 1845 and 1855, no fewer than 2.1 million people left Ireland, primarily on packet ships but also steamboats and barque\u2014one of the greatest exoduses from a single island in history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kinnea",
        "text": "Between 1845 and 1852, Ireland suffered a catastrophic famine due to a potato blight, which destroyed the primary source of food for the poorest sections of society. There are no direct records of the death toll in Kinnea. A comparison of the 1841 and 1851 census indicates that the population fell from 241 to 205; a decline of 14.5 percent. While it is not possible to attribute that decline to famine-related deaths or to immigration, the number of inhabited houses remained constant during that period, suggesting that the primary cause of the population decline was immigration. Kinnea's proximity to the sea offered alternative food sources which helped limit the population's dependence on potatoes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Historian F. S. L. Lyons characterised the initial response of the British government to the early, less severe phase of the famine as \"prompt and relatively successful\". Confronted by widespread crop failure in November 1845, the Prime Minister, Sir Robert Peel, purchased \u00a3100,000 worth of maize and cornmeal secretly from America with Baring Brothers initially acting as his agents. The government hoped that they would not \"stifle private enterprise\" and that their actions would not act as a disincentive to local relief efforts. Due to poor weather conditions, the first shipment did not arrive in Ireland until the beginning of February 1846. The initial shipments were of unground dried kernels, but the few Irish mills in operation were not equipped for milling maize and a long and complicated milling process had to be adopted before the meal could be distributed. In addition, before the cornmeal could be consumed, it had to be \"very much\" cooked again, or eating it could result in severe bowel complaints. Due to its yellow colour, and initial unpopularity, it became known as \"Peel's brimstone\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine of 1315\u20131317",
        "text": "The Great Famine was restricted to Northern Europe, including the British Isles, Northern France, the Low Countries, Scandinavia, Germany, and western Poland. It also affected some of the Baltic states except for the far eastern Baltic, which was affected only indirectly. The famine was bounded to the south by the Alps and the Pyrenees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "The 1841 census showed a population of just over eight million. Two-thirds of people depended on agriculture for their survival but rarely received a working wage. They had to work for their landlords in return for the patch of land they needed to grow enough food for their own families. This was the system that forced Ireland's peasantry into monoculture since only the potato could be grown in sufficient quantity to meet nutritional needs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Private initiatives such as the Central Relief Committee of the Society of Friends (Quakers) attempted to fill the gap caused by the end of government relief, and eventually, the government reinstated the relief works, although bureaucracy slowed the release of food supplies. Thousands of dollars were raised in the United States, including $170 ($5,218 in 2019 value) collected from a group of Native American Choctaws in 1847. Judy Allen, editor of the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma's newspaper \"Biskinik\", wrote that \"It had been just 16 years since the Choctaw people had experienced the Trail of Tears, and they had faced starvation\u00a0... It was an amazing gesture.\" To mark the 150th anniversary, eight Irish people retraced the Trail of Tears."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "The propertied classes began to respond to fuel and food shortages when the Frost was about two weeks old. The Church of Ireland parish clergy solicited donations, which they converted into free rations in the city parishes, distributing nearly 80 tons of coal and ten tons of meal four weeks into the Frost. The Lord Lieutenant, the Duke of Devonshire, in an unprecedented move on 19 January 1740, prohibited export of grain out of Ireland to any destination except Britain. This action was in response to Cork Corporation (City of Cork), which remembered vividly the city events of eleven years earlier when serious food riots erupted and four people died."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Charles Trevelyan, who was in charge of the administration of government relief, limited the Government's food aid programme because of a firm belief in laissez-faire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nieder Kostenz",
        "text": "Thirty-seven men from Nieder Kostenz had to go to war. Two of them fell, and one went missing. The absence of so many men during the First World War made itself keenly felt in the constant labour shortage. Women, children and the elderly were pressed into service to help in the farm fields. The state required all agricultural produce to be handed over, but for the minimum needed for a farming family's personal consumption. This process was overseen by the police, who sometimes also searched houses or barns seeking hoards of food. A typical village meal at this time consisted of potatoes, bread, milk and vegetables. In 1916, though, the potato harvest was bad because of late blight (the same disease that caused the Great Famine of Ireland). At the time, no way was known to fight the blight. Luckily there was enough food to avoid a famine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "When Ireland had experienced food shortages in 1782\u201383, ports were closed to keep Irish-grown food in Ireland to feed the hungry. Irish food prices promptly dropped. Merchants lobbied against the export ban, but the government in the 1780s overrode their protests. No such export ban happened in the 1840s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Prior to the arrival in Ireland of the disease \"Phytophthora infestans\", commonly known as \"blight\", only two main potato plant diseases had been discovered. One was called \"dry rot\" or \"taint\", and the other was a virus known popularly as \"curl\". \"Phytophthora infestans\" is an oomycete (a variety of parasitic, non-photosynthetic organisms closely related to brown algae, and not a fungus)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Footnotes"
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1879)",
        "text": "The famine of 1879 is attributed to the effects of the \"Long Depression\" in the late 19th century, inclement climate, potato blight, and cholera among chickens. Unlike the earlier Irish Famine of 1740 to 1741 and Great Famine of 1845 to 1852, the 1879 event resulted in fewer deaths, due to changes in the technology of food production, different structures of land-holding (the disappearance of the sub-division of land and of the cottier class as a result of the earlier Great Famine), remittances from the Irish diaspora, and in particular the prompt response of the British government, which contrasted with its \"laissez-faire\" response in 1845\u20131852. Another factor was the growth of small shops; one estimate has County Mayo shopkeepers extending some \u00a3200,000 in credit by August 1879, which had been steadily accumulated since the relatively bad harvest of 1877."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Clark (horticulturist)",
        "text": "It was during this period that a fungus unwittingly transported to Europe from America devastated the potato crop in Ireland, causing the Great Famine of 1845-1850. In the wake of this tragedy potato breeders sought to find a reliable alternative to the disgraced Lumpers and Cups that had been the mainstay of the Irish planting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Informational notes"
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "The potato was introduced to Ireland as a garden crop of the gentry. The potato was not popular at first; however, after an unusual promotion campaign that was supported by landowners and members of royalty, who wanted their tenants to plant and eat the crop, it rose in popularity. By the late 17th century, it had become widespread as a supplementary rather than a principal food; the main diet was still based on butter, milk, and grain products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Bibliography\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*"
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "In the period before the crisis in January 1740, the winds and terrible cold intensified, yet barely any snow fell. Ireland was locked into a stable and vast high-pressure system which affected most of Europe in a broadly similar way, from Scandinavia and Russia to northern Italy. Rivers, lakes, and waterfalls froze and fish died in these first weeks of the Great Frost. People tried to avoid hypothermia without using up winter fuel reserves in a matter of days. People living in the country were probably better off than city-dwellers because, Ireland, country people had cabins sheltered by turf stacks, while the latter, especially the poor, dwelt in freezing basements and garrets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "Five vessels loaded with grain, presumably from British America, reached Galway on the west coast in June 1741. In the first week of July 1741, grain prices at last decreased and old hoarded wheat suddenly flooded the market. The quality of the Autumn harvest of 1741 was mixed. The food crisis was over, and seasons of rare plenty followed for the next two years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holodomor genocide question",
        "text": "There was a famine (widespread health-impairing food shortage) 1932\u201333 caused by two bad harvests in 1931 and 1932 attributable partly to collectivization and partly to weather (although Kondrashin and Penner contest the explanation), but it didn't cause the killings. Grain supplies were sufficient to sustain everyone if properly distributed. People died mostly of terror-starvation (excess grain exports, seizure of edibles from the starving, state refusal to provide emergency relief, bans on outmigration, and forced deportation to food-deficit locales), not poor harvests and routine administrative bungling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "The potato was also used extensively as a fodder crop for livestock immediately prior to the famine. Approximately 33% of production, amounting to , was normally used in this way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Famine",
        "text": "Other areas of Europe have known famines much more recently. France saw famines as recently as the 19th century. The Great Famine in Ireland, 1846\u20131851, caused by the failure of the potato crop over a few years, resulted in 1,000,000 dead and another 2,000,000 refugees fleeing to Britain, Australia and the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Another area of uncertainty lies in the descriptions of disease given by tenants as to the cause of their relatives' deaths. Though the 1851 census has been rightly criticised as underestimating the true extent of mortality, it does provide a framework for the medical history of the Great Famine. The diseases that badly affected the population fell into two categories: famine-induced diseases and diseases of nutritional deficiency. Of the nutritional deficiency diseases, the most commonly experienced were starvation and marasmus, as well as a condition at the time called dropsy. Dropsy (oedema) was a popular name given for the symptoms of several diseases, one of which, kwashiorkor, is associated with starvation."
      },
      {
        "title": "British Agricultural Revolution",
        "text": "The recovery of food imports after the Napoleonic Wars (1803\u20131815) and the resumption of American trade following the War of 1812 (1812\u20131815) led to the enactment in 1815 of the Corn Laws (protective tariffs) to protect cereal grain producers in Britain against foreign competition. These laws were only removed in 1846 after the onset of the Great Irish Famine in which a potato blight ruined most of the Irish potato crop and brought famine to the Irish people from 1846 to 1850. Though the blight also struck Scotland, Wales, England, and much of Continental Europe, its effect there was far less severe since potatoes constituted a much smaller percentage of the diet than in Ireland. Hundreds of thousands died in the famine and millions more emigrated to England, Wales, Scotland, Canada, Australia, Europe, and the United States, reducing the population from about 8.5\u00a0million in 1845 to 4.3\u00a0million by 1921."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Ireland",
        "text": "The Great Irish Famine (\"An Gorta M\u00f3r\") was the second of Ireland's \"Great Famines\". It struck the country during 1845\u201349, with potato blight, exacerbated by the political factors of the time leading to mass starvation and emigration. The impact of emigration in Ireland was severe; the population dropped from over 8 million before the Famine to 4.4 million in 1911. Gaelic or Irish, once the island's spoken language, declined in use sharply in the nineteenth century as a result of the Famine and the creation of the National School education system, as well as hostility to the language from leading Irish politicians of the time; it was largely replaced by English."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Citations"
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "For their respective inhabitants England, Holland, Scotland, Germany, are taking early the necessary precautions\u2014getting provisions from every possible part of the globe; and I ask are Irishmen alone unworthy the sympathies of a paternal gentry or a paternal Government?"
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Further reading"
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish cuisine",
        "text": "After the famine, many Irish women migrated to America to escape poverty, and were exposed to new ingredients and foods not common in Ireland, such as a greater variety of meats and produce. Entering domestic service in America, they had to adapt their cooking to please the upper-class in America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "The potato blight would return to Ireland in 1879, though by then the rural cottier tenant farmers and labourers of Ireland had begun the \"Land War\", described as one of the largest agrarian movements to take place in nineteenth-century Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "In 1843, the British Government considered that the land question in Ireland was the root or foundational cause of disaffection in the country. They established a Royal Commission, chaired by the Earl of Devon, to enquire into the laws regarding the occupation of land. Daniel O'Connell described this commission as \"perfectly one-sided\", being composed of landlords, with no tenant representation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "Deaths from mass starvation in 1740\u20131741 were compounded by an outbreak of fatal diseases. The cold and its effects extended across Europe, but mortality was higher in Ireland because both grain and potatoes failed. This is now considered by scholars to be the last serious cold period at the end of the Little Ice Age of about 1400\u20131800."
      },
      {
        "title": "South Wales Railway",
        "text": "However, in 1845 there was a catastrophic failure of the potato crop on which a majority of Irish people depended for a living; this resulted in mass starvation and commercial depression, which deepened the following year. The catastrophe is known as the Great Famine of Ireland. The economy in Ireland worsened considerably, at the same time as the general economic climate throughout the United Kingdom declined sharply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chronology of the Great Famine",
        "text": "By 1851 census figures showed that the population of Ireland had fallen to 6,575,000 \u2013 a drop of 1,600,000 in ten years. Cormac \u00d3 Gr\u00e1da and Joel Mokyr have described the 1851 census as a famous but flawed source. They contend that the combination of institutional and individuals figures gives \"an incomplete and biased count\" of fatalities during the famine. The famine left in its wake up to a million dead and another million emigrated. The famine caused a sense of lasting bitterness by the Irish towards the British government, whom many blamed \u2013 then and now \u2013 for the starvation of so many people. The fall-out of the famine continued for decades afterwards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Contributions by the United States during the famine were highlighted by Senator Henry Clay who said; \"No imagination can conceive\u2014no tongue express\u2014no brush paint\u2014the horrors of the scenes which are daily exhibited in Ireland.\" He called upon Americans to remind them that the practice of charity was the greatest act of humanity they could do. In total, 118 vessels sailed from the US to Ireland with relief goods valued at $545,145. Specific states which provided aid include South Carolina and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania was the second most important state for famine relief in the US and the second-largest shipping port for aid to Ireland. The state hosted the Philadelphia Irish Famine Relief Committee. Catholics, Methodists, Quakers, Presbyterians, Episcopalians, Lutherans, Moravian and Jewish groups put aside their differences in the name of humanity to help out the Irish. South Carolina rallied around the efforts to help those experiencing the famine. They raised donations of money, food and clothing to help the victims of the famine\u2014Irish immigrants made up 39% of the white population in the southern cities. Historian Harvey Strum claims that \"The states ignored all their racial, religious, and political differences to support the cause for relief.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "It is also memorialized in many locations throughout Ireland, especially in those regions of Ireland which suffered the greatest losses, and it is also memorialized overseas, particularly in cities with large populations which are descended from Irish immigrants, such as New York City. These include, at Custom House Quays, Dublin, the thin sculptural figures, by artist Rowan Gillespie, who are portrayed as if they are walking towards the emigration ships which are docked on the Dublin Quayside. There is also a large memorial at the Murrisk Millennium Peace Park at the foot of Croagh Patrick in County Mayo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "The measures undertaken by Peel's successor, Russell, proved inadequate as the crisis deepened. The new Whig administration, influenced by the doctrine of laissez-faire, believed that the market would provide the food needed. They refused to interfere with the movement of food to England, then halted the previous government's food and relief works, leaving many hundreds of thousands of people without access to work, money, or food. Russell's ministry introduced a new programme of public works that by the end of December 1846 employed some half million but proved impossible to administer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "In 1844, Irish newspapers carried reports concerning a disease that for two years had attacked the potato crops in America. In 1843 and 1844, blight largely destroyed the potato crops in the Eastern United States. Ships from Baltimore, Philadelphia, or New York City could have carried diseased potatoes from these areas to European ports. American plant pathologist William C. Paddock posited that the blight was transported via potatoes being carried to feed passengers on clipper ships sailing from America to Ireland. Once introduced in Ireland and Europe, blight spread rapidly. By mid-August 1845, it had reached much of northern and central Europe; Belgium, The Netherlands, northern France, and southern England had all already been affected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ireland's Great Hunger Museum",
        "text": "Ireland's Great Hunger Museum at Quinnipiac University publishes a series of booklets called Famine Folios, a unique resource for students, scholars and researchers, as well as general readers, covering many aspects of the Famine in Ireland from 1845 to 1852 \u2014 the worst demographic catastrophe of 19th-century Europe. The essays are interdisciplinary in nature, and make available new research in Famine studies by internationally established scholars in history, art history, cultural theory, philosophy, media history, political economy, literature and music."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetic diversity",
        "text": "The nineteenth-century Great Famine in Ireland was caused in part by a lack of biodiversity. Since new potato plants do not come as a result of reproduction, but rather from pieces of the parent plant, no genetic diversity is developed, and the entire crop is essentially a clone of one potato, it is especially susceptible to an epidemic. In the 1840s, much of Ireland's population depended on potatoes for food. They planted namely the \"lumper\" variety of potato, which was susceptible to a rot-causing oomycete called \"Phytophthora infestans\". The fungus destroyed the vast majority of the potato crop, and left one million people to starve to death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "In 1996, the U.S. state of New Jersey included the famine in the \"Holocaust and Genocide Curriculum\" of its secondary schools. The curriculum was pushed by various Irish American political groups and drafted by the librarian James Mullin. Following criticism of the curriculum, the New Jersey Holocaust Commission requested statements from two academics that the Irish famine was genocide, which was eventually provided by law professors Charles E. Rice and Francis Boyle, who had not been previously known for studying Irish history. They concluded that the British government deliberately pursued a race- and ethnicity-based policy aimed at destroying the Irish people and that the policy of mass starvation amounted to genocide per retrospective application of article 2 of the Hague Convention of 1948."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)\n--Background.\n--Cause.\n--Protestants and alms-giving.\n--Potatoes deteriorate.\n--Spring drought, 1740.\n--Food riots.\n--The cold returns.\n--Relief schemes.\n--Return of normal weather.\n--Death toll.\n--Summary.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "European Potato Failure",
        "text": "Emigration to escape the famine centred mainly on Ireland and the Scottish Highlands. Elsewhere in the United Kingdom and on the continent, conditions were not so harsh as to completely eradicate the basics of survival so as to require mass migration of the sort experienced in Ireland and Scotland. Over 16,500 emigrated from the Scottish Highlands (out of a population affected by famine of no more than 200,000), many assisted by landlords and the Highland and Island Emigration Society, mainly to North America and Australia, this forming part of the second phase of the Highland Clearances. The global consequence of this was the creation of a substantial Irish diaspora."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pawe\u0142 Strzelecki",
        "text": "During the autumn and winter of 1846\u201347 the disaster of the great famine came to Ireland. In January 1847, a group of English banking leaders combined to raise funds for famine relief via a private charity named the \u201cBritish Relief Association\u201d and entrusted Strzelecki to dispense them (\u00a3500,000). Strzelecki was appointed the main agent of the Association to superintend the distribution of supplies in County Sligo, County Mayo and County Donegal. In order to alleviate the critical situation of famished Irish families and especially children, Strzelecki developed a visionary and exceptionally effective mode of assistance: feeding starving children directly through the schools. He extended daily food rations to schoolchildren across the most famine-stricken western part of Ireland, while also distributing clothing and promoting basic hygiene. At its peak in 1848, around 200,000 children from all denominations were being fed through the efforts of the B.R.A., many of whom would have otherwise perished from hunger and disease. Despite suffering from the effects of typhoid fever he contracted in Ireland, Strzelecki dedicated himself tirelessly to hunger relief. His commitment was widely recognized and praised by his contemporaries. In recognition of his services, he was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) in November 1848."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "In the 40 years that followed the union, successive British governments grappled with the problems of governing a country which had, as Benjamin Disraeli stated in 1844, \"a starving population, an absentee aristocracy, an alien established Protestant church, and in addition, the weakest executive in the world\". One historian calculated that, between 1801 and 1845, there had been 114 commissions and 61 special committees inquiring into the state of Ireland, and that \"without exception their findings prophesied disaster; Ireland was on the verge of starvation, her population rapidly increasing, three-quarters of her labourers unemployed, housing conditions appalling and the standard of living unbelievably low\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "European Potato Failure",
        "text": "Aside from death from starvation and famine diseases, suffering came in other forms. While the demographic impact of famines is immediately visible in mortality, longer-term declines of fertility and natality can also dramatically affect population. In Ireland births fell by a third, resulting in about 0.5 million \"lost lives\". Declines elsewhere were lower: Flanders lost 20\u201330%, the Netherlands about 10\u201320%, and Prussia about 12%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish food shortages (1925)",
        "text": "Hogan's claim was not only at odds with media reports over the previous six months but also with his own colleagues. Heavy rain had caused crop failure and destroyed animal fodder, and the flooding of peat bogs had also deprived people of fuel. The government were accused of covering up the food shortages in order to avoid bad publicity. The Department of Local Government and Public Health insisted in February that there was no famine, merely \"acute distress.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Famine",
        "text": "By the mid-19th century and the onset of the Industrial Revolution, it became possible for governments to alleviate the effects of famine through price controls, large scale importation of food products from foreign markets, stockpiling, rationing, regulation of production and charity. The Great Famine of 1845 in Ireland was one of the first famines to feature such intervention, although the government response was often lackluster. The initial response of the British government to the early phase of the famine was \"prompt and relatively successful\", according to F. S. L. Lyons. Confronted by widespread crop failure in the autumn of 1845, Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel purchased \u00a3100,000 worth of maize and cornmeal secretly from America. Baring Brothers & Co initially acted as purchasing agents for the Prime Minister. The government hoped that they would not \"stifle private enterprise\" and that their actions would not act as a disincentive to local relief efforts. Due to weather conditions, the first shipment did not arrive in Ireland until the beginning of February 1846. The maize corn was then re-sold for a penny a pound."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chronology of the Great Famine",
        "text": "According to Cecil Woodham-Smith, the rising wrath of Tories and landlords ensured \"all interest in Ireland was submerged.\" She writes that the Tory Mayor of Liverpool refused to call a meeting for the relief of Irish distress. She continues that the Mansion House Committee in Dublin was accused of 'deluding the public with a false alarm', and the blight itself 'was represented as the invention of agitators on the other side of the water'. The entanglement of the Irish famine with the repeal of the Corn Laws, she says, was a key misfortune for Ireland. The potato failure was eclipsed by the domestic issue of Corn Law repeal. The Irish famine, she writes, \"slipped into the background.\"\n*On 10 November Peel ordered the secret purchase of \u00a3100,000 worth of Indian corn and meal from America for distribution in Ireland.\n*On 15 November the Scientific Commissioners reported that half the potato crop had been destroyed.\n*On 19 November the Mansion House Committee in Dublin claimed to have \"ascertained beyond the shadow of doubt that considerably more than one-third of the entire potato crop...has been already destroyed.\"\n*On 20 November the Relief Commission first met.\n*Unable to persuade his Cabinet to repeal the Corn Laws, on 5 December Peel tendered his resignation to Queen Victoria but was reinstated days later when Lord John Russell was unable to form a government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "In 1851, the Census of Ireland Commissioners recorded 24 failures of the potato crop going back to 1728, of varying severity. General crop failures, through disease or frost, were recorded in 1739, 1740, 1770, 1800, and 1807. In 1821 and 1822, the potato crop failed in Munster and Connaught. In 1830 and 1831, Mayo, Donegal, and Galway suffered likewise. In 1832, 1833, 1834, and 1836, dry rot and curl caused serious losses, and in 1835 the potato failed in Ulster. Widespread failures throughout Ireland occurred in 1836, 1837, 1839, 1841, and 1844. According to Woodham-Smith, \"the unreliability of the potato was an accepted fact in Ireland\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Still other critics saw reflected in the government's response its attitude to the so-called \"Irish Question\". Nassau Senior, an economics professor at Oxford University, wrote that the Famine \"would not kill more than one million people, and that would scarcely be enough to do any good\". In 1848, Denis Shine Lawlor suggested that Russell was a student of the Elizabethan poet Edmund Spenser, who had calculated \"how far English colonisation and English policy might be most effectively carried out by Irish starvation\". Charles Trevelyan, the civil servant with most direct responsibility for the government's handling of the famine, described it in 1848 as \"a direct stroke of an all-wise and all-merciful Providence\", which laid bare \"the deep and inveterate root of social evil\"; he affirmed that the Famine was \"the sharp but effectual remedy by which the cure is likely to be effected. God grant that the generation to which this opportunity has been offered may rightly perform its part...\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Nevertheless, the British government remained optimistic over the next few weeks, as it received conflicting reports. Only when the crop was lifted (harvested) in October, did the scale of destruction become apparent. Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel wrote to Sir James Graham in mid-October that he found the reports \"very alarming\", but reminded him that there was, according to Woodham-Smith, \"always a tendency to exaggeration in Irish news\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "The Irish arrived in America in a rather woeful state, as Ireland at the time was often plagued by some of the worst poverty in Europe and often heavy disenfranchisement among the masses. Many of them arrived barely alive having ridden coffin ships to the New World, very sick with typhus and gaunt from prolonged starvation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "At that time, potatoes were typically stored in the fields where they were grown, in earthen banks known as potato clamps. They were put among layers of soil and straw that normally prevented frost from penetrating deeply enough to destroy the contents of the clamp. This disruption of the agricultural cycle created problems in Ireland in the winter of 1740\u20131741."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1879)",
        "text": "Unlike earlier famines, what is sometimes called the \"mini-famine\" of 1879 was not marked by many deaths, mainly increased hunger, and was largely focused in the west of Ireland, in the province of Connacht. By the end of 1879, newspapers were reporting severe distress amongst tenants in all parts of Ireland traditionally dependent on the potato, with only 1.4 tons produced per statute acre (3.5 tons per hectare) in County Mayo, the lowest in a decade and under half the previous year's harvest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "The potato blight returned to Europe in 1879 but, by this time, the Land War (one of the largest agrarian movements to take place in 19th-century Europe) had begun in Ireland. The movement, organized by the Land League, continued the political campaign for the Three Fs which was issued in 1850 by the Tenant Right League during the Great Famine. When the potato blight returned to Ireland in the 1879 famine, the League boycotted \"notorious landlords\" and its members physically blocked the evictions of farmers; the consequent reduction in homelessness and house demolition resulted in a drastic reduction in the number of deaths."
      },
      {
        "title": "County Mayo",
        "text": "During the early years of the 19th\u00a0century, famine was a common occurrence, particularly where population pressure was a problem. The population of Ireland grew to over eight million people prior to the Irish Famine (or Great Famine) of 1845\u201347. The Irish people depended on the potato crop for their sustenance. Disaster struck in August 1845, when a killer fungus (later diagnosed as Phytophthora infestans) started to destroy the potato crop. When widespread famine struck, about a million people died and a further million left the country. People died in the fields of starvation and disease. The catastrophe was particularly bad in County Mayo, where nearly ninety per cent of the population depended on the potato as their staple food. By 1848, Mayo was a county of total misery and despair, with any attempts at alleviating measures in complete disarray."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "However, Kennedy himself does not believe that the Famine constituted a genocide: \"There is no case for genocide when you think of, as part of British government policies in Ireland, three-quarters of a million people working on public relief schemes. When you have three million people at one stage receiving soup from soup kitchens right across Ireland in their locality.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Historian Donald Akenson, who has written twenty-four books on Ireland, stated that \"When you see [the word \"Holocaust\" used with regard to the famine], you know that you are encountering famine-porn. It is inevitably part of a presentation that is historically unbalanced and, like other kinds of pornography, is distinguished by a covert (and sometimes overt) appeal to misanthropy and almost always an incitement to hatred.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Crop loss in 1845 has been estimated at anywhere from one third to as high as one half of cultivated acreage. The Mansion House Committee in Dublin, to which hundreds of letters were directed from all over Ireland, claimed on 19 November 1845 to have ascertained beyond the shadow of a doubt that \"considerably more than one-third of the entire of the potato crop ... has been already destroyed\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "A. J. P. Taylor",
        "text": "In 1962, Taylor wrote in a review of \"The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845\u20131849\" by Cecil Woodham-Smith that: \"All Ireland was a Belsen. ... The English governing class ran true to form. They had killed two million Irish people.\" Taylor added that if the death rate from the Great Famine was not higher it \"was not for want of trying\" on the part of the British government, writing: \"I have always felt a certain horror of political economists since I heard one of them say that the Famine in Ireland would not kill more than a million people, and that would scarcely be enough to do much good.\" Taylor later reprinted his book review under the stark title \"Genocide\" in his 1976 book \"Essays in English History\".\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Tom Devine",
        "text": "His 1988 \"The Great Highland Famine\" is an analysis of the impact of the late 1840s failure of the potato upon the Western Highlands of Scotland."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the potato",
        "text": "The Lumper potato, widely cultivated in western and southern Ireland before and during the Great Famine, was bland, wet and poorly resistant to the potato blight, but yielded large crops and usually provided adequate calories for peasants and labourers. Heavy dependence on this potato led to disaster when the blight quickly turned harvest-ready and newly harvested potatoes into a putrid mush. The Irish Famine in the western and southern parts of Ireland between 1845 and 1849 was a catastrophic failure in the food supply that led to approximately a million deaths from famine and (especially) diseases that attacked weakened bodies, and to massive emigration to Britain, the U.S., Canada and elsewhere. During the famine years roughly one million Irish emigrated; this tide was not turned until the 20th century, when Ireland's population stood at less than half of the pre-famine level of 8 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "In 1740, Ireland had a population of 2.4 million people, most of whom depended on grains (oats, wheat, barley and rye) and potatoes as their staple foods. Half their expenses for food went for grain, 35% for animal products and the remainder for potatoes. Some survived only on oatmeal, buttermilk and potatoes. Over a year, daily consumption of potatoes was estimated at per person. Diets varied according to village locations and individual income, with many people supplementing these staples with river, lake or sea fish, especially herring, and small game such as wild duck. At the time social welfare was an entirely private initiative undertaken on a local level by the village or parish, with the government not being oriented to large-scale relief efforts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "In February 1845, Devon reported:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "The historian Cecil Woodham-Smith wrote in \"\" that no issue has provoked so much anger and embittered relations between England and Ireland \"as the indisputable fact that huge quantities of food were exported from Ireland to England throughout the period when the people of Ireland were dying of starvation\". While in addition to the maize imports, four times as much wheat was imported into Ireland at the height of the famine as exported, much of the imported wheat was used as livestock feed. Woodham-Smith added that provision via the Poor law union workhouses by the Act of 1838 had to be paid by rates levied on the local property owners, and in areas where the famine was worst, the tenants could not pay their rents to enable landlords to fund the rates and therefore the workhouses. Only by selling food, some of which would inevitably be exported, could a \"virtuous circle\" be created whereby the rents and rates would be paid, and the workhouses funded. Relief through the workhouse system was simply overwhelmed by the enormous scale and duration of the famine. Nicolas McEvoy, parish priest of Kells, wrote in October 1845:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "The Great Frost affected the potato, which was one of the two main staples (the other was oatmeal) in rural Ireland. Potatoes typically were left in storage in gardens and in special storage in fields. The crops from the autumn of 1739 were frozen, destroyed and inedible. They could not serve as seed for the next growing season. \"Richard Purcell, one of the best rural witnesses of the unfolding crisis, reported in late February [1740] that had the Frost not occurred, there would have been enough potatoes in his district to have kept the country [Ireland] fed until August [1740], indicating a rare local abundance of the crop. 'But both root and branch\u2026is destroyed every where', except for 'a few which happen'd to be housed', and 'in a very few deep\u2026and turfy moulded gardens where some, perhaps enough for seed for the same ground, are sound.'\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Some also pointed to the structure of the British Empire as a contributing factor. James Anthony Froude wrote that \"England governed Ireland for what she deemed her own interest, making her calculations on the gross balance of her trade ledgers, and leaving moral obligations aside, as if right and wrong had been blotted out of the statute book of the Universe.\" Dennis Clark, an Irish-American historian and critic of empire, claimed the famine was \"the culmination of generations of neglect, misrule and repression. It was an epic of English colonial cruelty and inadequacy. For the landless cabin dwellers it meant emigration or extinction...\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1879)",
        "text": "Although it was of a far smaller scale to either of the two Great Famines, its appearance caused widespread panic among Irish people; many of the adults of the period had experienced the Great Famine of 1845\u20131852 as children and were terrified that their families faced a repeat of the widespread deaths, and in particular a repeat of \"Black '47\". An increase in emigration occurred, as did a move from foodless parts of rural Ireland into major cities and towns. However, the population moves proved temporary. With the re-appearance of the harvest in 1880, many of those who had fled to urban centres repopulated the areas they had left."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Was Poland affected the potatoe famine that brought immigrants to the United States?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you wanting to know about the Great Famine (Ireland), Scotland's Highland Potato Famine?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the Great Famine in Ireland."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Great Famine in Ireland, also known as the Great Hunger, the Famine (mostly within Ireland) or the Irish Potato Famine (mostly outside Ireland), was a period of mass starvation and disease in Ireland from 1845 to 1852.",
      "The Great Famine spanned from 1845 to 1852. It led over 1 million people dead, and more than a million people fleeing the country."
    ],
    "topic": "Polish cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Great Famine (Ireland):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Great Famine (Ireland)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Great Famine ( ), also known as the Great Hunger, the Famine (mostly within Ireland) or the Irish Potato Famine (mostly outside Ireland), was a period of mass starvation and disease in Ireland from 1845 to 1852. With the most severely affected areas in the west and south of Ireland, where the Irish language was dominant, the period was contemporaneously known in Irish as , loosely translated as \"the hard times\" (or literally \"the bad life\"). The worst year of the period was 1847, known as \"Black '47\". During the Great Hunger, about 1 million people died and more than a million fled the country, causing the country's population to fall by 20\u201325%, in some towns falling as much as 67% between 1841 and 1871. Between 1845 and 1855, no fewer than 2.1 million people left Ireland, primarily on packet ships but also steamboats and barque\u2014one of the greatest exoduses from a single island in history."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Great Famine (Ireland):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Great Famine (Ireland)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Great Famine ( ), also known as the Great Hunger, the Famine (mostly within Ireland) or the Irish Potato Famine (mostly outside Ireland), was a period of mass starvation and disease in Ireland from 1845 to 1852. With the most severely affected areas in the west and south of Ireland, where the Irish language was dominant, the period was contemporaneously known in Irish as , loosely translated as \"the hard times\" (or literally \"the bad life\"). The worst year of the period was 1847, known as \"Black '47\". During the Great Hunger, about 1 million people died and more than a million fled the country, causing the country's population to fall by 20\u201325%, in some towns falling as much as 67% between 1841 and 1871. Between 1845 and 1855, no fewer than 2.1 million people left Ireland, primarily on packet ships but also steamboats and barque\u2014one of the greatest exoduses from a single island in history."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Irish cuisine",
        "text": "In 1845, the Great Famine began when many potato crops in Ireland had been infected with the mold that causes potato blight. This had turned their potatoes diseased and useless, putting many who are already in poverty into deeper poverty . The crop had failed due to potato blight in 1845\u201346, had little success in 1847, and failed once again in 1848."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish cuisine",
        "text": "The over-reliance on potatoes as a staple crop meant that the people of Ireland were vulnerable to poor potato harvests. The first Great Famine of 1739 was the result of extreme cold weather, but the famine of 1845\u20131849 (see Great Irish Famine) was caused by potato blight which spread throughout the Irish crop which consisted largely of a single variety, the Lumper. During the famine approximately one million people died and a million more emigrated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "The famine of 1740\u20131741 is different from the Great Famine of the 19th century. By the mid-19th century, potatoes made up a greater portion of Irish diets, with adverse consequences when the crop failed, causing famine from 1845 to 1852. The Great Famine differed by \"cause, scale and timing\" from the Irish Famine of 1740\u20131741. It was caused by an oomycete infection which destroyed much of the potato crop for several years running, a crisis exacerbated by laissez-faire government policies, continued exportation of food, insufficient relief and rigid government regulations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "The proximate cause of the famine was a potato blight which infected potato crops throughout Europe during the 1840s, causing an additional 100,000 deaths outside Ireland and influencing much of the unrest in the widespread European Revolutions of 1848. From 1846, the impact of the blight was exacerbated by the British Whig government's obstinate faith in \"laissez-faire\" economic policy, free from intervention by government. Longer-term causes include the system of absentee landlordism and single-crop dependence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "Grains were so scarce that the Irish hierarchy of the Catholic Church allowed Catholics to eat meat four days each week during Lent, but not everyone could afford meat. The potato crisis caused an increase in grain prices, resulting in smaller and smaller loaves of bread for the old price. Dickson explains that the \"wholesale rise in the price of wheat, oats and barley reflected not just the current supply position, but the dealers' assessment as to the state of things later in the year.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish people",
        "text": "Known as \"An G\u00f3rta M\u00f3r\" (\"The Great Hurt\") in the Irish language, during the famine millions of Irish people died and emigrated during Ireland's largest famine. The famine lasted from 1845 - 1849, and it was worst in the year 1847, which became known as Black '47. The famine occurred due to the extremely impoverished Irish population's staple food the potato being infected with Blight, and the British administration appropriating all other crops and livestock to feed her armies abroad. This meant the crop failed and turned black. Starving people who tried to eat them would only vomit it back up soon afterwards. Soup kitchens were set up but made little difference. The British government produced little aid, only sending raw corn known as 'Peel's Brimstone' to Ireland. It was known by this name after the British Prime Minister at the time, Robert Peel, and the fact that many Irish weren't aware on how to cook corn. This led to little or no improvement. The British government set up workhouses which were disease ridden (with cholera, TB and others) but they also failed as little food was available and many died on arrival as they were overworked. Some British political figures at the time saw the famine as a purge from God to exterminate the majority of the native Irish population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "The famine of 1740\u20131741 was due to extremely cold and then dry weather in successive years, resulting in food losses in three categories: a series of poor grain harvests, a shortage of milk, and frost damage to potatoes. At this time, grains, particularly oats, were more important than potatoes as staples in the diet of most workers."
      },
      {
        "title": "1840s",
        "text": "The Great Famine of the 1840s caused the deaths of one million Irish people and over a million more emigrated to escape it. It is sometimes referred to, mostly outside Ireland, as the \"Irish Potato Famine\" because one-third of the population was then solely reliant on this cheap crop for a number of historical reasons. The proximate cause of famine was a potato disease commonly known as potato blight. A census taken in 1841 revealed a population of slightly over 8 million. A census immediately after the famine in 1851 counted 6,552,385, a drop of almost 1.5 million in 10 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "By summer 1740, the Frost had decimated the potatoes, and the drought had decimated the grain harvest and herds of cattle and sheep. Starving rural dwellers started a \"mass vagrancy\" towards the better-supplied towns, such as Cork in southern Ireland. By mid-June 1740, beggars lined the streets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chronology of the Great Famine",
        "text": "The chronology of the Great Famine ( or \"An Drochshaol\", litt: \"The Bad Life\") documents a period of Irish history between 29 November 1845 and 1852 during which time the population of Ireland was reduced by 20 to 25 percent. The proximate cause was famine resulting from a potato disease commonly known as late blight. Although blight ravaged potato crops throughout Europe during the 1840s, the impact and human cost in Irelandwhere a third of the population was entirely dependent on the potato for food but which also produced an abundance of other foodwas exacerbated by a host of political, social and economic factors which remain the subject of historical debate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "While the famine was responsible for a significant increase in emigration from Ireland, of anywhere from 45% to nearly 85% depending on the year and the county, it was not the sole cause. The beginning of mass emigration from Ireland can be traced to the mid-18th century, when some 250,000 people left Ireland over a period of 50 years to settle in the New World. Irish economist Cormac \u00d3 Gr\u00e1da estimates that between 1\u00a0million and 1.5\u00a0million people emigrated during the 30 years between 1815 (when Napoleon was defeated in Waterloo) and 1845 (when the Great Famine began). However, during the worst of the famine, emigration reached somewhere around 250,000 in one year alone, with western Ireland seeing the most emigrants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1879)",
        "text": "The famine of 1879 is attributed to the effects of the \"Long Depression\" in the late 19th century, inclement climate, potato blight, and cholera among chickens. Unlike the earlier Irish Famine of 1740 to 1741 and Great Famine of 1845 to 1852, the 1879 event resulted in fewer deaths, due to changes in the technology of food production, different structures of land-holding (the disappearance of the sub-division of land and of the cottier class as a result of the earlier Great Famine), remittances from the Irish diaspora, and in particular the prompt response of the British government, which contrasted with its \"laissez-faire\" response in 1845\u20131852. Another factor was the growth of small shops; one estimate has County Mayo shopkeepers extending some \u00a3200,000 in credit by August 1879, which had been steadily accumulated since the relatively bad harvest of 1877."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genocides in history (before World War I)",
        "text": "A small minority of historians regard the Great Famine of Ireland (1845\u20131852) as an example of genocide. During the famine, approximately 1 million people died and a million more emigrated from Ireland, causing the island's population to fall by between 20% and 25%. The proximate cause of famine was a potato disease commonly known as potato blight. Although blight ravaged potato crops throughout Europe during the 1840s, the impact and human cost in Irelandwhere one-third of the population was entirely dependent on the potato for foodwas exacerbated by a host of political, social, and economic factors that remain the subject of historical debate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holodomor",
        "text": "The overlying causes for the famine are still disputed. Some scholars suggest that the man-made famine was a consequence of the economic problems associated with changes implemented during the period of Soviet industrialisation. There are also those who blame a systematic set of policies perpetrated by the Soviet government under Stalin designed to exterminate the Ukrainians. According to Stephen Wheatcroft, the grain yield for the Soviet Union preceding the famine was a low harvest of between 55 and 60 million tons, likely in part caused by damp weather and low traction power, yet official statistics mistakenly reported a yield of 68.9 million tons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "In 1846, three-quarters of the harvest was lost to blight. By December, a third of a million destitute people were employed in public works. According to Cormac \u00d3 Gr\u00e1da, the first attack of potato blight caused considerable hardship in rural Ireland, from the autumn of 1846, when the first deaths from starvation were recorded. Seed potatoes were scarce in 1847. Few had been sown, so, despite average yields, hunger continued. 1848 yields were only two-thirds of normal. Since over three million Irish people were totally dependent on potatoes for food, hunger and famine were inevitable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Historian F. S. L. Lyons characterised the initial response of the British government to the early, less severe phase of the famine as \"prompt and relatively successful\". Confronted by widespread crop failure in November 1845, the Prime Minister, Sir Robert Peel, purchased \u00a3100,000 worth of maize and cornmeal secretly from America with Baring Brothers initially acting as his agents. The government hoped that they would not \"stifle private enterprise\" and that their actions would not act as a disincentive to local relief efforts. Due to poor weather conditions, the first shipment did not arrive in Ireland until the beginning of February 1846. The initial shipments were of unground dried kernels, but the few Irish mills in operation were not equipped for milling maize and a long and complicated milling process had to be adopted before the meal could be distributed. In addition, before the cornmeal could be consumed, it had to be \"very much\" cooked again, or eating it could result in severe bowel complaints. Due to its yellow colour, and initial unpopularity, it became known as \"Peel's brimstone\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chronology of the Great Famine",
        "text": "The first deaths from hunger took place in early 1846. In March Peel set up a programme of public works in Ireland but was forced to resign as Prime Minister on 29 June. The new Whig administration under Lord Russell, influenced by their laissez-faire belief that the market would provide the food needed then halted government food and relief works, leaving many hundreds of thousands of people without any work, money or food. Grain continued to be exported from the country. Private initiatives such as The Central Relief Committee of the Society of Friends (Quakers) attempted to fill the gap caused by the end of government relief and eventually the government reinstated the relief works, although bureaucracy slowed the release of food supplies. The blight almost totally destroyed the 1846 crop and the Famine worsened considerably. By December a third of a million destitute people were employed in public works."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Christine Kinealy has written that \"the major tragedy of the Irish Famine of 1845\u201352 marked a watershed in modern Irish history. Its occurrence, however, was neither inevitable nor unavoidable\". The underlying factors which combined to cause the famine were aggravated by an inadequate government response. Kinealy notes that the \"government had to do something to help alleviate the suffering\" but that \"it became apparent that the government was using its information not merely to help it formulate its relief policies, but also as an opportunity to facilitate various long-desired changes within Ireland\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "By the end of April, it destroyed much of the tillage crops (wheat and barley) sown the previous autumn, and grains were more important in the diet than were potatoes. The important corn crop also failed, which resulted in greater mortality in Ireland than in Britain or the Continent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Persian famine of 1917\u20131919",
        "text": "Pat Walsh in a review of Majd's book written in Irish Foreign Affairs, a quarterly publication by Irish Political Review blames the British occupation and comments on claims of hoarding as causes of famine, writing \"British attitudes towards the starving Persians were uncannily similar to those expressed against the Irish in a similar position half a century before\", i.e. the British blamed Persians while suggesting that building roads for their military was a \u2018relief measure\u2019 motivated by benevolence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ireland",
        "text": "The \"Great Frost\" struck Ireland and the rest of Europe between December 1739 and September 1741, after a decade of relatively mild winters. The winters destroyed stored crops of potatoes and other staples, and the poor summers severely damaged harvests. This resulted in the famine of 1740. An estimated 250,000 people (about one in eight of the population) died from the ensuing pestilence and disease. The Irish government halted export of corn and kept the army in quarters but did little more. Local gentry and charitable organisations provided relief but could do little to prevent the ensuing mortality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gareth Jones (journalist)",
        "text": "On 11 April 1933, Jones published a detailed analysis of the famine in the \"Financial News\", pointing out its main causes: forced collectivization of private farms, removal of 6\u20137 millions of \"best workers\" (the Kulaks) from their land, forced requisitions of grain and farm animals and increased \"export of foodstuffs\" from USSR."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chronology of the Great Famine",
        "text": "By 1851 census figures showed that the population of Ireland had fallen to 6,575,000 \u2013 a drop of 1,600,000 in ten years. Cormac \u00d3 Gr\u00e1da and Joel Mokyr have described the 1851 census as a famous but flawed source. They contend that the combination of institutional and individuals figures gives \"an incomplete and biased count\" of fatalities during the famine. The famine left in its wake up to a million dead and another million emigrated. The famine caused a sense of lasting bitterness by the Irish towards the British government, whom many blamed \u2013 then and now \u2013 for the starvation of so many people. The fall-out of the famine continued for decades afterwards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish food shortages (1925)",
        "text": "Hogan's claim was not only at odds with media reports over the previous six months but also with his own colleagues. Heavy rain had caused crop failure and destroyed animal fodder, and the flooding of peat bogs had also deprived people of fuel. The government were accused of covering up the food shortages in order to avoid bad publicity. The Department of Local Government and Public Health insisted in February that there was no famine, merely \"acute distress.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "The propertied classes began to respond to fuel and food shortages when the Frost was about two weeks old. The Church of Ireland parish clergy solicited donations, which they converted into free rations in the city parishes, distributing nearly 80 tons of coal and ten tons of meal four weeks into the Frost. The Lord Lieutenant, the Duke of Devonshire, in an unprecedented move on 19 January 1740, prohibited export of grain out of Ireland to any destination except Britain. This action was in response to Cork Corporation (City of Cork), which remembered vividly the city events of eleven years earlier when serious food riots erupted and four people died."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Lectures printed in 1847 by John Hughes, Bishop of New York, are a contemporary exploration into the antecedent causes, particularly the political climate, in which the Irish famine occurred."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine of 1315\u20131317",
        "text": "The price of food began to rise. Prices in England doubled between spring and midsummer. Salt, the only way to cure and preserve meat, was difficult to obtain because brine could not be effectively evaporated in wet weather. Its price increased from 30 to 40 shillings. In Lorraine, wheat prices rose by 320%, making bread unaffordable to peasants. Stores of grain for long-term emergencies were limited to royalty, lords, nobles, wealthy merchants, and the Church. Because of the general increased population pressures, even lower-than-average harvests meant some people would go hungry; there was little margin for failure. People began to harvest wild edible roots, grasses, nuts, and bark in the forests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "The famine marked the beginning of the depopulation of Ireland in the 19th century. The population had increased by 13\u201314% in the first three decades of the 19th century; between 1831 and 1841, the population grew by 5%. Application of Thomas Malthus's idea of population expanding geometrically while resources increase arithmetically was popular during the famines of 1817 and 1822. By the 1830s, they were seen as overly simplistic, and Ireland's problems were seen \"less as an excess of population than as a lack of capital investment\". The population of Ireland was increasing no faster than that of England, which suffered no equivalent catastrophe. By 1854, between 1.5 and 2\u00a0million Irish left their country due to evictions, starvation, and harsh living conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "In 1843, the British Government considered that the land question in Ireland was the root or foundational cause of disaffection in the country. They established a Royal Commission, chaired by the Earl of Devon, to enquire into the laws regarding the occupation of land. Daniel O'Connell described this commission as \"perfectly one-sided\", being composed of landlords, with no tenant representation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "Similar skirmishes over food continued in different Irish cities throughout the summer of 1740. The War of the Austrian Succession (1740\u20131748) began, interrupting trade as Spanish privateers captured ships bound for Ireland, including those carrying grain. Linen, salted beef and pickled butter were Ireland's chief export earners, and the war endangered this trade as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Famine",
        "text": "By the mid-19th century and the onset of the Industrial Revolution, it became possible for governments to alleviate the effects of famine through price controls, large scale importation of food products from foreign markets, stockpiling, rationing, regulation of production and charity. The Great Famine of 1845 in Ireland was one of the first famines to feature such intervention, although the government response was often lackluster. The initial response of the British government to the early phase of the famine was \"prompt and relatively successful\", according to F. S. L. Lyons. Confronted by widespread crop failure in the autumn of 1845, Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel purchased \u00a3100,000 worth of maize and cornmeal secretly from America. Baring Brothers & Co initially acted as purchasing agents for the Prime Minister. The government hoped that they would not \"stifle private enterprise\" and that their actions would not act as a disincentive to local relief efforts. Due to weather conditions, the first shipment did not arrive in Ireland until the beginning of February 1846. The maize corn was then re-sold for a penny a pound."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "In autumn 1740, a meagre harvest commenced and prices in the towns started to fall. Cattle began to recover. But in the dairying districts, cows had been so weak after the Frost that at least a third of them had failed to \"take bull,\" or become impregnated at breeding. This resulted in fewer calves, a shortage of milk, which was widely consumed, and a decline in butter production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Persian famine of 1917\u20131919",
        "text": "According to Touraj Atabaki, \"successive seasonal droughts caused widespread famine during 1917/1918. Requisition and confiscation of foodstuffs by occupying armies to feed their soldiers added to the famine\". In \"The Cambridge History of Iran\", it is stated that speculation and hoarding made the situation worse. Michael Axworthy believes that the famine was \"partly as a result of the dislocation of trade and agricultural production caused by the war\". Tammy M. Proctor comments that the cause for food shortage was a combination of army requisitioning, war profiteering, hoarding and poor harvests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)\n--Background.\n--Cause.\n--Protestants and alms-giving.\n--Potatoes deteriorate.\n--Spring drought, 1740.\n--Food riots.\n--The cold returns.\n--Relief schemes.\n--Return of normal weather.\n--Death toll.\n--Summary.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1879)",
        "text": "Although it was of a far smaller scale to either of the two Great Famines, its appearance caused widespread panic among Irish people; many of the adults of the period had experienced the Great Famine of 1845\u20131852 as children and were terrified that their families faced a repeat of the widespread deaths, and in particular a repeat of \"Black '47\". An increase in emigration occurred, as did a move from foodless parts of rural Ireland into major cities and towns. However, the population moves proved temporary. With the re-appearance of the harvest in 1880, many of those who had fled to urban centres repopulated the areas they had left."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Private initiatives such as the Central Relief Committee of the Society of Friends (Quakers) attempted to fill the gap caused by the end of government relief, and eventually, the government reinstated the relief works, although bureaucracy slowed the release of food supplies. Thousands of dollars were raised in the United States, including $170 ($5,218 in 2019 value) collected from a group of Native American Choctaws in 1847. Judy Allen, editor of the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma's newspaper \"Biskinik\", wrote that \"It had been just 16 years since the Choctaw people had experienced the Trail of Tears, and they had faced starvation\u00a0... It was an amazing gesture.\" To mark the 150th anniversary, eight Irish people retraced the Trail of Tears."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Clark (horticulturist)",
        "text": "It was during this period that a fungus unwittingly transported to Europe from America devastated the potato crop in Ireland, causing the Great Famine of 1845-1850. In the wake of this tragedy potato breeders sought to find a reliable alternative to the disgraced Lumpers and Cups that had been the mainstay of the Irish planting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "I have called it an artificial famine: that is to say, it was a famine which desolated a rich and fertile island that produced every year abundance and superabundance to sustain all her people and many more. The English, indeed, call the famine a \"dispensation of Providence\"; and ascribe it entirely to the blight on potatoes. But potatoes failed in like manner all over Europe; yet there was no famine save in Ireland. The British account of the matter, then, is first, a fraud; second, a blasphemy. The Almighty, indeed, sent the potato blight, but the English created the famine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Famine",
        "text": "Other areas of Europe have known famines much more recently. France saw famines as recently as the 19th century. The Great Famine in Ireland, 1846\u20131851, caused by the failure of the potato crop over a few years, resulted in 1,000,000 dead and another 2,000,000 refugees fleeing to Britain, Australia and the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "When Ireland had experienced food shortages in 1782\u201383, ports were closed to keep Irish-grown food in Ireland to feed the hungry. Irish food prices promptly dropped. Merchants lobbied against the export ban, but the government in the 1780s overrode their protests. No such export ban happened in the 1840s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in the Soviet Union",
        "text": "Coincidentally with the start of First \"pyatiletka\" (5 year plan), a new commissariat of the Soviet Union was created, better known as \"Narkomzem\" (People's Commissariat of Land Cultivation) led by Yakov Yakovlev. After the speech on collectivization that Stalin gave to the Communist Academy, there were no specific instructions on how exactly it had to be implemented, except for liquidation of kulaks as a class. Stalin's revolution is often regarded as one of the factors which led to the severe Soviet famine of 1932\u201333, better known in Ukraine as the Holodomor. Official Soviet sources blamed the famine on counterrevolutionary efforts by the Kulaks, though there is little evidence for this claim. A plausible alternative explanation, supported by some historians, is that the famine occurred at least in part due to poor weather conditions and low harvests. The famine started in Ukraine in the winter of 1931 and despite the lack of any official reports the news spread by word of mouth rapidly. During that time restrictions on rail travel were set by authorities. Only next year in 1932-33 the famine spread outside of Ukraine to agricultural regions of Russia and Kazakhstan, while the \"news blackout continued\". The famine led to the introduction of the internal passport system, due to the unmanageable flow of migrants to the cities. The famine finally ended in 1933, after a successful harvest. Collectivization continued. During the second five-year plan Stalin came up with another famous slogan in 1935: \"Life has become better, life has become more cheerful.\" Rationing was lifted. In 1936, due to a poor harvest, fears of another famine led to famously long breadlines. However, no such famine occurred, and these fears proved largely unfounded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Persian famine of 1917\u20131919",
        "text": "Charles P. Melville maintains that the main reason of the famine were the conditions caused by the War."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "An extraordinary climatic shock struck Ireland and the rest of Europe between December 1739 and September 1741 following a decade of relatively mild winters. Its cause remains unknown. Charting its course sharply illuminates how climate events can result in famine and epidemic disease, and affect economies, energy sources, and politics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "The strange autumn of 1740 pushed food prices up. Dublin wheat prices on 20 December were at an all-time high. The widening wars in mid-December 1740 encouraged people with stored food to hoard it. The populace needed food, and riots erupted again in various cities throughout the country. By December 1740, signs were growing that full-blown famine and epidemic were upon the citizens of Ireland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Persian famine of 1917\u20131919",
        "text": "Mohammad Gholi Majd, holds the British occupation and its custom and finance regulations accountable for worsening the famine, and Willem Floor suggests James L. Barton's account (occupation by armies, exceptionally light snowfall and disease), joint with hoarding by landowners and lack of purchasing power as other crucial causes of famine. According to him, two major grain producing areas, namely Kermanshah\u2013Hamadan and Azarbaijan were the battlefield between the Ottomans and the Russians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Persian famine of 1917\u20131919",
        "text": "The number of people who died between 1917 and 1919 because of hunger and from diseases, which included cholera, plague and typhus, as well as influenza infected by 1918 flu pandemic, has been variously given at 2 million, 6 million, and 8-10 million. A variety of factors are commented to have caused and contributed to the famine, including successive seasonal droughts, requisitioning and confiscation of foodstuffs by occupying armies, speculation, hoarding, war profiteering, and poor harvests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Causes of the Holodomor",
        "text": "\"Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica\" says that there was no physical basis for famine in Ukraine, and that Soviet authorities set quotas for Ukraine at exceedingly high levels. However Soviet archival data suggests that the grain harvest was not as large as assumed, and, as such, Ukrainian historian Mykhailo Hrushevsky, who lived through the period in question and was himself a victim of a Stalinist purge, described the famine as preceded by \"a year of drought coincid[ing] with chaotic agricultural conditions.\" This suggests that the famine was caused by a combination of a severe drought, chaotic implementation of forced collectivization of farms, and the food requisition program carried out by the Soviet authorities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "With the \"expansion of the economy\" between 1760 and 1815 due to the Napoleonic wars (1805\u201315), which had increased the demand for food in Britain, the tillage increased to such an extent, that there was less and less land for small farmers, and the potato was chiefly adopted by the people because of its quick growth on a comparatively small space. By 1800, for one in three of the population, the potato had become a staple food, especially in winter. It eventually became a staple year-round for farmers. The widespread dependency on this single crop, and a disproportionate share of the potatoes grown in Ireland being of a single variety, the Irish Lumper i.e. the lack of genetic variability among the potato plants in Ireland and Europe, were two of the reasons why the emergence of \"Phytophthora infestans\" had such devastating effects in Ireland and in similar areas of Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chronology of the Great Famine",
        "text": "The blight returned in 1848 and outbreaks of cholera were reported. Evictions became common among the Irish who could not keep up with the demands of their British landlords. Famine victims on outdoor relief peaked in July at almost 840,000 people. On 29 July an uprising against the government was led by William Smith O'Brien. After a skirmish at \"Widow McCormack's house\" in the village of Ballingarry, County Tipperary the leaders of the rebellion fled to America or were sentenced to transportation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sir Charles Trevelyan, 1st Baronet",
        "text": "The Great Famine in Ireland began as a natural catastrophe of extraordinary magnitude, but its effects were severely worsened by the actions and inactions of the Whig government, headed by Lord John Russell in the crucial years from 1846 to 1852. Many members of the British upper and middle classes believed that the famine was a divine judgment\u2014an act of Providence. A leading exponent of the providentialist perspective was Trevelyan, who was chiefly responsible for administering Irish relief policy throughout the famine years. In his book \"The Irish Crisis\", published in 1848, Trevelyan later described the famine as \"a direct stroke of an all-wise and all-merciful Providence\", one which laid bare \"the deep and inveterate root of social evil\". The famine, he declared, was \"the sharp but effectual remedy by which the cure is likely to be effected\u2026 God grant that the generation to which this great opportunity has been offered may rightly perform its part\u2026\" This mentality of Trevelyan's was influential in persuading the government to do nothing to restrain mass evictions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish cuisine",
        "text": "The starving people tried eating the potatoes, and became extremely sick from eating them. They began eating a diet of eggs, birds, and plants like nettles and chickweeds. Many farmers bled their cattle out and fried the blood rather than eat their meat. With the cattle as malnourished as the people, the meat wasn't fit for consumption, so they resorted to using the blood mixed with herbs, garlic, oats and butter, to use as a subsistence meal. The extremely desperate and malnourished ate rats and worms found off the street."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Great Famine (Ireland)\n--Causes and contributing factors.\n----Landlords and tenants.\n----Tenants and subdivisions.\n----Potato dependency.\n----Blight in Ireland.\n--Reaction in Ireland.\n--Government response.\n----Government responses to previous food shortages.\n----Tory government.\n----Whig government.\n--Food exports.\n--Charity.\n--Eviction.\n--Emigration.\n--Death toll.\n--After the famine.\n--Analysis of the government's role.\n----Contemporary analysis.\n----Historical analysis.\n----Position of the British government.\n----Genocide question.\n--Memorials.\n--References.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Many Irish people, notably Mitchel, believed that Ireland continued to produce sufficient food to feed its population during the famine, and starvation resulted from exports. According to historian James Donnelly, \"the picture of Irish people starving as food was exported was the most powerful image in the nationalist construct of the Famine\". However, according to statistics, food imports exceeded exports during the famine. Though grain imports only really became significant after the spring of 1847 and much of the debate \"has been conducted within narrow parameters,\" focusing \"almost exclusively on national estimates with little attempt to disaggregate the data by region or by product.\" The amount of food exported in late 1846 was only one-tenth the amount of potato harvest lost to blight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Famine",
        "text": "A famine is a widespread scarcity of food, caused by several factors including war, natural disasters, crop failure, population imbalance, widespread poverty, an economic catastrophe or government policies. This phenomenon is usually accompanied or followed by regional malnutrition, starvation, epidemic, and increased mortality. Every inhabited continent in the world has experienced a period of famine throughout history. In the 19th and 20th century, generally characterized Southeast and South Asia, as well as Eastern and Central Europe, in terms of having suffered most number of deaths from famine. The numbers dying from famine began to fall sharply from the 2000s. Since 2010, Africa has been the most affected continent in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "County Mayo",
        "text": "During the early years of the 19th\u00a0century, famine was a common occurrence, particularly where population pressure was a problem. The population of Ireland grew to over eight million people prior to the Irish Famine (or Great Famine) of 1845\u201347. The Irish people depended on the potato crop for their sustenance. Disaster struck in August 1845, when a killer fungus (later diagnosed as Phytophthora infestans) started to destroy the potato crop. When widespread famine struck, about a million people died and a further million left the country. People died in the fields of starvation and disease. The catastrophe was particularly bad in County Mayo, where nearly ninety per cent of the population depended on the potato as their staple food. By 1848, Mayo was a county of total misery and despair, with any attempts at alleviating measures in complete disarray."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine of 1876\u20131878",
        "text": "The \"Great Famine\" may have partially been caused by an intense drought resulting in crop failure in the Deccan Plateau. It was part of a larger pattern of drought and crop failure across India, China, South America and parts of Africa caused by an interplay between a strong El Ni\u00f1o and an active Indian Ocean Dipole that led to between 19 and 50 million deaths."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Great Western Railway in West Wales",
        "text": "In 1845 there was a catastrophic failure of the potato crop on which a majority of Irish people depended for a living; this resulted in mass starvation and commercial depression, which deepened the following year. The catastrophe is known as the Great Famine. The economy in Ireland worsened considerably, and coincidentally the general economic climate throughout the United Kingdom worsened considerably making the raising of money extremely difficult."
      },
      {
        "title": "Causes of the Holodomor",
        "text": "The causes of the Holodomor, the famine that ravaged Soviet Ukraine during 1932 and 1933, resulting in the death of around 3\u20135 million people, are the subject of scholarly and political debate, such as the Holodomor genocide question. Some historians believe the famine was the unintended consequence of problems arising from Soviet agricultural collectivization implemented to support the program of rapid industrialization in the Soviet Union in under Joseph Stalin. Other historians believe policies were intentionally designed to cause the famine. Some of them suggest that the famine may fall under the legal definition of genocide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Famine",
        "text": "During the 15th century to the 18th century, famines in Europe became more frequent due to the Little Ice Age. The colder climate resulted in harvest failures and shortfalls that led to a rise in conspiracy theories concerning the causes behind these famines, such as the Pacte de Famine in France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine of 1315\u20131317",
        "text": "In the spring of 1315, unusually heavy rain began in much of Europe. Throughout the spring and the summer, it continued to rain, and the temperature remained cool. Under such conditions, grain could not ripen, leading to widespread crop failures. Grain was brought indoors in urns and pots to keep dry. The straw and hay for the animals could not be cured, so there was no fodder for the livestock. In England, lowlands in Yorkshire and Nottingham were flooded, while stew ponds on the River Foss in Yorkshire were washed away."
      },
      {
        "title": "Albert College (Dublin)",
        "text": "In the early 20th century Paul A. Murphy, Professor of plant pathology, made a significant scientific breakthrough in the study of phytophthera infestans, the fungus which causes potato blight. In the definitive work on the Irish Famine - \"The Great Hunger\" - the author Cecil Woodham-Smith states that in view of the fact that Ireland suffered so much from the blight it was \"by a stroke of poetic justice that it was in Ireland that much of the final research was carried out... at the Albert College in Glasnevin, Dublin\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine of 1315\u20131317",
        "text": "The Great Famine started with bad weather in spring 1315. Crop failures lasted through 1316 until the summer harvest in 1317, and Europe did not fully recover until 1322. Crop failures were not the only problem; cattle disease caused sheep and cattle numbers to fall as much as 80%. The period was marked by extreme levels of crime, disease, mass death, and even cannibalism and infanticide. The crisis had consequences for the Church, state, European society, and for future calamities to follow in the 14th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "According to Professor Liam Kennedy, an editorial in the \"Irish Echo\" by James Pius Sweeney stated: 'The genocide of the Great Famine is distinct in the fact that the British created the conditions of dire hopelessness, and desperate dependence on the potato crop through a series of sadistic, debasing, premeditated and barbarous Penal Laws, which deliberately and systematically stripped the Irish of even the least semblance of basic human freedom.' When blight struck the Irish were 'totally vulnerable'. This was a 'nuanced genocide', he continues, one that manipulated fate 'by pushing a people to the brink of annihilation and turning away so not to hear the wailing \u2026'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Famine",
        "text": "Thomas Malthus's \"Essay on the Principle of Population\" has made popular the theory of the Malthusian catastrophe\u2014that many famines are caused by imbalance of food production compared to the large populations of countries whose population exceeds the regional carrying capacity. However, Professor Alex de Waal, executive director of the World Peace Foundation, refutes the Malthus theory, looking instead to political factors as major causes of recent (over the last 150 years) famines. Historically, famines have occurred from agricultural problems such as drought, crop failure, or pestilence. Changing weather patterns, the ineffectiveness of medieval governments in dealing with crises, wars, and epidemic diseases such as the Black Death helped to cause hundreds of famines in Europe during the Middle Ages, including 95 in Britain and 75 in France. In France, the Hundred Years' War, crop failures and epidemics reduced the population by two-thirds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Demography of the United Kingdom",
        "text": "The Great Irish Famine, which began in the 1840s, caused the deaths of 1 million Irish people, and caused well over a million to emigrate. Mass emigration became entrenched as a result of the famine, and the population continued to decline until the mid-20th century. Ireland's population decreased rapidly, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish issue in British politics",
        "text": "When potato blight struck the island in 1846, much of the peasant population lost their staple food, as cash crops were reserved for export to Great Britain. While large sums for relief were raised by private individuals and charities, inadequate action by the Government, which believed in \"laissez-faire\" policies, and the protectionist Corn Laws, which made wheat unaffordable, let the problem metastasize into a catastrophe. The class of cottiers, or farm labourers, was virtually wiped out through death and emigration, in what became known in Britain as 'The Irish Potato Famine' and in Ireland as the Great Hunger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "Five vessels loaded with grain, presumably from British America, reached Galway on the west coast in June 1741. In the first week of July 1741, grain prices at last decreased and old hoarded wheat suddenly flooded the market. The quality of the Autumn harvest of 1741 was mixed. The food crisis was over, and seasons of rare plenty followed for the next two years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Famine",
        "text": "Despite this promising start, the measures undertaken by Peel's successor, Lord John Russell, proved comparatively \"inadequate\" as the crisis deepened. Russell's ministry introduced public works projects, which by December 1846 employed some half million Irish and proved impossible to administer. The government was influenced by a laissez-faire belief that the market would provide the food needed. It halted government food and relief works, and turned to a mixture of \"indoor\" and \"outdoor\" direct relief; the former administered in workhouses through the Poor Law, the latter through soup kitchens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "The Great Famine ( ), also known as the Great Hunger, the Famine (mostly within Ireland) or the Irish Potato Famine (mostly outside Ireland), was a period of mass starvation and disease in Ireland from 1845 to 1852. With the most severely affected areas in the west and south of Ireland, where the Irish language was dominant, the period was contemporaneously known in Irish as , loosely translated as \"the hard times\" (or literally \"the bad life\"). The worst year of the period was 1847, known as \"Black '47\". During the Great Hunger, about 1 million people died and more than a million fled the country, causing the country's population to fall by 20\u201325%, in some towns falling as much as 67% between 1841 and 1871. Between 1845 and 1855, no fewer than 2.1 million people left Ireland, primarily on packet ships but also steamboats and barque\u2014one of the greatest exoduses from a single island in history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Persian famine of 1870\u20131872",
        "text": "Shoko Okazaki maintains that the two consecutive years of severe drought was the principal factor and rejects that the increase in production of opium and cotton contributed to the famine. She also blames \"senior bureaucrats, landlords, grain dealers and high-ranking religious officials who engaged in hoarding and market manipulation\". Cormac \u00d3 Gr\u00e1da endorses the latter reason."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Charles Trevelyan, who was in charge of the administration of government relief, limited the Government's food aid programme because of a firm belief in laissez-faire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "The Lord Mayor of Dublin, Samuel Cooke, consulted with the Lords Justices \u2013 Archbishop Boulter; Henry Boyle, Speaker of the Commons; and Lord Jocelyn, the Lord Chancellor of Ireland \u2013 on 15 December 1740 to figure out a way to bring down the price of corn. Boulter launched an emergency feeding programme for the poor of Dublin at his own expense. The Privy Council instructed the High Sheriff in each county to count all stocks of grain in the possession of farmers and merchants and to report total cereal stocks in their county."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetic diversity",
        "text": "The nineteenth-century Great Famine in Ireland was caused in part by a lack of biodiversity. Since new potato plants do not come as a result of reproduction, but rather from pieces of the parent plant, no genetic diversity is developed, and the entire crop is essentially a clone of one potato, it is especially susceptible to an epidemic. In the 1840s, much of Ireland's population depended on potatoes for food. They planted namely the \"lumper\" variety of potato, which was susceptible to a rot-causing oomycete called \"Phytophthora infestans\". The fungus destroyed the vast majority of the potato crop, and left one million people to starve to death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fenian Brotherhood",
        "text": "During the famine, the social class comprising small farmers and laborers was almost wiped out by starvation, disease and emigration. The Great Famine of the 1840s caused the deaths of 1 million Irish people and over 2 million more emigrated to escape it. That the people starved while livestock and grain continued to be exported, quite often under military escort, would leave a legacy of bitterness and resentment among the survivors. The waves of emigration because of the famine and in the years following also ensured that such feelings would not be confined to Ireland, but spread to England, the United States, Australia and every country where Irish emigrants gathered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "The measures undertaken by Peel's successor, Russell, proved inadequate as the crisis deepened. The new Whig administration, influenced by the doctrine of laissez-faire, believed that the market would provide the food needed. They refused to interfere with the movement of food to England, then halted the previous government's food and relief works, leaving many hundreds of thousands of people without access to work, money, or food. Russell's ministry introduced a new programme of public works that by the end of December 1846 employed some half million but proved impossible to administer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine of 1315\u20131317",
        "text": "The height of the famine was in 1317, as the wet weather continued. In that summer, the weather returned to normal patterns. By then, people were so weakened by diseases such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and tuberculosis, and so much of the seed stock had been eaten, that it was not until 1325 that the food supply returned to relatively normal levels and the population began to increase. Historians debate the toll, but it is estimated that 10\u201325% of the population of many cities and towns died. Though the Black Death (1347\u20131351) would kill more people, it often swept through an area in a matter of months, whereas the Great Famine lingered for years, prolonging the suffering of the populace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kinnea",
        "text": "Between 1845 and 1852, Ireland suffered a catastrophic famine due to a potato blight, which destroyed the primary source of food for the poorest sections of society. There are no direct records of the death toll in Kinnea. A comparison of the 1841 and 1851 census indicates that the population fell from 241 to 205; a decline of 14.5 percent. While it is not possible to attribute that decline to famine-related deaths or to immigration, the number of inhabited houses remained constant during that period, suggesting that the primary cause of the population decline was immigration. Kinnea's proximity to the sea offered alternative food sources which helped limit the population's dependence on potatoes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in the Middle Ages",
        "text": "One study concluded that famines in Europe occurred on an average every 20 years between the years 750 and 950. The principal causes were extreme weather and climatic anomalies which reduced agriculture production. Warfare was not found to be a major cause of famine. A study of crop failures in Winchester, England from 1232 to 1349 found that harvest failure occurred an average of every 12 years for wheat and every 8 years for barley and oats. Localized famine may have occurred in years in which one or more crops failed. Weather was again identified as the chief cause. Climatic change may have played a part as the Little Ice Age may have begun between 1275 and 1300 with a consequent shortening of the growing season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish nationalism",
        "text": "The Great Famine of 1845\u201349 caused great bitterness among Irish people against the British government, which was perceived as having failed to avert the deaths of up to a million people. British support for the 1860 plebiscites on Italian unification prompted Alexander Martin Sullivan to launch a \"National Petition\" for a referendum on repeal of the union; in 1861 Daniel O'Donoghue submitted the 423,026 signatures to no effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Famines in Austrian Galicia",
        "text": "1844 saw the destruction of much of the grain and potato crop due to severe rains and resulting flooding. Skowronek notes that the resulting famine affected the next for years, up to 1848. 1845 saw potato blight according to Grodziski, although Kieniewicz writes that that year saw more flooding, with the blight in 1846. The famine of 1847 was partially caused by the unrest of the previous year (see Krak\u00f3w uprising, Galician slaughter)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Causes of the Holodomor",
        "text": "This perspective is argued by Michael Ellman to have influenced official policy during the famine, with those deemed to be idlers being disfavored in aid distribution as compared to those deemed \"conscientiously working collective farmers\"; in this vein, Olga Andriewsky states that Soviet archives indicate that the most productive workers were prioritized for receiving food aid. Food rationing in Ukraine was determined by city categories (where one lived, with capitals and industrial centers being given preferential distribution), occupational categories (with industrial and railroad workers being prioritized over blue collar workers and intelligentsia), status in the family unit (with employed persons being entitled to higher rations than dependents and the elderly), and type of workplace in relation to industrialization (with those who worked in industrial endeavors near steel mills being preferred in distribution over those who worked in rural areas or in food)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Famine",
        "text": "Famines have also been caused by volcanism. The 1815 eruption of the Mount Tambora volcano in Indonesia caused crop failures and famines worldwide and caused the worst famine of the 19th century. The current consensus of the scientific community is that the aerosols and dust released into the upper atmosphere causes cooler temperatures by preventing the sun's energy from reaching the ground. The same mechanism is theorized to be caused by very large meteorite impacts to the extent of causing mass extinctions."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Ireland",
        "text": "The Great Irish Famine (\"An Gorta M\u00f3r\") was the second of Ireland's \"Great Famines\". It struck the country during 1845\u201349, with potato blight, exacerbated by the political factors of the time leading to mass starvation and emigration. The impact of emigration in Ireland was severe; the population dropped from over 8 million before the Famine to 4.4 million in 1911. Gaelic or Irish, once the island's spoken language, declined in use sharply in the nineteenth century as a result of the Famine and the creation of the National School education system, as well as hostility to the language from leading Irish politicians of the time; it was largely replaced by English."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "The potato was introduced to Ireland as a garden crop of the gentry. The potato was not popular at first; however, after an unusual promotion campaign that was supported by landowners and members of royalty, who wanted their tenants to plant and eat the crop, it rose in popularity. By the late 17th century, it had become widespread as a supplementary rather than a principal food; the main diet was still based on butter, milk, and grain products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Year Without a Summer",
        "text": "As a result of the series of volcanic eruptions, crops had been poor for several years; the final blow came in 1815 with the eruption of Tambora. Europe, still recuperating from the Napoleonic Wars, suffered from food shortages. The impoverished especially suffered during this time. Low temperatures and heavy rains resulted in failed harvests in Great Britain and Ireland. Families in Wales traveled long distances begging for food. Famine was prevalent in north and southwest Ireland, following the failure of wheat, oat, and potato harvests. In Germany, the crisis was severe. Food prices rose sharply throughout Europe. With the cause of the problems unknown, hungry people demonstrated in front of grain markets and bakeries. Later riots, arson, and looting took place in many European cities. On some occasions, rioters carried flags reading \"Bread or Blood\". Though riots were common during times of hunger, the food riots of 1816 and 1817 were the highest levels of violence since the French Revolution. It was the worst famine of 19th-century mainland Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish Famine (1740\u20131741)",
        "text": "Deaths from mass starvation in 1740\u20131741 were compounded by an outbreak of fatal diseases. The cold and its effects extended across Europe, but mortality was higher in Ireland because both grain and potatoes failed. This is now considered by scholars to be the last serious cold period at the end of the Little Ice Age of about 1400\u20131800."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chronology of the Great Famine",
        "text": "The potato crop failed again in 1849 and famine was accompanied by cholera outbreaks. This deadly cholera epidemic killed one of Ireland's greatest poets: James Clarence Mangan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "The historian Cecil Woodham-Smith wrote in \"\" that no issue has provoked so much anger and embittered relations between England and Ireland \"as the indisputable fact that huge quantities of food were exported from Ireland to England throughout the period when the people of Ireland were dying of starvation\". While in addition to the maize imports, four times as much wheat was imported into Ireland at the height of the famine as exported, much of the imported wheat was used as livestock feed. Woodham-Smith added that provision via the Poor law union workhouses by the Act of 1838 had to be paid by rates levied on the local property owners, and in areas where the famine was worst, the tenants could not pay their rents to enable landlords to fund the rates and therefore the workhouses. Only by selling food, some of which would inevitably be exported, could a \"virtuous circle\" be created whereby the rents and rates would be paid, and the workhouses funded. Relief through the workhouse system was simply overwhelmed by the enormous scale and duration of the famine. Nicolas McEvoy, parish priest of Kells, wrote in October 1845:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Ireland",
        "text": "The Tudor conquest of Ireland led to significant changes in the Irish diet, as it introduced a new agro-alimentary system of intensive grain-based agriculture and led to large areas of land being turned over to grain production. The potato was introduced into Ireland in the second half of the 16th century, as a result of the Columbian exchange, initially as a garden crop; it eventually came to serve as the main food field crop of the tenant and labouring classes, which formed a majority of the population. Ireland also grew large quantities of corned beef, though the vast majority of it was exported. The over-reliance on potatoes as a staple crop in Irish cuisine meant that the people of Ireland were vulnerable to poor potato harvests. The Irish Famine of 1740 was the result of extreme cold weather, but the Great Famine of 1845\u20131849 was caused by potato blight which spread throughout the Irish crop which consisted largely of a single variety, the Lumper. During the famine, approximately one million people died and a million more emigrated elsewhere."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legacy of the Great Irish Famine",
        "text": "Debated greatly, there are public records that there was enough grain and meal in Ireland during that period to have prevented the food shortage caused by the potato blight. Famine conditions were allowed to continue for a number of years in the 1840s, while the surplus food was not distributed. There has been the assertion that because emigration was allowed, the Famine period does not qualify as genocide. The poverty, evictions, slave-like workshops where workers paid off the cost of their tickets, and the overcrowding and unhygienic conditions on emigration ships, all combined to make the journey of emigrating as great a risk as staying and trying to survive starvation. By modern definitions, the term \"refugee\" would be more accurate than \"emigrant\" to describe those who fled Ireland. Whether the British Empire made a conscious decision to allow 1 million Irish people to die, or whether the government was negligent, are issues in the debate over whether that episode of Irish history was due primarily to famine or genocide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "In early November 1845, a deputation from the citizens of Dublin, including the Duke of Leinster, Lord Cloncurry, Daniel O'Connell and the Lord Mayor, went to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Heytesbury, to offer suggestions, such as opening the ports to foreign corn, stopping distillation from grain, prohibiting the export of foodstuffs, and providing employment through public works. Lord Heytesbury urged them not to be alarmed, that they \"were premature\", that scientists were enquiring into all those matters, and that the Inspectors of Constabulary and Stipendiary Magistrates were charged with making constant reports from their districts; and there was no \"immediate pressure on the market\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holodomor",
        "text": "Whether or not the Holodomor was genocide is still the subject of legal and academic debate. While historians universally agree that the cause of the famine was man-made, the intentionality of the deaths remains in question. Some historians conclude that the famine was planned and exacerbated by Joseph Stalin to eliminate a Ukrainian independence movement. Others suggest that the famine arose because of rapid Soviet industrialisation and collectivization of agriculture. Since 2006, the Holodomor has been recognized by Ukraine alongside 15 other countries as a genocide against the Ukrainian people carried out by the Soviet government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "The famine remains a controversial event in Irish history. Debate and discussion about whether the British government's response to the failure of the potato crop, and the continued exportation of food crops and livestock, constituted a genocide, remains a subject of political debate. Most historians reject the claim that the famine constituted a genocide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Greece)",
        "text": "Determining factors of the food crisis were low food availability and curtailment of communications, partly due to the severe lack of transport facilities but especially because it was imposed on both goods and persons. Other factors were the attempt of the local government and the occupying forces to regulate the market and its prices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicholas Sheehy",
        "text": "During this time, famine caused much suffering and death in Ireland. Adding to the social unrest was a rumour that the Catholic French would invade Ireland. Part of this concern stemmed from the emigration of Irish soldiers who had left for France after the Treaty of Limerick known as the Flight of the Wild Geese. The concern was that these Irish would lobby the French monarch to support the Catholics in Ireland. This led to new persecutions of Catholic Irish and their priests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "The Irish state broadcaster RT\u00c9 aired a two-part documentary titled \"The Hunger: The Story of the Irish Famine\" in November 2020. In it, Brendan O'Leary, Lauder Professor of political science, offered to use the term 'genoslaughter' rather than the term 'genocide' because, in his view, the term 'genoslaughter' is a more accurately descriptive term for the British response to the potato blight than the term 'genocide' is. O'Leary pointed out that the decision-making by the government of the day was based on capitalist principles rather than ethnicity; its aim was to reduce the tax burden on the middle-class (who were of both main ethnicities) by clearing the 'unproductive' landless poor from Ireland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "Diarrhoeal diseases were the result of poor hygiene, bad sanitation, and dietary changes. The concluding attack on a population incapacitated by famine was delivered by Asiatic cholera, which had visited Ireland briefly in the 1830s. In the following decade, it spread uncontrollably across Asia, through Europe, and into Britain, finally reaching Ireland in 1849. Some scholars estimate that the population of Ireland was reduced by 20\u201325%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holodomor genocide question",
        "text": "There was a famine (widespread health-impairing food shortage) 1932\u201333 caused by two bad harvests in 1931 and 1932 attributable partly to collectivization and partly to weather (although Kondrashin and Penner contest the explanation), but it didn't cause the killings. Grain supplies were sufficient to sustain everyone if properly distributed. People died mostly of terror-starvation (excess grain exports, seizure of edibles from the starving, state refusal to provide emergency relief, bans on outmigration, and forced deportation to food-deficit locales), not poor harvests and routine administrative bungling."
      },
      {
        "title": "South Wales Railway",
        "text": "However, in 1845 there was a catastrophic failure of the potato crop on which a majority of Irish people depended for a living; this resulted in mass starvation and commercial depression, which deepened the following year. The catastrophe is known as the Great Famine of Ireland. The economy in Ireland worsened considerably, at the same time as the general economic climate throughout the United Kingdom declined sharply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chronology of the Great Famine",
        "text": "According to Cecil Woodham-Smith, the rising wrath of Tories and landlords ensured \"all interest in Ireland was submerged.\" She writes that the Tory Mayor of Liverpool refused to call a meeting for the relief of Irish distress. She continues that the Mansion House Committee in Dublin was accused of 'deluding the public with a false alarm', and the blight itself 'was represented as the invention of agitators on the other side of the water'. The entanglement of the Irish famine with the repeal of the Corn Laws, she says, was a key misfortune for Ireland. The potato failure was eclipsed by the domestic issue of Corn Law repeal. The Irish famine, she writes, \"slipped into the background.\"\n*On 10 November Peel ordered the secret purchase of \u00a3100,000 worth of Indian corn and meal from America for distribution in Ireland.\n*On 15 November the Scientific Commissioners reported that half the potato crop had been destroyed.\n*On 19 November the Mansion House Committee in Dublin claimed to have \"ascertained beyond the shadow of doubt that considerably more than one-third of the entire potato crop...has been already destroyed.\"\n*On 20 November the Relief Commission first met.\n*Unable to persuade his Cabinet to repeal the Corn Laws, on 5 December Peel tendered his resignation to Queen Victoria but was reinstated days later when Lord John Russell was unable to form a government."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Was Poland affected the potatoe famine that brought immigrants to the United States?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you wanting to know about the Great Famine (Ireland), Scotland's Highland Potato Famine?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the Great Famine in Ireland."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Great Famine in Ireland, also known as the Great Hunger, the Famine (mostly within Ireland) or the Irish Potato Famine (mostly outside Ireland), was a period of mass starvation and disease in Ireland from 1845 to 1852."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What caused the famine to start?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The proximate cause of the famine was a potato blight, which infected potato crops throughout Europe during the 1840s, causing an additional 100,000 deaths outside Ireland and influencing much of the unrest in the widespread European Revolutions of 1848."
    ],
    "topic": "Polish cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Great Famine (Ireland):2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Great Famine (Ireland)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The proximate cause of the famine was a potato blight which infected potato crops throughout Europe during the 1840s, causing an additional 100,000 deaths outside Ireland and influencing much of the unrest in the widespread European Revolutions of 1848. From 1846, the impact of the blight was exacerbated by the British Whig government's obstinate faith in \"laissez-faire\" economic policy, free from intervention by government. Longer-term causes include the system of absentee landlordism and single-crop dependence."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire",
        "text": "In 1846 there had been an uprising of Polish nobility in Austrian Galicia, which was only countered when peasants, in turn, rose up against the nobles. The economic crisis of 1845\u201347 was marked by recession and food shortages throughout the continent. At the end of February 1848, demonstrations broke out in Paris. Louis Philippe of France abdicated the throne, prompting similar revolts throughout the continent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "Rural population growth had led to food shortages, land pressure, and migration, both within and from Europe, especially to the Americas. Peasant discontent in the 1840s grew in intensity: peasant occupations of lost communal land increased in many areas: those convicted of wood theft in the Rhenish Palatinate increased from 100,000 in 1829\u201330 to 185,000 in 1846\u201347. In the years 1845 and 1846, a potato blight caused a subsistence crisis in Northern Europe, and encouraged the raiding of manorial potato stocks in Silesia in 1847. The effects of the blight were most severely manifested in the Great Irish Famine, but also caused famine-like conditions in the Scottish Highlands and throughout continental Europe. Harvests of rye in the Rhineland were 20% of previous levels, while the Czech potato harvest was reduced by half. These reduced harvests were accompanied by a steep rise in prices (the cost of wheat more than doubled in France and Habsburg Italy). There were 400 French food riots during 1846 to 1847, while German socio-economic protests increased from 28 during 1830 to 1839, to 103 during 1840 to 1847. Central to long-term peasant grievances were the loss of communal lands, forest restrictions (such as the French Forest Code of 1827), and remaining feudal structures, notably the robot (labor obligations) that existed among the serfs and oppressed peasantry of the Habsburg lands."
      },
      {
        "title": "European Potato Failure",
        "text": "The widespread hunger and starvation is commonly thought to be a cause of political changes during the mid 19th century. The Revolutions of 1848 saw widespread dissatisfaction among European peasants who saw a decline in their standard of living and so, along with other reasons, led many to join revolutions in various countries. Similarly, in Ireland, the potato famine saw a rise in Irish nationalism, exemplified in the 1848 Young Irelander Rebellion, again partly caused by discontentedness with hunger and the British government's perceived role."
      },
      {
        "title": "Young Ireland rebellion",
        "text": "The year 1848 was a year of revolutions throughout continental Europe. In February 1848, King Louis-Philippe of France was overthrown and the Second Republic was proclaimed in Paris. This revolution sent political shock waves across Europe, and revolutions broke out in Berlin, Vienna, Rome, Prague, and Budapest. At least temporarily, absolutist governments were replaced by liberal administrations, suffrage was introduced for a portion of the population and elections were held to constituent assemblies to draw up new national constitutions. It was sometimes described as the \"springtime of the people\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "The revolutions were essentially democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old monarchical structures and creating independent nation-states, as envisioned by romantic nationalism. The revolutions spread across Europe after an initial revolution began in France in February. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no significant coordination or cooperation among their respective revolutionaries. Some of the major contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for freedom of the press, other demands made by the working class for economic rights, the upsurge of nationalism, the regrouping of established government forces, and the European Potato Failure, which triggered mass starvation, migration, and civil unrest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Late modern period",
        "text": "The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout the European continent. Described as a revolutionary wave, the period of unrest began in France and then, further propelled by the French Revolution of 1848, soon spread to the rest of Europe. Although most of the revolutions were quickly put down, there was a significant amount of violence in many areas, with tens of thousands of people tortured and killed. While the immediate political effects of the revolutions were reversed, the long-term reverberations of the events were far-reaching."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "Revolutions of 1848\n--Origins.\n----Urban workers.\n----Rural areas.\n----Role of ideas.\n--Sequence of main trends.\n----Spring 1848: Astonishing success.\n----Summer 1848: Divisions among reformers.\n----Autumn 1848: Reactionaries organize for a counter-revolution.\n----1849\u20131851: Overthrow of revolutionary regimes.\n--Events by country or region.\n----Italian states.\n----France.\n----German states.\n----Denmark.\n------Schleswig.\n----Habsburg Monarchy.\n------Hungary.\n------Galicia.\n----Sweden.\n----Switzerland.\n----Greater Poland.\n----Romanian Principalities.\n----Belgium.\n----Ireland.\n----Spain.\n----Other European states.\n----Other English-speaking countries.\n----Latin America.\n--Legacy.\n----In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "Liberal democrats looked to 1848 as a democratic revolution, which in the long run ensured liberty, equality, and fraternity. For nationalists, 1848 was the springtime of hope, when newly emerging nationalities rejected the old multinational empires, but the end results were not as comprehensive as many had hoped. Communists denounced 1848 as a betrayal of working-class ideals by a bourgeoisie indifferent to the legitimate demands of the proletariat. The view of the Revolutions of 1848 as a bourgeois revolution is also common in non-Marxist scholarship. Middle-class anxiety and different approaches between bourgeois revolutionaries and radicals led to the failure of revolutions. Many governments engaged in a partial reversal of the revolutionary reforms of 1848\u20131849 as well as heightened repression and censorship. The Hanoverian nobility successfully appealed to the Confederal Diet in 1851 over the loss of their noble privileges, while the Prussian Junkers recovered their manorial police powers from 1852 to 1855. In the Austrian Empire, the Sylvester Patents (1851) discarded Franz Stadion's constitution and the Statute of Basic Rights, while the number of arrests in Habsburg territories increased from 70,000 in 1850 to one million by 1854. Nicholas I's rule in Russia after 1848 was particularly repressive, marked by an expansion of the secret police (the Tretiye Otdeleniye) and stricter censorship; there were more Russians working for censorship organs than actual books published in the period immediately after 1848. In France, the works of Charles Baudelaire, Victor Hugo, Alexandre Ledru-Rollin, and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon were confiscated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "Large swaths of the nobility were discontented with royal absolutism or near-absolutism. In 1846, there had been an uprising of Polish nobility in Austrian Galicia, which was only countered when peasants, in turn, rose up against the nobles. Additionally, an uprising by democratic forces against Prussia, planned but not actually carried out, occurred in Greater Poland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Age of Revolution",
        "text": "The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations, Springtime of the Peoples or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history, but within a year, reactionary forces had regained control, and the revolutions collapsed."
      },
      {
        "title": "International relations (1814\u20131919)",
        "text": "The Revolutions of 1848 were a series of uncoordinated political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. They attempted to overthrow reactionary monarchies. This was the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history. It reached most of Europe, but much less so in the Americas, Britain and Belgium, where liberalism was recently established. However the reactionary forces prevailed, especially with Russian help, and many rebels went into exile. There were some social reforms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "In some countries, uprisings had already occurred demanding similar reforms to the Revolutions of 1848, but little success. This was the case for the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which had seen a series of uprisings before or after but not during 1848: the November Uprising of 1830\u201331; the Krak\u00f3w Uprising of 1846 (notable for being quelled by the anti-revolutionary Galician slaughter), and later on the January Uprising of 1863\u201365."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "Governments after 1848 were forced into managing the public sphere and popular sphere with more effectiveness, resulting in the increased prominence of the Prussian \"Zentralstelle f\u00fcr Pressangelegenheiten\" (Central Press Agency, established 1850), the Austrian \"Zensur-und polizeihofstelle\", and the French \"Direction G\u00e9n\u00e9rale de la Librairie\" (1856). Nevertheless, there were a few immediate successes for some revolutionary movements, notably in the Habsburg lands. Austria and Prussia eliminated feudalism by 1850, improving the lot of the peasants. European middle classes made political and economic gains over the next 20 years; France retained universal male suffrage. Russia would later free the serfs on 19 February 1861. The Habsburgs finally had to give the Hungarians more self-determination in the \"Ausgleich\" of 1867. The revolutions inspired lasting reform in Denmark as well as the Netherlands. has described the 1848 Revolutions as a turning point in the development of modern antisemitism through the development of conspiracies that presented Jews as representative both of the forces of social revolution (apparently typified in Joseph Goldmark and Adolf Fischhof of Vienna) and of international capital, as seen in the 1848 report from Eduard von M\u00fcller-Tellering, the Viennese correspondent of Marx's \"Neue Rheinische Zeitung\", which declared that \"tyranny comes from money and the money belongs to the Jews\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "1840s",
        "text": "There was a wave of revolutions in Europe, collectively known as the Revolutions of 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history, but within a year, reactionary forces had regained control, and the revolutions collapsed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "The world was astonished in spring 1848 when revolutions appeared in so many places and seemed on the verge of success everywhere. Agitators who had been exiled by the old governments rushed home to seize the moment. In France the monarchy was once again overthrown and replaced by a republic. In a number of major German and Italian states, and in Austria, the old leaders were forced to grant liberal constitutions. The Italian and German states seemed to be rapidly forming unified nations. Austria gave Hungarians and Czechs liberal grants of autonomy and national status."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "The population in French rural areas had risen rapidly, causing many peasants to seek a living in the cities. Many in the bourgeoisie feared and distanced themselves from the working poor. Many unskilled laborers toiled from 12 to 15 hours per day when they had work, living in squalid, disease-ridden slums. Traditional artisans felt the pressure of industrialization, having lost their guilds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "Urban workers had no choice but to spend half of their income on food, which consisted mostly of bread and potatoes. As a result of harvest failures, food prices soared and the demand for manufactured goods decreased, causing an increase in unemployment. During the revolution, to address the problem of unemployment, workshops were organized for men interested in construction work. Officials also set up workshops for women when they felt they were excluded. Artisans and unemployed workers destroyed industrial machines when they threatened to give employers more power over them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "Polish people mounted a military insurrection against the Prussians in the Grand Duchy of Posen (or the Greater Poland region), a part of Prussia since its annexation in 1815. The Poles tried to establish a Polish political entity, but refused to cooperate with the Germans and the Jews. The Germans decided they were better off with the status quo, so they assisted the Prussian governments in recapturing control. In the long-term, the uprising stimulated nationalism among both the Poles and the Germans and brought civil equality to the Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "Technological change was revolutionizing the life of the working classes. A popular press extended political awareness, and new values and ideas such as popular liberalism, nationalism and socialism began to emerge. Some historians emphasize the serious crop failures, particularly those of 1846, that produced hardship among peasants and the working urban poor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "The Island of Great Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands, Portugal, the Russian Empire (including Poland and Finland), and the Ottoman Empire did not encounter major national or Radical revolutions in 1848. Sweden and Norway were also little affected. Serbia, though formally unaffected by the revolt as it was a part of the Ottoman state, actively supported Serbian revolutionaries in the Habsburg Empire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "The uprisings were led by temporary coalitions of reformers, the middle classes (the bourgeoisie) and workers; however, the coalitions did not hold together for long. Many of the revolutions were quickly suppressed, as tens of thousands of people were killed, and many more were forced into exile. Significant lasting reforms included the abolition of serfdom in Austria and Hungary, the end of absolute monarchy in Denmark, and the introduction of representative democracy in the Netherlands. The revolutions were most important in France, the Netherlands, Italy, the Austrian Empire, and the states of the German Confederation that would make up the German Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "The revolutions arose from such a wide variety of causes that it is difficult to view them as resulting from a coherent movement or set of social phenomena. Numerous changes had been taking place in European society throughout the first half of the 19th century. Both liberal reformers and radical politicians were reshaping national governments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire",
        "text": "Conflicts between debtors and creditors in agricultural production as well as over land use rights in parts of Hungary led to conflicts that occasionally erupted into violence. Conflict over organized religion was pervasive in pre-1848 Europe. Tension came both from within Catholicism and between members of different confessions. These conflicts were often mixed with conflict with the state. Important for the revolutionaries were state conflicts including the armed forces and collection of taxes. As 1848 approached, the revolutions the Empire crushed to maintain longstanding conservative minister Klemens Wenzel von Metternich's Concert of Europe left the empire nearly bankrupt and in continual need of soldiers. Draft commissions led to brawls between soldiers and civilians. All of this further agitated the peasantry, who resented their remaining feudal obligations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "The Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Springtime of the Peoples or the Springtime of Nations, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe starting in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history to date."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "The Hungarian revolution of 1848 was the longest in Europe, crushed in August 1849 by Austrian and Russian armies. Nevertheless, it had a major effect in freeing the serfs. It started on 15 March 1848, when Hungarian patriots organized mass demonstrations in Pest and Buda (today Budapest) which forced the imperial governor to accept their 12 points of demands, which included the demand for freedom of press, an independent Hungarian ministry residing in Buda-Pest and responsible to a popularly elected parliament, the formation of a National Guard, complete civil and religious equality, trial by jury, a national bank, a Hungarian army, the withdrawal of foreign (Austrian) troops from Hungary, the freeing of political prisoners, and the union with Transylvania. On that morning, the demands were read aloud along with poetry by S\u00e1ndor Pet\u0151fi with the simple lines of \"We swear by the God of the Hungarians. We swear, we shall be slaves no more\". Lajos Kossuth and some other liberal nobility that made up the Diet appealed to the Habsburg court with demands for representative government and civil liberties. These events resulted in Klemens von Metternich, the Austrian prince and foreign minister, resigning. The demands of the Diet were agreed upon on 18 March by Emperor Ferdinand. Although Hungary would remain part of the monarchy through personal union with the emperor, a constitutional government would be founded. The Diet then passed the April laws that established equality before the law, a legislature, a hereditary constitutional monarchy, and an end to the transfer and restrictions of land use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "The liberalization of trade laws and the growth of factories had increased the gulf between master tradesmen, and journeymen and apprentices, whose numbers increased disproportionately by 93% from 1815 to 1848 in Germany. Significant proletarian unrest had occurred in Lyon in 1831 and 1834, and Prague in 1844. Jonathan Sperber has suggested that in the period after 1825, poorer urban workers (particularly day laborers, factory workers and artisans) saw their purchasing power decline relatively steeply: urban meat consumption in Belgium, France and Germany stagnated or declined after 1830, despite growing populations. The economic Panic of 1847 increased urban unemployment: 10,000 Viennese factory workers lost jobs, and 128 Hamburg firms went bankrupt over the course of 1847. With the exception of the Netherlands, there was a strong correlation among the countries that were most deeply affected by the industrial shock of 1847 and those that underwent a revolution in 1848."
      },
      {
        "title": "1840s",
        "text": "The period of the potato blight in Ireland from 1845 to 1851 was full of political confrontation. A more radical Young Ireland group seceded from the Repeal movement and attempted an armed rebellion in the Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848, which was unsuccessful.\n* May 18, 1848 \u2013 The first German National Assembly (Nationalversammlung) opens in Frankfurt, Germany.\n* March \u2013 The Frankfurt Parliament completes its drafting of a liberal constitution and elects Frederick William IV emperor of the new German national state.\n* April 2, 1849 \u2013 Revolutions of 1848 in the German states end in failure.\n* May 3, 1849 \u2013 The May Uprising in Dresden, last of the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states, begins.\n* November 3 \u2013 29, 1847 \u2013 Sonderbund War, a civil war in Switzerland in which General Guillaume-Henri Dufour's federal army defeats the \"Sonderbund\" (an alliance of seven Catholic cantons) with a total of only 86 deaths.\n* September 12, 1848 \u2013 One of the successes of the Revolutions of 1848, the Swiss Federal Constitution, patterned on the US Constitution, enters into force, creating a federal republic and one of the first modern democratic states in Europe.\n* October 7, 1840 \u2013 Willem II becomes King of the Netherlands.\n* November 3, 1848 \u2013 A greatly revised Dutch constitution is proclaimed.\n* March 1, 1840 \u2013 Adolphe Thiers becomes prime minister of France.\n* September 30, 1840 \u2013 The frigate \"Belle-Poule\" arrives in Cherbourg, bringing back the remains of Napoleon from Saint Helena to France. He is buried in the Invalides.\n* December 15, 1840 \u2013 The corpse of Napoleon is placed in the Hotel des Invalides in Paris.\n* February 23, 1848 \u2013 Fran\u00e7ois Guizot, Prime Minister of France, resigns. 52 people from the Paris mob are killed by soldiers guarding public buildings.\n* February 24, 1848 \u2013 Louis Philippe, King of the French, abdicates in favour of his grandson, Philippe, comte de Paris, and flees to England after days of revolution in Paris. The French Second Republic is later proclaimed by Alphonse de Lamartine in the name of the provisional government elected by the Chamber under the pressure of the mob.\n* May 15, 1848 \u2013 Radicals invade the French Chamber of Deputies.\n* June 22, 1848 \u2013 The French government dissolves the national workshops in Paris, giving the workers the choice of joining the army or going to workshops in the provinces.\n* August 28, 1848 \u2013 Mathieu Luis becomes the first black member to join the French Parliament as a representative of Guadeloupe.\n* November 4, 1848 \u2013 France ratifies a new constitution. The Second Republic of France is set up, ending the state of temporary government lasting since the Revolution of 1848.\n* December 10, 1848 \u2013 Prince Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte is elected first president of the French Second Republic.\n* December 20, 1848 \u2013 President Bonaparte takes his Oath of Office in front of the French National Assembly.\n* January 1, 1849 \u2013 France issues Ceres, the nation's first postage stamp.\n* September 3, 1843 \u2013 Popular uprising in Athens, Greece, including citizens and military captains, to require from King Otto the issue of a liberal Constitution to the state, which has been governed since independence (1830) by various domestic and foreign business interests.\n* January 12, 1848 \u2013 The Palermo rising erupts in Sicily, against the Bourbon kingdom of the Two Sicilies.\n* March 22, 1848 \u2013 Republic of San Marco comes into existence in Venice.\n* January 21, 1849 \u2013 General elections are held in the Papal States.\n* February 8, 1849 \u2013 The new Roman Republic is proclaimed.\n* April 27, 1849 \u2013 Giuseppe Garibaldi enters Rome to defend it from the French troops of General Oudinot.\n* May 15, 1849 \u2013 Troops of the Two Sicilies take Palermo and crush the republican government of Sicily.\n* July 3, 1849 \u2013 French troops occupy Rome; the Roman Republic surrenders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "The situation in the German states was similar. Parts of Prussia were beginning to industrialize. During the decade of the 1840s, mechanized production in the textile industry brought about inexpensive clothing that undercut the handmade products of German tailors. Reforms ameliorated the most unpopular features of rural feudalism, but industrial workers remained dissatisfied with these reforms and pressed for greater change."
      },
      {
        "title": "19th century",
        "text": "The Revolutions of 1848 were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. The revolutions were essentially democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old monarchical structures and creating independent nation states."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Decree of Graces of 1815",
        "text": "During the latter part of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, great economic and political changes occurred in Europe. Thousands of farm workers migrated to cities seeking industrial jobs and better opportunities. Those who stayed behind to attend the farmlands suffered the widespread crop failures, brought on by long periods of drought and diseases such as the potato fungus which contributed to the Great Famine of the 1840s. Cholera epidemics broke out and starvation was widespread in Europe. Social and economic disruption also followed the European Revolutions of 1848, which erupted in Sicily and the German states. The French Revolution of 1848 contributed to the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 and more changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "The revolutions suffer a series of defeats in summer 1849. Reactionaries returned to power and many leaders of the revolution went into exile. Some social reforms proved permanent, and years later nationalists in Germany, Italy, and Hungary gained their objectives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "Previously a separate kingdom, Ireland was incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801. Although its population was made up largely of Catholics, and sociologically of agricultural workers, tensions arose from the political over-representation, in positions of power, of landowners of Protestant background who were loyal to the United Kingdom. From the 1810s a conservative-liberal movement led by Daniel O'Connell had sought to secure equal political rights for Catholics \"within\" the British political system, successful in the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829. But as in other European states, a current inspired by Radicalism criticized the conservative-liberals for pursuing the aim of democratic equality with excessive compromise and gradualism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states",
        "text": "Notwithstanding the events in Rome and Naples, the states still were under a conservative rule. Italians in Lombardo-Veneto could not enjoy these freedoms. The Austrian Empire of this region had tightened their grip on the people by further oppressing them with harsher taxes. Tax gatherers were sent out along with the 100,000 man army standing in place, and letting their presence be known."
      },
      {
        "title": "German revolutions of 1848\u20131849",
        "text": "Activism for liberal reforms spread through many of the German states, each of which had distinct revolutions. They were also inspired by the street demonstrations of workers and artisans led in Paris, France, from February 22 through 24, 1848, which resulted in the abdication by King Louis-Philippe of France and his exile in Britain. In France the revolution of 1848 became known as the February Revolution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "In France, bloody street battles exploded between the middle class reformers and the working class radicals. German reformers argued endlessly without finalizing their results."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "Despite forceful and often violent efforts of established and reactionary powers to keep them down, disruptive ideas gained popularity: democracy, liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, and socialism. They demanded a constitution, universal manhood suffrage, press freedom, freedom of expression and other democratic rights, the establishment of civilian militia, liberation of peasants, liberalization of the economy, abolition of tariff barriers and the abolition of monarchical power structures in favor of the establishment of republican states, or at least the restriction of the prince power in the form of constitutional monarchies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungarian Revolution of 1848",
        "text": "It was a direct attack upon the constitution which, to use the words of Istv\u00e1n Sz\u00e9chenyi, first \"startled the nation out of its sickly drowsiness\". In 1823, when the reactionary powers were considering joint action to suppress the revolution in Spain, the government, without consulting the diet, imposed a war-tax and called out the recruits. The county assemblies instantly protested against this illegal act, and Francis I was obliged, at the diet of 1823, to repudiate the action of his ministers. But the estates felt that the maintenance of their liberties demanded more substantial guarantees than the dead letter of ancient laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "The European Revolutions of 1848 and particularly the French Second Republic prompted the Spanish radical movement to adopt positions incompatible with the existing constitutional regime, notably republicanism. This ultimately led the Radicals to exit the Progressive Party to form the Democratic Party in 1849."
      },
      {
        "title": "German revolutions of 1848\u20131849",
        "text": "By 1848, a large industrial working class, the proletariat, had developed and, owing to Napoleonic France, the level of education was relatively high and it was politically active. While in other German states the liberal petty bourgeoisie led the uprisings of 1848, in the Rhineland the proletariat was asserting its interests openly against the bourgeoisie as early as 1840."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "Aristocratic wealth (and corresponding power) was synonymous with the ownership of farm lands and effective control over the peasants. Peasant grievances exploded during the revolutionary year of 1848, yet were often disconnected from urban revolutionary movements: the revolutionary S\u00e1ndor Pet\u0151fi's popular nationalist rhetoric in Budapest did not translate into any success with the Magyar peasantry, while the Viennese democrat Hans Kudlich reported that his efforts to galvanize the Austrian peasantry had \"disappeared in the great sea of indifference and phlegm\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "In Britain, while the middle classes had been pacified by their inclusion in the extension of the franchise in the Reform Act 1832, the consequential agitations, violence, and petitions of the Chartist movement came to a head with their peaceful petition to Parliament of 1848. The repeal in 1846 of the protectionist agricultural tariffscalled the \"Corn Laws\"had defused some proletarian fervour."
      },
      {
        "title": "German revolutions of 1848\u20131849",
        "text": "Nationalism did not become the usual way of founding and legitimising states across Europe until after World War I. In the mid-19th century, over 90% of the population in the Austrian Empire and the German Confederation were peasants. Most of them suffered the indignity of serfdom or some lingering elements of the system of forced labor. Peasant revolts in 1848\u20131849 involved more participants than the national revolutions of the period. Most importantly, they were successful bringing the final abolition of serfdom or its remnants across the German Confederation, the Austrian Empire and Prussia. The leader of the anti-serfdom peasant movement was Hans Kudlich, subsequently revered as \"Bauernbefreier\" ('liberator of peasants')."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "A tendency common in the revolutionary movements of 1848 was a perception that the liberal monarchies set up in the 1830s, despite formally being representative parliamentary democracies, were too oligarchical and/or corrupt to respond to the urgent needs of the people, and were therefore in need of drastic democratic overhaul or, failing that, separatism to build a democratic state from scratch. This was the process that occurred in Ireland between 1801 and 1848."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "Despite its rapid gains and popular backing, the new administration was marked by conflicts between the radical wing and more conservative forces, especially over the issue of land reform. Two successive abortive coups weakened the new government, and its international status was always contested by Russia. After managing to rally a degree of sympathy from Ottoman political leaders, the Revolution was ultimately isolated by the intervention of Russian diplomats. In September 1848 by agreement with the Ottomans, Russia invaded and put down the revolution. According to Vasile Maciu, the failures were attributable in Wallachia to foreign intervention, in Moldavia to the opposition of the feudalists, and in Transylvania to the failure of the campaigns of General J\u00f3zef Bem, and later to Austrian repression. In later decades, the rebels returned and gained their goals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Omladina Trial",
        "text": "Since the European Revolutions of 1848, the face of Central Europe became even more inundated with encompassing enlightenment ideals. In what was Austria-Hungary or the old Habsburg imperial lands, Bohemian rebels and their associates began to factionalize and represent many different political sects of the distinct, multi-ethnic nation emphasizing those enlightenment philosophies. What became a Pan-Slavic movement derived from the ideologies of the past French Revolutions in 1789."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states",
        "text": "The 1848 Revolutions in the Italian states, part of the wider Revolutions of 1848 in Europe, were organized revolts in the states of the Italian peninsula and Sicily, led by intellectuals and agitators who desired a liberal government. As Italian nationalists they sought to eliminate reactionary Austrian control. During this time, Italy was not a unified country, and was divided into many states, which, in Northern Italy, were ruled by the Austrian Empire. A desire to be independent from foreign rule, and the conservative leadership of the Austrians, led Italian revolutionaries to stage revolution in order to drive out the Austrians. The revolution was led by the state of the Kingdom of Sardinia. Some uprisings in the Kingdom of Lombardy\u2013Venetia, particularly in Milan, forced the Austrian General Radetzky to retreat to the Quadrilatero (Quadrilateral) fortresses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungarian Revolution of 1848",
        "text": "The conservatives - who usually opposed most of the reforms - thought they could maintain a slim majority in the old feudal parliament, as the reformer liberals were divided between the ideas of Sz\u00e9chenyi and Kossuth. Immediately before the elections, however, De\u00e1k succeeded in reuniting all the Liberals on the common platform of \"The Twelve Points\". The twelve points served as basis for the later April laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire",
        "text": "The Hungarian Diet was reconvened in 1825 to handle financial needs. A liberal party emerged in the Diet. The party focused on providing for the peasantry in mostly symbolic ways because of their inability to understand the needs of the laborers. Lajos Kossuth emerged as the leader of the lower gentry in the Diet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Famine (Ireland)",
        "text": "The proximate cause of the famine was a potato blight which infected potato crops throughout Europe during the 1840s, causing an additional 100,000 deaths outside Ireland and influencing much of the unrest in the widespread European Revolutions of 1848. From 1846, the impact of the blight was exacerbated by the British Whig government's obstinate faith in \"laissez-faire\" economic policy, free from intervention by government. Longer-term causes include the system of absentee landlordism and single-crop dependence."
      },
      {
        "title": "1848",
        "text": "1848 is historically famous for the wave of revolutions, a series of widespread struggles for more liberal governments, which broke out from Brazil to Hungary; although most failed in their immediate aims, they significantly altered the political and philosophical landscape and had major ramifications throughout the rest of the century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungarian Revolution of 1848",
        "text": "We can constate, the process of commodity production and capitalization not only slowly reshaped the social conditions and the world view of the nobility, which began to advocate the human and civil rights in Hungary since the reform era. Recent studies of social history have also suggested that the so-called \"youth of March\", the plebeian intelligentsia, should not be seen as a separate phenomenon in itself, but as an intellectual vanguard of an emerging societal strata that can be classified as the petty bourgeoisie. They did not represent a measurable political and economic force in a comparison with the nobility in the nationwide scene, but in historically critical situations, especially in the more developed, larger urban centers, they could still prove to became a significant or even the deteminant factor. Politically, the petty bourgeoisie was the bearer of radical, republican aspirations similar to the French and German political events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire",
        "text": "In 1848, news of the outbreak of revolution in Paris arrived as a new national cabinet took power under Kossuth, and the Diet approved a sweeping reform package, referred to as the \"April laws\" (also \"March laws\"), that changed almost every aspect of Hungary's economic, social, and political life: (The April laws based on the 12 points:\n*Freedom of the Press (The abolition of censure and the censor's offices)\n*Accountable ministries in Buda and Pest (Instead of the simple royal appointment of ministers, all ministers and the government must be elected and dismissed by the parliament)\n*An annual parliamentary session in Pest. (instead of the rare ad-hoc sessions which was convoked by the king)\n*Civil and religious equality before the law. (The abolition of separate laws for the common people and nobility, the abolition of the legal privileges of nobility. Full religious liberty instead of moderated tolerance: the abolition of (Catholic) state religion)\n*National Guard. (The forming of their own Hungarian national guard, it worked like a police force to keep the law and order during the transition of the system, thus preserving the morality of the revolution)\n*Joint share of tax burdens. (abolition of the tax exemption of the nobility, the abolition of customs and tariff exemption of the nobility)\n*The abolition of socage. (abolition of Feudalism and abolition of the serfdom of peasantry and their bondservices)\n*Juries and representation on an equal basis. (The common people can be elected as juries at the legal courts, all people can be officials even on the highest levels of the public administration and judicature, if they have the prescribed education)\n*National Bank.\n*The army to swear to support the constitution, our soldiers should not be sent to abroad, and foreign soldiers should leave our country.\n*The freeing of political prisoners.\n*Union with Transylvania"
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "From March 1848 through July 1849, the Habsburg Austrian Empire was threatened by revolutionary movements, which often had a nationalist character. The empire, ruled from Vienna, included Austrians, Hungarians, Slovenes, Poles, Czechs, Croats, Slovaks, Ukrainians/Ruthenians, Romanians, Serbs and Italians, all of whom attempted in the course of the revolution to achieve either autonomy, independence, or even hegemony over other nationalities. The nationalist picture was further complicated by the simultaneous events in the German states, which moved toward greater German national unity."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Revolution of 1848",
        "text": "By 1848 only about one percent of the population held the franchise. Although France had a free press and trial by jury, only landholders were permitted to vote, which alienated the petty bourgeoisie and even the industrial bourgeoisie from the government. Louis Philippe was viewed as generally indifferent to the needs of society, especially to those members of the middle class who were excluded from the political arena. Early in 1848, some Orl\u00e9anist liberals, such as Adolphe Thiers, had turned against Louis Philippe, disappointed by his opposition to parliamentarism. A Reform Movement developed in France which urged the government to expand the electoral franchise, just as Great Britain had done with the Reform Act 1832. The more radical democrats of the Reform Movement coalesced around the newspaper, \"La R\u00e9forme\"; the more moderate republicans and the liberal opposition rallied around the \"Le National\" newspaper. Starting in July 1847 the Reformists of all shades began to hold \"banquets\" at which toasts were drunk to \"R\u00e9publique fran\u00e7aise\" (the French Republic), \"Libert\u00e9, \u00e9galit\u00e9, fraternit\u00e9\", etc. Louis Philippe turned a deaf ear to the Reform Movement, and discontent among wide sections of the French people continued to grow. Social and political discontent sparked revolutions in France in 1830 and 1848, which in turn inspired revolts in other parts of Europe. Workers lost their jobs, bread prices rose, and people accused the government of corruption. The French revolted and set up a republic. French successes led to other revolts, including those who wanted relief from the suffering caused by the Industrial Revolution, and nationalism sprang up hoping for independence from foreign rulers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Political history of the world",
        "text": "Revolutions during the 1820s included the Carbonari in Italy, the Trienio Liberal in Spain, the Liberal Revolution of 1820 in the Kingdom of Portugal, the Greek War of Independence, and the Decembrist revolt in the Russian Empire. Followed by these, the Revolutions of 1830 were a included the Belgian Revolution in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, the July Revolution in France, the November Uprising in the Congress Poland, and the Ustertag in Switzerland. The Revolutions of 1848 in turn were the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history. They included the March Revolution, French Revolution, German revolutions, the Revolutions in the Italian states, Greater Poland uprising, March Unrest, Revolutions in the Austrian Empire, Praieira revolt, Revolution in Luxembourg, Moldavian Revolution, Wallachian Revolution, Chartism, and the Young Ireland rebellion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungarian Revolution of 1848",
        "text": "The effect of this teaching was manifest at the diet of 1832, when the Liberals in the Lower Chamber had a large majority, prominent among whom were Ferenc De\u00e1k and \u00d6d\u00f6n Beothy. In the Upper House, however, the magnates united with the government to form a conservative party obstinately opposed to any project of reform, which frustrated all the efforts of the Liberals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "In Ireland a current of nationalist, egalitarian and Radical republicanism, inspired by the French Revolution, had been present since the 1790s being expressed initially in the Irish Rebellion of 1798. This tendency grew into a movement for social, cultural and political reform during the 1830s, and in 1839 was realized into a political association called Young Ireland. It was initially not well received, but grew more popular with the Great Famine of 18451849, an event that brought catastrophic social effects and which threw into light the inadequate response of authorities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "It is sometimes called the \"Famine Rebellion\" (since it took place during the Great Famine)."
      },
      {
        "title": "July Monarchy",
        "text": "The 1846 harvest was poor, in France as elsewhere (especially Ireland, but also Galicia and Bohemia). A rise in the price of wheat, the dietary staple of the common people, provoked a food shortage, while purchasing power decreased. The resulting fall in domestic consumption led to a crisis of industrial overproduction. This in turn immediately led to massive lay-offs, and thus to a large withdrawal of savings, leading to a banking crisis. Bankruptcies multiplied, and stock prices on the stock exchanges collapsed. The government reacted by importing Russian wheat, which created a negative balance of trade. The program of public works therefore stopped, including attempts to improve France's coastal defenses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gy\u00f6rgy Klapka",
        "text": "Indeed, in the history of the 1848-1849 European revolutions only Kom\u00e1rom and Venice put their weapons down with such favourable conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungarian Revolution of 1848",
        "text": "The interval between the diet of 1843 and that of 1847 saw a complete disintegration and transformation of the various political parties. Sz\u00e9chenyi openly joined the government, while the moderate Liberals separated from the extremists and formed a new party, the Centralists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungarian Revolution of 1848",
        "text": "On 28 July 1849, the Hungarian Revolutionary Parliament proclaimed and enacted the first laws on ethnic and minority rights in Europe, but these were overturned after the Russian and Austrian armies crushed the Hungarian Revolution."
      },
      {
        "title": "German revolutions of 1848\u20131849",
        "text": "The German revolutions of 1848\u20131849 (), the opening phase of which was also called the March Revolution (), were initially part of the Revolutions of 1848 that broke out in many European countries. They were a series of loosely coordinated protests and rebellions in the states of the German Confederation, including the Austrian Empire. The revolutions, which stressed pan-Germanism, demonstrated popular discontent with the traditional, largely autocratic political structure of the thirty-nine independent states of the Confederation that inherited the German territory of the former Holy Roman Empire after its dismantlement as a result of the Napoleonic Wars. This process began in the mid 1840s."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Revolution of 1848",
        "text": "The February Revolution had a major impact in Europe, sparking a revolutionary wave known as the Revolutions of 1848. William H. Stiles, the American \"charg\u00e9 d'affaires\" to the Austrian Empire, reported the Revolution \"fell like a bomb amid the states and kingdoms of the Continent\", and that \"the various monarchs hastened to pay their subjects the constitutions which they owed them\". As one of its immediate effects, it sparked a wave of revolutions in the German states. The outcome of the Revolution in France pressured the monarchs of Prussia, Bavaria, Austria and Sardinia into granting liberal reforms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "In the United States, opinions were polarized, with Democrats and reformers in favor, although they were distressed at the degree of violence involved. Opposition came from conservative elements, especially Whigs, southern slaveholders, orthodox Calvinists, and Catholics. About 4,000 German exiles arrived and some became fervent Republicans in the 1850s, such as Carl Schurz. Kossuth toured America and won great applause, but no volunteers or diplomatic or financial help."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungarian Revolution of 1848",
        "text": "The frequent diets held in the earlier part of the reign occupied themselves with little else but war subsidies; after 1811 they ceased to be summoned. In the latter years of Francis I the dark shadow of Metternich's policy of \"stability\" fell across the kingdom, and the forces of reactionary absolutism were everywhere supreme. But beneath the surface a strong popular current was beginning to run in a contrary direction. Hungarian society, affected by western Liberalism, but without any direct help from abroad, was preparing for the future emancipation. Writers, savants, poets, artists, noble and plebeian, layman and cleric, without any previous concert, or obvious connection, were working towards that ideal of political liberty which was to unite all the Magyars. Mih\u00e1ly V\u00f6r\u00f6smarty, Ferenc K\u00f6lcsey, Ferencz Kazinczy and his associates, to mention but a few of many great names, were, consciously or unconsciously, as the representatives of the renascent national literature, accomplishing a political mission, and their pens proved no less efficacious than the swords of their ancestors."
      },
      {
        "title": "France in the long nineteenth century",
        "text": "The Revolution of 1848 had major consequences for all of Europe: popular democratic revolts against authoritarian regimes broke out in Austria and Hungary, in the German Confederation and Prussia, and in the Italian States of Milan, Venice, Turin and Rome. Economic downturns and bad harvests during the 1840s contributed to growing discontent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire",
        "text": "The events of 1848 were the product of mounting social and political tensions after the Congress of Vienna of 1815. During the \"pre-March\" period, the already conservative Austrian Empire moved further away from ideas of the Age of Enlightenment, restricted freedom of the press, limited many university activities, and banned fraternities."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poland",
        "text": "The planned national uprising failed to materialize because the authorities in the partitions found out about secret preparations. The Greater Poland uprising ended in a fiasco in early 1846. In the Krak\u00f3w uprising of February 1846, patriotic action was combined with revolutionary demands, but the result was the incorporation of the Free City of Cracow into the Austrian Partition. The Austrian officials took advantage of peasant discontent and incited villagers against the noble-dominated insurgent units. This resulted in the Galician slaughter of 1846, a large-scale rebellion of serfs seeking relief from their post-feudal condition of mandatory labor as practiced in \"folwarks\". The uprising freed many from bondage and hastened decisions that led to the abolition of Polish serfdom in the Austrian Empire in 1848. A new wave of Polish involvement in revolutionary movements soon took place in the partitions and in other parts of Europe in the context of the Spring of Nations revolutions of 1848 (e.g. J\u00f3zef Bem's participation in the revolutions in Austria and Hungary). The 1848 German revolutions precipitated the Greater Poland uprising of 1848, in which peasants in the Prussian Partition, who were by then largely enfranchised, played a prominent role."
      },
      {
        "title": "Serb uprising of 1848\u201349",
        "text": "When in February 1848, the revolution broke out in Paris which destroyed the monarchy and led to the proclamation of the republic in France, it rocked from the foundations and crumbling Austrian building; uprisings broke out everywhere. German patriots gathered in Frankfurt in an All-German Parliament, which clearly expressed its desire for German unification, but not under the leadership of Austria. As a response, the All-Slavic meeting in Prague followed, in which several Serbs participated. Simultaneously to these political manifestation, fights began on the street. There were even alarms in loyal imperial Vienna. Metternich needed to be sacrificed, but it did not calm the boiling spirits, especially not where the movement got not only the character of the struggle for constitutional freedoms, but also for national liberation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire",
        "text": "The demands of nationalism and its contradictions became apparent as new national governments began declaring power and unity. Charles Albert of Sardinia, King of Piedmont-Savoy, initiated a nationalist war on March 23 in the Austrian held northern Italian provinces that would consume the attention of the entire peninsula. The German nationalist movement faced the question of whether or not Austria should be included in the united German state, a quandary that divided the Frankfurt National Assembly. The liberal ministers in Vienna were willing to allow elections for the German National Assembly in some of the Habsburg lands, but it was undetermined which Habsburg territories would participate. Hungary and Galicia were clearly not German; German nationalists (who dominated the Bohemian Diet) felt the old crown lands rightfully belonged to a united German state, despite the fact that the majority of the people of Bohemia and Moravia spoke Czech \u2014 a Slavic language. Czech nationalists viewed the language as far more significant, calling for a boycott of the Frankfurt Parliament elections in Bohemia, Moravia, and neighboring Austrian Silesia (also partly Czech-speaking). Tensions in Prague between German and Czech nationalists grew quickly between April and May. After the abolition of serfdom on April 17, Supreme Ruthenian Council was established in Galicia to promote the unification of ethnic Ukrainian lands of Eastern Galicia, Transcarpathia and Bukovyna in one province. Ukrainian language department was opened in Lviv University, and the first Ukrainian newspaper \"Zoria Halytska\" started publishing in Lviv on May 15, 1848. On July 1, serfdom was also abolished in Bukovyna."
      },
      {
        "title": "German revolutions of 1848\u20131849",
        "text": "The achievements of the revolutionaries of March 1848 were reversed in all of the German states and by 1851, the Basic Rights had also been abolished nearly everywhere. In the end, the revolution fizzled because of the divisions between the various factions in Frankfurt, the calculating caution of the liberals, the failure of the left to marshal popular support and the overwhelming superiority of the monarchist forces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "In the post-revolutionary decade after 1848, little had visibly changed, and many historians considered the revolutions a failure, given the seeming lack of permanent structural changes. More recently, Christopher Clark has characterised the period that followed 1848 as one dominated by a revolution in government. Karl Marx expressed disappointment at the bourgeois character of the revolutions. Marx elaborated in his 1850 \"Address of the Central Committee to the Communist League\" a theory of permanent revolution according to which the proletariat should strengthen democratic bourgeois revolutionary forces until the proletariat itself is ready to seize power. The Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Manteuffel declared that the state could no longer be run like the landed estate of a nobleman. In Prussia, August von Bethmann-Hollweg's \"Preu\u00dfisches Wochenblatt\" newspaper (founded 1851) acted as a popular outlet for modernising Prussian conservative statesmen and journalists against the reactionary Kreuzzeitung faction. The Revolutions of 1848 were followed by new centrist coalitions dominated by liberals nervous of the threat of working-class socialism, as seen in the Piedmontese \"Connubio\" under Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Battle of P\u00e1kozd",
        "text": "The wave of revolutions of 1848 also affected the Habsburg Empire. The multiethnic nature of the empire made it particularly vulnerable to the wave of nationalism sweeping through Europe in the early and mid-19th century. When the news of the Paris Revolution reached Austria, liberal and nationalist tendencies exploded into open revolt. The most serious of these attempts at insurrection were the revolts in Italy (the First Italian War of Independence) and in Hungary (the Hungarian Revolution)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire",
        "text": "The established order collapsed rapidly because of the weakness of the Austrian armies. Field Marshal Joseph Radetzky was unable to keep his soldiers fighting Venetian and Milanese insurgents in Lombardy-Venetia, and had to, instead, order the remaining troops to evacuate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire",
        "text": "The victory of the party of movement was looked at as an opportunity for lower classes to renew old conflicts with greater anger and energy. Several tax boycotts and attempted murders of tax collectors occurred in Vienna. Assaults against soldiers were common, including against Radetzky's troops retreating from Milan. The archbishop of Vienna was forced to flee, and in Graz, the convent of the Jesuits was destroyed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Douglas Moggach",
        "text": "With Gareth Stedman Jones, Moggach edited a volume on the Revolutions of 1848 in Europe. The book examines political debate in France, England, Netherlands, the German and Italian territories, and Eastern Europe before and after the revolutions. Subjects treated include democracy and representation, state and economy, nationalism and religion. Even if the revolutions failed to win their immediate goals, they set the agenda for later developments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "While no revolution occurred in Spain in the year 1848, a similar phenomenon occurred. During this year, the country was going through the Second Carlist War. The European revolutions erupted at a moment when the political regime in Spain faced great criticism from within one of its two main parties, and by 1854 a radical-liberal revolution and a conservative-liberal counter-revolution had both occurred."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire",
        "text": "Insurgents quickly lost in street fighting to King Ferdinand's troops led by General Radetzky, prompting several liberal government ministers to resign in protest. Ferdinand, now restored to power in Vienna, appointed conservatives in their places. These actions were a considerable blow to the revolutionaries, and by August most of northern Italy was under Radetzky's control."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungarian Revolution of 1848",
        "text": "While in most Western European countries (like France and England) the king's reign began immediately upon the death of his predecessor, in Hungary the coronation was absolutely indispensable as, if it were not properly executed, the Kingdom stayed \"orphaned\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire",
        "text": "The Czechs held a Pan-Slavic congress in Prague between June 2 and June 12, 1848. It was primarily composed of Austroslavs who wanted greater freedom within the Empire, but their status as peasants and proletarians surrounded by a German middle class doomed their autonomy . They also disliked the prospect of annexation of Bohemia to a German Empire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungarian Revolution of 1848",
        "text": "In 1848 and 1849, however, the Hungarians were supported by most Slovaks, Germans, Rusyns and Hungarian Slovenes, the Hungarian Jews, and many Polish, Austrian and Italian volunteers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rise of nationalism in Europe",
        "text": "In Hungary, Lajos Kossuth led a national revolt against Habsburg rule; in Transylvania, Avram Iancu led successful revolts in 1846. The 1848 crisis had given nationalism its second full public airing, and in the thirty years that followed no fewer than seven new national states were created in Europe. This was partly the result of the recognition by conservative forces that the old order could not continue in its existing form. Conservative reformers such as Cavour and Bismarck made common cause with liberal political modernizers to create a consensus for the creation of conservative nation-states in Italy and Germany. In the Habsburg monarchy a compromise was reached with Hungarians in 1867 which led to the establishment of the Dual Monarchy. Native history and culture were rediscovered and appropriated for the national struggle. Following a conflict between Russia and Turkey, the Great Powers met at Berlin in 1878 and granted independence to Romania, Serbia and Montenegro and limited autonomy to Bulgaria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire",
        "text": "The Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire were a set of revolutions that took place in the Austrian Empire from March 1848 to November 1849. Much of the revolutionary activity had a nationalist character: the Empire, ruled from Vienna, included ethnic Germans, Hungarians, Slovenes, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Ruthenians (Ukrainians), Romanians, Croats, Venetians and Serbs; all of whom attempted in the course of the revolution to either achieve autonomy, independence, or even hegemony over other nationalities. The nationalist picture was further complicated by the simultaneous events in the German states, which moved toward greater German national unity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire",
        "text": "Revolutionary movements of 1849 faced an additional challenge: to work together to defeat a common enemy. Previously, national identity allowed Habsburg forces to conquer revolutionary governments by playing them off one another. New democratic initiatives in Italy in the spring of 1848 led to a renewed conflict with Austrian forces in the provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. At the very first anniversary of the first barricades in Vienna, German and Czech democrats in Bohemia agreed to put mutual hostilities aside and work together on revolutionary planning. Hungarians faced the greatest challenge of overcoming the divisions of the previous year, as the fighting there had been the most bitter. Despite this, the Hungarian government hired a new commander and attempted to unite with Romanian democrat Avram Iancu, who was known as \"Cr\u0103i\u015forul Mun\u0163ilor\" (\"The Prince of the Mountains\"). However, division and mistrust were too severe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire",
        "text": "By early summer, conservative regimes had been overthrown, new freedoms (including freedom of the press and freedom of association) had been introduced, and multiple nationalist claims had been exerted. New parliaments quickly held elections with broad franchise to create constituent assemblies, which would write new constitutions. The elections that were held produced unexpected results. The new voters, na\u00efve and confused by their new political power, typically elected conservative or moderately liberal representatives. The radicals, the ones who supported the broadest franchise, lost under the system they advocated because they were not the locally influential and affluent men. The mixed results led to confrontations similar to the \"June Days\" uprising in Paris. Additionally, these constituent assemblies were charged with the impossible task of managing both the needs of the people of the state and determining what that state physically is at the same time. The Austrian Constituent Assembly was divided into a Czech faction, a German faction, and a Polish faction, and within each faction was the political left-right spectrum. Outside the Assembly, petitions, newspapers, mass demonstrations, and political clubs put pressure on their new governments and often expressed violently many of the debates that were occurring within the assembly itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungarian Revolution of 1848",
        "text": "The revolution started in the Pilvax coffee palace() at Pest, which was a favourite meeting point of the young extra-parliamentary radical liberal intellectuals in the 1840s."
      },
      {
        "title": "German revolutions of 1848\u20131849",
        "text": "The upper bourgeoisie were frightened by the armed working classes taking to the streets. They began to separate themselves from the movement for constitutional reform and the Committee of Public Safety, describing the leaders as bloodthirsty terrorists. Leaders of the Committee, who were mostly petty bourgeoisie, were starting to vacillate. Rather than working to organize and direct the various factions of protests, they began to draw back from the revolutionary movement, especially the destruction of property. The Committee of Public Safety tried to calm the reformist movement and quell the demonstrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "In other countries, the relative calm could be attributed to the fact that they had already gone through revolutions or civil wars in the preceding years, and therefore already enjoyed many of the reforms which Radicals elsewhere were demanding in 1848. This was largely the case for Belgium (the Belgian Revolution in 1830\u20131); Portugal (the large Liberal Wars of 1828\u20131834, and the minor civil war of Patuleia in 1846\u20131847); and Switzerland (the Sonderbund War of 1847)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire",
        "text": "However, liberal ministers were unable to establish central authority. Provisional governments in Venice and Milan quickly expressed a desire to be part of an Italian confederacy of states; but for the Venetian government this lasted only five days, after the 1848 armistice between Austria and Piedmont. A new Hungarian government in Pest announced its intentions to break away from the Empire and elect Ferdinand its King, and a Polish National Committee announced the same for the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire",
        "text": "Lombardy-Venetia was quickly brought back under Austrian rule in the mainland, even because popular support for the revolution vanished: revolutionary ideals were often limited to part of middle and upper classes, which failed both to gain \"hearts and minds\" of lower classes and to convince the population about Italian nationalism. Most part of lower classes indeed were quite indifferent, and actually most part of Lombard and Venetian troops remained loyal. The only widespread support to the revolution was in the cities of Milan and Venice, with the Republic of San Marco lasting under siege until 28th of August, 1849."
      },
      {
        "title": "German revolutions of 1848\u20131849",
        "text": "German revolutions of 1848\u20131849\n--Events leading up to the revolutions.\n--Austria.\n--Baden.\n--The Palatinate.\n--Prussia.\n--Saxony.\n--The Rhineland or Rhenish Prussia.\n--Bavaria.\n--Greater Poland.\n--National Assembly in Frankfurt.\n--Backlash in Prussia.\n--Failure of the revolution.\n--Peasant success of the revolution.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungarian Revolution of 1848",
        "text": "Because of the success of revolutionary resistance, Franz Joseph had to ask for help from the \"gendarme of Europe\"\" Tsar Nicholas I of Russia in March 1849. A Russian army, composed of about 8,000 soldiers, invaded Transylvania on 8 April 1849. But as they crossed the Southern Carpathian mountain passes (along the border of Transylvania and Wallachia), they were met by a large Hungarian revolutionary army led by J\u00f3zef Bem, a Polish-born General."
      },
      {
        "title": "1840s",
        "text": "The revolutions were essentially bourgeois-democratic in nature with the aim of removing the old feudal structures and the creation of independent national states. The revolutionary wave began in France in February, and immediately spread to most of Europe and parts of Latin America. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among the revolutionaries in different countries. Six factors were involved: widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership; demands for more participation in government and democracy; demands for freedom of press; the demands of the working classes; the upsurge of nationalism; and finally, the regrouping of the reactionary forces based on the royalty, the aristocracy, the army, and the peasants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungarian Revolution of 1848",
        "text": "In 1825 Emperor Francis II convened the Diet in response to growing concerns amongst the Hungarian nobility about taxes and the diminishing economy, after the Napoleonic wars. This \u2013 and the reaction to the reforms of Joseph II \u2013 started what is known as the Reform Period (). But the Nobles still retained their privileges of paying no taxes and not giving the vote to the masses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungarian Revolution of 1848",
        "text": "The bloodless mass demonstrations in Pest and Buda forced the Imperial governor to accept all twelve of their demands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire",
        "text": "Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire\n--The early rumblings.\n----Social and political conflict.\n----Direct cause of the outbreak of violence.\n--Revolution in the Austrian lands.\n----An early victory leads to tension.\n----Social and political tensions after the \"Springtime of Peoples\".\n----Counterrevolution.\n--Revolution in the Kingdom of Hungary.\n----Western Slovak Uprising.\n----Serb Revolution of 1848\u20131849.\n--The Second Wave of Revolutions.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungarian Revolution of 1848",
        "text": "Hungarian liberals in Pest saw this as an opportunity. In September 1848, the Diet made concessions to the Pest Uprising, so as not to break up the Austro-Hungarian Union. But the counter-revolutionary forces were gathering. After many local victories, the combined Bohemian and Croatian armies entered Pest on 5 January 1849."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungarian Revolution of 1848",
        "text": "Hungarian Revolution of 1848\n--Hungary before the Revolution.\n----The Hungarian Jacobin Club.\n----Era of Reforms.\n------\"Long debate\" of reformers in the press (1841\u20131848).\n------\"The Twelve Points\" of the reformers.\n--The one day bloodless revolution in Pest and Buda.\n----Revolution in Vienna.\n----Revolution in Pest.\n--Parliamentary monarchy, the Batthy\u00e1ny government.\n----The Austrian Stadion Constitution and the renewal of antagonism.\n--Szemere government and Regent-President Lajos Kossuth.\n--War of Independence.\n----Croats.\n----Serbs of Vojvodina.\n----Western Slovak Uprising.\n----Transylvania.\n------Romanians.\n------Transylvanian Saxons.\n----Russians.\n----Austrians.\n--Aftermath.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "1840s",
        "text": "The decade was noted in Europe for featuring the largely unsuccessful Revolutions of 1848, also known as the \"Springtime of Nations\". Throughout the continent, bourgeois liberals and working-class radicals engaged in a series of revolts in favor of social reform. In the United Kingdom, this notably manifested itself through the Chartist movement, which sought universal suffrage and parliamentary reform. In France, the February Revolution led to the overthrow of the Orl\u00e9ans dynasty by Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1848, the publication of the Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx would help lay the groundwork for the global socialist movement."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Was Poland affected the potatoe famine that brought immigrants to the United States?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you wanting to know about the Great Famine (Ireland), Scotland's Highland Potato Famine?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the Great Famine in Ireland."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Great Famine in Ireland, also known as the Great Hunger, the Famine (mostly within Ireland) or the Irish Potato Famine (mostly outside Ireland), was a period of mass starvation and disease in Ireland from 1845 to 1852."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What caused the famine to start?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The proximate cause of the famine was a potato blight, which infected potato crops throughout Europe during the 1840s, causing an additional 100,000 deaths outside Ireland and influencing much of the unrest in the widespread European Revolutions of 1848."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were the European Revolutions of 1848?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Springtime of the Peoples[2] or the Springtime of Nations, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe starting in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history to date.",
      "It was a series of political upheavals throughout Europe and is still the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history."
    ],
    "topic": "Polish cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Revolutions of 1848:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Revolutions of 1848"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Springtime of the Peoples or the Springtime of Nations, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe starting in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history to date."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Revolutions of 1848:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Revolutions of 1848"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Springtime of the Peoples or the Springtime of Nations, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe starting in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history to date."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "The most popular sweetmeats on Fat Thursday are p\u0105czki, Polish doughnuts, \"faworki\", sometimes called, \"chrust\", equivalent to the French beignet. Traditional Polish doughnuts are filled with rose petal jam, plum jam or apple and covered with icing with orange peel or powdered with icing sugar. Fat Thursday used to mark the beginning of a \"Fat Week\", a period of great gluttony during which Polish ancestors consumed dishes served with \"smalec\" (lard), bacon and all kinds of meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fat Thursday",
        "text": "In Poland, Fat Thursday is called . People purchase their favorite pastries from their local bakeries. Traditional foods include p\u0105czki (doughnuts), which are large deep-fried pieces of especially rich dough, traditionally filled with plum or rose petal jam (though others are commonly used) and topped with powdered sugar, icing, or glaze. Angel wings () are also commonly consumed on this day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "T\u0142usty Czwartek or \"Fat Thursday\", is a Polish culinary custom on the last Thursday before Lent, it is equivalent to Pancake Day. Traditionally it is an occasion to enjoy sweets and cakes before the forty days of abstinence expected of Catholics until Easter Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fat Thursday",
        "text": "Fat Thursday\n--By country.\n----Poland.\n----Germany.\n----Greece.\n----Italy.\n----Spain.\n----Other traditions.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Poland",
        "text": "Among holiday meals, there is a traditional Christmas Eve supper called Wigilia. Another special occasion is Fat Thursday (\"T\u0142usty Czwartek\"), a Catholic feast celebrated on the last Thursday before the Lent. Traditionally it is a day when people eat large amounts of sweets and cakes that are afterwards forbidden until Easter day (see also: the Polish traditional Easter Breakfast)."
      },
      {
        "title": "P\u0105czki",
        "text": "These pastries have become popular in the United States as a result of Polish immigrants and marketing by the bakery industry. Sold in bakeries mainly on both Fat Tuesday and Fat Thursday throughout Detroit and Chicago, they are particularly popular in areas where there is a large concentration of Polish immigrants: Milwaukee, Northcentral and Southeastern Wisconsin, Chicago, Northern Illinois, Northwest Indiana, Metro Detroit, Greater Grand Rapids, Mid Michigan, Toledo, Greater Cincinnati, Greater Cleveland, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Scranton/Wilkes-Barre, Northern and Central New Jersey, Central Connecticut, and Western Massachusetts. The Polish community in Buffalo has the largest Fat Thursday event outside of Poland, which is run in cooperation with the monthly Polish Happy Hour Buffalo event."
      },
      {
        "title": "P\u0105czki",
        "text": "In Poland, are eaten especially on Fat Thursday (), the last Thursday prior to Ash Wednesday and the beginning of Lent. The traditional reason for making \"p\u0105czki\" was to use up all the lard, sugar, eggs and fruit in the house, because their consumption was forbidden by Christian fasting practices during the season of Lent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "In Polish communities throughout the state \"p\u0105czki\" can be found every year on Fat Tuesday (Mardi Gras) in a wide assortment of flavors including lemon, blueberry to custard. Pierogis, goulash, and Polish-style sausage are common specialties in many restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poland",
        "text": "Traditional dishes are hearty and abundant in pork, potatoes, eggs, cream, mushrooms, regional herbs, and sauce. Polish food is characteristic for its various kinds of kluski (soft dumplings), soups, cereals and a variety of breads and open sandwiches. Salads, including mizeria (cucumber salad), coleslaw, sauerkraut, carrot and seared beets, are common. Meals conclude with a dessert such as sernik (cheesecake), makowiec (poppy seed roll), or napoleonka cream pie."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fat Thursday",
        "text": "Fat Thursday is a Christian tradition in some countries marking the last Thursday before Lent and is associated with the celebration of Carnival. Because Lent is a time of fasting, the days leading up to Ash Wednesday provide the last opportunity for feasting (including simply eating forbidden items) until Easter. Traditionally it is a day dedicated to eating, when people meet in their homes or caf\u00e9s with their friends and relatives and eat large quantities of sweets, cakes and other meals usually not eaten during Lent. Among the most popular all-national dishes served on that day are p\u0105czki in Poland or berliner, fist-sized donuts filled with rose hip jam, and angel wings (faworki), puff pastry fingers served with powdered sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Polish cuisine is rich in meat, especially pork, chicken and game, in addition to a wide range of vegetables, spices, mushrooms, and herbs. It is also characteristic in its use of various kinds of noodles as well as cereals and grains. In general, Polish cuisine is hearty and heavy in its use of butter, cream, eggs and extensive seasoning. The traditional dishes are often demanding in preparation. Many Poles allow themselves a generous amount of time to serve and enjoy their festive meals, especially Christmas Eve supper (\"Wigilia\") on December 24 or Easter breakfast, which could take a number of days to prepare in their entirety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poles",
        "text": "Popular everyday foods in Poland include schnitzels or pork cutlets (kotlet schabowy), kielbasa sausage, potatoes, coleslaw and salads, soups (tomato or meat broth), pierogi dumplings, Kaiser bread rolls and frikadellers. Traditional Polish cuisine is hearty and Poles are one of the more obese nations in Europe \u2013 approximately 58% of the adult population was overweight in 2019, above the EU average. According to data from 2017, meat consumption per capita in Poland was one of the highest in the world, with pork being the most in demand. Alcohol consumption is relatively moderate compared to other European states; popular alcoholic beverages include Polish-produced beer, vodka and ciders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Polish cuisine\n--History.\n----Middle Ages.\n----Renaissance.\n----The Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth.\n----After World War II.\n----Modern era.\n--Holiday meals.\n----Christmas dishes.\n----Fat Thursday.\n----Easter breakfast.\n--Regional cuisine and soups.\n--Bread.\n--Beverages.\n----Alcoholic.\n----Non-alcoholic.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Records show that her visiting guests were entertained with forest game, and the following fowl: waxwings; fieldfares; snow bunting; hazel grouse; partridges; black grouse; capercaillies; plus fish and molluscs: loach; various trout; grayling; salmon fresh and smoked; flounder, salted herring; lampreys in vinegar; oysters; snails; and Genoese p\u00e2t\u00e9, not to mention fresh fruit and chestnuts. French and Italian wines were served, as well as mead and local beers. The dishes were made only according to French recipes. The royal court with all its innovations exerted a broad influence over the rest of aristocratic residences and noble palaces across Poland. French cuisine was in fashion and many families willingly employed French cooks and p\u00e2t\u00e9 makers. In the mid-18th century on Polish tables appeared the French champagne. Also, among the most influential in that period were Lithuanian, Jewish, German and Hungarian cuisine, not to mention Armenian, which arrived in Poland before the 17th century along with many settlers especially in the south-eastern part of the Commonwealth. Signature dishes of the Western Asia reached Polish tables thanks to the Armenian trade and cultural exchange with Poland's neighbour - the Ottoman Empire. Rare delicacies were brought to royal court as gifts from sultans and royal envoys. The strongest influences were noted in the cities of Lw\u00f3w, Krak\u00f3w, Kamieniec Podolski and Zamo\u015b\u0107 due to many Armenians living there permanently. Also, because of the close contact with the Ottoman Empire, coffee (\"kawa\") and boza became popular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture in post-communist Poland",
        "text": "With the end of pro-Soviet totalitarianism in Poland, new restaurants opened and the basic foodstuffs were once again easily obtainable. This led to a gradual return of rich traditional Polish cuisine, both in home cooking and in restaurants. At the same time, restaurants and supermarkets promoted the use of ingredients typical of other cuisines of the world. Notable foods in Polish cuisine include Polish sausage, red beet soup, Polish dumplings, flaczki (tripe soup), cabbage rolls, Oscypek, Polish pork chops, Polish traditional stew, various potato dishes, a fast food sandwich zapiekanka, and many more. Traditional Polish desserts include Polish doughnuts, Polish gingerbread and many similar others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "This situation led in turn to gradual replacement of traditional Polish cuisine with food prepared from anything available at the moment. Among the popular dishes introduced by the public restaurants was \"kotlet mielony\"\" meatball\", a sort of a hamburger often served with beet puree and fresh carrots. The traditional recipes were mostly preserved during the Wigilia feast (Christmas Eve), for which many families tried to prepare 12 traditional courses."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Polish dishes",
        "text": "A list of dishes popular in certain regions of Poland:\n*\"Gzik\" (\"gzika\") - Quark with sour cream, diced European radishes (\"Raphanus sativus\") and diced green onions or chives\n*\"Kaczka z pyzami i modr\u0105 kapust\u0105\" - roast duck with steam-cooked rolls and red cabbage\n* \"Kiszczonka\" - black pudding soup\n* \"Kopytka\" - potato dumplings\n* \"Plendze\" - potato pancakes served with sugar\n* \"Pyry z gzikiem\" - boiled, peeled or unpeeled potatoes with \"gzik\" and butter\n*\"Rogale \u015bwi\u0119tomarci\u0144skie\" - croissants filled with white poppy seeds, almonds, other nuts and raisins, traditionally eaten on November 11, St. Martin's Day\n*\"Strudel jab\u0142kowy\" - apple strudel (cake), identical to the Austrian \"apfelstrudel\"\n*\"Bryndza\" - sheep milk cheese\n*\"Kark\u00f3wka\" - tenderloin, usually roasted\n*\"Kie\u0142basa\" - \"krakowska\", \"podwawelska\"\n* \"Makowiec\" - poppy seed cake\n* \"Miodek turecki\" - caramelised sugar, traditionally with nuts\n* \"Oscypek\" - smoked sheep milk cheese\n* \"Pischinger chocolate oblaten\" cake - cake made of layers of wafer and layer\n*\"Proziaki\" - Polish flat soda bread\n*\"Przysmak piwny\" - beef jerky\n*\"Bryjka\"\n*\"Bryndza\" - cheese\n*\"Bundz\" - cheese\n*\"Czosnianka\" - soup\n*\"Go\u0142ka\" - cheese\n*\"Kwa\u015bnica\" - sauerkraut and potato soup\n*\"Oscypek\" - hard, salty cheese from non-pasteurized sheep milk which is smoked over a fire; sometimes served sliced and fried with cranberries\n*\"\u015aliwowica \u0142\u0105cka\" - (read: [shlee-voh-veetsa won-tskah]) strong plum brandy (70% alcohol)\n*\"\u017bentyca\" - popular drink made of sheep's milk whey\n*Bi\u0142goraj pierogi - regional p\u00e2t\u00e9/pie from Bi\u0142goraj Land, based on potatoes, quark and buckwheat groats (kasha)\n*\"Cebularz\" - a Jewish dish wheat flat-cake, topped with onion and poppy-seed\n*\"Forszmak\" - appetizer with salty minced fish and meat\n*\"Kaszak\" - a bread roll infilled with Bi\u0142goraj pierogi\n*\"Marchwiak\" - in appearance similar to a Swiss roll, infilled with a carrot filling\n*\"Ruthenian pierogi\", \"Pierogi ruskie\" - most stuffed with twar\u00f3g and potato\n*\"Pierogi z bobem\" - pierogi stuffed with broad bean\n*\"Baba warszawska\" - yeast cake\n*\"Bu\u0142ka z pieczarkami\" - a bun filled with a champignon (field mushroom) stew; ersatz hot dogs under communism, when frankfurters were in short supply\n*\"Flaczki z pulpetami\" (\"po warszawsku\") - tripe stew with marjoram and small meat noodles\n*\"Kawior po \u017cydowsku\" - \"Jewish caviar\"; chopped calf or poultry liver with garlic and hard boiled egg\n*\"Kugiel\" - found in the town of Ostro\u0142\u0119ka, made with potatoes and diced meat\n*\"Nalesniki\" - pancakes filled with sweet white cheese\n*\"P\u0105czki\" - doughnuts with rose marmalade\n*\"Pyzy z mi\u0119sem\" - round potato dumplings stuffed with meat\n*\"Zrazy wo\u0142owe\" - rolled beef strips in sauce\n*\"Zrazy wo\u0142owe zawijane\" - chopped dill cucumbers and onions wrapped in thin strips of beef\n*\"Zupa grzybowa po kurpiowsku (z g\u0105sek)\" - mushroom soup made of \"Tricholoma equestre\" (pol. \"g\u0105ska\"), a large mushroom with a cereal-like flavor\n*\"Kartacz\" - see #Podlaskie\n*\"S\u0119kacz\" - pyramid cake, made of many layers\n*\"Ciapkapusta\", \"pa\u0144czkraut\", \"pa\u0144\u0107kraut\" - potato, cabbage pure\u00e9 dish\n*\"Bio\u0142e kluski\" - potato dumplings with a small depression in the centre\n*\"\u015al\u0105skie niebo\" - bacon with kluski and sauce, generally with vegetables\n*\"Babka ziemniaczana\"\n*\"Babka \u017c\u00f3\u0142tkowa\" - yolk and yeast cake\n*\"Bliny gryczane\" - buckwheat pancakes\n*\"Cebulniaczki\"\n*\"Cepeliny\" - big, long potato dumplings stuffed with meat and marjoram\n*\"Chleb biebrza\u0144ski\"\n*\"Ch\u0142odnik\" - cold soup made of soured milk, young beet leaves, beets, cucumbers and chopped fresh dill\n*\"Grzyby po \u017cmudzku\" - mushrooms, Samogitian style\n*\"Kartacz\" - big, long potato dumplings stuffed with meat and marjoram\n*\"Kawior z bak\u0142a\u017cana\" - \"caviar\" of eggplant\n*\"Kiszka ziemniaczana\" - potato sausage\n*\"Kopytka\" - potato dumplings with fried onions\n*\"Korycinski\" - cheese\n*\"Kreple z lejka\"\n*\"Kugiel ze skwarkami\"\n*\"Kutia\" - traditional Christmas dish, made of wheat, poppy seeds, nuts, raisins and honey\n*\"Melszpejz zaparzany z jab\u0142ek\"\n*\"Oko\u0144 sma\u017cony, w zalewie octowej\" - perch fried in vinegar\n*\"Piecze\u0144 wied\u017amy\"\n*\"Ruskie pierogi\" - Ruthenian style pierogi with quark cheese and potato\n*\"S\u0119kacz\" - pyramid cake, made of many layers\n*\"Szodo\"\n*\"Tort ziemniaczany\" - potato cake\n*\"\u017beberka wieprzowe po \u017cmudzku\" - pork ribs, Samogitian style\n*\"Zrazy wo\u0142y\u0144skie\"\n*\"Zucielki\"\n*\"Pierniki\" - soft gingerbread shapes filled with marmalade of different fruit flavours and covered with chocolate\n*\"Ruchanki\" - flat, oval racuszki hot fried on fat\n*\"Szpekucha\" - small dumplings stuffed with lard and fried onion\n*\"Dzionie rakowskie\" - kaszanka made from pork or beef intestine, visually similar to kaszanka p\u00e2t\u00e9\n*\"Fitka kazimierska\" - traditional soup from Kazimierza County; made from potatoes, vegetables, pork rind from fatback, barley kasza and tomato pure\u00e9\n*\"Kr\u00f3wka opatowska\" (\"Opat\u00f3w kr\u00f3wka\") - milk condensate sweet with a minute vanilla taste; produced since the year 1980\n*\"Prazoki\" - kluski-like dish made from boiled potatoes and steamed flour, served with fatback and onion\n*\"S\u0142upia\u0144ski siekaniec dworski\" - rouladen dish, sliced into c. 1.5 cm wide pieces; includes gentium and groat kasza\n*\"Paprykarz szczeci\u0144ski\" - a paste made by mixing fish paste with rice, onion, tomato concentrate, vegetable oil, salt and a mixture of spices including chilli pepper powder\n*\"Pasztecik szczeci\u0144ski\" - a deep-fried yeast dough stuffed with meat or vegetarian filling, a typical fast food dish of Szczecin\n*\"Kluski \u015bl\u0105skie\" (Silesian dumplings) - round dumplings served with gravy, made of mashed boiled potatoes, finely grated raw potatoes, an egg, grated onion, wheat flour and potato starch flour\n*\"Knysza\" - bread roll with meat and vegetables\n*\"Krupniok\" - blood sausage made of \"kasza\" and animal blood, spiced with marjoram and garlic\n*\"Makie\u0142ki\", \"moczka\", or \"mak\u00f3wki\" - traditional Christmas Eve dessert; its main ingredients are gingerbread extract, nuts and dried fruit, strawberry compote and almonds\n*Poppy seed pastry - many elaborate recipes are possible; based on finely ground poppy seeds, with raisins, almonds, Candied citrus peels, honey, sugar, pudding flavoured with rum; decorated with fingers of crumbling\n*\"Rolada z modr\u0105 kapust\u0105\" (roladen with red cabbage) - best-quality beef-meat roll; stuffed with pickled vegetable, ham, and good amount of seasoning; always served with red cabbage (with fried bacon, fresh onion and allspice); traditionally eaten with \"kluski \u015bl\u0105skie\" for Sunday dinner\n*\"Siemieniotka or siemiotka\" - very original and rare kind of soup made of hemp seed with boiled \"kasza\", one of the main Christmas Eve meals; requires a lot of hand work to prepare according to tradition\n*\"Sza\u0142ot\" (Silesian potato salad) - a salad made of squares of boiled potatoes, root vegetables, various sausages (sometimes ham), pickled fish (usually herring), boiled eggs, bound with mayonnaise\n*\"Wodzionka\" or \"bro\u0142tzupa\" (German \"brot\", bread; Polish \"zupa\", soup) - soup with garlic and squares of dried rye bread\n*\"\u017bym\u0142a\" - a well-baked bread roll, oval with a division in the middle, topped with poppy seeds, similar to the Austrian \"keisersemmel\"\n*\"\u017bymlok\" - like \"krupniok\", but instead of \"kasza\", there is a bread roll\n*Tyskie - beer for worker man after szychta in coal mine\n* List of Polish desserts"
      },
      {
        "title": "Thursday Dinners",
        "text": "Thursday Dinners (, less commonly translated as Thursday Lunches) were gatherings of artists, intellectuals, architects, politicians and statesmen held by the last King of Poland, Stanislaus II Augustus during the Enlightenment period in Poland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "After the end of World War II, Poland became a communist country which joined the Warsaw Pact. Some restaurants were nationalized. The communists envisioned a net of lunch rooms called \"bufet\" for the workers at various companies, and milk bars for the public. The majority of restaurants that survived the 1940s and 1950s were state-owned. Workplace lunch rooms promoted mostly inexpensive meals, including soups of all kinds, meatballs and pork chops, and staples such as placki ziemniaczane/kartoflane (potato pancakes), placki z jablkami (apple pancakes), kopytka (potato gnocchi), leniwe (farmer's cheese gnocchi served sweet) and pierogi. A typical second course consisted of meat cutlet served with potatoes or buckwheat and \"sur\u00f3wka\" (raw, julienned vegetables). The popular Polish \"kotlet schabowy\" is a breaded cutlet similar to the Austrian Wiener schnitzel and the Italian and Spanish Milanesa."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "Among American-born citizens of Polish ancestry, roughly 50% report eating Polish dishes, and many can name a variety of Polish foods unprompted. Whereas over 60% of Italian Americans reported eating Italian food at least once a week, less than 10% of Polish Americans ate Polish food once a week. This figure is still a higher occurrence than Irish Americans, who can only name a few traditional Irish foods (typically corned beef and cabbage), and only 30% report eating Irish food each year. Even fewer English, Dutch, and Scottish Americans can report that they eat ethnic cuisine regularly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Szlachta",
        "text": "The szlachta, no less than the rest of the population, placed a particular accent on food. It was at the centre of courtly and estate entertaining and in good times, at the heart of village life. During the Age of Enlightenment, King Stanislaw August Poniatowski emulated the French Salons by holding his famed Thursday Lunches for intellectuals and artists, drawn chiefly from the szlachta. His \"Wednesday Lunches\" were gatherings for policy makers in science, education and politics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poland",
        "text": "A widely-popular doughnut and sweet pastry feast occurs on Fat Thursday, usually 52 days prior to Easter. Eggs for Holy Sunday are painted and placed in decorated baskets that are previously blessed by clergymen in churches on Easter Saturday. Easter Monday is celebrated with pagan \"dyngus\" festivities, where the youth is engaged in water fights. Cemeteries and graves of the deceased are annually visited by family members on All Saints' Day; tombstones are cleaned as a sign of respect and candles are lit to honour the dead on an unprecedented scale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shrove Tuesday",
        "text": "In Poland, a related celebration falls on the Thursday before Ash Wednesday and is called (Fat Thursday). In some areas of the United States, with large Polish communities, such as Chicago, Buffalo and Michigan, T\u0142usty Czwartek is celebrated with or eating contests, music and other Polish food. It may be held on Shrove Tuesday or in the days immediately preceding it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "American food in Poland, most commonly McDonald's, KFC and Pizza Hut, are declining in popularity as Polish people prefer their own cuisine, including fast food. Meanwhile, Doner kebabs are gaining popularity. Nonetheless, in most of Poland one can still get traditional and very popular Polish street food such as the \"zapiekanka\", a pizza-like baguette with cheese, mushrooms, onion, sometimes meat and ketchup. There are also many small-scale, quick-service restaurants which usually serve kebabs, hamburgers, hot dogs and Polish kie\u0142basa sausage. In the southern mountainous region, the oscypek served with cranberry jam is a popular street food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doughnut",
        "text": "Immigrants have brought various doughnut varieties to the United States. To celebrate Fat Tuesday in eastern Pennsylvania, churches sell a potato starch doughnut called a Fastnacht (or Fasnacht). The treats are so popular there that Fat Tuesday is often called Fastnacht Day. The Polish doughnut, the p\u0105czki, is popular in U.S. cities with large Polish communities such as Chicago, Milwaukee, and Detroit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "During the Middle Ages the cuisine of Poland was heavy and spicy. Two main ingredients were meat (both game and beef) and cereal. The latter consisted initially of proso millet, but later in the Middle Ages other types of cereal became widely used. Most commoners did not use bread and instead consumed cereals in the forms of kasza or various types of flatbread, some of which (for instance ko\u0142acz) are considered traditional recipes even in the 21st century. Apart from cereals, a large portion of the daily diet of mediaeval Poles consisted of beans, mostly broad beans and peas. As the territory of Poland was densely forested, usage of mushrooms, forest berries, nuts and wild honey was also widespread. Among the delicacies of the Polish nobility were honey-braised bear paws served with horseradish-flavoured salad (now species protected in Poland), smoked bear tongue and bear bacon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thursday Dinners",
        "text": "The gatherings were usually held in the Royal Castle and in summer at the Palace on the Isle in Warsaw, between 1770 and 1784. During the gatherings, which typically lasted three hours and were akin to French salons, the King and his guests discussed literature, art and politics over a light meal. The number of guests varied over the years, with about thirty regulars, including politicians, writers, bibliophiles, military officers of rank and philosophers. Notable guests included:\n* Ignacy Krasicki\n* Franciszek Bohomolec\n* Adam Naruszewicz\n* Ignacy Potocki\n* Stanis\u0142aw Kostka Potocki\n* Hugo Ko\u0142\u0142\u0105taj\n* Jan \u015aniadecki and J\u0119drzej \u015aniadecki\n* Stanis\u0142aw Konarski\n* Tomasz Adam Ostrowski\n* J\u00f3zef Szymanowski\n* Andrzej Zamoyski."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "With the fall of communism in Poland in 1989, a wave of new restaurants opened and the basic foodstuffs were once again easily obtainable. This led to a gradual return of rich traditional Polish cuisine, both in home cooking and in restaurants. At the same time, restaurants and supermarkets promoted the use of ingredients typical of other cuisines of the world. Among the most notable foods that started to become common in Poland were cucurbits, zucchini and all kinds of fish. During communist times, these were available fresh mostly in the seaside regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Internationally, if a Polish culinary tradition is used in other cuisines, it is referred to as \"\u00e0 la polonaise\", from French meaning 'Polish-style.' In France, the use of butter instead of cooking oil, frying vegetables with buttered breadcrumbs, minced parsley and boiled eggs (Polonaise garnish) as well as adding horseradish, lemon juice or sour cream to sauces like Velout\u00e9 is known under this term."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thursday Dinners",
        "text": "In the 1990s, Warsaw Mayor Pawe\u0142 Piskorski reinstated the tradition by holding \"Tuesday Breakfasts\" to talk over current issues with leading businessmen and activists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamtramck, Michigan",
        "text": "Polish immigrants and residents of Hamtramck and southeastern Michigan celebrate T\u0142usty Czwartek (Fat Tuesday), known locally as P\u0105czki Day, by lining up at the city's numerous Polish bakeries to purchase p\u0105czki. On P\u0105czki Day, several local bars host parties with live entertainment and free p\u0105czki."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "A traditional Polish dinner is composed of three courses, beginning with a soup like the popular \"ros\u00f3\u0142\" broth and tomato soup. At restaurants, the soups are followed by an appetizer such as herring (prepared in either cream, oil, or in aspic); or other cured meats and vegetable salads. The main course usually includes a serving of meat, such as roast, breaded pork cutlet, or chicken, with a coleslaw-like \"sur\u00f3wka\" , shredded root vegetables with lemon and sugar (carrot, celeriac, seared beetroot), sauerkraut or mizeria salad. The side dishes are usually boiled potatoes, rice or less commonly \"kasza\". Meals often conclude with a dessert including \"makowiec\", a poppy seed pastry, \"napoleonka\" cream pie or \"sernik\" cheesecake."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Along with the Italian queen Bona Sforza (second wife of Sigismund I of Poland) many Italian cooks came to Poland after 1518. Although native vegetable foods were an ancient and intrinsic part of the cuisine, this began a period in which vegetables like lettuce, leeks, celeriac and cabbage were more widely used. Even today, some of those vegetables are referred to in Polish as \"w\u0142oszczyzna\", a word derived from \"W\u0142ochy\", the Polish name of Italy. During this period the use of spices, which arrived in Poland via Western Asian trade routes, was common among those who could afford them, and dishes considered elegant could be very spicy. However, the idea that Queen Bona was the first to introduce vegetables to Poland is false. While her southern cooks may have helped elevate and expand the role of various vegetables in royal Polish cuisine, records show that the court of king Jogaila (in Polish W\u0142adys\u0142aw II Jagie\u0142\u0142o, who died in 1434, over 80 years before her reign) enjoyed a variety of vegetables including lettuce, beets, cabbage, turnip, carrots, peas and cauliflower."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "The most common grains in Poland were millet (often made into \"kasza\", a type of porridge) and wheat. Barley and oats were cultivated, but used mostly as animal feed or for brewing beer. Cabbage (especially as sauerkraut), kale, peas, broad beans, and onions were the most common vegetables. Dill and mustard were almost ubiquitous potherbs and parsley was used as a leafy green in stews, as a flavor additive, and applied as a coloring agent in dishes for the upper classes. Beef, pork and poultry (primarily chicken) were the most common meats, with the occasional appearance of mutton and lamb. Game, as elsewhere, was highly prized, but in short supply and usually limited to the high nobility, as hunting licenses were controlled by land owners. Fish was a staple, but unlike Germans, Poles tended only to eat it on fast days when meat was forbidden by the church."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Thanks to close trade relations with Turkey and the countries in the Caucasus, the price of spices (such as black pepper and nutmeg) was much lower in Poland than the rest of Europe, hence spicy sauces became popular. The usage of two basic sauces (the \"jucha czerwona\" and \"jucha szara\", or red and gray blood in Old Polish) remained widespread at least until the 18th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "The daily beverages included milk, whey, buttermilk and various herb infusions. The most popular alcoholic beverages were beer and mead; however in the 16th century upper classes began to import Hungarian and Silesian wines. Mead was so widespread that in the 13th century Prince Leszek I the White explained to the Pope that Polish knights could not participate in a crusade as there was no mead in the Holy Land. Also, vodka became popular, possibly among the lower classes first. There is written evidence suggesting that vodka originated in Poland. The word \"vodka\" was recorded for the first time ever in 1405 in \"Akta Grodzkie\", the court documents from the Palatinate of Sandomierz in Poland. At that time, the word w\u00f3dka (vodka) referred to chemical compounds such as medicines and cosmetic cleansers, while the popular beverage was called \"gorza\u0142ka\" (from the Old Polish \"gorze\u0107\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carnival",
        "text": "The Polish Carnival season includes Fat Thursday (Polish: \"T\u0142usty Czwartek\"), when \"p\u0105czki\" (doughnuts) are eaten, and \"\u015aledzik\" (Shrove Tuesday) or Herring Day. The Tuesday before the start of Lent is also often called \"Ostatki\" (literally \"leftovers\"), meaning the last day to party before the Lenten season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "With time, the shortage economy led to scarcity of meat, coffee, tea and other ingredients of daily use. Many products like chocolate, sugar and meat were rationed, with a specific limit depending on social class and health requirements. Physical workers and pregnant women were generally entitled to more food products. Imports were restricted, so much of the food supply was domestic. Cuisine became homogeneous, to be a chef was no longer a prestigious profession and for decades the country became basically disconnected from any foreign cuisine. Tropical fruits (citrus, banana, pineapple, etc.) were available during holidays and local fruits and vegetables were mostly seasonal but were available at private stands. For most of the year the Poles had to get by with only domestic winter fruit and vegetables: apples, plums, currants, onions, potatoes, cabbage, root vegetables and frozen products. Other food products (of foreign origins) were available at markets at high prices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Among the well-known Polish national dishes are \"bigos\" ; \"pierogi\" ; \"kie\u0142basa\"; pork loin \"kotlet schabowy\" breaded cutlet ; \"go\u0142\u0105bki\" cabbage roll ; \"zrazy\" roulade ; sour cucumber soup (\"zupa og\u00f3rkowa\") ; mushroom soup, (\"zupa grzybowa\") ; tomato soup (\"zupa pomidorowa\") ; \"ros\u00f3\u0142\" meat broth ; \"\u017curek\" sour rye soup ; \"flaki\" tripe soup ; and red beetroot \"barszcz\" ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poland",
        "text": "The cuisine of Poland is eclectic and shares similarities with other regional cuisines. Among the staple or regional dishes are pierogi (filled dumplings), kielbasa (sausage), bigos (hunter's stew), kotlet schabowy (breaded cutlet), go\u0142\u0105bki (cabbage rolls), barszcz (borscht), \u017curek (soured rye soup), oscypek (smoked cheese), and tomato soup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "A typical Easter breakfast often consists of cold-cuts served with horseradish sauce and beet salads, breads, bigos, \u017curek, kie\u0142basa, smoked salmon or herring, marinated vegetable salads, Easter salad (chopped boiled eggs, green peas, \u0107wik\u0142a, carrot, apple, potato, parsley and mayonnaise) coffee, tea and cakes, i.e. chocolate cake, makowiec, mazurek, sernik, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "In contemporary times, tea is perhaps the most popular, drunk sometimes with a slice of lemon and sweetened with sugar. Tea came into Poland from England shortly after its appearance in Western Europe, mainly due to the Dutch merchants. However, its prevalence is attributed to the Russians in the 19th century \u2013 at this time samovars imported from Russia become commonplace in Polish homes. Tea is usually served with a slice of lemon and sweetened with either sugar or honey. Tea with milk is called a \"bawarka\" (\"Bavarian style\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bigos",
        "text": "According to Polish food historian Maria Dembi\u0144ska, ' may derive from a medieval dish known in Latin as ', or \"mixture\". It was made from various vegetables, such as cabbage, chard and onions, that were chopped or shredded, layered inside an earthenware three-legged Dutch oven and braised or baked. A remnant of this old procedure may be found in a ' recipe, in which bacon and cabbage are arranged in layers, from the 19th-century Russian cookbook, \"A Gift to Young Housewives\" by Elena Molokhovets. Similar, layered dishes of medieval origin exist in other European cuisines; they include the Italian ' (known in 16th-century Poland under the Polonized name, ') and the Alsatian ' (also known as '), made from cabbage, leftover meats and fruits. They are reminiscent of a rustic Polish casserole, known in various regions as ', etc. It is traditionally made from sliced or diced potatoes, onions, carrots, sausages and bacon arranged in layers inside a cast-iron cauldron greased with lard and lined with cabbage leaves, which is placed in bonfire embers for baking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavic carnival",
        "text": "The Polish carnival season includes Fat Thursday (Polish: \"T\u0142usty Czwartek\"), when \"p\u0105czki\" (doughnuts) are eaten, and \"\u015aledzik\" (Shrove Tuesday) or Herring Day. The Tuesday before the start of Lent is also often called \"Ostatki\" (literally \"leftovers\"), meaning the last day to party before the Lenten season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philadelphia Polish American Festival",
        "text": "Food also plays a central role in Polish culture and traditions. Because of this, the festival places special emphasis on presenting authentic traditional Polish food based on recipes that were brought to America by Polish immigrants and are still preserved by their Polish-American descendants today. During each festival, a wide variety of Polish dishes is prepared on site. This includes: pierogi, go\u0142\u0105bki (stuffed cabbage rolls), kielbasa, placki (potato pancakes), bigos (cabbage and meat stew), chrusciki (pastry) and babka (a type of coffee cake)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Polish cuisine () is a style of cooking and food preparation originating in or widely popular in Poland. Polish cuisine has evolved over the centuries to become very eclectic due to Poland's history and it shares many similarities with other regional cusines. Polish-styled cooking in other cultures is often referred to as \u00e0 la polonaise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Worldwide breakfast",
        "text": "The traditional Polish breakfast is a large spread with a variety of sides eaten with bread or toast. Sides include various cold cuts, meat spreads, the Polish sausage, tomatoes, cheese, and sliced pickles. \"Twar\u00f3g\", a Polish cheese, is a breakfast staple and comes in many forms. \"Twar\u00f3g\" can be eaten plain, with salt, sugar, or honey, or it can be mixed with chives into a cream cheese-like spread. Eggs are served often as the main breakfast item, mostly soft-boiled or scrambled. For a quick winter breakfast, hot oatmeal, to which cocoa is sometimes added, is often served. Jam spreads are popular for a quick breakfast, including plum, raspberry, and black or red currant spreads. Breakfast drinks include coffee, milk, hot cocoa, or tea. Traditionally, the Poles avoid heavy-cooked foods for breakfast. For the most part, one will not see fried meats or potatoes in a classic Polish breakfast. Emphasis is placed on a large variety of foods to satisfy everyone at the breakfast table."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mariusz Pudzianowski",
        "text": "He said for MTV that he prefers Polish cuisine. When he has some time he often cooks himself, as he does not particularly fancy meals from restaurants. He often eats bigos, Polish soups, Polish sausages and typical Polish dinners with cooked potatoes, 200\u2013300\u00a0g of meat and some salads (usually cucumber salad)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "Polish food is also prominent in the region, including popular dishes such as pierogi, borscht, and \"p\u0105czki\". Bakeries concentrated in the Polish enclave of Hamtramck, Michigan, within the city, are celebrated for their \"p\u0105czki,\" especially on Fat Tuesday. Hungarian food is featured in nearby eastern Toledo, Ohio with Tony Packo's Hungarian hot dog, a form of \"kolb\u00e1sz\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "There are many restaurants serving various Polish dishes like polish sausage, pierogies and stuffed cabbage rolls. and typical German foods like \"rippchen\", \"knackwurst\", and \"wienerschnitzel\". Traditionally, potato salad and kraut were served alongside an entree of bratwurst or ham hocks. A side of \"spaetzle\" and red cabbage would accompany \"sauerbraten\" or \"rouladen\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "P\u0105czki",
        "text": "In North America, particularly the large Polish communities of Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, and other large cities across the Midwest and Northeast, Paczki Day is celebrated annually by immigrants and locals alike. The date of this observance merges with that of pre-Lenten traditions of other immigrants (\"e.g.\", Pancake Day, \"Mardi Gras\") on Fat Tuesday. With its sizable Polish population, Chicago celebrates the festival on both Fat Thursday and Fat Tuesday. \"P\u0105czki\" are also often eaten on Casimir Pulaski Day. In Buffalo, Toledo, Cleveland, Detroit, Grand Rapids, St.Louis, South Bend, Louisville, and Windsor, P\u0105czki Day is celebrated on Fat Tuesday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thursday Dinners",
        "text": "Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski was famed as a patron of the arts and learning. It was during his reign that Poland's Age of Enlightenment (already begun in the 1730s\u201340s), reached its peak. It went into decline with the Third Partition of Poland in 1795. During the Age of Enlightenment, Warsaw was modernised and became a favourite meeting place for notable people in the worlds of art, architecture and literature along with other intellectuals and statesmen. The King invited influential figures of the time to his Thursday Dinners. He founded the School of Chivalry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Polish cuisine in the Middle Ages was based on dishes made of agricultural produce and cereal crops (millet, rye, wheat), meats of wild and farm animals, fruits, forest berries and game, honey, herbs and local spices. It was known above all for abundant use of salt from Wieliczka and permanent presence of groats (\"kasza\"). A high calorific value of dishes and drinking beer or mead as a basic drink was typical of Middle Ages Polish cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Merienda",
        "text": "In Poland, the merienda is called \"podwieczorek\" or \" ju\u017cyna\". It's a meal eaten in the late afternoon, \"in the evening\". Fills the break between lunch and dinner. Typically, light snacks are eaten, such as ice cream, fruit, cookies, chips, and fruit juice or hot drinks. Afternoon tea is eaten between 14.30 and 18.00. \"Podwieczorek\" in everyday life is eaten rather sporadically, and if it does not deviate from the second breakfast, consisting of bread with butter and jam and tea. On Sundays and holidays, however, afternoon tea is something common, providing an opportunity to socialize with sweet, mostly yeast bread, which is sipped with coffee or tea. In the Wielkopolska cuisine, a certain peculiarity is a potato pancake, known as a bambrzak, once consumed for an afternoon snack."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Polish dishes",
        "text": "This is a list of dishes found in Polish cuisine.\n* \"Barszcz\" - Its strictly vegetarian version is the first course during the Christmas Eve feast, served with \"uszka\" (tiny ear-shaped dumplings) with mushroom filling (sauerkraut can be used as well, depending on the family tradition).\n* \"Barszcz bia\u0142y\" - sour rye and pork broth with cubed boiled pork, kielbasa, ham, hard boiled egg, and dried breads (rye, pumpernickel)\n* \"Ch\u0142odnik\" - cold soup made of soured milk, young beet leaves, beets, cucumbers and chopped fresh dill\n* \"Czernina\" - duck blood soup\n* \"Flaki\" or \"flaczki\" - beef or pork guts tripe stew with marjoram The word \u201cFlaki\u201d means guts. In some areas it is made out of a cow's stomach which is cut in stripes.\n* \"Groch\u00f3wka\" - pea and/or lentil soup\n* \"Kapu\u015bniak\" - cabbage/sauerkraut soup\n* \"Kartoflanka\" - potato soup\n* \"Kiszczonka\" - traditional Wielkopolska cuisine, consists of black pudding, flour, milk and spices.\n* \"Krupnik\" - barley soup with chicken, beef, carrots or vegetable broth\n* \"Kwa\u015bnica\" - traditional sauerkraut soup, eaten in the south of Poland\n* \"Ros\u00f3\u0142\" - chicken noodle soup\n* \"Rumpu\u0107\" - thick vegetable soup, characteristic of Wielkopolska cuisine\n* \"Zupa borowikowa\" - boletus mushroom soup\n* \"Zupa buraczkowa\" - red beetroot soup with potatoes, similar to traditional Barszcz\n* \"Zupa grzybowa/pieczarkowa\" - mushroom soup made of various species\n* \"Zupa jarzynowa\" - chicken/vegetable bouillon(\"bulion\") base vegetable soup\n* \"Zupa og\u00f3rkowa\" - soup of Sour, salted cucumbers, often with pork (\"dill pickle soup\")\n* \"Zupa pomidorowa\" - tomato soup usually served with pasta or rice\n* \"Zupa szczawiowa\" - sorrel(\"szczaw\") soup\n* \"\u017bur\" - soured rye flour soup with white sausage and/or hard-boiled egg\n* \"\u017burek\" - \u017cur (\"\u017curek\") with potatoes (\"ziemniaki\"), Polish sausage (\"kielbasa\"), and Egg (\"jajko\"). Depending on the part of Poland (\"Poland\") it came from, it may contain mushrooms (\"grzyby\") as well. This dish is also called \"\u017curek starowiejski\" (\"old village\"). It is frequently served with sour cream or by itself.\n* \"Baranina\" - roasted or grilled mutton\n* \"Bigos\" - a stew of cabbage and meat (often in a tomato base) mainly \"kie\u0142basa\"\n* \"Go\u0142\u0105bki\" - cabbage leaves stuffed with spiced minced meat and rice or with mushrooms and rice\n* \"Golonka\" - stewed pork knuckle or hock\n* \"Gulasz\" - stew of meat, noodles and vegetables (especially potato), seasoned with paprika and other spices.\n* \"Kaczka z jab\u0142kami\" - roast duck with apples\n* \"Kark\u00f3wka\" - chuck steak, usually roasted\n* \"Kasza gryczana ze skwarkami\" - buckwheat groats with chopped, fried lard and onions\n* \"Kaszanka\" - Polish blood sausage, made of pork blood, liver, lungs and fat with \"kasza\", spiced with onion, pepper and marjoram\n* \"Kie\u0142basa\" - sausage is a staple of Polish cuisine and comes in dozens of varieties, smoked or fresh, made with pork, beef, turkey, lamb, or veal with every region having its own specialty\n* \"Kiszka ziemniaczana\" - type of roasted sausage made of minced potatoes\n* \"Klopsiki\" - or \u2019\u2019pulpety\u2019\u2019, meatballs, often with tomato sauce\n* \"Kotlet mielony\" - minced meat cutlet with eggs, bread crumbs, garlic, and salt and pepper rolled into a ball and fried with onions and butter\n* \"Kotlet schabowy\" - a pork breaded cutlet; made of pork tenderloin (with the bone or without), or of pork chop. \"Kotlet z piersi Kurczaka\" is a Polish variety of chicken cutlet coated with breadcrumbs. \"Kotlet z Indyka\" is a turkey cutlet coated with breadcrumbs, served with boiled potatoes and cabbage stew.\n* \"Kurczak pieczony po wiejsku\" - Polish village style roasted chicken with onion, garlic and smoked bacon\n* \"\u0141oso\u015b\" - salmon, often baked or boiled in a dill sauce\n* \"Pampuchy\" - a type of p\u0105czek from yeast dough cooked on steam\n* \"Pasztecik szczeci\u0144ski\" - deep-fried yeast dough stuffed with meat or vegetarian filling, served in specialized bars as a fast food, different from Polish home-cuisine dishes, which also are called \"pasztecik\"\n* \"Piecze\u0144 ciel\u0119ca\" - roast veal, marinated in an aromatic marinade\n* \"Piecze\u0144 wieprzowa z winem\" - pork roast with wine\n* \"Piecze\u0144 z mi\u0119sa mielonego\" - ground meat roast\n* \"Pierogi\" - dumplings, usually filled with sauerkraut and/or mushrooms, meat, potato and/or savory cheese, sweet curd cheese with a touch of vanilla, or blueberries or other fruits, such as cherries or strawberries, and sometimes even apples\u2014optionally topped with sour cream and/or sugar for the sweet versions.\n* \"Placki ziemniaczane (placki kartoflane)\" - potato pancakes usually served with sour cream\n* \"Pol\u0119dwiczki wo\u0142owe\" - beef sirloin, often with rare mushroom sauce\n* \"Pyzy\" - potato dumplings served by themselves or stuffed with minced meat or cottage cheese\n* \"Rolada z kurczakiem i pieczarkami\" - roulade of chicken and mushrooms\n* \"Rolada z mi\u0119sa mielonego z pieczarkami\" - ground meat roulade stuffed with mushrooms\n* \"Ryba sma\u017cona\" - fried, breaded fish fillet\n* \"Schab faszerowany\" - stuffed pork loin\n* \"Wo\u0142owina pieczona\" - roast beef\n* \"Zapiekanka\" - short baguette, cut in two slices, topped with tomato sauce, briefly fried mushrooms and onion, topped with grated cheese and briefly roasted, served hot with ketchup or/and mayonnaise topping, sold as a take away dish (fast food)\n* \"Zrazy\" - twisted shape thin slices of chopped beef, which is flavored with salt and pepper and stuffed with vegetables, mushrooms, eggs, and potato\n* \"Zrazy zawijane\" - beef rolls stuffed with bacon, pickle and onion\n* \"\u017beberka w\u0119dzone\" - smoked, roasted or grilled ribs\n*\"\u0106wik\u0142a z chrzanem\" - grated or finely chopped beetroot mixed with chrain\n*\"Fasolka z migda\u0142ami\" - fresh slender snipped green beans steamed and topped with butter, bread crumbs, and toasted almond slices\n*\"Kapusta kiszona\" - sauerkraut\n*\"Kapusta zasma\u017cana\" - sauerkraut pan-fried with fried onions, cooked pork, whole pepper, and rich spices; a truly hearty side dish\n*\"Kapusta z grochem\" - peas, sauerkraut and spices\n*\"Kartofle gotowane\" - simple boiled potatoes with parsley or dill\n*\"Kasza gryczana\" - buckwheat groats\n*\"Kopytka\" - hoof-shaped potato dumplings\n*\"Mizeria\" - traditional Polish salad made from cucumbers in whipped cream\n*\"Og\u00f3rek kiszony\" - dill pickle\n*\"Og\u00f3rek konserwowy\" - preserved cucumber which is rather sweet and vinegary in taste\n*\"Pieczarki marynowane\" - marinated mushrooms\n*\"Sa\u0142atka\" - vegetable salad lettuce, tomato, cucumber or pickled cucumber; it is optional to add very small amount of white vinegar, heavy cream, mayonnaise or other dressings\n*\"Sa\u0142atka burakowa\" (\"buraczki\") - finely chopped warm beetroot salad\n*\"Sa\u0142atka og\u00f3rkowa\" - pickled cucumber, preserved cucumber, chopped red peppers, onions salad\n*\"Sa\u0142atka warzywna\" (\"sa\u0142atka jarzynowa\") - vegetable salad, a traditional Polish side dish with cooked and finely chopped root vegetables, potato, carrot, parsley root, celery root, combined with chopped pickled or dill cucumbers and hard-boiled eggs in mayonnaise and mustard sauce. Also made with carrots, red paprika, corn, red beans, peas, potatoes, pickled cucumbers, onion, eggs, sausages, mayonnaise, mustard, salt and pepper.\n*\"Sa\u0142atka wiosenna\" - spring salad chopped finely, radishes, green onions, pencil-thin asparagus, peas, hard-cooked eggs or cubed yellow cheese, mayonnaise, salt and pepper, sweet paprika for color\n*\"Sa\u0142atka z boczkiem\" - wilted lettuce salad is made with romaine or iceberg lettuce, chopped hard-cooked eggs, finely chopped onion, vinegar, bacon cut into 1/2-inch pieces, water, sugar, salt and pepper\n*\"Sa\u0142atka z kartofli\" (\"sa\u0142atka ziemniaczana\") - potato salad made with red or white potatoes cooked in their jackets, cooled, peeled and cut into 1/4-inch dice, carrots, celery, onion, dill pickles, mayonnaise, sugar, salt and pepper\n*\"\u015amietana\" - whipping cream\n*\"Sur\u00f3wka\" - raw sauerkraut, apple, carrot, and onion salad\n*\"Sur\u00f3wka z bia\u0142ej kapusty\" - coleslaw blend of freshly shredded cabbage, carrots, mayonnaise and spices\n*\"Sur\u00f3wka z marchewki\" - carrot salad made with coarsely grated carrots, coarsely grated granny smith apple, lemon juice, vegetable oil, salt, and sugar\n*\"T\u0142uczone ziemniaki\" - mashed potatoes\n*Beer (\"piwo\") - popular brand names include \u017bywiec, Tyskie, Warka, Lech, Okocim, Piast, \u0141om\u017ca, Per\u0142a, Le\u017cajsk, \u017bubr\n*Cider (\"cydr\")\n*Coffee (\"kawa\")\n*Garlic Milk (\"mleko czosnkowe\") - warm milk with honey and garlic mixed in\n*Herbal tea (\"herbata zio\u0142owa/herbatka zio\u0142owa\")\n*\"Kompot\" - clear juice obtained by cooking fruit in a large volume of water, like strawberries, apricots, peaches, apples, rhubarb, gooseberries, or sour cherries\n*Mead (\"mi\u00f3d pitny\")\n*Mineral water (\"woda mineralna\")\n*\"Nalewka\" - home-made, vodka-based liqueur-style drinks\n*Soft drink (\"oran\u017cada\")\n*Tea (\"herbata\")\n*Vodka () - since the 8th century. In the 11th century they were called \"gorzalka\" and originally used as medicines. The world's first written mention of the drink and the word \"vodka\" was in 1405 from Akta Grodzkie, the court documents from the Palatinate of Sandomierz in Poland. It is traditionally drunk with a 50- to 100-milliliter glass (shot glass). Popular brand names include Belvedere, Chopin, Sobieski, Luksusowa, Absolwent, \u017bubr\u00f3wka, Wyborowa, Bia\u0142a Dama, Polonaise, \u017bo\u0142\u0105dkowa Gorzka, Starka, Krupnik, Siwucha and Ultimat.\n*Wine (\"wino\")\n*W\u015bciek\u0142y pies (\"mad dog\") - shot drink made from vodka, raspberry or blackcurrant syrup, and tabasco sauce\n*\"Budy\u0144\" - a kind of custard pudding (made with a starch instead of egg yolk); usually comes in many different flavors, such as vanilla, chocolate, banana or cherry\n*\"Cha\u0142ka\" - sweet white wheat bread from Jewish cuisine\n*\"Faworki\" (\"chrusty\") - light fried pastry covered with icing sugar\n*\"Kisiel\" - juicy pudding made with pure fruit juice thickened with starch\n*\"Kr\u00f3wki\" - Polish fudge, soft milk toffee candies\n*\"Kutia\" - a small square pasta or wheat with poppy seeds, nuts, raisins and honey; typically served during Christmas in the eastern regions (Bia\u0142ystok)\n*\"Makowiec\" - poppy seed-swirl cake, sometimes with raisins and/or nuts\n*\"Mazurek\" - cake baked in Poland, particularly at Christmas Eve and Easter, but also at other winter holidays\n* \"Nale\u015bniki\" - crepes which are either folded into triangles or rolled into a tube typical servings include sweetened quark fresh cheese with sour cream and sugar, various fruits topped with bita \u015bmietana (whipped cream) or with bite bialka (whipped egg whites)\n*\"P\u0105czek\" - closed donut filled with rose marmalade or other fruit conserves\n*\"Pa\u0144ska sk\u00f3rka\" - \"taffy\" sold at cemeteries during \"Zaduszki\" and at Stare Miasto (Old city) in Warsaw\n*\"Pierniki\" - soft gingerbread shapes iced or filled with marmalade of different fruit flavours and covered with chocolate\n*\"Sernik\" - Sernik (cheesecake) is one of the most popular desserts in Poland; made primarily of twar\u00f3g, a type of quark fresh cheese\n*\"Szarlotka\" or \"jab\u0142ecznik\" - Polish apple cake\n*\"Tort\" - multi-layered sponge cake filled with buttercream or whippedcream, with fruits or nuts, served on special occasions like nameday or birthday\n*\"Twar\u00f3g\", a type of fresh cheese/quark\n*\"Herbata g\u00f3ralska\" (\"Highlander's tea\") or \"herbata z pr\u0105dem\" (\"Tea with electricity\") - tea with alcohol\n*\"Syrop z cebuli\" (\"onion syrup\") - a cough remedy made of chopped onion and sugar; it is still considered a medicine\n* Tran - cod liver oil used like a vitamin"
      },
      {
        "title": "Upper Silesia",
        "text": "Upper Silesian cuisine belongs to Central European cuisines and is therefore characterized by high calorific value of dishes. For centuries, Polish, Czech and German cuisine was mixed here. Typical Upper Silesian dishes are consumed here, as well as dishes that are also present in Lesser Poland and Greater Poland at the same time. In the second half of the twentieth century, dishes from the Polish borderland cuisine (potato pancakes, dumplings with cheese, red borscht, bigos) gained popularity in Upper Silesia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "Jewish immigrants from eastern Europe ate a type of oatmeal cereal called \"krupnik\" that sometimes had barley, potatoes and fat added, and milk when it was available. Orthodox Jews continued to observe \"kashrut\" sweatshop laborers carried bagels, knish and herring to work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Offal",
        "text": "Offal is not an uncommon ingredient in Polish cuisine. \"Kaszanka\", a traditional sausage similar to black pudding, is made with a mixture of pig's blood, pig offal and buckwheat or barley usually served fried with onions or grilled. Beef tripe is used to cook a popular soup simply called \"flaki\" (pl. \"guts\"). Chicken gizzards or hearts can be a base for various stews or soups, such as \"krupnik\", a pearl barley soup (not to be confused with a vodka brand of the same name). Other offal-based soups, less popular today, are Polish blood soup (\"czernina\") and tail soup (\"zupa ogonowa\"), based on a cooked beef tail. Pork or beef liver is often consumed saut\u00e9ed or grilled with onions; liver is also used as one of the ingredients for stuffing baked whole duck or other poultry, or a piglet. P\u00e2t\u00e9s containing liver are popular. Pork, beef or veal kidneys, known in Polish as \"cynadry\", are typically braised and eaten as a main dish. Pork tongues can be served hot, in a sauce, or cold, set into aspic. Cold pork trotters in aspic are very popular, especially as a companion to vodka. In the past, braised pork or veal brain was a popular snack, but today it is rare."
      },
      {
        "title": "Warsaw",
        "text": "Much like Paris or Vienna, Warsaw once possessed a prominent caf\u00e9 culture which dated back to the early 18th century, and the city's cafeterias were a place for socializing. The historic Wedel Chocolate Lounge on Szpitalna Street remains one of the most renowned spots for social gatherings. Cafeterias, confectioneries and patisseries such as Caff\u00e8 Nero, Costa Coffee and Starbucks are predominantly found along the Royal Route on New World Street. Thousands of Warsaw's residents also flock annually to the pastry workshops (\"p\u0105czkarnia\") to buy p\u0105czki doughnuts on Fat Thursday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Poland",
        "text": "Polish foods include kie\u0142basa, pierogi (filled with meat, potatoes, cabbage, cheese or holiday fruits), pyzy (meat-filled dough balls), kopytka, go\u0142\u0105bki (meat and rice stuffed cabbage), \u015bledzie (herring), bigos, schabowy, oscypek and much more. Traditionally, food such as soups flaki, ros\u00f3\u0142, zupa og\u00f3rkowa, zupa grzybowa (mushroom soup), \u017curek, zupa pomidorowa (tomato soup) have been prepared in large vessels intended for groups, often necessitating the use of devices such as oars in their preparation. Traditionally, hospitality is very important."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dog meat",
        "text": "Eating dog meat is taboo in Polish culture. However, since the 16th century, fat from various animals, including dogs, was used as part of folk medicine, and since the 18th century dog fat has had a reputation as being beneficial for the lungs. According to \"Polityka\" magazine, the main producers of dog fat in 19th- and early 20th-century Poland were Gypsies. While making lard, or smalec, out of dogs' fat is currently discouraged in the country, this practice continues in some rural areas, especially Lesser Poland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Compendium ferculorum, albo Zebranie potraw",
        "text": "In 1834, \"Compendium ferculorum\" served as an inspiration to Adam Mickiewicz for his nostalgic description of \"the last Old Polish feast\" in \"Pan Tadeusz\", a mock heroic poem set in the years 1811\u20131812, which has come to be revered as the Polish national epic. In his account of the fictional banquet in Book 12, the poet included the names of several dishes found in the oldest Polish cookbook, such as \"royal borscht\", as well as two of the master chef's secrets: the broth with pearls and a coin, and the three-way fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kassler",
        "text": "Also a similar dish, \"baleron\", is eaten in Poland."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Polish desserts",
        "text": "This is a list of Polish desserts. Polish cuisine has evolved over the centuries to become very eclectic due to Poland's history. Polish cuisine shares many similarities with other Central European cuisines, especially German, Austrian and Hungarian cuisines, as well as Jewish, Belarusian, Ukrainian, Russian, French and Italian culinary traditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "The original doughnuts, popular until the 16th century, were made of the same dough as bread, would be filled with pork and fried on \"smalec\". Only later were they made as patisserie."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Traditional Christmas Eve supper called Wigilia is meatless except for fish, usually consists of barszcz (borscht) with uszka (small dumplings) \u2013 a classic Polish Christmas Eve starter, followed by fried carp, carp fillet or cod with apple & leeks fresh salad, carp in aspic etc. traditionally carp (fried or Jewish style) provides a main component of the Christmas Eve meal across Poland. Other popular dishes, for the next day, include pickled matjas herring, rollmops, pierogi with sauerkraut and forest mushrooms, fish soup, kie\u0142basa, hams and bigos (savory stew of cabbage and meat) and vegetable salads. Among popular desserts are gingerbread, cheesecake, various fruits like oranges among others, poppy seed cake makowiec (mak\u00f3wki in Silesia), fruit kompot, kluski with poppyseed and gingerbread. Regional dishes include \u017curek, siemieniotka (in Silesia) and ko\u0142duny, stuffed dumplings with mushrooms or meat from the eastern regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zapiekanka",
        "text": "' first appeared in the streets of Polish towns in the 1970s. Under Edward Gierek's leadership of the Polish United Workers' Party, Poland's Communist authorities allowed a degree of private enterprise in the catering industry. This move led to quick proliferation of small family-owned foodservice establishments, known in Polish as ', or \"small gastronomy\". Their spread continued during the food shortages of the following decade. They usually took the form of stands or travel trailers turned food trucks serving ' along with simple dishes of Polish cuisine, such as ' sausage, boiled ham hock or tripe soup, and American fast food staples, like hot dogs, hamburgers and French fries. The American journalist Anne Applebaum, who first came to Poland in 1988, described the \"\" of that time as \"a pizzalike substance\" and \"a poor relative of its distant Italian cousin\", \"a mushy white sandwich roll\" with \"a few overcooked mushrooms\" beneath \"melted cheese and a squeeze of ketchup\", which she ate nonetheless because little else was available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Recent years have seen the advent of a slow food movement, and a number of TV programmes devoted to other cuisine and as well as traditional Polish cuisine have gained popularity. In 2011 a nostalgic cookbook (written in English) combining a child's memories growing up in the Gierek era with traditional Polish recipes was published in London."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "With the subsequent decline of Poland, and the grain production crisis that followed The Deluge, potatoes began to replace the traditional use of cereal."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Polish dishes",
        "text": "Polish meals culinary blog"
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "The oldest surviving Polish cook-book, \"Compendium ferculorum, albo Zebranie potraw\" (\"Collection of Dishes\") by Stanis\u0142aw Czerniecki was published in Krak\u00f3w in 1682. Under the partitions, the cuisine of Poland became heavily influenced by cuisines of the surrounding empires. This included Russian and German cuisines, but also the culinary traditions of most nations of the Austro-Hungarian empire. The 19th century also saw the creation of many Polish cookbooks, by Jan Szyttler, Anna Ciundziewicka, Wincenta Zawadzka, Lucyna \u0106wierczakiewiczowa and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional street food",
        "text": "Popular street snacks in Poland include \"zapiekanki\", essentially Polish-style French-bread pizzas with a variety of toppings; the \"obwarzanki krakowskie\" of Krak\u00f3w, which are like bagels (only with bigger holes); and (pretzels). The most common street food in Poland, seems to be \"lody\", or ice cream. Long lines outside ice cream shops, and scores of pedestrians toting cones, are a regular fixture of Polish streetscapes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "In Chicago Jewish immigrants from eastern Europe ate a type of oatmeal cereal called \"krupnik\" that sometimes had barley, potatoes and fat added, and milk when it was available. Orthodox Jews continued to observe \"kashrut\". Sweatshop laborers carried bagels, knish and herring to work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Bread (\"chleb\") and bread rolls (bu\u0142ka (bread roll), Bajgiel, Rogal, Bu\u0142ka paryska) makes the Polish cuisine and tradition complete. It has been an essential part of them both for centuries. Today bread remains one of the most important foods in the Polish cuisine. The main ingredient for Polish bread is rye or wheat. Traditional bread has a crunchy crust, is soft but not too soft inside, and has unforgettable aroma. Such bread is made with sourdough, which lends it a distinctive taste. It can be stored for a week or so without getting too hard and is not crumbly when cut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elevenses",
        "text": "In Poland the \"drugie \u015bniadanie\" (lit. \"second breakfast\") is eaten in the midmorning. Rather than a heavy chunk of sausage or other meat, though, like the German second breakfast, Poles prefer a lighter, dessert-like pastry or sweet with a hot drink, more similar to the American \"coffee break\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "When Poles came to Chicago and surrounding cities from Europe, they brought with them long ropes of kielbasa, cabbage rolls, and pierogis. Poles that left Poland after the fall of the Berlin Wall and descendants of earlier immigrants still make them, and they remain common in local diners and delis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Warsaw",
        "text": "Warsaw's culinary tradition was shaped by its once multicultural population; its cuisine is distinct from that of other cities and towns in Poland. Strong Jewish and French influences were cultivated over the years, in particular herring, consomm\u00e9, bagels, aspic and French meringue-based pastries or cakes. Traditional Varsovian food is hearty and includes a tripe soup for entr\u00e9e, a pyza dumpling for main and the iconic wuzetka (voo-zetka) chocolate cream pie for dessert. Crayfish and fish in gelatin were the classical dishes in Warsaw's restaurants throughout the 1920s and the 1930s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "Though various forms of dishes consisting of batter or dough cooked in fat, like cr\u00eapes, fritters and doughnuts were common in most of Europe, they were especially popular among Germans and known as \"krapfen\" (Old High German: \"claw, hook\") and were quite similar to the deep-fried dough pastries of today. The extensive use of lard and butter for cooking and a diet that was perceived as especially fatty gained Germans a reputation as being the \"fat Germans\". The fasting regulations of the Catholic Church posed particular problems to the German population. Olives could not be cultivated and olive oil was an expensive import. Oils made from various nuts were available, but in relatively short supply. By far, the most common sources of fat were butter and, above all, lard. The price of fish was generally higher, and while it was unaffordable to most people for most of the time, the need to use fish for fasting days could mean considerable increases in expenses for the wealthier households. Mustard was used in other parts of Europe long before the Middle Ages, but seemed to be especially common in Germany. A 14th-century travel account by Eustache Deschamps, a French poet, shows his considerable discontent with the German custom of smearing generous amounts of mustard on just about every type of meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Traditional Polish alcoholic beverages include mead, beer, vodka (old Polish names: \"okowita, gorza\u0142a\") and to a lesser extent wine. In recent decades beer has become very common, while wine is less frequently drunk, though in recent years the trend for its consumption is rising along with increasing production of local grape wines in small vineyards in Lesser Poland, Subcarpathia, Silesia and West Pomerania regions. Among the alcoholic beverages, Polish vodka is traditionally prepared from grain or potatoes \u2013 it essentially displaced the formerly widespread mead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Poland has a number of unique regional cuisines with regional differences in preparations and ingredients. For an extensive list of the dishes typical to Galicia, Kresy, Podlachia, Masovia (including Warsaw), Masuria, Pomerania, Silesia, Lesser Poland, the Tatra mountains and Greater Poland (see List of Polish cuisine dishes)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "All soups have freshly made chicken, beef, pork ribs or combination stock with root vegetables unless you're vegetarian. Meat is either chopped and eaten with soup, used to make next dish or eaten alone with bread. It's common to eat two dishes during dinner: one is always soup and the other potato/rice/groats/pasta with meat, stews or sweet dishes etc. Cream or pur\u00e9e soups are not common and traditional in Poland but are also prepared because of other countries' cuisine inspiration. Often soups are whiten by adding a splash of sour or double cream.\n*\"Zupa pomidorowa\" - Thin tomato soup made with tomato pur\u00e9e, root vegetables and stock, usually served with pasta or rice, sour cream is often added.\n*\"Kartoflanka\" - Potato soup with root vegetables.\n*\"Czarnina\" also \"Czernina\" - Duck soup or duck blood soup made with duck broth and duck blood, the latter giving the soup a dark color, almost black colour. Recipes vary widely, but often sweet and sour ingredients are added, typically vinegar and often sugar, fruit juice or fruit (e.g., prunes, pears) and it is usually served with the duck meat and Kluski-style noodles. Nowadays, it's not commonly eaten.\n*\"Ch\u0142odnik litewski\" - Cold beet leaves' soup made of soured milk or sour cream, young beet leaves, cucumbers and chopped fresh dill. Sometimes chives and radishes are added.\n*\" Botwinka\" - Beet leaves soup with potatoes and root vegetables, served hot.\n*\"Barszcz czerwony\" - Red borscht - Clear beetroot soup made out of stock, beetroots and beetroot sourdough. It's used to be served with uszka, krokiet made from nale\u015bniki, pasztecik, pierogi and rarely with white beans, red kidney beans or mashed potatoes. It's a very important dish during Christmas Eve.\n*\"Zupa buraczkowa\" - Beetroot soup with grated betroots, potato cubes and root vegetables. Sometimes it's called red borscht, like the one cooked during Christmas Eve even though it doesn't contain beetroot sourdough - it's slightly sweet but not sour.\n*Barszcz ukrai\u0144ski - Ukrainian borscht - Beetroot soup with addition of sliced white cabbage, white or red kidney beans beans and diced tomatoes or tomato pur\u00e9e. In Ukraine beans are not used in this dish.\n*\"Zupa szczawiowa\" - Sorrel soup made of sorrel leaves and rice, served with hard boiled egg.\n*\"Flaki\" or \"Flaczki\" - Beef or pork tripe stew with marjoram and spices. Vegetarians make this soup with oyster mushrooms.\n*\"Ros\u00f3\u0142\" - Clear chicken soup served with noodles, usually short vermicelli. Stock is made of root vegetables and whole chicken, beef or both.\n*\"Zupa grzybowa/pieczarkowa\" - Mushroom soup made of white or wild mushrooms with potatoes or pasta. During Christmas Eve it's rather served with \u0142azanki pasta or uszka.\n*\"Zupa og\u00f3rkowa\" - sour cucumber soup of sour, salted cucumbers.\n*\"\u017bur\" - \u017bur is made of wholemeal rye sourdough, although in Lesser Poland and Podlachia oat sourdough is used and in Lublin Voivodeship buckwheat surdough is chosen. Like other two soups below it's served with mashed potatoes, hard-boiled eggs, cooked and smoked bacon and bia\u0142a kie\u0142basa (white kielbasa).\n*\"\u017burek\" - It's more delicate than \u017cur because it's made of wheat flour sourdough. Colloquially but improperly it's often called barszcz bia\u0142y (white bortscht).\n*\"Barszcz bia\u0142y\" - Traditionally cabbage sourdough (sauerkraut's juice) or cucumber sourdough (sour pickled cucumbers' juice) is used. Still they can be replaced by using citric acid.\n*\"Zalewajka\" - Rye soup - \u017cur served with sliced smoked pork sausage, cooked and smoked bacon and separately cooked and diced potatoes.\n*\"Groch\u00f3wka\" - Pea soup with split peas, potato, carrot, parsley root, kielbasa or fried bacon and marjoram.\n*'Zupa fasolowa' - Bean soup - white beans, root vegetables, smoked sausage (kielbasa), fried bacon and marjoram.\n*\"Zupa kapu\u015bciana\"\" - White cabbage soup - stock, chopped white cabbage, root vegetables, tomato puree and potatoes.\n*\"Kapu\u015bniak\" - Sauerkraut soup, potatoes, root vegetables (parsley root, carrots, celery root), bacon and pork ribs.\n*\"Kwa\u015bnica\" - Sauerkraut soup with potatoes and ribs. Other vegetables like in a soup above are not used and this soup is also more sour.\n*\"Zupa jarzynowa\" - Vegetable soup: potatoes, green beans, root vegetables, cauliflower, peas and sometimes brussels sprouts.\n*\"Zupa ry\u017cowa\" - Rice soup: rice, potatoes and root vegetables with chicken.\n*\"Zupa koperkowa\" - Dill soup: chicken stock, root vegetables, a big amount of dill, spring onion, potatoes/baby potatoes and sometimes with sour or double cream.\n*\"Zupa chrzanowa\" - Horseradish soup: white kielbasa, smoked bacon or pork ribs, sour cream, horseradish, garlic, potatoes and root vegetables for stock. Can be served with hard-boiled eggs.\n*\"Forszmak lubelski\" - Pork or beef, smoked bacon, white mushrooms, sour pickled cucumbers, red bell pepper, tomato puree, spices, onion and garlic.\n*\"Zupa go\u0142\u0105bkowa\" - Soup with minced meat, cabbage, tomato puree, tomatoes, rice and spices.\n*\"Zupa meksyka\u0144ska\" - Mexican soup: minced pork/beef, garlic, red kidney beans, corn kernels, canned tomatoes, tomato puree and onion. Potatoes and root vegetables may be added or not.\n*\"Zupa kalafiorowa\" - Cauliflower soup: stock, potatoes, cauliflower florets and root vegetables.\n*\"Zupa broku\u0142owa\" - Broccoli soup: stock, potatoes, broccoli florets and root vegetables.\n*\"Ch\u0142odnik\" - cold soup made of raw, partially blended or cooked and chilled vegetables with yoghurt or sour cream. Often served with cooked potatoes and/or hard-boiled eggs. There are: cucumber ch\u0142odnik, tomato ch\u0142odnik etc.\n*\"Zupa gulaszowa\" - Goulash soup: pork, beef, potatoes, onion or leek, passata, tomato puree, paprika and red bell pepper. It's similar to Hungarian goulash, however Polish goulash is similar to p\u00f6rk\u00f6lt.\n*\"Zupa soczewicowa/z soczewicy\" - Lentil soup: green or red lentils, garlic, tomatoes, tomato puree, onion and double or sour cream. May be served with pasta or potatoes.\n*\"Zupa owocowa\" - Fruit soup, served cold with different fruits and pasta during hot summer.\n*\"Baranina\" - Roasted, stewed or grilled mutton.\n*\"Bigos\" - Mainly smoked kielbasa and bacon stew. It's made with sauerkraut or cabbage only as well as in a combination of both, mushrooms, onions and sometimes with addition of tomato puree. It's known as a \"hunter's stew\" due to the addition of game and scraps of other meats.\n*\"Bitki wo\u0142owe z pieczarkami/grzybami\" - Very thin slices of beef braised with mushrooms.\n*\"Bitki wieprzowe w sosie w\u0142asnym\" - Very thin slices of pork in gravy, braised with onions.\n*\"Golonka\" - Stewed pork knuckle or hock.\n*\"Go\u0142\u0105bki\" - Cabbage rolls with ground meat and rice or groats, served with mushroom, dill or tomato sauce. Often as a filling they will also have rice/groats and mushrooms especially during Christmas Eve. They can be made with mushroom and potato filling in the Eastern Poland as it came Poland from Ukraine. Cabbage leaves used are from savoy cabbage or white/common cabbage. Rarely can be made with red cabbage or sauekraut leaves. Some use chinese cabbage because they cook quicker or modernly filling is wrapped in zucchini slices. This dish is either cooked or baked.\n*\"Go\u0142\u0105bki bez zawijania\" - Go\u0142\u0105bki without wrapping - Big meatballs with chopped cabbage, onion and rice inside.\n*\"Gulasz\" - Meat stew from Hungary called p\u00f6rk\u00f6lt with onions, tomatoes, red bell peppers and/or paprika.\n*\"Kark\u00f3wka\" - Pork neck, roasted, grilled or braised with onions.\n*\"Kie\u0142basa\" - Sausage, smoked or boiled, is a staple of Polish cuisine and comes in dozens of varieties, made usually with pork.\n*\"Kotlet mielony\" - Minced meat (pork, pork-beef or turkey) patty made with egg, breadcrumbs, chopped onions, wet bread and spices, rolled in breadcrumbs. Sometimes filled with cheese and/or mushrooms.\n*\"Kotlet schabowy\" - Pounded thinly pork loin cutlet coated in breadcrumbs. It's a variation of schnitzel.\n*\"Kurczak Pieczony\" - Roast chicken.\n*\"Piecze\u0144 ciel\u0119ca\" - Roast veal.\n*\"Piecze\u0144 wieprzowa z winem\" - Roast pork in wine gravy.\n*\"Pol\u0119dwiczki wo\u0142owe\" - Braised beef sirloin slices.\n*\"Pulpety or Klopsiki w sosie \" - Polish style meatballs in tomato, mushroom or dill sauce.\n*\"Rolada z mi\u0119sa mielonego z pieczarkami\" - Minced meat roulade with mushrooms.\n*\"Schab Faszerowany\" - Stuffed pork loin.\n*\"Wo\u0142owina Pieczona\" - Roast beef.\n*\"Zrazy zawijane\" - Thin beef fillets rolled and stuffed with bacon, mushrooms, mustard, gherkins and onions.\n*\"Roladki schabowe/z kurczaka\" - Thin pork/chicken fillets rolled with any filling such as cheese.\n*\"\u017beberka w\u0119dzone\" - Smoked Spare ribs.\n*\"Filet z dorsza\" - Cod fillet in or without a batter. Can be steam cooked or baked.\n*\"\u0141oso\u015b\" - Steamed or baked salmon fillet.\n*\"Pstr\u0105g\" - Poached or baked trout.\n*\"Rolmopsy\" - Pickled and stuffed with pickled cucumbers herring fillets, rolled into a cylindrical shape.\n*\"Ryba Sma\u017cona\" - Fried breaded fish fillet.\n*\"\u015aledzie\" - Herring marinated in oil or vinegar with onions.\n*\"Zimne nogi\" - Polish savoury jelly originating from Jewish cuisine based on broth with chopped meat from pork leg. Sometimes peas, carrots or other vegetables are added, often eaten with drizzle of vinegar or lemon juice. Dish using other meat than pork leg is called galareta.\n*\"\u015aledzie w \u015bmietanie\" - Popular dish during Christmas. It's made of marinated in oil or vinegar herring fillets, onions and sour cream. Sour pickled cucumbers, apples and mushrooms can be added.\n*\"Pierogi\" - Half moon shaped dumplings with various fillings. Savoury pierogi may be filled with sauerkraut and mushrooms, with potato, quark and fried onion (pierogi ruskie - Ruthenian pierogi), with minced meat or with buckwheat groats and quark or mushrooms. Sweet pierogi can be made with sweet quark or with fruits such as blueberries, strawberries, cherries, plums, raspberries, apples or chocolate even.\n*\"Uszka\" - tiny dumplings traditionally filled with mushrooms and onions only. Other fillings used are mushrooms with sauerkraut or rarely cooked and minced meat with onions. They are served with clear Borscht, clear mushroom soup or broth when with meat filling.\n*\"Ko\u0142duny\" - stuffed dumplings with raw minced beef and mutton, beef dripping, fried onions and spices. Potato kalduny is a different dish from Subcarpathia made from potato dough filled with twar\u00f3g (quark), potatoes and onions.\n*\"Placki ziemniaczane/kartoflane\" - Potato pancakes with grated potatoes, onions, eggs, wheat flour and marjoram.\n*\"Pyzy\" - Potato dumplings made with raw, grated potatoes, egg and flour filled with minced meat or not filled at all. Then cooked.\n*\"Knedle\" - Potato dumplings made with cooked potatoes and starch filled usually with fruits, most popular fillings are plums and strawberries.\n*\"Kopytka\" - Hoof-shaped potato dumplings made of cooked potatoes, egg and flour. Often served with breadcrumbs, sugar and melted butter or fried bacon.\n*\"Pierogi / Kluski leniwe\" - Hoof-shaped dumplings made of flour or potatoes, eggs and quark.\n*\"Kluski \u015bl\u0105skie\" - Dumplings in small donut-like shape made with boiled potatoes and potato starch. Often served with gravy or meat stew.\n*\"Czarne/Szare kluski\" - Dumplings black/gray in colour made of raw grated potatoes and potato starch.\n*\"Pampuchy/Kluski na parze/ Pyzy drozd\u017cowe\" - Steamed yeast wheat flour dumplings served with fruit yoghurt or jam. They can be also served savoury with gravy or filled with chocolate.\n*\"Kluski k\u0142adzione (Laid dumplings)\" - Dumplings made of thick batter with flour and eggs laid to boiling water.\n*\"Lane Kluski (Poured dumplings)\" - Dumplings made of thin batter with flour, milk end eggs poured straight to soup usually.\n*\"\" - Grated or chopped dough into tiny balls and cooked.\n*\"Nale\u015bniki\" - Thicker and more plump version of crepes, served with sweet or savoury filling.\n*\"Krokiety\" - In Poland they are made of nale\u015bniki, filled often with sauerkraut and mushrooms or ham and cheese, then folded like burrito, breaded and fried. It's common to serve them with clear Borscht.\n*\"Racuchy\" - Yeast pancakes often stuffed with apples and served with powdered sugar or jam.\n*\"\u0141azanki\" - Pasta in a shape of small squares, in Polish version served with sauerkraut, onion and fried kielbasa or fried bacon.\n*\"Zapiekanka\" - baked Polish fast food, main ingredient is veka roll sliced in half with tomato sauce, mushrooms and cheese on top. Zapiekanka can also be anything baked in casserole dish with added egg and cream mixture, so it holds together when removed. It usually involves meats, vegetables with potatoes or pasta and melted cheese on top.\n*\"Knysza\" - Polish fast food with yeast bread roll filled with red and white cabbage, tomato, cucumber, pickled cucumber, onion, fried onion, corn and sometimes fried chicken meat with garlic mayonnaise sauce. It originated in Wroclaw.\n*\"Sma\u017cone ziemniaki/bratkartofle\" - Fried, often previously cooked slices of potatoes, usually eaten with fried egg/mixed in scrambled eggs, onions and grilled/fried sausage which can be also sliced beforehand. Whole dish and serving with eggs (bratkartoffeln mit ei) or sausage (bratkartoffeln mit wurst) comes from Germany. In Poland often eaten with a glass of sour Buttermilk or kefir.\n*\"Makaron z jajkiem\" - Fried and previously cooked pasta with fried onions, scrambled eggs and butter. Sometimes cheese, bacon or ham can be added. It's a version of Italian spaghetti con uova e cipolla or spaghetti carbonara.\n*\"Kasha\" - Cooked groats, most popular are groats of buckwheat, barley, millet and wheat.\n*\"Mizeria\" - Traditional Polish salad which came from France, made with sliced cucumbers, sour cream and spices, served as a side.\n*\"Sur\u00f3wka z jab\u0142ka i marchewki\" - Carrot salad made with peeled and grated carrots, apples, oil and lemon juice.\n*\"Sur\u00f3wka z og\u00f3rk\u00f3w i pomidor\u00f3w\" - Salad made with cucumbers, tomatoes, onions and oil or sour cream.\n*\"Ziemniaki gotowane\" - Simple boiled potatoes sprinkled with dill.\n*\"T\u0142uczone ziemniaki\" - Mashed potatoes.\n*\"Sur\u00f3wka z bia\u0142ej kapusty\" - Salad with shredded cabbage, carrots and spices, often with grated apples.\n*\"Sur\u00f3wka z kiszonej kapusty\" - Salad with sauerkraut, carrots, parsley, apples and lemon juice.\n*\"Sa\u0142atka warzywna\" or \"Jarzynowa\" - Vegetable salad which is a traditional Polish side dish with cooked vegetables such as parsley root, carrot, potatoes, celery root, pickled cucumbers in brine and hard-cooked eggs in mayonnaise and mustard. In salad can also often be corn, peas, apple, onion or leek and red kidney beans even.\n*\"Kapusta zasma\u017cana\" - Sauerkraut or white cabbage pan-fried with onions and spices, often with fried bacon.\n*\"Kapusta na g\u0119sto\" - Braised white cabbage with onions, dill and double cream.\n*\"Sur\u00f3wka\" - This term is used for any type of salad made of raw vegetables with drizzle of vinegar, oil, sour cream or yoghurt.\n*\"Sa\u0142atka\" - Term used for any salad made of cooked vegetables, usually with mayonnaise.\n*\"Sa\u0142atka burakowa/buraczki tarte\" - Cooked and grated beetroot salad, can be made warm or cold.\n*\"\u0106wik\u0142a\" - Cooked and grated beetroots with horseradish paste and lemon juice.\n*\"Fasolka szparagowa z czosnkiem\" - Green beans with garlic and butter/oil, originated in Italy.\n*\"Kalafior/fasolka szparagowa/brukselka z bu\u0142k\u0105 tart\u0105\" - Cooked cauliflower/green beans or Brussels sprouts with polonaise sauce. The sauce is made of fried breadcrumbs in butter.\n*\"Broku\u0142/kalafior z sosem czosnkowym\" - Cooked broccoli/cauliflower with garlic sauce.\n*\"Og\u00f3rek kiszony\" - Polish pickled cucumber, it's fermented in brine consisting of dill and dill flower, garlic, salt and spices.\n*\"Og\u00f3rek konserwowy\" - Pickled cucumber in vinegar, which is rather sweet and vinegary in taste.\n*\"Grzyby marynowane\" - Marinated mushrooms.\n*\"Sa\u0142atka szwedzka\" - Preserved salad made with cucumbers, onions, carrots, vinegar and spices.\n*\"Sa\u0142atka ziemniaczana\" - Potato salad originating from Germany, made with cooked potatoes, onions, pickled cucumbers, dill and mayonnaise, sometimes with added smoked bacon or herring fillets marinated in oil or vinegar.\n*\"Sa\u0142atka \u015bledziowa\" - Marinated herring salad with pickled cucumbers, onions and sour cream. Sometimes eggs and apples are added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian cuisine",
        "text": "Polish pierogi (type: dimplings) aren't really related to Russian \"pirogi\" (type: pies) and \"pirozhki\" (type: buns, small pies)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Doughnut",
        "text": "In Poland and parts of the U.S. with a large Polish community, like Chicago and Detroit, the round, jam-filled doughnuts eaten especially\u2014though not exclusively\u2014during the Carnival are called p\u0105czki (). P\u0105czki have been known in Poland at least since the Middle Ages. J\u0119drzej Kitowicz has described that during the reign of the Augustus III under influence of French cooks who came to Poland at that time, p\u0105czki dough fried in Poland has been improved, so that p\u0105czki became lighter, spongier, and more resilient."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "The only indisputable fact is that the court of Queen Bona was fed in an Italian fashion, because she exclusively employed Italian cooks, some of whom were originally hired to prepare parties for aristocratic families but who were soon serving typical Italian dishes as part of the court's daily menus. Court records show that Queen Bona imported large volumes of southern European, American and Western Asian fruits (oranges, lemons, pomegranates, olives, figs, tomatoes), vegetables (potatoes and corn), nuts (chestnuts, raisins and almonds, including marzipan), along with grains (such as rice), cane sugar and Italian olive oil. The court also imported various herbs and spices including black pepper, fennel, saffron, ginger, nutmeg, cloves and cinnamon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milanesa",
        "text": "In Poland variety of milanesa is commonly known as Kotlet schabowy, which is pork loin pounded with mallet until it becomes thinner and soft, then coated with flour, beaten egg and breadcrumbs and fried on the pan. There's also Kotlet drobiowy made of the chicken or turkey and prepared in similar way, and Kotlet wolowy made of beef steak, pounded, soaked in milk for few hours to tender the meat and then coated in flour, beaten egg and bread crumbs. Polish Kotlet is tradicionally served with cooked potatoes, mashed potatoes, fries, Silesian dumplings, Sza\u0142ot or rice. Typically sides are traditional polish salads like mizeria, thinly grated carrot salad, \u0106wik\u0142a or one of tradicional polish Sur\u00f3wka. The history of the Polish Kotlet dates back to the 19th century.\n* Argentine cuisine\n* Austrian cuisine\n* Bolivian cuisine\n* Brazilian cuisine\n* Chilean cuisine\n* Colombian cuisine\n* Italian cuisine\n* Mexican cuisine\n* Panamanian cuisine\n* Paraguayan cuisine\n* Peruvian cuisine\n* Polish cuisine\n* Uruguayan cuisine\n* Venezuelan cuisine"
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Tremo",
        "text": "In the royal kitchen, Tremo oversaw all stages of meal preparation, from procuring ingredients to composing menus, directing the work of cooks and kitchen boys, to personally seasoning the dishes before serving. To broaden his culinary knowledge, he studied classic cookbooks, such as the ancient Roman \"Apicius\", and also set out on international learning trips, which familiarized him with contemporary German, French and English cooking practices. He introduced novel French flavours and cooking techniques to Polish cuisine, making it lighter and more moderate in the use of fat, sugar, vinegar, salt and expensive exotic spices. His repertoire combined old Polish dishes with French specialities. The former included clear borscht (beetroot soup) served over (ear-shaped stuffed dumplings), Polish tripe soup, roast capon, and pike in the Polish style; the latter, , roast duck, and . At royal banquets, such as the Thursday Dinners to which Stanislaus Augustus invited Warsaw's leading intellectuals, he served the king's favourite mutton, cold cuts, , as well as game bird dishes, such as larded hazel grouse, wood grouse with red cabbage or black grouse with braised beetroots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Until the Partitions perpetrated by the neighbouring empires, Poland was one of the largest countries in the world, and encompassed many regions with their own, distinctive culinary traditions. Two consecutive Polish kings, W\u0142adys\u0142aw IV and John II Casimir (Polish: Jan II Kazimierz Waza) married the same French Duchess, Marie Louise Gonzaga (Polish: Ludwika Maria), daughter of Charles I, Duke of Mantua; persecuted by King Louis XIII of France for her affiance to his opponent Gaston, Duke of Orl\u00e9ans. Marie Louise arrived in Warsaw in 1646, was widowed, and married again in 1649. Ludwika brought along with her a court full of Frenchmen including courtiers, secretaries, army officers, physicians, merchants, craftsmen, as well as many cooks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bigos",
        "text": "' made entirely of meat and exotic spices was affordable only to the affluent Polish nobility. The 18th century saw the development of a poor man's version of the dish, known as ', or \"rascal's '\", in which vinegar and lemon juice were replaced with cheaper sauerkraut as the source of tartness. Sauerkraut and cabbage also acted as a filler allowing to reduce the amount of meat in the dish. Rascal's ' became common during the reign of King Augustus III of Poland (r. 1734\u20131763). Over the course of the 19th century, its rise in popularity continued as the proportion of meat decreased in favor of sauerkraut, eventually superseding all other kinds of \" and losing the disparaging epithet in the process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish Americans",
        "text": "During the 1950s\u20131970s, the Polish wedding was often an all-day event. Traditional Polish weddings in Chicago metropolitan area, in areas such as the southeast side of Chicago, inner suburbs like Calumet City and Hegewisch, and Northwest Indiana suburbs, such as Whiting, Hammond and East Chicago, always occurred on Saturdays. The receptions were typically held in a large hall, such as a VFW Hall. A polka band of drums, a singer, accordion, and trumpet, entertained the people, as they danced traditional dances, such as the oberek, \"Polish Hop\" and the waltz. The musicians, as well as the guests, were expected to enjoy ample amounts of both food and drink. Foods, such as Polish sausage, sauerkraut, pierogi and kluski were common. Common drinks were beer, screwdrivers and highballs. Many popular Polish foods became a fixture in the American cuisine of today, including kie\u0142basa (Polish sausage), babka cake, kaszanka, pierogi, and, especially around the time of Ash Wednesday and the beginning of Lent, p\u0105czki doughnuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bigos",
        "text": "\" is considered a Polish national dish, which, according to American food historian William Woys Weaver, \"has been romanticized in poetry, discussed in its most minute details in all sorts of literary contexts, and never made in small quantities.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Fasnacht (doughnut)",
        "text": "The Pennsylvania Dutch in the area surrounding Lancaster, York, Berks and other PA Dutch counties in Pennsylvania, celebrate Fastnacht. Most chain supermarkets in eastern Pennsylvania offer fasnachts. A similar culinary treat is the Polish P\u0105czki. P\u0105czki are traditionally eaten in Poland on the Thursday prior to Fasnacht Day, although in Polish communities of the US, the tradition is more commonly celebrated on Fasnacht Day. Commonly p\u0105czki are round, rather than having straight sides, and they are filled with jelly, or creme filling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bar mleczny",
        "text": "After the fall of the Nazi regime, Poland became a communist state in the Eastern Bloc. Contrary to official propaganda, the majority of the population was poor, and even moderately-priced restaurants were derided as \"capitalist\". During the post-war years, most restaurants were nationalized and then closed down by the communist authorities. In the mid-1960s, milk bars were common as a means of offering cheap meals to people working in companies that had no official canteen. They still served mostly dairy-based and vegetarian meals, especially during the period of martial law in the early 1980s, when meat was rationed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flaki",
        "text": "Flaki has been consumed on Polish territory since at least the 14th century. It is known to have been one of the favorite dishes of King W\u0142adys\u0142aw II Jagie\u0142\u0142o."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Coffee is also widely drunk since the 18th century, as Poland bordered the Ottoman Empire at the time. \"Kwas\" was also consumed in eastern parts of Poland, however, it is not as popular as it once was centuries ago. It is typically made from rye bread, usually known as black bread, and is not classified as an alcoholic beverage in Poland, as its alcohol content usually ranges from 0.5\u20131% or 1\u20132 proof. There are many variations of the drink; however, a traditional Polish recipe exists. Frequently consumed beverages also include: buttermilk, kefir, soured milk, instant coffee, various mineral waters, juices and numerous brands of soft drink. A considerable number of Poles enjoy carbonated water and customers in restaurants are always offered both still and sparkling (carbonated) water to drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "Compendium ferculorum, albo Zebranie potraw",
        "text": "To underscore that the feast represents an exotic bygone world of pre-partition Poland, Mickiewicz added to this a list of random dishes, ingredients and additives, whose names he found in \"Compendium ferculorum\" and which had already been forgotten in his own time: \"kontuza\" (soup of boiled and sieved meat), \"arkas\" (sweet milk-based jelly), \"blemas\" (blancmange), \"pomuchla\" (Atlantic cod), \"figatele\" (meatballs), \"cybeta\" (civet), \"pi\u017cmo\" (musk), \"dragant\" (tragacanth), \"pinele\" (pine nuts) and \"brunele\" (prunes). This is followed by a similar enumeration of various kinds of fish, whose names are likewise taken from the inventory at the beginning of Czerniecki's book. A description of a white-apron-clad chef and a reference to Prince Ossoli\u0144ski's banquet in Rome, both found in Book 11, are also clearly inspired by Czerniecki's characterization of a master chef and his dedication, respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thursday Dinners",
        "text": "The Thursday Dinners spawned the first Polish literary magazine, \"\" - \"Diversions Pleasurable and Useful\", published from 1770 to 1777."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bigos",
        "text": "The word \"'\" is not attested before the 17th century. At that time, it referred to any dish of finely chopped components, usually meat or fish \u2013 but no cabbage \u2013 doused generously with melted butter and heavily seasoned with sour, sweet and spicy ingredients. , head chef to Prince , who consistently used the diminutive form ', included several recipes for it in his ' (\"A Collection of Dishes\"), the oldest surviving book imprinted and published originally in Polish, in 1682 (however, in ca. 2019, another old cook book has been found which included recipes from the earlier, e.i. the 16th century lost Polish cook book, the oldest one). They include ' prepared with chopped capon, hazel grouse, carp, pike, and crawfish with beef marrow. Seasonings that appear in most of these recipes include onions, wine vinegar, lemon or lime juice, verjuice, sorrel, sugar, raisins, black pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves and cumin. A manuscript recipe collection from the family court, dating back to ca. 1686, contains instructions for cooking ' of roast beef, fried fish and even chopped ' (thin pancakes). ' (\"The Perfect Cook\"), a cookbook published by Wojciech Wiel\u0105dko in 1783, contains recipes for beef, veal, wether mutton, oyster, as well as root vegetable ' (the latter was a mixture of carrots, parsnip, rutabaga and celeriac)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Compendium ferculorum, albo Zebranie potraw",
        "text": "A banquet was meant to overwhelm the guests with lavishness and flaunt the host's wealth and munificence. Abundant use of expensive spices was one way to accomplish this. Black pepper, ginger, saffron, cinnamon, cloves, mace and nutmeg were added to most dishes by kilograms. Czerniecki counted sugar among spices and used it as such; his book contains few recipes for desserts, but sugar is used profusely in recipes for meat, fish and egg dishes. Vinegar was also used in copious amounts. Such fusion of excessively piquant, sweet and sour tastes, which modern Poles would likely find inedible, was typical of Old Polish cuisine, described by Czerniecki as \"saffrony and peppery\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pan Tadeusz",
        "text": "\"Compendium ferculorum, albo Zebranie potraw\", the oldest cookbook in Polish, served as an inspiration for Mickiewicz's nostalgic description of \"the last Old Polish feast\" in Pan Tadeusz. In his account of the fictional banquet in Book 12, the poet included the names of several dishes described in \"Compendium ferculorum\", such as \"royal borscht\", as well as two of the master chef's secrets: the broth with pearls and a coin, and the three-way fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Potato pancake",
        "text": "Potato pancakes, literally translated in Polish as \", are often served in Poland topped with meat sauce, pork crisps or goulash, as well as sour cream, apple sauce, mushroom sauce, and cottage or sheep's cheese or even fruit syrup. \"Placki ziemniaczane\" was a food staple at the 17th-century Polish monasteries according to written recipe from Stoczek Warmi\u0144ski with one onion, two eggs and a spoonful of wheat flour per each kilogram of potatoes, served only with salt and pepper. In the 19th century, especially in times of economic difficulty during the foreign partitions, potato pancakes often replaced missing bread among the peasants. The lower-quality crops given to field laborers were sometimes turned by them quickly into pancakes to improve taste and prolong freshness. Also, their popularity is closely associated with the historic presence of one of the largest Jewish communities in the world flourishing in Poland."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Was Poland affected the potatoe famine that brought immigrants to the United States?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you wanting to know about the Great Famine (Ireland), Scotland's Highland Potato Famine?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the Great Famine in Ireland."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Great Famine in Ireland, also known as the Great Hunger, the Famine (mostly within Ireland) or the Irish Potato Famine (mostly outside Ireland), was a period of mass starvation and disease in Ireland from 1845 to 1852."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What caused the famine to start?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The proximate cause of the famine was a potato blight, which infected potato crops throughout Europe during the 1840s, causing an additional 100,000 deaths outside Ireland and influencing much of the unrest in the widespread European Revolutions of 1848."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were the European Revolutions of 1848?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Springtime of the Peoples[2] or the Springtime of Nations, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe starting in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history to date."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Back to Polish cuisine, what do Polish eat on Fat Thursday?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "On Fat Thursday, Polish eat sweets and cakes before the forty days of abstinence expected of Catholics until Easter Day, with the most popular sweetmeats being p\u0105czki, Polish doughnuts, \"faworki\", sometimes called, \"chrust\", equivalent to the French beignet. Traditional Polish doughnuts are filled with rose petal jam, plum jam or apple and covered with icing with orange peel or powdered with icing sugar."
    ],
    "topic": "Polish cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Polish cuisine:25",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Polish cuisine",
          "Holiday meals",
          "Fat Thursday"
        ],
        "ctx": "T\u0142usty Czwartek or \"Fat Thursday\", is a Polish culinary custom on the last Thursday before Lent, it is equivalent to Pancake Day. Traditionally it is an occasion to enjoy sweets and cakes before the forty days of abstinence expected of Catholics until Easter Day."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "A typical Easter breakfast often consists of cold-cuts served with horseradish sauce and beet salads, breads, bigos, \u017curek, kie\u0142basa, smoked salmon or herring, marinated vegetable salads, Easter salad (chopped boiled eggs, green peas, \u0107wik\u0142a, carrot, apple, potato, parsley and mayonnaise) coffee, tea and cakes, i.e. chocolate cake, makowiec, mazurek, sernik, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "T\u0142usty Czwartek or \"Fat Thursday\", is a Polish culinary custom on the last Thursday before Lent, it is equivalent to Pancake Day. Traditionally it is an occasion to enjoy sweets and cakes before the forty days of abstinence expected of Catholics until Easter Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter in Poland",
        "text": "At home, people partake in an Easter breakfast, during which they gift and share eggs. The Easter table is decorated with Easter eggs and other symbols, such as a Lamb of God (a small figurine, often sculpted from edible substances such as sugar, bread, or butter), similar small figurines of chickens and rabbits (Easter Bunnies), and springtime flowers or twigs of plants such as buxus. Typical Easter foods include eggs, meats such as \"kie\u0142basa\" (sausage), soups such as \"\u017curek\" and \"barszcz\", and cakes such as \"mazurek\" and \"babka\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poland",
        "text": "A widely-popular doughnut and sweet pastry feast occurs on Fat Thursday, usually 52 days prior to Easter. Eggs for Holy Sunday are painted and placed in decorated baskets that are previously blessed by clergymen in churches on Easter Saturday. Easter Monday is celebrated with pagan \"dyngus\" festivities, where the youth is engaged in water fights. Cemeteries and graves of the deceased are annually visited by family members on All Saints' Day; tombstones are cleaned as a sign of respect and candles are lit to honour the dead on an unprecedented scale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "The most popular sweetmeats on Fat Thursday are p\u0105czki, Polish doughnuts, \"faworki\", sometimes called, \"chrust\", equivalent to the French beignet. Traditional Polish doughnuts are filled with rose petal jam, plum jam or apple and covered with icing with orange peel or powdered with icing sugar. Fat Thursday used to mark the beginning of a \"Fat Week\", a period of great gluttony during which Polish ancestors consumed dishes served with \"smalec\" (lard), bacon and all kinds of meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Polish cuisine is rich in meat, especially pork, chicken and game, in addition to a wide range of vegetables, spices, mushrooms, and herbs. It is also characteristic in its use of various kinds of noodles as well as cereals and grains. In general, Polish cuisine is hearty and heavy in its use of butter, cream, eggs and extensive seasoning. The traditional dishes are often demanding in preparation. Many Poles allow themselves a generous amount of time to serve and enjoy their festive meals, especially Christmas Eve supper (\"Wigilia\") on December 24 or Easter breakfast, which could take a number of days to prepare in their entirety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Poland",
        "text": "Among holiday meals, there is a traditional Christmas Eve supper called Wigilia. Another special occasion is Fat Thursday (\"T\u0142usty Czwartek\"), a Catholic feast celebrated on the last Thursday before the Lent. Traditionally it is a day when people eat large amounts of sweets and cakes that are afterwards forbidden until Easter day (see also: the Polish traditional Easter Breakfast)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fat Thursday",
        "text": "In Poland, Fat Thursday is called . People purchase their favorite pastries from their local bakeries. Traditional foods include p\u0105czki (doughnuts), which are large deep-fried pieces of especially rich dough, traditionally filled with plum or rose petal jam (though others are commonly used) and topped with powdered sugar, icing, or glaze. Angel wings () are also commonly consumed on this day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter in Poland",
        "text": "Some Polish Easter traditions reach back to earlier, pagan beliefs; some are fusions of pagan and adopted, Christian traditions. They include the Polish Easter basket (\"\u015bwi\u0119conka\"), prepared on Holy Saturday, and Easter eggs (\"pisanki\"). During Easter, work, both occupational and domestic, is kept to a minimum. As Poland is predominantly Catholic, the Easter traditions are largely Catholic, though most religious minorities also observe their own customs associated with Easter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Polish cuisine\n--History.\n----Middle Ages.\n----Renaissance.\n----The Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth.\n----After World War II.\n----Modern era.\n--Holiday meals.\n----Christmas dishes.\n----Fat Thursday.\n----Easter breakfast.\n--Regional cuisine and soups.\n--Bread.\n--Beverages.\n----Alcoholic.\n----Non-alcoholic.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "P\u0105czki",
        "text": "In Poland, are eaten especially on Fat Thursday (), the last Thursday prior to Ash Wednesday and the beginning of Lent. The traditional reason for making \"p\u0105czki\" was to use up all the lard, sugar, eggs and fruit in the house, because their consumption was forbidden by Christian fasting practices during the season of Lent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter traditions",
        "text": "The butter lamb (Baranek wielkanocny) is a traditional addition to the Easter meal for many Polish Catholics. Butter is shaped into a lamb either by hand or in a lamb-shaped mold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter traditions",
        "text": "In Poland, white sausage and mazurek are typical Easter breakfast dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poland",
        "text": "Traditional dishes are hearty and abundant in pork, potatoes, eggs, cream, mushrooms, regional herbs, and sauce. Polish food is characteristic for its various kinds of kluski (soft dumplings), soups, cereals and a variety of breads and open sandwiches. Salads, including mizeria (cucumber salad), coleslaw, sauerkraut, carrot and seared beets, are common. Meals conclude with a dessert such as sernik (cheesecake), makowiec (poppy seed roll), or napoleonka cream pie."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Traditional Christmas Eve supper called Wigilia is meatless except for fish, usually consists of barszcz (borscht) with uszka (small dumplings) \u2013 a classic Polish Christmas Eve starter, followed by fried carp, carp fillet or cod with apple & leeks fresh salad, carp in aspic etc. traditionally carp (fried or Jewish style) provides a main component of the Christmas Eve meal across Poland. Other popular dishes, for the next day, include pickled matjas herring, rollmops, pierogi with sauerkraut and forest mushrooms, fish soup, kie\u0142basa, hams and bigos (savory stew of cabbage and meat) and vegetable salads. Among popular desserts are gingerbread, cheesecake, various fruits like oranges among others, poppy seed cake makowiec (mak\u00f3wki in Silesia), fruit kompot, kluski with poppyseed and gingerbread. Regional dishes include \u017curek, siemieniotka (in Silesia) and ko\u0142duny, stuffed dumplings with mushrooms or meat from the eastern regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Polish dishes",
        "text": "A list of dishes popular in certain regions of Poland:\n*\"Gzik\" (\"gzika\") - Quark with sour cream, diced European radishes (\"Raphanus sativus\") and diced green onions or chives\n*\"Kaczka z pyzami i modr\u0105 kapust\u0105\" - roast duck with steam-cooked rolls and red cabbage\n* \"Kiszczonka\" - black pudding soup\n* \"Kopytka\" - potato dumplings\n* \"Plendze\" - potato pancakes served with sugar\n* \"Pyry z gzikiem\" - boiled, peeled or unpeeled potatoes with \"gzik\" and butter\n*\"Rogale \u015bwi\u0119tomarci\u0144skie\" - croissants filled with white poppy seeds, almonds, other nuts and raisins, traditionally eaten on November 11, St. Martin's Day\n*\"Strudel jab\u0142kowy\" - apple strudel (cake), identical to the Austrian \"apfelstrudel\"\n*\"Bryndza\" - sheep milk cheese\n*\"Kark\u00f3wka\" - tenderloin, usually roasted\n*\"Kie\u0142basa\" - \"krakowska\", \"podwawelska\"\n* \"Makowiec\" - poppy seed cake\n* \"Miodek turecki\" - caramelised sugar, traditionally with nuts\n* \"Oscypek\" - smoked sheep milk cheese\n* \"Pischinger chocolate oblaten\" cake - cake made of layers of wafer and layer\n*\"Proziaki\" - Polish flat soda bread\n*\"Przysmak piwny\" - beef jerky\n*\"Bryjka\"\n*\"Bryndza\" - cheese\n*\"Bundz\" - cheese\n*\"Czosnianka\" - soup\n*\"Go\u0142ka\" - cheese\n*\"Kwa\u015bnica\" - sauerkraut and potato soup\n*\"Oscypek\" - hard, salty cheese from non-pasteurized sheep milk which is smoked over a fire; sometimes served sliced and fried with cranberries\n*\"\u015aliwowica \u0142\u0105cka\" - (read: [shlee-voh-veetsa won-tskah]) strong plum brandy (70% alcohol)\n*\"\u017bentyca\" - popular drink made of sheep's milk whey\n*Bi\u0142goraj pierogi - regional p\u00e2t\u00e9/pie from Bi\u0142goraj Land, based on potatoes, quark and buckwheat groats (kasha)\n*\"Cebularz\" - a Jewish dish wheat flat-cake, topped with onion and poppy-seed\n*\"Forszmak\" - appetizer with salty minced fish and meat\n*\"Kaszak\" - a bread roll infilled with Bi\u0142goraj pierogi\n*\"Marchwiak\" - in appearance similar to a Swiss roll, infilled with a carrot filling\n*\"Ruthenian pierogi\", \"Pierogi ruskie\" - most stuffed with twar\u00f3g and potato\n*\"Pierogi z bobem\" - pierogi stuffed with broad bean\n*\"Baba warszawska\" - yeast cake\n*\"Bu\u0142ka z pieczarkami\" - a bun filled with a champignon (field mushroom) stew; ersatz hot dogs under communism, when frankfurters were in short supply\n*\"Flaczki z pulpetami\" (\"po warszawsku\") - tripe stew with marjoram and small meat noodles\n*\"Kawior po \u017cydowsku\" - \"Jewish caviar\"; chopped calf or poultry liver with garlic and hard boiled egg\n*\"Kugiel\" - found in the town of Ostro\u0142\u0119ka, made with potatoes and diced meat\n*\"Nalesniki\" - pancakes filled with sweet white cheese\n*\"P\u0105czki\" - doughnuts with rose marmalade\n*\"Pyzy z mi\u0119sem\" - round potato dumplings stuffed with meat\n*\"Zrazy wo\u0142owe\" - rolled beef strips in sauce\n*\"Zrazy wo\u0142owe zawijane\" - chopped dill cucumbers and onions wrapped in thin strips of beef\n*\"Zupa grzybowa po kurpiowsku (z g\u0105sek)\" - mushroom soup made of \"Tricholoma equestre\" (pol. \"g\u0105ska\"), a large mushroom with a cereal-like flavor\n*\"Kartacz\" - see #Podlaskie\n*\"S\u0119kacz\" - pyramid cake, made of many layers\n*\"Ciapkapusta\", \"pa\u0144czkraut\", \"pa\u0144\u0107kraut\" - potato, cabbage pure\u00e9 dish\n*\"Bio\u0142e kluski\" - potato dumplings with a small depression in the centre\n*\"\u015al\u0105skie niebo\" - bacon with kluski and sauce, generally with vegetables\n*\"Babka ziemniaczana\"\n*\"Babka \u017c\u00f3\u0142tkowa\" - yolk and yeast cake\n*\"Bliny gryczane\" - buckwheat pancakes\n*\"Cebulniaczki\"\n*\"Cepeliny\" - big, long potato dumplings stuffed with meat and marjoram\n*\"Chleb biebrza\u0144ski\"\n*\"Ch\u0142odnik\" - cold soup made of soured milk, young beet leaves, beets, cucumbers and chopped fresh dill\n*\"Grzyby po \u017cmudzku\" - mushrooms, Samogitian style\n*\"Kartacz\" - big, long potato dumplings stuffed with meat and marjoram\n*\"Kawior z bak\u0142a\u017cana\" - \"caviar\" of eggplant\n*\"Kiszka ziemniaczana\" - potato sausage\n*\"Kopytka\" - potato dumplings with fried onions\n*\"Korycinski\" - cheese\n*\"Kreple z lejka\"\n*\"Kugiel ze skwarkami\"\n*\"Kutia\" - traditional Christmas dish, made of wheat, poppy seeds, nuts, raisins and honey\n*\"Melszpejz zaparzany z jab\u0142ek\"\n*\"Oko\u0144 sma\u017cony, w zalewie octowej\" - perch fried in vinegar\n*\"Piecze\u0144 wied\u017amy\"\n*\"Ruskie pierogi\" - Ruthenian style pierogi with quark cheese and potato\n*\"S\u0119kacz\" - pyramid cake, made of many layers\n*\"Szodo\"\n*\"Tort ziemniaczany\" - potato cake\n*\"\u017beberka wieprzowe po \u017cmudzku\" - pork ribs, Samogitian style\n*\"Zrazy wo\u0142y\u0144skie\"\n*\"Zucielki\"\n*\"Pierniki\" - soft gingerbread shapes filled with marmalade of different fruit flavours and covered with chocolate\n*\"Ruchanki\" - flat, oval racuszki hot fried on fat\n*\"Szpekucha\" - small dumplings stuffed with lard and fried onion\n*\"Dzionie rakowskie\" - kaszanka made from pork or beef intestine, visually similar to kaszanka p\u00e2t\u00e9\n*\"Fitka kazimierska\" - traditional soup from Kazimierza County; made from potatoes, vegetables, pork rind from fatback, barley kasza and tomato pure\u00e9\n*\"Kr\u00f3wka opatowska\" (\"Opat\u00f3w kr\u00f3wka\") - milk condensate sweet with a minute vanilla taste; produced since the year 1980\n*\"Prazoki\" - kluski-like dish made from boiled potatoes and steamed flour, served with fatback and onion\n*\"S\u0142upia\u0144ski siekaniec dworski\" - rouladen dish, sliced into c. 1.5 cm wide pieces; includes gentium and groat kasza\n*\"Paprykarz szczeci\u0144ski\" - a paste made by mixing fish paste with rice, onion, tomato concentrate, vegetable oil, salt and a mixture of spices including chilli pepper powder\n*\"Pasztecik szczeci\u0144ski\" - a deep-fried yeast dough stuffed with meat or vegetarian filling, a typical fast food dish of Szczecin\n*\"Kluski \u015bl\u0105skie\" (Silesian dumplings) - round dumplings served with gravy, made of mashed boiled potatoes, finely grated raw potatoes, an egg, grated onion, wheat flour and potato starch flour\n*\"Knysza\" - bread roll with meat and vegetables\n*\"Krupniok\" - blood sausage made of \"kasza\" and animal blood, spiced with marjoram and garlic\n*\"Makie\u0142ki\", \"moczka\", or \"mak\u00f3wki\" - traditional Christmas Eve dessert; its main ingredients are gingerbread extract, nuts and dried fruit, strawberry compote and almonds\n*Poppy seed pastry - many elaborate recipes are possible; based on finely ground poppy seeds, with raisins, almonds, Candied citrus peels, honey, sugar, pudding flavoured with rum; decorated with fingers of crumbling\n*\"Rolada z modr\u0105 kapust\u0105\" (roladen with red cabbage) - best-quality beef-meat roll; stuffed with pickled vegetable, ham, and good amount of seasoning; always served with red cabbage (with fried bacon, fresh onion and allspice); traditionally eaten with \"kluski \u015bl\u0105skie\" for Sunday dinner\n*\"Siemieniotka or siemiotka\" - very original and rare kind of soup made of hemp seed with boiled \"kasza\", one of the main Christmas Eve meals; requires a lot of hand work to prepare according to tradition\n*\"Sza\u0142ot\" (Silesian potato salad) - a salad made of squares of boiled potatoes, root vegetables, various sausages (sometimes ham), pickled fish (usually herring), boiled eggs, bound with mayonnaise\n*\"Wodzionka\" or \"bro\u0142tzupa\" (German \"brot\", bread; Polish \"zupa\", soup) - soup with garlic and squares of dried rye bread\n*\"\u017bym\u0142a\" - a well-baked bread roll, oval with a division in the middle, topped with poppy seeds, similar to the Austrian \"keisersemmel\"\n*\"\u017bymlok\" - like \"krupniok\", but instead of \"kasza\", there is a bread roll\n*Tyskie - beer for worker man after szychta in coal mine\n* List of Polish desserts"
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Similarly, in the Roman Catholic Church in Poland, the so-called \u015bwi\u0119conka, i.e. blessing of decorative baskets with a sampling of Easter eggs and other symbolic foods, is one of the most enduring and beloved Polish traditions on Holy Saturday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Many other Central and Eastern European ethnic groups decorate eggs using wax resist for Easter. These include the Belarusians (\u043f\u0456\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0430, \"pisanka\"), Bulgarians (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043e \u044f\u0439\u0446\u0435, \"pisano yaytse\"), Carpatho-Rusyns (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043a\u044b, \"pysank\u0177\"), Croats (\"pisanica\"), Czechs (\"kraslice\"), Hungarians (\"h\u00edmestoj\u00e1s\"), Lithuanians (\"margutis\"), Romanians (\"ou\u0103 vopsite\", \"\u00eencondeiate\" or \"\u00eempistrite\"), Serbs (\"pisanica\"), Slovaks (\"kraslica\"), Slovenes (\"pirhi\", \"pisanice,\" or \"remenke\") and Sorbs (\"jejka pisa\u0107\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borscht",
        "text": "While Christmas in Poland is traditionally linked to red borscht, Lent \u2013 the fasting period that leads up to Easter \u2013 is associated with a meatless version of white borscht, or \"\". Youths used to celebrate Holy Saturday, the last day of the fast, with a mock \"funeral\" of the white borscht, in which a pot of the soup was either buried in the ground or broken, sometimes \u2013 to the crowd's amusement \u2013 while being carried by an unsuspecting boy on his head. On the next day, the white borscht would reappear on the Easter table, but this time, in its more coveted, meat-based guise with sausage, bacon and eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Christmas dishes",
        "text": "12 dishes are served as a reminder of the 12 Apostles on Christmas Eve, 24 December. Polish people don't eat meat on this day, instead they choose from variety of fish and vegetable dishes. The meal begins when the first star is seen.\n* Barszcz (beetroot soup) with uszka (small dumplings) - a classic Polish Christmas starter.\n* Pierogi with sauerkraut and forest mushrooms; filled with cottage cheese and potatoes\n* Zupa rybna \u2013 fish soup\n* \u017burek \u2013 soup made of soured rye flour and meat\n* Zupa grzybowa \u2013 mushroom soup made of various forest mushrooms\n* Bigos \u2013 savory stew of cabbage and meat\n* Kompot \u2013 traditional drink a light, refreshing drink most often made of dried or fresh fruit boiled in water with sugar and left to cool and infuse.\n* Go\u0142\u0105bki \u2013 cabbage rolls\n* Pieczarki marynowane \u2013 marinated mushrooms\n* Kartofle gotowane \u2013 simple boiled potatoes sparkled with parsley or dill\n* Kulebiak \u2013 with fish or cabbage and wild mushrooms filling\n* Ryba sma\u017cona or ryba po grecku \u2013 fried fish laid under lyers of fried shredded carrots, onions, root celery and leek\n* Sa\u0142atka jarzynowa \u2013 salad made with boiled potatoes and carrots with fresh peas, sweetcorn, dill cucumber, and boiled egg, mixed with mayonnaise.\n* \u0141amaniec \u2013 type of flat and rather hard pancake that is soaked in warm milk with poppy seeds. Eaten in eastern regions such as around * Bia\u0142ystok\n* Makowiec \u2013 poppy seed roll\n* Bacalhau \u2013 codfish\n* Cabrito assado \u2013 roasted goat\n* Borrego assado \u2013 roasted lamb\n* Polvo cozido \u2013 boiled octopus\n* Carne de Vinha d' Alhos \u2013 mainly served in Madeira \u2013 pork dish\n* Bolo de mel \u2013 mainly served in Madeira - Cake made with molasses\n* Bolo Rei (king cake) \u2013 a beautifully decorated fluffy fruitcake\n* Bolo-Rei escangalhado (broken king cake) \u2013 it is like the first one, but has also cinnamon and chilacayote jam (doce de gila)\n* Bolo-Rainha (queen cake) \u2013 similar to Bolo-Rei, but with only nuts, raisins and almonds\n* Bolo-Rei de chocolate \u2013 it is like the Bolo-Rei, but has less (or no) fruit, nuts, chilacayote jam and many chocolate chips\n* Broa castelar \u2013 a small, soft and thin cake made of sweet potato and orange\n* Fatias douradas \u2013 slices of pan bread, soaked in egg with sugar, fried and sprinkled with powdered sugar and cinnamon\n* Rabanadas \u2013 they are like fatias douradas, but made with common bread\n* Aletria \u2013 composed of pasta, milk, butter, sugar, eggs, lemon peel, cinnamon powder and salt\n* Formigos \u2013 a delicious dessert made with sugar, eggs, pieces of bread, almonds, port wine and cinnamon powder\n* Filh\u00f3s / Filhozes / Filhoses \u2013 depending on the region, they may be thin or fluffy pieces of a fried dough made of eggs, honey, orange, lemon, flour and anise, sprinkled - or not with icing sugar\n* Coscor\u00f5es \u2013 thin squares of a fried orange flavoured dough\n* Azevias de gr\u00e3o, batata-doce ou gila \u2013 deep fried thin dough pastries filled with a delicious cream made of chickpea, sweet potato or chilacayote, powdered with sugar and cinnamon\n* Tarte de am\u00eandoa \u2013 almond pie\n* Tronco de Natal \u2013 Christmas log \u2013 a Swiss roll, resembling a tree's trunk, filled with chocolate cream, decorated with chocolate and mini \u2013 2\u00a0cm Christmas trees\n* Lampreia de ovos \u2013 a sweet made of eggs, well decorated\n* Sonhos \u2013 an orange flavoured fried yeast dough, powdered with icing sugar\n* Velhoses \u2013 they are like the sonhos, but made with pumpkin\n* Bolo de Natal \u2013 Christmas cake\n* Pudim de Natal \u2013 Christmas pudding, similar to flan\n* Vinho quente \u2013 mulled wine made with boiled wine, egg yolk, sugar and cinnamon\n* Turkey \u2013 on the island of Terceira, turkey has recently taken over as the traditional Christmas dish over Bacalhau, due to the influence of American culture on the island, home to the United States Air Force's 65th Air Base Wing.\n* Arroz con gandules \u2013 yellow-rice, pigeon peas, olives, capers, pieces of pork, spices and sofrito cooked in the same pot.\n* Escabeche \u2013 pickled green bananas or cassava and chicken gizzards.\n* Macaroni salad \u2013 with canned tuna and peppers.\n* Morcilla \u2013 blood sausage.\n* Pasteles \u2013 Puerto Rican tamle made from milk, broth, root vegetables, squash, green banana, plantain dough, stuffed with meat, and wrapped in banana leaves.\n* Hallaca \u2013 tamale made from grated cassava and stuffed with meat wrapped in banana leaves.\n* Pastel\u00f3n \u2013 sweet plantain \"lasagna\".\n* Pig roast \u2013 Puerto Rico is famous for their pig roast. It is also a part (along with arroz con gandules) of their national dish.\n* Potato salad \u2013 most commonly made with apples, chorizo and hard-boiled eggs. Potatoes are sometimes replaced with cassava."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "In Polish communities throughout the state \"p\u0105czki\" can be found every year on Fat Tuesday (Mardi Gras) in a wide assortment of flavors including lemon, blueberry to custard. Pierogis, goulash, and Polish-style sausage are common specialties in many restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "With time, the shortage economy led to scarcity of meat, coffee, tea and other ingredients of daily use. Many products like chocolate, sugar and meat were rationed, with a specific limit depending on social class and health requirements. Physical workers and pregnant women were generally entitled to more food products. Imports were restricted, so much of the food supply was domestic. Cuisine became homogeneous, to be a chef was no longer a prestigious profession and for decades the country became basically disconnected from any foreign cuisine. Tropical fruits (citrus, banana, pineapple, etc.) were available during holidays and local fruits and vegetables were mostly seasonal but were available at private stands. For most of the year the Poles had to get by with only domestic winter fruit and vegetables: apples, plums, currants, onions, potatoes, cabbage, root vegetables and frozen products. Other food products (of foreign origins) were available at markets at high prices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture in post-communist Poland",
        "text": "With the end of pro-Soviet totalitarianism in Poland, new restaurants opened and the basic foodstuffs were once again easily obtainable. This led to a gradual return of rich traditional Polish cuisine, both in home cooking and in restaurants. At the same time, restaurants and supermarkets promoted the use of ingredients typical of other cuisines of the world. Notable foods in Polish cuisine include Polish sausage, red beet soup, Polish dumplings, flaczki (tripe soup), cabbage rolls, Oscypek, Polish pork chops, Polish traditional stew, various potato dishes, a fast food sandwich zapiekanka, and many more. Traditional Polish desserts include Polish doughnuts, Polish gingerbread and many similar others."
      },
      {
        "title": "P\u0105czki",
        "text": "These pastries have become popular in the United States as a result of Polish immigrants and marketing by the bakery industry. Sold in bakeries mainly on both Fat Tuesday and Fat Thursday throughout Detroit and Chicago, they are particularly popular in areas where there is a large concentration of Polish immigrants: Milwaukee, Northcentral and Southeastern Wisconsin, Chicago, Northern Illinois, Northwest Indiana, Metro Detroit, Greater Grand Rapids, Mid Michigan, Toledo, Greater Cincinnati, Greater Cleveland, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Scranton/Wilkes-Barre, Northern and Central New Jersey, Central Connecticut, and Western Massachusetts. The Polish community in Buffalo has the largest Fat Thursday event outside of Poland, which is run in cooperation with the monthly Polish Happy Hour Buffalo event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "American food in Poland, most commonly McDonald's, KFC and Pizza Hut, are declining in popularity as Polish people prefer their own cuisine, including fast food. Meanwhile, Doner kebabs are gaining popularity. Nonetheless, in most of Poland one can still get traditional and very popular Polish street food such as the \"zapiekanka\", a pizza-like baguette with cheese, mushrooms, onion, sometimes meat and ketchup. There are also many small-scale, quick-service restaurants which usually serve kebabs, hamburgers, hot dogs and Polish kie\u0142basa sausage. In the southern mountainous region, the oscypek served with cranberry jam is a popular street food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carnival",
        "text": "The Polish Carnival season includes Fat Thursday (Polish: \"T\u0142usty Czwartek\"), when \"p\u0105czki\" (doughnuts) are eaten, and \"\u015aledzik\" (Shrove Tuesday) or Herring Day. The Tuesday before the start of Lent is also often called \"Ostatki\" (literally \"leftovers\"), meaning the last day to party before the Lenten season."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Poles in the United States",
        "text": "Among American-born citizens of Polish ancestry, roughly 50% report eating Polish dishes, and many can name a variety of Polish foods unprompted. Whereas over 60% of Italian Americans reported eating Italian food at least once a week, less than 10% of Polish Americans ate Polish food once a week. This figure is still a higher occurrence than Irish Americans, who can only name a few traditional Irish foods (typically corned beef and cabbage), and only 30% report eating Irish food each year. Even fewer English, Dutch, and Scottish Americans can report that they eat ethnic cuisine regularly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catholic Church in Poland",
        "text": "Easter continues to be an important holiday for Polish Catholics. According to a 2012 study by the CBOS (Centre for Public Opinion Research), 74% of Poles make an effort to participate in the sacrament of penance before Easter, 59% make an effort to attend the Stations of the Cross or Gorzkie \u017cale (an increase of 6% since 2003), 57% want to improve themselves for the better (an increase of 7%), 49% want to help the needy (an increase of 8%), and 46% want to pray more (a decline of 5%)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "In Poland, welcoming with bread and salt (\"\"chlebem i sol\u0105\") is often associated with the traditional hospitality (\"staropolska go\u015bcinno\u015b\u0107\"\") of the Polish nobility (\"szlachta\"), who prided themselves on their hospitality. A 17th-century Polish poet, Wespazjan Kochowski, wrote in 1674: \"O good bread, when it is given to guests with salt and good will!\" Another poet who mentioned the custom was Wac\u0142aw Potocki. The custom was, however, not limited to the nobility, as Polish people of all classes observed this tradition, reflected in old Polish proverbs. Nowadays, the tradition is mainly observed on wedding days, when newlyweds are greeted with bread and salt by their parents on returning from the church wedding.\n* \"Beza\" - Type of sweet meringue in biscuit form, occasionally with topping.\n* \"Makowiec\" - Sweet poppy-seed swiss roll, with raisins, dried fruits and walnuts.\n* \"P\u0105czek\" - Closed donuts filled with rose petal jam, other fruit conserves, custard, chocolate or quark with sugar.\n* \"Pierniki\" - Soft gingerbread biscuit forms of pryanik unfilled or filled with marmalade of different fruit flavours and sometimes covered with chocolate.\n* \"Sernik\" - Sernik (cheesecake) is one of the most popular desserts in Poland. It is a cake made primarily of twar\u00f3g, a type of fresh cheese similar to quark. It can be baked or refrigerated. It might be flavoured with vanilla, lemon peel or orange peel. Sometimes raisins or various fresh fruits are added. It is also common to top it with a chocolate topping or sprinkled with coconut-flakes, nuts. It is very popular to garnish it with a sweet jelly topping with a variety of fresh fruits when it's unbaked.\n*\"Mazurek\" - Pie baked particularly at Christmas Eve and Easter, made with Schortcrust pastry. There are variations with different fillings, such as walnut paste, dulce de leche or ganache with dried fruits, candied fruit and nuts.\n* \"Cha\u0142ka\" - Sweet white wheat bread of Jewish origin (Challah).\n* \"Kogel mogel\" - eggnog, made from egg yolks, sugar, and flavourings such as honey, vanilla or cocoa. Traditional for Polish Jews.\n* \"Kr\u00f3wki\" - Polish fudge, soft milk toffee candies.\n* \"Napoleonka\" - Polish type of cream pie made of two layers of puff pastry, filled with vanilla pastry cream, usually sprinkled with powdered sugar, close relative of the French millefeuille. Alternative but less popular name is \"krem\u00f3wka\" often with filling of whipped cream instead of custard cream.\n*\"Keks\" - Cake with candied and dried fruit.\n*\"Babka\" - It's Polish version of a pound cake, made with or without yeast. It is served with powdered sugar or icing. Can be made as a marble cake also.\n*\"Miodownik\" - Layered honey cake filled with vanilla pastry cream and ganache on top.\n*\"Orzechowiec\" - Layered nut cake filled with vanilla pastry cream and kajmak with chopped nuts on top.\n*\"Ciasto marchewkowe\" - Carrot cake with added nuts and honey, sometimes layered with whipped cream.\n*\"Ciasto bez pieczenia/na zimno\" - Various types of unbaked and refrigerated cakes made of biscuits, ladyfingers, crackers or sponge cake with vanilla, whipped cream, coconut, jelly, mascarpone, semolina, or poppy seed filling often with ganache on top.\n*\"Karpatka\" - Cream pie made of two layers of choux pastry filled with vanilla pastry cream.\n* \"Wuzetka\" - Layered chocolate sponge cake filled with jam and whipped cream, associated with Warsaw.\n* \"Ptasie mleczko\" - Chocolate-covered candy filled with soft meringue (or milk souffl\u00e9).\n* \"Kisiel\" - Clear, jelly-like sweet fruit liquid, made with starch, sugar and fruits or fruit juice.\n* \"Budy\u0144\" - Pudding, usually comes in many different flavors, such as sweet cream, vanilla, chocolate, cherry etc.\n* \"Faworki\" - Light fried pastry covered with powdered sugar.\n* \"Pa\u0144ska Sk\u00f3rka\", \"Miodek\" - Kind of hard \"Taffy\" sold at cemeteries during \"Zaduszki\" and at Stare Miasto (Old city) in Warsaw.\n* \"Kutia\" - Grain dish made with wheat, poppy seeds, nuts, raisins and honey. Not traditionally Polish, but served during Christmas in the eastern regions (Bia\u0142ystok, Podlachia).\n* \"Prince Polo\" - Polish chocolate bar.\n* \"Mieszanka Wedlowska\" - Assorted chocolate covered candy.\n* \"Torcik Wedlowski\" - Large, circular, chocolate covered wafer with hand-made decorations.\n* \"Pawe\u0142ek\" - Chocolate bar with a flavored filling, most popular contains advocaat.\n* \"\u015aliwka w czekoladzie\" - Chocolate-covered prune\n* \"Ry\u017c z jab\u0142kami\" - Type of a rice pudding baked or cooked with apples and cinnamon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter in Poland",
        "text": "Easter is also important to Polish-Americans and other Polish diasporans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wigilia",
        "text": "A Christmas Eve dinner excludes meat, as \" abstinence\" is required and should comprise twelve distinct dishes in memory of the twelve Apostles. It begins with a soup, either Borscht with Uszka (tortellini), or wild mushroom consomm\u00e9 (grzybowa), followed by herring in different forms. Fish provides the main dish of the Christmas Eve feast across Poland. There are variations of carp fillet, carp in aspic, gefilte fish (Jewish-style carp), sweet with onions, carrots, almonds and raisins. Accompaniments consist of cabbage, cooked red or Sauerkraut with apple salad. The bread served at the meal is often Challah, doubtless borrowed from Poland's centuries-long Jewish fellow countrymen. Then there is an array of desserts, including dried fruit compote, followed by cake: poppy seed cakes, \"babka\", \"makowiec\", and other delicacies including edible Christmas ornaments. Regional variants include, \"\u017curek\" sour rye soup, \"siemieniotka\" (in Silesia), pierogi filled with cheese and potatoes as well mushrooms and cabbage, stuffed cabbage with mushrooms and rice, \"go\u0142\u0105bki\" (cabbage rolls), \"kluski\" with poppyseed, and \"mak\u00f3wki\" (in Silesia). There is in places a belief that whatever happens on Wigilia affects the incoming year; if a quarrel should arise, it foretells a quarrelsome and troublesome year. Traditionally, an extra place is set on the table for an \"uninvited guest.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "\u015awi\u0119conka",
        "text": "\u015awi\u0119conka (), meaning \"the blessing of the Easter baskets\", is one of the most enduring and beloved Polish traditions on Holy Saturday during Easter. With roots dating back to the early history of Poland, it is also observed by expatriate and their descendants Poles in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Sweden and other Polish communities in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pisanka (Polish)",
        "text": "Today in Poland, eggs and pisanki are hallowed on Easter Saturday along with the traditional Easter basket. On Easter Sunday, before the ceremonial breakfast, these eggs are exchanged and shared among the family at the table. This is a symbol of friendship, similar to the sharing of the Op\u0142atek (Christmas wafer) on Christmas Eve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fat Thursday",
        "text": "Fat Thursday is a Christian tradition in some countries marking the last Thursday before Lent and is associated with the celebration of Carnival. Because Lent is a time of fasting, the days leading up to Ash Wednesday provide the last opportunity for feasting (including simply eating forbidden items) until Easter. Traditionally it is a day dedicated to eating, when people meet in their homes or caf\u00e9s with their friends and relatives and eat large quantities of sweets, cakes and other meals usually not eaten during Lent. Among the most popular all-national dishes served on that day are p\u0105czki in Poland or berliner, fist-sized donuts filled with rose hip jam, and angel wings (faworki), puff pastry fingers served with powdered sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wigilia",
        "text": "Christmas Day is a national holiday in Poland and most Poles spend the day with their family. After (Wigilia) there are two more days of celebrations. Christmas breakfast often consists of scrambled eggs, cold-cuts served with horseradish sauce, smoked or fried salmon, marinated salads, and cakes, especially, pierniki Toru\u0144skie (a gingerbread), cake, and decorated biscuits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Names of Easter",
        "text": "Latin adopted the Greek term for the feast, and in most European languages, notable exceptions being English, German and the Slavic languages, the feast is today called \"Pascha\" or words derived from it. However, in Polish the basic term is \"Wielkanoc\" (literally a compound word 'Greatnight'), while \"Pascha\" is unusual form. The very day is also called \"Wielka Niedziela\", i.e. 'the Great Sunday'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poles",
        "text": "Popular everyday foods in Poland include schnitzels or pork cutlets (kotlet schabowy), kielbasa sausage, potatoes, coleslaw and salads, soups (tomato or meat broth), pierogi dumplings, Kaiser bread rolls and frikadellers. Traditional Polish cuisine is hearty and Poles are one of the more obese nations in Europe \u2013 approximately 58% of the adult population was overweight in 2019, above the EU average. According to data from 2017, meat consumption per capita in Poland was one of the highest in the world, with pork being the most in demand. Alcohol consumption is relatively moderate compared to other European states; popular alcoholic beverages include Polish-produced beer, vodka and ciders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mariusz Pudzianowski",
        "text": "He said for MTV that he prefers Polish cuisine. When he has some time he often cooks himself, as he does not particularly fancy meals from restaurants. He often eats bigos, Polish soups, Polish sausages and typical Polish dinners with cooked potatoes, 200\u2013300\u00a0g of meat and some salads (usually cucumber salad)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter basket",
        "text": "In Poland, \"\u015awi\u0119conka\" or \"the blessing of the Easter baskets\" is a central tradition on Holy Saturday. The tradition dates back to the 13-14th century in its earliest form. The basket is traditionally lined with a white linen or lace napkin and decorated with sprigs of boxwood (bukszpan), the typical Easter evergreen. Baskets containing a sampling of Easter foods are brought to church to be blessed on Holy Saturday. After the blessing, the baskets of food are then set aside until Easter morning."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Polish dishes",
        "text": "This is a list of dishes found in Polish cuisine.\n* \"Barszcz\" - Its strictly vegetarian version is the first course during the Christmas Eve feast, served with \"uszka\" (tiny ear-shaped dumplings) with mushroom filling (sauerkraut can be used as well, depending on the family tradition).\n* \"Barszcz bia\u0142y\" - sour rye and pork broth with cubed boiled pork, kielbasa, ham, hard boiled egg, and dried breads (rye, pumpernickel)\n* \"Ch\u0142odnik\" - cold soup made of soured milk, young beet leaves, beets, cucumbers and chopped fresh dill\n* \"Czernina\" - duck blood soup\n* \"Flaki\" or \"flaczki\" - beef or pork guts tripe stew with marjoram The word \u201cFlaki\u201d means guts. In some areas it is made out of a cow's stomach which is cut in stripes.\n* \"Groch\u00f3wka\" - pea and/or lentil soup\n* \"Kapu\u015bniak\" - cabbage/sauerkraut soup\n* \"Kartoflanka\" - potato soup\n* \"Kiszczonka\" - traditional Wielkopolska cuisine, consists of black pudding, flour, milk and spices.\n* \"Krupnik\" - barley soup with chicken, beef, carrots or vegetable broth\n* \"Kwa\u015bnica\" - traditional sauerkraut soup, eaten in the south of Poland\n* \"Ros\u00f3\u0142\" - chicken noodle soup\n* \"Rumpu\u0107\" - thick vegetable soup, characteristic of Wielkopolska cuisine\n* \"Zupa borowikowa\" - boletus mushroom soup\n* \"Zupa buraczkowa\" - red beetroot soup with potatoes, similar to traditional Barszcz\n* \"Zupa grzybowa/pieczarkowa\" - mushroom soup made of various species\n* \"Zupa jarzynowa\" - chicken/vegetable bouillon(\"bulion\") base vegetable soup\n* \"Zupa og\u00f3rkowa\" - soup of Sour, salted cucumbers, often with pork (\"dill pickle soup\")\n* \"Zupa pomidorowa\" - tomato soup usually served with pasta or rice\n* \"Zupa szczawiowa\" - sorrel(\"szczaw\") soup\n* \"\u017bur\" - soured rye flour soup with white sausage and/or hard-boiled egg\n* \"\u017burek\" - \u017cur (\"\u017curek\") with potatoes (\"ziemniaki\"), Polish sausage (\"kielbasa\"), and Egg (\"jajko\"). Depending on the part of Poland (\"Poland\") it came from, it may contain mushrooms (\"grzyby\") as well. This dish is also called \"\u017curek starowiejski\" (\"old village\"). It is frequently served with sour cream or by itself.\n* \"Baranina\" - roasted or grilled mutton\n* \"Bigos\" - a stew of cabbage and meat (often in a tomato base) mainly \"kie\u0142basa\"\n* \"Go\u0142\u0105bki\" - cabbage leaves stuffed with spiced minced meat and rice or with mushrooms and rice\n* \"Golonka\" - stewed pork knuckle or hock\n* \"Gulasz\" - stew of meat, noodles and vegetables (especially potato), seasoned with paprika and other spices.\n* \"Kaczka z jab\u0142kami\" - roast duck with apples\n* \"Kark\u00f3wka\" - chuck steak, usually roasted\n* \"Kasza gryczana ze skwarkami\" - buckwheat groats with chopped, fried lard and onions\n* \"Kaszanka\" - Polish blood sausage, made of pork blood, liver, lungs and fat with \"kasza\", spiced with onion, pepper and marjoram\n* \"Kie\u0142basa\" - sausage is a staple of Polish cuisine and comes in dozens of varieties, smoked or fresh, made with pork, beef, turkey, lamb, or veal with every region having its own specialty\n* \"Kiszka ziemniaczana\" - type of roasted sausage made of minced potatoes\n* \"Klopsiki\" - or \u2019\u2019pulpety\u2019\u2019, meatballs, often with tomato sauce\n* \"Kotlet mielony\" - minced meat cutlet with eggs, bread crumbs, garlic, and salt and pepper rolled into a ball and fried with onions and butter\n* \"Kotlet schabowy\" - a pork breaded cutlet; made of pork tenderloin (with the bone or without), or of pork chop. \"Kotlet z piersi Kurczaka\" is a Polish variety of chicken cutlet coated with breadcrumbs. \"Kotlet z Indyka\" is a turkey cutlet coated with breadcrumbs, served with boiled potatoes and cabbage stew.\n* \"Kurczak pieczony po wiejsku\" - Polish village style roasted chicken with onion, garlic and smoked bacon\n* \"\u0141oso\u015b\" - salmon, often baked or boiled in a dill sauce\n* \"Pampuchy\" - a type of p\u0105czek from yeast dough cooked on steam\n* \"Pasztecik szczeci\u0144ski\" - deep-fried yeast dough stuffed with meat or vegetarian filling, served in specialized bars as a fast food, different from Polish home-cuisine dishes, which also are called \"pasztecik\"\n* \"Piecze\u0144 ciel\u0119ca\" - roast veal, marinated in an aromatic marinade\n* \"Piecze\u0144 wieprzowa z winem\" - pork roast with wine\n* \"Piecze\u0144 z mi\u0119sa mielonego\" - ground meat roast\n* \"Pierogi\" - dumplings, usually filled with sauerkraut and/or mushrooms, meat, potato and/or savory cheese, sweet curd cheese with a touch of vanilla, or blueberries or other fruits, such as cherries or strawberries, and sometimes even apples\u2014optionally topped with sour cream and/or sugar for the sweet versions.\n* \"Placki ziemniaczane (placki kartoflane)\" - potato pancakes usually served with sour cream\n* \"Pol\u0119dwiczki wo\u0142owe\" - beef sirloin, often with rare mushroom sauce\n* \"Pyzy\" - potato dumplings served by themselves or stuffed with minced meat or cottage cheese\n* \"Rolada z kurczakiem i pieczarkami\" - roulade of chicken and mushrooms\n* \"Rolada z mi\u0119sa mielonego z pieczarkami\" - ground meat roulade stuffed with mushrooms\n* \"Ryba sma\u017cona\" - fried, breaded fish fillet\n* \"Schab faszerowany\" - stuffed pork loin\n* \"Wo\u0142owina pieczona\" - roast beef\n* \"Zapiekanka\" - short baguette, cut in two slices, topped with tomato sauce, briefly fried mushrooms and onion, topped with grated cheese and briefly roasted, served hot with ketchup or/and mayonnaise topping, sold as a take away dish (fast food)\n* \"Zrazy\" - twisted shape thin slices of chopped beef, which is flavored with salt and pepper and stuffed with vegetables, mushrooms, eggs, and potato\n* \"Zrazy zawijane\" - beef rolls stuffed with bacon, pickle and onion\n* \"\u017beberka w\u0119dzone\" - smoked, roasted or grilled ribs\n*\"\u0106wik\u0142a z chrzanem\" - grated or finely chopped beetroot mixed with chrain\n*\"Fasolka z migda\u0142ami\" - fresh slender snipped green beans steamed and topped with butter, bread crumbs, and toasted almond slices\n*\"Kapusta kiszona\" - sauerkraut\n*\"Kapusta zasma\u017cana\" - sauerkraut pan-fried with fried onions, cooked pork, whole pepper, and rich spices; a truly hearty side dish\n*\"Kapusta z grochem\" - peas, sauerkraut and spices\n*\"Kartofle gotowane\" - simple boiled potatoes with parsley or dill\n*\"Kasza gryczana\" - buckwheat groats\n*\"Kopytka\" - hoof-shaped potato dumplings\n*\"Mizeria\" - traditional Polish salad made from cucumbers in whipped cream\n*\"Og\u00f3rek kiszony\" - dill pickle\n*\"Og\u00f3rek konserwowy\" - preserved cucumber which is rather sweet and vinegary in taste\n*\"Pieczarki marynowane\" - marinated mushrooms\n*\"Sa\u0142atka\" - vegetable salad lettuce, tomato, cucumber or pickled cucumber; it is optional to add very small amount of white vinegar, heavy cream, mayonnaise or other dressings\n*\"Sa\u0142atka burakowa\" (\"buraczki\") - finely chopped warm beetroot salad\n*\"Sa\u0142atka og\u00f3rkowa\" - pickled cucumber, preserved cucumber, chopped red peppers, onions salad\n*\"Sa\u0142atka warzywna\" (\"sa\u0142atka jarzynowa\") - vegetable salad, a traditional Polish side dish with cooked and finely chopped root vegetables, potato, carrot, parsley root, celery root, combined with chopped pickled or dill cucumbers and hard-boiled eggs in mayonnaise and mustard sauce. Also made with carrots, red paprika, corn, red beans, peas, potatoes, pickled cucumbers, onion, eggs, sausages, mayonnaise, mustard, salt and pepper.\n*\"Sa\u0142atka wiosenna\" - spring salad chopped finely, radishes, green onions, pencil-thin asparagus, peas, hard-cooked eggs or cubed yellow cheese, mayonnaise, salt and pepper, sweet paprika for color\n*\"Sa\u0142atka z boczkiem\" - wilted lettuce salad is made with romaine or iceberg lettuce, chopped hard-cooked eggs, finely chopped onion, vinegar, bacon cut into 1/2-inch pieces, water, sugar, salt and pepper\n*\"Sa\u0142atka z kartofli\" (\"sa\u0142atka ziemniaczana\") - potato salad made with red or white potatoes cooked in their jackets, cooled, peeled and cut into 1/4-inch dice, carrots, celery, onion, dill pickles, mayonnaise, sugar, salt and pepper\n*\"\u015amietana\" - whipping cream\n*\"Sur\u00f3wka\" - raw sauerkraut, apple, carrot, and onion salad\n*\"Sur\u00f3wka z bia\u0142ej kapusty\" - coleslaw blend of freshly shredded cabbage, carrots, mayonnaise and spices\n*\"Sur\u00f3wka z marchewki\" - carrot salad made with coarsely grated carrots, coarsely grated granny smith apple, lemon juice, vegetable oil, salt, and sugar\n*\"T\u0142uczone ziemniaki\" - mashed potatoes\n*Beer (\"piwo\") - popular brand names include \u017bywiec, Tyskie, Warka, Lech, Okocim, Piast, \u0141om\u017ca, Per\u0142a, Le\u017cajsk, \u017bubr\n*Cider (\"cydr\")\n*Coffee (\"kawa\")\n*Garlic Milk (\"mleko czosnkowe\") - warm milk with honey and garlic mixed in\n*Herbal tea (\"herbata zio\u0142owa/herbatka zio\u0142owa\")\n*\"Kompot\" - clear juice obtained by cooking fruit in a large volume of water, like strawberries, apricots, peaches, apples, rhubarb, gooseberries, or sour cherries\n*Mead (\"mi\u00f3d pitny\")\n*Mineral water (\"woda mineralna\")\n*\"Nalewka\" - home-made, vodka-based liqueur-style drinks\n*Soft drink (\"oran\u017cada\")\n*Tea (\"herbata\")\n*Vodka () - since the 8th century. In the 11th century they were called \"gorzalka\" and originally used as medicines. The world's first written mention of the drink and the word \"vodka\" was in 1405 from Akta Grodzkie, the court documents from the Palatinate of Sandomierz in Poland. It is traditionally drunk with a 50- to 100-milliliter glass (shot glass). Popular brand names include Belvedere, Chopin, Sobieski, Luksusowa, Absolwent, \u017bubr\u00f3wka, Wyborowa, Bia\u0142a Dama, Polonaise, \u017bo\u0142\u0105dkowa Gorzka, Starka, Krupnik, Siwucha and Ultimat.\n*Wine (\"wino\")\n*W\u015bciek\u0142y pies (\"mad dog\") - shot drink made from vodka, raspberry or blackcurrant syrup, and tabasco sauce\n*\"Budy\u0144\" - a kind of custard pudding (made with a starch instead of egg yolk); usually comes in many different flavors, such as vanilla, chocolate, banana or cherry\n*\"Cha\u0142ka\" - sweet white wheat bread from Jewish cuisine\n*\"Faworki\" (\"chrusty\") - light fried pastry covered with icing sugar\n*\"Kisiel\" - juicy pudding made with pure fruit juice thickened with starch\n*\"Kr\u00f3wki\" - Polish fudge, soft milk toffee candies\n*\"Kutia\" - a small square pasta or wheat with poppy seeds, nuts, raisins and honey; typically served during Christmas in the eastern regions (Bia\u0142ystok)\n*\"Makowiec\" - poppy seed-swirl cake, sometimes with raisins and/or nuts\n*\"Mazurek\" - cake baked in Poland, particularly at Christmas Eve and Easter, but also at other winter holidays\n* \"Nale\u015bniki\" - crepes which are either folded into triangles or rolled into a tube typical servings include sweetened quark fresh cheese with sour cream and sugar, various fruits topped with bita \u015bmietana (whipped cream) or with bite bialka (whipped egg whites)\n*\"P\u0105czek\" - closed donut filled with rose marmalade or other fruit conserves\n*\"Pa\u0144ska sk\u00f3rka\" - \"taffy\" sold at cemeteries during \"Zaduszki\" and at Stare Miasto (Old city) in Warsaw\n*\"Pierniki\" - soft gingerbread shapes iced or filled with marmalade of different fruit flavours and covered with chocolate\n*\"Sernik\" - Sernik (cheesecake) is one of the most popular desserts in Poland; made primarily of twar\u00f3g, a type of quark fresh cheese\n*\"Szarlotka\" or \"jab\u0142ecznik\" - Polish apple cake\n*\"Tort\" - multi-layered sponge cake filled with buttercream or whippedcream, with fruits or nuts, served on special occasions like nameday or birthday\n*\"Twar\u00f3g\", a type of fresh cheese/quark\n*\"Herbata g\u00f3ralska\" (\"Highlander's tea\") or \"herbata z pr\u0105dem\" (\"Tea with electricity\") - tea with alcohol\n*\"Syrop z cebuli\" (\"onion syrup\") - a cough remedy made of chopped onion and sugar; it is still considered a medicine\n* Tran - cod liver oil used like a vitamin"
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Records show that her visiting guests were entertained with forest game, and the following fowl: waxwings; fieldfares; snow bunting; hazel grouse; partridges; black grouse; capercaillies; plus fish and molluscs: loach; various trout; grayling; salmon fresh and smoked; flounder, salted herring; lampreys in vinegar; oysters; snails; and Genoese p\u00e2t\u00e9, not to mention fresh fruit and chestnuts. French and Italian wines were served, as well as mead and local beers. The dishes were made only according to French recipes. The royal court with all its innovations exerted a broad influence over the rest of aristocratic residences and noble palaces across Poland. French cuisine was in fashion and many families willingly employed French cooks and p\u00e2t\u00e9 makers. In the mid-18th century on Polish tables appeared the French champagne. Also, among the most influential in that period were Lithuanian, Jewish, German and Hungarian cuisine, not to mention Armenian, which arrived in Poland before the 17th century along with many settlers especially in the south-eastern part of the Commonwealth. Signature dishes of the Western Asia reached Polish tables thanks to the Armenian trade and cultural exchange with Poland's neighbour - the Ottoman Empire. Rare delicacies were brought to royal court as gifts from sultans and royal envoys. The strongest influences were noted in the cities of Lw\u00f3w, Krak\u00f3w, Kamieniec Podolski and Zamo\u015b\u0107 due to many Armenians living there permanently. Also, because of the close contact with the Ottoman Empire, coffee (\"kawa\") and boza became popular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter food",
        "text": "Other Easter foods and food traditions include:\n*Akvavit\n*Awara broth, in French Guiana\n*Babka (cake)\n*Butter lamb\n*Cadbury egg\n*Carrot cake\n*Chakapuli\n*Colomba di Pasqua\n*Cozonac\n*Easter biscuit\n*Easter bread\n*Easter breakfast (see Polish cuisine#Easter breakfast)\n*Easter bunny (often of the chocolate variety)\n*Easter eggs\n**Red Easter eggs\n*Hot cross bun\n*Fanesca, in Ecuador\n*Feseekh, in Egypt\n*Flaouna\n*Easter Ham\n*Koulourakia\n*Kulich\n*Leib\n*M\u00e4mmi\n*Ma'amoul\n*Mazurek (cake)\n*P\u00e3o-de-L\u00f3 and \"Folar\" in Portugal\n*Paretak pastries\n*Paska (bread)\n*Paskha\n*Pastiera\n*Pesaha Appam\n*Pinca\n*Peeps\n*Pogaca (bread)\n*Salted herring\n*S\u00e1rgat\u00far\u00f3 in Hungary\n*Simnel cake\n*\u0160oldra\n*\u015awi\u0119conka\n*Tsoureki, sometimes lined with red Easter eggs\n*Chiviri\n*Fat Tuesday\n*Passover\n*Pisanica (Croatian)\n*\u015amigus-Dyngus"
      },
      {
        "title": "Christmas in Poland",
        "text": "A traditional Wigilia supper in Poland includes fried carp and borscht (beetroot soup) or mushroom consomm\u00e9 with uszka (ravioli). Carp provides a main component of the Christmas Eve meal across Poland; carp fillet, carp in aspic and gefilte fish. Universal Polish Christmas foods are pierogi as well as some herring dishes, and for dessert, makowiec or noodles with poppy seed. Often, there is a compote of dry fruits for a drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter traditions",
        "text": "Many central and eastern European ethnic groups, including the Albanians, Armenians, Belarusians, Bulgarians, Croats, Czechs, Estonians, Georgians, Germans, Hungarians, Latvians, Lithuanians, Macedonians, Poles, Romanians, Russians, Serbs, Slovaks, Slovenes, and Ukrainians, decorate eggs for Easter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Olivier salad",
        "text": "Polish \"sa\u0142atka jarzynowa\" or \"sa\u0142atka warzywna\" (\"vegetable salad\", often simply called \"sa\u0142atka\") is vegetarian, consisting of peas, hard boiled eggs, and the mirepoix, always cut into small cubes, seasoned with mayonnaise, salt, pepper. Recipes usually vary by region (tart apples or pickles can be added) and even by household, sometimes even adding meat (e.g. ham). One such notable exception is \"sza\u0142ot\" (), a Silesian variety which may include not only boiled potatoes, carrots, peas and boiled eggs, but also bacon, sausages or pickled herring. Such salads are often served on family celebrations, in particular on Christmas Eve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavic carnival",
        "text": "The Polish carnival season includes Fat Thursday (Polish: \"T\u0142usty Czwartek\"), when \"p\u0105czki\" (doughnuts) are eaten, and \"\u015aledzik\" (Shrove Tuesday) or Herring Day. The Tuesday before the start of Lent is also often called \"Ostatki\" (literally \"leftovers\"), meaning the last day to party before the Lenten season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Monday",
        "text": "\"\u015amigus-dyngus\" (or \"lany poniedzia\u0142ek\", Polish for \"Wet Monday\") is the name for Easter Monday in Poland and the diaspora. In the Czech Republic it is called \"velikono\u010dn\u00ed pond\u011bl\u00ed\", in Slovakia \"ve\u013ekono\u010dn\u00fd pondelok\" and in Hungary \"V\u00edzbevet\u0151\". All these Catholic countries (and some others) practice the unique ancient custom on this day. Traditionally, boys and men pour a bucket of water or perfume on girls and women and/or spank their buttocks and legs with long thin twigs (pussy willow) or switches made from willow, birch or decorated tree branches. A legend says that it keep women healthy, beautiful, and fertile during the whole next year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Among the well-known Polish national dishes are \"bigos\" ; \"pierogi\" ; \"kie\u0142basa\"; pork loin \"kotlet schabowy\" breaded cutlet ; \"go\u0142\u0105bki\" cabbage roll ; \"zrazy\" roulade ; sour cucumber soup (\"zupa og\u00f3rkowa\") ; mushroom soup, (\"zupa grzybowa\") ; tomato soup (\"zupa pomidorowa\") ; \"ros\u00f3\u0142\" meat broth ; \"\u017curek\" sour rye soup ; \"flaki\" tripe soup ; and red beetroot \"barszcz\" ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter in Poland",
        "text": "Polish Easter traditions, some varying regionally, include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter cake",
        "text": "Easter babka () is a yeast cake that is part of Poland's Easter traditions. Made with raisins, and other dried and candied fruits, the cake is soaked in rum syrup before it's served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pisanica (Croatian)",
        "text": "The day before Easter, Roman Catholics and other Christians go to a late night mass carrying a basket of traditional food (including bread, cheese, and eggs (either pisanicas or regular eggs). During the mass, priests bless the food, which are kept for the next morning to eat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philadelphia Polish American Festival",
        "text": "Food also plays a central role in Polish culture and traditions. Because of this, the festival places special emphasis on presenting authentic traditional Polish food based on recipes that were brought to America by Polish immigrants and are still preserved by their Polish-American descendants today. During each festival, a wide variety of Polish dishes is prepared on site. This includes: pierogi, go\u0142\u0105bki (stuffed cabbage rolls), kielbasa, placki (potato pancakes), bigos (cabbage and meat stew), chrusciki (pastry) and babka (a type of coffee cake)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "This situation led in turn to gradual replacement of traditional Polish cuisine with food prepared from anything available at the moment. Among the popular dishes introduced by the public restaurants was \"kotlet mielony\"\" meatball\", a sort of a hamburger often served with beet puree and fresh carrots. The traditional recipes were mostly preserved during the Wigilia feast (Christmas Eve), for which many families tried to prepare 12 traditional courses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nowa Wie\u015b Reszelska",
        "text": "Each Easter the traditional food blessing takes place at the shrine. In May the faithful gather there for May Devotions and on 26 August (the Virgin Mary of Cz\u0119stochowa Day) a Plenary Indulgence Mass is celebrated. According to a Warmia tradition, once a year a plenary indulgence mass has to be celebrated on the day of a shrine's patron saint. It was this ceremony that drew the attention of the people living in the nearby village of S\u0105topy, who eventually began to travel to Nowa Wie\u015b Reszelska to attend the plenary indulgence mass. Jadwiga Ku\u017alik, the village leader, had the shrine renovated and painted blue - the colour of Virgin Mary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "A traditional Polish dinner is composed of three courses, beginning with a soup like the popular \"ros\u00f3\u0142\" broth and tomato soup. At restaurants, the soups are followed by an appetizer such as herring (prepared in either cream, oil, or in aspic); or other cured meats and vegetable salads. The main course usually includes a serving of meat, such as roast, breaded pork cutlet, or chicken, with a coleslaw-like \"sur\u00f3wka\" , shredded root vegetables with lemon and sugar (carrot, celeriac, seared beetroot), sauerkraut or mizeria salad. The side dishes are usually boiled potatoes, rice or less commonly \"kasza\". Meals often conclude with a dessert including \"makowiec\", a poppy seed pastry, \"napoleonka\" cream pie or \"sernik\" cheesecake."
      },
      {
        "title": "August\u00f3w",
        "text": "Among the popular traditional dishes of north-eastern Poland, including August\u00f3w, are kartacze and potato babka. Popular regional cakes are \"s\u0119kacz\" and \"mrowisko\" (lit. transl. \"anthill\"). Officially protected traditional foods from August\u00f3w and its surroundings include the August\u00f3w honey (\"mi\u00f3d augustowski\") which comes in several variants, and \"augustowska jagodzianka\", a local yeast roll stuffed with blueberries and topped with streusel, a popular dessert."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter in Poland",
        "text": "The second day of Easter, Easter Monday, features its own customs, such as \"\u015bmigus-dyngus\", involving the spraying of other persons with water. There are also other games, many involving eggs, such as egg tapping."
      },
      {
        "title": "P\u0105czki",
        "text": "In North America, particularly the large Polish communities of Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, and other large cities across the Midwest and Northeast, Paczki Day is celebrated annually by immigrants and locals alike. The date of this observance merges with that of pre-Lenten traditions of other immigrants (\"e.g.\", Pancake Day, \"Mardi Gras\") on Fat Tuesday. With its sizable Polish population, Chicago celebrates the festival on both Fat Thursday and Fat Tuesday. \"P\u0105czki\" are also often eaten on Casimir Pulaski Day. In Buffalo, Toledo, Cleveland, Detroit, Grand Rapids, St.Louis, South Bend, Louisville, and Windsor, P\u0105czki Day is celebrated on Fat Tuesday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "After the end of World War II, Poland became a communist country which joined the Warsaw Pact. Some restaurants were nationalized. The communists envisioned a net of lunch rooms called \"bufet\" for the workers at various companies, and milk bars for the public. The majority of restaurants that survived the 1940s and 1950s were state-owned. Workplace lunch rooms promoted mostly inexpensive meals, including soups of all kinds, meatballs and pork chops, and staples such as placki ziemniaczane/kartoflane (potato pancakes), placki z jablkami (apple pancakes), kopytka (potato gnocchi), leniwe (farmer's cheese gnocchi served sweet) and pierogi. A typical second course consisted of meat cutlet served with potatoes or buckwheat and \"sur\u00f3wka\" (raw, julienned vegetables). The popular Polish \"kotlet schabowy\" is a breaded cutlet similar to the Austrian Wiener schnitzel and the Italian and Spanish Milanesa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Observance of Christmas by country",
        "text": "A traditional Wigilia supper in Poland includes fried carp and barszcz (beetroot soup) with uszka (translated as \"little ears\", also known as meatless ravioli). The most common dishes are fish soup, with potato salad, pierogi, go\u0142\u0105bki filled with kasza, pickled herring and fruit kompot."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Polish dishes",
        "text": "Polish meals culinary blog"
      },
      {
        "title": "Christmas dinner",
        "text": "Dishes include stuffed carp, fried carp, herring in wine sauce, herring in cream sauce, fruit compote, vegetable salad, soup (beetroot, mushroom, or fish) with uszka, pierogi, peas and carrots, boiled potatoes, mushroom cream sauce, sauerkraut, and makowiec (poppy seed rolled cake). Most households leave an empty plate at the table for an unexpected guest. Straw or hay is usually on the table to symbolise the manger. During the season, pierniczki, or honey ginger cookies, are baked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mazurek (cake)",
        "text": "The nutty mazurek (\"nutty Easter shortcake\", pol. \"mazurek orzechowy\") was entered onto the list of Polish traditional bakery and confectionery products for the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MRiRW) on 3 November 2011, described in a particular way. The shortcrust (half-short) base is prepared from ground walnuts, flour, sugar, margarine, small number of eggs and a little bit of sour cream. The frosting is a walnut cream or, according to \"Polish Food\" magazine published by MRiRW, icing made of sugar, water and milk powder melted together. The thick layer of icing is spread over baked cake and finally decorated with dried fruit (raisins), almonds and walnuts into a pattern. \"Nutty mazurek\" is supposed to be considerably flat, rectangular, by in size, very sweet with distinct aroma of walnuts, golden or golden-brown in colour."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Polish desserts",
        "text": "This is a list of Polish desserts. Polish cuisine has evolved over the centuries to become very eclectic due to Poland's history. Polish cuisine shares many similarities with other Central European cuisines, especially German, Austrian and Hungarian cuisines, as well as Jewish, Belarusian, Ukrainian, Russian, French and Italian culinary traditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Monday",
        "text": "Another related custom, unique to Poland, is that of sprinkling bowls (garce) of ashes on people or houses, celebrated a few weeks earlier at the \"p\u00f3\u0142po\u015bcie\". This custom is almost forgotten, but still practiced in the area around the borders of Masuria and Masovia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "During the Middle Ages the cuisine of Poland was heavy and spicy. Two main ingredients were meat (both game and beef) and cereal. The latter consisted initially of proso millet, but later in the Middle Ages other types of cereal became widely used. Most commoners did not use bread and instead consumed cereals in the forms of kasza or various types of flatbread, some of which (for instance ko\u0142acz) are considered traditional recipes even in the 21st century. Apart from cereals, a large portion of the daily diet of mediaeval Poles consisted of beans, mostly broad beans and peas. As the territory of Poland was densely forested, usage of mushrooms, forest berries, nuts and wild honey was also widespread. Among the delicacies of the Polish nobility were honey-braised bear paws served with horseradish-flavoured salad (now species protected in Poland), smoked bear tongue and bear bacon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holy Week",
        "text": "\u015amigus-dyngus (; also \"lany poniedzia\u0142ek\", meaning \"Wet Monday\" in Polish; ; ; ; ) is a Catholic celebration held on Easter Monday mostly in Poland, but also in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and some parts of western Ukraine. It is also observed by Polish diaspora communities, particularly among Polish Americans, who call it Dyngus Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poland",
        "text": "The cuisine of Poland is eclectic and shares similarities with other regional cuisines. Among the staple or regional dishes are pierogi (filled dumplings), kielbasa (sausage), bigos (hunter's stew), kotlet schabowy (breaded cutlet), go\u0142\u0105bki (cabbage rolls), barszcz (borscht), \u017curek (soured rye soup), oscypek (smoked cheese), and tomato soup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gefilte fish",
        "text": "In Polish Catholic homes, gefilte fish () is a traditional dish to be eaten on Christmas Eve and Holy Saturday, as these are traditionally meatless feasts. This follows a pattern in which a number of Jewish dishes were also eaten on Catholic religious days in Poland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "All soups have freshly made chicken, beef, pork ribs or combination stock with root vegetables unless you're vegetarian. Meat is either chopped and eaten with soup, used to make next dish or eaten alone with bread. It's common to eat two dishes during dinner: one is always soup and the other potato/rice/groats/pasta with meat, stews or sweet dishes etc. Cream or pur\u00e9e soups are not common and traditional in Poland but are also prepared because of other countries' cuisine inspiration. Often soups are whiten by adding a splash of sour or double cream.\n*\"Zupa pomidorowa\" - Thin tomato soup made with tomato pur\u00e9e, root vegetables and stock, usually served with pasta or rice, sour cream is often added.\n*\"Kartoflanka\" - Potato soup with root vegetables.\n*\"Czarnina\" also \"Czernina\" - Duck soup or duck blood soup made with duck broth and duck blood, the latter giving the soup a dark color, almost black colour. Recipes vary widely, but often sweet and sour ingredients are added, typically vinegar and often sugar, fruit juice or fruit (e.g., prunes, pears) and it is usually served with the duck meat and Kluski-style noodles. Nowadays, it's not commonly eaten.\n*\"Ch\u0142odnik litewski\" - Cold beet leaves' soup made of soured milk or sour cream, young beet leaves, cucumbers and chopped fresh dill. Sometimes chives and radishes are added.\n*\" Botwinka\" - Beet leaves soup with potatoes and root vegetables, served hot.\n*\"Barszcz czerwony\" - Red borscht - Clear beetroot soup made out of stock, beetroots and beetroot sourdough. It's used to be served with uszka, krokiet made from nale\u015bniki, pasztecik, pierogi and rarely with white beans, red kidney beans or mashed potatoes. It's a very important dish during Christmas Eve.\n*\"Zupa buraczkowa\" - Beetroot soup with grated betroots, potato cubes and root vegetables. Sometimes it's called red borscht, like the one cooked during Christmas Eve even though it doesn't contain beetroot sourdough - it's slightly sweet but not sour.\n*Barszcz ukrai\u0144ski - Ukrainian borscht - Beetroot soup with addition of sliced white cabbage, white or red kidney beans beans and diced tomatoes or tomato pur\u00e9e. In Ukraine beans are not used in this dish.\n*\"Zupa szczawiowa\" - Sorrel soup made of sorrel leaves and rice, served with hard boiled egg.\n*\"Flaki\" or \"Flaczki\" - Beef or pork tripe stew with marjoram and spices. Vegetarians make this soup with oyster mushrooms.\n*\"Ros\u00f3\u0142\" - Clear chicken soup served with noodles, usually short vermicelli. Stock is made of root vegetables and whole chicken, beef or both.\n*\"Zupa grzybowa/pieczarkowa\" - Mushroom soup made of white or wild mushrooms with potatoes or pasta. During Christmas Eve it's rather served with \u0142azanki pasta or uszka.\n*\"Zupa og\u00f3rkowa\" - sour cucumber soup of sour, salted cucumbers.\n*\"\u017bur\" - \u017bur is made of wholemeal rye sourdough, although in Lesser Poland and Podlachia oat sourdough is used and in Lublin Voivodeship buckwheat surdough is chosen. Like other two soups below it's served with mashed potatoes, hard-boiled eggs, cooked and smoked bacon and bia\u0142a kie\u0142basa (white kielbasa).\n*\"\u017burek\" - It's more delicate than \u017cur because it's made of wheat flour sourdough. Colloquially but improperly it's often called barszcz bia\u0142y (white bortscht).\n*\"Barszcz bia\u0142y\" - Traditionally cabbage sourdough (sauerkraut's juice) or cucumber sourdough (sour pickled cucumbers' juice) is used. Still they can be replaced by using citric acid.\n*\"Zalewajka\" - Rye soup - \u017cur served with sliced smoked pork sausage, cooked and smoked bacon and separately cooked and diced potatoes.\n*\"Groch\u00f3wka\" - Pea soup with split peas, potato, carrot, parsley root, kielbasa or fried bacon and marjoram.\n*'Zupa fasolowa' - Bean soup - white beans, root vegetables, smoked sausage (kielbasa), fried bacon and marjoram.\n*\"Zupa kapu\u015bciana\"\" - White cabbage soup - stock, chopped white cabbage, root vegetables, tomato puree and potatoes.\n*\"Kapu\u015bniak\" - Sauerkraut soup, potatoes, root vegetables (parsley root, carrots, celery root), bacon and pork ribs.\n*\"Kwa\u015bnica\" - Sauerkraut soup with potatoes and ribs. Other vegetables like in a soup above are not used and this soup is also more sour.\n*\"Zupa jarzynowa\" - Vegetable soup: potatoes, green beans, root vegetables, cauliflower, peas and sometimes brussels sprouts.\n*\"Zupa ry\u017cowa\" - Rice soup: rice, potatoes and root vegetables with chicken.\n*\"Zupa koperkowa\" - Dill soup: chicken stock, root vegetables, a big amount of dill, spring onion, potatoes/baby potatoes and sometimes with sour or double cream.\n*\"Zupa chrzanowa\" - Horseradish soup: white kielbasa, smoked bacon or pork ribs, sour cream, horseradish, garlic, potatoes and root vegetables for stock. Can be served with hard-boiled eggs.\n*\"Forszmak lubelski\" - Pork or beef, smoked bacon, white mushrooms, sour pickled cucumbers, red bell pepper, tomato puree, spices, onion and garlic.\n*\"Zupa go\u0142\u0105bkowa\" - Soup with minced meat, cabbage, tomato puree, tomatoes, rice and spices.\n*\"Zupa meksyka\u0144ska\" - Mexican soup: minced pork/beef, garlic, red kidney beans, corn kernels, canned tomatoes, tomato puree and onion. Potatoes and root vegetables may be added or not.\n*\"Zupa kalafiorowa\" - Cauliflower soup: stock, potatoes, cauliflower florets and root vegetables.\n*\"Zupa broku\u0142owa\" - Broccoli soup: stock, potatoes, broccoli florets and root vegetables.\n*\"Ch\u0142odnik\" - cold soup made of raw, partially blended or cooked and chilled vegetables with yoghurt or sour cream. Often served with cooked potatoes and/or hard-boiled eggs. There are: cucumber ch\u0142odnik, tomato ch\u0142odnik etc.\n*\"Zupa gulaszowa\" - Goulash soup: pork, beef, potatoes, onion or leek, passata, tomato puree, paprika and red bell pepper. It's similar to Hungarian goulash, however Polish goulash is similar to p\u00f6rk\u00f6lt.\n*\"Zupa soczewicowa/z soczewicy\" - Lentil soup: green or red lentils, garlic, tomatoes, tomato puree, onion and double or sour cream. May be served with pasta or potatoes.\n*\"Zupa owocowa\" - Fruit soup, served cold with different fruits and pasta during hot summer.\n*\"Baranina\" - Roasted, stewed or grilled mutton.\n*\"Bigos\" - Mainly smoked kielbasa and bacon stew. It's made with sauerkraut or cabbage only as well as in a combination of both, mushrooms, onions and sometimes with addition of tomato puree. It's known as a \"hunter's stew\" due to the addition of game and scraps of other meats.\n*\"Bitki wo\u0142owe z pieczarkami/grzybami\" - Very thin slices of beef braised with mushrooms.\n*\"Bitki wieprzowe w sosie w\u0142asnym\" - Very thin slices of pork in gravy, braised with onions.\n*\"Golonka\" - Stewed pork knuckle or hock.\n*\"Go\u0142\u0105bki\" - Cabbage rolls with ground meat and rice or groats, served with mushroom, dill or tomato sauce. Often as a filling they will also have rice/groats and mushrooms especially during Christmas Eve. They can be made with mushroom and potato filling in the Eastern Poland as it came Poland from Ukraine. Cabbage leaves used are from savoy cabbage or white/common cabbage. Rarely can be made with red cabbage or sauekraut leaves. Some use chinese cabbage because they cook quicker or modernly filling is wrapped in zucchini slices. This dish is either cooked or baked.\n*\"Go\u0142\u0105bki bez zawijania\" - Go\u0142\u0105bki without wrapping - Big meatballs with chopped cabbage, onion and rice inside.\n*\"Gulasz\" - Meat stew from Hungary called p\u00f6rk\u00f6lt with onions, tomatoes, red bell peppers and/or paprika.\n*\"Kark\u00f3wka\" - Pork neck, roasted, grilled or braised with onions.\n*\"Kie\u0142basa\" - Sausage, smoked or boiled, is a staple of Polish cuisine and comes in dozens of varieties, made usually with pork.\n*\"Kotlet mielony\" - Minced meat (pork, pork-beef or turkey) patty made with egg, breadcrumbs, chopped onions, wet bread and spices, rolled in breadcrumbs. Sometimes filled with cheese and/or mushrooms.\n*\"Kotlet schabowy\" - Pounded thinly pork loin cutlet coated in breadcrumbs. It's a variation of schnitzel.\n*\"Kurczak Pieczony\" - Roast chicken.\n*\"Piecze\u0144 ciel\u0119ca\" - Roast veal.\n*\"Piecze\u0144 wieprzowa z winem\" - Roast pork in wine gravy.\n*\"Pol\u0119dwiczki wo\u0142owe\" - Braised beef sirloin slices.\n*\"Pulpety or Klopsiki w sosie \" - Polish style meatballs in tomato, mushroom or dill sauce.\n*\"Rolada z mi\u0119sa mielonego z pieczarkami\" - Minced meat roulade with mushrooms.\n*\"Schab Faszerowany\" - Stuffed pork loin.\n*\"Wo\u0142owina Pieczona\" - Roast beef.\n*\"Zrazy zawijane\" - Thin beef fillets rolled and stuffed with bacon, mushrooms, mustard, gherkins and onions.\n*\"Roladki schabowe/z kurczaka\" - Thin pork/chicken fillets rolled with any filling such as cheese.\n*\"\u017beberka w\u0119dzone\" - Smoked Spare ribs.\n*\"Filet z dorsza\" - Cod fillet in or without a batter. Can be steam cooked or baked.\n*\"\u0141oso\u015b\" - Steamed or baked salmon fillet.\n*\"Pstr\u0105g\" - Poached or baked trout.\n*\"Rolmopsy\" - Pickled and stuffed with pickled cucumbers herring fillets, rolled into a cylindrical shape.\n*\"Ryba Sma\u017cona\" - Fried breaded fish fillet.\n*\"\u015aledzie\" - Herring marinated in oil or vinegar with onions.\n*\"Zimne nogi\" - Polish savoury jelly originating from Jewish cuisine based on broth with chopped meat from pork leg. Sometimes peas, carrots or other vegetables are added, often eaten with drizzle of vinegar or lemon juice. Dish using other meat than pork leg is called galareta.\n*\"\u015aledzie w \u015bmietanie\" - Popular dish during Christmas. It's made of marinated in oil or vinegar herring fillets, onions and sour cream. Sour pickled cucumbers, apples and mushrooms can be added.\n*\"Pierogi\" - Half moon shaped dumplings with various fillings. Savoury pierogi may be filled with sauerkraut and mushrooms, with potato, quark and fried onion (pierogi ruskie - Ruthenian pierogi), with minced meat or with buckwheat groats and quark or mushrooms. Sweet pierogi can be made with sweet quark or with fruits such as blueberries, strawberries, cherries, plums, raspberries, apples or chocolate even.\n*\"Uszka\" - tiny dumplings traditionally filled with mushrooms and onions only. Other fillings used are mushrooms with sauerkraut or rarely cooked and minced meat with onions. They are served with clear Borscht, clear mushroom soup or broth when with meat filling.\n*\"Ko\u0142duny\" - stuffed dumplings with raw minced beef and mutton, beef dripping, fried onions and spices. Potato kalduny is a different dish from Subcarpathia made from potato dough filled with twar\u00f3g (quark), potatoes and onions.\n*\"Placki ziemniaczane/kartoflane\" - Potato pancakes with grated potatoes, onions, eggs, wheat flour and marjoram.\n*\"Pyzy\" - Potato dumplings made with raw, grated potatoes, egg and flour filled with minced meat or not filled at all. Then cooked.\n*\"Knedle\" - Potato dumplings made with cooked potatoes and starch filled usually with fruits, most popular fillings are plums and strawberries.\n*\"Kopytka\" - Hoof-shaped potato dumplings made of cooked potatoes, egg and flour. Often served with breadcrumbs, sugar and melted butter or fried bacon.\n*\"Pierogi / Kluski leniwe\" - Hoof-shaped dumplings made of flour or potatoes, eggs and quark.\n*\"Kluski \u015bl\u0105skie\" - Dumplings in small donut-like shape made with boiled potatoes and potato starch. Often served with gravy or meat stew.\n*\"Czarne/Szare kluski\" - Dumplings black/gray in colour made of raw grated potatoes and potato starch.\n*\"Pampuchy/Kluski na parze/ Pyzy drozd\u017cowe\" - Steamed yeast wheat flour dumplings served with fruit yoghurt or jam. They can be also served savoury with gravy or filled with chocolate.\n*\"Kluski k\u0142adzione (Laid dumplings)\" - Dumplings made of thick batter with flour and eggs laid to boiling water.\n*\"Lane Kluski (Poured dumplings)\" - Dumplings made of thin batter with flour, milk end eggs poured straight to soup usually.\n*\"\" - Grated or chopped dough into tiny balls and cooked.\n*\"Nale\u015bniki\" - Thicker and more plump version of crepes, served with sweet or savoury filling.\n*\"Krokiety\" - In Poland they are made of nale\u015bniki, filled often with sauerkraut and mushrooms or ham and cheese, then folded like burrito, breaded and fried. It's common to serve them with clear Borscht.\n*\"Racuchy\" - Yeast pancakes often stuffed with apples and served with powdered sugar or jam.\n*\"\u0141azanki\" - Pasta in a shape of small squares, in Polish version served with sauerkraut, onion and fried kielbasa or fried bacon.\n*\"Zapiekanka\" - baked Polish fast food, main ingredient is veka roll sliced in half with tomato sauce, mushrooms and cheese on top. Zapiekanka can also be anything baked in casserole dish with added egg and cream mixture, so it holds together when removed. It usually involves meats, vegetables with potatoes or pasta and melted cheese on top.\n*\"Knysza\" - Polish fast food with yeast bread roll filled with red and white cabbage, tomato, cucumber, pickled cucumber, onion, fried onion, corn and sometimes fried chicken meat with garlic mayonnaise sauce. It originated in Wroclaw.\n*\"Sma\u017cone ziemniaki/bratkartofle\" - Fried, often previously cooked slices of potatoes, usually eaten with fried egg/mixed in scrambled eggs, onions and grilled/fried sausage which can be also sliced beforehand. Whole dish and serving with eggs (bratkartoffeln mit ei) or sausage (bratkartoffeln mit wurst) comes from Germany. In Poland often eaten with a glass of sour Buttermilk or kefir.\n*\"Makaron z jajkiem\" - Fried and previously cooked pasta with fried onions, scrambled eggs and butter. Sometimes cheese, bacon or ham can be added. It's a version of Italian spaghetti con uova e cipolla or spaghetti carbonara.\n*\"Kasha\" - Cooked groats, most popular are groats of buckwheat, barley, millet and wheat.\n*\"Mizeria\" - Traditional Polish salad which came from France, made with sliced cucumbers, sour cream and spices, served as a side.\n*\"Sur\u00f3wka z jab\u0142ka i marchewki\" - Carrot salad made with peeled and grated carrots, apples, oil and lemon juice.\n*\"Sur\u00f3wka z og\u00f3rk\u00f3w i pomidor\u00f3w\" - Salad made with cucumbers, tomatoes, onions and oil or sour cream.\n*\"Ziemniaki gotowane\" - Simple boiled potatoes sprinkled with dill.\n*\"T\u0142uczone ziemniaki\" - Mashed potatoes.\n*\"Sur\u00f3wka z bia\u0142ej kapusty\" - Salad with shredded cabbage, carrots and spices, often with grated apples.\n*\"Sur\u00f3wka z kiszonej kapusty\" - Salad with sauerkraut, carrots, parsley, apples and lemon juice.\n*\"Sa\u0142atka warzywna\" or \"Jarzynowa\" - Vegetable salad which is a traditional Polish side dish with cooked vegetables such as parsley root, carrot, potatoes, celery root, pickled cucumbers in brine and hard-cooked eggs in mayonnaise and mustard. In salad can also often be corn, peas, apple, onion or leek and red kidney beans even.\n*\"Kapusta zasma\u017cana\" - Sauerkraut or white cabbage pan-fried with onions and spices, often with fried bacon.\n*\"Kapusta na g\u0119sto\" - Braised white cabbage with onions, dill and double cream.\n*\"Sur\u00f3wka\" - This term is used for any type of salad made of raw vegetables with drizzle of vinegar, oil, sour cream or yoghurt.\n*\"Sa\u0142atka\" - Term used for any salad made of cooked vegetables, usually with mayonnaise.\n*\"Sa\u0142atka burakowa/buraczki tarte\" - Cooked and grated beetroot salad, can be made warm or cold.\n*\"\u0106wik\u0142a\" - Cooked and grated beetroots with horseradish paste and lemon juice.\n*\"Fasolka szparagowa z czosnkiem\" - Green beans with garlic and butter/oil, originated in Italy.\n*\"Kalafior/fasolka szparagowa/brukselka z bu\u0142k\u0105 tart\u0105\" - Cooked cauliflower/green beans or Brussels sprouts with polonaise sauce. The sauce is made of fried breadcrumbs in butter.\n*\"Broku\u0142/kalafior z sosem czosnkowym\" - Cooked broccoli/cauliflower with garlic sauce.\n*\"Og\u00f3rek kiszony\" - Polish pickled cucumber, it's fermented in brine consisting of dill and dill flower, garlic, salt and spices.\n*\"Og\u00f3rek konserwowy\" - Pickled cucumber in vinegar, which is rather sweet and vinegary in taste.\n*\"Grzyby marynowane\" - Marinated mushrooms.\n*\"Sa\u0142atka szwedzka\" - Preserved salad made with cucumbers, onions, carrots, vinegar and spices.\n*\"Sa\u0142atka ziemniaczana\" - Potato salad originating from Germany, made with cooked potatoes, onions, pickled cucumbers, dill and mayonnaise, sometimes with added smoked bacon or herring fillets marinated in oil or vinegar.\n*\"Sa\u0142atka \u015bledziowa\" - Marinated herring salad with pickled cucumbers, onions and sour cream. Sometimes eggs and apples are added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Internationally, if a Polish culinary tradition is used in other cuisines, it is referred to as \"\u00e0 la polonaise\", from French meaning 'Polish-style.' In France, the use of butter instead of cooking oil, frying vegetables with buttered breadcrumbs, minced parsley and boiled eggs (Polonaise garnish) as well as adding horseradish, lemon juice or sour cream to sauces like Velout\u00e9 is known under this term."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Poland",
        "text": "Polish foods include kie\u0142basa, pierogi (filled with meat, potatoes, cabbage, cheese or holiday fruits), pyzy (meat-filled dough balls), kopytka, go\u0142\u0105bki (meat and rice stuffed cabbage), \u015bledzie (herring), bigos, schabowy, oscypek and much more. Traditionally, food such as soups flaki, ros\u00f3\u0142, zupa og\u00f3rkowa, zupa grzybowa (mushroom soup), \u017curek, zupa pomidorowa (tomato soup) have been prepared in large vessels intended for groups, often necessitating the use of devices such as oars in their preparation. Traditionally, hospitality is very important."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romanian cuisine",
        "text": "At Easter, lamb is served: the main dishes are \"bor\u0219 de miel\" (lamb sour soup), roast lamb, and \"drob de miel\" \u2013 a Romanian-style lamb haggis made from minced offal (heart, liver, lungs), lamb meat and spring onions with spices, wrapped in a caul and roasted. The traditional Easter cake is \"pasc\u0103\", a pie made from yeast dough with a sweet cottage cheese filling at the center."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter in Poland",
        "text": "Easter has been celebrated in Poland since the country's Christianization in the Middle Ages. During the period of Poland's partitions, it was also an important patriotic observance, reminding Poles of their culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dinkus",
        "text": "Among older Hungarian Americans and Polish Americans, \"dinkus\" is an archaic term for Easter Monday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter in Poland",
        "text": "According to a 2012 survey, about 90% of Poles observe some Easter customs, and over 50% participate in Christian Easter observances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter food",
        "text": "In Ukraine, there are several traditional Easter foods including paska (bread) and cheesecake desserts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamtramck, Michigan",
        "text": "Polish immigrants and residents of Hamtramck and southeastern Michigan celebrate T\u0142usty Czwartek (Fat Tuesday), known locally as P\u0105czki Day, by lining up at the city's numerous Polish bakeries to purchase p\u0105czki. On P\u0105czki Day, several local bars host parties with live entertainment and free p\u0105czki."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter cake",
        "text": "In Russia \"kulich\" is baked on Holy Thursday. Holy Saturday is strictly a fast day; nothing is eaten and there is a church service at midnight and Easter Mass at dawn. The \"kulich\" is blessed and it is taken home and eaten with \"paskha\" and other foods for a big breakfast with the family. According to Alan Davidson it is \"the most famous Russian Easter bread.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "\u015awi\u0119conka",
        "text": "While in some older or rural communities, the priest visits the home to bless the foods, the vast majority of Poles and Polish Americans visit the church on Holy Saturday, praying at the Tomb of the Lord (the fourteenth and final Station of the Cross). The Blessing of the Food is, however, a festive occasion. The three-part blessing prayers specifically address the various contents of the baskets, with special prayers for the meats, eggs, cakes and breads. The priest or deacon then sprinkles the individual baskets with holy water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Epiphany (holiday)",
        "text": "Poles though take small boxes containing chalk, a gold ring, incense and a piece of amber, in memory of the gifts of the Magi, to church to be blessed. Once at home, they inscribe \"K+M+B+\" and the year with the blessed chalk above every door in the house, according to tradition, to provide protection against illness and misfortune for those within. The letters, with a cross after each one, are said to stand either for the traditionally applied names of the Three Kings in Polish \u2013 Kacper, Melchior and Baltazar \u2013 or for a Latin inscription meaning \"Christ bless this house.\" They remain above the doors all year until they are inadvertently dusted off or replaced by new markings the next year. On January 6, as in much of Europe, a Polish style Three Kings cake is served with a coin or almond baked inside. The one who gets it is king or queen for the day, signified by wearing the paper crown that decorates the cake. According to Polish tradition this person will be lucky in the coming year. Recipes vary by region. Some serve a French-type puff pastry cake with almond paste filling, others favor a sponge cake with almond cream filling, and yet others enjoy a light fruitcake."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mazurek (cake)",
        "text": "The cake's name may have its origins in the Masovians (old \"Mazurzy\") tribe inhabiting the Mazovia region of central Poland. Another theory says it might originate from the word (Polish for mazurka), traditional folk dance in triple metre from Poland. A shortcrust pastry, Mazurek is considered one of the primary desserts of Easter across Poland. What distinguishes it from other festive dessert cakes is the abundance of decoration with dried fruit and nuts, its overall sweetness, and chocolate icing, contributing to its prolonged freshness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elevenses",
        "text": "In Poland the \"drugie \u015bniadanie\" (lit. \"second breakfast\") is eaten in the midmorning. Rather than a heavy chunk of sausage or other meat, though, like the German second breakfast, Poles prefer a lighter, dessert-like pastry or sweet with a hot drink, more similar to the American \"coffee break\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pierogi",
        "text": "Traditionally considered peasant food, pierogi eventually gained popularity and spread throughout all social classes, including the nobility. Cookbooks from the 17th century describe how during that era, the pierogi were considered a staple of the Polish diet, and each holiday had its own special kind of pierogi created. They have different shapes, fillings and cooking methods. Important events like weddings had their own special type of pierogi kurniki \u2013 baked pie filled with chicken. Also, pierogi were made especially for mournings or wakes, and some for caroling season in January. Baked pierogi were a typical and the most popular Christmas dish for a long time, especially on the east area. They were stuffed with potatoes, cheese, cabbage, mushrooms, buckwheat or millet. The most famous is the Bi\u0142goraj pierogi stuffed with buckwheat, potatoes and cheese and then baked in the oven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "There are many restaurants serving various Polish dishes like polish sausage, pierogies and stuffed cabbage rolls. and typical German foods like \"rippchen\", \"knackwurst\", and \"wienerschnitzel\". Traditionally, potato salad and kraut were served alongside an entree of bratwurst or ham hocks. A side of \"spaetzle\" and red cabbage would accompany \"sauerbraten\" or \"rouladen\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The oldest mention of Easter eggs in Polish literature comes from the 13th-century Chronica Polonorum, i.e. the history of Poland by Wincenty Kad\u0142ubek. The text tells about an interesting game with Easter eggs - as well as about the supposedly capricious nature of Poles themselves: \"Since ancient times, Poles have always been envious and played with their masters as if they were painted eggs\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "S\u0142ubice",
        "text": "The officially protected traditional food of S\u0142ubice and the county is \"schab tradycyjny s\u0142ubicki\", a local type of smoked \"schab\" (pork loin), a popular traditional Christmas dish in the area (as designated by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Poland)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Bread (\"chleb\") and bread rolls (bu\u0142ka (bread roll), Bajgiel, Rogal, Bu\u0142ka paryska) makes the Polish cuisine and tradition complete. It has been an essential part of them both for centuries. Today bread remains one of the most important foods in the Polish cuisine. The main ingredient for Polish bread is rye or wheat. Traditional bread has a crunchy crust, is soft but not too soft inside, and has unforgettable aroma. Such bread is made with sourdough, which lends it a distinctive taste. It can be stored for a week or so without getting too hard and is not crumbly when cut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "Polish food is also prominent in the region, including popular dishes such as pierogi, borscht, and \"p\u0105czki\". Bakeries concentrated in the Polish enclave of Hamtramck, Michigan, within the city, are celebrated for their \"p\u0105czki,\" especially on Fat Tuesday. Hungarian food is featured in nearby eastern Toledo, Ohio with Tony Packo's Hungarian hot dog, a form of \"kolb\u00e1sz\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Observance of Christmas by country",
        "text": "Carp provides a main component of the Christmas Eve meal across Poland; carp fillet, carp in aspic etc. Universal Polish Christmas foods are pierogi as well as some herring dishes, herring fillets, herring in aspic and for dessert, makowiec or noodles with poppy seed. Often, there is a compote of dry fruits for a drink. etc. Dishes beside fish are usually cabbage-, forest mushroom- (like boletus) and poppyseed-based, with herring being very important. After supper the Star Man arrives attended by the Star Boys. They are dressed as Wise Men or animals or other figures. The Star Man examines the children in their catechism and rewards them with small presents if they do well, even if they need a bit of coaching. The Star Boys sing carols and are given a treat for their help. The feast begins with the appearance of the first star. The meal is followed by the exchange of gifts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Toru\u0144 gingerbread",
        "text": "\"Pierniki Toru\u0144skie\", as they are known in Polish, are an icon of Poland's national cuisine. They have traditionally been presented as a gift by the city of Toru\u0144 to Polish leaders, artists and others who have distinguished themselves in Polish society, and to Polish kings. Baking molds survive with likenesses of king Sigismund III of Poland, king W\u0142adys\u0142aw IV Vasa and Queen Cecilia Renata as well as the royal seal with the Polish eagle and crests of several provinces. Other notables who have received gift gingerbread from the city include Marie Casimire Louise (French princess and widow of King John III Sobieski), Napol\u00e9on Bonaparte (during whose visit the whole city was illuminated and bells were rung all over the city), Zygmunt Krasi\u0144ski (one of Poland's Three Bards), painter Jan Matejko, actress Helena Modjeska, Marshal J\u00f3zef Pi\u0142sudski, pianist Artur Rubinstein, poet Czes\u0142aw Mi\u0142osz, Lech Wa\u0142\u0119sa and Pope John Paul II."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rahmans",
        "text": "Since Rahmans live in isolation and have no year computation of their own, they have no way of knowing when Easter comes. It is for this reason that Romanians and Ukrainians eat dyed eggs and let the shells flow downstream, from there they believe they will get to the Rahmans. There is a custom in Oster, Lityn, and Lutsk districts to throw egg shells into the river on Easter Eve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christmas Eve",
        "text": "A tradition similar to Italy (\"Wigilia\", or 'Christmas Vigil') exists in Poland. The number of dishes is traditionally 12, but has been an odd number in the past. According to the \"S\u0142ownik etymologiczny j\u0119zyka polskiego\" (\"Etymological Dictionary of the Polish Language\") by Aleksander Br\u00fcckner, the number of dishes was traditionally related to social class: the peasants' vigil consisted of 5 or 7 dishes, the gentry usually had 9, and the aristocracy, 11 dishes, but the even number 12 is also found today to remember the Twelve Apostles. It is obligatory to try a portion of all of them. Some traditions specify that the number of guests cannot be odd."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kassler",
        "text": "Also a similar dish, \"baleron\", is eaten in Poland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bigos",
        "text": "According to Polish food historian Maria Dembi\u0144ska, ' may derive from a medieval dish known in Latin as ', or \"mixture\". It was made from various vegetables, such as cabbage, chard and onions, that were chopped or shredded, layered inside an earthenware three-legged Dutch oven and braised or baked. A remnant of this old procedure may be found in a ' recipe, in which bacon and cabbage are arranged in layers, from the 19th-century Russian cookbook, \"A Gift to Young Housewives\" by Elena Molokhovets. Similar, layered dishes of medieval origin exist in other European cuisines; they include the Italian ' (known in 16th-century Poland under the Polonized name, ') and the Alsatian ' (also known as '), made from cabbage, leftover meats and fruits. They are reminiscent of a rustic Polish casserole, known in various regions as ', etc. It is traditionally made from sliced or diced potatoes, onions, carrots, sausages and bacon arranged in layers inside a cast-iron cauldron greased with lard and lined with cabbage leaves, which is placed in bonfire embers for baking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "With the fall of communism in Poland in 1989, a wave of new restaurants opened and the basic foodstuffs were once again easily obtainable. This led to a gradual return of rich traditional Polish cuisine, both in home cooking and in restaurants. At the same time, restaurants and supermarkets promoted the use of ingredients typical of other cuisines of the world. Among the most notable foods that started to become common in Poland were cucurbits, zucchini and all kinds of fish. During communist times, these were available fresh mostly in the seaside regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "The original doughnuts, popular until the 16th century, were made of the same dough as bread, would be filled with pork and fried on \"smalec\". Only later were they made as patisserie."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish Americans",
        "text": "During the 1950s\u20131970s, the Polish wedding was often an all-day event. Traditional Polish weddings in Chicago metropolitan area, in areas such as the southeast side of Chicago, inner suburbs like Calumet City and Hegewisch, and Northwest Indiana suburbs, such as Whiting, Hammond and East Chicago, always occurred on Saturdays. The receptions were typically held in a large hall, such as a VFW Hall. A polka band of drums, a singer, accordion, and trumpet, entertained the people, as they danced traditional dances, such as the oberek, \"Polish Hop\" and the waltz. The musicians, as well as the guests, were expected to enjoy ample amounts of both food and drink. Foods, such as Polish sausage, sauerkraut, pierogi and kluski were common. Common drinks were beer, screwdrivers and highballs. Many popular Polish foods became a fixture in the American cuisine of today, including kie\u0142basa (Polish sausage), babka cake, kaszanka, pierogi, and, especially around the time of Ash Wednesday and the beginning of Lent, p\u0105czki doughnuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Twelve-dish Christmas Eve supper",
        "text": "Boiled or deep fried dumplings (Polish: pierogi, Ukrainian: \u0432\u0430\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438, varenyky, Lithuanian: ausel\u0117s) with a wide variety of fillings (including cabbage or sauerkraut, mushrooms and crushed poppy seeds), are among the most popular dishes. Doughnuts filled with jam (Polish: p\u0105czki, Ukrainian: \u043f\u0430\u043c\u043f\u0443\u0448\u043a\u0438, pampushky) are served for dessert in Poland and western Ukraine, but in Lithuania sweet dishes are not common, as they are believed to be inappropriate for the solemn atmosphere of the evening."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter in Poland",
        "text": "Easter in Poland, a public holiday, is one of that country's major holidays, often compared in importance to Christmas. Associated with it are many specific customs and traditions."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Was Poland affected the potatoe famine that brought immigrants to the United States?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you wanting to know about the Great Famine (Ireland), Scotland's Highland Potato Famine?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the Great Famine in Ireland."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Great Famine in Ireland, also known as the Great Hunger, the Famine (mostly within Ireland) or the Irish Potato Famine (mostly outside Ireland), was a period of mass starvation and disease in Ireland from 1845 to 1852."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What caused the famine to start?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The proximate cause of the famine was a potato blight, which infected potato crops throughout Europe during the 1840s, causing an additional 100,000 deaths outside Ireland and influencing much of the unrest in the widespread European Revolutions of 1848."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were the European Revolutions of 1848?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Springtime of the Peoples[2] or the Springtime of Nations, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe starting in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history to date."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Back to Polish cuisine, what do Polish eat on Fat Thursday?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "On Fat Thursday, Polish eat sweets and cakes before the forty days of abstinence expected of Catholics until Easter Day, with the most popular sweetmeats being p\u0105czki, Polish doughnuts, \"faworki\", sometimes called, \"chrust\", equivalent to the French beignet. Traditional Polish doughnuts are filled with rose petal jam, plum jam or apple and covered with icing with orange peel or powdered with icing sugar."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What do the Polish eat on Easter Day?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "A typical Easter breakfast often consists of cold-cuts served with horseradish sauce and beet salads, breads, bigos, \u017curek, kie\u0142basa, smoked salmon or herring, marinated vegetable salads, Easter salad (chopped boiled eggs, green peas, \u0107wik\u0142a, carrot, apple, potato, parsley and mayonnaise) coffee, tea and cakes, i.e. chocolate cake, makowiec, mazurek, sernik, etc.",
      "A typical Easter breakfast often consists of cold-cuts served with horseradish sauce and beet salads, breads, bigos, \u017curek, kie\u0142basa, smoked salmon or herring, marinated vegetable salads, Easter salad (chopped boiled eggs, green peas, \u0107wik\u0142a, carrot, apple, potato, parsley and mayonnaise) coffee, tea and cakes, i.e. chocolate cake, makowiec, mazurek, sernik, etc."
    ],
    "topic": "Polish cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Polish cuisine:28",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Polish cuisine",
          "Holiday meals",
          "Easter breakfast"
        ],
        "ctx": "A typical Easter breakfast often consists of cold-cuts served with horseradish sauce and beet salads, breads, bigos, \u017curek, kie\u0142basa, smoked salmon or herring, marinated vegetable salads, Easter salad (chopped boiled eggs, green peas, \u0107wik\u0142a, carrot, apple, potato, parsley and mayonnaise) coffee, tea and cakes, i.e. chocolate cake, makowiec, mazurek, sernik, etc."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Polish cuisine:28",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Polish cuisine",
          "Holiday meals",
          "Easter breakfast"
        ],
        "ctx": "A typical Easter breakfast often consists of cold-cuts served with horseradish sauce and beet salads, breads, bigos, \u017curek, kie\u0142basa, smoked salmon or herring, marinated vegetable salads, Easter salad (chopped boiled eggs, green peas, \u0107wik\u0142a, carrot, apple, potato, parsley and mayonnaise) coffee, tea and cakes, i.e. chocolate cake, makowiec, mazurek, sernik, etc."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee can be found on every continent except Antarctica. The species is believed to have originated in Africa or Asia, and it spread naturally through Africa, the Middle East and Europe. Humans are responsible for its considerable additional range, introducing European subspecies into North America (early 1600s), South America, Australia, New Zealand, and eastern Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee or European honey bee (\"Apis mellifera\") is the most common of the 7\u201312 species of honey bees worldwide. The genus name \"Apis\" is Latin for \"bee\", and \"mellifera\" is the Latin for \"honey-bearing\", referring to the species' production of honey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "\"A. mellifera\", the most common domesticated species, was the third insect whose genome was mapped. It seems to have originated in eastern tropical Africa and spread from there to Europe and eastwards into Asia to the Tian Shan range. It is variously called the European, western, or common honey bee in different parts of the world. Many subspecies have adapted to the local geographic and climatic environments; in addition, breeds such as the Buckfast bee have been bred. Behavior, color, and anatomy can be quite different from one subspecies or even strain to another."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee was one of the first domesticated insects, and it is the primary species maintained by beekeepers to this day for both its honey production and pollination activities. With human assistance, the western honey bee now occupies every continent except Antarctica. Western honey bees are threatened by pests and diseases, especially the \"Varroa\" mite and colony collapse disorder. There are indications that the species is rare, if not extinct in the wild and as of 2019, the western honey bee is listed as \"Extinct\" on the IUCN Red List, while also acknowledging \"Data Deficient\". Numerous studies indicate that the species has undergone significant declines in Europe; however, it is not clear if they refer to population reduction of wild or managed colonies. Further research is required to enable differentiation between wild and non-wild colonies in order to determine the conservation status of the species in the wild, meaning self sustaining, without treatments or management."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Humans have been collecting honey from western honey bees for thousands of years, with evidence in the form of rock art found in France and Spain, dating to around 7,000 BCE. The western honey bee is one of the few invertebrate animals to have been domesticated. Bees were likely first domesticated in ancient Egypt, where tomb paintings depict beekeeping. Europeans brought bees to North America in 1622."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "\"A. mellifera\" phylogeny is the most enigmatic of all honey bee species. It seems to have diverged from its eastern relatives only during the Late Miocene. This would fit the hypothesis that the ancestral stock of cave-nesting honey bees was separated into the western group of East Africa and the eastern group of tropical Asia by desertification in the Middle East and adjacent regions, which caused declines of food plants and trees that provided nest sites, eventually causing gene flow to cease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Primarily in places where western honey bees were imported by humans, periodic collapses in western honey bee populations have occurred at least since the late 19th century. Starting in the first decade of the 21st century, abnormally high die-offs (30\u201370% of hives) of western honey bee colonies have occurred in North America. This has been dubbed \"colony collapse disorder\" (CCD) and was at first unexplained. It seems to be caused by a combination of factors rather than a single pathogen or poison, possibly including neonicotinoid pesticides or Israeli acute paralysis virus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "As of October 28, 2006, the Honey Bee Genome Sequencing Consortium fully sequenced and analyzed the genome of \"Apis mellifera,\" the western honey bee. Since 2007, attention has been devoted to colony collapse disorder, a decline in western honey bee colonies in a number of regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "The Western honey bee is native to the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. As of the early 1500s, the Apis mellifera iberiensis was introduced to the Americas, with subsequent introductions of other European subspecies three centuries later. Since then, they have spread throughout the Americas. The 28 subspecies can be assigned to one of four major branches based on work by Ruttner and subsequently confirmed by analysis of mitochondrial DNA. African subspecies are assigned to branch A, northwest European subspecies to branch M, southwest European subspecies to branch C, and Mideast subspecies to branch O. The subspecies are grouped and listed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee is a colonial insect which is housed, transported by and sometimes fed by beekeepers. Honey bees do not survive and reproduce individually, but as part of the colony (a superorganism)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Honey bees appear to have their center of origin in South and Southeast Asia (including the Philippines), as all the extant species except \"Apis mellifera\" are native to that region. Notably, living representatives of the earliest lineages to diverge (\"Apis florea\" and \"Apis andreniformis\") have their center of origin there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee is an important pollinator of crops; this service accounts for much of the species' commercial value. In 2005, the estimated commercial value of western honey bees was just under $200\u00a0billion worldwide. A large number of the crop species farmed worldwide depend on it. Although orchards and fields have increased in size, wild pollinators have dwindled. In a number of regions the pollination shortage is addressed by migratory beekeepers, who supply hives during a crop bloom and move them after the blooming period. Commercial beekeepers plan their movements and wintering locations according to anticipated pollination services. At higher latitudes it is difficult (or impossible) to overwinter sufficient bees, or to have them ready for early blooming plants. Much migration is seasonal, with hives wintering in warmer climates and moving to follow the bloom at higher latitudes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bombus occidentalis",
        "text": "\"Bombus occidentalis\" was once one of the most common bee species in the North West America. They have been found from the Mediterranean California all the way up to the Tundra regions of Alaska, making them one of the bees with the widest range geographic range. However, recently there has been a noticeable decline in population. In the past decade, the population of \"B. occidentalis\" has dropped by around 40.32%. The disappearance of these bees have been especially significant in California, western Oregon, and western Washington. The range and persistence of \"B. occidentalis\" has also gone down by around 20%. Some scientists point to the rise of \"Nosema\", a parasite, as the reason for the decline in population. Others say that the population decline could have come because of the invasion of European honey bees. A recent study in 2016 suggests that the Western bumblebee population is rebounding, possibly due to evolutionary development of resistance to \"Nosema\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "\"Apis cerana\", the eastern honey bee proper, is the traditional honey bee of southern and eastern Asia. One of its subspecies, the Indian honey bee (\"A.\u00a0c.\u00a0indica\"), was domesticated and kept in hives in a fashion similar to \"A. mellifera\", though on a more limited, regional scale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Honey bees are not native to the Americas, arriving with colonists in North America in the 18th century. Thomas Jefferson mentioned this in his \"Notes on the State of Virginia\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Megachile perihirta",
        "text": "Megachile perihirta, commonly known as the Western leafcutting bee, is a bee in the genus \"Megachile\". The bee is native to western North America, ranging from Nebraska to Texas and Mexico, west to California, and north to British Columbia and Alberta, and often inhabits meadows and orchards. The bee is black with long whitish-yellow hair, more so below the thorax and abdomen. The abdomen, however, is mostly bare, although each segment has scattered whitish hair. The wings of the Western leafcutting bee are clear, while their veins are black. The pollen basket below the abdomen is bright red."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "There is some degree of variability of sociality between individuals. Like a great many other social insects, \"A. mellifera\" engages in trophallaxis. When the duration of trophallaxis pairings was measured, it was found that like human social interactions, there are durable long-term trends for each individual bee. There is less inter-individual variation than found in humans however, possibly reflecting the higher genetic relatedness between hivemates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "The best known honey bee is the western honey bee (\"Apis mellifera\"), which has been domesticated for honey production and crop pollination; the only other domesticated bee is the eastern honey bee (\"Apis cerana\"), which occurs in South Asia. Some other types of related bees produce and store honey, and have been kept by humans for that purpose, including the stingless bees, but only members of the genus \"Apis\" are true honey bees. Modern humans also value the wax for use in making candles, soap, lip balms, and various cosmetics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Unlike most other bee species, western honey bees have perennial colonies which persist year after year. Because of this high degree of sociality and permanence, western honey bee colonies can be considered superorganisms. This means that reproduction of the colony, rather than individual bees, is the biologically significant unit. Western honey bee colonies reproduce through a process called \"swarming\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee is the third insect whose genome has been mapped, and is unusual in having very few transposons. According to the scientists who analyzed its genetic code, the western honey bee originated in Africa and spread to Eurasia in two ancient migrations. They have also discovered that the number of genes in the honey bee related to smell outnumber those for taste. The genome sequence revealed several groups of genes, particularly the genes related to circadian rhythms, were closer to vertebrates than other insects. Genes related to enzymes that control other genes were also vertebrate-like."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Honey bees have become an invasive species in the US, outcompeting native pollinators when resources are tight. With an increased number of honey bees in a specific area due to beekeeping, domesticated bees and native wild bees often have to compete for the limited habitat and food sources available. Western honey bees may become defensive in response to the seasonal arrival of competition from other colonies, particularly Africanized bees which may be on the offence and defence year round due to their tropical origin. In the United Kingdom, honey bees are known to compete with native bumblebees such as \"Bombus hortorum\", because they forage at the same sites. To resolve the issue and maximize both their total consumption during foraging, bumblebees forage early in the morning, while honey bees forage during the afternoon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "With an increased number of honey bees in a specific area due to beekeeping, Western honey bees (as an invasive species) and native wild bees often have to compete for the limited habitat and food sources available, and Western honey bees may become defensive in response to the seasonal arrival of competition from other colonies, particularly Africanized bees which may be on the offence and defence year round due to their tropical origin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "No crops originating in the New World depend on the western honey bee (\"Apis mellifera\") at all, as the bee is an invasive species brought over with colonists in the last few centuries. Tomatoes, peppers, squash, and all other New World crops evolved with native pollinators such as squash bees, bumble bees and other native bees. The stingless bees mentioned by Jefferson are distant relatives of the honey bees, in the genus \"Melipona\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amegilla quadrifasciata",
        "text": "These bees have a wide distribution ranging from the Canary Islands in the west to Japan in the east. They are present in most of central and southern Europe, in central Asia and in North Africa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "A. m. iberiensis haplotype is present in the honey bees of the western United States where the honey bees are not native and they were introduced from Spain during the conquest of America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Like all honey bee species, the western honey bee is eusocial, creating colonies with a single fertile female (or \"queen\"), many normally non-reproductive females or \"workers\", and a small proportion of fertile males or \"drones\". Individual colonies can house tens of thousands of bees. Colony activities are organized by complex communication between individuals, through both pheromones and the dance language."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bees adapted to the local environments as they spread geographically. These adaptations include synchronizing colony cycles to the timing of local flower resources, forming a winter cluster in colder climates, migratory swarming in Africa, and enhanced foraging behavior in desert areas. All together, these variations resulted in 31 recognized subspecies, all of which are cross-fertile. The subspecies are divided into four major branches, based on work by Ruttner and confirmed by mitochondrial DNA analysis. African subspecies belong to branch A, northwestern European subspecies branch M, southwestern European subspecies branch C and Middle-Eastern subspecies branch O."
      },
      {
        "title": "East African lowland honey bee",
        "text": "The East African lowland honey bee (\"Apis mellifera scutellata\") is a subspecies of the western honey bee. It is native to central, southern and eastern Africa, though at the southern extreme it is replaced by the Cape honey bee (\"Apis mellifera capensis\"). This subspecies has been determined to constitute one part of the ancestry of the Africanized bees (also known as \"killer bees\") spreading through North and South America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bee populations face threats to their survival increasing interests into other pollinator species, like the common eastern bumblebee. North American and European populations were severely depleted by \"Varroa\" mite infestations during the early 1990s, and U.S. beekeepers were further affected by colony collapse disorder in 2006 and 2007. Improved cultural practices and chemical treatments against \"Varroa\" mites saved most commercial operations; new bee breeds are beginning to reduce beekeeper dependence on acaricides. Feral bee populations were greatly reduced during this period; they are slowly recovering, primarily in mild climates, due to natural selection for \"Varroa\" resistance and repopulation by resistant breeds. Although it is generally believed that insecticides have also depleted bee populations, particularly when used in excess of label directions, as bee pests and diseases (including American foulbrood and tracheal mites) are becoming resistant to medications, research in this regard has not been conclusive. A 2012 study of the effect of neonicotinoid-based insecticides showed \"no effects observed in field studies at field-realistic dosages.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Eucera longicornis",
        "text": "This bee occurs in the Palearctic realm, ranging from Western Europe to as far east as Siberia and China. In Britain it is patchily distributed in southern England and Wales. In favoured locations it can be quite numerous and tends to nest in aggregations. It typically is present near the coast in bare areas and short turf, in open grassy areas in woodland and sometimes on heathlands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Insect predators of western honey bees include the Asian giant hornet and other wasps, robber flies, dragonflies such as the green darner, some mantises, water striders and the European beewolf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee is native to the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. As of the early 1600s, it was introduced to North America, with subsequent introductions of other European subspecies 200 years later. Since then, they have spread throughout the Americas. The 29\u00a0subspecies can be assigned to one of four major branches based on work by Ruttner and subsequently confirmed by analysis of mitochondrial DNA. African subspecies are assigned to branch\u00a0A, northwestern European subspecies to branch\u00a0M, southwestern European subspecies to branch\u00a0C, and Mideast subspecies to branch\u00a0O. The subspecies are grouped and listed. There are still regions with localized variations that may become identified subspecies in the near future, such as \"A. m. pomonella\" from the Tian Shan Mountains, which would be included in the Mideast subspecies branch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Halictus ligatus",
        "text": "\"Halictus ligatus\" is one of the most abundant and readily identifiable bees in North America, encompassing a wide range of aridities and altitudes. The species can be found in North American for about 50 degrees north latitude, south to the West Indies and Colombia. \"H. ligatus\" is also located in temperate areas of the Atlantic to the Pacific, including the southern Gulf of Mexico and southern Canada This vast range of distribution contributes to local distinctions in behavior, colony cycle, and colony demographic as a result of variation in environmental pressures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "The Western honey bee is the third insect to have its genome mapped."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "As an invasive species, feral western honey bees are a significant environmental problem in non-native areas. Imported bees may displace native bees and birds, and may also promote reproduction of invasive plants ignored by native pollinators."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bombus huntii",
        "text": "This species has experienced declines, but it is still one of the more common bees of western North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hylaeus longiceps",
        "text": "This bee occurs in coastal and lowland dry shrubland. There are 3 populations on Lanai and one each on Maui, Molokai, and Oahu. The population sizes are not known. Much of its known habitat has been developed or degraded, and its host plants no longer grow in the area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The very generalized nature of the honey bee's nectar-gathering activities, potentially visiting dozens of different species in a single day, means that a flower visited by a honey bee will often get very little pollen from its own species. This diminished pollination can reduce the plant's ability to produce seeds, especially when the honey bees are squeezing out the native pollinators for a species, a problem occurring all over the United States because of honey bees and other invasive species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Mammals that sometimes take western honey bees include bears, opossums, raccoons, skunks, the North American least shrew and the honey badger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "Western honey bees differentiated into geographic subspecies as they spread from Asia into Europe and Africa. There are currently 28 recognized subspecies of \"Apis mellifera\" based largely on these geographic variations. All subspecies are cross fertile. Geographic isolation led to numerous local adaptations as this species spread after the last ice age. These adaptations include brood cycles synchronized with the bloom period of local flora, forming a winter cluster in colder climates, migratory swarming in Africa, enhanced foraging behavior in desert areas, and numerous other inherited traits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Female bees are diploid and have 32 chromosomes, whereas males are haploid and have only 16."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biota of Tokyo Imperial Palace",
        "text": "18 families and 128 species of vespinae were confirmed, including Vespinae and honeybees. Most honeybees are \"Apis cerana japonica\" Rad, which is common in Japan. The reason why western honey bees are smaller in number might be that \"Apis cerane japonica\" has resistance to larger Vespinae."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera intermissa",
        "text": "In Spanish honey bee populations, mtDNA haplotypes of African bee strains were found to be frequently present (Smith 1991, Garnery \"et al\" 1995) (Cornuet \"et al\" 1975, 1978, 1982, 1988; Ruttner 1988; Cornuet and Fresnaye 1989; Orante-Bermejos and Garcia-Fernandez 1995; Hepburn and Radloff 1996). Migrating honey bee populations formed the original colonies of honey bees in western Europe, landing to eventually populate the continent from Africa across the Straits of Gibraltar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eufriesea surinamensis",
        "text": "These bees are commonly found in the neotropical regions throughout Mexico, Central America and South America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bee\n--Distribution and habitat.\n--Life cycle.\n----Colony life cycle.\n----Individual bee life cycle.\n--Social caste.\n----Queens.\n----Workers.\n----Drones.\n--Queen-worker conflict.\n--Behavior.\n----Thermoregulation.\n----Communication.\n------Pheromones.\n----Sociality.\n--Domestication.\n--Beekeeping.\n----Honey bees.\n----Pollination.\n----Honey.\n----Beeswax.\n----Bee bread.\n----Bee brood.\n----Propolis.\n----Royal jelly.\n--Genome.\n--Hazards and survival.\n----Parasites, diseases and pesticides.\n----Milkweed.\n----Predators.\n--As an environmental threat.\n--Close relatives.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bombus ternarius",
        "text": "Before the introduction of western honey bees, bumblebees were the only honey-producing bees in North America; however, only small quantities are produced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Reptile and amphibian predators of western honey bees include the black girdled lizard, anoles, and other lizards, and various anuran amphibians including the American toad, the American bullfrog and the wood frog."
      },
      {
        "title": "Schwarziana quadripunctata",
        "text": "Members of this species are fairly common in their large South American region, with nests containing over several thousand members each. However, their population is believed to have declined by nearly sixty-five percent (65%) over the past few decades due to competition with the introduced Africanized honeybees along with human deforestation. This decline is projected to continue into the future."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bees are an important model organism in scientific studies, particularly in the fields of social evolution, learning, and memory; they are also used in studies of pesticide toxicity, especially via pollen, to assess non-target impacts of commercial pesticides."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "These modifications, along with artificial change of location, have improved western honey bees from the point of view of the beekeeper, and simultaneously made them more dependent on beekeepers for their survival. In Europe, cold weather survival was likely selected for, consciously or not, while in Africa, selection probably favoured the ability to survive heat, drought, and heavy rain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hemipenthes morio",
        "text": "This common 'bee-fly' is mainly present in most of Europe, the eastern Palearctic realm, the Near East, and the Nearctic realm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Throughout the rest of the growing season, the colony produces many workers, who gather pollen and nectar as cold-season food; the average population of a healthy hive in midsummer may be as high as 40,000 to 80,000 bees. Nectar from flowers is processed by worker bees, who evaporate it until the moisture content is low enough to discourage mold, transforming it into honey, which can then be capped over with wax and stored almost indefinitely. In the temperate climates to which western honey bees are adapted, the bees gather in their hive and wait out the cold season, during which the queen may stop laying. During this time, activity is slow, and the colony consumes its stores of honey used for metabolic heat production in the cold season. In mid- through late winter, the queen starts laying again. This is probably triggered by day length. Depending on the subspecies, new queens (and swarms) may be produced every year, or less frequently, depending on local environmental conditions and a number of characteristics inside the hive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera adansonii",
        "text": "Apis mellifera adansonii (Western African bee) is a subspecies of the Western honey bee with probably the largest range of Apis mellifera in Africa, belonging to the A (Africa) Lineage of honey bees. Originally identified by Michael Adansonin in his \"Histoire naturelle du Seneegal\" in 1757. Initially the name \"adsansonii\" was misapplied to \"A. m. scutelleta\" and in particular to the Africanised bees of South America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pyrobombus",
        "text": "\"Pyrobombus\" bees are commonly widespread in the Northern Hemisphere and covers close to 50% of North American fauna. Most \"Pyrobombus\" bee species are experiencing habitat loss, with a few endangered in certain geographical locations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bombus vosnesenskii",
        "text": "Although historical data for insect distribution is sparse in western North America, it is clear that \"Bombus vosnesenskii\" is not experiencing a population decline; it is amongst the most common bee species on the West Coast of the United States, and the most common bumble bee from Oregon northward. The nesting distribution ranges from British Columbia to Baja California. Historically, \"Bombus occidentalis\", the so-called \"western bumble bee\" was the most common species, with a distribution all the way from California to British Columbia and Alaska, but diseases introduced by commercial rearing operations in the eastern United States brought coastal populations of B. occidentallis to the brink of extinction, and \"B. vosnesenskii\" has filled the gap. \"B. vosnesenskii\"'s success in the vacuum left by \"B. occidentalis\" has not been the perfect story of nature finding balance after disturbance, however; in the San Francisco area, the frequency of \"B. vosnesenskii\" appearances to inversely correlate with the species richness of bees in the area, indicating that \"B. vosnesenskii\" outcompetes other bee species for space and resources. This may be due to the species' early emergence during the season, allowing it to overtake and monopolize available nest spaces. The bee nests underground, primarily in colony sizes of about 200-300 workers. While it is not currently in population decline, studies have shown that the \"B.\" \"vosnesenskii\" experiences reduced nesting density in urbanized landscapes. In a case study from Santa Barbara, CA - researchers found that local grassland restoration can help support provide habitat refugia for these species in urbanized areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Least honeyguide",
        "text": "It is found in Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ivory Coast, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Liberia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, South Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, and Zambia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Pheromones (substances involved in chemical communication) are essential to honey bee survival. Western honey bees rely on pheromones for nearly all behaviors, including mating, alarm, defense, orientation, kin and colony recognition, food production and integrating colony activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "East African lowland honey bee",
        "text": "The native habitat of \"Apis mellifera scutellata\" includes the southern and eastern regions of Africa. The species was first imported across the Atlantic Ocean to Brazil before it spread to Central America, South America, and southern areas of the United States. The Africanized honey bee thrives in tropical areas and is not well adapted for cold areas that receive heavy rainfall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apiary",
        "text": "In recent years US honey production has dropped and the U.S. imports 16% of the world's honey. Internationally, the largest honey producing exporters are China, Germany, and Mexico. As in the United States the location of apiaries varies internationally depending on available resources and the operational need. For more information on nation-specific beekeeping see their respective articles, such as the Beekeeping in Nepal article."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carniolan honey bee",
        "text": "The Carniolan honey bee (\"Apis mellifera carnica\", Pollmann) is a subspecies of the western honey bee. The Carniolan honey bee is native to Slovenia, southern Austria, and parts of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stingless bee",
        "text": "Stingless bees can be found in most tropical or subtropical regions of the world, such as Australia, Africa, Southeast Asia, and tropical America. The majority of native eusocial bees of Central and South America are stingless bees, although only a few of them produce honey on a scale such that they are farmed by humans. They are also quite diverse in Africa, including Madagascar, and are farmed there also; meliponine honey is prized as a medicine in many African communities, as well as in South America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Eastern \"Apis\" species include three or four\u00a0species, including \"A. koschevnikovi\", \"Apis nigrocincta\", and \"A. cerana\". The genetics of the western honey bee (\"A. mellifera\") are unclear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "On the other hand, P. R. Oxley and B. P. Oldroyd (2010) consider the domestication of western honey bees, at best, partial. Oldroyd observes that the lack of full domestication is somewhat surprising, given that people have kept bees for at least 7,000 years. Instead, beekeepers have found ways to manage bees using hives, while the bees remain \"largely unchanged from their wild cousins\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "\"Apis florea\" and \"Apis andreniformis\" are small honey bees of southern and southeastern Asia. They make very small, exposed nests in trees and shrubs. Their stings are often incapable of penetrating human skin, so the hive and swarms can be handled with minimal protection. They occur largely sympatrically, though they are very distinct evolutionarily and are probably the result of allopatric speciation, their distribution later converging."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beekeeping in the United States",
        "text": "Western honey bees are not native to the Americas. American colonists imported honey bees from Europe for their honey and wax. Their value as pollinators began to be appreciated by the end of the nineteenth century. The first honey bee subspecies imported were likely European dark bees. Later Italian bees, Carniolan honey bees and Caucasian bees were added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Leslie Bailey and B. V. Ball, in their book \"Honey Bee Pathology\", call western honey bees \"feral insects\", in contrast to the domestic silkmoth (\"Bombyx mori\") which they call \"the only insect that has been domesticated\", and refer to the \"popular belief among many biologists as well as beekeepers that bees are domesticated\". They argue that western honey bees are able to survive without human help, and in fact require to \"be left at liberty\" to survive. Further, they argue that even if bees could be raised away from the wild, they would still have to fly freely to gather nectar and pollinate plants. Therefore, they argue, beekeeping is \"the exploitation of colonies of a wild insect\", with little more than the provision of a weatherproof cavity for them to nest in. Likewise, Pilar de la Rua and colleagues argue that western honey bees are not fully domesticated, because \"endemic subspecies-specific genetic footprints can still be identified in Europe and Africa\", making conservation of wild bee diversity important. Further, they argue that the difficulty of controlling drones for mating is a serious handicap and a sign that domestication is not complete, in particular as \"extensive gene flow usually occurs between wild/feral and managed honeybee populations\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Under ordinary circumstances, if the queen dies or is removed, reproduction in workers increases because a significant proportion of workers then have activated ovaries. The workers produce a last batch of drones before the hive collapses. Although during this period worker policing is usually absent, in certain groups of bees it continues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bee",
        "text": "Bees are found on every continent except for Antarctica, in every habitat on the planet that contains insect-pollinated flowering plants. The most common bees in the Northern Hemisphere are the Halictidae, or sweat bees, but they are small and often mistaken for wasps or flies. Bees range in size from tiny stingless bee species, whose workers are less than long, to \"Megachile pluto\", the largest species of leafcutter bee, whose females can attain a length of ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana japonica",
        "text": "Beekeepers in Japan attempted to introduce western honey bees (\"Apis mellifera\") for the sake of their high productivity. However, western honey bees have no innate defense against Asian giant hornets, which can rapidly destroy their colonies. Japanese honey bees, having evolved alongside the Asian giant hornet, have numerous defensive strategies against the hornets and so are also used in apiculture in the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "A new study in 2020 found that neonicotinoid insecticides affected the developmental stability of honey bees, particularly haploid males were more susceptible to neonicotinoids than diploid females. The 2020 study also found that heterozygosity may play a key role in buffering insecticide exposure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cape honey bee",
        "text": "In December 2008 American foulbrood disease spread to the Cape honey bee population in the Western Cape infecting and wiping out an estimated forty percent of the region's honey bee population by 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "The genome is unusual in having very few transposons. According to the scientists who analysed its genetic code, the western honey bee originated in Africa and spread to Europe in two ancient migrations. They have also discovered that the number of genes in the honey bees related to smell outnumber those for taste. The genome sequence revealed several groups of genes, particularly the genes related to circadian rhythms, were closer to vertebrates than other insects. Genes related to enzymes that control other genes were also vertebrate-like."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis dorsata",
        "text": "Apis dorsata, the giant honey bee, is a honey bee of South and Southeast Asia, found mainly in forested areas such as the Terai of Nepal. They are typically around long. Nests are mainly built in exposed places far off the ground, like on tree limbs, under cliff overhangs, and sometimes on buildings. These social bees are known for their aggressive defense strategies and vicious behavior when disturbed. Though not domesticating it, indigenous peoples have traditionally used this species as a source of honey and beeswax, a practice known as honey hunting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bees collect flower nectar and convert it to honey, which is stored in the hive. The nectar, transported in the bees' stomachs, is converted with the addition of digestive enzymes and storage in a honey cell for partial dehydration. Nectar and honey provide the energy for the bees' flight muscles and for heating the hive during the winter. Western honey bees also collect pollen which, after being processed to bee bread, supplies protein and fat for the bee brood to grow. Centuries of selective breeding by humans have created western honey bees which produce far more honey than the colony needs, and beekeepers (also known as apiarists) harvest the surplus honey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Since 2018 a new version of the honey bee genome is available on NCBI (Amel_HAv3.1, BioProject ID: PRJNA471592). This assembly contains full chromosome length scaffolds, which means that the sequence data for each chromosome is contiguous, and not split between multiple pieces called scaffolds. The existence of a highly contiguous reference genome for a species enables more detailed investigations of evolutionary processes that affect the genome as well as more accurate estimations of for example differentiation between populations and diversity within populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "In California, almond pollination occurs in February, early in the growing season before local hives have built up their populations. Almond orchards require two hives per acre, or per hive, for maximum yield, and pollination is dependent on the importation of hives from warmer climates. Almond pollination (in February and March in the U.S.) is the largest managed pollination event in the world, requiring more than one-third of all managed honey bees in the country. Bees are also moved en masse for pollination of apples in New York, Michigan, and Washington. Despite honey bees' inefficiency as blueberry pollinators, large numbers are moved to Maine because they are the only pollinators who can be easily moved and concentrated for this and other monoculture crops. Bees and other insects maintain flower constancy by transferring pollen to other biologically specific plants; this prevents flower stigmas from being clogged with pollen from other species. In 2000, Drs. Roger Morse and Nicholas Calderone of Cornell University attempted to quantify the effects of the western honey bee on only US food crops. Their calculations came up with a figure of US$14.6\u00a0billion in food crop value."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Arachnid predators of western honey bees include fishing spiders, lynx spiders, goldenrod spiders and St. Andrew's cross spiders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Beekeepers have selected western honey bees for several desirable features:\n* the ability of a colony to survive periods with little food\n* the ability of a colony to survive cold weather\n* resistance to disease\n* increased honey production\n* reduced aggressiveness\n* reduced tendency to swarm\n* reduced nest building\n* easy pacification with smoke"
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee is the third insect, after the fruit fly and the mosquito, whose genome has been mapped. According to scientists who analyzed its genetic code, the honey bee originated in Africa and spread to Europe in two ancient migrations. Scientists have found that genes related to smell outnumber those for taste, and the European honey bee has fewer genes regulating immunity than the fruit fly and the mosquito. The genome sequence also revealed that several groups of genes, particularly those related to circadian rhythm, resembled those of vertebrates more than other insects. Another significant finding from the honey bee genome study was that the western honey bee was the first insect to be discovered with a functional DNA methylation system since functional key enzymes (DNA methyltransferase-1 and -3) were identified in the genome. DNA methylation is one of the important mechanisms in epigenetics to study gene expression and regulation without changing the DNA sequence, but modifications on DNA activity. DNA methylation later was identified to play an important role in gene regulation and gene splicing. The genome is unusual in having few transposable elements, although they were present in the evolutionary past (remains and fossils have been found) and evolved more slowly than those in fly species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hylaeus sanguinipictus",
        "text": "Hylaeus sanguinipictus is a bee species endemic to Western Australia. It was described in 1914 from material collected in Yallingup by Theodore Dru Alison Cockerell as \"Prosopis sanguinipicta\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Regardless of the trigger, workers develop the larvae into queens by continuing to feed them royal jelly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colony collapse disorder",
        "text": "Honey bees are not native to the Americas, therefore their necessity as pollinators in the U.S. and other regions in the Western Hemisphere is limited to strictly agricultural and ornamental uses, as no native plants require honey bee pollination, except where concentrated in monoculture situations\u2014where the pollination need is so great at bloom time that pollinators must be concentrated beyond the capacity of native bees (with current technology)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Utah",
        "text": "In February 2009, Africanized honeybees were found in southern Utah. The bees had spread into eight counties in Utah, as far north as Grand and Emery counties by May 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Apart from \"Apis mellifera\", there are six other species in the genus \"Apis\". These are \"Apis andreniformis\", \"Apis cerana\", \"Apis dorsata\", \"Apis florea\", \"Apis koschevnikovi\", and \"Apis nigrocincta\". These species all originated in southern and southeastern Asia. Only \"Apis mellifera\" is thought to have originated in Europe, Asia, and Africa.\n*Apitherapy\n*Bee bearding\n*Beeline\n*Characteristics of common wasps and bees\n*Worker policing\n* A. I. Root's The ABC and XYZ of Beekeeping\n* Molecular confirmation of a fourth lineage in honeybees from the Near East Apidologie 31 (2000) 167\u2013180, accessed Oct 2005\n*Biesmeijer, Jacobus. \"The Occurrence and Context of the Shaking Signal in Honey Bees (\"Apis mellifera\") Exploiting Natural Food Sources\". \"Ethology\". 2003.\n*Lindauer, Martin. \"Communication among social bees\". Harvard University Press 1971.\n*Schneider, S. S., P. K. Visscher, Camazine, S. \"Vibration Signal Behavior of Waggle-dancers in Swarms of the Honey Bee, \"Apis mellifera\" (Hymenoptera: Apidae). \"Ethology\". 1998.\n*FAO: Beekeeping explained\n*FAO: Honeybee anatomy\n* IFAS: \"Apis mellifera\"\n* Sound recordings of \"Apis mellifera\" at BioAcoustica"
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana japonica",
        "text": "Apis cerana japonica is a subspecies of the eastern honey bee native to Japan. It is commonly known as the . This subspecies was determined, through an analysis of mitochondrial DNA, to have originally come from the Korean peninsula. They have been observed moving into urban areas in the absence of natural predators."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera jemenitica",
        "text": "The Apis mellifera jemenitica (Arabian or Nubian Honey Bee) is a subspecies of the western honey bee. It is native to the southern Arabian Peninsula, south of the Sahara, Sudan and Somalia. Based on morphological studies by Friedrich Ruttner, it is classified as a tropical African bee group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hylaeus (bee)",
        "text": "In Australia, the presence of commercial honey bees has been found to reduce the fecundity of the endemic \"Hylaeus alcyoneus\", with 23% less nests being made when honey bees were present."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Like other insects that undergo complete metamorphosis, the western honey bee has four distinct life stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult. The complex social structure of western honey bee hives means that all of these life stages occur simultaneously throughout much of the year. The queen deposits a single egg into each cell of a honeycomb prepared by worker bees. The egg hatches into a legless, eyeless larva fed by \"nurse\" bees (worker bees who maintain the interior of the colony). After about a week, the larva is sealed in its cell by the nurse bees and begins its pupal stage. After another week, it emerges as an adult bee. It is common for defined regions of the comb to be filled with young bees (also called \"brood\"), while others are filled with pollen and honey stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beehive",
        "text": "Honey bees use caves, rock cavities and hollow trees as natural nesting sites. In warmer climates they may occasionally build exposed hanging nests; members of other subgenera have exposed aerial combs. The nest is composed of multiple honeycombs, parallel to each other, with a relatively uniform bee space. It usually has a single entrance. Western honey bees prefer nest cavities approximately 45 litres in volume and avoid those smaller than 10 or larger than 100 litres. Western honey bees show several nest-site preferences: the height above ground is usually between and , entrance positions tend to face downward, equatorial-facing entrances are favored, and nest sites over from the parent colony are preferred. Bees usually occupy nests for several years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caucasian honey bee",
        "text": "In Turkey, beekeepers purposefully bring hives of \"Apis mellifera caucasia\" to areas of dense \"Rhododendron ponticum\" blooms to purposefully sequester grayanotoxin laden honey called \"mad honey.\" This coveted novelty honey is referred to as \"deli bal\" and is neurotoxic. These bees are also less susceptible than \"Apis m. mellifera\" to acute exposure to Imidacloprid, a neurotoxic pesticide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beekeeping in the United States",
        "text": "Western honey bees were also brought from the Primorsky Krai in Russia by Ukrainian settlers around the 1850s. These Russian honey bees that are similar to the Carniolan bee were imported into the U.S. in 1997. The Russian honey bee has shown to be more resistant to the bee parasites \"Varroa destructor\" and \"Acarapis woodi\", although their commercial use and availability are extremely limited in scope because other, better strains are available (e.g., VSH lines)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Honey bees are one of the products of a beehive. They can be purchased as mated queens, in spring packages of a queen along with two to five pounds (0.91 to 2.27\u00a0kg) of honey bees, as nucleus colonies (which include frames of brood), or as full colonies. Commerce of western honey bees dates back to as early as 1622, when the first colonies of bees were shipped from England to Virginia. Modern methods of producing queens and dividing colonies for increase date back to the late 1800s. Honey was extracted by killing off the hive, and bees and bee products were mainly an object of local trade. The first commercial beekeeper in the United States is considered Moses Quinby of New York, who experimented with movable box hives, which allow extraction without killing the hive. The improvements in roads and motor vehicles after World War I allowed commercial beekeepers to expand the size of their businesses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee life cycle",
        "text": "The honey bee life cycle, here referring exclusively to the domesticated Western honey bee, depends greatly on their social structure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brown honeyeater",
        "text": "The brown honeyeater population is declining in the Wheatbelt region of Western Australia as a result of the clearing of native vegetation. Numbers are increasing in urban areas, particularly in parks and gardens and around farms; however, the new habitats have increased the incidences of death from cats, cars and collisions with windows. Overall the population is sufficiently large and widespread for the brown honeyeater to be considered by the IUCN to be of least concern for conservation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Unlike native bees, they do not properly extract or transfer pollen from plants with pore anthers (anthers which only release pollen through tiny apical pores); this requires buzz pollination, a behavior rarely exhibited by honey bees. Honey bees reduce fruiting in \"Melastoma affine\", a plant with pore anthers, by robbing its stigmas of previously deposited pollen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Specialist bird predators of western honey bees include the bee-eaters; other birds that may take western honey bees include grackles, hummingbirds, tyrant flycatchers and the summer tanager. Most birds that eat bees do so opportunistically; however, summer tanagers will sit on a limb and catch dozens of bees from the hive entrance as they emerge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "\"Apis mellifera\" is not native to the Americas, so it was not present when the European explorers and colonists arrived. However, other native bee species were kept and traded by indigenous peoples. In 1622, European colonists brought the German honey bee (\"A. m. mellifera\") to the Americas first, followed later by the Italian honey bee (\"A. m. ligustica\") and others. Many of the crops that depend on western honey bees for pollination have also been imported since colonial times. Escaped swarms (known as \"wild\" honey bees, but actually feral) spread rapidly as far as the Great Plains, usually preceding the colonists. Honey bees did not naturally cross the Rocky Mountains; they were transported by the Mormon pioneers to Utah in the late 1840s, and by ship to California in the early 1850s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera adami",
        "text": "Western Cretan beehives are constructed of terracotta, wood and wicker. On the east of the island the hives are always ceramic. (Baumann 1993: 166).\n* Bee domestication and Beekeeping"
      },
      {
        "title": "Amegilla dawsoni",
        "text": "The \"Amegilla dawsoni\" is located only in Australia. The bees can be found in the arid regions on the Western half of the continent. They are widespread across this region, with the northern and southernmost extremes of their mating and nesting distributions being approximately 700 kilometers apart. This region is known for its limited and randomly distributed rainfall, which can result in a resource deficit of flowering plants. In this case, the bee has been known to migrate north and south along its distribution to nest in better-suited environments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hesperapis regularis",
        "text": "This bee is native to California, and inhabits meadows, fields, and gardens, where it visits only flowers in the genus \"Clarkia\". Numerous native species of \"Clarkia\" are found in California chaparral and woodlands, montane, and valley habitats."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where in the world is the honey bee most prevalent?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Were you inquiring about the Philippine honeybee, Africanized honey bee or the Western honey bee?",
      "Would you like to know about the africanized honey bee,  western honey bee, Koschevnikov's honey bee, eastern honey bee, or the philippine honey bee?"
    ],
    "topic": "Western honey bee",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Western honey bee:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Western honey bee"
        ],
        "ctx": "The western honey bee or European honey bee (\"Apis mellifera\") is the most common of the 7\u201312 species of honey bees worldwide. The genus name \"Apis\" is Latin for \"bee\", and \"mellifera\" is the Latin for \"honey-bearing\", referring to the species' production of honey."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Africanized bee:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Africanized bee"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Africanized bee, also known as the Africanized honey bee and known colloquially as the \"killer bee\", is a hybrid of the western honey bee (\"Apis mellifera\"), produced originally by crossbreeding of the East African lowland honey bee (\"A.\u00a0m.\u00a0scutellata\") with various European honey bee subspecies such as the Italian honey bee (\"A.\u00a0m.\u00a0ligustica\") and the Iberian honey bee (\"A.\u00a0m.\u00a0iberiensis\")."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Apis nigrocincta:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Apis nigrocincta"
        ],
        "ctx": "Apis nigrocincta is a species of honey bee that inhabits the Philippine island of Mindanao as well as the Indonesian islands of Sangihe and Sulawesi. The species is known to have queens with the highest mating frequencies of any species of the tribe Apini."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Honey bee:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Honey bee"
        ],
        "ctx": "A honey bee (also spelled honeybee) is a eusocial flying insect within the genus \"Apis\" of the bee clade, all native to Eurasia. They are known for their construction of perennial colonial nests from wax, the large size of their colonies, and surplus production and storage of honey, distinguishing their hives as a prized foraging target of many animals, including honey badgers, bears and human hunter-gatherers. Only eight surviving species of honey bee are recognized, with a total of 43 subspecies, though historically 7 to 11 species are recognized. Honey bees represent only a small fraction of the roughly 20,000 known species of bees."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee or European honey bee (\"Apis mellifera\") is the most common of the 7\u201312 species of honey bees worldwide. The genus name \"Apis\" is Latin for \"bee\", and \"mellifera\" is the Latin for \"honey-bearing\", referring to the species' production of honey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee can be found on every continent except Antarctica. The species is believed to have originated in Africa or Asia, and it spread naturally through Africa, the Middle East and Europe. Humans are responsible for its considerable additional range, introducing European subspecies into North America (early 1600s), South America, Australia, New Zealand, and eastern Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "As of October 28, 2006, the Honey Bee Genome Sequencing Consortium fully sequenced and analyzed the genome of \"Apis mellifera,\" the western honey bee. Since 2007, attention has been devoted to colony collapse disorder, a decline in western honey bee colonies in a number of regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "\"A. mellifera\", the most common domesticated species, was the third insect whose genome was mapped. It seems to have originated in eastern tropical Africa and spread from there to Europe and eastwards into Asia to the Tian Shan range. It is variously called the European, western, or common honey bee in different parts of the world. Many subspecies have adapted to the local geographic and climatic environments; in addition, breeds such as the Buckfast bee have been bred. Behavior, color, and anatomy can be quite different from one subspecies or even strain to another."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "\"A. mellifera\" phylogeny is the most enigmatic of all honey bee species. It seems to have diverged from its eastern relatives only during the Late Miocene. This would fit the hypothesis that the ancestral stock of cave-nesting honey bees was separated into the western group of East Africa and the eastern group of tropical Asia by desertification in the Middle East and adjacent regions, which caused declines of food plants and trees that provided nest sites, eventually causing gene flow to cease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee was one of the first domesticated insects, and it is the primary species maintained by beekeepers to this day for both its honey production and pollination activities. With human assistance, the western honey bee now occupies every continent except Antarctica. Western honey bees are threatened by pests and diseases, especially the \"Varroa\" mite and colony collapse disorder. There are indications that the species is rare, if not extinct in the wild and as of 2019, the western honey bee is listed as \"Extinct\" on the IUCN Red List, while also acknowledging \"Data Deficient\". Numerous studies indicate that the species has undergone significant declines in Europe; however, it is not clear if they refer to population reduction of wild or managed colonies. Further research is required to enable differentiation between wild and non-wild colonies in order to determine the conservation status of the species in the wild, meaning self sustaining, without treatments or management."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee is a colonial insect which is housed, transported by and sometimes fed by beekeepers. Honey bees do not survive and reproduce individually, but as part of the colony (a superorganism)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Humans have been collecting honey from western honey bees for thousands of years, with evidence in the form of rock art found in France and Spain, dating to around 7,000 BCE. The western honey bee is one of the few invertebrate animals to have been domesticated. Bees were likely first domesticated in ancient Egypt, where tomb paintings depict beekeeping. Europeans brought bees to North America in 1622."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "The Western honey bee is native to the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. As of the early 1500s, the Apis mellifera iberiensis was introduced to the Americas, with subsequent introductions of other European subspecies three centuries later. Since then, they have spread throughout the Americas. The 28 subspecies can be assigned to one of four major branches based on work by Ruttner and subsequently confirmed by analysis of mitochondrial DNA. African subspecies are assigned to branch A, northwest European subspecies to branch M, southwest European subspecies to branch C, and Mideast subspecies to branch O. The subspecies are grouped and listed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Honey bees appear to have their center of origin in South and Southeast Asia (including the Philippines), as all the extant species except \"Apis mellifera\" are native to that region. Notably, living representatives of the earliest lineages to diverge (\"Apis florea\" and \"Apis andreniformis\") have their center of origin there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "The best known honey bee is the western honey bee (\"Apis mellifera\"), which has been domesticated for honey production and crop pollination; the only other domesticated bee is the eastern honey bee (\"Apis cerana\"), which occurs in South Asia. Some other types of related bees produce and store honey, and have been kept by humans for that purpose, including the stingless bees, but only members of the genus \"Apis\" are true honey bees. Modern humans also value the wax for use in making candles, soap, lip balms, and various cosmetics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Unlike most other bee species, western honey bees have perennial colonies which persist year after year. Because of this high degree of sociality and permanence, western honey bee colonies can be considered superorganisms. This means that reproduction of the colony, rather than individual bees, is the biologically significant unit. Western honey bee colonies reproduce through a process called \"swarming\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "\"Apis cerana\", the eastern honey bee proper, is the traditional honey bee of southern and eastern Asia. One of its subspecies, the Indian honey bee (\"A.\u00a0c.\u00a0indica\"), was domesticated and kept in hives in a fashion similar to \"A. mellifera\", though on a more limited, regional scale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "No crops originating in the New World depend on the western honey bee (\"Apis mellifera\") at all, as the bee is an invasive species brought over with colonists in the last few centuries. Tomatoes, peppers, squash, and all other New World crops evolved with native pollinators such as squash bees, bumble bees and other native bees. The stingless bees mentioned by Jefferson are distant relatives of the honey bees, in the genus \"Melipona\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Primarily in places where western honey bees were imported by humans, periodic collapses in western honey bee populations have occurred at least since the late 19th century. Starting in the first decade of the 21st century, abnormally high die-offs (30\u201370% of hives) of western honey bee colonies have occurred in North America. This has been dubbed \"colony collapse disorder\" (CCD) and was at first unexplained. It seems to be caused by a combination of factors rather than a single pathogen or poison, possibly including neonicotinoid pesticides or Israeli acute paralysis virus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Eastern \"Apis\" species include three or four\u00a0species, including \"A. koschevnikovi\", \"Apis nigrocincta\", and \"A. cerana\". The genetics of the western honey bee (\"A. mellifera\") are unclear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "The Western honey bee is the third insect to have its genome mapped."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "There is some degree of variability of sociality between individuals. Like a great many other social insects, \"A. mellifera\" engages in trophallaxis. When the duration of trophallaxis pairings was measured, it was found that like human social interactions, there are durable long-term trends for each individual bee. There is less inter-individual variation than found in humans however, possibly reflecting the higher genetic relatedness between hivemates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Like all honey bee species, the western honey bee is eusocial, creating colonies with a single fertile female (or \"queen\"), many normally non-reproductive females or \"workers\", and a small proportion of fertile males or \"drones\". Individual colonies can house tens of thousands of bees. Colony activities are organized by complex communication between individuals, through both pheromones and the dance language."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee is the third insect whose genome has been mapped, and is unusual in having very few transposons. According to the scientists who analyzed its genetic code, the western honey bee originated in Africa and spread to Eurasia in two ancient migrations. They have also discovered that the number of genes in the honey bee related to smell outnumber those for taste. The genome sequence revealed several groups of genes, particularly the genes related to circadian rhythms, were closer to vertebrates than other insects. Genes related to enzymes that control other genes were also vertebrate-like."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "Western honey bees differentiated into geographic subspecies as they spread from Asia into Europe and Africa. There are currently 28 recognized subspecies of \"Apis mellifera\" based largely on these geographic variations. All subspecies are cross fertile. Geographic isolation led to numerous local adaptations as this species spread after the last ice age. These adaptations include brood cycles synchronized with the bloom period of local flora, forming a winter cluster in colder climates, migratory swarming in Africa, enhanced foraging behavior in desert areas, and numerous other inherited traits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bee\n--Distribution and habitat.\n--Life cycle.\n----Colony life cycle.\n----Individual bee life cycle.\n--Social caste.\n----Queens.\n----Workers.\n----Drones.\n--Queen-worker conflict.\n--Behavior.\n----Thermoregulation.\n----Communication.\n------Pheromones.\n----Sociality.\n--Domestication.\n--Beekeeping.\n----Honey bees.\n----Pollination.\n----Honey.\n----Beeswax.\n----Bee bread.\n----Bee brood.\n----Propolis.\n----Royal jelly.\n--Genome.\n--Hazards and survival.\n----Parasites, diseases and pesticides.\n----Milkweed.\n----Predators.\n--As an environmental threat.\n--Close relatives.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bees adapted to the local environments as they spread geographically. These adaptations include synchronizing colony cycles to the timing of local flower resources, forming a winter cluster in colder climates, migratory swarming in Africa, and enhanced foraging behavior in desert areas. All together, these variations resulted in 31 recognized subspecies, all of which are cross-fertile. The subspecies are divided into four major branches, based on work by Ruttner and confirmed by mitochondrial DNA analysis. African subspecies belong to branch A, northwestern European subspecies branch M, southwestern European subspecies branch C and Middle-Eastern subspecies branch O."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Female bees are diploid and have 32 chromosomes, whereas males are haploid and have only 16."
      },
      {
        "title": "East African lowland honey bee",
        "text": "The East African lowland honey bee (\"Apis mellifera scutellata\") is a subspecies of the western honey bee. It is native to central, southern and eastern Africa, though at the southern extreme it is replaced by the Cape honey bee (\"Apis mellifera capensis\"). This subspecies has been determined to constitute one part of the ancestry of the Africanized bees (also known as \"killer bees\") spreading through North and South America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "With an increased number of honey bees in a specific area due to beekeeping, Western honey bees (as an invasive species) and native wild bees often have to compete for the limited habitat and food sources available, and Western honey bees may become defensive in response to the seasonal arrival of competition from other colonies, particularly Africanized bees which may be on the offence and defence year round due to their tropical origin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee is an important pollinator of crops; this service accounts for much of the species' commercial value. In 2005, the estimated commercial value of western honey bees was just under $200\u00a0billion worldwide. A large number of the crop species farmed worldwide depend on it. Although orchards and fields have increased in size, wild pollinators have dwindled. In a number of regions the pollination shortage is addressed by migratory beekeepers, who supply hives during a crop bloom and move them after the blooming period. Commercial beekeepers plan their movements and wintering locations according to anticipated pollination services. At higher latitudes it is difficult (or impossible) to overwinter sufficient bees, or to have them ready for early blooming plants. Much migration is seasonal, with hives wintering in warmer climates and moving to follow the bloom at higher latitudes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "On the other hand, P. R. Oxley and B. P. Oldroyd (2010) consider the domestication of western honey bees, at best, partial. Oldroyd observes that the lack of full domestication is somewhat surprising, given that people have kept bees for at least 7,000 years. Instead, beekeepers have found ways to manage bees using hives, while the bees remain \"largely unchanged from their wild cousins\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera intermissa",
        "text": "In Spanish honey bee populations, mtDNA haplotypes of African bee strains were found to be frequently present (Smith 1991, Garnery \"et al\" 1995) (Cornuet \"et al\" 1975, 1978, 1982, 1988; Ruttner 1988; Cornuet and Fresnaye 1989; Orante-Bermejos and Garcia-Fernandez 1995; Hepburn and Radloff 1996). Migrating honey bee populations formed the original colonies of honey bees in western Europe, landing to eventually populate the continent from Africa across the Straits of Gibraltar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Since 2018 a new version of the honey bee genome is available on NCBI (Amel_HAv3.1, BioProject ID: PRJNA471592). This assembly contains full chromosome length scaffolds, which means that the sequence data for each chromosome is contiguous, and not split between multiple pieces called scaffolds. The existence of a highly contiguous reference genome for a species enables more detailed investigations of evolutionary processes that affect the genome as well as more accurate estimations of for example differentiation between populations and diversity within populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "A. m. iberiensis haplotype is present in the honey bees of the western United States where the honey bees are not native and they were introduced from Spain during the conquest of America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bees are an important model organism in scientific studies, particularly in the fields of social evolution, learning, and memory; they are also used in studies of pesticide toxicity, especially via pollen, to assess non-target impacts of commercial pesticides."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The very generalized nature of the honey bee's nectar-gathering activities, potentially visiting dozens of different species in a single day, means that a flower visited by a honey bee will often get very little pollen from its own species. This diminished pollination can reduce the plant's ability to produce seeds, especially when the honey bees are squeezing out the native pollinators for a species, a problem occurring all over the United States because of honey bees and other invasive species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Honey bees have become an invasive species in the US, outcompeting native pollinators when resources are tight. With an increased number of honey bees in a specific area due to beekeeping, domesticated bees and native wild bees often have to compete for the limited habitat and food sources available. Western honey bees may become defensive in response to the seasonal arrival of competition from other colonies, particularly Africanized bees which may be on the offence and defence year round due to their tropical origin. In the United Kingdom, honey bees are known to compete with native bumblebees such as \"Bombus hortorum\", because they forage at the same sites. To resolve the issue and maximize both their total consumption during foraging, bumblebees forage early in the morning, while honey bees forage during the afternoon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Pheromones (substances involved in chemical communication) are essential to honey bee survival. Western honey bees rely on pheromones for nearly all behaviors, including mating, alarm, defense, orientation, kin and colony recognition, food production and integrating colony activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Honey bees are not native to the Americas, arriving with colonists in North America in the 18th century. Thomas Jefferson mentioned this in his \"Notes on the State of Virginia\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee is native to the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. As of the early 1600s, it was introduced to North America, with subsequent introductions of other European subspecies 200 years later. Since then, they have spread throughout the Americas. The 29\u00a0subspecies can be assigned to one of four major branches based on work by Ruttner and subsequently confirmed by analysis of mitochondrial DNA. African subspecies are assigned to branch\u00a0A, northwestern European subspecies to branch\u00a0M, southwestern European subspecies to branch\u00a0C, and Mideast subspecies to branch\u00a0O. The subspecies are grouped and listed. There are still regions with localized variations that may become identified subspecies in the near future, such as \"A. m. pomonella\" from the Tian Shan Mountains, which would be included in the Mideast subspecies branch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Megachile perihirta",
        "text": "Megachile perihirta, commonly known as the Western leafcutting bee, is a bee in the genus \"Megachile\". The bee is native to western North America, ranging from Nebraska to Texas and Mexico, west to California, and north to British Columbia and Alberta, and often inhabits meadows and orchards. The bee is black with long whitish-yellow hair, more so below the thorax and abdomen. The abdomen, however, is mostly bare, although each segment has scattered whitish hair. The wings of the Western leafcutting bee are clear, while their veins are black. The pollen basket below the abdomen is bright red."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Mammals that sometimes take western honey bees include bears, opossums, raccoons, skunks, the North American least shrew and the honey badger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Insect predators of western honey bees include the Asian giant hornet and other wasps, robber flies, dragonflies such as the green darner, some mantises, water striders and the European beewolf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee life cycle",
        "text": "The honey bee life cycle, here referring exclusively to the domesticated Western honey bee, depends greatly on their social structure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "A new study in 2020 found that neonicotinoid insecticides affected the developmental stability of honey bees, particularly haploid males were more susceptible to neonicotinoids than diploid females. The 2020 study also found that heterozygosity may play a key role in buffering insecticide exposure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera adansonii",
        "text": "Apis mellifera adansonii (Western African bee) is a subspecies of the Western honey bee with probably the largest range of Apis mellifera in Africa, belonging to the A (Africa) Lineage of honey bees. Originally identified by Michael Adansonin in his \"Histoire naturelle du Seneegal\" in 1757. Initially the name \"adsansonii\" was misapplied to \"A. m. scutelleta\" and in particular to the Africanised bees of South America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bees collect flower nectar and convert it to honey, which is stored in the hive. The nectar, transported in the bees' stomachs, is converted with the addition of digestive enzymes and storage in a honey cell for partial dehydration. Nectar and honey provide the energy for the bees' flight muscles and for heating the hive during the winter. Western honey bees also collect pollen which, after being processed to bee bread, supplies protein and fat for the bee brood to grow. Centuries of selective breeding by humans have created western honey bees which produce far more honey than the colony needs, and beekeepers (also known as apiarists) harvest the surplus honey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Apart from \"Apis mellifera\", there are six other species in the genus \"Apis\". These are \"Apis andreniformis\", \"Apis cerana\", \"Apis dorsata\", \"Apis florea\", \"Apis koschevnikovi\", and \"Apis nigrocincta\". These species all originated in southern and southeastern Asia. Only \"Apis mellifera\" is thought to have originated in Europe, Asia, and Africa.\n*Apitherapy\n*Bee bearding\n*Beeline\n*Characteristics of common wasps and bees\n*Worker policing\n* A. I. Root's The ABC and XYZ of Beekeeping\n* Molecular confirmation of a fourth lineage in honeybees from the Near East Apidologie 31 (2000) 167\u2013180, accessed Oct 2005\n*Biesmeijer, Jacobus. \"The Occurrence and Context of the Shaking Signal in Honey Bees (\"Apis mellifera\") Exploiting Natural Food Sources\". \"Ethology\". 2003.\n*Lindauer, Martin. \"Communication among social bees\". Harvard University Press 1971.\n*Schneider, S. S., P. K. Visscher, Camazine, S. \"Vibration Signal Behavior of Waggle-dancers in Swarms of the Honey Bee, \"Apis mellifera\" (Hymenoptera: Apidae). \"Ethology\". 1998.\n*FAO: Beekeeping explained\n*FAO: Honeybee anatomy\n* IFAS: \"Apis mellifera\"\n* Sound recordings of \"Apis mellifera\" at BioAcoustica"
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Behavioral and physiological differences between castes and subcastes arise from phenotypic plasticity, which relies on gene expression rather than heritable genotypic differences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Like other insects that undergo complete metamorphosis, the western honey bee has four distinct life stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult. The complex social structure of western honey bee hives means that all of these life stages occur simultaneously throughout much of the year. The queen deposits a single egg into each cell of a honeycomb prepared by worker bees. The egg hatches into a legless, eyeless larva fed by \"nurse\" bees (worker bees who maintain the interior of the colony). After about a week, the larva is sealed in its cell by the nurse bees and begins its pupal stage. After another week, it emerges as an adult bee. It is common for defined regions of the comb to be filled with young bees (also called \"brood\"), while others are filled with pollen and honey stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera intermissa",
        "text": "Apis mellifera intermissa is an African subspecies of the western honey bee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "As an invasive species, feral western honey bees are a significant environmental problem in non-native areas. Imported bees may displace native bees and birds, and may also promote reproduction of invasive plants ignored by native pollinators."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bee populations face threats to their survival increasing interests into other pollinator species, like the common eastern bumblebee. North American and European populations were severely depleted by \"Varroa\" mite infestations during the early 1990s, and U.S. beekeepers were further affected by colony collapse disorder in 2006 and 2007. Improved cultural practices and chemical treatments against \"Varroa\" mites saved most commercial operations; new bee breeds are beginning to reduce beekeeper dependence on acaricides. Feral bee populations were greatly reduced during this period; they are slowly recovering, primarily in mild climates, due to natural selection for \"Varroa\" resistance and repopulation by resistant breeds. Although it is generally believed that insecticides have also depleted bee populations, particularly when used in excess of label directions, as bee pests and diseases (including American foulbrood and tracheal mites) are becoming resistant to medications, research in this regard has not been conclusive. A 2012 study of the effect of neonicotinoid-based insecticides showed \"no effects observed in field studies at field-realistic dosages.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Carniolan honey bee",
        "text": "The Carniolan honey bee (\"Apis mellifera carnica\", Pollmann) is a subspecies of the western honey bee. The Carniolan honey bee is native to Slovenia, southern Austria, and parts of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Leslie Bailey and B. V. Ball, in their book \"Honey Bee Pathology\", call western honey bees \"feral insects\", in contrast to the domestic silkmoth (\"Bombyx mori\") which they call \"the only insect that has been domesticated\", and refer to the \"popular belief among many biologists as well as beekeepers that bees are domesticated\". They argue that western honey bees are able to survive without human help, and in fact require to \"be left at liberty\" to survive. Further, they argue that even if bees could be raised away from the wild, they would still have to fly freely to gather nectar and pollinate plants. Therefore, they argue, beekeeping is \"the exploitation of colonies of a wild insect\", with little more than the provision of a weatherproof cavity for them to nest in. Likewise, Pilar de la Rua and colleagues argue that western honey bees are not fully domesticated, because \"endemic subspecies-specific genetic footprints can still be identified in Europe and Africa\", making conservation of wild bee diversity important. Further, they argue that the difficulty of controlling drones for mating is a serious handicap and a sign that domestication is not complete, in particular as \"extensive gene flow usually occurs between wild/feral and managed honeybee populations\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biota of Tokyo Imperial Palace",
        "text": "18 families and 128 species of vespinae were confirmed, including Vespinae and honeybees. Most honeybees are \"Apis cerana japonica\" Rad, which is common in Japan. The reason why western honey bees are smaller in number might be that \"Apis cerane japonica\" has resistance to larger Vespinae."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Unlike native bees, they do not properly extract or transfer pollen from plants with pore anthers (anthers which only release pollen through tiny apical pores); this requires buzz pollination, a behavior rarely exhibited by honey bees. Honey bees reduce fruiting in \"Melastoma affine\", a plant with pore anthers, by robbing its stigmas of previously deposited pollen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Beekeepers have selected western honey bees for several desirable features:\n* the ability of a colony to survive periods with little food\n* the ability of a colony to survive cold weather\n* resistance to disease\n* increased honey production\n* reduced aggressiveness\n* reduced tendency to swarm\n* reduced nest building\n* easy pacification with smoke"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hylaeus sanguinipictus",
        "text": "Hylaeus sanguinipictus is a bee species endemic to Western Australia. It was described in 1914 from material collected in Yallingup by Theodore Dru Alison Cockerell as \"Prosopis sanguinipicta\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Regardless of the trigger, workers develop the larvae into queens by continuing to feed them royal jelly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Honey bee\n--Etymology and name.\n--Origin, systematics, and distribution.\n----Species.\n----\"Micrapis\".\n----\"Megapis\".\n----\"Apis\".\n------Koschevnikov's honey bee.\n------Philippine honey bee.\n------Eastern honey bee.\n------Western honey bee.\n------Africanized honey bee.\n--Living and fossil honey bees (Apini: \"Apis\").\n--Life cycle.\n----Winter survival.\n--Pollination.\n----Claims of human dependency.\n--Nutrition.\n--Beekeeping.\n----Colony collapse disorder.\n----Parasites.\n------\"Galleria mellonella\".\n------\"Varroa\" mites.\n--Bee products.\n----Honey.\n----Beeswax.\n----Bee bread.\n----Bees as food.\n----Propolis.\n----Royal jelly.\n--Sexes and castes.\n----Drones.\n----Workers.\n----Queens.\n----Queen-worker conflict.\n--Defense.\n----Venom.\n--Competition.\n--Communication.\n--Symbolism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera jemenitica",
        "text": "The Apis mellifera jemenitica (Arabian or Nubian Honey Bee) is a subspecies of the western honey bee. It is native to the southern Arabian Peninsula, south of the Sahara, Sudan and Somalia. Based on morphological studies by Friedrich Ruttner, it is classified as a tropical African bee group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Under ordinary circumstances, if the queen dies or is removed, reproduction in workers increases because a significant proportion of workers then have activated ovaries. The workers produce a last batch of drones before the hive collapses. Although during this period worker policing is usually absent, in certain groups of bees it continues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee is the third insect, after the fruit fly and the mosquito, whose genome has been mapped. According to scientists who analyzed its genetic code, the honey bee originated in Africa and spread to Europe in two ancient migrations. Scientists have found that genes related to smell outnumber those for taste, and the European honey bee has fewer genes regulating immunity than the fruit fly and the mosquito. The genome sequence also revealed that several groups of genes, particularly those related to circadian rhythm, resembled those of vertebrates more than other insects. Another significant finding from the honey bee genome study was that the western honey bee was the first insect to be discovered with a functional DNA methylation system since functional key enzymes (DNA methyltransferase-1 and -3) were identified in the genome. DNA methylation is one of the important mechanisms in epigenetics to study gene expression and regulation without changing the DNA sequence, but modifications on DNA activity. DNA methylation later was identified to play an important role in gene regulation and gene splicing. The genome is unusual in having few transposable elements, although they were present in the evolutionary past (remains and fossils have been found) and evolved more slowly than those in fly species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "The genome is unusual in having very few transposons. According to the scientists who analysed its genetic code, the western honey bee originated in Africa and spread to Europe in two ancient migrations. They have also discovered that the number of genes in the honey bees related to smell outnumber those for taste. The genome sequence revealed several groups of genes, particularly the genes related to circadian rhythms, were closer to vertebrates than other insects. Genes related to enzymes that control other genes were also vertebrate-like."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana japonica",
        "text": "Beekeepers in Japan attempted to introduce western honey bees (\"Apis mellifera\") for the sake of their high productivity. However, western honey bees have no innate defense against Asian giant hornets, which can rapidly destroy their colonies. Japanese honey bees, having evolved alongside the Asian giant hornet, have numerous defensive strategies against the hornets and so are also used in apiculture in the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera adami",
        "text": "A subspecies of \"Apis mellifera\" (the western honey bee),"
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Bees produce honey by collecting nectar, a clear liquid consisting of nearly 80 percent water and complex sugars. The collecting bees store the nectar in a second stomach and return to the hive, where worker bees remove the nectar. The worker bees digest the raw nectar for about 30 minutes, using digestive enzymes to break down the complex sugars into simpler ones. Raw honey is then spread in empty honeycomb cells to dry, reducing its water content to less than 20 percent. When nectar is being processed, honey bees create a draft through the hive by fanning with their wings. When the honey has dried, the honeycomb cells are sealed (capped) with wax to preserve it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bombus occidentalis",
        "text": "\"Bombus occidentalis\" was once one of the most common bee species in the North West America. They have been found from the Mediterranean California all the way up to the Tundra regions of Alaska, making them one of the bees with the widest range geographic range. However, recently there has been a noticeable decline in population. In the past decade, the population of \"B. occidentalis\" has dropped by around 40.32%. The disappearance of these bees have been especially significant in California, western Oregon, and western Washington. The range and persistence of \"B. occidentalis\" has also gone down by around 20%. Some scientists point to the rise of \"Nosema\", a parasite, as the reason for the decline in population. Others say that the population decline could have come because of the invasion of European honey bees. A recent study in 2016 suggests that the Western bumblebee population is rebounding, possibly due to evolutionary development of resistance to \"Nosema\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Arachnid predators of western honey bees include fishing spiders, lynx spiders, goldenrod spiders and St. Andrew's cross spiders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Throughout the rest of the growing season, the colony produces many workers, who gather pollen and nectar as cold-season food; the average population of a healthy hive in midsummer may be as high as 40,000 to 80,000 bees. Nectar from flowers is processed by worker bees, who evaporate it until the moisture content is low enough to discourage mold, transforming it into honey, which can then be capped over with wax and stored almost indefinitely. In the temperate climates to which western honey bees are adapted, the bees gather in their hive and wait out the cold season, during which the queen may stop laying. During this time, activity is slow, and the colony consumes its stores of honey used for metabolic heat production in the cold season. In mid- through late winter, the queen starts laying again. This is probably triggered by day length. Depending on the subspecies, new queens (and swarms) may be produced every year, or less frequently, depending on local environmental conditions and a number of characteristics inside the hive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "It has not been possible yet to resolve its relationship to the Bornean honey bee \"A. c. nuluensis\" and \"Apis nigrocincta\" from the Philippines to satisfaction; some researchers argue that these are indeed distinct species, but that \"A. cerana\" as defined is still paraphyletic, consisting of several separate species, though other researchers argue \"cerana\" is a single monophyletic species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caucasian honey bee",
        "text": "The Caucasian honey bee (\"Apis mellifera caucasia\", commonly misspelled \"caucasica\") is a subspecies of the western honey bee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Reptile and amphibian predators of western honey bees include the black girdled lizard, anoles, and other lizards, and various anuran amphibians including the American toad, the American bullfrog and the wood frog."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "While about 20,000 species of bees exist, only eight species of honey bee are recognized, with a total of 43 subspecies, although historically seven to 11 species are recognized: \"Apis andreniformis\" (the black dwarf honey bee); \"Apis cerana\" (the eastern honey bee); \"Apis dorsata\" (the giant honey bee); \"Apis florea\" (the red dwarf honey bee); \"Apis koschevnikovi\" (Koschevnikov's honey bee); \"Apis laboriosa\" (the Himalayan giant honey bee); \"Apis mellifera\" (the western honey bee); and \"Apis nigrocincta\" (the Philippine honey bee)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "These modifications, along with artificial change of location, have improved western honey bees from the point of view of the beekeeper, and simultaneously made them more dependent on beekeepers for their survival. In Europe, cold weather survival was likely selected for, consciously or not, while in Africa, selection probably favoured the ability to survive heat, drought, and heavy rain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bombus huntii",
        "text": "This species has experienced declines, but it is still one of the more common bees of western North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Koschevnikov's honey bee (\"Apis koschevnikovi\") is often referred to in the literature as the \"red bee of Sabah\"; however, \"A. koschevnikovi\" is pale reddish in Sabah State, Borneo, Malaysia, but a dark, coppery color in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, Indonesia. Its habitat is limited to the tropical evergreen forests of the Malay Peninsula, Borneo and Sumatra and they do not live in tropical evergreen rain forests which extend into Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia and Vietnam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "In Spanish bee populations, mtDNA haplotypes of African bee strains were found to be frequently present (Smith 1991, Garnery \"et al\" 1995) (Cornuet \"et al\" 1975, 1978, 1982, 1988; Ruttner 1988; Cornuet and Fresnaye 1989; Orante-Bermejos and Garcia-Fernandez 1995; Hepburn and Radloff 1996). Migrating bee populations formed the original colonies of bee in western Europe, landing to eventually populate the continent from Africa across the Straits of Gibraltar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Honey bees are one of the products of a beehive. They can be purchased as mated queens, in spring packages of a queen along with two to five pounds (0.91 to 2.27\u00a0kg) of honey bees, as nucleus colonies (which include frames of brood), or as full colonies. Commerce of western honey bees dates back to as early as 1622, when the first colonies of bees were shipped from England to Virginia. Modern methods of producing queens and dividing colonies for increase date back to the late 1800s. Honey was extracted by killing off the hive, and bees and bee products were mainly an object of local trade. The first commercial beekeeper in the United States is considered Moses Quinby of New York, who experimented with movable box hives, which allow extraction without killing the hive. The improvements in roads and motor vehicles after World War I allowed commercial beekeepers to expand the size of their businesses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "An important process that shapes the honey bee genome is meiotic recombination, the rate of which is strongly elevated in honey bees and other social insects of the Hymenoptera order compared to most other eukaryotic species except fungi and protozoa. The reason for elevated recombination rates in social Hymenoptera is not fully understood, but one theory is that it is related to their social behaviour. The increased genetic diversity resulting from high recombination rates could make the workers less vulnerable to parasites and facilitate their specialisations to different tasks in the colony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Authors do not agree on whether this degree of artificial selection constitutes genuine domestication. In 1603, John Guillim wrote \"The Bee I may well reckon a domestic insect, being so pliable to the benefit of the keeper.\" More recently, many biologists working on pollination take the domesticated status of western honey bees for granted. For example, Rachael Winfree and colleagues write \"We used crop pollination as a model system, and investigated whether the loss of a domesticated pollinator (the honey bee) could be compensated for by native, wild bee species.\" Similarly, Brian Dennis and William Kemp write: \"Although the domestication of the honey bee is closely connected to the evolution of food-based socio-economic systems in many cultures throughout the world, in current economic terms, and in the U.S. alone, the estimated wholesale value of honey, more than $317 million dollars in 2013, pales in comparison to aggregate estimated annual value of pollination services, variously valued at $11\u201315 billion.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "\"Apis mellifera\" is not native to the Americas, so it was not present when the European explorers and colonists arrived. However, other native bee species were kept and traded by indigenous peoples. In 1622, European colonists brought the German honey bee (\"A. m. mellifera\") to the Americas first, followed later by the Italian honey bee (\"A. m. ligustica\") and others. Many of the crops that depend on western honey bees for pollination have also been imported since colonial times. Escaped swarms (known as \"wild\" honey bees, but actually feral) spread rapidly as far as the Great Plains, usually preceding the colonists. Honey bees did not naturally cross the Rocky Mountains; they were transported by the Mormon pioneers to Utah in the late 1840s, and by ship to California in the early 1850s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Below bees are immobile, and above their activity slows. Western honey bees can tolerate temperatures up to for short periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Bee brood, the eggs, larvae, or pupae of honey bees, is edible and highly nutritious. Bee brood contains the same amount of protein that beef or poultry does. Bee brood is often harvested as a byproduct when the beekeeper has excess bees and does not wish to have any more."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera litorea",
        "text": "Apis mellifera litorea (East African coastal honey bee) is a subspecies of the Western honey bee with a narrow coastal range mainly on the plains of Mozambique, it belongs to the A (Africa) Lineage of honey bees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis dorsata",
        "text": "Michael S. Engel identified the following subspecies:\n*\"A. d. dorsata;\" (Indian giant honey bee), primarily from India\n*\"A. d. binghami\" ; (Indonesian giant honey bee), from Malaysia and Indonesia\n*\"A. d. breviligula\" ; (Philippine giant honey bee), from the Philippines\n*\"A. d. laboriosa\" ; (Himalayan giant honey bee), from India, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam and southern China."
      },
      {
        "title": "East African lowland honey bee",
        "text": "The native habitat of \"Apis mellifera scutellata\" includes the southern and eastern regions of Africa. The species was first imported across the Atlantic Ocean to Brazil before it spread to Central America, South America, and southern areas of the United States. The Africanized honey bee thrives in tropical areas and is not well adapted for cold areas that receive heavy rainfall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Most species have historically been cultured or at least exploited for honey and beeswax by humans indigenous to their native ranges. Only two species have been truly domesticated: \"Apis mellifera\" and \"Apis cerana\". \"A. mellifera\" has been cultivated at least since the time of the building of the Egyptian pyramids, and only that species has been moved extensively beyond its native range."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "Apis mellifera iberiensis, or the Spanish bee (commonly misspelled as \"iberica\"), is a Western honey bee subspecies native to the Iberian Peninsula. Also found in the Balearic Islands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bombus ternarius",
        "text": "Before the introduction of western honey bees, bumblebees were the only honey-producing bees in North America; however, only small quantities are produced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "The diversity of \"A. mellifera\" subspecies is probably the product of a largely Early Pleistocene radiation aided by climate and habitat changes during the last ice age. That the western honey bee has been intensively managed by humans for many millennia\u00a0\u2013 including hybridization and introductions\u00a0\u2013 has apparently increased the speed of its evolution and confounded the DNA sequence data to a point where little of substance can be said about the exact relationships of many \"A. mellifera\" subspecies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera lamarckii",
        "text": "Lamarck's honey bee or the Egyptian honey bee, Apis mellifera lamarckii, is a subspecies of honey bee native to the Nile valley of Egypt and Sudan, named after Jean-Baptiste Lamarck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Most flowering plants depend on specialized pollinators to efficiently fertilize them. Cucurbits, for example, are pollinated by squash bees that specifically visit the early-blooming male flowers before sunrise, when honey bees are inactive, and then return to pollinate the female flowers later in the day. Such symbiotic relationships also mean that the specialized pollinator will be covered mainly in its host's specific pollen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana japonica",
        "text": "Apis cerana japonica is a subspecies of the eastern honey bee native to Japan. It is commonly known as the . This subspecies was determined, through an analysis of mitochondrial DNA, to have originally come from the Korean peninsula. They have been observed moving into urban areas in the absence of natural predators."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Bees collect pollen in a pollen basket and carry it back to the hive where, after undergoing fermentation and turning into bee bread, it becomes a protein source for brood-rearing. Excess pollen can be collected from the hive; although it is sometimes consumed as a dietary supplement by humans, bee pollen may cause an allergic reaction in susceptible individuals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Megalopta genalis",
        "text": "This bee collects pollen from tropical plants in its habitat, including kapok (\"Ceiba pentandra\"), pochote (\"Pachira quinata\"), hog plums (\"Spondias\" spp.), and acacias, as well as \"Vismia baccifera\" and \"Pseudobombax septenatum\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beekeeping in the United States",
        "text": "Western honey bees are not native to the Americas. American colonists imported honey bees from Europe for their honey and wax. Their value as pollinators began to be appreciated by the end of the nineteenth century. The first honey bee subspecies imported were likely European dark bees. Later Italian bees, Carniolan honey bees and Caucasian bees were added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hylaeus (bee)",
        "text": "\"H. matamoko\" is a South Island species, found in mid- to southern montane areas. Host plants associated with these species include native \"Hebe\" spp., \"Epilobium\" spp. and \"Myosotis\" spp."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colony collapse disorder",
        "text": "Honey bees are not native to the Americas, therefore their necessity as pollinators in the U.S. and other regions in the Western Hemisphere is limited to strictly agricultural and ornamental uses, as no native plants require honey bee pollination, except where concentrated in monoculture situations\u2014where the pollination need is so great at bloom time that pollinators must be concentrated beyond the capacity of native bees (with current technology)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hylaeus longiceps",
        "text": "This bee occurs in coastal and lowland dry shrubland. There are 3 populations on Lanai and one each on Maui, Molokai, and Oahu. The population sizes are not known. Much of its known habitat has been developed or degraded, and its host plants no longer grow in the area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "\"Apis florea\" and \"Apis andreniformis\" are small honey bees of southern and southeastern Asia. They make very small, exposed nests in trees and shrubs. Their stings are often incapable of penetrating human skin, so the hive and swarms can be handled with minimal protection. They occur largely sympatrically, though they are very distinct evolutionarily and are probably the result of allopatric speciation, their distribution later converging."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera adami",
        "text": "Western Cretan beehives are constructed of terracotta, wood and wicker. On the east of the island the hives are always ceramic. (Baumann 1993: 166).\n* Bee domestication and Beekeeping"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where in the world is the honey bee most prevalent?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about the africanized honey bee,  western honey bee, Koschevnikov's honey bee, eastern honey bee, or the philippine honey bee?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I would like to know about the western honey bee."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The western honey bee or European honey bee (Apis mellifera) is the most common of the 7\u201312 species of honey bees worldwide. The western honey bee can be found on every continent except Antarctica, as they adapted to the local environments as they spread geographically.",
      "Western honey bee, A. mellifera, has many interesting aspects: it is the most common domesticated species; it has the most enigmatic phylogeny or all honey bee species; its diversity that stem from the last ice age; and it's not native to the Americas. Which of these do you want to learn more about?"
    ],
    "topic": "Western honey bee",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Western honey bee:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Western honey bee",
          "Distribution and habitat"
        ],
        "ctx": "The western honey bee can be found on every continent except Antarctica. The species is believed to have originated in Africa or Asia, and it spread naturally through Africa, the Middle East and Europe. Humans are responsible for its considerable additional range, introducing European subspecies into North America (early 1600s), South America, Australia, New Zealand, and eastern Asia."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Western honey bee:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Western honey bee"
        ],
        "ctx": "The western honey bee or European honey bee (\"Apis mellifera\") is the most common of the 7\u201312 species of honey bees worldwide. The genus name \"Apis\" is Latin for \"bee\", and \"mellifera\" is the Latin for \"honey-bearing\", referring to the species' production of honey."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Western honey bee:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Western honey bee",
          "Distribution and habitat"
        ],
        "ctx": "Western honey bees adapted to the local environments as they spread geographically. These adaptations include synchronizing colony cycles to the timing of local flower resources, forming a winter cluster in colder climates, migratory swarming in Africa, and enhanced foraging behavior in desert areas. All together, these variations resulted in 31 recognized subspecies, all of which are cross-fertile. The subspecies are divided into four major branches, based on work by Ruttner and confirmed by mitochondrial DNA analysis. African subspecies belong to branch A, northwestern European subspecies branch M, southwestern European subspecies branch C and Middle-Eastern subspecies branch O."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Honey bee:19",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Honey bee",
          "Origin, systematics, and distribution",
          "\"Apis\"",
          "Western honey bee"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"A. mellifera\", the most common domesticated species, was the third insect whose genome was mapped. It seems to have originated in eastern tropical Africa and spread from there to Europe and eastwards into Asia to the Tian Shan range. It is variously called the European, western, or common honey bee in different parts of the world. Many subspecies have adapted to the local geographic and climatic environments; in addition, breeds such as the Buckfast bee have been bred. Behavior, color, and anatomy can be quite different from one subspecies or even strain to another."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Honey bee:20",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Honey bee",
          "Origin, systematics, and distribution",
          "\"Apis\"",
          "Western honey bee"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"A. mellifera\" phylogeny is the most enigmatic of all honey bee species. It seems to have diverged from its eastern relatives only during the Late Miocene. This would fit the hypothesis that the ancestral stock of cave-nesting honey bees was separated into the western group of East Africa and the eastern group of tropical Asia by desertification in the Middle East and adjacent regions, which caused declines of food plants and trees that provided nest sites, eventually causing gene flow to cease."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Honey bee:21",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Honey bee",
          "Origin, systematics, and distribution",
          "\"Apis\"",
          "Western honey bee"
        ],
        "ctx": "The diversity of \"A. mellifera\" subspecies is probably the product of a largely Early Pleistocene radiation aided by climate and habitat changes during the last ice age. That the western honey bee has been intensively managed by humans for many millennia\u00a0\u2013 including hybridization and introductions\u00a0\u2013 has apparently increased the speed of its evolution and confounded the DNA sequence data to a point where little of substance can be said about the exact relationships of many \"A. mellifera\" subspecies."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Honey bee:22",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Honey bee",
          "Origin, systematics, and distribution",
          "\"Apis\"",
          "Western honey bee"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"Apis mellifera\" is not native to the Americas, so it was not present when the European explorers and colonists arrived. However, other native bee species were kept and traded by indigenous peoples. In 1622, European colonists brought the German honey bee (\"A. m. mellifera\") to the Americas first, followed later by the Italian honey bee (\"A. m. ligustica\") and others. Many of the crops that depend on western honey bees for pollination have also been imported since colonial times. Escaped swarms (known as \"wild\" honey bees, but actually feral) spread rapidly as far as the Great Plains, usually preceding the colonists. Honey bees did not naturally cross the Rocky Mountains; they were transported by the Mormon pioneers to Utah in the late 1840s, and by ship to California in the early 1850s."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee is the third insect whose genome has been mapped, and is unusual in having very few transposons. According to the scientists who analyzed its genetic code, the western honey bee originated in Africa and spread to Eurasia in two ancient migrations. They have also discovered that the number of genes in the honey bee related to smell outnumber those for taste. The genome sequence revealed several groups of genes, particularly the genes related to circadian rhythms, were closer to vertebrates than other insects. Genes related to enzymes that control other genes were also vertebrate-like."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "The Africanized bee, also known as the Africanized honey bee and known colloquially as the \"killer bee\", is a hybrid of the western honey bee (\"Apis mellifera\"), produced originally by crossbreeding of the East African lowland honey bee (\"A.\u00a0m.\u00a0scutellata\") with various European honey bee subspecies such as the Italian honey bee (\"A.\u00a0m.\u00a0ligustica\") and the Iberian honey bee (\"A.\u00a0m.\u00a0iberiensis\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee is native to the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. As of the early 1600s, it was introduced to North America, with subsequent introductions of other European subspecies 200 years later. Since then, they have spread throughout the Americas. The 29\u00a0subspecies can be assigned to one of four major branches based on work by Ruttner and subsequently confirmed by analysis of mitochondrial DNA. African subspecies are assigned to branch\u00a0A, northwestern European subspecies to branch\u00a0M, southwestern European subspecies to branch\u00a0C, and Mideast subspecies to branch\u00a0O. The subspecies are grouped and listed. There are still regions with localized variations that may become identified subspecies in the near future, such as \"A. m. pomonella\" from the Tian Shan Mountains, which would be included in the Mideast subspecies branch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "Although the native East African lowland honey bees (\"Apis mellifera scutellata\") are smaller and build smaller comb cells than the European honey bees, their hybrids are not smaller. Africanized honey bees have slightly shorter wings, which can only be recognized reliably by performing a statistical analysis on micro-measurements of a substantial sample."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "The Africanized honey bees in the Western Hemisphere are descended from hives operated by biologist Warwick E. Kerr, who had interbred honey bees from Europe and southern Africa. Kerr was attempting to breed a strain of bees that would produce more honey in tropical conditions than the European strain of honey bee then in use throughout North, Central and South America. The hives containing this particular African subspecies were housed at an apiary near Rio Claro, S\u00e3o Paulo, in the southeast of Brazil, and were noted to be especially defensive. These hives had been fitted with special excluder screens (called queen excluders) to prevent the larger queen bees and drones from getting out and mating with the local population of European bees. According to Kerr, in October\u00a01957 a visiting beekeeper, noticing that the queen excluders were interfering with the worker bees' movement, removed them, resulting in the accidental release of 26\u00a0Tanganyikan swarms of \"A. m. scutellata\". Following this accidental release, the Africanized honey bee swarms spread out and crossbred with local European honey bee colonies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "The East African lowland honey bee was first introduced to Brazil in 1956 in an effort to increase honey production, but 26\u00a0swarms escaped quarantine in 1957. Since then, the hybrid has spread throughout South America and arrived in North America in 1985. Hives were found in south Texas in the United States in 1990."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "The Western honey bee is native to the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. As of the early 1500s, the Apis mellifera iberiensis was introduced to the Americas, with subsequent introductions of other European subspecies three centuries later. Since then, they have spread throughout the Americas. The 28 subspecies can be assigned to one of four major branches based on work by Ruttner and subsequently confirmed by analysis of mitochondrial DNA. African subspecies are assigned to branch A, northwest European subspecies to branch M, southwest European subspecies to branch C, and Mideast subspecies to branch O. The subspecies are grouped and listed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee can be found on every continent except Antarctica. The species is believed to have originated in Africa or Asia, and it spread naturally through Africa, the Middle East and Europe. Humans are responsible for its considerable additional range, introducing European subspecies into North America (early 1600s), South America, Australia, New Zealand, and eastern Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "The first Africanized honey bees in the U.S. were discovered in 1985 at an oil field in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Bee experts theorized the colony had not traveled overland but instead \"arrived hidden in a load of oil-drilling pipe shipped from South America.\" The first permanent colonies arrived in Texas from Mexico in 1990. In the Tucson region of Arizona, a study of trapped swarms in 1994 found that only 15\u00a0percent had been Africanized; this number had grown to 90\u00a0percent by 1997."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "In Central and southern Africa there was formerly no tradition of beekeeping, and the hive was destroyed in order to harvest the honey, pollen and larvae. The bees adapted to the climate of Sub-Saharan Africa, including prolonged droughts. Having to defend themselves against aggressive insects such as ants and wasps, as well as voracious animals like the honey badger, African honey bees evolved as a subspecies group of highly defensive bees unsuitable by a number of metrics for domestic use."
      },
      {
        "title": "East African lowland honey bee",
        "text": "The East African lowland honey bee (\"Apis mellifera scutellata\") is a subspecies of the western honey bee. It is native to central, southern and eastern Africa, though at the southern extreme it is replaced by the Cape honey bee (\"Apis mellifera capensis\"). This subspecies has been determined to constitute one part of the ancestry of the Africanized bees (also known as \"killer bees\") spreading through North and South America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera adansonii",
        "text": "Apis mellifera adansonii (Western African bee) is a subspecies of the Western honey bee with probably the largest range of Apis mellifera in Africa, belonging to the A (Africa) Lineage of honey bees. Originally identified by Michael Adansonin in his \"Histoire naturelle du Seneegal\" in 1757. Initially the name \"adsansonii\" was misapplied to \"A. m. scutelleta\" and in particular to the Africanised bees of South America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "Africanized honey bees have a set of characteristics with respect to foraging behavior. Africanized honey bees begin foraging at young ages and harvest a greater quantity of pollen with respect to their European counterparts (\"Apis mellifera ligustica\"). This may be linked to the high reproductive rate of the Africanized honey bee which requires pollen to feed the greater number of larvae. Africanized honey bees are also sensitive to sucrose at lower concentrations. This adaptation causes foragers to harvest resources with low concentrations of sucrose that include water, pollen, and unconcentrated nectar. A study comparing \"A. m. scutellata\" and \"A. m. ligustica\" published by Fewell and Bertram in 2002 suggests that the differential evolution of this suite of behaviors is due to the different environmental pressures experienced by African and European subspecies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera intermissa",
        "text": "In Spanish honey bee populations, mtDNA haplotypes of African bee strains were found to be frequently present (Smith 1991, Garnery \"et al\" 1995) (Cornuet \"et al\" 1975, 1978, 1982, 1988; Ruttner 1988; Cornuet and Fresnaye 1989; Orante-Bermejos and Garcia-Fernandez 1995; Hepburn and Radloff 1996). Migrating honey bee populations formed the original colonies of honey bees in western Europe, landing to eventually populate the continent from Africa across the Straits of Gibraltar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "One of the problems with this test is that there are other subspecies, such as \"Apis mellifera iberiensis\", which also have shortened wings. This trait is hypothesized to derive from ancient hybrid haplotypes thought to have links to evolutionary lineages from Africa. Some belong to \"Apis mellifera intermissa\", but others have an indeterminate origin; the Egyptian honeybee (\"Apis mellifera lamarckii\"), present in small numbers in the southeastern U.S., has the same morphology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "The genome is unusual in having very few transposons. According to the scientists who analysed its genetic code, the western honey bee originated in Africa and spread to Europe in two ancient migrations. They have also discovered that the number of genes in the honey bees related to smell outnumber those for taste. The genome sequence revealed several groups of genes, particularly the genes related to circadian rhythms, were closer to vertebrates than other insects. Genes related to enzymes that control other genes were also vertebrate-like."
      },
      {
        "title": "East African lowland honey bee",
        "text": "The native habitat of \"Apis mellifera scutellata\" includes the southern and eastern regions of Africa. The species was first imported across the Atlantic Ocean to Brazil before it spread to Central America, South America, and southern areas of the United States. The Africanized honey bee thrives in tropical areas and is not well adapted for cold areas that receive heavy rainfall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "There are two lineages of the East African lowland subspecies (\"Apis mellifera scutellata\") in the Americas: actual matrilineal descendants of the original escaped queens and a much smaller number that are Africanized through hybridization. The matrilineal descendants carry African mtDNA, but partially European nuclear DNA, while the honey bees that are Africanized through hybridization carry European mtDNA, and partially African nuclear DNA. The matrilineal descendants are in the vast majority. This is supported by DNA analyses performed on the bees as they spread northwards; those that were at the \"vanguard\" were over 90% African mtDNA, indicating an unbroken matriline, but after several years in residence in an area interbreeding with the local European strains, as in Brazil, the overall representation of African mtDNA drops to some degree. However, these latter hybrid lines (with European mtDNA) do not appear to propagate themselves well or persist. Population genetics analysis of Africanized honey bees in the United States, using a maternally inherited genetic marker, found 12\u00a0distinct mitotypes, and the amount of genetic variation observed supports the idea that there have been multiple introductions of AHB into the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Humans have been collecting honey from western honey bees for thousands of years, with evidence in the form of rock art found in France and Spain, dating to around 7,000 BCE. The western honey bee is one of the few invertebrate animals to have been domesticated. Bees were likely first domesticated in ancient Egypt, where tomb paintings depict beekeeping. Europeans brought bees to North America in 1622."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bees adapted to the local environments as they spread geographically. These adaptations include synchronizing colony cycles to the timing of local flower resources, forming a winter cluster in colder climates, migratory swarming in Africa, and enhanced foraging behavior in desert areas. All together, these variations resulted in 31 recognized subspecies, all of which are cross-fertile. The subspecies are divided into four major branches, based on work by Ruttner and confirmed by mitochondrial DNA analysis. African subspecies belong to branch A, northwestern European subspecies branch M, southwestern European subspecies branch C and Middle-Eastern subspecies branch O."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "\"Apis mellifera\" is not native to the Americas, so it was not present when the European explorers and colonists arrived. However, other native bee species were kept and traded by indigenous peoples. In 1622, European colonists brought the German honey bee (\"A. m. mellifera\") to the Americas first, followed later by the Italian honey bee (\"A. m. ligustica\") and others. Many of the crops that depend on western honey bees for pollination have also been imported since colonial times. Escaped swarms (known as \"wild\" honey bees, but actually feral) spread rapidly as far as the Great Plains, usually preceding the colonists. Honey bees did not naturally cross the Rocky Mountains; they were transported by the Mormon pioneers to Utah in the late 1840s, and by ship to California in the early 1850s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "\"A. mellifera\" phylogeny is the most enigmatic of all honey bee species. It seems to have diverged from its eastern relatives only during the Late Miocene. This would fit the hypothesis that the ancestral stock of cave-nesting honey bees was separated into the western group of East Africa and the eastern group of tropical Asia by desertification in the Middle East and adjacent regions, which caused declines of food plants and trees that provided nest sites, eventually causing gene flow to cease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "For example, European honey bees (\"Apis mellifera ligustica\") forage at older ages and harvest less pollen and more concentrated nectar. The differences in resources emphasized during harvesting are a result of the European honey bee's sensitivity to sucrose at higher concentrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "East African lowland honey bee",
        "text": "TE Rinderer, RL Hellmich (1981). The processes of Africanization CRC press; ISBN 9780429308741"
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "In Spanish bee populations, mtDNA haplotypes of African bee strains were found to be frequently present (Smith 1991, Garnery \"et al\" 1995) (Cornuet \"et al\" 1975, 1978, 1982, 1988; Ruttner 1988; Cornuet and Fresnaye 1989; Orante-Bermejos and Garcia-Fernandez 1995; Hepburn and Radloff 1996). Migrating bee populations formed the original colonies of bee in western Europe, landing to eventually populate the continent from Africa across the Straits of Gibraltar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "A newer publication shows the genetic admixture of the Africanized honey bees in Brazil. The small number of honey bees with African ancestry that were introduced to Brazil in 1956, which dispersed and hybridized with existing managed populations of European origin and quickly spread across much of the Americas, is an example of a massive biological invasion as earlier told in this article. Here, they analysed whole\u2010genome sequences of 32\u00a0Africanized honey bees sampled from throughout Brazil to study the effect of this process on genome diversity. By comparison with ancestral populations from Europe and Africa, they infer that these samples had 84% African ancestry, with the remainder from western European populations. However, this proportion varied across the genome and they identified signals of positive selection in regions with high European ancestry proportions. These observations are largely driven by one large gene\u2010rich 1.4\u00a0Mbp segment on chromosome 11 where European haplotypes are present at a significantly elevated frequency and likely confer an adaptive advantage in the Africanized honey bee population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "Africanized honey bees are considered an invasive species in the Americas. As of 2002, the Africanized honey bees had spread from Brazil south to northern Argentina and north to Central America, Trinidad (the West Indies), Mexico, Texas, Arizona, Nevada, New Mexico, Florida, and southern California. In June\u00a02005, it was discovered that the bees had spread into southwest Arkansas. Their expansion stopped for a time at eastern Texas, possibly due to the large population of European honey bee hives in the area. However, discoveries of the Africanized honey bees in southern Louisiana show that they have gotten past this barrier, or have come as a swarm aboard a ship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "There are 29\u00a0recognized subspecies of \"Apis mellifera\" based largely on geographic variations. All subspecies are cross-fertile. Geographic isolation led to numerous local adaptations. These adaptations include brood cycles synchronized with the bloom period of local flora, forming a winter cluster in colder climates, migratory swarming in Africa, enhanced (long-distance) foraging behavior in desert areas, and numerous other inherited traits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "As the Africanized honey bee migrates further north, colonies continue to interbreed with European honey bees. In a study conducted in Arizona in 2004 it was observed that swarms of Africanized honey bees could take over weakened European honey bee hives by invading the hive, then killing the European queen and establishing their own queen. There are now relatively stable geographic zones in which either Africanized honey bees dominate, a mix of Africanized and European honey bees is present, or only non-Africanized honey bees are found, as in the southern portions of South America or northern North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "Western honey bees differentiated into geographic subspecies as they spread from Asia into Europe and Africa. There are currently 28 recognized subspecies of \"Apis mellifera\" based largely on these geographic variations. All subspecies are cross fertile. Geographic isolation led to numerous local adaptations as this species spread after the last ice age. These adaptations include brood cycles synchronized with the bloom period of local flora, forming a winter cluster in colder climates, migratory swarming in Africa, enhanced foraging behavior in desert areas, and numerous other inherited traits."
      },
      {
        "title": "East African lowland honey bee",
        "text": "African bees are \"precocious foragers\"; \"A. mellifera scutellata\" bees begin foraging for pollen significantly earlier than their European counterparts \"A. mellifera ligustica\", and this is thought to be related to the fact that African colonies have a younger, skewed age distribution by comparison. However, this is not a direct cause for the different subsistence strategies between the two subspecies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "\"A. mellifera\", the most common domesticated species, was the third insect whose genome was mapped. It seems to have originated in eastern tropical Africa and spread from there to Europe and eastwards into Asia to the Tian Shan range. It is variously called the European, western, or common honey bee in different parts of the world. Many subspecies have adapted to the local geographic and climatic environments; in addition, breeds such as the Buckfast bee have been bred. Behavior, color, and anatomy can be quite different from one subspecies or even strain to another."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "The arrival of the Africanized honey bee in Central America is threatening the ancient art of keeping \"Melipona\" stingless bees in log gums, although they do not interbreed or directly compete with each other. The honey production from an individual hive of Africanized honey bees can be as high as . This value exceeds the much smaller of the various \"Melipona\" stingless bee species. Thus economic pressures are forcing beekeepers to switch from the traditional stingless bees of their ancestors to the new reality of the Africanized honey bee. Whether this will lead to their extinction is unknown, but they are well adapted to exist in the wild, and there are a number of indigenous plants that the Africanized honey bees do not visit, so their fate remains to be seen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "Though Africanized honey bees display certain behavioral traits that make them less than desirable for commercial beekeeping, excessive defensiveness and swarming foremost, they have now become the dominant type of honey bee for beekeeping in Central and South America due to their genetic dominance as well as ability to out-compete their European counterpart, with some beekeepers asserting that they are superior honey producers and pollinators."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Africanized honey bees (known colloquially as \"killer bees\") are hybrids between European stock and the East African lowland subspecies \"A. m. scutellata\"; they are often more aggressive than European honey bees and do not create as much of a honey surplus, but are more resistant to disease and are better foragers. Accidentally released from quarantine in Brazil, they have spread to North America and constitute a pest in some regions. However, these strains do not overwinter well, so they are not often found in the colder, more northern parts of North America. The original breeding experiment for which the East African lowland honey bees were brought to Brazil in the first place has continued (though not as originally intended). Novel hybrid strains of domestic and re-domesticated Africanized honey bees combine high resilience to tropical conditions and good yields. They are popular among beekeepers in Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "As of October 28, 2006, the Honey Bee Genome Sequencing Consortium fully sequenced and analyzed the genome of \"Apis mellifera,\" the western honey bee. Since 2007, attention has been devoted to colony collapse disorder, a decline in western honey bee colonies in a number of regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Honey bees are not native to the Americas, arriving with colonists in North America in the 18th century. Thomas Jefferson mentioned this in his \"Notes on the State of Virginia\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee or European honey bee (\"Apis mellifera\") is the most common of the 7\u201312 species of honey bees worldwide. The genus name \"Apis\" is Latin for \"bee\", and \"mellifera\" is the Latin for \"honey-bearing\", referring to the species' production of honey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera jemenitica",
        "text": "The Apis mellifera jemenitica (Arabian or Nubian Honey Bee) is a subspecies of the western honey bee. It is native to the southern Arabian Peninsula, south of the Sahara, Sudan and Somalia. Based on morphological studies by Friedrich Ruttner, it is classified as a tropical African bee group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee is the third insect, after the fruit fly and the mosquito, whose genome has been mapped. According to scientists who analyzed its genetic code, the honey bee originated in Africa and spread to Europe in two ancient migrations. Scientists have found that genes related to smell outnumber those for taste, and the European honey bee has fewer genes regulating immunity than the fruit fly and the mosquito. The genome sequence also revealed that several groups of genes, particularly those related to circadian rhythm, resembled those of vertebrates more than other insects. Another significant finding from the honey bee genome study was that the western honey bee was the first insect to be discovered with a functional DNA methylation system since functional key enzymes (DNA methyltransferase-1 and -3) were identified in the genome. DNA methylation is one of the important mechanisms in epigenetics to study gene expression and regulation without changing the DNA sequence, but modifications on DNA activity. DNA methylation later was identified to play an important role in gene regulation and gene splicing. The genome is unusual in having few transposable elements, although they were present in the evolutionary past (remains and fossils have been found) and evolved more slowly than those in fly species."
      },
      {
        "title": "East African lowland honey bee",
        "text": "The underlying hypothesis for the aggressive behavior of East African lowland honey bees is based on the idea that this race of bees evolved in an arid environment, where the bees' food was scarce. Under this situation, selection favored more aggressive colonies, which protected their food source and hive from predators and robbed bees from other colonies. This behavior allowed more aggressive colonies to survive where the less aggressive colonies eventually were selected against by natural selection.\n*Subspecies of \"Apis mellifera\"\n*Western honey bee"
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "No crops originating in the New World depend on the western honey bee (\"Apis mellifera\") at all, as the bee is an invasive species brought over with colonists in the last few centuries. Tomatoes, peppers, squash, and all other New World crops evolved with native pollinators such as squash bees, bumble bees and other native bees. The stingless bees mentioned by Jefferson are distant relatives of the honey bees, in the genus \"Melipona\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Honey bees are one of the products of a beehive. They can be purchased as mated queens, in spring packages of a queen along with two to five pounds (0.91 to 2.27\u00a0kg) of honey bees, as nucleus colonies (which include frames of brood), or as full colonies. Commerce of western honey bees dates back to as early as 1622, when the first colonies of bees were shipped from England to Virginia. Modern methods of producing queens and dividing colonies for increase date back to the late 1800s. Honey was extracted by killing off the hive, and bees and bee products were mainly an object of local trade. The first commercial beekeeper in the United States is considered Moses Quinby of New York, who experimented with movable box hives, which allow extraction without killing the hive. The improvements in roads and motor vehicles after World War I allowed commercial beekeepers to expand the size of their businesses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "On 11\u00a0September 2007, Commissioner Bob Odom of the Louisiana Department of Agriculture and Forestry said that Africanized honey bees had established themselves in the New Orleans area. In February\u00a02009, Africanized honey bees were found in southern Utah. The bees had spread into eight counties in Utah, as far north as Grand and Emery Counties by May 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera lamarckii",
        "text": "Lamarck's honey bee or the Egyptian honey bee, Apis mellifera lamarckii, is a subspecies of honey bee native to the Nile valley of Egypt and Sudan, named after Jean-Baptiste Lamarck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "In tropical climates they effectively out-compete European honey bees and, at their peak rate of expansion, they spread north at almost two kilometers (about one mile) a day. There were discussions about slowing the spread by placing large numbers of docile European-strain hives in strategic locations, particularly at the Isthmus of Panama, but various national and international agricultural departments could not prevent the bees' expansion. Current knowledge of the genetics of these bees suggests that such a strategy, had it been tried, would not have been successful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beekeeping in the United States",
        "text": "Western honey bees are not native to the Americas. American colonists imported honey bees from Europe for their honey and wax. Their value as pollinators began to be appreciated by the end of the nineteenth century. The first honey bee subspecies imported were likely European dark bees. Later Italian bees, Carniolan honey bees and Caucasian bees were added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "\"Apis cerana\", the eastern honey bee proper, is the traditional honey bee of southern and eastern Asia. One of its subspecies, the Indian honey bee (\"A.\u00a0c.\u00a0indica\"), was domesticated and kept in hives in a fashion similar to \"A. mellifera\", though on a more limited, regional scale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "The chief difference between the European subspecies of honey bees kept by beekeepers and the African ones is attributable to both selective breeding and natural selection. By selecting only the most gentle, non-defensive subspecies, beekeepers have, over centuries, eliminated the more defensive ones and created a number of subspecies suitable for apiculture. The most common subspecies used in Europe and the United States today is the Italian honey bee (\"Apis mellifera ligustica\"), which has been used for over 1,000 years in some parts of the world and in the Americas since the arrival of the European colonists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "Africanized honey bees exhibit far greater defensiveness than European honey bees and are more likely to deal with a perceived threat by attacking in large swarms. These hybrids have been known to pursue a perceived threat for a distance of well over 500\u00a0meters (1,640\u00a0ft)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Utah",
        "text": "In February 2009, Africanized honeybees were found in southern Utah. The bees had spread into eight counties in Utah, as far north as Grand and Emery counties by May 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "East African lowland honey bee",
        "text": "The appearance of the East African lowland honey bee is very similar to the European bee. However, the East African lowland honey bee is slightly smaller. The average body length of a worker is 19\u00a0mm. Its upper body is covered in fuzz, and its abdomen is striped with black."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "These modifications, along with artificial change of location, have improved western honey bees from the point of view of the beekeeper, and simultaneously made them more dependent on beekeepers for their survival. In Europe, cold weather survival was likely selected for, consciously or not, while in Africa, selection probably favoured the ability to survive heat, drought, and heavy rain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Most species have historically been cultured or at least exploited for honey and beeswax by humans indigenous to their native ranges. Only two species have been truly domesticated: \"Apis mellifera\" and \"Apis cerana\". \"A. mellifera\" has been cultivated at least since the time of the building of the Egyptian pyramids, and only that species has been moved extensively beyond its native range."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "Africanized honey bees, as opposed to other Western bee types:\n* Tend to swarm more frequently and go farther than other types of honey bees.\n* Are more likely to migrate as part of a seasonal response to lowered food supply.\n* Are more likely to \"abscond\"\u2014the entire colony leaves the hive and relocates\u2014in response to stress.\n* Have greater defensiveness when in a resting swarm, compared to other honey bee types.\n* Live more often in ground cavities than the European types.\n* Guard the hive aggressively, with a larger alarm zone around the hive.\n* Have a higher proportion of \"guard\" bees within the hive.\n* Deploy in greater numbers for defense and pursue perceived threats over much longer distances from the hive.\n* Cannot survive extended periods of forage deprivation, preventing introduction into areas with harsh winters or extremely dry late summers.\n* Live in \"dramatically\" higher population densities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey Bee Genome Sequencing Consortium",
        "text": "The population genetic analysis showed Africa as the origin and hypothesized that the spread into Europe happened in at least two independent waves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "Honey bee sensitivity to different concentrations of sucrose is determined by a reflex known as the proboscis extension response or PER. Different species of honey bees that employ different foraging behaviors will vary in the concentration of sucrose that elicits their proboscis extension response."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Unlike native bees, they do not properly extract or transfer pollen from plants with pore anthers (anthers which only release pollen through tiny apical pores); this requires buzz pollination, a behavior rarely exhibited by honey bees. Honey bees reduce fruiting in \"Melastoma affine\", a plant with pore anthers, by robbing its stigmas of previously deposited pollen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "In areas where Africanized honey bees are well established, bought and pre-fertilized (i.e. mated) European queens can be used to maintain a hive's European genetics and behavior. However, this practice can be expensive, since these queens must be bought and shipped from breeder apiaries in areas completely free of Africanized honey bees, such as the northern U.S. states or Hawaii. As such, this is generally not practical for most commercial beekeepers outside the U.S., and it is one of the main reasons why Central and South American beekeepers have had to learn to manage and work with the existing Africanized honey bee. Any effort to crossbreed virgin European queens with Africanized drones will result in the offspring exhibiting Africanized traits; only 26\u00a0swarms escaped in 1957, and nearly 60 years later there does not appear to be a noticeable lessening of the typical Africanized characteristics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cape honey bee",
        "text": "The Cape honey bee or Cape bee (\"Apis mellifera capensis\") is a southern South African subspecies of the western honey bee. They play a major role in South African agriculture and the economy of the Western Cape by pollinating crops and producing honey in the Western Cape region of South Africa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "Africanized bee\n--History.\n--Characteristics.\n--North American distribution.\n--Foraging behavior.\n----Proboscis extension responses.\n----Evolution.\n--Morphology and genetics.\n----Morphological tests.\n----DNA tests.\n----Western variants.\n----African variants.\n--Consequences of selection.\n----Defensiveness.\n--Impact on humans.\n----Fear factor.\n----Misconceptions.\n--Impact on apiculture.\n----Queen management.\n----Gentleness.\n--Impact on pets.\n--Impact on livestock.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee was one of the first domesticated insects, and it is the primary species maintained by beekeepers to this day for both its honey production and pollination activities. With human assistance, the western honey bee now occupies every continent except Antarctica. Western honey bees are threatened by pests and diseases, especially the \"Varroa\" mite and colony collapse disorder. There are indications that the species is rare, if not extinct in the wild and as of 2019, the western honey bee is listed as \"Extinct\" on the IUCN Red List, while also acknowledging \"Data Deficient\". Numerous studies indicate that the species has undergone significant declines in Europe; however, it is not clear if they refer to population reduction of wild or managed colonies. Further research is required to enable differentiation between wild and non-wild colonies in order to determine the conservation status of the species in the wild, meaning self sustaining, without treatments or management."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "A. m. iberiensis haplotype is present in the honey bees of the western United States where the honey bees are not native and they were introduced from Spain during the conquest of America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caucasian honey bee",
        "text": "The Caucasian honey bee (\"Apis mellifera caucasia\", commonly misspelled \"caucasica\") is a subspecies of the western honey bee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "When resource density is low in Africanized honey bee habitats, it is necessary for the bees to harvest a greater variety of resources because they cannot afford to be selective. Honey bees that are genetically inclined towards resources high in sucrose, such as concentrated nectar, will not be able to sustain themselves in harsher environments. The noted PER to low sucrose concentration in Africanized honey bees may be a result of selective pressure in times of scarcity when their survival depends on their attraction to low quality resources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bee",
        "text": "True honey bees (genus \"Apis\", of which eight species are currently recognized) are highly eusocial, and are among the best known insects. Their colonies are established by swarms, consisting of a queen and several thousand workers. There are 29 subspecies of one of these species, \"Apis mellifera\", native to Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. Africanized bees are a hybrid strain of \"A. mellifera\" that escaped from experiments involving crossing European and African subspecies; they are extremely defensive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caucasian honey bee",
        "text": "In 1932 professor E. F. Phillips was invited to the Soviet Union, Republic of Georgia and spent a month visiting various beekeeping and bee research establishments. E. F. Phillips paid special attention to the unique characteristics of the Apis Mellifera Caucasia (Caucasian honey bee) species - great tongue (proboscis) length and docility and was impressed with the beekeeping potential in Georgia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Apart from \"Apis mellifera\", there are six other species in the genus \"Apis\". These are \"Apis andreniformis\", \"Apis cerana\", \"Apis dorsata\", \"Apis florea\", \"Apis koschevnikovi\", and \"Apis nigrocincta\". These species all originated in southern and southeastern Asia. Only \"Apis mellifera\" is thought to have originated in Europe, Asia, and Africa.\n*Apitherapy\n*Bee bearding\n*Beeline\n*Characteristics of common wasps and bees\n*Worker policing\n* A. I. Root's The ABC and XYZ of Beekeeping\n* Molecular confirmation of a fourth lineage in honeybees from the Near East Apidologie 31 (2000) 167\u2013180, accessed Oct 2005\n*Biesmeijer, Jacobus. \"The Occurrence and Context of the Shaking Signal in Honey Bees (\"Apis mellifera\") Exploiting Natural Food Sources\". \"Ethology\". 2003.\n*Lindauer, Martin. \"Communication among social bees\". Harvard University Press 1971.\n*Schneider, S. S., P. K. Visscher, Camazine, S. \"Vibration Signal Behavior of Waggle-dancers in Swarms of the Honey Bee, \"Apis mellifera\" (Hymenoptera: Apidae). \"Ethology\". 1998.\n*FAO: Beekeeping explained\n*FAO: Honeybee anatomy\n* IFAS: \"Apis mellifera\"\n* Sound recordings of \"Apis mellifera\" at BioAcoustica"
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera intermissa",
        "text": "Apis mellifera intermissa is an African subspecies of the western honey bee."
      },
      {
        "title": "East African lowland honey bee",
        "text": "These two strategies have been adopted by the European and African bees, respectively. European bees must survive the winter, an annual event with predictable mortality outcomes. Trying to meet the energetic needs of the colony and reproduction might decrease their overall survival during the winter and it is more evolutionarily favorable for them to store nectar and honey. African bees are more vulnerable to less predictable times of scarcity or attack and it is therefore to their advantage to produce as many young as possible, increasing the likelihood that some or even many will survive. Such circumstances would have favored the worker bees who preferred harvesting nectar in European colonies and pollen in African colonies, providing an explanation for how a divergence in worker behavior and age distribution evolved in \"Apis mellifera scutellata\" and \"Apis mellifera ligustica\". Fewell and Bertram\u2019s study is significant in that it provides a plausible method through which the fitness characteristics of the subspecies could have evolved from a small number of behavioral differences in worker bees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bees collect flower nectar and convert it to honey, which is stored in the hive. The nectar, transported in the bees' stomachs, is converted with the addition of digestive enzymes and storage in a honey cell for partial dehydration. Nectar and honey provide the energy for the bees' flight muscles and for heating the hive during the winter. Western honey bees also collect pollen which, after being processed to bee bread, supplies protein and fat for the bee brood to grow. Centuries of selective breeding by humans have created western honey bees which produce far more honey than the colony needs, and beekeepers (also known as apiarists) harvest the surplus honey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "The descendants of these colonies have since spread throughout the Americas, moving through the Amazon Basin in the 1970s, crossing into Central America in 1982, and reaching Mexico in 1985. Because their movement through these regions was rapid and largely unassisted by humans, Africanized honey bees have earned the reputation of being a notorious invasive species. The prospect of killer bees arriving in the United States caused a media sensation in the late 1970s, inspired several horror movies, and sparked debate about the wisdom of humans altering entire ecosystems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "While studies have shown that Africanized honey bees can infiltrate European honey bee colonies and then kill and replace their queen (thus usurping the hive), this is less common than other methods. Wild and managed colonies will sometimes be seen to fight over honey stores during the dearth (periods when plants are not flowering), but this behavior should not be confused with the aforementioned activity. The most common way that a European honey bee hive will become Africanized is through crossbreeding during a new queen's mating flight. Studies have consistently shown that Africanized drones are more numerous, stronger and faster than their European cousins and are therefore able to out-compete them during these mating flights. The result of mating between Africanized drones and European queens is almost always Africanized offspring."
      },
      {
        "title": "East African lowland honey bee",
        "text": "The main difference found between African and European honey bees were a few behavioral traits in the worker bees that were all related to the workers\u2019 food preference. It was found that \"Apis mellifera scutellata\" workers focused on pollen processing behaviors while European workers focused on nectar processing behaviors. African bees were also more likely to store pollen while European bees stored honey. The study found that worker food preferences determined whether the colony maintained a certain reproductive rate. For example, having fewer or relatively older workers who prefer nectar means that the colony will not have the resources available to rapidly or efficiently feed new broods. Worker food preferences have been connected to genotypic variation at specific quantitative trait loci."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera litorea",
        "text": "Apis mellifera litorea (East African coastal honey bee) is a subspecies of the Western honey bee with a narrow coastal range mainly on the plains of Mozambique, it belongs to the A (Africa) Lineage of honey bees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Eastern \"Apis\" species include three or four\u00a0species, including \"A. koschevnikovi\", \"Apis nigrocincta\", and \"A. cerana\". The genetics of the western honey bee (\"A. mellifera\") are unclear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Bees produce honey by collecting nectar, a clear liquid consisting of nearly 80 percent water and complex sugars. The collecting bees store the nectar in a second stomach and return to the hive, where worker bees remove the nectar. The worker bees digest the raw nectar for about 30 minutes, using digestive enzymes to break down the complex sugars into simpler ones. Raw honey is then spread in empty honeycomb cells to dry, reducing its water content to less than 20 percent. When nectar is being processed, honey bees create a draft through the hive by fanning with their wings. When the honey has dried, the honeycomb cells are sealed (capped) with wax to preserve it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "In May\u00a02014, Colorado State University confirmed that bees from a swarm which had aggressively attacked an orchardist near Palisade, in west-central Colorado, were from an Africanized honey bee hive. The hive was subsequently destroyed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Honey bees appear to have their center of origin in South and Southeast Asia (including the Philippines), as all the extant species except \"Apis mellifera\" are native to that region. Notably, living representatives of the earliest lineages to diverge (\"Apis florea\" and \"Apis andreniformis\") have their center of origin there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Warwick Estevam Kerr",
        "text": "Warwick Estevam Kerr (9 September 1922 \u2013 15 September 2018) was a Brazilian agricultural engineer, geneticist, entomologist, professor and scientific leader, notable for his discoveries in the genetics and sex determination of bees. The Africanized bee in the western hemisphere is directly descended from 26 Tanzanian queen bees (\"A. m. scutellata\") accidentally released by a replacement bee-keeper in 1957 in Rio Claro, S\u00e3o Paulo in the southeast of Brazil from hives operated by Kerr, who had interbred honey bees from Europe and southern Africa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "African honey bees abscond (abandon the hive and any food store to start over in a new location) more readily than European honeybees. This is not necessarily a severe loss in tropical climates where plants bloom all year, but in more temperate climates it can leave the colony with not enough stores to survive the winter. Thus Africanized honey bees are expected to be a hazard mostly in the southern states of the United States, reaching as far north as the Chesapeake Bay in the east. The cold-weather limits of the Africanized honey bee have driven some professional bee breeders from Southern California into the harsher wintering locales of the northern Sierra Nevada and southern Cascade Range. This is a more difficult area to prepare bees for early pollination placement in, such as is required for the production of almonds. The reduced available winter forage in northern California means that bees must be fed for early spring buildup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee is a colonial insect which is housed, transported by and sometimes fed by beekeepers. Honey bees do not survive and reproduce individually, but as part of the colony (a superorganism)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "The differences in a variety of behaviors between different species of honey bees are the result of a directional selection that acts upon several foraging behavior traits as a common entity. Selection in natural populations of honey bees show that positive selection of sensitivity to low concentrations of sucrose are linked to foraging at younger ages and collecting resources low in sucrose. Positive selection of sensitivity to high concentrations of sucrose were linked to foraging at older ages and collecting resources higher in sucrose. Additionally of interest, \u201cchange in one component of a suite of behaviors appear[s] to direct change in the entire suite.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "On the other hand, P. R. Oxley and B. P. Oldroyd (2010) consider the domestication of western honey bees, at best, partial. Oldroyd observes that the lack of full domestication is somewhat surprising, given that people have kept bees for at least 7,000 years. Instead, beekeepers have found ways to manage bees using hives, while the bees remain \"largely unchanged from their wild cousins\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana japonica",
        "text": "Apis cerana japonica is a subspecies of the eastern honey bee native to Japan. It is commonly known as the . This subspecies was determined, through an analysis of mitochondrial DNA, to have originally come from the Korean peninsula. They have been observed moving into urban areas in the absence of natural predators."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "The diversity of \"A. mellifera\" subspecies is probably the product of a largely Early Pleistocene radiation aided by climate and habitat changes during the last ice age. That the western honey bee has been intensively managed by humans for many millennia\u00a0\u2013 including hybridization and introductions\u00a0\u2013 has apparently increased the speed of its evolution and confounded the DNA sequence data to a point where little of substance can be said about the exact relationships of many \"A. mellifera\" subspecies."
      },
      {
        "title": "African Honey Bee (organization)",
        "text": "Honey harvested from the incubation farms and procured from partner beekeepers is then transported to a central processing plant where it is strained, bottled, labelled, packaged, and dispatched for distribution. African Honey Bee's Nektar management and traceability technology will allow consumers to trace their batch of honey back to the beekeeper that produced it and see on Google Earth where it comes from."
      },
      {
        "title": "European dark bee",
        "text": "In the United States, research based on DNA sequencing analysis found DNA from the 'M'\u00a0lineage of honey bees in the feral population of Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma, and Missouri, believed in part to be the DNA from imported bees of over 100\u00a0years ago (DNA from the other bee lineages was also found in these feral populations, suggesting that they likely came from escaped swarms from apiaries at multiple unknown times in the past)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee race",
        "text": "Based on morphological similarities and the separation of regions during and since the last Ice Age, there are five bee lineages:\n* A (African, subspecies from central and southern Africa)\n* C (\u201ccarnica\u201d, subspecies from east and south of the Alps, including those along the northern Mediterranean)\n* M (\u201cmellifera\u201d, subspecies from western Europe),\n* O (Oriental, subspecies from the eastern end of the range of the species)\n* Y (\"yemenitica\", subspecies from Ethiopia)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Like all honey bee species, the western honey bee is eusocial, creating colonies with a single fertile female (or \"queen\"), many normally non-reproductive females or \"workers\", and a small proportion of fertile males or \"drones\". Individual colonies can house tens of thousands of bees. Colony activities are organized by complex communication between individuals, through both pheromones and the dance language."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "The Western honey bee is the third insect to have its genome mapped."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis andreniformis",
        "text": "Apis andreniformis, or the black dwarf honey bee, is a relatively rare species of honey bee whose native habitat is the tropical and subtropical regions of Southeast Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beekeeping",
        "text": "Depictions of humans collecting honey from wild bees date to 10,000 years ago. Beekeeping in pottery vessels began about 9,000 years ago in North Africa. Domestication of bees is shown in Egyptian art from around 4,500 years ago. Simple hives and smoke were used and honey was stored in jars, some of which were found in the tombs of pharaohs such as Tutankhamun. It was not until the 18th century that European understanding of the colonies and biology of bees allowed the construction of the movable comb hive so that honey could be harvested without destroying the entire colony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "There is some degree of variability of sociality between individuals. Like a great many other social insects, \"A. mellifera\" engages in trophallaxis. When the duration of trophallaxis pairings was measured, it was found that like human social interactions, there are durable long-term trends for each individual bee. There is less inter-individual variation than found in humans however, possibly reflecting the higher genetic relatedness between hivemates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "The sting of the Africanized honey bee is no more potent than any other variety of honey bee, and although they are similar in appearance to European honey bees, they tend to be slightly smaller and darker in color. Although Africanized honey bees do not actively search for humans to attack, they are more dangerous because they are more easily provoked, quicker to attack in greater numbers, and then pursue the perceived threat farther, for as much as a quarter of a mile (400\u00a0m)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "With an increased number of honey bees in a specific area due to beekeeping, Western honey bees (as an invasive species) and native wild bees often have to compete for the limited habitat and food sources available, and Western honey bees may become defensive in response to the seasonal arrival of competition from other colonies, particularly Africanized bees which may be on the offence and defence year round due to their tropical origin."
      },
      {
        "title": "European dark bee",
        "text": "The European dark bee (Apis mellifera mellifera) is a subspecies of the western honey bee, whose original range stretched from west-central Russia through Northern Europe and probably down to the Pyrenees. They belong to the 'M'\u00a0lineage of \"Apis mellifera\". They are large for honey bees though they have unusually short tongues (5.7-6.4\u00a0mm) and traditionally were called the \"German Dark Bee\" or the \"Black German Bee\", names still used today even though they are now considered an Endangered Breed in Germany. Their common name is derived from their brown-black color, with only a few lighter yellow spots on the abdomen. However today they are more likely to be called after the geographic / political region in which they live such as the British Black Bee, the Native Irish Honey Bee, the Cornish Black Bee and the Nordic Brown Bee, even though they are all the same subspecies, with the word \u201c\"native\"\u201d often inserted by local beekeepers, even in places where the bee is an introduced foreign species. It was domesticated in Europe and hives were brought to North America in the colonial era in 1622 where they were referred to as the English Fly by the Native Americans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Since 2018 a new version of the honey bee genome is available on NCBI (Amel_HAv3.1, BioProject ID: PRJNA471592). This assembly contains full chromosome length scaffolds, which means that the sequence data for each chromosome is contiguous, and not split between multiple pieces called scaffolds. The existence of a highly contiguous reference genome for a species enables more detailed investigations of evolutionary processes that affect the genome as well as more accurate estimations of for example differentiation between populations and diversity within populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "The first \"Apis\" bees appear in the fossil record at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary (34\u00a0mya), in European deposits. The origin of these prehistoric honey bees does not necessarily indicate Europe as the place of origin of the genus, only that the bees were present in Europe by that time. Few fossil deposits are known from South Asia, the suspected region of honey bee origin, and fewer still have been thoroughly studied."
      },
      {
        "title": "European dark bee",
        "text": "In northwestern Europe, \"A.\u00a0m. mellifera\" was the first honey bee to become established until the introduction of other bee subspecies considered more suited to modern beekeeping, such as the Buckfast bee, a breed of bee whose ancestry originally included the remnants of the old British black bee (a strain of \"A.\u00a0m. mellifera\"), which became extinct due to \"Acarapis woodi\", a tracheal mite."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where in the world is the honey bee most prevalent?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about the africanized honey bee,  western honey bee, Koschevnikov's honey bee, eastern honey bee, or the philippine honey bee?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I would like to know about the western honey bee."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The western honey bee or European honey bee (Apis mellifera) is the most common of the 7\u201312 species of honey bees worldwide. The western honey bee can be found on every continent except Antarctica, as they adapted to the local environments as they spread geographically."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me how the Africanized Honey Bee came to be?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Africanized honey bees in the Western Hemisphere are descended from hives operated by biologist Warwick E. Kerr, who had interbred honey bees from Europe and southern Africa. Kerr was attempting to breed a strain of bees that would produce more honey in tropical conditions than the European strain of honey bee then in use throughout North, Central and South America.",
      "The East African lowland honey bee was first introduced to Brazil in 1956 in an effort to increase honey production, but 26 swarms escaped quarantine in 1957; Africanized honey bees in the Western Hemisphere are descended from hives operated by biologist Warwick E. Kerr. Africanized honey bees are typically much more defensive than other varieties of honey bees, and react to disturbances faster than European honey bees."
    ],
    "topic": "Western honey bee",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Africanized bee:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Africanized bee",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Africanized honey bees in the Western Hemisphere are descended from hives operated by biologist Warwick E. Kerr, who had interbred honey bees from Europe and southern Africa. Kerr was attempting to breed a strain of bees that would produce more honey in tropical conditions than the European strain of honey bee then in use throughout North, Central and South America. The hives containing this particular African subspecies were housed at an apiary near Rio Claro, S\u00e3o Paulo, in the southeast of Brazil, and were noted to be especially defensive. These hives had been fitted with special excluder screens (called queen excluders) to prevent the larger queen bees and drones from getting out and mating with the local population of European bees. According to Kerr, in October\u00a01957 a visiting beekeeper, noticing that the queen excluders were interfering with the worker bees' movement, removed them, resulting in the accidental release of 26\u00a0Tanganyikan swarms of \"A. m. scutellata\". Following this accidental release, the Africanized honey bee swarms spread out and crossbred with local European honey bee colonies."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Africanized bee:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Africanized bee"
        ],
        "ctx": "The East African lowland honey bee was first introduced to Brazil in 1956 in an effort to increase honey production, but 26\u00a0swarms escaped quarantine in 1957. Since then, the hybrid has spread throughout South America and arrived in North America in 1985. Hives were found in south Texas in the United States in 1990."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Africanized bee:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Africanized bee"
        ],
        "ctx": "Africanized honey bees are typically much more defensive than other varieties of honey bees, and react to disturbances faster than European honey bees. They can chase a person a quarter of a mile (400\u00a0m); they have killed some 1,000\u00a0humans, with victims receiving 10 times more stings than from European honey bees. They have also killed horses and other animals."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Africanized bee:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Africanized bee",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Africanized honey bees in the Western Hemisphere are descended from hives operated by biologist Warwick E. Kerr, who had interbred honey bees from Europe and southern Africa. Kerr was attempting to breed a strain of bees that would produce more honey in tropical conditions than the European strain of honey bee then in use throughout North, Central and South America. The hives containing this particular African subspecies were housed at an apiary near Rio Claro, S\u00e3o Paulo, in the southeast of Brazil, and were noted to be especially defensive. These hives had been fitted with special excluder screens (called queen excluders) to prevent the larger queen bees and drones from getting out and mating with the local population of European bees. According to Kerr, in October\u00a01957 a visiting beekeeper, noticing that the queen excluders were interfering with the worker bees' movement, removed them, resulting in the accidental release of 26\u00a0Tanganyikan swarms of \"A. m. scutellata\". Following this accidental release, the Africanized honey bee swarms spread out and crossbred with local European honey bee colonies."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Apis koschevnikovi",
        "text": "Apis koschevnikovi, Koschevnikov's honey bee, is a species of honey bee which inhabits Malaysian and Indonesian Borneo, where it lives sympatrically with other honey bee species such as \"Apis cerana\" (specifically \"A. c. nuluensis\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carniolan honey bee",
        "text": "The Carniolan honey bee (\"Apis mellifera carnica\", Pollmann) is a subspecies of the western honey bee. The Carniolan honey bee is native to Slovenia, southern Austria, and parts of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ko\u0161utnjak",
        "text": "Ko\u0161utnjak hosts an experimental apiary, named after the forest. In May 2020 it was estimated that more than 3,000 honey bee swarms are orphaned in Belgrade, roaming around the city, trying to nest in rain gutters, under the eaves or even in residential houses, so the project of the bee sanctuaries construction within the complex was completed in July."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beekeeping in the United States",
        "text": "Western honey bees were also brought from the Primorsky Krai in Russia by Ukrainian settlers around the 1850s. These Russian honey bees that are similar to the Carniolan bee were imported into the U.S. in 1997. The Russian honey bee has shown to be more resistant to the bee parasites \"Varroa destructor\" and \"Acarapis woodi\", although their commercial use and availability are extremely limited in scope because other, better strains are available (e.g., VSH lines)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "The Africanized honey bees in the Western Hemisphere are descended from hives operated by biologist Warwick E. Kerr, who had interbred honey bees from Europe and southern Africa. Kerr was attempting to breed a strain of bees that would produce more honey in tropical conditions than the European strain of honey bee then in use throughout North, Central and South America. The hives containing this particular African subspecies were housed at an apiary near Rio Claro, S\u00e3o Paulo, in the southeast of Brazil, and were noted to be especially defensive. These hives had been fitted with special excluder screens (called queen excluders) to prevent the larger queen bees and drones from getting out and mating with the local population of European bees. According to Kerr, in October\u00a01957 a visiting beekeeper, noticing that the queen excluders were interfering with the worker bees' movement, removed them, resulting in the accidental release of 26\u00a0Tanganyikan swarms of \"A. m. scutellata\". Following this accidental release, the Africanized honey bee swarms spread out and crossbred with local European honey bee colonies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Koschevnikov's honey bee (\"Apis koschevnikovi\") is often referred to in the literature as the \"red bee of Sabah\"; however, \"A. koschevnikovi\" is pale reddish in Sabah State, Borneo, Malaysia, but a dark, coppery color in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, Indonesia. Its habitat is limited to the tropical evergreen forests of the Malay Peninsula, Borneo and Sumatra and they do not live in tropical evergreen rain forests which extend into Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia and Vietnam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tel Rehov",
        "text": "In addition to beehives, the remains of bees and bee larvae and pupae were also found. In 2010, using DNA from the remains of bees found at the site, researchers identified the bees as a subspecies, similar to the Anatolian bee, found now only in Turkey. It is possible that the bees' range has changed, but more likely that the inhabitants of Tel Rehov imported bees because they were less aggressive than the local bees and provided a better honey yield (three to eight times higher than Israel's native bees)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caucasian honey bee",
        "text": "The Caucasian honey bee received three gold medals at the international events \u2013 at the International Exhibition of Gardening in Erfurt (Germany) in 1961; at the 20th APIMONDIA International Congress in Bucharest (Romania) in 1965; and at the 23rd APIMONDIA International Congress in Moscow in 1971."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee is the third insect whose genome has been mapped, and is unusual in having very few transposons. According to the scientists who analyzed its genetic code, the western honey bee originated in Africa and spread to Eurasia in two ancient migrations. They have also discovered that the number of genes in the honey bee related to smell outnumber those for taste. The genome sequence revealed several groups of genes, particularly the genes related to circadian rhythms, were closer to vertebrates than other insects. Genes related to enzymes that control other genes were also vertebrate-like."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carniolan honey bee",
        "text": "The Carniolan honey bee is the subspecies of the Western honey bee that has naturalised and adapted to the Ko\u010devje (Gottschee) sub-region of Carniola (Slovenia), the southern part of the Austrian Alps, Dinarides region, southern Pannonian plain and the northern Balkans. These bees are known as Carniolans, or \"Carnies\" for short, in English. At present this subspecies is the second most popular among beekeepers (after the Italian bee)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian honey bee",
        "text": "The Russian honeybee refers to honey bees (\"Apis mellifera\") that originate in the Primorsky Krai region of Russia. This strain of bee was imported into the United States in 1997 by the USDA's Honeybee Breeding, Genetics & Physiology Laboratory in Baton Rouge, Louisiana in response to severe declines in bee populations caused by infestations of parasitic mites, and has been used in breeding programs to improve existing stocks. Many Russian queens openly mate with drones from various stock, creating colonies that are genetically hybrid. \u00a0Some of these 'uncontrolled' hybrids may exhibit \"increased aggressiveness,\u00a0 reduced honey production and a decrease in their ability to withstand \u00a0mites and detrimental expressions of other traits as well.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Eastern \"Apis\" species include three or four\u00a0species, including \"A. koschevnikovi\", \"Apis nigrocincta\", and \"A. cerana\". The genetics of the western honey bee (\"A. mellifera\") are unclear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caucasian honey bee",
        "text": "In 1932 professor E. F. Phillips was invited to the Soviet Union, Republic of Georgia and spent a month visiting various beekeeping and bee research establishments. E. F. Phillips paid special attention to the unique characteristics of the Apis Mellifera Caucasia (Caucasian honey bee) species - great tongue (proboscis) length and docility and was impressed with the beekeeping potential in Georgia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis koschevnikovi",
        "text": "The species was first described by Hugo Berthold von Buttel-Reepen, who dedicated it to Grigory Aleksandrovich Kozhevnikov (1866\u20131933), a pioneer of honey bee morphology. This was an invalid designation, however, and the name was first formally made available by G\u00fcnther Enderlein that same year. Therefore, Buttel-Reepen is not the author of the name (following the ICZN). The species was described again by Maa in 1953, this time with the name Apis vechti. It was finally rediscovered by Tingek and his colleagues in 1988."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caucasian honey bee",
        "text": "The Russian revolution and consequent annexation of Georgia by the Red Army in 1921 halted the export of Caucasian honey bees. Subspecies were studied and cultivated primarily by Soviet entomologists. Soviet officials were concerned about preserving the purity of the Caucasian subspecies and outlawed any export without special permission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee can be found on every continent except Antarctica. The species is believed to have originated in Africa or Asia, and it spread naturally through Africa, the Middle East and Europe. Humans are responsible for its considerable additional range, introducing European subspecies into North America (early 1600s), South America, Australia, New Zealand, and eastern Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "L\u00e1szl\u00f3 Kov\u00e1cs (writer)",
        "text": "Kov\u00e1cs is also a recognized beekeeper in the Slovene region of Hungary, who uses the old traditional apiary methods and produces some specialty honey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russkaya Pravda",
        "text": "69. And if he steels bees, then 3 grivnas to the knyaz; and for the honey, if the beehive was full, 10 marten pelts to the victim; but if an empty hive then 5 marten pelts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "\"A. mellifera\" phylogeny is the most enigmatic of all honey bee species. It seems to have diverged from its eastern relatives only during the Late Miocene. This would fit the hypothesis that the ancestral stock of cave-nesting honey bees was separated into the western group of East Africa and the eastern group of tropical Asia by desertification in the Middle East and adjacent regions, which caused declines of food plants and trees that provided nest sites, eventually causing gene flow to cease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caucasian honey bee",
        "text": "The Caucasian honey bee originates from the high valleys of the Central Caucasus. Georgia is the \u201ccentral homeland\u201d for the subspecies, although the bees also can be found in eastern Turkey, Armenia and Azerbaijan.\n* Shape and size: similar to \"A. m. carnica\"\n* Chitin color: dark with brown spots at times\n* Hair color: lead-grey\n* Tongue length: up to 7.3 mm\n* Gentle and calm on the comb\n* Longest proboscis, so it can extract nectar from the deepest nectar tissues, where no other species can\n* Ardent brood production \u2013 raising strong colonies\n* Colonies reach full strength in mid-summer, which is good for areas where the highest nectar flow is in mid-summer\n* Very great user of propolis\n* In its native area a better honey producer than the European dark bee"
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "The Africanized bee, also known as the Africanized honey bee and known colloquially as the \"killer bee\", is a hybrid of the western honey bee (\"Apis mellifera\"), produced originally by crossbreeding of the East African lowland honey bee (\"A.\u00a0m.\u00a0scutellata\") with various European honey bee subspecies such as the Italian honey bee (\"A.\u00a0m.\u00a0ligustica\") and the Iberian honey bee (\"A.\u00a0m.\u00a0iberiensis\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "The genome is unusual in having very few transposons. According to the scientists who analysed its genetic code, the western honey bee originated in Africa and spread to Europe in two ancient migrations. They have also discovered that the number of genes in the honey bees related to smell outnumber those for taste. The genome sequence revealed several groups of genes, particularly the genes related to circadian rhythms, were closer to vertebrates than other insects. Genes related to enzymes that control other genes were also vertebrate-like."
      },
      {
        "title": "Warwick Estevam Kerr",
        "text": "Warwick Estevam Kerr (9 September 1922 \u2013 15 September 2018) was a Brazilian agricultural engineer, geneticist, entomologist, professor and scientific leader, notable for his discoveries in the genetics and sex determination of bees. The Africanized bee in the western hemisphere is directly descended from 26 Tanzanian queen bees (\"A. m. scutellata\") accidentally released by a replacement bee-keeper in 1957 in Rio Claro, S\u00e3o Paulo in the southeast of Brazil from hives operated by Kerr, who had interbred honey bees from Europe and southern Africa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera lamarckii",
        "text": "Lamarck's honey bee or the Egyptian honey bee, Apis mellifera lamarckii, is a subspecies of honey bee native to the Nile valley of Egypt and Sudan, named after Jean-Baptiste Lamarck."
      },
      {
        "title": "East African lowland honey bee",
        "text": "The East African lowland honey bee (\"Apis mellifera scutellata\") is a subspecies of the western honey bee. It is native to central, southern and eastern Africa, though at the southern extreme it is replaced by the Cape honey bee (\"Apis mellifera capensis\"). This subspecies has been determined to constitute one part of the ancestry of the Africanized bees (also known as \"killer bees\") spreading through North and South America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis koschevnikovi",
        "text": "However, in contrast to normal feeding behavior, \"Apis koschevnikovi\" and \"Apis dorsata\" fight at artificial feeding stations. They displayed a displaced nest-defense behavior with grappling and attempted stinging. Honey bees do not interact well with competing foragers when near a rich resource. \"A. koschevnikovi\" has even shown aggression against conspecific foragers when competing for a resource. Honey bees tend to dominate floral patches as individual colonies because of their competitive nature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian honey bee",
        "text": "Russian honey bee\n--Breeding program.\n----Brood rearing and swarming.\n--Honey production.\n--Pests and diseases.\n----Varroa mite.\n----Tracheal mites.\n----Small hive beetle.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Franz Hruschka",
        "text": "In 1865, he invented a simple machine for extracting honey from the comb by means of centrifugal force. The announcement was made at the 14th German and Austrian Beekeepers Conference in Brno (now in the Czech Republic) held from September 12 to September 14, 1865. While he shared the basic idea only with a few beekeepers the first day, it was will anticipation that his lecture took place on day 2. The demonstration and explanations sealed the deal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis koschevnikovi",
        "text": "\"Apis koschevnikovi\" have a very small colony size of a thousand bees or so. This small colony size allows them to survive in a rain forest habitat. Despite their small colony size, they are still able to harvest resources very quickly and reproduce at a fast pace during the general flowering period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caucasian honey bee",
        "text": "In Turkey, beekeepers purposefully bring hives of \"Apis mellifera caucasia\" to areas of dense \"Rhododendron ponticum\" blooms to purposefully sequester grayanotoxin laden honey called \"mad honey.\" This coveted novelty honey is referred to as \"deli bal\" and is neurotoxic. These bees are also less susceptible than \"Apis m. mellifera\" to acute exposure to Imidacloprid, a neurotoxic pesticide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "Although the native East African lowland honey bees (\"Apis mellifera scutellata\") are smaller and build smaller comb cells than the European honey bees, their hybrids are not smaller. Africanized honey bees have slightly shorter wings, which can only be recognized reliably by performing a statistical analysis on micro-measurements of a substantial sample."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caucasian honey bee",
        "text": "International exports were continued from 1969. According to a UK newspaper \"GOLDEN BEE the grey mountain bee of the Soviet Union has been judged the best in the world and awarded a gold medal. The grey Caucasian bee is distinguished for its industry and it collects honey, even when it is raining. Many foreign beemasters have requested for the Golden bee and as many as 200,000 have been sent to Europe, Asia and America this year.\" (\"Sunday Mirror\" June 1, 1969)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "The Western honey bee is native to the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. As of the early 1500s, the Apis mellifera iberiensis was introduced to the Americas, with subsequent introductions of other European subspecies three centuries later. Since then, they have spread throughout the Americas. The 28 subspecies can be assigned to one of four major branches based on work by Ruttner and subsequently confirmed by analysis of mitochondrial DNA. African subspecies are assigned to branch A, northwest European subspecies to branch M, southwest European subspecies to branch C, and Mideast subspecies to branch O. The subspecies are grouped and listed."
      },
      {
        "title": "European dark bee",
        "text": "The European dark bee (Apis mellifera mellifera) is a subspecies of the western honey bee, whose original range stretched from west-central Russia through Northern Europe and probably down to the Pyrenees. They belong to the 'M'\u00a0lineage of \"Apis mellifera\". They are large for honey bees though they have unusually short tongues (5.7-6.4\u00a0mm) and traditionally were called the \"German Dark Bee\" or the \"Black German Bee\", names still used today even though they are now considered an Endangered Breed in Germany. Their common name is derived from their brown-black color, with only a few lighter yellow spots on the abdomen. However today they are more likely to be called after the geographic / political region in which they live such as the British Black Bee, the Native Irish Honey Bee, the Cornish Black Bee and the Nordic Brown Bee, even though they are all the same subspecies, with the word \u201c\"native\"\u201d often inserted by local beekeepers, even in places where the bee is an introduced foreign species. It was domesticated in Europe and hives were brought to North America in the colonial era in 1622 where they were referred to as the English Fly by the Native Americans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "Western honey bees differentiated into geographic subspecies as they spread from Asia into Europe and Africa. There are currently 28 recognized subspecies of \"Apis mellifera\" based largely on these geographic variations. All subspecies are cross fertile. Geographic isolation led to numerous local adaptations as this species spread after the last ice age. These adaptations include brood cycles synchronized with the bloom period of local flora, forming a winter cluster in colder climates, migratory swarming in Africa, enhanced foraging behavior in desert areas, and numerous other inherited traits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caucasian honey bee",
        "text": "The Caucasian honey bee (\"Apis mellifera caucasia\", commonly misspelled \"caucasica\") is a subspecies of the western honey bee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "The East African lowland honey bee was first introduced to Brazil in 1956 in an effort to increase honey production, but 26\u00a0swarms escaped quarantine in 1957. Since then, the hybrid has spread throughout South America and arrived in North America in 1985. Hives were found in south Texas in the United States in 1990."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis nearctica",
        "text": "Apis nearctica is an extinct species of honey bee which existed in what is now Nevada during the Middle Miocene period. It was discovered at Stewart Valley, Nevada, and described by Michael S. Engel, Ismael A. Hinojosa-D\u00edaz, and Alexandr P. Rasnitsyn in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "E. F. Phillips",
        "text": "In 1932 professor E. F. Phillips was invited to the Soviet Union, Republic of Georgia and spent a month visiting various beekeeping and bee research establishments. E. F. Phillips paid special attention to the unique characteristics of the Apis Mellifera Caucasia (Caucasian honey bee) species - great tongue (proboscis) length and docility and was impressed with the beekeeping potential in Georgia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beehive",
        "text": "In 1814 Petro Prokopovych, the founder of commercial beekeeping in Ukraine, invented one of the first beehive frames which allowed an easier honey harvest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honeyland",
        "text": "\"Honeyland\" documents the life of Hatid\u017ee Muratova, a Macedonian beekeeper of Turkish descent, who lives in the village of Bekirlija in the municipality of Lozovo. She is one of the last keepers of wild bees in Europe. Due to its location in a secluded mountain, the village has no access to electricity and running water. Hatid\u017ee lives with her 85-year-old, partly blind and bedridden mother Nazife, who is completely dependent on her daughter. Hatid\u017ee earns a living by selling honey in the country's capital Skopje, which is four hours away from the village."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "While about 20,000 species of bees exist, only eight species of honey bee are recognized, with a total of 43 subspecies, although historically seven to 11 species are recognized: \"Apis andreniformis\" (the black dwarf honey bee); \"Apis cerana\" (the eastern honey bee); \"Apis dorsata\" (the giant honey bee); \"Apis florea\" (the red dwarf honey bee); \"Apis koschevnikovi\" (Koschevnikov's honey bee); \"Apis laboriosa\" (the Himalayan giant honey bee); \"Apis mellifera\" (the western honey bee); and \"Apis nigrocincta\" (the Philippine honey bee)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Africanized honey bees (known colloquially as \"killer bees\") are hybrids between European stock and the East African lowland subspecies \"A. m. scutellata\"; they are often more aggressive than European honey bees and do not create as much of a honey surplus, but are more resistant to disease and are better foragers. Accidentally released from quarantine in Brazil, they have spread to North America and constitute a pest in some regions. However, these strains do not overwinter well, so they are not often found in the colder, more northern parts of North America. The original breeding experiment for which the East African lowland honey bees were brought to Brazil in the first place has continued (though not as originally intended). Novel hybrid strains of domestic and re-domesticated Africanized honey bees combine high resilience to tropical conditions and good yields. They are popular among beekeepers in Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "As of October 28, 2006, the Honey Bee Genome Sequencing Consortium fully sequenced and analyzed the genome of \"Apis mellifera,\" the western honey bee. Since 2007, attention has been devoted to colony collapse disorder, a decline in western honey bee colonies in a number of regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Primarily in places where western honey bees were imported by humans, periodic collapses in western honey bee populations have occurred at least since the late 19th century. Starting in the first decade of the 21st century, abnormally high die-offs (30\u201370% of hives) of western honey bee colonies have occurred in North America. This has been dubbed \"colony collapse disorder\" (CCD) and was at first unexplained. It seems to be caused by a combination of factors rather than a single pathogen or poison, possibly including neonicotinoid pesticides or Israeli acute paralysis virus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "\"Apis cerana\", the eastern honey bee proper, is the traditional honey bee of southern and eastern Asia. One of its subspecies, the Indian honey bee (\"A.\u00a0c.\u00a0indica\"), was domesticated and kept in hives in a fashion similar to \"A. mellifera\", though on a more limited, regional scale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee was one of the first domesticated insects, and it is the primary species maintained by beekeepers to this day for both its honey production and pollination activities. With human assistance, the western honey bee now occupies every continent except Antarctica. Western honey bees are threatened by pests and diseases, especially the \"Varroa\" mite and colony collapse disorder. There are indications that the species is rare, if not extinct in the wild and as of 2019, the western honey bee is listed as \"Extinct\" on the IUCN Red List, while also acknowledging \"Data Deficient\". Numerous studies indicate that the species has undergone significant declines in Europe; however, it is not clear if they refer to population reduction of wild or managed colonies. Further research is required to enable differentiation between wild and non-wild colonies in order to determine the conservation status of the species in the wild, meaning self sustaining, without treatments or management."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera anatoliaca",
        "text": "This bee type belongs to the branch of bee classified by Ruttner (1988) as \"Oriental\". A recent genetic study confirmed that the sub-species belongs to an Eastern Europe branch of the genotype of the honey bee. Mitochondrial Deoxyribonucleaic acid (mtDNA) analysis of Thracian bees showed some similarities to the Apis mellifera carnica, although this same similarity was absent from Anatolian bee samples (Smith and Brown (1990) & Meixner \"et al.\" (1993). The cause of this is given as inter-breeding of native populations with nearby Austrian, Slovakian and Croatian bees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera macedonica",
        "text": "The Macedonian bee (Apis mellifera macedonica) is a subspecies of the Western honey bee. It is found mainly in North Macedonia, Northern Greece and other places in the Balkans as well. Originally this subspecies was described based on morphological characteristics by Friedrich Ruttner, as were the adami, cecropia and cypria subspecies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Since 2018 a new version of the honey bee genome is available on NCBI (Amel_HAv3.1, BioProject ID: PRJNA471592). This assembly contains full chromosome length scaffolds, which means that the sequence data for each chromosome is contiguous, and not split between multiple pieces called scaffolds. The existence of a highly contiguous reference genome for a species enables more detailed investigations of evolutionary processes that affect the genome as well as more accurate estimations of for example differentiation between populations and diversity within populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banni Grasslands Reserve",
        "text": "Mass cutting of ganda bawal trees and the air pollution from charcoal making has unexpectedly also vastly brought down the wild honey bee populations and has had a disastrous effect on wild bee honey collection, crop pollination and crop yields in the Kutch region. The number of dwarf bee hives in one square kilometre area has reduced to only 20\u201325 from the earlier 60\u201370 colonies in and around the Banni grasslands after the large scale tree felling. Local honey hunters (Koli community) who used to harvest about 300 tonnes of wild honey annually from Kutch after a moratorium for two years could only collect just 50 tonnes in 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera intermissa",
        "text": "In Spanish honey bee populations, mtDNA haplotypes of African bee strains were found to be frequently present (Smith 1991, Garnery \"et al\" 1995) (Cornuet \"et al\" 1975, 1978, 1982, 1988; Ruttner 1988; Cornuet and Fresnaye 1989; Orante-Bermejos and Garcia-Fernandez 1995; Hepburn and Radloff 1996). Migrating honey bee populations formed the original colonies of honey bees in western Europe, landing to eventually populate the continent from Africa across the Straits of Gibraltar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radmilovac",
        "text": "The farm also contains bees gene bank and 40 beehives. They produce several different types of honey: black locust, floral, sunflower, multifloral (\u201cmeadow\u201d). Curiosity is honey produced from sophora (\u201cJapanese acacia\u201d)."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Apis mellifera subspecies",
        "text": "Apis mellifera, the western honey bee, has many subspecies.\n* \"Apis mellifera adami\", classified by Ruttner, 1975 - (the Cretan honey bee) The island of Crete.\n* \"Apis mellifera artemisia\", classified by Engel, 1999 - (the Russian steppe honey bee) The steppes of Russia.\n* \"Apis mellifera carnica\", classified by Pollmann, 1879 - (nicknamed the Carniolan honey bee) from the Carniola region of Slovenia, it now dominates the central / western Balkans, Austria, Germany and much of Poland - popular with beekeepers due to its extreme gentleness. In 2014-2017 a European wide survey was conducted with 621\u00a0colonies, which included the various subspecies kept by beekeepers, it found that the \"A. m. carnica\" was the most docile, had the lowest swarming tendency and the highest hygienic behaviour - a trait closely linked with Varroa sensitive hygiene.\n* \"Apis mellifera caucasia\" (commonly misspelled as \"caucasica\"), classified by Pollmann, 1889 - (the Caucasian honey bee) The central Caucasus.\n* \"Apis mellifera cecropia\", classified by Kiesenwetter, 1860 - (the Greek honey bee) Southern Greece.\n* \"Apis mellifera cypria\", classified by Pollmann, 1879 - (the Cyprus honey bee) The island of Cyprus - this subspecies has the reputation of being very fierce compared to the Italian subspecies, from which it is isolated by the Mediterranean Sea.\n* \"Apis mellifera iberiensis\" (commonly misspelled as \"iberica\"), classified by Engel, 1999 - (the Spanish honey bee) The Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal).\n* \"Apis mellifera ligustica\", classified by Spinola, 1806 - (the Italian honey bee) The most commonly kept subspecies in North America, South America and southern Europe. They are kept commercially all over the world. They are very gentle, not very likely to swarm and produce a large surplus of honey. They have few undesirable characteristics. Colonies tend to maintain larger populations through winter, so they require more winter stores (or feeding) than other temperate zone subspecies. The Italian honey bee is light-colored and mostly leather-colored, but some strains are golden.\n* \"Apis mellifera macedonica\", classified by Ruttner, 1988 - (the Macedonian honey bee) Northern Greece (Macedonia and Thrace), North Macedonia. Possibly synonymous with \"A. m. artemisia\" (the Russian steppe honey bee; see above) as described by Engel, 1999.\n* \"Apis mellifera mellifera\", classified by Linnaeus, 1758 - the dark-coloured bee of northern Europe, also called the German black bee or the Northern European dark honey bee. It was domesticated in Europe and imported into Britain during Roman times. Hives were later exported to North America in the colonial era in 1622 where they were referred to as the English Fly by the Native American Indians. In 2014-2017 a European wide survey was conducted with 621\u00a0colonies, which included the various subspecies kept by beekeepers, it found that the \"A. m. mellifera\" was the most aggressive, had the highest swarming tendency and the lowest hygienic behaviour - a trait closely linked with Varroa sensitive hygiene.\n* \"Apis mellifera ruttneri\", classified by Sheppard, Arias, Grech & Meixner in 1997 - (the Maltese honey bee) The Maltese islands.\n* \"Apis mellifera remipes\", classified by Gerst\u00e4cker, 1862 (\"armeniaca\" is a junior synonym) - (the Armenian honey bee) The Caucasus, Iran, the Caspian Sea.\n* \"Apis mellifera siciliana\", classified by Grassi, 1881 (\"sicula\" is a junior synonym) - (the Sicilian honey bee) The Trapani province and the island of Ustica of western Sicily (Italy).\n* \"Apis mellifera sossimai\", classified by Engel, 1999 (includes the former \"Apis cerifera\", classified by Gerstaecker, 1862) - (the Ukrainian honey bee) Ukraine (except for Crimea) and the northern Caucasus.\n* \"Apis mellifera taurica\", classified by Alpatov, 1935 - (the Crimean honey bee) Crimea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karl von Frisch",
        "text": "Frisch studied aspects of animal behaviour, including animal navigation, in the Carniolan honey bee (\"Apis mellifera carnica\"), a subspecies of the European honey bee."
      },
      {
        "title": "East African lowland honey bee",
        "text": "The appearance of the East African lowland honey bee is very similar to the European bee. However, the East African lowland honey bee is slightly smaller. The average body length of a worker is 19\u00a0mm. Its upper body is covered in fuzz, and its abdomen is striped with black."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carniolan honey bee",
        "text": "Carniolan bees are nearly as big and long as the Western European black bees, though their abdomens are much slimmer. Furthermore, the Carniolan bee has a very long tongue (6.5 to 6.7\u00a0mm, which is very well adapted for clover), a very high elbow joint and very short hair."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis koschevnikovi",
        "text": "\"A. koschevnikovi\" hosts a unique species of the honey bee parasitic mite genus \"Varroa\", named \"Varroa rindereri\". Although this parasite species is quite similar to \"Varroa jacobsoni\" it is perfectly differentiable. \"V. rindereri\" is larger (1 180 x 1 698 micrometers). \"V.rindereri\" also has a fewer number of setae and pores on the sternal shield. It has a long and wide-looped peritreme, and the trochanter of the palpus lacks a seta. When pupae were removed from their cells, \"V. rindereri\" remained inside the cells. It has only been reported in colonies of \"A. koschevnikovi\" in Borneo and seems to be specific to that species, as it has yet to be observed crossing over to colonies of \"A. cerana\", even when they live in the same apiary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Female bees are diploid and have 32 chromosomes, whereas males are haploid and have only 16."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franz Hruschka",
        "text": "Franz seem to have enjoyed his life in Dolo and he had extensive contacts with other beekeepers due to his fame as the inventor of the extractor in 1865. He is quoted as saying:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Beekeeping in Ukraine",
        "text": "Petro Prokopovych () (1775\u20131850) was the founder of commercial beekeeping. He introduced novelties in traditional beekeeping that allowed for great advancement in the field. Among his most important inventions was a hive frame in a separate honey chamber of his beehive. He also invented a crude queen excluder between brood and honey chambers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis koschevnikovi",
        "text": "\"A. koschevnikovi\" is often referred to in the literature as the \u201cred bee of Sabah;\u201d however \"A. koschevnikovi\" is pale reddish in Sabah State, Borneo, Malaysia, but a dark, coppery color in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatera, Indonesia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Humans have been collecting honey from western honey bees for thousands of years, with evidence in the form of rock art found in France and Spain, dating to around 7,000 BCE. The western honey bee is one of the few invertebrate animals to have been domesticated. Bees were likely first domesticated in ancient Egypt, where tomb paintings depict beekeeping. Europeans brought bees to North America in 1622."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee or European honey bee (\"Apis mellifera\") is the most common of the 7\u201312 species of honey bees worldwide. The genus name \"Apis\" is Latin for \"bee\", and \"mellifera\" is the Latin for \"honey-bearing\", referring to the species' production of honey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis koschevnikovi",
        "text": "\"Apis koschevnikovi\" is a honey bee nectar-feeder. \"Apis koschevnikovi\" is a steady resident component of the rain forest and visits flowers during the entire year. In Bornean primary forests, \"Apis dorsata\" and \"A. koschevnikovi\" are the only honeybees that appear frequently at flowering canopy trees or at baits. At the Lambir Hills National Park in Malaysia, these two honeybees visited 29 flower species, making them visitors of 10% of the plant species and 22% of the plant families of the park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franz Hruschka",
        "text": "Franz Hruschka also known as Franz von Hruschka or Francesco De Hruschka or Franti\u0161ek Hru\u0161ka (Czech origin) was an Austrian/Italian officer and beekeeper known as the inventor of the honey extractor, an invention he presented in 1865 at the Brno Beekeeper Conference."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana japonica",
        "text": "Apis cerana japonica is a subspecies of the eastern honey bee native to Japan. It is commonly known as the . This subspecies was determined, through an analysis of mitochondrial DNA, to have originally come from the Korean peninsula. They have been observed moving into urban areas in the absence of natural predators."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Have a Bee",
        "text": "Founded by Petar Petrov, Stefan Zlatev and Trifon Michailov 2014 in Bulgaria. The group has examined the roots of traditional beekeeping and found that individual farms tended to keep only a few hives each\u2014in contrast with today's commercial beekeeping model, in which a single apiary consists of hundreds of hives. The founders believe that this practice is the cause of the pollinator decline. The IHAB was created to imitate the old beekeeping model and allow a more even distribution of bees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera lamarckii",
        "text": "It is a dark honey bee with yellow abdomen, and is a small subspecies like the races South of the Sahara. The Lamarck's mitotype can also be identified in honey bees from California and in feral bees from Florida."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Honey bee\n--Etymology and name.\n--Origin, systematics, and distribution.\n----Species.\n----\"Micrapis\".\n----\"Megapis\".\n----\"Apis\".\n------Koschevnikov's honey bee.\n------Philippine honey bee.\n------Eastern honey bee.\n------Western honey bee.\n------Africanized honey bee.\n--Living and fossil honey bees (Apini: \"Apis\").\n--Life cycle.\n----Winter survival.\n--Pollination.\n----Claims of human dependency.\n--Nutrition.\n--Beekeeping.\n----Colony collapse disorder.\n----Parasites.\n------\"Galleria mellonella\".\n------\"Varroa\" mites.\n--Bee products.\n----Honey.\n----Beeswax.\n----Bee bread.\n----Bees as food.\n----Propolis.\n----Royal jelly.\n--Sexes and castes.\n----Drones.\n----Workers.\n----Queens.\n----Queen-worker conflict.\n--Defense.\n----Venom.\n--Competition.\n--Communication.\n--Symbolism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bee behavior has been extensively studied. Karl von Frisch, who received the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his study of honey bee communication, noticed that bees communicate with dance. Through these dances, bees communicate information regarding the distance, the situation, and the direction of a food source by the dances of the returning (honey bee) worker bee on the vertical comb of the hive. Honey bees direct other bees to food sources with the round dance and the waggle dance. Although the round dance tells other foragers that food is within of the hive, it provides insufficient information about direction. The waggle dance, which may be vertical or horizontal, provides more detail about the distance and direction of a food source. Foragers are also thought to rely on their olfactory sense to help locate a food source after they are directed by the dances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee race",
        "text": "Based on morphological similarities and the separation of regions during and since the last Ice Age, there are five bee lineages:\n* A (African, subspecies from central and southern Africa)\n* C (\u201ccarnica\u201d, subspecies from east and south of the Alps, including those along the northern Mediterranean)\n* M (\u201cmellifera\u201d, subspecies from western Europe),\n* O (Oriental, subspecies from the eastern end of the range of the species)\n* Y (\"yemenitica\", subspecies from Ethiopia)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "A. m. iberiensis haplotype is present in the honey bees of the western United States where the honey bees are not native and they were introduced from Spain during the conquest of America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis koschevnikovi",
        "text": "\"Apis koschevnikovi\" is of the family Apidae and genus \"Apis\". \"A. koschevnikovi\" is known as one of the \u201cRed Bees\u201d of Borneo, described in 1988. \"A. koschevnikovi\" appears together with \"A. cerana\" and \"A. mellifera\", two other cavity-nesting species, in three separate phylogenic clusters without overlapping. The phylogenetic cluster analysis of \"A. koschevnikovi\" is found directly in contact with a cluster of \"A. cerana\" and distant from \"A. mellifera\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee is native to the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. As of the early 1600s, it was introduced to North America, with subsequent introductions of other European subspecies 200 years later. Since then, they have spread throughout the Americas. The 29\u00a0subspecies can be assigned to one of four major branches based on work by Ruttner and subsequently confirmed by analysis of mitochondrial DNA. African subspecies are assigned to branch\u00a0A, northwestern European subspecies to branch\u00a0M, southwestern European subspecies to branch\u00a0C, and Mideast subspecies to branch\u00a0O. The subspecies are grouped and listed. There are still regions with localized variations that may become identified subspecies in the near future, such as \"A. m. pomonella\" from the Tian Shan Mountains, which would be included in the Mideast subspecies branch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andrena hattorfiana",
        "text": "This endangered solitary bee is present in most of Europe and in the Near East. From central Spain via Ukraine to the Urals and via Asia Minor to the Caucasus; north to southern England and south Wales, in Norway and Sweden to 60.5 \u00b0 N, in Finland to 62.5 \u00b0 N, in Russia to Perm, south to Sicily, Peloponnese and southern Turkey; not in Crete. In the eastern Mediterranean area (westwards to Sicily) the \"ssp. dimidiata\" BRULLE, 1832 occurs. The species is generally uncommon."
      },
      {
        "title": "East African lowland honey bee",
        "text": "TE Rinderer, RL Hellmich (1981). The processes of Africanization CRC press; ISBN 9780429308741"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Nonetheless, the oldest archaeological find relating to beekeeping discovered to date is an apiary dating from about 900 BC at Rehov, a Bronze-Age and Iron-Age site in the Jordan Valley. The hives, made of straw and unbaked clay, could have housed more than a million bees, and indicate that honey was produced on a large scale. It is most likely that the inhabitants of Tel Rehov imported the bees from Anatolia, because they were less aggressive than the local bees and produced a higher yield of honey. It is also possible that the domestication of bees for honey production was introduced from Egypt during the Iron Age, and honey was being obtained from domesticated bees from late in the Iron Age period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian honey bee",
        "text": "In conjunction with the staff at the Baton Rouge Bee Laboratory, the Russian Honey Bee Breeders Association(RHBA) was conceived in the late 1990s, and works to certify apiarists who maintain only pure-bred Russian honey bees. These stocks are bred and DNA tested for resistance to varroa mites and increased honey production. Their charge is as follows: \"The primary purpose of the Russian Honey Bee Breeders Association is to maintain and improve the genetic lines of Russian honey bees through prorogation and selective breeding.\" In order to ensure pure-bred stock, an isolated mating site, a barrier island in Louisiana, was chosen as the location for this program. This program is not static as management techniques and genetic stocks develop over time to improve the health and viability of Russian honeybee stocks."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of diseases of the honey bee",
        "text": "Kashmir bee virus is related to the preceding viruses. Recently discovered, it is currently only positively identifiable by a laboratory test. Little is known about it yet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "F. Ruttner described it in his book \"Biogeography and Taxonomy of Honeybees.\" in base to the description of B. Adam, but like several authors prior to him (e.g., Goetze, 1964) erroneously equated this bee with the subspecies proposed by Skorikov (1929) as \"Apis mellifera iberica\" (Skorikov, however, proposed the name for a subspecies occurring in the Caucasus and based the name on the ancient Greco-Roman designation for the Georgian Kingdom, Caucasian Iberians, existing there in antiquity). Thus, the name as employed by Ruttner was an error, leaving \"Apis mellifera iberiensis\" as the only valid name for this subspecies of honey bees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Koschevnikov gland",
        "text": "The Koschevnikov gland is a gland of the honeybee located near the sting shaft. The gland produces an alarm pheromone that is released when a bee stings. The pheromone contains more than 40 different compounds, including pentylacetate, butyl acetate, 1-hexanol, n-butanol, 1-octanol, hexylacetate, octylacetate, and 2-nonanol. These components have a low molar mass and evaporate quickly. This collection of compounds is the least specific of all pheromones. The alarm pheromone is released when a honey bee stings another animal to attract other bees to attack, as well. The release of the alarm pheromone may entice more bees to sting at the same location. Smoking the bees can reduce the pheromone's efficacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Apart from \"Apis mellifera\", there are six other species in the genus \"Apis\". These are \"Apis andreniformis\", \"Apis cerana\", \"Apis dorsata\", \"Apis florea\", \"Apis koschevnikovi\", and \"Apis nigrocincta\". These species all originated in southern and southeastern Asia. Only \"Apis mellifera\" is thought to have originated in Europe, Asia, and Africa.\n*Apitherapy\n*Bee bearding\n*Beeline\n*Characteristics of common wasps and bees\n*Worker policing\n* A. I. Root's The ABC and XYZ of Beekeeping\n* Molecular confirmation of a fourth lineage in honeybees from the Near East Apidologie 31 (2000) 167\u2013180, accessed Oct 2005\n*Biesmeijer, Jacobus. \"The Occurrence and Context of the Shaking Signal in Honey Bees (\"Apis mellifera\") Exploiting Natural Food Sources\". \"Ethology\". 2003.\n*Lindauer, Martin. \"Communication among social bees\". Harvard University Press 1971.\n*Schneider, S. S., P. K. Visscher, Camazine, S. \"Vibration Signal Behavior of Waggle-dancers in Swarms of the Honey Bee, \"Apis mellifera\" (Hymenoptera: Apidae). \"Ethology\". 1998.\n*FAO: Beekeeping explained\n*FAO: Honeybee anatomy\n* IFAS: \"Apis mellifera\"\n* Sound recordings of \"Apis mellifera\" at BioAcoustica"
      },
      {
        "title": "Osmia cornifrons",
        "text": "Osmia cornifrons, also known as the horned-face bee, are solitary bees indigenous to Northern Asia. Physically, this species of bee is recognized for its horn-like extensions originating from its lower face. Populations of \"O. cornifrons\" have been recorded in multiple locations, including Japan, Korea, China, and Russia. \"O. cornifrons\" are more docile as compared to other species of bees and are less prone to sting when aggravated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis koschevnikovi",
        "text": "\"A. koschevnikovi\" is very long-tongued (5.870\u00a0mm) and slender, with narrow tomenta. \"Apis koschevnikov\"i is larger than its sympatric \"A. cerana\", consistently being 10 to 15% larger linearly. \"Apis koschevnikovi\" also has two distinct characteristics which are species specific \u2013 its drones have a secondary sex characteristic of a hairy fringe on the margin of the tibia of the hind leg, and worker bee forewing venation shows a cubital index which is large and varied."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "For example, European honey bees (\"Apis mellifera ligustica\") forage at older ages and harvest less pollen and more concentrated nectar. The differences in resources emphasized during harvesting are a result of the European honey bee's sensitivity to sucrose at higher concentrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana",
        "text": "Apis cerana, the eastern honey bee, Asiatic honey bee or Asian honey bee, is a species of honey bee native to South, Southeast and East Asia. This species is the sister species of \"Apis koschevnikovi\" and both are in the same subgenus as the western (European) honey bee, \"Apis mellifera\". \"A. cerana\" is known to live sympatrically along with \"Apis koschevnikovi\" within the same geographic location. \"Apis cerana\" colonies are known for building nests consisting of multiple combs in cavities containing a small entrance, presumably for defense against invasion by individuals of another nest. The diet of this honey bee species consists mostly of pollen and nectar, or honey. Moreover, \"Apis cerana\" is known for its highly social behavior, reflective of its classification as a type of honey bee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karl von Frisch",
        "text": "Frisch's honey bee work included the study of the pheromones that are emitted by the queen bee and her daughters, which maintain the hive's very complex social order. Outside the hive, the pheromones cause the male bees, or drones, to become attracted to a queen and mate with her. Inside the hive, the drones are not affected by the odor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera anatoliaca",
        "text": "This bee is the aboriginal population of Turkey, populating the central parts of the country (Alpatov 1929), excluding the northeastern and southeastern, although including old Rumelia."
      },
      {
        "title": "East African lowland honey bee",
        "text": "African bees are \"precocious foragers\"; \"A. mellifera scutellata\" bees begin foraging for pollen significantly earlier than their European counterparts \"A. mellifera ligustica\", and this is thought to be related to the fact that African colonies have a younger, skewed age distribution by comparison. However, this is not a direct cause for the different subsistence strategies between the two subspecies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Euglossa sovietica",
        "text": "Euglossa sovietica is a Euglossine bee species found in the western Brazilian Amazon. It is believed to be part of the \"Euglossa purpurea\" group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Africanized bee",
        "text": "In May\u00a02014, Colorado State University confirmed that bees from a swarm which had aggressively attacked an orchardist near Palisade, in west-central Colorado, were from an Africanized honey bee hive. The hive was subsequently destroyed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boris Korczak",
        "text": "In August 1981, Korczak was shot with a ricin-laced pellet while shopping in Giant Food store in Vienna, Virginia. At the time he thought that a bee had stung him but three hours later he started becoming deathly ill. Hospital records indicate that his white blood cell count was four times the normal amount yet no infection could be detected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amihai Mazar",
        "text": "While excavating the ancient city of Rehov Mazar discovered 30 intact hives, dating from c. 900 BCE, a time when the city had about 2,000 residents. The beehives, made of straw and unbaked clay, were found in orderly rows and may be the oldest complete beehives ever discovered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera adansonii",
        "text": "Apis mellifera adansonii (Western African bee) is a subspecies of the Western honey bee with probably the largest range of Apis mellifera in Africa, belonging to the A (Africa) Lineage of honey bees. Originally identified by Michael Adansonin in his \"Histoire naturelle du Seneegal\" in 1757. Initially the name \"adsansonii\" was misapplied to \"A. m. scutelleta\" and in particular to the Africanised bees of South America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beta corolliflora",
        "text": "Beta corolliflora is a species of wild beet in the family Amaranthaceae, native to Turkey, the Transcaucasus, and Iran. It is being studied for its resistance to beet curly top virus in an effort to improve the sugar beet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beekeeping",
        "text": "The oldest archaeological finds directly relating to beekeeping have been discovered at Rehov, a Bronze and Iron Age archaeological site in the Jordan Valley, Israel. Thirty intact hives, made of straw and unbaked clay, were discovered by archaeologist Amihai Mazar in the ruins of the city, dating from about 900 BCE. The hives were found in orderly rows, three high, in a manner that could have accommodated around 100 hives, held more than 1 million bees and had a potential annual yield of 500 kilograms of honey and 70 kilograms of beeswax, according to Mazar, and are evidence that an advanced honey industry existed in ancient Israel 3,000 years ago."
      },
      {
        "title": "European dark bee",
        "text": "However starting in the winter of 1940 to 1942, beekeeping was devastated throughout Germany by huge colony deaths, later identified by Karl Von Frisch as a virulent strain of Nosema apis, through his work with the Nosema Council to try and tackle the problem; ironically it was this epidemic that saved Von Frisch from the anti-semetic policies of the Nazi's as his maternal Grandmother was Jewish, making him 25% Jewish (75% German)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera cecropia",
        "text": "Apis mellifera cecropia, the Greek bee, is the subspecies of honey bee that is native to southern Greece. It is very similar to \"Apis mellifera ligustica\", the Italian bee. it is favored for its extreme gentleness and lack of tendency to swarm. The Greek bee originates in Greece where the climate is Mediterranean, and cannot survive in the north of Europe where the climate is cooler, and because of that they are not spread around the world much by commercial beekeepers. They are mainly only kept in southern Greece."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strobilanthes callosa",
        "text": "Immediately after its mass flowering the Karvi honey collected by wild bee honey hunters is a popular local delicacy, it is much thicker and darker than other varieties.\"\"'"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where in the world is the honey bee most prevalent?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about the africanized honey bee,  western honey bee, Koschevnikov's honey bee, eastern honey bee, or the philippine honey bee?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I would like to know about the western honey bee."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The western honey bee or European honey bee (Apis mellifera) is the most common of the 7\u201312 species of honey bees worldwide. The western honey bee can be found on every continent except Antarctica, as they adapted to the local environments as they spread geographically."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me how the Africanized Honey Bee came to be?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Africanized honey bees in the Western Hemisphere are descended from hives operated by biologist Warwick E. Kerr, who had interbred honey bees from Europe and southern Africa. Kerr was attempting to breed a strain of bees that would produce more honey in tropical conditions than the European strain of honey bee then in use throughout North, Central and South America."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about the Koschenvikov's honey bee?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Apis koschevnikovi, Koschevnikov's honey bee, is a species of honey bee which inhabits Malaysian and Indonesian Borneo, where it lives sympatrically with other honey bee species such as Apis cerana (specifically A. c. nuluensis).",
      "Koschevnikov's honey bee is referred to in literature as the \"red bee of Sabah\", and is pale reddish in Malaysia but coppery and dark in the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia. It lives in tropical evergreen forests."
    ],
    "topic": "Western honey bee",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Apis koschevnikovi:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Apis koschevnikovi"
        ],
        "ctx": "Apis koschevnikovi, Koschevnikov's honey bee, is a species of honey bee which inhabits Malaysian and Indonesian Borneo, where it lives sympatrically with other honey bee species such as \"Apis cerana\" (specifically \"A. c. nuluensis\")."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Honey bee:15",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Honey bee",
          "Origin, systematics, and distribution",
          "\"Apis\"",
          "Koschevnikov's honey bee"
        ],
        "ctx": "Koschevnikov's honey bee (\"Apis koschevnikovi\") is often referred to in the literature as the \"red bee of Sabah\"; however, \"A. koschevnikovi\" is pale reddish in Sabah State, Borneo, Malaysia, but a dark, coppery color in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, Indonesia. Its habitat is limited to the tropical evergreen forests of the Malay Peninsula, Borneo and Sumatra and they do not live in tropical evergreen rain forests which extend into Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia and Vietnam."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Apis koschevnikovi",
        "text": "However, in contrast to normal feeding behavior, \"Apis koschevnikovi\" and \"Apis dorsata\" fight at artificial feeding stations. They displayed a displaced nest-defense behavior with grappling and attempted stinging. Honey bees do not interact well with competing foragers when near a rich resource. \"A. koschevnikovi\" has even shown aggression against conspecific foragers when competing for a resource. Honey bees tend to dominate floral patches as individual colonies because of their competitive nature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "There is some degree of variability of sociality between individuals. Like a great many other social insects, \"A. mellifera\" engages in trophallaxis. When the duration of trophallaxis pairings was measured, it was found that like human social interactions, there are durable long-term trends for each individual bee. There is less inter-individual variation than found in humans however, possibly reflecting the higher genetic relatedness between hivemates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bee behavior has been extensively studied. Karl von Frisch, who received the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his study of honey bee communication, noticed that bees communicate with dance. Through these dances, bees communicate information regarding the distance, the situation, and the direction of a food source by the dances of the returning (honey bee) worker bee on the vertical comb of the hive. Honey bees direct other bees to food sources with the round dance and the waggle dance. Although the round dance tells other foragers that food is within of the hive, it provides insufficient information about direction. The waggle dance, which may be vertical or horizontal, provides more detail about the distance and direction of a food source. Foragers are also thought to rely on their olfactory sense to help locate a food source after they are directed by the dances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Pheromones (substances involved in chemical communication) are essential to honey bee survival. Western honey bees rely on pheromones for nearly all behaviors, including mating, alarm, defense, orientation, kin and colony recognition, food production and integrating colony activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Apart from \"Apis mellifera\", there are six other species in the genus \"Apis\". These are \"Apis andreniformis\", \"Apis cerana\", \"Apis dorsata\", \"Apis florea\", \"Apis koschevnikovi\", and \"Apis nigrocincta\". These species all originated in southern and southeastern Asia. Only \"Apis mellifera\" is thought to have originated in Europe, Asia, and Africa.\n*Apitherapy\n*Bee bearding\n*Beeline\n*Characteristics of common wasps and bees\n*Worker policing\n* A. I. Root's The ABC and XYZ of Beekeeping\n* Molecular confirmation of a fourth lineage in honeybees from the Near East Apidologie 31 (2000) 167\u2013180, accessed Oct 2005\n*Biesmeijer, Jacobus. \"The Occurrence and Context of the Shaking Signal in Honey Bees (\"Apis mellifera\") Exploiting Natural Food Sources\". \"Ethology\". 2003.\n*Lindauer, Martin. \"Communication among social bees\". Harvard University Press 1971.\n*Schneider, S. S., P. K. Visscher, Camazine, S. \"Vibration Signal Behavior of Waggle-dancers in Swarms of the Honey Bee, \"Apis mellifera\" (Hymenoptera: Apidae). \"Ethology\". 1998.\n*FAO: Beekeeping explained\n*FAO: Honeybee anatomy\n* IFAS: \"Apis mellifera\"\n* Sound recordings of \"Apis mellifera\" at BioAcoustica"
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana",
        "text": "Within the honey bee colony, a queen bee typically mates with 10 or more males. This extensive mating is performed in an effort to secure a great range of genetic variation in her colony to cope with diseases, as well as respond to nectar sources and a wide range of external stimuli. Apart from the queen bee, the only other sexual members of the society are the male drones, whose only function is to mate with the queen, after which they will die."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bombus frigidus",
        "text": "When males and females of a bee species often encounter one another without environmental recognition cues, natural selection is likely to favor a mechanism of naturally borne cues. In addition, sexually active males and females often fail to disperse during the mating season and will thus encounter one another. This failure to disperse makes the recognition of naturally born cues vital for the success of a hive's genes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bee learning and communication",
        "text": "Note: much of the research on the two competing hypotheses of communication has been restricted to Western honey bees (see the work of F.C. Dyer though). Other species of \"Apis\" use variants on the same theme, and other types of bees use other methods altogether."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Unlike most other bee species, western honey bees have perennial colonies which persist year after year. Because of this high degree of sociality and permanence, western honey bee colonies can be considered superorganisms. This means that reproduction of the colony, rather than individual bees, is the biologically significant unit. Western honey bee colonies reproduce through a process called \"swarming\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis dorsata",
        "text": "In Bornean rainforests, \"Apis koschevnikovi\" and \"Apis dorsata\" are the only honeybees that appear frequently at flowering canopy trees or baits. Even though they share most of the same rain forest habitat, they are still able to coexist. Their difference in size and tongue length help separate their resource use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tetragonisca angustula",
        "text": "\"T. angustula\" bees do not have an easily observable form of communication. While they must cooperate in the hive to perform various tasks as a group, many tasks are performed individually. Olfactory cues have been tested in relation to both nestmate recognition and in foraging location, but no strong links could be made. Chemical cues do play a role in foraging activities, with individuals choosing to pollinate plants that have been previously visited by other foragers, but this is an indirect form of communication."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "After several days of orientation in and around the hive, the young queen flies to a drone congregation point\u00a0\u2013 a site near a clearing and generally about above the ground\u00a0\u2013 where drones from different hives congregate. They detect the presence of a queen in their congregation area by her smell, find her by sight and mate with her in midair; drones can be induced to mate with \"dummy\" queens with the queen pheromone. A queen will mate multiple times, and may leave to mate several days in a row (weather permitting) until her spermatheca is full."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The very generalized nature of the honey bee's nectar-gathering activities, potentially visiting dozens of different species in a single day, means that a flower visited by a honey bee will often get very little pollen from its own species. This diminished pollination can reduce the plant's ability to produce seeds, especially when the honey bees are squeezing out the native pollinators for a species, a problem occurring all over the United States because of honey bees and other invasive species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee is a colonial insect which is housed, transported by and sometimes fed by beekeepers. Honey bees do not survive and reproduce individually, but as part of the colony (a superorganism)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles F. Hockett",
        "text": "Foraging honey bees communicate with other members of their hive when they have discovered a relevant source of pollen, nectar, or water. In an effort to convey information about the location and the distance of such resources, honeybees participate in a particular figure-eight dance known as the waggle dance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Unlike native bees, they do not properly extract or transfer pollen from plants with pore anthers (anthers which only release pollen through tiny apical pores); this requires buzz pollination, a behavior rarely exhibited by honey bees. Honey bees reduce fruiting in \"Melastoma affine\", a plant with pore anthers, by robbing its stigmas of previously deposited pollen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis koschevnikovi",
        "text": "Apis koschevnikovi, Koschevnikov's honey bee, is a species of honey bee which inhabits Malaysian and Indonesian Borneo, where it lives sympatrically with other honey bee species such as \"Apis cerana\" (specifically \"A. c. nuluensis\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Eastern \"Apis\" species include three or four\u00a0species, including \"A. koschevnikovi\", \"Apis nigrocincta\", and \"A. cerana\". The genetics of the western honey bee (\"A. mellifera\") are unclear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Like all honey bee species, the western honey bee is eusocial, creating colonies with a single fertile female (or \"queen\"), many normally non-reproductive females or \"workers\", and a small proportion of fertile males or \"drones\". Individual colonies can house tens of thousands of bees. Colony activities are organized by complex communication between individuals, through both pheromones and the dance language."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Carniolan honey bees (\"Apis mellifera carnica\") use their antennae asymmetrically for social interactions, with a strong lateral preference to use their right antennae."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eulaema meriana",
        "text": "Males defend territories solely for mating, and no other resources such as fragrances, nests, nest construction materials, nectar, or pollen are found at these territories. According to Stern's observations on male behavior, transient males hover around a territory while facing the territorial male, and then descend slowly. They will then fly up to the same level as the territorial male and interact with each other, flying around a territory with one bee seeming to chase the other without any physical contact. The territorial male was observed to fly in a zig-zag pattern consistently before the transient male left, whereupon the territorial male would resume its normal patrolling of his area. Male bees could switch from territoriality to transiency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bee learning and communication",
        "text": "Other bees like \"Trigona corvina\" rely on pheromones for much of their communication with nest mates and rivals. They produce pheromones from their labial glands. The function of signaling depends on the profitability, but they commonly will scent mark a food source either for self-orientation, to deter rivals or to direct a nest mate to the resource. Once an individual finds a good food source, they will return to the same source for many days. If an individual detects the scent of a rival bee, they will avoid the plant in order to avoid conflict and to save time. It has also been shown that pheromones are a method of sexual selection between male drones and queens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana japonica",
        "text": "When threatened by hornets or other competing honey bees, \"A. c. japonica\" will dance and smear plant material at the entrance of the hive. A threat consists of a hornet or competing bee arriving to the home nest and scouting it, smearing it with pheromones. Performing the dance triggers an emergency, bees will travel a short distance to gather plant material. \"A. c. japonica\" does not discriminate between plant texture, color, or the part of the plant. The bees will then stand at the hive entrance and chew up the plant to smear the juice over the entrance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "With an increased number of honey bees in a specific area due to beekeeping, Western honey bees (as an invasive species) and native wild bees often have to compete for the limited habitat and food sources available, and Western honey bees may become defensive in response to the seasonal arrival of competition from other colonies, particularly Africanized bees which may be on the offence and defence year round due to their tropical origin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asian giant hornet",
        "text": "Beekeepers in Japan attempted to introduce western honey bees (\"Apis mellifera\") for the sake of their high productivity. Western honey bees have no innate defense against the hornets, which can rapidly destroy their colonies, Kakugo virus infection, though, may provide an extrinsic defence. Although a handful of Asian giant hornets can easily defeat the uncoordinated defenses of a western honey bee colony, the Japanese honey bee (\"Apis cerana japonica\") has an effective strategy. When a hornet scout locates and approaches a Japanese honey bee hive, she emits specific pheromonal hunting signals. When the Japanese honey bees detect these pheromones, 100 or so gather near the entrance of the nest and set up a trap, keeping the entrance open. This permits the hornet to enter the hive. As the hornet enters, a mob of hundreds of bees surrounds it in a ball, completely covering it and preventing it from reacting effectively. The bees violently vibrate their flight muscles in much the same way as they do to heat the hive in cold conditions. This raises the temperature in the ball to the critical temperature of . In addition, the exertions of the honey bees raise the level of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the ball. At that concentration of CO2, they can tolerate up to , but the hornet cannot survive the combination of high temperature and high carbon dioxide level. Some honey bees do die along with the intruder, much as happens when they attack other intruders with their stings, but by killing the hornet scout, they prevent it from summoning reinforcements that would wipe out the entire colony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Another means of communication is the shaking signal, also known as the jerking dance, vibration dance or vibration signal. Although the shaking signal is most common in worker communication, it also appears in reproductive swarming. A worker bee vibrates its body dorsoventrally while holding another bee with its front legs. Jacobus Biesmeijer, who examined shaking signals in a forager's life and the conditions leading to its performance, found that experienced foragers executed 92% of observed shaking signals and 64% of these signals were made after the discovery of a food source. About 71% of shaking signals occurred before the first five successful foraging flights of the day; other communication signals, such as the waggle dance, were performed more often after the first five successes. Biesmeijer demonstrated that most shakers are foragers and the shaking signal is most often executed by foraging bees on pre-foraging bees, concluding that it is a transfer message for several activities (or activity levels). Sometimes the signal increases activity, as when active bees shake inactive ones. At other times, such as the end of the day, the signal is an inhibitory mechanism. However, the shaking signal is preferentially directed towards inactive bees. All three forms of communication among honey bees are effective in foraging and task management."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Like other insects that undergo complete metamorphosis, the western honey bee has four distinct life stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult. The complex social structure of western honey bee hives means that all of these life stages occur simultaneously throughout much of the year. The queen deposits a single egg into each cell of a honeycomb prepared by worker bees. The egg hatches into a legless, eyeless larva fed by \"nurse\" bees (worker bees who maintain the interior of the colony). After about a week, the larva is sealed in its cell by the nurse bees and begins its pupal stage. After another week, it emerges as an adult bee. It is common for defined regions of the comb to be filled with young bees (also called \"brood\"), while others are filled with pollen and honey stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Honey bees have become an invasive species in the US, outcompeting native pollinators when resources are tight. With an increased number of honey bees in a specific area due to beekeeping, domesticated bees and native wild bees often have to compete for the limited habitat and food sources available. Western honey bees may become defensive in response to the seasonal arrival of competition from other colonies, particularly Africanized bees which may be on the offence and defence year round due to their tropical origin. In the United Kingdom, honey bees are known to compete with native bumblebees such as \"Bombus hortorum\", because they forage at the same sites. To resolve the issue and maximize both their total consumption during foraging, bumblebees forage early in the morning, while honey bees forage during the afternoon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana japonica",
        "text": "Beekeepers in Japan attempted to introduce western honey bees (\"Apis mellifera\") for the sake of their high productivity. However, western honey bees have no innate defense against Asian giant hornets, which can rapidly destroy their colonies. Japanese honey bees, having evolved alongside the Asian giant hornet, have numerous defensive strategies against the hornets and so are also used in apiculture in the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bumblebee communication",
        "text": "Bumblebees (\"Bombus\" spp.), like the honeybee (\"Apis\" spp.) collect nectar and pollen from flowers and store them for food. Many individuals must be recruited to forage for food to provide for the hive. Some bee species have highly developed ways of communicating with each other about the location and quality of food resources ranging from physical to chemical displays. Honey bees are known for their specialized dances, such as the waggle dance which recruit other bees to the precise location of the food source. Bumblebees are not capable of transmitting this type of detailed information. Instead, the nest serves as a hub where bees receive information about the foraging bouts of her conspecifics. Differences between the communication methods of honeybees and bumblebees are mainly due to differences in colony size and nest structure. Bumblebees are distinct from honeybees because they lack receiver bees (bees in the nest which receive pollen and nectar from incoming foragers during unloading) and are not capable of trophallaxis (the transfer of nectar from one bee to another). They deposit collected nectar directly into the honey pots and don't share information of the quality of the resource with other bees through nectar transfer. Another bee may sample the nectar brought into the nest, and if the colony is in need of food or the nectar is high quality she will likely go out foraging herself. Other means of alerting passive bees to a potentially rewarding resource include releasing pheromone signals and increasing physical activity. For information on communication methods in honey bees, see Bee learning and communication."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "As of October 28, 2006, the Honey Bee Genome Sequencing Consortium fully sequenced and analyzed the genome of \"Apis mellifera,\" the western honey bee. Since 2007, attention has been devoted to colony collapse disorder, a decline in western honey bee colonies in a number of regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern carpenter bee",
        "text": "Flights near the nest are usually uniform and involve much hovering. Flights protecting a bee's territory can be as short as a few minutes, but may extend beyond an hour. Males will not react to another bee unless the other is flying at high speed. When other individuals hover near the nest, it is unlikely that the male will pursue, whereas if another male comes into a territory at a high speed, the territorial male will give chase. When males patrolling the entrance of a nest are confronted with either dead or living Eastern carpenter bees suspended from a thread and dangled within the male's territory, the male does not respond when the bee is suspended and motionless, whether it is living or dead\u2014even though \"X. virginica\" are capable of recognizing other individuals of their species. However, when the suspended bee is released and allowed to fly in the male's territory or is swung through the territory on the thread, the territorial male pursues it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bee learning and communication",
        "text": "Honey bees are sensitive to odors (including pheromones), tastes, and colors, including ultraviolet. They can demonstrate capabilities such as color discrimination through classical and operant conditioning and retain this information for several days at least; they communicate the location and nature of sources of food; they adjust their foraging to the times at which food is available; they may even form cognitive maps of their surroundings. They also communicate with each other by means of a \"waggle dance\" and in other ways."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis andreniformis",
        "text": "Different types of honey bees may use different types of dances to communicate with their hive. Most cavity-dwelling species use vertical waggle dances, while open-air nesters do not perform a gravity oriented waggle dance and instead perform a horizontal dance. The shape of the nest creates a platform above the nest that can be used as a stage for communication. The dance is a straight run pointing directly to the source of pollen or nectar that the forager has visited. Since the dance of other Apis species is vertical, it is not actually directed towards the food source, as it is in \"A. andreniformis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana",
        "text": "The principal method of communication is the waggle dance, performed primarily when a worker bee discovers a rich source of pollen or nectar and wishes to share this knowledge with her fellow nest-mates. The waggle dance occurs deep inside the colony's hive, where the worker bee performs a brief reenactment of the recent journey to a patch of flowers. Neighboring bees observe and learn this dance and can then follow the same pattern, utilizing the odor of the flowers to fly in a certain path and arrive at the same destination. The bees following the informed worker bee will extend their antennae towards the dancer in order to detect the dance sounds, as the frequency of the bee's antennae closely matches the vibration frequency of its wings. The overall direction and duration of each waggle is closely correlated with the direction and distance from the flower patch being described."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee or European honey bee (\"Apis mellifera\") is the most common of the 7\u201312 species of honey bees worldwide. The genus name \"Apis\" is Latin for \"bee\", and \"mellifera\" is the Latin for \"honey-bearing\", referring to the species' production of honey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "It has not been possible yet to resolve its relationship to the Bornean honey bee \"A. c. nuluensis\" and \"Apis nigrocincta\" from the Philippines to satisfaction; some researchers argue that these are indeed distinct species, but that \"A. cerana\" as defined is still paraphyletic, consisting of several separate species, though other researchers argue \"cerana\" is a single monophyletic species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana",
        "text": "In addition to feeding themselves, bees also feed each other through a process known as \u201cfood transmission.\u201d Moreover, workers may also obtain food from the queen, while drones acquire food by ingesting material regurgitated by other drones. Queens themselves are fed larval food by the workers during their wintering season, thereby neither feeding on nor being fed honey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern carpenter bee",
        "text": "Males require female activity, specifically flight, in mating. Occasionally before mating, the couple will face each other and hover for a few minutes. When the male contacts the female, he mounts her back and attempts to push his abdomen under hers. Copulation then occurs, and it is almost always followed by more mating attempts. If, during copulation, the female lands, the couple will disengage and the male will hover waiting for the female to take flight again; however, although the males almost always disengage and pause copulation when the female lands, there have been instances recorded in which the males will hold on to the female with all six legs and flap his wings in an attempt to lift her back into the air."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "Western honey bees differentiated into geographic subspecies as they spread from Asia into Europe and Africa. There are currently 28 recognized subspecies of \"Apis mellifera\" based largely on these geographic variations. All subspecies are cross fertile. Geographic isolation led to numerous local adaptations as this species spread after the last ice age. These adaptations include brood cycles synchronized with the bloom period of local flora, forming a winter cluster in colder climates, migratory swarming in Africa, enhanced foraging behavior in desert areas, and numerous other inherited traits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana",
        "text": "Apis cerana, the eastern honey bee, Asiatic honey bee or Asian honey bee, is a species of honey bee native to South, Southeast and East Asia. This species is the sister species of \"Apis koschevnikovi\" and both are in the same subgenus as the western (European) honey bee, \"Apis mellifera\". \"A. cerana\" is known to live sympatrically along with \"Apis koschevnikovi\" within the same geographic location. \"Apis cerana\" colonies are known for building nests consisting of multiple combs in cavities containing a small entrance, presumably for defense against invasion by individuals of another nest. The diet of this honey bee species consists mostly of pollen and nectar, or honey. Moreover, \"Apis cerana\" is known for its highly social behavior, reflective of its classification as a type of honey bee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana",
        "text": "In the past, there has been discussion that \"Apis cerana\" and \"Apis mellifera\" are simply distinct races of the same species. This is essentially due to overwhelming similarities in both morphology and behavior, as both are medium-sized bees (10-11mm) that generally build multiple comb nests inside cavities. Other honey bee species, including the giant honey bees \"Apis dorsata\" and \"Apis laboriosa\", generally construct nests consisting of a single comb in open areas. However, despite the striking similarities between \"Apis cerana\" and \"Apis mellifera\", there is evidence to suggest that these two species are quite distinct; for example, mating between these species does not produce offspring. In addition, while \"Apis mellifera\" colonies can reach sizes of up to 50,000 or more individuals, \"Apis cerana\" colonies are relatively small, with only around 6,000 to 7,000 workers. Moreover, \"Apis cerana\" is found predominantly in the Eastern Asian region of the world, while \"Apis mellifera\" is found predominantly in the Western European and African region of the world. For these reasons, it has now been concluded that these are in fact two separate species, contrary to prior beliefs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trigona corvina",
        "text": "\"T. corvina\" rely on pheromones for much of their communication with nest mates and rivals. They produce pheromones from their labial glands. The function of signaling depends on the profitability, but they commonly will scent mark a food source either for self-orientation, to deter rivals or to direct a nest mate to the resource. Once an individual finds a good food source, they will return to the same source for many days. If an individual detects the scent of a rival bee, they will avoid the plant in order to avoid conflict and to save time. It has also been shown that pheromones are a method of sexual selection between male drones and queens. This form of communication differentiates stingless bees from honey bees who use dances to indicate resource location."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Once she has dispatched all of her rivals, the new queen, the only fertile female, lays all the eggs for the old colony, which her mother has left. Virgin females are able to lay eggs, which develop into males (a trait shared with wasps, bees, and ants because of haplodiploidy). However, she requires a mate to produce female offspring, which comprise 90% or more of bees in the colony at any given time. Thus, the new queen goes on one or more nuptial flights, each time mating with 1\u201317 drones. Once she has finished mating, usually within two weeks of emerging, she remains in the hive, playing the primary role of laying eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana japonica",
        "text": "Although it is a commonly accepted theory that the Asian giant hornet may be allowed to enter the Japanese honey bee hive, recent studies suggest that the Japanese honey bee and large hornets actually have a predator-prey \u201cI see you\u201d (ISY) relationship. The ISY relationship is supported by the observation that Japanese honey bee wingbeats become louder and increase in intensity as a bee-hawking wasp (such as an Asian hornet (\"Vespa velutina\"), a Lesser banded hornet (Vespa affinis), Japanese yellow hornet (\"Vespa simillima xanthoptera\"), or an Asian giant hornet (\"Vespa mandarinia\")) moves closer to the entrance of the hive and that, in most cases, the hornet may retreat when it hears the sound. If the hornet moves closer to the hive, the Japanese honey bees move their wings faster to intensify the warning to the wasp. If the wasp enters the nest the bees will increase their wing movement, form a ball and raise their body temperature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "When a fertile female worker produces drones, a conflict arises between her interests and those of the queen. The worker shares one-half of her genes with the drone and one-quarter with her brothers, favouring her offspring over those of the queen. The queen shares one-half of her genes with her sons and one-quarter with the sons of fertile female workers. This pits the worker against the queen and other workers, who try to maximize their reproductive fitness by rearing the offspring most related to them. This relationship leads to a phenomenon called \"worker policing\". In these rare situations, other worker bees in the hive, who are genetically more related to the queen's sons than those of the fertile workers, patrol the hive and remove worker-laid eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xylocopa micans",
        "text": "A male territory holder may sometimes slowly fly into an adjacent territory until it is aggressed by the other territory holder. The aggression follows the same pattern as territory holder aggression against a wanderer, following which the insurgent bee returns to its own territory. Researchers Frankie et al. explained this phenomenon using the \"dear enemy effect\", which suggests that it is mutually beneficial for both bees holding adjacent territories to recognize each other and agree upon an established boundary between their territories, in order to reduce the number of hostile encounters between neighbors and, consequently, the amount of energy expended on such encounters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carniolan honey bee",
        "text": "The Carniolan honey bee (\"Apis mellifera carnica\", Pollmann) is a subspecies of the western honey bee. The Carniolan honey bee is native to Slovenia, southern Austria, and parts of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Specialist bird predators of western honey bees include the bee-eaters; other birds that may take western honey bees include grackles, hummingbirds, tyrant flycatchers and the summer tanager. Most birds that eat bees do so opportunistically; however, summer tanagers will sit on a limb and catch dozens of bees from the hive entrance as they emerge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "In most climates, western honey bees swarm in the spring and early summer, when there is an abundance of blooming flowers from which to collect nectar and pollen. In response to these favorable conditions, the hive creates one to two dozen new queens. Just as the pupal stages of these \"daughter queens\" are nearly complete, the old queen and approximately two-thirds of the adult workers leave the colony in a swarm, traveling some distance to find a new location suitable for building a hive (e.g., a hollow tree trunk). In the old colony, the daughter queens often start \"piping\", just prior to emerging as adults, and, when the daughter queens eventually emerge, they fight each other until only one remains; the survivor then becomes the new queen. If one of the sisters emerges before the others, she may kill her siblings while they are still pupae, before they have a chance to emerge as adults."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calliopsis (bee)",
        "text": "Since \"Calliopsis\" has many different species, a lot of bees behave differently in different region. For example, \"Calliopsis hondurasicus\" become active at the start of the dry season in mid- to late-December, and activity ends in late January or early February. Males patrol areas where females emerge and later nest, and they defend territories to which they return repeatedly. Male-male contests involve a rapid spiraling-upward flight, often followed by physical aggression after the pair tumbles to the ground."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "In cold climates, honey bees stop flying when the temperature drops below about and crowd into the central area of the hive to form a \"winter cluster\". The worker bees huddle around the queen bee at the center of the cluster, shivering to keep the center between at the start of winter (during the broodless period) and once the queen resumes laying. The worker bees rotate through the cluster from the outside to the inside so that no bee gets too cold. The outside edges of the cluster stay at about . The colder the weather is outside, the more compact the cluster becomes. During winter, they consume their stored honey to produce body heat. The amount of honey consumed during the winter is a function of winter length and severity, but ranges in temperate climates from . In addition, certain bees, including the western honey bee as well as \"Apis cerana\", are known to engage in effective methods of nest thermoregulation during periods of varying temperature in both summer and winter. During the summer, however, this is achieved through fanning and water evaporation from water collected in various fields."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bees also change the precision of the waggle dance to indicate the type of site that is set as a new goal. Their close relatives, dwarf honey bees, do not. Therefore, western honey bees seem to have evolved a better means of conveying information than their common ancestors with the dwarf honey bee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "In North America, various native milkweed species may be found with dead western honey bees stuck to their flowers. The non-native western honey bees are attracted to the flowers but are not adapted to their pollination mechanisms. The milkweed pollinium is collected when the tarsus (foot) of an insect falls into one of the flower's stigmatic slits as it obtains nectar from the flower's hood. If the insect is unable to remove its tarsus from the stigmatic slit it is likely to die due to predation or starvation/exhaustion. If the insect is able to escape with damaged or missing tarsi it may also be likely to die from its injuries. Western honey bees which escape with their tarsi intact may have their nectar gathering ability obstructed by parts of the pollinia being stuck to the bee's proboscis, resulting in starvation. The pollinia may also stick to the bee's tarsal claws, causing a lack of climbing ability and honey gathering which may result in expulsion from the colony leading to death. Native butterflies, moths, flies, beetles, bees and wasps are common milkweed visitors which are often able to escape without issue, though some species of \"Megachile\", \"Halictus\", \"Astata\", \"Lucilia\", \"Trichius\", \"Pamphila\" and \"Scepsis\" have been found dead on the flowers. After removing over 140 dead bees from a patch of \"A. sullivantii\", entomologist Charles Robertson quipped \"... it seems that the flowers are better adapted to kill hive-bees than to produce fruit through their aid.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "\"Apis cerana\", the eastern honey bee proper, is the traditional honey bee of southern and eastern Asia. One of its subspecies, the Indian honey bee (\"A.\u00a0c.\u00a0indica\"), was domesticated and kept in hives in a fashion similar to \"A. mellifera\", though on a more limited, regional scale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Insect predators of western honey bees include the Asian giant hornet and other wasps, robber flies, dragonflies such as the green darner, some mantises, water striders and the European beewolf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Queens and workers have a modified ovipositor called a \"stinger\", with which they defend the hive. Unlike bees of any other genus and the queens of their own species, the stinger of worker western honey bees is barbed. Contrary to popular belief, a bee does not always die soon after stinging; this misconception is based on the fact that a bee will usually die after stinging a human or other mammal. The stinger and its venom sac, with musculature and a ganglion allowing them to continue delivering venom after they are detached, are designed to pull free of the body when they lodge. This apparatus (including barbs on the stinger) is thought to have evolved in response to predation by vertebrates, since the barbs do not function (and the stinger apparatus does not detach) unless the stinger is embedded in elastic material. The barbs do not always \"catch\", so a bee may occasionally pull its stinger free and fly off unharmed (or sting again)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bee\n--Distribution and habitat.\n--Life cycle.\n----Colony life cycle.\n----Individual bee life cycle.\n--Social caste.\n----Queens.\n----Workers.\n----Drones.\n--Queen-worker conflict.\n--Behavior.\n----Thermoregulation.\n----Communication.\n------Pheromones.\n----Sociality.\n--Domestication.\n--Beekeeping.\n----Honey bees.\n----Pollination.\n----Honey.\n----Beeswax.\n----Bee bread.\n----Bee brood.\n----Propolis.\n----Royal jelly.\n--Genome.\n--Hazards and survival.\n----Parasites, diseases and pesticides.\n----Milkweed.\n----Predators.\n--As an environmental threat.\n--Close relatives.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Courtship",
        "text": "The courtship behaviour of honey bees follows through two distinct types: \"apiary vicinity mating\" and \"drone assembly mating\". Apiary vicinity mating usually takes place in cool weather and is more local to the apiary from which the queen resides. The drones are in the same apiary too, but this doesn't not mean that it will lead to inbreeding. Drones assemble in a bulb of warm air close or far from the apiary. They are alert when the queen has flown out of the hive and will follow her route. This is followed by a sort of fast hum or buzz in the general bee population that follows an upward temperature gradient. The male drone mounts on the virgin queen and inserts his endophallus, ejaculating semen. The male honey bee will then pull away from the queen, but his endophallus will be ripped from his body and remain attached to the newly fertilized queen. The next male honey bee will remove the endophallus that was previously left by the other male honey bee and will eventually ejaculate and lose his own. The frequency of mating for the male honey bees is 7 to 10 times during a mating flight. Most of the drones die quickly immediately after mating, and their abdomen rips open since the endophallus has been removed. The few that survive are usually ejected from their nests, as they have served their sole purpose by mating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "\"Apis florea\" and \"Apis andreniformis\" are small honey bees of southern and southeastern Asia. They make very small, exposed nests in trees and shrubs. Their stings are often incapable of penetrating human skin, so the hive and swarms can be handled with minimal protection. They occur largely sympatrically, though they are very distinct evolutionarily and are probably the result of allopatric speciation, their distribution later converging."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trigona fulviventris",
        "text": "\"Trigona fulviventris\" individuals are capable of distinguishing nestmates from non-nestmates through recognition of a range of compounds. These compounds include hydrocarbons and fatty acids that are present in \"T. fulviventris\" wax as well as locally available floral oils that are present in plant material used to construct nests. These odor cues are important to judging which individuals are nestmates and which are not, which is necessary in determining which individuals to engage in aggressive encounters with. The amount of time that passes between the first encounter of two bees and the start of aggression between them, called mean latency, is negatively correlated with the occurrence of aggression. In other words, the longer it takes two bees to initiate aggressive behaviors, the less likely it will be that there will be aggression between them. This relationship could be a result of variations in the magnitudes of the differences in olfactory signals two bees put out. For instance, if one \"T. fulviventris\" bee has only a slightly different signal than another bee, it will take longer to analyze this difference and engage in an aggressive behavior. In contrast, a large difference in signal is more likely to be noticed immediately and aggressive behaviors can occur more quickly, decreasing the mean latency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "The Western honey bee is the third insect to have its genome mapped."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "On the other hand, P. R. Oxley and B. P. Oldroyd (2010) consider the domestication of western honey bees, at best, partial. Oldroyd observes that the lack of full domestication is somewhat surprising, given that people have kept bees for at least 7,000 years. Instead, beekeepers have found ways to manage bees using hives, while the bees remain \"largely unchanged from their wild cousins\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stingless bee",
        "text": "Despite being in general fairly peaceful, with exception of a few species such as the \"tubuna\" (\"Scaptotrigona bipunctata\"), most Brazilian meliponines will react if their hives are molested, nipping with their jaws, entangling themselves in the hair, trying to enter in the ears or the nose, and releasing propolis or even acid over their aggressors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Most flowering plants depend on specialized pollinators to efficiently fertilize them. Cucurbits, for example, are pollinated by squash bees that specifically visit the early-blooming male flowers before sunrise, when honey bees are inactive, and then return to pollinate the female flowers later in the day. Such symbiotic relationships also mean that the specialized pollinator will be covered mainly in its host's specific pollen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "The Western honey bee is native to the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. As of the early 1500s, the Apis mellifera iberiensis was introduced to the Americas, with subsequent introductions of other European subspecies three centuries later. Since then, they have spread throughout the Americas. The 28 subspecies can be assigned to one of four major branches based on work by Ruttner and subsequently confirmed by analysis of mitochondrial DNA. African subspecies are assigned to branch A, northwest European subspecies to branch M, southwest European subspecies to branch C, and Mideast subspecies to branch O. The subspecies are grouped and listed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bees collect flower nectar and convert it to honey, which is stored in the hive. The nectar, transported in the bees' stomachs, is converted with the addition of digestive enzymes and storage in a honey cell for partial dehydration. Nectar and honey provide the energy for the bees' flight muscles and for heating the hive during the winter. Western honey bees also collect pollen which, after being processed to bee bread, supplies protein and fat for the bee brood to grow. Centuries of selective breeding by humans have created western honey bees which produce far more honey than the colony needs, and beekeepers (also known as apiarists) harvest the surplus honey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Reptile and amphibian predators of western honey bees include the black girdled lizard, anoles, and other lizards, and various anuran amphibians including the American toad, the American bullfrog and the wood frog."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "The best known honey bee is the western honey bee (\"Apis mellifera\"), which has been domesticated for honey production and crop pollination; the only other domesticated bee is the eastern honey bee (\"Apis cerana\"), which occurs in South Asia. Some other types of related bees produce and store honey, and have been kept by humans for that purpose, including the stingless bees, but only members of the genus \"Apis\" are true honey bees. Modern humans also value the wax for use in making candles, soap, lip balms, and various cosmetics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Bees collect pollen in a pollen basket and carry it back to the hive where, after undergoing fermentation and turning into bee bread, it becomes a protein source for brood-rearing. Excess pollen can be collected from the hive; although it is sometimes consumed as a dietary supplement by humans, bee pollen may cause an allergic reaction in susceptible individuals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern carpenter bee",
        "text": "\"X. virginica\" survive mostly on nectar and pollen. Newly emerged bees do not have food stored in their nest, but they are occasionally brought nectar. \"X. virginica\" use their maxillae to penetrate the corolla of plants and reach the nectar stores, a behavior known as nectar robbing. This happens when the bee pierces the corollas of long-tubed flowers, thus accessing nectar without making contact with the anthers and bypassing pollination. In some plants this reduces fruit production and seed number. In other plants, defensive mechanisms allow pollination to occur despite perforation of the corolla."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bombus fervidus",
        "text": "Unlike honeybees (\"Apis mellifera\"), \"Bombus fervidus\" does not communicate by dancing. The bumblebee colony instead relies on individual foraging strategies, as their habitats mostly do not offer food sources that can efficiently be exploited by more than one worker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Female bees are diploid and have 32 chromosomes, whereas males are haploid and have only 16."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bee learning and communication",
        "text": "Later work has supported Von Frisch's observations and added many details. It appears that all of the known species and races of honey bees exhibit the behavior, but details of its execution vary among the different species. For example, in \"Apis florea\" and \"Apis andreniformis\" (the \"dwarf honeybees\") the dance is performed on the dorsal, horizontal portion of the nest, which is exposed. The runs and dances point directly toward the resource in these species. Each honey bee species has a characteristically different correlation of \"waggling\" to distance, as well. Such species-specific behavior suggests that this form of communication does not depend on learning but is rather determined genetically. It also suggests how the dance may have evolved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Since 2018 a new version of the honey bee genome is available on NCBI (Amel_HAv3.1, BioProject ID: PRJNA471592). This assembly contains full chromosome length scaffolds, which means that the sequence data for each chromosome is contiguous, and not split between multiple pieces called scaffolds. The existence of a highly contiguous reference genome for a species enables more detailed investigations of evolutionary processes that affect the genome as well as more accurate estimations of for example differentiation between populations and diversity within populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eulaema meriana",
        "text": "In a four-month study of male territoriality conducted by Stern, \"E. meriana\" males showed two alternative behaviors of territoriality and transiency. Transient male bees did not defend territories, but instead flew from one territory to the other. They also did not engage in physical contact with the territorial males. On the other hand, territorial males patrolled an area around a tree and used the same territory for up to 49 days. It also appeared that they gave up territories to new males without violence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Arachnid predators of western honey bees include fishing spiders, lynx spiders, goldenrod spiders and St. Andrew's cross spiders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stenoria analis",
        "text": "The male bees then mate with newly emerged female bees and the triungilins transfer onto the mated females who transport them back to the nest chambers. The beetle larvae then attach themselves to the cell wall and then let themselves be sealed into the cell. It is then thought that they act like other blister beetles and initially consume the bee's egg before consuming the pollen supply of pollen left by the female bee as provisions for the bee grubs. The consistency of the honey produced by each bee species is important, too liquid and the larvae may drown and too thick and it may starve. \"S. analis\" prefers the nests of \"Colletes\" but has also been found in nests of bees of the genus \"Andrena\". Only one triungilin is found per cell, if two occur then one kills the other."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee was one of the first domesticated insects, and it is the primary species maintained by beekeepers to this day for both its honey production and pollination activities. With human assistance, the western honey bee now occupies every continent except Antarctica. Western honey bees are threatened by pests and diseases, especially the \"Varroa\" mite and colony collapse disorder. There are indications that the species is rare, if not extinct in the wild and as of 2019, the western honey bee is listed as \"Extinct\" on the IUCN Red List, while also acknowledging \"Data Deficient\". Numerous studies indicate that the species has undergone significant declines in Europe; however, it is not clear if they refer to population reduction of wild or managed colonies. Further research is required to enable differentiation between wild and non-wild colonies in order to determine the conservation status of the species in the wild, meaning self sustaining, without treatments or management."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "One or two sentry bees are always present at the entrance of the hive. If the colony is disturbed, the sentries raise a persistent alarm. The hive attack anything that seems threatening for at least 24 hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Koschevnikov's honey bee (\"Apis koschevnikovi\") is often referred to in the literature as the \"red bee of Sabah\"; however, \"A. koschevnikovi\" is pale reddish in Sabah State, Borneo, Malaysia, but a dark, coppery color in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, Indonesia. Its habitat is limited to the tropical evergreen forests of the Malay Peninsula, Borneo and Sumatra and they do not live in tropical evergreen rain forests which extend into Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia and Vietnam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana nuluensis",
        "text": "Like many honey bees, \"A. c. nuluensis\" is liable to infestation by the parasitic \"Varroa\" mite, although in this case the particular species is \"Varroa underwoodi\" (in this aspect, \"A. c. nuluensis\" is similar to \"A. nigrocincta\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nosema apis",
        "text": "Chinese researchers found \"Nosema ceranae\" in spring 2005 in Taiwan for the first time, and it has now been seen on western honey bees. The new pathogen was discovered in 2005 in Spain and was observed to have a notably higher virulence than the western version. The disease caused by \"N. ceranae\" in western honey bees in Spain is related to heavier disease patterns deviating from the previously typical findings (unusually heavy intestine injuries in the bees, no diarrhea, preferential affliction of older collecting bees). Bees die far away from the dwellings, as when they leave they are too weak to return. This leads to collapse of the bee colony. Within a few years, a strongly increased propagation of \"Nosema\" was observed, and its occurrence was happening all year round due to the higher resistance of \"N. ceranae\". A higher reinfection rate of the bee colonies is assumed, since the pathogen survives longer in the external environment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana",
        "text": "Viruses. Asian honey bees (\"Apis cerana\") are often infected by Chinese Sacbrood virus (CSBV) which also infects \"A. mellifera\". Sacbrood viruses (SBV) primarily affect the brood of the honey bee and causes larval death. Infected larvae fail to pupate, and ecdysial fluid aggregates around the integument, forming the \u201csac\u201d for which the disease is named. Infected larvae change in color from pearly white to pale yellow, and shortly after death they dry out, forming a dark brown gondola-shaped scale. SBV may also affect the adult bee, but in this case obvious signs of disease are lacking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana nuluensis",
        "text": "Apis cerana nuluensis is a subspecies of honey bee described in 1996 by Tingek, Koeniger & Koeniger. The geographic distribution of the subspecies is the southeastern Asian island of Borneo, politically divided between Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mason bee",
        "text": "When the bees emerge from their cocoons, the males exit first. The males typically remain near the nests waiting for the females, and some are known to actively extract females from their cocoons. When the females emerge, they mate with one or several males. The males soon die, and within a few days the females begin provisioning their nests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Autotomy",
        "text": "Sometimes when honey bees (genus \"Apis\") sting a victim, the barbed stinger remains embedded. As the bee tears itself loose, the stinger takes with it the entire distal segment of the bee's abdomen, along with a nerve ganglion, various muscles, a venom sac, and the end of the bee's digestive tract."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis koschevnikovi",
        "text": "\"Apis koschevnikovi\" is a honey bee nectar-feeder. \"Apis koschevnikovi\" is a steady resident component of the rain forest and visits flowers during the entire year. In Bornean primary forests, \"Apis dorsata\" and \"A. koschevnikovi\" are the only honeybees that appear frequently at flowering canopy trees or at baits. At the Lambir Hills National Park in Malaysia, these two honeybees visited 29 flower species, making them visitors of 10% of the plant species and 22% of the plant families of the park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Macropis nuda",
        "text": "\"Macropis nuda\" does not have any clear mating rituals. There has been no observed scent marking, and males and females do not produce any kind of sound to attract one another like other solitary bees such as \"\". Mating appears to be quick and random, where males patrol \"Lysimachia\" plants and pounce on females. Females reject males that pounce for mating by swiftly kicking with their hind legs. If receptive, a pair will hold together and fall from a flower, dislodging in the air or landing on the ground. The act is quick and takes around 1\u20132 seconds to complete. Copulation has only been observed near the \"Lysimachia\" plants, never near nest sites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beehive",
        "text": "Honey bees use caves, rock cavities and hollow trees as natural nesting sites. In warmer climates they may occasionally build exposed hanging nests; members of other subgenera have exposed aerial combs. The nest is composed of multiple honeycombs, parallel to each other, with a relatively uniform bee space. It usually has a single entrance. Western honey bees prefer nest cavities approximately 45 litres in volume and avoid those smaller than 10 or larger than 100 litres. Western honey bees show several nest-site preferences: the height above ground is usually between and , entrance positions tend to face downward, equatorial-facing entrances are favored, and nest sites over from the parent colony are preferred. Bees usually occupy nests for several years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Euglossa hyacinthina",
        "text": "Male bees interact with female bees through their fragrances. After collecting various fragrances throughout its lifetime, the male is ready to unleash this resource to females when wanting to reproduce. Reproductive communication is accomplished through sharing of fragrances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana nuluensis",
        "text": "\"A. c. nuluensis\" is one of a number of Indonesian honey bees, including the more obscure \"Apis koschevnikovi\" and \"Apis nigrocincta\" (the latter of which has nearby habitat on nearby Sulawesi and Mindanao islands)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana japonica",
        "text": "\"A. c. japonica\", like many other honey bees, dance in order to inform nestmates of locations for \"effective flower resources\". However, unlike other honey bees, they do not dance for the location of propolis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "The close relatives of modern honey bees \u2013 e.g., bumblebees and stingless bees \u2013 are also social to some degree, and social behavior seems a plesiomorphic trait that predates the origin of the genus. Among the extant members of \"Apis\", the more basal species make single, exposed combs, while the more recently evolved species nest in cavities and have multiple combs, which has greatly facilitated their domestication."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Primarily in places where western honey bees were imported by humans, periodic collapses in western honey bee populations have occurred at least since the late 19th century. Starting in the first decade of the 21st century, abnormally high die-offs (30\u201370% of hives) of western honey bee colonies have occurred in North America. This has been dubbed \"colony collapse disorder\" (CCD) and was at first unexplained. It seems to be caused by a combination of factors rather than a single pathogen or poison, possibly including neonicotinoid pesticides or Israeli acute paralysis virus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xylocopa nasalis",
        "text": "Like almost all other bee species, \"X. nasalis\" communicates mainly by dancing, which can communicate information to nearby bees. Information can include the location of provisions, danger warnings, and mating rituals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Swarming (honey bee)",
        "text": "One species of honey bee that participates in such swarming behavior is \"Apis cerana.\" The reproduction swarms of this species settle 20\u201330 m away from the natal nest for a few days and will then depart for a new nest site after getting information from scout bees. Scout bees search for suitable cavities in which to construct the swarm's home. Successful scouts will then come back and report the location of suitable nesting sites to the other bees. \"Apis mellifera\" participates in a similar swarming process."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of diseases of the honey bee",
        "text": "In 1996, a similar type of organism to \"N. apis\" was discovered on the Asian honey bee \"Apis cerana\" and subsequently named \"N. ceranae\". This parasite apparently also infects the western honey bee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana",
        "text": "Apart from reproductive swarming, \"A. cerana\" has migration and absconding behavior, abandoning the current nest and building a new nest in a new location where an abundant supply of nectar and pollen is available. These bees usually do not store great amounts of honey, so they are more vulnerable to starvation if a prolonged shortage of nectar and pollen occurs. Absconding will start when not enough pollen and nectar are available. After the last brood emerges, the adult bees fill their honey stomachs from the hive's stores and swarm to establish a new nest at a new location. \"A. cerana\" has more absconding behavior than \"A. mellifera\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Euglossa dilemma",
        "text": "The male bee attracts a female by releasing his fragrance and fanning his wings to disperse it. The female builds a solitary nest out of propolis, an exudate from plants. The nest may contain up to twenty cells, in each of which she lays an egg. The female brings pollen and nectar to the nest to feed the developing larvae. Several bees may build their nests side by side but do not share the task of feeding the young."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where in the world is the honey bee most prevalent?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about the africanized honey bee,  western honey bee, Koschevnikov's honey bee, eastern honey bee, or the philippine honey bee?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I would like to know about the western honey bee."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The western honey bee or European honey bee (Apis mellifera) is the most common of the 7\u201312 species of honey bees worldwide. The western honey bee can be found on every continent except Antarctica, as they adapted to the local environments as they spread geographically."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me how the Africanized Honey Bee came to be?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Africanized honey bees in the Western Hemisphere are descended from hives operated by biologist Warwick E. Kerr, who had interbred honey bees from Europe and southern Africa. Kerr was attempting to breed a strain of bees that would produce more honey in tropical conditions than the European strain of honey bee then in use throughout North, Central and South America."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about the Koschenvikov's honey bee?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Apis koschevnikovi, Koschevnikov's honey bee, is a species of honey bee which inhabits Malaysian and Indonesian Borneo, where it lives sympatrically with other honey bee species such as Apis cerana (specifically A. c. nuluensis)."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Do bees often try to coexist with other bees, or do they fight when they come into contact with each other?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Apis koschevnikovi and Apis dorsata share the rain forest habitat and overlap spatially in using trees, but they do fight at artificial feeding stations. A. koschevnikovi has shown aggression against conspecific foragers when competing for a resource, and honey bees tend to dominate floral patches as individual colonies because of their competitive nature."
    ],
    "topic": "Western honey bee",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Apis koschevnikovi:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Apis koschevnikovi",
          "Interaction with other species",
          "Defense of resources"
        ],
        "ctx": "Even though \"Apis koschevnikovi\" and \"Apis dorsata\" share mostly the same rain forest habitat and overlap spatially in using trees at all heights in the canopy, they are still able to coexist. They differ in size and tongue length, which helps separate resource use. Only half of the resources that \"Apis koschevnikovi\" uses are shared with \"Apis dorsata\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Apis koschevnikovi:15",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Apis koschevnikovi",
          "Interaction with other species",
          "Defense of resources"
        ],
        "ctx": "However, in contrast to normal feeding behavior, \"Apis koschevnikovi\" and \"Apis dorsata\" fight at artificial feeding stations. They displayed a displaced nest-defense behavior with grappling and attempted stinging. Honey bees do not interact well with competing foragers when near a rich resource. \"A. koschevnikovi\" has even shown aggression against conspecific foragers when competing for a resource. Honey bees tend to dominate floral patches as individual colonies because of their competitive nature."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bees collect flower nectar and convert it to honey, which is stored in the hive. The nectar, transported in the bees' stomachs, is converted with the addition of digestive enzymes and storage in a honey cell for partial dehydration. Nectar and honey provide the energy for the bees' flight muscles and for heating the hive during the winter. Western honey bees also collect pollen which, after being processed to bee bread, supplies protein and fat for the bee brood to grow. Centuries of selective breeding by humans have created western honey bees which produce far more honey than the colony needs, and beekeepers (also known as apiarists) harvest the surplus honey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Workers are females produced by the queen that develop from fertilized, diploid eggs. Workers are essential for social structure and proper colony functioning. They carry out the main tasks of the colony, because the queen is occupied with only reproducing. These females raise their sister workers and future queens that eventually leave the nest to start their own colony. They also forage and return to the nest with nectar and pollen to feed the young."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Like all honey bee species, the western honey bee is eusocial, creating colonies with a single fertile female (or \"queen\"), many normally non-reproductive females or \"workers\", and a small proportion of fertile males or \"drones\". Individual colonies can house tens of thousands of bees. Colony activities are organized by complex communication between individuals, through both pheromones and the dance language."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Once she has dispatched all of her rivals, the new queen, the only fertile female, lays all the eggs for the old colony, which her mother has left. Virgin females are able to lay eggs, which develop into males (a trait shared with wasps, bees, and ants because of haplodiploidy). However, she requires a mate to produce female offspring, which comprise 90% or more of bees in the colony at any given time. Thus, the new queen goes on one or more nuptial flights, each time mating with 1\u201317 drones. Once she has finished mating, usually within two weeks of emerging, she remains in the hive, playing the primary role of laying eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Regardless of the trigger, workers develop the larvae into queens by continuing to feed them royal jelly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee is a colonial insect which is housed, transported by and sometimes fed by beekeepers. Honey bees do not survive and reproduce individually, but as part of the colony (a superorganism)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The queen bee is a fertile female, who, unlike workers (which are genetically also female), has a fully developed reproductive tract. She is larger than her workers, and has a characteristic rounder, longer abdomen. A female egg can become either a queen or a worker bee. Workers and queen larva are both fed royal jelly, which is high in protein and low in flavonoid, during the first three days. After that, workers are switched to a diet of mixed pollen and nectar (often called \"bee bread\"), while queens continue to receive royal jelly. In the absence of flavonoid and the presence of a high-protein diet, queen bees develop a healthy reproductive tract\u2014a task necessary for maintaining a colony of tens of thousands of daughter-workers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "In most climates, western honey bees swarm in the spring and early summer, when there is an abundance of blooming flowers from which to collect nectar and pollen. In response to these favorable conditions, the hive creates one to two dozen new queens. Just as the pupal stages of these \"daughter queens\" are nearly complete, the old queen and approximately two-thirds of the adult workers leave the colony in a swarm, traveling some distance to find a new location suitable for building a hive (e.g., a hollow tree trunk). In the old colony, the daughter queens often start \"piping\", just prior to emerging as adults, and, when the daughter queens eventually emerge, they fight each other until only one remains; the survivor then becomes the new queen. If one of the sisters emerges before the others, she may kill her siblings while they are still pupae, before they have a chance to emerge as adults."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "After several days of orientation in and around the hive, the young queen flies to a drone congregation point\u00a0\u2013 a site near a clearing and generally about above the ground\u00a0\u2013 where drones from different hives congregate. They detect the presence of a queen in their congregation area by her smell, find her by sight and mate with her in midair; drones can be induced to mate with \"dummy\" queens with the queen pheromone. A queen will mate multiple times, and may leave to mate several days in a row (weather permitting) until her spermatheca is full."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Under ordinary circumstances, if the queen dies or is removed, reproduction in workers increases because a significant proportion of workers then have activated ovaries. The workers produce a last batch of drones before the hive collapses. Although during this period worker policing is usually absent, in certain groups of bees it continues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Unlike native bees, they do not properly extract or transfer pollen from plants with pore anthers (anthers which only release pollen through tiny apical pores); this requires buzz pollination, a behavior rarely exhibited by honey bees. Honey bees reduce fruiting in \"Melastoma affine\", a plant with pore anthers, by robbing its stigmas of previously deposited pollen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Queens are not raised in the typical horizontal brood cells of the honeycomb. A queen cell is larger and oriented vertically. If workers sense that an old queen is weakening, they produce emergency cells (known as supersedure cells) from cells with eggs or young larvae and which protrude from the comb. When the queen finishes her larval feeding and pupates, she moves into a head-downward position and later chews her way out of the cell. At pupation, workers cap (seal) the cell. The queen asserts control over the worker bees by releasing a complex suite of pheromones, known as queen scent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "She fertilizes each egg (with stored sperm from the spermatheca) as it is laid in a worker-sized cell. Eggs laid in drone-sized (larger) cells are left unfertilized; these unfertilized eggs, with half as many genes as queen or worker eggs, develop into drones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Throughout the rest of the growing season, the colony produces many workers, who gather pollen and nectar as cold-season food; the average population of a healthy hive in midsummer may be as high as 40,000 to 80,000 bees. Nectar from flowers is processed by worker bees, who evaporate it until the moisture content is low enough to discourage mold, transforming it into honey, which can then be capped over with wax and stored almost indefinitely. In the temperate climates to which western honey bees are adapted, the bees gather in their hive and wait out the cold season, during which the queen may stop laying. During this time, activity is slow, and the colony consumes its stores of honey used for metabolic heat production in the cold season. In mid- through late winter, the queen starts laying again. This is probably triggered by day length. Depending on the subspecies, new queens (and swarms) may be produced every year, or less frequently, depending on local environmental conditions and a number of characteristics inside the hive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Pheromones (substances involved in chemical communication) are essential to honey bee survival. Western honey bees rely on pheromones for nearly all behaviors, including mating, alarm, defense, orientation, kin and colony recognition, food production and integrating colony activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Beekeepers have selected western honey bees for several desirable features:\n* the ability of a colony to survive periods with little food\n* the ability of a colony to survive cold weather\n* resistance to disease\n* increased honey production\n* reduced aggressiveness\n* reduced tendency to swarm\n* reduced nest building\n* easy pacification with smoke"
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Bees produce honey by collecting nectar, a clear liquid consisting of nearly 80 percent water and complex sugars. The collecting bees store the nectar in a second stomach and return to the hive, where worker bees remove the nectar. The worker bees digest the raw nectar for about 30 minutes, using digestive enzymes to break down the complex sugars into simpler ones. Raw honey is then spread in empty honeycomb cells to dry, reducing its water content to less than 20 percent. When nectar is being processed, honey bees create a draft through the hive by fanning with their wings. When the honey has dried, the honeycomb cells are sealed (capped) with wax to preserve it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Like other insects that undergo complete metamorphosis, the western honey bee has four distinct life stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult. The complex social structure of western honey bee hives means that all of these life stages occur simultaneously throughout much of the year. The queen deposits a single egg into each cell of a honeycomb prepared by worker bees. The egg hatches into a legless, eyeless larva fed by \"nurse\" bees (worker bees who maintain the interior of the colony). After about a week, the larva is sealed in its cell by the nurse bees and begins its pupal stage. After another week, it emerges as an adult bee. It is common for defined regions of the comb to be filled with young bees (also called \"brood\"), while others are filled with pollen and honey stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Bees collect pollen in a pollen basket and carry it back to the hive where, after undergoing fermentation and turning into bee bread, it becomes a protein source for brood-rearing. Excess pollen can be collected from the hive; although it is sometimes consumed as a dietary supplement by humans, bee pollen may cause an allergic reaction in susceptible individuals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Female bees are diploid and have 32 chromosomes, whereas males are haploid and have only 16."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana",
        "text": "Within the honey bee colony, a queen bee typically mates with 10 or more males. This extensive mating is performed in an effort to secure a great range of genetic variation in her colony to cope with diseases, as well as respond to nectar sources and a wide range of external stimuli. Apart from the queen bee, the only other sexual members of the society are the male drones, whose only function is to mate with the queen, after which they will die."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The very generalized nature of the honey bee's nectar-gathering activities, potentially visiting dozens of different species in a single day, means that a flower visited by a honey bee will often get very little pollen from its own species. This diminished pollination can reduce the plant's ability to produce seeds, especially when the honey bees are squeezing out the native pollinators for a species, a problem occurring all over the United States because of honey bees and other invasive species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Although the average lifespan of a queen in most subspecies is three to five years, reports from the German honey bee subspecies (\"A. m. mellifera\") previously used for beekeeping indicate that a queen can live up to eight years. Because a queen's store of sperm is depleted near the end of her life, she begins laying more unfertilized eggs; for this reason, beekeepers often replace queens every year or two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Honey bees are one of the products of a beehive. They can be purchased as mated queens, in spring packages of a queen along with two to five pounds (0.91 to 2.27\u00a0kg) of honey bees, as nucleus colonies (which include frames of brood), or as full colonies. Commerce of western honey bees dates back to as early as 1622, when the first colonies of bees were shipped from England to Virginia. Modern methods of producing queens and dividing colonies for increase date back to the late 1800s. Honey was extracted by killing off the hive, and bees and bee products were mainly an object of local trade. The first commercial beekeeper in the United States is considered Moses Quinby of New York, who experimented with movable box hives, which allow extraction without killing the hive. The improvements in roads and motor vehicles after World War I allowed commercial beekeepers to expand the size of their businesses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bees also change the precision of the waggle dance to indicate the type of site that is set as a new goal. Their close relatives, dwarf honey bees, do not. Therefore, western honey bees seem to have evolved a better means of conveying information than their common ancestors with the dwarf honey bee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Worker bees secrete the wax used to build the hive, clean, maintain and guard it, raise the young and forage for nectar and pollen; the nature of the worker's role varies with age. For the first 10 days of their lives, worker bees clean the hive and feed the larvae. After this, they begin building comb cells. On days 16 through 20, workers receive nectar and pollen from older workers and store it. After the 20th day, a worker leaves the hive and spends the remainder of its life as a forager. Although worker bees are usually infertile females, when some subspecies are stressed they may lay fertile eggs. Since workers are not fully sexually developed, they do not mate with drones and thus can only produce haploid (male) offspring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Unlike most other bee species, western honey bees have perennial colonies which persist year after year. Because of this high degree of sociality and permanence, western honey bee colonies can be considered superorganisms. This means that reproduction of the colony, rather than individual bees, is the biologically significant unit. Western honey bee colonies reproduce through a process called \"swarming\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana japonica",
        "text": "Beekeepers in Japan attempted to introduce western honey bees (\"Apis mellifera\") for the sake of their high productivity. However, western honey bees have no innate defense against Asian giant hornets, which can rapidly destroy their colonies. Japanese honey bees, having evolved alongside the Asian giant hornet, have numerous defensive strategies against the hornets and so are also used in apiculture in the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "When a fertile female worker produces drones, a conflict arises between her interests and those of the queen. The worker shares one-half of her genes with the drone and one-quarter with her brothers, favouring her offspring over those of the queen. The queen shares one-half of her genes with her sons and one-quarter with the sons of fertile female workers. This pits the worker against the queen and other workers, who try to maximize their reproductive fitness by rearing the offspring most related to them. This relationship leads to a phenomenon called \"worker policing\". In these rare situations, other worker bees in the hive, who are genetically more related to the queen's sons than those of the fertile workers, patrol the hive and remove worker-laid eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The queen lays all the eggs in a healthy colony. The number and pace of egg-laying is controlled by weather, resource availability and specific racial characteristics. Queens generally begin to slow egg-laying in the early fall, and may stop during the winter. Egg-laying generally resumes in late winter when the days lengthen, peaking in the spring. At the height of the season, the queen may lay over 2,500 eggs per day (more than her body mass)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Drones are the colony's male bees. Since they do not have ovipositors, they do not have stingers. Drone honey bees do not forage for nectar or pollen. The primary purpose of a drone is to fertilize a new queen. Many drones mate with a given queen in flight; each dies immediately after mating, since the process of insemination requires a lethally convulsive effort. Drone honey bees are haploid (single, unpaired chromosomes) in their genetic structure, and are descended only from their mother (the queen). In temperate regions, drones are generally expelled from the hive before winter, dying of cold and starvation since they cannot forage, produce honey or care for themselves. Given their larger size (1.5 times that of worker bees), inside the hive it is believed that drones may play a significant role in thermoregulation. Drones are typically located near the center of hive clusters for unclear reasons. It is postulated that it is to maintain sperm viability, which may be compromised at cooler temperatures. Another possible explanation is that a more central location allows drones to contribute to warmth, since at temperatures below their ability to contribute declines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Most flowering plants depend on specialized pollinators to efficiently fertilize them. Cucurbits, for example, are pollinated by squash bees that specifically visit the early-blooming male flowers before sunrise, when honey bees are inactive, and then return to pollinate the female flowers later in the day. Such symbiotic relationships also mean that the specialized pollinator will be covered mainly in its host's specific pollen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "As of October 28, 2006, the Honey Bee Genome Sequencing Consortium fully sequenced and analyzed the genome of \"Apis mellifera,\" the western honey bee. Since 2007, attention has been devoted to colony collapse disorder, a decline in western honey bee colonies in a number of regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bees are an important model organism in scientific studies, particularly in the fields of social evolution, learning, and memory; they are also used in studies of pesticide toxicity, especially via pollen, to assess non-target impacts of commercial pesticides."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Queens and workers have a modified ovipositor called a \"stinger\", with which they defend the hive. Unlike bees of any other genus and the queens of their own species, the stinger of worker western honey bees is barbed. Contrary to popular belief, a bee does not always die soon after stinging; this misconception is based on the fact that a bee will usually die after stinging a human or other mammal. The stinger and its venom sac, with musculature and a ganglion allowing them to continue delivering venom after they are detached, are designed to pull free of the body when they lodge. This apparatus (including barbs on the stinger) is thought to have evolved in response to predation by vertebrates, since the barbs do not function (and the stinger apparatus does not detach) unless the stinger is embedded in elastic material. The barbs do not always \"catch\", so a bee may occasionally pull its stinger free and fly off unharmed (or sting again)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee is an important pollinator of crops; this service accounts for much of the species' commercial value. In 2005, the estimated commercial value of western honey bees was just under $200\u00a0billion worldwide. A large number of the crop species farmed worldwide depend on it. Although orchards and fields have increased in size, wild pollinators have dwindled. In a number of regions the pollination shortage is addressed by migratory beekeepers, who supply hives during a crop bloom and move them after the blooming period. Commercial beekeepers plan their movements and wintering locations according to anticipated pollination services. At higher latitudes it is difficult (or impossible) to overwinter sufficient bees, or to have them ready for early blooming plants. Much migration is seasonal, with hives wintering in warmer climates and moving to follow the bloom at higher latitudes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bee behavior has been extensively studied. Karl von Frisch, who received the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his study of honey bee communication, noticed that bees communicate with dance. Through these dances, bees communicate information regarding the distance, the situation, and the direction of a food source by the dances of the returning (honey bee) worker bee on the vertical comb of the hive. Honey bees direct other bees to food sources with the round dance and the waggle dance. Although the round dance tells other foragers that food is within of the hive, it provides insufficient information about direction. The waggle dance, which may be vertical or horizontal, provides more detail about the distance and direction of a food source. Foragers are also thought to rely on their olfactory sense to help locate a food source after they are directed by the dances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Periodically, the colony determines that a new queen is needed. There are three general causes:\n# The hive is filled with honey, leaving little room for new eggs. This will trigger a swarm, where the old queen will take about half the worker bees to found a new colony and leave the new queen with the other half of the workers to continue the old one.\n# The old queen begins to fail, which is thought to be demonstrated by a decrease in queen pheromones throughout the hive. This is known as supersedure, and at its end, the old queen is usually killed.\n# The old queen dies suddenly, a situation known as emergency supersedure. The worker bees find several eggs (or larvae) of the appropriate age range and try to develop them into queens. Emergency supersedure can generally be recognized because new queen cells are built out from comb cells, instead of hanging from the bottom of a frame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Royal jelly is a honey bee secretion used to nourish the larvae and queen. It is marketed for its alleged but unsupported claims of health benefits. On the other hand, it may cause severe allergic reactions in some individuals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "With an increased number of honey bees in a specific area due to beekeeping, Western honey bees (as an invasive species) and native wild bees often have to compete for the limited habitat and food sources available, and Western honey bees may become defensive in response to the seasonal arrival of competition from other colonies, particularly Africanized bees which may be on the offence and defence year round due to their tropical origin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Honey bees have become an invasive species in the US, outcompeting native pollinators when resources are tight. With an increased number of honey bees in a specific area due to beekeeping, domesticated bees and native wild bees often have to compete for the limited habitat and food sources available. Western honey bees may become defensive in response to the seasonal arrival of competition from other colonies, particularly Africanized bees which may be on the offence and defence year round due to their tropical origin. In the United Kingdom, honey bees are known to compete with native bumblebees such as \"Bombus hortorum\", because they forage at the same sites. To resolve the issue and maximize both their total consumption during foraging, bumblebees forage early in the morning, while honey bees forage during the afternoon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Humans have been collecting honey from western honey bees for thousands of years, with evidence in the form of rock art found in France and Spain, dating to around 7,000 BCE. The western honey bee is one of the few invertebrate animals to have been domesticated. Bees were likely first domesticated in ancient Egypt, where tomb paintings depict beekeeping. Europeans brought bees to North America in 1622."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bee\n--Distribution and habitat.\n--Life cycle.\n----Colony life cycle.\n----Individual bee life cycle.\n--Social caste.\n----Queens.\n----Workers.\n----Drones.\n--Queen-worker conflict.\n--Behavior.\n----Thermoregulation.\n----Communication.\n------Pheromones.\n----Sociality.\n--Domestication.\n--Beekeeping.\n----Honey bees.\n----Pollination.\n----Honey.\n----Beeswax.\n----Bee bread.\n----Bee brood.\n----Propolis.\n----Royal jelly.\n--Genome.\n--Hazards and survival.\n----Parasites, diseases and pesticides.\n----Milkweed.\n----Predators.\n--As an environmental threat.\n--Close relatives.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee was one of the first domesticated insects, and it is the primary species maintained by beekeepers to this day for both its honey production and pollination activities. With human assistance, the western honey bee now occupies every continent except Antarctica. Western honey bees are threatened by pests and diseases, especially the \"Varroa\" mite and colony collapse disorder. There are indications that the species is rare, if not extinct in the wild and as of 2019, the western honey bee is listed as \"Extinct\" on the IUCN Red List, while also acknowledging \"Data Deficient\". Numerous studies indicate that the species has undergone significant declines in Europe; however, it is not clear if they refer to population reduction of wild or managed colonies. Further research is required to enable differentiation between wild and non-wild colonies in order to determine the conservation status of the species in the wild, meaning self sustaining, without treatments or management."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee or European honey bee (\"Apis mellifera\") is the most common of the 7\u201312 species of honey bees worldwide. The genus name \"Apis\" is Latin for \"bee\", and \"mellifera\" is the Latin for \"honey-bearing\", referring to the species' production of honey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Queen bee",
        "text": "The primary function of a queen bee is to serve as the reproducer. A well-mated and well-fed queen of quality stock can lay about 1,500 eggs per day during the spring build-up\u2014more than her own body weight in eggs every day. She is continuously surrounded by worker bees who meet her every need, giving her food and disposing of her waste. The attendant workers also collect and then distribute queen mandibular pheromone, a pheromone that inhibits the workers from starting queen cells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "On the other hand, P. R. Oxley and B. P. Oldroyd (2010) consider the domestication of western honey bees, at best, partial. Oldroyd observes that the lack of full domestication is somewhat surprising, given that people have kept bees for at least 7,000 years. Instead, beekeepers have found ways to manage bees using hives, while the bees remain \"largely unchanged from their wild cousins\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "As an invasive species, feral western honey bees are a significant environmental problem in non-native areas. Imported bees may displace native bees and birds, and may also promote reproduction of invasive plants ignored by native pollinators."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Mature worker bees secrete beeswax from glands on their abdomen, using it to form the walls and caps of the comb. When honey is harvested, the wax can be collected for use in products like candles and seals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee can be found on every continent except Antarctica. The species is believed to have originated in Africa or Asia, and it spread naturally through Africa, the Middle East and Europe. Humans are responsible for its considerable additional range, introducing European subspecies into North America (early 1600s), South America, Australia, New Zealand, and eastern Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Mammals that sometimes take western honey bees include bears, opossums, raccoons, skunks, the North American least shrew and the honey badger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "Eastern \"Apis\" species include three or four\u00a0species, including \"A. koschevnikovi\", \"Apis nigrocincta\", and \"A. cerana\". The genetics of the western honey bee (\"A. mellifera\") are unclear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern carpenter bee",
        "text": "Xylocopa virginica, sometimes referred to as the eastern carpenter bee, extends through the eastern United States and into Canada. They are sympatric with \"Xylocopa micans\" in much of southeastern United States. They nest in various types of wood and eat pollen and nectar. In \"X. virginica\", dominant females do not focus solely on egg-laying, as in other bee species considered to have \"queens\". Instead, dominant \"X. virginica\" females are responsible for a full gamut of activities including reproduction, foraging, and nest construction, whereas subordinate bees may engage in little activity outside of guarding the nest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Reptile and amphibian predators of western honey bees include the black girdled lizard, anoles, and other lizards, and various anuran amphibians including the American toad, the American bullfrog and the wood frog."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The western honey bee needs an internal body temperature of to fly; this temperature is maintained in the nest to develop the brood, and is the optimal temperature for the creation of wax. The temperature on the periphery of the cluster varies with outside air temperature, and the winter cluster's internal temperature may be as low as ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern carpenter bee",
        "text": "Eastern carpenter bees have mandibular glands that are known to produce a marking chemical in \"X. hirsutissima\" that functions as a nest marker or for female attraction. The glands are present in both males and females, but they produce no marking substance. However, \"X. virginica\" does have a Dufour's gland that is used to deposit a scent on a flower immediately following nectar collection. The scent, composed of hydrocarbons and esters, discourages \"X. virginica\", as well as other bee species, from returning to that same flower."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Arachnid predators of western honey bees include fishing spiders, lynx spiders, goldenrod spiders and St. Andrew's cross spiders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melipona bicolor",
        "text": "Common amongst eusocial bees, females make up the worker and queen populations. The workers are responsible for tasks including nest defense, brood care, colony maintenance, and provisioning. The queen influences the physiology and behavior of the workers, which are infertile females. The only role the males plays is in reproduction; his function is to mate with the queen and supply the necessary genetic complementation for reproduction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Megachile perihirta",
        "text": "Megachile perihirta, commonly known as the Western leafcutting bee, is a bee in the genus \"Megachile\". The bee is native to western North America, ranging from Nebraska to Texas and Mexico, west to California, and north to British Columbia and Alberta, and often inhabits meadows and orchards. The bee is black with long whitish-yellow hair, more so below the thorax and abdomen. The abdomen, however, is mostly bare, although each segment has scattered whitish hair. The wings of the Western leafcutting bee are clear, while their veins are black. The pollen basket below the abdomen is bright red."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Leslie Bailey and B. V. Ball, in their book \"Honey Bee Pathology\", call western honey bees \"feral insects\", in contrast to the domestic silkmoth (\"Bombyx mori\") which they call \"the only insect that has been domesticated\", and refer to the \"popular belief among many biologists as well as beekeepers that bees are domesticated\". They argue that western honey bees are able to survive without human help, and in fact require to \"be left at liberty\" to survive. Further, they argue that even if bees could be raised away from the wild, they would still have to fly freely to gather nectar and pollinate plants. Therefore, they argue, beekeeping is \"the exploitation of colonies of a wild insect\", with little more than the provision of a weatherproof cavity for them to nest in. Likewise, Pilar de la Rua and colleagues argue that western honey bees are not fully domesticated, because \"endemic subspecies-specific genetic footprints can still be identified in Europe and Africa\", making conservation of wild bee diversity important. Further, they argue that the difficulty of controlling drones for mating is a serious handicap and a sign that domestication is not complete, in particular as \"extensive gene flow usually occurs between wild/feral and managed honeybee populations\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera adami",
        "text": "Western Cretan beehives are constructed of terracotta, wood and wicker. On the east of the island the hives are always ceramic. (Baumann 1993: 166).\n* Bee domestication and Beekeeping"
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Below bees are immobile, and above their activity slows. Western honey bees can tolerate temperatures up to for short periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "Western honey bees differentiated into geographic subspecies as they spread from Asia into Europe and Africa. There are currently 28 recognized subspecies of \"Apis mellifera\" based largely on these geographic variations. All subspecies are cross fertile. Geographic isolation led to numerous local adaptations as this species spread after the last ice age. These adaptations include brood cycles synchronized with the bloom period of local flora, forming a winter cluster in colder climates, migratory swarming in Africa, enhanced foraging behavior in desert areas, and numerous other inherited traits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "In North America, various native milkweed species may be found with dead western honey bees stuck to their flowers. The non-native western honey bees are attracted to the flowers but are not adapted to their pollination mechanisms. The milkweed pollinium is collected when the tarsus (foot) of an insect falls into one of the flower's stigmatic slits as it obtains nectar from the flower's hood. If the insect is unable to remove its tarsus from the stigmatic slit it is likely to die due to predation or starvation/exhaustion. If the insect is able to escape with damaged or missing tarsi it may also be likely to die from its injuries. Western honey bees which escape with their tarsi intact may have their nectar gathering ability obstructed by parts of the pollinia being stuck to the bee's proboscis, resulting in starvation. The pollinia may also stick to the bee's tarsal claws, causing a lack of climbing ability and honey gathering which may result in expulsion from the colony leading to death. Native butterflies, moths, flies, beetles, bees and wasps are common milkweed visitors which are often able to escape without issue, though some species of \"Megachile\", \"Halictus\", \"Astata\", \"Lucilia\", \"Trichius\", \"Pamphila\" and \"Scepsis\" have been found dead on the flowers. After removing over 140 dead bees from a patch of \"A. sullivantii\", entomologist Charles Robertson quipped \"... it seems that the flowers are better adapted to kill hive-bees than to produce fruit through their aid.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Asian giant hornet",
        "text": "Beekeepers in Japan attempted to introduce western honey bees (\"Apis mellifera\") for the sake of their high productivity. Western honey bees have no innate defense against the hornets, which can rapidly destroy their colonies, Kakugo virus infection, though, may provide an extrinsic defence. Although a handful of Asian giant hornets can easily defeat the uncoordinated defenses of a western honey bee colony, the Japanese honey bee (\"Apis cerana japonica\") has an effective strategy. When a hornet scout locates and approaches a Japanese honey bee hive, she emits specific pheromonal hunting signals. When the Japanese honey bees detect these pheromones, 100 or so gather near the entrance of the nest and set up a trap, keeping the entrance open. This permits the hornet to enter the hive. As the hornet enters, a mob of hundreds of bees surrounds it in a ball, completely covering it and preventing it from reacting effectively. The bees violently vibrate their flight muscles in much the same way as they do to heat the hive in cold conditions. This raises the temperature in the ball to the critical temperature of . In addition, the exertions of the honey bees raise the level of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the ball. At that concentration of CO2, they can tolerate up to , but the hornet cannot survive the combination of high temperature and high carbon dioxide level. Some honey bees do die along with the intruder, much as happens when they attack other intruders with their stings, but by killing the hornet scout, they prevent it from summoning reinforcements that would wipe out the entire colony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Bee brood, the eggs, larvae, or pupae of honey bees, is edible and highly nutritious. Bee brood contains the same amount of protein that beef or poultry does. Bee brood is often harvested as a byproduct when the beekeeper has excess bees and does not wish to have any more."
      },
      {
        "title": "Megachile perihirta",
        "text": "Like most bees, adult western leafcutting bees drink nectar, whilst Western leafcutting bee larva feed both on nectar \"and\" pollen. Western Leafcutting Bee nests are created when a small group of bees work together to dig small burrows in sand, gravel, soil, or in rotting plants or wood. Inside this burrow it is found that the bees construct a series of cells lined with leaf fragments. Each cell contains pollen and nectar, then one egg is laid inside a cell. Adult Western leafcutting bees are seen normally from July to August, and live around one year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern carpenter bee",
        "text": "Female \"X. virginica\" can have solitary nests, but they usually nest in social groups. The social order of \"X. virginica\" is broken into three groups: primary, secondary, and tertiary. Primary females act as the dominant within a nest and are in charge of reproduction, providing food for the larvae, and laying all the eggs. This is different from many bee species in which there is a queen that focuses her energy solely on laying eggs while relying on provisions provide by subordinate bees. Secondary females may sometimes participate in oviposition, and they reinforce this potential role by helping provide for the larvae or performing nest maintenance. Tertiary females rely on the provisions provided by primary females and quietly await overwintering while remaining inactive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Queen bee",
        "text": "During the warm parts of the year, female \"worker\" bees leave the hive every day to collect nectar and pollen. While male bees serve no architectural or pollinating purpose, their primary function (if they are healthy enough) is to mate with a queen bee. If they are successful, they fall to the ground and die after copulation. Any fertilized egg has the potential to become a queen. Diet in the larval stage determines whether the bee will develop into a queen or a worker. Queens are fed only royal jelly, a protein-rich secretion from glands on the heads of young workers. Worker larva are fed bee bread which is a mixture of nectar and pollen. All bee larvae are fed some royal jelly for the first few days after hatching but only queen larvae are fed the jelly exclusively. As a result of the difference in diet, the queen will develop into a sexually mature female, unlike the worker bees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Honey bees are not native to the Americas, arriving with colonists in North America in the 18th century. Thomas Jefferson mentioned this in his \"Notes on the State of Virginia\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "\"Apis cerana\", the eastern honey bee proper, is the traditional honey bee of southern and eastern Asia. One of its subspecies, the Indian honey bee (\"A.\u00a0c.\u00a0indica\"), was domesticated and kept in hives in a fashion similar to \"A. mellifera\", though on a more limited, regional scale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bees adapted to the local environments as they spread geographically. These adaptations include synchronizing colony cycles to the timing of local flower resources, forming a winter cluster in colder climates, migratory swarming in Africa, and enhanced foraging behavior in desert areas. All together, these variations resulted in 31 recognized subspecies, all of which are cross-fertile. The subspecies are divided into four major branches, based on work by Ruttner and confirmed by mitochondrial DNA analysis. African subspecies belong to branch A, northwestern European subspecies branch M, southwestern European subspecies branch C and Middle-Eastern subspecies branch O."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern carpenter bee",
        "text": "\"X. virginica\" survive mostly on nectar and pollen. Newly emerged bees do not have food stored in their nest, but they are occasionally brought nectar. \"X. virginica\" use their maxillae to penetrate the corolla of plants and reach the nectar stores, a behavior known as nectar robbing. This happens when the bee pierces the corollas of long-tubed flowers, thus accessing nectar without making contact with the anthers and bypassing pollination. In some plants this reduces fruit production and seed number. In other plants, defensive mechanisms allow pollination to occur despite perforation of the corolla."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis andreniformis",
        "text": "Unlike cavity-dwelling honey bees whose queen has a distinct chemical signal from that of the worker bees, \"A. andreniformis\" queens have similar chemical signals as their workers. Chemical signals secreted from the mandibular gland in \"A. andreniformis\" are not caste-determining like it is in other honey bees. As stated previously, the presence of royal jelly on young female larva produced the queen bee. Drones, or male bees, are not used for pollination or honey production, but are instead used only to mate with the queen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "In cold climates, some beekeepers have kept colonies alive (with varying degrees of success) by moving them indoors for winter. While this can protect the colonies from extremes of temperature and make winter care and feeding more convenient for the beekeeper, it increases the risk of dysentery and causes an excessive buildup of carbon dioxide from the bees' respiration. Inside wintering has been refined by Canadian beekeepers, who use large barns solely for the wintering of bees; automated ventilation systems assist in carbon dioxide dispersal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bombus vosnesenskii",
        "text": "The queen of this bee species has been known to contribute to foraging efforts. During the early season, when the queen is young, she primarily focuses on brood incubation. However, towards the end of the season as worker numbers decline, the queen becomes a significant contributor to foraging efforts. They go so far as to become the primary pollen and nectar providers for the colony. The mechanisms behind this behavioral change are not well understood, but significance has been attributed to careful risk-balancing behaviors. The queen's efforts are much more valuable in reproduction and brood-rearing when she is young, first to build the colony, then to preserve it. There is a high risk of injury or death in foraging, which the queen offsets by allowing the worker bees to do this dangerous task. However, towards the end of the colony cycle, when the worker population has begun to dwindle, the queen is best used as a forager, to provide sustenance for the next generation of reproductive bees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The lifespan of workers varies considerably over the year in regions with long winters. Workers born in spring and summer work hard, and live only a few weeks, but those born in autumn remain inside for several months as the colony clusters. On average during the year, about 1% of a colony's worker bees die naturally per day. Except for the queen, all of a colony's workers are replaced about every four months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "These modifications, along with artificial change of location, have improved western honey bees from the point of view of the beekeeper, and simultaneously made them more dependent on beekeepers for their survival. In Europe, cold weather survival was likely selected for, consciously or not, while in Africa, selection probably favoured the ability to survive heat, drought, and heavy rain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bees can forage over a air-temperature range because of behavioral and physiological mechanisms for regulating the temperature of their flight muscles. From low to high air temperatures, the mechanisms are: shivering before flight and stopping flight for additional shivering, passive body-temperature regulation based on work, and evaporative cooling from regurgitated honey-sac contents. Body temperatures differ, depending on caste and expected foraging rewards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Beekeepers provide a place for the colony to live and store honey. There are seven basic types of beehive: skeps, Langstroth hives, top-bar hives, box hives, log gums, D. E. hives, and miller hives. All U.S. states require beekeepers to use movable frames to allow bee inspectors to check the brood for disease. This allows beekeepers to keep Langstroth, top-bar and D.E. hives without special permission, granted for purposes such as museum use. Modern hives also enable beekeepers to transport bees, moving from field to field as crops require pollinating (a source of income for beekeepers)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Western honey bee populations face threats to their survival increasing interests into other pollinator species, like the common eastern bumblebee. North American and European populations were severely depleted by \"Varroa\" mite infestations during the early 1990s, and U.S. beekeepers were further affected by colony collapse disorder in 2006 and 2007. Improved cultural practices and chemical treatments against \"Varroa\" mites saved most commercial operations; new bee breeds are beginning to reduce beekeeper dependence on acaricides. Feral bee populations were greatly reduced during this period; they are slowly recovering, primarily in mild climates, due to natural selection for \"Varroa\" resistance and repopulation by resistant breeds. Although it is generally believed that insecticides have also depleted bee populations, particularly when used in excess of label directions, as bee pests and diseases (including American foulbrood and tracheal mites) are becoming resistant to medications, research in this regard has not been conclusive. A 2012 study of the effect of neonicotinoid-based insecticides showed \"no effects observed in field studies at field-realistic dosages.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "As in a few other types of eusocial bees, a colony generally contains one queen bee, a female; seasonally up to a few thousand drone bees, or males; and tens of thousands of female worker bees. Details vary among the different species of honey bees, but common features include:\n#Eggs are laid singly in a cell in a wax honeycomb, produced and shaped by the worker bees. Using her spermatheca, the queen can choose to fertilize the egg she is laying, usually depending on which cell she is laying it into. Drones develop from unfertilised eggs and are haploid, while females (queens and worker bees) develop from fertilised eggs and are diploid. Larvae are initially fed with royal jelly produced by worker bees, later switching to honey and pollen. The exception is a larva fed solely on royal jelly, which will develop into a queen bee. The larva undergoes several moultings before spinning a cocoon within the cell, and pupating.\n#Young worker bees, sometimes called \"nurse bees\", clean the hive and feed the larvae. When their royal jelly-producing glands begin to atrophy, they begin building comb cells. They progress to other within-colony tasks as they become older, such as receiving nectar and pollen from foragers, and guarding the hive. Later still, a worker takes her first orientation flights and finally leaves the hive and typically spends the remainder of her life as a forager.\n#Worker bees cooperate to find food and use a pattern of \"dancing\" (known as the bee dance or waggle dance) to communicate information regarding resources with each other; this dance varies from species to species, but all living species of \"Apis\" exhibit some form of the behavior. If the resources are very close to the hive, they may also exhibit a less specific dance commonly known as the \"round dance\".\n#Honey bees also perform tremble dances, which recruit receiver bees to collect nectar from returning foragers.\n#Virgin queens go on mating flights away from their home colony to a drone congregation area, and mate with multiple drones before returning. The drones die in the act of mating. Queen honey bees do not mate with drones from their home colony.\n#Colonies are established not by solitary queens, as in most bees, but by groups known as \"swarms\", which consist of a mated queen and a large contingent of worker bees. This group moves \"en masse\" to a nest site which was scouted by worker bees beforehand and whose location is communicated with a special type of dance. Once the swarm arrives, they immediately construct a new wax comb and begin to raise new worker brood. This type of nest founding is not seen in any other living bee genus, though several groups of vespid wasps also found new nests by swarming (sometimes including multiple queens). Also, stingless bees will start new nests with large numbers of worker bees, but the nest is constructed before a queen is escorted to the site, and this worker force is not a true \"swarm\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "The best known honey bee is the western honey bee (\"Apis mellifera\"), which has been domesticated for honey production and crop pollination; the only other domesticated bee is the eastern honey bee (\"Apis cerana\"), which occurs in South Asia. Some other types of related bees produce and store honey, and have been kept by humans for that purpose, including the stingless bees, but only members of the genus \"Apis\" are true honey bees. Modern humans also value the wax for use in making candles, soap, lip balms, and various cosmetics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "There is some degree of variability of sociality between individuals. Like a great many other social insects, \"A. mellifera\" engages in trophallaxis. When the duration of trophallaxis pairings was measured, it was found that like human social interactions, there are durable long-term trends for each individual bee. There is less inter-individual variation than found in humans however, possibly reflecting the higher genetic relatedness between hivemates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Specialist bird predators of western honey bees include the bee-eaters; other birds that may take western honey bees include grackles, hummingbirds, tyrant flycatchers and the summer tanager. Most birds that eat bees do so opportunistically; however, summer tanagers will sit on a limb and catch dozens of bees from the hive entrance as they emerge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana japonica",
        "text": "\"A. c. japonica\", like many other honey bees, dance in order to inform nestmates of locations for \"effective flower resources\". However, unlike other honey bees, they do not dance for the location of propolis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "The Western honey bee is the third insect to have its genome mapped."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana",
        "text": "As a social species, \"Apis cerana\" colonies contain divisions of labor depending on what each member of the group is specialized to perform. There is generally only one queen bee whose sole responsibility it is to lay eggs; therefore, she is the mother of all the workers present in the colony. Apart from the queen bee, the remaining female bees are known as the worker bees, as these individuals perform all the tasks necessarily to maintain the hive including tending to the eggs, larvae, and pupae, foraging for food and water, cleaning the facility, and producing honey. These tasks are divided among the female worker bees by a factor of age. The remaining individuals are the males, known as the \u201cdrones,\u201d whose only responsibility is to mate with queen from another colony; therefore, drones are solely produced during the reproductive season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey bee",
        "text": "In cold climates, honey bees stop flying when the temperature drops below about and crowd into the central area of the hive to form a \"winter cluster\". The worker bees huddle around the queen bee at the center of the cluster, shivering to keep the center between at the start of winter (during the broodless period) and once the queen resumes laying. The worker bees rotate through the cluster from the outside to the inside so that no bee gets too cold. The outside edges of the cluster stay at about . The colder the weather is outside, the more compact the cluster becomes. During winter, they consume their stored honey to produce body heat. The amount of honey consumed during the winter is a function of winter length and severity, but ranges in temperate climates from . In addition, certain bees, including the western honey bee as well as \"Apis cerana\", are known to engage in effective methods of nest thermoregulation during periods of varying temperature in both summer and winter. During the summer, however, this is achieved through fanning and water evaporation from water collected in various fields."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Insect predators of western honey bees include the Asian giant hornet and other wasps, robber flies, dragonflies such as the green darner, some mantises, water striders and the European beewolf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Another form of worker policing is aggression toward fertile females. Some studies suggest a queen pheromone which may help workers distinguish worker-laid and queen-laid eggs, but others indicate egg viability as the key factor in eliciting the behavior."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "The optimal air temperature for foraging is . During flight, the bee's relatively large flight muscles create heat which must be dissipated. The honey bee uses evaporative cooling to release heat through its mouth. Under hot conditions, heat from the thorax is dissipated through the head; the bee regurgitates a droplet of warm internal fluid\u00a0\u2014 a \"honeycrop droplet\"\u00a0\u2013 which reduces the temperature of its head by ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana",
        "text": "The colony of \"Apis cerana\", a typical honey bee, consists of several thousand female worker bees, one queen bee, and several hundred male drone bees. The colony is constructed inside beeswax combs inside a tree cavity, with a special peanut-shaped structure on the margins of the combs where the queens are reared."
      },
      {
        "title": "Queen clip",
        "text": "and a few escort nurse bees, and some candied honey covering the exit. The hive's worker bees consume"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jenter kit",
        "text": "In modern times, the Jenter kit is in use by Western European and North American apiarists. The kit allows for Queen bees to be produced commercially to supply other beekeepers, or a beekeeper may increase their number of hives. Both uses have become increasingly important as a mechanism to maintain large numbers of bee colonies worldwide in the fight against Varroa mites and Colony collapse disorder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis mellifera iberiensis",
        "text": "The Western honey bee is native to the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. As of the early 1500s, the Apis mellifera iberiensis was introduced to the Americas, with subsequent introductions of other European subspecies three centuries later. Since then, they have spread throughout the Americas. The 28 subspecies can be assigned to one of four major branches based on work by Ruttner and subsequently confirmed by analysis of mitochondrial DNA. African subspecies are assigned to branch A, northwest European subspecies to branch M, southwest European subspecies to branch C, and Mideast subspecies to branch O. The subspecies are grouped and listed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis cerana",
        "text": "Adult worker bees predominantly feed on pollen and nectar or honey, though the nutritive value of pollen varies depending on the plant. Mixed pollens possess a high nutritive value and actually supply all the necessary materials for proper development of young animals. However, when dried, pollen quickly loses its nutritive value."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beehive",
        "text": "Honey bees use caves, rock cavities and hollow trees as natural nesting sites. In warmer climates they may occasionally build exposed hanging nests; members of other subgenera have exposed aerial combs. The nest is composed of multiple honeycombs, parallel to each other, with a relatively uniform bee space. It usually has a single entrance. Western honey bees prefer nest cavities approximately 45 litres in volume and avoid those smaller than 10 or larger than 100 litres. Western honey bees show several nest-site preferences: the height above ground is usually between and , entrance positions tend to face downward, equatorial-facing entrances are favored, and nest sites over from the parent colony are preferred. Bees usually occupy nests for several years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western honey bee",
        "text": "Since 2018 a new version of the honey bee genome is available on NCBI (Amel_HAv3.1, BioProject ID: PRJNA471592). This assembly contains full chromosome length scaffolds, which means that the sequence data for each chromosome is contiguous, and not split between multiple pieces called scaffolds. The existence of a highly contiguous reference genome for a species enables more detailed investigations of evolutionary processes that affect the genome as well as more accurate estimations of for example differentiation between populations and diversity within populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apis koschevnikovi",
        "text": "However, in contrast to normal feeding behavior, \"Apis koschevnikovi\" and \"Apis dorsata\" fight at artificial feeding stations. They displayed a displaced nest-defense behavior with grappling and attempted stinging. Honey bees do not interact well with competing foragers when near a rich resource. \"A. koschevnikovi\" has even shown aggression against conspecific foragers when competing for a resource. Honey bees tend to dominate floral patches as individual colonies because of their competitive nature."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where in the world is the honey bee most prevalent?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about the africanized honey bee,  western honey bee, Koschevnikov's honey bee, eastern honey bee, or the philippine honey bee?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I would like to know about the western honey bee."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The western honey bee or European honey bee (Apis mellifera) is the most common of the 7\u201312 species of honey bees worldwide. The western honey bee can be found on every continent except Antarctica, as they adapted to the local environments as they spread geographically."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me how the Africanized Honey Bee came to be?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Africanized honey bees in the Western Hemisphere are descended from hives operated by biologist Warwick E. Kerr, who had interbred honey bees from Europe and southern Africa. Kerr was attempting to breed a strain of bees that would produce more honey in tropical conditions than the European strain of honey bee then in use throughout North, Central and South America."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about the Koschenvikov's honey bee?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Apis koschevnikovi, Koschevnikov's honey bee, is a species of honey bee which inhabits Malaysian and Indonesian Borneo, where it lives sympatrically with other honey bee species such as Apis cerana (specifically A. c. nuluensis)."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Do bees often try to coexist with other bees, or do they fight when they come into contact with each other?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Apis koschevnikovi and Apis dorsata share the rain forest habitat and overlap spatially in using trees, but they do fight at artificial feeding stations. A. koschevnikovi has shown aggression against conspecific foragers when competing for a resource, and honey bees tend to dominate floral patches as individual colonies because of their competitive nature."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What purpose does the Queen Bee serve?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The primary function of a queen bee is to serve as the reproducer, and the queen is usually the mother of most, if not all, of the bees in the beehive.",
      "A queen bee is typically an adult, mated female (gyne) that lives in a colony or hive of honey bees. With fully developed reproductive organs, the queen is usually the mother of most, if not all, of the bees in the beehive."
    ],
    "topic": "Western honey bee",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Queen bee:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Queen bee"
        ],
        "ctx": "A queen bee is typically an adult, mated female (gyne) that lives in a colony or hive of honey bees. With fully developed reproductive organs, the queen is usually the mother of most, if not all, of the bees in the beehive. Queens are developed from larvae selected by worker bees and specially fed in order to become sexually mature. There is normally only one adult, mated queen in a hive, in which case the bees will usually follow and fiercely protect her."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Queen bee:23",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Queen bee",
          "Daily life"
        ],
        "ctx": "The primary function of a queen bee is to serve as the reproducer. A well-mated and well-fed queen of quality stock can lay about 1,500 eggs per day during the spring build-up\u2014more than her own body weight in eggs every day. She is continuously surrounded by worker bees who meet her every need, giving her food and disposing of her waste. The attendant workers also collect and then distribute queen mandibular pheromone, a pheromone that inhibits the workers from starting queen cells."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Queen bee:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Queen bee"
        ],
        "ctx": "A queen bee is typically an adult, mated female (gyne) that lives in a colony or hive of honey bees. With fully developed reproductive organs, the queen is usually the mother of most, if not all, of the bees in the beehive. Queens are developed from larvae selected by worker bees and specially fed in order to become sexually mature. There is normally only one adult, mated queen in a hive, in which case the bees will usually follow and fiercely protect her."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2021)",
        "text": "After that, Sheamus defended the United States Championship against Damian Priest. In the closing moments of the match, as Sheamus applied a Leg Lock on Priest, Priest grabbed and removed Sheamus' protective face mask (as Sheamus had broken his nose a few weeks prior). As Sheamus attempted a Brogue Kick, Priest performed a Spinning Kick and the Reckoning on Sheamus to win the title."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2021)",
        "text": "On the August 30 episode of \"Raw\", new United States Champion Damian Priest defended the title against Sheamus and Drew McIntyre in a triple threat match where Priest retained. On the following episode, Sheamus defeated McIntyre to earn a rematch against Priest at Extreme Rules. On the September 20 episode, Jeff Hardy defeated Sheamus to earn a spot in the title match at Extreme Rules, thus making it a triple threat match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Damian Priest\n--Early life.\n--Professional wrestling career.\n----Early career.\n----Ring of Honor (2015\u20132018).\n----WWE.\n------Beginnings (2018\u20132020).\n------NXT North American Champion (2020\u20132021).\n------Debut on Raw and United States Champion (2021\u20132022).\n------Alliance with Edge (2022\u2013present).\n--Professional wrestling style and persona.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Priest returned to Raw on October 25, 2021 with a new, revamped character and won a match against T-Bar by disqualification, when the latter threw a chair at the former outside the ring. As a result, Priest viciously attacked T-Bar, turning himself into a tweener. The next week, T-Bar attacked Priest with a stick during their match, due to which Priest again attacked T-Bar in a similar fashion, further developing his new character and mannerisms, before getting challenged by Apollo Crews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Luis Mart\u00ednez (born September 26, 1982) is a American professional wrestler of Puerto Rican descent. He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the Raw brand under the ring name Damian Priest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "At WrestleMania 38, Priest made his appearance by distracting AJ Styles during his match against Edge, causing Styles to lose the match. After the match, Edge celebrated his victory with Priest, starting an alliance between the two. Over the weeks, they continued to feud with Styles, further developing new mannerisms and character."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2018)",
        "text": "After that, \"The Demon\" Finn B\u00e1lor faced Baron Corbin. B\u00e1lor performed a clothesline on Corbin sending him over the top rope. B\u00e1lor performed a Sling Blade followed by a dropkick on Corbin. In the climax, B\u00e1lor performed a \"Coup de Gr\u00e2ce\" on Corbin to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2020)",
        "text": "Dominik Mysterio teamed with his father Rey Mysterio in a tag team match against Seth Rollins and Murphy, but the match ended in a disqualification after Retribution attacked the Mysterios. A rematch was scheduled for Payback."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "His first appearance at a ROH show was in 2015 under his real name, Luis Mart\u00ednez, where he competed in two dark matches, losing the first to The Romantic Touch and winning the second alongside Shaheem Ali against Hellcat and Mattick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "His next storyline started when, on April 22, 2020, episode of NXT, Finn B\u00e1lor got attacked backstage by an unknown attacker. On May 13, 2020, Priest was revealed as the unknown attacker and both faced each other at , where Priest was defeated by B\u00e1lor. Despite the loss, Priest's in-ring performance in this match was highly appreciated by Triple H and also by the fans, followed by Priest turning face in a backstage interview where he praised B\u00e1lor. On 10 June 2020 episode of NXT, Cameron Grimes flaunted his previous victory over Finn B\u00e1lor and deemed Priest as a \"loser\" in a backstage interview, leading Priest to attack him, confirming Priest's face turn. This ignited a small rivalry between Grimes and Priest, which concluded just before the tournament held for the vacated NXT North American Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "On the December 9 episode of NXT, Priest looked forward to take revenge from Austin Theory following his attack at WarGames, however, he got viciously attacked by a returning Karrion Kross from behind, after which Priest had to be helped out of the arena. The next week, Kross challenged Priest to a match at , which Priest accepted. In that match, Priest lost to Kross, thus making it his final match in NXT."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2013)",
        "text": "The next match was between Cody Rhodes and Damien Sandow. In the end, Rhodes performed the Cross Rhodes to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2019)",
        "text": "In the penultimate match, Finn B\u00e1lor faced off against Bray Wyatt's new persona, \"The Fiend\". \"The Fiend\" dominated the match. In the end, \"The Fiend\" countered a \"Coup de Grace\" from B\u00e1lor into the Mandible claw, causing B\u00e1lor to pass out and allow \"The Fiend\" to get the pinfall victory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "In the subsequent weeks, Priest successfully defended his title against AJ Styles and Shelton Benjamin, before getting challenged by Finn B\u00e1lor. On February 28th episode of Raw, Priest lost to Balor, ending his championship reign at 191 days, following which Priest attacked B\u00e1lor, thus fully turning heel for the first time since May 2020. In the following weeks, Priest started to use the crucifix drop powerbomb (Razor's Edge) more frequently."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Roberts",
        "text": "After failing to revise the correct material for his exams, Damian steals Donald's exam papers. Shane, Angel and Tug are blamed for cheating until he admits the truth. Damian's brother Nathan is released from prison and arrives in Summer Bay. Nathan, who beat Damian when they were younger, claims to be a reformed character and Damian decides to give him a chance until he commits a robbery at the school. Damian keeps it a secret until he is forced to step in when Sarah is being threatened by Nathan, who is then arrested for his crimes. Damian leaves for University but returns to be the best man at Shane and Angel's wedding. He sleeps with Irene's lodger Selina Cook (Tempany Deckert) who becomes pregnant and feels unable to support her. He feels guilty when she miscarries and apologises. When Damian learns that his father Murdoch had harassed Selina, he tells Nathan; Murdoch is then murdered when Nathan sends his cellmate Brian \"Dodge\" Forbes (Kelly Dingwall) after him. Damian is left feeling somewhat lost and, after a talk with Selina, decides to become a priest. He last appears when he visits Angel to help her get over Shane's death."
      },
      {
        "title": "From the Shadows",
        "text": "After being fired from his job, Dami\u00e1n hids in an armoire. The armoire (with Dami\u00e1n inside) arrives to the residence of the family formed by Luc\u00eda, Fede and their teen daughter, Mar\u00eda. From then on, Dami\u00e1n becomes the family's guardian angel."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2017)",
        "text": "Later, \"The Demon King\" Finn B\u00e1lor faced Bray Wyatt. B\u00e1lor performed a \"Coup De Gr\u00e1ce\" on Wyatt for the win."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Roberts",
        "text": "However, when Kelly Chan (Theresa Wong) enrolled at Summer Bay High both boys fell for her and things turned nasty. Brummer commented \"There's certainly a lot of tension in the air.\" Kelly became more interested in Shane, but when she learned that he had lied about his court appearances, she turned to Damian and they went on a date. The magazine writer revealed \"But things turn sour for the teenagers after Damien lies about what they got up to on their first date! Like most boys, he tries to impress the lads with tales of kissing and midnight fumbles - which of course aren't true.\" Kelly decided she was better off being single and Shane and Damian fell out with each other. Doran told a writer from \"Look-in\" that the longer Damian and Shane are friends then the more likely he is to get into trouble. he explained that this was due to Shane being a \"crazy kid\". Doran and Brummer were good friends too. The camera crew labelled them \"the overtime boys\" because they would mess up their lines so the crew would earn overtime from retakes. Doran hoped that Damian would become more of a \"goody goody\" character in order to have a relationship. He added that \"Damian needs some romance in his life\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kidwelly sex cult",
        "text": "A neighbour said Damian's father (Colin Batley) was \"laughing and joking like he didn\u2019t have a care in the world\" on the day of the funeral, which \"no normal person could comprehend\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dami\u00e1n Nannini",
        "text": "Dami\u00e1n was born in Rosario on 15 September 1961. He completed his studies from \"Sagrado Coraz\u00f3n\" College of Rosario and \"an Carlos Borromeo\" Seminary in Rosario. He holds a licentiate in Sacred Scripture from the Pontifical Biblical Institute, Rome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samuel Damian",
        "text": "Samuel Damian (also spelled Samuil Domien) was an 18th-century Romanian Greek Catholic priest from Transylvania who emigrated to North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extreme Rules (2021)",
        "text": "At SummerSlam, Damian Priest defeated Sheamus to win the United States Championship. On the August 30 episode of \"Raw\", Priest retained the title against Sheamus and Drew McIntyre in a triple threat match. On the following episode, Sheamus defeated McIntyre to earn a United States Championship match against Priest at Extreme Rules. On the September 20 episode, Jeff Hardy defeated Sheamus to earn a spot in the title match at Extreme Rules, thus making it a triple threat match."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Priest's Children",
        "text": "Don Fabijan (Kre\u0161imir Miki\u0107) is a young priest who comes to serve on an unnamed small island in the Adriatic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cornel Damian",
        "text": "Cornel Damian (born May 8, 1960) is a Romanian cleric, auxiliary bishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bucharest. Born in Jibou, he moved with his family to Drobeta-Turnu Severin, where he finished high school. His parents were Greek-Catholic, but as their church was banned under the communist regime, Damian was raised in the Roman Catholic tradition. He attended the Roman Catholic Theological Institute of Ia\u0219i and was ordained a priest in 1986 at Saint Joseph's Cathedral in Bucharest. He was assistant priest at the Cioplea Church and from 1987 to 1998 parish priest at another Bucharest parish. He began teaching moral theology in 1991 at a theological institute which opened that year. From 1998 to 2002 he studied canon law at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome. In 2002 he was assigned to a new parish and began teaching canon law. In 2003, having been chosen auxiliary bishop by Pope John Paul II, he was consecrated titular bishop of Iziriana at the Bucharest cathedral by Archbishop Ioan Robu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dami\u00e1n Nannini",
        "text": "Dami\u00e1n was ordained a priest on 15 December 1989 by Jorge Manuel L\u00f3pez."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2015)",
        "text": "In the sixth match, Roman Reigns and Dean Ambrose faced The Wyatt Family (Bray Wyatt and Luke Harper). As Wyatt attempted \"Sister Abigail\" on Ambrose, Ambrose countered and executed \"Dirty Deeds\" on Wyatt. Reigns executed a Spear on Wyatt to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Martinez cites Pedro Morales, Scott Hall and The Undertaker as his inspirations in wrestling. He is friends with Keith Lee, Matt Riddle and Rhea Ripley."
      },
      {
        "title": "WrestleMania Backlash (2021)",
        "text": "After that, Damian Priest faced The Miz (accompanied by John Morrison) in a lumberjack match. The ring was surrounded by zombies as a promotional tie-in for the zombie film \"Army of the Dead\", which stars former WWE wrestler Batista. During the match, Priest and Miz teamed to fend off the zombies. In the end, Morrison was \"devoured\" by the zombies which distracted Miz. Priest performed Hit the Lights on Miz to win the match. Following the match, several zombies entered the ring and \"devoured\" Miz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Martinez is known to have a deep voice, which has helped him in his promos to maintain the menacing, dark character while working as Punishment Martinez in ROH Wrestling. In WWE, \"Damian Priest\" was previously intended to be a similar, but darker, more intense character than the characters that Martinez has represented previously in other promotions, however, his character gradually evolved and developed a more machismo, rockstar-like attitude that pursues more fame, recognition and success, and the character is further emphasized by portraying bars, parties and women frequently with him in backstage segments. Therefore, he has been referred to as \"The Archer of Infamy\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2014)",
        "text": "Next, Chris Jericho faced Bray Wyatt, with Luke Harper and Erick Rowan banned from ringside. Jericho executed a Codebreaker on Wyatt for a near-fall. In the end, Wyatt executed a Sister Abigail into the barricade on Jericho. Wyatt executed another Sister Abigail on Jericho to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "His wrestling style involves various power moves as well as high flying moves, and his striking is heavily influenced by his background in martial arts. He uses the \"Razor's Edge\" (a crucifix drop powerbomb, inherited from Razor Ramon, his childhood wrestling idol) and also a release Falcon Arrow which has been dubbed \"Broken Arrow\". His finisher is an inverted swinging cutter, called \"The Reckoning\". After debuting on the main roster, it was renamed \"Hit The Lights\" since the 2021 Royal Rumble, potentially due to sharing the name with Mia Yim, also known as \"Reckoning\" at the time, as a member of Retribution. The name was reverted back to \"The Reckoning\" on July 26, 2021 episode of Raw. He also used a sit-out chokeslam called the \"South of Heaven\" as his finisher, when he was working with ROH, which he still uses in the WWE as one of his signature moves, but not as a finisher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "On 25th October edition of Raw, Martinez debuted a new theme song, new mannerisms, and a slightly changed appearance, suggesting a character change. The new character and the theme song culminates two sides of Priest: one side is the calm, composed side known as \"The Priest\", similar to his previous character, and the other is a new darker, fiercer side known as \"The Damian\", which would be seen if Priest would get provoked or disrespected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Nawrocik",
        "text": "On 9 February 2006, he moved to Arka Gdynia from Lech Pozna\u0144."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "He is also known for his work in Ring of Honor (ROH) under the ring name Punishment Martinez, where he is a former one-time ROH World Television Champion. Through ROH's working relationship with New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW), he has also worked in Japan as Punisher Martinez."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Cronin",
        "text": "He is an alumnus of Campion School, Hornchurch and Prior Park College."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dami\u00e1n Furmanski",
        "text": "Dami\u00e1n Furmanski (born 5 October 1975) is a former professional tennis player from Argentina."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Tsekenis",
        "text": "Damian was born to a Greek-descent father - Peter Tsekenis who was a professional football player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian of Alexandria",
        "text": "Originally from Syria, where his brother was a prefect in Edessa, he became a monk in his early years and spent sixteen years in the Egyptian desert of Scete, where he was ordained a deacon in the monastery of St. John the Short. Afterward, he went to a monastery near Alexandria and continued to practice asceticism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extreme Rules (2021)",
        "text": "United States Champion Damian Priest defended the title against Sheamus in a no disqualification match, where Priest retained once again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Foxall",
        "text": "Damian Foxall (born 7 March 1969) is an Irish sailor from County Kerry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Martinez is also a big fan and a collector of hand-to-hand combat weapons."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2020)",
        "text": "The day after SummerSlam, it was announced that new Universal Champion \"The Fiend\" Bray Wyatt would defend the title against Braun Strowman and Roman Reigns in a No Holds Barred Triple Threat match at Payback. Subsequently on \"SmackDown\", it was revealed that Reigns aligned himself with Paul Heyman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Lewis",
        "text": "As a child, Lewis made several visits to the US to visit relatives during summer breaks. He first decided to become an actor at the age of 16. He was educated at the independent Ashdown House School in Forest Row, East Sussex, and at Eton College. He graduated from the Guildhall School of Music and Drama in 1993, after which he worked as an actor with the Royal Shakespeare Company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Keyes",
        "text": "Damian Keyes was born in Swansea, Wales. He studied at Emanuel School."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Mills",
        "text": "Mills was a church altar server from 8 to 21 years of age. During this time he helped to train young servers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "On October 12, 2018, it was reported that Martinez had signed a contract with WWE, six days later he was formally introduced, among other new members to the NXT brand. On November 28, at an NXT TV taping in Winter Park, Florida, Martinez, as Punishment Martinez, made his debut as a heel, losing to Matt Riddle. While on April 15, 2019, it was reported that Martinez would be repackaged and go by the new ring name \"Damian Priest\", he was still wrestling under the \"Punishment Martinez\" name on NXT house shows during April and May. Vignettes began airing starting at in June, reintroducing Martinez under this new character of Damian Priest. Debuting as Damian Priest, he defeated Raul Mendoza and then defeated Keith Lee in his second appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "After defeating Oney Lorcan and Ridge Holland, Priest qualified to a ladder match at NXT TakeOver: XXX for the NXT North American Championship, where he won the title, thus earning his first championship in WWE. Priest held the title for 67 days and defended against Timothy Thatcher, Johnny Gargano at NXT: TakeOver 31, and Dexter Lumis, but lost it against Gargano at in a Devil's Playground match."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2021)",
        "text": "SummerSlam (2021)\n--Production.\n----Background.\n------COVID-19 mask mandate.\n----Storylines.\n--Event.\n----Pre-show.\n----Preliminary matches.\n----Main event.\n--Reception.\n--Aftermath.\n----Raw.\n----SmackDown.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "On October 2, 2019, episode of NXT, Priest started a feud with Pete Dunne and Killian Dain, culminating in a triple threat match at for #1 contendership for the NXT Championship, where Dunne was victorious. Priest would also become a part of 5-on-5-on-5 Survivor Series pay-per-view match, representing Team NXT in a losing effort to Team SmackDown also involving Team Raw, where he was eliminated by Randy Orton. In January 2020, Priest was included in a storyline around the NXT North American Championship with Keith Lee and Dominik Dijajkovic. Priest would have an opportunity for the title against Lee and Dijakovic on April 1, 2020, and a singles match against Lee on April 22, being defeated both times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Priest made his next appearance in the 2021 Royal Rumble match as a surprise entrant, entering at #14. He eliminated John Morrison, The Miz, Elias and Kane before being eliminated by Bobby Lashley. The following night, Priest made his debut on \"Raw\" after being introduced by Bad Bunny during a Miz TV segment. He would proceed to defeat The Miz in a singles match, marking his first win on the main roster. The next week on Raw, he defeated Angel Garza in another singles match. On the February 15 edition of Raw, Priest helped Bad Bunny win the 24/7 Championship by knocking out Akira Tozawa, who pinned R-Truth moments ago. In subsequent weeks, Priest racked up a winning streak by defeating Angel Garza, Elias and Jaxson Ryker, however, The Miz and John Morrison continued their rivalry against Bad Bunny and Priest, after The Miz attacked Bad Bunny using a guitar after Priest's match against Ryker. Priest and Bad Bunny then challenged The Miz and Morrison to a tag team match at WrestleMania 37, which they accepted. At WrestleMania, Priest and Bad Bunny defeated The Miz and Morrison."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Jim",
        "text": "Damin Jim was born in 1973 in Shiprock, New Mexico on the Navajo Nation."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2019)",
        "text": "Also on \"SmackDown\", Daniel Bryan and Rowan forced Buddy Murphy to reveal that he was lying in saying that Rowan was Roman Reigns' attacker. Later on the show, Bryan and Rowan revealed that they conducted their own investigation to find out who attacked Reigns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Janikowski",
        "text": "Damian Janikowski (born June 27, 1989 in Wroc\u0142aw) is a Polish mixed martial artist and former wrestler who won the Bronze medal at the 2012 London Olympics in the Greco-Roman 84 kg category."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian (martyrs, February 12)",
        "text": "Damian (martyrs, February 12)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2021)",
        "text": "Following this, a brief segment then occurred where U.S. Olympic Gold Medalists (in wrestling), Tamyra Mensah-Stock and Gable Steveson, came out where the crowd acknowledged them by cheering while the two Olympians proudly displayed their respective medals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Denis Dallu",
        "text": "He was born on 26 April 1955 in Kiponzelo, Maboga, Iringa Region. On 15 November 1984 he was Ordained Priest of Geita, and was consecrated Bishop of Geita on 30 July 2000, by Cardinal Pengo, Bishop Aloysius Balina and Tarcisius Ngalalekumtwa, On 14 March 2014, he was appointed Archbishop of\u00a0Songea,\u00a0Tanzania, and installed on 18 May 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Harris",
        "text": "Damian David Harris (born 2 August 1958) is a British film director and screenwriter. He is the son of the actor Richard Harris and socialite Elizabeth Rees-Williams."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2021)",
        "text": "After that, John Morrison and The Miz came to the ring to reveal their surprise, the Drip Stick 2000. The New Day's Xavier Woods came out with the device and sprayed Miz and Morrison out of the ring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Callinan",
        "text": "Damian Callinan is an actor/comedian from Melbourne, Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian K\u0105dzior",
        "text": "K\u0105dzior was born in Bia\u0142ystok, Poland, where he joined the Jagiellonia Bia\u0142ystok youth academy."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Fenyeit Freir of Tungland",
        "text": "Damian is then supposed to have fled from Lombardy to France once his true identity was discovered. There, he pretended to be a physician, hiding his Italian origins.\n:\n:"
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2016)",
        "text": "Next, Rusev was scheduled to defend the United States Championship against Roman Reigns. However, before the match officially started, Rusev attacked Reigns, resulting in a brawl. While the referees tried to separate the two, Reigns hit Rusev with a chair. Finally, Rusev was declared unable to compete. After the announcement was made, Reigns attacked Rusev with a spear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "On the November 23rd edition of Raw, Priest again showed face mannerisms, thus maintaining his tweener personality, while also having successful championship defenses against Sami Zayn, Crews, and Robert Roode in the subsequent weeks. After Priest's defense against Roode, Roode's ally Dolph Ziggler attacked Priest, starting a small rivalry between Priest and The Dirty Dawgs. On the January 17, 2022 episode of Raw, Priest lost to Kevin Owens in a non-title match, which marked his first clean loss on the main roster. As a result, Owens got himself a match for Priest's championship on Raw next week, which he won by disqualification, but Priest retained the title. Priest was also a part of 2022 Royal Rumble match, entering at #7. He scored no eliminations and was eventually eliminated by Omos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Kindler",
        "text": "Damian Kindler (born May 31, 1968), is a television and film writer, director and producer. Born in Melbourne, Australia. Kindler's family later emigrated to Toronto, Ontario, Canada where he was raised. He currently resides in Venice, California."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Hinds",
        "text": "Hinds was educated at St Ambrose College, a voluntary aided Roman Catholic grammar school in Hale Barns, Greater Manchester."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Rice",
        "text": "Damian Rice (born 1961) is an Australian actor who has appeared in various Australian drama series, including \"G.P.\", \"Fire\", \"All Saints\" and \"Blue Heelers\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Green",
        "text": "Damian Green was born in Barry, Glamorgan, Wales. He grew up in Reading, Berkshire and was educated at Reading School."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Dr\u0103ghici",
        "text": "Damian Dr\u0103ghici (born 31 March 1970, Bucharest) is a Romanian musician of Romani origin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Mart\u00ednez was born in New York City to Nuyorican parents, but raised in the municipality of Dorado, Puerto Rico. While living in Dorado he saw the World Wrestling Council on television and got the interest to become a pro wrestler. He learned Japanese G\u014dj\u016b-ry\u016b karate from his martial artist father. After winning two national championships in full-contact martial arts, Mart\u00ednez decided to embark on a career in professional wrestling. When he returned to the States, Spanish was still his first language and he underwent a period of cultural adaptation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Lewis",
        "text": "Sephardic Jewish descent. He has stated that he \"went to English boarding schools and grew up around people very much like [his character] Soames and in a \"milieu\" very much like the Forsytes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Priest (2011 film)",
        "text": "Priest is a 2011 American action horror film directed by Scott Stewart and stars Paul Bettany as the title character. It is loosely based on the Korean comic of the same name by Hyung Min-woo. In an alternate universe, humanity and vampires have warred for centuries. After the last Vampire War, a veteran Warrior Priest lives in obscurity until his niece (Lily Collins) is kidnapped by vampires."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2018)",
        "text": "Next, Elias promised a concert. As he was about to start, the guitar broke. He then discarded the guitar pieces and then departed backstage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sami Damian",
        "text": "S. Damian studied at the Jewish \"Cultura Max Aziel\" middle school in Bucharest, then at the \"Mihai Eminescu\" Literature and Literary Criticism School in Bucharest (1950-1955), and at the Faculty of Letters of the University of Bucharest (diploma received in 1972)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Killian Dain",
        "text": "Damian Mackle (born 20 February 1985) is an Irish professional wrestler. He is best known for his time in WWE, where he performed under the ring name Killian Dain and since his departure from WWE he has reverted back to his ring name on the independent circuit Big Damo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Gargano however, lost the title to Leon Ruff just two weeks later, due to a distraction during the title match by Priest. Ruff retained the championship in a rematch against Gargano the next week by disqualification, when Priest punched Ruff during the match, thus disabling Gargano to win the championship. This soon transitioned into a triple threat match for the NXT North American Championship which would take place at . During the match, Damian Priest again got attacked by the same masked character and its gang that attacked him previously at Halloween Havoc, who was revealed to be Austin Theory. As a result of that, Priest lost the match, with Gargano winning the title by pinning Ruff."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Fenyeit Freir of Tungland",
        "text": "Damian is accused of having killed a cleric in Italy in order to acquire his habit and so impersonate him. This seems to be the origin of the epithet .\n:"
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2013)",
        "text": "During the SummerSlam Kickoff pre-show, Dean Ambrose defended the WWE United States Championship against Rob Van Dam. The match was streamed live on WWE.com, the WWE app, and various social sites. In the end, Van Dam executed a Five Star Frog Splash on Ambrose but Roman Reigns interfered and attacked Van Dam with a Spear, meaning Van Dam won by disqualification."
      },
      {
        "title": "Payback (2020)",
        "text": "At SummerSlam, Seth Rollins (who was accompanied by his disciple Murphy) defeated Dominik Mysterio (who was accompanied by his father Rey Mysterio) in a Street Fight. The following night on \"Raw\", Rey Mysterio and Dominik defeated Rollins and Murphy by disqualification when Retribution attacked the Mysterios. A rematch between the two teams was scheduled for Payback."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Mart\u00ednez trained at the Monster Factory and went on to win several titles in Monster Factory Pro Wrestling. In 2014, Mart\u00ednez attended a Ring of Honor (ROH) training camp and went on to train at the ROH dojo."
      },
      {
        "title": "El padrecito",
        "text": "When an elderly priest, Father Dami\u00e1n receives word that he will be replaced by a younger priest, he states his dread at leaving the parish refuses to accept his arrival, though he relents. Coming to replace him is the young priest Father Sebasti\u00e1n (played by Cantinflas) who is assigned to the parish in San Jer\u00f3nimo el Alto, where the town is indifferent to his arrival. Everyone around him gives him the cold shoulder, including Father Dami\u00e1n (played by \u00c1ngel Garasa), and particularly Dami\u00e1n's sister, Sara. The only resident to instantly warm up to him is Sara's daughter Susana. Added to the woes are the forthcoming enmity from the town's \"cacique\" Don Silvestre and his son Marcos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Scannell",
        "text": "Scannell's father (died 2015) was from County Armagh, and was also of Jamaican heritage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Czykier",
        "text": "Damian Czykier (pronounced ; born 10 August 1992) is a Polish athlete specialising in the high hurdles. He came fourth at the 2015 Summer Universiade and the 2016 European Championships."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2016)",
        "text": "Three matches were contested on the SummerSlam Kickoff pre-show. In the first match, American Alpha (Jason Jordan and Chad Gable), The Hype Bros (Zack Ryder and Mojo Rawley), and The Usos (Jey and Jimmy Uso) faced Breezango (Tyler Breeze and Fandango), The Ascension (Konnor and Viktor), and The Vaudevillains (Aiden English and Simon Gotch) in a twelve-man tag team match. Jey Uso won the match for his team by pinning Simon Gotch after a Samoan Splash."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Dr\u0103ghici",
        "text": "Damian Dr\u0103ghici\n--Early life.\n--Musical career.\n----USA Berklee College of Music.\n----Los Angeles.\n----Tours.\n----Damian & Brothers project.\n----Member of the European Parliament.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Harris",
        "text": "Harris was born on 2 August 1958 in London, the eldest of three sons of the Irish actor Richard Harris and his first wife, Welsh actress Elizabeth Rees-Williams. His brothers are actors Jared Harris and Jamie Harris."
      },
      {
        "title": "Matt Doran",
        "text": "Doran played the part of the schoolboy Damian Roberts in the Australian soap, \"Home and Away\", from 1992 to 1996. He guest starred in \"G.P.\", \"Fallen Angels\", \"Water Rats\", \"Medivac\", \"Murder Call\", \"Farscape\" and \"Stingers\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (1997)",
        "text": "Mild thumbs up for historical reasons and for Foley, Hart, Austin & Undertaker.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Roberts",
        "text": "In another story, Damian and Shane are accused of committing a robbery at the Kiosk store. Damian was grounded by his foster parents Michael (Dennis Coard) and Pippa Ross (Debra Lawrance). Damian is found alone and wandering around in the middle of the night, when the crime took place. Michael is furious with Damian for disobeying his punishment and considers returning him to live with Irene. Shane's brother Nick Parrish (Bruce Roberts), a serving police officer also defends them. Despite this the remained of Summer Bay residents are quick to accuse them of committing the robbery. Doran told a \"TVTimes\" writer that \"Damien's lead astray because he's never really had a close friend and doesn't want to let Shane down.\" He added that both Damian and Shane had troubled childhoods but Shane had emerged stronger than him. He concluded that \"together they spell trouble.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2022)",
        "text": "The event will include matches that result from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portray heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that build tension and culminate in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results are predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines are produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"Friday Night SmackDown.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (1988)",
        "text": "The next match was a tag team match between The Powers of Pain (The Barbarian and The Warlord), who were accompanied by their manager The Baron, and The Bolsheviks (Boris Zhukov and Nikolai Volkoff), who were accompanied by Slick. Immediately, The Powers of Pain chased The Bolsheviks from the ring. Slick, however, distracted The Powers of Pain long enough to give The Bolsheviks an advantage. Zhukov was then slammed to the mat back-first and headbutted from the top rope, which allowed The Barbarian to pin him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Nowak",
        "text": "Damian Nowak (born 14 May 1992) is a Polish footballer who plays as a forward for Sandecja Nowy S\u0105cz."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2016)",
        "text": "The actual pay-per-view opened with Enzo Amore and Big Cass facing Chris Jericho and Kevin Owens. In the climax, Amore executed a diving DDT on Jericho only for Owens to break up the pinfall. Owens and Jericho then performed a Pop-Up \"Codebreaker\" on Amore, with Jericho pinning Amore for the win."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Kowalczyk",
        "text": "Damian Kowalczyk (born 3 August 1995 in Jawor) is a Polish football player who plays as a forward."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Young",
        "text": "Damian Young (born October 27, 1961) is an American actor notable for his appearance in the Hal Hartley film \"Amateur\" (1994). He also featured in Hartley's earlier film \"Simple Men\" (1992), and has appeared in theatre, television and film. He played bus driver Stu Benedict for three seasons in \"The Adventures of Pete & Pete\" (1993\u201396), Mark Berman in the HBO series \"The Comeback\", Bill Lewis on \"Californication\", Aidan Macallan on \"House of Cards\" and Gabriel in the 2014 film \"Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance)\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mark Priest",
        "text": "Priest was born at Greymouth, West Coast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leontios Petmezas",
        "text": "\"The summer will reap\" of Alexis Damianos in municipal regional theater of Kavala (1986)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian McKenzie",
        "text": "McKenzie, of European and M\u0101ori descent, was born in 1995 in Invercargill. He received his secondary education at Christ's College in Christchurch."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Betrothed (Scott novel)",
        "text": "Ch. 2 (18): Sir Hugo cannot bear to enter Damian's sickroom. The archbishop persuades the Constable not to delay his crusading expedition for his marriage. A minstrel in fantastic clothes [Renault Vidal, Cadwallon (Guenwyn's bard) in disguise] arrives with news that Damian is recovering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Squire",
        "text": "Damian Squire (born 15 November 1973 in Adelaide, South Australia) is a former Australian rules footballer who played with in the Australian Football League (AFL) and both North Adelaide and in the South Australian National Football League (SANFL). Squire is the step-brother of former and footballer Mark Jones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Shirazi",
        "text": "Damian Cyrus Shirazi (born 23 March 1986) is a Welsh-born English educator and former cricketer."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where does Damian Priest come from?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Damian Priest is the ring name of professional wrestler Luis Mart\u00ednez. Mart\u00ednez was born in New York City, but raised in the municipality of Dorado, Puerto Rico."
    ],
    "topic": "SummerSlam (2021)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Damian Priest:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Damian Priest"
        ],
        "ctx": "Luis Mart\u00ednez (born September 26, 1982) is a American professional wrestler of Puerto Rican descent. He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the Raw brand under the ring name Damian Priest."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Damian Priest:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Damian Priest",
          "Early life"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mart\u00ednez was born in New York City to Nuyorican parents, but raised in the municipality of Dorado, Puerto Rico. While living in Dorado he saw the World Wrestling Council on television and got the interest to become a pro wrestler. He learned Japanese G\u014dj\u016b-ry\u016b karate from his martial artist father. After winning two national championships in full-contact martial arts, Mart\u00ednez decided to embark on a career in professional wrestling. When he returned to the States, Spanish was still his first language and he underwent a period of cultural adaptation."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Mart\u00ednez was born in New York City to Nuyorican parents, but raised in the municipality of Dorado, Puerto Rico. While living in Dorado he saw the World Wrestling Council on television and got the interest to become a pro wrestler. He learned Japanese G\u014dj\u016b-ry\u016b karate from his martial artist father. After winning two national championships in full-contact martial arts, Mart\u00ednez decided to embark on a career in professional wrestling. When he returned to the States, Spanish was still his first language and he underwent a period of cultural adaptation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Luis Mart\u00ednez (born September 26, 1982) is a American professional wrestler of Puerto Rican descent. He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the Raw brand under the ring name Damian Priest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Martinez cites Pedro Morales, Scott Hall and The Undertaker as his inspirations in wrestling. He is friends with Keith Lee, Matt Riddle and Rhea Ripley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "On October 12, 2018, it was reported that Martinez had signed a contract with WWE, six days later he was formally introduced, among other new members to the NXT brand. On November 28, at an NXT TV taping in Winter Park, Florida, Martinez, as Punishment Martinez, made his debut as a heel, losing to Matt Riddle. While on April 15, 2019, it was reported that Martinez would be repackaged and go by the new ring name \"Damian Priest\", he was still wrestling under the \"Punishment Martinez\" name on NXT house shows during April and May. Vignettes began airing starting at in June, reintroducing Martinez under this new character of Damian Priest. Debuting as Damian Priest, he defeated Raul Mendoza and then defeated Keith Lee in his second appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Damian Priest\n--Early life.\n--Professional wrestling career.\n----Early career.\n----Ring of Honor (2015\u20132018).\n----WWE.\n------Beginnings (2018\u20132020).\n------NXT North American Champion (2020\u20132021).\n------Debut on Raw and United States Champion (2021\u20132022).\n------Alliance with Edge (2022\u2013present).\n--Professional wrestling style and persona.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dami\u00e1n 666",
        "text": "Dami\u00e1n 666\n--Professional wrestling career.\n----Early career (1985\u20131991).\n----Frontier Martial-Arts Wrestling (1991\u20131996).\n----Extreme Championship Wrestling (1996).\n----World Championship Wrestling (1996\u20131999).\n----Independent circuit.\n------Mexico's Most Wanted (2000\u20132005).\n------Perros del Mal (2005\u20132012).\n------La Familia de Tijuana (2012\u2013present).\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Mart\u00ednez trained at the Monster Factory and went on to win several titles in Monster Factory Pro Wrestling. In 2014, Mart\u00ednez attended a Ring of Honor (ROH) training camp and went on to train at the ROH dojo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "His first appearance at a ROH show was in 2015 under his real name, Luis Mart\u00ednez, where he competed in two dark matches, losing the first to The Romantic Touch and winning the second alongside Shaheem Ali against Hellcat and Mattick."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2021)",
        "text": "On the August 30 episode of \"Raw\", new United States Champion Damian Priest defended the title against Sheamus and Drew McIntyre in a triple threat match where Priest retained. On the following episode, Sheamus defeated McIntyre to earn a rematch against Priest at Extreme Rules. On the September 20 episode, Jeff Hardy defeated Sheamus to earn a spot in the title match at Extreme Rules, thus making it a triple threat match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "He is also known for his work in Ring of Honor (ROH) under the ring name Punishment Martinez, where he is a former one-time ROH World Television Champion. Through ROH's working relationship with New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW), he has also worked in Japan as Punisher Martinez."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Priest returned to Raw on October 25, 2021 with a new, revamped character and won a match against T-Bar by disqualification, when the latter threw a chair at the former outside the ring. As a result, Priest viciously attacked T-Bar, turning himself into a tweener. The next week, T-Bar attacked Priest with a stick during their match, due to which Priest again attacked T-Bar in a similar fashion, further developing his new character and mannerisms, before getting challenged by Apollo Crews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "In the subsequent weeks, Priest successfully defended his title against AJ Styles and Shelton Benjamin, before getting challenged by Finn B\u00e1lor. On February 28th episode of Raw, Priest lost to Balor, ending his championship reign at 191 days, following which Priest attacked B\u00e1lor, thus fully turning heel for the first time since May 2020. In the following weeks, Priest started to use the crucifix drop powerbomb (Razor's Edge) more frequently."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2021)",
        "text": "After that, Sheamus defended the United States Championship against Damian Priest. In the closing moments of the match, as Sheamus applied a Leg Lock on Priest, Priest grabbed and removed Sheamus' protective face mask (as Sheamus had broken his nose a few weeks prior). As Sheamus attempted a Brogue Kick, Priest performed a Spinning Kick and the Reckoning on Sheamus to win the title."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Martinez is known to have a deep voice, which has helped him in his promos to maintain the menacing, dark character while working as Punishment Martinez in ROH Wrestling. In WWE, \"Damian Priest\" was previously intended to be a similar, but darker, more intense character than the characters that Martinez has represented previously in other promotions, however, his character gradually evolved and developed a more machismo, rockstar-like attitude that pursues more fame, recognition and success, and the character is further emphasized by portraying bars, parties and women frequently with him in backstage segments. Therefore, he has been referred to as \"The Archer of Infamy\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "At WrestleMania 38, Priest made his appearance by distracting AJ Styles during his match against Edge, causing Styles to lose the match. After the match, Edge celebrated his victory with Priest, starting an alliance between the two. Over the weeks, they continued to feud with Styles, further developing new mannerisms and character."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2020)",
        "text": "Dominik Mysterio teamed with his father Rey Mysterio in a tag team match against Seth Rollins and Murphy, but the match ended in a disqualification after Retribution attacked the Mysterios. A rematch was scheduled for Payback."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Janikowski",
        "text": "Damian Janikowski\n--Wrestling career.\n--Mixed martial arts career.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "His wrestling style involves various power moves as well as high flying moves, and his striking is heavily influenced by his background in martial arts. He uses the \"Razor's Edge\" (a crucifix drop powerbomb, inherited from Razor Ramon, his childhood wrestling idol) and also a release Falcon Arrow which has been dubbed \"Broken Arrow\". His finisher is an inverted swinging cutter, called \"The Reckoning\". After debuting on the main roster, it was renamed \"Hit The Lights\" since the 2021 Royal Rumble, potentially due to sharing the name with Mia Yim, also known as \"Reckoning\" at the time, as a member of Retribution. The name was reverted back to \"The Reckoning\" on July 26, 2021 episode of Raw. He also used a sit-out chokeslam called the \"South of Heaven\" as his finisher, when he was working with ROH, which he still uses in the WWE as one of his signature moves, but not as a finisher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arena Naucalpan 27th Anniversary Show",
        "text": "Alejandro Jim\u00e9nez Cruz began his wrestling career as the \"enmascarado\" or masked character Dr. Cerebro (Dr. Brains), wearing a mask that was decorated to look like his brain was exposed. On July 26, 1998 he won his first ever \"Lucha de Apuestas\", or \"bet match\", as he defeated Oro Jr., forcing him to unmask as a result. On March 1, 2001 he himself lost his mask as he lost to El Hijo del Santo and was forced to unmask and state his real name. Subsequently, he won two \"Luchas de Apuestas\" matches against Black Terry and American Gigolo, in both cases forcing them to have their hair shaved off afterwards. Japanese wrestler MAZADA came to Japan in 2000 as part of a group of Toryumon working and training with IWRG. Since then Japanese wrestlers from Toryumon would make annual trips to Mexico. Between 2000 and 2003 MAZADA lost several \"Lucha de Apuestas\" matches, each time leaving the arena without any hair."
      },
      {
        "title": "El Terrible",
        "text": "In 2002, he debuted in Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre without a mask as Dami\u00e1n El Terrible but later the \"Dami\u00e1n\" part of his name was dropped, possibly to alleviate any confusion with Dami\u00e1n 666."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Gargano however, lost the title to Leon Ruff just two weeks later, due to a distraction during the title match by Priest. Ruff retained the championship in a rematch against Gargano the next week by disqualification, when Priest punched Ruff during the match, thus disabling Gargano to win the championship. This soon transitioned into a triple threat match for the NXT North American Championship which would take place at . During the match, Damian Priest again got attacked by the same masked character and its gang that attacked him previously at Halloween Havoc, who was revealed to be Austin Theory. As a result of that, Priest lost the match, with Gargano winning the title by pinning Ruff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Adams",
        "text": "Luis Almodovar (born October 11, 1978) is an American professional wrestler better known by his ring name Damian Adams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dami\u00e1n 666",
        "text": "Carrera had a short stint in the United States with the Philadelphia, Pennsylvania-based promotion Extreme Championship Wrestling in mid-1996. At Massacre on Queens Boulevard in April 1996 he unsuccessfully challenged ECW World Heavyweight Champion Raven. The following month, at A Matter of Respect, he faced El Puerto Rique\u00f1o, with the bout ending in a no contest after Sabu attacked both men."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Through ROH's working relationship with New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW), Martinez appeared at the two-day event. On the first night, Martinez teamed up with \"Los Ingobernables de Jap\u00f3n\" members Hiromu Takahashi and Tetsuya Naito to defeat Dalton Castle, Hiroshi Tanahashi and Ryusuke Taguchi, with Martinez picking up the win for his team. On the second night, Martinez unsuccessfully challenged Hirooki Goto for the NEVER Openweight Championship. Using the name Damian Martinez, he returned to ROH to unsuccessfully compete in a Manhattan Mayhem Battle Royal for the #1 Contendership to the ROH World Championship. Martinez also entered a Battle Royal for the #1 Contendership to the ROH World Television Championship, which he also lost. On February 11, Martinez and B.J. Whitmer defeated War Machine, but after the match Martinez turned on Whitmer by hitting him with his South of Heaven finishing maneuver."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dami\u00e1n 666",
        "text": "On March 13, 2012, Dami\u00e1n 666, Bestia 666, Halloween, Super Nova and X-Fly announced that they were forming \"La Familia de Tijuana\", a group of independent wrestlers, much like \"Los Perros del Mal\", with the exception that they were not looking to form their own promotion. It was also revealed that originally only Dami\u00e1n and his son were looking to get out of \"Los Perros del Mal\", but the others joined them after learning of their intentions. On March 29, IWRG was officially announced as \"La Familia de Tijuana\"'s new home promotion. On April 19, Dami\u00e1n 666's longtime partner Halloween severed his ties with \"La Familia de Tijuana\" and returned to \"Los Perros del Mal\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Angel Medina (wrestler)",
        "text": "At an early age, Angel relocated from New York City to Puerto Rico, where he became interested in professional wrestling. At the age of 17, Angel began training as a wrestler under Johnny Rodz. He debuted in 1996."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Janikowski",
        "text": "Damian Janikowski (born June 27, 1989 in Wroc\u0142aw) is a Polish mixed martial artist and former wrestler who won the Bronze medal at the 2012 London Olympics in the Greco-Roman 84 kg category."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasi\u00f3n Kristal",
        "text": "Jos\u00e9 Gabriel Zentella Dami\u00e1n, best known by the pseudonyms Pasi\u00f3n Kristal or Pasi\u00f3n Crystal (9 January 1976 \u2013 2 June 2021), was a Mexican wrestler."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ricky Banderas",
        "text": "Cosme began wrestling training in 1996, when he was instructed by a former wrestler. During this time he was enrolled in the Interamerican University of Puerto Rico located in Bayam\u00f3n, his major concentration was in computer technology, after completing two years of study, he decided to begin wrestling as a profession after meeting V\u00edctor Qui\u00f1ones in the gym. In 1997, after working in the independent circuit he moved to Mexico and performed there, and became involved in a project to develop Hispanic talent organized by the World Wrestling Federation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Virus (wrestler)",
        "text": "While trying to figure out a new ring character, Amezquita was offered the name \"Damiancito El Guerrero\" by Alfonso Lira, who worked as Damian El Guerrero at that time. He worked his first match under that name on November 6, 1994, when he and Ultratumbita lost to Orito and Ultimo Dragoncito. When he became Damiancito, Amezquita began working unmasked without losing a \"Lucha de Apuestas\" match. In 1995, Amezquita toured Japan and worked for the W*ING promotion where he was billed simply as \"Damiancito\", a mini version of Dami\u00e1n 666 who worked for W*ING at the time. Subsequently he has mistakenly been described as working as \"Damiancito\" or \"Damiancto 666\" in CMLL as well, but it was only in Japan that he worked as a mini of Dami\u00e1n 666 and is not related to Peque\u00f1o Dami\u00e1n 666."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dami\u00e1n 666",
        "text": "Carrera made his debut in 1985 after being trained by Luis Canales, he would later receive additional training by Rey Misterio. Carrera's first ring persona was a masked persona called \"Caballero 2000\" (Spanish for \"Knight 2000\"). After working as Caballero 2000 for a couple of years, Carrera's ring persona was recast in the fall of 1987. He became Ultraman II, patterned after the Japanese Tokusatsu TV show Ultraman, and worked as a successor for the now unmasked Ultraman (Milo Ventura). \"Lucha Libre\" Magazine renamed him Ultraman 2000 in 1988. Carrera began working for the Mexican wrestling promotion World Wrestling Association (WWA), where he teamed up with Aguila del Am\u00e9rica and Kiss to win the WWA World Trios Championship from Bill Anderson, Louie Spicolli and Tim Paterson (masked as Los Mercenarios Americanos) on December 12, 1991; this was Carrera's first title victory."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (1993)",
        "text": "The SummerSlam match was DiBiase's final appearance as a WWF wrestler. He injured his neck and back in January 1994 and was forced to retire from wrestling. Meanwhile, Ramon received a push in Fall 1993 that led to the first of four Intercontinental championships."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ram\u00f3n \u00c1lvarez (wrestler)",
        "text": "He debuted in 1983. In 1984, he started reaching higher levels in Dominicana de Espectaculos, a promotion in the Dominican Republic which was affiliated with the National Wrestling Alliance. He was a tag team champion together with El Bronco No. 2 called \"Los Hermanos Broncos\". In 1988, El Bronco No. 3 joined the team. In 1989, \"Los Hermanos Broncos\", together with Relampago Hernandez, Johnny Gomez, Super Star, Thunderman and others left Dominicana de Espectaculos and founded a new promotion: the Dominican Wrestling Federation, which signed a strategic alliance with the World Wrestling Council (WWC), based in Puerto Rico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bombero Infernal",
        "text": "Guillermo Martinez made his professional wrestling debut on July 24, 1988, three days before his 16th birthday. Between his debut in 1988 and 1996 it has not been verified which ring names he worked under, based partly on the fact that \"lucha libre\" has a tradition of keeping the real names of masked wrestlers a closely guarded secret unless they are unmasked. Martinez confirmed his debut date but never confirmed which names he used before becoming \"Bombero Infernal\" (\"The Firefighter\") in 1996."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "His next storyline started when, on April 22, 2020, episode of NXT, Finn B\u00e1lor got attacked backstage by an unknown attacker. On May 13, 2020, Priest was revealed as the unknown attacker and both faced each other at , where Priest was defeated by B\u00e1lor. Despite the loss, Priest's in-ring performance in this match was highly appreciated by Triple H and also by the fans, followed by Priest turning face in a backstage interview where he praised B\u00e1lor. On 10 June 2020 episode of NXT, Cameron Grimes flaunted his previous victory over Finn B\u00e1lor and deemed Priest as a \"loser\" in a backstage interview, leading Priest to attack him, confirming Priest's face turn. This ignited a small rivalry between Grimes and Priest, which concluded just before the tournament held for the vacated NXT North American Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2014)",
        "text": "On August 16, it was announced on WWE.com that Cesaro would face Rob Van Dam on the SummerSlam Kickoff show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dominick Cruz",
        "text": "Cruz was born on March 9, 1985, in San Diego, California, and is of Mexican descent. He lived with his single mother, grandmother, and brother in a trailer park in Tucson for most of his childhood. He started wrestling in seventh grade and competed all through high school out of Flowing Wells High School. After an injury that came in his senior year, he lost the opportunity of receiving a scholarship to wrestle at the University of Northern Colorado. Cruz worked as a customer service representative at Lowe's, and was studying to be a firefighter at community college before becoming a full time fighter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dami\u00e1n 666",
        "text": "Leonardo Carrera G\u00f3mez (born July 9, 1961) is a Mexican professional wrestler best known under the name Dami\u00e1n 666. He has worked for World Championship Wrestling (WCW), Frontier Martial-Arts Wrestling (FMW), Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL), Asistencia Asesor\u00eda y Administraci\u00f3n (AAA), World Wrestling Association (WWA) and various promotions on the Mexican independent circuit, including \"Perros del Mal Producciones\" (PdM). Carrera also worked under the ring name Galaxy in WCW, a masked Luchador. Carrera often teams with Halloween, leading to the formation of the team \"Mexico's Most Wanted\", which has worked extensively in North America for such promotions as Xtreme Pro Wrestling (XPW) and Revolution Pro Wrestling (RPW). Carrera's son currently wrestles on the international independent circuit as Bestia 666."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Adams",
        "text": "Adams was invited to WWE's developmental territory OVW in early 2005 and made his debut against in a losing effort to Danny Inferno. Damian was trained by Rip Rogers while in OVW. While in OVW, Damian tore his PCL, putting him out of action for 3\u20134 months. In 2008 Damian left OVW and returned to the independent wrestling scene in the northeast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dami\u00e1n 666",
        "text": "In 2002 Dami\u00e1n 666 and Halloween began working for Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL), Mexico's largest and the world's oldest wrestling promotion. They were joined by Nicho el Millonario to form a group called \"La Familia de Tijuana\", playing off the fact that all three wrestlers got their start in Tijuana and knew each other from back then. La Familia banded together to defeat \"Los Nuevos Infernales\", the team of El Sat\u00e1nico, Averno and Mephisto, to win the Mexican National Trios Championship on September 27, 2002. La Familia defended the title well into 2003 until Nicho left the company in June 2003. By the end of June the team was stripped of the championship, as they could not defend the title."
      },
      {
        "title": "M\u00e1ximo (wrestler)",
        "text": "Jos\u00e9 Christian Alvarado Ruiz was born on November 8, 1980 son of professional wrestler Jos\u00e9 Alvarado Nieves (Brazo de Plata), into an extended family of wrestlers. The young Jos\u00e9 Christian grew up watching his father and his uncles wrestle all over Mexico and wanted nothing more than become a professional wrestler himself. He was trained for his professional wrestling debut by his grandfather Shadito Cruz and his father Brazo de Plata. He would later on receive further training by El Hijo del Gladiador, Shocker, Memo D\u00edaz and Franco Columbo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extreme Rules (2021)",
        "text": "At SummerSlam, Damian Priest defeated Sheamus to win the United States Championship. On the August 30 episode of \"Raw\", Priest retained the title against Sheamus and Drew McIntyre in a triple threat match. On the following episode, Sheamus defeated McIntyre to earn a United States Championship match against Priest at Extreme Rules. On the September 20 episode, Jeff Hardy defeated Sheamus to earn a spot in the title match at Extreme Rules, thus making it a triple threat match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "After defeating Oney Lorcan and Ridge Holland, Priest qualified to a ladder match at NXT TakeOver: XXX for the NXT North American Championship, where he won the title, thus earning his first championship in WWE. Priest held the title for 67 days and defended against Timothy Thatcher, Johnny Gargano at NXT: TakeOver 31, and Dexter Lumis, but lost it against Gargano at in a Devil's Playground match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Martin Casaus",
        "text": "Casaus first started training to become a wrestler in 2003 at the Utah-based Ultra Championship Wrestling-Zero (UCW). He was trained by Derrick Jannetty and Steve Nielson. Adopting the ring name \"Tristan Gallo\", he was placed in Stevie Slick's faction, \"The Dynasty\", as an arrogant heel and crony to Slick. During his time in the promotion, he won the UCW-Zero Heavyweight Championship 6 times, the UCW-Zero Tag Team Championship 5 times and the UCW-Zero Ultra-X Championship 1 time."
      },
      {
        "title": "El Castillo del Terror (2002)",
        "text": "Records are unclear on most of the show, including most of the wrestlers who actually participated in the main event, in the only found written sources from 2002 it states that Karma lost the match and that Mega was credited with the win, but did not state which wrestlers exited the steel cage prior to Karma and Mega. After the match Karma was forced to unmask and reveal his birth name, Jose Luis Arias Romero, better known as Ari Romero. Romero had been a professional wrestler since 1967 who primarily worked around Ciudad Ju\u00e1rez."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dami\u00e1n 666",
        "text": "Later on his name was modified to \"Dami\u00e1n 666\", with the addition of 666 stemming from the fact that he had taken to painting those numbers on his forehead. Dami\u00e9n 666's ring persona earned him the nickname \"La Bestia del Apocalipsis\" (Spanish for \"The Beast of the Apocalypse\"). By 1995 Carrera returned to North America working as Ultraman 2000 on some shows in Mexico and as Dami\u00e9n 666 in the US and some shows in Mexico. He teamed up with Aguila de American and Kiss once again to capture the WWA World Trios Championship. He also captured the WWA Middleweight Championship, working as Ultraman 2000 and also won the Mexican National Welterweight Championship from Psicosis in a \"title vs. title\" match on an Asistencia Asesor\u00eda y Administraci\u00f3n (AAA) show. On March 16, 1996 Carrera lost the Ultraman 2000 gimmick in a \"Luchas de Apuestas\" mask vs. mask match against Psicosis. After being unmasked, Carrera abandoned the Ultraman 2000 ring persona completely and started working exclusively as Dami\u00e9n 666. This change meant that he had to vacate the Mexican Welterweight title."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2016)",
        "text": "Next, Rusev was scheduled to defend the United States Championship against Roman Reigns. However, before the match officially started, Rusev attacked Reigns, resulting in a brawl. While the referees tried to separate the two, Reigns hit Rusev with a chair. Finally, Rusev was declared unable to compete. After the announcement was made, Reigns attacked Rusev with a spear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dami\u00e1n 666",
        "text": "In the fall of 1996 Carrera was one of the many Mexican Luchadors brought in to work for World Championship Wrestling (WCW) to bolster their Cruiserweight division. Carrera worked both as \"Damian\", his regular ring persona and as \"Galaxy\", a masked \"Space Cadet\" type of character, without any public acknowledgement that it was the same man working as both characters. He was a part of the 60 man Battle Royal at the World War 3 1996, 1997 and 1998. Beyond the three appearances, Carrera worked mainly as a low-card wrestler without much in-ring success. When Eddie Guerrero formed the Latino World Order (lWo) Carrera was one of the Luchadors that joined, but never made much headway in the group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daniel Navarrete (wrestler)",
        "text": "Daniel Navarrete (born 6 January 1963) is an Argentine wrestler. He competed at the 1984 Summer Olympics and the 1988 Summer Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Messiah (wrestler)",
        "text": "Welch's professional career began on November 11, 1996, after being trained at the Slam U. Wrestling Gym in Sun Valley, Los Angeles, California. He worked for the school's parent company, the Slammers Wrestling Federation for a time, losing his first professional match there to El Sprito. In the Slammers Wrestling Federation, he worked under the name Iron Mike Ehrhardt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caravana de Campeones (2008)",
        "text": "Aeroman, Avisman, Black Thunder, Cerebro Negro, Dr. Cerebro, Freelance, Halc\u00f3n 2000, Marco Rivera, Star Boy and Turbo. Those ten wrestlers would face off in a \"Torneo Cibernetico\" elimination match until eight of the ten wrestles were eliminated. The last two wrestlers would then face off in a Best two-out-of-three falls match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agust\u00edn Destribats",
        "text": "Destribats started wrestling when he was 9 years old in a local club that offered savate, capoeira and wrestling. In 2013 he won the South American Youth Games in both, freestyle and Greco-Roman and in 2014 he won gold in the Pan American Championships as a cadet in freestyle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Villano II",
        "text": "Jos\u00e9 Alfredo D\u00edaz Mendoza, called Alfredo for short, was the oldest son of \"luchador\" Ray Mendoza and grew up watching his father compete as a very successful Light Heavyweight. When he and his one-year younger brother Jos\u00e9 de Jes\u00fas were old enough they began training to be wrestlers themselves. Mendoza insisted that both brothers should get a college education to fall back on in case wrestling failed. As Rey Mendoza was still very much in demand all over Mexico, and as a result travelled a lot, Bobby Bonales completed most of the D\u00edaz' training. Both Alfredo and Jos\u00e9 de Jes\u00fas made their professional wrestling debut in 1969, reportedly with their father initially unaware, and began working as a tag team known as \"Los Bestia Negras\" (\"The Black Beasts\"), with Jos\u00e9 de Jes\u00fas working as Bestia Negra I and Alfredo as Bestia Negra II, even though he was older. Later on the team worked as Los B\u00fafalo Salvaje (\"The Wild Buffalos\") again with Jos\u00e9 de Jes\u00fas as \"I\" and Alfredo as \"II\". In 1970 the brothers came up with new ring characters, \"Los Villanos\" (\"The Villains\"), and the name, along with a very distinctive \"X\" designed mask, stuck with them for the rest of their careers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Los Rayos Tapat\u00edo",
        "text": "Jes\u00fas Gonz\u00e1lez Monroy was born on May 24, 1968 and V\u00edctor Manuel Gonz\u00e1lez Monroy was born on August 16, 1971 both in Mexico City, Mexico The older brother Jes\u00fas Gonz\u00e1lez began training for his professional career in the early 1980s by El Indio Yoko, Tony Camargo, Jose Luis Feliciano and Guillermo D\u00ecaz His younger brother began training after Jes\u00fas Gonz\u00e1lez began wrestling, working with the same trainers as his older brother as well as Gran Petroneo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sin Piedad (2002)",
        "text": "Second match worker Gen\u00e9tico would later be given a new wrestling mask and ring name, reborn as El Sagrado (\"The Sacred One\") in CMLL. Dr. X, Hooligan and Ramstein would all be part of the group \"Pandilla Guerrera\" (\"Gang of Warriors\") that was formed in 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Villano IV",
        "text": "Tomas Mendoza began wrestling in 1982 after being taught by his father and his older brother Arturo. He was not given the Villano name on his debut, both his father and his older brothers wanted him to get a college degree and also earn some in-ring experience before he would be allowed to use the Villano name. He spent the first couple of years in wrestling working as various \"enmascarado\" characters such as Leopardo Negro III and Super Maquina Jr."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abismo Negro",
        "text": "Andr\u00e9s Alejandro Palomeque Gonz\u00e1lez was born July 1, 1971, in Villahermosa, Tabasco, Mexico. Palomeque started to get interested in professional wrestling at the age of nine when his father, Juan Francisco Palomeque Torres, took him to his first wrestling event. Later the Palomeque Family moved to Poza Rica where a young Palomeque took up Pentathlon (long jump, high jump, 110 metres hurdles run, shot put, 1500 metres run) in school. He and his brother, C\u00e9sar Palomeque, had an interest in Martial Arts and trained together for years. When Palomeque was thirteen years old he began working in a gymnasium where professional wrestlers were trained, initially he paid for the use of the gymnasium by cleaning it after hours. When the family moved back to the Tabasco region he began training under Don Nerio Soto, who worked under the ring name \"El Noruego\" (the Norwegian), and his brother Delio Soto to become a luchador, or professional wrestler. Professional wrestlers perform in a non-competitive sport based on simulated fighting with storylines written by creative teams and matches with predetermined results. Don Soto later recollects how he and his family took the young man in and made him part of their family, practically adopting him while he was enrolled in Soto's wrestling school and later as he worked on the local wrestling circuit. Palomeque made his professional wrestling debut in 1987, at the age of 16, under the ring name \"Alex Dinamo\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aldo Mart\u00ednez",
        "text": "Aldo Mart\u00ednez Hechavaria (born August 27, 1968) is retired male wrestler from Cuba. He represented his native country at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, Spain, and twice won a gold medal at the Pan American Games during his career."
      },
      {
        "title": "Killian Dain",
        "text": "In 2014, Damo debuted in Revolution Pro Wrestling. In 2015, he wrestled NJPW greats Tomohiro Ishii, Hiroshi Tanahashi Shinsuke Nakamura, as well as Tommaso Ciampa. In 2016, he wrestled international wrestlers \"Speedball\" Mike Bailey, Roderick Strong, Dalton Castle, Big Daddy Walter and Matt Sydal."
      },
      {
        "title": "WrestleMania Backlash (2021)",
        "text": "After that, Damian Priest faced The Miz (accompanied by John Morrison) in a lumberjack match. The ring was surrounded by zombies as a promotional tie-in for the zombie film \"Army of the Dead\", which stars former WWE wrestler Batista. During the match, Priest and Miz teamed to fend off the zombies. In the end, Morrison was \"devoured\" by the zombies which distracted Miz. Priest performed Hit the Lights on Miz to win the match. Following the match, several zombies entered the ring and \"devoured\" Miz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Festival de las M\u00e1scaras (2009)",
        "text": "Jos\u00e9 Luis Mendieta Rodr\u00edguez began wrestling as a masked soldier character known as \"Rambo\" in 1981 working primarily for the Universal Wrestling Association as a \"rudo\". On September 24, 1993, he lost a \"Lucha de Apuestas\" match to Villano III and was forced to unmask. M\u00e1scara A\u00f1o 2000, lost his mask to Perro Aguayo in the main event of AAA'a \"Tripleman\u00eda\" event. Sangre Chicana started out his career as a masked wrestler, but his mask loss to Fishman in 1977 was just the start of his rise in \"lucha libre\", earning a reputation as an unpredictable brawler. For years Jes\u00fas Reza Rosales wrestled as the masked Mano Negra (\"Black Hand\"), making his debut in 1971. His \"Lucha de Apuestas\" loss to Atlantis was the main event of the CMLL 60th Anniversary Show."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Carr (wrestler)",
        "text": "! style=background:lighgrey colspan=6 |Start of 2020-2021 Season (sophomore year)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Priest made his next appearance in the 2021 Royal Rumble match as a surprise entrant, entering at #14. He eliminated John Morrison, The Miz, Elias and Kane before being eliminated by Bobby Lashley. The following night, Priest made his debut on \"Raw\" after being introduced by Bad Bunny during a Miz TV segment. He would proceed to defeat The Miz in a singles match, marking his first win on the main roster. The next week on Raw, he defeated Angel Garza in another singles match. On the February 15 edition of Raw, Priest helped Bad Bunny win the 24/7 Championship by knocking out Akira Tozawa, who pinned R-Truth moments ago. In subsequent weeks, Priest racked up a winning streak by defeating Angel Garza, Elias and Jaxson Ryker, however, The Miz and John Morrison continued their rivalry against Bad Bunny and Priest, after The Miz attacked Bad Bunny using a guitar after Priest's match against Ryker. Priest and Bad Bunny then challenged The Miz and Morrison to a tag team match at WrestleMania 37, which they accepted. At WrestleMania, Priest and Bad Bunny defeated The Miz and Morrison."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Carr (wrestler)",
        "text": "! style=background:lighgrey colspan=6 |Start of 2019-2020 Season (freshman year)"
      },
      {
        "title": "El Terrible",
        "text": "On May 11, 2008, he and Damian 666 lost to The Hell Warriors (Animal and Power) in Mexico City in a match for the then recently vacated UWA World Tag Team Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2013)",
        "text": "The next match was between Cody Rhodes and Damien Sandow. In the end, Rhodes performed the Cross Rhodes to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gustavo Manzur",
        "text": "Gustavo Manzur (born 9 December 1959) is a Salvadoran former wrestler who competed in the 1984 Summer Olympics and in the 1988 Summer Olympics. At the 1987 Pan American Games 68.0\u00a0kg. Greco-Roman category he finished sixth and at the 1987 Pan American Games 68.0\u00a0kg. freestyle category he finished eighth. At the 1995 Pan American Games 82.0\u00a0kg. Greco-Roman category he finished eighth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damien Demento",
        "text": "After retiring from professional wrestling, he began working as an artist and a sculptor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damien Demento",
        "text": "Damien Demento\n--Professional wrestling career.\n----Early career (1987\u20131992).\n----World Wrestling Federation (1992\u20131993).\n----Independent circuit (1993\u20131994; 2008, 2011, 2014).\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Diablo Velasco",
        "text": "Velasco started his wrestling career in 1937 after having trained for two years under the tutelage of Ra\u00fal Romero, using the name \"Telmo Velazco\". Because Velasco did not have the physical size to become a top line wrestler, he was never a main eventer, but because of his skills and tenacity he was a respected mid-card wrestler who could be relied on to put on a good match. In 1942 Velasco decided that his skills would be put to better use training wrestlers than performing in the ring. In 1959 he was made the head trainer of the Arena Coliseo de Guadalajara, one of the biggest wrestling schools in Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Matt Cardona",
        "text": "Matt Cardona\n--Early life.\n--Professional wrestling career.\n----New York Wrestling Connection (2004\u20132006).\n----World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE.\n------Developmental territories (2005\u20132007).\n------La Familia (2007\u20132009).\n------Long Island Loudmouth (2009\u20132011).\n------Rise of the Ryder Revolution (2011\u20132012).\n------Return to lower-tier status (2012\u20132015).\n------The Hype Bros (2015\u20132018).\n------Reunion with Curt Hawkins (2018\u20132020).\n----All Elite Wrestling (2020).\n----Impact Wrestling (2021\u2013present).\n----Game Changer Wrestling (2021\u2013present).\n----National Wrestling Alliance (2021\u2013present).\n----Belt Collector (2022\u2013present).\n--Professional wrestling style and persona.\n----Legacy.\n--Other media.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Brandon D\u00edaz",
        "text": "D\u00edaz started wrestling when he was 10 years old and has been active in competition since 2006 under the coaching of Manuel Viramontes. He has competed at multiple world-class level tournaments such as the World Championships, the Central American and Caribbean Games, the Pan American Games, the Pan American Championships and numerous Grands Prix, medaling at some of them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salvatore Bellomo",
        "text": "Bellomo was trained to wrestle by Nino. He debuted in his native Belgium in the early-1970s, wrestling at carnivals. In 1973, he toured the United Kingdom as \"Tino Salvadore\", losing to Brian Maxine in the Royal Albert Hall in London and appearing on \"World of Sport\". In February 1975, he began wrestling in Guadalajara and Mexico City in Mexico with Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre as \"Adonis Romano\", primarily appearing in six-man tag team matches. In August 1975, he returned to Europe. He spent the next two years wrestling in Austria and Germany before relocating to Canada in late-1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Domingo S\u00e1nchez (wrestler)",
        "text": "Domingo S\u00e1nchez (wrestler)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Brazo de Oro (wrestler)",
        "text": "Jes\u00fas Alvarado Nieves was born on October 7, 1959, in Mexico City, Mexico, the youngest son of Juan Alvarado Ibarra, better known as professional wrestler Shadito Cruz. Growing up Jes\u00fas Alvarado often had to look after his younger brothers, especially when his father was touring Mexico, wrestling several days a week. In a 1991 interview, he recalled how he did not have time to play with other boys, as he was watching over all the Alvarado kids while both his father and mother had to work to make ends meet. At one point he began taking his younger brothers Juan and Pepe to the local wrestling arenas where they sold old wrestling magazines and worked as ushers for tips. Jes\u00fas Alvarado began training for a professional wrestling career while still a teenager, despite the misgivings of his father. Local promoter and trainer Felipe Ham Lee began training Alavardo and helped convince his father to let his oldest son train for a wrestling career. When his son was ready to make his in-ring debut Shadito Cruz allowed him to use one of Cruz' old ring names \"El Hombre de Brazo de Oro\" (\"The man with the golden arm\"), based on a movie starring Frank Sinatra, but the younger Alvarado soon shortened to simply \"Brazo de Oro\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2020)",
        "text": "In the next match, Seth Rollins (accompanied by Murphy) fought Dominik Mysterio (accompanied by his father, Rey Mysterio) in a Street Fight. This was Dominik's first match as a WWE wrestler. Dominik applied a Russian Legsweep on Rollins from the top turnbuckle onto table below. Later on Rey Mysterio tried to interfere but Dominik told him not to do so. Later on Rollins handcuffed Rey to the second rope. In the end, Rollins performed a \"Stomp\" on Dominik to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dominic DeNucci",
        "text": "He wrestled his final match on April 14, 2012, in Toronto, teaming with his protege Shane Douglas to defeat Lord Zoltan and Shawn Blanchard at Pro Wrestling Superstars."
      },
      {
        "title": "1986 in professional wrestling",
        "text": "These promotions held notable shows in 1986.\n*Benjamin Mora Jr. creates the World Wrestling Association (WWA) based out of Tijuana, Baja California, Mexico.\n* January 7 - Melanie Cruise\n* January 14 - Matt Riddle\n* February 5 \u2013 Madison Rayne\n* March 1 - Big E Langston\n* March 8 - Chad Gable\n* March 16 - Kenny Dykstra\n* March 27 - So Cal Val\n* March 28 - Mustafa Ali\n* April 5 \u2013 Charlotte Flair\n* April 19 - Maxine\n* April 23 \u2013 Jessie Godderz\n* May 19 - Danny Havoc (died in 2020)\n* May 28 \u2013 Seth Rollins\n* May 29 \u2013 Hornswoggle\n* June 15 - Cezar Bononi\n* June 20:\n**Shadia Bseiso\n**Jessicka Havok\n* June 24 - Jessamyn Duke\n* June 29\n** Serena\n** S\u00faper Nova\n* June 30 \u2013 Alicia Fox\n* July 17:\n**Mojo Rawley\n**Lacey Von Erich\n* July 19 - Jinder Mahal\n* July 22 - Thunder Rosa\n* August 6 - Reby Sky\n* August 16 - Big Cass\n* August 22 - Neville\n* September 4 - Xavier Woods\n* September 7 \u2013 Colin Delaney\n* October 5 - Joaquin Wilde\n* October 7 \u2013 Kaitlyn\n* October 12 - Gregory Iron\n* November 5 \u2013 Alexander Wolfe\n* November 6 \u2013 Magnus\n* November 13 \u2013 Act Yasukawa\n* November 14 - Kalisto\n* November 25 - Karsten Beck (died in 2020)\n*December 3 - Wolfgang\n* December 8 - Enzo Amore"
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Adams",
        "text": "Damian Adams\n--Professional wrestling career.\n----IWF and independent circuit (2000\u20132005).\n----World Wrestling Entertainment (2005\u20132008).\n----Return to the independent circuit (2008\u2013present).\n--Championships and accomplishments.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (1990)",
        "text": "Before the pay-per-view began, Shane Douglas defeated Buddy Rose in a dark match. Hercules attacked Shawn Michaels prior to the first televised bout, hitting him in the knee with a chain. Although his partner was unable to compete, Jannetty controlled the beginning of the match, using hip tosses to throw Roma and Hercules. Power and Glory then attacked Jannetty while their manager, Slick, distracted the referee. Although Jannetty was able to mount a brief comeback, Roma and Hercules wore him down and got the victory after performing a PowerPlex\u2014a superplex from Hercules followed by a diving splash from Roma."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "On the December 9 episode of NXT, Priest looked forward to take revenge from Austin Theory following his attack at WarGames, however, he got viciously attacked by a returning Karrion Kross from behind, after which Priest had to be helped out of the arena. The next week, Kross challenged Priest to a match at , which Priest accepted. In that match, Priest lost to Kross, thus making it his final match in NXT."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (1990)",
        "text": "Paul Roma began feuding with The Rockers (Shawn Michaels and Marty Jannetty) during the July 21, 1990, episode of \"WWF Superstars\". Roma was attacked after a match by Dino Bravo; when The Rockers came to the ring for the following match, Roma accused them of attacking him. The argument turned physical, and Roma was backed up by Hercules. One week later, Roma and Hercules appeared on the Brother Love Show, an interview segment, and formed a tag team known as Power and Glory. A match between the two teams was later scheduled for SummerSlam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Janikowski",
        "text": "In 2017, Janikowski opted to try his hand at mixed martial arts and signed with the Konfrontacja Sztuk Walki organization. He made his debut at on May 27, 2017. He faced Julio Gallegos and won the fight via TKO due to knees and punches in the first round."
      },
      {
        "title": "Delta (wrestler)",
        "text": "The future Delta began training for a professional wrestling career while he was still at college, spending over four years training under his father, while simultaneously keeping up with his school work. He first started wrestling in 2003 under the name \"Blue Angel, Jr.\", not revealing his family relationship. In May, 2007 he made his debut under the name \"Hijo del Trueno\", wearing a thunderbolt adorned mask and trunks like hi father. He worked for various independent promotions, especially in his home state of Monterrey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "On October 2, 2019, episode of NXT, Priest started a feud with Pete Dunne and Killian Dain, culminating in a triple threat match at for #1 contendership for the NXT Championship, where Dunne was victorious. Priest would also become a part of 5-on-5-on-5 Survivor Series pay-per-view match, representing Team NXT in a losing effort to Team SmackDown also involving Team Raw, where he was eliminated by Randy Orton. In January 2020, Priest was included in a storyline around the NXT North American Championship with Keith Lee and Dominik Dijajkovic. Priest would have an opportunity for the title against Lee and Dijakovic on April 1, 2020, and a singles match against Lee on April 22, being defeated both times."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00daltimo Dragoncito",
        "text": "The man who would later be known as \u00daltimo Dragoncito was born on August 8, 1972 in Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico. At the age of seven he became a big fan of \"Lucha libre\", or professional wrestling, especially the \"enmascarado\", or masked wrestler, known as Gallo Tapado (\"The Hooded Rooster\") who was a Guadalajara regular. Later on he began going to the gym to get in shape before approaching Diablo Velasco to possibly train him. Velasco turned him down, stating he was simply too short to be a \"luchador\", standing at only at the time. He suggested that maybe if he learned Olympic style wrestling he may have a chance. He began training with Cesar and Apolo Dant\u00e9s, learning the wrestling basics and trained for with them for several years before actually being taught \"Lucha Libre\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Killian Dain",
        "text": "Damian Mackle (born 20 February 1985) is an Irish professional wrestler. He is best known for his time in WWE, where he performed under the ring name Killian Dain and since his departure from WWE he has reverted back to his ring name on the independent circuit Big Damo."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2013)",
        "text": "Del Rio's former ring announcer Ricardo Rodriguez began working with Rob Van Dam. On the September 13 episode of \"SmackDown\", he was defeated by Del Rio and was assaulted by him afterwards. Van Dam challenged Del Rio twice for the World Heavyweight Championship at Night of Champions and Battleground, both in losing efforts."
      },
      {
        "title": "El Dandy",
        "text": "In 1997, El Dandy began working for the US-based World Championship Wrestling (WCW) along with a number of other Mexican wrestlers. His WCW televised debut took place on September 28, 1997, where he and Damian lost to nWo Japan representatives The Great Muta and Masahiro Chono. His first pay-per-view (PPV) show match was as part of the 60-man battle royal main event of WCW's annual World War 3 show. He would later unsuccessfully challenge fellow Mexican luchador Juventud Guerrera for the WCW World Cruiserweight Championship in January 1998. For his next PPV match, El Dandy, La Parka, Psicosis, and Silver King lost to Chavo Guerrero Jr., Juventud Guerrera, Lizmark Jr., and Super Cal\u00f3 at Souled Out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Mart\u00ednez made his return in Ring of Honor, billed as \"Punisher Martinez\", at the ROH Top Prospect Tournament where he defeated Colby Corino in the first round. Martinez lost to Lio Rush in the semifinals; however, in spite of the loss, Martinez was signed to a contract by Ring of Honor. He subsequently established himself as a villain when he aligned himself with BJ Whitmer and Kevin Sullivan, entering a rivalry with their adversary Steve Corino. On September 16, 2016, Martinez took part in the 2016 Honor Rumble, where he had an impressive showing before ultimately being eliminated. In early November he participated in the 2016 Survival of the Fittest, where he ended up being eliminated in the final Six Man Mayhem match. Martinez and Whitmer went on to briefly feud with the former ROH World Tag Team Champions War Machine (Hanson and Raymond Rowe), first wrestling them to a no contest and then defeating them in an anything goes match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bayley (wrestler)",
        "text": "Martinez had been attending shows by Big Time Wrestling, a professional wrestling promotion in Northern California, since she was 11. In April 2008, she started her professional wrestling career at the age of 18, by attending Big Time Wrestling's training classes by her head trainer Jason Styles, which was one of the reasons why Martinez considered Big Time Wrestling as her home promotion. She had her first match in September 2008. On the American independent circuit, Martinez wrestled under the ring name Davina Rose. Rose wrestled for Big Time Wrestling from 2008 to 2012. Between 2011 and 2012, Rose branched out to wrestle for other promotions such as NWA Championship Wrestling from Hollywood, Pro Wrestling Destination and Shine Wrestling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dami\u00e1n D\u00edaz",
        "text": "Boca Juniors\n* Torneo de Apertura: 2008"
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "On the November 23rd edition of Raw, Priest again showed face mannerisms, thus maintaining his tweener personality, while also having successful championship defenses against Sami Zayn, Crews, and Robert Roode in the subsequent weeks. After Priest's defense against Roode, Roode's ally Dolph Ziggler attacked Priest, starting a small rivalry between Priest and The Dirty Dawgs. On the January 17, 2022 episode of Raw, Priest lost to Kevin Owens in a non-title match, which marked his first clean loss on the main roster. As a result, Owens got himself a match for Priest's championship on Raw next week, which he won by disqualification, but Priest retained the title. Priest was also a part of 2022 Royal Rumble match, entering at #7. He scored no eliminations and was eventually eliminated by Omos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rodolfo Padron",
        "text": "Rodolfo Padron (born 5 November 1927) was a Venezuelan wrestler. He competed in the men's freestyle light heavyweight at the 1952 Summer Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "La Dama Enmascarada",
        "text": "Women's wrestling in Mexico prior to the 1950s was almost non-existent. In the early 1950s, Jack O'Brien began training female wrestlers in his gym in Le\u00f3n, Guanajuato, including Magdalena Caballero. In the ring she would work under a wrestling mask, using the ring name La Dama Enmascarada (\"The Masked Lady\") alongside other O'Brien trainees like Chabela Romero, La Enfermera, Irma Gonz\u00e1lez, and Rosita Williams. Her first verified match took place on November 16, 1951, where she wrestled La Enfermera del M\u00e9dico Asesino in a \"Lucha de Apuestas\" (A \"bet match\"), which ended without a winner, which meant that La Dama Enmascarada kept her mask save, while La Enfermera kept her hair."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dominic DeNucci",
        "text": "He made his pro wrestling debut in 1958 in Montreal, Quebec under a hood as the Masked Marvel and also wrestled in Ottawa, Ontario. In 1959, DeNucci started teaming with the original Dino Bravo as Dominic Bravo, a storyline/kayfabe brother as the two worked as a tag team in Canada throughout The Maritimes, Toronto, Ontario, and Winnipeg, Manitoba. They also worked in Ohio and Buffalo. The team headed west for Calgary wrestling for Stampede Wrestling starting in 1962. DeNucci would keep the Bravo name until he left Stampede in 1963. He wrestled as Don DeNucci in the San Francisco territory in 1963 for a year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oro (wrestler)",
        "text": "The two brothers made the professional wrestling debut on November 23, 1990. Jes\u00fas Javier, at the age of 18, worked under the ring name \"Oro\" and his brother used the name \"Plata\" (Silver). The duo wore near-identical masks, the only difference being one had a gold pattern and the other had a silver pattern. The two were soon joined by a wrestler known as \"Platino\" (Platinum) to form a trio tag team known as \"Los Metalicos\" (The Metals). The team was quickly matched up against another trios team, a \"rudo\" (\"Bad guy\") trio known as \"Los Destructores\" (\"The Destroyers\"), with whom they had a series of matches. The fans quickly responded to the young team, supporting them and showing appreciation for the fact that Oro had an aerial wrestling style that was unusual for the time and Plata and Platino were skilled high flying wrestlers. Oro's frequent and skilled execution of moves off the top rope helped usher in a style change in Lucha Libre as wrestlers started to incorporate more moves like planchas and topes, inspired by Oro's performances. Los Metalicos (Oro and Plata) was given their first professional wrestling championship just over a year after their debut, defeating \"Los Destructores\" to win the Mexican National Tag Team Championship on December 4, 1991. The following week a match between the two teams ended controversially and the championship was vacated. The following week \"Los Destructores\" regained the vacant title. \"Los Metalicos\" also captured the Distrito Federal Trios Championship at some point in 1991, but later lost the it to \"Los Guerreros del Futuro\" (\"The Warriors of the Future\"; Damian el Guerrero, Guerrero del Futuro, and Guerrero Maya). Oro's popularity earned him an invitation to travel to Japan in 1992, to work for Gran Hamada's Universal Lucha Libre promotion, which showcases the Lucha Libre wrestling style in Japan. His skill and charisma made him an instant hit in Japan and upon his return Oro started to break away from the rest of Los Metalicos, being groomed for a top role in EMLL. He even teamed with two of the biggest names in Lucha Libre, working with Mil M\u00e1scaras and \u00daltimo Drag\u00f3n."
      },
      {
        "title": "El Terrible",
        "text": "Dami\u00e1n Guti\u00e9rrez Hern\u00e1ndez (born April 12, 1976), better known by his ring name El Terrible, is a Mexican professional wrestler who currently works for the Mexican wrestling promotion Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL). He portrays a \"rudo\" (\"bad guy\") wrestling character. He started out under the ring name Engendro del Mal (\"Spawn of Evil\") and later adopted the name Dami\u00e1n El Terrible, before being shortened to his current name."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2020)",
        "text": "The day after SummerSlam, it was announced that new Universal Champion \"The Fiend\" Bray Wyatt would defend the title against Braun Strowman and Roman Reigns in a No Holds Barred Triple Threat match at Payback. Subsequently on \"SmackDown\", it was revealed that Reigns aligned himself with Paul Heyman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alejandro Saez",
        "text": "In 2017, Saez returned to Santiago de Chile to wrestle in the independent scene of the country. He started to run his own promotion and wrestling training center called \"5 Luchas Clandestino\". Currently he is the leader of a new wrestling faction called \"Carnaval de Sangre\", with \"Sexualizer\", \"Kristy\", \"Carnicero Humano\" and \"Azagoth Firelord\". Some of the other wrestlers are Katrina Cortez of WWE NXT, Zatara, who participated in the Mae Young Classic (2018) and Guanchulo who was part of DDT Pro-Wrestling along with Saez."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where does Damian Priest come from?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Damian Priest is the ring name of professional wrestler Luis Mart\u00ednez. Mart\u00ednez was born in New York City, but raised in the municipality of Dorado, Puerto Rico."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did Damian Priest start wrestling?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "While living in Dorado in his early life, Damian Priest saw the World Wrestling Council on television and got the interest to become a pro wrestler. After winning two national championships in full-contact martial arts, Damian decided to embark on a career in professional wrestling and trained at the Monster Factory and went on to win several titles in Monster Factory Pro Wrestling."
    ],
    "topic": "SummerSlam (2021)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Damian Priest:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Damian Priest",
          "Early life"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mart\u00ednez was born in New York City to Nuyorican parents, but raised in the municipality of Dorado, Puerto Rico. While living in Dorado he saw the World Wrestling Council on television and got the interest to become a pro wrestler. He learned Japanese G\u014dj\u016b-ry\u016b karate from his martial artist father. After winning two national championships in full-contact martial arts, Mart\u00ednez decided to embark on a career in professional wrestling. When he returned to the States, Spanish was still his first language and he underwent a period of cultural adaptation."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Damian Priest:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Damian Priest",
          "Professional wrestling career",
          "Early career"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mart\u00ednez trained at the Monster Factory and went on to win several titles in Monster Factory Pro Wrestling. In 2014, Mart\u00ednez attended a Ring of Honor (ROH) training camp and went on to train at the ROH dojo."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Damian Priest\n--Early life.\n--Professional wrestling career.\n----Early career.\n----Ring of Honor (2015\u20132018).\n----WWE.\n------Beginnings (2018\u20132020).\n------NXT North American Champion (2020\u20132021).\n------Debut on Raw and United States Champion (2021\u20132022).\n------Alliance with Edge (2022\u2013present).\n--Professional wrestling style and persona.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Priest returned to Raw on October 25, 2021 with a new, revamped character and won a match against T-Bar by disqualification, when the latter threw a chair at the former outside the ring. As a result, Priest viciously attacked T-Bar, turning himself into a tweener. The next week, T-Bar attacked Priest with a stick during their match, due to which Priest again attacked T-Bar in a similar fashion, further developing his new character and mannerisms, before getting challenged by Apollo Crews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "In the subsequent weeks, Priest successfully defended his title against AJ Styles and Shelton Benjamin, before getting challenged by Finn B\u00e1lor. On February 28th episode of Raw, Priest lost to Balor, ending his championship reign at 191 days, following which Priest attacked B\u00e1lor, thus fully turning heel for the first time since May 2020. In the following weeks, Priest started to use the crucifix drop powerbomb (Razor's Edge) more frequently."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dami\u00e1n 666",
        "text": "Dami\u00e1n 666\n--Professional wrestling career.\n----Early career (1985\u20131991).\n----Frontier Martial-Arts Wrestling (1991\u20131996).\n----Extreme Championship Wrestling (1996).\n----World Championship Wrestling (1996\u20131999).\n----Independent circuit.\n------Mexico's Most Wanted (2000\u20132005).\n------Perros del Mal (2005\u20132012).\n------La Familia de Tijuana (2012\u2013present).\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "His wrestling style involves various power moves as well as high flying moves, and his striking is heavily influenced by his background in martial arts. He uses the \"Razor's Edge\" (a crucifix drop powerbomb, inherited from Razor Ramon, his childhood wrestling idol) and also a release Falcon Arrow which has been dubbed \"Broken Arrow\". His finisher is an inverted swinging cutter, called \"The Reckoning\". After debuting on the main roster, it was renamed \"Hit The Lights\" since the 2021 Royal Rumble, potentially due to sharing the name with Mia Yim, also known as \"Reckoning\" at the time, as a member of Retribution. The name was reverted back to \"The Reckoning\" on July 26, 2021 episode of Raw. He also used a sit-out chokeslam called the \"South of Heaven\" as his finisher, when he was working with ROH, which he still uses in the WWE as one of his signature moves, but not as a finisher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "On October 12, 2018, it was reported that Martinez had signed a contract with WWE, six days later he was formally introduced, among other new members to the NXT brand. On November 28, at an NXT TV taping in Winter Park, Florida, Martinez, as Punishment Martinez, made his debut as a heel, losing to Matt Riddle. While on April 15, 2019, it was reported that Martinez would be repackaged and go by the new ring name \"Damian Priest\", he was still wrestling under the \"Punishment Martinez\" name on NXT house shows during April and May. Vignettes began airing starting at in June, reintroducing Martinez under this new character of Damian Priest. Debuting as Damian Priest, he defeated Raul Mendoza and then defeated Keith Lee in his second appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2021)",
        "text": "On the August 30 episode of \"Raw\", new United States Champion Damian Priest defended the title against Sheamus and Drew McIntyre in a triple threat match where Priest retained. On the following episode, Sheamus defeated McIntyre to earn a rematch against Priest at Extreme Rules. On the September 20 episode, Jeff Hardy defeated Sheamus to earn a spot in the title match at Extreme Rules, thus making it a triple threat match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Luis Mart\u00ednez (born September 26, 1982) is a American professional wrestler of Puerto Rican descent. He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the Raw brand under the ring name Damian Priest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Mart\u00ednez was born in New York City to Nuyorican parents, but raised in the municipality of Dorado, Puerto Rico. While living in Dorado he saw the World Wrestling Council on television and got the interest to become a pro wrestler. He learned Japanese G\u014dj\u016b-ry\u016b karate from his martial artist father. After winning two national championships in full-contact martial arts, Mart\u00ednez decided to embark on a career in professional wrestling. When he returned to the States, Spanish was still his first language and he underwent a period of cultural adaptation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Mart\u00ednez trained at the Monster Factory and went on to win several titles in Monster Factory Pro Wrestling. In 2014, Mart\u00ednez attended a Ring of Honor (ROH) training camp and went on to train at the ROH dojo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Gargano however, lost the title to Leon Ruff just two weeks later, due to a distraction during the title match by Priest. Ruff retained the championship in a rematch against Gargano the next week by disqualification, when Priest punched Ruff during the match, thus disabling Gargano to win the championship. This soon transitioned into a triple threat match for the NXT North American Championship which would take place at . During the match, Damian Priest again got attacked by the same masked character and its gang that attacked him previously at Halloween Havoc, who was revealed to be Austin Theory. As a result of that, Priest lost the match, with Gargano winning the title by pinning Ruff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "At WrestleMania 38, Priest made his appearance by distracting AJ Styles during his match against Edge, causing Styles to lose the match. After the match, Edge celebrated his victory with Priest, starting an alliance between the two. Over the weeks, they continued to feud with Styles, further developing new mannerisms and character."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Martinez cites Pedro Morales, Scott Hall and The Undertaker as his inspirations in wrestling. He is friends with Keith Lee, Matt Riddle and Rhea Ripley."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2021)",
        "text": "After that, Sheamus defended the United States Championship against Damian Priest. In the closing moments of the match, as Sheamus applied a Leg Lock on Priest, Priest grabbed and removed Sheamus' protective face mask (as Sheamus had broken his nose a few weeks prior). As Sheamus attempted a Brogue Kick, Priest performed a Spinning Kick and the Reckoning on Sheamus to win the title."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xtreme Pro Wrestling",
        "text": "During the final match of the evening Dami\u00e1n 666, Bestia 666, Halloween, & X-Fly beat Carnage, Johnny Webb, Kaos, & Supreme. Dami\u00e1n got the pinfall after powerbombing Supreme onto light tubes. After the match, Dami\u00e1n stated that Supreme had not defended the XPW King of the Deathmatch Championship. Dami\u00e1n stated he was ready to retire, however he wanted one last match against Supreme, in an electrified cage match for the championship, and would then retire."
      },
      {
        "title": "El Terrible",
        "text": "In 2002, he debuted in Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre without a mask as Dami\u00e1n El Terrible but later the \"Dami\u00e1n\" part of his name was dropped, possibly to alleviate any confusion with Dami\u00e1n 666."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "On the November 23rd edition of Raw, Priest again showed face mannerisms, thus maintaining his tweener personality, while also having successful championship defenses against Sami Zayn, Crews, and Robert Roode in the subsequent weeks. After Priest's defense against Roode, Roode's ally Dolph Ziggler attacked Priest, starting a small rivalry between Priest and The Dirty Dawgs. On the January 17, 2022 episode of Raw, Priest lost to Kevin Owens in a non-title match, which marked his first clean loss on the main roster. As a result, Owens got himself a match for Priest's championship on Raw next week, which he won by disqualification, but Priest retained the title. Priest was also a part of 2022 Royal Rumble match, entering at #7. He scored no eliminations and was eventually eliminated by Omos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damien Demento",
        "text": "After retiring from professional wrestling, he began working as an artist and a sculptor."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2020)",
        "text": "Dominik Mysterio teamed with his father Rey Mysterio in a tag team match against Seth Rollins and Murphy, but the match ended in a disqualification after Retribution attacked the Mysterios. A rematch was scheduled for Payback."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "On October 2, 2019, episode of NXT, Priest started a feud with Pete Dunne and Killian Dain, culminating in a triple threat match at for #1 contendership for the NXT Championship, where Dunne was victorious. Priest would also become a part of 5-on-5-on-5 Survivor Series pay-per-view match, representing Team NXT in a losing effort to Team SmackDown also involving Team Raw, where he was eliminated by Randy Orton. In January 2020, Priest was included in a storyline around the NXT North American Championship with Keith Lee and Dominik Dijajkovic. Priest would have an opportunity for the title against Lee and Dijakovic on April 1, 2020, and a singles match against Lee on April 22, being defeated both times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Janikowski",
        "text": "Damian Janikowski\n--Wrestling career.\n--Mixed martial arts career.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hayato Fujita",
        "text": "In an interview with Weekly Pro-Wrestling in January 2021, Fujita revealed his plan to retire should he not be able to return by the end of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2020)",
        "text": "The day after SummerSlam, it was announced that new Universal Champion \"The Fiend\" Bray Wyatt would defend the title against Braun Strowman and Roman Reigns in a No Holds Barred Triple Threat match at Payback. Subsequently on \"SmackDown\", it was revealed that Reigns aligned himself with Paul Heyman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Adams",
        "text": "Damian Adams\n--Professional wrestling career.\n----IWF and independent circuit (2000\u20132005).\n----World Wrestling Entertainment (2005\u20132008).\n----Return to the independent circuit (2008\u2013present).\n--Championships and accomplishments.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dami\u00e1n 666",
        "text": "After Nicho left CMLL the \"La Famila\" group was disbanded and instead Dami\u00e1n 666 and Halloween was made part of a new super group that was forming, Los Perros del Mal, led by Perro Aguayo, Jr. In December, 2005 Halloween injured his neck and knee, forcing him out of the ring while he recovered. During Halloween's injury Dami\u00e1n 666 began teaming regularly with fellow Perros del Mal member Mr. \u00c1guila. When Halloween returned the trio of Dami\u00e1n 666, Halloween and Mr. \u00c1guila defeated M\u00e1ximo, El Sagrado and El Texano, Jr. for the Mexican National Trios Championship. The trio lost the championship to El Sagrado, La Sombra and Volador Jr. in August 2007 after which Halloween left CMLL. Dami\u00e1n 666 remained in CMLL and remained with Los Perros del Mal ending the 8-year run as Mexico's Most Wanted. In June 2008, Dami\u00e1n 666 was backstage at the World Wrestling Entertainment PPV One Night Stand and worked a tryout match later on. It was reported that the WWE considered offering Dami\u00e1n 666 a contract but nothing came of it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "His next storyline started when, on April 22, 2020, episode of NXT, Finn B\u00e1lor got attacked backstage by an unknown attacker. On May 13, 2020, Priest was revealed as the unknown attacker and both faced each other at , where Priest was defeated by B\u00e1lor. Despite the loss, Priest's in-ring performance in this match was highly appreciated by Triple H and also by the fans, followed by Priest turning face in a backstage interview where he praised B\u00e1lor. On 10 June 2020 episode of NXT, Cameron Grimes flaunted his previous victory over Finn B\u00e1lor and deemed Priest as a \"loser\" in a backstage interview, leading Priest to attack him, confirming Priest's face turn. This ignited a small rivalry between Grimes and Priest, which concluded just before the tournament held for the vacated NXT North American Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "On the December 9 episode of NXT, Priest looked forward to take revenge from Austin Theory following his attack at WarGames, however, he got viciously attacked by a returning Karrion Kross from behind, after which Priest had to be helped out of the arena. The next week, Kross challenged Priest to a match at , which Priest accepted. In that match, Priest lost to Kross, thus making it his final match in NXT."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tim Donst",
        "text": "In February 2015, Hopes announced that his professional wrestling career was possibly over after being diagnosed with a kidney tumor. It was, however, later announced that Donst would be able to continue his career, returning to the ring on July 10."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Carr (wrestler)",
        "text": "! style=background:lighgrey colspan=6 |End of 2019-2020 Season (freshman year)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Extreme Rules (2021)",
        "text": "At SummerSlam, Damian Priest defeated Sheamus to win the United States Championship. On the August 30 episode of \"Raw\", Priest retained the title against Sheamus and Drew McIntyre in a triple threat match. On the following episode, Sheamus defeated McIntyre to earn a United States Championship match against Priest at Extreme Rules. On the September 20 episode, Jeff Hardy defeated Sheamus to earn a spot in the title match at Extreme Rules, thus making it a triple threat match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "He is also known for his work in Ring of Honor (ROH) under the ring name Punishment Martinez, where he is a former one-time ROH World Television Champion. Through ROH's working relationship with New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW), he has also worked in Japan as Punisher Martinez."
      },
      {
        "title": "El Terrible",
        "text": "On May 11, 2008, he and Damian 666 lost to The Hell Warriors (Animal and Power) in Mexico City in a match for the then recently vacated UWA World Tag Team Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Priest made his next appearance in the 2021 Royal Rumble match as a surprise entrant, entering at #14. He eliminated John Morrison, The Miz, Elias and Kane before being eliminated by Bobby Lashley. The following night, Priest made his debut on \"Raw\" after being introduced by Bad Bunny during a Miz TV segment. He would proceed to defeat The Miz in a singles match, marking his first win on the main roster. The next week on Raw, he defeated Angel Garza in another singles match. On the February 15 edition of Raw, Priest helped Bad Bunny win the 24/7 Championship by knocking out Akira Tozawa, who pinned R-Truth moments ago. In subsequent weeks, Priest racked up a winning streak by defeating Angel Garza, Elias and Jaxson Ryker, however, The Miz and John Morrison continued their rivalry against Bad Bunny and Priest, after The Miz attacked Bad Bunny using a guitar after Priest's match against Ryker. Priest and Bad Bunny then challenged The Miz and Morrison to a tag team match at WrestleMania 37, which they accepted. At WrestleMania, Priest and Bad Bunny defeated The Miz and Morrison."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rob Van Dam",
        "text": "In an interview with the \"Baltimore Sun\", Van Dam stated that while WWE would be the first choice and that he would definitely talk to them, he would definitely consider Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) if he returned full-time to pro wrestling. While not under contract, Van Dam made an unannounced return on WWE's \"15th Anniversary Raw\" in December 2007, squashing Santino Marella with a Five-Star Frog Splash. He made a similarly unannounced appearance as a participant in the 2009 Royal Rumble, which he failed to win as he was eliminated by Chris Jericho."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eugene (wrestler)",
        "text": "On January 10, 2015, Dinsmore returned to wrestling, this time with the British promotion . He defeated Grado in his first match for the promotion. Dinsmore began running his own shows in Sioux Falls, South Dakota, under the banner of Midwest All Pro Wrestling. The first live event was held November 7, 2015. In December 2021, Dinsmore announced his retirement tour. He also sold Midwest All Pro Wrestling at the end of 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Carr (wrestler)",
        "text": "! style=background:lighgrey colspan=6 |Start of 2020-2021 Season (sophomore year)"
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2022)",
        "text": "The event will include matches that result from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portray heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that build tension and culminate in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results are predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines are produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"Friday Night SmackDown.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Fray Tormenta",
        "text": "In real life, although Fray Tormenta is now retired from professional wrestling he still works at the orphanage as a priest, and has inspired one of his children to take up his mantle so that the legend of Fray Tormenta can live on. The masked wrestler, whose real name is unknown, calls himself Fray Tormenta Jr. Although semi-retired from wrestling since 2001, he still wrestled occasionally and on January 11, 2011 won his second \"Lucha de Apuesta\", by defeating Bugambilia, Super Crazy, X-Fly, Bestia 666 and Boy Danger, to win Bugambilia's hair. On July 3, 2011, Tormenta teamed with El Pantera and Solar to defeat Black Terry, Negro Navarro and Scorpio, Jr. at International Wrestling Revolution Group's \"Festival de las Mascaras\". After the match Guti\u00e9rrez announced that he had wrestled his final match. On June 20, 2012, Tormenta made an appearance for Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL), officially giving his blessing to the second incarnation of M\u00edstico."
      },
      {
        "title": "El Castillo del Terror (2019)",
        "text": "In the main event, 12 men (Ave Rex, Drag\u00f3n Bane, Imposible, El Hijo de Canis Lupus, Dinamic Black, Toxin, Aramis, Rel\u00e1mpago, Capo del Norte, Tortuga Leo, \u00c1ngel Tormenta and Death Metal) risked their mask in a steel cage match where the last wrestler remaining will be forced to unmask. In the end \u00c1ngel Tormenta was the last man in the cage as El Hijo de Canis Lupus climbed out. \u00c1ngel Tormenta unmasked afterwards and revealed that his real name was Jorge Alberto Flores Perez and he had been a professional wrestler for three years at that point. The show also featured a \"Super Libre\" match between \"Los Traumas\" (Trauma I and Trauma II) and \"Los Lucha Brothers\" (Penta el 0M (Rey F\u00e9nix), in which \"Los Lucha Brothers\" won by disqualification."
      },
      {
        "title": "Killian Dain",
        "text": "In 2014, Damo debuted in Revolution Pro Wrestling. In 2015, he wrestled NJPW greats Tomohiro Ishii, Hiroshi Tanahashi Shinsuke Nakamura, as well as Tommaso Ciampa. In 2016, he wrestled international wrestlers \"Speedball\" Mike Bailey, Roderick Strong, Dalton Castle, Big Daddy Walter and Matt Sydal."
      },
      {
        "title": "WrestleMania Backlash (2021)",
        "text": "After that, Damian Priest faced The Miz (accompanied by John Morrison) in a lumberjack match. The ring was surrounded by zombies as a promotional tie-in for the zombie film \"Army of the Dead\", which stars former WWE wrestler Batista. During the match, Priest and Miz teamed to fend off the zombies. In the end, Morrison was \"devoured\" by the zombies which distracted Miz. Priest performed Hit the Lights on Miz to win the match. Following the match, several zombies entered the ring and \"devoured\" Miz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sanada (wrestler)",
        "text": "On January 4, 2017, at Wrestle Kingdom 11 in Tokyo Dome, Sanada, Bushi and Evil won a four-team gauntlet match to become the new NEVER Openweight 6-Man Tag Team Champions. They lost the title to Hiroshi Tanahashi, Manabu Nakanishi and Ryusuke Taguchi the next day, before regaining it on February 11 at The New Beginning in Osaka. They lost the title to Tanahashi, Taguchi and Ricochet in their second defense on April 4, before regaining it on May 3 at Wrestling Dontaku 2017. During the summer, Sanada took part in the 2017 G1 Climax, where he finished with a record of four wins and five losses. In December, Sanada and Evil won their block in the 2017 World Tag League with a record of five wins and two losses, advancing to the final of the tournament. On December 11, they defeated Guerrillas of Destiny (Tama Tonga and Tanga Loa) in the final to win the tournament. Six days later, Sanada, Bushi and Evil lost the NEVER Openweight 6-Man Tag Team Championship to Guerrillas of Destiny and Bad Luck Fale in their fourth defense."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasi\u00f3n Kristal",
        "text": "Jos\u00e9 Gabriel Zentella Dami\u00e1n, best known by the pseudonyms Pasi\u00f3n Kristal or Pasi\u00f3n Crystal (9 January 1976 \u2013 2 June 2021), was a Mexican wrestler."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "His first appearance at a ROH show was in 2015 under his real name, Luis Mart\u00ednez, where he competed in two dark matches, losing the first to The Romantic Touch and winning the second alongside Shaheem Ali against Hellcat and Mattick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extreme Rules (2021)",
        "text": "United States Champion Damian Priest defended the title against Sheamus in a no disqualification match, where Priest retained once again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drag\u00f3n Rojo Jr.",
        "text": "On March 25, 2017, nearly five and a half years after it started, Drag\u00f3n Rojo Jr.'s reign as CMLL Middleweight Champion came to an end when he was defeated by \u00c1ngel de Oro. On January 22, 2019, Drag\u00f3n Rojo Jr. wrestled in a six-man tag team match where he injured his knee and was unable to perform in the ring. In September 2020 he revealed that he had gone through four knee operations to address the problems, but was uncertain if he would ever be able to return to the ring."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (1993)",
        "text": "The SummerSlam match was DiBiase's final appearance as a WWF wrestler. He injured his neck and back in January 1994 and was forced to retire from wrestling. Meanwhile, Ramon received a push in Fall 1993 that led to the first of four Intercontinental championships."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Martinez is known to have a deep voice, which has helped him in his promos to maintain the menacing, dark character while working as Punishment Martinez in ROH Wrestling. In WWE, \"Damian Priest\" was previously intended to be a similar, but darker, more intense character than the characters that Martinez has represented previously in other promotions, however, his character gradually evolved and developed a more machismo, rockstar-like attitude that pursues more fame, recognition and success, and the character is further emphasized by portraying bars, parties and women frequently with him in backstage segments. Therefore, he has been referred to as \"The Archer of Infamy\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Carr (wrestler)",
        "text": "! style=background:lighgrey colspan=6 |Start of 2019-2020 Season (freshman year)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Luchasaurus",
        "text": "Matelson made his return to professional wrestling in 2016, having not competed since his release from WWE in 2014. On June 17, 2016, in a match for Millenium Pro Wrestling (MPW) under the ring name Austin Draven, he defeated Ryan J. Morales. On September 30, 2016, under the ring name Just Judas he defeated Danny Divine to become MPW Heavyweight Champion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shawn Daivari",
        "text": "On May 3, 2011, Daivari made his WWE return by competing in a dark match before the \"SmackDown\" tapings, losing to Ted DiBiase. In 2018, Daivari made his second return to WWE during a segment at Greatest Royal Rumble in Saudi Arabia where he and his brother, Ariya Daivari, were driven out of the ring by four new Saudi recruits. He was later hired by WWE as a producer in January 2019, and was eventually released on April 15, 2020, as part of budget cuts stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic. He returned on June 11, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Adams",
        "text": "Adams was invited to WWE's developmental territory OVW in early 2005 and made his debut against in a losing effort to Danny Inferno. Damian was trained by Rip Rogers while in OVW. While in OVW, Damian tore his PCL, putting him out of action for 3\u20134 months. In 2008 Damian left OVW and returned to the independent wrestling scene in the northeast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Killian Dain",
        "text": "Damian Mackle (born 20 February 1985) is an Irish professional wrestler. He is best known for his time in WWE, where he performed under the ring name Killian Dain and since his departure from WWE he has reverted back to his ring name on the independent circuit Big Damo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sanada (wrestler)",
        "text": "On January 4, 2018, at Wrestle Kingdom 12 in Tokyo Dome, Evil and Sanada defeated the Killer Elite Squad (Davey Boy Smith Jr. and Lance Archer) to win the IWGP Tag Team Championship for the first time. The following day at New Year Dash!! in a post-show interview, Sanada challenged Kazuchika Okada to an IWGP Heavyweight Championship match at The New Beginning in Osaka. At the event, he lost to Okada. In April at Wrestling Hinokuni 2018, Evil and Sanada defeated Killer Elite Squad for their second successful defense. At Dominion 6.9 in Osaka-jo Hall, Evil and Sanada lost the IWGP Tag Team Championship to the Young Bucks. The rematch was set on July 7, at G1 Special in San Francisco, but they were unsuccessful in regaining the title. During the summer, Sanada took part in the 2018 G1 Climax, where he finished with a record of four wins and five losses, failing to advance from his block. He also got a huge win against Kota Ibushi in the tournament. In December, Evil and Sanada took part in 2018 World Tag League. Team first qualified to the final and then defeated Guerrillas of Destiny to win the tournament."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Adams",
        "text": "Luis Almodovar (born October 11, 1978) is an American professional wrestler better known by his ring name Damian Adams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dami\u00e1n 666",
        "text": "In November 2008, Perro Aguayo, Jr. left CMLL over creative differences. Dami\u00e1n 666 and Mr. \u00c1guila followed Aguayo out of CMLL and helped launch their own promotion, \"Perros del Mal Producciones\". Besides working in Producciones Perros del Mal as the matchmaker, Dami\u00e1n 666 has also worked for Alianza Universal De Lucha Libre (AULL) and International Wrestling Revolution Group (IWRG). In 2009 Halloween joined the Perros del Mal promotion, reuniting with Dami\u00e1n 666. In June 2010, Dami\u00e1n 666 became a major part of a storyline, where \"Los Perros del Mal\" invaded AAA. On August 14, 2010, at \"Verano de Escandalo\", in the first major match between \"Los Perros del Mal\" and AAA, El Hijo del Perro Aguayo, Dami\u00e1n 666 and L.A. Park defeated El Mes\u00edas, Cibern\u00e9tico and La Parka in a six-man tag team match. On June 18, 2011, at Tripleman\u00eda XIX, Halloween, Dami\u00e1n 666 and X-Fly defeated \"Los Psycho Circus\" in a tournament final to become the first ever AAA World Trios Champions. On July 31 at \"Verano de Esc\u00e1ndalo\", \"Los Perros del Mal\" faced \"Los Psycho Circus\" in a steel cage match, where the last person left in the cage would lose either his hair or mask. The match ended with Psycho Clown escaping the cage, leaving X-Fly inside and forcing him to have his hair shaved off. After a \"Perros del Mal Producciones\" event on August 20, Carrera announced his retirement from professional wrestling as soon as he had fulfilled the rest of his commitments for AAA and various independent promotions. On August 28, Dami\u00e1n 666, his son Bestia 666 and X-Fly defeated \"Los Psycho Circus\", \"Los Temerarios\" (Black Terry, Durok and Machin) and \"Los Villanos\" (Kortiz, Ray Mendoza, Jr. and Villano IV) in a steel cage match to win the IWRG Intercontinental Trios Championship during IWRG's \"La Jaula de la Muerte\" (\"The Cage of Death\") show. On October 9 at H\u00e9roes Inmortales, \"Los Perros del Mal\" and \"Los Psycho Circus\" ended their year-long rivalry, when Dami\u00e1n 666, Halloween and Nicho el Millonario were defeated in a Masks vs. Hairs steel cage match and were all shaved bald. After a five-month break from the rivalry, \"Los Perros del Mal\" lost the AAA World Trios Championship to \"Los Psycho Circus\" on March 11, 2012. The following day, Dami\u00e1n 666, Halloween and X-Fly announced that they had quit \"Los Perros del Mal\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Janikowski",
        "text": "Damian Janikowski (born June 27, 1989 in Wroc\u0142aw) is a Polish mixed martial artist and former wrestler who won the Bronze medal at the 2012 London Olympics in the Greco-Roman 84 kg category."
      },
      {
        "title": "El Castillo del Terror (December 2008)",
        "text": "Arlequ\u00edn was the last wrestler in the cage as Oficial 911 climbed over the top and out of the cage. As a result, Arlequ\u00edn had all his hair shaved off, having lost his mask at the previous \"El Castillo del Terror\" event on November 2. The show featured four additional matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Otunga",
        "text": "Otunga returned on April 6, 2014 in the Andr\u00e9 the Giant Memorial Battle Royal at WrestleMania XXX and was eliminated by Big E. Otunga did not make any WWE appearances again until he returned to live events on January 9, 2015. His last match was on July 5, 2015 on a WWE Live SummerSlam Heatwave Tour where he lost to R-Truth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dami\u00e1n 666",
        "text": "On March 13, 2012, Dami\u00e1n 666, Bestia 666, Halloween, Super Nova and X-Fly announced that they were forming \"La Familia de Tijuana\", a group of independent wrestlers, much like \"Los Perros del Mal\", with the exception that they were not looking to form their own promotion. It was also revealed that originally only Dami\u00e1n and his son were looking to get out of \"Los Perros del Mal\", but the others joined them after learning of their intentions. On March 29, IWRG was officially announced as \"La Familia de Tijuana\"'s new home promotion. On April 19, Dami\u00e1n 666's longtime partner Halloween severed his ties with \"La Familia de Tijuana\" and returned to \"Los Perros del Mal\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shawn Daivari",
        "text": "Shawn Daivari\n--Professional wrestling career.\n----Early career.\n----World Wrestling Entertainment.\n------Various alliances (2004\u20132007).\n------Singles competition (2007).\n------Sporadic appearances and producer role (2011, 2018-present).\n----Independent circuit (2007\u20132008).\n----Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (2008\u20132009).\n----Return to ROH (2010\u20132011).\n----Lucha Underground (2015).\n----Return to the independent circuit (2010\u20132018).\n----Return to Impact Wrestling (2020-2021).\n----Major League Wrestling (2021).\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dami\u00e1n 666",
        "text": "Leonardo Carrera G\u00f3mez (born July 9, 1961) is a Mexican professional wrestler best known under the name Dami\u00e1n 666. He has worked for World Championship Wrestling (WCW), Frontier Martial-Arts Wrestling (FMW), Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL), Asistencia Asesor\u00eda y Administraci\u00f3n (AAA), World Wrestling Association (WWA) and various promotions on the Mexican independent circuit, including \"Perros del Mal Producciones\" (PdM). Carrera also worked under the ring name Galaxy in WCW, a masked Luchador. Carrera often teams with Halloween, leading to the formation of the team \"Mexico's Most Wanted\", which has worked extensively in North America for such promotions as Xtreme Pro Wrestling (XPW) and Revolution Pro Wrestling (RPW). Carrera's son currently wrestles on the international independent circuit as Bestia 666."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dominic DeNucci",
        "text": "He wrestled his final match on April 14, 2012, in Toronto, teaming with his protege Shane Douglas to defeat Lord Zoltan and Shawn Blanchard at Pro Wrestling Superstars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dale Torborg",
        "text": "On October 23, 2021 Torborg made a brief return to wrestling at Bound For Glory Pay-Per-View where he appeared as The Demon in a Gauntlet For The Gold match, where he was eliminated by Ace Austin. He went on to appear on the November 18, 2021 edition of \"Impact Wrestling\", teaming with Decay to defeat Johnny Swinger, Fallah Bahh, and Hernandez. His final appearance would be on the November 25, 2021 edition as part of the \"Wrestle House 2\" special, where he again interacted with Swinger."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2019)",
        "text": "During the summer of 2019, Kevin Owens became furious with Shane McMahon due to the latter taking up more and more screen time each week from other wrestlers and exerting even more authority, which was in contradiction to what The McMahon Family (Vince McMahon, Stephanie McMahon, Shane McMahon, and Triple H) had promised several months prior. Despite Shane's attempts to ban Owens from \"SmackDown\", Owens would nevertheless show up and attack Shane at opportune moments. During \"Raw Reunion\" on July 22, Owens challenged Shane to a match at SummerSlam and said he would quit the WWE if he were to lose, and Shane accepted."
      },
      {
        "title": "El Terrible",
        "text": "Dami\u00e1n Guti\u00e9rrez Hern\u00e1ndez (born April 12, 1976), better known by his ring name El Terrible, is a Mexican professional wrestler who currently works for the Mexican wrestling promotion Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL). He portrays a \"rudo\" (\"bad guy\") wrestling character. He started out under the ring name Engendro del Mal (\"Spawn of Evil\") and later adopted the name Dami\u00e1n El Terrible, before being shortened to his current name."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2019)",
        "text": "In the penultimate match, Finn B\u00e1lor faced off against Bray Wyatt's new persona, \"The Fiend\". \"The Fiend\" dominated the match. In the end, \"The Fiend\" countered a \"Coup de Grace\" from B\u00e1lor into the Mandible claw, causing B\u00e1lor to pass out and allow \"The Fiend\" to get the pinfall victory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "After defeating Oney Lorcan and Ridge Holland, Priest qualified to a ladder match at NXT TakeOver: XXX for the NXT North American Championship, where he won the title, thus earning his first championship in WWE. Priest held the title for 67 days and defended against Timothy Thatcher, Johnny Gargano at NXT: TakeOver 31, and Dexter Lumis, but lost it against Gargano at in a Devil's Playground match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arena Naucalpan 27th Anniversary Show",
        "text": "Alejandro Jim\u00e9nez Cruz began his wrestling career as the \"enmascarado\" or masked character Dr. Cerebro (Dr. Brains), wearing a mask that was decorated to look like his brain was exposed. On July 26, 1998 he won his first ever \"Lucha de Apuestas\", or \"bet match\", as he defeated Oro Jr., forcing him to unmask as a result. On March 1, 2001 he himself lost his mask as he lost to El Hijo del Santo and was forced to unmask and state his real name. Subsequently, he won two \"Luchas de Apuestas\" matches against Black Terry and American Gigolo, in both cases forcing them to have their hair shaved off afterwards. Japanese wrestler MAZADA came to Japan in 2000 as part of a group of Toryumon working and training with IWRG. Since then Japanese wrestlers from Toryumon would make annual trips to Mexico. Between 2000 and 2003 MAZADA lost several \"Lucha de Apuestas\" matches, each time leaving the arena without any hair."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2015)",
        "text": "On the following night's \"Raw\", The New Day defeated The Lucha Dragons. After the match, the Dudley Boyz made their return to WWE, performing a \"3D\" on Xavier Woods through a table and confronting The Prime Time Players. The New Day would go on to retain their titles through 2015 and 2016. On December 13, 2016, The New Day's reigns reached 479 days, officially breaking the record set by Demolition to become the longest single reign in WWE history. 5 days later, at the pay-per-view , they lost the titles to Cesaro and Sheamus."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c1ngel Pacheco (wrestler)",
        "text": "In March 2020, he competed in the 2020 Pan American Wrestling Olympic Qualification Tournament without qualifying for the 2020 Summer Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Sahadi",
        "text": "David Sahadi\n--Biography.\n----World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment (1992\u20132003).\n----Total Nonstop Action Wrestling / Impact Wrestling / Global Force Wrestling (2004\u20132017).\n----Major League Wrestling (2019).\n----Return to Impact Wrestling (2019-present).\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Virus (wrestler)",
        "text": "While trying to figure out a new ring character, Amezquita was offered the name \"Damiancito El Guerrero\" by Alfonso Lira, who worked as Damian El Guerrero at that time. He worked his first match under that name on November 6, 1994, when he and Ultratumbita lost to Orito and Ultimo Dragoncito. When he became Damiancito, Amezquita began working unmasked without losing a \"Lucha de Apuestas\" match. In 1995, Amezquita toured Japan and worked for the W*ING promotion where he was billed simply as \"Damiancito\", a mini version of Dami\u00e1n 666 who worked for W*ING at the time. Subsequently he has mistakenly been described as working as \"Damiancito\" or \"Damiancto 666\" in CMLL as well, but it was only in Japan that he worked as a mini of Dami\u00e1n 666 and is not related to Peque\u00f1o Dami\u00e1n 666."
      },
      {
        "title": "Evil (wrestler)",
        "text": "On January 4, 2018, at Wrestle Kingdom 12 in Tokyo Dome, Evil and Sanada defeated the Killer Elite Squad (Davey Boy Smith Jr. and Lance Archer) to win the IWGP Tag Team Championship for the first time. Evil and Sanada would successfully defend the IWGP Tag Team Championship on two occasions before losing the title to The Young Bucks at Dominion 6.9 in Osaka-jo Hall ending their reign at 156 days. The same night, Chris Jericho defeated Tetsuya Naito to win the IWGP Intercontinental Championship. After the match, Jericho put Naito into Walls of Jericho and refused to release the hold. This resulted in Evil running in to make the save. Evil entered the 2018 G1 Climax and finished with a record of 5 wins and 4 losses, failing to advance from his block. At King of Pro-Wrestling, Evil was scheduled to compete in a singles match against Zack Sabre Jr. Before the match could begin, however, IWGP Intercontinental Champion, Chris Jericho, would return and attack Evil forcing the match to be a no contest."
      },
      {
        "title": "El Castillo del Terror (2002)",
        "text": "Records are unclear on most of the show, including most of the wrestlers who actually participated in the main event, in the only found written sources from 2002 it states that Karma lost the match and that Mega was credited with the win, but did not state which wrestlers exited the steel cage prior to Karma and Mega. After the match Karma was forced to unmask and reveal his birth name, Jose Luis Arias Romero, better known as Ari Romero. Romero had been a professional wrestler since 1967 who primarily worked around Ciudad Ju\u00e1rez."
      },
      {
        "title": "Killian Dain",
        "text": "That ring name Big Damo is derived from his first ring name, Damian O'Connor. Prior to joining WWE, he won the ICW World Heavyweight Championship while wrestling for Insane Championship Wrestling. He also wrestled for numerous promotions on the British independent circuit, around Europe, and in the USA including Progress Wrestling, Revolution Pro Wrestling, Westside Xtreme Wrestling, Absolute Intense Wrestling, Beyond Wrestling, Premier British Wrestling, Scottish Wrestling Alliance, What Culture Pro Wrestling and IPW:UK."
      },
      {
        "title": "Matt Sydal",
        "text": "Matt Sydal\n--Professional wrestling career.\n----Training and independent circuit (2000\u20132007).\n----Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (2004\u20132005).\n----Ring of Honor (2004\u20132007).\n----Dragon Gate and Wrestling Society X (2006\u20132007).\n----World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE.\n------Developmental territories (2007\u20132008).\n------Singles competition (2008\u20132011).\n------Air Boom (2011\u20132012).\n------Injury and departure (2012\u20132014).\n----Return to ROH (2014\u20132017).\n----Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (2014\u20132017).\n----Return to the independent circuit (2014\u20132019).\n----Evolve (2014).\n----New Japan Pro-Wrestling (2015\u20132016).\n----Return to Impact Wrestling.\n------Championship reigns (2017\u20132018).\n------Alliance with Ethan Page and departure (2018\u20132019).\n----Return to Evolve (2019\u20132020).\n----All Elite Wrestling (2020\u2013present).\n--Other media.\n--Personal life.\n----Legal issues.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2014)",
        "text": "On August 16, it was announced on WWE.com that Cesaro would face Rob Van Dam on the SummerSlam Kickoff show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Evil (wrestler)",
        "text": "At Wrestle Kingdom 13 in Tokyo Dome, Evil and Sanada won IWGP Tag Team Championship in a Three-way tag team match, that also included Guerillas of Destiny and Young Bucks. They retained their titles at The New Beginning in Sapporo against Zack Sabre Jr. and Minoru Suzuki. At , Evil and Sanada lost the titles in their second defense against Guerillas of Destiny. Evil was announced to take part in the 2019 New Japan Cup, but lost to Zack Sabre Jr. in the first round. Evil entered the 2019 G1 Climax, finishing with a record of 4 wins and 5 losses, failing to make it to the finals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rob Van Dam and Sabu",
        "text": "On February 8, 2019, it was revealed that both Rob Van Dam and Sabu would return to TNA, now named Impact Wrestling, at their following pay-per-view United We Stand. At the event on April 4, 2019, the team will tag for the first time since 2015, facing Lucha Bros (Pentag\u00f3n Jr. and F\u00e9nix)."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Mysterios",
        "text": "In May 2020, Dominik again assisted his father, this time in dealing with Seth Rollins and his teammates Murphy and Austin Theory, after his father suffered a severe (kayfabe) eye injury. At The Horror Show at Extreme Rules, Rey had his eye (kayfabe) removed in an Eye for an Eye match, where the winner could only be declared upon removing an opponent's eyeball from its socket. Dominik thereafter unsuccessfully came for revenge, having to be saved by his father's ally, Aleister Black. On the August 3 episode of \"Raw\", Dominik issued a challenge to Rollins, which he accepted for SummerSlam, in what was Dominik's in-ring debut. The following week, after the SummerSlam match was made official, Rollins and Murphy attacked Dominik, landing over 30 kendo stick shots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Steele",
        "text": "Damian Steele\n--Career.\n----Georgia Championship Wrestling (2004-2005).\n----World Wrestling Entertainment.\n------Deep South Wrestling (2005-2006).\n----Later Career (2007-2009).\n--Personal life and death.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pampero Firpo",
        "text": "After January 1981, Kachmanian stopped actively competing after a tour of Japan in the fall of 1980 and a quick stint in California in January 1981. He retired from professional wrestling on October 17, 1986, after competing in 8,882 matches, after last competing for All-California Championship Wrestling in 1986 and winning the ACCW Heavyweight Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Toryumon (\u00daltimo Drag\u00f3n)",
        "text": "\u00daltimo Drag\u00f3n had been forced to retire from active competition in 1998 after a mistake during an elbow surgery that caused nerve damage. In 2001 Drag\u00f3n had another round of surgery on his elbow, restoring mobility and feeling. Following his rehabilitation \u00daltimo Drag\u00f3n made his return to active wrestling on a Toryumon / T2P co-promoted pay-per-view on September 8, 2002. In the following months Drag\u00f3n wrestled regularly for Toryumon and various companies around the world. Because of his active scheduled \u00daltimo Drag\u00f3n stepped down as the director of Toryumon leaving the job to Takashi Okamura. Okamura handled the job while Drag\u00f3n began working full-time for World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) in the United States. After his run with WWE ended Drag\u00f3n returned to Japan and announced that he was leaving Toryumon and taking all the trademarks he owned with him. Toryumon Japan changed its name to Dragon Gate as a result of this, continuing the traditions of Toryumon Japan including references to \u00daltimo Drag\u00f3n. Since the break Toryumon has primarily promoted shows in Mexico, featuring students trained by Drag\u00f3n and Jorge \"Skayde\" Rivera and a number of wrestlers from various Mexican and American promotions."
      },
      {
        "title": "El Canek",
        "text": "Today he still wrestles at 69 years old as of 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dami\u00e1n 666",
        "text": "In 2002 Dami\u00e1n 666 and Halloween began working for Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL), Mexico's largest and the world's oldest wrestling promotion. They were joined by Nicho el Millonario to form a group called \"La Familia de Tijuana\", playing off the fact that all three wrestlers got their start in Tijuana and knew each other from back then. La Familia banded together to defeat \"Los Nuevos Infernales\", the team of El Sat\u00e1nico, Averno and Mephisto, to win the Mexican National Trios Championship on September 27, 2002. La Familia defended the title well into 2003 until Nicho left the company in June 2003. By the end of June the team was stripped of the championship, as they could not defend the title."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alejandro Saez",
        "text": "In 2017, Saez returned to Santiago de Chile to wrestle in the independent scene of the country. He started to run his own promotion and wrestling training center called \"5 Luchas Clandestino\". Currently he is the leader of a new wrestling faction called \"Carnaval de Sangre\", with \"Sexualizer\", \"Kristy\", \"Carnicero Humano\" and \"Azagoth Firelord\". Some of the other wrestlers are Katrina Cortez of WWE NXT, Zatara, who participated in the Mae Young Classic (2018) and Guanchulo who was part of DDT Pro-Wrestling along with Saez."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damien Demento",
        "text": "After a stint on the East Coast independent circuit, Theis retired from wrestling in 1994. Under his Damien Demento ring name, he made a short return to wrestling on November 8, 2008, where he defeated The Musketeer in a match for the New York-based World of Unpredictable Wrestling. A month later they had a rematch in which Demento was on the losing end."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dami\u00e1n 666",
        "text": "During Carrera's stint in WCW he began teaming with Halloween (who also worked as \"Ciclope\"), something which they decided to continue to do after both wrestlers left WCW. The two of them began working for South Californian promotions such as Revolution Pro and Xtreme Pro Wrestling (XPW) under the moniker \"Mexico's Most Wanted\". In 2000 and 2001 Dami\u00e1n 666 and Halloween toured with All Japan Pro Wrestling, working tag team and some times six man tag team matches with other Luchadors. On July 20, 2002 Mexico's Most Wanted defeated the teams of American Wild Child and Shady, Juantastico and Pogo The Clown and the New Panthers (K-Malik Shabazz and Raphael Muhammed) to become the first ever XPW World Tag Team Champions. On December 21, 2002 they lost the title to Youthanazia (Josh Prohibition and M-Dogg 20), but regained then just a month later. A week after winning the titles for the second time Mexico's Most Wanted lost them back to Youthanasia before leaving XPW. Later in 2003 Mexico's Most Wanted defeated The Aerial Express (Quicksilver and Scorpio Sky) to win the vacant Revolution Pro Tag Team championship, which they held for nine months."
      },
      {
        "title": "2022 in professional wrestling",
        "text": "Beginning in March 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic severely affected the professional wrestling industry worldwide, with many promotions presenting shows behind closed doors. Some events were canceled while others were rescheduled to occur in 2021 and then some to 2022. Larger companies, such as All Elite Wrestling (AEW) and WWE, resumed live touring with full capacity crowds in July 2021 \u2013 further companies also began readmitting fans to events in 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Killian Dain",
        "text": "Killian Dain\n--Early life.\n--Professional wrestling career.\n----Early career (2004\u20132010).\n----Insane Championship Wrestling (2013\u20132016, 2018).\n----Independent circuit (2014\u20132016).\n----Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (2016).\n----WWE (2016\u20132021).\n------Sanity (2016\u20132019).\n------Return to NXT (2019\u20132021).\n--Personal life.\n--Other media.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yianni Diakomihalis",
        "text": "Yianni planned to return to college wrestling in 2020\u20132021; however, the Ivy League announced the cancellation of all winter sports on November 13, 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2018)",
        "text": "Drew Gulak claimed that Cedric Alexander got lucky in retaining the WWE Cruiserweight Championship and demanded a rematch, but was denied by 205 Live General Manager Drake Maverick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Angel Gabriele",
        "text": "In 1998, Gabriele was enticed back into professional wrestling, reprising his 1980s television show \"Powerslam\" as \"Powerslam2000\", and recruiting Big Bang Comics co-creator Chris Ecker as an announcer. Gabriele held a live event at the 1999 Novi, Michigan, Pop Culture Convention with The Iron Sheik in the main event. In 2000, Gabriele again withdrew from active involvement in the world of professional wrestling and only made a few more rare appearances at live matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Tough Enough",
        "text": "During the tryouts, Brian Danovich suffered a torn pectoral muscle during the bench press but then went on to complete the assault course in its entirely while carrying the injury. After withdrawing from the event, then Head of Talent Relations John Laurinaitis offered him a developmental contract on the spot though he was eventually released after numerous injuries without appearing on the main roster. He would resurface in June 2018 with a wrestling internet radio show called \"Wrestling With Passion\" on Action VR Network on Mixlr, which lasted only five episodes before his untimely death on August 9, 2018, at the age of 38 by committing suicide."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Basham Brothers",
        "text": "Later that year Danny retired from professional wrestling. Doug continued to wrestle in England and Ireland until retiring from wrestling in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phil Lafon",
        "text": "Lafon still is involved in wrestling today as the Head Trainer of Monster Pro Wrestling (MPW) in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. On March 6, 2010 in Edmonton, he returned to the ring to compete with MPW after five years of being in retirement, due to nagging knee and shoulder injuries. He would wrestle his last match in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Danny Duggan",
        "text": "In the summer of 2017; Duggan returned to Japan and worked a few dates for DDT Pro-Wrestling. At King of DDT 2017 on June 25th; he teamed up with Daiki Shimomura in a losing effort against Tomomitsu Matsunaga and Kouki Iwasaki in a dark match. On July 2nd at Good Evening from Shinkiba Village 2017; Duggan teamed up with Antonio Honda. They lost to the team of Daisuke Sasaki and Tetsuya Endo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional wrestling match types",
        "text": "Impact Wrestling would also return to producing cinematic matches in 2021 when Ethan Page wrestled his alter ego \"The Karate Man\" at Hard to Kill in a \"Mortal Kombat\"\u2013style cinematic match that saw The Karate Man \"kill\" Page in what would be Page's last appearance with Impact before leaving for AEW."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dan Barry (wrestler)",
        "text": "On January 10, 2018, Barry announced on Twitter that he would be retiring in February 2019."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where does Damian Priest come from?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Damian Priest is the ring name of professional wrestler Luis Mart\u00ednez. Mart\u00ednez was born in New York City, but raised in the municipality of Dorado, Puerto Rico."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did Damian Priest start wrestling?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "While living in Dorado in his early life, Damian Priest saw the World Wrestling Council on television and got the interest to become a pro wrestler. After winning two national championships in full-contact martial arts, Damian decided to embark on a career in professional wrestling and trained at the Monster Factory and went on to win several titles in Monster Factory Pro Wrestling."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Damian Priest still in wrestling as of 2022?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the Raw brand. At WrestleMania 38, Priest made his appearance by distracting AJ Styles during his match against Edge, causing Styles to lose the match.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I was unable to find if he is still actively wrestling, but I did find that he began an alliance with Edge in 2022 and they have continued a feud with AJ Styles."
    ],
    "topic": "SummerSlam (2021)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Damian Priest:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Damian Priest"
        ],
        "ctx": "Luis Mart\u00ednez (born September 26, 1982) is a American professional wrestler of Puerto Rican descent. He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the Raw brand under the ring name Damian Priest."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Damian Priest:22",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Damian Priest",
          "Professional wrestling career",
          "WWE",
          "Alliance with Edge (2022\u2013present)"
        ],
        "ctx": "At WrestleMania 38, Priest made his appearance by distracting AJ Styles during his match against Edge, causing Styles to lose the match. After the match, Edge celebrated his victory with Priest, starting an alliance between the two. Over the weeks, they continued to feud with Styles, further developing new mannerisms and character."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Damian Priest:22",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Damian Priest",
          "Professional wrestling career",
          "WWE",
          "Alliance with Edge (2022\u2013present)"
        ],
        "ctx": "At WrestleMania 38, Priest made his appearance by distracting AJ Styles during his match against Edge, causing Styles to lose the match. After the match, Edge celebrated his victory with Priest, starting an alliance between the two. Over the weeks, they continued to feud with Styles, further developing new mannerisms and character."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "At WrestleMania 38, Priest made his appearance by distracting AJ Styles during his match against Edge, causing Styles to lose the match. After the match, Edge celebrated his victory with Priest, starting an alliance between the two. Over the weeks, they continued to feud with Styles, further developing new mannerisms and character."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Damian Priest\n--Early life.\n--Professional wrestling career.\n----Early career.\n----Ring of Honor (2015\u20132018).\n----WWE.\n------Beginnings (2018\u20132020).\n------NXT North American Champion (2020\u20132021).\n------Debut on Raw and United States Champion (2021\u20132022).\n------Alliance with Edge (2022\u2013present).\n--Professional wrestling style and persona.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "In the subsequent weeks, Priest successfully defended his title against AJ Styles and Shelton Benjamin, before getting challenged by Finn B\u00e1lor. On February 28th episode of Raw, Priest lost to Balor, ending his championship reign at 191 days, following which Priest attacked B\u00e1lor, thus fully turning heel for the first time since May 2020. In the following weeks, Priest started to use the crucifix drop powerbomb (Razor's Edge) more frequently."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "His wrestling style involves various power moves as well as high flying moves, and his striking is heavily influenced by his background in martial arts. He uses the \"Razor's Edge\" (a crucifix drop powerbomb, inherited from Razor Ramon, his childhood wrestling idol) and also a release Falcon Arrow which has been dubbed \"Broken Arrow\". His finisher is an inverted swinging cutter, called \"The Reckoning\". After debuting on the main roster, it was renamed \"Hit The Lights\" since the 2021 Royal Rumble, potentially due to sharing the name with Mia Yim, also known as \"Reckoning\" at the time, as a member of Retribution. The name was reverted back to \"The Reckoning\" on July 26, 2021 episode of Raw. He also used a sit-out chokeslam called the \"South of Heaven\" as his finisher, when he was working with ROH, which he still uses in the WWE as one of his signature moves, but not as a finisher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Priest returned to Raw on October 25, 2021 with a new, revamped character and won a match against T-Bar by disqualification, when the latter threw a chair at the former outside the ring. As a result, Priest viciously attacked T-Bar, turning himself into a tweener. The next week, T-Bar attacked Priest with a stick during their match, due to which Priest again attacked T-Bar in a similar fashion, further developing his new character and mannerisms, before getting challenged by Apollo Crews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "On the November 23rd edition of Raw, Priest again showed face mannerisms, thus maintaining his tweener personality, while also having successful championship defenses against Sami Zayn, Crews, and Robert Roode in the subsequent weeks. After Priest's defense against Roode, Roode's ally Dolph Ziggler attacked Priest, starting a small rivalry between Priest and The Dirty Dawgs. On the January 17, 2022 episode of Raw, Priest lost to Kevin Owens in a non-title match, which marked his first clean loss on the main roster. As a result, Owens got himself a match for Priest's championship on Raw next week, which he won by disqualification, but Priest retained the title. Priest was also a part of 2022 Royal Rumble match, entering at #7. He scored no eliminations and was eventually eliminated by Omos."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2021)",
        "text": "On the August 30 episode of \"Raw\", new United States Champion Damian Priest defended the title against Sheamus and Drew McIntyre in a triple threat match where Priest retained. On the following episode, Sheamus defeated McIntyre to earn a rematch against Priest at Extreme Rules. On the September 20 episode, Jeff Hardy defeated Sheamus to earn a spot in the title match at Extreme Rules, thus making it a triple threat match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "After defeating Oney Lorcan and Ridge Holland, Priest qualified to a ladder match at NXT TakeOver: XXX for the NXT North American Championship, where he won the title, thus earning his first championship in WWE. Priest held the title for 67 days and defended against Timothy Thatcher, Johnny Gargano at NXT: TakeOver 31, and Dexter Lumis, but lost it against Gargano at in a Devil's Playground match."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2021)",
        "text": "After that, Sheamus defended the United States Championship against Damian Priest. In the closing moments of the match, as Sheamus applied a Leg Lock on Priest, Priest grabbed and removed Sheamus' protective face mask (as Sheamus had broken his nose a few weeks prior). As Sheamus attempted a Brogue Kick, Priest performed a Spinning Kick and the Reckoning on Sheamus to win the title."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Priest made his next appearance in the 2021 Royal Rumble match as a surprise entrant, entering at #14. He eliminated John Morrison, The Miz, Elias and Kane before being eliminated by Bobby Lashley. The following night, Priest made his debut on \"Raw\" after being introduced by Bad Bunny during a Miz TV segment. He would proceed to defeat The Miz in a singles match, marking his first win on the main roster. The next week on Raw, he defeated Angel Garza in another singles match. On the February 15 edition of Raw, Priest helped Bad Bunny win the 24/7 Championship by knocking out Akira Tozawa, who pinned R-Truth moments ago. In subsequent weeks, Priest racked up a winning streak by defeating Angel Garza, Elias and Jaxson Ryker, however, The Miz and John Morrison continued their rivalry against Bad Bunny and Priest, after The Miz attacked Bad Bunny using a guitar after Priest's match against Ryker. Priest and Bad Bunny then challenged The Miz and Morrison to a tag team match at WrestleMania 37, which they accepted. At WrestleMania, Priest and Bad Bunny defeated The Miz and Morrison."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "He is also known for his work in Ring of Honor (ROH) under the ring name Punishment Martinez, where he is a former one-time ROH World Television Champion. Through ROH's working relationship with New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW), he has also worked in Japan as Punisher Martinez."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extreme Rules (2021)",
        "text": "At SummerSlam, Damian Priest defeated Sheamus to win the United States Championship. On the August 30 episode of \"Raw\", Priest retained the title against Sheamus and Drew McIntyre in a triple threat match. On the following episode, Sheamus defeated McIntyre to earn a United States Championship match against Priest at Extreme Rules. On the September 20 episode, Jeff Hardy defeated Sheamus to earn a spot in the title match at Extreme Rules, thus making it a triple threat match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Mart\u00ednez trained at the Monster Factory and went on to win several titles in Monster Factory Pro Wrestling. In 2014, Mart\u00ednez attended a Ring of Honor (ROH) training camp and went on to train at the ROH dojo."
      },
      {
        "title": "WrestleMania 38",
        "text": "The fifth match was between Edge and AJ Styles. Styles kicked Edge off the apron and into the steel steps. Styles went for a springboard 450\u00b0 splash but landed on Edge's knees. Styles hit a suplex into the turnbuckles. Styles performed a Rack Bomb for a nearfall while Edge also performed a DDT for a nearfall. Styles hit a Pele kick while Edge locked in the Lebelle Lock but Styles got out of it. Edge hit a powerbomb on Styles. Styles hit a superplex from the toprope also executing a springboard 450\u00b0 splash and a Styles Clash for a nearfall. Damian Priest emerged and distracted Styles as he attempted a Phenomenal Forearm, allowing Edge to catch him mid-air with a spear to win the match. After the match, Edge and Priest celebrated the victory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Martinez is known to have a deep voice, which has helped him in his promos to maintain the menacing, dark character while working as Punishment Martinez in ROH Wrestling. In WWE, \"Damian Priest\" was previously intended to be a similar, but darker, more intense character than the characters that Martinez has represented previously in other promotions, however, his character gradually evolved and developed a more machismo, rockstar-like attitude that pursues more fame, recognition and success, and the character is further emphasized by portraying bars, parties and women frequently with him in backstage segments. Therefore, he has been referred to as \"The Archer of Infamy\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "His first appearance at a ROH show was in 2015 under his real name, Luis Mart\u00ednez, where he competed in two dark matches, losing the first to The Romantic Touch and winning the second alongside Shaheem Ali against Hellcat and Mattick."
      },
      {
        "title": "AJ Styles",
        "text": "At Genesis, Styles turned into a villain and defeated Angle in a Last Chance match to again retain the championship with assistance from Ric Flair. On the January 21 episode of \"Impact!\", Flair announced that he had aligned himself with Styles and christened Styles \"The New Nature Boy\", but on the same episode Hulk Hogan announced a Genesis rematch, where if Flair were to interfere, Styles would be stripped of the title and awarded to Angle. During the match, Angle applied his signature move, the ankle lock, on Styles, who reversed it and applied the same move to Angle, when suddenly referee Earl Hebner, paid off by Flair, called for the bell although Angle did not submit. At Against All Odds, Styles retained the title against Samoa Joe, with help from Flair, in a match refereed by Eric Bischoff. On the March 8 episode of \"Impact!\", Styles teamed up with Ric Flair in a tag team match, in a losing effort against Abyss and Hulk Hogan. Styles defended the title against Abyss at Destination X in a match that went to no contest after Abyss hit Styles with a chokeslam through the ring. At Lockdown, Styles successfully defended the title against D'Angelo Dinero in a steel cage match. The following day on \"Impact!\", Styles dropped the TNA World Heavyweight Championship to Rob Van Dam, ending his reign at a then-record 211 days. Styles faced Van Dam in a rematch at Sacrifice, but was defeated again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "On October 2, 2019, episode of NXT, Priest started a feud with Pete Dunne and Killian Dain, culminating in a triple threat match at for #1 contendership for the NXT Championship, where Dunne was victorious. Priest would also become a part of 5-on-5-on-5 Survivor Series pay-per-view match, representing Team NXT in a losing effort to Team SmackDown also involving Team Raw, where he was eliminated by Randy Orton. In January 2020, Priest was included in a storyline around the NXT North American Championship with Keith Lee and Dominik Dijajkovic. Priest would have an opportunity for the title against Lee and Dijakovic on April 1, 2020, and a singles match against Lee on April 22, being defeated both times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "On the next night, the Raw after WrestleMania, The Miz and Morrison challenged Damian Priest to a two-on-one handicap match, where, despite dominating most of the match, Priest lost due to outside interference by Maryse, making it his first loss on the main roster. In the subsequent weeks, Priest won singles matches against both The Miz and John Morrison, and also won a tag team match, teaming up with The New Day against The Miz, Elias and Jaxson Ryker. Eventually, conflicts also started arising between the Miz and John Morrison themselves, although they continued their rivalry with Priest, eventually setting up a lumberjack match between The Miz and Priest at WrestleMania Backlash. In that match, Priest defeated The Miz. The next night on Raw, Priest also defeated John Morrison in a lumberjack match. Briefly after, he took time off due to a back injury."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Luis Mart\u00ednez (born September 26, 1982) is a American professional wrestler of Puerto Rican descent. He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the Raw brand under the ring name Damian Priest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Martinez cites Pedro Morales, Scott Hall and The Undertaker as his inspirations in wrestling. He is friends with Keith Lee, Matt Riddle and Rhea Ripley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gabe Sapolsky",
        "text": "Sapolsky has been featured on the WWE DVD and network releases of \"My Name Is Paul Heyman\" and \"Journey to Summerslam: The Destruction of The Shield\", featuring former mentor Heyman, and former DGUSA and ROH talent in Dean Ambrose and Seth Rollins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "Gargano however, lost the title to Leon Ruff just two weeks later, due to a distraction during the title match by Priest. Ruff retained the championship in a rematch against Gargano the next week by disqualification, when Priest punched Ruff during the match, thus disabling Gargano to win the championship. This soon transitioned into a triple threat match for the NXT North American Championship which would take place at . During the match, Damian Priest again got attacked by the same masked character and its gang that attacked him previously at Halloween Havoc, who was revealed to be Austin Theory. As a result of that, Priest lost the match, with Gargano winning the title by pinning Ruff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "On October 12, 2018, it was reported that Martinez had signed a contract with WWE, six days later he was formally introduced, among other new members to the NXT brand. On November 28, at an NXT TV taping in Winter Park, Florida, Martinez, as Punishment Martinez, made his debut as a heel, losing to Matt Riddle. While on April 15, 2019, it was reported that Martinez would be repackaged and go by the new ring name \"Damian Priest\", he was still wrestling under the \"Punishment Martinez\" name on NXT house shows during April and May. Vignettes began airing starting at in June, reintroducing Martinez under this new character of Damian Priest. Debuting as Damian Priest, he defeated Raul Mendoza and then defeated Keith Lee in his second appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Killian Dain",
        "text": "That ring name Big Damo is derived from his first ring name, Damian O'Connor. Prior to joining WWE, he won the ICW World Heavyweight Championship while wrestling for Insane Championship Wrestling. He also wrestled for numerous promotions on the British independent circuit, around Europe, and in the USA including Progress Wrestling, Revolution Pro Wrestling, Westside Xtreme Wrestling, Absolute Intense Wrestling, Beyond Wrestling, Premier British Wrestling, Scottish Wrestling Alliance, What Culture Pro Wrestling and IPW:UK."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2020)",
        "text": "Dominik Mysterio teamed with his father Rey Mysterio in a tag team match against Seth Rollins and Murphy, but the match ended in a disqualification after Retribution attacked the Mysterios. A rematch was scheduled for Payback."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rob Van Dam",
        "text": "The name \"Rob Van Dam\" was given to him in 1992 by Ron Slinker, a promoter in Florida, possibly because of his martial arts experience and his resemblance to actor Jean-Claude Van Damme. During the early years of his career, he used a \"Moonsault Split\" as finisher, until he adopted the Frog Splash (named Five Star Frog Splash) as finisher. During WWE Hall of Fame ceremony in 2021, WWE's chairman Vince McMahon and Triple H said that he changed the style of wrestling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Adams",
        "text": "Damian Adams\n--Professional wrestling career.\n----IWF and independent circuit (2000\u20132005).\n----World Wrestling Entertainment (2005\u20132008).\n----Return to the independent circuit (2008\u2013present).\n--Championships and accomplishments.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "AJ Styles",
        "text": "Styles first appeared in World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) in 2002, but declined a developmental contract. He returned to the company in 2016, and won the WWE Championship twice; with his second victory in Manchester, Styles is recognized by WWE as the first wrestler to win the title outside North America. At 371 days, this is the eighth-longest reign in title history. He also won the United States Championship three times, and the Intercontinental Championship and the Raw Tag Team Championship once each, thus becoming the second wrestler (after Kurt Angle) to become a TNA/Impact and WWE Triple Crown winner and first Grand Slam champion in both promotions. Overall, in major promotions (WWE, Impact, ROH, NJPW, RevPro), Styles has won 31 championships, including nine world titles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "His next storyline started when, on April 22, 2020, episode of NXT, Finn B\u00e1lor got attacked backstage by an unknown attacker. On May 13, 2020, Priest was revealed as the unknown attacker and both faced each other at , where Priest was defeated by B\u00e1lor. Despite the loss, Priest's in-ring performance in this match was highly appreciated by Triple H and also by the fans, followed by Priest turning face in a backstage interview where he praised B\u00e1lor. On 10 June 2020 episode of NXT, Cameron Grimes flaunted his previous victory over Finn B\u00e1lor and deemed Priest as a \"loser\" in a backstage interview, leading Priest to attack him, confirming Priest's face turn. This ignited a small rivalry between Grimes and Priest, which concluded just before the tournament held for the vacated NXT North American Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extreme Rules (2021)",
        "text": "United States Champion Damian Priest defended the title against Sheamus in a no disqualification match, where Priest retained once again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Noam Dar",
        "text": "Following the championship loss, Dar would remain a prominent figure in PCW in 2014 and 2015, wrestling established names like Paul London, Steve Corino, Chris Hero, Tommaso Ciampa, John Morrison and Rob Van Dam. Dar had a violent three match feud with former WWE star Drew Galloway, which Dar won 2:1."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2018)",
        "text": "Next, AJ Styles defended the WWE Championship against Samoa Joe. In the climax, as Joe continued to taunt Styles' wife and child, who were in attendance at ringside, an irate Styles tackled Joe through the barricade. Styles then attacked security personnel and struck Joe with a chair, causing a disqualification, thus Joe won the match, however, Styles retained the title."
      },
      {
        "title": "AJ Styles",
        "text": "On the following episode of \"Raw\", Styles won fatal four-way match to become the number one contender for Roman Reigns' WWE World Heavyweight Championship. In the weeks that followed, Styles reunited with former Bullet Club stablemates Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson (now known as The Club) and an alliance, which Styles initially denied, was teased. At Payback on May 1, Reigns eventually defeated Styles by pinfall after the match was restarted twice (with Styles first winning by countout and then by disqualification), despite Gallows and Anderson's interference. Styles received a rematch against Reigns for the championship at Extreme Rules in an Extreme Rules match, but was unsuccessful due to interference from both Gallows and Anderson and The Usos (Jey and Jimmy Uso). The following night on \"Raw\", Styles failed to qualify for the Money in the Bank ladder match at Money in the Bank against Kevin Owens. On the May 30 episode of \"Raw\", he welcomed back a returning John Cena, only to attack Cena with help from Gallows and Anderson, turning heel in the process. This set up a match between Styles and Cena at Money in the Bank on June 19, which Styles won after interference from The Club. At Battleground on July 24, The Club took on Cena and Enzo Amore and Big Cass in a six-man tag team match, where they lost after Cena pinned Styles. During the 2016 WWE draft, Styles was drafted to the SmackDown brand in the first round of picks, being the brand's second pick overall, while Gallows and Anderson were drafted to the Raw brand, splitting up The Club. Styles faced Cena once more at SummerSlam on August 21, which Styles won again. After his victory over Cena, Styles claimed himself to be the \"new face of WWE\" and \"the Face That Runs the Place\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "WrestleMania Backlash (2021)",
        "text": "After that, Damian Priest faced The Miz (accompanied by John Morrison) in a lumberjack match. The ring was surrounded by zombies as a promotional tie-in for the zombie film \"Army of the Dead\", which stars former WWE wrestler Batista. During the match, Priest and Miz teamed to fend off the zombies. In the end, Morrison was \"devoured\" by the zombies which distracted Miz. Priest performed Hit the Lights on Miz to win the match. Following the match, several zombies entered the ring and \"devoured\" Miz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Persona and reception of Roman Reigns",
        "text": "As soon as Reigns returned from suspension in July and leading into SummerSlam, writers from the \"Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter\" wrote that \"Raw\" was \"still the Roman Reigns Show\", \"with him necessarily closing out the show with the last laugh\" (post-SummerSlam, \"\"Raw\" is Roman\" continued). Also in August, Anoa'i no longer wore the contact lenses, again changing the Reigns' character look. Although Reigns dropped from world title contention to being United States Champion in September, he remained unable to connect with fans. Nonetheless, calculated efforts to garner crowd support persisted. Wade Keller of the \"Pro Wrestling Torch\" said that WWE was damaging its product by associating Reigns with \"really good\" and \"popular\" performers in a \"hapless attempt\" to get him over. \"Pro Wrestling Dot Net\" columnist Jason Powell said that McMahon's \"obsession\" with generating support for Reigns had handicapped Seth Rollins, whom fans wanted to see as a fan favorite in May, but was kept as a villain to oppose the heroic (and thoroughly booed) Reigns until a \"horrible\" turn into a fan favorite in September. In November, Fin Martin of \"Power Slam\" remarked: \"Vince [McMahon] has successfully trained or retrained most of his audience to consume what he is serving. Roman Reigns being the exception, of course. It says something that fans will cheer Shane McMahon's toe-curlingly naff attempts at pro wrestling in the ring and his entrance dance ... yet they won't cheer for Reigns, no matter how heroically he is portrayed\". As a result of his achievements in 2016, despite topping \"Pro Wrestling Illustrated\" (\"PWI\") annual \"PWI 500\" which is mainly about kayfabe results, Reigns was voted by \"Pro Wrestling Illustrated\" readers as Most Hated Wrestler of the Year, a first for a heroic character since the award was devised in 1972. \"Wrestling Observer Newsletter\" readers instead awarded Reigns the 2016 Most Overrated award. Reigns had finished in second place for Most Overrated in both 2014 and 2015. In January 2017, \"Pro Wrestling Torch\" began their weekly \"Monday Night Reigns-o-meter\", which monitored his \"ability to beat the odds and come out on top\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2017)",
        "text": "AJ Styles reinstated the U.S. Championship Open Challenge which was answered by Kevin Owens. Styles denied him since he beat Owens at SummerSlam, but Owens said that he was screwed by SmackDown Commissioner Shane McMahon. Shane came out and they reviewed scenes from the match. After a verbal confrontation, Styles agreed to the rematch and Shane allowed Owens to pick a special guest referee, but said this would be his last chance at the title. Owens picked Baron Corbin as the referee, but mid-match, Shane took over due to Corbin's poor performance and Styles retained. Owens, frustrated with Shane, began a feud with him, also involving Shane's father and WWE Chairman Mr. McMahon, where a Hell in a Cell match between Owens and Shane was scheduled for Hell in a Cell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "On the December 9 episode of NXT, Priest looked forward to take revenge from Austin Theory following his attack at WarGames, however, he got viciously attacked by a returning Karrion Kross from behind, after which Priest had to be helped out of the arena. The next week, Kross challenged Priest to a match at , which Priest accepted. In that match, Priest lost to Kross, thus making it his final match in NXT."
      },
      {
        "title": "AJ Styles",
        "text": "AJ Styles has been a pillar of the wrestling industry for over two decades and is well respected by fans and co-workers. Long considered one of the world's best professional wrestlers, Styles has headlined numerous pay-per-view events, including the respective premier events of WWE and TNA, WrestleMania and Bound for Glory. He ranked atop the annual \"Pro Wrestling Illustrated\" \"500\" in 2010, the first TNA wrestler to do so, was voted PWI Wrestler of the Year three times between 2016 and 2018, and Wrestler of the Decade in 2020. Styles also won 10 \"Wrestling Observer Newsletter\" awards, including Wrestler of the Year in 2015 and 2016, and was inducted in their Hall of Fame in 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rob Van Dam",
        "text": "In an interview with the \"Baltimore Sun\", Van Dam stated that while WWE would be the first choice and that he would definitely talk to them, he would definitely consider Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) if he returned full-time to pro wrestling. While not under contract, Van Dam made an unannounced return on WWE's \"15th Anniversary Raw\" in December 2007, squashing Santino Marella with a Five-Star Frog Splash. He made a similarly unannounced appearance as a participant in the 2009 Royal Rumble, which he failed to win as he was eliminated by Chris Jericho."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kevin Owens",
        "text": "During a house show at Madison Square Garden on July 7, Owens lost the United States Championship to Styles ending his second reign at 66 days, but regained it at Battleground and lost it back to Styles two days later on \"SmackDown\" in a triple threat match also involving the returning Chris Jericho. The following week, Owens received a rematch, where Styles retained after the referee did not see Owens' shoulder up, due to being accidentally struck by Owens earlier in the match. After the match, Owens demanded a rematch with a competent official. \"SmackDown Live\" General Manager Daniel Bryan then made a match between Owens and Styles for the United States Championship at SummerSlam, with Commissioner Shane McMahon as the special guest referee. During that time, Owens dropped the Face of America gimmick and reverted to the Prizefighter persona, shedding both the suits, America-orientated promos and his pursuit of the United States Championship. At SummerSlam, Owens was defeated by Styles, in a match where both wrestlers argued with Shane over his decisions. On the August 22 episode of \"SmackDown Live\", Owens demanded another rematch which Shane allowed, with Baron Corbin as the special guest referee, but was once again unsuccessful, after Corbin walked out on the match and Shane took over, distracting Owens enough for Styles to capitalize and win. This also meant that as long as Styles held the title, Owens could not challenge Styles for the title again, ending his feud with Styles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Janikowski",
        "text": "Damian Janikowski\n--Wrestling career.\n--Mixed martial arts career.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "AJ Styles and Omos",
        "text": "AJ Styles and Omos were a professional wrestling tag team in WWE on the Raw brand. The team were former WWE Raw Tag Team Champions. In October 2020, Omos debuted as Styles' \"personal colossus\" and aided him in his matches. At WrestleMania 37 in April 2021, Styles and Omos won the Raw Tag Team Championship and held it for 133 days before losing them at SummerSlam in August of that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian Cage",
        "text": "After a ten-month absence, Christian returned from injury on the June 17, 2013 episode of \"Raw\", defeating Wade Barrett. Later that week on \"SmackDown\", Christian was attacked by The Shield while delivering a promo. On the June 26 episode of \"Main Event\", Christian took on Shield member Dean Ambrose, which resulted in a disqualification win for Christian following interference from Ambrose's stablemates, Seth Rollins and Roman Reigns. That same week on \"SmackDown\", Christian teamed up with The Usos to defeat The Shield, handing the stable their second loss in six-man tag team matches. At Money in the Bank on July 14, Christian competed in the WWE Championship Money in the Bank ladder match, but was unsuccessful as the match was won by Randy Orton. During the match, Christian had his teeth chipped after a strong punch from Sheamus through the rungs of a ladder. On the July 29 episode of \"Raw\", Christian defeated World Heavyweight Champion Alberto Del Rio in a non-title match. That same week on \"SmackDown\", Christian defeated Randy Orton and Rob Van Dam in a triple threat match to become number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship, after which he was attacked by Del Rio during a post-match interview. On the August 9 episode of \"SmackDown\", Christian again defeated Del Rio in a non-title match. At SummerSlam on August 18, Christian failed in his title challenge against Del Rio. On the September 9 episode of \"Raw\", The Shield dragged out an assaulted Christian as a message to anyone that disrespected Triple H following Edge's opinion on Triple H's recent abuse of power. On that week's \"SmackDown\", Edge promised Christian would return soon and get his payback. Christian returned and appeared on the 2013 Slammy Awards, where he presented an award and appeared in a segment involving John Cena and Randy Orton."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Janikowski",
        "text": "Damian Janikowski (born June 27, 1989 in Wroc\u0142aw) is a Polish mixed martial artist and former wrestler who won the Bronze medal at the 2012 London Olympics in the Greco-Roman 84 kg category."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2017)",
        "text": "In the seventh match, Cesaro and Sheamus defended the Raw Tag Team Championship against Dean Ambrose and Seth Rollins. In the climax, as Sheamus and Cesaro attempted an assisted \"White Noise\" on Ambrose, Rollins performed a super hurricanrana on Cesaro into Sheamus. Rollins then performed superkicks on Cesaro and Sheamus, and performed a \"Ripcord Knee\" on Sheamus, which allowed Ambrose to perform \"Dirty Deeds\" on Sheamus to win the title. This marked Ambrose's first reign and Rollins' second reign, individually. Ambrose became the first Shield member to be a Grand Slam Champion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damien Demento",
        "text": "After retiring from professional wrestling, he began working as an artist and a sculptor."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2016)",
        "text": "On the August 23 episode of \"SmackDown\", AJ Styles was declared the No. 1 contender for the WWE World Championship at Backlash. Styles also defeated Dolph Ziggler to prevent him from being inserted into the title match as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2020)",
        "text": "The day after SummerSlam, it was announced that new Universal Champion \"The Fiend\" Bray Wyatt would defend the title against Braun Strowman and Roman Reigns in a No Holds Barred Triple Threat match at Payback. Subsequently on \"SmackDown\", it was revealed that Reigns aligned himself with Paul Heyman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Persona and reception of Roman Reigns",
        "text": "On August 23, 2020, at SummerSlam, Reigns returned to WWE programming. Within a week, Reigns won the Universal title for a second time at Payback and turned heel for the first time since 2014, aligning himself with Paul Heyman. He has since then branded himself as The Tribal Chief. The first part of this storyline saw him force Jey Uso (his real-life cousin) to eventually come to his side, in a months-long feud where Reigns beat Uso at every turn. Reigns' and Uso's work was praised by critics, which eventually led to Reigns adopting the catchphrase, \"acknowledge me!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2015)",
        "text": "On the following night's \"Raw\", The New Day defeated The Lucha Dragons. After the match, the Dudley Boyz made their return to WWE, performing a \"3D\" on Xavier Woods through a table and confronting The Prime Time Players. The New Day would go on to retain their titles through 2015 and 2016. On December 13, 2016, The New Day's reigns reached 479 days, officially breaking the record set by Demolition to become the longest single reign in WWE history. 5 days later, at the pay-per-view , they lost the titles to Cesaro and Sheamus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dami\u00e1n 666",
        "text": "Dami\u00e1n 666\n--Professional wrestling career.\n----Early career (1985\u20131991).\n----Frontier Martial-Arts Wrestling (1991\u20131996).\n----Extreme Championship Wrestling (1996).\n----World Championship Wrestling (1996\u20131999).\n----Independent circuit.\n------Mexico's Most Wanted (2000\u20132005).\n------Perros del Mal (2005\u20132012).\n------La Familia de Tijuana (2012\u2013present).\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2012)",
        "text": "WWE legend Mick Foley was scheduled to face the debuting Dean Ambrose at the event. Ambrose had accused Foley for being the cause of a lost generation at WrestleMania Axxess and would to continue to insult him on Twitter. However, Foley was not cleared to compete by his doctors, he announced his final retirement and the match was scrapped. Ambrose would make his debut later in the year as part of the stable The Shield."
      },
      {
        "title": "AJ Styles",
        "text": "On the April 11 episode of \"SmackDown\", Styles defeated Baron Corbin and Sami Zayn to become the number one contender for the United States Championship. At Backlash on May 21, Styles lost his match against Kevin Owens for the United States Championship by countout. At Money in the Bank on June 18, Styles competed in the Money in the Bank ladder match, but failed to win. After Styles became once again the number one contender to Owens' championship, a title match was set for Battleground. However, two weeks before the pay-per-view, Styles defeated Owens during a WWE house show at Madison Square Garden on July 7 to capture the United States Championship for the first time in his career. However, at Battleground on July 23, Styles lost the title back to Owens, but regained it two days later on \"SmackDown\" in a triple threat match also involving a returning Chris Jericho, beginning his second reign with the championship. At SummerSlam on August 20, Styles defeated Owens to retain the title with Shane McMahon as the special guest referee. After once again defeating Owens two days later on \"SmackDown\" to end the feud. In September, Styles began a feud with Tye Dillinger and Baron Corbin, leading to a triple threat match at Hell in a Cell on October 8, where Styles lost the title to Corbin who pinned Dillinger, thus ending his reign at 75 days. Two days later on \"SmackDown\", Styles failed to regain the title from Corbin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rob Van Dam",
        "text": "Van Dam returned to WWE on the April 7, 2014, episode of \"Raw\", defeating Damien Sandow and would later defeat him once more in a rematch on the following \"SmackDown\". Shortly after, he entered into an WWE Intercontinental Championship tournament, defeating Alberto Del Rio in the first round and Cesaro in the semifinals but lost in the final round to Bad News Barrett. Following this he entered into a feud with Cesaro and Jack Swagger, having gained pinfall victories over both men in the lead up to Extreme Rules, Van Dam would go on to lose to Cesaro and Jack Swagger in a Triple Threat Elimination match, which was won by Cesaro after pinning Van Dam last, who had pinned Swagger first. Following Extreme Rules, Van Dam would once more go on to defeat Cesaro and Jack Swagger on separate occasions in rematches on both \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\". On the May 19 edition of \"Raw\", Van Dam won a Beat the Clock challenge match by defeating Alberto Del Rio in the fastest time, to become the top contender for the Intercontinental Championship at Payback, although he lost to Barrett at the event. On the June 16 episode of \"Raw\", Van Dam competed in a Battle Royal with the winner gaining a WWE World Heavyweight Championship opportunity, the match was won by Roman Reigns. At Money in the Bank, Van Dam took part in the Money in the Bank Ladder match for the briefcase, but was won by Seth Rollins. At SummerSlam, Van Dam defeated Cesaro during the pre-show. Following SummerSlam, Van Dam would go on to team with Roman Reigns and Sheamus in a six-man tag team match in a winning effort against Randy Orton, Ryback and Curtis Axel on the August 18 episode of \"Raw\". After defeating Seth Rollins by countout on the August 26 edition of \"Main Event\", Van Dam's final match with WWE was on the August 29 episode of \"SmackDown\", where he faced Rollins in a losing effort. He made an appearance at the 2014 Slammy Awards to present the Slammy Award for Extreme Moment of the Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "AJ Styles",
        "text": "Due to his victory at SummerSlam, Styles immediately re-entered the renamed WWE World Championship picture and received another opportunity at the title at Backlash against Dean Ambrose. At the pay-per view on September 11, Styles defeated Ambrose to become the WWE World Champion for the first time after a low blow, also his first championship in WWE and eighth world title overall. Styles made his first successful title defense against Ambrose in a rematch on the September 27 episode of \"SmackDown\" after interference from John Cena. At No Mercy on October 9, Styles retained the title against Cena and Ambrose in a triple threat match after pinning Cena. At Survivor Series on November 20, Styles made up Team SmackDown alongside Ambrose, Bray Wyatt, Randy Orton and Shane McMahon in the 5-on-5 Survivor Series match against Team Raw, which the former won. At on December 4, Styles retained the championship over Ambrose in a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match after James Ellsworth interfered and pushed Ambrose off a ladder and through several tables. Styles then resumed his feud with Cena leading into the 2017 Royal Rumble on January 29, where Styles was defeated for the championship, ending his reign at 140 days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rezar (wrestler)",
        "text": "On 5 November episode of Raw, The Authors of Pain defeated Seth Rollins in a handicap match to win the Raw Tag Team Championship for the first time. They went on to defeat SmackDown's Tag Team Champions Cesaro and Sheamus in an interbrand Champion vs Champion match at Survivor Series. They lost the titles to Bobby Roode and Chad Gable on 10 December episode of \"Raw\". In January 2019 Akam suffered an undisclosed leg injury that reportedly would keep him out for \u201cat least a few months\u201d. He and Akam returned to action at Super ShowDown on 7 June 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shane McMahon",
        "text": "On the February 22, 2016 episode of \"Raw\", Shane returned to WWE as a face for the first time in nearly seven years, interrupting his sister, Stephanie McMahon, receiving the \"Vincent J. McMahon Legacy of Excellence\" Award from their father, Vince McMahon. Shane announced that the reason he had returned was that he wanted control of \"Raw\", leading to Vince placing Shane in a Hell in a Cell match at WrestleMania 32 against The Undertaker, adding the stipulation that Shane would get control of \"Raw\" and Undertaker would no longer be a participant in future WrestleMania events if Shane were to win the match. At WrestleMania, Shane attempted a Leap of Faith off the top of the cell, but Undertaker moved out of the way, and Shane fell through an announce table. Shane was defeated by Undertaker soon after."
      },
      {
        "title": "AJ Styles",
        "text": "Styles defeated Roderick Strong in his return match on the January 4, 2014 taping of \"Ring of Honor Wrestling\", and picked up victories over Jay Lethal at the 12th Anniversary Show and Chris Hero at the Flyin' High event. At All Star Extravaganza VII, he became the number one contender for the ROH World Championship by winning a four-way match involving Adam Cole, Michael Elgin and Roderick Strong, but he unsuccessfully challenged champion Jay Lethal at Final Battle."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2017)",
        "text": "Next, AJ Styles defended the United States Championship against Kevin Owens, with Shane McMahon serving as special guest referee. During the match, as Shane checked on Owens, Styles performed a springboard 450\u00b0 splash on Shane, who Owens had pulled on top of him. Owens performed a pop-up powerbomb on Styles for a delayed near-fall. Owens then began to argue with Shane. Styles attempted a \"Calf Crusher\" but Owens countered by kicking Styles into Shane. Styles forced Owens to submit to the \"Calf Crusher\", however, Shane was knocked out, which led to Styles arguing with Shane. Styles performed a \"Styles Clash\" on Owens for a near-fall. Owens performed a pop-up powerbomb on Styles, but Shane noticed Styles' foot on the ring ropes, voiding the pinfall at a two count. An irate Owens and Shane argued, with Shane shoving Owens. Styles rolled up Owens for a near-fall. In the climax, Styles performed a \"Pele Kick\", a \"Phenomenal Forearm\", and a second \"Styles Clash\" on Owens to retain the title."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Mysterios",
        "text": "In May 2020, Dominik again assisted his father, this time in dealing with Seth Rollins and his teammates Murphy and Austin Theory, after his father suffered a severe (kayfabe) eye injury. At The Horror Show at Extreme Rules, Rey had his eye (kayfabe) removed in an Eye for an Eye match, where the winner could only be declared upon removing an opponent's eyeball from its socket. Dominik thereafter unsuccessfully came for revenge, having to be saved by his father's ally, Aleister Black. On the August 3 episode of \"Raw\", Dominik issued a challenge to Rollins, which he accepted for SummerSlam, in what was Dominik's in-ring debut. The following week, after the SummerSlam match was made official, Rollins and Murphy attacked Dominik, landing over 30 kendo stick shots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rob Van Dam",
        "text": "Van Dam began teaming up with Mysterio again in the summer and feuded with Ren\u00e9 Dupr\u00e9e and Kenzo Suzuki. At No Mercy, Van Dam and Mysterio failed to win the WWE Tag Team Championship from Dupree and Suzuki. On the December 9 episode of \"SmackDown!\", Van Dam and Mysterio defeated Dupr\u00e9e and Suzuki to win the WWE Tag Team Championship, and retained the title in a rematch at Armageddon. In January 2005, Van Dam suffered a knee injury. To explain his absence, the Basham Brothers (Doug and Danny) defeated Mysterio and Van Dam for the WWE Tag Team Championship, in a Fatal Four-Way elimination tag team match on the January 13 episode of \"SmackDown!\", \"injuring\" Van Dam in the process. On January 27, Van Dam underwent reconstructive knee surgery under Dr. James Andrews to repair a torn anterior cruciate ligament and meniscus."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Pro Wrestling Illustrated awards",
        "text": "The \"PWI\" Most Popular Wrestler of the Year award recognizes the best face or heroic professional wrestler of the year. Sting and John Cena have won this award a record four times. Rob Van Dam is the only wrestler to win the award as a heel (villain). In 2019, Becky Lynch became the first woman to win the award."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2021)",
        "text": "The actual pay-per-view opened with AJ Styles and Omos defending the Raw Tag Team Championship against RK-Bro (Randy Orton and Riddle). In the end, Orton performed the RKO on Styles to win the title, and give Omos his first loss in WWE, although he's not yet pinned or submitted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Payback (2016)",
        "text": "At WrestleMania 32, Roman Reigns defeated Triple H to win the WWE World Heavyweight Championship for the third time. The following night on \"Raw\", Reigns issued an open challenge for the championship, which was answered by Chris Jericho, AJ Styles, Kevin Owens, and Sami Zayn. This set up a Fatal four-way #1 contender match later in the show, but Owens attacked Zayn, rendering him unable to compete in the match; he was replaced by a returning Cesaro. Styles won the match, earning a title match against Reigns at Payback. The following week, Zayn, after being unable to compete the previous week, faced Styles in a match set up by Shane McMahon where he would gain entry into the title match if he won, but Styles was victorious. On the April 25 episode of \"Raw\", Styles saved Reigns from an attack by Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson, then Reigns recovered and attacked Styles. Reigns was laid out when Styles retaliated."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2020)",
        "text": "The card comprised eight matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, \"The Fiend\" Bray Wyatt defeated Braun Strowman in a Falls Count Anywhere match to win the Universal Championship for a second time. Following the match, Roman Reigns returned following a five-month hiatus and attacked both men, turning heel in the process. In the penultimate match, Drew McIntyre defeated Randy Orton to retain the WWE Championship. In other prominent matches, Mandy Rose defeated Sonya Deville in a No Disqualification Loser Leaves WWE match, and Asuka defeated Sasha Banks to win the Raw Women's Championship for a second time after losing her match against Bayley for the SmackDown Women's Championship in the opening bout. The event was also notable for the in-ring debut of Rey Mysterio's son Dominik Mysterio, who lost to Seth Rollins in a street fight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Akam (wrestler)",
        "text": "After signing with WWE in 2014, he has since teamed with Rezar as part of The Authors of Pain, with whom he has held the NXT Tag Team Championship and WWE Raw Tag Team Championship once, and they also won the 2016 Dusty Rhodes Tag Team Classic tournament."
      },
      {
        "title": "WrestleMania 33",
        "text": "In the first match, AJ Styles faced Shane McMahon. During the match, Styles attempted a springboard 450\u00b0 splash on Shane, who countered into a triangle choke on Styles, who then countered into a one-armed \"Styles Clash\" on Shane for a near-fall. After the referee was knocked down, Styles attempted a \"Coast-to-Coast\" on Shane, who countered by attacking Styles with a trash can. Shane then performed a \"Coast-to-Coast\" into a trash can on Styles for a near-fall. Shane attempted a \"Leap of Faith\" through an announce table on Styles, who moved and Shane fell through the announce table. As Styles attempted a \"Phenomenal Forearm\", Shane countered into a float-over DDT on Styles. Shane attempted a shooting star press, but Styles avoided and performed a \"Phenomenal Forearm\" on Shane to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extreme Rules (2016)",
        "text": "James Caldwell of \"Pro Wrestling Torch\" said that it was \"unfortunate there were so many finisher kick-outs on this show, but that seems to be the trend these days\". Caldwell rated the four-way match the best of the show at 4.5 stars out of 5, commenting that \"strong build-up\" resulted in a \"strong title match\", with further positives including that the \"Owens-Zayn feud was enhanced, Cesaro's amazing in-ring skills were captured, and Miz's post-Mania resurgence continued\". The next-best rated match was the main event at 3.75 stars: a \"very physical, PPV main event-worthy battle continuing to build up Styles's strong first year in WWE. Reigns plays the part well of a PPV main-eventer when matched up with the right opponent, like Styles, but not someone like Sheamus.\" Also, Styles took a \"crazy amount of punishment\" during the match. The rest of the matches of the event were less well received, being rated either 2.25 or 2.5 stars. Corbin's pre-show performance showed he had \"a lot of work to do to belong\" on the main roster; the Tornado tag match was rushed and \"disorganized\"; Rusev winning the U.S. Championship was a positive; the tag title match was mostly a \"basic TV-quality action\" except for a \"good nearfall for The Vaudevillains\"; while the Asylum match had a \"good\" finish, but was dragged down by \"an overly-gimmicky WWE cage match concept\" and the \"middle portion [being] a big struggle trying to follow the four-way\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jeff Hardy",
        "text": "On the July 19 episode of \"Raw\", Hardy, who by popular demand notably brought back his \"No More Words\" entrance theme song by Endeverafter for the first time since his 2009 departure (all of his appearances since his WrestleMania 33 return before this one were to \"Loaded\", which doubles as his tag team entrance with brother Matt), defeated NXT Champion Karrion Kross, becoming the first man in WWE to defeat Kross by pinfall. On the September 6 episode of \"Raw,\" Hardy was seen chasing the 24/7 Championship, which was heavily criticized by fans. The following \"Raw,\" Hardy challenged Damian Priest for the WWE United States Championship, but lost. On the September 20 episode of \"Raw\", Hardy would defeat Sheamus to be added to the United States title match at Extreme Rules. At the event, Hardy would fail to win the title as Damian Priest would retain. He then entered a brief feud with Austin Theory, losing to Theory on the October 11 and October 18 episodes of \"Raw\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2019)",
        "text": "At Extreme Rules, AJ Styles defeated Ricochet to win the United States Championship thanks to help from his O.C. teammates, Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson. On the July 29 episode of \"Raw\", Ricochet won a gauntlet match, to earn a rematch for the title at SummerSlam."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2013)",
        "text": "During the SummerSlam Kickoff pre-show, Dean Ambrose defended the WWE United States Championship against Rob Van Dam. The match was streamed live on WWE.com, the WWE app, and various social sites. In the end, Van Dam executed a Five Star Frog Splash on Ambrose but Roman Reigns interfered and attacked Van Dam with a Spear, meaning Van Dam won by disqualification."
      },
      {
        "title": "Akam (wrestler)",
        "text": "On the November 5 episode of Raw, The Authors of Pain defeated Seth Rollins in a handicap match to win the Raw Tag Team Championship for the first time. They went on to defeat SmackDown's Tag Team Champions Cesaro and Sheamus in an interbrand Champion vs Champion match at Survivor Series. They lost the titles to Bobby Roode and Chad Gable on the December 10 episode of Raw. In January 2019 Akam suffered an undisclosed leg injury that reportedly would keep him out for \"at least a few months\". He would be cleared to return to action in May, however the team has yet to return to action. He and Rezar returned to action at Super ShowDown on June 7, 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shawn Michaels",
        "text": "He received praises for several matches, including 15 Match of the Year awards between Pro Wrestling Illustrated and Wrestling Observer Newsletter. Also, his match at WrestleMania 24 against Ric Flair was named Match of the Decade by the Wrestling Observer Newsletter. Dave Meltzer gave him two 5 stars matches (the Ladder match against Razor Ramon at WrestleMania X and the first Hell in a Cell against The Undertaker at Bad Blood 1997)."
      },
      {
        "title": "AJ Styles",
        "text": "AJ Styles\n--Early life.\n--Professional wrestling career.\n----Early career (1998\u20132001).\n----World Championship Wrestling (2001).\n----World Wrestling Federation appearances (2001\u20132002).\n----Various promotions (2001\u20132002).\n----Ring of Honor.\n------Early years (2002\u20132004).\n------Feud with Jimmy Rave (2005\u20132006).\n----Total Nonstop Action Wrestling.\n------NWA World Heavyweight Champion (2002\u20132004).\n------X Division Champion (2004\u20132007).\n------Various alliances (2007\u20132009).\n------TNA World Heavyweight Champion (2009\u20132010).\n------Fortune (2010\u20132012).\n------Final storylines (2012\u20132014).\n------Mexican and Japanese partnerships (2006\u20132013).\n----Return to the independent circuit (2003\u20132005).\n----Return to ROH (2014\u20132016).\n----Second return to the independent circuit (2014\u20132016).\n----New Japan Pro-Wrestling (2014\u20132016).\n----WWE.\n------The Club and Championship Victories (2016\u20132017).\n------Year-long WWE Championship Reign (2017\u20132018).\n------Reunion of The Club (2019\u20132020).\n------Alliance with Omos (2020\u20132021).\n------Feud with Edge (2021\u2013present).\n--Reception and legacy.\n--Other media.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Edge (wrestler)",
        "text": "He lost the title the next night to Jarrett at Fully Loaded. At SummerSlam, Edge and Christian competed in a Tag team turmoil match where they eliminated three teams: The Hardy Boyz, Mideon and Viscera, and Droz and Prince Albert before getting eliminated from the match by The Acolytes. At Unforgiven, Edge and Christian faced The New Age Outlaws for the WWF Tag Team Championship but failed to win the titles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ric Flair",
        "text": "On March 31, 2012, while still contracted to TNA as a part of a deal with WWE which allowed Christian Cage to appear at Slammiversary 2012, Flair became the first person to be inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame twice, the second time as part of the class of 2012 with The Four Horsemen. On December 17, 2012, Flair returned to WWE as a non-wrestling personality on the annual Slammy Awards show to present the Superstar of the Year award to John Cena, who in turn gave the award to Flair. Flair's return was interrupted by CM Punk and Paul Heyman, escalating into a confrontation that ended with him locking Heyman in the figure-four leglock. After clearing the ring, Flair was assaulted by The Shield (Dean Ambrose, Roman Reigns, and Seth Rollins), until Ryback and Team Hell No (Kane and Daniel Bryan) helped Flair fend off the group. Flair appeared on the main roster sporadically throughout 2013, as The Miz's mentor. He also occasionally appeared on \"NXT\" in 2013 and 2014, accompanying his daughter Charlotte to the ring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "After making a few minor TV appearances, Priest made his return by saving Humberto Carrillo, when Carrillo was being attacked by Sheamus, the reigning United States Champion after their title match. Following this, Priest and Sheamus had a match on Raw, where Priest defeated Sheamus. This started a rivalry between the two men and they continued to face off each other. Priest then challenged Sheamus to a match at SummerSlam for the WWE United States Championship, which Sheamus accepted. At the event, Priest defeated Sheamus to win the title. Priest then successfully defended his title against Drew McIntyre and Sheamus, earning McIntyre's respect in the process. Subsequently, a singles match was held between McIntyre and Sheamus to determine the number one contender for Priest's United States Championship, which was won by Sheamus, setting up a rematch for the title between the two at Extreme Rules. Eventually, Jeff Hardy also became a contender for the championship after defeating Sheamus, turning the title match at the event into a triple threat. Priest successfully retained his title at the event. The next night on Raw, Priest again defeated Sheamus in a no disqualification title rematch, ending the feud."
      },
      {
        "title": "Killian Dain",
        "text": "Damian Mackle (born 20 February 1985) is an Irish professional wrestler. He is best known for his time in WWE, where he performed under the ring name Killian Dain and since his departure from WWE he has reverted back to his ring name on the independent circuit Big Damo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arena Naucalpan 27th Anniversary Show",
        "text": "Alejandro Jim\u00e9nez Cruz began his wrestling career as the \"enmascarado\" or masked character Dr. Cerebro (Dr. Brains), wearing a mask that was decorated to look like his brain was exposed. On July 26, 1998 he won his first ever \"Lucha de Apuestas\", or \"bet match\", as he defeated Oro Jr., forcing him to unmask as a result. On March 1, 2001 he himself lost his mask as he lost to El Hijo del Santo and was forced to unmask and state his real name. Subsequently, he won two \"Luchas de Apuestas\" matches against Black Terry and American Gigolo, in both cases forcing them to have their hair shaved off afterwards. Japanese wrestler MAZADA came to Japan in 2000 as part of a group of Toryumon working and training with IWRG. Since then Japanese wrestlers from Toryumon would make annual trips to Mexico. Between 2000 and 2003 MAZADA lost several \"Lucha de Apuestas\" matches, each time leaving the arena without any hair."
      },
      {
        "title": "AJ Styles",
        "text": "On February 8, Styles returned to Combat Zone Wrestling (CZW) after eleven years, defeating CZW World Heavyweight Champion Drew Gulak via disqualification, which meant that Gulak retained the title. In August, Styles also returned to Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (PWG) after eleven years, taking part in the promotion's annual 10th Battle of Los Angeles tournament, where on August 29 he defeated Brian Myers to make it to the quarterfinals before losing to Roderick Strong via disqualification on August 31."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2021)",
        "text": "Eleven matches were contested at the event, including one match on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, Roman Reigns defeated John Cena to retain the Universal Championship. In other prominent matches, Bobby Lashley defeated Goldberg to retain the WWE Championship, Edge defeated Seth Rollins, Charlotte Flair defeated defending champion Nikki A.S.H. and Rhea Ripley in a triple threat match to win her record sixth Raw Women's Championship, Damian Priest defeated Sheamus to win the United States Championship, and in the opening bout, RK-Bro (Randy Orton and Riddle) defeated AJ Styles and Omos to win the Raw Tag Team Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Fray",
        "text": "Fray has won a number of awards, including the \"R\u00e9v\u00e9lation Classique\" (Classical Discovery) from ADAMI, the \"Jeune Soliste de l'Ann\u00e9e\" (Young Soloist of the Year) from the French Language Public Radio Coalition, and the Diploma for Outstanding Merit from the Hamamatsu Competition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Steele",
        "text": "Damian Steele\n--Career.\n----Georgia Championship Wrestling (2004-2005).\n----World Wrestling Entertainment.\n------Deep South Wrestling (2005-2006).\n----Later Career (2007-2009).\n--Personal life and death.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2016)",
        "text": "In the sixth match, Dean Ambrose defended the WWE World Championship against Dolph Ziggler. In the end, Ambrose executed \"Dirty Deeds\" on Ziggler to retain the title."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2018)",
        "text": "WWE Champion AJ Styles was interviewed about his match against Samoa Joe. He explained that he did not regret what he did to Joe, but was upset that he lost the match due to his actions. He warned Joe to never talk about his family again. Joe then attacked Styles from behind. A rematch between the two was scheduled for Hell in a Cell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edge (wrestler)",
        "text": "On the February 21 episode of \"Raw\", Edge reflected on all the WrestleMania moments in his career and then he issued an open challenge for WrestleMania 38. The following week on \"Raw\", his challenge was accepted by AJ Styles, but Edge attacked him, turning heel for the first time since 2010. Edge debuted a new entrance theme, \"The Other Side\" by Alter Bridge, during the buildup to WrestleMania and would go on to win match against Styles. Following WrestleMania, Edge formed an alliance with Damian Priest. On the April 17 episode of \"Raw\", Edge challenged Styles to a rematch at WrestleMania Backlash which Styles accepted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gable Steveson",
        "text": "Gable Steveson\n--Early life.\n--Collegiate and freestyle wrestling career.\n----2018\u20132019.\n----2019\u20132020.\n----2020\u20132021.\n----2021\u20132022.\n--Professional wrestling career.\n----WWE.\n------Raw (2021\u2013present).\n--Freestyle record.\n--NCAA record.\n----Stats.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Eldaniz Azizli",
        "text": "He won a gold medal at the 2018 World Wrestling Championships."
      },
      {
        "title": "Torneo Gran Alternativa (2008)",
        "text": "On November 7, 2008 Metalik was repackaged as he was given a new name, mask and suit, making his debut as M\u00e1scara Dorada (\"Golden Mask\"), helping his team defeat the trio of Averno, Mephisto and Ephesto. He would later go on to win various championships in subsequent years as he rose up through the ranks of CMLL."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2019)",
        "text": "After that, The O.C.'s AJ Styles (accompanied by fellow O.C. members, Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson) defended the United States Championship against Ricochet. In the end, as Ricochet attempted a Phoenix splash on Styles, Styles countered into a \"Styles Clash\" to retain the title. Following the match, Gallows and Anderson performed the \"Magic Killer\" on Ricochet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dominik Mysterio",
        "text": "As part of the 2020 Draft in October, Mysterio was drafted to the SmackDown brand. There, both focused on the tag team division, trying to win the championships. He also participated in the Survivor Series kickoff during a battle royal and the Royal Rumble match at Royal Rumble, but he was eliminated. With his father, they tried to win the SmackDown tag team Championships on the WrestleMania edition of \"SmackDown\", but Dolph Ziggler and Robert Roode retained the titles. At WrestleMania Backlash, they won the tag team championship, marking Dominik's first championship in WWE, and making him and Rey the first father and son tag team champions in WWE history. At Money in the Bank, The Mysterios dropped the titles to The Usos, ending their reign at 63 days. A rematch for the titles was set for SummerSlam, but the Mysterios failed to regain the titles. On the September 10th 2021 edition of Smackdown from Madison Square Garden, Dominik teamed with his father and John Cena to take on the team of Roman Reigns and the Usos in a 6 man tag team match in a winning effort in a dark match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damian Priest",
        "text": "At Survivor Series, Priest had a match against Shinsuke Nakamura, the reigning Intercontinental Champion at the time. During the match, Nakamura's ally Rick Boogs repeatedly distracted Priest, despite the latter warning the former not to do it. After another distraction, Priest attacked both Nakamura and Boogs, thus losing the match by disqualification, making it his second loss on the main roster."
      },
      {
        "title": "Payback (2016)",
        "text": "Shane McMahon restarted the title match with a no-count-out stipulation. When Styles tried an aerial attack, Reigns accidentally low blowed him and was disqualified, again losing the match but retaining his championship. This time, Stephanie McMahon restarted the title match under no-disqualification rules. Reigns countered a Phenomenal Forearm with a Superman Punch for a nearfall. Reigns followed with another Superman Punch and prepared to execute a Spear, however Karl Anderson and Luke Gallows appeared and pulled Styles from the ring."
      },
      {
        "title": "AJ Styles",
        "text": "On February 12 at Elimination Chamber, Styles competed in an Elimination Chamber match against Cena, Baron Corbin, Bray Wyatt, Dean Ambrose and The Miz for the WWE Championship, which Wyatt won. On the following episode of \"SmackDown\", Styles failed to regain the title from Wyatt in a triple threat match also involving Cena. The following month, Styles began a feud with SmackDown Commissioner Shane McMahon, due to Styles' frustration of being unable to reclaim the WWE Championship. This led to a match between the two at WrestleMania 33 on April 2, which Styles won. On the following episode of \"SmackDown\", Styles shook hands with McMahon, thus turning face in the process."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2016)",
        "text": "After SmackDown draftee Dean Ambrose retained the WWE World Championship at Battleground against Raw draftees Roman Reigns and Seth Rollins in a triple threat match, \"Raw\" was left without a world title. Subsequently, Stephanie McMahon and Mick Foley announced a new championship, the WWE Universal Championship, the following night on \"Raw\" to serve as the brand's top championship. It was then announced that the inaugural champion would be crowned at SummerSlam in a singles match; Rollins, as \"Raw\"'s #1 draft pick, was automatically set for that match, while his opponent was determined by two Fatal 4-Way matches that night, with the winners wrestling each other in a singles match. Finn B\u00e1lor won the first qualifier by defeating Cesaro, Kevin Owens, and Rusev, while Reigns won the second by defeating Chris Jericho, Sami Zayn, and Sheamus. B\u00e1lor then defeated Reigns and was added to the title match at SummerSlam. B\u00e1lor and Rollins confronted each other the following week, both promising to win at SummerSlam. Rollins then attempted to attack B\u00e1lor, but B\u00e1lor countered, forcing Rollins to retreat. Two weeks later, B\u00e1lor's alter ego, \"The Demon King\", confronted Rollins after Rollins called him out."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2020)",
        "text": "In the next match, Seth Rollins (accompanied by Murphy) fought Dominik Mysterio (accompanied by his father, Rey Mysterio) in a Street Fight. This was Dominik's first match as a WWE wrestler. Dominik applied a Russian Legsweep on Rollins from the top turnbuckle onto table below. Later on Rey Mysterio tried to interfere but Dominik told him not to do so. Later on Rollins handcuffed Rey to the second rope. In the end, Rollins performed a \"Stomp\" on Dominik to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rob Van Dam",
        "text": "Following heavy speculation, it was announced by WWE and Fox Sports on March 29 that Van Dam would be an inductee into the 2021 WWE Hall of Fame class."
      },
      {
        "title": "SummerSlam (2021)",
        "text": "In the eighth match, Edge took on Seth Rollins. Edge reenacted The Brood's entrance (a group Edge was once a member of earlier in his WWE career in 1998\u20131999) before coming to the ring to his regular entrance. Rollins began to target the surgically repaired neck of Edge by slamming it into the steel steps. Rollins performed a Frog Splash on Edge for a nearfall. Edge performed a Swinging Neckbreaker from the top rope on Rollins. As Edge went back to the top rope, Rollins performed a Superplex and a Falcon Arrow on Edge for a nearfall. Edge countered The Stomp and a Pedigree from Rollins and performed a Glam Slam for a nearfall. As Rollins went for The Stomp on the apron, Edge countered and performed a Spear on Rollins sending both of them out of the ring. Rollins countered a Spear attempt by Edge into a Pedigree for another nearfall. Edge performed a Corkscrew Moonsault and a Spear on Rollins for a nearfall. In the end, Edge countered The Stomp again and locked in an Edgecator and a Crossface. Edge rammed Rollins' head into the ring mat several times and locked in a Bulldog Choke, submitting Rollins to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Matthew Justice",
        "text": "He notes wrestler Rob Van Dam as an idol and the main reason that he became a wrestler."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where does Damian Priest come from?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Damian Priest is the ring name of professional wrestler Luis Mart\u00ednez. Mart\u00ednez was born in New York City, but raised in the municipality of Dorado, Puerto Rico."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did Damian Priest start wrestling?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "While living in Dorado in his early life, Damian Priest saw the World Wrestling Council on television and got the interest to become a pro wrestler. After winning two national championships in full-contact martial arts, Damian decided to embark on a career in professional wrestling and trained at the Monster Factory and went on to win several titles in Monster Factory Pro Wrestling."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Damian Priest still in wrestling as of 2022?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the Raw brand. At WrestleMania 38, Priest made his appearance by distracting AJ Styles during his match against Edge, causing Styles to lose the match."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does Damian Priest have any awards or accomplishments to his name?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "He has won the KPW Tag Team Championship, the MFPW Heavyweight Championship, the MFPW Tag Team Championship , the MFPW Invitational, the ROH World Television Championship, the WWE United States Championship , the NXT North American Championship, and was ranked No. 85 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2021."
    ],
    "topic": "SummerSlam (2021)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Damian Priest:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Damian Priest",
          "Professional wrestling career",
          "Early career"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mart\u00ednez trained at the Monster Factory and went on to win several titles in Monster Factory Pro Wrestling. In 2014, Mart\u00ednez attended a Ring of Honor (ROH) training camp and went on to train at the ROH dojo."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Damian Priest:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Damian Priest",
          "Professional wrestling career",
          "Early career"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mart\u00ednez trained at the Monster Factory and went on to win several titles in Monster Factory Pro Wrestling. In 2014, Mart\u00ednez attended a Ring of Honor (ROH) training camp and went on to train at the ROH dojo."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Damian Priest:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Damian Priest",
          "Professional wrestling career",
          "Early career"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mart\u00ednez trained at the Monster Factory and went on to win several titles in Monster Factory Pro Wrestling. In 2014, Mart\u00ednez attended a Ring of Honor (ROH) training camp and went on to train at the ROH dojo."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Damian Priest:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Damian Priest",
          "Professional wrestling career",
          "WWE",
          "Debut on Raw and United States Champion (2021\u20132022)"
        ],
        "ctx": "After making a few minor TV appearances, Priest made his return by saving Humberto Carrillo, when Carrillo was being attacked by Sheamus, the reigning United States Champion after their title match. Following this, Priest and Sheamus had a match on Raw, where Priest defeated Sheamus. This started a rivalry between the two men and they continued to face off each other. Priest then challenged Sheamus to a match at SummerSlam for the WWE United States Championship, which Sheamus accepted. At the event, Priest defeated Sheamus to win the title. Priest then successfully defended his title against Drew McIntyre and Sheamus, earning McIntyre's respect in the process. Subsequently, a singles match was held between McIntyre and Sheamus to determine the number one contender for Priest's United States Championship, which was won by Sheamus, setting up a rematch for the title between the two at Extreme Rules. Eventually, Jeff Hardy also became a contender for the championship after defeating Sheamus, turning the title match at the event into a triple threat. Priest successfully retained his title at the event. The next night on Raw, Priest again defeated Sheamus in a no disqualification title rematch, ending the feud."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "Cereals remained the most important staple during the early Middle Ages. Barley, oats and rye were eaten by the poor. Standard foods included bread, porridge, and gruel. Fava beans and vegetables were important supplements to the cereal-based diet of the lower orders. Meat was expensive and prestigious. Game was common only on the tables of landowners. The most prevalent butcher's meats were pork, chicken, and other domestic fowl; beef, which required greater investment in land, was less common. Cod and herring were mainstays among the northern populations; dried, smoked or salted, they made their way far inland, but a wide variety of other saltwater and freshwater fish was also eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Cereals remained the most important staple during the early Middle Ages as rice was introduced late, and the potato was only introduced in 1536, with a much later date for widespread consumption. Barley, oats and rye were eaten by the poor. Wheat was for the governing classes. These were consumed as bread, porridge, gruel and pasta by all of society's members. Fava beans and vegetables were important supplements to the cereal-based diet of the lower orders. (\"Phaseolus\" beans, today the \"common bean\", were of New World origin and were introduced after the Columbian exchange in the 16th century.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "While grains were the primary constituent of most meals, vegetables such as cabbage, chard, onions, garlic and carrots were common foodstuffs. Many of these were eaten daily by peasants and workers and were less prestigious than meat. Cookbooks, which appeared in the late Middle Ages and were intended mostly for those who could afford such luxuries, contained only a small number of recipes using vegetables as the main ingredient. The lack of recipes for many basic vegetable dishes, such as potages, has been interpreted not to mean that they were absent from the meals of the nobility, but rather that they were considered so basic that they did not require recording. Carrots were available in many variants during the Middle Ages: among them a tastier reddish-purple variety and a less prestigious green-yellow type. Various legumes, like chickpeas, fava beans and field peas were also common and important sources of protein, especially among the lower classes. With the exception of peas, legumes were often viewed with some suspicion by the dietitians advising the upper class, partly because of their tendency to cause flatulence but also because they were associated with the coarse food of peasants. The importance of vegetables to the common people is illustrated by accounts from 16th century Germany stating that many peasants ate sauerkraut from three to four times a day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "The meals people ate were controlled by the seasons, geography, and religious restrictions. For most people food supply was limited to what the nearby lands and seas could provide. Peasants made do with what they could, primarily cooking over an open fire, in a cauldron or on a spit. Their ovens were typically outside of the home, and made on top of clay or turf. Poor families primarily consumed grains and vegetables in the form of stew, soup, or pottage, and anything grown on their own small plots of land. They were unable to afford spices, and it was a crime for them to hunt deer, boar, or rabbits. Their staples included rye or barley bread, stews, local dairy products, cheaper meats like beef, pork or lamb, fish if there was access to freshwater, vegetables and herbs grown at home, fruit from local trees and bushes, nuts, and honey. The upper class and nobility had better food and diet than that the lower classes, but food was eaten in small portions. Meals were laid out with many different colors and flavors\u2014a very different experience from those in the lower class. Smaller portion sizes developed around this time due to various cultural influences, and these large, table-long meals were essentially picked at by the nobility. Foods were highly spiced, and many of these were expensively imported, often from outside Europe. The Middle Ages diet of the upper class and nobility included manchet bread, a variety of meats like venison, pork, and lamb, fish and shellfish, spices, cheese, fruits, and a limited number of vegetables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The most common grains were rye, barley, buckwheat, millet and oats. Rice remained a fairly expensive import for most of the Middle Ages and was grown in northern Italy only towards the end of the period. Wheat was common all over Europe and was considered to be the most nutritious of all grains, but was more prestigious and thus more expensive. The finely sifted white flour that modern Europeans are most familiar with was reserved for the bread of the upper classes. As one descended the social ladder, bread became coarser, darker, and its bran content increased. In times of grain shortages or outright famine, grains could be supplemented with cheaper and less desirable substitutes like chestnuts, dried legumes, acorns, ferns, and a wide variety of more or less nutritious vegetable matter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Olive oil was a ubiquitous ingredient in Mediterranean cultures, but remained an expensive import in the north where oils of poppy, walnut, hazel and filbert were the most affordable alternatives. Butter and lard, especially after the terrible mortality during the Black Death made them less scarce, were used in considerable quantities in the northern and northwestern regions, especially in the Low Countries. Almost universal in middle and upper class cooking all over Europe was the almond, which was in the ubiquitous and highly versatile almond milk, which was used as a substitute in dishes that otherwise required eggs or milk, though the bitter variety of almonds came along much later."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The cuisines of the cultures of the Mediterranean Basin since antiquity had been based on cereals, particularly various types of wheat. Porridge, gruel and later, bread, became the basic food staple that made up the majority of calorie intake for most of the population. From the 8th to the 11th centuries, the proportion of various cereals in the diet rose from about a third to three quarters. Dependence on wheat remained significant throughout the medieval era, and spread northward with the rise of Christianity. In colder climates, however, it was usually unaffordable for the majority population, and was associated with the higher classes. The centrality of bread in religious rituals such as the Eucharist meant that it enjoyed an especially high prestige among foodstuffs. Only (olive) oil and wine had a comparable value, but both remained quite exclusive outside the warmer grape- and olive-growing regions. The symbolic role of bread as both sustenance and substance is illustrated in a sermon given by Saint Augustine:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "Food history\n--Food and diets in history.\n----5th to 15th century: Middle Ages in Western Europe.\n----16th century: Importance of Spain and Portugal.\n----18th century: early modern Europe.\n----19th century.\n----20th century.\n------World War I and after.\n------World War II and after.\n--Consumption history of notable food.\n----Potato.\n----Rice.\n----Sugar.\n--Historical impact of religion on cuisines.\n----Judaism.\n----Jesuits.\n--Further reading.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Spices were among the most luxurious products available in the Middle Ages, the most common being black pepper, cinnamon (and the cheaper alternative cassia), cumin, nutmeg, ginger and cloves. They all had to be imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them extremely expensive, and gave them social cachet such that pepper for example was hoarded, traded and conspicuously donated in the manner of gold bullion. It has been estimated that around 1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000\u00a0tons of the other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the late Middle Ages. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people. While pepper was the most common spice, the most exclusive (though not the most obscure in its origin) was saffron, used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor, for according to the humours, yellow signified hot and dry, valued qualities; turmeric provided a yellow substitute, and touches of gilding at banquets supplied both the medieval love of ostentatious show and Galenic dietary lore: at the sumptuous banquet that Cardinal Riario offered the daughter of the King of Naples in June 1473, the bread was gilded. Among the spices that have now fallen into obscurity are grains of paradise, a relative of cardamom which almost entirely replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking, long pepper, mace, spikenard, galangal and cubeb. Sugar, unlike today, was considered to be a type of spice due to its high cost and humoral qualities. Few dishes employed just one type of spice or herb, but rather a combination of several different ones. Even when a dish was dominated by a single flavor it was usually combined with another to produce a compound taste, for example parsley and cloves or pepper and ginger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "In the late Middle Ages, the increasing wealth of middle class merchants and traders meant that commoners began emulating the aristocracy, and threatened to break down some of the symbolic barriers between the nobility and the lower classes. The response came in two forms: didactic literature warning of the dangers of adapting a diet inappropriate for one's class, and sumptuary laws that put a cap on the lavishness of commoners' banquets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ribollita",
        "text": "Some sources date it back to the Middle Ages when the servants gathered up food-soaked bread trenchers from feudal lords' banquets and boiled them for their dinners."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in the Middle Ages",
        "text": "In the eighth through 11th century, in northern France, the most important crops were (in approximate order) rye (\"Secale cereale\"), bread wheat, barley, and, oats (\"Avena sativa\"). Barley and oats were the most important crops in Normandy and Brittany. Rye is more winter-hardy and tolerant of poor soils than wheat, and thus became the dominant crop on many marginal and northernmost European sites. Another hardy crop, bere, a kind of barley, was grown in Scandinavia and England and especially in marginal agricultural areas in Scotland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "One of the most common constituents of a medieval meal, either as part of a banquet or as a small snack, were sops, pieces of bread with which a liquid like wine, soup, broth, or sauce could be soaked up and eaten. Another common sight at the medieval dinner table was the frumenty, a thick wheat porridge often boiled in a meat broth and seasoned with spices. Porridges were also made of every type of grain and could be served as desserts or dishes for the sick, if boiled in milk (or almond milk) and sweetened with sugar. Pies filled with meats, eggs, vegetables, or fruit were common throughout Europe, as were turnovers, fritters, doughnuts, and many similar pastries. By the Late Middle Ages biscuits (cookies in the U.S.) and especially wafers, eaten for dessert, had become high-prestige foods and came in many varieties. Grain, either as bread crumbs or flour, was also the most common thickener of soups and stews, alone or in combination with almond milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish cuisine",
        "text": "Distinct from preceding eras, the Middle Ages ushered the development of dense urban centers that dramatically affected preexisting food systems by changing both physical and societal infrastructures. The spread and increasing normalization of a new type of civilian who did not produce or hunt their own food and was thus reliant on foreign market trade and import from rural farms made the need for accessible and consistent sources of food vital."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Especially important was the fishing and trade in herring and cod in the Atlantic and the Baltic Sea. The herring was of unprecedented significance to the economy of much of Northern Europe, and it was one of the most common commodities traded by the Hanseatic League, a powerful north German alliance of trading guilds. Kippers made from herring caught in the North Sea could be found in markets as far away as Constantinople. While large quantities of fish were eaten fresh, a large proportion was salted, dried, and, to a lesser extent, smoked. Stockfish, cod that was split down the middle, fixed to a pole and dried, was very common, though preparation could be time-consuming, and meant beating the dried fish with a mallet before soaking it in water. A wide range of mollusks including oysters, mussels and scallops were eaten by coastal and river-dwelling populations, and freshwater crayfish were seen as a desirable alternative to meat during fish days. Compared to meat, fish was much more expensive for inland populations, especially in Central Europe, and therefore not an option for most. Freshwater fish such as pike, carp, bream, perch, lamprey and trout were common."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ale",
        "text": "Ale was an important source of nutrition in the medieval world. It was one of three main sources of grains in the diet at the start of the fourteenth century in England, along with pottage and breads."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Medical science of the Middle Ages had a considerable influence on what was considered healthy and nutritious among the upper classes. One's lifestyle\u2014including diet, exercise, appropriate social behavior, and approved medical remedies\u2014was the way to good health, and all types of food were assigned certain properties that affected a person's health. All foodstuffs were also classified on scales ranging from hot to cold and moist to dry, according to the four bodily humours theory proposed by Galen that dominated Western medical science from late Antiquity until the 17th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Cheese was far more important as a foodstuff, especially for common people, and it has been suggested that it was, during many periods, the chief supplier of animal protein among the lower classes. Many varieties of cheese eaten today, like Dutch Edam, Northern French Brie and Italian Parmesan, were available and well known in late medieval times. There were also whey cheeses, like ricotta, made from by-products of the production of harder cheeses. Cheese was used in cooking for pies and soups, the latter being common fare in German-speaking areas. Butter, another important dairy product, was in popular use in the regions of Northern Europe that specialized in cattle production in the latter half of the Middle Ages, the Low Countries and Southern Scandinavia. While most other regions used oil or lard as cooking fats, butter was the dominant cooking medium in these areas. Its production also allowed for a lucrative butter export from the 12th century onward."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "In western Europe, medieval cuisine (5th\u201315th century) did not change rapidly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "Olive oil was among the ubiquitous ingredients around the Mediterranean, but remained an expensive import in the north where oil of poppy, walnut, hazel and filbert was the most affordable alternative. Butter and lard, especially after the Black Death, was used in considerable quantities in the northern and northwestern regions, especially in the Low Countries. Almost universal in middle and upper class cooking all over Europe was the almond, which was in the ubiquitous and highly versatile almond milk, which was used as a substitute in dishes that otherwise required eggs or milk, though the bitter variety came along much later."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Fruit was popular and could be served fresh, dried, or preserved, and was a common ingredient in many cooked dishes. Since sugar and honey were both expensive, it was common to include many types of fruit in dishes that called for sweeteners of some sort. The fruits of choice in the south were lemons, citrons, bitter oranges (the sweet type was not introduced until several hundred years later), pomegranates, quinces, and grapes. Farther north, apples, pears, plums, and wild strawberries were more common. Figs and dates were eaten all over Europe, but remained rather expensive imports in the north."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Research into medieval foodways was, until around 1980, a somewhat neglected field of study. Misconceptions and outright errors were quite common among historians, and are still present in as a part of the popular view of the Middle Ages as a backward, primitive and barbaric era. Medieval cookery was described as revolting due to the often unfamiliar combination of flavors, the perceived lack of vegetables and a liberal use of spices. The heavy use of spices has been popular as an argument to support the claim that spices were employed to disguise the flavor of spoiled meat, a conclusion without support in historical fact and contemporary sources. Fresh meat could be procured throughout the year by those who could afford it. The preservation techniques available at the time, although crude by today's standards, were perfectly adequate. The astronomical cost and high prestige of spices, and thereby the reputation of the host, would have been effectively undone if wasted on cheap and poorly handled foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Plain milk was not consumed by adults except the poor or sick, being reserved for the very young or elderly, and then usually as buttermilk or whey. Fresh milk was overall less common than other dairy products because of the lack of technology to keep it from spoiling. Tea and coffee, both made from plants found in the Old World, were popular in East Asia and the Muslim world during the Middle Ages. However, neither of these non-alcoholic social drinks were consumed in Europe before the late 16th and early 17th centuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The caloric content and structure of medieval diet varied over time, from region to region, and between classes. However, for most people, the diet tended to be high-carbohydrate, with most of the budget spent on, and the majority of calories provided by, cereals and alcohol (such as beer). Even though meat was highly valued by all, lower classes often could not afford it, nor were they allowed by the church to consume it every day. In England in the 13th century, meat contributed a negligible portion of calories to a typical harvest worker's diet; however, its share increased after the Black Death and, by the 15th century, it provided about 20% of the total. Even among the lay nobility of medieval England, grain provided 65\u201370% of calories in the early 14th century, though a generous provision of meat and fish was included, and their consumption of meat increased in the aftermath of the Black Death as well. In one early-15th-century English aristocratic household for which detailed records are available (that of the Earl of Warwick), gentle members of the household received a staggering of assorted meats in a typical meat meal in the autumn and in the winter, in addition to of bread and of beer or possibly wine (and there would have been two meat meals per day, five days a week, except during Lent). In the household of Henry Stafford in 1469, gentle members received of meat per meal, and all others received , and everyone was given of bread and of alcohol. On top of these quantities, some members of these households (usually, a minority) ate breakfast, which would not include any meat, but would probably include another of beer; and uncertain quantities of bread and ale could have been consumed in between meals. The diet of the lord of the household differed somewhat from this structure, including less red meat, more high-quality wild game, fresh fish, fruit, and wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in the Middle Ages",
        "text": "In the late Roman Empire in Europe the most important crops were bread wheat in Italy and barley in northern Europe and the Balkans. Near the Mediterranean Sea viticulture and olives were important. Rye and oats were only slowly becoming major crops. The Romans introduced viticulture to more northerly areas such as Paris and the valleys of the Moselle and Rhine rivers. Cultivation of olives in medieval France was traditional on the southeastern coast bordering on Italy, but apparently the cultivation of olives in Languedoc on a large scale began in areas only in the 15th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish cuisine",
        "text": "Fragile plant life erodes and disappears quickly compared to grain chaff that fossilizes easily, what evidence is recovered may present a distorted assessment of what ratio of cereals to plant life was consumed at the time only because there is no empirical data of such eroded materials. The presence of vegetables, in particular, is therefore minimal in archeological assemblages, but fruit\u2014via fossilized seeds and pits\u2014consequently features more frequently, with evidence of cherry, strawberry, sloe, rowan, blackberry, bilberry, apple, and haws as present in Medieval cesspits. Apples are frequently mentioned in Medieval texts of various kinds, particularly in reference to sweet varieties as valuable and rare offerings to nobles and lords, and sour breeds as used to make cider, verjus, vinegar, and medicine. That theological and dietetic discourse affected these texts also affected the corresponding behaviors by which certain foods were consumed\u2014to eat apples raw, for example, was frowned upon by medieval physicians and so apples were generally cooked into puddings, or fermented into drinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "While all forms of wild game were popular among those who could obtain it, most meat came from domestic animals. Domestic working animals that were no longer able to work were slaughtered but not particularly appetizing and therefore were less valued as meat. Beef was not as common as today because raising cattle was labor-intensive, requiring pastures and feed, and oxen and cows were much more valuable as draught animals and for producing milk. Mutton and lamb were fairly common, especially in areas with a sizeable wool industry, as was veal. Far more common was pork, as domestic pigs required less attention and cheaper feed. Domestic pigs often ran freely even in towns and could be fed on just about any organic waste, and suckling pig was a sought-after delicacy. Just about every part of the pig was eaten, including ears, snout, tail, tongue, and womb. Intestines, bladder and stomach could be used as casings for sausage or even illusion food such as giant eggs. Among the meats that today are rare or even considered inappropriate for human consumption are the hedgehog and porcupine, occasionally mentioned in late medieval recipe collections. Rabbits remained a rare and highly prized commodity. In England, they were deliberately introduced by the 13th century and their colonies were carefully protected. Further south, domesticated rabbits were commonly raised and bred both for their meat and fur. They were of particular value for monasteries, because newborn rabbits were allegedly declared fish (or, at least, not-meat) by the church and therefore they could be eaten during Lent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central European cuisine",
        "text": "During the Bronze Age and Iron Age the basic foods were pulses, wild fruits and nuts, and cereals. Archaeobotanical evidence has shown that a large number of new foodstuffs were introduced to Central Europe under Roman rule, becoming incorporated into (rather than replacing) local culinary flavors. Because chickpeas, gourd, black pepper, pistachio, almond, dates, olives, melons and rice were difficult to cultivate locally they remained imported luxuries, out of reach for most. Evidence has been found for dill, celery seeds and other seasonings at Bibracte and other excavation sites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Common and often basic ingredients in many modern European cuisines like potatoes, kidney beans, cacao, vanilla, tomatoes, chili peppers and maize were not available to Europeans until after 1492, after European contact with the Americas, and even then it often took considerable time, sometimes several centuries, for the new foodstuffs to be accepted by society at large."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabethan era",
        "text": "The poorer among the population consumed a diet largely of bread, cheese, milk, and beer, with small portions of meat, fish and vegetables, and occasionally some fruit. Potatoes were just arriving at the end of the period, and became increasingly important. The typical poor farmer sold his best products on the market, keeping the cheap food for the family. Stale bread could be used to make bread puddings, and bread crumbs served to thicken soups, stews, and sauces.\n: Diet of the middle class"
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The period between c. 500 and 1300 saw a major change in diet that affected most of Europe. More intense agriculture on ever-increasing acreage resulted in a shift from animal products, like meat and dairy, to various grains and vegetables as the staple of the majority population. Before the 14th century, bread was not as common among the lower classes, especially in the north where wheat was more difficult to grow. A bread-based diet became gradually more common during the 15th century and replaced warm intermediate meals that were porridge- or gruel-based. Leavened bread was more common in wheat-growing regions in the south, while unleavened flatbread of barley, rye or oats remained more common in northern and highland regions, and unleavened flatbread was also common as provisions for troops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Fruit was readily combined with meat, fish and eggs. The recipe for \"Tart de brymlent\", a fish pie from the recipe collection \"The Forme of Cury\", includes a mix of figs, raisins, apples and pears with fish (salmon, codling or haddock) and pitted damson plums under the top crust. It was considered important to make sure that the dish agreed with contemporary standards of medicine and dietetics. This meant that food had to be \"tempered\" according to its nature by an appropriate combination of preparation and mixing certain ingredients, condiments and spices; fish was seen as being cold and moist, and best cooked in a way that heated and dried it, such as frying or oven baking, and seasoned with hot and dry spices; beef was dry and hot and should therefore be boiled; pork was hot and moist and should therefore always be roasted. In some recipe collections, alternative ingredients were assigned with more consideration to the humoral nature than what a modern cook would consider to be similarity in taste. In a recipe for quince pie, cabbage is said to work equally well, and in another turnips could be replaced by pears."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "The climate in the far north of Europe made cultivation of cereals even more difficult, and the wheat so popular in the south was a luxury in northern Europe. Wheat could cost at least twice as much as the most common grains, barley and rye. Barley was the most widely grown, but a great percentage of the harvest went into the extensive beer production, while rye was the principal bread grain. Like in the rest of Europe, oats was considered only fit as animal fodder and was eaten only when no other choice was available, and then usually as porridge or gruel. Though grains were in the highest regard among medieval Scandinavians and were among the most frequently mentioned foods, other vegetable foods were an indispensable part of the diet: peas, turnips, beans, carrots, onions, leeks and various greens and herbs all provided essential nutrients and vitamins. Kale, a form of cabbage, was especially important in Denmark and Sweden and was a valuable source of fresh food in the winter months, since it kept well and could be harvested (and even tasted better) after the first frost had set in."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Milk was an important source of animal protein for those who could not afford meat. It would mostly come from cows, but milk from goats and sheep was also common. Plain fresh milk was not consumed by adults except the poor or sick, and was usually reserved for the very young or elderly. Poor adults would sometimes drink buttermilk or whey or milk that was soured or watered down. Fresh milk was overall less common than other dairy products because of the lack of technology to keep it from spoiling. On occasion it was used in upper-class kitchens in stews, but it was difficult to keep fresh in bulk and almond milk was generally used in its stead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Slow transportation and food preservation techniques (based on drying, salting, smoking and pickling) made long-distance trade of many foods very expensive. Because of this, the nobility's food was more prone to foreign influence than the cuisine of the poor; it was dependent on exotic spices and expensive imports. As each level of society imitated the one above it, innovations from international trade and foreign wars from the 12th century onward gradually disseminated through the upper middle class of medieval cities. Aside from economic unavailability of luxuries such as spices, decrees outlawed consumption of certain foods among certain social classes and sumptuary laws limited conspicuous consumption among the nouveaux riches. Social norms also dictated that the food of the working class be less refined, since it was believed there was a natural resemblance between one's labour and one's food; manual labour required coarser, cheaper food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spice",
        "text": "Spices were among the most demanded and expensive products available in Europe in the Middle Ages,[5] the most common being black pepper, cinnamon (and the cheaper alternative cassia), cumin, nutmeg, ginger and cloves. Given medieval medicine's main theory of humorism, spices and herbs were indispensable to balance \"humors\" in food,[6] a daily basis for good health at a time of recurrent pandemics. In addition to being desired by those using medieval medicine, the European elite also craved spices in the Middle Ages. An example of the European aristocracy's demand for spice comes from the King of Aragon, who invested substantial resources into bringing back spices to Spain in the 12th century. He was specifically looking for spices to put in wine, and was not alone among European monarchs at the time to have such a desire for spice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women in the Middle Ages",
        "text": "Since the 800s, the invention of a more efficient type of plough\u2014along with three-field replacing two-field crop rotation\u2014allowed medieval peasants to improve their diets through planting, alongside wheat and rye in the fall, oats, barley, and legumes in the spring, including various protein-rich peas. In the same period, rabbits were introduced from the Iberian Peninsula across the Alps to the Carolingian Empire, reaching England in the 12th century. Herring could be more effectively salted, and pork, cheese, and eggs were increasingly consumed throughout Europe, even by the lower classes. As a result, Europeans of all classes consumed more proteins from meats than did people in any other part of the world during the same period\u2014leading to population growth that almost outstripped resources at the onset of the devastating Black Death. Bullough and Campbell further cite David Herlihy, who observes, based on available data, that in European cities in the 15th century, women outnumbered men, and although they did not have the \"absolute numerical advantage over men,\" women were more numerous among the elderly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "Grain and livestock have long been the most important agricultural products in France and England. After 1700, innovative farmers experimented with new techniques to increase yield and looked into new products such as hops, oilseed rape, artificial grasses, vegetables, fruit, dairy foods, commercial poultry, rabbits, and freshwater fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch cuisine",
        "text": "Little evidence is available about food and drink in the late medieval Low Countries. In the consumption of pottage, the Low Countries were not very different from other Western European countries during the Middle Ages. Half-liquid pottage consisted of milk, beer, water, root vegetable and peas or grain, sometimes enriched with a piece of meat. The content changed throughout the seasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "European cuisine",
        "text": "In medieval times, a person's diet varied depending on their social class. Cereal grains made up a lot of a medieval person's diet, regardless of social class. Bread was common to both classes- it was taken as a lunch for the working man, and thick slices of it were used as plates called trenchers. People of the noble class had access to finely ground flours for their breads and other baked goods. Noblemen were allowed to hunt for deer, boar, rabbits, birds, and other animals, giving them access to fresh meat and fish for their meals. Dishes for people of these classes were often heavily spiced. Spices at that time were very expensive, and the more spices used in dishes, the more wealth the person had to be able to purchase such ingredients. Common spices used were cinnamon, ginger, nutmeg, pepper, cumin, cloves, turmeric, anise, and saffron. Other ingredients used in dishes for the nobility and clergy included sugar, almonds and dried fruits like raisins. These imported ingredients would have been very expensive and nearly impossible for commoners to obtain. When banquets were held, the dishes served would be very spectacular- another way for the noblemen to show how rich they were. Sugar sculptures would be placed on the tables as decoration and to eat, and foods would be dyed vibrant colors with imported spices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barley",
        "text": "In medieval Europe, bread made from barley and rye was peasant food, while wheat products were consumed by the upper classes. Potatoes largely replaced barley in Eastern Europe in the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The regional specialties that are a feature of early modern and contemporary cuisine were not in evidence in the sparser documentation that survives. Instead, medieval cuisine can be differentiated by the cereals and the oils that shaped dietary norms and crossed ethnic and, later, national boundaries. Geographical variation in eating was primarily the result of differences in climate, political administration, and local customs that varied across the continent. Though sweeping generalizations should be avoided, more or less distinct areas where certain foodstuffs dominated can be discerned. In the British Isles, northern France, the Low Countries, the northern German-speaking areas, Scandinavia and the Baltic, the climate was generally too harsh for the cultivation of grapes and olives. In the south, wine was the common drink for both rich and poor alike (though the commoner usually had to settle for cheap second-pressing wine) while beer was the commoner's drink in the north and wine an expensive import. Citrus fruits (though not the kinds most common today) and pomegranates were common around the Mediterranean. Dried figs and dates were available in the north, but were used rather sparingly in cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "A type of refined cooking developed in the late Middle Ages that set the standard among the nobility all over Europe. Common seasonings in the highly spiced sweet-sour repertory typical of upper-class medieval food included verjuice, wine and vinegar in combination with spices such as black pepper, saffron and ginger. These, along with the widespread use of sugar or honey, gave many dishes a sweet-sour flavor. Almonds were very popular as a thickener in soups, stews, and sauces, particularly as almond milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The most ideal food was that which most closely matched the humour of human beings, i.e. moderately warm and moist. Food should preferably also be finely chopped, ground, pounded and strained to achieve a true mixture of all the ingredients. White wine was believed to be cooler than red and the same distinction was applied to red and white vinegar. Milk was moderately warm and moist, but the milk of different animals was often believed to differ. Egg yolks were considered to be warm and moist while the whites were cold and moist. Skilled cooks were expected to conform to the regimen of humoral medicine. Even if this limited the combinations of food they could prepare, there was still ample room for artistic variation by the chef."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Medieval cuisine includes foods, eating habits, and cooking methods of various European cultures during the Middle Ages, which lasted from the fifth to the fifteenth century. During this period, diets and cooking changed less than they did in the early modern period that followed, when those changes helped lay the foundations for modern European cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early modern European cuisine",
        "text": "Peas and beans, which made up a very large part of the diet of the medieval poor, were still often treated as a staple food, but to a diminishing extent over the period, to be replaced by cereals and the potato."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Cookbooks, or more specifically, recipe collections, compiled in the Middle Ages are among the most important historical sources for medieval cuisine. The first cookbooks began to appear towards the end of the 13th century. The \"Liber de Coquina\", perhaps originating near Naples, and the \"Tractatus de modo preparandi\" have found a modern editor in Marianne Mulon, and a cookbook from Assisi found at Ch\u00e2lons-sur-Marne has been edited by Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat. Though it is assumed that they describe real dishes, food scholars do not believe they were used as cookbooks might be today, as a step-by-step guide through the cooking procedure that could be kept at hand while preparing a dish. Few in a kitchen, at those times, would have been able to read, and working texts have a low survival rate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flan (pie)",
        "text": "In the Middle Ages, both sweet and savory flans (almonds, cinnamon & sugar; cheese, curd, spinach, fish) were very popular in Europe, especially during Lent, when meat was forbidden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "The food of the lower classes was mostly vegetarian and limited to olives, fruit, onions, and the occasional piece of cheese, or stews made from cabbage and salted pork. The standard meal of a shoemaker was described in a Byzantine poem, one of the \"Prodromic Poems\", as consisting of some cooked foods and an omelette followed by hot salted pork with an unspecified garlic dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "The Byzantine empire also became quite famous for its desserts, which included biscuits, rice pudding, quince marmalade, rose sugar and many types of non-alcoholic beverages. The most common sweetener was honey, with sugar extracted from sugar cane being reserved for those who could afford it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The common method of grinding and mashing ingredients into pastes and the many potages and sauces has been used as an argument that most adults within the medieval nobility lost their teeth at an early age, and hence were forced to eat nothing but porridge, soup and ground-up meat. But, naturally, this is a totally unfounded theory. The image of nobles gumming their way through multi-course meals of nothing but mush has lived side by side with the contradictory apparition of the \"mob of uncouth louts (disguised as noble lords) who, when not actually hurling huge joints of greasy meat at one another across the banquet hall, are engaged in tearing at them with a perfectly healthy complement of incisors, canines, bicuspids and molars\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Surviving medieval recipes frequently call for flavoring with a number of sour, tart liquids. Wine, verjuice (the juice of unripe grapes or fruits) vinegar and the juices of various fruits, especially those with tart flavors, were almost universal and a hallmark of late medieval cooking. In combination with sweeteners and spices, it produced a distinctive \"pungeant, fruity\" flavor. Equally common, and used to complement the tanginess of these ingredients, were (sweet) almonds. They were used in a variety of ways: whole, shelled or unshelled, slivered, ground and, most importantly, processed into almond milk. This last type of non-dairy milk product is probably the single most common ingredient in late medieval cooking and blended the aroma of spices and sour liquids with a mild taste and creamy texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "Labourers in Western Europe in the 18th century ate bread and gruel, often in a soup with greens and lentils, a little bacon, and occasionally potato or a bit of cheese. They washed it down with beer (water usually was too contaminated), and a sip of milk. Three quarters of the food was derived from plants. Meat was much more attractive, but very expensive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Meat was more expensive and therefore more prestigious. Game, a form of meat acquired from hunting, was common only on the nobility's tables. The most prevalent butcher's meats were pork, chicken and other domestic fowl; beef, which required greater investment in land, was less common. Cod and herring were mainstays among the northern populations; dried, smoked or salted, they made their way far inland, but a wide variety of other saltwater and freshwater fish was also eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paris in the Middle Ages",
        "text": "Fish was another important part of the Parisian diet, largely for religious reasons; there were more than one hundred fifty days a year, including Fridays and Saturdays, when Parisians were required to fast and to eat only boiled vegetables and fish. Most of the fish was salted herring brought from ports on the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. Wealthy Parisians were able to afford fresh fish brought on horseback during the night from Dieppe. The diets of the rich Parisians in the late Middle Ages were exotic and varied; they were supplied with olive oil and citrus fruits from the Mediterranean Basin, cinnamon from Egypt, and saffron and sugar from Italy and Spain. Contrary to a popular notion, spices were not used only to hide the taste of spoiled meat; they were valued for the medicinal qualities and believed to improve the digestion. The chefs of the time made sauces and ragouts by combining spices with an acidic liquid, either vinegar or the white wine from the \u00cele-de-France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chew Stoke",
        "text": "During the Middle Ages, farming was the most important activity in the area, and farming, both arable and dairy, continues today. There were also orchards producing fruits such as apples, pears, and plums. Evidence exists of lime kilns, used in the production of mortar for the construction of local churches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Before a meal, the stomach would preferably be \"opened\" with an \"ap\u00e9ritif\" (from Latin \"aperire\", \"to open\") that was preferably of a hot and dry nature: confections made from sugar- or honey-coated spices like ginger, caraway and seeds of anise, fennel or cumin, wine and sweetened fortified milk drinks. As the stomach had been opened, it should then be \"closed\" at the end of the meal with the help of a digestive, most commonly a drag\u00e9e, which during the Middle Ages consisted of lumps of spiced sugar, or hypocras, a wine flavoured with fragrant spices, along with aged cheese. A meal would ideally begin with easily digestible fruit, such as apples. It would then be followed by vegetables such as lettuce, cabbage, purslane, herbs, moist fruits, light meats, such as chicken or goat kid, with potages and broths. After that came the \"heavy\" meats, such as pork and beef, as well as vegetables and nuts, including pears and chestnuts, both considered difficult to digest. It was popular, and recommended by medical expertise, to finish the meal with aged cheese and various digestives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "As a crossroad between Europe, Asia, the Caucasus and North Africa, it has been a hub of food and recipe exchange. During the first Persian Empire (ca. 550\u2013330 BCE), the foundation was laid for modern Middle-Eastern food when rice, poultry and fruits were incorporated into the local diet. Figs, dates and nuts were brought by merchants to conquered lands, and spices were brought from the Orient."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "Though various forms of dishes consisting of batter or dough cooked in fat, like cr\u00eapes, fritters and doughnuts were common in most of Europe, they were especially popular among Germans and known as \"krapfen\" (Old High German: \"claw, hook\") and were quite similar to the deep-fried dough pastries of today. The extensive use of lard and butter for cooking and a diet that was perceived as especially fatty gained Germans a reputation as being the \"fat Germans\". The fasting regulations of the Catholic Church posed particular problems to the German population. Olives could not be cultivated and olive oil was an expensive import. Oils made from various nuts were available, but in relatively short supply. By far, the most common sources of fat were butter and, above all, lard. The price of fish was generally higher, and while it was unaffordable to most people for most of the time, the need to use fish for fasting days could mean considerable increases in expenses for the wealthier households. Mustard was used in other parts of Europe long before the Middle Ages, but seemed to be especially common in Germany. A 14th-century travel account by Eustache Deschamps, a French poet, shows his considerable discontent with the German custom of smearing generous amounts of mustard on just about every type of meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western culture",
        "text": "Western foodways were, until recently, considered to have their roots in the cuisines of Classical Rome and Greece, but the influence of Arab and Near Eastern cuisine on the West has become a topic of research in recent decades. The Crusaders, known mostly for fighting over holy land, settled in the Levant and acclimated to the local culture and cuisine. Fulcher of Chartres said \"For we who were occidentals have now become orientals.\" These cultural experiences, carried back to France by notables like Eleanor of Aquitaine influenced Western European foodways. Many Oriental ingredients were relatively new to the Western lands. Sugar, almonds, pistachios, rosewater, and dried citrus fruits were all novelties to the Crusaders who encountered them in Saracen lands. Pepper, ginger and cinnamon were the most widely used spices of the European courts and noble households. By the end of the middle ages cloves, nutmeg, mastic, galingale and other imported spices had become part of the Western cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "Dishes still common today, like \"escabeche\", a vinegar-based dish, and \"aillade\" (aioli), a garlic sauce (still made in Toulouse with walnut oil), were well-established in the Late Middle Ages. Evidence of influence from Muslim Spain can be found in recipes for \"matafeam\", a Christian version of the originally Hispano-Jewish Shabbat stew \"adafina\", but with pork rather than lamb. And, \"Raymonia\" (Occitan; Ital: \"Romania\") is based on the Arabic \"Rummaniya\", a chicken bruet with pomegranate juice, ground almonds, and sugar. Only one recipe collection is positively identified as being from southern France. The \"Modus viaticorum preparandorum et salsarum\" is a collection of 51 recipes. It was written ca. 1380\u201390 in Latin with occasional words in Occitan. The \"Modus\" contains a \"Salsa de cerpol\" (Wild thyme sauce) and a \"Cofiment anguille\" (Confit of eel), which appear nowhere else but in Occitania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Curing (food preservation)",
        "text": "In Europe, medieval cuisine made great use of meat and vegetables, and the guild of butchers was amongst the most powerful. During the 12th century, salt beef was consumed by all social classes. Smoked meat was called \"carboucl\u00e9e\" in Romance tongues and \"bacon\" if it was pork."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Common herbs such as sage, mustard, and parsley were grown and used in cooking all over Europe, as were caraway, mint, dill and fennel. Many of these plants grew throughout all of Europe or were cultivated in gardens, and were a cheaper alternative to exotic spices. Mustard was particularly popular with meat products and was described by Hildegard of Bingen (1098\u20131179) as poor man's food. While locally grown herbs were less prestigious than spices, they were still used in upper-class food, but were then usually less prominent or included merely as coloring. Anise was used to flavor fish and chicken dishes, and its seeds were served as sugar-coated comfits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "Roman influence on the entire Mediterranean region was so considerable that to this day, the basic food in most of the region is still wheat bread, olives, olive oil, wine, cheese, and the occasional piece of meat or fish. The territories from the Atlantic to the Italian Peninsula, and especially the Catalan and Occitan-speaking areas were closely interrelated culturally and politically. The Muslim conquest of Sicily and southern Spain was highly influential on the cuisine by introducing new plants like lemons, pomegranates, eggplants and spices such as saffron. The coloring of food and many other cooking techniques were passed on by the Arab invaders to their European possessions and were gradually spread to regions further north."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women in the Middle Ages",
        "text": "Also on milk and meal to make porridge with"
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "In Europe there were typically two meals a day: dinner at mid-day and a lighter supper in the evening. The two-meal system remained consistent throughout the late Middle Ages. Smaller intermediate meals were common, but became a matter of social status, as those who did not have to perform manual labor could go without them. Moralists frowned on breaking the overnight fast too early, and members of the church and cultivated gentry avoided it. For practical reasons, breakfast was still eaten by working men, and was tolerated for young children, women, the elderly and the sick. Because the church preached against gluttony and other weaknesses of the flesh, men tended to be ashamed of the weak practicality of breakfast. Lavish dinner banquets and late-night \"reresopers\" (from Occitan \"r\u00e8ire-sopar\", \"late supper\") with considerable amounts of alcoholic beverage were considered immoral. The latter were especially associated with gambling, crude language, drunkenness, and lewd behavior. Minor meals and snacks were common (although also disliked by the church), and working men commonly received an allowance from their employers in order to buy \"nuncheons\", small morsels to be eaten during breaks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banat in the Middle Ages",
        "text": "Agricultural techniques are documented from the . Manured plowing lots were first mentioned in 1323. Archaeological evidence of the shoeing of horses can be dated to the same century. Frequent references to conflicts in connection with horses and oxen show the importance of draft animals in local economy. Pork was the most important meat in the peasants' diet, according to archaeological evidence from Remetea. Fishing, and hunting for wild boars, deer, aurochs, beavers, martens and badgers in medieval Banat is also well-documented. Local noblemen practised falconry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The completely edible shortcrust pie did not appear in recipes until the 15th century. Before that the pastry was primarily used as a cooking container in a technique known as huff paste. Extant recipe collections show that gastronomy in the Late Middle Ages developed significantly. New techniques, like the shortcrust pie and the clarification of jelly with egg whites began to appear in recipes in the late 14th century and recipes began to include detailed instructions instead of being mere memory aids to an already skilled cook."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food distribution",
        "text": "One clear and defined documentation of historical food distribution comes from the Roman Republic and Empire. Many Roman rulers and emperors sought to determine the best method of distributing food throughout the Mediterranean, and as the demands of the Roman people changed in time, so too did their leaders\u2019 plans. In the few centuries after the death of Christ, the \"annona\" became a prominent aspect in Roman food distribution. As the Empire expanded and the accessibility to certain foods changed, the demand for grain and wine drastically increased, and became a defining aspect of Roman food culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food and dining in the Roman Empire",
        "text": "For Pliny, the making of pastries was a sign of civilized countries at peace. The Mediterranean staples of bread, wine, and oil were sacralized by Roman Christianity, while Germanic meat consumption became a mark of paganism, as it might be the product of animal sacrifice."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Japanese cuisine",
        "text": "Records throughout Middle Ages may give some idea of the dishes being enjoyed, but do not give details such as to provide accurate recipes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Medieval cuisine\n--Dietary norms.\n----The Church.\n----Class constraints.\n----Dietetics.\n----Caloric structure.\n--Regional variation.\n--Meals.\n----Etiquette.\n--Food preparation.\n----Medieval kitchens.\n----Preservation.\n----Professional cooking.\n--Cereals.\n--Fruit and vegetables.\n--Dairy products.\n--Meats.\n----Fish and seafood.\n--Drink.\n----Wine.\n----Beer.\n----Distillates.\n--Herbs, spices and condiments.\n--Sweets and desserts.\n--Historiography and sources.\n----Cookbooks.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "A History of English Food",
        "text": "The book is divided into 15 chapters, forming a strict chronological sequence of periods such as \"the Georgian age\". The chapters freely combine outlines of the historical context, descriptions of recipes, stories about significant figures, and personal anecdotes. For example, \"The Medieval Larder\" has an extensive section on the \"medieval pig\" (page 22ff), leading into a description of Dickson Wright's own childhood memories of helping to kill her father's pigs and making black pudding, chitterlings and sausages, as well as having hams and bacon smoked. To this is added her personal opinion; thus, the medieval chapter ends \"The battles of Cr\u00e9cy and Agincourt would scarcely have been won had they been fought by soldiers from a destitute nation.\" (page 41)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "Many Italian staples and internationally recognized favorites were invented and refined during the Late Middle Ages and the early Renaissance; pasta was on everyone's dinner plate by the 13th century, though it was commonly made out of rice flour rather than durum wheat; pizza, the medieval Italian term for \"pie\", and tortes came in many varieties with a wide range of toppings, ranging from marzipan, and custards to chicken, eel, or even hemp; polenta made from French green lentils or barley; risotto; and a myriad of local or regional variants of sausage and cheese which was eaten by more or less everyone. As early as the Middle Ages, the cheeses, in particular, appear to have been highly specialized, from a fresh Tuscan to an aged Milanese from Tadesca, wrapped and shipped in tree bark. Medieval Italians also used eggs to a higher degree than many other regions, and the recipe collections describe herb omelettes (\"herboletos\") and frittatas. Grapes as tasty morsels and lemons as a cooking ingredient was ubiquitous and, of course, olive oil of every conceivable kind was the cooking fat of choice in all regions, including the north, for dressing salads, frying, seasoning, marinading and preserving meats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Molyvoti Site",
        "text": "Botanical remains uncovered in 2013 showed evidence of cooking and cereal-processing during the Late Roman period. The list of plants found included bromegrass, ryegrass, cleavers, common mallow, barley, einkorn, pea, broomcorn millet, oat, and vetch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Food preservation methods were basically the same as had been used since antiquity, and did not change much until the invention of canning in the early 19th century. The most common and simplest method was to expose foodstuffs to heat or wind to remove moisture, thereby prolonging the durability if not the flavor of almost any type of food from cereals to meats; the drying of food worked by drastically reducing the activity of various water-dependent microorganisms that cause decay. In warm climates this was mostly achieved by leaving food out in the sun, and in the cooler northern climates by exposure to strong winds (especially common for the preparation of stockfish), or in warm ovens, cellars, attics, and at times even in living quarters. Subjecting food to a number of chemical processes such as smoking, salting, brining, conserving or fermenting also made it keep longer. Most of these methods had the advantage of shorter preparation times and of introducing new flavors. Smoking or salting meat of livestock butchered in autumn was a common household strategy to avoid having to feed more animals than necessary during the lean winter months. Butter tended to be heavily salted (5\u201310%) in order not to spoil. Vegetables, eggs or fish were also often pickled in tightly packed jars, containing brine and acidic liquids (lemon juice, verjuice or vinegar). Another method was to seal the food by cooking it in sugar or honey or fat, in which it was then stored. Microbial modification was also encouraged, however, by a number of methods; grains, fruit and grapes were turned into alcoholic drinks thus killing any pathogens, and milk was fermented and curdled into a multitude of cheeses or buttermilk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Many basic variations of cooking utensils available today, such as frying pans, pots, kettles, and waffle irons, already existed, although they were often too expensive for poorer households. Other tools more specific to cooking over an open fire were spits of various sizes, and material for skewering anything from delicate quails to whole oxen. There were also cranes with adjustable hooks so that pots and cauldrons could easily be swung away from the fire to keep them from burning or boiling over. Utensils were often held directly over the fire or placed into embers on tripods. To assist the cook there were also assorted knives, stirring spoons, ladles and graters. In wealthy households one of the most common tools was the mortar and sieve cloth, since many medieval recipes called for food to be finely chopped, mashed, strained and seasoned either before or after cooking. This was based on a belief among physicians that the finer the consistency of food, the more effectively the body would absorb the nourishment. It also gave skilled cooks the opportunity to elaborately shape the results. Fine-textured food was also associated with wealth; for example, finely milled flour was expensive, while the bread of commoners was typically brown and coarse. A typical procedure was \"farcing\" (from the Latin \"farcio\" 'to cram'), to skin and dress an animal, grind up the meat and mix it with spices and other ingredients and then return it into its own skin, or mold it into the shape of a completely different animal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women in the Middle Ages",
        "text": "To sate their children who cry out for food"
      },
      {
        "title": "Portuguese cuisine",
        "text": "During the Middle Ages, the Portuguese cultivated cereal and legumes that they used as sustenance. Fishing and hunting were also common in certain regions. During this time, novel methods to conserve fish were introduced, along with plants like vines and olive trees. Bread made with a corn or wheat was being widely consumed during this time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food render",
        "text": "The early medieval British Isles lacked the sophisticated trade in essential foodstuffs that had supported the urban economies of Roman Britain, and which would be necessary to support large agriculturally unproductive households remaining static in a single location. Kings and their entourages therefore constantly toured the subdivisions of their kingdoms, staying at networks of royal properties where they could expect to be supported by the territory's inhabitants. In the words of historian Thomas Charles-Edwards: \"it made much more sense to take a royal household to the food than the food to the royal household\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pottage",
        "text": "The earliest known cookery manuscript in the English language, \"The Forme of Cury\", written by the court chefs of King Richard II in 1390, contains several potage recipes including one made from cabbage, ham, onions and leeks. A slightly later manuscript from the 1430s is called \" Potage Dyvers\" (\"Various Potages\"). The word \"pottage\" is used in the earliest English translations of the Bible, in relation to the lentil soup for which Esau trades his birthright in ; from this story, the phrase \"mess of pottage\" means something attractive but of little value being exchanged for something much more important. During the Tudor period, a good many English peasants' diets consisted almost solely of potage. Some Tudor-era people ate self-cultivated vegetables like cabbages and carrots and a few were able to supplement this from fruit gardens with fruit trees nearby."
      },
      {
        "title": "Verjuice",
        "text": "The authors of \"The Medieval Kitchen: Recipes from France and Italy\" write that the grape seeds preserved in salts were also called \"verjus\" during the Middle Ages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe",
        "text": "Various fruits and vegetables were introduced to Europe in this period via the Middle East and North Africa, some from as far as China and India, including the artichoke, spinach, and aubergine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in the Middle Ages",
        "text": "In Roman times, spelt, a kind of wheat, was the most common grain grown on the upper Danube River in Swabia, Germany, and spelt continued to be an important crop in many areas of Europe throughout medieval times. Emmer wheat was of much less importance in Swabia and most of Europe. Bread wheat was relatively unimportant in Swabia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early modern European cuisine",
        "text": "Oats made up a considerable minority of the produced grain but stood very low in status and was commonly used as animal feed, especially for horses. Millet, grown in much of Europe since prehistoric times was still used throughout much of the early period, but had largely disappeared by the 18th century although its exceptional storage period of up to twenty years meant it was used for emergency reserves. For example, the Italian dish polenta, previously made from millet, later was made with maize. Pasta had been a common food since the middle of the medieval period, and gained in popularity during the early modern period (notably in Naples, where it was not often seen until the late 18th century), but it was not yet usual to use the hard variety of durum wheat or semolina to make dried pasta until the Industrial era. Rice became established in many places, especially Italy and Spain, during the period, but was regarded as a low-status food; the well-off might occasionally have rice pudding but otherwise ignored it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "The Jews were so widely scattered in the Middle Ages that it is difficult to give a connected account of their mode of living as to food. In Arabic countries the author of the \"Halakhot Gedolot\" knew some dishes that appear to have been specific Jewish foods, e.g., \"paspag\", which was, perhaps, biscuit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic history of Europe (1000 AD\u2013present)",
        "text": "Agricultural production of a variety of food items expanded: olive oil, wine, cider, woad (a source of blue dye), and saffron. After 1500, New World crops appeared such as beans, corn (maize), squash, tomatoes, potatoes, and bell peppers. Production techniques remained attached to medieval traditions and produced low yields. With the rapidly expanding population, additional land suitable for farming became scarce. The situation worsened with repeated disastrous harvests in the 1550s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish cuisine",
        "text": "Polish cuisine in the Middle Ages was based on dishes made of agricultural produce and cereal crops (millet, rye, wheat), meats of wild and farm animals, fruits, forest berries and game, honey, herbs and local spices. It was known above all for abundant use of salt from Wieliczka and permanent presence of groats (\"kasza\"). A high calorific value of dishes and drinking beer or mead as a basic drink was typical of Middle Ages Polish cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food in England",
        "text": "Most of the chapters address aspects of English food, whether types of food such as meat, eggs, fungi, and bread, or ways of dealing with food such as salting, drying and preserving. Some chapters such as 'Elizabethan households' are explicitly historical. Every chapter, however, is also a history. For example, chapter V, Meat, discusses \"a rather interesting mediaeval miracle\" and illustrates a traditional \"Colonial Travelling Meat Safe of Mosquito Net\". The text switches repeatedly from instructions (\"To prepare mutton fat for a mutton piecrust, melt it over a bowl of hot water\") to historical asides (\"Mutton fat was used in the mountain-sheep districts for the same purposes as suet or goose-grease in the valleys\"). Many of the processes are distinctly old-fashioned; thus, Hartley describes basting, dredging, and frothing, switching between the past and present tenses: \"Dredging. This was done between bastings. Thus you dredge with powders or spices to give flavour, or with acid juices, or chopped herbs, which the pouring fat washes down into the crevices of the roasting meat.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in the Middle Ages",
        "text": "In Wiltshire England in the 13th and 14th centuries, wheat, barley, and oats were the three most common crops, with varying percentages of each on different manors. Legumes were planted on up to 8 percent of the common fields. In addition to the grain crops in the common fields of the open-field system, farmer's houses usually had a small garden (croft) near their house in which they grew vegetables such as cabbages, onions, peas and beans; an apple, cherry or pear tree; and raised a pig or two and a flock of geese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The majority of the European population before industrialization lived in rural communities or isolated farms and households. The norm was self-sufficiency with only a small percentage of production being exported or sold in markets. Large towns were exceptions and required their surrounding hinterlands to support them with food and fuel. The dense urban population could support a wide variety of food establishments that catered to various social groups. Many of the poor city dwellers had to live in cramped conditions without access to a kitchen or even a hearth, and many did not own the equipment for basic cooking. Food from vendors was in such cases the only option. Cookshops could either sell ready-made hot food, an early form of fast food, or offer cooking services while the customers supplied some or all of the ingredients. Travellers, such as pilgrims en route to a holy site, made use of professional cooks to avoid having to carry their provisions with them. For the more affluent, there were many types of specialist that could supply various foods and condiments: cheesemongers, pie bakers, saucers, and waferers, for example. Well-off citizens who had the means to cook at home could on special occasions hire professionals when their own kitchen or staff could not handle the burden of hosting a major banquet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nutrition in classical antiquity",
        "text": "People ate various types of food; consumers had choices from dairy (milk and cheese), fruits (figs, pears, apples, and pomegranates), vegetables (greens and bulbs), grains and legumes (cereal, wheat barley, millet, beans, and chickpeas), and meat (beef, mutton, fowl, mussels, and oysters). Food was most often fresh, but the processing of food aided in the preservation for long-term storage or transport to other cities. Cereals, olives, wine, legumes, vegetables, fruit, and animal products could all be processed and stored for later use. Cereals were often processed and stored in the form of bread, flat-cakes, and porridge. Legumes were also most often processed and stored as pulses and eaten with bread to enhance the flavor. Cereals were most nourishing providing essential macro- and micronutrients to consumers. Cereals sustained individuals with sufficient amounts of protein, vitamin B, vitamin E, calcium, and iron. Fruits and vegetables provided vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin D, and half the dietary fiber needed for health support."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dariole",
        "text": "Today there are also savory darioles, usually made with vegetable custards. These were also cooked as dessert in the Middle Ages and sometimes they included fruit, cheese, bone marrow or fish inside the pastry. They were very popular in the Middle Ages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery",
        "text": "\"Next year it's Food and Memory,\" wrote Nicholas Wroe in the article just cited. \"Book early and don't forget your madeleines.\" Sure enough, among the speakers at the 2000 symposium, Rose Arnold took Proust as her subject and alluded to the same literary memory in her title, \"Madeleines and Other Aides-M\u00e9moire: the importance of food references in Proust's \"Recherche\"\". Andrew Dalby looked at the meals in Suetonius's \"Lives of the Caesars\" and their sources in the collective memory. Geraldene Holt spoke on \"Memories of M. F. K. Fisher\". More uncomfortably, Andrew F. Smith spoke on \"False Memories: the invention of culinary fakelore and food fallacies\". Next year the symposium theme was \"The Meal\", for which Philip Iddison drew on his own experience with \"Perpetual Picnics: the meal in the UAE\" and Sami Zubaida also focused on the Islamic world with \"Drink in the Structure of the Meal: Middle Eastern patterns\". A joint paper by Chris Grocock and Sally Grainger looked at a Roman poetic lunch, \"Moretum: a peasant lunch revisited\". Fat was the subject for 2002. The title of the joint paper by Gerald and Valerie Mars, anthropologist and historian respectively, was \"Fat in the Victorian Kitchen: a medium for cooking, control, deviance and crime.\" Regina Sexton spoke on butter in the diet of monks and penitents in medieval Ireland. Diana Farr Louis and Linda Makris both chose topics related to fat and fasting in Greece. The published volume, under the title \"The Fat of the Land\", would be the last edited by Harlan Walker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Juices, as well as wines, of a multitude of fruits and berries had been known at least since Roman antiquity and were still consumed in the Middle Ages: pomegranate, mulberry and blackberry wines, perry, and cider which was especially popular in the north where both apples and pears were plentiful. Medieval drinks that have survived to this day include \"prunell\u00e9\" from wild plums (modern-day slivovitz), mulberry gin and blackberry wine. Many variants of mead have been found in medieval recipes, with or without alcoholic content. However, the honey-based drink became less common as a table beverage towards the end of the period and was eventually relegated to medicinal use. Mead has often been presented as the common drink of the Slavs. This is partially true since mead bore great symbolic value at important occasions. When agreeing on treaties and other important affairs of state, mead was often presented as a ceremonial gift. It was also common at weddings and baptismal parties, though in limited quantity due to its high price. In medieval Poland, mead had a status equivalent to that of imported luxuries, such as spices and wines. Kumis, the fermented milk of mares or camels, was known in Europe, but as with mead was mostly something prescribed by physicians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "The Jewish population of Al-Andalus, the Sephardic Jews, developed their cuisine in close contact with Christians and Muslims. Influences went in both directions and lasted even after the expulsions and forced conversions of the Jewish population that followed the Reconquista. Among the specialties was \"adafina\" (from Arabic \"al dafina\" \"the buried treasure\"), a meat dish that was prepared by burying it in hot coals on the day before the Shabbat. Jewish fish pie dishes have survived in Spanish cuisine as \"empanadas de pescado\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "Fish was of great importance to most of Scandinavia, and particularly so was the herring fishing in the Limfjord and Oresund. The great shoals of herring migrating from the Atlantic into the Baltic to feed were funnelled through certain narrow points and were caught in huge numbers. The amount of fish caught was more than enough to feed the local population and allowed for huge exports of smoked, and especially salted, fish. Great herring markets were organized in southern Scandinavia, most notably at Skan\u00f6r in Scania, which was in the Middle Ages part of Denmark. From this market alone, merchant vessels of the Hanseatic League, the powerful medieval confederation of northern German cities, exported upwards of over 100,000 barrels of salted herring during many decades of the Late Middle Ages. Of equal, or even greater importance was cod, often fished on the North Sea and Atlantic, dried to make stockfish, and imported as an important staple, particularly during fast and Lent. Many freshwater fish were also of great dietary or economic importance, such as salmon, eel, pike and bream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "High-status exotic spices and rarities like ginger, pepper, cloves, sesame, citron leaves and \"onions of Escalon\" all appear in an eighth-century list of spices that the Carolingian cook should have at hand. It was written by Vinidarius, whose excerpts of \"Apicius\" survive in an eighth-century uncial manuscript. Vinidarius' own dates may not be much earlier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pottage",
        "text": "Some pottages that were typical of medieval cuisine were frumenty, jelly (flesh or fish in aspic), mawmenny (a thickened stew of capon or similar fowl), and pears in syrup. There were also many kinds of potages made of thickened liquids (such as milk and almond milk) with mashed flowers or mashed or strained fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "The regional cuisines of medieval Europe were the results of differences in climate, seasonal food variations, political administration and religious customs that varied across the continent. Though sweeping generalizations should be avoided, more or less distinct areas where certain foodstuffs dominated can be discerned. In the British Isles, northern France, the Low Countries, the northern German-speaking areas, Scandinavia and the Baltic the climate was generally too harsh for the cultivation of grapes and olives. In the south, wine was the common drink for both rich and poor alike (though the commoner usually had to settle for cheap second pressing wine) while beer was the commoner's drink in the north and wine an expensive import. Citrus fruits (though not the kinds most common today) and pomegranates were common around the Mediterranean. Dried figs and dates occurred quite frequently in the north, but were used rather sparingly in cooking."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were some of the most important food sources in the Middle Ages?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Cereals remained the most important staple during the early Middle Ages as rice was introduced late, and the potato was only introduced in 1536, with a much later date for widespread consumption. Barley, oats and rye were eaten by the poor."
    ],
    "topic": "Food history",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Medieval cuisine:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Medieval cuisine"
        ],
        "ctx": "Medieval cuisine includes foods, eating habits, and cooking methods of various European cultures during the Middle Ages, which lasted from the fifth to the fifteenth century. During this period, diets and cooking changed less than they did in the early modern period that followed, when those changes helped lay the foundations for modern European cuisine."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Cereals remained the most important staple during the early Middle Ages as rice was introduced late, and the potato was only introduced in 1536, with a much later date for widespread consumption. Barley, oats and rye were eaten by the poor. Wheat was for the governing classes. These were consumed as bread, porridge, gruel and pasta by all of society's members. Fava beans and vegetables were important supplements to the cereal-based diet of the lower orders. (\"Phaseolus\" beans, today the \"common bean\", were of New World origin and were introduced after the Columbian exchange in the 16th century.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal",
        "text": "The first cereal grains were domesticated by early primitive humans. About 8,000 years ago, they were domesticated by ancient farming communities in the Fertile Crescent region. Emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, and barley were three of the so-called Neolithic founder crops in the development of agriculture. Around the same time, millets and kinds of rice were starting to become domesticated in East Asia. Sorghum and millets were also being domesticated in sub-Saharan West Africa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal",
        "text": "Early Neolithic villages show evidence of the development of processing grain. The Levant is the ancient home of the ancestors of wheat, barley and peas, in which many of these villages were based. There is evidence of the cultivation of cereals in Syria approximately 9,000 years ago. Wheat, Barley, Rye, Oats and Flaxseeds were all domesticated in the Fertile Crescent during the early Neolithic. During the same period, farmers in China began to farm rice and millet, using human-made floods and fires as part of their cultivation regimen. Fiber crops were domesticated as early as food crops, with China domesticating hemp, cotton being developed independently in Africa and South America, and Western Asia domesticating flax. The use of soil amendments, including manure, fish, compost and ashes, appears to have begun early, and developed independently in several areas of the world, including Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley and Eastern Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "Cereals remained the most important staple during the early Middle Ages. Barley, oats and rye were eaten by the poor. Standard foods included bread, porridge, and gruel. Fava beans and vegetables were important supplements to the cereal-based diet of the lower orders. Meat was expensive and prestigious. Game was common only on the tables of landowners. The most prevalent butcher's meats were pork, chicken, and other domestic fowl; beef, which required greater investment in land, was less common. Cod and herring were mainstays among the northern populations; dried, smoked or salted, they made their way far inland, but a wide variety of other saltwater and freshwater fish was also eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of agriculture",
        "text": "Wild grains have been collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago, and possibly much longer. Exact dates are hard to determine, as people collected and ate seeds before domesticating them, and plant characteristics may have changed during this period without human selection. An example is the semi-tough rachis and larger seeds of cereals from just after the Younger Dryas (about 9500 BC) in the early Holocene in the Levant region of the Fertile Crescent. Monophyletic characteristics were attained without any human intervention, implying that apparent domestication of the cereal rachis could have occurred quite naturally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iraq ed-Dubb",
        "text": "Sue Colledge has suggested that along with Tell Aswad, the site shows the earliest evidence for domesticated cereal morphology, claiming the site has the \"earliest dated evidence for the use of domestic cereals in southwestern Asia\" with a date range from approximately 9600 to 9475 BCE. It was noted that the number of specimens reported was low and their preservation was poor. Colledge assumed finds of domesticated barley (Hordeum vulgare) and wheat (likely Triticum turgidum dicoccum) were growing in secondary habitats."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of agriculture",
        "text": "Wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. However, domestication did not occur until much later. Starting from around 9500 BC, the eight Neolithic founder crops\u00a0\u2013 emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chickpeas, and flax\u00a0\u2013 were cultivated in the Levant. Rye may have been cultivated earlier, but this claim remains controversial. Rice was domesticated in China by 6200 BC with earliest known cultivation from 5700 BC, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 11,000 years ago, followed by sheep between 11,000 years ago and 9000 BC. Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and India around 8500 BC. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 3000 BC. Camels were domesticated late, perhaps around 3000 BC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Molyvoti Site",
        "text": "Botanical remains uncovered in 2013 showed evidence of cooking and cereal-processing during the Late Roman period. The list of plants found included bromegrass, ryegrass, cleavers, common mallow, barley, einkorn, pea, broomcorn millet, oat, and vetch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890)",
        "text": "1863 Breakfast cereal\n*Breakfast cereal is a packaged food product intended to be consumed as part of a breakfast. The first breakfast cereal, Granula was invented in the United States in 1863 by James Caleb Jackson, operator of the Jackson Sanitorium in Dansville, New York. The cereal never became popular since it was inconvenient, as the heavy bran nuggets needed soaking overnight before they were tender enough to eat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tell Abu Hureyra",
        "text": "The site is significant because the inhabitants of Abu Hureyra started out as hunter-gatherers but gradually moved to farming, making them the earliest known farmers in the world. Cultivation started at the beginning of the Younger Dryas period at Abu Hureyra. Evidence uncovered at Abu Hureyra suggests that rye was the first cereal crop to be systematically cultivated. In light of this, it is now believed that the first systematic cultivation of cereal crops was around 13,000 years ago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "In the 1960s, the modern version of granola was invented and popularized. It evolved from a product called Granula (similar to Grape Nuts) to the recognizable modern form involving at a minimum: sweetened toasted oats, but also possibly: dried fruit, puffed rice, nuts or chocolate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "Breakfast cereal\n--Background.\n----Early America.\n----Cooked oatmeal.\n--History.\n----Early developments.\n----Kellogg and Battle Creek, Michigan.\n----Charles W. Post.\n----M\u00fcesli.\n----United Kingdom.\n----National advertising.\n----Sugar cereals.\n----Granola.\n----Modern cereal.\n--Processing of grains.\n----Nutritional fortification.\n--Gluten-free cereals.\n--Warm cereals.\n----Canada.\n----China.\n----Greece.\n----Ireland.\n----Russia.\n----South Africa.\n----United Kingdom.\n--Research.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The most common grains were rye, barley, buckwheat, millet and oats. Rice remained a fairly expensive import for most of the Middle Ages and was grown in northern Italy only towards the end of the period. Wheat was common all over Europe and was considered to be the most nutritious of all grains, but was more prestigious and thus more expensive. The finely sifted white flour that modern Europeans are most familiar with was reserved for the bread of the upper classes. As one descended the social ladder, bread became coarser, darker, and its bran content increased. In times of grain shortages or outright famine, grains could be supplemented with cheaper and less desirable substitutes like chestnuts, dried legumes, acorns, ferns, and a wide variety of more or less nutritious vegetable matter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Technological and industrial history of 20th-century Canada",
        "text": "Cold breakfast cereal became increasingly popular during these years. Wheat and later corn flakes were developed in the US by the Kellogg brothers in 1894 and the Kellogg Company was formed in 1906. In London, Ontario the Canadian Corn Company purchased the rights to manufacture and distribute Toasted Corn Flakes for Canadian distribution. In 1924 the American Kellogg Company purchased the London operation and formed Kellogg Canada Inc. Since that time the company has manufactured and distributed in Canada a wide variety of breakfast cereals including Corn Flakes, 1907, Bran Flakes, 1915, All Bran, 1916 and Rice Krispies, 1928."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1890\u20131945)",
        "text": "1890 Shredded wheat\n* Shredded wheat is a type of breakfast cereal made from whole wheat. Shredded wheat also comes in a \"frosted\" variety, which has one side coated with sugar and usually gelatin. Shredded wheat was invented in 1890 by Henry Perky of Watertown, New York."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "Although warm cereals like porridge and grits have the longest history, ready-to-eat cold cereals appeared around the late 19th century, and are most often mixed with milk (traditionally cow's milk), but can also be paired with yogurt instead or eaten plain. Fruit or nuts are sometimes added. Many cereals are produced via extrusion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early modern European cuisine",
        "text": "Oats made up a considerable minority of the produced grain but stood very low in status and was commonly used as animal feed, especially for horses. Millet, grown in much of Europe since prehistoric times was still used throughout much of the early period, but had largely disappeared by the 18th century although its exceptional storage period of up to twenty years meant it was used for emergency reserves. For example, the Italian dish polenta, previously made from millet, later was made with maize. Pasta had been a common food since the middle of the medieval period, and gained in popularity during the early modern period (notably in Naples, where it was not often seen until the late 18th century), but it was not yet usual to use the hard variety of durum wheat or semolina to make dried pasta until the Industrial era. Rice became established in many places, especially Italy and Spain, during the period, but was regarded as a low-status food; the well-off might occasionally have rice pudding but otherwise ignored it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early modern European cuisine",
        "text": "Peas and beans, which made up a very large part of the diet of the medieval poor, were still often treated as a staple food, but to a diminishing extent over the period, to be replaced by cereals and the potato."
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "Bread from mixed cereal grains was first made around 3700 BC in Britain."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of botany",
        "text": "During the Neolithic Revolution plant knowledge increased most obviously through the use of plants for food and medicine. All of today's staple foods were domesticated in prehistoric times as a gradual process of selection of higher-yielding varieties took place, possibly unknowingly, over hundreds to thousands of years. Legumes were cultivated on all continents but cereals made up most of the regular diet: rice in East Asia, wheat and barley in the Middle east, and maize in Central and South America. By Greco-Roman times popular food plants of today, including grapes, apples, figs, and olives, were being listed as named varieties in early manuscripts. Botanical authority William Stearn has observed that \"cultivated plants are mankind's most vital and precious heritage from remote antiquity\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mr. Whitekeys",
        "text": "5. The History of Cereal"
      },
      {
        "title": "Early modern European cuisine",
        "text": "Grain remained the undisputed main staple of early modern Europe until the 17th century. By this time the skepticism towards New World imports such as potatoes and maize had softened among the general populace, and the potato in particular found new appreciation in northern Europe, where it was a much more productive and flexible crop than wheat. In Ireland, this would later have disastrous results. In the early 19th century, when much of the country depended almost exclusively on potato, the potato blight, a fungus that rotted the edible tubers of the potato plant while still in the ground, caused a massive famine that killed over a million people and forced another two\u00a0million to emigrate. In regions of Europe such as Scotland, Scandinavia, and northern Russia, the climate and soil types were less suited for wheat cultivation, and rye and barley were far more important. Rye was used to bake the dense, dark bread that is still common in countries like Sweden, Russia, and Finland. Barley was more common in the north, and was often used to make beer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient grains",
        "text": "Along with wheat, barley (\"Hordeum\") is one of the earliest cultivated crops. It was commonly cultivated throughout the Near East and Southern Europe in its hulled form, and the domesticated two row species may have originated at Beidha, Jarmo, or Ali Kosh. \"Hordeum spontaneum\" was found at \u00c7atal H\u00fcy\u00fck (5850 BCE - 5600 BCE) and \"Hordeum distichum\" at Ali Kosh (6750 BCE - 6000 BCE). In India it was mostly cultivated in the north and central regions, extending only as far south as Inamgaon and Nevasa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient grains",
        "text": "The origin of grains goes back to the Neolithic Revolution about 10,000 years ago, when prehistoric communities started to make the transition from hunter-gatherer to farmer. Modern varieties of grains have been developed over time through mutation, selective cropping, breeding and research in biotechnology. Ancient grains, however, are said to be largely unchanged from their initial domesticated varieties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture",
        "text": "In China, from the 5th century BC there was a nationwide granary system and widespread silk farming. Water-powered grain mills were in use by the 1st century BC, followed by irrigation. By the late 2nd century, heavy ploughs had been developed with iron ploughshares and mouldboards. These spread westwards across Eurasia. Asian rice was domesticated 8,200\u201313,500 years ago\u00a0\u2013 depending on the molecular clock estimate that is used\u00a0\u2013 on the Pearl River in southern China with a single genetic origin from the wild rice \"Oryza rufipogon\". In Greece and Rome, the major cereals were wheat, emmer, and barley, alongside vegetables including peas, beans, and olives. Sheep and goats were kept mainly for dairy products."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Mozambique",
        "text": "In 2007 Julio Mercader, of the University of Calgary, recovered dozens of 100,000-year-old stone tools from a deep limestone cave (Ngalue) near Lake Niassa in Mozambique showing that wild sorghum, the ancestor of the chief cereal consumed today in sub-Saharan Africa for flours, bread, porridges, and alcoholic beverages, was being consumed by \"Homo sapiens\" along with African wine palm, the false banana, pigeon peas, wild oranges, and the African \"potato.\" This is the earliest direct evidence of humans using pre-domesticated cereals anywhere in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "Grain and livestock have long been the most important agricultural products in France and England. After 1700, innovative farmers experimented with new techniques to increase yield and looked into new products such as hops, oilseed rape, artificial grasses, vegetables, fruit, dairy foods, commercial poultry, rabbits, and freshwater fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in the Middle Ages",
        "text": "In the eighth through 11th century, in northern France, the most important crops were (in approximate order) rye (\"Secale cereale\"), bread wheat, barley, and, oats (\"Avena sativa\"). Barley and oats were the most important crops in Normandy and Brittany. Rye is more winter-hardy and tolerant of poor soils than wheat, and thus became the dominant crop on many marginal and northernmost European sites. Another hardy crop, bere, a kind of barley, was grown in Scandinavia and England and especially in marginal agricultural areas in Scotland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neolithic Revolution",
        "text": "Agriculture appeared first in Southwest Asia about 2,000 years later, around 10,000\u20139,000 years ago. The region was the centre of domestication for three cereals (einkorn wheat, emmer wheat and barley), four legumes (lentil, pea, bitter vetch and chickpea), and flax. Domestication was a slow process that unfolded across multiple regions, and was preceded by centuries if not millennia of pre-domestication cultivation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal",
        "text": "Cereal\n--Ancient history.\n--Cereals and civilization.\n--The Green Revolution.\n--Cultivation.\n----Planting.\n----Harvesting.\n--Production statistics.\n--Cereal exporters.\n--Nutritional facts.\n--Standardization.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of agriculture",
        "text": "Crops included wheat, rye, barley and oats. Peas, beans, and vetches became common from the 13th century onward as a fodder crop for animals and also for their nitrogen-fixation fertilizing properties. Crop yields peaked in the 13th century, and stayed more or less steady until the 18th century. Though the limitations of medieval farming were once thought to have provided a ceiling for the population growth in the Middle Ages, recent studies have shown that the technology of medieval agriculture was always sufficient for the needs of the people under normal circumstances, and that it was only during exceptionally harsh times, such as the terrible weather of 1315\u201317, that the needs of the population could not be met."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "Kellogg began the breakfast cereal marketing and introduced the first in-box prize in the early 1900s. Quaker Oats entered the market with Puffed Rice and Wheat Berries it had introduced at the 1904 World Fair, with raw grains shot with hot compressed air from tubes, popping up to many times their size. They were marketed as a revolution in food science. In the 1920s, national advertising in magazines and radio broadcasts played a key role in the emergence of the fourth big cereal manufacturer, General Mills. In 1921, James Ford Bell, president of a Minneapolis wheat milling firm, began experimenting with rolled wheat flakes. After tempering, steaming, cracking wheat, and processing it with syrup, sugar, and salt, it was prepared in a pressure cooker for rolling and then dried in an electric oven. By 1925, Wheaties had become the \"Breakfast of Champions\". In 1928, four milling companies consolidated as the General Mills Company in Minneapolis. The new firm expanded packaged food sales with heavy advertising, including sponsorship of radio programs such as \"Skippy\", \"Jack Armstrong, The All-American Boy\", and baseball games. Jack Dempsey, Johnny Weissmuller, and others verified the \"Breakfast of Champions\" slogan. By 1941 Wheaties had won 12% percent of the cereal market. Experiments with the puffing process produced Kix, a puffed corn cereal, and Cheerios, a puffed oats cereal. Further product innovation and diversification brought total General Mills sales to over $500 million annually (18% in packaged foods) by the early 1950s. In 1944 General Foods launched a marketing campaign for Grape Nuts, focusing on nutritional importance of breakfast."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of agriculture",
        "text": "It was not until after 9500 BC that the eight so-called founder crops of agriculture appear: first emmer and einkorn wheat, then hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax. These eight crops occur more or less simultaneously on Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) sites in the Levant, although wheat was the first to be grown and harvested on a significant scale. At around the same time (9400 BC), parthenocarpic fig trees were domesticated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barley",
        "text": "In medieval Europe, bread made from barley and rye was peasant food, while wheat products were consumed by the upper classes. Potatoes largely replaced barley in Eastern Europe in the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ringfort",
        "text": "However, this interpretation is still the most commonly held in academic, archaeological and popular debate, although pollen studies and other evidence have greatly modified the traditional view of the dominance of livestock as opposed to arable farming in early medieval Ireland, making it clear that cereal production was much more important than once thought in the Early Medieval period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early Germanic culture",
        "text": "The chief cereal grains produced were wheat and barley. In later times oats and rye were also cultivated. Garden products such as beans, beets, peas and turnips were well known."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tell Abu Hureyra",
        "text": "Some evidence has been found for cultivation of rye from 11050 BCE in the sudden rise of pollen from weed plants that typically infest newly disturbed soil. Peter Akkermans and Glenn Schwartz found this claim about epipaleolithic rye, \"difficult to reconcile with the absence of cultivated cereals at Abu Hureyra and elsewhere for thousands of years afterwards\". It could have been an early experiment that didn't survive and continue. It has been suggested that drier climate conditions resulting from the beginning of the Younger Dryas caused wild cereals to become scarce, leading people to begin cultivation as a means of securing a food supply. Results of recent analysis of the rye grains from this level suggest that they may actually have been domesticated during the Epipalaeolithic. It is speculated that the permanent population of the first occupation was fewer than 200 individuals. These individuals occupied several tens of square kilometers, a rich resource base of several different ecosystems. On this land they hunted, harvested food and wood, made charcoal, and may have cultivated cereals and grains for food and fuel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Albersdorf-Diekskn\u00f6ll",
        "text": "The detection of naked wheat (\"Triticum durum\") represents an important finding. This cereal, also known as spaghetti wheat, is widely attested south of the low mountain zone (Southwestern gemany and Eastern France) from 4500 BC onwards. In the wider area of Albersdorf, the distribution area of the northern group of the Funnel Beaker Culture, this cereal is only known from Frydenlund (Funen, Denmark). The common cereals of the early Funnel Beaker Culture are emmer (\"Triticum dicoccum\") and barley (\"Hordeum vulgare\"). Now it has been recognised that spaghetti wheat is also an important cereal for this period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Antebellum America",
        "text": "Other technological advances in the antebellum period changed cuisine in the United States. Labor-saving devices were invented, such as the McCormick reaper (1834), the Pitts mechanical thresher (1837), and the Marsh harvester (1858), which helped the United States flood European cereal markets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early history of food regulation in the United States",
        "text": "With the advent of modern machinery, food production (especially grain) moved forward at an alarming pace. For example, the \u201ccanning line\u201d increased the efficiency of canning foods in an industrial setting. An 1886 report by the Illinois Bureau of Labor Statistics claimed that \u201cNew machinery has displaced fully 50 percent of the muscular labor formerly required to do a given amount of work\u201d. Because of these improvements to agriculture, packaged cereals and canned foods became popular. Synthetic medicines (made in labs instead of natural medicines) and chemicals that altered the growing and processing of food began to appear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal",
        "text": "Historian Max Ostrovsky argues that this historic pattern never changed, not even in the Industrial Age. He stresses that all modern great powers have traditionally remained first and foremost great \"cereal\" powers. The \u201cfinest hour\u201d of the Axis powers \u201cended precisely the moment they threw themselves against the two largest cereal lebensraums\u201d (the United States and the USSR). The outcome of the Cold War followed the Soviet grave and long-lasting cereal crisis, exacerbated by the cereal embargo imposed on the USSR in 1980. And, called \u201cthe grain basket of the world,\u201d the most productive \u201ccereal lebensraum\u201d dominates the world ever since."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "Food history\n--Food and diets in history.\n----5th to 15th century: Middle Ages in Western Europe.\n----16th century: Importance of Spain and Portugal.\n----18th century: early modern Europe.\n----19th century.\n----20th century.\n------World War I and after.\n------World War II and after.\n--Consumption history of notable food.\n----Potato.\n----Rice.\n----Sugar.\n--Historical impact of religion on cuisines.\n----Judaism.\n----Jesuits.\n--Further reading.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gordon Hillman",
        "text": "The nature and cause of changes in plant use in relation to climate are also debated. Hillman originally proposed that wild food plants such as wild einkorn were foraged, in other words, collected from the wild. However, following detailed ecological modelling, Hillman and Moore proposed instead that the wild cereals had been under cultivation, probably in response to desiccation caused by the Younger Dryas climate event at about 12,900 to c. 11,700 years BP. Connolly and Colledge propose instead that the observed shift in plant consumption to less desirable foodstuffs at Abu Hureyra 1 simply reflects the greater scarcity of wild cereals under the effects of the cooler, drier Younger Dryas climate. In wider context, wild cereal and legume cultivation is widely accepted as likely at PPNA sites (11,600-10,500 years BP), but is not generally accepted for Epipalaeolithic sites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "After World War II, the big breakfast cereal companies\u2014now including General Mills, who entered the market in 1924 with Wheaties\u2014increasingly started to target children. The flour was refined to remove fiber, which at the time was considered to undermine digestion and absorption of nutrients, and sugar was added to improve the flavor for children. The new breakfast cereals began to look starkly different from their ancestors. Ranger Joe, the first pre-sweetened breakfast cereal, and little more than candy-coated puffed wheat or rice, was introduced in the US in 1939. Kellogg's Sugar Smacks, created in 1953, had 56% sugar by weight. Different mascots were introduced, such as the Rice Krispies elves and later pop icons like Tony the Tiger and the Trix Rabbit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Molyvoti Site",
        "text": "The 2013 excavation uncovered eight cereal grains and 19 fragments of charred food residues, both indicative of cooking and food preparation during the Classical period. Other crops found include vetch, goatgrass, and cleavers."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of food origins",
        "text": "The Neolithic founder crops (or primary domesticates) are the eight plant species that were domesticated by early Holocene (Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B) farming communities in the Fertile Crescent region of southwest Asia, and which formed the basis of systematic agriculture in the Middle East, North Africa, India, Persia and (later) Europe. They consist of flax, three cereals and four pulses, and are the first known domesticated plants in the world. Although domesticated rye (\"Secale cereale\") occurs in the final Epi-Palaeolithic strata at Tell Abu Hureyra (the earliest instance of a domesticated plant species), it was insignificant in the Neolithic Period of southwest Asia and only became common with the spread of farming into northern Europe several millennia later.\n* Barley (\"Hordeum vulgare/sativum\", descended from the wild \"H. spontaneum\")\n* Einkorn (\"Triticum monococcum\", descended from the wild \"T. boeoticum\")\n* Emmer (\"Triticum dicoccum\", descended from the wild \"T. dicoccoides\")\n* Flax (\"Linum usitatissimum\")\n* Oats\n* Wheat\n* Rye\n* Bitter vetch (\"Vicia ervilia\")\n* Chickpea (\"Cicer arietinum\")\n* Lentil (\"Lens culinaris\")\n* Pea (\"Pisum sativum\")\n* Pomegranates\n* Grapes (Vitis vinifera)\n* Dates\n* Medlar (Mespilus germanica)\n* Muskmelon\n* Carrots\n* Leeks\n* Lettuce\n* Onions\n* Parsley\n* Radishes\n* Almond\n* Linseed (\"Linum usitatissimum\")\n* Asafoetida\n* Mustard\n* Fig (\"Ficus carica\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tteok",
        "text": "The history of rice cakes goes back to the primitive agricultural society. It is presumed that it is because at least about the 7th to 8th centuries B.C., there are records of sowing seeds and plowing and farming in this land, or because almost all of them are found in the ruins like Galdol (a flat stone used as a tool when grinding fruit against a grind stone) or Dolhwag (a small mortar made of stone) of that period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Thirsk",
        "text": "Her book \"Alternative Agriculture\" explores how overlooked cultures like flax, hemp, rapeseed, and woad were cultivated in Early Modern England. Her last major work \"Food in Early Modern England Phases, Fads, Fashions 1500\u20131760\". surveys the history of English food chronologically, trying to explore differences in social classes. The author tries to dispel the idea that food of that era was dull and monotonous, as there was a wide range of herbs, plants, and animals eaten at that are no longer available today. The gathering and making of food was discussed and appreciated in all levels of society. Her own experience making and tasting barley bread (a staple food of in sixteenth-century Southern England), showed her how difficult it was to make and hard to eat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human nutrition",
        "text": "Agriculture developed at different times in different places, starting about 11,500 years ago, providing some cultures with a more abundant supply of grains (such as wheat, rice and maize) and potatoes; and originating staples such as bread, pasta dough, and tortillas. The domestication of animals provided some cultures with milk and dairy products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tell Abu Hureyra",
        "text": "The first domesticated morphologic cereals came about at the Abu Hureyra site around 10,000 years ago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Puffed rice",
        "text": "The method of modern industrial puffed rice production is attributed to American inventor Alexander P. Anderson, who stumbled across puffing while trying to ascertain the water content of a single granule of starch, introduced the first puffing machine at the World's Fair in Saint Louis, Missouri, in 1904. His eight \"guns\" that puffed grains for Fair goers were dubbed \"The Eighth Wonder of the World\" by an advertising billboard poster. Once the puffing principle, technique and technology had been discovered by Anderson, the competition to puff ready-to-eat American breakfast cereal took over the economy of Battle Creek, Michigan, with Kellogg's and Quaker Oats being two memorable and still active names to endure through the early puffing frenzy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food storage container",
        "text": "In early civilizations cereal grains such as maize, wheat, barley etc. were stored in large airy buildings, often raised up from the ground to reduce infestation by pests and vermin. Ancient Egyptian and early Hebrew writings include reference to such buildings and their successors can still be seen in use in less developed countries and regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calleva Atrebatum",
        "text": "The study of plant remains from the across the city and especially Insula IX have shown that spelt, wheat and barley were the most common cereals consumed. A wide range of fruits (apple, fig, grape), flavourings (celery, coriander, dill), and pulses (celtic bean, pea) were consumed. Many houses had their own rotary querns for grinding flour. Cattle, sheep/goat and pig were the major sources of meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u00fagbrau\u00f0",
        "text": "Rye, produced in Denmark and exported to Iceland, became the predominant cereal in Icelandic cuisine in the early modern period after a trade monopoly was instituted by the king of Denmark in 1602, remaining in vigor until 1786."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast",
        "text": "Popcorn cereal was consumed by Americans in the 1800s, which typically consisted of popcorn with milk and a sweetener. Cold breakfast cereal has been consumed by Americans since the late 1890s, and during the 1920s a considerable number of new cereals were marketed. The reason for this movement towards cold breakfast cereals was inspired by the Jacksonian-era Clean Living Movement (1830\u20131860). This movement focused on a lot of lifestyle changes, but specific to breakfast it claimed that eating bacon, eggs, pancakes and hot coffee was too indulgent. The first prepared cold breakfast cereal marketed to American consumers was created by Dr. John Harvey Kellogg, who introduced it in 1878 and named it granola. The product was prepared with baked wheat, oatmeal and cornmeal, and was the first brand-name breakfast cereal in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Valmeinier",
        "text": "Cereals (corn, wheat and rye) were grown up to 1,500 metres."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nutrition in classical antiquity",
        "text": "People ate various types of food; consumers had choices from dairy (milk and cheese), fruits (figs, pears, apples, and pomegranates), vegetables (greens and bulbs), grains and legumes (cereal, wheat barley, millet, beans, and chickpeas), and meat (beef, mutton, fowl, mussels, and oysters). Food was most often fresh, but the processing of food aided in the preservation for long-term storage or transport to other cities. Cereals, olives, wine, legumes, vegetables, fruit, and animal products could all be processed and stored for later use. Cereals were often processed and stored in the form of bread, flat-cakes, and porridge. Legumes were also most often processed and stored as pulses and eaten with bread to enhance the flavor. Cereals were most nourishing providing essential macro- and micronutrients to consumers. Cereals sustained individuals with sufficient amounts of protein, vitamin B, vitamin E, calcium, and iron. Fruits and vegetables provided vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin D, and half the dietary fiber needed for health support."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerealine",
        "text": "Cerealine was well established as a breakfast food by at least 1897, when the Illinois Farmer's Institute annual report noted that, \"Some mills make hominy of white corn, roll it into broad, flat flakes, called cerealine, which are used here as a breakfast dish...\" By this time it had become one of the three most popular cereals of that time, along with cracked wheat and oatmeal. All three were typically sold by retailers who bought cereal in barrel lots and scooped it out to sell by the pound to customers. Toasted Cerealine Flakes was later sold in packages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tell Abu Hureyra",
        "text": "It is from the early part of the Younger Dryas that the first indirect evidence of agriculture was detected in the excavations at Abu Hureyra, although the cereals themselves were still of the wild variety. It was during the intentional sowing of cereals in more favourable refuges like Mureybet that these first farmers developed domesticated strains during the centuries of drought and cold of the Younger Dryas. When the climate abated about 9500 BCE they spread all over the Middle East with this new bio-technology, and Abu Hureyra grew to a large village eventually with several thousand people. The second occupation grew domesticated varieties of rye, wheat and barley, and kept sheep as livestock. The hunting of gazelle decreased sharply, probably due to overexploitation that eventually left them extinct in the Middle East. At Abu Hureyra they were replaced by meat from domesticated animals. The second occupation lasted for about 2,000 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Domestication",
        "text": "Cereal crops were first domesticated around 11,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East. The first domesticated crops were generally annuals with large seeds or fruits. These included pulses such as peas and grains such as wheat. The Middle East was especially suited to these species; the dry-summer climate was conducive to the evolution of large-seeded annual plants, and the variety of elevations led to a great variety of species. As domestication took place humans began to move from a hunter-gatherer society to a settled agricultural society. This change would eventually lead, some 4000 to 5000 years later, to the first city states and eventually the rise of civilization itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "Cereal grains, namely porridge (and especially oatmeal), became an important breakfast component in North America. Barley was a common grain used, though other grains and yellow peas could be used. In many modern cultures, porridge is still eaten as a breakfast dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "An Edible History of Humanity",
        "text": "In section four, Standage shows how two particular innovations of the 18th century (New World crops and replacement of wood with coal for fuel) increased agricultural productivity and made industrialization possible. This section also showcases a darker side of innovation as potato monoculture led to the Great Famine in Ireland beginning in 1845."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic history of Europe (1000 AD\u2013present)",
        "text": "Agricultural production of a variety of food items expanded: olive oil, wine, cider, woad (a source of blue dye), and saffron. After 1500, New World crops appeared such as beans, corn (maize), squash, tomatoes, potatoes, and bell peppers. Production techniques remained attached to medieval traditions and produced low yields. With the rapidly expanding population, additional land suitable for farming became scarce. The situation worsened with repeated disastrous harvests in the 1550s."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of agriculture",
        "text": "After 1492, a global exchange of previously local crops and livestock breeds occurred. Maize, potatoes, sweet potatoes and manioc were the key crops that spread from the New World to the Old, while varieties of wheat, barley, rice and turnips traveled from the Old World to the New. There had been few livestock species in the New World, with horses, cattle, sheep and goats being completely unknown before their arrival with Old World settlers. Crops moving in both directions across the Atlantic Ocean caused population growth around the world and a lasting effect on many cultures in the Early Modern period."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of bread",
        "text": "History of bread\n--Antiquity.\n--Middle Ages.\n--To the 19th century.\n--Industrialization.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "The first cold breakfast cereal, Granula (not the same as granola), was invented in the United States in 1863 by James Caleb Jackson, operator of Our Home on the Hillside which was later replaced by the Jackson Sanatorium in Dansville, New York. The cereal never became popular, due to the inconvenient necessity of tenderizing the heavy bran and graham nuggets by soaking them overnight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sorghum bicolor",
        "text": "Richard Pankhurst reports (citing Augustus B. Wylde) that in 19th-century Ethiopia, \"durra\" was \"often the first crop sown on newly cultivated land\", explaining that this cereal did not require the thorough ploughing other crops did, and its roots not only decomposed into a good fertilizer, but they also helped to break up the soil while not exhausting the subsoil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food packaging",
        "text": "1880s: First cereal packaged in a folding box by Quaker Oats"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "After the First World War, many new food products became available to the typical household, with branded foods advertised for their convenience. Kitchen servants with time to make custards and puddings were replaced with instant foods in jars, or powders that the housewife could quickly mix. American-style dry cereals began to challenge the porridge and bacon and eggs of the middle classes, and the bread and margarine of the poor. While wartime shipping shortages had sharply narrowed choice, the 1920s saw many new kinds of fruit imported from around the world, along with better quality, packaging, and hygiene, aided by refrigerators and refrigerated ships. Authors in the 1930s such as Lady Sysonby drew on recipes from a wide range of countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic history of Europe (1000 AD\u2013present)",
        "text": "Field crops included wheat, rye, barley and oats; they were used for bread and animal fodder. Peas, beans, and vetches became common from the 13th century onward as food and as a fodder crop for animals; they also had nitrogen-fixation fertilizing properties. Crop yields peaked in the 13th century, and stayed more or less steady until the 18th century. Although the limitations of medieval farming were once thought to have provided a ceiling for the population growth in the Middle Ages, recent studies have shown that the technology of medieval agriculture was always sufficient for the needs of the people under normal circumstances, and that it was only during exceptionally harsh times, such as the terrible weather of 1315\u201317, that the needs of the population could not be met."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bigu (grain avoidance)",
        "text": "The first textual references to \"avoiding grains/cereals\" are found in Chinese classics from the Warring States period (475\u2013221 BCE), Qin Dynasty (221 BCE\u2013206 BCE), and Han Dynasty (206 BCE\u2013220 CE)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fruitcake",
        "text": "The earliest recipe from ancient Rome lists pomegranate seeds, pine nuts, and raisins that were mixed into barley mash. In the Middle Ages, honey, spices, and preserved fruits were added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Common and often basic ingredients in many modern European cuisines like potatoes, kidney beans, cacao, vanilla, tomatoes, chili peppers and maize were not available to Europeans until after 1492, after European contact with the Americas, and even then it often took considerable time, sometimes several centuries, for the new foodstuffs to be accepted by society at large."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast",
        "text": "Breakfast\n--History.\n----Ancient breakfast.\n------Ancient Egypt.\n------Ancient Greece.\n------Ancient Rome.\n----Middle Ages (500\u20131500).\n------Europe.\n----Modern breakfast (1500\u2013present).\n------Africa.\n--------Egypt.\n------Asia.\n--------Middle East.\n--------Japan.\n--------Lebanon.\n------Europe.\n--------Austria.\n--------France.\n--------Netherlands.\n--------United Kingdom.\n------North America.\n--------Canada.\n--------Mexico.\n--------United States.\n--Effect on health.\n----Scientific findings.\n------Study using mice.\n----Healthy choice.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Epipalaeolithic Near East",
        "text": "The earliest evidence for the use of composite cereal harvesting tools are the glossed flint blades that have been found at the site of Ohalo II, a 23,000-year-old fisher-hunter-gatherers\u2019 camp on the shore of the Sea of Galilee, Northern Israel. The Ohalo site is dated at the junction of the Upper Paleolithic and the Early Epipalaeolithic, and has been attributed to both periods. The wear traces on the tools indicate that these were used for harvesting near-ripe, semi-green wild cereals, shortly before grains ripen enough to disperse naturally. The study shows that the tools were not used intensively, and they reflect two harvesting modes: flint knives held by hand and inserts hafted into a handle. The finds reveal the existence of cereal harvesting techniques and tools some 8,000 years before the Natufian, and 12,000 years before the establishment of sedentary farming communities in the Near East during the Neolithic Revolution. Furthermore, the new finds accord well with evidence for the earliest ever cereal cultivation at the site, and for the use of stone-made grinding implements."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of agriculture",
        "text": "Domesticated rye occurs in small quantities at some Neolithic sites in (Asia Minor) Turkey, such as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (c. 7600 \u2013 c. 6000 BC) Can Hasan III near \u00c7atalh\u00f6y\u00fck, but is otherwise absent until the Bronze Age of central Europe, c. 1800\u20131500 BC. Claims of much earlier cultivation of rye, at the Epipalaeolithic site of Tell Abu Hureyra in the Euphrates valley of northern Syria, remain controversial. Critics point to inconsistencies in the radiocarbon dates, and identifications based solely on grain, rather than on chaff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Post Consumer Brands",
        "text": "In 1897, Post introduced his first dry cereal, a crunchy blend of wheat and barley, which he called Grape Nuts. His first corn-flake product was introduced as \"Elijah's Manna\" in 1904. Owing to consumer resistance to the (inaccurate) biblical reference that was so great that even Great Britain flatly refused to register the name as a trademark, it was renamed Post Toasties in 1907."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "In western Europe, medieval cuisine (5th\u201315th century) did not change rapidly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerealine",
        "text": "White-corn cerealine flakes as a breakfast cereal were invented, perhaps accidentally, by Columbus, Indiana, mill worker James Vannoy circa 1884 or 1887. Vannoy's 1902 obituary said he found through experimentation a way to run the milled grain through rollers so that it would come out \"in thin layers or flakes. He went to his employer, Joseph F. Gent, with the discovery. Gent rather disregarded the wonderful discovery and told Vannoy that he had better been tending to his duties. Later, Gent had the discovery patented, and it was not long until Cerealine was on the market and was being sold in large quantities.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "North American Indians had found a way to make ground corn palatable, later called \"grits\" (from the Old English word \"Gr\u0113ot\", meaning Gravel) (\"hominy\" was another preparation). While this became a staple in the southern U.S., grits never gained a hold in the northern states. Food reformers in the 19th century called for cutting back on excessive meat consumption at breakfast. They explored numerous vegetarian alternatives. Late in the century, the Seventh-day Adventists based in Michigan made these food reforms part of their religion, and indeed non-meat breakfasts were featured in their sanitariums and led to new breakfast cereals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kadero (archaeological site)",
        "text": "It is possible that early farmers at the site planted wild cereals, including sorghum, as impressions of wild cereals have been identified in pottery. Many of the stone tools found at the site then can be explained as tools for preparing these plants, but data is limited. Evidence of the usage of wild sorghum as a food source is prevalent throughout Neolithic eastern Africa, and it has been argued that the Central Sudanese during the time period could have harvested wild cereals but did not necessarily domesticate the plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adolphe Dureau de la Malle",
        "text": "As a naturalist, he published on the origins of the cereal crops.\n* \"De l'Origine et de la patrie des C\u00e9r\u00e9ales\" (1819 et 1826)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rye",
        "text": "Rye is one of a number of species that grow wild in the Levant, central and eastern Turkey and in adjacent areas. Evidence uncovered at Tell Abu Hureyra, in present day Syria, suggests that rye was among the first cereal crops to be systematically cultivated, around 13,000 years ago. This claim of much earlier cultivation of rye, at the Epipalaeolithic site of Tell Abu Hureyra in the Euphrates valley of northern Syria remain controversial. Critics point to inconsistencies in the radiocarbon dates, and identifications based solely on grain, rather than on chaff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lithuanian cuisine",
        "text": "In the 14th century, Lithuania almost all today known cereals and legume were grown, but rye was the most popular, since it was easier to grow in the Northern European climate and the crop was more predictable. In the hillfort of Mai\u0161iagala in the layer of 13\u201314th century about 20 sorts of various cereals and legumes were found \u2013 winter and summer rye, wheat, barley, oat, millet, buckwheat, lentil, vetches, peas, broad beans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "Ferdinand Schumacher, a German immigrant, began the cereals revolution in 1854 with a hand oats grinder in the back room of a small store in Akron, Ohio. His German Mills American Oatmeal Company was the nation's first commercial oatmeal manufacturer. He marketed the product locally as a substitute for breakfast pork. Improved production technology (steel cutters, porcelain rollers, improved hullers), combined with an influx of German and Irish immigrants, quickly boosted sales and profits. In 1877, Schumacher adopted the Quaker symbol, the first registered trademark for a breakfast cereal. The acceptance of \"horse food\" for human consumption encouraged other entrepreneurs to enter the industry. Henry Parsons Crowell started operations in 1882, and John Robert Stuart in 1885. Crowell cut costs by consolidating every step of the processing\u2014grading, cleaning, hulling, cutting, rolling, packaging, and shipping \u2014in one factory operating at Ravenna, Ohio. Stuart operated mills in Chicago and Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Stuart and Crowell combined in 1885 and initiated a price war. After a fire at his mill in Akron, Schumacher joined Stuart and Crowell to form the Consolidated Oatmeal Company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nordic bread culture",
        "text": "Archaeological finds in Denmark indicate use of the two triticum (wheat) species, emmer and einkorn, during the Mesolithic Period (8900 BC \u2013 3900 BC). There is no direct evidence of bread-making, but cereals have been crushed, cooked and served as porridge since at least 4,200 BC. During the Neolithic Period (3900 BC \u2013 1800 BC), when agriculture was introduced, barley seems to have taken over to some extent, and ceramic plates apparently used for baking are found. Moulded cereals, with water added to make a dough and baked or fried in the shape of bread, are known as burial gifts in Iron Age graves (200 AD onwards) in the M\u00e4lardalen area of central Sweden. However, it is not certain that this bread was eaten; it could just have been a burial gift. During the Bronze Age (1800 BC \u2013 500 AD), oats and the triticum species spelt seem to have been the most commonly used grains, and the first real ovens appear, probably used for baking small loaves and perhaps the first bread (probably around 400 AD)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rye",
        "text": "Domesticated rye occurs in small quantities at a number of Neolithic sites in Asia Minor (Anatolia, now Turkey), such as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B Can Hasan III near \u00c7atalh\u00f6y\u00fck, but is otherwise absent from the archaeological record until the Bronze Age of central Europe, c. 1800\u20131500 BCE. It is possible that rye traveled west from Asia Minor as a minor admixture in wheat (possibly as a result of Vavilovian mimicry), and was only later cultivated in its own right. Archeological evidence of this grain has been found in Roman contexts along the Rhine and the Danube and in Ireland and Britain. Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder was dismissive of a grain that may have been rye, writing that it \"is a very poor food and only serves to avert starvation\". He said it was mixed with spelt \"to mitigate its bitter taste, and even then is most unpleasant to the stomach\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "George H. Hoyt created Wheatena circa 1879, during an era when retailers would typically buy cereal (the most popular being cracked wheat, oatmeal, and cerealine) in barrel lots, and scoop it out to sell by the pound to customers. Hoyt, who had found a distinctive process of preparing wheat for cereal, sold his cereal in boxes, offering consumers a more sanitary and consumer-friendly option."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal",
        "text": "During the second half of the 20th century there was a significant increase in the production of high-yield cereal crops worldwide, especially wheat and rice, due to an initiative known as the Green Revolution. The strategies developed by the Green Revolution focused on fending off starvation and increasing yield-per-plant, and were very successful in raising overall yields of cereal grains, but did not give sufficient relevance to nutritional quality. These modern high-yield cereal crops tend to have low quality proteins, with essential amino acid deficiencies, are high in carbohydrates, and lack balanced essential fatty acids, vitamins, minerals and other quality factors. So-called ancient grains and heirloom varieties have seen an increase in popularity with the \"organic\" movements of the early 21st century, but there is a tradeoff in yield-per-plant, putting pressure on resource-poor areas as food crops are replaced with cash crops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women in the Middle Ages",
        "text": "Since the 800s, the invention of a more efficient type of plough\u2014along with three-field replacing two-field crop rotation\u2014allowed medieval peasants to improve their diets through planting, alongside wheat and rye in the fall, oats, barley, and legumes in the spring, including various protein-rich peas. In the same period, rabbits were introduced from the Iberian Peninsula across the Alps to the Carolingian Empire, reaching England in the 12th century. Herring could be more effectively salted, and pork, cheese, and eggs were increasingly consumed throughout Europe, even by the lower classes. As a result, Europeans of all classes consumed more proteins from meats than did people in any other part of the world during the same period\u2014leading to population growth that almost outstripped resources at the onset of the devastating Black Death. Bullough and Campbell further cite David Herlihy, who observes, based on available data, that in European cities in the 15th century, women outnumbered men, and although they did not have the \"absolute numerical advantage over men,\" women were more numerous among the elderly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qasr Ibrim",
        "text": "Napatan (mid 8th-mid 7th century BC):\n*emmer wheat (\"Triticum turgidum\" L.)\n*hulled barley (\"Hordeum vulgare\" L.)\n*broomcorn millet (\"Panicum miliaceum\" L.)\n*flax (\"Linum usitatissimum\" L.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wheat",
        "text": "The cultivation of emmer reached Greece, Cyprus and Indian subcontinent by 6500\u00a0BCE, Egypt shortly after 6000\u00a0BCE, and Germany and Spain by 5000\u00a0BCE. \"The early Egyptians were developers of bread and the use of the oven and developed baking into one of the first large-scale food production industries.\" By 4000\u00a0BCE, wheat had reached the British Isles and Scandinavia. Wheat likely appeared in China's lower Yellow River around 2600 Before Common Era (BCE)."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of technology",
        "text": "Ancient Egyptians also invented and pioneered many food technologies that have become the basis of modern food technology processes. Based on paintings and reliefs found in tombs, as well as archaeological artifacts, scholars like Paul T Nicholson believe that the Ancient Egyptians established systematic farming practices, engaged in cereal processing, brewed beer and baked bread, processed meat, practiced viticulture and created the basis for modern wine production, and created condiments to complement, preserve and mask the flavors of their food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The cuisines of the cultures of the Mediterranean Basin since antiquity had been based on cereals, particularly various types of wheat. Porridge, gruel and later, bread, became the basic food staple that made up the majority of calorie intake for most of the population. From the 8th to the 11th centuries, the proportion of various cereals in the diet rose from about a third to three quarters. Dependence on wheat remained significant throughout the medieval era, and spread northward with the rise of Christianity. In colder climates, however, it was usually unaffordable for the majority population, and was associated with the higher classes. The centrality of bread in religious rituals such as the Eucharist meant that it enjoyed an especially high prestige among foodstuffs. Only (olive) oil and wine had a comparable value, but both remained quite exclusive outside the warmer grape- and olive-growing regions. The symbolic role of bread as both sustenance and substance is illustrated in a sermon given by Saint Augustine:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Natufian culture",
        "text": "According to one theory, it was a sudden change in climate, the Younger Dryas event (c. 10,800 to 9500 BC), which inspired the development of agriculture. The Younger Dryas was a 1,000-year-long interruption in the higher temperatures prevailing since the Last Glacial Maximum, which produced a sudden drought in the Levant. This would have endangered the wild cereals, which could no longer compete with dryland scrub, but upon which the population had become dependent to sustain a relatively large sedentary population. By artificially clearing scrub and planting seeds obtained from elsewhere, they began to practice agriculture. However, this theory of the origin of agriculture is controversial in the scientific community."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of agriculture",
        "text": "The potato (8000 BC), tomato, pepper (4000 BC), squash (8000 BC) and several varieties of bean (8000 BC onwards) were domesticated in the New World."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qasr Ibrim",
        "text": "Roman (25 BC-mid 1st century AD):\n*emmer wheat (\"Triticum turgidum\" L.)\n*hulled barley (\"Hordeum vulgare\" L.)\n*broomcorn millet (\"Panicum miliaceum\" L.)\n*flax (\"Linum usitatissimum\" L.)\n*cotton (\"Gossypium\" sp.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Human history",
        "text": "Beginning around 10,000 BCE, the Neolithic Revolution marked the development of agriculture, which fundamentally changed the human lifestyle. Cereal crop cultivation and animal domestication had occurred in the Middle East by at least 8500 BCE in the form of wheat, barley, sheep, and goats. In the Indus Valley, crops were cultivated and cattle were domesticated by 6000 BCE. The Yellow River valley in China cultivated millet and other cereal crops by about 7000 BCE; the Yangtze valley domesticated rice earlier, by at least 8000 BCE. In the Americas, sunflowers were cultivated by about 4000 BCE, and maize and beans were domesticated in Central America by 3500 BCE. Potatoes were first cultivated in the Andes Mountains of South America, where the llama was also domesticated. Metalworking was first used in the creation of copper tools and ornaments around 6000 BCE. Gold soon followed, primarily for use in ornaments. The need for metal ores stimulated trade, as many areas of early human settlement lacked the necessary ores. The first signs of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, date to around 2500 BCE, but the alloy did not become widely used until much later."
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "In the Middle Ages, the Anglo-Saxons introduced bacon to Britain sometime during the 1st millennium AD. The Norman conquest reintroduced spices and continental influences into Great Britain in the Middle Ages; oranges arrived in the late 13th century, sugar cane in the 14th, and carrots in the 15th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neolithic Revolution",
        "text": "The wear traces indicate that tools were used for harvesting near-ripe semi-green wild cereals, shortly before grains are ripe and disperse naturally. The studied tools were not used intensively, and they reflect two harvesting modes: flint knives held by hand and inserts hafted in a handle. The finds shed new light on cereal harvesting techniques some 8,000 years before the Natufian and 12,000 years before the establishment of sedentary farming communities in the Near East. Furthermore, the new finds accord well with evidence for the earliest ever cereal cultivation at the site and the use of stone-made grinding implements."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were some of the most important food sources in the Middle Ages?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Cereals remained the most important staple during the early Middle Ages as rice was introduced late, and the potato was only introduced in 1536, with a much later date for widespread consumption. Barley, oats and rye were eaten by the poor."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When was modern cereal invented?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The first cold breakfast cereal, Granula, was invented in 1863 by James Caleb Jackson.",
      "Are  you  interested in finding out about warm or cold cereals?"
    ],
    "topic": "Food history",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Breakfast cereal:10",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Breakfast cereal",
          "History",
          "Early developments"
        ],
        "ctx": "The first cold breakfast cereal, Granula (not the same as granola), was invented in the United States in 1863 by James Caleb Jackson, operator of Our Home on the Hillside which was later replaced by the Jackson Sanatorium in Dansville, New York. The cereal never became popular, due to the inconvenient necessity of tenderizing the heavy bran and graham nuggets by soaking them overnight."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Breakfast cereal:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Breakfast cereal"
        ],
        "ctx": "Cereal, formally termed breakfast cereal (and further categorized as cold cereal or warm cereal), is a traditional breakfast food made from processed cereal grains. It is traditionally eaten as part of breakfast, or a snack food, primarily in Western societies."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "Although warm cereals like porridge and grits have the longest history, ready-to-eat cold cereals appeared around the late 19th century, and are most often mixed with milk (traditionally cow's milk), but can also be paired with yogurt instead or eaten plain. Fruit or nuts are sometimes added. Many cereals are produced via extrusion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mr. Whitekeys",
        "text": "5. The History of Cereal"
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "Breakfast cereal\n--Background.\n----Early America.\n----Cooked oatmeal.\n--History.\n----Early developments.\n----Kellogg and Battle Creek, Michigan.\n----Charles W. Post.\n----M\u00fcesli.\n----United Kingdom.\n----National advertising.\n----Sugar cereals.\n----Granola.\n----Modern cereal.\n--Processing of grains.\n----Nutritional fortification.\n--Gluten-free cereals.\n--Warm cereals.\n----Canada.\n----China.\n----Greece.\n----Ireland.\n----Russia.\n----South Africa.\n----United Kingdom.\n--Research.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal",
        "text": "Historian Max Ostrovsky argues that this historic pattern never changed, not even in the Industrial Age. He stresses that all modern great powers have traditionally remained first and foremost great \"cereal\" powers. The \u201cfinest hour\u201d of the Axis powers \u201cended precisely the moment they threw themselves against the two largest cereal lebensraums\u201d (the United States and the USSR). The outcome of the Cold War followed the Soviet grave and long-lasting cereal crisis, exacerbated by the cereal embargo imposed on the USSR in 1980. And, called \u201cthe grain basket of the world,\u201d the most productive \u201ccereal lebensraum\u201d dominates the world ever since."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal",
        "text": "Cereal\n--Ancient history.\n--Cereals and civilization.\n--The Green Revolution.\n--Cultivation.\n----Planting.\n----Harvesting.\n--Production statistics.\n--Cereal exporters.\n--Nutritional facts.\n--Standardization.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "The first cold breakfast cereal, Granula (not the same as granola), was invented in the United States in 1863 by James Caleb Jackson, operator of Our Home on the Hillside which was later replaced by the Jackson Sanatorium in Dansville, New York. The cereal never became popular, due to the inconvenient necessity of tenderizing the heavy bran and graham nuggets by soaking them overnight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast",
        "text": "Popcorn cereal was consumed by Americans in the 1800s, which typically consisted of popcorn with milk and a sweetener. Cold breakfast cereal has been consumed by Americans since the late 1890s, and during the 1920s a considerable number of new cereals were marketed. The reason for this movement towards cold breakfast cereals was inspired by the Jacksonian-era Clean Living Movement (1830\u20131860). This movement focused on a lot of lifestyle changes, but specific to breakfast it claimed that eating bacon, eggs, pancakes and hot coffee was too indulgent. The first prepared cold breakfast cereal marketed to American consumers was created by Dr. John Harvey Kellogg, who introduced it in 1878 and named it granola. The product was prepared with baked wheat, oatmeal and cornmeal, and was the first brand-name breakfast cereal in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerealis",
        "text": "Cerealis\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Technological and industrial history of 20th-century Canada",
        "text": "Cold breakfast cereal became increasingly popular during these years. Wheat and later corn flakes were developed in the US by the Kellogg brothers in 1894 and the Kellogg Company was formed in 1906. In London, Ontario the Canadian Corn Company purchased the rights to manufacture and distribute Toasted Corn Flakes for Canadian distribution. In 1924 the American Kellogg Company purchased the London operation and formed Kellogg Canada Inc. Since that time the company has manufactured and distributed in Canada a wide variety of breakfast cereals including Corn Flakes, 1907, Bran Flakes, 1915, All Bran, 1916 and Rice Krispies, 1928."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "In the 1960s, the modern version of granola was invented and popularized. It evolved from a product called Granula (similar to Grape Nuts) to the recognizable modern form involving at a minimum: sweetened toasted oats, but also possibly: dried fruit, puffed rice, nuts or chocolate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal",
        "text": "The first cereal grains were domesticated by early primitive humans. About 8,000 years ago, they were domesticated by ancient farming communities in the Fertile Crescent region. Emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, and barley were three of the so-called Neolithic founder crops in the development of agriculture. Around the same time, millets and kinds of rice were starting to become domesticated in East Asia. Sorghum and millets were also being domesticated in sub-Saharan West Africa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890)",
        "text": "1863 Breakfast cereal\n*Breakfast cereal is a packaged food product intended to be consumed as part of a breakfast. The first breakfast cereal, Granula was invented in the United States in 1863 by James Caleb Jackson, operator of the Jackson Sanitorium in Dansville, New York. The cereal never became popular since it was inconvenient, as the heavy bran nuggets needed soaking overnight before they were tender enough to eat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerealicious",
        "text": "Cerealicious\n--History.\n--Products.\n----Cereal Blockbusters.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "Kellogg began the breakfast cereal marketing and introduced the first in-box prize in the early 1900s. Quaker Oats entered the market with Puffed Rice and Wheat Berries it had introduced at the 1904 World Fair, with raw grains shot with hot compressed air from tubes, popping up to many times their size. They were marketed as a revolution in food science. In the 1920s, national advertising in magazines and radio broadcasts played a key role in the emergence of the fourth big cereal manufacturer, General Mills. In 1921, James Ford Bell, president of a Minneapolis wheat milling firm, began experimenting with rolled wheat flakes. After tempering, steaming, cracking wheat, and processing it with syrup, sugar, and salt, it was prepared in a pressure cooker for rolling and then dried in an electric oven. By 1925, Wheaties had become the \"Breakfast of Champions\". In 1928, four milling companies consolidated as the General Mills Company in Minneapolis. The new firm expanded packaged food sales with heavy advertising, including sponsorship of radio programs such as \"Skippy\", \"Jack Armstrong, The All-American Boy\", and baseball games. Jack Dempsey, Johnny Weissmuller, and others verified the \"Breakfast of Champions\" slogan. By 1941 Wheaties had won 12% percent of the cereal market. Experiments with the puffing process produced Kix, a puffed corn cereal, and Cheerios, a puffed oats cereal. Further product innovation and diversification brought total General Mills sales to over $500 million annually (18% in packaged foods) by the early 1950s. In 1944 General Foods launched a marketing campaign for Grape Nuts, focusing on nutritional importance of breakfast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerealine",
        "text": "Cerealine\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "After World War II, the big breakfast cereal companies\u2014now including General Mills, who entered the market in 1924 with Wheaties\u2014increasingly started to target children. The flour was refined to remove fiber, which at the time was considered to undermine digestion and absorption of nutrients, and sugar was added to improve the flavor for children. The new breakfast cereals began to look starkly different from their ancestors. Ranger Joe, the first pre-sweetened breakfast cereal, and little more than candy-coated puffed wheat or rice, was introduced in the US in 1939. Kellogg's Sugar Smacks, created in 1953, had 56% sugar by weight. Different mascots were introduced, such as the Rice Krispies elves and later pop icons like Tony the Tiger and the Trix Rabbit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mr. T Cereal",
        "text": "Mr. T Cereal\n--History and marketing.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Food packaging",
        "text": "1880s: First cereal packaged in a folding box by Quaker Oats"
      },
      {
        "title": "Force (cereal)",
        "text": "Force (cereal)\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "Cereal, formally termed breakfast cereal (and further categorized as cold cereal or warm cereal), is a traditional breakfast food made from processed cereal grains. It is traditionally eaten as part of breakfast, or a snack food, primarily in Western societies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal",
        "text": "The following table shows the annual production of cereals in 1961, 1980, 2000, 2010, 2018 and 2019/2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gordon Hillman",
        "text": "The nature and cause of changes in plant use in relation to climate are also debated. Hillman originally proposed that wild food plants such as wild einkorn were foraged, in other words, collected from the wild. However, following detailed ecological modelling, Hillman and Moore proposed instead that the wild cereals had been under cultivation, probably in response to desiccation caused by the Younger Dryas climate event at about 12,900 to c. 11,700 years BP. Connolly and Colledge propose instead that the observed shift in plant consumption to less desirable foodstuffs at Abu Hureyra 1 simply reflects the greater scarcity of wild cereals under the effects of the cooler, drier Younger Dryas climate. In wider context, wild cereal and legume cultivation is widely accepted as likely at PPNA sites (11,600-10,500 years BP), but is not generally accepted for Epipalaeolithic sites."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of agriculture",
        "text": "Wild grains have been collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago, and possibly much longer. Exact dates are hard to determine, as people collected and ate seeds before domesticating them, and plant characteristics may have changed during this period without human selection. An example is the semi-tough rachis and larger seeds of cereals from just after the Younger Dryas (about 9500 BC) in the early Holocene in the Levant region of the Fertile Crescent. Monophyletic characteristics were attained without any human intervention, implying that apparent domestication of the cereal rachis could have occurred quite naturally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerealine",
        "text": "White-corn cerealine flakes as a breakfast cereal were invented, perhaps accidentally, by Columbus, Indiana, mill worker James Vannoy circa 1884 or 1887. Vannoy's 1902 obituary said he found through experimentation a way to run the milled grain through rollers so that it would come out \"in thin layers or flakes. He went to his employer, Joseph F. Gent, with the discovery. Gent rather disregarded the wonderful discovery and told Vannoy that he had better been tending to his duties. Later, Gent had the discovery patented, and it was not long until Cerealine was on the market and was being sold in large quantities.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pop-Tarts",
        "text": "In the 1960s, Post invented a process for enclosing moist food in foil to keep it fresh \u2014 first used for dog food \u2014 and adapted it to its new toaster-prepared breakfast food. Intended to complement its cold cereals, Post announced its new product to the press in 1963 before they went to market. Post called them \"Country Squares\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food.com",
        "text": "Food.com\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "John Harvey Kellogg",
        "text": "Around 1877, John H. Kellogg began experimenting to produce a softer breakfast food, something easy to chew. He developed a dough that was a mixture of wheat, oats, and corn. It was baked at high temperatures for a long period of time, to break down or \"dextrinize\" starch molecules in the grain. After it cooled, Kellogg broke the bread into crumbs. The cereal was originally marketed under the name \"Granula\" but this led to legal problems with James Caleb Jackson who already sold a wheat cereal under that name. In 1881, under threat of a lawsuit by Jackson, Kellogg changed the sanitarium cereal's name to \"Granola\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerealine",
        "text": "Cerealine was well established as a breakfast food by at least 1897, when the Illinois Farmer's Institute annual report noted that, \"Some mills make hominy of white corn, roll it into broad, flat flakes, called cerealine, which are used here as a breakfast dish...\" By this time it had become one of the three most popular cereals of that time, along with cracked wheat and oatmeal. All three were typically sold by retailers who bought cereal in barrel lots and scooped it out to sell by the pound to customers. Toasted Cerealine Flakes was later sold in packages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "George H. Hoyt created Wheatena circa 1879, during an era when retailers would typically buy cereal (the most popular being cracked wheat, oatmeal, and cerealine) in barrel lots, and scoop it out to sell by the pound to customers. Hoyt, who had found a distinctive process of preparing wheat for cereal, sold his cereal in boxes, offering consumers a more sanitary and consumer-friendly option."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of sociology of food articles",
        "text": "- cereal"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tell Abu Hureyra",
        "text": "The first domesticated morphologic cereals came about at the Abu Hureyra site around 10,000 years ago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Here document",
        "text": "3. Cereal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Here document",
        "text": "3. Cereal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Here document",
        "text": "3. Cereal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grape-Nuts",
        "text": "At one time, Grape-Nuts was the seventh-most popular cold breakfast cereal, but sales declined as Post was sold from one company to another. Around 2005, it held less than 1% of the market. About this time, the formula was changed; the husks from milled grain were ground into the flour and the cereal was pitched as \"whole grain\", albeit at the cost of roughening the cereal's texture and detracting significantly from mouthfeel. The addition of vitamins and minerals allowed it to qualify for food-stamp programs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "The second major innovator in the cereal industry was Charles W. Post, a salesman who was admitted to Kellogg's sanitarium as a patient in the late 1800s. While there, he grew deeply impressed with their all-grain diet. Upon his release, he began experimenting with grain products, beginning with an all-grain coffee substitute called Postum. In 1898 he introduced Grape-nuts, the concentrated cereal with a nutty flavor (containing neither grapes nor nuts). Good business sense, determination, and powerful advertising produced a multimillion-dollar fortune for Post in a few years. After his death, his company acquired the Jell-O company in 1925, Baker's Chocolate in 1927, Maxwell House coffee in 1928, and Birdseye frozen foods in 1929. In 1929, the company changed its name to General Foods. In 1985, Philip Morris Tobacco Company bought General Foods for $5.6 billion (equivalent to $ billion today) and merged it with its Kraft division. Because of Kellogg and Post, the city of Battle Creek, Michigan is nicknamed the \"Cereal Capital of the World\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereals Event",
        "text": "Cereals Event\n--History.\n--Event dates.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Valmeinier",
        "text": "Cereals (corn, wheat and rye) were grown up to 1,500 metres."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey Smacks",
        "text": "Presweetened breakfast cereals first appeared in 1939. At the time of its introduction in the early 1950s, Sugar Smacks had the highest sugar content in the US cereal market (55% per weight), surpassing Sugar Crisp (later renamed \"Golden Crisp) by competitor Post Cereal which had debuted with what \"The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets\" would later call \"an astonishing sugar content of 51 percent\". (The cereals are both sweetened puffed wheat.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal",
        "text": "Cereals were the foundation of human civilization. Cereal frontiers coincided with civilizational frontiers. The term Fertile Crescent implies the spatial dependence of civilization on cereals. The Great Wall of China and the Roman limes demarcated the same northern limit of the cereal cultivation. The Silk Road stretched along the cereal belt of Eurasia. Numerous Chinese imperial edicts stated: \u201cAgriculture is the foundation of this empire,\u201d while the foundation of agriculture were the Five Grains."
      },
      {
        "title": "C.W. Post (cereal)",
        "text": "C.W. Post was a granola-type breakfast cereal introduced in the United States by General Foods in July 1974. It was named after C. W. Post, the founder of the Postum Cereal Company that later became General Foods. The cereal company unit was later sold off and is now Post Foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles E. Saunders",
        "text": "He wrote extensively on the subject and many of his thoughts on cereals were presented to scientific conferences and societies and printed in scientific magazines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "Over 2016 to 2017, Americans purchased 3.1 billion boxes of cereal, mostly as ready to eat cold cereal. In a $9.8 billion cereal market, cold cereal purchases were 88% of the total (12% for hot cereals), with the overall cereal market declining due to reduced consumption of sugar and dairy products. Kellogg's and General Mills each had 30% of the market share for cold cereals. Honey Nut Cheerios was the leading cold cereal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerealine",
        "text": "A 1907 trade journal reported the company was reintroducing the cereal Toasted Cerealine Flakes, commenting that it would sound"
      },
      {
        "title": "Monster Cereals",
        "text": "Monster Cereals\n--History.\n--Prizes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordans (cereal)",
        "text": "Jordans (cereal)\n--History.\n--Conservation efforts.\n--Market share.\n--Food contents.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Post Consumer Brands",
        "text": "In 1897, Post introduced his first dry cereal, a crunchy blend of wheat and barley, which he called Grape Nuts. His first corn-flake product was introduced as \"Elijah's Manna\" in 1904. Owing to consumer resistance to the (inaccurate) biblical reference that was so great that even Great Britain flatly refused to register the name as a trademark, it was renamed Post Toasties in 1907."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Cereal (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Eggo Cereal",
        "text": "Eggo Cereal\n--History.\n--Information.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1890\u20131945)",
        "text": "1890 Shredded wheat\n* Shredded wheat is a type of breakfast cereal made from whole wheat. Shredded wheat also comes in a \"frosted\" variety, which has one side coated with sugar and usually gelatin. Shredded wheat was invented in 1890 by Henry Perky of Watertown, New York."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dorset Cereals",
        "text": "Dorset Cereals\n--History.\n--Products.\n----Sugar levels.\n--Recognition.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Granula",
        "text": "Granula was the first manufactured breakfast cereal. It was invented by James Caleb Jackson in 1863. Granula could be described as being a larger and tougher version of the somewhat similar later cereal Grape-Nuts. Granula, however, consisted primarily of bran-rich graham flour made into nugget shapes. The cereal had to be soaked overnight before it could be eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn flakes",
        "text": "With corn flakes becoming popular in the wider community, a previous patient at the sanitarium, C. W. Post, started to make rival products. Kellogg continued to experiment with various ingredients and different grains. In 1928, he started to manufacture Rice Krispies, another successful breakfast cereal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Granula",
        "text": "The cereal was manufactured from a dough of Graham flour rolled into sheets and baked. The dried sheets were then broken into pieces, baked again, and broken into smaller pieces."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Caleb Jackson",
        "text": "In 1863, he developed the first breakfast cereal and named it Granula."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "North American Indians had found a way to make ground corn palatable, later called \"grits\" (from the Old English word \"Gr\u0113ot\", meaning Gravel) (\"hominy\" was another preparation). While this became a staple in the southern U.S., grits never gained a hold in the northern states. Food reformers in the 19th century called for cutting back on excessive meat consumption at breakfast. They explored numerous vegetarian alternatives. Late in the century, the Seventh-day Adventists based in Michigan made these food reforms part of their religion, and indeed non-meat breakfasts were featured in their sanitariums and led to new breakfast cereals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn flakes",
        "text": "The flakes of grain, which the Kellogg brothers called \"Granose\", were a very popular food among the patients. The brothers then experimented with other flakes from other grains. In 1906, Will Keith Kellogg, who served as the business manager of the sanitarium, decided to try to mass-market the new food. At his new company, Battle Creek Toasted Corn Flake Company, he added sugar to the flakes to make them more palatable to a mass audience, but this caused a rift between his brother and him. In 1907, his company ran an ad campaign which offered a free box of cereal to any woman who winked at her grocer. To increase sales, in 1909 he added a special offer, the \"Funny Jungleland Moving Pictures Booklet\", which was made available to anyone who bought two boxes of the cereal. This same premium was offered for 22 years. At the same time, Kellogg also began experimenting with new grain cereals to expand its product line. Rice Krispies, his next great hit, first went on sale in 1928."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nutri-Grain",
        "text": "The breakfast cereal in its original \"block and hole\" shape was introduced in Australia in 1976, and later in 1981 consisting of flakes without added sugar. There were four varieties initially (rye, corn, barley, and wheat); later these were reduced to corn and wheat, and finally the corn line was completely discontinued. There are various Nutri-Grain Bars made from the breakfast cereal bonded together, available in the markets where the cereal is available. The bars became popular in the 1990s as an \"on-the-go\" food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal Research Centre",
        "text": "Cereal Research Centre\n--Background.\n--Research.\n--Closure.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereals Event",
        "text": "Cereals was launched in 1979 and has grown ever since."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of breakfast cereals",
        "text": "List of breakfast cereals\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Breadsall",
        "text": "Breadsall\n--History.\n--Modern day.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "In 1902 Force wheat flakes became the first ready-to-eat breakfast cereal introduced into the United Kingdom. The cereal, and the Sunny Jim character, achieved wide success in Britain, at its peak in 1930 selling 12.5 million packages in one year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mister C's",
        "text": "Mister C's\n--History.\n--Food and environment.\n--Current.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Kid in You",
        "text": "Consumer developments in the late 1970s and early 1980s further affected the cereal industry. Parents and other advocates for children began to complain about the negative effects of sugary cereals and linked children's consumption of presweetened cereals to obesity and tooth decay. Demanding accurate information about product contents, many consumers were dismayed to learn that sugar was the main ingredient in some of these cereals. Medical studies suggesting a relationship between diet and heart disease and cancer helped to stimulate increased interest in basic nutrition and natural foods, including such products as oat bran and whole-grain fiber. In response, cereal manufacturers rushed out oat bran cereals and other products aimed at a health-conscious market. By the early 1980s, cereal companies were responding to consumer preferences that had become complex and specialized. As a product that appealed to both adults and children, Frosted Mini-Wheats was a brand that could remain on pantry shelves even after children had moved away from home."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerealine",
        "text": "Cerealine, also known as malt flakes, was a 19th-century American cereal product and the first dry breakfast food in American retailing. Similar to but predating corn flakes, which appeared in 1898 and are first rolled and then toasted, cerealine is corn grits in the form of uncooked flakes. It was originally used by the brewing industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emmet Densmore",
        "text": "Densmore argued that cereals were \"unnatural and disease-inducing foods\". Articles were published that contested his \"anticerealism\". James Burn described his diet as \"anti-vegetarian quackery\". Densmore edited the London monthly magazine, \"Natural Food\" (1890\u20131895) and with his wife Helen, edited the health magazine \"Earnest Words\". In 1890, Densmore and Helen founded the Natural Food Society in London which offered a system of dietary principles that was more enjoyable and practical than \"orthodox vegetarianism or the ordinary fare\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iraq ed-Dubb",
        "text": "Sue Colledge has suggested that along with Tell Aswad, the site shows the earliest evidence for domesticated cereal morphology, claiming the site has the \"earliest dated evidence for the use of domestic cereals in southwestern Asia\" with a date range from approximately 9600 to 9475 BCE. It was noted that the number of specimens reported was low and their preservation was poor. Colledge assumed finds of domesticated barley (Hordeum vulgare) and wheat (likely Triticum turgidum dicoccum) were growing in secondary habitats."
      },
      {
        "title": "C. W. Post",
        "text": "In 1895, Post founded Postum Cereal Co., with his first product, Postum cereal beverage. Post's first breakfast cereal premiered in 1897, and he named the product Grape-Nuts cereal because of the fruity aroma noticed during the manufacturing process and the nutty crunch of the finished product. In 1904, he followed up the Grape Nuts label with a brand of corn flakes, which was first called Elijah's Manna before being renamed Post Toasties in 1908. The British government refused to allow Post to market his cereal in the United Kingdom using the name Elijah's Manna, stating that it was sacrilegious."
      },
      {
        "title": "Icing (food)",
        "text": "Icing (food)\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "C.W. Post (cereal)",
        "text": "The television commercials were well known for a few unique characteristics. A scene of a long table at a farm, with family members clapping a repeating beat. Also, because the suggested serving size was 1/4 cup, the commercial accurately portrayed a paltry amount of cereal being poured into the awaiting bowl."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early history of food regulation in the United States",
        "text": "With the advent of modern machinery, food production (especially grain) moved forward at an alarming pace. For example, the \u201ccanning line\u201d increased the efficiency of canning foods in an industrial setting. An 1886 report by the Illinois Bureau of Labor Statistics claimed that \u201cNew machinery has displaced fully 50 percent of the muscular labor formerly required to do a given amount of work\u201d. Because of these improvements to agriculture, packaged cereals and canned foods became popular. Synthetic medicines (made in labs instead of natural medicines) and chemicals that altered the growing and processing of food began to appear."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Caleb Jackson",
        "text": "James Caleb Jackson (March 28, 1811 \u2013 July 11, 1895) was the inventor of the first dry, whole grain breakfast cereal which he called granula. His views influenced the health reforms of Ellen G. White, a founder of the Seventh-day Adventist Church."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ed-Dahi",
        "text": "2,979 for cereals, while 10 dunams were classified as built-up areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Harvey Kellogg",
        "text": "John Harvey Kellogg was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2006 for the discovery of tempering and the invention of the first dry flaked breakfast cereal, which \"transformed the typical American breakfast\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kellogg's",
        "text": "For years, W. K. Kellogg assisted his brother in research aimed at improving the vegetarian diet of the Battle Creek Sanitarium's patients, especially in the search for wheat-based granola. The Kelloggs are best known for the invention of the famous breakfast cereal corn flakes. The development of the flaked cereal in 1894 has been variously described by those involved: Ella Eaton Kellogg, John Harvey Kellogg, his younger brother Will Keith Kellogg, and other family members. There is considerable disagreement over who was involved in the discovery, and the role that they played. It is generally agreed that upon being called out one night, John Kellogg left a batch of wheat-berry dough behind. Rather than throwing it out the next morning, he sent it through the rollers and was surprised to obtain delicate flakes, which could then be baked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Popcorn",
        "text": "Popcorn as a breakfast cereal was consumed by Americans in the 1800s and generally consisted of popcorn with milk and a sweetener."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Cereal may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "General Foods",
        "text": "Roots of General Foods can be traced to the Post Cereal Company, founded by C. W. Post in 1895 in Battle Creek, Michigan. Post was a patient at the Battle Creek Sanitarium (run by John Harvey Kellogg, brother of Kellogg Company founder Will Keith Kellogg), and was inspired by the diet there to start his food company (and become a rival to the Kellogg brothers, who sold their own breakfast cereals). Post invested $78 in his initial equipment and supplies and set up manufacturing in a barn on what was known as the 'Old Beardsley Farm'. His first product was Postum, a \"cereal beverage\" alternative to coffee made from wheat and molasses. The first cereal, Grape-Nuts, was developed in 1897 followed by Elijah's Manna in 1904 which was renamed Post Toasties in 1908."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adolphe Dureau de la Malle",
        "text": "As a naturalist, he published on the origins of the cereal crops.\n* \"De l'Origine et de la patrie des C\u00e9r\u00e9ales\" (1819 et 1826)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Acropora cerealis",
        "text": "It was described by Dana in 1846."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Harvey Kellogg",
        "text": "He issued Grape-Nuts breakfast cereal, a mixture of yeast, barley and wheat, in January 1898."
      },
      {
        "title": "Northern Foods",
        "text": "Northern Foods\n--History.\n----20th century.\n----21st century.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn flakes",
        "text": "A patent for \"Flaked Cereals and Process of Preparing Same\" was filed on May 31, 1895, and issued on April 14, 1896 to John Harvey Kellogg as Patent No. 558,393. Significantly, the patent applied to a variety of types of grains, not just to wheat. John Harvey Kellogg was the only person named on the patent. Will later insisted that he, not Ella, had worked with John, and repeatedly asserted that he should have received more credit than he was given for the discovery of the flaked cereal."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Harvey Kellogg",
        "text": "A patent for \"Flaked Cereals and Process of Preparing Same\" was filed on May 31, 1895, and issued on April 14, 1896, to John Harvey Kellogg as Patent No. 558,393. Significantly, the patent applied to a variety of types of grains, not just to wheat. John Harvey Kellogg was the only person named on the patent. Will later insisted that he, not Ella, had worked with John, and repeatedly asserted that he should have received more credit than he was given for the discovery of the flaked cereal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of sociology of food articles",
        "text": "Cereals & Grains Association"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal",
        "text": "During the second half of the 20th century there was a significant increase in the production of high-yield cereal crops worldwide, especially wheat and rice, due to an initiative known as the Green Revolution. The strategies developed by the Green Revolution focused on fending off starvation and increasing yield-per-plant, and were very successful in raising overall yields of cereal grains, but did not give sufficient relevance to nutritional quality. These modern high-yield cereal crops tend to have low quality proteins, with essential amino acid deficiencies, are high in carbohydrates, and lack balanced essential fatty acids, vitamins, minerals and other quality factors. So-called ancient grains and heirloom varieties have seen an increase in popularity with the \"organic\" movements of the early 21st century, but there is a tradeoff in yield-per-plant, putting pressure on resource-poor areas as food crops are replaced with cash crops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alpen (food)",
        "text": "Alpen (food)\n--History.\n--Related cereals and products.\n--Sugar and whey content.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Margaret Fulton",
        "text": "In 1954, Fulton, then a \"home economist for a leading firm of cereal manufacturers\", gave a talk on \"cooking with ready-to-eat cereals\". She told the audience that \"with more wives and mothers working, speed and ease in food preparation is a 'must'\". She continued, \"Many women have no training in homemaking, and packaged and ready-prepared foods, like cereals, cake, pastry and biscuit mixes, canned and frozen foods, make life easier\". A selection of \"hot muffins made with bran\" were handed out, and Fulton told the listeners that \"These are quick and easy to make and most economical\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bigu (grain avoidance)",
        "text": "The first textual references to \"avoiding grains/cereals\" are found in Chinese classics from the Warring States period (475\u2013221 BCE), Qin Dynasty (221 BCE\u2013206 BCE), and Han Dynasty (206 BCE\u2013220 CE)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Winter cereal",
        "text": "Winter cereal\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "C.W. Post (cereal)",
        "text": "It followed the debuts of other granola cereals by major U.S. cereal manufacturers in the early 1970s: Heartland Natural Cereal, Quaker 100% Natural Granola, Country Morning, and Nature Valley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "The 1920s saw the introduction of new foodstuffs, especially fruit, transported from around the globe. After the World War many new food products became available to the typical household, with branded foods advertised for their convenience. Now instead of an experienced cook spending hours on difficult custards and puddings, the housewife could purchase instant foods in jars, or powders that could be quickly mixed. Wealthier households now had ice boxes or electric refrigerators, which made for better storage and the convenience of buying in larger quantities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereals & Grains Association",
        "text": "Cereals & Grains Association publishes \"Cereal Chemistry\", a bimonthly publication in cereal science, including processing, oils, and laboratory tests on these grains (corn, oat, barley, rye, etc.), \"Cereal Foods World\", the bi-monthly magazine of the association that deals with research papers and professional issues related to those who are involved in cereal science, and books on different issues relating to grains and cereals (storage, milling, processing, food quality, food safety, ingredients, dietary fiber, and nutrition)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cinnamon Toast Crunch",
        "text": "Originally the cereal featured plain squares but currently features artificial \"cinnamon swirl\" coloration in each piece. The cereal was originally invented by scientist John Mendesh and by General Mills assistant product manager Elisabeth Trach after receiving the idea from an unnamed child in a \"give us your best idea for a cereal\" radio contest held by General Mills. The child received a set of Hot Wheels toys as a Grand Prize. Starting in 1985 there were three animated bakers as the mascots, one of which is named Wendell. The other two bakers, known as Bob and Quello, were considerably more youthful in appearance than Wendell. Eventually the younger bakers were dropped, leaving Wendell as the sole mascot for several years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agroscope",
        "text": "The importance of cereal crops for food security had been detected and forget the bad experiences at the beginning of the World War II. Thus, the Federal Council tried shortly after the war to domestic cereal production by an import monopoly, combined with the acquisition of the domestic crop at a guaranteed price to support and protect against the fluctuations of the global market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient grains",
        "text": "Ancient grains\n--History.\n--Types.\n----Wheat.\n----Barley.\n----Rice.\n----Millet.\n--Nutritional claims.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast",
        "text": "Breakfast\n--History.\n----Ancient breakfast.\n------Ancient Egypt.\n------Ancient Greece.\n------Ancient Rome.\n----Middle Ages (500\u20131500).\n------Europe.\n----Modern breakfast (1500\u2013present).\n------Africa.\n--------Egypt.\n------Asia.\n--------Middle East.\n--------Japan.\n--------Lebanon.\n------Europe.\n--------Austria.\n--------France.\n--------Netherlands.\n--------United Kingdom.\n------North America.\n--------Canada.\n--------Mexico.\n--------United States.\n--Effect on health.\n----Scientific findings.\n------Study using mice.\n----Healthy choice.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal box prize",
        "text": "Cereal box prize\n--Distribution.\n--History.\n----The first cereal prize and premium.\n----U.S. cereal box prizes.\n------Kellogg's Company Prizes.\n----British cereal box prizes.\n--Technical advances.\n--Nostalgia and media.\n----In the U.S..\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "John Harvey Kellogg",
        "text": "During their first year of production, the Kelloggs sold tens of thousands of pounds of flaked cereal, marketing it as \"Granose\". They continued to experiment using rice and corn as well as wheat, and in 1898 released the first batch of Sanitas Toasted Corn Flakes. A modified version with a longer shelf life was released in 1902. By that time, both \"Granose Biscuits\" and \"Granose Flakes\" were available."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were some of the most important food sources in the Middle Ages?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Cereals remained the most important staple during the early Middle Ages as rice was introduced late, and the potato was only introduced in 1536, with a much later date for widespread consumption. Barley, oats and rye were eaten by the poor."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When was modern cereal invented?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are  you  interested in finding out about warm or cold cereals?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'm interested in warm cereals."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Most warm cereals can be classified as porridges, in that they consist of cereal grains which are soaked in hot water, cooked and/or boiled. Common hot cereals in parts of Canada include oatmeal and Cream of Wheat; in China, porridges such as rice congee are often eaten for breakfast.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I am not sure of when this took place, beyond that it was long ago, but grits, a porridge made from boiled cornmeal, originated with the Native American Muscogee tribe. American colonists learned to make the dish from the Native Americans, and it quickly became an American staple."
    ],
    "topic": "Food history",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Breakfast cereal:24",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Breakfast cereal",
          "Warm cereals"
        ],
        "ctx": "Most warm cereals can be classified as porridges, in that they consist of cereal grains which are soaked in hot water, cooked and/or boiled to soften them and make them palatable. Sweeteners, such as brown sugar, honey, or maple syrup, are often added either by the manufacturer, during cooking, or before eating. Porridge is especially popular in Scotland, Wales, Ireland, and England. Porridge became important in Scotland due to the freezing winters. The Scottish people prefer porridge to be made with only water and salt while other prefer more creamier substances to be added. Wales had a perfect climate for cultivating oats making porridge common in Welsh households. Ireland mixes porridge with whiskey as a cure for the common cold while England references the dish to the royal family and their traditions."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Breakfast cereal:25",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Breakfast cereal",
          "Warm cereals",
          "Canada"
        ],
        "ctx": "Common hot cereals in parts of Canada include oatmeal, Cream of Wheat (and Cream of Rice) and Red River cereal. These hot cereals are typically served with maple syrup or brown sugar and milk or cream. Yogurt is also added to Red River cereal. Many Canadians also enjoy cereals similar to those in the United States market."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Breakfast cereal:26",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Breakfast cereal",
          "Warm cereals",
          "China"
        ],
        "ctx": "In China, porridges such as rice congee, or those made with other ingredients (including corn meal or millet) are often eaten for breakfast. Eating breakfast cereal has become more important in China and specifically Hong Kong due to the increase of work and decrease in time."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Grits:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Grits",
          "Origin"
        ],
        "ctx": "The dish originated with the Native American Muscogee tribe using a corn similar to hominy. American colonists learned to make the dish from the Native Americans, and it quickly became an American staple."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Grits:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Grits"
        ],
        "ctx": "Grits are a porridge made from boiled cornmeal. Hominy grits are a type of grits made from hominy \u2013 corn that has been treated with an alkali in a process called nixtamalization, with the pericarp (ovary wall) removed. Grits are often served with other flavorings as a breakfast dish. Grits can be either savory or sweet, with savory seasonings being more common. The dish originated in the Southern United States but is now available nationwide. Grits are often part of a dinner entr\u00e9e shrimp and grits, served primarily in the South."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Antebellum Puzzle",
        "text": "Fogel and co-authors reflect the consensus view by concluding, that \u201cthe estimates\u2026 indicate a considerable decline in diet after 1840; the 1840 level was not recovered until 1870. A large decline in per capita production of wheat, rye, pork, and beef accounts for this big deficit in American dietary history. The lack of nutrients was demonstrated by the soaring prices of those foodstuffs, another downside indicator of food consumption.\u201d Adding that \u201c\u2026the increase in agricultural productivity did not keep up with the rapid growth of the population and its food demands.\u201d And \u201c\u2026food output did not keep pace with the demands of the urban-industrial sectors whose population increased approximately ten times during the first half of the nineteenth century\u2026. Per capita crop consumption may have declined throughout the antebellum period. Excess demand had increased grain prices by 1860, and the change in food availability contributed to the decline in the population\u2019s nutritional status in the first half of the nineteenth century.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "History and culture of breastfeeding",
        "text": "The feeding of flour or cereal mixed with broth or water became the next alternative in the 19th century, but once again quickly faded. Around this time there became an obvious disparity in the feeding habits of those living in rural areas and those in urban areas. Most likely due to the availability of alternative foods, babies in urban areas were breastfed for a much shorter length of time, supplementing the feeds earlier than those in rural areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "In the first half of the 20th century there were two world wars, which in many places resulted in rationing and hunger; sometimes the starvation of the civilian populations was used as a powerful new weapon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Cereals remained the most important staple during the early Middle Ages as rice was introduced late, and the potato was only introduced in 1536, with a much later date for widespread consumption. Barley, oats and rye were eaten by the poor. Wheat was for the governing classes. These were consumed as bread, porridge, gruel and pasta by all of society's members. Fava beans and vegetables were important supplements to the cereal-based diet of the lower orders. (\"Phaseolus\" beans, today the \"common bean\", were of New World origin and were introduced after the Columbian exchange in the 16th century.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "Food history\n--Food and diets in history.\n----5th to 15th century: Middle Ages in Western Europe.\n----16th century: Importance of Spain and Portugal.\n----18th century: early modern Europe.\n----19th century.\n----20th century.\n------World War I and after.\n------World War II and after.\n--Consumption history of notable food.\n----Potato.\n----Rice.\n----Sugar.\n--Historical impact of religion on cuisines.\n----Judaism.\n----Jesuits.\n--Further reading.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "North American Indians had found a way to make ground corn palatable, later called \"grits\" (from the Old English word \"Gr\u0113ot\", meaning Gravel) (\"hominy\" was another preparation). While this became a staple in the southern U.S., grits never gained a hold in the northern states. Food reformers in the 19th century called for cutting back on excessive meat consumption at breakfast. They explored numerous vegetarian alternatives. Late in the century, the Seventh-day Adventists based in Michigan made these food reforms part of their religion, and indeed non-meat breakfasts were featured in their sanitariums and led to new breakfast cereals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "Although warm cereals like porridge and grits have the longest history, ready-to-eat cold cereals appeared around the late 19th century, and are most often mixed with milk (traditionally cow's milk), but can also be paired with yogurt instead or eaten plain. Fruit or nuts are sometimes added. Many cereals are produced via extrusion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Margaret Carr (writer)",
        "text": "While women read Carr's \"Cooking Chat\" to learn about the continuously changing innovations, methods of cooking, and newly available ingredients in the twentieth-century Canadian world of food, Carr also frequently reflected upon steady staples in the Canadian diet. One such example, as noted by the Canadian food historian Dorothy Duncan, was Carr's May 1954 reflection on the continual popularity of tea in Canada. However, even though a Canadian fondness for tea was consistent throughout the century, Carr also reflects that the method of consumption had changed from loose leaf to evolving styles of teabags within the century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "The 1920s saw the introduction of new foodstuffs, especially fruit, transported from around the globe. After the World War many new food products became available to the typical household, with branded foods advertised for their convenience. Now instead of an experienced cook spending hours on difficult custards and puddings, the housewife could purchase instant foods in jars, or powders that could be quickly mixed. Wealthier households now had ice boxes or electric refrigerators, which made for better storage and the convenience of buying in larger quantities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meal",
        "text": "Breakfast before the 1800s was usually just toast or some variation of gruel or porridge and the main meal was dinner. Peasants (which were the majority in every country) had dinner around noon, after six or seven hours of work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "Cereals remained the most important staple during the early Middle Ages. Barley, oats and rye were eaten by the poor. Standard foods included bread, porridge, and gruel. Fava beans and vegetables were important supplements to the cereal-based diet of the lower orders. Meat was expensive and prestigious. Game was common only on the tables of landowners. The most prevalent butcher's meats were pork, chicken, and other domestic fowl; beef, which required greater investment in land, was less common. Cod and herring were mainstays among the northern populations; dried, smoked or salted, they made their way far inland, but a wide variety of other saltwater and freshwater fish was also eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dorothy F. Hollingsworth",
        "text": "In 1952, Hollingsworth's former colleague Jack Drummond was brutally murdered, together with his wife and daughter, while on holiday in France. Drummond had been intending to produce a new updated version of his book \"The Englishman's Food\", originally published in 1939. The publishers now asked Dorothy Hollingsworth to prepare the new edition, taking account of 'advances in nutrition' that had occurred in the years since 1939. Hollingsworth wrote that 'much was accomplished during the Second World War' in nutrition because 'owing to rationing and control, it was difficult to obtain an ill-balanced diet'. Her data showed that the 1947 diet was better than the 1934-38 diet 'the most striking improvements being in calcium, vitamin B1, nicotinic acid, protein (mainly in vegetable protein) and vitamin C'. Among other observations, Hollingsworth noted that, while there were still 'class differences in the consumption of vegetables and fruit' in Britain, there was, since the war, a much smaller difference between the classes in vegetable consumption. She also noted the falling popularity of milk puddings such as 'rice, tapioca and sago'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Technological and industrial history of 20th-century Canada",
        "text": "The arrival of television had an effect on eating habits. In 1953, C.A. Swanson & Sons introduced the TV dinner to the US market. The pre-cooked food items, including, meat, potatoes and a vegetable were placed in the segments of an aluminum tray and frozen. The consumer purchased the frozen product and heated it in the oven for about 25 minutes. It could be eaten out of the tray. In 1960, Swanson, a subsidiary of the Campbell Soup Company, built a factory in Listowel, Ontario to manufacture TV dinners and other Campbell frozen products for the Canadian market. The electric toothbrush introduced in 1959 has become very popular in Canada since the 1990s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Northern Foods",
        "text": "Northern Foods\n--History.\n----20th century.\n----21st century.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fad diet",
        "text": "Many fad diets, at the time called \"foodie\", were promoted during the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western pattern diet",
        "text": "The Western diet present in today\u2019s world is a consequence of the Neolithic revolution and Industrial revolutions. The Neolithic revolution introduced the staple foods of the western diet, including domesticated meats, sugar, alcohol, salt, cereal grains, and dairy products. The modern Western diet emerged after the Industrial Revolution, which introduced new methods of food processing including the addition of cereals, refined sugars, and refined vegetable oils to the Western diet, and also increased the fat content of domesticated meats. More recently, food processors began replacing sugar with high-fructose corn syrup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fad diet",
        "text": "Fad diets as we know them really started during the Victorian era in the 19th century. A competitive market for \"healthy diets\" arose in the 19th-century developed world, as migration and industrialization and commodification of food supplies began eroding adherence to traditional ethno-cultural diets, and the health consequences of pleasure-based diets were becoming apparent. As Matt Fitzgerald describes it:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabethan era",
        "text": "The poorer among the population consumed a diet largely of bread, cheese, milk, and beer, with small portions of meat, fish and vegetables, and occasionally some fruit. Potatoes were just arriving at the end of the period, and became increasingly important. The typical poor farmer sold his best products on the market, keeping the cheap food for the family. Stale bread could be used to make bread puddings, and bread crumbs served to thicken soups, stews, and sauces.\n: Diet of the middle class"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch cuisine",
        "text": "In the late 18th century the potato gained popularity, to become a staple food by 1800. In the early 19th century, while the rich could eat what they desired, the working population ate bread (rye bread in some areas) and potatoes, pancakes in some areas, occasionally fish and other seafood, fruit and vegetables, but usually little meat: \"the diet of the Dutch in the nineteenth century consisted of some bread, and a great deal of potatoes\". Their diet was frugal, composed of such simple dishes as bread and herring. Throughout the 19th century many people suffered from some form of malnutrition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The period between c. 500 and 1300 saw a major change in diet that affected most of Europe. More intense agriculture on ever-increasing acreage resulted in a shift from animal products, like meat and dairy, to various grains and vegetables as the staple of the majority population. Before the 14th century, bread was not as common among the lower classes, especially in the north where wheat was more difficult to grow. A bread-based diet became gradually more common during the 15th century and replaced warm intermediate meals that were porridge- or gruel-based. Leavened bread was more common in wheat-growing regions in the south, while unleavened flatbread of barley, rye or oats remained more common in northern and highland regions, and unleavened flatbread was also common as provisions for troops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Technological and industrial history of 20th-century Canada",
        "text": "Cold breakfast cereal became increasingly popular during these years. Wheat and later corn flakes were developed in the US by the Kellogg brothers in 1894 and the Kellogg Company was formed in 1906. In London, Ontario the Canadian Corn Company purchased the rights to manufacture and distribute Toasted Corn Flakes for Canadian distribution. In 1924 the American Kellogg Company purchased the London operation and formed Kellogg Canada Inc. Since that time the company has manufactured and distributed in Canada a wide variety of breakfast cereals including Corn Flakes, 1907, Bran Flakes, 1915, All Bran, 1916 and Rice Krispies, 1928."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nutrition in classical antiquity",
        "text": "People ate various types of food; consumers had choices from dairy (milk and cheese), fruits (figs, pears, apples, and pomegranates), vegetables (greens and bulbs), grains and legumes (cereal, wheat barley, millet, beans, and chickpeas), and meat (beef, mutton, fowl, mussels, and oysters). Food was most often fresh, but the processing of food aided in the preservation for long-term storage or transport to other cities. Cereals, olives, wine, legumes, vegetables, fruit, and animal products could all be processed and stored for later use. Cereals were often processed and stored in the form of bread, flat-cakes, and porridge. Legumes were also most often processed and stored as pulses and eaten with bread to enhance the flavor. Cereals were most nourishing providing essential macro- and micronutrients to consumers. Cereals sustained individuals with sufficient amounts of protein, vitamin B, vitamin E, calcium, and iron. Fruits and vegetables provided vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin D, and half the dietary fiber needed for health support."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "Highly processed foods of the mid-20th century included novelty elements like multi-colored Jell-O using various chemical food colorings, prepared breakfast cereals marketed to children with large amounts of sugar and artificial colors (e.g. Froot Loops). Fruit-flavored punches made with artificial fruit flavorings (e.g. Tang, Hi-C). Mid-20th-century foods also added novelty packaging elements like spray cheese in an aerosol can, pimento-stuffed olives, and drink pouches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast",
        "text": "Popcorn cereal was consumed by Americans in the 1800s, which typically consisted of popcorn with milk and a sweetener. Cold breakfast cereal has been consumed by Americans since the late 1890s, and during the 1920s a considerable number of new cereals were marketed. The reason for this movement towards cold breakfast cereals was inspired by the Jacksonian-era Clean Living Movement (1830\u20131860). This movement focused on a lot of lifestyle changes, but specific to breakfast it claimed that eating bacon, eggs, pancakes and hot coffee was too indulgent. The first prepared cold breakfast cereal marketed to American consumers was created by Dr. John Harvey Kellogg, who introduced it in 1878 and named it granola. The product was prepared with baked wheat, oatmeal and cornmeal, and was the first brand-name breakfast cereal in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "After the First World War, many new food products became available to the typical household, with branded foods advertised for their convenience. Kitchen servants with time to make custards and puddings were replaced with instant foods in jars, or powders that the housewife could quickly mix. American-style dry cereals began to challenge the porridge and bacon and eggs of the middle classes, and the bread and margarine of the poor. While wartime shipping shortages had sharply narrowed choice, the 1920s saw many new kinds of fruit imported from around the world, along with better quality, packaging, and hygiene, aided by refrigerators and refrigerated ships. Authors in the 1930s such as Lady Sysonby drew on recipes from a wide range of countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "English society",
        "text": "After the War, many new food products became available to the typical household, with branded foods advertised for their convenience. The shortage of servants was felt in the kitchen, but now instead of an experience cook spending hours on difficult custards and puddings the ordinary housewife working alone could purchase instant foods in jars, or powders that could be quickly mixed. Breakfast porridge from branded, more finely milled, oats could now be cooked in two minutes, not 20. American-style dry cereals began to challenge the porridge and bacon and eggs of the middle classes, and the bread and margarine of the poor. Street vendors were fewer. Shops were upgraded; the flies were gone as were the open barrels of biscuits and pickles. Groceries and butcher shops carried more bottled and canned goods as well as fresher meat, fish and vegetables. Whereas wartime shipping shortages had sharply narrowed choices, the 1920s saw many new kinds of foods\u2014especially fruits\u2014imported from around the world, along with better quality, packaging, and hygiene. Middle classes households now had ice boxes or electric refrigerators, which made for better storage and the convenience of buying in larger quantities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emmet Densmore",
        "text": "Densmore argued that cereals were \"unnatural and disease-inducing foods\". Articles were published that contested his \"anticerealism\". James Burn described his diet as \"anti-vegetarian quackery\". Densmore edited the London monthly magazine, \"Natural Food\" (1890\u20131895) and with his wife Helen, edited the health magazine \"Earnest Words\". In 1890, Densmore and Helen founded the Natural Food Society in London which offered a system of dietary principles that was more enjoyable and practical than \"orthodox vegetarianism or the ordinary fare\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Interwar Britain",
        "text": "After the War many new food products became available to the typical household, with branded foods advertised for their convenience. The shortage of servants was felt in the kitchen, but instead of an experienced cook spending hours on difficult custards and puddings the housewife could purchase instant foods in jars, or powders that could be quickly mixed. Breakfast porridge from branded, more finely milled, oats could be cooked in two minutes, not 20. American-style dry cereals began to challenge the porridge and bacon and eggs of the middle classes, and the bread and margarine of the poor. Shops carried more bottled and canned goods and fresher meat, fish and vegetables. While wartime shipping shortages had sharply narrowed choices, the 1920s saw many new kinds of foods\u2014especially fruits\u2014imported from around the world, along with better quality packaging and hygiene. Middle-class households often had ice boxes or electric refrigerators, which made for better storage and the convenience of buying in larger quantities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early modern European cuisine",
        "text": "Breakfast does not receive much attention in any sources. As in the Middle Ages, breakfast in the sense of an early morning meal, is largely absent from the sources. It's unclear if this meant it was universally avoided or that it simply was not fashionable enough to be mentioned, as most sources were written by, for, and about the upper class. There is no doubt that working people since medieval times ate some sort of morning meal, but it is unclear exactly at what time and what it consisted of. Peasants in the early modern world commonly ate a diet that consisted of \"gruels, pottages, and ... grains\". Breakfast, when it began to be fashionable, was usually just a coffee, tea or chocolate, and did not become a more substantial meal in many parts of Europe until the 19th century. In the south, where supper was the largest meal, there was less need for breakfast, and it therefore remained unimportant, something that can still be seen today in the traditionally light breakfasts of southern Europe, which usually consists of coffee or tea with bread or pastry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Take-out",
        "text": "The Industrial Revolution saw an increase in the availability of take-out food. By the early 20th Century, fish and chips was considered an \"established institution\" in Britain. The hamburger was introduced to America around this time. The diets of industrial workers were often poor, and these meals provided an \"important component\" to their nutrition. In India, local businesses and cooperatives, had begun to supply workers in the city of Bombay (now Mumbai) with tiffin boxes by the end of the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "Labourers in Western Europe in the 18th century ate bread and gruel, often in a soup with greens and lentils, a little bacon, and occasionally potato or a bit of cheese. They washed it down with beer (water usually was too contaminated), and a sip of milk. Three quarters of the food was derived from plants. Meat was much more attractive, but very expensive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lunch",
        "text": "With the growth of industrialisation in the 19th century, male workers began to work long shifts at the factory, severely disrupting the age-old eating habits of rural life. Initially, workers were sent home for a brief dinner provided by their wives, but as the workplace was moved farther from the home, working men took to providing themselves with something portable to eat during a break in the middle of the day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "Cereal grains, namely porridge (and especially oatmeal), became an important breakfast component in North America. Barley was a common grain used, though other grains and yellow peas could be used. In many modern cultures, porridge is still eaten as a breakfast dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fad diet",
        "text": "Around the same time, Sylvester Graham, of Graham cracker fame, is often given credit for creating the first fad diet in the 1830s and is considered the father of all modern diets. The diet recognized the importance of whole grains food. Designed from a religious motivation, Graham promoted a raw-food vegetarian diet that was lower in salt and fat, emphasizing an anti-industrial, anti-medical \"simpler\" or \"natural\" lifestyle, opposing the meat and other rich, calorie-dense foods produced in great quantities in the industrial era, declaring them \"sinful\". In 1830, he was appointed a general agent of the Pennsylvanian Temperance Society. During his time there, and due to his history, and inspired by the French vitalist school of medicine, he thought nutrition had moral as well as physical qualities, and viewed any desire for food or drink not due to necessity (stark hunger or thirst) to be depravation. Consequently, he viewed gluttony as the debilitating consequence of an unhealthy urge. He was determined to fight against what he perceived as nutritional \"debauchery\" and gluttony. He became a controversial figure, an evangelical New England preacher and speaker, with his spartan views on nutrition at a time where Americans' diets were primarily made of meat and white bread, by advocating adamantly in favor of raw vegetarian food and whole-grain food, authorizing but limiting meat, and forbidding highly refined or commercially baked white bread. He also described the use of corsets as \"disfiguring\" and advocated loose, comfortable clothing, which further attracted women to his precepts. After his death in 1851, his followers, dubbed \"Grahamites\", most of them being women but also including famous men such as John Harvey Kellogg of cornflakes fame, continued to advocate vegetarianism, temperance, and bran bread. Graham's ideas proved to have a lasting influence on American diet, as the per capita meat consumption dropped gradually in the subsequent years, whereas vegetable consumption increased and Americans started to eat more balanced diets. Graham's diet legacy continued in the 20th with another diet philosophy by Bernarr Macfadden, who relentlessly promoted a dieting philosophy named \"physical culture\", the idea that nearly all diseases were caused by toxins in the blood from poor diet and lack of exercise, and that nearly all diseases could be cured through fasting, eating the correct foods, and physical exercise. Macfadden was one of the most effective promoter of diets in history, as he is believed by historians to be largely at the root of 20th and 21st century health and fitness practices in America."
      },
      {
        "title": "S. Minwel Tibbott",
        "text": "The book is divided into chapters containing recipes on: savoury (dish) food; griddle cakes; cakes; bread; cereal and milk dishes; puddings; fish; jams; toffee and drinks. The recipes include those for dishes commonly eaten at the turn of the twentieth century and based on information provided by people who had used them over many years. Like folk songs and folk tales, recipes were transmitted orally and survived through memory. This meant they could be forgotten or lost easily over the generations and also meant they changed over time. Many foods and recipes were also connected with local customs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine in the early modern world",
        "text": "Status is another factor that played into the available diet and is reflected in the different diets between the peasants and the upper class. The upper class had more wealth and access to various goods and trade opportunities, allowing their diet to include more luxury goods, items that were more expensive and refined. Peasants in the early modern world commonly ate a diet that consisted of \"gruels, pottages, and ... grains\". Peasants often were farmers, cultivating food items and non-food items, with the most common items being cotton, rice, and sugar cane. The upper class also had access to more techniques and technologies which provided a foundation to the cuisine specific to a certain region or territories. Technology in the early modern period include mills, simple grindstones, food-processing technologies, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "By 1870, the West European diet was at about 16 kilograms per person per year of meat, rising to 50 kilograms by 1914, and 77 kilograms in 2010. Milk and cheese were seldom in the diet; even in the early 20th century, they were still uncommon in Mediterranean diets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine in the early modern world",
        "text": "The geographic region largely determined the type and amount of food that would be available naturally and through trade. Diets also varied depending on climate as each climate created different environments for specific plants and animals to live in, both of which work together to produce diets for that region. One notable difference would be that tropical regions having more natural vegetation incorporated into that region's diet while arctic regions depend on the fishing industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Quebec",
        "text": "By the early 20th century, conditions had improved somewhat, though French Canadians were still poor. Most families would often eat a mix of potatoes and pork on their plate, which is still a staple combination today. During this period, the passenger pigeon, called \"tourte\" in French, also became extinct. Because this bird's meat had been used to fill the pie-like pastries known as \"tourti\u00e8res\", the \"tourti\u00e8re\" recipe had to change. Mostly, farm-raised meats like beef and pork were used as the substitutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal",
        "text": "During the second half of the 20th century there was a significant increase in the production of high-yield cereal crops worldwide, especially wheat and rice, due to an initiative known as the Green Revolution. The strategies developed by the Green Revolution focused on fending off starvation and increasing yield-per-plant, and were very successful in raising overall yields of cereal grains, but did not give sufficient relevance to nutritional quality. These modern high-yield cereal crops tend to have low quality proteins, with essential amino acid deficiencies, are high in carbohydrates, and lack balanced essential fatty acids, vitamins, minerals and other quality factors. So-called ancient grains and heirloom varieties have seen an increase in popularity with the \"organic\" movements of the early 21st century, but there is a tradeoff in yield-per-plant, putting pressure on resource-poor areas as food crops are replaced with cash crops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lulu Hunt Peters",
        "text": "In the 19th century and the beginnings of the 20th century, the main concern among nutrition experts was that people, especially poor laborers, were undernourished, and the main goal was to find inexpensive ways to supply enough food energy. Especially after World War One, the main concern among women, and the main concern for Peters, was being slender. Her book reinforced the message that the fashion industry (Vogue, Chanel, etc.) was implying through the design of their clothing: being fat was no longer in style. Peters presented a solution: counting calories as a way to lose weight. The book was written with the mindset that all women wanted to lose weight. According to Peters, who had lost 50-70\u00a0lbs with her diet regimen, dieting meant being beautiful and being in total control of the self. Being thin, to Peters, was an issue of self-esteem as well as physical health. She captivated her readers by letting them know that she knew the shame in being fat (having once weighed 200\u00a0lbs), and the sacrifice that dieting entailed, first hand. Beyond this, however, Peters saw dieting as having a moral dimension. She saw people who did not have control over their weight as morally suspect. In order to be thin, women must resist temptations, which she explains with the language of sin, punishment, and redemption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hunger in the United States",
        "text": "Social and economic conditions changed substantially in the early 19th century, especially with the market reforms of the 1830s. While overall prosperity increased, productive land became harder to come by, and was often only available for those who could afford substantial rates. It became more difficult to make a living either from public lands or a small farm without substantial capital to buy up to date technology. Sometimes small farmers were forced off their lands by economic pressure and became homeless. American society responded by opening up numerous almshouses, and some municipal officials began giving out small sums of cash to the poor. Such measures did not fully check the rise in hunger; by 1850, life expectancy in the US had dropped to 43 years, about the same as then prevailed in Western Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Evolutionary medicine",
        "text": "In contrast to the diet of early hunter-gatherers, the modern Western diet often contains high quantities of fat, salt, and simple carbohydrates, such as refined sugars and flours. These relatively sudden dietary changes create health problems.\n* Trans fat health risks\n* Dental caries\n* High GI foods\n* Modern diet based on \"common wisdom\" regarding diets in the paleolithic era"
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "During the 18th and 19th centuries, Americans developed many new foods. Some, such as Rocky Mountain oysters, stayed regional; some spread throughout the nation but with little international appeal, such as peanut butter (a core ingredient of the peanut butter and jelly sandwich); and some spread throughout the world, such as popcorn, cola, fried chicken, cornbread, unleavened muffins such as the poppyseed muffin, and brownies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cooking",
        "text": "The Industrial Revolution brought mass-production, mass-marketing, and standardization of food. Factories processed, preserved, canned, and packaged a wide variety of foods, and processed cereals quickly became a defining feature of the American breakfast. In the 1920s, freezing methods, cafeterias, and fast food restaurants emerged."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early history of food regulation in the United States",
        "text": "With the advent of modern machinery, food production (especially grain) moved forward at an alarming pace. For example, the \u201ccanning line\u201d increased the efficiency of canning foods in an industrial setting. An 1886 report by the Illinois Bureau of Labor Statistics claimed that \u201cNew machinery has displaced fully 50 percent of the muscular labor formerly required to do a given amount of work\u201d. Because of these improvements to agriculture, packaged cereals and canned foods became popular. Synthetic medicines (made in labs instead of natural medicines) and chemicals that altered the growing and processing of food began to appear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "In the 19th century, as the frontier advanced westward, recipes had to be adapted based on the availability of ingredients. A traditional Midwestern breakfast in the 19th century might have included lamb chops, liver, bacon, pan-fried fish, oysters, eggs, potatoes, fruit compote or preserves, and hearty dough-based dishes like pie, doughnuts or cookies. At harvest time families would have eaten mostly home-produced foods. The table would be laden with fried chicken, pickles, relish, beets, cottage cheese, roast meats, potatoes, pork chops, fresh bread, fried green tomatoes, pies and biscuits."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Giorgio su Legnano",
        "text": "In the second part of the 19th century, Europe was hit by an agricultural crisis involving cereal crops. This was due to the spread of American grains at competitive prices on the markets. In fact, large areas of the American Middle West were destined for cultivation. In addition, thanks to technological advancement, there was a marked decrease in the cost of transport by sea. The effect was a deep crisis that affected cereal crops in Europe. This juncture, which reached its peak in the 1880s, characterized the agriculture of the old continent until the beginning of the 20th century. At this point the economic structure of San Giorgio su Legnano changed completely into an industrial system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Service \u00e0 la fran\u00e7aise",
        "text": "Over the course of the 19th century, was replaced by \"service \u00e0 la russe\" in grand dining. This had the advantage of making the food much hotter when it reached the diner, and reducing the huge number of dishes and condiments previously found on the table at the same time. It also ensured that everybody could taste everything they wanted, which in practice the old system often did not allow. On the other hand, the effect of magnificent profusion was reduced, and many more footmen and more tableware were required, making it an option only the rich could afford. It also reduced the time spent at the table, and the amount of food needed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deborah Oxley",
        "text": "Meredith and Oxley, 2014. Food and fodder: Feeding Britain, 1700\u20131900. \"Past and Present\" 222.1."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early modern European cuisine",
        "text": "Peas and beans, which made up a very large part of the diet of the medieval poor, were still often treated as a staple food, but to a diminishing extent over the period, to be replaced by cereals and the potato."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabethan era",
        "text": "At a somewhat higher social level families ate an enormous variety of meats, who could choose among venison, beef, mutton, veal, pork, lamb, fowl, salmon, eel, and shellfish. The holiday goose was a special treat. Rich spices were used by the wealthier people to offset the smells of old salt-preserved meat. Many rural folk and some townspeople tended a small garden which produced vegetables such as asparagus, cucumbers, spinach, lettuce, beans, cabbage, turnips, radishes, carrots, leeks, and peas, as well as medicinal and flavoring herbs. Some grew their own apricots, grapes, berries, apples, pears, plums, strawberries, currants, and cherries. Families without a garden could trade with their neighbors to obtain vegetables and fruits at low cost. Fruits and vegetables were used in desserts such as pastries, tarts, cakes, crystallized fruit, and syrup.\n: Diet of the upper class"
      },
      {
        "title": "Entr\u00e9e",
        "text": "In the 19th century, due at least in part to the collapse of the church's authority in France, rules governing meat and lean days were followed irregularly. In particular, fish was commonly served on meat days, providing even more variety to the meal. Fish came to be considered a classic relev\u00e9, and in some cases was served as a separate \"fish course\". After the 1820s, the bouilli was no longer routinely served at fine dinners. In addition, cold entr\u00e9es became increasingly common over the course of the 19th century, a marked change from earlier practices."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of agriculture",
        "text": "Wild grains have been collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago, and possibly much longer. Exact dates are hard to determine, as people collected and ate seeds before domesticating them, and plant characteristics may have changed during this period without human selection. An example is the semi-tough rachis and larger seeds of cereals from just after the Younger Dryas (about 9500 BC) in the early Holocene in the Levant region of the Fertile Crescent. Monophyletic characteristics were attained without any human intervention, implying that apparent domestication of the cereal rachis could have occurred quite naturally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Full breakfast",
        "text": "Breakfast cereal often precedes the dish, and the meal typically concludes with buttered toast spread with marmalade, honey, or other conserves. Alternative main dishes are kippers, kedgeree (now rare), and devilled kidneys (also rare). In grand houses and hotels in the 19th century, small game birds such as snipe and woodcock might be offered, as well as a variety of cold meats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food processing",
        "text": "In the 20th century, World War II, the space race and the rising consumer society in developed countries contributed to the growth of food processing with such advances as spray drying, evaporation, juice concentrates, freeze drying and the introduction of artificial sweeteners, colouring agents, and such preservatives as sodium benzoate. In the late 20th century, products such as dried instant soups, reconstituted fruits and juices, and self cooking meals such as MRE food ration were developed. By the 20th century, automatic appliances like microwave oven, blender, and rotimatic paved way for convenience cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast",
        "text": "Breakfast\n--History.\n----Ancient breakfast.\n------Ancient Egypt.\n------Ancient Greece.\n------Ancient Rome.\n----Middle Ages (500\u20131500).\n------Europe.\n----Modern breakfast (1500\u2013present).\n------Africa.\n--------Egypt.\n------Asia.\n--------Middle East.\n--------Japan.\n--------Lebanon.\n------Europe.\n--------Austria.\n--------France.\n--------Netherlands.\n--------United Kingdom.\n------North America.\n--------Canada.\n--------Mexico.\n--------United States.\n--Effect on health.\n----Scientific findings.\n------Study using mice.\n----Healthy choice.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Soup kitchen",
        "text": "Social historian Karl Polanyi wrote that before markets became the world's dominant form of economic organisation in the 19th century, most human societies would generally either starve all together or not at all; because, communities would naturally share their food. As markets began to replace the older forms of resource allocation such as redistribution, reciprocity, and autarky, society's overall level of food security would typically rise. But food insecurity could become worse for the poorest section of society, and the need arose for more formal methods for providing them with food."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "19th-century cookbooks bear evidence of diverse influences with some including recipes like Indian pickle, Italian pork and various curries. 19th-century literature shows knowledge of Jewish, Russian, Italian, Chinese and Greek-American cuisines, and foreign cookbooks continued to grow more detailed through World War I including recipes like Peruvian chicken, Mexican enchiladas, Chilean corn pudding and Hindustan chicken curry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The most common grains were rye, barley, buckwheat, millet and oats. Rice remained a fairly expensive import for most of the Middle Ages and was grown in northern Italy only towards the end of the period. Wheat was common all over Europe and was considered to be the most nutritious of all grains, but was more prestigious and thus more expensive. The finely sifted white flour that modern Europeans are most familiar with was reserved for the bread of the upper classes. As one descended the social ladder, bread became coarser, darker, and its bran content increased. In times of grain shortages or outright famine, grains could be supplemented with cheaper and less desirable substitutes like chestnuts, dried legumes, acorns, ferns, and a wide variety of more or less nutritious vegetable matter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Curing (food preservation)",
        "text": "With the spread of \"appertisation\", the 19th-century world entered the era of the \"food industry\", which developed new products such as canned salt meat (for example corned beef). The desire for safer food led to the creation of the US's Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906, followed by the national agencies for health security and the establishment of food traceability over the course of the 20th century. It also led to continuing technological innovation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early modern European cuisine",
        "text": "There was a very great increase in prosperity in Europe during this period, which gradually reached all classes and all areas, and considerably changed the patterns of eating. Nationalism was first conceived in the early modern period, but it was not until the 19th century that the notion of a national cuisine emerged. Class differences were far more important dividing lines, and it was almost always upper-class food that was described in recipe collections and cookbooks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "The meals people ate were controlled by the seasons, geography, and religious restrictions. For most people food supply was limited to what the nearby lands and seas could provide. Peasants made do with what they could, primarily cooking over an open fire, in a cauldron or on a spit. Their ovens were typically outside of the home, and made on top of clay or turf. Poor families primarily consumed grains and vegetables in the form of stew, soup, or pottage, and anything grown on their own small plots of land. They were unable to afford spices, and it was a crime for them to hunt deer, boar, or rabbits. Their staples included rye or barley bread, stews, local dairy products, cheaper meats like beef, pork or lamb, fish if there was access to freshwater, vegetables and herbs grown at home, fruit from local trees and bushes, nuts, and honey. The upper class and nobility had better food and diet than that the lower classes, but food was eaten in small portions. Meals were laid out with many different colors and flavors\u2014a very different experience from those in the lower class. Smaller portion sizes developed around this time due to various cultural influences, and these large, table-long meals were essentially picked at by the nobility. Foods were highly spiced, and many of these were expensively imported, often from outside Europe. The Middle Ages diet of the upper class and nobility included manchet bread, a variety of meats like venison, pork, and lamb, fish and shellfish, spices, cheese, fruits, and a limited number of vegetables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas McKeown (physician)",
        "text": "Knibbe (2007) combined physiological indicators of health with economical data and discovered a direct relation between food intake, food price and health in the Netherlands of the 19th century; he for instance described a consistent relation between caloric intake and body length of Dutch conscripts between 1807 and the late 19th century (see Figure). \"Up to about 1898, changes in the biological standard of living were closely related to changes in the availability of food.\" After ~1898, the curves start to diverge: although the average caloric intake did not further increase, both body-length and life expectancy did increase until 1940. This also corroborates McKeown's assertion that public health measures started to boost the well-being of the population during the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic history of the United Kingdom",
        "text": "Diet depended largely upon social class. The rich ate meat\u2014beef, pork, venison and white bread; the poor ate coarse dark bread, with a little meat, notably at Christmas. Game poaching supplemented the diet of the rural poor. Everyone drank ale or cider as water was often too impure to drink. Fruits and vegetables were seldom eaten. Rich spices were used by the wealthy to offset the smells of stale salted meat. The potato had yet to become part of the diet. The rich enjoyed desserts such as pastries, tarts, cakes, and crystallized fruit, and syrup."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "During the 1800s, American farms were mostly self-sufficient, but certain staples like salt, coffee, sugar, and baking soda would be purchased at the town general store. If the family didn't grow wheat, then flour would also be purchased."
      },
      {
        "title": "Industrial Revolution",
        "text": "Chronic hunger and malnutrition were the norms for the majority of the population of the world including Britain and France, until the late 19th century. Until about 1750, in large part due to malnutrition, life expectancy in France was about 35 years and about 40 years in Britain. The United States population of the time was adequately fed, much taller on average, and had a life expectancy of 45\u201350 years although U.S. life expectancy declined by a few years by the mid 19th century. Food consumption per capita also declined during an episode known as the Antebellum Puzzle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine in the early modern world",
        "text": "Religions, such as Islam, Buddhism, and Christianity, played a factor into the available diet through having specific dietary restraints and regulations. There are some religions, such as the Islamic faith, that specify how certain foods must be consumed or removed from the diet. Other religions have general guidelines as to which foods can be consumed, such as the vegetarian lifestyle that is a basic principle in the Buddhist religion. However, some religions had little to no dietary restrictions, such as the Christian principle of only drinking alcohol in moderate amounts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Antebellum America",
        "text": "Antebellum American cuisine was heavily influenced by British and Western European cuisines. Savory puddings and pies from British cuisine were more common in those days, but American preference for sweet pudding and pie continued to evolve during the 19th century, until these dishes became standard desserts instead of savory courses. West African dishes, ingredients and cooking techniques were part of the culinary traditions of this era as well, and the cooking for slave-owning families was usually done by skilled slaves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast",
        "text": "In the 13th century, breakfast when eaten sometimes consisted of a piece of rye bread and a bit of cheese. Morning meals would not include any meat, and would likely include of low alcohol-content beers. Uncertain quantities of bread and ale could have been consumed in between meals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meal Monday",
        "text": "During the 17th century, Scottish university students lived in very basic accommodation and were required to bring their own fuel, firewood or peat, to maintain a fire. Their diet was meagre too, largely consisting of oatmeal, which they would make into porridge. This lifestyle would remain typical until the late 19th century. The Rev. James Sharp noted that as a student at the University of Edinburgh, \"the liberal arts, sciences and theology were cultivated on oatmeal, with an occasional glass of beer on a Saturday night.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "British Dietetic Association",
        "text": "Dietetics really started from the middle of the nineteenth century when Florence Nightingale observed the importance of diet and nutrition to convalescence from the wars at that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food & History",
        "text": "Around the turn of the century, due to \u2013 among other things \u2013 new appointments in the editorial board, the research interest of the journal \"Food and Foodways\" changed in a two respects: on the one hand \"it shifted away from familiar disciplines (history, sociology, ethnology) toward \u2018unexpected\u2019 ones (communication sciences, linguistics, tourism)\", on the other hand it became increasingly dominated by Anglo-Saxon input, especially from scholars from the USA, whereas the influence of the traditional French research schools significantly diminished. Some scholars argue that this \"exotic\" publication strategy of \"Food and Foodways\" may have led to the launch of the new food history journal \"Food & History\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prawn cocktail, steak and Black Forest gateau",
        "text": "Laura Mason in \"Food Culture in Great Britain\" wrote that \"In mid-twentieth-century Britain, eating out had a dreadful image. Badly served, poor and unimaginative food, discourteous staff, and dining rooms with limited and inconvenient hours.\" Food rationing, introduced during the Second World War, did not end until 1954 and the range of eating-out options and variety of meals available remained limited, only gradually expanding through the 1950s and 60s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Thirsk",
        "text": "Her book \"Alternative Agriculture\" explores how overlooked cultures like flax, hemp, rapeseed, and woad were cultivated in Early Modern England. Her last major work \"Food in Early Modern England Phases, Fads, Fashions 1500\u20131760\". surveys the history of English food chronologically, trying to explore differences in social classes. The author tries to dispel the idea that food of that era was dull and monotonous, as there was a wide range of herbs, plants, and animals eaten at that are no longer available today. The gathering and making of food was discussed and appreciated in all levels of society. Her own experience making and tasting barley bread (a staple food of in sixteenth-century Southern England), showed her how difficult it was to make and hard to eat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic history of Iceland",
        "text": "A 1998 study found that food consumption patterns differed from those in the rest of Europe: \"The prominence of domestically produced dairy products, fish, meat and suet, and the insignificance of cereals until the nineteenth century, are among the most unusual features.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Worldwide breakfast",
        "text": "In the early 20th century breakfast was served at the table, each place set with a breakfast doily, between nine to 12 inches square, with doilies serving as coasters for coffee and water glasses. Coffee was served on silver trays with pot, hot water pitcher, cream, milk and sugar. Different napkins were used for breakfast than for dinner. Breakfast napkins were smaller and usually made of linen, fringed or hemmed by hand. For more elegant napkins, borders of heavy lace or white embroidery decorations were added. Breakfast (served with coffee) could be as much as six dishes of salt fish or meat, omelette or other types of eggs, warm bread, pancakes or waffles, coffee cake, fruit or cereal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Food preservation methods were basically the same as had been used since antiquity, and did not change much until the invention of canning in the early 19th century. The most common and simplest method was to expose foodstuffs to heat or wind to remove moisture, thereby prolonging the durability if not the flavor of almost any type of food from cereals to meats; the drying of food worked by drastically reducing the activity of various water-dependent microorganisms that cause decay. In warm climates this was mostly achieved by leaving food out in the sun, and in the cooler northern climates by exposure to strong winds (especially common for the preparation of stockfish), or in warm ovens, cellars, attics, and at times even in living quarters. Subjecting food to a number of chemical processes such as smoking, salting, brining, conserving or fermenting also made it keep longer. Most of these methods had the advantage of shorter preparation times and of introducing new flavors. Smoking or salting meat of livestock butchered in autumn was a common household strategy to avoid having to feed more animals than necessary during the lean winter months. Butter tended to be heavily salted (5\u201310%) in order not to spoil. Vegetables, eggs or fish were also often pickled in tightly packed jars, containing brine and acidic liquids (lemon juice, verjuice or vinegar). Another method was to seal the food by cooking it in sugar or honey or fat, in which it was then stored. Microbial modification was also encouraged, however, by a number of methods; grains, fruit and grapes were turned into alcoholic drinks thus killing any pathogens, and milk was fermented and curdled into a multitude of cheeses or buttermilk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western pattern diet",
        "text": "This diet is \"rich in red meat, dairy products, processed and artificially sweetened foods, and salt, with minimal intake of fruits, vegetables, fish, legumes, and whole grains.\" Various foods and food processing procedures that had been introduced during the Neolithic and Industrial Periods had fundamentally altered 7 nutritional characteristics of ancestral hominin diets: glycemic load, fatty acid composition, macronutrient composition, micronutrient density, acid-base balance, sodium-potassium ratio, and fiber content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agricultural biodiversity",
        "text": "Reduced agrobiodiversity influences, and is influenced by, changes in human diets. Since the mid-1900s, human diets across the world have become more diverse in the consumption of major commodity staple crops, with a corollary decline in consumption of local or regionally important crops, and thus have become more homogeneous globally. The differences between the foods eaten in different countries decreased by 68% between 1961 and 2009. The modern 'global standard' diet contains an increasingly large percentage of a relatively small number of major staple commodity crops, which have increased substantially in the share of the total food energy (calories), protein, fat, and food weight that they provide to the world's human population, including wheat, rice, sugar, maize, soybean (by +284%), palm oil (by +173%), and sunflower (by +246%). Whereas nations used to consume greater proportions of locally or regionally important food biodiversity, wheat has become a staple in over 97% of countries, with the other global staples showing similar dominance worldwide. Other crops have declined sharply over the same period, including rye, yam, sweet potato (by -45%), cassava (by -38%), coconut, sorghum (by -52%) and millets (by -45%)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "In western Europe, medieval cuisine (5th\u201315th century) did not change rapidly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine in the early modern world",
        "text": "Cuisine in the early modern world varied through the location and the resources available. There are many factors that play a part into an area's cuisine, with a few being religion, location, and status. Diets across the early modern world varied throughout time and location. The most prominent religions in the early modern era were Islam, Buddhism, and Christianity and each of these religions had their own views on what could be consumed. Trade and status also influenced the diet consumed in a particular region. Trade changed the available resources and allowed for luxury goods to be incorporated into the local region's supply."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of bread",
        "text": "For generations, white bread was the preferred bread of the rich while the poor ate dark (whole-grain) bread. However, in most western societies, the connotations reversed in the late 20th century, with whole-grain bread becoming preferred as having superior nutritional value while Chorleywood bread became associated with lower-class ignorance of nutrition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asian Century",
        "text": "In the early years of the twentieth century very few people were vegetarians. The figure given for the United Kingdom during World War 2 was 100,000 out of a population of some 50 million \u2013 around 0.2 per cent of the total. By the 1990s the figure was estimated as between 4.2 percent and 11 percent of the British population and rising rapidly. As Porritt and Winner observe, as recently as the 1960s and early '70s, \"being a vegetarian was considered distinctively odd,\" but \"it is now both respectable and common place.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Antebellum America",
        "text": "Although the antebellum era draws to a close with the start of the Civil War in 1861, American cuisine remains relatively consistent through the Gilded Age. Most soups of the era are still present in modern American cuisine, with the exception of Seminole soup (made with squirrel) and turtle soup. Some standard dishes continue to develop like macaroni a la cardinale, which becomes popular in the late 19th century and is completely unknown in the Antebellum era. There are other changes like adding b\u00e9chamel sauce to the classic oyster patties, or serving beef \u00e0 la mode as a cold dish rather than as an entr\u00e9e, but according to food historians, the culinary aesthetics and customs from the first half of the century remain until the 1890s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Social class differences in food consumption",
        "text": "One clear illustration of this phenomenon is the introduction of spices in European diet. In medieval Western Europe, the amount of meat consumed distinguished the upper from the lower classes, as only upper class groups could afford to eat meat in large quantities. The diet of lower class groups, who had little access to meat, mostly consisted of grains (e.g., barley and rye) and vegetables (e.g. cabbage and carrots).\u00a0 Spices, such as black pepper, were introduced as meat seasoning\u2014albeit in small quantities\u2014 following initial contact with Asia. The high cost of transporting these spices limited access to the rich; thus, both the amount and type of meat consumed became a signal of status."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eliza Acton",
        "text": "Many of the dishes Acton describes belong, according to David, to the 18th century and, with increasing industrialisation and urbanisation of the 19th century, the staple foods described were already being replaced. David cites the example of Bird's Custard Powder, launched in 1840, as an example of the radical changes being introduced to cooking. Acton adopted some of the changes in food science into the 1855 re-write of the book, including the developments of Justus von Liebig\u2014the developer of the Oxo brand beef stock cube\u2014and William Gregory, Liebig's pupil and translator."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "American cuisine saw significant expansion well into the 19th and 20th centuries which was primarily due to proportional to the influx of immigrants from many different nations. This influx has allowed for the current rich diversity in food dishes throughout the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast",
        "text": "By the 15th century, breakfast in western Europe often included meat. By this time, noble men were seen to indulge in breakfast, making it more of a common practice, and by the early 16th century, recorded expenses for breakfast became customary. Breakfast in eastern Europe remained mostly the same as the modern day: a \"continental breakfast\". The 16th century introduction of caffeinated beverages into the European diet was also an addition to breakfast, believed that coffee and tea aid the body in \"evacuation of superfluities\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foodshed",
        "text": "Eating within a local foodshed was once the only way in which families gained access to food. In the seventeenth or eighteenth century, most ingredients were drawn from an area of less than fifty acres. There was an interdependence of farming and what was cooked in the kitchen. Farmers gained a sensibility about the land\u2014improved and well-tended land could yield a cornucopian spread and was regarded as a source of food and a sign of wealth. Envisioning and knowing a landscape as one's fount of food is different from what most of us know and experience when driving past fields in the countryside today. People ate food that was in season, when available, or that was preserved. Very few items came from afar, and if they did they came in small amounts, such as cinnamon and nutmeg. Growing, cooking, and eating food connected most people in preindustrial America to the land."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sociology of food",
        "text": "The fad of diets have been around for centuries, but the obsession with being thin and slim is only recently became a hot topic, if a woman was larger and more plump, then she was being taken care of. It showed her wealth because she could afford to eat, as opposed to a peasant who did not have the luxury to readily available meals. The desired woman was not stick thin. The notable change began in the 1920s era were the \u201cboyish\u201d figure became the most desired for a woman. Later, going into the 1960s, models like Twiggy made headlines about how thin she was, and many women strived to be like her body type. This carried on to the 1980s where dieting (like the South Beach Diet and Weight Watchers) grew in popularity, along with the popularization of working out and work out videos. This was the start of mainstream dieting fads. Among these, others like the Atkins diet, Jenny Craig, and paleo began to take popularity. As of early-mid-2010s, other diets became mainstream. This included vegetarianism, dairy-free, veganism, raw diets, and gluten-free. There are many reasons why someone would choose a certain type of diet: moral reasons, digestive issues, outside influence, or religious influence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tooth decay",
        "text": "Tooth decay has been present throughout human history, from early hominids millions of years ago, to modern humans. The prevalence of caries increased dramatically in the 19th century, as the Industrial Revolution made certain items, such as refined sugar and flour, readily available. The diet of the \u201cnewly industrialized English working class\u201d then became centered on bread, jam, and sweetened tea, greatly increasing both sugar consumption and caries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Refrigeration",
        "text": "In the late 19th Century and into the very early 20th Century, except for staple foods (sugar, rice, and beans) that needed no refrigeration, the available foods were affected heavily by the seasons and what could be grown locally. Refrigeration has removed these limitations. Refrigeration played a large part in the feasibility and then popularity of the modern supermarket. Fruits and vegetables out of season, or grown in distant locations, are now available at relatively low prices. Refrigerators have led to a huge increase in meat and dairy products as a portion of overall supermarket sales. As well as changing the goods purchased at the market, the ability to store these foods for extended periods of time has led to an increase in leisure time. Prior to the advent of the household refrigerator, people would have to shop on a daily basis for the supplies needed for their meals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabethan era",
        "text": "The diet in England during the Elizabethan era depended largely on social class. Bread was a staple of the Elizabethan diet, and people of different statuses ate bread of different qualities. The upper classes ate fine white bread called manchet, while the poor ate coarse bread made of barley or rye.\n: Diet of the lower class"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Antebellum America",
        "text": "Due to an abundance of vegetation and land for meat, Americans\u2019 diet was more healthful and varied than that of their British counterparts. By the eve of the Revolution, the average American soldier stood 5 feet, 8 inches, several inches taller than the average British soldier."
      },
      {
        "title": "English society",
        "text": "The diet of the poor in the 1660\u20131750 era was largely bread, cheese, milk, and beer, with small quantities of meat and vegetables. The more prosperous enjoyed a wide variety of food and drink, including tea, coffee, and chocolate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early modern European cuisine",
        "text": "For most of Europe, the many varieties of grain were the most important crop and formed the daily staple for segments of society. The differentiation was in the varieties, its quality and how it was prepared. The lower classes ate bread that was coarse and of considerably higher bran content while the upper classes enjoyed the finely ground, white wheat flour that most modern Europeans are used to. Wheat was considerably more expensive than other grains, and rarely eaten by many. Most bread was made with a mixture of wheat and other grains."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Dorset",
        "text": "Many of the traditional dishes originate from the 17th and 18th centuries. At this time, much of the workforce were employed as agricultural labourers and, though they produced most of the food, their diet was poor. The gentry, unique in being able to shop for produce, and farmers, fared better. Despite this, until the early 19th century at least, simple foods, such as bread, comprised a sizeable part of the diet of all classes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paleolithic diet",
        "text": "The argument is that modern humans have not been able to adapt to the new circumstances. According to Cordain, before the agricultural revolution, hunter-gatherer diets rarely included grains, and obtaining milk from wild animals would have been \"nearly impossible\". Advocates of the diet argue that the increase in diseases of affluence after the dawn of agriculture was caused by these changes in diet, but others have countered that it may be that pre-agricultural hunter-gatherers did not suffer from the diseases of affluence because they did not live long enough to develop them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pleistocene human diet",
        "text": "By the time of the Upper Paleolithic and modern \"Homo sapiens\", not only was a wide variety of plants consumed, but a wide variety of animals, snails and fish. In order to exploit the many different species consumed, there was a wider variety of tools made than ever before available to humans. The shift to a higher quality diet and the technology to process a wide array of foods is reflected in modern humans by both the relatively larger brain size and reduction in gut size. The trend of larger brain size, the eating of animal protein, fire use and diversification of exploited foods is key to understanding the changing diets of human ancestors."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were some of the most important food sources in the Middle Ages?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Cereals remained the most important staple during the early Middle Ages as rice was introduced late, and the potato was only introduced in 1536, with a much later date for widespread consumption. Barley, oats and rye were eaten by the poor."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When was modern cereal invented?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are  you  interested in finding out about warm or cold cereals?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'm interested in warm cereals."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Most warm cereals can be classified as porridges, in that they consist of cereal grains which are soaked in hot water, cooked and/or boiled. Common hot cereals in parts of Canada include oatmeal and Cream of Wheat; in China, porridges such as rice congee are often eaten for breakfast."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What major differences were there between diets in the 19th and 20th century?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In the 20th century, the 1920s saw the introduction of new foodstuffs, especially fruit, transported from around the globe. Housewives would purchase instant food in jars, and wealthier households had access to ice boxes or refrigerators.",
      "Milk and cheese were seldom in the diet in the 19th century and meat consumption rose as time moved forward. World wars in the first half of the 20th century resulted in rationing and hunger, but the 1920s saw the introduction of new foodstuffs, especially fruit, transported from around the globe, and the Green Revolution followed and increased agricultural production worldwide."
    ],
    "topic": "Food history",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Food history:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Food history",
          "Food and diets in history",
          "20th century",
          "World War I and after"
        ],
        "ctx": "The 1920s saw the introduction of new foodstuffs, especially fruit, transported from around the globe. After the World War many new food products became available to the typical household, with branded foods advertised for their convenience. Now instead of an experienced cook spending hours on difficult custards and puddings, the housewife could purchase instant foods in jars, or powders that could be quickly mixed. Wealthier households now had ice boxes or electric refrigerators, which made for better storage and the convenience of buying in larger quantities."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Food history:11",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Food history",
          "Food and diets in history",
          "19th century"
        ],
        "ctx": "By 1870, the West European diet was at about 16 kilograms per person per year of meat, rising to 50 kilograms by 1914, and 77 kilograms in 2010. Milk and cheese were seldom in the diet; even in the early 20th century, they were still uncommon in Mediterranean diets."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Food history:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Food history",
          "Food and diets in history",
          "20th century"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the first half of the 20th century there were two world wars, which in many places resulted in rationing and hunger; sometimes the starvation of the civilian populations was used as a powerful new weapon."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Food history:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Food history",
          "Food and diets in history",
          "20th century",
          "World War I and after"
        ],
        "ctx": "The 1920s saw the introduction of new foodstuffs, especially fruit, transported from around the globe. After the World War many new food products became available to the typical household, with branded foods advertised for their convenience. Now instead of an experienced cook spending hours on difficult custards and puddings, the housewife could purchase instant foods in jars, or powders that could be quickly mixed. Wealthier households now had ice boxes or electric refrigerators, which made for better storage and the convenience of buying in larger quantities."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Food history:20",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Food history",
          "Food and diets in history",
          "20th century",
          "World War II and after"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Green Revolution in the 1950s and 1960s was a technological breakthrough in plant productivity that increased agricultural production worldwide, particularly in the developing world. Research began in the 1930s and dramatic improvements in output became important in the late 1960s. The initiatives resulted in the adoption of new technologies, including:"
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "The Green Revolution in the 1950s and 1960s was a technological breakthrough in plant productivity that increased agricultural production worldwide, particularly in the developing world. Research began in the 1930s and dramatic improvements in output became important in the late 1960s. The initiatives resulted in the adoption of new technologies, including:"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of agriculture",
        "text": "The Green Revolution was a series of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives, between the 1940s and the late 1970s. It increased agriculture production around the world, especially from the late 1960s. The initiatives, led by Norman Borlaug and credited with saving over a billion people from starvation, involved the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization of management techniques, distribution of hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers."
      },
      {
        "title": "1970s",
        "text": "The Green Revolution of the late 1960s brought about self-sufficiency in food in many developing economies. At the same time an increasing number of people began to seek urban prosperity over agrarian life. This consequently saw the duality of transition of diverse interaction across social communities amid increasing information blockade across social class."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food security",
        "text": "Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, world grain production increased by 250%. The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by fossil fuels in the form of fertilizers (natural gas), pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbon fueled irrigation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "There are also claims that the Green Revolution has decreased food security for a large number of people. One claim involves the shift of subsistence-oriented cropland to cropland oriented towards production of grain for export or animal feed. For example, the Green Revolution replaced much of the land used for pulses that fed Indian peasants for wheat, which did not make up a large portion of the peasant diet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surajit Kumar De Datta",
        "text": "The term \u201cGreen Revolution\u201d refers to the transformation of agriculture that occurred from the 1940s through the 1960s, when farmers used the discoveries of science, planting higher-yielding rice varieties to great success. In 1968, De Datta, then an agronomist at the institute, published his findings about IR8, a variety of rice that yielded 5 tons of rice per hectare with almost no fertilizer and 9.4 tons per hectare with fertilizer. This was nearly 10 times the yield of traditional rice and came to be known as Miracle Rice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution (disambiguation)",
        "text": "The Green Revolution was a massive increase in agricultural yields between 1943 and 1970 that occurred worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "Some have challenged the value of the increased food production of Green Revolution agriculture. Miguel A. Altieri, (a pioneer of agroecology and peasant-advocate), writes that the comparison between traditional systems of agriculture and Green Revolution agriculture has been unfair, because Green Revolution agriculture produces monocultures of cereal grains, while traditional agriculture usually incorporates polycultures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "The Green Revolution, or the Third Agricultural Revolution (after the Neolithic Revolution and the British Agricultural Revolution), is the set of research technology transfer initiatives occurring between 1950 and the late 1960s, that increased agricultural production in parts of the world, beginning most markedly in the late 1960s. The initiatives resulted in the adoption of new technologies, including high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of cereals, especially dwarf wheat and rice. It was associated with chemical fertilizers, agrochemicals, and controlled water-supply (usually involving irrigation) and newer methods of cultivation, including mechanization. All of these together were seen as a 'package of practices' to supersede 'traditional' technology and to be adopted as a whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "The world population has grown by about five billion since the beginning of the Green Revolution and many believe that, without the Revolution, there would have been greater famine and malnutrition. India saw annual wheat production rise from 10 million tons in the 1960s to 73\u00a0million in 2006. The average person in the developing world consumes roughly 25% more calories per day now than before the Green Revolution. Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, world grain production increased by about 160%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "To some modern Western sociologists and writers, increasing food production is not synonymous with increasing food security, and is only part of a larger equation. For example, Harvard professor Amartya Sen wrote that large historic famines were not caused by decreases in food supply, but by socioeconomic dynamics and a failure of public action. Economist Peter Bowbrick disputes Sen's theory, arguing that Sen relies on inconsistent arguments and contradicts available information, including sources that Sen himself cited. Bowbrick further argues that Sen's views coincide with that of the Bengal government at the time of the Bengal famine of 1943, and the policies Sen advocates failed to relieve the famine."
      },
      {
        "title": "An Edible History of Humanity",
        "text": "In the final section of the book, Standage discusses the Green Revolution, a breakthrough in farming technologies and techniques that occurred in the 1940s to roughly the 1970 which greatly increased crop yields."
      },
      {
        "title": "Famine 1975!",
        "text": "The argument of the book proved false. Through policies of public food distribution and work-for-food programs, as well as the use of technology and hybrid seeds to increase food production - the Green Revolution - the situation changed drastically over the final decades of the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "China\u2019s Green Revolution came from its own fruition, and cannot necessarily be credited to practices popularized by Norman Borlaug. China\u2019s large and increasing population meant that increasing food production, principally rice, was a top priority for the Chinese government. When the People\u2019s Republic of China was established in 1949, the Chinese Communist Party made it a priority to pursue agricultural development. They sought to solve China\u2019s food security issues by focusing on traditional crop production, the implementation of modern technology and science, creating food reserves for the population, high-yield seed varieties, multi-cropping, controlled irrigation, and protecting food security. This began with the Agrarian Reform Law of 1950, which ended private land ownership and gave land back to the peasants. The beginning of China\u2019s Green Revolution is marked by the government's sponsorship of agricultural research, specifically in producing a high-yielding rice variety for the rapidly growing population. These efforts began during the Great Leap Forward, a time from 1959 to 1961 where the Government launched a campaign to reconstruct their agrarian economy into a communist society and established the People's Commune."
      },
      {
        "title": "Malnutrition",
        "text": "In the 1950s and 1960s, the Green Revolution aimed to bring modern Western agricultural techniques (like nitrogen fertilizers and pesticides) to Asia. Investments in agriculture, such as fund fertilizers and seeds, increased food harvests and thus food production. Consequently, food prices and malnutrition decreased (as they had earlier in Western nations)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "One key leader was agricultural scientist Norman Borlaug, the \"Father of the Green Revolution\", who received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970. He is credited with saving over a billion people from starvation. The basic approach was the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization of management techniques, distribution of hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers. As the development of new cereal varieties through selective breeding reached their limits, some agricultural scientists turned to the creation of new strains that did not exist in nature, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), a phenomenon sometimes called the Gene Revolution."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of India (1947\u2013present)",
        "text": "India's population passed the 500 million mark in the early 1970s, but its long-standing food crisis was resolved with greatly improved agricultural productivity due to the Green Revolution. The government sponsored modern agricultural implements, new varieties of generic seeds, and increased financial assistance to farmers that increased the yield of food crops such as wheat, rice and corn, as well as commercial crops like cotton, tea, tobacco and coffee. Increased agricultural productivity expanded across the states of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the Punjab."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "By one 2021 estimate, the Green Revolution increased yields by 44% between 1965 and 2010. Cereal production more than doubled in developing nations between the years 1961\u20131985. Yields of rice, maize, and wheat increased steadily during that period. The production increases can be attributed roughly equally to irrigation, fertilizer, and seed development, at least in the case of Asian rice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Underdevelopment",
        "text": "The Green Revolution is a paradigm of a concerted effort of intervention in the name of global development. During this time, developed countries, in an attempt to modernize the global agricultural sector, sought to export the industrial agricultural model of production. At the start of the Green Revolution, the U.S., Canada, and other advanced European countries were giving their surplus crops to poorer countries in the form of food aid in order to mitigate widespread hunger that parts of the postcolonial world was then witnessing. Crops that weren\u2019t previously prevalent across the globe, such as wheat, were being transferred and from the global north to south in massive quantities. This occurred until developing countries, such as India, became heavily dependent on the food aid\u2014much of which were crops that could not be grown locally. In order for dependent countries to keep receiving foreign assistance, the U.S. made it conditional for recipients of food-aid to adopt the whole industrial model of agriculture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "In the Philippines the introduction of heavy pesticides to rice production, in the early part of the Green Revolution, poisoned and killed off fish and weedy green vegetables that traditionally coexisted in rice paddies. These were nutritious food sources for many poor Filipino farmers prior to the introduction of pesticides, further impacting the diets of locals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "The new economic difficulties of smallholder farmers and landless farm workers led to increased rural-urban migration. The increase in food production led to cheaper food for urban dwellers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food coloring",
        "text": "With the onset of the industrial revolution, people became dependent on foods produced by others. These new urban dwellers demanded food at low cost. Analytical chemistry was still primitive and regulations few. The adulteration of foods flourished. Heavy metal and other inorganic element-containing compounds turned out to be cheap and suitable to \"restore\" the color of watered-down milk and other foodstuffs, some more lurid examples being:\n* Red lead (Pb3O4) and vermillion (HgS) were routinely used to color cheese and confectionery.\n* Copper arsenite (CuHAsO3) was used to recolor used tea leaves for resale. It also caused two deaths when used to color a dessert in 1860."
      },
      {
        "title": "Famine",
        "text": "The Green Revolution was widely viewed as an answer to famine in the 1970s and 1980s. Between 1950 and 1984, hybrid strains of high-yielding crops transformed agriculture around the globe and world grain production increased by 250%. Some criticize the process, stating that these new high-yielding crops require more chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which can harm the environment. Although these high-yielding crops make it technically possible to feed more people, there are indications that regional food production has peaked in many world sectors, due to certain strategies associated with intensive agriculture such as groundwater overdrafting and overuse of pesticides and other agricultural chemicals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food sovereignty",
        "text": "The Green Revolution, which refers to developments in plant breeding between the 1960s and 1980s that improved yields from major cereal crops, is upheld by some proponents of food security as a success story in increasing crop yields and combating world hunger. The policy focused primarily in research, development and transfer of agricultural technology, such as hybrid seeds and fertilisers, through massive private and public investment that went into transforming agriculture in a number of countries, starting in Mexico and India. However, many in the food sovereignty movement are critical of the green revolution and accuse those who advocate it as following too much of a Western culture technocratic program that is out of touch with the needs of majority of small producers and peasants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution in India",
        "text": "The Green Revolution was a period that began in the 1960s during which agriculture in India was converted into a modern industrial system by the adoption of technology, such as the use of high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, mechanised farm tools, irrigation facilities, pesticides and fertilizers. Mainly led by agricultural scientist M. S. Swaminathan in India, this period was part of the larger Green Revolution endeavor initiated by Norman E Borlaug, which leveraged agricultural research and technology to increase agricultural productivity in the developing world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "According to a 2012 review in \"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\" of the existing academic literature, the Green Revolution \"contributed to widespread poverty reduction, averted hunger for millions of people, and avoided the conversion of thousands of hectares of land into agricultural cultivation.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "The production increases fostered by the Green Revolution are often credited with having helped to avoid widespread famine, and for feeding billions of people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food politics",
        "text": "Among the much-heralded impacts of the Green Revolution was the spread of technological advances in the development of pesticides to ensure higher crop yields. Health effects of pesticides have led to a number of regulatory and non-regulatory efforts to control potential harm to human health from these chemicals in the food supply. The US Environmental Protection Agency has jurisdiction of the use of pesticides in crop management and sets tolerances for trace amounts of pesticides that may be found in the food supply. About 12,000 samples of fruits and vegetables available to U.S. consumers are collected each year and tested for residue from pesticides and the results are published in an annual Pesticide Data Program (PDP) hosted by the USDA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Global catastrophe scenarios",
        "text": "The 20th century saw a rapid increase in human population due to medical developments and massive increases in agricultural productivity such as the Green Revolution. Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, world grain production increased by 250%. The Green Revolution in agriculture helped food production to keep pace with worldwide population growth or actually enabled population growth. The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by fossil fuels in the form of fertilizers (natural gas), pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbon-fueled irrigation. David Pimentel, professor of ecology and agriculture at Cornell University, and Mario Giampietro, senior researcher at the National Research Institute on Food and Nutrition (INRAN), place in their 1994 study \"Food, Land, Population and the U.S. Economy\" the maximum U.S. population for a sustainable economy at 200\u00a0million. To achieve a sustainable economy and avert disaster, the United States must reduce its population by at least one-third, and world population will have to be reduced by two-thirds, says the study."
      },
      {
        "title": "Navdanya",
        "text": "20th Century farming revolutionised traditional food production methods by using cheap (but non renewable) hydrocarbon fuels and agricultural chemical products which make a major contribution to greenhouse gas emissions, blamed for causing climate change. These new methods together with cheap transport and fuel led to the optimisation and industrialization of food production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency",
        "text": "During the 20th century, the Green Revolution dramatically increased yields through advances in plant breeding and land management. This period of agricultural innovation is credited for saving millions of lives. However, these approaches are reaching their biological limits, leading to stagnation in yield improvement. In 2009, the Food and Agriculture Organization projected that global food production must increase by 70% by 2050 to feed an estimated world population of 9 billion people. Meeting the demands of 2050 is further challenged by shrinking arable land, decreasing natural resources, and climate change."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food sovereignty",
        "text": "While the green revolution may have produced more food, world hunger continues because it did not address the problems of access. Food sovereignty advocates argue that the green revolution failed to alter the highly concentrated distribution of economic power, particularly access to land and purchasing power. Critics also argue that the green revolution's increased use of herbicides caused widespread environmental destruction and reduced biodiversity in many areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution in India",
        "text": "Under premiership of Congress leader Lal Bahadur Shastri, the Green Revolution within India commenced in 1968, leading to an increase in food grain production, especially in Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh. Major milestones in this undertaking were the development of high-yielding varieties of wheat, and rust resistant strains of wheat. However, the long-term effects of green revolution have been analysed by environmental activists like Vandana Shiva who are of the opinion that it caused greater environmental, financial and sociological problems for the country like droughts, rural indebtedness and farmer suicides. Reports have shown soil deterioration from the use of chemicals bringing ruin to farmers, the land, food and water supply. This caused a collapse of agricultural systems in many regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "Green Revolution\n--History.\n----Term 'Green Revolution'.\n----Development in Mexico.\n----IR8 rice and the Philippines.\n----Start in India.\n----Green Revolution in China.\n----Brazil's agricultural revolution.\n----Problems in Africa.\n----Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research.\n--Agricultural production and food security.\n----Technologies.\n------High-yielding varieties.\n----Production increases.\n----Effects on food security.\n----Food security.\n------Malthusian criticism.\n------Famine.\n------Quality of diet.\n------Political impact.\n----Socioeconomic impacts.\n----Environmental impact.\n------Biodiversity.\n------Greenhouse gas emissions.\n------Dependence on non-renewable resources.\n------Land use.\n----Health impact.\n------Punjab case.\n--Norman Borlaug's response to criticism.\n--Second Green Revolution.\n----Evergreen Revolution.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of sociology of food articles",
        "text": "\u2014 Green Revolution"
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "The strategies developed by the Green Revolution focused on fending off starvation and was very successful in raising overall yields of cereal grains, but did not give sufficient relevance to nutritional quality. High yield-cereal crops have low quality proteins, with essential amino acid deficiencies, are high in carbohydrates, and lack balanced essential fatty acids, vitamins, minerals and other quality factors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "This has led to concerns about the susceptibility of a food supply to pathogens that cannot be controlled by agrochemicals, as well as the permanent loss of many valuable genetic traits bred into traditional varieties over thousands of years. To address these concerns, massive seed banks such as Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research\u2019s (CGIAR) International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (now Bioversity International) have been established (see Svalbard Global Seed Vault)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "2) adoption of modern scientific methods of farming,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic history of the United States",
        "text": "Research on plant breeding produced varieties of grain crops that could produce high yields with heavy fertilizer input. This resulted in the Green revolution, beginning in the 1940s. By the century's end yields of corn (maize) rose by a factor of over four. Wheat and soybean yields also rose significantly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "\"These and other developments in the field of agriculture contain the makings of a new revolution. It is not a violent Red Revolution like that of the Soviets, nor is it a White Revolution like that of the Shah of Iran. I call it the Green Revolution.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "The transition from traditional agriculture (in which inputs were generated on-farm) to Green Revolution agriculture (which required the purchase of inputs) led to the widespread establishment of rural credit institutions. Smaller farmers often went into debt, which in many cases resulted in a loss of their farmland. The increased level of mechanization on larger farms made possible by the Green Revolution removed a large source of employment from the rural economy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "These monoculture crops are often used for export, feed for animals, or conversion into biofuel. According to Emile Frison of Bioversity International, the Green Revolution has also led to a change in dietary habits, as fewer people are affected by hunger and die from starvation, but many are affected by malnutrition such as iron or vitamin-A deficiencies. Frison further asserts that almost 60% of yearly deaths of children under age five in developing countries are related to malnutrition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tropical agriculture",
        "text": "The \"Green Revolution\" was an agricultural improvement program undertaken in the tropics. Funded initially by the Rockefeller Foundation, it aimed to improve corn, rice, and other cereal cultivators \u2013 breeding plants that would produce more grain for the same amount of effort."
      },
      {
        "title": "British Agricultural Revolution",
        "text": "The recovery of food imports after the Napoleonic Wars (1803\u20131815) and the resumption of American trade following the War of 1812 (1812\u20131815) led to the enactment in 1815 of the Corn Laws (protective tariffs) to protect cereal grain producers in Britain against foreign competition. These laws were only removed in 1846 after the onset of the Great Irish Famine in which a potato blight ruined most of the Irish potato crop and brought famine to the Irish people from 1846 to 1850. Though the blight also struck Scotland, Wales, England, and much of Continental Europe, its effect there was far less severe since potatoes constituted a much smaller percentage of the diet than in Ireland. Hundreds of thousands died in the famine and millions more emigrated to England, Wales, Scotland, Canada, Australia, Europe, and the United States, reducing the population from about 8.5\u00a0million in 1845 to 4.3\u00a0million by 1921."
      },
      {
        "title": "Underdevelopment",
        "text": "The revolution was titled \u201cGreen\u201d not just because of its connections to agriculture but also was used as a tool to fight the \u201cRed\u201d, or communist revolution. The West believed that hunger had the power to drive people to peasant revolutions, so food aid was used explicitly to fight the spread communism. While efforts were made to increase food security in poor nations by helping them move to being self-sufficient, the industrial model of agriculture that was exported to recipient countries had a complex system of necessary inputs. In order for yields to actually increase, farmers needed fertilizers, pesticides, and new irrigation systems, a costly chain of requirements that cut profits for the farmers even when their yields rose. The countries that were dependent on food aid now became dependent on the transnational corporations that provided agricultural inputs that the industrial model required. The Green Revolution was able to increase crop yields (at least in the short term, before land was degraded by the increased need for fertilizers and pesticides), but in the process it exacerbated vulnerable populations' poverty in countries that are now considered underdeveloped."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "While agricultural output increased as a result of the Green Revolution, the energy input to produce a crop has increased faster, so that the ratio of crops produced to energy input has decreased over time. Green Revolution techniques also heavily rely on agricultural machinery and chemical fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and defoliants; which, as of 2014, rely on or are derived from crude oil, making agriculture increasingly reliant on crude oil extraction. Proponents of the Peak Oil theory fear that a future decline in oil and gas production would lead to a decline in food production or even a Malthusian catastrophe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubbert peak theory",
        "text": "Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, world grain production increased by 250%. The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by fossil fuels in the form of fertilizers (natural gas), pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbon fueled irrigation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food security",
        "text": "While agricultural output has increased, energy consumption to produce a crop has also increased at a greater rate, so that the ratio of crops produced to energy input has decreased over time. Green Revolution techniques also heavily rely on chemical fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides, many of which are petroleum products, making agriculture increasingly reliant on petroleum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glasgow Green",
        "text": "Meanwhile, the Green became the locus of much political activity. The Radical movement for parliamentary reform was growing, and in 1816, about 40,000 people attended a meeting on the Green to support demands for a more representative government and an end to the Corn Laws that kept food prices high."
      },
      {
        "title": "M. S. Swaminathan",
        "text": "In the 1950s and 60s Swaminathan did basic research into the cytogenetics of hexaploid wheat. The varieties of wheat and rice developed by Swaminathan and Borlaug were foundational to the green revolution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Overshoot (population)",
        "text": "The predictions of Ehrlich and other neo-Malthusians were vigorously challenged by a number of economists, notably Julian Lincoln Simon, and advances in agriculture, collectively known as the Green Revolution, forestalled any potential global famine in the late 20th century. Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the world, grain production increased by over 250%. The world population has grown by over four billion since the beginning of the Green Revolution, but food production has so far kept pace with population growth. Most scholars believe that, without the Revolution, there would be greater levels of famine and malnutrition than the UN presently documents. However, neo-Malthusians point out that fossil fuels provided the energy for the Green Revolution, in the form of natural gas-derived fertilizers, oil-derived pesticides, and hydrocarbon-fueled irrigation, and that many crops have become so genetically uniform that a crop failure in any one country could potentially have global repercussions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culinary Revolution",
        "text": "Waters introduced to America many foods that today may seem commonplace, such as salads of mixed greens."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of agriculture in the United States",
        "text": "Research on plant breeding produced varieties of grain crops that could produce high yields with heavy fertilizer input. This resulted in the Green revolution, beginning in the 1940s. By 2000 yields of corn (maize) had risen by a factor of over four. Wheat and soybean yields also rose significantly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "The novel technological development of the Green Revolution was the production of novel wheat cultivars. Agronomists bred cultivars of maize, wheat, and rice that are the generally referred to as HYVs or \"high-yielding varieties\". HYVs have higher nitrogen-absorbing potential than other varieties. Since cereals that absorbed extra nitrogen would typically lodge, or fall over before harvest, semi-dwarfing genes were bred into their genomes. A Japanese dwarf wheat cultivar Norin 10 developed by Japanese agronomist Gonjiro Inazuka, which was sent to Orville Vogel at Washington State University by Cecil Salmon, was instrumental in developing Green Revolution wheat cultivars. IR8, the first widely implemented HYV rice to be developed by IRRI, was created through a cross between an Indonesian variety named \"Peta\" and a Chinese variety named \"Dee-geo-woo-gen\". In the 1960s, when a food crisis happened in Asia, the spread of HYV rice was aggravated intensely."
      },
      {
        "title": "United Nations Research Institute for Social Development",
        "text": "In the 1970s, global population growth made food production, supply and eventually food systems into a key topic in development. UNRISD's work on the so-called Green Revolution (the introduction of newly bred high-yield grain seeds to increase food production) took a typically critical view. It highlighted the fact that the quantity of food available was only one factor in ensuring populations in developing countries were not subject to hunger. Power inequalities impacting on the distribution of foodstuffs played a key role in determining who got enough to eat and who didn't."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution in India",
        "text": "In the years since Green Revolution was adopted, issues of sustainability have come up due to the adverse environmental and social impacts. To meet this challenge other alternatives of farming have emerged like small subsistence farms, family homesteads, New Age communes, village and community farming collectives and women\u2019s cooperatives with the common purpose of producing organically grown, chemical free food. In green revolution areas of the country increasing numbers of families are experimenting on their own with alternative systems of land management and the growing of crops. Building upon the idea of sustainable development, commercial models for large scale food production have been developed by integrating traditional farming systems with appropropriate energy efficient technology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second Green Revolution",
        "text": "Some opponents of the Second Green Revolution believe that social inequity is a major factor leading to food insecurity, one which is not addressed by increasing food production capacity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "In 1961, India was on the brink of mass famine. Norman Borlaug was invited to India by the adviser to the Indian Minister of Agriculture Dr. M. S. Swaminathan. Despite bureaucratic hurdles imposed by India's grain monopolies, the Ford Foundation and Indian government collaborated to import wheat seed from the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). The state of Punjab was selected by the Indian government to be the first site to try the new crops because of its reliable water supply, the presence of Indus plains which make it one of the most fertile plains on earth, and a history of agricultural success. India began its own Green Revolution program of plant breeding, irrigation development, and financing of agrochemicals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution in India",
        "text": "The production of wheat has produced the best results in fueling self-sufficiency of India. Along with high-yielding seeds and irrigation facilities, the enthusiasm of farmers mobilized the idea of agricultural revolution. Due to the rise in use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, there was a negative effect on the soil and the land (e.g., land degradation)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second Green Revolution",
        "text": "The Second Green Revolution is a change in agricultural production widely thought necessary to feed and sustain the growing population on Earth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "Studies show that the Green Revolution contributed to widespread reduction of poverty, averted hunger for millions, raised incomes, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, reduced land use for agriculture, and contributed to declines in infant mortality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic history of the Philippines",
        "text": "The green revolution brought temporary relief from this impasse, allowing the country to achieve substantial rice yield increases via the shift to new seed-fertilizer technology. But constraints in irrigation did not permit the new varieties to attain their full potential yields, nor did it permit much increase in multiple cropping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "In 1979, there were 490 million Chinese people living in poverty. In 2014, there were only 82 million. China\u2019s population had once been 50% of it hungry and in poverty, but by 2014, they are down to only 6%. If China\u2019s stats were to be excluded entirely from Green Revolution studies, they would find that world hunger actually increased. Unlike in China, where locally grown produce would stay within local markets, the food in other countries was being placed on the global market, never to be eaten by those who grew it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allauch",
        "text": "On the eve of the Revolution more than three-quarters of Allauch soil belonged to the peasants who worked it, about 20% by the nobles and bourgeois, and only 3% by the clergy. Throughout the 19th century Allauch declined: Agriculture and livestock stagnated as did the production of plaster and chalk extracted using traditional methods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "The Mexican government created the Mexican Agricultural Program (MAP) to be the lead organization in raising productivity. One of their successes was in wheat production with varieties dominating wheat production as early as 1951 (70%), 1965 (80%), and 1968 (90%). Mexico became the showcase for extending the Green Revolution to other areas of Latin America and beyond, into Africa and Asia. New breeds of maize, beans, and wheat produced bumper crops with proper inputs (such as fertilizer and pesticides) and careful cultivation. Many Mexican farmers who had been dubious about the scientists or hostile to them (often a mutual relationship of discord) came to see the scientific approach to agriculture as worth adopting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic history of the United Kingdom",
        "text": "Most important, the British national output remained strong. Textiles and iron grew sharply. Iron production expanded as demand for cannon and munitions was insatiable. Agricultural prices soared\u2014it was a golden age for agriculture even as food shortages appeared here and there. There were riots in Cornwall, Devon, and Somerset during the food shortages of 1800\u201301. Mobs forced merchants to hand over their stocks, as the food was distributed to the hungry by popular committees. Wells concludes that the disturbances indicate deep social grievances that extended far beyond the immediate food shortages. Overall, however, crop production grew 50% between 1795 and 1815."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women in agriculture in India",
        "text": "The Green Revolution brought a modern approach to agriculture by incorporating irrigation systems, genetically modified seed variations, insecticide and pesticide usage, and numerous land reforms. It had an explosive impact, providing unprecedented agricultural productivity in India and turned the country from a food importer to an exporter. Yet the Green Revolution also caused agricultural prices to drop, which damaged India's small farmers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution in India",
        "text": "The main development was higher-yielding varieties of wheat, for developing rust resistant strains of wheat. The introduction of high-yielding varieties (HYV) of seeds and the improved quality of fertilizers and irrigation techniques led to the increase in the production to make the country self-sufficient in food grains, thus improving agriculture in India. Also, other varieties such as Kalyan Sona and Sonalika were introduced by cross breeding of wheat with other crops. The methods adopted included the use of high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of seeds with modern farming methods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Industrial agriculture",
        "text": "The novel technological development of the Green Revolution was the production of what some referred to as \u201cmiracle seeds.\u201d Scientists created strains of maize, wheat, and rice that are generally referred to as HYVs or \u201chigh-yielding varieties.\u201d HYVs have an increased nitrogen-absorbing potential compared to other varieties. Since cereals that absorbed extra nitrogen would typically lodge, or fall over before harvest, semi-dwarfing genes were bred into their genomes. Norin 10 wheat, a variety developed by Orville Vogel from Japanese dwarf wheat varieties, was instrumental in developing Green Revolution wheat cultivars. IR8, the first widely implemented HYV rice to be developed by the International Rice Research Institute, was created through a cross between an Indonesian variety named \u201cPeta\u201d and a Chinese variety named \u201cDee Geo Woo Gen.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Antebellum America",
        "text": "Due to an abundance of vegetation and land for meat, Americans\u2019 diet was more healthful and varied than that of their British counterparts. By the eve of the Revolution, the average American soldier stood 5 feet, 8 inches, several inches taller than the average British soldier."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Bloodless Revolution (book)",
        "text": "The book documents the history of vegetarianism in Europe over the last 400 years and argues that Western vegetarian diets were influenced by travellers' tales from India. Stuart explores the vegetarianism of Thomas Bushell, John Robins, Thomas Tryon, George Cheyne, Roger Crab, John Oswald and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economy of West Bengal",
        "text": "Since the independence of India, The Green Revolution bypassed the state. However, there has been a significant spurt in food production since the 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "A 2021 study found that the Green Revolution led to a reduction in land used for agriculture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "Although the Green Revolution has been able to improve agricultural output in some regions in the world, there was and is still room for improvement. As a result, many organizations continue to invent new ways to improve the techniques already used in the Green Revolution. Frequently quoted inventions are the System of Rice Intensification, marker-assisted selection, agroecology, and applying existing technologies to agricultural problems of the developing world. Current challenges for nations trying to modernize their agriculture include closing the urban-rural income gap, integration of smallholders into value chains, and maintaining competitiveness in the market. However, in low-income countries, chronic problems such as poverty and hunger cause agricultural modernization efforts to be constrained. It is projected that global populations by 2050 will increase by one-third and as such will require a 70% increase in the production of food. Therefore, the Second Green Revolution will likely focus on improving tolerances to pests and disease in addition to technological input use efficiency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic Survey of India 2011",
        "text": "But it does not end there; further special attention to fruits, vegetables, pulses and oilseeds are a must to increase their production and productivity levels; the first Green Revolution did not pay any heed to these."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal",
        "text": "Cereal\n--Ancient history.\n--Cereals and civilization.\n--The Green Revolution.\n--Cultivation.\n----Planting.\n----Harvesting.\n--Production statistics.\n--Cereal exporters.\n--Nutritional facts.\n--Standardization.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "High-yield rice (HYR), introduced since 1964 to poverty-ridden Asian countries, such as the Philippines, was found to have inferior flavor and be more glutinous and less savory than their native varieties. This caused its price to be lower than the average market value."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of agriculture",
        "text": "Synthetic nitrogen, along with mined rock phosphate, pesticides and mechanization, have greatly increased crop yields in the early 20th century. Increased supply of grains has led to cheaper livestock as well. Further, global yield increases were experienced later in the 20th century when high-yield varieties of common staple grains such as rice, wheat, and corn were introduced as a part of the Green Revolution. The Green Revolution exported the technologies (including pesticides and synthetic nitrogen) of the developed world to the developing world. Thomas Malthus famously predicted that the Earth would not be able to support its growing population, but technologies such as the Green Revolution have allowed the world to produce a surplus of food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green armies",
        "text": "Despite the efforts, some five million people died. The famine marked the end of the revolution."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of agriculture",
        "text": "Although the Green Revolution at first significantly increased rice yields in Asia, yield then levelled off. The genetic \"yield potential\" has increased for wheat, but the yield potential for rice has not increased since 1966, and the yield potential for maize has \"barely increased in 35 years\". It takes only a decade or two for herbicide-resistant weeds to emerge, and insects become resistant to insecticides within about a decade, delayed somewhat by crop rotation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second Green Revolution",
        "text": "These calls came about as a response to rising food commodity prices and fears of peak oil, among other factors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution in India",
        "text": "During the British Raj, India's grain economy hinged on a unilateral relation of exploitation. Consequently, when India gained independence, the weakened country quickly became vulnerable to frequent famines, financial instabilities, and low productivity. These factors formed a rationale for the implementation of the Green Revolution as a development strategy in India.\n* Frequent famines: In 1964\u201365 and 1965\u201366, India experienced two severe droughts which led to food shortages and famines among the country's growing population. Modern agricultural technologies appeared to offer strategies to counter the frequency of famines. There is debate regarding India's famines prior to independence, with some arguing they were intensified by British taxation and agrarian policies in the 19th and 20th centuries, and others downplaying such impact of colonial rule.\n* Lack of finance: Marginal farmers found it very difficult to get finance and credit at economical rates from the government and banks and hence, fell as easy prey to the money lenders. They took loans from landlords, who charged high rates of interests and also exploited the farmers later on to work in their fields to repay the loans (farm labourers). Proper financing was not given during the Green Revolution period, which created a lot of problems and sufferings to the farmers of India. The government also helped those under loans.\n* Low productivity: In the context of India's rapidly growing population, the country's traditional agricultural practices yielded insufficient food production. By the 1960s, this low productivity led India to experience food grain shortages that were more severe than those of other developing countries. Agricultural technological advancements offered opportunities to increase productivity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lester R. Brown",
        "text": "In early 1969, he left government to help establish the Overseas Development Council. He also became an enthusiastic believer in the promise of a Green Revolution, with the hope of using better seeds and cultivation methods to help solve global problems of poverty and hunger. In his opinion, \"this technology was the most crucial historical event since the steam engine.\" In subsequent years, however, he realized that rapid population growth in undeveloped countries was overwhelming the gains in increased food production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Industrial Revolution",
        "text": "Chronic hunger and malnutrition were the norms for the majority of the population of the world including Britain and France, until the late 19th century. Until about 1750, in large part due to malnutrition, life expectancy in France was about 35 years and about 40 years in Britain. The United States population of the time was adequately fed, much taller on average, and had a life expectancy of 45\u201350 years although U.S. life expectancy declined by a few years by the mid 19th century. Food consumption per capita also declined during an episode known as the Antebellum Puzzle."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of organic farming",
        "text": "During the 1950s, sustainable agriculture was a topic of scientific interest, but research tended to concentrate on developing the new chemical approaches. One of the reasons for this, which informed and guided the ongoing Green Revolution, was the widespread belief that high global population growth, which was demonstrably occurring, would soon create worldwide food shortages unless humankind could rescue itself through ever higher agricultural technology. At the same time, however, the adverse effects of \"modern\" farming continued to kindle a small but growing organic movement. For example, in the US, J.I. Rodale began to popularize the term and methods of organic growing, particularly to consumers through promotion of organic gardening."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainability measurement",
        "text": "Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, world grain production increased by 250%. The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by fossil fuels in the form of fertilizers (natural gas), pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbon fueled irrigation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green armies",
        "text": "The greens were always hostile to the Whites, which is why their uprisings against the reds only became massive after ensuring the defeat of the Whites. Many White officers lost everything they had or could inherit in the peasant revolution of 1917. They sought revenge against every symbol of change and turn back time. They would never recognize the new national realities or the agrarian revolution."
      },
      {
        "title": "British Agricultural Revolution",
        "text": "Water-meadows were utilised in the late 16th to the 20th centuries and allowed earlier pasturing of livestock after they were wintered on hay. This increased livestock yields, giving more hides, meat, milk, and manure as well as better hay crops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radical War",
        "text": "The end of the Napoleonic Wars brought economic depression. In 1816 some 40,000 people attended a meeting on Glasgow Green to demand more representative government and an end to the Corn Laws which kept food prices high. The industrial revolution affected handloom weavers in particular, and unrest grew despite attempts by the authorities to employ the workless and open relief centres to relieve hardship. Government agents brought conspiracy trials to court in 1816 and 1817."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Revolution (Korea)",
        "text": "The term is analogous to the term Green Revolution, which refers to increases in food production through improving the breeding system and agricultural infrastructure in developing countries. The term \"White Revolution\", however, is solely used in South Korea. The term comes from the modernization of the structure, material and technology of greenhouses needed achieve the rapid expansion of protected cultivated areas and produce a stable supply of vegetables, from the 1970s to the 1990s in Korea.'"
      },
      {
        "title": "Data, Hisar",
        "text": "About 86% of the area is arable, and of that 96% is cultivated. About 75% of the area is irrigated, through tube wells and an extensive system of canals. Data contributed significantly to the Green Revolution in India in the 1970s that made the country self-sufficient in food production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "Labourers in Western Europe in the 18th century ate bread and gruel, often in a soup with greens and lentils, a little bacon, and occasionally potato or a bit of cheese. They washed it down with beer (water usually was too contaminated), and a sip of milk. Three quarters of the food was derived from plants. Meat was much more attractive, but very expensive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ciudad Obreg\u00f3n",
        "text": "In the 1950s the agronomist Norman E. Borlaug (called the Father of the Green Revolution) collaborated with the creation of the Northwest Agricultural Research Center (CIANO) and in 1970 received the Nobel Peace Prize for his work in research developing better varieties of wheat and maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of organic farming",
        "text": "In 1944, an international campaign called the Green Revolution was launched in Mexico with private funding from the US. It encouraged the development of hybrid plants, chemical controls, large-scale irrigation, and heavy mechanization in agriculture around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolutions of 1848",
        "text": "Urban workers had no choice but to spend half of their income on food, which consisted mostly of bread and potatoes. As a result of harvest failures, food prices soared and the demand for manufactured goods decreased, causing an increase in unemployment. During the revolution, to address the problem of unemployment, workshops were organized for men interested in construction work. Officials also set up workshops for women when they felt they were excluded. Artisans and unemployed workers destroyed industrial machines when they threatened to give employers more power over them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "Food history\n--Food and diets in history.\n----5th to 15th century: Middle Ages in Western Europe.\n----16th century: Importance of Spain and Portugal.\n----18th century: early modern Europe.\n----19th century.\n----20th century.\n------World War I and after.\n------World War II and after.\n--Consumption history of notable food.\n----Potato.\n----Rice.\n----Sugar.\n--Historical impact of religion on cuisines.\n----Judaism.\n----Jesuits.\n--Further reading.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabethan era",
        "text": "At a somewhat higher social level families ate an enormous variety of meats, who could choose among venison, beef, mutton, veal, pork, lamb, fowl, salmon, eel, and shellfish. The holiday goose was a special treat. Rich spices were used by the wealthier people to offset the smells of old salt-preserved meat. Many rural folk and some townspeople tended a small garden which produced vegetables such as asparagus, cucumbers, spinach, lettuce, beans, cabbage, turnips, radishes, carrots, leeks, and peas, as well as medicinal and flavoring herbs. Some grew their own apricots, grapes, berries, apples, pears, plums, strawberries, currants, and cherries. Families without a garden could trade with their neighbors to obtain vegetables and fruits at low cost. Fruits and vegetables were used in desserts such as pastries, tarts, cakes, crystallized fruit, and syrup.\n: Diet of the upper class"
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "Borlaug dismissed certain claims of critics, but also cautioned, \"There are no miracles in agricultural production. Nor is there such a thing as a miracle variety of wheat, rice, or maize which can serve as an elixir to cure all ills of a stagnant, traditional agriculture.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Productivity-improving technologies",
        "text": "The Green Revolution increased crop yields by a factor of 3 for soybeans and between 4 and 5 for corn (maize), wheat, rice and some other crops. Using data for corn (maize) in the U.S., yields increased about 1.7 bushels per acre from the early 1940s until the first decade of the 21st century when concern was being expressed about reaching limits of photosynthesis. Because of the constant nature of the yield increase, the annual percentage increase has declined from over 5% in the 1940s to 1% today, so while yields for a while outpaced population growth, yield growth now lags population growth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food security",
        "text": "In agriculture and animal husbandry, the Green Revolution popularized the use of conventional hybridization to increase yield by creating high-yielding varieties. Often, the handful of hybridized breeds originated in developed countries and were further hybridized with local varieties in the rest of the developing world to create high yield strains resistant to local climate and diseases."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were some of the most important food sources in the Middle Ages?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Cereals remained the most important staple during the early Middle Ages as rice was introduced late, and the potato was only introduced in 1536, with a much later date for widespread consumption. Barley, oats and rye were eaten by the poor."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When was modern cereal invented?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are  you  interested in finding out about warm or cold cereals?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'm interested in warm cereals."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Most warm cereals can be classified as porridges, in that they consist of cereal grains which are soaked in hot water, cooked and/or boiled. Common hot cereals in parts of Canada include oatmeal and Cream of Wheat; in China, porridges such as rice congee are often eaten for breakfast."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What major differences were there between diets in the 19th and 20th century?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Milk and cheese were seldom in the diet in the 19th century and meat consumption rose as time moved forward. World wars in the first half of the 20th century resulted in rationing and hunger, but the 1920s saw the introduction of new foodstuffs, especially fruit, transported from around the globe, and the Green Revolution followed and increased agricultural production worldwide."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the Green Revolution?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Green Revolution in the 1950s and 1960s was a technological breakthrough in plant productivity that increased agricultural production worldwide, particularly in the developing world.",
      "The Green Revolution is also known as the Third Agricultural Revolution. It is the set of research technology transfer initiatives occurring between 1950 and the late 1960s, that increased agricultural production in parts of the world."
    ],
    "topic": "Food history",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Food history:20",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Food history",
          "Food and diets in history",
          "20th century",
          "World War II and after"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Green Revolution in the 1950s and 1960s was a technological breakthrough in plant productivity that increased agricultural production worldwide, particularly in the developing world. Research began in the 1930s and dramatic improvements in output became important in the late 1960s. The initiatives resulted in the adoption of new technologies, including:"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Green Revolution:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Green Revolution"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Green Revolution, or the Third Agricultural Revolution (after the Neolithic Revolution and the British Agricultural Revolution), is the set of research technology transfer initiatives occurring between 1950 and the late 1960s, that increased agricultural production in parts of the world, beginning most markedly in the late 1960s. The initiatives resulted in the adoption of new technologies, including high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of cereals, especially dwarf wheat and rice. It was associated with chemical fertilizers, agrochemicals, and controlled water-supply (usually involving irrigation) and newer methods of cultivation, including mechanization. All of these together were seen as a 'package of practices' to supersede 'traditional' technology and to be adopted as a whole."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Technological and industrial history of 20th-century Canada",
        "text": "Cold breakfast cereal became increasingly popular during these years. Wheat and later corn flakes were developed in the US by the Kellogg brothers in 1894 and the Kellogg Company was formed in 1906. In London, Ontario the Canadian Corn Company purchased the rights to manufacture and distribute Toasted Corn Flakes for Canadian distribution. In 1924 the American Kellogg Company purchased the London operation and formed Kellogg Canada Inc. Since that time the company has manufactured and distributed in Canada a wide variety of breakfast cereals including Corn Flakes, 1907, Bran Flakes, 1915, All Bran, 1916 and Rice Krispies, 1928."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "The first cold breakfast cereal, Granula (not the same as granola), was invented in the United States in 1863 by James Caleb Jackson, operator of Our Home on the Hillside which was later replaced by the Jackson Sanatorium in Dansville, New York. The cereal never became popular, due to the inconvenient necessity of tenderizing the heavy bran and graham nuggets by soaking them overnight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal",
        "text": "Historian Max Ostrovsky argues that this historic pattern never changed, not even in the Industrial Age. He stresses that all modern great powers have traditionally remained first and foremost great \"cereal\" powers. The \u201cfinest hour\u201d of the Axis powers \u201cended precisely the moment they threw themselves against the two largest cereal lebensraums\u201d (the United States and the USSR). The outcome of the Cold War followed the Soviet grave and long-lasting cereal crisis, exacerbated by the cereal embargo imposed on the USSR in 1980. And, called \u201cthe grain basket of the world,\u201d the most productive \u201ccereal lebensraum\u201d dominates the world ever since."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast",
        "text": "Popcorn cereal was consumed by Americans in the 1800s, which typically consisted of popcorn with milk and a sweetener. Cold breakfast cereal has been consumed by Americans since the late 1890s, and during the 1920s a considerable number of new cereals were marketed. The reason for this movement towards cold breakfast cereals was inspired by the Jacksonian-era Clean Living Movement (1830\u20131860). This movement focused on a lot of lifestyle changes, but specific to breakfast it claimed that eating bacon, eggs, pancakes and hot coffee was too indulgent. The first prepared cold breakfast cereal marketed to American consumers was created by Dr. John Harvey Kellogg, who introduced it in 1878 and named it granola. The product was prepared with baked wheat, oatmeal and cornmeal, and was the first brand-name breakfast cereal in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal",
        "text": "Cereal\n--Ancient history.\n--Cereals and civilization.\n--The Green Revolution.\n--Cultivation.\n----Planting.\n----Harvesting.\n--Production statistics.\n--Cereal exporters.\n--Nutritional facts.\n--Standardization.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pop-Tarts",
        "text": "In the 1960s, Post invented a process for enclosing moist food in foil to keep it fresh \u2014 first used for dog food \u2014 and adapted it to its new toaster-prepared breakfast food. Intended to complement its cold cereals, Post announced its new product to the press in 1963 before they went to market. Post called them \"Country Squares\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal",
        "text": "During the second half of the 20th century there was a significant increase in the production of high-yield cereal crops worldwide, especially wheat and rice, due to an initiative known as the Green Revolution. The strategies developed by the Green Revolution focused on fending off starvation and increasing yield-per-plant, and were very successful in raising overall yields of cereal grains, but did not give sufficient relevance to nutritional quality. These modern high-yield cereal crops tend to have low quality proteins, with essential amino acid deficiencies, are high in carbohydrates, and lack balanced essential fatty acids, vitamins, minerals and other quality factors. So-called ancient grains and heirloom varieties have seen an increase in popularity with the \"organic\" movements of the early 21st century, but there is a tradeoff in yield-per-plant, putting pressure on resource-poor areas as food crops are replaced with cash crops."
      },
      {
        "title": "CGIAR",
        "text": "CGIAR arose in response to the widespread concern in the mid-20th century that rapid increases in human populations would soon lead to widespread famine. Starting in 1943, the Rockefeller Foundation and the Mexican government laid the seeds for the Green Revolution when they established the Office of Special Studies, which resulted in the establishment of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in 1960 and International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) in 1963 with support from the Rockefeller Foundation and Ford Foundation, developing high-yielding, disease-resistant varieties that dramatically increased production of these staple cereals, and turned India, for example, from a country regularly facing starvation in the 1960s to a net exporter of cereals by the late-1970s. But it was clear that these foundations alone could not fund all the agricultural research and development efforts needed to feed the world's population. In 1969, the Pearson Commission on International Development urged the international community to undertake \"intensive international effort\" to support \"research specializing in food supplies and tropical agriculture\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gordon Hillman",
        "text": "The nature and cause of changes in plant use in relation to climate are also debated. Hillman originally proposed that wild food plants such as wild einkorn were foraged, in other words, collected from the wild. However, following detailed ecological modelling, Hillman and Moore proposed instead that the wild cereals had been under cultivation, probably in response to desiccation caused by the Younger Dryas climate event at about 12,900 to c. 11,700 years BP. Connolly and Colledge propose instead that the observed shift in plant consumption to less desirable foodstuffs at Abu Hureyra 1 simply reflects the greater scarcity of wild cereals under the effects of the cooler, drier Younger Dryas climate. In wider context, wild cereal and legume cultivation is widely accepted as likely at PPNA sites (11,600-10,500 years BP), but is not generally accepted for Epipalaeolithic sites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "The Green Revolution in the 1950s and 1960s was a technological breakthrough in plant productivity that increased agricultural production worldwide, particularly in the developing world. Research began in the 1930s and dramatic improvements in output became important in the late 1960s. The initiatives resulted in the adoption of new technologies, including:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "By one 2021 estimate, the Green Revolution increased yields by 44% between 1965 and 2010. Cereal production more than doubled in developing nations between the years 1961\u20131985. Yields of rice, maize, and wheat increased steadily during that period. The production increases can be attributed roughly equally to irrigation, fertilizer, and seed development, at least in the case of Asian rice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "The novel technological development of the Green Revolution was the production of novel wheat cultivars. Agronomists bred cultivars of maize, wheat, and rice that are the generally referred to as HYVs or \"high-yielding varieties\". HYVs have higher nitrogen-absorbing potential than other varieties. Since cereals that absorbed extra nitrogen would typically lodge, or fall over before harvest, semi-dwarfing genes were bred into their genomes. A Japanese dwarf wheat cultivar Norin 10 developed by Japanese agronomist Gonjiro Inazuka, which was sent to Orville Vogel at Washington State University by Cecil Salmon, was instrumental in developing Green Revolution wheat cultivars. IR8, the first widely implemented HYV rice to be developed by IRRI, was created through a cross between an Indonesian variety named \"Peta\" and a Chinese variety named \"Dee-geo-woo-gen\". In the 1960s, when a food crisis happened in Asia, the spread of HYV rice was aggravated intensely."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal",
        "text": "The first cereal grains were domesticated by early primitive humans. About 8,000 years ago, they were domesticated by ancient farming communities in the Fertile Crescent region. Emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, and barley were three of the so-called Neolithic founder crops in the development of agriculture. Around the same time, millets and kinds of rice were starting to become domesticated in East Asia. Sorghum and millets were also being domesticated in sub-Saharan West Africa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "Although warm cereals like porridge and grits have the longest history, ready-to-eat cold cereals appeared around the late 19th century, and are most often mixed with milk (traditionally cow's milk), but can also be paired with yogurt instead or eaten plain. Fruit or nuts are sometimes added. Many cereals are produced via extrusion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mr. Whitekeys",
        "text": "5. The History of Cereal"
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890)",
        "text": "1863 Breakfast cereal\n*Breakfast cereal is a packaged food product intended to be consumed as part of a breakfast. The first breakfast cereal, Granula was invented in the United States in 1863 by James Caleb Jackson, operator of the Jackson Sanitorium in Dansville, New York. The cereal never became popular since it was inconvenient, as the heavy bran nuggets needed soaking overnight before they were tender enough to eat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "The Green Revolution, or the Third Agricultural Revolution (after the Neolithic Revolution and the British Agricultural Revolution), is the set of research technology transfer initiatives occurring between 1950 and the late 1960s, that increased agricultural production in parts of the world, beginning most markedly in the late 1960s. The initiatives resulted in the adoption of new technologies, including high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of cereals, especially dwarf wheat and rice. It was associated with chemical fertilizers, agrochemicals, and controlled water-supply (usually involving irrigation) and newer methods of cultivation, including mechanization. All of these together were seen as a 'package of practices' to supersede 'traditional' technology and to be adopted as a whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerealine",
        "text": "White-corn cerealine flakes as a breakfast cereal were invented, perhaps accidentally, by Columbus, Indiana, mill worker James Vannoy circa 1884 or 1887. Vannoy's 1902 obituary said he found through experimentation a way to run the milled grain through rollers so that it would come out \"in thin layers or flakes. He went to his employer, Joseph F. Gent, with the discovery. Gent rather disregarded the wonderful discovery and told Vannoy that he had better been tending to his duties. Later, Gent had the discovery patented, and it was not long until Cerealine was on the market and was being sold in large quantities.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Neolithic Revolution",
        "text": "The wear traces indicate that tools were used for harvesting near-ripe semi-green wild cereals, shortly before grains are ripe and disperse naturally. The studied tools were not used intensively, and they reflect two harvesting modes: flint knives held by hand and inserts hafted in a handle. The finds shed new light on cereal harvesting techniques some 8,000 years before the Natufian and 12,000 years before the establishment of sedentary farming communities in the Near East. Furthermore, the new finds accord well with evidence for the earliest ever cereal cultivation at the site and the use of stone-made grinding implements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grape-Nuts",
        "text": "At one time, Grape-Nuts was the seventh-most popular cold breakfast cereal, but sales declined as Post was sold from one company to another. Around 2005, it held less than 1% of the market. About this time, the formula was changed; the husks from milled grain were ground into the flour and the cereal was pitched as \"whole grain\", albeit at the cost of roughening the cereal's texture and detracting significantly from mouthfeel. The addition of vitamins and minerals allowed it to qualify for food-stamp programs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Industrial agriculture",
        "text": "The novel technological development of the Green Revolution was the production of what some referred to as \u201cmiracle seeds.\u201d Scientists created strains of maize, wheat, and rice that are generally referred to as HYVs or \u201chigh-yielding varieties.\u201d HYVs have an increased nitrogen-absorbing potential compared to other varieties. Since cereals that absorbed extra nitrogen would typically lodge, or fall over before harvest, semi-dwarfing genes were bred into their genomes. Norin 10 wheat, a variety developed by Orville Vogel from Japanese dwarf wheat varieties, was instrumental in developing Green Revolution wheat cultivars. IR8, the first widely implemented HYV rice to be developed by the International Rice Research Institute, was created through a cross between an Indonesian variety named \u201cPeta\u201d and a Chinese variety named \u201cDee Geo Woo Gen.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Neolithic Revolution",
        "text": "Agriculture appeared first in Southwest Asia about 2,000 years later, around 10,000\u20139,000 years ago. The region was the centre of domestication for three cereals (einkorn wheat, emmer wheat and barley), four legumes (lentil, pea, bitter vetch and chickpea), and flax. Domestication was a slow process that unfolded across multiple regions, and was preceded by centuries if not millennia of pre-domestication cultivation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crop yield",
        "text": "Long-term cereal yields in the United Kingdom were some 500\u00a0kg/ha in Medieval times, jumping to 2000\u00a0kg/ha in the Industrial Revolution, and jumping again to 8000\u00a0kg/ha in the Green Revolution. Each technological advance increasing the crop yield also reduces the society's ecological footprint."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food security",
        "text": "Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, world grain production increased by 250%. The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by fossil fuels in the form of fertilizers (natural gas), pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbon fueled irrigation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emmet Densmore",
        "text": "Densmore argued that cereals were \"unnatural and disease-inducing foods\". Articles were published that contested his \"anticerealism\". James Burn described his diet as \"anti-vegetarian quackery\". Densmore edited the London monthly magazine, \"Natural Food\" (1890\u20131895) and with his wife Helen, edited the health magazine \"Earnest Words\". In 1890, Densmore and Helen founded the Natural Food Society in London which offered a system of dietary principles that was more enjoyable and practical than \"orthodox vegetarianism or the ordinary fare\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified wheat",
        "text": "Recombinant DNA techniques were developed in the 1980s, work began on creating the first transgenic wheat, coincident with the third Green Revolution. Of the three most important cereals in the world (corn, rice and wheat), wheat was the last to be transformed by transgenic, biolistic methods in 1992, and by Agrobacterium methods in 1997. Unlike corn and rice, its widespread use in the human diet has faced cultural resistance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "One key leader was agricultural scientist Norman Borlaug, the \"Father of the Green Revolution\", who received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970. He is credited with saving over a billion people from starvation. The basic approach was the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization of management techniques, distribution of hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers. As the development of new cereal varieties through selective breeding reached their limits, some agricultural scientists turned to the creation of new strains that did not exist in nature, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), a phenomenon sometimes called the Gene Revolution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "Kellogg began the breakfast cereal marketing and introduced the first in-box prize in the early 1900s. Quaker Oats entered the market with Puffed Rice and Wheat Berries it had introduced at the 1904 World Fair, with raw grains shot with hot compressed air from tubes, popping up to many times their size. They were marketed as a revolution in food science. In the 1920s, national advertising in magazines and radio broadcasts played a key role in the emergence of the fourth big cereal manufacturer, General Mills. In 1921, James Ford Bell, president of a Minneapolis wheat milling firm, began experimenting with rolled wheat flakes. After tempering, steaming, cracking wheat, and processing it with syrup, sugar, and salt, it was prepared in a pressure cooker for rolling and then dried in an electric oven. By 1925, Wheaties had become the \"Breakfast of Champions\". In 1928, four milling companies consolidated as the General Mills Company in Minneapolis. The new firm expanded packaged food sales with heavy advertising, including sponsorship of radio programs such as \"Skippy\", \"Jack Armstrong, The All-American Boy\", and baseball games. Jack Dempsey, Johnny Weissmuller, and others verified the \"Breakfast of Champions\" slogan. By 1941 Wheaties had won 12% percent of the cereal market. Experiments with the puffing process produced Kix, a puffed corn cereal, and Cheerios, a puffed oats cereal. Further product innovation and diversification brought total General Mills sales to over $500 million annually (18% in packaged foods) by the early 1950s. In 1944 General Foods launched a marketing campaign for Grape Nuts, focusing on nutritional importance of breakfast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vernalization",
        "text": "In the history of agriculture, farmers observed a traditional distinction between \"winter cereals\", whose seeds require chilling (to trigger their subsequent emergence and growth), and \"spring cereals\", whose seeds can be sown in spring, and germinate, and then flower soon thereafter. Scientists in the early 19th century had discussed how some plants needed cold temperatures to flower. In 1857 an American agriculturist John Hancock Klippart, Secretary of the Ohio Board of Agriculture, reported the importance and effect of winter temperature on the germination of wheat. One of the most significant works was by a German plant physiologist Gustav Gassner who made a detailed discussion in his 1918 paper. Gassner was the first to systematically differentiate the specific requirements of winter plants from those of summer plants, and also that early swollen germinating seeds of winter cereals are sensitive to cold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn flakes",
        "text": "With corn flakes becoming popular in the wider community, a previous patient at the sanitarium, C. W. Post, started to make rival products. Kellogg continued to experiment with various ingredients and different grains. In 1928, he started to manufacture Rice Krispies, another successful breakfast cereal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neolithic Revolution",
        "text": "Once agriculture started gaining momentum, around 9000 BP, human activity resulted in the selective breeding of cereal grasses (beginning with emmer, einkorn and barley), and not simply of those that favoured greater caloric returns through larger seeds. Plants with traits such as small seeds or bitter taste were seen as undesirable. Plants that rapidly shed their seeds on maturity tended not to be gathered at harvest, therefore not stored and not seeded the following season; successive years of harvesting spontaneously selected for strains that retained their edible seeds longer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Intensive crop farming",
        "text": "The novel technological development of the Green Revolution was the production of what some referred to as \u201cmiracle seeds.\u201d Scientists created strains of maize, wheat, and rice that are generally referred to as HYVs or \u201chigh-yielding varieties.\u201d HYVs have an increased nitrogen-absorbing potential compared to other varieties. Since cereals that absorbed extra nitrogen would typically lodge, or fall over before harvest, semi-dwarfing genes were bred into their genomes. Norin 10 wheat, a variety developed by Orville Vogel from Japanese dwarf wheat varieties, was instrumental in developing Green Revolution wheat cultivars. IR8, the first widely implemented HYV rice to be developed by IRRI, was created through a cross between an Indonesian variety named \u201cPeta\u201d and a Chinese variety named \u201cDee Geo Woo Gen.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cooking",
        "text": "The Industrial Revolution brought mass-production, mass-marketing, and standardization of food. Factories processed, preserved, canned, and packaged a wide variety of foods, and processed cereals quickly became a defining feature of the American breakfast. In the 1920s, freezing methods, cafeterias, and fast food restaurants emerged."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dessert",
        "text": "The Industrial Revolution in Europe and later America caused desserts (and food in general) to be mass-produced, processed, preserved, canned, and packaged. Frozen foods, including desserts, became very popular starting in the 1920s when freezing emerged. These processed foods became a large part of diets in many industrialized nations. Many countries have desserts and foods distinctive to their nations or region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food packaging",
        "text": "1880s: First cereal packaged in a folding box by Quaker Oats"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of agriculture",
        "text": "The Green Revolution was a series of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives, between the 1940s and the late 1970s. It increased agriculture production around the world, especially from the late 1960s. The initiatives, led by Norman Borlaug and credited with saving over a billion people from starvation, involved the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization of management techniques, distribution of hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal",
        "text": "Early Neolithic villages show evidence of the development of processing grain. The Levant is the ancient home of the ancestors of wheat, barley and peas, in which many of these villages were based. There is evidence of the cultivation of cereals in Syria approximately 9,000 years ago. Wheat, Barley, Rye, Oats and Flaxseeds were all domesticated in the Fertile Crescent during the early Neolithic. During the same period, farmers in China began to farm rice and millet, using human-made floods and fires as part of their cultivation regimen. Fiber crops were domesticated as early as food crops, with China domesticating hemp, cotton being developed independently in Africa and South America, and Western Asia domesticating flax. The use of soil amendments, including manure, fish, compost and ashes, appears to have begun early, and developed independently in several areas of the world, including Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley and Eastern Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agroscope",
        "text": "The importance of cereal crops for food security had been detected and forget the bad experiences at the beginning of the World War II. Thus, the Federal Council tried shortly after the war to domestic cereal production by an import monopoly, combined with the acquisition of the domestic crop at a guaranteed price to support and protect against the fluctuations of the global market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "The strategies developed by the Green Revolution focused on fending off starvation and was very successful in raising overall yields of cereal grains, but did not give sufficient relevance to nutritional quality. High yield-cereal crops have low quality proteins, with essential amino acid deficiencies, are high in carbohydrates, and lack balanced essential fatty acids, vitamins, minerals and other quality factors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1890\u20131945)",
        "text": "1890 Shredded wheat\n* Shredded wheat is a type of breakfast cereal made from whole wheat. Shredded wheat also comes in a \"frosted\" variety, which has one side coated with sugar and usually gelatin. Shredded wheat was invented in 1890 by Henry Perky of Watertown, New York."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice trade",
        "text": "Early approaches to preserving food used variants of traditional cold boxes to solve the problem of how to take small quantities of products short distances to market. Thomas Moore, an engineer from Maryland, invented an early refrigerator which he patented in 1803; this involved a large, insulated wooden box, with a tin container of ice embedded in the top. This refrigerator primarily relied upon simple insulation, rather than ventilation, but the design was widely adopted by farmers and small traders, and illegal copies abounded. By the 1830s portable refrigerator chests became used in the meat trade, taking advantage of the growing supplies of ice to use ventilation to better preserve the food. By the 1840s, improved supplies and an understanding of the importance of circulating air was making a significant improvement to refrigeration in the U.S."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerealine",
        "text": "Cerealine was well established as a breakfast food by at least 1897, when the Illinois Farmer's Institute annual report noted that, \"Some mills make hominy of white corn, roll it into broad, flat flakes, called cerealine, which are used here as a breakfast dish...\" By this time it had become one of the three most popular cereals of that time, along with cracked wheat and oatmeal. All three were typically sold by retailers who bought cereal in barrel lots and scooped it out to sell by the pound to customers. Toasted Cerealine Flakes was later sold in packages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "Breakfast cereal\n--Background.\n----Early America.\n----Cooked oatmeal.\n--History.\n----Early developments.\n----Kellogg and Battle Creek, Michigan.\n----Charles W. Post.\n----M\u00fcesli.\n----United Kingdom.\n----National advertising.\n----Sugar cereals.\n----Granola.\n----Modern cereal.\n--Processing of grains.\n----Nutritional fortification.\n--Gluten-free cereals.\n--Warm cereals.\n----Canada.\n----China.\n----Greece.\n----Ireland.\n----Russia.\n----South Africa.\n----United Kingdom.\n--Research.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "North American Indians had found a way to make ground corn palatable, later called \"grits\" (from the Old English word \"Gr\u0113ot\", meaning Gravel) (\"hominy\" was another preparation). While this became a staple in the southern U.S., grits never gained a hold in the northern states. Food reformers in the 19th century called for cutting back on excessive meat consumption at breakfast. They explored numerous vegetarian alternatives. Late in the century, the Seventh-day Adventists based in Michigan made these food reforms part of their religion, and indeed non-meat breakfasts were featured in their sanitariums and led to new breakfast cereals."
      },
      {
        "title": "British Agricultural Revolution",
        "text": "The recovery of food imports after the Napoleonic Wars (1803\u20131815) and the resumption of American trade following the War of 1812 (1812\u20131815) led to the enactment in 1815 of the Corn Laws (protective tariffs) to protect cereal grain producers in Britain against foreign competition. These laws were only removed in 1846 after the onset of the Great Irish Famine in which a potato blight ruined most of the Irish potato crop and brought famine to the Irish people from 1846 to 1850. Though the blight also struck Scotland, Wales, England, and much of Continental Europe, its effect there was far less severe since potatoes constituted a much smaller percentage of the diet than in Ireland. Hundreds of thousands died in the famine and millions more emigrated to England, Wales, Scotland, Canada, Australia, Europe, and the United States, reducing the population from about 8.5\u00a0million in 1845 to 4.3\u00a0million by 1921."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of agriculture",
        "text": "Wild grains have been collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago, and possibly much longer. Exact dates are hard to determine, as people collected and ate seeds before domesticating them, and plant characteristics may have changed during this period without human selection. An example is the semi-tough rachis and larger seeds of cereals from just after the Younger Dryas (about 9500 BC) in the early Holocene in the Levant region of the Fertile Crescent. Monophyletic characteristics were attained without any human intervention, implying that apparent domestication of the cereal rachis could have occurred quite naturally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn flakes",
        "text": "The flakes of grain, which the Kellogg brothers called \"Granose\", were a very popular food among the patients. The brothers then experimented with other flakes from other grains. In 1906, Will Keith Kellogg, who served as the business manager of the sanitarium, decided to try to mass-market the new food. At his new company, Battle Creek Toasted Corn Flake Company, he added sugar to the flakes to make them more palatable to a mass audience, but this caused a rift between his brother and him. In 1907, his company ran an ad campaign which offered a free box of cereal to any woman who winked at her grocer. To increase sales, in 1909 he added a special offer, the \"Funny Jungleland Moving Pictures Booklet\", which was made available to anyone who bought two boxes of the cereal. This same premium was offered for 22 years. At the same time, Kellogg also began experimenting with new grain cereals to expand its product line. Rice Krispies, his next great hit, first went on sale in 1928."
      },
      {
        "title": "Americold",
        "text": "When food preservation using ice became commercialized, cold storage companies began to appear. Ice was farmed from lakes during the winter, and stored, surrounded by straw to insulate it, so that it could be used well into early summer. Ice houses and ice warehouses began to appear and sold blocks of ice for domestic and commercial use. Then in 1922, Clarence Birdseye founded the modern frozen food industry, by pioneering fast freezing (now called blast freezing), based on learning the benefits of low temperature freezing of fish practiced by the Inuit in Arctic regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Antebellum America",
        "text": "Food was preserved by various methods in the era before refrigeration. The icebox, invented in 1802 by Thomas Moore, a Maryland farmer, had a large effect on the way Americans saved food: perishables were now able to be stored more efficiently. By 1838 the \"New York Mirror\" noted, \"it is but a few years since it came into use... [the icebox]... is now justly considered as much an article of necessity as a carpet or dining table.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Toast'em Pop Ups",
        "text": "In 1963, Post invented a way to keep moist foods from spoiling, by using foil or Mylar wrappers. They initially used this for wet dog food, sold under the name Gaines Burgers. In February 1964, Post announced they would soon release a new breakfast pastry using this method, which they named Country Squares. However, the announcement came well ahead of the company's ability to produce and distribute the product, during which time rival Kellogg's was able to release their new product, Pop Tarts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "In the 1960s, the modern version of granola was invented and popularized. It evolved from a product called Granula (similar to Grape Nuts) to the recognizable modern form involving at a minimum: sweetened toasted oats, but also possibly: dried fruit, puffed rice, nuts or chocolate."
      },
      {
        "title": "International Rice Research Institute",
        "text": "Distilling more than three millennia of accumulated insight in cultivating man's leading cereal crop, the International Rice Research Institute, with its creation of \"miracle rice\", inaugurated a \"green revolution\", promising nearly one-half of humanity the prospect of suffficiency in its staple food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "The second major innovator in the cereal industry was Charles W. Post, a salesman who was admitted to Kellogg's sanitarium as a patient in the late 1800s. While there, he grew deeply impressed with their all-grain diet. Upon his release, he began experimenting with grain products, beginning with an all-grain coffee substitute called Postum. In 1898 he introduced Grape-nuts, the concentrated cereal with a nutty flavor (containing neither grapes nor nuts). Good business sense, determination, and powerful advertising produced a multimillion-dollar fortune for Post in a few years. After his death, his company acquired the Jell-O company in 1925, Baker's Chocolate in 1927, Maxwell House coffee in 1928, and Birdseye frozen foods in 1929. In 1929, the company changed its name to General Foods. In 1985, Philip Morris Tobacco Company bought General Foods for $5.6 billion (equivalent to $ billion today) and merged it with its Kraft division. Because of Kellogg and Post, the city of Battle Creek, Michigan is nicknamed the \"Cereal Capital of the World\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Harvey Kellogg",
        "text": "Around 1877, John H. Kellogg began experimenting to produce a softer breakfast food, something easy to chew. He developed a dough that was a mixture of wheat, oats, and corn. It was baked at high temperatures for a long period of time, to break down or \"dextrinize\" starch molecules in the grain. After it cooled, Kellogg broke the bread into crumbs. The cereal was originally marketed under the name \"Granula\" but this led to legal problems with James Caleb Jackson who already sold a wheat cereal under that name. In 1881, under threat of a lawsuit by Jackson, Kellogg changed the sanitarium cereal's name to \"Granola\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cream of Barley Mill",
        "text": "In the 1950s, with the business under Shrubb's ownership, Cream of Barley began to lose market share to the new cold breakfast cereals. The mill was sold, and over the years the Cream of Barley Mill tourist park and campground were absorbed into what is now the Bowmanville Zoo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "Ferdinand Schumacher, a German immigrant, began the cereals revolution in 1854 with a hand oats grinder in the back room of a small store in Akron, Ohio. His German Mills American Oatmeal Company was the nation's first commercial oatmeal manufacturer. He marketed the product locally as a substitute for breakfast pork. Improved production technology (steel cutters, porcelain rollers, improved hullers), combined with an influx of German and Irish immigrants, quickly boosted sales and profits. In 1877, Schumacher adopted the Quaker symbol, the first registered trademark for a breakfast cereal. The acceptance of \"horse food\" for human consumption encouraged other entrepreneurs to enter the industry. Henry Parsons Crowell started operations in 1882, and John Robert Stuart in 1885. Crowell cut costs by consolidating every step of the processing\u2014grading, cleaning, hulling, cutting, rolling, packaging, and shipping \u2014in one factory operating at Ravenna, Ohio. Stuart operated mills in Chicago and Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Stuart and Crowell combined in 1885 and initiated a price war. After a fire at his mill in Akron, Schumacher joined Stuart and Crowell to form the Consolidated Oatmeal Company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early history of food regulation in the United States",
        "text": "With the advent of modern machinery, food production (especially grain) moved forward at an alarming pace. For example, the \u201ccanning line\u201d increased the efficiency of canning foods in an industrial setting. An 1886 report by the Illinois Bureau of Labor Statistics claimed that \u201cNew machinery has displaced fully 50 percent of the muscular labor formerly required to do a given amount of work\u201d. Because of these improvements to agriculture, packaged cereals and canned foods became popular. Synthetic medicines (made in labs instead of natural medicines) and chemicals that altered the growing and processing of food began to appear."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of agriculture in the United States",
        "text": "Research on plant breeding produced varieties of grain crops that could produce high yields with heavy fertilizer input. This resulted in the Green revolution, beginning in the 1940s. By 2000 yields of corn (maize) had risen by a factor of over four. Wheat and soybean yields also rose significantly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "After World War II, the big breakfast cereal companies\u2014now including General Mills, who entered the market in 1924 with Wheaties\u2014increasingly started to target children. The flour was refined to remove fiber, which at the time was considered to undermine digestion and absorption of nutrients, and sugar was added to improve the flavor for children. The new breakfast cereals began to look starkly different from their ancestors. Ranger Joe, the first pre-sweetened breakfast cereal, and little more than candy-coated puffed wheat or rice, was introduced in the US in 1939. Kellogg's Sugar Smacks, created in 1953, had 56% sugar by weight. Different mascots were introduced, such as the Rice Krispies elves and later pop icons like Tony the Tiger and the Trix Rabbit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ciudad Obreg\u00f3n",
        "text": "In the 1950s the agronomist Norman E. Borlaug (called the Father of the Green Revolution) collaborated with the creation of the Northwest Agricultural Research Center (CIANO) and in 1970 received the Nobel Peace Prize for his work in research developing better varieties of wheat and maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of botany",
        "text": "During the Neolithic Revolution plant knowledge increased most obviously through the use of plants for food and medicine. All of today's staple foods were domesticated in prehistoric times as a gradual process of selection of higher-yielding varieties took place, possibly unknowingly, over hundreds to thousands of years. Legumes were cultivated on all continents but cereals made up most of the regular diet: rice in East Asia, wheat and barley in the Middle east, and maize in Central and South America. By Greco-Roman times popular food plants of today, including grapes, apples, figs, and olives, were being listed as named varieties in early manuscripts. Botanical authority William Stearn has observed that \"cultivated plants are mankind's most vital and precious heritage from remote antiquity\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Perky",
        "text": "In December 1928, the company was sold to the National Biscuit Company. The product name changed to Nabisco Shredded Wheat around 1941. Production of Shredded Wheat was begun in Naperville, Illinois in 1970. All the other plants remained in operation, until 1954, when the original \"Palace of Light\" was shut down.\n* \u2014 Machine for the Preparation of Cereals for Food, granted August 1, 1893\n* \u2014 Machine for the Manufacture of Food Products from Cereals, granted May 29, 1894\n* \u2014 Machine for the Manufacture of Food Products from Cereals, granted June 26, 1894\n* \u2014 Receiving-Trough and Cutter for Cereal-Reducing Machines, granted January 8, 1895\n* \u2014 Perforated-Roll Machine for Reducing Cereals for Food, granted January 15, 1895\n* \u2014 Roll-Machine for Reducing Cereals for Food, granted January 15, 1895\n* \u2014 Groove-Roll Machine for Reducing Cereals for Food, granted January 15, 1895\n*, , , \u2014 Roll-Machine for Reducing Cereals for Food, granted February 5, 1895\n* \u2014 Machine for Reduction and Preparation of Cereals for Food, granted February 5, 1895\n* \u2014 Design for a Biscuit, issued September 17, 1895\n* \u2014 Bread and Method of Preparing Same, granted October 15, 1895\n* \u2014 Apparatus for Preparing Grain for Reducing-Machines, granted October 15, 1895\n* \u2014 Design for a Cereal Cup, issued March 31, 1896\n* \u2014 Machine for Reducing and Preparing Cereals for Food, granted November 10, 1896\n* \u2014 Machine for Reducing Cereals, granted November 10, 1896\n* \u2014 Coffee-Roaster, granted January 26, 1897\n* \u2014 Roll Reducing-Machine for Preparing Food, granted February 8, 1898\n* \u2014 Design for a Wafer, issued June 7, 1898\n* \u2014 Game Apparatus, granted September 27, 1898\n* \u2014 Machine for Reducing Cereal Food Products to Form for Use, granted November 15, 1898\n* \u2014 Apparatus for Making Folded Wafers, granted January 24, 1899\n* \u2014 Machine for Reducing and Baking Cereals in Form, granted May 23, 1899\n* \u2014 Apparatus for Manufacturing Cereals into Forms of Food or Bread, granted February 12, 1901\n* \u2014 Machine for Reducing Food Material to Form and Distributing Same, granted July 9, 1901\n* \u2014 Pneumatic Panning or Distributing Machine, granted July 16, 1901\n* \u2014 Continuous Heating and Baking Machine, granted August 27, 1901\n* \u2014 Continuous Cutting-Machine, granted August 27, 1901\n* \u2014 Design for a Carton-Blank, issued December 31, 1901\n* \u2014 Design for a Stove, issued August 12, 1902\n* \u2014 Filamentous Cracker, granted November 18, 1902\n* \u2014 Continuous Motion Heating and Evaporating Apparatus, granted December 8, 1903\n* \u2014 Stove, granted December 22, 1903\n* \u2014 Machine for Preparing Food, granted August 22, 1905"
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Cereals remained the most important staple during the early Middle Ages as rice was introduced late, and the potato was only introduced in 1536, with a much later date for widespread consumption. Barley, oats and rye were eaten by the poor. Wheat was for the governing classes. These were consumed as bread, porridge, gruel and pasta by all of society's members. Fava beans and vegetables were important supplements to the cereal-based diet of the lower orders. (\"Phaseolus\" beans, today the \"common bean\", were of New World origin and were introduced after the Columbian exchange in the 16th century.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Younger Dryas",
        "text": "The Younger Dryas is often linked to the Neolithic Revolution, the adoption of agriculture in the Levant. The cold and dry Younger Dryas arguably lowered the carrying capacity of the area and forced the sedentary early Natufian population into a more mobile subsistence pattern. Further climatic deterioration is thought to have brought about cereal cultivation. While relative consensus exists regarding the role of the Younger Dryas in the changing subsistence patterns during the Natufian, its connection to the beginning of agriculture at the end of the period is still being debated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Post Consumer Brands",
        "text": "In 1897, Post introduced his first dry cereal, a crunchy blend of wheat and barley, which he called Grape Nuts. His first corn-flake product was introduced as \"Elijah's Manna\" in 1904. Owing to consumer resistance to the (inaccurate) biblical reference that was so great that even Great Britain flatly refused to register the name as a trademark, it was renamed Post Toasties in 1907."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alexander P. Anderson",
        "text": "Alexander Pierce Anderson (November 23, 1862 \u2013 May 7, 1943) was an American plant physiologist, botanist, educator and inventor. His scientific experiments led to the discovery of \"puffed rice\", a starting point for a new breakfast cereal that was later advertised as \"Food Shot From Guns\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast cereal",
        "text": "George H. Hoyt created Wheatena circa 1879, during an era when retailers would typically buy cereal (the most popular being cracked wheat, oatmeal, and cerealine) in barrel lots, and scoop it out to sell by the pound to customers. Hoyt, who had found a distinctive process of preparing wheat for cereal, sold his cereal in boxes, offering consumers a more sanitary and consumer-friendly option."
      },
      {
        "title": "Valmeinier",
        "text": "Cereals (corn, wheat and rye) were grown up to 1,500 metres."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "The 1920s saw the introduction of new foodstuffs, especially fruit, transported from around the globe. After the World War many new food products became available to the typical household, with branded foods advertised for their convenience. Now instead of an experienced cook spending hours on difficult custards and puddings, the housewife could purchase instant foods in jars, or powders that could be quickly mixed. Wealthier households now had ice boxes or electric refrigerators, which made for better storage and the convenience of buying in larger quantities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Antebellum America",
        "text": "Other technological advances in the antebellum period changed cuisine in the United States. Labor-saving devices were invented, such as the McCormick reaper (1834), the Pitts mechanical thresher (1837), and the Marsh harvester (1858), which helped the United States flood European cereal markets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Perky",
        "text": "Whether he developed his ideas on nutrition before the machine or after, Perky was a food faddist who believed the fundamental issue was how to nourish a man so that his condition will be natural. Although John Harvey Kellogg and Charles William Post are better known, Perky was a pioneer of the \"cookless breakfast food\" and it was he who first mass-produced and nationally distributed ready-to-eat cereal. By 1898, shredded wheat was being sold all over North and South America and Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "British Agricultural Revolution",
        "text": "The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, established in 1660, almost immediately championed the potato, stressing its value as a substitute for wheat (particularly since famine periods for wheat overlapped with bump periods for potatoes). The 1740 famines buttressed their case. The mid 18th century was marked by rapid adoption of the potato by various European countries, especially in central Europe, as various wheat famines demonstrated its value. The potato was grown in Ireland, a property of the English crown and common source of food exports, since the early 17th century and quickly spread so that by the 18th century it had been firmly established as a staple food. It spread to England shortly after it popped up in Ireland, first being widely cultivated in Lancashire and around London, and by the mid-18th century it was esteemed and common. By the late 18th century, Sir Frederick Eden wrote that the potato had become \"a constant standing dish, at every meal, breakfast excepted, at the tables of the Rich, as well as the Poor.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic history of the United States",
        "text": "Research on plant breeding produced varieties of grain crops that could produce high yields with heavy fertilizer input. This resulted in the Green revolution, beginning in the 1940s. By the century's end yields of corn (maize) rose by a factor of over four. Wheat and soybean yields also rose significantly."
      },
      {
        "title": "An Edible History of Humanity",
        "text": "In section four, Standage shows how two particular innovations of the 18th century (New World crops and replacement of wood with coal for fuel) increased agricultural productivity and made industrialization possible. This section also showcases a darker side of innovation as potato monoculture led to the Great Famine in Ireland beginning in 1845."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn flakes",
        "text": "A patent for \"Flaked Cereals and Process of Preparing Same\" was filed on May 31, 1895, and issued on April 14, 1896 to John Harvey Kellogg as Patent No. 558,393. Significantly, the patent applied to a variety of types of grains, not just to wheat. John Harvey Kellogg was the only person named on the patent. Will later insisted that he, not Ella, had worked with John, and repeatedly asserted that he should have received more credit than he was given for the discovery of the flaked cereal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Winter of 1946\u201347 in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "During this period there was a fear that, despite the rationing, food supplies could run out owing to the effects of the cold on vegetables, livestock and delivery vehicles. In response, the government started a largely unsuccessful campaign to popularise Snoek, an inexpensive South African variety of fish; the public found the fish unpalatable and its stocks were eventually used as cat food. Many winter root vegetables could not be harvested as they were frozen into the ground, and in some areas pneumatic drills were used to excavate them. Frost destroyed of potatoes and, as a result, potatoes were rationed for the first time."
      },
      {
        "title": "General Foods",
        "text": "Roots of General Foods can be traced to the Post Cereal Company, founded by C. W. Post in 1895 in Battle Creek, Michigan. Post was a patient at the Battle Creek Sanitarium (run by John Harvey Kellogg, brother of Kellogg Company founder Will Keith Kellogg), and was inspired by the diet there to start his food company (and become a rival to the Kellogg brothers, who sold their own breakfast cereals). Post invested $78 in his initial equipment and supplies and set up manufacturing in a barn on what was known as the 'Old Beardsley Farm'. His first product was Postum, a \"cereal beverage\" alternative to coffee made from wheat and molasses. The first cereal, Grape-Nuts, was developed in 1897 followed by Elijah's Manna in 1904 which was renamed Post Toasties in 1908."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal",
        "text": "Cereals were the foundation of human civilization. Cereal frontiers coincided with civilizational frontiers. The term Fertile Crescent implies the spatial dependence of civilization on cereals. The Great Wall of China and the Roman limes demarcated the same northern limit of the cereal cultivation. The Silk Road stretched along the cereal belt of Eurasia. Numerous Chinese imperial edicts stated: \u201cAgriculture is the foundation of this empire,\u201d while the foundation of agriculture were the Five Grains."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kellogg's",
        "text": "For years, W. K. Kellogg assisted his brother in research aimed at improving the vegetarian diet of the Battle Creek Sanitarium's patients, especially in the search for wheat-based granola. The Kelloggs are best known for the invention of the famous breakfast cereal corn flakes. The development of the flaked cereal in 1894 has been variously described by those involved: Ella Eaton Kellogg, John Harvey Kellogg, his younger brother Will Keith Kellogg, and other family members. There is considerable disagreement over who was involved in the discovery, and the role that they played. It is generally agreed that upon being called out one night, John Kellogg left a batch of wheat-berry dough behind. Rather than throwing it out the next morning, he sent it through the rollers and was surprised to obtain delicate flakes, which could then be baked."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "After the First World War, many new food products became available to the typical household, with branded foods advertised for their convenience. Kitchen servants with time to make custards and puddings were replaced with instant foods in jars, or powders that the housewife could quickly mix. American-style dry cereals began to challenge the porridge and bacon and eggs of the middle classes, and the bread and margarine of the poor. While wartime shipping shortages had sharply narrowed choice, the 1920s saw many new kinds of fruit imported from around the world, along with better quality, packaging, and hygiene, aided by refrigerators and refrigerated ships. Authors in the 1930s such as Lady Sysonby drew on recipes from a wide range of countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lawrence Ogilvie",
        "text": "Ogilvie was influential in the World War II and post-war challenge of feeding Britain: he was the leading British expert on the diseases of cereal crops and vegetables. By the 1940s, wheat varieties had not been sufficiently bred to resist the rust and other diseases in the damp climate prevalent in Britain and particularly in the south west where he was responsible for advising farmers. Before the war, Britain imported half its food, but by 1941 relied on home-grown crops because German submarines were sinking about 60 merchant ships per month, and the priority for shipping was to carry mat\u00e9riel to resist the impending invasion. The 1940s varieties of wheat were still unable to resist disease, with long stalks prone to lodging in the heavy rains of the west of England."
      },
      {
        "title": "Industrial Revolution",
        "text": "Food supply in Great Britain was adversely affected by the Corn Laws (1815\u20131846). The Corn Laws, which imposed tariffs on imported grain, were enacted to keep prices high in order to benefit domestic producers. The Corn Laws were repealed in the early years of the Great Irish Famine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1890\u20131945)",
        "text": "1929 Frozen food\n* Frozen food is food preserved by the process of freezing. Freezing food is a common method of food preservation which slows both food decay and, by turning water to ice, makes it unavailable for most bacterial growth and slows down most chemical reactions. Clarence Birdseye offered his quick-frozen foods to the public. Birdseye got the idea during fur-trapping expeditions to Labrador in 1912 and 1916, where he saw the natives use freezing to preserve foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture",
        "text": "In China, from the 5th century BC there was a nationwide granary system and widespread silk farming. Water-powered grain mills were in use by the 1st century BC, followed by irrigation. By the late 2nd century, heavy ploughs had been developed with iron ploughshares and mouldboards. These spread westwards across Eurasia. Asian rice was domesticated 8,200\u201313,500 years ago\u00a0\u2013 depending on the molecular clock estimate that is used\u00a0\u2013 on the Pearl River in southern China with a single genetic origin from the wild rice \"Oryza rufipogon\". In Greece and Rome, the major cereals were wheat, emmer, and barley, alongside vegetables including peas, beans, and olives. Sheep and goats were kept mainly for dairy products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cold",
        "text": "In the United States from about 1850 till end of 19th century export of ice was second only to cotton. The first ice box was developed by Thomas Moore, a farmer from Maryland in 1810 to carry butter in an oval shaped wooden tub. The tub was provided with a metal lining in its interior and surrounded by a packing of ice. A rabbit skin was used as insulation. Moore also developed an ice box for domestic use with the container built over a space of which was filled with ice. In 1825, ice harvesting by use of a horse drawn ice cutting device was invented by Nathaniel J. Wyeth. The cut blocks of uniform size ice was a cheap method of food preservation widely practiced in the United States. Also developed in 1855 was a steam powered device to haul 600 tons of ice per hour. More innovations ensued. Devices using compressed air as a refrigerants were invented."
      },
      {
        "title": "Famine",
        "text": "Beginning in the 20th century, nitrogen fertilizers, new pesticides, desert farming, and other agricultural technologies began to be used to increase food production, in part to combat famine. Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution influenced agriculture world grain production increased by 250%. Developed nations have shared these technologies with developing nations with a famine problem. However, as early as 1995, there were signs that these new developments may contribute to the decline of arable land (e.g. persistence of pesticides leading to soil contamination, salt accumulation due to irrigation, erosion)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Famine",
        "text": "The Green Revolution was widely viewed as an answer to famine in the 1970s and 1980s. Between 1950 and 1984, hybrid strains of high-yielding crops transformed agriculture around the globe and world grain production increased by 250%. Some criticize the process, stating that these new high-yielding crops require more chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which can harm the environment. Although these high-yielding crops make it technically possible to feed more people, there are indications that regional food production has peaked in many world sectors, due to certain strategies associated with intensive agriculture such as groundwater overdrafting and overuse of pesticides and other agricultural chemicals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kulak",
        "text": "From 1929\u20131933, the grain quotas were artificially heightened. Peasants attempted to hide the grain and bury it. According to historian Robert Conquest, every brigade was equipped with a long iron bar which it would use to probe the ground for grain caches and peasants who did not show signs of starvation were especially suspected of hiding food. Conquest states: \"When the snow melted true starvation began. People had swollen faces and legs and stomachs. They could not contain their urine... And now they ate anything at all. They caught mice, rats, sparrows, ants, earthworms. They ground up bones into flour, and did the same with leather and shoe soles ... .\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Bigu (grain avoidance)",
        "text": "The first textual references to \"avoiding grains/cereals\" are found in Chinese classics from the Warring States period (475\u2013221 BCE), Qin Dynasty (221 BCE\u2013206 BCE), and Han Dynasty (206 BCE\u2013220 CE)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surajit Kumar De Datta",
        "text": "The term \u201cGreen Revolution\u201d refers to the transformation of agriculture that occurred from the 1940s through the 1960s, when farmers used the discoveries of science, planting higher-yielding rice varieties to great success. In 1968, De Datta, then an agronomist at the institute, published his findings about IR8, a variety of rice that yielded 5 tons of rice per hectare with almost no fertilizer and 9.4 tons per hectare with fertilizer. This was nearly 10 times the yield of traditional rice and came to be known as Miracle Rice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gartons Limited",
        "text": "Noel Kingsbury writes:From the late nineteenth century on, seed companies began to play an increasingly important, if not dominant, role in breeding non-cereal crops and a major role in producing varieties for market gardening and for private growers. The production of new cereals was a somewhat different matter - the fact that they were so vitally important for national food supplies and involved large-scale and long-term work made it more likely that they would be the concern of government."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Harvey Kellogg",
        "text": "John Harvey Kellogg was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2006 for the discovery of tempering and the invention of the first dry flaked breakfast cereal, which \"transformed the typical American breakfast\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agroscope",
        "text": "As on 1 August 1914 the First World War broke out, Switzerland was totally unprepared: inadequate food production in their own country and the supplies from the country were interrupted. Switzerland imported at that time about 85% of the cereal demand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frederick Marquis, 1st Earl of Woolton",
        "text": "By January 1941, the usual overseas food supply had fallen in half. By 1942, however, ample food supplies were arriving through Lend Lease from the U.S. and a similar Canadian programme. Worried about children, he made sure that by 1942 Britain was providing 650,000 children with free school meal; about 3,500,000 children received milk at school, in addition to priority supplies at home. However, his national loaf of wholemeal brown bread replaced the ordinary white variety, to the distaste of most housewives. Children learned that sweets supplies were reduced to save shipping space."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prehistoric Ireland",
        "text": "This follows a pattern similar to western Europe or gradual onset of Neolithic, such as seen in La Hoguette Culture of France and Iberia's Impressed Cardial Ware Culture. Cereal culture advance markedly slows north of France; certain cereal strains such as wheat were difficult to grow in cold climates\u2014however, barley and German rye were suitable replacements. It can be speculated that the DQ2.5 aspect of the AH8.1 haplotype may have been involved in the slowing of cereal culture into Ireland, Scotland and Scandinavia since this haplotype confers susceptibility to a Triticeae protein induced disease as well as Type I diabetes and other autoimmune diseases that may have arisen as an indirect result of Neolithisation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Revolution",
        "text": "To some modern Western sociologists and writers, increasing food production is not synonymous with increasing food security, and is only part of a larger equation. For example, Harvard professor Amartya Sen wrote that large historic famines were not caused by decreases in food supply, but by socioeconomic dynamics and a failure of public action. Economist Peter Bowbrick disputes Sen's theory, arguing that Sen relies on inconsistent arguments and contradicts available information, including sources that Sen himself cited. Bowbrick further argues that Sen's views coincide with that of the Bengal government at the time of the Bengal famine of 1943, and the policies Sen advocates failed to relieve the famine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cold-Food Powder",
        "text": "During the Six Dynasties period, Chinese society was generally uncritical of \"hanshisan\", which Sailey calls an \"unexpected silence\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Force (cereal)",
        "text": "In 1903 a British subsidiary of the Force Food Company was formed to import the cereal to Europe. A slightly modified version of Sunny Jim and his jingles caught the fancy of British consumers. A. C. Fincken, a former employee of the Force Food Company, set up an agency in 1910 to import American cereals to the UK. The cereal, and the Sunny Jim character achieved wide success in Britain, at its peak in 1930 selling 12.5 million packages. In 1932 the cereal was reintroduced into the United States by Herbert C. Rice, an Englishman involved in radio production in Buffalo. He introduced The H-Bar-O Rangers, a popular radio adventure serial for boys involving another permutation of the Sunny Jim character, and linked to an advertising campaign for the cereal. It didn't last."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cereal",
        "text": "The following table shows the annual production of cereals in 1961, 1980, 2000, 2010, 2018 and 2019/2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient grains",
        "text": "The origin of grains goes back to the Neolithic Revolution about 10,000 years ago, when prehistoric communities started to make the transition from hunter-gatherer to farmer. Modern varieties of grains have been developed over time through mutation, selective cropping, breeding and research in biotechnology. Ancient grains, however, are said to be largely unchanged from their initial domesticated varieties."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were some of the most important food sources in the Middle Ages?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Cereals remained the most important staple during the early Middle Ages as rice was introduced late, and the potato was only introduced in 1536, with a much later date for widespread consumption. Barley, oats and rye were eaten by the poor."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When was modern cereal invented?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are  you  interested in finding out about warm or cold cereals?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'm interested in warm cereals."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Most warm cereals can be classified as porridges, in that they consist of cereal grains which are soaked in hot water, cooked and/or boiled. Common hot cereals in parts of Canada include oatmeal and Cream of Wheat; in China, porridges such as rice congee are often eaten for breakfast."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What major differences were there between diets in the 19th and 20th century?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Milk and cheese were seldom in the diet in the 19th century and meat consumption rose as time moved forward. World wars in the first half of the 20th century resulted in rationing and hunger, but the 1920s saw the introduction of new foodstuffs, especially fruit, transported from around the globe, and the Green Revolution followed and increased agricultural production worldwide."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the Green Revolution?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Green Revolution is also known as the Third Agricultural Revolution. It is the set of research technology transfer initiatives occurring between 1950 and the late 1960s, that increased agricultural production in parts of the world."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When were cold cereals invented?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The first cold breakfast cereal, Granula (not the same as granola), was invented in the United States in 1863 by James Caleb Jackson, operator of Our Home on the Hillside which was later replaced by the Jackson Sanatorium in Dansville, New York. Would you like to know more about granola?"
    ],
    "topic": "Food history",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Breakfast cereal:10",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Breakfast cereal",
          "History",
          "Early developments"
        ],
        "ctx": "The first cold breakfast cereal, Granula (not the same as granola), was invented in the United States in 1863 by James Caleb Jackson, operator of Our Home on the Hillside which was later replaced by the Jackson Sanatorium in Dansville, New York. The cereal never became popular, due to the inconvenient necessity of tenderizing the heavy bran and graham nuggets by soaking them overnight."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Inflation continued to erode the franc's value: between 1950 and 1960, price levels increased 72 per cent (5.7% per year on average); between 1960 and 1970, it increased 51 per cent (4.2%)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Following the war, rapid inflation caused denominations below 1 franc to be withdrawn from circulation while 10 francs in copper nickel were introduced, followed by reduced size 10-franc coins in aluminium-bronze in 1950, along with 20 and 50-franc coins of the same composition. In 1954, copper-nickel 100 francs were introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "As during the \"Mississippi Bubble\" in 1715\u20131720, too many assignats were put in circulation, exceeding the value of the \"national properties\", and the coins, due also to military requisitioning and hoarding, rarefied to pay foreign suppliers. With national government debt remaining unpaid, and a shortage of silver and brass to mint coins, confidence in the new currency declined, leading to hyperinflation, more food riots, severe political instability and termination of the First French Republic and the political fall of the French Convention. Then followed the economic failure of the Directoire: coins were still very rare. After a \"coup d'\u00e9tat\" that led to the Consulate, the First Consul progressively acquired sole legislative power at the expense of the other unstable and discredited consultative and legislative institutions."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In January 1960 the French franc was revalued, with 100 existing francs making one \"nouveau franc\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The franc (; ; sign: F or Fr), also commonly distinguished as the (FF), was a currency of France. Between 1360 and 1641, it was the name of coins worth 1 livre tournois and it remained in common parlance as a term for this amount of money. It was reintroduced (in decimal form) in 1795. After two centuries of inflation, it was redenominated in 1960, with each (NF) being worth 100\u00a0old francs. The NF designation was continued for a few years before the currency returned to being simply the franc. Many French residents, though, continued to quote prices of especially expensive items in terms of the old franc (equivalent to the new centime), up to and even after the introduction of the euro (for coins and banknotes) in 2002. The French franc was a commonly held international reserve currency of reference in the 19th and 20th centuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "1921 in France",
        "text": "Before the close of January there was a distinct improvement in the value of the franc, which dropped from sixty to fifty-two for the pound sterling."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The French Franc traces its origins to the Carolingian monetary system of the 8th century AD, and more specifically to the Livre Tournois, an offshoot of the same system which emerged in the 13th century. Here is a table of changes to the value of the Livre Parisis & the Livre Tournois in terms of silver or gold until the French Franc was introduced in 1795."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "After revaluation and the introduction of the new franc, many French people continued to use the term \"old francs\" (\"anciens francs\") for large sums, for example for the prices of houses, apartments, and cars. This was common until the introduction of the euro and even later. Many people, old and young \u2013 even those who had never used the old franc \u2013 still quoted prices in old francs, confusing tourists and people abroad. For example, lottery prizes were most often advertised in amounts of centimes, equivalent to the old franc, to inflate the perceived value of the prizes at stake. Multiples of 10NF were occasionally referred to as \"mille francs\" (thousand francs) or \"mille balles\" (\"balle\" being a slang word for franc) in contexts where it was clear that the speaker did not mean 1,000 new francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The start of the Hundred Years\u2019 War against England in 1337 would increase the pressure to further debase the French livre. An attempt in 1343 to reverse earlier depreciations of circulating deniers and reinstate the old 1317-era gros tournois (forte monnaie, or strong money) caused financial havoc especially with borrowers who received depreciated coins and who then had to repay debts in forte monnaie. Lower valuations for the livre had to be accepted subsequently as the war raged on."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1959, banknotes in circulation when the old franc was replaced by the new franc were:\n*500 francs: Victor Hugo\n*1000 francs: Cardinal de Richelieu\n*5000 francs: Henri IV\n*10,000 francs: Bonaparte 1st consul"
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic history of France",
        "text": "Industrial productivity returned to pre-war levels by 1924 and by 1929 it was 40% above 1913 levels. The French government eased immigration rules to offset the manpower shortage - some 2 million workers arrived in France as a result. Inflation was a serious problem, fueled by high government borrowing and a huge increase in the amount of money in circulation (37,900 million francs were in circulation at the end of 1920, compared to 6000 million in 1914). Consumer prices doubled between 1922 and 1926, and the franc suffered continual devaluation (in 1914 one British Pound was worth 25 francs, by July 1926 one Pound was worth 243 francs). The devaluation of the franc was a boon for exports, while inflation reduced the debt burden. As a result, \"most social groups seem to have enjoyed rising real incomes, in the case of workers for example by somewhere between 9 and 26 per cent.\" The government of Raymond Poincar\u00e9, which came to power in July 1926, managed to stabilize France's financial situation by reducing government expenditure, raising interest rates, raising taxes, and returning in part to the gold standard in June 1928. This placed the value of the franc at one-fifth of its pre-war level, which kept French goods competitive internationally."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "A considerable acceleration in the debasement of the French, English & Dutch currencies occurred during the reign of the Valois-Angoul\u00eame kings in the 16th century amidst the huge influx of precious metals from the American continent arriving through the Habsburg Netherlands. The loose enforcement of monetary standards in the Dutch provinces resulted in a significant rd reduction in the value of the French livre by 1549, with debasements continuing into the 17th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The decimal \"franc\" was established as the national currency by the National Convention of Revolutionary France in 1795 as a decimal unit (1 franc = 10 d\u00e9cimes = 100 centimes) of 4.5 g of fine silver. This was slightly less than the livre of 4.505 g, but the franc was set in 1796 at 1.0125 livres (1 livre, 3 deniers), reflecting in part the past minting of sub-standard coins. Silver coins now had their denomination clearly marked as \"5 FRANCS\" and it was made obligatory to quote prices in francs. This ended the ancien r\u00e9gime's practice of striking coins with no stated denomination, such as the Louis d'or, and periodically issuing royal edicts to manipulate their value in terms of money of account, i.e. the Livre tournois. The franc became the official currency of France in 1799."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Henry III exploited the association of the franc as sound money worth one livre tournois when he sought to stabilize French currency in 1577. By this time, inflows of gold and silver from Spanish America had caused inflation throughout the world economy and the kings of France, who weren't getting much of this wealth, only made things worse by manipulating the values assigned to their coins. The States General which met at Blois in 1577 added to the public pressure to stop currency manipulation. Henry III agreed to do this and he revived the franc, now as a silver coin valued at one livre tournois. This coin and its fractions circulated until 1641 when Louis XIII of France replaced it with the silver \u00e9cu. Nevertheless, the name \"franc\" continued in accounting as a synonym for the \"livre tournois\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decimalisation",
        "text": "France introduced the franc in 1795 to replace the livre tournois, abolished during the French Revolution. France introduced decimalisation in a number of countries that it invaded during the Napoleonic period."
      },
      {
        "title": "1920 in France",
        "text": "The financial situation in France gave occasion for most serious anxiety. Among other unfavourable features, the exchange value of the franc had fallen greatly since the end of the war, and, with fluctuations, stood at about 60 francs to the pound sterling during most of the year; and the value of the franc in terms of the American dollar was even lower."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The outbreak of World War I caused France to leave the gold standard of the LMU. The war severely undermined the franc's strength: war expenditure, inflation and postwar reconstruction, financed partly by printing ever more money, reduced the franc's purchasing power by 70% between 1915 and 1920. After a brief appreciation of the franc during the Depression of 1920\u20131921, it depreciated a further 43% between 1922 and a balancing of the budget in 1926. This devaluation was aggravated by the insistence of the Republican U.S. federal government and World War Foreign Debts Commission that France's war debts be repaid within 25 years at a minimal 4.25 percent interest per year. The currency devaluation contributed to French demands for high reparations payments from Germany. After a brief return to the gold standard between 1928 and 1936, the currency was allowed to resume its slide, until in 1959 it was worth less than 2.5% of its 1934 value."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "After World War II, France devalued its currency within the Bretton Woods system on several occasions. Beginning in 1945 at a rate of 480 francs to the British Pound (119.1 to the U.S. dollar), by 1949 the rate was 980 to the Pound (350 to the Dollar). This was reduced further in 1957 and 1958, reaching 1382.3 to the Pound (493.7 to the Dollar, equivalent to 1 franc = 1.8 mg pure gold)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The Great Bullion Famine of the mid-15th century resulted in yet another debasement during the reign of King Louis XI, with the \"Livre Parisis\" reduced to 1 French ounce (30.594 g) fine silver or 2.620 g fine gold. The silver gros was minted at 69 to the French Mark, fine (3.4 g fine silver) & was valued at th the Livre Parisis (or 2 sols). The gold \u00e9cu au soleil was minted at 72 to the Mark, 23 karats fine (3.2754 g fine gold), & was valued at 25 Sols Parisis. The close of the 15th century saw the beginnings of a more centralized French currency system & the discontinuation of competing currency systems within France."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In subsequent centuries the French kings would struggle to implement fixed standards for the livre over a decentralized realm of Frankish feudal rulers, many of whom claimed the right to issue currency within their own domains, and often resorting to currency debasements in moments of stringency. While monetary values as proclaimed by French kings would eventually be identified as the Livre Parisis, other regions almost always got by with currencies of lower standard. One such currency, the Livre Tournois, would eventually become the preferred accounting system under a more centralized French kingdom."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Revolution",
        "text": "Between 1790 and 1796, industrial and agricultural output dropped, foreign trade plunged, and prices soared, forcing the government to finance expenditure by issuing ever increasing quantities \"assignats\". When this resulted in escalating inflation, the response was to impose price controls and persecute private speculators and traders, creating a Black market. Between 1789 and 1793, the annual deficit increased from 10% to 64% of gross national product, while annual inflation reached 3,500% after a poor harvest in 1794 and the removal of price controls. The assignats were withdrawn in 1796 but inflation continued until the introduction of the gold-based \"Franc germinal\" in 1803."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic history of France",
        "text": "By the late 1960s, France's economic growth, while strong, was beginning to lose steam. A global currency crisis meant a devaluation of the Franc against the West German Mark and the U.S. Dollar in 1968, which was one of the leading factors for the social upheaval of that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of France",
        "text": "By the late 1960s, France's economic growth, while strong, was beginning to lose steam. A global currency crisis meant a devaluation of the Franc against the West German Mark and the U.S. Dollar in 1968, which was one of the leading factors for the social upheaval of that year. Industrial policy was used to bolster French industries."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The expression \"heavy franc\" (\"franc lourd\") was also commonly used to designate the new franc."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1960, the new franc (\"\") was introduced, worth 100 old francs. Stainless steel 1 and 5 centimes, aluminium-bronze 10, 20, and 50 centimes, nickel 1 franc and silver 5 francs were introduced. Silver 10-franc coins were introduced in 1965, followed by a new, smaller aluminium-bronze 5-centime and a smaller nickel -franc coin in 1966."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "French franc\n--History.\n----Carolingian, 781.\n----Capetian, c 1000.\n----Louis IX, 1266.\n----Late Capetian, 1317.\n----Hundred Years' War, 1361.\n----Lancastrian War, 1425.\n----Louis XI, 1475.\n----Valois-Angoul\u00eame, 1549.\n----Louis XIII 1641.\n----Louis XV, 1726.\n----Louis XVI, 1785.\n----French Revolution.\n----French Empire and Restoration.\n----Latin Monetary Union.\n----World War I.\n----World War II.\n----Post-War period.\n----New franc.\n----Economic and Monetary Union.\n--Coins.\n----Before World War I.\n----World War I.\n----From World War II to the currency reform.\n----New franc.\n----Euro exchange.\n--Banknotes.\n--\"De facto\" currency.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "During the Nazi occupation of France (1940\u201344), the franc was a satellite currency of the German Reichsmark. The exchange rate was 20 francs for 1 RM. The coins were changed, with the words \"Travail, famille, patrie\" (Work, Family, Fatherland) replacing the Republican triad \"Libert\u00e9, \u00e9galit\u00e9, fraternit\u00e9\" (Liberty, Equality, Fraternity), with the emblem of the Vichy regime added."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "From 1 January 1999, the value exchange rate of the French franc against the Euro was set at a fixed parity of \u20ac1\u00a0=\u00a06.55957 F. Euro coins and notes replaced the franc entirely between 1 January and 17 February 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1800, the Bank of France began issuing notes, first in denominations of 500 and 1000 francs. In the late 1840s, 100 and 200-franc notes were added, while 5, 20 and 50 francs were added in the 1860s and 70s, although the 200-franc note was discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic history of France",
        "text": "By the middle of the 16th century, France's demographic growth, its increased demand for consumer goods, and its rapid influx of gold and silver from Africa and the Americas led to inflation (grain became five times as expensive from 1520 to 1600), and wage stagnation. Although many land-owning peasants and enterprising merchants had been able to grow rich during the boom, the standard of living fell greatly for rural peasants, who were forced to deal with bad harvests at the same time. This led to reduced purchasing power and a decline in manufacturing. The monetary crisis led France to abandon (in 1577) the \"livre\" as its money of account, in favor of the \u00e9cu in circulation, and banning most foreign currencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Directory",
        "text": "The drop in value in the money was accompanied by extraordinary inflation. The \"Louis d'or\" (gold coin), which was worth 2000 \"livres\" in paper money at the beginning of the Directory, increased to 3000 and then 5000 \"livres\". The price of a liter of wine increased from 50 sous in October 1795 to ten francs and then thirty francs. A measure of flour worth two \"livres\" in 1790 was worth 225 \"livres\" in October 1794."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The conquest of most of western Europe by Revolutionary and Napoleonic France led to the franc's wide circulation. Following independence from the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the new Kingdom of Belgium in 1832 adopted its own Belgian franc, equivalent to the French one, followed by Luxembourg adopting the Luxembourgish franc in 1848 and Switzerland in 1850. Newly unified Italy adopted the lira on a similar basis in 1862."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The value of the French franc was locked to the euro at 1 euro = 6.55957 FRF on 31 December 1998, and after the introduction of the euro notes and coins, ceased to be legal tender after 28 February 2002, although they were still exchangeable at banks until 19 February 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Coins were freely exchangeable until 17 February 2005 at Banque de France only (commercial banks were not required to accept the old coins after the transition period in 2002, but some did), by converting their total value in francs to euros (rounded to the nearest cent) at the fixed rate of 6.55957 francs for 1 euro. Banknotes remained convertible up until 17 February 2012. By that date, franc notes worth some \u20ac550 million remained unexchanged, allowing the French state to register the corresponding sum as revenue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belgian franc",
        "text": "The conquest of most of western Europe by revolutionary and Napoleonic France led to the French franc's wide circulation. In the Austrian Netherlands (the current Belgium), the franc replaced the kronenthaler. This was in turn replaced by the Dutch guilder when the United Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "During the Consulship period (1799\u20131804) silver francs were struck in decimal coinage. A five-franc coin was first introduced in 1801\u201302 (L\u2019AN 10), half-franc, one-franc, and gold 40-franc coins were introduced in 1802\u201303 (L\u2019AN 11), and quarter-franc and two-franc coins in 1803\u201304 (L\u2019AN 12)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "A first attempt to introduce a nickel 2-franc coin in 1960 failed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hyperinflation",
        "text": "During the French Revolution and first Republic, the National Assembly issued bonds, some backed by seized church property, called assignats. Napoleon replaced them with the franc in 1803, at which time the assignats were basically worthless. Stephen D. Dillaye pointed out that one of the reasons for the failure was massive counterfeiting of the paper currency, largely through London. According to Dillaye: \"Seventeen manufacturing establishments were in full operation in London, with a force of four hundred men devoted to the production of false and forged Assignats.\"\n* Start and end date: May 1795 \u2013 November 1796\n* Peak month and rate of inflation: mid August 1796, 304%"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Only one further major devaluation occurred (11% in August 1969) before the Bretton Woods system was replaced by free-floating exchange rates. When the Euro replaced the franc on 1 January 1999, the franc was worth less than an eighth of its original 1960 purchasing power."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fran\u00e7afrique",
        "text": "The franc zone was intended to provide African countries with monetary stability, with member countries such as Ivory Coast experiencing relatively low inflation at an average rate of 6% over the past 50 years compared to 29% in neighboring Ghana, a non-member country. Moreover, the fixed exchange rate between the CFA Franc and the French franc has changed only once in 1994 when the CFA franc was considered overvalued. However, this monetary arrangement has enabled France to control the money supply of the CFA franc and to influence the decision-making process of the African central banks through their boards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "In 1926 Belgium as well as France experienced depreciation and an abrupt collapse of confidence, leading to the introduction of a new gold currency for international transactions, the \"belga\" of 5 francs, and the country's withdrawal from the monetary union, which ceased to exist at the end of the year. The 1921 monetary union of Belgium and Luxembourg survived, however, forming the basis for full economic union in 1932."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The 16th century saw the issuance of larger silver coins, first in testoons (9 g fine silver, valued at 11 sols Tournois in 1549), and later on in silver francs (12.3 g fine silver, valued at 1 Livre Tournois in 1577). These French coins, however, were much less popular than the 1-ounce silver coins coming out of Spain, the Netherlands & Germany, leading to the 1641 currency reform under King Louis XIII."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The French franc was originally a gold coin issued in France from 1360 until 1380, then a silver coin issued between 1575 and 1641. The franc finally became the national currency from 1795 until 1999 (franc coins and notes were legal tender until 2002). Though abolished as a legal coin by King Louis XIII in 1641 in favor of the gold louis and silver \u00e9cu, the term franc continued to be used in common parlance for the livre tournois. The franc was also minted for many of the former French colonies, such as Morocco, Algeria, French West Africa, and others. Today, after independence, many of these countries continue to use the franc as their standard denomination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fran\u00e7afrique",
        "text": "Verschave also noted the pun in the term , as it sounds like \"\" (a source of cash for France; is French slang for 'cash'), and that \"Over the course of four decades, hundreds of thousands of euros misappropriated from debt, aid, oil, cocoa... or drained through French importing monopolies, have financed French political-business networks (all of them offshoots of the main neo-Gaullist network), shareholders' dividends, the secret services' major operations and mercenary expeditions\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "After the Second World War, while 5, 10 and 20-franc notes were replaced by coins in 1950, as were the 50- and 100-franc notes in the mid-1950s. In 1954, the 10,000-franc notes were introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In the 1960s, 1 and 2 (old) franc aluminium coins were still circulating, used as \"centimes\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The circulation of this metallic currency declined during the Republic: the old gold and silver coins were taken out of circulation and exchanged for printed assignats, initially issued as bonds backed by the value of the confiscated goods of churches, but later declared as legal tender currency. The withdrawn gold and silver coins were used to finance the French Revolutionary Wars and to import food, which was in short supply."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFA franc",
        "text": "The 1960 and 1999 events were changes in the currency in use in France: the relative value of the CFA franc versus the French franc/euro changed in 1948 and 1994."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "John II died as a prisoner in England and his son, Charles V was left to pick up the pieces. Charles V pursued a policy of reform, including stable coinage. An edict dated 20 April 1365 established the centrepiece of this policy, a gold coin officially called the \"denier d\u2019or aux fleurs de lis\" which had a standing figure of the king on its obverse, pictured under a canopy. Its value in money of account was one livre tournois, just like the \"franc \u00e0 cheval\", and this coin is universally known as a \"franc \u00e0 pied\". In accordance with the theories of the mathematician, economist and royal advisor Nicole Oresme, Charles struck fewer coins of better quality gold than his ancestors. In the accompanying deflation, both prices and wages fell, but wages fell faster and debtors had to settle up in better money than they had borrowed. The Mayor of Paris, \u00c9tienne Marcel, exploited their discontent to lead the Jacquerie revolt which forced Charles V out of the city. The franc fared better. It became associated with money stable at one livre tournois."
      },
      {
        "title": "General Maximum",
        "text": "Competing theories exist as to the causes of the conditions the General Maximum was intended to ameliorate. In 1912, the historian Andrew Dickson White suggested that the ever-greater and ultimately uncontrolled issuance of paper money authorised by the National Assembly was at the root of France's economic failure and constituted the cause of its increasingly rampant inflation. Eugene White, in his 1995 publication \"The French Revolution and the Politics of Government Finance, 1770\u20131815\", argues that years of revolution, international conflicts, and poor climate conditions had led to an economic environment with massive inflation and food shortages throughout France."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Nickel-clad copper-nickel 5-franc and nickel-brass 10-franc coins replaced their silver counterparts in 1970 and 1974, respectively. Nickel 2 francs were finally introduced in 1979, followed by bimetallic 10 francs in 1988 and trimetallic 20 francs in 1992. The 20-franc coin was composed of two rings and a centre plug."
      },
      {
        "title": "French peasants",
        "text": "By the middle of the 16th century, France's demographic growth, its increased demand for consumer goods, and its rapid influx of gold and silver from Africa and the Americas led to inflation (grain became five times as expensive from 1520 to 1600), and wage stagnation. Although many richer land-owning peasants and enterprising merchants had been able to grow rich during the boom, the standard of living fell greatly for poor rural peasants, who were forced to deal with bad harvests at the same time. This led to reduced purchasing power and a decline in manufacturing. The monetary crisis led France to abandon (in 1577) the \"livre\" as its money of account, in favor of the \u00e9cu in circulation, and banning most foreign currencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Towards the reign of King Philip IV le Bel came pressures to further debase the denier, which occurred in 1317 when the Gros Tournois was raised to 15 deniers \"Tournois\" or 12 deniers (1 sol) \"Parisis\", thus commencing the fixed parity of 4 \"deniers Parisis\" to 5 \"deniers Tournois\". While French kings would continue to prescribe coin values in multiples of 4 & 12 deniers Parisis until the end of the 15th century, the rest of France would gradually choose to recognize their increased values in multiples of 5 & 15 deniers Tournois."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFA franc",
        "text": "Exchange rate:\n* 26 December 1945 to 16 October 1948 \u2013 1 CFA franc = 1.70 FRF (FRF = French franc). This 0.70 FRF premium is the consequence of the creation of the CFA franc, which spared the French African colonies the devaluation of December 1945 (before December 1945, 1 local franc in these colonies was worth 1 French franc).\n* 17 October 1948 to 31 December 1959 \u2013 1 CFA franc = 2.00 FRF (the CFA franc had followed the French franc's devaluation versus the US dollar in January 1948, but on 18 October 1948, the French franc devalued again and this time the CFA franc was revalued against the French franc to offset almost all of this new devaluation of the French franc; after October 1948, the CFA was never revalued again versus the French franc and followed all the successive devaluations of the French franc)\n* 1 January 1960 to 11 January 1994 \u2013 1 CFA franc = 0.02 FRF (1 January 1960: the French franc redenominated, with 100 \"old\" francs becoming 1 \"new\" franc)\n* 12 January 1994 to 31 December 1998 \u2013 1 CFA franc = 0.01 FRF. An overnight 50% devaluation.\n* 1 January 1999 onwards \u2013 100 CFA franc = 0.152449 euro or 1 euro = 655.957 CFA franc. (1 January 1999: euro replaced FRF at the rate of 6.55957 FRF for 1 euro)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic history of Europe (1000 AD\u2013present)",
        "text": "By the middle of the 16th century, France's demographic growth, its increased demand for consumer goods, and its rapid influx of gold and silver from Africa and the Americas led to inflation (grain became five times as expensive from 1520 to 1600), and wage stagnation. Although many land-owning peasants and enterprising merchants had been able to grow rich during the boom, the standard of living fell greatly for rural peasants, who were forced to deal with bad harvests at the same time. This led to reduced purchasing power and a decline in manufacturing. The monetary crisis led France to abandon (in 1577) the \"livre\" as its money of account, in favor of the \u00e9cu in circulation, and banning most foreign currencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "A certain degree of peace achieved at the start of the 15th century helped settle the value of French currency. After 1422 the gros of 1 sol Parisis was minted at 96 to a French Mark, fine (hence 1.912 g per gros), while the \u00c9cu of 20 sols Parisis was minted at 64 to a French Mark, 22 karats or fine (hence 3.585 g per \u00e9cu). The gros and the \u00e9cu compared favourably with England's 2-pence coin of 1.8 g silver and 40-pence (th of a pound) half-noble coin of 3.48 g gold, resulting in an approximate exchange rate of 1 pound sterling to six Livres Parisis."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1944, the liberating Allies introduced dollar-like paper money in denominations between 2 and 1000 francs, as well as a brass 2-franc coin."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Banknotes in circulation when the franc was replaced were:\n* 20 francs (\u20ac3.05): Claude Achille Debussy-brown-purple (introduced 1983)\n* 50 francs (\u20ac7.62): Antoine de Saint-Exup\u00e9ry\u2014blue (introduced 20 October 1993, replacing Maurice Quentin de la Tour)\n* 100 francs (\u20ac15.24): Paul C\u00e9zanne\u2014orange (introduced 15 December 1997, replacing Eug\u00e8ne Delacroix)\n* 200 francs (\u20ac30.49): Gustave Eiffel\u2014red (introduced 29 October 1996, replacing Montesquieu)\n* 500 francs (\u20ac76.22): Pierre and Marie Curie\u2014green (introduced 22 March 1995, replacing Blaise Pascal)"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The first issue of the new franc consisted of 500, 1000, 5000 and 10,000-franc notes overprinted with their new denominations of 5, 10, 50 and 100 new francs. This issue was followed by notes of the same design but with only the new denomination shown. A 500-new franc note was also introduced in 1960 representing Moli\u00e8re, replaced in 1969 by the yellow Pascal type (colloquially called a \"pascal\"). A 5-franc note was issued until 1970 and a 10-franc note (showing Hector Berlioz) was issued until 1979."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The franc was originally a French gold coin of 3.87\u00a0g minted in 1360 on the occasion of the release of King John II (\"the Good\"), held by the English since his capture at the Battle of Poitiers four years earlier. It was equivalent to one \"livre tournois\" (Tours pound)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In August 1795, the Monetary Law replaced the \"livre\" (\"pound\") with the \"franc\", which was divided into 10 \"d\u00e9cimes\" (\"tenths\") and 100 \"centimes\" (\"hundredths\"). Copper coins were issued in the denominations of 1 centime, 5 centimes, 1 d\u00e9cime, and 2 d\u00e9cimes, designed by Augustin Dupr\u00e9. After 1801, French copper coins became rare."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Directory",
        "text": "To fight inflation, the government began minting more coins of gold and silver, which had real value; the government had little gold but large silver reserves, largely in the form of silverware, candlesticks and other objects confiscated from the churches and the nobility. It minted 72 million \u00e9cus, and when this silver supply ran low, it obtained much more gold and silver through military campaigns outside of France, particularly from Bonaparte's army in Italy. Bonaparte demanded gold or silver from each city he conquered, threatening to destroy the cities if they did not pay."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The 5-franc silver coin was called an \"\u00e9cu\", after the six-livre silver coin of the \"ancien regime\", until the 1880s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Le Franc",
        "text": "This film uses the French government's 50% devaluation of the West African CFA franc in 1994, and the resulting hardships as the basis for a whimsical commentary on using the lottery for survival."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The First World War saw the introduction of 10 and 1000-franc notes. The chambers of commerce's notgeld (\"money of necessity\"), from 1918 to 1926, produced 25c, 50c, 1\u00a0F, 2\u00a0F, 5\u00a0F, and 10\u00a0F notes."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Despite base-metal 5, 10 & 20\u00a0F coins being introduced between 1929 and 1933, the banknotes were not removed. In 1938, first 5000-franc notes were added."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Directory",
        "text": "Many of the economic, social and political woes during the Directory were results of the breakdown of the financial system. The principal problem was a great shortage of money with real value; that is, coins made of silver, and an excess of paper money, the value of which shrank as more and more was printed. The Directory produced only 32 million livres worth of silver-based coins in its first two years. Much of this money was hoarded, since, unlike the paper money, it had and retained real value. As a consequence, the government, to cover its costs, was forced to print millions of notes, first called \"assignats\" and then \"mandats\", which were based on the value of property seized from the Church and the clergy. These notes declined in value as more and more were printed. When the notes became nearly worthless, the Directory first devalued them and finally gave up and stopped printing paper money. The shortage of real money in the second part of the Directory led to a new problem: shortage of credit; interest rates rose to about ten percent, double what they had been in 1789. The consequence in the last two years of the Directory was a decline in economic activity, and in wages, while prices rose. The population lost confidence in the money and in the Directory's management."
      },
      {
        "title": "Algerian franc",
        "text": "The franc replaced the budju when France occupied the country. It was equivalent to the French franc and was revalued in 1960 at a rate of 100 old francs = 1 new franc to maintain the equivalence. The new franc was replaced at par by the dinar in 1964 following Algerian independence in 1962."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biens nationaux",
        "text": "This hyperinflation was inspired by continual food shortages. Rather than solving the financial problems, the \"assignats\" became a cause for food riots. Insecurity continued after the abolition of the monarchy, and the situation got worse with the wars France faced. These circumstances interfered with the completion of good financial policies that would reduce debts. Bills were passed such as the Maximum Price Act (\"loi du maximum g\u00e9n\u00e9ral\") of 1793, meant to control price increases."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFP franc",
        "text": "The 1960 and 1999 events are merely changes in the currency in use in France; the relative value of the CFP franc (XPF) vs. the French franc / euro is unchanged since 1949."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1933, a nickel 5-franc coin was minted, but was soon replaced by a large aluminium-bronze 5-franc coin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Consolidated Third",
        "text": "In 1797, France faced a debt load of 4 billion francs, much higher than the previous peak in 1715, and a new record. Moreover, the country was experiencing a phase of hyperinflation due, in part, to Gresham's law thanks to the over-printing of Assignat, which lowered purchasing power."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The first franc paper money issues were made in 1795. They were assignats in denominations between 100 and 10,000 francs. These followed in 1796 by \"territorial mandate promises\" for 25 up to 500 francs. The treasury also issued notes that year for 25 up to 1000 francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFA franc",
        "text": "The CFA franc was created on 26 December 1945, along with the CFP franc. The reason for their creation was the weakness of the French franc immediately after World War II. When France ratified the Bretton Woods Agreement in December 1945, the French franc was devalued in order to set a fixed exchange rate with the US dollar. New currencies were created in the French colonies to spare them the strong devaluation, thereby facilitating imports from France. French officials presented the decision as an act of generosity. Ren\u00e9 Pleven, the French Minister of Finance, was quoted as saying -"
      },
      {
        "title": "Napoleon III",
        "text": "The average salary of French workers grew by 45 percent during the Second Empire, but only kept up with price inflation. On the other hand, more French people than ever were able to save money; the number of bank accounts grew from 742,889 in 1852 to 2,079,141 in 1870."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Reynaud",
        "text": "The franc was devalued, in a range between 25% and 34%, by the Popular Front government presided by Leon Blum on 1 October 1936."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFA franc",
        "text": "The CFA franc was created with a fixed exchange rate versus the French franc. This exchange rate has fluctuated since its inception. As of 2022, it had been devalued 99.9% against the French franc/euro since 1960."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "Like the French franc, the Belgo-Luxemburgish franc ceased to exist on 1 January 1999, when it became fixed at 1\u00a0EUR = 40.3399\u00a0BEF/LUF, thus a franc was worth \u20ac0.024789. Old franc coins and notes lost their legal tender status on 28 February 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1361 the gros tournois of 15 deniers Tournois (1 sol Parisis) was minted at 84 to a French Mark of silver, 23/24 fine (hence, 2.79 g fine silver in a gros). At the same time gold flowing from Southern Europe started to become an important medium of exchange in the North, so gold francs worth 1 livre Tournois (16 sols Parisis) were minted at 63 to a French Mark of fine gold (hence, 3.885 g in a franc). Gold as circulating currency would henceforth continue in the form of \u00c9cu d\u2019ors of varying gold content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "Before the introduction of the euro in 1999, francs were also used in France, Belgium and Luxembourg, while Andorra and Monaco accepted the French franc as legal tender (Monegasque franc). The franc was also used within the French Empire's colonies, including Algeria and Cambodia. The franc is sometimes Italianised or Hispanicised as the \"franco\", for instance in Luccan franco."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Coinage with explicit denominations in decimal fractions of the franc also began in 1795. Decimalization of the franc was mandated by an act of 7 April 1795, which also dealt with the decimalization of weights and measures. France led the world in adopting the metric system and it was the second country to convert from a non-decimal to a decimal currency, following Russia's conversion in 1704, and the third country to adopt a decimal coinage, also following the United States in 1787. France's first decimal coinage used allegorical figures symbolizing revolutionary principles, like the coinage designs the United States had adopted in 1793."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The gold franc worth one livre tournois was introduced in 1360 to pay the ransom of King John II of France. This coin secured the king's freedom and showed him on a richly decorated horse earning it the name \"franc \u00e0 cheval\" (meaning \"free on horse\" in French). The obverse legend, like other French coins, gives the king's title as \"Francorum Rex\" (\"King of the Franks\" in Latin) and provides another reason to call the coin a franc. John's son, Charles V, continued this type. It was copied exactly at Brabant and Cambrai and, with the arms on the horse cloth changed, at Flanders. Conquests led by Joan of Arc allowed Charles VII to return to sound coinage and he revived the \"franc \u00e0 cheval\". John II, however, was not able to strike enough francs to pay his ransom and he voluntarily returned to English captivity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biens nationaux",
        "text": "Biens nationaux\n--Confiscation of the goods of the clergy.\n--New currency.\n--Inflation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1800 the Banque de France, a federal establishment with a private board of executives, was created and commissioned to produce the national currency. In 1803, the \"Franc germinal\" (named after the month Germinal in the revolutionary calendar) was established, creating a gold franc containing 290.034\u00a0mg of fine gold. From this point, gold and silver-based units circulated interchangeably on the basis of a 1:15.5 ratio between the values of the two metals (bimetallism) until 1864, when all silver coins except the 5-franc piece were debased from 90% to 83.5% silver without the weights changing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camillo Castiglioni",
        "text": "In February 1924, Castiglioni partnered with Fritz Mannheimer, and later other influential bankers to speculate on the devaluation of the French franc. They shorted hundreds of millions of franc, eventually causing the franc to drop almost 40% in less than a month. By the beginning of March 1924, one United States dollar was worth 28 francs. Then, however, investment bank Lazard, on the behalf of Banque de France and powered by J.P. Morgan & Co., bought immense amounts of francs, causing the franc to rise again, to 15 franc per dollar. Castiglioni, Mannheimer and their partners lost millions."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "France was a founding member of the Latin Monetary Union (LMU), a single currency employed primarily by the Romance-speaking and other Mediterranean states between 1865 and the First World War. The common currency was based on the franc germinal, with the name franc already being used in Switzerland and Belgium, whilst other countries minted local denominations, redeemable across the bloc with 1-to-1 parity, though with local names: e.g., the peseta. In 1873, the LMU went over to a purely gold standard of 1 franc = 0.290322581 grams of gold."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The rise in the value of gold at the onset of England's Industrial Revolution as well as King Louis XVI's reign led to the rise in the Gold-Silver Ratio to 15.5, resulting in the reduction in the gold content of the 24-livre Louis d'Or from 1/30th to 1/32nd of a Mark, 11/12 fine. While the silver standard remained unchanged, assays of the period indicate that coins contained approximately 1.5% less bullion than officially specified. The 1795 swapping of livres to francs at the rate of 1.0125 livres = 1 franc suggest that the 6-livre ecu contained 26.67 g fine silver while the reduced 24-livre Louis contained 6.88 g fine gold."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Copper coins were rarely issued between 1801 and 1848, so the quarter franc was the lowest current denomination in circulation. But during this period, copper coins from earlier periods circulated. A Napoleon 5-centime coin (in bell metal) and Napoleon and Restoration 1-d\u00e9cime coins were minted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Franc or francs may refer also to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In the 17th century King Louis XIII abolished its unpopular coinage of francs & ecus in favour of Spanish-modelled coins. It also abolished the Livre Parisis system in favour of exclusive use of the Livre Tournois. The Spanish dollar was the model for the Louis d\u2019Argent \u2013 9 to a French Mark (244.752 g) of silver, fine (hence 24.93 g fine silver), and valued at 3 livres tournois. The Spanish doubloon or two-escudo coin was the model for the Louis d'Or \u2013 36 to a French Mark of gold, fine (hence 6.189 g fine gold), and valued at 10 livres."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The abbreviation \"NF\" was used on the 1958 design banknotes until 1963. Old one- and two-franc coins continued to circulate as new centimes (no new centimes were minted for the first two years). The one-centime coin never circulated widely."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gaspard de Prony",
        "text": "Due to a lack of funding from inflation following the French revolution, the tables were never published in full. The first excerpt of the table was published a century later."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Camerounian franc",
        "text": "French Camerounian franc\n--History.\n--Coins.\n--Banknotes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fran\u00e7afrique",
        "text": "After the Cold War, the regime has weakened due to France's budgetary constraints, greater public scrutiny at home, the deaths of pivotal actors (Foccart, Mitterrand, Pasqua and members of Elf), and the integration of France into the European Union. Economic liberalisation, high indebtedness and political instability of the former African colonies have reduced their political and economic attractiveness, leading France to adopt a more pragmatic and hard-nose approach to its African relations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Francization",
        "text": "Shortly after the fall of the Ancien R\u00e9gime, the new revolutionary government adopted a policy of promotion of French as a unifying and modernizing language, simultaneously denigrating the status of minority languages as bulwarks of feudalism, Church control of the state, and backwardness in general. In less than a year after coming to power (1792), the Committee for Public Instruction mandated that the newly-expanded public education be fortified by sending French-speaking teachers to areas that spoke other languages. This programme achieved many of its aims during the 19th century: by the 1860s, nearly 80% of the national population could speak French."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franciade",
        "text": "The period of 4 years, at the end of which this addition of one day is usually necessary, is named the franciade, in memory of the revolution which, after 4 years of toils, led France to its Republican government."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Camerounian franc",
        "text": "The franc was the currency of French Cameroun. It was subdivided into 100 centimes and was equal in value to the French franc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Swiss franc",
        "text": "In the late 1960s, the prices of internationally traded commodities rose significantly. A silver coin's metal value exceeded its monetary value, and many were being sent abroad for melting, which prompted the federal government to make this practice illegal. The statute was of little effect, and the melting of francs only subsided when the collectible value of the remaining francs again exceeded their material value."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Emperor Charlemagne's monetary system was introduced in 781 AD to the Frankish Carolingian Empire & spread over the centuries to much of Western Europe, with a Livre (Pound) of silver divided into 20 Sols or Sous (Shillings) and the Sol divided into 12 Deniers (Penny). Only the denier existed as a coin for the next 500 years, with the sou & livre functioning as accounting multiples of the denier. The first livre & denier weighed 407.92 g & 1.7 g, respectively, of the finest silver available."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "France entered another turbulent period during the War of the Spanish Succession from 1701-1714, resulting in another debasement of the livre tournois. Under King Louis XV's reign in 1726 the silver \u00c9cu d'Argent was issued at 8.3 to a Mark of silver, 11/12 fine (hence 27.03 g fine silver), and valued at 6 livres. A new gold Louis d'Or was also issued at 30 to a Mark of gold, 11/12 fine (hence 7.4785 g fine gold), and valued at 24 livres."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did 2 centuries of inflation lead to with regards to the franc?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "It caused the franc to be redenominated in 1960, each new franc was worth 100 old francs.",
      "The french franc was redenominated in 1960, each new franc was worth 100 old francs."
    ],
    "topic": "French franc",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "French franc:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "French franc"
        ],
        "ctx": "The franc (; ; sign: F or Fr), also commonly distinguished as the (FF), was a currency of France. Between 1360 and 1641, it was the name of coins worth 1 livre tournois and it remained in common parlance as a term for this amount of money. It was reintroduced (in decimal form) in 1795. After two centuries of inflation, it was redenominated in 1960, with each (NF) being worth 100\u00a0old francs. The NF designation was continued for a few years before the currency returned to being simply the franc. Many French residents, though, continued to quote prices of especially expensive items in terms of the old franc (equivalent to the new centime), up to and even after the introduction of the euro (for coins and banknotes) in 2002. The French franc was a commonly held international reserve currency of reference in the 19th and 20th centuries."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "French franc:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "French franc"
        ],
        "ctx": "The franc (; ; sign: F or Fr), also commonly distinguished as the (FF), was a currency of France. Between 1360 and 1641, it was the name of coins worth 1 livre tournois and it remained in common parlance as a term for this amount of money. It was reintroduced (in decimal form) in 1795. After two centuries of inflation, it was redenominated in 1960, with each (NF) being worth 100\u00a0old francs. The NF designation was continued for a few years before the currency returned to being simply the franc. Many French residents, though, continued to quote prices of especially expensive items in terms of the old franc (equivalent to the new centime), up to and even after the introduction of the euro (for coins and banknotes) in 2002. The French franc was a commonly held international reserve currency of reference in the 19th and 20th centuries."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1959, banknotes in circulation when the old franc was replaced by the new franc were:\n*500 francs: Victor Hugo\n*1000 francs: Cardinal de Richelieu\n*5000 francs: Henri IV\n*10,000 francs: Bonaparte 1st consul"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "After revaluation and the introduction of the new franc, many French people continued to use the term \"old francs\" (\"anciens francs\") for large sums, for example for the prices of houses, apartments, and cars. This was common until the introduction of the euro and even later. Many people, old and young \u2013 even those who had never used the old franc \u2013 still quoted prices in old francs, confusing tourists and people abroad. For example, lottery prizes were most often advertised in amounts of centimes, equivalent to the old franc, to inflate the perceived value of the prizes at stake. Multiples of 10NF were occasionally referred to as \"mille francs\" (thousand francs) or \"mille balles\" (\"balle\" being a slang word for franc) in contexts where it was clear that the speaker did not mean 1,000 new francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1960, the new franc (\"\") was introduced, worth 100 old francs. Stainless steel 1 and 5 centimes, aluminium-bronze 10, 20, and 50 centimes, nickel 1 franc and silver 5 francs were introduced. Silver 10-franc coins were introduced in 1965, followed by a new, smaller aluminium-bronze 5-centime and a smaller nickel -franc coin in 1966."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The franc (; ; sign: F or Fr), also commonly distinguished as the (FF), was a currency of France. Between 1360 and 1641, it was the name of coins worth 1 livre tournois and it remained in common parlance as a term for this amount of money. It was reintroduced (in decimal form) in 1795. After two centuries of inflation, it was redenominated in 1960, with each (NF) being worth 100\u00a0old francs. The NF designation was continued for a few years before the currency returned to being simply the franc. Many French residents, though, continued to quote prices of especially expensive items in terms of the old franc (equivalent to the new centime), up to and even after the introduction of the euro (for coins and banknotes) in 2002. The French franc was a commonly held international reserve currency of reference in the 19th and 20th centuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In January 1960 the French franc was revalued, with 100 existing francs making one \"nouveau franc\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Following the war, rapid inflation caused denominations below 1 franc to be withdrawn from circulation while 10 francs in copper nickel were introduced, followed by reduced size 10-franc coins in aluminium-bronze in 1950, along with 20 and 50-franc coins of the same composition. In 1954, copper-nickel 100 francs were introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Inflation continued to erode the franc's value: between 1950 and 1960, price levels increased 72 per cent (5.7% per year on average); between 1960 and 1970, it increased 51 per cent (4.2%)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The abbreviation \"NF\" was used on the 1958 design banknotes until 1963. Old one- and two-franc coins continued to circulate as new centimes (no new centimes were minted for the first two years). The one-centime coin never circulated widely."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In the 1960s, 1 and 2 (old) franc aluminium coins were still circulating, used as \"centimes\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The first issue of the new franc consisted of 500, 1000, 5000 and 10,000-franc notes overprinted with their new denominations of 5, 10, 50 and 100 new francs. This issue was followed by notes of the same design but with only the new denomination shown. A 500-new franc note was also introduced in 1960 representing Moli\u00e8re, replaced in 1969 by the yellow Pascal type (colloquially called a \"pascal\"). A 5-franc note was issued until 1970 and a 10-franc note (showing Hector Berlioz) was issued until 1979."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Banknotes in circulation when the franc was replaced were:\n* 20 francs (\u20ac3.05): Claude Achille Debussy-brown-purple (introduced 1983)\n* 50 francs (\u20ac7.62): Antoine de Saint-Exup\u00e9ry\u2014blue (introduced 20 October 1993, replacing Maurice Quentin de la Tour)\n* 100 francs (\u20ac15.24): Paul C\u00e9zanne\u2014orange (introduced 15 December 1997, replacing Eug\u00e8ne Delacroix)\n* 200 francs (\u20ac30.49): Gustave Eiffel\u2014red (introduced 29 October 1996, replacing Montesquieu)\n* 500 francs (\u20ac76.22): Pierre and Marie Curie\u2014green (introduced 22 March 1995, replacing Blaise Pascal)"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Coins were freely exchangeable until 17 February 2005 at Banque de France only (commercial banks were not required to accept the old coins after the transition period in 2002, but some did), by converting their total value in francs to euros (rounded to the nearest cent) at the fixed rate of 6.55957 francs for 1 euro. Banknotes remained convertible up until 17 February 2012. By that date, franc notes worth some \u20ac550 million remained unexchanged, allowing the French state to register the corresponding sum as revenue."
      },
      {
        "title": "1921 in France",
        "text": "Before the close of January there was a distinct improvement in the value of the franc, which dropped from sixty to fifty-two for the pound sterling."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Most older series were exchangeable for 10 years from date of withdrawal. As the last banknote from the previous series had been withdrawn on 31 March 1998 (200 francs, Montesquieu), the deadline for the exchange was 31 March 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The French Franc traces its origins to the Carolingian monetary system of the 8th century AD, and more specifically to the Livre Tournois, an offshoot of the same system which emerged in the 13th century. Here is a table of changes to the value of the Livre Parisis & the Livre Tournois in terms of silver or gold until the French Franc was introduced in 1795."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "As during the \"Mississippi Bubble\" in 1715\u20131720, too many assignats were put in circulation, exceeding the value of the \"national properties\", and the coins, due also to military requisitioning and hoarding, rarefied to pay foreign suppliers. With national government debt remaining unpaid, and a shortage of silver and brass to mint coins, confidence in the new currency declined, leading to hyperinflation, more food riots, severe political instability and termination of the First French Republic and the political fall of the French Convention. Then followed the economic failure of the Directoire: coins were still very rare. After a \"coup d'\u00e9tat\" that led to the Consulate, the First Consul progressively acquired sole legislative power at the expense of the other unstable and discredited consultative and legislative institutions."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The expression \"heavy franc\" (\"franc lourd\") was also commonly used to designate the new franc."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The circulation of this metallic currency declined during the Republic: the old gold and silver coins were taken out of circulation and exchanged for printed assignats, initially issued as bonds backed by the value of the confiscated goods of churches, but later declared as legal tender currency. The withdrawn gold and silver coins were used to finance the French Revolutionary Wars and to import food, which was in short supply."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Nickel-clad copper-nickel 5-franc and nickel-brass 10-franc coins replaced their silver counterparts in 1970 and 1974, respectively. Nickel 2 francs were finally introduced in 1979, followed by bimetallic 10 francs in 1988 and trimetallic 20 francs in 1992. The 20-franc coin was composed of two rings and a centre plug."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The decimal \"franc\" was established as the national currency by the National Convention of Revolutionary France in 1795 as a decimal unit (1 franc = 10 d\u00e9cimes = 100 centimes) of 4.5 g of fine silver. This was slightly less than the livre of 4.505 g, but the franc was set in 1796 at 1.0125 livres (1 livre, 3 deniers), reflecting in part the past minting of sub-standard coins. Silver coins now had their denomination clearly marked as \"5 FRANCS\" and it was made obligatory to quote prices in francs. This ended the ancien r\u00e9gime's practice of striking coins with no stated denomination, such as the Louis d'or, and periodically issuing royal edicts to manipulate their value in terms of money of account, i.e. the Livre tournois. The franc became the official currency of France in 1799."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "During the Nazi occupation of France (1940\u201344), the franc was a satellite currency of the German Reichsmark. The exchange rate was 20 francs for 1 RM. The coins were changed, with the words \"Travail, famille, patrie\" (Work, Family, Fatherland) replacing the Republican triad \"Libert\u00e9, \u00e9galit\u00e9, fraternit\u00e9\" (Liberty, Equality, Fraternity), with the emblem of the Vichy regime added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "Like the French franc, the Belgo-Luxemburgish franc ceased to exist on 1 January 1999, when it became fixed at 1\u00a0EUR = 40.3399\u00a0BEF/LUF, thus a franc was worth \u20ac0.024789. Old franc coins and notes lost their legal tender status on 28 February 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "During the Consulship period (1799\u20131804) silver francs were struck in decimal coinage. A five-franc coin was first introduced in 1801\u201302 (L\u2019AN 10), half-franc, one-franc, and gold 40-franc coins were introduced in 1802\u201303 (L\u2019AN 11), and quarter-franc and two-franc coins in 1803\u201304 (L\u2019AN 12)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Despite base-metal 5, 10 & 20\u00a0F coins being introduced between 1929 and 1933, the banknotes were not removed. In 1938, first 5000-franc notes were added."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1800, the Bank of France began issuing notes, first in denominations of 500 and 1000 francs. In the late 1840s, 100 and 200-franc notes were added, while 5, 20 and 50 francs were added in the 1860s and 70s, although the 200-franc note was discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The batch of coins produced in 1850 and 1851 was insufficient, and the Federal Council had to resort to authorising the circulation of French, Belgian and Italian coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Swiss franc",
        "text": "The 10 centime coins from 1879 onwards (except the years 1918\u201319 and 1932\u20131939) have had the same composition, size, and design to present and are still legal tender and found in circulation. For this, the coin entered the Guinness Book of Records as the oldest original currency in circulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "From 1 January 1999, the value exchange rate of the French franc against the Euro was set at a fixed parity of \u20ac1\u00a0=\u00a06.55957 F. Euro coins and notes replaced the franc entirely between 1 January and 17 February 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "Congolese franc",
        "text": "The franc was re-established in 1997, replacing the \"new za\u00efre\" at a rate of 1 franc = 100,000 new za\u00efres. This was equivalent to 300 trillion old francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "French franc\n--History.\n----Carolingian, 781.\n----Capetian, c 1000.\n----Louis IX, 1266.\n----Late Capetian, 1317.\n----Hundred Years' War, 1361.\n----Lancastrian War, 1425.\n----Louis XI, 1475.\n----Valois-Angoul\u00eame, 1549.\n----Louis XIII 1641.\n----Louis XV, 1726.\n----Louis XVI, 1785.\n----French Revolution.\n----French Empire and Restoration.\n----Latin Monetary Union.\n----World War I.\n----World War II.\n----Post-War period.\n----New franc.\n----Economic and Monetary Union.\n--Coins.\n----Before World War I.\n----World War I.\n----From World War II to the currency reform.\n----New franc.\n----Euro exchange.\n--Banknotes.\n--\"De facto\" currency.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "After the Second World War, while 5, 10 and 20-franc notes were replaced by coins in 1950, as were the 50- and 100-franc notes in the mid-1950s. In 1954, the 10,000-franc notes were introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The start of the Hundred Years\u2019 War against England in 1337 would increase the pressure to further debase the French livre. An attempt in 1343 to reverse earlier depreciations of circulating deniers and reinstate the old 1317-era gros tournois (forte monnaie, or strong money) caused financial havoc especially with borrowers who received depreciated coins and who then had to repay debts in forte monnaie. Lower valuations for the livre had to be accepted subsequently as the war raged on."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "After World War II, France devalued its currency within the Bretton Woods system on several occasions. Beginning in 1945 at a rate of 480 francs to the British Pound (119.1 to the U.S. dollar), by 1949 the rate was 980 to the Pound (350 to the Dollar). This was reduced further in 1957 and 1958, reaching 1382.3 to the Pound (493.7 to the Dollar, equivalent to 1 franc = 1.8 mg pure gold)."
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u00e9union franc",
        "text": "In 1962, the \"Institut d'\u00c9mission des D\u00e9partements d'Outre-Mer\" took over paper money issue, with notes for 100, 500, 1000 and 500 francs, overprinted with either \"La R\u00e9union\" or \"D\u00e9partement de la R\u00e9union\". In 1960, 500 1000 and 5000 francs notes were issued overprinted with the denomination in new francs (10, 20 and 100 nouveaux francs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1933, a nickel 5-franc coin was minted, but was soon replaced by a large aluminium-bronze 5-franc coin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Algerian franc",
        "text": "The franc replaced the budju when France occupied the country. It was equivalent to the French franc and was revalued in 1960 at a rate of 100 old francs = 1 new franc to maintain the equivalence. The new franc was replaced at par by the dinar in 1964 following Algerian independence in 1962."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Franc or francs may refer also to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The gold coinage also changed. 40-franc coins were last struck in 1839 (with just 23 coins minted). Several new denomination were introduced as gold coinage: 5 gold francs (1856), 10 gold francs (1850), 50 gold francs (1855), and 100 gold francs (1855). A second design for the 100 gold franc coin was released in 1878 depicting standing genius writing the constitution. The pictured example (1889) was issued as a proof and only 100 coins were struck."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "A first attempt to introduce a nickel 2-franc coin in 1960 failed."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Copper coins were rarely issued between 1801 and 1848, so the quarter franc was the lowest current denomination in circulation. But during this period, copper coins from earlier periods circulated. A Napoleon 5-centime coin (in bell metal) and Napoleon and Restoration 1-d\u00e9cime coins were minted."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "At the time of the complete changeover to the euro on 1 January 2002, coins in circulation (some produced as recently as 2000) were:\n* 1 centime (~ 0.15 euro cents) stainless steel, rarely circulated (last production stopped first in 1982, then in 1987 due to high production cost, and lack of demand due to its very low value).\n* 5 centimes (~ 0.76 cents) aluminium-bronze\n* 10 centimes (~ 1.52 cents) aluminium-bronze\n* 20 centimes (~ 3.05 cents) aluminium-bronze\n* franc (~ 7.6 cents) nickel\n* 1 franc (~ 15.2 cents) nickel\n* 2 francs (~ 30.5 cents) nickel\n* 5 francs (~ 76 cents) nickel-clad copper-nickel\n* 10 francs (~ \u20ac1.52) bimetallic\n* 20 francs (~ \u20ac3.05) trimetallic, rarer (produced for a short period before the euro, the banknote equivalent was much more frequently used)\n* 100 francs (~ \u20ac15.24) silver, rarely circulated (most often bought and offered as personal gifts, but rare in commercial transactions, now worth more than its face value)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "Some of the older coins have considerable collector's value, especially the rarer batches of the 5 franc coin."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1929, silver coins were reintroduced in 10-franc and 20-franc denominations. A very rare gold 100-franc coin was minted between 1929 and 1936."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The value of the French franc was locked to the euro at 1 euro = 6.55957 FRF on 31 December 1998, and after the introduction of the euro notes and coins, ceased to be legal tender after 28 February 2002, although they were still exchangeable at banks until 19 February 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Hebrides franc",
        "text": "In 1949, the CFP franc's relationship to the French franc stabilized at 5.5 French francs = 1 CFP franc. From 1959, the exchange rate to the Australian pound was almost exactly 200 francs = 1 pound. This rate became 100 francs = 1 Australian dollar in 1966 when the dollar was introduced. The Australian dollar circulated alongside the local currency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The 5 francs coin of 1850 was modelled on the French 5 franc coin of 1795, which saw wide circulation in western Switzerland. The old Swiss franc of the Helvetic Republic was also known as \"livre suisse\" (\"Swiss pound\"), and the colloquial name \"\" of the 5 franc coin retains the denomination \"livre\" \"pound\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Swiss franc",
        "text": "In 1798, the Helvetic Republic introduced the \"franc\" or \"frank\", modelled on the Bern livre worth the \u00e9cu, subdivided into 10 \"batzen\" or 100 \"rappen (centimes)\". It contained grams of fine silver and was initially worth livres tournois or 1.48 French francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The events of the Second World War also affected the coinage substantially. In 1941, aluminium replaced aluminium-bronze in the 50 centimes, and 1, 2, and 5 francs as copper and nickel were diverted into the War Effort. In 1942, following German occupation and the installation of the French Vichy State, a new, short lived series of coins was released which included holed 10 and 20 centimes in zinc. 50 centimes, and 1 and 2 francs were aluminium. In 1944 this series was discontinued and withdrawn and the previous issue was resumed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The franc was originally a French gold coin of 3.87\u00a0g minted in 1360 on the occasion of the release of King John II (\"the Good\"), held by the English since his capture at the Battle of Poitiers four years earlier. It was equivalent to one \"livre tournois\" (Tours pound)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belgian franc",
        "text": "The notes taken out of circulation in 2002 were"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The first franc paper money issues were made in 1795. They were assignats in denominations between 100 and 10,000 francs. These followed in 1796 by \"territorial mandate promises\" for 25 up to 500 francs. The treasury also issued notes that year for 25 up to 1000 francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guinean franc",
        "text": "In 1971, the franc was replaced by syli at a rate of 1 syli = 10 francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The French franc was originally a gold coin issued in France from 1360 until 1380, then a silver coin issued between 1575 and 1641. The franc finally became the national currency from 1795 until 1999 (franc coins and notes were legal tender until 2002). Though abolished as a legal coin by King Louis XIII in 1641 in favor of the gold louis and silver \u00e9cu, the term franc continued to be used in common parlance for the livre tournois. The franc was also minted for many of the former French colonies, such as Morocco, Algeria, French West Africa, and others. Today, after independence, many of these countries continue to use the franc as their standard denomination."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1361 the gros tournois of 15 deniers Tournois (1 sol Parisis) was minted at 84 to a French Mark of silver, 23/24 fine (hence, 2.79 g fine silver in a gros). At the same time gold flowing from Southern Europe started to become an important medium of exchange in the North, so gold francs worth 1 livre Tournois (16 sols Parisis) were minted at 63 to a French Mark of fine gold (hence, 3.885 g in a franc). Gold as circulating currency would henceforth continue in the form of \u00c9cu d\u2019ors of varying gold content."
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u00e9union franc",
        "text": "The French franc circulated on R\u00e9union alone (except for a single coin issue) until 1874, when distinct issues of currency commenced. Initially, notes of the Banque de la R\u00e9union and the Colonial Treasury circulated alongside French currency. In 1896, coins were issued, followed by bank tokens in 1920. In 1945, the CFA franc was created and was adopted in R\u00e9union, with distinct coins introduced in 1948. Although R\u00e9union's paper money was stamped with the equivalent value in new francs from 1960, the new franc did not replace the R\u00e9union franc until 1975, when French currency replaced R\u00e9union's at a rate of 1 French (new) franc = 50 R\u00e9union (CFA) francs.\n* 1779/80 - 3 sols \"Isles de France et de Bourbon\"\n* 1781 - 3 sous \"Isles de France et de Bourbon\"\n* 1816, billon 10 centimes were struck in the name of the Isle de Bourbon (as R\u00e9union was then known). In 1896, cupro-nickel 50 centimes and 1 franc coins were issued.\n* 1920, aluminium 5, 10 and 25 centime bank tokens were issued, which circulated until 1941.\n* 1948, aluminium 1 and 2 francs coins were introduced\n* 1955 aluminium 5 francs and aluminium-bronze 10 and 20 francs.\n* 1962 and 1964 Nickel 50 and 100 francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "A separate (franc CFP) circulates in France's Pacific territories, worth \u20ac0.0084 (formerly 0.055 French franc)."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFA franc",
        "text": "The 1960 and 1999 events were changes in the currency in use in France: the relative value of the CFA franc versus the French franc/euro changed in 1948 and 1994."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFA franc",
        "text": "Exchange rate:\n* 26 December 1945 to 16 October 1948 \u2013 1 CFA franc = 1.70 FRF (FRF = French franc). This 0.70 FRF premium is the consequence of the creation of the CFA franc, which spared the French African colonies the devaluation of December 1945 (before December 1945, 1 local franc in these colonies was worth 1 French franc).\n* 17 October 1948 to 31 December 1959 \u2013 1 CFA franc = 2.00 FRF (the CFA franc had followed the French franc's devaluation versus the US dollar in January 1948, but on 18 October 1948, the French franc devalued again and this time the CFA franc was revalued against the French franc to offset almost all of this new devaluation of the French franc; after October 1948, the CFA was never revalued again versus the French franc and followed all the successive devaluations of the French franc)\n* 1 January 1960 to 11 January 1994 \u2013 1 CFA franc = 0.02 FRF (1 January 1960: the French franc redenominated, with 100 \"old\" francs becoming 1 \"new\" franc)\n* 12 January 1994 to 31 December 1998 \u2013 1 CFA franc = 0.01 FRF. An overnight 50% devaluation.\n* 1 January 1999 onwards \u2013 100 CFA franc = 0.152449 euro or 1 euro = 655.957 CFA franc. (1 January 1999: euro replaced FRF at the rate of 6.55957 FRF for 1 euro)"
      },
      {
        "title": "CFP franc",
        "text": "The 1960 and 1999 events are merely changes in the currency in use in France; the relative value of the CFP franc (XPF) vs. the French franc / euro is unchanged since 1949."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The design of the original 1850 coins was due to"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of people on banknotes that are no longer in circulation",
        "text": "Currency: Franc (Fr., 1850\u2013Present)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "In 1931, the 5 francs coin was reduced from 25 to 15 grams, and debased from 90% to 83.5%, for a fine silver content of 12.5 grams in the coins of 1931\u20131967 (compared to 22.5 grams in the coins of 1850\u20131928)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In August 1795, the Monetary Law replaced the \"livre\" (\"pound\") with the \"franc\", which was divided into 10 \"d\u00e9cimes\" (\"tenths\") and 100 \"centimes\" (\"hundredths\"). Copper coins were issued in the denominations of 1 centime, 5 centimes, 1 d\u00e9cime, and 2 d\u00e9cimes, designed by Augustin Dupr\u00e9. After 1801, French copper coins became rare."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The 1 and 2 centimes coins were retired from circulation in 2007 and 1978, respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The \u00bd, 1, 2 and 5 francs coins were silver, from 1968 Cupronickel. The pre-1969 coins were taken out of circulation in 1971.\n;\u00bd francs"
      },
      {
        "title": "Postage stamp demonetization",
        "text": "Most French Franc stamps are still valid for postage, within France, at a rate of 6.56 new French Francs = \u20ac1 for post-1960 stamps and at a multiplier rate of 100 for pre-1960 stamps. A few stamps have been demonitised."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint Pierre and Miquelon franc",
        "text": "From 1960, notes were issued overprinted with the value in new francs. These were in denominations of 1, 2, 10, 20 and 100 new francs, overprinted on 50, 100, 500, 1000 and 5000 francs notes. It was subdivided into 100 \"centimes\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comorian franc",
        "text": "The overstamped notes circulated until 1976, when 500, 1000 and 5000 francs were introduced by the Institut d'\u00c9mission des Comores, the 50 and 100 franc notes being replaced by coins. The central Bank took over production of paper money in 1984. 2500 and 10,000 franc notes were introduced in 1997, followed by 2000 francs in 2005. The 2,500-franc note was demonetized on 31 January 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Camerounian franc",
        "text": "French Camerounian franc\n--History.\n--Coins.\n--Banknotes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Banknotes of the series current at changeover to the Euro could be exchanged at the French central bank or other services until 17 February 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "All French franc coins were demonetized in 2005 and are no longer redeemable at the ."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Only one further major devaluation occurred (11% in August 1969) before the Bretton Woods system was replaced by free-floating exchange rates. When the Euro replaced the franc on 1 January 1999, the franc was worth less than an eighth of its original 1960 purchasing power."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comorian franc",
        "text": "In 1950, the French government took over majority ownership of the Banque de Madagascar et des Comores. On 1 January 1960, the French franc was revalued, with 100 old francs becoming 1 new franc. (D\u00e9cret n\u00b059-1450 du 22 d\u00e9cembre 1959) The new exchange rate was 1 Madagascar-Comores CFA franc = 0.02 French francs (50 Madagascar-Comores CFA francs = 1 French franc)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaud franc",
        "text": "The Frank was the currency of the Helvetian Republic from 1798. The Helvetian Republic ceased issuing coins in 1803. Vaud issued coins between 1804 and 1834. In 1850, the Swiss franc was introduced, with an exchange rate of 1 Vaud franc = 1.4597 Swiss francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The federal law establishing the new currency was passed on 7 May 1850. For practical reasons, the Swiss franc was initially created as having parity with the French franc of the day (introduced 1795), with 1 franc equivalent to 5 grams of silver at 90% purity. The official exchange rate with the cantonal \"concordate\" currency was seven \"Batzen\" to one franc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The extremely rare 2 francs coin of 1857, produced in a trial run of 622 pieces, is sold for upward of CHF 15,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Nickel 25-centime coins were introduced in 1903."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "A new bronze coinage was introduced from 1848. The Second Republic Monetary Authority minted a 1-centime copper coin with a 1795 design. 2, 5 and 10-centime coins were issued from 1853. The quarter franc was discontinued, with silver 20-centime coins issued between 1849 and 1868 as the smallest silver coin produced in France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guinean franc",
        "text": "Historical:"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Caledonian franc",
        "text": "In 1949, aluminium 50 centimes, 1 and 2 francs were introduced, followed by aluminium 5 francs in 1952. The 50 centimes was only issued in 1949. In 1967, nickel 10, 20 and 50 francs were introduced, followed by nickel-bronze 100 francs in 1976."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "Before the introduction of the euro in 1999, francs were also used in France, Belgium and Luxembourg, while Andorra and Monaco accepted the French franc as legal tender (Monegasque franc). The franc was also used within the French Empire's colonies, including Algeria and Cambodia. The franc is sometimes Italianised or Hispanicised as the \"franco\", for instance in Luccan franco."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The 5-franc silver coin was called an \"\u00e9cu\", after the six-livre silver coin of the \"ancien regime\", until the 1880s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "With the devaluation of 1936, the gold value of the 20 franc coin rose to 28 francs. In spite of this, production of the 20 francs coin continued until 1949, and the coin has never been officially retired from circulation, even though its gold value has now risen far beyond its nominal value of 20 francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Name of France",
        "text": "The name of the former French currency, the franc, comes from the words engraved on the coins of the Frankish King, \"Rex Francorum\", meaning \"King of the Franks\" or \"Roi des Francs\" in French."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFP franc",
        "text": "Starting 1 September 2021, a new set of coins were issued, common to all 3 French Pacific Territories. 1 Franc & 2 Francs coins will disappear and a brand new 200 Francs coin will be available."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "All franc coins and banknotes ceased to be legal tender in January 2002, upon the official adoption of the Euro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The 2 francs coin of 1850/1857 was 10.0g of 90% silver; obv: seated Helvetia (by Friedrich Fisch), rev: \"2 Fr.\" in a wreath. 1860: 80% silver, obv: a Swiss cross in a circle of stars, rev: legend \"2 FRANCS\" in a wreath. 1860\u20131863: return to the seated Helvetia motif. From 1874: standing Helvetia (by Albert Walch). 1874\u20131967: 83.5% silver, from 1968: Cu-Ni (8.8g)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Swiss franc",
        "text": "A high-level summary of existing currencies at the end of the 18th century is shown below, including their equivalents in terms of the French \u00e9cu of 26.67\u00a0g fine silver, the South German kronenthaler of 25.71\u00a0g fine silver, and Swiss francs of 4.5\u00a0g fine silver."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decimalisation",
        "text": "France introduced the franc in 1795 to replace the livre tournois, abolished during the French Revolution. France introduced decimalisation in a number of countries that it invaded during the Napoleonic period."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Henry III exploited the association of the franc as sound money worth one livre tournois when he sought to stabilize French currency in 1577. By this time, inflows of gold and silver from Spanish America had caused inflation throughout the world economy and the kings of France, who weren't getting much of this wealth, only made things worse by manipulating the values assigned to their coins. The States General which met at Blois in 1577 added to the public pressure to stop currency manipulation. Henry III agreed to do this and he revived the franc, now as a silver coin valued at one livre tournois. This coin and its fractions circulated until 1641 when Louis XIII of France replaced it with the silver \u00e9cu. Nevertheless, the name \"franc\" continued in accounting as a synonym for the \"livre tournois\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Guianan franc",
        "text": "In 1961, 100, 500, 1000 and 5000 francs notes were overstamped with their values in \"nouveax francs\" (new francs): 1, 5, 10 and 50 nouveax francs. The same year, a new series of notes was introduced with the names of French Guiana, Guadeloupe and Martinique on them. In 1963, the \"Institut d'Emission des D\u00e9partements d'Outre-Mer\" (Institute for Emissions in the Overseas Departments) took over paper money production in the three departments, issuing 10 and 50 nouveax francs notes. These were followed in 1964 by notes for 5, 10, 50 and 100 francs, the word nouveaux having been dropped."
      },
      {
        "title": "1920 in France",
        "text": "The financial situation in France gave occasion for most serious anxiety. Among other unfavourable features, the exchange value of the franc had fallen greatly since the end of the war, and, with fluctuations, stood at about 60 francs to the pound sterling during most of the year; and the value of the franc in terms of the American dollar was even lower."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "Two additional gold coins, with nominal values of 25 and 50 francs, were planned in the 1950s."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "World War I and the aftermath brought substantial changes to the coinage. Gold coinage was suspended and the franc was debased. Smaller, holed 5, 10, and 25-centime coins minted in nickel or cupro-nickel were introduced in 1914, finally replacing copper in 1921. In 1920, 1 and 2-centime coins were discontinued and production of silver coinage ceased, with aluminium-bronze 50-centime, 1-franc, and 2-franc coins introduced. Until 1929, these coins were issued by the chambers of commerce, bearing the phrase \"bon pour\" on it (meaning: \"good for\"). At the beginning of the 1920s, chambers of commerce also issued small change coins in aluminium. In 1929, the original \"franc germinal\" of 1795 was replaced by the \"franc Poincar\u00e9\", which was valued at 20% of the 1803 gold standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "Franc\n--Origins.\n--French franc.\n--CFA and CFP francs.\n--Comorian franc.\n--Belgian franc and Luxembourgish franc.\n--Swiss franc and Liechtenstein franc.\n--Saar franc.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The original 5 francs coin of 1850/1851, 1855, and 1873/1874 was 25.0 grams of 90% silver."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belgian franc",
        "text": "Between 1835 and 1841, notes were issued by the , the , the , the , the and the in denominations which included 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, 100, 250, 500 and 1000 francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The 16th century saw the issuance of larger silver coins, first in testoons (9 g fine silver, valued at 11 sols Tournois in 1549), and later on in silver francs (12.3 g fine silver, valued at 1 Livre Tournois in 1577). These French coins, however, were much less popular than the 1-ounce silver coins coming out of Spain, the Netherlands & Germany, leading to the 1641 currency reform under King Louis XIII."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFP franc",
        "text": "CFP franc\n--History.\n----1945\u20131949.\n----1949\u20131985.\n----Since 1985.\n----Historical exchange rates.\n--Coins.\n--Banknotes.\n--T\u0101r\u0101.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Central African CFA franc",
        "text": "In 1948, coins were issued for use in all the colonies (not including French Cameroun) in denominations of 1 and 2 francs. This was the last issue of a 2-franc coin for nearly 50 years. In 1958, 5, 10, and 25 franc coins were added, which were also used in French Cameroun. These bore the name \"Cameroun\" in addition to \"\u00c9tats de l'Afrique Equatoriale\". In 1961, nickel 50-franc coins were introduced, followed by nickel 100-franc pieces in 1966."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did 2 centuries of inflation lead to with regards to the franc?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It caused the franc to be redenominated in 1960, each new franc was worth 100 old francs."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Were there two francs in circulation for a time, the new franc old?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Old one- and two-franc coins continued to circulate as new centimes (no new centimes were minted for the first two years)."
    ],
    "topic": "French franc",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "French franc:35",
        "passage_titles": [
          "French franc",
          "History",
          "New franc"
        ],
        "ctx": "In January 1960 the French franc was revalued, with 100 existing francs making one \"nouveau franc\"."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In the 1960s, 1 and 2 (old) franc aluminium coins were still circulating, used as \"centimes\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "After revaluation and the introduction of the new franc, many French people continued to use the term \"old francs\" (\"anciens francs\") for large sums, for example for the prices of houses, apartments, and cars. This was common until the introduction of the euro and even later. Many people, old and young \u2013 even those who had never used the old franc \u2013 still quoted prices in old francs, confusing tourists and people abroad. For example, lottery prizes were most often advertised in amounts of centimes, equivalent to the old franc, to inflate the perceived value of the prizes at stake. Multiples of 10NF were occasionally referred to as \"mille francs\" (thousand francs) or \"mille balles\" (\"balle\" being a slang word for franc) in contexts where it was clear that the speaker did not mean 1,000 new francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The abbreviation \"NF\" was used on the 1958 design banknotes until 1963. Old one- and two-franc coins continued to circulate as new centimes (no new centimes were minted for the first two years). The one-centime coin never circulated widely."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1960, the new franc (\"\") was introduced, worth 100 old francs. Stainless steel 1 and 5 centimes, aluminium-bronze 10, 20, and 50 centimes, nickel 1 franc and silver 5 francs were introduced. Silver 10-franc coins were introduced in 1965, followed by a new, smaller aluminium-bronze 5-centime and a smaller nickel -franc coin in 1966."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1959, banknotes in circulation when the old franc was replaced by the new franc were:\n*500 francs: Victor Hugo\n*1000 francs: Cardinal de Richelieu\n*5000 francs: Henri IV\n*10,000 francs: Bonaparte 1st consul"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The franc (; ; sign: F or Fr), also commonly distinguished as the (FF), was a currency of France. Between 1360 and 1641, it was the name of coins worth 1 livre tournois and it remained in common parlance as a term for this amount of money. It was reintroduced (in decimal form) in 1795. After two centuries of inflation, it was redenominated in 1960, with each (NF) being worth 100\u00a0old francs. The NF designation was continued for a few years before the currency returned to being simply the franc. Many French residents, though, continued to quote prices of especially expensive items in terms of the old franc (equivalent to the new centime), up to and even after the introduction of the euro (for coins and banknotes) in 2002. The French franc was a commonly held international reserve currency of reference in the 19th and 20th centuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In January 1960 the French franc was revalued, with 100 existing francs making one \"nouveau franc\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The French franc was originally a gold coin issued in France from 1360 until 1380, then a silver coin issued between 1575 and 1641. The franc finally became the national currency from 1795 until 1999 (franc coins and notes were legal tender until 2002). Though abolished as a legal coin by King Louis XIII in 1641 in favor of the gold louis and silver \u00e9cu, the term franc continued to be used in common parlance for the livre tournois. The franc was also minted for many of the former French colonies, such as Morocco, Algeria, French West Africa, and others. Today, after independence, many of these countries continue to use the franc as their standard denomination."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The expression \"heavy franc\" (\"franc lourd\") was also commonly used to designate the new franc."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The first issue of the new franc consisted of 500, 1000, 5000 and 10,000-franc notes overprinted with their new denominations of 5, 10, 50 and 100 new francs. This issue was followed by notes of the same design but with only the new denomination shown. A 500-new franc note was also introduced in 1960 representing Moli\u00e8re, replaced in 1969 by the yellow Pascal type (colloquially called a \"pascal\"). A 5-franc note was issued until 1970 and a 10-franc note (showing Hector Berlioz) was issued until 1979."
      },
      {
        "title": "Swiss franc",
        "text": "The 10 centime coins from 1879 onwards (except the years 1918\u201319 and 1932\u20131939) have had the same composition, size, and design to present and are still legal tender and found in circulation. For this, the coin entered the Guinness Book of Records as the oldest original currency in circulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "As during the \"Mississippi Bubble\" in 1715\u20131720, too many assignats were put in circulation, exceeding the value of the \"national properties\", and the coins, due also to military requisitioning and hoarding, rarefied to pay foreign suppliers. With national government debt remaining unpaid, and a shortage of silver and brass to mint coins, confidence in the new currency declined, leading to hyperinflation, more food riots, severe political instability and termination of the First French Republic and the political fall of the French Convention. Then followed the economic failure of the Directoire: coins were still very rare. After a \"coup d'\u00e9tat\" that led to the Consulate, the First Consul progressively acquired sole legislative power at the expense of the other unstable and discredited consultative and legislative institutions."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Copper coins were rarely issued between 1801 and 1848, so the quarter franc was the lowest current denomination in circulation. But during this period, copper coins from earlier periods circulated. A Napoleon 5-centime coin (in bell metal) and Napoleon and Restoration 1-d\u00e9cime coins were minted."
      },
      {
        "title": "French livre",
        "text": "Today and after two centuries of using the franc, France uses the euro as its currency."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Most older series were exchangeable for 10 years from date of withdrawal. As the last banknote from the previous series had been withdrawn on 31 March 1998 (200 francs, Montesquieu), the deadline for the exchange was 31 March 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Coins were freely exchangeable until 17 February 2005 at Banque de France only (commercial banks were not required to accept the old coins after the transition period in 2002, but some did), by converting their total value in francs to euros (rounded to the nearest cent) at the fixed rate of 6.55957 francs for 1 euro. Banknotes remained convertible up until 17 February 2012. By that date, franc notes worth some \u20ac550 million remained unexchanged, allowing the French state to register the corresponding sum as revenue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "Since 2004 the pure nickel 20 centime coins of the years 1881\u20131938 have been withdrawn from circulation because machines cannot detect them. Today, all the coins except the 5 centime coin (aluminium-bronze since 1981) are in a copper-nickel (cupronickel) alloy. Seven coins are currently in circulation:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Central African CFA franc",
        "text": "In 1948, coins were issued for use in all the colonies (not including French Cameroun) in denominations of 1 and 2 francs. This was the last issue of a 2-franc coin for nearly 50 years. In 1958, 5, 10, and 25 franc coins were added, which were also used in French Cameroun. These bore the name \"Cameroun\" in addition to \"\u00c9tats de l'Afrique Equatoriale\". In 1961, nickel 50-franc coins were introduced, followed by nickel 100-franc pieces in 1966."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Banknotes in circulation when the franc was replaced were:\n* 20 francs (\u20ac3.05): Claude Achille Debussy-brown-purple (introduced 1983)\n* 50 francs (\u20ac7.62): Antoine de Saint-Exup\u00e9ry\u2014blue (introduced 20 October 1993, replacing Maurice Quentin de la Tour)\n* 100 francs (\u20ac15.24): Paul C\u00e9zanne\u2014orange (introduced 15 December 1997, replacing Eug\u00e8ne Delacroix)\n* 200 francs (\u20ac30.49): Gustave Eiffel\u2014red (introduced 29 October 1996, replacing Montesquieu)\n* 500 francs (\u20ac76.22): Pierre and Marie Curie\u2014green (introduced 22 March 1995, replacing Blaise Pascal)"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Following the war, rapid inflation caused denominations below 1 franc to be withdrawn from circulation while 10 francs in copper nickel were introduced, followed by reduced size 10-franc coins in aluminium-bronze in 1950, along with 20 and 50-franc coins of the same composition. In 1954, copper-nickel 100 francs were introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The events of the Second World War also affected the coinage substantially. In 1941, aluminium replaced aluminium-bronze in the 50 centimes, and 1, 2, and 5 francs as copper and nickel were diverted into the War Effort. In 1942, following German occupation and the installation of the French Vichy State, a new, short lived series of coins was released which included holed 10 and 20 centimes in zinc. 50 centimes, and 1 and 2 francs were aluminium. In 1944 this series was discontinued and withdrawn and the previous issue was resumed."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Despite base-metal 5, 10 & 20\u00a0F coins being introduced between 1929 and 1933, the banknotes were not removed. In 1938, first 5000-franc notes were added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Postage stamp demonetization",
        "text": "Most French Franc stamps are still valid for postage, within France, at a rate of 6.56 new French Francs = \u20ac1 for post-1960 stamps and at a multiplier rate of 100 for pre-1960 stamps. A few stamps have been demonitised."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The circulation of this metallic currency declined during the Republic: the old gold and silver coins were taken out of circulation and exchanged for printed assignats, initially issued as bonds backed by the value of the confiscated goods of churches, but later declared as legal tender currency. The withdrawn gold and silver coins were used to finance the French Revolutionary Wars and to import food, which was in short supply."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "A new bronze coinage was introduced from 1848. The Second Republic Monetary Authority minted a 1-centime copper coin with a 1795 design. 2, 5 and 10-centime coins were issued from 1853. The quarter franc was discontinued, with silver 20-centime coins issued between 1849 and 1868 as the smallest silver coin produced in France."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "All French franc coins were demonetized in 2005 and are no longer redeemable at the ."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "World War I and the aftermath brought substantial changes to the coinage. Gold coinage was suspended and the franc was debased. Smaller, holed 5, 10, and 25-centime coins minted in nickel or cupro-nickel were introduced in 1914, finally replacing copper in 1921. In 1920, 1 and 2-centime coins were discontinued and production of silver coinage ceased, with aluminium-bronze 50-centime, 1-franc, and 2-franc coins introduced. Until 1929, these coins were issued by the chambers of commerce, bearing the phrase \"bon pour\" on it (meaning: \"good for\"). At the beginning of the 1920s, chambers of commerce also issued small change coins in aluminium. In 1929, the original \"franc germinal\" of 1795 was replaced by the \"franc Poincar\u00e9\", which was valued at 20% of the 1803 gold standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Inflation continued to erode the franc's value: between 1950 and 1960, price levels increased 72 per cent (5.7% per year on average); between 1960 and 1970, it increased 51 per cent (4.2%)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belgian franc",
        "text": "Cupro-nickel 25 centime coins replaced the 20 centime in 1964. The 25 centime coins were later discontinued in 1975. Nickel 10 francs depicting King Baudouin were introduced in 1969 (only struck until 1979), followed by nickel-bronze 20 francs in 1980 and nickel 50 francs in 1987, all of which\u2009\u2014\u2009bar the 10 Franc coin\u2009\u2014\u2009replaced the corresponding banknotes. Aluminium-bronze replaced cupro-nickel in the 5 franc in 1986, whilst nickel-plated iron replaced cupro-nickel in the 1 franc in 1988, which was also significantly reduced in size. These changes coincided with a gradual modernization of the general coinage while older issues were gradually pulled from circulation, similar to what took place during the early postwar years. The new designs were also more identifiable to vending machines and the visually impaired. 1994 saw a redesign of all denominations but the 50 centimes, with a uniform design featuring King Albert II replacing the image of Baudouin. This series ceased production after 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The decimal \"franc\" was established as the national currency by the National Convention of Revolutionary France in 1795 as a decimal unit (1 franc = 10 d\u00e9cimes = 100 centimes) of 4.5 g of fine silver. This was slightly less than the livre of 4.505 g, but the franc was set in 1796 at 1.0125 livres (1 livre, 3 deniers), reflecting in part the past minting of sub-standard coins. Silver coins now had their denomination clearly marked as \"5 FRANCS\" and it was made obligatory to quote prices in francs. This ended the ancien r\u00e9gime's practice of striking coins with no stated denomination, such as the Louis d'or, and periodically issuing royal edicts to manipulate their value in terms of money of account, i.e. the Livre tournois. The franc became the official currency of France in 1799."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The gold coinage also changed. 40-franc coins were last struck in 1839 (with just 23 coins minted). Several new denomination were introduced as gold coinage: 5 gold francs (1856), 10 gold francs (1850), 50 gold francs (1855), and 100 gold francs (1855). A second design for the 100 gold franc coin was released in 1878 depicting standing genius writing the constitution. The pictured example (1889) was issued as a proof and only 100 coins were struck."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "All franc coins and banknotes ceased to be legal tender in January 2002, upon the official adoption of the Euro."
      },
      {
        "title": "1921 in France",
        "text": "Before the close of January there was a distinct improvement in the value of the franc, which dropped from sixty to fifty-two for the pound sterling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "Like the French franc, the Belgo-Luxemburgish franc ceased to exist on 1 January 1999, when it became fixed at 1\u00a0EUR = 40.3399\u00a0BEF/LUF, thus a franc was worth \u20ac0.024789. Old franc coins and notes lost their legal tender status on 28 February 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Caledonian franc",
        "text": "In 1949, aluminium 50 centimes, 1 and 2 francs were introduced, followed by aluminium 5 francs in 1952. The 50 centimes was only issued in 1949. In 1967, nickel 10, 20 and 50 francs were introduced, followed by nickel-bronze 100 francs in 1976."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1933, a nickel 5-franc coin was minted, but was soon replaced by a large aluminium-bronze 5-franc coin."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFA franc",
        "text": "Exchange rate:\n* 26 December 1945 to 16 October 1948 \u2013 1 CFA franc = 1.70 FRF (FRF = French franc). This 0.70 FRF premium is the consequence of the creation of the CFA franc, which spared the French African colonies the devaluation of December 1945 (before December 1945, 1 local franc in these colonies was worth 1 French franc).\n* 17 October 1948 to 31 December 1959 \u2013 1 CFA franc = 2.00 FRF (the CFA franc had followed the French franc's devaluation versus the US dollar in January 1948, but on 18 October 1948, the French franc devalued again and this time the CFA franc was revalued against the French franc to offset almost all of this new devaluation of the French franc; after October 1948, the CFA was never revalued again versus the French franc and followed all the successive devaluations of the French franc)\n* 1 January 1960 to 11 January 1994 \u2013 1 CFA franc = 0.02 FRF (1 January 1960: the French franc redenominated, with 100 \"old\" francs becoming 1 \"new\" franc)\n* 12 January 1994 to 31 December 1998 \u2013 1 CFA franc = 0.01 FRF. An overnight 50% devaluation.\n* 1 January 1999 onwards \u2013 100 CFA franc = 0.152449 euro or 1 euro = 655.957 CFA franc. (1 January 1999: euro replaced FRF at the rate of 6.55957 FRF for 1 euro)"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "After the Second World War, while 5, 10 and 20-franc notes were replaced by coins in 1950, as were the 50- and 100-franc notes in the mid-1950s. In 1954, the 10,000-franc notes were introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mon\u00e9gasque franc",
        "text": "Today, Mon\u00e9gasque coins have only numismatic value, including the \"fleurs de coins\", or proof-like coins. The period for exchange of the coins for euros has expired."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Hebrides franc",
        "text": "Until World War II, the New Hebrides used the French franc and the British and Australian pounds. In 1941, the Free French forces introduced paper money for circulation on the New Hebrides. In 1945, the CFP franc was introduced to insulate France's Pacific colonies from the devaluation of the French franc and the New Hebrides used a combination of New Caledonian franc coins and locally issued notes."
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u00e9union franc",
        "text": "The French franc circulated on R\u00e9union alone (except for a single coin issue) until 1874, when distinct issues of currency commenced. Initially, notes of the Banque de la R\u00e9union and the Colonial Treasury circulated alongside French currency. In 1896, coins were issued, followed by bank tokens in 1920. In 1945, the CFA franc was created and was adopted in R\u00e9union, with distinct coins introduced in 1948. Although R\u00e9union's paper money was stamped with the equivalent value in new francs from 1960, the new franc did not replace the R\u00e9union franc until 1975, when French currency replaced R\u00e9union's at a rate of 1 French (new) franc = 50 R\u00e9union (CFA) francs.\n* 1779/80 - 3 sols \"Isles de France et de Bourbon\"\n* 1781 - 3 sous \"Isles de France et de Bourbon\"\n* 1816, billon 10 centimes were struck in the name of the Isle de Bourbon (as R\u00e9union was then known). In 1896, cupro-nickel 50 centimes and 1 franc coins were issued.\n* 1920, aluminium 5, 10 and 25 centime bank tokens were issued, which circulated until 1941.\n* 1948, aluminium 1 and 2 francs coins were introduced\n* 1955 aluminium 5 francs and aluminium-bronze 10 and 20 francs.\n* 1962 and 1964 Nickel 50 and 100 francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Swiss franc",
        "text": "The 1 centime coin was still produced until 2006, albeit in ever decreasing quantities, but its importance declined. Those who could justify the use of 1 centime coins for monetary purposes could obtain them at face value; any other user (such as collectors) had to pay an additional four centimes per coin to cover the production costs, which had exceeded the actual face value of the coin for many years. The coin fell into disuse in the late 1970s and early 1980s, but was only officially fully withdrawn from circulation and declared to be no longer legal tender on 1 January 2007. The long-forgotten 2 centime coin, not minted since 1974, was demonetized on 1 January 1978."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Nickel-clad copper-nickel 5-franc and nickel-brass 10-franc coins replaced their silver counterparts in 1970 and 1974, respectively. Nickel 2 francs were finally introduced in 1979, followed by bimetallic 10 francs in 1988 and trimetallic 20 francs in 1992. The 20-franc coin was composed of two rings and a centre plug."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The 1 and 2 centimes coins were retired from circulation in 2007 and 1978, respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1929, silver coins were reintroduced in 10-franc and 20-franc denominations. A very rare gold 100-franc coin was minted between 1929 and 1936."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFP franc",
        "text": "The 1960 and 1999 events are merely changes in the currency in use in France; the relative value of the CFP franc (XPF) vs. the French franc / euro is unchanged since 1949."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Banknotes of the series current at changeover to the Euro could be exchanged at the French central bank or other services until 17 February 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "Before the introduction of the euro in 1999, francs were also used in France, Belgium and Luxembourg, while Andorra and Monaco accepted the French franc as legal tender (Monegasque franc). The franc was also used within the French Empire's colonies, including Algeria and Cambodia. The franc is sometimes Italianised or Hispanicised as the \"franco\", for instance in Luccan franco."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "At the time of the complete changeover to the euro on 1 January 2002, coins in circulation (some produced as recently as 2000) were:\n* 1 centime (~ 0.15 euro cents) stainless steel, rarely circulated (last production stopped first in 1982, then in 1987 due to high production cost, and lack of demand due to its very low value).\n* 5 centimes (~ 0.76 cents) aluminium-bronze\n* 10 centimes (~ 1.52 cents) aluminium-bronze\n* 20 centimes (~ 3.05 cents) aluminium-bronze\n* franc (~ 7.6 cents) nickel\n* 1 franc (~ 15.2 cents) nickel\n* 2 francs (~ 30.5 cents) nickel\n* 5 francs (~ 76 cents) nickel-clad copper-nickel\n* 10 francs (~ \u20ac1.52) bimetallic\n* 20 francs (~ \u20ac3.05) trimetallic, rarer (produced for a short period before the euro, the banknote equivalent was much more frequently used)\n* 100 francs (~ \u20ac15.24) silver, rarely circulated (most often bought and offered as personal gifts, but rare in commercial transactions, now worth more than its face value)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Nickel 25-centime coins were introduced in 1903."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFP franc",
        "text": "Starting 1 September 2021, a new set of coins were issued, common to all 3 French Pacific Territories. 1 Franc & 2 Francs coins will disappear and a brand new 200 Francs coin will be available."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "During the Nazi occupation of France (1940\u201344), the franc was a satellite currency of the German Reichsmark. The exchange rate was 20 francs for 1 RM. The coins were changed, with the words \"Travail, famille, patrie\" (Work, Family, Fatherland) replacing the Republican triad \"Libert\u00e9, \u00e9galit\u00e9, fraternit\u00e9\" (Liberty, Equality, Fraternity), with the emblem of the Vichy regime added."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFA franc",
        "text": "The 1960 and 1999 events were changes in the currency in use in France: the relative value of the CFA franc versus the French franc/euro changed in 1948 and 1994."
      },
      {
        "title": "French sol",
        "text": "In 1795, the livre was officially replaced by the franc and the sou became obsolete as an official currency division. Nevertheless, the term \"\"sou\" survived as a slang term for 1/20 of a franc. Thus the large bronze 5-centime coin was called \"sou\" (for example in Balzac or Victor Hugo), the \"pi\u00e8ce de cent sous\"\" (\"hundred sous coin\") meant five francs and was also called \"\u00e9cu\" (as in Zola's \"Germinal\"). The last 5-centime coin, remote souvenir inherited from the \"franc germinal\", was removed from circulation in the 1940s, but the word \"sou\" keeps being used (except for the 1960 new franc's five-centime coin which was worth five old francs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "In 1918/19, there was experimentation with brass (Cu-Zn) versions of the 5 and 10 centimes coins, but these were again retired in 1924."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The countries that use francs today include Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and most of Francophone Africa. The Swiss franc is a major world currency today due to the prominence of Swiss financial institutions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Congolese franc",
        "text": "The franc was re-established in 1997, replacing the \"new za\u00efre\" at a rate of 1 franc = 100,000 new za\u00efres. This was equivalent to 300 trillion old francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Algerian franc",
        "text": "The franc replaced the budju when France occupied the country. It was equivalent to the French franc and was revalued in 1960 at a rate of 100 old francs = 1 new franc to maintain the equivalence. The new franc was replaced at par by the dinar in 1964 following Algerian independence in 1962."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The value of the French franc was locked to the euro at 1 euro = 6.55957 FRF on 31 December 1998, and after the introduction of the euro notes and coins, ceased to be legal tender after 28 February 2002, although they were still exchangeable at banks until 19 February 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1800, the Bank of France began issuing notes, first in denominations of 500 and 1000 francs. In the late 1840s, 100 and 200-franc notes were added, while 5, 20 and 50 francs were added in the 1860s and 70s, although the 200-franc note was discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Caledonian franc",
        "text": "There are currently seven denominations in circulation. Only the 50 centimes has ceased to circulate. The 1, 2 and 5 francs all feature the national bird, the kagu. The 10 francs features a boat of the indigenous tribes. The 20 francs features the heads of three cattle facing left. The 50 and 100 francs feature the same design. They have a hut of the indigenous peoples, with a palm tree behind it, and three palm leaves surrounding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "Voigt's design for the reverse side, consisting of the coin value in wreaths of grapes, oak leaves and gentian, remains in use in the current coins, while his design of the federal coat of arms on the obverse was replaced in the 1870s."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Caledonian franc",
        "text": "Between 1918 and 1919, the Noum\u00e9a Treasury introduced 50 centime, 1 and 2 franc notes. The Treasury again issued 50 centime, 1 and 2 franc notes in 1942 in the name of the Free French, with 5 and 20 franc notes added in 1943."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The 5-franc silver coin was called an \"\u00e9cu\", after the six-livre silver coin of the \"ancien regime\", until the 1880s."
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u00e9union franc",
        "text": "In 1962, the \"Institut d'\u00c9mission des D\u00e9partements d'Outre-Mer\" took over paper money issue, with notes for 100, 500, 1000 and 500 francs, overprinted with either \"La R\u00e9union\" or \"D\u00e9partement de la R\u00e9union\". In 1960, 500 1000 and 5000 francs notes were issued overprinted with the denomination in new francs (10, 20 and 100 nouveaux francs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u00e9union franc",
        "text": "The franc was the currency of R\u00e9union until 1999. Before 1975, R\u00e9union had its own franc, distinct from that of France. After 1975, the French franc circulated. R\u00e9union now uses the euro. The R\u00e9union franc was subdivided into 100 \"centimes\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "From 1 January 1999, the value exchange rate of the French franc against the Euro was set at a fixed parity of \u20ac1\u00a0=\u00a06.55957 F. Euro coins and notes replaced the franc entirely between 1 January and 17 February 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of people on banknotes that are no longer in circulation",
        "text": "Currency: Franc (Fr., 1850\u2013Present)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Saint Pierre and Miquelon franc",
        "text": "In 1960, Saint Pierre and Miquelon adopted the new franc, with 50 old francs = 1 new franc. Local banknotes were used until 1965, when the islands began using French currency along with Canadian currency. The islands continue to use both French and Canadian currencies, with the euro replacing the franc in 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "During the Consulship period (1799\u20131804) silver francs were struck in decimal coinage. A five-franc coin was first introduced in 1801\u201302 (L\u2019AN 10), half-franc, one-franc, and gold 40-franc coins were introduced in 1802\u201303 (L\u2019AN 11), and quarter-franc and two-franc coins in 1803\u201304 (L\u2019AN 12)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belgian franc",
        "text": "Between 1832 and 1834, copper 1, 2, 5 and 10 centime, silver , , 1, 2 and 5 franc, and gold 20 and 40 franc coins were introduced. Some of the early 1 and 2 centimes were struck over Dutch and 1 cent coins. The 40 franc was not issued after 1841, whilst silver francs and gold 10 and 25 francs were issued between 1848 and 1850. Silver 20 centimes replaced the franc in 1852. In 1860, cupro-nickel 20 centimes were introduced, followed by cupro-nickel 5 and 10 centimes in 1861. The silver 5 franc was discontinued in 1876. Between 1901 and 1908, holed, cupro-nickel 5, 10 and 25 centime coins were introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In August 1795, the Monetary Law replaced the \"livre\" (\"pound\") with the \"franc\", which was divided into 10 \"d\u00e9cimes\" (\"tenths\") and 100 \"centimes\" (\"hundredths\"). Copper coins were issued in the denominations of 1 centime, 5 centimes, 1 d\u00e9cime, and 2 d\u00e9cimes, designed by Augustin Dupr\u00e9. After 1801, French copper coins became rare."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Camerounian franc",
        "text": "In 1924, aluminium-bronze 50 centimes, 1 and 2 francs coins were introduced and were struck until 1926. These were the only coins issued until 1943, when the Free French issued bronze 50 centimes and 1 franc. Aluminium 1 and 2 francs were issued in 1948. (This needs correcting. Camerounian 25 Franc coins exist)"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "A first attempt to introduce a nickel 2-franc coin in 1960 failed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belgian franc",
        "text": "In 1914, production of the 1 centime and all silver and gold coins ceased. Zinc 5, 10 and 25 centimes were introduced in the German occupied zone, followed by holed, zinc 50 centimes in 1918. Production of 2 centimes ended in 1919. In 1922 and 1923, nickel 50 centime and 1 and 2 franc coins were introduced bearing the text \"Good For\" ( in French, in Dutch). These featured the god Mercury. Nickel-brass replaced cupro-nickel in the 5 and 10 centimes in 1930, followed by the 25 centime in 1938. Nickel 5 and 20 francs were introduced in 1930 and 1931, respectively, followed by silver 20 francs in 1933 and 50 francs in 1939. In 1938 the 5 franc was reduced in size and redesigned along with the 1 franc to depict a lion and heraldic arms."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Hebrides franc",
        "text": "In 1949, the CFP franc's relationship to the French franc stabilized at 5.5 French francs = 1 CFP franc. From 1959, the exchange rate to the Australian pound was almost exactly 200 francs = 1 pound. This rate became 100 francs = 1 Australian dollar in 1966 when the dollar was introduced. The Australian dollar circulated alongside the local currency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The 2 and 1 centime coins were taken out of circulation entirely in 1978 and 2007, respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Hebrides franc",
        "text": "In 1966, silver 100 franc coins were introduced. These were followed by nickel 10 and 20 francs in 1967, nickel-brass 1, 2 and 5 francs in 1970 and nickel 50 francs in 1972. Only the nickel coins (10, 20, and 50 francs) were the same size, composition, and obverse as the corresponding French Polynesian and New Caledonian coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decimalisation",
        "text": "France introduced the franc in 1795 to replace the livre tournois, abolished during the French Revolution. France introduced decimalisation in a number of countries that it invaded during the Napoleonic period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "In 1926 Belgium as well as France experienced depreciation and an abrupt collapse of confidence, leading to the introduction of a new gold currency for international transactions, the \"belga\" of 5 francs, and the country's withdrawal from the monetary union, which ceased to exist at the end of the year. The 1921 monetary union of Belgium and Luxembourg survived, however, forming the basis for full economic union in 1932."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The conquest of most of western Europe by Revolutionary and Napoleonic France led to the franc's wide circulation. Following independence from the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the new Kingdom of Belgium in 1832 adopted its own Belgian franc, equivalent to the French one, followed by Luxembourg adopting the Luxembourgish franc in 1848 and Switzerland in 1850. Newly unified Italy adopted the lira on a similar basis in 1862."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The Swiss franc (ISO code: CHF or 756), which appreciated significantly against the new European currency from April to September 2000, remains one of the world's strongest currencies, worth today around five-sixths of a euro. The Swiss franc is used in Switzerland and in Liechtenstein. Liechtenstein retains the ability to mint its own currency, the Liechtenstein franc, which it does from time to time for commemorative or emergency purposes."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the euro",
        "text": "In France, as of 2007 receipts still indicated the value of products in the legacy currency (francs) along with the euro value. In other eurozone countries this had long been considered unnecessary. As of 2008, some small-town merchants in France still accepted franc notes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comorian franc",
        "text": "Until 1975, only French appeared on Comorian coins. Since then, Comorian has also been used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The 5 centimes coin was switched to a yellow-metal (Aluminium bronze) alloy in 1981, and the white-metal (Cupronickel) 5 centimes coins of 1879\u20131980 were retired in 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The 5-centime copper coin was called a \"sou\", referring to \"sole\" (fr. Latin: \"solidus\"), until the 1920s."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Only one further major devaluation occurred (11% in August 1969) before the Bretton Woods system was replaced by free-floating exchange rates. When the Euro replaced the franc on 1 January 1999, the franc was worth less than an eighth of its original 1960 purchasing power."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The batch of coins produced in 1850 and 1851 was insufficient, and the Federal Council had to resort to authorising the circulation of French, Belgian and Italian coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFP franc",
        "text": "On January 6, 2014, the IEOM unveiled designs for a new series of banknotes. The new notes were issued on January 20. The older issues ceased circulation on September 30 of that year, but can be exchanged indefinitely at the Institut d'Emission d'Outre-Mer offices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saar franc",
        "text": "On 16 July 1947, banknotes were issued for Saar denominated in marks, which replaced the German Reichsmark. But in November 1947, the French government reintroduced the French franc as the official currency. Between 20 November 1947 and 15 January 1948, all notes and coins had to be exchanged at a rate of 20 Saar marks = 1 franc. In 1954 the government of the Protectorate issued new coins in denominations of 10, 20, 50 and 100 francs. The coins resembled the coins of the French franc (same metallic composition, size and weight) and were officially and legally not a currency of their own, but only local issues of the French franc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belgian franc",
        "text": "Coins ceased to be convertible in 2004."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belgian franc",
        "text": "As a consequence of the German occupation in 1940, the silver coinage was discontinued. In 1941, zinc replaced all other metals in the 5, 10 and 25 centimes, and 1 and 5 francs. In 1944 the Allies minted 25\u00a0million 2 franc coins at the Philadelphia Mint using leftover planchets for the 1943 steel cent."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Caledonian franc",
        "text": "Between 1914 and 1923, postage stamps were used to make emergency issue currency. The first issues were pieces of cardboard to which stamps were affixed in denominations of 25 and 50 centimes, 1 and 2 francs, with the 50 centime denominations made from either a single 50 centime stamp or a 15 and a 35 centime stamp. The second issue from 1922 consisted of 25 and 50 centime stamps encapsulated in aluminum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The federal law establishing the new currency was passed on 7 May 1850. For practical reasons, the Swiss franc was initially created as having parity with the French franc of the day (introduced 1795), with 1 franc equivalent to 5 grams of silver at 90% purity. The official exchange rate with the cantonal \"concordate\" currency was seven \"Batzen\" to one franc."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "French franc\n--History.\n----Carolingian, 781.\n----Capetian, c 1000.\n----Louis IX, 1266.\n----Late Capetian, 1317.\n----Hundred Years' War, 1361.\n----Lancastrian War, 1425.\n----Louis XI, 1475.\n----Valois-Angoul\u00eame, 1549.\n----Louis XIII 1641.\n----Louis XV, 1726.\n----Louis XVI, 1785.\n----French Revolution.\n----French Empire and Restoration.\n----Latin Monetary Union.\n----World War I.\n----World War II.\n----Post-War period.\n----New franc.\n----Economic and Monetary Union.\n--Coins.\n----Before World War I.\n----World War I.\n----From World War II to the currency reform.\n----New franc.\n----Euro exchange.\n--Banknotes.\n--\"De facto\" currency.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "With the devaluation of 1936, the gold value of the 20 franc coin rose to 28 francs. In spite of this, production of the 20 francs coin continued until 1949, and the coin has never been officially retired from circulation, even though its gold value has now risen far beyond its nominal value of 20 francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "In 1968, the 83.5% silver coins were also replaced by Cupronickel, as the value of the silver in the alloy had exceeded its face value, and the silver coins were taken out of circulation in 1971."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belgian franc",
        "text": "In 1948, cupro-nickel 5 francs and silver 50 and 100 francs were produced, followed by silver 20 francs in 1949 and cupro-nickel 1 franc in 1950. These coins depicted classical allegoric figures. Bronze 20 and 50 centimes featuring a miner and lantern were minted in 1952. Despite the widely varied dates these coins were issued into circulation only a few years apart as part of a broader currency reform. The silver coinage ceased production after 1955."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comorian franc",
        "text": "In 1950, the French government took over majority ownership of the Banque de Madagascar et des Comores. On 1 January 1960, the French franc was revalued, with 100 old francs becoming 1 new franc. (D\u00e9cret n\u00b059-1450 du 22 d\u00e9cembre 1959) The new exchange rate was 1 Madagascar-Comores CFA franc = 0.02 French francs (50 Madagascar-Comores CFA francs = 1 French franc)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mon\u00e9gasque franc",
        "text": "Between 1924 and 1926, aluminium-bronze 50 centimes, 1 and 2 francs were issued of the same size as the French coins. In 1943, aluminium 1 and 2 francs were introduced followed by aluminium-bronze versions in 1945, alongside aluminium 5 francs. In 1946, cupronickel 10 francs were introduced, followed by 20 francs in 1947, a coin to which there was no corresponding French coin. In 1950, aluminium-bronze 10, 20 and 50 francs and cupro-nickel 100 francs were issued, with the size of the 100 francs reduced to match the French coin in 1956."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did 2 centuries of inflation lead to with regards to the franc?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It caused the franc to be redenominated in 1960, each new franc was worth 100 old francs."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Were there two francs in circulation for a time, the new franc old?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Old one- and two-franc coins continued to circulate as new centimes (no new centimes were minted for the first two years)."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is the new franc still used today?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "All franc coins and banknotes ceased to be legal tender in 2002 upon the adoption of the Euro.",
      "All franc coins and banknotes ceased to be legal tender in January 2002, upon the official adoption of the Euro."
    ],
    "topic": "French franc",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "French franc:41",
        "passage_titles": [
          "French franc",
          "History",
          "New franc"
        ],
        "ctx": "All franc coins and banknotes ceased to be legal tender in January 2002, upon the official adoption of the Euro."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "French franc:41",
        "passage_titles": [
          "French franc",
          "History",
          "New franc"
        ],
        "ctx": "All franc coins and banknotes ceased to be legal tender in January 2002, upon the official adoption of the Euro."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Coins were freely exchangeable until 17 February 2005 at Banque de France only (commercial banks were not required to accept the old coins after the transition period in 2002, but some did), by converting their total value in francs to euros (rounded to the nearest cent) at the fixed rate of 6.55957 francs for 1 euro. Banknotes remained convertible up until 17 February 2012. By that date, franc notes worth some \u20ac550 million remained unexchanged, allowing the French state to register the corresponding sum as revenue."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "All franc coins and banknotes ceased to be legal tender in January 2002, upon the official adoption of the Euro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The French franc was originally a gold coin issued in France from 1360 until 1380, then a silver coin issued between 1575 and 1641. The franc finally became the national currency from 1795 until 1999 (franc coins and notes were legal tender until 2002). Though abolished as a legal coin by King Louis XIII in 1641 in favor of the gold louis and silver \u00e9cu, the term franc continued to be used in common parlance for the livre tournois. The franc was also minted for many of the former French colonies, such as Morocco, Algeria, French West Africa, and others. Today, after independence, many of these countries continue to use the franc as their standard denomination."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1960, the new franc (\"\") was introduced, worth 100 old francs. Stainless steel 1 and 5 centimes, aluminium-bronze 10, 20, and 50 centimes, nickel 1 franc and silver 5 francs were introduced. Silver 10-franc coins were introduced in 1965, followed by a new, smaller aluminium-bronze 5-centime and a smaller nickel -franc coin in 1966."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mon\u00e9gasque franc",
        "text": "Today, Mon\u00e9gasque coins have only numismatic value, including the \"fleurs de coins\", or proof-like coins. The period for exchange of the coins for euros has expired."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In the 1960s, 1 and 2 (old) franc aluminium coins were still circulating, used as \"centimes\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "All French franc coins were demonetized in 2005 and are no longer redeemable at the ."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The decimal \"franc\" was established as the national currency by the National Convention of Revolutionary France in 1795 as a decimal unit (1 franc = 10 d\u00e9cimes = 100 centimes) of 4.5 g of fine silver. This was slightly less than the livre of 4.505 g, but the franc was set in 1796 at 1.0125 livres (1 livre, 3 deniers), reflecting in part the past minting of sub-standard coins. Silver coins now had their denomination clearly marked as \"5 FRANCS\" and it was made obligatory to quote prices in francs. This ended the ancien r\u00e9gime's practice of striking coins with no stated denomination, such as the Louis d'or, and periodically issuing royal edicts to manipulate their value in terms of money of account, i.e. the Livre tournois. The franc became the official currency of France in 1799."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Despite base-metal 5, 10 & 20\u00a0F coins being introduced between 1929 and 1933, the banknotes were not removed. In 1938, first 5000-franc notes were added."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The franc (; ; sign: F or Fr), also commonly distinguished as the (FF), was a currency of France. Between 1360 and 1641, it was the name of coins worth 1 livre tournois and it remained in common parlance as a term for this amount of money. It was reintroduced (in decimal form) in 1795. After two centuries of inflation, it was redenominated in 1960, with each (NF) being worth 100\u00a0old francs. The NF designation was continued for a few years before the currency returned to being simply the franc. Many French residents, though, continued to quote prices of especially expensive items in terms of the old franc (equivalent to the new centime), up to and even after the introduction of the euro (for coins and banknotes) in 2002. The French franc was a commonly held international reserve currency of reference in the 19th and 20th centuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The value of the French franc was locked to the euro at 1 euro = 6.55957 FRF on 31 December 1998, and after the introduction of the euro notes and coins, ceased to be legal tender after 28 February 2002, although they were still exchangeable at banks until 19 February 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "World War I and the aftermath brought substantial changes to the coinage. Gold coinage was suspended and the franc was debased. Smaller, holed 5, 10, and 25-centime coins minted in nickel or cupro-nickel were introduced in 1914, finally replacing copper in 1921. In 1920, 1 and 2-centime coins were discontinued and production of silver coinage ceased, with aluminium-bronze 50-centime, 1-franc, and 2-franc coins introduced. Until 1929, these coins were issued by the chambers of commerce, bearing the phrase \"bon pour\" on it (meaning: \"good for\"). At the beginning of the 1920s, chambers of commerce also issued small change coins in aluminium. In 1929, the original \"franc germinal\" of 1795 was replaced by the \"franc Poincar\u00e9\", which was valued at 20% of the 1803 gold standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Banknotes of the series current at changeover to the Euro could be exchanged at the French central bank or other services until 17 February 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The circulation of this metallic currency declined during the Republic: the old gold and silver coins were taken out of circulation and exchanged for printed assignats, initially issued as bonds backed by the value of the confiscated goods of churches, but later declared as legal tender currency. The withdrawn gold and silver coins were used to finance the French Revolutionary Wars and to import food, which was in short supply."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "At the time of the complete changeover to the euro on 1 January 2002, coins in circulation (some produced as recently as 2000) were:\n* 1 centime (~ 0.15 euro cents) stainless steel, rarely circulated (last production stopped first in 1982, then in 1987 due to high production cost, and lack of demand due to its very low value).\n* 5 centimes (~ 0.76 cents) aluminium-bronze\n* 10 centimes (~ 1.52 cents) aluminium-bronze\n* 20 centimes (~ 3.05 cents) aluminium-bronze\n* franc (~ 7.6 cents) nickel\n* 1 franc (~ 15.2 cents) nickel\n* 2 francs (~ 30.5 cents) nickel\n* 5 francs (~ 76 cents) nickel-clad copper-nickel\n* 10 francs (~ \u20ac1.52) bimetallic\n* 20 francs (~ \u20ac3.05) trimetallic, rarer (produced for a short period before the euro, the banknote equivalent was much more frequently used)\n* 100 francs (~ \u20ac15.24) silver, rarely circulated (most often bought and offered as personal gifts, but rare in commercial transactions, now worth more than its face value)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "Since 2004 the pure nickel 20 centime coins of the years 1881\u20131938 have been withdrawn from circulation because machines cannot detect them. Today, all the coins except the 5 centime coin (aluminium-bronze since 1981) are in a copper-nickel (cupronickel) alloy. Seven coins are currently in circulation:"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1933, a nickel 5-franc coin was minted, but was soon replaced by a large aluminium-bronze 5-franc coin."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Following the war, rapid inflation caused denominations below 1 franc to be withdrawn from circulation while 10 francs in copper nickel were introduced, followed by reduced size 10-franc coins in aluminium-bronze in 1950, along with 20 and 50-franc coins of the same composition. In 1954, copper-nickel 100 francs were introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1959, banknotes in circulation when the old franc was replaced by the new franc were:\n*500 francs: Victor Hugo\n*1000 francs: Cardinal de Richelieu\n*5000 francs: Henri IV\n*10,000 francs: Bonaparte 1st consul"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Nickel-clad copper-nickel 5-franc and nickel-brass 10-franc coins replaced their silver counterparts in 1970 and 1974, respectively. Nickel 2 francs were finally introduced in 1979, followed by bimetallic 10 francs in 1988 and trimetallic 20 francs in 1992. The 20-franc coin was composed of two rings and a centre plug."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The abbreviation \"NF\" was used on the 1958 design banknotes until 1963. Old one- and two-franc coins continued to circulate as new centimes (no new centimes were minted for the first two years). The one-centime coin never circulated widely."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saar franc",
        "text": "All four coins were identical to the official French coins in color, size and weight and only the writing and the picture was different. There were no smaller coins, as the usual French coins (1, 2, 5 francs) were used instead. All French coins were accepted in the protectorate, but the Saar coins were usually not accepted in France except in the bigger cities adjacent to the border."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "As during the \"Mississippi Bubble\" in 1715\u20131720, too many assignats were put in circulation, exceeding the value of the \"national properties\", and the coins, due also to military requisitioning and hoarding, rarefied to pay foreign suppliers. With national government debt remaining unpaid, and a shortage of silver and brass to mint coins, confidence in the new currency declined, leading to hyperinflation, more food riots, severe political instability and termination of the First French Republic and the political fall of the French Convention. Then followed the economic failure of the Directoire: coins were still very rare. After a \"coup d'\u00e9tat\" that led to the Consulate, the First Consul progressively acquired sole legislative power at the expense of the other unstable and discredited consultative and legislative institutions."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Copper coins were rarely issued between 1801 and 1848, so the quarter franc was the lowest current denomination in circulation. But during this period, copper coins from earlier periods circulated. A Napoleon 5-centime coin (in bell metal) and Napoleon and Restoration 1-d\u00e9cime coins were minted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "Like the French franc, the Belgo-Luxemburgish franc ceased to exist on 1 January 1999, when it became fixed at 1\u00a0EUR = 40.3399\u00a0BEF/LUF, thus a franc was worth \u20ac0.024789. Old franc coins and notes lost their legal tender status on 28 February 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "During the Consulship period (1799\u20131804) silver francs were struck in decimal coinage. A five-franc coin was first introduced in 1801\u201302 (L\u2019AN 10), half-franc, one-franc, and gold 40-franc coins were introduced in 1802\u201303 (L\u2019AN 11), and quarter-franc and two-franc coins in 1803\u201304 (L\u2019AN 12)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "After the Second World War, while 5, 10 and 20-franc notes were replaced by coins in 1950, as were the 50- and 100-franc notes in the mid-1950s. In 1954, the 10,000-franc notes were introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "From 1 January 1999, the value exchange rate of the French franc against the Euro was set at a fixed parity of \u20ac1\u00a0=\u00a06.55957 F. Euro coins and notes replaced the franc entirely between 1 January and 17 February 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFP franc",
        "text": "Starting 1 September 2021, a new set of coins were issued, common to all 3 French Pacific Territories. 1 Franc & 2 Francs coins will disappear and a brand new 200 Francs coin will be available."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1929, silver coins were reintroduced in 10-franc and 20-franc denominations. A very rare gold 100-franc coin was minted between 1929 and 1936."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saar franc",
        "text": "On 16 July 1947, banknotes were issued for Saar denominated in marks, which replaced the German Reichsmark. But in November 1947, the French government reintroduced the French franc as the official currency. Between 20 November 1947 and 15 January 1948, all notes and coins had to be exchanged at a rate of 20 Saar marks = 1 franc. In 1954 the government of the Protectorate issued new coins in denominations of 10, 20, 50 and 100 francs. The coins resembled the coins of the French franc (same metallic composition, size and weight) and were officially and legally not a currency of their own, but only local issues of the French franc."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "During the Nazi occupation of France (1940\u201344), the franc was a satellite currency of the German Reichsmark. The exchange rate was 20 francs for 1 RM. The coins were changed, with the words \"Travail, famille, patrie\" (Work, Family, Fatherland) replacing the Republican triad \"Libert\u00e9, \u00e9galit\u00e9, fraternit\u00e9\" (Liberty, Equality, Fraternity), with the emblem of the Vichy regime added."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "A new bronze coinage was introduced from 1848. The Second Republic Monetary Authority minted a 1-centime copper coin with a 1795 design. 2, 5 and 10-centime coins were issued from 1853. The quarter franc was discontinued, with silver 20-centime coins issued between 1849 and 1868 as the smallest silver coin produced in France."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In August 1795, the Monetary Law replaced the \"livre\" (\"pound\") with the \"franc\", which was divided into 10 \"d\u00e9cimes\" (\"tenths\") and 100 \"centimes\" (\"hundredths\"). Copper coins were issued in the denominations of 1 centime, 5 centimes, 1 d\u00e9cime, and 2 d\u00e9cimes, designed by Augustin Dupr\u00e9. After 1801, French copper coins became rare."
      },
      {
        "title": "Swiss franc",
        "text": "In addition to these general-circulation coins, numerous series of commemorative coins have been issued, as well as silver and gold coins. These coins are no longer legal tender, but can in theory be exchanged at face value at post offices, and at national and cantonal banks, although their metal or collectors' value equals or exceeds their face value."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The events of the Second World War also affected the coinage substantially. In 1941, aluminium replaced aluminium-bronze in the 50 centimes, and 1, 2, and 5 francs as copper and nickel were diverted into the War Effort. In 1942, following German occupation and the installation of the French Vichy State, a new, short lived series of coins was released which included holed 10 and 20 centimes in zinc. 50 centimes, and 1 and 2 francs were aluminium. In 1944 this series was discontinued and withdrawn and the previous issue was resumed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "All of these coins are technically legal tender, but are not in actual circulation, as their metal or collector's value will exceed their nominal value."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belgian franc",
        "text": "Unlike coins, banknotes removed from circulation in 2002 (as well as all other banknotes with denominations of at least 100 francs of earlier series issued since 1944, and certain rare banknotes issued prior to 1944) may be exchanged into euros at the National Bank of Belgium for an indefinite period of time."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "A first attempt to introduce a nickel 2-franc coin in 1960 failed."
      },
      {
        "title": "French livre",
        "text": "Today and after two centuries of using the franc, France uses the euro as its currency."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The 5-franc silver coin was called an \"\u00e9cu\", after the six-livre silver coin of the \"ancien regime\", until the 1880s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belgian franc",
        "text": "Coins ceased to be convertible in 2004."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "This coinage included the first modern gold coins with denominations in francs. It abandoned the revolutionary symbols of the coinage 1795, now showing Napoleon in the manner of Roman emperors, first described as \"Bonaparte Premier Consul\" and with the country named as \"R\u00e9publique Fran\u00e7aise\". After his coronation in 1804 coins changed the obverse legend to \"Napoleon Empereur\", dropping his family name in the manner of regnal names. In 1807, the reverse legend changed to name France as \"Empire Fran\u00e7ais\". In analogy with the old Louis d'or these coins were called Gold Napoleons. Economically, this sound money was a great success and Napoleon's fall did not change that. Succeeding governments maintained Napoleon's weight standard, with changes in design which traced the political history of France. In particular, this currency system was retained during the Bourbon Restoration and perpetuated until 1914."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Banknotes in circulation when the franc was replaced were:\n* 20 francs (\u20ac3.05): Claude Achille Debussy-brown-purple (introduced 1983)\n* 50 francs (\u20ac7.62): Antoine de Saint-Exup\u00e9ry\u2014blue (introduced 20 October 1993, replacing Maurice Quentin de la Tour)\n* 100 francs (\u20ac15.24): Paul C\u00e9zanne\u2014orange (introduced 15 December 1997, replacing Eug\u00e8ne Delacroix)\n* 200 francs (\u20ac30.49): Gustave Eiffel\u2014red (introduced 29 October 1996, replacing Montesquieu)\n* 500 francs (\u20ac76.22): Pierre and Marie Curie\u2014green (introduced 22 March 1995, replacing Blaise Pascal)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "These were legal tender at the time, but were removed from circulation along with the regular silver coins in 1971."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central African CFA franc",
        "text": "In 1948, coins were issued for use in all the colonies (not including French Cameroun) in denominations of 1 and 2 francs. This was the last issue of a 2-franc coin for nearly 50 years. In 1958, 5, 10, and 25 franc coins were added, which were also used in French Cameroun. These bore the name \"Cameroun\" in addition to \"\u00c9tats de l'Afrique Equatoriale\". In 1961, nickel 50-franc coins were introduced, followed by nickel 100-franc pieces in 1966."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The gold coinage also changed. 40-franc coins were last struck in 1839 (with just 23 coins minted). Several new denomination were introduced as gold coinage: 5 gold francs (1856), 10 gold francs (1850), 50 gold francs (1855), and 100 gold francs (1855). A second design for the 100 gold franc coin was released in 1878 depicting standing genius writing the constitution. The pictured example (1889) was issued as a proof and only 100 coins were struck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "Before the introduction of the euro in 1999, francs were also used in France, Belgium and Luxembourg, while Andorra and Monaco accepted the French franc as legal tender (Monegasque franc). The franc was also used within the French Empire's colonies, including Algeria and Cambodia. The franc is sometimes Italianised or Hispanicised as the \"franco\", for instance in Luccan franco."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFP franc",
        "text": "In 1949, New Caledonia and what was then called French Oceania (now French Polynesia) began to issue coins. The coins have been separated in two types: the obverses are identical, whilst the reverses are distinct. Both types of coins can be used in all three French territories. The situation of the CFP coins is thus quite similar to that of the euro coins, which have a national side but can be used in all countries of the euro zone."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The 16th century saw the issuance of larger silver coins, first in testoons (9 g fine silver, valued at 11 sols Tournois in 1549), and later on in silver francs (12.3 g fine silver, valued at 1 Livre Tournois in 1577). These French coins, however, were much less popular than the 1-ounce silver coins coming out of Spain, the Netherlands & Germany, leading to the 1641 currency reform under King Louis XIII."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belgian franc",
        "text": "Cupro-nickel 25 centime coins replaced the 20 centime in 1964. The 25 centime coins were later discontinued in 1975. Nickel 10 francs depicting King Baudouin were introduced in 1969 (only struck until 1979), followed by nickel-bronze 20 francs in 1980 and nickel 50 francs in 1987, all of which\u2009\u2014\u2009bar the 10 Franc coin\u2009\u2014\u2009replaced the corresponding banknotes. Aluminium-bronze replaced cupro-nickel in the 5 franc in 1986, whilst nickel-plated iron replaced cupro-nickel in the 1 franc in 1988, which was also significantly reduced in size. These changes coincided with a gradual modernization of the general coinage while older issues were gradually pulled from circulation, similar to what took place during the early postwar years. The new designs were also more identifiable to vending machines and the visually impaired. 1994 saw a redesign of all denominations but the 50 centimes, with a uniform design featuring King Albert II replacing the image of Baudouin. This series ceased production after 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "After revaluation and the introduction of the new franc, many French people continued to use the term \"old francs\" (\"anciens francs\") for large sums, for example for the prices of houses, apartments, and cars. This was common until the introduction of the euro and even later. Many people, old and young \u2013 even those who had never used the old franc \u2013 still quoted prices in old francs, confusing tourists and people abroad. For example, lottery prizes were most often advertised in amounts of centimes, equivalent to the old franc, to inflate the perceived value of the prizes at stake. Multiples of 10NF were occasionally referred to as \"mille francs\" (thousand francs) or \"mille balles\" (\"balle\" being a slang word for franc) in contexts where it was clear that the speaker did not mean 1,000 new francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Nickel 25-centime coins were introduced in 1903."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The franc was originally a French gold coin of 3.87\u00a0g minted in 1360 on the occasion of the release of King John II (\"the Good\"), held by the English since his capture at the Battle of Poitiers four years earlier. It was equivalent to one \"livre tournois\" (Tours pound)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "Voigt's design for the reverse side, consisting of the coin value in wreaths of grapes, oak leaves and gentian, remains in use in the current coins, while his design of the federal coat of arms on the obverse was replaced in the 1870s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "In 1895, the Federal Council decided that the coin should be made with a novel design."
      },
      {
        "title": "Livre tournois",
        "text": "Since coins in Europe in the Middle Ages and the Early modern period (the French \u00e9cu, Louis, teston d'argent, denier, double, franc; the Spanish doubloon, pistole, real; the Italian florin, ducat or sequin; the German and Austrian thaler; the Dutch gulden, etc.) did not have any indication of their value, their official value was determined by royal edicts. In cases of financial need, French kings could use the official value for currency devaluation. This could be done in two ways: (1) the amount of precious metal in a newly minted French coin could be reduced while nevertheless maintaining the old value in livres tournois or (2) the official value of a domestic or foreign coin in circulation could be increased. By reversing these techniques, currencies could be reinforced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "Some of the older coins have considerable collector's value, especially the rarer batches of the 5 franc coin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The batch of coins produced in 1850 and 1851 was insufficient, and the Federal Council had to resort to authorising the circulation of French, Belgian and Italian coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "A nickel 10-franc piece was issued on 22 October 1986, in an attempt to increase usability, reduce counterfeiting, and make it easier for vending machines to recognise. While 120 million were released into circulation, circulation was halted on 26 November due to confusion with the half-franc and an unpopular design. The coin was subsequently withdrawn and on 19 December and became demonetized at the end of June the next year. This led to the conception of the later bimetallic model. The aluminium-bronze pieces continued to circulate until the bimetallic pieces were developed and additional aluminium-bronze coins were minted to replace those initially withdrawn. Once the bimetallic coins were circulating and produced in necessary quantities, the aluminium-bronze pieces were gradually withdrawn and demonetized."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Camerounian franc",
        "text": "French Camerounian franc\n--History.\n--Coins.\n--Banknotes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In January 1960 the French franc was revalued, with 100 existing francs making one \"nouveau franc\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The 5 centimes coin was switched to a yellow-metal (Aluminium bronze) alloy in 1981, and the white-metal (Cupronickel) 5 centimes coins of 1879\u20131980 were retired in 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The first issue of the new franc consisted of 500, 1000, 5000 and 10,000-franc notes overprinted with their new denominations of 5, 10, 50 and 100 new francs. This issue was followed by notes of the same design but with only the new denomination shown. A 500-new franc note was also introduced in 1960 representing Moli\u00e8re, replaced in 1969 by the yellow Pascal type (colloquially called a \"pascal\"). A 5-franc note was issued until 1970 and a 10-franc note (showing Hector Berlioz) was issued until 1979."
      },
      {
        "title": "Swiss franc",
        "text": "The 10 centime coins from 1879 onwards (except the years 1918\u201319 and 1932\u20131939) have had the same composition, size, and design to present and are still legal tender and found in circulation. For this, the coin entered the Guinness Book of Records as the oldest original currency in circulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean Moulin",
        "text": "In 1993, commemorative French 2, 100 and 500 franc coins were issued, showing a partial image of Moulin against the Croix de Lorraine and using a fedora-and-scarf photograph, which is well recognised in France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comorian franc",
        "text": "General circulation Comorian coins have always been minted by the Monnaie de Paris. This is indicated by the cornucopia mint mark on the coins, visible to the left of the date, although this was omitted from the 1994 50 franc piece at the request of the Comorian government. The coins are manufactured at their facility in Pessac, Gironde."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "Commemorative 5 francs coins in Cupronickel were issued in yearly intervals during 1974\u20131990. These remain legal tender, and may occasionally be seen in circulation, as their collector's value does not significantly exceed their face value."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The 5-centime copper coin was called a \"sou\", referring to \"sole\" (fr. Latin: \"solidus\"), until the 1920s."
      },
      {
        "title": "West African CFA franc",
        "text": "From 1959 onward, the overall size and composition of the coins changed little, however \"R\u00e9publique fran\u00e7aise\" and the stylized Marianne bust was dropped from all coins, replaced with the title \"Banque Centrale des \u00c9tats de l'Afrique de l'Ouest\" with the design on the 1, 5, 10, and 25 francs featuring a gazelle's profile, carried over from colonial issues, and a tribal mask between the denomination, which has become the emblem of the West African monetary union. Nickel-Steel 100 franc coins were introduced in 1967, followed by the cupro-nickel 50 franc coins in 1972. These also featured the familiar tribal mask. Small, stainless steel 1 franc coins were introduced in 1976, replacing the larger aluminum 1 franc coins, and were struck until 1995. The 10 and 25 franc coins saw a redesign in 1980, depicting a family using a water pump and a young woman with chemistry tools, respectively. A bimetallic 250 francs was introduced in 1992 to reduce excess change. These coins, however, proved to be unpopular in many regions and were discontinued after 1996. They are however, still legal tender. In 2003, bimetallic 200 and 500 franc coins were introduced, replacing smaller denomination notes. Like all the other West CFA franc coins, these depicted the mask emblem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "1975: \"European Year of Historic Preservation\","
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "In 1931, the 5 francs coin was reduced from 25 to 15 grams, and debased from 90% to 83.5%, for a fine silver content of 12.5 grams in the coins of 1931\u20131967 (compared to 22.5 grams in the coins of 1850\u20131928)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1800, the Bank of France began issuing notes, first in denominations of 500 and 1000 francs. In the late 1840s, 100 and 200-franc notes were added, while 5, 20 and 50 francs were added in the 1860s and 70s, although the 200-franc note was discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u00e9union franc",
        "text": "The French franc circulated on R\u00e9union alone (except for a single coin issue) until 1874, when distinct issues of currency commenced. Initially, notes of the Banque de la R\u00e9union and the Colonial Treasury circulated alongside French currency. In 1896, coins were issued, followed by bank tokens in 1920. In 1945, the CFA franc was created and was adopted in R\u00e9union, with distinct coins introduced in 1948. Although R\u00e9union's paper money was stamped with the equivalent value in new francs from 1960, the new franc did not replace the R\u00e9union franc until 1975, when French currency replaced R\u00e9union's at a rate of 1 French (new) franc = 50 R\u00e9union (CFA) francs.\n* 1779/80 - 3 sols \"Isles de France et de Bourbon\"\n* 1781 - 3 sous \"Isles de France et de Bourbon\"\n* 1816, billon 10 centimes were struck in the name of the Isle de Bourbon (as R\u00e9union was then known). In 1896, cupro-nickel 50 centimes and 1 franc coins were issued.\n* 1920, aluminium 5, 10 and 25 centime bank tokens were issued, which circulated until 1941.\n* 1948, aluminium 1 and 2 francs coins were introduced\n* 1955 aluminium 5 francs and aluminium-bronze 10 and 20 francs.\n* 1962 and 1964 Nickel 50 and 100 francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Postage stamp demonetization",
        "text": "Most French Franc stamps are still valid for postage, within France, at a rate of 6.56 new French Francs = \u20ac1 for post-1960 stamps and at a multiplier rate of 100 for pre-1960 stamps. A few stamps have been demonitised."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The last gold 5-franc pieces were minted in 1869, and silver 5-franc coins were last minted in 1878. After 1815, the 20-franc gold coin was called a \"napol\u00e9on\" (royalists still called this coin a \"louis\"), and so that is the colloquial term for this coin until the present. During the Belle \u00c9poque, the 100-franc gold coin was called a \"monaco\", referring to the flourishing casino business in Monte Carlo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "In 1922, the coin was re-issued. The reason was a substantial loss of silver coins during World War I; many Swiss coins had been melted into bullion in France and Italy, and the Swiss National bank had been authorized to issue temporary 5 francs banknotes. A first competition for the redesign in 1919 received 542 entries by 202 artists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coin wrapper",
        "text": "Currency: French franc"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mon\u00e9gasque franc",
        "text": "When the franc was revalued in 1960, Monaco issued nickel 1 franc and silver 5 franc coins. In 1962, aluminium-bronze 10, 20, and 50 centime coins were added, followed by nickel franc coins in 1965, nickel-clad cupronickel 5 francs in 1971, nickel-brass 10 francs in 1974, stainless steel 1 centime and aluminium-bronze 5 centimes in 1976, bi-metallic 10 francs in 1989, and tri-metallic 20 francs 1992, respectively. All of these coins matched the sizes and compositions of corresponding French coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "With the devaluation of 1936, the gold value of the 20 franc coin rose to 28 francs. In spite of this, production of the 20 francs coin continued until 1949, and the coin has never been officially retired from circulation, even though its gold value has now risen far beyond its nominal value of 20 francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geneva franc",
        "text": "Geneva franc\n--History.\n--Coins.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Name of France",
        "text": "The name of the former French currency, the franc, comes from the words engraved on the coins of the Frankish King, \"Rex Francorum\", meaning \"King of the Franks\" or \"Roi des Francs\" in French."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comorian franc",
        "text": "Until 1975, only French appeared on Comorian coins. Since then, Comorian has also been used."
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u00e9union franc",
        "text": "R\u00e9union franc\n--History.\n--Coins.\n--Banknotes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "French Camerounian franc",
        "text": "In 1924, aluminium-bronze 50 centimes, 1 and 2 francs coins were introduced and were struck until 1926. These were the only coins issued until 1943, when the Free French issued bronze 50 centimes and 1 franc. Aluminium 1 and 2 francs were issued in 1948. (This needs correcting. Camerounian 25 Franc coins exist)"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Most older series were exchangeable for 10 years from date of withdrawal. As the last banknote from the previous series had been withdrawn on 31 March 1998 (200 francs, Montesquieu), the deadline for the exchange was 31 March 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The 1 and 2 centimes coins were retired from circulation in 2007 and 1978, respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "In 1918/19, there was experimentation with brass (Cu-Zn) versions of the 5 and 10 centimes coins, but these were again retired in 1924."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "1974: Constitutional Revision (1874),"
      },
      {
        "title": "Central African CFA franc",
        "text": "2006 saw a redesign of all denominations of coins for the CFA franc, along with the introduction of a 2-franc piece. The 1, 5, 10, and 25 franc coins were reduced in size, while a new bi-metallic 100 franc coin was introduced, along with a new and reduced size 500 franc coin with heightened security features, including laser marking. All newer coins depict the acronym \"CEMAC\" for \"Communaut\u00e9 \u00c9conomique et Mon\u00e9taire de l'Afrique Centrale\". Older sized coins continue to remain legal tender alongside the newly configured coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "the reverse \"5 Fr.\" in a wreath."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In the 17th century King Louis XIII abolished its unpopular coinage of francs & ecus in favour of Spanish-modelled coins. It also abolished the Livre Parisis system in favour of exclusive use of the Livre Tournois. The Spanish dollar was the model for the Louis d\u2019Argent \u2013 9 to a French Mark (244.752 g) of silver, fine (hence 24.93 g fine silver), and valued at 3 livres tournois. The Spanish doubloon or two-escudo coin was the model for the Louis d'Or \u2013 36 to a French Mark of gold, fine (hence 6.189 g fine gold), and valued at 10 livres."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "In 1968, the 83.5% silver coins were also replaced by Cupronickel, as the value of the silver in the alloy had exceeded its face value, and the silver coins were taken out of circulation in 1971."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "After World War II, France devalued its currency within the Bretton Woods system on several occasions. Beginning in 1945 at a rate of 480 francs to the British Pound (119.1 to the U.S. dollar), by 1949 the rate was 980 to the Pound (350 to the Dollar). This was reduced further in 1957 and 1958, reaching 1382.3 to the Pound (493.7 to the Dollar, equivalent to 1 franc = 1.8 mg pure gold)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "In a press release of February 2009, it was made public that all of these coins hat been melted back into bars except for a remainder of 20,000 coins of each type and year (for a total of 120,000 surviving pieces)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The gold franc worth one livre tournois was introduced in 1360 to pay the ransom of King John II of France. This coin secured the king's freedom and showed him on a richly decorated horse earning it the name \"franc \u00e0 cheval\" (meaning \"free on horse\" in French). The obverse legend, like other French coins, gives the king's title as \"Francorum Rex\" (\"King of the Franks\" in Latin) and provides another reason to call the coin a franc. John's son, Charles V, continued this type. It was copied exactly at Brabant and Cambrai and, with the arms on the horse cloth changed, at Flanders. Conquests led by Joan of Arc allowed Charles VII to return to sound coinage and he revived the \"franc \u00e0 cheval\". John II, however, was not able to strike enough francs to pay his ransom and he voluntarily returned to English captivity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jersey livre",
        "text": "Nonetheless, some French coins continued to circulate (increasingly French francs). On 7 February 1923 the States passed a law to ban the import of foreign copper coinage in sums exceeding 20 sous. This law was confirmed by Order in Council on 12 March 1923 and registered in the Royal Court on 7 April 1923. The States then proceeded to take steps to remove French copper coinage from circulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The federal law establishing the new currency was passed on 7 May 1850. For practical reasons, the Swiss franc was initially created as having parity with the French franc of the day (introduced 1795), with 1 franc equivalent to 5 grams of silver at 90% purity. The official exchange rate with the cantonal \"concordate\" currency was seven \"Batzen\" to one franc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belgian franc",
        "text": "Between 1832 and 1834, copper 1, 2, 5 and 10 centime, silver , , 1, 2 and 5 franc, and gold 20 and 40 franc coins were introduced. Some of the early 1 and 2 centimes were struck over Dutch and 1 cent coins. The 40 franc was not issued after 1841, whilst silver francs and gold 10 and 25 francs were issued between 1848 and 1850. Silver 20 centimes replaced the franc in 1852. In 1860, cupro-nickel 20 centimes were introduced, followed by cupro-nickel 5 and 10 centimes in 1861. The silver 5 franc was discontinued in 1876. Between 1901 and 1908, holed, cupro-nickel 5, 10 and 25 centime coins were introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belgian franc",
        "text": "Initially, the currency was monolingual in French. From 1886, some Belgian coins also carried Dutch legends. Some later coins featured inscriptions in both languages. When the two languages appeared on either side of the same face of a coin, two versions were still produced: one with Dutch to the left and French to the right, and one with the alternate arrangement. Banknotes became bilingual in 1887 and, from 1992, banknotes were introduced which were trilingual, with either French or Dutch on the obverse and German and the remaining language on the reverse."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did 2 centuries of inflation lead to with regards to the franc?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It caused the franc to be redenominated in 1960, each new franc was worth 100 old francs."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Were there two francs in circulation for a time, the new franc old?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Old one- and two-franc coins continued to circulate as new centimes (no new centimes were minted for the first two years)."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is the new franc still used today?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "All franc coins and banknotes ceased to be legal tender in 2002 upon the adoption of the Euro."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What can you do with Franc coins today?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "Coins were freely exchangeable until 17 February 2005 at Banque de France only, but I don't have any information on what people do with the Franc coins now."
    ],
    "topic": "French franc",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "French franc:66",
        "passage_titles": [
          "French franc",
          "Coins",
          "Euro exchange"
        ],
        "ctx": "Coins were freely exchangeable until 17 February 2005 at Banque de France only (commercial banks were not required to accept the old coins after the transition period in 2002, but some did), by converting their total value in francs to euros (rounded to the nearest cent) at the fixed rate of 6.55957 francs for 1 euro. Banknotes remained convertible up until 17 February 2012. By that date, franc notes worth some \u20ac550 million remained unexchanged, allowing the French state to register the corresponding sum as revenue."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Coins were freely exchangeable until 17 February 2005 at Banque de France only (commercial banks were not required to accept the old coins after the transition period in 2002, but some did), by converting their total value in francs to euros (rounded to the nearest cent) at the fixed rate of 6.55957 francs for 1 euro. Banknotes remained convertible up until 17 February 2012. By that date, franc notes worth some \u20ac550 million remained unexchanged, allowing the French state to register the corresponding sum as revenue."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "All French franc coins were demonetized in 2005 and are no longer redeemable at the ."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "From 1 January 1999, the value exchange rate of the French franc against the Euro was set at a fixed parity of \u20ac1\u00a0=\u00a06.55957 F. Euro coins and notes replaced the franc entirely between 1 January and 17 February 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Despite base-metal 5, 10 & 20\u00a0F coins being introduced between 1929 and 1933, the banknotes were not removed. In 1938, first 5000-franc notes were added."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "All franc coins and banknotes ceased to be legal tender in January 2002, upon the official adoption of the Euro."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1960, the new franc (\"\") was introduced, worth 100 old francs. Stainless steel 1 and 5 centimes, aluminium-bronze 10, 20, and 50 centimes, nickel 1 franc and silver 5 francs were introduced. Silver 10-franc coins were introduced in 1965, followed by a new, smaller aluminium-bronze 5-centime and a smaller nickel -franc coin in 1966."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The value of the French franc was locked to the euro at 1 euro = 6.55957 FRF on 31 December 1998, and after the introduction of the euro notes and coins, ceased to be legal tender after 28 February 2002, although they were still exchangeable at banks until 19 February 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In the 1960s, 1 and 2 (old) franc aluminium coins were still circulating, used as \"centimes\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Banknotes of the series current at changeover to the Euro could be exchanged at the French central bank or other services until 17 February 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Following the war, rapid inflation caused denominations below 1 franc to be withdrawn from circulation while 10 francs in copper nickel were introduced, followed by reduced size 10-franc coins in aluminium-bronze in 1950, along with 20 and 50-franc coins of the same composition. In 1954, copper-nickel 100 francs were introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "During the Consulship period (1799\u20131804) silver francs were struck in decimal coinage. A five-franc coin was first introduced in 1801\u201302 (L\u2019AN 10), half-franc, one-franc, and gold 40-franc coins were introduced in 1802\u201303 (L\u2019AN 11), and quarter-franc and two-franc coins in 1803\u201304 (L\u2019AN 12)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1933, a nickel 5-franc coin was minted, but was soon replaced by a large aluminium-bronze 5-franc coin."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFP franc",
        "text": "Starting 1 September 2021, a new set of coins were issued, common to all 3 French Pacific Territories. 1 Franc & 2 Francs coins will disappear and a brand new 200 Francs coin will be available."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Most older series were exchangeable for 10 years from date of withdrawal. As the last banknote from the previous series had been withdrawn on 31 March 1998 (200 francs, Montesquieu), the deadline for the exchange was 31 March 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Nickel-clad copper-nickel 5-franc and nickel-brass 10-franc coins replaced their silver counterparts in 1970 and 1974, respectively. Nickel 2 francs were finally introduced in 1979, followed by bimetallic 10 francs in 1988 and trimetallic 20 francs in 1992. The 20-franc coin was composed of two rings and a centre plug."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "After the Second World War, while 5, 10 and 20-franc notes were replaced by coins in 1950, as were the 50- and 100-franc notes in the mid-1950s. In 1954, the 10,000-franc notes were introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "At the time of the complete changeover to the euro on 1 January 2002, coins in circulation (some produced as recently as 2000) were:\n* 1 centime (~ 0.15 euro cents) stainless steel, rarely circulated (last production stopped first in 1982, then in 1987 due to high production cost, and lack of demand due to its very low value).\n* 5 centimes (~ 0.76 cents) aluminium-bronze\n* 10 centimes (~ 1.52 cents) aluminium-bronze\n* 20 centimes (~ 3.05 cents) aluminium-bronze\n* franc (~ 7.6 cents) nickel\n* 1 franc (~ 15.2 cents) nickel\n* 2 francs (~ 30.5 cents) nickel\n* 5 francs (~ 76 cents) nickel-clad copper-nickel\n* 10 francs (~ \u20ac1.52) bimetallic\n* 20 francs (~ \u20ac3.05) trimetallic, rarer (produced for a short period before the euro, the banknote equivalent was much more frequently used)\n* 100 francs (~ \u20ac15.24) silver, rarely circulated (most often bought and offered as personal gifts, but rare in commercial transactions, now worth more than its face value)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1929, silver coins were reintroduced in 10-franc and 20-franc denominations. A very rare gold 100-franc coin was minted between 1929 and 1936."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "In a press release of February 2009, it was made public that all of these coins hat been melted back into bars except for a remainder of 20,000 coins of each type and year (for a total of 120,000 surviving pieces)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "A first attempt to introduce a nickel 2-franc coin in 1960 failed."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Copper coins were rarely issued between 1801 and 1848, so the quarter franc was the lowest current denomination in circulation. But during this period, copper coins from earlier periods circulated. A Napoleon 5-centime coin (in bell metal) and Napoleon and Restoration 1-d\u00e9cime coins were minted."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1959, banknotes in circulation when the old franc was replaced by the new franc were:\n*500 francs: Victor Hugo\n*1000 francs: Cardinal de Richelieu\n*5000 francs: Henri IV\n*10,000 francs: Bonaparte 1st consul"
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The French franc was originally a gold coin issued in France from 1360 until 1380, then a silver coin issued between 1575 and 1641. The franc finally became the national currency from 1795 until 1999 (franc coins and notes were legal tender until 2002). Though abolished as a legal coin by King Louis XIII in 1641 in favor of the gold louis and silver \u00e9cu, the term franc continued to be used in common parlance for the livre tournois. The franc was also minted for many of the former French colonies, such as Morocco, Algeria, French West Africa, and others. Today, after independence, many of these countries continue to use the franc as their standard denomination."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The abbreviation \"NF\" was used on the 1958 design banknotes until 1963. Old one- and two-franc coins continued to circulate as new centimes (no new centimes were minted for the first two years). The one-centime coin never circulated widely."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "As during the \"Mississippi Bubble\" in 1715\u20131720, too many assignats were put in circulation, exceeding the value of the \"national properties\", and the coins, due also to military requisitioning and hoarding, rarefied to pay foreign suppliers. With national government debt remaining unpaid, and a shortage of silver and brass to mint coins, confidence in the new currency declined, leading to hyperinflation, more food riots, severe political instability and termination of the First French Republic and the political fall of the French Convention. Then followed the economic failure of the Directoire: coins were still very rare. After a \"coup d'\u00e9tat\" that led to the Consulate, the First Consul progressively acquired sole legislative power at the expense of the other unstable and discredited consultative and legislative institutions."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "During the Nazi occupation of France (1940\u201344), the franc was a satellite currency of the German Reichsmark. The exchange rate was 20 francs for 1 RM. The coins were changed, with the words \"Travail, famille, patrie\" (Work, Family, Fatherland) replacing the Republican triad \"Libert\u00e9, \u00e9galit\u00e9, fraternit\u00e9\" (Liberty, Equality, Fraternity), with the emblem of the Vichy regime added."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Nickel 25-centime coins were introduced in 1903."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "Since 2004 the pure nickel 20 centime coins of the years 1881\u20131938 have been withdrawn from circulation because machines cannot detect them. Today, all the coins except the 5 centime coin (aluminium-bronze since 1981) are in a copper-nickel (cupronickel) alloy. Seven coins are currently in circulation:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "Like the French franc, the Belgo-Luxemburgish franc ceased to exist on 1 January 1999, when it became fixed at 1\u00a0EUR = 40.3399\u00a0BEF/LUF, thus a franc was worth \u20ac0.024789. Old franc coins and notes lost their legal tender status on 28 February 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The decimal \"franc\" was established as the national currency by the National Convention of Revolutionary France in 1795 as a decimal unit (1 franc = 10 d\u00e9cimes = 100 centimes) of 4.5 g of fine silver. This was slightly less than the livre of 4.505 g, but the franc was set in 1796 at 1.0125 livres (1 livre, 3 deniers), reflecting in part the past minting of sub-standard coins. Silver coins now had their denomination clearly marked as \"5 FRANCS\" and it was made obligatory to quote prices in francs. This ended the ancien r\u00e9gime's practice of striking coins with no stated denomination, such as the Louis d'or, and periodically issuing royal edicts to manipulate their value in terms of money of account, i.e. the Livre tournois. The franc became the official currency of France in 1799."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saar franc",
        "text": "On 16 July 1947, banknotes were issued for Saar denominated in marks, which replaced the German Reichsmark. But in November 1947, the French government reintroduced the French franc as the official currency. Between 20 November 1947 and 15 January 1948, all notes and coins had to be exchanged at a rate of 20 Saar marks = 1 franc. In 1954 the government of the Protectorate issued new coins in denominations of 10, 20, 50 and 100 francs. The coins resembled the coins of the French franc (same metallic composition, size and weight) and were officially and legally not a currency of their own, but only local issues of the French franc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mon\u00e9gasque franc",
        "text": "Today, Mon\u00e9gasque coins have only numismatic value, including the \"fleurs de coins\", or proof-like coins. The period for exchange of the coins for euros has expired."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The franc (; ; sign: F or Fr), also commonly distinguished as the (FF), was a currency of France. Between 1360 and 1641, it was the name of coins worth 1 livre tournois and it remained in common parlance as a term for this amount of money. It was reintroduced (in decimal form) in 1795. After two centuries of inflation, it was redenominated in 1960, with each (NF) being worth 100\u00a0old francs. The NF designation was continued for a few years before the currency returned to being simply the franc. Many French residents, though, continued to quote prices of especially expensive items in terms of the old franc (equivalent to the new centime), up to and even after the introduction of the euro (for coins and banknotes) in 2002. The French franc was a commonly held international reserve currency of reference in the 19th and 20th centuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belgian franc",
        "text": "Coins ceased to be convertible in 2004."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saar franc",
        "text": "All four coins were identical to the official French coins in color, size and weight and only the writing and the picture was different. There were no smaller coins, as the usual French coins (1, 2, 5 francs) were used instead. All French coins were accepted in the protectorate, but the Saar coins were usually not accepted in France except in the bigger cities adjacent to the border."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "A nickel 10-franc piece was issued on 22 October 1986, in an attempt to increase usability, reduce counterfeiting, and make it easier for vending machines to recognise. While 120 million were released into circulation, circulation was halted on 26 November due to confusion with the half-franc and an unpopular design. The coin was subsequently withdrawn and on 19 December and became demonetized at the end of June the next year. This led to the conception of the later bimetallic model. The aluminium-bronze pieces continued to circulate until the bimetallic pieces were developed and additional aluminium-bronze coins were minted to replace those initially withdrawn. Once the bimetallic coins were circulating and produced in necessary quantities, the aluminium-bronze pieces were gradually withdrawn and demonetized."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean Moulin",
        "text": "In 1993, commemorative French 2, 100 and 500 franc coins were issued, showing a partial image of Moulin against the Croix de Lorraine and using a fedora-and-scarf photograph, which is well recognised in France."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "World War I and the aftermath brought substantial changes to the coinage. Gold coinage was suspended and the franc was debased. Smaller, holed 5, 10, and 25-centime coins minted in nickel or cupro-nickel were introduced in 1914, finally replacing copper in 1921. In 1920, 1 and 2-centime coins were discontinued and production of silver coinage ceased, with aluminium-bronze 50-centime, 1-franc, and 2-franc coins introduced. Until 1929, these coins were issued by the chambers of commerce, bearing the phrase \"bon pour\" on it (meaning: \"good for\"). At the beginning of the 1920s, chambers of commerce also issued small change coins in aluminium. In 1929, the original \"franc germinal\" of 1795 was replaced by the \"franc Poincar\u00e9\", which was valued at 20% of the 1803 gold standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central African CFA franc",
        "text": "In 1948, coins were issued for use in all the colonies (not including French Cameroun) in denominations of 1 and 2 francs. This was the last issue of a 2-franc coin for nearly 50 years. In 1958, 5, 10, and 25 franc coins were added, which were also used in French Cameroun. These bore the name \"Cameroun\" in addition to \"\u00c9tats de l'Afrique Equatoriale\". In 1961, nickel 50-franc coins were introduced, followed by nickel 100-franc pieces in 1966."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The batch of coins produced in 1850 and 1851 was insufficient, and the Federal Council had to resort to authorising the circulation of French, Belgian and Italian coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In January 1960 the French franc was revalued, with 100 existing francs making one \"nouveau franc\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "A new bronze coinage was introduced from 1848. The Second Republic Monetary Authority minted a 1-centime copper coin with a 1795 design. 2, 5 and 10-centime coins were issued from 1853. The quarter franc was discontinued, with silver 20-centime coins issued between 1849 and 1868 as the smallest silver coin produced in France."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The 5-franc silver coin was called an \"\u00e9cu\", after the six-livre silver coin of the \"ancien regime\", until the 1880s."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In August 1795, the Monetary Law replaced the \"livre\" (\"pound\") with the \"franc\", which was divided into 10 \"d\u00e9cimes\" (\"tenths\") and 100 \"centimes\" (\"hundredths\"). Copper coins were issued in the denominations of 1 centime, 5 centimes, 1 d\u00e9cime, and 2 d\u00e9cimes, designed by Augustin Dupr\u00e9. After 1801, French copper coins became rare."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The last gold 5-franc pieces were minted in 1869, and silver 5-franc coins were last minted in 1878. After 1815, the 20-franc gold coin was called a \"napol\u00e9on\" (royalists still called this coin a \"louis\"), and so that is the colloquial term for this coin until the present. During the Belle \u00c9poque, the 100-franc gold coin was called a \"monaco\", referring to the flourishing casino business in Monte Carlo."
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u00e9union franc",
        "text": "The French franc circulated on R\u00e9union alone (except for a single coin issue) until 1874, when distinct issues of currency commenced. Initially, notes of the Banque de la R\u00e9union and the Colonial Treasury circulated alongside French currency. In 1896, coins were issued, followed by bank tokens in 1920. In 1945, the CFA franc was created and was adopted in R\u00e9union, with distinct coins introduced in 1948. Although R\u00e9union's paper money was stamped with the equivalent value in new francs from 1960, the new franc did not replace the R\u00e9union franc until 1975, when French currency replaced R\u00e9union's at a rate of 1 French (new) franc = 50 R\u00e9union (CFA) francs.\n* 1779/80 - 3 sols \"Isles de France et de Bourbon\"\n* 1781 - 3 sous \"Isles de France et de Bourbon\"\n* 1816, billon 10 centimes were struck in the name of the Isle de Bourbon (as R\u00e9union was then known). In 1896, cupro-nickel 50 centimes and 1 franc coins were issued.\n* 1920, aluminium 5, 10 and 25 centime bank tokens were issued, which circulated until 1941.\n* 1948, aluminium 1 and 2 francs coins were introduced\n* 1955 aluminium 5 francs and aluminium-bronze 10 and 20 francs.\n* 1962 and 1964 Nickel 50 and 100 francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "An Imperial 10-d\u00e9cime coin was produced in billon from 1807 to 1810."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Camerounian franc",
        "text": "In 1924, aluminium-bronze 50 centimes, 1 and 2 francs coins were introduced and were struck until 1926. These were the only coins issued until 1943, when the Free French issued bronze 50 centimes and 1 franc. Aluminium 1 and 2 francs were issued in 1948. (This needs correcting. Camerounian 25 Franc coins exist)"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Banknotes in circulation when the franc was replaced were:\n* 20 francs (\u20ac3.05): Claude Achille Debussy-brown-purple (introduced 1983)\n* 50 francs (\u20ac7.62): Antoine de Saint-Exup\u00e9ry\u2014blue (introduced 20 October 1993, replacing Maurice Quentin de la Tour)\n* 100 francs (\u20ac15.24): Paul C\u00e9zanne\u2014orange (introduced 15 December 1997, replacing Eug\u00e8ne Delacroix)\n* 200 francs (\u20ac30.49): Gustave Eiffel\u2014red (introduced 29 October 1996, replacing Montesquieu)\n* 500 francs (\u20ac76.22): Pierre and Marie Curie\u2014green (introduced 22 March 1995, replacing Blaise Pascal)"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The gold coinage also changed. 40-franc coins were last struck in 1839 (with just 23 coins minted). Several new denomination were introduced as gold coinage: 5 gold francs (1856), 10 gold francs (1850), 50 gold francs (1855), and 100 gold francs (1855). A second design for the 100 gold franc coin was released in 1878 depicting standing genius writing the constitution. The pictured example (1889) was issued as a proof and only 100 coins were struck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belgian franc",
        "text": "Unlike coins, banknotes removed from circulation in 2002 (as well as all other banknotes with denominations of at least 100 francs of earlier series issued since 1944, and certain rare banknotes issued prior to 1944) may be exchanged into euros at the National Bank of Belgium for an indefinite period of time."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1800 the Banque de France, a federal establishment with a private board of executives, was created and commissioned to produce the national currency. In 1803, the \"Franc germinal\" (named after the month Germinal in the revolutionary calendar) was established, creating a gold franc containing 290.034\u00a0mg of fine gold. From this point, gold and silver-based units circulated interchangeably on the basis of a 1:15.5 ratio between the values of the two metals (bimetallism) until 1864, when all silver coins except the 5-franc piece were debased from 90% to 83.5% silver without the weights changing."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The circulation of this metallic currency declined during the Republic: the old gold and silver coins were taken out of circulation and exchanged for printed assignats, initially issued as bonds backed by the value of the confiscated goods of churches, but later declared as legal tender currency. The withdrawn gold and silver coins were used to finance the French Revolutionary Wars and to import food, which was in short supply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The 2 and 1 centime coins were taken out of circulation entirely in 1978 and 2007, respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vreneli",
        "text": "Around 61 million coins were minted, although only 5,000 of the 100 franc pieces were produced and only in the year 1925. The 20 Franc coin is the most common, and it is popular as a bullion coin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "In 1931, the 5 francs coin was reduced from 25 to 15 grams, and debased from 90% to 83.5%, for a fine silver content of 12.5 grams in the coins of 1931\u20131967 (compared to 22.5 grams in the coins of 1850\u20131928)."
      },
      {
        "title": "1921 in France",
        "text": "Before the close of January there was a distinct improvement in the value of the franc, which dropped from sixty to fifty-two for the pound sterling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mon\u00e9gasque franc",
        "text": "Between 1924 and 1926, aluminium-bronze 50 centimes, 1 and 2 francs were issued of the same size as the French coins. In 1943, aluminium 1 and 2 francs were introduced followed by aluminium-bronze versions in 1945, alongside aluminium 5 francs. In 1946, cupronickel 10 francs were introduced, followed by 20 francs in 1947, a coin to which there was no corresponding French coin. In 1950, aluminium-bronze 10, 20 and 50 francs and cupro-nickel 100 francs were issued, with the size of the 100 francs reduced to match the French coin in 1956."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mon\u00e9gasque franc",
        "text": "When the franc was revalued in 1960, Monaco issued nickel 1 franc and silver 5 franc coins. In 1962, aluminium-bronze 10, 20, and 50 centime coins were added, followed by nickel franc coins in 1965, nickel-clad cupronickel 5 francs in 1971, nickel-brass 10 francs in 1974, stainless steel 1 centime and aluminium-bronze 5 centimes in 1976, bi-metallic 10 francs in 1989, and tri-metallic 20 francs 1992, respectively. All of these coins matched the sizes and compositions of corresponding French coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comorian franc",
        "text": "General circulation Comorian coins have always been minted by the Monnaie de Paris. This is indicated by the cornucopia mint mark on the coins, visible to the left of the date, although this was omitted from the 1994 50 franc piece at the request of the Comorian government. The coins are manufactured at their facility in Pessac, Gironde."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "In 1922, the coin was re-issued. The reason was a substantial loss of silver coins during World War I; many Swiss coins had been melted into bullion in France and Italy, and the Swiss National bank had been authorized to issue temporary 5 francs banknotes. A first competition for the redesign in 1919 received 542 entries by 202 artists."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The events of the Second World War also affected the coinage substantially. In 1941, aluminium replaced aluminium-bronze in the 50 centimes, and 1, 2, and 5 francs as copper and nickel were diverted into the War Effort. In 1942, following German occupation and the installation of the French Vichy State, a new, short lived series of coins was released which included holed 10 and 20 centimes in zinc. 50 centimes, and 1 and 2 francs were aluminium. In 1944 this series was discontinued and withdrawn and the previous issue was resumed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geneva franc",
        "text": "Geneva franc\n--History.\n--Coins.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The 1 and 2 centimes coins were retired from circulation in 2007 and 1978, respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "A trial run of only 12 pieces shows the head with an additional forelock which was removed as \"too frivolous\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "1975: \"European Year of Historic Preservation\","
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The franc was originally a French gold coin of 3.87\u00a0g minted in 1360 on the occasion of the release of King John II (\"the Good\"), held by the English since his capture at the Battle of Poitiers four years earlier. It was equivalent to one \"livre tournois\" (Tours pound)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "A total of 15 and 6 million pieces of the 25 and 50 francs version, respectively, were minted in 1955, 1956 and 1959."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "In 1968, the 83.5% silver coins were also replaced by Cupronickel, as the value of the silver in the alloy had exceeded its face value, and the silver coins were taken out of circulation in 1971."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "In 1925, 5,000 pieces of a 100 francs version were minted."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFA franc",
        "text": "Exchange rate:\n* 26 December 1945 to 16 October 1948 \u2013 1 CFA franc = 1.70 FRF (FRF = French franc). This 0.70 FRF premium is the consequence of the creation of the CFA franc, which spared the French African colonies the devaluation of December 1945 (before December 1945, 1 local franc in these colonies was worth 1 French franc).\n* 17 October 1948 to 31 December 1959 \u2013 1 CFA franc = 2.00 FRF (the CFA franc had followed the French franc's devaluation versus the US dollar in January 1948, but on 18 October 1948, the French franc devalued again and this time the CFA franc was revalued against the French franc to offset almost all of this new devaluation of the French franc; after October 1948, the CFA was never revalued again versus the French franc and followed all the successive devaluations of the French franc)\n* 1 January 1960 to 11 January 1994 \u2013 1 CFA franc = 0.02 FRF (1 January 1960: the French franc redenominated, with 100 \"old\" francs becoming 1 \"new\" franc)\n* 12 January 1994 to 31 December 1998 \u2013 1 CFA franc = 0.01 FRF. An overnight 50% devaluation.\n* 1 January 1999 onwards \u2013 100 CFA franc = 0.152449 euro or 1 euro = 655.957 CFA franc. (1 January 1999: euro replaced FRF at the rate of 6.55957 FRF for 1 euro)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Belgian franc",
        "text": "The notes taken out of circulation in 2002 were"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jersey livre",
        "text": "Nonetheless, some French coins continued to circulate (increasingly French francs). On 7 February 1923 the States passed a law to ban the import of foreign copper coinage in sums exceeding 20 sous. This law was confirmed by Order in Council on 12 March 1923 and registered in the Royal Court on 7 April 1923. The States then proceeded to take steps to remove French copper coinage from circulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u00e9union franc",
        "text": "R\u00e9union franc\n--History.\n--Coins.\n--Banknotes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "These were legal tender at the time, but were removed from circulation along with the regular silver coins in 1971."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "With the devaluation of 1936, the gold value of the 20 franc coin rose to 28 francs. In spite of this, production of the 20 francs coin continued until 1949, and the coin has never been officially retired from circulation, even though its gold value has now risen far beyond its nominal value of 20 francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The 16th century saw the issuance of larger silver coins, first in testoons (9 g fine silver, valued at 11 sols Tournois in 1549), and later on in silver francs (12.3 g fine silver, valued at 1 Livre Tournois in 1577). These French coins, however, were much less popular than the 1-ounce silver coins coming out of Spain, the Netherlands & Germany, leading to the 1641 currency reform under King Louis XIII."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coin wrapper",
        "text": "Currency: French franc"
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "1987: Le Corbusier (b. 1887),"
      },
      {
        "title": "French West African franc",
        "text": "In 1944, aluminium-bronze 50 centimes and 1 franc coins were issued. These were the only coins struck before the introduction of the CFA franc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "Two additional gold coins, with nominal values of 25 and 50 francs, were planned in the 1950s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "25 pieces in 1893, 19 pieces in 1895, 29 pieces in 1897."
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u00e9union franc",
        "text": "In 1962, the \"Institut d'\u00c9mission des D\u00e9partements d'Outre-Mer\" took over paper money issue, with notes for 100, 500, 1000 and 500 francs, overprinted with either \"La R\u00e9union\" or \"D\u00e9partement de la R\u00e9union\". In 1960, 500 1000 and 5000 francs notes were issued overprinted with the denomination in new francs (10, 20 and 100 nouveaux francs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Only one further major devaluation occurred (11% in August 1969) before the Bretton Woods system was replaced by free-floating exchange rates. When the Euro replaced the franc on 1 January 1999, the franc was worth less than an eighth of its original 1960 purchasing power."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The design of the original 1850 coins was due to"
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "In 1895, the Federal Council decided that the coin should be made with a novel design."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "These coins are traded for amounts in excess of CHF 30,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaud franc",
        "text": "The Frank was the currency of the Helvetian Republic from 1798. The Helvetian Republic ceased issuing coins in 1803. Vaud issued coins between 1804 and 1834. In 1850, the Swiss franc was introduced, with an exchange rate of 1 Vaud franc = 1.4597 Swiss francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "A .900 silver 50-franc piece was issued from 1974\u20131980, known as the largest silver coin ever minted in France, (due to its face value in accordance to its size) but was withdrawn and demonetized after the price of silver spiked in 1980. Then, in 1982, a 100-franc piece, also in .900 silver, was issued, and circulated to a small extent, until the introduction of the euro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belgian franc",
        "text": "In 1948, cupro-nickel 5 francs and silver 50 and 100 francs were produced, followed by silver 20 francs in 1949 and cupro-nickel 1 franc in 1950. These coins depicted classical allegoric figures. Bronze 20 and 50 centimes featuring a miner and lantern were minted in 1952. Despite the widely varied dates these coins were issued into circulation only a few years apart as part of a broader currency reform. The silver coinage ceased production after 1955."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFP franc",
        "text": "The 1960 and 1999 events are merely changes in the currency in use in France; the relative value of the CFP franc (XPF) vs. the French franc / euro is unchanged since 1949."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The extremely rare 2 francs coin of 1857, produced in a trial run of 622 pieces, is sold for upward of CHF 15,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The first issue of the new franc consisted of 500, 1000, 5000 and 10,000-franc notes overprinted with their new denominations of 5, 10, 50 and 100 new francs. This issue was followed by notes of the same design but with only the new denomination shown. A 500-new franc note was also introduced in 1960 representing Moli\u00e8re, replaced in 1969 by the yellow Pascal type (colloquially called a \"pascal\"). A 5-franc note was issued until 1970 and a 10-franc note (showing Hector Berlioz) was issued until 1979."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFA franc",
        "text": "The 1960 and 1999 events were changes in the currency in use in France: the relative value of the CFA franc versus the French franc/euro changed in 1948 and 1994."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "1989: Henri Guisan (general mobilisation 1939),"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of people on coins",
        "text": "Currency: French franc (1795-2001)/Subdivision: Centime ()<br>\"See also French franc\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "Some of the older coins have considerable collector's value, especially the rarer batches of the 5 franc coin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "the reverse \"5 Fr.\" in a wreath."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "1985: \"European Year of Music\","
      },
      {
        "title": "Coins of the Swiss franc",
        "text": "The coin was minted between 1897 and 1949 with a total issue of 58.6 million pieces."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did 2 centuries of inflation lead to with regards to the franc?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It caused the franc to be redenominated in 1960, each new franc was worth 100 old francs."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Were there two francs in circulation for a time, the new franc old?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Old one- and two-franc coins continued to circulate as new centimes (no new centimes were minted for the first two years)."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is the new franc still used today?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "All franc coins and banknotes ceased to be legal tender in 2002 upon the adoption of the Euro."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What can you do with Franc coins today?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Coins were freely exchangeable until 17 February 2005 at Banque de France only, but I don't have any information on what people do with the Franc coins now."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many Franc coins were not exchanged by February 17, 2005?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "By that date, franc notes worth some \u20ac550 million remained unexchanged, allowing the French state to register the corresponding sum as revenue.",
      "By that date, franc notes worth some \u20ac550 million remained unexchanged, allowing the French state to register the corresponding sum as revenue."
    ],
    "topic": "French franc",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "French franc:66",
        "passage_titles": [
          "French franc",
          "Coins",
          "Euro exchange"
        ],
        "ctx": "Coins were freely exchangeable until 17 February 2005 at Banque de France only (commercial banks were not required to accept the old coins after the transition period in 2002, but some did), by converting their total value in francs to euros (rounded to the nearest cent) at the fixed rate of 6.55957 francs for 1 euro. Banknotes remained convertible up until 17 February 2012. By that date, franc notes worth some \u20ac550 million remained unexchanged, allowing the French state to register the corresponding sum as revenue."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "French franc:66",
        "passage_titles": [
          "French franc",
          "Coins",
          "Euro exchange"
        ],
        "ctx": "Coins were freely exchangeable until 17 February 2005 at Banque de France only (commercial banks were not required to accept the old coins after the transition period in 2002, but some did), by converting their total value in francs to euros (rounded to the nearest cent) at the fixed rate of 6.55957 francs for 1 euro. Banknotes remained convertible up until 17 February 2012. By that date, franc notes worth some \u20ac550 million remained unexchanged, allowing the French state to register the corresponding sum as revenue."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Coins were freely exchangeable until 17 February 2005 at Banque de France only (commercial banks were not required to accept the old coins after the transition period in 2002, but some did), by converting their total value in francs to euros (rounded to the nearest cent) at the fixed rate of 6.55957 francs for 1 euro. Banknotes remained convertible up until 17 February 2012. By that date, franc notes worth some \u20ac550 million remained unexchanged, allowing the French state to register the corresponding sum as revenue."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The decimal \"franc\" was established as the national currency by the National Convention of Revolutionary France in 1795 as a decimal unit (1 franc = 10 d\u00e9cimes = 100 centimes) of 4.5 g of fine silver. This was slightly less than the livre of 4.505 g, but the franc was set in 1796 at 1.0125 livres (1 livre, 3 deniers), reflecting in part the past minting of sub-standard coins. Silver coins now had their denomination clearly marked as \"5 FRANCS\" and it was made obligatory to quote prices in francs. This ended the ancien r\u00e9gime's practice of striking coins with no stated denomination, such as the Louis d'or, and periodically issuing royal edicts to manipulate their value in terms of money of account, i.e. the Livre tournois. The franc became the official currency of France in 1799."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1959, banknotes in circulation when the old franc was replaced by the new franc were:\n*500 francs: Victor Hugo\n*1000 francs: Cardinal de Richelieu\n*5000 francs: Henri IV\n*10,000 francs: Bonaparte 1st consul"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The franc (; ; sign: F or Fr), also commonly distinguished as the (FF), was a currency of France. Between 1360 and 1641, it was the name of coins worth 1 livre tournois and it remained in common parlance as a term for this amount of money. It was reintroduced (in decimal form) in 1795. After two centuries of inflation, it was redenominated in 1960, with each (NF) being worth 100\u00a0old francs. The NF designation was continued for a few years before the currency returned to being simply the franc. Many French residents, though, continued to quote prices of especially expensive items in terms of the old franc (equivalent to the new centime), up to and even after the introduction of the euro (for coins and banknotes) in 2002. The French franc was a commonly held international reserve currency of reference in the 19th and 20th centuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Along with the Spanish peseta, the French franc was also a \"de facto\" currency used in Andorra (which had no national currency with legal tender). It circulated alongside the Monegasque franc in Monaco, with which it had equal value. These currencies were all replaced by the euro in 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The circulation of this metallic currency declined during the Republic: the old gold and silver coins were taken out of circulation and exchanged for printed assignats, initially issued as bonds backed by the value of the confiscated goods of churches, but later declared as legal tender currency. The withdrawn gold and silver coins were used to finance the French Revolutionary Wars and to import food, which was in short supply."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "During the Nazi occupation of France (1940\u201344), the franc was a satellite currency of the German Reichsmark. The exchange rate was 20 francs for 1 RM. The coins were changed, with the words \"Travail, famille, patrie\" (Work, Family, Fatherland) replacing the Republican triad \"Libert\u00e9, \u00e9galit\u00e9, fraternit\u00e9\" (Liberty, Equality, Fraternity), with the emblem of the Vichy regime added."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Banknotes in circulation when the franc was replaced were:\n* 20 francs (\u20ac3.05): Claude Achille Debussy-brown-purple (introduced 1983)\n* 50 francs (\u20ac7.62): Antoine de Saint-Exup\u00e9ry\u2014blue (introduced 20 October 1993, replacing Maurice Quentin de la Tour)\n* 100 francs (\u20ac15.24): Paul C\u00e9zanne\u2014orange (introduced 15 December 1997, replacing Eug\u00e8ne Delacroix)\n* 200 francs (\u20ac30.49): Gustave Eiffel\u2014red (introduced 29 October 1996, replacing Montesquieu)\n* 500 francs (\u20ac76.22): Pierre and Marie Curie\u2014green (introduced 22 March 1995, replacing Blaise Pascal)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The French franc was originally a gold coin issued in France from 1360 until 1380, then a silver coin issued between 1575 and 1641. The franc finally became the national currency from 1795 until 1999 (franc coins and notes were legal tender until 2002). Though abolished as a legal coin by King Louis XIII in 1641 in favor of the gold louis and silver \u00e9cu, the term franc continued to be used in common parlance for the livre tournois. The franc was also minted for many of the former French colonies, such as Morocco, Algeria, French West Africa, and others. Today, after independence, many of these countries continue to use the franc as their standard denomination."
      },
      {
        "title": "AM-Franc",
        "text": "The \"flag ticket\" franc () was a currency issued by the United States for use in Allied-occupied France in the wake of the Battle of Normandy. With the swift take-over of sovereignty by General Charles de Gaulle, who considered the US occupation franc as \u201ccounterfeit money\u201d, the currency rapidly faded out of use in favour of the pre-war French franc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The value of the French franc was locked to the euro at 1 euro = 6.55957 FRF on 31 December 1998, and after the introduction of the euro notes and coins, ceased to be legal tender after 28 February 2002, although they were still exchangeable at banks until 19 February 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saar franc",
        "text": "On 16 July 1947, banknotes were issued for Saar denominated in marks, which replaced the German Reichsmark. But in November 1947, the French government reintroduced the French franc as the official currency. Between 20 November 1947 and 15 January 1948, all notes and coins had to be exchanged at a rate of 20 Saar marks = 1 franc. In 1954 the government of the Protectorate issued new coins in denominations of 10, 20, 50 and 100 francs. The coins resembled the coins of the French franc (same metallic composition, size and weight) and were officially and legally not a currency of their own, but only local issues of the French franc."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "All franc coins and banknotes ceased to be legal tender in January 2002, upon the official adoption of the Euro."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "All French franc coins were demonetized in 2005 and are no longer redeemable at the ."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "From 1 January 1999, the value exchange rate of the French franc against the Euro was set at a fixed parity of \u20ac1\u00a0=\u00a06.55957 F. Euro coins and notes replaced the franc entirely between 1 January and 17 February 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "De facto currency",
        "text": "The small French island of St. Pierre and Miquelon has the Canadian dollar as its de facto currency."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "After World War II, France devalued its currency within the Bretton Woods system on several occasions. Beginning in 1945 at a rate of 480 francs to the British Pound (119.1 to the U.S. dollar), by 1949 the rate was 980 to the Pound (350 to the Dollar). This was reduced further in 1957 and 1958, reaching 1382.3 to the Pound (493.7 to the Dollar, equivalent to 1 franc = 1.8 mg pure gold)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Following the war, rapid inflation caused denominations below 1 franc to be withdrawn from circulation while 10 francs in copper nickel were introduced, followed by reduced size 10-franc coins in aluminium-bronze in 1950, along with 20 and 50-franc coins of the same composition. In 1954, copper-nickel 100 francs were introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "This coinage included the first modern gold coins with denominations in francs. It abandoned the revolutionary symbols of the coinage 1795, now showing Napoleon in the manner of Roman emperors, first described as \"Bonaparte Premier Consul\" and with the country named as \"R\u00e9publique Fran\u00e7aise\". After his coronation in 1804 coins changed the obverse legend to \"Napoleon Empereur\", dropping his family name in the manner of regnal names. In 1807, the reverse legend changed to name France as \"Empire Fran\u00e7ais\". In analogy with the old Louis d'or these coins were called Gold Napoleons. Economically, this sound money was a great success and Napoleon's fall did not change that. Succeeding governments maintained Napoleon's weight standard, with changes in design which traced the political history of France. In particular, this currency system was retained during the Bourbon Restoration and perpetuated until 1914."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "As during the \"Mississippi Bubble\" in 1715\u20131720, too many assignats were put in circulation, exceeding the value of the \"national properties\", and the coins, due also to military requisitioning and hoarding, rarefied to pay foreign suppliers. With national government debt remaining unpaid, and a shortage of silver and brass to mint coins, confidence in the new currency declined, leading to hyperinflation, more food riots, severe political instability and termination of the First French Republic and the political fall of the French Convention. Then followed the economic failure of the Directoire: coins were still very rare. After a \"coup d'\u00e9tat\" that led to the Consulate, the First Consul progressively acquired sole legislative power at the expense of the other unstable and discredited consultative and legislative institutions."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In August 1795, the Monetary Law replaced the \"livre\" (\"pound\") with the \"franc\", which was divided into 10 \"d\u00e9cimes\" (\"tenths\") and 100 \"centimes\" (\"hundredths\"). Copper coins were issued in the denominations of 1 centime, 5 centimes, 1 d\u00e9cime, and 2 d\u00e9cimes, designed by Augustin Dupr\u00e9. After 1801, French copper coins became rare."
      },
      {
        "title": "De facto currency",
        "text": "A de facto currency is a unit of money that is not legal tender in a country but is treated as such by most of the populace. The United States dollar and the European Union euro are the most common de facto currencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "Like the French franc, the Belgo-Luxemburgish franc ceased to exist on 1 January 1999, when it became fixed at 1\u00a0EUR = 40.3399\u00a0BEF/LUF, thus a franc was worth \u20ac0.024789. Old franc coins and notes lost their legal tender status on 28 February 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1800 the Banque de France, a federal establishment with a private board of executives, was created and commissioned to produce the national currency. In 1803, the \"Franc germinal\" (named after the month Germinal in the revolutionary calendar) was established, creating a gold franc containing 290.034\u00a0mg of fine gold. From this point, gold and silver-based units circulated interchangeably on the basis of a 1:15.5 ratio between the values of the two metals (bimetallism) until 1864, when all silver coins except the 5-franc piece were debased from 90% to 83.5% silver without the weights changing."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Despite base-metal 5, 10 & 20\u00a0F coins being introduced between 1929 and 1933, the banknotes were not removed. In 1938, first 5000-franc notes were added."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The abbreviation \"NF\" was used on the 1958 design banknotes until 1963. Old one- and two-franc coins continued to circulate as new centimes (no new centimes were minted for the first two years). The one-centime coin never circulated widely."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "French franc\n--History.\n----Carolingian, 781.\n----Capetian, c 1000.\n----Louis IX, 1266.\n----Late Capetian, 1317.\n----Hundred Years' War, 1361.\n----Lancastrian War, 1425.\n----Louis XI, 1475.\n----Valois-Angoul\u00eame, 1549.\n----Louis XIII 1641.\n----Louis XV, 1726.\n----Louis XVI, 1785.\n----French Revolution.\n----French Empire and Restoration.\n----Latin Monetary Union.\n----World War I.\n----World War II.\n----Post-War period.\n----New franc.\n----Economic and Monetary Union.\n--Coins.\n----Before World War I.\n----World War I.\n----From World War II to the currency reform.\n----New franc.\n----Euro exchange.\n--Banknotes.\n--\"De facto\" currency.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The franc is any of various units of currency. One franc is typically divided into 100 centimes. The name is said to derive from the Latin inscription \"francorum rex\" (King of the Franks) used on early French coins and until the 18th century, or from the French \"franc\", meaning \"frank\" (and \"free\" in certain contexts, such as \"coup franc\", \"free kick\" )."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "During the Consulship period (1799\u20131804) silver francs were struck in decimal coinage. A five-franc coin was first introduced in 1801\u201302 (L\u2019AN 10), half-franc, one-franc, and gold 40-franc coins were introduced in 1802\u201303 (L\u2019AN 11), and quarter-franc and two-franc coins in 1803\u201304 (L\u2019AN 12)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The 5-centime copper coin was called a \"sou\", referring to \"sole\" (fr. Latin: \"solidus\"), until the 1920s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Name of France",
        "text": "The name of the former French currency, the franc, comes from the words engraved on the coins of the Frankish King, \"Rex Francorum\", meaning \"King of the Franks\" or \"Roi des Francs\" in French."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1960, the new franc (\"\") was introduced, worth 100 old francs. Stainless steel 1 and 5 centimes, aluminium-bronze 10, 20, and 50 centimes, nickel 1 franc and silver 5 francs were introduced. Silver 10-franc coins were introduced in 1965, followed by a new, smaller aluminium-bronze 5-centime and a smaller nickel -franc coin in 1966."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In January 1960 the French franc was revalued, with 100 existing francs making one \"nouveau franc\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Copper coins were rarely issued between 1801 and 1848, so the quarter franc was the lowest current denomination in circulation. But during this period, copper coins from earlier periods circulated. A Napoleon 5-centime coin (in bell metal) and Napoleon and Restoration 1-d\u00e9cime coins were minted."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The 5-franc silver coin was called an \"\u00e9cu\", after the six-livre silver coin of the \"ancien regime\", until the 1880s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kor\u00e7\u00eb frange",
        "text": "The frange (Albanian) or franc (French) was the currency of the Republic of Kor\u00e7\u00eb (also written \"Koritza\" on the currency) between 1917 and 1921. It was subdivided into 100 \"centimes\". The currency was introduced during the period of French occupation. It was only issued in paper money form, with notes issued in denominations of 50 centimes, 1 and 5 frange. After the end of the French occupation, the frange was replaced by the skender in 1921."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc (disambiguation)",
        "text": "The franc is the name of several currency units, most notably the French franc."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "France was a founding member of the Latin Monetary Union (LMU), a single currency employed primarily by the Romance-speaking and other Mediterranean states between 1865 and the First World War. The common currency was based on the franc germinal, with the name franc already being used in Switzerland and Belgium, whilst other countries minted local denominations, redeemable across the bloc with 1-to-1 parity, though with local names: e.g., the peseta. In 1873, the LMU went over to a purely gold standard of 1 franc = 0.290322581 grams of gold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Autonomous Province of Kor\u00e7\u00eb",
        "text": "The \"frange\" (Albanian) or \"franc\" (French) was the currency of the Autonomous Albanian Republic of Kor\u00e7\u00eb between 1917 and 1921. It was subdivided into 100 \"centimes\". The currency was introduced during the period of French occupation. It was only issued in paper money form, with notes issued in denominations of 50 centimes, 1 and 5 frange. Both paper money and post stamps were engraved by the soldier Davier (a student of Louis-Oscar Roty)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1933, a nickel 5-franc coin was minted, but was soon replaced by a large aluminium-bronze 5-franc coin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saar franc",
        "text": "All four coins were identical to the official French coins in color, size and weight and only the writing and the picture was different. There were no smaller coins, as the usual French coins (1, 2, 5 francs) were used instead. All French coins were accepted in the protectorate, but the Saar coins were usually not accepted in France except in the bigger cities adjacent to the border."
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u00e9union franc",
        "text": "In 1962, the \"Institut d'\u00c9mission des D\u00e9partements d'Outre-Mer\" took over paper money issue, with notes for 100, 500, 1000 and 500 francs, overprinted with either \"La R\u00e9union\" or \"D\u00e9partement de la R\u00e9union\". In 1960, 500 1000 and 5000 francs notes were issued overprinted with the denomination in new francs (10, 20 and 100 nouveaux francs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Banknotes of the series current at changeover to the Euro could be exchanged at the French central bank or other services until 17 February 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1929, silver coins were reintroduced in 10-franc and 20-franc denominations. A very rare gold 100-franc coin was minted between 1929 and 1936."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "The franc was originally a French gold coin of 3.87\u00a0g minted in 1360 on the occasion of the release of King John II (\"the Good\"), held by the English since his capture at the Battle of Poitiers four years earlier. It was equivalent to one \"livre tournois\" (Tours pound)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "John II died as a prisoner in England and his son, Charles V was left to pick up the pieces. Charles V pursued a policy of reform, including stable coinage. An edict dated 20 April 1365 established the centrepiece of this policy, a gold coin officially called the \"denier d\u2019or aux fleurs de lis\" which had a standing figure of the king on its obverse, pictured under a canopy. Its value in money of account was one livre tournois, just like the \"franc \u00e0 cheval\", and this coin is universally known as a \"franc \u00e0 pied\". In accordance with the theories of the mathematician, economist and royal advisor Nicole Oresme, Charles struck fewer coins of better quality gold than his ancestors. In the accompanying deflation, both prices and wages fell, but wages fell faster and debtors had to settle up in better money than they had borrowed. The Mayor of Paris, \u00c9tienne Marcel, exploited their discontent to lead the Jacquerie revolt which forced Charles V out of the city. The franc fared better. It became associated with money stable at one livre tournois."
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u00e9union franc",
        "text": "The French franc circulated on R\u00e9union alone (except for a single coin issue) until 1874, when distinct issues of currency commenced. Initially, notes of the Banque de la R\u00e9union and the Colonial Treasury circulated alongside French currency. In 1896, coins were issued, followed by bank tokens in 1920. In 1945, the CFA franc was created and was adopted in R\u00e9union, with distinct coins introduced in 1948. Although R\u00e9union's paper money was stamped with the equivalent value in new francs from 1960, the new franc did not replace the R\u00e9union franc until 1975, when French currency replaced R\u00e9union's at a rate of 1 French (new) franc = 50 R\u00e9union (CFA) francs.\n* 1779/80 - 3 sols \"Isles de France et de Bourbon\"\n* 1781 - 3 sous \"Isles de France et de Bourbon\"\n* 1816, billon 10 centimes were struck in the name of the Isle de Bourbon (as R\u00e9union was then known). In 1896, cupro-nickel 50 centimes and 1 franc coins were issued.\n* 1920, aluminium 5, 10 and 25 centime bank tokens were issued, which circulated until 1941.\n* 1948, aluminium 1 and 2 francs coins were introduced\n* 1955 aluminium 5 francs and aluminium-bronze 10 and 20 francs.\n* 1962 and 1964 Nickel 50 and 100 francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "French West African franc",
        "text": "The franc was the currency of French West Africa. The French franc circulated, together with distinct banknotes from 1903 and coins from 1944. It was replaced by the CFA franc in 1945."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "After the Second World War, while 5, 10 and 20-franc notes were replaced by coins in 1950, as were the 50- and 100-franc notes in the mid-1950s. In 1954, the 10,000-franc notes were introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "At the time of the complete changeover to the euro on 1 January 2002, coins in circulation (some produced as recently as 2000) were:\n* 1 centime (~ 0.15 euro cents) stainless steel, rarely circulated (last production stopped first in 1982, then in 1987 due to high production cost, and lack of demand due to its very low value).\n* 5 centimes (~ 0.76 cents) aluminium-bronze\n* 10 centimes (~ 1.52 cents) aluminium-bronze\n* 20 centimes (~ 3.05 cents) aluminium-bronze\n* franc (~ 7.6 cents) nickel\n* 1 franc (~ 15.2 cents) nickel\n* 2 francs (~ 30.5 cents) nickel\n* 5 francs (~ 76 cents) nickel-clad copper-nickel\n* 10 francs (~ \u20ac1.52) bimetallic\n* 20 francs (~ \u20ac3.05) trimetallic, rarer (produced for a short period before the euro, the banknote equivalent was much more frequently used)\n* 100 francs (~ \u20ac15.24) silver, rarely circulated (most often bought and offered as personal gifts, but rare in commercial transactions, now worth more than its face value)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Postage stamp demonetization",
        "text": "Most French Franc stamps are still valid for postage, within France, at a rate of 6.56 new French Francs = \u20ac1 for post-1960 stamps and at a multiplier rate of 100 for pre-1960 stamps. A few stamps have been demonitised."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFP franc",
        "text": "The 1960 and 1999 events are merely changes in the currency in use in France; the relative value of the CFP franc (XPF) vs. the French franc / euro is unchanged since 1949."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Camerounian franc",
        "text": "The franc was the currency of French Cameroun. It was subdivided into 100 centimes and was equal in value to the French franc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mon\u00e9gasque franc",
        "text": "The franc (ISO 4217: MCF) was the official currency of the Principality of Monaco until 1995 (\"de facto\", 1996 \"de jure\"), when it changed to the French franc. The franc was subdivided into 100 \"centimes\" or 10 \"d\u00e9cimes\". The Mon\u00e9gasque franc circulated alongside the French franc with the same value. Like the French franc, the Mon\u00e9gasque franc was revalued in 1960 at a rate of 100 old francs = 1 new franc. The official euro-to-franc exchange rate was MCF 6.55957 to EUR 1."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaud franc",
        "text": "The Frank was the currency of the Helvetian Republic from 1798. The Helvetian Republic ceased issuing coins in 1803. Vaud issued coins between 1804 and 1834. In 1850, the Swiss franc was introduced, with an exchange rate of 1 Vaud franc = 1.4597 Swiss francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Henry III exploited the association of the franc as sound money worth one livre tournois when he sought to stabilize French currency in 1577. By this time, inflows of gold and silver from Spanish America had caused inflation throughout the world economy and the kings of France, who weren't getting much of this wealth, only made things worse by manipulating the values assigned to their coins. The States General which met at Blois in 1577 added to the public pressure to stop currency manipulation. Henry III agreed to do this and he revived the franc, now as a silver coin valued at one livre tournois. This coin and its fractions circulated until 1641 when Louis XIII of France replaced it with the silver \u00e9cu. Nevertheless, the name \"franc\" continued in accounting as a synonym for the \"livre tournois\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "A considerable acceleration in the debasement of the French, English & Dutch currencies occurred during the reign of the Valois-Angoul\u00eame kings in the 16th century amidst the huge influx of precious metals from the American continent arriving through the Habsburg Netherlands. The loose enforcement of monetary standards in the Dutch provinces resulted in a significant rd reduction in the value of the French livre by 1549, with debasements continuing into the 17th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Guianan franc",
        "text": "The franc was the currency of French Guiana until 2002. The French franc circulated alongside banknotes issued specifically for French Guiana between 1888 and 1961 and notes issued for French Guiana, Guadeloupe and Martinique (collectively referred to as the French Antilles) between 1961 and 1975."
      },
      {
        "title": "De facto currency",
        "text": "De facto currency\n--Euro.\n--United States dollar.\n--Russian ruble.\n--South African rand and Botswana pula.\n--Canadian dollar.\n--Hong Kong Dollar.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Comorian franc",
        "text": "The overstamped notes circulated until 1976, when 500, 1000 and 5000 francs were introduced by the Institut d'\u00c9mission des Comores, the 50 and 100 franc notes being replaced by coins. The central Bank took over production of paper money in 1984. 2500 and 10,000 franc notes were introduced in 1997, followed by 2000 francs in 2005. The 2,500-franc note was demonetized on 31 January 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u00e9union franc",
        "text": "The franc was the currency of R\u00e9union until 1999. Before 1975, R\u00e9union had its own franc, distinct from that of France. After 1975, the French franc circulated. R\u00e9union now uses the euro. The R\u00e9union franc was subdivided into 100 \"centimes\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "A new bronze coinage was introduced from 1848. The Second Republic Monetary Authority minted a 1-centime copper coin with a 1795 design. 2, 5 and 10-centime coins were issued from 1853. The quarter franc was discontinued, with silver 20-centime coins issued between 1849 and 1868 as the smallest silver coin produced in France."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The first franc paper money issues were made in 1795. They were assignats in denominations between 100 and 10,000 francs. These followed in 1796 by \"territorial mandate promises\" for 25 up to 500 francs. The treasury also issued notes that year for 25 up to 1000 francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Only one further major devaluation occurred (11% in August 1969) before the Bretton Woods system was replaced by free-floating exchange rates. When the Euro replaced the franc on 1 January 1999, the franc was worth less than an eighth of its original 1960 purchasing power."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belgian franc",
        "text": "Unlike coins, banknotes removed from circulation in 2002 (as well as all other banknotes with denominations of at least 100 francs of earlier series issued since 1944, and certain rare banknotes issued prior to 1944) may be exchanged into euros at the National Bank of Belgium for an indefinite period of time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biens nationaux",
        "text": "France's financial problems were solved during the French Consulate when Napoleon, the First Consul, created the country's new currency, the \"franc germinal\", by the law of 28 March 1803 (\"loi du 7 Germinal an XI\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In the 1960s, 1 and 2 (old) franc aluminium coins were still circulating, used as \"centimes\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fran\u00e7afrique",
        "text": "Verschave also noted the pun in the term , as it sounds like \"\" (a source of cash for France; is French slang for 'cash'), and that \"Over the course of four decades, hundreds of thousands of euros misappropriated from debt, aid, oil, cocoa... or drained through French importing monopolies, have financed French political-business networks (all of them offshoots of the main neo-Gaullist network), shareholders' dividends, the secret services' major operations and mercenary expeditions\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saar franc",
        "text": "The Treaty of Versailles stated in Article 45 that the newly formed territory would be administered by the League of Nations for 15 years, and France was then granted the complete benefit of the Saar coal mines. The new French administration of the coal mines was granted the right to process all financial transactions with French francs. Therefore, from 1921 to 1923, the French franc was used alongside the German mark (\u2133), and from 1923 on, when the Saar Territory was incorporated officially into the French economy, the franc became the only valid currency. Due to the shortage of nonferrous metal, the coal mines administration began to print its own banknotes, the so-called \"Grubengeld\" (\"coal mine money\"). After 1930, these notes were replaced by the usual French notes."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1800, the Bank of France began issuing notes, first in denominations of 500 and 1000 francs. In the late 1840s, 100 and 200-franc notes were added, while 5, 20 and 50 francs were added in the 1860s and 70s, although the 200-franc note was discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Equatorial African franc",
        "text": "The franc was the currency of French Equatorial Africa. The French franc circulated, together with distinct banknotes from 1917 and coins from 1942. It was replaced by the CFA franc in 1945."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "World War I and the aftermath brought substantial changes to the coinage. Gold coinage was suspended and the franc was debased. Smaller, holed 5, 10, and 25-centime coins minted in nickel or cupro-nickel were introduced in 1914, finally replacing copper in 1921. In 1920, 1 and 2-centime coins were discontinued and production of silver coinage ceased, with aluminium-bronze 50-centime, 1-franc, and 2-franc coins introduced. Until 1929, these coins were issued by the chambers of commerce, bearing the phrase \"bon pour\" on it (meaning: \"good for\"). At the beginning of the 1920s, chambers of commerce also issued small change coins in aluminium. In 1929, the original \"franc germinal\" of 1795 was replaced by the \"franc Poincar\u00e9\", which was valued at 20% of the 1803 gold standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "In 1361 the gros tournois of 15 deniers Tournois (1 sol Parisis) was minted at 84 to a French Mark of silver, 23/24 fine (hence, 2.79 g fine silver in a gros). At the same time gold flowing from Southern Europe started to become an important medium of exchange in the North, so gold francs worth 1 livre Tournois (16 sols Parisis) were minted at 63 to a French Mark of fine gold (hence, 3.885 g in a franc). Gold as circulating currency would henceforth continue in the form of \u00c9cu d\u2019ors of varying gold content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comorian franc",
        "text": "The French franc became the currency of Comoros after the islands became a French protectorate in 1886. In 1891, Sultan Said Ali bin Said Omar of Grande Comore (Ngazidja) issued coins denominated in centimes and francs which circulated alongside French currency. In 1912, the Comoros became a province of Madagascar, which was also a French possession. French banknotes and coins circulated in the colony. Apart from an emergency issue of small change notes in 1920, the French currency circulated alone until 1925."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "After revaluation and the introduction of the new franc, many French people continued to use the term \"old francs\" (\"anciens francs\") for large sums, for example for the prices of houses, apartments, and cars. This was common until the introduction of the euro and even later. Many people, old and young \u2013 even those who had never used the old franc \u2013 still quoted prices in old francs, confusing tourists and people abroad. For example, lottery prizes were most often advertised in amounts of centimes, equivalent to the old franc, to inflate the perceived value of the prizes at stake. Multiples of 10NF were occasionally referred to as \"mille francs\" (thousand francs) or \"mille balles\" (\"balle\" being a slang word for franc) in contexts where it was clear that the speaker did not mean 1,000 new francs."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The Great Bullion Famine of the mid-15th century resulted in yet another debasement during the reign of King Louis XI, with the \"Livre Parisis\" reduced to 1 French ounce (30.594 g) fine silver or 2.620 g fine gold. The silver gros was minted at 69 to the French Mark, fine (3.4 g fine silver) & was valued at th the Livre Parisis (or 2 sols). The gold \u00e9cu au soleil was minted at 72 to the Mark, 23 karats fine (3.2754 g fine gold), & was valued at 25 Sols Parisis. The close of the 15th century saw the beginnings of a more centralized French currency system & the discontinuation of competing currency systems within France."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The start of the Hundred Years\u2019 War against England in 1337 would increase the pressure to further debase the French livre. An attempt in 1343 to reverse earlier depreciations of circulating deniers and reinstate the old 1317-era gros tournois (forte monnaie, or strong money) caused financial havoc especially with borrowers who received depreciated coins and who then had to repay debts in forte monnaie. Lower valuations for the livre had to be accepted subsequently as the war raged on."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The outbreak of World War I caused France to leave the gold standard of the LMU. The war severely undermined the franc's strength: war expenditure, inflation and postwar reconstruction, financed partly by printing ever more money, reduced the franc's purchasing power by 70% between 1915 and 1920. After a brief appreciation of the franc during the Depression of 1920\u20131921, it depreciated a further 43% between 1922 and a balancing of the budget in 1926. This devaluation was aggravated by the insistence of the Republican U.S. federal government and World War Foreign Debts Commission that France's war debts be repaid within 25 years at a minimal 4.25 percent interest per year. The currency devaluation contributed to French demands for high reparations payments from Germany. After a brief return to the gold standard between 1928 and 1936, the currency was allowed to resume its slide, until in 1959 it was worth less than 2.5% of its 1934 value."
      },
      {
        "title": "Le Jeu des 1000 euros",
        "text": "At the time of the replacement of the franc with the euro on January 1, 2002, the show was renamed \"Le Jeu des mille euros\", the purpose of which was to keep the same operation and principles for the identity of the game, with a little planning related to the conversion. The \"banco\" became a 400 euro prize (then in 2009, it became a 500 euro prize). The \"super banco\" became a 1,000 euro prize."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Camerounian franc",
        "text": "French Camerounian franc\n--History.\n--Coins.\n--Banknotes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "Before the introduction of the euro in 1999, francs were also used in France, Belgium and Luxembourg, while Andorra and Monaco accepted the French franc as legal tender (Monegasque franc). The franc was also used within the French Empire's colonies, including Algeria and Cambodia. The franc is sometimes Italianised or Hispanicised as the \"franco\", for instance in Luccan franco."
      },
      {
        "title": "Livre tournois",
        "text": "Since coins in Europe in the Middle Ages and the Early modern period (the French \u00e9cu, Louis, teston d'argent, denier, double, franc; the Spanish doubloon, pistole, real; the Italian florin, ducat or sequin; the German and Austrian thaler; the Dutch gulden, etc.) did not have any indication of their value, their official value was determined by royal edicts. In cases of financial need, French kings could use the official value for currency devaluation. This could be done in two ways: (1) the amount of precious metal in a newly minted French coin could be reduced while nevertheless maintaining the old value in livres tournois or (2) the official value of a domestic or foreign coin in circulation could be increased. By reversing these techniques, currencies could be reinforced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "In 1981, The Comoros established an arrangement with the French government similar to that of the CFA franc. Originally, 50 Comorian francs were worth 1 French franc. In January 1994, the rate was changed to 75 Comorian francs to the French franc. Since 1999, the currency has been pegged to the euro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Overseas Territories of France (European Parliament constituency)",
        "text": "The legal currency in those overseas territories is the Euro since 1999 (before then, it was the French franc), including in OCTs (by special agreement with the European Union) except those in the Pacific section which still use the CFP franc (bound to the Euro by a special agreement between France and the European Union, but with a revocable rate of 8.38 EUR for 1,000 XPF)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Polynesian franc",
        "text": "In 1969, the \"Institut d'Emission d'Outre-Mer, Papeete\" took over the issuance of paper money, introducing notes for 100, 500, 1000 and 5000 francs. The 100 and 1000 franc notes have two variants. The earlier issue lacked the state title \"R\u00e9publique fran\u00e7aise\". The 500 and 5000 franc notes have had the state title since their introductions. The 100 franc notes were replaced by coins in 1976."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Nickel-clad copper-nickel 5-franc and nickel-brass 10-franc coins replaced their silver counterparts in 1970 and 1974, respectively. Nickel 2 francs were finally introduced in 1979, followed by bimetallic 10 francs in 1988 and trimetallic 20 francs in 1992. The 20-franc coin was composed of two rings and a centre plug."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mon\u00e9gasque franc",
        "text": "Today, Mon\u00e9gasque coins have only numismatic value, including the \"fleurs de coins\", or proof-like coins. The period for exchange of the coins for euros has expired."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of people on coins",
        "text": "Currency: French franc (1795-2001)/Subdivision: Centime ()<br>\"See also French franc\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belgian franc",
        "text": "The notes taken out of circulation in 2002 were"
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "Most older series were exchangeable for 10 years from date of withdrawal. As the last banknote from the previous series had been withdrawn on 31 March 1998 (200 francs, Montesquieu), the deadline for the exchange was 31 March 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The last gold 5-franc pieces were minted in 1869, and silver 5-franc coins were last minted in 1878. After 1815, the 20-franc gold coin was called a \"napol\u00e9on\" (royalists still called this coin a \"louis\"), and so that is the colloquial term for this coin until the present. During the Belle \u00c9poque, the 100-franc gold coin was called a \"monaco\", referring to the flourishing casino business in Monte Carlo."
      },
      {
        "title": "CFP franc",
        "text": "Starting 1 September 2021, a new set of coins were issued, common to all 3 French Pacific Territories. 1 Franc & 2 Francs coins will disappear and a brand new 200 Francs coin will be available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Louis d'or",
        "text": "The Louis d'or (a gold coin) replaced the franc which had been in circulation (in theory) since John II. In actual practice the principal gold coin circulating in France in the earlier 17th century had been Spanish: the 6.7-gram double \"escudo\" or \"doubloon\", of which the \"Louis d'or\" was an explicit copy. There also existed a half-Louis coin (the \"demi-louis d'or\") and a two-Louis coin (the \"double louis d'or\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "French sol",
        "text": "In 1795, the livre was officially replaced by the franc and the sou became obsolete as an official currency division. Nevertheless, the term \"\"sou\" survived as a slang term for 1/20 of a franc. Thus the large bronze 5-centime coin was called \"sou\" (for example in Balzac or Victor Hugo), the \"pi\u00e8ce de cent sous\"\" (\"hundred sous coin\") meant five francs and was also called \"\u00e9cu\" (as in Zola's \"Germinal\"). The last 5-centime coin, remote souvenir inherited from the \"franc germinal\", was removed from circulation in the 1940s, but the word \"sou\" keeps being used (except for the 1960 new franc's five-centime coin which was worth five old francs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franc",
        "text": "A separate (franc CFP) circulates in France's Pacific territories, worth \u20ac0.0084 (formerly 0.055 French franc)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French franc",
        "text": "The gold coinage also changed. 40-franc coins were last struck in 1839 (with just 23 coins minted). Several new denomination were introduced as gold coinage: 5 gold francs (1856), 10 gold francs (1850), 50 gold francs (1855), and 100 gold francs (1855). A second design for the 100 gold franc coin was released in 1878 depicting standing genius writing the constitution. The pictured example (1889) was issued as a proof and only 100 coins were struck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comorian franc",
        "text": "Comorian banknotes are printed by the Banque de France at their paper mill in Vic-le-Comte and their printing works in Chamali\u00e8res, both in Puy-de-D\u00f4me, Auvergne. The 500, 1000, 2000, 5000, and 10,000 franc notes dated 2005 and 2006 contain the EURion constellation, along with other improved security features to make them more difficult to counterfeit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comorian franc",
        "text": "General circulation Comorian coins have always been minted by the Monnaie de Paris. This is indicated by the cornucopia mint mark on the coins, visible to the left of the date, although this was omitted from the 1994 50 franc piece at the request of the Comorian government. The coins are manufactured at their facility in Pessac, Gironde."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of people on banknotes that are no longer in circulation",
        "text": "Currency: Franc (Fr., 1850\u2013Present)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Louis d'or",
        "text": "Because of the new monetary law under Napoleon I , all the 20 francs gold coins from Napoleon I to the 20-franc \"coq\" are Napoleon gold coins."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did 2 centuries of inflation lead to with regards to the franc?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It caused the franc to be redenominated in 1960, each new franc was worth 100 old francs."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Were there two francs in circulation for a time, the new franc old?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Old one- and two-franc coins continued to circulate as new centimes (no new centimes were minted for the first two years)."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is the new franc still used today?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "All franc coins and banknotes ceased to be legal tender in 2002 upon the adoption of the Euro."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What can you do with Franc coins today?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Coins were freely exchangeable until 17 February 2005 at Banque de France only, but I don't have any information on what people do with the Franc coins now."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many Franc coins were not exchanged by February 17, 2005?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "By that date, franc notes worth some \u20ac550 million remained unexchanged, allowing the French state to register the corresponding sum as revenue."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is De facto currency?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "A de facto currency is a unit of money that is not legal tender in a country but is treated as such by most of the populace.",
      "Along with the Spanish peseta, the French franc was also a de facto currency used in Andorra (which had no national currency with legal tender). It circulated alongside the Monegasque franc in Monaco, with which it had equal value; these currencies were all replaced by the euro in 2002."
    ],
    "topic": "French franc",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "De facto currency:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "De facto currency"
        ],
        "ctx": "A de facto currency is a unit of money that is not legal tender in a country but is treated as such by most of the populace. The United States dollar and the European Union euro are the most common de facto currencies."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "French franc:78",
        "passage_titles": [
          "French franc",
          "\"De facto\" currency"
        ],
        "ctx": "Along with the Spanish peseta, the French franc was also a \"de facto\" currency used in Andorra (which had no national currency with legal tender). It circulated alongside the Monegasque franc in Monaco, with which it had equal value. These currencies were all replaced by the euro in 2002."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In the DC Universe continuity, Death is both the end of life and a psychopomp. Like most anthropomorphic personifications of death, Death meets with the recently deceased and guides them into their new existence. However, unlike most personifications of death, she also visits people as they are born, according to Destruction in the \"Sandman Special: The Song of Orpheus\". Evidently, only she seems to remember these encounters. In the special issue, it is also revealed that Death was known in Ancient Greece as Teleute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Other personifications of Death have appeared in the DC Universe. In \"Captain Atom\" #42 Death appears alongside Black Racer of the New Gods and Nekron (a being embodying the will of \"The Black\", the solitude and peace death represents from \"Green Lantern\"). The story stated that all three were equal, representing different aspects of death. Gaiman has denied this, however, and his stories make it clear that Death of the Endless is the ultimate personification of Death. It might be assumed, however, Nekron, the Racer, and the Black Flash are connected to her in some way. Alternatively, there may be multiple avatars or gods of Death in the DC universe, besides those claiming to be Death. Blackest Night has resolved this apparent contradiction or ambiguity, with Nekron no longer being referred to as an aspect of death but instead as a construct formed of darkness in response to the emerging light of the emotional spectrum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death is an immortal being of virtual omnipotence, omniscience and omnipresence. She is not a god of death or agent of it, but Death itself: the end of life. As for the end of her role, Death has said: \"When the last living thing dies, my job will be finished. I'll put the chairs on the tables, turn out the lights, and lock the universe behind me when I leave\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Death, in comics, may refer to:\n* Comic book death, the deaths of characters in comic books and the related entry:\n*The personification of death:\n** Death (DC Comics)\n** Death (Marvel Comics)\n*Death, a member of the Horsemen of Apocalypse"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "One day every century, Death lives (and dies) as a mortal, in order to understand the value of the life she takes. She does this by becoming a mortal fated to die that day. At the end of \"\" her Endless self briefly converses with her mortal self."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death is a character who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics. She first appeared in \"The Sandman\" vol. 2, #8 (August 1989), and was created by Neil Gaiman and Mike Dringenberg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death (DC Comics)\n--Publication history.\n----Character design.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----New Earth.\n----DC Rebirth.\n--Powers and abilities.\n--Appearances.\n----Quasi-canonical appearances.\n--In other media.\n----Audio drama.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Physically, Death is also opposite to the traditional western culture personification of death (see Grim Reaper). In \"The Sandman\", Death instead appears as an attractive, pale goth girl dressed in casual clothes \u2014 often a black top and jeans. She also wears a silver ankh on a chain around her neck, and has a marking similar to the eye of Horus around her right eye. She is pleasant, down-to-earth, perky, and has been a nurturing figure for both incarnations of Dream. This irony has helped make Death one of the most popular characters from \"Sandman\". Death was named the fifteenth greatest comic book character by \"Empire\". Kirby Howell-Baptiste is set to portray the character in the upcoming television series \"The Sandman\" on Netflix."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "According to Gaiman, the initial visual design of Death was based on a friend of Dringenberg's named Cinamon Hadley. From \"The Sandman Companion\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of death deities",
        "text": "In the Marvel Comics Universe, the personification of death is Mistress Death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "This version of Death also made a cameo appearance in the crossover special \"Avengers/JLA\" #2. She is represented in the Grandmaster's home base, alongside Deadman, Hela and the purple-robed version of Death native to the Marvel Universe, which, as the plots of other crossover comics have hinged upon, exists in the same continuum of fictional universes as DC's. Marvel's version of Death appears alternatively as a coldly beautiful woman in a purple robe or a walking skeleton (sometimes male and sometimes female in form, depending upon the context)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "Death is an abstract entity, embodiment of life ending in the Marvel Universe, and the opposite of Eternity, embodiment of the universe. Death is predominantly depicted as a skeleton cloaked in a black or purple robe, and at times appears as a Caucasian human female."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Related characters:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "Because death in American super-hero comics is so often temporary, readers rarely take the death of a character seriously; when a character dies, readers feel very little sense of loss, and are simply left wondering how long it will be before they return to life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Despite some rumors, Death is not based on Gaiman's friend Tori Amos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "Death is an abstract entity, possessing nigh infinite power and knowledge. The character occasionally appears as a humanoid female so as to be able to be perceived by lesser beings, and resides inside a pocket dimension known as the Realm of Death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Death (comics)\n--See also.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "A more traditional version of Death, a skeleton in a bluish or purplish cloak, appeared as host in such DC titles such as \"Weird Mystery Tales\", \"House of Secrets\", \"Ghosts\", \"Weird War Tales\" (including being in the story in issue #94), \"DC Comics Presents\" #29, etc. \"Weird War Tales\" typically featured Death as a skeleton in some sort of military uniform relevant to the era and locality of the war depicted. This character appeared as recently as \"Elvira's House of Mystery\" #2 (February 1986). How this pre-Crisis Death relates to Gaiman's Death, if at all, is unclear, although her older brother Destiny appeared with the character, and both Deaths have appeared with incarnations of Superman. Superman referred to the earlier Death with the term \"Grim Reaper\", so perhaps that could be regarded as a distinct character, however, in the pages of \"Weird War Tales\", he called himself \"Death.\" He also appeared when \"Weird War Tales\" was published under the Vertigo imprint and in the 2010 \"Weird War Tales\" one-shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "Death is frequently imagined as a personified force. In some mythologies, a character known as the Grim Reaper (usually depicted as a berobed skeleton wielding a scythe) causes the victim's death by coming to collect that person's soul. Other beliefs hold that the Spectre of Death is only a psychopomp, serving to sever the last ties between the soul and the body, and to guide the deceased to the afterlife, without having any control over when or how the victim dies. Death is most often personified in male form, although in certain cultures Death is perceived as female (for instance, Marzanna in Slavic mythology, Santa Muerte in Mexico), or Mistress Death who appears in Marvel comics as a love interest of super villain, Thanos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death is the second eldest of the Endless, a family of anthropomorphic beings. Death is possibly the most powerful of the Endless (and one of the most powerful beings in the universe, followed closely by beings like Lucifer Morningstar, however is slightly less powerful than The Presence) having been shown (in a flashback in ') to be virtually omniscient and being able to intimidate the Furies, who show no fear of the other Endless, simply by raising her voice in '. The witch Thessaly mentions that Death is the only one of the Endless who is bound by no rules, supported in Dream's portion of \"\" in which she briefly makes an appearance at a conference designed to set functions for entities and leaves before it begins. In addition, it is mentioned in \"Brief Lives\" that she is the only one of the Endless who may survive the end of this incarnation of the universe. Death's realm is not portrayed in detail in the series, except for a brief scene in her \"house\" in the \"Sandman Special\", \"Song of Orpheus\", and later in \"The Books of Magic\" series. This is where she keeps her floppy hat collection, her goldfish Slim and Wandsworth and possibly her gallery. A brief glimpse of her realm can also be seen in \"The Little Endless Storybook\", when Barnabas visits her, although this time in her \"apartment suite\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of death deities",
        "text": "Death is the name of one of \"The Endless\" in the DC Universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In \"Swamp Thing\" vol. 2, #6, The Phantom Stranger met Death in the form of a middle-aged gentleman, possibly inspired by \"Death Takes a Holiday\". In the story, a young woman, Margaret \"Maggie\" Brennan, had what should have been a minor head injury and at one glimpse of Death chose to become Death's bride. As someone newly dead herself, she taught Death that he needs to show compassion for the newly dead to allay their fears. He takes her advice and they both serve as aspects of Death. This version of Death was created by Mike W. Barr and Dan Spiegle. Maggie is blonde and bears only minor physical resemblance to Gaiman and Dringenberg's version, though her compassionate nature is a similarity. In \"The Spectre\" (vol. 2), The Phantom Stranger himself appeared to be the only psychopomp in the DC Universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "Death (distinguished as Mistress Death or Lady Death) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is a cosmic entity based on the personification of death. They first appeared in \"Captain Marvel\" #26 (Jun. 1973) and was created by Mike Friedrich and Jim Starlin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "The character first appeared in \"Captain Marvel\" #26 (Jun. 1973) and was created by Mike Friedrich and Jim Starlin. Death is an abstract entity, the embodiment of the end of life in the Marvel Universe, and resides inside a pocket dimension known as the Realm of Death. The character can change appearance at will shown in a storyline of \"Captain Marvel\" where Thanos' scheme to conquer the universe, as the character becomes determined to prove his love for Death by destroying all life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death first appeared as a woman in \"The Witching Hour\" #56 (July 1975) in a tale told by Mordred (written by Carl Wessler and illustrated by Ruben Yandoc). She was depicted with short, curly, red-blonde hair, and was a rival for two men's affections. Both men die in successive car accidents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "McKean also used a series of professional English models for representations of Death on covers of \"Sandman.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death appeared in \"Captain Atom\" #42-43 (June\u2013July 1990), in which she appeared alongside the Black Racer as one of several aspects of Death in the DC Universe. Gaiman reportedly took issue with this depiction, feeling that portraying her as merely an aspect of death diminished her importance. Other Giffen stories that feature Death include the \"Ambush Bug Nothing Special\" one-shot (Sep. 1992) and a cameo in the Lobo comic book \"Lobo's Back\" #3 (Oct. 1992), in which she slaps Lobo for getting fresh with her. She observes the destruction of the Earth in \"Legion of Super-Heroes\" vol. 4 #38 (Dec. 1992)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Other characters:\n* Death Adder (comics), a Marvel Superhero\n* Death's Head, a Marvel UK character\n* Death's-Head (comics), a Marvel character and enemy of Daredevil\n* Death Metal (comics), a Marvel UK character\n* Death Squad (comics), a Marvel Comics team of supervillains\n* Death-Stalker, a Marvel character\n* Death Wreck, a Marvel character\n* Doctor Death (comics), a DC supervillain\n* Black Death (comics), a Marvel supervillain\n* Lady Death\n* Lady Deathstrike"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In \"Madame Xanadu\", the title character calls out to her while chained up and denied access to her youth potions during the French Revolution. As she is a survivor from the days of King Arthur, she grows very old very quickly without them. She summons Death and reads her own cards, interpreting her Death card as predictive of her future destiny on earth. Death is so amused by this interpretation that she grants Madame Xanadu immortality, revocable any time Xanadu wishes. Death appeared in \"Action Comics\" #894, which was written by Paul Cornell. Gaiman helped write Death's dialogue to ensure that her characterization remained consistent with \"The Sandman\". In the story, while searching for a black power ring, Lex Luthor encounters her. She appears again in issue #900 and in \"The Flash\" (vol. 3) #6, part of the \"Brightest Day\" crossover."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "The current incarnation of Death first appeared in the final chapter of \"Sandman\"\u2019s first story arc ', \"The Sound of Her Wings\", (issue #8) where she gave Dream direction and a degree of understanding. Death instantly became very popular with readers, and she appears at least briefly in each of the nine subsequent story arcs. However, Gaiman attempted to entice and tease readers by rationing out the number of appearances from Dream's family, so Death did not appear as frequently as one might expect for such a popular character. At the end of the ninth Sandman story arc ', there is a lengthy and noteworthy appearance from Death, in which she finally brings her brother peace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "A common expression regarding comic book death was once \"No one stays dead except Bucky, Jason Todd, and Uncle Ben\", referring to the seminal importance of those characters' deaths to the title character: Captain America's sidekick (retconned dead in 1964), Batman's second Robin (dead in 1988), and Spider-Man's uncle (dead since 1962), respectively. This long-held tenet was broken in 2005, when Jason Todd returned to life as the Red Hood and Bucky was retconned to have survived the accident that seemingly killed him, and brought back as the Winter Soldier who had remained in the shadows for decades."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death appeared in her Grim Reaper form in \"Harley Quinn\" (comic book) Vol 3 #63."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black Racer (DC Comics)",
        "text": "According to \"Captain Atom\" #42, the Black Racer represents \"death as inevitability\", whereas Death of the Endless represents \"death as compassionate release\". Nekron, meanwhile, represents \"Death as the Ultimate Opponent\". This has been contested by Neil Gaiman, who says that Death of the Endless is the ultimate incarnation of death in the DC Universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "A one-shot issue titled \"Death Gallery\" (1994) was released as one of several art showcase comics from DC Comics spotlighting various Sandman characters released between 1994 and 1995. The \"Death Gallery\" featured representations of Death by more than thirty comics artists, including a rough sketch by Gaiman himself. In \"\" (2003) Gaiman shows Death several billion years ago, with a markedly different personality \u2014 forbidding and joyless."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "She made an appearance in the Marvel Universe, at the wedding of Rick Jones and Marlo Chandler in \"The Incredible Hulk\" #418 (handing Marlo a hair brush, a visual pun referring to Marlo's recent 'brush with death').\n* A version of Death also known as Azrael appeared in the \"Superboy\" episode \"Into the Mystery\", portrayed by Peggy O'Neal.\n* A male version of Death appeared in two episodes of \"Teen Titans Go!\", voiced by David Kaye. This version is also Raven's godfather.\n** Grim Reaper also appeared in the series as a separate character.\n* Death is mentioned in the \"Constantine\" episode \"Blessed Are the Damned\". He had encountered Constantine before having his scythe stolen from him for unknown reasons.\n* In the \"Arrow\" season three episode \"The Secret Origin of Felicity Smoak\", Felicity Smoak's goth look from her college years, especially her black hair and clothing and silver Egyptian Ankh necklace, is a nod to Death.\n* Death is set to appear in the upcoming TV adaptation of \"The Sandman\", portrayed by Kirby Howell-Baptiste.\n* Death is referenced in the HBO Max series \"Doom Patrol\". Edward and Charles of the Dead Boy Detectives agency state that \"she\" is after them. Charles states that \"Death's quite nice actually. And she is super fit\".\n* In a \"DC Showcase\" , Death made her first official appearance outside of comics. In the short, Death (voiced by Jamie Chung) meets Vincent (voiced by Leonardo Nam), a failed artist struggling with his personal demons. It was directed by Sam Liu, and written by J.M. DeMatteis. The short was released as a special feature with the \"\" Blu-Ray.\n* Death (not of the Endless) was also the narrator and host of \"The Big Book of Death\" (1995), a large format comic in the Ripley's Believe It Or Not \"strange but true\" genre which came out from Paradox Press, an imprint of DC.\n* \"Death of the Endless\" is referenced in the 2009 young adult novel, \"The Suicide Club\", by Rhys Thomas. In it, the lead character describes death returning with the sound of beating wings.\n* Death is referenced in original \"The Sandman\" penciller Sam Kieth's \"The Maxx\": \"They're all necro-nerds and Sand freaks. They think death is romantic. Death is hard and cold and ugly, not some cute chick\" as quoted by the character Sara, as the comic panels focus in on a colored poster of Death herself.\n* In the television series \"Roseanne\", posters of Death are seen on Darlene's bedroom walls, and a small postcard of Death hung for a time on the family refrigerator.\n* Death made a brief cameo in \"Nodwick\" #33, greeting the warrior Yaeger during a near-death experience.\n* Death is also mentioned in Jorge Jaramillo's novel \"Vallecuervo\" (M\u00e9xico, 2010). \u00darsula, the main character, is looking for her brother. In an old attic she discovered he was living in, she finds an assortment of comic books: \"While I was looking at that Love and Rockets TPB I sensed I was being watched. To my surprise it was Her. Yes, Her. Death. Of the Endless. The cute chick in black dress from Neil Gaiman's comics. She was there, standing still, looking right into my eyes. I moved forward, I touched Her face. Dust. I folded Her and took Her with me (along with those Rockets and some Rick Veitch's books)\".\n* Death has a brief animated cameo in the 2017 fan-film, \"Sandman: 24 Hour Diner\", based on #6 of Sandman. In an original sequence to the story, she collects the nightmares of the deceased patrons of the diner and rescues her brother Dream.\n* The Virgin Books' New Adventures \"Doctor Who\" novel series introduced a manipulative and generally morally ambivalent female incarnation of Death (or rather, as later revealed, one of several Eternals masquerading as cosmic principles). In \"Happy Endings\", she quotes from the original \"The Books of Magic\" mini-series. Although the bulk of the novel was written by Paul Cornell, the section featuring Death was written by author Neil Penswick, as part of a chapter written in tandem by the authors of the previous 49 novels.\n* Death is described and discussed by American filmmaker Kevin Smith during his interview with Joe Rogan on The Joe Rogan Experience podcast #1123, in the context of how he dealt with his heart surgery. While on the operating table he thought about the Death character, and how in an issue of The Sandman, she was asked by an older man: \"\"That's it? I did all these things. I worked my fingers to the bone. What did I get?\", to which Death replied \"You got what everybody gets. You got a lifetime\"\".\n* The lead character of the music video for Pearl Jam's \"Do the Evolution\" is said to have been inspired by Death herself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "In the comic book fan community, the apparent death and subsequent return of a long-running character is often called a comic book death. A comic book death is generally not taken seriously by readers and is rarely permanent or meaningful other than for story or thematic purposes. The term is usually not applied to characters who have the ability to return from the dead as an established power or ability, such as Solomon Grundy or Ra's al Ghul."
      },
      {
        "title": "Superhero fiction",
        "text": "Death in superhero fiction is rarely permanent, as characters who die are often brought back to life through supernatural means or via retcons (retroactive changes to the continuity), the alteration of previously established facts in the continuity of a fictional work. Fans have termed the practice of bringing back dead characters \"comic book death\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "Death (Marvel Comics)\n--Publication history.\n--Fictional character biography.\n--Powers and abilities.\n--Other versions.\n----Earth X.\n--In other media.\n----Television.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "She also appeared in Mike Carey's \"Lucifer\" series when the eponymous main character was wounded and nearly died. Initially it appears that Death has actually arrived for Lucifer, but in fact she is there for Elaine Belloc who dies (temporarily) saving Lucifer's life. Death admits she has arrived a little early and takes the opportunity to talk to Lucifer who is currently trapped between life and death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "Commenting on the impact and role of comic book character deaths, writer Geoff Johns said: \"Death in superhero comics is cyclical in its nature, and that's for a lot of reasons, whether they are story reasons, copyright reasons, or fan reasons\". The phenomenon of comic book death is particularly common for superhero characters. Writer Danny Fingeroth suggests that the nature of superheroes requires that they be both ageless and immortal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "Death first appeared in \"The Sandman\" vol. 2, #8 (August 1989), and was created by Neil Gaiman and Mike Dringenberg. She is both an embodiment of death and a psychopomp in The Sandman Universe, and depicted as a down to earth, perky, and nurturing figure. Death is the second born of The Endless and she states \"When the last living thing dies, my job will be finished. I'll put the chairs on the tables, turn out the lights and lock the universe behind me when I leave.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "Death is a fictional character in Terry Pratchett's \"Discworld\" series, and depicted as one of many Deaths. His jurisdiction is specifically the Discworld itself; he is only a part, or minion, of Azrael, the universal Death. Death has appeared in every Discworld novel, with the exception of \"The Wee Free Men\" and \"Snuff\". \"Mort\", published in 1987, is the first time Death appears as a leading character."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Storylines:\n* \"The Death of Superman\"\n* \"Death of Buffy\" (Buffy comic)\n* Death (disambiguation)"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "Superman's death stuns and traumatizes the residents of the DC Universe. His funeral is attended by nearly every superhero, as well as some supervillains, President Bill Clinton, and First Lady Hillary Clinton. Every hero wears a black arm band featuring Superman's logo. After the funeral, Project Cadmus steals Superman's body from his mausoleum to clone him, but Lane and Supergirl recover it. With Superman gone, the crime rate rises; the costumed heroes of Metropolis, including a team funded by Luthor, rise to fill in as protectors but are insufficient."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nekron",
        "text": "Nekron is the personification of Death and ruler of a region adjoining Hell known as the Land of the Unliving, that also seems to border on Limbo and Purgatory within the DC Universe. It is where the souls of the dead await passage to their final residence in either the Silver City or Hell. Nekron draws his power from the souls and spirits of all those who have ever died."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In the AIDS-awareness eight-page comic \"Death Talks About Life\" by Gaiman and McKean (which was first included in various Vertigo titles, and later released as a stand-alone giveaway pamphlet), Death demonstrates safe sex by placing a condom on a banana held by John Constantine. Lightening the impact of the underlying message, she informs the reader that when one is through with the demonstration, \"you can eat the banana\". This was used in high school health classes and is also reprinted as an addendum to the \"Death: The High Cost of Living\" trade paperback."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor Death (character)",
        "text": "Dr. Death is a mad scientist and supervillain appearing in publications by DC Comics. The character was created by Gardner Fox and Bob Kane as an enemy of the superhero Batman, and first appeared in \"Detective Comics\" #29 (July 1939). He is notable as the first traditional supervillain to be encountered by the Batman, as well as his first recurring foe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In 2003, the manga-style graphic novel ' portrayed Death's activities during the fourth Sandman story arc '. It was written and illustrated by Jill Thompson, and the format proved popular enough for Thompson to produce the similarly manga-influenced follow-up \"Dead Boy Detectives\", featuring minor \"Sandman\" characters, and \"featuring a cameo by Death\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor Death (character)",
        "text": "In September 2011, \"The New 52\" rebooted DC's continuity. Here, a new version of Dr. Death makes an appearance in \"Batman\" #25 as part of the story arc \"\". He is once again established as one of the first supervillains encountered by Batman early in his career. A disgruntled former Wayne Enterprises scientist, Dr. Death murders several people with a serum that causes uncontrolled bone growth. He is depicted with a skeletal appearance, a result of testing his serum on himself. Dr. Death joins forces with the Riddler to try to seize control of Gotham City during a super-storm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Killing off",
        "text": "Extremely long print runs make the popularity of characters (with writers and fans) and occasionally rights issues for using the character in licensed adaptations often make characters often be brought back to life by later writers. That can happen either as a depiction of their literal resurrection or by retcon, a revision that changes earlier continuity and establishes the character not to have died in the first place. This phenomenon is known as the comic book death. Killing off a main character such as Superman, Batman or Captain America can often lead to an uptick in publicity for a comic book and high sales for the story in which they are inevitably brought back to life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "In the British children's sketch television show \"Horrible Histories\", Death (portaryed by Simon Farnaby) is a reoccurring character who appears the segment, \"Stupid Deaths\" and later in its sixth series, \"Chatty Deaths\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "According to \"Vulture\"s Abraham Riesman, DC \"aggressively\" promoted \"The Death of Superman\" since it had financial incentives to do so, as comic book speculation was at its peak. Publishers like DC would designate certain comic book issues as significant, causing mint condition copies to be sold for more money. For \"Superman\" #75, DC issued a press kit to stores with a cardboard coffin, stickers, and a poster. At the height of the crossover, in May 1993 DC published a special issue, \"Newstime: The Life and Death of The Man of Steel\". It compiled fictional news stories about Superman's death, providing an in-universe look at the event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "In the devil \"holds the power of death.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Source (comics)",
        "text": "Source (comics)\n--History.\n----Death of the New Gods.\n----DC Rebirth.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death-Shield",
        "text": "Death-Shield is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "Comic book death\n--Context.\n--Notable examples.\n--In-universe acknowledgement.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death's popularity saw her spun off into two solo miniseries, ' (1993), and ' (1996). Both were written by Gaiman and illustrated by Chris Bachalo, and dealt with Death's encounters with various mortals. \"Death: The High Cost of Living\" became the first comic released under the newly instigated Vertigo branding in 1993, at which point \"The Sandman\" also moved from the DC to Vertigo imprint. A third miniseries, \"The Girl who Would Be Death\" by Caitl\u00edn R. Kiernan, was about a girl who purchased an ankh stolen from Death and tried to become her. Death is never actually seen in the series, but she speaks and acts in the third and fourth issues of the four-issue series."
      },
      {
        "title": "DC Universe",
        "text": "There are several types of cosmic entities, such as:\n* Gods: The first beings calling themselves 'gods' first appeared billions of years ago on another planet, but they destroyed themselves in a terrible war. This unleashed the \"Godwave\", a wave of cosmic energy from the Source. This gave birth to other gods across the universe, including Earth's. From the planet's remains the worlds of Apokolips and New Genesis were formed, inhabited by beings that call themselves the \"New Gods\". The Source Wall is an archetype of Buddha on the edge of the known galaxy. Certain speedsters believe in enlightenment in order to become part of the Speed Force (\"see below\"). Kismet is an immortal god and the embodiment of reality. She was matched with Marvel's Eternity in \"JLA/Avengers\". In mortal form she was a member of the Lords of Order. Depending on the characters, other diverse religious deities from ancient cultures are common. Heroes such as Aztek and Black Condor, or villains like Black Adam, have found knowledge of their native roots in origin.\n* Death represents different characters in the DC Universe. One personification of death is the Black Flash, who can represent Death as an internal figure for the speedsters in the DC Universe. Another is Death (\"see below\"), who resides at the very end of time. The Black Racer appears as Death in the afterlife. There also is Nekron, lord of the Land of the Unliving, who is the embodiment of Death as the ultimate opponent. Death is also one of the Endless, and is the ultimate personification of Death in the DCU.\n* The Lords of Chaos and Order: These two groups of magical beings have been fighting against each other since the beginning of time and they often empower others (with \"Order Magic\" or \"Chaos Magic\") in exchange for their acting as their agents. Many magical heroes and villains have been manipulated by them. The Lords of Chaos and Order were killed by the Spectre in \"Day Of Vengeance: Infinite Crisis Special\" #1.\n* Elementals: The Earth itself has a living spirit called \"Maya\" who, for millennia, has been creating champions, one for each of the mystical elements, to protect itself, using human beings as their hosts. The Swamp Thing, Firestorm, Naiad and the Red Tornado were some of them.\n* \"Homo magi\": a species of humanity with the natural ability to use magic, this race almost disappeared after too much crossbreeding with normal humans (it is from them that people in the DC Universe inherited the ability to use magic). The last pure-blooded ones decided to retire to a magical invisible city centuries ago and are now known as \"the Hidden Ones\". Zatanna knows many of the race's secrets, and Traci Thirteen is currently investigating magical and occult phenomena for the Croatoan Society\u2014both women had \"Homo magi\" mothers.\n* The Endless: Physical manifestations of eternal and universal phenomena that affect the human condition (Destiny, Death, Dream, Destruction, Despair, Desire and Delirium), principally recounted in the Modern Age \"Sandman\" series.\n* Emotional Manifestations: Like the Endless, these beings were created from the emotional energy generated by sentient beings. Each of the seven emotional manifestations of the DCU is represented by a different color (rage - red; greed - orange; fear - yellow; will - green; hope - blue; compassion - indigo; love - violet) and being. The various power-ring based corps of the DCU, most notably the Green Lantern Corps and Sinestro Corps, utilize the energies of these beings.\n* Wizards and Sorcerers: Various sorcerers lurk in the DCU. Dr. Fate, Circe, the wizard Shazam, Mordru and Felix Faust are written as characters who use sorcery to both create and destroy. Dimensions, rituals and spiritual realms are sources for magic power as seen in Ras al Ghul's Lazarus Pit, Doctor Occult's use of the astral plane and the transformations of Captain Marvel.\n* Demons: Demonic entities vary from Etrigan the Demon to Blaze, Satanus and Neron. Demonic entities are abundant and come from Hell although some, like Eclipso the vengeance demon (also referred to as the Prince of Darkness), reside on the Moon. Demonic entities from \"Wonder Woman\" comics are directly linked to Greek mythology such as Hades and Ares. In the Vertigo comics, characters like John Constantine oppose demons influenced by Christian mythology. Most demons are not, however, directly linked to demonology.\n* The Monitors were incredibly powerful cosmic beings. Originally, a Monitor and an Anti-Monitor were byproducts of the event that created the Multiverse. As archenemies, they fought for billions of years, before enlisting the help of warriors and causing the Crisis, during which both were killed. After the Multiverse was reborn, the origins of the Monitors was revised. In the Post-\"Crisis\" continuity, the Monitors were a vast civilization tasked with protecting and guiding the various worlds of the Multiverse. They were also vampires and had to resist the urge to feed on the universes that they were born to protect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "Death (personification)\n--By region.\n----Americas.\n------Latin America.\n----Asia.\n------East Asia.\n------India.\n------Western Asia.\n----Europe.\n------Baltic.\n------Celtic.\n------Hellenic.\n------Scandinavia.\n------Slavic.\n------The Low Countries.\n------Western Europe.\n--In Abrahamic religions.\n----In Judaism.\n------Form and functions.\n------Scholars and the Angel of Death.\n------Rabbinic views.\n----In Christianity.\n----In Islam.\n--Media.\n----Songs.\n------\"Death Don't Have No Mercy\".\n------\"(Don't Fear) The Reaper\".\n------\"Creeping Death\".\n----Books.\n------death (\"Death with Interruptions\" or \"Death at Intervals\").\n------Death (\"Discworld\").\n------Death (\"The Book Thief\").\n------Death (\"Harry Potter\").\n------Death (\"Incarnations of Immortality\").\n------Charlie Asher (\"A Dirty Job\").\n----Comics.\n------Death (DC Comics).\n------Death (Marvel Comics).\n------Lady MacDeath (Bug-a-Boo).\n----Film.\n------\"Death Takes a Holiday\" (1934).\n------\"The Seventh Seal\" (1957).\n------\"The Adventures of Baron Munchausen\" (1988).\n------\"Final Destination\" film series (2000\u20132011).\n----Television.\n----Theatre.\n------\"Elisabeth\" Viennese musical (1992).\n----Video Games.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "Although several comic book deaths are well-known, two of the best-known are the 1980 \"death\" of Jean Grey in Marvel's \"Dark Phoenix Saga\" and that of Superman in DC's highly publicized 1993 \"Death of Superman\" storyline. There is one major distinction between the two, however\u2014whereas it was never intended that Superman's death be permanent, but rather that he would return to life at the conclusion of the story, Jean's passing was intended to be permanent, as the editor Jim Shooter felt that would be the only satisfactory outcome given that she had committed mass murder. Despite this, the story was retconned a few years later to facilitate Jean's return."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "(Ket. 77b; Jellinek, l.c. ii. 48\u201351; Bacher, l.c. i. 192 et seq.)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Near Death (comics)",
        "text": "There has been an effort to adapt the comic to television."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "She also appears in \"The Books of Magic\" (first volume, 1991, also written by Gaiman) at the very end of time, where her function is to set things in order and close the universe down. She meets Timothy Hunter and Mister E there after Mister E has taken Timothy all the way to the end of time, because only there can he kill Timothy without fear of interference. Death stops the murder on the grounds that \"I took both of you billions of years ago\". She sends Timothy back home, but forces Mister E to return the hard way. John Ney Rieber included her in \"The Books of Magic\" (vol. 2 #3-4), in which she lets Timothy Hunter hang out at her house and hold her teddy bear, Cavendish, while he is recovering from the venom of the Manticore. Hunter later encounters Death walking in the rain in \"The Books of Magic\" #25, and there was later an arc about her in \"\". In \"Hellblazer\" #120, Death appears briefly in a pub filled with ghosts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "The character was featured in the \"Silver Surfer\" animated series, voiced by Lally Cadeau. Due to Fox's broadcast standards, this version was depicted as a female personification of chaos known as Lady Chaos. Thanos would talk to a statue of Lady Chaos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Audible released a drama version in July 2019, starring Neil Gaiman, James McAvoy, Taron Egerton, Michael Sheen, and Andy Serkis. Death was played by Kat Dennings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death and culture",
        "text": "Death has been personified as a figure or fictional character in mythology and popular culture since the earliest days of storytelling. Because the reality of death has had a substantial influence on the human psyche and the development of civilization as a whole, the personification of Death as a living, sentient entity is a concept that has existed in many societies since before the beginning of recorded history. In western culture, death has long been shown as a skeletal figure carrying a large scythe, and sometimes wearing a midnight black gown with a hood. This image was widely illustrated during the Middle Ages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Knight (DC Comics)",
        "text": "He has a state funeral back in London, his coffin draped in the Union Flag is paraded through the streets while huge crowds of mourners line the procession path. The Prime Minister talks about the possibility of resurrecting him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "During the \"Chaos War\" storyline, Daimon Hellstrom mentions to Hercules that Death has fled their reality upon Amatsu-Mikaboshi triumphing in the realms of the dead, causing the souls of the deceased to be unleashed upon the Earth, and rendering the victims of the siege, whose injuries might otherwise prove fatal, merely locked in a deathless limbo."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "\"The Death of Superman\" is divided into three story arcs: \"Doomsday!\", \"Funeral for a Friend\", and \"Reign of the Supermen!\". The first arc chronicles Superman's fight with the monster Doomsday and concludes with his apparent death. The second depicts Superman's fellow superheroes and the rest of the DC Universe mourning his death, ending with his adoptive father Jonathan Kent having a heart attack. The third sees the emergence of four Superman imposters before the original returns. A number of characters in \"The Death of Superman\", such as Doomsday, the Cyborg Superman, and Steel, would recur in later DC publications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lady Death",
        "text": "The character was ranked 39th in \"Comics Buyer's Guide\"s \"100 Sexiest Women in Comics\" list."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "The personification of Death appears many times in many different games, especially \"Castlevania\" and \"The Sims\". Nearly all iterations of a \"Death\" or \"Grim Reaper\" character feature most of the same characteristics seen in other media and pop culture: a skeleton wearing a cloak and wielding a scythe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Killing off",
        "text": "Death is a frequently used dramatic device in comic book fiction, and in particular superhero fiction. Unlike stories in television or film, character deaths are rarely by unforeseen behind-the-scenes events, as there is no analogous situation to having actors portraying characters. Instead, characters are typically killed off as part of the story or occasionally by editorial mandate to generate publicity for a title. Teasers may hint at characters' deaths for an extended period. A number of factors often mean that the changes are not permanent."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "Although \"A Death in the Family\" sold well, it harmed Starlin's standing at DC. DC's licensing department was infuriated over the death because of the amount of merchandise\u2014such as lunchboxes and pajamas\u2014that bore Robin's likeness. According to Starlin, \"everybody got mad, and they needed somebody to blame\u2014so I got blamed.\" Work quickly declined for him, and within six months he departed DC and returned to Marvel Comics, where he wrote \"The Infinity Gauntlet\" (1991)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Imperiex",
        "text": "At least 8 million people on Earth die during the war. The total number dead in the DC Universe is stated to be countless. Several heroes also die, including Maxima, Aquaman, Guy Gardner, Queen Hippolyta, General Sam Lane (Lois Lane's father), and Steel are all presumed dead, but later return alive for different reasons.\n* Entropy manipulation: Imperiex wielded the power of the Big Bang itself, and was capable of projecting energy blasts powerful enough to destroy Doomsday with one blast.\n* Superhuman strength: He was able to physically match Post-Crisis Superman in direct combat.\n* Superhuman durability.\n* Superhuman stamina.\n* Imperiex had the ability to create black holes capable of sucking up entire universes.\n* Planetary consumption.\n* Can create probes of himself."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "Starlin and the artists prepared two versions of \"Batman\" #428, depending on the outcome. As O'Neil stated, \"It really could have gone either way. We prepared two choices of balloons. We had alternate panels. We had everything set up so that the two outcomes could be accomplished with a minimum of changes. We prepared for either situation.\" Raspler explained that Aparo prepared three alternate pages and several panels with static images that could be easily rearranged. O'Neil voted to let Todd live, as he felt killing the character would complicate his job as an editor, and Starlin was unable to vote because he was in Mexico at the time. O'Neil and Raspler checked the results every 90 minutes. DC executive editor and vice president Dick Giordano expected readers to vote in favor of Todd's survival; O'Neil believed they would vote for his death to see if DC would follow through."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "A Death in the Family (comics)\n--Publication history.\n----Background.\n----Development.\n----Publication.\n--Synopsis.\n--Reception.\n----Initial.\n----Retrospective.\n--Literary analysis.\n----Depiction of Islam.\n--Legacy.\n----Effect on future stories.\n----In other media.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "In Western Europe, Death has commonly been personified as an animated skeleton since the Middle Ages. This character, which is often depicted wielding a scythe, is said to collect the souls of the dying or recently dead. In English and German culture, Death is typically portrayed as male, but in French, Spanish, and Italian culture, it is not uncommon for Death to be female."
      },
      {
        "title": "Snapper Carr",
        "text": "From 2007 to 2008, DC Comics published the \"Death of the New Gods\" eight-issue limited series. In this comic book, all of the New Gods are killed, the planets New Genesis and Apokolips merge, and the Fourth World dimension ceases to exist in favor of a new \"Fifth World\" dimension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Multiverse (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Upon the conclusion of \"Dark Nights: Death Metal\" the Multiverse is recreated by the Hands as an Omniverse. The timeline of the DCU is \"unknotted\", meaning that every version of history throughout the existence of the Multiverse is considered to have occurred in the past of the Omniverse and is remembered by the inhabitants of Earth-0. A team of superheroes and villains called \"The Totality\" is formed to protect the DCU from threats in this new, greater multiverse."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "\"A Death in the Family\" was part of the American comic book industry's trend towards \"grim and gritty\" comics in the late 1980s, and is remembered as one of DC's most controversial storylines. Chris Snellgrove of \"Looper\" described the scenes depicting Todd's torture and death\u2014with the Joker covered in his blood\u2014 as \"one of the most disturbing moments in the publisher's long history\". DC editors took the lessons they learned from the controversy and used media coverage for publicity when killing off major characters in the future, such as Superman in \"The Death of Superman\" (1992\u20131993)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death's Head",
        "text": "Later, in 2005, fans used a poll on Marvel's website to vote for the character's return. This led to a third version of Death's Head, Death's Head 3.0, created by original Death's Head writer Simon Furman. Simon Furman said in 2011 that the character was still popular because \u201che'll never change or compromise or grow or repent or agonise like most comic book characters. He's this unchanging, uncompromising rock that other characters bounce off. But you still kind of love him. Weird.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Simon Hurt",
        "text": "In 2016, DC Comics implemented another relaunch of its books called \"DC Rebirth\", which restored its continuity to a form much as it was prior to \"The New 52\". He was still considered an ancestor of Thomas Wayne in this continuity and his immortality is because of the Hyper-Adapter that is fused to him. Simon recruited Professor Pyg and made him create Dollotrons of Robin and Nightwing, one that becomes the man known as Deathwing. Deathwing brings him Robin, who he plans to kill at dawn, but the Doctor was apparently killed when Deathwing stabbed him, but not before stabbing Deathwing too."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death of the New Gods",
        "text": "As part of the lead-in to the limited series, a number of New Gods were seen being tracked and killed in a number of other DC titles:"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "Dar described the Joker's speech as blatant Islamophobia disguised as humor. Shaheen and Dar argued \"A Death in the Family\" promotes the idea of \"Them vs. Us\", pitting the Arab and Western worlds against each other as diametrically opposed in values. The story contains errors in its depiction of the Middle East. Starlin writes Batman as speaking Farsi, the Persian language, in Beirut (where Arabic is actually the commonly spoken language), and the Joker dons a traditional Arab headdress and robes as the Iranian ambassador, although Iran is not an Arab country. Dar concluded that and [DC]'s disregard for cultural, religious, and political accuracy simply points to a crude and racist generalization: Arabs, Iranians, and Muslims are all the 'same' and 'hate' the West.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Lady Death",
        "text": "Lady Death\n--Publication history.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----The first Lady Death.\n----Classic Lady Death.\n----Classic Lady Death at Avatar Press.\n--Lady Death comic series.\n----Chaos! Comics.\n----CrossGen Comics.\n----Avatar Press.\n--In other media.\n--Accolades.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death of a Superhero",
        "text": "Don asks his brother about his relationship with someone who his brother thinks fondly of. His brother seems happy with her."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "Some characters established during \"The Death of Superman\" became recurring characters in DC's comics. Superboy and Steel received ongoing series after the story's conclusion and Steel appears in a self-titled film (1997), portrayed by basketball player and Superman fan Shaquille O'Neal. Eradicator received a limited series, Superboy remained a fixture of the DC Universe until he was killed in \"Infinite Crisis\" (2005\u20132006), and the Cyborg Superman became a recurring enemy of Superman and Green Lantern. Later comics featuring Doomsday included \"\" (1995), which explores his origin, and \"Reign of Doomsday\" (2011), which heavily references \"The Death of Superman\" and features him hunting down the Supermen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "Nobel laureate Jos\u00e9 Saramago's novel features an anthropomorphised death as its main character, who insists that her name be written lowercase. She is depicted as a skeleton who can shapeshift and be omnipresent and has a scythe, though she doesn't always carry it. Her jurisdiction is limited to the imaginary country where the story happens and to the human species. It is implied that other deaths with jurisdiction over different life forms and territories exist, as well as an overarching death and/or god. The book deals with how society relates to death, both as a phenomenon and a character, and likewise how death relates to the people she is meant to kill and with loneliness and love."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death Follows",
        "text": "Death Follows is a graphic novel written by Cullen Bunn and illustrated by A. C. Zamudio. It is based on the short prose story \"Remains\" by Bunn. It was initially published as a digital exclusive comic by MonkeyBrain Comics on ComiXology under the name \"The Remains\" in four parts in 2014. It was later republished as a graphic novel by Dark Horse Comics in 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor Death (character)",
        "text": "After several decades' absence, Dr. Death was reintroduced by writer Gerry Conway in \"Batman\" #345 and \"Detective Comics\" #512 (1982). Conway's story is an update of the original 1939 tale. In this version, Dr. Death is depicted as a paraplegic, but his deadly gas gimmick remains the same. He is assisted this time by a manservant named Togo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death-Day",
        "text": "Established comics creator Sam Hiti got the inspiration to create \"Death-Day\" after the September 11 attacks and the wars that followed shortly after the collapse of the World Trade Center. As a child, Hiti did not know what the letter D in \"D-Day\" stood for, and concluded that it must stand for \"death\" due to all the deceased people that are shown on television on the anniversary of the Normandy landings. Later in life, Hiti decided that if he were ever to write a story about war, \"Death-Day\" would make a great title."
      },
      {
        "title": "Near Death (comics)",
        "text": "Near Death (comics)\n--Publication history.\n--Plot.\n--Critical reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor Death (character)",
        "text": "Dr. Death remains active in the DC Universe following the events of \"Infinite Crisis\". In \"52\" #2, he is mentioned as one of many mad scientists who have gone missing. He is depicted later in the series among other captured scientists and mad geniuses on Oolong Island that make up the Science Squad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Discworld)",
        "text": "The initial books did not pronounce themselves about the sex of Death, although Ysabell called him 'Daddy', using the pronoun \"it\". In \"Mort\" Death's pronoun is given as \"he\" and \"his\" without the special capital as in the earlier books. In \"Reaper Man\", Death is unambiguously identified as a male, and in \"Soul Music\" and \"Hogfather\" Susan calls him her grandfather or \"Granddad\". When asked to describe Death, in the second Discworld computer game, the protagonist Rincewind hazards a guess, \"Well, I suppose he's a man. You have to look at the pelvis, don't you?\" In the comic strip adaptation of \"Mort\", Death is seen in mirrors as a black-bearded human wearing a black cloak, a look he takes when he needs to be seen by the living."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "The entity appears in the title \"War Is Hell\" and forces soldier John Kowalski to undergo a number of lives and deaths as punishment for doing nothing to prevent the invasion of Poland, with Kowalski eventually becoming an aspect of Death; in the title \"Ghost Rider\" posing as \"Death Ryder\" to test Johnny Blaze and becoming fascinated with the Titan Thanos, and the mercenary Deadpool."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deathblow (comics)",
        "text": "Deathblow dies during the Fire From Heaven event, sacrificing himself in order to kill Damocles, the villain from that crossover."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "Death is one of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse portrayed in the Book of Revelation, in Revelation 6:7\u20138."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "Death also appears briefly in \"Fables\" #11 (May 2003) titled \"Bag O' Bones\", where Jack Horner traps Death in a magical bag that never gets full. There has been no indication as to whether Fables has any connection to the Sandman universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "In some versions, both arms of this verse are addressed to death."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "In 2011, DC relaunched its entire comics line in an initiative called The New 52, which revamped the DC Universe and erased certain events. The relaunch altered Superman considerably, characterizing him as shorter-tempered and no longer in love with Lois Lane. However, \"The Death of Superman\" remained intact in the new DC Universe. To coincide with the release of the animated film adaptation of the crossover in 2018, a 12-part \"Death of Superman\" webcomic series began, written by Simonson and illustrated by Cat Staggs, Joel Ojeda, and Laura Braga, among others. The first parts chronicle Superman's actions hours before Doomsday kills him; later parts follow Jimmy Olsen during the confrontation and the aftermath of Superman's death."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What does the personification of death do in DC comics that most personifications of death do not?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Unlike most personifications of death, DC's death does not just meet with those who have died, but visits those who are being born, though, only she remembers meeting them. She also differs in that she keeps a collection of floppy hats, and has a pair of goldfish named Slim and Wandsworth.",
      "Death, a character who appears in DC Comics as an attractive, pale goth girl dressed in casual clothes, meets with the recently deceased and guides them into their new existence. However, unlike most personifications of death, she also visits people as they are born."
    ],
    "topic": "Death (DC Comics)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Death (DC Comics):2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Death (DC Comics)"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the DC Universe continuity, Death is both the end of life and a psychopomp. Like most anthropomorphic personifications of death, Death meets with the recently deceased and guides them into their new existence. However, unlike most personifications of death, she also visits people as they are born, according to Destruction in the \"Sandman Special: The Song of Orpheus\". Evidently, only she seems to remember these encounters. In the special issue, it is also revealed that Death was known in Ancient Greece as Teleute."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Death (DC Comics):13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Death (DC Comics)",
          "Fictional character biography",
          "New Earth"
        ],
        "ctx": "Death is the second eldest of the Endless, a family of anthropomorphic beings. Death is possibly the most powerful of the Endless (and one of the most powerful beings in the universe, followed closely by beings like Lucifer Morningstar, however is slightly less powerful than The Presence) having been shown (in a flashback in ') to be virtually omniscient and being able to intimidate the Furies, who show no fear of the other Endless, simply by raising her voice in '. The witch Thessaly mentions that Death is the only one of the Endless who is bound by no rules, supported in Dream's portion of \"\" in which she briefly makes an appearance at a conference designed to set functions for entities and leaves before it begins. In addition, it is mentioned in \"Brief Lives\" that she is the only one of the Endless who may survive the end of this incarnation of the universe. Death's realm is not portrayed in detail in the series, except for a brief scene in her \"house\" in the \"Sandman Special\", \"Song of Orpheus\", and later in \"The Books of Magic\" series. This is where she keeps her floppy hat collection, her goldfish Slim and Wandsworth and possibly her gallery. A brief glimpse of her realm can also be seen in \"The Little Endless Storybook\", when Barnabas visits her, although this time in her \"apartment suite\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Death (DC Comics):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Death (DC Comics)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Death is a character who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics. She first appeared in \"The Sandman\" vol. 2, #8 (August 1989), and was created by Neil Gaiman and Mike Dringenberg."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Death (DC Comics):2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Death (DC Comics)"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the DC Universe continuity, Death is both the end of life and a psychopomp. Like most anthropomorphic personifications of death, Death meets with the recently deceased and guides them into their new existence. However, unlike most personifications of death, she also visits people as they are born, according to Destruction in the \"Sandman Special: The Song of Orpheus\". Evidently, only she seems to remember these encounters. In the special issue, it is also revealed that Death was known in Ancient Greece as Teleute."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Death (DC Comics):3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Death (DC Comics)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Physically, Death is also opposite to the traditional western culture personification of death (see Grim Reaper). In \"The Sandman\", Death instead appears as an attractive, pale goth girl dressed in casual clothes \u2014 often a black top and jeans. She also wears a silver ankh on a chain around her neck, and has a marking similar to the eye of Horus around her right eye. She is pleasant, down-to-earth, perky, and has been a nurturing figure for both incarnations of Dream. This irony has helped make Death one of the most popular characters from \"Sandman\". Death was named the fifteenth greatest comic book character by \"Empire\". Kirby Howell-Baptiste is set to portray the character in the upcoming television series \"The Sandman\" on Netflix."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In the DC Universe continuity, Death is both the end of life and a psychopomp. Like most anthropomorphic personifications of death, Death meets with the recently deceased and guides them into their new existence. However, unlike most personifications of death, she also visits people as they are born, according to Destruction in the \"Sandman Special: The Song of Orpheus\". Evidently, only she seems to remember these encounters. In the special issue, it is also revealed that Death was known in Ancient Greece as Teleute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Other personifications of Death have appeared in the DC Universe. In \"Captain Atom\" #42 Death appears alongside Black Racer of the New Gods and Nekron (a being embodying the will of \"The Black\", the solitude and peace death represents from \"Green Lantern\"). The story stated that all three were equal, representing different aspects of death. Gaiman has denied this, however, and his stories make it clear that Death of the Endless is the ultimate personification of Death. It might be assumed, however, Nekron, the Racer, and the Black Flash are connected to her in some way. Alternatively, there may be multiple avatars or gods of Death in the DC universe, besides those claiming to be Death. Blackest Night has resolved this apparent contradiction or ambiguity, with Nekron no longer being referred to as an aspect of death but instead as a construct formed of darkness in response to the emerging light of the emotional spectrum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death in ancient Greek art",
        "text": "Greek heroa were tombs dedicated to both mythological and actual heroes of the Ancient Greek world. These tombs contained the remains of the hero and acted as a place where citizens of the polis where the tomb was located could hold feasts as a hero cult in order to honor the hero. They were built in a variety of different styles, were located in many different polis across Greece, and their legacy was continued by the Romans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "A more traditional version of Death, a skeleton in a bluish or purplish cloak, appeared as host in such DC titles such as \"Weird Mystery Tales\", \"House of Secrets\", \"Ghosts\", \"Weird War Tales\" (including being in the story in issue #94), \"DC Comics Presents\" #29, etc. \"Weird War Tales\" typically featured Death as a skeleton in some sort of military uniform relevant to the era and locality of the war depicted. This character appeared as recently as \"Elvira's House of Mystery\" #2 (February 1986). How this pre-Crisis Death relates to Gaiman's Death, if at all, is unclear, although her older brother Destiny appeared with the character, and both Deaths have appeared with incarnations of Superman. Superman referred to the earlier Death with the term \"Grim Reaper\", so perhaps that could be regarded as a distinct character, however, in the pages of \"Weird War Tales\", he called himself \"Death.\" He also appeared when \"Weird War Tales\" was published under the Vertigo imprint and in the 2010 \"Weird War Tales\" one-shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "She made an appearance in the Marvel Universe, at the wedding of Rick Jones and Marlo Chandler in \"The Incredible Hulk\" #418 (handing Marlo a hair brush, a visual pun referring to Marlo's recent 'brush with death').\n* A version of Death also known as Azrael appeared in the \"Superboy\" episode \"Into the Mystery\", portrayed by Peggy O'Neal.\n* A male version of Death appeared in two episodes of \"Teen Titans Go!\", voiced by David Kaye. This version is also Raven's godfather.\n** Grim Reaper also appeared in the series as a separate character.\n* Death is mentioned in the \"Constantine\" episode \"Blessed Are the Damned\". He had encountered Constantine before having his scythe stolen from him for unknown reasons.\n* In the \"Arrow\" season three episode \"The Secret Origin of Felicity Smoak\", Felicity Smoak's goth look from her college years, especially her black hair and clothing and silver Egyptian Ankh necklace, is a nod to Death.\n* Death is set to appear in the upcoming TV adaptation of \"The Sandman\", portrayed by Kirby Howell-Baptiste.\n* Death is referenced in the HBO Max series \"Doom Patrol\". Edward and Charles of the Dead Boy Detectives agency state that \"she\" is after them. Charles states that \"Death's quite nice actually. And she is super fit\".\n* In a \"DC Showcase\" , Death made her first official appearance outside of comics. In the short, Death (voiced by Jamie Chung) meets Vincent (voiced by Leonardo Nam), a failed artist struggling with his personal demons. It was directed by Sam Liu, and written by J.M. DeMatteis. The short was released as a special feature with the \"\" Blu-Ray.\n* Death (not of the Endless) was also the narrator and host of \"The Big Book of Death\" (1995), a large format comic in the Ripley's Believe It Or Not \"strange but true\" genre which came out from Paradox Press, an imprint of DC.\n* \"Death of the Endless\" is referenced in the 2009 young adult novel, \"The Suicide Club\", by Rhys Thomas. In it, the lead character describes death returning with the sound of beating wings.\n* Death is referenced in original \"The Sandman\" penciller Sam Kieth's \"The Maxx\": \"They're all necro-nerds and Sand freaks. They think death is romantic. Death is hard and cold and ugly, not some cute chick\" as quoted by the character Sara, as the comic panels focus in on a colored poster of Death herself.\n* In the television series \"Roseanne\", posters of Death are seen on Darlene's bedroom walls, and a small postcard of Death hung for a time on the family refrigerator.\n* Death made a brief cameo in \"Nodwick\" #33, greeting the warrior Yaeger during a near-death experience.\n* Death is also mentioned in Jorge Jaramillo's novel \"Vallecuervo\" (M\u00e9xico, 2010). \u00darsula, the main character, is looking for her brother. In an old attic she discovered he was living in, she finds an assortment of comic books: \"While I was looking at that Love and Rockets TPB I sensed I was being watched. To my surprise it was Her. Yes, Her. Death. Of the Endless. The cute chick in black dress from Neil Gaiman's comics. She was there, standing still, looking right into my eyes. I moved forward, I touched Her face. Dust. I folded Her and took Her with me (along with those Rockets and some Rick Veitch's books)\".\n* Death has a brief animated cameo in the 2017 fan-film, \"Sandman: 24 Hour Diner\", based on #6 of Sandman. In an original sequence to the story, she collects the nightmares of the deceased patrons of the diner and rescues her brother Dream.\n* The Virgin Books' New Adventures \"Doctor Who\" novel series introduced a manipulative and generally morally ambivalent female incarnation of Death (or rather, as later revealed, one of several Eternals masquerading as cosmic principles). In \"Happy Endings\", she quotes from the original \"The Books of Magic\" mini-series. Although the bulk of the novel was written by Paul Cornell, the section featuring Death was written by author Neil Penswick, as part of a chapter written in tandem by the authors of the previous 49 novels.\n* Death is described and discussed by American filmmaker Kevin Smith during his interview with Joe Rogan on The Joe Rogan Experience podcast #1123, in the context of how he dealt with his heart surgery. While on the operating table he thought about the Death character, and how in an issue of The Sandman, she was asked by an older man: \"\"That's it? I did all these things. I worked my fingers to the bone. What did I get?\", to which Death replied \"You got what everybody gets. You got a lifetime\"\".\n* The lead character of the music video for Pearl Jam's \"Do the Evolution\" is said to have been inspired by Death herself."
      },
      {
        "title": "God Is Dead (comics)",
        "text": "The Greek Pantheon\n*Zeus\n*Aphrodite\n*Ares\n*Poseidon\n*Dionysus\n*Hecate\n*Eros\n*Apollo\n*Athena\n*Hephaestus\n*Thanatos\n*Hermes\n*Artemis\n*Eris\n*Moros\n*Oizys\n*Pan\n*Janus\n*Demeter\n*Hades\n*Persephone\n*Nike\n*Enyalius\n*Clio\n*Euterpe\n*Phantasos\n*Helios"
      },
      {
        "title": "God of War (DC Comics)",
        "text": "As with the first seven video games in the series, the comic book series is set in an alternate version of Ancient Greece, populated by the Olympian Gods and other beings of Greek mythology. The story is split between two chapters in the video game chronology; a period before ' (2013), and a later period between \"God of War\" (2005) and ' (2010). For the majority of the series, it narrates the events of the past via flashbacks with occasional focus on present events. In both, protagonist Kratos traverses Ancient Greece and the Aegean Sea on a quest for the Ambrosia of Asclepius."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decay (DC Comics)",
        "text": "To win the approval of his father Ares, the minor god Phobos (god of fear) journeyed to the Cavern of the Gorgons where he molded a statuette from malevolent matter scoured from Medusa's heart. He then arranged for the item to be delivered to the Kapatelis residence, a friend of Wonder Woman. It was here that Wonder Woman, also known as Diana, was rooming as she oriented herself to life off of her island home Themyscira."
      },
      {
        "title": "Olympian Gods (DC Comics)",
        "text": "The merger of the Greek and Roman pantheons did not sit well with the Roman goddess Diana. She accepted an offer of power from the old \"Shattered God\", separated from Artemis and betrayed the Olympians. Diana died in battle with Wonder Woman when she was crushed by a statue of Zeus. The Olympians were incapacitated, but Wonder Woman eventually found a way to awaken them in time for them to strike decisively at the Shattered God."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death is a character who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics. She first appeared in \"The Sandman\" vol. 2, #8 (August 1989), and was created by Neil Gaiman and Mike Dringenberg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "This version of Death also made a cameo appearance in the crossover special \"Avengers/JLA\" #2. She is represented in the Grandmaster's home base, alongside Deadman, Hela and the purple-robed version of Death native to the Marvel Universe, which, as the plots of other crossover comics have hinged upon, exists in the same continuum of fictional universes as DC's. Marvel's version of Death appears alternatively as a coldly beautiful woman in a purple robe or a walking skeleton (sometimes male and sometimes female in form, depending upon the context)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death in ancient Greek art",
        "text": "The theme of death within ancient Greek art has continued from the Early Bronze Age all the way through to the Hellenistic period. The Greeks used architecture, pottery, and funerary objects as different mediums through which to portray death. These depictions include mythical deaths, deaths of historical figures, and commemorations of those who died in war. This page includes various examples of the different types of mediums in which death is presented in Greek art."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Physically, Death is also opposite to the traditional western culture personification of death (see Grim Reaper). In \"The Sandman\", Death instead appears as an attractive, pale goth girl dressed in casual clothes \u2014 often a black top and jeans. She also wears a silver ankh on a chain around her neck, and has a marking similar to the eye of Horus around her right eye. She is pleasant, down-to-earth, perky, and has been a nurturing figure for both incarnations of Dream. This irony has helped make Death one of the most popular characters from \"Sandman\". Death was named the fifteenth greatest comic book character by \"Empire\". Kirby Howell-Baptiste is set to portray the character in the upcoming television series \"The Sandman\" on Netflix."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Death, in comics, may refer to:\n* Comic book death, the deaths of characters in comic books and the related entry:\n*The personification of death:\n** Death (DC Comics)\n** Death (Marvel Comics)\n*Death, a member of the Horsemen of Apocalypse"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "One day every century, Death lives (and dies) as a mortal, in order to understand the value of the life she takes. She does this by becoming a mortal fated to die that day. At the end of \"\" her Endless self briefly converses with her mortal self."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death is an immortal being of virtual omnipotence, omniscience and omnipresence. She is not a god of death or agent of it, but Death itself: the end of life. As for the end of her role, Death has said: \"When the last living thing dies, my job will be finished. I'll put the chairs on the tables, turn out the lights, and lock the universe behind me when I leave\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "In Ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, Death (Thanatos) is one of the twin sons of Nyx (night). Like her, he is seldom portrayed directly. He sometimes appears in art as a winged and bearded man, and occasionally as a winged and beardless youth. When he appears together with his twin brother, Hypnos, the god of sleep, Thanatos generally represents a gentle death. Thanatos, led by Hermes \"psychopompos\", takes the shade of the deceased to the near shore of the river Styx, whence the ferryman Charon, on payment of a small fee, conveys the shade to Hades, the realm of the dead. Homer's \"Iliad\" 16.681, and the Euphronios Krater's depiction of the same episode, have Apollo instruct the removal of the heroic, semi-divine Sarpedon's body from the battlefield by Hypnos and Thanatos, and conveyed thence to his homeland for proper funeral rites. Among the other children of Nyx are Thanatos' sisters, the Keres, blood-drinking, vengeant spirits of violent or untimely death, portrayed as fanged and taloned, with bloody garments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death appeared in \"Captain Atom\" #42-43 (June\u2013July 1990), in which she appeared alongside the Black Racer as one of several aspects of Death in the DC Universe. Gaiman reportedly took issue with this depiction, feeling that portraying her as merely an aspect of death diminished her importance. Other Giffen stories that feature Death include the \"Ambush Bug Nothing Special\" one-shot (Sep. 1992) and a cameo in the Lobo comic book \"Lobo's Back\" #3 (Oct. 1992), in which she slaps Lobo for getting fresh with her. She observes the destruction of the Earth in \"Legion of Super-Heroes\" vol. 4 #38 (Dec. 1992)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death in ancient Greek art",
        "text": "The suicide of Ajax vase was made by Exekias during the Archaic Period. The scene depicts Ajax preparing for his suicide in black-figure on a neck amphora. Ajax is bent over his sword, which he is placing in the ground. There is a tree to one side of him and his suit of armor on the other side. This scene is unusual in Greek art because it depicts the moment right before the death, rather than the violence of the actual death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In \"Madame Xanadu\", the title character calls out to her while chained up and denied access to her youth potions during the French Revolution. As she is a survivor from the days of King Arthur, she grows very old very quickly without them. She summons Death and reads her own cards, interpreting her Death card as predictive of her future destiny on earth. Death is so amused by this interpretation that she grants Madame Xanadu immortality, revocable any time Xanadu wishes. Death appeared in \"Action Comics\" #894, which was written by Paul Cornell. Gaiman helped write Death's dialogue to ensure that her characterization remained consistent with \"The Sandman\". In the story, while searching for a black power ring, Lex Luthor encounters her. She appears again in issue #900 and in \"The Flash\" (vol. 3) #6, part of the \"Brightest Day\" crossover."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In \"Swamp Thing\" vol. 2, #6, The Phantom Stranger met Death in the form of a middle-aged gentleman, possibly inspired by \"Death Takes a Holiday\". In the story, a young woman, Margaret \"Maggie\" Brennan, had what should have been a minor head injury and at one glimpse of Death chose to become Death's bride. As someone newly dead herself, she taught Death that he needs to show compassion for the newly dead to allay their fears. He takes her advice and they both serve as aspects of Death. This version of Death was created by Mike W. Barr and Dan Spiegle. Maggie is blonde and bears only minor physical resemblance to Gaiman and Dringenberg's version, though her compassionate nature is a similarity. In \"The Spectre\" (vol. 2), The Phantom Stranger himself appeared to be the only psychopomp in the DC Universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death in ancient Greek art",
        "text": "Depictions of the death of Iphigenia are mostly on pottery. She was a young girl who was to be the sacrifice for Agamemnon's mistake. Pottery depictions of this mythological story are of two different versions. One where she dies, and the other is where her body is replaced with the corpse of an animal by Artemis, who saves her. The pottery depictions are mostly by the black-figure and red-figure techniques. They are also mostly amphoras and kraters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hercules (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In the Post-\"Crisis\" DC Universe, the Roman Gods existed separately from the Greek ones after Darkseid tricked them into splitting up so they could be worshipped by two different cultures at the same time; only after the \"War of the Gods\" did the two versions merge again. So in effect, both Heracles and Hercules existed, and they merged into one being during John Byrne's run on the comic."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of death deities",
        "text": "In the Marvel Comics Universe, the personification of death is Mistress Death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death in ancient Greek art",
        "text": "The heroon at Nemea is an example of a hero shrine, the resting place of the late Ophletes and a place for Greeks to worship. The heroon was a way to memorialize the infant and transform his legacy from that of a mere mortal to that of a hero. Ophletes' death elevated him above the status of other humans and made him more divine, and thus his final resting place became a sacred space to Greeks. The ancient Greeks would use this space and the surrounding land to host the Nemean Games in Ophletes' honor, as well as practice magic and other cult activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death (DC Comics)\n--Publication history.\n----Character design.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----New Earth.\n----DC Rebirth.\n--Powers and abilities.\n--Appearances.\n----Quasi-canonical appearances.\n--In other media.\n----Audio drama.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Olympian Gods (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Phobos returned alongside his sister Eris in alliance with Circe. Circe had amassed great power by bringing gods of various pantheons together. Among them were the Roman gods, who challenged the Olympians for their domain. It took much strength for Zeus to summon Hermes and Diana to New Olympus, where the gods had been trapped. Earth's heroes were able to turn the tide against Circe, but three gods died: Circe killed Hermes; Harmonia was killed by her sister Eris; and Eris herself was slain by Son of Vulcan. Zeus and the Olympians decided then to follow the call of Cronus and the Titans to help guide other worlds in the universe. New Olympus was left to the Roman gods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Despite some rumors, Death is not based on Gaiman's friend Tori Amos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amazons (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Originally a cavern was built under the Amazons' Temple of the Dead, which is where those dead are remembered. After an Amazon's funeral is completed, the body is lowered into the cavern where it is laid to rest in a city of the dead. Queen Hippolyta assigns the chief temple priestess to remain alone in the city to watch over the dead for a thousand years before a replacement is made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hippolyta (DC Comics)",
        "text": "After they had killed all the men keeping them prisoners, Antiope renounced all ties to the Olympian gods and said goodbye to her sister Hippolyta, giving Hippolyta her Golden Girdle of Gaea to replace the one stolen by Heracles. She left to pursue vengeance, intending to kill Heracles and Theseus. Antiope's tribe later became the Amazons of Bana-Mighdall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Olympian Gods (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Wonder Woman also met the Lamia of myth, who laid with Zeus and bore his children. Hera changed her into a snake-like creature and killed her children. She now lurks in the American sewers, acting as a benevolent caregiver to troubled children. She attempted to commit suicide using Diana's lasso (which she had her young friend Sneaker steal), but Diana stopped her and Lamia disappeared along with Sneaker, with whom she had developed a mother-daughter relationship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "He is also known as the Pale Horseman whose name is Thanatos, the same as that of the ancient Greek personification of death, and the only one of the horsemen to be named."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fury (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Helena Kosmatos was a new character named \"Fury\", created to replace the Golden Age Wonder Woman as Lyta Trevor's biological mother. She began appearing in Thomas' \"Young All-Stars\", a book set in World War II, and her backstory was revealed in \"Secret Origins\" #12. She was a Greek national who had learned her brother was co-operating with Italian Fascists who previously killed her father. When she confronted her brother with this revelation in front of their mother, it was too much for the widow to take and she died of an instant heart attack. Wishing revenge upon her brother, she was approached by Tisiphone, one of the Eumenides or Furies, who gave her a suit of magic armor, which increased her strength, speed and stamina. When angered, she became an avatar of Tisiphone, and it was in this state that she killed her brother."
      },
      {
        "title": "DC Universe",
        "text": "There are several types of cosmic entities, such as:\n* Gods: The first beings calling themselves 'gods' first appeared billions of years ago on another planet, but they destroyed themselves in a terrible war. This unleashed the \"Godwave\", a wave of cosmic energy from the Source. This gave birth to other gods across the universe, including Earth's. From the planet's remains the worlds of Apokolips and New Genesis were formed, inhabited by beings that call themselves the \"New Gods\". The Source Wall is an archetype of Buddha on the edge of the known galaxy. Certain speedsters believe in enlightenment in order to become part of the Speed Force (\"see below\"). Kismet is an immortal god and the embodiment of reality. She was matched with Marvel's Eternity in \"JLA/Avengers\". In mortal form she was a member of the Lords of Order. Depending on the characters, other diverse religious deities from ancient cultures are common. Heroes such as Aztek and Black Condor, or villains like Black Adam, have found knowledge of their native roots in origin.\n* Death represents different characters in the DC Universe. One personification of death is the Black Flash, who can represent Death as an internal figure for the speedsters in the DC Universe. Another is Death (\"see below\"), who resides at the very end of time. The Black Racer appears as Death in the afterlife. There also is Nekron, lord of the Land of the Unliving, who is the embodiment of Death as the ultimate opponent. Death is also one of the Endless, and is the ultimate personification of Death in the DCU.\n* The Lords of Chaos and Order: These two groups of magical beings have been fighting against each other since the beginning of time and they often empower others (with \"Order Magic\" or \"Chaos Magic\") in exchange for their acting as their agents. Many magical heroes and villains have been manipulated by them. The Lords of Chaos and Order were killed by the Spectre in \"Day Of Vengeance: Infinite Crisis Special\" #1.\n* Elementals: The Earth itself has a living spirit called \"Maya\" who, for millennia, has been creating champions, one for each of the mystical elements, to protect itself, using human beings as their hosts. The Swamp Thing, Firestorm, Naiad and the Red Tornado were some of them.\n* \"Homo magi\": a species of humanity with the natural ability to use magic, this race almost disappeared after too much crossbreeding with normal humans (it is from them that people in the DC Universe inherited the ability to use magic). The last pure-blooded ones decided to retire to a magical invisible city centuries ago and are now known as \"the Hidden Ones\". Zatanna knows many of the race's secrets, and Traci Thirteen is currently investigating magical and occult phenomena for the Croatoan Society\u2014both women had \"Homo magi\" mothers.\n* The Endless: Physical manifestations of eternal and universal phenomena that affect the human condition (Destiny, Death, Dream, Destruction, Despair, Desire and Delirium), principally recounted in the Modern Age \"Sandman\" series.\n* Emotional Manifestations: Like the Endless, these beings were created from the emotional energy generated by sentient beings. Each of the seven emotional manifestations of the DCU is represented by a different color (rage - red; greed - orange; fear - yellow; will - green; hope - blue; compassion - indigo; love - violet) and being. The various power-ring based corps of the DCU, most notably the Green Lantern Corps and Sinestro Corps, utilize the energies of these beings.\n* Wizards and Sorcerers: Various sorcerers lurk in the DCU. Dr. Fate, Circe, the wizard Shazam, Mordru and Felix Faust are written as characters who use sorcery to both create and destroy. Dimensions, rituals and spiritual realms are sources for magic power as seen in Ras al Ghul's Lazarus Pit, Doctor Occult's use of the astral plane and the transformations of Captain Marvel.\n* Demons: Demonic entities vary from Etrigan the Demon to Blaze, Satanus and Neron. Demonic entities are abundant and come from Hell although some, like Eclipso the vengeance demon (also referred to as the Prince of Darkness), reside on the Moon. Demonic entities from \"Wonder Woman\" comics are directly linked to Greek mythology such as Hades and Ares. In the Vertigo comics, characters like John Constantine oppose demons influenced by Christian mythology. Most demons are not, however, directly linked to demonology.\n* The Monitors were incredibly powerful cosmic beings. Originally, a Monitor and an Anti-Monitor were byproducts of the event that created the Multiverse. As archenemies, they fought for billions of years, before enlisting the help of warriors and causing the Crisis, during which both were killed. After the Multiverse was reborn, the origins of the Monitors was revised. In the Post-\"Crisis\" continuity, the Monitors were a vast civilization tasked with protecting and guiding the various worlds of the Multiverse. They were also vampires and had to resist the urge to feed on the universes that they were born to protect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thanatos (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Thanatos is the Ancient Greek personification of death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hercules (DC Comics)",
        "text": "After the reboot of the DC universe in \"Crisis\", \"Heracles\" \u2014 the Greek spelling \u2014 appeared in the pages of \"Wonder Woman\". George P\u00e9rez, putting Greek mythology at the center of Wonder Woman's world, relates the tale of Heracles' and his men's conquest of the Amazons and his rape of Queen Hippolyta, and their revenge upon him."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of death deities",
        "text": "Death is the name of one of \"The Endless\" in the DC Universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hades (DC Comics)",
        "text": "The new Olympian order of rule was again changed when the New Gods of Apokolips captured the Olympian pantheon and tampered with their memories. Hence, the current ruler of the Olympian underworld is still in question. This is further compounded by Ares' recent demise at the hands of Wonder Woman, putting the question of Olympian Underworld rulership in a greater state of confusion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thanatos",
        "text": "In Greek mythology, Thanatos (; , pronounced in \"Death\", from \u03b8\u03bd\u1fc4\u03c3\u03ba\u03c9 \"thn\u0113sk\u014d\" \"(I) die, am dying\") was the personification of death. He was a minor figure in Greek mythology, often referred to but rarely appearing in person."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "According to Gaiman, the initial visual design of Death was based on a friend of Dringenberg's named Cinamon Hadley. From \"The Sandman Companion\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "Death is an abstract entity, embodiment of life ending in the Marvel Universe, and the opposite of Eternity, embodiment of the universe. Death is predominantly depicted as a skeleton cloaked in a black or purple robe, and at times appears as a Caucasian human female."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death in ancient Greek art",
        "text": "The grave monument from Kallithea is an example of a funerary monument from the Hellenistic period. They were for wealthy people and families that served to remind the living of the power and wealth of the dead by exhibiting conspicuous consumption. This monument was for a non Greek family from Romania, who became prominent in Athens in the 300s. The grave monument had a podium, pedestal, a frieze, and a naiskos with statues of two family members and a slave inside. These grave monument largely disappeared in Attica after an austerity law that banned them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nekron",
        "text": "Nekron is the personification of Death and ruler of a region adjoining Hell known as the Land of the Unliving, that also seems to border on Limbo and Purgatory within the DC Universe. It is where the souls of the dead await passage to their final residence in either the Silver City or Hell. Nekron draws his power from the souls and spirits of all those who have ever died."
      },
      {
        "title": "Olympian (comics)",
        "text": "Aristides Demetrios is a Greek national who wears the mythical Golden Fleece, which grants him the strength of Hercules and various other powers connected to the heroes who comprised the Argonauts. He aids Wonder Woman battling Colonel Conquest in Greece, where a bomb was supposed to be hidden. In one incident, he helps Superman stop a gathering of mystical artifacts designed to bring back the villain Thaumar Dhai. They encounter Echidne, an old adversary of the Olympian, a beautiful woman with a long, gigantic snake form instead of legs. Olympian would later join Superman and many fellow Guardians on Easter Island. They would again battle Echidne and her fellow mystics. Dhai's mystical return is reversed and he is seemingly destroyed. The Greek hero later meets Fury of Infinity Inc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Demophon of Eleusis",
        "text": "The bungled immortalization becomes the cause of his death, and funeral games in his honor were established at Eleusis under the guise of a ritual mock-battle, a quasi-athletic event known as the \"Ball\u00eatus\","
      },
      {
        "title": "Themyscira (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Later still, Darkseid\u2019s forces ravaged Themyscira during a search to locate the Greek gods, killing nearly half of the Amazons there in the process. As they began rebuilding, the Amazons found themselves reverting to stone. This was as a result of the gods\u2019 departure from the mortal plane, and the Amazons\u2019 connection to their creator beings so diminished as to revert their bodies to their primordial state. With the gods returned to Olympus, the Amazons were again transformed into their flesh and blood state. Yet more Amazons were killed in a confrontation with the demonic entity known as Neron."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dimitris Liantinis",
        "text": "According to Liadinis, the notion of death occupied the ancients to such a degree that one could see their whole culture as arising from the radical views they held on the subject. They saw death as an unchanging cosmic law, much like today's notion of entropy, and did not associate whatever afterlife they had conceived with a moral system of reward and punishment (like the ones found in the great Judaic religions). Although individual myths, like that of Sisyphus who was condemned to eternal punishment in the realms of Hades, \"did\" exist, they were largely exceptions to the rule and never developed into a proper system of beliefs about life after death. In one of his lectures, Liantinis says that Homer describes a scene where the hero, before engaging him in battle, says to his opponent: \"the race of men is related to that of leaves\" (\"\u03bf\u1f35\u03b7 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03c6\u03cd\u03bb\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u1f74 \u03c4\u03bf\u03af\u03b7 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd\"), as we momentarily stand fresh on the tree branch, then quickly surrender to the wind and rain. The lyric poet Pindar also questions in his works: \"What are we [men] but dreams of shadows...\" (\"\u03c3\u03ba\u03b9\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f44\u03bd\u03b1\u03c1 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2\"), \"...not even shadows proper\" as Liantinis points out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greek Dark Ages",
        "text": "Lefkandi on the island of Euboea was a prosperous settlement in the Late Bronze Age, possibly to be identified with old Eretria. It recovered quickly from the collapse of Mycenaean culture, and in 1981 excavators of a burial ground found the largest 10th-century building yet known from Greece. Sometimes called \"the \"heroon\"\", this long narrow building, 50 metres by 10 metres, or about 150 feet by 30 feet, contained two burial shafts. In one were placed four horses and the other contained a cremated male buried with his iron weapons and an inhumed woman, heavily adorned with gold jewellery. The man's bones were placed in a bronze jar from Cyprus, with hunting scenes on the cast rim. The woman was clad with gold coils in her hair, rings, gold breastplates, an heirloom necklace (an elaborate Cypriot or Near Eastern necklace made some 200 to 300 years before her burial), and an ivory-handled dagger at her head. The horses appeared to have been sacrificed, some appearing to have iron bits in their mouths. No evidence survives to show whether the building was erected to house the burial, or whether the \"hero\" or local chieftain in the grave was cremated and then buried in his grand house; whichever is true, the house was soon demolished and the debris used to form a roughly circular mound over the wall stumps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hercules (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Hercules (also known as Heracles and Herakles) is a fictional Olympian god in the DC Universe based on the Greek demigod and hero of the same name."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "A common expression regarding comic book death was once \"No one stays dead except Bucky, Jason Todd, and Uncle Ben\", referring to the seminal importance of those characters' deaths to the title character: Captain America's sidekick (retconned dead in 1964), Batman's second Robin (dead in 1988), and Spider-Man's uncle (dead since 1962), respectively. This long-held tenet was broken in 2005, when Jason Todd returned to life as the Red Hood and Bucky was retconned to have survived the accident that seemingly killed him, and brought back as the Winter Soldier who had remained in the shadows for decades."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outcasts (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Racing to aide Kaine, they learn that she has been gunned down on the air and is barely alive. They hijack the ambulance containing Kaine and Yancy, angry that she won't be able to finally end his life of immortality by aging him to death, grabs her bare skin as he yells at her to get up. Touching her allows her body to inadvertently absorb his lifeforce and brings her back to life while Yancy ages, withers and collapses to the floor in a heap of skin and bones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "Death is frequently imagined as a personified force. In some mythologies, a character known as the Grim Reaper (usually depicted as a berobed skeleton wielding a scythe) causes the victim's death by coming to collect that person's soul. Other beliefs hold that the Spectre of Death is only a psychopomp, serving to sever the last ties between the soul and the body, and to guide the deceased to the afterlife, without having any control over when or how the victim dies. Death is most often personified in male form, although in certain cultures Death is perceived as female (for instance, Marzanna in Slavic mythology, Santa Muerte in Mexico), or Mistress Death who appears in Marvel comics as a love interest of super villain, Thanos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Themyscira (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Themyscira is a segregated nation of women governed by \"Aphrodite's Law\", which declared that the Amazons would be immortal as long as no man sets foot on their island. Men are banned from Themyscira under penalty of death. Themyscira's location is undisclosed; as a security measure, the island can shift its location over both land and time, remains undetectable from the perspective of any outside observer, and as soon as anyone leaves the island, they forget its location."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Related characters:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "During the \"Chaos War\" storyline, Daimon Hellstrom mentions to Hercules that Death has fled their reality upon Amatsu-Mikaboshi triumphing in the realms of the dead, causing the souls of the deceased to be unleashed upon the Earth, and rendering the victims of the siege, whose injuries might otherwise prove fatal, merely locked in a deathless limbo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death is the second eldest of the Endless, a family of anthropomorphic beings. Death is possibly the most powerful of the Endless (and one of the most powerful beings in the universe, followed closely by beings like Lucifer Morningstar, however is slightly less powerful than The Presence) having been shown (in a flashback in ') to be virtually omniscient and being able to intimidate the Furies, who show no fear of the other Endless, simply by raising her voice in '. The witch Thessaly mentions that Death is the only one of the Endless who is bound by no rules, supported in Dream's portion of \"\" in which she briefly makes an appearance at a conference designed to set functions for entities and leaves before it begins. In addition, it is mentioned in \"Brief Lives\" that she is the only one of the Endless who may survive the end of this incarnation of the universe. Death's realm is not portrayed in detail in the series, except for a brief scene in her \"house\" in the \"Sandman Special\", \"Song of Orpheus\", and later in \"The Books of Magic\" series. This is where she keeps her floppy hat collection, her goldfish Slim and Wandsworth and possibly her gallery. A brief glimpse of her realm can also be seen in \"The Little Endless Storybook\", when Barnabas visits her, although this time in her \"apartment suite\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death in ancient Greek art",
        "text": "The hellenistic stelai from Demetrias used art styles and sculpting techniques from the Hellenistic period to commemorate the deceased. Marble and stone stele were decorated with full and diverse colors which were used to depict both scenes from life and scenes from myth. By looking at grave stele such as \"Aphrodeisia, Daughter of Theudotos,\" we can learn what life and art for Greeks during the hellenistic period was like."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "Death is an abstract entity, possessing nigh infinite power and knowledge. The character occasionally appears as a humanoid female so as to be able to be perceived by lesser beings, and resides inside a pocket dimension known as the Realm of Death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "She also appears in \"The Books of Magic\" (first volume, 1991, also written by Gaiman) at the very end of time, where her function is to set things in order and close the universe down. She meets Timothy Hunter and Mister E there after Mister E has taken Timothy all the way to the end of time, because only there can he kill Timothy without fear of interference. Death stops the murder on the grounds that \"I took both of you billions of years ago\". She sends Timothy back home, but forces Mister E to return the hard way. John Ney Rieber included her in \"The Books of Magic\" (vol. 2 #3-4), in which she lets Timothy Hunter hang out at her house and hold her teddy bear, Cavendish, while he is recovering from the venom of the Manticore. Hunter later encounters Death walking in the rain in \"The Books of Magic\" #25, and there was later an arc about her in \"\". In \"Hellblazer\" #120, Death appears briefly in a pub filled with ghosts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Other characters:\n* Death Adder (comics), a Marvel Superhero\n* Death's Head, a Marvel UK character\n* Death's-Head (comics), a Marvel character and enemy of Daredevil\n* Death Metal (comics), a Marvel UK character\n* Death Squad (comics), a Marvel Comics team of supervillains\n* Death-Stalker, a Marvel character\n* Death Wreck, a Marvel character\n* Doctor Death (comics), a DC supervillain\n* Black Death (comics), a Marvel supervillain\n* Lady Death\n* Lady Deathstrike"
      },
      {
        "title": "God Is Dead (comics)",
        "text": "The Titans\n*Arke\n*Atlas\n*Gaia\n*Iapetus\n*Perses\n*Oceanus\n*Cronus\n*Rhea\n*Phoebe"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hippolyta (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Following the events of \"Wonder Woman\" #600, the timeline is altered by the Greek Gods and Hippolyta's history is radically changed once again. Here, Themyscira is invaded by a heavily armed paramilitary group while Diana is still a child, and the majority of the Amazons are wiped out in the ensuing battle. Hippolyta is able to save Diana by entrusting her to several of her servants, who smuggle the child to the United States in the midst of the attack, but Hippolyta herself is ultimately captured by the enemy soldiers. After being bound and presented to the leader of the invaders, Hippolyta commits suicide by throwing herself into a massive fire being used to incinerate the dead Amazons, choosing to die rather than submit to her captors. After Wonder Woman's exile in the altered continuity is reversed, Hippolyta is briefly restored to her Modern Age origins, greeting her daughter back and approving the changes she had done to her attitude and appearance during her ordeal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jericho (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Deathstroke hired Doctor Sivana and Doctor Impossible to create a diabolical invention with a healing factor called the \"Methuselah Device\" to save Jericho, who was dying from leprosy. Once Jericho was placed in the machine, they restored Jericho's body. Deathstroke offers its abilities to all of the Titans, promising to restore their deceased loved ones as payment for their services. Some Titans accept, but other Titans refuse and the team fights. Deathstroke walks away with his son, but Jericho possesses him, disgusted at what his father did to achieve his restoration. He intends to destroy first the Methuselah Device, then himself and Deathstroke. While the Titans fight over the machine, its power source, a metahuman named DJ Molecule, is released. DJ Molecule blasts Deathstroke, knocking Jericho out of his body and is then slashed by Cheshire. When Cinder sacrifices herself to destroy the machine, Jericho is carried out by Arsenal. Arsenal and Jericho then decide to form a new team of Titans to restore the legacy that Deathstroke damaged."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hades (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Recently, a shift in power occurred in the Olympian pantheon. While Athena assumed the throne of Mount Olympus from her deposed father Zeus, Hades was stabbed in the back by his nephew Ares. As a result, the former War God soon became the new ruler of the Underworld. As it was revealed that Olympian gods do not truly die, only become citizens of the underworld, Hades presence may still be evoked."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of fictional deities",
        "text": "The DC Universe simultaneously adapts every aspect of theology into its mythos, from Greek to Norse to even atheism and various fictional religions. Examples of gods featured in its narrative include:\n*Ares - The Greek God of War.\n*Darkseid - Apokoliptian God of Evil.\n*Hercules - Demigod son of Zeus.\n*Imperiex - the embodiment of Entropy.\n*Ion - physical embodiment of \"willpower\" of the Emotional Electromagnetic Spectrum.\n*Lords of Chaos and Order, opposed groups of god-like energy beings locked in eternal struggle.\n*Nekron - a personification of death and \"Lord of the Unliving\".\n*Onimar Synn, a god-like entity worshiped by a militaristic death cult on Thanagar.\n*Parallax - physical embodiment of \"fear\" of the Emotional Electromagnetic Spectrum.\n*The Presence - Supreme being of the DCU.\n*Rao - The personification of the red sun of Krypton.\n*The Source - Semi-deistic, \"absolute infinite\" referenced by the New Gods.\n*Vext - \"Patron deity of mishap and misfortune.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Hippolyta (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Hippolyta and the remaining faithful Amazons then went to the sea shore where Athena told them their punishment for betraying their ideals. They were to be given immortality so that they could forever safeguard a doorway to a place of unspeakable evil. The doorway was on a far-off isolated island and it took months to get there. To guide their way, the god Poseidon cleared a pathway for them across the seas. Once they arrived, the Amazons created a new city and named their new home Themyscira, after their previous fallen city. The Amazons continued to live on the island guarding this \"Doom's Doorway\" (later shown to also lead to other places such as parts of Hades) and paying homage to their gods for three-thousand years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decay (DC Comics)",
        "text": "As Phobos arranged, once the statuette (named Decay) was delivered, it came to life in the hands of Vanessa Kapatelis. Decay then forcibly aged Vanessa by decades after she had touched her. Decay then destroyed the Kapatelis home in her first attempt to kill Diana. Failing that, Decay gleefully went on the destructive rampage in the city of Boston with Diana in pursuit. After a dangerous battle which resulted in Wonder Woman being aged as well, Diana realized the proper way to defeat the monster. She snared Decay in her Lasso of Truth, which is also tied to the renewing power of Gaia, Goddess of the Earth. Bombarded with this power, Decay was overwhelmed and she exploded while Diana's youth was restored. A short time later, Diana obtained a magic ointment from Themyscira to restore Vanessa's youth as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "Death (distinguished as Mistress Death or Lady Death) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is a cosmic entity based on the personification of death. They first appeared in \"Captain Marvel\" #26 (Jun. 1973) and was created by Mike Friedrich and Jim Starlin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Themyscira (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Later, Zeus then revives the Amazons' memories and provides transport for them to return to Themyscira."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "The character first appeared in \"Captain Marvel\" #26 (Jun. 1973) and was created by Mike Friedrich and Jim Starlin. Death is an abstract entity, the embodiment of the end of life in the Marvel Universe, and resides inside a pocket dimension known as the Realm of Death. The character can change appearance at will shown in a storyline of \"Captain Marvel\" where Thanos' scheme to conquer the universe, as the character becomes determined to prove his love for Death by destroying all life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hades (DC Comics)",
        "text": "As a result of the machinations of the alien dark and demon god Darkseid, the Olympian gods were each split into separate entities for many years, existing as both their Greek and Roman variations. Hades' Roman counterpart, Pluto, ruled his own dimensional variant of the Underworld, occasionally coming into conflict with his \"brother\". The pantheons were eventually merged once more centuries later."
      },
      {
        "title": "Demeter",
        "text": "In Sparta, she was known as Demeter-Chthonia (chthonic Demeter). The Athenians called the dead \"Demetrioi\", and this may reflect a link between Demeter and ancient cult of the dead, linked to the agrarian-belief that a new life would sprout from the dead body, as a new plant arises from buried seed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Death",
        "text": "In an early Greek myth, death is a consequence of the disagreement between Zeus and Prometheus. As a result of this quarrel, Zeus creates woman, in the form of Pandora and presents her to Prometheus' brother Epimetheus, with death being one of the results of his opening of Pandora's box, which she brought with her."
      },
      {
        "title": "Super Demetrios",
        "text": "In mid 2011, a major Athenian newspaper did a two-page tribute to \"Super Demetrios\", the so-called \"first Greek superhero film\", making it known to the general public of Athens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death appeared in her Grim Reaper form in \"Harley Quinn\" (comic book) Vol 3 #63."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jericho (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Several years later, it was revealed that Jericho's spirit had survived by jumping inside his father right before he was killed. He had lain dormant until hearing that his friend Donna Troy had been killed in battle. Taking control of his father's body, he sought out the latest group of Titans, hoping to convince them that children shouldn't be superheroes and wanting to spare them his fate. He also killed his father's closest friend, Wintergreen, and mounted the man's head on a wall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Olympian Gods (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Olympian Gods (DC Comics)\n--History.\n----New era.\n----Wars of the Gods.\n----Merger of Pantheons.\n----Revolution.\n----Other ancient beings.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Themyscira (DC Comics)",
        "text": "When writer Gail Simone took over the title, she showed that Hippolyta cared for griffins in the royal stables. She also introduced the island of Thalarion, the home of Gargareans during the \"Rise of the Olympian\" storyline. The Gargareans possessed herds of winged horses similar to Themyscira but also possessed flocks of winged lions as well. Their leader Achilles also has a domesticated war elephant named Mysia who has two trunks, two mouths, three glowing eyes, an impenetrable hide, and the ability to walk on air. As the Gargareans incorporated themselves among the Amazons of Themyscira, it is safe to assume these creatures also reside there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Demigod",
        "text": "The earliest recorded use of the term occurs in texts attributed to the archaic Greek poets Homer and Hesiod. Both describe dead heroes as , or \"half gods\". In these cases, the word did not literally mean that these figures had one parent who was divine and one who was mortal. Instead, those who demonstrated \"strength, power, good family, and good \" were termed heroes, and after death they could be called \"hemitheoi\", a process that has been referred to as \"heroization\". Pindar also used the term frequently as a synonym for \"hero\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Simon Hurt",
        "text": "In 2016, DC Comics implemented another relaunch of its books called \"DC Rebirth\", which restored its continuity to a form much as it was prior to \"The New 52\". He was still considered an ancestor of Thomas Wayne in this continuity and his immortality is because of the Hyper-Adapter that is fused to him. Simon recruited Professor Pyg and made him create Dollotrons of Robin and Nightwing, one that becomes the man known as Deathwing. Deathwing brings him Robin, who he plans to kill at dawn, but the Doctor was apparently killed when Deathwing stabbed him, but not before stabbing Deathwing too."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Greek religion",
        "text": "A few Greeks, like Achilles, Alcmene, Amphiaraus Ganymede, Ino, Melicertes, Menelaus, Peleus, and a great number of those who fought in the Trojan and Theban wars, were considered to have been physically immortalized and brought to live forever in either Elysium, the Islands of the Blessed, heaven, the ocean, or beneath the ground. Such beliefs are found in the most ancient Greek sources, such as Homer and Hesiod. This belief remained strong even into the Christian era. For most people at the moment of death there was, however, no hope of anything but continued existence as a disembodied soul."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hades (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Hades shared a sometimes tense relationship with Wonder Woman's people, the Amazons of Themyscira. The Amazons had been appointed to guard an entryway to his realm, Doom's Doorway, behind which were trapped many monsters and undead abominations. Over the centuries, many Amazons lost their lives when the Doorway was occasionally breached. Despite their loss, the Amazons always attempted to show proper respect to the lord of the underworld, as one of the honored gods of their faith. They even built a large tabernacle to the god of the Dead which carried its own priestess who served a 1,000 years before being replaced by another. In time, most of the gods' followers died off or ceased to believe, leaving the Amazons an important part of Hades and the Olympians' continued existence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Death (comics)\n--See also.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Olympian Gods (DC Comics)",
        "text": "One day, the young Uxas of Apokolips came to Rome. There he spread tales of the great Olympian gods. Their following grew tremendously in Rome and so they created avatars of themselves; they were worshipped under different names. Uxas knew that each half of the pantheon would be less powerful than the original gods. Later as the alien dark and demon god Darkseid, Uxas would use this knowledge to crush Zeus himself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death in ancient Greek art",
        "text": "The Dipylon krater from Athens displays representations of funerary rituals for death and burial. The prothesis was a public \"laying out\" of the deceased similar to a modern wake, and the ekphora was a transportation of the body to the grave for burial. These rituals coincided with intense grief and extravagance, as those closest to the deceased attempted to mourn and celebrate his death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hercules (DC Comics)",
        "text": "During Diana's \"Challenge of the Gods\" storyline, she discovered that Heracles was transformed into a colossal stone pillar within Doom's Doorway, and was supporting Themyscira's weight for several millennia. In this stone state, he was tormented and scarred by various mythological creatures, feeling the pain inflicted by them but not being able to do anything about it. This was the punishment given to him by his Olympian family for his past transgressions. Gaining his original form back, he begged the Amazons for forgiveness. Though some of the Amazons still harbored hatred for their past rapes and humiliation, most of them were moved by Heracles' newfound humility, and Queen Hippolyta asked her people to search their hearts for the strength to forgive, which they eventually did. Doing so herself, Hippolyta not only forgave Heracles, but shared a brief romance with him before he left the mortal realm to return to his father in Olympus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death first appeared as a woman in \"The Witching Hour\" #56 (July 1975) in a tale told by Mordred (written by Carl Wessler and illustrated by Ruben Yandoc). She was depicted with short, curly, red-blonde hair, and was a rival for two men's affections. Both men die in successive car accidents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "The character was featured in the \"Silver Surfer\" animated series, voiced by Lally Cadeau. Due to Fox's broadcast standards, this version was depicted as a female personification of chaos known as Lady Chaos. Thanos would talk to a statue of Lady Chaos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medusa (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Medusa was eventually slain by the hero Perseus, and her snake hair was turned into a skull-cap. The Medusa Skull-Cap was eventually given to an alien called Illena, who used it in an attempt to kill Superman."
      },
      {
        "title": "God of War (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Several of the Olympian Gods\u2014Artemis, Hades, Helios, Hermes, and Poseidon\u2014decide to enter into a wager with Ares. Each will choose a champion who is in search of the Ambrosia, with the successful god receiving an award (e.g., having statues erected in their honor across Greece). Kratos kills two of the champions\u2014Herodius and Pothia\u2014and repels attacks by monsters sent by the gods to thwart him. A desperate Hades kills Nikos, who sacrifices himself to save Kratos, passing on the rank of captain. Danaus is killed by Alrik, who retains Danaus' head to possess his magical ability. Kratos locates the \"Tree of Life\", the source of the Ambrosia located on a small island, and confronts Cereyon. After being almost burned alive, Kratos drowns his foe and successfully retrieves the Ambrosia, but as he leaves, he and his Spartan troops are ambushed by Alrik's horde of barbarians. When Hades observes the Spartans defeating the Barbarians, the god attempts to have the Spartans dragged to the Underworld. Alrik uses the head of Danaus to summon rocs to attack Kratos as he flies away on a similar bird with the stolen Ambrosia. Kratos pursues Alrik on a captured roc, knowing that although his men will be taken to the Underworld, they will be honored in Sparta for their sacrifices. Alrik and Kratos battle, during which, the waterskin containing the Ambrosia is punctured, spraying both men. Alrik critically wounds the Spartan, who is subsequently healed thanks to the Ambrosia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hercules (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In the Golden Age, he was mentioned in the origin of the amazons as a slave to them, and he was able to escape by tricking Hippolyta (spelled 'Hippolyte' in the original issue) into giving him her golden girdle on the bequest of Ares (spelled 'Mars') who hated the Amazons. Hercules was shown as an archetypal muscle-bound man wearing a lion-skin, and only appeared in flashbacks. A picture of him, during Wonder Woman's time, shows him as the God of Strength with black hair and a beard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death's popularity saw her spun off into two solo miniseries, ' (1993), and ' (1996). Both were written by Gaiman and illustrated by Chris Bachalo, and dealt with Death's encounters with various mortals. \"Death: The High Cost of Living\" became the first comic released under the newly instigated Vertigo branding in 1993, at which point \"The Sandman\" also moved from the DC to Vertigo imprint. A third miniseries, \"The Girl who Would Be Death\" by Caitl\u00edn R. Kiernan, was about a girl who purchased an ankh stolen from Death and tried to become her. Death is never actually seen in the series, but she speaks and acts in the third and fourth issues of the four-issue series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Source (comics)",
        "text": "Source (comics)\n--History.\n----Death of the New Gods.\n----DC Rebirth.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Central City (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Not long after Allen's death, in \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\" #4 (August 1987), Central City was depicted as experiencing a wave of racial violence, caused or at least exacerbated by politician and white supremacist W. James Heller; in his costumed identity of supposed super-hero William Hell, Heller captured only non-white criminals (creating the false impression that non-whites were primarily responsible for Central City's criminal activity) and recruited white criminals for his \"Aryan Empire\" organization. When Heller attempted to incite further violence at a political rally, Suicide Squad member Deadshot impersonated William Hell to oppose Heller's racist rhetoric, turning Heller's own charade against him, since the costumed \"hero\" proved more popular with the public than any politician. Heller quickly donned his costume to, as William Hell, denounce Deadshot/Hell as an impostor, and in the ensuing conflict, William Hell (Heller) was wounded and his injuries blamed on Heller's followers, partially defusing Central City's racial strife."
      },
      {
        "title": "Archaic (comics)",
        "text": "After a few calm months living in teardrop, the council has gathered to discuss the fate of young Ko\u0161ice. At the same time, Lord Tak Tak's forces invade the floating city of teardrop, allied with The Chorus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death in ancient Greek art",
        "text": "The death masks of Mycenae, for example the Mask of Agamemnon, are a collection of golden masks placed on male dead bodies entombed within circular grave sites located at the city of Mycenae. They are designed to represent the features of the deceased, immortalizing them after death. They also display the status of the deceased through conspicuous consumption, due to their valuable materials."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor Death (character)",
        "text": "Dr. Death remains active in the DC Universe following the events of \"Infinite Crisis\". In \"52\" #2, he is mentioned as one of many mad scientists who have gone missing. He is depicted later in the series among other captured scientists and mad geniuses on Oolong Island that make up the Science Squad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death of the New Gods",
        "text": "The effects were also felt in other DC titles. In \"Birds of Prey\" #109, Knockout was killed, by a figure whose silhouette precisely matches that of the elusive New God, the Infinity Man. In the \"Outsiders - Five of a Kind: Thunder/Martian Manhunter\" one shot, Speed Queen of the Female Furies was fleeing from the God-Killer when she met a comatose Grayven, son of Darkseid. She was killed, though he escaped. Later, Grayven was tricked by the Martian Manhunter into returning to Apokolips, where he was killed as well. In \"Superman/Batman\" #42, Orion's wife Bekka was killed by the assassin. In \"Wonder Girl\" #5, while battling the novice Amazon, Bloody Mary is killed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medusa (DC Comics)",
        "text": "The god of fear, Phobos, later used the heart of Medusa to create the demonic Decay, who battled Wonder Woman on numerous occasions."
      },
      {
        "title": "300 (comics)",
        "text": "Writer David Brin has also criticized \"300\" as being historically inaccurate, with particular reference to the bravery and efficacy of the non-Spartan Greeks:"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What does the personification of death do in DC comics that most personifications of death do not?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Unlike most personifications of death, DC's death does not just meet with those who have died, but visits those who are being born, though, only she remembers meeting them. She also differs in that she keeps a collection of floppy hats, and has a pair of goldfish named Slim and Wandsworth."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the personification of death in DC comics known as in Ancient Greece?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Death was known in Ancient Greece as Teleute.",
      "Death was known in Ancient Greece as Teleute."
    ],
    "topic": "Death (DC Comics)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Death (DC Comics):2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Death (DC Comics)"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the DC Universe continuity, Death is both the end of life and a psychopomp. Like most anthropomorphic personifications of death, Death meets with the recently deceased and guides them into their new existence. However, unlike most personifications of death, she also visits people as they are born, according to Destruction in the \"Sandman Special: The Song of Orpheus\". Evidently, only she seems to remember these encounters. In the special issue, it is also revealed that Death was known in Ancient Greece as Teleute."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Death (DC Comics):2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Death (DC Comics)"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the DC Universe continuity, Death is both the end of life and a psychopomp. Like most anthropomorphic personifications of death, Death meets with the recently deceased and guides them into their new existence. However, unlike most personifications of death, she also visits people as they are born, according to Destruction in the \"Sandman Special: The Song of Orpheus\". Evidently, only she seems to remember these encounters. In the special issue, it is also revealed that Death was known in Ancient Greece as Teleute."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In the DC Universe continuity, Death is both the end of life and a psychopomp. Like most anthropomorphic personifications of death, Death meets with the recently deceased and guides them into their new existence. However, unlike most personifications of death, she also visits people as they are born, according to Destruction in the \"Sandman Special: The Song of Orpheus\". Evidently, only she seems to remember these encounters. In the special issue, it is also revealed that Death was known in Ancient Greece as Teleute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Other personifications of Death have appeared in the DC Universe. In \"Captain Atom\" #42 Death appears alongside Black Racer of the New Gods and Nekron (a being embodying the will of \"The Black\", the solitude and peace death represents from \"Green Lantern\"). The story stated that all three were equal, representing different aspects of death. Gaiman has denied this, however, and his stories make it clear that Death of the Endless is the ultimate personification of Death. It might be assumed, however, Nekron, the Racer, and the Black Flash are connected to her in some way. Alternatively, there may be multiple avatars or gods of Death in the DC universe, besides those claiming to be Death. Blackest Night has resolved this apparent contradiction or ambiguity, with Nekron no longer being referred to as an aspect of death but instead as a construct formed of darkness in response to the emerging light of the emotional spectrum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "According to Gaiman, the initial visual design of Death was based on a friend of Dringenberg's named Cinamon Hadley. From \"The Sandman Companion\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death (DC Comics)\n--Publication history.\n----Character design.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----New Earth.\n----DC Rebirth.\n--Powers and abilities.\n--Appearances.\n----Quasi-canonical appearances.\n--In other media.\n----Audio drama.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "A more traditional version of Death, a skeleton in a bluish or purplish cloak, appeared as host in such DC titles such as \"Weird Mystery Tales\", \"House of Secrets\", \"Ghosts\", \"Weird War Tales\" (including being in the story in issue #94), \"DC Comics Presents\" #29, etc. \"Weird War Tales\" typically featured Death as a skeleton in some sort of military uniform relevant to the era and locality of the war depicted. This character appeared as recently as \"Elvira's House of Mystery\" #2 (February 1986). How this pre-Crisis Death relates to Gaiman's Death, if at all, is unclear, although her older brother Destiny appeared with the character, and both Deaths have appeared with incarnations of Superman. Superman referred to the earlier Death with the term \"Grim Reaper\", so perhaps that could be regarded as a distinct character, however, in the pages of \"Weird War Tales\", he called himself \"Death.\" He also appeared when \"Weird War Tales\" was published under the Vertigo imprint and in the 2010 \"Weird War Tales\" one-shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death is an immortal being of virtual omnipotence, omniscience and omnipresence. She is not a god of death or agent of it, but Death itself: the end of life. As for the end of her role, Death has said: \"When the last living thing dies, my job will be finished. I'll put the chairs on the tables, turn out the lights, and lock the universe behind me when I leave\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Death, in comics, may refer to:\n* Comic book death, the deaths of characters in comic books and the related entry:\n*The personification of death:\n** Death (DC Comics)\n** Death (Marvel Comics)\n*Death, a member of the Horsemen of Apocalypse"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Despite some rumors, Death is not based on Gaiman's friend Tori Amos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "This version of Death also made a cameo appearance in the crossover special \"Avengers/JLA\" #2. She is represented in the Grandmaster's home base, alongside Deadman, Hela and the purple-robed version of Death native to the Marvel Universe, which, as the plots of other crossover comics have hinged upon, exists in the same continuum of fictional universes as DC's. Marvel's version of Death appears alternatively as a coldly beautiful woman in a purple robe or a walking skeleton (sometimes male and sometimes female in form, depending upon the context)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death is a character who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics. She first appeared in \"The Sandman\" vol. 2, #8 (August 1989), and was created by Neil Gaiman and Mike Dringenberg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "She made an appearance in the Marvel Universe, at the wedding of Rick Jones and Marlo Chandler in \"The Incredible Hulk\" #418 (handing Marlo a hair brush, a visual pun referring to Marlo's recent 'brush with death').\n* A version of Death also known as Azrael appeared in the \"Superboy\" episode \"Into the Mystery\", portrayed by Peggy O'Neal.\n* A male version of Death appeared in two episodes of \"Teen Titans Go!\", voiced by David Kaye. This version is also Raven's godfather.\n** Grim Reaper also appeared in the series as a separate character.\n* Death is mentioned in the \"Constantine\" episode \"Blessed Are the Damned\". He had encountered Constantine before having his scythe stolen from him for unknown reasons.\n* In the \"Arrow\" season three episode \"The Secret Origin of Felicity Smoak\", Felicity Smoak's goth look from her college years, especially her black hair and clothing and silver Egyptian Ankh necklace, is a nod to Death.\n* Death is set to appear in the upcoming TV adaptation of \"The Sandman\", portrayed by Kirby Howell-Baptiste.\n* Death is referenced in the HBO Max series \"Doom Patrol\". Edward and Charles of the Dead Boy Detectives agency state that \"she\" is after them. Charles states that \"Death's quite nice actually. And she is super fit\".\n* In a \"DC Showcase\" , Death made her first official appearance outside of comics. In the short, Death (voiced by Jamie Chung) meets Vincent (voiced by Leonardo Nam), a failed artist struggling with his personal demons. It was directed by Sam Liu, and written by J.M. DeMatteis. The short was released as a special feature with the \"\" Blu-Ray.\n* Death (not of the Endless) was also the narrator and host of \"The Big Book of Death\" (1995), a large format comic in the Ripley's Believe It Or Not \"strange but true\" genre which came out from Paradox Press, an imprint of DC.\n* \"Death of the Endless\" is referenced in the 2009 young adult novel, \"The Suicide Club\", by Rhys Thomas. In it, the lead character describes death returning with the sound of beating wings.\n* Death is referenced in original \"The Sandman\" penciller Sam Kieth's \"The Maxx\": \"They're all necro-nerds and Sand freaks. They think death is romantic. Death is hard and cold and ugly, not some cute chick\" as quoted by the character Sara, as the comic panels focus in on a colored poster of Death herself.\n* In the television series \"Roseanne\", posters of Death are seen on Darlene's bedroom walls, and a small postcard of Death hung for a time on the family refrigerator.\n* Death made a brief cameo in \"Nodwick\" #33, greeting the warrior Yaeger during a near-death experience.\n* Death is also mentioned in Jorge Jaramillo's novel \"Vallecuervo\" (M\u00e9xico, 2010). \u00darsula, the main character, is looking for her brother. In an old attic she discovered he was living in, she finds an assortment of comic books: \"While I was looking at that Love and Rockets TPB I sensed I was being watched. To my surprise it was Her. Yes, Her. Death. Of the Endless. The cute chick in black dress from Neil Gaiman's comics. She was there, standing still, looking right into my eyes. I moved forward, I touched Her face. Dust. I folded Her and took Her with me (along with those Rockets and some Rick Veitch's books)\".\n* Death has a brief animated cameo in the 2017 fan-film, \"Sandman: 24 Hour Diner\", based on #6 of Sandman. In an original sequence to the story, she collects the nightmares of the deceased patrons of the diner and rescues her brother Dream.\n* The Virgin Books' New Adventures \"Doctor Who\" novel series introduced a manipulative and generally morally ambivalent female incarnation of Death (or rather, as later revealed, one of several Eternals masquerading as cosmic principles). In \"Happy Endings\", she quotes from the original \"The Books of Magic\" mini-series. Although the bulk of the novel was written by Paul Cornell, the section featuring Death was written by author Neil Penswick, as part of a chapter written in tandem by the authors of the previous 49 novels.\n* Death is described and discussed by American filmmaker Kevin Smith during his interview with Joe Rogan on The Joe Rogan Experience podcast #1123, in the context of how he dealt with his heart surgery. While on the operating table he thought about the Death character, and how in an issue of The Sandman, she was asked by an older man: \"\"That's it? I did all these things. I worked my fingers to the bone. What did I get?\", to which Death replied \"You got what everybody gets. You got a lifetime\"\".\n* The lead character of the music video for Pearl Jam's \"Do the Evolution\" is said to have been inspired by Death herself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Related characters:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "One day every century, Death lives (and dies) as a mortal, in order to understand the value of the life she takes. She does this by becoming a mortal fated to die that day. At the end of \"\" her Endless self briefly converses with her mortal self."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Audible released a drama version in July 2019, starring Neil Gaiman, James McAvoy, Taron Egerton, Michael Sheen, and Andy Serkis. Death was played by Kat Dennings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Death (comics)\n--See also.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "A one-shot issue titled \"Death Gallery\" (1994) was released as one of several art showcase comics from DC Comics spotlighting various Sandman characters released between 1994 and 1995. The \"Death Gallery\" featured representations of Death by more than thirty comics artists, including a rough sketch by Gaiman himself. In \"\" (2003) Gaiman shows Death several billion years ago, with a markedly different personality \u2014 forbidding and joyless."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of death deities",
        "text": "Death is the name of one of \"The Endless\" in the DC Universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Near Death (comics)",
        "text": "There has been an effort to adapt the comic to television."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "A common expression regarding comic book death was once \"No one stays dead except Bucky, Jason Todd, and Uncle Ben\", referring to the seminal importance of those characters' deaths to the title character: Captain America's sidekick (retconned dead in 1964), Batman's second Robin (dead in 1988), and Spider-Man's uncle (dead since 1962), respectively. This long-held tenet was broken in 2005, when Jason Todd returned to life as the Red Hood and Bucky was retconned to have survived the accident that seemingly killed him, and brought back as the Winter Soldier who had remained in the shadows for decades."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death of the New Gods",
        "text": "As part of the lead-in to the limited series, a number of New Gods were seen being tracked and killed in a number of other DC titles:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death appeared in \"Captain Atom\" #42-43 (June\u2013July 1990), in which she appeared alongside the Black Racer as one of several aspects of Death in the DC Universe. Gaiman reportedly took issue with this depiction, feeling that portraying her as merely an aspect of death diminished her importance. Other Giffen stories that feature Death include the \"Ambush Bug Nothing Special\" one-shot (Sep. 1992) and a cameo in the Lobo comic book \"Lobo's Back\" #3 (Oct. 1992), in which she slaps Lobo for getting fresh with her. She observes the destruction of the Earth in \"Legion of Super-Heroes\" vol. 4 #38 (Dec. 1992)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Characters of the DC Extended Universe",
        "text": "Deathstroke was originally slated to appear in numerous DCEU projects, including the original version of \"The Batman\", which was to star and be directed by Ben Affleck. Since Affleck's departure from the project, however, Matt Reeves has taken his place as director and re-wrote the script, terminating the film's DCEU connections and thus Deathstroke's involvement as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "McKean also used a series of professional English models for representations of Death on covers of \"Sandman.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In \"Swamp Thing\" vol. 2, #6, The Phantom Stranger met Death in the form of a middle-aged gentleman, possibly inspired by \"Death Takes a Holiday\". In the story, a young woman, Margaret \"Maggie\" Brennan, had what should have been a minor head injury and at one glimpse of Death chose to become Death's bride. As someone newly dead herself, she taught Death that he needs to show compassion for the newly dead to allay their fears. He takes her advice and they both serve as aspects of Death. This version of Death was created by Mike W. Barr and Dan Spiegle. Maggie is blonde and bears only minor physical resemblance to Gaiman and Dringenberg's version, though her compassionate nature is a similarity. In \"The Spectre\" (vol. 2), The Phantom Stranger himself appeared to be the only psychopomp in the DC Universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "Some characters established during \"The Death of Superman\" became recurring characters in DC's comics. Superboy and Steel received ongoing series after the story's conclusion and Steel appears in a self-titled film (1997), portrayed by basketball player and Superman fan Shaquille O'Neal. Eradicator received a limited series, Superboy remained a fixture of the DC Universe until he was killed in \"Infinite Crisis\" (2005\u20132006), and the Cyborg Superman became a recurring enemy of Superman and Green Lantern. Later comics featuring Doomsday included \"\" (1995), which explores his origin, and \"Reign of Doomsday\" (2011), which heavily references \"The Death of Superman\" and features him hunting down the Supermen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death appeared in her Grim Reaper form in \"Harley Quinn\" (comic book) Vol 3 #63."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death first appeared as a woman in \"The Witching Hour\" #56 (July 1975) in a tale told by Mordred (written by Carl Wessler and illustrated by Ruben Yandoc). She was depicted with short, curly, red-blonde hair, and was a rival for two men's affections. Both men die in successive car accidents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "She also appeared in Mike Carey's \"Lucifer\" series when the eponymous main character was wounded and nearly died. Initially it appears that Death has actually arrived for Lucifer, but in fact she is there for Elaine Belloc who dies (temporarily) saving Lucifer's life. Death admits she has arrived a little early and takes the opportunity to talk to Lucifer who is currently trapped between life and death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "Although several comic book deaths are well-known, two of the best-known are the 1980 \"death\" of Jean Grey in Marvel's \"Dark Phoenix Saga\" and that of Superman in DC's highly publicized 1993 \"Death of Superman\" storyline. There is one major distinction between the two, however\u2014whereas it was never intended that Superman's death be permanent, but rather that he would return to life at the conclusion of the story, Jean's passing was intended to be permanent, as the editor Jim Shooter felt that would be the only satisfactory outcome given that she had committed mass murder. Despite this, the story was retconned a few years later to facilitate Jean's return."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "\"The Death of Superman\" is divided into three story arcs: \"Doomsday!\", \"Funeral for a Friend\", and \"Reign of the Supermen!\". The first arc chronicles Superman's fight with the monster Doomsday and concludes with his apparent death. The second depicts Superman's fellow superheroes and the rest of the DC Universe mourning his death, ending with his adoptive father Jonathan Kent having a heart attack. The third sees the emergence of four Superman imposters before the original returns. A number of characters in \"The Death of Superman\", such as Doomsday, the Cyborg Superman, and Steel, would recur in later DC publications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Other characters:\n* Death Adder (comics), a Marvel Superhero\n* Death's Head, a Marvel UK character\n* Death's-Head (comics), a Marvel character and enemy of Daredevil\n* Death Metal (comics), a Marvel UK character\n* Death Squad (comics), a Marvel Comics team of supervillains\n* Death-Stalker, a Marvel character\n* Death Wreck, a Marvel character\n* Doctor Death (comics), a DC supervillain\n* Black Death (comics), a Marvel supervillain\n* Lady Death\n* Lady Deathstrike"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Physically, Death is also opposite to the traditional western culture personification of death (see Grim Reaper). In \"The Sandman\", Death instead appears as an attractive, pale goth girl dressed in casual clothes \u2014 often a black top and jeans. She also wears a silver ankh on a chain around her neck, and has a marking similar to the eye of Horus around her right eye. She is pleasant, down-to-earth, perky, and has been a nurturing figure for both incarnations of Dream. This irony has helped make Death one of the most popular characters from \"Sandman\". Death was named the fifteenth greatest comic book character by \"Empire\". Kirby Howell-Baptiste is set to portray the character in the upcoming television series \"The Sandman\" on Netflix."
      },
      {
        "title": "Source (comics)",
        "text": "Source (comics)\n--History.\n----Death of the New Gods.\n----DC Rebirth.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "Death is an abstract entity, embodiment of life ending in the Marvel Universe, and the opposite of Eternity, embodiment of the universe. Death is predominantly depicted as a skeleton cloaked in a black or purple robe, and at times appears as a Caucasian human female."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In 2003, the manga-style graphic novel ' portrayed Death's activities during the fourth Sandman story arc '. It was written and illustrated by Jill Thompson, and the format proved popular enough for Thompson to produce the similarly manga-influenced follow-up \"Dead Boy Detectives\", featuring minor \"Sandman\" characters, and \"featuring a cameo by Death\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "Death (Marvel Comics)\n--Publication history.\n--Fictional character biography.\n--Powers and abilities.\n--Other versions.\n----Earth X.\n--In other media.\n----Television.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Storylines:\n* \"The Death of Superman\"\n* \"Death of Buffy\" (Buffy comic)\n* Death (disambiguation)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In \"Madame Xanadu\", the title character calls out to her while chained up and denied access to her youth potions during the French Revolution. As she is a survivor from the days of King Arthur, she grows very old very quickly without them. She summons Death and reads her own cards, interpreting her Death card as predictive of her future destiny on earth. Death is so amused by this interpretation that she grants Madame Xanadu immortality, revocable any time Xanadu wishes. Death appeared in \"Action Comics\" #894, which was written by Paul Cornell. Gaiman helped write Death's dialogue to ensure that her characterization remained consistent with \"The Sandman\". In the story, while searching for a black power ring, Lex Luthor encounters her. She appears again in issue #900 and in \"The Flash\" (vol. 3) #6, part of the \"Brightest Day\" crossover."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of death deities",
        "text": "In the Marvel Comics Universe, the personification of death is Mistress Death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Hadley passed away from colon cancer at the age of 48 on January 6, 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "God Is Dead (comics)",
        "text": "The Greek Pantheon\n*Zeus\n*Aphrodite\n*Ares\n*Poseidon\n*Dionysus\n*Hecate\n*Eros\n*Apollo\n*Athena\n*Hephaestus\n*Thanatos\n*Hermes\n*Artemis\n*Eris\n*Moros\n*Oizys\n*Pan\n*Janus\n*Demeter\n*Hades\n*Persephone\n*Nike\n*Enyalius\n*Clio\n*Euterpe\n*Phantasos\n*Helios"
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor Death (character)",
        "text": "Dr. Death is a mad scientist and supervillain appearing in publications by DC Comics. The character was created by Gardner Fox and Bob Kane as an enemy of the superhero Batman, and first appeared in \"Detective Comics\" #29 (July 1939). He is notable as the first traditional supervillain to be encountered by the Batman, as well as his first recurring foe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "Comic book death\n--Context.\n--Notable examples.\n--In-universe acknowledgement.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Knight (DC Comics)",
        "text": "He has a state funeral back in London, his coffin draped in the Union Flag is paraded through the streets while huge crowds of mourners line the procession path. The Prime Minister talks about the possibility of resurrecting him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "Because death in American super-hero comics is so often temporary, readers rarely take the death of a character seriously; when a character dies, readers feel very little sense of loss, and are simply left wondering how long it will be before they return to life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "During the \"Chaos War\" storyline, Daimon Hellstrom mentions to Hercules that Death has fled their reality upon Amatsu-Mikaboshi triumphing in the realms of the dead, causing the souls of the deceased to be unleashed upon the Earth, and rendering the victims of the siege, whose injuries might otherwise prove fatal, merely locked in a deathless limbo."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "The DC Extended Universe series of films contains references to \"The Death of Superman\", beginning with the appearance of Superman's black suit in \"Man of Steel\" (2013). The climax of \"\" (2016) draws narrative elements from \"Doomsday!\". In the film, Lex Luthor uses forbidden Kryptonian genetic engineering projects to combine General Zod's corpse with his own DNA, creating Doomsday. During their fight, Superman and Doomsday stab each other with a spear and bone, respectively, and both die. Jurgens received a \"Special Thanks\" credit at the end of the film. In \"Justice League\" (2017), the black suit reappears as an Easter egg in a deleted scene. Costume designer Michael Wilkinson explained that director Zack Snyder planned to have Superman wear the suit when he was resurrected in the film, but scrapped the idea in pre-production. Superman wore the black suit in Snyder's 2021 director's cut of the film, \"Zack Snyder's Justice League\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death and Return of Superman (film)",
        "text": "Following Superman's funeral, DC Comics published the \"Reign of the Supermen!\" story arc, which introduced four characters claiming to be Superman. One was Hank Henshaw, a cyborg version of Superman who defeated the other three and destroyed Coast City, causing Hal Jordan to lose his sense of reasoning and kill fellow members of the Green Lantern Corps. The Cyborg Superman continued his reign of terror until the real Superman appeared and defeated him. It was revealed that Superman had emerged from a \"healing coma\", identical to death except temporary. Superman's resurrection was met with outrage from fans who felt betrayed by DC Comics; sales of Superman's comics declined and have never recovered ever since."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "Superman's death stuns and traumatizes the residents of the DC Universe. His funeral is attended by nearly every superhero, as well as some supervillains, President Bill Clinton, and First Lady Hillary Clinton. Every hero wears a black arm band featuring Superman's logo. After the funeral, Project Cadmus steals Superman's body from his mausoleum to clone him, but Lane and Supergirl recover it. With Superman gone, the crime rate rises; the costumed heroes of Metropolis, including a team funded by Luthor, rise to fill in as protectors but are insufficient."
      },
      {
        "title": "Snapper Carr",
        "text": "From 2007 to 2008, DC Comics published the \"Death of the New Gods\" eight-issue limited series. In this comic book, all of the New Gods are killed, the planets New Genesis and Apokolips merge, and the Fourth World dimension ceases to exist in favor of a new \"Fifth World\" dimension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "Death is an abstract entity, possessing nigh infinite power and knowledge. The character occasionally appears as a humanoid female so as to be able to be perceived by lesser beings, and resides inside a pocket dimension known as the Realm of Death."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman (film)",
        "text": "The Death of Superman is a 2018 American animated direct-to-video superhero film produced by Warner Bros. Animation and DC Entertainment. Based on the comic book storyline of the same name and which chronicles the battle between Superman and Doomsday. It is the 32nd installment of the DC Universe Animated Original Movies and the eleventh film of the DC Animated Movie Universe. Released on July 24, 2018 the film received a limited theatrical release on January 13, 2019. A sequel, \"Reign of the Supermen\", was released on January 15, 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "An edition of \"The Death of Superman\" containing the DVD/Blu-ray versions of the 2007 film adaptation, \"\", was released in 2015. DC reissued \"The Death of Superman\" in four \"New Edition\" volumes on April 5, 2016: \"Superman: The Death of Superman\"; \"Superman: Funeral for a Friend\"; \"Superman: Reign of the Supermen\"; and \"Superman: The Return of Superman\". DC published another collection, \"Superman: Doomsday\", around the same time; it compiles comics that feature Doomsday's return."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor Death (character)",
        "text": "Dr. Death remains active in the DC Universe following the events of \"Infinite Crisis\". In \"52\" #2, he is mentioned as one of many mad scientists who have gone missing. He is depicted later in the series among other captured scientists and mad geniuses on Oolong Island that make up the Science Squad."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "A second animated film adaptation was made in two parts: \"The Death of Superman\" (2018) and \"Reign of the Supermen\" (2019), part of the DC Universe Animated Original Movies line and of DC Animated Movie Universe. Compared to \"Superman: Doomsday\", the new adaptation is more faithful to the comic story. DC's Tim Beedle considered the films \"much less condensed\" and said they \"include many of the fan-favorite moments from the story that were left out of \"Doomsday\"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "According to \"Vulture\"s Abraham Riesman, DC \"aggressively\" promoted \"The Death of Superman\" since it had financial incentives to do so, as comic book speculation was at its peak. Publishers like DC would designate certain comic book issues as significant, causing mint condition copies to be sold for more money. For \"Superman\" #75, DC issued a press kit to stores with a cardboard coffin, stickers, and a poster. At the height of the crossover, in May 1993 DC published a special issue, \"Newstime: The Life and Death of The Man of Steel\". It compiled fictional news stories about Superman's death, providing an in-universe look at the event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deathstroke",
        "text": "Deathstroke\n--Publication history.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----The Teen Titans.\n----The Judas Contract.\n----Titans Plague.\n----Titans Hunt.\n----Family business.\n----\"Nightwing\" and \"Birds of Prey\".\n----\"Identity Crisis\".\n----\"Infinite Crisis\".\n----\"One Year Later\".\n----\"Blackest Night\".\n----\"Batman and Robin\".\n----\"Titans: Villains for Hire\".\n----\"The New 52\".\n------Origins.\n------Team 7.\n------\"Forever Evil\".\n----\"DC Rebirth\".\n--Characterization.\n----Christopher Priest's characterization.\n--Powers and abilities.\n--Other versions.\n----Just Imagine....\n----Earth One.\n----Deathstroke: Journey's End.\n----The Uncanny X-Men/The New Teen Titans.\n----Amalgam Comics.\n----Tangent Comics.\n----Mash-Up.\n----\"Flashpoint\".\n----\"Superman: American Alien\".\n----\"Injustice: Gods Among Us\".\n----\"Batman: The Adventures Continue\".\n--Collected editions.\n--In other media.\n----Film.\n------Live-action.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "Elements from \"A Death in the Family\" were incorporated in the 2010 DC Universe Animated Original Movies film ', an adaptation of \"Under the Hood\" directed by Brandon Vietti. In the film, Ra's al Ghul (Jason Isaacs) hires the Joker (John DiMaggio) to distract Batman (Bruce Greenwood) and Todd (Jensen Ackles) while he destroys Europe's financial districts. They follow the Joker to Bosnia, where he kills Todd in similar fashion to \"A Death in the Family\". An interactive film adaptation, ', was released in 2020. The film is a sequel to \"Under the Red Hood\", Vietti again directing and the cast, with the exception of Vincent Martella replacing Ackles, reprising their roles. Similar to the voting system from the comic, the film allows viewers to determine if Todd lives or dies, leading to different scenarios that see him become Red Hood, Hush, or Red Robin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cinema Research Corporation",
        "text": "Tales from the Crypt: The Man Who Was Death 1989,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Near Death (comics)",
        "text": "Near Death (comics)\n--Publication history.\n--Plot.\n--Critical reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Black Racer (DC Comics)",
        "text": "According to \"Captain Atom\" #42, the Black Racer represents \"death as inevitability\", whereas Death of the Endless represents \"death as compassionate release\". Nekron, meanwhile, represents \"Death as the Ultimate Opponent\". This has been contested by Neil Gaiman, who says that Death of the Endless is the ultimate incarnation of death in the DC Universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "\"A Death in the Family\" is referenced in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU), a shared universe of superhero films based on DC characters. \"\" (2016) features a damaged Robin suit on display in the Batcave, while \"Suicide Squad\" (2016) reveals that Harley Quinn (Margot Robbie) helped the Joker (Jared Leto) murder him. \"Zack Snyder's Justice League\" (the 2021 director's cut of \"Justice League\" (2017)) features a scene in which the Joker mocks Batman (Ben Affleck) for Robin's death. Though Warner Bros. and \"Suicide Squad\" director David Ayer stated that the dead Robin was Todd, \"Batman v Superman\" director Zack Snyder later said he had intended it to be Grayson, unlike \"A Death in the Family\". Snyder had planned to explore Robin's death in detail in his \"Justice League\" sequels before their cancellation. Before the release of \"Zack Snyder's Justice League\", Snyder proposed a comic book prequel to \"Batman v Superman\" that depicted Robin's death, but DC turned it down."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death's popularity saw her spun off into two solo miniseries, ' (1993), and ' (1996). Both were written by Gaiman and illustrated by Chris Bachalo, and dealt with Death's encounters with various mortals. \"Death: The High Cost of Living\" became the first comic released under the newly instigated Vertigo branding in 1993, at which point \"The Sandman\" also moved from the DC to Vertigo imprint. A third miniseries, \"The Girl who Would Be Death\" by Caitl\u00edn R. Kiernan, was about a girl who purchased an ankh stolen from Death and tried to become her. Death is never actually seen in the series, but she speaks and acts in the third and fourth issues of the four-issue series."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "Warner Bros. released an animated direct-to-video film adaptation, \"\", in 2007. \"Superman: Doomsday\" is loosely based on \"The Death of Superman\"; to fit within a 75-minute runtime, the story was condensed and greatly altered. For example, the Justice League is not present and most aspects of \"Reign of the Supermen!\" were removed. The film was a commercial success and started the DC Universe Animated Original Movies line of direct-to-video releases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "Death (distinguished as Mistress Death or Lady Death) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is a cosmic entity based on the personification of death. They first appeared in \"Captain Marvel\" #26 (Jun. 1973) and was created by Mike Friedrich and Jim Starlin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor Death (character)",
        "text": "In September 2011, \"The New 52\" rebooted DC's continuity. Here, a new version of Dr. Death makes an appearance in \"Batman\" #25 as part of the story arc \"\". He is once again established as one of the first supervillains encountered by Batman early in his career. A disgruntled former Wayne Enterprises scientist, Dr. Death murders several people with a serum that causes uncontrolled bone growth. He is depicted with a skeletal appearance, a result of testing his serum on himself. Dr. Death joins forces with the Riddler to try to seize control of Gotham City during a super-storm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor Death (character)",
        "text": "After several decades' absence, Dr. Death was reintroduced by writer Gerry Conway in \"Batman\" #345 and \"Detective Comics\" #512 (1982). Conway's story is an update of the original 1939 tale. In this version, Dr. Death is depicted as a paraplegic, but his deadly gas gimmick remains the same. He is assisted this time by a manservant named Togo."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "In \"Emperor Joker\", a 2010 episode of ' (2008\u20132011), a fourth wall-breaking Bat-Mite (Paul Reubens) references \"A Death in the Family\" and the 900 number, and Batman is briefly seen cradling a dead Robin. Todd's portrayal in the video game ' (2015) was inspired by \"A Death in the Family\". The DC Universe and HBO Max streaming television series \"Titans\" (2018\u2013present) features Todd as a central character portrayed by Curran Walters. After the second season episode \"Deathstroke\" (2019) ended on a cliffhanger with Deathstroke (Esai Morales) attempting to kill Todd, DC Universe held a poll in which fans could vote to determine Todd's fate. The poll was only intended as a reference to \"A Death in the Family\" and had no effect on the series, but elements from \"A Death in the Family\" were incorporated in the third season of \"Titans\", which premiered in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "In 2011, DC relaunched its entire comics line in an initiative called The New 52, which revamped the DC Universe and erased certain events. The relaunch altered Superman considerably, characterizing him as shorter-tempered and no longer in love with Lois Lane. However, \"The Death of Superman\" remained intact in the new DC Universe. To coincide with the release of the animated film adaptation of the crossover in 2018, a 12-part \"Death of Superman\" webcomic series began, written by Simonson and illustrated by Cat Staggs, Joel Ojeda, and Laura Braga, among others. The first parts chronicle Superman's actions hours before Doomsday kills him; later parts follow Jimmy Olsen during the confrontation and the aftermath of Superman's death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "The character was featured in the \"Silver Surfer\" animated series, voiced by Lally Cadeau. Due to Fox's broadcast standards, this version was depicted as a female personification of chaos known as Lady Chaos. Thanos would talk to a statue of Lady Chaos."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unproduced films based on DC Comics imprints",
        "text": "Since the late 1990s, a film based on ', to be called \"Death and Me\", was under production at New Line Cinema. Neil Gaiman wrote the screenplay, and would also direct, with Guillermo del Toro as executive producer. Gaiman spent several days on the set of del Toro's film ' to get pointers on how to direct. Other than two additional scenes at the beginning (set in a Tibetan monastery and Alaska), and a move from New York City to London for the main setting, the screenplay was relatively unchanged from the comic script. After being in development hell for several years, work on it was renewed in 2007, but quickly derailed again due to the WGA strikes. According to Gaiman, the studio \"may still be New Line, but Warner Independent is keen on it too.\" Shia LaBeouf may have had a role in the film, possibly as the lead character Sexton, due to his help in trying to get the movie developed. On October 14, 2010 it was reported in an interview with Gaiman that as of June or July, DC and Warner Bros. had closed down work on the film and it was unclear if they would start it up again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Characters of the DC Extended Universe",
        "text": "Slade Wilson / Deathstroke (portrayed by Joe Manganiello) is a mercenary who has had an acrimonious relationship with Batman. He appears in a post-credits scene at the end of the theatrical cut, as Lex Luthor entices him to create a \"League of [their] own\" after the Justice League forms and defeats Steppenwolf. The director's cut has a different version of this scene in the epilogue, as Deathstroke simply gets the identity of Batman when visiting Luthor. He also appears in Batman's second \"Knightmare\" vision, joining forces with him, Victor Stone, Barry Allen, Mera, and Joker as they prepare to fight an evil Superman in that world."
      },
      {
        "title": "DC Universe Animated Original Movies",
        "text": "A shared universe, with influences from \"The New 52\" continuity and various DC eras and productions.\n*\"\" (2013)\n*\"\" (2014)\n*\"Son of Batman\" (2014)\n*\"\" (2015)\n**\"Nightwing and Robin\" (45 second short film) (2015)\n*\"Batman vs. Robin\" (2015)\n*\"\" (2016)\n*\"Justice League vs. Teen Titans\" (2016)\n*\"Justice League Dark\" (2017)\n**\" (web series later compiled into a film) (2018)\n*\" (2017)\n*\"\" (2018)\n**\"Suicide Squad: Hell to Pay\" (sequel comic) (2018)\n*\"The Death of Superman\" (2018)\n**\"The Death of Superman: Part 1\" (prequel/sequel comic) (2018)\n*\"Reign of the Supermen\" (2019)\n*\" (2019)\n*\" (2019)\n*\"\" (2020)\n**\"Constantine: The House of Mystery\" (short film) (2022)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death of a Superhero",
        "text": "Death of a Superhero\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n--Reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "She also appears in \"The Books of Magic\" (first volume, 1991, also written by Gaiman) at the very end of time, where her function is to set things in order and close the universe down. She meets Timothy Hunter and Mister E there after Mister E has taken Timothy all the way to the end of time, because only there can he kill Timothy without fear of interference. Death stops the murder on the grounds that \"I took both of you billions of years ago\". She sends Timothy back home, but forces Mister E to return the hard way. John Ney Rieber included her in \"The Books of Magic\" (vol. 2 #3-4), in which she lets Timothy Hunter hang out at her house and hold her teddy bear, Cavendish, while he is recovering from the venom of the Manticore. Hunter later encounters Death walking in the rain in \"The Books of Magic\" #25, and there was later an arc about her in \"\". In \"Hellblazer\" #120, Death appears briefly in a pub filled with ghosts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deathblow (comics)",
        "text": "Deathblow dies during the Fire From Heaven event, sacrificing himself in order to kill Damocles, the villain from that crossover."
      },
      {
        "title": "God Is Dead (comics)",
        "text": "The Titans\n*Arke\n*Atlas\n*Gaia\n*Iapetus\n*Perses\n*Oceanus\n*Cronus\n*Rhea\n*Phoebe"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death of a Superhero",
        "text": "It won the People's Choice Award and the Young Jury Award at the 2011 Les Arcs European Film Festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "Death (personification)\n--By region.\n----Americas.\n------Latin America.\n----Asia.\n------East Asia.\n------India.\n------Western Asia.\n----Europe.\n------Baltic.\n------Celtic.\n------Hellenic.\n------Scandinavia.\n------Slavic.\n------The Low Countries.\n------Western Europe.\n--In Abrahamic religions.\n----In Judaism.\n------Form and functions.\n------Scholars and the Angel of Death.\n------Rabbinic views.\n----In Christianity.\n----In Islam.\n--Media.\n----Songs.\n------\"Death Don't Have No Mercy\".\n------\"(Don't Fear) The Reaper\".\n------\"Creeping Death\".\n----Books.\n------death (\"Death with Interruptions\" or \"Death at Intervals\").\n------Death (\"Discworld\").\n------Death (\"The Book Thief\").\n------Death (\"Harry Potter\").\n------Death (\"Incarnations of Immortality\").\n------Charlie Asher (\"A Dirty Job\").\n----Comics.\n------Death (DC Comics).\n------Death (Marvel Comics).\n------Lady MacDeath (Bug-a-Boo).\n----Film.\n------\"Death Takes a Holiday\" (1934).\n------\"The Seventh Seal\" (1957).\n------\"The Adventures of Baron Munchausen\" (1988).\n------\"Final Destination\" film series (2000\u20132011).\n----Television.\n----Theatre.\n------\"Elisabeth\" Viennese musical (1992).\n----Video Games.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "The current incarnation of Death first appeared in the final chapter of \"Sandman\"\u2019s first story arc ', \"The Sound of Her Wings\", (issue #8) where she gave Dream direction and a degree of understanding. Death instantly became very popular with readers, and she appears at least briefly in each of the nine subsequent story arcs. However, Gaiman attempted to entice and tease readers by rationing out the number of appearances from Dream's family, so Death did not appear as frequently as one might expect for such a popular character. At the end of the ninth Sandman story arc ', there is a lengthy and noteworthy appearance from Death, in which she finally brings her brother peace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "In the comic book fan community, the apparent death and subsequent return of a long-running character is often called a comic book death. A comic book death is generally not taken seriously by readers and is rarely permanent or meaningful other than for story or thematic purposes. The term is usually not applied to characters who have the ability to return from the dead as an established power or ability, such as Solomon Grundy or Ra's al Ghul."
      },
      {
        "title": "DC Universe Animated Original Movies",
        "text": "The films are generally released direct-to-video, but \"Batman: The Killing Joke\", \"Batman and Harley Quinn\", \"The Death of Superman\" and \"Reign of the Supermen\" were also given limited releases in theaters."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman (film)",
        "text": "In August 2018, DC announced a 12-part digital comic series titled \"The Death of Superman: Part 1\", by veteran Superman writer Louise Simonson. In the US, retailer Best Buy offered an exclusive \"Deluxe Edition\" Blu-Ray containing a hardcover graphic novel titled \"The Death of Superman: The Wake.\" The Best Buy graphic novel includes the last four chapters of Simonson's digital comic series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deathstroke",
        "text": "Deathstroke is gravely injured with his own sword by Geo-Force in \"DC Universe: Last Will and Testament\". Following his injury, he is recuperating at Belle Reve while doctors labor to save him. Deathstroke dreams of his family members and all of the people that he has let down. When he awakens, he vows that he will never again be haunted by the past."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jericho (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Despite conflicting continuity between \"Deathstroke\" vol. 2 and 3, Jericho still retains his telepathy to read minds and control others. After being experimented upon, Jericho demonstrated even more powerful abilities to rupture other human beings apart with a psychic blast, much to his horror. Although his telepathy can be blocked by others with mental powers, Jericho can read their aura to see if they hold malicious intents and can also project an energy field to defend against attacks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death is the second eldest of the Endless, a family of anthropomorphic beings. Death is possibly the most powerful of the Endless (and one of the most powerful beings in the universe, followed closely by beings like Lucifer Morningstar, however is slightly less powerful than The Presence) having been shown (in a flashback in ') to be virtually omniscient and being able to intimidate the Furies, who show no fear of the other Endless, simply by raising her voice in '. The witch Thessaly mentions that Death is the only one of the Endless who is bound by no rules, supported in Dream's portion of \"\" in which she briefly makes an appearance at a conference designed to set functions for entities and leaves before it begins. In addition, it is mentioned in \"Brief Lives\" that she is the only one of the Endless who may survive the end of this incarnation of the universe. Death's realm is not portrayed in detail in the series, except for a brief scene in her \"house\" in the \"Sandman Special\", \"Song of Orpheus\", and later in \"The Books of Magic\" series. This is where she keeps her floppy hat collection, her goldfish Slim and Wandsworth and possibly her gallery. A brief glimpse of her realm can also be seen in \"The Little Endless Storybook\", when Barnabas visits her, although this time in her \"apartment suite\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jericho (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Further demonstrating his mental instability while in Deathstroke's body, he viciously attacked his former friends, and even shot Impulse in the knee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deathstroke",
        "text": "Deathstroke (Slade Wilson) is a supervillain appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Created by Marv Wolfman and George P\u00e9rez, the character debuted in \"The New Teen Titans\" #2 in December 1980 as Deathstroke the Terminator."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death Walks the Streets (comics)",
        "text": "The comic book is a prequel to a possible film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Countdown to Final Crisis",
        "text": "Released with books published on July 5, 2007, in the \"DC Nation: #68\" column, DiDio described the picture's symbolism: \"Anyone standing on barren ground is doomed. In this case, it spells the Death of the New Gods...The yellow ring corrupts Kyle (Rayner) in The Sinestro Corps War...Jason Todd becomes Red Robin, driving a wedge in the Challengers from Beyond...Green Arrow struggles to win the love of Black Canary...Batman, in symbolic garb, wields the sword that hearkens the return of a deadly foe (Ra's al Ghul)...Dressed in Barry's costume, Bart (Allen, the Flash) showed that he had one foot in the grave...A Legionnaire is lost and marked for death in Countdown...The Atom, lost, struggles to survive...The shield marked Hippolyta's return...Superman and Wonder Woman discuss parent issues...Is that a Boom Tube I see, and can that be the path to salvation?...The shadow of evil falls over Mary Marvel...and the statue head, reminiscent of and tied to \"Kamandi\" #1, also reflects Sinestro's upcoming visit to the Big Apple.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Chronos (character)",
        "text": "Time travel being what it is, David Clinton's legal death has not meant the end of his presence in the DC universe; he has made several appearances since, such as during the \"Identity Crisis\", when he claimed to have traveled forward from a point in time shortly before his final disappearance. This foreknowledge of his own (suspected) demise led to a somewhat subdued, even morose, demeanor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deathstroke",
        "text": "The character was ranked the 24th Greatest Villain of All Time by \"Wizard\" magazine and the 32nd Greatest Comic Book Villain of All Time by IGN. He has been substantially adapted into various forms of media, including several \"Batman\"-related projects; and the \"Teen Titans\" animated series, where he is voiced by Ron Perlman. In live-action, Deathstroke has been portrayed by Manu Bennett on The CW's television Arrowverse show \"Arrow\"; by Esai Morales as the main antagonist in the second season on the DC Universe series \"Titans\"; and by Joe Manganiello in the DC Extended Universe with a cameo in the 2017 film \"Justice League\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Question (character)",
        "text": "However, Charlton discontinued its \"action hero\" line in December 1967 after only four issues of \"Blue Beetle\" had been published. A three-part Question story, which Ditko had already penciled, appeared in the one-shot comic book \"Mysterious Suspense\" (October 1968). One fifth and final issue of \"Blue Beetle\", featuring the Question, was published in November of the same year. In 1985, after DC Comics had acquired the right to Charlton's characters, the Question reappeared in \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\". In February 1987, DC launched a new \"The Question\" comic book, scripted by Dennis O'Neil and penciled by Denys Cowan. This series, which ran for 36 regular issues and two annuals, was replaced in September 1990 by \"The Question Quarterly\", which ran for five issues. The Question has since then remained a recurring character of the DC Universe. A six-issue \"The Question\" limited series was published by DC in 2005. A four-issue limited series titled \"The Question: The Deaths of Vic Sage\" was published under the DC Black Label imprint beginning in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death Walks the Streets (comics)",
        "text": "Death Walks the Streets (comics)\n--Publication history.\n--Plot synopsis.\n--Reception.\n--Film adaptation.\n--\"Death Walks the Streets\" in popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Roulette (DC Comics)",
        "text": "A wall of fallen heroes was the only indication of the many DC Comics heroes who had been killed in battle in \"The House\". The names include Firebrand, Impala, Maxi-Man, Ram of the New Guardians, Flyboy and the Hybrid (minus Pteradon)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "In the British children's sketch television show \"Horrible Histories\", Death (portaryed by Simon Farnaby) is a reoccurring character who appears the segment, \"Stupid Deaths\" and later in its sixth series, \"Chatty Deaths\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Superhero fiction",
        "text": "Death in superhero fiction is rarely permanent, as characters who die are often brought back to life through supernatural means or via retcons (retroactive changes to the continuity), the alteration of previously established facts in the continuity of a fictional work. Fans have termed the practice of bringing back dead characters \"comic book death\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "Comic book characters themselves have made comments about the frequency of resurrections. Professor X has commented \"in mutant heaven there are no pearly gates, but instead revolving doors\". When Siryn was made aware of her father's death, she refused to mourn him, giddily claiming that since her father has died as an X-Man, he was likely going to be soon resurrected, shocking her friends. Her father is later restored to life but is recruited by the Apocalypse Twins as part of their new Horsemen of Apocalypse. The obituary writer of the in-universe newspaper the \"Daily Bugle\" once bemoaned to reporter Ben Urich about how many retractions he has had to write after each resurrection of a superhero or supervillain. In one issue of \"The Incredible Hercules\", there is a betting game for then deceased superheroes to return to life."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman (film)",
        "text": "On Rotten Tomatoes of the critics liked the movie with an average rating of based on reviews. Kat Calamia of \"Newsarama\" called the film \"One of DC's Best Animated Films in Past 5 Years\", praising its epic scope and the emotional effect it invoked. Evan Narcisse, writing for i09, praised Superman's character arc, his relationship with Lois, and the manner in which DC Universe Movies adapted pre-Crisis storylines into the film's continuity to explore different permutations of those storylines, and effect a sense of threat.\" Jim Vejvoda, writing for IGN, pointed out that the film was the third time in 11 years that a DC film killed off Superman, Vejvoda found a \"tedious\", re-use of an old premise, even while conceding that the film presented that plot point in way that was more faithful to the comics storyline than either 2007\u2019s ' or 2016's '."
      },
      {
        "title": "God Is Dead (comics)",
        "text": "The comic features the members of many of the Pantheons of the Ancient world. The following have made appearances in the series:"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What does the personification of death do in DC comics that most personifications of death do not?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Unlike most personifications of death, DC's death does not just meet with those who have died, but visits those who are being born, though, only she remembers meeting them. She also differs in that she keeps a collection of floppy hats, and has a pair of goldfish named Slim and Wandsworth."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the personification of death in DC comics known as in Ancient Greece?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Death was known in Ancient Greece as Teleute."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What films has Death from DC comics been in?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In a DC Showcase animated short, Death made her first official appearance outside of comics, and it was released as a special feature with the Wonder Woman: Bloodlines Blu-Ray.",
      "Death has made their only film appearance in a DC Showcase animated short voiced by Jamie Chung."
    ],
    "topic": "Death (DC Comics)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Death (DC Comics):26",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Death (DC Comics)",
          "Appearances",
          "Quasi-canonical appearances"
        ],
        "ctx": "She made an appearance in the Marvel Universe, at the wedding of Rick Jones and Marlo Chandler in \"The Incredible Hulk\" #418 (handing Marlo a hair brush, a visual pun referring to Marlo's recent 'brush with death').\n* A version of Death also known as Azrael appeared in the \"Superboy\" episode \"Into the Mystery\", portrayed by Peggy O'Neal.\n* A male version of Death appeared in two episodes of \"Teen Titans Go!\", voiced by David Kaye. This version is also Raven's godfather.\n** Grim Reaper also appeared in the series as a separate character.\n* Death is mentioned in the \"Constantine\" episode \"Blessed Are the Damned\". He had encountered Constantine before having his scythe stolen from him for unknown reasons.\n* In the \"Arrow\" season three episode \"The Secret Origin of Felicity Smoak\", Felicity Smoak's goth look from her college years, especially her black hair and clothing and silver Egyptian Ankh necklace, is a nod to Death.\n* Death is set to appear in the upcoming TV adaptation of \"The Sandman\", portrayed by Kirby Howell-Baptiste.\n* Death is referenced in the HBO Max series \"Doom Patrol\". Edward and Charles of the Dead Boy Detectives agency state that \"she\" is after them. Charles states that \"Death's quite nice actually. And she is super fit\".\n* In a \"DC Showcase\" , Death made her first official appearance outside of comics. In the short, Death (voiced by Jamie Chung) meets Vincent (voiced by Leonardo Nam), a failed artist struggling with his personal demons. It was directed by Sam Liu, and written by J.M. DeMatteis. The short was released as a special feature with the \"\" Blu-Ray.\n* Death (not of the Endless) was also the narrator and host of \"The Big Book of Death\" (1995), a large format comic in the Ripley's Believe It Or Not \"strange but true\" genre which came out from Paradox Press, an imprint of DC.\n* \"Death of the Endless\" is referenced in the 2009 young adult novel, \"The Suicide Club\", by Rhys Thomas. In it, the lead character describes death returning with the sound of beating wings.\n* Death is referenced in original \"The Sandman\" penciller Sam Kieth's \"The Maxx\": \"They're all necro-nerds and Sand freaks. They think death is romantic. Death is hard and cold and ugly, not some cute chick\" as quoted by the character Sara, as the comic panels focus in on a colored poster of Death herself.\n* In the television series \"Roseanne\", posters of Death are seen on Darlene's bedroom walls, and a small postcard of Death hung for a time on the family refrigerator.\n* Death made a brief cameo in \"Nodwick\" #33, greeting the warrior Yaeger during a near-death experience.\n* Death is also mentioned in Jorge Jaramillo's novel \"Vallecuervo\" (M\u00e9xico, 2010). \u00darsula, the main character, is looking for her brother. In an old attic she discovered he was living in, she finds an assortment of comic books: \"While I was looking at that Love and Rockets TPB I sensed I was being watched. To my surprise it was Her. Yes, Her. Death. Of the Endless. The cute chick in black dress from Neil Gaiman's comics. She was there, standing still, looking right into my eyes. I moved forward, I touched Her face. Dust. I folded Her and took Her with me (along with those Rockets and some Rick Veitch's books)\".\n* Death has a brief animated cameo in the 2017 fan-film, \"Sandman: 24 Hour Diner\", based on #6 of Sandman. In an original sequence to the story, she collects the nightmares of the deceased patrons of the diner and rescues her brother Dream.\n* The Virgin Books' New Adventures \"Doctor Who\" novel series introduced a manipulative and generally morally ambivalent female incarnation of Death (or rather, as later revealed, one of several Eternals masquerading as cosmic principles). In \"Happy Endings\", she quotes from the original \"The Books of Magic\" mini-series. Although the bulk of the novel was written by Paul Cornell, the section featuring Death was written by author Neil Penswick, as part of a chapter written in tandem by the authors of the previous 49 novels.\n* Death is described and discussed by American filmmaker Kevin Smith during his interview with Joe Rogan on The Joe Rogan Experience podcast #1123, in the context of how he dealt with his heart surgery. While on the operating table he thought about the Death character, and how in an issue of The Sandman, she was asked by an older man: \"\"That's it? I did all these things. I worked my fingers to the bone. What did I get?\", to which Death replied \"You got what everybody gets. You got a lifetime\"\".\n* The lead character of the music video for Pearl Jam's \"Do the Evolution\" is said to have been inspired by Death herself."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Death (DC Comics):26",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Death (DC Comics)",
          "Appearances",
          "Quasi-canonical appearances"
        ],
        "ctx": "She made an appearance in the Marvel Universe, at the wedding of Rick Jones and Marlo Chandler in \"The Incredible Hulk\" #418 (handing Marlo a hair brush, a visual pun referring to Marlo's recent 'brush with death').\n* A version of Death also known as Azrael appeared in the \"Superboy\" episode \"Into the Mystery\", portrayed by Peggy O'Neal.\n* A male version of Death appeared in two episodes of \"Teen Titans Go!\", voiced by David Kaye. This version is also Raven's godfather.\n** Grim Reaper also appeared in the series as a separate character.\n* Death is mentioned in the \"Constantine\" episode \"Blessed Are the Damned\". He had encountered Constantine before having his scythe stolen from him for unknown reasons.\n* In the \"Arrow\" season three episode \"The Secret Origin of Felicity Smoak\", Felicity Smoak's goth look from her college years, especially her black hair and clothing and silver Egyptian Ankh necklace, is a nod to Death.\n* Death is set to appear in the upcoming TV adaptation of \"The Sandman\", portrayed by Kirby Howell-Baptiste.\n* Death is referenced in the HBO Max series \"Doom Patrol\". Edward and Charles of the Dead Boy Detectives agency state that \"she\" is after them. Charles states that \"Death's quite nice actually. And she is super fit\".\n* In a \"DC Showcase\" , Death made her first official appearance outside of comics. In the short, Death (voiced by Jamie Chung) meets Vincent (voiced by Leonardo Nam), a failed artist struggling with his personal demons. It was directed by Sam Liu, and written by J.M. DeMatteis. The short was released as a special feature with the \"\" Blu-Ray.\n* Death (not of the Endless) was also the narrator and host of \"The Big Book of Death\" (1995), a large format comic in the Ripley's Believe It Or Not \"strange but true\" genre which came out from Paradox Press, an imprint of DC.\n* \"Death of the Endless\" is referenced in the 2009 young adult novel, \"The Suicide Club\", by Rhys Thomas. In it, the lead character describes death returning with the sound of beating wings.\n* Death is referenced in original \"The Sandman\" penciller Sam Kieth's \"The Maxx\": \"They're all necro-nerds and Sand freaks. They think death is romantic. Death is hard and cold and ugly, not some cute chick\" as quoted by the character Sara, as the comic panels focus in on a colored poster of Death herself.\n* In the television series \"Roseanne\", posters of Death are seen on Darlene's bedroom walls, and a small postcard of Death hung for a time on the family refrigerator.\n* Death made a brief cameo in \"Nodwick\" #33, greeting the warrior Yaeger during a near-death experience.\n* Death is also mentioned in Jorge Jaramillo's novel \"Vallecuervo\" (M\u00e9xico, 2010). \u00darsula, the main character, is looking for her brother. In an old attic she discovered he was living in, she finds an assortment of comic books: \"While I was looking at that Love and Rockets TPB I sensed I was being watched. To my surprise it was Her. Yes, Her. Death. Of the Endless. The cute chick in black dress from Neil Gaiman's comics. She was there, standing still, looking right into my eyes. I moved forward, I touched Her face. Dust. I folded Her and took Her with me (along with those Rockets and some Rick Veitch's books)\".\n* Death has a brief animated cameo in the 2017 fan-film, \"Sandman: 24 Hour Diner\", based on #6 of Sandman. In an original sequence to the story, she collects the nightmares of the deceased patrons of the diner and rescues her brother Dream.\n* The Virgin Books' New Adventures \"Doctor Who\" novel series introduced a manipulative and generally morally ambivalent female incarnation of Death (or rather, as later revealed, one of several Eternals masquerading as cosmic principles). In \"Happy Endings\", she quotes from the original \"The Books of Magic\" mini-series. Although the bulk of the novel was written by Paul Cornell, the section featuring Death was written by author Neil Penswick, as part of a chapter written in tandem by the authors of the previous 49 novels.\n* Death is described and discussed by American filmmaker Kevin Smith during his interview with Joe Rogan on The Joe Rogan Experience podcast #1123, in the context of how he dealt with his heart surgery. While on the operating table he thought about the Death character, and how in an issue of The Sandman, she was asked by an older man: \"\"That's it? I did all these things. I worked my fingers to the bone. What did I get?\", to which Death replied \"You got what everybody gets. You got a lifetime\"\".\n* The lead character of the music video for Pearl Jam's \"Do the Evolution\" is said to have been inspired by Death herself."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In the DC Universe continuity, Death is both the end of life and a psychopomp. Like most anthropomorphic personifications of death, Death meets with the recently deceased and guides them into their new existence. However, unlike most personifications of death, she also visits people as they are born, according to Destruction in the \"Sandman Special: The Song of Orpheus\". Evidently, only she seems to remember these encounters. In the special issue, it is also revealed that Death was known in Ancient Greece as Teleute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Other personifications of Death have appeared in the DC Universe. In \"Captain Atom\" #42 Death appears alongside Black Racer of the New Gods and Nekron (a being embodying the will of \"The Black\", the solitude and peace death represents from \"Green Lantern\"). The story stated that all three were equal, representing different aspects of death. Gaiman has denied this, however, and his stories make it clear that Death of the Endless is the ultimate personification of Death. It might be assumed, however, Nekron, the Racer, and the Black Flash are connected to her in some way. Alternatively, there may be multiple avatars or gods of Death in the DC universe, besides those claiming to be Death. Blackest Night has resolved this apparent contradiction or ambiguity, with Nekron no longer being referred to as an aspect of death but instead as a construct formed of darkness in response to the emerging light of the emotional spectrum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death is an immortal being of virtual omnipotence, omniscience and omnipresence. She is not a god of death or agent of it, but Death itself: the end of life. As for the end of her role, Death has said: \"When the last living thing dies, my job will be finished. I'll put the chairs on the tables, turn out the lights, and lock the universe behind me when I leave\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Death, in comics, may refer to:\n* Comic book death, the deaths of characters in comic books and the related entry:\n*The personification of death:\n** Death (DC Comics)\n** Death (Marvel Comics)\n*Death, a member of the Horsemen of Apocalypse"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "This version of Death also made a cameo appearance in the crossover special \"Avengers/JLA\" #2. She is represented in the Grandmaster's home base, alongside Deadman, Hela and the purple-robed version of Death native to the Marvel Universe, which, as the plots of other crossover comics have hinged upon, exists in the same continuum of fictional universes as DC's. Marvel's version of Death appears alternatively as a coldly beautiful woman in a purple robe or a walking skeleton (sometimes male and sometimes female in form, depending upon the context)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death (DC Comics)\n--Publication history.\n----Character design.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----New Earth.\n----DC Rebirth.\n--Powers and abilities.\n--Appearances.\n----Quasi-canonical appearances.\n--In other media.\n----Audio drama.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Audible released a drama version in July 2019, starring Neil Gaiman, James McAvoy, Taron Egerton, Michael Sheen, and Andy Serkis. Death was played by Kat Dennings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death is a character who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics. She first appeared in \"The Sandman\" vol. 2, #8 (August 1989), and was created by Neil Gaiman and Mike Dringenberg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Related characters:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "According to Gaiman, the initial visual design of Death was based on a friend of Dringenberg's named Cinamon Hadley. From \"The Sandman Companion\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "She made an appearance in the Marvel Universe, at the wedding of Rick Jones and Marlo Chandler in \"The Incredible Hulk\" #418 (handing Marlo a hair brush, a visual pun referring to Marlo's recent 'brush with death').\n* A version of Death also known as Azrael appeared in the \"Superboy\" episode \"Into the Mystery\", portrayed by Peggy O'Neal.\n* A male version of Death appeared in two episodes of \"Teen Titans Go!\", voiced by David Kaye. This version is also Raven's godfather.\n** Grim Reaper also appeared in the series as a separate character.\n* Death is mentioned in the \"Constantine\" episode \"Blessed Are the Damned\". He had encountered Constantine before having his scythe stolen from him for unknown reasons.\n* In the \"Arrow\" season three episode \"The Secret Origin of Felicity Smoak\", Felicity Smoak's goth look from her college years, especially her black hair and clothing and silver Egyptian Ankh necklace, is a nod to Death.\n* Death is set to appear in the upcoming TV adaptation of \"The Sandman\", portrayed by Kirby Howell-Baptiste.\n* Death is referenced in the HBO Max series \"Doom Patrol\". Edward and Charles of the Dead Boy Detectives agency state that \"she\" is after them. Charles states that \"Death's quite nice actually. And she is super fit\".\n* In a \"DC Showcase\" , Death made her first official appearance outside of comics. In the short, Death (voiced by Jamie Chung) meets Vincent (voiced by Leonardo Nam), a failed artist struggling with his personal demons. It was directed by Sam Liu, and written by J.M. DeMatteis. The short was released as a special feature with the \"\" Blu-Ray.\n* Death (not of the Endless) was also the narrator and host of \"The Big Book of Death\" (1995), a large format comic in the Ripley's Believe It Or Not \"strange but true\" genre which came out from Paradox Press, an imprint of DC.\n* \"Death of the Endless\" is referenced in the 2009 young adult novel, \"The Suicide Club\", by Rhys Thomas. In it, the lead character describes death returning with the sound of beating wings.\n* Death is referenced in original \"The Sandman\" penciller Sam Kieth's \"The Maxx\": \"They're all necro-nerds and Sand freaks. They think death is romantic. Death is hard and cold and ugly, not some cute chick\" as quoted by the character Sara, as the comic panels focus in on a colored poster of Death herself.\n* In the television series \"Roseanne\", posters of Death are seen on Darlene's bedroom walls, and a small postcard of Death hung for a time on the family refrigerator.\n* Death made a brief cameo in \"Nodwick\" #33, greeting the warrior Yaeger during a near-death experience.\n* Death is also mentioned in Jorge Jaramillo's novel \"Vallecuervo\" (M\u00e9xico, 2010). \u00darsula, the main character, is looking for her brother. In an old attic she discovered he was living in, she finds an assortment of comic books: \"While I was looking at that Love and Rockets TPB I sensed I was being watched. To my surprise it was Her. Yes, Her. Death. Of the Endless. The cute chick in black dress from Neil Gaiman's comics. She was there, standing still, looking right into my eyes. I moved forward, I touched Her face. Dust. I folded Her and took Her with me (along with those Rockets and some Rick Veitch's books)\".\n* Death has a brief animated cameo in the 2017 fan-film, \"Sandman: 24 Hour Diner\", based on #6 of Sandman. In an original sequence to the story, she collects the nightmares of the deceased patrons of the diner and rescues her brother Dream.\n* The Virgin Books' New Adventures \"Doctor Who\" novel series introduced a manipulative and generally morally ambivalent female incarnation of Death (or rather, as later revealed, one of several Eternals masquerading as cosmic principles). In \"Happy Endings\", she quotes from the original \"The Books of Magic\" mini-series. Although the bulk of the novel was written by Paul Cornell, the section featuring Death was written by author Neil Penswick, as part of a chapter written in tandem by the authors of the previous 49 novels.\n* Death is described and discussed by American filmmaker Kevin Smith during his interview with Joe Rogan on The Joe Rogan Experience podcast #1123, in the context of how he dealt with his heart surgery. While on the operating table he thought about the Death character, and how in an issue of The Sandman, she was asked by an older man: \"\"That's it? I did all these things. I worked my fingers to the bone. What did I get?\", to which Death replied \"You got what everybody gets. You got a lifetime\"\".\n* The lead character of the music video for Pearl Jam's \"Do the Evolution\" is said to have been inspired by Death herself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Physically, Death is also opposite to the traditional western culture personification of death (see Grim Reaper). In \"The Sandman\", Death instead appears as an attractive, pale goth girl dressed in casual clothes \u2014 often a black top and jeans. She also wears a silver ankh on a chain around her neck, and has a marking similar to the eye of Horus around her right eye. She is pleasant, down-to-earth, perky, and has been a nurturing figure for both incarnations of Dream. This irony has helped make Death one of the most popular characters from \"Sandman\". Death was named the fifteenth greatest comic book character by \"Empire\". Kirby Howell-Baptiste is set to portray the character in the upcoming television series \"The Sandman\" on Netflix."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "One day every century, Death lives (and dies) as a mortal, in order to understand the value of the life she takes. She does this by becoming a mortal fated to die that day. At the end of \"\" her Endless self briefly converses with her mortal self."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Despite some rumors, Death is not based on Gaiman's friend Tori Amos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Death (comics)\n--See also.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "A more traditional version of Death, a skeleton in a bluish or purplish cloak, appeared as host in such DC titles such as \"Weird Mystery Tales\", \"House of Secrets\", \"Ghosts\", \"Weird War Tales\" (including being in the story in issue #94), \"DC Comics Presents\" #29, etc. \"Weird War Tales\" typically featured Death as a skeleton in some sort of military uniform relevant to the era and locality of the war depicted. This character appeared as recently as \"Elvira's House of Mystery\" #2 (February 1986). How this pre-Crisis Death relates to Gaiman's Death, if at all, is unclear, although her older brother Destiny appeared with the character, and both Deaths have appeared with incarnations of Superman. Superman referred to the earlier Death with the term \"Grim Reaper\", so perhaps that could be regarded as a distinct character, however, in the pages of \"Weird War Tales\", he called himself \"Death.\" He also appeared when \"Weird War Tales\" was published under the Vertigo imprint and in the 2010 \"Weird War Tales\" one-shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "McKean also used a series of professional English models for representations of Death on covers of \"Sandman.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of death deities",
        "text": "Death is the name of one of \"The Endless\" in the DC Universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "Because death in American super-hero comics is so often temporary, readers rarely take the death of a character seriously; when a character dies, readers feel very little sense of loss, and are simply left wondering how long it will be before they return to life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death appeared in her Grim Reaper form in \"Harley Quinn\" (comic book) Vol 3 #63."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "Death is an abstract entity, embodiment of life ending in the Marvel Universe, and the opposite of Eternity, embodiment of the universe. Death is predominantly depicted as a skeleton cloaked in a black or purple robe, and at times appears as a Caucasian human female."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "A common expression regarding comic book death was once \"No one stays dead except Bucky, Jason Todd, and Uncle Ben\", referring to the seminal importance of those characters' deaths to the title character: Captain America's sidekick (retconned dead in 1964), Batman's second Robin (dead in 1988), and Spider-Man's uncle (dead since 1962), respectively. This long-held tenet was broken in 2005, when Jason Todd returned to life as the Red Hood and Bucky was retconned to have survived the accident that seemingly killed him, and brought back as the Winter Soldier who had remained in the shadows for decades."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of death deities",
        "text": "In the Marvel Comics Universe, the personification of death is Mistress Death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death appeared in \"Captain Atom\" #42-43 (June\u2013July 1990), in which she appeared alongside the Black Racer as one of several aspects of Death in the DC Universe. Gaiman reportedly took issue with this depiction, feeling that portraying her as merely an aspect of death diminished her importance. Other Giffen stories that feature Death include the \"Ambush Bug Nothing Special\" one-shot (Sep. 1992) and a cameo in the Lobo comic book \"Lobo's Back\" #3 (Oct. 1992), in which she slaps Lobo for getting fresh with her. She observes the destruction of the Earth in \"Legion of Super-Heroes\" vol. 4 #38 (Dec. 1992)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death first appeared as a woman in \"The Witching Hour\" #56 (July 1975) in a tale told by Mordred (written by Carl Wessler and illustrated by Ruben Yandoc). She was depicted with short, curly, red-blonde hair, and was a rival for two men's affections. Both men die in successive car accidents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "A one-shot issue titled \"Death Gallery\" (1994) was released as one of several art showcase comics from DC Comics spotlighting various Sandman characters released between 1994 and 1995. The \"Death Gallery\" featured representations of Death by more than thirty comics artists, including a rough sketch by Gaiman himself. In \"\" (2003) Gaiman shows Death several billion years ago, with a markedly different personality \u2014 forbidding and joyless."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "She also appeared in Mike Carey's \"Lucifer\" series when the eponymous main character was wounded and nearly died. Initially it appears that Death has actually arrived for Lucifer, but in fact she is there for Elaine Belloc who dies (temporarily) saving Lucifer's life. Death admits she has arrived a little early and takes the opportunity to talk to Lucifer who is currently trapped between life and death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Other characters:\n* Death Adder (comics), a Marvel Superhero\n* Death's Head, a Marvel UK character\n* Death's-Head (comics), a Marvel character and enemy of Daredevil\n* Death Metal (comics), a Marvel UK character\n* Death Squad (comics), a Marvel Comics team of supervillains\n* Death-Stalker, a Marvel character\n* Death Wreck, a Marvel character\n* Doctor Death (comics), a DC supervillain\n* Black Death (comics), a Marvel supervillain\n* Lady Death\n* Lady Deathstrike"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "The character was featured in the \"Silver Surfer\" animated series, voiced by Lally Cadeau. Due to Fox's broadcast standards, this version was depicted as a female personification of chaos known as Lady Chaos. Thanos would talk to a statue of Lady Chaos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In \"Madame Xanadu\", the title character calls out to her while chained up and denied access to her youth potions during the French Revolution. As she is a survivor from the days of King Arthur, she grows very old very quickly without them. She summons Death and reads her own cards, interpreting her Death card as predictive of her future destiny on earth. Death is so amused by this interpretation that she grants Madame Xanadu immortality, revocable any time Xanadu wishes. Death appeared in \"Action Comics\" #894, which was written by Paul Cornell. Gaiman helped write Death's dialogue to ensure that her characterization remained consistent with \"The Sandman\". In the story, while searching for a black power ring, Lex Luthor encounters her. She appears again in issue #900 and in \"The Flash\" (vol. 3) #6, part of the \"Brightest Day\" crossover."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death is the second eldest of the Endless, a family of anthropomorphic beings. Death is possibly the most powerful of the Endless (and one of the most powerful beings in the universe, followed closely by beings like Lucifer Morningstar, however is slightly less powerful than The Presence) having been shown (in a flashback in ') to be virtually omniscient and being able to intimidate the Furies, who show no fear of the other Endless, simply by raising her voice in '. The witch Thessaly mentions that Death is the only one of the Endless who is bound by no rules, supported in Dream's portion of \"\" in which she briefly makes an appearance at a conference designed to set functions for entities and leaves before it begins. In addition, it is mentioned in \"Brief Lives\" that she is the only one of the Endless who may survive the end of this incarnation of the universe. Death's realm is not portrayed in detail in the series, except for a brief scene in her \"house\" in the \"Sandman Special\", \"Song of Orpheus\", and later in \"The Books of Magic\" series. This is where she keeps her floppy hat collection, her goldfish Slim and Wandsworth and possibly her gallery. A brief glimpse of her realm can also be seen in \"The Little Endless Storybook\", when Barnabas visits her, although this time in her \"apartment suite\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "Death is an abstract entity, possessing nigh infinite power and knowledge. The character occasionally appears as a humanoid female so as to be able to be perceived by lesser beings, and resides inside a pocket dimension known as the Realm of Death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "The current incarnation of Death first appeared in the final chapter of \"Sandman\"\u2019s first story arc ', \"The Sound of Her Wings\", (issue #8) where she gave Dream direction and a degree of understanding. Death instantly became very popular with readers, and she appears at least briefly in each of the nine subsequent story arcs. However, Gaiman attempted to entice and tease readers by rationing out the number of appearances from Dream's family, so Death did not appear as frequently as one might expect for such a popular character. At the end of the ninth Sandman story arc ', there is a lengthy and noteworthy appearance from Death, in which she finally brings her brother peace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In \"Swamp Thing\" vol. 2, #6, The Phantom Stranger met Death in the form of a middle-aged gentleman, possibly inspired by \"Death Takes a Holiday\". In the story, a young woman, Margaret \"Maggie\" Brennan, had what should have been a minor head injury and at one glimpse of Death chose to become Death's bride. As someone newly dead herself, she taught Death that he needs to show compassion for the newly dead to allay their fears. He takes her advice and they both serve as aspects of Death. This version of Death was created by Mike W. Barr and Dan Spiegle. Maggie is blonde and bears only minor physical resemblance to Gaiman and Dringenberg's version, though her compassionate nature is a similarity. In \"The Spectre\" (vol. 2), The Phantom Stranger himself appeared to be the only psychopomp in the DC Universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "Death (Marvel Comics)\n--Publication history.\n--Fictional character biography.\n--Powers and abilities.\n--Other versions.\n----Earth X.\n--In other media.\n----Television.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Near Death (comics)",
        "text": "There has been an effort to adapt the comic to television."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bruno Mannheim",
        "text": "Bruno Mannheim appears in the animated film \"The Death of Superman\", voiced by Trevor Devall. Mannheim assisted Darkseid in creating a New God soldier and later to capture Superman.\n* Bruno Mannheim appeared in \"\".\n* Bruno Mannheim appears in \"DC Universe Online\", voiced by Bruce Carey. In both the hero and villain campaigns, the players are sent by the Question and Deathstroke respectively to infiltrate Intergang and steal the Crime Bible from Mannheim. They arrive just as he sacrifices Batwoman to gain infinite power, though the players are able to defeat him with assistance from their respective benefactors. Following this, the hero players use the Crime Bible to revive Batwoman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Storylines:\n* \"The Death of Superman\"\n* \"Death of Buffy\" (Buffy comic)\n* Death (disambiguation)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Deathstroke",
        "text": "The character was ranked the 24th Greatest Villain of All Time by \"Wizard\" magazine and the 32nd Greatest Comic Book Villain of All Time by IGN. He has been substantially adapted into various forms of media, including several \"Batman\"-related projects; and the \"Teen Titans\" animated series, where he is voiced by Ron Perlman. In live-action, Deathstroke has been portrayed by Manu Bennett on The CW's television Arrowverse show \"Arrow\"; by Esai Morales as the main antagonist in the second season on the DC Universe series \"Titans\"; and by Joe Manganiello in the DC Extended Universe with a cameo in the 2017 film \"Justice League\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "Some characters established during \"The Death of Superman\" became recurring characters in DC's comics. Superboy and Steel received ongoing series after the story's conclusion and Steel appears in a self-titled film (1997), portrayed by basketball player and Superman fan Shaquille O'Neal. Eradicator received a limited series, Superboy remained a fixture of the DC Universe until he was killed in \"Infinite Crisis\" (2005\u20132006), and the Cyborg Superman became a recurring enemy of Superman and Green Lantern. Later comics featuring Doomsday included \"\" (1995), which explores his origin, and \"Reign of Doomsday\" (2011), which heavily references \"The Death of Superman\" and features him hunting down the Supermen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "In the comic book fan community, the apparent death and subsequent return of a long-running character is often called a comic book death. A comic book death is generally not taken seriously by readers and is rarely permanent or meaningful other than for story or thematic purposes. The term is usually not applied to characters who have the ability to return from the dead as an established power or ability, such as Solomon Grundy or Ra's al Ghul."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black Racer (DC Comics)",
        "text": "According to \"Captain Atom\" #42, the Black Racer represents \"death as inevitability\", whereas Death of the Endless represents \"death as compassionate release\". Nekron, meanwhile, represents \"Death as the Ultimate Opponent\". This has been contested by Neil Gaiman, who says that Death of the Endless is the ultimate incarnation of death in the DC Universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "The character first appeared in \"Captain Marvel\" #26 (Jun. 1973) and was created by Mike Friedrich and Jim Starlin. Death is an abstract entity, the embodiment of the end of life in the Marvel Universe, and resides inside a pocket dimension known as the Realm of Death. The character can change appearance at will shown in a storyline of \"Captain Marvel\" where Thanos' scheme to conquer the universe, as the character becomes determined to prove his love for Death by destroying all life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "Comic book death\n--Context.\n--Notable examples.\n--In-universe acknowledgement.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "Death (distinguished as Mistress Death or Lady Death) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is a cosmic entity based on the personification of death. They first appeared in \"Captain Marvel\" #26 (Jun. 1973) and was created by Mike Friedrich and Jim Starlin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor Death (character)",
        "text": "Dr. Death is a mad scientist and supervillain appearing in publications by DC Comics. The character was created by Gardner Fox and Bob Kane as an enemy of the superhero Batman, and first appeared in \"Detective Comics\" #29 (July 1939). He is notable as the first traditional supervillain to be encountered by the Batman, as well as his first recurring foe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deathblow (comics)",
        "text": "Deathblow dies during the Fire From Heaven event, sacrificing himself in order to kill Damocles, the villain from that crossover."
      },
      {
        "title": "Characters of the DC Extended Universe",
        "text": "Deathstroke was originally slated to appear in numerous DCEU projects, including the original version of \"The Batman\", which was to star and be directed by Ben Affleck. Since Affleck's departure from the project, however, Matt Reeves has taken his place as director and re-wrote the script, terminating the film's DCEU connections and thus Deathstroke's involvement as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor Death (character)",
        "text": "In September 2011, \"The New 52\" rebooted DC's continuity. Here, a new version of Dr. Death makes an appearance in \"Batman\" #25 as part of the story arc \"\". He is once again established as one of the first supervillains encountered by Batman early in his career. A disgruntled former Wayne Enterprises scientist, Dr. Death murders several people with a serum that causes uncontrolled bone growth. He is depicted with a skeletal appearance, a result of testing his serum on himself. Dr. Death joins forces with the Riddler to try to seize control of Gotham City during a super-storm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In 2003, the manga-style graphic novel ' portrayed Death's activities during the fourth Sandman story arc '. It was written and illustrated by Jill Thompson, and the format proved popular enough for Thompson to produce the similarly manga-influenced follow-up \"Dead Boy Detectives\", featuring minor \"Sandman\" characters, and \"featuring a cameo by Death\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "\"The Death of Superman\" is divided into three story arcs: \"Doomsday!\", \"Funeral for a Friend\", and \"Reign of the Supermen!\". The first arc chronicles Superman's fight with the monster Doomsday and concludes with his apparent death. The second depicts Superman's fellow superheroes and the rest of the DC Universe mourning his death, ending with his adoptive father Jonathan Kent having a heart attack. The third sees the emergence of four Superman imposters before the original returns. A number of characters in \"The Death of Superman\", such as Doomsday, the Cyborg Superman, and Steel, would recur in later DC publications."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "Superman's death stuns and traumatizes the residents of the DC Universe. His funeral is attended by nearly every superhero, as well as some supervillains, President Bill Clinton, and First Lady Hillary Clinton. Every hero wears a black arm band featuring Superman's logo. After the funeral, Project Cadmus steals Superman's body from his mausoleum to clone him, but Lane and Supergirl recover it. With Superman gone, the crime rate rises; the costumed heroes of Metropolis, including a team funded by Luthor, rise to fill in as protectors but are insufficient."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Discworld)",
        "text": "In the 1997 animated adaptations of \"Soul Music\" and \"Wyrd Sisters\", Death was voiced by Christopher Lee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Killing off",
        "text": "Extremely long print runs make the popularity of characters (with writers and fans) and occasionally rights issues for using the character in licensed adaptations often make characters often be brought back to life by later writers. That can happen either as a depiction of their literal resurrection or by retcon, a revision that changes earlier continuity and establishes the character not to have died in the first place. This phenomenon is known as the comic book death. Killing off a main character such as Superman, Batman or Captain America can often lead to an uptick in publicity for a comic book and high sales for the story in which they are inevitably brought back to life."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "In \"Emperor Joker\", a 2010 episode of ' (2008\u20132011), a fourth wall-breaking Bat-Mite (Paul Reubens) references \"A Death in the Family\" and the 900 number, and Batman is briefly seen cradling a dead Robin. Todd's portrayal in the video game ' (2015) was inspired by \"A Death in the Family\". The DC Universe and HBO Max streaming television series \"Titans\" (2018\u2013present) features Todd as a central character portrayed by Curran Walters. After the second season episode \"Deathstroke\" (2019) ended on a cliffhanger with Deathstroke (Esai Morales) attempting to kill Todd, DC Universe held a poll in which fans could vote to determine Todd's fate. The poll was only intended as a reference to \"A Death in the Family\" and had no effect on the series, but elements from \"A Death in the Family\" were incorporated in the third season of \"Titans\", which premiered in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death of the New Gods",
        "text": "As part of the lead-in to the limited series, a number of New Gods were seen being tracked and killed in a number of other DC titles:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor Death (character)",
        "text": "Dr. Death remains active in the DC Universe following the events of \"Infinite Crisis\". In \"52\" #2, he is mentioned as one of many mad scientists who have gone missing. He is depicted later in the series among other captured scientists and mad geniuses on Oolong Island that make up the Science Squad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atom (Ryan Choi)",
        "text": "During the \"Brightest Day\" event, Ryan is murdered by Deathstroke and his new team of during their first mission. His corpse is then delivered in a matchbox to Dwarfstar, who is revealed to be the person who hired the Titans. His death caused some minor controversy, given both its timing and the supposed \"lighter\" new direction of DC Comics. A short time after Ryan's death, Deathstroke is briefly shown dismantling his bio-belt for some unknown purpose. In an interview done during Comic-Con International 2010, \"Titans\" writer Eric Wallace stated that Choi's death would have major repercussions for the team, and would bring the Titans into conflict with the wider DCU."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "Death (personification)\n--By region.\n----Americas.\n------Latin America.\n----Asia.\n------East Asia.\n------India.\n------Western Asia.\n----Europe.\n------Baltic.\n------Celtic.\n------Hellenic.\n------Scandinavia.\n------Slavic.\n------The Low Countries.\n------Western Europe.\n--In Abrahamic religions.\n----In Judaism.\n------Form and functions.\n------Scholars and the Angel of Death.\n------Rabbinic views.\n----In Christianity.\n----In Islam.\n--Media.\n----Songs.\n------\"Death Don't Have No Mercy\".\n------\"(Don't Fear) The Reaper\".\n------\"Creeping Death\".\n----Books.\n------death (\"Death with Interruptions\" or \"Death at Intervals\").\n------Death (\"Discworld\").\n------Death (\"The Book Thief\").\n------Death (\"Harry Potter\").\n------Death (\"Incarnations of Immortality\").\n------Charlie Asher (\"A Dirty Job\").\n----Comics.\n------Death (DC Comics).\n------Death (Marvel Comics).\n------Lady MacDeath (Bug-a-Boo).\n----Film.\n------\"Death Takes a Holiday\" (1934).\n------\"The Seventh Seal\" (1957).\n------\"The Adventures of Baron Munchausen\" (1988).\n------\"Final Destination\" film series (2000\u20132011).\n----Television.\n----Theatre.\n------\"Elisabeth\" Viennese musical (1992).\n----Video Games.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death-Shield",
        "text": "Death-Shield is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "In the British children's sketch television show \"Horrible Histories\", Death (portaryed by Simon Farnaby) is a reoccurring character who appears the segment, \"Stupid Deaths\" and later in its sixth series, \"Chatty Deaths\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "Commenting on the impact and role of comic book character deaths, writer Geoff Johns said: \"Death in superhero comics is cyclical in its nature, and that's for a lot of reasons, whether they are story reasons, copyright reasons, or fan reasons\". The phenomenon of comic book death is particularly common for superhero characters. Writer Danny Fingeroth suggests that the nature of superheroes requires that they be both ageless and immortal."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "The DC Extended Universe series of films contains references to \"The Death of Superman\", beginning with the appearance of Superman's black suit in \"Man of Steel\" (2013). The climax of \"\" (2016) draws narrative elements from \"Doomsday!\". In the film, Lex Luthor uses forbidden Kryptonian genetic engineering projects to combine General Zod's corpse with his own DNA, creating Doomsday. During their fight, Superman and Doomsday stab each other with a spear and bone, respectively, and both die. Jurgens received a \"Special Thanks\" credit at the end of the film. In \"Justice League\" (2017), the black suit reappears as an Easter egg in a deleted scene. Costume designer Michael Wilkinson explained that director Zack Snyder planned to have Superman wear the suit when he was resurrected in the film, but scrapped the idea in pre-production. Superman wore the black suit in Snyder's 2021 director's cut of the film, \"Zack Snyder's Justice League\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Dead or Alive characters",
        "text": "Voiced by (English): D. C. DouglasVoiced by (Japanese): Hiroki Yasumoto"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean Loring",
        "text": "In \"Green Lantern\" #43, it is confirmed by Black Hand that Jean Loring had died, since he can hear the voice of Death, which is later revealed to be Nekron, the \"black personification\" of it. In the \"Blackest Night\" storyline, on the night of the superhero's memorial day, her widower, Ray asks Hawkman to visit her grave to be honored as a fallen member of the community, but Hawkman refuses because of what she did in \"Identity Crisis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Source (comics)",
        "text": "Source (comics)\n--History.\n----Death of the New Gods.\n----DC Rebirth.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Deathstroke",
        "text": "Following his injury in \"DC Universe: Last Will and Testament\", Deathstroke appears in one of the four \"Faces of Evil\" one-shots, written by David Hine. Hine has explained that the series is part of the setup for future stories: \"All of the characters in this 'Faces of Evil' series were selected for their potential as major players in the coming year.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "She also appears in \"The Books of Magic\" (first volume, 1991, also written by Gaiman) at the very end of time, where her function is to set things in order and close the universe down. She meets Timothy Hunter and Mister E there after Mister E has taken Timothy all the way to the end of time, because only there can he kill Timothy without fear of interference. Death stops the murder on the grounds that \"I took both of you billions of years ago\". She sends Timothy back home, but forces Mister E to return the hard way. John Ney Rieber included her in \"The Books of Magic\" (vol. 2 #3-4), in which she lets Timothy Hunter hang out at her house and hold her teddy bear, Cavendish, while he is recovering from the venom of the Manticore. Hunter later encounters Death walking in the rain in \"The Books of Magic\" #25, and there was later an arc about her in \"\". In \"Hellblazer\" #120, Death appears briefly in a pub filled with ghosts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "Death is frequently imagined as a personified force. In some mythologies, a character known as the Grim Reaper (usually depicted as a berobed skeleton wielding a scythe) causes the victim's death by coming to collect that person's soul. Other beliefs hold that the Spectre of Death is only a psychopomp, serving to sever the last ties between the soul and the body, and to guide the deceased to the afterlife, without having any control over when or how the victim dies. Death is most often personified in male form, although in certain cultures Death is perceived as female (for instance, Marzanna in Slavic mythology, Santa Muerte in Mexico), or Mistress Death who appears in Marvel comics as a love interest of super villain, Thanos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death's Head",
        "text": "Later, in 2005, fans used a poll on Marvel's website to vote for the character's return. This led to a third version of Death's Head, Death's Head 3.0, created by original Death's Head writer Simon Furman. Simon Furman said in 2011 that the character was still popular because \u201che'll never change or compromise or grow or repent or agonise like most comic book characters. He's this unchanging, uncompromising rock that other characters bounce off. But you still kind of love him. Weird.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "\"A Death in the Family\" is referenced in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU), a shared universe of superhero films based on DC characters. \"\" (2016) features a damaged Robin suit on display in the Batcave, while \"Suicide Squad\" (2016) reveals that Harley Quinn (Margot Robbie) helped the Joker (Jared Leto) murder him. \"Zack Snyder's Justice League\" (the 2021 director's cut of \"Justice League\" (2017)) features a scene in which the Joker mocks Batman (Ben Affleck) for Robin's death. Though Warner Bros. and \"Suicide Squad\" director David Ayer stated that the dead Robin was Todd, \"Batman v Superman\" director Zack Snyder later said he had intended it to be Grayson, unlike \"A Death in the Family\". Snyder had planned to explore Robin's death in detail in his \"Justice League\" sequels before their cancellation. Before the release of \"Zack Snyder's Justice League\", Snyder proposed a comic book prequel to \"Batman v Superman\" that depicted Robin's death, but DC turned it down."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "In 2011, DC relaunched its entire comics line in an initiative called The New 52, which revamped the DC Universe and erased certain events. The relaunch altered Superman considerably, characterizing him as shorter-tempered and no longer in love with Lois Lane. However, \"The Death of Superman\" remained intact in the new DC Universe. To coincide with the release of the animated film adaptation of the crossover in 2018, a 12-part \"Death of Superman\" webcomic series began, written by Simonson and illustrated by Cat Staggs, Joel Ojeda, and Laura Braga, among others. The first parts chronicle Superman's actions hours before Doomsday kills him; later parts follow Jimmy Olsen during the confrontation and the aftermath of Superman's death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Imperiex",
        "text": "At least 8 million people on Earth die during the war. The total number dead in the DC Universe is stated to be countless. Several heroes also die, including Maxima, Aquaman, Guy Gardner, Queen Hippolyta, General Sam Lane (Lois Lane's father), and Steel are all presumed dead, but later return alive for different reasons.\n* Entropy manipulation: Imperiex wielded the power of the Big Bang itself, and was capable of projecting energy blasts powerful enough to destroy Doomsday with one blast.\n* Superhuman strength: He was able to physically match Post-Crisis Superman in direct combat.\n* Superhuman durability.\n* Superhuman stamina.\n* Imperiex had the ability to create black holes capable of sucking up entire universes.\n* Planetary consumption.\n* Can create probes of himself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "Planters cited comic book deaths (particularly those adapted in the Marvel Cinematic Universe) as the inspiration for a storyline killing off its century-old mascot Mr. Peanut in January 2020 and having him reborn as a baby the next month."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nighthawk (DC Comics)",
        "text": "He was shown as dying during \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\", although this has been retconned twice to fit in with the later revelation that he was a reincarnation of Prince Khufu \u2014 who would later be reincarnated as Carter Hall, the Golden Age Hawkman. Current continuity has it that he was shot by a criminal named Matilda Roderic, who was presumably a reincarnation of the evil priest Hath-Set, who is apparently destined to kill Khufu in every life. Roderic's descendant is the current Hath-Set."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death's Head",
        "text": "Furman has said he felt Death's Head II \"lost his [DH's] most important aspect; the dark-edged gallows humour. So in and of itself I think it's a very tight, proficient and action-packed comic that really tapped into that early 90s anti-hero vibe. But to me it was never Death's Head. It was another character.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "Dar described the Joker's speech as blatant Islamophobia disguised as humor. Shaheen and Dar argued \"A Death in the Family\" promotes the idea of \"Them vs. Us\", pitting the Arab and Western worlds against each other as diametrically opposed in values. The story contains errors in its depiction of the Middle East. Starlin writes Batman as speaking Farsi, the Persian language, in Beirut (where Arabic is actually the commonly spoken language), and the Joker dons a traditional Arab headdress and robes as the Iranian ambassador, although Iran is not an Arab country. Dar concluded that and [DC]'s disregard for cultural, religious, and political accuracy simply points to a crude and racist generalization: Arabs, Iranians, and Muslims are all the 'same' and 'hate' the West.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death and Return of Superman (film)",
        "text": "Following Superman's funeral, DC Comics published the \"Reign of the Supermen!\" story arc, which introduced four characters claiming to be Superman. One was Hank Henshaw, a cyborg version of Superman who defeated the other three and destroyed Coast City, causing Hal Jordan to lose his sense of reasoning and kill fellow members of the Green Lantern Corps. The Cyborg Superman continued his reign of terror until the real Superman appeared and defeated him. It was revealed that Superman had emerged from a \"healing coma\", identical to death except temporary. Superman's resurrection was met with outrage from fans who felt betrayed by DC Comics; sales of Superman's comics declined and have never recovered ever since."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black Racer (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Willie Walker was killed in the first issue of the eight-part \"Death of the New Gods\" mini-series. He was killed by Infinity-Man, who tore his heart out. Serifan of the Forever People was seen exiting the room after his death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death of the New Gods",
        "text": "DC's second weekly limited series \"Countdown\" ties into the \"Death of the New Gods\" limited series in several issues; after a battle in the clouds above Metropolis, Lightray was killed in \"Countdown\" #48 by the mysterious god-killer, with his last words being \"Infinite... Infinite...\" Sleez was killed in #46 by the god-killer, who proclaimed \"So Begins The End!\" as he blew a hole through Sleez; the Deep Six were all slaughtered in \"Countdown\" #38. The new Forager investigated the murders at the request of New Genesis, and later visited Earth to recruit Jimmy Olsen to help her after the death of Big Barda. In \"Countdown\" #19, Bernadeth was confronted by the god-killer. In \"Countdown\" #10, Granny Goodness is killed by the god-killer, once more."
      },
      {
        "title": "Superhero fiction",
        "text": "Death in superhero fiction is rarely permanent, as characters who die are often brought back to life through supernatural means or via retcons (retroactive changes to the continuity), the alteration of previously established facts in the continuity of a fictional work. Fans have termed the practice of bringing back dead characters \"comic book death\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "Although several comic book deaths are well-known, two of the best-known are the 1980 \"death\" of Jean Grey in Marvel's \"Dark Phoenix Saga\" and that of Superman in DC's highly publicized 1993 \"Death of Superman\" storyline. There is one major distinction between the two, however\u2014whereas it was never intended that Superman's death be permanent, but rather that he would return to life at the conclusion of the story, Jean's passing was intended to be permanent, as the editor Jim Shooter felt that would be the only satisfactory outcome given that she had committed mass murder. Despite this, the story was retconned a few years later to facilitate Jean's return."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Hadley passed away from colon cancer at the age of 48 on January 6, 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Killing off",
        "text": "Death is a frequently used dramatic device in comic book fiction, and in particular superhero fiction. Unlike stories in television or film, character deaths are rarely by unforeseen behind-the-scenes events, as there is no analogous situation to having actors portraying characters. Instead, characters are typically killed off as part of the story or occasionally by editorial mandate to generate publicity for a title. Teasers may hint at characters' deaths for an extended period. A number of factors often mean that the changes are not permanent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Characters of the DC Extended Universe",
        "text": "Slade Wilson / Deathstroke (portrayed by Joe Manganiello) is a mercenary who has had an acrimonious relationship with Batman. He appears in a post-credits scene at the end of the theatrical cut, as Lex Luthor entices him to create a \"League of [their] own\" after the Justice League forms and defeats Steppenwolf. The director's cut has a different version of this scene in the epilogue, as Deathstroke simply gets the identity of Batman when visiting Luthor. He also appears in Batman's second \"Knightmare\" vision, joining forces with him, Victor Stone, Barry Allen, Mera, and Joker as they prepare to fight an evil Superman in that world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "During the \"Chaos War\" storyline, Daimon Hellstrom mentions to Hercules that Death has fled their reality upon Amatsu-Mikaboshi triumphing in the realms of the dead, causing the souls of the deceased to be unleashed upon the Earth, and rendering the victims of the siege, whose injuries might otherwise prove fatal, merely locked in a deathless limbo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outcasts (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Racing to aide Kaine, they learn that she has been gunned down on the air and is barely alive. They hijack the ambulance containing Kaine and Yancy, angry that she won't be able to finally end his life of immortality by aging him to death, grabs her bare skin as he yells at her to get up. Touching her allows her body to inadvertently absorb his lifeforce and brings her back to life while Yancy ages, withers and collapses to the floor in a heap of skin and bones."
      },
      {
        "title": "In Death characters",
        "text": "He hero-worships both Eve and Roarke. In the end of \"Ceremony in Death\", Jamie kills the murderer of his sister with an athame; Eve takes the blame and pretends she did it in order to spare him from a murder trial."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of DC Direct action figures",
        "text": "March, 2014\n* Deathstroke\n* Firefly\n* Deadshot\n* Anarky\n* Killer Croc"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wintergreen (comics)",
        "text": "A re-imagined version of the character appeared on The CW's live-action television series \"Arrow\" in the first season, where he was portrayed by stunt performer Jeffrey C. Robinson as the show's first incarnation of Deathstroke. He returned in the final season as well. He was also featured on the second season of the DC Universe series \"Titans\", played by Demore Barnes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "The Grim Reaper is one of the main characters of the 2000s Cartoon Network series \"The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Knight (DC Comics)",
        "text": "He has a state funeral back in London, his coffin draped in the Union Flag is paraded through the streets while huge crowds of mourners line the procession path. The Prime Minister talks about the possibility of resurrecting him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chung Doo-un",
        "text": "Chung Doo-un\n--Death.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Copperhead (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Copperhead appears in the New 52 (a 2011 reboot of the DC Comics universe). He is an Pakisthan criminal named Sameer Park and is a mutated anthropomorphic snake man as opposed to being a villain wearing a snake costume as well as member of the Secret Society of Super Villains. He is killed by Deathstroke in \"Forever Evil\" #5."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death's popularity saw her spun off into two solo miniseries, ' (1993), and ' (1996). Both were written by Gaiman and illustrated by Chris Bachalo, and dealt with Death's encounters with various mortals. \"Death: The High Cost of Living\" became the first comic released under the newly instigated Vertigo branding in 1993, at which point \"The Sandman\" also moved from the DC to Vertigo imprint. A third miniseries, \"The Girl who Would Be Death\" by Caitl\u00edn R. Kiernan, was about a girl who purchased an ankh stolen from Death and tried to become her. Death is never actually seen in the series, but she speaks and acts in the third and fourth issues of the four-issue series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outcasts (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Kaine asks Yancy if he truly wants to die and he blinks twice, so she finally puts Yancy to rest. She tells the last 2 surviving Outcasts, B.D. and Killer that the time for Outcasts is over. B.D. begins to protest, but she teleports he and Killer back to the streets of Big City."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "Starlin and the artists prepared two versions of \"Batman\" #428, depending on the outcome. As O'Neil stated, \"It really could have gone either way. We prepared two choices of balloons. We had alternate panels. We had everything set up so that the two outcomes could be accomplished with a minimum of changes. We prepared for either situation.\" Raspler explained that Aparo prepared three alternate pages and several panels with static images that could be easily rearranged. O'Neil voted to let Todd live, as he felt killing the character would complicate his job as an editor, and Starlin was unable to vote because he was in Mexico at the time. O'Neil and Raspler checked the results every 90 minutes. DC executive editor and vice president Dick Giordano expected readers to vote in favor of Todd's survival; O'Neil believed they would vote for his death to see if DC would follow through."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "A second animated film adaptation was made in two parts: \"The Death of Superman\" (2018) and \"Reign of the Supermen\" (2019), part of the DC Universe Animated Original Movies line and of DC Animated Movie Universe. Compared to \"Superman: Doomsday\", the new adaptation is more faithful to the comic story. DC's Tim Beedle considered the films \"much less condensed\" and said they \"include many of the fan-favorite moments from the story that were left out of \"Doomsday\"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor Death (character)",
        "text": "After several decades' absence, Dr. Death was reintroduced by writer Gerry Conway in \"Batman\" #345 and \"Detective Comics\" #512 (1982). Conway's story is an update of the original 1939 tale. In this version, Dr. Death is depicted as a paraplegic, but his deadly gas gimmick remains the same. He is assisted this time by a manservant named Togo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil War (comics)",
        "text": "\"\u2020\" indicates that the character died during the storyline."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What does the personification of death do in DC comics that most personifications of death do not?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Unlike most personifications of death, DC's death does not just meet with those who have died, but visits those who are being born, though, only she remembers meeting them. She also differs in that she keeps a collection of floppy hats, and has a pair of goldfish named Slim and Wandsworth."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the personification of death in DC comics known as in Ancient Greece?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Death was known in Ancient Greece as Teleute."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What films has Death from DC comics been in?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Death has made their only film appearance in a DC Showcase animated short voiced by Jamie Chung."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can the personification of death in the DC comics be killed?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Yes.  One day every century, Death lives (and dies) as a mortal, in order to understand the value of the life she takes.",
      "One day every century, Death lives (and dies) as a mortal, in order to understand the value of the life she takes. She does this by becoming a mortal fated to die that day, and at the end of Death: The High Cost of Living her Endless self briefly converses with her mortal self."
    ],
    "topic": "Death (DC Comics)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Death (DC Comics):14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Death (DC Comics)",
          "Fictional character biography",
          "New Earth"
        ],
        "ctx": "One day every century, Death lives (and dies) as a mortal, in order to understand the value of the life she takes. She does this by becoming a mortal fated to die that day. At the end of \"\" her Endless self briefly converses with her mortal self."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Death (DC Comics):14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Death (DC Comics)",
          "Fictional character biography",
          "New Earth"
        ],
        "ctx": "One day every century, Death lives (and dies) as a mortal, in order to understand the value of the life she takes. She does this by becoming a mortal fated to die that day. At the end of \"\" her Endless self briefly converses with her mortal self."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Near Death (comics)",
        "text": "There has been an effort to adapt the comic to television."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Audible released a drama version in July 2019, starring Neil Gaiman, James McAvoy, Taron Egerton, Michael Sheen, and Andy Serkis. Death was played by Kat Dennings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "According to Gaiman, the initial visual design of Death was based on a friend of Dringenberg's named Cinamon Hadley. From \"The Sandman Companion\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "One day every century, Death lives (and dies) as a mortal, in order to understand the value of the life she takes. She does this by becoming a mortal fated to die that day. At the end of \"\" her Endless self briefly converses with her mortal self."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In the DC Universe continuity, Death is both the end of life and a psychopomp. Like most anthropomorphic personifications of death, Death meets with the recently deceased and guides them into their new existence. However, unlike most personifications of death, she also visits people as they are born, according to Destruction in the \"Sandman Special: The Song of Orpheus\". Evidently, only she seems to remember these encounters. In the special issue, it is also revealed that Death was known in Ancient Greece as Teleute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "A common expression regarding comic book death was once \"No one stays dead except Bucky, Jason Todd, and Uncle Ben\", referring to the seminal importance of those characters' deaths to the title character: Captain America's sidekick (retconned dead in 1964), Batman's second Robin (dead in 1988), and Spider-Man's uncle (dead since 1962), respectively. This long-held tenet was broken in 2005, when Jason Todd returned to life as the Red Hood and Bucky was retconned to have survived the accident that seemingly killed him, and brought back as the Winter Soldier who had remained in the shadows for decades."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death (DC Comics)\n--Publication history.\n----Character design.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----New Earth.\n----DC Rebirth.\n--Powers and abilities.\n--Appearances.\n----Quasi-canonical appearances.\n--In other media.\n----Audio drama.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Adapt or Die (Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.)",
        "text": "\"Adapt or Die\" is the sixth episode of the seventh season of the American television series \"Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.\" Based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D., it follows a Life Model Decoy of Phil Coulson and his team of S.H.I.E.L.D. agents as they race to stop the Chronicoms from unraveling history in the 1970s. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) and acknowledges the franchise's films. The episode was written by DJ Doyle and directed by Aprill Winney."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In \"Swamp Thing\" vol. 2, #6, The Phantom Stranger met Death in the form of a middle-aged gentleman, possibly inspired by \"Death Takes a Holiday\". In the story, a young woman, Margaret \"Maggie\" Brennan, had what should have been a minor head injury and at one glimpse of Death chose to become Death's bride. As someone newly dead herself, she taught Death that he needs to show compassion for the newly dead to allay their fears. He takes her advice and they both serve as aspects of Death. This version of Death was created by Mike W. Barr and Dan Spiegle. Maggie is blonde and bears only minor physical resemblance to Gaiman and Dringenberg's version, though her compassionate nature is a similarity. In \"The Spectre\" (vol. 2), The Phantom Stranger himself appeared to be the only psychopomp in the DC Universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Appointment with Death (play)",
        "text": "The adaptation of the book is notable for being one of the most radical reworkings of a novel Christie ever did, not only eliminating Hercule Poirot from the story, but changing the identity of the killer. In the play, the ill Mrs Boynton commits suicide and drops several red herrings that pointed to her family members as possible suspects, hoping that they would suspect each other and therefore continue to live in her shadow even after her death, whereas in the novel Lady Westholme is the murderess. In the play, Lady Westholme becomes a purely comic character."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death Comes as the End",
        "text": "A BBC adaptation of the novel was announced in August 2016, as part of a sequence of Christie productions. Gwyneth Hughes was announced as the adaptation's writer in December 2018, with broadcast planned for 2019. However, no further news on the adaptation was subsequently revealed."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "Starlin and the artists prepared two versions of \"Batman\" #428, depending on the outcome. As O'Neil stated, \"It really could have gone either way. We prepared two choices of balloons. We had alternate panels. We had everything set up so that the two outcomes could be accomplished with a minimum of changes. We prepared for either situation.\" Raspler explained that Aparo prepared three alternate pages and several panels with static images that could be easily rearranged. O'Neil voted to let Todd live, as he felt killing the character would complicate his job as an editor, and Starlin was unable to vote because he was in Mexico at the time. O'Neil and Raspler checked the results every 90 minutes. DC executive editor and vice president Dick Giordano expected readers to vote in favor of Todd's survival; O'Neil believed they would vote for his death to see if DC would follow through."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "Elements from \"A Death in the Family\" were incorporated in the 2010 DC Universe Animated Original Movies film ', an adaptation of \"Under the Hood\" directed by Brandon Vietti. In the film, Ra's al Ghul (Jason Isaacs) hires the Joker (John DiMaggio) to distract Batman (Bruce Greenwood) and Todd (Jensen Ackles) while he destroys Europe's financial districts. They follow the Joker to Bosnia, where he kills Todd in similar fashion to \"A Death in the Family\". An interactive film adaptation, ', was released in 2020. The film is a sequel to \"Under the Red Hood\", Vietti again directing and the cast, with the exception of Vincent Martella replacing Ackles, reprising their roles. Similar to the voting system from the comic, the film allows viewers to determine if Todd lives or dies, leading to different scenarios that see him become Red Hood, Hush, or Red Robin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Death, in comics, may refer to:\n* Comic book death, the deaths of characters in comic books and the related entry:\n*The personification of death:\n** Death (DC Comics)\n** Death (Marvel Comics)\n*Death, a member of the Horsemen of Apocalypse"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Other personifications of Death have appeared in the DC Universe. In \"Captain Atom\" #42 Death appears alongside Black Racer of the New Gods and Nekron (a being embodying the will of \"The Black\", the solitude and peace death represents from \"Green Lantern\"). The story stated that all three were equal, representing different aspects of death. Gaiman has denied this, however, and his stories make it clear that Death of the Endless is the ultimate personification of Death. It might be assumed, however, Nekron, the Racer, and the Black Flash are connected to her in some way. Alternatively, there may be multiple avatars or gods of Death in the DC universe, besides those claiming to be Death. Blackest Night has resolved this apparent contradiction or ambiguity, with Nekron no longer being referred to as an aspect of death but instead as a construct formed of darkness in response to the emerging light of the emotional spectrum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adapt or Die (Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.)",
        "text": "Adapt or Die (Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.)\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n----Development.\n----Writing.\n----Casting.\n----Filming.\n--Release.\n--Reception.\n----Ratings.\n----Critical response.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "Bruce Timm and Paul Dini considered adapting \"A Death in the Family\" for ' (1992\u20131999), but decided it was too violent. Instead, they omitted the Todd character and incorporated some of his characteristics in Drake. The story was eventually adapted in the comic book sequel ' (2020), written by Dini and Alan Burnett and penciled by Ty Templeton. In the \"Adventures Continue\" adaptation, the Joker and Harley Quinn kidnap Todd, and the Joker beats him with a crowbar with intent to kill him. Harley objects to killing a child and finds Batman, who arrives as the warehouse is engulfed in flames due to hydrogen tanks. A wounded Todd begs for Batman to kill the Joker, but Batman instead tries to save him; Todd attempts to stop Batman but knocks over more hydrogen tanks, causing the explosion and his apparent death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "Because death in American super-hero comics is so often temporary, readers rarely take the death of a character seriously; when a character dies, readers feel very little sense of loss, and are simply left wondering how long it will be before they return to life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death is a character who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics. She first appeared in \"The Sandman\" vol. 2, #8 (August 1989), and was created by Neil Gaiman and Mike Dringenberg."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "A second animated film adaptation was made in two parts: \"The Death of Superman\" (2018) and \"Reign of the Supermen\" (2019), part of the DC Universe Animated Original Movies line and of DC Animated Movie Universe. Compared to \"Superman: Doomsday\", the new adaptation is more faithful to the comic story. DC's Tim Beedle considered the films \"much less condensed\" and said they \"include many of the fan-favorite moments from the story that were left out of \"Doomsday\"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Related characters:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jay Presson Allen",
        "text": "Allen adapted Ira Levin's play \"Deathtrap\" (1982) for Lumet, exchanging a weak, confusing ending for a more directly resolved one. Though not being able to do what a screenwriter needs to do to a play \u2013 \"opening it up,\" taking it outside the original set or sets, make it bigger \u2013 she was limited to bookending the script with scenes in a New York theater. The plotting was so very tight, which is what the studio executives had wanted when they bought it. It was up to Allen to cut away the underbrush, simplifying the rhetoric as much as possible and adding some realism to the characters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "She made an appearance in the Marvel Universe, at the wedding of Rick Jones and Marlo Chandler in \"The Incredible Hulk\" #418 (handing Marlo a hair brush, a visual pun referring to Marlo's recent 'brush with death').\n* A version of Death also known as Azrael appeared in the \"Superboy\" episode \"Into the Mystery\", portrayed by Peggy O'Neal.\n* A male version of Death appeared in two episodes of \"Teen Titans Go!\", voiced by David Kaye. This version is also Raven's godfather.\n** Grim Reaper also appeared in the series as a separate character.\n* Death is mentioned in the \"Constantine\" episode \"Blessed Are the Damned\". He had encountered Constantine before having his scythe stolen from him for unknown reasons.\n* In the \"Arrow\" season three episode \"The Secret Origin of Felicity Smoak\", Felicity Smoak's goth look from her college years, especially her black hair and clothing and silver Egyptian Ankh necklace, is a nod to Death.\n* Death is set to appear in the upcoming TV adaptation of \"The Sandman\", portrayed by Kirby Howell-Baptiste.\n* Death is referenced in the HBO Max series \"Doom Patrol\". Edward and Charles of the Dead Boy Detectives agency state that \"she\" is after them. Charles states that \"Death's quite nice actually. And she is super fit\".\n* In a \"DC Showcase\" , Death made her first official appearance outside of comics. In the short, Death (voiced by Jamie Chung) meets Vincent (voiced by Leonardo Nam), a failed artist struggling with his personal demons. It was directed by Sam Liu, and written by J.M. DeMatteis. The short was released as a special feature with the \"\" Blu-Ray.\n* Death (not of the Endless) was also the narrator and host of \"The Big Book of Death\" (1995), a large format comic in the Ripley's Believe It Or Not \"strange but true\" genre which came out from Paradox Press, an imprint of DC.\n* \"Death of the Endless\" is referenced in the 2009 young adult novel, \"The Suicide Club\", by Rhys Thomas. In it, the lead character describes death returning with the sound of beating wings.\n* Death is referenced in original \"The Sandman\" penciller Sam Kieth's \"The Maxx\": \"They're all necro-nerds and Sand freaks. They think death is romantic. Death is hard and cold and ugly, not some cute chick\" as quoted by the character Sara, as the comic panels focus in on a colored poster of Death herself.\n* In the television series \"Roseanne\", posters of Death are seen on Darlene's bedroom walls, and a small postcard of Death hung for a time on the family refrigerator.\n* Death made a brief cameo in \"Nodwick\" #33, greeting the warrior Yaeger during a near-death experience.\n* Death is also mentioned in Jorge Jaramillo's novel \"Vallecuervo\" (M\u00e9xico, 2010). \u00darsula, the main character, is looking for her brother. In an old attic she discovered he was living in, she finds an assortment of comic books: \"While I was looking at that Love and Rockets TPB I sensed I was being watched. To my surprise it was Her. Yes, Her. Death. Of the Endless. The cute chick in black dress from Neil Gaiman's comics. She was there, standing still, looking right into my eyes. I moved forward, I touched Her face. Dust. I folded Her and took Her with me (along with those Rockets and some Rick Veitch's books)\".\n* Death has a brief animated cameo in the 2017 fan-film, \"Sandman: 24 Hour Diner\", based on #6 of Sandman. In an original sequence to the story, she collects the nightmares of the deceased patrons of the diner and rescues her brother Dream.\n* The Virgin Books' New Adventures \"Doctor Who\" novel series introduced a manipulative and generally morally ambivalent female incarnation of Death (or rather, as later revealed, one of several Eternals masquerading as cosmic principles). In \"Happy Endings\", she quotes from the original \"The Books of Magic\" mini-series. Although the bulk of the novel was written by Paul Cornell, the section featuring Death was written by author Neil Penswick, as part of a chapter written in tandem by the authors of the previous 49 novels.\n* Death is described and discussed by American filmmaker Kevin Smith during his interview with Joe Rogan on The Joe Rogan Experience podcast #1123, in the context of how he dealt with his heart surgery. While on the operating table he thought about the Death character, and how in an issue of The Sandman, she was asked by an older man: \"\"That's it? I did all these things. I worked my fingers to the bone. What did I get?\", to which Death replied \"You got what everybody gets. You got a lifetime\"\".\n* The lead character of the music video for Pearl Jam's \"Do the Evolution\" is said to have been inspired by Death herself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death first appeared as a woman in \"The Witching Hour\" #56 (July 1975) in a tale told by Mordred (written by Carl Wessler and illustrated by Ruben Yandoc). She was depicted with short, curly, red-blonde hair, and was a rival for two men's affections. Both men die in successive car accidents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Despite some rumors, Death is not based on Gaiman's friend Tori Amos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Superhero fiction",
        "text": "Death in superhero fiction is rarely permanent, as characters who die are often brought back to life through supernatural means or via retcons (retroactive changes to the continuity), the alteration of previously established facts in the continuity of a fictional work. Fans have termed the practice of bringing back dead characters \"comic book death\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Killing off",
        "text": "Death is a frequently used dramatic device in comic book fiction, and in particular superhero fiction. Unlike stories in television or film, character deaths are rarely by unforeseen behind-the-scenes events, as there is no analogous situation to having actors portraying characters. Instead, characters are typically killed off as part of the story or occasionally by editorial mandate to generate publicity for a title. Teasers may hint at characters' deaths for an extended period. A number of factors often mean that the changes are not permanent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "McKean also used a series of professional English models for representations of Death on covers of \"Sandman.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death is an immortal being of virtual omnipotence, omniscience and omnipresence. She is not a god of death or agent of it, but Death itself: the end of life. As for the end of her role, Death has said: \"When the last living thing dies, my job will be finished. I'll put the chairs on the tables, turn out the lights, and lock the universe behind me when I leave\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Children of Men",
        "text": "P. D. James was reported to be pleased with the film, and the screenwriters of \"Children of Men\" were awarded the 19th annual USC Scripter Award for the screen adaptation of the novel. Howard A. Rodman, chair of the USC School of Cinematic Arts Writing Division, described the book-to-screen adaptation as \"writing and screen writing of the highest order\", although Gerschatt, writing in \"Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung\", noted that the screenplay bore very little resemblance to the novel: The gender of the baby was changed (to female), as was the character who was pregnant (Julian, in the novel); Theo, who appears to die in the film, does not die in the novel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Killing off",
        "text": "Extremely long print runs make the popularity of characters (with writers and fans) and occasionally rights issues for using the character in licensed adaptations often make characters often be brought back to life by later writers. That can happen either as a depiction of their literal resurrection or by retcon, a revision that changes earlier continuity and establishes the character not to have died in the first place. This phenomenon is known as the comic book death. Killing off a main character such as Superman, Batman or Captain America can often lead to an uptick in publicity for a comic book and high sales for the story in which they are inevitably brought back to life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "Although several comic book deaths are well-known, two of the best-known are the 1980 \"death\" of Jean Grey in Marvel's \"Dark Phoenix Saga\" and that of Superman in DC's highly publicized 1993 \"Death of Superman\" storyline. There is one major distinction between the two, however\u2014whereas it was never intended that Superman's death be permanent, but rather that he would return to life at the conclusion of the story, Jean's passing was intended to be permanent, as the editor Jim Shooter felt that would be the only satisfactory outcome given that she had committed mass murder. Despite this, the story was retconned a few years later to facilitate Jean's return."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In 2003, the manga-style graphic novel ' portrayed Death's activities during the fourth Sandman story arc '. It was written and illustrated by Jill Thompson, and the format proved popular enough for Thompson to produce the similarly manga-influenced follow-up \"Dead Boy Detectives\", featuring minor \"Sandman\" characters, and \"featuring a cameo by Death\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Physically, Death is also opposite to the traditional western culture personification of death (see Grim Reaper). In \"The Sandman\", Death instead appears as an attractive, pale goth girl dressed in casual clothes \u2014 often a black top and jeans. She also wears a silver ankh on a chain around her neck, and has a marking similar to the eye of Horus around her right eye. She is pleasant, down-to-earth, perky, and has been a nurturing figure for both incarnations of Dream. This irony has helped make Death one of the most popular characters from \"Sandman\". Death was named the fifteenth greatest comic book character by \"Empire\". Kirby Howell-Baptiste is set to portray the character in the upcoming television series \"The Sandman\" on Netflix."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death in Holy Orders",
        "text": "The novel was adapted for television in 2003 as a two-part BBC mini-series, and also released on DVD."
      },
      {
        "title": "DC Universe",
        "text": "The main DC Universe, as well as the alternate realities related to it, were quickly adapted to other media such as film serials or radio dramas. In subsequent decades, the continuity between all of these media became increasingly complex with certain storylines and events designed to simplify or streamline the more confusing aspects of characters' histories."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death of a Hollow Man",
        "text": "Death of a Hollow Man\n--Plot summary.\n--Reception.\n--Television adaptation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Appointment with Death",
        "text": "The first television adaptation was as an episode of the CBS anthology series \"Danger\", broadcast on 16 January 1951."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Matter of Life and Death (play)",
        "text": "Though the plot of the adaptation was broadly similar, there are some differences. In the play June, the radio operator, with whom Peter falls in love, was British rather than American, since the company \"felt that it would distract attention from the central story and towards the different issues of Anglo-American relations today\". However, this meant that the courtroom scenes could not include the arguments about Britain, its historical place in world events and how it is perceived by the rest of the world, and had to be replaced with different arguments about war and the effects of war. For the denouement, Peter's fate was decided by the toss of a coin, rather than by June's offer to change places with him; the end thus varied from performance to performance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film adaptation",
        "text": "The adaptation process for comics is different from that of novels. Many successful comic book series last for several decades and have featured several variations of the characters in that time. Films based on such series usually try to capture the back story and \u201cspirit\u201d of the character instead of adapting a particular storyline. Occasionally, aspects of the characters and their origins are simplified or modernized."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adapt or Die (Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.)",
        "text": "\"Adapt or Die\" was first aired in the United States on ABC on July 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "\"A Death in the Family\" is referenced in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU), a shared universe of superhero films based on DC characters. \"\" (2016) features a damaged Robin suit on display in the Batcave, while \"Suicide Squad\" (2016) reveals that Harley Quinn (Margot Robbie) helped the Joker (Jared Leto) murder him. \"Zack Snyder's Justice League\" (the 2021 director's cut of \"Justice League\" (2017)) features a scene in which the Joker mocks Batman (Ben Affleck) for Robin's death. Though Warner Bros. and \"Suicide Squad\" director David Ayer stated that the dead Robin was Todd, \"Batman v Superman\" director Zack Snyder later said he had intended it to be Grayson, unlike \"A Death in the Family\". Snyder had planned to explore Robin's death in detail in his \"Justice League\" sequels before their cancellation. Before the release of \"Zack Snyder's Justice League\", Snyder proposed a comic book prequel to \"Batman v Superman\" that depicted Robin's death, but DC turned it down."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death Comes as the End",
        "text": "Death Comes as the End\n--Plot introduction.\n--Plot summary.\n--Literary significance and reception.\n--Planned Adaptation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death at the Opera",
        "text": "In 2000 it was adapted for an episode of the television series \"The Mrs Bradley Mysteries\" starring Diana Rigg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death appeared in her Grim Reaper form in \"Harley Quinn\" (comic book) Vol 3 #63."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death in the Clouds",
        "text": "The novel was adapted as an episode for the series \"Agatha Christie's Poirot\", in 1992. It starred David Suchet as Hercule Poirot, and Philip Jackson as Chief Inspector James Japp. Although the adaptation remained largely faithful to most of the novel's plot, it featured a number of changes:\n* The characters of Dr Bryant, James Ryder and Armand Dupont are omitted from the adaptation; Jean Dupont is the only archaeologist on the flight.\n* The aircraft is a slightly anachronistic Douglas DC-3, instead of a Handley Page H.P.42 as described in the novel. The DC3 first flew in December 1935, the novel is set in June 1935 (Poirot watches Fred Perry winning the French Championships). All H.P.42s had been destroyed by 1941, and the still-flying DC3 used in the production, registration G-AMRA, was built in 1944.\n* Poirot is assisted by Japp throughout the investigation; he comes with him to investigate the case in France. Inspector Fournier is given a lesser role as a result.\n* The details of some of the characters are modified:\n** Jane Grey is an air stewardess on the flight. Although she works with Poirot on the case, she is not matched up with anyone at its conclusion.\n** Daniel Clancy suffers from a mental malady, in which he believe his fictional detective has a control on his life. He attends the denouement mainly to learn who the killer is, rather than witnessing a real-life detective at work.\n** Venetia Kerr and Poirot do not change seats on the flight.\n** Anne Morisot (a.k.a. Madeleine) has married Gale in Paris, not Rotterdam.\n**Armand Dupont is dead for two years.\n* Poirot meets some of the suspects at a tennis match he attends in Paris, by invitation of Jane."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death at a Funeral (2007 film)",
        "text": "Sid Smith of the \"Chicago Tribune\" called the film \"lethal farce, combining hints of \"The Lavender Hill Mob\", doses of Joe Orton and a smidgen of the Farrelly brothers' scatology in its mix.\" He added, \"The sibling rivalry/resolution meant to give the movie its sweet, heartfelt thread is weak, and there are stretches in which the comedy sags or settles for the predictable. But \"Death\" provides an adult tonic in a season typically abandoned to the comic book cocktail. There are worse ways to escape the August heat.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "Dar described the Joker's speech as blatant Islamophobia disguised as humor. Shaheen and Dar argued \"A Death in the Family\" promotes the idea of \"Them vs. Us\", pitting the Arab and Western worlds against each other as diametrically opposed in values. The story contains errors in its depiction of the Middle East. Starlin writes Batman as speaking Farsi, the Persian language, in Beirut (where Arabic is actually the commonly spoken language), and the Joker dons a traditional Arab headdress and robes as the Iranian ambassador, although Iran is not an Arab country. Dar concluded that and [DC]'s disregard for cultural, religious, and political accuracy simply points to a crude and racist generalization: Arabs, Iranians, and Muslims are all the 'same' and 'hate' the West.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "This version of Death also made a cameo appearance in the crossover special \"Avengers/JLA\" #2. She is represented in the Grandmaster's home base, alongside Deadman, Hela and the purple-robed version of Death native to the Marvel Universe, which, as the plots of other crossover comics have hinged upon, exists in the same continuum of fictional universes as DC's. Marvel's version of Death appears alternatively as a coldly beautiful woman in a purple robe or a walking skeleton (sometimes male and sometimes female in form, depending upon the context)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death in Disguise",
        "text": "Death in Disguise\n--Plot summary.\n--Reception.\n--Television adaptation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film adaptation",
        "text": "Self-contained graphic novels, and miniseries many of which do not feature superheroes, can be adapted more directly, such as in the case of \"Road to Perdition\" (2002) or \"V for Vendetta\" (2006). In particular, Robert Rodriguez did not use a screenplay for \"Sin City\" but utilized actual panels from writer/artist Frank Miller's series as storyboards to create what Rodriguez regards as a \"translation\" rather than an adaptation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death's popularity saw her spun off into two solo miniseries, ' (1993), and ' (1996). Both were written by Gaiman and illustrated by Chris Bachalo, and dealt with Death's encounters with various mortals. \"Death: The High Cost of Living\" became the first comic released under the newly instigated Vertigo branding in 1993, at which point \"The Sandman\" also moved from the DC to Vertigo imprint. A third miniseries, \"The Girl who Would Be Death\" by Caitl\u00edn R. Kiernan, was about a girl who purchased an ankh stolen from Death and tried to become her. Death is never actually seen in the series, but she speaks and acts in the third and fourth issues of the four-issue series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adapt or Die (Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.)",
        "text": "With the season renewal, main cast members Ming-Na Wen, Chloe Bennet, Elizabeth Henstridge, Henry Simmons, Natalia Cordova-Buckley, and Jeff Ward were confirmed to be returning from previous seasons as Melinda May, Daisy Johnson / Quake, Jemma Simmons, Alphonso \"Mack\" Mackenzie, Elena \"Yo-Yo\" Rodriguez, and Deke Shaw, respectively. Series star Clark Gregg also returns as Phil Coulson, portraying a Life Model Decoy version of the character in the seventh season."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Forsyte Saga (2002 TV series)",
        "text": "Writer Jan McVerry explained that there were tough decisions to be made and that many of the secondary characters had to be omitted from the series. \"We were concentrating on the strongest stories,\" she said \"We went through the novels and decided which episodes were going into the script and which weren't. You have to do that with any adaptation: you can't represent every incidental character or you'd go on for thousands of hours and bore everyone to death. This is drama and you have to pare it down a bit.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor Death (character)",
        "text": "After several decades' absence, Dr. Death was reintroduced by writer Gerry Conway in \"Batman\" #345 and \"Detective Comics\" #512 (1982). Conway's story is an update of the original 1939 tale. In this version, Dr. Death is depicted as a paraplegic, but his deadly gas gimmick remains the same. He is assisted this time by a manservant named Togo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kobalt (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Councilman Page called Kobalt to let him know that his son was in the park, and Kobalt assured him that yes, he was most likely in costume trying to help out. He and Clover went into the park prepared to rescue Page and to enact Kobalt's plan: fake his own death and disappear long enough to train against superhumans before re-emerging."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adapt or Die (Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.)",
        "text": "\"Adapt or Die\" originally aired on ABC on July 1, 2020, and was watched by 1.32 million viewers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Died in the Wool",
        "text": "Died in the Wool\n--Television adaptation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death Walks the Streets (comics)",
        "text": "Death Walks the Streets (comics)\n--Publication history.\n--Plot synopsis.\n--Reception.\n--Film adaptation.\n--\"Death Walks the Streets\" in popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Theatre of ancient Greece",
        "text": "The death of a character was always heard behind the \"sk\u00ean\u00ea\", for it was considered inappropriate to show a killing in view of the audience. Conversely, there are scholarly arguments that death in Greek tragedy was portrayed off stage primarily because of dramatic considerations, and not prudishness or sensitivity of the audience."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "A more traditional version of Death, a skeleton in a bluish or purplish cloak, appeared as host in such DC titles such as \"Weird Mystery Tales\", \"House of Secrets\", \"Ghosts\", \"Weird War Tales\" (including being in the story in issue #94), \"DC Comics Presents\" #29, etc. \"Weird War Tales\" typically featured Death as a skeleton in some sort of military uniform relevant to the era and locality of the war depicted. This character appeared as recently as \"Elvira's House of Mystery\" #2 (February 1986). How this pre-Crisis Death relates to Gaiman's Death, if at all, is unclear, although her older brother Destiny appeared with the character, and both Deaths have appeared with incarnations of Superman. Superman referred to the earlier Death with the term \"Grim Reaper\", so perhaps that could be regarded as a distinct character, however, in the pages of \"Weird War Tales\", he called himself \"Death.\" He also appeared when \"Weird War Tales\" was published under the Vertigo imprint and in the 2010 \"Weird War Tales\" one-shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Faithful unto Death",
        "text": "Faithful unto Death\n--Plot summary.\n--Reception.\n--Television adaptation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Adapt or Die (Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.)",
        "text": "Director of photography Kyle Jewell suggested a crane be used when filming in Sibyl's void, which director Aprill Winney felt helped \"bring the dynamism\" to an empty room with two people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Simon Hurt",
        "text": "In 2016, DC Comics implemented another relaunch of its books called \"DC Rebirth\", which restored its continuity to a form much as it was prior to \"The New 52\". He was still considered an ancestor of Thomas Wayne in this continuity and his immortality is because of the Hyper-Adapter that is fused to him. Simon recruited Professor Pyg and made him create Dollotrons of Robin and Nightwing, one that becomes the man known as Deathwing. Deathwing brings him Robin, who he plans to kill at dawn, but the Doctor was apparently killed when Deathwing stabbed him, but not before stabbing Deathwing too."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "The story was controversial and widely publicized; despite Todd's unpopularity, DC faced backlash for the decision to kill one of its most iconic characters. Todd's demise had a lasting effect on Batman stories, with Batman's failure to save him pushing the comic book mythos in a darker direction. Tim Drake succeeded Todd as Robin in 1989, and Todd was resurrected as the Red Hood in the \"\" (2004\u20132006) storyline. \"A Death in the Family\" remains a popular story among readers and has been reprinted in trade paperback form since its initial publication. Plot elements have been incorporated into Batman films, television series, and video games. An animated interactive film adaptation, \"\", was released in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Three Deaths (drama)",
        "text": "The drama was finished in 1851. Its first version, titled \"Choice of Death\", was much more radical than the final one, which was published in 1893. At the time it could be neither published nor produced by the Imperial Theatres, and circulated in hand-written versions, praised by many as a strong artistic statement for individual freedoms in general and freedom of speech in particular."
      },
      {
        "title": "The A.B.C. Murders",
        "text": "The adaptation only loosely followed the novel's plot, and featured considerable changes to both story and character:\n* Captain Hastings is omitted from the plot.\n* Japp dies from a heart attack at the start, leaving the investigation to be solely conducted by Inspector Crome.\n* Poirot's background is explored prior to the outbreak of the First World War; in this adaptation, he was a priest before the war rather than a detective in the Belgian police force.\n* The first three murders are committed in locations that have some relevance to Poirot; he helped deliver a baby when on a refugee train that stopped in Andover, visited the caf\u00e9 where Betty Barnard would later work on a visit to Bexhill, and attended a party at the Clarke house.\n* More care is taken in planning the D murder; rather than just stabbing a person in a cinema, reasoning that someone with a suitable name would be nearby, the killer intends to murder a ventriloquist at a theatre, but kills another performer on the theatre bill.\n* A fifth murder is conducted pertaining to the letter E and Cust is present at the scene. The killer is surprised by this and takes this opportunity to implicate Cust by planting the weapon when Cust has a fit.\n* Cust is pursued by police shortly after murder E. He is caught after he injures himself, rather than passing out at a police station.\n* There is no reference to Mary Drower, Alice Ascher's niece, within the plot. Thora Grey's character is changed to being manipulated into being Franklin's accomplice by establishing an alibi for him in one of the murders.\n* Franklin claims, prior to his execution, that he committed the crimes to give Poirot a new cause to live for, considering them friends, although Poirot has nothing but disdain for the man's methods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death and the Dancing Footman",
        "text": "Death and the Dancing Footman\n--Plot summary.\n--Adaptations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "'Way Out",
        "text": "The only adaptation from one of Dahl's own short stories was the premiere episode, \"William and Mary\", a tale of a wife's posthumous revenge on her husband's disembodied brain kept alive in a bowl. In \"Dissolve to Black\", an actress (Kathleen Widdoes) cast as a murder victim at a television studio goes through a rehearsal, but the drama merges with reality as she finds herself trapped on the show's near-deserted set. Other dramas offered startling imagery: a snake slithering up a carpeted staircase inside a suburban home, a headless woman strapped to an electric chair with a light bulb in place of her head (\"Side Show\"), and half of a man's face erased (\"Soft Focus\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "She also appeared in Mike Carey's \"Lucifer\" series when the eponymous main character was wounded and nearly died. Initially it appears that Death has actually arrived for Lucifer, but in fact she is there for Elaine Belloc who dies (temporarily) saving Lucifer's life. Death admits she has arrived a little early and takes the opportunity to talk to Lucifer who is currently trapped between life and death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death Is the Only Answer",
        "text": "Death Is the Only Answer\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n----Writing.\n----Selection and filming.\n----Cast notes.\n--Broadcast.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Field of Life and Death",
        "text": "The Field of Life and Death\n--Plot.\n--Critical reception.\n--Adaptations.\n----Translations.\n----In theatre.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death in Silver",
        "text": "In 1973, Marvel Comics adapted \"Death in Silver\" as a two-part story in \"Doc Savage\" #3 and #4. The adaptation was scripted by Steve Englehart and drawn by Ross Andru, with inks by Tom Palmer. The cover for issue #3 was drawn by Jim Steranko. The first two issues of the Marvel Comics series placed Doc in a contemporary 1970s setting. With the adaptation of \"Death in Silver\" the series shifted to the original 1930s setting of the story."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Captain America",
        "text": "The storyline was adapted into a novel by comics writer Larry Hama in March 2014 to tie in the release of \" and features Sharon Carter, Bucky Barnes, Black Widow, and Falcon as central characters."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Tragedy of Man",
        "text": "Adaptations:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Theatre of ancient Rome",
        "text": "In adapting Greek plays to be performed for Roman audiences, the Roman comic dramatists made several changes to the structure of the productions. Most notable is the removal of the previously prominent role of the chorus as a means of separating the action into distinct episodes. Additionally, musical accompaniment was added as a simultaneous supplement to the plays' dialogue. The action of all scenes typically took place in the streets outside the dwelling of the main characters, and plot complications were often a result of eavesdropping by a minor character."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alternative versions of Joker",
        "text": "In the miniseries \"\", printed under the DC Black Label, the Joker's death is the center of the story. The circumstances are left unclear, though it occurred after a confrontation with Batman led to both of them tumbling over a bridge. The Joker's body is later discovered by police, having washed up on shore, while Batman is severely injured and disoriented. Harley Quinn snaps completely and performs surgery on herself to resemble the Joker, before leading his henchmen on a revenge mission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Everyman (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In the aftermath, Everyman was captured and arrested by Nemesis. Everyman reappeared, this time impersonating Green Arrow and tried to murder Black Canary on their wedding night. She managed to kill him with an arrow to the neck. His deception was not discovered until a month later when Batman and Dr. Mid-Nite performed an autopsy. It was later revealed by Granny Goodness (in the guise of Athena) that the switch was made during the Injustice League's attack on the wedding. Everyman was meant to pose as Green Arrow for a short time, then fake his death. Everyman suffered from impotency, which forced him to try and kill Black Canary on the wedding night, rather than chance his cover being blown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anatomy of a Murder",
        "text": "After Traver's novel was published, St. Martin's Press planned to have it adapted for the stage, intending a Broadway production, which would then be made into a film. Before he died in December 1957, John Van Druten wrote a rough draft of the play adaptation. Some time after that, the publisher then made the film rights available, and these were purchased by Otto Preminger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Death (comics)\n--See also.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "The current incarnation of Death first appeared in the final chapter of \"Sandman\"\u2019s first story arc ', \"The Sound of Her Wings\", (issue #8) where she gave Dream direction and a degree of understanding. Death instantly became very popular with readers, and she appears at least briefly in each of the nine subsequent story arcs. However, Gaiman attempted to entice and tease readers by rationing out the number of appearances from Dream's family, so Death did not appear as frequently as one might expect for such a popular character. At the end of the ninth Sandman story arc ', there is a lengthy and noteworthy appearance from Death, in which she finally brings her brother peace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kill or Be Killed (comics)",
        "text": "Kill or Be Killed (comics)\n--Publication history.\n----Production.\n----Publication.\n--Plot.\n----Synopsis.\n----Plot.\n--Critical reception.\n--Film adaptation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of the Heart",
        "text": "The novel was adapted into a 1986 TV serial, starring Patricia Hodge and Miranda Richardson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adapt or Die (Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.)",
        "text": "In the United States the episode received a 0.3 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49, meaning that it was seen by 0.3 percent of all households in that demographic. It was watched by 1.32 million viewers. Within a week of release, \"Adapt or Die\" was watched by 2.38 million viewers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kalifornia",
        "text": "Following the completion of the film, DC Comics commissioned a comic book adaptation from writer Chuck Dixon and artist Duncan Fegredo. Fegredo recalled the 32-page adaptation was planned to be released as a supplementary for the film's video release. The adaptation was never published, though it got as far as the completion of some coloring work done by Danny Vozzo. Fegredo has speculated this was due to the demise of Gramercy Pictures, a production company involved handling the rights. An uncolored version, complete with Fegredo's original cover art, has since been uploaded to the Internet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Storylines:\n* \"The Death of Superman\"\n* \"Death of Buffy\" (Buffy comic)\n* Death (disambiguation)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Watchmen",
        "text": "In 1983, DC Comics acquired a line of characters from Charlton Comics. During that period, writer Alan Moore contemplated writing a story that featured an unused line of superheroes that he could revamp, as he had done in his \"Miracleman\" series in the early 1980s. Moore reasoned that MLJ Comics' Mighty Crusaders might be available for such a project, so he devised a murder mystery plot which would begin with the discovery of the body of the Shield in a harbor. The writer felt it did not matter which set of characters he ultimately used, as long as readers recognized them \"so it would have the shock and surprise value when you saw what the reality of these characters was\". Moore used this premise and crafted a proposal featuring the Charlton characters titled \"Who Killed the Peacemaker\", and submitted the unsolicited proposal to DC managing editor Dick Giordano. Giordano was receptive to the proposal, but opposed the idea of using the Charlton characters for the story. Moore said, \"DC realized their expensive characters would end up either dead or dysfunctional.\" Instead, Giordano persuaded Moore to continue with new characters. Moore had initially believed that original characters would not provide emotional resonance for the readers, but later changed his mind. He said, \"Eventually, I realized that if I wrote the substitute characters well enough, so that they seemed familiar in certain ways, certain aspects of them brought back a kind of generic super-hero resonance or familiarity to the reader, then it might work.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "Despite Robin's status as one of the most famous sidekicks in comic book history, there has been little literary analysis of \"A Death in the Family\". According to literary critic Kwasu Tembo, it is generally only discussed \"as either a case study within a broader discussion of Batman's ethics, or as a case study of DC's editorial decisions and socio-historical engagement with its readership\". The story's message is that Batman cannot save everyone, and it portrays Todd as a tragic figure whose sympathetic journey ends in death. Tembo contended that the death leaves the reader to ponder Todd's nature as \"Batman's greatest failure, as an orphan betrayed, and/or as a careless and overzealous lost boy who reaped what he had so impulsively and thoughtlessly sown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Memorial (novel)",
        "text": "On October 13, 2020, A24 announced it had purchased the rights to adapt the novel for television, with Washington adapting his novel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Another Day in the Death of America",
        "text": "Another Day in the Death of America\n--Film Adaptation.\n--Reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death of Superman",
        "text": "Warner Bros. released an animated direct-to-video film adaptation, \"\", in 2007. \"Superman: Doomsday\" is loosely based on \"The Death of Superman\"; to fit within a 75-minute runtime, the story was condensed and greatly altered. For example, the Justice League is not present and most aspects of \"Reign of the Supermen!\" were removed. The film was a commercial success and started the DC Universe Animated Original Movies line of direct-to-video releases."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "In \"Emperor Joker\", a 2010 episode of ' (2008\u20132011), a fourth wall-breaking Bat-Mite (Paul Reubens) references \"A Death in the Family\" and the 900 number, and Batman is briefly seen cradling a dead Robin. Todd's portrayal in the video game ' (2015) was inspired by \"A Death in the Family\". The DC Universe and HBO Max streaming television series \"Titans\" (2018\u2013present) features Todd as a central character portrayed by Curran Walters. After the second season episode \"Deathstroke\" (2019) ended on a cliffhanger with Deathstroke (Esai Morales) attempting to kill Todd, DC Universe held a poll in which fans could vote to determine Todd's fate. The poll was only intended as a reference to \"A Death in the Family\" and had no effect on the series, but elements from \"A Death in the Family\" were incorporated in the third season of \"Titans\", which premiered in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In \"Madame Xanadu\", the title character calls out to her while chained up and denied access to her youth potions during the French Revolution. As she is a survivor from the days of King Arthur, she grows very old very quickly without them. She summons Death and reads her own cards, interpreting her Death card as predictive of her future destiny on earth. Death is so amused by this interpretation that she grants Madame Xanadu immortality, revocable any time Xanadu wishes. Death appeared in \"Action Comics\" #894, which was written by Paul Cornell. Gaiman helped write Death's dialogue to ensure that her characterization remained consistent with \"The Sandman\". In the story, while searching for a black power ring, Lex Luthor encounters her. She appears again in issue #900 and in \"The Flash\" (vol. 3) #6, part of the \"Brightest Day\" crossover."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sad Cypress",
        "text": "The book was adapted by London Weekend Television as a one-hundred-minute drama and transmitted on ITV in the UK on Friday 26 December 2003 as a special episode in their series \"Agatha Christie's Poirot\". The adaptation was quite faithful to the novel, with the time and setting being the two major changes. Whereas the novel took place partly in the criminal court and partly at the Welman estate, the adaptation takes place at the Welman estate. In the end, Nurse Hopkins attempts to kill Poirot with poisoned tea but he pretends to drink it and pours the tea into a sugar bowl."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dead Man's Folly",
        "text": "The adaptation is broadly faithful to the novel, but with some differences. The setting is moved from the early 1950s to the late 1930s; accordingly, James Folliat \u2013 a war deserter in the novel \u2013 is here a wayward womaniser whom Mrs Folliat sends to South Africa, where he fakes his death in an aviation accident and returns to Nasse in the identity of Sir George Stubbs. Mrs Masterton becomes Mrs Warburton, Captain Warburton's wife; Marlene's sister, Marilyn, becomes an older sister named Gertie, but serves the same function as Marilyn in the novel; the characters of George the valet, Miss Lemon, the man in the turtle-printed shirt, and Marlene's parents are deleted. The adaptation slightly changes the end of the story to reveal the fate of the Folliats which was untold in the novel: as the police are digging up the folly foundations, Poirot is laying out the truth before Mrs Folliat; it ends with Mrs Folliat admonishing her son with two gunshots heard off-screen before the police can stop them. Poirot both acknowledges and approves of this murder-suicide with the final word of the episode: \"Bon\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adaptation (The Walking Dead)",
        "text": "Adaptation (The Walking Dead)\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n--Reception.\n----Critical reception.\n----Ratings.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "Throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, Todd's death was one of the few comic book deaths that remained unreversed. Unlike traditional comic book deaths, Todd's was intended to stay permanent; at the time of \"A Death in the Familys publication, O'Neil said that \"it would be a really sleazy stunt to bring him back\". A popular aphorism among comic book fans was that in comics, no characters stayed dead except Bucky Barnes, Uncle Ben, and Todd. (Marvel would revive Barnes in 2004 as the Winter Soldier.) Todd's revival was first teased in the \"\" (2002\u20132003) storyline by Jeph Loeb and Jim Lee, which features Clayface impersonating an undead Todd to taunt Batman. After writer Judd Winick read \"Hush\", he wondered why DC never revived Todd. Winick and artist Doug Mahnke's 2004\u20132006 storyline \"\" revived him as the murderous vigilante Red Hood; the in-universe explanation for Todd's revival was that he was restored to life after Superboy-Prime punched the wall of a pocket dimension. Todd eventually re-joined Batman's supporting cast as an \"on-again, off-again ally\", and starred in the series \"Red Hood and the Outlaws\" (2011\u20132021). Despite his resurrection, in 2020 journalist Susana Polo noted Todd was still most famous for dying in \"A Death in the Family\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Day We Died",
        "text": "At the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards, John Noble submitted \"The Day We Died\", along with \"Entrada\" and \"The Firefly\", for consideration in the Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series category, but did not receive a nomination. At the 2012 Golden Reel Awards, \"The Day We Died\" received nominations in the categories \"Best Sound Editing: Short Form Sound Effects and Foley in Television\" and \"Best Sound Editing: Short Form Sound Effects and Foley in Television\" from the Motion Picture Sound Editors. It lost in both categories, the former to the \"Raising Hope\" episode \"Prodigy\", the latter to the pilot episode of the HBO television series \"Game of Thrones\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Murder Ahoy!",
        "text": "Unlike the previous three films that were adapted from Christie novels \u2013 \"The 4.50 from Paddington\" (\"Murder, She Said\" \u2013 the only Miss Marple novel used), \"After the Funeral\" (a Poirot mystery, adapted for Miss Marple with the title \"Murder at the Gallop\") and \"Mrs. McGinty's Dead\" (another Poirot novel, adapted as \"Murder Most Foul\") \u2013 this film used an original screenplay that was not based on any of Christie's stories."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Death in the Family (comics)",
        "text": "Jason Todd, the second character to assume the Robin persona, was introduced in 1983 to replace Dick Grayson, who was unavailable for use at the time. Todd became unpopular among readers after 1986, as writers began to characterize him as rebellious and impulsive. Editor Dennis O'Neil was considering having Todd revamped or written out of \"Batman\" when he recalled a 1982 \"Saturday Night Live\" sketch in which Eddie Murphy encouraged viewers to call the show if they wanted him to boil a lobster on air. Inspired to orchestrate a similar stunt, DC set up a 900 number voting system to allow fans to decide Todd's fate."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What does the personification of death do in DC comics that most personifications of death do not?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Unlike most personifications of death, DC's death does not just meet with those who have died, but visits those who are being born, though, only she remembers meeting them. She also differs in that she keeps a collection of floppy hats, and has a pair of goldfish named Slim and Wandsworth."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the personification of death in DC comics known as in Ancient Greece?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Death was known in Ancient Greece as Teleute."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What films has Death from DC comics been in?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Death has made their only film appearance in a DC Showcase animated short voiced by Jamie Chung."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can the personification of death in the DC comics be killed?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes.  One day every century, Death lives (and dies) as a mortal, in order to understand the value of the life she takes."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How was Death adapted in drama?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "Audible released a drama version in July 2019 with Kat Dennings playing Death, although I couldn't find what the drama version is of.",
      "Audible released a drama version in July 2019, starring Neil Gaiman, James McAvoy, Taron Egerton, Michael Sheen, and Andy Serkis. Death was played by Kat Dennings."
    ],
    "topic": "Death (DC Comics)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Death (DC Comics):27",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Death (DC Comics)",
          "In other media",
          "Audio drama"
        ],
        "ctx": "Audible released a drama version in July 2019, starring Neil Gaiman, James McAvoy, Taron Egerton, Michael Sheen, and Andy Serkis. Death was played by Kat Dennings."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Death (DC Comics):27",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Death (DC Comics)",
          "In other media",
          "Audio drama"
        ],
        "ctx": "Audible released a drama version in July 2019, starring Neil Gaiman, James McAvoy, Taron Egerton, Michael Sheen, and Andy Serkis. Death was played by Kat Dennings."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Audible released a drama version in July 2019, starring Neil Gaiman, James McAvoy, Taron Egerton, Michael Sheen, and Andy Serkis. Death was played by Kat Dennings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death is an immortal being of virtual omnipotence, omniscience and omnipresence. She is not a god of death or agent of it, but Death itself: the end of life. As for the end of her role, Death has said: \"When the last living thing dies, my job will be finished. I'll put the chairs on the tables, turn out the lights, and lock the universe behind me when I leave\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "According to Gaiman, the initial visual design of Death was based on a friend of Dringenberg's named Cinamon Hadley. From \"The Sandman Companion\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In \"Swamp Thing\" vol. 2, #6, The Phantom Stranger met Death in the form of a middle-aged gentleman, possibly inspired by \"Death Takes a Holiday\". In the story, a young woman, Margaret \"Maggie\" Brennan, had what should have been a minor head injury and at one glimpse of Death chose to become Death's bride. As someone newly dead herself, she taught Death that he needs to show compassion for the newly dead to allay their fears. He takes her advice and they both serve as aspects of Death. This version of Death was created by Mike W. Barr and Dan Spiegle. Maggie is blonde and bears only minor physical resemblance to Gaiman and Dringenberg's version, though her compassionate nature is a similarity. In \"The Spectre\" (vol. 2), The Phantom Stranger himself appeared to be the only psychopomp in the DC Universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death (DC Comics)\n--Publication history.\n----Character design.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----New Earth.\n----DC Rebirth.\n--Powers and abilities.\n--Appearances.\n----Quasi-canonical appearances.\n--In other media.\n----Audio drama.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Other personifications of Death have appeared in the DC Universe. In \"Captain Atom\" #42 Death appears alongside Black Racer of the New Gods and Nekron (a being embodying the will of \"The Black\", the solitude and peace death represents from \"Green Lantern\"). The story stated that all three were equal, representing different aspects of death. Gaiman has denied this, however, and his stories make it clear that Death of the Endless is the ultimate personification of Death. It might be assumed, however, Nekron, the Racer, and the Black Flash are connected to her in some way. Alternatively, there may be multiple avatars or gods of Death in the DC universe, besides those claiming to be Death. Blackest Night has resolved this apparent contradiction or ambiguity, with Nekron no longer being referred to as an aspect of death but instead as a construct formed of darkness in response to the emerging light of the emotional spectrum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "She made an appearance in the Marvel Universe, at the wedding of Rick Jones and Marlo Chandler in \"The Incredible Hulk\" #418 (handing Marlo a hair brush, a visual pun referring to Marlo's recent 'brush with death').\n* A version of Death also known as Azrael appeared in the \"Superboy\" episode \"Into the Mystery\", portrayed by Peggy O'Neal.\n* A male version of Death appeared in two episodes of \"Teen Titans Go!\", voiced by David Kaye. This version is also Raven's godfather.\n** Grim Reaper also appeared in the series as a separate character.\n* Death is mentioned in the \"Constantine\" episode \"Blessed Are the Damned\". He had encountered Constantine before having his scythe stolen from him for unknown reasons.\n* In the \"Arrow\" season three episode \"The Secret Origin of Felicity Smoak\", Felicity Smoak's goth look from her college years, especially her black hair and clothing and silver Egyptian Ankh necklace, is a nod to Death.\n* Death is set to appear in the upcoming TV adaptation of \"The Sandman\", portrayed by Kirby Howell-Baptiste.\n* Death is referenced in the HBO Max series \"Doom Patrol\". Edward and Charles of the Dead Boy Detectives agency state that \"she\" is after them. Charles states that \"Death's quite nice actually. And she is super fit\".\n* In a \"DC Showcase\" , Death made her first official appearance outside of comics. In the short, Death (voiced by Jamie Chung) meets Vincent (voiced by Leonardo Nam), a failed artist struggling with his personal demons. It was directed by Sam Liu, and written by J.M. DeMatteis. The short was released as a special feature with the \"\" Blu-Ray.\n* Death (not of the Endless) was also the narrator and host of \"The Big Book of Death\" (1995), a large format comic in the Ripley's Believe It Or Not \"strange but true\" genre which came out from Paradox Press, an imprint of DC.\n* \"Death of the Endless\" is referenced in the 2009 young adult novel, \"The Suicide Club\", by Rhys Thomas. In it, the lead character describes death returning with the sound of beating wings.\n* Death is referenced in original \"The Sandman\" penciller Sam Kieth's \"The Maxx\": \"They're all necro-nerds and Sand freaks. They think death is romantic. Death is hard and cold and ugly, not some cute chick\" as quoted by the character Sara, as the comic panels focus in on a colored poster of Death herself.\n* In the television series \"Roseanne\", posters of Death are seen on Darlene's bedroom walls, and a small postcard of Death hung for a time on the family refrigerator.\n* Death made a brief cameo in \"Nodwick\" #33, greeting the warrior Yaeger during a near-death experience.\n* Death is also mentioned in Jorge Jaramillo's novel \"Vallecuervo\" (M\u00e9xico, 2010). \u00darsula, the main character, is looking for her brother. In an old attic she discovered he was living in, she finds an assortment of comic books: \"While I was looking at that Love and Rockets TPB I sensed I was being watched. To my surprise it was Her. Yes, Her. Death. Of the Endless. The cute chick in black dress from Neil Gaiman's comics. She was there, standing still, looking right into my eyes. I moved forward, I touched Her face. Dust. I folded Her and took Her with me (along with those Rockets and some Rick Veitch's books)\".\n* Death has a brief animated cameo in the 2017 fan-film, \"Sandman: 24 Hour Diner\", based on #6 of Sandman. In an original sequence to the story, she collects the nightmares of the deceased patrons of the diner and rescues her brother Dream.\n* The Virgin Books' New Adventures \"Doctor Who\" novel series introduced a manipulative and generally morally ambivalent female incarnation of Death (or rather, as later revealed, one of several Eternals masquerading as cosmic principles). In \"Happy Endings\", she quotes from the original \"The Books of Magic\" mini-series. Although the bulk of the novel was written by Paul Cornell, the section featuring Death was written by author Neil Penswick, as part of a chapter written in tandem by the authors of the previous 49 novels.\n* Death is described and discussed by American filmmaker Kevin Smith during his interview with Joe Rogan on The Joe Rogan Experience podcast #1123, in the context of how he dealt with his heart surgery. While on the operating table he thought about the Death character, and how in an issue of The Sandman, she was asked by an older man: \"\"That's it? I did all these things. I worked my fingers to the bone. What did I get?\", to which Death replied \"You got what everybody gets. You got a lifetime\"\".\n* The lead character of the music video for Pearl Jam's \"Do the Evolution\" is said to have been inspired by Death herself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In the DC Universe continuity, Death is both the end of life and a psychopomp. Like most anthropomorphic personifications of death, Death meets with the recently deceased and guides them into their new existence. However, unlike most personifications of death, she also visits people as they are born, according to Destruction in the \"Sandman Special: The Song of Orpheus\". Evidently, only she seems to remember these encounters. In the special issue, it is also revealed that Death was known in Ancient Greece as Teleute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "She also appears in \"The Books of Magic\" (first volume, 1991, also written by Gaiman) at the very end of time, where her function is to set things in order and close the universe down. She meets Timothy Hunter and Mister E there after Mister E has taken Timothy all the way to the end of time, because only there can he kill Timothy without fear of interference. Death stops the murder on the grounds that \"I took both of you billions of years ago\". She sends Timothy back home, but forces Mister E to return the hard way. John Ney Rieber included her in \"The Books of Magic\" (vol. 2 #3-4), in which she lets Timothy Hunter hang out at her house and hold her teddy bear, Cavendish, while he is recovering from the venom of the Manticore. Hunter later encounters Death walking in the rain in \"The Books of Magic\" #25, and there was later an arc about her in \"\". In \"Hellblazer\" #120, Death appears briefly in a pub filled with ghosts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In \"Madame Xanadu\", the title character calls out to her while chained up and denied access to her youth potions during the French Revolution. As she is a survivor from the days of King Arthur, she grows very old very quickly without them. She summons Death and reads her own cards, interpreting her Death card as predictive of her future destiny on earth. Death is so amused by this interpretation that she grants Madame Xanadu immortality, revocable any time Xanadu wishes. Death appeared in \"Action Comics\" #894, which was written by Paul Cornell. Gaiman helped write Death's dialogue to ensure that her characterization remained consistent with \"The Sandman\". In the story, while searching for a black power ring, Lex Luthor encounters her. She appears again in issue #900 and in \"The Flash\" (vol. 3) #6, part of the \"Brightest Day\" crossover."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death is the second eldest of the Endless, a family of anthropomorphic beings. Death is possibly the most powerful of the Endless (and one of the most powerful beings in the universe, followed closely by beings like Lucifer Morningstar, however is slightly less powerful than The Presence) having been shown (in a flashback in ') to be virtually omniscient and being able to intimidate the Furies, who show no fear of the other Endless, simply by raising her voice in '. The witch Thessaly mentions that Death is the only one of the Endless who is bound by no rules, supported in Dream's portion of \"\" in which she briefly makes an appearance at a conference designed to set functions for entities and leaves before it begins. In addition, it is mentioned in \"Brief Lives\" that she is the only one of the Endless who may survive the end of this incarnation of the universe. Death's realm is not portrayed in detail in the series, except for a brief scene in her \"house\" in the \"Sandman Special\", \"Song of Orpheus\", and later in \"The Books of Magic\" series. This is where she keeps her floppy hat collection, her goldfish Slim and Wandsworth and possibly her gallery. A brief glimpse of her realm can also be seen in \"The Little Endless Storybook\", when Barnabas visits her, although this time in her \"apartment suite\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death is a character who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics. She first appeared in \"The Sandman\" vol. 2, #8 (August 1989), and was created by Neil Gaiman and Mike Dringenberg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Despite some rumors, Death is not based on Gaiman's friend Tori Amos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "A more traditional version of Death, a skeleton in a bluish or purplish cloak, appeared as host in such DC titles such as \"Weird Mystery Tales\", \"House of Secrets\", \"Ghosts\", \"Weird War Tales\" (including being in the story in issue #94), \"DC Comics Presents\" #29, etc. \"Weird War Tales\" typically featured Death as a skeleton in some sort of military uniform relevant to the era and locality of the war depicted. This character appeared as recently as \"Elvira's House of Mystery\" #2 (February 1986). How this pre-Crisis Death relates to Gaiman's Death, if at all, is unclear, although her older brother Destiny appeared with the character, and both Deaths have appeared with incarnations of Superman. Superman referred to the earlier Death with the term \"Grim Reaper\", so perhaps that could be regarded as a distinct character, however, in the pages of \"Weird War Tales\", he called himself \"Death.\" He also appeared when \"Weird War Tales\" was published under the Vertigo imprint and in the 2010 \"Weird War Tales\" one-shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Physically, Death is also opposite to the traditional western culture personification of death (see Grim Reaper). In \"The Sandman\", Death instead appears as an attractive, pale goth girl dressed in casual clothes \u2014 often a black top and jeans. She also wears a silver ankh on a chain around her neck, and has a marking similar to the eye of Horus around her right eye. She is pleasant, down-to-earth, perky, and has been a nurturing figure for both incarnations of Dream. This irony has helped make Death one of the most popular characters from \"Sandman\". Death was named the fifteenth greatest comic book character by \"Empire\". Kirby Howell-Baptiste is set to portray the character in the upcoming television series \"The Sandman\" on Netflix."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jericho (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Despite conflicting continuity between \"Deathstroke\" vol. 2 and 3, Jericho still retains his telepathy to read minds and control others. After being experimented upon, Jericho demonstrated even more powerful abilities to rupture other human beings apart with a psychic blast, much to his horror. Although his telepathy can be blocked by others with mental powers, Jericho can read their aura to see if they hold malicious intents and can also project an energy field to defend against attacks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Imperiex",
        "text": "At least 8 million people on Earth die during the war. The total number dead in the DC Universe is stated to be countless. Several heroes also die, including Maxima, Aquaman, Guy Gardner, Queen Hippolyta, General Sam Lane (Lois Lane's father), and Steel are all presumed dead, but later return alive for different reasons.\n* Entropy manipulation: Imperiex wielded the power of the Big Bang itself, and was capable of projecting energy blasts powerful enough to destroy Doomsday with one blast.\n* Superhuman strength: He was able to physically match Post-Crisis Superman in direct combat.\n* Superhuman durability.\n* Superhuman stamina.\n* Imperiex had the ability to create black holes capable of sucking up entire universes.\n* Planetary consumption.\n* Can create probes of himself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "Following the \"\" storyline, Death has appeared in Las Vegas under the guise of Marlo Chandler to talk with Ben Reilly -the clone of Spider-Man, recently brought back to life and spending some time acting as the new Jackal- initially instructing him to go after a duo of teen punks randomly shooting civilians around the city, claiming that she is testing what he will do about this discovery. Ben manages to find the criminals, shooting one of them twice with his own gun but avoiding causing fatal injuries, but when he is attacked by his \"brother\" and fellow clone Kaine after the death of a girl Reilly had been trying to treat for a serious illness, Marlo appears and kills Kaine with a single touch. \"Marlo\" subsequently identifies herself as Death and explains that she has an \"interest\" in Reilly as no other person has been brought back to life so often. She reveals that he has \"died\" so many times that his soul has become corrupted and if he undergoes one more resurrection, he will likely suffer so much spiritual damage that his soul will be broken for good. She offers Reilly the chance to restore Cassandra Mercury's daughter Abigail or Kaine to life before she departs. When Reilly asks her to save both of them and kill him instead, Death not only heals the other two, but also restores Reilly to a healthy physical appearance. Death also affirms that he has made a start on his efforts to redeem himself of his sins as the Jackal and to become a hero again. However, after Ben Reilly brutally beats a civilian who was responsible for the theft of food donations to a charity drive, Death reveals that the healing of his scars only remains so long as Reilly does not compromise his status as a hero, with the aforementioned beating leading to him regaining scars around his right eye."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "Death is an abstract entity, possessing nigh infinite power and knowledge. The character occasionally appears as a humanoid female so as to be able to be perceived by lesser beings, and resides inside a pocket dimension known as the Realm of Death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death appeared in \"Captain Atom\" #42-43 (June\u2013July 1990), in which she appeared alongside the Black Racer as one of several aspects of Death in the DC Universe. Gaiman reportedly took issue with this depiction, feeling that portraying her as merely an aspect of death diminished her importance. Other Giffen stories that feature Death include the \"Ambush Bug Nothing Special\" one-shot (Sep. 1992) and a cameo in the Lobo comic book \"Lobo's Back\" #3 (Oct. 1992), in which she slaps Lobo for getting fresh with her. She observes the destruction of the Earth in \"Legion of Super-Heroes\" vol. 4 #38 (Dec. 1992)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "The current incarnation of Death first appeared in the final chapter of \"Sandman\"\u2019s first story arc ', \"The Sound of Her Wings\", (issue #8) where she gave Dream direction and a degree of understanding. Death instantly became very popular with readers, and she appears at least briefly in each of the nine subsequent story arcs. However, Gaiman attempted to entice and tease readers by rationing out the number of appearances from Dream's family, so Death did not appear as frequently as one might expect for such a popular character. At the end of the ninth Sandman story arc ', there is a lengthy and noteworthy appearance from Death, in which she finally brings her brother peace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "She also appeared in Mike Carey's \"Lucifer\" series when the eponymous main character was wounded and nearly died. Initially it appears that Death has actually arrived for Lucifer, but in fact she is there for Elaine Belloc who dies (temporarily) saving Lucifer's life. Death admits she has arrived a little early and takes the opportunity to talk to Lucifer who is currently trapped between life and death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death appeared in her Grim Reaper form in \"Harley Quinn\" (comic book) Vol 3 #63."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "This version of Death also made a cameo appearance in the crossover special \"Avengers/JLA\" #2. She is represented in the Grandmaster's home base, alongside Deadman, Hela and the purple-robed version of Death native to the Marvel Universe, which, as the plots of other crossover comics have hinged upon, exists in the same continuum of fictional universes as DC's. Marvel's version of Death appears alternatively as a coldly beautiful woman in a purple robe or a walking skeleton (sometimes male and sometimes female in form, depending upon the context)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caliban (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "As Death, he attained superhuman strength, speed, agility, reflexes, coordination, balance, endurance, claws and fangs as well as imperviousness to physical injury through Apocalypse's genetic manipulation. He also has great skill at climbing and possesses superhuman leaping ability. He was also mentally conditioned to attack Apocalypse's former ally Mister Sinister on sight. His fear siphoning abilities had also been augmented and he can now control them as well as cast his power over a much wider net; not only gaining in strength from siphoning the anxiety of others but could harness strengthen and redistribute it in much stronger quantities by force of will. This facet of his bolstered power was dubbed the Shadow of Fear by Caliban himself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Death, in comics, may refer to:\n* Comic book death, the deaths of characters in comic books and the related entry:\n*The personification of death:\n** Death (DC Comics)\n** Death (Marvel Comics)\n*Death, a member of the Horsemen of Apocalypse"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "One day every century, Death lives (and dies) as a mortal, in order to understand the value of the life she takes. She does this by becoming a mortal fated to die that day. At the end of \"\" her Endless self briefly converses with her mortal self."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Other characters:\n* Death Adder (comics), a Marvel Superhero\n* Death's Head, a Marvel UK character\n* Death's-Head (comics), a Marvel character and enemy of Daredevil\n* Death Metal (comics), a Marvel UK character\n* Death Squad (comics), a Marvel Comics team of supervillains\n* Death-Stalker, a Marvel character\n* Death Wreck, a Marvel character\n* Doctor Death (comics), a DC supervillain\n* Black Death (comics), a Marvel supervillain\n* Lady Death\n* Lady Deathstrike"
      },
      {
        "title": "Deadman (comics)",
        "text": "As a living human, he is an Olympic-level athlete well-trained in acrobatics. As a wearer of a White power ring he possesses whatever powers the ring confers upon its wielder. These powers, so far, include flight, invisibility (or the ability to cloak his presence), teleportation, healing severe wounds, making solid energy constructs, and the power to bring beings back to life. He had no control over these new powers and the scope and limitations on those powers are as yet undefined. The Black Lantern power ring gave his reanimated corpse similar abilities, but it reanimates the dead instead of fully resurrecting them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "Because death in American super-hero comics is so often temporary, readers rarely take the death of a character seriously; when a character dies, readers feel very little sense of loss, and are simply left wondering how long it will be before they return to life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "A common expression regarding comic book death was once \"No one stays dead except Bucky, Jason Todd, and Uncle Ben\", referring to the seminal importance of those characters' deaths to the title character: Captain America's sidekick (retconned dead in 1964), Batman's second Robin (dead in 1988), and Spider-Man's uncle (dead since 1962), respectively. This long-held tenet was broken in 2005, when Jason Todd returned to life as the Red Hood and Bucky was retconned to have survived the accident that seemingly killed him, and brought back as the Winter Soldier who had remained in the shadows for decades."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deathstroke",
        "text": "An exceptional soldier with Special Forces training prior to receiving his super-powers, Slade Wilson was selected due to his impressive skills as a decorate soldier for the United States Army. After undergoing an experimental procedure to create a super soldier, Wilson's physical abilities were enhanced, granting him levels of superhuman strength, speed, endurance, etc. Christopher Priest would compare his physical abilities to be roughly similar to Marvel's Captain America. Deathstroke also possess a healing factor, able to regenerate at a rapid accelerated rate depending on the complexity of tissue damage although he cannot regenerate new organs. His regeneration abilities also slow down his aging process and is resistant to toxins. Deathstroke was also originally stated to be able to use 90% of his brain, giving him heighten capabilities. However, this ability was later removed, having been stated that such as power would have made Deathstroke a telepath."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Related characters:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "Comic book characters themselves have made comments about the frequency of resurrections. Professor X has commented \"in mutant heaven there are no pearly gates, but instead revolving doors\". When Siryn was made aware of her father's death, she refused to mourn him, giddily claiming that since her father has died as an X-Man, he was likely going to be soon resurrected, shocking her friends. Her father is later restored to life but is recruited by the Apocalypse Twins as part of their new Horsemen of Apocalypse. The obituary writer of the in-universe newspaper the \"Daily Bugle\" once bemoaned to reporter Ben Urich about how many retractions he has had to write after each resurrection of a superhero or supervillain. In one issue of \"The Incredible Hercules\", there is a betting game for then deceased superheroes to return to life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deathwatch (comics)",
        "text": "Deathwatch is a native of an alien demonic dimension and so derived at least some of his superhuman powers from his non-human heritage. Deathwatch has the ability to absorb life from another creature that is experiencing pain or death and enhance his own health, strength, stamina, agility, and reflexes. He has the ability to physically penetrate a victim's body and disrupt internal organs without creating a surface wound. He also has the ability to absorb and access a victim's short-term memories by penetrating the victim's brain physically with his fingers, and has the ability to derive surges of physical and emotional pleasure from the proximity of death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "During the \"Chaos War\" storyline, Daimon Hellstrom mentions to Hercules that Death has fled their reality upon Amatsu-Mikaboshi triumphing in the realms of the dead, causing the souls of the deceased to be unleashed upon the Earth, and rendering the victims of the siege, whose injuries might otherwise prove fatal, merely locked in a deathless limbo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Earth X",
        "text": "After Mar-Vell killed Death, he reshapes part of the Realm of the Dead into a paradise and selected a group of dead heroes to be its guardians called the Avenging Host where most of its members have angel-like forms.\n* Blackagar Boltagon/Black Bolt\u00a0\u2013 After trying to stop Maximus from detonating the Terrigen Crystal Bomb, he died in battle against the Celestials. He sports an angel-like appearance with a skin pattern and wings that resemble his costume.\n* Victor Von Doom/Doctor Doom\u00a0\u2013 He dies in an explosion. Victor Von Doom/Doctor Doom adopts metallic skin and bird-like wings.\n* Hank Pym/Giant-Man\u00a0\u2013 Absorbing Man kills him by impaling him on the Washington Monument.\n* Clint Barton/Hawkeye\u00a0\u2013 Clint Barton/Hawkeye was mutated to have two additional sets of arms. Absorbing Man kills him by absorbing rubber and deflecting his arrows back at him.\n* Tony Stark/Iron Man\u00a0\u2013 Fearing mutation, Tony Stark isolates himself in a sterile environment, remotely controlling his Iron Man suits.\n* Matt Murdock/Daredevil\u00a0\u2013 He and Elektra Natchios are killed by Bullseye.\n* Phoenix Force\u00a0\u2013 In death, adopts a hybrid appearance of Jean Grey and the Phoenix Force."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nanda Parbat",
        "text": "Rama Kushna and Nanda Parbat have also played a role in the lives of other DC Comics characters:\n* Nanda Parbat was home to Judomaster prior to his joining the team known as the L.A.W. It is responsible for him remaining as youthful as he was in the 1940s.\n* The Crimson Avenger spent time in Nanda Parbat, seeking meaning in the senseless acts of violence he witnessed in World War I. During his convalescence, he received a vision of the future and witnessed the death of Superman (as depicted in \"Golden Age Secret Files\" #1).\n* During a visit to Nanda Parbat, Deadman briefly returned to his human form and was infected by the Sensei with a poison that rendered him suggestible. When he returned to his ghostly state, one of Sensei's men sent Deadman to attack Batman while Sensei and the League prepared to destroy Nanda Parbat. Batman was able to convince Deadman to lead him and Boston's brother Cleve to Nanda Parbat, and Batman and Cleve saved the city and discovered the antidote for the poison.\n* In \"52\", Nanda Parbat is where The Question takes Renee Montoya to be trained by martial arts master Richard Dragon. It is just outside Nanda Parbat that the Question dies of complications from lung disease.\n* Later in \"52\", Ralph Dibny journeys to Nanda Parbat, seeking an audience with Rama Kushna and a way to resurrect his late wife, Sue. A member of the Great Ten, the Accomplished Perfect Physician, is also shown seeking inner peace in the hidden city.\n* In \"Batman\" #663, Batman uses a mantra or prayer he learned in Nanda Parbat over a dead man. In the same issue he enters the state of Nirvikalpa Samadhi, using a technique learned in Nanda Parbat, to find the hidden or occult pattern to the Joker's recent murders.\n* In \"Reign in Hell\", Deadman, Zachary Zatara, Jason Blood, Kid Devil and Randu went to Nanda Parbat trying to help Rama Kushna balance the good and evil forces.\n* In \"Blackest Night\", Deadman tries to recover his own body in Nanda Parbat but is rejected several times, so he uses other Black Lanterns' bodies trying to discover how to use his own body and how to destroy the Black Lanterns. Phantom Stranger helps him and they enter Nanda Parbat.\n* In \"Brightest Day\", Saint Walker and Renee Montoya held Charles Victor Szasz's funeral in Nanda Parbat.\n* In \"Detective Comics\" Annual #12, Renee Montoya goes to Nanda Parbat trying to get rid of the \"Mark of Cain\", while Richard Dragon let her go to Penemue who tried to get the mark for himself.\n* In \"\", Part Eight, the city is mentioned in a flashback depicting Clark Kent and Bruce Wayne's first meeting with each other during the period when both are travelling the world prior to assuming their costumed identities, dealing with Vandal Savage and his attempt to find Nanda Parbat, referred to as \"The Shifting City\".\n* In \"Justice League Dark\" #13, the Books of Magic are hidden in Nanda Parbat, which Faust and Dr. Mist acknowledge as a place of great power. Brand also mentions that he's already been there.\n* In the episode \"Dead Reckoning\" of the \"Justice League Unlimited\" television show, Batman reveals that he studied with a martial arts master in a monastery in Nanda Parbat, when Deadman enlists his help\u2014along with Superman and Wonder Woman\u2014to avenge the martial arts master's murder. It is seen that all the monks died due to the Secret Society of Super Villains, but they are revived after members of the Justice League stop the villains' plans.\n* Nanda Parbat appears in the Arrowverse:\n** In \"Arrow\" it is mentioned in the first season as the place where Malcolm Merlyn found the \"purpose for [his] life\" following his wife's murder. The League of Assassins plays a major role in season two, where they enter Starling City to locate former member Sara Lance. Ra's al Ghul serves as the main antagonist of the third season with Nanda Parbat appearing prominently, established as being somewhere in the Hindu Kush range in Pakistan, built into a cliff in a desert. It is also a location for one of the Lazarus Pits, which Ra's and other League members use to prolong their life. The sixteenth episode of the season is titled \"Nanda Parbat\". In season four, Laurel Lance and Thea Queen travel to Nanda Parbat to request Merlyn (as the new Ra's al Ghul) to resurrect Sara with the Lazarus Pit. Sara's girlfriend Nyssa al Ghul is enraged by the resurrection and destroys the Lazarus Pit, resulting in a League civil war. After Oliver Queen defeats Merlyn on behalf of Nyssa, she declines the League's leadership and instead disbands it, not wanting to be like her father. Due to this, the League's lair in Nanda Parbat appears to be empty after their disbandment.\n** In the season one episode \"Left Behind\" of \"Legends of Tomorrow\", Sara Lance returns to Nanda Parbat after she is stranded in 1958. Two years later, she is recovered by the rest of the team.\n* Nanda Parbat appears (though it is not referred to as such) in season 3 of the TV series \"Gotham\", in which Bruce Wayne is held captive there by the Sensei after being kidnapped by the Court of Owls. In season 4, it is revealed that Ra's al Ghul is the Minister of Antiquities for Nanda Parbat, a status he exploits to invoke diplomatic immunity after being arrested in Gotham City."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atom (Ray Palmer)",
        "text": "In the \"Convergence\" crossover, when the alternate Brainiac miniaturized the universe of the New Earth, Ray Palmer, who had been in a mental state with his powers to increase size affected since imprisoned in the dome, sends out a broadcast message that he will pursue Deathstroke for Ryan Choi's murder. Ray then engages Deathstroke in an epic battle, but Ray is being pulled by the mysterious voice of Telos to fight opposite Angor universe's Barracuda. While Ray battles Barracuda, Ryan Choi suddenly appears and to be alive, and confronts him. Ryan explains that his death and consciousness had survived in the universe where the Atoms' masses are shifted to whenever they change size. Ryan then returns to the realm of the living after appropriating Ray's hand that Barracuda severed during their battle, to create a new body for him after they defeat Barracuda. Ray is hospitalized after losing his hand, and Deathstroke infiltrates the hospital and attempts to kill him, but Ryan interferes as they work together to defeat Deathstroke and restored Ray's hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "Death (Marvel Comics)\n--Publication history.\n--Fictional character biography.\n--Powers and abilities.\n--Other versions.\n----Earth X.\n--In other media.\n----Television.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death first appeared as a woman in \"The Witching Hour\" #56 (July 1975) in a tale told by Mordred (written by Carl Wessler and illustrated by Ruben Yandoc). She was depicted with short, curly, red-blonde hair, and was a rival for two men's affections. Both men die in successive car accidents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Death (comics)\n--See also.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "Death is an abstract entity, embodiment of life ending in the Marvel Universe, and the opposite of Eternity, embodiment of the universe. Death is predominantly depicted as a skeleton cloaked in a black or purple robe, and at times appears as a Caucasian human female."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "A one-shot issue titled \"Death Gallery\" (1994) was released as one of several art showcase comics from DC Comics spotlighting various Sandman characters released between 1994 and 1995. The \"Death Gallery\" featured representations of Death by more than thirty comics artists, including a rough sketch by Gaiman himself. In \"\" (2003) Gaiman shows Death several billion years ago, with a markedly different personality \u2014 forbidding and joyless."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "McKean also used a series of professional English models for representations of Death on covers of \"Sandman.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Batman Who Laughs",
        "text": "During the events of \"Dark Knights: Death Metal\", The Batman Who Laughs gains the powers of Dr. Manhattan by having Dr. Arkham surgically integrate his mind into that of a Bruce Wayne with Manhattan\u2019s powers, granting him nigh-omnipotence, flight, and teleportation among other powers. After absorbing Wally West\u2019s Manhattan powers, his power drastically increases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harley Quinn (DC Extended Universe)",
        "text": "In a flashforward \"Knightmare\" scene to a post-apocalyptic reality, where Darkseid (Ray Porter) and a mind-controlled Superman (Henry Cavill) conquer Earth, after Joker taunts Batman (who is reluctantly allied with him) about the deaths of his parents and Robin, Batman reveals that Harley had died in his arms and that she made him promise to \"slowly kill\" Joker, which he intends to do when he no longer has use for him. In a deleted scene, Joker asks Batman, \"Who do you think screamed the loudest? The girl, or the boy?\" in reference to both his and Harley's own murder of Robin and Harley's death, before laughing in Batman's face."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elle Bishop",
        "text": "Her ability is shown to respond to her emotions. After Bob's death, mourning Elle loses control over her ability and her body starts to produce electricity at any time (\"Sum Quod Sum graphic novels\") ; this makes Elle unable to stay close to electrical devices such as computers and even a plane. She claims to live in constant pain (\"Eris Quod Sum\"). This ends when Sylar helps her forgive herself (\"It's Coming\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Death's popularity saw her spun off into two solo miniseries, ' (1993), and ' (1996). Both were written by Gaiman and illustrated by Chris Bachalo, and dealt with Death's encounters with various mortals. \"Death: The High Cost of Living\" became the first comic released under the newly instigated Vertigo branding in 1993, at which point \"The Sandman\" also moved from the DC to Vertigo imprint. A third miniseries, \"The Girl who Would Be Death\" by Caitl\u00edn R. Kiernan, was about a girl who purchased an ankh stolen from Death and tried to become her. Death is never actually seen in the series, but she speaks and acts in the third and fourth issues of the four-issue series."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death and Return of Superman (film)",
        "text": "As he pours himself another drink, Landis recalls a lesson learned from his father John Landis about how to kill a vampire. After the younger Landis lists ways mentioned in vampire literature like a stake through the heart and sunlight, his father explains that writers can kill vampires any way they want because vampires do not exist. In essence, the Death of Superman story arc did not kill Superman; instead, it made death irrelevant in comics, as hundreds of comic book characters would die and resurrect multiple times in the years to come.\n*Max Landis as Himself\n:*Kelsey Gunn as young Max Landis\n*Morgan Krantz as Superman\n*Elden Henson as Doomsday\n*Mandy Moore as Lois Lane\n*Elijah Wood as Hank Henshaw / Cyborg Superman\n*Matt Bennett as Superboy\n*Dustin Romero as The Eradicator\n*Barry Brisco as Steel\n*Zach Cregger as Hal Jordan\n*Whitney Moore as Batman\n*Jennifer Newman as Robin\n*Jezlan Moyet as Nightwing and a Fraternity partygoer\n*Sarah Shahi as Titania\n*Brian Morrison as Guardian\n*Brad Gage as Guy Gardner\n*Ashley Hinshaw as Power Girl\n*Chloe Dykstra as Ice\n*Luke Barats as Blue Beetle\n*Joe Bereta as Booster Gold\n*Zena Grey as Lana Lang\n*Jimmi Simpson as Bertron\n*Chris Hardwick as Himself\n*Kit Willesee as the '30s Woman\n*Yuri Lowenthal as the '30s Man\n*Taliesin Jaffe as a Fraternity partygoer\n*Matthew Mercer as a Fraternity partygoer\n* Coy Jandreau as a member of the Green Lantern Corps"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gambit (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "After Apocalypse used the Celestial Technology to transform Gambit into the Horseman Death, Gambit demonstrates the ability to convert inert materials into toxic substances (such as transforming breathable air into poisonous gases) and has the potential to ingest diseases and plagues. It is apparent that the Celestial Technology never left his system, as seen during a telepathic attack against him that temporarily brought out the Death persona, which eventually killed the attacker. He also showcased new abilities he had not used before in this form \u2013 such as his Death Charge, which fueled his projectiles with dark energies that have the effect of either disintegrating or entrapping beings within his cards. His new transformation also affords him the ability to control the trajectory in which the thrown cards fly in, giving him more control over their vector path while in motion. He could also convert people to his mindset like he did with Northstar, Dazzler and several demons while in limbo. Gambit's body did subsequently return to normal, suggesting that Gambit now has the ability to switch between his own and Death appearances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outcasts (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Racing to aide Kaine, they learn that she has been gunned down on the air and is barely alive. They hijack the ambulance containing Kaine and Yancy, angry that she won't be able to finally end his life of immortality by aging him to death, grabs her bare skin as he yells at her to get up. Touching her allows her body to inadvertently absorb his lifeforce and brings her back to life while Yancy ages, withers and collapses to the floor in a heap of skin and bones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In 2003, the manga-style graphic novel ' portrayed Death's activities during the fourth Sandman story arc '. It was written and illustrated by Jill Thompson, and the format proved popular enough for Thompson to produce the similarly manga-influenced follow-up \"Dead Boy Detectives\", featuring minor \"Sandman\" characters, and \"featuring a cameo by Death\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Superhero fiction",
        "text": "Death in superhero fiction is rarely permanent, as characters who die are often brought back to life through supernatural means or via retcons (retroactive changes to the continuity), the alteration of previously established facts in the continuity of a fictional work. Fans have termed the practice of bringing back dead characters \"comic book death\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decay (DC Comics)",
        "text": "The second Decay was a skilled fighter possessing the powers of flight and invulnerability. Her touch can cause any living thing she comes in contact with to rapidly age, eventually resulting in death. Decay's breath is equally deadly, and can crumble a target to dust."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor Death (character)",
        "text": "Dr. Death is a mad scientist and supervillain appearing in publications by DC Comics. The character was created by Gardner Fox and Bob Kane as an enemy of the superhero Batman, and first appeared in \"Detective Comics\" #29 (July 1939). He is notable as the first traditional supervillain to be encountered by the Batman, as well as his first recurring foe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Discworld)",
        "text": "In the 2008 adaptation of \"The Colour of Magic\", van den Broeke reprises the physical role, with Lee returning to the voice after the death of Richardson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death-Throws",
        "text": "Crossfire's robotic army of Death T.H.R.O.W.S. have appeared in \"Hawkeye & Mockingbird\" #2-5 (2010) and \"The Heroic Age: Villains\" #1 (2011)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Discworld)",
        "text": "This fascination with humanity extends to the point of sympathy towards them, and he will often side with humans against greater threats, notably the Auditors of Reality. He has on a number of occasions bent the rules to allow a character extra life (e.g., the little girl rescued from the fire in \"Reaper Man\", or the Little Match Girl in \"Hogfather\"). Death has also indicated that he will oblige dying humans by playing a game with them for their lives, much like the personification of Death in \"The Seventh Seal\"; the games he offers include chess, though he consistently has trouble remembering how the knights move, and another game (referred to by Death as \"Exclusive Possession\" in the book, presumably based on Monopoly), which the challenger lost despite having \"three streets and all the utilities\". Granny Weatherwax was able to play cards against Death in a successful bid to save a child's life, Granny's hand having four queens while Death's had only four \"ones\". (A hand of four aces would generally beat a hand of queens in poker, but Death chose to consider them low, giving the old witch a \"wink\" in the process.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor Death (character)",
        "text": "In September 2011, \"The New 52\" rebooted DC's continuity. Here, a new version of Dr. Death makes an appearance in \"Batman\" #25 as part of the story arc \"\". He is once again established as one of the first supervillains encountered by Batman early in his career. A disgruntled former Wayne Enterprises scientist, Dr. Death murders several people with a serum that causes uncontrolled bone growth. He is depicted with a skeletal appearance, a result of testing his serum on himself. Dr. Death joins forces with the Riddler to try to seize control of Gotham City during a super-storm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor Death (character)",
        "text": "Dr. Death was revived once again in \"Batgirl\" #42-44 and #50 (2003\u20132004) by writer Dylan Horrocks. The modern version of the character is a producer of biological weapons, often selling them on the black market to terrorists and other criminals. He is now depicted as a bald, gnome-like man wearing a lab coat and an oxygen mask. This incarnation of Dr. Death plays a minor role in \"\" where he is seen working with the crime lord Black Mask, releasing a gas into a crowd of panicking gangsters. Batman suspects that he and Black Mask are attempting to wipe out their competition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor Death (character)",
        "text": "In his first appearance in \"Detective Comics\" #29, Dr. Death develops a lethal chemical agent from pollen extract and enacts a plan to use the poison to extort money from wealthy Gotham City citizens. He is assisted by a large East Indian manservant, Jabah. He decides to eliminate Batman, and threatens to kill someone unless Batman stops him. Batman defeats his two henchmen, but is wounded when Jabah shoots him, though he escapes using a gas pellet. He then gets to Dr. Death's base, meeting him in his lab, and chases him around the building. In order to evade capture, Dr. Death ignites chemicals in his laboratory, presumably killing Jabah and himself in the resulting explosion. Dr. Death next appears the following month in \"Detective Comics\" #30. With a new accomplice, a Cossack named Mikhail, Dr. Death is this time successful in claiming a victim in his extortion scheme, but discovers from the widow that the poisoned man lost his fortune in the Great Depression. Batman intervenes in the plot, following Mikhail back to Dr. Death's base, and upon apprehending the doctor, discovers that his face had been horribly disfigured from the lab explosion, resulting in a brown, skeletal appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deathblow (comics)",
        "text": "During World's End, Deathblow is part of leading missions on a post-apocalyptic Earth. It is also revealed that, despite being known as \"powerless\" in the Worldstorm continuity, his healing factor has evolved to a staggering level: because of his healing factor, he cannot die because his body keeps regenerating him, even after receiving wounds deep enough to shut down his biological functions. Jackson King suggested he could even regenerate \"from a scrap of DNA.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "The character first appeared in \"Captain Marvel\" #26 (Jun. 1973) and was created by Mike Friedrich and Jim Starlin. Death is an abstract entity, the embodiment of the end of life in the Marvel Universe, and resides inside a pocket dimension known as the Realm of Death. The character can change appearance at will shown in a storyline of \"Captain Marvel\" where Thanos' scheme to conquer the universe, as the character becomes determined to prove his love for Death by destroying all life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (personification)",
        "text": "Death first appeared in \"The Sandman\" vol. 2, #8 (August 1989), and was created by Neil Gaiman and Mike Dringenberg. She is both an embodiment of death and a psychopomp in The Sandman Universe, and depicted as a down to earth, perky, and nurturing figure. Death is the second born of The Endless and she states \"When the last living thing dies, my job will be finished. I'll put the chairs on the tables, turn out the lights and lock the universe behind me when I leave.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Death-Shield",
        "text": "Death-Shield\n--Fictional character biography.\n--Powers and abilities.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Simon Hurt",
        "text": "In 2016, DC Comics implemented another relaunch of its books called \"DC Rebirth\", which restored its continuity to a form much as it was prior to \"The New 52\". He was still considered an ancestor of Thomas Wayne in this continuity and his immortality is because of the Hyper-Adapter that is fused to him. Simon recruited Professor Pyg and made him create Dollotrons of Robin and Nightwing, one that becomes the man known as Deathwing. Deathwing brings him Robin, who he plans to kill at dawn, but the Doctor was apparently killed when Deathwing stabbed him, but not before stabbing Deathwing too."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "In Marvel's first limited series \"Contest of Champions\", Death agrees to a game of strategy with the Elder of the Universe the Grandmaster. The Grandmaster wins the game and Death provides him with the power (via the Golden Globe of Life) to resurrect the Collector, a fellow Elder. Only then does Death reveal that the Golden Globe is an empty instrument that needs to be powered by a life-force equal to that of the being who is to be restored. To resurrect the Collector, the Grandmaster sacrifices his life and takes the Collector's place in the Realm of the Dead. In the limited series \"Secret Wars II\" the entity Beyonder takes human form and visits Earth. It decides to \"save\" mankind, and in doing so destroys Death, but is then shown there is a need for Death and recreates the entity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Countdown to Final Crisis",
        "text": "Released with books published on July 5, 2007, in the \"DC Nation: #68\" column, DiDio described the picture's symbolism: \"Anyone standing on barren ground is doomed. In this case, it spells the Death of the New Gods...The yellow ring corrupts Kyle (Rayner) in The Sinestro Corps War...Jason Todd becomes Red Robin, driving a wedge in the Challengers from Beyond...Green Arrow struggles to win the love of Black Canary...Batman, in symbolic garb, wields the sword that hearkens the return of a deadly foe (Ra's al Ghul)...Dressed in Barry's costume, Bart (Allen, the Flash) showed that he had one foot in the grave...A Legionnaire is lost and marked for death in Countdown...The Atom, lost, struggles to survive...The shield marked Hippolyta's return...Superman and Wonder Woman discuss parent issues...Is that a Boom Tube I see, and can that be the path to salvation?...The shadow of evil falls over Mary Marvel...and the statue head, reminiscent of and tied to \"Kamandi\" #1, also reflects Sinestro's upcoming visit to the Big Apple.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Silver Star (comics)",
        "text": "Drumm's new aspect as the \"Angel of Death\" is received by his followers with cheers, while the heroes try to escape. Meanwhile, Silver Star telepathically contacts his allies outside to warn them, although there is little they can do. Norma and Silver Star share a kiss, then Norma leaves to warn the nearest town and try to protect it; Silver Star stays behind to confront Drumm's final form. They wrestle mid-flight, but Drumm's death powers rot Silver Star's body. Becoming little more than a skeleton in rugs of his suit, but still alive, Silver Star falls and tries to heal. Meanwhile, the USAF -alerted by Dr. Miller- attacks the Angel of Death, but they are unable to stop him from destroying suburbs and several areas. The Angel of Death reaches Redlands City, population ten million and, when he starts to kill people in the crowd - he sees that all of them have Darius Drumm's face - this is later revealed to have been an illusion staged by Silver Star. The Angel of Death, who is Drumm, cannot kill himself and, facing this paradox, he disintegrates. Due to his powers, he may survive, but Silver Star speculates that Drumm would be incapacitated for several centuries. Silver Star closes the story wondering whether the homo geneticus, designed to survive a nuclear holocaust, would be able to survive the confrontation with other homo geneticus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deathcry",
        "text": "Deathcry possesses super-strength, stamina, sturdiness, sharp talons, and enhanced senses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Secret Warriors (Team White)",
        "text": "S.H.I.E.L.D. is soon restarted as a joint effort by the UN. Daisy Johnson is chosen to be the first director, with the remnants of Team White, Team Black and the Howling Commandos as her agents.\n; Nick Fury\n: Founder and leader of Team White.\n; Daisy Johnson\n: Codename: Quake, the daughter of Mister Hyde. She possesses the power to create earthquake-like vibrations.\n; Alexander Aaron\n: Codename: Phobos, son of Ares. He possesses the power to instill fear in others, and has limited pre-cognition. As a member of the Olympian race born of a mortal woman, he has the potential for far greater \"god-like\" powers not unlike his uncle Hercules, but his \"mortal\" body must die first. This occurs when he is stabbed through the chest and killed by Gorgon.\n; Sebastian Druid\n: Codename: Druid, the son of Doctor Druid who has inherited some of his father's skill with magic. He is soon seen as a liability, and Fury dismisses him from the team. It is later shown that Fury in fact put Druid through \"Boot Camp\", assigning John Garrett to get him in shape and boost his confidence.\n; Yo-Yo Rodriguez\n: Codename: Slingshot, the daughter of the Griffin. She can run at superhuman speed and bounces back to the point where she began running. She was recently injured severely, with both of her arms severed by the Gorgon, and was temporarily unable to remain active with the team. However, both arms have now been replaced with technologically advanced prosthetics that afford her some superhuman strength in her hands and she has returned to active duty. During combat she is often seen fighting with a retractable javelin.\n; J.T. Slade\n: Codename: Hellfire, born James Taylor Slade, the grandson of the Phantom Rider, is able to charge items (notably a chain) with fire and unleash a devastating attack. During \"New Avengers\", J.T. is shown as one of the possible replacements for the title of Sorcerer Supreme, showing great magical potential. In issue 16, J.T. is discovered to be a double agent with Hydra, directly with Baron von Strucker. During the fall of Gehenna, Nick Fury tells J.T. that he knows he is a traitor and lets him fall to his death, avenging Alexander.\n; Jerry Sledge\n: Codename: Stonewall, who has been bailed out of jail by Daisy Johnson, where he was being held for hitting a police officer. He possesses superhuman strength and an ability to increase his size, while his skin appears to take an appearance resembling stone. In issue 9, he demonstrated the ability to change the composition of his skin, by turning it into metal after getting Ares' axe swung into his chest. Very little had so far been revealed about the character but, in issue 12, it was revealed that his father is Carl \"Crusher\" Creel, The Absorbing Man. He tries to tell Reed Richards his real name at one point, but is cut off after saying \"Henry\".\n; Eden Fesi\n: A reality warping young man previously under the care and training of the mutant Gateway. Nick Fury initially attempted to recruit him to another one of his \"Caterpillar\" teams, but Gateway refused. As of the MARVEL NOW! relaunch, he has joined the Avengers under the name of Manifold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daken",
        "text": "After being resurrected by the Apocalypse Twins, who use the Death Seed to turn him into a Horsemen of Death, Daken had been granted with the power and potential to become the new repetition of Apocalypse on Earth. In \"Iceman\" #9, a new mutant named Zachary unintentionally helps Daken access the Death Seed's powers, which significantly amplified Daken's abilities, including amplifying his super senses and increasing his biomass, granting him superhuman strength and durability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black Hand (character)",
        "text": "After the visions he roams the desert, hearing \"Death\" calling to him. It instructs him to reclaim all the souls it has lost in the DC Universe, including Superman and Hal Jordan. Black Hand returns to his family's house, kills his two brothers, his mother, his father, and then finally commits suicide. While these events unfold, the Guardian Scar arrives at the Hand house. She pronounces that the self-sacrifice \"pleases him\" and regurgitates the first Black power ring, which reanimated Black Hand. She reveals that Hand is the physical embodiment of death, in the same manner that Ion is for willpower, Parallax is for fear, and the Predator is for love. Hand then announces that he will use his new power to finally extinguish the light."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death Adder (character)",
        "text": "Death Adder is the name of two supervillains appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The original Death Adder (Roland Burroughs) first appeared in \"Marvel Two-in-One\" #64 (June 1980), created by writers Mark Gruenwald and Ralph Macchio. The second Death Adder (Theodore Scott), first appeared in \"Civil War Files\" #1 and was based on the concept of the original Death Adder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ben Reilly",
        "text": "Ben Reilly appears as part of the 2015 All-New, All-Different Marvel branding, in the form of the mysterious man in a brilliant red suit with a mask of Anubis, the jackal-headed Egyptian god of death. It is eventually revealed that Miles Warren survived \"Maximum Clonage\" and collected Ben's remains after the hero died at the hands of Norman Osborn. Warren clones Ben again, transferring all his memories including his death. When the new body has problems with cellular degradation, Warren kills Ben and tries again. He does this many times, with Ben's memory transfer ensuring he recalls each death leading up to his stable 27th body. Traumatized by the memory of 26 deaths, Ben breaks free, defeats Warren, and decides to use his technology and operation to prevent anyone else from suffering the tragedy of death. He adopts a mask of Anubis and as the new Jackal he improves process the cloning process, now seeing his new clone creations as \"reanimates,\" continuations of the original person rather than simply copies. His reanimates seem improved in many ways but carry a latent form of a new Carrion virus in their cells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neron (DC Comics)",
        "text": "To win back his position in Hell and regain his full powers, Neron next travels back into the past three times to collect three previously-dead superheroes' souls at the time of their deaths: Barry Allen (who had died in the Crisis), Jason Todd (who had been killed by the Joker) and Superman (who had been killed by Doomsday). However, he only gains the first two souls, even though he ultimately needs three souls to accomplish his goal. Unable to enter Superman's body himself because of its purity, he discovers that his human surrogate, Darius Caldera, is rejected by Superman's body also, so he makes a deal with Caldera and uses his soul as the third of the three souls that he requires. He then turns his attention to Green Lantern II, tricking Deadman into saving Hal Jordan from death in the past during his battle with Mongul, ensuring that Neron will have the chance to tempt Jordan later in his history (after he has become Parallax II) and thus succeed in winning back his position in Hell and regaining his full powers. Neron erases Deadman's memory of him so that he cannot prevent this from happening, but is finally defeated when the Spectre (the Spectre-Force being still bonded to Hal Jordan at this time) restores Deadman's memory and Deadman changes the future by ensuring that Caldera dies before Neron can even offer him a deal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (comics)",
        "text": "Storylines:\n* \"The Death of Superman\"\n* \"Death of Buffy\" (Buffy comic)\n* Death (disambiguation)"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of death deities",
        "text": "Death is the name of one of \"The Endless\" in the DC Universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Death and Return of Superman (film)",
        "text": "Following Superman's funeral, DC Comics published the \"Reign of the Supermen!\" story arc, which introduced four characters claiming to be Superman. One was Hank Henshaw, a cyborg version of Superman who defeated the other three and destroyed Coast City, causing Hal Jordan to lose his sense of reasoning and kill fellow members of the Green Lantern Corps. The Cyborg Superman continued his reign of terror until the real Superman appeared and defeated him. It was revealed that Superman had emerged from a \"healing coma\", identical to death except temporary. Superman's resurrection was met with outrage from fans who felt betrayed by DC Comics; sales of Superman's comics declined and have never recovered ever since."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death of the New Gods",
        "text": "The effects were also felt in other DC titles. In \"Birds of Prey\" #109, Knockout was killed, by a figure whose silhouette precisely matches that of the elusive New God, the Infinity Man. In the \"Outsiders - Five of a Kind: Thunder/Martian Manhunter\" one shot, Speed Queen of the Female Furies was fleeing from the God-Killer when she met a comatose Grayven, son of Darkseid. She was killed, though he escaped. Later, Grayven was tricked by the Martian Manhunter into returning to Apokolips, where he was killed as well. In \"Superman/Batman\" #42, Orion's wife Bekka was killed by the assassin. In \"Wonder Girl\" #5, while battling the novice Amazon, Bloody Mary is killed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "Death (distinguished as Mistress Death or Lady Death) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is a cosmic entity based on the personification of death. They first appeared in \"Captain Marvel\" #26 (Jun. 1973) and was created by Mike Friedrich and Jim Starlin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "Commenting on the impact and role of comic book character deaths, writer Geoff Johns said: \"Death in superhero comics is cyclical in its nature, and that's for a lot of reasons, whether they are story reasons, copyright reasons, or fan reasons\". The phenomenon of comic book death is particularly common for superhero characters. Writer Danny Fingeroth suggests that the nature of superheroes requires that they be both ageless and immortal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shadow War (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Deathstroke has been working with Black Canary for an organization called TRUST. Black Canary and Deathstroke spar but offer a truce, however Juliette (the leader of TRUST) and Prometheus sends them to a different dimension. Both of them break free of the dimension, and Juliette offers them a seat at their Council to fight an upcoming darkness. Deathstroke kills several members and announces he will be the leader of the TRUST council. Black Canary manages to escape the council and go back to the Justice League for reinforcements. Deathstroke announces that he will be the leader of the Secret Society, and just then Ravager and Respawn arrive. Deathstroke finds Respawn and Ravager intruding, and Respawn reveals that he is the clone of Damian and was created by Ra's Al Ghul. Ra's Al Ghul injected Respawn with Deathstroke's serum to get a healing factor, and used Respawn as a harvest organ donor in case Damian gets hurt and needs replacement organs. Deathstroke empathizes with Respawn, and announces he will destroy anyone who gets in his way, and he will build reinforcements to deal with a dark crisis. Respawn takes out Ravager, and Deathstroke announces they will prepare against the League of Shadows. Batman returns to Gotham City to deal with the Arkham Tower incident, and Deathstroke announces they need to distract Batman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death Is the Only Answer",
        "text": "Nickolas Grace previously appeared in the Seventh Doctor audio drama \"Bang-Bang-a-Boom!\" where he played Loozly, and as the Time Lord Straxus in the Eighth Doctor audio dramas \"Human Resources\", \"Sisters of the Flame\" and \"Vengeance of Morbius\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comic book death",
        "text": "In the comic book fan community, the apparent death and subsequent return of a long-running character is often called a comic book death. A comic book death is generally not taken seriously by readers and is rarely permanent or meaningful other than for story or thematic purposes. The term is usually not applied to characters who have the ability to return from the dead as an established power or ability, such as Solomon Grundy or Ra's al Ghul."
      },
      {
        "title": "Characters of the DC Extended Universe",
        "text": "Slade Wilson / Deathstroke (portrayed by Joe Manganiello) is a mercenary who has had an acrimonious relationship with Batman. He appears in a post-credits scene at the end of the theatrical cut, as Lex Luthor entices him to create a \"League of [their] own\" after the Justice League forms and defeats Steppenwolf. The director's cut has a different version of this scene in the epilogue, as Deathstroke simply gets the identity of Batman when visiting Luthor. He also appears in Batman's second \"Knightmare\" vision, joining forces with him, Victor Stone, Barry Allen, Mera, and Joker as they prepare to fight an evil Superman in that world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Near Death (comics)",
        "text": "There has been an effort to adapt the comic to television."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In the AIDS-awareness eight-page comic \"Death Talks About Life\" by Gaiman and McKean (which was first included in various Vertigo titles, and later released as a stand-alone giveaway pamphlet), Death demonstrates safe sex by placing a condom on a banana held by John Constantine. Lightening the impact of the underlying message, she informs the reader that when one is through with the demonstration, \"you can eat the banana\". This was used in high school health classes and is also reprinted as an addendum to the \"Death: The High Cost of Living\" trade paperback."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Discworld)",
        "text": "The New Death comes from human belief, but is quite different from the original, having been formed from modern Discworlders who think of death as being a malevolent force rather than the simple cessation of life. Though he has the usual black robe, he is larger and has only smoke underneath his robe, rather than bones, and wears a crown, to the disgust of the original Death. He rides the classic skeletal steed, in contrast to the special, but nevertheless very real, Binky. Instead of a scythe he wields a weapon \"which may, at some point in its evolution, have incorporated aspects of a scythe, in the same way a scalpel incorporated aspects of a stick\". In place of a face or skull, the new Death just has a crown and is prideful, dramatic, cold, and cruel; the literal embodiment of humanity's fear of death. He chooses to arrive exactly at midnight and appears in a flash of lightning purely for the dramatic effect, something the old Death finds demeaning and rather excessive. When he corners Bill Door, he mocks him and beats him instead of finishing the job."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deathblow (comics)",
        "text": "Deathblow dies during the Fire From Heaven event, sacrificing himself in order to kill Damocles, the villain from that crossover."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "The entity appears in the title \"War Is Hell\" and forces soldier John Kowalski to undergo a number of lives and deaths as punishment for doing nothing to prevent the invasion of Poland, with Kowalski eventually becoming an aspect of Death; in the title \"Ghost Rider\" posing as \"Death Ryder\" to test Johnny Blaze and becoming fascinated with the Titan Thanos, and the mercenary Deadpool."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amanda Waller",
        "text": "In issue #11 of \"Suicide Squad\" (2016), as a part of DC Rebirth, Amanda Waller is shot and killed. Her death is confirmed in issue #12. However, it is revealed in issue #15 she faked her death with the help of Deadshot, who fired a bullet at her heart, and Enchantress, who magically moved the bullet to the most reparable part of the human heart. Because of this, she is able to use Deadshot against the villain Rustam and the international shadow organization known only as the People."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death of a Superhero",
        "text": "In an effort to stop his suicide attempts, his parents send him to therapy. Eventually, he is sent to see a psychiatrist, Dr. Adrian King (Andy Serkis), one whom he initially does not like; but whom he forms a bond with quickly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daniel Drumm",
        "text": "Somehow surviving Jericho's apparent death, Daniel Drumm lost the abilities tied to Jericho's one: however, he retained the ability to enter and control other bodies, using them as physical mediums."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fatality (character)",
        "text": "Fatality has many weapons with which she is an expert. Usually she employs an energy staff. Since losing her arms in a battle with Kyle Rayner, Fatality has acquired bionic arms that provide her with enhanced strength. She has a pair of jet boots that allow her to fly and a starship which she uses to traverse the universe in her attempts to destroy the Green Lantern Corps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deadman (comics)",
        "text": "Deadman is later sent by Batman to possess the body of Jason Blood, invoking the power of Etrigan. Deadman uses Etrigan's demon flame to hold back the Black Lanterns, but struggles to maintain control over the demon's body, finally being forced out. Deadman then frees Batman and Red Robin, who had frozen themselves to escape the Black Lanterns' onslaught. He is later seen inside the Black Lantern Damage's ring, apparently having followed Jean Loring, Mera and the Atom when they shrank down into it. He frees Mera and the Atom from Loring by briefly possessing her, allowing them time to return to normal size. During this incident he says he believes possessing the Black Lanterns causes him damage. He is later seen at Nanda Parbat, attempting to stop the Black Lanterns attempting to pass through the spiritual barrier by taking over their bodies and ripping them apart. He briefly loses himself to a Black Lantern's personality, but is saved by the Phantom Stranger. The Stranger convinces Deadman to enter his body again, telling them it is his destiny to bring it within Nanda Parbat. With the Stranger's help, Deadman is able to force the black ring off his body, bringing it through the gate of Nanda Parbat. The body, which the Stranger states is of \"singular importance\", is placed under the gatekeeper and Blue Devil's protection, and Deadman heads out, intent on sharing the information he gleaned while inside the Black Lanterns with Hal Jordan. In the aftermath of the final battle, Deadman, wearing a White Lantern ring, is resurrected by the power of the white light."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salvation Run",
        "text": "The following are those who have died in this storyline in order of issue:\n* Hellhound (Jack Chifford) - Fed to \"lion-lizard\" creatures by the Body Doubles.\n* Psimon - Bludgeoned to death by a rock used by the Joker.\n* Iron Cross (of the Aryan Brigade) - Shot through the head by the Joker.\n* Brain - Beaten to death by Gorilla Grodd.\n* Monsieur Mallah - Beaten to death by Gorilla Grodd using the remains of Brain's jar.\n* Metallo - Burned through by Martian Manhunter's eye blasts. Suffers the blue screen of death.\n* A Hyena - Shot in the head by a Parademon.\n* Brutale - Stabbed by a Parademon.\n* General Immortus - Killed at the start of the Parademons' second attack.\n* Neutron - Presumably killed when Luthor's teleporter self-destructed.\n* Plasmus - Presumably killed when Luthor's teleporter self-destructed.\n* Heatmonger (of the Aryan Brigade) - Presumably killed when Luthor's teleporter self-destructed.\n* Thunder and Lightning - Presumably killed when Luthor's teleporter self-destructed.\n* Warp - Presumably killed when Luthor's teleporter self-destructed."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Final Night",
        "text": "The League watches in astonishment and Dusk says she no longer believes that anything is impossible.\n* \"The Final Night\" culminates in the death of Hal Jordan and is the first in a series of storylines that eventually redeem him for his crimes committed as Parallax in \"Emerald Twilight\" and '. Hal Jordan returns in the 1999 crossover storyline \"Day of Judgment\", in which his soul becomes a host for the Spectre-Force. He later returns to life and is reinstated as Earth's Green Lantern in 2004's ' miniseries. His death in defeating the Sun-Eater remains a key point in the character's history, as it has been referenced in numerous storylines since, including 2009's \"Blackest Night\" crossover storyline.\n* Ferro Lad is re-introduced in post-\"Zero Hour\" continuity as Ferro. The young hero's death was a major event in the Legion of Super-Heroes' Silver Age adventures, but was no longer in continuity at this time. This new incarnation of the character later joins the faction of Legionnaires stranded in the present and eventually returns to the 30th Century with them.\n* Starfire's recently settled home world of New Tamaran is destroyed, marking the second Tamaranean world to die. Though Starfire survives the cataclysm, casualties include her sister and former Teen Titans villain, Blackfire, who is presumed dead until 2005's \"Rann-Thanagar War\". The death of her world and people prompts Starfire to return to Earth some time later, eventually rejoining the Titans.\n* Superman remains powerless after the Sun is re-ignited. This plotline continues throughout the \"Superman\" comics as his body converts into a being of pure energy and he develops new, energy-based powers requiring a specialized containment suit to maintain control of them and stay alive, while also causing his skin to assume a blue pigment when his powers are fully active. Superman adapts the suit into a new blue-and-white costume, which he sports for a period of time before he eventually regains his original powers and defaults back to his traditional costume.\n* In a later flashback to \"The Final Night\" occurring in the final page of \"Green Arrow\" (vol. 2) #137 (Oct. 1998), it is revealed that, prior to sacrificing his life, Hal Jordan had used his power as Parallax to resurrect his longtime friend Oliver Queen, the Green Arrow, who died in his own series in 1995. Queen made his official return to the DC Universe in \"Quiver\" storyline of \"Green Arrow\" (vol. 3) #1 in 2001."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deathstroke",
        "text": "Deathstroke is gravely injured with his own sword by Geo-Force in \"DC Universe: Last Will and Testament\". Following his injury, he is recuperating at Belle Reve while doctors labor to save him. Deathstroke dreams of his family members and all of the people that he has let down. When he awakens, he vows that he will never again be haunted by the past."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What does the personification of death do in DC comics that most personifications of death do not?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Unlike most personifications of death, DC's death does not just meet with those who have died, but visits those who are being born, though, only she remembers meeting them. She also differs in that she keeps a collection of floppy hats, and has a pair of goldfish named Slim and Wandsworth."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the personification of death in DC comics known as in Ancient Greece?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Death was known in Ancient Greece as Teleute."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What films has Death from DC comics been in?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Death has made their only film appearance in a DC Showcase animated short voiced by Jamie Chung."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can the personification of death in the DC comics be killed?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes.  One day every century, Death lives (and dies) as a mortal, in order to understand the value of the life she takes."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How was Death adapted in drama?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Audible released a drama version in July 2019, starring Neil Gaiman, James McAvoy, Taron Egerton, Michael Sheen, and Andy Serkis. Death was played by Kat Dennings."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What powers and abilities does Death have?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "She is immortal, is omnipotent, omniscient, and omnipresent. She is a member of The Endless, a family of beings who are more powerful than gods, are forces of nature (in her case, she is literal Death: the end of life), and are the most powerful beings in the universe.",
      "Death is an immortal being who is virtually omnipotent, omniscient, and omnipresent."
    ],
    "topic": "Death (DC Comics)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Death (DC Comics):16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Death (DC Comics)",
          "Powers and abilities"
        ],
        "ctx": "Death is an immortal being of virtual omnipotence, omniscience and omnipresence. She is not a god of death or agent of it, but Death itself: the end of life. As for the end of her role, Death has said: \"When the last living thing dies, my job will be finished. I'll put the chairs on the tables, turn out the lights, and lock the universe behind me when I leave\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Death (DC Comics):13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Death (DC Comics)",
          "Fictional character biography",
          "New Earth"
        ],
        "ctx": "Death is the second eldest of the Endless, a family of anthropomorphic beings. Death is possibly the most powerful of the Endless (and one of the most powerful beings in the universe, followed closely by beings like Lucifer Morningstar, however is slightly less powerful than The Presence) having been shown (in a flashback in ') to be virtually omniscient and being able to intimidate the Furies, who show no fear of the other Endless, simply by raising her voice in '. The witch Thessaly mentions that Death is the only one of the Endless who is bound by no rules, supported in Dream's portion of \"\" in which she briefly makes an appearance at a conference designed to set functions for entities and leaves before it begins. In addition, it is mentioned in \"Brief Lives\" that she is the only one of the Endless who may survive the end of this incarnation of the universe. Death's realm is not portrayed in detail in the series, except for a brief scene in her \"house\" in the \"Sandman Special\", \"Song of Orpheus\", and later in \"The Books of Magic\" series. This is where she keeps her floppy hat collection, her goldfish Slim and Wandsworth and possibly her gallery. A brief glimpse of her realm can also be seen in \"The Little Endless Storybook\", when Barnabas visits her, although this time in her \"apartment suite\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Endless (comics):7",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Endless (comics)",
          "Function and domains"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Endless spend most of their time fulfilling their functions as embodiments of natural forces. For example, Death leads the souls of the dead away from the realm of the living, while Dream oversees the realm of dreams and imagination (\"The Dreaming\") and regulates dreams and inspiration. One notable facet of their depiction is that none of them are \"representations\" or \"personifications\" of their function, they simply \"are\" their function; as Sto-Oa says of Death in \"Endless Nights\", \"She \"is\" Death, just as \"he\" is Dream, and that one is Desire.\" In \"The Sandman\" (vol. 2) #48, Destruction gives a further description of the Endless:"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Endless (comics):2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Endless (comics)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Endless were created by Neil Gaiman and first appeared in the comic book series \"The Sandman\" (1989\u20131996). They embody powerful forces, or aspects, of the DC Universe and have existed since the dawn of time. They are depicted as among the most powerful beings in the DC Universe."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Death (DC Comics):16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Death (DC Comics)",
          "Powers and abilities"
        ],
        "ctx": "Death is an immortal being of virtual omnipotence, omniscience and omnipresence. She is not a god of death or agent of it, but Death itself: the end of life. As for the end of her role, Death has said: \"When the last living thing dies, my job will be finished. I'll put the chairs on the tables, turn out the lights, and lock the universe behind me when I leave\"."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The simplest way to define an ecological footprint is the amount of environmental resources necessary to produce the goods and services that support an individual's particular lifestyle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Degrowth",
        "text": "The ecological footprint is a measure of human demand on the Earth's ecosystems. It compares human demand with planet Earth's ecological capacity to regenerate. It represents the amount of biologically productive land and sea area needed to regenerate the resources a human"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The ecological footprint is a method promoted by the Global Footprint Network to measure human demand on natural capital, i.e. the quantity of nature it takes to support people or an economy. It tracks this demand through an ecological accounting system. The accounts contrast the biologically productive area people use for their consumption to the biologically productive area available within a region or the world (biocapacity, the productive area that can regenerate what people demand from nature). In short, it is a measure of human impact on the environment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "A \"green water footprint\" refers to the amount of water from precipitation that, after having been stored in the root zone of the soil (green water), is either lost by evapotranspiration or incorporated by plants. It is particularly relevant for agricultural, horticultural and forestry products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "According to Rees, \"the average world citizen has an eco-footprint of about 2.7 global average hectares while there are only 2.1 global hectare of bioproductive land and water per capita on earth. This means that humanity has already overshot global biocapacity by 30% and now lives unsustainabily by depleting stocks of 'natural capital'.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainability metrics and indices",
        "text": "Ecological footprint accounting, based on the biological concept of carrying capacity, tracks the amount of land and water area a human population demands for producing the biological resources the population consumes, for absorbing its waste, and for accommodating its built infrastructure, all under prevailing technology. This amount then is compared to available biocapacity, in the world or in that region. The biocapacity represents the area able to regenerate resources and assimilate waste. Global Footprint Network publishes every year results for all nations captured in UN statistics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The focus of ecological footprint accounting is renewable resources. The total amount of such resources which the planet produces according to this model has been dubbed biocapacity. Ecological footprints can be calculated at any scale: for an activity, a person, a community, a city, a town, a region, a nation, or humanity as a whole. Footprint values are categorized for carbon, food, housing, goods and services. This approach can be applied to an activity such as the manufacturing of a product or driving of a car. This resource accounting is similar to life-cycle analysis wherein the consumption of energy, biomass (food, fiber), building material, water and other resources are converted into a normalized measure of land area called global hectares (gha)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "In 2002, the water footprint concept was introduced in order to have a consumption-based indicator of water use, that could provide useful information in addition to the traditional production-sector-based indicators of water use. It is analogous to the ecological footprint concept introduced in the 1990s. The water footprint is a geographically explicit indicator, not only showing volumes of water use and pollution, but also the locations. Thus, it gives a grasp on how economic choices and processes influence the availability of adequate water resources and other ecological realities across the globe (and vice versa)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arjen Hoekstra",
        "text": "In 2002, the water footprint concept was introduced in order to have a consumption-based indicator of water use, that could provide useful information in addition to the traditional production-sector-based indicators of water use. It is analogous to the ecological footprint concept introduced in the 1990s. The water footprint is a geographically explicit indicator, not only showing volumes of water use and pollution, but also the locations. Thus, it gives a grasp on how economic choices and processes influence the availability of adequate water resources and other ecological realities across the globe (and vice versa)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "where \"L\" is the pollutant load (as mass flux), \"c\"max the maximum allowable concentration and \"c\"nat the natural concentration of the pollutant in the receiving water body (both expressed in mass/volume)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The water footprint of an individual refers to the sum of their direct and indirect freshwater use. The direct water use is the water used at home, while the indirect water use relates to the total volume of freshwater that is used to produce the goods and services consumed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human ecology",
        "text": "In 1992, William Rees developed the ecological footprint concept. The ecological footprint and its close analog the water footprint has become a popular way of accounting for the level of impact that human society is imparting on the Earth's ecosystems. All indications are that the human enterprise is unsustainable as the footprint of society is placing too much stress on the ecology of the planet. The WWF 2008 living planet report and other researchers report that human civilization has exceeded the bio-regenerative capacity of the planet. This means that the footprint of human consumption is extracting more natural resources than can be replenished by ecosystems around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Land footprint",
        "text": "Ecological footprint is measured using a different approach, that looks at the biosphere from the perspective of regeneration. On the demand side, it measures regeneration in terms of area needed to provide the amount of regeneration.\n* Ecological footprint accounting contrasts demand (expressed in areas needed to provide for the demand) against regeneration (called biocapacity. It thereby combines different demand that compete for biocapacity: space for producing biological resources (crops, fiber, timber), space for absorbing waste (forest to absorb emissions), or space to accommodate urban infrastructure). In contrast, land footprint looks only at direct land use, and does not include the carbon footprint.\n* Ecological footprint and biocapacity are expressed in global hectares, hectares that are adjusted for the hectares biological productivity. In contrast, land footprint is expressed in hectares."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Blomqvist \"et al\". published a critical paper in 2013. It led to a reply from Rees and Wackernagel (2013), and a rejoinder by Blomqvist \"et al.\" (2013)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthropogenic metabolism",
        "text": "A water footprint is the amount of water that each person uses in their daily lives. Most of the world's water is salt water which cannot be used in human food or water supplies. Therefore, the freshwater sources that were once plentiful are now being diminished due to anthropogenic metabolism of the growing population. The water footprint encompasses how much fresh water is needed for each consumer's needs. According to J. Allan, \"there is a huge impact of water use on stores of surface and groundwater and on flows to which water is returned after use. These impacts are shown to be particularly high for manufacturing industries. For example, that there are less than 10 economies worldwide that have a significant water surplus, but that these economies have successfully met, or have the potential to meet, the water deficits of the other 190 economies. Consumers enjoy the delusion of food and water security provided by virtual water trade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The application and interpretation of water footprints may sometimes be used to promote industrial activities that lead to facile criticism of certain products. For example, the 140\u00a0litres required for coffee production for one cup might be of no harm to water resources if its cultivation occurs mainly in humid areas, but could be damaging in more arid regions. Other factors such as hydrology, climate, geology, topography, population and demographics should also be taken into account. Nevertheless, high water footprint calculations do suggest that environmental concern may be appropriate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "A \"grey water footprint\" refers to the volume of water that is required to dilute pollutants (industrial discharges, seepage from tailing ponds at mining operations, untreated municipal wastewater, or nonpoint source pollution such as agricultural runoff or urban runoff) to such an extent that the quality of the water meets agreed water quality standards. It is calculated as:\n:formula_1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The GHG footprint or the more narrow carbon footprint are a component of the ecological footprint. Often, when only the carbon footprint is reported, it is expressed in weight of (or CO2e representing GHG warming potential (GGWP)), but it can also be expressed in land areas like ecological footprints. Both can be applied to products, people or whole societies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The use of the term \"footprint\" can also confuse people familiar with the notion of a carbon footprint, because the water footprint concept includes sums of water quantities without necessarily evaluating related impacts. This is in contrast to the carbon footprint, where carbon emissions are not simply summarized but normalized by CO2 emissions, which are globally identical, to account for the environmental harm. The difference is due to the somewhat more complex nature of water; while involved in the global hydrological cycle, it is expressed in conditions both local and regional through various forms like river basins, watersheds, on down to groundwater (as part of larger aquifer systems). Furthermore, looking at the definition of the footprint itself, and comparing ecological footprint, carbon footprint and water footprint, we realize that the three terms are indeed legitimate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthropogenic metabolism",
        "text": "In addition, the ecological footprint is a more economical and land-focused way of looking at human impact. Developed countries tend to have higher ecological footprints, which do not strictly correspond to a country's total population. According to research by Dias de Oliveira, Vaughan and Rykiel, \"The Ecological Footprint...is an accounting tool based on two fundamental concepts, sustainability and carrying capacity. It makes it possible to estimate the resource consumption and waste assimilation requirements of a defined human population or economy sector in terms of corresponding productive land area.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The water footprint of a business, the 'corporate water footprint', is defined as the total volume of freshwater that is used directly or indirectly to run and support a business. It is the total volume of water use to be associated with the use of the business outputs. The water footprint of a business consists of water used for producing/manufacturing or for supporting activities and the indirect water use in the producer's supply chain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological yield",
        "text": "The idea of ecological footprints is to measure the cost of economic activity in terms of the amount of ecologically productive land required to sustain it. Doing this accurately requires estimating how productive the land is; in other words, it requires measuring ecological yield. Conversely, one can extract ecological yield estimates from ecological footprint estimates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Although agriculture's water use includes provision of important terrestrial environmental values (as discussed in the \"Water footprint of products\" section above), and much \"green water\" is used in maintaining forests and wild lands, there is also direct environmental use (e.g. of surface water) that may be allocated by governments. For example, in California, where water use issues are sometimes severe because of drought, about 48 percent of \"dedicated water use\" in an average water year is for the environment (somewhat more than for agriculture). Such environmental water use is for keeping streams flowing, maintaining aquatic and riparian habitats, keeping wetlands wet, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "A \"blue water footprint\" refers to the volume of water that has been sourced from surface or groundwater resources (lakes, rivers, wetlands and aquifers) and has either evaporated (for example while irrigating crops), or been incorporated into a product or taken from one body of water and returned to another, or returned at a different time. Irrigated agriculture, industry and domestic water use can each have a blue water footprint."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Ecological footprint analysis is widely used around the world in support of sustainability assessments. It enables people to measure and manage the use of resources throughout the economy and explore the sustainability of individual lifestyles, goods and services, organizations, industry sectors, neighborhoods, cities, regions and nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The absolute water footprint is the total sum of water footprints of all people. A country's per capita water footprint (that nation's water footprint divided by its number of inhabitants) can be used to compare its water footprint with those of other nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "I = PAT",
        "text": "Impact may be measured using ecological footprint analysis in units of global hectares (gha). Ecological footprint per capita is a measure of the quantity of Earth's biologically productive surface that is needed to regenerate the resources consumed per capita."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The first academic publication about ecological footprints was written by William Rees in 1992. The ecological footprint concept and calculation method was developed as the PhD dissertation of Mathis Wackernagel, under Rees' supervision at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada, from 1990 to 1994. Originally, Wackernagel and Rees called the concept \"appropriated carrying capacity\". To make the idea more accessible, Rees came up with the term \"ecological footprint\", inspired by a computer technician who praised his new computer's \"small footprint on the desk\". In 1996, Wackernagel and Rees published the book \"Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human Impact on the Earth\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The water footprint of a product is the total volume of freshwater used to produce the product, summed over the various steps of the production chain. The water footprint of a product refers not only to the total volume of water used; it also refers to where and when the water is used. The Water Footprint Network maintains a global database on the water footprint of products: WaterStat. Nearly over 70% of the water supply worldwide is used in the agricultural sector."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "A comprehensive review commissioned by the Directorate-General for the Environment (European Commission) was published in June 2008. The European Commission's review found the concept unique and useful for assessing progress on the EU\u2019s Resource Strategy. They also recommended further improvements in data quality, methodologies and assumptions."
      },
      {
        "title": "William E. Rees",
        "text": "Much of Rees' work is in the realm of ecological economics and human ecology including behavioural and cultural barriers to sustainability. He is best known in these fields for the co-development of ecological footprint analysis with his then PhD student Mathis Wackernagel. The ecological footprint is a quantitative tool that estimates humanity's ecological impact on the ecosphere in terms of appropriated ecosystem (land and water) area. This research reveals the fundamental incompatibility between continued material economic growth and ecological security, and has helped to reopen debate on human carrying capacity as a consideration in sustainable development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green economy",
        "text": "Ecological footprint measurements are a way to gauge anthropogenic impact and are another standard used by municipal governments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "A water footprint shows the extent of water use in relation to consumption by people. The water footprint of an individual, community, or business is defined as the total volume of fresh water used to produce the goods and services consumed by the individual or community or produced by the business. Water use is measured in water volume consumed (evaporated) and/or polluted per unit of time. A water footprint can be calculated for any well-defined group of consumers (e.g., an individual, family, village, city, province, state, or nation) or producers (e.g., a public organization, private enterprise, or economic sector), for a single process (such as growing rice) or for any product or service."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "There are many different aspects to water footprint and therefore different definitions and measures to describe them. Blue water footprint refers to groundwater or surface water usage, green water footprint refers to rainwater, and grey water footprint refers to the amount of water needed to dilute pollutants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water consumption",
        "text": "#REDIRECT Water footprint"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wa$ted! (American TV series)",
        "text": "Based on all this, an ecological footprint is created to show how many acres it takes to sustain the household. The hosts then help the family or business implement greener alternatives and change their wasteful habits. They also promise to match the amount that they save in utilities and the like by projecting the totals forward for one year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arjen Hoekstra",
        "text": "The water footprint shows the extent of water use in relation to consumption by people. The water footprint of an individual, community or business is defined as the total volume of fresh water used to produce the goods and services consumed by the individual or community or produced by the business. Water use is measured in water volume consumed (evaporated) and/or polluted per unit of time. A water footprint can be calculated for any well-defined group of consumers (e.g., an individual, family, village, city, province, state or nation) or producers (e.g., a public organization, private enterprise or economic sector), for a single process (such as growing rice) or for any product or service."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human Footprint",
        "text": "The Human Footprint is an ecological footprint map of human influence on the terrestrial systems of the Earth. It was first published in a 2002 article by Eric W. Sanderson, Malanding Jaiteh, Marc A. Levy, Kent H. Redford, Antoinette V. Wannebo, and Gillian Woolmer. A map of human influence became possible with the advent of high-resolution satellite imagery in the 1990s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Footprint and biocapacity can be compared at the individual, regional, national or global scale. Both footprint and biocapacity change every year with number of people, per person consumption, efficiency of production, and productivity of ecosystems. At a global scale, footprint assessments show how big humanity's demand is compared to what Earth can renew. Global Footprint Network estimates that, as of 2014, humanity has been using natural capital 1.7 times as fast as Earth can renew it, which they describe as meaning humanity's ecological footprint corresponds to 1.7 planet Earths."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The UK's average ecological footprint is 5.45 global hectares per capita (gha) with variations between regions ranging from 4.80 gha (Wales) to 5.56 gha (East England)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "The water footprint (WF) is a multi-dimensional indicator, measuring both water consumption (the consumptive WF) and water pollution (the degradative WF). The consumptive WF splits into a green WF, measuring the consumption of rainwater, and a blue WF, measuring the consumption of groundwater or surface water. How water footprints can help monitor progress on SDG 6.3 and 6.4?\n* The grey Water Footprint can be a relevant indicator for measuring progress on target 6.3. The grey Water Footprint can be expressed in terms of a polluted water volume per unit of a specific process or product.\n* The blue Water Footprint can be a relevant indicator for measuring progress on target 6.4. The blue Water Footprint can be expressed in terms of the water volume consumed per unit of a specific process or product."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "For humanity, having a footprint smaller than the planet's biocapacity is a necessary condition for sustainability. After all, ecological overuse is only possible temporarily. A country that consumes more than 1.73 gha per person has a resource demand that is not sustainable world-wide if every country were to exceed that consumption level simultaneously. Countries with a footprint below 1.73 gha per person might not be sustainable: the quality of the footprint may still lead to net long-term ecological destruction. If a country does not have enough ecological resources within its own territory to cover its population's footprint, then it runs an ecological deficit and the country is termed an \"ecological debtor\". Otherwise, it has an ecological reserve and it is called a \"creditor\". To a significant degree, biocapacity correlates with access to water resources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The model is a means of comparing consumption and lifestyles, and checking this against biocapacity. The tool can inform policy by examining to what extent a nation uses more (or less) than is available within its territory, or to what extent the nation's lifestyle would be replicable worldwide. The footprint can also be a useful tool to educate people about overconsumption, with the aim of altering personal behavior. Ecological footprints may be used to argue that many current lifestyles are not sustainable. Country-by-country comparisons show the inequalities of resource use on this planet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of sustainability articles",
        "text": "Ecological footprint -"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The water footprint of a process is expressed as volumetric flow rate of water. That of a product is the whole footprint (sum) of processes in its complete supply chain divided by the number of product units. For consumers, businesses and geographic area, water footprint is indicated as volume of water per time, in particular:\n* That of a consumer is the sum of footprint of all consumed products.\n* That of a community or a nation is the sum for all of its members resp. inhabitants.\n* That of a business is the footprint of all produced goods.\n* That of a geographically delineated area is the footprint of all processes undertaken in this area. The virtual change in water of an area is the net import of virtual water \"Vi, net\", defined as the difference of the gross import \"Vi\" of virtual water from its gross export \"Ve\". The water footprint of national consumption \"WFarea,nat\" results from this as the sum of the water footprint of national area and its virtual change in water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The world-average ecological footprint in 2013 was 2.8 global hectares per person. The average per country ranges from over 10 to under 1 global hectares per person. There is also a high variation within countries, based on individual lifestyle and economic possibilities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human overpopulation",
        "text": "Critics have questioned the simplifications and statistical methods used in calculating ecological footprints. Therefore, Global Footprint Network and its partner organizations have engaged with national governments and international agencies to test the results\u2014reviews have been produced by France, Germany, the European Commission, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Japan and the United Arab Emirates. Some point out that a more refined method of assessing Ecological Footprint is to designate sustainable versus non-sustainable categories of consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The Earth's biocapacity has not increased at the same rate as the ecological footprint. The increase of biocapacity averaged at only 0.5% per year (SD = 0.7). Because of agricultural intensification, biocapacity was at 9.6 billion gha in 1961 and grew to 12.2 billion gha in 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "For 2017 Global Footprint Network estimated humanity's ecological footprint as 1.73 planet Earths. According to their calculations this means that humanity's demands were 1.73 times more than what the planet's ecosystems renewed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Ecological footprint\n--Overview.\n--Methodology.\n--Footprint measurements.\n--Footprint by country.\n----Studies in the United Kingdom.\n--Ecological footprint at the individual level.\n--Reviews and critiques.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Water footprint\n--Definition and measures.\n----Blue water footprint.\n----Green water footprint.\n----Grey water footprint.\n----Calculation for different actors.\n--History.\n----Water Footprint Network (WFN).\n----International standard.\n----Life-cycle assessment of water use.\n--Water availability.\n--Water footprint of products (Agricultural Sector).\n--Water footprint of companies (Industrial Sector).\n--Water footprint of individual consumers (Domestic Sector).\n--Water footprint of nations.\n----Production or consumption.\n----Absolute or per capita.\n----Internal or external.\n--Water use in continents.\n----Europe.\n----Asia.\n--Environmental water use.\n--Criticism of water footprint and virtual water.\n----Insufficient consideration of consequences of proposed water saving policies to farm households.\n----Regional water scarcity should be taken into account when interpreting water footprint.\n--Sustainable water use.\n----Sustainability assessment.\n--Sectoral distributions of withdrawn water use.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "According to the 2018 edition of the \"National footprint accounts\", humanity's total ecological footprint has exhibited an increasing trend since 1961, growing an average of 2.1% per year (SD= 1.9). Humanity's ecological footprint was 7.0 billion gha in 1961 and increased to 20.6 billion gha in 2014. The world-average ecological footprint in 2014 was 2.8 global hectares per person. The carbon footprint is the fastest growing part of the ecological footprint and accounts currently for about 60% of humanity's total ecological footprint."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "Water footprints shows the extent of water use in relation to consumption by people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Early criticism was published by van den Bergh and Verbruggen in 1999, which was updated in 2014. Their colleague Fiala published similar criticism in 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "Water Footprint"
      },
      {
        "title": "Overconsumption",
        "text": "The idea of overconsumption is also strongly tied to the idea of an ecological footprint. The term \"ecological footprint\" refers to the \"resource accounting framework for measuring human demand on the biosphere.\" Currently, China, for instance, has a per person ecological footprint roughly half the size of the US, yet has a population that is more than four times the size of the US. It is estimated that if China developed to the level of the United States that world consumption rates would roughly double."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The Western Australian government State of the Environment Report included an Ecological Footprint measure for the average Western Australian seven times the average footprint per person on the planet in 2007, a total of about 15 hectares."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The internal water footprint is the amount of water used from domestic water resources; the external water footprint is the amount of water used in other countries to produce goods and services imported and consumed by the inhabitants of the country. When assessing the water footprint of a nation, it is crucial to take into account the international flows of virtual water (also called \"embodied water\", i.e. the water used or polluted in connection to all agricultural and industrial commodities) leaving and entering the country. When taking the use of domestic water resources as a starting point for calculating a nation's water footprint, one should subtract the virtual water flows that leave the country and add the virtual water flows that enter the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The Water Footprint Network is an international learning community (a non-profit foundation under Dutch law) which serves as a platform for sharing knowledge, tools and innovations among governments, businesses and communities concerned about growing water scarcity and increasing water pollution levels, and their impacts on people and nature. The network consists of around 100 partners from all sectors \u2013 producers, investors, suppliers and regulators \u2013 as well as non-governmental organisations and academics. It describes its mission as follows: To provide science-based, practical solutions and strategic insights that empower companies, governments, individuals and small-scale producers to transform the way we use and share fresh water within earth's limits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Since this metric tracks biocapacity, the replacement of original ecosystems with high-productivity agricultural monocultures can lead to attributing a higher biocapacity to such regions. For example, replacing ancient woodlands or tropical forests with monoculture forests or plantations may therefore decrease the ecological footprint. Similarly if organic farming yields were lower than those of conventional methods, this could result in the former being \"penalized\" with a larger ecological footprint. Complementary biodiversity indicators attempt to address this. The WWF's Living Planet Report combines the footprint calculations with the Living Planet Index of biodiversity. A modified ecological footprint that takes biodiversity into account has been created for use in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Traditionally, water use has been approached from the production side, by quantifying the following three columns of water use: water withdrawals in the agricultural, industrial, and domestic sector. While this does provide valuable data, it is a limited way of looking at water use in a globalised world, in which products are not always consumed in their country of origin. International trade of agricultural and industrial products in effect creates a global flow of virtual water, or \"embodied water\" (akin to the concept of embodied energy)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The water footprints involved in various diets vary greatly, and much of the variation tends to be associated with levels of meat consumption. The following table gives examples of estimated global average water footprints of popular agricultural products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The concept of a \"water footprint\" was coined in 2002, by Arjen Hoekstra, Professor in water management at the University of Twente, Netherlands, and co-founder and scientific director of the Water Footprint Network, whilst working at the UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, as a metric to measure the amount of water consumed and polluted to produce goods and services along their full supply chain. Water footprint is one of a family of ecological footprint indicators, which also includes carbon footprint and land footprint. The water footprint concept is further related to the idea of virtual water trade introduced in the early 1990s by Professor John Allan (2008 Stockholm Water Prize Laureate). The most elaborate publications on how to estimate water footprints are a 2004 report on the \"Water footprint of nations\" from UNESCO-IHE, the 2008 book \"Globalization of Water\", and the 2011 manual \"The water footprint assessment manual: Setting the global standard\". Cooperation between global leading institutions in the field has led to the establishment of the Water Footprint Network in 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biocapacity",
        "text": "In addition, if this matter becomes severe, an ecological reserve will be set on areas to preserve their ecosystems. Awareness about our depleting resources include: agricultural land, forest resources and rangeland. Biocapacity used in correlation to ecological footprint can therefore suggest whether a specific population, region, country or part of a world is living in the means of their capital. Accordingly, the study of biocapacity and ecological footprint is known as the Ecological Footprint Analysis (EFA)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biocapacity",
        "text": "Moreover, environmentalists have created ecological footprint calculators for a single person(s) to determine whether they are encompassing more than what is available for them in their population. Consequently, biocapacity results will be applied to their ecological footprint to determine how much they may contribute or take away from sustainable development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The global water footprint in the period 1996\u20132005 was 9.087 Gm3/yr (Billion Cubic Metres per year, or 9.087.000.000.000.000 liters/year), of which 74% was and green, 11% blue, 15% grey. This is an average amount per capita of 1.385 Gm3/yr., or 3.800 liters per person per day. On average 92% of this is embedded in agricultural products consumed, 4.4% in industrial products consumed, and 3.6% is domestic water use. The global water footprint related to producing goods for export is 1.762 Gm3/y."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The water footprint of a nation is the amount of water used to produce the goods and services consumed by the inhabitants of that nation. Analysis of the water footprint of nations illustrates the global dimension of water consumption and pollution, by showing that several countries rely heavily on foreign water resources and that (consumption patterns in) many countries significantly and in various ways impact how, and how much, water is being consumed and polluted elsewhere on Earth. International water dependencies are substantial and are likely to increase with continued global trade liberalisation. The largest share (76%) of the virtual water flows between countries is related to international trade in crops and derived crop products. Trade in animal products and industrial products contributed 12% each to the global virtual water flows. The four major direct factors determining the water footprint of a country are: volume of consumption (related to the gross national income); consumption pattern (e.g. high versus low meat consumption); climate (growth conditions); and agricultural practice (water use efficiency)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wildlife Warriors",
        "text": "They surround a human footprint."
      },
      {
        "title": "Overconsumption",
        "text": "Ecological footprint for many years has been used by environmentalists as a way to quantify ecological degradation as it relates to an individual. Recently, there has been debate about the reliability of this method."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Globally, about 4 percent of precipitation falling on land each year (about ), is used by rain-fed agriculture and about half is subject to evaporation and transpiration in forests and other natural or quasi-natural landscapes. The remainder, which goes to groundwater replenishment and surface runoff, is sometimes called \"total actual renewable freshwater resources\". Its magnitude was in 2012 estimated at /year. It represents water that can be used either in-stream or after withdrawal from surface and groundwater sources. Of this remainder, about were withdrawn in 2007, of which , or 69 percent, were used by agriculture, and , or 19 percent, by other industry. Most agricultural use of withdrawn water is for irrigation, which uses about 5.1 percent of total actual renewable freshwater resources. World water use has been growing rapidly in the last hundred years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological debt",
        "text": "In 2009 as well, Andrew Simms used the ecological debt in a more bio-physical way and defined it as the consumption of resources from within an ecosystem that exceeds the system's regenerative capacity. This is seen in particular in non-renewable resources wherein consumption outstrips production. In a general sense in his work, it refers to the depletion of global resources beyond the Earth's ability to regenerate them.</ref> Andrew Simms. The concept in this sense is based on the bio-physical carrying capacity of an ecosystem; through measuring ecological footprints human society can determine the rate at which it is depleting natural resources. Ultimately, the imperative of sustainability requires human society to live within the means of the ecological system to support life over the long term. Ecological debt is a feature of unsustainable economic systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological overshoot",
        "text": "This data collection, and analysis is typically done by scientific and conservation organisations, such as the Global Footprint Network, which collects data to assess the ecological footprint of each country and the global community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Some researchers have misinterpreted ecological footprint accounting as a social theory or a policy guideline, while in reality it is merely a metric that adds up human demands that compete for the planet's regenerative capacity. Examples of such confusions include Grazi \"et al.\" (2007) who performed a systematic comparison of the ecological footprint method with spatial welfare analysis that includes environmental externalities, agglomeration effects and trade advantages. Not recognizing that the ecological footprint is merely a metric, they conclude that the footprint method does not lead to maximum social welfare. Similarly, Newman (2006) has argued that the ecological footprint concept may have an anti-urban bias, as it does not consider the opportunities created by urban growth. He argues that calculating the ecological footprint for densely populated areas, such as a city or small country with a comparatively large population\u2014e.g. New York and Singapore respectively\u2014may lead to the perception of these populations as \"parasitic\". But in reality, ecological footprints just document the resource dependence of cities\u2014like a fuel gauge documents a car's fuel availability. Newman questions the metric because these communities have little intrinsic biocapacity, and instead must rely upon large \"hinterlands\". Critics argue that this is a dubious characterization since farmers in developed nations may easily consume more resources than urban inhabitants, due to transportation requirements and the unavailability of economies of scale. Furthermore, such moral conclusions seem to be an argument for autarky. This is similar to blaming a scale for the user's dietary choices. Some even take this train of thought a step further, claiming that the footprint denies the benefits of trade. Therefore such critics argue that the footprint can only be applied globally. Others have made the opposite argument showing that national assessments do provide helpful insights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The average global water footprint of an individual is 1,385 m3 per year. Residents of some example nations have water footprints as shown in the table:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbon footprint",
        "text": "The concept and name of the carbon footprint was derived from the ecological footprint concept, which was developed by William E. Rees and Mathis Wackernagel in the 1990s. While carbon footprints are usually reported in tons of emissions (CO2-equivalent) per year, ecological footprints are usually reported in comparison to what the planet can renew. This assesses the number of \"earths\" that would be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint. The carbon footprint is one part of the ecological footprint. Carbon footprints are more focused than ecological footprints since they merely measure emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Water footprint accounting has advanced substantially in recent years, however, water footprint analysis also needs sustainability assessment as its last phase. One of the developments is to employ sustainable efficiency and equity (\"Sefficiency in Sequity\"), which present a comprehensive approach to assessing the sustainable use of water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Global Footprint Network has summarized methodological limitations and criticism in a comprehensive report available on its website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Sustainable water use involves the rigorous assessment of all source of clean water to establish the current and future rates of use, the impacts of that use both downstream and in the wider area where the water may be used and the impact of contaminated water streams on the environment and economic well being of the area. It also involves the implementation of social policies such as water pricing in order to manage water demand. In some localities, water may also have spiritual relevance and the use of such water may need to take account of such interests. For example, the Maori believe that water is the source and foundation of all life and have many spiritual associations with water and places associated with water. On a national and global scale, water sustainability requires strategic and long term planning to ensure appropriate sources of clean water are identified and the environmental and economic impact of such choices are understood and accepted. The re-use and reclamation of water is also part of sustainability including downstream impacts on both surface waters and ground waters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Circles of Sustainability",
        "text": "The ecological domain is defined as the practices and meanings that occur across the intersection between the social and the natural realms, focusing on the important dimension of human engagement with and within nature, but also including the built-environment.\n# Materials and energy\n# Water and air\n# Flora and fauna\n# Habitat and settlements\n# Built-form and transport\n# Embodiment and sustenance\n# Emission and waste"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wa$ted! (New Zealand TV series)",
        "text": "The show starts with Francesca and Tristan returning one year's worth of rubbish to the family. From here, they filter through the rubbish with the family to show them what they could have recycled and what environmental impact their rubbish is doing. Taking into account rubbish, electricity, water, and transportation, an ecological footprint is calculated to show how much land it would take to provide the resources for their household. They also calculate how many tones of carbon dioxide the family would emit in a year, comparing it to the national average (in New Zealand its 2.5 tones per person per year)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbon footprint",
        "text": "Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators, which also include ecological footprints, water footprints and land footprints."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "In 2007, the average biologically productive area per person worldwide was approximately 1.8 global hectares (gha) per capita. The U.S. footprint per capita was 9.0 gha, and that of Switzerland was 5.6 gha, while China's was 1.8 gha. The WWF claims that the human footprint has exceeded the biocapacity (the available supply of natural resources) of the planet by 20%. Wackernagel and Rees originally estimated that the available biological capacity for the 6 billion people on Earth at that time was about 1.3 hectares per person, which is smaller than the 1.8 global hectares published for 2006, because the initial studies neither used global hectares nor included bioproductive marine areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Earth Overshoot Day",
        "text": "Global Footprint Network maintains that ecological footprint accounts document the gap between human demand and regeneration. According to them, demand is now exceeding what the planet renews. They recognize that the accounting can be improved, and more details added, believing that in its current applications to countries the accounts typically underestimate human demand as not all aspects are measured (there are gaps in UN data). They also claim to overestimate biocapacity because it is ambiguous to determine how much of current yields are enabled by reduced future yield (for instance as in the case of overuse of groundwater, or erosion). Mathis Wackernagel, founder and president of the Global Footprint Network, states that soil depletion on crop land could be included in the Ecological Footprint accounts informing EOD, but that would \"require data sets that do not exist within the UN data set\". Thus, they claim ecological footprint accounts are metrics that merely define minimal conditions for sustainability, and that human impact on the planet is likely higher than the results that their accounts reveal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainability metrics and indices",
        "text": "One of the striking conclusions to emerge from ecological footprint accounting is that it would be necessary to have 4 or 5 back-up planets engaged in nothing but agriculture for all those alive today to live a western lifestyle. The Footprint analysis is closely related to the I\u00a0=\u00a0PAT equation that, itself, can be considered a metric."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of sustainability",
        "text": "Water\n* Water footprint\n* Water crisis\n* Water efficiency\n* Water conservation"
      },
      {
        "title": "Land footprint",
        "text": "A study of the four resource footprint indicators, carried for the European Commission examined what data was available to measure the land footprint, carbon footprint, water footprint & material footprint at economy level. This study concluded that Land Footprint needed methodological improvement and harmonisation, and that a common, international, multi-regional input output database would make it easier to calculate all four footprints."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The National Accounts Review Committee has published a research agenda on how to improve the accounts."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "world-average ecological footprint in 2016 was 2.75 global hectares per person (22.6 billion in total). With a world-average biocapacity of 1.63 global hectares (gha) per person (12.2 billion in total), this leads to a global ecological deficit of 1.1 global hectares per person (10.4 billion in total)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Footprint (disambiguation)",
        "text": "A footprint is an impression left by a foot or shoe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "A number of national government agencies have performed collaborative or independent research to test the reliability of the ecological footprint accounting method and its results. They have largely confirmed the accounts' results; those who reproduced the assessment generating near-identical results. Such reviews include those of Switzerland, Germany, France, Ireland, the United Arab Emirates and the European Commission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The assessment of total water use in connection to consumption can be approached from both ends of the supply chain. The water footprint of production estimates how much water from local sources is used or polluted in order to provide the goods and services produced in that country. The water footprint of consumption of a country looks at the amount of water used or polluted (locally, or in the case of imported goods, in other countries) in connection with all the goods and services that are consumed by the inhabitants of that country. The water footprint of production and that of consumption, can also be estimated for any administrative unit such as a city, province, river basin or the entire world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Land footprint",
        "text": "The EU's 7th Environmental action plan calls for examination of land (and other) footprints:\n:\"To set a framework for action to improve resource efficiency aspects beyond GHG emissions and energy, targets for reducing the overall lifecycle environmental impact of consumption will be set.. Indicators and targets for land, water, material and carbon footprints as well as their role within the European Semester should also be considered in this regard.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "EnviroCAB",
        "text": "EnviroCAB\n--History.\n--Description.\n--Carbon footprint.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Process Index",
        "text": "The SPI is a member of the ecological footprint family which aggregates and compares different ecological pressures. It allows to evaluate ecologic impacts of industrial products and services like energy production, industrial products, agriculture and buildings. It provides an encompassing evaluation that distinguishes sharply between fossil and renewable energy (as Global warming potential does) but taking other emissions to soil water and atmosphere into account as well. Based on the idea, that the primary income of the earth is Solar radiation, in accordance with the principle of Strong sustainability the surface of the earth is the basic dimension of the evaluation. The SPI is therefore in the same family of ecological measurement as the Ecological Footprint. These methods all measure the area that is necessary to support human activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "An additional strand of critique is from Giampietro and Saltelli (2014), with a reply from Goldfinger et al., 2014, and a rejoinder by Giampietro and Saltelli (2014). A joint paper authored by the critical researchers (Giampietro and Saltelli) and proponents (various Global Footprint Network researchers) summarised the terms of the controversy in a paper published by the journal Ecological indicators. Additional comments were offered by van den Bergh and Grazi (2015)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The ecological footprint accounting method at the national level is described on the website of Global Footprint Network or in greater detail in academic papers, including Borucke \"et al.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthropization",
        "text": "With the continually-growing population of humans, the land that the Earth provides has been appropriated over the years. The ecological footprint created by anthropization is continually growing despite efficiency and technique improvements made in anthropization.."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biological oxidizer",
        "text": "Large surface area and footprint were once required to treat waste water vapor and industrial plant emissions, with the advent of advanced biological oxidation equipment a smaller footprint is required. The footprint will typically occupy the same space as conventional thermal oxidizers."
      },
      {
        "title": "BedZED",
        "text": "The results show that the average ecological footprint of a BedZED resident is 4.67 global hectares (2.6 planets), which is 89% of the baseline. This would reduce to 4.32 global hectares (2.4 planets) if the energy was all zero"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "In south India the state Tamil Nadu is one of the main agricultural producers in India and it relies largely in groundwater for irrigation. In ten years, from 2002 to 2012, the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment calculated that the groundwater reduced in 1.4 m yr\u22121, which \"is nearly 8% more than the annual recharge rate.\""
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is an ecological footprint?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The ecological footprint is a method promoted by the Global Footprint Network to measure human demand on natural capital; footprint and biocapacity can be compared at the individual, regional, national or global scale. Ecological footprint analysis is widely used around the world in support of sustainability assessments.",
      "The ecological footprint is a method promoted by the Global Footprint Network to measure human demand on natural capital, i.e. the quantity of nature it takes to support people or an economy."
    ],
    "topic": "Water footprint",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Ecological footprint:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ecological footprint"
        ],
        "ctx": "The ecological footprint is a method promoted by the Global Footprint Network to measure human demand on natural capital, i.e. the quantity of nature it takes to support people or an economy. It tracks this demand through an ecological accounting system. The accounts contrast the biologically productive area people use for their consumption to the biologically productive area available within a region or the world (biocapacity, the productive area that can regenerate what people demand from nature). In short, it is a measure of human impact on the environment."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ecological footprint:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ecological footprint"
        ],
        "ctx": "Footprint and biocapacity can be compared at the individual, regional, national or global scale. Both footprint and biocapacity change every year with number of people, per person consumption, efficiency of production, and productivity of ecosystems. At a global scale, footprint assessments show how big humanity's demand is compared to what Earth can renew. Global Footprint Network estimates that, as of 2014, humanity has been using natural capital 1.7 times as fast as Earth can renew it, which they describe as meaning humanity's ecological footprint corresponds to 1.7 planet Earths."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ecological footprint:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ecological footprint"
        ],
        "ctx": "Ecological footprint analysis is widely used around the world in support of sustainability assessments. It enables people to measure and manage the use of resources throughout the economy and explore the sustainability of individual lifestyles, goods and services, organizations, industry sectors, neighborhoods, cities, regions and nations."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ecological footprint:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ecological footprint"
        ],
        "ctx": "The ecological footprint is a method promoted by the Global Footprint Network to measure human demand on natural capital, i.e. the quantity of nature it takes to support people or an economy. It tracks this demand through an ecological accounting system. The accounts contrast the biologically productive area people use for their consumption to the biologically productive area available within a region or the world (biocapacity, the productive area that can regenerate what people demand from nature). In short, it is a measure of human impact on the environment."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "In absolute terms, India is the country with the largest water footprint in the world, a total of 987 Gm3/yr. In relative terms (i.e. taking population size into account), the people of the USA have the largest water footprint, with 2480 m3/yr per capita, followed by the people in south European countries such as Greece, Italy and Spain (2300\u20132400 m3/yr per capita). High water footprints can also be found in Malaysia and Thailand. In contrast, the Chinese people have a relatively low per capita water footprint with an average of 700 m3/yr. (These numbers are also from the period 1996-2005.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "\" This table below is based on 2012 results (National Footprint Accounts edition 2016). The latest edition (2021), produced by York University, Footprint Data Foundation, and Global Footprint Network, is available on Global Footprint Network's website at http://data.footprintnetwork.org. Note that this list contains only 188 countries, covering most of the countries with more than one million inhabitants.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "This is a list of countries by ecological footprint. The table is based on data spanning from 1961 to 2013 from the"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "List of countries by ecological footprint\n--Countries and regions.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "Global Footprint Network's National Footprint Accounts published in 2016. Numbers are given in global hectares per capita. The"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "In 2007, the average biologically productive area per person worldwide was approximately 1.8 global hectares (gha) per capita. The U.S. footprint per capita was 9.0 gha, and that of Switzerland was 5.6 gha, while China's was 1.8 gha. The WWF claims that the human footprint has exceeded the biocapacity (the available supply of natural resources) of the planet by 20%. Wackernagel and Rees originally estimated that the available biological capacity for the 6 billion people on Earth at that time was about 1.3 hectares per person, which is smaller than the 1.8 global hectares published for 2006, because the initial studies neither used global hectares nor included bioproductive marine areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "According to Rees, \"the average world citizen has an eco-footprint of about 2.7 global average hectares while there are only 2.1 global hectare of bioproductive land and water per capita on earth. This means that humanity has already overshot global biocapacity by 30% and now lives unsustainabily by depleting stocks of 'natural capital'.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "world-average ecological footprint in 2016 was 2.75 global hectares per person (22.6 billion in total). With a world-average biocapacity of 1.63 global hectares (gha) per person (12.2 billion in total), this leads to a global ecological deficit of 1.1 global hectares per person (10.4 billion in total)."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "For humanity, having a footprint smaller than the planet's biocapacity is a necessary condition for sustainability. After all, ecological overuse is only possible temporarily. A country that consumes more than 1.73 gha per person has a resource demand that is not sustainable world-wide if every country were to exceed that consumption level simultaneously. Countries with a footprint below 1.73 gha per person might not be sustainable: the quality of the footprint may still lead to net long-term ecological destruction. If a country does not have enough ecological resources within its own territory to cover its population's footprint, then it runs an ecological deficit and the country is termed an \"ecological debtor\". Otherwise, it has an ecological reserve and it is called a \"creditor\". To a significant degree, biocapacity correlates with access to water resources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The world-average ecological footprint in 2013 was 2.8 global hectares per person. The average per country ranges from over 10 to under 1 global hectares per person. There is also a high variation within countries, based on individual lifestyle and economic possibilities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human overpopulation",
        "text": "Critics have questioned the simplifications and statistical methods used in calculating ecological footprints. Therefore, Global Footprint Network and its partner organizations have engaged with national governments and international agencies to test the results\u2014reviews have been produced by France, Germany, the European Commission, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Japan and the United Arab Emirates. Some point out that a more refined method of assessing Ecological Footprint is to designate sustainable versus non-sustainable categories of consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "In south India the state Tamil Nadu is one of the main agricultural producers in India and it relies largely in groundwater for irrigation. In ten years, from 2002 to 2012, the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment calculated that the groundwater reduced in 1.4 m yr\u22121, which \"is nearly 8% more than the annual recharge rate.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Fundaci\u00f3n Vida Silvestre Argentina",
        "text": "All stages of production generate an impact on the environment, which does not depend solely on the activity as such, but also on the ways they are carried out. The main factors of the ecological footprint in Argentina are the source and consumption of energy, and the changes in soil use as a result of agricultural and forestry practices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Ecological footprint\n--Overview.\n--Methodology.\n--Footprint measurements.\n--Footprint by country.\n----Studies in the United Kingdom.\n--Ecological footprint at the individual level.\n--Reviews and critiques.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The water footprint of a nation is the amount of water used to produce the goods and services consumed by the inhabitants of that nation. Analysis of the water footprint of nations illustrates the global dimension of water consumption and pollution, by showing that several countries rely heavily on foreign water resources and that (consumption patterns in) many countries significantly and in various ways impact how, and how much, water is being consumed and polluted elsewhere on Earth. International water dependencies are substantial and are likely to increase with continued global trade liberalisation. The largest share (76%) of the virtual water flows between countries is related to international trade in crops and derived crop products. Trade in animal products and industrial products contributed 12% each to the global virtual water flows. The four major direct factors determining the water footprint of a country are: volume of consumption (related to the gross national income); consumption pattern (e.g. high versus low meat consumption); climate (growth conditions); and agricultural practice (water use efficiency)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The UK's average ecological footprint is 5.45 global hectares per capita (gha) with variations between regions ranging from 4.80 gha (Wales) to 5.56 gha (East England)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The external part of a nation's water footprint varies strongly from country to country. Some African nations, such as Sudan, Mali, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Malawi and Chad have hardly any external water footprint, simply because they have little import. Some European countries on the other hand\u2014e.g. Italy, Germany, the UK and the Netherlands\u2014have external water footprints that constitute 50\u201380% of their total water footprint. The agricultural products that on average contribute most to the external water footprints of nations are: bovine meat, soybean, wheat, cocoa, rice, cotton and maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "Overconsumption",
        "text": "The idea of overconsumption is also strongly tied to the idea of an ecological footprint. The term \"ecological footprint\" refers to the \"resource accounting framework for measuring human demand on the biosphere.\" Currently, China, for instance, has a per person ecological footprint roughly half the size of the US, yet has a population that is more than four times the size of the US. It is estimated that if China developed to the level of the United States that world consumption rates would roughly double."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainability metrics and indices",
        "text": "Ecological footprint accounting, based on the biological concept of carrying capacity, tracks the amount of land and water area a human population demands for producing the biological resources the population consumes, for absorbing its waste, and for accommodating its built infrastructure, all under prevailing technology. This amount then is compared to available biocapacity, in the world or in that region. The biocapacity represents the area able to regenerate resources and assimilate waste. Global Footprint Network publishes every year results for all nations captured in UN statistics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The ecological footprint is a method promoted by the Global Footprint Network to measure human demand on natural capital, i.e. the quantity of nature it takes to support people or an economy. It tracks this demand through an ecological accounting system. The accounts contrast the biologically productive area people use for their consumption to the biologically productive area available within a region or the world (biocapacity, the productive area that can regenerate what people demand from nature). In short, it is a measure of human impact on the environment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Global Footprint Network",
        "text": "Every year, Global Footprint Network produced a new edition of its National Footprint and Biocapacity Accounts, which calculate Ecological Footprint and biocapacity of more than 200 countries and territories from 1961 to the present. Based on up to 15,000 data points per country per year, these data have been used to influence policy in more than a dozen countries, including Ecuador, France, Germany, Japan, Korea, the Philippines, Russia, Switzerland, and the United Arab Emirates. Since 2019, the National Footprint and Biocapacity Accounts are produced in collaboration between Global Footprint Network, York University, and Footprint Data Foundation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The top 10 gross virtual water exporting nations, which together account for more than half of the global virtual water export, are the United States (314 Gm3/year), China (143 Gm3/year), India (125 Gm3/year), Brazil (112 Gm3/year), Argentina (98 Gm3/year), Canada (91 Gm3/year), Australia (89 Gm3/year), Indonesia (72 Gm3/year), France (65 Gm3/year), and Germany (64 Gm3/year)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Since 2003, Global Footprint Network has calculated the ecological footprint from UN data sources for the world as a whole and for over 200 nations (known as the National Footprint Accounts). The total footprint number of Earths needed to sustain the world's population at that level of consumption are also calculated. Every year the calculations are updated to the latest year with complete UN statistics. The time series are also recalculated with every update since UN statistics sometimes correct historical data sets. Results are available on an open data platform. Lin \"et al.\" (2018) finds that the trends for countries and the world have stayed consistent despite data updates. Also, a recent study by the Swiss Ministry of Environment independently recalculated the Swiss trends and reproduced them within 1\u20134% for the time period that they studied (1996\u20132015). Since 2006, a first set of ecological footprint standards exist that detail both communication and calculation procedures. The latest version are the updated standards from 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "According to the 2018 edition of the \"National footprint accounts\", humanity's total ecological footprint has exhibited an increasing trend since 1961, growing an average of 2.1% per year (SD= 1.9). Humanity's ecological footprint was 7.0 billion gha in 1961 and increased to 20.6 billion gha in 2014. The world-average ecological footprint in 2014 was 2.8 global hectares per person. The carbon footprint is the fastest growing part of the ecological footprint and accounts currently for about 60% of humanity's total ecological footprint."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The top 10 gross virtual water importing nations are the United States (234 Gm3/year), Japan (127 Gm3/year), Germany (125 Gm3/year), China (121 Gm3/year), Italy (101 Gm3/year), Mexico (92 Gm3/year), France (78 Gm3/year), the United Kingdom (77 Gm3/year), and The Netherlands (71 Gm3/year)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Since this metric tracks biocapacity, the replacement of original ecosystems with high-productivity agricultural monocultures can lead to attributing a higher biocapacity to such regions. For example, replacing ancient woodlands or tropical forests with monoculture forests or plantations may therefore decrease the ecological footprint. Similarly if organic farming yields were lower than those of conventional methods, this could result in the former being \"penalized\" with a larger ecological footprint. Complementary biodiversity indicators attempt to address this. The WWF's Living Planet Report combines the footprint calculations with the Living Planet Index of biodiversity. A modified ecological footprint that takes biodiversity into account has been created for use in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Blomqvist \"et al\". published a critical paper in 2013. It led to a reply from Rees and Wackernagel (2013), and a rejoinder by Blomqvist \"et al.\" (2013)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "A number of national government agencies have performed collaborative or independent research to test the reliability of the ecological footprint accounting method and its results. They have largely confirmed the accounts' results; those who reproduced the assessment generating near-identical results. Such reviews include those of Switzerland, Germany, France, Ireland, the United Arab Emirates and the European Commission."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Ten Million Club Foundation",
        "text": "Calculations of the ecological footprint of all countries in the world show exactly where the biocapacity and the available global hectares of a country are exceeded. The Ten Million Club considers population pressure an essential cause of this overshoot. The global overshoot problem cannot properly be solved by a mere reduction of consumption levels. If we would accept a (HDI) of 7.0 - which is the present HDI of countries as Egypt or Indonesia - for all people in the world, with the corresponding ecological footprint, then many countries would still exceed their bocapacity. Given the global impact of overpopulation, the Club does not only address the Dutch; it has published in Spanish, French, German, English, Portuguese, Chinese, Arabic and Russian."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological yield",
        "text": "In 1986, Vitousek et al. estimated that humans made use of 50 petagrams (50 billion tons) per year of biomass produced from photosynthesis. They also estimated that these 50 billion tons comprised between 20% and 40% of photosynthetic activity on earth. Separately, the Global Footprint Network estimates the total human footprint as 1.6 times the total biosphere. This implies that ecosystems are overexploited by a factor of 1.6 on average."
      },
      {
        "title": "Overconsumption",
        "text": "The world's ecological capacity is simply insufficient to satisfy the ambitions of China, India, Japan, Europe, and the United States as well as the aspirations of the rest of the world in a sustainable way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The Western Australian government State of the Environment Report included an Ecological Footprint measure for the average Western Australian seven times the average footprint per person on the planet in 2007, a total of about 15 hectares."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The Earth's biocapacity has not increased at the same rate as the ecological footprint. The increase of biocapacity averaged at only 0.5% per year (SD = 0.7). Because of agricultural intensification, biocapacity was at 9.6 billion gha in 1961 and grew to 12.2 billion gha in 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Footprint and biocapacity can be compared at the individual, regional, national or global scale. Both footprint and biocapacity change every year with number of people, per person consumption, efficiency of production, and productivity of ecosystems. At a global scale, footprint assessments show how big humanity's demand is compared to what Earth can renew. Global Footprint Network estimates that, as of 2014, humanity has been using natural capital 1.7 times as fast as Earth can renew it, which they describe as meaning humanity's ecological footprint corresponds to 1.7 planet Earths."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The global water footprint in the period 1996\u20132005 was 9.087 Gm3/yr (Billion Cubic Metres per year, or 9.087.000.000.000.000 liters/year), of which 74% was and green, 11% blue, 15% grey. This is an average amount per capita of 1.385 Gm3/yr., or 3.800 liters per person per day. On average 92% of this is embedded in agricultural products consumed, 4.4% in industrial products consumed, and 3.6% is domestic water use. The global water footprint related to producing goods for export is 1.762 Gm3/y."
      },
      {
        "title": "OceanaGold",
        "text": "OceanaGold\n--Production.\n--Operations.\n----New Zealand.\n----Philippines.\n----United States.\n--Closed sites.\n----El Salvador.\n----New Zealand.\n--Carbon footprint.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Degrowth",
        "text": "The ecological footprint is a measure of human demand on the Earth's ecosystems. It compares human demand with planet Earth's ecological capacity to regenerate. It represents the amount of biologically productive land and sea area needed to regenerate the resources a human"
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthropogenic metabolism",
        "text": "In addition, the ecological footprint is a more economical and land-focused way of looking at human impact. Developed countries tend to have higher ecological footprints, which do not strictly correspond to a country's total population. According to research by Dias de Oliveira, Vaughan and Rykiel, \"The Ecological Footprint...is an accounting tool based on two fundamental concepts, sustainability and carrying capacity. It makes it possible to estimate the resource consumption and waste assimilation requirements of a defined human population or economy sector in terms of corresponding productive land area.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological overshoot",
        "text": "This data collection, and analysis is typically done by scientific and conservation organisations, such as the Global Footprint Network, which collects data to assess the ecological footprint of each country and the global community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harmony with nature",
        "text": "9. The so-called \"developed\" countries must reduce their levels of over-consumption to reestablish harmony among human beings and with nature, allowing for the sustainable development of all developing countries. The ecological footprint of the developed countries is between 3 and 5 times larger than the average ecological footprint that the Earth system can sustain without an impact on its vital cycles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The simplest way to define an ecological footprint is the amount of environmental resources necessary to produce the goods and services that support an individual's particular lifestyle."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of largest buildings",
        "text": "This table lists individual buildings throughout the world with the largest footprints, of at least , where the footprint is defined to be the edges of the building's foundation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Netherlands fallacy",
        "text": "The Netherlands have had a huge impact regarding leaving water footprints across the world. The Netherlands have made this footprint by importing water from other countries leaving increasing scarce regions. Water footprints of a country can come from either water resources used internally or resources that are outsourced. Dutch consumers spend have left most of their water footprint from agricultural goods and industrial goods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Findhorn Ecovillage",
        "text": "Ecovillages usually rely on a wide variety of approaches to minimise their ecological footprint. Some of the most important used at Findhorn are listed here although it is important to bear in mind that in any given situation the single largest factor is likely to be the attitudes of the residents rather than the technologies themselves. The national scale is far better researched than the micro scale, and at this level it is easy to observe that countries with similar levels of wealth may have quite different footprints."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The focus of ecological footprint accounting is renewable resources. The total amount of such resources which the planet produces according to this model has been dubbed biocapacity. Ecological footprints can be calculated at any scale: for an activity, a person, a community, a city, a town, a region, a nation, or humanity as a whole. Footprint values are categorized for carbon, food, housing, goods and services. This approach can be applied to an activity such as the manufacturing of a product or driving of a car. This resource accounting is similar to life-cycle analysis wherein the consumption of energy, biomass (food, fiber), building material, water and other resources are converted into a normalized measure of land area called global hectares (gha)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The internal water footprint is the amount of water used from domestic water resources; the external water footprint is the amount of water used in other countries to produce goods and services imported and consumed by the inhabitants of the country. When assessing the water footprint of a nation, it is crucial to take into account the international flows of virtual water (also called \"embodied water\", i.e. the water used or polluted in connection to all agricultural and industrial commodities) leaving and entering the country. When taking the use of domestic water resources as a starting point for calculating a nation's water footprint, one should subtract the virtual water flows that leave the country and add the virtual water flows that enter the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Traditionally, water use has been approached from the production side, by quantifying the following three columns of water use: water withdrawals in the agricultural, industrial, and domestic sector. While this does provide valuable data, it is a limited way of looking at water use in a globalised world, in which products are not always consumed in their country of origin. International trade of agricultural and industrial products in effect creates a global flow of virtual water, or \"embodied water\" (akin to the concept of embodied energy)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of sustainability articles",
        "text": "World largest cities"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lists of countries and territories",
        "text": "The physical, chemical, and biotic factors that act upon an ecosystem:\n* List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions\n* List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita\n* List of countries by electric car use\n**Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles\n**Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles#Countries\n* List of countries by electrification rate\n* List of countries by electricity consumption\n* List of countries by energy consumption per capita\n* List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita\n* List of countries with the most hydro-electric capacity\n* List of countries by installed wind power capacity\n* List of countries by renewable electricity production\n* List of countries by total primary energy consumption and production"
      },
      {
        "title": "Biomass (ecology)",
        "text": "Terrestrial freshwater ecosystems generate about 1.5% of the global net primary production."
      },
      {
        "title": "I = PAT",
        "text": "Impact may be measured using ecological footprint analysis in units of global hectares (gha). Ecological footprint per capita is a measure of the quantity of Earth's biologically productive surface that is needed to regenerate the resources consumed per capita."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Several nations estimate sectoral distribution of use of water withdrawn from surface and groundwater sources. For example, in Canada, in 2005, 42 billion m3 of withdrawn water were used, of which about 38 billion m3 were freshwater. Distribution of this use among sectors was: thermoelectric power generation 66.2%, manufacturing 13.6%, residential 9.0%, agriculture 4.7%, commercial and institutional 2.7%, water treatment and distribution systems 2.3%, mining 1.1%, and oil and gas extraction 0.5%. The 38 billion m3 of freshwater withdrawn in that year can be compared with the nation's annual freshwater yield (estimated as streamflow) of 3,472 billion m3. Sectoral distribution is different in many respects in the US, where agriculture accounts for about 39% of fresh water withdrawals, thermoelectric power generation 38%, industrial 4%, residential 1%, and mining (including oil and gas) 1%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human Footprint",
        "text": "The Human Footprint increased by 9% from 1993 to 2009, at least partly attributable to a human population increase of 23% and a global economy increase of 153% during the same period. Though population and economic growth far exceed the growth of the Human Footprint, the areas that saw increased human influence were those with the highest biodiversity."
      },
      {
        "title": "BedZED",
        "text": "The results show that the average ecological footprint of a BedZED resident is 4.67 global hectares (2.6 planets), which is 89% of the baseline. This would reduce to 4.32 global hectares (2.4 planets) if the energy was all zero"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wa$ted! (American TV series)",
        "text": "Based on all this, an ecological footprint is created to show how many acres it takes to sustain the household. The hosts then help the family or business implement greener alternatives and change their wasteful habits. They also promise to match the amount that they save in utilities and the like by projecting the totals forward for one year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthropogenic metabolism",
        "text": "A water footprint is the amount of water that each person uses in their daily lives. Most of the world's water is salt water which cannot be used in human food or water supplies. Therefore, the freshwater sources that were once plentiful are now being diminished due to anthropogenic metabolism of the growing population. The water footprint encompasses how much fresh water is needed for each consumer's needs. According to J. Allan, \"there is a huge impact of water use on stores of surface and groundwater and on flows to which water is returned after use. These impacts are shown to be particularly high for manufacturing industries. For example, that there are less than 10 economies worldwide that have a significant water surplus, but that these economies have successfully met, or have the potential to meet, the water deficits of the other 190 economies. Consumers enjoy the delusion of food and water security provided by virtual water trade."
      },
      {
        "title": "SpringSpree",
        "text": "Spring Spree 2011 saw the setting of a world record for the largest footprint painting."
      },
      {
        "title": "SpringSpree",
        "text": "Spring Spree 2011 saw the setting of a world record for the largest footprint painting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "For 2017 Global Footprint Network estimated humanity's ecological footprint as 1.73 planet Earths. According to their calculations this means that humanity's demands were 1.73 times more than what the planet's ecosystems renewed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental space",
        "text": "The weakness of the concept is that it requires calculating the maximum sustainable consumption rate of each different resource globally. This rate could be set by either the maximum sustainable yield (say for forests or fisheries) or the assimilative capacity of the environment (e.g. for or chlorine), but both quantities are very difficult to determine, so the 'environmental space' has rather large error limits and is therefore hard to defend in policy discussions. A further difficulty is that there is a different 'environmental space' for each kind of resource, and as they each necessarily have different units of measure, they cannot be added to get an overall environmental space for all the resources consumed by a country. The idea of environmental space was promoted quite strongly by Friends of the Earth Europe in the mid-1990s, but it is rarely used now, because of the aforementioned difficulties, and has essentially been superseded by 'ecological footprint'. The advantage of the ecological footprint is that every kind of resource use is converted to a land area basis, so that they can be added to produce an overall figure for a country, allowing comparisons to be made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Some researchers have misinterpreted ecological footprint accounting as a social theory or a policy guideline, while in reality it is merely a metric that adds up human demands that compete for the planet's regenerative capacity. Examples of such confusions include Grazi \"et al.\" (2007) who performed a systematic comparison of the ecological footprint method with spatial welfare analysis that includes environmental externalities, agglomeration effects and trade advantages. Not recognizing that the ecological footprint is merely a metric, they conclude that the footprint method does not lead to maximum social welfare. Similarly, Newman (2006) has argued that the ecological footprint concept may have an anti-urban bias, as it does not consider the opportunities created by urban growth. He argues that calculating the ecological footprint for densely populated areas, such as a city or small country with a comparatively large population\u2014e.g. New York and Singapore respectively\u2014may lead to the perception of these populations as \"parasitic\". But in reality, ecological footprints just document the resource dependence of cities\u2014like a fuel gauge documents a car's fuel availability. Newman questions the metric because these communities have little intrinsic biocapacity, and instead must rely upon large \"hinterlands\". Critics argue that this is a dubious characterization since farmers in developed nations may easily consume more resources than urban inhabitants, due to transportation requirements and the unavailability of economies of scale. Furthermore, such moral conclusions seem to be an argument for autarky. This is similar to blaming a scale for the user's dietary choices. Some even take this train of thought a step further, claiming that the footprint denies the benefits of trade. Therefore such critics argue that the footprint can only be applied globally. Others have made the opposite argument showing that national assessments do provide helpful insights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Global Footprint Network has summarized methodological limitations and criticism in a comprehensive report available on its website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad",
        "text": "Generating information on the diversity of the country's species and ecosystems. It currently owns a collection of more than 3 million specimens, each identified and cataloged, including arthropods, plants, fungi and mollusks. Furthermore, information on the country's different ecosystems is generated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human ecology",
        "text": "In 1992, William Rees developed the ecological footprint concept. The ecological footprint and its close analog the water footprint has become a popular way of accounting for the level of impact that human society is imparting on the Earth's ecosystems. All indications are that the human enterprise is unsustainable as the footprint of society is placing too much stress on the ecology of the planet. The WWF 2008 living planet report and other researchers report that human civilization has exceeded the bio-regenerative capacity of the planet. This means that the footprint of human consumption is extracting more natural resources than can be replenished by ecosystems around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greenhouse",
        "text": "The Netherlands has some of the largest greenhouses in the world. Such is the scale of food production in the country that in 2000, greenhouses occupied 10,526 hectares, or 0.25% of the total land area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Land footprint",
        "text": "Ecological footprint is measured using a different approach, that looks at the biosphere from the perspective of regeneration. On the demand side, it measures regeneration in terms of area needed to provide the amount of regeneration.\n* Ecological footprint accounting contrasts demand (expressed in areas needed to provide for the demand) against regeneration (called biocapacity. It thereby combines different demand that compete for biocapacity: space for producing biological resources (crops, fiber, timber), space for absorbing waste (forest to absorb emissions), or space to accommodate urban infrastructure). In contrast, land footprint looks only at direct land use, and does not include the carbon footprint.\n* Ecological footprint and biocapacity are expressed in global hectares, hectares that are adjusted for the hectares biological productivity. In contrast, land footprint is expressed in hectares."
      },
      {
        "title": "Land footprint",
        "text": "A study of the four resource footprint indicators, carried for the European Commission examined what data was available to measure the land footprint, carbon footprint, water footprint & material footprint at economy level. This study concluded that Land Footprint needed methodological improvement and harmonisation, and that a common, international, multi-regional input output database would make it easier to calculate all four footprints."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natural capital accounting",
        "text": "The French Ministry of Sustainable Development produces satellite, environmental-economic accounts each year. However, it is planning on fully expanding the accounts to correspond with the SEEA (2012). The National Institute of Statistics and Economics also includes estimates of land, subsoil assets, and non-cultivated bio and water resources in the \"tangible non-produced assets\" section of the French balance sheet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elaeis guineensis",
        "text": "In 1995, Malaysia was the world's largest producer, with a 51% of world share, but since 2007, Indonesia has been the world's largest producer, supplying approximately 50% of world palm oil volume."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbon footprint",
        "text": "Although some production of greenhouse gases is natural, human activity has increased the production substantially. Major industrial sources of greenhouse gases are power plants, residential buildings, and road transportation, as well as energy industry processes and losses, iron and steel manufacturing, coal mining, and chemical and petrochemical industries. Changes in the environment also contribute the increase in greenhouse gas emission such as, deforestation, forest degradation and land use changes, livestock, agricultural soils and water, and wastewater. China is the largest contributor of greenhouse gas, causing up 30% of the total emissions. The United States contributes 15%, followed by the EU with 9%, then India with 7%, Russia with 5%, Japan with 4%, and other miscellaneous countries making up the remaining 30%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The figure (right) examines sustainability at the scale of individual countries by contrasting their Ecological Footprint with their UN Human Development Index (a measure of standard of living). The graph shows what is necessary for countries to maintain an acceptable standard of living for their citizens while, at the same time, maintaining sustainable resource use. The general trend is for higher standards of living to become less sustainable. As always, population growth has a marked influence on levels of consumption and the efficiency of resource use. The sustainability goal is to raise the global standard of living without increasing the use of resources beyond globally sustainable levels; that is, to not exceed \"one planet\" consumption. The information generated by reports at the national, regional and city scales confirm the global trend towards societies that are becoming less sustainable over time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biocapacity",
        "text": "Videos\n:Finding Australia\u2019s biocapacity Dr Mathis Wackernagel explains biocapacity and how it\u2019s calculated.\n:Ecological Balance Sheets for 180+ Countries Global Footprint Network"
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental protection",
        "text": "The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has identified 17 megadiverse countries. The list includes six Latin American countries: Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru and Venezuela. Mexico and Brazil stand out among the rest because they have the largest area, population and number of species. These countries represent a major concern for environmental protection because they have high rates of deforestation, ecosystems loss, pollution, and population growth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The absolute water footprint is the total sum of water footprints of all people. A country's per capita water footprint (that nation's water footprint divided by its number of inhabitants) can be used to compare its water footprint with those of other nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscovado",
        "text": "Total global production is 10 to 11 million tons annually by 20 nations. The largest producer is India (58%), followed by Colombia (14%), Myanmar (9%), Pakistan (6%), Brazil (4%), Bangladesh (3%) and China (3%)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The average global water footprint of an individual is 1,385 m3 per year. Residents of some example nations have water footprints as shown in the table:"
      },
      {
        "title": "World economy",
        "text": "The Royal Society in a 2011 report stated that in terms of number of papers the share of English-language scientific research papers the United States was first followed by China, the UK, Germany, Japan, France, and Canada. In 2015, research and development constituted an average 2.2% of the global GDP according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Metrics and rankings of innovation include the Bloomberg Innovation Index, the Global Innovation Index and the share of Nobel laureates per capita.\n* Forests (carbon sinks, wood, ecosystem services, ...)\n** Estimated number of trees that are net lost annually as of 2021: 10 billion\n** Global annual deforested land in 2015\u20132020: 10 million hectares\n** Global annual net forest area loss in 2000\u20132010 : 4.7 million hectares\n* Other land degradation and land- and organisms-related ecosystem disturbances\n** Soils (carbon sink, ecosystem services, food production, ...)\n*** Soil erosion by water in 2012: almost 36 billion tons (based on a high resolution global potential soil erosion model developed in 2017)\n*** Estimated annual loss of agricultural productivity due to soil erosion: 8 billion US dollars (based on the soil erosion data)\n*** Soil erosion by water in 2015: approximately 43 billion tons (according to a 2020 study)\n*** Environmental impact of pesticides\n**** Pesticide use in tonnes of active ingredient in Australia in 2016: ca. 62,500 tonnes\n* Oceans (ecosystem services, food production, ...): Blue economy\n* Waste and pollution (effects of economic mechanisms, effects on ecosystem services)\n** As of 2018, about 380 million tonnes of plastic is produced worldwide each year. From the 1950s up to 2018, an estimated 6.3 billion tonnes of plastic has been produced worldwide, of which an estimated 9% has been recycled and another 12% has been incinerated with the rest reportedly being \"dumped in landfills or the natural environment\".\n** Air pollution\n*** Number of human deaths caused annually by air pollution worldwide: ca. 7 million\n*** Estimated global annual cost of air pollution: $5 trillion\n** Microplastic pollution\n*** Estimated accumulated number of microplastic particles in the North Atlantic Ocean in 2014: 15 to 51 trillion particles, weighing between 93,000 and 236,000 metric tons\n*** Estimated accumulated number of microplastic particles in the North Atlantic Ocean in 2020: 3700 microplastics per cubic meter"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "where \"L\" is the pollutant load (as mass flux), \"c\"max the maximum allowable concentration and \"c\"nat the natural concentration of the pollutant in the receiving water body (both expressed in mass/volume)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthropization",
        "text": "With the continually-growing population of humans, the land that the Earth provides has been appropriated over the years. The ecological footprint created by anthropization is continually growing despite efficiency and technique improvements made in anthropization.."
      },
      {
        "title": "Netherlands fallacy",
        "text": "Environmentalists since the late 20th century have analyzed the environmental sink status and sink capacities of poor nations. As polluting industries migrate from rich to poor nations, the national ecological footprint of rich nations shrinks, whereas the international ecological footprint may increase or also decrease. The nature of the fallacy is to ignore increasing environmental damage in many developing nations and in international waters attributable to the imported goods or changes in the economy of such nations directly due to developed nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The water footprints involved in various diets vary greatly, and much of the variation tends to be associated with levels of meat consumption. The following table gives examples of estimated global average water footprints of popular agricultural products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geography of Croatia",
        "text": "The ecological footprint of Croatia's population and industry varies significantly between the country's regions since 50% of the population resides in 26.8% of the nation's territory, with a particularly high impact made by the city of Zagreb and Zagreb County areas\u2014their combined area comprises 6.6% of Croatia's territory while encompassing 25% of the population. The ecological footprint is most notably from the increased development of settlements and the sea coast leading to habitat fragmentation. Between 1998 and 2008, the greatest changes of land use pertained to artificially developed areas, but the scale of development is negligible compared to EU member states."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palm Islands",
        "text": "The World Wildlife Fund announced in 2006, \"[The] UAE's human pressure on global ecosystems (its ecological footprint) [is] the highest in the world. The country is supposedly at present five times more unsustainable than any other country\" (Samarai 2007). It also mentioned that the construction from the start up to date had caused many visible ecological and environmental changes that were a threat to the future."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wilderness",
        "text": "The Wildlife Conservation Society generated a \"human footprint\" using a number of indicators, the absence of which indicate wildness: human population density, human access via roads and rivers, human infrastructure for agriculture and settlements and the presence of industrial power (lights visible from space). The society estimates that 26% of the Earth's land mass falls into the category of \"Last of the wild.\" The wildest regions of the world include the Arctic Tundra, the Siberia Taiga, the Amazon rainforest, the Tibetan Plateau, the Australia Outback and deserts such as the Sahara, and the Gobi. However, from the 1970s, numerous geoglyphs have been discovered on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest, leading to claims about Pre-Columbian civilizations. The BBC's \"Unnatural Histories\" claimed that the Amazon rainforest, rather than being a pristine wilderness, has been shaped by man for at least 11,000 years through practices such as forest gardening and terra preta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The assessment of total water use in connection to consumption can be approached from both ends of the supply chain. The water footprint of production estimates how much water from local sources is used or polluted in order to provide the goods and services produced in that country. The water footprint of consumption of a country looks at the amount of water used or polluted (locally, or in the case of imported goods, in other countries) in connection with all the goods and services that are consumed by the inhabitants of that country. The water footprint of production and that of consumption, can also be estimated for any administrative unit such as a city, province, river basin or the entire world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The application and interpretation of water footprints may sometimes be used to promote industrial activities that lead to facile criticism of certain products. For example, the 140\u00a0litres required for coffee production for one cup might be of no harm to water resources if its cultivation occurs mainly in humid areas, but could be damaging in more arid regions. Other factors such as hydrology, climate, geology, topography, population and demographics should also be taken into account. Nevertheless, high water footprint calculations do suggest that environmental concern may be appropriate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water resource management",
        "text": "The report found that it would be possible to produce the food required in future, but that continuation of today's food production practices and environmental trends would lead to crises in many parts of the world. It has become increasingly common to think about agricultural uses of water in terms of the water footprint involved in producing particular food or fodder crops and to argue that richer parts of the world need to reconcile themselves to reprofiling their foodways to achieve a smaller agricultural water footprint."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food loss and waste",
        "text": "Empirical evidence at the global level on the environmental footprints for major commodity groups suggests that, if the aim is to reduce land use, the primary focus should be on meat and animal products, which account for 60 percent of the land footprint associated with food loss and waste. If the aim is to target water scarcity, cereals and pulses make the largest contribution (more than 70 percent), followed by fruits and vegetables. In terms of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with food loss and waste, the biggest contribution is again from cereals and pulses (more than 60 percent), followed by roots, tubers and oil-bearing crops. However, the environmental footprint for different commodities also varies across regions and countries, due, among other things, to differences in crop yields and production techniques. According to the IPCC 6th Assessment Report, the reduction of food waste would be beneficial for improving availability of resources such as \"water, land-use, energy consumption\" and the overall reduction of greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Each EU citizen consumes 4,815 litres of water per day on average; 44% is used in power production primarily to cool thermal plants or nuclear power plants. Energy production annual water consumption in the EU 27 in 2011 was, in billion m3: for gas 0.53, coal 1.54 and nuclear 2.44. Wind energy avoided the use of 387 million cubic metres (mn m3) of water in 2012, avoiding a cost of \u20ac743 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Although agriculture's water use includes provision of important terrestrial environmental values (as discussed in the \"Water footprint of products\" section above), and much \"green water\" is used in maintaining forests and wild lands, there is also direct environmental use (e.g. of surface water) that may be allocated by governments. For example, in California, where water use issues are sometimes severe because of drought, about 48 percent of \"dedicated water use\" in an average water year is for the environment (somewhat more than for agriculture). Such environmental water use is for keeping streams flowing, maintaining aquatic and riparian habitats, keeping wetlands wet, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "A comprehensive review commissioned by the Directorate-General for the Environment (European Commission) was published in June 2008. The European Commission's review found the concept unique and useful for assessing progress on the EU\u2019s Resource Strategy. They also recommended further improvements in data quality, methodologies and assumptions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Globally, about 4 percent of precipitation falling on land each year (about ), is used by rain-fed agriculture and about half is subject to evaporation and transpiration in forests and other natural or quasi-natural landscapes. The remainder, which goes to groundwater replenishment and surface runoff, is sometimes called \"total actual renewable freshwater resources\". Its magnitude was in 2012 estimated at /year. It represents water that can be used either in-stream or after withdrawal from surface and groundwater sources. Of this remainder, about were withdrawn in 2007, of which , or 69 percent, were used by agriculture, and , or 19 percent, by other industry. Most agricultural use of withdrawn water is for irrigation, which uses about 5.1 percent of total actual renewable freshwater resources. World water use has been growing rapidly in the last hundred years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Overshoot (population)",
        "text": "A widely discussed study published in January 2021 in \"Frontiers in Conservation Science,\" emphasizes the significance of overshoot stating that \"simultaneous with population growth, humanity's consumption as a fraction of Earth's regenerative capacity has grown from ~ 73% in 1960 to 170% in 2016, with substantially greater per-person consumption in countries with highest income.\" These numbers are based on recent Ecological Footprint studies. The \"Frontiers in Conservation Science\" publication explains that \"[t]his massive ecological overshoot is largely enabled by the increasing use of fossil fuels. These convenient fuels have allowed us to decouple human demand from biological regeneration: 85% of commercial energy, 65% of fibers, and most plastics are now produced from fossil fuels.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Happy Planet Index",
        "text": "Human well-being is conceptualized as happy life expectancy. Extraction of or imposition upon nature is evaluated by using the ecological footprint per capita, which attempts to estimate the number of natural resources required to sustain a given country's lifestyle. A country with a large per capita ecological footprint uses more than its fair share of resources, both by drawing resources from other countries and also by causing permanent damage to the planet which will affect future generations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greenhouse Development Rights",
        "text": "In the 2010 standard case, the United States, with its exceptionally large population of individuals with incomes above the $7,500 development threshold (capacity) and the world's largest share of cumulative emissions since 1990 (responsibility), has the largest single share (32 percent) of global RCI. The EU follows with 25 percent of the global RCI. China, despite being relatively poor, is home to a significant number of people still living above the development threshold, and has a notable 6.6 percent share of global RCI, which puts it close behind Japan with its 7.4 percent. India is also large but far poorer, placing it far behind with a 0.8 percent share."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegetable",
        "text": "In 2010, China was the largest vegetable producing nation, with over half the world's production. India, the United States, Turkey, Iran, and Egypt were the next largest producers. China had the highest area of land devoted to vegetable production, while the highest average yields were obtained in Spain and the Republic of Korea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Watershed (broadcasting)",
        "text": "Watershed (broadcasting)\n--By country.\n----Argentina.\n----Australia.\n----Austria.\n----Brazil.\n----Canada.\n----Czech Republic.\n----Finland.\n----France.\n----Germany.\n----Greece.\n----Hungary.\n----India.\n----Ireland.\n----Italy.\n----Mexico.\n----The Netherlands.\n----New Zealand.\n----Peru.\n----Poland.\n----Portugal.\n----Slovakia.\n----Slovenia.\n----South Africa.\n----Spain.\n----Serbia.\n----Switzerland.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n----Venezuela.\n--By time.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Human Development Report",
        "text": "Numerous highly developed wealthy countries plummet as a result of their environmental impact, such as the United States, which drops 45 places. By contrast, countries with lighter footprints such Costa Rica, Moldova and Panama move up the index by roughly 30 places."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wa$ted! (New Zealand TV series)",
        "text": "The show starts with Francesca and Tristan returning one year's worth of rubbish to the family. From here, they filter through the rubbish with the family to show them what they could have recycled and what environmental impact their rubbish is doing. Taking into account rubbish, electricity, water, and transportation, an ecological footprint is calculated to show how much land it would take to provide the resources for their household. They also calculate how many tones of carbon dioxide the family would emit in a year, comparing it to the national average (in New Zealand its 2.5 tones per person per year)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The ecological footprint accounting method at the national level is described on the website of Global Footprint Network or in greater detail in academic papers, including Borucke \"et al.\""
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is an ecological footprint?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The ecological footprint is a method promoted by the Global Footprint Network to measure human demand on natural capital, i.e. the quantity of nature it takes to support people or an economy."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which country produces the largest ecological footprint?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Western Australian government State of the Environment Report included an Ecological Footprint measure for the average Western Australian seven times the average footprint per person on the planet in 2007, a total of about 15 hectares."
    ],
    "topic": "Water footprint",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Ecological footprint:19",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ecological footprint",
          "Footprint by country"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Western Australian government State of the Environment Report included an Ecological Footprint measure for the average Western Australian seven times the average footprint per person on the planet in 2007, a total of about 15 hectares."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The Western Australian government State of the Environment Report included an Ecological Footprint measure for the average Western Australian seven times the average footprint per person on the planet in 2007, a total of about 15 hectares."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "According to Rees, \"the average world citizen has an eco-footprint of about 2.7 global average hectares while there are only 2.1 global hectare of bioproductive land and water per capita on earth. This means that humanity has already overshot global biocapacity by 30% and now lives unsustainabily by depleting stocks of 'natural capital'.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The world-average ecological footprint in 2013 was 2.8 global hectares per person. The average per country ranges from over 10 to under 1 global hectares per person. There is also a high variation within countries, based on individual lifestyle and economic possibilities."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "world-average ecological footprint in 2016 was 2.75 global hectares per person (22.6 billion in total). With a world-average biocapacity of 1.63 global hectares (gha) per person (12.2 billion in total), this leads to a global ecological deficit of 1.1 global hectares per person (10.4 billion in total)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "In 2007, the average biologically productive area per person worldwide was approximately 1.8 global hectares (gha) per capita. The U.S. footprint per capita was 9.0 gha, and that of Switzerland was 5.6 gha, while China's was 1.8 gha. The WWF claims that the human footprint has exceeded the biocapacity (the available supply of natural resources) of the planet by 20%. Wackernagel and Rees originally estimated that the available biological capacity for the 6 billion people on Earth at that time was about 1.3 hectares per person, which is smaller than the 1.8 global hectares published for 2006, because the initial studies neither used global hectares nor included bioproductive marine areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "Global Footprint Network's National Footprint Accounts published in 2016. Numbers are given in global hectares per capita. The"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "This is a list of countries by ecological footprint. The table is based on data spanning from 1961 to 2013 from the"
      },
      {
        "title": "Australia",
        "text": "Access to biocapacity in Australia is much higher than world average. In 2016, Australia had 12.3 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much more than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Australia used 6.6 global hectares of biocapacity per person \u2013 their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use half as much biocapacity as Australia contains. As a result, Australia is running a biocapacity reserve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "In absolute terms, India is the country with the largest water footprint in the world, a total of 987 Gm3/yr. In relative terms (i.e. taking population size into account), the people of the USA have the largest water footprint, with 2480 m3/yr per capita, followed by the people in south European countries such as Greece, Italy and Spain (2300\u20132400 m3/yr per capita). High water footprints can also be found in Malaysia and Thailand. In contrast, the Chinese people have a relatively low per capita water footprint with an average of 700 m3/yr. (These numbers are also from the period 1996-2005.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Since this metric tracks biocapacity, the replacement of original ecosystems with high-productivity agricultural monocultures can lead to attributing a higher biocapacity to such regions. For example, replacing ancient woodlands or tropical forests with monoculture forests or plantations may therefore decrease the ecological footprint. Similarly if organic farming yields were lower than those of conventional methods, this could result in the former being \"penalized\" with a larger ecological footprint. Complementary biodiversity indicators attempt to address this. The WWF's Living Planet Report combines the footprint calculations with the Living Planet Index of biodiversity. A modified ecological footprint that takes biodiversity into account has been created for use in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "For humanity, having a footprint smaller than the planet's biocapacity is a necessary condition for sustainability. After all, ecological overuse is only possible temporarily. A country that consumes more than 1.73 gha per person has a resource demand that is not sustainable world-wide if every country were to exceed that consumption level simultaneously. Countries with a footprint below 1.73 gha per person might not be sustainable: the quality of the footprint may still lead to net long-term ecological destruction. If a country does not have enough ecological resources within its own territory to cover its population's footprint, then it runs an ecological deficit and the country is termed an \"ecological debtor\". Otherwise, it has an ecological reserve and it is called a \"creditor\". To a significant degree, biocapacity correlates with access to water resources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melbourne Principles",
        "text": "4. Enable communities to minimise their ecological footprint."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wa$ted! (New Zealand TV series)",
        "text": "The show starts with Francesca and Tristan returning one year's worth of rubbish to the family. From here, they filter through the rubbish with the family to show them what they could have recycled and what environmental impact their rubbish is doing. Taking into account rubbish, electricity, water, and transportation, an ecological footprint is calculated to show how much land it would take to provide the resources for their household. They also calculate how many tones of carbon dioxide the family would emit in a year, comparing it to the national average (in New Zealand its 2.5 tones per person per year)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biocapacity",
        "text": "Videos\n:Finding Australia\u2019s biocapacity Dr Mathis Wackernagel explains biocapacity and how it\u2019s calculated.\n:Ecological Balance Sheets for 180+ Countries Global Footprint Network"
      },
      {
        "title": "Crenadactylus",
        "text": "The small size is a limiting factor to the species ability to move beyond the local ecology, but may have allowed them to persist in the environment with less vulnerability to the continent's climatic changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "\" This table below is based on 2012 results (National Footprint Accounts edition 2016). The latest edition (2021), produced by York University, Footprint Data Foundation, and Global Footprint Network, is available on Global Footprint Network's website at http://data.footprintnetwork.org. Note that this list contains only 188 countries, covering most of the countries with more than one million inhabitants.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "List of countries by ecological footprint\n--Countries and regions.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sauropoda",
        "text": "On or shortly before 29 March 2017 a sauropod footprint about 5.6 feet (1.7 meters) long was found at Walmadany in the Kimberley Region of Western Australia. The report said that it was the biggest known yet. In 2020 Molina-Perez and Larramendi estimated the size of the animal at 31 meters (102\u00a0ft) and 72 tonnes (79.4 short tons) based on the 1.75 meter (5.7\u00a0ft) long footprint."
      },
      {
        "title": "BedZED",
        "text": "The results show that the average ecological footprint of a BedZED resident is 4.67 global hectares (2.6 planets), which is 89% of the baseline. This would reduce to 4.32 global hectares (2.4 planets) if the energy was all zero"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The UK's average ecological footprint is 5.45 global hectares per capita (gha) with variations between regions ranging from 4.80 gha (Wales) to 5.56 gha (East England)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Restoration ecology",
        "text": "Australia has been the site of historically significant ecological restoration projects; as with the US, they commenced in the 1930s. These projects were responses to the extensive environmental damage inflicted by settlers following the forced dispossession of First Nations communities. The substantial Traditional Ecological Knowledge of the First Nations communities was not utilised."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental protection",
        "text": "In 2008, there was 98,487,116 ha of terrestrial protected area, covering 12.8% of the land area of Australia. The 2002 figures of 10.1% of terrestrial area and 64,615,554 ha of protected marine area were found to poorly represent about half of Australia's 85 bioregions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental issues in Australia",
        "text": "Australia is one of the most urbanised countries in the world. Many Australian cities have large urban footprints and are characterised by an unsustainable low density urban sprawl. This places demand on infrastructure and services which contributes to the problems of land clearing, pollution, transport related emissions, energy consumption, invasive species, automobile dependency and urban heat islands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uluru",
        "text": "The Commonwealth Department of Environment's webpage advises:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The first academic publication about ecological footprints was written by William Rees in 1992. The ecological footprint concept and calculation method was developed as the PhD dissertation of Mathis Wackernagel, under Rees' supervision at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada, from 1990 to 1994. Originally, Wackernagel and Rees called the concept \"appropriated carrying capacity\". To make the idea more accessible, Rees came up with the term \"ecological footprint\", inspired by a computer technician who praised his new computer's \"small footprint on the desk\". In 1996, Wackernagel and Rees published the book \"Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human Impact on the Earth\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Smallest organisms",
        "text": "The smallest marsupial is the long-tailed planigale from Australia. It has a body length of (including tail) and weigh on average."
      },
      {
        "title": "Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions (Western Australia)",
        "text": "nominal target of 200,000 hectares was achieved in consecutive years since 1996\u201397."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The external part of a nation's water footprint varies strongly from country to country. Some African nations, such as Sudan, Mali, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Malawi and Chad have hardly any external water footprint, simply because they have little import. Some European countries on the other hand\u2014e.g. Italy, Germany, the UK and the Netherlands\u2014have external water footprints that constitute 50\u201380% of their total water footprint. The agricultural products that on average contribute most to the external water footprints of nations are: bovine meat, soybean, wheat, cocoa, rice, cotton and maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "Findhorn Ecovillage",
        "text": "Ecovillages usually rely on a wide variety of approaches to minimise their ecological footprint. Some of the most important used at Findhorn are listed here although it is important to bear in mind that in any given situation the single largest factor is likely to be the attitudes of the residents rather than the technologies themselves. The national scale is far better researched than the micro scale, and at this level it is easy to observe that countries with similar levels of wealth may have quite different footprints."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Ecological footprint\n--Overview.\n--Methodology.\n--Footprint measurements.\n--Footprint by country.\n----Studies in the United Kingdom.\n--Ecological footprint at the individual level.\n--Reviews and critiques.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Outback",
        "text": "The paucity of industrial land use has led to the Outback being recognised globally as one of the largest remaining intact natural areas on Earth. Global \"Human Footprint\" and wilderness reviews highlight the importance of Outback Australia as one of the world's large natural areas, along with the Boreal forests and Tundra regions in North America, the Sahara and Gobi deserts and the tropical forests of the Amazon and Congo Basins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Annandale, New South Wales",
        "text": "Footprints EcoFestival"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "In south India the state Tamil Nadu is one of the main agricultural producers in India and it relies largely in groundwater for irrigation. In ten years, from 2002 to 2012, the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment calculated that the groundwater reduced in 1.4 m yr\u22121, which \"is nearly 8% more than the annual recharge rate.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Department of Environment and Conservation (Western Australia)",
        "text": "The average area of burning achieved over the past 10 years has been about 163,019 hectares per annum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kirrawee, New South Wales",
        "text": "It is estimated that only 0.5% of the original area of STIF remains in the Sydney region, with these small remnants now protected under the NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 and the Federal Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. The main threat to the ecological community is clearing for urban development, and the subsequent impacts from fragmentation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wakaleo pitikantensis",
        "text": "The smallest known species of \"Wakaleo\", it lived in Australia about 25 million years ago, from the late Oligocene to middle Miocene, and was approximately the size of a cat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fossil track",
        "text": "The largest known dinosaur footprints, belonging to sauropods and dating from the early Cretaceous were found to the north of Broome on the Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, with some footprints measuring 1.7\u00a0m. The 3D digital documentation of tracks has the benefit of being able to examine ichnite in detail remotely and distribute the data to colleagues and other interested personnel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocrinia vitellina",
        "text": "The species occupies an area of 20\u00a0ha, the smallest of any Australian mainland vertebrate, across a range of 6.3\u00a0km\u00b2 around Witchcliffe. This narrow range is confined to swampy areas near creeklines. Six creeks on the Blackwood River, Western Australia have been found to provide appropriate habitat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Findhorn Ecovillage",
        "text": "An independent study concludes that the residents have the lowest ecological footprint of any community measured so far in the industrialised world and is also half of the UK average. Although the project has attracted some controversy, the growing profile of environmental issues such as climate change has led to a degree of mainstream acceptance of its ecological ethos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental issues in Australia",
        "text": "A key conservation issue is the preservation of biodiversity, especially by protecting the remaining rainforests. The destruction of habitat by human activities, including land clearing, remains the major cause of biodiversity loss in Australia. The importance of the Australian rainforests to the conservation movement is very high. Australia is the only western country to have large areas of rainforest intact. Forests provide timber, drugs, and food and should be managed to maximize the possible uses. Currently, there are a number of environmental movements and campaigners advocating for action on saving the environment, one such campaign is the Big Switch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental issues in Australia",
        "text": "Land management issues including clearance of native vegetation, reafforestation of once-cleared areas, control of exotic weeds and pests, expansion of dryland salinity, and changed fire regimes. Intensification of resource use in sectors such as forestry, fisheries, and agriculture are widely reported to contribute to biodiversity loss in Australia. Coastal and marine environments also have reduced biodiversity from reduced water quality caused by pollution and sediments arising from human settlements and agriculture. In central New South Wales where there are large plains of grassland, problems have risen from\u2014unusual to say\u2014lack of land clearing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "According to the 2018 edition of the \"National footprint accounts\", humanity's total ecological footprint has exhibited an increasing trend since 1961, growing an average of 2.1% per year (SD= 1.9). Humanity's ecological footprint was 7.0 billion gha in 1961 and increased to 20.6 billion gha in 2014. The world-average ecological footprint in 2014 was 2.8 global hectares per person. The carbon footprint is the fastest growing part of the ecological footprint and accounts currently for about 60% of humanity's total ecological footprint."
      },
      {
        "title": "Van-royena",
        "text": "Under the Nature Conservation Act 1992 (NCA) of Australia, it's status is Least concern."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human overpopulation",
        "text": "Critics have questioned the simplifications and statistical methods used in calculating ecological footprints. Therefore, Global Footprint Network and its partner organizations have engaged with national governments and international agencies to test the results\u2014reviews have been produced by France, Germany, the European Commission, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Japan and the United Arab Emirates. Some point out that a more refined method of assessing Ecological Footprint is to designate sustainable versus non-sustainable categories of consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Blomqvist \"et al\". published a critical paper in 2013. It led to a reply from Rees and Wackernagel (2013), and a rejoinder by Blomqvist \"et al.\" (2013)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mallee emu-wren",
        "text": "Surveys have been conducted at Billiatt Conservation Park and Ngarkat Conservation Park in South Australia (Clarke 2004; Gates 2003), and at Murray-Sunset National Park, Big Desert Wilderness Park, Big Desert State Forest, Wyperfeld National Park, Wathe Flora and Fauna Reserve and Bronzewing Flora and Fauna Reserve (Clarke 2007), and around Nowingi (Smales et al. 2005), in Victoria."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of threatened ecological communities of Australia",
        "text": "List of threatened ecological communities of Australia\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of threatened ecological communities declared by the Commonwealth of Australia",
        "text": "List of threatened ecological communities declared by the Commonwealth of Australia\n--New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory.\n--Northern Territory.\n--Queensland.\n--South Australia.\n--Tasmania.\n--Victoria.\n--Western Australia.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of threatened ecological communities of Western Australia",
        "text": "List of threatened ecological communities of Western Australia\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of threatened ecological communities declared by the Commonwealth of Australia",
        "text": "listed at SPRAT"
      },
      {
        "title": "Smallest organisms",
        "text": "The Pilbara ningaui is considered to be of similar size and weight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Simandou",
        "text": "The area has so far been protected by relative isolation but its biodiversity is now threatened by the encroachment of agriculture, unregulated bush meat hunting, logging, uncontrolled bush fires, road development, destructive mining operations by foreign companies and human population growth. Government agencies' lack of capacity to enforce environmental legislation increases the threat. Land tenure conflicts and ecologically destructive subsistence farming practices (slash and burn agriculture), exacerbated by poverty, also pose problems for the environment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Virtual water",
        "text": "The virtual water or the water footprint concepts have faced lot of criticism. Some valid, others asking the indicators to be everything. Australia's National Water Commission considers that the measurement of virtual water has little practical value in decision making regarding the best allocation of scarce water resources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Broome, Western Australia",
        "text": "The fossil trackways at Broome include possibly the largest known dinosaur footprints, sauropod tracks upwards of long. It is suspected that the sauropod that made these tracks might have been tall at the hip."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental issues in Australia",
        "text": "Australia had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.22/10, ranking it 46th globally out of 172 countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Small western froglet",
        "text": "It is endemic to Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Global Footprint Network has summarized methodological limitations and criticism in a comprehensive report available on its website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geography of Western Australia",
        "text": "The International Panel on Climate Change has shown that the natural ecosystems can absorb approximately two tonnes of carbon dioxide per person per year. At the moment the world, through the burning of fossil fuels and the clearing of forests is emitting 6.8 tonnes of carbon dioxide per person per year, with the result that over the last century the concentration of carbon dioxide has gone from 280 parts per million to 380 parts per million, a change equivalent to that seen since the depths of the last Ice Age. While in Europe the average rate of emissions is currently about 10 tonnes per person, and the average in the US is over 20 tonnes, for Australia as a whole produces about 26 tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions per person."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environment of Australia",
        "text": "Sydney\n*2003\n*2006\n*2009"
      },
      {
        "title": "Waste management in Australia",
        "text": "The low density population, its ecological footprint and the traits of the Australian environment led to a harmonised system in which waste was not contemplated as, and did not represent, an issue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of the New Zealand environment",
        "text": "2003\n*Govt3, a sustainability programme for government department, is established\n*YHA NZ started a \"Young Environmentalist\" programme.\n*The WWF \"Living Planet\" report ranks New Zealand fourteenth largest per capita ecological footprint.\n*24 April \u2014 New Zealand population is estimated to top 4,000,000.\n*26 May \u2014 Campbell Island declared rat free.\n*26 May \u2014 Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Ministry for the Environment, and Fonterra sign the Dairying and Clean Streams Accord.\n*June \u2014 Consultation is sought on an Agricultural emissions research levy (commonly called the \"flatulence tax\" or \"fart tax\").\n*5 September \u2014 \"New Zealand Environment\" magazine discontinued.\n*11 September \u2014 Environment Minister addresses pollution in the Rotorua lakes.\n*31 October \u2014 Businessman jailed for clearing native bush (this has set a legal precedent)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Spencer G. Lucas",
        "text": "In 2012, he co-authored a paper describing the world's smallest tetrapod footprints, found at Joggins, Nova Scotia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environment of Australia",
        "text": "Environment of Australia\n--Protected areas.\n--Conservation.\n--Water.\n--Issues.\n--State of the Environment reports.\n----Commonwealth of Australia.\n----Western Australia.\n----Tasmania.\n----Northern Territory.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geography of Western Australia",
        "text": "This is arguably the most damaged ecosystem in the state. This is a low-lying coastal plain, mainly covered with Tuart-Banksia woodlands. It is dominated by Banksia or Tuart on sandy soils, \"Allocasuarina obesa\" on outwash plains, and paperbark in numerous former swampy areas. In the east, the plain rises to duricrusted Mesozoic sediments dominated by jarrah woodland. Three phases of marine sand dune development provide relief. The outwash plains, once dominated by Allocasuarina obesa-marri woodlands and \"Melaleuca\" shrublands, are extensive only in the southern part of the region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Department of Environment and Conservation (Western Australia)",
        "text": "A further 6,023,884 hectares was burnt in the Kimberley, Pilbara, Goldfields, Midwest, Wheatbelt and South Coast regions. The burns were carried out on DEC-managed lands as well as on unallocated Crown lands and unmanaged reserves within these regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of threatened ecological communities of Western Australia",
        "text": "This is a list of threatened ecological communities of Western Australia, as approved by the state Minister for the Environment in December 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geography of Western Australia",
        "text": "The southern half of Western Australia is greatly affected by the depletion of atmospheric ozone. While the rate of increase in the size of the ozone hole is slowing, 2006 figures produced by NASA show that the size of the hole that year was the biggest on record, averaging 27.4 million square kilometers in extent. As a result, the figures that suggest that 1/3 of Western Australians will in the course of their life suffer from skin cancers, has caused a huge change in popular behavior. From being a part of a nation of sun-loving beach-goers, Western Australians have adopted a habit of \"slipping\" on a shirt, \"slopping\" on a 15+ sunscreen and \"slapping\" on a hat. Unfortunately the effects of the ozone hole on Western Australian livestock, or on our native flora and fauna is much less understood. The increase in numbers of blind kangaroo suffering from ultraviolet caused cataracts has been recorded in local newspapers, but the overall effects has not been studied."
      },
      {
        "title": "Small frog",
        "text": "The small frog (\"Ranoidea manya\") is a species of frog in the family Pelodryadidae endemic to Australia. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry lowland grassland and intermittent freshwater marshes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental protection",
        "text": "Australia ranks second place on the UN 2010 Human Development Index and one of the lowest debt to GDP ratios of the developed economies. This could be seen as coming at the cost of the environment, with Australia being the world leader in coal exportation and species extinctions. Some have been motivated to proclaim it is Australia's responsibility to set the example of environmental reform for the rest of the world to follow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental issues in Australia",
        "text": "Australia has a poor record of conservation of native fauna. The extinction of Australian megafauna is attributed to the arrival of humans and since European settlement, 23 birds, 4 frogs, and 27 mammal species are also known to have become extinct."
      },
      {
        "title": "Department of Environment and Conservation (Western Australia)",
        "text": "At 30 June 2013, the total area under Department of Environment and Conservation\u2019s care was 28,531,987 ha."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environment of Australia",
        "text": "State of the Environment report"
      },
      {
        "title": "Alectryon (plant)",
        "text": "In Australia:\n* \"A. ramiflorus\" small trees only remain naturally growing in a very restricted area of southeastern Queensland, thus they have obtained the \"endangered\" species global conservation status of the IUCN (1998) and 2013 national and state conservation statuses of the Australian and Queensland governments.\n* \"A. repandodentatus\" small trees in northeastern Qld, the Torres Strait Islands and New Guinea have obtained the \"vulnerable\" species global conservation status of the IUCN (1998), and the Queensland state government's 2013 \"endangered\" species conservation status.\n* \"A. semicinereus\" small trees in eastern Qld have obtained the Qld government \"near threatened\" species conservation status."
      },
      {
        "title": "Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions (Western Australia)",
        "text": "A further 4,692,079 hectares was burnt in the Department's other six regions: the Kimberley, Pilbara, Goldfields, Mid West, Wheatbelt and South Coast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Department of Environment and Conservation (Western Australia)",
        "text": "The indicative burn target for 2012\u201313 in the south-west forest regions was 200,000 hectares. In 2012\u201313, DEC achieved 23,468 hectares in the south-west forest regions, including about 6,410 hectares that were burnt for pine plantation protection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hectare",
        "text": "Australia (since 1970)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "A number of national government agencies have performed collaborative or independent research to test the reliability of the ecological footprint accounting method and its results. They have largely confirmed the accounts' results; those who reproduced the assessment generating near-identical results. Such reviews include those of Switzerland, Germany, France, Ireland, the United Arab Emirates and the European Commission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Browse LNG",
        "text": "According to a newspaper report, quoting a single scientist, construction is also expected to irreparably damage a large number of fossils unique to the area, including the only example of dinosaur footprint extant in Western Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Myristica insipida",
        "text": "Under the Northern Territory's Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1976 and Queensland's Nature Conservation Act 1992, this species is considered to be of least concern, while in Western Australia the Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 (WA) lists it as \"Not threatened\". , it has not been assessed by the IUCN."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological overshoot",
        "text": "This data collection, and analysis is typically done by scientific and conservation organisations, such as the Global Footprint Network, which collects data to assess the ecological footprint of each country and the global community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environment of Australia",
        "text": "Mild climate"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of threatened ecological communities declared by the Commonwealth of Australia",
        "text": "listed at SPRAT\n* Arnhem Plateau Sandstone Shrubland Complex"
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservation in Australia",
        "text": "Land management issues including clearance of native vegetation, reafforestation of once-cleared areas, control of exotic weeds and pests, expansion of dryland salinity, and changed fire regimes. Intensification of resource use in sectors such as forestry, fisheries, and agriculture are widely reported to contribute to biodiversity loss in Australia. Coastal and marine environments also have reduced biodiversity from reduced water quality caused by pollution and sediments arising from human settlements and agriculture. In central New South Wales where there are large plains of grassland, problems have arisen from\u2014unusual to say\u2014lack of land clearing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Savernake Station",
        "text": "There is an indigenous species-rich and pristine box (\"Eucalyptus\" sp.)-cypress pine (\"Callitris\" sp.) woodland forest with 400-year-old trees. This area of is highly regarded among environmentalists for its pristine condition and species richness including at least 120 species, 250 flora species, 20 mammal species, 15 reptile species, amphibians and innumerable insects. This site has been used for research by PhD students, tertiary students, community projects, Landcare workshops and environmental staff training seminars. Considered significant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bush Forever",
        "text": "A 1998 Western Australian State of the Environment Report highlighted that the loss of biodiversity and habitats caused by habitat degradation and clearing, human interference and the introduction of pests and weeds was one of Western Australia\u2019s most serious environmental problem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental issues in Australia",
        "text": "Water use is a major sustainability issue in Australia. Water is becoming a very very big problem for not only Australia but worldwide as where there are droughts occurring more often and only having limited use of the water and then there are even places that don't have any water at all such as India etc, we need conserve our water for the future and get more access to the water since we only have roughly 5% access to it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental movement in Australia",
        "text": "At a political level, the most influential organisation is the Australian Greens. In recent years the Greens have at times held the balance of power in the Australian Senate. The strongest areas of focus are Landcare, conservation in Australia, clean energy and the Australian anti-nuclear movement. The largest and most influential and active environmental organizations in Australia are World Wildlife Fund, The Wilderness Society, Greenpeace, and the Australian Conservation Foundation. There are also a large number of smaller conservation and advocacy groups. Many groups are involved in active acquisition for conservation as non-profit trusts or covenants to protect of environmentally sensitive land against inappropriate use. The largest of these, in terms of total land area, is Bush Heritage Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of threatened ecological communities declared by the Commonwealth of Australia",
        "text": "listed at SPRAT\n* Alpine Sphagnum Bogs and Associated Fens\n* \"Eucalyptus ovata\" - \"Callitris oblonga\" Forest\n* Giant Kelp Marine Forests of South East Australia\n* Lowland Native Grasslands of Tasmania\n* Subtropical and Temperate Coastal Saltmarsh"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The Earth's biocapacity has not increased at the same rate as the ecological footprint. The increase of biocapacity averaged at only 0.5% per year (SD = 0.7). Because of agricultural intensification, biocapacity was at 9.6 billion gha in 1961 and grew to 12.2 billion gha in 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Small toadlet",
        "text": "It is endemic to Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eucalyptus microneura",
        "text": "This eucalypt is classified as \"least concern\" by the Queensland Government Department of Environment and Science."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of desalination plants in Australia",
        "text": "List of desalination plants in Australia\n--List of desalination plants.\n----Smaller desalination plants.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Small frog (disambiguation)",
        "text": "The small frog is a species of frog in the family Hylidae endemic to Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of threatened ecological communities declared by the Commonwealth of Australia",
        "text": "listed at SPRAT\n* Buloke Woodlands of the Riverina and Murray-Darling Depression Bioregions\n* Giant Kelp Marine Forests of South East Australia\n* Grey Box (Eucalyptus microcarpa) Grassy Woodlands and Derived Native Grasslands of South-eastern Australia\n* Iron-grass Natural Temperate Grassland of South Australia\n* Peppermint Box (Eucalyptus odorata) Grassy Woodland of South Australia\n* Seasonal Herbaceous Wetlands (Freshwater) of the Temperate Lowland Plains\n* Swamps of the Fleurieu Peninsula\n* The community of native species dependent on natural discharge of groundwater from the Great Artesian Basin\n* Eyre Peninsula Blue Gum (\"Eucalyptus petiolaris\") Woodland\n* Kangaroo Island Narrow-leaved Mallee (\"Eucalyptus cneorifolia\") Woodland\n* Subtropical and Temperate Coastal Saltmarsh\n* White Box-Yellow Box-Blakely's Red Gum Grassy Woodland and Derived Native Grassland"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Since 2003, Global Footprint Network has calculated the ecological footprint from UN data sources for the world as a whole and for over 200 nations (known as the National Footprint Accounts). The total footprint number of Earths needed to sustain the world's population at that level of consumption are also calculated. Every year the calculations are updated to the latest year with complete UN statistics. The time series are also recalculated with every update since UN statistics sometimes correct historical data sets. Results are available on an open data platform. Lin \"et al.\" (2018) finds that the trends for countries and the world have stayed consistent despite data updates. Also, a recent study by the Swiss Ministry of Environment independently recalculated the Swiss trends and reproduced them within 1\u20134% for the time period that they studied (1996\u20132015). Since 2006, a first set of ecological footprint standards exist that detail both communication and calculation procedures. The latest version are the updated standards from 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yellow-footed rock-wallaby",
        "text": "\"P. x. xanthopus\" is listed as vulnerable under the \"Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999\" by the Australian government. Colonies persist in South Australia, within the Gawler Ranges, the Flinders Ranges and the Olary Ranges. The population is SA is estimated at around 2,000 to 6,500 animals, with great uncertainty and likely large fluctuations. Due to conservation efforts by sanctuaries in the Flinders Ranges and pastoralists in the Olary Ranges, populations there have increased in recent years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Little buttonquail",
        "text": "Endemic to Australia the little buttonquail has an extremely large range with populations spread widely across mainland Australia. Therefore, this species is not classified as vulnerable under the conservation status: \u2018Extent of occurrence criterion\u2019, despite the fact that the little buttonquail population in general appears to be decreasing. Such an enormous species population is unable to attain vulnerability status in regards to the population trend or population size criterion. However, there is evidence that the frequency of human interaction within their environment is causing vulnerability within populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Little forest bat",
        "text": "It is found only in south-eastern Australia, including Tasmania. It is a tiny bat often weighing less than (males in some areas weigh as little as ). It is sometimes referred to as Australia's smallest mammal, although the Northern or Koopmans Pipistrelle, \"Pipistrellus westralis\", is possibly smaller, weighing on average around . It is the smallest bat in Tasmania"
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental issues in Australia",
        "text": "In 2021 Australia announced the creation of 2 national marine parks in size of 740,000 square kilometers. With those parks 45% of the Australian marine territory will be protected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muiria",
        "text": "In this extremely small range, it has recently suffered an enormous reduction in population and range, due to habitat loss, trampling by stock animals and illegal collecting."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is an ecological footprint?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The ecological footprint is a method promoted by the Global Footprint Network to measure human demand on natural capital, i.e. the quantity of nature it takes to support people or an economy."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which country produces the largest ecological footprint?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Western Australian government State of the Environment Report included an Ecological Footprint measure for the average Western Australian seven times the average footprint per person on the planet in 2007, a total of about 15 hectares."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which country has the smallest ecological footprint?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I was unable to find the country with the smallest ecological footprint, but I did find that the average per country ranges from over 10 to under 1 global hectares per person."
    ],
    "topic": "Water footprint",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Ecological footprint:18",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ecological footprint",
          "Footprint by country"
        ],
        "ctx": "The world-average ecological footprint in 2013 was 2.8 global hectares per person. The average per country ranges from over 10 to under 1 global hectares per person. There is also a high variation within countries, based on individual lifestyle and economic possibilities."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The world-average ecological footprint in 2013 was 2.8 global hectares per person. The average per country ranges from over 10 to under 1 global hectares per person. There is also a high variation within countries, based on individual lifestyle and economic possibilities."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "world-average ecological footprint in 2016 was 2.75 global hectares per person (22.6 billion in total). With a world-average biocapacity of 1.63 global hectares (gha) per person (12.2 billion in total), this leads to a global ecological deficit of 1.1 global hectares per person (10.4 billion in total)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "In 2007, the average biologically productive area per person worldwide was approximately 1.8 global hectares (gha) per capita. The U.S. footprint per capita was 9.0 gha, and that of Switzerland was 5.6 gha, while China's was 1.8 gha. The WWF claims that the human footprint has exceeded the biocapacity (the available supply of natural resources) of the planet by 20%. Wackernagel and Rees originally estimated that the available biological capacity for the 6 billion people on Earth at that time was about 1.3 hectares per person, which is smaller than the 1.8 global hectares published for 2006, because the initial studies neither used global hectares nor included bioproductive marine areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "According to Rees, \"the average world citizen has an eco-footprint of about 2.7 global average hectares while there are only 2.1 global hectare of bioproductive land and water per capita on earth. This means that humanity has already overshot global biocapacity by 30% and now lives unsustainabily by depleting stocks of 'natural capital'.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "For humanity, having a footprint smaller than the planet's biocapacity is a necessary condition for sustainability. After all, ecological overuse is only possible temporarily. A country that consumes more than 1.73 gha per person has a resource demand that is not sustainable world-wide if every country were to exceed that consumption level simultaneously. Countries with a footprint below 1.73 gha per person might not be sustainable: the quality of the footprint may still lead to net long-term ecological destruction. If a country does not have enough ecological resources within its own territory to cover its population's footprint, then it runs an ecological deficit and the country is termed an \"ecological debtor\". Otherwise, it has an ecological reserve and it is called a \"creditor\". To a significant degree, biocapacity correlates with access to water resources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "According to the 2018 edition of the \"National footprint accounts\", humanity's total ecological footprint has exhibited an increasing trend since 1961, growing an average of 2.1% per year (SD= 1.9). Humanity's ecological footprint was 7.0 billion gha in 1961 and increased to 20.6 billion gha in 2014. The world-average ecological footprint in 2014 was 2.8 global hectares per person. The carbon footprint is the fastest growing part of the ecological footprint and accounts currently for about 60% of humanity's total ecological footprint."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "Global Footprint Network's National Footprint Accounts published in 2016. Numbers are given in global hectares per capita. The"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The UK's average ecological footprint is 5.45 global hectares per capita (gha) with variations between regions ranging from 4.80 gha (Wales) to 5.56 gha (East England)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The Western Australian government State of the Environment Report included an Ecological Footprint measure for the average Western Australian seven times the average footprint per person on the planet in 2007, a total of about 15 hectares."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "This is a list of countries by ecological footprint. The table is based on data spanning from 1961 to 2013 from the"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "In absolute terms, India is the country with the largest water footprint in the world, a total of 987 Gm3/yr. In relative terms (i.e. taking population size into account), the people of the USA have the largest water footprint, with 2480 m3/yr per capita, followed by the people in south European countries such as Greece, Italy and Spain (2300\u20132400 m3/yr per capita). High water footprints can also be found in Malaysia and Thailand. In contrast, the Chinese people have a relatively low per capita water footprint with an average of 700 m3/yr. (These numbers are also from the period 1996-2005.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The average global water footprint of an individual is 1,385 m3 per year. Residents of some example nations have water footprints as shown in the table:"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "List of countries by ecological footprint\n--Countries and regions.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbon footprint",
        "text": "The global average annual carbon footprint per person in 2014 was about 5 tonnes CO2e. Although there are many ways to calculate a carbon footprint, the Nature Conservancy suggests that the average carbon footprint for a U.S. citizen is 16 tons. This is one of the highest rates in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "\" This table below is based on 2012 results (National Footprint Accounts edition 2016). The latest edition (2021), produced by York University, Footprint Data Foundation, and Global Footprint Network, is available on Global Footprint Network's website at http://data.footprintnetwork.org. Note that this list contains only 188 countries, covering most of the countries with more than one million inhabitants.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "BedZED",
        "text": "The results show that the average ecological footprint of a BedZED resident is 4.67 global hectares (2.6 planets), which is 89% of the baseline. This would reduce to 4.32 global hectares (2.4 planets) if the energy was all zero"
      },
      {
        "title": "Degrowth",
        "text": "According to a 2005 Global Footprint Network report, inhabitants of high-income countries live off of 6.4 global hectares (gHa), while those from low-income countries live off of a single gHa. For example, while each inhabitant of Bangladesh lives off of what they produce from 0.56 gHa, a North American requires 12.5 gHa. Each inhabitant of North America uses 22.3 times as much land as a Bangladeshi. According to the same report, the average number of global hectares per person was 2.1, while current consumption levels have reached 2.7 hectares per person. In order for the world's population to attain the living standards typical of European countries, the resources of between three and eight planet Earths would be required with current levels of efficiency and means of production. In order for world economic equality to be achieved with the current available resources, proponents say rich countries would have to reduce their standard of living through degrowth. The constraints on resources would eventually lead to a forced reduction in consumption. Controlled reduction of consumption would reduce the trauma of this change assuming no technological changes increase the planet's carrying capacity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The global water footprint in the period 1996\u20132005 was 9.087 Gm3/yr (Billion Cubic Metres per year, or 9.087.000.000.000.000 liters/year), of which 74% was and green, 11% blue, 15% grey. This is an average amount per capita of 1.385 Gm3/yr., or 3.800 liters per person per day. On average 92% of this is embedded in agricultural products consumed, 4.4% in industrial products consumed, and 3.6% is domestic water use. The global water footprint related to producing goods for export is 1.762 Gm3/y."
      },
      {
        "title": "Overconsumption",
        "text": "The idea of overconsumption is also strongly tied to the idea of an ecological footprint. The term \"ecological footprint\" refers to the \"resource accounting framework for measuring human demand on the biosphere.\" Currently, China, for instance, has a per person ecological footprint roughly half the size of the US, yet has a population that is more than four times the size of the US. It is estimated that if China developed to the level of the United States that world consumption rates would roughly double."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belgium",
        "text": "From a biological resource perspective, Belgium has a low endowment: Belgium's biocapacity adds up to only 0.8 global hectares in 2016, just about half of the 1.6 global hectares of biocapacity available per person worldwide. In contrast, in 2016, Belgians used on average 6.3 global hectares of biocapacity - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they required about eight times as much biocapacity as Belgium contains. As a result, Belgium was running a biocapacity deficit of 5.5 global hectares per person in 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Netherlands",
        "text": "From a biological resource perspective, the Netherlands has a low endowment: the Netherlands\u2019 biocapacity adds up to only 0.8 global hectares per person in 2016, 0.2 of which are dedicated to agriculture. The Dutch biocapacity per person is just about half of the 1.6 global hectares of biocapacity per person available worldwide. In contrast, in 2016, the Dutch used on average 4.8 global hectares of biocapacity - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means the Dutch required nearly six times as much biocapacity as the Netherlands contains. As a result, the Netherlands was running a biocapacity deficit of 4.0 global hectares per person in 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bhutan",
        "text": "Access to biocapacity in Bhutan is much higher than world average. In 2016, Bhutan had 5.0 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much more than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Bhutan used 4.5 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use less biocapacity than Bhutan contains. As a result, Bhutan is running a biocapacity reserve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human overpopulation",
        "text": "Critics have questioned the simplifications and statistical methods used in calculating ecological footprints. Therefore, Global Footprint Network and its partner organizations have engaged with national governments and international agencies to test the results\u2014reviews have been produced by France, Germany, the European Commission, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Japan and the United Arab Emirates. Some point out that a more refined method of assessing Ecological Footprint is to designate sustainable versus non-sustainable categories of consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biocapacity",
        "text": "For example, there were 12.2 billion hectares of biologically productive land and water areas on this planet in 2016. Dividing by the number of people alive in that year, 7.4 billion, gives a biocapacity of 1.6 global hectares per person. These 1.6 global hectares includes the areas for wild species that compete with people for space."
      },
      {
        "title": "Global hectare",
        "text": "\"Global hectares per person\" refers to the amount of production and waste assimilation per person on the planet. In 2012 there were approximately 12.2 billion global hectares of production and waste assimilation, averaging 1.7 global hectares per person."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antigua and Barbuda",
        "text": "Access to biocapacity is lower than world average. In 2016, Antigua and Barbuda had 0.8 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016, Antigua and Barbuda used 4.3 global hectares of biocapacity per person \u2013 their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use more biocapacity than Antigua and Barbuda contains. As a result, Antigua and Barbuda are running a biocapacity deficit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The external part of a nation's water footprint varies strongly from country to country. Some African nations, such as Sudan, Mali, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Malawi and Chad have hardly any external water footprint, simply because they have little import. Some European countries on the other hand\u2014e.g. Italy, Germany, the UK and the Netherlands\u2014have external water footprints that constitute 50\u201380% of their total water footprint. The agricultural products that on average contribute most to the external water footprints of nations are: bovine meat, soybean, wheat, cocoa, rice, cotton and maize."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The absolute water footprint is the total sum of water footprints of all people. A country's per capita water footprint (that nation's water footprint divided by its number of inhabitants) can be used to compare its water footprint with those of other nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Argentina",
        "text": "Access to biocapacity in Argentina is much higher than world average. In 2016, Argentina had 6.8 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much more than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Argentina used 3.4 global hectares of biocapacity per person \u2013 their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use half as much biocapacity as Argentina contains. As a result, Argentina is running a biocapacity reserve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Armenia",
        "text": "Access to biocapacity in Armenia is lower than world average. In 2016, Armenia had 0.8 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Armenia used 1.9 global hectares of biocapacity per person\u2014their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use double as much biocapacity as Armenia contains. As a result, Armenia is running a biocapacity deficit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Azerbaijan",
        "text": "Access to biocapacity in Azerbaijan is less than world average. In 2016, Azerbaijan had 0.8 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, half the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Azerbaijan used 2.1 global hectares of biocapacity per person \u2013 their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use more biocapacity than Azerbaijan contains. As a result, Azerbaijan is running a biocapacity deficit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Switzerland",
        "text": "However, access to biocapacity in Switzerland is far lower than world average. In 2016, Switzerland had 1.0 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, 40 percent less than world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In contrast, in 2016, they used 4.6 global hectares of biocapacity \u2013 their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they used about 4.6 times as much biocapacity as Switzerland contains. The remainder comes from imports and overusing the global commons (such as the atmosphere through greenhouse gas emissions). As a result, Switzerland is running a biocapacity deficit. Switzerland"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kuwait",
        "text": "Access to biocapacity in Kuwait is lower than world average. In 2016, Kuwait had 0.59 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Kuwait used 8.6 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use about 14.5 times as much biocapacity as Kuwait contains. As a result, Kuwait is running a biocapacity deficit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Ecological footprint\n--Overview.\n--Methodology.\n--Footprint measurements.\n--Footprint by country.\n----Studies in the United Kingdom.\n--Ecological footprint at the individual level.\n--Reviews and critiques.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Malta",
        "text": "Access to biocapacity in Malta is below the world average. In 2016, Malta had 0.6 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, contrasted with a global average of 1.6 hectares per person. Additionally, residents of Malta exhibited an ecological footprint of consumption of 5.8 global hectares of biocapacity per person, resulting in a sizable biocapacity deficit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Since 2003, Global Footprint Network has calculated the ecological footprint from UN data sources for the world as a whole and for over 200 nations (known as the National Footprint Accounts). The total footprint number of Earths needed to sustain the world's population at that level of consumption are also calculated. Every year the calculations are updated to the latest year with complete UN statistics. The time series are also recalculated with every update since UN statistics sometimes correct historical data sets. Results are available on an open data platform. Lin \"et al.\" (2018) finds that the trends for countries and the world have stayed consistent despite data updates. Also, a recent study by the Swiss Ministry of Environment independently recalculated the Swiss trends and reproduced them within 1\u20134% for the time period that they studied (1996\u20132015). Since 2006, a first set of ecological footprint standards exist that detail both communication and calculation procedures. The latest version are the updated standards from 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thailand",
        "text": "Furthermore, access to biocapacity in Thailand is lower than world average. In 2016, Thailand had 1.2 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, a little less than world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In contrast, in 2016, they used 2.5 global hectares of biocapacity \u2013 their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use about twice as much biocapacity as Thailand contains. As a result, Thailand is running a biocapacity deficit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bahrain",
        "text": "Access to biocapacity in Bahrain is much lower than world average. In 2016, Bahrain had 0.52 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Bahrain used 8.6 global hectares of biocapacity per person \u2013 their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use 16.5 times as much biocapacity as Bahrain contains. As a result, Bahrain is running a biocapacity deficit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Austria",
        "text": "Compared to most European countries, Austria is ecologically well endowed. Its biocapacity (or biological natural capital) is more than double of the world average: In 2016, Austria had 3.8 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, compared to the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In contrast, in 2016, they used 6.0 global hectares of biocapacity - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means that Austrians use about 60 percent more biocapacity than Austria contains. As a result, Austria is running a biocapacity deficit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Latvia",
        "text": "Access to biocapacity in Latvia is much higher than world average. In 2016, Latvia had 8.5 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much more than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Latvia used 6.4 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use less biocapacity than Latvia contains. As a result, Latvia is running a biocapacity reserve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Land footprint",
        "text": "The International Resource Panel has produced a detailed report on land, \"Assessing global land use: Balancing consumption with sustainable supply\", which establishes a planetary boundary for cropland, and proposes a potential safe operating space target of 0.2 ha of cropland per person per year. This is in contrast to the current EU use of cropland of around 0.31 ha per person per year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belize",
        "text": "Access to biocapacity in Belize is much higher than world average. In 2016, Belize had 3.8 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much more than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Belize used 5.4 global hectares of biocapacity per person \u2013 their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use more biocapacity than Belize contains. As a result, Belize is running a biocapacity deficit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biocapacity",
        "text": "Biocapacity is expressed in terms of global hectares per person, thus is dependent on human population. A global hectare is an adjusted unit that represents the average biological productivity of all productive hectares on Earth in a given year (because not all hectares produce the same amount of ecosystem services). Biocapacity is calculated from United Nations population and land use data, and may be reported at various regional levels, such as a city, a country, or the world as a whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biodiversity",
        "text": "According to a 2020 study by the World Wildlife Fund, the global human population already exceeds planet's biocapacity \u2013 it would take the equivalent of 1.56 Earths of biocapacity to meet our current demands. The 2014 report further points that if everyone on the planet had the Footprint of the average resident of Qatar, we would need 4.8 Earths and if we lived the lifestyle of a typical resident of the US, we would need 3.9 Earths."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harmony with nature",
        "text": "9. The so-called \"developed\" countries must reduce their levels of over-consumption to reestablish harmony among human beings and with nature, allowing for the sustainable development of all developing countries. The ecological footprint of the developed countries is between 3 and 5 times larger than the average ecological footprint that the Earth system can sustain without an impact on its vital cycles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aruba",
        "text": "Access to biocapacity in Aruba is much lower than world average. In 2016, Aruba had 0.57 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016, Aruba used 6.5 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use almost 12 times the biocapacity that Aruba contains. This is the extent of Aruba's biocapacity deficit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Global hectare",
        "text": "Consumption totaled 20.1 billion global hectares or 2.8 global hectares per person, meaning about 65% more was consumed than produced. This is possible because there are natural reserves all around the globe that function as backup food, material and energy supplies, although only for a relatively short period of time. Due to rapid population growth, these reserves are being depleted at an ever increasing tempo. See Earth Overshoot Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Angola",
        "text": "Access to biocapacity in Angola is higher than world average. In 2016, Angola had 1.9 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, slightly more than world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016, Angola used 1.01 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use about half as much biocapacity as Angola contains. As a result, Angola is running a biocapacity reserve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bermuda",
        "text": "Access to biocapacity in Bermuda is much lower than world average. In 2016, Bermuda had 0.14 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, far lower than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Bermuda used 7.5 global hectares of biocapacity per person\u2014their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use much more biocapacity than Bermuda contains. As a result, Bermuda runs a biocapacity deficit."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Ten Million Club Foundation",
        "text": "Calculations of the ecological footprint of all countries in the world show exactly where the biocapacity and the available global hectares of a country are exceeded. The Ten Million Club considers population pressure an essential cause of this overshoot. The global overshoot problem cannot properly be solved by a mere reduction of consumption levels. If we would accept a (HDI) of 7.0 - which is the present HDI of countries as Egypt or Indonesia - for all people in the world, with the corresponding ecological footprint, then many countries would still exceed their bocapacity. Given the global impact of overpopulation, the Club does not only address the Dutch; it has published in Spanish, French, German, English, Portuguese, Chinese, Arabic and Russian."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The Earth's biocapacity has not increased at the same rate as the ecological footprint. The increase of biocapacity averaged at only 0.5% per year (SD = 0.7). Because of agricultural intensification, biocapacity was at 9.6 billion gha in 1961 and grew to 12.2 billion gha in 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Each EU citizen consumes 4,815 litres of water per day on average; 44% is used in power production primarily to cool thermal plants or nuclear power plants. Energy production annual water consumption in the EU 27 in 2011 was, in billion m3: for gas 0.53, coal 1.54 and nuclear 2.44. Wind energy avoided the use of 387 million cubic metres (mn m3) of water in 2012, avoiding a cost of \u20ac743 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australia",
        "text": "Access to biocapacity in Australia is much higher than world average. In 2016, Australia had 12.3 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much more than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Australia used 6.6 global hectares of biocapacity per person \u2013 their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use half as much biocapacity as Australia contains. As a result, Australia is running a biocapacity reserve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Benin",
        "text": "Access to biocapacity in Benin is lower than world average. In 2016, Benin had 0.9 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Benin used 1.4 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use slightly under double as much biocapacity as Benin contains. As a result, Benin is running a biocapacity deficit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Global Footprint Network",
        "text": "Every year, Global Footprint Network produced a new edition of its National Footprint and Biocapacity Accounts, which calculate Ecological Footprint and biocapacity of more than 200 countries and territories from 1961 to the present. Based on up to 15,000 data points per country per year, these data have been used to influence policy in more than a dozen countries, including Ecuador, France, Germany, Japan, Korea, the Philippines, Russia, Switzerland, and the United Arab Emirates. Since 2019, the National Footprint and Biocapacity Accounts are produced in collaboration between Global Footprint Network, York University, and Footprint Data Foundation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainability metrics and indices",
        "text": "Ecological footprint accounting, based on the biological concept of carrying capacity, tracks the amount of land and water area a human population demands for producing the biological resources the population consumes, for absorbing its waste, and for accommodating its built infrastructure, all under prevailing technology. This amount then is compared to available biocapacity, in the world or in that region. The biocapacity represents the area able to regenerate resources and assimilate waste. Global Footprint Network publishes every year results for all nations captured in UN statistics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Happy Planet Index",
        "text": "Human well-being is conceptualized as happy life expectancy. Extraction of or imposition upon nature is evaluated by using the ecological footprint per capita, which attempts to estimate the number of natural resources required to sustain a given country's lifestyle. A country with a large per capita ecological footprint uses more than its fair share of resources, both by drawing resources from other countries and also by causing permanent damage to the planet which will affect future generations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Footprint and biocapacity can be compared at the individual, regional, national or global scale. Both footprint and biocapacity change every year with number of people, per person consumption, efficiency of production, and productivity of ecosystems. At a global scale, footprint assessments show how big humanity's demand is compared to what Earth can renew. Global Footprint Network estimates that, as of 2014, humanity has been using natural capital 1.7 times as fast as Earth can renew it, which they describe as meaning humanity's ecological footprint corresponds to 1.7 planet Earths."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per person",
        "text": "List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per person\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "For 2017 Global Footprint Network estimated humanity's ecological footprint as 1.73 planet Earths. According to their calculations this means that humanity's demands were 1.73 times more than what the planet's ecosystems renewed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human Footprint",
        "text": "The Human Footprint increased by 9% from 1993 to 2009, at least partly attributable to a human population increase of 23% and a global economy increase of 153% during the same period. Though population and economic growth far exceed the growth of the Human Footprint, the areas that saw increased human influence were those with the highest biodiversity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ipomoea aquatica",
        "text": "Indonesia: In Indonesia, usually 150 kg to 300 kg of NPK are applied per hectare."
      },
      {
        "title": "Afghanistan",
        "text": "Access to biocapacity in Afghanistan is lower than world average. In 2016, Afghanistan had 0.43 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Afghanistan used 0.73 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use just under double as much biocapacity as Afghanistan contains. As a result, Afghanistan is running a biocapacity deficit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthropogenic metabolism",
        "text": "In addition, the ecological footprint is a more economical and land-focused way of looking at human impact. Developed countries tend to have higher ecological footprints, which do not strictly correspond to a country's total population. According to research by Dias de Oliveira, Vaughan and Rykiel, \"The Ecological Footprint...is an accounting tool based on two fundamental concepts, sustainability and carrying capacity. It makes it possible to estimate the resource consumption and waste assimilation requirements of a defined human population or economy sector in terms of corresponding productive land area.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "I = PAT",
        "text": "Impact may be measured using ecological footprint analysis in units of global hectares (gha). Ecological footprint per capita is a measure of the quantity of Earth's biologically productive surface that is needed to regenerate the resources consumed per capita."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The figure (right) examines sustainability at the scale of individual countries by contrasting their Ecological Footprint with their UN Human Development Index (a measure of standard of living). The graph shows what is necessary for countries to maintain an acceptable standard of living for their citizens while, at the same time, maintaining sustainable resource use. The general trend is for higher standards of living to become less sustainable. As always, population growth has a marked influence on levels of consumption and the efficiency of resource use. The sustainability goal is to raise the global standard of living without increasing the use of resources beyond globally sustainable levels; that is, to not exceed \"one planet\" consumption. The information generated by reports at the national, regional and city scales confirm the global trend towards societies that are becoming less sustainable over time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Blomqvist \"et al\". published a critical paper in 2013. It led to a reply from Rees and Wackernagel (2013), and a rejoinder by Blomqvist \"et al.\" (2013)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Since this metric tracks biocapacity, the replacement of original ecosystems with high-productivity agricultural monocultures can lead to attributing a higher biocapacity to such regions. For example, replacing ancient woodlands or tropical forests with monoculture forests or plantations may therefore decrease the ecological footprint. Similarly if organic farming yields were lower than those of conventional methods, this could result in the former being \"penalized\" with a larger ecological footprint. Complementary biodiversity indicators attempt to address this. The WWF's Living Planet Report combines the footprint calculations with the Living Planet Index of biodiversity. A modified ecological footprint that takes biodiversity into account has been created for use in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barbados",
        "text": "Access to biocapacity in Barbados is much lower than world average. In 2016, Barbados had 0.17 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Barbados used 0.84 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use approximately five times as much biocapacity as Barbados contains. As a result, Barbados is running a biocapacity deficit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The focus of ecological footprint accounting is renewable resources. The total amount of such resources which the planet produces according to this model has been dubbed biocapacity. Ecological footprints can be calculated at any scale: for an activity, a person, a community, a city, a town, a region, a nation, or humanity as a whole. Footprint values are categorized for carbon, food, housing, goods and services. This approach can be applied to an activity such as the manufacturing of a product or driving of a car. This resource accounting is similar to life-cycle analysis wherein the consumption of energy, biomass (food, fiber), building material, water and other resources are converted into a normalized measure of land area called global hectares (gha)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Global hectare",
        "text": "The global hectare (gha) is a measurement unit for the ecological footprint of people or activities and the biocapacity of the earth or its regions. One global hectare is the world's annual amount of biological production for human use and human waste assimilation, per hectare of biologically productive land and fisheries."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Bahamas",
        "text": "Access to biocapacity in the Bahamas is much higher than world average. In 2016, the Bahamas had 9.2 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much more than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 the Bahamas used 3.7 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use less biocapacity than the Bahamas contains. As a result, the Bahamas is running a biocapacity reserve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Five-year plans of China",
        "text": "Population, resources, environment:\n#Population up from 1.30756 billion in 2005 to 1.36000 billion in 2010;\n#Energy consumption per unit of GDP down 20% in five years;\n#Water consumption per unit of industrial added value down 30% in five years;\n#Coefficient of effective use of water for irrigation up from 0.45% in 2005 to 0.5% in 2010;\n#Rate of comprehensive use of solid industrial waste up from 55.8% in 2005 to 60% in 2010;\n#Total acreage of cultivated land down from 122 million hectares in 2005 to 120 million in 2010;\n#Total discharge of major pollutants down 20% in five years;\n#Forest coverage up from 18.2% in 2005 to 20% in 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological yield",
        "text": "In 1986, Vitousek et al. estimated that humans made use of 50 petagrams (50 billion tons) per year of biomass produced from photosynthesis. They also estimated that these 50 billion tons comprised between 20% and 40% of photosynthetic activity on earth. Separately, the Global Footprint Network estimates the total human footprint as 1.6 times the total biosphere. This implies that ecosystems are overexploited by a factor of 1.6 on average."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by forest area",
        "text": "All areas are given in units of 1000\u00a0hectares. Source: Food and Agriculture Organization"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sz\u00e9cs\u00e9ny",
        "text": "24.97 per hectare, which is below the national average.\n*Infrastructure"
      },
      {
        "title": "Trioceros wolfgangboehmei",
        "text": "Population density has been estimated to be 20-40 individuals/hectare in natural forest edges, and 80-110 individuals/hectare in local gardens and farm areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Land footprint",
        "text": "A study of the four resource footprint indicators, carried for the European Commission examined what data was available to measure the land footprint, carbon footprint, water footprint & material footprint at economy level. This study concluded that Land Footprint needed methodological improvement and harmonisation, and that a common, international, multi-regional input output database would make it easier to calculate all four footprints."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wa$ted! (New Zealand TV series)",
        "text": "The show starts with Francesca and Tristan returning one year's worth of rubbish to the family. From here, they filter through the rubbish with the family to show them what they could have recycled and what environmental impact their rubbish is doing. Taking into account rubbish, electricity, water, and transportation, an ecological footprint is calculated to show how much land it would take to provide the resources for their household. They also calculate how many tones of carbon dioxide the family would emit in a year, comparing it to the national average (in New Zealand its 2.5 tones per person per year)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The water footprint of a nation is the amount of water used to produce the goods and services consumed by the inhabitants of that nation. Analysis of the water footprint of nations illustrates the global dimension of water consumption and pollution, by showing that several countries rely heavily on foreign water resources and that (consumption patterns in) many countries significantly and in various ways impact how, and how much, water is being consumed and polluted elsewhere on Earth. International water dependencies are substantial and are likely to increase with continued global trade liberalisation. The largest share (76%) of the virtual water flows between countries is related to international trade in crops and derived crop products. Trade in animal products and industrial products contributed 12% each to the global virtual water flows. The four major direct factors determining the water footprint of a country are: volume of consumption (related to the gross national income); consumption pattern (e.g. high versus low meat consumption); climate (growth conditions); and agricultural practice (water use efficiency)."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by forest area",
        "text": "All areas are given in units of 1000\u00a0hectares. Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oromia",
        "text": "According to a March 2003 World Bank publication, the average rural household has 1.14 hectares of land compared to the national average of 1.01 hectares. 24% of the population work in non-farm related jobs compared to the national average of 25%.\n*Adama University\n*Ambo University\n*Arsi University\n*Dambi Dollo University\n*Dandii Boruu University College\n*Haramaya University\n*Jimma Teachers College\n*Jimma University\n*Madda Walabu University\n*Mattu University\n*New Generation University College\n*Oda Bultum University\n*Oromia State University\n*Rift Valley University College\n*Wollega University"
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental personhood",
        "text": "Environmental personhood\n--Background.\n--Domestic rights of nature.\n----New Zealand.\n----India.\n----United States.\n----Ecuador.\n----Bolivia.\n----Colombia.\n----Canada.\n--Arguments for and against.\n--Significance for cultural human rights.\n--Ecocide.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Land footprint",
        "text": "Ecological footprint is measured using a different approach, that looks at the biosphere from the perspective of regeneration. On the demand side, it measures regeneration in terms of area needed to provide the amount of regeneration.\n* Ecological footprint accounting contrasts demand (expressed in areas needed to provide for the demand) against regeneration (called biocapacity. It thereby combines different demand that compete for biocapacity: space for producing biological resources (crops, fiber, timber), space for absorbing waste (forest to absorb emissions), or space to accommodate urban infrastructure). In contrast, land footprint looks only at direct land use, and does not include the carbon footprint.\n* Ecological footprint and biocapacity are expressed in global hectares, hectares that are adjusted for the hectares biological productivity. In contrast, land footprint is expressed in hectares."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The ecological footprint is a method promoted by the Global Footprint Network to measure human demand on natural capital, i.e. the quantity of nature it takes to support people or an economy. It tracks this demand through an ecological accounting system. The accounts contrast the biologically productive area people use for their consumption to the biologically productive area available within a region or the world (biocapacity, the productive area that can regenerate what people demand from nature). In short, it is a measure of human impact on the environment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "A number of national government agencies have performed collaborative or independent research to test the reliability of the ecological footprint accounting method and its results. They have largely confirmed the accounts' results; those who reproduced the assessment generating near-identical results. Such reviews include those of Switzerland, Germany, France, Ireland, the United Arab Emirates and the European Commission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fundaci\u00f3n Vida Silvestre Argentina",
        "text": "All stages of production generate an impact on the environment, which does not depend solely on the activity as such, but also on the ways they are carried out. The main factors of the ecological footprint in Argentina are the source and consumption of energy, and the changes in soil use as a result of agricultural and forestry practices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human Development Report",
        "text": "Numerous highly developed wealthy countries plummet as a result of their environmental impact, such as the United States, which drops 45 places. By contrast, countries with lighter footprints such Costa Rica, Moldova and Panama move up the index by roughly 30 places."
      },
      {
        "title": "Average human height by country",
        "text": "Below are average adult human heights by country or geographical region. The original studies and sources should be consulted for details on methodology and the exact populations measured, surveyed, or considered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Darcy Lever",
        "text": "covers an area of 481 hectares. It is home to approximately 6,000 males and 6,000 females, living in approximately 5,000 households."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human ecology",
        "text": "In 1992, William Rees developed the ecological footprint concept. The ecological footprint and its close analog the water footprint has become a popular way of accounting for the level of impact that human society is imparting on the Earth's ecosystems. All indications are that the human enterprise is unsustainable as the footprint of society is placing too much stress on the ecology of the planet. The WWF 2008 living planet report and other researchers report that human civilization has exceeded the bio-regenerative capacity of the planet. This means that the footprint of human consumption is extracting more natural resources than can be replenished by ecosystems around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental issues in India",
        "text": "Other data suggest that population density has little correlation to environmental quality and human quality of life. India's population density, in 2011, was about 368 human beings per square kilometre. Many countries with population density similar or higher than India enjoy environmental quality as well as human quality of life far superior than India. For example: Singapore (7148 /km2), Hong Kong (6349 /km2), South Korea (487 /km2), Netherlands (403 /km2), Belgium (355 / km2), England (395 /km2) and Japan (337/ km2)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Individual action on climate change",
        "text": "the remaining carbon budget for a 50-50 chance of staying below 1.5 degrees of warming is 460 bn tonnes of or 11 and a half years at 2020 emission rates. Global average greenhouse gas per person per year in the late 2010s was about 7 tonnes - including 0.7 tonnes CO2eq food, 1.1 tonnes from the home, and 0.8 tonnes from transport. Of this about 5 tonnes was actual carbon dioxide. To meet the Paris Agreement target of under 1.5 degrees warming by the end of the century, it is estimated that the annual carbon footprint per person required by 2030 is 2.3 tonnes. the average Indian almost meets this target, the average person in France or China exceeds it, and the average person in the US and Australia vastly exceeds it. Per capita emissions also vary significantly within countries, with wealthier individuals creating more emissions. A 2015 Oxfam report calculated that the wealthiest 10% of the global population were responsible for half of all greenhouse gas emissions. According to a 2021 report by the UN, the wealthiest 5% contributed nearly 40% of emissions growth from 1990 to 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainability metrics and indices",
        "text": "The algorithms of ecological footprint accounts have been used in combination with the emergy methodology (S. Zhao, Z. Li and W. Li 2005), and a sustainability index has been derived from the latter. They have also been combined with a measure of quality of life, for instance through the \"Happy Planet Index\" (HPI) calculated for 178 nations (Marks et al., 2006). The Happy Planet Index calculates how many happy life years each country is able to generate per global hectare of ecological footprint."
      },
      {
        "title": "Overconsumption",
        "text": "The world's ecological capacity is simply insufficient to satisfy the ambitions of China, India, Japan, Europe, and the United States as well as the aspirations of the rest of the world in a sustainable way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Personico",
        "text": "Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 0.5% and transportation infrastructure made up 0.4%. Out of the forested land, 48.8% of the total land area is heavily forested, while 12.9% is covered in small trees and shrubbery and 2.0% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 0.9% is used for growing crops. All the water in the municipality is flowing water. Of the unproductive areas, 15.2% is unproductive vegetation and 13.6% is too rocky for vegetation."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by organic farmland",
        "text": "All areas are given in hectares. Source: FIBL"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wilderness",
        "text": "The Wildlife Conservation Society generated a \"human footprint\" using a number of indicators, the absence of which indicate wildness: human population density, human access via roads and rivers, human infrastructure for agriculture and settlements and the presence of industrial power (lights visible from space). The society estimates that 26% of the Earth's land mass falls into the category of \"Last of the wild.\" The wildest regions of the world include the Arctic Tundra, the Siberia Taiga, the Amazon rainforest, the Tibetan Plateau, the Australia Outback and deserts such as the Sahara, and the Gobi. However, from the 1970s, numerous geoglyphs have been discovered on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest, leading to claims about Pre-Columbian civilizations. The BBC's \"Unnatural Histories\" claimed that the Amazon rainforest, rather than being a pristine wilderness, has been shaped by man for at least 11,000 years through practices such as forest gardening and terra preta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Perstorp",
        "text": "According to a 2015 statistic, there was a total population of 5 847 people, distributed over 576 hectares (5.76 km\u00b2) within the Perstorp municipality. This amounts to ca. 10,15 people per hectare, or about one person per square kilometre."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbon footprint",
        "text": "A July 2017 study published in \"Environmental Research Letters\" found that the most significant way individuals could mitigate their own carbon footprint is to have one less child (\"an average for developed countries of 58.6\u2009tonnes CO2-equivalent (tCO2e) emission reductions per year\"), followed by living car-free (2.4 tonnes CO2-equivalent per year), forgoing air travel (1.6 tonnes CO2-equivalent per trans-Atlantic trip) and adopting a plant-based diet (0.8 tonnes CO2-equivalent per year). The study also found that most government resources on climate change focus on actions that have a relatively modest effect on greenhouse gas emissions, and concludes that \"a US family who chooses to have one fewer child would provide the same level of emissions reductions as 684 teenagers who choose to adopt comprehensive recycling for the rest of their lives\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is an ecological footprint?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The ecological footprint is a method promoted by the Global Footprint Network to measure human demand on natural capital, i.e. the quantity of nature it takes to support people or an economy."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which country produces the largest ecological footprint?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Western Australian government State of the Environment Report included an Ecological Footprint measure for the average Western Australian seven times the average footprint per person on the planet in 2007, a total of about 15 hectares."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which country has the smallest ecological footprint?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I was unable to find the country with the smallest ecological footprint, but I did find that the average per country ranges from over 10 to under 1 global hectares per person."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What countries have an ecological footprint under 5 hectares per person?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "The world-average ecological footprint in 2013 was 2.8 global hectares per person, with the average ranging from over 10 to under 1 global hectares per person. But I don't have a list of countries with an ecological footprint under 5 global hectares per person."
    ],
    "topic": "Water footprint",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Ecological footprint:18",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ecological footprint",
          "Footprint by country"
        ],
        "ctx": "The world-average ecological footprint in 2013 was 2.8 global hectares per person. The average per country ranges from over 10 to under 1 global hectares per person. There is also a high variation within countries, based on individual lifestyle and economic possibilities."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Sustainable water use involves the rigorous assessment of all source of clean water to establish the current and future rates of use, the impacts of that use both downstream and in the wider area where the water may be used and the impact of contaminated water streams on the environment and economic well being of the area. It also involves the implementation of social policies such as water pricing in order to manage water demand. In some localities, water may also have spiritual relevance and the use of such water may need to take account of such interests. For example, the Maori believe that water is the source and foundation of all life and have many spiritual associations with water and places associated with water. On a national and global scale, water sustainability requires strategic and long term planning to ensure appropriate sources of clean water are identified and the environmental and economic impact of such choices are understood and accepted. The re-use and reclamation of water is also part of sustainability including downstream impacts on both surface waters and ground waters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The global water footprint in the period 1996\u20132005 was 9.087 Gm3/yr (Billion Cubic Metres per year, or 9.087.000.000.000.000 liters/year), of which 74% was and green, 11% blue, 15% grey. This is an average amount per capita of 1.385 Gm3/yr., or 3.800 liters per person per day. On average 92% of this is embedded in agricultural products consumed, 4.4% in industrial products consumed, and 3.6% is domestic water use. The global water footprint related to producing goods for export is 1.762 Gm3/y."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Globally, about 4 percent of precipitation falling on land each year (about ), is used by rain-fed agriculture and about half is subject to evaporation and transpiration in forests and other natural or quasi-natural landscapes. The remainder, which goes to groundwater replenishment and surface runoff, is sometimes called \"total actual renewable freshwater resources\". Its magnitude was in 2012 estimated at /year. It represents water that can be used either in-stream or after withdrawal from surface and groundwater sources. Of this remainder, about were withdrawn in 2007, of which , or 69 percent, were used by agriculture, and , or 19 percent, by other industry. Most agricultural use of withdrawn water is for irrigation, which uses about 5.1 percent of total actual renewable freshwater resources. World water use has been growing rapidly in the last hundred years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "According to Rees, \"the average world citizen has an eco-footprint of about 2.7 global average hectares while there are only 2.1 global hectare of bioproductive land and water per capita on earth. This means that humanity has already overshot global biocapacity by 30% and now lives unsustainabily by depleting stocks of 'natural capital'.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Water footprint\n--Definition and measures.\n----Blue water footprint.\n----Green water footprint.\n----Grey water footprint.\n----Calculation for different actors.\n--History.\n----Water Footprint Network (WFN).\n----International standard.\n----Life-cycle assessment of water use.\n--Water availability.\n--Water footprint of products (Agricultural Sector).\n--Water footprint of companies (Industrial Sector).\n--Water footprint of individual consumers (Domestic Sector).\n--Water footprint of nations.\n----Production or consumption.\n----Absolute or per capita.\n----Internal or external.\n--Water use in continents.\n----Europe.\n----Asia.\n--Environmental water use.\n--Criticism of water footprint and virtual water.\n----Insufficient consideration of consequences of proposed water saving policies to farm households.\n----Regional water scarcity should be taken into account when interpreting water footprint.\n--Sustainable water use.\n----Sustainability assessment.\n--Sectoral distributions of withdrawn water use.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Water footprint accounting has advanced substantially in recent years, however, water footprint analysis also needs sustainability assessment as its last phase. One of the developments is to employ sustainable efficiency and equity (\"Sefficiency in Sequity\"), which present a comprehensive approach to assessing the sustainable use of water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Although agriculture's water use includes provision of important terrestrial environmental values (as discussed in the \"Water footprint of products\" section above), and much \"green water\" is used in maintaining forests and wild lands, there is also direct environmental use (e.g. of surface water) that may be allocated by governments. For example, in California, where water use issues are sometimes severe because of drought, about 48 percent of \"dedicated water use\" in an average water year is for the environment (somewhat more than for agriculture). Such environmental water use is for keeping streams flowing, maintaining aquatic and riparian habitats, keeping wetlands wet, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "Water footprints shows the extent of water use in relation to consumption by people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainability metrics and indices",
        "text": "Ecological footprint accounting, based on the biological concept of carrying capacity, tracks the amount of land and water area a human population demands for producing the biological resources the population consumes, for absorbing its waste, and for accommodating its built infrastructure, all under prevailing technology. This amount then is compared to available biocapacity, in the world or in that region. The biocapacity represents the area able to regenerate resources and assimilate waste. Global Footprint Network publishes every year results for all nations captured in UN statistics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Traditionally, water use has been approached from the production side, by quantifying the following three columns of water use: water withdrawals in the agricultural, industrial, and domestic sector. While this does provide valuable data, it is a limited way of looking at water use in a globalised world, in which products are not always consumed in their country of origin. International trade of agricultural and industrial products in effect creates a global flow of virtual water, or \"embodied water\" (akin to the concept of embodied energy)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arjen Hoekstra",
        "text": "The water footprint shows the extent of water use in relation to consumption by people. The water footprint of an individual, community or business is defined as the total volume of fresh water used to produce the goods and services consumed by the individual or community or produced by the business. Water use is measured in water volume consumed (evaporated) and/or polluted per unit of time. A water footprint can be calculated for any well-defined group of consumers (e.g., an individual, family, village, city, province, state or nation) or producers (e.g., a public organization, private enterprise or economic sector), for a single process (such as growing rice) or for any product or service."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of sustainability",
        "text": "Water\n* Water footprint\n* Water crisis\n* Water efficiency\n* Water conservation"
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthropogenic metabolism",
        "text": "A water footprint is the amount of water that each person uses in their daily lives. Most of the world's water is salt water which cannot be used in human food or water supplies. Therefore, the freshwater sources that were once plentiful are now being diminished due to anthropogenic metabolism of the growing population. The water footprint encompasses how much fresh water is needed for each consumer's needs. According to J. Allan, \"there is a huge impact of water use on stores of surface and groundwater and on flows to which water is returned after use. These impacts are shown to be particularly high for manufacturing industries. For example, that there are less than 10 economies worldwide that have a significant water surplus, but that these economies have successfully met, or have the potential to meet, the water deficits of the other 190 economies. Consumers enjoy the delusion of food and water security provided by virtual water trade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "The water footprint (WF) is a multi-dimensional indicator, measuring both water consumption (the consumptive WF) and water pollution (the degradative WF). The consumptive WF splits into a green WF, measuring the consumption of rainwater, and a blue WF, measuring the consumption of groundwater or surface water. How water footprints can help monitor progress on SDG 6.3 and 6.4?\n* The grey Water Footprint can be a relevant indicator for measuring progress on target 6.3. The grey Water Footprint can be expressed in terms of a polluted water volume per unit of a specific process or product.\n* The blue Water Footprint can be a relevant indicator for measuring progress on target 6.4. The blue Water Footprint can be expressed in terms of the water volume consumed per unit of a specific process or product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The application and interpretation of water footprints may sometimes be used to promote industrial activities that lead to facile criticism of certain products. For example, the 140\u00a0litres required for coffee production for one cup might be of no harm to water resources if its cultivation occurs mainly in humid areas, but could be damaging in more arid regions. Other factors such as hydrology, climate, geology, topography, population and demographics should also be taken into account. Nevertheless, high water footprint calculations do suggest that environmental concern may be appropriate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arjen Hoekstra",
        "text": "In 2002, the water footprint concept was introduced in order to have a consumption-based indicator of water use, that could provide useful information in addition to the traditional production-sector-based indicators of water use. It is analogous to the ecological footprint concept introduced in the 1990s. The water footprint is a geographically explicit indicator, not only showing volumes of water use and pollution, but also the locations. Thus, it gives a grasp on how economic choices and processes influence the availability of adequate water resources and other ecological realities across the globe (and vice versa)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The concept of a \"water footprint\" was coined in 2002, by Arjen Hoekstra, Professor in water management at the University of Twente, Netherlands, and co-founder and scientific director of the Water Footprint Network, whilst working at the UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, as a metric to measure the amount of water consumed and polluted to produce goods and services along their full supply chain. Water footprint is one of a family of ecological footprint indicators, which also includes carbon footprint and land footprint. The water footprint concept is further related to the idea of virtual water trade introduced in the early 1990s by Professor John Allan (2008 Stockholm Water Prize Laureate). The most elaborate publications on how to estimate water footprints are a 2004 report on the \"Water footprint of nations\" from UNESCO-IHE, the 2008 book \"Globalization of Water\", and the 2011 manual \"The water footprint assessment manual: Setting the global standard\". Cooperation between global leading institutions in the field has led to the establishment of the Water Footprint Network in 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The water footprint of a nation is the amount of water used to produce the goods and services consumed by the inhabitants of that nation. Analysis of the water footprint of nations illustrates the global dimension of water consumption and pollution, by showing that several countries rely heavily on foreign water resources and that (consumption patterns in) many countries significantly and in various ways impact how, and how much, water is being consumed and polluted elsewhere on Earth. International water dependencies are substantial and are likely to increase with continued global trade liberalisation. The largest share (76%) of the virtual water flows between countries is related to international trade in crops and derived crop products. Trade in animal products and industrial products contributed 12% each to the global virtual water flows. The four major direct factors determining the water footprint of a country are: volume of consumption (related to the gross national income); consumption pattern (e.g. high versus low meat consumption); climate (growth conditions); and agricultural practice (water use efficiency)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "In 2002, the water footprint concept was introduced in order to have a consumption-based indicator of water use, that could provide useful information in addition to the traditional production-sector-based indicators of water use. It is analogous to the ecological footprint concept introduced in the 1990s. The water footprint is a geographically explicit indicator, not only showing volumes of water use and pollution, but also the locations. Thus, it gives a grasp on how economic choices and processes influence the availability of adequate water resources and other ecological realities across the globe (and vice versa)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human overpopulation",
        "text": "Critics have questioned the simplifications and statistical methods used in calculating ecological footprints. Therefore, Global Footprint Network and its partner organizations have engaged with national governments and international agencies to test the results\u2014reviews have been produced by France, Germany, the European Commission, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Japan and the United Arab Emirates. Some point out that a more refined method of assessing Ecological Footprint is to designate sustainable versus non-sustainable categories of consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "A water footprint shows the extent of water use in relation to consumption by people. The water footprint of an individual, community, or business is defined as the total volume of fresh water used to produce the goods and services consumed by the individual or community or produced by the business. Water use is measured in water volume consumed (evaporated) and/or polluted per unit of time. A water footprint can be calculated for any well-defined group of consumers (e.g., an individual, family, village, city, province, state, or nation) or producers (e.g., a public organization, private enterprise, or economic sector), for a single process (such as growing rice) or for any product or service."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Academy of Engineering",
        "text": "Another commentator observed that challenges with respect to sustainability concentrated on specific elements of the problem without addressing \"... \"what level of energy use would be sustainable on a global scale.\" While India and China are 1000-1500 Watt per person societies, the United States requires 12,000 W per person. An estimate of a sustainable level of power consumption made by a Swiss group is 2,000 W per person. Similar questions were raised on the NAE's challenge for access to clean water. The average daily per capita water consumption in American cities varies from 130 to 2000 liters (35 to 530 gallons)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The absolute water footprint is the total sum of water footprints of all people. A country's per capita water footprint (that nation's water footprint divided by its number of inhabitants) can be used to compare its water footprint with those of other nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The average global water footprint of an individual is 1,385 m3 per year. Residents of some example nations have water footprints as shown in the table:"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "For humanity, having a footprint smaller than the planet's biocapacity is a necessary condition for sustainability. After all, ecological overuse is only possible temporarily. A country that consumes more than 1.73 gha per person has a resource demand that is not sustainable world-wide if every country were to exceed that consumption level simultaneously. Countries with a footprint below 1.73 gha per person might not be sustainable: the quality of the footprint may still lead to net long-term ecological destruction. If a country does not have enough ecological resources within its own territory to cover its population's footprint, then it runs an ecological deficit and the country is termed an \"ecological debtor\". Otherwise, it has an ecological reserve and it is called a \"creditor\". To a significant degree, biocapacity correlates with access to water resources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainability metrics and indices",
        "text": "The algorithms of ecological footprint accounts have been used in combination with the emergy methodology (S. Zhao, Z. Li and W. Li 2005), and a sustainability index has been derived from the latter. They have also been combined with a measure of quality of life, for instance through the \"Happy Planet Index\" (HPI) calculated for 178 nations (Marks et al., 2006). The Happy Planet Index calculates how many happy life years each country is able to generate per global hectare of ecological footprint."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The assessment of total water use in connection to consumption can be approached from both ends of the supply chain. The water footprint of production estimates how much water from local sources is used or polluted in order to provide the goods and services produced in that country. The water footprint of consumption of a country looks at the amount of water used or polluted (locally, or in the case of imported goods, in other countries) in connection with all the goods and services that are consumed by the inhabitants of that country. The water footprint of production and that of consumption, can also be estimated for any administrative unit such as a city, province, river basin or the entire world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The internal water footprint is the amount of water used from domestic water resources; the external water footprint is the amount of water used in other countries to produce goods and services imported and consumed by the inhabitants of the country. When assessing the water footprint of a nation, it is crucial to take into account the international flows of virtual water (also called \"embodied water\", i.e. the water used or polluted in connection to all agricultural and industrial commodities) leaving and entering the country. When taking the use of domestic water resources as a starting point for calculating a nation's water footprint, one should subtract the virtual water flows that leave the country and add the virtual water flows that enter the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "Water Footprint"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The world-average ecological footprint in 2013 was 2.8 global hectares per person. The average per country ranges from over 10 to under 1 global hectares per person. There is also a high variation within countries, based on individual lifestyle and economic possibilities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fresh water",
        "text": "The Sustainable Development Goals are a collection of 17 interlinked global goals designed to be a \"blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all\". Targets on freshwater conservation are included in SDG 6 (Clean water and sanitation) and SDG 15 (Life on land). For example, Target 6.4 is formulated as \"By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity.\" Another target, Target 15.1, is: \"By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands, mountains and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "There are 11 global indicators to track progress towards SDG 6. The global estimates are based on country data, compiled and verified by the United Nations agencies responsible, sometimes complemented by data from other sources.\n* Indicator 6.1.1 \u2013 Drinking water: 74% of the world's population uses a safely managed drinking water service (SDG indicator 6.1.1, 2007-2020)\n* Indicator 6.2.1a \u2013 Sanitation: 54% of the world's population uses a safely managed sanitation service (SDG indicator 6.2.1a, 2016-2020)\n* Indicator 6.2.1b \u2013 Hygiene: 71% of the world's population have access to a basic handwashing facility (SDG indicator 6.2.1b, 2014-2020)\n* Indicator 6.3.1 \u2013 Wastewater treatment: 56% of the world's household wastewater is safely treated (SDG indicator 6.3.1, 2020)\n* Indicator 6.3.2 \u2013 Water quality: 72% of the world's monitored water bodies have good ambient water quality (SDG indicator 6.3.2, 2017-2020)\n* Indicator 6.4.1 \u2013 Water use efficiency: 19 $/m3 is the ratio of dollar value added to the volume of water used at the global level (SDG indicator 6.4.1, 2017-2018)\n* Indicator 6.4.2 \u2013 Water stress: 17% of the world's renewable water resources is being withdrawn, after taking into account environmental flow requirements (SDG indicator 6.4.2, 2018)\n* indicator 6.5.1 \u2013 Integrated water resources management: 54% is the degree of implementation of integrated water resources management (IWRM) at the global level (SDG indicator 6.5.1, 2017-2020)\n* Indicator 6.5.2 \u2013 Transboundary water cooperation: 58% of the transboundary basin area has an operational arrangement for water cooperation (SDG indicator 6.5.2, 2020)\n* Indicator 6.6.1 \u2013 Water-related ecosystems: At the global level, not enough country data were reported in 2016 to estimate the change in the extent of water-related ecosystems (SDG indicator 6.6.1)\n* indicator 6.a.1 \u2013 International cooperation : 9.3 b$ is the global amount of water- and sanitation-related official development assistance received in 2019 (SDG indicator 6.a.1)\n* indicator 6.b.1 \u2013 Community participation : Community participation is measured through multiple indicators which are not aggregated into one overall value (SDG 6 indicator 6.b.1)"
      },
      {
        "title": "UN-Water",
        "text": "Water is at the core of sustainable development and is critical for socio-economic development, healthy ecosystems and for human survival itself. Ecosystems across the world, particularly wetlands, are in decline in terms of the services they provide. Between US$4.3 and US$20.2 trillion per year worth of ecosystem services were lost between 1997 and 2011 due to land use change."
      },
      {
        "title": "World Water Assessment Programme",
        "text": "\u2022 Measure progress towards achieving sustainable use of water resources through robust indicators; and"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water resource management",
        "text": "The report found that it would be possible to produce the food required in future, but that continuation of today's food production practices and environmental trends would lead to crises in many parts of the world. It has become increasingly common to think about agricultural uses of water in terms of the water footprint involved in producing particular food or fodder crops and to argue that richer parts of the world need to reconcile themselves to reprofiling their foodways to achieve a smaller agricultural water footprint."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Honduras",
        "text": "WaterPartners contracted with Emory University in 2006 to systematically assess a random sample of projects completed over the last ten years. Few NGOs have conducted systematic studies of the sustainability of their water supply projects. This study represents a significant step towards quantifying results and identifying opportunities for improvement. Results indicated that the systems continued to deliver water at levels demanded by users, people were very satisfied with the new services, and that systems were making positive impacts in users\u2019 daily lives. Challenges identified in the evaluation include dissociation of the local water committees with the local partner organization, \"relaxation of system maintenance, financial instability of water committees, poor water quantity in the dry summer months, and contamination and deforestation at the source.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "In February 2011, the Water Footprint Network, in a global collaborative effort of environmental organizations, companies, research institutions and the UN, launched the \"Global Water Footprint Standard\". In July 2014, the International Organization for Standardization issued \"ISO 14046:2014, Environmental management\u2014Water footprint\u2014Principles, requirements and guidelines\", to provide practical guidance to practitioners from various backgrounds, such as large companies, public authorities, non-governmental organizations, academic and research groups as well as small and medium enterprises, for carrying out a water footprint assessment. The ISO standard is based on life-cycle assessment (LCA) principles and can be applied for different sorts of assessment of products and companies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Each EU citizen consumes 4,815 litres of water per day on average; 44% is used in power production primarily to cool thermal plants or nuclear power plants. Energy production annual water consumption in the EU 27 in 2011 was, in billion m3: for gas 0.53, coal 1.54 and nuclear 2.44. Wind energy avoided the use of 387 million cubic metres (mn m3) of water in 2012, avoiding a cost of \u20ac743 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a systematic, phased approach to assessing the environmental aspects and potential impacts that are associated with a product, process or service. \"Life cycle\" refers to the major activities connected with the product's life-span, from its manufacture, use, and maintenance, to its final disposal, and also including the acquisition of raw material required to manufacture the product. Thus a method for assessing the environmental impacts of freshwater consumption was developed. It specifically looks at the damage to three areas of protection: human health, ecosystem quality, and resources. The consideration of water consumption is crucial where water-intensive products (for example agricultural goods) are concerned that need to therefore undergo a life-cycle assessment. In addition, regional assessments are equally as necessary as the impact of water use depends on its location. In short, LCA is important as it identifies the impact of water use in certain products, consumers, companies, nations, etc. which can help reduce the amount of water used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "For example: In Canada, 99% of the population use a safely managed drinking water service(SDG indicator 6.1.1, 2020); 84% of the population use a safely managed sanitation service (SDG indicator 6.2.1a, 2020);"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The water footprint of an individual refers to the sum of their direct and indirect freshwater use. The direct water use is the water used at home, while the indirect water use relates to the total volume of freshwater that is used to produce the goods and services consumed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable living",
        "text": "Greywater, including water from washing machines, sinks, showers, and baths may be reused in landscape irrigation and toilets as a method of water conservation. Likewise, rainwater harvesting from storm-water runoff is also a sustainable method to conserve water use in a sustainable shelter. Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems replicate the natural systems that clean water in wildlife and implement them in a city's drainage system so as to minimize contaminated water and unnatural rates of runoff into the environment."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by ecological footprint",
        "text": "world-average ecological footprint in 2016 was 2.75 global hectares per person (22.6 billion in total). With a world-average biocapacity of 1.63 global hectares (gha) per person (12.2 billion in total), this leads to a global ecological deficit of 1.1 global hectares per person (10.4 billion in total)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Within the agricultural sector, withdrawn water use is for irrigation and for livestock. Whereas all irrigation in the US (including loss in conveyance of irrigation water) is estimated to account for about 38 percent of US withdrawn freshwater use, the irrigation water used for production of livestock feed and forage has been estimated to account for about 9 percent, and other withdrawn freshwater use for the livestock sector (for drinking, washdown of facilities, etc.) is estimated at about 0.7 percent. Because agriculture is a major user of withdrawn water, changes in the magnitude and efficiency of its water use are important. In the US, from 1980 (when agriculture's withdrawn water use peaked) to 2010, there was a 23 percent reduction in agriculture's use of withdrawn water, while US agricultural output increased by 49 percent over that period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "A \"green water footprint\" refers to the amount of water from precipitation that, after having been stored in the root zone of the soil (green water), is either lost by evapotranspiration or incorporated by plants. It is particularly relevant for agricultural, horticultural and forestry products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Friends of the Earth \u2013 France",
        "text": "As part of this thematic, the report \u201cOverconsumption, a threat to water\u201d (Surconsommation, une menace sur l'eau) was done in 2011 : it highlights the water footprint of consumption, that is to say the volume of water needed for the production of goods that people consume (for example a T-shirt requires 2,700 litres of water)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainability and environmental management",
        "text": "Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. Of this, 97.5% is the salty water of the oceans and only 2.5% freshwater, most of which is locked up in the Antarctic ice sheet. The remaining freshwater is found in lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, aquifers and atmosphere. All life depends on the solar-powered global water cycle, the evaporation from oceans and land to form water vapour that later condenses from clouds as rain, which then becomes the renewable part of the freshwater supply. Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged as: during the 20th century, more than half the world's wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. Biodiversity-rich freshwater ecosystems are currently declining faster than marine or land ecosystems making them the world's most vulnerable habitats. Increasing urbanization pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe water. In the industrial world demand management has slowed absolute usage rates but increasingly water is being transported over vast distances from water-rich natural areas to population-dense urban areas and energy-hungry desalination is becoming more widely used. Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue (harvestable) and green (soil water available for plant use) water, and this applies at all scales of water management."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The use of the term \"footprint\" can also confuse people familiar with the notion of a carbon footprint, because the water footprint concept includes sums of water quantities without necessarily evaluating related impacts. This is in contrast to the carbon footprint, where carbon emissions are not simply summarized but normalized by CO2 emissions, which are globally identical, to account for the environmental harm. The difference is due to the somewhat more complex nature of water; while involved in the global hydrological cycle, it is expressed in conditions both local and regional through various forms like river basins, watersheds, on down to groundwater (as part of larger aquifer systems). Furthermore, looking at the definition of the footprint itself, and comparing ecological footprint, carbon footprint and water footprint, we realize that the three terms are indeed legitimate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "In south India the state Tamil Nadu is one of the main agricultural producers in India and it relies largely in groundwater for irrigation. In ten years, from 2002 to 2012, the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment calculated that the groundwater reduced in 1.4 m yr\u22121, which \"is nearly 8% more than the annual recharge rate.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Water scarcity",
        "text": "The International Resource Panel of the UN states that governments have tended to invest heavily in largely inefficient solutions: mega-projects like dams, canals, aqueducts, pipelines and water reservoirs, which are generally neither environmentally sustainable nor economically viable. The most cost-effective way of decoupling water use from economic growth, according to the scientific panel, is for governments to create holistic water management plans that take into account the entire water cycle: from source to distribution, economic use, treatment, recycling, reuse and return to the environment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "In the US, irrigation water application data are collected in the quinquennial Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey, conducted as part of the Census of Agriculture. Such data indicate great differences in irrigation water use within various agricultural sectors. For example, about 14 percent of corn-for-grain land and 11 percent of soybean land in the US are irrigated, compared with 66 percent of vegetable land, 79 percent of orchard land and 97 percent of rice land."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable architecture",
        "text": "Water Usage [edit]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of sustainability articles",
        "text": "Water conservation -"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable agriculture",
        "text": "Indicators for sustainable water resource development include the average annual flow of rivers from rainfall, flows from outside a country, the percentage of water coming from outside a country, and gross water withdrawal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water scarcity",
        "text": "Water scarcity assessments need to incorporate information on green water (soil moisture), water quality, environmental flow requirements, globalization, and virtual water trade. There is a need for collaboration between hydrological, water quality, aquatic ecosystem science and social science communities in water scarcity assessment. \"Water stress\" has been used as parameter to measure water scarcity, for example in the context of Sustainable Development Goal 6. Two-thirds of the global population (4 billion people) live under conditions of severe water scarcity at least one month of the year. Half a billion people in the world face severe water scarcity all year round. Half of the world's largest cities experience water scarcity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water consumption",
        "text": "#REDIRECT Water footprint"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "In 2007, the average biologically productive area per person worldwide was approximately 1.8 global hectares (gha) per capita. The U.S. footprint per capita was 9.0 gha, and that of Switzerland was 5.6 gha, while China's was 1.8 gha. The WWF claims that the human footprint has exceeded the biocapacity (the available supply of natural resources) of the planet by 20%. Wackernagel and Rees originally estimated that the available biological capacity for the 6 billion people on Earth at that time was about 1.3 hectares per person, which is smaller than the 1.8 global hectares published for 2006, because the initial studies neither used global hectares nor included bioproductive marine areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological design",
        "text": "Water recycling systems such as rainwater tanks that harvest water for multiple purposes. Reusing grey water generated by households are a useful way of not wasting drinking water."
      },
      {
        "title": "University of British Columbia",
        "text": "To reduce this consumption, the UBC sustainability team created an initiative to conserve called the Water Action Plan in 2011 to reduce and recycle water on campus. Two landmarks for creating water sustainability are the CIRS and the C. K. Choi Building. The Centre for Interactive Sustainability (CIRS) building features a closed-loop water system where water is recycled and reused. On the other hand, the C. K. Choi Building for the Institute of Asian Research, consists of composting toilets, which reduce domestic water consumption. These toilets use an alternative other than using water for flushing and produce fertilizer that can be used for growing plants. Conclusively, these toilets allow for the conservation of water, landfill space, energy, and also the production of quality fertilizer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shahzeen Attari",
        "text": "Her publications include:\n* Shahzeen Z. Attari, David H. Krantz, & Elke U. Weber. (2019). Climate change communicators\u2019 carbon footprints affect their audience\u2019s policy support. \"Climatic Change, 154\"(3-4), 529-545. [DOI: 10.1007/s10584-019-02463-0]\n* Shahzeen Z. Attari, David H. Krantz, & Elke U. Weber (2016). Statements about climate researchers\u2019 carbon footprints affect their credibility and the impact of their advice. \"Climatic Change, 138\"(1-2), 325-338. [DOI: 10.1007/s10584-016-1713-2]\n*Benjamin D. Inskeep & Shahzeen Z. Attari (2014) The Water Shortlist, Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development [DOI: 10.1080/00139157.2014.922375]\n* Shahzeen Z. Attari (2014) Perceptions of Water Use, \"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\" [DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1316402111]\n* Jonathan E. Cook & Shahzeen Z. Attari (2012) Paying for What Was free: Lessons from the New York Times Paywall, Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking [DOI: http://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0251]\n* Shahzeen Z. Attari, Michael L. DeKay, Cliff I. Davidson, and W\u00e4ndi Bruine de Bruin (2010) Public perceptions of energy consumption and savings, \"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\" [DOI:10.1073/pnas.1001509107]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Ecological footprint analysis is widely used around the world in support of sustainability assessments. It enables people to measure and manage the use of resources throughout the economy and explore the sustainability of individual lifestyles, goods and services, organizations, industry sectors, neighborhoods, cities, regions and nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green building in Australia",
        "text": "In NSW, an on-line assessment system called BASIX (Building Sustainability Index) requires that all new residential developments to reduce water consumption by 40%, and CO2 emissions by 40% for detached dwellings and between 20 and 30% for multi unit dwellings compared to an average baseline. The online system provides designers with a mathematical model of the development that considered the interactions between the energy and water systems of the whole, drawing on climatic and normalised rainfall data for individual locations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable design",
        "text": "Beyond the use of certain technologies, Sustainable Design in Water Management also consists very importantly in correct implementation of concepts. Among these principal concepts is the fact normally in developed countries 100% of water destined for consumption, that is not necessarily for drinking purposes, is of potable water quality. This concept of differentiating qualities of water for different purposes has been called \"fit-for-purpose\". This more rational use of water achieves several economies, that are not only related to water itself, but also the consumption of energy, as to achieve water of drinking quality can be extremely energy intensive for several reasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The focus of ecological footprint accounting is renewable resources. The total amount of such resources which the planet produces according to this model has been dubbed biocapacity. Ecological footprints can be calculated at any scale: for an activity, a person, a community, a city, a town, a region, a nation, or humanity as a whole. Footprint values are categorized for carbon, food, housing, goods and services. This approach can be applied to an activity such as the manufacturing of a product or driving of a car. This resource accounting is similar to life-cycle analysis wherein the consumption of energy, biomass (food, fiber), building material, water and other resources are converted into a normalized measure of land area called global hectares (gha)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The figure (right) examines sustainability at the scale of individual countries by contrasting their Ecological Footprint with their UN Human Development Index (a measure of standard of living). The graph shows what is necessary for countries to maintain an acceptable standard of living for their citizens while, at the same time, maintaining sustainable resource use. The general trend is for higher standards of living to become less sustainable. As always, population growth has a marked influence on levels of consumption and the efficiency of resource use. The sustainability goal is to raise the global standard of living without increasing the use of resources beyond globally sustainable levels; that is, to not exceed \"one planet\" consumption. The information generated by reports at the national, regional and city scales confirm the global trend towards societies that are becoming less sustainable over time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Several nations estimate sectoral distribution of use of water withdrawn from surface and groundwater sources. For example, in Canada, in 2005, 42 billion m3 of withdrawn water were used, of which about 38 billion m3 were freshwater. Distribution of this use among sectors was: thermoelectric power generation 66.2%, manufacturing 13.6%, residential 9.0%, agriculture 4.7%, commercial and institutional 2.7%, water treatment and distribution systems 2.3%, mining 1.1%, and oil and gas extraction 0.5%. The 38 billion m3 of freshwater withdrawn in that year can be compared with the nation's annual freshwater yield (estimated as streamflow) of 3,472 billion m3. Sectoral distribution is different in many respects in the US, where agriculture accounts for about 39% of fresh water withdrawals, thermoelectric power generation 38%, industrial 4%, residential 1%, and mining (including oil and gas) 1%."
      },
      {
        "title": "World Water Assessment Programme",
        "text": "The growing global water crisis threatens the security, stability and environmental sustainability of developing but also developed nations. Millions die each year from water-borne diseases, while water pollution and ecosystem destruction aggravate, particularly in the developing world. Over the past few decades there has been an increasing acceptance that the management of water resources must be undertaken with an integrated approach, that assessment of the resource is of fundamental importance as the basis for decision-making and that national capacities to undertake necessary assessments must be fully supported. Management decisions to alleviate poverty, to allow economic development, to ensure food security and the health of human populations as well as preserve vital ecosystems, must be based on our best possible understanding of all relevant systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "According to Dennis Wichelns of the International Water Management Institute: \"Although one goal of virtual water analysis is to describe opportunities for improving water security, there is almost no mention of the potential impacts of the prescriptions arising from that analysis on farm households in industrialized or developing countries. It is essential to consider more carefully the inherent flaws in the virtual water and water footprint perspectives, particularly when seeking guidance regarding policy decisions.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Centre for Interactive Research on Sustainability",
        "text": "All the reclaimed water originates either from the CIRS building or sewer system which is treated onsite using a Solar Aquatics wastewater treatment system and reused in the building for toilet flushing and to irrigate the living roof, landscaped areas and the living wall. The main benefit of this treatment system is awareness and engaging the public in viewing sustainability as a possibility."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "The world is being asked to wash hands multiple times in a day, wash and sanitize every object brought from outside, and sanitize all public transport at a certain interval in a day. The water consumption, as well as the wastewater generation all across the globe, has now increased manifold. The UN-Habitat is working with partners to facilitate access to running water and hand washing in informal settlements. With the increased exploitation of water resources in 2020 its reported that by 2030 700 million people might be displaced by water scarcity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "In absolute terms, India is the country with the largest water footprint in the world, a total of 987 Gm3/yr. In relative terms (i.e. taking population size into account), the people of the USA have the largest water footprint, with 2480 m3/yr per capita, followed by the people in south European countries such as Greece, Italy and Spain (2300\u20132400 m3/yr per capita). High water footprints can also be found in Malaysia and Thailand. In contrast, the Chinese people have a relatively low per capita water footprint with an average of 700 m3/yr. (These numbers are also from the period 1996-2005.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable living",
        "text": "Collection area (square feet) \u00d7 Rainfall (inch/year) / 12 (inch/foot) = Cubic Feet of Water/Year"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable living",
        "text": "Note, however, this calculation does not account for losses such as evaporation or leakage."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c0rea Metropolitana de Barcelona",
        "text": "The competencies on environment and sustainability are linked to three areas: water cycle, waste management and environment.\n* Home supply of drinking water or domestic water supply downstream.\n* Purification of water collected for its use.\n* Wastewater purification.\n* Regeneration of purified wastewater for other uses such as irrigation or aquifers recharging.\n* Coordination of water treatment municipal systems, including the planning and integrated management of rainwater and wastewater evacuation, and of the sewage.\n* Regulation of the corresponding fees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "The current situation regarding water stress was summarized as follows: \"In 2017, Central and Southern Asia and Northern Africa registered very high water stress \u2013 defined as the ratio of freshwater withdrawn to total renewable freshwater resources \u2013 of more than 70 percent\". This is followed by Western Asia and Eastern Asia, with high water stress of 54 percent and 46 percent, respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The Water Footprint Network is an international learning community (a non-profit foundation under Dutch law) which serves as a platform for sharing knowledge, tools and innovations among governments, businesses and communities concerned about growing water scarcity and increasing water pollution levels, and their impacts on people and nature. The network consists of around 100 partners from all sectors \u2013 producers, investors, suppliers and regulators \u2013 as well as non-governmental organisations and academics. It describes its mission as follows: To provide science-based, practical solutions and strategic insights that empower companies, governments, individuals and small-scale producers to transform the way we use and share fresh water within earth's limits."
      },
      {
        "title": "United Nations Water Conference",
        "text": "Forty-six countries still have more than 50% of their population without improved sanitation and there are at least 800 million people still drinking water contaminated with feces. Disparities of water are at the base of all inequalities in poor countries. The Sustainable Development Goal for Water is in the range of the resources, the human and social capacities and the technologies available. These challenges can be combatted by increasing finance to allow benefits to come up in front while also improving the use of financial resources already available. The use of low-cost science and technology that will increase efficiency in water provision and use in industry, agriculture, and energy production. These technologies must be adaptable to the scale and capacity of local conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "World Water Assessment Programme",
        "text": "In 1998, the Sixth Session of the Commission on Sustainable Development stated that there was a need for regular, global assessments on the status of freshwater resources. In response to this the World Water Assessment Programme was founded in 2000 to coordinate the production of the UN World Water Development Report (WWDR), and to report on the status of global freshwater resources. Initially the periodicity and coverage of the Report was triennial and comprehensive, but in 2012, UN-Water changed it to have an annual and theme oriented Report."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "A number of national government agencies have performed collaborative or independent research to test the reliability of the ecological footprint accounting method and its results. They have largely confirmed the accounts' results; those who reproduced the assessment generating near-identical results. Such reviews include those of Switzerland, Germany, France, Ireland, the United Arab Emirates and the European Commission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Strategy in Canada",
        "text": "Using water wisely will extend the life of our existing water supplies and their delivery systems, ultimately lowering water costs and the environmental burden of water usage. As a best practice, Health Canada recommends that water used for drinking and cooking be taken from the cold-water tap after the water has been 'run' until cold.\n;Checklist for Using Water More Efficiently:\n*Install low flow toilets, faucets, and showerheads or retrofit old devices;\n*Avoid flushing the toilet unnecessarily or using the toilet as a garbage can;\n*Fix any leaking or dripping faucets or showerheads;\n*Choose to have a short shower using a low-flow showerhead instead of taking a bath;\n*Maintain the manufacturer's specified temperature for your hot water tank;\n*Keep a bottle of water in the refrigerator to avoid faucet run time;\n*If water faucets must be run to obtain cold or hot water, catch the residual water in a container to use for cleaning, gardening, etc.;\n*Use rain barrels to catch rainwater for gardening;\n*Water lawns and gardens at night when evaporation is low and usage is not during the utility peak demand time;\n*While brushing your teeth, turn the faucet off or fill a cup to rinse your mouth;\n*While washing dishes, turn the faucet off between rinsing dishes; and"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "In 2017, only 71 percent of the global population used safely managed drinking water. This means that 2.2 billion persons were still without safely managed drinking water in 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water scarcity",
        "text": "Sustainable Development Goal 6 is about \"clean water and sanitation for all\". It is one of 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015. The fourth target of SDG 6 refers to water scarcity and states: \"By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity\". It has two indicators. The second one is: \"Level of water stress: freshwater withdrawal as a proportion of available freshwater resources\". The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has been monitoring these parameters through its global water information system, AQUASTAT, since 1994."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol",
        "text": "The Protocol covers a range of topics that need to be understood to assess the overall sustainability of a hydropower project.\n*Communications and consultation\n*Project benefits\n*Project affected communities and livelihoods\n*Resettlement\n*Indigenous peoples\n*Labour and working conditions\n*Public health\n*Cultural heritage\n*Environmental and social issues management\n*Biodiversity and invasive species\n*Climate change mitigation and resilience\n*Erosion and sedimentation\n*Water quality\n*Waste, noise and air quality\n*Reservoir planning / preparation and filling / management\n*Downstream flow regimes\n*Governance\n*Procurement\n*Integrated project management\n*Financial viability\n*Economic viability\n*Demonstrated need and strategic fit\n*Siting and design\n*Hydrological resource\n*Asset reliability and efficiency\n*Infrastructure safety"
      },
      {
        "title": "Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture",
        "text": "The conclusion made by the report's authors was that only by changing the way we use water within agriculture would we be able to meet the acute water, environment and poverty challenges facing us over the next 50 years. They suggested that with wise policies and investments in irrigation, upgrading rainfed agriculture, and trade it would be possible to limit future growth in water withdrawals to 13% and the expansion of cultivated land to 9%. However, the effects of climate change and the increased use of biofuels would complicate matters, making actions necessary to"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "In June 2019, United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organization released their 138-page report \"Progress on household drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene 2000-2017: special focus on inequalities.\" The report said that in 2017, 5.3 billion people\u2014representing 71% of the population of the world\u2014used a \"safely managed drinking-water service\u2014one that is \"located on premises, available when needed, and free from contamination\". By 2017, 6.8 billion people\u2014representing 90% of the world's population\u2014used \"at least a basic service\", which included \"an improved drinking-water source within a round trip of 30 minutes to collect water\". However, in 2017, there were still 785 million people who lacked \"even a basic drinking-water service, including 144 million people who [were] dependent on surface water.\" The report said that approximately 2 billion people used a \"drinking water source contaminated with feces\". The report warned that diseases, including \"diarrhoea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and polio\" are transmitted by contaminated water, which cause about 485, 000 diarrhoeal deaths each year. It cautioned that 50% of the global population will be \"living in water-stressed areas\" by 2025. As of 2017, 22% of health care facilities in the least developed countries had no water service, with similar numbers lacking sanitation and waste management services."
      },
      {
        "title": "I = PAT",
        "text": "Impact may be measured using ecological footprint analysis in units of global hectares (gha). Ecological footprint per capita is a measure of the quantity of Earth's biologically productive surface that is needed to regenerate the resources consumed per capita."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental degradation",
        "text": "The current top three uses of fresh water account for 95% of its consumption; approximately 85% is used for irrigation of farmland, golf courses, and parks, 6% is used for domestic purposes such as indoor bathing uses and outdoor garden and lawn use, and 4% is used for industrial purposes such as processing, washing, and cooling in manufacturing centres. It is estimated that one in three people over the entire globe are already facing water shortages, almost one-fifth of the world population live in areas of physical water scarcity, and almost one quarter of the world's population live in a developing country that lacks the necessary infrastructure to use water from available rivers and aquifers. Water scarcity is an increasing problem due to many foreseen issues in the future including population growth, increased urbanization, higher standards of living, and climate change."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of sustainability articles",
        "text": "Ecological footprint -"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 15",
        "text": "For SDG 6 and SDG 7, the availability and quality of water from the functioning of ecosystems, especially forest ecological system. Protecting biodiversity, and maintaining the integrity of wetlands and forests play a huge role in the acquisition and replenishment of freshwater resources because natural ecosystems act as filters to clean water and protect it from diseases that can harm the animal or human health. Biodiversity, if managed properly, can allow the sustainable use of biological energy, this means that gaining energy from crops, for example, gaining methane from crop production waste, is a form of access to energy, rather than from fossil fuels, thereby reducing pollution, will exert positive effects on biodiversity conservation.SDG 15 has a direct link to SDG 8 includes high-yield agriculture and tourism, which attracts tourists through protected ecosystems and biodiverse environments, thereby enhancing economic returns. At the same time, the conservation and integrity of ecological zones, ecosystems, can play a huge role in protecting infrastructure (SDG 9). Such as protecting road networks, power lines, and other infrastructure in areas threatened by natural disasters. If biodiversity is destroyed, it negatively affects poor people, because their livelihoods depend heavily on ecosystems, thereby increasing inequality(SDG 10)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of sustainability articles",
        "text": "Water purification -"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The Carbon Trust argue that a more robust approach is for businesses to go beyond simple volumetric measurement to assess the full range of water impact from all sites. Its work with leading global pharmaceutical company GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) analysed four key categories: water availability, water quality, health impacts, and licence to operate (including reputational and regulatory risks) in order to enable GSK to quantitatively measure, and credibly reduce, its year-on-year water impact."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol",
        "text": "The following key group were represented: social and environmental NGOs, governments of developed and developing countries, financial institutions, development banks, and the hydropower industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "World Water Assessment Programme",
        "text": "The UNESCO World Water Assessment Programme (UNESCO WWAP) was founded in 2000 in response to a call from the UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) to produce a UN system-wide periodic global overview of the status (quantity and quality), use and management of freshwater resources. To meet this challenge, WWAP coordinates the work of 31 UN-Water members and international partners, under the umbrella mechanism of UN-Water, in the production of the World Water Development Report (WWDR). The WWDR is the UN flagship report on water issues; it is a comprehensive review, released every year with a different focus on different strategic water issues, that gives an overall picture of the state, use and management of the world\u2019s freshwater resources and aims to provide decision-makers with tools to formulate and implement sustainable water policies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "A review in 2020 stated that: \"In 2018, 60 percent of 172 countries reported very low, low and medium-low levels of implementation of integrated water resources management and were unlikely to meet the implementation target by 2030.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Circles of Sustainability",
        "text": "The method began with a fundamental dissatisfaction with current approaches to sustainability and sustainable development, which tended to treat economics as the core domain and ecology as an externality. Two concurrent developments provided impetus: a major project in Porto Alegre, and a United Nations\u2019 paper called \"Accounting for Sustainability\", Briefing Paper, No. 1, 2008. The researchers developed a method and an integrated set of tools for assessing and monitoring issues of sustainability while providing guidance for project development. The method was then further refined through projects in Melbourne and Milwaukee, and through an ARC-funded cross-disciplinary project that partnered with various organizations including Microsoft Australia, Fuji Xerox Australia, the City of Melbourne, World Vision, UN-Habitat and most crucially Metropolis. In Canada, the \"Green Score City Index\" was inspired by studying the UN circle of sustainability. However, unlike this system, the Canadian index data-sets are focused on measuring the physical footprints of human activity and greenspace footprints which are less subjectivity than cultural and economic indicators."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "This target has two indicators:\n* Indicator 6.4.1: Change in water-use efficiency over time\n* Indicator 6.4.2: Level of water stress: freshwater withdrawal as a proportion of available freshwater resources"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Indonesia",
        "text": "The community participation and cost recovery under the new approach has led to greater sustainability of services. For example, an evaluation of a Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project supported by the Asian Development Bank that did not yet use the new approach revealed that less than four years after project completion, only 30 per cent of the water supply facilities and 30 per cent of sanitation facilities constructed by the project were still functioning. However, according to a Ministry of Health report that reviewed the functionality of water infrastructure in five districts that had implemented the World Bank-supported WSLIC project from 2001 to 2006, the average functionality of public taps was 72 per cent. The significant differences in functionality between the ADB and WSLIC activities has been largely attributed to the participation of communities in the construction of infrastructure and the communities recovering monthly fees to cover maintenance costs of water and sanitation systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "International Hydropower Association",
        "text": "The topics cover the three pillars of sustainability: social, economic, and environmental, and include issues such as downstream flow regimes, indigenous peoples, biodiversity, infrastructure safety, resettlement, water quality, and erosion and sedimentation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biodiversity",
        "text": "The growing demand and lack of drinkable water on the planet presents an additional challenge to the future of human health. Partly, the problem lies in the success of water suppliers to increase supplies and failure of groups promoting the preservation of water resources. While the distribution of clean water increases, in some parts of the world it remains unequal. According to the World Health Organisation (2018), only 71% of the global population used a safely managed drinking-water service."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water security",
        "text": "China\u2019s per capita water usage is just over a quarter of the global average. The World Resources Institute lists many of the more populated areas of the country as experiencing high (40% - 80% of renewable ground water extracted yearly) or extremely high (>80%) water stress. The WRI has also evaluated a similar portion of the country in the range of 3 to 5 on their overall water risk index, a measurement accounting for a variety of qualitative and quantitative evaluations. Issues relating to water quality and quantity are likely primary limiting factors in China\u2019s sustainable economic and infrastructural development."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is an ecological footprint?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The ecological footprint is a method promoted by the Global Footprint Network to measure human demand on natural capital, i.e. the quantity of nature it takes to support people or an economy."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which country produces the largest ecological footprint?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Western Australian government State of the Environment Report included an Ecological Footprint measure for the average Western Australian seven times the average footprint per person on the planet in 2007, a total of about 15 hectares."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which country has the smallest ecological footprint?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I was unable to find the country with the smallest ecological footprint, but I did find that the average per country ranges from over 10 to under 1 global hectares per person."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What countries have an ecological footprint under 5 hectares per person?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The world-average ecological footprint in 2013 was 2.8 global hectares per person, with the average ranging from over 10 to under 1 global hectares per person. But I don't have a list of countries with an ecological footprint under 5 global hectares per person."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any assessments conducted on water use sustainability?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I did not directly find the answer, but, I did find In 2002, the water footprint concept was introduced in order to have a consumption-based indicator of water use, that could provide useful information in addition to the traditional production-sector-based indicators of water use."
    ],
    "topic": "Water footprint",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Water footprint:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Water footprint"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2002, the water footprint concept was introduced in order to have a consumption-based indicator of water use, that could provide useful information in addition to the traditional production-sector-based indicators of water use. It is analogous to the ecological footprint concept introduced in the 1990s. The water footprint is a geographically explicit indicator, not only showing volumes of water use and pollution, but also the locations. Thus, it gives a grasp on how economic choices and processes influence the availability of adequate water resources and other ecological realities across the globe (and vice versa)."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Water resource management",
        "text": "The report found that it would be possible to produce the food required in future, but that continuation of today's food production practices and environmental trends would lead to crises in many parts of the world. It has become increasingly common to think about agricultural uses of water in terms of the water footprint involved in producing particular food or fodder crops and to argue that richer parts of the world need to reconcile themselves to reprofiling their foodways to achieve a smaller agricultural water footprint."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arjen Hoekstra",
        "text": "In 2002, the water footprint concept was introduced in order to have a consumption-based indicator of water use, that could provide useful information in addition to the traditional production-sector-based indicators of water use. It is analogous to the ecological footprint concept introduced in the 1990s. The water footprint is a geographically explicit indicator, not only showing volumes of water use and pollution, but also the locations. Thus, it gives a grasp on how economic choices and processes influence the availability of adequate water resources and other ecological realities across the globe (and vice versa)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "In 2002, the water footprint concept was introduced in order to have a consumption-based indicator of water use, that could provide useful information in addition to the traditional production-sector-based indicators of water use. It is analogous to the ecological footprint concept introduced in the 1990s. The water footprint is a geographically explicit indicator, not only showing volumes of water use and pollution, but also the locations. Thus, it gives a grasp on how economic choices and processes influence the availability of adequate water resources and other ecological realities across the globe (and vice versa)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthropogenic metabolism",
        "text": "A water footprint is the amount of water that each person uses in their daily lives. Most of the world's water is salt water which cannot be used in human food or water supplies. Therefore, the freshwater sources that were once plentiful are now being diminished due to anthropogenic metabolism of the growing population. The water footprint encompasses how much fresh water is needed for each consumer's needs. According to J. Allan, \"there is a huge impact of water use on stores of surface and groundwater and on flows to which water is returned after use. These impacts are shown to be particularly high for manufacturing industries. For example, that there are less than 10 economies worldwide that have a significant water surplus, but that these economies have successfully met, or have the potential to meet, the water deficits of the other 190 economies. Consumers enjoy the delusion of food and water security provided by virtual water trade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Water footprint accounting has advanced substantially in recent years, however, water footprint analysis also needs sustainability assessment as its last phase. One of the developments is to employ sustainable efficiency and equity (\"Sefficiency in Sequity\"), which present a comprehensive approach to assessing the sustainable use of water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Although agriculture's water use includes provision of important terrestrial environmental values (as discussed in the \"Water footprint of products\" section above), and much \"green water\" is used in maintaining forests and wild lands, there is also direct environmental use (e.g. of surface water) that may be allocated by governments. For example, in California, where water use issues are sometimes severe because of drought, about 48 percent of \"dedicated water use\" in an average water year is for the environment (somewhat more than for agriculture). Such environmental water use is for keeping streams flowing, maintaining aquatic and riparian habitats, keeping wetlands wet, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The application and interpretation of water footprints may sometimes be used to promote industrial activities that lead to facile criticism of certain products. For example, the 140\u00a0litres required for coffee production for one cup might be of no harm to water resources if its cultivation occurs mainly in humid areas, but could be damaging in more arid regions. Other factors such as hydrology, climate, geology, topography, population and demographics should also be taken into account. Nevertheless, high water footprint calculations do suggest that environmental concern may be appropriate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Sustainable water use involves the rigorous assessment of all source of clean water to establish the current and future rates of use, the impacts of that use both downstream and in the wider area where the water may be used and the impact of contaminated water streams on the environment and economic well being of the area. It also involves the implementation of social policies such as water pricing in order to manage water demand. In some localities, water may also have spiritual relevance and the use of such water may need to take account of such interests. For example, the Maori believe that water is the source and foundation of all life and have many spiritual associations with water and places associated with water. On a national and global scale, water sustainability requires strategic and long term planning to ensure appropriate sources of clean water are identified and the environmental and economic impact of such choices are understood and accepted. The re-use and reclamation of water is also part of sustainability including downstream impacts on both surface waters and ground waters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Globally, about 4 percent of precipitation falling on land each year (about ), is used by rain-fed agriculture and about half is subject to evaporation and transpiration in forests and other natural or quasi-natural landscapes. The remainder, which goes to groundwater replenishment and surface runoff, is sometimes called \"total actual renewable freshwater resources\". Its magnitude was in 2012 estimated at /year. It represents water that can be used either in-stream or after withdrawal from surface and groundwater sources. Of this remainder, about were withdrawn in 2007, of which , or 69 percent, were used by agriculture, and , or 19 percent, by other industry. Most agricultural use of withdrawn water is for irrigation, which uses about 5.1 percent of total actual renewable freshwater resources. World water use has been growing rapidly in the last hundred years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Traditionally, water use has been approached from the production side, by quantifying the following three columns of water use: water withdrawals in the agricultural, industrial, and domestic sector. While this does provide valuable data, it is a limited way of looking at water use in a globalised world, in which products are not always consumed in their country of origin. International trade of agricultural and industrial products in effect creates a global flow of virtual water, or \"embodied water\" (akin to the concept of embodied energy)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Water footprint\n--Definition and measures.\n----Blue water footprint.\n----Green water footprint.\n----Grey water footprint.\n----Calculation for different actors.\n--History.\n----Water Footprint Network (WFN).\n----International standard.\n----Life-cycle assessment of water use.\n--Water availability.\n--Water footprint of products (Agricultural Sector).\n--Water footprint of companies (Industrial Sector).\n--Water footprint of individual consumers (Domestic Sector).\n--Water footprint of nations.\n----Production or consumption.\n----Absolute or per capita.\n----Internal or external.\n--Water use in continents.\n----Europe.\n----Asia.\n--Environmental water use.\n--Criticism of water footprint and virtual water.\n----Insufficient consideration of consequences of proposed water saving policies to farm households.\n----Regional water scarcity should be taken into account when interpreting water footprint.\n--Sustainable water use.\n----Sustainability assessment.\n--Sectoral distributions of withdrawn water use.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of sustainability",
        "text": "Water\n* Water footprint\n* Water crisis\n* Water efficiency\n* Water conservation"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "The water footprint (WF) is a multi-dimensional indicator, measuring both water consumption (the consumptive WF) and water pollution (the degradative WF). The consumptive WF splits into a green WF, measuring the consumption of rainwater, and a blue WF, measuring the consumption of groundwater or surface water. How water footprints can help monitor progress on SDG 6.3 and 6.4?\n* The grey Water Footprint can be a relevant indicator for measuring progress on target 6.3. The grey Water Footprint can be expressed in terms of a polluted water volume per unit of a specific process or product.\n* The blue Water Footprint can be a relevant indicator for measuring progress on target 6.4. The blue Water Footprint can be expressed in terms of the water volume consumed per unit of a specific process or product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainability metrics and indices",
        "text": "Ecological footprint accounting, based on the biological concept of carrying capacity, tracks the amount of land and water area a human population demands for producing the biological resources the population consumes, for absorbing its waste, and for accommodating its built infrastructure, all under prevailing technology. This amount then is compared to available biocapacity, in the world or in that region. The biocapacity represents the area able to regenerate resources and assimilate waste. Global Footprint Network publishes every year results for all nations captured in UN statistics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Within the agricultural sector, withdrawn water use is for irrigation and for livestock. Whereas all irrigation in the US (including loss in conveyance of irrigation water) is estimated to account for about 38 percent of US withdrawn freshwater use, the irrigation water used for production of livestock feed and forage has been estimated to account for about 9 percent, and other withdrawn freshwater use for the livestock sector (for drinking, washdown of facilities, etc.) is estimated at about 0.7 percent. Because agriculture is a major user of withdrawn water, changes in the magnitude and efficiency of its water use are important. In the US, from 1980 (when agriculture's withdrawn water use peaked) to 2010, there was a 23 percent reduction in agriculture's use of withdrawn water, while US agricultural output increased by 49 percent over that period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water consumption",
        "text": "#REDIRECT Water footprint"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "Water footprints shows the extent of water use in relation to consumption by people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable living",
        "text": "Greywater, including water from washing machines, sinks, showers, and baths may be reused in landscape irrigation and toilets as a method of water conservation. Likewise, rainwater harvesting from storm-water runoff is also a sustainable method to conserve water use in a sustainable shelter. Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems replicate the natural systems that clean water in wildlife and implement them in a city's drainage system so as to minimize contaminated water and unnatural rates of runoff into the environment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Donika Emini",
        "text": "As a Miss Earth candidate, an environmental advocacy is a must. When asked about Donika's advocacy, she chooses water as her main concern. She says, \"As environment is a broad subject I want to focus on water only. As it is well known Water is life! The main precondition for all the planet, including humans, animals and our economies. Climate regulation cycle is also heavily dependent on water! In addition, water is something that crosses national boundaries and therefore its protection is key to the planet and human life.\" Her project is all about water efficiency. The standardization of eco-toilet flushes is the best solution she thinks to make the water efficient. She supported it with a study that says, \"only if only 10% of all toilets in the European Union were to be replaced, households across the EU could save nearly \u20ac390m and this would have significant impact on water savings and its efficiency.\" She is eyeing her hometown, Ferizaj, as the location of the birth of her project, targeting the newly build apartment buildings in the neighborhood to avoid the possible extra costs. She also says that the next level of her project is to \"work towards changing national water policies and adopting legislation that makes it mandatory to standardize and make eco-toilet fleshes mandatory.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Arjen Hoekstra",
        "text": "The water footprint shows the extent of water use in relation to consumption by people. The water footprint of an individual, community or business is defined as the total volume of fresh water used to produce the goods and services consumed by the individual or community or produced by the business. Water use is measured in water volume consumed (evaporated) and/or polluted per unit of time. A water footprint can be calculated for any well-defined group of consumers (e.g., an individual, family, village, city, province, state or nation) or producers (e.g., a public organization, private enterprise or economic sector), for a single process (such as growing rice) or for any product or service."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "A \"green water footprint\" refers to the amount of water from precipitation that, after having been stored in the root zone of the soil (green water), is either lost by evapotranspiration or incorporated by plants. It is particularly relevant for agricultural, horticultural and forestry products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The global water footprint in the period 1996\u20132005 was 9.087 Gm3/yr (Billion Cubic Metres per year, or 9.087.000.000.000.000 liters/year), of which 74% was and green, 11% blue, 15% grey. This is an average amount per capita of 1.385 Gm3/yr., or 3.800 liters per person per day. On average 92% of this is embedded in agricultural products consumed, 4.4% in industrial products consumed, and 3.6% is domestic water use. The global water footprint related to producing goods for export is 1.762 Gm3/y."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The water footprint of an individual refers to the sum of their direct and indirect freshwater use. The direct water use is the water used at home, while the indirect water use relates to the total volume of freshwater that is used to produce the goods and services consumed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The concept of a \"water footprint\" was coined in 2002, by Arjen Hoekstra, Professor in water management at the University of Twente, Netherlands, and co-founder and scientific director of the Water Footprint Network, whilst working at the UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, as a metric to measure the amount of water consumed and polluted to produce goods and services along their full supply chain. Water footprint is one of a family of ecological footprint indicators, which also includes carbon footprint and land footprint. The water footprint concept is further related to the idea of virtual water trade introduced in the early 1990s by Professor John Allan (2008 Stockholm Water Prize Laureate). The most elaborate publications on how to estimate water footprints are a 2004 report on the \"Water footprint of nations\" from UNESCO-IHE, the 2008 book \"Globalization of Water\", and the 2011 manual \"The water footprint assessment manual: Setting the global standard\". Cooperation between global leading institutions in the field has led to the establishment of the Water Footprint Network in 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "A water footprint shows the extent of water use in relation to consumption by people. The water footprint of an individual, community, or business is defined as the total volume of fresh water used to produce the goods and services consumed by the individual or community or produced by the business. Water use is measured in water volume consumed (evaporated) and/or polluted per unit of time. A water footprint can be calculated for any well-defined group of consumers (e.g., an individual, family, village, city, province, state, or nation) or producers (e.g., a public organization, private enterprise, or economic sector), for a single process (such as growing rice) or for any product or service."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qu'Appelle River",
        "text": "Under the water conservation scenario, a 14% reduction in demand could be achieved by reductions in agriculture, industrial, and mining water demands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "In south India the state Tamil Nadu is one of the main agricultural producers in India and it relies largely in groundwater for irrigation. In ten years, from 2002 to 2012, the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment calculated that the groundwater reduced in 1.4 m yr\u22121, which \"is nearly 8% more than the annual recharge rate.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Bulcke",
        "text": "On 30 August 2012, Bulcke was quoted as saying: \"If something isn't given a value, people tend to waste it. Water is our most useful resource, but those using it often don\u2019t even cover the costs of its infrastructure. Fresh water is being massively overused at nature's expense, but it seems only a global crisis will make us realise the importance of the issue. What is environmentally unsustainable today will become socially unsustainable in the future.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Grupo Bimbo",
        "text": "Grupo Bimbo focuses its efforts to reduce the water footprint under the following lines of action: reduction of consumption; water treatment and reuse; and new technologies. The company fostered responsible use through dry cleaning techniques, semi-wet formats, or steam. The result of this process has saved the equivalent to 186,000,000 liters since 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological design",
        "text": "Water recycling systems such as rainwater tanks that harvest water for multiple purposes. Reusing grey water generated by households are a useful way of not wasting drinking water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "Water Footprint"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The use of the term \"footprint\" can also confuse people familiar with the notion of a carbon footprint, because the water footprint concept includes sums of water quantities without necessarily evaluating related impacts. This is in contrast to the carbon footprint, where carbon emissions are not simply summarized but normalized by CO2 emissions, which are globally identical, to account for the environmental harm. The difference is due to the somewhat more complex nature of water; while involved in the global hydrological cycle, it is expressed in conditions both local and regional through various forms like river basins, watersheds, on down to groundwater (as part of larger aquifer systems). Furthermore, looking at the definition of the footprint itself, and comparing ecological footprint, carbon footprint and water footprint, we realize that the three terms are indeed legitimate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable living",
        "text": "Note, however, this calculation does not account for losses such as evaporation or leakage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a systematic, phased approach to assessing the environmental aspects and potential impacts that are associated with a product, process or service. \"Life cycle\" refers to the major activities connected with the product's life-span, from its manufacture, use, and maintenance, to its final disposal, and also including the acquisition of raw material required to manufacture the product. Thus a method for assessing the environmental impacts of freshwater consumption was developed. It specifically looks at the damage to three areas of protection: human health, ecosystem quality, and resources. The consideration of water consumption is crucial where water-intensive products (for example agricultural goods) are concerned that need to therefore undergo a life-cycle assessment. In addition, regional assessments are equally as necessary as the impact of water use depends on its location. In short, LCA is important as it identifies the impact of water use in certain products, consumers, companies, nations, etc. which can help reduce the amount of water used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The assessment of total water use in connection to consumption can be approached from both ends of the supply chain. The water footprint of production estimates how much water from local sources is used or polluted in order to provide the goods and services produced in that country. The water footprint of consumption of a country looks at the amount of water used or polluted (locally, or in the case of imported goods, in other countries) in connection with all the goods and services that are consumed by the inhabitants of that country. The water footprint of production and that of consumption, can also be estimated for any administrative unit such as a city, province, river basin or the entire world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water conservation",
        "text": "Strictly speaking, water that is discharged into the sewer, or directly to the environment is not wasted or lost. It remains within the hydrologic cycle and returns to the land surface and surface water bodies as precipitation. However, in many cases, the source of the water is at a significant distance from the return point and may be in a different catchment. The separation between extraction point and return point can represent significant environmental degradation in the watercourse and riparian strip. What is \"wasted\" is the community's supply of water that was captured, stored, transported and treated to drinking quality standards. Efficient use of water saves the expense of water supply provision and leaves more fresh water in lakes, rivers and aquifers for other users and also for supporting ecosystems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water scarcity",
        "text": "The International Resource Panel of the UN states that governments have tended to invest heavily in largely inefficient solutions: mega-projects like dams, canals, aqueducts, pipelines and water reservoirs, which are generally neither environmentally sustainable nor economically viable. The most cost-effective way of decoupling water use from economic growth, according to the scientific panel, is for governments to create holistic water management plans that take into account the entire water cycle: from source to distribution, economic use, treatment, recycling, reuse and return to the environment."
      },
      {
        "title": "University of British Columbia",
        "text": "To reduce this consumption, the UBC sustainability team created an initiative to conserve called the Water Action Plan in 2011 to reduce and recycle water on campus. Two landmarks for creating water sustainability are the CIRS and the C. K. Choi Building. The Centre for Interactive Sustainability (CIRS) building features a closed-loop water system where water is recycled and reused. On the other hand, the C. K. Choi Building for the Institute of Asian Research, consists of composting toilets, which reduce domestic water consumption. These toilets use an alternative other than using water for flushing and produce fertilizer that can be used for growing plants. Conclusively, these toilets allow for the conservation of water, landfill space, energy, and also the production of quality fertilizer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shahzeen Attari",
        "text": "Her publications include:\n* Shahzeen Z. Attari, David H. Krantz, & Elke U. Weber. (2019). Climate change communicators\u2019 carbon footprints affect their audience\u2019s policy support. \"Climatic Change, 154\"(3-4), 529-545. [DOI: 10.1007/s10584-019-02463-0]\n* Shahzeen Z. Attari, David H. Krantz, & Elke U. Weber (2016). Statements about climate researchers\u2019 carbon footprints affect their credibility and the impact of their advice. \"Climatic Change, 138\"(1-2), 325-338. [DOI: 10.1007/s10584-016-1713-2]\n*Benjamin D. Inskeep & Shahzeen Z. Attari (2014) The Water Shortlist, Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development [DOI: 10.1080/00139157.2014.922375]\n* Shahzeen Z. Attari (2014) Perceptions of Water Use, \"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\" [DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1316402111]\n* Jonathan E. Cook & Shahzeen Z. Attari (2012) Paying for What Was free: Lessons from the New York Times Paywall, Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking [DOI: http://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0251]\n* Shahzeen Z. Attari, Michael L. DeKay, Cliff I. Davidson, and W\u00e4ndi Bruine de Bruin (2010) Public perceptions of energy consumption and savings, \"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\" [DOI:10.1073/pnas.1001509107]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental degradation",
        "text": "Water supply systems, as they exist now, were based on the assumptions of the current climate, and built to accommodate existing river flows and flood frequencies. Reservoirs are operated based on past hydrologic records, and irrigation systems on historical temperature, water availability, and crop water requirements; these may not be a reliable guide to the future. Re-examining engineering designs, operations, optimizations, and planning, as well as re-evaluating legal, technical, and economic approaches to manage water resources are very important for the future of water management in response to water degradation. Another approach is water privatization; despite its economic and cultural effects, service quality and overall quality of the water can be more easily controlled and distributed. Rationality and sustainability is appropriate, and requires limits to overexploitation and pollution and efforts in conservation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental governance",
        "text": "The 2003 UN World Water Development Report claimed that the amount of water available over the next twenty years would drop by 30%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainability and environmental management",
        "text": "Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. Of this, 97.5% is the salty water of the oceans and only 2.5% freshwater, most of which is locked up in the Antarctic ice sheet. The remaining freshwater is found in lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, aquifers and atmosphere. All life depends on the solar-powered global water cycle, the evaporation from oceans and land to form water vapour that later condenses from clouds as rain, which then becomes the renewable part of the freshwater supply. Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged as: during the 20th century, more than half the world's wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. Biodiversity-rich freshwater ecosystems are currently declining faster than marine or land ecosystems making them the world's most vulnerable habitats. Increasing urbanization pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe water. In the industrial world demand management has slowed absolute usage rates but increasingly water is being transported over vast distances from water-rich natural areas to population-dense urban areas and energy-hungry desalination is becoming more widely used. Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue (harvestable) and green (soil water available for plant use) water, and this applies at all scales of water management."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The water footprint of a nation is the amount of water used to produce the goods and services consumed by the inhabitants of that nation. Analysis of the water footprint of nations illustrates the global dimension of water consumption and pollution, by showing that several countries rely heavily on foreign water resources and that (consumption patterns in) many countries significantly and in various ways impact how, and how much, water is being consumed and polluted elsewhere on Earth. International water dependencies are substantial and are likely to increase with continued global trade liberalisation. The largest share (76%) of the virtual water flows between countries is related to international trade in crops and derived crop products. Trade in animal products and industrial products contributed 12% each to the global virtual water flows. The four major direct factors determining the water footprint of a country are: volume of consumption (related to the gross national income); consumption pattern (e.g. high versus low meat consumption); climate (growth conditions); and agricultural practice (water use efficiency)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Many of the criticisms, including the above ones, compare the description of the water footprint of a water system to generated impacts, which is about its performance. Such a comparison between descriptive and performance factors and indicators is basically flawed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The internal water footprint is the amount of water used from domestic water resources; the external water footprint is the amount of water used in other countries to produce goods and services imported and consumed by the inhabitants of the country. When assessing the water footprint of a nation, it is crucial to take into account the international flows of virtual water (also called \"embodied water\", i.e. the water used or polluted in connection to all agricultural and industrial commodities) leaving and entering the country. When taking the use of domestic water resources as a starting point for calculating a nation's water footprint, one should subtract the virtual water flows that leave the country and add the virtual water flows that enter the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture",
        "text": "The conclusion made by the report's authors was that only by changing the way we use water within agriculture would we be able to meet the acute water, environment and poverty challenges facing us over the next 50 years. They suggested that with wise policies and investments in irrigation, upgrading rainfed agriculture, and trade it would be possible to limit future growth in water withdrawals to 13% and the expansion of cultivated land to 9%. However, the effects of climate change and the increased use of biofuels would complicate matters, making actions necessary to"
      },
      {
        "title": "Human ecology",
        "text": "In 1992, William Rees developed the ecological footprint concept. The ecological footprint and its close analog the water footprint has become a popular way of accounting for the level of impact that human society is imparting on the Earth's ecosystems. All indications are that the human enterprise is unsustainable as the footprint of society is placing too much stress on the ecology of the planet. The WWF 2008 living planet report and other researchers report that human civilization has exceeded the bio-regenerative capacity of the planet. This means that the footprint of human consumption is extracting more natural resources than can be replenished by ecosystems around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The water footprint of a process is expressed as volumetric flow rate of water. That of a product is the whole footprint (sum) of processes in its complete supply chain divided by the number of product units. For consumers, businesses and geographic area, water footprint is indicated as volume of water per time, in particular:\n* That of a consumer is the sum of footprint of all consumed products.\n* That of a community or a nation is the sum for all of its members resp. inhabitants.\n* That of a business is the footprint of all produced goods.\n* That of a geographically delineated area is the footprint of all processes undertaken in this area. The virtual change in water of an area is the net import of virtual water \"Vi, net\", defined as the difference of the gross import \"Vi\" of virtual water from its gross export \"Ve\". The water footprint of national consumption \"WFarea,nat\" results from this as the sum of the water footprint of national area and its virtual change in water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fresh water",
        "text": "The Sustainable Development Goals are a collection of 17 interlinked global goals designed to be a \"blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all\". Targets on freshwater conservation are included in SDG 6 (Clean water and sanitation) and SDG 15 (Life on land). For example, Target 6.4 is formulated as \"By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity.\" Another target, Target 15.1, is: \"By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands, mountains and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Water resource management",
        "text": "One of the biggest concerns for our water-based resources in the future is the sustainability of the current and future water resource allocation. As water becomes scarce, the importance of water management grows vastly\u2014finding a balance between humans' needs and the essential step of water resources sustainability in the environment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eneko Azurmendi",
        "text": "In 2012 he finished a bioclimatic building for his restaurant using recycled materials (aluminium, glass, plastic and slag) and renewable energy systems (which has resulted in 50% energy savings). Geothermal energy and photovoltaic solar panels provide the power and rainwater is used for all irrigation/bathroom needs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "According to Rees, \"the average world citizen has an eco-footprint of about 2.7 global average hectares while there are only 2.1 global hectare of bioproductive land and water per capita on earth. This means that humanity has already overshot global biocapacity by 30% and now lives unsustainabily by depleting stocks of 'natural capital'.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Water conservation",
        "text": "The Aims of water conservation efforts include:\n* Ensuring the availability of water for future generations where the withdrawal of freshwater from an ecosystem does not exceed its natural replacement rate.\n* Energy conservation as water pumping, delivery, and wastewater treatment facilities consume a significant amount of energy. In some regions of the world, over 15% of the total electricity consumption is devoted to water management.\n* Habitat conservation where minimizing human water usage helps to preserve freshwater habitats for local wildlife and migrating waterfowl, but also water quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Several nations estimate sectoral distribution of use of water withdrawn from surface and groundwater sources. For example, in Canada, in 2005, 42 billion m3 of withdrawn water were used, of which about 38 billion m3 were freshwater. Distribution of this use among sectors was: thermoelectric power generation 66.2%, manufacturing 13.6%, residential 9.0%, agriculture 4.7%, commercial and institutional 2.7%, water treatment and distribution systems 2.3%, mining 1.1%, and oil and gas extraction 0.5%. The 38 billion m3 of freshwater withdrawn in that year can be compared with the nation's annual freshwater yield (estimated as streamflow) of 3,472 billion m3. Sectoral distribution is different in many respects in the US, where agriculture accounts for about 39% of fresh water withdrawals, thermoelectric power generation 38%, industrial 4%, residential 1%, and mining (including oil and gas) 1%."
      },
      {
        "title": "EPA WaterSense",
        "text": "Between the years of 2006 and 2017, the USEPA has projected that its water conservation program has saved approximately 2.7 trillion gallons of water and 367 billion kilowatt hours of electricity from power required to distribute and handle water. Although EPACT92 was the impetus for this initiative, the WaterSense\u00ae program currently operates under a number of congressional authorities, such as the Clean Water Act and the Safe Drinking Water Act."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water scarcity in Africa",
        "text": "Since that deadline has passed, the Sustainable Development Goals are what we are striving for by the year 2030. SDGs are intersectional and interdependent, it's important to find modern solutions to save water through decreasing water use in irrigation by using more treated wastewater and shifting to less water dependent crops in regions with water scarcity. Another solution that contribute to sanitation and water preservation is EcoSan technologies that aim to benefit from the human waste in agriculture and reduce water pollution. (NBSs) Natural-Based Solutions are suggested as a successful alternative towards achieving the six SDG, NBSs include means to improve access to water with high caliber."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Bernardino Valley Water Conservation Demonstration Garden",
        "text": "A state mandate adopted in 2009 compels urban water supplies to achieve a 20 percent per capita reduction by 2020. One way to do this is by replacing irrigated grass with water-wise landscaping, but there is a lack of knowledge about planning, building and maintaining these landscapes, along with the misconception that saving water on landscapes limits homeowners to cacti. That is not the case, and the demonstration garden is a colorful testament to the variety of looks available."
      },
      {
        "title": "EPA WaterSense",
        "text": "The USEPA requires that all partners provide data on their distribution and activities regarding WaterSense\u00ae product sales and outreach. Lawrence Berkeley National Library (LBNL) uses this data to create a National Water Savings (NWS) model to track water and energy savings. According to this model, consumers have saved 1.5 trillion gallons of water and $32.6 billion dollars on utility bills. LBNL used this data to create an arithmetic model to estimate the impacts that WaterSense\u00ae has had on water conservation in the United States. The model is the difference between the federally-mandated efficiency baseline for water fixtures and the efficiency of WaterSense\u00ae labeled products that have been sold annually. This model is also responsible for determining the financial impacts of water savings for U.S. consumers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "Each EU citizen consumes 4,815 litres of water per day on average; 44% is used in power production primarily to cool thermal plants or nuclear power plants. Energy production annual water consumption in the EU 27 in 2011 was, in billion m3: for gas 0.53, coal 1.54 and nuclear 2.44. Wind energy avoided the use of 387 million cubic metres (mn m3) of water in 2012, avoiding a cost of \u20ac743 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Catalan Institute for Water Research",
        "text": "These objectives are achieved through the application of emerging, resource-optimization technologies of water supply, wastewater treatment, reclamation, and reuse. This area has an integral perspective of the integrated processes involved, from the river to human consumption and back to the system. The development of technologies is related to those best available but not entailing an excessive cost, while striving to achieve resource consumption reduction and optimization, related to water scarcity and improvement of the final product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainability metrics and indices",
        "text": "One of the striking conclusions to emerge from ecological footprint accounting is that it would be necessary to have 4 or 5 back-up planets engaged in nothing but agriculture for all those alive today to live a western lifestyle. The Footprint analysis is closely related to the I\u00a0=\u00a0PAT equation that, itself, can be considered a metric."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green building",
        "text": "Reducing water consumption and protecting water quality are key objectives in sustainable building. One critical issue of water consumption is that in many areas, the demands on the supplying aquifer exceed its ability to replenish itself. To the maximum extent feasible, facilities should increase their dependence on water that is collected, used, purified, and reused on-site. The protection and conservation of water throughout the life of a building may be accomplished by designing for dual plumbing that recycles water in toilet flushing or by using water for washing of the cars. Waste-water may be minimized by utilizing water conserving fixtures such as ultra-low flush toilets and low-flow shower heads. Bidets help eliminate the use of toilet paper, reducing sewer traffic and increasing possibilities of re-using water on-site. Point of use water treatment and heating improves both water quality and energy efficiency while reducing the amount of water in circulation. The use of non-sewage and greywater for on-site use such as site-irrigation will minimize demands on the local aquifer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental degradation",
        "text": "The issue of the depletion of fresh water has stimulated increased efforts in water management. While water management systems are often flexible, adaptation to new hydrologic conditions may be very costly. Preventative approaches are necessary to avoid high costs of inefficiency and the need for rehabilitation of water supplies, and innovations to decrease overall demand may be important in planning water sustainability."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States Army Corps of Engineers",
        "text": "Later reports show some improvement toward resilience and sustainability. The 2020 Sustainability Report and Implementation Plan show a further 12% reduction in water use as well as 35% total reduction in energy use intensity since 2003. Future projections show that USACE intends to continue to build on these focus areas and drive down its demands in areas such as fuel, electricity and water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indira Paryavaran Bhawan",
        "text": "The landscape and horticulture design of planting native species along with efficient irrigation systems are utilized leading up to 50% reduction in water requirement. The remaining water demand is met by recycling and reusing wastewater, and by implementation of rainwater harvesting systems. Additionally, low discharge and efficient water fixtures are installed including sensor urinals and dual flow cisterns."
      },
      {
        "title": "ECODES",
        "text": "ECODES gained significant notoriety due to their \u201cZaragoza, water-saving city\u201d campaign. It started in 1997 and it aimed to promote a new water-saving consciousness through a more efficient management. It emphasized, above all, the importance of simple technological change to achieve a sustainable reduction in water consumption. The project was to issue a challenge to the city: to save 1,000 million liters of domestic water consumption in one year. The project has shown that it is possible to deal with the shortage of water in cities, using a cheap, ecological, fast and contentious-free approach, by increasing efficiency in consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable living",
        "text": "Collection area (square feet) \u00d7 Rainfall (inch/year) / 12 (inch/foot) = Cubic Feet of Water/Year"
      },
      {
        "title": "Land footprint",
        "text": "A study of the four resource footprint indicators, carried for the European Commission examined what data was available to measure the land footprint, carbon footprint, water footprint & material footprint at economy level. This study concluded that Land Footprint needed methodological improvement and harmonisation, and that a common, international, multi-regional input output database would make it easier to calculate all four footprints."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "In the US, irrigation water application data are collected in the quinquennial Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey, conducted as part of the Census of Agriculture. Such data indicate great differences in irrigation water use within various agricultural sectors. For example, about 14 percent of corn-for-grain land and 11 percent of soybean land in the US are irrigated, compared with 66 percent of vegetable land, 79 percent of orchard land and 97 percent of rice land."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lakes380",
        "text": "It was proposed that the data from this project would be used by \"government agencies to undertake strategic assessments of water quality and health risk, prioritise mitigation strategies, characterise biodiversity, assess the distribution and impact of invasive species, and inform environmental policy. Regional councils, iwi/hap\u016b and other communities will use this new knowledge to assist in setting informed and achievable restoration aspirations.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "Target 6.6 is: \"By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Virtual water",
        "text": "The virtual water or the water footprint concepts have faced lot of criticism. Some valid, others asking the indicators to be everything. Australia's National Water Commission considers that the measurement of virtual water has little practical value in decision making regarding the best allocation of scarce water resources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Desalination",
        "text": "Not everyone is convinced that desalination is or will be economically viable or environmentally sustainable for the foreseeable future. Debbie Cook wrote in 2011 that desalination plants can be energy intensive and costly. Therefore, water-stressed regions might do better to focus on conservation or other water supply solutions than to invest in desalination plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reclaimed water",
        "text": "Already, the groundwater aquifers that are used by over half of the world population are being over-drafted. Reuse will continue to increase as the world's population becomes increasingly urbanized and concentrated near coastlines, where local freshwater supplies are limited or are available only with large capital expenditure. Large quantities of freshwater can be saved by municipal wastewater reuse and recycling, reducing environmental pollution and improving carbon footprint. Reuse can be an alternative water supply option."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Blomqvist \"et al\". published a critical paper in 2013. It led to a reply from Rees and Wackernagel (2013), and a rejoinder by Blomqvist \"et al.\" (2013)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The focus of ecological footprint accounting is renewable resources. The total amount of such resources which the planet produces according to this model has been dubbed biocapacity. Ecological footprints can be calculated at any scale: for an activity, a person, a community, a city, a town, a region, a nation, or humanity as a whole. Footprint values are categorized for carbon, food, housing, goods and services. This approach can be applied to an activity such as the manufacturing of a product or driving of a car. This resource accounting is similar to life-cycle analysis wherein the consumption of energy, biomass (food, fiber), building material, water and other resources are converted into a normalized measure of land area called global hectares (gha)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Industrial and Mining Water Research Unit",
        "text": "The group has a broad range of research publications in the areas as listed below:\n* Acid mine drainage (AMD) - methods of reducing, treating and managing AMD.\n* Algal Studies - including to clean water, and as a source of biomass for biodiesel\n* Biorefineries - the use of biomass for values add product, including obtaining these with dual purpose water treatment.\n* Constructed wetlands (CW) - waste water remediation through natural biological processes.\n* Ecological Engineering - study of creating and sustaining cohabitation conditions for both humans and their environment.\n* Grade Engineering\n* Industrial biotechnology - the use of biotechnology in water related applications \"e.g.\" for water purification and water reduction.\n* Industrial Ecology - the use of sustainability principles in reducing environmental impacts; particularly relating to water.\n* Life-cycle assessment (LCA) - quantification and minimisation of liquid/solid/gaseous waste at sites which include food processing, industrial bioprocessing and others.\n* Membrane technology\n* Nanotechnology\n* Ozone - determination of optimal treatment techniques for cooling water purification systems, chemical \"vs\" ozone.\n* Water footprinting (WF) - quantification and minimisation of water use on, amongst others, mine and paper/pulp sites.\n* Wastewater treatment\n* and more."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reclaimed water",
        "text": "Reclaiming water for reuse applications instead of using freshwater supplies can be a water-saving measure. When used water is eventually discharged back into natural water sources, it can still have benefits to ecosystems, improving streamflow, nourishing plant life and recharging aquifers, as part of the natural water cycle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water scarcity",
        "text": "Vegetation and wildlife are fundamentally dependent upon adequate freshwater resources. Marshes, bogs and riparian zones are more obviously dependent upon sustainable water supply, but forests and other upland ecosystems are equally at risk of significant productivity changes as water availability is diminished. In the case of wetlands, considerable area has been simply taken from wildlife use to feed and house the expanding human population. But other areas have suffered reduced productivity from gradual diminishing of freshwater inflow, as upstream sources are diverted for human use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Light Water Reactor Sustainability Program",
        "text": "The basis for the project is founded on the facts that in the near future:\n*demand for electricity is projected to increase significantly\n*The U.S. has goals to significantly lower carbon dioxide emissions"
      },
      {
        "title": "Future-proof",
        "text": "In one region of New Zealand, Hawke's Bay, a study was conducted to determine what would be required to future-proof the regional economy with specific reference to the water system. The study specifically sought to understand the existing and potential water demand in the region as well as how this potential demand might change with climate change and more intense land use. This information was used to develop demand estimates that would inform the improvements to the regional water system. Future-proofing thus includes forward planning for future development and increased demands on resources. However, the study focuses on future demands almost exclusively and does not address other components of future-proofing such as contingency plans to handle disastrous damage to the system or durability of the materials in the system."
      },
      {
        "title": "This Fissured Land",
        "text": "The concluding chapter says that it is too early to say whether a new, more sustainable, mode of resource use will develop as a result of the present environmental crisis. This is because \"given the complexity of ecological communities, precise prescriptions for the prudent use of living resources are difficult\". Sonja Brodt agrees that \"it is ultimately contingent upon the reader to delve deeply into the historical analysis for any lessons it might hold\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Controlled ecological life-support system",
        "text": "As for water, experiments have shown that it would be derived from condensate in the air (a byproduct of air conditioning and vapors), as well as excess moisture from plants. It would then have to be filtered by some means, either by nature or by machine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "A number of national government agencies have performed collaborative or independent research to test the reliability of the ecological footprint accounting method and its results. They have largely confirmed the accounts' results; those who reproduced the assessment generating near-identical results. Such reviews include those of Switzerland, Germany, France, Ireland, the United Arab Emirates and the European Commission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eco-sufficiency",
        "text": "A number of other scenarios and models lead to similar conclusions on the magnitude of saving potentials."
      },
      {
        "title": "Land footprint",
        "text": "The European Parliament's own initiative report on \"Resource efficiency: moving towards a circular economy\", which was voted on 9 July 2015, includes the following text calling for action from the European Commission on land and other footprints:\n:\"Urges the Commission to propose, by the end of 2015, a lead indicator and a dashboard of sub-indicators on resource efficiency, including ecosystem services; points out that the use of these harmonised indicators should be legally binding as of 2018, and they should measure resource consumption, including imports and exports, at EU, Member State and industry level and take account of the whole lifecycle of products and services and should be based on the footprint methodology, measuring at least land, water and material use and carbon;\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The water footprints involved in various diets vary greatly, and much of the variation tends to be associated with levels of meat consumption. The following table gives examples of estimated global average water footprints of popular agricultural products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental Commissioner of Ontario",
        "text": "Every Drop Counts: Reducing the Energy and Climate Footprint of Ontario's Water use - 2016/2017: http://docs.assets.eco.on.ca/reports/energy/2016-2017/Every-Drop-Counts.pdf"
      },
      {
        "title": "Human overpopulation",
        "text": "Critics have questioned the simplifications and statistical methods used in calculating ecological footprints. Therefore, Global Footprint Network and its partner organizations have engaged with national governments and international agencies to test the results\u2014reviews have been produced by France, Germany, the European Commission, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Japan and the United Arab Emirates. Some point out that a more refined method of assessing Ecological Footprint is to designate sustainable versus non-sustainable categories of consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "C. V. Ananda Bose",
        "text": "The project Water Save launched to protect the Sasthamcotta fresh water lake in a campaign mode by raising a green belt around the lake, preventing soil erosion and removing restrictive practises, received the UN \u2013 sponsored Bremen Partnership Award from Germany."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "Since this metric tracks biocapacity, the replacement of original ecosystems with high-productivity agricultural monocultures can lead to attributing a higher biocapacity to such regions. For example, replacing ancient woodlands or tropical forests with monoculture forests or plantations may therefore decrease the ecological footprint. Similarly if organic farming yields were lower than those of conventional methods, this could result in the former being \"penalized\" with a larger ecological footprint. Complementary biodiversity indicators attempt to address this. The WWF's Living Planet Report combines the footprint calculations with the Living Planet Index of biodiversity. A modified ecological footprint that takes biodiversity into account has been created for use in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water resource policy",
        "text": "In June 2011 in Geneva, the Future of Water Virtual Conference addressed water resource sustainability. Issues raised included: water infrastructure monitoring, global water security, potential resource wars, interaction between water, energy, food and economic activity, the \"true value\" of \"distribution portions of available water\" and a putative \"investment gap\" in water infrastructure. It was asserted that climate change will affect scarcity of water but the water security presentation emphasized that a combined effect with population growth \"could be devastating\". Identified corporate water related risks include physical supply, regulatory and product reputation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "where \"L\" is the pollutant load (as mass flux), \"c\"max the maximum allowable concentration and \"c\"nat the natural concentration of the pollutant in the receiving water body (both expressed in mass/volume)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Land footprint",
        "text": "The EU's 7th Environmental action plan calls for examination of land (and other) footprints:\n:\"To set a framework for action to improve resource efficiency aspects beyond GHG emissions and energy, targets for reducing the overall lifecycle environmental impact of consumption will be set.. Indicators and targets for land, water, material and carbon footprints as well as their role within the European Semester should also be considered in this regard.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Autonomous building",
        "text": "There are many methods of collecting and conserving water. Use reduction is cost-effective."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "The water footprint of a product is the total volume of freshwater used to produce the product, summed over the various steps of the production chain. The water footprint of a product refers not only to the total volume of water used; it also refers to where and when the water is used. The Water Footprint Network maintains a global database on the water footprint of products: WaterStat. Nearly over 70% of the water supply worldwide is used in the agricultural sector."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable architecture",
        "text": "Water Usage [edit]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ecological footprint",
        "text": "The first academic publication about ecological footprints was written by William Rees in 1992. The ecological footprint concept and calculation method was developed as the PhD dissertation of Mathis Wackernagel, under Rees' supervision at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada, from 1990 to 1994. Originally, Wackernagel and Rees called the concept \"appropriated carrying capacity\". To make the idea more accessible, Rees came up with the term \"ecological footprint\", inspired by a computer technician who praised his new computer's \"small footprint on the desk\". In 1996, Wackernagel and Rees published the book \"Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human Impact on the Earth\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water-use efficiency",
        "text": "Water-use efficiency\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water footprint",
        "text": "In February 2011, the Water Footprint Network, in a global collaborative effort of environmental organizations, companies, research institutions and the UN, launched the \"Global Water Footprint Standard\". In July 2014, the International Organization for Standardization issued \"ISO 14046:2014, Environmental management\u2014Water footprint\u2014Principles, requirements and guidelines\", to provide practical guidance to practitioners from various backgrounds, such as large companies, public authorities, non-governmental organizations, academic and research groups as well as small and medium enterprises, for carrying out a water footprint assessment. The ISO standard is based on life-cycle assessment (LCA) principles and can be applied for different sorts of assessment of products and companies."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is an ecological footprint?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The ecological footprint is a method promoted by the Global Footprint Network to measure human demand on natural capital, i.e. the quantity of nature it takes to support people or an economy."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which country produces the largest ecological footprint?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Western Australian government State of the Environment Report included an Ecological Footprint measure for the average Western Australian seven times the average footprint per person on the planet in 2007, a total of about 15 hectares."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which country has the smallest ecological footprint?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I was unable to find the country with the smallest ecological footprint, but I did find that the average per country ranges from over 10 to under 1 global hectares per person."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What countries have an ecological footprint under 5 hectares per person?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The world-average ecological footprint in 2013 was 2.8 global hectares per person, with the average ranging from over 10 to under 1 global hectares per person. But I don't have a list of countries with an ecological footprint under 5 global hectares per person."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any assessments conducted on water use sustainability?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not directly find the answer, but, I did find In 2002, the water footprint concept was introduced in order to have a consumption-based indicator of water use, that could provide useful information in addition to the traditional production-sector-based indicators of water use."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the ecological footprint process project the future if water saving processes are employed?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I don't have direct answer as to how or if the ecological footprint processes \"project\" the future, but the average world citizen has an eco-footprint of about 2.7 global average hectares while there are only 2.1 global hectares of bioproductive land and water per capita on earth. This means that humanity has already overshot global biocapacity by 30% and now lives unsustainably by depleting stocks of 'natural capital'.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I was not able to locate that information, but ecological footprints may be used to argue that many current lifestyles are not sustainable. Further, life-cycle assessments may be used to identify the impact of water use in certain products, consumers, companies, nations, etc. which can help reduce the amount of water used."
    ],
    "topic": "Water footprint",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Ecological footprint:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ecological footprint",
          "Footprint measurements"
        ],
        "ctx": "According to Rees, \"the average world citizen has an eco-footprint of about 2.7 global average hectares while there are only 2.1 global hectare of bioproductive land and water per capita on earth. This means that humanity has already overshot global biocapacity by 30% and now lives unsustainabily by depleting stocks of 'natural capital'.\""
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ecological footprint:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ecological footprint",
          "Overview"
        ],
        "ctx": "The model is a means of comparing consumption and lifestyles, and checking this against biocapacity. The tool can inform policy by examining to what extent a nation uses more (or less) than is available within its territory, or to what extent the nation's lifestyle would be replicable worldwide. The footprint can also be a useful tool to educate people about overconsumption, with the aim of altering personal behavior. Ecological footprints may be used to argue that many current lifestyles are not sustainable. Country-by-country comparisons show the inequalities of resource use on this planet."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Water footprint:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Water footprint",
          "History",
          "Life-cycle assessment of water use"
        ],
        "ctx": "Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a systematic, phased approach to assessing the environmental aspects and potential impacts that are associated with a product, process or service. \"Life cycle\" refers to the major activities connected with the product's life-span, from its manufacture, use, and maintenance, to its final disposal, and also including the acquisition of raw material required to manufacture the product. Thus a method for assessing the environmental impacts of freshwater consumption was developed. It specifically looks at the damage to three areas of protection: human health, ecosystem quality, and resources. The consideration of water consumption is crucial where water-intensive products (for example agricultural goods) are concerned that need to therefore undergo a life-cycle assessment. In addition, regional assessments are equally as necessary as the impact of water use depends on its location. In short, LCA is important as it identifies the impact of water use in certain products, consumers, companies, nations, etc. which can help reduce the amount of water used."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Yup\u2019ik cuisine is different from Alaskan , Canadian Inuit, and Greenlandic diets. Yup'ik communities varied widely in what foods were available to them, but everyone used similar food processing and food preservation methods, including air drying and smoking, food storage in cold water and oil, fermentation, and freezing. Some foods were eaten raw."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Both the Yup'ik (and Siberian Yupik) and cuisines are also known as Eskimo cuisine in Alaska. The oldest, most stable cuisine in North America is found above the Arctic Circle in Alaska. Long overlooked and pitifully misunderstood, the cuisine's roots lie buried in Eastern Asia, whence I\u00f1upiaq and Yupik ancestors ventured to Siberia, across Beringia, and on to Alaska during the last ice age, 50,000 to 15,000 years ago. The remoteness of the Inupiat and Yupik cultures accounts for their rich and intact food history. The Yupik-Inupiaq split probably occurred about one thousand years ago. The Arctic cuisine is composed of a high-protein diet without grains, supplemented with wild greens, roots, and berries. Fortunately, dietitians consider the diet nutritious and balanced with abundant vitamins, minerals, proteins and valuable unsaturated fats derived from a vast array of sea and land mammals, fish, fowl, wild plants and berries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Yup'ik cuisine (\"Yupiit neqait\" in Yup'ik language, literally \"Yup'iks' foods\" or \"Yup'iks' fishes\") refers to the Eskimo style traditional subsistence food and cuisine of the Yup'ik people from the western and southwestern Alaska. Also known as Cup'ik cuisine for the Chevak Cup'ik dialect speaking Eskimos of Chevak and Cup'ig cuisine for the Nunivak Cup'ig dialect speaking Eskimos of Nunivak Island. This cuisine is traditionally based on meat from fish, birds, sea and land mammals, and normally contains high levels of protein. Subsistence foods are generally considered by many to be nutritionally superior superfoods. Yup\u2019ik diet is different from Alaskan Inupiat, Canadian Inuit, and Greenlandic diets. Fish as food (especially Salmonidae species, such as salmon and whitefish) are primary food for Yup'ik Eskimos. Both food and fish called \"neqa\" in Yup'ik. Food preparation techniques are fermentation and cooking, also uncooked raw. Cooking methods are baking, roasting, barbecuing, frying, smoking, boiling, and steaming. Food preservation methods are mostly drying and less often frozen. Dried fish is usually eaten with seal oil. The ulu or fan-shaped knife used for cutting up fish, meat, food, and such."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Muktuk (\"mangtak\" in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq, Chevak, \"mangengtak\" in Bristol Bay) is the traditional Eskimo meal of frozen raw beluga whale skin (dark epidermis) with attached subcutaneous fat (blubber)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Salmon as food, herring as food, smelt, halibut, flounder, tomcod, pike, and capelin were gutted and air dried or smoked. The fish heads they made into \"qamiqurrluk\" (cut and dried fish heads), and some they made into \"tepa\" (aged fish heads). Fish eggs (roe) were dried and stored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Prehistoric Yup'ik Eskimos probably relied upon a mix of anadromous fish (salmon and char), terrestrial mammals (caribou), and marine mammals (seal and walrus) for subsistence foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Berries and edible plants supplemented meals consisting mostly of fish and game. Plants foods also provided a variety of essential vitamins ans nutrients to the diet. Berries were preserved by freezing. The most popular use berries was when making akutaq, a whipped mixture of the berries, sugar, and shortening or fat. Households also made jam, jellies, and breads from berries. Sourdock leaves were prepared by boiling, like spinach. Labrador tea was boiled to make tea and was consumed much like commercial teas. Green spruce needles were also used for tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Terrestrial mammals or land mammals (\"nunarmiutaq\" \"nunarmiutaat\" in Yup'ik) are game animals and furbearers.\n*Game animals (\"pitarkaq\" \"pitarkat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"pitarkar\" \"pitarkat\" in Cup'ig). Caribou, moose and \"bears\" are included in the definition of the word \"pitarkat\".\n*Caribou or wild caribou \"Rangifer tarandus granti\" (\"tuntu\", \"tuntupik\" or \"tuntupiaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tuntupig\" in Cup'ig). Prior to European contact, caribou were important not only for their meat but for the skins which were an important item used in clothing. The Russians encouraged the Eskimos to adopt Western-style dress in order to release more furs for trading. The second most commonly received resources for Manokotak residents were caribou (%64.8 of households). Caribou meat was often made into jerky. The stomach contents such as sedges and other greens, were eaten. Virtually all of the edible parts of the animal was utilized. Caribou have been absent from Nunivak Island for at least 100 years, but many of the procedures for preparing the flesh of this animal also apply to the domestic reindeer. In earlier times, however, caribou livers were placed in the animal's stomach to ferment; this is no longer done. The lining of a reindeer stomach was cut up and eaten with dried fish or by itself. Lungs and kidneys were given to the dogs, but the heart was eaten. Neither caribou meat nor fish were ever pounded as a method of preservation.\n*Reindeer or (semi)domestic caribou \"Rangifer tarandus tarandus\" (\"qusngiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qusngir\" in Cup'ig). The word \"qusngiq\" which is derived from the Chukchee \"qora\u014be\" (\u04c4\u043e\u0440\u0430\u04c8\u044b) or Koryak \"qoya\u014ba\" (\u04c4\u043e\u0439\u0430\u04c8\u0430). In Europe, use the terms \"caribou\" and \"reindeer\" synonymously, but in Alaska and Canada \"reindeer\" refers exclusively to semi-domesticated forms. Only in North America are wild \"Rangifer\" referred to as \"caribou\". In Eurasia, \"reindeer\" are classified as either domesticated or wild. Domestic reindeer (\"Rangifer tarandus tarandus\") were introduced into Alaska 100 years ago and have been maintained as semidomestic livestock. They have had contact with wild caribou (\"R. t. granti\") herds, including deliberate crossbreeding and mixing in the wild. Reindeer have considerable potential as a domestic animal for meat or velvet antler production, and wild caribou are important to subsistence and sport hunters. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) managed reindeer operations on the Nunivak Island beginning in 1940. The Nunivak herd is composed of about 4,000 reindeer. The southern half of Nunivak is a designated Wilderness area, which presents challenges in summertime herding, since use of motorized recreational vehicles is forbidden within the Wilderness area without adequate snow cover.\n*Moose or Alaska moose \"Alces alces gigas\" (\"tuntuvak\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tuntuwag\" in Cup'ig, literally \"big caribou\"). The most commonly received resources for Manokotak residents were moose (%79.6 of households). Moose were not usually seen in the lower Kuskokwim River drainages until the early 1940s. Moose meat (\"tuntuviim kemga\") was preserved by freezing and drying. Rarely was moose meat preserved by smoking or caning. Hunters who harvested moose at spring camps in the mountains preserved meat by cutting it into strips and hanging it on racks or bushes to dry in the sun, making jerky. This jerky was eaten without further preparation, or it was boiled. Virtually all of the moose was used. Bones were cracked and the marrow was removed. Fat from the back and rump was cut into small pieces and eaten uncooked along with meals at home and when in the field. Part of the stomach was cleaned and prepared, and the heart, liver, and kidneys were also eaten. The whole head was usually kept so that the muscles, brain, tongue, and nose could be removed and cooked. The feet and hooves were also cooked and eaten. Moose was cooked in variety of ways including boiling, roasting, stewing, frying and in soups.\n*Muskox \"Ovibos moschatus\" (\"umingmar, maskar\" in Nunivak Cup'ig). Alaska's original muskox were hunted to extinction in the mid-1800s \u2013 perhaps by whalers and others. They had originally ranged Alaska's arctic and western coastal tundra. In 1935\u20131936 the U.S. Biological Survey brought 31 muskoxen from Greenland to Nunivak Island in an effort to reestablish the species in Alaska and as a means for subsistence living. The first modern hunting season was in 1975. Today the Nunivak herd numbers around 600 animals, down from a high of around 700 animals in 1968.\n*Brown bear (grizzly) \"Ursus arctos horribilis\" (\"taqukaq, carayak\" Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"paugnar\" in Cup'ig) and Black bear \"Ursus americanus\" (\"tan'gerliq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tungulzria\" in Cup'ig) were harvested for food (meat and fat). Bear meat (\"tan'gerlim kemga\") made into jerky was often dried over a couple of weeks time. The internal organs, such as heart, kidneys, and intestines were often distributed to elders. Both black and brown bear meat was considered very tasty and was prepared by drying, boiling, baking, and roasting. The bones were boiled so that all of the meat could easily be removed from them. The marrow was only occasionally used because the bones are very thick and not easily broken. The liver was considered to be too rich and was \"not eaten\".\n*Furbearers or fur-bearing animals (\"melqulek\" \"melqulget\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"melquleg\" in Cup'ig) are commonly trapped for their pelts and meats. The meat of all types of furbearers (beaver, mink, otter, muskrat, marten, lynx), except for fox, wolf, and wolverine, was used for human food and was also used as dog food.\n*Red fox \"Vulpes vulpes\" (\"kaviaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"kavviar\" in Cup'ig). The Nunivak Cup'ig practiced few restrictions with reference to food, but the flesh of the red fox was avoided since it was believed to cause a person to sleep during the day and be restless at night. This restriction did not apply to the flesh of the white fox.\n*Arctic fox \"Vulpes lagopus\" (\"uliiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qaterlir\" [white fox], \"eqyerer\" [blue fox] \"illaassug\" [cross fox] in Cup'ig)\n*Sea otter \"Enhydra lutris\" (\"arrnaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"aatagar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Land otter or river otter \"Lontra canadensis\" (\"cuignilnguq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"cenkar, pirturcir(ar)\" in Cup'ig)\n*American mink \"Neogale vison\" (\"imarmiutaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"imarmiutar\" in Cup'ig). Mink skin parkas, and also mink pants for small boys, formerly were made.\n*Beringian or American ermine \"Mustela erminea\", \"Mustela richardsonii\" (\"narullgiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"terriar(ar)\" [in winter coloration] \"narullgir\" [in summer coloration] in Cup'ig)\n*Marten \"Martes americana\" (\"qavcicuaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Muskrat \"Ondatra zibethicus\" (\"kanaqlak, tevyuli\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"kanaqlag\" in Cup'ig)\n*Vole \"Microtus miurus\" (singing vole) and \"Clethrionomys rutilus\" (northern red-backed vole) (\"avelngaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Collared lemming or Northern collared lemming \"Dicrostonyx groenlandicus\" (\"qilagmiutaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik). I\u00f1upiaq people do not eat lemmings\n*Brown lemming or Nunivak Island brown lemming \"Lemmus trimucronatus harroldi\" (\"pugultu\" in Cup'ig)\n*Beaver \"Castor canadensis\" (\"paluqtaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"paluqtar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Porcupine \"Erethizon dorsatum\" (\"issaluuq, issaluq, cukilek, ilaanquciq, nuuniq\") were harvested primarily for food and were prepared much the same way that hare were prepared.\n*Tree squirrel or red squirrel \"Tamiasciurus hudsonicus\" (\"qiguiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Ground squirrel or parky squirrel, parka squirrel \"Spermophilus parryii\" (\"qanganaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qanganar\" in Cup'ig) were skinned and hung on meat drying racks to dry.\n*Marmot or hoary marmot \"Marmota caligata\" (\"cikigpak\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik) were used similarly to parka squirrels.\n*Hare \"Lepus othus\" (\"qayuqeggliq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qayuqegglir\" in Cup'ig) and Rabbit \"Lepus americanus\" (\"maqaruaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"maqaruar\" in Cup'ig) can be prepared much like poultry meat: roasted, broiled, grilled, fried, and stewed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Dry moose meat was a favorite food among Chuathbaluk and Sleetmute inhabitants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Yup'ik cuisine is based on traditional subsistence food harvests (hunting, fishing and berry gathering) supplemented by seasonal subsistence activities. The Yup'ik region is rich with waterfowl, fish, and sea and land mammals. Yup'ik settled where the water remained ice-free in winter, where walruses, whales and seals came close to shore, and where there was a fishing stream or a bird colony nearby. Even if a place was not very convenient for human civilization, but had rich game, yup'ik would settle there. The coastal settlements rely more heavily on sea mammals (seals, walrusses, beluga whales), many species of fish (Pacific salmon, herring, halibut, flounder, trout, burbot, Alaska blackfish), shellfish, crabs, and seaweed. The inland settlements rely more heavily on Pacific salmon and freshwater whitefish, land mammals (moose, caribou), migratory waterfowl, bird eggs, berries, greens, and roots help sustain people throughout the region. Traditional subsistence foods are mixed with what is commercially available. Today about half the food is supplied by subsistence activities (subsistence foods), the other half is purchased from the commercial stores (market foods, store-bought foods)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Tea (\"caayuq\" in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq, Hooper Bay and Chevak, Nelson Island, Upper Kuskokwim, Nushagak River, Lake Iliamna, Egegik, \"saayuq\" Lower Kuskokwim, Canineq, Bristol Bay, \"caayu\" Nunivak Cup'ig; from Russian \u0447\u0430\u0439 \"chay\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Quaq\" (in the Inuit languages: I\u00f1upiaq \"quaq\", Nunavut Inuktitut and Nunavik Inuttitut \u1581\u140a\u1585 \"quaq\", South Baffin Kingarmiut \"xuaq\", Labrador Inuttitut \"\u0138uak\", Greenlandic \"quaq\") is meat or fish to be eaten raw and frozen"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The Yup'ik region is rich with waterfowl, fish, and sea and land mammals. The coastal settlements rely more heavily on sea mammals (seals, walrusses, beluga whales), many species of fish (Pacific salmon, herring, halibut, flounder, trout, burbot, Alaska blackfish), shellfish, crabs, and seaweed. The inland settlements rely more heavily on Pacific salmon and freshwater whitefish, land mammals (moose, caribou), migratory waterfowl, bird eggs, berries, greens, and roots help sustain people throughout the region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian cuisine",
        "text": "In the Arctic, Inuit traditionally survived on a diet consisting of land and marine mammals, fish, and foraged plant products. Meats were consumed fresh, but also often prepared, cached, and allowed to ferment into \"igunaq\" or \"kiviak\". These fermented meats have the consistency and smell of certain soft aged cheeses. Snacks such as \"muktuk\", which consist of whale skin and blubber is eaten plain, though occasionally dipped in soy sauce. Chunks of muktuk are sliced with an \"ulu\" prior to or during consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Aaqassaaq\" (Kotlik) is skin to be chewed to soften it; beluga blubber for eating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Fish as food, especially Pacific salmon (or in some places, non-salmon) species are primary main subsistence food for the Yup'ik. Both food and fish (and salmon) called \"neqa\" (sg) \"neqet\" (pl) in Yup'ik. Also for salmon called \"neqpik ~ neqpiaq\" (sg) \"neqpiit ~ neqpiat\" (pl) in Yup'ik, means literally \"real food\". But, main food for the I\u00f1upiaq is meat of whale and caribou (both food and meat called \"niqi\" in I\u00f1upiaq, also for meat called \"niqipiaq\" \"real food\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Muktuk (\"mangtak\" in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq, Chevak, \"mangengtak\" in Bristol Bay) is the traditional meal of frozen raw beluga whale skin (dark epidermis) with attached subcutaneous fat (blubber)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Ciss'uq\" (\"Ciss'ur\" in Nunivak Cup'ig) is fermented herring or capelin that have been buried underground for two weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The primary subsistence food in the Bristol Bay region and in most of rural Alaska is salmon, followed closely by big game hunting of caribou and moose in the more inland areas, and marine mammal hunting in the coastal areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Alaska subsistence communities are noted to obtain up to 97% of the omega-3 fatty acids through a subsistence diet. The cardiovascular risk of this diet is so severe that the addition of a more standard American diet has reduced the incidence of mortality in the native population. Still, many market (store-bought) foods are high in fats, carbohydrates, and sodium; and these may lead to increased weight gain, high cholesterol (hypercholesterolaemia), high blood pressure (hypertension), and chronic diseases. Increasing EPA and DHA intakes to amounts well consumed by the general US population may have strong beneficial effects on chronic disease risk. Yup\u2019ik Eskimos have a prevalence of type 2 diabetes of %3.3, versus %7.7 in the U.S. overall, even though the Yup\u2019ik Eskimos have overweight/obesity levels similar to the rest of the U.S. In a preliminary study initiated by the Center for Alaska Native Health Research (CANHR) at the University of Alaska Fairbanks, elders were significantly enriched in \u03b415N, but depleted in \u03b413C, relative to younger participants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Traditional subsistence foods, such as fish and marine mammals, and to a lesser extent shellfish, are the only significant direct dietary sources of two important types of the omega-3 fatty acids called eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). EPA and DHA protect against heart disease and possibly diabetes. The replacement of a subsistence diet that is low in fat and high in omega-3s with a market-based Western diet has increased the risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes in Alaska Natives. Many market (store-bought) foods are high in fats, carbohydrates, and sodium; and these may lead to increased weight gain, high cholesterol (hypercholesterolaemia), high blood pressure (hypertension), and chronic diseases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The Nunivak Eskimos ( in Cup'ig, \"Nunivaarmiut\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik) eat frequently in the course of a 24-hour period. They go to bed at sundown or early evening in the spring and fall, and well before sundown in summer, but arise early, often at 3:00 or 4:00\u00a0a.m. and regularly at 5:00 or 5:30. The time of rising depended on the sea tide and the time when tomcod or other fish are running. The first meal of the day is eaten at this time and another about 11:00\u00a0a.m., with snacks once or twice in between depending on the work schedule and the availability of food. The evening meal is usually at 4:30 or 5:00\u00a0p.m. with additional snacks between the main meals. In winter the entire meal schedule is likely to be moved forward, with the first meal of the day being eaten at 10:00 or 10:30\u00a0a.m. The most common food is dried or frozen fish dipped in seal oil. The evening or late afternoon meal, the hot meal of the day, frequently consisted of boiled fish or other boiled food and tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Indigenous plants were an integral part of the year-round diet of Eskimo people in addition to their incorporation in other facets of their life. Contrary to the popular perception of Eskimo people surviving solely on fish and meat, the Nunivak Cup'ig utilized a large number of local plants for food, medicinal, and utilitarian purposes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "On Nunivak, most indigenous plants were traditionally gathered by women and children when the men were harvesting other available resources (e.g., caribou, waterfowl, seal). While fresh spring greens provided a welcome addition to the diet, which in winter was based largely on dried and stored foods, other greens were harvested throughout the year as they ripened, and used with some of those stored for winter use. With the melting of the island's snow pack, local greens and berries not picked during the previous fall's harvest, begin to appear and were added to the local diet. Depending on the time the ice pack began to break up, Cup'ig families would leave their winter villages and move to spring seal camps. Cup'ig men would journey out along the ice to harvest arriving sea mammals (i.e., seals, walrus) while the women would spend much of their time harvesting available plant resources (greens and seaweeds) and shellfish. Early spring plants included: marsh marigold (\"Caltha palustris\"), sour dock (\"Rumex arcticus\"), wild celery (\"Angelica lucida\"), wild lettuce (\"Draba borealis\" or \"D. hyperborea\"), wild parsnip (\"Ligusticum hultonii\"), wild rhubarb (\"Polygonum viviparum\"), mountain sorrel (\"Oxyria digylla\"), Pallas buttercup (\"Ranunculus pallasii\"), and Labrador tea (\"Ledum pallustre decumbens\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kumlaneq\" (in Yup'ik, \"kumlanaq\" in Hooper Bay-Chevak Cup'ik; but, \"kumlaner\" in Nunivak Cup'ig means \"cold water, cold spring water; permafrost, frozen soil\") is frozen fish to be eaten in that state. Freezing of chinook and particularly coho salmon was relatively common. Chinook salmon were usually cut up into smaller pieces before being placed into plastic Ziploc bags. Smaller species, such as chum, sockeye, coho, and pink salmon were frequently frozen uncut and whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Famine foods: reindeer lichen (\"tuntut neqait\") was soaked in seal oil or mixed with cranberries to make it taste better."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The Yup'ik, like other Eskimo groups, were semi-nomadic hunter-fisher-gatherers who moved seasonally throughout the year within a reasonably well-defined territory to harvest fish, bird, sea and land mammal, berry and other renewable resources. Yup'ik cuisine is based on traditional subsistence food harvests (hunting, fishing and berry gathering) supplemented by seasonal subsistence activities. The Yup'ik region is rich with waterfowl, fish, and sea and land mammals. The coastal settlements rely more heavily on sea mammals (seals, walrusses, beluga whales), many species of fish (Pacific salmon, herring, halibut, flounder, trout, burbot, Alaska blackfish), shellfish, crabs, and seaweed. The inland settlements rely more heavily on Pacific salmon and freshwater whitefish, land mammals (moose, caribou), migratory waterfowl, bird eggs, berries, greens, and roots help sustain people throughout the region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "For thousands of years, dogs (\"qimugta\" \"qimugtek\" \"qimugtet\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qimugta\" \"qimugteg\" \"qimugtet\" in Cup'ig) as sled dogs, have been tightly interwoven in the Yup'ik way of life, for transportation and companionship. Except for dogs, there were no important domesticated animals in aboriginal times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Uuqnarliq\" (Kuskokwim), \"uuqnarniq\" (Yukon), \"uqnarliq\" (Hooper Bay and Chevak) is cooked blackfish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Niinamayak\" (in Yup'ik, \"nin'amayuk\" in Canineq Yup'ik, \"nin'amayag\" in Nunivak Cup'ig) is partially (half) dried aged (fermented) herring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Marine mammals as food are only seals and beluga whale. Seals were the primary marine mammal hunted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Yup'ik cuisine\n--Yupik Cuisine.\n--What meals the Yupik eat.\n--Food preservation and preparations.\n----Fish in the food industry.\n------Uncooked.\n------Cooked.\n----Mammals as food.\n----Birds as food.\n----Plants as food.\n--Pastry.\n--Drinks.\n--Nutrition.\n--Food storage.\n--Dog food.\n--Food sources.\n----Fish.\n----Sea mammals.\n----Land mammals.\n----Birds.\n----Plants.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Fish (\"neqa\" \"neqek\" \"neqet\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik \"neqa\" or \"iqallug\" in Cup'ig) is one of the most common Yup'ik foods.\n*Pacific salmons \"Oncorhynchus\" (\"neqpik\" in Yup'ik, literally \"real fish\") are anadromous fish as they spawn in freshwater (salmon run) and spend at least a part of their lives in the ocean. Salmon is a staple of the native Alaskan diet and natives have traditionally used all parts of the fish.\n*Red salmon or sockeye salmon \"Oncorhynchus nerka\" (\"sayak\" in Yup'ik, \"cayak\" in Cup'ik, \"cayag\" in Cup'ig)\n*King salmon or Chinook salmon \"Oncorhynchus tschawytscha\" (\"taryaqvak, tarsarpak, kiagtaq\" in Yup'ik, \"taryaqvak\" in Cup'ik, \"taryaqvag\" in Cup'ig)\n*Silver salmon or coho salmon \"Oncorhynchus kisutch\" (\"qakiiyaq, uqurliq, caayuryaq\" in Yup'ik, \"qavlunaq\" in Cup'ik, \"ciayuryar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Dog salmon or chum salmon \"Oncorhynchus keta\" (\"iqalluk, aluyak, kangitneq, mac'utaq\" in Yup'ik, \"qavlunaq, neqpik\" in Cup'ik, \"mac'utar\" in Cup'ig) is second-largest of the Alaskan salmonids. In Alaska, chum salmon often called \"dog salmon\" due to their fierce dentition exhibited during spawning as well as the males tendency to bite and nip at each other. Salmon snobs of Alaska will often turn up their noses at chum salmons because they are thought to be only fit for dog food.\n*Humpback salmon or pink salmon \"Oncorhynchus gorbuscha\" (\"amaqaayak, amaqsuq, luqaanak, terteq\" in Yup'ik, \"cuqpeq\" in Cup'ik)\n*Rainbow trout or steelhead \"Oncorhynchus mykiss\" (\"talaariq\" in Yup'ik, \"kangitner\" in Cup'ik) were usually cooked fresh and dried.\n*Trout (charr) or Dolly Varden \"Salvelinus malma\" (\"iqallugpik\" [Kuskokwim, Yukon], \"yugyaq\" [Bristol Bay] in Yup'ik, \"iqalluyagar\" in Cup'ig) were usually cooked fresh and dried.\n*Lake trout \"Salvelinus namaycush\" (\"cikignaq\") were usually cooked fresh and dried.\n*Sheefish or inconnu \"Stenodus nelma\" (\"ciiq\") were preserved by drying, smoking, and freezing. Sheefish were also eaten fresh; cooking methods included boiling and baking.\n*Grayling \"Thymallus arcticus\" (\"culugpauk, culugpaugaq, nakrullugpak, nakrutvalek\" in Yup'ik, \"culugpaugar\" in Cup'ig) were usually cooked fresh and dried.\n*Pike \"Esox lucius\" (\"cuukvak, cukvak, ciulek, keggsuli, qalru, luqruuyak, eluqruuyak\") were normally preserved by drying and were usually eaten without any further praparation. Pike were sometimes cooked and eaten while fresh.\n*Blackfish or Alaska blackfish \"Dallia pectoralis\" (\"can'giiq, imangaq\" in Yup'ik, \"can'gir, taqikar\" in Cup'ig) were cooked by pouring boiling water intermittently into a pot containing the fish and letting them steam for several minutes. They were one of few species of the fish that were usually not dried.\n*Lush or burbot \"Lota lota\" (\"manignaq, aninirpak, tengugpalek, kanayurnaq\") were preserved by drying and freezing. Cooking methods included boiling and baking.\n*Herring \"Clupea pallasii\" (\"iqalluarpak, iqallugpak, neqalluarpak\" in Yup'ik, \"iqalluarpag\" in Cup'ig) prefer spawning (\"qurre-\") locations in sheltered bays and estuaries. One of the largest spawning concentrations of herring in Alaska occurs in the Togiak district of Bristol Bay in the eastern Bering Sea. Herring and herring spawn-on-kelp have been harvested for subsistence use by residents of this coastal area as long as people can recall. Commercial fishing for herring in the togiak district began in 1967 and expanded dramatically after 1977. Prior to 1983, subsistence harvests of herring and spawn-on-kelp were not regulated.\n*Smelt or rainbow smelt \"Osmerus mordax\" subsp. \"dentex\" (\"qusuuq, iqalluaq, cimigliq, cimerliq, cimerliaq, cimirliq, cemerliq, elquarniq, uqtaqngaq, qimaruaq\" in Yup'ik, \"quyuuq, cemerliq\" in Cup'ik, \"quss'ur\" in Cup'ig) were cooked by frying and roasting when eaten fresh. Some fishermen who harvested smelt consider these fish as \"emergency food,\" to be kept in the smokehouse or cache and used if supplies of dried salmon ran out or if food shortages occurred."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Fish as food, especially Pacific salmon of the subfamily Salmoninae in the family Salmonidae or in some places, non-salmon species, such as freshwater whitefish of the subfamily Coregoninae in the family Salmonidae, are primary main subsistence food for Yup'ik Eskimos. Both food and fish (and salmon) called \"neqa\" \"neqet\" in Yup'ik. Also for salmon called \"neqpik ~ neqpiaq\" \"neqpiit ~ neqpiat\" in Yup'ik, means literally \u201creal, genuine food\u201d. But, main food for I\u00f1upiaq Eskimos is meat of whale and caribou (both food and meat called \"niqi\" in I\u00f1upiaq, also for meat called \"niqipiaq\" \u201creal, genuine food\u201d)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "The Yup'ik combine a contemporary and a traditional subsistence lifestyle in a blend unique to the Southwest Alaska. Today, the Yup'ik generally work and live in western style but still hunt and fish in traditional subsistence ways and gather traditional foods. Most Yup'ik still speak the native language and bilingual education has been in force since the 1970s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Allemaaq\" (Hooper Bay and Chevak) is cooked blackfish fry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Cin'aq\" (Yukon, Hooper Bay and Chevak, Lake Iliamna, and Nunivak) is cheese-like fish aged in a pit. This fish is usually dog (chum) or king (chinook) salmon. The salmon whole (except the guts) aged through the process of burying them into the marshy, muddy lowland (\"maraq\"). The hole is dug until the permafrost is exposed. The bottom of the hole is then covered with dry grass, moss, and cardboard. Then several salmon are placed in. The top of the salmon is again covered with grass, moss and or cardboard, then the remaining dug up groung is placed back into the hole, tightly covering the contents. The aged salmon fish are usually dug out during the early winter, and eaten as a delicacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Beluga whale meat"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Bread (\"kelipaq\" Yukon, Kuskokwim, Hooper Bay and Chevak, Nelson Island, Canineq, Bristol Bay, Nushagak River, Lake Iliamna, Egegik, \"kelipar\" in Cup'ig from Russian \u0445\u043b\u0435\u0431 \"khleb\"; \"qaqiaq\" bread in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq from I\u00f1upiaq \"qaqqiaq\"; \"qaq'uq\" in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq from I\u00f1upiaq \"qaqquq\"; \"kuv'aq\" in Yukon; \"tevurkaq\" in Unaliq-Pastuliq, \"tuurkaq\" in Lower Yukon from English \"dough\") The \"uutaq\" is hard candy or other hard-baked food; bread"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Imlaucuaq\" (in Yup'ik of Nelson Island, \"Imlaucuar\" in Nunivak Cup'ig; lit. \u00absmall roe\u00bb) is herring sac roe. The sac-roe (imlacuaq) is dried into product resembling golden chips. The dried roe is placed in containers and stored in the cache. It is soaked in water prior to eating but is also eaten dried. All sac-roe from subsistence caught herring was processed in all four Nelson Island communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Birds (\"tengmiaq\" \"tengmiak\" \"tengmiat\" or \"yaqulek\" \"yaqulgek\" \"yaqulget\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tengmiar\" \"tengmiag\" \"tengmiat\" in Cup'ig)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The akutaq (Eskimo ice cream), tepa (stinkheads), mangtak (muktuk) some of the most well-known traditional Yup'ik delicacies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "After the completion of the hunting season, families would move to summer fish camps. Fish were the most prolific and essential subsistence resource for many Alaskan Natives living in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta region and its harvest would occupy the majority of the families' efforts for several months. Traditional plants would continue to be harvested as they ripened and. were eaten fresh or placed in underground caches for temporary storage. By late summer/early fall, several berry species (e.g., Rubus chamaemorus, R. arcticus, Empetrum nigrum) and local greens (c.g., Rumex arcticus) were ready to be harvested and women and children would spend most days on the tundra gathering plant resources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik clothing",
        "text": "Fish (\"neqa\" \"neqek\" \"neqet\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik \"neqa\" or \"iqallug\" in Cup'ig) is one of the most common Yup'ik foods. Fish skins (\"neqet amiit\" or \"amirak ~ amiraq\" in Yup'ik) and intestines are used for waterproof clothing (\"amiragglugaq\") in a few areas, especially in southern coastal Alaska. For example, commercial herring fishers from Toksook Bay, Alaska still prefer intestine parkas to heavy-duty raincoats, as they are lighter and allow body vapor to pass through the skin membrane while preventing rain from entering. In former times, rather crudely made shirts without hoods were made of local salmon or trout skins. Through rarely used today, in the past fish skin was also used for waterproof boots (\"amirak ~ amiraq\") and mittens (\"arilluk\") also parka (\"qasperrluk\"), making these items water-repellent and durable. Fish skin was also used to make parkas, mittens, and pants for summer use. The sinew for fish skins known as \"yualunguaq\" (fish-skin thread).\n*Pacific salmons \"Oncorhynchus\" (\"neqpik\" \"neqpiik\" \"neqpiit\" in Yup'ik, literally \"real fish\")\n*Dog salmon or chum salmon \"Oncorhynchus keta\" (\"iqalluk\" \"iqalluuk\" \"iqalluut\" [Kuskokwim, Yukon], \"kangitneq\" \"kangitnerek\" \"kangitneret\" [Bristol Bay] in Yup'ik, \"mac'utar\" \"mac'ut'ag\" \"mac'ut'at\" in Cup'ig)\n*Silver salmon or coho salmon \"Oncorhynchus kisutch\" (\"qakiiyaq\" \"qakiiyak\" \"qakiiyat\" [Bristol Bay Kuskokwim ], \"uqurliq \" [Yukon], \"caayuryaq\" [Unaliq-Pastuliq] in Yup'ik, \"qavlunaq\" in Cup'ik, \"ciayuryar\" \"ciayuryag\" \"ciayuryat\" in Cup'ig)\n*King salmon or Chinook salmon \"Oncorhynchus tschawytscha\" (\"taryaqvak\" \"taryaqviik\" \"taryaqviit\" [Bristol Bay Nushagak, Kuskokwim, Yukon] \"tarsarpak\" [Unaliq-Pastuliq] \"kiagtaq\" [Yukon] in Yup'ik, \"taryaqvak\" in Cup'ik, \"taryaqvag\" in Cup'ig)\n*Trout (charr) or salmon trout, Dolly Varden \"Salvelinus malma\" (\"iqallugpik\" \"iqallugpiik\" \"iqallugpiit\" [Kuskokwim, Yukon], \"yugyaq\" [Bristol Bay] in Yup'ik, \"iqalluyagar\" \"iqalluyagag\" \"iqalluyagat\" in Cup'ig)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Uqiquq\" Passing out of bearded seal oil- The stripped long blubber for girls in the family and square cut blubber for men in the household."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Nutaqaq\" is frozen raw fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Food preservation"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Cookie (cugg'alinguaq in Egegik)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kinengyak\" ( \"kinengyiit\" ) is dried meat (caribou, moose)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The flesh of virtually all waterfowl in the environment was eaten, either fresh or dried, usually with oil or a sourdock leaf soup. Even cormorants were considered edible and the meat of these fishy-tasting birds was dried or boiled when freshly killed. The eggs of waterfowl were sometimes sucked raw, but were usually boiled. Unlike Eskimos of the adjacent mainland, the Nunivaarmiut did not boil eggs hard and pack them in pokes for use during the winter. Instead, if there were more eggs than could be consumed at the time of collecting, they were hard-boiled and, still in their shells, placed in wooden dishes of seal oil to be kept for a short while."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's mission is similar to that of the Alaska Department of Fish"
      },
      {
        "title": "Indigenous cuisine of the Americas",
        "text": "In the eastern Canadian Arctic, Inuit consume a diet of foods that are fished, hunted, and gathered locally. This may include caribou, walrus, ringed seal, bearded seal, beluga whale, polar bear, berries, and fireweed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Traditional Yup'ik delicacies are, akutaq (Eskimo ice cream), tepa (stinkheads), mangtak (muktuk)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Teggsiq'er\" (in Nunivak Cup'ig) half dried herring (specifically made for cooking)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The type of meal () eaten at any given time varies by custom and location.\n*Breakfast (\"unuakutaq\") is eaten within an hour or two after a person wakes in the morning.\n*Lunch or dinner ( from Russian \u043e\u0431\u0435\u0301\u0434 ) is eaten around mid-day.\n*Supper or dinner (\"atakutaq\") is eaten in the evening."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit Nunangat",
        "text": "Inuit cuisine, also known as \"country food,\" incorporates a variety of meats (such as walrus, narwhal, bearded seal, caribou, polar bear, Arctic cod, and Arctic char, amongst others) and gathered plants (including crowberries, cloudberries, fireweed, seaweed, tubers and roots like mousefood, tuberous spring beauty, and sweet vetch) Much of the meat is served frozen, raw, or boiled, much like sushi or sashimi in Japanese cuisine. Delicacies include akutuq \u140a\u146f\u1450\u1585, an ice cream-like dessert made with fat or tallow, meat, and mixed with berries; igunaq \u1403\u148d\u14c7\u1585, a year-long fermentation of select meats; maktaaq \u14aa\u1483\u1456\u1585 (alternatively maktak \u14aa\u1483\u1455\u1483 or maktaq), frozen whale skin and blubber usually eaten raw, sometimes pickled, and occasionally finely diced, breaded, deep fried, and then served with soy sauce; Labrador tea; and various dips such as aalu \u140b\u14d7 (intended for meat made from the choice parts of caribou or seal, chopped into tiny pieces and blended with melted fat and blood), misiraq \u14a5\u14ef\u154b\u1585 (aged to resemble an aromatic white wine, made from seal or whale blubber), and nirukkaq \u14c2\u1548\u1483\u1472\u1585 (a smooth made p\u00e2t\u00e9 made from the contents of a caribou's stomach)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qassaq\" or \"Qassaulria\" is raw food, raw flesh or raw meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The Yup'ik, like other Eskimo groups, were semi-nomadic hunter-fisher-gatherers who moved seasonally throughout the year within a reasonably well-defined territory to harvest fish, bird, sea and land mammal, berry and other renewable resources. Subsistence is the practice of hunting, fishing, or gathering food to live on (not to resell), and is practiced by almost all the Yup'ik. In the inland, fishing for red salmon and gathering berries in the summer as well as hunting caribou or moose in the fall and winter constitute the primary seasonal subsistence activities of the inland Yup'ik villages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qercuqaq\" is hard frozen fish (blackfish or the like)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Historically Inuit cuisine, which is taken here to include Greenlandic cuisine, Yup'ik cuisine and Aleut cuisine, consisted of a diet of animal source foods that were fished, hunted, and gathered locally. In the 20th century the Inuit diet began to change and by the 21st century the diet was closer to a Western diet. After hunting, they often honour the animals' spirit by singing songs and performing rituals. Although traditional or country foods still play an important role in the identity of Inuit, much food is purchased from the store, which has led to health problems and food insecurity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Subsistence foods are generally considered by many to be nutritionally superior superfoods. Wild salmon, game meat, and berries harvested by Alaska Natives are world class fare compared to processed, canned, high priced items they find at their local mercantiles. Lonner (1986) compares the generally high carbohydrate foods of local grocery stores with \u201cvital proteins and fats\u201d in subsistence foods. In addition, the hunting and gathering of subsistence foods are favored activities among many rural Alaskans if not spiritually and culturally necessary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kumlaciq\" (in Yup'ik, \"kumlacir\" in Cup'ig) is frozen meat (of frozen fish, blackfish, and others as well) to be eaten in that state. Frozen food is a method for preserving fish or meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Alaska subsistence communities are noted to obtain up to 97% of the omega-3 fatty acids through a subsistence diet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Traditional Inuit diets derive approximately 50% of their calories from fat, 30\u201335% from protein and 15\u201320% of their calories from carbohydrates, largely in the form of glycogen from the raw meat they consumed. This high fat content provides valuable energy and prevents protein poisoning, which historically was sometimes a problem in late winter when game animals grew lean through winter starvation. It has been suggested that because the fats of the Inuit's wild-caught game are largely monounsaturated and rich in omega-3 fatty acids, the diet does not pose the same health risks as a typical Western high-fat diet. However, actual evidence has shown that Inuit have a similar prevalence of coronary artery disease as non-Inuit populations and they have excessive mortality due to cerebrovascular strokes, with twice the risk to that of the North American population. Indeed, the cardiovascular risk of this diet is so severe that the addition of a more standard American diet has reduced the incidence of mortality in the Inuit population. Furthermore, fish oil supplement studies have failed to support claims of preventing heart attacks or strokes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Taaqassaaq\" is skin for chewing. The hide and flippers from fresh walrus may be fermented to make taaqassaaq."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Arumaarrluk\" (\"arumarrluk\") or \"arumaarrluaq\" is poke fish or poked fish slightly smoked and stored in seal oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Among the Yup'ik of southwestern Alaska, societies (regional or socioterritorial groups), like those of the I\u00f1upiat of northwestern Alaska, were differentiated by territory, speech patterns, clothing details, annual cycles, and ceremonial life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Waterfowl were prepared in a variety of ways such as boiling, baking, and in soups.\n*Common eider or Pacific eider \"Somateria mollissima\" (\"metraq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"angiikvak\" in northern Yup'ik dialects, \"metr(ar), nanwista\", \"metrapig\" \u2640 \"tunupista\" \u2642 in Cup'ig)\n*King eider \"Somateria mollissima\" (\"qengallek\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qengalleg\" in Cup'ig).\n*Steller's eider \"Polysticta stelleri\" (\"anarnissakaq\" [Yukon], \"caqiar(aq)\" [Kuskokwim] in Yup'ik, \"qaciar(ar)\" in Cup'ig)\n*Oldsquaw or long-tailed duck \"Clangula hyemalis\" (\"allgiar(aq)\" [Kuskokwim], \"allgiar\" [Bristol Bay], \"aliaaliq\" [Unaliq-Pastuliq], \"aarraaliq\", \"aarraangiiq\" [Kuskokwim] in Yup'ik, \"aarraangiiraq, aarrangyaraq\" in Cup'ik, \"aarrangiir\" in Cup'ig).\n*Swan or tundra swan, whistling swan \"Cygnus columbianus columbianus\" (\"qugyuk\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qugsuk\" [Unaliq-Pastuliq], \"caqulegpak\" [Egegik], \"qugyug\" in Cup'ig)\n*Sandhill crane \"Grus canadensis\" (\"qucillgaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qucilkuryug\" in Cup'ig).\n*Ptarmigan were preserved by freezing or drying after being plucked or skinned. Once dried, the birds commonly were eaten without any other preparation. As with many dried foods, seal oil a frequent to dried ptarmigan. Ptarmigan were also cooked by boiling and were often the basis for soups.\n*Common murre or common guillemot \"Uria aalge\" (\"alpa ~ alpaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"alpa\" in Cup'ig)\n*Pigeon guillemot \"Cepphus columba\" (\"ciguraq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"cigurer\" in Cup'ig)\n*Crested auklet \"Aethia cristatella\" (\"cip'lagar, cukilpag\" in Cup'ig)\n*Horned puffin \"Fratercula corniculata\" (\"qilangaq, qengacuar(aq)\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qilangar, tunngar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Black-legged kittiwake \"Rissa tridactyla\" (\"naruyacuaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tengaurta, tengauqsarar(ar), qarliar(ar)\" in Cup'ig)\n*Pelagic cormorant \"Phalacrocorax pelagicus\" (\"uyalek\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"uyaleg\" in Cup'ig)\n*Snowy owl \"Bubo scandiacus\" (\"anipa ~ anipaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"anipar\" in Cup'ig)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Food storage"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Tamukassaaq\" is aged beluga skin. (also, skin to chew on such as dried fish skin)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Traditional subsistence foods are mixed with what is commercially available. Today about half the food is supplied by subsistence activities (subsistence foods), the other half is purchased from the commercial stores (market foods, store-bought foods)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "The Yup'ik or Yupiaq (sg & pl) and Yupiit or Yupiat (pl), also Central Alaskan Yup'ik, Central Yup'ik, Alaskan Yup'ik (own name \"Yup'ik\" \"Yupiik\" \"Yupiit\" ; ), are an Indigenous people of western and southwestern Alaska ranging from southern Norton Sound southwards along the coast of the Bering Sea on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta (including living on Nelson and Nunivak Islands) and along the northern coast of Bristol Bay as far east as Nushagak Bay and the northern Alaska Peninsula at Naknek River and Egegik Bay. They are also known as Cup'ik by the Chevak Cup'ik dialect-speaking people of Chevak and Cup'ig for the Nunivak Cup'ig dialect-speaking people of Nunivak Island."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qemitaq\" (lit. \u00abstrangled thing\u00bb) is muskrat or squirrel that has been hung by the neck to dry after being skinned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Beluga (especially late fall hunting) are used for feeding dogs in the Bristol Bay areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Vitamins and minerals which are typically derived from plant sources are nonetheless present in most Inuit diets. Vitamins A and D are present in the oils and livers of cold-water fishes and mammals. Vitamin C is obtained through sources such as caribou liver, kelp, muktuk, and seal brain; because these foods are typically eaten raw or frozen, the vitamin C they contain, which would be destroyed by cooking, is instead preserved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Uqumelnguq\" (in Yup'ik, \"uqumelzngur\" in Cup'ig) is smoked fish soaked in seal oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Akutaq (in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"akutar\" in Cup'ig, \"akutuq\" in I\u00f1upiaq) or \"Eskimo ice cream\", also known as \"Yup'ik ice-cream\", \"Yupik ice-cream\", \"Inupiaq ice-cream\", \"Inupiat ice-cream\", \"Alutiiq ice cream\" is a mixture of berries, sugar, seal oil, shortening, flaked fish flesh, snow, etc. Akutaq is most common Eskimo delicacy in Alaska, and only dessert in Eskimo cuisine. Both Eskimo ice cream and Indian ice cream are also known as \"native ice cream\" or \"Alaskan ice cream\" in Alaska. There are different types of akutaq."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qassayaaq\" or \"Qassayagaq\" (lit. \u00abbaby raw fish\u00bb) frozen raw whitefish aged (fermented) before freezing and served frozen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "The tundra provides berries for making jams, jellies, and a Yup'ik delicacy commonly called akutaq or \"Eskimo ice cream.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Vilhjalmur Stefansson",
        "text": "While there was considerable skepticism when Stefansson reported his findings about the viability of an exclusively meat diet, his claims have been borne out in later studies and analyses. In multiple studies, it was shown that the Inuit diet was a unique ketogenic diet. While the Inuit diet derived a percentage of its calories from the glycogen found in the raw meats, the native Inuit ate a diet of primarily stewed (boiled) fresh fish and fatty meats such as caribou, whale, or seal, while occasionally eating raw fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Aagciuk\" is fish meatball made of the soft meat and bones of spawned-out fish, cooked by dropping in boiling water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Most of the salmon that was dried and smoked was eaten without any further preparation. Dried salmon sometimes eaten with seal oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "for the good of the nation at large."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Meat or Flesh (\"kemek\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"kemeg\" in Cup'ig) is primary main food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "While Yupiit were nomadic, the abundant fish and game of the Y-K Delta and Bering Sea coastal areas permitted for a more settled life than for many of the more northerly I\u00f1upiaq people. Under normal conditions, there was little need for interregional travel, as each regional group had access to enough resources within its own territory to be completely self-sufficient. However, fluctuations in animal populations or weather conditions sometimes necessitated travel and trade between regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rubus chamaemorus",
        "text": "In Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, cloudberries are used to make \"bakeapple pie\" or jam. Arctic Yup'ik mix the berries with seal oil, reindeer or caribou fat (which is diced and made fluffy with seal oil) and sugar to make \"Eskimo ice cream\" or akutaq. The recipes vary by region. Along the Yukon and Kuskokwim River areas, white fish (pike) along with shortening and sugar are used. The berries are an important traditional food resource for the Yup'ik."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "According to Edmund Searles in his article \"Food and the Making of Modern Inuit Identities\", they consume this type of diet because a mostly meat diet is \"effective in keeping the body warm, making the body strong, keeping the body fit, and even making that body healthy\".\n* Hunted meats:\n** Sea mammals such as walrus, seal, and whale. Whale meat generally comes from the narwhal, beluga whale and the bowhead whale. The latter is able to feed an entire community for nearly a year from its meat, blubber, and skin. Inuit hunters most often hunt juvenile whales which, compared to adults, are safer to hunt and have tastier skin. Ringed seal and bearded seal are the most important aspect of an Inuit diet and is often the largest part of an Inuit hunter's diet.\n** Land mammals such as caribou, polar bear, and muskox\n** Birds and their eggs\n** Saltwater and freshwater fish including sculpin, Arctic cod, Arctic char, capelin and lake trout.\n* While it is not possible to cultivate native plants for food in the Arctic, Inuit have traditionally gathered those that are naturally available, including:\n** Berries including crowberry and cloudberry\n** Herbaceous plants such as grasses and fireweed\n** Tubers and stems including mousefood, roots of various tundra plants which are cached by voles in burrows.\n** Roots such as tuberous spring beauty and sweet vetch\n** Seaweed"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Egamaarrluk\" (\"egamaarruk\" or \"egamaaq\") is partially dried (not smoked) fish boiled for eating. The partially dried and boiled fish is only partially cooked. The half-dried salmon (\"egamaarrluk\") which was cooked after being partially dried. \"Egamaarruk\" is split and half dried fish. these are prepared much like \"neqerrluk\", but are not fully dried and may not be smoked. The half dried fish are boiled and eaten with seal oil. The \"egamaarrluk\" involved a similar process but the fish were kept as fillets rather than sliced into strips."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik clothing",
        "text": "Terrestrial mammals or land mammals (\"nunarmiutaq\" \"nunarmiutaat\" in Yup'ik) are game animals and furbearers.\n*Game animals (\"pitarkaq\" \"pitarkat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"pitarkar\" \"pitarkat\" in Cup'ig). Caribou, moose and \"bears\" are included in the definition of the word \"pitarkat\".\n*Caribou or Porcupine caribou, wild caribou \"Rangifer tarandus granti\" (\"tuntu\" \"tuntuk\" \"tuntut\" or \"tuntupik\" \"tuntupiik\" \"tuntupiit\" or \"tuntupiaq\" \"tuntupiak\" \"tuntupiat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tuntupig\" in Cup'ig). Caribou skin is ideal for cold, dry weather as each hair has a honeycomb core that traps air, which is an excellent insulator. Sealskins and caribou skins were always kept separate and not combined in the same garment except for occasional decorative strips. Yup\u2019ik dance fans decorated with caribou throat hair, caribou leg-skins were made into high boots, sleeping bags for travel made by joining two caribou skins and fur-side-out fancy parkas. Historically, caribou were hunted in the fall and skins were brought home for skin clothing. Caribou hunts were discouraged by the Russian and American traders as they felt it took the trappers away from their trap lines. Prior to European contact, caribou were important not only for their meat but for the skins which were an important item used in clothing. The Russians encouraged the Eskimos to adopt Western-style dress in order to release more furs for trading. In the spring, some people hunted caribou along the inland river ways.\n*Reindeer or (semi)domestic caribou \"Rangifer tarandus tarandus\" (\"qusngiq\" \"qusngik\" \"qusngit\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qusngir\" \"qusngig\" \"qusngit\" in Cup'ig). The word \"qusngiq\" which is derived from the Chukchee \"qora\u014be\" (\u04c4\u043e\u0440\u0430\u04c8\u044b) or Koryak \"qoya\u014ba\" (\u04c4\u043e\u0439\u0430\u04c8\u0430). In Europe, use the terms \"caribou\" and \"reindeer\" synonymously, but in Alaska and Canada \"reindeer\" refers exclusively to semi-domesticated forms. Only in North America are wild \"Rangifer\" referred to as \"caribou\". In Eurasia, \"reindeer\" are classified as either domesticated or wild. Domestic reindeer (\"Rangifer tarandus tarandus\") were introduced into Alaska 100 years ago and have been maintained as semidomestic livestock. They have had contact with wild caribou (\"R. t. granti\") herds, including deliberate crossbreeding and mixing in the wild. Reindeer have considerable potential as a domestic animal for meat or velvet antler production, and wild caribou are important to subsistence and sport hunters. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) managed reindeer operations on the Nunivak Island beginning in 1940. The Nunivak herd is composed of about 4,000 reindeer. The southern half of Nunivak is a designated Wilderness area, which presents challenges in summertime herding, since use of motorized recreational vehicles is forbidden within the Wilderness area without adequate snow cover. In the more recent past, when reindeer skins have been used for parkas, the front was usually taken from the ventral side of the deer, the back from the dorsal area, and leg strips were used for the sleeves. Hides are used for clothing, mukluks, blankets, mittens, tents, boat coverings, sleeping bags, house coverings and insulation. Back sinew is used to make thread. Hard antlers and bone are used to make utensils, tools and decorative objects.\n*Moose or Alaska moose \"Alces alces gigas\" (\"tuntuvak\" \"tuntuviik\" \"tuntuviit\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tuntuwag\" in Cup'ig, literally \"big caribou\")\n*Muskox \"Ovibos moschatus\" (\"umingmar, maskar\" in Nunivak Cup'ig). Alaska's original muskox were hunted to extinction in the mid-1800s - perhaps by whalers and others. They had originally ranged Alaska's arctic and western coastal tundra. In 1935-1936 the U.S. Biological Survey brought 31 muskoxen from Greenland to Nunivak Island in an effort to reestablish the species in Alaska and as a means for subsistence living. Because the animals were federally protected, and since the Nunivaarmiut were afraid of them, they added nothing to the local economy until 40 years later. when Nunivak women learned to make fine items of clothing from the underwool of the muskox (\"qiviut\"). The muskox are large animals that look a lot like bison, but have wool like sheep, and has a two-layered coat, and qiviut refers specifically to the soft underwool beneath the longer outer wool. The first modern hunting season was in 1975. Today the Nunivak herd numbers around 600 animals, down from a high of around 700 animals in 1968.\n*Furbearers or fur-bearing animals (\"melqulek\" \"melqulget\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"melquleg\" in Cup'ig) are commonly trapped for their pelts. Taking advantage of Alaska's rich supply of fur-bearing animals, the Yup'ik use a variety of materials for their parkas. Beaver, river otter, red fox, Arctic fox, marten, lynx, mink, ground squirrel, marmots, and muskrat are trapped in specific regions during the fall and winter.\n*Grizzly bear or brown bear \"Ursus arctos horribilis\" (\"taqukaq\" \"taqukaat\" or \"carayak\" \"carayiit\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"paugnar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Black bear or American black bear \"Ursus americanus\" (\"tan'gerliq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tungulzria\" in Cup'ig). Black bear skins are dried and used for making mukluks, and trim on other articles of clothing.\n*Polar bear \"Ursus maritimus\" (\"nanuaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"arlunar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Wolf or gray wolf \"Canis lupus\" (\"kegluneq\" \"keglunerek\" \"kegluneret\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"kegg'luner\" in Cup'ig)\n*Dog or adult dog \"Canis lupus familiaris\" (\"qimugta\" \"qimugtek\" \"qimugtet\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qimugta\" \"qimugteg\" \"qimugtet\" in Cup'ig), Puppy or juvenile dog (\"qimugkauyar(aq)\" \"qimugkauyaraat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qimukcuar(ar)\" in Cup'ig). For thousands of years, dogs have been tightly interwoven in the Yup'ik way of life (\"yuuyaraq\" in Yup'ik, \"cuuyaraq\" in Cup'ik), for transportation and companionship. Adult dog skins not used in clothing production. Only juvenile dog (puppy) skins are usable. Puppy skin parkas, with the fur inside, were made for babies and small children. Puppies one and two months old were killed for the purpose.\n*Red fox \"Vulpes vulpes\" (\"kaviaq\" \"kaviak\" \"kaviat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"kavviar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Arctic fox \"Vulpes lagopus\" (\"uliiq\" \"uliirek\" \"uliiret\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qaterlir\" [white fox], \"eqyerer\" [blue fox] \"illaassug\" [cross fox] in Cup'ig)\n*Lynx or Canada lynx \"Lynx canadensis\" (\"tertuli\" \"tertulit\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Sea otter \"Enhydra lutris\" (\"arrnaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"aatagar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Land otter or river otter \"Lontra canadensis\" (\"cuignilnguq\" \"cuignilnguut\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"cenkar, pirturcir(ar)\" in Cup'ig)\n*Mink \"Neovison vison\" (\"imarmiutaq\" \"imarmiutaat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"imarmiutar\" \"imarmiutat\" in Cup'ig). Mink skin parkas, and also mink pants for small boys, used to be made.\n*Weasel or stoat \"Mustela erminea\" (\"narullgiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"terriar(ar)\" [in winter coloration] \"narullgir\" [in summer coloration] in Cup'ig)\n*Marten \"Martes americana\" (\"qavcicuaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Wolverine \"Gulo gulo luscus\" (\"terikaniaq\" \"terikaniak\" \"terikaniat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qavcig, terikaniar\" in Cup'ig). Wolverine hair is ideal for parka hood ruffs because it does not collect the frost produced by breathing, and its long hairs block the wind to prevent frostbite. Wolverine cuffs (on parka) help to warm the wrists. The front and back or side panels of Yup'ik boots are decorated with otter tassels, wolverine yassels, red yarn, and sometimes a string of beads.\n*Muskrat \"Ondatra zibethicus\" (\"kanaqlak\" \"kanaqliik\" \"kanaqliit\" or \"tevyuli\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"kanaqlag\" in Cup'ig)\n*Vole \"Microtus miurus\" (singing vole) and \"Clethrionomys rutilus\" (northern red-backed vole) (\"avelngaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Collared lemming or northern collared lemming \"Dicrostonyx groenlandicus\" (\"qilagmiutaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Brown lemming or Nunivak Island brown lemming \"Lemmus trimucronatus harroldi\" (\"pugultu\" in Cup'ig)\n*Beaver \"Castor canadensis\" (\"paluqtaq\" \"paluqtak\" \"paluqtat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"paluqtar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Porcupine \"Erethizon dorsatum\" (\"issaluuq\" \"issaluut\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Tree squirrel or red squirrel \"Tamiasciurus hudsonicus\" (\"qiguiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Ground squirrel or parky squirrel, parka squirrel \"Spermophilus parryii\" (\"qanganaq\" \"qanganat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qanganar\" in Cup'ig). The fancy parka or \"atkupiaq\" is made of ground squirrel pelts, preferred among the Yup'ik for winter clothing because of its warmth and lightness. Parkas made from ground squirrel skins were especially light and warm. Normally the skins of 45 squirrels were necessary to make a man's parka and 35 for a woman's.\n*Marmot or hoary marmot \"Marmota caligata\" (\"cikigpak\" \"cikigpiit\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Hare or jackrabbit, tundra hare, Arctic hare (but true Arctic hare is \"Lepus arcticus\" and it's not live in Alaska) \"Lepus othus\" (\"qayuqeggliq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qayuqegglir\" in Cup'ig)\n*Rabbit or snowshoe hare, snowshoe rabbit \"Lepus americanus\" (\"maqaruaq\" \"maqaruak\" \"maqaruat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"maqaruar\" in Cup'ig)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"tangviaq\" (Y), \"tangviarrluk\" (K, BB, HBC); \"tangviarrluggaq\" (NI, CAN) \"tangevkayak ~ tangevkayagaq\" (NI) \"tangeq\" (Y, NUN, NS) seal cracklings (strip of seal blubber from which oil has been rendered)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vilhjalmur Stefansson",
        "text": "Stefansson is also a figure of considerable interest in dietary circles, especially those with an interest in a very low-carbohydrate diet. Stefansson documented the fact that the Inuit diet was then consisted about 90% meat and fish. Inuit would often go six to nine months a year eating nothing but fatty meat and fresh fish, which might currently be perceived as a 'zero carb' / no-carbohydrate diet. (The diet technically contains a very low amount of carbohydates, as the fresh fish that the Inuit ate would have had a small amount of glycogen.) Stefansson found that he and his fellow explorers of European, Black, and South Sea Islands descent were also \u201cperfectly healthy\u201d on such a diet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Most plants were available in a variety of locales and their harvest did not dictate moving the family to specific camps. Plants that grew in abundance in specific terrain, such as several varieties of cliff greens, usually offered other resources that could be harvested at the same time (e.g., fish, Sandhill cranes). Greens such as Rumex arcticus (sour dock) could be found throughout the island and all old camp sites are said to contain buried cache pits once used for plant storage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Uqumaarrluk\" is poke fish slightly aged and stored in seal oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Egaaq\" (lit. \u00abboiled thing\u00bb) is boiled fish or other food (also, by extension, any cooked fish or other food)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Before placing the \"wild spinach\" or sour dock in the caches, the cooked leaves would be drained of juice and the pit lined with woven grass mats. Berries were stored in much the same way, except that these pits would be lined with rocks. The berries would have no juice when removed, since they would have dried out while being stored underground. In the fall, people would return to their seasonal caches and transport their stored berries and greens to their winter village."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Because the climate of the Arctic is ill-suited for agriculture and lacks forageable plant matter for much of the year, the traditional Inuit diet is lower in carbohydrates and higher in fat and animal protein compared to the global average. When carbohydrate intake is inadequate for total energy requirements, protein is broken down in the liver through gluconeogenesis and utilized as an energy source. Inuit studied in the 1970s were found to have abnormally large livers, presumably to assist in this process. Their urine volumes were also high, a result of additional urea which the body uses to purge waste products from gluconeogenesis. However, in multiple studies the traditional Inuit diet has not been shown to be a ketogenic diet. Not only have multiple researchers been unable to detect any evidence of ketosis resulting from the traditional Inuit diet, but the ratios of fatty-acid to glucose were observed to be well below the generally accepted level of ketogenesis."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Barrow Duck-In",
        "text": "Prior to Alaska's statehood and colonization of the Arctic, the I\u00f1upiat freely practiced subsistence hunting of various marine and terrestrial species, such as the bowhead whale, various species of seal, caribou, waterfowl, and fish. Additionally, eiders, rabbits, geese, berries, and roots are of seasonal importance to the I\u00f1upiat. These subsistence activities have been practiced sustainably since time immemorial and retain a high social and cultural significance. In the Alaskan Arctic, subsistence activities exist as a way for the community to gather, celebrate, and share sustenance. Many I\u00f1upiat dances, songs, and cultural practices tell stories of hunts and explain the relationship the I\u00f1upiat have with various Arctic animals, including the common eider. Due to the remote location and lack of infrastructure in Utqia\u0121vik (and other areas considered I\u00f1upiat homelands), imported foods in 1961 were both incredibly expensive and inaccessible as the primary source of protein in a person's diet. Subsistence foods remain a critical component of food security for communities in the Arctic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kumlivirluuki\" is stored in freezer (\"kumlivik\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Cuakayak\" is cooked seal lung."
      },
      {
        "title": "I\u00f1upiat",
        "text": "I\u00f1upiat people are hunter-gatherers, as are most Arctic peoples. I\u00f1upiat people continue to rely heavily on subsistence hunting and fishing. Depending on their location, they harvest walrus, seal, whale, polar bears, caribou, and fish. Both the inland (Nunamiut) and coastal (Ta\u0121iumiut, i.e. Tiki\u0121a\u0121miut) I\u00f1upiat depend greatly on fish. Throughout the seasons, when they are available, food staples also include ducks, geese, rabbits, berries, roots, and shoots."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are the diets of the Alaskan Inupiat and Canadian Inuit the same?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "There's no direct answer but the Inuit refers to groups of similar indigenous people living in Greenland, Canada, and Alaska. They are fishers and hunters so they hunt for thing such as whales, seals, birds and fish for their diet.",
      "There is overlap between the I\u00f1upiat and Inuit diets, as both groups eat berries, roots, caribou, polar bear, walrus, whale, and fish. In fact, the I\u00f1upiat can be considered \"Inuit\", as the word is an umbrella term that can describe many indigenous groups."
    ],
    "topic": "Yup'ik cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Inuit:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Inuit"
        ],
        "ctx": "Inuit (; 'the people', singular: Inuk, , dual: Inuuk, ) are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic and subarctic regions of Greenland, Canada, and Alaska (United States). The Inuit languages are part of the Eskimo\u2013Aleut languages also known as Inuit-Yupik-Unangan and also as Eskaleut. Inuit Sign Language is a critically endangered language isolate used in Nunavut."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Inuit:43",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Inuit",
          "Cultural history",
          "Diet"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Inuit have traditionally been fishers and hunters. They still hunt whales (esp. bowhead whale), seal, polar bears, muskoxen, birds, and fish and at times other less commonly eaten animals such as the Arctic fox. The typical Inuit diet is high in protein and very high in fat \u2013 in their traditional diets, Inuit consumed an average of 75% of their daily energy intake from fat. While it is not possible to cultivate plants for food in the Arctic, the Inuit have traditionally gathered those that are naturally available. Grasses, tubers, roots, Plant stems, berries, and seaweed (\"kuanniq\" or edible seaweed) were collected and preserved depending on the season and the location. There is a vast array of different hunting technologies that the Inuit used to gather their food."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "I\u00f1upiat:15",
        "passage_titles": [
          "I\u00f1upiat",
          "Subsistence"
        ],
        "ctx": "I\u00f1upiat people are hunter-gatherers, as are most Arctic peoples. I\u00f1upiat people continue to rely heavily on subsistence hunting and fishing. Depending on their location, they harvest walrus, seal, whale, polar bears, caribou, and fish. Both the inland (Nunamiut) and coastal (Ta\u0121iumiut, i.e. Tiki\u0121a\u0121miut) I\u00f1upiat depend greatly on fish. Throughout the seasons, when they are available, food staples also include ducks, geese, rabbits, berries, roots, and shoots."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Inuit cuisine:16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Inuit cuisine",
          "Eating habits and food preparation",
          "Food sharing in the community"
        ],
        "ctx": "Inuit often are relentless in making known that they are not like in the sense that they do not eat the same food and they are communal with their food. believe that the person who purchases the food is the owner of the food and is free to decide what happens to the food. Searles describes the Inuit perspective on food by saying that \"in the Inuit world of goods, foods as well as other objects associated with hunting, fishing, and gathering are more or less communal property, belonging not to individuals but to a larger group, which can include multiple households.\" Food in an Inuit household is not meant to be saved for the family who has hunted, fished, gathered, or purchased it, but instead for anyone who is in need of it. Searles and his wife were visiting a family in Iqaluit and he asked for permission to have a cup of orange juice. This small gesture of asking was taken as offensive because Inuit do not consider food belonging to one person."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "I\u00f1upiat:16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "I\u00f1upiat",
          "Subsistence"
        ],
        "ctx": "The inland I\u00f1upiat also hunt caribou, Dall sheep, grizzly bear, and moose. The coastal I\u00f1upiat hunt walrus, seals, beluga whales, and bowhead whales. Cautiously, polar bear also is hunted."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Inuit:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Inuit"
        ],
        "ctx": "Many individuals who would have historically been referred to as \"Eskimo\" find that term offensive, and/or forced upon them in a colonial way; \"Inuit\" is now a common autonym for a large sub-group of these people. The word \"Inuit\" (varying forms Inupiak, Inuvialiut, Inughuit, etc.), however, is an ancient self-referential to a group of peoples which includes at most the I\u00f1upiat of northern Alaska, the four broad groups of Inuit in Canada, and the Greenlandic Inuit, and this usage has long been employed to the exclusion of other, closely related groups (e.g. Yupik, Aleut). Thereby, the Aleut (Unangan) and Yupik peoples (Alutiiq/Sugpiaq, \"Central\" Yup'ik, Siberian Yupik), who live in Alaska and Siberia, at least at an individual and local level, generally do not self-identify as \"Inuit\" as such. However, the Yupik peoples (but not the Aleut) do participate in the Inuit Circumpolar Council, and thus, in this \"high level\" international context, do identify as Inuit: \"\u201cInuit\u201d means indigenous members of the Inuit homeland recognized by Inuit as being members of their people and shall include the Inupiat, Yupik (Alaska), Inuit, Inuvialuit (Canada), Kalaallit (Greenland) and Yupik (Russia).\" And: \"Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC) Alaska is a 501(c)3 non-profit organization that works on behalf of the Inupiat of the North Slope, Northwest and Bering Straits Regions; St. Lawrence Island Yupik; and the Central Yup\u2019ik and Cup\u2019ik of the Yukon-Kuskokwim Region in Southwest Alaska. Inuit Circumpolar Council Alaska is a national member of ICC International.\""
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Yup\u2019ik cuisine is different from Alaskan , Canadian Inuit, and Greenlandic diets. Yup'ik communities varied widely in what foods were available to them, but everyone used similar food processing and food preservation methods, including air drying and smoking, food storage in cold water and oil, fermentation, and freezing. Some foods were eaten raw."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian cuisine",
        "text": "In the Arctic, Inuit traditionally survived on a diet consisting of land and marine mammals, fish, and foraged plant products. Meats were consumed fresh, but also often prepared, cached, and allowed to ferment into \"igunaq\" or \"kiviak\". These fermented meats have the consistency and smell of certain soft aged cheeses. Snacks such as \"muktuk\", which consist of whale skin and blubber is eaten plain, though occasionally dipped in soy sauce. Chunks of muktuk are sliced with an \"ulu\" prior to or during consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Traditional Inuit diets derive approximately 50% of their calories from fat, 30\u201335% from protein and 15\u201320% of their calories from carbohydrates, largely in the form of glycogen from the raw meat they consumed. This high fat content provides valuable energy and prevents protein poisoning, which historically was sometimes a problem in late winter when game animals grew lean through winter starvation. It has been suggested that because the fats of the Inuit's wild-caught game are largely monounsaturated and rich in omega-3 fatty acids, the diet does not pose the same health risks as a typical Western high-fat diet. However, actual evidence has shown that Inuit have a similar prevalence of coronary artery disease as non-Inuit populations and they have excessive mortality due to cerebrovascular strokes, with twice the risk to that of the North American population. Indeed, the cardiovascular risk of this diet is so severe that the addition of a more standard American diet has reduced the incidence of mortality in the Inuit population. Furthermore, fish oil supplement studies have failed to support claims of preventing heart attacks or strokes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Yup'ik cuisine (\"Yupiit neqait\" in Yup'ik language, literally \"Yup'iks' foods\" or \"Yup'iks' fishes\") refers to the Eskimo style traditional subsistence food and cuisine of the Yup'ik people from the western and southwestern Alaska. Also known as Cup'ik cuisine for the Chevak Cup'ik dialect speaking Eskimos of Chevak and Cup'ig cuisine for the Nunivak Cup'ig dialect speaking Eskimos of Nunivak Island. This cuisine is traditionally based on meat from fish, birds, sea and land mammals, and normally contains high levels of protein. Subsistence foods are generally considered by many to be nutritionally superior superfoods. Yup\u2019ik diet is different from Alaskan Inupiat, Canadian Inuit, and Greenlandic diets. Fish as food (especially Salmonidae species, such as salmon and whitefish) are primary food for Yup'ik Eskimos. Both food and fish called \"neqa\" in Yup'ik. Food preparation techniques are fermentation and cooking, also uncooked raw. Cooking methods are baking, roasting, barbecuing, frying, smoking, boiling, and steaming. Food preservation methods are mostly drying and less often frozen. Dried fish is usually eaten with seal oil. The ulu or fan-shaped knife used for cutting up fish, meat, food, and such."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indigenous cuisine of the Americas",
        "text": "In the eastern Canadian Arctic, Inuit consume a diet of foods that are fished, hunted, and gathered locally. This may include caribou, walrus, ringed seal, bearded seal, beluga whale, polar bear, berries, and fireweed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Both the Yup'ik (and Siberian Yupik) and cuisines are also known as Eskimo cuisine in Alaska. The oldest, most stable cuisine in North America is found above the Arctic Circle in Alaska. Long overlooked and pitifully misunderstood, the cuisine's roots lie buried in Eastern Asia, whence I\u00f1upiaq and Yupik ancestors ventured to Siberia, across Beringia, and on to Alaska during the last ice age, 50,000 to 15,000 years ago. The remoteness of the Inupiat and Yupik cultures accounts for their rich and intact food history. The Yupik-Inupiaq split probably occurred about one thousand years ago. The Arctic cuisine is composed of a high-protein diet without grains, supplemented with wild greens, roots, and berries. Fortunately, dietitians consider the diet nutritious and balanced with abundant vitamins, minerals, proteins and valuable unsaturated fats derived from a vast array of sea and land mammals, fish, fowl, wild plants and berries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "According to Edmund Searles in his article \"Food and the Making of Modern Inuit Identities\", they consume this type of diet because a mostly meat diet is \"effective in keeping the body warm, making the body strong, keeping the body fit, and even making that body healthy\".\n* Hunted meats:\n** Sea mammals such as walrus, seal, and whale. Whale meat generally comes from the narwhal, beluga whale and the bowhead whale. The latter is able to feed an entire community for nearly a year from its meat, blubber, and skin. Inuit hunters most often hunt juvenile whales which, compared to adults, are safer to hunt and have tastier skin. Ringed seal and bearded seal are the most important aspect of an Inuit diet and is often the largest part of an Inuit hunter's diet.\n** Land mammals such as caribou, polar bear, and muskox\n** Birds and their eggs\n** Saltwater and freshwater fish including sculpin, Arctic cod, Arctic char, capelin and lake trout.\n* While it is not possible to cultivate native plants for food in the Arctic, Inuit have traditionally gathered those that are naturally available, including:\n** Berries including crowberry and cloudberry\n** Herbaceous plants such as grasses and fireweed\n** Tubers and stems including mousefood, roots of various tundra plants which are cached by voles in burrows.\n** Roots such as tuberous spring beauty and sweet vetch\n** Seaweed"
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Vitamins and minerals which are typically derived from plant sources are nonetheless present in most Inuit diets. Vitamins A and D are present in the oils and livers of cold-water fishes and mammals. Vitamin C is obtained through sources such as caribou liver, kelp, muktuk, and seal brain; because these foods are typically eaten raw or frozen, the vitamin C they contain, which would be destroyed by cooking, is instead preserved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Because the climate of the Arctic is ill-suited for agriculture and lacks forageable plant matter for much of the year, the traditional Inuit diet is lower in carbohydrates and higher in fat and animal protein compared to the global average. When carbohydrate intake is inadequate for total energy requirements, protein is broken down in the liver through gluconeogenesis and utilized as an energy source. Inuit studied in the 1970s were found to have abnormally large livers, presumably to assist in this process. Their urine volumes were also high, a result of additional urea which the body uses to purge waste products from gluconeogenesis. However, in multiple studies the traditional Inuit diet has not been shown to be a ketogenic diet. Not only have multiple researchers been unable to detect any evidence of ketosis resulting from the traditional Inuit diet, but the ratios of fatty-acid to glucose were observed to be well below the generally accepted level of ketogenesis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit Nunangat",
        "text": "Inuit cuisine, also known as \"country food,\" incorporates a variety of meats (such as walrus, narwhal, bearded seal, caribou, polar bear, Arctic cod, and Arctic char, amongst others) and gathered plants (including crowberries, cloudberries, fireweed, seaweed, tubers and roots like mousefood, tuberous spring beauty, and sweet vetch) Much of the meat is served frozen, raw, or boiled, much like sushi or sashimi in Japanese cuisine. Delicacies include akutuq \u140a\u146f\u1450\u1585, an ice cream-like dessert made with fat or tallow, meat, and mixed with berries; igunaq \u1403\u148d\u14c7\u1585, a year-long fermentation of select meats; maktaaq \u14aa\u1483\u1456\u1585 (alternatively maktak \u14aa\u1483\u1455\u1483 or maktaq), frozen whale skin and blubber usually eaten raw, sometimes pickled, and occasionally finely diced, breaded, deep fried, and then served with soy sauce; Labrador tea; and various dips such as aalu \u140b\u14d7 (intended for meat made from the choice parts of caribou or seal, chopped into tiny pieces and blended with melted fat and blood), misiraq \u14a5\u14ef\u154b\u1585 (aged to resemble an aromatic white wine, made from seal or whale blubber), and nirukkaq \u14c2\u1548\u1483\u1472\u1585 (a smooth made p\u00e2t\u00e9 made from the contents of a caribou's stomach)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Historically Inuit cuisine, which is taken here to include Greenlandic cuisine, Yup'ik cuisine and Aleut cuisine, consisted of a diet of animal source foods that were fished, hunted, and gathered locally. In the 20th century the Inuit diet began to change and by the 21st century the diet was closer to a Western diet. After hunting, they often honour the animals' spirit by singing songs and performing rituals. Although traditional or country foods still play an important role in the identity of Inuit, much food is purchased from the store, which has led to health problems and food insecurity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Terrestrial mammals or land mammals (\"nunarmiutaq\" \"nunarmiutaat\" in Yup'ik) are game animals and furbearers.\n*Game animals (\"pitarkaq\" \"pitarkat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"pitarkar\" \"pitarkat\" in Cup'ig). Caribou, moose and \"bears\" are included in the definition of the word \"pitarkat\".\n*Caribou or wild caribou \"Rangifer tarandus granti\" (\"tuntu\", \"tuntupik\" or \"tuntupiaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tuntupig\" in Cup'ig). Prior to European contact, caribou were important not only for their meat but for the skins which were an important item used in clothing. The Russians encouraged the Eskimos to adopt Western-style dress in order to release more furs for trading. The second most commonly received resources for Manokotak residents were caribou (%64.8 of households). Caribou meat was often made into jerky. The stomach contents such as sedges and other greens, were eaten. Virtually all of the edible parts of the animal was utilized. Caribou have been absent from Nunivak Island for at least 100 years, but many of the procedures for preparing the flesh of this animal also apply to the domestic reindeer. In earlier times, however, caribou livers were placed in the animal's stomach to ferment; this is no longer done. The lining of a reindeer stomach was cut up and eaten with dried fish or by itself. Lungs and kidneys were given to the dogs, but the heart was eaten. Neither caribou meat nor fish were ever pounded as a method of preservation.\n*Reindeer or (semi)domestic caribou \"Rangifer tarandus tarandus\" (\"qusngiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qusngir\" in Cup'ig). The word \"qusngiq\" which is derived from the Chukchee \"qora\u014be\" (\u04c4\u043e\u0440\u0430\u04c8\u044b) or Koryak \"qoya\u014ba\" (\u04c4\u043e\u0439\u0430\u04c8\u0430). In Europe, use the terms \"caribou\" and \"reindeer\" synonymously, but in Alaska and Canada \"reindeer\" refers exclusively to semi-domesticated forms. Only in North America are wild \"Rangifer\" referred to as \"caribou\". In Eurasia, \"reindeer\" are classified as either domesticated or wild. Domestic reindeer (\"Rangifer tarandus tarandus\") were introduced into Alaska 100 years ago and have been maintained as semidomestic livestock. They have had contact with wild caribou (\"R. t. granti\") herds, including deliberate crossbreeding and mixing in the wild. Reindeer have considerable potential as a domestic animal for meat or velvet antler production, and wild caribou are important to subsistence and sport hunters. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) managed reindeer operations on the Nunivak Island beginning in 1940. The Nunivak herd is composed of about 4,000 reindeer. The southern half of Nunivak is a designated Wilderness area, which presents challenges in summertime herding, since use of motorized recreational vehicles is forbidden within the Wilderness area without adequate snow cover.\n*Moose or Alaska moose \"Alces alces gigas\" (\"tuntuvak\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tuntuwag\" in Cup'ig, literally \"big caribou\"). The most commonly received resources for Manokotak residents were moose (%79.6 of households). Moose were not usually seen in the lower Kuskokwim River drainages until the early 1940s. Moose meat (\"tuntuviim kemga\") was preserved by freezing and drying. Rarely was moose meat preserved by smoking or caning. Hunters who harvested moose at spring camps in the mountains preserved meat by cutting it into strips and hanging it on racks or bushes to dry in the sun, making jerky. This jerky was eaten without further preparation, or it was boiled. Virtually all of the moose was used. Bones were cracked and the marrow was removed. Fat from the back and rump was cut into small pieces and eaten uncooked along with meals at home and when in the field. Part of the stomach was cleaned and prepared, and the heart, liver, and kidneys were also eaten. The whole head was usually kept so that the muscles, brain, tongue, and nose could be removed and cooked. The feet and hooves were also cooked and eaten. Moose was cooked in variety of ways including boiling, roasting, stewing, frying and in soups.\n*Muskox \"Ovibos moschatus\" (\"umingmar, maskar\" in Nunivak Cup'ig). Alaska's original muskox were hunted to extinction in the mid-1800s \u2013 perhaps by whalers and others. They had originally ranged Alaska's arctic and western coastal tundra. In 1935\u20131936 the U.S. Biological Survey brought 31 muskoxen from Greenland to Nunivak Island in an effort to reestablish the species in Alaska and as a means for subsistence living. The first modern hunting season was in 1975. Today the Nunivak herd numbers around 600 animals, down from a high of around 700 animals in 1968.\n*Brown bear (grizzly) \"Ursus arctos horribilis\" (\"taqukaq, carayak\" Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"paugnar\" in Cup'ig) and Black bear \"Ursus americanus\" (\"tan'gerliq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tungulzria\" in Cup'ig) were harvested for food (meat and fat). Bear meat (\"tan'gerlim kemga\") made into jerky was often dried over a couple of weeks time. The internal organs, such as heart, kidneys, and intestines were often distributed to elders. Both black and brown bear meat was considered very tasty and was prepared by drying, boiling, baking, and roasting. The bones were boiled so that all of the meat could easily be removed from them. The marrow was only occasionally used because the bones are very thick and not easily broken. The liver was considered to be too rich and was \"not eaten\".\n*Furbearers or fur-bearing animals (\"melqulek\" \"melqulget\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"melquleg\" in Cup'ig) are commonly trapped for their pelts and meats. The meat of all types of furbearers (beaver, mink, otter, muskrat, marten, lynx), except for fox, wolf, and wolverine, was used for human food and was also used as dog food.\n*Red fox \"Vulpes vulpes\" (\"kaviaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"kavviar\" in Cup'ig). The Nunivak Cup'ig practiced few restrictions with reference to food, but the flesh of the red fox was avoided since it was believed to cause a person to sleep during the day and be restless at night. This restriction did not apply to the flesh of the white fox.\n*Arctic fox \"Vulpes lagopus\" (\"uliiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qaterlir\" [white fox], \"eqyerer\" [blue fox] \"illaassug\" [cross fox] in Cup'ig)\n*Sea otter \"Enhydra lutris\" (\"arrnaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"aatagar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Land otter or river otter \"Lontra canadensis\" (\"cuignilnguq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"cenkar, pirturcir(ar)\" in Cup'ig)\n*American mink \"Neogale vison\" (\"imarmiutaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"imarmiutar\" in Cup'ig). Mink skin parkas, and also mink pants for small boys, formerly were made.\n*Beringian or American ermine \"Mustela erminea\", \"Mustela richardsonii\" (\"narullgiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"terriar(ar)\" [in winter coloration] \"narullgir\" [in summer coloration] in Cup'ig)\n*Marten \"Martes americana\" (\"qavcicuaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Muskrat \"Ondatra zibethicus\" (\"kanaqlak, tevyuli\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"kanaqlag\" in Cup'ig)\n*Vole \"Microtus miurus\" (singing vole) and \"Clethrionomys rutilus\" (northern red-backed vole) (\"avelngaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Collared lemming or Northern collared lemming \"Dicrostonyx groenlandicus\" (\"qilagmiutaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik). I\u00f1upiaq people do not eat lemmings\n*Brown lemming or Nunivak Island brown lemming \"Lemmus trimucronatus harroldi\" (\"pugultu\" in Cup'ig)\n*Beaver \"Castor canadensis\" (\"paluqtaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"paluqtar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Porcupine \"Erethizon dorsatum\" (\"issaluuq, issaluq, cukilek, ilaanquciq, nuuniq\") were harvested primarily for food and were prepared much the same way that hare were prepared.\n*Tree squirrel or red squirrel \"Tamiasciurus hudsonicus\" (\"qiguiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Ground squirrel or parky squirrel, parka squirrel \"Spermophilus parryii\" (\"qanganaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qanganar\" in Cup'ig) were skinned and hung on meat drying racks to dry.\n*Marmot or hoary marmot \"Marmota caligata\" (\"cikigpak\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik) were used similarly to parka squirrels.\n*Hare \"Lepus othus\" (\"qayuqeggliq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qayuqegglir\" in Cup'ig) and Rabbit \"Lepus americanus\" (\"maqaruaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"maqaruar\" in Cup'ig) can be prepared much like poultry meat: roasted, broiled, grilled, fried, and stewed."
      },
      {
        "title": "I\u00f1upiat",
        "text": "I\u00f1upiat people are hunter-gatherers, as are most Arctic peoples. I\u00f1upiat people continue to rely heavily on subsistence hunting and fishing. Depending on their location, they harvest walrus, seal, whale, polar bears, caribou, and fish. Both the inland (Nunamiut) and coastal (Ta\u0121iumiut, i.e. Tiki\u0121a\u0121miut) I\u00f1upiat depend greatly on fish. Throughout the seasons, when they are available, food staples also include ducks, geese, rabbits, berries, roots, and shoots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Quaq\" (in the Inuit languages: I\u00f1upiaq \"quaq\", Nunavut Inuktitut and Nunavik Inuttitut \u1581\u140a\u1585 \"quaq\", South Baffin Kingarmiut \"xuaq\", Labrador Inuttitut \"\u0138uak\", Greenlandic \"quaq\") is meat or fish to be eaten raw and frozen"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vilhjalmur Stefansson",
        "text": "While there was considerable skepticism when Stefansson reported his findings about the viability of an exclusively meat diet, his claims have been borne out in later studies and analyses. In multiple studies, it was shown that the Inuit diet was a unique ketogenic diet. While the Inuit diet derived a percentage of its calories from the glycogen found in the raw meats, the native Inuit ate a diet of primarily stewed (boiled) fresh fish and fatty meats such as caribou, whale, or seal, while occasionally eating raw fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Inuit might consume more carbohydrates than most nutritionists have assumed. Because some of the meat the Inuit eat is raw and fresh, or freshly frozen, they can obtain more carbohydrates from their meat, as dietary glycogen, than Westerners can. The Inuit practice of preserving a whole seal or bird carcass under an intact whole skin with a thick layer of blubber also permits some proteins to ferment into carbohydrates. Furthermore, the blubber, organs, muscle and skin of the marine mammals that Inuit eat have significant glycogen stores, which assist those animals when oxygen is depleted on prolonged dives. For instance, when blubber is analyzed by direct carbohydrate measurements, it has been shown to contain as much as 8\u201430% carbohydrates. While postmortem glycogen levels are often depleted through the onset of rigor mortis, marine mammals have a much delayed onset of rigor mortis, even in warm conditions, presumably due to the high content of oxymyoglobin in the muscle that may permit aerobic metabolism to continue slowly for some time after the death of the animal. Additionally, in cold conditions, glycogen's depletion is halted at -18\u00a0\u00b0C (-0.4\u00a0\u00b0F) and lower temperatures in comminuted meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vilhjalmur Stefansson",
        "text": "Stefansson is also a figure of considerable interest in dietary circles, especially those with an interest in a very low-carbohydrate diet. Stefansson documented the fact that the Inuit diet was then consisted about 90% meat and fish. Inuit would often go six to nine months a year eating nothing but fatty meat and fresh fish, which might currently be perceived as a 'zero carb' / no-carbohydrate diet. (The diet technically contains a very low amount of carbohydates, as the fresh fish that the Inuit ate would have had a small amount of glycogen.) Stefansson found that he and his fellow explorers of European, Black, and South Sea Islands descent were also \u201cperfectly healthy\u201d on such a diet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Muktuk (\"mangtak\" in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq, Chevak, \"mangengtak\" in Bristol Bay) is the traditional Eskimo meal of frozen raw beluga whale skin (dark epidermis) with attached subcutaneous fat (blubber)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit",
        "text": "In the 1920s, anthropologist Vilhjalmur Stefansson lived with and studied a group of Inuit. The study focused on Stefansson's observation that the Inuit's low-carbohydrate diet apparently had no adverse effects on their health, nor indeed, on his own health. Stefansson (1946) also observed that the Inuit were able to get the necessary vitamins they needed from their traditional winter diet, which did not contain any plant matter. In particular, he found that adequate vitamin C could be obtained from items in their traditional diet of raw meat such as ringed seal liver and whale skin (muktuk). While there was considerable skepticism when he reported these findings, the initial anecdotal reports were reaffirmed both in the 1970s, and more recently."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Berries and edible plants supplemented meals consisting mostly of fish and game. Plants foods also provided a variety of essential vitamins ans nutrients to the diet. Berries were preserved by freezing. The most popular use berries was when making akutaq, a whipped mixture of the berries, sugar, and shortening or fat. Households also made jam, jellies, and breads from berries. Sourdock leaves were prepared by boiling, like spinach. Labrador tea was boiled to make tea and was consumed much like commercial teas. Green spruce needles were also used for tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The Nunivak Eskimos ( in Cup'ig, \"Nunivaarmiut\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik) eat frequently in the course of a 24-hour period. They go to bed at sundown or early evening in the spring and fall, and well before sundown in summer, but arise early, often at 3:00 or 4:00\u00a0a.m. and regularly at 5:00 or 5:30. The time of rising depended on the sea tide and the time when tomcod or other fish are running. The first meal of the day is eaten at this time and another about 11:00\u00a0a.m., with snacks once or twice in between depending on the work schedule and the availability of food. The evening meal is usually at 4:30 or 5:00\u00a0p.m. with additional snacks between the main meals. In winter the entire meal schedule is likely to be moved forward, with the first meal of the day being eaten at 10:00 or 10:30\u00a0a.m. The most common food is dried or frozen fish dipped in seal oil. The evening or late afternoon meal, the hot meal of the day, frequently consisted of boiled fish or other boiled food and tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Muktuk (\"mangtak\" in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq, Chevak, \"mangengtak\" in Bristol Bay) is the traditional meal of frozen raw beluga whale skin (dark epidermis) with attached subcutaneous fat (blubber)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qikiqtaaluk Region",
        "text": "Like the majority of Canada's Inuit communities, the region's traditional foods include seal, Arctic char, walrus, polar bear, and caribou."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit",
        "text": "The Inuit have traditionally been fishers and hunters. They still hunt whales (esp. bowhead whale), seal, polar bears, muskoxen, birds, and fish and at times other less commonly eaten animals such as the Arctic fox. The typical Inuit diet is high in protein and very high in fat \u2013 in their traditional diets, Inuit consumed an average of 75% of their daily energy intake from fat. While it is not possible to cultivate plants for food in the Arctic, the Inuit have traditionally gathered those that are naturally available. Grasses, tubers, roots, Plant stems, berries, and seaweed (\"kuanniq\" or edible seaweed) were collected and preserved depending on the season and the location. There is a vast array of different hunting technologies that the Inuit used to gather their food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Inuit also believe that eating raw meat keeps them warmer and stronger. They say that raw meat takes effect on one's body when eaten consistently. One Inuk, Oleetoa, who ate a combination of and Inuit food, told of a story of his cousin Joanasee who ate a diet consisting of mostly raw Inuit food. The two compared their strengths, warmth, and energy and found that Joanasee benefited most based on his diet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Fish as food, especially Pacific salmon (or in some places, non-salmon) species are primary main subsistence food for the Yup'ik. Both food and fish (and salmon) called \"neqa\" (sg) \"neqet\" (pl) in Yup'ik. Also for salmon called \"neqpik ~ neqpiaq\" (sg) \"neqpiit ~ neqpiat\" (pl) in Yup'ik, means literally \"real food\". But, main food for the I\u00f1upiaq is meat of whale and caribou (both food and meat called \"niqi\" in I\u00f1upiaq, also for meat called \"niqipiaq\" \"real food\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Aaqassaaq\" (Kotlik) is skin to be chewed to soften it; beluga blubber for eating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Yup'ik cuisine is based on traditional subsistence food harvests (hunting, fishing and berry gathering) supplemented by seasonal subsistence activities. The Yup'ik region is rich with waterfowl, fish, and sea and land mammals. Yup'ik settled where the water remained ice-free in winter, where walruses, whales and seals came close to shore, and where there was a fishing stream or a bird colony nearby. Even if a place was not very convenient for human civilization, but had rich game, yup'ik would settle there. The coastal settlements rely more heavily on sea mammals (seals, walrusses, beluga whales), many species of fish (Pacific salmon, herring, halibut, flounder, trout, burbot, Alaska blackfish), shellfish, crabs, and seaweed. The inland settlements rely more heavily on Pacific salmon and freshwater whitefish, land mammals (moose, caribou), migratory waterfowl, bird eggs, berries, greens, and roots help sustain people throughout the region. Traditional subsistence foods are mixed with what is commercially available. Today about half the food is supplied by subsistence activities (subsistence foods), the other half is purchased from the commercial stores (market foods, store-bought foods)."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Barrow Duck-In",
        "text": "Prior to Alaska's statehood and colonization of the Arctic, the I\u00f1upiat freely practiced subsistence hunting of various marine and terrestrial species, such as the bowhead whale, various species of seal, caribou, waterfowl, and fish. Additionally, eiders, rabbits, geese, berries, and roots are of seasonal importance to the I\u00f1upiat. These subsistence activities have been practiced sustainably since time immemorial and retain a high social and cultural significance. In the Alaskan Arctic, subsistence activities exist as a way for the community to gather, celebrate, and share sustenance. Many I\u00f1upiat dances, songs, and cultural practices tell stories of hunts and explain the relationship the I\u00f1upiat have with various Arctic animals, including the common eider. Due to the remote location and lack of infrastructure in Utqia\u0121vik (and other areas considered I\u00f1upiat homelands), imported foods in 1961 were both incredibly expensive and inaccessible as the primary source of protein in a person's diet. Subsistence foods remain a critical component of food security for communities in the Arctic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Alaska subsistence communities are noted to obtain up to 97% of the omega-3 fatty acids through a subsistence diet. The cardiovascular risk of this diet is so severe that the addition of a more standard American diet has reduced the incidence of mortality in the native population. Still, many market (store-bought) foods are high in fats, carbohydrates, and sodium; and these may lead to increased weight gain, high cholesterol (hypercholesterolaemia), high blood pressure (hypertension), and chronic diseases. Increasing EPA and DHA intakes to amounts well consumed by the general US population may have strong beneficial effects on chronic disease risk. Yup\u2019ik Eskimos have a prevalence of type 2 diabetes of %3.3, versus %7.7 in the U.S. overall, even though the Yup\u2019ik Eskimos have overweight/obesity levels similar to the rest of the U.S. In a preliminary study initiated by the Center for Alaska Native Health Research (CANHR) at the University of Alaska Fairbanks, elders were significantly enriched in \u03b415N, but depleted in \u03b413C, relative to younger participants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Dry moose meat was a favorite food among Chuathbaluk and Sleetmute inhabitants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Traditional subsistence foods, such as fish and marine mammals, and to a lesser extent shellfish, are the only significant direct dietary sources of two important types of the omega-3 fatty acids called eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). EPA and DHA protect against heart disease and possibly diabetes. The replacement of a subsistence diet that is low in fat and high in omega-3s with a market-based Western diet has increased the risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes in Alaska Natives. Many market (store-bought) foods are high in fats, carbohydrates, and sodium; and these may lead to increased weight gain, high cholesterol (hypercholesterolaemia), high blood pressure (hypertension), and chronic diseases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "On Nunivak, most indigenous plants were traditionally gathered by women and children when the men were harvesting other available resources (e.g., caribou, waterfowl, seal). While fresh spring greens provided a welcome addition to the diet, which in winter was based largely on dried and stored foods, other greens were harvested throughout the year as they ripened, and used with some of those stored for winter use. With the melting of the island's snow pack, local greens and berries not picked during the previous fall's harvest, begin to appear and were added to the local diet. Depending on the time the ice pack began to break up, Cup'ig families would leave their winter villages and move to spring seal camps. Cup'ig men would journey out along the ice to harvest arriving sea mammals (i.e., seals, walrus) while the women would spend much of their time harvesting available plant resources (greens and seaweeds) and shellfish. Early spring plants included: marsh marigold (\"Caltha palustris\"), sour dock (\"Rumex arcticus\"), wild celery (\"Angelica lucida\"), wild lettuce (\"Draba borealis\" or \"D. hyperborea\"), wild parsnip (\"Ligusticum hultonii\"), wild rhubarb (\"Polygonum viviparum\"), mountain sorrel (\"Oxyria digylla\"), Pallas buttercup (\"Ranunculus pallasii\"), and Labrador tea (\"Ledum pallustre decumbens\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kumlaneq\" (in Yup'ik, \"kumlanaq\" in Hooper Bay-Chevak Cup'ik; but, \"kumlaner\" in Nunivak Cup'ig means \"cold water, cold spring water; permafrost, frozen soil\") is frozen fish to be eaten in that state. Freezing of chinook and particularly coho salmon was relatively common. Chinook salmon were usually cut up into smaller pieces before being placed into plastic Ziploc bags. Smaller species, such as chum, sockeye, coho, and pink salmon were frequently frozen uncut and whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Women and children are accustomed to eating different parts of the seal because they wait until the hunters are done eating. Intestines are the first thing to be chosen and then any leftover pieces of the liver are consumed. Finally, ribs and the backbone are eaten and any remaining meat is distributed among the camp."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "The Inuit believe that their diet has many benefits over the western food. They are adamant about proving that their diet will make one stronger, warmer, and full of energy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The Yup'ik region is rich with waterfowl, fish, and sea and land mammals. The coastal settlements rely more heavily on sea mammals (seals, walrusses, beluga whales), many species of fish (Pacific salmon, herring, halibut, flounder, trout, burbot, Alaska blackfish), shellfish, crabs, and seaweed. The inland settlements rely more heavily on Pacific salmon and freshwater whitefish, land mammals (moose, caribou), migratory waterfowl, bird eggs, berries, greens, and roots help sustain people throughout the region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Inuit choose their diet based on four concepts, according to Borr\u00e9: \"the relationship between animals and humans, the relationship between the body and soul and life and health, the relationship between seal blood and Inuit blood, and diet choice.\" Inuit are especially spiritual when it comes to the customs of hunting, cooking, and eating. The Inuit belief is that the combination of animal and human blood in one's bloodstream creates a healthy human body and soul."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit women",
        "text": "Scientists have found that the Inuit people seem to experience more illness and health issues than other groups, especially the women and children, and especially in the post-modernization period. A possible explanation is that the Inuit diet was traditionally high in fat and protein and low in fruits and vegetables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Prehistoric Yup'ik Eskimos probably relied upon a mix of anadromous fish (salmon and char), terrestrial mammals (caribou), and marine mammals (seal and walrus) for subsistence foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Indigenous plants were an integral part of the year-round diet of Eskimo people in addition to their incorporation in other facets of their life. Contrary to the popular perception of Eskimo people surviving solely on fish and meat, the Nunivak Cup'ig utilized a large number of local plants for food, medicinal, and utilitarian purposes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Searles defines Inuit food as mostly \"eaten frozen, raw, or boiled, with very little mixture of ingredients and with very few spices added.\" Some preparations include:\n* : berries mixed with fat.\n* : flatbread\n* Food preservation techniques include fermenting fish and meat in the form of\n* Labrador tea\n* : a traditional soup made from seal, whale, caribou, or seabirds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greenlandic Inuit",
        "text": "Greenland Inuit diet consists of a combination of local or traditional dishes and imported foods, with the majority of Inuit, aged 18 to 25 and 60 and older, preferring customary, local foods like whale skin and dried cod over imported foods like sausage or chicken. That study also reveals that those who grew up in villages only consumed local, Inuit cuisine foods 31 times a month and those who lived in Danish areas would consume local, Inuit cuisine 17 times per month. The reasons for the lack of traditional food consumption varies, but 48 percent of respondents claim that they wanted to have variety in their diet, 45 percent of respondents said it was difficult to obtain traditional foods, and 39 percent said that traditional foods were too expensive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Inuit eat only two main meals a day, but it is common to eat many snacks every hour. Customs among Inuit when eating and preparing food are very strict and may seem odd for people of different cultures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Igunaq",
        "text": "Igunaq () ), also Kopalhen (, IPA ]) - part of the Inuit, Chukchi, Nenets, Evenki diets. It is a method of preparing meat, particularly walrus and other marine mammals. Meat and fat caught in the summer is buried in the ground as steaks, which then ferment over autumn and freeze over winter, ready for consumption the next year. Igunaq is considered a delicacy and is quite valuable. Consumption has declined over the years as a wider range of foodstuffs has become available in the Arctic regions. It is also not without risk \u2013 improper production can lead to illness and death through botulism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copper Inuit",
        "text": "Historically, Copper Inuit lived amongst tundra, rocky hills, outcrops, with some forested areas towards the southern and southwestern range. Here they hunted Arctic ground squirrel, Arctic hare, caribou (barren ground and Peary's herds), grizzly bear, mink, moose, muskox, muskrat, polar bear, wolf, and wolverine. They fished in the extensive network of ponds, lakes, and rivers, including the Coppermine, Rae, and Richardson Rivers, which sustained large populations of fresh water Arctic char (also found in the ocean), grayling, lake trout, and whitefish. The marine waters supported codfish, bearded seal, and ringed seal. Ducks, geese, guillemots, gulls, hawks, longspurs, loons, plovers, ptarmigans, and snow buntings were also part of the Copper Inuit diet. They liked raw but not boiled eggs. They used and cooked food and products from the sea, but kept them separate from those of the land."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The flesh of virtually all waterfowl in the environment was eaten, either fresh or dried, usually with oil or a sourdock leaf soup. Even cormorants were considered edible and the meat of these fishy-tasting birds was dried or boiled when freshly killed. The eggs of waterfowl were sometimes sucked raw, but were usually boiled. Unlike Eskimos of the adjacent mainland, the Nunivaarmiut did not boil eggs hard and pack them in pokes for use during the winter. Instead, if there were more eggs than could be consumed at the time of collecting, they were hard-boiled and, still in their shells, placed in wooden dishes of seal oil to be kept for a short while."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik clothing",
        "text": "Fish (\"neqa\" \"neqek\" \"neqet\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik \"neqa\" or \"iqallug\" in Cup'ig) is one of the most common Yup'ik foods. Fish skins (\"neqet amiit\" or \"amirak ~ amiraq\" in Yup'ik) and intestines are used for waterproof clothing (\"amiragglugaq\") in a few areas, especially in southern coastal Alaska. For example, commercial herring fishers from Toksook Bay, Alaska still prefer intestine parkas to heavy-duty raincoats, as they are lighter and allow body vapor to pass through the skin membrane while preventing rain from entering. In former times, rather crudely made shirts without hoods were made of local salmon or trout skins. Through rarely used today, in the past fish skin was also used for waterproof boots (\"amirak ~ amiraq\") and mittens (\"arilluk\") also parka (\"qasperrluk\"), making these items water-repellent and durable. Fish skin was also used to make parkas, mittens, and pants for summer use. The sinew for fish skins known as \"yualunguaq\" (fish-skin thread).\n*Pacific salmons \"Oncorhynchus\" (\"neqpik\" \"neqpiik\" \"neqpiit\" in Yup'ik, literally \"real fish\")\n*Dog salmon or chum salmon \"Oncorhynchus keta\" (\"iqalluk\" \"iqalluuk\" \"iqalluut\" [Kuskokwim, Yukon], \"kangitneq\" \"kangitnerek\" \"kangitneret\" [Bristol Bay] in Yup'ik, \"mac'utar\" \"mac'ut'ag\" \"mac'ut'at\" in Cup'ig)\n*Silver salmon or coho salmon \"Oncorhynchus kisutch\" (\"qakiiyaq\" \"qakiiyak\" \"qakiiyat\" [Bristol Bay Kuskokwim ], \"uqurliq \" [Yukon], \"caayuryaq\" [Unaliq-Pastuliq] in Yup'ik, \"qavlunaq\" in Cup'ik, \"ciayuryar\" \"ciayuryag\" \"ciayuryat\" in Cup'ig)\n*King salmon or Chinook salmon \"Oncorhynchus tschawytscha\" (\"taryaqvak\" \"taryaqviik\" \"taryaqviit\" [Bristol Bay Nushagak, Kuskokwim, Yukon] \"tarsarpak\" [Unaliq-Pastuliq] \"kiagtaq\" [Yukon] in Yup'ik, \"taryaqvak\" in Cup'ik, \"taryaqvag\" in Cup'ig)\n*Trout (charr) or salmon trout, Dolly Varden \"Salvelinus malma\" (\"iqallugpik\" \"iqallugpiik\" \"iqallugpiit\" [Kuskokwim, Yukon], \"yugyaq\" [Bristol Bay] in Yup'ik, \"iqalluyagar\" \"iqalluyagag\" \"iqalluyagat\" in Cup'ig)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit Broadcasting Corporation",
        "text": "Niqitsiat features the preparation and cooking of Inuit traditional foods, promoting healthy eating and tracing the source of food from the sea, the ice, and the tundra."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Ciss'uq\" (\"Ciss'ur\" in Nunivak Cup'ig) is fermented herring or capelin that have been buried underground for two weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greenlandic cuisine",
        "text": "Animal foods comprised most of the Greenland Inuit diet until around 1980 (and still do today in some regions), but grocery stores now provide coffee, tea, biscuits, potato chips, and other foods. Depending on location, the diversity of fresh fruit and vegetables varies greatly during the year. In the capital Nuuk, the diversity is considerably higher and more consistent year-round than in smaller, more isolated places further north. In more isolated regions, supplies depend on ice cover and can typically be delivered by ship during the summer (approximately May through November, but varies depending on exact location) where the diversity is mostly better than in the winter period, where vegetables and fruit only can be delivered by plane."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Tea (\"caayuq\" in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq, Hooper Bay and Chevak, Nelson Island, Upper Kuskokwim, Nushagak River, Lake Iliamna, Egegik, \"saayuq\" Lower Kuskokwim, Canineq, Bristol Bay, \"caayu\" Nunivak Cup'ig; from Russian \u0447\u0430\u0439 \"chay\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blubber",
        "text": "\"Uqhuq\", or \"uqsuq\", (\"blubber\" in the Inuktitut language) is an important part of the traditional diets of the Inuit and of other northern peoples, because of its high energy value and availability. Whale blubber, which tastes like arrowroot biscuits, has similar properties."
      },
      {
        "title": "I\u00f1upiat",
        "text": "I\u00f1upiaq groups, in common with Inuit-speaking groups, often have a name ending in \"miut,\" which means 'a people of'. One example is the \"Nunamiut,\" a generic term for inland I\u00f1upiaq caribou hunters. During a period of starvation and an influenza epidemic (likely introduced by American and European whaling crews,) most of these people moved to the coast or other parts of Alaska between 1890 and 1910. A number of Nunamiut returned to the mountains in the 1930s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The primary subsistence food in the Bristol Bay region and in most of rural Alaska is salmon, followed closely by big game hunting of caribou and moose in the more inland areas, and marine mammal hunting in the coastal areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "When eating a meal, Inuit place large slabs of meat, blubber, and other parts of the animal on a piece of metal, plastic, or cardboard on the floor. From here, anyone in the house is able to cut off a piece of meat. At these meals, no one is obliged to join in the meal; Inuit eat only when hungry. Sometimes, though, meals are announced to the whole camp. A woman does this by the shout of \"Ujuk!\" which means \"cooked meat\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Fish as food, especially Pacific salmon of the subfamily Salmoninae in the family Salmonidae or in some places, non-salmon species, such as freshwater whitefish of the subfamily Coregoninae in the family Salmonidae, are primary main subsistence food for Yup'ik Eskimos. Both food and fish (and salmon) called \"neqa\" \"neqet\" in Yup'ik. Also for salmon called \"neqpik ~ neqpiaq\" \"neqpiit ~ neqpiat\" in Yup'ik, means literally \u201creal, genuine food\u201d. But, main food for I\u00f1upiaq Eskimos is meat of whale and caribou (both food and meat called \"niqi\" in I\u00f1upiaq, also for meat called \"niqipiaq\" \u201creal, genuine food\u201d)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik clothing",
        "text": "Terrestrial mammals or land mammals (\"nunarmiutaq\" \"nunarmiutaat\" in Yup'ik) are game animals and furbearers.\n*Game animals (\"pitarkaq\" \"pitarkat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"pitarkar\" \"pitarkat\" in Cup'ig). Caribou, moose and \"bears\" are included in the definition of the word \"pitarkat\".\n*Caribou or Porcupine caribou, wild caribou \"Rangifer tarandus granti\" (\"tuntu\" \"tuntuk\" \"tuntut\" or \"tuntupik\" \"tuntupiik\" \"tuntupiit\" or \"tuntupiaq\" \"tuntupiak\" \"tuntupiat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tuntupig\" in Cup'ig). Caribou skin is ideal for cold, dry weather as each hair has a honeycomb core that traps air, which is an excellent insulator. Sealskins and caribou skins were always kept separate and not combined in the same garment except for occasional decorative strips. Yup\u2019ik dance fans decorated with caribou throat hair, caribou leg-skins were made into high boots, sleeping bags for travel made by joining two caribou skins and fur-side-out fancy parkas. Historically, caribou were hunted in the fall and skins were brought home for skin clothing. Caribou hunts were discouraged by the Russian and American traders as they felt it took the trappers away from their trap lines. Prior to European contact, caribou were important not only for their meat but for the skins which were an important item used in clothing. The Russians encouraged the Eskimos to adopt Western-style dress in order to release more furs for trading. In the spring, some people hunted caribou along the inland river ways.\n*Reindeer or (semi)domestic caribou \"Rangifer tarandus tarandus\" (\"qusngiq\" \"qusngik\" \"qusngit\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qusngir\" \"qusngig\" \"qusngit\" in Cup'ig). The word \"qusngiq\" which is derived from the Chukchee \"qora\u014be\" (\u04c4\u043e\u0440\u0430\u04c8\u044b) or Koryak \"qoya\u014ba\" (\u04c4\u043e\u0439\u0430\u04c8\u0430). In Europe, use the terms \"caribou\" and \"reindeer\" synonymously, but in Alaska and Canada \"reindeer\" refers exclusively to semi-domesticated forms. Only in North America are wild \"Rangifer\" referred to as \"caribou\". In Eurasia, \"reindeer\" are classified as either domesticated or wild. Domestic reindeer (\"Rangifer tarandus tarandus\") were introduced into Alaska 100 years ago and have been maintained as semidomestic livestock. They have had contact with wild caribou (\"R. t. granti\") herds, including deliberate crossbreeding and mixing in the wild. Reindeer have considerable potential as a domestic animal for meat or velvet antler production, and wild caribou are important to subsistence and sport hunters. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) managed reindeer operations on the Nunivak Island beginning in 1940. The Nunivak herd is composed of about 4,000 reindeer. The southern half of Nunivak is a designated Wilderness area, which presents challenges in summertime herding, since use of motorized recreational vehicles is forbidden within the Wilderness area without adequate snow cover. In the more recent past, when reindeer skins have been used for parkas, the front was usually taken from the ventral side of the deer, the back from the dorsal area, and leg strips were used for the sleeves. Hides are used for clothing, mukluks, blankets, mittens, tents, boat coverings, sleeping bags, house coverings and insulation. Back sinew is used to make thread. Hard antlers and bone are used to make utensils, tools and decorative objects.\n*Moose or Alaska moose \"Alces alces gigas\" (\"tuntuvak\" \"tuntuviik\" \"tuntuviit\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tuntuwag\" in Cup'ig, literally \"big caribou\")\n*Muskox \"Ovibos moschatus\" (\"umingmar, maskar\" in Nunivak Cup'ig). Alaska's original muskox were hunted to extinction in the mid-1800s - perhaps by whalers and others. They had originally ranged Alaska's arctic and western coastal tundra. In 1935-1936 the U.S. Biological Survey brought 31 muskoxen from Greenland to Nunivak Island in an effort to reestablish the species in Alaska and as a means for subsistence living. Because the animals were federally protected, and since the Nunivaarmiut were afraid of them, they added nothing to the local economy until 40 years later. when Nunivak women learned to make fine items of clothing from the underwool of the muskox (\"qiviut\"). The muskox are large animals that look a lot like bison, but have wool like sheep, and has a two-layered coat, and qiviut refers specifically to the soft underwool beneath the longer outer wool. The first modern hunting season was in 1975. Today the Nunivak herd numbers around 600 animals, down from a high of around 700 animals in 1968.\n*Furbearers or fur-bearing animals (\"melqulek\" \"melqulget\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"melquleg\" in Cup'ig) are commonly trapped for their pelts. Taking advantage of Alaska's rich supply of fur-bearing animals, the Yup'ik use a variety of materials for their parkas. Beaver, river otter, red fox, Arctic fox, marten, lynx, mink, ground squirrel, marmots, and muskrat are trapped in specific regions during the fall and winter.\n*Grizzly bear or brown bear \"Ursus arctos horribilis\" (\"taqukaq\" \"taqukaat\" or \"carayak\" \"carayiit\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"paugnar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Black bear or American black bear \"Ursus americanus\" (\"tan'gerliq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tungulzria\" in Cup'ig). Black bear skins are dried and used for making mukluks, and trim on other articles of clothing.\n*Polar bear \"Ursus maritimus\" (\"nanuaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"arlunar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Wolf or gray wolf \"Canis lupus\" (\"kegluneq\" \"keglunerek\" \"kegluneret\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"kegg'luner\" in Cup'ig)\n*Dog or adult dog \"Canis lupus familiaris\" (\"qimugta\" \"qimugtek\" \"qimugtet\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qimugta\" \"qimugteg\" \"qimugtet\" in Cup'ig), Puppy or juvenile dog (\"qimugkauyar(aq)\" \"qimugkauyaraat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qimukcuar(ar)\" in Cup'ig). For thousands of years, dogs have been tightly interwoven in the Yup'ik way of life (\"yuuyaraq\" in Yup'ik, \"cuuyaraq\" in Cup'ik), for transportation and companionship. Adult dog skins not used in clothing production. Only juvenile dog (puppy) skins are usable. Puppy skin parkas, with the fur inside, were made for babies and small children. Puppies one and two months old were killed for the purpose.\n*Red fox \"Vulpes vulpes\" (\"kaviaq\" \"kaviak\" \"kaviat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"kavviar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Arctic fox \"Vulpes lagopus\" (\"uliiq\" \"uliirek\" \"uliiret\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qaterlir\" [white fox], \"eqyerer\" [blue fox] \"illaassug\" [cross fox] in Cup'ig)\n*Lynx or Canada lynx \"Lynx canadensis\" (\"tertuli\" \"tertulit\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Sea otter \"Enhydra lutris\" (\"arrnaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"aatagar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Land otter or river otter \"Lontra canadensis\" (\"cuignilnguq\" \"cuignilnguut\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"cenkar, pirturcir(ar)\" in Cup'ig)\n*Mink \"Neovison vison\" (\"imarmiutaq\" \"imarmiutaat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"imarmiutar\" \"imarmiutat\" in Cup'ig). Mink skin parkas, and also mink pants for small boys, used to be made.\n*Weasel or stoat \"Mustela erminea\" (\"narullgiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"terriar(ar)\" [in winter coloration] \"narullgir\" [in summer coloration] in Cup'ig)\n*Marten \"Martes americana\" (\"qavcicuaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Wolverine \"Gulo gulo luscus\" (\"terikaniaq\" \"terikaniak\" \"terikaniat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qavcig, terikaniar\" in Cup'ig). Wolverine hair is ideal for parka hood ruffs because it does not collect the frost produced by breathing, and its long hairs block the wind to prevent frostbite. Wolverine cuffs (on parka) help to warm the wrists. The front and back or side panels of Yup'ik boots are decorated with otter tassels, wolverine yassels, red yarn, and sometimes a string of beads.\n*Muskrat \"Ondatra zibethicus\" (\"kanaqlak\" \"kanaqliik\" \"kanaqliit\" or \"tevyuli\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"kanaqlag\" in Cup'ig)\n*Vole \"Microtus miurus\" (singing vole) and \"Clethrionomys rutilus\" (northern red-backed vole) (\"avelngaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Collared lemming or northern collared lemming \"Dicrostonyx groenlandicus\" (\"qilagmiutaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Brown lemming or Nunivak Island brown lemming \"Lemmus trimucronatus harroldi\" (\"pugultu\" in Cup'ig)\n*Beaver \"Castor canadensis\" (\"paluqtaq\" \"paluqtak\" \"paluqtat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"paluqtar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Porcupine \"Erethizon dorsatum\" (\"issaluuq\" \"issaluut\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Tree squirrel or red squirrel \"Tamiasciurus hudsonicus\" (\"qiguiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Ground squirrel or parky squirrel, parka squirrel \"Spermophilus parryii\" (\"qanganaq\" \"qanganat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qanganar\" in Cup'ig). The fancy parka or \"atkupiaq\" is made of ground squirrel pelts, preferred among the Yup'ik for winter clothing because of its warmth and lightness. Parkas made from ground squirrel skins were especially light and warm. Normally the skins of 45 squirrels were necessary to make a man's parka and 35 for a woman's.\n*Marmot or hoary marmot \"Marmota caligata\" (\"cikigpak\" \"cikigpiit\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Hare or jackrabbit, tundra hare, Arctic hare (but true Arctic hare is \"Lepus arcticus\" and it's not live in Alaska) \"Lepus othus\" (\"qayuqeggliq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qayuqegglir\" in Cup'ig)\n*Rabbit or snowshoe hare, snowshoe rabbit \"Lepus americanus\" (\"maqaruaq\" \"maqaruak\" \"maqaruat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"maqaruar\" in Cup'ig)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Salmon as food, herring as food, smelt, halibut, flounder, tomcod, pike, and capelin were gutted and air dried or smoked. The fish heads they made into \"qamiqurrluk\" (cut and dried fish heads), and some they made into \"tepa\" (aged fish heads). Fish eggs (roe) were dried and stored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The Yup'ik, like other Eskimo groups, were semi-nomadic hunter-fisher-gatherers who moved seasonally throughout the year within a reasonably well-defined territory to harvest fish, bird, sea and land mammal, berry and other renewable resources. Yup'ik cuisine is based on traditional subsistence food harvests (hunting, fishing and berry gathering) supplemented by seasonal subsistence activities. The Yup'ik region is rich with waterfowl, fish, and sea and land mammals. The coastal settlements rely more heavily on sea mammals (seals, walrusses, beluga whales), many species of fish (Pacific salmon, herring, halibut, flounder, trout, burbot, Alaska blackfish), shellfish, crabs, and seaweed. The inland settlements rely more heavily on Pacific salmon and freshwater whitefish, land mammals (moose, caribou), migratory waterfowl, bird eggs, berries, greens, and roots help sustain people throughout the region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Cin'aq\" (Yukon, Hooper Bay and Chevak, Lake Iliamna, and Nunivak) is cheese-like fish aged in a pit. This fish is usually dog (chum) or king (chinook) salmon. The salmon whole (except the guts) aged through the process of burying them into the marshy, muddy lowland (\"maraq\"). The hole is dug until the permafrost is exposed. The bottom of the hole is then covered with dry grass, moss, and cardboard. Then several salmon are placed in. The top of the salmon is again covered with grass, moss and or cardboard, then the remaining dug up groung is placed back into the hole, tightly covering the contents. The aged salmon fish are usually dug out during the early winter, and eaten as a delicacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit culture",
        "text": "Plant-materials played a small role in Inuit culture, as they were so rare. Wood is scarce in the Arctic, except in the form of occasional driftwood. The bones, tusks, and antlers of hunted animals were used in its place. Berries were collected in large numbers during the late summer, but while they provided a source of some vitamins, they were far from sufficient. The people met their vitamin requirements by eating raw animal products, such as muktuk (whale skin and blubber), meat and fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Niinamayak\" (in Yup'ik, \"nin'amayuk\" in Canineq Yup'ik, \"nin'amayag\" in Nunivak Cup'ig) is partially (half) dried aged (fermented) herring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rubus chamaemorus",
        "text": "In Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, cloudberries are used to make \"bakeapple pie\" or jam. Arctic Yup'ik mix the berries with seal oil, reindeer or caribou fat (which is diced and made fluffy with seal oil) and sugar to make \"Eskimo ice cream\" or akutaq. The recipes vary by region. Along the Yukon and Kuskokwim River areas, white fish (pike) along with shortening and sugar are used. The berries are an important traditional food resource for the Yup'ik."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Bread (\"kelipaq\" Yukon, Kuskokwim, Hooper Bay and Chevak, Nelson Island, Canineq, Bristol Bay, Nushagak River, Lake Iliamna, Egegik, \"kelipar\" in Cup'ig from Russian \u0445\u043b\u0435\u0431 \"khleb\"; \"qaqiaq\" bread in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq from I\u00f1upiaq \"qaqqiaq\"; \"qaq'uq\" in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq from I\u00f1upiaq \"qaqquq\"; \"kuv'aq\" in Yukon; \"tevurkaq\" in Unaliq-Pastuliq, \"tuurkaq\" in Lower Yukon from English \"dough\") The \"uutaq\" is hard candy or other hard-baked food; bread"
      },
      {
        "title": "Urumiit",
        "text": "Urumiit or uruniit (Inuktitut syllabics: \u1405\u1548\u14c5\u1466, \"uruniit\"; Greenlandic: \"urumiit\") is a term used by native Inuit peoples in Greenland and the Canadian High Arctic to refer to the feces of the rock ptarmigan (\"Lagopus muta\") and the willow ptarmigan (\"Lagopus lagopus\"), which are considered a delicacy in their food cultures. The droppings are collected when they have dried out during the winter months (fresh droppings in the summer are thought to be unpleasant to eat), a time in which food sources are scarce, especially on land, so the pre-digested willow and birch plant matter in ptarmigan scat provides a much needed source of nutrition in a harsh environment. One ptarmigan may defecate as many as 50 times in one spot, so \"urumiit\" is very plentiful and easy to gather. The pellet-shaped droppings are generally cooked in rancidified seal fat before eating; sometimes mixed with seal or ptarmigan meat or blood. Historically in some areas, the meat cooked with \"urumiit\" is prepared by being pre-chewed by the women of a household. The smell of cooked \"urumiit\" in rancid fat has been compared to that of Gorgonzola cheese. It has been cited as a dish which non-Inuit people are particularly likely to find disgusting, and as an example how much taste in food can vary between cultural contexts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vilhjalmur Stefansson",
        "text": "Some years after his first experience with the Inuit (known as Eskimos in Stefansson's time), Stefansson returned to the Arctic with a colleague, Dr. Karsten Anderson, to carry out research for the American Museum of Natural History. They were supplied with every necessity, including a year's supply of 'civilised' food. They declined, electing instead to live off the land. In the end, the one-year project stretched to four years, during which time the two men ate only the meat they could kill and the fish they could catch in the Canadian Arctic. Neither of the two men suffered any adverse after-effects from their four-year experiment. Stefansson deduced, as had William Banting, that the body could function, remain healthy, vigorous, and slender if a diet in which as much food was eaten as the body required, with only carbohydrates restricted and the total number of calories ignored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "For thousands of years, dogs (\"qimugta\" \"qimugtek\" \"qimugtet\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qimugta\" \"qimugteg\" \"qimugtet\" in Cup'ig) as sled dogs, have been tightly interwoven in the Yup'ik way of life, for transportation and companionship. Except for dogs, there were no important domesticated animals in aboriginal times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reindeer",
        "text": "The Caribou Inuit are inland-dwelling Inuit in present-day Nunavut's Kivalliq Region (formerly the Keewatin Region, Northwest Territories), Canada. They subsisted on caribou year-round, eating dried caribou meat in the winter. The Ihalmiut are Caribou Inuit that followed the Qamanirjuaq barren-ground caribou herd."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Imlaucuaq\" (in Yup'ik of Nelson Island, \"Imlaucuar\" in Nunivak Cup'ig; lit. \u00absmall roe\u00bb) is herring sac roe. The sac-roe (imlacuaq) is dried into product resembling golden chips. The dried roe is placed in containers and stored in the cache. It is soaked in water prior to eating but is also eaten dried. All sac-roe from subsistence caught herring was processed in all four Nelson Island communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "After the completion of the hunting season, families would move to summer fish camps. Fish were the most prolific and essential subsistence resource for many Alaskan Natives living in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta region and its harvest would occupy the majority of the families' efforts for several months. Traditional plants would continue to be harvested as they ripened and. were eaten fresh or placed in underground caches for temporary storage. By late summer/early fall, several berry species (e.g., Rubus chamaemorus, R. arcticus, Empetrum nigrum) and local greens (c.g., Rumex arcticus) were ready to be harvested and women and children would spend most days on the tundra gathering plant resources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Fish (\"neqa\" \"neqek\" \"neqet\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik \"neqa\" or \"iqallug\" in Cup'ig) is one of the most common Yup'ik foods.\n*Pacific salmons \"Oncorhynchus\" (\"neqpik\" in Yup'ik, literally \"real fish\") are anadromous fish as they spawn in freshwater (salmon run) and spend at least a part of their lives in the ocean. Salmon is a staple of the native Alaskan diet and natives have traditionally used all parts of the fish.\n*Red salmon or sockeye salmon \"Oncorhynchus nerka\" (\"sayak\" in Yup'ik, \"cayak\" in Cup'ik, \"cayag\" in Cup'ig)\n*King salmon or Chinook salmon \"Oncorhynchus tschawytscha\" (\"taryaqvak, tarsarpak, kiagtaq\" in Yup'ik, \"taryaqvak\" in Cup'ik, \"taryaqvag\" in Cup'ig)\n*Silver salmon or coho salmon \"Oncorhynchus kisutch\" (\"qakiiyaq, uqurliq, caayuryaq\" in Yup'ik, \"qavlunaq\" in Cup'ik, \"ciayuryar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Dog salmon or chum salmon \"Oncorhynchus keta\" (\"iqalluk, aluyak, kangitneq, mac'utaq\" in Yup'ik, \"qavlunaq, neqpik\" in Cup'ik, \"mac'utar\" in Cup'ig) is second-largest of the Alaskan salmonids. In Alaska, chum salmon often called \"dog salmon\" due to their fierce dentition exhibited during spawning as well as the males tendency to bite and nip at each other. Salmon snobs of Alaska will often turn up their noses at chum salmons because they are thought to be only fit for dog food.\n*Humpback salmon or pink salmon \"Oncorhynchus gorbuscha\" (\"amaqaayak, amaqsuq, luqaanak, terteq\" in Yup'ik, \"cuqpeq\" in Cup'ik)\n*Rainbow trout or steelhead \"Oncorhynchus mykiss\" (\"talaariq\" in Yup'ik, \"kangitner\" in Cup'ik) were usually cooked fresh and dried.\n*Trout (charr) or Dolly Varden \"Salvelinus malma\" (\"iqallugpik\" [Kuskokwim, Yukon], \"yugyaq\" [Bristol Bay] in Yup'ik, \"iqalluyagar\" in Cup'ig) were usually cooked fresh and dried.\n*Lake trout \"Salvelinus namaycush\" (\"cikignaq\") were usually cooked fresh and dried.\n*Sheefish or inconnu \"Stenodus nelma\" (\"ciiq\") were preserved by drying, smoking, and freezing. Sheefish were also eaten fresh; cooking methods included boiling and baking.\n*Grayling \"Thymallus arcticus\" (\"culugpauk, culugpaugaq, nakrullugpak, nakrutvalek\" in Yup'ik, \"culugpaugar\" in Cup'ig) were usually cooked fresh and dried.\n*Pike \"Esox lucius\" (\"cuukvak, cukvak, ciulek, keggsuli, qalru, luqruuyak, eluqruuyak\") were normally preserved by drying and were usually eaten without any further praparation. Pike were sometimes cooked and eaten while fresh.\n*Blackfish or Alaska blackfish \"Dallia pectoralis\" (\"can'giiq, imangaq\" in Yup'ik, \"can'gir, taqikar\" in Cup'ig) were cooked by pouring boiling water intermittently into a pot containing the fish and letting them steam for several minutes. They were one of few species of the fish that were usually not dried.\n*Lush or burbot \"Lota lota\" (\"manignaq, aninirpak, tengugpalek, kanayurnaq\") were preserved by drying and freezing. Cooking methods included boiling and baking.\n*Herring \"Clupea pallasii\" (\"iqalluarpak, iqallugpak, neqalluarpak\" in Yup'ik, \"iqalluarpag\" in Cup'ig) prefer spawning (\"qurre-\") locations in sheltered bays and estuaries. One of the largest spawning concentrations of herring in Alaska occurs in the Togiak district of Bristol Bay in the eastern Bering Sea. Herring and herring spawn-on-kelp have been harvested for subsistence use by residents of this coastal area as long as people can recall. Commercial fishing for herring in the togiak district began in 1967 and expanded dramatically after 1977. Prior to 1983, subsistence harvests of herring and spawn-on-kelp were not regulated.\n*Smelt or rainbow smelt \"Osmerus mordax\" subsp. \"dentex\" (\"qusuuq, iqalluaq, cimigliq, cimerliq, cimerliaq, cimirliq, cemerliq, elquarniq, uqtaqngaq, qimaruaq\" in Yup'ik, \"quyuuq, cemerliq\" in Cup'ik, \"quss'ur\" in Cup'ig) were cooked by frying and roasting when eaten fresh. Some fishermen who harvested smelt consider these fish as \"emergency food,\" to be kept in the smokehouse or cache and used if supplies of dried salmon ran out or if food shortages occurred."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit culture",
        "text": "In the few months of summer, the people moved camp to the estuaries, because there it was easier to catch the favoured Arctic char, e.g. by using artificial weirs, and the eggs of seabirds. For the inland Inuit, the caribou was the most important resource; it provided meat, a hide for clothing, and sinew for rope. The coastal Inuit hunted mostly seals and walruses and, depending on the region, narwhals and belugas; of course also the occasional caribou. The seals were used for food for men and dogs. Their oil was used for the kudliks, and their skin and sinews for seal boots (\"kamik\"), kayak coverings, ropes (also drag ropes for dog sleds) and dog whips."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Famine foods: reindeer lichen (\"tuntut neqait\") was soaked in seal oil or mixed with cranberries to make it taste better."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian cuisine",
        "text": "Fish are eaten boiled, fried, and prior to today's settlements, often in dried forms. The so-called \"Eskimo potato\", (Inuit: \"oak-kuk\": \"Claytonia tuberosa\") and other \"mousefoods\", are some of the plants consumed in the Arctic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Climate change in Canada",
        "text": "The Inuit are also losing their access to ringed seal and polar bears, two key animals that are essential to the traditional Inuit diet. Climate change has led to drastic drops in the ringed seal population, which has led to serious harm to the Inuit subsistence winter economy. The ringed seal is the most prevalent subsistence species in all of Nunavut, with respect to both land and water. Without the ringed seal, the Inuit would lose their sense of \"ningiqtuq\", or their cultural form of resource sharing. Ringed seal meat is one of the core meats of this type of sharing and has been utilized in this system for hundreds of years. With climate change, ningiqtuq would be drastically altered. Also, the ringed seal embodies the ideals of sharing, unity, and collectivism because of ningiqtuq. Its decline signifies loss of Inuit identity. The polar bear population is also declining because of climate change. Polar bears rely on ringed seals for food, so both of their declines are correlated. This decline is also harming ningiqtuq as polar bear meat is shared among Inuit people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Marine mammals as food are only seals and beluga whale. Seals were the primary marine mammal hunted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eskimo",
        "text": "The Inuit inhabit the Arctic and northern Bering Sea coasts of Alaska in the United States, and Arctic coasts of the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Quebec, and Labrador in Canada, and Greenland (associated with Denmark). Until fairly recent times, there has been a remarkable homogeneity in the culture throughout this area, which traditionally relied on fish, marine mammals, and land animals for food, heat, light, clothing, and tools. Their food sources primarily relied on seals, whales, whale blubber, walrus, and fish, all of which they hunted using harpoons on the ice. Clothing consisted of robes made of wolfskin and reindeer skin to acclimate to the low temperatures. They maintain a unique Inuit culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Yup'ik cuisine\n--Yupik Cuisine.\n--What meals the Yupik eat.\n--Food preservation and preparations.\n----Fish in the food industry.\n------Uncooked.\n------Cooked.\n----Mammals as food.\n----Birds as food.\n----Plants as food.\n--Pastry.\n--Drinks.\n--Nutrition.\n--Food storage.\n--Dog food.\n--Food sources.\n----Fish.\n----Sea mammals.\n----Land mammals.\n----Birds.\n----Plants.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Inuit cuisine\n--Hunting practices.\n--Nutrition.\n--Eating habits and food preparation.\n----Food sharing in the community.\n--Perceived benefits and beliefs of the diet.\n----Hunting beliefs.\n----Healing beliefs.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "One common way to eat the meat hunted is frozen. Many hunters will eat the food that they hunt on location where they found it. This keeps their blood flowing and their bodies warm. One custom of eating meat at the hunting site pertains to fish. In \"Overland to Starvation Cove: A History\", Heinrich Klutschak explains the custom: \"...no fish could be eaten in a cooked state on the spot where caught but could only be enjoyed raw; only when one is a day's march away from the fishing site is it permitted to cook the fish over the flame of a blubber lamp.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Nutaqaq\" is frozen raw fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beluga whale",
        "text": "Belugas play an important role in the structure and function of marine resources in the Arctic Ocean, as they are the most abundant toothed whales in the region. They are opportunistic feeders; their feeding habits depend on their locations and the season. For example, when they are in the Beaufort Sea, they mainly eat Arctic cod (\"Boreogadus saida\") and the stomachs of belugas caught near Greenland were found to contain rose fish (\"Sebastes marinus\"), Greenland halibut (\"Reinhardtius hippoglossoides\") and northern shrimp (\"Pandalus borealis\"), while in Alaska their staple diet is Coho salmon (\"Oncorhynchus kisutch\"). In general, the diets of these cetaceans consist mainly of fish; apart from those previously mentioned, other fish they feed on include capelin (\"Mallotus villosus\"), smelt, sole, flounder, herring, sculpin and other types of salmon. They also consume a great quantity of invertebrates, such as shrimp, squid, crabs, clams, octopus, sea snails, bristle worms and other deep-sea species. Belugas feed mainly in winter as their blubber is thickest in later winter and early spring, and thinnest in the fall. Inuit observation has led scientists to believe that belugas do not hunt during migration, at least in Hudson Bay"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Akutaq (in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"akutar\" in Cup'ig, \"akutuq\" in I\u00f1upiaq) or \"Eskimo ice cream\", also known as \"Yup'ik ice-cream\", \"Yupik ice-cream\", \"Inupiaq ice-cream\", \"Inupiat ice-cream\", \"Alutiiq ice cream\" is a mixture of berries, sugar, seal oil, shortening, flaked fish flesh, snow, etc. Akutaq is most common Eskimo delicacy in Alaska, and only dessert in Eskimo cuisine. Both Eskimo ice cream and Indian ice cream are also known as \"native ice cream\" or \"Alaskan ice cream\" in Alaska. There are different types of akutaq."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monotrophic diet",
        "text": "The modern fad carnivore diet should not be confused with traditional diets in certain ethnic groups, such as in Inuit cuisine and among the Nenets people of northern arctic Russia, in which animals (including fish) are consumed for survival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "The Yup'ik combine a contemporary and a traditional subsistence lifestyle in a blend unique to the Southwest Alaska. Today, the Yup'ik generally work and live in western style but still hunt and fish in traditional subsistence ways and gather traditional foods. Most Yup'ik still speak the native language and bilingual education has been in force since the 1970s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit culture",
        "text": "The pittailiniq regarding the diet of pregnant women demonstrate the strong emphasis on maternal diet affecting infant beauty and/or appearance. Some of these pittailiniq are listed below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indigenous food security in Canada",
        "text": "In Nunavut the average life span is approximately 12 years lower than the average Canadian. This is for a number of reasons such as access to healthcare, lower average of socioeconomic standing, poor quality of housing, and the quality of basic services such as drinking water and affordable food. The studies done in this area are very limited but there has been some information collected. The project Climate Change and Health in Nunavik and Labrador looked at the impacts on health in these communities due to changing climates and access to land-based food sources such as fish, geese and seals. There is concern for the senior citizens in these communities because they cannot go and hunt for themselves but still rely on land-based sources of food. Food security for urban Indigenous people is also important to look at. Not having proper access to food can lead to a number of health issues such as low birth weights, developmental delays, depression, anxiety and suicide. These issues are already pressing in Indigenous communities and a lot could be done to help with more equal access to food. High rates of diabetes are a large indicator of the food that Indigenous people are ingesting. There has been a change in diet from traditional foods to European foods and medicine. The members of this northern Ontario Indigenous community stated their preference for wild meat and berries because they believe it is healthier than store-bought foods. The cost of food is also high unless the person is purchasing processed \"junk foods\". These types of foods can lead to a decline in physical health and this is not the preferred diet of a traditional Indigenous person. There are certain essential nutrients that are especially of concern in Indigenous diets: protein, zinc, vitamin D, iron, omega 3 fatty acids, and selenium. These influence a person's physical health as well as their mental and emotional health. The caribou and other traditional foods are excellent sources of these nutrients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit phonology",
        "text": "In addition to the voiced retroflex fricative (represented orthographically as ), Inupiatun also has a voiceless retroflex fricative represented as . This additional manner of articulation is largely distinctive to Inupiatun \u2013 it is absent from the more easterly dialects, except for the of Natsilingmiutut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit culture",
        "text": "The Inuit also followed many taboos (pittailiniq) about diet and consumption in pregnancy. Consistently, elders report that pregnant women were to abstain from raw meat, eating only boiled or cooked meat, during pregnancy. Men were also expected to observe this rule, but only when in the presence of their wives. The preferential treatment of pregnant women also extended to food, and the best pieces of meat and food were always reserved for the pregnant woman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "The tundra provides berries for making jams, jellies, and a Yup'ik delicacy commonly called akutaq or \"Eskimo ice cream.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Upper Kuskokwim people",
        "text": "The Alaskan Athabaskan Indian ice cream () is dessert-like berries, Indian potato, and fish (whitefish, sheefish) mixed with fat (commonly Crisco now, but bear fat is occasionally used) and different from the Canadian Indian ice cream of First Nations in British Columbia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indigenous cuisine of the Americas",
        "text": "The cultural value attached to certain game species, and certain parts, varies. For example, in the James Bay region, a 1982 study found that beluga whale meat was principally used as dog food, whereas the blubber, or muktuk was a \"valued delicacy\". Value also varies by age, with Inuit preferring younger ring seals, and often using the older ones for dog food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Allemaaq\" (Hooper Bay and Chevak) is cooked blackfish fry."
      },
      {
        "title": "I\u00f1upiat",
        "text": "Inuit, the language and the people, extend borders and dialects across the Circumpolar North. Inuit are the Native inhabitants of Northern Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. Inuit languages have differing names depending on the region it is spoken in. In Northern Alaskan, the Inuit language is called I\u00f1upiat. Within Alaskan I\u00f1upiat, there are four major dialects: North Slope, Malimiut, Bering Straits, and Qawiaraq. Prior to western contact, the I\u00f1upiat dialects flourished. Due to harsh assimilation efforts in Native American boarding schools, Natives were punished for speaking their language. Now only 2,000 of the approximately 24,500 I\u00f1upiat people can speak their Native tongue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peary caribou",
        "text": "The Peary caribou, called \"tuktu\" in Inuinnaqtun/Inuktitut, and written as \"\u1550\u146f\u1466\u14ef\u1466\u1450\u14a5 \u1450\u1483\u1450\" in Inuktitut syllabics, is a major food source for the Inuit and was named after the American explorer Robert Peary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "While Yupiit were nomadic, the abundant fish and game of the Y-K Delta and Bering Sea coastal areas permitted for a more settled life than for many of the more northerly I\u00f1upiaq people. Under normal conditions, there was little need for interregional travel, as each regional group had access to enough resources within its own territory to be completely self-sufficient. However, fluctuations in animal populations or weather conditions sometimes necessitated travel and trade between regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Alaska subsistence communities are noted to obtain up to 97% of the omega-3 fatty acids through a subsistence diet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Uuqnarliq\" (Kuskokwim), \"uuqnarniq\" (Yukon), \"uqnarliq\" (Hooper Bay and Chevak) is cooked blackfish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The Yup'ik, like other Eskimo groups, were semi-nomadic hunter-fisher-gatherers who moved seasonally throughout the year within a reasonably well-defined territory to harvest fish, bird, sea and land mammal, berry and other renewable resources. Subsistence is the practice of hunting, fishing, or gathering food to live on (not to resell), and is practiced by almost all the Yup'ik. In the inland, fishing for red salmon and gathering berries in the summer as well as hunting caribou or moose in the fall and winter constitute the primary seasonal subsistence activities of the inland Yup'ik villages."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are the diets of the Alaskan Inupiat and Canadian Inuit the same?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There is overlap between the I\u00f1upiat and Inuit diets, as both groups eat berries, roots, caribou, polar bear, walrus, whale, and fish. In fact, the I\u00f1upiat can be considered \"Inuit\", as the word is an umbrella term that can describe many indigenous groups."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the main difference between the Alaskan Inupiat and Canadian Inuit diets?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
    ],
    "topic": "Yup'ik cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": []
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Yup\u2019ik cuisine is different from Alaskan , Canadian Inuit, and Greenlandic diets. Yup'ik communities varied widely in what foods were available to them, but everyone used similar food processing and food preservation methods, including air drying and smoking, food storage in cold water and oil, fermentation, and freezing. Some foods were eaten raw."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Yup'ik cuisine (\"Yupiit neqait\" in Yup'ik language, literally \"Yup'iks' foods\" or \"Yup'iks' fishes\") refers to the Eskimo style traditional subsistence food and cuisine of the Yup'ik people from the western and southwestern Alaska. Also known as Cup'ik cuisine for the Chevak Cup'ik dialect speaking Eskimos of Chevak and Cup'ig cuisine for the Nunivak Cup'ig dialect speaking Eskimos of Nunivak Island. This cuisine is traditionally based on meat from fish, birds, sea and land mammals, and normally contains high levels of protein. Subsistence foods are generally considered by many to be nutritionally superior superfoods. Yup\u2019ik diet is different from Alaskan Inupiat, Canadian Inuit, and Greenlandic diets. Fish as food (especially Salmonidae species, such as salmon and whitefish) are primary food for Yup'ik Eskimos. Both food and fish called \"neqa\" in Yup'ik. Food preparation techniques are fermentation and cooking, also uncooked raw. Cooking methods are baking, roasting, barbecuing, frying, smoking, boiling, and steaming. Food preservation methods are mostly drying and less often frozen. Dried fish is usually eaten with seal oil. The ulu or fan-shaped knife used for cutting up fish, meat, food, and such."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Quaq\" (in the Inuit languages: I\u00f1upiaq \"quaq\", Nunavut Inuktitut and Nunavik Inuttitut \u1581\u140a\u1585 \"quaq\", South Baffin Kingarmiut \"xuaq\", Labrador Inuttitut \"\u0138uak\", Greenlandic \"quaq\") is meat or fish to be eaten raw and frozen"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Both the Yup'ik (and Siberian Yupik) and cuisines are also known as Eskimo cuisine in Alaska. The oldest, most stable cuisine in North America is found above the Arctic Circle in Alaska. Long overlooked and pitifully misunderstood, the cuisine's roots lie buried in Eastern Asia, whence I\u00f1upiaq and Yupik ancestors ventured to Siberia, across Beringia, and on to Alaska during the last ice age, 50,000 to 15,000 years ago. The remoteness of the Inupiat and Yupik cultures accounts for their rich and intact food history. The Yupik-Inupiaq split probably occurred about one thousand years ago. The Arctic cuisine is composed of a high-protein diet without grains, supplemented with wild greens, roots, and berries. Fortunately, dietitians consider the diet nutritious and balanced with abundant vitamins, minerals, proteins and valuable unsaturated fats derived from a vast array of sea and land mammals, fish, fowl, wild plants and berries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Muktuk (\"mangtak\" in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq, Chevak, \"mangengtak\" in Bristol Bay) is the traditional Eskimo meal of frozen raw beluga whale skin (dark epidermis) with attached subcutaneous fat (blubber)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Salmon as food, herring as food, smelt, halibut, flounder, tomcod, pike, and capelin were gutted and air dried or smoked. The fish heads they made into \"qamiqurrluk\" (cut and dried fish heads), and some they made into \"tepa\" (aged fish heads). Fish eggs (roe) were dried and stored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian cuisine",
        "text": "In the Arctic, Inuit traditionally survived on a diet consisting of land and marine mammals, fish, and foraged plant products. Meats were consumed fresh, but also often prepared, cached, and allowed to ferment into \"igunaq\" or \"kiviak\". These fermented meats have the consistency and smell of certain soft aged cheeses. Snacks such as \"muktuk\", which consist of whale skin and blubber is eaten plain, though occasionally dipped in soy sauce. Chunks of muktuk are sliced with an \"ulu\" prior to or during consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Ciss'uq\" (\"Ciss'ur\" in Nunivak Cup'ig) is fermented herring or capelin that have been buried underground for two weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The Nunivak Eskimos ( in Cup'ig, \"Nunivaarmiut\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik) eat frequently in the course of a 24-hour period. They go to bed at sundown or early evening in the spring and fall, and well before sundown in summer, but arise early, often at 3:00 or 4:00\u00a0a.m. and regularly at 5:00 or 5:30. The time of rising depended on the sea tide and the time when tomcod or other fish are running. The first meal of the day is eaten at this time and another about 11:00\u00a0a.m., with snacks once or twice in between depending on the work schedule and the availability of food. The evening meal is usually at 4:30 or 5:00\u00a0p.m. with additional snacks between the main meals. In winter the entire meal schedule is likely to be moved forward, with the first meal of the day being eaten at 10:00 or 10:30\u00a0a.m. The most common food is dried or frozen fish dipped in seal oil. The evening or late afternoon meal, the hot meal of the day, frequently consisted of boiled fish or other boiled food and tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Yup'ik cuisine is based on traditional subsistence food harvests (hunting, fishing and berry gathering) supplemented by seasonal subsistence activities. The Yup'ik region is rich with waterfowl, fish, and sea and land mammals. Yup'ik settled where the water remained ice-free in winter, where walruses, whales and seals came close to shore, and where there was a fishing stream or a bird colony nearby. Even if a place was not very convenient for human civilization, but had rich game, yup'ik would settle there. The coastal settlements rely more heavily on sea mammals (seals, walrusses, beluga whales), many species of fish (Pacific salmon, herring, halibut, flounder, trout, burbot, Alaska blackfish), shellfish, crabs, and seaweed. The inland settlements rely more heavily on Pacific salmon and freshwater whitefish, land mammals (moose, caribou), migratory waterfowl, bird eggs, berries, greens, and roots help sustain people throughout the region. Traditional subsistence foods are mixed with what is commercially available. Today about half the food is supplied by subsistence activities (subsistence foods), the other half is purchased from the commercial stores (market foods, store-bought foods)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Uuqnarliq\" (Kuskokwim), \"uuqnarniq\" (Yukon), \"uqnarliq\" (Hooper Bay and Chevak) is cooked blackfish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Cin'aq\" (Yukon, Hooper Bay and Chevak, Lake Iliamna, and Nunivak) is cheese-like fish aged in a pit. This fish is usually dog (chum) or king (chinook) salmon. The salmon whole (except the guts) aged through the process of burying them into the marshy, muddy lowland (\"maraq\"). The hole is dug until the permafrost is exposed. The bottom of the hole is then covered with dry grass, moss, and cardboard. Then several salmon are placed in. The top of the salmon is again covered with grass, moss and or cardboard, then the remaining dug up groung is placed back into the hole, tightly covering the contents. The aged salmon fish are usually dug out during the early winter, and eaten as a delicacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Terrestrial mammals or land mammals (\"nunarmiutaq\" \"nunarmiutaat\" in Yup'ik) are game animals and furbearers.\n*Game animals (\"pitarkaq\" \"pitarkat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"pitarkar\" \"pitarkat\" in Cup'ig). Caribou, moose and \"bears\" are included in the definition of the word \"pitarkat\".\n*Caribou or wild caribou \"Rangifer tarandus granti\" (\"tuntu\", \"tuntupik\" or \"tuntupiaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tuntupig\" in Cup'ig). Prior to European contact, caribou were important not only for their meat but for the skins which were an important item used in clothing. The Russians encouraged the Eskimos to adopt Western-style dress in order to release more furs for trading. The second most commonly received resources for Manokotak residents were caribou (%64.8 of households). Caribou meat was often made into jerky. The stomach contents such as sedges and other greens, were eaten. Virtually all of the edible parts of the animal was utilized. Caribou have been absent from Nunivak Island for at least 100 years, but many of the procedures for preparing the flesh of this animal also apply to the domestic reindeer. In earlier times, however, caribou livers were placed in the animal's stomach to ferment; this is no longer done. The lining of a reindeer stomach was cut up and eaten with dried fish or by itself. Lungs and kidneys were given to the dogs, but the heart was eaten. Neither caribou meat nor fish were ever pounded as a method of preservation.\n*Reindeer or (semi)domestic caribou \"Rangifer tarandus tarandus\" (\"qusngiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qusngir\" in Cup'ig). The word \"qusngiq\" which is derived from the Chukchee \"qora\u014be\" (\u04c4\u043e\u0440\u0430\u04c8\u044b) or Koryak \"qoya\u014ba\" (\u04c4\u043e\u0439\u0430\u04c8\u0430). In Europe, use the terms \"caribou\" and \"reindeer\" synonymously, but in Alaska and Canada \"reindeer\" refers exclusively to semi-domesticated forms. Only in North America are wild \"Rangifer\" referred to as \"caribou\". In Eurasia, \"reindeer\" are classified as either domesticated or wild. Domestic reindeer (\"Rangifer tarandus tarandus\") were introduced into Alaska 100 years ago and have been maintained as semidomestic livestock. They have had contact with wild caribou (\"R. t. granti\") herds, including deliberate crossbreeding and mixing in the wild. Reindeer have considerable potential as a domestic animal for meat or velvet antler production, and wild caribou are important to subsistence and sport hunters. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) managed reindeer operations on the Nunivak Island beginning in 1940. The Nunivak herd is composed of about 4,000 reindeer. The southern half of Nunivak is a designated Wilderness area, which presents challenges in summertime herding, since use of motorized recreational vehicles is forbidden within the Wilderness area without adequate snow cover.\n*Moose or Alaska moose \"Alces alces gigas\" (\"tuntuvak\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tuntuwag\" in Cup'ig, literally \"big caribou\"). The most commonly received resources for Manokotak residents were moose (%79.6 of households). Moose were not usually seen in the lower Kuskokwim River drainages until the early 1940s. Moose meat (\"tuntuviim kemga\") was preserved by freezing and drying. Rarely was moose meat preserved by smoking or caning. Hunters who harvested moose at spring camps in the mountains preserved meat by cutting it into strips and hanging it on racks or bushes to dry in the sun, making jerky. This jerky was eaten without further preparation, or it was boiled. Virtually all of the moose was used. Bones were cracked and the marrow was removed. Fat from the back and rump was cut into small pieces and eaten uncooked along with meals at home and when in the field. Part of the stomach was cleaned and prepared, and the heart, liver, and kidneys were also eaten. The whole head was usually kept so that the muscles, brain, tongue, and nose could be removed and cooked. The feet and hooves were also cooked and eaten. Moose was cooked in variety of ways including boiling, roasting, stewing, frying and in soups.\n*Muskox \"Ovibos moschatus\" (\"umingmar, maskar\" in Nunivak Cup'ig). Alaska's original muskox were hunted to extinction in the mid-1800s \u2013 perhaps by whalers and others. They had originally ranged Alaska's arctic and western coastal tundra. In 1935\u20131936 the U.S. Biological Survey brought 31 muskoxen from Greenland to Nunivak Island in an effort to reestablish the species in Alaska and as a means for subsistence living. The first modern hunting season was in 1975. Today the Nunivak herd numbers around 600 animals, down from a high of around 700 animals in 1968.\n*Brown bear (grizzly) \"Ursus arctos horribilis\" (\"taqukaq, carayak\" Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"paugnar\" in Cup'ig) and Black bear \"Ursus americanus\" (\"tan'gerliq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tungulzria\" in Cup'ig) were harvested for food (meat and fat). Bear meat (\"tan'gerlim kemga\") made into jerky was often dried over a couple of weeks time. The internal organs, such as heart, kidneys, and intestines were often distributed to elders. Both black and brown bear meat was considered very tasty and was prepared by drying, boiling, baking, and roasting. The bones were boiled so that all of the meat could easily be removed from them. The marrow was only occasionally used because the bones are very thick and not easily broken. The liver was considered to be too rich and was \"not eaten\".\n*Furbearers or fur-bearing animals (\"melqulek\" \"melqulget\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"melquleg\" in Cup'ig) are commonly trapped for their pelts and meats. The meat of all types of furbearers (beaver, mink, otter, muskrat, marten, lynx), except for fox, wolf, and wolverine, was used for human food and was also used as dog food.\n*Red fox \"Vulpes vulpes\" (\"kaviaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"kavviar\" in Cup'ig). The Nunivak Cup'ig practiced few restrictions with reference to food, but the flesh of the red fox was avoided since it was believed to cause a person to sleep during the day and be restless at night. This restriction did not apply to the flesh of the white fox.\n*Arctic fox \"Vulpes lagopus\" (\"uliiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qaterlir\" [white fox], \"eqyerer\" [blue fox] \"illaassug\" [cross fox] in Cup'ig)\n*Sea otter \"Enhydra lutris\" (\"arrnaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"aatagar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Land otter or river otter \"Lontra canadensis\" (\"cuignilnguq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"cenkar, pirturcir(ar)\" in Cup'ig)\n*American mink \"Neogale vison\" (\"imarmiutaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"imarmiutar\" in Cup'ig). Mink skin parkas, and also mink pants for small boys, formerly were made.\n*Beringian or American ermine \"Mustela erminea\", \"Mustela richardsonii\" (\"narullgiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"terriar(ar)\" [in winter coloration] \"narullgir\" [in summer coloration] in Cup'ig)\n*Marten \"Martes americana\" (\"qavcicuaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Muskrat \"Ondatra zibethicus\" (\"kanaqlak, tevyuli\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"kanaqlag\" in Cup'ig)\n*Vole \"Microtus miurus\" (singing vole) and \"Clethrionomys rutilus\" (northern red-backed vole) (\"avelngaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Collared lemming or Northern collared lemming \"Dicrostonyx groenlandicus\" (\"qilagmiutaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik). I\u00f1upiaq people do not eat lemmings\n*Brown lemming or Nunivak Island brown lemming \"Lemmus trimucronatus harroldi\" (\"pugultu\" in Cup'ig)\n*Beaver \"Castor canadensis\" (\"paluqtaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"paluqtar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Porcupine \"Erethizon dorsatum\" (\"issaluuq, issaluq, cukilek, ilaanquciq, nuuniq\") were harvested primarily for food and were prepared much the same way that hare were prepared.\n*Tree squirrel or red squirrel \"Tamiasciurus hudsonicus\" (\"qiguiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Ground squirrel or parky squirrel, parka squirrel \"Spermophilus parryii\" (\"qanganaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qanganar\" in Cup'ig) were skinned and hung on meat drying racks to dry.\n*Marmot or hoary marmot \"Marmota caligata\" (\"cikigpak\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik) were used similarly to parka squirrels.\n*Hare \"Lepus othus\" (\"qayuqeggliq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qayuqegglir\" in Cup'ig) and Rabbit \"Lepus americanus\" (\"maqaruaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"maqaruar\" in Cup'ig) can be prepared much like poultry meat: roasted, broiled, grilled, fried, and stewed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The type of meal () eaten at any given time varies by custom and location.\n*Breakfast (\"unuakutaq\") is eaten within an hour or two after a person wakes in the morning.\n*Lunch or dinner ( from Russian \u043e\u0431\u0435\u0301\u0434 ) is eaten around mid-day.\n*Supper or dinner (\"atakutaq\") is eaten in the evening."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kumlaneq\" (in Yup'ik, \"kumlanaq\" in Hooper Bay-Chevak Cup'ik; but, \"kumlaner\" in Nunivak Cup'ig means \"cold water, cold spring water; permafrost, frozen soil\") is frozen fish to be eaten in that state. Freezing of chinook and particularly coho salmon was relatively common. Chinook salmon were usually cut up into smaller pieces before being placed into plastic Ziploc bags. Smaller species, such as chum, sockeye, coho, and pink salmon were frequently frozen uncut and whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Berries and edible plants supplemented meals consisting mostly of fish and game. Plants foods also provided a variety of essential vitamins ans nutrients to the diet. Berries were preserved by freezing. The most popular use berries was when making akutaq, a whipped mixture of the berries, sugar, and shortening or fat. Households also made jam, jellies, and breads from berries. Sourdock leaves were prepared by boiling, like spinach. Labrador tea was boiled to make tea and was consumed much like commercial teas. Green spruce needles were also used for tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Aaqassaaq\" (Kotlik) is skin to be chewed to soften it; beluga blubber for eating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Tea (\"caayuq\" in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq, Hooper Bay and Chevak, Nelson Island, Upper Kuskokwim, Nushagak River, Lake Iliamna, Egegik, \"saayuq\" Lower Kuskokwim, Canineq, Bristol Bay, \"caayu\" Nunivak Cup'ig; from Russian \u0447\u0430\u0439 \"chay\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Dry moose meat was a favorite food among Chuathbaluk and Sleetmute inhabitants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Niinamayak\" (in Yup'ik, \"nin'amayuk\" in Canineq Yup'ik, \"nin'amayag\" in Nunivak Cup'ig) is partially (half) dried aged (fermented) herring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The Yup'ik region is rich with waterfowl, fish, and sea and land mammals. The coastal settlements rely more heavily on sea mammals (seals, walrusses, beluga whales), many species of fish (Pacific salmon, herring, halibut, flounder, trout, burbot, Alaska blackfish), shellfish, crabs, and seaweed. The inland settlements rely more heavily on Pacific salmon and freshwater whitefish, land mammals (moose, caribou), migratory waterfowl, bird eggs, berries, greens, and roots help sustain people throughout the region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit Nunangat",
        "text": "Inuit cuisine, also known as \"country food,\" incorporates a variety of meats (such as walrus, narwhal, bearded seal, caribou, polar bear, Arctic cod, and Arctic char, amongst others) and gathered plants (including crowberries, cloudberries, fireweed, seaweed, tubers and roots like mousefood, tuberous spring beauty, and sweet vetch) Much of the meat is served frozen, raw, or boiled, much like sushi or sashimi in Japanese cuisine. Delicacies include akutuq \u140a\u146f\u1450\u1585, an ice cream-like dessert made with fat or tallow, meat, and mixed with berries; igunaq \u1403\u148d\u14c7\u1585, a year-long fermentation of select meats; maktaaq \u14aa\u1483\u1456\u1585 (alternatively maktak \u14aa\u1483\u1455\u1483 or maktaq), frozen whale skin and blubber usually eaten raw, sometimes pickled, and occasionally finely diced, breaded, deep fried, and then served with soy sauce; Labrador tea; and various dips such as aalu \u140b\u14d7 (intended for meat made from the choice parts of caribou or seal, chopped into tiny pieces and blended with melted fat and blood), misiraq \u14a5\u14ef\u154b\u1585 (aged to resemble an aromatic white wine, made from seal or whale blubber), and nirukkaq \u14c2\u1548\u1483\u1472\u1585 (a smooth made p\u00e2t\u00e9 made from the contents of a caribou's stomach)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Yup'ik cuisine\n--Yupik Cuisine.\n--What meals the Yupik eat.\n--Food preservation and preparations.\n----Fish in the food industry.\n------Uncooked.\n------Cooked.\n----Mammals as food.\n----Birds as food.\n----Plants as food.\n--Pastry.\n--Drinks.\n--Nutrition.\n--Food storage.\n--Dog food.\n--Food sources.\n----Fish.\n----Sea mammals.\n----Land mammals.\n----Birds.\n----Plants.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Allemaaq\" (Hooper Bay and Chevak) is cooked blackfish fry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Imlaucuaq\" (in Yup'ik of Nelson Island, \"Imlaucuar\" in Nunivak Cup'ig; lit. \u00absmall roe\u00bb) is herring sac roe. The sac-roe (imlacuaq) is dried into product resembling golden chips. The dried roe is placed in containers and stored in the cache. It is soaked in water prior to eating but is also eaten dried. All sac-roe from subsistence caught herring was processed in all four Nelson Island communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Fish as food, especially Pacific salmon (or in some places, non-salmon) species are primary main subsistence food for the Yup'ik. Both food and fish (and salmon) called \"neqa\" (sg) \"neqet\" (pl) in Yup'ik. Also for salmon called \"neqpik ~ neqpiaq\" (sg) \"neqpiit ~ neqpiat\" (pl) in Yup'ik, means literally \"real food\". But, main food for the I\u00f1upiaq is meat of whale and caribou (both food and meat called \"niqi\" in I\u00f1upiaq, also for meat called \"niqipiaq\" \"real food\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Bread (\"kelipaq\" Yukon, Kuskokwim, Hooper Bay and Chevak, Nelson Island, Canineq, Bristol Bay, Nushagak River, Lake Iliamna, Egegik, \"kelipar\" in Cup'ig from Russian \u0445\u043b\u0435\u0431 \"khleb\"; \"qaqiaq\" bread in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq from I\u00f1upiaq \"qaqqiaq\"; \"qaq'uq\" in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq from I\u00f1upiaq \"qaqquq\"; \"kuv'aq\" in Yukon; \"tevurkaq\" in Unaliq-Pastuliq, \"tuurkaq\" in Lower Yukon from English \"dough\") The \"uutaq\" is hard candy or other hard-baked food; bread"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Cooking (\"kenir-\") is the process of preparing food for consumption with the use of heat. There are very many methods of cooking. These include roasting (\"maniar-\"), barbecuing, baking (\"uute-\"), frying (\"assali-, asgir-\"), smoking (\"puyurte-, aruvarqi-, aruvir-\"), boiling (\"ega-\"), and steaming (\"puyiar(ar)-\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qercuqaq\" is hard frozen fish (blackfish or the like)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Famine foods: reindeer lichen (\"tuntut neqait\") was soaked in seal oil or mixed with cranberries to make it taste better."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Nutaqaq\" is frozen raw fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Traditional subsistence foods are mixed with what is commercially available. Today about half the food is supplied by subsistence activities (subsistence foods), the other half is purchased from the commercial stores (market foods, store-bought foods)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Food preparation techniques are uncooked raw (\"Cassar-\" \"to eat raw flesh or meat\", \"arepa-\" \"to eat raw food\"), fermentation, and cooking (\"keir-\"). In the past, the Yup'ik nourishment consisted of raw meat, including its blood, and sometimes the meat was cooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Muktuk (\"mangtak\" in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq, Chevak, \"mangengtak\" in Bristol Bay) is the traditional meal of frozen raw beluga whale skin (dark epidermis) with attached subcutaneous fat (blubber)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The flesh of virtually all waterfowl in the environment was eaten, either fresh or dried, usually with oil or a sourdock leaf soup. Even cormorants were considered edible and the meat of these fishy-tasting birds was dried or boiled when freshly killed. The eggs of waterfowl were sometimes sucked raw, but were usually boiled. Unlike Eskimos of the adjacent mainland, the Nunivaarmiut did not boil eggs hard and pack them in pokes for use during the winter. Instead, if there were more eggs than could be consumed at the time of collecting, they were hard-boiled and, still in their shells, placed in wooden dishes of seal oil to be kept for a short while."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Cookie (cugg'alinguaq in Egegik)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The Yup'ik, like other Eskimo groups, were semi-nomadic hunter-fisher-gatherers who moved seasonally throughout the year within a reasonably well-defined territory to harvest fish, bird, sea and land mammal, berry and other renewable resources. Yup'ik cuisine is based on traditional subsistence food harvests (hunting, fishing and berry gathering) supplemented by seasonal subsistence activities. The Yup'ik region is rich with waterfowl, fish, and sea and land mammals. The coastal settlements rely more heavily on sea mammals (seals, walrusses, beluga whales), many species of fish (Pacific salmon, herring, halibut, flounder, trout, burbot, Alaska blackfish), shellfish, crabs, and seaweed. The inland settlements rely more heavily on Pacific salmon and freshwater whitefish, land mammals (moose, caribou), migratory waterfowl, bird eggs, berries, greens, and roots help sustain people throughout the region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Prehistoric Yup'ik Eskimos probably relied upon a mix of anadromous fish (salmon and char), terrestrial mammals (caribou), and marine mammals (seal and walrus) for subsistence foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Teggsiq'er\" (in Nunivak Cup'ig) half dried herring (specifically made for cooking)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Historically Inuit cuisine, which is taken here to include Greenlandic cuisine, Yup'ik cuisine and Aleut cuisine, consisted of a diet of animal source foods that were fished, hunted, and gathered locally. In the 20th century the Inuit diet began to change and by the 21st century the diet was closer to a Western diet. After hunting, they often honour the animals' spirit by singing songs and performing rituals. Although traditional or country foods still play an important role in the identity of Inuit, much food is purchased from the store, which has led to health problems and food insecurity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qassaq\" or \"Qassaulria\" is raw food, raw flesh or raw meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Aagciuk\" is fish meatball made of the soft meat and bones of spawned-out fish, cooked by dropping in boiling water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Umlikaaq\" (or \"Umlikaq\" ~ \"Umlikqaq\") or \"Ungllekaq\" (\"ungllik'ar\" in Nunivak Cup'ig) is fresh boiled fish. All parts of the fish except for the entrails are used to prepare umlikqaq. Fresh fish that have been dead for less than a day make the best umlikqaq because the meat is still firm. If a freshwater fish is caught with a hook, it is best to kill the fish by hitting its head soon after capture so the meat will stay firm for cooking. The main ingredients of umlikqaq are cut-up fish, water, and salt which are boiled for about 29 minutes. This is a preferred food for elders because it easy to make and is not strongly seasoned. First heads are good prepared as umlikqaq. Also, \"Ungelkaaq\" is fish steak cut transversely."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The primary subsistence food in the Bristol Bay region and in most of rural Alaska is salmon, followed closely by big game hunting of caribou and moose in the more inland areas, and marine mammal hunting in the coastal areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The akutaq (Eskimo ice cream), tepa (stinkheads), mangtak (muktuk) some of the most well-known traditional Yup'ik delicacies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Fish as food, especially Pacific salmon of the subfamily Salmoninae in the family Salmonidae or in some places, non-salmon species, such as freshwater whitefish of the subfamily Coregoninae in the family Salmonidae, are primary main subsistence food for Yup'ik Eskimos. Both food and fish (and salmon) called \"neqa\" \"neqet\" in Yup'ik. Also for salmon called \"neqpik ~ neqpiaq\" \"neqpiit ~ neqpiat\" in Yup'ik, means literally \u201creal, genuine food\u201d. But, main food for I\u00f1upiaq Eskimos is meat of whale and caribou (both food and meat called \"niqi\" in I\u00f1upiaq, also for meat called \"niqipiaq\" \u201creal, genuine food\u201d)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Food preservation"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kumlaciq\" (in Yup'ik, \"kumlacir\" in Cup'ig) is frozen meat (of frozen fish, blackfish, and others as well) to be eaten in that state. Frozen food is a method for preserving fish or meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "On Nunivak, most indigenous plants were traditionally gathered by women and children when the men were harvesting other available resources (e.g., caribou, waterfowl, seal). While fresh spring greens provided a welcome addition to the diet, which in winter was based largely on dried and stored foods, other greens were harvested throughout the year as they ripened, and used with some of those stored for winter use. With the melting of the island's snow pack, local greens and berries not picked during the previous fall's harvest, begin to appear and were added to the local diet. Depending on the time the ice pack began to break up, Cup'ig families would leave their winter villages and move to spring seal camps. Cup'ig men would journey out along the ice to harvest arriving sea mammals (i.e., seals, walrus) while the women would spend much of their time harvesting available plant resources (greens and seaweeds) and shellfish. Early spring plants included: marsh marigold (\"Caltha palustris\"), sour dock (\"Rumex arcticus\"), wild celery (\"Angelica lucida\"), wild lettuce (\"Draba borealis\" or \"D. hyperborea\"), wild parsnip (\"Ligusticum hultonii\"), wild rhubarb (\"Polygonum viviparum\"), mountain sorrel (\"Oxyria digylla\"), Pallas buttercup (\"Ranunculus pallasii\"), and Labrador tea (\"Ledum pallustre decumbens\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Egaaq\" (lit. \u00abboiled thing\u00bb) is boiled fish or other food (also, by extension, any cooked fish or other food)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Traditional Yup'ik delicacies are, akutaq (Eskimo ice cream), tepa (stinkheads), mangtak (muktuk)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "For thousands of years, dogs (\"qimugta\" \"qimugtek\" \"qimugtet\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qimugta\" \"qimugteg\" \"qimugtet\" in Cup'ig) as sled dogs, have been tightly interwoven in the Yup'ik way of life, for transportation and companionship. Except for dogs, there were no important domesticated animals in aboriginal times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Waterfowl were prepared in a variety of ways such as boiling, baking, and in soups.\n*Common eider or Pacific eider \"Somateria mollissima\" (\"metraq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"angiikvak\" in northern Yup'ik dialects, \"metr(ar), nanwista\", \"metrapig\" \u2640 \"tunupista\" \u2642 in Cup'ig)\n*King eider \"Somateria mollissima\" (\"qengallek\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qengalleg\" in Cup'ig).\n*Steller's eider \"Polysticta stelleri\" (\"anarnissakaq\" [Yukon], \"caqiar(aq)\" [Kuskokwim] in Yup'ik, \"qaciar(ar)\" in Cup'ig)\n*Oldsquaw or long-tailed duck \"Clangula hyemalis\" (\"allgiar(aq)\" [Kuskokwim], \"allgiar\" [Bristol Bay], \"aliaaliq\" [Unaliq-Pastuliq], \"aarraaliq\", \"aarraangiiq\" [Kuskokwim] in Yup'ik, \"aarraangiiraq, aarrangyaraq\" in Cup'ik, \"aarrangiir\" in Cup'ig).\n*Swan or tundra swan, whistling swan \"Cygnus columbianus columbianus\" (\"qugyuk\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qugsuk\" [Unaliq-Pastuliq], \"caqulegpak\" [Egegik], \"qugyug\" in Cup'ig)\n*Sandhill crane \"Grus canadensis\" (\"qucillgaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qucilkuryug\" in Cup'ig).\n*Ptarmigan were preserved by freezing or drying after being plucked or skinned. Once dried, the birds commonly were eaten without any other preparation. As with many dried foods, seal oil a frequent to dried ptarmigan. Ptarmigan were also cooked by boiling and were often the basis for soups.\n*Common murre or common guillemot \"Uria aalge\" (\"alpa ~ alpaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"alpa\" in Cup'ig)\n*Pigeon guillemot \"Cepphus columba\" (\"ciguraq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"cigurer\" in Cup'ig)\n*Crested auklet \"Aethia cristatella\" (\"cip'lagar, cukilpag\" in Cup'ig)\n*Horned puffin \"Fratercula corniculata\" (\"qilangaq, qengacuar(aq)\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qilangar, tunngar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Black-legged kittiwake \"Rissa tridactyla\" (\"naruyacuaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tengaurta, tengauqsarar(ar), qarliar(ar)\" in Cup'ig)\n*Pelagic cormorant \"Phalacrocorax pelagicus\" (\"uyalek\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"uyaleg\" in Cup'ig)\n*Snowy owl \"Bubo scandiacus\" (\"anipa ~ anipaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"anipar\" in Cup'ig)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Uqiquq\" Passing out of bearded seal oil- The stripped long blubber for girls in the family and square cut blubber for men in the household."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The Yup'ik, like other Eskimo groups, were semi-nomadic hunter-fisher-gatherers who moved seasonally throughout the year within a reasonably well-defined territory to harvest fish, bird, sea and land mammal, berry and other renewable resources. Subsistence is the practice of hunting, fishing, or gathering food to live on (not to resell), and is practiced by almost all the Yup'ik. In the inland, fishing for red salmon and gathering berries in the summer as well as hunting caribou or moose in the fall and winter constitute the primary seasonal subsistence activities of the inland Yup'ik villages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Egamaarrluk\" (\"egamaarruk\" or \"egamaaq\") is partially dried (not smoked) fish boiled for eating. The partially dried and boiled fish is only partially cooked. The half-dried salmon (\"egamaarrluk\") which was cooked after being partially dried. \"Egamaarruk\" is split and half dried fish. these are prepared much like \"neqerrluk\", but are not fully dried and may not be smoked. The half dried fish are boiled and eaten with seal oil. The \"egamaarrluk\" involved a similar process but the fish were kept as fillets rather than sliced into strips."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qassayaaq\" or \"Qassayagaq\" (lit. \u00abbaby raw fish\u00bb) frozen raw whitefish aged (fermented) before freezing and served frozen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Birds (\"tengmiaq\" \"tengmiak\" \"tengmiat\" or \"yaqulek\" \"yaqulgek\" \"yaqulget\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tengmiar\" \"tengmiag\" \"tengmiat\" in Cup'ig)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kinengyak\" ( \"kinengyiit\" ) is dried meat (caribou, moose)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Marine mammals as food are only seals and beluga whale. Seals were the primary marine mammal hunted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Arumaarrluk\" (\"arumarrluk\") or \"arumaarrluaq\" is poke fish or poked fish slightly smoked and stored in seal oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Beluga whale meat"
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "When eating a meal, Inuit place large slabs of meat, blubber, and other parts of the animal on a piece of metal, plastic, or cardboard on the floor. From here, anyone in the house is able to cut off a piece of meat. At these meals, no one is obliged to join in the meal; Inuit eat only when hungry. Sometimes, though, meals are announced to the whole camp. A woman does this by the shout of \"Ujuk!\" which means \"cooked meat\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Food storage"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Indigenous plants were an integral part of the year-round diet of Eskimo people in addition to their incorporation in other facets of their life. Contrary to the popular perception of Eskimo people surviving solely on fish and meat, the Nunivak Cup'ig utilized a large number of local plants for food, medicinal, and utilitarian purposes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qemitaq\" (lit. \u00abstrangled thing\u00bb) is muskrat or squirrel that has been hung by the neck to dry after being skinned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Uutaq\" (lit. \u00abbaked thing\u00bb) is baked fish (also, hard candy or other hard-baked food; bread)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Vitamins and minerals which are typically derived from plant sources are nonetheless present in most Inuit diets. Vitamins A and D are present in the oils and livers of cold-water fishes and mammals. Vitamin C is obtained through sources such as caribou liver, kelp, muktuk, and seal brain; because these foods are typically eaten raw or frozen, the vitamin C they contain, which would be destroyed by cooking, is instead preserved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Keniraq\" (lit. \u00abcooked thing\u00bb) is fresh cooked fish or other food (also stew)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Searles defines Inuit food as mostly \"eaten frozen, raw, or boiled, with very little mixture of ingredients and with very few spices added.\" Some preparations include:\n* : berries mixed with fat.\n* : flatbread\n* Food preservation techniques include fermenting fish and meat in the form of\n* Labrador tea\n* : a traditional soup made from seal, whale, caribou, or seabirds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indigenous cuisine of the Americas",
        "text": "In the eastern Canadian Arctic, Inuit consume a diet of foods that are fished, hunted, and gathered locally. This may include caribou, walrus, ringed seal, bearded seal, beluga whale, polar bear, berries, and fireweed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Meat or Flesh (\"kemek\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"kemeg\" in Cup'ig) is primary main food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Taaqassaaq\" is skin for chewing. The hide and flippers from fresh walrus may be fermented to make taaqassaaq."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Fish (\"neqa\" \"neqek\" \"neqet\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik \"neqa\" or \"iqallug\" in Cup'ig) is one of the most common Yup'ik foods.\n*Pacific salmons \"Oncorhynchus\" (\"neqpik\" in Yup'ik, literally \"real fish\") are anadromous fish as they spawn in freshwater (salmon run) and spend at least a part of their lives in the ocean. Salmon is a staple of the native Alaskan diet and natives have traditionally used all parts of the fish.\n*Red salmon or sockeye salmon \"Oncorhynchus nerka\" (\"sayak\" in Yup'ik, \"cayak\" in Cup'ik, \"cayag\" in Cup'ig)\n*King salmon or Chinook salmon \"Oncorhynchus tschawytscha\" (\"taryaqvak, tarsarpak, kiagtaq\" in Yup'ik, \"taryaqvak\" in Cup'ik, \"taryaqvag\" in Cup'ig)\n*Silver salmon or coho salmon \"Oncorhynchus kisutch\" (\"qakiiyaq, uqurliq, caayuryaq\" in Yup'ik, \"qavlunaq\" in Cup'ik, \"ciayuryar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Dog salmon or chum salmon \"Oncorhynchus keta\" (\"iqalluk, aluyak, kangitneq, mac'utaq\" in Yup'ik, \"qavlunaq, neqpik\" in Cup'ik, \"mac'utar\" in Cup'ig) is second-largest of the Alaskan salmonids. In Alaska, chum salmon often called \"dog salmon\" due to their fierce dentition exhibited during spawning as well as the males tendency to bite and nip at each other. Salmon snobs of Alaska will often turn up their noses at chum salmons because they are thought to be only fit for dog food.\n*Humpback salmon or pink salmon \"Oncorhynchus gorbuscha\" (\"amaqaayak, amaqsuq, luqaanak, terteq\" in Yup'ik, \"cuqpeq\" in Cup'ik)\n*Rainbow trout or steelhead \"Oncorhynchus mykiss\" (\"talaariq\" in Yup'ik, \"kangitner\" in Cup'ik) were usually cooked fresh and dried.\n*Trout (charr) or Dolly Varden \"Salvelinus malma\" (\"iqallugpik\" [Kuskokwim, Yukon], \"yugyaq\" [Bristol Bay] in Yup'ik, \"iqalluyagar\" in Cup'ig) were usually cooked fresh and dried.\n*Lake trout \"Salvelinus namaycush\" (\"cikignaq\") were usually cooked fresh and dried.\n*Sheefish or inconnu \"Stenodus nelma\" (\"ciiq\") were preserved by drying, smoking, and freezing. Sheefish were also eaten fresh; cooking methods included boiling and baking.\n*Grayling \"Thymallus arcticus\" (\"culugpauk, culugpaugaq, nakrullugpak, nakrutvalek\" in Yup'ik, \"culugpaugar\" in Cup'ig) were usually cooked fresh and dried.\n*Pike \"Esox lucius\" (\"cuukvak, cukvak, ciulek, keggsuli, qalru, luqruuyak, eluqruuyak\") were normally preserved by drying and were usually eaten without any further praparation. Pike were sometimes cooked and eaten while fresh.\n*Blackfish or Alaska blackfish \"Dallia pectoralis\" (\"can'giiq, imangaq\" in Yup'ik, \"can'gir, taqikar\" in Cup'ig) were cooked by pouring boiling water intermittently into a pot containing the fish and letting them steam for several minutes. They were one of few species of the fish that were usually not dried.\n*Lush or burbot \"Lota lota\" (\"manignaq, aninirpak, tengugpalek, kanayurnaq\") were preserved by drying and freezing. Cooking methods included boiling and baking.\n*Herring \"Clupea pallasii\" (\"iqalluarpak, iqallugpak, neqalluarpak\" in Yup'ik, \"iqalluarpag\" in Cup'ig) prefer spawning (\"qurre-\") locations in sheltered bays and estuaries. One of the largest spawning concentrations of herring in Alaska occurs in the Togiak district of Bristol Bay in the eastern Bering Sea. Herring and herring spawn-on-kelp have been harvested for subsistence use by residents of this coastal area as long as people can recall. Commercial fishing for herring in the togiak district began in 1967 and expanded dramatically after 1977. Prior to 1983, subsistence harvests of herring and spawn-on-kelp were not regulated.\n*Smelt or rainbow smelt \"Osmerus mordax\" subsp. \"dentex\" (\"qusuuq, iqalluaq, cimigliq, cimerliq, cimerliaq, cimirliq, cemerliq, elquarniq, uqtaqngaq, qimaruaq\" in Yup'ik, \"quyuuq, cemerliq\" in Cup'ik, \"quss'ur\" in Cup'ig) were cooked by frying and roasting when eaten fresh. Some fishermen who harvested smelt consider these fish as \"emergency food,\" to be kept in the smokehouse or cache and used if supplies of dried salmon ran out or if food shortages occurred."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik clothing",
        "text": "Fish (\"neqa\" \"neqek\" \"neqet\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik \"neqa\" or \"iqallug\" in Cup'ig) is one of the most common Yup'ik foods. Fish skins (\"neqet amiit\" or \"amirak ~ amiraq\" in Yup'ik) and intestines are used for waterproof clothing (\"amiragglugaq\") in a few areas, especially in southern coastal Alaska. For example, commercial herring fishers from Toksook Bay, Alaska still prefer intestine parkas to heavy-duty raincoats, as they are lighter and allow body vapor to pass through the skin membrane while preventing rain from entering. In former times, rather crudely made shirts without hoods were made of local salmon or trout skins. Through rarely used today, in the past fish skin was also used for waterproof boots (\"amirak ~ amiraq\") and mittens (\"arilluk\") also parka (\"qasperrluk\"), making these items water-repellent and durable. Fish skin was also used to make parkas, mittens, and pants for summer use. The sinew for fish skins known as \"yualunguaq\" (fish-skin thread).\n*Pacific salmons \"Oncorhynchus\" (\"neqpik\" \"neqpiik\" \"neqpiit\" in Yup'ik, literally \"real fish\")\n*Dog salmon or chum salmon \"Oncorhynchus keta\" (\"iqalluk\" \"iqalluuk\" \"iqalluut\" [Kuskokwim, Yukon], \"kangitneq\" \"kangitnerek\" \"kangitneret\" [Bristol Bay] in Yup'ik, \"mac'utar\" \"mac'ut'ag\" \"mac'ut'at\" in Cup'ig)\n*Silver salmon or coho salmon \"Oncorhynchus kisutch\" (\"qakiiyaq\" \"qakiiyak\" \"qakiiyat\" [Bristol Bay Kuskokwim ], \"uqurliq \" [Yukon], \"caayuryaq\" [Unaliq-Pastuliq] in Yup'ik, \"qavlunaq\" in Cup'ik, \"ciayuryar\" \"ciayuryag\" \"ciayuryat\" in Cup'ig)\n*King salmon or Chinook salmon \"Oncorhynchus tschawytscha\" (\"taryaqvak\" \"taryaqviik\" \"taryaqviit\" [Bristol Bay Nushagak, Kuskokwim, Yukon] \"tarsarpak\" [Unaliq-Pastuliq] \"kiagtaq\" [Yukon] in Yup'ik, \"taryaqvak\" in Cup'ik, \"taryaqvag\" in Cup'ig)\n*Trout (charr) or salmon trout, Dolly Varden \"Salvelinus malma\" (\"iqallugpik\" \"iqallugpiik\" \"iqallugpiit\" [Kuskokwim, Yukon], \"yugyaq\" [Bristol Bay] in Yup'ik, \"iqalluyagar\" \"iqalluyagag\" \"iqalluyagat\" in Cup'ig)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kumlivirluuki\" is stored in freezer (\"kumlivik\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Tepngayaaq\" is fermented a little frozen fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Uqumelnguq\" (in Yup'ik, \"uqumelzngur\" in Cup'ig) is smoked fish soaked in seal oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "The Yup'ik combine a contemporary and a traditional subsistence lifestyle in a blend unique to the Southwest Alaska. Today, the Yup'ik generally work and live in western style but still hunt and fish in traditional subsistence ways and gather traditional foods. Most Yup'ik still speak the native language and bilingual education has been in force since the 1970s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"tangviaq\" (Y), \"tangviarrluk\" (K, BB, HBC); \"tangviarrluggaq\" (NI, CAN) \"tangevkayak ~ tangevkayagaq\" (NI) \"tangeq\" (Y, NUN, NS) seal cracklings (strip of seal blubber from which oil has been rendered)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "After the completion of the hunting season, families would move to summer fish camps. Fish were the most prolific and essential subsistence resource for many Alaskan Natives living in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta region and its harvest would occupy the majority of the families' efforts for several months. Traditional plants would continue to be harvested as they ripened and. were eaten fresh or placed in underground caches for temporary storage. By late summer/early fall, several berry species (e.g., Rubus chamaemorus, R. arcticus, Empetrum nigrum) and local greens (c.g., Rumex arcticus) were ready to be harvested and women and children would spend most days on the tundra gathering plant resources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Subsistence foods are generally considered by many to be nutritionally superior superfoods. Wild salmon, game meat, and berries harvested by Alaska Natives are world class fare compared to processed, canned, high priced items they find at their local mercantiles. Lonner (1986) compares the generally high carbohydrate foods of local grocery stores with \u201cvital proteins and fats\u201d in subsistence foods. In addition, the hunting and gathering of subsistence foods are favored activities among many rural Alaskans if not spiritually and culturally necessary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Frybread or fry bread (\"uqup'alek\" in Kuskokwim) is the characteristic widespread Native American homemade deep-fried biscuit, sometimes called \u201cEskimo doughnut\u201d locally, known as \u201cbannock\u201d in Canada. Both frybread and pancake are also known as \"asgiq\" or \"assaliaq\" (Unaliq-Pastuliq). The verb \"assali-\" \"to fry; to make pancakes or griddlecakes\" from Russian \u0436\u0430\u0301\u0440\u0438\u0442\u044c \"zh\u00e1rit\u2019\" The \"Eskimo doughnut\" is a deep-fried biscuit, a little like fry bread in doughnut form or fried bannock. I\u00f1upiaq style Eskimo doughnut (aka \"mukparuks\"; \"muqpauraq\" or \"uqsrukuaqtaq ~ uqsripkauqtaq\" in I\u00f1upiaq) is pretzel-like Eskimo doughnut and basically a mixture of seal oil, flour, and water, baked and fried in seal oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Dried and smoked salmon were usually stored in smokehouses, freezers, or caches belonging to the head of the salmon production unit. Salted fish were kept in buckets or wooden barrels and were stored in the house, entryway, cache, or smokehouse. Frozen salmon were kept in household freezers. Whole frozen coho salmon, used for dog food, were sometimes stored outside in pits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Akutaq (in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"akutar\" in Cup'ig, \"akutuq\" in I\u00f1upiaq) or \"Eskimo ice cream\", also known as \"Yup'ik ice-cream\", \"Yupik ice-cream\", \"Inupiaq ice-cream\", \"Inupiat ice-cream\", \"Alutiiq ice cream\" is a mixture of berries, sugar, seal oil, shortening, flaked fish flesh, snow, etc. Akutaq is most common Eskimo delicacy in Alaska, and only dessert in Eskimo cuisine. Both Eskimo ice cream and Indian ice cream are also known as \"native ice cream\" or \"Alaskan ice cream\" in Alaska. There are different types of akutaq."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Salkuuyaq\" or \"Sal'kuuyaq\" (Yup'ik), \"Cal'kuuyaq\" (Cup'ik) (also, casserole of meat or fish with potatoes, onions, etc.) is fresh fish baked whole or filleted after the entrails are removed. The meat of fish baked whole is slit in the middle lengthwise on the other side. Fish are placed in a baking dish, seasoned, oiled, and baked. Younger people seem to prefer this over the plainer boiled fish. It is often eaten with boiled rice. It is derived from Russian (zhark\u00f3e) \u2018roast\u2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Before placing the \"wild spinach\" or sour dock in the caches, the cooked leaves would be drained of juice and the pit lined with woven grass mats. Berries were stored in much the same way, except that these pits would be lined with rocks. The berries would have no juice when removed, since they would have dried out while being stored underground. In the fall, people would return to their seasonal caches and transport their stored berries and greens to their winter village."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Tepcuaraq\" (\"tepcuar(aq)\" or \"tepcuaraq kumlaneq\") is fish that has been frozen after being allowed to age slightly, eaten uncooked and frozen. \"Kumlaneq\" is aged spawned out salmon. \"Tepcuaraq kumlaneq\" is aged and frozen fish. The whole fish can be either cleaned of their entrails or left intact, then buried under ground in a pit lined with grass and left for about a week depending on the temperature. If the fish are caught in the late fall, they are stored in a wooden or cardboard box until they are aged, and then frozen. Tepcuaraq kumlaneq are eaten frozen with seal oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Civanraq\" ( \"civanrat\" ) is fibrous leftover piece when seal oil has been obtained by heating diced seal blubber in a pan; crackling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rubus chamaemorus",
        "text": "In Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, cloudberries are used to make \"bakeapple pie\" or jam. Arctic Yup'ik mix the berries with seal oil, reindeer or caribou fat (which is diced and made fluffy with seal oil) and sugar to make \"Eskimo ice cream\" or akutaq. The recipes vary by region. Along the Yukon and Kuskokwim River areas, white fish (pike) along with shortening and sugar are used. The berries are an important traditional food resource for the Yup'ik."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Uqumaarrluk\" is poke fish slightly aged and stored in seal oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Tamukassaaq\" is aged beluga skin. (also, skin to chew on such as dried fish skin)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Most of the salmon that was dried and smoked was eaten without any further preparation. Dried salmon sometimes eaten with seal oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Fried bread (\"uqulek\" Hooper Bay and Chevak, \"uqurpag\" in Cup'ig; \"alatiq\" in Bristol Bay, \"alaciq\" in Egegik from Russian \"alad\u2019i\") The \"maniaq\" (Yup'ik and Cup'ik), \"maniar\" (Cup'ig) is pancake; fried bread; roasted thing"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's mission is similar to that of the Alaska Department of Fish"
      },
      {
        "title": "Igunaq",
        "text": "Igunaq () ), also Kopalhen (, IPA ]) - part of the Inuit, Chukchi, Nenets, Evenki diets. It is a method of preparing meat, particularly walrus and other marine mammals. Meat and fat caught in the summer is buried in the ground as steaks, which then ferment over autumn and freeze over winter, ready for consumption the next year. Igunaq is considered a delicacy and is quite valuable. Consumption has declined over the years as a wider range of foodstuffs has become available in the Arctic regions. It is also not without risk \u2013 improper production can lead to illness and death through botulism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Cuakayak\" is cooked seal lung."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "The tundra provides berries for making jams, jellies, and a Yup'ik delicacy commonly called akutaq or \"Eskimo ice cream.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qageq\" ( \"Qagret\" ) is day-old cooked blackfish. Blackfish that has been boiled and allowed to set in its cooled, jelled broth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Ugka\" is cooked fish or other food."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are the diets of the Alaskan Inupiat and Canadian Inuit the same?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There is overlap between the I\u00f1upiat and Inuit diets, as both groups eat berries, roots, caribou, polar bear, walrus, whale, and fish. In fact, the I\u00f1upiat can be considered \"Inuit\", as the word is an umbrella term that can describe many indigenous groups."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the main difference between the Alaskan Inupiat and Canadian Inuit diets?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How are Inuit foods generally prepared?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Inuit food are mostly \"eaten frozen, raw, or boiled, with very little mixture of ingredients and with very few spices added.\"",
      "Searles defines Inuit food as mostly \"eaten frozen, raw, or boiled, with very little mixture of ingredients and with very few spices added\u201d, some preparations include Akutaq: berries mixed with fat, and Bannock: flatbread. Would you like to know more about either one?"
    ],
    "topic": "Yup'ik cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Inuit cuisine:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Inuit cuisine",
          "Eating habits and food preparation"
        ],
        "ctx": "Searles defines Inuit food as mostly \"eaten frozen, raw, or boiled, with very little mixture of ingredients and with very few spices added.\" Some preparations include:\n* : berries mixed with fat.\n* : flatbread\n* Food preservation techniques include fermenting fish and meat in the form of\n* Labrador tea\n* : a traditional soup made from seal, whale, caribou, or seabirds."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Inuit cuisine:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Inuit cuisine",
          "Eating habits and food preparation"
        ],
        "ctx": "Searles defines Inuit food as mostly \"eaten frozen, raw, or boiled, with very little mixture of ingredients and with very few spices added.\" Some preparations include:\n* : berries mixed with fat.\n* : flatbread\n* Food preservation techniques include fermenting fish and meat in the form of\n* Labrador tea\n* : a traditional soup made from seal, whale, caribou, or seabirds."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Yup\u2019ik cuisine is different from Alaskan , Canadian Inuit, and Greenlandic diets. Yup'ik communities varied widely in what foods were available to them, but everyone used similar food processing and food preservation methods, including air drying and smoking, food storage in cold water and oil, fermentation, and freezing. Some foods were eaten raw."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Food preservation"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Salmon as food, herring as food, smelt, halibut, flounder, tomcod, pike, and capelin were gutted and air dried or smoked. The fish heads they made into \"qamiqurrluk\" (cut and dried fish heads), and some they made into \"tepa\" (aged fish heads). Fish eggs (roe) were dried and stored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Yup'ik cuisine (\"Yupiit neqait\" in Yup'ik language, literally \"Yup'iks' foods\" or \"Yup'iks' fishes\") refers to the Eskimo style traditional subsistence food and cuisine of the Yup'ik people from the western and southwestern Alaska. Also known as Cup'ik cuisine for the Chevak Cup'ik dialect speaking Eskimos of Chevak and Cup'ig cuisine for the Nunivak Cup'ig dialect speaking Eskimos of Nunivak Island. This cuisine is traditionally based on meat from fish, birds, sea and land mammals, and normally contains high levels of protein. Subsistence foods are generally considered by many to be nutritionally superior superfoods. Yup\u2019ik diet is different from Alaskan Inupiat, Canadian Inuit, and Greenlandic diets. Fish as food (especially Salmonidae species, such as salmon and whitefish) are primary food for Yup'ik Eskimos. Both food and fish called \"neqa\" in Yup'ik. Food preparation techniques are fermentation and cooking, also uncooked raw. Cooking methods are baking, roasting, barbecuing, frying, smoking, boiling, and steaming. Food preservation methods are mostly drying and less often frozen. Dried fish is usually eaten with seal oil. The ulu or fan-shaped knife used for cutting up fish, meat, food, and such."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The flesh of virtually all waterfowl in the environment was eaten, either fresh or dried, usually with oil or a sourdock leaf soup. Even cormorants were considered edible and the meat of these fishy-tasting birds was dried or boiled when freshly killed. The eggs of waterfowl were sometimes sucked raw, but were usually boiled. Unlike Eskimos of the adjacent mainland, the Nunivaarmiut did not boil eggs hard and pack them in pokes for use during the winter. Instead, if there were more eggs than could be consumed at the time of collecting, they were hard-boiled and, still in their shells, placed in wooden dishes of seal oil to be kept for a short while."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Dried and smoked salmon were usually stored in smokehouses, freezers, or caches belonging to the head of the salmon production unit. Salted fish were kept in buckets or wooden barrels and were stored in the house, entryway, cache, or smokehouse. Frozen salmon were kept in household freezers. Whole frozen coho salmon, used for dog food, were sometimes stored outside in pits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kumlaciq\" (in Yup'ik, \"kumlacir\" in Cup'ig) is frozen meat (of frozen fish, blackfish, and others as well) to be eaten in that state. Frozen food is a method for preserving fish or meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Berries and edible plants supplemented meals consisting mostly of fish and game. Plants foods also provided a variety of essential vitamins ans nutrients to the diet. Berries were preserved by freezing. The most popular use berries was when making akutaq, a whipped mixture of the berries, sugar, and shortening or fat. Households also made jam, jellies, and breads from berries. Sourdock leaves were prepared by boiling, like spinach. Labrador tea was boiled to make tea and was consumed much like commercial teas. Green spruce needles were also used for tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Quaq\" (in the Inuit languages: I\u00f1upiaq \"quaq\", Nunavut Inuktitut and Nunavik Inuttitut \u1581\u140a\u1585 \"quaq\", South Baffin Kingarmiut \"xuaq\", Labrador Inuttitut \"\u0138uak\", Greenlandic \"quaq\") is meat or fish to be eaten raw and frozen"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Yup'ik cuisine is based on traditional subsistence food harvests (hunting, fishing and berry gathering) supplemented by seasonal subsistence activities. The Yup'ik region is rich with waterfowl, fish, and sea and land mammals. Yup'ik settled where the water remained ice-free in winter, where walruses, whales and seals came close to shore, and where there was a fishing stream or a bird colony nearby. Even if a place was not very convenient for human civilization, but had rich game, yup'ik would settle there. The coastal settlements rely more heavily on sea mammals (seals, walrusses, beluga whales), many species of fish (Pacific salmon, herring, halibut, flounder, trout, burbot, Alaska blackfish), shellfish, crabs, and seaweed. The inland settlements rely more heavily on Pacific salmon and freshwater whitefish, land mammals (moose, caribou), migratory waterfowl, bird eggs, berries, greens, and roots help sustain people throughout the region. Traditional subsistence foods are mixed with what is commercially available. Today about half the food is supplied by subsistence activities (subsistence foods), the other half is purchased from the commercial stores (market foods, store-bought foods)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Famine foods: reindeer lichen (\"tuntut neqait\") was soaked in seal oil or mixed with cranberries to make it taste better."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Searles defines Inuit food as mostly \"eaten frozen, raw, or boiled, with very little mixture of ingredients and with very few spices added.\" Some preparations include:\n* : berries mixed with fat.\n* : flatbread\n* Food preservation techniques include fermenting fish and meat in the form of\n* Labrador tea\n* : a traditional soup made from seal, whale, caribou, or seabirds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kumlaneq\" (in Yup'ik, \"kumlanaq\" in Hooper Bay-Chevak Cup'ik; but, \"kumlaner\" in Nunivak Cup'ig means \"cold water, cold spring water; permafrost, frozen soil\") is frozen fish to be eaten in that state. Freezing of chinook and particularly coho salmon was relatively common. Chinook salmon were usually cut up into smaller pieces before being placed into plastic Ziploc bags. Smaller species, such as chum, sockeye, coho, and pink salmon were frequently frozen uncut and whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Ciss'uq\" (\"Ciss'ur\" in Nunivak Cup'ig) is fermented herring or capelin that have been buried underground for two weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Food storage"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Before placing the \"wild spinach\" or sour dock in the caches, the cooked leaves would be drained of juice and the pit lined with woven grass mats. Berries were stored in much the same way, except that these pits would be lined with rocks. The berries would have no juice when removed, since they would have dried out while being stored underground. In the fall, people would return to their seasonal caches and transport their stored berries and greens to their winter village."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Umlikaaq\" (or \"Umlikaq\" ~ \"Umlikqaq\") or \"Ungllekaq\" (\"ungllik'ar\" in Nunivak Cup'ig) is fresh boiled fish. All parts of the fish except for the entrails are used to prepare umlikqaq. Fresh fish that have been dead for less than a day make the best umlikqaq because the meat is still firm. If a freshwater fish is caught with a hook, it is best to kill the fish by hitting its head soon after capture so the meat will stay firm for cooking. The main ingredients of umlikqaq are cut-up fish, water, and salt which are boiled for about 29 minutes. This is a preferred food for elders because it easy to make and is not strongly seasoned. First heads are good prepared as umlikqaq. Also, \"Ungelkaaq\" is fish steak cut transversely."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Egamaarrluk\" (\"egamaarruk\" or \"egamaaq\") is partially dried (not smoked) fish boiled for eating. The partially dried and boiled fish is only partially cooked. The half-dried salmon (\"egamaarrluk\") which was cooked after being partially dried. \"Egamaarruk\" is split and half dried fish. these are prepared much like \"neqerrluk\", but are not fully dried and may not be smoked. The half dried fish are boiled and eaten with seal oil. The \"egamaarrluk\" involved a similar process but the fish were kept as fillets rather than sliced into strips."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian cuisine",
        "text": "In the Arctic, Inuit traditionally survived on a diet consisting of land and marine mammals, fish, and foraged plant products. Meats were consumed fresh, but also often prepared, cached, and allowed to ferment into \"igunaq\" or \"kiviak\". These fermented meats have the consistency and smell of certain soft aged cheeses. Snacks such as \"muktuk\", which consist of whale skin and blubber is eaten plain, though occasionally dipped in soy sauce. Chunks of muktuk are sliced with an \"ulu\" prior to or during consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Yup'ik cuisine\n--Yupik Cuisine.\n--What meals the Yupik eat.\n--Food preservation and preparations.\n----Fish in the food industry.\n------Uncooked.\n------Cooked.\n----Mammals as food.\n----Birds as food.\n----Plants as food.\n--Pastry.\n--Drinks.\n--Nutrition.\n--Food storage.\n--Dog food.\n--Food sources.\n----Fish.\n----Sea mammals.\n----Land mammals.\n----Birds.\n----Plants.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Tepcuaraq\" (\"tepcuar(aq)\" or \"tepcuaraq kumlaneq\") is fish that has been frozen after being allowed to age slightly, eaten uncooked and frozen. \"Kumlaneq\" is aged spawned out salmon. \"Tepcuaraq kumlaneq\" is aged and frozen fish. The whole fish can be either cleaned of their entrails or left intact, then buried under ground in a pit lined with grass and left for about a week depending on the temperature. If the fish are caught in the late fall, they are stored in a wooden or cardboard box until they are aged, and then frozen. Tepcuaraq kumlaneq are eaten frozen with seal oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kumlivirluuki\" is stored in freezer (\"kumlivik\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Dry moose meat was a favorite food among Chuathbaluk and Sleetmute inhabitants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "On Nunivak, most indigenous plants were traditionally gathered by women and children when the men were harvesting other available resources (e.g., caribou, waterfowl, seal). While fresh spring greens provided a welcome addition to the diet, which in winter was based largely on dried and stored foods, other greens were harvested throughout the year as they ripened, and used with some of those stored for winter use. With the melting of the island's snow pack, local greens and berries not picked during the previous fall's harvest, begin to appear and were added to the local diet. Depending on the time the ice pack began to break up, Cup'ig families would leave their winter villages and move to spring seal camps. Cup'ig men would journey out along the ice to harvest arriving sea mammals (i.e., seals, walrus) while the women would spend much of their time harvesting available plant resources (greens and seaweeds) and shellfish. Early spring plants included: marsh marigold (\"Caltha palustris\"), sour dock (\"Rumex arcticus\"), wild celery (\"Angelica lucida\"), wild lettuce (\"Draba borealis\" or \"D. hyperborea\"), wild parsnip (\"Ligusticum hultonii\"), wild rhubarb (\"Polygonum viviparum\"), mountain sorrel (\"Oxyria digylla\"), Pallas buttercup (\"Ranunculus pallasii\"), and Labrador tea (\"Ledum pallustre decumbens\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Nutaqaq\" is frozen raw fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Traditional subsistence foods are mixed with what is commercially available. Today about half the food is supplied by subsistence activities (subsistence foods), the other half is purchased from the commercial stores (market foods, store-bought foods)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Waterfowl were prepared in a variety of ways such as boiling, baking, and in soups.\n*Common eider or Pacific eider \"Somateria mollissima\" (\"metraq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"angiikvak\" in northern Yup'ik dialects, \"metr(ar), nanwista\", \"metrapig\" \u2640 \"tunupista\" \u2642 in Cup'ig)\n*King eider \"Somateria mollissima\" (\"qengallek\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qengalleg\" in Cup'ig).\n*Steller's eider \"Polysticta stelleri\" (\"anarnissakaq\" [Yukon], \"caqiar(aq)\" [Kuskokwim] in Yup'ik, \"qaciar(ar)\" in Cup'ig)\n*Oldsquaw or long-tailed duck \"Clangula hyemalis\" (\"allgiar(aq)\" [Kuskokwim], \"allgiar\" [Bristol Bay], \"aliaaliq\" [Unaliq-Pastuliq], \"aarraaliq\", \"aarraangiiq\" [Kuskokwim] in Yup'ik, \"aarraangiiraq, aarrangyaraq\" in Cup'ik, \"aarrangiir\" in Cup'ig).\n*Swan or tundra swan, whistling swan \"Cygnus columbianus columbianus\" (\"qugyuk\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qugsuk\" [Unaliq-Pastuliq], \"caqulegpak\" [Egegik], \"qugyug\" in Cup'ig)\n*Sandhill crane \"Grus canadensis\" (\"qucillgaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qucilkuryug\" in Cup'ig).\n*Ptarmigan were preserved by freezing or drying after being plucked or skinned. Once dried, the birds commonly were eaten without any other preparation. As with many dried foods, seal oil a frequent to dried ptarmigan. Ptarmigan were also cooked by boiling and were often the basis for soups.\n*Common murre or common guillemot \"Uria aalge\" (\"alpa ~ alpaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"alpa\" in Cup'ig)\n*Pigeon guillemot \"Cepphus columba\" (\"ciguraq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"cigurer\" in Cup'ig)\n*Crested auklet \"Aethia cristatella\" (\"cip'lagar, cukilpag\" in Cup'ig)\n*Horned puffin \"Fratercula corniculata\" (\"qilangaq, qengacuar(aq)\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qilangar, tunngar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Black-legged kittiwake \"Rissa tridactyla\" (\"naruyacuaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tengaurta, tengauqsarar(ar), qarliar(ar)\" in Cup'ig)\n*Pelagic cormorant \"Phalacrocorax pelagicus\" (\"uyalek\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"uyaleg\" in Cup'ig)\n*Snowy owl \"Bubo scandiacus\" (\"anipa ~ anipaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"anipar\" in Cup'ig)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Cooking (\"kenir-\") is the process of preparing food for consumption with the use of heat. There are very many methods of cooking. These include roasting (\"maniar-\"), barbecuing, baking (\"uute-\"), frying (\"assali-, asgir-\"), smoking (\"puyurte-, aruvarqi-, aruvir-\"), boiling (\"ega-\"), and steaming (\"puyiar(ar)-\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Terrestrial mammals or land mammals (\"nunarmiutaq\" \"nunarmiutaat\" in Yup'ik) are game animals and furbearers.\n*Game animals (\"pitarkaq\" \"pitarkat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"pitarkar\" \"pitarkat\" in Cup'ig). Caribou, moose and \"bears\" are included in the definition of the word \"pitarkat\".\n*Caribou or wild caribou \"Rangifer tarandus granti\" (\"tuntu\", \"tuntupik\" or \"tuntupiaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tuntupig\" in Cup'ig). Prior to European contact, caribou were important not only for their meat but for the skins which were an important item used in clothing. The Russians encouraged the Eskimos to adopt Western-style dress in order to release more furs for trading. The second most commonly received resources for Manokotak residents were caribou (%64.8 of households). Caribou meat was often made into jerky. The stomach contents such as sedges and other greens, were eaten. Virtually all of the edible parts of the animal was utilized. Caribou have been absent from Nunivak Island for at least 100 years, but many of the procedures for preparing the flesh of this animal also apply to the domestic reindeer. In earlier times, however, caribou livers were placed in the animal's stomach to ferment; this is no longer done. The lining of a reindeer stomach was cut up and eaten with dried fish or by itself. Lungs and kidneys were given to the dogs, but the heart was eaten. Neither caribou meat nor fish were ever pounded as a method of preservation.\n*Reindeer or (semi)domestic caribou \"Rangifer tarandus tarandus\" (\"qusngiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qusngir\" in Cup'ig). The word \"qusngiq\" which is derived from the Chukchee \"qora\u014be\" (\u04c4\u043e\u0440\u0430\u04c8\u044b) or Koryak \"qoya\u014ba\" (\u04c4\u043e\u0439\u0430\u04c8\u0430). In Europe, use the terms \"caribou\" and \"reindeer\" synonymously, but in Alaska and Canada \"reindeer\" refers exclusively to semi-domesticated forms. Only in North America are wild \"Rangifer\" referred to as \"caribou\". In Eurasia, \"reindeer\" are classified as either domesticated or wild. Domestic reindeer (\"Rangifer tarandus tarandus\") were introduced into Alaska 100 years ago and have been maintained as semidomestic livestock. They have had contact with wild caribou (\"R. t. granti\") herds, including deliberate crossbreeding and mixing in the wild. Reindeer have considerable potential as a domestic animal for meat or velvet antler production, and wild caribou are important to subsistence and sport hunters. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) managed reindeer operations on the Nunivak Island beginning in 1940. The Nunivak herd is composed of about 4,000 reindeer. The southern half of Nunivak is a designated Wilderness area, which presents challenges in summertime herding, since use of motorized recreational vehicles is forbidden within the Wilderness area without adequate snow cover.\n*Moose or Alaska moose \"Alces alces gigas\" (\"tuntuvak\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tuntuwag\" in Cup'ig, literally \"big caribou\"). The most commonly received resources for Manokotak residents were moose (%79.6 of households). Moose were not usually seen in the lower Kuskokwim River drainages until the early 1940s. Moose meat (\"tuntuviim kemga\") was preserved by freezing and drying. Rarely was moose meat preserved by smoking or caning. Hunters who harvested moose at spring camps in the mountains preserved meat by cutting it into strips and hanging it on racks or bushes to dry in the sun, making jerky. This jerky was eaten without further preparation, or it was boiled. Virtually all of the moose was used. Bones were cracked and the marrow was removed. Fat from the back and rump was cut into small pieces and eaten uncooked along with meals at home and when in the field. Part of the stomach was cleaned and prepared, and the heart, liver, and kidneys were also eaten. The whole head was usually kept so that the muscles, brain, tongue, and nose could be removed and cooked. The feet and hooves were also cooked and eaten. Moose was cooked in variety of ways including boiling, roasting, stewing, frying and in soups.\n*Muskox \"Ovibos moschatus\" (\"umingmar, maskar\" in Nunivak Cup'ig). Alaska's original muskox were hunted to extinction in the mid-1800s \u2013 perhaps by whalers and others. They had originally ranged Alaska's arctic and western coastal tundra. In 1935\u20131936 the U.S. Biological Survey brought 31 muskoxen from Greenland to Nunivak Island in an effort to reestablish the species in Alaska and as a means for subsistence living. The first modern hunting season was in 1975. Today the Nunivak herd numbers around 600 animals, down from a high of around 700 animals in 1968.\n*Brown bear (grizzly) \"Ursus arctos horribilis\" (\"taqukaq, carayak\" Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"paugnar\" in Cup'ig) and Black bear \"Ursus americanus\" (\"tan'gerliq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tungulzria\" in Cup'ig) were harvested for food (meat and fat). Bear meat (\"tan'gerlim kemga\") made into jerky was often dried over a couple of weeks time. The internal organs, such as heart, kidneys, and intestines were often distributed to elders. Both black and brown bear meat was considered very tasty and was prepared by drying, boiling, baking, and roasting. The bones were boiled so that all of the meat could easily be removed from them. The marrow was only occasionally used because the bones are very thick and not easily broken. The liver was considered to be too rich and was \"not eaten\".\n*Furbearers or fur-bearing animals (\"melqulek\" \"melqulget\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"melquleg\" in Cup'ig) are commonly trapped for their pelts and meats. The meat of all types of furbearers (beaver, mink, otter, muskrat, marten, lynx), except for fox, wolf, and wolverine, was used for human food and was also used as dog food.\n*Red fox \"Vulpes vulpes\" (\"kaviaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"kavviar\" in Cup'ig). The Nunivak Cup'ig practiced few restrictions with reference to food, but the flesh of the red fox was avoided since it was believed to cause a person to sleep during the day and be restless at night. This restriction did not apply to the flesh of the white fox.\n*Arctic fox \"Vulpes lagopus\" (\"uliiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qaterlir\" [white fox], \"eqyerer\" [blue fox] \"illaassug\" [cross fox] in Cup'ig)\n*Sea otter \"Enhydra lutris\" (\"arrnaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"aatagar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Land otter or river otter \"Lontra canadensis\" (\"cuignilnguq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"cenkar, pirturcir(ar)\" in Cup'ig)\n*American mink \"Neogale vison\" (\"imarmiutaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"imarmiutar\" in Cup'ig). Mink skin parkas, and also mink pants for small boys, formerly were made.\n*Beringian or American ermine \"Mustela erminea\", \"Mustela richardsonii\" (\"narullgiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"terriar(ar)\" [in winter coloration] \"narullgir\" [in summer coloration] in Cup'ig)\n*Marten \"Martes americana\" (\"qavcicuaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Muskrat \"Ondatra zibethicus\" (\"kanaqlak, tevyuli\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"kanaqlag\" in Cup'ig)\n*Vole \"Microtus miurus\" (singing vole) and \"Clethrionomys rutilus\" (northern red-backed vole) (\"avelngaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Collared lemming or Northern collared lemming \"Dicrostonyx groenlandicus\" (\"qilagmiutaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik). I\u00f1upiaq people do not eat lemmings\n*Brown lemming or Nunivak Island brown lemming \"Lemmus trimucronatus harroldi\" (\"pugultu\" in Cup'ig)\n*Beaver \"Castor canadensis\" (\"paluqtaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"paluqtar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Porcupine \"Erethizon dorsatum\" (\"issaluuq, issaluq, cukilek, ilaanquciq, nuuniq\") were harvested primarily for food and were prepared much the same way that hare were prepared.\n*Tree squirrel or red squirrel \"Tamiasciurus hudsonicus\" (\"qiguiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Ground squirrel or parky squirrel, parka squirrel \"Spermophilus parryii\" (\"qanganaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qanganar\" in Cup'ig) were skinned and hung on meat drying racks to dry.\n*Marmot or hoary marmot \"Marmota caligata\" (\"cikigpak\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik) were used similarly to parka squirrels.\n*Hare \"Lepus othus\" (\"qayuqeggliq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qayuqegglir\" in Cup'ig) and Rabbit \"Lepus americanus\" (\"maqaruaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"maqaruar\" in Cup'ig) can be prepared much like poultry meat: roasted, broiled, grilled, fried, and stewed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Food preparation techniques are uncooked raw (\"Cassar-\" \"to eat raw flesh or meat\", \"arepa-\" \"to eat raw food\"), fermentation, and cooking (\"keir-\"). In the past, the Yup'ik nourishment consisted of raw meat, including its blood, and sometimes the meat was cooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The Yup'ik, like other Eskimo groups, were semi-nomadic hunter-fisher-gatherers who moved seasonally throughout the year within a reasonably well-defined territory to harvest fish, bird, sea and land mammal, berry and other renewable resources. Yup'ik cuisine is based on traditional subsistence food harvests (hunting, fishing and berry gathering) supplemented by seasonal subsistence activities. The Yup'ik region is rich with waterfowl, fish, and sea and land mammals. The coastal settlements rely more heavily on sea mammals (seals, walrusses, beluga whales), many species of fish (Pacific salmon, herring, halibut, flounder, trout, burbot, Alaska blackfish), shellfish, crabs, and seaweed. The inland settlements rely more heavily on Pacific salmon and freshwater whitefish, land mammals (moose, caribou), migratory waterfowl, bird eggs, berries, greens, and roots help sustain people throughout the region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The Yup'ik region is rich with waterfowl, fish, and sea and land mammals. The coastal settlements rely more heavily on sea mammals (seals, walrusses, beluga whales), many species of fish (Pacific salmon, herring, halibut, flounder, trout, burbot, Alaska blackfish), shellfish, crabs, and seaweed. The inland settlements rely more heavily on Pacific salmon and freshwater whitefish, land mammals (moose, caribou), migratory waterfowl, bird eggs, berries, greens, and roots help sustain people throughout the region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qemitaq\" (lit. \u00abstrangled thing\u00bb) is muskrat or squirrel that has been hung by the neck to dry after being skinned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Imlaucuaq\" (in Yup'ik of Nelson Island, \"Imlaucuar\" in Nunivak Cup'ig; lit. \u00absmall roe\u00bb) is herring sac roe. The sac-roe (imlacuaq) is dried into product resembling golden chips. The dried roe is placed in containers and stored in the cache. It is soaked in water prior to eating but is also eaten dried. All sac-roe from subsistence caught herring was processed in all four Nelson Island communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Prehistoric Yup'ik Eskimos probably relied upon a mix of anadromous fish (salmon and char), terrestrial mammals (caribou), and marine mammals (seal and walrus) for subsistence foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Niinamayak\" (in Yup'ik, \"nin'amayuk\" in Canineq Yup'ik, \"nin'amayag\" in Nunivak Cup'ig) is partially (half) dried aged (fermented) herring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qassayaaq\" or \"Qassayagaq\" (lit. \u00abbaby raw fish\u00bb) frozen raw whitefish aged (fermented) before freezing and served frozen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qercuqaq\" is hard frozen fish (blackfish or the like)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Aaqassaaq\" (Kotlik) is skin to be chewed to soften it; beluga blubber for eating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Inuit often are relentless in making known that they are not like in the sense that they do not eat the same food and they are communal with their food. believe that the person who purchases the food is the owner of the food and is free to decide what happens to the food. Searles describes the Inuit perspective on food by saying that \"in the Inuit world of goods, foods as well as other objects associated with hunting, fishing, and gathering are more or less communal property, belonging not to individuals but to a larger group, which can include multiple households.\" Food in an Inuit household is not meant to be saved for the family who has hunted, fished, gathered, or purchased it, but instead for anyone who is in need of it. Searles and his wife were visiting a family in Iqaluit and he asked for permission to have a cup of orange juice. This small gesture of asking was taken as offensive because Inuit do not consider food belonging to one person."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qassaq\" or \"Qassaulria\" is raw food, raw flesh or raw meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "When eating a meal, Inuit place large slabs of meat, blubber, and other parts of the animal on a piece of metal, plastic, or cardboard on the floor. From here, anyone in the house is able to cut off a piece of meat. At these meals, no one is obliged to join in the meal; Inuit eat only when hungry. Sometimes, though, meals are announced to the whole camp. A woman does this by the shout of \"Ujuk!\" which means \"cooked meat\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Muktuk (\"mangtak\" in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq, Chevak, \"mangengtak\" in Bristol Bay) is the traditional Eskimo meal of frozen raw beluga whale skin (dark epidermis) with attached subcutaneous fat (blubber)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Cin'aq\" (Yukon, Hooper Bay and Chevak, Lake Iliamna, and Nunivak) is cheese-like fish aged in a pit. This fish is usually dog (chum) or king (chinook) salmon. The salmon whole (except the guts) aged through the process of burying them into the marshy, muddy lowland (\"maraq\"). The hole is dug until the permafrost is exposed. The bottom of the hole is then covered with dry grass, moss, and cardboard. Then several salmon are placed in. The top of the salmon is again covered with grass, moss and or cardboard, then the remaining dug up groung is placed back into the hole, tightly covering the contents. The aged salmon fish are usually dug out during the early winter, and eaten as a delicacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik clothing",
        "text": "People wore waterproof salmon-skin mittens to keep their hands dry while kayaking, driving a dog sled, or working with fish nets. Woven seashore grass liners went inside for warmth. To prepare the fish skins, they were first soaked in urine, scraped clean, and then hung outside to freeze-dry in cold weather. The last step was to scrape off the scales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The Yup'ik, like other Eskimo groups, were semi-nomadic hunter-fisher-gatherers who moved seasonally throughout the year within a reasonably well-defined territory to harvest fish, bird, sea and land mammal, berry and other renewable resources. Subsistence is the practice of hunting, fishing, or gathering food to live on (not to resell), and is practiced by almost all the Yup'ik. In the inland, fishing for red salmon and gathering berries in the summer as well as hunting caribou or moose in the fall and winter constitute the primary seasonal subsistence activities of the inland Yup'ik villages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "uqiqur- to distribute seal blubber and meat and gifts when someone has caught a seal; to give a \u201cseal party\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Both the Yup'ik (and Siberian Yupik) and cuisines are also known as Eskimo cuisine in Alaska. The oldest, most stable cuisine in North America is found above the Arctic Circle in Alaska. Long overlooked and pitifully misunderstood, the cuisine's roots lie buried in Eastern Asia, whence I\u00f1upiaq and Yupik ancestors ventured to Siberia, across Beringia, and on to Alaska during the last ice age, 50,000 to 15,000 years ago. The remoteness of the Inupiat and Yupik cultures accounts for their rich and intact food history. The Yupik-Inupiaq split probably occurred about one thousand years ago. The Arctic cuisine is composed of a high-protein diet without grains, supplemented with wild greens, roots, and berries. Fortunately, dietitians consider the diet nutritious and balanced with abundant vitamins, minerals, proteins and valuable unsaturated fats derived from a vast array of sea and land mammals, fish, fowl, wild plants and berries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The Nunivak Eskimos ( in Cup'ig, \"Nunivaarmiut\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik) eat frequently in the course of a 24-hour period. They go to bed at sundown or early evening in the spring and fall, and well before sundown in summer, but arise early, often at 3:00 or 4:00\u00a0a.m. and regularly at 5:00 or 5:30. The time of rising depended on the sea tide and the time when tomcod or other fish are running. The first meal of the day is eaten at this time and another about 11:00\u00a0a.m., with snacks once or twice in between depending on the work schedule and the availability of food. The evening meal is usually at 4:30 or 5:00\u00a0p.m. with additional snacks between the main meals. In winter the entire meal schedule is likely to be moved forward, with the first meal of the day being eaten at 10:00 or 10:30\u00a0a.m. The most common food is dried or frozen fish dipped in seal oil. The evening or late afternoon meal, the hot meal of the day, frequently consisted of boiled fish or other boiled food and tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Historically Inuit cuisine, which is taken here to include Greenlandic cuisine, Yup'ik cuisine and Aleut cuisine, consisted of a diet of animal source foods that were fished, hunted, and gathered locally. In the 20th century the Inuit diet began to change and by the 21st century the diet was closer to a Western diet. After hunting, they often honour the animals' spirit by singing songs and performing rituals. Although traditional or country foods still play an important role in the identity of Inuit, much food is purchased from the store, which has led to health problems and food insecurity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Vitamins and minerals which are typically derived from plant sources are nonetheless present in most Inuit diets. Vitamins A and D are present in the oils and livers of cold-water fishes and mammals. Vitamin C is obtained through sources such as caribou liver, kelp, muktuk, and seal brain; because these foods are typically eaten raw or frozen, the vitamin C they contain, which would be destroyed by cooking, is instead preserved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Civanraq\" ( \"civanrat\" ) is fibrous leftover piece when seal oil has been obtained by heating diced seal blubber in a pan; crackling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Teggsiq'er\" (in Nunivak Cup'ig) half dried herring (specifically made for cooking)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Egaaq\" (lit. \u00abboiled thing\u00bb) is boiled fish or other food (also, by extension, any cooked fish or other food)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit Nunangat",
        "text": "Inuit cuisine, also known as \"country food,\" incorporates a variety of meats (such as walrus, narwhal, bearded seal, caribou, polar bear, Arctic cod, and Arctic char, amongst others) and gathered plants (including crowberries, cloudberries, fireweed, seaweed, tubers and roots like mousefood, tuberous spring beauty, and sweet vetch) Much of the meat is served frozen, raw, or boiled, much like sushi or sashimi in Japanese cuisine. Delicacies include akutuq \u140a\u146f\u1450\u1585, an ice cream-like dessert made with fat or tallow, meat, and mixed with berries; igunaq \u1403\u148d\u14c7\u1585, a year-long fermentation of select meats; maktaaq \u14aa\u1483\u1456\u1585 (alternatively maktak \u14aa\u1483\u1455\u1483 or maktaq), frozen whale skin and blubber usually eaten raw, sometimes pickled, and occasionally finely diced, breaded, deep fried, and then served with soy sauce; Labrador tea; and various dips such as aalu \u140b\u14d7 (intended for meat made from the choice parts of caribou or seal, chopped into tiny pieces and blended with melted fat and blood), misiraq \u14a5\u14ef\u154b\u1585 (aged to resemble an aromatic white wine, made from seal or whale blubber), and nirukkaq \u14c2\u1548\u1483\u1472\u1585 (a smooth made p\u00e2t\u00e9 made from the contents of a caribou's stomach)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Taaqassaaq\" is skin for chewing. The hide and flippers from fresh walrus may be fermented to make taaqassaaq."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Indigenous plants were an integral part of the year-round diet of Eskimo people in addition to their incorporation in other facets of their life. Contrary to the popular perception of Eskimo people surviving solely on fish and meat, the Nunivak Cup'ig utilized a large number of local plants for food, medicinal, and utilitarian purposes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik clothing",
        "text": "The primary subsistence activity for the Yup'ik is fishing, though hunting supplements the food supply and provides skins for clothing. The Yup'ik fur and skin clothing, like other Eskimo groups, is a key factor in ensuring their survival in the northernmost reaches of the globe. The raw materials of traditional Yup'ik clothing are skin (hide) and fur (pelt), intestine (gut), sinew, and grass. The raw material resources are sea and land mammals, birds, fish and plants. Traditionally, skins of birds, fish, and marine and land animals were used to make clothing. Hunting clothes were designed to be insulated and waterproof. Fish skin and marine mammal intestines were used for waterproof shells and boots. Grass was used to make insulating socks, and as a waterproof thread. Wastefulness being disrespectful, Yup'ik elders made use of every last scrap from hunts and harvests: seal guts became warm, waterproof, and breathable parkas; the skins of fish were fashioned into waterproof mittens, while their heads and entrails were stored in naturally refrigerated pits as insurance against future famine. Dried grasses became anything from insulating socks to bedding to sled rope, or even goggles to protect against snow blindness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "For thousands of years, dogs (\"qimugta\" \"qimugtek\" \"qimugtet\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qimugta\" \"qimugteg\" \"qimugtet\" in Cup'ig) as sled dogs, have been tightly interwoven in the Yup'ik way of life, for transportation and companionship. Except for dogs, there were no important domesticated animals in aboriginal times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Uqiquq\" Passing out of bearded seal oil- The stripped long blubber for girls in the family and square cut blubber for men in the household."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Most of the salmon that was dried and smoked was eaten without any further preparation. Dried salmon sometimes eaten with seal oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Uqumaarrluk\" is poke fish slightly aged and stored in seal oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Arumaarrluk\" (\"arumarrluk\") or \"arumaarrluaq\" is poke fish or poked fish slightly smoked and stored in seal oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Tepngayaaq\" is fermented a little frozen fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Cookie (cugg'alinguaq in Egegik)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qamangatak\" (Egegik) is half-dried, boiled fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Allemaaq\" (Hooper Bay and Chevak) is cooked blackfish fry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The akutaq (Eskimo ice cream), tepa (stinkheads), mangtak (muktuk) some of the most well-known traditional Yup'ik delicacies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"tangviaq\" (Y), \"tangviarrluk\" (K, BB, HBC); \"tangviarrluggaq\" (NI, CAN) \"tangevkayak ~ tangevkayagaq\" (NI) \"tangeq\" (Y, NUN, NS) seal cracklings (strip of seal blubber from which oil has been rendered)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kinengyak\" ( \"kinengyiit\" ) is dried meat (caribou, moose)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Fish as food, especially Pacific salmon (or in some places, non-salmon) species are primary main subsistence food for the Yup'ik. Both food and fish (and salmon) called \"neqa\" (sg) \"neqet\" (pl) in Yup'ik. Also for salmon called \"neqpik ~ neqpiaq\" (sg) \"neqpiit ~ neqpiat\" (pl) in Yup'ik, means literally \"real food\". But, main food for the I\u00f1upiaq is meat of whale and caribou (both food and meat called \"niqi\" in I\u00f1upiaq, also for meat called \"niqipiaq\" \"real food\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik clothing",
        "text": "Fish (\"neqa\" \"neqek\" \"neqet\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik \"neqa\" or \"iqallug\" in Cup'ig) is one of the most common Yup'ik foods. Fish skins (\"neqet amiit\" or \"amirak ~ amiraq\" in Yup'ik) and intestines are used for waterproof clothing (\"amiragglugaq\") in a few areas, especially in southern coastal Alaska. For example, commercial herring fishers from Toksook Bay, Alaska still prefer intestine parkas to heavy-duty raincoats, as they are lighter and allow body vapor to pass through the skin membrane while preventing rain from entering. In former times, rather crudely made shirts without hoods were made of local salmon or trout skins. Through rarely used today, in the past fish skin was also used for waterproof boots (\"amirak ~ amiraq\") and mittens (\"arilluk\") also parka (\"qasperrluk\"), making these items water-repellent and durable. Fish skin was also used to make parkas, mittens, and pants for summer use. The sinew for fish skins known as \"yualunguaq\" (fish-skin thread).\n*Pacific salmons \"Oncorhynchus\" (\"neqpik\" \"neqpiik\" \"neqpiit\" in Yup'ik, literally \"real fish\")\n*Dog salmon or chum salmon \"Oncorhynchus keta\" (\"iqalluk\" \"iqalluuk\" \"iqalluut\" [Kuskokwim, Yukon], \"kangitneq\" \"kangitnerek\" \"kangitneret\" [Bristol Bay] in Yup'ik, \"mac'utar\" \"mac'ut'ag\" \"mac'ut'at\" in Cup'ig)\n*Silver salmon or coho salmon \"Oncorhynchus kisutch\" (\"qakiiyaq\" \"qakiiyak\" \"qakiiyat\" [Bristol Bay Kuskokwim ], \"uqurliq \" [Yukon], \"caayuryaq\" [Unaliq-Pastuliq] in Yup'ik, \"qavlunaq\" in Cup'ik, \"ciayuryar\" \"ciayuryag\" \"ciayuryat\" in Cup'ig)\n*King salmon or Chinook salmon \"Oncorhynchus tschawytscha\" (\"taryaqvak\" \"taryaqviik\" \"taryaqviit\" [Bristol Bay Nushagak, Kuskokwim, Yukon] \"tarsarpak\" [Unaliq-Pastuliq] \"kiagtaq\" [Yukon] in Yup'ik, \"taryaqvak\" in Cup'ik, \"taryaqvag\" in Cup'ig)\n*Trout (charr) or salmon trout, Dolly Varden \"Salvelinus malma\" (\"iqallugpik\" \"iqallugpiik\" \"iqallugpiit\" [Kuskokwim, Yukon], \"yugyaq\" [Bristol Bay] in Yup'ik, \"iqalluyagar\" \"iqalluyagag\" \"iqalluyagat\" in Cup'ig)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "After the completion of the hunting season, families would move to summer fish camps. Fish were the most prolific and essential subsistence resource for many Alaskan Natives living in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta region and its harvest would occupy the majority of the families' efforts for several months. Traditional plants would continue to be harvested as they ripened and. were eaten fresh or placed in underground caches for temporary storage. By late summer/early fall, several berry species (e.g., Rubus chamaemorus, R. arcticus, Empetrum nigrum) and local greens (c.g., Rumex arcticus) were ready to be harvested and women and children would spend most days on the tundra gathering plant resources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Inuit might consume more carbohydrates than most nutritionists have assumed. Because some of the meat the Inuit eat is raw and fresh, or freshly frozen, they can obtain more carbohydrates from their meat, as dietary glycogen, than Westerners can. The Inuit practice of preserving a whole seal or bird carcass under an intact whole skin with a thick layer of blubber also permits some proteins to ferment into carbohydrates. Furthermore, the blubber, organs, muscle and skin of the marine mammals that Inuit eat have significant glycogen stores, which assist those animals when oxygen is depleted on prolonged dives. For instance, when blubber is analyzed by direct carbohydrate measurements, it has been shown to contain as much as 8\u201430% carbohydrates. While postmortem glycogen levels are often depleted through the onset of rigor mortis, marine mammals have a much delayed onset of rigor mortis, even in warm conditions, presumably due to the high content of oxymyoglobin in the muscle that may permit aerobic metabolism to continue slowly for some time after the death of the animal. Additionally, in cold conditions, glycogen's depletion is halted at -18\u00a0\u00b0C (-0.4\u00a0\u00b0F) and lower temperatures in comminuted meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Traditionally, most people continued to make tepa in the summer. Heads (\"pakegvissaaq\" is head of fish including pectoral fins) of chinook (king), sokeye (red), chum (dog), and occasionally, coho (silver) salmon were prepared by burying them in the ground and allowed them to ferment before eating. The traditional way to prepare tepa was to bury the heads in the ground along with most of the fish guts in a wooden barrel covered with burlap material. Earthen pits lined with grass were used for this process. Salmon milt and eggs were added to the heads which were then covered with another layer of grass before being covered over with earth. The fermenting process took from one to two weeks depending on temperature of the ground. One salmon production unit prepared four pits of tepa. The pits measured approximately 18 inches deep and 2 feet square and contained approximately 75 salmon heads each. The heads of 1,000 chinook, 726 sockeye, 1,246 chum, and 41 coho salmon were prepared as tepa by Kwethluk households during 1986. One resident told the researchers, \"to the Native it's like candy or bubblegum, sweet and sour, in between the two.\" However, with the introduction of plastic buckets, the danger of botulism has surfaced and informants stressed the importance of avoiding these types of modern containers since the \"oldfashioned\" methods allowed oxygen to circulate and prevented the growth of bacteria which causes botulism. Heads stored underground in plastic bags are more likely to develop botulism than fish stored in grasses. It was soon discovered that the traditional method of preparing the tepas was safer than the modern way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "and Game in its goals to \u201cprotect, conserve, and enhance\u201d fish and wildlife resources\u2014however,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Inuit also believe that eating raw meat keeps them warmer and stronger. They say that raw meat takes effect on one's body when eaten consistently. One Inuk, Oleetoa, who ate a combination of and Inuit food, told of a story of his cousin Joanasee who ate a diet consisting of mostly raw Inuit food. The two compared their strengths, warmth, and energy and found that Joanasee benefited most based on his diet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Traditional Yup'ik delicacies are, akutaq (Eskimo ice cream), tepa (stinkheads), mangtak (muktuk)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Igunaq",
        "text": "Igunaq () ), also Kopalhen (, IPA ]) - part of the Inuit, Chukchi, Nenets, Evenki diets. It is a method of preparing meat, particularly walrus and other marine mammals. Meat and fat caught in the summer is buried in the ground as steaks, which then ferment over autumn and freeze over winter, ready for consumption the next year. Igunaq is considered a delicacy and is quite valuable. Consumption has declined over the years as a wider range of foodstuffs has become available in the Arctic regions. It is also not without risk \u2013 improper production can lead to illness and death through botulism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Keniraq\" (lit. \u00abcooked thing\u00bb) is fresh cooked fish or other food (also stew)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Tamukassaaq\" is aged beluga skin. (also, skin to chew on such as dried fish skin)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Birds (\"tengmiaq\" \"tengmiak\" \"tengmiat\" or \"yaqulek\" \"yaqulgek\" \"yaqulget\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tengmiar\" \"tengmiag\" \"tengmiat\" in Cup'ig)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Uuqnarliq\" (Kuskokwim), \"uuqnarniq\" (Yukon), \"uqnarliq\" (Hooper Bay and Chevak) is cooked blackfish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Most plants were available in a variety of locales and their harvest did not dictate moving the family to specific camps. Plants that grew in abundance in specific terrain, such as several varieties of cliff greens, usually offered other resources that could be harvested at the same time (e.g., fish, Sandhill cranes). Greens such as Rumex arcticus (sour dock) could be found throughout the island and all old camp sites are said to contain buried cache pits once used for plant storage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Muktuk (\"mangtak\" in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq, Chevak, \"mangengtak\" in Bristol Bay) is the traditional meal of frozen raw beluga whale skin (dark epidermis) with attached subcutaneous fat (blubber)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Salkuuyaq\" or \"Sal'kuuyaq\" (Yup'ik), \"Cal'kuuyaq\" (Cup'ik) (also, casserole of meat or fish with potatoes, onions, etc.) is fresh fish baked whole or filleted after the entrails are removed. The meat of fish baked whole is slit in the middle lengthwise on the other side. Fish are placed in a baking dish, seasoned, oiled, and baked. Younger people seem to prefer this over the plainer boiled fish. It is often eaten with boiled rice. It is derived from Russian (zhark\u00f3e) \u2018roast\u2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "The tundra provides berries for making jams, jellies, and a Yup'ik delicacy commonly called akutaq or \"Eskimo ice cream.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Aagciuk\" is fish meatball made of the soft meat and bones of spawned-out fish, cooked by dropping in boiling water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Women and children are accustomed to eating different parts of the seal because they wait until the hunters are done eating. Intestines are the first thing to be chosen and then any leftover pieces of the liver are consumed. Finally, ribs and the backbone are eaten and any remaining meat is distributed among the camp."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Marine mammals as food are only seals and beluga whale. Seals were the primary marine mammal hunted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Cuakayak\" is cooked seal lung."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Uutaq\" (lit. \u00abbaked thing\u00bb) is baked fish (also, hard candy or other hard-baked food; bread)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ucluelet First Nation",
        "text": "Resource harvesting across Yuu\u0142u\u0294i\u0142\u0294at\u1e25 territory followed a seasonal round. Yuu\u0142u\u0294i\u0142\u0294at\u1e25 were fishers and whalers, with salmon being the most sustainable resource. Large quantities would be harvested in the fall and then stored throughout the winter months. The food resources spread across Yuu\u0142u\u0294i\u0142\u0294at\u1e25 territory were diverse, including salmon and salmon roe, herring and herring roe, cod, halibut, sardines, seals, sea lions, whales, sea urchin, crab, clams, mussels, oysters, deer, bear, elk, wild plants and roots. As with salmon, many of these foods were preserved by way of drying and smoking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Fish as food, especially Pacific salmon of the subfamily Salmoninae in the family Salmonidae or in some places, non-salmon species, such as freshwater whitefish of the subfamily Coregoninae in the family Salmonidae, are primary main subsistence food for Yup'ik Eskimos. Both food and fish (and salmon) called \"neqa\" \"neqet\" in Yup'ik. Also for salmon called \"neqpik ~ neqpiaq\" \"neqpiit ~ neqpiat\" in Yup'ik, means literally \u201creal, genuine food\u201d. But, main food for I\u00f1upiaq Eskimos is meat of whale and caribou (both food and meat called \"niqi\" in I\u00f1upiaq, also for meat called \"niqipiaq\" \u201creal, genuine food\u201d)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "All saltwater animals, including seals, are considered to be always thirsty and are therefore offered a drink of fresh water as they die. This is shown as a sign of respect and gratitude toward the seal and its sacrifice. This offering is also done to please the spirit Sedna to ensure food supply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Seal oil (\"uquq\") was used by most households. Seal oil is a source of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Dried fish is usually eaten with seal oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit Broadcasting Corporation",
        "text": "Niqitsiat features the preparation and cooking of Inuit traditional foods, promoting healthy eating and tracing the source of food from the sea, the ice, and the tundra."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Uqumelnguq\" (in Yup'ik, \"uqumelzngur\" in Cup'ig) is smoked fish soaked in seal oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "One common way to eat the meat hunted is frozen. Many hunters will eat the food that they hunt on location where they found it. This keeps their blood flowing and their bodies warm. One custom of eating meat at the hunting site pertains to fish. In \"Overland to Starvation Cove: A History\", Heinrich Klutschak explains the custom: \"...no fish could be eaten in a cooked state on the spot where caught but could only be enjoyed raw; only when one is a day's march away from the fishing site is it permitted to cook the fish over the flame of a blubber lamp.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik clothing",
        "text": "Wastefulness being disrespectful, Yup'ik elders made use of every last scrap from hunts and harvests: seal guts, skins of salmon fish, dried grasses such as \"Leymus mollis\" (coarse seashore grass). Traditionally, skins of birds, fish, and marine mammals such as seal and walrus, and land mammals were used to make clothing. Hunting clothes were designed to be insulated and waterproof. Fish skin and marine mammal intestines (guts) were used for waterproof shells (as gut parka) and boots. Dried grass was used to make insulating socks, and as a waterproof thread."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are the diets of the Alaskan Inupiat and Canadian Inuit the same?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There is overlap between the I\u00f1upiat and Inuit diets, as both groups eat berries, roots, caribou, polar bear, walrus, whale, and fish. In fact, the I\u00f1upiat can be considered \"Inuit\", as the word is an umbrella term that can describe many indigenous groups."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the main difference between the Alaskan Inupiat and Canadian Inuit diets?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How are Inuit foods generally prepared?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Inuit food are mostly \"eaten frozen, raw, or boiled, with very little mixture of ingredients and with very few spices added.\""
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you further explain how they preserve food by drying it?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I was not able to locate information specific to the Inuit, but in general, drying inhibits the growth of bacteria, yeasts, and mold through the removal of water. Water is traditionally removed through evaporation by using methods such as air drying, sun drying, smoking or wind drying, although today electric food dehydrators or freeze-drying can be used to speed the drying process and ensure more consistent results."
    ],
    "topic": "Yup'ik cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Food drying:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Food drying"
        ],
        "ctx": "Food drying is a method of food preservation in which food is dried (dehydrated or desiccated). Drying inhibits the growth of bacteria, yeasts, and mold through the removal of water. Dehydration has been used widely for this purpose since ancient times; the earliest known practice is 12,000 B.C. by inhabitants of the modern Middle East and Asia regions. Water is traditionally removed through evaporation by using methods such as air drying, sun drying, smoking or wind drying, although today electric food dehydrators or freeze-drying can be used to speed the drying process and ensure more consistent results."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Dog food (\"qimugcin, qimugcitkaq, qimugcessuun\") refers to food for the dogs. \"Alunga\" is homemade dog food (a boiled mixture of fish and meat products) and \"Alungun\" is dog-feeding trough. Salmon is the best food to feed (\"nerqe-\") dogs. Chum, coho, and pink salmon were the species most frequently processed for dog food. In addition to dried salmon processed for dog food, whole uncut salmon and the heads, entrails, and backbones, not preserved or prepared for dog food, were also used as dog food. Chum salmon harvested during August for use as dog food were usually dried. Between late August and early October, coho salmon harvested for dog food were preserved by burying whole in earthen pits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Dry moose meat was a favorite food among Chuathbaluk and Sleetmute inhabitants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "For thousands of years, dogs (\"qimugta\" \"qimugtek\" \"qimugtet\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qimugta\" \"qimugteg\" \"qimugtet\" in Cup'ig) as sled dogs, have been tightly interwoven in the Yup'ik way of life, for transportation and companionship. Except for dogs, there were no important domesticated animals in aboriginal times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Beluga (especially late fall hunting) are used for feeding dogs in the Bristol Bay areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Dried and smoked salmon were usually stored in smokehouses, freezers, or caches belonging to the head of the salmon production unit. Salted fish were kept in buckets or wooden barrels and were stored in the house, entryway, cache, or smokehouse. Frozen salmon were kept in household freezers. Whole frozen coho salmon, used for dog food, were sometimes stored outside in pits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Yup'ik cuisine\n--Yupik Cuisine.\n--What meals the Yupik eat.\n--Food preservation and preparations.\n----Fish in the food industry.\n------Uncooked.\n------Cooked.\n----Mammals as food.\n----Birds as food.\n----Plants as food.\n--Pastry.\n--Drinks.\n--Nutrition.\n--Food storage.\n--Dog food.\n--Food sources.\n----Fish.\n----Sea mammals.\n----Land mammals.\n----Birds.\n----Plants.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Yup\u2019ik cuisine is different from Alaskan , Canadian Inuit, and Greenlandic diets. Yup'ik communities varied widely in what foods were available to them, but everyone used similar food processing and food preservation methods, including air drying and smoking, food storage in cold water and oil, fermentation, and freezing. Some foods were eaten raw."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Terrestrial mammals or land mammals (\"nunarmiutaq\" \"nunarmiutaat\" in Yup'ik) are game animals and furbearers.\n*Game animals (\"pitarkaq\" \"pitarkat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"pitarkar\" \"pitarkat\" in Cup'ig). Caribou, moose and \"bears\" are included in the definition of the word \"pitarkat\".\n*Caribou or wild caribou \"Rangifer tarandus granti\" (\"tuntu\", \"tuntupik\" or \"tuntupiaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tuntupig\" in Cup'ig). Prior to European contact, caribou were important not only for their meat but for the skins which were an important item used in clothing. The Russians encouraged the Eskimos to adopt Western-style dress in order to release more furs for trading. The second most commonly received resources for Manokotak residents were caribou (%64.8 of households). Caribou meat was often made into jerky. The stomach contents such as sedges and other greens, were eaten. Virtually all of the edible parts of the animal was utilized. Caribou have been absent from Nunivak Island for at least 100 years, but many of the procedures for preparing the flesh of this animal also apply to the domestic reindeer. In earlier times, however, caribou livers were placed in the animal's stomach to ferment; this is no longer done. The lining of a reindeer stomach was cut up and eaten with dried fish or by itself. Lungs and kidneys were given to the dogs, but the heart was eaten. Neither caribou meat nor fish were ever pounded as a method of preservation.\n*Reindeer or (semi)domestic caribou \"Rangifer tarandus tarandus\" (\"qusngiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qusngir\" in Cup'ig). The word \"qusngiq\" which is derived from the Chukchee \"qora\u014be\" (\u04c4\u043e\u0440\u0430\u04c8\u044b) or Koryak \"qoya\u014ba\" (\u04c4\u043e\u0439\u0430\u04c8\u0430). In Europe, use the terms \"caribou\" and \"reindeer\" synonymously, but in Alaska and Canada \"reindeer\" refers exclusively to semi-domesticated forms. Only in North America are wild \"Rangifer\" referred to as \"caribou\". In Eurasia, \"reindeer\" are classified as either domesticated or wild. Domestic reindeer (\"Rangifer tarandus tarandus\") were introduced into Alaska 100 years ago and have been maintained as semidomestic livestock. They have had contact with wild caribou (\"R. t. granti\") herds, including deliberate crossbreeding and mixing in the wild. Reindeer have considerable potential as a domestic animal for meat or velvet antler production, and wild caribou are important to subsistence and sport hunters. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) managed reindeer operations on the Nunivak Island beginning in 1940. The Nunivak herd is composed of about 4,000 reindeer. The southern half of Nunivak is a designated Wilderness area, which presents challenges in summertime herding, since use of motorized recreational vehicles is forbidden within the Wilderness area without adequate snow cover.\n*Moose or Alaska moose \"Alces alces gigas\" (\"tuntuvak\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tuntuwag\" in Cup'ig, literally \"big caribou\"). The most commonly received resources for Manokotak residents were moose (%79.6 of households). Moose were not usually seen in the lower Kuskokwim River drainages until the early 1940s. Moose meat (\"tuntuviim kemga\") was preserved by freezing and drying. Rarely was moose meat preserved by smoking or caning. Hunters who harvested moose at spring camps in the mountains preserved meat by cutting it into strips and hanging it on racks or bushes to dry in the sun, making jerky. This jerky was eaten without further preparation, or it was boiled. Virtually all of the moose was used. Bones were cracked and the marrow was removed. Fat from the back and rump was cut into small pieces and eaten uncooked along with meals at home and when in the field. Part of the stomach was cleaned and prepared, and the heart, liver, and kidneys were also eaten. The whole head was usually kept so that the muscles, brain, tongue, and nose could be removed and cooked. The feet and hooves were also cooked and eaten. Moose was cooked in variety of ways including boiling, roasting, stewing, frying and in soups.\n*Muskox \"Ovibos moschatus\" (\"umingmar, maskar\" in Nunivak Cup'ig). Alaska's original muskox were hunted to extinction in the mid-1800s \u2013 perhaps by whalers and others. They had originally ranged Alaska's arctic and western coastal tundra. In 1935\u20131936 the U.S. Biological Survey brought 31 muskoxen from Greenland to Nunivak Island in an effort to reestablish the species in Alaska and as a means for subsistence living. The first modern hunting season was in 1975. Today the Nunivak herd numbers around 600 animals, down from a high of around 700 animals in 1968.\n*Brown bear (grizzly) \"Ursus arctos horribilis\" (\"taqukaq, carayak\" Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"paugnar\" in Cup'ig) and Black bear \"Ursus americanus\" (\"tan'gerliq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tungulzria\" in Cup'ig) were harvested for food (meat and fat). Bear meat (\"tan'gerlim kemga\") made into jerky was often dried over a couple of weeks time. The internal organs, such as heart, kidneys, and intestines were often distributed to elders. Both black and brown bear meat was considered very tasty and was prepared by drying, boiling, baking, and roasting. The bones were boiled so that all of the meat could easily be removed from them. The marrow was only occasionally used because the bones are very thick and not easily broken. The liver was considered to be too rich and was \"not eaten\".\n*Furbearers or fur-bearing animals (\"melqulek\" \"melqulget\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"melquleg\" in Cup'ig) are commonly trapped for their pelts and meats. The meat of all types of furbearers (beaver, mink, otter, muskrat, marten, lynx), except for fox, wolf, and wolverine, was used for human food and was also used as dog food.\n*Red fox \"Vulpes vulpes\" (\"kaviaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"kavviar\" in Cup'ig). The Nunivak Cup'ig practiced few restrictions with reference to food, but the flesh of the red fox was avoided since it was believed to cause a person to sleep during the day and be restless at night. This restriction did not apply to the flesh of the white fox.\n*Arctic fox \"Vulpes lagopus\" (\"uliiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qaterlir\" [white fox], \"eqyerer\" [blue fox] \"illaassug\" [cross fox] in Cup'ig)\n*Sea otter \"Enhydra lutris\" (\"arrnaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"aatagar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Land otter or river otter \"Lontra canadensis\" (\"cuignilnguq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"cenkar, pirturcir(ar)\" in Cup'ig)\n*American mink \"Neogale vison\" (\"imarmiutaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"imarmiutar\" in Cup'ig). Mink skin parkas, and also mink pants for small boys, formerly were made.\n*Beringian or American ermine \"Mustela erminea\", \"Mustela richardsonii\" (\"narullgiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"terriar(ar)\" [in winter coloration] \"narullgir\" [in summer coloration] in Cup'ig)\n*Marten \"Martes americana\" (\"qavcicuaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Muskrat \"Ondatra zibethicus\" (\"kanaqlak, tevyuli\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"kanaqlag\" in Cup'ig)\n*Vole \"Microtus miurus\" (singing vole) and \"Clethrionomys rutilus\" (northern red-backed vole) (\"avelngaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Collared lemming or Northern collared lemming \"Dicrostonyx groenlandicus\" (\"qilagmiutaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik). I\u00f1upiaq people do not eat lemmings\n*Brown lemming or Nunivak Island brown lemming \"Lemmus trimucronatus harroldi\" (\"pugultu\" in Cup'ig)\n*Beaver \"Castor canadensis\" (\"paluqtaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"paluqtar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Porcupine \"Erethizon dorsatum\" (\"issaluuq, issaluq, cukilek, ilaanquciq, nuuniq\") were harvested primarily for food and were prepared much the same way that hare were prepared.\n*Tree squirrel or red squirrel \"Tamiasciurus hudsonicus\" (\"qiguiq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik)\n*Ground squirrel or parky squirrel, parka squirrel \"Spermophilus parryii\" (\"qanganaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qanganar\" in Cup'ig) were skinned and hung on meat drying racks to dry.\n*Marmot or hoary marmot \"Marmota caligata\" (\"cikigpak\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik) were used similarly to parka squirrels.\n*Hare \"Lepus othus\" (\"qayuqeggliq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qayuqegglir\" in Cup'ig) and Rabbit \"Lepus americanus\" (\"maqaruaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"maqaruar\" in Cup'ig) can be prepared much like poultry meat: roasted, broiled, grilled, fried, and stewed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qemitaq\" (lit. \u00abstrangled thing\u00bb) is muskrat or squirrel that has been hung by the neck to dry after being skinned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kinengyak\" ( \"kinengyiit\" ) is dried meat (caribou, moose)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Niinamayak\" (in Yup'ik, \"nin'amayuk\" in Canineq Yup'ik, \"nin'amayag\" in Nunivak Cup'ig) is partially (half) dried aged (fermented) herring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Quaq\" (in the Inuit languages: I\u00f1upiaq \"quaq\", Nunavut Inuktitut and Nunavik Inuttitut \u1581\u140a\u1585 \"quaq\", South Baffin Kingarmiut \"xuaq\", Labrador Inuttitut \"\u0138uak\", Greenlandic \"quaq\") is meat or fish to be eaten raw and frozen"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Cin'aq\" (Yukon, Hooper Bay and Chevak, Lake Iliamna, and Nunivak) is cheese-like fish aged in a pit. This fish is usually dog (chum) or king (chinook) salmon. The salmon whole (except the guts) aged through the process of burying them into the marshy, muddy lowland (\"maraq\"). The hole is dug until the permafrost is exposed. The bottom of the hole is then covered with dry grass, moss, and cardboard. Then several salmon are placed in. The top of the salmon is again covered with grass, moss and or cardboard, then the remaining dug up groung is placed back into the hole, tightly covering the contents. The aged salmon fish are usually dug out during the early winter, and eaten as a delicacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Salmon as food, herring as food, smelt, halibut, flounder, tomcod, pike, and capelin were gutted and air dried or smoked. The fish heads they made into \"qamiqurrluk\" (cut and dried fish heads), and some they made into \"tepa\" (aged fish heads). Fish eggs (roe) were dried and stored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Muktuk (\"mangtak\" in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq, Chevak, \"mangengtak\" in Bristol Bay) is the traditional Eskimo meal of frozen raw beluga whale skin (dark epidermis) with attached subcutaneous fat (blubber)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Famine foods: reindeer lichen (\"tuntut neqait\") was soaked in seal oil or mixed with cranberries to make it taste better."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Bread (\"kelipaq\" Yukon, Kuskokwim, Hooper Bay and Chevak, Nelson Island, Canineq, Bristol Bay, Nushagak River, Lake Iliamna, Egegik, \"kelipar\" in Cup'ig from Russian \u0445\u043b\u0435\u0431 \"khleb\"; \"qaqiaq\" bread in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq from I\u00f1upiaq \"qaqqiaq\"; \"qaq'uq\" in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq from I\u00f1upiaq \"qaqquq\"; \"kuv'aq\" in Yukon; \"tevurkaq\" in Unaliq-Pastuliq, \"tuurkaq\" in Lower Yukon from English \"dough\") The \"uutaq\" is hard candy or other hard-baked food; bread"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dog food",
        "text": "Dehydrated or freeze-dried meals come in raw and cooked forms. Products are usually air-dried or frozen, then dehydrated (freeze-dried) to reduce moisture to the level where bacterial growths are inhibited. The appearance is very similar to dry kibbles. The typical feeding methods include adding warm water before serving. There is some concern of nutrients, such as vitamins, being lost during the dehydration process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kumlaneq\" (in Yup'ik, \"kumlanaq\" in Hooper Bay-Chevak Cup'ik; but, \"kumlaner\" in Nunivak Cup'ig means \"cold water, cold spring water; permafrost, frozen soil\") is frozen fish to be eaten in that state. Freezing of chinook and particularly coho salmon was relatively common. Chinook salmon were usually cut up into smaller pieces before being placed into plastic Ziploc bags. Smaller species, such as chum, sockeye, coho, and pink salmon were frequently frozen uncut and whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Yup'ik cuisine (\"Yupiit neqait\" in Yup'ik language, literally \"Yup'iks' foods\" or \"Yup'iks' fishes\") refers to the Eskimo style traditional subsistence food and cuisine of the Yup'ik people from the western and southwestern Alaska. Also known as Cup'ik cuisine for the Chevak Cup'ik dialect speaking Eskimos of Chevak and Cup'ig cuisine for the Nunivak Cup'ig dialect speaking Eskimos of Nunivak Island. This cuisine is traditionally based on meat from fish, birds, sea and land mammals, and normally contains high levels of protein. Subsistence foods are generally considered by many to be nutritionally superior superfoods. Yup\u2019ik diet is different from Alaskan Inupiat, Canadian Inuit, and Greenlandic diets. Fish as food (especially Salmonidae species, such as salmon and whitefish) are primary food for Yup'ik Eskimos. Both food and fish called \"neqa\" in Yup'ik. Food preparation techniques are fermentation and cooking, also uncooked raw. Cooking methods are baking, roasting, barbecuing, frying, smoking, boiling, and steaming. Food preservation methods are mostly drying and less often frozen. Dried fish is usually eaten with seal oil. The ulu or fan-shaped knife used for cutting up fish, meat, food, and such."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The flesh of virtually all waterfowl in the environment was eaten, either fresh or dried, usually with oil or a sourdock leaf soup. Even cormorants were considered edible and the meat of these fishy-tasting birds was dried or boiled when freshly killed. The eggs of waterfowl were sometimes sucked raw, but were usually boiled. Unlike Eskimos of the adjacent mainland, the Nunivaarmiut did not boil eggs hard and pack them in pokes for use during the winter. Instead, if there were more eggs than could be consumed at the time of collecting, they were hard-boiled and, still in their shells, placed in wooden dishes of seal oil to be kept for a short while."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Fish (\"neqa\" \"neqek\" \"neqet\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik \"neqa\" or \"iqallug\" in Cup'ig) is one of the most common Yup'ik foods.\n*Pacific salmons \"Oncorhynchus\" (\"neqpik\" in Yup'ik, literally \"real fish\") are anadromous fish as they spawn in freshwater (salmon run) and spend at least a part of their lives in the ocean. Salmon is a staple of the native Alaskan diet and natives have traditionally used all parts of the fish.\n*Red salmon or sockeye salmon \"Oncorhynchus nerka\" (\"sayak\" in Yup'ik, \"cayak\" in Cup'ik, \"cayag\" in Cup'ig)\n*King salmon or Chinook salmon \"Oncorhynchus tschawytscha\" (\"taryaqvak, tarsarpak, kiagtaq\" in Yup'ik, \"taryaqvak\" in Cup'ik, \"taryaqvag\" in Cup'ig)\n*Silver salmon or coho salmon \"Oncorhynchus kisutch\" (\"qakiiyaq, uqurliq, caayuryaq\" in Yup'ik, \"qavlunaq\" in Cup'ik, \"ciayuryar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Dog salmon or chum salmon \"Oncorhynchus keta\" (\"iqalluk, aluyak, kangitneq, mac'utaq\" in Yup'ik, \"qavlunaq, neqpik\" in Cup'ik, \"mac'utar\" in Cup'ig) is second-largest of the Alaskan salmonids. In Alaska, chum salmon often called \"dog salmon\" due to their fierce dentition exhibited during spawning as well as the males tendency to bite and nip at each other. Salmon snobs of Alaska will often turn up their noses at chum salmons because they are thought to be only fit for dog food.\n*Humpback salmon or pink salmon \"Oncorhynchus gorbuscha\" (\"amaqaayak, amaqsuq, luqaanak, terteq\" in Yup'ik, \"cuqpeq\" in Cup'ik)\n*Rainbow trout or steelhead \"Oncorhynchus mykiss\" (\"talaariq\" in Yup'ik, \"kangitner\" in Cup'ik) were usually cooked fresh and dried.\n*Trout (charr) or Dolly Varden \"Salvelinus malma\" (\"iqallugpik\" [Kuskokwim, Yukon], \"yugyaq\" [Bristol Bay] in Yup'ik, \"iqalluyagar\" in Cup'ig) were usually cooked fresh and dried.\n*Lake trout \"Salvelinus namaycush\" (\"cikignaq\") were usually cooked fresh and dried.\n*Sheefish or inconnu \"Stenodus nelma\" (\"ciiq\") were preserved by drying, smoking, and freezing. Sheefish were also eaten fresh; cooking methods included boiling and baking.\n*Grayling \"Thymallus arcticus\" (\"culugpauk, culugpaugaq, nakrullugpak, nakrutvalek\" in Yup'ik, \"culugpaugar\" in Cup'ig) were usually cooked fresh and dried.\n*Pike \"Esox lucius\" (\"cuukvak, cukvak, ciulek, keggsuli, qalru, luqruuyak, eluqruuyak\") were normally preserved by drying and were usually eaten without any further praparation. Pike were sometimes cooked and eaten while fresh.\n*Blackfish or Alaska blackfish \"Dallia pectoralis\" (\"can'giiq, imangaq\" in Yup'ik, \"can'gir, taqikar\" in Cup'ig) were cooked by pouring boiling water intermittently into a pot containing the fish and letting them steam for several minutes. They were one of few species of the fish that were usually not dried.\n*Lush or burbot \"Lota lota\" (\"manignaq, aninirpak, tengugpalek, kanayurnaq\") were preserved by drying and freezing. Cooking methods included boiling and baking.\n*Herring \"Clupea pallasii\" (\"iqalluarpak, iqallugpak, neqalluarpak\" in Yup'ik, \"iqalluarpag\" in Cup'ig) prefer spawning (\"qurre-\") locations in sheltered bays and estuaries. One of the largest spawning concentrations of herring in Alaska occurs in the Togiak district of Bristol Bay in the eastern Bering Sea. Herring and herring spawn-on-kelp have been harvested for subsistence use by residents of this coastal area as long as people can recall. Commercial fishing for herring in the togiak district began in 1967 and expanded dramatically after 1977. Prior to 1983, subsistence harvests of herring and spawn-on-kelp were not regulated.\n*Smelt or rainbow smelt \"Osmerus mordax\" subsp. \"dentex\" (\"qusuuq, iqalluaq, cimigliq, cimerliq, cimerliaq, cimirliq, cemerliq, elquarniq, uqtaqngaq, qimaruaq\" in Yup'ik, \"quyuuq, cemerliq\" in Cup'ik, \"quss'ur\" in Cup'ig) were cooked by frying and roasting when eaten fresh. Some fishermen who harvested smelt consider these fish as \"emergency food,\" to be kept in the smokehouse or cache and used if supplies of dried salmon ran out or if food shortages occurred."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Berries and edible plants supplemented meals consisting mostly of fish and game. Plants foods also provided a variety of essential vitamins ans nutrients to the diet. Berries were preserved by freezing. The most popular use berries was when making akutaq, a whipped mixture of the berries, sugar, and shortening or fat. Households also made jam, jellies, and breads from berries. Sourdock leaves were prepared by boiling, like spinach. Labrador tea was boiled to make tea and was consumed much like commercial teas. Green spruce needles were also used for tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Prehistoric Yup'ik Eskimos probably relied upon a mix of anadromous fish (salmon and char), terrestrial mammals (caribou), and marine mammals (seal and walrus) for subsistence foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Aaqassaaq\" (Kotlik) is skin to be chewed to soften it; beluga blubber for eating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The Yup'ik region is rich with waterfowl, fish, and sea and land mammals. The coastal settlements rely more heavily on sea mammals (seals, walrusses, beluga whales), many species of fish (Pacific salmon, herring, halibut, flounder, trout, burbot, Alaska blackfish), shellfish, crabs, and seaweed. The inland settlements rely more heavily on Pacific salmon and freshwater whitefish, land mammals (moose, caribou), migratory waterfowl, bird eggs, berries, greens, and roots help sustain people throughout the region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kumlaciq\" (in Yup'ik, \"kumlacir\" in Cup'ig) is frozen meat (of frozen fish, blackfish, and others as well) to be eaten in that state. Frozen food is a method for preserving fish or meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Yup'ik cuisine is based on traditional subsistence food harvests (hunting, fishing and berry gathering) supplemented by seasonal subsistence activities. The Yup'ik region is rich with waterfowl, fish, and sea and land mammals. Yup'ik settled where the water remained ice-free in winter, where walruses, whales and seals came close to shore, and where there was a fishing stream or a bird colony nearby. Even if a place was not very convenient for human civilization, but had rich game, yup'ik would settle there. The coastal settlements rely more heavily on sea mammals (seals, walrusses, beluga whales), many species of fish (Pacific salmon, herring, halibut, flounder, trout, burbot, Alaska blackfish), shellfish, crabs, and seaweed. The inland settlements rely more heavily on Pacific salmon and freshwater whitefish, land mammals (moose, caribou), migratory waterfowl, bird eggs, berries, greens, and roots help sustain people throughout the region. Traditional subsistence foods are mixed with what is commercially available. Today about half the food is supplied by subsistence activities (subsistence foods), the other half is purchased from the commercial stores (market foods, store-bought foods)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The primary subsistence food in the Bristol Bay region and in most of rural Alaska is salmon, followed closely by big game hunting of caribou and moose in the more inland areas, and marine mammal hunting in the coastal areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Muktuk (\"mangtak\" in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq, Chevak, \"mangengtak\" in Bristol Bay) is the traditional meal of frozen raw beluga whale skin (dark epidermis) with attached subcutaneous fat (blubber)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Food preservation"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Nutaqaq\" is frozen raw fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qercuqaq\" is hard frozen fish (blackfish or the like)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian cuisine",
        "text": "In the Arctic, Inuit traditionally survived on a diet consisting of land and marine mammals, fish, and foraged plant products. Meats were consumed fresh, but also often prepared, cached, and allowed to ferment into \"igunaq\" or \"kiviak\". These fermented meats have the consistency and smell of certain soft aged cheeses. Snacks such as \"muktuk\", which consist of whale skin and blubber is eaten plain, though occasionally dipped in soy sauce. Chunks of muktuk are sliced with an \"ulu\" prior to or during consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Teggsiq'er\" (in Nunivak Cup'ig) half dried herring (specifically made for cooking)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Both the Yup'ik (and Siberian Yupik) and cuisines are also known as Eskimo cuisine in Alaska. The oldest, most stable cuisine in North America is found above the Arctic Circle in Alaska. Long overlooked and pitifully misunderstood, the cuisine's roots lie buried in Eastern Asia, whence I\u00f1upiaq and Yupik ancestors ventured to Siberia, across Beringia, and on to Alaska during the last ice age, 50,000 to 15,000 years ago. The remoteness of the Inupiat and Yupik cultures accounts for their rich and intact food history. The Yupik-Inupiaq split probably occurred about one thousand years ago. The Arctic cuisine is composed of a high-protein diet without grains, supplemented with wild greens, roots, and berries. Fortunately, dietitians consider the diet nutritious and balanced with abundant vitamins, minerals, proteins and valuable unsaturated fats derived from a vast array of sea and land mammals, fish, fowl, wild plants and berries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Tea (\"caayuq\" in Yukon, Unaliq-Pastuliq, Hooper Bay and Chevak, Nelson Island, Upper Kuskokwim, Nushagak River, Lake Iliamna, Egegik, \"saayuq\" Lower Kuskokwim, Canineq, Bristol Bay, \"caayu\" Nunivak Cup'ig; from Russian \u0447\u0430\u0439 \"chay\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Fish as food, especially Pacific salmon (or in some places, non-salmon) species are primary main subsistence food for the Yup'ik. Both food and fish (and salmon) called \"neqa\" (sg) \"neqet\" (pl) in Yup'ik. Also for salmon called \"neqpik ~ neqpiaq\" (sg) \"neqpiit ~ neqpiat\" (pl) in Yup'ik, means literally \"real food\". But, main food for the I\u00f1upiaq is meat of whale and caribou (both food and meat called \"niqi\" in I\u00f1upiaq, also for meat called \"niqipiaq\" \"real food\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Waterfowl were prepared in a variety of ways such as boiling, baking, and in soups.\n*Common eider or Pacific eider \"Somateria mollissima\" (\"metraq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"angiikvak\" in northern Yup'ik dialects, \"metr(ar), nanwista\", \"metrapig\" \u2640 \"tunupista\" \u2642 in Cup'ig)\n*King eider \"Somateria mollissima\" (\"qengallek\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qengalleg\" in Cup'ig).\n*Steller's eider \"Polysticta stelleri\" (\"anarnissakaq\" [Yukon], \"caqiar(aq)\" [Kuskokwim] in Yup'ik, \"qaciar(ar)\" in Cup'ig)\n*Oldsquaw or long-tailed duck \"Clangula hyemalis\" (\"allgiar(aq)\" [Kuskokwim], \"allgiar\" [Bristol Bay], \"aliaaliq\" [Unaliq-Pastuliq], \"aarraaliq\", \"aarraangiiq\" [Kuskokwim] in Yup'ik, \"aarraangiiraq, aarrangyaraq\" in Cup'ik, \"aarrangiir\" in Cup'ig).\n*Swan or tundra swan, whistling swan \"Cygnus columbianus columbianus\" (\"qugyuk\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qugsuk\" [Unaliq-Pastuliq], \"caqulegpak\" [Egegik], \"qugyug\" in Cup'ig)\n*Sandhill crane \"Grus canadensis\" (\"qucillgaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qucilkuryug\" in Cup'ig).\n*Ptarmigan were preserved by freezing or drying after being plucked or skinned. Once dried, the birds commonly were eaten without any other preparation. As with many dried foods, seal oil a frequent to dried ptarmigan. Ptarmigan were also cooked by boiling and were often the basis for soups.\n*Common murre or common guillemot \"Uria aalge\" (\"alpa ~ alpaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"alpa\" in Cup'ig)\n*Pigeon guillemot \"Cepphus columba\" (\"ciguraq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"cigurer\" in Cup'ig)\n*Crested auklet \"Aethia cristatella\" (\"cip'lagar, cukilpag\" in Cup'ig)\n*Horned puffin \"Fratercula corniculata\" (\"qilangaq, qengacuar(aq)\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qilangar, tunngar\" in Cup'ig)\n*Black-legged kittiwake \"Rissa tridactyla\" (\"naruyacuaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tengaurta, tengauqsarar(ar), qarliar(ar)\" in Cup'ig)\n*Pelagic cormorant \"Phalacrocorax pelagicus\" (\"uyalek\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"uyaleg\" in Cup'ig)\n*Snowy owl \"Bubo scandiacus\" (\"anipa ~ anipaq\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"anipar\" in Cup'ig)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Ciss'uq\" (\"Ciss'ur\" in Nunivak Cup'ig) is fermented herring or capelin that have been buried underground for two weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "The tundra provides berries for making jams, jellies, and a Yup'ik delicacy commonly called akutaq or \"Eskimo ice cream.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik clothing",
        "text": "People wore waterproof salmon-skin mittens to keep their hands dry while kayaking, driving a dog sled, or working with fish nets. Woven seashore grass liners went inside for warmth. To prepare the fish skins, they were first soaked in urine, scraped clean, and then hung outside to freeze-dry in cold weather. The last step was to scrape off the scales."
      },
      {
        "title": "North American hunting technologies",
        "text": "While snowmobiles may makeup the quickest transportation means for the Inuit, they still relied on dog sledding until the 1980s. Most of the food that was once fed to the sled dogs who pulled the sleighs was meat from seals, caribou, walruses, or whatever form of food was available at the time. But even dog food has been modernized, and 12.8 million kilo-calories were imported: one hundred and twenty-eight billion calories, which if converted to the human two thousand calorie diet, would be able to feed six hundred and forty thousand people. When put into perspective, with the temperature being as cold as it, more body heat has to be produced, and with the amount of running and the weight of sleds the dogs pull, that more energy consumption that is needed in order to maintain a state of homeostasis and good nutrition for each dog."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qassayaaq\" or \"Qassayagaq\" (lit. \u00abbaby raw fish\u00bb) frozen raw whitefish aged (fermented) before freezing and served frozen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Before placing the \"wild spinach\" or sour dock in the caches, the cooked leaves would be drained of juice and the pit lined with woven grass mats. Berries were stored in much the same way, except that these pits would be lined with rocks. The berries would have no juice when removed, since they would have dried out while being stored underground. In the fall, people would return to their seasonal caches and transport their stored berries and greens to their winter village."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The akutaq (Eskimo ice cream), tepa (stinkheads), mangtak (muktuk) some of the most well-known traditional Yup'ik delicacies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Fish as food, especially Pacific salmon of the subfamily Salmoninae in the family Salmonidae or in some places, non-salmon species, such as freshwater whitefish of the subfamily Coregoninae in the family Salmonidae, are primary main subsistence food for Yup'ik Eskimos. Both food and fish (and salmon) called \"neqa\" \"neqet\" in Yup'ik. Also for salmon called \"neqpik ~ neqpiaq\" \"neqpiit ~ neqpiat\" in Yup'ik, means literally \u201creal, genuine food\u201d. But, main food for I\u00f1upiaq Eskimos is meat of whale and caribou (both food and meat called \"niqi\" in I\u00f1upiaq, also for meat called \"niqipiaq\" \u201creal, genuine food\u201d)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Birds (\"tengmiaq\" \"tengmiak\" \"tengmiat\" or \"yaqulek\" \"yaqulgek\" \"yaqulget\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"tengmiar\" \"tengmiag\" \"tengmiat\" in Cup'ig)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The mousefood or mouse food (\"ugnaraat neqait\") consists of the roots of various tundra plants which are cached by voles in burrows. Mousefood are grains gathered by a mouse and buried in shallow tunnels that sprout in the fall or spring rains. The tender green sprouts are often one of the first fresh foods available. Mousefood is eaten much like one would eat a small salad or fresh greens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Food storage"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qassaq\" or \"Qassaulria\" is raw food, raw flesh or raw meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Beluga whale meat"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Marine mammals as food are only seals and beluga whale. Seals were the primary marine mammal hunted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "uqiqur- to distribute seal blubber and meat and gifts when someone has caught a seal; to give a \u201cseal party\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Uqiquq\" Passing out of bearded seal oil- The stripped long blubber for girls in the family and square cut blubber for men in the household."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "The dog sleds (\"ikamraq\" \"ikamrak\" \"ikamrat\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qamauk\" in Yukon and Unaliq-Pastuliq Yup'ik, \"ikamrag, qamaug\" in Cup'ig; often used in the dual for one sled) are an ancient and widespread means of transportation for Northern Indigenous peoples, but when non-Native fur traders and explorers first traveled the Yukon River and other interior regions in the mid-19th century they observed that only Yupikized Athabaskan groups, including the Koyukon, Deg Hit'an and Holikachuk, used dogs in this way. Both of these peoples had probably learned the technique from their I\u00f1upiat or Yup'ik neighbors. Non-Yupikized Athabaskan groups, including the Gwich'in, Tanana, Ahtna and other Alaskan Athabaskans pulled their sleds and toboggans by hand, using dogs solely for hunting and as pack animals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Umlikaaq\" (or \"Umlikaq\" ~ \"Umlikqaq\") or \"Ungllekaq\" (\"ungllik'ar\" in Nunivak Cup'ig) is fresh boiled fish. All parts of the fish except for the entrails are used to prepare umlikqaq. Fresh fish that have been dead for less than a day make the best umlikqaq because the meat is still firm. If a freshwater fish is caught with a hook, it is best to kill the fish by hitting its head soon after capture so the meat will stay firm for cooking. The main ingredients of umlikqaq are cut-up fish, water, and salt which are boiled for about 29 minutes. This is a preferred food for elders because it easy to make and is not strongly seasoned. First heads are good prepared as umlikqaq. Also, \"Ungelkaaq\" is fish steak cut transversely."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The Nunivak Eskimos ( in Cup'ig, \"Nunivaarmiut\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik) eat frequently in the course of a 24-hour period. They go to bed at sundown or early evening in the spring and fall, and well before sundown in summer, but arise early, often at 3:00 or 4:00\u00a0a.m. and regularly at 5:00 or 5:30. The time of rising depended on the sea tide and the time when tomcod or other fish are running. The first meal of the day is eaten at this time and another about 11:00\u00a0a.m., with snacks once or twice in between depending on the work schedule and the availability of food. The evening meal is usually at 4:30 or 5:00\u00a0p.m. with additional snacks between the main meals. In winter the entire meal schedule is likely to be moved forward, with the first meal of the day being eaten at 10:00 or 10:30\u00a0a.m. The most common food is dried or frozen fish dipped in seal oil. The evening or late afternoon meal, the hot meal of the day, frequently consisted of boiled fish or other boiled food and tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orijen",
        "text": "They also make three varieties of Freeze-Dried Foods and thirteen varieties of Freeze-Dried treats - eight dog and five cat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Uuqnarliq\" (Kuskokwim), \"uuqnarniq\" (Yukon), \"uqnarliq\" (Hooper Bay and Chevak) is cooked blackfish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kumlivirluuki\" is stored in freezer (\"kumlivik\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "After the completion of the hunting season, families would move to summer fish camps. Fish were the most prolific and essential subsistence resource for many Alaskan Natives living in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta region and its harvest would occupy the majority of the families' efforts for several months. Traditional plants would continue to be harvested as they ripened and. were eaten fresh or placed in underground caches for temporary storage. By late summer/early fall, several berry species (e.g., Rubus chamaemorus, R. arcticus, Empetrum nigrum) and local greens (c.g., Rumex arcticus) were ready to be harvested and women and children would spend most days on the tundra gathering plant resources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik",
        "text": "Traditional Yup'ik delicacies are, akutaq (Eskimo ice cream), tepa (stinkheads), mangtak (muktuk)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The Yup'ik, like other Eskimo groups, were semi-nomadic hunter-fisher-gatherers who moved seasonally throughout the year within a reasonably well-defined territory to harvest fish, bird, sea and land mammal, berry and other renewable resources. Yup'ik cuisine is based on traditional subsistence food harvests (hunting, fishing and berry gathering) supplemented by seasonal subsistence activities. The Yup'ik region is rich with waterfowl, fish, and sea and land mammals. The coastal settlements rely more heavily on sea mammals (seals, walrusses, beluga whales), many species of fish (Pacific salmon, herring, halibut, flounder, trout, burbot, Alaska blackfish), shellfish, crabs, and seaweed. The inland settlements rely more heavily on Pacific salmon and freshwater whitefish, land mammals (moose, caribou), migratory waterfowl, bird eggs, berries, greens, and roots help sustain people throughout the region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Most of the salmon that was dried and smoked was eaten without any further preparation. Dried salmon sometimes eaten with seal oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's mission is similar to that of the Alaska Department of Fish"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "On Nunivak, most indigenous plants were traditionally gathered by women and children when the men were harvesting other available resources (e.g., caribou, waterfowl, seal). While fresh spring greens provided a welcome addition to the diet, which in winter was based largely on dried and stored foods, other greens were harvested throughout the year as they ripened, and used with some of those stored for winter use. With the melting of the island's snow pack, local greens and berries not picked during the previous fall's harvest, begin to appear and were added to the local diet. Depending on the time the ice pack began to break up, Cup'ig families would leave their winter villages and move to spring seal camps. Cup'ig men would journey out along the ice to harvest arriving sea mammals (i.e., seals, walrus) while the women would spend much of their time harvesting available plant resources (greens and seaweeds) and shellfish. Early spring plants included: marsh marigold (\"Caltha palustris\"), sour dock (\"Rumex arcticus\"), wild celery (\"Angelica lucida\"), wild lettuce (\"Draba borealis\" or \"D. hyperborea\"), wild parsnip (\"Ligusticum hultonii\"), wild rhubarb (\"Polygonum viviparum\"), mountain sorrel (\"Oxyria digylla\"), Pallas buttercup (\"Ranunculus pallasii\"), and Labrador tea (\"Ledum pallustre decumbens\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik clothing",
        "text": "Fish (\"neqa\" \"neqek\" \"neqet\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik \"neqa\" or \"iqallug\" in Cup'ig) is one of the most common Yup'ik foods. Fish skins (\"neqet amiit\" or \"amirak ~ amiraq\" in Yup'ik) and intestines are used for waterproof clothing (\"amiragglugaq\") in a few areas, especially in southern coastal Alaska. For example, commercial herring fishers from Toksook Bay, Alaska still prefer intestine parkas to heavy-duty raincoats, as they are lighter and allow body vapor to pass through the skin membrane while preventing rain from entering. In former times, rather crudely made shirts without hoods were made of local salmon or trout skins. Through rarely used today, in the past fish skin was also used for waterproof boots (\"amirak ~ amiraq\") and mittens (\"arilluk\") also parka (\"qasperrluk\"), making these items water-repellent and durable. Fish skin was also used to make parkas, mittens, and pants for summer use. The sinew for fish skins known as \"yualunguaq\" (fish-skin thread).\n*Pacific salmons \"Oncorhynchus\" (\"neqpik\" \"neqpiik\" \"neqpiit\" in Yup'ik, literally \"real fish\")\n*Dog salmon or chum salmon \"Oncorhynchus keta\" (\"iqalluk\" \"iqalluuk\" \"iqalluut\" [Kuskokwim, Yukon], \"kangitneq\" \"kangitnerek\" \"kangitneret\" [Bristol Bay] in Yup'ik, \"mac'utar\" \"mac'ut'ag\" \"mac'ut'at\" in Cup'ig)\n*Silver salmon or coho salmon \"Oncorhynchus kisutch\" (\"qakiiyaq\" \"qakiiyak\" \"qakiiyat\" [Bristol Bay Kuskokwim ], \"uqurliq \" [Yukon], \"caayuryaq\" [Unaliq-Pastuliq] in Yup'ik, \"qavlunaq\" in Cup'ik, \"ciayuryar\" \"ciayuryag\" \"ciayuryat\" in Cup'ig)\n*King salmon or Chinook salmon \"Oncorhynchus tschawytscha\" (\"taryaqvak\" \"taryaqviik\" \"taryaqviit\" [Bristol Bay Nushagak, Kuskokwim, Yukon] \"tarsarpak\" [Unaliq-Pastuliq] \"kiagtaq\" [Yukon] in Yup'ik, \"taryaqvak\" in Cup'ik, \"taryaqvag\" in Cup'ig)\n*Trout (charr) or salmon trout, Dolly Varden \"Salvelinus malma\" (\"iqallugpik\" \"iqallugpiik\" \"iqallugpiit\" [Kuskokwim, Yukon], \"yugyaq\" [Bristol Bay] in Yup'ik, \"iqalluyagar\" \"iqalluyagag\" \"iqalluyagat\" in Cup'ig)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Tepcuaraq\" (\"tepcuar(aq)\" or \"tepcuaraq kumlaneq\") is fish that has been frozen after being allowed to age slightly, eaten uncooked and frozen. \"Kumlaneq\" is aged spawned out salmon. \"Tepcuaraq kumlaneq\" is aged and frozen fish. The whole fish can be either cleaned of their entrails or left intact, then buried under ground in a pit lined with grass and left for about a week depending on the temperature. If the fish are caught in the late fall, they are stored in a wooden or cardboard box until they are aged, and then frozen. Tepcuaraq kumlaneq are eaten frozen with seal oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qamangatak\" (Egegik) is half-dried, boiled fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Allemaaq\" (Hooper Bay and Chevak) is cooked blackfish fry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pemmican",
        "text": "British polar expeditions fed a type of pemmican to their dogs as \"sledging rations\". Called \"Bovril pemmican\" or simply \"dog pemmican\", it was a beef product consisting, by volume, of protein and fat (i.e., a 2:1 ratio of protein to fat), without carbohydrate. It was later ascertained that although the dogs survived on it, this was not a nutritious and healthy diet for them, being too high in protein. Members of Ernest Shackleton's 1914\u20131916 expedition to the Antarctic resorted to eating dog pemmican when they were stranded on ice during the antarctic summer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Food preparation techniques are uncooked raw (\"Cassar-\" \"to eat raw flesh or meat\", \"arepa-\" \"to eat raw food\"), fermentation, and cooking (\"keir-\"). In the past, the Yup'ik nourishment consisted of raw meat, including its blood, and sometimes the meat was cooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Traditional subsistence foods are mixed with what is commercially available. Today about half the food is supplied by subsistence activities (subsistence foods), the other half is purchased from the commercial stores (market foods, store-bought foods)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "The Yup'ik, like other Eskimo groups, were semi-nomadic hunter-fisher-gatherers who moved seasonally throughout the year within a reasonably well-defined territory to harvest fish, bird, sea and land mammal, berry and other renewable resources. Subsistence is the practice of hunting, fishing, or gathering food to live on (not to resell), and is practiced by almost all the Yup'ik. In the inland, fishing for red salmon and gathering berries in the summer as well as hunting caribou or moose in the fall and winter constitute the primary seasonal subsistence activities of the inland Yup'ik villages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Cookie (cugg'alinguaq in Egegik)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Taaqassaaq\" is skin for chewing. The hide and flippers from fresh walrus may be fermented to make taaqassaaq."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Egamaarrluk\" (\"egamaarruk\" or \"egamaaq\") is partially dried (not smoked) fish boiled for eating. The partially dried and boiled fish is only partially cooked. The half-dried salmon (\"egamaarrluk\") which was cooked after being partially dried. \"Egamaarruk\" is split and half dried fish. these are prepared much like \"neqerrluk\", but are not fully dried and may not be smoked. The half dried fish are boiled and eaten with seal oil. The \"egamaarrluk\" involved a similar process but the fish were kept as fillets rather than sliced into strips."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indigenous cuisine of the Americas",
        "text": "The cultural value attached to certain game species, and certain parts, varies. For example, in the James Bay region, a 1982 study found that beluga whale meat was principally used as dog food, whereas the blubber, or muktuk was a \"valued delicacy\". Value also varies by age, with Inuit preferring younger ring seals, and often using the older ones for dog food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Keniraq\" (lit. \u00abcooked thing\u00bb) is fresh cooked fish or other food (also stew)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Tamukassaaq\" is aged beluga skin. (also, skin to chew on such as dried fish skin)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Aagciuk\" is fish meatball made of the soft meat and bones of spawned-out fish, cooked by dropping in boiling water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Tepngayaaq\" is fermented a little frozen fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Inuit might consume more carbohydrates than most nutritionists have assumed. Because some of the meat the Inuit eat is raw and fresh, or freshly frozen, they can obtain more carbohydrates from their meat, as dietary glycogen, than Westerners can. The Inuit practice of preserving a whole seal or bird carcass under an intact whole skin with a thick layer of blubber also permits some proteins to ferment into carbohydrates. Furthermore, the blubber, organs, muscle and skin of the marine mammals that Inuit eat have significant glycogen stores, which assist those animals when oxygen is depleted on prolonged dives. For instance, when blubber is analyzed by direct carbohydrate measurements, it has been shown to contain as much as 8\u201430% carbohydrates. While postmortem glycogen levels are often depleted through the onset of rigor mortis, marine mammals have a much delayed onset of rigor mortis, even in warm conditions, presumably due to the high content of oxymyoglobin in the muscle that may permit aerobic metabolism to continue slowly for some time after the death of the animal. Additionally, in cold conditions, glycogen's depletion is halted at -18\u00a0\u00b0C (-0.4\u00a0\u00b0F) and lower temperatures in comminuted meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Arumaarrluk\" (\"arumarrluk\") or \"arumaarrluaq\" is poke fish or poked fish slightly smoked and stored in seal oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rubus chamaemorus",
        "text": "In Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, cloudberries are used to make \"bakeapple pie\" or jam. Arctic Yup'ik mix the berries with seal oil, reindeer or caribou fat (which is diced and made fluffy with seal oil) and sugar to make \"Eskimo ice cream\" or akutaq. The recipes vary by region. Along the Yukon and Kuskokwim River areas, white fish (pike) along with shortening and sugar are used. The berries are an important traditional food resource for the Yup'ik."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Civanraq\" ( \"civanrat\" ) is fibrous leftover piece when seal oil has been obtained by heating diced seal blubber in a pan; crackling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"tangviaq\" (Y), \"tangviarrluk\" (K, BB, HBC); \"tangviarrluggaq\" (NI, CAN) \"tangevkayak ~ tangevkayagaq\" (NI) \"tangeq\" (Y, NUN, NS) seal cracklings (strip of seal blubber from which oil has been rendered)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Uqumaarrluk\" is poke fish slightly aged and stored in seal oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Meat or Flesh (\"kemek\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"kemeg\" in Cup'ig) is primary main food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Most plants were available in a variety of locales and their harvest did not dictate moving the family to specific camps. Plants that grew in abundance in specific terrain, such as several varieties of cliff greens, usually offered other resources that could be harvested at the same time (e.g., fish, Sandhill cranes). Greens such as Rumex arcticus (sour dock) could be found throughout the island and all old camp sites are said to contain buried cache pits once used for plant storage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Fried bread (\"uqulek\" Hooper Bay and Chevak, \"uqurpag\" in Cup'ig; \"alatiq\" in Bristol Bay, \"alaciq\" in Egegik from Russian \"alad\u2019i\") The \"maniaq\" (Yup'ik and Cup'ik), \"maniar\" (Cup'ig) is pancake; fried bread; roasted thing"
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "When eating a meal, Inuit place large slabs of meat, blubber, and other parts of the animal on a piece of metal, plastic, or cardboard on the floor. From here, anyone in the house is able to cut off a piece of meat. At these meals, no one is obliged to join in the meal; Inuit eat only when hungry. Sometimes, though, meals are announced to the whole camp. A woman does this by the shout of \"Ujuk!\" which means \"cooked meat\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit Nunangat",
        "text": "Inuit cuisine, also known as \"country food,\" incorporates a variety of meats (such as walrus, narwhal, bearded seal, caribou, polar bear, Arctic cod, and Arctic char, amongst others) and gathered plants (including crowberries, cloudberries, fireweed, seaweed, tubers and roots like mousefood, tuberous spring beauty, and sweet vetch) Much of the meat is served frozen, raw, or boiled, much like sushi or sashimi in Japanese cuisine. Delicacies include akutuq \u140a\u146f\u1450\u1585, an ice cream-like dessert made with fat or tallow, meat, and mixed with berries; igunaq \u1403\u148d\u14c7\u1585, a year-long fermentation of select meats; maktaaq \u14aa\u1483\u1456\u1585 (alternatively maktak \u14aa\u1483\u1455\u1483 or maktaq), frozen whale skin and blubber usually eaten raw, sometimes pickled, and occasionally finely diced, breaded, deep fried, and then served with soy sauce; Labrador tea; and various dips such as aalu \u140b\u14d7 (intended for meat made from the choice parts of caribou or seal, chopped into tiny pieces and blended with melted fat and blood), misiraq \u14a5\u14ef\u154b\u1585 (aged to resemble an aromatic white wine, made from seal or whale blubber), and nirukkaq \u14c2\u1548\u1483\u1472\u1585 (a smooth made p\u00e2t\u00e9 made from the contents of a caribou's stomach)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Alaskan Yup'ik language",
        "text": "In Yup\u02bcik, word order is freer because the rich inflectional system often serves to unambiguously identify thematic relations without recourse to word order. The Yup'ik sentences \"Qimugtem keggellrua agayulirta\" (dog. bit preacher.) and \"Agayulirta keggellrua qimugtem\" (preacher. bit dog.) both mean \"the dog bit the preacher\", for instance: the word order varies between these sentences, but the fact that \"qimugtem\" (\"dog\") is marked with ergative case (\"-m\") is sufficient to identify it as the thematic agent. Thus, to say \"the preacher bit the dog\" in Yup'ik, one would need change which noun gets ergative case and which gets absolutive: \"qimugta keggellrua agayulirtem\" (dog. bit preacher.)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Cooking (\"kenir-\") is the process of preparing food for consumption with the use of heat. There are very many methods of cooking. These include roasting (\"maniar-\"), barbecuing, baking (\"uute-\"), frying (\"assali-, asgir-\"), smoking (\"puyurte-, aruvarqi-, aruvir-\"), boiling (\"ega-\"), and steaming (\"puyiar(ar)-\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inuit cuisine",
        "text": "Searles defines Inuit food as mostly \"eaten frozen, raw, or boiled, with very little mixture of ingredients and with very few spices added.\" Some preparations include:\n* : berries mixed with fat.\n* : flatbread\n* Food preservation techniques include fermenting fish and meat in the form of\n* Labrador tea\n* : a traditional soup made from seal, whale, caribou, or seabirds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Uutaq\" (lit. \u00abbaked thing\u00bb) is baked fish (also, hard candy or other hard-baked food; bread)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "Indigenous plants were an integral part of the year-round diet of Eskimo people in addition to their incorporation in other facets of their life. Contrary to the popular perception of Eskimo people surviving solely on fish and meat, the Nunivak Cup'ig utilized a large number of local plants for food, medicinal, and utilitarian purposes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yup'ik cuisine",
        "text": "\"Tepa\" ( \"Tepet\" ; lit. \u00abodor, smell, aroma, scent\u00bb) is aged or fermented salmon fish head. Known as \"aged fish head\" or \"fermented fish head\", commonly called as \"stinkheads, stink heads, stinky heads\". Tepas were considered a traditional special Yup'ik delicacy, but really the dish is something favored mostly by older Alaska Natives."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are the diets of the Alaskan Inupiat and Canadian Inuit the same?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There is overlap between the I\u00f1upiat and Inuit diets, as both groups eat berries, roots, caribou, polar bear, walrus, whale, and fish. In fact, the I\u00f1upiat can be considered \"Inuit\", as the word is an umbrella term that can describe many indigenous groups."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the main difference between the Alaskan Inupiat and Canadian Inuit diets?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How are Inuit foods generally prepared?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Inuit food are mostly \"eaten frozen, raw, or boiled, with very little mixture of ingredients and with very few spices added.\""
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you further explain how they preserve food by drying it?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I was not able to locate information specific to the Inuit, but in general, drying inhibits the growth of bacteria, yeasts, and mold through the removal of water. Water is traditionally removed through evaporation by using methods such as air drying, sun drying, smoking or wind drying, although today electric food dehydrators or freeze-drying can be used to speed the drying process and ensure more consistent results."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Interesting. How about dog food, what do they feed their dogs?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
    ],
    "topic": "Yup'ik cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": []
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Other white wine varietals grown in New Zealand include (in descending order of vineyard area) Riesling, Gew\u00fcrztraminer and Viognier, and less commonly Chenin Blanc, Albari\u00f1o, Arneis and S\u00e9millon. Riesling is produced predominantly in Martinborough and the South Island, as is Gew\u00fcrztraminer, although it is also planted extensively in Gisborne. Chenin Blanc was once more important, but the viticultural peculiarities of the variety, particularly its unpredictable cropping in New Zealand, have led to its disfavour. Nevertheless, good examples exist from Esk Valley, Margrain and Millton Estate."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand wine is produced in several of its distinct winegrowing regions. As an island country in the South Pacific Ocean, New Zealand has a largely maritime climate, although its elongated geography produces considerable regional variation from north to south. Like many other New World wines, New Zealand wine is usually produced and labelled as single varietal wines, or if blended, winemakers list the varietal components on the label. New Zealand is best known for its Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc, and more recently its dense, concentrated Pinot Noir from Marlborough, Martinborough and Central Otago."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Most New Zealand wine producers that produce Pinot Noir or Merlot also produce a ros\u00e9 style wine, although it is sometimes found made from other red varieties. New Zealand ros\u00e9 is made to drink immediately rather than age, resulting in the crisp, fresh, fruit-forward flavours popular with the New Zealand public. Well rated examples are from Forrest, Isabel, Ti Point, Whitehaven and Rapaura Springs."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Today, New Zealand is most well known internationally for red wines made from traditional French varieties. After Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir has become New Zealand's second most planted variety, while in the warmer regions, particularly Hawke's Bay and Waiheke Island, Syrah and Bordeaux-style blends of mainly Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon have been gaining recognition."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The amount of Cabernet Sauvignon in production has dropped to a third of what it was in the early 2000s and has been overtaken by a tripling of Syrah planting in that time. In the same time period, Sauvignon Blanc has grown more than five-fold and Pinot Noir has doubled. Whilst today's fashion has turned from Bordeaux blends to Pinot Noir, it also indicates the marginality of Cabernet Sauvignon in New Zealand conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand wine\n--History.\n----First steps.\n----Sauvignon Blanc breakthrough.\n--Climate and soil.\n--Industry structure and production methods.\n--Varieties, styles and directions.\n----White wines.\n------Sauvignon Blanc.\n------Chardonnay.\n------Pinot Gris.\n------Other white wines.\n----Red wines.\n------Pinot Noir.\n------Bordeaux-style blends and Syrah.\n------Other red wines.\n----Ros\u00e9.\n----Sparkling wine.\n--Wine regions of New Zealand.\n----Northland.\n----Auckland.\n------Waiheke Island.\n------Kumeu.\n------Matakana.\n----Gisborne.\n----Hawke's Bay.\n----Wairarapa.\n------Martinborough.\n----Nelson.\n----Marlborough.\n----Canterbury.\n------Waipara Valley.\n------North Canterbury.\n----Waitaki Valley.\n----Central Otago.\n------Bannockburn.\n--Trends in production and export.\n--Praise and criticism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "Various grapes were tried in the early years, but it was in the 1980s that New Zealand developed the distinctive style of Sauvignon blanc that became its trademark. Since then the Burgundy grapes of Chardonnay and Pinot noir have been developed in cooler, more southerly vineyards, with considerable success. More recently there has been increasing popularity for the 'aromatic' white varieties such as Gew\u00fcrztraminer and Riesling, with Auslese styles also being attempted."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "As is the case for other New Zealand wine, New Zealand Pinot Noir is fruit-driven, forward and early maturing in the bottle. It tends to be quite full bodied (for the variety), very approachable and oak maturation tends to be restrained. High quality examples of New Zealand Pinot Noir are distinguished by savoury, earthy flavours with a greater complexity. In an article in \"Decanter\" (September 2014), Bob Campbell suggests regional styles are starting to emerge within New Zealand Pinot Noir. Marlborough, with by far the largest plantings of Pinot, produces wines that are quite aromatic, red fruit in particular red cherry, with a firm tannic structure that provides cellaring potential."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Early success in the Hawke's Bay Region in the 1960s by McWilliams and in the 1980s by Te Mata Estate, led to a phase in the 1980s and 1990s of mainly Cabernet Sauvignon planting and wine production by large producers such as Corbans, McWilliams, and Mission Estate. As viticultural techniques were improved and tailored to New Zealand's maritime climate, other Bordeaux-style grapes were planted, and a switch of emphasis made to the more suitable, earlier-ripening Merlot. Today, Merlot is the second most planted red variety after Pinot Noir, accounting for , outweighing Cabernet Sauvignon plantings by five to one."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinot noir",
        "text": "Pinot noir is New Zealand's largest red wine variety, and second largest variety overall behind Sauvignon blanc. In 2014, Pinot noir vines covered and produced 36,500\u00a0tonnes of grapes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in New Zealand",
        "text": "Wine grapes occupied of land as of 2020, with the largest regions being Marlborough (27,808\u00a0ha), Hawke's Bay (5,034\u00a0ha), and Central Otago (1,930\u00a0ha). The largest varieties are sauvignon blanc (25,160\u00a0ha), pinot noir (5,642\u00a0ha), chardonnay (3,222\u00a0ha), pinot gris (2,593\u00a0ha) and merlot (1,087\u00a0ha). Wine exports totalled $1,807 million in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "In that same year, Pinot Noir overtook Chardonnay as New Zealand's second most-planted variety, after Sauvignon Blanc. In the decade since, its international reputation has \"gone from strength to strength\" and has performed very well in reviews and competitions; wine from Marlborough has won the Champion Pinot Noir Trophy three times at the International Wine and Spirit Competition \u2013 in 2006, 2007, and by Giesen Wines most recently in 2016. A New Zealand wine also won the 2014 Decanter International Trophy for Best in Show Pinot Noir, up against Burgundy Gevrey-Chambertin Premier Cru and other top wines from around the world. However, many of the top producers in France do not submit their wines to international competitions."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "There are some producers dedicated to establishing other red grape varieties. New Zealand has small plantings of Tempranillo, Pinotage, Montepulciano and Sangiovese in Hawke's Bay and the warmer Auckland regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand has long been best known for its Sauvignon Blanc, which dominates its wine industry. In 2017, its vines took up of vineyard area, a full 60% of New Zealand's total grape planting, and Sauvignon Blanc wine made up 86% of the nation's exports. Many critics regard New Zealand's Sauvignon Blanc as among the best in the world. Historically, Sauvignon Blanc has been used in many French regions in both AOC and Vin de pays wine, and famously Sancerre and Pouilly Fum\u00e9. Following Robert Mondavi's lead in renaming Californian Sauvignon Blanc Fum\u00e9 Blanc (partially in reference to Pouilly Fum\u00e9, but also to denote the smokiness of the wine produced from flinty soil and oak barrel ageing), there was a trend for oaked Sauvignon Blanc in New Zealand during the late 1980s. Strong oaky overtones dropped out of fashion through the 1990s but have since made a comeback, with several makers now offering oak-aged Sauvignon Blanc\u2014Greywacke, Dog Point, te Pa (Sauvignon Blanc 'Oke'), Sacred Hill (Sauvage), Jackson Estate (Grey Ghost), Hans Herzog (Sur Lie) and Saint Clair (Barrique)."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The late 1970s were early in the modern wine industry, and the comparatively low annual sunshine hours to be found in New Zealand discouraged the planting of red varieties. Despite this, some held great hopes for Pinot Noir. Initial results were mixed because of limited access to good clones, yet the Saint Helena 1984 Pinot Noir was notable enough that the Canterbury region was thought to become the New Zealand home for Pinot Noir. While the early excitement passed, the Canterbury region has witnessed the development of Pinot Noir as the dominant red variety, particularly in the now dominant Waipara sub-region. Producers include Waipara Hills, Pegasus Bay, Waipara Springs, Muddy Water, Greystone, Omihi Hills and Black Estate."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "By the 1980s, wineries in New Zealand, especially in the Marlborough region, were producing outstanding Sauvignon Blanc. It was in 1985 that the Sauvignon Blanc from Cloudy Bay Vineyards finally garnered international attention and critical acclaim for New Zealand wine. Wine writer George Taber recounts Cloudy Bay is \"what many people consider to be the world's best Sauvignon Blanc\". New Zealand's reputation is now well established; Oz Clarke wrote New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc was \"arguably the best in the world\", and Mark Oldman wrote \"New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc is like a child who inherits the best of both parents\u2014exotic aromas found in\u00a0... the New World and the pungency and limy acidity of an Old World Sauvignon Blanc like Sancerre.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcohol in New Zealand",
        "text": "In the 1970s, Montana in Marlborough started producing wines which were labelled by year of production (vintage) and grape variety (in the style of wine producers in Australia). The first production of a Sauvignon blanc of great note appears to have occurred in 1977. Also produced in that year were superior quality wines of Muller Thurgau, Riesling and Pinotage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cloudy Bay Vineyards",
        "text": "The winery is primarily noted for its Sauvignon Blanc wines, the first New Zealand wines to be exported in the 1980s, and still represent the majority of its production. The \u201cTe Koko\u201d Sauvignon Blanc is a wild-ferment, barrel-aged version that contrasts with the fruit-driven unoaked style of the original. The winery also produces Chardonnay, the \u201cPelorus\u201d sparkling and its \u201cTe Wahi\u201d Pinot Noir from Central Otago."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "There are 10 major wine-producing areas in New Zealand, with Marlborough famed for its sauvignon blanc, Gisborne for its chardonnay, and Central Otago and Martinborough building a reputation for pinot noir and pinot gris. Hawkes Bay is known for its bold cabernets and Auckland's Waiheke Island is home to one of the top 20 cabernet blends in the world. Marlborough and Hawkes Bay are New Zealand's two premium wine-growing regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand red wines are also made from the classic Bordeaux varieties, mainly Merlot, with Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Malbec, and Petit Verdot. Syrah wines from Hawke's Bay, particularly the Gimblett Gravels and Bridge Pa Triangle sub-regions, as well as farther north from Waiheke Island, have also gained a good reputation internationally."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Wine regions are located mostly in free draining alluvial valleys\u2014Hawke's Bay, Martinborough, Nelson, the Wairau and Awatere valleys of Marlborough, and Canterbury\u2014with the notable exceptions of Waiheke Island, Kawarau Gorge in Central Otago. The alluvial deposits are typically the local sandstone called greywacke, which makes up much of the mountainous spine of New Zealand."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Exports of New Zealand sparkling wines are chiefly to the United Kingdom, where the best-known examples there are the Pelorus from Cloudy Bay, now owned by LVMH, and the Special Reserve from Lindauer. More recently, exports of \"\" have been declining, halving in volume between 2005 and 2011, and now making up less than one percent of total New Zealand exports. This is due partly to a rise in popularity and production of sparkling Sauvignon Blanc, a new style of sparkling New Zealand wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Waiheke Island is an island east of Auckland in the Hauraki Gulf and is a Geographical Indication within the larger Auckland GI. It has a dry and warm mesoclimate, and is planted primarily in French red grape varieties: Syrah, Merlot, and Cabernet Sauvignon, as well as the white grape varieties Chardonnay and Pinot Gris. The Bordeaux style red wines that are produced are considered to be significantly ripe and full bodied, and some of the best in New Zealand. The Larose from Stonyridge Estate has an international reputation and is often compared with some of the best Bordeaux wine in the world, and comparing favourably with the likes of Ch\u00e2teau Latour and Ch\u00e2teau Mouton-Rothschild. Other notable wine producers are Destiny Bay Vineyards (Magna Praemia), Obsidian Vineyard, Peacock Sky, Man O'War (Dreadnought Syrah), Cable Bay, Mudbrick and Te Motu."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "While New Zealand wine traces its history to the early 19th century, the modern wine industry in New Zealand began in the mid-20th century and expanded rapidly in the early 21st century, growing by 17% a year from 2000 to 2020. In 2020, New Zealand produced from of vineyard area, of which ha (about two-thirds) is dedicated to Sauvignon Blanc. Nearly 90% of total production is exported, chiefly to the United States, Britain and Australia, reaching a record in export revenue in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Chardonnay is produced as far south as Central Otago, but plantings increase moving further north. There is little discernible difference in styles of Chardonnay between the New Zealand wine regions; individual winemakers' recipes, use of oak, and the particular qualities of a vintage have tended to blur any distinction of terroir. Almost every region is represented among the most highly rated New Zealand Chardonnays, which include wines from Kumeu River Estate (Kumeu), Church Road, Clearview, Sacred Hill, Villa Maria and Te Mata Estate (Hawke's Bay), Ata Rangi (Martinborough), Fromm (Marlborough), Neudorf (Nelson), Millton Estate (Gisborne). Although Chardonnay may be less fashionable than it was ten years ago (it has declined in vineyard area in the last ten years, losing ground to Pinot Gris), winemakers in 2016 reported strong sales and a recent upswing. It also commands higher prices than any other New Zealand white wine variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Winemaking began in Matakana in the 1960s, but the oldest, current vineyards are Heron's Flight (established 1988), Providence Wines, and Ransom Wines, established in the early 1990s. Around the turn of the century, Heron's Flight replanted its mainly Bordeaux varieties with the Italian varieties Sangiovese and Dolcetto, and many of the newer wineries, have also planted Tannat and Petit Verdot alongside the usual French varieties, as well as the Italian and Spanish varieties Barbera, Nebbiolo, Albari\u00f1o, Roussanne, and Montepulciano. As of the 2017 vintage, there were more than planted in vines, and 21 commercial grape growing/winery operations within the Matakana GI."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The next region to excel with Pinot Noir was Martinborough, east of Wellington in the Wairarapa region. Several vineyards, including Palliser Estate, Martinborough Vineyards, Murdoch James Estate (now Luna Estate) and Ata Rangi consistently produced interesting and increasingly complex wine from Pinot Noir at the end of the 1980s and into the 1990s."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "By 2020, the Wairarapa had 126 vineyards with a total area of , or about three per cent of the New Zealand total. Nearly half of this area is Pinot Noir, the remainder mostly Sauvignon Blanc, with smaller areas of Pinot Gris, Chardonnay, Riesling and Syrah."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Martinborough wineries are relatively small and typically family-owned, with the focus on producing quality rather than quantity. Relatively small yields enable Martinborough winemakers to devote themselves to handcrafting superior wines. Among the many long-established wineries, several, including Martinborough Vineyard, Schubert Wines, Te Kairanga, Ata Rangi, Palliser Estate, Luna Estate, Dry River, Escarpment, Te Hera and Craggy Range have become internationally recognised as premium producers of Pinot Noir."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "As in many places in the world, an emerging trend in New Zealand wine is an increased recognition for high quality wines coming from small boutique wineries. In 2020, these smaller producers, with a vineyard area of no more than , represented over three-quarters of New Zealand's wineries. They are located fairly evenly throughout all wine regions, with the larger producers predominantly in Marlborough, Hawke's Bay, Gisborne, and Waipara."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "In a blind tasting of New Zealand Pinot Noir in 2006, Michael Cooper reported that of the top ten wines, five came from Central Otago, four from Marlborough and one from Waipara. This compares with all top ten wines coming from Marlborough in an equivalent blind tasting in the previous year. Cooper suggested that this has to do with more Central Otago production becoming available in commercial quantities, than the relative qualities of the regions' Pinot Noir."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cabernet Sauvignon",
        "text": "In New Zealand, climate has been a challenge in finding wine regions suitable for producing Cabernet Sauvignon. Most of the industry focus has centered on the North Island. The Hawkes Bay region was the first to make a significant effort in producing Cabernet Sauvignon but the cool climate of the region, coupled with the high yields and fertile alluvial soils, produced wines that were still marked with aggressive green and vegetal flavors. Added focus on canopy management, which gives the grapes more sunlight to ripen by removing excess foliage, and low vigor rootstock and pruning combine to achieve lower yields and have started to produce better results. The grape is sometimes blended with Merlot to help compensate for climate and \"terroir\". Other regions in New Zealand have sprung up with a renewed focus on producing distinctive New Zealand Cabernet Sauvignon: The Gimblett Road and Havelock North regions of Hawkes Bay, with their warm gravel soils, have started to achieve notice as well as Waiheke Island near Auckland. Overall the grape lags far behind Pinot noir in New Zealand's red wine grape plantings."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Cloudy Bay Vineyards set a new standard for New World Sauvignon Blanc and was arguably responsible for the huge increase in interest in it, particularly in the United Kingdom. Louis Vuitton Mo\u00ebt Hennessy, a French luxury brand conglomerate, now owns a controlling interest in Cloudy Bay. Following on from the early success of Sauvignon Blanc, New Zealand has been building a strong reputation with other styles\u2014Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Cabernet/Merlot blends, Pinot Gris and Syrah to name a few."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "In 2018, the Wines of Canterbury and Waipara Valley Wine Growers associations merged to form the North Canterbury Wine Region. The Waipara region is within the area of the North Canterbury boundary, and the merged industry body promotes the use of \"North Canterbury\" for its region, although both \"North Canterbury\" and \"Waipara\" still appear on labels. Only of vineyards are planted outside the Waipara Valley GI boundary, concentrated in a few small areas such as West Melton, Banks Peninsula, Cheviot and Rolleston. Notable producers include French Peak (formerly French Farm); Melton Estate; Lone Goat, which took over Riesling vineyards from Giesen Estate; and New Zealand's only Ehrenfelser vineyard. In order of descending planting area, varieties grown in Canterbury outside Waipara Valley include Pinot Noir, Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, Pinot Gris, and Chardonnay."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "In 1973, Montana Wines, now Brancott Estate owned by Pernod Ricard, planted Marlborough's first vineyards and produced its first Sauvignon Blanc in 1979, labelled by year of production (vintage) and grape variety, in the style of wine producers in Australia. That year, superior quality wines of M\u00fcller-Thurgau, Riesling and Pinotage were also produced. Good Cabernet Sauvignon wine from Auckland and Hawke's Bay bolstered the industry with ever-increasing investment, vineyard plantings, rising land prices and greater local interest and pride. The result of this boom was over-planting, particularly in hybrids and less well regarded but high yield varietals such as M\u00fcller-Thurgau. Hoping to address this issue, a 1984 government initiative paid growers to pull up vines, but many growers used the grants to swap these varieties with more fashionable ones, particularly Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc, often keeping the old rootstock. This, combined with the introduction throughout the 1980s of much improved canopy management techniques to reduce leaf vigour and improve grape quality, set the New Zealand wine industry on course for recovery and greatly improved quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand's winemakers employ a variety of production techniques. The traditional concept of a vineyard, where grapes are grown on the land surrounding a central simply owned or family-owned estate with its own discrete viticultural and winemaking equipment and storage, is only one model. While the European cooperative model (where district or AOC village winemaking takes place in a centralized production facility) is uncommon, contract growing of fruit for winemakers has been a feature of the New Zealand industry since the start of the winemaking boom in the 1970s. Indeed, many well-known producers began as contract growers."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The region is young; the first plantings were in the early 2000s, and the local wine growers' association was formed in 2005. The 2008 global financial crisis hit just as initial interest in the area was growing, and poor initial vintages and remoteness from tourism further troubled some producers, a number of whom pulled out of the area altogether. Those that remain have been rapidly growing a reputation for the quality and individuality for the region's mainly Pinot Noir, Pinot Gris, Riesling, Chardonnay and Gew\u00fcrztraminer wines. The Pinot Noir, in particular, is proving to express a distinctive terroir, different in character from other regions of New Zealand, and more restrained and delicate than Central Otago Pinot Noir."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "UK wine writer Paul Howard praised New Zealand Pinot Noir in 2006, writing that \"comparisons with Burgundy are inevitable\" and that New Zealand Pinot Noir is:\n: \"rapidly developing its own distinctive style, often with deeper color, purer fruit and higher alcohol. While regional differences are apparent, the best wines do have Burgundy's elusive complexity, texture and 'pinosity' and are capable of ageing. It is a testament to the skill and craft of New Zealand producers that poor examples are infrequently encountered.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Auckland Geographical Indication is a small region, with a vineyard area in 2020 of and lies around New Zealand's largest city. The region produces some of New Zealand's finest Chardonnay white wines, which is the most planted variety, followed by the Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc and Malbec that produce Auckland's well regarded red Bordeaux-style wines. Soils are usually heavy clay, or small areas of volcanic-derived soils, and it is the warmest of New Zealand's vine-growing areas. There are three sub-regions within Auckland: Waiheke Island, Kumeu, and Matakana. In recent years, the hotter temperatures are allowing Auckland winemakers (for example Omaha Bay, Cooper's Creek, Heron's Flight, Matavino, and Obsidian) to experiment with Italian and Spanish grape varieties, such as Albari\u00f1o, Montepulciano, Sangiovese, Dolcetto, Temperanillo, and even Nebbiolo."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "At around this time, the first plantings of Pinot Noir in Central Otago occurred in the Kawarau Gorge. Central Otago had a long (for New Zealand) history as a producer of quality stone fruit, particularly cherries. Significantly further south than all other wine regions in New Zealand, it benefited from being surrounded by mountain ranges which increased both its daily and seasonal temperature variations, making the climate unusual in the typically maritime conditions in New Zealand, and ideal for growing Pinot Noir. Indeed, recent years have seen Pinot Noir from Central Otago win numerous international awards and accolades, and excite the interest of British wine commentators including Jancis Robinson and Oz Clarke. Not only did the wines have the distinctive acidity and abundant fruit of New Zealand wines, but they demonstrated a great deal of complexity, with aromas and flavours not common in New Zealand wine and normally associated with Burgundy wine. Notable producers include Akarua, Felton Road, Chard Farm and Mount Difficulty."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Further inland from Waipara, the limestone soils around Waikari are producing well-reviewed wine from Bell Hill and Pyramid Valley, using organic and/or biodynamic production methods, and close-planted vineyards. Farther north in Cheviot and Hanmer Springs respectively, notable producers Mt. Beautiful and Waiau River Estate (formerly Marble Point) are producing well-regarded Pinot Noir."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Many fledgling producers started out using contract fruit while waiting for their own vines to mature enough to produce production-quality fruit. Some producers use contract fruit to supplement the range of varieties they market, even using fruit from other geographical regions. For example, it is common to see an Auckland producer market a \"Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc\" or a Marlborough producer market a \"Gisborne Chardonnay\". Contract growing is an example of the use of indigenous agro-industrial methods that predate the New Zealand wine industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Otago wine region",
        "text": "The other 30% of production comes from Chardonnay, Sauvignon blanc, Riesling, Pinot gris, and Gew\u00fcrztraminer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcohol in New Zealand",
        "text": "In the 1980s, wineries in New Zealand, especially in the Marlborough region, began producing outstanding, some critics said unforgettable, Sauvignon blanc. \"New Zealand Sauvignon blanc is like a child who inherits the best of both parents\u2014exotic aromas found in certain Sauvignon blancs from the New World and the pungency and limy acidity of an Old World Sauvignon blanc like Sancerre from the Loire Valley\" (Oldman, p.\u00a0152). One critic said that drinking one's first New Zealand Sauvignon blanc was like having sex for the first time (Taber, p.\u00a0244). \"No other region in the world can match Marlborough, the northeastern corner of New Zealand's South Island, which seems to be the best place in the world to grow Sauvignon blanc grapes\" (Taber, p.\u00a0244)."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Although the majority of sparkling wines in New Zealand are made in Marlborough, there are also examples from throughout the rest of New Zealand. Quartz Reef is based in Central Otago, Church Road in Hawke's Bay, and Lindauer (originally established in Gisborne now also owned by Lion); there are makers as far north as the Auckland regions as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Waipara, in Canterbury, represents another soil type. The Omihi Hills, part of the Torlesse group of limestone deposits, are located here. Viticulturists have planted Pinot Noir here because of the French experience of the affinity between the grape type and the chalky soil on the C\u00f4te-d'Or. Even the greywacke alluvial soils in the Waipara valley floor have a higher calcium carbonate concentration than the C\u00f4te-d'Or, indicated by the milky water that flows in the Waipara River."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wine humour",
        "text": "The New Zealand producer Cooper's Creek produces a Sauvignon blanc called \"Cat's Pee on a Gooseberry Bush\" which has sold well throughout the world. This phrase to describe the distinctive taste of the New Zealand wines made from this grape variety was first coined by wine critic, Oz Clarke. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, which controls the import of alcoholic drinks into the US, insisted that the name should be changed to \"Cat's Phee on a Gooseberry Bush\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sauvignon blanc",
        "text": "In the 1990s, Sauvignon blanc wines from the maritime climatic regions of New Zealand, particularly the South Island, became popular on the wine market. In the Marlborough wine region, sandy soils over slate shingles have become the most desirable locations for plantings due to the good drainage of the soil and poor fertility that encourages the vine to concentrate its flavors in lower yields. In the flood plain of the Wairau River Valley, the soil runs in east-west bands across the area. This can create a wide diversity of flavors for vineyards that are planted north-south with the heavier soils producing more herbaceous wines from grapes that ripen late and vines planted in stonier soils ripening earlier and imparting more lush and tropical flavors. It is this difference in soils, and the types of harvest time decisions that wine producers must make, that add a unique element to New Zealand Sauvignon blanc."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Martinborough is a small wine village located east of Wellington by road, in the South Wairarapa. The combination of topography, geology, climate and human effort has led to the region becoming one of New Zealand's premier wine regions, despite its small size, particularly for Pinot Noir. The growing season from flowering to harvest is amongst the longest in New Zealand. Naturally breezy conditions control vine vigour, creating lower yields of grapes with greater intensity. A genuine cool climate, with a long, dry autumn, provides ideal ripening conditions for Pinot Noir and other varietals, such as Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Gris and Syrah. Most of the wineries are on the Martinborough terrace, a raised alluvial terrace of the nearby Ruamahanga River."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "New World wines are those wines produced outside the traditional winegrowing areas of Europe and the Middle East, in particular from Argentina, Australia, Canada, Chile, Mexico, New Zealand, South Africa and the United States (primarily California). The phrase connotes a distinction between these \"New World\" wines and those wines produced in \"Old World\" countries with a long-established history of wine productionmost notably, France, Italy, Germany, Spain and Portugal."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Typically, these Bordeaux blends come from the hotter and drier regions of New Zealand, largely in the Hawke's Bay Region. Wines that typify the best of Hawke's Bay include Elephant Hill's Airavata, Te Mata Estate's Coleraine, Craggy Range's Sophia, Newton Forrest Estate's Cornerstone, Esk Valley's The Terraces and Villa Maria's Reserve Merlot and Cabernet. Waiheke Island, whilst a very small viticultural region, also produces acclaimed red wines like the Larose from Stonyridge, the Dreadnought and Ironclad from Man O' War, wines from Destiny Bay, and Goldie Estate. In Marlborough, Hans Herzog Estate is famous for making the Spirit of Marlborough, and examples of Bordeaux blends can be found as far south as Waipara, where the Maestro from Pegasus Bay also demonstrates the shift from Cabernet Sauvignon to Merlot predominant blends."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinot noir",
        "text": "Pinot noir is a grape variety whose \"importance\" in New Zealand is extremely high. However, initial results were not promising for several reasons, including high levels of leaf roll virus in older plantings, and, during the 1960s and 1970s, the limited number and indifferent quality of Pinot noir clones available for planting. However, since this time importation of high quality clones and much-improved viticulture and winemaking has seen Pinot noir, from Martinborough in the north to Central Otago in the south, become a major factor in New Zealand's reputation as a wine producer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chardonnay",
        "text": "Despite being more famous for its Sauvignon blanc production, Chardonnay was New Zealand's most widely planted grape variety from 1990 till 2002 when Sauvignon blanc finally surpassed it. The east coast of the North Island, in places like Hawke's Bay and Wairarapa, have seen the most success with Chardonnay wine that has noticeable acidity and leanness. As better clonal varieties are discovered and planted, the overall quality of New Zealand Chardonnay have increased, particularly from places like Canterbury, Marlborough and Nelson. Some producers in the Gisborne region have recently developed a cult following for their Chardonnay among New Zealand wine drinkers. While many New Zealand winemakers are still developing a characteristic style, the Chardonnay produced so far have emphasized the grape's affinity for oak."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Winemaking and viticulture date back to New Zealand's colonial era. British Resident James Busby, a keen oenologist who had also established wine regions in Australia such as the Hunter Valley, was producing wine on his land near Waitangi for locally stationed British soldiers in 1836. In 1851, French Marist missionaries established a vineyard in Hawke's Bay for making Communion wine. Now part of the Mission Estate Winery, it is the oldest commercial vineyard in New Zealand. William Henry Beetham is recognised as being the first person to plant Pinot Noir and Hermitage (Syrah) grapes in New Zealand at his Lansdowne, Masterton, vineyard in 1881. In 1895, the New Zealand government's Department of Agriculture invited the expert consultant viticulturist and oenologist Romeo Bragato to investigate winemaking possibilities. After tasting Beetham's Hermitage, he concluded that New Zealand and the Wairarapa in particular were \"pre-eminently suited to viticulture.\" His French wife, Marie Zelie Hermance Frere Beetham, supported Beetham in his endeavours. Their partnership and innovation to pursue winemaking helped form the basis of modern New Zealand's viticulture practices. Dalmatian immigrants arriving in New Zealand in the late 19th and early 20th centuries brought with them viticultural knowledge and planted vineyards in West and North Auckland. Typically, their vineyards produced table wine and fortified wine to suit the palates of their communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Te Mata Estate",
        "text": "Te Mata Estate is regarded as New Zealand's finest producer of Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot blends, and produces a variety of other well-known wines including the \"Bullnose\" Syrah from the Bridge Pa Triangle, \"Awatea\" Cabernets/Merlot blend, Estate Vineyards Gamay Noir, the \"Zara\" Viognier, the \"Elston\" Chardonnay and \"Cape Crest\" Sauvignon Blanc \u2013 a barrel-fermented sauvignon blend similar in style to a Graves region, or southern Bordeaux white wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Well-known Waitaki wine producers include Valli, Pasquale, Ostler, Lone Hill, and John Forrest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sauvignon blanc",
        "text": "The long narrow geography of the South Island ensures that no vineyard is more than from the coast. The cool, maritime climate of the area allows for a long and steady growing season in which the grapes can ripen and develop a natural balance of acids and sugars. This brings out the flavors and intensity that distinguish New Zealand Sauvignon blancs. More recently, Waipara in the South Island and Gisborne and Hawkes Bay in the North Island have been attracting attention for their Sauvignon blanc releases, which often exhibit subtle differences to those from Marlborough. The asparagus, gooseberry and green flavor commonly associated with New Zealand Sauvignon blanc is derived from flavor compounds known as methoxypyrazines that becomes more pronounced and concentrated in wines from cooler climate regions. Riper flavors such as passion fruit, along with other notes such as boxwood, may be driven by thiol concentrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marlborough wine region",
        "text": "Early settlers in Marlborough planted vines as early as the 1870s. A small block of Brown Muscat was planted in 1873 by David Herd, but in 1931 his son pulled up the last of the vines, and no others were recorded in the region for the next forty years. Commercial wine-making began in earnest only in 1973 when the first large-scale vineyards were planted by Montana Wines, at the time New Zealand's largest producer (now Brancott Estate, owned by Pernod Ricard). Meanwhile in 1975 Daniel Le Brun, a Champagne maker, emigrated to New Zealand to begin producing m\u00e9thode traditionelle in Marlborough. Wineries in the Marlborough region were producing outstanding Sauvignon Blanc by the early 1980s, and in 1985 the Sauvignon Blanc from Cloudy Bay Vineyards finally garnered international attention and critical acclaim for New Zealand wine. Wine writer George Taber recounted in 2006 that Cloudy Bay is \"what many people consider to be the world's best Sauvignon Blanc\" and Oz Clarke wrote that New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc is \"arguably the best in the world.\" The suitability of the region and later success of Daniel Le Brun's sparkling wines were also sufficient to attract significant investment from Champagne producers."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "Wine was first produced in South Africa by the founder of Cape Town in 1659, and by the late 18th century Constantia, made from Muscat de Frontignan (Muscat Blanc \u00e0 Petits Grains), was popular among European royalty. However the vineyards were decimated by phylloxera and the KWV cooperative that ran most of the industry since 1918 gave little encouragement to produce quality wine. The end of apartheid sparked a wave of investment and innovation in the vineyards of the Cape, although there remains large areas of undistinguished grape varieties such as Colombard. Stellenbosch and Paarl can produce world-class wines from the Bordeaux varieties, Shiraz and also from Pinotage, a variety bred locally from Pinot noir and Cinsaut. South Africa is also the second home of Chenin blanc, known until the mid-20th century as Steen; Muscat Blanc \u00e0 Petits Grains is known locally as red and white Muscadel, and is once again being used to make Constantia."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand's newest winegrowing region is on the border of Otago and Canterbury. The Waitaki Valley GI is defined as the southern bank of the Waitaki River up to elevation, along a narrow strip of approximately between the towns of Duntroon and Omarama. The area contains north-facing limestone hillsides and escarpments, and Burgundy-like limestone alluvial soils. The climate is a combination of the cool, maritime influence from the Pacific Ocean and the warm, dry summer and autumn weather in the rain shadow of the Southern Alps. In a good year, the warm summer and long dry autumn in the Waitaki Valley can produce one of the longest growing seasons in New Zealand. The grapes reach full ripeness and produce complex, well-balanced wine. However, the weather year-to-year is so variable and frost-susceptible that some years have been simply too cold to produce a reliable harvest."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Waipara Valley is a Geographical Indication and sub-region of the larger Canterbury GI, about north of Christchurch. The valley floor provides a warm micro-climate ideal for viticulture. To the west, the Southern Alps temper the prevailing westerly winds and provide a rain shadow, and to the east, low coastal limestone ridges moderate the cool ocean winds. In the 1970s, the first vineyard to be planted was Pegasus Bay, which established a reputation for its Riesling wine. The region makes up the bulk of Canterbury's plantings, which by 2017 was a total vineyard area of , well known for its Pinot Noir, of which is planted. Liam Steevenson MW has described Waipara as possibly the \"most exciting place to grow Pinot Noir\". Good examples of the region's Pinot Noir include those from Black Estate, Bellbird Spring, Fancrest Estate, Muddy Water, Greystone, Waipara Springs, Pegasus Bay and Crater Rim. Greystone Wines won the \"Decanter\" International Trophy for Pinot Noir in 2014 and the Air New Zealand Trophy for Pinot Noir. Black Estate was awarded the Trophy for Best Pinot Noir at the International Wine & Spirits Competition in 2010. White wines of the region include varietal wines, most commonly of Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, Pinot Gris, and Chardonnay."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Hawke's Bay is New Zealand's oldest and second-largest wine region, and includes the Gimblett Gravels, Bridge Pa Triangle and Te Mata Special Character Zone sub-regions. It is best known for its Merlot and Syrah red wines, and white wines mainly from Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc and Viognier."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Marlborough is by far the largest wine region in New Zealand, accounting for three-quarters of the country's total wine production and 70% of its planted vineyard area. Internationally it is also the most recognised, its wines accounting for 85% of New Zealand's 2019 wine exports. Marlborough is well known internationally for its Sauvignon Blanc, and its Pinot Noir is also attracting attention."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corbans",
        "text": "By the 1960s, Corbans produced New Zealand's first commercial M\u00fcller-Thurgau, Pinotage, and Chardonnay wines, and were pioneering many new developments in winemaking such as using cultured yeast and temperature-control during fermentation, and the use of stainless steel tanks and press machinery. At the same time however, the family struggled to finance increasing competition with Montana Wines. New Zealand food wholesaler Rothman Industries (later Magnum Corporation) took a shareholding, and by 1979 had taken full control."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Pinot Gris emerged in the early 2000s from almost nowhere to the country's fourth most planted variety in 2017, having overtaken Riesling in 2007. It is planted mostly in Marlborough, Hawke's Bay and Gisborne, with the remainder in the South Island. Some of the initial plantings of Pinot Gris were identified later as Flora; indeed, some Auckland winemakers have incorporated this mishap into their Flora wine names, such as \"The Rogue\" from Ascension and \"The Impostor\" from Omaha Bay Vineyards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marlborough Region",
        "text": "The Marlborough climate has a strong contrast between hot sunny days and cool nights, which extends the ripening period of the vines. This results in more intense flavour and aroma characters in the wine. The first commercial vineyards were planted around Blenheim in 1973, and Marlborough subsequently grew to become New Zealand's largest and most internationally well-known wine-producing region. Due to this growth, particularly in the export market, the Marlborough wine region now produces three quarters of all New Zealand wine. The most important varietal is Sauvignon Blanc, which is recognised as world class; wine writers Oz Clarke and George Taber have described Marlborough's Sauvignon Blanc as the best in the world. Also important is the production of m\u00e9thode traditionelle sparkling wine made from Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, which has attracted investment from large Champagne producers Mumm, Deutz, Mo\u00ebt & Chandon and Veuve Clicquot."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "New Zealand has a successful wine industry, with about 76 million litres being exported in the year to June 2007. The first vines are thought to have been introduced by missionary Samuel Marsden, and planted in 1817 by Charles Gordon, superintendent of agriculture for the missionaries, according to Dr Richard Smart who was viticultural editor of both editions of The Oxford Companion to Wine. Official British resident James Busby is credited with producing wine at Kerikeri in 1833, and Charles Darwin noted the winery in his diary when he visited Kerikeri in 1835."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Northland is the most northerly wine region in New Zealand, and thus closest to the equator. A Geographical Indication since October 2017, it is also the smallest GI, producing 269 tonnes in 2020 from an area of under vines. Although Chardonnay is the most planted variety, Northland is most well known for ripe Syrah red wines, and white wines from Pinot Gris, which together comprise the top three planted varieties. Some Northland wineries are also making wine from warmer climate grapes such as Montepulciano, Chambourcin and Pinotage. The combination of high summer temperatures and high rainfall can be challenging for viticulture; although irrigation is not needed, the humidity can encourage some pests and diseases. The fertile soils and Northland climate also results in high vine productivity, requiring good vineyard management to limit yields in order to ensure better quality wines. Consequently, Northland tends to produce ripe wines, with low acidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nikola Nobilo",
        "text": "Nobilo continued to produce wines after the acquisition. Nobilo Wines were named New Zealand's wine producer of the year in 2003. Nobilo's sauvignon blanc also won the award for best sauvignon blanc at the international wine and spirit competition in 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Riesling",
        "text": "Riesling was first planted in New Zealand in the 1970s and has flourished in the relatively cool climate of the Marlborough area and for late harvests in the Nelson region. In comparison to Australian Riesling, New Zealand produces lighter and more delicate wines that range from sweet to dry. Home of cool climate wines, Central Otago, has recently emerged as another area producing terroir driven wines."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "sparkling wine is produced in New Zealand. In 1956, Selaks in Kumeu made the first commercial sparkling wine called Champelle. In 1975, Daniel Le Brun, a Champagne maker, emigrated to New Zealand to begin producing in Marlborough. The suitability of the Marlborough terroir and success of the wines produced over the next 20 years were sufficient to attract investment from large Champagne producers, most notably Deutz and Mo\u00ebt & Chandon. Today, the Le Brun family continues to produce well-awarded sparkling wine, operating as No. 1 Family Estate, after Lion acquired the Daniel Le Brun name. In 2013, several Marlborough producers established M\u00e9thode Marlborough, a collaborative organisation to standardise and promote the brand both domestically and internationally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sauvignon blanc",
        "text": "Winemakers in New Zealand and Chile harvest the grapes at various intervals for the different blending characteristics that the grape can impart depending on its ripeness levels. At its most unripe stage, the grape is high in malic acid. As it progresses further towards ripeness the grape develops red & green pepper flavors and eventually achieves a balance of sugars. The flavors characteristic of Sauvignon blanc come from the chemicals \"methoxypyrazines\". Grapes grown in Marlborough's Wairau Valley may exhibit different levels of ripeness over the vineyard, caused by slight unevenness in the land and giving a similar flavor profile to the resulting wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Wairarapa winegrowing region, a Geographical Indication since October 2017, is one of New Zealand's smallest. It contains two GI sub-regions, Gladstone and Martinborough, as well as Masterton and Opaki. Martinborough was the original area planted on the basis of careful scientific study in the 1970s, which identified its soils and climate as perfectly suited to the cultivation of Pinot Noir. As a consequence, many of the vineyards established there are older than their counterparts in the rest of the Wairarapa. In general, the area lies in the rain shadow of the Tararua Range, which gives it a warm climate with relatively low rainfall. Subtle differences are seen in the wines from the South Wairarapa (which includes Martinborough), which has more maritime influences, to those grown farther north in Gladstone and Masterton."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baco blanc",
        "text": "But since the mid to late 20th century, the grape variety has fallen out of favor among French wine producers who are continuing pulling up their hybrid grapes and returning to \"vinifera\"-only plantings (which are permitted for \"Appellation d'Origine Contr\u00f4l\u00e9e\" AOC wines). Even in its Armagnac stronghold, Baco blanc vines are being uprooted and replanted with Ugni blanc. Similarly, Baco blanc experienced a brief period of popularity in the emerging New Zealand wine industry during the 20th century but as that century drew to a close, New Zealand producers also turned away from the variety to concentrate on \"vinifera\" grapes such as M\u00fcller-Thurgau, Chardonnay and Sauvignon blanc. Today, what little Baco blanc is left in New Zealand is used primarily for distillations and spirits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chilean wine",
        "text": "Vines were first planted here in the mid-16th century and have seen a recent resurgence, due to new technologies and winemakers seeking new terroirs. The area is best known for producing Sauvignon and Chardonnay, first planted during the 1990s, and also successfully produces Syrah and Pinot noir, with a climate similar to Marlborough in New Zealand."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The wine regions in New Zealand stretch from latitudes 36\u00b0S in the north (Northland) (comparable in latitude to Jerez, Spain), to 45\u00b0S (Central Otago) in the south (comparable in latitude to Bordeaux, France). New Zealand's climate is maritime, meaning that the sea moderates the weather, producing cooler summers and milder winters than would be expected at similar latitudes in Europe and North America. Maritime climates tend to demonstrate higher variability with cold snaps possible at any time of the year and warm periods even in the depth of winter. The climate is typically wetter, but wine regions have developed in rain shadows and in the east, on the opposite coast from the prevailing moisture-laden wind. The wine regions of New Zealand tend to experience cool nights even in the hottest of summers. The effect of consistently cool nights is to produce fruit, which is nearly always high in acidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Kawarau valley has a thin and patchy topsoil over a bedrock that is schist. Early growers blasted holes into the bare rock of north-facing slopes with miners' caps to provide planting holes for the vines. These conditions necessitate irrigation and make the vines work hard for nutrients. Irrigation, low cropping techniques, and the thermal effect of the rock produces great intensity for the grapes and subsequent wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marlborough wine region",
        "text": "New Zealand's plantings of Sauvignon Blanc experienced enormous growth in the 21st century, driven almost exclusively by investment in the Marlborough region. Vineyard area of the grape expanded from in 2003 to in 2018, a five-fold increase in just 15 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Nelson has the sunniest climate in New Zealand, with an annual average sunshine total of over 2400 hours, approximately equivalent to Tuscany. The long autumns permit the production of fine late-harvest wines. There are two sub-regions in Nelson: Waimea and Moutere Valley. Notable wineries from the region include Neudorf Vineyards, awarded Raymond Chan's 2012 Winery of the Year and Seifried Estate Winery, who have won Champion Open White Wine, Champion Sauvignon Blanc and Best Wine - Nelson at the New Zealand Wine Awards in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sauvignon blanc",
        "text": "Sauvignon blanc can be greatly influenced by decisions in the winemaking process. One decision is the amount of contact that the must has with the skins of the grape. In the early years of the New Zealand wine industry, there were no wineries in the South Island, which meant that freshly harvested grapes had to be trucked and then ferried to the North Island, often all the way up to Auckland. This allowed for prolonged exposure of the skins and juice which sharpened the intensity and pungency of the wine. Some winemakers, like the Loire, intentionally leave a small amount of must to spend some time in contact with the skin for later blending purposes. Other winemakers, like in California, generally avoid any contact with the skin due to the reduced aging ability of the resulting wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "Small vineyards were also planted by French settlers in Akaroa in the 1840s. However wine was drunk in relatively small quantities well into the twentieth century, with the average per capita consumption only about 2.6 litres in 1966. The high price of imported wines probably prevented New Zealanders from developing a taste for wine, although it did help sales of local vintages. The quality of these wines slowly improved, with New Zealand wines winning three gold and 13 silver medals at the International Wine Fair in 1963. Aided by the deregulation of the economy in the 1980s and 1990s, domestic wine consumption increased and New Zealand wine won increasing accolades internationally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sauvignon blanc",
        "text": "In Australia, particularly the Margaret River region, the grape is often blended with S\u00e9millon. Varietal styles, made from only the Sauvignon blanc grape, from Adelaide Hills and Padthaway have a style distinctive from their New Zealand neighbors that tend to be more ripe in flavor with white peach and lime notes and slightly higher acidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Merlot",
        "text": "In New Zealand, plantings of Merlot have increased in the Hawke's Bay region, particularly in Gimblett Gravels where the grape has shown the ability to produce Bordeaux-style wine. The grape has been growing in favor among New Zealand producers due to its ability to ripen better, with less green flavors, than Cabernet Sauvignon. Other regions with significant plantings include Auckland, Marlborough and Martinborough. In 2008, Merlot was the second most widely red grape variety (after Pinot noir) in New Zealand and accounted for nearly 5% of all the country's plantings with in cultivation."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Canterbury Geographical Indication covers wine made anywhere within the Canterbury region of New Zealand, a very large area of some . In practice, almost all the region's vineyards are concentrated in a relatively small area around the city of Christchurch, which has prompted the establishment of two more specific GIs within it. North Canterbury is simply the top half of the larger Canterbury GI north of the Rakaia River, and Waipara Valley, a small area about north of Christchurch which accounts for the majority of Canterbury's total vineyard plantings."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Although the Gisborne GI established in October 2017 covers most of the East Cape Gisborne District, most of the of vineyard area in 2020 is concentrated in a relatively small area around Gisborne city. The fertile Gisborne region originally grew prodigious grape yields throughout the mid-20th Century, which was mostly used to make fortified and cask wines. In the 1980s, a shift away from cask wine for better quality, bottled still wine meant that huge areas of bulk varieties, most notably M\u00fcller-Thurgau, were uprooted and replaced with Chardonnay and Gew\u00fcrztraminer, for which the region is well known today. It is also the world's most easterly vine-producing region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcohol in New Zealand",
        "text": "Wine making and vine growing go back to colonial times in New Zealand. British Resident and keen oenologist James Busby was, as early as 1836, attempting to produce wine at his land in Waitangi. In 1851 New Zealand's oldest existing vineyard was established by French Roman Catholic missionaries at Mission Estate Winery in Hawke's Bay. Due to economic (the importance of animal agriculture and the protein export industry), legislative (prohibition and the temperance) and cultural factors (the overwhelming predominance of beer and spirit drinking British immigrants), wine was for many years a marginal activity in terms of economic importance. Dalmatian immigrants arriving in New Zealand at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century brought with them viticultural knowledge and planted vineyards in West and North Auckland. Typically, their vineyards produced sherry and port for the palates of New Zealanders of the time, and table wine for their own community."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "This pervasive use of stainless steel had a distinctive effect on both New Zealand wine styles and the domestic palate. The early wines, which made a stir internationally, were lauded for the intensity and purity of the fruit in the wine. Indeed, the strength of flavour in the wine accommodated very dry styles, despite intense acidity. While stainless steel did not produce the intensity of fruit, it allowed for its exploitation. Even today, New Zealand white wines tend toward the drier end of the spectrum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian wine",
        "text": "Wine is produced in every state, with more than 60 designated wine regions totalling approximately 160,000 hectares; however Australia's wine regions are mainly in the southern, cooler parts of the country, with vineyards located in South Australia, New South Wales, Victoria, Western Australia, Tasmania and Queensland. The wine regions in each of these states produce different wine varieties and styles that take advantage of the particular Terroir such as: climatic differences, topography and soil types. The major varieties are predominantly Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Merlot, Semillon, Pinot noir, Riesling, and Sauvignon blanc. Wines are often labelled with the name of their grape variety, which must constitute at least 85 percent of the wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "The New Zealand viticulture industry was started in a small way by Croatian immigrants at the end of the 19th century, but it was not until the 1970s that it began to flourish. Several factors came together at that time - Britain's entry into the European Economic Community in 1973 ended favourable terms of agricultural trade, while New Zealanders themselves developed a taste for wine as local alcohol licensing laws changed and cheap air travel exposed them to different cultures."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New law came into force in New Zealand in 2017 that established a Geographical Indication (GI) classification for New Zealand wine, equivalent to the European Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) classification and the American Viticultural Areas in the United States. In 2017, a total of 18 applications were lodged with the GI register at the Intellectual Property Office of New Zealand, and registrations were complete by early 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canterbury, New Zealand",
        "text": "The region's viticulture industry was established by French settlers in Akaroa. Since then, wine-growing is concentrated into two regions: Waipara and Burnham. Recently there have been vintages from plantings from Kurow further to the south. White wine has typically predominated in Canterbury from Riesling, Sauvignon blanc, Chardonnay, Gew\u00fcrztraminer, and to a lesser extent Pinot blanc and Pinot gris. Pinot noir has had some success in the province particularly in Waipara."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawke's Bay wine region",
        "text": "The Hawke's Bay wine region is New Zealand's oldest and second-largest wine-production region, on the east coast of the North Island. Production reached 41,000 tonnes in 2018 from of planted vines, representing 10.2% of total national production. Some of the oldest wineries still operating in New Zealand, including Te Mata Estate, Church Road, and Mission Estate, were established in the Hawke's Bay area in the late 19th century. Despite this, it was only established as a geographical indication (GI) in 2018. The GI protects any wine produced within the boundaries of the entire Hawke's Bay Region, but in practice the vineyards are chiefly concentrated in the plains and low hills surrounding the cities of Napier and Hastings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Invivo Wines",
        "text": "Invivo Wines has two main brands: the \"Invivo\" brand produces New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Gris, Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, from the Marlborough and Central Otago regions, including a higher tier range with a \"Michelle's\" label. Invivo's Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc won Winestates Sauvignon Blanc of the Year 2020. The \"Graham Norton's Own\" brand produces a New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc and Ros\u00e9, a South Australian Shiraz, an Argentinean He-Devil Red Blend, an Italian DOC Prosecco and DOC Ros\u00e9 Prosecco, as well as two Gins - an Irish Gin in the London Dry style and a pink Gin. In 2019 Invivo entered a partnership with Sarah Jessica Parker to produce the \"Invivo X\" range, including a Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc and a Proven\u00e7al ros\u00e9. Invivo X, SJP has received 90 points from Wine Spectator for their first two vintages of Sauvignon Blanc as well as being named one of the Top 100 wines in the world. Previously, Invivo also produced \"Belle\", a label for low calorie, low alcohol Sauvignon Blanc and Ros\u00e9 wines at 9% ABV, and a \"Scarlett's Spritzer\" range of sparkling natural fruit-infused drinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "Subsequently, New World winemakers have 'rediscovered' the art of blending wines, with blends such as Shiraz/Cabernet Sauvignon, Semillon/Sauvignon blanc and the Rhone combination of Grenache, Shiraz and Mourvedre (\"GSM\") all becoming more common. And as New World viticulturists have better understood the soils and climates of their vineyards, terroir has come to the New World, with the 'terra rossa' of Coonawarra known for its Cabernet Sauvignons, and the Eden Valley and Clare Valley and Chile's B\u00edo-B\u00edo Valley for Riesling."
      },
      {
        "title": "New South Wales wine",
        "text": "New South Wales wine is Australian wine produced in New South Wales, Australia. New South Wales is Australia's most populous state and its wine consumption far outpaces the region's wine production. The Hunter Valley, located north of Sydney, is the most well-known wine region but the majority of the state's production takes place in the Big Rivers zone-Perricoota, Riverina and along the Darling and Murray Rivers. The wines produced from the Big Rivers zone are largely used in box wine and mass-produced wine brands such as Yellow Tail. A large variety of grapes are grown in New South Wales, including Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Shiraz and S\u00e9millon."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "Since New World vineyards are generally in hotter climates than those of Central-Northern Europein fact some major New World regions are irrigated desertNew World grapes tend to be riper. Thus New World wines tend to be correspondingly more alcoholic and full-bodied. Critics such as Robert M. Parker, Jr. have influenced New World producers and consumers towards a fruitier style, with more use of new oak. However, in recent years there has been a reaction against some of the very oaky, alcoholic styles that typified late 1980s Australian Chardonnays for example, as cooler vineyards have been identified and winemakers have become more sophisticated and more restrained."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "For the first half of the 20th century, economic, legislative and cultural factors made wine a marginal economic activity. The most common use of land in New Zealand during this period was for animal agriculture, and the exports of dairy, meat, and wool dominated the economy. Most New Zealanders were of British descent, and favoured beer and spirits; the temperance movement further reduced the national appreciation for wine. The Great Depression of the 1930s also hampered the growth of the fledgling industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Garage Project",
        "text": "In 2017 Garage Project announced they would also begin production of natural wines called \"GP Crushed\", made at their central Wellington location. The initial launch features four wines: a Riesling bottled mid-fermentation and spiked with Lactobacillus, a 100% Brettanomyces fermented New Zealand Chardonnay, a Pinot Noir that has undergone carbonic maceration before being spiked with Brett, and a Sauvignon/Semillon blend that has been bottled p\u00e9t-nat. More wild wines are due to be released in 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "While some Australian wines, their Chardonnays in particular, have previously been criticized for being over-oaked and over-ripe, Australian winemaking is now some of the most sophisticated in the world, with vineyards increasingly planted in cooler climates, such as Pinot noir in Tasmania, and unoaked wines becoming popular. Several regional specialities have emerged, notably Shiraz in the Barossa Valley, Cabernet Sauvignon in Coonawarra, Riesling in the Eden Valley and Clare Valley, and Hunter Valley S\u00e9millon. Rutherglen Muscats are perhaps the finest fortified wines of the New World."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sauvignon blanc",
        "text": "Along with Riesling, Sauvignon blanc was one of the first fine wines to be bottled with a screwcap in commercial quantities, especially by New Zealand producers. The wine is usually consumed young and does not particularly benefit from aging, as varietal Sauvignon blancs tend to develop vegetal aromas reminiscent of peas and asparagus with extended aging. Dry and sweet white Bordeaux, including oak-aged examples from Pessac-L\u00e9ognan and Graves, as well as some Loire wines from Pouilly-Fum\u00e9 and Sancerre are some of the few examples of Sauvignon blancs with aging potential."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Besides Sauvinon Blanc, Pinot Noir, and Martinboroguh, are there any other types of wine produced?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "There are single species grapes that are used for wine or eating as well as multispecies hybrids, do you wish to know examples for single species or hybrid species?",
      "Are you asking about the production of other types of French wine, White wine, or Red wine?"
    ],
    "topic": "New Zealand wine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "List of grape varieties:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "List of grape varieties",
          "Multispecies hybrid grapes",
          "Vinifera hybrids (wine)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Hybrid grape varieties (see Hybrid grapes) or \"hybrids\" is, in fact, the popular term for a subset of what are properly known as \"hybrids\", specifically crossings between one species of the genus vitis and another. The scientific definition of a hybrid grape is any crossing (intra- or inter-specific) of two grape varieties. In keeping with the popular definition, however, the ones listed below are inter-specific hybrids where one parent is a European grape. Most of these are complex mixtures of three or more species and all parents are not always clearly known."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "List of grape varieties:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "List of grape varieties",
          "Single species grapes"
        ],
        "ctx": "While some of the grapes in this list are hybrids, they are hybridized within a single species. For those grapes hybridized across species, known as interspecific hybrids, see the section on multispecies hybrid grapes below.\n* Black Corinth\n* Black Monukka\n* Black Rose\n* Cardinal\n* Mazzarrone\n* Red Corinth\n* Red Globe\n* Valencia\n* Red Flame\n* Richard Walden\n* Agh Shani\n* Calmeria\n* Centennial\n* Cotton Candy grapes\n* Koshu\n* Malingre Pr\u00e9coce\n* Mazzarrone\n* Moonballs\n* Perlette\n* Rozaki\n* Shine Muscat\n* Sugraone\n* Sultana / Thompson Seedless\n* Superior Seedless (Menindee Seedless)\n* Valvin Muscat\n* White Corinth"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "List of grape varieties:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "List of grape varieties"
        ],
        "ctx": "This list of grape varieties includes cultivated grapes, whether used for wine, or eating as a table grape, fresh or dried (raisin, currant, sultana). For a complete list of all grape species including those unimportant to agriculture, see Vitis."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Red wine:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Red wine"
        ],
        "ctx": "Red wine is a type of wine made from dark-colored grape varieties. The color of the wine can range from intense violet, typical of young wines, through to brick red for mature wines and brown for older red wines. The juice from most purple grapes is greenish-white, the red color coming from anthocyan pigments present in the skin of the grape. Much of the red wine production process involves extraction of color and flavor components from the grape skin."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "White wine:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "White wine"
        ],
        "ctx": "White wine is a wine that is fermented without skin contact. The colour can be straw-yellow, yellow-green, or yellow-gold. It is produced by the alcoholic fermentation of the non-coloured pulp of grapes, which may have a skin of any colour. White wine has existed for at least 4,000 years."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "French wine:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "French wine"
        ],
        "ctx": "French wine is produced all throughout France, in quantities between 50 and 60\u00a0million hectolitres per year, or 7\u20138\u00a0billion bottles. France is one of the largest wine producers in the world, along with Italian, Spanish, and American wine-producing regions. French wine traces its history to the 6th century BC, with many of France's regions dating their wine-making history to Roman times. The wines produced range from expensive wines sold internationally to modest wines usually only seen within France such as the Margnat wines were during the post war period."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Today, New Zealand is most well known internationally for red wines made from traditional French varieties. After Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir has become New Zealand's second most planted variety, while in the warmer regions, particularly Hawke's Bay and Waiheke Island, Syrah and Bordeaux-style blends of mainly Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon have been gaining recognition."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "There are some producers dedicated to establishing other red grape varieties. New Zealand has small plantings of Tempranillo, Pinotage, Montepulciano and Sangiovese in Hawke's Bay and the warmer Auckland regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Early success in the Hawke's Bay Region in the 1960s by McWilliams and in the 1980s by Te Mata Estate, led to a phase in the 1980s and 1990s of mainly Cabernet Sauvignon planting and wine production by large producers such as Corbans, McWilliams, and Mission Estate. As viticultural techniques were improved and tailored to New Zealand's maritime climate, other Bordeaux-style grapes were planted, and a switch of emphasis made to the more suitable, earlier-ripening Merlot. Today, Merlot is the second most planted red variety after Pinot Noir, accounting for , outweighing Cabernet Sauvignon plantings by five to one."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The amount of Cabernet Sauvignon in production has dropped to a third of what it was in the early 2000s and has been overtaken by a tripling of Syrah planting in that time. In the same time period, Sauvignon Blanc has grown more than five-fold and Pinot Noir has doubled. Whilst today's fashion has turned from Bordeaux blends to Pinot Noir, it also indicates the marginality of Cabernet Sauvignon in New Zealand conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinot noir",
        "text": "Pinot noir is New Zealand's largest red wine variety, and second largest variety overall behind Sauvignon blanc. In 2014, Pinot noir vines covered and produced 36,500\u00a0tonnes of grapes."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The late 1970s were early in the modern wine industry, and the comparatively low annual sunshine hours to be found in New Zealand discouraged the planting of red varieties. Despite this, some held great hopes for Pinot Noir. Initial results were mixed because of limited access to good clones, yet the Saint Helena 1984 Pinot Noir was notable enough that the Canterbury region was thought to become the New Zealand home for Pinot Noir. While the early excitement passed, the Canterbury region has witnessed the development of Pinot Noir as the dominant red variety, particularly in the now dominant Waipara sub-region. Producers include Waipara Hills, Pegasus Bay, Waipara Springs, Muddy Water, Greystone, Omihi Hills and Black Estate."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand wine\n--History.\n----First steps.\n----Sauvignon Blanc breakthrough.\n--Climate and soil.\n--Industry structure and production methods.\n--Varieties, styles and directions.\n----White wines.\n------Sauvignon Blanc.\n------Chardonnay.\n------Pinot Gris.\n------Other white wines.\n----Red wines.\n------Pinot Noir.\n------Bordeaux-style blends and Syrah.\n------Other red wines.\n----Ros\u00e9.\n----Sparkling wine.\n--Wine regions of New Zealand.\n----Northland.\n----Auckland.\n------Waiheke Island.\n------Kumeu.\n------Matakana.\n----Gisborne.\n----Hawke's Bay.\n----Wairarapa.\n------Martinborough.\n----Nelson.\n----Marlborough.\n----Canterbury.\n------Waipara Valley.\n------North Canterbury.\n----Waitaki Valley.\n----Central Otago.\n------Bannockburn.\n--Trends in production and export.\n--Praise and criticism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in New Zealand",
        "text": "Wine grapes occupied of land as of 2020, with the largest regions being Marlborough (27,808\u00a0ha), Hawke's Bay (5,034\u00a0ha), and Central Otago (1,930\u00a0ha). The largest varieties are sauvignon blanc (25,160\u00a0ha), pinot noir (5,642\u00a0ha), chardonnay (3,222\u00a0ha), pinot gris (2,593\u00a0ha) and merlot (1,087\u00a0ha). Wine exports totalled $1,807 million in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Most New Zealand wine producers that produce Pinot Noir or Merlot also produce a ros\u00e9 style wine, although it is sometimes found made from other red varieties. New Zealand ros\u00e9 is made to drink immediately rather than age, resulting in the crisp, fresh, fruit-forward flavours popular with the New Zealand public. Well rated examples are from Forrest, Isabel, Ti Point, Whitehaven and Rapaura Springs."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand red wines are also made from the classic Bordeaux varieties, mainly Merlot, with Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Malbec, and Petit Verdot. Syrah wines from Hawke's Bay, particularly the Gimblett Gravels and Bridge Pa Triangle sub-regions, as well as farther north from Waiheke Island, have also gained a good reputation internationally."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand wine is produced in several of its distinct winegrowing regions. As an island country in the South Pacific Ocean, New Zealand has a largely maritime climate, although its elongated geography produces considerable regional variation from north to south. Like many other New World wines, New Zealand wine is usually produced and labelled as single varietal wines, or if blended, winemakers list the varietal components on the label. New Zealand is best known for its Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc, and more recently its dense, concentrated Pinot Noir from Marlborough, Martinborough and Central Otago."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Other white wine varietals grown in New Zealand include (in descending order of vineyard area) Riesling, Gew\u00fcrztraminer and Viognier, and less commonly Chenin Blanc, Albari\u00f1o, Arneis and S\u00e9millon. Riesling is produced predominantly in Martinborough and the South Island, as is Gew\u00fcrztraminer, although it is also planted extensively in Gisborne. Chenin Blanc was once more important, but the viticultural peculiarities of the variety, particularly its unpredictable cropping in New Zealand, have led to its disfavour. Nevertheless, good examples exist from Esk Valley, Margrain and Millton Estate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cabernet Sauvignon",
        "text": "In New Zealand, climate has been a challenge in finding wine regions suitable for producing Cabernet Sauvignon. Most of the industry focus has centered on the North Island. The Hawkes Bay region was the first to make a significant effort in producing Cabernet Sauvignon but the cool climate of the region, coupled with the high yields and fertile alluvial soils, produced wines that were still marked with aggressive green and vegetal flavors. Added focus on canopy management, which gives the grapes more sunlight to ripen by removing excess foliage, and low vigor rootstock and pruning combine to achieve lower yields and have started to produce better results. The grape is sometimes blended with Merlot to help compensate for climate and \"terroir\". Other regions in New Zealand have sprung up with a renewed focus on producing distinctive New Zealand Cabernet Sauvignon: The Gimblett Road and Havelock North regions of Hawkes Bay, with their warm gravel soils, have started to achieve notice as well as Waiheke Island near Auckland. Overall the grape lags far behind Pinot noir in New Zealand's red wine grape plantings."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Waiheke Island is an island east of Auckland in the Hauraki Gulf and is a Geographical Indication within the larger Auckland GI. It has a dry and warm mesoclimate, and is planted primarily in French red grape varieties: Syrah, Merlot, and Cabernet Sauvignon, as well as the white grape varieties Chardonnay and Pinot Gris. The Bordeaux style red wines that are produced are considered to be significantly ripe and full bodied, and some of the best in New Zealand. The Larose from Stonyridge Estate has an international reputation and is often compared with some of the best Bordeaux wine in the world, and comparing favourably with the likes of Ch\u00e2teau Latour and Ch\u00e2teau Mouton-Rothschild. Other notable wine producers are Destiny Bay Vineyards (Magna Praemia), Obsidian Vineyard, Peacock Sky, Man O'War (Dreadnought Syrah), Cable Bay, Mudbrick and Te Motu."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "While New Zealand wine traces its history to the early 19th century, the modern wine industry in New Zealand began in the mid-20th century and expanded rapidly in the early 21st century, growing by 17% a year from 2000 to 2020. In 2020, New Zealand produced from of vineyard area, of which ha (about two-thirds) is dedicated to Sauvignon Blanc. Nearly 90% of total production is exported, chiefly to the United States, Britain and Australia, reaching a record in export revenue in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "There are 10 major wine-producing areas in New Zealand, with Marlborough famed for its sauvignon blanc, Gisborne for its chardonnay, and Central Otago and Martinborough building a reputation for pinot noir and pinot gris. Hawkes Bay is known for its bold cabernets and Auckland's Waiheke Island is home to one of the top 20 cabernet blends in the world. Marlborough and Hawkes Bay are New Zealand's two premium wine-growing regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "As is the case for other New Zealand wine, New Zealand Pinot Noir is fruit-driven, forward and early maturing in the bottle. It tends to be quite full bodied (for the variety), very approachable and oak maturation tends to be restrained. High quality examples of New Zealand Pinot Noir are distinguished by savoury, earthy flavours with a greater complexity. In an article in \"Decanter\" (September 2014), Bob Campbell suggests regional styles are starting to emerge within New Zealand Pinot Noir. Marlborough, with by far the largest plantings of Pinot, produces wines that are quite aromatic, red fruit in particular red cherry, with a firm tannic structure that provides cellaring potential."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "In that same year, Pinot Noir overtook Chardonnay as New Zealand's second most-planted variety, after Sauvignon Blanc. In the decade since, its international reputation has \"gone from strength to strength\" and has performed very well in reviews and competitions; wine from Marlborough has won the Champion Pinot Noir Trophy three times at the International Wine and Spirit Competition \u2013 in 2006, 2007, and by Giesen Wines most recently in 2016. A New Zealand wine also won the 2014 Decanter International Trophy for Best in Show Pinot Noir, up against Burgundy Gevrey-Chambertin Premier Cru and other top wines from around the world. However, many of the top producers in France do not submit their wines to international competitions."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "Various grapes were tried in the early years, but it was in the 1980s that New Zealand developed the distinctive style of Sauvignon blanc that became its trademark. Since then the Burgundy grapes of Chardonnay and Pinot noir have been developed in cooler, more southerly vineyards, with considerable success. More recently there has been increasing popularity for the 'aromatic' white varieties such as Gew\u00fcrztraminer and Riesling, with Auslese styles also being attempted."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand has long been best known for its Sauvignon Blanc, which dominates its wine industry. In 2017, its vines took up of vineyard area, a full 60% of New Zealand's total grape planting, and Sauvignon Blanc wine made up 86% of the nation's exports. Many critics regard New Zealand's Sauvignon Blanc as among the best in the world. Historically, Sauvignon Blanc has been used in many French regions in both AOC and Vin de pays wine, and famously Sancerre and Pouilly Fum\u00e9. Following Robert Mondavi's lead in renaming Californian Sauvignon Blanc Fum\u00e9 Blanc (partially in reference to Pouilly Fum\u00e9, but also to denote the smokiness of the wine produced from flinty soil and oak barrel ageing), there was a trend for oaked Sauvignon Blanc in New Zealand during the late 1980s. Strong oaky overtones dropped out of fashion through the 1990s but have since made a comeback, with several makers now offering oak-aged Sauvignon Blanc\u2014Greywacke, Dog Point, te Pa (Sauvignon Blanc 'Oke'), Sacred Hill (Sauvage), Jackson Estate (Grey Ghost), Hans Herzog (Sur Lie) and Saint Clair (Barrique)."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand's winemakers employ a variety of production techniques. The traditional concept of a vineyard, where grapes are grown on the land surrounding a central simply owned or family-owned estate with its own discrete viticultural and winemaking equipment and storage, is only one model. While the European cooperative model (where district or AOC village winemaking takes place in a centralized production facility) is uncommon, contract growing of fruit for winemakers has been a feature of the New Zealand industry since the start of the winemaking boom in the 1970s. Indeed, many well-known producers began as contract growers."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Wine regions are located mostly in free draining alluvial valleys\u2014Hawke's Bay, Martinborough, Nelson, the Wairau and Awatere valleys of Marlborough, and Canterbury\u2014with the notable exceptions of Waiheke Island, Kawarau Gorge in Central Otago. The alluvial deposits are typically the local sandstone called greywacke, which makes up much of the mountainous spine of New Zealand."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Auckland Geographical Indication is a small region, with a vineyard area in 2020 of and lies around New Zealand's largest city. The region produces some of New Zealand's finest Chardonnay white wines, which is the most planted variety, followed by the Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc and Malbec that produce Auckland's well regarded red Bordeaux-style wines. Soils are usually heavy clay, or small areas of volcanic-derived soils, and it is the warmest of New Zealand's vine-growing areas. There are three sub-regions within Auckland: Waiheke Island, Kumeu, and Matakana. In recent years, the hotter temperatures are allowing Auckland winemakers (for example Omaha Bay, Cooper's Creek, Heron's Flight, Matavino, and Obsidian) to experiment with Italian and Spanish grape varieties, such as Albari\u00f1o, Montepulciano, Sangiovese, Dolcetto, Temperanillo, and even Nebbiolo."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Winemaking began in Matakana in the 1960s, but the oldest, current vineyards are Heron's Flight (established 1988), Providence Wines, and Ransom Wines, established in the early 1990s. Around the turn of the century, Heron's Flight replanted its mainly Bordeaux varieties with the Italian varieties Sangiovese and Dolcetto, and many of the newer wineries, have also planted Tannat and Petit Verdot alongside the usual French varieties, as well as the Italian and Spanish varieties Barbera, Nebbiolo, Albari\u00f1o, Roussanne, and Montepulciano. As of the 2017 vintage, there were more than planted in vines, and 21 commercial grape growing/winery operations within the Matakana GI."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "As in many places in the world, an emerging trend in New Zealand wine is an increased recognition for high quality wines coming from small boutique wineries. In 2020, these smaller producers, with a vineyard area of no more than , represented over three-quarters of New Zealand's wineries. They are located fairly evenly throughout all wine regions, with the larger producers predominantly in Marlborough, Hawke's Bay, Gisborne, and Waipara."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Winemaking and viticulture date back to New Zealand's colonial era. British Resident James Busby, a keen oenologist who had also established wine regions in Australia such as the Hunter Valley, was producing wine on his land near Waitangi for locally stationed British soldiers in 1836. In 1851, French Marist missionaries established a vineyard in Hawke's Bay for making Communion wine. Now part of the Mission Estate Winery, it is the oldest commercial vineyard in New Zealand. William Henry Beetham is recognised as being the first person to plant Pinot Noir and Hermitage (Syrah) grapes in New Zealand at his Lansdowne, Masterton, vineyard in 1881. In 1895, the New Zealand government's Department of Agriculture invited the expert consultant viticulturist and oenologist Romeo Bragato to investigate winemaking possibilities. After tasting Beetham's Hermitage, he concluded that New Zealand and the Wairarapa in particular were \"pre-eminently suited to viticulture.\" His French wife, Marie Zelie Hermance Frere Beetham, supported Beetham in his endeavours. Their partnership and innovation to pursue winemaking helped form the basis of modern New Zealand's viticulture practices. Dalmatian immigrants arriving in New Zealand in the late 19th and early 20th centuries brought with them viticultural knowledge and planted vineyards in West and North Auckland. Typically, their vineyards produced table wine and fortified wine to suit the palates of their communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Typically, these Bordeaux blends come from the hotter and drier regions of New Zealand, largely in the Hawke's Bay Region. Wines that typify the best of Hawke's Bay include Elephant Hill's Airavata, Te Mata Estate's Coleraine, Craggy Range's Sophia, Newton Forrest Estate's Cornerstone, Esk Valley's The Terraces and Villa Maria's Reserve Merlot and Cabernet. Waiheke Island, whilst a very small viticultural region, also produces acclaimed red wines like the Larose from Stonyridge, the Dreadnought and Ironclad from Man O' War, wines from Destiny Bay, and Goldie Estate. In Marlborough, Hans Herzog Estate is famous for making the Spirit of Marlborough, and examples of Bordeaux blends can be found as far south as Waipara, where the Maestro from Pegasus Bay also demonstrates the shift from Cabernet Sauvignon to Merlot predominant blends."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Further inland from Waipara, the limestone soils around Waikari are producing well-reviewed wine from Bell Hill and Pyramid Valley, using organic and/or biodynamic production methods, and close-planted vineyards. Farther north in Cheviot and Hanmer Springs respectively, notable producers Mt. Beautiful and Waiau River Estate (formerly Marble Point) are producing well-regarded Pinot Noir."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "By the 1980s, wineries in New Zealand, especially in the Marlborough region, were producing outstanding Sauvignon Blanc. It was in 1985 that the Sauvignon Blanc from Cloudy Bay Vineyards finally garnered international attention and critical acclaim for New Zealand wine. Wine writer George Taber recounts Cloudy Bay is \"what many people consider to be the world's best Sauvignon Blanc\". New Zealand's reputation is now well established; Oz Clarke wrote New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc was \"arguably the best in the world\", and Mark Oldman wrote \"New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc is like a child who inherits the best of both parents\u2014exotic aromas found in\u00a0... the New World and the pungency and limy acidity of an Old World Sauvignon Blanc like Sancerre.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Many fledgling producers started out using contract fruit while waiting for their own vines to mature enough to produce production-quality fruit. Some producers use contract fruit to supplement the range of varieties they market, even using fruit from other geographical regions. For example, it is common to see an Auckland producer market a \"Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc\" or a Marlborough producer market a \"Gisborne Chardonnay\". Contract growing is an example of the use of indigenous agro-industrial methods that predate the New Zealand wine industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Winemaking",
        "text": "Red wines are produced by destemming and crushing the grapes into a tank and leaving the skins in contact with the juice throughout the fermentation (maceration). It is possible to produce white (colorless) wines from red grapes by the fastidious pressing of uncrushed fruit. This minimizes contact between grape juice and skins (as in the making of \"Blanc de noirs\" sparkling wine, which is derived from Pinot noir, a red vinifera grape)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcohol in New Zealand",
        "text": "In the 1970s, Montana in Marlborough started producing wines which were labelled by year of production (vintage) and grape variety (in the style of wine producers in Australia). The first production of a Sauvignon blanc of great note appears to have occurred in 1977. Also produced in that year were superior quality wines of Muller Thurgau, Riesling and Pinotage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cloudy Bay Vineyards",
        "text": "The winery is primarily noted for its Sauvignon Blanc wines, the first New Zealand wines to be exported in the 1980s, and still represent the majority of its production. The \u201cTe Koko\u201d Sauvignon Blanc is a wild-ferment, barrel-aged version that contrasts with the fruit-driven unoaked style of the original. The winery also produces Chardonnay, the \u201cPelorus\u201d sparkling and its \u201cTe Wahi\u201d Pinot Noir from Central Otago."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "By 2020, the Wairarapa had 126 vineyards with a total area of , or about three per cent of the New Zealand total. Nearly half of this area is Pinot Noir, the remainder mostly Sauvignon Blanc, with smaller areas of Pinot Gris, Chardonnay, Riesling and Syrah."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Exports of New Zealand sparkling wines are chiefly to the United Kingdom, where the best-known examples there are the Pelorus from Cloudy Bay, now owned by LVMH, and the Special Reserve from Lindauer. More recently, exports of \"\" have been declining, halving in volume between 2005 and 2011, and now making up less than one percent of total New Zealand exports. This is due partly to a rise in popularity and production of sparkling Sauvignon Blanc, a new style of sparkling New Zealand wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "In 1973, Montana Wines, now Brancott Estate owned by Pernod Ricard, planted Marlborough's first vineyards and produced its first Sauvignon Blanc in 1979, labelled by year of production (vintage) and grape variety, in the style of wine producers in Australia. That year, superior quality wines of M\u00fcller-Thurgau, Riesling and Pinotage were also produced. Good Cabernet Sauvignon wine from Auckland and Hawke's Bay bolstered the industry with ever-increasing investment, vineyard plantings, rising land prices and greater local interest and pride. The result of this boom was over-planting, particularly in hybrids and less well regarded but high yield varietals such as M\u00fcller-Thurgau. Hoping to address this issue, a 1984 government initiative paid growers to pull up vines, but many growers used the grants to swap these varieties with more fashionable ones, particularly Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc, often keeping the old rootstock. This, combined with the introduction throughout the 1980s of much improved canopy management techniques to reduce leaf vigour and improve grape quality, set the New Zealand wine industry on course for recovery and greatly improved quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "New Zealand has a successful wine industry, with about 76 million litres being exported in the year to June 2007. The first vines are thought to have been introduced by missionary Samuel Marsden, and planted in 1817 by Charles Gordon, superintendent of agriculture for the missionaries, according to Dr Richard Smart who was viticultural editor of both editions of The Oxford Companion to Wine. Official British resident James Busby is credited with producing wine at Kerikeri in 1833, and Charles Darwin noted the winery in his diary when he visited Kerikeri in 1835."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sauvignon blanc",
        "text": "In the 1990s, Sauvignon blanc wines from the maritime climatic regions of New Zealand, particularly the South Island, became popular on the wine market. In the Marlborough wine region, sandy soils over slate shingles have become the most desirable locations for plantings due to the good drainage of the soil and poor fertility that encourages the vine to concentrate its flavors in lower yields. In the flood plain of the Wairau River Valley, the soil runs in east-west bands across the area. This can create a wide diversity of flavors for vineyards that are planted north-south with the heavier soils producing more herbaceous wines from grapes that ripen late and vines planted in stonier soils ripening earlier and imparting more lush and tropical flavors. It is this difference in soils, and the types of harvest time decisions that wine producers must make, that add a unique element to New Zealand Sauvignon blanc."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "New World wines are those wines produced outside the traditional winegrowing areas of Europe and the Middle East, in particular from Argentina, Australia, Canada, Chile, Mexico, New Zealand, South Africa and the United States (primarily California). The phrase connotes a distinction between these \"New World\" wines and those wines produced in \"Old World\" countries with a long-established history of wine productionmost notably, France, Italy, Germany, Spain and Portugal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Merlot",
        "text": "In New Zealand, plantings of Merlot have increased in the Hawke's Bay region, particularly in Gimblett Gravels where the grape has shown the ability to produce Bordeaux-style wine. The grape has been growing in favor among New Zealand producers due to its ability to ripen better, with less green flavors, than Cabernet Sauvignon. Other regions with significant plantings include Auckland, Marlborough and Martinborough. In 2008, Merlot was the second most widely red grape variety (after Pinot noir) in New Zealand and accounted for nearly 5% of all the country's plantings with in cultivation."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Chardonnay is produced as far south as Central Otago, but plantings increase moving further north. There is little discernible difference in styles of Chardonnay between the New Zealand wine regions; individual winemakers' recipes, use of oak, and the particular qualities of a vintage have tended to blur any distinction of terroir. Almost every region is represented among the most highly rated New Zealand Chardonnays, which include wines from Kumeu River Estate (Kumeu), Church Road, Clearview, Sacred Hill, Villa Maria and Te Mata Estate (Hawke's Bay), Ata Rangi (Martinborough), Fromm (Marlborough), Neudorf (Nelson), Millton Estate (Gisborne). Although Chardonnay may be less fashionable than it was ten years ago (it has declined in vineyard area in the last ten years, losing ground to Pinot Gris), winemakers in 2016 reported strong sales and a recent upswing. It also commands higher prices than any other New Zealand white wine variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "UK wine writer Paul Howard praised New Zealand Pinot Noir in 2006, writing that \"comparisons with Burgundy are inevitable\" and that New Zealand Pinot Noir is:\n: \"rapidly developing its own distinctive style, often with deeper color, purer fruit and higher alcohol. While regional differences are apparent, the best wines do have Burgundy's elusive complexity, texture and 'pinosity' and are capable of ageing. It is a testament to the skill and craft of New Zealand producers that poor examples are infrequently encountered.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sauvignon blanc",
        "text": "Winemakers in New Zealand and Chile harvest the grapes at various intervals for the different blending characteristics that the grape can impart depending on its ripeness levels. At its most unripe stage, the grape is high in malic acid. As it progresses further towards ripeness the grape develops red & green pepper flavors and eventually achieves a balance of sugars. The flavors characteristic of Sauvignon blanc come from the chemicals \"methoxypyrazines\". Grapes grown in Marlborough's Wairau Valley may exhibit different levels of ripeness over the vineyard, caused by slight unevenness in the land and giving a similar flavor profile to the resulting wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The next region to excel with Pinot Noir was Martinborough, east of Wellington in the Wairarapa region. Several vineyards, including Palliser Estate, Martinborough Vineyards, Murdoch James Estate (now Luna Estate) and Ata Rangi consistently produced interesting and increasingly complex wine from Pinot Noir at the end of the 1980s and into the 1990s."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "In a blind tasting of New Zealand Pinot Noir in 2006, Michael Cooper reported that of the top ten wines, five came from Central Otago, four from Marlborough and one from Waipara. This compares with all top ten wines coming from Marlborough in an equivalent blind tasting in the previous year. Cooper suggested that this has to do with more Central Otago production becoming available in commercial quantities, than the relative qualities of the regions' Pinot Noir."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Martinborough is a small wine village located east of Wellington by road, in the South Wairarapa. The combination of topography, geology, climate and human effort has led to the region becoming one of New Zealand's premier wine regions, despite its small size, particularly for Pinot Noir. The growing season from flowering to harvest is amongst the longest in New Zealand. Naturally breezy conditions control vine vigour, creating lower yields of grapes with greater intensity. A genuine cool climate, with a long, dry autumn, provides ideal ripening conditions for Pinot Noir and other varietals, such as Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Gris and Syrah. Most of the wineries are on the Martinborough terrace, a raised alluvial terrace of the nearby Ruamahanga River."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Northland is the most northerly wine region in New Zealand, and thus closest to the equator. A Geographical Indication since October 2017, it is also the smallest GI, producing 269 tonnes in 2020 from an area of under vines. Although Chardonnay is the most planted variety, Northland is most well known for ripe Syrah red wines, and white wines from Pinot Gris, which together comprise the top three planted varieties. Some Northland wineries are also making wine from warmer climate grapes such as Montepulciano, Chambourcin and Pinotage. The combination of high summer temperatures and high rainfall can be challenging for viticulture; although irrigation is not needed, the humidity can encourage some pests and diseases. The fertile soils and Northland climate also results in high vine productivity, requiring good vineyard management to limit yields in order to ensure better quality wines. Consequently, Northland tends to produce ripe wines, with low acidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "In 2018, the Wines of Canterbury and Waipara Valley Wine Growers associations merged to form the North Canterbury Wine Region. The Waipara region is within the area of the North Canterbury boundary, and the merged industry body promotes the use of \"North Canterbury\" for its region, although both \"North Canterbury\" and \"Waipara\" still appear on labels. Only of vineyards are planted outside the Waipara Valley GI boundary, concentrated in a few small areas such as West Melton, Banks Peninsula, Cheviot and Rolleston. Notable producers include French Peak (formerly French Farm); Melton Estate; Lone Goat, which took over Riesling vineyards from Giesen Estate; and New Zealand's only Ehrenfelser vineyard. In order of descending planting area, varieties grown in Canterbury outside Waipara Valley include Pinot Noir, Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, Pinot Gris, and Chardonnay."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand's newest winegrowing region is on the border of Otago and Canterbury. The Waitaki Valley GI is defined as the southern bank of the Waitaki River up to elevation, along a narrow strip of approximately between the towns of Duntroon and Omarama. The area contains north-facing limestone hillsides and escarpments, and Burgundy-like limestone alluvial soils. The climate is a combination of the cool, maritime influence from the Pacific Ocean and the warm, dry summer and autumn weather in the rain shadow of the Southern Alps. In a good year, the warm summer and long dry autumn in the Waitaki Valley can produce one of the longest growing seasons in New Zealand. The grapes reach full ripeness and produce complex, well-balanced wine. However, the weather year-to-year is so variable and frost-susceptible that some years have been simply too cold to produce a reliable harvest."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Martinborough wineries are relatively small and typically family-owned, with the focus on producing quality rather than quantity. Relatively small yields enable Martinborough winemakers to devote themselves to handcrafting superior wines. Among the many long-established wineries, several, including Martinborough Vineyard, Schubert Wines, Te Kairanga, Ata Rangi, Palliser Estate, Luna Estate, Dry River, Escarpment, Te Hera and Craggy Range have become internationally recognised as premium producers of Pinot Noir."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Hawke's Bay is New Zealand's oldest and second-largest wine region, and includes the Gimblett Gravels, Bridge Pa Triangle and Te Mata Special Character Zone sub-regions. It is best known for its Merlot and Syrah red wines, and white wines mainly from Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc and Viognier."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Cloudy Bay Vineyards set a new standard for New World Sauvignon Blanc and was arguably responsible for the huge increase in interest in it, particularly in the United Kingdom. Louis Vuitton Mo\u00ebt Hennessy, a French luxury brand conglomerate, now owns a controlling interest in Cloudy Bay. Following on from the early success of Sauvignon Blanc, New Zealand has been building a strong reputation with other styles\u2014Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Cabernet/Merlot blends, Pinot Gris and Syrah to name a few."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corbans",
        "text": "By the 1960s, Corbans produced New Zealand's first commercial M\u00fcller-Thurgau, Pinotage, and Chardonnay wines, and were pioneering many new developments in winemaking such as using cultured yeast and temperature-control during fermentation, and the use of stainless steel tanks and press machinery. At the same time however, the family struggled to finance increasing competition with Montana Wines. New Zealand food wholesaler Rothman Industries (later Magnum Corporation) took a shareholding, and by 1979 had taken full control."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "Small vineyards were also planted by French settlers in Akaroa in the 1840s. However wine was drunk in relatively small quantities well into the twentieth century, with the average per capita consumption only about 2.6 litres in 1966. The high price of imported wines probably prevented New Zealanders from developing a taste for wine, although it did help sales of local vintages. The quality of these wines slowly improved, with New Zealand wines winning three gold and 13 silver medals at the International Wine Fair in 1963. Aided by the deregulation of the economy in the 1980s and 1990s, domestic wine consumption increased and New Zealand wine won increasing accolades internationally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Te Mata Estate",
        "text": "Te Mata Estate is regarded as New Zealand's finest producer of Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot blends, and produces a variety of other well-known wines including the \"Bullnose\" Syrah from the Bridge Pa Triangle, \"Awatea\" Cabernets/Merlot blend, Estate Vineyards Gamay Noir, the \"Zara\" Viognier, the \"Elston\" Chardonnay and \"Cape Crest\" Sauvignon Blanc \u2013 a barrel-fermented sauvignon blend similar in style to a Graves region, or southern Bordeaux white wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The wine regions in New Zealand stretch from latitudes 36\u00b0S in the north (Northland) (comparable in latitude to Jerez, Spain), to 45\u00b0S (Central Otago) in the south (comparable in latitude to Bordeaux, France). New Zealand's climate is maritime, meaning that the sea moderates the weather, producing cooler summers and milder winters than would be expected at similar latitudes in Europe and North America. Maritime climates tend to demonstrate higher variability with cold snaps possible at any time of the year and warm periods even in the depth of winter. The climate is typically wetter, but wine regions have developed in rain shadows and in the east, on the opposite coast from the prevailing moisture-laden wind. The wine regions of New Zealand tend to experience cool nights even in the hottest of summers. The effect of consistently cool nights is to produce fruit, which is nearly always high in acidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "At around this time, the first plantings of Pinot Noir in Central Otago occurred in the Kawarau Gorge. Central Otago had a long (for New Zealand) history as a producer of quality stone fruit, particularly cherries. Significantly further south than all other wine regions in New Zealand, it benefited from being surrounded by mountain ranges which increased both its daily and seasonal temperature variations, making the climate unusual in the typically maritime conditions in New Zealand, and ideal for growing Pinot Noir. Indeed, recent years have seen Pinot Noir from Central Otago win numerous international awards and accolades, and excite the interest of British wine commentators including Jancis Robinson and Oz Clarke. Not only did the wines have the distinctive acidity and abundant fruit of New Zealand wines, but they demonstrated a great deal of complexity, with aromas and flavours not common in New Zealand wine and normally associated with Burgundy wine. Notable producers include Akarua, Felton Road, Chard Farm and Mount Difficulty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chardonnay",
        "text": "Despite being more famous for its Sauvignon blanc production, Chardonnay was New Zealand's most widely planted grape variety from 1990 till 2002 when Sauvignon blanc finally surpassed it. The east coast of the North Island, in places like Hawke's Bay and Wairarapa, have seen the most success with Chardonnay wine that has noticeable acidity and leanness. As better clonal varieties are discovered and planted, the overall quality of New Zealand Chardonnay have increased, particularly from places like Canterbury, Marlborough and Nelson. Some producers in the Gisborne region have recently developed a cult following for their Chardonnay among New Zealand wine drinkers. While many New Zealand winemakers are still developing a characteristic style, the Chardonnay produced so far have emphasized the grape's affinity for oak."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Kawarau valley has a thin and patchy topsoil over a bedrock that is schist. Early growers blasted holes into the bare rock of north-facing slopes with miners' caps to provide planting holes for the vines. These conditions necessitate irrigation and make the vines work hard for nutrients. Irrigation, low cropping techniques, and the thermal effect of the rock produces great intensity for the grapes and subsequent wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "For the first half of the 20th century, economic, legislative and cultural factors made wine a marginal economic activity. The most common use of land in New Zealand during this period was for animal agriculture, and the exports of dairy, meat, and wool dominated the economy. Most New Zealanders were of British descent, and favoured beer and spirits; the temperance movement further reduced the national appreciation for wine. The Great Depression of the 1930s also hampered the growth of the fledgling industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sauvignon blanc",
        "text": "The long narrow geography of the South Island ensures that no vineyard is more than from the coast. The cool, maritime climate of the area allows for a long and steady growing season in which the grapes can ripen and develop a natural balance of acids and sugars. This brings out the flavors and intensity that distinguish New Zealand Sauvignon blancs. More recently, Waipara in the South Island and Gisborne and Hawkes Bay in the North Island have been attracting attention for their Sauvignon blanc releases, which often exhibit subtle differences to those from Marlborough. The asparagus, gooseberry and green flavor commonly associated with New Zealand Sauvignon blanc is derived from flavor compounds known as methoxypyrazines that becomes more pronounced and concentrated in wines from cooler climate regions. Riper flavors such as passion fruit, along with other notes such as boxwood, may be driven by thiol concentrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chilean wine",
        "text": "Vines were first planted here in the mid-16th century and have seen a recent resurgence, due to new technologies and winemakers seeking new terroirs. The area is best known for producing Sauvignon and Chardonnay, first planted during the 1990s, and also successfully produces Syrah and Pinot noir, with a climate similar to Marlborough in New Zealand."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The region is young; the first plantings were in the early 2000s, and the local wine growers' association was formed in 2005. The 2008 global financial crisis hit just as initial interest in the area was growing, and poor initial vintages and remoteness from tourism further troubled some producers, a number of whom pulled out of the area altogether. Those that remain have been rapidly growing a reputation for the quality and individuality for the region's mainly Pinot Noir, Pinot Gris, Riesling, Chardonnay and Gew\u00fcrztraminer wines. The Pinot Noir, in particular, is proving to express a distinctive terroir, different in character from other regions of New Zealand, and more restrained and delicate than Central Otago Pinot Noir."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Otago wine region",
        "text": "The other 30% of production comes from Chardonnay, Sauvignon blanc, Riesling, Pinot gris, and Gew\u00fcrztraminer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sauvignon blanc",
        "text": "Sauvignon blanc can be greatly influenced by decisions in the winemaking process. One decision is the amount of contact that the must has with the skins of the grape. In the early years of the New Zealand wine industry, there were no wineries in the South Island, which meant that freshly harvested grapes had to be trucked and then ferried to the North Island, often all the way up to Auckland. This allowed for prolonged exposure of the skins and juice which sharpened the intensity and pungency of the wine. Some winemakers, like the Loire, intentionally leave a small amount of must to spend some time in contact with the skin for later blending purposes. Other winemakers, like in California, generally avoid any contact with the skin due to the reduced aging ability of the resulting wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinot noir",
        "text": "Pinot noir is a grape variety whose \"importance\" in New Zealand is extremely high. However, initial results were not promising for several reasons, including high levels of leaf roll virus in older plantings, and, during the 1960s and 1970s, the limited number and indifferent quality of Pinot noir clones available for planting. However, since this time importation of high quality clones and much-improved viticulture and winemaking has seen Pinot noir, from Martinborough in the north to Central Otago in the south, become a major factor in New Zealand's reputation as a wine producer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marlborough wine region",
        "text": "Early settlers in Marlborough planted vines as early as the 1870s. A small block of Brown Muscat was planted in 1873 by David Herd, but in 1931 his son pulled up the last of the vines, and no others were recorded in the region for the next forty years. Commercial wine-making began in earnest only in 1973 when the first large-scale vineyards were planted by Montana Wines, at the time New Zealand's largest producer (now Brancott Estate, owned by Pernod Ricard). Meanwhile in 1975 Daniel Le Brun, a Champagne maker, emigrated to New Zealand to begin producing m\u00e9thode traditionelle in Marlborough. Wineries in the Marlborough region were producing outstanding Sauvignon Blanc by the early 1980s, and in 1985 the Sauvignon Blanc from Cloudy Bay Vineyards finally garnered international attention and critical acclaim for New Zealand wine. Wine writer George Taber recounted in 2006 that Cloudy Bay is \"what many people consider to be the world's best Sauvignon Blanc\" and Oz Clarke wrote that New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc is \"arguably the best in the world.\" The suitability of the region and later success of Daniel Le Brun's sparkling wines were also sufficient to attract significant investment from Champagne producers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baco blanc",
        "text": "But since the mid to late 20th century, the grape variety has fallen out of favor among French wine producers who are continuing pulling up their hybrid grapes and returning to \"vinifera\"-only plantings (which are permitted for \"Appellation d'Origine Contr\u00f4l\u00e9e\" AOC wines). Even in its Armagnac stronghold, Baco blanc vines are being uprooted and replanted with Ugni blanc. Similarly, Baco blanc experienced a brief period of popularity in the emerging New Zealand wine industry during the 20th century but as that century drew to a close, New Zealand producers also turned away from the variety to concentrate on \"vinifera\" grapes such as M\u00fcller-Thurgau, Chardonnay and Sauvignon blanc. Today, what little Baco blanc is left in New Zealand is used primarily for distillations and spirits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grignan-Les Adhemar AOC",
        "text": "Red wines which comprise 95% of the total production, are made from the principal varieties of Grenache noir and Syrah (10% minimum), with secondary varieties of Cinsault, Mourv\u00e8dre Carignan. No single variety may be present at more than 80%. A non defined quantity of secondary varieties must not exceed 30%, or if declared separately, not more than 15% each."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bordeaux wine regions",
        "text": "Red wine produced under the Bordeaux AOC is made mostly from Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, with the addition of Cabernet Franc and small amounts of Petit Verdot, Malbec and Carmen\u00e8re. This appellation covers around 42,600 hectares of vines and produces around 223 million litres of wine (which is nearly a third of the total wine production of Bordeaux). White wine produced under the Bordeaux Sec AOC is made mostly from Sauvignon blanc and S\u00e9millon, with the addition of some Muscadelle, Colombard, Mauzac, Merlot blanc, Ondenc and Ugni blanc. It must contain no more than 4g/l of residual sugar. This appellation covers around 6500 hectares of vines and 38 million litres of wine. If it has more than 4g/l of residual sugar, then it may be labelled as Bordeaux Molleux AOC, but little wine is in fact produced under this AOC. Bordeaux Sup\u00e9rieur AOC covers both red and white wines, and the grapes used are the same, but permitted yields are slightly lower, minimum alcohol content is slightly higher and slightly longer aging is required. The amount of red wine produced under this appellation (around 45 million litres, from 10,000 hectares of vines) is much greater than the amount of white wine produced (around 170,000 litres from 60 hectares)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wine humour",
        "text": "The New Zealand producer Cooper's Creek produces a Sauvignon blanc called \"Cat's Pee on a Gooseberry Bush\" which has sold well throughout the world. This phrase to describe the distinctive taste of the New Zealand wines made from this grape variety was first coined by wine critic, Oz Clarke. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, which controls the import of alcoholic drinks into the US, insisted that the name should be changed to \"Cat's Phee on a Gooseberry Bush\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Santenay wine",
        "text": "For white wines, the AOC regulations allow both Chardonnay and Pinot blanc to be used, but most wines are 100% Chardonnay. The AOC regulations also allow up to 15 per cent total of Chardonnay, Pinot blanc and Pinot gris as accessory grapes in the red wines, but this not very often practiced. The allowed base yield is 40 hectoliters per hectare of red wine and 45 hectoliters per hectare for white wine. The grapes must reach a maturity of at least 10.5 per cent potential alcohol for village-level red wine, 11.0 per cent for village-level white wine and Premier Cru red wine, and 11.5 per cent for Premier Cru white wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Waipara, in Canterbury, represents another soil type. The Omihi Hills, part of the Torlesse group of limestone deposits, are located here. Viticulturists have planted Pinot Noir here because of the French experience of the affinity between the grape type and the chalky soil on the C\u00f4te-d'Or. Even the greywacke alluvial soils in the Waipara valley floor have a higher calcium carbonate concentration than the C\u00f4te-d'Or, indicated by the milky water that flows in the Waipara River."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcohol in New Zealand",
        "text": "Wine making and vine growing go back to colonial times in New Zealand. British Resident and keen oenologist James Busby was, as early as 1836, attempting to produce wine at his land in Waitangi. In 1851 New Zealand's oldest existing vineyard was established by French Roman Catholic missionaries at Mission Estate Winery in Hawke's Bay. Due to economic (the importance of animal agriculture and the protein export industry), legislative (prohibition and the temperance) and cultural factors (the overwhelming predominance of beer and spirit drinking British immigrants), wine was for many years a marginal activity in terms of economic importance. Dalmatian immigrants arriving in New Zealand at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century brought with them viticultural knowledge and planted vineyards in West and North Auckland. Typically, their vineyards produced sherry and port for the palates of New Zealanders of the time, and table wine for their own community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcohol in New Zealand",
        "text": "In the 1980s, wineries in New Zealand, especially in the Marlborough region, began producing outstanding, some critics said unforgettable, Sauvignon blanc. \"New Zealand Sauvignon blanc is like a child who inherits the best of both parents\u2014exotic aromas found in certain Sauvignon blancs from the New World and the pungency and limy acidity of an Old World Sauvignon blanc like Sancerre from the Loire Valley\" (Oldman, p.\u00a0152). One critic said that drinking one's first New Zealand Sauvignon blanc was like having sex for the first time (Taber, p.\u00a0244). \"No other region in the world can match Marlborough, the northeastern corner of New Zealand's South Island, which seems to be the best place in the world to grow Sauvignon blanc grapes\" (Taber, p.\u00a0244)."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of wine-producing regions",
        "text": "GI stands for New Zealand Geographical Indication."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beaune wine",
        "text": "For white wines, the AOC regulations allow both Chardonnay and Pinot blanc to be used, but most wines are 100% Chardonnay. The AOC regulations also allow up to 15 percent total of Chardonnay, Pinot blanc and Pinot gris as accessory grapes in the red wines, but this is not practiced very often. The allowed base yield is 40 hectoliters per hectare of red wine and 45 hectoliters per hectare for white wine. The grapes must reach a maturity of at least 10.5 percent potential alcohol for village-level red wine, 11.0 percent for village-level white wine and Premier Cru red wine, and 11.5 percent for Premier Cru white wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wine",
        "text": "Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between 30 and 50 degrees latitude north and south of the equator. The world's southernmost vineyards are in the Central Otago region of New Zealand's South Island near the 45th parallel south, and the northernmost are in Flen, Sweden, just north of the 59th parallel north.\n* May include official, semi-official or estimated data."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "Wine was first produced in South Africa by the founder of Cape Town in 1659, and by the late 18th century Constantia, made from Muscat de Frontignan (Muscat Blanc \u00e0 Petits Grains), was popular among European royalty. However the vineyards were decimated by phylloxera and the KWV cooperative that ran most of the industry since 1918 gave little encouragement to produce quality wine. The end of apartheid sparked a wave of investment and innovation in the vineyards of the Cape, although there remains large areas of undistinguished grape varieties such as Colombard. Stellenbosch and Paarl can produce world-class wines from the Bordeaux varieties, Shiraz and also from Pinotage, a variety bred locally from Pinot noir and Cinsaut. South Africa is also the second home of Chenin blanc, known until the mid-20th century as Steen; Muscat Blanc \u00e0 Petits Grains is known locally as red and white Muscadel, and is once again being used to make Constantia."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of wine",
        "text": "In the context of wine, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and other countries without a wine tradition are considered New World producers. Wine production began in the Cape Province of what is now South Africa in the 1680s as a business for supplying ships. Australia's First Fleet (1788) brought cuttings of vines from South Africa, although initial plantings failed and the first successful vineyards were established in the early 19th century. Until quite late in the 20th century, the product of these countries was not well known outside their small export markets. For example, Australia exported mainly to the United Kingdom; New Zealand retained most of its wine for domestic consumption, and South Africa exported to the Kings of Europe. However, with the increase in mechanization and scientific advances in winemaking, these countries became known for high-quality wine. A notable exception to the foregoing is that the Cape Province was the largest exporter of wine to Europe in the 18th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ladoix wine",
        "text": "For white wines, the AOC regulations allow both Chardonnay and Pinot blanc to be used, but most wines are 100% Chardonnay. The AOC regulations also allow up to 15 per cent total of Chardonnay, Pinot blanc and Pinot gris as accessory grapes in the red wines, but this not very often practiced. The allowed base yield is 40 hectoliter per hectare of red wine and 45 hectoliter per hectare for white wine. The grapes must reach a maturity of at least 10.5 per cent potential alcohol for village-level red wine, 11.0 per cent for village-level white wine and Premier Cru red wine, and 11.5 per cent for Premier Cru white wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nuits-Saint-Georges wine",
        "text": "The AOC regulations allow up to 15 per cent total of Chardonnay, Pinot blanc and Pinot gris as accessory grapes in the red wines, but this not very often practiced. For white wines, both Chardonnay and Pinot blanc are allowed, but most wines are likely to be 100% Chardonnay. The allowed base yield is 40 hectoliter per hectare of red wine and 45 for white wine. The grapes must reach a maturity of at least 10.5 per cent potential alcohol for village-level red wine, 11.0 per cent for village-level white wine and Premier Cru red wine, and 11.5 per cent for Premier Cru white wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawke's Bay wine region",
        "text": "The Hawke's Bay wine region is New Zealand's oldest and second-largest wine-production region, on the east coast of the North Island. Production reached 41,000 tonnes in 2018 from of planted vines, representing 10.2% of total national production. Some of the oldest wineries still operating in New Zealand, including Te Mata Estate, Church Road, and Mission Estate, were established in the Hawke's Bay area in the late 19th century. Despite this, it was only established as a geographical indication (GI) in 2018. The GI protects any wine produced within the boundaries of the entire Hawke's Bay Region, but in practice the vineyards are chiefly concentrated in the plains and low hills surrounding the cities of Napier and Hastings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sauvignon blanc",
        "text": "Another important decision is the temperature of fermentation. French winemakers prefer warmer fermentations (around 16-18\u00a0\u00b0C) that bring out the mineral flavors in the wine while New World winemakers prefer slightly colder temperatures to bring out more fruit and tropical flavors. A small minority of Loire winemakers will put the wine through malolactic fermentation, a practice more often associated with New Zealand wines. Oak aging can have a pronounced effect on the wine, with the oak rounding out the flavors and softening the naturally high acidity of the grape. Some winemakers, like those in New Zealand and Sancerre, prefer stainless steel fermentation tanks over barrels with the intention of maintaining the sharp focus and flavor intensity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Viognier",
        "text": "Viognier\n--History.\n--Viticulture.\n--Regional production.\n----France.\n----North America.\n----South America.\n----Australia.\n----New Zealand.\n--Wine.\n--Food pairing.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hautes-C\u00f4tes de Nuits",
        "text": "For white wines, the AOC regulations allow both Chardonnay and Pinot blanc to be used, but most wines are 100% Chardonnay. The AOC regulations also allow up to 15 per cent total of Chardonnay, Pinot blanc and Pinot gris as accessory grapes in the red wines, but this not very often practiced. The allowed base yield is 50 hectoliter per hectare of red wine and 55 hectoliter per hectare for white wine. The grapes must reach a maturity of at least 10 per cent potential alcohol for red wine, 10.5 per cent for white wine and wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marlborough wine region",
        "text": "New Zealand's plantings of Sauvignon Blanc experienced enormous growth in the 21st century, driven almost exclusively by investment in the Marlborough region. Vineyard area of the grape expanded from in 2003 to in 2018, a five-fold increase in just 15 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Waipara Valley is a Geographical Indication and sub-region of the larger Canterbury GI, about north of Christchurch. The valley floor provides a warm micro-climate ideal for viticulture. To the west, the Southern Alps temper the prevailing westerly winds and provide a rain shadow, and to the east, low coastal limestone ridges moderate the cool ocean winds. In the 1970s, the first vineyard to be planted was Pegasus Bay, which established a reputation for its Riesling wine. The region makes up the bulk of Canterbury's plantings, which by 2017 was a total vineyard area of , well known for its Pinot Noir, of which is planted. Liam Steevenson MW has described Waipara as possibly the \"most exciting place to grow Pinot Noir\". Good examples of the region's Pinot Noir include those from Black Estate, Bellbird Spring, Fancrest Estate, Muddy Water, Greystone, Waipara Springs, Pegasus Bay and Crater Rim. Greystone Wines won the \"Decanter\" International Trophy for Pinot Noir in 2014 and the Air New Zealand Trophy for Pinot Noir. Black Estate was awarded the Trophy for Best Pinot Noir at the International Wine & Spirits Competition in 2010. White wines of the region include varietal wines, most commonly of Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, Pinot Gris, and Chardonnay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Riesling",
        "text": "Riesling was first planted in New Zealand in the 1970s and has flourished in the relatively cool climate of the Marlborough area and for late harvests in the Nelson region. In comparison to Australian Riesling, New Zealand produces lighter and more delicate wines that range from sweet to dry. Home of cool climate wines, Central Otago, has recently emerged as another area producing terroir driven wines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marlborough Region",
        "text": "The Marlborough climate has a strong contrast between hot sunny days and cool nights, which extends the ripening period of the vines. This results in more intense flavour and aroma characters in the wine. The first commercial vineyards were planted around Blenheim in 1973, and Marlborough subsequently grew to become New Zealand's largest and most internationally well-known wine-producing region. Due to this growth, particularly in the export market, the Marlborough wine region now produces three quarters of all New Zealand wine. The most important varietal is Sauvignon Blanc, which is recognised as world class; wine writers Oz Clarke and George Taber have described Marlborough's Sauvignon Blanc as the best in the world. Also important is the production of m\u00e9thode traditionelle sparkling wine made from Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, which has attracted investment from large Champagne producers Mumm, Deutz, Mo\u00ebt & Chandon and Veuve Clicquot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aloxe-Corton wine",
        "text": "For white wines, the AOC regulations allow both Chardonnay and Pinot blanc to be used, but most wines are 100% Chardonnay. The AOC regulations also allow up to 15 per cent total of Chardonnay, Pinot blanc and Pinot gris as accessory grapes in the red wines, but this not very often practiced. The allowed base yield is 40 hectoliter per hectare of red wine and 45 hectoliter per hectare for white wine. The grapes must reach a maturity of at least 10.5 per cent potential alcohol for village-level red wine, 11.0 per cent for village-level white wine and Premier Cru red wine, and 11.5 per cent for Premier Cru white wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "The New Zealand viticulture industry was started in a small way by Croatian immigrants at the end of the 19th century, but it was not until the 1970s that it began to flourish. Several factors came together at that time - Britain's entry into the European Economic Community in 1973 ended favourable terms of agricultural trade, while New Zealanders themselves developed a taste for wine as local alcohol licensing laws changed and cheap air travel exposed them to different cultures."
      },
      {
        "title": "C\u00f4tes du Vivarais AOC",
        "text": "Red wines account for 80% of the production and are made from Grenache noir minimum 30%, and Syrah, minimum 40% with carignan at less than 10% (until the harvest of 2017), and Cinsault at less than 10% (from the harvest of 2018) as secondary varieties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banyuls AOC",
        "text": "Most wines are red, although some white and ros\u00e9 wines are produced. Permitted grape varieties are Grenache noir (at least 50%, 75% for the Grand Cru), Grenache gris, Grenache blanc and Carignan, and also (but rarely used) Macabeu, Muscat and Malvoisie."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Well-known Waitaki wine producers include Valli, Pasquale, Ostler, Lone Hill, and John Forrest."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Pinot Gris emerged in the early 2000s from almost nowhere to the country's fourth most planted variety in 2017, having overtaken Riesling in 2007. It is planted mostly in Marlborough, Hawke's Bay and Gisborne, with the remainder in the South Island. Some of the initial plantings of Pinot Gris were identified later as Flora; indeed, some Auckland winemakers have incorporated this mishap into their Flora wine names, such as \"The Rogue\" from Ascension and \"The Impostor\" from Omaha Bay Vineyards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian wine",
        "text": "Other red wines to garner international attention include Henschke Hill of Grace, Clarendon Hills Astralis, D'Arenberg Dead Arm, Torbreck Run Rig and other high-end Penfolds wines such as St Henri shiraz."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "New World wine\n--History.\n----Early wines in the Americas.\n----Changes in the Americas and opening of South Africa.\n----New World wines in the Industrial Age.\n----20th century.\n--Characteristics of New World wines.\n----Style.\n----Varietal labelling.\n----Marketing.\n----Ownership.\n--Wine-making countries.\n----Argentina.\n----Australia.\n----Canada.\n----Chile.\n----Colombia.\n----Mexico.\n----New Zealand.\n----Peru.\n----South Africa.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Canterbury Geographical Indication covers wine made anywhere within the Canterbury region of New Zealand, a very large area of some . In practice, almost all the region's vineyards are concentrated in a relatively small area around the city of Christchurch, which has prompted the establishment of two more specific GIs within it. North Canterbury is simply the top half of the larger Canterbury GI north of the Rakaia River, and Waipara Valley, a small area about north of Christchurch which accounts for the majority of Canterbury's total vineyard plantings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marseillan, H\u00e9rault",
        "text": "Table wines are produced, with the most acceptable being Picpoul de Pinet - an attractive white wine with a slight green tint and a little sparkle. About a million bottles are produced annually by the \"cave co-operative\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Besides Sauvinon Blanc, Pinot Noir, and Martinboroguh, are there any other types of wine produced?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you asking about the production of other types of French wine, White wine, or Red wine?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the production of red wine."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The juice from most purple grapes is greenish-white, the red color coming from anthocyan pigments present in the skin of the grape. Much of the red wine production process involves extraction of color and flavor components from the grape skin.",
      "Much of the red wine production process involves extraction of color and flavor components from the grape skin.There are several steps including grape processing, inoculation and fermentation, and filtration and bottling."
    ],
    "topic": "New Zealand wine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Red wine:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Red wine"
        ],
        "ctx": "Red wine is a type of wine made from dark-colored grape varieties. The color of the wine can range from intense violet, typical of young wines, through to brick red for mature wines and brown for older red wines. The juice from most purple grapes is greenish-white, the red color coming from anthocyan pigments present in the skin of the grape. Much of the red wine production process involves extraction of color and flavor components from the grape skin."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Red wine:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Red wine",
          "Production",
          "Grape processing"
        ],
        "ctx": "The first step in red wine production, after picking, involves physical processing of the grapes. Hand-picked or machine-harvested grapes are usually tipped into a receival bin when they arrive at the winery and conveyed by a screw mechanism to the grape-processing equipment."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Red wine:26",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Red wine",
          "Production",
          "Filtration and bottling"
        ],
        "ctx": "Most wines are filtered at some stage before bottling, although some winemakers use the absence of filtration as a marketing tool. Filtration serves to make wine completely clear and to eliminate any remaining yeast cells and bacteria, which could render the bottled wine microbiologically unstable. Wine is normally filled to glass bottles with cork stoppers, though aluminium screwcap closures and plastic stoppers are also common. Alternative containers such as Bag-in-Box, TetraPak and plastic bottles are also used."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Red wine:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Red wine",
          "Production",
          "Inoculation and fermentation"
        ],
        "ctx": "Once the must is in a fermentation vessel, yeast naturally present on the skins of the grapes, or in the environment, will sooner or later start the alcoholic fermentation, in which sugars present in the must are converted into alcohol with carbon dioxide and heat as by-products. Many winemakers, however, prefer to control the fermentation process more closely by adding specially selected yeasts usually of the species \"Saccharomyces ellipsoideous\". Several hundred different strains of wine yeast are available commercially, and many winemakers believe that particular strains are more or less suitable for the vinification of different grape varieties and different styles of wine. It is also common to add yeast nutrient at this stage, often in the form of diammonium phosphate."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Red wine:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Red wine"
        ],
        "ctx": "Red wine is a type of wine made from dark-colored grape varieties. The color of the wine can range from intense violet, typical of young wines, through to brick red for mature wines and brown for older red wines. The juice from most purple grapes is greenish-white, the red color coming from anthocyan pigments present in the skin of the grape. Much of the red wine production process involves extraction of color and flavor components from the grape skin."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Wine regions are located mostly in free draining alluvial valleys\u2014Hawke's Bay, Martinborough, Nelson, the Wairau and Awatere valleys of Marlborough, and Canterbury\u2014with the notable exceptions of Waiheke Island, Kawarau Gorge in Central Otago. The alluvial deposits are typically the local sandstone called greywacke, which makes up much of the mountainous spine of New Zealand."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "There are some producers dedicated to establishing other red grape varieties. New Zealand has small plantings of Tempranillo, Pinotage, Montepulciano and Sangiovese in Hawke's Bay and the warmer Auckland regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in New Zealand",
        "text": "Wine grapes occupied of land as of 2020, with the largest regions being Marlborough (27,808\u00a0ha), Hawke's Bay (5,034\u00a0ha), and Central Otago (1,930\u00a0ha). The largest varieties are sauvignon blanc (25,160\u00a0ha), pinot noir (5,642\u00a0ha), chardonnay (3,222\u00a0ha), pinot gris (2,593\u00a0ha) and merlot (1,087\u00a0ha). Wine exports totalled $1,807 million in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand red wines are also made from the classic Bordeaux varieties, mainly Merlot, with Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Malbec, and Petit Verdot. Syrah wines from Hawke's Bay, particularly the Gimblett Gravels and Bridge Pa Triangle sub-regions, as well as farther north from Waiheke Island, have also gained a good reputation internationally."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The wine regions in New Zealand stretch from latitudes 36\u00b0S in the north (Northland) (comparable in latitude to Jerez, Spain), to 45\u00b0S (Central Otago) in the south (comparable in latitude to Bordeaux, France). New Zealand's climate is maritime, meaning that the sea moderates the weather, producing cooler summers and milder winters than would be expected at similar latitudes in Europe and North America. Maritime climates tend to demonstrate higher variability with cold snaps possible at any time of the year and warm periods even in the depth of winter. The climate is typically wetter, but wine regions have developed in rain shadows and in the east, on the opposite coast from the prevailing moisture-laden wind. The wine regions of New Zealand tend to experience cool nights even in the hottest of summers. The effect of consistently cool nights is to produce fruit, which is nearly always high in acidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Hawke's Bay is New Zealand's oldest and second-largest wine region, and includes the Gimblett Gravels, Bridge Pa Triangle and Te Mata Special Character Zone sub-regions. It is best known for its Merlot and Syrah red wines, and white wines mainly from Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc and Viognier."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Today, New Zealand is most well known internationally for red wines made from traditional French varieties. After Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir has become New Zealand's second most planted variety, while in the warmer regions, particularly Hawke's Bay and Waiheke Island, Syrah and Bordeaux-style blends of mainly Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon have been gaining recognition."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand wine is produced in several of its distinct winegrowing regions. As an island country in the South Pacific Ocean, New Zealand has a largely maritime climate, although its elongated geography produces considerable regional variation from north to south. Like many other New World wines, New Zealand wine is usually produced and labelled as single varietal wines, or if blended, winemakers list the varietal components on the label. New Zealand is best known for its Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc, and more recently its dense, concentrated Pinot Noir from Marlborough, Martinborough and Central Otago."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "There are 10 major wine-producing areas in New Zealand, with Marlborough famed for its sauvignon blanc, Gisborne for its chardonnay, and Central Otago and Martinborough building a reputation for pinot noir and pinot gris. Hawkes Bay is known for its bold cabernets and Auckland's Waiheke Island is home to one of the top 20 cabernet blends in the world. Marlborough and Hawkes Bay are New Zealand's two premium wine-growing regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand wine\n--History.\n----First steps.\n----Sauvignon Blanc breakthrough.\n--Climate and soil.\n--Industry structure and production methods.\n--Varieties, styles and directions.\n----White wines.\n------Sauvignon Blanc.\n------Chardonnay.\n------Pinot Gris.\n------Other white wines.\n----Red wines.\n------Pinot Noir.\n------Bordeaux-style blends and Syrah.\n------Other red wines.\n----Ros\u00e9.\n----Sparkling wine.\n--Wine regions of New Zealand.\n----Northland.\n----Auckland.\n------Waiheke Island.\n------Kumeu.\n------Matakana.\n----Gisborne.\n----Hawke's Bay.\n----Wairarapa.\n------Martinborough.\n----Nelson.\n----Marlborough.\n----Canterbury.\n------Waipara Valley.\n------North Canterbury.\n----Waitaki Valley.\n----Central Otago.\n------Bannockburn.\n--Trends in production and export.\n--Praise and criticism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Early success in the Hawke's Bay Region in the 1960s by McWilliams and in the 1980s by Te Mata Estate, led to a phase in the 1980s and 1990s of mainly Cabernet Sauvignon planting and wine production by large producers such as Corbans, McWilliams, and Mission Estate. As viticultural techniques were improved and tailored to New Zealand's maritime climate, other Bordeaux-style grapes were planted, and a switch of emphasis made to the more suitable, earlier-ripening Merlot. Today, Merlot is the second most planted red variety after Pinot Noir, accounting for , outweighing Cabernet Sauvignon plantings by five to one."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The late 1970s were early in the modern wine industry, and the comparatively low annual sunshine hours to be found in New Zealand discouraged the planting of red varieties. Despite this, some held great hopes for Pinot Noir. Initial results were mixed because of limited access to good clones, yet the Saint Helena 1984 Pinot Noir was notable enough that the Canterbury region was thought to become the New Zealand home for Pinot Noir. While the early excitement passed, the Canterbury region has witnessed the development of Pinot Noir as the dominant red variety, particularly in the now dominant Waipara sub-region. Producers include Waipara Hills, Pegasus Bay, Waipara Springs, Muddy Water, Greystone, Omihi Hills and Black Estate."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Auckland Geographical Indication is a small region, with a vineyard area in 2020 of and lies around New Zealand's largest city. The region produces some of New Zealand's finest Chardonnay white wines, which is the most planted variety, followed by the Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc and Malbec that produce Auckland's well regarded red Bordeaux-style wines. Soils are usually heavy clay, or small areas of volcanic-derived soils, and it is the warmest of New Zealand's vine-growing areas. There are three sub-regions within Auckland: Waiheke Island, Kumeu, and Matakana. In recent years, the hotter temperatures are allowing Auckland winemakers (for example Omaha Bay, Cooper's Creek, Heron's Flight, Matavino, and Obsidian) to experiment with Italian and Spanish grape varieties, such as Albari\u00f1o, Montepulciano, Sangiovese, Dolcetto, Temperanillo, and even Nebbiolo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cabernet Sauvignon",
        "text": "In New Zealand, climate has been a challenge in finding wine regions suitable for producing Cabernet Sauvignon. Most of the industry focus has centered on the North Island. The Hawkes Bay region was the first to make a significant effort in producing Cabernet Sauvignon but the cool climate of the region, coupled with the high yields and fertile alluvial soils, produced wines that were still marked with aggressive green and vegetal flavors. Added focus on canopy management, which gives the grapes more sunlight to ripen by removing excess foliage, and low vigor rootstock and pruning combine to achieve lower yields and have started to produce better results. The grape is sometimes blended with Merlot to help compensate for climate and \"terroir\". Other regions in New Zealand have sprung up with a renewed focus on producing distinctive New Zealand Cabernet Sauvignon: The Gimblett Road and Havelock North regions of Hawkes Bay, with their warm gravel soils, have started to achieve notice as well as Waiheke Island near Auckland. Overall the grape lags far behind Pinot noir in New Zealand's red wine grape plantings."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "As in many places in the world, an emerging trend in New Zealand wine is an increased recognition for high quality wines coming from small boutique wineries. In 2020, these smaller producers, with a vineyard area of no more than , represented over three-quarters of New Zealand's wineries. They are located fairly evenly throughout all wine regions, with the larger producers predominantly in Marlborough, Hawke's Bay, Gisborne, and Waipara."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of wine-producing regions",
        "text": "GI stands for New Zealand Geographical Indication."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand's newest winegrowing region is on the border of Otago and Canterbury. The Waitaki Valley GI is defined as the southern bank of the Waitaki River up to elevation, along a narrow strip of approximately between the towns of Duntroon and Omarama. The area contains north-facing limestone hillsides and escarpments, and Burgundy-like limestone alluvial soils. The climate is a combination of the cool, maritime influence from the Pacific Ocean and the warm, dry summer and autumn weather in the rain shadow of the Southern Alps. In a good year, the warm summer and long dry autumn in the Waitaki Valley can produce one of the longest growing seasons in New Zealand. The grapes reach full ripeness and produce complex, well-balanced wine. However, the weather year-to-year is so variable and frost-susceptible that some years have been simply too cold to produce a reliable harvest."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The region is young; the first plantings were in the early 2000s, and the local wine growers' association was formed in 2005. The 2008 global financial crisis hit just as initial interest in the area was growing, and poor initial vintages and remoteness from tourism further troubled some producers, a number of whom pulled out of the area altogether. Those that remain have been rapidly growing a reputation for the quality and individuality for the region's mainly Pinot Noir, Pinot Gris, Riesling, Chardonnay and Gew\u00fcrztraminer wines. The Pinot Noir, in particular, is proving to express a distinctive terroir, different in character from other regions of New Zealand, and more restrained and delicate than Central Otago Pinot Noir."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawke's Bay wine region",
        "text": "The \"Te Mata Special Character Zone\" is an area of hills adjacent to Havelock North and Te Mata Peak. It was first protected by the Hawke's Bay Regional Council in 1996, making it New Zealand's first legally protected wine growing area. The principal producers in the region are Te Mata Estate, Craggy Range and Black Barn, but other producers have vineyards in the area, including De La Terre and Trinity Hill."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "By 2020, the Wairarapa had 126 vineyards with a total area of , or about three per cent of the New Zealand total. Nearly half of this area is Pinot Noir, the remainder mostly Sauvignon Blanc, with smaller areas of Pinot Gris, Chardonnay, Riesling and Syrah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawke's Bay wine region",
        "text": "The Hawke's Bay wine region is New Zealand's oldest and second-largest wine-production region, on the east coast of the North Island. Production reached 41,000 tonnes in 2018 from of planted vines, representing 10.2% of total national production. Some of the oldest wineries still operating in New Zealand, including Te Mata Estate, Church Road, and Mission Estate, were established in the Hawke's Bay area in the late 19th century. Despite this, it was only established as a geographical indication (GI) in 2018. The GI protects any wine produced within the boundaries of the entire Hawke's Bay Region, but in practice the vineyards are chiefly concentrated in the plains and low hills surrounding the cities of Napier and Hastings."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Typically, these Bordeaux blends come from the hotter and drier regions of New Zealand, largely in the Hawke's Bay Region. Wines that typify the best of Hawke's Bay include Elephant Hill's Airavata, Te Mata Estate's Coleraine, Craggy Range's Sophia, Newton Forrest Estate's Cornerstone, Esk Valley's The Terraces and Villa Maria's Reserve Merlot and Cabernet. Waiheke Island, whilst a very small viticultural region, also produces acclaimed red wines like the Larose from Stonyridge, the Dreadnought and Ironclad from Man O' War, wines from Destiny Bay, and Goldie Estate. In Marlborough, Hans Herzog Estate is famous for making the Spirit of Marlborough, and examples of Bordeaux blends can be found as far south as Waipara, where the Maestro from Pegasus Bay also demonstrates the shift from Cabernet Sauvignon to Merlot predominant blends."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Canterbury Geographical Indication covers wine made anywhere within the Canterbury region of New Zealand, a very large area of some . In practice, almost all the region's vineyards are concentrated in a relatively small area around the city of Christchurch, which has prompted the establishment of two more specific GIs within it. North Canterbury is simply the top half of the larger Canterbury GI north of the Rakaia River, and Waipara Valley, a small area about north of Christchurch which accounts for the majority of Canterbury's total vineyard plantings."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Waiheke Island is an island east of Auckland in the Hauraki Gulf and is a Geographical Indication within the larger Auckland GI. It has a dry and warm mesoclimate, and is planted primarily in French red grape varieties: Syrah, Merlot, and Cabernet Sauvignon, as well as the white grape varieties Chardonnay and Pinot Gris. The Bordeaux style red wines that are produced are considered to be significantly ripe and full bodied, and some of the best in New Zealand. The Larose from Stonyridge Estate has an international reputation and is often compared with some of the best Bordeaux wine in the world, and comparing favourably with the likes of Ch\u00e2teau Latour and Ch\u00e2teau Mouton-Rothschild. Other notable wine producers are Destiny Bay Vineyards (Magna Praemia), Obsidian Vineyard, Peacock Sky, Man O'War (Dreadnought Syrah), Cable Bay, Mudbrick and Te Motu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wine",
        "text": "Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between 30 and 50 degrees latitude north and south of the equator. The world's southernmost vineyards are in the Central Otago region of New Zealand's South Island near the 45th parallel south, and the northernmost are in Flen, Sweden, just north of the 59th parallel north.\n* May include official, semi-official or estimated data."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Wairarapa winegrowing region, a Geographical Indication since October 2017, is one of New Zealand's smallest. It contains two GI sub-regions, Gladstone and Martinborough, as well as Masterton and Opaki. Martinborough was the original area planted on the basis of careful scientific study in the 1970s, which identified its soils and climate as perfectly suited to the cultivation of Pinot Noir. As a consequence, many of the vineyards established there are older than their counterparts in the rest of the Wairarapa. In general, the area lies in the rain shadow of the Tararua Range, which gives it a warm climate with relatively low rainfall. Subtle differences are seen in the wines from the South Wairarapa (which includes Martinborough), which has more maritime influences, to those grown farther north in Gladstone and Masterton."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Although the Gisborne GI established in October 2017 covers most of the East Cape Gisborne District, most of the of vineyard area in 2020 is concentrated in a relatively small area around Gisborne city. The fertile Gisborne region originally grew prodigious grape yields throughout the mid-20th Century, which was mostly used to make fortified and cask wines. In the 1980s, a shift away from cask wine for better quality, bottled still wine meant that huge areas of bulk varieties, most notably M\u00fcller-Thurgau, were uprooted and replaced with Chardonnay and Gew\u00fcrztraminer, for which the region is well known today. It is also the world's most easterly vine-producing region."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "In 2018, the Wines of Canterbury and Waipara Valley Wine Growers associations merged to form the North Canterbury Wine Region. The Waipara region is within the area of the North Canterbury boundary, and the merged industry body promotes the use of \"North Canterbury\" for its region, although both \"North Canterbury\" and \"Waipara\" still appear on labels. Only of vineyards are planted outside the Waipara Valley GI boundary, concentrated in a few small areas such as West Melton, Banks Peninsula, Cheviot and Rolleston. Notable producers include French Peak (formerly French Farm); Melton Estate; Lone Goat, which took over Riesling vineyards from Giesen Estate; and New Zealand's only Ehrenfelser vineyard. In order of descending planting area, varieties grown in Canterbury outside Waipara Valley include Pinot Noir, Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, Pinot Gris, and Chardonnay."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Central Otago is home to the world's most southerly wine region. The vineyards are the highest in New Zealand \u2013 at above sea level \u2013 on the steep slopes of lakesides and the edges of deep river gorges, often in glacial soils. Central Otago is a sheltered inland area with a continental microclimate characterised by hot dry summers, short cool autumns, and crisp cold winters. It is divided into several subregions around Bannockburn, Bendigo, Gibbston and Queenstown, Wanaka, the Kawarau Gorge, the Alexandra Basin, and the Cromwell Basin."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Northland is the most northerly wine region in New Zealand, and thus closest to the equator. A Geographical Indication since October 2017, it is also the smallest GI, producing 269 tonnes in 2020 from an area of under vines. Although Chardonnay is the most planted variety, Northland is most well known for ripe Syrah red wines, and white wines from Pinot Gris, which together comprise the top three planted varieties. Some Northland wineries are also making wine from warmer climate grapes such as Montepulciano, Chambourcin and Pinotage. The combination of high summer temperatures and high rainfall can be challenging for viticulture; although irrigation is not needed, the humidity can encourage some pests and diseases. The fertile soils and Northland climate also results in high vine productivity, requiring good vineyard management to limit yields in order to ensure better quality wines. Consequently, Northland tends to produce ripe wines, with low acidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Chardonnay is produced as far south as Central Otago, but plantings increase moving further north. There is little discernible difference in styles of Chardonnay between the New Zealand wine regions; individual winemakers' recipes, use of oak, and the particular qualities of a vintage have tended to blur any distinction of terroir. Almost every region is represented among the most highly rated New Zealand Chardonnays, which include wines from Kumeu River Estate (Kumeu), Church Road, Clearview, Sacred Hill, Villa Maria and Te Mata Estate (Hawke's Bay), Ata Rangi (Martinborough), Fromm (Marlborough), Neudorf (Nelson), Millton Estate (Gisborne). Although Chardonnay may be less fashionable than it was ten years ago (it has declined in vineyard area in the last ten years, losing ground to Pinot Gris), winemakers in 2016 reported strong sales and a recent upswing. It also commands higher prices than any other New Zealand white wine variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Other white wine varietals grown in New Zealand include (in descending order of vineyard area) Riesling, Gew\u00fcrztraminer and Viognier, and less commonly Chenin Blanc, Albari\u00f1o, Arneis and S\u00e9millon. Riesling is produced predominantly in Martinborough and the South Island, as is Gew\u00fcrztraminer, although it is also planted extensively in Gisborne. Chenin Blanc was once more important, but the viticultural peculiarities of the variety, particularly its unpredictable cropping in New Zealand, have led to its disfavour. Nevertheless, good examples exist from Esk Valley, Margrain and Millton Estate."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The amount of Cabernet Sauvignon in production has dropped to a third of what it was in the early 2000s and has been overtaken by a tripling of Syrah planting in that time. In the same time period, Sauvignon Blanc has grown more than five-fold and Pinot Noir has doubled. Whilst today's fashion has turned from Bordeaux blends to Pinot Noir, it also indicates the marginality of Cabernet Sauvignon in New Zealand conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Otago wine region",
        "text": "Starting in the 1950s, and up through the end of the 1970s, small-scale trial plantings of vines began again both by private individuals and under the auspices of the New Zealand Department of Agriculture. By 1980 sufficient experience and confidence had been gained for small-scale commercial plantings to be made."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Most New Zealand wine producers that produce Pinot Noir or Merlot also produce a ros\u00e9 style wine, although it is sometimes found made from other red varieties. New Zealand ros\u00e9 is made to drink immediately rather than age, resulting in the crisp, fresh, fruit-forward flavours popular with the New Zealand public. Well rated examples are from Forrest, Isabel, Ti Point, Whitehaven and Rapaura Springs."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New law came into force in New Zealand in 2017 that established a Geographical Indication (GI) classification for New Zealand wine, equivalent to the European Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) classification and the American Viticultural Areas in the United States. In 2017, a total of 18 applications were lodged with the GI register at the Intellectual Property Office of New Zealand, and registrations were complete by early 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Te Kauwhata",
        "text": "Te Kauwhata lies at the centre of one of New Zealand's smaller wine-producing regions, which stretches from Pukekohe, just south of Auckland, across to Thames and Paeroa at the foot of the Coromandel Peninsula. The region is particularly notable for its Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay and Sauvignon blanc wines."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The next region to excel with Pinot Noir was Martinborough, east of Wellington in the Wairarapa region. Several vineyards, including Palliser Estate, Martinborough Vineyards, Murdoch James Estate (now Luna Estate) and Ata Rangi consistently produced interesting and increasingly complex wine from Pinot Noir at the end of the 1980s and into the 1990s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waikato",
        "text": "The north of the region around Te Kauwhata produces some of New Zealand's best wines. Dozens of small shallow lakes lie in this area, the largest of which is Lake Waikare."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Further inland from Waipara, the limestone soils around Waikari are producing well-reviewed wine from Bell Hill and Pyramid Valley, using organic and/or biodynamic production methods, and close-planted vineyards. Farther north in Cheviot and Hanmer Springs respectively, notable producers Mt. Beautiful and Waiau River Estate (formerly Marble Point) are producing well-regarded Pinot Noir."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "While New Zealand wine traces its history to the early 19th century, the modern wine industry in New Zealand began in the mid-20th century and expanded rapidly in the early 21st century, growing by 17% a year from 2000 to 2020. In 2020, New Zealand produced from of vineyard area, of which ha (about two-thirds) is dedicated to Sauvignon Blanc. Nearly 90% of total production is exported, chiefly to the United States, Britain and Australia, reaching a record in export revenue in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Otago wine region",
        "text": "The other 30% of production comes from Chardonnay, Sauvignon blanc, Riesling, Pinot gris, and Gew\u00fcrztraminer."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "Various grapes were tried in the early years, but it was in the 1980s that New Zealand developed the distinctive style of Sauvignon blanc that became its trademark. Since then the Burgundy grapes of Chardonnay and Pinot noir have been developed in cooler, more southerly vineyards, with considerable success. More recently there has been increasing popularity for the 'aromatic' white varieties such as Gew\u00fcrztraminer and Riesling, with Auslese styles also being attempted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marlborough wine region",
        "text": "New Zealand's plantings of Sauvignon Blanc experienced enormous growth in the 21st century, driven almost exclusively by investment in the Marlborough region. Vineyard area of the grape expanded from in 2003 to in 2018, a five-fold increase in just 15 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Kawarau valley has a thin and patchy topsoil over a bedrock that is schist. Early growers blasted holes into the bare rock of north-facing slopes with miners' caps to provide planting holes for the vines. These conditions necessitate irrigation and make the vines work hard for nutrients. Irrigation, low cropping techniques, and the thermal effect of the rock produces great intensity for the grapes and subsequent wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Marlborough is by far the largest wine region in New Zealand, accounting for three-quarters of the country's total wine production and 70% of its planted vineyard area. Internationally it is also the most recognised, its wines accounting for 85% of New Zealand's 2019 wine exports. Marlborough is well known internationally for its Sauvignon Blanc, and its Pinot Noir is also attracting attention."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawke's Bay Region",
        "text": "The Hawke's Bay wine region produces some of New Zealand's finest wines, celebrated together with local cuisine twice a year with the \"Food And Wine Classic\" festivals. These take place over several weekends in winter and ten days in summer, attracting thousands of visitors, many from overseas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marlborough wine region",
        "text": "The Marlborough wine region is by far New Zealand's largest, accounting for three quarters of the country's wine production, 70% of its vineyard area and 85% of its wine exports. A Geographical Indication in the north-east of the South Island, it covers the entire Marlborough Region and the Kaik\u014dura District of the Canterbury region, but in practice the vineyards are concentrated around the Blenheim and Seddon townships. Internationally, Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc is recognised as world class; wine writers such as Oz Clarke and George Taber have described it as the best in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of wine-producing regions",
        "text": "List of wine-producing regions\n--Countries.\n--Europe.\n----Romania.\n----Ukraine.\n----United Kingdom.\n--Asia.\n----China.\n----Indonesia.\n----Iran.\n----Israel.\n--Oceania.\n----Australia.\n------South Australia.\n----New Zealand.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Waipara Valley is a Geographical Indication and sub-region of the larger Canterbury GI, about north of Christchurch. The valley floor provides a warm micro-climate ideal for viticulture. To the west, the Southern Alps temper the prevailing westerly winds and provide a rain shadow, and to the east, low coastal limestone ridges moderate the cool ocean winds. In the 1970s, the first vineyard to be planted was Pegasus Bay, which established a reputation for its Riesling wine. The region makes up the bulk of Canterbury's plantings, which by 2017 was a total vineyard area of , well known for its Pinot Noir, of which is planted. Liam Steevenson MW has described Waipara as possibly the \"most exciting place to grow Pinot Noir\". Good examples of the region's Pinot Noir include those from Black Estate, Bellbird Spring, Fancrest Estate, Muddy Water, Greystone, Waipara Springs, Pegasus Bay and Crater Rim. Greystone Wines won the \"Decanter\" International Trophy for Pinot Noir in 2014 and the Air New Zealand Trophy for Pinot Noir. Black Estate was awarded the Trophy for Best Pinot Noir at the International Wine & Spirits Competition in 2010. White wines of the region include varietal wines, most commonly of Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, Pinot Gris, and Chardonnay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Merlot",
        "text": "In New Zealand, plantings of Merlot have increased in the Hawke's Bay region, particularly in Gimblett Gravels where the grape has shown the ability to produce Bordeaux-style wine. The grape has been growing in favor among New Zealand producers due to its ability to ripen better, with less green flavors, than Cabernet Sauvignon. Other regions with significant plantings include Auckland, Marlborough and Martinborough. In 2008, Merlot was the second most widely red grape variety (after Pinot noir) in New Zealand and accounted for nearly 5% of all the country's plantings with in cultivation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Otago wine region",
        "text": "The Central Otago wine region is a geographical indication in New Zealand's South Island, and the world's southernmost commercial wine growing region. Central Otago is best known for Pinot Noir, but many white wine varieties are also popular."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "As is the case for other New Zealand wine, New Zealand Pinot Noir is fruit-driven, forward and early maturing in the bottle. It tends to be quite full bodied (for the variety), very approachable and oak maturation tends to be restrained. High quality examples of New Zealand Pinot Noir are distinguished by savoury, earthy flavours with a greater complexity. In an article in \"Decanter\" (September 2014), Bob Campbell suggests regional styles are starting to emerge within New Zealand Pinot Noir. Marlborough, with by far the largest plantings of Pinot, produces wines that are quite aromatic, red fruit in particular red cherry, with a firm tannic structure that provides cellaring potential."
      },
      {
        "title": "Riesling",
        "text": "Riesling was first planted in New Zealand in the 1970s and has flourished in the relatively cool climate of the Marlborough area and for late harvests in the Nelson region. In comparison to Australian Riesling, New Zealand produces lighter and more delicate wines that range from sweet to dry. Home of cool climate wines, Central Otago, has recently emerged as another area producing terroir driven wines."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand's winemakers employ a variety of production techniques. The traditional concept of a vineyard, where grapes are grown on the land surrounding a central simply owned or family-owned estate with its own discrete viticultural and winemaking equipment and storage, is only one model. While the European cooperative model (where district or AOC village winemaking takes place in a centralized production facility) is uncommon, contract growing of fruit for winemakers has been a feature of the New Zealand industry since the start of the winemaking boom in the 1970s. Indeed, many well-known producers began as contract growers."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "By the 1980s, wineries in New Zealand, especially in the Marlborough region, were producing outstanding Sauvignon Blanc. It was in 1985 that the Sauvignon Blanc from Cloudy Bay Vineyards finally garnered international attention and critical acclaim for New Zealand wine. Wine writer George Taber recounts Cloudy Bay is \"what many people consider to be the world's best Sauvignon Blanc\". New Zealand's reputation is now well established; Oz Clarke wrote New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc was \"arguably the best in the world\", and Mark Oldman wrote \"New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc is like a child who inherits the best of both parents\u2014exotic aromas found in\u00a0... the New World and the pungency and limy acidity of an Old World Sauvignon Blanc like Sancerre.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "For the first half of the 20th century, economic, legislative and cultural factors made wine a marginal economic activity. The most common use of land in New Zealand during this period was for animal agriculture, and the exports of dairy, meat, and wool dominated the economy. Most New Zealanders were of British descent, and favoured beer and spirits; the temperance movement further reduced the national appreciation for wine. The Great Depression of the 1930s also hampered the growth of the fledgling industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand has long been best known for its Sauvignon Blanc, which dominates its wine industry. In 2017, its vines took up of vineyard area, a full 60% of New Zealand's total grape planting, and Sauvignon Blanc wine made up 86% of the nation's exports. Many critics regard New Zealand's Sauvignon Blanc as among the best in the world. Historically, Sauvignon Blanc has been used in many French regions in both AOC and Vin de pays wine, and famously Sancerre and Pouilly Fum\u00e9. Following Robert Mondavi's lead in renaming Californian Sauvignon Blanc Fum\u00e9 Blanc (partially in reference to Pouilly Fum\u00e9, but also to denote the smokiness of the wine produced from flinty soil and oak barrel ageing), there was a trend for oaked Sauvignon Blanc in New Zealand during the late 1980s. Strong oaky overtones dropped out of fashion through the 1990s but have since made a comeback, with several makers now offering oak-aged Sauvignon Blanc\u2014Greywacke, Dog Point, te Pa (Sauvignon Blanc 'Oke'), Sacred Hill (Sauvage), Jackson Estate (Grey Ghost), Hans Herzog (Sur Lie) and Saint Clair (Barrique)."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "In a blind tasting of New Zealand Pinot Noir in 2006, Michael Cooper reported that of the top ten wines, five came from Central Otago, four from Marlborough and one from Waipara. This compares with all top ten wines coming from Marlborough in an equivalent blind tasting in the previous year. Cooper suggested that this has to do with more Central Otago production becoming available in commercial quantities, than the relative qualities of the regions' Pinot Noir."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bannockburn, New Zealand",
        "text": "Wine in this region, like the majority of Central Otago, focuses primarily on Pinot noir, suited to the dry climate and soils. The climate of Bannockburn epitomizes that of the Central Otago wine region and claims some of the highest temperatures and lowest rainfall in the area. The area is limited by geographical constraints to relatively small outputs, and most of the vineyards boast a boutique high quality wine with typically small volumes of grapes. Several internationally renowned vineyards exist within a small radius producing wine that is distributed often to an international base. Akarua, Bannock Brae, Felton Road, Mt. Difficulty and Terra Sancta are among a few of the internationally known wineries in this area."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Martinborough is a small wine village located east of Wellington by road, in the South Wairarapa. The combination of topography, geology, climate and human effort has led to the region becoming one of New Zealand's premier wine regions, despite its small size, particularly for Pinot Noir. The growing season from flowering to harvest is amongst the longest in New Zealand. Naturally breezy conditions control vine vigour, creating lower yields of grapes with greater intensity. A genuine cool climate, with a long, dry autumn, provides ideal ripening conditions for Pinot Noir and other varietals, such as Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Gris and Syrah. Most of the wineries are on the Martinborough terrace, a raised alluvial terrace of the nearby Ruamahanga River."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinot noir",
        "text": "Pinot noir is New Zealand's largest red wine variety, and second largest variety overall behind Sauvignon blanc. In 2014, Pinot noir vines covered and produced 36,500\u00a0tonnes of grapes."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Nelson has the sunniest climate in New Zealand, with an annual average sunshine total of over 2400 hours, approximately equivalent to Tuscany. The long autumns permit the production of fine late-harvest wines. There are two sub-regions in Nelson: Waimea and Moutere Valley. Notable wineries from the region include Neudorf Vineyards, awarded Raymond Chan's 2012 Winery of the Year and Seifried Estate Winery, who have won Champion Open White Wine, Champion Sauvignon Blanc and Best Wine - Nelson at the New Zealand Wine Awards in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "New South Wales wine",
        "text": "Any grape grown in New South Wales can be included in wine produced under the \"Southeastern Australia\" appellation which also includes grapes grown in Victoria, Tasmania and parts of Queensland and South Australia. The state has eight larger Australian Geographical Indication (GI) zones which are divided into smaller regions and occasionally, sub-regions as follows:\n*Big Rivers-Includes the regions of Perricoota, Riverina plus Murray Darling and Swan Hill which are shared with the state of Victoria.\n*Central Ranges-Includes the regions of Cowra, Mudgee and Orange.\n*Hunter Valley-Includes the Upper Hunter Valley, Broke Fordwich and Pokolbin subregions of the Hunter wine region.\n*Northern Rivers-Includes the region of Hastings River.\n*Northern Slopes-Includes the region of New England Australia.\n*South Coast-Includes the regions of Shoalhaven Coast and Southern Highlands.\n*Southern New South Wales-Includes the regions of Canberra District, Gundagai, Hilltops and Tumbarumba.\n*Western Plains has no defined regions"
      },
      {
        "title": "Waipara",
        "text": "The Waipara region has a reputation as a premium area for the production of Pinot noir, Riesling and Chardonnay. Waipara is sheltered by the Teviot hills from the prevailing cool easterly winds and has the highest summer temperatures and the lowest rainfall of any of the New Zealand wine regions. Because of this, Waipara has over 26 wineries and 80 vineyards within the valley, which collectively produce around 100,000 cases of award-winning wine in an average year. Many of the vineyards offer tastings at their cellar doors and some also have restaurants attached."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "New Zealand has a successful wine industry, with about 76 million litres being exported in the year to June 2007. The first vines are thought to have been introduced by missionary Samuel Marsden, and planted in 1817 by Charles Gordon, superintendent of agriculture for the missionaries, according to Dr Richard Smart who was viticultural editor of both editions of The Oxford Companion to Wine. Official British resident James Busby is credited with producing wine at Kerikeri in 1833, and Charles Darwin noted the winery in his diary when he visited Kerikeri in 1835."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "At around this time, the first plantings of Pinot Noir in Central Otago occurred in the Kawarau Gorge. Central Otago had a long (for New Zealand) history as a producer of quality stone fruit, particularly cherries. Significantly further south than all other wine regions in New Zealand, it benefited from being surrounded by mountain ranges which increased both its daily and seasonal temperature variations, making the climate unusual in the typically maritime conditions in New Zealand, and ideal for growing Pinot Noir. Indeed, recent years have seen Pinot Noir from Central Otago win numerous international awards and accolades, and excite the interest of British wine commentators including Jancis Robinson and Oz Clarke. Not only did the wines have the distinctive acidity and abundant fruit of New Zealand wines, but they demonstrated a great deal of complexity, with aromas and flavours not common in New Zealand wine and normally associated with Burgundy wine. Notable producers include Akarua, Felton Road, Chard Farm and Mount Difficulty."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Winemaking began in Matakana in the 1960s, but the oldest, current vineyards are Heron's Flight (established 1988), Providence Wines, and Ransom Wines, established in the early 1990s. Around the turn of the century, Heron's Flight replanted its mainly Bordeaux varieties with the Italian varieties Sangiovese and Dolcetto, and many of the newer wineries, have also planted Tannat and Petit Verdot alongside the usual French varieties, as well as the Italian and Spanish varieties Barbera, Nebbiolo, Albari\u00f1o, Roussanne, and Montepulciano. As of the 2017 vintage, there were more than planted in vines, and 21 commercial grape growing/winery operations within the Matakana GI."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "New World wines are those wines produced outside the traditional winegrowing areas of Europe and the Middle East, in particular from Argentina, Australia, Canada, Chile, Mexico, New Zealand, South Africa and the United States (primarily California). The phrase connotes a distinction between these \"New World\" wines and those wines produced in \"Old World\" countries with a long-established history of wine productionmost notably, France, Italy, Germany, Spain and Portugal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Otago wine region",
        "text": "The Central Otago wine region is broken into multiple sub-regions, each with its own climate and characteristics."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "UK wine writer Paul Howard praised New Zealand Pinot Noir in 2006, writing that \"comparisons with Burgundy are inevitable\" and that New Zealand Pinot Noir is:\n: \"rapidly developing its own distinctive style, often with deeper color, purer fruit and higher alcohol. While regional differences are apparent, the best wines do have Burgundy's elusive complexity, texture and 'pinosity' and are capable of ageing. It is a testament to the skill and craft of New Zealand producers that poor examples are infrequently encountered.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Winkler index",
        "text": "The table below provides examples of the ripening and wine style concept used in the application of the Winkler Index for numerous wine regions globally. Region Ia are the coolest areas with known regions including Champagne, Central Otago, and Valais. Region Ia also includes numerous newer regions growing grapes and making wine including southern England, areas in northern Europe, Nova Scotia, and southern areas of Chile and Argentina. Region Ia areas ripen a range of hybrid grapes and some very early ripening \"V. Vinifera.\" Region Ib is slightly warmer, can ripen early varieties such as Chardonnay, Pinot noir, Sauvignon blanc or Riesling with characteristic locations within the Rhine and Mosel valleys, Burgundy and the Loire Valley, or the Willamette Valley in Oregon as good examples. Region II includes cooler locations within areas such as Bordeaux, Coonawarra, and Valle de Curic\u00f3 in Chile. Warmer areas in these wine regions fall in a Winkler Region III as do much of the Northern Rh\u00f4ne, Rioja, Umbria, and the Margaret River. Region IV includes portions of the Napa Valley, Stellenbosch, Corsica, Tuscany, and Alentejo where the warmer climates allow for the ripening of later varieties such as Cabernet sauvignon, Sangiovese, and Syrah. The warmest areas are found in Region V and include areas in the central valley of California, inland Australia and wine producing regions in Morocco, Madeira, Apulia, and Jerez."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chardonnay",
        "text": "Despite being more famous for its Sauvignon blanc production, Chardonnay was New Zealand's most widely planted grape variety from 1990 till 2002 when Sauvignon blanc finally surpassed it. The east coast of the North Island, in places like Hawke's Bay and Wairarapa, have seen the most success with Chardonnay wine that has noticeable acidity and leanness. As better clonal varieties are discovered and planted, the overall quality of New Zealand Chardonnay have increased, particularly from places like Canterbury, Marlborough and Nelson. Some producers in the Gisborne region have recently developed a cult following for their Chardonnay among New Zealand wine drinkers. While many New Zealand winemakers are still developing a characteristic style, the Chardonnay produced so far have emphasized the grape's affinity for oak."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Otago wine region",
        "text": "Vineyard planting and production remained modest until the middle of the 1990s when the industry began to expand rapidly. In 1996 there were just 11 wineries in the Central Otago region, according to New Zealand Winegrowers, accounting for 4.6% of the national total. By 2020 this had risen to 133 wineries and 18.5%. Over the same period, the area planted with vines rose from 92 to 1,930 hectares, a more-than twentyfold increase. Reflecting this rapid expansion, the long lead-time for planting to come into production, and the focus in Central Otago on quality wines rather than bulk wines, actual wine production accounted for only 0.5% (376 tonnes) of the New Zealand total in 1996, increasing to 3.0% (11,868 tonnes) in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Exports of New Zealand sparkling wines are chiefly to the United Kingdom, where the best-known examples there are the Pelorus from Cloudy Bay, now owned by LVMH, and the Special Reserve from Lindauer. More recently, exports of \"\" have been declining, halving in volume between 2005 and 2011, and now making up less than one percent of total New Zealand exports. This is due partly to a rise in popularity and production of sparkling Sauvignon Blanc, a new style of sparkling New Zealand wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcohol in New Zealand",
        "text": "In the 1980s, wineries in New Zealand, especially in the Marlborough region, began producing outstanding, some critics said unforgettable, Sauvignon blanc. \"New Zealand Sauvignon blanc is like a child who inherits the best of both parents\u2014exotic aromas found in certain Sauvignon blancs from the New World and the pungency and limy acidity of an Old World Sauvignon blanc like Sancerre from the Loire Valley\" (Oldman, p.\u00a0152). One critic said that drinking one's first New Zealand Sauvignon blanc was like having sex for the first time (Taber, p.\u00a0244). \"No other region in the world can match Marlborough, the northeastern corner of New Zealand's South Island, which seems to be the best place in the world to grow Sauvignon blanc grapes\" (Taber, p.\u00a0244)."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Although the majority of sparkling wines in New Zealand are made in Marlborough, there are also examples from throughout the rest of New Zealand. Quartz Reef is based in Central Otago, Church Road in Hawke's Bay, and Lindauer (originally established in Gisborne now also owned by Lion); there are makers as far north as the Auckland regions as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of wine-producing regions",
        "text": "The zones, regions and subregions in each state are listed below:\n* Big Rivers\n** Murray Darling\n** Perricoota\n** Riverina\n** Swan Hill\n* Central Ranges\n** Cowra\n** Mudgee\n** Orange\n* Hunter Valley\n** Hunter\n*** Broke Fordwich\n*** Pokolbin\n*** Upper Hunter Valley\n* Northern Rivers\n** Hastings River\n* Northern Slopes\n** New England Australia\n* South Coast\n** Shoalhaven Coast\n** Southern Highlands\n* Southern New South Wales\n** Canberra District (includes the northern part of the Australian Capital Territory)\n** Gundagai\n** Hilltops\n** Tumbarumba\n* Granite Belt\n* South Burnett"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Bannockburn is a small Geographical Indication and sub-region of the Central Otago GI, located within the larger Cromwell Basin and defined by the Kawarau River and Lake Dunstan to the north and the high mountains of the Southern Alps, specifically the Cairnmuir and Carrick Ranges, to the east, south and west."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Otago wine region",
        "text": "At around elevation, Central Otago's vineyards are protected from New Zealand's characteristic maritime climate by high mountains up to high. They thus have the only true continental climate zone in the country, with large daily and seasonal temperature extremes. Rainfall averages around : summer is hot and relatively dry, and often accompanied by the Nor'wester foehn wind; autumn is short, cool and sunny; and winter is cold, with substantial falls of snow. Heavy frosts are common throughout winter and, indeed, frost can occur at any time between March and November. One of Central Otago's warmest wine growing areas can be found just north of the Lowburn Inlet area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marlborough Region",
        "text": "Between those two sections is the long straight valley of the Wairau River. This broadens to wide plains at its eastern end, in the centre of which stands the town of Blenheim. This region has fertile soil and temperate weather, which has enabled it to become the centre of the New Zealand wine industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Otago wine region",
        "text": "Central Otago wine region\n--History of the wine region.\n--Climate and soil.\n--Central Otago's wines.\n--Sub-regions.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Winemaking and viticulture date back to New Zealand's colonial era. British Resident James Busby, a keen oenologist who had also established wine regions in Australia such as the Hunter Valley, was producing wine on his land near Waitangi for locally stationed British soldiers in 1836. In 1851, French Marist missionaries established a vineyard in Hawke's Bay for making Communion wine. Now part of the Mission Estate Winery, it is the oldest commercial vineyard in New Zealand. William Henry Beetham is recognised as being the first person to plant Pinot Noir and Hermitage (Syrah) grapes in New Zealand at his Lansdowne, Masterton, vineyard in 1881. In 1895, the New Zealand government's Department of Agriculture invited the expert consultant viticulturist and oenologist Romeo Bragato to investigate winemaking possibilities. After tasting Beetham's Hermitage, he concluded that New Zealand and the Wairarapa in particular were \"pre-eminently suited to viticulture.\" His French wife, Marie Zelie Hermance Frere Beetham, supported Beetham in his endeavours. Their partnership and innovation to pursue winemaking helped form the basis of modern New Zealand's viticulture practices. Dalmatian immigrants arriving in New Zealand in the late 19th and early 20th centuries brought with them viticultural knowledge and planted vineyards in West and North Auckland. Typically, their vineyards produced table wine and fortified wine to suit the palates of their communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of wine-producing regions",
        "text": "Cri\u015fana wine regions:\n* Diosig\n* S\u0103cuieni\n* S\u00e2niob\n* Sanisl\u0103u\n* Valea lui Mihai"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sauvignon blanc",
        "text": "In the 1990s, Sauvignon blanc wines from the maritime climatic regions of New Zealand, particularly the South Island, became popular on the wine market. In the Marlborough wine region, sandy soils over slate shingles have become the most desirable locations for plantings due to the good drainage of the soil and poor fertility that encourages the vine to concentrate its flavors in lower yields. In the flood plain of the Wairau River Valley, the soil runs in east-west bands across the area. This can create a wide diversity of flavors for vineyards that are planted north-south with the heavier soils producing more herbaceous wines from grapes that ripen late and vines planted in stonier soils ripening earlier and imparting more lush and tropical flavors. It is this difference in soils, and the types of harvest time decisions that wine producers must make, that add a unique element to New Zealand Sauvignon blanc."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World",
        "text": "In wine terminology, \"New World\" uses a particular definition. \"New World wines\" include not only North American and South American wines, but also those from South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and all other locations outside the traditional wine-growing regions of Europe, North Africa and the Near East. The usefulness of therms for wines though have been questioned as arbitrary and too generalized."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand Winegrowers",
        "text": "New Zealand Winegrowers is the national industry body that represents New Zealand's viticulture and winemaking sectors. It conducts research, promotion, marketing and advocacy in the interests of New Zealand grape growers and winemakers, both domestically and in international export markets. Winemakers and grape growers are automatically entitled to membership of New Zealand Winegrowers through payment of the levies on grape or wine sales required by law in the Commodity Levies Act 1991 and the Wine Act 2003. This combined with New Zealand's small size means that it is the only country in the world with a single national wine industry body."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canterbury, New Zealand",
        "text": "The region's viticulture industry was established by French settlers in Akaroa. Since then, wine-growing is concentrated into two regions: Waipara and Burnham. Recently there have been vintages from plantings from Kurow further to the south. White wine has typically predominated in Canterbury from Riesling, Sauvignon blanc, Chardonnay, Gew\u00fcrztraminer, and to a lesser extent Pinot blanc and Pinot gris. Pinot noir has had some success in the province particularly in Waipara."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marlborough Region",
        "text": "The Marlborough climate has a strong contrast between hot sunny days and cool nights, which extends the ripening period of the vines. This results in more intense flavour and aroma characters in the wine. The first commercial vineyards were planted around Blenheim in 1973, and Marlborough subsequently grew to become New Zealand's largest and most internationally well-known wine-producing region. Due to this growth, particularly in the export market, the Marlborough wine region now produces three quarters of all New Zealand wine. The most important varietal is Sauvignon Blanc, which is recognised as world class; wine writers Oz Clarke and George Taber have described Marlborough's Sauvignon Blanc as the best in the world. Also important is the production of m\u00e9thode traditionelle sparkling wine made from Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, which has attracted investment from large Champagne producers Mumm, Deutz, Mo\u00ebt & Chandon and Veuve Clicquot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Viognier",
        "text": "In New Zealand, small amounts of Viognier are grown on Waiheke Island and Wairarapa. In the Hawke's Bay Region, the grape is used as a single varietal as well as being blended with Syrah to produce a traditional Rh\u00f4ne style red wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ahr (wine region)",
        "text": "The top red wines used to be classified as dry (\"trocken\") Auslese, but nowadays they are either called Grosses Gew\u00e4chs or are classified as plain Qualit\u00e4tswein bestimmter Anbaugebiete and are sold under estate-specific wine names."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wine",
        "text": "Regulations govern the classification and sale of wine in many regions of the world. European wines tend to be classified by region (e.g. Bordeaux, Rioja and Chianti), while non-European wines are most often classified by grape (e.g. Pinot noir and Merlot). Market recognition of particular regions has recently been leading to their increased prominence on non-European wine labels. Examples of recognized non-European locales include Napa Valley, Santa Clara Valley, Sonoma Valley, Anderson Valley, and Mendocino County in California; Willamette Valley and Rogue Valley in Oregon; Columbia Valley in Washington; Barossa Valley in South Australia; Hunter Valley in New South Wales; Luj\u00e1n de Cuyo in Argentina; Vale dos Vinhedos in Brazil; Hawke's Bay and Marlborough in New Zealand; Central Valley in Chile; and in Canada, the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia, and the Niagara Peninsula and Essex County regions of Ontario are the three largest producers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wine",
        "text": "New World wines\u2014those made outside the traditional wine regions of Europe\u2014are usually classified by grape rather than by \"terroir\" or region of origin, although there have been unofficial attempts to classify them by quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "New World wine\n--History.\n----Early wines in the Americas.\n----Changes in the Americas and opening of South Africa.\n----New World wines in the Industrial Age.\n----20th century.\n--Characteristics of New World wines.\n----Style.\n----Varietal labelling.\n----Marketing.\n----Ownership.\n--Wine-making countries.\n----Argentina.\n----Australia.\n----Canada.\n----Chile.\n----Colombia.\n----Mexico.\n----New Zealand.\n----Peru.\n----South Africa.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aristotelia serrata",
        "text": "Endemic to New Zealand, wineberry is found throughout the South Island of New Zealand and lower North Island. It is common in moist forest and scrub land within the lowland, montane, and subalpine climates. Wineberry can also be found on Stewart Island."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "Small vineyards were also planted by French settlers in Akaroa in the 1840s. However wine was drunk in relatively small quantities well into the twentieth century, with the average per capita consumption only about 2.6 litres in 1966. The high price of imported wines probably prevented New Zealanders from developing a taste for wine, although it did help sales of local vintages. The quality of these wines slowly improved, with New Zealand wines winning three gold and 13 silver medals at the International Wine Fair in 1963. Aided by the deregulation of the economy in the 1980s and 1990s, domestic wine consumption increased and New Zealand wine won increasing accolades internationally."
      },
      {
        "title": "New South Wales wine",
        "text": "New South Wales wine\n--Climate and geography.\n--History.\n--Wine regions.\n----Hunter Valley.\n----Central Ranges.\n----South Coast.\n----Southern New South Wales.\n----Big Rivers Zone.\n--Wine industry.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cloudy Bay Vineyards",
        "text": "The winery is primarily noted for its Sauvignon Blanc wines, the first New Zealand wines to be exported in the 1980s, and still represent the majority of its production. The \u201cTe Koko\u201d Sauvignon Blanc is a wild-ferment, barrel-aged version that contrasts with the fruit-driven unoaked style of the original. The winery also produces Chardonnay, the \u201cPelorus\u201d sparkling and its \u201cTe Wahi\u201d Pinot Noir from Central Otago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regions of New Zealand",
        "text": "Notes:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heathcote wine region",
        "text": "North of the Great Dividing Range the region is at elevations between . The climate and soils are strongly influenced by the Mt Camel range that extends from Corop to Tooborac. For the most part, the soil under vine is Cambrian - red and deep with excellent water holding capacity. The region\u2019s rainfall is evenly distributed between the seasons and the temperature range is defined as temperate, with cooling winds emanating from the south resulting in summer temperatures two to three degrees cooler than nearby Bendigo."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Besides Sauvinon Blanc, Pinot Noir, and Martinboroguh, are there any other types of wine produced?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you asking about the production of other types of French wine, White wine, or Red wine?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the production of red wine."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Much of the red wine production process involves extraction of color and flavor components from the grape skin.There are several steps including grape processing, inoculation and fermentation, and filtration and bottling."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Now, I want to know what are the wine regions of New Zealand."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "There are several distinct winegrowing regions in New Zealand, with some examples being Northland, Hawke's Bay, and Nelson. Would you like to know more about one of these?",
      "The main regions I could find were the Central Otago wine region, Hawke's Bay wine region, and Marlborough wine region."
    ],
    "topic": "New Zealand wine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "New Zealand wine:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "New Zealand wine"
        ],
        "ctx": "New Zealand wine is produced in several of its distinct winegrowing regions. As an island country in the South Pacific Ocean, New Zealand has a largely maritime climate, although its elongated geography produces considerable regional variation from north to south. Like many other New World wines, New Zealand wine is usually produced and labelled as single varietal wines, or if blended, winemakers list the varietal components on the label. New Zealand is best known for its Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc, and more recently its dense, concentrated Pinot Noir from Marlborough, Martinborough and Central Otago."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "New Zealand wine:38",
        "passage_titles": [
          "New Zealand wine",
          "Wine regions of New Zealand",
          "Northland"
        ],
        "ctx": "Northland is the most northerly wine region in New Zealand, and thus closest to the equator. A Geographical Indication since October 2017, it is also the smallest GI, producing 269 tonnes in 2020 from an area of under vines. Although Chardonnay is the most planted variety, Northland is most well known for ripe Syrah red wines, and white wines from Pinot Gris, which together comprise the top three planted varieties. Some Northland wineries are also making wine from warmer climate grapes such as Montepulciano, Chambourcin and Pinotage. The combination of high summer temperatures and high rainfall can be challenging for viticulture; although irrigation is not needed, the humidity can encourage some pests and diseases. The fertile soils and Northland climate also results in high vine productivity, requiring good vineyard management to limit yields in order to ensure better quality wines. Consequently, Northland tends to produce ripe wines, with low acidity."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "New Zealand wine:46",
        "passage_titles": [
          "New Zealand wine",
          "Wine regions of New Zealand",
          "Hawke's Bay"
        ],
        "ctx": "Hawke's Bay is New Zealand's oldest and second-largest wine region, and includes the Gimblett Gravels, Bridge Pa Triangle and Te Mata Special Character Zone sub-regions. It is best known for its Merlot and Syrah red wines, and white wines mainly from Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc and Viognier."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "New Zealand wine:51",
        "passage_titles": [
          "New Zealand wine",
          "Wine regions of New Zealand",
          "Nelson"
        ],
        "ctx": "Nelson has the sunniest climate in New Zealand, with an annual average sunshine total of over 2400 hours, approximately equivalent to Tuscany. The long autumns permit the production of fine late-harvest wines. There are two sub-regions in Nelson: Waimea and Moutere Valley. Notable wineries from the region include Neudorf Vineyards, awarded Raymond Chan's 2012 Winery of the Year and Seifried Estate Winery, who have won Champion Open White Wine, Champion Sauvignon Blanc and Best Wine - Nelson at the New Zealand Wine Awards in 2019."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Marlborough wine region:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Marlborough wine region"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Marlborough wine region is by far New Zealand's largest, accounting for three quarters of the country's wine production, 70% of its vineyard area and 85% of its wine exports. A Geographical Indication in the north-east of the South Island, it covers the entire Marlborough Region and the Kaik\u014dura District of the Canterbury region, but in practice the vineyards are concentrated around the Blenheim and Seddon townships. Internationally, Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc is recognised as world class; wine writers such as Oz Clarke and George Taber have described it as the best in the world."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Hawke's Bay wine region:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Hawke's Bay wine region"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Hawke's Bay wine region is New Zealand's oldest and second-largest wine-production region, on the east coast of the North Island. Production reached 41,000 tonnes in 2018 from of planted vines, representing 10.2% of total national production. Some of the oldest wineries still operating in New Zealand, including Te Mata Estate, Church Road, and Mission Estate, were established in the Hawke's Bay area in the late 19th century. Despite this, it was only established as a geographical indication (GI) in 2018. The GI protects any wine produced within the boundaries of the entire Hawke's Bay Region, but in practice the vineyards are chiefly concentrated in the plains and low hills surrounding the cities of Napier and Hastings."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Central Otago wine region:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Central Otago wine region"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Central Otago wine region is a geographical indication in New Zealand's South Island, and the world's southernmost commercial wine growing region. Central Otago is best known for Pinot Noir, but many white wine varieties are also popular."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Wine regions are located mostly in free draining alluvial valleys\u2014Hawke's Bay, Martinborough, Nelson, the Wairau and Awatere valleys of Marlborough, and Canterbury\u2014with the notable exceptions of Waiheke Island, Kawarau Gorge in Central Otago. The alluvial deposits are typically the local sandstone called greywacke, which makes up much of the mountainous spine of New Zealand."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Northland is the most northerly wine region in New Zealand, and thus closest to the equator. A Geographical Indication since October 2017, it is also the smallest GI, producing 269 tonnes in 2020 from an area of under vines. Although Chardonnay is the most planted variety, Northland is most well known for ripe Syrah red wines, and white wines from Pinot Gris, which together comprise the top three planted varieties. Some Northland wineries are also making wine from warmer climate grapes such as Montepulciano, Chambourcin and Pinotage. The combination of high summer temperatures and high rainfall can be challenging for viticulture; although irrigation is not needed, the humidity can encourage some pests and diseases. The fertile soils and Northland climate also results in high vine productivity, requiring good vineyard management to limit yields in order to ensure better quality wines. Consequently, Northland tends to produce ripe wines, with low acidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Hawke's Bay is New Zealand's oldest and second-largest wine region, and includes the Gimblett Gravels, Bridge Pa Triangle and Te Mata Special Character Zone sub-regions. It is best known for its Merlot and Syrah red wines, and white wines mainly from Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc and Viognier."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The wine regions in New Zealand stretch from latitudes 36\u00b0S in the north (Northland) (comparable in latitude to Jerez, Spain), to 45\u00b0S (Central Otago) in the south (comparable in latitude to Bordeaux, France). New Zealand's climate is maritime, meaning that the sea moderates the weather, producing cooler summers and milder winters than would be expected at similar latitudes in Europe and North America. Maritime climates tend to demonstrate higher variability with cold snaps possible at any time of the year and warm periods even in the depth of winter. The climate is typically wetter, but wine regions have developed in rain shadows and in the east, on the opposite coast from the prevailing moisture-laden wind. The wine regions of New Zealand tend to experience cool nights even in the hottest of summers. The effect of consistently cool nights is to produce fruit, which is nearly always high in acidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in New Zealand",
        "text": "Wine grapes occupied of land as of 2020, with the largest regions being Marlborough (27,808\u00a0ha), Hawke's Bay (5,034\u00a0ha), and Central Otago (1,930\u00a0ha). The largest varieties are sauvignon blanc (25,160\u00a0ha), pinot noir (5,642\u00a0ha), chardonnay (3,222\u00a0ha), pinot gris (2,593\u00a0ha) and merlot (1,087\u00a0ha). Wine exports totalled $1,807 million in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand wine is produced in several of its distinct winegrowing regions. As an island country in the South Pacific Ocean, New Zealand has a largely maritime climate, although its elongated geography produces considerable regional variation from north to south. Like many other New World wines, New Zealand wine is usually produced and labelled as single varietal wines, or if blended, winemakers list the varietal components on the label. New Zealand is best known for its Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc, and more recently its dense, concentrated Pinot Noir from Marlborough, Martinborough and Central Otago."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "There are 10 major wine-producing areas in New Zealand, with Marlborough famed for its sauvignon blanc, Gisborne for its chardonnay, and Central Otago and Martinborough building a reputation for pinot noir and pinot gris. Hawkes Bay is known for its bold cabernets and Auckland's Waiheke Island is home to one of the top 20 cabernet blends in the world. Marlborough and Hawkes Bay are New Zealand's two premium wine-growing regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand wine\n--History.\n----First steps.\n----Sauvignon Blanc breakthrough.\n--Climate and soil.\n--Industry structure and production methods.\n--Varieties, styles and directions.\n----White wines.\n------Sauvignon Blanc.\n------Chardonnay.\n------Pinot Gris.\n------Other white wines.\n----Red wines.\n------Pinot Noir.\n------Bordeaux-style blends and Syrah.\n------Other red wines.\n----Ros\u00e9.\n----Sparkling wine.\n--Wine regions of New Zealand.\n----Northland.\n----Auckland.\n------Waiheke Island.\n------Kumeu.\n------Matakana.\n----Gisborne.\n----Hawke's Bay.\n----Wairarapa.\n------Martinborough.\n----Nelson.\n----Marlborough.\n----Canterbury.\n------Waipara Valley.\n------North Canterbury.\n----Waitaki Valley.\n----Central Otago.\n------Bannockburn.\n--Trends in production and export.\n--Praise and criticism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Canterbury Geographical Indication covers wine made anywhere within the Canterbury region of New Zealand, a very large area of some . In practice, almost all the region's vineyards are concentrated in a relatively small area around the city of Christchurch, which has prompted the establishment of two more specific GIs within it. North Canterbury is simply the top half of the larger Canterbury GI north of the Rakaia River, and Waipara Valley, a small area about north of Christchurch which accounts for the majority of Canterbury's total vineyard plantings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawke's Bay wine region",
        "text": "The Hawke's Bay wine region is New Zealand's oldest and second-largest wine-production region, on the east coast of the North Island. Production reached 41,000 tonnes in 2018 from of planted vines, representing 10.2% of total national production. Some of the oldest wineries still operating in New Zealand, including Te Mata Estate, Church Road, and Mission Estate, were established in the Hawke's Bay area in the late 19th century. Despite this, it was only established as a geographical indication (GI) in 2018. The GI protects any wine produced within the boundaries of the entire Hawke's Bay Region, but in practice the vineyards are chiefly concentrated in the plains and low hills surrounding the cities of Napier and Hastings."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "There are some producers dedicated to establishing other red grape varieties. New Zealand has small plantings of Tempranillo, Pinotage, Montepulciano and Sangiovese in Hawke's Bay and the warmer Auckland regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "As in many places in the world, an emerging trend in New Zealand wine is an increased recognition for high quality wines coming from small boutique wineries. In 2020, these smaller producers, with a vineyard area of no more than , represented over three-quarters of New Zealand's wineries. They are located fairly evenly throughout all wine regions, with the larger producers predominantly in Marlborough, Hawke's Bay, Gisborne, and Waipara."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand red wines are also made from the classic Bordeaux varieties, mainly Merlot, with Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Malbec, and Petit Verdot. Syrah wines from Hawke's Bay, particularly the Gimblett Gravels and Bridge Pa Triangle sub-regions, as well as farther north from Waiheke Island, have also gained a good reputation internationally."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of wine-producing regions",
        "text": "GI stands for New Zealand Geographical Indication."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Early success in the Hawke's Bay Region in the 1960s by McWilliams and in the 1980s by Te Mata Estate, led to a phase in the 1980s and 1990s of mainly Cabernet Sauvignon planting and wine production by large producers such as Corbans, McWilliams, and Mission Estate. As viticultural techniques were improved and tailored to New Zealand's maritime climate, other Bordeaux-style grapes were planted, and a switch of emphasis made to the more suitable, earlier-ripening Merlot. Today, Merlot is the second most planted red variety after Pinot Noir, accounting for , outweighing Cabernet Sauvignon plantings by five to one."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "In 2018, the Wines of Canterbury and Waipara Valley Wine Growers associations merged to form the North Canterbury Wine Region. The Waipara region is within the area of the North Canterbury boundary, and the merged industry body promotes the use of \"North Canterbury\" for its region, although both \"North Canterbury\" and \"Waipara\" still appear on labels. Only of vineyards are planted outside the Waipara Valley GI boundary, concentrated in a few small areas such as West Melton, Banks Peninsula, Cheviot and Rolleston. Notable producers include French Peak (formerly French Farm); Melton Estate; Lone Goat, which took over Riesling vineyards from Giesen Estate; and New Zealand's only Ehrenfelser vineyard. In order of descending planting area, varieties grown in Canterbury outside Waipara Valley include Pinot Noir, Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, Pinot Gris, and Chardonnay."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand's newest winegrowing region is on the border of Otago and Canterbury. The Waitaki Valley GI is defined as the southern bank of the Waitaki River up to elevation, along a narrow strip of approximately between the towns of Duntroon and Omarama. The area contains north-facing limestone hillsides and escarpments, and Burgundy-like limestone alluvial soils. The climate is a combination of the cool, maritime influence from the Pacific Ocean and the warm, dry summer and autumn weather in the rain shadow of the Southern Alps. In a good year, the warm summer and long dry autumn in the Waitaki Valley can produce one of the longest growing seasons in New Zealand. The grapes reach full ripeness and produce complex, well-balanced wine. However, the weather year-to-year is so variable and frost-susceptible that some years have been simply too cold to produce a reliable harvest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawke's Bay wine region",
        "text": "The \"Te Mata Special Character Zone\" is an area of hills adjacent to Havelock North and Te Mata Peak. It was first protected by the Hawke's Bay Regional Council in 1996, making it New Zealand's first legally protected wine growing area. The principal producers in the region are Te Mata Estate, Craggy Range and Black Barn, but other producers have vineyards in the area, including De La Terre and Trinity Hill."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Today, New Zealand is most well known internationally for red wines made from traditional French varieties. After Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir has become New Zealand's second most planted variety, while in the warmer regions, particularly Hawke's Bay and Waiheke Island, Syrah and Bordeaux-style blends of mainly Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon have been gaining recognition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wine",
        "text": "Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between 30 and 50 degrees latitude north and south of the equator. The world's southernmost vineyards are in the Central Otago region of New Zealand's South Island near the 45th parallel south, and the northernmost are in Flen, Sweden, just north of the 59th parallel north.\n* May include official, semi-official or estimated data."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Auckland Geographical Indication is a small region, with a vineyard area in 2020 of and lies around New Zealand's largest city. The region produces some of New Zealand's finest Chardonnay white wines, which is the most planted variety, followed by the Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc and Malbec that produce Auckland's well regarded red Bordeaux-style wines. Soils are usually heavy clay, or small areas of volcanic-derived soils, and it is the warmest of New Zealand's vine-growing areas. There are three sub-regions within Auckland: Waiheke Island, Kumeu, and Matakana. In recent years, the hotter temperatures are allowing Auckland winemakers (for example Omaha Bay, Cooper's Creek, Heron's Flight, Matavino, and Obsidian) to experiment with Italian and Spanish grape varieties, such as Albari\u00f1o, Montepulciano, Sangiovese, Dolcetto, Temperanillo, and even Nebbiolo."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Nelson has the sunniest climate in New Zealand, with an annual average sunshine total of over 2400 hours, approximately equivalent to Tuscany. The long autumns permit the production of fine late-harvest wines. There are two sub-regions in Nelson: Waimea and Moutere Valley. Notable wineries from the region include Neudorf Vineyards, awarded Raymond Chan's 2012 Winery of the Year and Seifried Estate Winery, who have won Champion Open White Wine, Champion Sauvignon Blanc and Best Wine - Nelson at the New Zealand Wine Awards in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cabernet Sauvignon",
        "text": "In New Zealand, climate has been a challenge in finding wine regions suitable for producing Cabernet Sauvignon. Most of the industry focus has centered on the North Island. The Hawkes Bay region was the first to make a significant effort in producing Cabernet Sauvignon but the cool climate of the region, coupled with the high yields and fertile alluvial soils, produced wines that were still marked with aggressive green and vegetal flavors. Added focus on canopy management, which gives the grapes more sunlight to ripen by removing excess foliage, and low vigor rootstock and pruning combine to achieve lower yields and have started to produce better results. The grape is sometimes blended with Merlot to help compensate for climate and \"terroir\". Other regions in New Zealand have sprung up with a renewed focus on producing distinctive New Zealand Cabernet Sauvignon: The Gimblett Road and Havelock North regions of Hawkes Bay, with their warm gravel soils, have started to achieve notice as well as Waiheke Island near Auckland. Overall the grape lags far behind Pinot noir in New Zealand's red wine grape plantings."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Typically, these Bordeaux blends come from the hotter and drier regions of New Zealand, largely in the Hawke's Bay Region. Wines that typify the best of Hawke's Bay include Elephant Hill's Airavata, Te Mata Estate's Coleraine, Craggy Range's Sophia, Newton Forrest Estate's Cornerstone, Esk Valley's The Terraces and Villa Maria's Reserve Merlot and Cabernet. Waiheke Island, whilst a very small viticultural region, also produces acclaimed red wines like the Larose from Stonyridge, the Dreadnought and Ironclad from Man O' War, wines from Destiny Bay, and Goldie Estate. In Marlborough, Hans Herzog Estate is famous for making the Spirit of Marlborough, and examples of Bordeaux blends can be found as far south as Waipara, where the Maestro from Pegasus Bay also demonstrates the shift from Cabernet Sauvignon to Merlot predominant blends."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Wairarapa winegrowing region, a Geographical Indication since October 2017, is one of New Zealand's smallest. It contains two GI sub-regions, Gladstone and Martinborough, as well as Masterton and Opaki. Martinborough was the original area planted on the basis of careful scientific study in the 1970s, which identified its soils and climate as perfectly suited to the cultivation of Pinot Noir. As a consequence, many of the vineyards established there are older than their counterparts in the rest of the Wairarapa. In general, the area lies in the rain shadow of the Tararua Range, which gives it a warm climate with relatively low rainfall. Subtle differences are seen in the wines from the South Wairarapa (which includes Martinborough), which has more maritime influences, to those grown farther north in Gladstone and Masterton."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The region is young; the first plantings were in the early 2000s, and the local wine growers' association was formed in 2005. The 2008 global financial crisis hit just as initial interest in the area was growing, and poor initial vintages and remoteness from tourism further troubled some producers, a number of whom pulled out of the area altogether. Those that remain have been rapidly growing a reputation for the quality and individuality for the region's mainly Pinot Noir, Pinot Gris, Riesling, Chardonnay and Gew\u00fcrztraminer wines. The Pinot Noir, in particular, is proving to express a distinctive terroir, different in character from other regions of New Zealand, and more restrained and delicate than Central Otago Pinot Noir."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Otago wine region",
        "text": "Starting in the 1950s, and up through the end of the 1970s, small-scale trial plantings of vines began again both by private individuals and under the auspices of the New Zealand Department of Agriculture. By 1980 sufficient experience and confidence had been gained for small-scale commercial plantings to be made."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Chardonnay is produced as far south as Central Otago, but plantings increase moving further north. There is little discernible difference in styles of Chardonnay between the New Zealand wine regions; individual winemakers' recipes, use of oak, and the particular qualities of a vintage have tended to blur any distinction of terroir. Almost every region is represented among the most highly rated New Zealand Chardonnays, which include wines from Kumeu River Estate (Kumeu), Church Road, Clearview, Sacred Hill, Villa Maria and Te Mata Estate (Hawke's Bay), Ata Rangi (Martinborough), Fromm (Marlborough), Neudorf (Nelson), Millton Estate (Gisborne). Although Chardonnay may be less fashionable than it was ten years ago (it has declined in vineyard area in the last ten years, losing ground to Pinot Gris), winemakers in 2016 reported strong sales and a recent upswing. It also commands higher prices than any other New Zealand white wine variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Marlborough is by far the largest wine region in New Zealand, accounting for three-quarters of the country's total wine production and 70% of its planted vineyard area. Internationally it is also the most recognised, its wines accounting for 85% of New Zealand's 2019 wine exports. Marlborough is well known internationally for its Sauvignon Blanc, and its Pinot Noir is also attracting attention."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawke's Bay Region",
        "text": "The Hawke's Bay wine region produces some of New Zealand's finest wines, celebrated together with local cuisine twice a year with the \"Food And Wine Classic\" festivals. These take place over several weekends in winter and ten days in summer, attracting thousands of visitors, many from overseas."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "By 2020, the Wairarapa had 126 vineyards with a total area of , or about three per cent of the New Zealand total. Nearly half of this area is Pinot Noir, the remainder mostly Sauvignon Blanc, with smaller areas of Pinot Gris, Chardonnay, Riesling and Syrah."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New law came into force in New Zealand in 2017 that established a Geographical Indication (GI) classification for New Zealand wine, equivalent to the European Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) classification and the American Viticultural Areas in the United States. In 2017, a total of 18 applications were lodged with the GI register at the Intellectual Property Office of New Zealand, and registrations were complete by early 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marlborough wine region",
        "text": "New Zealand's plantings of Sauvignon Blanc experienced enormous growth in the 21st century, driven almost exclusively by investment in the Marlborough region. Vineyard area of the grape expanded from in 2003 to in 2018, a five-fold increase in just 15 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Central Otago is home to the world's most southerly wine region. The vineyards are the highest in New Zealand \u2013 at above sea level \u2013 on the steep slopes of lakesides and the edges of deep river gorges, often in glacial soils. Central Otago is a sheltered inland area with a continental microclimate characterised by hot dry summers, short cool autumns, and crisp cold winters. It is divided into several subregions around Bannockburn, Bendigo, Gibbston and Queenstown, Wanaka, the Kawarau Gorge, the Alexandra Basin, and the Cromwell Basin."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Other white wine varietals grown in New Zealand include (in descending order of vineyard area) Riesling, Gew\u00fcrztraminer and Viognier, and less commonly Chenin Blanc, Albari\u00f1o, Arneis and S\u00e9millon. Riesling is produced predominantly in Martinborough and the South Island, as is Gew\u00fcrztraminer, although it is also planted extensively in Gisborne. Chenin Blanc was once more important, but the viticultural peculiarities of the variety, particularly its unpredictable cropping in New Zealand, have led to its disfavour. Nevertheless, good examples exist from Esk Valley, Margrain and Millton Estate."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The late 1970s were early in the modern wine industry, and the comparatively low annual sunshine hours to be found in New Zealand discouraged the planting of red varieties. Despite this, some held great hopes for Pinot Noir. Initial results were mixed because of limited access to good clones, yet the Saint Helena 1984 Pinot Noir was notable enough that the Canterbury region was thought to become the New Zealand home for Pinot Noir. While the early excitement passed, the Canterbury region has witnessed the development of Pinot Noir as the dominant red variety, particularly in the now dominant Waipara sub-region. Producers include Waipara Hills, Pegasus Bay, Waipara Springs, Muddy Water, Greystone, Omihi Hills and Black Estate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marlborough wine region",
        "text": "The Marlborough wine region is by far New Zealand's largest, accounting for three quarters of the country's wine production, 70% of its vineyard area and 85% of its wine exports. A Geographical Indication in the north-east of the South Island, it covers the entire Marlborough Region and the Kaik\u014dura District of the Canterbury region, but in practice the vineyards are concentrated around the Blenheim and Seddon townships. Internationally, Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc is recognised as world class; wine writers such as Oz Clarke and George Taber have described it as the best in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Bannockburn is a small Geographical Indication and sub-region of the Central Otago GI, located within the larger Cromwell Basin and defined by the Kawarau River and Lake Dunstan to the north and the high mountains of the Southern Alps, specifically the Cairnmuir and Carrick Ranges, to the east, south and west."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Although the Gisborne GI established in October 2017 covers most of the East Cape Gisborne District, most of the of vineyard area in 2020 is concentrated in a relatively small area around Gisborne city. The fertile Gisborne region originally grew prodigious grape yields throughout the mid-20th Century, which was mostly used to make fortified and cask wines. In the 1980s, a shift away from cask wine for better quality, bottled still wine meant that huge areas of bulk varieties, most notably M\u00fcller-Thurgau, were uprooted and replaced with Chardonnay and Gew\u00fcrztraminer, for which the region is well known today. It is also the world's most easterly vine-producing region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waikato",
        "text": "The north of the region around Te Kauwhata produces some of New Zealand's best wines. Dozens of small shallow lakes lie in this area, the largest of which is Lake Waikare."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "New Zealand has a successful wine industry, with about 76 million litres being exported in the year to June 2007. The first vines are thought to have been introduced by missionary Samuel Marsden, and planted in 1817 by Charles Gordon, superintendent of agriculture for the missionaries, according to Dr Richard Smart who was viticultural editor of both editions of The Oxford Companion to Wine. Official British resident James Busby is credited with producing wine at Kerikeri in 1833, and Charles Darwin noted the winery in his diary when he visited Kerikeri in 1835."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "While New Zealand wine traces its history to the early 19th century, the modern wine industry in New Zealand began in the mid-20th century and expanded rapidly in the early 21st century, growing by 17% a year from 2000 to 2020. In 2020, New Zealand produced from of vineyard area, of which ha (about two-thirds) is dedicated to Sauvignon Blanc. Nearly 90% of total production is exported, chiefly to the United States, Britain and Australia, reaching a record in export revenue in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Riesling",
        "text": "Riesling was first planted in New Zealand in the 1970s and has flourished in the relatively cool climate of the Marlborough area and for late harvests in the Nelson region. In comparison to Australian Riesling, New Zealand produces lighter and more delicate wines that range from sweet to dry. Home of cool climate wines, Central Otago, has recently emerged as another area producing terroir driven wines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Te Kauwhata",
        "text": "Te Kauwhata lies at the centre of one of New Zealand's smaller wine-producing regions, which stretches from Pukekohe, just south of Auckland, across to Thames and Paeroa at the foot of the Coromandel Peninsula. The region is particularly notable for its Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay and Sauvignon blanc wines."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "By the 1980s, wineries in New Zealand, especially in the Marlborough region, were producing outstanding Sauvignon Blanc. It was in 1985 that the Sauvignon Blanc from Cloudy Bay Vineyards finally garnered international attention and critical acclaim for New Zealand wine. Wine writer George Taber recounts Cloudy Bay is \"what many people consider to be the world's best Sauvignon Blanc\". New Zealand's reputation is now well established; Oz Clarke wrote New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc was \"arguably the best in the world\", and Mark Oldman wrote \"New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc is like a child who inherits the best of both parents\u2014exotic aromas found in\u00a0... the New World and the pungency and limy acidity of an Old World Sauvignon Blanc like Sancerre.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Most New Zealand wine producers that produce Pinot Noir or Merlot also produce a ros\u00e9 style wine, although it is sometimes found made from other red varieties. New Zealand ros\u00e9 is made to drink immediately rather than age, resulting in the crisp, fresh, fruit-forward flavours popular with the New Zealand public. Well rated examples are from Forrest, Isabel, Ti Point, Whitehaven and Rapaura Springs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marlborough Region",
        "text": "Between those two sections is the long straight valley of the Wairau River. This broadens to wide plains at its eastern end, in the centre of which stands the town of Blenheim. This region has fertile soil and temperate weather, which has enabled it to become the centre of the New Zealand wine industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The next region to excel with Pinot Noir was Martinborough, east of Wellington in the Wairarapa region. Several vineyards, including Palliser Estate, Martinborough Vineyards, Murdoch James Estate (now Luna Estate) and Ata Rangi consistently produced interesting and increasingly complex wine from Pinot Noir at the end of the 1980s and into the 1990s."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Although the majority of sparkling wines in New Zealand are made in Marlborough, there are also examples from throughout the rest of New Zealand. Quartz Reef is based in Central Otago, Church Road in Hawke's Bay, and Lindauer (originally established in Gisborne now also owned by Lion); there are makers as far north as the Auckland regions as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The amount of Cabernet Sauvignon in production has dropped to a third of what it was in the early 2000s and has been overtaken by a tripling of Syrah planting in that time. In the same time period, Sauvignon Blanc has grown more than five-fold and Pinot Noir has doubled. Whilst today's fashion has turned from Bordeaux blends to Pinot Noir, it also indicates the marginality of Cabernet Sauvignon in New Zealand conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Waipara Valley is a Geographical Indication and sub-region of the larger Canterbury GI, about north of Christchurch. The valley floor provides a warm micro-climate ideal for viticulture. To the west, the Southern Alps temper the prevailing westerly winds and provide a rain shadow, and to the east, low coastal limestone ridges moderate the cool ocean winds. In the 1970s, the first vineyard to be planted was Pegasus Bay, which established a reputation for its Riesling wine. The region makes up the bulk of Canterbury's plantings, which by 2017 was a total vineyard area of , well known for its Pinot Noir, of which is planted. Liam Steevenson MW has described Waipara as possibly the \"most exciting place to grow Pinot Noir\". Good examples of the region's Pinot Noir include those from Black Estate, Bellbird Spring, Fancrest Estate, Muddy Water, Greystone, Waipara Springs, Pegasus Bay and Crater Rim. Greystone Wines won the \"Decanter\" International Trophy for Pinot Noir in 2014 and the Air New Zealand Trophy for Pinot Noir. Black Estate was awarded the Trophy for Best Pinot Noir at the International Wine & Spirits Competition in 2010. White wines of the region include varietal wines, most commonly of Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, Pinot Gris, and Chardonnay."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Kawarau valley has a thin and patchy topsoil over a bedrock that is schist. Early growers blasted holes into the bare rock of north-facing slopes with miners' caps to provide planting holes for the vines. These conditions necessitate irrigation and make the vines work hard for nutrients. Irrigation, low cropping techniques, and the thermal effect of the rock produces great intensity for the grapes and subsequent wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcohol in New Zealand",
        "text": "In the 1980s, wineries in New Zealand, especially in the Marlborough region, began producing outstanding, some critics said unforgettable, Sauvignon blanc. \"New Zealand Sauvignon blanc is like a child who inherits the best of both parents\u2014exotic aromas found in certain Sauvignon blancs from the New World and the pungency and limy acidity of an Old World Sauvignon blanc like Sancerre from the Loire Valley\" (Oldman, p.\u00a0152). One critic said that drinking one's first New Zealand Sauvignon blanc was like having sex for the first time (Taber, p.\u00a0244). \"No other region in the world can match Marlborough, the northeastern corner of New Zealand's South Island, which seems to be the best place in the world to grow Sauvignon blanc grapes\" (Taber, p.\u00a0244)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canterbury, New Zealand",
        "text": "The region's viticulture industry was established by French settlers in Akaroa. Since then, wine-growing is concentrated into two regions: Waipara and Burnham. Recently there have been vintages from plantings from Kurow further to the south. White wine has typically predominated in Canterbury from Riesling, Sauvignon blanc, Chardonnay, Gew\u00fcrztraminer, and to a lesser extent Pinot blanc and Pinot gris. Pinot noir has had some success in the province particularly in Waipara."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand Winegrowers",
        "text": "New Zealand Winegrowers is the national industry body that represents New Zealand's viticulture and winemaking sectors. It conducts research, promotion, marketing and advocacy in the interests of New Zealand grape growers and winemakers, both domestically and in international export markets. Winemakers and grape growers are automatically entitled to membership of New Zealand Winegrowers through payment of the levies on grape or wine sales required by law in the Commodity Levies Act 1991 and the Wine Act 2003. This combined with New Zealand's small size means that it is the only country in the world with a single national wine industry body."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Winemaking began in Matakana in the 1960s, but the oldest, current vineyards are Heron's Flight (established 1988), Providence Wines, and Ransom Wines, established in the early 1990s. Around the turn of the century, Heron's Flight replanted its mainly Bordeaux varieties with the Italian varieties Sangiovese and Dolcetto, and many of the newer wineries, have also planted Tannat and Petit Verdot alongside the usual French varieties, as well as the Italian and Spanish varieties Barbera, Nebbiolo, Albari\u00f1o, Roussanne, and Montepulciano. As of the 2017 vintage, there were more than planted in vines, and 21 commercial grape growing/winery operations within the Matakana GI."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Otago wine region",
        "text": "The other 30% of production comes from Chardonnay, Sauvignon blanc, Riesling, Pinot gris, and Gew\u00fcrztraminer."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "For the first half of the 20th century, economic, legislative and cultural factors made wine a marginal economic activity. The most common use of land in New Zealand during this period was for animal agriculture, and the exports of dairy, meat, and wool dominated the economy. Most New Zealanders were of British descent, and favoured beer and spirits; the temperance movement further reduced the national appreciation for wine. The Great Depression of the 1930s also hampered the growth of the fledgling industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Waiheke Island is an island east of Auckland in the Hauraki Gulf and is a Geographical Indication within the larger Auckland GI. It has a dry and warm mesoclimate, and is planted primarily in French red grape varieties: Syrah, Merlot, and Cabernet Sauvignon, as well as the white grape varieties Chardonnay and Pinot Gris. The Bordeaux style red wines that are produced are considered to be significantly ripe and full bodied, and some of the best in New Zealand. The Larose from Stonyridge Estate has an international reputation and is often compared with some of the best Bordeaux wine in the world, and comparing favourably with the likes of Ch\u00e2teau Latour and Ch\u00e2teau Mouton-Rothschild. Other notable wine producers are Destiny Bay Vineyards (Magna Praemia), Obsidian Vineyard, Peacock Sky, Man O'War (Dreadnought Syrah), Cable Bay, Mudbrick and Te Motu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Austral (wine region)",
        "text": "Austral (wine region)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bendigo, New Zealand",
        "text": "Bendigo, New Zealand\n--Bendigo wine sub-region.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Merlot",
        "text": "In New Zealand, plantings of Merlot have increased in the Hawke's Bay region, particularly in Gimblett Gravels where the grape has shown the ability to produce Bordeaux-style wine. The grape has been growing in favor among New Zealand producers due to its ability to ripen better, with less green flavors, than Cabernet Sauvignon. Other regions with significant plantings include Auckland, Marlborough and Martinborough. In 2008, Merlot was the second most widely red grape variety (after Pinot noir) in New Zealand and accounted for nearly 5% of all the country's plantings with in cultivation."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of wine-producing regions",
        "text": "List of wine-producing regions\n--Countries.\n--Europe.\n----Romania.\n----Ukraine.\n----United Kingdom.\n--Asia.\n----China.\n----Indonesia.\n----Iran.\n----Israel.\n--Oceania.\n----Australia.\n------South Australia.\n----New Zealand.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Otago wine region",
        "text": "The Central Otago wine region is a geographical indication in New Zealand's South Island, and the world's southernmost commercial wine growing region. Central Otago is best known for Pinot Noir, but many white wine varieties are also popular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawke's Bay wine region",
        "text": "Several vineyards are established in the coastal area around the small town of Te Awanga, east of Hastings. The area has the sunny warm Hawke's Bay climate, moderated by cool coastal breezes at night. Notable producers here are Beach House, Clearview Estate, and Elephant Hill."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "In a blind tasting of New Zealand Pinot Noir in 2006, Michael Cooper reported that of the top ten wines, five came from Central Otago, four from Marlborough and one from Waipara. This compares with all top ten wines coming from Marlborough in an equivalent blind tasting in the previous year. Cooper suggested that this has to do with more Central Otago production becoming available in commercial quantities, than the relative qualities of the regions' Pinot Noir."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Otago wine region",
        "text": "Central Otago wine region\n--History of the wine region.\n--Climate and soil.\n--Central Otago's wines.\n--Sub-regions.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "Small vineyards were also planted by French settlers in Akaroa in the 1840s. However wine was drunk in relatively small quantities well into the twentieth century, with the average per capita consumption only about 2.6 litres in 1966. The high price of imported wines probably prevented New Zealanders from developing a taste for wine, although it did help sales of local vintages. The quality of these wines slowly improved, with New Zealand wines winning three gold and 13 silver medals at the International Wine Fair in 1963. Aided by the deregulation of the economy in the 1980s and 1990s, domestic wine consumption increased and New Zealand wine won increasing accolades internationally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Otago wine region",
        "text": "The Central Otago wine region is broken into multiple sub-regions, each with its own climate and characteristics."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Martinborough is a small wine village located east of Wellington by road, in the South Wairarapa. The combination of topography, geology, climate and human effort has led to the region becoming one of New Zealand's premier wine regions, despite its small size, particularly for Pinot Noir. The growing season from flowering to harvest is amongst the longest in New Zealand. Naturally breezy conditions control vine vigour, creating lower yields of grapes with greater intensity. A genuine cool climate, with a long, dry autumn, provides ideal ripening conditions for Pinot Noir and other varietals, such as Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Gris and Syrah. Most of the wineries are on the Martinborough terrace, a raised alluvial terrace of the nearby Ruamahanga River."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World",
        "text": "In wine terminology, \"New World\" uses a particular definition. \"New World wines\" include not only North American and South American wines, but also those from South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and all other locations outside the traditional wine-growing regions of Europe, North Africa and the Near East. The usefulness of therms for wines though have been questioned as arbitrary and too generalized."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "New World wines are those wines produced outside the traditional winegrowing areas of Europe and the Middle East, in particular from Argentina, Australia, Canada, Chile, Mexico, New Zealand, South Africa and the United States (primarily California). The phrase connotes a distinction between these \"New World\" wines and those wines produced in \"Old World\" countries with a long-established history of wine productionmost notably, France, Italy, Germany, Spain and Portugal."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "Various grapes were tried in the early years, but it was in the 1980s that New Zealand developed the distinctive style of Sauvignon blanc that became its trademark. Since then the Burgundy grapes of Chardonnay and Pinot noir have been developed in cooler, more southerly vineyards, with considerable success. More recently there has been increasing popularity for the 'aromatic' white varieties such as Gew\u00fcrztraminer and Riesling, with Auslese styles also being attempted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bannockburn, New Zealand",
        "text": "Wine in this region, like the majority of Central Otago, focuses primarily on Pinot noir, suited to the dry climate and soils. The climate of Bannockburn epitomizes that of the Central Otago wine region and claims some of the highest temperatures and lowest rainfall in the area. The area is limited by geographical constraints to relatively small outputs, and most of the vineyards boast a boutique high quality wine with typically small volumes of grapes. Several internationally renowned vineyards exist within a small radius producing wine that is distributed often to an international base. Akarua, Bannock Brae, Felton Road, Mt. Difficulty and Terra Sancta are among a few of the internationally known wineries in this area."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of wine-producing regions",
        "text": "The zones, regions and subregions in each state are listed below:\n* Big Rivers\n** Murray Darling\n** Perricoota\n** Riverina\n** Swan Hill\n* Central Ranges\n** Cowra\n** Mudgee\n** Orange\n* Hunter Valley\n** Hunter\n*** Broke Fordwich\n*** Pokolbin\n*** Upper Hunter Valley\n* Northern Rivers\n** Hastings River\n* Northern Slopes\n** New England Australia\n* South Coast\n** Shoalhaven Coast\n** Southern Highlands\n* Southern New South Wales\n** Canberra District (includes the northern part of the Australian Capital Territory)\n** Gundagai\n** Hilltops\n** Tumbarumba\n* Granite Belt\n* South Burnett"
      },
      {
        "title": "Napier, New Zealand",
        "text": "Napier markets itself as the \"Art Deco Capital\". The Hawke's Bay wine region is important to Napier's economy, with over 70 wineries located in the area. The region featured in \"Wine Enthusiast Magazine\" as one of the 10 Best Wine Travel Destinations in 2015. The region is New Zealand's largest apple, pear and stone fruit producer. The Port of Napier and rail network provides quick export of these goods."
      },
      {
        "title": "New South Wales wine",
        "text": "New South Wales wine\n--Climate and geography.\n--History.\n--Wine regions.\n----Hunter Valley.\n----Central Ranges.\n----South Coast.\n----Southern New South Wales.\n----Big Rivers Zone.\n--Wine industry.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Matakana is a small Geographical Indication and sub-region of the Auckland GI, situated about north of Auckland City around the towns of Warkworth and Matakana. It extends from Mahurangi Harbour in the south, and as far north as Leigh, although most of the vineyards are clustered in the hills and valleys between Warkworth and Matakana. The area has a warm mesoclimate protected from prevailing winds by hills to the north and west, and a maritime influence from Omaha Bay and Kawau Bay. Matakana wineries are mostly small, family-run or \"lifestyle\" vineyards, with very small plots and non-commercial production volumes, usually dry-farmed on north-facing hill slopes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Otago wine region",
        "text": "Vineyard planting and production remained modest until the middle of the 1990s when the industry began to expand rapidly. In 1996 there were just 11 wineries in the Central Otago region, according to New Zealand Winegrowers, accounting for 4.6% of the national total. By 2020 this had risen to 133 wineries and 18.5%. Over the same period, the area planted with vines rose from 92 to 1,930 hectares, a more-than twentyfold increase. Reflecting this rapid expansion, the long lead-time for planting to come into production, and the focus in Central Otago on quality wines rather than bulk wines, actual wine production accounted for only 0.5% (376 tonnes) of the New Zealand total in 1996, increasing to 3.0% (11,868 tonnes) in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "UK wine writer Paul Howard praised New Zealand Pinot Noir in 2006, writing that \"comparisons with Burgundy are inevitable\" and that New Zealand Pinot Noir is:\n: \"rapidly developing its own distinctive style, often with deeper color, purer fruit and higher alcohol. While regional differences are apparent, the best wines do have Burgundy's elusive complexity, texture and 'pinosity' and are capable of ageing. It is a testament to the skill and craft of New Zealand producers that poor examples are infrequently encountered.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand has long been best known for its Sauvignon Blanc, which dominates its wine industry. In 2017, its vines took up of vineyard area, a full 60% of New Zealand's total grape planting, and Sauvignon Blanc wine made up 86% of the nation's exports. Many critics regard New Zealand's Sauvignon Blanc as among the best in the world. Historically, Sauvignon Blanc has been used in many French regions in both AOC and Vin de pays wine, and famously Sancerre and Pouilly Fum\u00e9. Following Robert Mondavi's lead in renaming Californian Sauvignon Blanc Fum\u00e9 Blanc (partially in reference to Pouilly Fum\u00e9, but also to denote the smokiness of the wine produced from flinty soil and oak barrel ageing), there was a trend for oaked Sauvignon Blanc in New Zealand during the late 1980s. Strong oaky overtones dropped out of fashion through the 1990s but have since made a comeback, with several makers now offering oak-aged Sauvignon Blanc\u2014Greywacke, Dog Point, te Pa (Sauvignon Blanc 'Oke'), Sacred Hill (Sauvage), Jackson Estate (Grey Ghost), Hans Herzog (Sur Lie) and Saint Clair (Barrique)."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Further inland from Waipara, the limestone soils around Waikari are producing well-reviewed wine from Bell Hill and Pyramid Valley, using organic and/or biodynamic production methods, and close-planted vineyards. Farther north in Cheviot and Hanmer Springs respectively, notable producers Mt. Beautiful and Waiau River Estate (formerly Marble Point) are producing well-regarded Pinot Noir."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Exports of New Zealand sparkling wines are chiefly to the United Kingdom, where the best-known examples there are the Pelorus from Cloudy Bay, now owned by LVMH, and the Special Reserve from Lindauer. More recently, exports of \"\" have been declining, halving in volume between 2005 and 2011, and now making up less than one percent of total New Zealand exports. This is due partly to a rise in popularity and production of sparkling Sauvignon Blanc, a new style of sparkling New Zealand wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "At around this time, the first plantings of Pinot Noir in Central Otago occurred in the Kawarau Gorge. Central Otago had a long (for New Zealand) history as a producer of quality stone fruit, particularly cherries. Significantly further south than all other wine regions in New Zealand, it benefited from being surrounded by mountain ranges which increased both its daily and seasonal temperature variations, making the climate unusual in the typically maritime conditions in New Zealand, and ideal for growing Pinot Noir. Indeed, recent years have seen Pinot Noir from Central Otago win numerous international awards and accolades, and excite the interest of British wine commentators including Jancis Robinson and Oz Clarke. Not only did the wines have the distinctive acidity and abundant fruit of New Zealand wines, but they demonstrated a great deal of complexity, with aromas and flavours not common in New Zealand wine and normally associated with Burgundy wine. Notable producers include Akarua, Felton Road, Chard Farm and Mount Difficulty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Otago wine region",
        "text": "At around elevation, Central Otago's vineyards are protected from New Zealand's characteristic maritime climate by high mountains up to high. They thus have the only true continental climate zone in the country, with large daily and seasonal temperature extremes. Rainfall averages around : summer is hot and relatively dry, and often accompanied by the Nor'wester foehn wind; autumn is short, cool and sunny; and winter is cold, with substantial falls of snow. Heavy frosts are common throughout winter and, indeed, frost can occur at any time between March and November. One of Central Otago's warmest wine growing areas can be found just north of the Lowburn Inlet area."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand Winegrowers",
        "text": "New Zealand Winegrowers\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Winemaking and viticulture date back to New Zealand's colonial era. British Resident James Busby, a keen oenologist who had also established wine regions in Australia such as the Hunter Valley, was producing wine on his land near Waitangi for locally stationed British soldiers in 1836. In 1851, French Marist missionaries established a vineyard in Hawke's Bay for making Communion wine. Now part of the Mission Estate Winery, it is the oldest commercial vineyard in New Zealand. William Henry Beetham is recognised as being the first person to plant Pinot Noir and Hermitage (Syrah) grapes in New Zealand at his Lansdowne, Masterton, vineyard in 1881. In 1895, the New Zealand government's Department of Agriculture invited the expert consultant viticulturist and oenologist Romeo Bragato to investigate winemaking possibilities. After tasting Beetham's Hermitage, he concluded that New Zealand and the Wairarapa in particular were \"pre-eminently suited to viticulture.\" His French wife, Marie Zelie Hermance Frere Beetham, supported Beetham in his endeavours. Their partnership and innovation to pursue winemaking helped form the basis of modern New Zealand's viticulture practices. Dalmatian immigrants arriving in New Zealand in the late 19th and early 20th centuries brought with them viticultural knowledge and planted vineyards in West and North Auckland. Typically, their vineyards produced table wine and fortified wine to suit the palates of their communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawke's Bay wine region",
        "text": "Growers further south around the towns of Waipawa and Waipukurau registered their own sub-region geographical indication in 2019, which covers roughly the southern half of the larger Hawke's Bay GI, with the same boundary as the Central Hawke's Bay District local authority. The principal producers are Lime Rock, Junction Wines and Pukeora Estate."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "New World wine\n--History.\n----Early wines in the Americas.\n----Changes in the Americas and opening of South Africa.\n----New World wines in the Industrial Age.\n----20th century.\n--Characteristics of New World wines.\n----Style.\n----Varietal labelling.\n----Marketing.\n----Ownership.\n--Wine-making countries.\n----Argentina.\n----Australia.\n----Canada.\n----Chile.\n----Colombia.\n----Mexico.\n----New Zealand.\n----Peru.\n----South Africa.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Regions of New Zealand",
        "text": "Notes:"
      },
      {
        "title": "New South Wales wine",
        "text": "Any grape grown in New South Wales can be included in wine produced under the \"Southeastern Australia\" appellation which also includes grapes grown in Victoria, Tasmania and parts of Queensland and South Australia. The state has eight larger Australian Geographical Indication (GI) zones which are divided into smaller regions and occasionally, sub-regions as follows:\n*Big Rivers-Includes the regions of Perricoota, Riverina plus Murray Darling and Swan Hill which are shared with the state of Victoria.\n*Central Ranges-Includes the regions of Cowra, Mudgee and Orange.\n*Hunter Valley-Includes the Upper Hunter Valley, Broke Fordwich and Pokolbin subregions of the Hunter wine region.\n*Northern Rivers-Includes the region of Hastings River.\n*Northern Slopes-Includes the region of New England Australia.\n*South Coast-Includes the regions of Shoalhaven Coast and Southern Highlands.\n*Southern New South Wales-Includes the regions of Canberra District, Gundagai, Hilltops and Tumbarumba.\n*Western Plains has no defined regions"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heathcote wine region",
        "text": "North of the Great Dividing Range the region is at elevations between . The climate and soils are strongly influenced by the Mt Camel range that extends from Corop to Tooborac. For the most part, the soil under vine is Cambrian - red and deep with excellent water holding capacity. The region\u2019s rainfall is evenly distributed between the seasons and the temperature range is defined as temperate, with cooling winds emanating from the south resulting in summer temperatures two to three degrees cooler than nearby Bendigo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chardonnay",
        "text": "Despite being more famous for its Sauvignon blanc production, Chardonnay was New Zealand's most widely planted grape variety from 1990 till 2002 when Sauvignon blanc finally surpassed it. The east coast of the North Island, in places like Hawke's Bay and Wairarapa, have seen the most success with Chardonnay wine that has noticeable acidity and leanness. As better clonal varieties are discovered and planted, the overall quality of New Zealand Chardonnay have increased, particularly from places like Canterbury, Marlborough and Nelson. Some producers in the Gisborne region have recently developed a cult following for their Chardonnay among New Zealand wine drinkers. While many New Zealand winemakers are still developing a characteristic style, the Chardonnay produced so far have emphasized the grape's affinity for oak."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcohol in New Zealand",
        "text": "Wine making and vine growing go back to colonial times in New Zealand. British Resident and keen oenologist James Busby was, as early as 1836, attempting to produce wine at his land in Waitangi. In 1851 New Zealand's oldest existing vineyard was established by French Roman Catholic missionaries at Mission Estate Winery in Hawke's Bay. Due to economic (the importance of animal agriculture and the protein export industry), legislative (prohibition and the temperance) and cultural factors (the overwhelming predominance of beer and spirit drinking British immigrants), wine was for many years a marginal activity in terms of economic importance. Dalmatian immigrants arriving in New Zealand at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century brought with them viticultural knowledge and planted vineyards in West and North Auckland. Typically, their vineyards produced sherry and port for the palates of New Zealanders of the time, and table wine for their own community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mid North",
        "text": "Grapes are grown in the Clare Valley and Southern Flinders Ranges wine regions. Copper was formerly mined at Kapunda and Burra."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taradale, New Zealand",
        "text": "With the rapid growth of the wine industry in Hawke's Bay the number of wineries in the Taradale area is increasing. Other wineries near the area include Brookfield's Vineyards, Dobel Estate situated on the banks of the Tutaekuri River, Moana Park Winery behind the Taradale hills and Tironui Estate nestled just below Sugarloaf hill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samuel Marsden",
        "text": "In 1819, Marsden introduced winegrowing to New Zealand with the planting of over 100 different varieties of vine in Kerikeri, Northland. He wrote:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Otago wine region",
        "text": "The climatic contrast between Central Otago and the more humid, warmer wine regions of the North Island can be illustrated by the difference in the timing of the grape harvest. In the more northerly vineyards, picking generally takes place in late February or early March, while in Central Otago the harvest begins in mid to late April \u2014 a difference of some six to seven weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marlborough wine region",
        "text": "Early settlers in Marlborough planted vines as early as the 1870s. A small block of Brown Muscat was planted in 1873 by David Herd, but in 1931 his son pulled up the last of the vines, and no others were recorded in the region for the next forty years. Commercial wine-making began in earnest only in 1973 when the first large-scale vineyards were planted by Montana Wines, at the time New Zealand's largest producer (now Brancott Estate, owned by Pernod Ricard). Meanwhile in 1975 Daniel Le Brun, a Champagne maker, emigrated to New Zealand to begin producing m\u00e9thode traditionelle in Marlborough. Wineries in the Marlborough region were producing outstanding Sauvignon Blanc by the early 1980s, and in 1985 the Sauvignon Blanc from Cloudy Bay Vineyards finally garnered international attention and critical acclaim for New Zealand wine. Wine writer George Taber recounted in 2006 that Cloudy Bay is \"what many people consider to be the world's best Sauvignon Blanc\" and Oz Clarke wrote that New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc is \"arguably the best in the world.\" The suitability of the region and later success of Daniel Le Brun's sparkling wines were also sufficient to attract significant investment from Champagne producers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Winkler index",
        "text": "The table below provides examples of the ripening and wine style concept used in the application of the Winkler Index for numerous wine regions globally. Region Ia are the coolest areas with known regions including Champagne, Central Otago, and Valais. Region Ia also includes numerous newer regions growing grapes and making wine including southern England, areas in northern Europe, Nova Scotia, and southern areas of Chile and Argentina. Region Ia areas ripen a range of hybrid grapes and some very early ripening \"V. Vinifera.\" Region Ib is slightly warmer, can ripen early varieties such as Chardonnay, Pinot noir, Sauvignon blanc or Riesling with characteristic locations within the Rhine and Mosel valleys, Burgundy and the Loire Valley, or the Willamette Valley in Oregon as good examples. Region II includes cooler locations within areas such as Bordeaux, Coonawarra, and Valle de Curic\u00f3 in Chile. Warmer areas in these wine regions fall in a Winkler Region III as do much of the Northern Rh\u00f4ne, Rioja, Umbria, and the Margaret River. Region IV includes portions of the Napa Valley, Stellenbosch, Corsica, Tuscany, and Alentejo where the warmer climates allow for the ripening of later varieties such as Cabernet sauvignon, Sangiovese, and Syrah. The warmest areas are found in Region V and include areas in the central valley of California, inland Australia and wine producing regions in Morocco, Madeira, Apulia, and Jerez."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Besides Sauvinon Blanc, Pinot Noir, and Martinboroguh, are there any other types of wine produced?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you asking about the production of other types of French wine, White wine, or Red wine?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the production of red wine."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Much of the red wine production process involves extraction of color and flavor components from the grape skin.There are several steps including grape processing, inoculation and fermentation, and filtration and bottling."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Now, I want to know what are the wine regions of New Zealand."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are several distinct winegrowing regions in New Zealand, with some examples being Northland, Hawke's Bay, and Nelson. Would you like to know more about one of these?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me more about the wine region of Northland."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Northland is most well known for ripe Syrah red wines, and white wines from Pinot Gris, which together comprise the top three planted varieties. Some Northland wineries are also making wine from warmer climate grapes such as Montepulciano, Chambourcin and Pinotage.",
      "Northland is the most northerly wine region where Chardonnay is the most planted variety, but is most well known for ripe Syrah red wines, and white wines from Pinot Gris, which together comprise the top three planted varieties. The soils and climate result in high vine productivity, so the yields need to be limited to ensure better quality wines; consequently, Northland tends to produce ripe wines, with low acidity."
    ],
    "topic": "New Zealand wine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "New Zealand wine:38",
        "passage_titles": [
          "New Zealand wine",
          "Wine regions of New Zealand",
          "Northland"
        ],
        "ctx": "Northland is the most northerly wine region in New Zealand, and thus closest to the equator. A Geographical Indication since October 2017, it is also the smallest GI, producing 269 tonnes in 2020 from an area of under vines. Although Chardonnay is the most planted variety, Northland is most well known for ripe Syrah red wines, and white wines from Pinot Gris, which together comprise the top three planted varieties. Some Northland wineries are also making wine from warmer climate grapes such as Montepulciano, Chambourcin and Pinotage. The combination of high summer temperatures and high rainfall can be challenging for viticulture; although irrigation is not needed, the humidity can encourage some pests and diseases. The fertile soils and Northland climate also results in high vine productivity, requiring good vineyard management to limit yields in order to ensure better quality wines. Consequently, Northland tends to produce ripe wines, with low acidity."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "New Zealand wine:38",
        "passage_titles": [
          "New Zealand wine",
          "Wine regions of New Zealand",
          "Northland"
        ],
        "ctx": "Northland is the most northerly wine region in New Zealand, and thus closest to the equator. A Geographical Indication since October 2017, it is also the smallest GI, producing 269 tonnes in 2020 from an area of under vines. Although Chardonnay is the most planted variety, Northland is most well known for ripe Syrah red wines, and white wines from Pinot Gris, which together comprise the top three planted varieties. Some Northland wineries are also making wine from warmer climate grapes such as Montepulciano, Chambourcin and Pinotage. The combination of high summer temperatures and high rainfall can be challenging for viticulture; although irrigation is not needed, the humidity can encourage some pests and diseases. The fertile soils and Northland climate also results in high vine productivity, requiring good vineyard management to limit yields in order to ensure better quality wines. Consequently, Northland tends to produce ripe wines, with low acidity."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Most New Zealand wine producers that produce Pinot Noir or Merlot also produce a ros\u00e9 style wine, although it is sometimes found made from other red varieties. New Zealand ros\u00e9 is made to drink immediately rather than age, resulting in the crisp, fresh, fruit-forward flavours popular with the New Zealand public. Well rated examples are from Forrest, Isabel, Ti Point, Whitehaven and Rapaura Springs."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "There are some producers dedicated to establishing other red grape varieties. New Zealand has small plantings of Tempranillo, Pinotage, Montepulciano and Sangiovese in Hawke's Bay and the warmer Auckland regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Northland is the most northerly wine region in New Zealand, and thus closest to the equator. A Geographical Indication since October 2017, it is also the smallest GI, producing 269 tonnes in 2020 from an area of under vines. Although Chardonnay is the most planted variety, Northland is most well known for ripe Syrah red wines, and white wines from Pinot Gris, which together comprise the top three planted varieties. Some Northland wineries are also making wine from warmer climate grapes such as Montepulciano, Chambourcin and Pinotage. The combination of high summer temperatures and high rainfall can be challenging for viticulture; although irrigation is not needed, the humidity can encourage some pests and diseases. The fertile soils and Northland climate also results in high vine productivity, requiring good vineyard management to limit yields in order to ensure better quality wines. Consequently, Northland tends to produce ripe wines, with low acidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Today, New Zealand is most well known internationally for red wines made from traditional French varieties. After Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir has become New Zealand's second most planted variety, while in the warmer regions, particularly Hawke's Bay and Waiheke Island, Syrah and Bordeaux-style blends of mainly Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon have been gaining recognition."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "In 2018, the Wines of Canterbury and Waipara Valley Wine Growers associations merged to form the North Canterbury Wine Region. The Waipara region is within the area of the North Canterbury boundary, and the merged industry body promotes the use of \"North Canterbury\" for its region, although both \"North Canterbury\" and \"Waipara\" still appear on labels. Only of vineyards are planted outside the Waipara Valley GI boundary, concentrated in a few small areas such as West Melton, Banks Peninsula, Cheviot and Rolleston. Notable producers include French Peak (formerly French Farm); Melton Estate; Lone Goat, which took over Riesling vineyards from Giesen Estate; and New Zealand's only Ehrenfelser vineyard. In order of descending planting area, varieties grown in Canterbury outside Waipara Valley include Pinot Noir, Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, Pinot Gris, and Chardonnay."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Other white wine varietals grown in New Zealand include (in descending order of vineyard area) Riesling, Gew\u00fcrztraminer and Viognier, and less commonly Chenin Blanc, Albari\u00f1o, Arneis and S\u00e9millon. Riesling is produced predominantly in Martinborough and the South Island, as is Gew\u00fcrztraminer, although it is also planted extensively in Gisborne. Chenin Blanc was once more important, but the viticultural peculiarities of the variety, particularly its unpredictable cropping in New Zealand, have led to its disfavour. Nevertheless, good examples exist from Esk Valley, Margrain and Millton Estate."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand wine is produced in several of its distinct winegrowing regions. As an island country in the South Pacific Ocean, New Zealand has a largely maritime climate, although its elongated geography produces considerable regional variation from north to south. Like many other New World wines, New Zealand wine is usually produced and labelled as single varietal wines, or if blended, winemakers list the varietal components on the label. New Zealand is best known for its Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc, and more recently its dense, concentrated Pinot Noir from Marlborough, Martinborough and Central Otago."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "By 2020, the Wairarapa had 126 vineyards with a total area of , or about three per cent of the New Zealand total. Nearly half of this area is Pinot Noir, the remainder mostly Sauvignon Blanc, with smaller areas of Pinot Gris, Chardonnay, Riesling and Syrah."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Chardonnay is produced as far south as Central Otago, but plantings increase moving further north. There is little discernible difference in styles of Chardonnay between the New Zealand wine regions; individual winemakers' recipes, use of oak, and the particular qualities of a vintage have tended to blur any distinction of terroir. Almost every region is represented among the most highly rated New Zealand Chardonnays, which include wines from Kumeu River Estate (Kumeu), Church Road, Clearview, Sacred Hill, Villa Maria and Te Mata Estate (Hawke's Bay), Ata Rangi (Martinborough), Fromm (Marlborough), Neudorf (Nelson), Millton Estate (Gisborne). Although Chardonnay may be less fashionable than it was ten years ago (it has declined in vineyard area in the last ten years, losing ground to Pinot Gris), winemakers in 2016 reported strong sales and a recent upswing. It also commands higher prices than any other New Zealand white wine variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aristotelia serrata",
        "text": "Endemic to New Zealand, wineberry is found throughout the South Island of New Zealand and lower North Island. It is common in moist forest and scrub land within the lowland, montane, and subalpine climates. Wineberry can also be found on Stewart Island."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in New Zealand",
        "text": "Wine grapes occupied of land as of 2020, with the largest regions being Marlborough (27,808\u00a0ha), Hawke's Bay (5,034\u00a0ha), and Central Otago (1,930\u00a0ha). The largest varieties are sauvignon blanc (25,160\u00a0ha), pinot noir (5,642\u00a0ha), chardonnay (3,222\u00a0ha), pinot gris (2,593\u00a0ha) and merlot (1,087\u00a0ha). Wine exports totalled $1,807 million in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Early success in the Hawke's Bay Region in the 1960s by McWilliams and in the 1980s by Te Mata Estate, led to a phase in the 1980s and 1990s of mainly Cabernet Sauvignon planting and wine production by large producers such as Corbans, McWilliams, and Mission Estate. As viticultural techniques were improved and tailored to New Zealand's maritime climate, other Bordeaux-style grapes were planted, and a switch of emphasis made to the more suitable, earlier-ripening Merlot. Today, Merlot is the second most planted red variety after Pinot Noir, accounting for , outweighing Cabernet Sauvignon plantings by five to one."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand's newest winegrowing region is on the border of Otago and Canterbury. The Waitaki Valley GI is defined as the southern bank of the Waitaki River up to elevation, along a narrow strip of approximately between the towns of Duntroon and Omarama. The area contains north-facing limestone hillsides and escarpments, and Burgundy-like limestone alluvial soils. The climate is a combination of the cool, maritime influence from the Pacific Ocean and the warm, dry summer and autumn weather in the rain shadow of the Southern Alps. In a good year, the warm summer and long dry autumn in the Waitaki Valley can produce one of the longest growing seasons in New Zealand. The grapes reach full ripeness and produce complex, well-balanced wine. However, the weather year-to-year is so variable and frost-susceptible that some years have been simply too cold to produce a reliable harvest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Riesling",
        "text": "Riesling was first planted in New Zealand in the 1970s and has flourished in the relatively cool climate of the Marlborough area and for late harvests in the Nelson region. In comparison to Australian Riesling, New Zealand produces lighter and more delicate wines that range from sweet to dry. Home of cool climate wines, Central Otago, has recently emerged as another area producing terroir driven wines."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Waiheke Island is an island east of Auckland in the Hauraki Gulf and is a Geographical Indication within the larger Auckland GI. It has a dry and warm mesoclimate, and is planted primarily in French red grape varieties: Syrah, Merlot, and Cabernet Sauvignon, as well as the white grape varieties Chardonnay and Pinot Gris. The Bordeaux style red wines that are produced are considered to be significantly ripe and full bodied, and some of the best in New Zealand. The Larose from Stonyridge Estate has an international reputation and is often compared with some of the best Bordeaux wine in the world, and comparing favourably with the likes of Ch\u00e2teau Latour and Ch\u00e2teau Mouton-Rothschild. Other notable wine producers are Destiny Bay Vineyards (Magna Praemia), Obsidian Vineyard, Peacock Sky, Man O'War (Dreadnought Syrah), Cable Bay, Mudbrick and Te Motu."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "New Zealand has a successful wine industry, with about 76 million litres being exported in the year to June 2007. The first vines are thought to have been introduced by missionary Samuel Marsden, and planted in 1817 by Charles Gordon, superintendent of agriculture for the missionaries, according to Dr Richard Smart who was viticultural editor of both editions of The Oxford Companion to Wine. Official British resident James Busby is credited with producing wine at Kerikeri in 1833, and Charles Darwin noted the winery in his diary when he visited Kerikeri in 1835."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The region is young; the first plantings were in the early 2000s, and the local wine growers' association was formed in 2005. The 2008 global financial crisis hit just as initial interest in the area was growing, and poor initial vintages and remoteness from tourism further troubled some producers, a number of whom pulled out of the area altogether. Those that remain have been rapidly growing a reputation for the quality and individuality for the region's mainly Pinot Noir, Pinot Gris, Riesling, Chardonnay and Gew\u00fcrztraminer wines. The Pinot Noir, in particular, is proving to express a distinctive terroir, different in character from other regions of New Zealand, and more restrained and delicate than Central Otago Pinot Noir."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The amount of Cabernet Sauvignon in production has dropped to a third of what it was in the early 2000s and has been overtaken by a tripling of Syrah planting in that time. In the same time period, Sauvignon Blanc has grown more than five-fold and Pinot Noir has doubled. Whilst today's fashion has turned from Bordeaux blends to Pinot Noir, it also indicates the marginality of Cabernet Sauvignon in New Zealand conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Auckland Geographical Indication is a small region, with a vineyard area in 2020 of and lies around New Zealand's largest city. The region produces some of New Zealand's finest Chardonnay white wines, which is the most planted variety, followed by the Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc and Malbec that produce Auckland's well regarded red Bordeaux-style wines. Soils are usually heavy clay, or small areas of volcanic-derived soils, and it is the warmest of New Zealand's vine-growing areas. There are three sub-regions within Auckland: Waiheke Island, Kumeu, and Matakana. In recent years, the hotter temperatures are allowing Auckland winemakers (for example Omaha Bay, Cooper's Creek, Heron's Flight, Matavino, and Obsidian) to experiment with Italian and Spanish grape varieties, such as Albari\u00f1o, Montepulciano, Sangiovese, Dolcetto, Temperanillo, and even Nebbiolo."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand red wines are also made from the classic Bordeaux varieties, mainly Merlot, with Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Malbec, and Petit Verdot. Syrah wines from Hawke's Bay, particularly the Gimblett Gravels and Bridge Pa Triangle sub-regions, as well as farther north from Waiheke Island, have also gained a good reputation internationally."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Winemaking began in Matakana in the 1960s, but the oldest, current vineyards are Heron's Flight (established 1988), Providence Wines, and Ransom Wines, established in the early 1990s. Around the turn of the century, Heron's Flight replanted its mainly Bordeaux varieties with the Italian varieties Sangiovese and Dolcetto, and many of the newer wineries, have also planted Tannat and Petit Verdot alongside the usual French varieties, as well as the Italian and Spanish varieties Barbera, Nebbiolo, Albari\u00f1o, Roussanne, and Montepulciano. As of the 2017 vintage, there were more than planted in vines, and 21 commercial grape growing/winery operations within the Matakana GI."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chardonnay",
        "text": "Despite being more famous for its Sauvignon blanc production, Chardonnay was New Zealand's most widely planted grape variety from 1990 till 2002 when Sauvignon blanc finally surpassed it. The east coast of the North Island, in places like Hawke's Bay and Wairarapa, have seen the most success with Chardonnay wine that has noticeable acidity and leanness. As better clonal varieties are discovered and planted, the overall quality of New Zealand Chardonnay have increased, particularly from places like Canterbury, Marlborough and Nelson. Some producers in the Gisborne region have recently developed a cult following for their Chardonnay among New Zealand wine drinkers. While many New Zealand winemakers are still developing a characteristic style, the Chardonnay produced so far have emphasized the grape's affinity for oak."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The wine regions in New Zealand stretch from latitudes 36\u00b0S in the north (Northland) (comparable in latitude to Jerez, Spain), to 45\u00b0S (Central Otago) in the south (comparable in latitude to Bordeaux, France). New Zealand's climate is maritime, meaning that the sea moderates the weather, producing cooler summers and milder winters than would be expected at similar latitudes in Europe and North America. Maritime climates tend to demonstrate higher variability with cold snaps possible at any time of the year and warm periods even in the depth of winter. The climate is typically wetter, but wine regions have developed in rain shadows and in the east, on the opposite coast from the prevailing moisture-laden wind. The wine regions of New Zealand tend to experience cool nights even in the hottest of summers. The effect of consistently cool nights is to produce fruit, which is nearly always high in acidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Pinot Gris emerged in the early 2000s from almost nowhere to the country's fourth most planted variety in 2017, having overtaken Riesling in 2007. It is planted mostly in Marlborough, Hawke's Bay and Gisborne, with the remainder in the South Island. Some of the initial plantings of Pinot Gris were identified later as Flora; indeed, some Auckland winemakers have incorporated this mishap into their Flora wine names, such as \"The Rogue\" from Ascension and \"The Impostor\" from Omaha Bay Vineyards."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Canterbury Geographical Indication covers wine made anywhere within the Canterbury region of New Zealand, a very large area of some . In practice, almost all the region's vineyards are concentrated in a relatively small area around the city of Christchurch, which has prompted the establishment of two more specific GIs within it. North Canterbury is simply the top half of the larger Canterbury GI north of the Rakaia River, and Waipara Valley, a small area about north of Christchurch which accounts for the majority of Canterbury's total vineyard plantings."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Further inland from Waipara, the limestone soils around Waikari are producing well-reviewed wine from Bell Hill and Pyramid Valley, using organic and/or biodynamic production methods, and close-planted vineyards. Farther north in Cheviot and Hanmer Springs respectively, notable producers Mt. Beautiful and Waiau River Estate (formerly Marble Point) are producing well-regarded Pinot Noir."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The late 1970s were early in the modern wine industry, and the comparatively low annual sunshine hours to be found in New Zealand discouraged the planting of red varieties. Despite this, some held great hopes for Pinot Noir. Initial results were mixed because of limited access to good clones, yet the Saint Helena 1984 Pinot Noir was notable enough that the Canterbury region was thought to become the New Zealand home for Pinot Noir. While the early excitement passed, the Canterbury region has witnessed the development of Pinot Noir as the dominant red variety, particularly in the now dominant Waipara sub-region. Producers include Waipara Hills, Pegasus Bay, Waipara Springs, Muddy Water, Greystone, Omihi Hills and Black Estate."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Waipara Valley is a Geographical Indication and sub-region of the larger Canterbury GI, about north of Christchurch. The valley floor provides a warm micro-climate ideal for viticulture. To the west, the Southern Alps temper the prevailing westerly winds and provide a rain shadow, and to the east, low coastal limestone ridges moderate the cool ocean winds. In the 1970s, the first vineyard to be planted was Pegasus Bay, which established a reputation for its Riesling wine. The region makes up the bulk of Canterbury's plantings, which by 2017 was a total vineyard area of , well known for its Pinot Noir, of which is planted. Liam Steevenson MW has described Waipara as possibly the \"most exciting place to grow Pinot Noir\". Good examples of the region's Pinot Noir include those from Black Estate, Bellbird Spring, Fancrest Estate, Muddy Water, Greystone, Waipara Springs, Pegasus Bay and Crater Rim. Greystone Wines won the \"Decanter\" International Trophy for Pinot Noir in 2014 and the Air New Zealand Trophy for Pinot Noir. Black Estate was awarded the Trophy for Best Pinot Noir at the International Wine & Spirits Competition in 2010. White wines of the region include varietal wines, most commonly of Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, Pinot Gris, and Chardonnay."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand wine\n--History.\n----First steps.\n----Sauvignon Blanc breakthrough.\n--Climate and soil.\n--Industry structure and production methods.\n--Varieties, styles and directions.\n----White wines.\n------Sauvignon Blanc.\n------Chardonnay.\n------Pinot Gris.\n------Other white wines.\n----Red wines.\n------Pinot Noir.\n------Bordeaux-style blends and Syrah.\n------Other red wines.\n----Ros\u00e9.\n----Sparkling wine.\n--Wine regions of New Zealand.\n----Northland.\n----Auckland.\n------Waiheke Island.\n------Kumeu.\n------Matakana.\n----Gisborne.\n----Hawke's Bay.\n----Wairarapa.\n------Martinborough.\n----Nelson.\n----Marlborough.\n----Canterbury.\n------Waipara Valley.\n------North Canterbury.\n----Waitaki Valley.\n----Central Otago.\n------Bannockburn.\n--Trends in production and export.\n--Praise and criticism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "As is the case for other New Zealand wine, New Zealand Pinot Noir is fruit-driven, forward and early maturing in the bottle. It tends to be quite full bodied (for the variety), very approachable and oak maturation tends to be restrained. High quality examples of New Zealand Pinot Noir are distinguished by savoury, earthy flavours with a greater complexity. In an article in \"Decanter\" (September 2014), Bob Campbell suggests regional styles are starting to emerge within New Zealand Pinot Noir. Marlborough, with by far the largest plantings of Pinot, produces wines that are quite aromatic, red fruit in particular red cherry, with a firm tannic structure that provides cellaring potential."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Hawke's Bay is New Zealand's oldest and second-largest wine region, and includes the Gimblett Gravels, Bridge Pa Triangle and Te Mata Special Character Zone sub-regions. It is best known for its Merlot and Syrah red wines, and white wines mainly from Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc and Viognier."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Winemaking and viticulture date back to New Zealand's colonial era. British Resident James Busby, a keen oenologist who had also established wine regions in Australia such as the Hunter Valley, was producing wine on his land near Waitangi for locally stationed British soldiers in 1836. In 1851, French Marist missionaries established a vineyard in Hawke's Bay for making Communion wine. Now part of the Mission Estate Winery, it is the oldest commercial vineyard in New Zealand. William Henry Beetham is recognised as being the first person to plant Pinot Noir and Hermitage (Syrah) grapes in New Zealand at his Lansdowne, Masterton, vineyard in 1881. In 1895, the New Zealand government's Department of Agriculture invited the expert consultant viticulturist and oenologist Romeo Bragato to investigate winemaking possibilities. After tasting Beetham's Hermitage, he concluded that New Zealand and the Wairarapa in particular were \"pre-eminently suited to viticulture.\" His French wife, Marie Zelie Hermance Frere Beetham, supported Beetham in his endeavours. Their partnership and innovation to pursue winemaking helped form the basis of modern New Zealand's viticulture practices. Dalmatian immigrants arriving in New Zealand in the late 19th and early 20th centuries brought with them viticultural knowledge and planted vineyards in West and North Auckland. Typically, their vineyards produced table wine and fortified wine to suit the palates of their communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "Various grapes were tried in the early years, but it was in the 1980s that New Zealand developed the distinctive style of Sauvignon blanc that became its trademark. Since then the Burgundy grapes of Chardonnay and Pinot noir have been developed in cooler, more southerly vineyards, with considerable success. More recently there has been increasing popularity for the 'aromatic' white varieties such as Gew\u00fcrztraminer and Riesling, with Auslese styles also being attempted."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "There are 10 major wine-producing areas in New Zealand, with Marlborough famed for its sauvignon blanc, Gisborne for its chardonnay, and Central Otago and Martinborough building a reputation for pinot noir and pinot gris. Hawkes Bay is known for its bold cabernets and Auckland's Waiheke Island is home to one of the top 20 cabernet blends in the world. Marlborough and Hawkes Bay are New Zealand's two premium wine-growing regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "UK wine writer Paul Howard praised New Zealand Pinot Noir in 2006, writing that \"comparisons with Burgundy are inevitable\" and that New Zealand Pinot Noir is:\n: \"rapidly developing its own distinctive style, often with deeper color, purer fruit and higher alcohol. While regional differences are apparent, the best wines do have Burgundy's elusive complexity, texture and 'pinosity' and are capable of ageing. It is a testament to the skill and craft of New Zealand producers that poor examples are infrequently encountered.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "As in many places in the world, an emerging trend in New Zealand wine is an increased recognition for high quality wines coming from small boutique wineries. In 2020, these smaller producers, with a vineyard area of no more than , represented over three-quarters of New Zealand's wineries. They are located fairly evenly throughout all wine regions, with the larger producers predominantly in Marlborough, Hawke's Bay, Gisborne, and Waipara."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canterbury, New Zealand",
        "text": "The region's viticulture industry was established by French settlers in Akaroa. Since then, wine-growing is concentrated into two regions: Waipara and Burnham. Recently there have been vintages from plantings from Kurow further to the south. White wine has typically predominated in Canterbury from Riesling, Sauvignon blanc, Chardonnay, Gew\u00fcrztraminer, and to a lesser extent Pinot blanc and Pinot gris. Pinot noir has had some success in the province particularly in Waipara."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "At around this time, the first plantings of Pinot Noir in Central Otago occurred in the Kawarau Gorge. Central Otago had a long (for New Zealand) history as a producer of quality stone fruit, particularly cherries. Significantly further south than all other wine regions in New Zealand, it benefited from being surrounded by mountain ranges which increased both its daily and seasonal temperature variations, making the climate unusual in the typically maritime conditions in New Zealand, and ideal for growing Pinot Noir. Indeed, recent years have seen Pinot Noir from Central Otago win numerous international awards and accolades, and excite the interest of British wine commentators including Jancis Robinson and Oz Clarke. Not only did the wines have the distinctive acidity and abundant fruit of New Zealand wines, but they demonstrated a great deal of complexity, with aromas and flavours not common in New Zealand wine and normally associated with Burgundy wine. Notable producers include Akarua, Felton Road, Chard Farm and Mount Difficulty."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "While New Zealand wine traces its history to the early 19th century, the modern wine industry in New Zealand began in the mid-20th century and expanded rapidly in the early 21st century, growing by 17% a year from 2000 to 2020. In 2020, New Zealand produced from of vineyard area, of which ha (about two-thirds) is dedicated to Sauvignon Blanc. Nearly 90% of total production is exported, chiefly to the United States, Britain and Australia, reaching a record in export revenue in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Wine regions are located mostly in free draining alluvial valleys\u2014Hawke's Bay, Martinborough, Nelson, the Wairau and Awatere valleys of Marlborough, and Canterbury\u2014with the notable exceptions of Waiheke Island, Kawarau Gorge in Central Otago. The alluvial deposits are typically the local sandstone called greywacke, which makes up much of the mountainous spine of New Zealand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wine humour",
        "text": "The New Zealand producer Cooper's Creek produces a Sauvignon blanc called \"Cat's Pee on a Gooseberry Bush\" which has sold well throughout the world. This phrase to describe the distinctive taste of the New Zealand wines made from this grape variety was first coined by wine critic, Oz Clarke. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, which controls the import of alcoholic drinks into the US, insisted that the name should be changed to \"Cat's Phee on a Gooseberry Bush\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Waipara, in Canterbury, represents another soil type. The Omihi Hills, part of the Torlesse group of limestone deposits, are located here. Viticulturists have planted Pinot Noir here because of the French experience of the affinity between the grape type and the chalky soil on the C\u00f4te-d'Or. Even the greywacke alluvial soils in the Waipara valley floor have a higher calcium carbonate concentration than the C\u00f4te-d'Or, indicated by the milky water that flows in the Waipara River."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "In that same year, Pinot Noir overtook Chardonnay as New Zealand's second most-planted variety, after Sauvignon Blanc. In the decade since, its international reputation has \"gone from strength to strength\" and has performed very well in reviews and competitions; wine from Marlborough has won the Champion Pinot Noir Trophy three times at the International Wine and Spirit Competition \u2013 in 2006, 2007, and by Giesen Wines most recently in 2016. A New Zealand wine also won the 2014 Decanter International Trophy for Best in Show Pinot Noir, up against Burgundy Gevrey-Chambertin Premier Cru and other top wines from around the world. However, many of the top producers in France do not submit their wines to international competitions."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "Small vineyards were also planted by French settlers in Akaroa in the 1840s. However wine was drunk in relatively small quantities well into the twentieth century, with the average per capita consumption only about 2.6 litres in 1966. The high price of imported wines probably prevented New Zealanders from developing a taste for wine, although it did help sales of local vintages. The quality of these wines slowly improved, with New Zealand wines winning three gold and 13 silver medals at the International Wine Fair in 1963. Aided by the deregulation of the economy in the 1980s and 1990s, domestic wine consumption increased and New Zealand wine won increasing accolades internationally."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Although the majority of sparkling wines in New Zealand are made in Marlborough, there are also examples from throughout the rest of New Zealand. Quartz Reef is based in Central Otago, Church Road in Hawke's Bay, and Lindauer (originally established in Gisborne now also owned by Lion); there are makers as far north as the Auckland regions as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand has long been best known for its Sauvignon Blanc, which dominates its wine industry. In 2017, its vines took up of vineyard area, a full 60% of New Zealand's total grape planting, and Sauvignon Blanc wine made up 86% of the nation's exports. Many critics regard New Zealand's Sauvignon Blanc as among the best in the world. Historically, Sauvignon Blanc has been used in many French regions in both AOC and Vin de pays wine, and famously Sancerre and Pouilly Fum\u00e9. Following Robert Mondavi's lead in renaming Californian Sauvignon Blanc Fum\u00e9 Blanc (partially in reference to Pouilly Fum\u00e9, but also to denote the smokiness of the wine produced from flinty soil and oak barrel ageing), there was a trend for oaked Sauvignon Blanc in New Zealand during the late 1980s. Strong oaky overtones dropped out of fashion through the 1990s but have since made a comeback, with several makers now offering oak-aged Sauvignon Blanc\u2014Greywacke, Dog Point, te Pa (Sauvignon Blanc 'Oke'), Sacred Hill (Sauvage), Jackson Estate (Grey Ghost), Hans Herzog (Sur Lie) and Saint Clair (Barrique)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samuel Marsden",
        "text": "In 1819, Marsden introduced winegrowing to New Zealand with the planting of over 100 different varieties of vine in Kerikeri, Northland. He wrote:"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "By the 1980s, wineries in New Zealand, especially in the Marlborough region, were producing outstanding Sauvignon Blanc. It was in 1985 that the Sauvignon Blanc from Cloudy Bay Vineyards finally garnered international attention and critical acclaim for New Zealand wine. Wine writer George Taber recounts Cloudy Bay is \"what many people consider to be the world's best Sauvignon Blanc\". New Zealand's reputation is now well established; Oz Clarke wrote New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc was \"arguably the best in the world\", and Mark Oldman wrote \"New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc is like a child who inherits the best of both parents\u2014exotic aromas found in\u00a0... the New World and the pungency and limy acidity of an Old World Sauvignon Blanc like Sancerre.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Although the Gisborne GI established in October 2017 covers most of the East Cape Gisborne District, most of the of vineyard area in 2020 is concentrated in a relatively small area around Gisborne city. The fertile Gisborne region originally grew prodigious grape yields throughout the mid-20th Century, which was mostly used to make fortified and cask wines. In the 1980s, a shift away from cask wine for better quality, bottled still wine meant that huge areas of bulk varieties, most notably M\u00fcller-Thurgau, were uprooted and replaced with Chardonnay and Gew\u00fcrztraminer, for which the region is well known today. It is also the world's most easterly vine-producing region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cloudy Bay Vineyards",
        "text": "The winery is primarily noted for its Sauvignon Blanc wines, the first New Zealand wines to be exported in the 1980s, and still represent the majority of its production. The \u201cTe Koko\u201d Sauvignon Blanc is a wild-ferment, barrel-aged version that contrasts with the fruit-driven unoaked style of the original. The winery also produces Chardonnay, the \u201cPelorus\u201d sparkling and its \u201cTe Wahi\u201d Pinot Noir from Central Otago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rosa 'New Zealand'",
        "text": "'New Zealand' is a medium tall upright shrub, 3 to 5 ft (91-152 cm) in height. Blooms are large with an average diameter of 4-5\u00a0in (10-12 \u00a0cm) and have 25 to 34 petals. Petals are light pink on their upper sides with a darker peach pink on the reverse. Flowers have a strong, sweet fragrance and are displayed in single blooms or in clusters on long stems. Foliage is a dark, glossy green."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Exports of New Zealand sparkling wines are chiefly to the United Kingdom, where the best-known examples there are the Pelorus from Cloudy Bay, now owned by LVMH, and the Special Reserve from Lindauer. More recently, exports of \"\" have been declining, halving in volume between 2005 and 2011, and now making up less than one percent of total New Zealand exports. This is due partly to a rise in popularity and production of sparkling Sauvignon Blanc, a new style of sparkling New Zealand wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Many fledgling producers started out using contract fruit while waiting for their own vines to mature enough to produce production-quality fruit. Some producers use contract fruit to supplement the range of varieties they market, even using fruit from other geographical regions. For example, it is common to see an Auckland producer market a \"Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc\" or a Marlborough producer market a \"Gisborne Chardonnay\". Contract growing is an example of the use of indigenous agro-industrial methods that predate the New Zealand wine industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wine",
        "text": "Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between 30 and 50 degrees latitude north and south of the equator. The world's southernmost vineyards are in the Central Otago region of New Zealand's South Island near the 45th parallel south, and the northernmost are in Flen, Sweden, just north of the 59th parallel north.\n* May include official, semi-official or estimated data."
      },
      {
        "title": "Merlot",
        "text": "In New Zealand, plantings of Merlot have increased in the Hawke's Bay region, particularly in Gimblett Gravels where the grape has shown the ability to produce Bordeaux-style wine. The grape has been growing in favor among New Zealand producers due to its ability to ripen better, with less green flavors, than Cabernet Sauvignon. Other regions with significant plantings include Auckland, Marlborough and Martinborough. In 2008, Merlot was the second most widely red grape variety (after Pinot noir) in New Zealand and accounted for nearly 5% of all the country's plantings with in cultivation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aristotelia serrata",
        "text": "Aristotelia serrata, commonly known as wineberry or in the M\u0101ori language makomako or just mako, is a small tree in the family Elaeocarpaceae, in the genus \"Aristotelia\", found in the North Island, South Island and Stewart Island of New Zealand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcohol in New Zealand",
        "text": "In the 1980s, wineries in New Zealand, especially in the Marlborough region, began producing outstanding, some critics said unforgettable, Sauvignon blanc. \"New Zealand Sauvignon blanc is like a child who inherits the best of both parents\u2014exotic aromas found in certain Sauvignon blancs from the New World and the pungency and limy acidity of an Old World Sauvignon blanc like Sancerre from the Loire Valley\" (Oldman, p.\u00a0152). One critic said that drinking one's first New Zealand Sauvignon blanc was like having sex for the first time (Taber, p.\u00a0244). \"No other region in the world can match Marlborough, the northeastern corner of New Zealand's South Island, which seems to be the best place in the world to grow Sauvignon blanc grapes\" (Taber, p.\u00a0244)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Otago wine region",
        "text": "Starting in the 1950s, and up through the end of the 1970s, small-scale trial plantings of vines began again both by private individuals and under the auspices of the New Zealand Department of Agriculture. By 1980 sufficient experience and confidence had been gained for small-scale commercial plantings to be made."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Nelson has the sunniest climate in New Zealand, with an annual average sunshine total of over 2400 hours, approximately equivalent to Tuscany. The long autumns permit the production of fine late-harvest wines. There are two sub-regions in Nelson: Waimea and Moutere Valley. Notable wineries from the region include Neudorf Vineyards, awarded Raymond Chan's 2012 Winery of the Year and Seifried Estate Winery, who have won Champion Open White Wine, Champion Sauvignon Blanc and Best Wine - Nelson at the New Zealand Wine Awards in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cabernet Sauvignon",
        "text": "In New Zealand, climate has been a challenge in finding wine regions suitable for producing Cabernet Sauvignon. Most of the industry focus has centered on the North Island. The Hawkes Bay region was the first to make a significant effort in producing Cabernet Sauvignon but the cool climate of the region, coupled with the high yields and fertile alluvial soils, produced wines that were still marked with aggressive green and vegetal flavors. Added focus on canopy management, which gives the grapes more sunlight to ripen by removing excess foliage, and low vigor rootstock and pruning combine to achieve lower yields and have started to produce better results. The grape is sometimes blended with Merlot to help compensate for climate and \"terroir\". Other regions in New Zealand have sprung up with a renewed focus on producing distinctive New Zealand Cabernet Sauvignon: The Gimblett Road and Havelock North regions of Hawkes Bay, with their warm gravel soils, have started to achieve notice as well as Waiheke Island near Auckland. Overall the grape lags far behind Pinot noir in New Zealand's red wine grape plantings."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Marlborough is by far the largest wine region in New Zealand, accounting for three-quarters of the country's total wine production and 70% of its planted vineyard area. Internationally it is also the most recognised, its wines accounting for 85% of New Zealand's 2019 wine exports. Marlborough is well known internationally for its Sauvignon Blanc, and its Pinot Noir is also attracting attention."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New law came into force in New Zealand in 2017 that established a Geographical Indication (GI) classification for New Zealand wine, equivalent to the European Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) classification and the American Viticultural Areas in the United States. In 2017, a total of 18 applications were lodged with the GI register at the Intellectual Property Office of New Zealand, and registrations were complete by early 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The next region to excel with Pinot Noir was Martinborough, east of Wellington in the Wairarapa region. Several vineyards, including Palliser Estate, Martinborough Vineyards, Murdoch James Estate (now Luna Estate) and Ata Rangi consistently produced interesting and increasingly complex wine from Pinot Noir at the end of the 1980s and into the 1990s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canterbury, New Zealand",
        "text": "Canterbury has 25,065 hectares of horticultural land, the largest area in New Zealand. The largest crops are potatoes (4,330 ha), peas and beans (2,700 ha), wine grapes (1,770 ha), berries (1,100 ha), and onions (1,000 ha). The region produces half of the New Zealand's mushrooms, nuts and berries."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Typically, these Bordeaux blends come from the hotter and drier regions of New Zealand, largely in the Hawke's Bay Region. Wines that typify the best of Hawke's Bay include Elephant Hill's Airavata, Te Mata Estate's Coleraine, Craggy Range's Sophia, Newton Forrest Estate's Cornerstone, Esk Valley's The Terraces and Villa Maria's Reserve Merlot and Cabernet. Waiheke Island, whilst a very small viticultural region, also produces acclaimed red wines like the Larose from Stonyridge, the Dreadnought and Ironclad from Man O' War, wines from Destiny Bay, and Goldie Estate. In Marlborough, Hans Herzog Estate is famous for making the Spirit of Marlborough, and examples of Bordeaux blends can be found as far south as Waipara, where the Maestro from Pegasus Bay also demonstrates the shift from Cabernet Sauvignon to Merlot predominant blends."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Kawarau valley has a thin and patchy topsoil over a bedrock that is schist. Early growers blasted holes into the bare rock of north-facing slopes with miners' caps to provide planting holes for the vines. These conditions necessitate irrigation and make the vines work hard for nutrients. Irrigation, low cropping techniques, and the thermal effect of the rock produces great intensity for the grapes and subsequent wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aristotelia fruticosa",
        "text": "Aristotelia fruticosa, the mountain wineberry or shrubby wineberry, is a tree-shrub from New Zealand, in the family Elaeocarpaceae. It grows up to 2 m in a densely branching and divaricating form."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "This pervasive use of stainless steel had a distinctive effect on both New Zealand wine styles and the domestic palate. The early wines, which made a stir internationally, were lauded for the intensity and purity of the fruit in the wine. Indeed, the strength of flavour in the wine accommodated very dry styles, despite intense acidity. While stainless steel did not produce the intensity of fruit, it allowed for its exploitation. Even today, New Zealand white wines tend toward the drier end of the spectrum."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "In a blind tasting of New Zealand Pinot Noir in 2006, Michael Cooper reported that of the top ten wines, five came from Central Otago, four from Marlborough and one from Waipara. This compares with all top ten wines coming from Marlborough in an equivalent blind tasting in the previous year. Cooper suggested that this has to do with more Central Otago production becoming available in commercial quantities, than the relative qualities of the regions' Pinot Noir."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Well-known Waitaki wine producers include Valli, Pasquale, Ostler, Lone Hill, and John Forrest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcohol in New Zealand",
        "text": "Wine making and vine growing go back to colonial times in New Zealand. British Resident and keen oenologist James Busby was, as early as 1836, attempting to produce wine at his land in Waitangi. In 1851 New Zealand's oldest existing vineyard was established by French Roman Catholic missionaries at Mission Estate Winery in Hawke's Bay. Due to economic (the importance of animal agriculture and the protein export industry), legislative (prohibition and the temperance) and cultural factors (the overwhelming predominance of beer and spirit drinking British immigrants), wine was for many years a marginal activity in terms of economic importance. Dalmatian immigrants arriving in New Zealand at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century brought with them viticultural knowledge and planted vineyards in West and North Auckland. Typically, their vineyards produced sherry and port for the palates of New Zealanders of the time, and table wine for their own community."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Wairarapa winegrowing region, a Geographical Indication since October 2017, is one of New Zealand's smallest. It contains two GI sub-regions, Gladstone and Martinborough, as well as Masterton and Opaki. Martinborough was the original area planted on the basis of careful scientific study in the 1970s, which identified its soils and climate as perfectly suited to the cultivation of Pinot Noir. As a consequence, many of the vineyards established there are older than their counterparts in the rest of the Wairarapa. In general, the area lies in the rain shadow of the Tararua Range, which gives it a warm climate with relatively low rainfall. Subtle differences are seen in the wines from the South Wairarapa (which includes Martinborough), which has more maritime influences, to those grown farther north in Gladstone and Masterton."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand's winemakers employ a variety of production techniques. The traditional concept of a vineyard, where grapes are grown on the land surrounding a central simply owned or family-owned estate with its own discrete viticultural and winemaking equipment and storage, is only one model. While the European cooperative model (where district or AOC village winemaking takes place in a centralized production facility) is uncommon, contract growing of fruit for winemakers has been a feature of the New Zealand industry since the start of the winemaking boom in the 1970s. Indeed, many well-known producers began as contract growers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nikola Nobilo",
        "text": "Nobilo and his family arrived in New Zealand in 1937 and settled in Huapai, west of the city of Auckland. They began planting grapes in Huapai in 1943. Gradually the Nobilos led New Zealand's wine industry away from hybrid grapes to an emphasis on classic grape varieties which produce higher quality wines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waikato",
        "text": "The north of the region around Te Kauwhata produces some of New Zealand's best wines. Dozens of small shallow lakes lie in this area, the largest of which is Lake Waikare."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinot noir",
        "text": "Pinot noir is New Zealand's largest red wine variety, and second largest variety overall behind Sauvignon blanc. In 2014, Pinot noir vines covered and produced 36,500\u00a0tonnes of grapes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Te Mata Estate",
        "text": "Te Mata Estate is regarded as New Zealand's finest producer of Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot blends, and produces a variety of other well-known wines including the \"Bullnose\" Syrah from the Bridge Pa Triangle, \"Awatea\" Cabernets/Merlot blend, Estate Vineyards Gamay Noir, the \"Zara\" Viognier, the \"Elston\" Chardonnay and \"Cape Crest\" Sauvignon Blanc \u2013 a barrel-fermented sauvignon blend similar in style to a Graves region, or southern Bordeaux white wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sauvignon blanc",
        "text": "In the 1990s, Sauvignon blanc wines from the maritime climatic regions of New Zealand, particularly the South Island, became popular on the wine market. In the Marlborough wine region, sandy soils over slate shingles have become the most desirable locations for plantings due to the good drainage of the soil and poor fertility that encourages the vine to concentrate its flavors in lower yields. In the flood plain of the Wairau River Valley, the soil runs in east-west bands across the area. This can create a wide diversity of flavors for vineyards that are planted north-south with the heavier soils producing more herbaceous wines from grapes that ripen late and vines planted in stonier soils ripening earlier and imparting more lush and tropical flavors. It is this difference in soils, and the types of harvest time decisions that wine producers must make, that add a unique element to New Zealand Sauvignon blanc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Viognier",
        "text": "In New Zealand, small amounts of Viognier are grown on Waiheke Island and Wairarapa. In the Hawke's Bay Region, the grape is used as a single varietal as well as being blended with Syrah to produce a traditional Rh\u00f4ne style red wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Te Kauwhata",
        "text": "Te Kauwhata lies at the centre of one of New Zealand's smaller wine-producing regions, which stretches from Pukekohe, just south of Auckland, across to Thames and Paeroa at the foot of the Coromandel Peninsula. The region is particularly notable for its Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay and Sauvignon blanc wines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawke's Bay wine region",
        "text": "The \"Te Mata Special Character Zone\" is an area of hills adjacent to Havelock North and Te Mata Peak. It was first protected by the Hawke's Bay Regional Council in 1996, making it New Zealand's first legally protected wine growing area. The principal producers in the region are Te Mata Estate, Craggy Range and Black Barn, but other producers have vineyards in the area, including De La Terre and Trinity Hill."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Buck (winemaker)",
        "text": "Since 1974, Buck and his wife Wendy have managed New Zealand's oldest winery, Te Mata Estate. They live in the Coleraine Vineyard opposite the winery, have three sons who work at Te Mata \u2014 Jonathan, Nick and Tobias Buck \u2014 and six grandchildren. Coleraine \u2014 the red wine made from the Buck family vineyard \u2014 has repeatedly been named New Zealand's greatest red wine, and has achieved many accolades in New Zealand and internationally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rosa 'New Zealand'",
        "text": "'New Zealand' was developed by Samuel McGredy IV in New Zealand in 1989. The rose is a cross between Hybrid tea roses 'Harmonie' and 'Auckland Metro'. McGredy created a unique double name for the rose, 'Aotearoa New Zealand', to honor the Maori and the European cultures of New Zealand on the occasion of the country's 150th anniversary. \u2018Aotearoa\u2019 means Land of the Long White Cloud in the Maori language."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "For the first half of the 20th century, economic, legislative and cultural factors made wine a marginal economic activity. The most common use of land in New Zealand during this period was for animal agriculture, and the exports of dairy, meat, and wool dominated the economy. Most New Zealanders were of British descent, and favoured beer and spirits; the temperance movement further reduced the national appreciation for wine. The Great Depression of the 1930s also hampered the growth of the fledgling industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in New Zealand",
        "text": "Seeds and flowers are primailry grown in Canterbury, Auckland, Otago and Southland. In 2019, New Zealand exported $90 million of seeds, $43 million of bulbs and live plants, and $20 million of cut flowers."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Martinborough is a small wine village located east of Wellington by road, in the South Wairarapa. The combination of topography, geology, climate and human effort has led to the region becoming one of New Zealand's premier wine regions, despite its small size, particularly for Pinot Noir. The growing season from flowering to harvest is amongst the longest in New Zealand. Naturally breezy conditions control vine vigour, creating lower yields of grapes with greater intensity. A genuine cool climate, with a long, dry autumn, provides ideal ripening conditions for Pinot Noir and other varietals, such as Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Gris and Syrah. Most of the wineries are on the Martinborough terrace, a raised alluvial terrace of the nearby Ruamahanga River."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kerikeri",
        "text": "Kerikeri was the first place in New Zealand where grape vines were planted. Samuel Marsden planted 100 vines on 25 September 1819 and noted in his journal that New Zealand promised to be very favourable to the vine. In the same year Charlotte Kemp planted the first citrus, and New Zealand's first commercial plantings of passionfruit were established in 1927, and about 1932 the country's first avocados were planted. The plough was first used in New Zealand at Kerikeri, by Rev. J. G. Butler, on 3 May 1820."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marlborough wine region",
        "text": "New Zealand's plantings of Sauvignon Blanc experienced enormous growth in the 21st century, driven almost exclusively by investment in the Marlborough region. Vineyard area of the grape expanded from in 2003 to in 2018, a five-fold increase in just 15 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand Winegrowers",
        "text": "New Zealand Winegrowers is the national industry body that represents New Zealand's viticulture and winemaking sectors. It conducts research, promotion, marketing and advocacy in the interests of New Zealand grape growers and winemakers, both domestically and in international export markets. Winemakers and grape growers are automatically entitled to membership of New Zealand Winegrowers through payment of the levies on grape or wine sales required by law in the Commodity Levies Act 1991 and the Wine Act 2003. This combined with New Zealand's small size means that it is the only country in the world with a single national wine industry body."
      },
      {
        "title": "Floral emblem",
        "text": "New Zealand does not have an official national flower, but the silver fern (foliage) is acknowledged as its national emblem. The Kowhai (\"Sophora\" spp., native trees with yellow cascading flowers) is usually regarded as the national flower. Other plant emblems are Koru (a curled fern symbol) and the crimson-flowered Pohutukawa (\"Metrosideros excelsa\"), also called New Zealand's Christmas tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Te Mata Estate",
        "text": "Te Mata Estate is especially notable because it has hand-harvested grapes from its own vineyards and produced, blended and labelled small-batch premium wines entirely on site in the original winery buildings since 1895. New Zealand's first legally protected wine-growing area, the \"Te Mata Special Character Zone\" in the Havelock Hills, was established by the Hawke's Bay Regional Council in 1996, recognized and conserved on the basis of its unique wine-growing heritage value."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Otago wine region",
        "text": "The other 30% of production comes from Chardonnay, Sauvignon blanc, Riesling, Pinot gris, and Gew\u00fcrztraminer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baco blanc",
        "text": "But since the mid to late 20th century, the grape variety has fallen out of favor among French wine producers who are continuing pulling up their hybrid grapes and returning to \"vinifera\"-only plantings (which are permitted for \"Appellation d'Origine Contr\u00f4l\u00e9e\" AOC wines). Even in its Armagnac stronghold, Baco blanc vines are being uprooted and replanted with Ugni blanc. Similarly, Baco blanc experienced a brief period of popularity in the emerging New Zealand wine industry during the 20th century but as that century drew to a close, New Zealand producers also turned away from the variety to concentrate on \"vinifera\" grapes such as M\u00fcller-Thurgau, Chardonnay and Sauvignon blanc. Today, what little Baco blanc is left in New Zealand is used primarily for distillations and spirits."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand Winegrowers has also placed a growing emphasis on sustainability and organic certification, including monitoring and measuring water, energy, soil and pest management, waste reuse, land and biodiversity restoration, and social factors such as tourism impacts and staff training. Its first annual sustainability report in 2016 states that 98% of NZ's vineyard area is certified under its Sustainable Winegrowing New Zealand scheme."
      },
      {
        "title": "Passiflora tetrandra",
        "text": "Passiflora tetrandra is a climbing vine found in New Zealand. The M\u0101ori name for the plant is k\u014dhia. Other common names include New Zealand passionflower and New Zealand passionfruit. Of the c.500 species of passionflower, this is the sole representative from New Zealand and endemic to New Zealand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vitex lucens",
        "text": "P\u016briri is one of the few native trees with large colourful flowers. Many plants in New Zealand have white or green flowers. The tubular flowers of the p\u016briri look rather like snapdragon flowers and can range from fluorescent pink to dark red, rose pink (most common) or sometimes even to a white flower with a yellow or pink blush. The bright colour, the tube shape, copious nectar production and the hairs at the base of the flower tube all point towards birds pollinating this flower (the hairs stop insects from stealing the nectar). On the New Zealand mainland there is often plenty of nectar in the flowers because there aren't enough birds to eat all the nectar produced by the tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of wine-producing regions",
        "text": "GI stands for New Zealand Geographical Indication."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand Winegrowers",
        "text": "In the early 2000s significant overlaps in mandate and operations were identified in two former national organisations: the Wine Institute of New Zealand, established in 1975, and the New Zealand Grape Growers Council. These organisations were merged in 2002 to become a single organisation, New Zealand Winegrowers, which was finally incorporated in 2016. New Zealand Winegrowers in its 2017 annual report set a target of $2 billion NZD of export revenue by 2020. It believes this can be achieved due to New Zealand's reputation internationally for high quality wines with a higher per-unit price, and the continuing rapid growth of vineyard planting area in New Zealand, from in 1997 to in 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in New Zealand",
        "text": "Fruit growing occupies around of land as of 2017. The largest crops by planted area are wine grapes (33,980\u00a0ha), kiwifruit (11,700\u00a0ha), apples (8,620\u00a0ha), avocadoes (3,980\u00a0ha), berries (2,320\u00a0ha), and stone fruit (2,140\u00a0ha)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Otago wine region",
        "text": "Vineyard planting and production remained modest until the middle of the 1990s when the industry began to expand rapidly. In 1996 there were just 11 wineries in the Central Otago region, according to New Zealand Winegrowers, accounting for 4.6% of the national total. By 2020 this had risen to 133 wineries and 18.5%. Over the same period, the area planted with vines rose from 92 to 1,930 hectares, a more-than twentyfold increase. Reflecting this rapid expansion, the long lead-time for planting to come into production, and the focus in Central Otago on quality wines rather than bulk wines, actual wine production accounted for only 0.5% (376 tonnes) of the New Zealand total in 1996, increasing to 3.0% (11,868 tonnes) in 2019."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Besides Sauvinon Blanc, Pinot Noir, and Martinboroguh, are there any other types of wine produced?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you asking about the production of other types of French wine, White wine, or Red wine?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the production of red wine."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Much of the red wine production process involves extraction of color and flavor components from the grape skin.There are several steps including grape processing, inoculation and fermentation, and filtration and bottling."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Now, I want to know what are the wine regions of New Zealand."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are several distinct winegrowing regions in New Zealand, with some examples being Northland, Hawke's Bay, and Nelson. Would you like to know more about one of these?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me more about the wine region of Northland."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Northland is the most northerly wine region where Chardonnay is the most planted variety, but is most well known for ripe Syrah red wines, and white wines from Pinot Gris, which together comprise the top three planted varieties. The soils and climate result in high vine productivity, so the yields need to be limited to ensure better quality wines; consequently, Northland tends to produce ripe wines, with low acidity."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does New Zealand use any flower to make wine ?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I was not able to find any information concerning New Zealand and flower wine, but I did find that there is an indigenous flower wine used in the Indian states of Odisha and Jharkhand."
    ],
    "topic": "New Zealand wine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Mahuli (wine):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mahuli (wine)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mahuli (Odia : \u0b2e\u0b39\u0b41\u0b32\u0b3f) is a flower wine used by Tribals in Odisha, Jharkhand. Its prepared from the Mahula (\u0b2e\u0b39\u0b41\u0b32) flower. Mahuli wine is an indigenous drink also called Mahuwa."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Jharkhand:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Jharkhand"
        ],
        "ctx": "Jharkhand (; ; meaning 'the land of forests') is a state in eastern India. The state shares its border with the states of West Bengal to the east, Chhattisgarh to the west, Uttar Pradesh to the northwest, Bihar to the north and Odisha to the south. It has an area of . It is the 15th largest state by area, and the 14th largest by population. Hindi is the official language of the state. The city of Ranchi is its capital and Dumka its sub-capital. The state is known for its waterfalls, hills and holy places; Baidyanath Dham, Parasnath, Dewri and Rajrappa are major religious sites. The state was formed in 2000, from the territory that had previously been part of Bihar."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Odisha:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Odisha"
        ],
        "ctx": "Odisha (: , ), formerly Orissa ( the official name until 2011), is an Indian state located in Eastern India. It is the 8th largest state by area, and the 11th largest by population. The state has the third largest population of Scheduled Tribes in India. It neighbours the states of West Bengal and Jharkhand to the north, Chhattisgarh to the west, Andhra Pradesh to the south. Odisha has a coastline of along the Bay of Bengal. The region is also known as Utkala and is mentioned in India's national anthem, \"Jana Gana Mana\". The language of Odisha is Odia, which is one of the Classical Languages of India."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Aristotelia serrata",
        "text": "Endemic to New Zealand, wineberry is found throughout the South Island of New Zealand and lower North Island. It is common in moist forest and scrub land within the lowland, montane, and subalpine climates. Wineberry can also be found on Stewart Island."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Most New Zealand wine producers that produce Pinot Noir or Merlot also produce a ros\u00e9 style wine, although it is sometimes found made from other red varieties. New Zealand ros\u00e9 is made to drink immediately rather than age, resulting in the crisp, fresh, fruit-forward flavours popular with the New Zealand public. Well rated examples are from Forrest, Isabel, Ti Point, Whitehaven and Rapaura Springs."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "There are some producers dedicated to establishing other red grape varieties. New Zealand has small plantings of Tempranillo, Pinotage, Montepulciano and Sangiovese in Hawke's Bay and the warmer Auckland regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand wine is produced in several of its distinct winegrowing regions. As an island country in the South Pacific Ocean, New Zealand has a largely maritime climate, although its elongated geography produces considerable regional variation from north to south. Like many other New World wines, New Zealand wine is usually produced and labelled as single varietal wines, or if blended, winemakers list the varietal components on the label. New Zealand is best known for its Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc, and more recently its dense, concentrated Pinot Noir from Marlborough, Martinborough and Central Otago."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Wine regions are located mostly in free draining alluvial valleys\u2014Hawke's Bay, Martinborough, Nelson, the Wairau and Awatere valleys of Marlborough, and Canterbury\u2014with the notable exceptions of Waiheke Island, Kawarau Gorge in Central Otago. The alluvial deposits are typically the local sandstone called greywacke, which makes up much of the mountainous spine of New Zealand."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "New Zealand has a successful wine industry, with about 76 million litres being exported in the year to June 2007. The first vines are thought to have been introduced by missionary Samuel Marsden, and planted in 1817 by Charles Gordon, superintendent of agriculture for the missionaries, according to Dr Richard Smart who was viticultural editor of both editions of The Oxford Companion to Wine. Official British resident James Busby is credited with producing wine at Kerikeri in 1833, and Charles Darwin noted the winery in his diary when he visited Kerikeri in 1835."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "While New Zealand wine traces its history to the early 19th century, the modern wine industry in New Zealand began in the mid-20th century and expanded rapidly in the early 21st century, growing by 17% a year from 2000 to 2020. In 2020, New Zealand produced from of vineyard area, of which ha (about two-thirds) is dedicated to Sauvignon Blanc. Nearly 90% of total production is exported, chiefly to the United States, Britain and Australia, reaching a record in export revenue in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Today, New Zealand is most well known internationally for red wines made from traditional French varieties. After Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir has become New Zealand's second most planted variety, while in the warmer regions, particularly Hawke's Bay and Waiheke Island, Syrah and Bordeaux-style blends of mainly Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon have been gaining recognition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in New Zealand",
        "text": "Wine grapes occupied of land as of 2020, with the largest regions being Marlborough (27,808\u00a0ha), Hawke's Bay (5,034\u00a0ha), and Central Otago (1,930\u00a0ha). The largest varieties are sauvignon blanc (25,160\u00a0ha), pinot noir (5,642\u00a0ha), chardonnay (3,222\u00a0ha), pinot gris (2,593\u00a0ha) and merlot (1,087\u00a0ha). Wine exports totalled $1,807 million in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand red wines are also made from the classic Bordeaux varieties, mainly Merlot, with Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Malbec, and Petit Verdot. Syrah wines from Hawke's Bay, particularly the Gimblett Gravels and Bridge Pa Triangle sub-regions, as well as farther north from Waiheke Island, have also gained a good reputation internationally."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New law came into force in New Zealand in 2017 that established a Geographical Indication (GI) classification for New Zealand wine, equivalent to the European Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) classification and the American Viticultural Areas in the United States. In 2017, a total of 18 applications were lodged with the GI register at the Intellectual Property Office of New Zealand, and registrations were complete by early 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Other white wine varietals grown in New Zealand include (in descending order of vineyard area) Riesling, Gew\u00fcrztraminer and Viognier, and less commonly Chenin Blanc, Albari\u00f1o, Arneis and S\u00e9millon. Riesling is produced predominantly in Martinborough and the South Island, as is Gew\u00fcrztraminer, although it is also planted extensively in Gisborne. Chenin Blanc was once more important, but the viticultural peculiarities of the variety, particularly its unpredictable cropping in New Zealand, have led to its disfavour. Nevertheless, good examples exist from Esk Valley, Margrain and Millton Estate."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand wine\n--History.\n----First steps.\n----Sauvignon Blanc breakthrough.\n--Climate and soil.\n--Industry structure and production methods.\n--Varieties, styles and directions.\n----White wines.\n------Sauvignon Blanc.\n------Chardonnay.\n------Pinot Gris.\n------Other white wines.\n----Red wines.\n------Pinot Noir.\n------Bordeaux-style blends and Syrah.\n------Other red wines.\n----Ros\u00e9.\n----Sparkling wine.\n--Wine regions of New Zealand.\n----Northland.\n----Auckland.\n------Waiheke Island.\n------Kumeu.\n------Matakana.\n----Gisborne.\n----Hawke's Bay.\n----Wairarapa.\n------Martinborough.\n----Nelson.\n----Marlborough.\n----Canterbury.\n------Waipara Valley.\n------North Canterbury.\n----Waitaki Valley.\n----Central Otago.\n------Bannockburn.\n--Trends in production and export.\n--Praise and criticism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Early success in the Hawke's Bay Region in the 1960s by McWilliams and in the 1980s by Te Mata Estate, led to a phase in the 1980s and 1990s of mainly Cabernet Sauvignon planting and wine production by large producers such as Corbans, McWilliams, and Mission Estate. As viticultural techniques were improved and tailored to New Zealand's maritime climate, other Bordeaux-style grapes were planted, and a switch of emphasis made to the more suitable, earlier-ripening Merlot. Today, Merlot is the second most planted red variety after Pinot Noir, accounting for , outweighing Cabernet Sauvignon plantings by five to one."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "New World wines are those wines produced outside the traditional winegrowing areas of Europe and the Middle East, in particular from Argentina, Australia, Canada, Chile, Mexico, New Zealand, South Africa and the United States (primarily California). The phrase connotes a distinction between these \"New World\" wines and those wines produced in \"Old World\" countries with a long-established history of wine productionmost notably, France, Italy, Germany, Spain and Portugal."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Many fledgling producers started out using contract fruit while waiting for their own vines to mature enough to produce production-quality fruit. Some producers use contract fruit to supplement the range of varieties they market, even using fruit from other geographical regions. For example, it is common to see an Auckland producer market a \"Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc\" or a Marlborough producer market a \"Gisborne Chardonnay\". Contract growing is an example of the use of indigenous agro-industrial methods that predate the New Zealand wine industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wine",
        "text": "Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between 30 and 50 degrees latitude north and south of the equator. The world's southernmost vineyards are in the Central Otago region of New Zealand's South Island near the 45th parallel south, and the northernmost are in Flen, Sweden, just north of the 59th parallel north.\n* May include official, semi-official or estimated data."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "For the first half of the 20th century, economic, legislative and cultural factors made wine a marginal economic activity. The most common use of land in New Zealand during this period was for animal agriculture, and the exports of dairy, meat, and wool dominated the economy. Most New Zealanders were of British descent, and favoured beer and spirits; the temperance movement further reduced the national appreciation for wine. The Great Depression of the 1930s also hampered the growth of the fledgling industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Winemaking began in Matakana in the 1960s, but the oldest, current vineyards are Heron's Flight (established 1988), Providence Wines, and Ransom Wines, established in the early 1990s. Around the turn of the century, Heron's Flight replanted its mainly Bordeaux varieties with the Italian varieties Sangiovese and Dolcetto, and many of the newer wineries, have also planted Tannat and Petit Verdot alongside the usual French varieties, as well as the Italian and Spanish varieties Barbera, Nebbiolo, Albari\u00f1o, Roussanne, and Montepulciano. As of the 2017 vintage, there were more than planted in vines, and 21 commercial grape growing/winery operations within the Matakana GI."
      },
      {
        "title": "Viognier",
        "text": "In New Zealand, small amounts of Viognier are grown on Waiheke Island and Wairarapa. In the Hawke's Bay Region, the grape is used as a single varietal as well as being blended with Syrah to produce a traditional Rh\u00f4ne style red wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Winemaking and viticulture date back to New Zealand's colonial era. British Resident James Busby, a keen oenologist who had also established wine regions in Australia such as the Hunter Valley, was producing wine on his land near Waitangi for locally stationed British soldiers in 1836. In 1851, French Marist missionaries established a vineyard in Hawke's Bay for making Communion wine. Now part of the Mission Estate Winery, it is the oldest commercial vineyard in New Zealand. William Henry Beetham is recognised as being the first person to plant Pinot Noir and Hermitage (Syrah) grapes in New Zealand at his Lansdowne, Masterton, vineyard in 1881. In 1895, the New Zealand government's Department of Agriculture invited the expert consultant viticulturist and oenologist Romeo Bragato to investigate winemaking possibilities. After tasting Beetham's Hermitage, he concluded that New Zealand and the Wairarapa in particular were \"pre-eminently suited to viticulture.\" His French wife, Marie Zelie Hermance Frere Beetham, supported Beetham in his endeavours. Their partnership and innovation to pursue winemaking helped form the basis of modern New Zealand's viticulture practices. Dalmatian immigrants arriving in New Zealand in the late 19th and early 20th centuries brought with them viticultural knowledge and planted vineyards in West and North Auckland. Typically, their vineyards produced table wine and fortified wine to suit the palates of their communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "As in many places in the world, an emerging trend in New Zealand wine is an increased recognition for high quality wines coming from small boutique wineries. In 2020, these smaller producers, with a vineyard area of no more than , represented over three-quarters of New Zealand's wineries. They are located fairly evenly throughout all wine regions, with the larger producers predominantly in Marlborough, Hawke's Bay, Gisborne, and Waipara."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "By 2020, the Wairarapa had 126 vineyards with a total area of , or about three per cent of the New Zealand total. Nearly half of this area is Pinot Noir, the remainder mostly Sauvignon Blanc, with smaller areas of Pinot Gris, Chardonnay, Riesling and Syrah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Winery",
        "text": "While some associate wineries with large winemaking regions such as Napa Valley and Sonoma Valley in California, the Barossa Valley in Australia or the legendary wine regions of France (Bordeaux, Burgundy, Champagne) and Italy, wineries can be found nearly everywhere. The east coast of the United States also has winemaking regions like New York's Finger Lakes region, Aquidneck Island, RI and Long Island, NY and Cape May, NJ. Wineries do not have to be located adjacent to vineyards; grapes can be shipped anywhere. In addition, people make wine out of other fruits and plants (dandelion wine, apple wine, strawberry wine, honey wine), so these specialty wineries tend to pop up where the other substances are grown. For example, a winery in Hawaii produces pineapple wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Riesling",
        "text": "Riesling was first planted in New Zealand in the 1970s and has flourished in the relatively cool climate of the Marlborough area and for late harvests in the Nelson region. In comparison to Australian Riesling, New Zealand produces lighter and more delicate wines that range from sweet to dry. Home of cool climate wines, Central Otago, has recently emerged as another area producing terroir driven wines."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand Winegrowers",
        "text": "New Zealand Winegrowers is the national industry body that represents New Zealand's viticulture and winemaking sectors. It conducts research, promotion, marketing and advocacy in the interests of New Zealand grape growers and winemakers, both domestically and in international export markets. Winemakers and grape growers are automatically entitled to membership of New Zealand Winegrowers through payment of the levies on grape or wine sales required by law in the Commodity Levies Act 1991 and the Wine Act 2003. This combined with New Zealand's small size means that it is the only country in the world with a single national wine industry body."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcohol in New Zealand",
        "text": "Wine making and vine growing go back to colonial times in New Zealand. British Resident and keen oenologist James Busby was, as early as 1836, attempting to produce wine at his land in Waitangi. In 1851 New Zealand's oldest existing vineyard was established by French Roman Catholic missionaries at Mission Estate Winery in Hawke's Bay. Due to economic (the importance of animal agriculture and the protein export industry), legislative (prohibition and the temperance) and cultural factors (the overwhelming predominance of beer and spirit drinking British immigrants), wine was for many years a marginal activity in terms of economic importance. Dalmatian immigrants arriving in New Zealand at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century brought with them viticultural knowledge and planted vineyards in West and North Auckland. Typically, their vineyards produced sherry and port for the palates of New Zealanders of the time, and table wine for their own community."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Although the majority of sparkling wines in New Zealand are made in Marlborough, there are also examples from throughout the rest of New Zealand. Quartz Reef is based in Central Otago, Church Road in Hawke's Bay, and Lindauer (originally established in Gisborne now also owned by Lion); there are makers as far north as the Auckland regions as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The amount of Cabernet Sauvignon in production has dropped to a third of what it was in the early 2000s and has been overtaken by a tripling of Syrah planting in that time. In the same time period, Sauvignon Blanc has grown more than five-fold and Pinot Noir has doubled. Whilst today's fashion has turned from Bordeaux blends to Pinot Noir, it also indicates the marginality of Cabernet Sauvignon in New Zealand conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Exports of New Zealand sparkling wines are chiefly to the United Kingdom, where the best-known examples there are the Pelorus from Cloudy Bay, now owned by LVMH, and the Special Reserve from Lindauer. More recently, exports of \"\" have been declining, halving in volume between 2005 and 2011, and now making up less than one percent of total New Zealand exports. This is due partly to a rise in popularity and production of sparkling Sauvignon Blanc, a new style of sparkling New Zealand wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Waiheke Island is an island east of Auckland in the Hauraki Gulf and is a Geographical Indication within the larger Auckland GI. It has a dry and warm mesoclimate, and is planted primarily in French red grape varieties: Syrah, Merlot, and Cabernet Sauvignon, as well as the white grape varieties Chardonnay and Pinot Gris. The Bordeaux style red wines that are produced are considered to be significantly ripe and full bodied, and some of the best in New Zealand. The Larose from Stonyridge Estate has an international reputation and is often compared with some of the best Bordeaux wine in the world, and comparing favourably with the likes of Ch\u00e2teau Latour and Ch\u00e2teau Mouton-Rothschild. Other notable wine producers are Destiny Bay Vineyards (Magna Praemia), Obsidian Vineyard, Peacock Sky, Man O'War (Dreadnought Syrah), Cable Bay, Mudbrick and Te Motu."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The wine regions in New Zealand stretch from latitudes 36\u00b0S in the north (Northland) (comparable in latitude to Jerez, Spain), to 45\u00b0S (Central Otago) in the south (comparable in latitude to Bordeaux, France). New Zealand's climate is maritime, meaning that the sea moderates the weather, producing cooler summers and milder winters than would be expected at similar latitudes in Europe and North America. Maritime climates tend to demonstrate higher variability with cold snaps possible at any time of the year and warm periods even in the depth of winter. The climate is typically wetter, but wine regions have developed in rain shadows and in the east, on the opposite coast from the prevailing moisture-laden wind. The wine regions of New Zealand tend to experience cool nights even in the hottest of summers. The effect of consistently cool nights is to produce fruit, which is nearly always high in acidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "In 2018, the Wines of Canterbury and Waipara Valley Wine Growers associations merged to form the North Canterbury Wine Region. The Waipara region is within the area of the North Canterbury boundary, and the merged industry body promotes the use of \"North Canterbury\" for its region, although both \"North Canterbury\" and \"Waipara\" still appear on labels. Only of vineyards are planted outside the Waipara Valley GI boundary, concentrated in a few small areas such as West Melton, Banks Peninsula, Cheviot and Rolleston. Notable producers include French Peak (formerly French Farm); Melton Estate; Lone Goat, which took over Riesling vineyards from Giesen Estate; and New Zealand's only Ehrenfelser vineyard. In order of descending planting area, varieties grown in Canterbury outside Waipara Valley include Pinot Noir, Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, Pinot Gris, and Chardonnay."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand has long been best known for its Sauvignon Blanc, which dominates its wine industry. In 2017, its vines took up of vineyard area, a full 60% of New Zealand's total grape planting, and Sauvignon Blanc wine made up 86% of the nation's exports. Many critics regard New Zealand's Sauvignon Blanc as among the best in the world. Historically, Sauvignon Blanc has been used in many French regions in both AOC and Vin de pays wine, and famously Sancerre and Pouilly Fum\u00e9. Following Robert Mondavi's lead in renaming Californian Sauvignon Blanc Fum\u00e9 Blanc (partially in reference to Pouilly Fum\u00e9, but also to denote the smokiness of the wine produced from flinty soil and oak barrel ageing), there was a trend for oaked Sauvignon Blanc in New Zealand during the late 1980s. Strong oaky overtones dropped out of fashion through the 1990s but have since made a comeback, with several makers now offering oak-aged Sauvignon Blanc\u2014Greywacke, Dog Point, te Pa (Sauvignon Blanc 'Oke'), Sacred Hill (Sauvage), Jackson Estate (Grey Ghost), Hans Herzog (Sur Lie) and Saint Clair (Barrique)."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Further inland from Waipara, the limestone soils around Waikari are producing well-reviewed wine from Bell Hill and Pyramid Valley, using organic and/or biodynamic production methods, and close-planted vineyards. Farther north in Cheviot and Hanmer Springs respectively, notable producers Mt. Beautiful and Waiau River Estate (formerly Marble Point) are producing well-regarded Pinot Noir."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Canterbury Geographical Indication covers wine made anywhere within the Canterbury region of New Zealand, a very large area of some . In practice, almost all the region's vineyards are concentrated in a relatively small area around the city of Christchurch, which has prompted the establishment of two more specific GIs within it. North Canterbury is simply the top half of the larger Canterbury GI north of the Rakaia River, and Waipara Valley, a small area about north of Christchurch which accounts for the majority of Canterbury's total vineyard plantings."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "Small vineyards were also planted by French settlers in Akaroa in the 1840s. However wine was drunk in relatively small quantities well into the twentieth century, with the average per capita consumption only about 2.6 litres in 1966. The high price of imported wines probably prevented New Zealanders from developing a taste for wine, although it did help sales of local vintages. The quality of these wines slowly improved, with New Zealand wines winning three gold and 13 silver medals at the International Wine Fair in 1963. Aided by the deregulation of the economy in the 1980s and 1990s, domestic wine consumption increased and New Zealand wine won increasing accolades internationally."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of wine-producing regions",
        "text": "GI stands for New Zealand Geographical Indication."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aristotelia serrata",
        "text": "Aristotelia serrata, commonly known as wineberry or in the M\u0101ori language makomako or just mako, is a small tree in the family Elaeocarpaceae, in the genus \"Aristotelia\", found in the North Island, South Island and Stewart Island of New Zealand."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "Alcoholic beverages were made by indigenous peoples of the Americas before the Age of Discovery. Indigenous peoples are known to have used maize, potatoes, quinoa, pepper tree fruits and strawberries to make alcoholic beverages. Despite the existence of species of the genus \"Vitis\" (to which \"Vitis vinifera\" belongs) in Venezuela, Colombia, Central America and Mexico, indigenous peoples did not ferment these species and therefore did not make wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "This pervasive use of stainless steel had a distinctive effect on both New Zealand wine styles and the domestic palate. The early wines, which made a stir internationally, were lauded for the intensity and purity of the fruit in the wine. Indeed, the strength of flavour in the wine accommodated very dry styles, despite intense acidity. While stainless steel did not produce the intensity of fruit, it allowed for its exploitation. Even today, New Zealand white wines tend toward the drier end of the spectrum."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Although the Gisborne GI established in October 2017 covers most of the East Cape Gisborne District, most of the of vineyard area in 2020 is concentrated in a relatively small area around Gisborne city. The fertile Gisborne region originally grew prodigious grape yields throughout the mid-20th Century, which was mostly used to make fortified and cask wines. In the 1980s, a shift away from cask wine for better quality, bottled still wine meant that huge areas of bulk varieties, most notably M\u00fcller-Thurgau, were uprooted and replaced with Chardonnay and Gew\u00fcrztraminer, for which the region is well known today. It is also the world's most easterly vine-producing region."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Auckland Geographical Indication is a small region, with a vineyard area in 2020 of and lies around New Zealand's largest city. The region produces some of New Zealand's finest Chardonnay white wines, which is the most planted variety, followed by the Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc and Malbec that produce Auckland's well regarded red Bordeaux-style wines. Soils are usually heavy clay, or small areas of volcanic-derived soils, and it is the warmest of New Zealand's vine-growing areas. There are three sub-regions within Auckland: Waiheke Island, Kumeu, and Matakana. In recent years, the hotter temperatures are allowing Auckland winemakers (for example Omaha Bay, Cooper's Creek, Heron's Flight, Matavino, and Obsidian) to experiment with Italian and Spanish grape varieties, such as Albari\u00f1o, Montepulciano, Sangiovese, Dolcetto, Temperanillo, and even Nebbiolo."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Hawke's Bay is New Zealand's oldest and second-largest wine region, and includes the Gimblett Gravels, Bridge Pa Triangle and Te Mata Special Character Zone sub-regions. It is best known for its Merlot and Syrah red wines, and white wines mainly from Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc and Viognier."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "There are 10 major wine-producing areas in New Zealand, with Marlborough famed for its sauvignon blanc, Gisborne for its chardonnay, and Central Otago and Martinborough building a reputation for pinot noir and pinot gris. Hawkes Bay is known for its bold cabernets and Auckland's Waiheke Island is home to one of the top 20 cabernet blends in the world. Marlborough and Hawkes Bay are New Zealand's two premium wine-growing regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcohol in New Zealand",
        "text": "In the 1980s, wineries in New Zealand, especially in the Marlborough region, began producing outstanding, some critics said unforgettable, Sauvignon blanc. \"New Zealand Sauvignon blanc is like a child who inherits the best of both parents\u2014exotic aromas found in certain Sauvignon blancs from the New World and the pungency and limy acidity of an Old World Sauvignon blanc like Sancerre from the Loire Valley\" (Oldman, p.\u00a0152). One critic said that drinking one's first New Zealand Sauvignon blanc was like having sex for the first time (Taber, p.\u00a0244). \"No other region in the world can match Marlborough, the northeastern corner of New Zealand's South Island, which seems to be the best place in the world to grow Sauvignon blanc grapes\" (Taber, p.\u00a0244)."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand's winemakers employ a variety of production techniques. The traditional concept of a vineyard, where grapes are grown on the land surrounding a central simply owned or family-owned estate with its own discrete viticultural and winemaking equipment and storage, is only one model. While the European cooperative model (where district or AOC village winemaking takes place in a centralized production facility) is uncommon, contract growing of fruit for winemakers has been a feature of the New Zealand industry since the start of the winemaking boom in the 1970s. Indeed, many well-known producers began as contract growers."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand Winegrowers",
        "text": "In the early 2000s significant overlaps in mandate and operations were identified in two former national organisations: the Wine Institute of New Zealand, established in 1975, and the New Zealand Grape Growers Council. These organisations were merged in 2002 to become a single organisation, New Zealand Winegrowers, which was finally incorporated in 2016. New Zealand Winegrowers in its 2017 annual report set a target of $2 billion NZD of export revenue by 2020. It believes this can be achieved due to New Zealand's reputation internationally for high quality wines with a higher per-unit price, and the continuing rapid growth of vineyard planting area in New Zealand, from in 1997 to in 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "Various grapes were tried in the early years, but it was in the 1980s that New Zealand developed the distinctive style of Sauvignon blanc that became its trademark. Since then the Burgundy grapes of Chardonnay and Pinot noir have been developed in cooler, more southerly vineyards, with considerable success. More recently there has been increasing popularity for the 'aromatic' white varieties such as Gew\u00fcrztraminer and Riesling, with Auslese styles also being attempted."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "New World wine\n--History.\n----Early wines in the Americas.\n----Changes in the Americas and opening of South Africa.\n----New World wines in the Industrial Age.\n----20th century.\n--Characteristics of New World wines.\n----Style.\n----Varietal labelling.\n----Marketing.\n----Ownership.\n--Wine-making countries.\n----Argentina.\n----Australia.\n----Canada.\n----Chile.\n----Colombia.\n----Mexico.\n----New Zealand.\n----Peru.\n----South Africa.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "New Zealand's newest winegrowing region is on the border of Otago and Canterbury. The Waitaki Valley GI is defined as the southern bank of the Waitaki River up to elevation, along a narrow strip of approximately between the towns of Duntroon and Omarama. The area contains north-facing limestone hillsides and escarpments, and Burgundy-like limestone alluvial soils. The climate is a combination of the cool, maritime influence from the Pacific Ocean and the warm, dry summer and autumn weather in the rain shadow of the Southern Alps. In a good year, the warm summer and long dry autumn in the Waitaki Valley can produce one of the longest growing seasons in New Zealand. The grapes reach full ripeness and produce complex, well-balanced wine. However, the weather year-to-year is so variable and frost-susceptible that some years have been simply too cold to produce a reliable harvest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nikola Nobilo",
        "text": "Nobilo and his family arrived in New Zealand in 1937 and settled in Huapai, west of the city of Auckland. They began planting grapes in Huapai in 1943. Gradually the Nobilos led New Zealand's wine industry away from hybrid grapes to an emphasis on classic grape varieties which produce higher quality wines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Otago wine region",
        "text": "Starting in the 1950s, and up through the end of the 1970s, small-scale trial plantings of vines began again both by private individuals and under the auspices of the New Zealand Department of Agriculture. By 1980 sufficient experience and confidence had been gained for small-scale commercial plantings to be made."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Kawarau valley has a thin and patchy topsoil over a bedrock that is schist. Early growers blasted holes into the bare rock of north-facing slopes with miners' caps to provide planting holes for the vines. These conditions necessitate irrigation and make the vines work hard for nutrients. Irrigation, low cropping techniques, and the thermal effect of the rock produces great intensity for the grapes and subsequent wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "Although wine is made throughout the United States, 90% of it comes from California. The Gallo Winery runs an industrial facility in Modesto, California that produces the majority of the state's wine exports. Most of the rest is split between Washington state and New York state, followed by Oregon. California's earliest grape vines were imported from \"New Spain\", or Mexico, which in turn were brought by Spanish explorers and settlers. North America has several native species of \"Vitis\", from which wine has been made for a long time in the east of the country, although the 'foxy' aromas of wines produced from these species are not to everyone's taste. The Catawba variety led the way for winemaking from native species, first in Ohio and later in the Finger Lakes area of New York. California followed a similar path to Latin American countries, with Spanish missionaries starting the first vineyard of \"vinifera\" vines in 1769, and later immigrants from Bordeaux and Italy bringing their native grapes with them. Soon a thriving industry developed, particularly in the Napa Valley, which was stopped in its tracks by phylloxera and, uniquely, Prohibition (1920\u20131933)."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Typically, these Bordeaux blends come from the hotter and drier regions of New Zealand, largely in the Hawke's Bay Region. Wines that typify the best of Hawke's Bay include Elephant Hill's Airavata, Te Mata Estate's Coleraine, Craggy Range's Sophia, Newton Forrest Estate's Cornerstone, Esk Valley's The Terraces and Villa Maria's Reserve Merlot and Cabernet. Waiheke Island, whilst a very small viticultural region, also produces acclaimed red wines like the Larose from Stonyridge, the Dreadnought and Ironclad from Man O' War, wines from Destiny Bay, and Goldie Estate. In Marlborough, Hans Herzog Estate is famous for making the Spirit of Marlborough, and examples of Bordeaux blends can be found as far south as Waipara, where the Maestro from Pegasus Bay also demonstrates the shift from Cabernet Sauvignon to Merlot predominant blends."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Waipara, in Canterbury, represents another soil type. The Omihi Hills, part of the Torlesse group of limestone deposits, are located here. Viticulturists have planted Pinot Noir here because of the French experience of the affinity between the grape type and the chalky soil on the C\u00f4te-d'Or. Even the greywacke alluvial soils in the Waipara valley floor have a higher calcium carbonate concentration than the C\u00f4te-d'Or, indicated by the milky water that flows in the Waipara River."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cabernet Sauvignon",
        "text": "In New Zealand, climate has been a challenge in finding wine regions suitable for producing Cabernet Sauvignon. Most of the industry focus has centered on the North Island. The Hawkes Bay region was the first to make a significant effort in producing Cabernet Sauvignon but the cool climate of the region, coupled with the high yields and fertile alluvial soils, produced wines that were still marked with aggressive green and vegetal flavors. Added focus on canopy management, which gives the grapes more sunlight to ripen by removing excess foliage, and low vigor rootstock and pruning combine to achieve lower yields and have started to produce better results. The grape is sometimes blended with Merlot to help compensate for climate and \"terroir\". Other regions in New Zealand have sprung up with a renewed focus on producing distinctive New Zealand Cabernet Sauvignon: The Gimblett Road and Havelock North regions of Hawkes Bay, with their warm gravel soils, have started to achieve notice as well as Waiheke Island near Auckland. Overall the grape lags far behind Pinot noir in New Zealand's red wine grape plantings."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of wine",
        "text": "In the context of wine, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and other countries without a wine tradition are considered New World producers. Wine production began in the Cape Province of what is now South Africa in the 1680s as a business for supplying ships. Australia's First Fleet (1788) brought cuttings of vines from South Africa, although initial plantings failed and the first successful vineyards were established in the early 19th century. Until quite late in the 20th century, the product of these countries was not well known outside their small export markets. For example, Australia exported mainly to the United Kingdom; New Zealand retained most of its wine for domestic consumption, and South Africa exported to the Kings of Europe. However, with the increase in mechanization and scientific advances in winemaking, these countries became known for high-quality wine. A notable exception to the foregoing is that the Cape Province was the largest exporter of wine to Europe in the 18th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ripogonum scandens",
        "text": "Found in the North and South islands of New Zealand as well as a few offshore islands including Stewart and Chatham Islands. \"R. scandens\" is mainly present is lowland and mountainous forests dominated by hardwood and podocarp throughout the North island. \"Ripogonum scandens\" is not found on the Three Kings Islands and on the Poor knights Islands. It occurs infrequently in the Hawke\u2019s Bay only in old coastal forests. It is found at altitudes in the North Island of up to 900m in the Kapamahunga range. In the South Island of New Zealand \"Ripogonum scandens\" does not tend to seep into the forests, instead staying on the seaward facing ranges. Throughout Marlborough, Canterbury and Otago the occurrence of \u00a0\"R. scandens\" is found sparingly in relics of old forests and mainly found on peninsulas such as Kaikoura, Banks and Otago. The supplejack vine is abundant on the western coast of the South Island."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in New Zealand",
        "text": "Seeds and flowers are primailry grown in Canterbury, Auckland, Otago and Southland. In 2019, New Zealand exported $90 million of seeds, $43 million of bulbs and live plants, and $20 million of cut flowers."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The late 1970s were early in the modern wine industry, and the comparatively low annual sunshine hours to be found in New Zealand discouraged the planting of red varieties. Despite this, some held great hopes for Pinot Noir. Initial results were mixed because of limited access to good clones, yet the Saint Helena 1984 Pinot Noir was notable enough that the Canterbury region was thought to become the New Zealand home for Pinot Noir. While the early excitement passed, the Canterbury region has witnessed the development of Pinot Noir as the dominant red variety, particularly in the now dominant Waipara sub-region. Producers include Waipara Hills, Pegasus Bay, Waipara Springs, Muddy Water, Greystone, Omihi Hills and Black Estate."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Chardonnay is produced as far south as Central Otago, but plantings increase moving further north. There is little discernible difference in styles of Chardonnay between the New Zealand wine regions; individual winemakers' recipes, use of oak, and the particular qualities of a vintage have tended to blur any distinction of terroir. Almost every region is represented among the most highly rated New Zealand Chardonnays, which include wines from Kumeu River Estate (Kumeu), Church Road, Clearview, Sacred Hill, Villa Maria and Te Mata Estate (Hawke's Bay), Ata Rangi (Martinborough), Fromm (Marlborough), Neudorf (Nelson), Millton Estate (Gisborne). Although Chardonnay may be less fashionable than it was ten years ago (it has declined in vineyard area in the last ten years, losing ground to Pinot Gris), winemakers in 2016 reported strong sales and a recent upswing. It also commands higher prices than any other New Zealand white wine variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wine humour",
        "text": "The New Zealand producer Cooper's Creek produces a Sauvignon blanc called \"Cat's Pee on a Gooseberry Bush\" which has sold well throughout the world. This phrase to describe the distinctive taste of the New Zealand wines made from this grape variety was first coined by wine critic, Oz Clarke. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, which controls the import of alcoholic drinks into the US, insisted that the name should be changed to \"Cat's Phee on a Gooseberry Bush\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The region is young; the first plantings were in the early 2000s, and the local wine growers' association was formed in 2005. The 2008 global financial crisis hit just as initial interest in the area was growing, and poor initial vintages and remoteness from tourism further troubled some producers, a number of whom pulled out of the area altogether. Those that remain have been rapidly growing a reputation for the quality and individuality for the region's mainly Pinot Noir, Pinot Gris, Riesling, Chardonnay and Gew\u00fcrztraminer wines. The Pinot Noir, in particular, is proving to express a distinctive terroir, different in character from other regions of New Zealand, and more restrained and delicate than Central Otago Pinot Noir."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcohol in New Zealand",
        "text": "In the 1970s, Montana in Marlborough started producing wines which were labelled by year of production (vintage) and grape variety (in the style of wine producers in Australia). The first production of a Sauvignon blanc of great note appears to have occurred in 1977. Also produced in that year were superior quality wines of Muller Thurgau, Riesling and Pinotage."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World wine",
        "text": "The New Zealand viticulture industry was started in a small way by Croatian immigrants at the end of the 19th century, but it was not until the 1970s that it began to flourish. Several factors came together at that time - Britain's entry into the European Economic Community in 1973 ended favourable terms of agricultural trade, while New Zealanders themselves developed a taste for wine as local alcohol licensing laws changed and cheap air travel exposed them to different cultures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ugni molinae",
        "text": "The fruit is cultivated to a small extent. The usage of the fruit in cuisine is limited to southern Chile where it grows natively as well as in small-scale commercial agriculture in New Zealand. It is used to make the traditional liqueur Murtado that is made of aguardiente and sugar flavoured by conserving \"murtas\" inside the bottle. It is also used to make jam and the murta con membrillo dessert and in Kuchen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinot gris",
        "text": "The total area cultivated by this vine worldwide is about 15,000 hectares.\n* Argentina \u2013 San Juan and Mendoza\n* Australia \u2013 Tasmania, Yarra Valley, Adelaide Hills, Orange, New South Wales, Mornington Peninsula, Canberra Region. 2,836 hectares ().\n* Austria \u2013 300 hectares or 0.6% of the total wine growing area.\n* Canada \u2013 British Columbia, Ontario\n* Chile \u2013 Casablanca, Chile\n* Czech Republic \u2013 Bohemia, Moravia\n* France \u2013 Burgundy, Loire, Alsace. 2,582 hectares ().\n* Germany \u2013 Baden, Palatinate. 5,042 hectares or 4.9% of the wine growing area ().\n* Hungary \u2013 Badacsony, M\u00e1traalja\n* Italy \u2013 Alto Adige, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Oltrep\u00f2 Pavese, Rover\u00e8 della Luna, Trentino\n* Luxembourg\n* Moldova\n* New Zealand \u2013 2,488 hectares (). In 2003, the area was only 316 hectares.\n* Romania \u2013 Constan\u021ba County, Jidvei\n* South Africa\n* Slovakia \u2013 about 285 hectares\n* Slovenia \u2013 Primorska, Podravje\n* Switzerland \u2013 Valais. About 214 hectares ().\n* Turkey \u2013 Thrace Region, K\u0131rklareli, Arcadia Vineyards\n* Ukraine \u2013 Crimea\n* United States \u2013 Oregon, California, New Mexico, Idaho, Michigan, Ohio, Arizona, Virginia, New Jersey, Washington, and New York"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Pinot Gris emerged in the early 2000s from almost nowhere to the country's fourth most planted variety in 2017, having overtaken Riesling in 2007. It is planted mostly in Marlborough, Hawke's Bay and Gisborne, with the remainder in the South Island. Some of the initial plantings of Pinot Gris were identified later as Flora; indeed, some Auckland winemakers have incorporated this mishap into their Flora wine names, such as \"The Rogue\" from Ascension and \"The Impostor\" from Omaha Bay Vineyards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canterbury, New Zealand",
        "text": "The region's viticulture industry was established by French settlers in Akaroa. Since then, wine-growing is concentrated into two regions: Waipara and Burnham. Recently there have been vintages from plantings from Kurow further to the south. White wine has typically predominated in Canterbury from Riesling, Sauvignon blanc, Chardonnay, Gew\u00fcrztraminer, and to a lesser extent Pinot blanc and Pinot gris. Pinot noir has had some success in the province particularly in Waipara."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aristotelia fruticosa",
        "text": "Aristotelia fruticosa, the mountain wineberry or shrubby wineberry, is a tree-shrub from New Zealand, in the family Elaeocarpaceae. It grows up to 2 m in a densely branching and divaricating form."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World",
        "text": "In wine terminology, \"New World\" uses a particular definition. \"New World wines\" include not only North American and South American wines, but also those from South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and all other locations outside the traditional wine-growing regions of Europe, North Africa and the Near East. The usefulness of therms for wines though have been questioned as arbitrary and too generalized."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand Winegrowers",
        "text": "New Zealand Winegrowers\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "By the 1980s, wineries in New Zealand, especially in the Marlborough region, were producing outstanding Sauvignon Blanc. It was in 1985 that the Sauvignon Blanc from Cloudy Bay Vineyards finally garnered international attention and critical acclaim for New Zealand wine. Wine writer George Taber recounts Cloudy Bay is \"what many people consider to be the world's best Sauvignon Blanc\". New Zealand's reputation is now well established; Oz Clarke wrote New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc was \"arguably the best in the world\", and Mark Oldman wrote \"New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc is like a child who inherits the best of both parents\u2014exotic aromas found in\u00a0... the New World and the pungency and limy acidity of an Old World Sauvignon Blanc like Sancerre.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Viognier",
        "text": "Viognier\n--History.\n--Viticulture.\n--Regional production.\n----France.\n----North America.\n----South America.\n----Australia.\n----New Zealand.\n--Wine.\n--Food pairing.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawke's Bay wine region",
        "text": "The Hawke's Bay wine region is New Zealand's oldest and second-largest wine-production region, on the east coast of the North Island. Production reached 41,000 tonnes in 2018 from of planted vines, representing 10.2% of total national production. Some of the oldest wineries still operating in New Zealand, including Te Mata Estate, Church Road, and Mission Estate, were established in the Hawke's Bay area in the late 19th century. Despite this, it was only established as a geographical indication (GI) in 2018. The GI protects any wine produced within the boundaries of the entire Hawke's Bay Region, but in practice the vineyards are chiefly concentrated in the plains and low hills surrounding the cities of Napier and Hastings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange, New South Wales",
        "text": "Wineries that use Orange region grapes in their wines include Brokenwood Wines (Hunter Valley based), Logan (Mudgee), Tamburlaine (Hunter Valley), Gartelmann (Hunter Valley), Windowrie (Central Ranges), Eloquesta Wines (Mudgee) and Lowe Wines (Mudgee). In 2007, South Australian based Penfolds winery released the 2007 Penfolds Bin 311 Orange Region Chardonnay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kerikeri",
        "text": "Kerikeri was the first place in New Zealand where grape vines were planted. Samuel Marsden planted 100 vines on 25 September 1819 and noted in his journal that New Zealand promised to be very favourable to the vine. In the same year Charlotte Kemp planted the first citrus, and New Zealand's first commercial plantings of passionfruit were established in 1927, and about 1932 the country's first avocados were planted. The plough was first used in New Zealand at Kerikeri, by Rev. J. G. Butler, on 3 May 1820."
      },
      {
        "title": "Merlot",
        "text": "In New Zealand, plantings of Merlot have increased in the Hawke's Bay region, particularly in Gimblett Gravels where the grape has shown the ability to produce Bordeaux-style wine. The grape has been growing in favor among New Zealand producers due to its ability to ripen better, with less green flavors, than Cabernet Sauvignon. Other regions with significant plantings include Auckland, Marlborough and Martinborough. In 2008, Merlot was the second most widely red grape variety (after Pinot noir) in New Zealand and accounted for nearly 5% of all the country's plantings with in cultivation."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The Wairarapa winegrowing region, a Geographical Indication since October 2017, is one of New Zealand's smallest. It contains two GI sub-regions, Gladstone and Martinborough, as well as Masterton and Opaki. Martinborough was the original area planted on the basis of careful scientific study in the 1970s, which identified its soils and climate as perfectly suited to the cultivation of Pinot Noir. As a consequence, many of the vineyards established there are older than their counterparts in the rest of the Wairarapa. In general, the area lies in the rain shadow of the Tararua Range, which gives it a warm climate with relatively low rainfall. Subtle differences are seen in the wines from the South Wairarapa (which includes Martinborough), which has more maritime influences, to those grown farther north in Gladstone and Masterton."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baco blanc",
        "text": "But since the mid to late 20th century, the grape variety has fallen out of favor among French wine producers who are continuing pulling up their hybrid grapes and returning to \"vinifera\"-only plantings (which are permitted for \"Appellation d'Origine Contr\u00f4l\u00e9e\" AOC wines). Even in its Armagnac stronghold, Baco blanc vines are being uprooted and replanted with Ugni blanc. Similarly, Baco blanc experienced a brief period of popularity in the emerging New Zealand wine industry during the 20th century but as that century drew to a close, New Zealand producers also turned away from the variety to concentrate on \"vinifera\" grapes such as M\u00fcller-Thurgau, Chardonnay and Sauvignon blanc. Today, what little Baco blanc is left in New Zealand is used primarily for distillations and spirits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian wine",
        "text": "This blend originated from those used in some Southern Rh\u00f4ne wines, including Ch\u00e2teauneuf-du-Pape, though it is also found in South Australia, California (particularly Paso Robles, originating with Tablas Creek Vineyard), and Washington (Columbia Valley); smaller production exists in Argentina and South Africa. A very similar blend is traditional to Priorat (in Catalonia, Spain), still based on Garnacha (Grenache), but adding Mazuelo (Carignan), Syrah, and Merlot (same GS, different M's)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sauvignon blanc",
        "text": "In the 1990s, Sauvignon blanc wines from the maritime climatic regions of New Zealand, particularly the South Island, became popular on the wine market. In the Marlborough wine region, sandy soils over slate shingles have become the most desirable locations for plantings due to the good drainage of the soil and poor fertility that encourages the vine to concentrate its flavors in lower yields. In the flood plain of the Wairau River Valley, the soil runs in east-west bands across the area. This can create a wide diversity of flavors for vineyards that are planted north-south with the heavier soils producing more herbaceous wines from grapes that ripen late and vines planted in stonier soils ripening earlier and imparting more lush and tropical flavors. It is this difference in soils, and the types of harvest time decisions that wine producers must make, that add a unique element to New Zealand Sauvignon blanc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aurore (grape)",
        "text": "While Aurore originated in France and in the early 20th century had around 288 hectares (712 acres) planted in the northeastern reaches of the country and in the southwest, today it is hardly found in France. Outside France it is found in several states in the United States (most notably the cool-climate states of Minnesota, New York, New Hampshire and Nebraska). In 2009, wine producers in New York crushed 3,530 tons of the Aurore for both blended and varietal white wine. In New Hampshire, Jewell Towne Vineyards is noted for producing an Aurore varietal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fruit wine",
        "text": "Fruit wines have traditionally been popular with home winemakers and in areas with cool climates such as North America and Scandinavia. In subtropical climates, such as in East Africa, India, and the Philippines, wine is made from bananas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Passiflora tetrandra",
        "text": "Passiflora tetrandra is a climbing vine found in New Zealand. The M\u0101ori name for the plant is k\u014dhia. Other common names include New Zealand passionflower and New Zealand passionfruit. Of the c.500 species of passionflower, this is the sole representative from New Zealand and endemic to New Zealand."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of wine-producing regions",
        "text": "List of wine-producing regions\n--Countries.\n--Europe.\n----Romania.\n----Ukraine.\n----United Kingdom.\n--Asia.\n----China.\n----Indonesia.\n----Iran.\n----Israel.\n--Oceania.\n----Australia.\n------South Australia.\n----New Zealand.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hemiandrus bilobatus",
        "text": "Hemiandrus bilobatus, the wine w\u0113t\u0101 (or Cook Strait ground weta), is a species of ground weta endemic to New Zealand. Being a ground weta, they are often found in burrows in the ground during the daytime (as they are nocturnal). The species is found in Wellington, on Mana Island and northern South Island and is classified as \"Not Threatened\". This species of weta is unusual for an insect in that the female shows maternal care. She lays about 50 eggs in the same burrow she uses during the day and looks after her eggs until they hatch."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Today, New Zealand's wine industry is highly successful in the international market. New Zealand Winegrowers reported in 2020 that export sales had risen to a record NZ$1.92 billion, with a goal to achieve NZ$2 billion and become a top five export industry. To meet the increasing demand for its wines, the entire country's vineyard plantings grew from in 1997 to in 2017. This more than five-fold increase in vineyard area over just two decades has led to a similar increase in sales and export revenue. In 2008, \"The Economist\" reported that for the first time, wine overtook wool to become New Zealand's 12th most valuable export at NZ$760 million, up from only NZ$94 million just a decade earlier in 1997. The industry sold one billion glasses of wine in nearly 100 countries, and over 10% of the wine sold in Britain for more than \u00a35 was from New Zealand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waikato",
        "text": "The north of the region around Te Kauwhata produces some of New Zealand's best wines. Dozens of small shallow lakes lie in this area, the largest of which is Lake Waikare."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "Another example of the adaptation of NZ methods toward the new industry was the universal use of stainless steel in winemaking adapted from the norms and standards of the New Zealand dairy industry. There was an existing small-scale industrial infrastructure ready for winemakers to employ economically. While current winemaking technology is almost universally sterile and hygienic worldwide, the natural antibiotic properties of alcohol production were more heavily relied upon in the 1970s when the New Zealand wine industry started."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mary Penfold",
        "text": "The article also indicates the \"large market for her wines in Victoria, Tasmania, and New Zealand\" and even India"
      },
      {
        "title": "New South Wales wine",
        "text": "New South Wales wine is Australian wine produced in New South Wales, Australia. New South Wales is Australia's most populous state and its wine consumption far outpaces the region's wine production. The Hunter Valley, located north of Sydney, is the most well-known wine region but the majority of the state's production takes place in the Big Rivers zone-Perricoota, Riverina and along the Darling and Murray Rivers. The wines produced from the Big Rivers zone are largely used in box wine and mass-produced wine brands such as Yellow Tail. A large variety of grapes are grown in New South Wales, including Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Shiraz and S\u00e9millon."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand wine",
        "text": "The next region to excel with Pinot Noir was Martinborough, east of Wellington in the Wairarapa region. Several vineyards, including Palliser Estate, Martinborough Vineyards, Murdoch James Estate (now Luna Estate) and Ata Rangi consistently produced interesting and increasingly complex wine from Pinot Noir at the end of the 1980s and into the 1990s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arneis",
        "text": "In the United States, Arneis is mostly found in California wine region of Sonoma County and the Oregon wine region of the Willamette Valley. Other American Viticultural Areas with some plantings of the grape include the Mendocino, Russian River Valley, Paicines and Santa Ynez Valley AVAs. It is also being grown in Willcox, Arizona. In the 21st century, plantings of Arneis have begun appearing the Australian wine regions of Tasmania, Victoria and New South Wales as well as the New Zealand wine region of Gisborne in the North Island."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in New Zealand",
        "text": "Fruit growing occupies around of land as of 2017. The largest crops by planted area are wine grapes (33,980\u00a0ha), kiwifruit (11,700\u00a0ha), apples (8,620\u00a0ha), avocadoes (3,980\u00a0ha), berries (2,320\u00a0ha), and stone fruit (2,140\u00a0ha)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wine",
        "text": "New World wines\u2014those made outside the traditional wine regions of Europe\u2014are usually classified by grape rather than by \"terroir\" or region of origin, although there have been unofficial attempts to classify them by quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cloudy Bay Vineyards",
        "text": "The winery is primarily noted for its Sauvignon Blanc wines, the first New Zealand wines to be exported in the 1980s, and still represent the majority of its production. The \u201cTe Koko\u201d Sauvignon Blanc is a wild-ferment, barrel-aged version that contrasts with the fruit-driven unoaked style of the original. The winery also produces Chardonnay, the \u201cPelorus\u201d sparkling and its \u201cTe Wahi\u201d Pinot Noir from Central Otago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Te Kauwhata",
        "text": "Te Kauwhata lies at the centre of one of New Zealand's smaller wine-producing regions, which stretches from Pukekohe, just south of Auckland, across to Thames and Paeroa at the foot of the Coromandel Peninsula. The region is particularly notable for its Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay and Sauvignon blanc wines."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Besides Sauvinon Blanc, Pinot Noir, and Martinboroguh, are there any other types of wine produced?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you asking about the production of other types of French wine, White wine, or Red wine?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the production of red wine."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Much of the red wine production process involves extraction of color and flavor components from the grape skin.There are several steps including grape processing, inoculation and fermentation, and filtration and bottling."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Now, I want to know what are the wine regions of New Zealand."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are several distinct winegrowing regions in New Zealand, with some examples being Northland, Hawke's Bay, and Nelson. Would you like to know more about one of these?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me more about the wine region of Northland."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Northland is the most northerly wine region where Chardonnay is the most planted variety, but is most well known for ripe Syrah red wines, and white wines from Pinot Gris, which together comprise the top three planted varieties. The soils and climate result in high vine productivity, so the yields need to be limited to ensure better quality wines; consequently, Northland tends to produce ripe wines, with low acidity."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does New Zealand use any flower to make wine ?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I was not able to find any information concerning New Zealand and flower wine, but I did find that there is an indigenous flower wine used in the Indian states of Odisha and Jharkhand."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me more about how that flower is used to make the wine found in those two states?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Tribal people of Bastar in Chattishgarh and Western & Northern part of Odisha, Santhals of Jharkhand and Tribal people of North Maharashtra, consider the tree and the Mahua drink as part of their cultural heritage. Mahua  flowers are fermented to produce the alcoholic drink mahua, a country liquor; wine prepared from Madh\u016bka flowers (Madhuca longifolia) finds mention in several Hindu and Buddhist literature works.",
      "Mahuli is a flower wine prepared from the Mahula flower made by Tribals in Odisha, Jharkhand. The flowers of the Mahula flowers are the main ingredient that's fermented to make Mahuli."
    ],
    "topic": "New Zealand wine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Madhuca longifolia:7",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Madhuca longifolia",
          "Mahua Flowers"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mahua flowers are rich in total sugars, out of which reducing sugar are present in high amount. The flowers are also fermented to produce the alcoholic drink \"mahua\", a country liquor. Tribals of Surguja and Bastar in Chhattisgarh and peoples of Western Orissa, Santhals of Santhal Paraganas (Jharkhand), Koya tribals of North-East Andhra Pradesh, Bhil tribals in western Madhya Pradesh and tribals of North Maharashtra consider the tree and the \"mahua\" drink as part of their cultural heritage. \"Mahua\" is an essential drink for tribal men and women during celebrations."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Madhuca longifolia:12",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Madhuca longifolia",
          "Literature"
        ],
        "ctx": "Wine prepared from \"Madh\u016bka\" flowers (Madhuca longifolia) finds mention in several Hindu and Buddhist literature works."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Mahuli (wine):2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mahuli (wine)",
          "Origins"
        ],
        "ctx": "Tribal people of Bastar in Chattishgarh and Western & Northern part of Odisha, Santhals of Jharkhand and Tribal people of North Maharashtra, consider the tree and the Mahua drink as part of their cultural heritage. It is an obligatory item during celebration and evening activities."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Mahuli (wine):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mahuli (wine)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mahuli (Odia : \u0b2e\u0b39\u0b41\u0b32\u0b3f) is a flower wine used by Tribals in Odisha, Jharkhand. Its prepared from the Mahula (\u0b2e\u0b39\u0b41\u0b32) flower. Mahuli wine is an indigenous drink also called Mahuwa."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Mahuli (wine):3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mahuli (wine)",
          "Preparation"
        ],
        "ctx": "The flowers of the Mahula tree are the main ingredient used for preparation. The flowers are fermented to make Mahuli. Pure Mahuli is almost transparent and has a distinct, easily identified smell. Alcohol content in pure Mahuli is about 25-45% depending on the number of distillation processes it has gone through. Mahuli is strong in the drink. Indigenous people usually take it raw. It can be used to make cocktails or mixed with water to dilute it."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood drying (also seasoning lumber or wood seasoning) reduces the moisture content of wood before its use. When the drying is done in a kiln, the product is known as kiln-dried timber or lumber, whereas air drying is the more traditional method."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "A variety of wood drying kiln technologies exist today: conventional, dehumidification, solar, vacuum and radio frequency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Air drying is the drying of timber by exposing it to the air. The technique of air drying consists mainly of making a stack of sawn timber (with the layers of boards separated by stickers) on raised foundations, in a clean, cool, dry and shady place. Rate of drying largely depends on climatic conditions, and on the air movement (exposure to the wind). For successful air drying, a continuous and uniform flow of air throughout the pile of the timber needs to be arranged (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The process of artificial or 'oven' drying consists basically of introducing heat. This may be directly, using natural gas and/or electricity or indirectly, through steam-heated heat exchangers. Solar energy is also an option. In the process, deliberate control of temperature, relative humidity and air circulation creates variable conditions to achieve specific drying profiles. To achieve this, the timber is stacked in chambers, which are fitted with equipment to control atmospheric temperature, relative humidity and circulation rate (Walker \"et al.', 1993; Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The successful control of drying defects in a drying process consists in maintaining a balance between the rate of evaporation of moisture from the surface and the rate of outward movement of moisture from the interior of the wood. The way in which drying can be controlled will now be explained. One of the most successful ways of wood drying or seasoning would be kiln drying, where the wood is placed into a kiln compartment in stacks and dried by steaming, and releasing the steam slowly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Broadly, there are two methods by which timber can be dried:\n* natural drying or air drying\n* artificial drying"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Water in wood normally moves from zones of higher to zones of lower moisture content (Walker \"et al.\", 1993). Drying starts from the exterior of the wood and moves towards the centre, and drying at the outside is also necessary to expel moisture from the inner zones of the wood. Wood subsequently attains equilibrium with the surrounding air in moisture content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Submersion in boiling water or the application of steam speed the drying of wood. This method is said to cause less shrinkage \"\u2026 but it is expensive to use, and reduces the strength and elasticity of the timber.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood is air-dried or dried in a purpose built oven (kiln). Usually the wood is sawn before drying, but sometimes the log is dried whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Conventional wood dry kilns (Rasmussen, 1988) are either package-type (sideloader) or track-type (tram) construction. Most hardwood lumber kilns are sideloader kilns in which fork trucks are used to load lumber packages into the kiln. Most softwood lumber kilns are track types in which lumber packages are loaded on kiln/track cars for loading the kiln."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Compartment-type kilns are most commonly used in timber companies. A compartment kiln is filled with a static batch of timber through which air is circulated. In these types of kiln, the timber remains stationary. The drying conditions are successively varied according to the type of timber being dried. This drying method is well suited to the needs of timber companies, which have to dry timbers of varied species and thickness, including refractory hardwoods that are more liable than other species to check and split."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Electrical seasoning involves running an electric current through the lumber causing heat to build up drying the wood. This method is expensive but is fast and uniform quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "In 1949 a Chicago company introduced a wood drying kiln that used infrared lamps that they claimed reduced the standard drying time from 14 days to 45 minutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Heat is typically introduced via steam running through fin/tube heat exchangers controlled by on/off pneumatic valves. Less common are proportional pneumatic valves or even various electrical actuators. Humidity is removed via a system of vents, the specific layout of which are usually particular to a given manufacturer. In general, cool dry air is introduced at one end of the kiln while warm moist air is expelled at the other. Hardwood conventional kilns also require the introduction of humidity via either steam spray or cold water misting systems to keep the relative humidity inside the kiln from dropping too low during the drying cycle. Fan directions are typically reversed periodically to ensure even drying of larger kiln charges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood drying may be described as the art of ensuring that gross dimensional changes through shrinkage are confined to the drying process. Ideally, wood is dried to that equilibrium moisture content as will later (in service) be attained by the wood. Thus, further dimensional change will be kept to a minimum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood is divided, according to its botanical origin, into two kinds: softwoods, from coniferous trees, and hardwoods, from broad-leaved trees. Softwoods are lighter and generally simple in structure, whereas hardwoods are harder and more complex. However, in Australia, \"softwood\" generally describes rain forest trees, and \"hardwood\" describes Sclerophyll species (\"Eucalyptus\" \"spp\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Salt seasoning is the submersion of wood in a solution of urea, sodium nitrate, all of which act as dehydrating agents. Then the wood is air dried."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Significant advantages of conventional kiln drying include higher throughput and better control of the final moisture content. Conventional kilns and solar drying both enable wood to be dried to any moisture content regardless of weather conditions. For most large-scale drying operations solar and conventional kiln drying are more efficient than air drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "For some purposes, wood is not dried at all, and is used green. Often, wood must be in equilibrium with the air outside, as for construction wood, or the air indoors, as for wooden furniture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The rate at which wood dries depends upon a number of factors, the most important of which are the temperature, the dimensions of the wood, and the relative humidity. Simpson and Tschernitz have developed a simple model of wood drying as a function of these three variables. Although the analysis was done for red oak, the procedure may be applied to any species of wood by adjusting the constant parameters of the model."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water content",
        "text": "The oven-dry method requires drying a wood sample in a special oven or kiln and checking the sample weight at regular time intervals. When the drying process is complete, the sample\u2019s weight is compared to its weight before drying, and the difference is used to calculate the wood\u2019s original moisture content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Modern high-temperature, high-air-velocity conventional kilns can typically dry green lumber in 10 hours down to a moisture content of 18%. However, 1-inch-thick green Red Oak requires about 28 days to dry down to a moisture content of 8%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Newer wood drying technologies have included the use of reduced atmospheric pressure to attempt to speed up the drying process. A variety of vacuum technologies exist, varying primarily in the method heat is introduced into the wood charge. Hot water platten vacuum kilns use aluminum heating plates with the water circulating within as the heat source, and typically operate at significantly reduced absolute pressure. Discontinuous and SSV (super-heated steam) use atmosphere to introduce heat into the kiln charge. Discontinuous technology allows the entire kiln charge to come up to full atmospheric pressure, the air in the chamber is then heated, and finally vacuum is pulled. SSV run at partial atmospheres (typically around 1/3 of full atmospheric pressure) in a hybrid of vacuum and conventional kiln technology (SSV kilns are significantly more popular in Europe where the locally harvested wood is easier to dry versus species found in North America). RF/V (radio frequency + vacuum) kilns use microwave radiation to heat the kiln charge, and typically have the highest operating cost due to the heat of vaporization being provided by electricity rather than local fossil fuel or waste wood sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "As wood dries, evaporation of water from the surface sets up capillary forces that exert a pull on the free water in the zones of wood beneath the surfaces. When there is no longer any free water in the wood capillary forces are no longer of importance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The timber of living trees and fresh logs contains a large amount of water which often constitutes over 50% of the wood's weight. Water has a significant influence on wood. Wood continually exchanges moisture or water with its surroundings, although the rate of exchange is strongly affected by the degree to which wood is sealed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "While conventional drying uses warm, dry air to skim water off the surface, vacuum kilns can boil water from within the wood. This enables a good vacuum kiln to dry very thick wood very quickly. It is possible to dry 12/4 Red Oak fresh off the saw to 7% in 11 days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Differences in moisture content between the surface and the centre (gradient, the chemical potential difference between interface and bulk) move the bound water through the small passageways in the cell wall by diffusion. In comparison with capillary movement, diffusion is a slow process. Diffusion is the generally suggested mechanism for the drying of impermeable hardwoods (Keey \"et al.\", 2000). Furthermore, moisture migrates slowly due to the fact that extractives plug the small cell wall openings in the heartwood. This is why sapwood generally dries faster than heartwood under the same drying conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The chief difficulty experienced in the drying of timber is the tendency of its outer layers to dry out more rapidly than the interior ones. If these layers are allowed to dry much below the fibre saturation point while the interior is still saturated, stresses (called drying stresses) are set up because the shrinkage of the outer layers is restricted by the wet interior (Keey \"et al.\", 2000). Rupture in the wood tissues occurs, and consequently splits and cracks occur if these stresses across the grain exceed the strength across the grain (fibre to fibre bonding)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood retains its hygroscopic characteristics after it is put into use. It is then subjected to fluctuating humidity, the dominant factor in determining its EMC. These fluctuations may be more or less cyclical, such as diurnal changes or annual seasonal changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood-burning stove",
        "text": "The most common process of removing the excess moisture is called seasoning. Seasoning by air-drying the wood can take three years or more. Wood is dried in outdoor well-ventilated covered structures, or in a kiln."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "There are two main reasons for drying wood:\n; Woodworking:When wood is used as a construction material, whether as a structural support in a building or in woodworking objects, it will absorb or expel moisture until it is in equilibrium with its surroundings. Equilibration (usually drying) causes unequal shrinkage in the wood, and can cause damage to the wood if equilibration occurs too rapidly. The equilibration must be controlled to prevent damage to the wood.\n; Wood burning: When wood is burned (firewood), it is usually best to dry it first. Damage from shrinkage is not a problem here, as it may be in the case of drying for woodworking purposes. Moisture affects the burning process, with unburnt hydrocarbons going up the chimney. If a 50% wet log is burnt at high temperature, with good heat extraction from the exhaust gas leading to a 100\u00a0\u00b0C exhaust temperature, about 5% of the energy of the log is wasted through evaporating and heating the water vapour. With condensers, the efficiency can be further increased; but, for the normal stove, the key to burning wet wood is to burn it very hot, perhaps starting fire with dry wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Considering each of the factors, no one schedule is necessarily appropriate, even for similar loads of the same species. This is why there is so much timber drying research focused on the development of effective drying schedules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Many properties of wood show considerable change as the wood is dried below the fibre saturation point, including:\n# volume (ideally no shrinkage occurs until some bound water is lost, that is, until wood is dried below FSP);\n# strength (strengths generally increase consistently as the wood is dried below the FSP (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996), except for impact-bending strength and, in some cases, toughness);\n# electrical resistivity, which increases very rapidly with the loss of bound water when the wood dries below the FSP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood drying\n--Types of wood.\n--Wood\u2013water relationships.\n----Moisture content.\n----Fibre saturation point.\n----Equilibrium moisture content.\n----Moisture content of wood in service.\n----Shrinkage and swelling.\n----Mechanisms of moisture movement.\n------Moisture passageways.\n------Moisture movement space.\n----Driving forces for moisture movement.\n------Capillary action.\n------Moisture content differences.\n------Moisture movement directions for diffusion.\n----Reasons for splits and cracks during timber drying and their control.\n----Influence of temperature, relative humidity and rate of air circulation.\n----Classification of timbers for drying.\n----Model.\n--Methods of drying timber.\n----Air drying.\n----Kiln drying.\n------Kiln drying schedules.\n----Dehumidification kiln.\n----Vacuum kiln.\n----Solar kiln.\n----Water seasoning.\n----Boiling or steam seasoning.\n----Chemical or salt seasoning.\n----Electrical seasoning.\n----Freeze drying.\n--Drying defects.\n--Wood-drying kiln.\n--OSHA Standards regarding Dry Kiln Facilities.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "where formula_8 is a function of the temperature \"T\" and a typical wood dimension \"L\" and has units of time. The typical wood dimension is roughly the smallest value of (formula_9) which are the radial, tangential and longitudinal dimensions respectively, in inches, with the longitudinal dimension divided by ten because water diffuses about 10 times more rapidly in the longitudinal direction (along the grain) than in the lateral dimensions. The solution to the above equation is:\n:formula_10"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Since wood is dried with a vapor gradient - vapor pressure to ambient pressure - humidity can be kept very high. Because of this, a good vacuum kiln can dry 4.5\" thick White Oak fresh off the saw to 8% in less than a month. A feat that was previously thought to be impossible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Solar kilns are conventional kilns, typically built by hobbyists to keep initial investment costs low. Heat is provided via solar radiation, while internal air circulation is typically passive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "Drying produces a decided increase in the strength of wood, particularly in small specimens. An extreme example is the case of a completely dry spruce block 5\u00a0cm in section, which will sustain a permanent load four times as great as a green (undried) block of the same size will."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Dehumidification kilns are very similar to conventional kilns in basic construction. Drying times are usually comparable. Heat is primarily supplied by an integral dehumidification unit which also serves to remove humidity. Auxiliary heat is often provided early in the schedule where the heat required may exceed the heat generated by the DH unit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood is a hygroscopic substance. It has the ability to take in or give off moisture in the form of vapour. Water contained in wood exerts vapour pressure of its own, which is determined by the maximum size of the capillaries filled with water at any time. If water vapour pressure in the ambient space is lower than vapour pressure within wood, desorption takes place. The largest-sized capillaries, which are full of water at the time, empty first. Vapour pressure within the wood falls as water is successively contained in smaller capillaries. A stage is eventually reached when vapour pressure within the wood equals vapour pressure in the ambient space above the wood, and further desorption ceases. The amount of moisture that remains in the wood at this stage is in equilibrium with water vapour pressure in the ambient space, and is termed the equilibrium moisture content or EMC (Siau, 1984). Because of its hygroscopicity, wood tends to reach a moisture content that is in equilibrium with the relative humidity and temperature of the surrounding air."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Keey \"et al.\" (2000) use a different definition of the fibre saturation point (equilibrium moisture content of wood in an environment of 99% relative humidity)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Prompt drying of wood immediately after felling therefore significantly upgrades and adds value to raw timber. Drying enables substantial long-term economy by rationalizing the use of timber resources. The drying of wood is thus an area for research and development, which concern many researchers and timber companies around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The standard organizations in Australia and New Zealand (AS/NZS 4787, 2001) have developed a standard for timber quality. The five measures of drying quality include:\n# moisture content gradient and presence of residual drying stress (case-hardening);\n# surface, internal and end checks;\n# collapse;\n# distortions;\n# discolouration caused by drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The rate of loss of moisture can be controlled by coating the planks with any substance that is relatively impermeable to moisture; ordinary mineral oil is usually quite effective. Coating the ends of logs with oil or thick paint improves their quality upon drying. Wrapping planks or logs in materials which will allow some movement of moisture, generally works very well provided the wood is first treated against fungal infection by coating in petrol/gasoline or oil. Mineral oil will generally not soak in more than 1\u20132\u00a0mm below the surface and is easily removed by planing when the timber is suitably dry.\n* Benefits: It can be less expensive to use this drying method (there are still costs associated with storing the wood, and with the slower process of getting the wood to market), and air drying often produces a higher quality, more easily workable wood than with kiln drying.\n* Drawbacks: Depending on the climate, it takes several months to a number of years to air-dry the wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Since all free water can be removed under 115'F, quality is improved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "These kilns can be the fastest to dry and most efficient with energy usage. At a vacuum water boils at a lower temperature. In addition to speed a vacuum kiln can also produce an improved quality in the wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Drying defects are the most common form of degrade in timber, next to natural problems such as knots (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "In heartwood it occurs only in the first and last forms. Wood that is thoroughly air-dried retains 8\u201316% of the water in the cell walls, and none, or practically none, in the other forms. Even oven-dried wood retains a small percentage of moisture, but for all except chemical purposes, may be considered absolutely dry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Immersion in running water quickly removes sap and then the wood is air dried. \"...it reduces the elasticity and durability of the wood and also makes it brittle.\" But there are competing perspectives, e.g., \"Duhamel, who made many experiments on this important subject, states, that timber for the joiner's use is best put in water for some time, and afterwards dried; as it renders the timber less liable to warp and crack in drying; but, he adds, 'where strength is required it ought not to be put in water.'\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "A dehumidification chamber can be an unvented system (closed loop) or a partially vented system which uses a heat pump to condense moisture from the air using cold side of the refrigeration process (evaporator.) The heat thus gathered is sent to the hot side of the refrigeration process (condenser) to re-heat the air and returns this drier and warmer air inside the kiln. Fans blow the air through the piles as in a normal kiln. These kilns traditionally operate from 100\u00a0\u00b0F to 160\u00a0\u00b0F and use about half the energy of a conventional kiln."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "1910.265(f)(3)(i)(a): Main kiln doors shall be provided with a method of holding them open while kiln is being loaded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "There are four similar heat treatments\u00a0\u2014 Westwood, developed in the United States; Retiwood, developed in France; Thermowood, developed in Finland by VTT; and Platowood, developed in The Netherlands. These processes autoclave the treated wood, subjecting it to pressure and heat, along with nitrogen or water vapour to control drying in a staged treatment process ranging from 24 to 48 hours at temperatures of 180\u00a0\u00b0C to 230\u00a0\u00b0C depending on timber species. These processes increase the durability, dimensional stability and hardness of the treated wood by at least one class; however, the treated wood is darkened in colour, and there are changes in certain mechanical characteristics: Specifically, the modulus of elasticity is increased to 10%, and the modulus of rupture is diminished by 5% to 20%; thus, the treated wood requires drilling for nailing to avoid splitting the wood. Certain of these processes cause less impact than others in their mechanical effects upon the treated wood. Wood treated with this process is often used for cladding or siding, flooring, furniture and windows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "In addition to the above advantages of drying timber, the following points are also significant (Walker \"et al.\", 1993; Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996):\n# Dried timber is lighter, and the transportation and handling costs are reduced.\n# Dried timber is stronger than green timber in most strength properties.\n# Timbers for impregnation with preservatives have to be properly dried if proper penetration is to be accomplished, particularly in the case of oil-type preservatives.\n# In the field of chemical modification of wood and wood products, the material should be dried to a certain moisture content for the appropriate reactions to occur.\n# Dry wood generally works, machines, finishes and glues better than green timber (although there are exceptions; for instance, green wood is often easier to turn than dry wood). Paints and finishes last longer on dry timber.\n# The electrical and thermal insulation properties of wood are improved by drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Drying timber is one method of adding value to sawn products from the primary wood processing industries. According to the Australian Forest and Wood Products Research and Development Corporation (FWPRDC), green sawn hardwood, which is sold at about $350 per cubic metre or less, increases in value to $2,000 per cubic metre or more with drying and processing. However, currently used conventional drying processes often result in significant quality problems from cracks, both externally and internally, reducing the value of the product. For example, in Queensland (Anon, 1997), on the assumption that 10% of the dried softwood is devalued by $200 per cubic metre because of drying defects, saw millers are losing about $5 million a year. In Australia, the loss could be $40 million a year for softwood and an equal or higher amount for hardwood. Thus, proper drying under controlled conditions prior to use is of great importance in timber use, in countries where climatic conditions vary considerably at different times of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Freeze drying is accomplished by lowering the pressure in a chamber containing the wood to a few millibars, while lowering the temperature of the chamber to below the eutectic point of the material. Heat is typically added slowly to the material to allow the water contained in the wood to sublimate directly into vapor, and be deposited on the sides of the vacuum chamber or in the cold trap through which the chamber is evacuated. Freeze drying through sublimation typically takes about 10 times the energy that is taken through evaporation of water by heat. In practice, freeze drying of wood can be accomplished by placing room temperature wood in a vacuum chamber that can be chilled to -30 degrees C or lower, evacuating the chamber to a few millibars, and at the same time cooling the chamber to a freezing temperature. The latent heat in the wood will come out through the water vapor and condense as ice on the inside of the chamber. After a few hours under vacuum and freezing conditions, the chamber is returned to normal pressure, the wood removed and bagged in plastic to keep water from condensing on it, and allowed to return to room temperature over a few hours to a day. The cycle is then repeated, each time the latent heat in the wood is removed through the water content in the wood sublimating and/or evaporating and condensing on the sides of the container and in the cold trap. The cycles are repeated until the moisture content of the wood is at a pre-determined acceptable level. Instead of cycling the wood in the chamber, heat can be added to the wood at a rate that matches the rate of sublimation of ice in the wood to water vapor, which is deposited on the inside of the chamber or in the cold trap. An advantage to freeze drying wood is that the form of the wood is maintained, and shrinkage does not typically occur. Shrinkage will occur over time after the wood is freeze dried, but this typically will not cause defects in the wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Softwoods such as pine are typically much lighter and easier to process than hardwoods such as fruit tree wood. The density of softwoods ranges from to , while hardwoods are to . Once dried, both consist of approximately 12% of moisture (\"Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996\"). Because of hardwood's denser and more complex structure, its permeability is much less than that of softwood, making it more difficult to dry. Although there are about a hundred times more species of hardwood trees than softwood trees, the ability to be dried and processed faster and more easily makes softwood the main supply of commercial wood today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joinery",
        "text": "Many traditional wood joinery techniques use the distinctive material properties of wood, often without resorting to mechanical fasteners or adhesives. While every culture in which pieces of wood are joined to make furniture or structures has a joinery tradition, wood joinery techniques have been especially well-documented, and are celebrated, in the Indian, Chinese, European, and Japanese traditions. Because of the physical existence of Indian and Egyptian examples, we know that furniture from the first several dynasties show the use of complex joints, like the Dovetail, over 5,000 years ago. This tradition continued to other later Western styles. The 18th-century writer Diderot included over 90 detailed illustrations of wood joints in his comprehensive encyclopedia. While Western techniques focused on concealment of joinery, the Eastern societies, though later, did not attempt to \"hide\" their joints. The Japanese and Chinese traditions in particular required the use of hundreds of types of joints. The reason was that nails and glues used did not stand up well to the vastly fluctuating temperatures and humid weather conditions in most of Central and South-East Asia. As well, the highly resinous woods used in traditional Chinese furniture do not glue well, even if they are cleaned with solvents and attached using modern glues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The EMC of wood varies with the ambient relative humidity (a function of temperature) significantly, to a lesser degree with the temperature. Siau (1984) reported that the EMC also varies very slightly with species, mechanical stress, drying history of wood, density, extractives content and the direction of sorption in which the moisture change takes place (i.e. adsorption or desorption)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Differential transverse shrinkage of wood is related to:\n# the alternation of late wood and early wood increments within the annual ring;\n# the influence of wood rays on the radial direction (Kollmann and Cote, 1968);\n# the features of the cell wall structure such as microfibril angle modifications and pits;\n# the chemical composition of the middle lamella."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "There are two types of drying defects, although some defects involve both causes:\n# Defects from shrinkage anisotropy, resulting in warping: cupping, bowing, twisting, crooking, spring and diamonding.\n# Defects from uneven drying, resulting in the rupture of the wood tissue, such as checks (surface, end and internal), end splits, honey-combing and case hardening. Collapse, often shown as corrugation, or so-called \"washboarding\" of the wood surface, may also occur (Innes, 1996). Collapse is a defect that results from the physical flattening of fibres to above the fibre saturation point and is thus not a form of shrinkage anisotropy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "It is reported that the ratio of the longitudinal to the transverse (radial and tangential) diffusion rates for wood ranges from about 100 at a moisture content of 5%, to 2\u20134 at a moisture content of 25% (Langrish and Walker, 1993). Radial diffusion is somewhat faster than tangential diffusion. Although longitudinal diffusion is most rapid, it is of practical importance only when short pieces are dried. Generally the timber boards are much longer than in width or thickness. For example, a typical size of a green board used for this research was 6m long, 250\u00a0mm in width and 43\u00a0mm in thickness. If the boards are quartersawn, then the width will be in the radial direction whereas the thickness will be in tangential direction, and vice versa for plain-sawn boards. Most of the moisture is removed from wood by lateral movement during drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood contains water in three forms:\n; Free water: The bulk of water contained in the cell lumina is only held by capillary forces. It is not bound chemically and is called free water. Free water is not in the same thermodynamic state as liquid water: energy is required to overcome the capillary forces. Furthermore, free water may contain chemicals, altering the drying characteristics of wood.\n; Bound or hygroscopic water: Bound water is bound to the wood via hydrogen bonds. The attraction of wood for water arises from the presence of free hydroxyl (OH) groups in the cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin molecules in the cell wall. The hydroxyl groups are negatively charged. Because water is a polar liquid, the free hydroxyl groups in cellulose attract and hold water by hydrogen bonding.\n; Vapor: Water in cell lumina in the form of water vapour is normally negligible at normal temperature and humidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Chamber drying provides a means of overcoming the limitations imposed by erratic weather conditions. With kiln drying, as is the case with air drying, unsaturated air is used as the drying medium. Almost all commercial timbers of the world are dried in industrial kilns. A comparison of air drying, conventional kiln and solar drying is given below:\n# Timber can be dried to any desired low-moisture content by conventional or solar kiln drying, but in air drying, moisture contents of less than 18% are difficult to attain for most locations.\n# The drying times are considerably less in conventional kiln drying than in solar kiln drying, followed by air drying.\n#* This means that if capital outlay is involved, this capital sits for a longer time when air drying is used. On the other hand, installing, operating and maintaining an industrial kiln is expensive.\n#* In addition, wood that is being air dried takes up space, which could also cost money.\n# In air drying, there is little control over the drying conditions, so drying rates cannot be controlled.\n# The temperatures employed in kiln drying typically kill all the fungi and insects in the wood if a maximum dry-bulb temperature of above 60\u00a0\u00b0C is used for the drying schedule. This is not guaranteed in air drying.\n# If air drying is done improperly (exposed to the sun), the rate of drying may be overly rapid in the dry summer months, causing cracking and splitting, and too slow during the cold winter months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiln",
        "text": "Conventional wood dry kilns are either package-type (side-loader) or track-type (tram) construction. Most hardwood lumber kilns are side-loader kilns in which fork trucks are used to load lumber packages into the kiln. Most softwood kilns are track types in which the timber (US: \"lumber\") is loaded on kiln/track cars for loading the kiln. Modern high-temperature, high-air-velocity conventional kilns can typically dry green wood in 10 hours down to a moisture content of 18%. However, 1-inch-thick green red oak requires about 28 days to dry down to a moisture content of 8%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Convectant drying",
        "text": "Both systems use heat, air exchanges and controlled manipulation of the indoor environment to reduce the drying time compared to traditional methods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Woodcut",
        "text": "In Europe, woodcut is the oldest technique used for old master prints, developing about 1400, by using, on paper, existing techniques for printing. One of the more ancient woodcuts on paper that can be seen today is \"The Fire Madonna\" (\"Madonna del Fuoco\", in the Italian language), in the Cathedral of Forl\u00ec, in Italy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "1910.265(f)(3)(ii)(a): If operating procedures require access to kilns, kilns shall be provided with escape doors that operate easily from the inside, swing in the direction of exit, and are located in or near the main door at the end of the passageway."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water content",
        "text": "For wood, the convention is to report moisture content on oven-dry basis (i.e. generally drying sample in an oven set at 105 deg Celsius for 24 hours or until it stops losing weight). In wood drying, this is an important concept."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "When green wood dries, free water from the cell lumina, held by the capillary forces only, is the first to go. Physical properties, such as strength and shrinkage, are generally not affected by the removal of free water. The fibre saturation point (FSP) is defined as the moisture content at which free water should be completely gone, while the cell walls are saturated with bound water. In most types of woods, the fibre saturation point is at 25 to 30% moisture content. Siau (1984) reported that the fibre saturation point formula_4 (kg/kg) is dependent on the temperature T (\u00b0C) according to the following equation:\n:formula_5 (1.2)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Solving for the drying time yields:\n:formula_16"
      },
      {
        "title": "Thermally modified wood",
        "text": "Freshly cut timber must first be dried and then will be heated in a steam environment using the leftover moisture in the wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Simply put, the model assumes that the rate of change of the moisture content \"M\" with respect to time \"t\" is proportional to how far the wood sample is from its equilibrium moisture content formula_6, which is a function of the temperature \"T\" and relative humidity \"h\":\n:formula_7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "Developed by Dr. Boucherie of France in 1838, this approach consisted of attaching a bag or container of preservative solution to a standing or a freshly cut tree with bark, branches, and leaves still attached, thereby injecting the liquid into the sap stream. Through transpiration of moisture from the leaves the preservative is drawn upward through the sapwood of the tree trunk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drying",
        "text": "The following are some general methods of drying:\n*Application of hot air (convective or direct drying). Air heating increases the drying force for heat transfer and accelerates drying. It also reduces air relative humidity, further increasing the driving force for drying. In the falling rate period, as moisture content falls, the solids heat up and the higher temperatures speed up diffusion of water from the interior of the solid to the surface. However, product quality considerations limit the applicable rise to air temperature. Excessively hot air can almost completely dehydrate the solid surface, so that its pores shrink and almost close, leading to crust formation or \"case hardening\", which is usually undesirable. For instance in wood (timber) drying, air is heated (which speeds up drying) though some steam is also added to it (which hinders drying rate to a certain extent) in order to avoid excessive surface dehydration and product deformation owing to high moisture gradients across timber thickness. Spray drying belongs in this category.\n*Indirect or contact drying (heating through a hot wall), as drum drying, vacuum drying. Again, higher wall temperatures will speed up drying but this is limited by product degradation or case-hardening. Drum drying belongs in this category.\n*Dielectric drying (radiofrequency or microwaves being absorbed inside the material) is the focus of intense research nowadays. It may be used to assist air drying or vacuum drying. Researchers have found that microwave finish drying speeds up the otherwise very low drying rate at the end of the classical drying methods.\n*Freeze drying or lyophilization is a drying method where the solvent is frozen prior to drying and is then sublimed, i.e., passed to the gas phase directly from the solid phase, below the melting point of the solvent. It is increasingly applied to dry foods, beyond its already classical pharmaceutical or medical applications. It keeps biological properties of proteins, and retains vitamins and bioactive compounds. Pressure can be reduced by a high vacuum pump (though freeze drying at atmospheric pressure is possible in dry air). If using a vacuum pump, the vapor produced by sublimation is removed from the system by converting it into ice in a condenser, operating at very low temperatures, outside the freeze drying chamber.\n*Supercritical drying (superheated steam drying) involves steam drying of products containing water. This process is feasible because water in the product is boiled off, and joined with the drying medium, increasing its flow. It is usually employed in closed circuit and allows a proportion of latent heat to be recovered by recompression, a feature which is not possible with conventional air drying, for instance. The process has potential for use in foods if carried out at reduced pressure, to lower the boiling point.\n*Natural air drying takes place when materials are dried with unheated forced air, taking advantage of its natural drying potential. The process is slow and weather-dependent, so a wise strategy \"fan off-fan on\" must be devised considering the following conditions: Air temperature, relative humidity and moisture content and temperature of the material being dried. Grains are increasingly dried with this technique, and the total time (including fan off and on periods) may last from one week to various months, if a winter rest can be tolerated in cold areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drying cabinet",
        "text": "In both Europe and America, wealthier and commercial properties sometimes had drying cabinets or drying rooms associated with their laundry rooms. The cabinets were of wood or cast iron, with a series of drying racks on wheels which were pulled in or out of the cabinet horizontally. The cabinet was heated by coal, gas or wood. The Shaker community still uses these cabinets. See also Airing Cupboard. However these cabinets and cupboards were intended for the general drying of laundry, whereas the modern cabinets are usually intended for items of clothing unsuitable for a traditional clothes dryer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Satisfactory kiln drying can usually be accomplished by regulating the temperature and humidity of the circulating air to control the moisture content of the lumber at any given time. This condition is achieved by applying kiln-drying schedules. The desired objective of an appropriate schedule is to ensure drying lumber at the fastest possible rate without causing objectionable degrade. The following factors have a considerable bearing on the schedules.\n; The species: Variations in anatomical, physical, and mechanical properties between species affect drying times and overall results.\n; The thickness of the lumber: Drying time is inversely related to thickness and, to some extent, the width of the lumber.\n; Whether the lumber boards are quarter-sawn, flat-sawn, or bastard-sawn (mixed-sawn): Sawing pattern influences the distortion due to shrinkage anisotropy.\n; Permissible drying degrade: Aggressive drying schedules can cause timber to crack and distort.\n; Intended use of timber: Mechanical and aesthetic requirements will necessitate different moisture targets depending on the intended use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiln",
        "text": "Green wood coming straight from the felled tree has far too high a moisture content to be commercially useful and will rot, warp and split. Both hardwoods and softwood must be left to dry out until the moisture content is between 18% and 8%. This can be a long process unless accelerated by use of a kiln. A variety of kiln technologies exist today: conventional, dehumidification, solar, vacuum and radio frequency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The moisture content of wood is calculated as the mass change as a proportion of the dry mass, by the formula (Siau, 1984):\n: formula_1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "There are numerous non-pressure processes of treating wood which vary primarily in their procedure. The most common of these treatments involve the application of the preservative by means of brushing or spraying, dipping, soaking, steeping or by means of hot and cold bath. There is also a variety of additional methods involving charring, applying preservatives in bored holes, diffusion processes and sap displacement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The timbers are classified as follows according to their ease of drying and their proneness to drying degrade:\n; Highly refractory woods: These woods are slow and difficult to dry if the final product is to be free from defects, particularly cracks and splits. Examples are heavy structural timbers with high density such as ironbark (\"Eucalyptus paniculata\"), blackbutt (\"E. pilularis\"), southern blue gum (\"E. globulus\") and brush box (\"Lophostemon cofertus\"). They require considerable protection and care against rapid drying conditions for the best results (Bootle, 1994).\n; Moderately refractory woods: These timbers show a moderate tendency to crack and split during seasoning. They can be seasoned free from defects with moderately rapid drying conditions (i.e. a maximum dry-bulb temperature of 85\u00a0\u00b0C can be used). Examples are Sydney blue gum (\"E. saligna\") and other timbers of medium density (Bootle, 1994), which are potentially suitable for furniture.\n; Non-refractory woods: These woods can be rapidly seasoned to be free from defects even by applying high temperatures (dry-bulb temperatures of more than 100\u00a0\u00b0C) in industrial kilns. If not dried rapidly, they may develop discolouration (blue stain) and mould on the surface. Examples are softwoods and low density timbers such as \"Pinus radiata\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "1910.265(f)(4): \"Pits\". Pits shall be well ventilated, drained, and lighted, and shall be large enough to safely accommodate the kiln operator together with operating devices such as valves, dampers, damper rods, and traps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Three main driving forces used in different version of diffusion models are moisture content, the partial pressure of water vapour, and the chemical potential (Skaar, 1988; Keey \"et al.\", 2000). These are discussed here, including capillary action, which is a mechanism for free water transport in permeable softwoods. Total pressure difference is the driving force during wood vacuum drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yakisugi",
        "text": "Yakisugi (\u713c\u6749) is a traditional Japanese method of wood preservation. \"Yaki\" means to heat with fire, and \"sugi\" is cypress. It is referred to in the West as burnt timber cladding and also known as shou sugi ban (\u713c\u6749\u677f) which uses the same \"kanji\" characters but an incorrect pronunciation. The \"ban\" character means \"plank\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The main elements of chamber drying are:\n; Construction materials: The chambers are generally built of brick masonry, or hollow cement-concrete slabs. Sheet metal or prefabricated aluminium in a double-walled construction with sandwiched thermal insulation, such as glass wool or polyurethane foams, are materials that are also used in some modern timber ovens. However, brick masonry chambers, with lime and (mortar) plaster on the inside and painted with impermeable coatings, are used widely and have been found to be satisfactory for many applications.\n; Heating: Heating is usually carried out by steam heat exchangers and pipes of various configurations (e.g. plain, or finned (transverse or longitudinal) tubes) or by large flue pipes through which hot gases from a wood-burning furnace are passed. Only occasionally is electricity or gas employed for heating.\n; Humidification: Humidification is commonly accomplished by introducing live steam into the kiln through a steam spray pipe. In order to limit and control the humidity of the air when large quantities of moisture are being rapidly evaporated from the timber, there is normally a provision for ventilation of the chamber in all types of kilns.\n; Air circulation: Air circulation is the means for carrying the heat to and the moisture away from all parts of a load. Forced circulation kilns are most common, where the air is circulated by means of fans or blowers, which may be installed outside the kiln chamber (external fan kiln) or inside it (internal fan kiln)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "Probably the first attempts made to protect wood from decay and insect attack consisted of brushing or rubbing preservatives onto the surfaces of the treated wood. Through trial and error the most effective preservatives and application processes were slowly determined. In the Industrial Revolution, demands for such things as telegraph poles and railroad ties (UK: railway sleepers) helped to fuel an explosion of new techniques that emerged in the early 19th century. The sharpest rise in inventions took place between 1830 and 1840, when Bethell, Boucherie, Burnett and Kyan were making wood-preserving history. Since then, numerous processes have been introduced or existing processes improved. The goal of modern-day wood preservation is to ensure a deep, uniform penetration with reasonable cost, without endangering the environment. The most widespread application processes today are those using artificial pressure through which many woods are being effectively treated, but several species (such as spruce, Douglas-fir, larch, hemlock and fir) are very resistant to impregnation. With the use of incising, the treatment of these woods has been somewhat successful but with a higher cost and not always satisfactory results. One can divide the wood-preserving methods roughly into either non-pressure processes or pressure processes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "The greatest strength increase due to drying is in the ultimate crushing strength, and strength at elastic limit in endwise compression; these are followed by the modulus of rupture, and stress at elastic limit in cross-bending, while the modulus of elasticity is least affected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiln",
        "text": "Kiln dried firewood was pioneered during the 1980s, and was later adopted extensively in Europe due to the economic and practical benefits of selling wood with a lower moisture content (with optimal moisture levels of under 20% being much easier to achieve)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Woodturning",
        "text": "Moisture content affects both the ease of cutting wood and the final shape of the work when it dries. Wetter wood cuts easily with a continuous ribbon of shavings that are relatively dust-free. However, the wet wood moves as it dries. shrinking less along the grain. These variable changes may add the illusion of an oval bowl, or draw attention to features of the wood. Dry wood is necessary for turnings that require precision, as in the fit of a lid to a box, or in forms where pieces are glued together."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "1910.265(f)(3)(i)(c): Adequate means shall be provided to firmly secure main doors, when they are disengaged from carriers and hangers, to prevent toppling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dry rot",
        "text": "Dry rot\n--Discussion.\n--Historical use of the term \"dry rot\".\n--Treatment of dry rot timber.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservation and restoration of parchment",
        "text": "After humidification, drying techniques are necessary to ensure that the parchment lays flat and does not suffer additional moisture-related issues. The specific method is dependent on the condition of the object, as well as the humidification process utilized. Some of the most common methods include:\n*Drying and flattening under pressure, often pressed between two absorbent surfaces\n*Tensioning at the edges, where the parchment is constricted at the edges with weights or clips. This techniques most closely reflects parchment's original manufacturing process.\n*Stretch drying on Terylene\n*Vacuum suction table flattening"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "A solar kiln is a cross between kiln drying and air drying. These kilns are generally a greenhouse with a high-temperature fan and either vents or a condensing system. Solar kilns are slower and variable due to the weather, but are low cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "By going beyond kiln drying wood, heat treatment may make timber more durable. By heating timber to a certain temperature, it may be possible to make the wood fibre less appetizing to insects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "Charring of timber results in surfaces which are fire-resistant, insect-resistant and proof against weathering. Wood surfaces are ignited using a hand-held burner or moved slowly across a fire. The charred surface is then cleaned using a steel brush to remove loose bits and to expose the grain. Oil or varnish may be applied if required. Charring wood with a red-hot iron is a traditional method in Japan, where it is called \"yakisugi\" or \"sh\u014d sugi ban\" (literally \"fire Cypress'\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moisture meter",
        "text": "Newly-cut logs can have a moisture content (MC) of 80% or more, depending on species. Since wood shrinks, and can also split, twist or otherwise change shape as it dries, most wood is dried before being used. This is most often done using a kiln, but may use the air drying method, which is much slower. In most parts of the United States, the minimum moisture content that can be generally obtained in air drying is about 12 to 15 percent. Most air-dried material is usually closer to 20 percent moisture content when used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "For example, at 150\u00b0F, using the Arden Buck equation, the saturation vapor pressure of water is found to be about . The time constant for drying a red oak board at 150\u00b0F is then formula_17 days, which is the time required to reduce the moisture content to 1/e = 37% of its initial deviation from equilibrium. If the relative humidity is 0.50, then using the Hailwood-Horrobin equation the moisture content of the wood at equilibrium is about 7.4%. The time to reduce the lumber from 85% moisture content to 25% moisture content is then about 4.5 days. Higher temperatures will yield faster drying times, but they will also create greater stresses in the wood due because the moisture gradient will be larger. For firewood, this is not an issue but for woodworking purposes, high stresses will cause the wood to crack and be unusable. Normal drying times to obtain minimal seasoning checks (cracks) in 25mm (1inch or 4/4 lumber) Red Oak ranges from 22 to 30 days, and in 8/4, (50mm or 2inch) it will range from 65 to 90 days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chatoyancy",
        "text": "This effect is sometimes called \"wet look\", since wetting wood with water often displays the chatoyancy, albeit only until the wood dries. Certain finishes cause the wood grain to become more pronounced. Oil finishes, epoxy, and shellac can strongly bring out the \"wet look\" effect. When the refractive index of the finish nearly matches that of the wood, light scattering no longer occurs at the wood surface, adding the appearance of depth to the wood's figure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Here, formula_2 is the green mass of the wood, formula_3 is its oven dry mass (the attainment of constant mass generally after drying in an oven set at () for 24 hours as mentioned by Walker \"et al.\", 1993). The equation can also be expressed as a fraction of the mass of the water and the mass of the oven dry wood rather than a percentage. For example, (oven dry basis) expresses the same moisture content as 59% (oven dry basis)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charring",
        "text": "Charring is also a technique used for wood preservation. In Japan this traditional technique is called \"yakisugi\" or \"sh\u014d sugi ban\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The external drying conditions (temperature, relative humidity and air velocity) control the external boundary conditions for drying, and hence the drying rate, as well as affecting the rate of internal moisture movement. The drying rate is affected by external drying conditions (Walker \"et al.\", 1993; Keey \"et al.\", 2000), as will now be described.\n; Temperature: If the relative humidity is kept constant, the higher the temperature, the higher the drying rate. Temperature influences the drying rate by increasing the moisture holding capacity of the air, as well as by accelerating the diffusion rate of moisture through the wood. The actual temperature in a drying kiln is the dry-bulb temperature (usually denoted by Tg), which is the temperature of a vapour-gas mixture determined by inserting a thermometer with a dry bulb. On the other hand, the wet-bulb temperature (TW) is defined as the temperature reached by a small amount of liquid evaporating in a large amount of an unsaturated air-vapour mixture. The temperature sensing element of this thermometer is kept moist with a porous fabric sleeve (cloth) usually put in a reservoir of clean water. A minimum air flow of 2\u00a0m/s is needed to prevent a zone of stagnant damp air formation around the sleeve (Walker \"et al.\", 1993). Since air passes over the wet sleeve, water is evaporated and cools the wet-bulb thermometer. The difference between the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures, the wet-bulb depression, is used to determine the relative humidity from a standard hygrometric chart (Walker \"et al.\", 1993). A higher difference between the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures indicates a lower relative humidity. For example, if the dry-bulb temperature is 100\u00a0\u00b0C and wet-bulb temperature 60\u00a0\u00b0C, then the relative humidity is read as 17% from a hygrometric chart.\n; Relative humidity: The relative humidity of air is defined as the partial pressure of water vapour divided by the saturated vapour pressure at the same temperature and total pressure (Siau, 1984). If the temperature is kept constant, lower relative humidities result in higher drying rates due to the increased moisture gradient in wood, resulting from the reduction of the moisture content in the surface layers when the relative humidity of air is reduced. The relative humidity is usually expressed on a percentage basis. For drying, the other essential parameter related to relative humidity is the absolute humidity, which is the mass of water vapour per unit mass of dry air (kg of water per kg of dry air). However, its influenced by the amount of water in the heated air.\n; Air circulation rate: Drying time and timber quality depend on the air velocity and its uniform circulation. At a constant temperature and relative humidity, the highest possible drying rate is obtained by rapid circulation of air across the surface of wood, giving rapid removal of moisture evaporating from the wood. However, a higher drying rate is not always desirable, particularly for impermeable hardwoods, because higher drying rates develop greater stresses that may cause the timber to crack or distort. At very low fan speeds, less than 1\u00a0m/s, the air flow through the stack is often laminar flow, and the heat transfer between the timber surface and the moving air stream is not particularly effective (Walker \"et al.\", 1993). The low effectiveness (externally) of heat transfer is not necessarily a problem if internal moisture movement is the key limitation to the movement of moisture, as it is for most hardwoods (Pordage and Langrish, 1999)."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the most traditional style of wood drying?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Wood drying can be done in a kiln, resulting in kiln-dried timber or lumber, or it can be dried in air, which is the more traditional method."
    ],
    "topic": "Wood drying",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Wood drying:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wood drying"
        ],
        "ctx": "Wood drying (also seasoning lumber or wood seasoning) reduces the moisture content of wood before its use. When the drying is done in a kiln, the product is known as kiln-dried timber or lumber, whereas air drying is the more traditional method."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Chamber drying provides a means of overcoming the limitations imposed by erratic weather conditions. With kiln drying, as is the case with air drying, unsaturated air is used as the drying medium. Almost all commercial timbers of the world are dried in industrial kilns. A comparison of air drying, conventional kiln and solar drying is given below:\n# Timber can be dried to any desired low-moisture content by conventional or solar kiln drying, but in air drying, moisture contents of less than 18% are difficult to attain for most locations.\n# The drying times are considerably less in conventional kiln drying than in solar kiln drying, followed by air drying.\n#* This means that if capital outlay is involved, this capital sits for a longer time when air drying is used. On the other hand, installing, operating and maintaining an industrial kiln is expensive.\n#* In addition, wood that is being air dried takes up space, which could also cost money.\n# In air drying, there is little control over the drying conditions, so drying rates cannot be controlled.\n# The temperatures employed in kiln drying typically kill all the fungi and insects in the wood if a maximum dry-bulb temperature of above 60\u00a0\u00b0C is used for the drying schedule. This is not guaranteed in air drying.\n# If air drying is done improperly (exposed to the sun), the rate of drying may be overly rapid in the dry summer months, causing cracking and splitting, and too slow during the cold winter months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood drying (also seasoning lumber or wood seasoning) reduces the moisture content of wood before its use. When the drying is done in a kiln, the product is known as kiln-dried timber or lumber, whereas air drying is the more traditional method."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Significant advantages of conventional kiln drying include higher throughput and better control of the final moisture content. Conventional kilns and solar drying both enable wood to be dried to any moisture content regardless of weather conditions. For most large-scale drying operations solar and conventional kiln drying are more efficient than air drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Satisfactory kiln drying can usually be accomplished by regulating the temperature and humidity of the circulating air to control the moisture content of the lumber at any given time. This condition is achieved by applying kiln-drying schedules. The desired objective of an appropriate schedule is to ensure drying lumber at the fastest possible rate without causing objectionable degrade. The following factors have a considerable bearing on the schedules.\n; The species: Variations in anatomical, physical, and mechanical properties between species affect drying times and overall results.\n; The thickness of the lumber: Drying time is inversely related to thickness and, to some extent, the width of the lumber.\n; Whether the lumber boards are quarter-sawn, flat-sawn, or bastard-sawn (mixed-sawn): Sawing pattern influences the distortion due to shrinkage anisotropy.\n; Permissible drying degrade: Aggressive drying schedules can cause timber to crack and distort.\n; Intended use of timber: Mechanical and aesthetic requirements will necessitate different moisture targets depending on the intended use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Modern high-temperature, high-air-velocity conventional kilns can typically dry green lumber in 10 hours down to a moisture content of 18%. However, 1-inch-thick green Red Oak requires about 28 days to dry down to a moisture content of 8%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "A variety of wood drying kiln technologies exist today: conventional, dehumidification, solar, vacuum and radio frequency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Compartment-type kilns are most commonly used in timber companies. A compartment kiln is filled with a static batch of timber through which air is circulated. In these types of kiln, the timber remains stationary. The drying conditions are successively varied according to the type of timber being dried. This drying method is well suited to the needs of timber companies, which have to dry timbers of varied species and thickness, including refractory hardwoods that are more liable than other species to check and split."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Heat is typically introduced via steam running through fin/tube heat exchangers controlled by on/off pneumatic valves. Less common are proportional pneumatic valves or even various electrical actuators. Humidity is removed via a system of vents, the specific layout of which are usually particular to a given manufacturer. In general, cool dry air is introduced at one end of the kiln while warm moist air is expelled at the other. Hardwood conventional kilns also require the introduction of humidity via either steam spray or cold water misting systems to keep the relative humidity inside the kiln from dropping too low during the drying cycle. Fan directions are typically reversed periodically to ensure even drying of larger kiln charges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "These kilns can be the fastest to dry and most efficient with energy usage. At a vacuum water boils at a lower temperature. In addition to speed a vacuum kiln can also produce an improved quality in the wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "By going beyond kiln drying wood, heat treatment may make timber more durable. By heating timber to a certain temperature, it may be possible to make the wood fibre less appetizing to insects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Most softwood lumber kilns operate below temperature. Hardwood lumber kiln drying schedules typically keep the dry bulb temperature below . Difficult-to-dry species might not exceed ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood is air-dried or dried in a purpose built oven (kiln). Usually the wood is sawn before drying, but sometimes the log is dried whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Conventional wood dry kilns (Rasmussen, 1988) are either package-type (sideloader) or track-type (tram) construction. Most hardwood lumber kilns are sideloader kilns in which fork trucks are used to load lumber packages into the kiln. Most softwood lumber kilns are track types in which lumber packages are loaded on kiln/track cars for loading the kiln."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "In addition to the above advantages of drying timber, the following points are also significant (Walker \"et al.\", 1993; Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996):\n# Dried timber is lighter, and the transportation and handling costs are reduced.\n# Dried timber is stronger than green timber in most strength properties.\n# Timbers for impregnation with preservatives have to be properly dried if proper penetration is to be accomplished, particularly in the case of oil-type preservatives.\n# In the field of chemical modification of wood and wood products, the material should be dried to a certain moisture content for the appropriate reactions to occur.\n# Dry wood generally works, machines, finishes and glues better than green timber (although there are exceptions; for instance, green wood is often easier to turn than dry wood). Paints and finishes last longer on dry timber.\n# The electrical and thermal insulation properties of wood are improved by drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood drying\n--Types of wood.\n--Wood\u2013water relationships.\n----Moisture content.\n----Fibre saturation point.\n----Equilibrium moisture content.\n----Moisture content of wood in service.\n----Shrinkage and swelling.\n----Mechanisms of moisture movement.\n------Moisture passageways.\n------Moisture movement space.\n----Driving forces for moisture movement.\n------Capillary action.\n------Moisture content differences.\n------Moisture movement directions for diffusion.\n----Reasons for splits and cracks during timber drying and their control.\n----Influence of temperature, relative humidity and rate of air circulation.\n----Classification of timbers for drying.\n----Model.\n--Methods of drying timber.\n----Air drying.\n----Kiln drying.\n------Kiln drying schedules.\n----Dehumidification kiln.\n----Vacuum kiln.\n----Solar kiln.\n----Water seasoning.\n----Boiling or steam seasoning.\n----Chemical or salt seasoning.\n----Electrical seasoning.\n----Freeze drying.\n--Drying defects.\n--Wood-drying kiln.\n--OSHA Standards regarding Dry Kiln Facilities.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Air drying is the drying of timber by exposing it to the air. The technique of air drying consists mainly of making a stack of sawn timber (with the layers of boards separated by stickers) on raised foundations, in a clean, cool, dry and shady place. Rate of drying largely depends on climatic conditions, and on the air movement (exposure to the wind). For successful air drying, a continuous and uniform flow of air throughout the pile of the timber needs to be arranged (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The total (harmful) air emissions produced by wood kilns, including their heat source, can be significant. Typically, the higher the temperature the kiln operates at, the larger amount of emissions are produced (per pound of water removed). This is especially true in the drying of thin veneers and high-temperature drying of softwoods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "In 1949 a Chicago company introduced a wood drying kiln that used infrared lamps that they claimed reduced the standard drying time from 14 days to 45 minutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The successful control of drying defects in a drying process consists in maintaining a balance between the rate of evaporation of moisture from the surface and the rate of outward movement of moisture from the interior of the wood. The way in which drying can be controlled will now be explained. One of the most successful ways of wood drying or seasoning would be kiln drying, where the wood is placed into a kiln compartment in stacks and dried by steaming, and releasing the steam slowly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "1910.265(f)(3)(i)(a): Main kiln doors shall be provided with a method of holding them open while kiln is being loaded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiln",
        "text": "Green wood coming straight from the felled tree has far too high a moisture content to be commercially useful and will rot, warp and split. Both hardwoods and softwood must be left to dry out until the moisture content is between 18% and 8%. This can be a long process unless accelerated by use of a kiln. A variety of kiln technologies exist today: conventional, dehumidification, solar, vacuum and radio frequency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Log house",
        "text": "Mills that have a kiln on site have the option of artificially accelerating the drying process. Green timber is placed inside a large oven, where heat removes moisture from them; however, they can suffer severe checking and cracking if the kiln controls are not properly monitored during the drying process. Use of a kiln can reduce the drying time from many months to several weeks. Kiln-drying usually results in an average moisture content of 18-20% (\"average\" means the average moisture content of the outside and the center of the log)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "1910.265(f)(3)(ii)(a): If operating procedures require access to kilns, kilns shall be provided with escape doors that operate easily from the inside, swing in the direction of exit, and are located in or near the main door at the end of the passageway."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Since wood is dried with a vapor gradient - vapor pressure to ambient pressure - humidity can be kept very high. Because of this, a good vacuum kiln can dry 4.5\" thick White Oak fresh off the saw to 8% in less than a month. A feat that was previously thought to be impossible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "Drying produces a decided increase in the strength of wood, particularly in small specimens. An extreme example is the case of a completely dry spruce block 5\u00a0cm in section, which will sustain a permanent load four times as great as a green (undried) block of the same size will."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Newer wood drying technologies have included the use of reduced atmospheric pressure to attempt to speed up the drying process. A variety of vacuum technologies exist, varying primarily in the method heat is introduced into the wood charge. Hot water platten vacuum kilns use aluminum heating plates with the water circulating within as the heat source, and typically operate at significantly reduced absolute pressure. Discontinuous and SSV (super-heated steam) use atmosphere to introduce heat into the kiln charge. Discontinuous technology allows the entire kiln charge to come up to full atmospheric pressure, the air in the chamber is then heated, and finally vacuum is pulled. SSV run at partial atmospheres (typically around 1/3 of full atmospheric pressure) in a hybrid of vacuum and conventional kiln technology (SSV kilns are significantly more popular in Europe where the locally harvested wood is easier to dry versus species found in North America). RF/V (radio frequency + vacuum) kilns use microwave radiation to heat the kiln charge, and typically have the highest operating cost due to the heat of vaporization being provided by electricity rather than local fossil fuel or waste wood sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The rate of loss of moisture can be controlled by coating the planks with any substance that is relatively impermeable to moisture; ordinary mineral oil is usually quite effective. Coating the ends of logs with oil or thick paint improves their quality upon drying. Wrapping planks or logs in materials which will allow some movement of moisture, generally works very well provided the wood is first treated against fungal infection by coating in petrol/gasoline or oil. Mineral oil will generally not soak in more than 1\u20132\u00a0mm below the surface and is easily removed by planing when the timber is suitably dry.\n* Benefits: It can be less expensive to use this drying method (there are still costs associated with storing the wood, and with the slower process of getting the wood to market), and air drying often produces a higher quality, more easily workable wood than with kiln drying.\n* Drawbacks: Depending on the climate, it takes several months to a number of years to air-dry the wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiln",
        "text": "Kiln dried firewood was pioneered during the 1980s, and was later adopted extensively in Europe due to the economic and practical benefits of selling wood with a lower moisture content (with optimal moisture levels of under 20% being much easier to achieve)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiln",
        "text": "The economics of different wood drying technologies are based on the total energy, capital, insurance/risk, environmental impacts, labor, maintenance, and product degradation costs. These costs, which can be a significant part of plant costs, involve the differential impact of the presence of drying equipment in a specific plant. Every piece of equipment from the green trimmer to the infeed system at the planer mill is part of the \"drying system\". The true costs of the drying system can only be determined when comparing the total plant costs and risks with and without drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "1910.265(f)(4): \"Pits\". Pits shall be well ventilated, drained, and lighted, and shall be large enough to safely accommodate the kiln operator together with operating devices such as valves, dampers, damper rods, and traps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Dehumidification kilns are very similar to conventional kilns in basic construction. Drying times are usually comparable. Heat is primarily supplied by an integral dehumidification unit which also serves to remove humidity. Auxiliary heat is often provided early in the schedule where the heat required may exceed the heat generated by the DH unit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Broadly, there are two methods by which timber can be dried:\n* natural drying or air drying\n* artificial drying"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "While conventional drying uses warm, dry air to skim water off the surface, vacuum kilns can boil water from within the wood. This enables a good vacuum kiln to dry very thick wood very quickly. It is possible to dry 12/4 Red Oak fresh off the saw to 7% in 11 days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "The greatest strength increase due to drying is in the ultimate crushing strength, and strength at elastic limit in endwise compression; these are followed by the modulus of rupture, and stress at elastic limit in cross-bending, while the modulus of elasticity is least affected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Many properties of wood show considerable change as the wood is dried below the fibre saturation point, including:\n# volume (ideally no shrinkage occurs until some bound water is lost, that is, until wood is dried below FSP);\n# strength (strengths generally increase consistently as the wood is dried below the FSP (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996), except for impact-bending strength and, in some cases, toughness);\n# electrical resistivity, which increases very rapidly with the loss of bound water when the wood dries below the FSP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiln",
        "text": "Conventional wood dry kilns are either package-type (side-loader) or track-type (tram) construction. Most hardwood lumber kilns are side-loader kilns in which fork trucks are used to load lumber packages into the kiln. Most softwood kilns are track types in which the timber (US: \"lumber\") is loaded on kiln/track cars for loading the kiln. Modern high-temperature, high-air-velocity conventional kilns can typically dry green wood in 10 hours down to a moisture content of 18%. However, 1-inch-thick green red oak requires about 28 days to dry down to a moisture content of 8%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Submersion in boiling water or the application of steam speed the drying of wood. This method is said to cause less shrinkage \"\u2026 but it is expensive to use, and reduces the strength and elasticity of the timber.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "A dehumidification chamber can be an unvented system (closed loop) or a partially vented system which uses a heat pump to condense moisture from the air using cold side of the refrigeration process (evaporator.) The heat thus gathered is sent to the hot side of the refrigeration process (condenser) to re-heat the air and returns this drier and warmer air inside the kiln. Fans blow the air through the piles as in a normal kiln. These kilns traditionally operate from 100\u00a0\u00b0F to 160\u00a0\u00b0F and use about half the energy of a conventional kiln."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cooroy Lower Mill Site Kiln",
        "text": "As the first drying kiln to be built in the region, it demonstrates the trend from the mid-20th Century towards improving efficiency using more scientific methods. As the product of a joint venture between major sawmilling companies, it also demonstrates the trend, at the time, towards centralizing operations to finance shared capital equipment. The drying kiln enabled timber to be seasoned more rapidly and it enabled timber to be sold to markets that demanded lower moisture content than could be achieved by air seasoning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The chief difficulty experienced in the drying of timber is the tendency of its outer layers to dry out more rapidly than the interior ones. If these layers are allowed to dry much below the fibre saturation point while the interior is still saturated, stresses (called drying stresses) are set up because the shrinkage of the outer layers is restricted by the wet interior (Keey \"et al.\", 2000). Rupture in the wood tissues occurs, and consequently splits and cracks occur if these stresses across the grain exceed the strength across the grain (fibre to fibre bonding)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green wood",
        "text": "Green lumber presents its own characteristics as well. Some species of wood are better assembled green because wood splits less when nailed green. Other species shrink excessively, leaving voids between the individual pieces when allowed to dry. Often wood to be used for fine products, such as furniture, is kiln dried to stabilize it and minimise the shrinkage of the finished product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Considering each of the factors, no one schedule is necessarily appropriate, even for similar loads of the same species. This is why there is so much timber drying research focused on the development of effective drying schedules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "A solar kiln is a cross between kiln drying and air drying. These kilns are generally a greenhouse with a high-temperature fan and either vents or a condensing system. Solar kilns are slower and variable due to the weather, but are low cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Immersion in running water quickly removes sap and then the wood is air dried. \"...it reduces the elasticity and durability of the wood and also makes it brittle.\" But there are competing perspectives, e.g., \"Duhamel, who made many experiments on this important subject, states, that timber for the joiner's use is best put in water for some time, and afterwards dried; as it renders the timber less liable to warp and crack in drying; but, he adds, 'where strength is required it ought not to be put in water.'\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The process of artificial or 'oven' drying consists basically of introducing heat. This may be directly, using natural gas and/or electricity or indirectly, through steam-heated heat exchangers. Solar energy is also an option. In the process, deliberate control of temperature, relative humidity and air circulation creates variable conditions to achieve specific drying profiles. To achieve this, the timber is stacked in chambers, which are fitted with equipment to control atmospheric temperature, relative humidity and circulation rate (Walker \"et al.', 1993; Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Keey \"et al.\" (2000) use a different definition of the fibre saturation point (equilibrium moisture content of wood in an environment of 99% relative humidity)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The external drying conditions (temperature, relative humidity and air velocity) control the external boundary conditions for drying, and hence the drying rate, as well as affecting the rate of internal moisture movement. The drying rate is affected by external drying conditions (Walker \"et al.\", 1993; Keey \"et al.\", 2000), as will now be described.\n; Temperature: If the relative humidity is kept constant, the higher the temperature, the higher the drying rate. Temperature influences the drying rate by increasing the moisture holding capacity of the air, as well as by accelerating the diffusion rate of moisture through the wood. The actual temperature in a drying kiln is the dry-bulb temperature (usually denoted by Tg), which is the temperature of a vapour-gas mixture determined by inserting a thermometer with a dry bulb. On the other hand, the wet-bulb temperature (TW) is defined as the temperature reached by a small amount of liquid evaporating in a large amount of an unsaturated air-vapour mixture. The temperature sensing element of this thermometer is kept moist with a porous fabric sleeve (cloth) usually put in a reservoir of clean water. A minimum air flow of 2\u00a0m/s is needed to prevent a zone of stagnant damp air formation around the sleeve (Walker \"et al.\", 1993). Since air passes over the wet sleeve, water is evaporated and cools the wet-bulb thermometer. The difference between the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures, the wet-bulb depression, is used to determine the relative humidity from a standard hygrometric chart (Walker \"et al.\", 1993). A higher difference between the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures indicates a lower relative humidity. For example, if the dry-bulb temperature is 100\u00a0\u00b0C and wet-bulb temperature 60\u00a0\u00b0C, then the relative humidity is read as 17% from a hygrometric chart.\n; Relative humidity: The relative humidity of air is defined as the partial pressure of water vapour divided by the saturated vapour pressure at the same temperature and total pressure (Siau, 1984). If the temperature is kept constant, lower relative humidities result in higher drying rates due to the increased moisture gradient in wood, resulting from the reduction of the moisture content in the surface layers when the relative humidity of air is reduced. The relative humidity is usually expressed on a percentage basis. For drying, the other essential parameter related to relative humidity is the absolute humidity, which is the mass of water vapour per unit mass of dry air (kg of water per kg of dry air). However, its influenced by the amount of water in the heated air.\n; Air circulation rate: Drying time and timber quality depend on the air velocity and its uniform circulation. At a constant temperature and relative humidity, the highest possible drying rate is obtained by rapid circulation of air across the surface of wood, giving rapid removal of moisture evaporating from the wood. However, a higher drying rate is not always desirable, particularly for impermeable hardwoods, because higher drying rates develop greater stresses that may cause the timber to crack or distort. At very low fan speeds, less than 1\u00a0m/s, the air flow through the stack is often laminar flow, and the heat transfer between the timber surface and the moving air stream is not particularly effective (Walker \"et al.\", 1993). The low effectiveness (externally) of heat transfer is not necessarily a problem if internal moisture movement is the key limitation to the movement of moisture, as it is for most hardwoods (Pordage and Langrish, 1999)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The main elements of chamber drying are:\n; Construction materials: The chambers are generally built of brick masonry, or hollow cement-concrete slabs. Sheet metal or prefabricated aluminium in a double-walled construction with sandwiched thermal insulation, such as glass wool or polyurethane foams, are materials that are also used in some modern timber ovens. However, brick masonry chambers, with lime and (mortar) plaster on the inside and painted with impermeable coatings, are used widely and have been found to be satisfactory for many applications.\n; Heating: Heating is usually carried out by steam heat exchangers and pipes of various configurations (e.g. plain, or finned (transverse or longitudinal) tubes) or by large flue pipes through which hot gases from a wood-burning furnace are passed. Only occasionally is electricity or gas employed for heating.\n; Humidification: Humidification is commonly accomplished by introducing live steam into the kiln through a steam spray pipe. In order to limit and control the humidity of the air when large quantities of moisture are being rapidly evaporated from the timber, there is normally a provision for ventilation of the chamber in all types of kilns.\n; Air circulation: Air circulation is the means for carrying the heat to and the moisture away from all parts of a load. Forced circulation kilns are most common, where the air is circulated by means of fans or blowers, which may be installed outside the kiln chamber (external fan kiln) or inside it (internal fan kiln)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Firewood",
        "text": "To reduce the drying time to a number of days from the normal one to three years, an external heating source such as a kiln or oven can be used. The process of kiln or oven drying firewood was invented by Anthony Cutara, for which a successful US patent was filed in 1983. In 1987 the US Department of Agriculture replicated the method and published a detailed procedure for the production of kiln dried firewood, citing the higher heat output and increased combustion efficiency as a key benefit of the process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "For some purposes, wood is not dried at all, and is used green. Often, wood must be in equilibrium with the air outside, as for construction wood, or the air indoors, as for wooden furniture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Log house",
        "text": "In North America, logs reach equilibrium moisture content at about 6% and 12%; since most kiln-dried logs are dried down to about 18% to 20% moisture content, kiln-dried logs can be expected to shrink and settle over time, but to a lesser extent than green logs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Softwoods such as pine are typically much lighter and easier to process than hardwoods such as fruit tree wood. The density of softwoods ranges from to , while hardwoods are to . Once dried, both consist of approximately 12% of moisture (\"Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996\"). Because of hardwood's denser and more complex structure, its permeability is much less than that of softwood, making it more difficult to dry. Although there are about a hundred times more species of hardwood trees than softwood trees, the ability to be dried and processed faster and more easily makes softwood the main supply of commercial wood today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The timber of living trees and fresh logs contains a large amount of water which often constitutes over 50% of the wood's weight. Water has a significant influence on wood. Wood continually exchanges moisture or water with its surroundings, although the rate of exchange is strongly affected by the degree to which wood is sealed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moisture meter",
        "text": "Newly-cut logs can have a moisture content (MC) of 80% or more, depending on species. Since wood shrinks, and can also split, twist or otherwise change shape as it dries, most wood is dried before being used. This is most often done using a kiln, but may use the air drying method, which is much slower. In most parts of the United States, the minimum moisture content that can be generally obtained in air drying is about 12 to 15 percent. Most air-dried material is usually closer to 20 percent moisture content when used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water content",
        "text": "The oven-dry method requires drying a wood sample in a special oven or kiln and checking the sample weight at regular time intervals. When the drying process is complete, the sample\u2019s weight is compared to its weight before drying, and the difference is used to calculate the wood\u2019s original moisture content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kurth Kiln",
        "text": "The kiln was unusual in that it could operate continually with the top loading of wood billets and bottom recovery of charcoal. A water-cooled grate at the bottom of the stack caused the brittle charred wood to crumble under its own weight into manageable pieces, while at the same time maintaining the charring temperature at the critical point to produce a consistent quality charcoal. Not only was this process said to be 50% faster than any other method then in use, but it was also 10-15% more efficient. So cooled charcoal was raked out the bottom as more wood was added into the top."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Southern Lumber Company",
        "text": "The mill complex had 24 steam-heated kilns, where lumber dried for 72 hours. Each kiln could dry more than 50,000 board feet (118 m\u00b3) of lumber. From the kilns, dried lumber was transported to stock sheds for storage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Solar kilns are conventional kilns, typically built by hobbyists to keep initial investment costs low. Heat is provided via solar radiation, while internal air circulation is typically passive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Water in wood normally moves from zones of higher to zones of lower moisture content (Walker \"et al.\", 1993). Drying starts from the exterior of the wood and moves towards the centre, and drying at the outside is also necessary to expel moisture from the inner zones of the wood. Wood subsequently attains equilibrium with the surrounding air in moisture content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Prompt drying of wood immediately after felling therefore significantly upgrades and adds value to raw timber. Drying enables substantial long-term economy by rationalizing the use of timber resources. The drying of wood is thus an area for research and development, which concern many researchers and timber companies around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiln",
        "text": "The total (harmful) air emissions produced by wood kilns, including their heat source, can be significant. Typically, the higher the temperature at which the kiln operates, the larger the quantity of emissions that are produced (per pound of water removed). This is especially true in the drying of thin veneers and high-temperature drying of softwoods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiln",
        "text": "Vacuum and radio frequency kilns reduce the air pressure to attempt to speed up the drying process. A variety of these vacuum technologies exist, varying primarily in the method heat is introduced into the wood charge. Hot water platten vacuum kilns use aluminum heating plates with the water circulating within as the heat source, and typically operate at significantly reduced absolute pressure. Discontinuous and SSV (super-heated steam) use atmosphere pressure to introduce heat into the kiln charge. The entire kiln charge comes up to full atmospheric pressure, the air in the chamber is then heated and finally a vacuum is pulled as the charge cools. SSV run at partial-atmospheres, typically around 1/3 of full atmospheric pressure, in a hybrid of vacuum and conventional kiln technology (SSV kilns are significantly more popular in Europe where the locally harvested wood is easier to dry than the North American woods.) RF/V (radio frequency + vacuum) kilns use microwave radiation to heat the kiln charge, and typically have the highest operating cost due to the heat of vaporization being provided by electricity rather than local fossil fuel or waste wood sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Throughout the process, it is necessary to keep close control of the moisture content using a moisture meter system in order to reduce over-drying and allow operators to know when to pull the charge. Preferably, this in-kiln moisture meter will have an auto-shutoff feature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Since all free water can be removed under 115'F, quality is improved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "There are two main reasons for drying wood:\n; Woodworking:When wood is used as a construction material, whether as a structural support in a building or in woodworking objects, it will absorb or expel moisture until it is in equilibrium with its surroundings. Equilibration (usually drying) causes unequal shrinkage in the wood, and can cause damage to the wood if equilibration occurs too rapidly. The equilibration must be controlled to prevent damage to the wood.\n; Wood burning: When wood is burned (firewood), it is usually best to dry it first. Damage from shrinkage is not a problem here, as it may be in the case of drying for woodworking purposes. Moisture affects the burning process, with unburnt hydrocarbons going up the chimney. If a 50% wet log is burnt at high temperature, with good heat extraction from the exhaust gas leading to a 100\u00a0\u00b0C exhaust temperature, about 5% of the energy of the log is wasted through evaporating and heating the water vapour. With condensers, the efficiency can be further increased; but, for the normal stove, the key to burning wet wood is to burn it very hot, perhaps starting fire with dry wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "The seasoning of lumber is typically either kiln- or air-dried. Defects due to seasoning are the main cause of splits, bowing and honeycombing. Seasoning is the process of drying timber to remove the bound moisture contained in the walls of the wood cells to produce seasoned timber."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Valid economic studies of different wood drying technologies are based on the total energy, capital, insurance/risk, environmental impacts, labor, maintenance, and product degrade costs for the task of removing water from the wood fiber. These costs (which can be a significant part of the entire plant costs) involve the differential impact of the presence of drying equipment in a specific plant. An example of this is that every piece of equipment (in a lumber manufacturing plant) from the green trimmer to the infeed system at the planer mill is the \"drying system\". Since thousands of different types of wood products manufacturing plants exist around the globe, and may be integrated (lumber, plywood, paper, etc.) or stand alone (lumber only), the true costs of the drying system can only be determined when comparing the total plant costs and risks with and without drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oak (wine)",
        "text": "Even though American coopers may use a kiln-dry method to season the wood, almost all others will season American oak in exactly the same way as French. Open air seasoning has the advantage of leaching undesirable chemical components and bitter tannins, mellowing the oak in a manner that kiln-dry methods are incapable of replicating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cooroy Lower Mill Site Kiln",
        "text": "The kiln is the only known example of a timber drying kiln in the Sunshine Coast region and it remains in a highly intact condition. A large number of sawmills and associated facilities were once located in this noted timber producing region. However, owing to economic and environmental factors, intact facilities have become increasingly uncommon since the middle of the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiln",
        "text": "Heat is typically introduced via steam running through fin/tube heat exchangers controlled by on/off pneumatic valves. Humidity is removed by a system of vents, the specific layout of which are usually particular to a given manufacturer. In general, cool dry air is introduced at one end of the kiln while warm moist air is expelled at the other. Hardwood conventional kilns also require the introduction of humidity via either steam spray or cold water misting systems to keep the relative humidity inside the kiln from dropping too low during the drying cycle. Fan directions are typically reversed periodically to ensure even drying of larger kiln charges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Differences in moisture content between the surface and the centre (gradient, the chemical potential difference between interface and bulk) move the bound water through the small passageways in the cell wall by diffusion. In comparison with capillary movement, diffusion is a slow process. Diffusion is the generally suggested mechanism for the drying of impermeable hardwoods (Keey \"et al.\", 2000). Furthermore, moisture migrates slowly due to the fact that extractives plug the small cell wall openings in the heartwood. This is why sapwood generally dries faster than heartwood under the same drying conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiln",
        "text": "Most softwood kilns operate below temperature. Hardwood kiln drying schedules typically keep the dry bulb temperature below . Difficult-to-dry species might not exceed ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tonewood",
        "text": "For most applications, wood must be dried before use, either in air or kilns. Some luthiers prefer further seasoning for several years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiln Wood",
        "text": "Kiln Wood\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood drying may be described as the art of ensuring that gross dimensional changes through shrinkage are confined to the drying process. Ideally, wood is dried to that equilibrium moisture content as will later (in service) be attained by the wood. Thus, further dimensional change will be kept to a minimum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Electrical seasoning involves running an electric current through the lumber causing heat to build up drying the wood. This method is expensive but is fast and uniform quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dipteryx micrantha",
        "text": "Freshly logged thick planks do not dry well naturally and have a tendency to warp, but planks to 13mm thick behave well when dried artificially slowly over a period of days in a kiln. The lumber is difficult to work as it is cross-grained and very hard, so it is best to use a bandsaw or other suitable power-tools. The lumber is naturally resistant to biological attack and does not need extra treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Drying timber is one method of adding value to sawn products from the primary wood processing industries. According to the Australian Forest and Wood Products Research and Development Corporation (FWPRDC), green sawn hardwood, which is sold at about $350 per cubic metre or less, increases in value to $2,000 per cubic metre or more with drying and processing. However, currently used conventional drying processes often result in significant quality problems from cracks, both externally and internally, reducing the value of the product. For example, in Queensland (Anon, 1997), on the assumption that 10% of the dried softwood is devalued by $200 per cubic metre because of drying defects, saw millers are losing about $5 million a year. In Australia, the loss could be $40 million a year for softwood and an equal or higher amount for hardwood. Thus, proper drying under controlled conditions prior to use is of great importance in timber use, in countries where climatic conditions vary considerably at different times of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "where \"a\", \"b\" and \"n\" are constants and formula_14 is the saturation vapor pressure of water at temperature \"T\". For time measured in days, length in inches, and formula_15 measured in mmHg, the following values of the constants were found for red oak lumber.\n:\"a\" = 0.0575\n:\"b\" = 0.00142\n:\"n\" = 1.52"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "1910.265(f)(3)(i)(c): Adequate means shall be provided to firmly secure main doors, when they are disengaged from carriers and hangers, to prevent toppling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stillwater, West Coast",
        "text": "The mill installed New Zealand's first continuous wood drying kiln in 2010 in addition to its existing batch kiln. It was built by the New Zealand company Windsor Engineering. The continuous drying kiln takes the timber into the kiln on an automated track where it is dried to the right moisture content using heating and heat recovery and forced cooling and conditioning phases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cement kiln",
        "text": "The wet process suffered the obvious disadvantage that, when the slurry was introduced into the kiln, a large amount of extra fuel was used in evaporating the water. Furthermore, a larger kiln was needed for a given clinker output, because much of the kiln's length was committed to the drying process. On the other hand, the wet process had a number of advantages. Wet grinding of hard minerals is usually much more efficient than dry grinding. When slurry is dried in the kiln, it forms a granular crumble that is ideal for subsequent heating in the kiln. In the dry process, it is very difficult to keep the fine powder rawmix in the kiln, because the fast-flowing combustion gases tend to blow it back out again. It became a practice to spray water into dry kilns in order to \"damp down\" the dry mix, and thus, for many years there was little difference in efficiency between the two processes, and the overwhelming majority of kilns used the wet process. By 1950, a typical large, wet process kiln, fitted with drying-zone heat exchangers, was 3.3 x 120 m in size, made 680 tonnes per day, and used about 0.25\u20130.30 tonnes of coal fuel for every tonne of clinker produced. Before the energy crisis of the 1970s put an end to new wet-process installations, kilns as large as 5.8 x 225 m in size were making 3000 tonnes per day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "In heartwood it occurs only in the first and last forms. Wood that is thoroughly air-dried retains 8\u201316% of the water in the cell walls, and none, or practically none, in the other forms. Even oven-dried wood retains a small percentage of moisture, but for all except chemical purposes, may be considered absolutely dry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The timbers are classified as follows according to their ease of drying and their proneness to drying degrade:\n; Highly refractory woods: These woods are slow and difficult to dry if the final product is to be free from defects, particularly cracks and splits. Examples are heavy structural timbers with high density such as ironbark (\"Eucalyptus paniculata\"), blackbutt (\"E. pilularis\"), southern blue gum (\"E. globulus\") and brush box (\"Lophostemon cofertus\"). They require considerable protection and care against rapid drying conditions for the best results (Bootle, 1994).\n; Moderately refractory woods: These timbers show a moderate tendency to crack and split during seasoning. They can be seasoned free from defects with moderately rapid drying conditions (i.e. a maximum dry-bulb temperature of 85\u00a0\u00b0C can be used). Examples are Sydney blue gum (\"E. saligna\") and other timbers of medium density (Bootle, 1994), which are potentially suitable for furniture.\n; Non-refractory woods: These woods can be rapidly seasoned to be free from defects even by applying high temperatures (dry-bulb temperatures of more than 100\u00a0\u00b0C) in industrial kilns. If not dried rapidly, they may develop discolouration (blue stain) and mould on the surface. Examples are softwoods and low density timbers such as \"Pinus radiata\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "It is reported that the ratio of the longitudinal to the transverse (radial and tangential) diffusion rates for wood ranges from about 100 at a moisture content of 5%, to 2\u20134 at a moisture content of 25% (Langrish and Walker, 1993). Radial diffusion is somewhat faster than tangential diffusion. Although longitudinal diffusion is most rapid, it is of practical importance only when short pieces are dried. Generally the timber boards are much longer than in width or thickness. For example, a typical size of a green board used for this research was 6m long, 250\u00a0mm in width and 43\u00a0mm in thickness. If the boards are quartersawn, then the width will be in the radial direction whereas the thickness will be in tangential direction, and vice versa for plain-sawn boards. Most of the moisture is removed from wood by lateral movement during drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood retains its hygroscopic characteristics after it is put into use. It is then subjected to fluctuating humidity, the dominant factor in determining its EMC. These fluctuations may be more or less cyclical, such as diurnal changes or annual seasonal changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Differential transverse shrinkage of wood is related to:\n# the alternation of late wood and early wood increments within the annual ring;\n# the influence of wood rays on the radial direction (Kollmann and Cote, 1968);\n# the features of the cell wall structure such as microfibril angle modifications and pits;\n# the chemical composition of the middle lamella."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cooroy Lower Mill Site Kiln",
        "text": "The kiln at Cooroy was the product of a post-World War II trend in the sawmill industry towards centralisation and larger operations to enable economies of scale. One of the motivations for this trend was the need to acquire technology like drying kilns in order to remain competitive. The amalgamation of sawmills made greater funds available for this equipment. Improvements in road transport, which enabled timber to be transported from a wider area, made the trend towards bigger centralised operations feasible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward Julius",
        "text": "Julius, with J. S. Barnes and Charles H. Homes, general manager of Sapfor, developed and patented a technique for speedier kiln-drying of Pinus insignis (or radiata) timber. The patent rights were assigned to Homes."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Bray Griffith",
        "text": "Suppose the location of lumber yard, dry kiln, lumber shed and factory to be such as shown in Fig. I. Note How the lumber must travel back and forth, crossing the same space three times. Compare this with the arrangement shown in Fig. II.The lumber is taken the shortest possible distance and never goes over the same ground twice. Where buildings have been permanently located it may not be possible to change the general plan, but improvements can be made in nearly all cases. Take the plan in Fig. I: If the lumber yard was located immediately back of the dry kiln, at least 25 per cent of the labor of handling the lumber would be saved. The plans which we have shown illustrate examples of good and bad system in the location of one class of stock."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The chemical potential is explained here since it is the true driving force for the transport of water in both liquid and vapour phases in wood (Siau, 1984). The Gibbs free energy per mole of substance is usually expressed as the chemical potential (Skaar, 1933). The chemical potential of unsaturated air or wood below the fibre saturation point influences the drying of wood. Equilibrium will occur at the equilibrium moisture content (as defined earlier) of wood when the chemical potential of the wood becomes equal to that of the surrounding air. The chemical potential of sorbed water is a function of wood moisture content. Therefore, a gradient of wood moisture content (between surface and centre), or more specifically of activity, is accompanied by a gradient of chemical potential under isothermal conditions. Moisture will redistribute itself throughout the wood until the chemical potential is uniform throughout, resulting in a zero potential gradient at equilibrium (Skaar, 1988). The flux of moisture attempting to achieve the equilibrium state is assumed to be proportional to the difference in chemical potential, and inversely proportional to the path length over which the potential difference acts (Keey \"et al.\", 2000)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The rate at which wood dries depends upon a number of factors, the most important of which are the temperature, the dimensions of the wood, and the relative humidity. Simpson and Tschernitz have developed a simple model of wood drying as a function of these three variables. Although the analysis was done for red oak, the procedure may be applied to any species of wood by adjusting the constant parameters of the model."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiln",
        "text": "Kiln\n--Pronunciation and etymology.\n--Uses of kilns.\n--Ceramic kilns.\n----Modern kilns.\n--Wood-drying kiln.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The standard organizations in Australia and New Zealand (AS/NZS 4787, 2001) have developed a standard for timber quality. The five measures of drying quality include:\n# moisture content gradient and presence of residual drying stress (case-hardening);\n# surface, internal and end checks;\n# collapse;\n# distortions;\n# discolouration caused by drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Drying defects are the most common form of degrade in timber, next to natural problems such as knots (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rubberwood",
        "text": "Rubberwood has a dense grain that is easily controlled in the kiln drying process. Rubberwood has very little shrinkage making it one of the more stable construction materials available for furniture, toys and kitchen accessories. It is easily worked, and takes on stains uniformly. As with all hardwoods, rubberwood comes in varying degrees of quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cairns Plywood Pty Ltd Sawmill Complex",
        "text": "The Drying Kilns is a timber-framed building with a corrugated iron roof and timber block footings. The kilns are two tongue and groove timber lined rooms comprising the inside of the building while three open sided verandahs form the outside. Above the ceiling of each drying chamber is a lined enclosed space which contains a series of parallel steam/hot water pipes feeding into a main pipe that leads towards the main steam boiler. Sections of the internal railway and timber carts used on the internal railway are stored under one verandah of the Drying Kilns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinus radiata",
        "text": "As timber \"P. radiata\" is suitable for a wide variety of uses, and has a resinous fragrance while being worked. It holds screws and nails well and takes paint and stain without difficulty, and modern kiln dried timber is very easy to work. It is about 1/3 heavier than dried western red cedar. It is brittle when bent, so does not have the same load-bearing features as Oregon pine (Douglas fir, \"Pseudotsuga\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biomass",
        "text": "When combusted in combustion facilities with the same heat-to-electricity conversion efficiency, oven dry wood emits slightly less CO2 per unit of heat produced, compared to oven dry coal. However, many biomass-only combustion facilities are relatively small and inefficient, compared to the typically much larger coal plants. Further, raw biomass (for instance wood chips) can have higher moisture content than coal (especially if the coal has been dried). When this is the case, more of the wood's inherent energy must be spent solely on evaporating moisture, compared to the drier coal, which means that the amount of CO2 emitted per unit produced heat will be higher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ochroma",
        "text": "Balsa lumber is very soft and light, with a coarse, open grain. The density of dry balsa wood ranges from 40 to 340\u00a0kg/m3, with a typical density around 160\u00a0kg/m3. Balsa is the softest wood ever measured using the Janka hardness test (22 to 167 lbf). The wood of the living tree has large cells that are filled with water. This gives the wood a spongy texture. It also makes the wood of the living tree not much lighter than water and barely able to float. For commercial production, the wood is kiln-dried for about two weeks, leaving the cells hollow and empty. The large volume-to-surface ratio of the resulting thin-walled, empty cells gives the dried wood a large strength-to-weight ratio because the cells are mostly air. Unlike naturally rotted wood, which soon disintegrates in the rainforests where balsa trees grow, the cell walls of kiln-seasoned balsa wood retain their strong structure of cellulose and lignin."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the most traditional style of wood drying?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Wood drying can be done in a kiln, resulting in kiln-dried timber or lumber, or it can be dried in air, which is the more traditional method."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is kiln-dried lumber superior to air dried lumber?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Advantages of kiln-dried lumber include higher throughput and better control of the final moisture content."
    ],
    "topic": "Wood drying",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Wood drying:54",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wood drying",
          "Methods of drying timber",
          "Kiln drying"
        ],
        "ctx": "Significant advantages of conventional kiln drying include higher throughput and better control of the final moisture content. Conventional kilns and solar drying both enable wood to be dried to any moisture content regardless of weather conditions. For most large-scale drying operations solar and conventional kiln drying are more efficient than air drying."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Satisfactory kiln drying can usually be accomplished by regulating the temperature and humidity of the circulating air to control the moisture content of the lumber at any given time. This condition is achieved by applying kiln-drying schedules. The desired objective of an appropriate schedule is to ensure drying lumber at the fastest possible rate without causing objectionable degrade. The following factors have a considerable bearing on the schedules.\n; The species: Variations in anatomical, physical, and mechanical properties between species affect drying times and overall results.\n; The thickness of the lumber: Drying time is inversely related to thickness and, to some extent, the width of the lumber.\n; Whether the lumber boards are quarter-sawn, flat-sawn, or bastard-sawn (mixed-sawn): Sawing pattern influences the distortion due to shrinkage anisotropy.\n; Permissible drying degrade: Aggressive drying schedules can cause timber to crack and distort.\n; Intended use of timber: Mechanical and aesthetic requirements will necessitate different moisture targets depending on the intended use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood drying (also seasoning lumber or wood seasoning) reduces the moisture content of wood before its use. When the drying is done in a kiln, the product is known as kiln-dried timber or lumber, whereas air drying is the more traditional method."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood drying\n--Types of wood.\n--Wood\u2013water relationships.\n----Moisture content.\n----Fibre saturation point.\n----Equilibrium moisture content.\n----Moisture content of wood in service.\n----Shrinkage and swelling.\n----Mechanisms of moisture movement.\n------Moisture passageways.\n------Moisture movement space.\n----Driving forces for moisture movement.\n------Capillary action.\n------Moisture content differences.\n------Moisture movement directions for diffusion.\n----Reasons for splits and cracks during timber drying and their control.\n----Influence of temperature, relative humidity and rate of air circulation.\n----Classification of timbers for drying.\n----Model.\n--Methods of drying timber.\n----Air drying.\n----Kiln drying.\n------Kiln drying schedules.\n----Dehumidification kiln.\n----Vacuum kiln.\n----Solar kiln.\n----Water seasoning.\n----Boiling or steam seasoning.\n----Chemical or salt seasoning.\n----Electrical seasoning.\n----Freeze drying.\n--Drying defects.\n--Wood-drying kiln.\n--OSHA Standards regarding Dry Kiln Facilities.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Log house",
        "text": "Mills that have a kiln on site have the option of artificially accelerating the drying process. Green timber is placed inside a large oven, where heat removes moisture from them; however, they can suffer severe checking and cracking if the kiln controls are not properly monitored during the drying process. Use of a kiln can reduce the drying time from many months to several weeks. Kiln-drying usually results in an average moisture content of 18-20% (\"average\" means the average moisture content of the outside and the center of the log)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Chamber drying provides a means of overcoming the limitations imposed by erratic weather conditions. With kiln drying, as is the case with air drying, unsaturated air is used as the drying medium. Almost all commercial timbers of the world are dried in industrial kilns. A comparison of air drying, conventional kiln and solar drying is given below:\n# Timber can be dried to any desired low-moisture content by conventional or solar kiln drying, but in air drying, moisture contents of less than 18% are difficult to attain for most locations.\n# The drying times are considerably less in conventional kiln drying than in solar kiln drying, followed by air drying.\n#* This means that if capital outlay is involved, this capital sits for a longer time when air drying is used. On the other hand, installing, operating and maintaining an industrial kiln is expensive.\n#* In addition, wood that is being air dried takes up space, which could also cost money.\n# In air drying, there is little control over the drying conditions, so drying rates cannot be controlled.\n# The temperatures employed in kiln drying typically kill all the fungi and insects in the wood if a maximum dry-bulb temperature of above 60\u00a0\u00b0C is used for the drying schedule. This is not guaranteed in air drying.\n# If air drying is done improperly (exposed to the sun), the rate of drying may be overly rapid in the dry summer months, causing cracking and splitting, and too slow during the cold winter months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Modern high-temperature, high-air-velocity conventional kilns can typically dry green lumber in 10 hours down to a moisture content of 18%. However, 1-inch-thick green Red Oak requires about 28 days to dry down to a moisture content of 8%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Significant advantages of conventional kiln drying include higher throughput and better control of the final moisture content. Conventional kilns and solar drying both enable wood to be dried to any moisture content regardless of weather conditions. For most large-scale drying operations solar and conventional kiln drying are more efficient than air drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moisture meter",
        "text": "Newly-cut logs can have a moisture content (MC) of 80% or more, depending on species. Since wood shrinks, and can also split, twist or otherwise change shape as it dries, most wood is dried before being used. This is most often done using a kiln, but may use the air drying method, which is much slower. In most parts of the United States, the minimum moisture content that can be generally obtained in air drying is about 12 to 15 percent. Most air-dried material is usually closer to 20 percent moisture content when used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood is air-dried or dried in a purpose built oven (kiln). Usually the wood is sawn before drying, but sometimes the log is dried whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiln",
        "text": "Green wood coming straight from the felled tree has far too high a moisture content to be commercially useful and will rot, warp and split. Both hardwoods and softwood must be left to dry out until the moisture content is between 18% and 8%. This can be a long process unless accelerated by use of a kiln. A variety of kiln technologies exist today: conventional, dehumidification, solar, vacuum and radio frequency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Since wood is dried with a vapor gradient - vapor pressure to ambient pressure - humidity can be kept very high. Because of this, a good vacuum kiln can dry 4.5\" thick White Oak fresh off the saw to 8% in less than a month. A feat that was previously thought to be impossible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The chief difficulty experienced in the drying of timber is the tendency of its outer layers to dry out more rapidly than the interior ones. If these layers are allowed to dry much below the fibre saturation point while the interior is still saturated, stresses (called drying stresses) are set up because the shrinkage of the outer layers is restricted by the wet interior (Keey \"et al.\", 2000). Rupture in the wood tissues occurs, and consequently splits and cracks occur if these stresses across the grain exceed the strength across the grain (fibre to fibre bonding)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "By going beyond kiln drying wood, heat treatment may make timber more durable. By heating timber to a certain temperature, it may be possible to make the wood fibre less appetizing to insects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The timber of living trees and fresh logs contains a large amount of water which often constitutes over 50% of the wood's weight. Water has a significant influence on wood. Wood continually exchanges moisture or water with its surroundings, although the rate of exchange is strongly affected by the degree to which wood is sealed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Log house",
        "text": "In North America, logs reach equilibrium moisture content at about 6% and 12%; since most kiln-dried logs are dried down to about 18% to 20% moisture content, kiln-dried logs can be expected to shrink and settle over time, but to a lesser extent than green logs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Heat is typically introduced via steam running through fin/tube heat exchangers controlled by on/off pneumatic valves. Less common are proportional pneumatic valves or even various electrical actuators. Humidity is removed via a system of vents, the specific layout of which are usually particular to a given manufacturer. In general, cool dry air is introduced at one end of the kiln while warm moist air is expelled at the other. Hardwood conventional kilns also require the introduction of humidity via either steam spray or cold water misting systems to keep the relative humidity inside the kiln from dropping too low during the drying cycle. Fan directions are typically reversed periodically to ensure even drying of larger kiln charges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The total (harmful) air emissions produced by wood kilns, including their heat source, can be significant. Typically, the higher the temperature the kiln operates at, the larger amount of emissions are produced (per pound of water removed). This is especially true in the drying of thin veneers and high-temperature drying of softwoods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The successful control of drying defects in a drying process consists in maintaining a balance between the rate of evaporation of moisture from the surface and the rate of outward movement of moisture from the interior of the wood. The way in which drying can be controlled will now be explained. One of the most successful ways of wood drying or seasoning would be kiln drying, where the wood is placed into a kiln compartment in stacks and dried by steaming, and releasing the steam slowly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Compartment-type kilns are most commonly used in timber companies. A compartment kiln is filled with a static batch of timber through which air is circulated. In these types of kiln, the timber remains stationary. The drying conditions are successively varied according to the type of timber being dried. This drying method is well suited to the needs of timber companies, which have to dry timbers of varied species and thickness, including refractory hardwoods that are more liable than other species to check and split."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Many properties of wood show considerable change as the wood is dried below the fibre saturation point, including:\n# volume (ideally no shrinkage occurs until some bound water is lost, that is, until wood is dried below FSP);\n# strength (strengths generally increase consistently as the wood is dried below the FSP (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996), except for impact-bending strength and, in some cases, toughness);\n# electrical resistivity, which increases very rapidly with the loss of bound water when the wood dries below the FSP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Keey \"et al.\" (2000) use a different definition of the fibre saturation point (equilibrium moisture content of wood in an environment of 99% relative humidity)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "Drying produces a decided increase in the strength of wood, particularly in small specimens. An extreme example is the case of a completely dry spruce block 5\u00a0cm in section, which will sustain a permanent load four times as great as a green (undried) block of the same size will."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Most softwood lumber kilns operate below temperature. Hardwood lumber kiln drying schedules typically keep the dry bulb temperature below . Difficult-to-dry species might not exceed ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Air drying is the drying of timber by exposing it to the air. The technique of air drying consists mainly of making a stack of sawn timber (with the layers of boards separated by stickers) on raised foundations, in a clean, cool, dry and shady place. Rate of drying largely depends on climatic conditions, and on the air movement (exposure to the wind). For successful air drying, a continuous and uniform flow of air throughout the pile of the timber needs to be arranged (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Throughout the process, it is necessary to keep close control of the moisture content using a moisture meter system in order to reduce over-drying and allow operators to know when to pull the charge. Preferably, this in-kiln moisture meter will have an auto-shutoff feature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "1910.265(f)(3)(i)(a): Main kiln doors shall be provided with a method of holding them open while kiln is being loaded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Water in wood normally moves from zones of higher to zones of lower moisture content (Walker \"et al.\", 1993). Drying starts from the exterior of the wood and moves towards the centre, and drying at the outside is also necessary to expel moisture from the inner zones of the wood. Wood subsequently attains equilibrium with the surrounding air in moisture content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "In addition to the above advantages of drying timber, the following points are also significant (Walker \"et al.\", 1993; Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996):\n# Dried timber is lighter, and the transportation and handling costs are reduced.\n# Dried timber is stronger than green timber in most strength properties.\n# Timbers for impregnation with preservatives have to be properly dried if proper penetration is to be accomplished, particularly in the case of oil-type preservatives.\n# In the field of chemical modification of wood and wood products, the material should be dried to a certain moisture content for the appropriate reactions to occur.\n# Dry wood generally works, machines, finishes and glues better than green timber (although there are exceptions; for instance, green wood is often easier to turn than dry wood). Paints and finishes last longer on dry timber.\n# The electrical and thermal insulation properties of wood are improved by drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The rate of loss of moisture can be controlled by coating the planks with any substance that is relatively impermeable to moisture; ordinary mineral oil is usually quite effective. Coating the ends of logs with oil or thick paint improves their quality upon drying. Wrapping planks or logs in materials which will allow some movement of moisture, generally works very well provided the wood is first treated against fungal infection by coating in petrol/gasoline or oil. Mineral oil will generally not soak in more than 1\u20132\u00a0mm below the surface and is easily removed by planing when the timber is suitably dry.\n* Benefits: It can be less expensive to use this drying method (there are still costs associated with storing the wood, and with the slower process of getting the wood to market), and air drying often produces a higher quality, more easily workable wood than with kiln drying.\n* Drawbacks: Depending on the climate, it takes several months to a number of years to air-dry the wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "There are two main reasons for drying wood:\n; Woodworking:When wood is used as a construction material, whether as a structural support in a building or in woodworking objects, it will absorb or expel moisture until it is in equilibrium with its surroundings. Equilibration (usually drying) causes unequal shrinkage in the wood, and can cause damage to the wood if equilibration occurs too rapidly. The equilibration must be controlled to prevent damage to the wood.\n; Wood burning: When wood is burned (firewood), it is usually best to dry it first. Damage from shrinkage is not a problem here, as it may be in the case of drying for woodworking purposes. Moisture affects the burning process, with unburnt hydrocarbons going up the chimney. If a 50% wet log is burnt at high temperature, with good heat extraction from the exhaust gas leading to a 100\u00a0\u00b0C exhaust temperature, about 5% of the energy of the log is wasted through evaporating and heating the water vapour. With condensers, the efficiency can be further increased; but, for the normal stove, the key to burning wet wood is to burn it very hot, perhaps starting fire with dry wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "1910.265(f)(3)(ii)(a): If operating procedures require access to kilns, kilns shall be provided with escape doors that operate easily from the inside, swing in the direction of exit, and are located in or near the main door at the end of the passageway."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The external drying conditions (temperature, relative humidity and air velocity) control the external boundary conditions for drying, and hence the drying rate, as well as affecting the rate of internal moisture movement. The drying rate is affected by external drying conditions (Walker \"et al.\", 1993; Keey \"et al.\", 2000), as will now be described.\n; Temperature: If the relative humidity is kept constant, the higher the temperature, the higher the drying rate. Temperature influences the drying rate by increasing the moisture holding capacity of the air, as well as by accelerating the diffusion rate of moisture through the wood. The actual temperature in a drying kiln is the dry-bulb temperature (usually denoted by Tg), which is the temperature of a vapour-gas mixture determined by inserting a thermometer with a dry bulb. On the other hand, the wet-bulb temperature (TW) is defined as the temperature reached by a small amount of liquid evaporating in a large amount of an unsaturated air-vapour mixture. The temperature sensing element of this thermometer is kept moist with a porous fabric sleeve (cloth) usually put in a reservoir of clean water. A minimum air flow of 2\u00a0m/s is needed to prevent a zone of stagnant damp air formation around the sleeve (Walker \"et al.\", 1993). Since air passes over the wet sleeve, water is evaporated and cools the wet-bulb thermometer. The difference between the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures, the wet-bulb depression, is used to determine the relative humidity from a standard hygrometric chart (Walker \"et al.\", 1993). A higher difference between the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures indicates a lower relative humidity. For example, if the dry-bulb temperature is 100\u00a0\u00b0C and wet-bulb temperature 60\u00a0\u00b0C, then the relative humidity is read as 17% from a hygrometric chart.\n; Relative humidity: The relative humidity of air is defined as the partial pressure of water vapour divided by the saturated vapour pressure at the same temperature and total pressure (Siau, 1984). If the temperature is kept constant, lower relative humidities result in higher drying rates due to the increased moisture gradient in wood, resulting from the reduction of the moisture content in the surface layers when the relative humidity of air is reduced. The relative humidity is usually expressed on a percentage basis. For drying, the other essential parameter related to relative humidity is the absolute humidity, which is the mass of water vapour per unit mass of dry air (kg of water per kg of dry air). However, its influenced by the amount of water in the heated air.\n; Air circulation rate: Drying time and timber quality depend on the air velocity and its uniform circulation. At a constant temperature and relative humidity, the highest possible drying rate is obtained by rapid circulation of air across the surface of wood, giving rapid removal of moisture evaporating from the wood. However, a higher drying rate is not always desirable, particularly for impermeable hardwoods, because higher drying rates develop greater stresses that may cause the timber to crack or distort. At very low fan speeds, less than 1\u00a0m/s, the air flow through the stack is often laminar flow, and the heat transfer between the timber surface and the moving air stream is not particularly effective (Walker \"et al.\", 1993). The low effectiveness (externally) of heat transfer is not necessarily a problem if internal moisture movement is the key limitation to the movement of moisture, as it is for most hardwoods (Pordage and Langrish, 1999)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Submersion in boiling water or the application of steam speed the drying of wood. This method is said to cause less shrinkage \"\u2026 but it is expensive to use, and reduces the strength and elasticity of the timber.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Immersion in running water quickly removes sap and then the wood is air dried. \"...it reduces the elasticity and durability of the wood and also makes it brittle.\" But there are competing perspectives, e.g., \"Duhamel, who made many experiments on this important subject, states, that timber for the joiner's use is best put in water for some time, and afterwards dried; as it renders the timber less liable to warp and crack in drying; but, he adds, 'where strength is required it ought not to be put in water.'\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiln",
        "text": "The economics of different wood drying technologies are based on the total energy, capital, insurance/risk, environmental impacts, labor, maintenance, and product degradation costs. These costs, which can be a significant part of plant costs, involve the differential impact of the presence of drying equipment in a specific plant. Every piece of equipment from the green trimmer to the infeed system at the planer mill is part of the \"drying system\". The true costs of the drying system can only be determined when comparing the total plant costs and risks with and without drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "The greatest strength increase due to drying is in the ultimate crushing strength, and strength at elastic limit in endwise compression; these are followed by the modulus of rupture, and stress at elastic limit in cross-bending, while the modulus of elasticity is least affected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "1910.265(f)(4): \"Pits\". Pits shall be well ventilated, drained, and lighted, and shall be large enough to safely accommodate the kiln operator together with operating devices such as valves, dampers, damper rods, and traps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood drying may be described as the art of ensuring that gross dimensional changes through shrinkage are confined to the drying process. Ideally, wood is dried to that equilibrium moisture content as will later (in service) be attained by the wood. Thus, further dimensional change will be kept to a minimum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The chemical potential is explained here since it is the true driving force for the transport of water in both liquid and vapour phases in wood (Siau, 1984). The Gibbs free energy per mole of substance is usually expressed as the chemical potential (Skaar, 1933). The chemical potential of unsaturated air or wood below the fibre saturation point influences the drying of wood. Equilibrium will occur at the equilibrium moisture content (as defined earlier) of wood when the chemical potential of the wood becomes equal to that of the surrounding air. The chemical potential of sorbed water is a function of wood moisture content. Therefore, a gradient of wood moisture content (between surface and centre), or more specifically of activity, is accompanied by a gradient of chemical potential under isothermal conditions. Moisture will redistribute itself throughout the wood until the chemical potential is uniform throughout, resulting in a zero potential gradient at equilibrium (Skaar, 1988). The flux of moisture attempting to achieve the equilibrium state is assumed to be proportional to the difference in chemical potential, and inversely proportional to the path length over which the potential difference acts (Keey \"et al.\", 2000)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water content",
        "text": "The oven-dry method requires drying a wood sample in a special oven or kiln and checking the sample weight at regular time intervals. When the drying process is complete, the sample\u2019s weight is compared to its weight before drying, and the difference is used to calculate the wood\u2019s original moisture content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "A variety of wood drying kiln technologies exist today: conventional, dehumidification, solar, vacuum and radio frequency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Where formula_11 is the initial moisture content. It was found that for red oak lumber, the \"time constant\" formula_8 was well expressed as:\n:formula_13"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood is a hygroscopic substance. It has the ability to take in or give off moisture in the form of vapour. Water contained in wood exerts vapour pressure of its own, which is determined by the maximum size of the capillaries filled with water at any time. If water vapour pressure in the ambient space is lower than vapour pressure within wood, desorption takes place. The largest-sized capillaries, which are full of water at the time, empty first. Vapour pressure within the wood falls as water is successively contained in smaller capillaries. A stage is eventually reached when vapour pressure within the wood equals vapour pressure in the ambient space above the wood, and further desorption ceases. The amount of moisture that remains in the wood at this stage is in equilibrium with water vapour pressure in the ambient space, and is termed the equilibrium moisture content or EMC (Siau, 1984). Because of its hygroscopicity, wood tends to reach a moisture content that is in equilibrium with the relative humidity and temperature of the surrounding air."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Dehumidification kilns are very similar to conventional kilns in basic construction. Drying times are usually comparable. Heat is primarily supplied by an integral dehumidification unit which also serves to remove humidity. Auxiliary heat is often provided early in the schedule where the heat required may exceed the heat generated by the DH unit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "For example, at 150\u00b0F, using the Arden Buck equation, the saturation vapor pressure of water is found to be about . The time constant for drying a red oak board at 150\u00b0F is then formula_17 days, which is the time required to reduce the moisture content to 1/e = 37% of its initial deviation from equilibrium. If the relative humidity is 0.50, then using the Hailwood-Horrobin equation the moisture content of the wood at equilibrium is about 7.4%. The time to reduce the lumber from 85% moisture content to 25% moisture content is then about 4.5 days. Higher temperatures will yield faster drying times, but they will also create greater stresses in the wood due because the moisture gradient will be larger. For firewood, this is not an issue but for woodworking purposes, high stresses will cause the wood to crack and be unusable. Normal drying times to obtain minimal seasoning checks (cracks) in 25mm (1inch or 4/4 lumber) Red Oak ranges from 22 to 30 days, and in 8/4, (50mm or 2inch) it will range from 65 to 90 days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "The seasoning of lumber is typically either kiln- or air-dried. Defects due to seasoning are the main cause of splits, bowing and honeycombing. Seasoning is the process of drying timber to remove the bound moisture contained in the walls of the wood cells to produce seasoned timber."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Differences in moisture content between the surface and the centre (gradient, the chemical potential difference between interface and bulk) move the bound water through the small passageways in the cell wall by diffusion. In comparison with capillary movement, diffusion is a slow process. Diffusion is the generally suggested mechanism for the drying of impermeable hardwoods (Keey \"et al.\", 2000). Furthermore, moisture migrates slowly due to the fact that extractives plug the small cell wall openings in the heartwood. This is why sapwood generally dries faster than heartwood under the same drying conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "When green wood dries, free water from the cell lumina, held by the capillary forces only, is the first to go. Physical properties, such as strength and shrinkage, are generally not affected by the removal of free water. The fibre saturation point (FSP) is defined as the moisture content at which free water should be completely gone, while the cell walls are saturated with bound water. In most types of woods, the fibre saturation point is at 25 to 30% moisture content. Siau (1984) reported that the fibre saturation point formula_4 (kg/kg) is dependent on the temperature T (\u00b0C) according to the following equation:\n:formula_5 (1.2)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "As wood dries, evaporation of water from the surface sets up capillary forces that exert a pull on the free water in the zones of wood beneath the surfaces. When there is no longer any free water in the wood capillary forces are no longer of importance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "where \"a\", \"b\" and \"n\" are constants and formula_14 is the saturation vapor pressure of water at temperature \"T\". For time measured in days, length in inches, and formula_15 measured in mmHg, the following values of the constants were found for red oak lumber.\n:\"a\" = 0.0575\n:\"b\" = 0.00142\n:\"n\" = 1.52"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The process of artificial or 'oven' drying consists basically of introducing heat. This may be directly, using natural gas and/or electricity or indirectly, through steam-heated heat exchangers. Solar energy is also an option. In the process, deliberate control of temperature, relative humidity and air circulation creates variable conditions to achieve specific drying profiles. To achieve this, the timber is stacked in chambers, which are fitted with equipment to control atmospheric temperature, relative humidity and circulation rate (Walker \"et al.', 1993; Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Conventional wood dry kilns (Rasmussen, 1988) are either package-type (sideloader) or track-type (tram) construction. Most hardwood lumber kilns are sideloader kilns in which fork trucks are used to load lumber packages into the kiln. Most softwood lumber kilns are track types in which lumber packages are loaded on kiln/track cars for loading the kiln."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Prompt drying of wood immediately after felling therefore significantly upgrades and adds value to raw timber. Drying enables substantial long-term economy by rationalizing the use of timber resources. The drying of wood is thus an area for research and development, which concern many researchers and timber companies around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "For some purposes, wood is not dried at all, and is used green. Often, wood must be in equilibrium with the air outside, as for construction wood, or the air indoors, as for wooden furniture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "These kilns can be the fastest to dry and most efficient with energy usage. At a vacuum water boils at a lower temperature. In addition to speed a vacuum kiln can also produce an improved quality in the wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood retains its hygroscopic characteristics after it is put into use. It is then subjected to fluctuating humidity, the dominant factor in determining its EMC. These fluctuations may be more or less cyclical, such as diurnal changes or annual seasonal changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Considering each of the factors, no one schedule is necessarily appropriate, even for similar loads of the same species. This is why there is so much timber drying research focused on the development of effective drying schedules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiln",
        "text": "Kiln dried firewood was pioneered during the 1980s, and was later adopted extensively in Europe due to the economic and practical benefits of selling wood with a lower moisture content (with optimal moisture levels of under 20% being much easier to achieve)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "A dehumidification chamber can be an unvented system (closed loop) or a partially vented system which uses a heat pump to condense moisture from the air using cold side of the refrigeration process (evaporator.) The heat thus gathered is sent to the hot side of the refrigeration process (condenser) to re-heat the air and returns this drier and warmer air inside the kiln. Fans blow the air through the piles as in a normal kiln. These kilns traditionally operate from 100\u00a0\u00b0F to 160\u00a0\u00b0F and use about half the energy of a conventional kiln."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The main elements of chamber drying are:\n; Construction materials: The chambers are generally built of brick masonry, or hollow cement-concrete slabs. Sheet metal or prefabricated aluminium in a double-walled construction with sandwiched thermal insulation, such as glass wool or polyurethane foams, are materials that are also used in some modern timber ovens. However, brick masonry chambers, with lime and (mortar) plaster on the inside and painted with impermeable coatings, are used widely and have been found to be satisfactory for many applications.\n; Heating: Heating is usually carried out by steam heat exchangers and pipes of various configurations (e.g. plain, or finned (transverse or longitudinal) tubes) or by large flue pipes through which hot gases from a wood-burning furnace are passed. Only occasionally is electricity or gas employed for heating.\n; Humidification: Humidification is commonly accomplished by introducing live steam into the kiln through a steam spray pipe. In order to limit and control the humidity of the air when large quantities of moisture are being rapidly evaporated from the timber, there is normally a provision for ventilation of the chamber in all types of kilns.\n; Air circulation: Air circulation is the means for carrying the heat to and the moisture away from all parts of a load. Forced circulation kilns are most common, where the air is circulated by means of fans or blowers, which may be installed outside the kiln chamber (external fan kiln) or inside it (internal fan kiln)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "1910.265(f)(3)(i)(c): Adequate means shall be provided to firmly secure main doors, when they are disengaged from carriers and hangers, to prevent toppling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "Wood is a hygroscopic material, which means it naturally absorbs and releases water to balance its internal moisture content with the surrounding environment. The moisture content of wood is measured by the weight of water as a percentage of the oven-dry weight of the wood fiber. The key to controlling decay is controlling moisture. Once decay fungi are established, the minimum moisture content for decay to propagate is 22 to 24 percent, so building experts recommend 19 percent as the maximum safe moisture content for untreated wood in service. Water by itself does not harm the wood, but rather, wood with consistently high moisture content enables fungal organisms to grow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moisture meter",
        "text": "In-kiln drying is usually monitored by some type of moisture meter. Moisture meters are used to measure the amount of water in the wood so that the woodworker can determine if it is suitable for the intended purpose. Building inspectors and many more, carpenters, hobbyists, and other woodworkers often are required to have moisture meters. Wood flooring installers, for example, have to verify that the MC of the wood matches the relative humidity in the air of the building. If this step is skipped, a vast array of problems may present itself: cracking, cupping, crowning, buckling, sunken joints, and cracked finishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Broadly, there are two methods by which timber can be dried:\n* natural drying or air drying\n* artificial drying"
      },
      {
        "title": "Green wood",
        "text": "Green lumber presents its own characteristics as well. Some species of wood are better assembled green because wood splits less when nailed green. Other species shrink excessively, leaving voids between the individual pieces when allowed to dry. Often wood to be used for fine products, such as furniture, is kiln dried to stabilize it and minimise the shrinkage of the finished product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "It is reported that the ratio of the longitudinal to the transverse (radial and tangential) diffusion rates for wood ranges from about 100 at a moisture content of 5%, to 2\u20134 at a moisture content of 25% (Langrish and Walker, 1993). Radial diffusion is somewhat faster than tangential diffusion. Although longitudinal diffusion is most rapid, it is of practical importance only when short pieces are dried. Generally the timber boards are much longer than in width or thickness. For example, a typical size of a green board used for this research was 6m long, 250\u00a0mm in width and 43\u00a0mm in thickness. If the boards are quartersawn, then the width will be in the radial direction whereas the thickness will be in tangential direction, and vice versa for plain-sawn boards. Most of the moisture is removed from wood by lateral movement during drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Drying, if carried out promptly after felling of trees, also protects timber against primary decay, fungal stain and attack by certain kinds of insects. Organisms, which cause decay and stain, generally cannot thrive in timber with a moisture content below 20%. Several, though not all, insect pests can live only in green timber."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Southern Lumber Company",
        "text": "The mill complex had 24 steam-heated kilns, where lumber dried for 72 hours. Each kiln could dry more than 50,000 board feet (118 m\u00b3) of lumber. From the kilns, dried lumber was transported to stock sheds for storage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The driving force of moisture movement is chemical potential. However, it is not always easy to relate chemical potential in wood to commonly observable variables, such as temperature and moisture content (Keey \"et al.\", 2000). Moisture in wood moves within the wood as liquid or vapour through several types of passageways, based on the nature of the driving force, (e.g. pressure or moisture gradient), and variations in wood structure (Langrish and Walker, 1993), as explained in the next section on driving forces for moisture movement. These pathways consist of cavities of the vessels, fibres, ray cells, pit chambers and their pit membrane openings, intercellular spaces and transitory cell wall passageways."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The EMC of wood varies with the ambient relative humidity (a function of temperature) significantly, to a lesser degree with the temperature. Siau (1984) reported that the EMC also varies very slightly with species, mechanical stress, drying history of wood, density, extractives content and the direction of sorption in which the moisture change takes place (i.e. adsorption or desorption)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Since all free water can be removed under 115'F, quality is improved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "In heartwood it occurs only in the first and last forms. Wood that is thoroughly air-dried retains 8\u201316% of the water in the cell walls, and none, or practically none, in the other forms. Even oven-dried wood retains a small percentage of moisture, but for all except chemical purposes, may be considered absolutely dry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The moisture content of wood is calculated as the mass change as a proportion of the dry mass, by the formula (Siau, 1984):\n: formula_1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "Wood with less than 25% moisture (dry weight basis) can remain free of decay for centuries. Similarly, wood submerged in water may not be attacked by fungi if the amount of oxygen is inadequate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moisture meter",
        "text": "A moisture meter gives a reading of the approximate moisture content of wood. The reading helps in determining whether the wood is suitably dry for its intended purpose. The moisture content reading can also assist in planning a project design that will accommodate future changes in dimension caused by changes in relative humidity. The amount of overall shrinkage lumber will undergo in the drying process varies from wood species to wood species. The difference between radial and tangential shrinkage also varies from species to species. Woods with a low ratio of tangential to radial shrinkage, such as teak and mahogany, are less prone to distortion due to changes in moisture content than woods with a high ratio, such as eastern white pine and certain species of oak. Species with both low overall shrinkage and a low tangential/radial shrinkage ratio are more stable and will react better to changes in moisture content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiln",
        "text": "Conventional wood dry kilns are either package-type (side-loader) or track-type (tram) construction. Most hardwood lumber kilns are side-loader kilns in which fork trucks are used to load lumber packages into the kiln. Most softwood kilns are track types in which the timber (US: \"lumber\") is loaded on kiln/track cars for loading the kiln. Modern high-temperature, high-air-velocity conventional kilns can typically dry green wood in 10 hours down to a moisture content of 18%. However, 1-inch-thick green red oak requires about 28 days to dry down to a moisture content of 8%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The gradient in chemical potential is related to the moisture content gradient as explained in above equations (Keey \"et al.\", 2000). The diffusion model using moisture content gradient as a driving force was applied successfully by Wu (1989) and Doe \"et al.\" (1994). Though the agreement between the moisture-content profiles predicted by the diffusion model based on moisture-content gradients is better at lower moisture contents than at higher ones, there is no evidence to suggest that there are significantly different moisture-transport mechanisms operating at higher moisture contents for this timber. Their observations are consistent with a transport process that is driven by the total concentration of water. The diffusion model is used for this thesis based on this empirical evidence that the moisture-content gradient is a driving force for drying this type of impermeable timber."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cooroy Lower Mill Site Kiln",
        "text": "As the first drying kiln to be built in the region, it demonstrates the trend from the mid-20th Century towards improving efficiency using more scientific methods. As the product of a joint venture between major sawmilling companies, it also demonstrates the trend, at the time, towards centralizing operations to finance shared capital equipment. The drying kiln enabled timber to be seasoned more rapidly and it enabled timber to be sold to markets that demanded lower moisture content than could be achieved by air seasoning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water content",
        "text": "For wood, the convention is to report moisture content on oven-dry basis (i.e. generally drying sample in an oven set at 105 deg Celsius for 24 hours or until it stops losing weight). In wood drying, this is an important concept."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood-burning stove",
        "text": "Firewood with a moisture content below 20 per cent by weight can burn efficiently. This is the \"free\" moisture content absorbed in the wood fibers, and does not include the chemically-bound hydrogen and oxygen content. Moisture content can be reduced by outdoor air-drying (\"seasoning\"), for a period of several months in summer weather. Solar-powered or fuel-fired kilns can accelerate the drying process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Valid economic studies of different wood drying technologies are based on the total energy, capital, insurance/risk, environmental impacts, labor, maintenance, and product degrade costs for the task of removing water from the wood fiber. These costs (which can be a significant part of the entire plant costs) involve the differential impact of the presence of drying equipment in a specific plant. An example of this is that every piece of equipment (in a lumber manufacturing plant) from the green trimmer to the infeed system at the planer mill is the \"drying system\". Since thousands of different types of wood products manufacturing plants exist around the globe, and may be integrated (lumber, plywood, paper, etc.) or stand alone (lumber only), the true costs of the drying system can only be determined when comparing the total plant costs and risks with and without drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Case hardening describes lumber or timber that has been dried too rapidly. Wood initially dries from the shell (surface), shrinking the shell and putting the core under compression. When this shell is at a low moisture content it will 'set' and resist shrinkage. The core of the wood is still at a higher moisture content. This core will then begin to dry and shrink. However, any shrinkage is resisted by the already 'set' shell. This leads to reversed stresses; compression stresses on the shell and tension stresses in the core. This results in unrelieved stress called case hardening. Case-hardened [wood] may warp considerably and dangerously when the stress is released by sawing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Simply put, the model assumes that the rate of change of the moisture content \"M\" with respect to time \"t\" is proportional to how far the wood sample is from its equilibrium moisture content formula_6, which is a function of the temperature \"T\" and relative humidity \"h\":\n:formula_7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fibre saturation point",
        "text": "Fibre saturation point is a term used in wood mechanics and especially wood drying, to denote the point in the drying process at which only water bound in the cell walls remains - all other water, called free water, having been removed from the cell cavities. Further drying of the wood results in strengthening of the wood fibres, and is usually accompanied by shrinkage. Wood is normally dried to a point where it is in equilibrium with the atmospheric moisture content or relative humidity, and since this varies so does the equilibrium moisture content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Differential transverse shrinkage of wood is related to:\n# the alternation of late wood and early wood increments within the annual ring;\n# the influence of wood rays on the radial direction (Kollmann and Cote, 1968);\n# the features of the cell wall structure such as microfibril angle modifications and pits;\n# the chemical composition of the middle lamella."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The rate at which wood dries depends upon a number of factors, the most important of which are the temperature, the dimensions of the wood, and the relative humidity. Simpson and Tschernitz have developed a simple model of wood drying as a function of these three variables. Although the analysis was done for red oak, the procedure may be applied to any species of wood by adjusting the constant parameters of the model."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Softwoods such as pine are typically much lighter and easier to process than hardwoods such as fruit tree wood. The density of softwoods ranges from to , while hardwoods are to . Once dried, both consist of approximately 12% of moisture (\"Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996\"). Because of hardwood's denser and more complex structure, its permeability is much less than that of softwood, making it more difficult to dry. Although there are about a hundred times more species of hardwood trees than softwood trees, the ability to be dried and processed faster and more easily makes softwood the main supply of commercial wood today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dry rot",
        "text": "The perpetual saturation of wood with water also inhibits dry rot, as does perpetual dryness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiln",
        "text": "The total (harmful) air emissions produced by wood kilns, including their heat source, can be significant. Typically, the higher the temperature at which the kiln operates, the larger the quantity of emissions that are produced (per pound of water removed). This is especially true in the drying of thin veneers and high-temperature drying of softwoods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood contains water in three forms:\n; Free water: The bulk of water contained in the cell lumina is only held by capillary forces. It is not bound chemically and is called free water. Free water is not in the same thermodynamic state as liquid water: energy is required to overcome the capillary forces. Furthermore, free water may contain chemicals, altering the drying characteristics of wood.\n; Bound or hygroscopic water: Bound water is bound to the wood via hydrogen bonds. The attraction of wood for water arises from the presence of free hydroxyl (OH) groups in the cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin molecules in the cell wall. The hydroxyl groups are negatively charged. Because water is a polar liquid, the free hydroxyl groups in cellulose attract and hold water by hydrogen bonding.\n; Vapor: Water in cell lumina in the form of water vapour is normally negligible at normal temperature and humidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Electrical seasoning involves running an electric current through the lumber causing heat to build up drying the wood. This method is expensive but is fast and uniform quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The available space for air and moisture in wood depends on the density and porosity of wood. Porosity is the volume fraction of void space in a solid. The porosity is reported to be 1.2 to 4.6% of dry volume of wood cell wall (Siau, 1984). On the other hand, permeability is a measure of the ease with which fluids are transported through a porous solid under the influence of some driving forces, e.g. capillary pressure gradient or moisture gradient. It is clear that solids must be porous to be permeable, but it does not necessarily follow that all porous bodies are permeable. Permeability can only exist if the void spaces are interconnected by openings. For example, a hardwood may be permeable because there is intervessel pitting with openings in the membranes (Keey \"et al.\", 2000). If these membranes are occluded or encrusted, or if the pits are aspirated, the wood assumes a closed-cell structure and may be virtually impermeable. The density is also important for impermeable hardwoods because more cell-wall material is traversed per unit distance, which offers increased resistance to diffusion (Keey \"et al.\", 2000). Hence lighter woods, in general, dry more rapidly than do the heavier woods. The transport of fluids is often bulk flow (momentum transfer) for permeable softwoods at high temperature while diffusion occurs for impermeable hardwoods (Siau, 1984). These mechanisms are discussed below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Solving for the drying time yields:\n:formula_16"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "The primary objective when addressing moisture loads is to keep water from entering the building envelope in the first place and to balance the moisture content within the building itself. Moisture control by means of accepted design and construction details is a simple and practical method of protecting a wood-frame building against decay. For applications with a high risk of staying wet, designers specify durable materials such as naturally decay-resistant species or wood that has been treated with preservatives. Cladding, shingles, sill plates and exposed timbers or glulam beams are examples of potential applications for treated wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Shrinkage and swelling may occur in wood when the moisture content is changed (Stamm, 1964). Shrinkage occurs as moisture content decreases, while swelling takes place when it increases. Volume change is not equal in all directions. The greatest dimensional change occurs in a direction tangential to the growth rings. Shrinkage from the pith outwards, or radially, is usually considerably less than tangential shrinkage, while longitudinal (along the grain) shrinkage is so slight as to be usually neglected. The longitudinal shrinkage is 0.1% to 0.3%, in contrast to transverse shrinkages, which is 2% to 10%. Tangential shrinkage is often about twice as great as in the radial direction, although in some species it is as much as five times as great. The shrinkage is about 5% to 10% in the tangential direction and about 2% to 6% in the radial direction (Walker \"et al.\", 1993)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Drying defects are the most common form of degrade in timber, next to natural problems such as knots (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stillwater, West Coast",
        "text": "The mill installed New Zealand's first continuous wood drying kiln in 2010 in addition to its existing batch kiln. It was built by the New Zealand company Windsor Engineering. The continuous drying kiln takes the timber into the kiln on an automated track where it is dried to the right moisture content using heating and heat recovery and forced cooling and conditioning phases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "In 1949 a Chicago company introduced a wood drying kiln that used infrared lamps that they claimed reduced the standard drying time from 14 days to 45 minutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Bray Griffith",
        "text": "Suppose the location of lumber yard, dry kiln, lumber shed and factory to be such as shown in Fig. I. Note How the lumber must travel back and forth, crossing the same space three times. Compare this with the arrangement shown in Fig. II.The lumber is taken the shortest possible distance and never goes over the same ground twice. Where buildings have been permanently located it may not be possible to change the general plan, but improvements can be made in nearly all cases. Take the plan in Fig. I: If the lumber yard was located immediately back of the dry kiln, at least 25 per cent of the labor of handling the lumber would be saved. The plans which we have shown illustrate examples of good and bad system in the location of one class of stock."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drying",
        "text": "Among non-food products, some of those that require considerable drying are wood (as part of timber processing), paper, flax, and washing powder. The first two, owing to their organic origins, may develop mold if insufficiently dried. Another benefit of drying is a reduction in volume and weight."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the most traditional style of wood drying?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Wood drying can be done in a kiln, resulting in kiln-dried timber or lumber, or it can be dried in air, which is the more traditional method."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is kiln-dried lumber superior to air dried lumber?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Advantages of kiln-dried lumber include higher throughput and better control of the final moisture content."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is having moisture in lumber important?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I couldn't find the information you requested, but I did learn that wood is a hygroscopic material, which means it naturally absorbs and releases water to balance its internal moisture content with the surrounding environment.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "Wood drying reduces the moisture content of wood before its use, and lumber if dried in a kiln. But I don't have any information on the importance of having moisture in lumber."
    ],
    "topic": "Wood drying",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Lumber:45",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Lumber",
          "Durability and service life",
          "Moisture control"
        ],
        "ctx": "Wood is a hygroscopic material, which means it naturally absorbs and releases water to balance its internal moisture content with the surrounding environment. The moisture content of wood is measured by the weight of water as a percentage of the oven-dry weight of the wood fiber. The key to controlling decay is controlling moisture. Once decay fungi are established, the minimum moisture content for decay to propagate is 22 to 24 percent, so building experts recommend 19 percent as the maximum safe moisture content for untreated wood in service. Water by itself does not harm the wood, but rather, wood with consistently high moisture content enables fungal organisms to grow."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Wood drying:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wood drying"
        ],
        "ctx": "Wood drying (also seasoning lumber or wood seasoning) reduces the moisture content of wood before its use. When the drying is done in a kiln, the product is known as kiln-dried timber or lumber, whereas air drying is the more traditional method."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Shrinkage and swelling may occur in wood when the moisture content is changed (Stamm, 1964). Shrinkage occurs as moisture content decreases, while swelling takes place when it increases. Volume change is not equal in all directions. The greatest dimensional change occurs in a direction tangential to the growth rings. Shrinkage from the pith outwards, or radially, is usually considerably less than tangential shrinkage, while longitudinal (along the grain) shrinkage is so slight as to be usually neglected. The longitudinal shrinkage is 0.1% to 0.3%, in contrast to transverse shrinkages, which is 2% to 10%. Tangential shrinkage is often about twice as great as in the radial direction, although in some species it is as much as five times as great. The shrinkage is about 5% to 10% in the tangential direction and about 2% to 6% in the radial direction (Walker \"et al.\", 1993)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood is a hygroscopic substance. It has the ability to take in or give off moisture in the form of vapour. Water contained in wood exerts vapour pressure of its own, which is determined by the maximum size of the capillaries filled with water at any time. If water vapour pressure in the ambient space is lower than vapour pressure within wood, desorption takes place. The largest-sized capillaries, which are full of water at the time, empty first. Vapour pressure within the wood falls as water is successively contained in smaller capillaries. A stage is eventually reached when vapour pressure within the wood equals vapour pressure in the ambient space above the wood, and further desorption ceases. The amount of moisture that remains in the wood at this stage is in equilibrium with water vapour pressure in the ambient space, and is termed the equilibrium moisture content or EMC (Siau, 1984). Because of its hygroscopicity, wood tends to reach a moisture content that is in equilibrium with the relative humidity and temperature of the surrounding air."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Many properties of wood show considerable change as the wood is dried below the fibre saturation point, including:\n# volume (ideally no shrinkage occurs until some bound water is lost, that is, until wood is dried below FSP);\n# strength (strengths generally increase consistently as the wood is dried below the FSP (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996), except for impact-bending strength and, in some cases, toughness);\n# electrical resistivity, which increases very rapidly with the loss of bound water when the wood dries below the FSP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The chief difficulty experienced in the drying of timber is the tendency of its outer layers to dry out more rapidly than the interior ones. If these layers are allowed to dry much below the fibre saturation point while the interior is still saturated, stresses (called drying stresses) are set up because the shrinkage of the outer layers is restricted by the wet interior (Keey \"et al.\", 2000). Rupture in the wood tissues occurs, and consequently splits and cracks occur if these stresses across the grain exceed the strength across the grain (fibre to fibre bonding)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood drying may be described as the art of ensuring that gross dimensional changes through shrinkage are confined to the drying process. Ideally, wood is dried to that equilibrium moisture content as will later (in service) be attained by the wood. Thus, further dimensional change will be kept to a minimum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "There are two main reasons for drying wood:\n; Woodworking:When wood is used as a construction material, whether as a structural support in a building or in woodworking objects, it will absorb or expel moisture until it is in equilibrium with its surroundings. Equilibration (usually drying) causes unequal shrinkage in the wood, and can cause damage to the wood if equilibration occurs too rapidly. The equilibration must be controlled to prevent damage to the wood.\n; Wood burning: When wood is burned (firewood), it is usually best to dry it first. Damage from shrinkage is not a problem here, as it may be in the case of drying for woodworking purposes. Moisture affects the burning process, with unburnt hydrocarbons going up the chimney. If a 50% wet log is burnt at high temperature, with good heat extraction from the exhaust gas leading to a 100\u00a0\u00b0C exhaust temperature, about 5% of the energy of the log is wasted through evaporating and heating the water vapour. With condensers, the efficiency can be further increased; but, for the normal stove, the key to burning wet wood is to burn it very hot, perhaps starting fire with dry wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood retains its hygroscopic characteristics after it is put into use. It is then subjected to fluctuating humidity, the dominant factor in determining its EMC. These fluctuations may be more or less cyclical, such as diurnal changes or annual seasonal changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Submersion in boiling water or the application of steam speed the drying of wood. This method is said to cause less shrinkage \"\u2026 but it is expensive to use, and reduces the strength and elasticity of the timber.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Moisture meter",
        "text": "A moisture meter gives a reading of the approximate moisture content of wood. The reading helps in determining whether the wood is suitably dry for its intended purpose. The moisture content reading can also assist in planning a project design that will accommodate future changes in dimension caused by changes in relative humidity. The amount of overall shrinkage lumber will undergo in the drying process varies from wood species to wood species. The difference between radial and tangential shrinkage also varies from species to species. Woods with a low ratio of tangential to radial shrinkage, such as teak and mahogany, are less prone to distortion due to changes in moisture content than woods with a high ratio, such as eastern white pine and certain species of oak. Species with both low overall shrinkage and a low tangential/radial shrinkage ratio are more stable and will react better to changes in moisture content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Water in wood normally moves from zones of higher to zones of lower moisture content (Walker \"et al.\", 1993). Drying starts from the exterior of the wood and moves towards the centre, and drying at the outside is also necessary to expel moisture from the inner zones of the wood. Wood subsequently attains equilibrium with the surrounding air in moisture content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The timber of living trees and fresh logs contains a large amount of water which often constitutes over 50% of the wood's weight. Water has a significant influence on wood. Wood continually exchanges moisture or water with its surroundings, although the rate of exchange is strongly affected by the degree to which wood is sealed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "The greatest strength increase due to drying is in the ultimate crushing strength, and strength at elastic limit in endwise compression; these are followed by the modulus of rupture, and stress at elastic limit in cross-bending, while the modulus of elasticity is least affected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Differential transverse shrinkage of wood is related to:\n# the alternation of late wood and early wood increments within the annual ring;\n# the influence of wood rays on the radial direction (Kollmann and Cote, 1968);\n# the features of the cell wall structure such as microfibril angle modifications and pits;\n# the chemical composition of the middle lamella."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moisture meter",
        "text": "The problems caused by varying degrees of moisture content in wood go beyond simple shrinkage in the dimensions of wood parts. Problems with distortions in the shape of the wood, such as twisting, warping and cupping, occur because of the difference in the degree of dimensional change in wood cells tangentially (perpendicular to the grain and parallel to the growth rings) versus radially (perpendicular to the growth rings)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "Drying produces a decided increase in the strength of wood, particularly in small specimens. An extreme example is the case of a completely dry spruce block 5\u00a0cm in section, which will sustain a permanent load four times as great as a green (undried) block of the same size will."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Case hardening describes lumber or timber that has been dried too rapidly. Wood initially dries from the shell (surface), shrinking the shell and putting the core under compression. When this shell is at a low moisture content it will 'set' and resist shrinkage. The core of the wood is still at a higher moisture content. This core will then begin to dry and shrink. However, any shrinkage is resisted by the already 'set' shell. This leads to reversed stresses; compression stresses on the shell and tension stresses in the core. This results in unrelieved stress called case hardening. Case-hardened [wood] may warp considerably and dangerously when the stress is released by sawing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "Wood is a hygroscopic material, which means it naturally absorbs and releases water to balance its internal moisture content with the surrounding environment. The moisture content of wood is measured by the weight of water as a percentage of the oven-dry weight of the wood fiber. The key to controlling decay is controlling moisture. Once decay fungi are established, the minimum moisture content for decay to propagate is 22 to 24 percent, so building experts recommend 19 percent as the maximum safe moisture content for untreated wood in service. Water by itself does not harm the wood, but rather, wood with consistently high moisture content enables fungal organisms to grow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "As wood dries, evaporation of water from the surface sets up capillary forces that exert a pull on the free water in the zones of wood beneath the surfaces. When there is no longer any free water in the wood capillary forces are no longer of importance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moisture meter",
        "text": "Newly-cut logs can have a moisture content (MC) of 80% or more, depending on species. Since wood shrinks, and can also split, twist or otherwise change shape as it dries, most wood is dried before being used. This is most often done using a kiln, but may use the air drying method, which is much slower. In most parts of the United States, the minimum moisture content that can be generally obtained in air drying is about 12 to 15 percent. Most air-dried material is usually closer to 20 percent moisture content when used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Woodturning",
        "text": "Moisture content affects both the ease of cutting wood and the final shape of the work when it dries. Wetter wood cuts easily with a continuous ribbon of shavings that are relatively dust-free. However, the wet wood moves as it dries. shrinking less along the grain. These variable changes may add the illusion of an oval bowl, or draw attention to features of the wood. Dry wood is necessary for turnings that require precision, as in the fit of a lid to a box, or in forms where pieces are glued together."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "The physical properties of any material are determined by its chemical structure. Wood contains an abundance of chemical groups called \"free hydroxyls\". Free hydroxyl groups readily absorb and release water according to changes in the climatic conditions to which they are exposed. This is the main reason why wood's dimensional stability is impacted by swelling and shrinking. It is also believed that the digestion of wood by enzymes initiates at the free hydroxyl sites, which is one of the principal reasons why wood is prone to decay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood stabilization",
        "text": "Wood Stabilization is a series of processes which use pressure and/or vacuum to impregnate wood cellular structure with certain monomers, acrylics, phenolics or other resins to improve dimensional stability and/or material properties. When exposed to moisture through humidity absorption or direct immersion, most wood species will expand and change shape. When moisture comes into contact with wood, the water molecules penetrate the cell wall and become bound to cell wall components through hydrogen bonding. With addition of water to the cell wall, wood volume increases nearly proportionally to the volume of water added. Swelling increases until the fiber saturation point has been reached. Wood stabilization limits water absorption into the wood structure, thereby limiting the dimensional changes which arise from moisture exposure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Differences in moisture content between the surface and the centre (gradient, the chemical potential difference between interface and bulk) move the bound water through the small passageways in the cell wall by diffusion. In comparison with capillary movement, diffusion is a slow process. Diffusion is the generally suggested mechanism for the drying of impermeable hardwoods (Keey \"et al.\", 2000). Furthermore, moisture migrates slowly due to the fact that extractives plug the small cell wall openings in the heartwood. This is why sapwood generally dries faster than heartwood under the same drying conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dry rot",
        "text": "The perpetual saturation of wood with water also inhibits dry rot, as does perpetual dryness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "There are two types of drying defects, although some defects involve both causes:\n# Defects from shrinkage anisotropy, resulting in warping: cupping, bowing, twisting, crooking, spring and diamonding.\n# Defects from uneven drying, resulting in the rupture of the wood tissue, such as checks (surface, end and internal), end splits, honey-combing and case hardening. Collapse, often shown as corrugation, or so-called \"washboarding\" of the wood surface, may also occur (Innes, 1996). Collapse is a defect that results from the physical flattening of fibres to above the fibre saturation point and is thus not a form of shrinkage anisotropy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservation and restoration of clocks",
        "text": "Due to its porous nature, wood is significantly impacted through contact with water. When humidity is high, the excess water in the air is absorbed, resulting in wood expansion, while little to no water in the air when humidity is low can cause wood shrinkage. Such changes in character from the wood's original state can lead to damage. Types of low humidity-related wood damage include \u201c[...] structural cracks, lifting veneer and inlays, gaps in joints and the embrittlement of adhesives.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "When green wood dries, free water from the cell lumina, held by the capillary forces only, is the first to go. Physical properties, such as strength and shrinkage, are generally not affected by the removal of free water. The fibre saturation point (FSP) is defined as the moisture content at which free water should be completely gone, while the cell walls are saturated with bound water. In most types of woods, the fibre saturation point is at 25 to 30% moisture content. Siau (1984) reported that the fibre saturation point formula_4 (kg/kg) is dependent on the temperature T (\u00b0C) according to the following equation:\n:formula_5 (1.2)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood contains water in three forms:\n; Free water: The bulk of water contained in the cell lumina is only held by capillary forces. It is not bound chemically and is called free water. Free water is not in the same thermodynamic state as liquid water: energy is required to overcome the capillary forces. Furthermore, free water may contain chemicals, altering the drying characteristics of wood.\n; Bound or hygroscopic water: Bound water is bound to the wood via hydrogen bonds. The attraction of wood for water arises from the presence of free hydroxyl (OH) groups in the cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin molecules in the cell wall. The hydroxyl groups are negatively charged. Because water is a polar liquid, the free hydroxyl groups in cellulose attract and hold water by hydrogen bonding.\n; Vapor: Water in cell lumina in the form of water vapour is normally negligible at normal temperature and humidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "where \"a\", \"b\" and \"n\" are constants and formula_14 is the saturation vapor pressure of water at temperature \"T\". For time measured in days, length in inches, and formula_15 measured in mmHg, the following values of the constants were found for red oak lumber.\n:\"a\" = 0.0575\n:\"b\" = 0.00142\n:\"n\" = 1.52"
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservation and restoration of wooden furniture",
        "text": "Shrinkage: A loss of mass or size in response to dry relative humidity conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Satisfactory kiln drying can usually be accomplished by regulating the temperature and humidity of the circulating air to control the moisture content of the lumber at any given time. This condition is achieved by applying kiln-drying schedules. The desired objective of an appropriate schedule is to ensure drying lumber at the fastest possible rate without causing objectionable degrade. The following factors have a considerable bearing on the schedules.\n; The species: Variations in anatomical, physical, and mechanical properties between species affect drying times and overall results.\n; The thickness of the lumber: Drying time is inversely related to thickness and, to some extent, the width of the lumber.\n; Whether the lumber boards are quarter-sawn, flat-sawn, or bastard-sawn (mixed-sawn): Sawing pattern influences the distortion due to shrinkage anisotropy.\n; Permissible drying degrade: Aggressive drying schedules can cause timber to crack and distort.\n; Intended use of timber: Mechanical and aesthetic requirements will necessitate different moisture targets depending on the intended use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The EMC of wood varies with the ambient relative humidity (a function of temperature) significantly, to a lesser degree with the temperature. Siau (1984) reported that the EMC also varies very slightly with species, mechanical stress, drying history of wood, density, extractives content and the direction of sorption in which the moisture change takes place (i.e. adsorption or desorption)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fibre saturation point",
        "text": "Fibre saturation point is a term used in wood mechanics and especially wood drying, to denote the point in the drying process at which only water bound in the cell walls remains - all other water, called free water, having been removed from the cell cavities. Further drying of the wood results in strengthening of the wood fibres, and is usually accompanied by shrinkage. Wood is normally dried to a point where it is in equilibrium with the atmospheric moisture content or relative humidity, and since this varies so does the equilibrium moisture content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood finishing",
        "text": "Wood\u2019s moisture content affects the staining of wood. Changes in wood moisture content can result in swelling and shrinkage of wood which can stress and crack coatings. Both problems can be avoided by storing wood indoors in an environment where it can equilibriate to a recommended moisture content (6 to 8%) that is similar to that of the intended end use of the furniture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The driving force of moisture movement is chemical potential. However, it is not always easy to relate chemical potential in wood to commonly observable variables, such as temperature and moisture content (Keey \"et al.\", 2000). Moisture in wood moves within the wood as liquid or vapour through several types of passageways, based on the nature of the driving force, (e.g. pressure or moisture gradient), and variations in wood structure (Langrish and Walker, 1993), as explained in the next section on driving forces for moisture movement. These pathways consist of cavities of the vessels, fibres, ray cells, pit chambers and their pit membrane openings, intercellular spaces and transitory cell wall passageways."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Keey \"et al.\" (2000) use a different definition of the fibre saturation point (equilibrium moisture content of wood in an environment of 99% relative humidity)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "where formula_8 is a function of the temperature \"T\" and a typical wood dimension \"L\" and has units of time. The typical wood dimension is roughly the smallest value of (formula_9) which are the radial, tangential and longitudinal dimensions respectively, in inches, with the longitudinal dimension divided by ten because water diffuses about 10 times more rapidly in the longitudinal direction (along the grain) than in the lateral dimensions. The solution to the above equation is:\n:formula_10"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "For example, at 150\u00b0F, using the Arden Buck equation, the saturation vapor pressure of water is found to be about . The time constant for drying a red oak board at 150\u00b0F is then formula_17 days, which is the time required to reduce the moisture content to 1/e = 37% of its initial deviation from equilibrium. If the relative humidity is 0.50, then using the Hailwood-Horrobin equation the moisture content of the wood at equilibrium is about 7.4%. The time to reduce the lumber from 85% moisture content to 25% moisture content is then about 4.5 days. Higher temperatures will yield faster drying times, but they will also create greater stresses in the wood due because the moisture gradient will be larger. For firewood, this is not an issue but for woodworking purposes, high stresses will cause the wood to crack and be unusable. Normal drying times to obtain minimal seasoning checks (cracks) in 25mm (1inch or 4/4 lumber) Red Oak ranges from 22 to 30 days, and in 8/4, (50mm or 2inch) it will range from 65 to 90 days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "For some purposes, wood is not dried at all, and is used green. Often, wood must be in equilibrium with the air outside, as for construction wood, or the air indoors, as for wooden furniture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "Wood with less than 25% moisture (dry weight basis) can remain free of decay for centuries. Similarly, wood submerged in water may not be attacked by fungi if the amount of oxygen is inadequate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood drying\n--Types of wood.\n--Wood\u2013water relationships.\n----Moisture content.\n----Fibre saturation point.\n----Equilibrium moisture content.\n----Moisture content of wood in service.\n----Shrinkage and swelling.\n----Mechanisms of moisture movement.\n------Moisture passageways.\n------Moisture movement space.\n----Driving forces for moisture movement.\n------Capillary action.\n------Moisture content differences.\n------Moisture movement directions for diffusion.\n----Reasons for splits and cracks during timber drying and their control.\n----Influence of temperature, relative humidity and rate of air circulation.\n----Classification of timbers for drying.\n----Model.\n--Methods of drying timber.\n----Air drying.\n----Kiln drying.\n------Kiln drying schedules.\n----Dehumidification kiln.\n----Vacuum kiln.\n----Solar kiln.\n----Water seasoning.\n----Boiling or steam seasoning.\n----Chemical or salt seasoning.\n----Electrical seasoning.\n----Freeze drying.\n--Drying defects.\n--Wood-drying kiln.\n--OSHA Standards regarding Dry Kiln Facilities.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The moisture content of wood is calculated as the mass change as a proportion of the dry mass, by the formula (Siau, 1984):\n: formula_1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The rate at which wood dries depends upon a number of factors, the most important of which are the temperature, the dimensions of the wood, and the relative humidity. Simpson and Tschernitz have developed a simple model of wood drying as a function of these three variables. Although the analysis was done for red oak, the procedure may be applied to any species of wood by adjusting the constant parameters of the model."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joinery",
        "text": "Timber expands and contracts in response to humidity, usually much less so longitudinally than in the radial and tangential directions. As tracheophytes, trees have lignified tissues which transport resources such as water, minerals and photosynthetic products up and down the plant. While lumber from a harvested tree is no longer alive, these tissues still absorb and expel water causing swelling and shrinkage of the wood in kind with change in humidity. When the dimensional stability of the wood is paramount, quarter-sawn or rift-sawn lumber is preferred because its grain pattern is consistent and thus reacts less to humidity.\n* Joints can be designed to hold without the use of glue or fasteners; a pinned mortise and tenon is an example of this.\n* Glue is highly effective for joining timber when both surfaces of the joint are edge grain. A properly glued joint may be as strong or stronger than a single piece of wood. However, glue is notably less effective on end-grain surfaces. Animal glue is soluble in water, producing joints that can be disassembled using steam to soften the glue.\n* Various mechanical fasteners may be used, the simplest being nails and screws. Glue and fasteners can be used together."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Where formula_11 is the initial moisture content. It was found that for red oak lumber, the \"time constant\" formula_8 was well expressed as:\n:formula_13"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood is air-dried or dried in a purpose built oven (kiln). Usually the wood is sawn before drying, but sometimes the log is dried whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood drying (also seasoning lumber or wood seasoning) reduces the moisture content of wood before its use. When the drying is done in a kiln, the product is known as kiln-dried timber or lumber, whereas air drying is the more traditional method."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "In heartwood it occurs only in the first and last forms. Wood that is thoroughly air-dried retains 8\u201316% of the water in the cell walls, and none, or practically none, in the other forms. Even oven-dried wood retains a small percentage of moisture, but for all except chemical purposes, may be considered absolutely dry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Log house",
        "text": "The logs in log houses have a varying degree of moisture content; all logs have moisture when freshly cut. In the case of handcrafted logs moisture will naturally leave the timber, drying it out until it stabilizes with its climate. This drying-out causes movement and shrinking of the log's diameter. As logs and timbers dry, the differential shrinkage (radial versus tangential) causes small cracks (known as \"checks\") to open slowly over time. Checking is a natural process in both air- and kiln-dried logs. This occurs in all log houses regardless of construction method or how the timber is allowed to dry, and is considered normal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Capillary forces determine the movements (or absence of movement) of free water. It is due to both adhesion and cohesion. Adhesion is the attraction between water to other substances and cohesion is the attraction of the molecules in water to each other."
      },
      {
        "title": "Craquelure",
        "text": "Similarly, wood supports respond significantly to changes in RH. Wood grains tend to swell perpendicular to the grain axis when they are exposed to moisture. As a wet ground layer is applied to the surface of a wood support, the wood in contact with the layer swells while the back of the panel remains unchanged. This can contribute to cupping, in which the panel of wood starts to bow transverse to the wood grain. The increased strains on the convex side of the cupped wood panel causes further fracture in the ground layer as it dries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Simply put, the model assumes that the rate of change of the moisture content \"M\" with respect to time \"t\" is proportional to how far the wood sample is from its equilibrium moisture content formula_6, which is a function of the temperature \"T\" and relative humidity \"h\":\n:formula_7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Log house",
        "text": "In North America, logs reach equilibrium moisture content at about 6% and 12%; since most kiln-dried logs are dried down to about 18% to 20% moisture content, kiln-dried logs can be expected to shrink and settle over time, but to a lesser extent than green logs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dry rot",
        "text": "The term \"dry rot\" is somewhat misleading, as both species of fungi \"Serpula lacrymans\" and \"Meruliporia incrassata\" require an elevated moisture content to initiate an attack on timber (28\u201330%). Once established, the fungi can remain active in timber with a moisture content of more than 20%. At relative humidities below 86 percent, growth of \"Serpula lacrymans\" is inhibited, but it can stay dormant at relative humidities down to 76 percent. These relative humidities correspond to equilibrium moisture contents of wood of 19 and 15 percent, respectively. It is to be remembered that most forms of rot cannot be stopped."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Drying, if carried out promptly after felling of trees, also protects timber against primary decay, fungal stain and attack by certain kinds of insects. Organisms, which cause decay and stain, generally cannot thrive in timber with a moisture content below 20%. Several, though not all, insect pests can live only in green timber."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "It is reported that the ratio of the longitudinal to the transverse (radial and tangential) diffusion rates for wood ranges from about 100 at a moisture content of 5%, to 2\u20134 at a moisture content of 25% (Langrish and Walker, 1993). Radial diffusion is somewhat faster than tangential diffusion. Although longitudinal diffusion is most rapid, it is of practical importance only when short pieces are dried. Generally the timber boards are much longer than in width or thickness. For example, a typical size of a green board used for this research was 6m long, 250\u00a0mm in width and 43\u00a0mm in thickness. If the boards are quartersawn, then the width will be in the radial direction whereas the thickness will be in tangential direction, and vice versa for plain-sawn boards. Most of the moisture is removed from wood by lateral movement during drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Equilibrium moisture content",
        "text": "where \"m\" is the mass of the wood (with moisture) and formula_2 is the oven-dry mass of wood (i.e. no moisture). If the wood is placed in an environment at a particular temperature and relative humidity, its moisture content will generally begin to change in time, until it is finally in equilibrium with its surroundings, and the moisture content no longer changes in time. This moisture content is the EMC of the wood for that temperature and relative humidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Humidity",
        "text": "When the temperature is high and the relative humidity is low, evaporation of water is rapid; soil dries, wet clothes hung on a line or rack dry quickly, and perspiration readily evaporates from the skin. Wooden furniture can shrink, causing the paint that covers these surfaces to fracture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Freeze drying is accomplished by lowering the pressure in a chamber containing the wood to a few millibars, while lowering the temperature of the chamber to below the eutectic point of the material. Heat is typically added slowly to the material to allow the water contained in the wood to sublimate directly into vapor, and be deposited on the sides of the vacuum chamber or in the cold trap through which the chamber is evacuated. Freeze drying through sublimation typically takes about 10 times the energy that is taken through evaporation of water by heat. In practice, freeze drying of wood can be accomplished by placing room temperature wood in a vacuum chamber that can be chilled to -30 degrees C or lower, evacuating the chamber to a few millibars, and at the same time cooling the chamber to a freezing temperature. The latent heat in the wood will come out through the water vapor and condense as ice on the inside of the chamber. After a few hours under vacuum and freezing conditions, the chamber is returned to normal pressure, the wood removed and bagged in plastic to keep water from condensing on it, and allowed to return to room temperature over a few hours to a day. The cycle is then repeated, each time the latent heat in the wood is removed through the water content in the wood sublimating and/or evaporating and condensing on the sides of the container and in the cold trap. The cycles are repeated until the moisture content of the wood is at a pre-determined acceptable level. Instead of cycling the wood in the chamber, heat can be added to the wood at a rate that matches the rate of sublimation of ice in the wood to water vapor, which is deposited on the inside of the chamber or in the cold trap. An advantage to freeze drying wood is that the form of the wood is maintained, and shrinkage does not typically occur. Shrinkage will occur over time after the wood is freeze dried, but this typically will not cause defects in the wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Immersion in running water quickly removes sap and then the wood is air dried. \"...it reduces the elasticity and durability of the wood and also makes it brittle.\" But there are competing perspectives, e.g., \"Duhamel, who made many experiments on this important subject, states, that timber for the joiner's use is best put in water for some time, and afterwards dried; as it renders the timber less liable to warp and crack in drying; but, he adds, 'where strength is required it ought not to be put in water.'\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The chemical potential is explained here since it is the true driving force for the transport of water in both liquid and vapour phases in wood (Siau, 1984). The Gibbs free energy per mole of substance is usually expressed as the chemical potential (Skaar, 1933). The chemical potential of unsaturated air or wood below the fibre saturation point influences the drying of wood. Equilibrium will occur at the equilibrium moisture content (as defined earlier) of wood when the chemical potential of the wood becomes equal to that of the surrounding air. The chemical potential of sorbed water is a function of wood moisture content. Therefore, a gradient of wood moisture content (between surface and centre), or more specifically of activity, is accompanied by a gradient of chemical potential under isothermal conditions. Moisture will redistribute itself throughout the wood until the chemical potential is uniform throughout, resulting in a zero potential gradient at equilibrium (Skaar, 1988). The flux of moisture attempting to achieve the equilibrium state is assumed to be proportional to the difference in chemical potential, and inversely proportional to the path length over which the potential difference acts (Keey \"et al.\", 2000)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green wood",
        "text": "Green lumber presents its own characteristics as well. Some species of wood are better assembled green because wood splits less when nailed green. Other species shrink excessively, leaving voids between the individual pieces when allowed to dry. Often wood to be used for fine products, such as furniture, is kiln dried to stabilize it and minimise the shrinkage of the finished product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The available space for air and moisture in wood depends on the density and porosity of wood. Porosity is the volume fraction of void space in a solid. The porosity is reported to be 1.2 to 4.6% of dry volume of wood cell wall (Siau, 1984). On the other hand, permeability is a measure of the ease with which fluids are transported through a porous solid under the influence of some driving forces, e.g. capillary pressure gradient or moisture gradient. It is clear that solids must be porous to be permeable, but it does not necessarily follow that all porous bodies are permeable. Permeability can only exist if the void spaces are interconnected by openings. For example, a hardwood may be permeable because there is intervessel pitting with openings in the membranes (Keey \"et al.\", 2000). If these membranes are occluded or encrusted, or if the pits are aspirated, the wood assumes a closed-cell structure and may be virtually impermeable. The density is also important for impermeable hardwoods because more cell-wall material is traversed per unit distance, which offers increased resistance to diffusion (Keey \"et al.\", 2000). Hence lighter woods, in general, dry more rapidly than do the heavier woods. The transport of fluids is often bulk flow (momentum transfer) for permeable softwoods at high temperature while diffusion occurs for impermeable hardwoods (Siau, 1984). These mechanisms are discussed below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Since all free water can be removed under 115'F, quality is improved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Broadly, there are two methods by which timber can be dried:\n* natural drying or air drying\n* artificial drying"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "There are two main natural forces responsible for causing defects in timber: abnormal growth and rupture of tissues. Rupture of tissue includes cracks or splits in the wood called \"shakes\". \"Ring shake\", \"wind shake\", or \"ring failure\" is when the wood grain separates around the growth rings either while standing or during felling. Shakes may reduce the strength of a timber and the appearance thus reduce lumber grade and may capture moisture, promoting decay. Eastern hemlock is known for having ring shake. A \"check\" is a crack on the surface of the wood caused by the outside of a timber shrinking as it seasons. Checks may extend to the pith and follow the grain. Like shakes, checks can hold water promoting rot. A \"split\" goes all the way through a timber. Checks and splits occur more frequently at the ends of lumber because of the more rapid drying in these locations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eusideroxylon zwageri",
        "text": "The wood has a radial shrinkage rate of 2\u20134.5% and a tangential shrinkage rate of tangential 4.5\u20137.5%. The timber dries slowly, and care is needed to avoid checks and splits. The wood is famed for its easy working characteristics, despite high density. The wood planes, bores and turns cleanly, producing smooth and often lustrous surfaces. Nailing requires pre-bores prior to nailing. Saw blades and cutting instruments are only moderate blunted during working the timber. Apparently, the wood is difficult to glue with synthetic resins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Air drying is the drying of timber by exposing it to the air. The technique of air drying consists mainly of making a stack of sawn timber (with the layers of boards separated by stickers) on raised foundations, in a clean, cool, dry and shady place. Rate of drying largely depends on climatic conditions, and on the air movement (exposure to the wind). For successful air drying, a continuous and uniform flow of air throughout the pile of the timber needs to be arranged (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "The seasoning of lumber is typically either kiln- or air-dried. Defects due to seasoning are the main cause of splits, bowing and honeycombing. Seasoning is the process of drying timber to remove the bound moisture contained in the walls of the wood cells to produce seasoned timber."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "Fungi attack timber when these conditions are all present:\n* The timber moisture content is above 25% on a dry-weight basis\n* The environment is sufficiently warm\n* Oxygen (O2) is present"
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservation and restoration of ivory objects",
        "text": "Ivory is hygroscopic and anisotropic which means it absorbs or releases moisture with changing humidity. Ivory tends to shrink, swell, crack, split, and/or warp on exposure to extremes or fluctuations in relative humidity and temperature. Low relative humidity causes desiccation, shrinkage and cracking, while high relative humidity can cause warping and swelling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cordwood construction",
        "text": "Less dense and more airy woods are superior because they shrink and expand in lower proportions than dense hardwoods. Most wood can be used in a wall if it is dried properly and stabilized to the external climate's relative humidity. Furthermore, while log ends of different species can be mixed in a wall, log-ends of identical species and source limit expansion/contraction variables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chatoyancy",
        "text": "This effect is sometimes called \"wet look\", since wetting wood with water often displays the chatoyancy, albeit only until the wood dries. Certain finishes cause the wood grain to become more pronounced. Oil finishes, epoxy, and shellac can strongly bring out the \"wet look\" effect. When the refractive index of the finish nearly matches that of the wood, light scattering no longer occurs at the wood surface, adding the appearance of depth to the wood's figure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Modern high-temperature, high-air-velocity conventional kilns can typically dry green lumber in 10 hours down to a moisture content of 18%. However, 1-inch-thick green Red Oak requires about 28 days to dry down to a moisture content of 8%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Movement of water takes place in these passageways in any direction, longitudinally in the cells, as well as laterally from cell to cell until it reaches the lateral drying surfaces of the wood. The higher longitudinal permeability of sapwood of hardwood is generally caused by the presence of vessels. The lateral permeability and transverse flow is often very low in hardwoods. The vessels in hardwoods are sometimes blocked by the presence of tyloses and/or by secreting gums and resins in some other species, as mentioned earlier. The presence of gum veins, the formation of which is often a result of natural protective response of trees to injury, is commonly observed on the surface of sawn boards of most eucalypts. Despite the generally higher volume fraction of rays in hardwoods (typically 15% of wood volume), the rays are not particularly effective in radial flow, nor are the pits on the radial surfaces of fibres effective in tangential flow (Langrish and Walker, 1993)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Drying defects are the most common form of degrade in timber, next to natural problems such as knots (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood warping",
        "text": "Wood warping is a deviation from flatness in timber as a result of stresses and uneven shrinkage. Warping can also occur in wood considered \"dry\" (wood can take up and release moisture indefinitely), when it takes up moisture unevenly, or \u2013 especially \u2013 is allowed to return to its \"dry\" equilibrium state unevenly, too slowly, or too quickly. Many factors can contribute to wood warp: wood species, grain orientation, air flow, sunlight, uneven finishing, temperature \u2013 even cutting season and the moon's gravitational pull are taken into account in some traditions (e.g., violin making)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Softwoods such as pine are typically much lighter and easier to process than hardwoods such as fruit tree wood. The density of softwoods ranges from to , while hardwoods are to . Once dried, both consist of approximately 12% of moisture (\"Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996\"). Because of hardwood's denser and more complex structure, its permeability is much less than that of softwood, making it more difficult to dry. Although there are about a hundred times more species of hardwood trees than softwood trees, the ability to be dried and processed faster and more easily makes softwood the main supply of commercial wood today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Salt seasoning is the submersion of wood in a solution of urea, sodium nitrate, all of which act as dehydrating agents. Then the wood is air dried."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pole lathe",
        "text": "As the wood is turned green or unseasoned it will shrink slightly as it dries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water content",
        "text": "For wood, the convention is to report moisture content on oven-dry basis (i.e. generally drying sample in an oven set at 105 deg Celsius for 24 hours or until it stops losing weight). In wood drying, this is an important concept."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Since wood is dried with a vapor gradient - vapor pressure to ambient pressure - humidity can be kept very high. Because of this, a good vacuum kiln can dry 4.5\" thick White Oak fresh off the saw to 8% in less than a month. A feat that was previously thought to be impossible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood wool",
        "text": "Wood wool fibers can be compressed and when the pressure is removed they resume their initial volume. This is a useful property for minimizing their volume when shipping. Due to its high volume and large surface area, wood wool can be used for applications where water or moisture retention is necessary. The width of wood wool fibers varies from 1.5 to 20\u00a0mm, while their length is usually around 500\u00a0mm (depending on the production process)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "The single most revealing property of wood as an indicator of wood quality is specific gravity (Timell 1986), as both pulp yield and lumber strength are determined by it. Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of an equal volume of water; density is the ratio of a mass of a quantity of a substance to the volume of that quantity and is expressed in mass per unit substance, e.g., grams per milliliter (g/cm3 or g/ml). The terms are essentially equivalent as long as the metric system is used. Upon drying, wood shrinks and its density increases. Minimum values are associated with green (water-saturated) wood and are referred to as \"basic specific gravity\" (Timell 1986)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Solving for the drying time yields:\n:formula_16"
      },
      {
        "title": "Thermally modified wood",
        "text": "The biological resistance against some (not all) micro-organisms and insects is improved. However, due to breakdown of volatile organic compounds (VOC) the antimicrobial properties of wood may also decrease. Shrinking and swelling is reduced up to 50\u201390%. The treated wood is somewhat darkened in colour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spalting",
        "text": "Wood must be saturated to a 20% moisture content or higher for fungal colonization to occur. Wood placed underwater lacks sufficient oxygen, and colonization cannot occur."
      },
      {
        "title": "Equilibrium moisture content",
        "text": "The moisture content of wood below the fiber saturation point is a function of both relative humidity and temperature of surrounding air. The moisture content (\"M\") of wood is defined as:\n:formula_1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water content",
        "text": "Moisture may be present as adsorbed moisture at internal surfaces and as capillary condensed water in small pores. At low relative humidities, moisture consists mainly of adsorbed water. At higher relative humidities, liquid water becomes more and more important, depending or not depending on the pore size can also be an influence of volume. In wood-based materials, however, almost all water is adsorbed at humidities below 98% RH."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dry rot treatment",
        "text": "But then dry wood doesn't rot \u2013 so what is actually being 'guaranteed? Certainly not any chemical treatment that has been applied since it is clearly implied that if treated timber becomes damp it will rot. So what was the value of the preservative treatment? Obviously none!"
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservation and restoration of movable cultural property",
        "text": "\"Wood\" is another type of material that is identified as organic. Wood is a very absorbing material based on its environment. Thus, depending on the amount of water that is exposed in the air, the wood can expand and contract easily, changing the physical condition of the object. This is the reason why wood material needs to be kept in a high controlled and consistent temperature and humidity levels. A too high relative humidity can cause wood to swell, and a too low relative humidity can cause the wood to become brittle. Extreme fluctuations of both can speed the deterioration process of the wooden object. With high relative humidity, wood is also prone to pests. An example of treatment would be to freeze the objects to kill any pests that may have been existing within."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Electrical seasoning involves running an electric current through the lumber causing heat to build up drying the wood. This method is expensive but is fast and uniform quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservation and restoration of wooden furniture",
        "text": "\"High RH\"\n*Swelling can cause moving parts such as cabinet doors or drawers to jam\n*If glue fails, veneer peels away\n*Corrosion affects nails holding things in place, metal inlay and fillings\n*Insects and rot may flourish as the content of the wood rises"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Three main driving forces used in different version of diffusion models are moisture content, the partial pressure of water vapour, and the chemical potential (Skaar, 1988; Keey \"et al.\", 2000). These are discussed here, including capillary action, which is a mechanism for free water transport in permeable softwoods. Total pressure difference is the driving force during wood vacuum drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The rate of loss of moisture can be controlled by coating the planks with any substance that is relatively impermeable to moisture; ordinary mineral oil is usually quite effective. Coating the ends of logs with oil or thick paint improves their quality upon drying. Wrapping planks or logs in materials which will allow some movement of moisture, generally works very well provided the wood is first treated against fungal infection by coating in petrol/gasoline or oil. Mineral oil will generally not soak in more than 1\u20132\u00a0mm below the surface and is easily removed by planing when the timber is suitably dry.\n* Benefits: It can be less expensive to use this drying method (there are still costs associated with storing the wood, and with the slower process of getting the wood to market), and air drying often produces a higher quality, more easily workable wood than with kiln drying.\n* Drawbacks: Depending on the climate, it takes several months to a number of years to air-dry the wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "In ring-porous woods, each season's growth is always well defined, because the large pores formed early in the season abut on the denser tissue of the year before."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservation and restoration of waterlogged wood",
        "text": "Physical deterioration of waterlogged wood can happen immediately through the evaporation of the water. If this happens rapidly, the cells in the wood can shrink and collapse. This damage might be inevitable depending on accessibility to treatment. Additionally waterlogged wood should never be handled extensively or put on exhibit for long periods of time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Prompt drying of wood immediately after felling therefore significantly upgrades and adds value to raw timber. Drying enables substantial long-term economy by rationalizing the use of timber resources. The drying of wood is thus an area for research and development, which concern many researchers and timber companies around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Considering each of the factors, no one schedule is necessarily appropriate, even for similar loads of the same species. This is why there is so much timber drying research focused on the development of effective drying schedules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Humidifier",
        "text": "Low humidity can affect wooden furniture, causing shrinkage and loose joints or cracking of pieces. Books, papers, and artworks may shrink or warp and become brittle in very low humidity."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the most traditional style of wood drying?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Wood drying can be done in a kiln, resulting in kiln-dried timber or lumber, or it can be dried in air, which is the more traditional method."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is kiln-dried lumber superior to air dried lumber?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Advantages of kiln-dried lumber include higher throughput and better control of the final moisture content."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is having moisture in lumber important?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I couldn't find the information you requested, but I did learn that wood is a hygroscopic material, which means it naturally absorbs and releases water to balance its internal moisture content with the surrounding environment."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does wood tend to shrink or swell when wet?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I don't have a direct answer as to whether wood shrinks swells when wet, but a \"check\" is a crack on the surface of the wood caused by the outside of a timber shrinking and it occurs more frequently at the ends of lumber because of the more rapid drying in these locations."
    ],
    "topic": "Wood drying",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Lumber:41",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Lumber",
          "Defects in lumber",
          "Natural forces"
        ],
        "ctx": "There are two main natural forces responsible for causing defects in timber: abnormal growth and rupture of tissues. Rupture of tissue includes cracks or splits in the wood called \"shakes\". \"Ring shake\", \"wind shake\", or \"ring failure\" is when the wood grain separates around the growth rings either while standing or during felling. Shakes may reduce the strength of a timber and the appearance thus reduce lumber grade and may capture moisture, promoting decay. Eastern hemlock is known for having ring shake. A \"check\" is a crack on the surface of the wood caused by the outside of a timber shrinking as it seasons. Checks may extend to the pith and follow the grain. Like shakes, checks can hold water promoting rot. A \"split\" goes all the way through a timber. Checks and splits occur more frequently at the ends of lumber because of the more rapid drying in these locations."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "Wood with less than 25% moisture (dry weight basis) can remain free of decay for centuries. Similarly, wood submerged in water may not be attacked by fungi if the amount of oxygen is inadequate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Modern high-temperature, high-air-velocity conventional kilns can typically dry green lumber in 10 hours down to a moisture content of 18%. However, 1-inch-thick green Red Oak requires about 28 days to dry down to a moisture content of 8%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "Wood easily degrades without sufficient preservation. Apart from structural wood preservation measures, there are a number of different chemical preservatives and processes (also known as \"timber treatment\", \"lumber treatment\" or \"pressure treatment\") that can extend the life of wood, timber, and their associated products, including engineered wood. These generally increase the durability and resistance from being destroyed by insects or fungi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "Wood does not deteriorate simply because it gets wet. When wood breaks down, it is because an organism is eating it. Preservatives work by making the food source inedible to these organisms. Properly preservative-treated wood can have 5 to 10 times the service life of untreated wood. Preserved wood is used most often for railroad ties, utility poles, marine piles, decks, fences and other outdoor applications. Various treatment methods and types of chemicals are available, depending on the attributes required in the particular application and the level of protection needed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "For example, at 150\u00b0F, using the Arden Buck equation, the saturation vapor pressure of water is found to be about . The time constant for drying a red oak board at 150\u00b0F is then formula_17 days, which is the time required to reduce the moisture content to 1/e = 37% of its initial deviation from equilibrium. If the relative humidity is 0.50, then using the Hailwood-Horrobin equation the moisture content of the wood at equilibrium is about 7.4%. The time to reduce the lumber from 85% moisture content to 25% moisture content is then about 4.5 days. Higher temperatures will yield faster drying times, but they will also create greater stresses in the wood due because the moisture gradient will be larger. For firewood, this is not an issue but for woodworking purposes, high stresses will cause the wood to crack and be unusable. Normal drying times to obtain minimal seasoning checks (cracks) in 25mm (1inch or 4/4 lumber) Red Oak ranges from 22 to 30 days, and in 8/4, (50mm or 2inch) it will range from 65 to 90 days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spruce",
        "text": "Because this species has no insect or decay resistance qualities after logging, it is generally recommended for construction purposes as indoor use only (indoor drywall framing, for example). Spruce wood, when left outside cannot be expected to last more than 12\u201318 months depending on the type of climate it is exposed to."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Drying, if carried out promptly after felling of trees, also protects timber against primary decay, fungal stain and attack by certain kinds of insects. Organisms, which cause decay and stain, generally cannot thrive in timber with a moisture content below 20%. Several, though not all, insect pests can live only in green timber."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "These include pentachlorophenol (\"penta\") and creosote. They emit a strong petrochemical odor and are generally not used in consumer products. Both of these pressure treatments routinely protect wood for 40 years in most applications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Since wood is dried with a vapor gradient - vapor pressure to ambient pressure - humidity can be kept very high. Because of this, a good vacuum kiln can dry 4.5\" thick White Oak fresh off the saw to 8% in less than a month. A feat that was previously thought to be impossible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "Although pesticides are used to treat lumber, preserving lumber protects natural resources (in the short term) by enabling wood products to last longer. Previous poor practices in industry have left legacies of contaminated ground and water around wood treatment sites in some cases. However, under currently approved industry practices and regulatory controls, such as implemented in Europe, North America, Australia, New Zealand, Japan and elsewhere, environmental impact of these operations should be minimal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "where \"a\", \"b\" and \"n\" are constants and formula_14 is the saturation vapor pressure of water at temperature \"T\". For time measured in days, length in inches, and formula_15 measured in mmHg, the following values of the constants were found for red oak lumber.\n:\"a\" = 0.0575\n:\"b\" = 0.00142\n:\"n\" = 1.52"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The timber of living trees and fresh logs contains a large amount of water which often constitutes over 50% of the wood's weight. Water has a significant influence on wood. Wood continually exchanges moisture or water with its surroundings, although the rate of exchange is strongly affected by the degree to which wood is sealed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "In this process the wood is submerged in a tank of water-preservative mix, and allowed to soak for a longer period of time (several days to weeks). This process was developed in the 19th century by John Kyan. The depth and retention achieved depends on factors such as species, wood moisture, preservative and soak duration. The majority of the absorption takes place during the first two or three days, but will continue at a slower pace for an indefinite period. As a result, the longer the wood can be left in the solution, the better treatment it will receive. When treating seasoned timber, both the water and the preservative salt soak into the wood, making it necessary to season the wood a second time. Posts and poles can be treated directly on endangered areas, but should be treated at least above the future ground level."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fir",
        "text": "Wood of most firs is considered unsuitable for general timber use and is often used as pulp or for the manufacture of plywood and rough timber. Because this genus has no insect or decay resistance qualities after logging, it is generally recommended in construction purposes for indoor use only (e.g. indoor drywall on framing). Firwood left outside cannot be expected to last more than 12 to 18 months, depending on the type of climate it is exposed to."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "Wood is a hygroscopic material, which means it naturally absorbs and releases water to balance its internal moisture content with the surrounding environment. The moisture content of wood is measured by the weight of water as a percentage of the oven-dry weight of the wood fiber. The key to controlling decay is controlling moisture. Once decay fungi are established, the minimum moisture content for decay to propagate is 22 to 24 percent, so building experts recommend 19 percent as the maximum safe moisture content for untreated wood in service. Water by itself does not harm the wood, but rather, wood with consistently high moisture content enables fungal organisms to grow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Satisfactory kiln drying can usually be accomplished by regulating the temperature and humidity of the circulating air to control the moisture content of the lumber at any given time. This condition is achieved by applying kiln-drying schedules. The desired objective of an appropriate schedule is to ensure drying lumber at the fastest possible rate without causing objectionable degrade. The following factors have a considerable bearing on the schedules.\n; The species: Variations in anatomical, physical, and mechanical properties between species affect drying times and overall results.\n; The thickness of the lumber: Drying time is inversely related to thickness and, to some extent, the width of the lumber.\n; Whether the lumber boards are quarter-sawn, flat-sawn, or bastard-sawn (mixed-sawn): Sawing pattern influences the distortion due to shrinkage anisotropy.\n; Permissible drying degrade: Aggressive drying schedules can cause timber to crack and distort.\n; Intended use of timber: Mechanical and aesthetic requirements will necessitate different moisture targets depending on the intended use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Many properties of wood show considerable change as the wood is dried below the fibre saturation point, including:\n# volume (ideally no shrinkage occurs until some bound water is lost, that is, until wood is dried below FSP);\n# strength (strengths generally increase consistently as the wood is dried below the FSP (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996), except for impact-bending strength and, in some cases, toughness);\n# electrical resistivity, which increases very rapidly with the loss of bound water when the wood dries below the FSP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Log house",
        "text": "Some log home companies let the fresh-cut logs (or milled timbers) sit outside in the open air to dry naturally. The timbers may be stacked with spacers (known as \"stickers\") between them. This process allows the moisture content of the logs to naturally fall as the timber dries. In areas of high humidity, it may require as much as one year per inch of log thickness to dry. Arid climates may require less. A log with a diameter of 8 inches will usually reach equilibrium in about 18 months in the Rocky Mountains of North America. Air circulation is critical or the logs may begin to rot before properly drying, especially in humid regions. If the logs are to be dried to equilibrium with the local climate the process may take several years, depending on the location and size of the timbers. In some environments, the logs must be kept under some type of roof or cover to reduce the impact of rain storms on the drying process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Where formula_11 is the initial moisture content. It was found that for red oak lumber, the \"time constant\" formula_8 was well expressed as:\n:formula_13"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "In addition to the above advantages of drying timber, the following points are also significant (Walker \"et al.\", 1993; Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996):\n# Dried timber is lighter, and the transportation and handling costs are reduced.\n# Dried timber is stronger than green timber in most strength properties.\n# Timbers for impregnation with preservatives have to be properly dried if proper penetration is to be accomplished, particularly in the case of oil-type preservatives.\n# In the field of chemical modification of wood and wood products, the material should be dried to a certain moisture content for the appropriate reactions to occur.\n# Dry wood generally works, machines, finishes and glues better than green timber (although there are exceptions; for instance, green wood is often easier to turn than dry wood). Paints and finishes last longer on dry timber.\n# The electrical and thermal insulation properties of wood are improved by drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "The University of Hawaii has found that copper naphthenate in wood at loadings of is resistant to Formosan termite attack. On February 19, 1981, the Federal Register outlined the EPA's position regarding the health risks associated with various wood preservatives. As a result, the National Park Service recommended the use of copper naphthenate in its facilities as an approved substitute for pentachlorophenol, creosote, and inorganic arsenicals. A 50-year study presented to AWPA in 2005 by Mike Freeman and Douglas Crawford says, \"This study reassessed the condition of the treated wood posts in southern Mississippi, and statistically calculated the new expected post life span. It was determined that commercial wood preservatives, like pentachlorophenol in oil, creosote, and copper naphthenate in oil, provided excellent protection for posts, with life spans now calculated to exceed 60 years. Surprisingly, creosote and penta treated posts at 75% of the recommended AWPA retention, and copper naphthenate at 50% of the required AWPA retention, gave excellent performance in this AWPA Hazard Zone 5 site. Untreated southern pine posts lasted 2 years in this test site.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "Drying produces a decided increase in the strength of wood, particularly in small specimens. An extreme example is the case of a completely dry spruce block 5\u00a0cm in section, which will sustain a permanent load four times as great as a green (undried) block of the same size will."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "The physical properties of any material are determined by its chemical structure. Wood contains an abundance of chemical groups called \"free hydroxyls\". Free hydroxyl groups readily absorb and release water according to changes in the climatic conditions to which they are exposed. This is the main reason why wood's dimensional stability is impacted by swelling and shrinking. It is also believed that the digestion of wood by enzymes initiates at the free hydroxyl sites, which is one of the principal reasons why wood is prone to decay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The chief difficulty experienced in the drying of timber is the tendency of its outer layers to dry out more rapidly than the interior ones. If these layers are allowed to dry much below the fibre saturation point while the interior is still saturated, stresses (called drying stresses) are set up because the shrinkage of the outer layers is restricted by the wet interior (Keey \"et al.\", 2000). Rupture in the wood tissues occurs, and consequently splits and cracks occur if these stresses across the grain exceed the strength across the grain (fibre to fibre bonding)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "In heartwood it occurs only in the first and last forms. Wood that is thoroughly air-dried retains 8\u201316% of the water in the cell walls, and none, or practically none, in the other forms. Even oven-dried wood retains a small percentage of moisture, but for all except chemical purposes, may be considered absolutely dry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "Attempts to maintain lumber quality over time have been challenged by historical changes in the timber resources of the United States \u2013 from the slow-growing virgin forests common over a century ago to the fast-growing plantations now common in today's commercial forests. Resulting declines in lumber quality have been of concern to both the lumber industry and consumers and have caused increased use of alternative construction products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deep foundation",
        "text": "A main consideration regarding timber piles is that they should be protected from rotting above groundwater level. Timber will last for a long time below the groundwater level. For timber to rot, two elements are needed: water and oxygen. Below the groundwater level, dissolved oxygen is lacking even though there is ample water. Hence, timber tends to last for a long time below the groundwater level. In 1648, the Royal Palace of Amsterdam was constructed on 13,659 timber piles that still survive today since they were below groundwater level. Timber that is to be used above the water table can be protected from decay and insects by numerous forms of wood preservation using pressure treatment (alkaline copper quaternary (ACQ), chromated copper arsenate (CCA), creosote, etc.)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Prompt drying of wood immediately after felling therefore significantly upgrades and adds value to raw timber. Drying enables substantial long-term economy by rationalizing the use of timber resources. The drying of wood is thus an area for research and development, which concern many researchers and timber companies around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood retains its hygroscopic characteristics after it is put into use. It is then subjected to fluctuating humidity, the dominant factor in determining its EMC. These fluctuations may be more or less cyclical, such as diurnal changes or annual seasonal changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green wood",
        "text": "Green lumber presents its own characteristics as well. Some species of wood are better assembled green because wood splits less when nailed green. Other species shrink excessively, leaving voids between the individual pieces when allowed to dry. Often wood to be used for fine products, such as furniture, is kiln dried to stabilize it and minimise the shrinkage of the finished product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The rate of loss of moisture can be controlled by coating the planks with any substance that is relatively impermeable to moisture; ordinary mineral oil is usually quite effective. Coating the ends of logs with oil or thick paint improves their quality upon drying. Wrapping planks or logs in materials which will allow some movement of moisture, generally works very well provided the wood is first treated against fungal infection by coating in petrol/gasoline or oil. Mineral oil will generally not soak in more than 1\u20132\u00a0mm below the surface and is easily removed by planing when the timber is suitably dry.\n* Benefits: It can be less expensive to use this drying method (there are still costs associated with storing the wood, and with the slower process of getting the wood to market), and air drying often produces a higher quality, more easily workable wood than with kiln drying.\n* Drawbacks: Depending on the climate, it takes several months to a number of years to air-dry the wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timber pilings",
        "text": "In order to effectively preserve and maintain timber piles, regular inspection is required to detect deteriorating structures before replacement is necessary. Pile inspections should take place every five years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood drying may be described as the art of ensuring that gross dimensional changes through shrinkage are confined to the drying process. Ideally, wood is dried to that equilibrium moisture content as will later (in service) be attained by the wood. Thus, further dimensional change will be kept to a minimum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dry rot treatment",
        "text": "Guarantees are therefore of questionable value and may be difficult to enforce. However, the point will still be raised that if the fungicide treatment is really effective, it should not matter whether or not the treated timber gets wet again. If, on the other hand, a fungicide-treated piece of timber must be kept dry to stop it rotting, it cannot be much more resistant to rot than wood that has not been treated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tembusu",
        "text": "The wood can last over a hundred years, particularly as termites and weevils do not eat this kind of wood. People always use this wood for creating the floors of their homes and love to sleep on it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "Patented by Charles A. Seely, this process achieves treatment by immersing seasoned wood in successive baths of hot and cold preservatives. During the hot baths, the air expands in the timbers. When the timbers are changed to the cold bath (the preservative can also be changed) a partial vacuum is created within the lumen of the cells, causing the preservative to be drawn into the wood. Some penetration occurs during the hot baths, but most of it takes place during the cold baths. This cycle is repeated with a significant time reduction compared to other steeping processes. Each bath may last 4 to 8 hours or in some cases longer. The temperature of the preservative in the hot bath should be between and in the cold bath (depending on preservative and tree species). The average penetration depths achieved with this process ranges from . Both preservative oils and water-soluble salts can be used with this treatment. Due to the longer treatment periods, this method finds little use in the commercial wood preservation industry today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "There are four similar heat treatments\u00a0\u2014 Westwood, developed in the United States; Retiwood, developed in France; Thermowood, developed in Finland by VTT; and Platowood, developed in The Netherlands. These processes autoclave the treated wood, subjecting it to pressure and heat, along with nitrogen or water vapour to control drying in a staged treatment process ranging from 24 to 48 hours at temperatures of 180\u00a0\u00b0C to 230\u00a0\u00b0C depending on timber species. These processes increase the durability, dimensional stability and hardness of the treated wood by at least one class; however, the treated wood is darkened in colour, and there are changes in certain mechanical characteristics: Specifically, the modulus of elasticity is increased to 10%, and the modulus of rupture is diminished by 5% to 20%; thus, the treated wood requires drilling for nailing to avoid splitting the wood. Certain of these processes cause less impact than others in their mechanical effects upon the treated wood. Wood treated with this process is often used for cladding or siding, flooring, furniture and windows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dipteryx micrantha",
        "text": "Freshly logged thick planks do not dry well naturally and have a tendency to warp, but planks to 13mm thick behave well when dried artificially slowly over a period of days in a kiln. The lumber is difficult to work as it is cross-grained and very hard, so it is best to use a bandsaw or other suitable power-tools. The lumber is naturally resistant to biological attack and does not need extra treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "A. L. A. Himmelwright",
        "text": "\"The cost of lumber is now from two to five times as great as formerly, and the quality is generally much inferior. Wood or \"frame\" buildings, as now constructed, are serviceable only for periods of from twenty to fifty years. After this comparatively short term, they become unsafe for human habitation and can be utilized only for a few years more for storage, after which, if not demolished, they decay, become dangerous, and finally fall to pieces. By frequent painting, prompt repairs, renewals of roofs, sills, etc., the period of serviceability may sometimes be extended twenty to thirty years longer , but this presumes a practical knowledge of building construction, the exercise of intelligent watchfulness and judgment, and a willingness to expend money for repairs before such repairs are actually necessary\u2014 a combination seldom found in present day owners."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "By going beyond kiln drying wood, heat treatment may make timber more durable. By heating timber to a certain temperature, it may be possible to make the wood fibre less appetizing to insects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dry rot",
        "text": "The term \"dry rot\" is somewhat misleading, as both species of fungi \"Serpula lacrymans\" and \"Meruliporia incrassata\" require an elevated moisture content to initiate an attack on timber (28\u201330%). Once established, the fungi can remain active in timber with a moisture content of more than 20%. At relative humidities below 86 percent, growth of \"Serpula lacrymans\" is inhibited, but it can stay dormant at relative humidities down to 76 percent. These relative humidities correspond to equilibrium moisture contents of wood of 19 and 15 percent, respectively. It is to be remembered that most forms of rot cannot be stopped."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Wood Centre",
        "text": "Hot water passes through the burn chamber and is stored in a buffer tank in the Cruck Barn. The well-insulated water can stay hot for a week. The water travels along the pipes to the buildings where the thermostatic controls have been switched on. The logs are sourced from local coppiced woods that are currently being restored by Small Woods volunteers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "The natural durability or rot and insect resistance of wood species is always based on the heartwood (or \"truewood\"). The sapwood of all timber species should be considered to be non-durable without preservative treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "When green wood dries, free water from the cell lumina, held by the capillary forces only, is the first to go. Physical properties, such as strength and shrinkage, are generally not affected by the removal of free water. The fibre saturation point (FSP) is defined as the moisture content at which free water should be completely gone, while the cell walls are saturated with bound water. In most types of woods, the fibre saturation point is at 25 to 30% moisture content. Siau (1984) reported that the fibre saturation point formula_4 (kg/kg) is dependent on the temperature T (\u00b0C) according to the following equation:\n:formula_5 (1.2)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "Brushing preservatives is a long-practised method and often used in today's carpentry workshops. Technological developments mean it is also possible to spray preservative over the surface of the timber. Some of the liquid is drawn into the wood as the result of capillary action before the spray runs off or evaporates, but unless puddling occurs penetration is limited and may not be suitable for long-term weathering. By using the spray method, coal-tar creosote, oil-borne solutions and water-borne salts (to some extent) can also be applied. A thorough brush or spray treatment with coal-tar creosote can add 1 to 3 years to the lifespan of poles or posts. Two or more coats provide better protection than one, but the successive coats should not be applied until the prior coat has dried or soaked into the wood. The wood should be seasoned before treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dry rot treatment",
        "text": "But then dry wood doesn't rot \u2013 so what is actually being 'guaranteed? Certainly not any chemical treatment that has been applied since it is clearly implied that if treated timber becomes damp it will rot. So what was the value of the preservative treatment? Obviously none!"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dry rot treatment",
        "text": "However, others argue that none of the products employed over the last twenty to thirty years have been proven to be harmful to people when used properly. Furthermore, there is a major difference between the use of wood preservatives and pesticides in other situations, especially agriculture, as wood preservatives are put on and into the timber and are designed to stay there for 50 or more years. Pesticides in agriculture, on the other hand, are released into an open environment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parapiptadenia rigida",
        "text": "Its dense, wood is resistant to the elements and is used for construction, carpentry, beams for bridges, poles and firewood. The wood is said to be unaffected by insects including termites and it can last more than 20 years unpainted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "To avoid decay and termite infestation, untreated wood is separated from the ground and other sources of moisture. These separations are required by many building codes and are considered necessary to maintain wood elements in permanent structures at a safe moisture content for decay protection. When it is not possible to separate wood from the sources of moisture, designers often rely on preservative-treated wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Since all free water can be removed under 115'F, quality is improved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dry rot",
        "text": "The perpetual saturation of wood with water also inhibits dry rot, as does perpetual dryness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moisture meter",
        "text": "Newly-cut logs can have a moisture content (MC) of 80% or more, depending on species. Since wood shrinks, and can also split, twist or otherwise change shape as it dries, most wood is dried before being used. This is most often done using a kiln, but may use the air drying method, which is much slower. In most parts of the United States, the minimum moisture content that can be generally obtained in air drying is about 12 to 15 percent. Most air-dried material is usually closer to 20 percent moisture content when used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain pine beetle",
        "text": "Wood from beetle-affected trees retains its commercial usefulness for 8 to 12 years after the tree has died, but its value drops rapidly, for within several months, the escaping moisture blows large checks and cracks from the outer perimeter of the wood deep into the heart of the tree. The remaining moisture escapes more slowly, causing small cracks throughout the timber. This causes difficulties for modern high-output automated sawmill operations and greatly increases the lumber losses and the labor to produce high quality wood products. This so-called 'shelf life' is dependent on a number of factors, including economic and stand site conditions. In areas where it is wetter, the trees tend to rot at the base and fall faster, especially if they are larger. The fungus that is carried by the beetles and kills the trees causes blue staining of the sapwood at the perimeter of the tree, but it does not affect the wood's strength, nor are there any harmful human health effects. Blue stain is, however, considered to be a defect in the lumber grading standards and thus is considered a 'down-grade' resulting in a lower commodity market price. All these factors have severely limited the production of blue-stain wood products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Most softwood lumber kilns operate below temperature. Hardwood lumber kiln drying schedules typically keep the dry bulb temperature below . Difficult-to-dry species might not exceed ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Submersion in boiling water or the application of steam speed the drying of wood. This method is said to cause less shrinkage \"\u2026 but it is expensive to use, and reduces the strength and elasticity of the timber.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "Under proper conditions, wood provides excellent, lasting performance. However, it also faces several potential threats to service life, including fungal activity and insect damage \u2013 which can be avoided in numerous ways. Section 2304.11 of the International Building Code addresses protection against decay and termites. This section provides requirements for non-residential construction applications, such as wood used above ground (e.g., for framing, decks, stairs, etc.), as well as other applications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter Garthwaite",
        "text": "My forestry philosophy has not altered in the 65 years that I have been in practice: it is that wood is a renewable resource, and woodlands and forests should be managed to produce the highest quality timber of which the site is capable; and that as a general rule when trees have reached their prime maturity, they should be felled to live on for many years in such form that their quality dictates; as oak beams supporting the roof of a cathedral; as fine craftsman-made furniture; as a framework for a house."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neobalanocarpus",
        "text": "The timber is classified as naturally durable and is normally very resistant to termite attack and fungal infestation. Under graveyard test conditions, untreated specimens of size 50\u00a0mm \u00d7 50\u00a0mm \u00d7 600\u00a0mm lasted 9 years. Treated specimen of the same size and test conditions lasted about 19 years. Untreated railway sleepers of size 238\u00a0mm \u00d7 125\u00a0mm \u00d7 1,950\u00a0mm laid under severe environmental conditions gave an average service life of 19 years. Termites do not attack the sound timber."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water content",
        "text": "For wood, the convention is to report moisture content on oven-dry basis (i.e. generally drying sample in an oven set at 105 deg Celsius for 24 hours or until it stops losing weight). In wood drying, this is an important concept."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Considering each of the factors, no one schedule is necessarily appropriate, even for similar loads of the same species. This is why there is so much timber drying research focused on the development of effective drying schedules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "The depth obtained during regular steeping periods varies from up to by sap pine. Due to the low absorption, solution strength should be somewhat stronger than that in pressure processes, around 5% for seasoned timber and 10% for green timber (because the concentration slowly decreases as the chemicals diffuse into the wood). The solution strength should be controlled continually and, if necessary, be corrected with the salt additive. After the timber is removed from the treatment tank, the chemical will continue to spread within the wood if it has sufficient moisture content. The wood should be weighed down and piled so that the solution can reach all surfaces. (Sawed materials stickers should be placed between every board layer.) This process finds minimal use despite its former popularity in continental Europe and Great Britain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "There are two main reasons for drying wood:\n; Woodworking:When wood is used as a construction material, whether as a structural support in a building or in woodworking objects, it will absorb or expel moisture until it is in equilibrium with its surroundings. Equilibration (usually drying) causes unequal shrinkage in the wood, and can cause damage to the wood if equilibration occurs too rapidly. The equilibration must be controlled to prevent damage to the wood.\n; Wood burning: When wood is burned (firewood), it is usually best to dry it first. Damage from shrinkage is not a problem here, as it may be in the case of drying for woodworking purposes. Moisture affects the burning process, with unburnt hydrocarbons going up the chimney. If a 50% wet log is burnt at high temperature, with good heat extraction from the exhaust gas leading to a 100\u00a0\u00b0C exhaust temperature, about 5% of the energy of the log is wasted through evaporating and heating the water vapour. With condensers, the efficiency can be further increased; but, for the normal stove, the key to burning wet wood is to burn it very hot, perhaps starting fire with dry wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "In Australia, a water-based bifenthrin preservative has been developed to improve the insect resistance of timber. As this preservative is applied by spray, it only penetrates the outer 2\u00a0mm of the timber cross-section. Concerns have been raised as to whether this thin-envelope system will provide protection against insects in the longer term, particularly when exposed to sunlight for extended periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservation and restoration of waterlogged wood",
        "text": "Waterlogged wood should be in the environment that it is found in until a stable treatment proposal is found. Most waterlogged wood is such that the cells in the material fill up with water. Depending on the wood type and how long the wood has been in water, removal of the water from the cells too rapidly (in the form of natural dehydration or other) could apply major stress to the cell walls and cause them to collapse and deteriorate. Waterlogged wood, prior to treatment, should be kept in a similar environment of hydration. To limit the growth of mold, waterlogged wood should be stored with proper relative humidity that does not encourage growth. Since moisture of the waterlogged wood is imminent, waterlogged wood is best stored for preventative conservation submerged in a solution to what the wood is waterlogged with. Similar to the preservation of zoological specimen, temporarily preserving waterlogged wood in the environment it was in helps minimize the severity of change. Waterlogged wood will retain its structure as long as it is wet. If the wood is exposed to air, and water evaporates, there is a change in surface tension that forces the evaporating water out of the weakened cell walls which cause the walls to collapse. This force ends up shrinking and ultimately distorting the object."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "For some purposes, wood is not dried at all, and is used green. Often, wood must be in equilibrium with the air outside, as for construction wood, or the air indoors, as for wooden furniture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timber pilings",
        "text": "Incipient decay may develop in untreated pile tops within 1 year and reach the visible, advanced stage, termed rot, within 2 to 4 years and can extend 4 feet or more from the internally rotting areas of a Douglas-fir pile. A triangular blade scraper, a sharp shovel, or a dull probe are useful when inspecting piles for surface deterioration or marine borer attack because they allow the inspector to estimate the depth of deterioration. Because untreated wood can often be exposed while these tools are being used, a preservative solution or paste should be applied to exposed areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Broadly, there are two methods by which timber can be dried:\n* natural drying or air drying\n* artificial drying"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "1910.265(f)(3)(i)(c): Adequate means shall be provided to firmly secure main doors, when they are disengaged from carriers and hangers, to prevent toppling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Southern Lumber Company",
        "text": "The mill complex had 24 steam-heated kilns, where lumber dried for 72 hours. Each kiln could dry more than 50,000 board feet (118 m\u00b3) of lumber. From the kilns, dried lumber was transported to stock sheds for storage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The standard organizations in Australia and New Zealand (AS/NZS 4787, 2001) have developed a standard for timber quality. The five measures of drying quality include:\n# moisture content gradient and presence of residual drying stress (case-hardening);\n# surface, internal and end checks;\n# collapse;\n# distortions;\n# discolouration caused by drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biofilter",
        "text": "One of the main challenges to optimum biofilter operation is maintaining proper moisture throughout the system. The air is normally humidified before it enters the bed with a watering (spray) system, humidification chamber, bio scrubber, or bio trickling filter. Properly maintained, a natural, organic packing media like peat, vegetable mulch, bark or wood chips may last for several years but engineered, combined natural organic, and synthetic component packing materials will generally last much longer, up to 10 years. Several companies offer these types of proprietary packing materials and multi-year guarantees, not usually provided with a conventional compost or wood chip bed biofilter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "The American Wood Protection Association (AWPA) standards for ACQ require a retention of for above ground use and for ground contact."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moisture meter",
        "text": "A moisture meter gives a reading of the approximate moisture content of wood. The reading helps in determining whether the wood is suitably dry for its intended purpose. The moisture content reading can also assist in planning a project design that will accommodate future changes in dimension caused by changes in relative humidity. The amount of overall shrinkage lumber will undergo in the drying process varies from wood species to wood species. The difference between radial and tangential shrinkage also varies from species to species. Woods with a low ratio of tangential to radial shrinkage, such as teak and mahogany, are less prone to distortion due to changes in moisture content than woods with a high ratio, such as eastern white pine and certain species of oak. Species with both low overall shrinkage and a low tangential/radial shrinkage ratio are more stable and will react better to changes in moisture content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Case hardening describes lumber or timber that has been dried too rapidly. Wood initially dries from the shell (surface), shrinking the shell and putting the core under compression. When this shell is at a low moisture content it will 'set' and resist shrinkage. The core of the wood is still at a higher moisture content. This core will then begin to dry and shrink. However, any shrinkage is resisted by the already 'set' shell. This leads to reversed stresses; compression stresses on the shell and tension stresses in the core. This results in unrelieved stress called case hardening. Case-hardened [wood] may warp considerably and dangerously when the stress is released by sawing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "Also, since wood is subject to bacterial decay only under specific temperature and moisture content ranges, submerging it in water-saturated mud can retard decay, by saturating the wood's internal cells beyond their moisture decay range."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joinery",
        "text": "Timber expands and contracts in response to humidity, usually much less so longitudinally than in the radial and tangential directions. As tracheophytes, trees have lignified tissues which transport resources such as water, minerals and photosynthetic products up and down the plant. While lumber from a harvested tree is no longer alive, these tissues still absorb and expel water causing swelling and shrinkage of the wood in kind with change in humidity. When the dimensional stability of the wood is paramount, quarter-sawn or rift-sawn lumber is preferred because its grain pattern is consistent and thus reacts less to humidity.\n* Joints can be designed to hold without the use of glue or fasteners; a pinned mortise and tenon is an example of this.\n* Glue is highly effective for joining timber when both surfaces of the joint are edge grain. A properly glued joint may be as strong or stronger than a single piece of wood. However, glue is notably less effective on end-grain surfaces. Animal glue is soluble in water, producing joints that can be disassembled using steam to soften the glue.\n* Various mechanical fasteners may be used, the simplest being nails and screws. Glue and fasteners can be used together."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood is air-dried or dried in a purpose built oven (kiln). Usually the wood is sawn before drying, but sometimes the log is dried whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Here, formula_2 is the green mass of the wood, formula_3 is its oven dry mass (the attainment of constant mass generally after drying in an oven set at () for 24 hours as mentioned by Walker \"et al.\", 1993). The equation can also be expressed as a fraction of the mass of the water and the mass of the oven dry wood rather than a percentage. For example, (oven dry basis) expresses the same moisture content as 59% (oven dry basis)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "There are four recommended methods to protect wood-frame structures against durability hazards and thus provide maximum service life for the building. All require proper design and construction:\n* Controlling moisture using design techniques to avoid decay\n* Providing effective control of termites and other insects\n* Using durable materials such as pressure-treated or naturally durable species of wood where appropriate\n* Providing quality assurance during design and construction and throughout the building's service life using appropriate maintenance practices"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Water in wood normally moves from zones of higher to zones of lower moisture content (Walker \"et al.\", 1993). Drying starts from the exterior of the wood and moves towards the centre, and drying at the outside is also necessary to expel moisture from the inner zones of the wood. Wood subsequently attains equilibrium with the surrounding air in moisture content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood drying (also seasoning lumber or wood seasoning) reduces the moisture content of wood before its use. When the drying is done in a kiln, the product is known as kiln-dried timber or lumber, whereas air drying is the more traditional method."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert A. Long",
        "text": "Long was active in several associations. Long was the president of the Southern Pine Association founded in 1915. The name was changed in 1970 to the Southern Forest Products Association with a division being the Southern Pine Council and is still active today. Long belonged to the National Lumber Manufacturers Association."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "Biological modified timber is treated with biopolymers from agricultural waste. After drying and curing, the soft timber becomes durable and strong. With this process fast growing pinewood acquires properties similar to tropical hardwood. Production facilities for this process are in The Netherlands and is known under the trade name \u201cNobelWood\u201d."
      },
      {
        "title": "Log house",
        "text": "After construction, green logs dry in service in the log building. Within about four years, green logs which are part of a completed log house reach equilibrium with local conditions and have an equilibrium moisture content of between 6% and 12%, which varies by local climate, season and location."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood industry",
        "text": "One of the most enduring materials is the lumber from virginian southern live oak and white oak, specially live oak is 60% stronger than white oak and more resistant to moisture. As an example, the main component in the structure of battle ship USS Constitution, the world's oldest commissioned naval vessel afloat (launched in 1797) is white oak."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "Unfortunately, the impregnation of spruce, the most important structural timber in large areas in Europe, has shown that unsatisfactory treatment depths have been achieved with impregnation. The maximum penetration of is not sufficient to protect wood in weathered positions. The present-day incising machines consist essentially of four revolving drums fitted with teeth or needles or with lasers that burn the incisions into the wood. Preservatives can be spread along the grain up to in radial and up to in tangential and radial direction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eusideroxylon zwageri",
        "text": "The wood has a radial shrinkage rate of 2\u20134.5% and a tangential shrinkage rate of tangential 4.5\u20137.5%. The timber dries slowly, and care is needed to avoid checks and splits. The wood is famed for its easy working characteristics, despite high density. The wood planes, bores and turns cleanly, producing smooth and often lustrous surfaces. Nailing requires pre-bores prior to nailing. Saw blades and cutting instruments are only moderate blunted during working the timber. Apparently, the wood is difficult to glue with synthetic resins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "There are two main natural forces responsible for causing defects in timber: abnormal growth and rupture of tissues. Rupture of tissue includes cracks or splits in the wood called \"shakes\". \"Ring shake\", \"wind shake\", or \"ring failure\" is when the wood grain separates around the growth rings either while standing or during felling. Shakes may reduce the strength of a timber and the appearance thus reduce lumber grade and may capture moisture, promoting decay. Eastern hemlock is known for having ring shake. A \"check\" is a crack on the surface of the wood caused by the outside of a timber shrinking as it seasons. Checks may extend to the pith and follow the grain. Like shakes, checks can hold water promoting rot. A \"split\" goes all the way through a timber. Checks and splits occur more frequently at the ends of lumber because of the more rapid drying in these locations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The timbers are classified as follows according to their ease of drying and their proneness to drying degrade:\n; Highly refractory woods: These woods are slow and difficult to dry if the final product is to be free from defects, particularly cracks and splits. Examples are heavy structural timbers with high density such as ironbark (\"Eucalyptus paniculata\"), blackbutt (\"E. pilularis\"), southern blue gum (\"E. globulus\") and brush box (\"Lophostemon cofertus\"). They require considerable protection and care against rapid drying conditions for the best results (Bootle, 1994).\n; Moderately refractory woods: These timbers show a moderate tendency to crack and split during seasoning. They can be seasoned free from defects with moderately rapid drying conditions (i.e. a maximum dry-bulb temperature of 85\u00a0\u00b0C can be used). Examples are Sydney blue gum (\"E. saligna\") and other timbers of medium density (Bootle, 1994), which are potentially suitable for furniture.\n; Non-refractory woods: These woods can be rapidly seasoned to be free from defects even by applying high temperatures (dry-bulb temperatures of more than 100\u00a0\u00b0C) in industrial kilns. If not dried rapidly, they may develop discolouration (blue stain) and mould on the surface. Examples are softwoods and low density timbers such as \"Pinus radiata\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood finishing",
        "text": "Wood\u2019s moisture content affects the staining of wood. Changes in wood moisture content can result in swelling and shrinkage of wood which can stress and crack coatings. Both problems can be avoided by storing wood indoors in an environment where it can equilibriate to a recommended moisture content (6 to 8%) that is similar to that of the intended end use of the furniture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "Wood treated with modern preservatives is generally safe to handle, given appropriate handling precautions and personal protection measures. However, treated wood may present certain hazards in some circumstances, such as during combustion or where loose wood dust particles or other fine toxic residues are generated, or where treated wood comes into direct contact with food and agriculture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hack Fall Wood",
        "text": "The main principles of maintenance in this case are to make sure that the woodland is appropriate for the site's history, geology and geography, that it can continue to regenerate following the clearcutting of the 1930s, and that the protected habitat and biota can be supported. This means that there should be old and young trees, and some mature trees with a thick understorey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "Wood can be treated with a preservative that improves service life under severe conditions without altering its basic characteristics. It can also be pressure-impregnated with fire-retardant chemicals that improve its performance in a fire. One of the early treatments to \"fireproof lumber\", which retard fires, was developed in 1936 by the Protexol Corporation, in which lumber is heavily treated with salt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Composite lumber",
        "text": "Composite lumber is usually more costly than normal or treated lumber, but prices have come down over the years. Composites may last longer, but the initial investment is likely to be higher. Many composites are formulated to be fade, scratch, and stain resistant, but no lumber is immune to the elements. Although composite lumber may resist these marring effects better than other materials, it will still show signs of wear over time. Composite lumber often has a plastic-like or synthetic appearance. Although manufacturers do mold the product with a wood grain or brush stroke pattern, some consumers simply do not like the artificial sheen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pine",
        "text": "Because pine wood has no insect- or decay-resistant qualities after logging, in its untreated state it is generally recommended for indoor construction purposes only (indoor drywall framing, for example). For outside use, pine needs to be treated with copper azole, chromated copper arsenate or other suitable chemical preservative."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber yard",
        "text": "At timber yards (also sometimes referred to as lumber yards), logs and other forest products are processed and stored. Additional activities include inspection for signs of rot, utilizing stacking techniques to prevent rot from forming, and the removal of bark and spraying of pesticides to prevent insect infestation. Some lumber/timber yards use cranes to move logs, and sprinklers to keep the logs moist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Air drying is the drying of timber by exposing it to the air. The technique of air drying consists mainly of making a stack of sawn timber (with the layers of boards separated by stickers) on raised foundations, in a clean, cool, dry and shady place. Rate of drying largely depends on climatic conditions, and on the air movement (exposure to the wind). For successful air drying, a continuous and uniform flow of air throughout the pile of the timber needs to be arranged (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Shrinkage and swelling may occur in wood when the moisture content is changed (Stamm, 1964). Shrinkage occurs as moisture content decreases, while swelling takes place when it increases. Volume change is not equal in all directions. The greatest dimensional change occurs in a direction tangential to the growth rings. Shrinkage from the pith outwards, or radially, is usually considerably less than tangential shrinkage, while longitudinal (along the grain) shrinkage is so slight as to be usually neglected. The longitudinal shrinkage is 0.1% to 0.3%, in contrast to transverse shrinkages, which is 2% to 10%. Tangential shrinkage is often about twice as great as in the radial direction, although in some species it is as much as five times as great. The shrinkage is about 5% to 10% in the tangential direction and about 2% to 6% in the radial direction (Walker \"et al.\", 1993)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pakesley, Ontario",
        "text": "At Pakesley, a lumber storage yard was established. The wood was stacked with spaces between the boards to allow air drying of the lumber, for 3 months to a year before it could be shipped. The lumber yard was said to have almost seven miles of railway siding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cordwood construction",
        "text": "With felled timber, bark should be removed in the spring with a shovel, chisel, or bark spud. The sap is still running in spring time and provides a lubricating layer of cambium between the bark and wood, making separation an easier task than if left until the fall when the two layers are well-bonded together. Once debarked, the logs should sit to dry for at least three summers to limit splitting and checking. It is important to cut the logs, once debarked to the chosen building length. Richard Flatau, \"Cordwood Construction: Best Practices\" (2012) suggest splitting 70% of the wood for better drying and seasoning."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the most traditional style of wood drying?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Wood drying can be done in a kiln, resulting in kiln-dried timber or lumber, or it can be dried in air, which is the more traditional method."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is kiln-dried lumber superior to air dried lumber?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Advantages of kiln-dried lumber include higher throughput and better control of the final moisture content."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is having moisture in lumber important?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I couldn't find the information you requested, but I did learn that wood is a hygroscopic material, which means it naturally absorbs and releases water to balance its internal moisture content with the surrounding environment."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does wood tend to shrink or swell when wet?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I don't have a direct answer as to whether wood shrinks swells when wet, but a \"check\" is a crack on the surface of the wood caused by the outside of a timber shrinking and it occurs more frequently at the ends of lumber because of the more rapid drying in these locations."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How long can well maintained lumber last for?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I couldn't find how long lumber lasts in general but those treated with a  preservative are able to last 5 to 10 times the service life of untreated wood.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I don't have a specific amount of time well maintained lumber can last, but under proper conditions, wood provides excellent, lasting performance, even when it faces several potential threats to service life, including fungal activity and insect damage \u2013 which can be avoided in numerous ways."
    ],
    "topic": "Wood drying",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Lumber:49",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Lumber",
          "Durability and service life",
          "Preservatives"
        ],
        "ctx": "Wood can be treated with a preservative that improves service life under severe conditions without altering its basic characteristics. It can also be pressure-impregnated with fire-retardant chemicals that improve its performance in a fire. One of the early treatments to \"fireproof lumber\", which retard fires, was developed in 1936 by the Protexol Corporation, in which lumber is heavily treated with salt."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Lumber:43",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Lumber",
          "Durability and service life"
        ],
        "ctx": "Under proper conditions, wood provides excellent, lasting performance. However, it also faces several potential threats to service life, including fungal activity and insect damage \u2013 which can be avoided in numerous ways. Section 2304.11 of the International Building Code addresses protection against decay and termites. This section provides requirements for non-residential construction applications, such as wood used above ground (e.g., for framing, decks, stairs, etc.), as well as other applications."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Air drying is the drying of timber by exposing it to the air. The technique of air drying consists mainly of making a stack of sawn timber (with the layers of boards separated by stickers) on raised foundations, in a clean, cool, dry and shady place. Rate of drying largely depends on climatic conditions, and on the air movement (exposure to the wind). For successful air drying, a continuous and uniform flow of air throughout the pile of the timber needs to be arranged (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood drying (also seasoning lumber or wood seasoning) reduces the moisture content of wood before its use. When the drying is done in a kiln, the product is known as kiln-dried timber or lumber, whereas air drying is the more traditional method."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Modern high-temperature, high-air-velocity conventional kilns can typically dry green lumber in 10 hours down to a moisture content of 18%. However, 1-inch-thick green Red Oak requires about 28 days to dry down to a moisture content of 8%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "where \"a\", \"b\" and \"n\" are constants and formula_14 is the saturation vapor pressure of water at temperature \"T\". For time measured in days, length in inches, and formula_15 measured in mmHg, the following values of the constants were found for red oak lumber.\n:\"a\" = 0.0575\n:\"b\" = 0.00142\n:\"n\" = 1.52"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood is air-dried or dried in a purpose built oven (kiln). Usually the wood is sawn before drying, but sometimes the log is dried whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Broadly, there are two methods by which timber can be dried:\n* natural drying or air drying\n* artificial drying"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The timber of living trees and fresh logs contains a large amount of water which often constitutes over 50% of the wood's weight. Water has a significant influence on wood. Wood continually exchanges moisture or water with its surroundings, although the rate of exchange is strongly affected by the degree to which wood is sealed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moisture meter",
        "text": "Newly-cut logs can have a moisture content (MC) of 80% or more, depending on species. Since wood shrinks, and can also split, twist or otherwise change shape as it dries, most wood is dried before being used. This is most often done using a kiln, but may use the air drying method, which is much slower. In most parts of the United States, the minimum moisture content that can be generally obtained in air drying is about 12 to 15 percent. Most air-dried material is usually closer to 20 percent moisture content when used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "For some purposes, wood is not dried at all, and is used green. Often, wood must be in equilibrium with the air outside, as for construction wood, or the air indoors, as for wooden furniture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Satisfactory kiln drying can usually be accomplished by regulating the temperature and humidity of the circulating air to control the moisture content of the lumber at any given time. This condition is achieved by applying kiln-drying schedules. The desired objective of an appropriate schedule is to ensure drying lumber at the fastest possible rate without causing objectionable degrade. The following factors have a considerable bearing on the schedules.\n; The species: Variations in anatomical, physical, and mechanical properties between species affect drying times and overall results.\n; The thickness of the lumber: Drying time is inversely related to thickness and, to some extent, the width of the lumber.\n; Whether the lumber boards are quarter-sawn, flat-sawn, or bastard-sawn (mixed-sawn): Sawing pattern influences the distortion due to shrinkage anisotropy.\n; Permissible drying degrade: Aggressive drying schedules can cause timber to crack and distort.\n; Intended use of timber: Mechanical and aesthetic requirements will necessitate different moisture targets depending on the intended use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Water in wood normally moves from zones of higher to zones of lower moisture content (Walker \"et al.\", 1993). Drying starts from the exterior of the wood and moves towards the centre, and drying at the outside is also necessary to expel moisture from the inner zones of the wood. Wood subsequently attains equilibrium with the surrounding air in moisture content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "Wood with less than 25% moisture (dry weight basis) can remain free of decay for centuries. Similarly, wood submerged in water may not be attacked by fungi if the amount of oxygen is inadequate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "The seasoning of lumber is typically either kiln- or air-dried. Defects due to seasoning are the main cause of splits, bowing and honeycombing. Seasoning is the process of drying timber to remove the bound moisture contained in the walls of the wood cells to produce seasoned timber."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "For example, at 150\u00b0F, using the Arden Buck equation, the saturation vapor pressure of water is found to be about . The time constant for drying a red oak board at 150\u00b0F is then formula_17 days, which is the time required to reduce the moisture content to 1/e = 37% of its initial deviation from equilibrium. If the relative humidity is 0.50, then using the Hailwood-Horrobin equation the moisture content of the wood at equilibrium is about 7.4%. The time to reduce the lumber from 85% moisture content to 25% moisture content is then about 4.5 days. Higher temperatures will yield faster drying times, but they will also create greater stresses in the wood due because the moisture gradient will be larger. For firewood, this is not an issue but for woodworking purposes, high stresses will cause the wood to crack and be unusable. Normal drying times to obtain minimal seasoning checks (cracks) in 25mm (1inch or 4/4 lumber) Red Oak ranges from 22 to 30 days, and in 8/4, (50mm or 2inch) it will range from 65 to 90 days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Electrical seasoning involves running an electric current through the lumber causing heat to build up drying the wood. This method is expensive but is fast and uniform quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Where formula_11 is the initial moisture content. It was found that for red oak lumber, the \"time constant\" formula_8 was well expressed as:\n:formula_13"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The rate of loss of moisture can be controlled by coating the planks with any substance that is relatively impermeable to moisture; ordinary mineral oil is usually quite effective. Coating the ends of logs with oil or thick paint improves their quality upon drying. Wrapping planks or logs in materials which will allow some movement of moisture, generally works very well provided the wood is first treated against fungal infection by coating in petrol/gasoline or oil. Mineral oil will generally not soak in more than 1\u20132\u00a0mm below the surface and is easily removed by planing when the timber is suitably dry.\n* Benefits: It can be less expensive to use this drying method (there are still costs associated with storing the wood, and with the slower process of getting the wood to market), and air drying often produces a higher quality, more easily workable wood than with kiln drying.\n* Drawbacks: Depending on the climate, it takes several months to a number of years to air-dry the wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Many properties of wood show considerable change as the wood is dried below the fibre saturation point, including:\n# volume (ideally no shrinkage occurs until some bound water is lost, that is, until wood is dried below FSP);\n# strength (strengths generally increase consistently as the wood is dried below the FSP (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996), except for impact-bending strength and, in some cases, toughness);\n# electrical resistivity, which increases very rapidly with the loss of bound water when the wood dries below the FSP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Immersion in running water quickly removes sap and then the wood is air dried. \"...it reduces the elasticity and durability of the wood and also makes it brittle.\" But there are competing perspectives, e.g., \"Duhamel, who made many experiments on this important subject, states, that timber for the joiner's use is best put in water for some time, and afterwards dried; as it renders the timber less liable to warp and crack in drying; but, he adds, 'where strength is required it ought not to be put in water.'\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Keey \"et al.\" (2000) use a different definition of the fibre saturation point (equilibrium moisture content of wood in an environment of 99% relative humidity)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Salt seasoning is the submersion of wood in a solution of urea, sodium nitrate, all of which act as dehydrating agents. Then the wood is air dried."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The process of artificial or 'oven' drying consists basically of introducing heat. This may be directly, using natural gas and/or electricity or indirectly, through steam-heated heat exchangers. Solar energy is also an option. In the process, deliberate control of temperature, relative humidity and air circulation creates variable conditions to achieve specific drying profiles. To achieve this, the timber is stacked in chambers, which are fitted with equipment to control atmospheric temperature, relative humidity and circulation rate (Walker \"et al.', 1993; Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "In heartwood it occurs only in the first and last forms. Wood that is thoroughly air-dried retains 8\u201316% of the water in the cell walls, and none, or practically none, in the other forms. Even oven-dried wood retains a small percentage of moisture, but for all except chemical purposes, may be considered absolutely dry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "Wood is a hygroscopic material, which means it naturally absorbs and releases water to balance its internal moisture content with the surrounding environment. The moisture content of wood is measured by the weight of water as a percentage of the oven-dry weight of the wood fiber. The key to controlling decay is controlling moisture. Once decay fungi are established, the minimum moisture content for decay to propagate is 22 to 24 percent, so building experts recommend 19 percent as the maximum safe moisture content for untreated wood in service. Water by itself does not harm the wood, but rather, wood with consistently high moisture content enables fungal organisms to grow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Since all free water can be removed under 115'F, quality is improved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Submersion in boiling water or the application of steam speed the drying of wood. This method is said to cause less shrinkage \"\u2026 but it is expensive to use, and reduces the strength and elasticity of the timber.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Log house",
        "text": "One type of air-dried log is \"dead standing,\" which refers to trees which have died from natural causes (bug kill, virus, fire etc.) and cut down after they died. Standing dead trees may be cut one month or several decades after they died, so the term \"dead standing\" does not necessarily mean the logs have dried down to equilibrium moisture content. Dead standing logs can be green, or more-or-less dry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Prompt drying of wood immediately after felling therefore significantly upgrades and adds value to raw timber. Drying enables substantial long-term economy by rationalizing the use of timber resources. The drying of wood is thus an area for research and development, which concern many researchers and timber companies around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Since wood is dried with a vapor gradient - vapor pressure to ambient pressure - humidity can be kept very high. Because of this, a good vacuum kiln can dry 4.5\" thick White Oak fresh off the saw to 8% in less than a month. A feat that was previously thought to be impossible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The chief difficulty experienced in the drying of timber is the tendency of its outer layers to dry out more rapidly than the interior ones. If these layers are allowed to dry much below the fibre saturation point while the interior is still saturated, stresses (called drying stresses) are set up because the shrinkage of the outer layers is restricted by the wet interior (Keey \"et al.\", 2000). Rupture in the wood tissues occurs, and consequently splits and cracks occur if these stresses across the grain exceed the strength across the grain (fibre to fibre bonding)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood drying may be described as the art of ensuring that gross dimensional changes through shrinkage are confined to the drying process. Ideally, wood is dried to that equilibrium moisture content as will later (in service) be attained by the wood. Thus, further dimensional change will be kept to a minimum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Drying, if carried out promptly after felling of trees, also protects timber against primary decay, fungal stain and attack by certain kinds of insects. Organisms, which cause decay and stain, generally cannot thrive in timber with a moisture content below 20%. Several, though not all, insect pests can live only in green timber."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood retains its hygroscopic characteristics after it is put into use. It is then subjected to fluctuating humidity, the dominant factor in determining its EMC. These fluctuations may be more or less cyclical, such as diurnal changes or annual seasonal changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Most softwood lumber kilns operate below temperature. Hardwood lumber kiln drying schedules typically keep the dry bulb temperature below . Difficult-to-dry species might not exceed ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "When green wood dries, free water from the cell lumina, held by the capillary forces only, is the first to go. Physical properties, such as strength and shrinkage, are generally not affected by the removal of free water. The fibre saturation point (FSP) is defined as the moisture content at which free water should be completely gone, while the cell walls are saturated with bound water. In most types of woods, the fibre saturation point is at 25 to 30% moisture content. Siau (1984) reported that the fibre saturation point formula_4 (kg/kg) is dependent on the temperature T (\u00b0C) according to the following equation:\n:formula_5 (1.2)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood drying\n--Types of wood.\n--Wood\u2013water relationships.\n----Moisture content.\n----Fibre saturation point.\n----Equilibrium moisture content.\n----Moisture content of wood in service.\n----Shrinkage and swelling.\n----Mechanisms of moisture movement.\n------Moisture passageways.\n------Moisture movement space.\n----Driving forces for moisture movement.\n------Capillary action.\n------Moisture content differences.\n------Moisture movement directions for diffusion.\n----Reasons for splits and cracks during timber drying and their control.\n----Influence of temperature, relative humidity and rate of air circulation.\n----Classification of timbers for drying.\n----Model.\n--Methods of drying timber.\n----Air drying.\n----Kiln drying.\n------Kiln drying schedules.\n----Dehumidification kiln.\n----Vacuum kiln.\n----Solar kiln.\n----Water seasoning.\n----Boiling or steam seasoning.\n----Chemical or salt seasoning.\n----Electrical seasoning.\n----Freeze drying.\n--Drying defects.\n--Wood-drying kiln.\n--OSHA Standards regarding Dry Kiln Facilities.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The total (harmful) air emissions produced by wood kilns, including their heat source, can be significant. Typically, the higher the temperature the kiln operates at, the larger amount of emissions are produced (per pound of water removed). This is especially true in the drying of thin veneers and high-temperature drying of softwoods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "Drying produces a decided increase in the strength of wood, particularly in small specimens. An extreme example is the case of a completely dry spruce block 5\u00a0cm in section, which will sustain a permanent load four times as great as a green (undried) block of the same size will."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The EMC of wood varies with the ambient relative humidity (a function of temperature) significantly, to a lesser degree with the temperature. Siau (1984) reported that the EMC also varies very slightly with species, mechanical stress, drying history of wood, density, extractives content and the direction of sorption in which the moisture change takes place (i.e. adsorption or desorption)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood is a hygroscopic substance. It has the ability to take in or give off moisture in the form of vapour. Water contained in wood exerts vapour pressure of its own, which is determined by the maximum size of the capillaries filled with water at any time. If water vapour pressure in the ambient space is lower than vapour pressure within wood, desorption takes place. The largest-sized capillaries, which are full of water at the time, empty first. Vapour pressure within the wood falls as water is successively contained in smaller capillaries. A stage is eventually reached when vapour pressure within the wood equals vapour pressure in the ambient space above the wood, and further desorption ceases. The amount of moisture that remains in the wood at this stage is in equilibrium with water vapour pressure in the ambient space, and is termed the equilibrium moisture content or EMC (Siau, 1984). Because of its hygroscopicity, wood tends to reach a moisture content that is in equilibrium with the relative humidity and temperature of the surrounding air."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Chamber drying provides a means of overcoming the limitations imposed by erratic weather conditions. With kiln drying, as is the case with air drying, unsaturated air is used as the drying medium. Almost all commercial timbers of the world are dried in industrial kilns. A comparison of air drying, conventional kiln and solar drying is given below:\n# Timber can be dried to any desired low-moisture content by conventional or solar kiln drying, but in air drying, moisture contents of less than 18% are difficult to attain for most locations.\n# The drying times are considerably less in conventional kiln drying than in solar kiln drying, followed by air drying.\n#* This means that if capital outlay is involved, this capital sits for a longer time when air drying is used. On the other hand, installing, operating and maintaining an industrial kiln is expensive.\n#* In addition, wood that is being air dried takes up space, which could also cost money.\n# In air drying, there is little control over the drying conditions, so drying rates cannot be controlled.\n# The temperatures employed in kiln drying typically kill all the fungi and insects in the wood if a maximum dry-bulb temperature of above 60\u00a0\u00b0C is used for the drying schedule. This is not guaranteed in air drying.\n# If air drying is done improperly (exposed to the sun), the rate of drying may be overly rapid in the dry summer months, causing cracking and splitting, and too slow during the cold winter months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "As wood dries, evaporation of water from the surface sets up capillary forces that exert a pull on the free water in the zones of wood beneath the surfaces. When there is no longer any free water in the wood capillary forces are no longer of importance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carya myristiciformis",
        "text": "The ambrosia beetle (Platypus spp. and Xyleborus spp.) and powderpost beetles (Lyctus spp. and Xylobiops basilaris) often cause economic damage to logs and lumber during storage and air-drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "There are two main reasons for drying wood:\n; Woodworking:When wood is used as a construction material, whether as a structural support in a building or in woodworking objects, it will absorb or expel moisture until it is in equilibrium with its surroundings. Equilibration (usually drying) causes unequal shrinkage in the wood, and can cause damage to the wood if equilibration occurs too rapidly. The equilibration must be controlled to prevent damage to the wood.\n; Wood burning: When wood is burned (firewood), it is usually best to dry it first. Damage from shrinkage is not a problem here, as it may be in the case of drying for woodworking purposes. Moisture affects the burning process, with unburnt hydrocarbons going up the chimney. If a 50% wet log is burnt at high temperature, with good heat extraction from the exhaust gas leading to a 100\u00a0\u00b0C exhaust temperature, about 5% of the energy of the log is wasted through evaporating and heating the water vapour. With condensers, the efficiency can be further increased; but, for the normal stove, the key to burning wet wood is to burn it very hot, perhaps starting fire with dry wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Considering each of the factors, no one schedule is necessarily appropriate, even for similar loads of the same species. This is why there is so much timber drying research focused on the development of effective drying schedules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dry rot treatment",
        "text": "But then dry wood doesn't rot \u2013 so what is actually being 'guaranteed? Certainly not any chemical treatment that has been applied since it is clearly implied that if treated timber becomes damp it will rot. So what was the value of the preservative treatment? Obviously none!"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fibre saturation point",
        "text": "Fibre saturation point is a term used in wood mechanics and especially wood drying, to denote the point in the drying process at which only water bound in the cell walls remains - all other water, called free water, having been removed from the cell cavities. Further drying of the wood results in strengthening of the wood fibres, and is usually accompanied by shrinkage. Wood is normally dried to a point where it is in equilibrium with the atmospheric moisture content or relative humidity, and since this varies so does the equilibrium moisture content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alkaline copper quaternary",
        "text": "ACQ is applied at a timber treatment plants by industrial vacuum-pressure impregnation. Bunks of dried lumber are loaded into a long (up to 150') cylindrical container, seven feet in diameter. The bunks ride on a rail system at the bottom of the cylinder. Once filled, the container is subjected to a hard vacuum, drawing all the air and any remaining moisture out of the wood. Then, the cylinder is filled nearly full of the ACQ solution and a pressure of 150PSI is applied for several hours to force the solution completely into the wood. After the solution has been pumped out, a vacuum is applied again, to remove excess solution from the wood. {https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/basics-of-pressure-treatment-of-wood.html} 2022-4-13"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Freeze drying is accomplished by lowering the pressure in a chamber containing the wood to a few millibars, while lowering the temperature of the chamber to below the eutectic point of the material. Heat is typically added slowly to the material to allow the water contained in the wood to sublimate directly into vapor, and be deposited on the sides of the vacuum chamber or in the cold trap through which the chamber is evacuated. Freeze drying through sublimation typically takes about 10 times the energy that is taken through evaporation of water by heat. In practice, freeze drying of wood can be accomplished by placing room temperature wood in a vacuum chamber that can be chilled to -30 degrees C or lower, evacuating the chamber to a few millibars, and at the same time cooling the chamber to a freezing temperature. The latent heat in the wood will come out through the water vapor and condense as ice on the inside of the chamber. After a few hours under vacuum and freezing conditions, the chamber is returned to normal pressure, the wood removed and bagged in plastic to keep water from condensing on it, and allowed to return to room temperature over a few hours to a day. The cycle is then repeated, each time the latent heat in the wood is removed through the water content in the wood sublimating and/or evaporating and condensing on the sides of the container and in the cold trap. The cycles are repeated until the moisture content of the wood is at a pre-determined acceptable level. Instead of cycling the wood in the chamber, heat can be added to the wood at a rate that matches the rate of sublimation of ice in the wood to water vapor, which is deposited on the inside of the chamber or in the cold trap. An advantage to freeze drying wood is that the form of the wood is maintained, and shrinkage does not typically occur. Shrinkage will occur over time after the wood is freeze dried, but this typically will not cause defects in the wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "In addition to the above advantages of drying timber, the following points are also significant (Walker \"et al.\", 1993; Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996):\n# Dried timber is lighter, and the transportation and handling costs are reduced.\n# Dried timber is stronger than green timber in most strength properties.\n# Timbers for impregnation with preservatives have to be properly dried if proper penetration is to be accomplished, particularly in the case of oil-type preservatives.\n# In the field of chemical modification of wood and wood products, the material should be dried to a certain moisture content for the appropriate reactions to occur.\n# Dry wood generally works, machines, finishes and glues better than green timber (although there are exceptions; for instance, green wood is often easier to turn than dry wood). Paints and finishes last longer on dry timber.\n# The electrical and thermal insulation properties of wood are improved by drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "where formula_8 is a function of the temperature \"T\" and a typical wood dimension \"L\" and has units of time. The typical wood dimension is roughly the smallest value of (formula_9) which are the radial, tangential and longitudinal dimensions respectively, in inches, with the longitudinal dimension divided by ten because water diffuses about 10 times more rapidly in the longitudinal direction (along the grain) than in the lateral dimensions. The solution to the above equation is:\n:formula_10"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood contains water in three forms:\n; Free water: The bulk of water contained in the cell lumina is only held by capillary forces. It is not bound chemically and is called free water. Free water is not in the same thermodynamic state as liquid water: energy is required to overcome the capillary forces. Furthermore, free water may contain chemicals, altering the drying characteristics of wood.\n; Bound or hygroscopic water: Bound water is bound to the wood via hydrogen bonds. The attraction of wood for water arises from the presence of free hydroxyl (OH) groups in the cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin molecules in the cell wall. The hydroxyl groups are negatively charged. Because water is a polar liquid, the free hydroxyl groups in cellulose attract and hold water by hydrogen bonding.\n; Vapor: Water in cell lumina in the form of water vapour is normally negligible at normal temperature and humidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "Wood does not deteriorate simply because it gets wet. When wood breaks down, it is because an organism is eating it. Preservatives work by making the food source inedible to these organisms. Properly preservative-treated wood can have 5 to 10 times the service life of untreated wood. Preserved wood is used most often for railroad ties, utility poles, marine piles, decks, fences and other outdoor applications. Various treatment methods and types of chemicals are available, depending on the attributes required in the particular application and the level of protection needed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The timbers are classified as follows according to their ease of drying and their proneness to drying degrade:\n; Highly refractory woods: These woods are slow and difficult to dry if the final product is to be free from defects, particularly cracks and splits. Examples are heavy structural timbers with high density such as ironbark (\"Eucalyptus paniculata\"), blackbutt (\"E. pilularis\"), southern blue gum (\"E. globulus\") and brush box (\"Lophostemon cofertus\"). They require considerable protection and care against rapid drying conditions for the best results (Bootle, 1994).\n; Moderately refractory woods: These timbers show a moderate tendency to crack and split during seasoning. They can be seasoned free from defects with moderately rapid drying conditions (i.e. a maximum dry-bulb temperature of 85\u00a0\u00b0C can be used). Examples are Sydney blue gum (\"E. saligna\") and other timbers of medium density (Bootle, 1994), which are potentially suitable for furniture.\n; Non-refractory woods: These woods can be rapidly seasoned to be free from defects even by applying high temperatures (dry-bulb temperatures of more than 100\u00a0\u00b0C) in industrial kilns. If not dried rapidly, they may develop discolouration (blue stain) and mould on the surface. Examples are softwoods and low density timbers such as \"Pinus radiata\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tonewood",
        "text": "For most applications, wood must be dried before use, either in air or kilns. Some luthiers prefer further seasoning for several years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The chemical potential is explained here since it is the true driving force for the transport of water in both liquid and vapour phases in wood (Siau, 1984). The Gibbs free energy per mole of substance is usually expressed as the chemical potential (Skaar, 1933). The chemical potential of unsaturated air or wood below the fibre saturation point influences the drying of wood. Equilibrium will occur at the equilibrium moisture content (as defined earlier) of wood when the chemical potential of the wood becomes equal to that of the surrounding air. The chemical potential of sorbed water is a function of wood moisture content. Therefore, a gradient of wood moisture content (between surface and centre), or more specifically of activity, is accompanied by a gradient of chemical potential under isothermal conditions. Moisture will redistribute itself throughout the wood until the chemical potential is uniform throughout, resulting in a zero potential gradient at equilibrium (Skaar, 1988). The flux of moisture attempting to achieve the equilibrium state is assumed to be proportional to the difference in chemical potential, and inversely proportional to the path length over which the potential difference acts (Keey \"et al.\", 2000)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Compartment-type kilns are most commonly used in timber companies. A compartment kiln is filled with a static batch of timber through which air is circulated. In these types of kiln, the timber remains stationary. The drying conditions are successively varied according to the type of timber being dried. This drying method is well suited to the needs of timber companies, which have to dry timbers of varied species and thickness, including refractory hardwoods that are more liable than other species to check and split."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Solving for the drying time yields:\n:formula_16"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "By going beyond kiln drying wood, heat treatment may make timber more durable. By heating timber to a certain temperature, it may be possible to make the wood fibre less appetizing to insects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Case hardening describes lumber or timber that has been dried too rapidly. Wood initially dries from the shell (surface), shrinking the shell and putting the core under compression. When this shell is at a low moisture content it will 'set' and resist shrinkage. The core of the wood is still at a higher moisture content. This core will then begin to dry and shrink. However, any shrinkage is resisted by the already 'set' shell. This leads to reversed stresses; compression stresses on the shell and tension stresses in the core. This results in unrelieved stress called case hardening. Case-hardened [wood] may warp considerably and dangerously when the stress is released by sawing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "While conventional drying uses warm, dry air to skim water off the surface, vacuum kilns can boil water from within the wood. This enables a good vacuum kiln to dry very thick wood very quickly. It is possible to dry 12/4 Red Oak fresh off the saw to 7% in 11 days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The moisture content of wood is calculated as the mass change as a proportion of the dry mass, by the formula (Siau, 1984):\n: formula_1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The rate at which wood dries depends upon a number of factors, the most important of which are the temperature, the dimensions of the wood, and the relative humidity. Simpson and Tschernitz have developed a simple model of wood drying as a function of these three variables. Although the analysis was done for red oak, the procedure may be applied to any species of wood by adjusting the constant parameters of the model."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Simply put, the model assumes that the rate of change of the moisture content \"M\" with respect to time \"t\" is proportional to how far the wood sample is from its equilibrium moisture content formula_6, which is a function of the temperature \"T\" and relative humidity \"h\":\n:formula_7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "There are four similar heat treatments\u00a0\u2014 Westwood, developed in the United States; Retiwood, developed in France; Thermowood, developed in Finland by VTT; and Platowood, developed in The Netherlands. These processes autoclave the treated wood, subjecting it to pressure and heat, along with nitrogen or water vapour to control drying in a staged treatment process ranging from 24 to 48 hours at temperatures of 180\u00a0\u00b0C to 230\u00a0\u00b0C depending on timber species. These processes increase the durability, dimensional stability and hardness of the treated wood by at least one class; however, the treated wood is darkened in colour, and there are changes in certain mechanical characteristics: Specifically, the modulus of elasticity is increased to 10%, and the modulus of rupture is diminished by 5% to 20%; thus, the treated wood requires drilling for nailing to avoid splitting the wood. Certain of these processes cause less impact than others in their mechanical effects upon the treated wood. Wood treated with this process is often used for cladding or siding, flooring, furniture and windows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "There are two types of drying defects, although some defects involve both causes:\n# Defects from shrinkage anisotropy, resulting in warping: cupping, bowing, twisting, crooking, spring and diamonding.\n# Defects from uneven drying, resulting in the rupture of the wood tissue, such as checks (surface, end and internal), end splits, honey-combing and case hardening. Collapse, often shown as corrugation, or so-called \"washboarding\" of the wood surface, may also occur (Innes, 1996). Collapse is a defect that results from the physical flattening of fibres to above the fibre saturation point and is thus not a form of shrinkage anisotropy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water content",
        "text": "For wood, the convention is to report moisture content on oven-dry basis (i.e. generally drying sample in an oven set at 105 deg Celsius for 24 hours or until it stops losing weight). In wood drying, this is an important concept."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Valid economic studies of different wood drying technologies are based on the total energy, capital, insurance/risk, environmental impacts, labor, maintenance, and product degrade costs for the task of removing water from the wood fiber. These costs (which can be a significant part of the entire plant costs) involve the differential impact of the presence of drying equipment in a specific plant. An example of this is that every piece of equipment (in a lumber manufacturing plant) from the green trimmer to the infeed system at the planer mill is the \"drying system\". Since thousands of different types of wood products manufacturing plants exist around the globe, and may be integrated (lumber, plywood, paper, etc.) or stand alone (lumber only), the true costs of the drying system can only be determined when comparing the total plant costs and risks with and without drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "1910.265(f)(3)(i)(c): Adequate means shall be provided to firmly secure main doors, when they are disengaged from carriers and hangers, to prevent toppling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tsuga canadensis",
        "text": "The wood is soft, coarse-grained, and light buff in color. Air-dried, a cubic foot weighs 28\u00a0lbs. The lumber is used for general construction and crates. Because of its unusual power of holding spikes, it is also used for railroad ties. Untreated, the wood is not durable if exposed to the elements. As a fuel, it is low in value. The wood is also a source of pulp for paper manufacturing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Log house",
        "text": "Some log home companies let the fresh-cut logs (or milled timbers) sit outside in the open air to dry naturally. The timbers may be stacked with spacers (known as \"stickers\") between them. This process allows the moisture content of the logs to naturally fall as the timber dries. In areas of high humidity, it may require as much as one year per inch of log thickness to dry. Arid climates may require less. A log with a diameter of 8 inches will usually reach equilibrium in about 18 months in the Rocky Mountains of North America. Air circulation is critical or the logs may begin to rot before properly drying, especially in humid regions. If the logs are to be dried to equilibrium with the local climate the process may take several years, depending on the location and size of the timbers. In some environments, the logs must be kept under some type of roof or cover to reduce the impact of rain storms on the drying process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "There are two basic methods of treating: with and without pressure. Non-pressure methods are the application of preservatives by brushing, spraying, or dipping the piece to be treated. Deeper, more thorough penetration is achieved by driving the preservative into the wood cells with pressure. Various combinations of pressure and vacuum are used to force adequate levels of chemical into the wood. Pressure-treating preservatives consist of chemicals carried in a solvent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "In Australia, a water-based bifenthrin preservative has been developed to improve the insect resistance of timber. As this preservative is applied by spray, it only penetrates the outer 2\u00a0mm of the timber cross-section. Concerns have been raised as to whether this thin-envelope system will provide protection against insects in the longer term, particularly when exposed to sunlight for extended periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "It is reported that the ratio of the longitudinal to the transverse (radial and tangential) diffusion rates for wood ranges from about 100 at a moisture content of 5%, to 2\u20134 at a moisture content of 25% (Langrish and Walker, 1993). Radial diffusion is somewhat faster than tangential diffusion. Although longitudinal diffusion is most rapid, it is of practical importance only when short pieces are dried. Generally the timber boards are much longer than in width or thickness. For example, a typical size of a green board used for this research was 6m long, 250\u00a0mm in width and 43\u00a0mm in thickness. If the boards are quartersawn, then the width will be in the radial direction whereas the thickness will be in tangential direction, and vice versa for plain-sawn boards. Most of the moisture is removed from wood by lateral movement during drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood-burning stove",
        "text": "The most common process of removing the excess moisture is called seasoning. Seasoning by air-drying the wood can take three years or more. Wood is dried in outdoor well-ventilated covered structures, or in a kiln."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "Wood easily degrades without sufficient preservation. Apart from structural wood preservation measures, there are a number of different chemical preservatives and processes (also known as \"timber treatment\", \"lumber treatment\" or \"pressure treatment\") that can extend the life of wood, timber, and their associated products, including engineered wood. These generally increase the durability and resistance from being destroyed by insects or fungi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Drying defects are the most common form of degrade in timber, next to natural problems such as knots (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The successful control of drying defects in a drying process consists in maintaining a balance between the rate of evaporation of moisture from the surface and the rate of outward movement of moisture from the interior of the wood. The way in which drying can be controlled will now be explained. One of the most successful ways of wood drying or seasoning would be kiln drying, where the wood is placed into a kiln compartment in stacks and dried by steaming, and releasing the steam slowly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green wood",
        "text": "Green lumber presents its own characteristics as well. Some species of wood are better assembled green because wood splits less when nailed green. Other species shrink excessively, leaving voids between the individual pieces when allowed to dry. Often wood to be used for fine products, such as furniture, is kiln dried to stabilize it and minimise the shrinkage of the finished product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "In 1949 a Chicago company introduced a wood drying kiln that used infrared lamps that they claimed reduced the standard drying time from 14 days to 45 minutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Differential transverse shrinkage of wood is related to:\n# the alternation of late wood and early wood increments within the annual ring;\n# the influence of wood rays on the radial direction (Kollmann and Cote, 1968);\n# the features of the cell wall structure such as microfibril angle modifications and pits;\n# the chemical composition of the middle lamella."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moisture meter",
        "text": "A moisture meter gives a reading of the approximate moisture content of wood. The reading helps in determining whether the wood is suitably dry for its intended purpose. The moisture content reading can also assist in planning a project design that will accommodate future changes in dimension caused by changes in relative humidity. The amount of overall shrinkage lumber will undergo in the drying process varies from wood species to wood species. The difference between radial and tangential shrinkage also varies from species to species. Woods with a low ratio of tangential to radial shrinkage, such as teak and mahogany, are less prone to distortion due to changes in moisture content than woods with a high ratio, such as eastern white pine and certain species of oak. Species with both low overall shrinkage and a low tangential/radial shrinkage ratio are more stable and will react better to changes in moisture content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "The greatest strength increase due to drying is in the ultimate crushing strength, and strength at elastic limit in endwise compression; these are followed by the modulus of rupture, and stress at elastic limit in cross-bending, while the modulus of elasticity is least affected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The standard organizations in Australia and New Zealand (AS/NZS 4787, 2001) have developed a standard for timber quality. The five measures of drying quality include:\n# moisture content gradient and presence of residual drying stress (case-hardening);\n# surface, internal and end checks;\n# collapse;\n# distortions;\n# discolouration caused by drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Here, formula_2 is the green mass of the wood, formula_3 is its oven dry mass (the attainment of constant mass generally after drying in an oven set at () for 24 hours as mentioned by Walker \"et al.\", 1993). The equation can also be expressed as a fraction of the mass of the water and the mass of the oven dry wood rather than a percentage. For example, (oven dry basis) expresses the same moisture content as 59% (oven dry basis)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "The primary objective when addressing moisture loads is to keep water from entering the building envelope in the first place and to balance the moisture content within the building itself. Moisture control by means of accepted design and construction details is a simple and practical method of protecting a wood-frame building against decay. For applications with a high risk of staying wet, designers specify durable materials such as naturally decay-resistant species or wood that has been treated with preservatives. Cladding, shingles, sill plates and exposed timbers or glulam beams are examples of potential applications for treated wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Conventional wood dry kilns (Rasmussen, 1988) are either package-type (sideloader) or track-type (tram) construction. Most hardwood lumber kilns are sideloader kilns in which fork trucks are used to load lumber packages into the kiln. Most softwood lumber kilns are track types in which lumber packages are loaded on kiln/track cars for loading the kiln."
      },
      {
        "title": "Equilibrium moisture content",
        "text": "The moisture content of wood below the fiber saturation point is a function of both relative humidity and temperature of surrounding air. The moisture content (\"M\") of wood is defined as:\n:formula_1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Grain drying",
        "text": "Aeration process refers to the process of moving air through grain. Airflow is a measurement of the amount of air in cubic feet per minute (CFM). In grain drying process, drying time is largely depended on aeration rates. Without sufficient airflow, grain may be damaged before drying is complete. Fans are used to move air through grain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "In this process the wood is submerged in a tank of water-preservative mix, and allowed to soak for a longer period of time (several days to weeks). This process was developed in the 19th century by John Kyan. The depth and retention achieved depends on factors such as species, wood moisture, preservative and soak duration. The majority of the absorption takes place during the first two or three days, but will continue at a slower pace for an indefinite period. As a result, the longer the wood can be left in the solution, the better treatment it will receive. When treating seasoned timber, both the water and the preservative salt soak into the wood, making it necessary to season the wood a second time. Posts and poles can be treated directly on endangered areas, but should be treated at least above the future ground level."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "Fungi attack timber when these conditions are all present:\n* The timber moisture content is above 25% on a dry-weight basis\n* The environment is sufficiently warm\n* Oxygen (O2) is present"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pine",
        "text": "Because pine wood has no insect- or decay-resistant qualities after logging, in its untreated state it is generally recommended for indoor construction purposes only (indoor drywall framing, for example). For outside use, pine needs to be treated with copper azole, chromated copper arsenate or other suitable chemical preservative."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "Re-manufactured lumber is the result of secondary or tertiary processing of previously milled lumber. Specifically, it refers to lumber cut for industrial or wood-packaging use. Lumber is cut by ripsaw or resaw to create dimensions that are not usually processed by a primary sawmill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "All wood preservatives used in the United States and Canada are registered and regularly re-examined for safety by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and Health Canada's Pest Management and Regulatory Agency, respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservation and restoration of clocks",
        "text": "Due to its porous nature, wood is significantly impacted through contact with water. When humidity is high, the excess water in the air is absorbed, resulting in wood expansion, while little to no water in the air when humidity is low can cause wood shrinkage. Such changes in character from the wood's original state can lead to damage. Types of low humidity-related wood damage include \u201c[...] structural cracks, lifting veneer and inlays, gaps in joints and the embrittlement of adhesives.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "To minimize the changes in wood moisture content or the movement of wooden objects in service, wood is usually dried to a moisture content that is close to the average EMC conditions to which it will be exposed. These conditions vary for interior uses compared with exterior uses in a given geographic location. For example, according to the Australian Standard for Timber Drying Quality (AS/NZS 4787, 2001), the EMC is recommended to be 10\u201312% for the majority of Australian states, although extreme cases are up to 15 to 18% for some places in Queensland, Northern Territory, Western Australia and Tasmania. However, the EMC is as low as 6 to 7% in dry centrally heated houses and offices or in permanently air-conditioned buildings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Three main driving forces used in different version of diffusion models are moisture content, the partial pressure of water vapour, and the chemical potential (Skaar, 1988; Keey \"et al.\", 2000). These are discussed here, including capillary action, which is a mechanism for free water transport in permeable softwoods. Total pressure difference is the driving force during wood vacuum drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The driving force of moisture movement is chemical potential. However, it is not always easy to relate chemical potential in wood to commonly observable variables, such as temperature and moisture content (Keey \"et al.\", 2000). Moisture in wood moves within the wood as liquid or vapour through several types of passageways, based on the nature of the driving force, (e.g. pressure or moisture gradient), and variations in wood structure (Langrish and Walker, 1993), as explained in the next section on driving forces for moisture movement. These pathways consist of cavities of the vessels, fibres, ray cells, pit chambers and their pit membrane openings, intercellular spaces and transitory cell wall passageways."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Throughout the process, it is necessary to keep close control of the moisture content using a moisture meter system in order to reduce over-drying and allow operators to know when to pull the charge. Preferably, this in-kiln moisture meter will have an auto-shutoff feature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ochroma",
        "text": "Balsa lumber is very soft and light, with a coarse, open grain. The density of dry balsa wood ranges from 40 to 340\u00a0kg/m3, with a typical density around 160\u00a0kg/m3. Balsa is the softest wood ever measured using the Janka hardness test (22 to 167 lbf). The wood of the living tree has large cells that are filled with water. This gives the wood a spongy texture. It also makes the wood of the living tree not much lighter than water and barely able to float. For commercial production, the wood is kiln-dried for about two weeks, leaving the cells hollow and empty. The large volume-to-surface ratio of the resulting thin-walled, empty cells gives the dried wood a large strength-to-weight ratio because the cells are mostly air. Unlike naturally rotted wood, which soon disintegrates in the rainforests where balsa trees grow, the cell walls of kiln-seasoned balsa wood retain their strong structure of cellulose and lignin."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the most traditional style of wood drying?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Wood drying can be done in a kiln, resulting in kiln-dried timber or lumber, or it can be dried in air, which is the more traditional method."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is kiln-dried lumber superior to air dried lumber?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Advantages of kiln-dried lumber include higher throughput and better control of the final moisture content."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is having moisture in lumber important?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I couldn't find the information you requested, but I did learn that wood is a hygroscopic material, which means it naturally absorbs and releases water to balance its internal moisture content with the surrounding environment."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does wood tend to shrink or swell when wet?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I don't have a direct answer as to whether wood shrinks swells when wet, but a \"check\" is a crack on the surface of the wood caused by the outside of a timber shrinking and it occurs more frequently at the ends of lumber because of the more rapid drying in these locations."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How long can well maintained lumber last for?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I couldn't find how long lumber lasts in general but those treated with a  preservative are able to last 5 to 10 times the service life of untreated wood."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you give me a little more information about air drying lumber?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The technique of air drying consists mainly of making a stack of sawn timber (with the layers of boards separated by stickers) on raised foundations, in a clean, cool, dry and shady place, the rate of drying largely depends on climatic conditions, and on the air movement. Would you like to know more of the benefits or drawbacks of air drying lumber?",
      "Air drying is the drying of timber by exposing it to the air. The technique of air drying consists mainly of making a stack of sawn timber (with the layers of boards separated by stickers) on raised foundations, in a clean, cool, dry and shady place."
    ],
    "topic": "Wood drying",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Wood drying:50",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wood drying",
          "Methods of drying timber",
          "Air drying"
        ],
        "ctx": "Air drying is the drying of timber by exposing it to the air. The technique of air drying consists mainly of making a stack of sawn timber (with the layers of boards separated by stickers) on raised foundations, in a clean, cool, dry and shady place. Rate of drying largely depends on climatic conditions, and on the air movement (exposure to the wind). For successful air drying, a continuous and uniform flow of air throughout the pile of the timber needs to be arranged (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996)."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Wood drying:51",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wood drying",
          "Methods of drying timber",
          "Air drying"
        ],
        "ctx": "The rate of loss of moisture can be controlled by coating the planks with any substance that is relatively impermeable to moisture; ordinary mineral oil is usually quite effective. Coating the ends of logs with oil or thick paint improves their quality upon drying. Wrapping planks or logs in materials which will allow some movement of moisture, generally works very well provided the wood is first treated against fungal infection by coating in petrol/gasoline or oil. Mineral oil will generally not soak in more than 1\u20132\u00a0mm below the surface and is easily removed by planing when the timber is suitably dry.\n* Benefits: It can be less expensive to use this drying method (there are still costs associated with storing the wood, and with the slower process of getting the wood to market), and air drying often produces a higher quality, more easily workable wood than with kiln drying.\n* Drawbacks: Depending on the climate, it takes several months to a number of years to air-dry the wood."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Wood drying:51",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wood drying",
          "Methods of drying timber",
          "Air drying"
        ],
        "ctx": "The rate of loss of moisture can be controlled by coating the planks with any substance that is relatively impermeable to moisture; ordinary mineral oil is usually quite effective. Coating the ends of logs with oil or thick paint improves their quality upon drying. Wrapping planks or logs in materials which will allow some movement of moisture, generally works very well provided the wood is first treated against fungal infection by coating in petrol/gasoline or oil. Mineral oil will generally not soak in more than 1\u20132\u00a0mm below the surface and is easily removed by planing when the timber is suitably dry.\n* Benefits: It can be less expensive to use this drying method (there are still costs associated with storing the wood, and with the slower process of getting the wood to market), and air drying often produces a higher quality, more easily workable wood than with kiln drying.\n* Drawbacks: Depending on the climate, it takes several months to a number of years to air-dry the wood."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Wood drying:50",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wood drying",
          "Methods of drying timber",
          "Air drying"
        ],
        "ctx": "Air drying is the drying of timber by exposing it to the air. The technique of air drying consists mainly of making a stack of sawn timber (with the layers of boards separated by stickers) on raised foundations, in a clean, cool, dry and shady place. Rate of drying largely depends on climatic conditions, and on the air movement (exposure to the wind). For successful air drying, a continuous and uniform flow of air throughout the pile of the timber needs to be arranged (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996)."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Air drying is the drying of timber by exposing it to the air. The technique of air drying consists mainly of making a stack of sawn timber (with the layers of boards separated by stickers) on raised foundations, in a clean, cool, dry and shady place. Rate of drying largely depends on climatic conditions, and on the air movement (exposure to the wind). For successful air drying, a continuous and uniform flow of air throughout the pile of the timber needs to be arranged (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "In addition to the above advantages of drying timber, the following points are also significant (Walker \"et al.\", 1993; Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996):\n# Dried timber is lighter, and the transportation and handling costs are reduced.\n# Dried timber is stronger than green timber in most strength properties.\n# Timbers for impregnation with preservatives have to be properly dried if proper penetration is to be accomplished, particularly in the case of oil-type preservatives.\n# In the field of chemical modification of wood and wood products, the material should be dried to a certain moisture content for the appropriate reactions to occur.\n# Dry wood generally works, machines, finishes and glues better than green timber (although there are exceptions; for instance, green wood is often easier to turn than dry wood). Paints and finishes last longer on dry timber.\n# The electrical and thermal insulation properties of wood are improved by drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The chief difficulty experienced in the drying of timber is the tendency of its outer layers to dry out more rapidly than the interior ones. If these layers are allowed to dry much below the fibre saturation point while the interior is still saturated, stresses (called drying stresses) are set up because the shrinkage of the outer layers is restricted by the wet interior (Keey \"et al.\", 2000). Rupture in the wood tissues occurs, and consequently splits and cracks occur if these stresses across the grain exceed the strength across the grain (fibre to fibre bonding)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Immersion in running water quickly removes sap and then the wood is air dried. \"...it reduces the elasticity and durability of the wood and also makes it brittle.\" But there are competing perspectives, e.g., \"Duhamel, who made many experiments on this important subject, states, that timber for the joiner's use is best put in water for some time, and afterwards dried; as it renders the timber less liable to warp and crack in drying; but, he adds, 'where strength is required it ought not to be put in water.'\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The rate of loss of moisture can be controlled by coating the planks with any substance that is relatively impermeable to moisture; ordinary mineral oil is usually quite effective. Coating the ends of logs with oil or thick paint improves their quality upon drying. Wrapping planks or logs in materials which will allow some movement of moisture, generally works very well provided the wood is first treated against fungal infection by coating in petrol/gasoline or oil. Mineral oil will generally not soak in more than 1\u20132\u00a0mm below the surface and is easily removed by planing when the timber is suitably dry.\n* Benefits: It can be less expensive to use this drying method (there are still costs associated with storing the wood, and with the slower process of getting the wood to market), and air drying often produces a higher quality, more easily workable wood than with kiln drying.\n* Drawbacks: Depending on the climate, it takes several months to a number of years to air-dry the wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Chamber drying provides a means of overcoming the limitations imposed by erratic weather conditions. With kiln drying, as is the case with air drying, unsaturated air is used as the drying medium. Almost all commercial timbers of the world are dried in industrial kilns. A comparison of air drying, conventional kiln and solar drying is given below:\n# Timber can be dried to any desired low-moisture content by conventional or solar kiln drying, but in air drying, moisture contents of less than 18% are difficult to attain for most locations.\n# The drying times are considerably less in conventional kiln drying than in solar kiln drying, followed by air drying.\n#* This means that if capital outlay is involved, this capital sits for a longer time when air drying is used. On the other hand, installing, operating and maintaining an industrial kiln is expensive.\n#* In addition, wood that is being air dried takes up space, which could also cost money.\n# In air drying, there is little control over the drying conditions, so drying rates cannot be controlled.\n# The temperatures employed in kiln drying typically kill all the fungi and insects in the wood if a maximum dry-bulb temperature of above 60\u00a0\u00b0C is used for the drying schedule. This is not guaranteed in air drying.\n# If air drying is done improperly (exposed to the sun), the rate of drying may be overly rapid in the dry summer months, causing cracking and splitting, and too slow during the cold winter months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Submersion in boiling water or the application of steam speed the drying of wood. This method is said to cause less shrinkage \"\u2026 but it is expensive to use, and reduces the strength and elasticity of the timber.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Significant advantages of conventional kiln drying include higher throughput and better control of the final moisture content. Conventional kilns and solar drying both enable wood to be dried to any moisture content regardless of weather conditions. For most large-scale drying operations solar and conventional kiln drying are more efficient than air drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Many properties of wood show considerable change as the wood is dried below the fibre saturation point, including:\n# volume (ideally no shrinkage occurs until some bound water is lost, that is, until wood is dried below FSP);\n# strength (strengths generally increase consistently as the wood is dried below the FSP (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996), except for impact-bending strength and, in some cases, toughness);\n# electrical resistivity, which increases very rapidly with the loss of bound water when the wood dries below the FSP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood drying (also seasoning lumber or wood seasoning) reduces the moisture content of wood before its use. When the drying is done in a kiln, the product is known as kiln-dried timber or lumber, whereas air drying is the more traditional method."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Low ambient pressure does lower the boiling point of water but the amount of energy required to change the liquid to vapor is the same. Savings come from not being required to heat a huge building and not being required to vent the heat while lowering humidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "There are two main reasons for drying wood:\n; Woodworking:When wood is used as a construction material, whether as a structural support in a building or in woodworking objects, it will absorb or expel moisture until it is in equilibrium with its surroundings. Equilibration (usually drying) causes unequal shrinkage in the wood, and can cause damage to the wood if equilibration occurs too rapidly. The equilibration must be controlled to prevent damage to the wood.\n; Wood burning: When wood is burned (firewood), it is usually best to dry it first. Damage from shrinkage is not a problem here, as it may be in the case of drying for woodworking purposes. Moisture affects the burning process, with unburnt hydrocarbons going up the chimney. If a 50% wet log is burnt at high temperature, with good heat extraction from the exhaust gas leading to a 100\u00a0\u00b0C exhaust temperature, about 5% of the energy of the log is wasted through evaporating and heating the water vapour. With condensers, the efficiency can be further increased; but, for the normal stove, the key to burning wet wood is to burn it very hot, perhaps starting fire with dry wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Satisfactory kiln drying can usually be accomplished by regulating the temperature and humidity of the circulating air to control the moisture content of the lumber at any given time. This condition is achieved by applying kiln-drying schedules. The desired objective of an appropriate schedule is to ensure drying lumber at the fastest possible rate without causing objectionable degrade. The following factors have a considerable bearing on the schedules.\n; The species: Variations in anatomical, physical, and mechanical properties between species affect drying times and overall results.\n; The thickness of the lumber: Drying time is inversely related to thickness and, to some extent, the width of the lumber.\n; Whether the lumber boards are quarter-sawn, flat-sawn, or bastard-sawn (mixed-sawn): Sawing pattern influences the distortion due to shrinkage anisotropy.\n; Permissible drying degrade: Aggressive drying schedules can cause timber to crack and distort.\n; Intended use of timber: Mechanical and aesthetic requirements will necessitate different moisture targets depending on the intended use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Swingblade sawmill",
        "text": "Disadvantages include a wider kerf (tooth bite) than a bandsaw, creating more sawdust with the cut width. However many concede the improved accuracy and straightness of the sawn boards often mitigates the initial loss of sawdust in the cut. The result is fewer rejected boards and less planing required further down the processing path."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Valid economic studies of different wood drying technologies are based on the total energy, capital, insurance/risk, environmental impacts, labor, maintenance, and product degrade costs for the task of removing water from the wood fiber. These costs (which can be a significant part of the entire plant costs) involve the differential impact of the presence of drying equipment in a specific plant. An example of this is that every piece of equipment (in a lumber manufacturing plant) from the green trimmer to the infeed system at the planer mill is the \"drying system\". Since thousands of different types of wood products manufacturing plants exist around the globe, and may be integrated (lumber, plywood, paper, etc.) or stand alone (lumber only), the true costs of the drying system can only be determined when comparing the total plant costs and risks with and without drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Martempering",
        "text": "The drawback of this process is that the large section cannot be heat treated by this process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyperus esculentus",
        "text": "Disadvantages in the drying process are shrinkage, skin wrinkles and hard nut texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thermally modified wood",
        "text": "The main disadvantage is that the strength is decreased as a result of the high temperatures. In general the bending strength is reduced up to 30% with more reduction at higher temperatures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The total (harmful) air emissions produced by wood kilns, including their heat source, can be significant. Typically, the higher the temperature the kiln operates at, the larger amount of emissions are produced (per pound of water removed). This is especially true in the drying of thin veneers and high-temperature drying of softwoods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Keey \"et al.\" (2000) use a different definition of the fibre saturation point (equilibrium moisture content of wood in an environment of 99% relative humidity)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Differences in moisture content between the surface and the centre (gradient, the chemical potential difference between interface and bulk) move the bound water through the small passageways in the cell wall by diffusion. In comparison with capillary movement, diffusion is a slow process. Diffusion is the generally suggested mechanism for the drying of impermeable hardwoods (Keey \"et al.\", 2000). Furthermore, moisture migrates slowly due to the fact that extractives plug the small cell wall openings in the heartwood. This is why sapwood generally dries faster than heartwood under the same drying conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "By going beyond kiln drying wood, heat treatment may make timber more durable. By heating timber to a certain temperature, it may be possible to make the wood fibre less appetizing to insects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Prompt drying of wood immediately after felling therefore significantly upgrades and adds value to raw timber. Drying enables substantial long-term economy by rationalizing the use of timber resources. The drying of wood is thus an area for research and development, which concern many researchers and timber companies around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Since all free water can be removed under 115'F, quality is improved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "Drying produces a decided increase in the strength of wood, particularly in small specimens. An extreme example is the case of a completely dry spruce block 5\u00a0cm in section, which will sustain a permanent load four times as great as a green (undried) block of the same size will."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "There are two types of drying defects, although some defects involve both causes:\n# Defects from shrinkage anisotropy, resulting in warping: cupping, bowing, twisting, crooking, spring and diamonding.\n# Defects from uneven drying, resulting in the rupture of the wood tissue, such as checks (surface, end and internal), end splits, honey-combing and case hardening. Collapse, often shown as corrugation, or so-called \"washboarding\" of the wood surface, may also occur (Innes, 1996). Collapse is a defect that results from the physical flattening of fibres to above the fibre saturation point and is thus not a form of shrinkage anisotropy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "For some purposes, wood is not dried at all, and is used green. Often, wood must be in equilibrium with the air outside, as for construction wood, or the air indoors, as for wooden furniture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "The greatest strength increase due to drying is in the ultimate crushing strength, and strength at elastic limit in endwise compression; these are followed by the modulus of rupture, and stress at elastic limit in cross-bending, while the modulus of elasticity is least affected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "As wood dries, evaporation of water from the surface sets up capillary forces that exert a pull on the free water in the zones of wood beneath the surfaces. When there is no longer any free water in the wood capillary forces are no longer of importance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Drying, if carried out promptly after felling of trees, also protects timber against primary decay, fungal stain and attack by certain kinds of insects. Organisms, which cause decay and stain, generally cannot thrive in timber with a moisture content below 20%. Several, though not all, insect pests can live only in green timber."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "Advantages of lumber:\n* Fire performance: In the case of fire, the outer layer of mass timber will tend to char in a predictable way that effectively self-extinguishes and shields the interior, allowing it to retain structural integrity for several hours, even in an intense fire.\n* Reduction of carbon emissions: Building materials and construction make up 11% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Though the exact amount will depend on tree species, forestry practices, transportation costs, and several other factors, that one cubic meter of lumber sequesters roughly one tonne of CO2.\n* Natural insulation: lumber is a natural insulator which makes it particularly good for windows and doors.\n* Less construction time, labor costs, and waste: it is easy to manufacture prefabricated lumber, from which pieces can be assembled simultaneously (with relatively little labor). This reduces material waste, avoids massive on-site inventory, and minimizes on-site disruption. According to the softwood lumber industry, \u201cMass timber buildings are roughly 25% faster to construct than concrete buildings and require 90% less construction traffic\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Air abrasion",
        "text": "Air abrasion\n--Advantages and disadvantages.\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Since wood is dried with a vapor gradient - vapor pressure to ambient pressure - humidity can be kept very high. Because of this, a good vacuum kiln can dry 4.5\" thick White Oak fresh off the saw to 8% in less than a month. A feat that was previously thought to be impossible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "When green wood dries, free water from the cell lumina, held by the capillary forces only, is the first to go. Physical properties, such as strength and shrinkage, are generally not affected by the removal of free water. The fibre saturation point (FSP) is defined as the moisture content at which free water should be completely gone, while the cell walls are saturated with bound water. In most types of woods, the fibre saturation point is at 25 to 30% moisture content. Siau (1984) reported that the fibre saturation point formula_4 (kg/kg) is dependent on the temperature T (\u00b0C) according to the following equation:\n:formula_5 (1.2)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The process of artificial or 'oven' drying consists basically of introducing heat. This may be directly, using natural gas and/or electricity or indirectly, through steam-heated heat exchangers. Solar energy is also an option. In the process, deliberate control of temperature, relative humidity and air circulation creates variable conditions to achieve specific drying profiles. To achieve this, the timber is stacked in chambers, which are fitted with equipment to control atmospheric temperature, relative humidity and circulation rate (Walker \"et al.', 1993; Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prosthesis",
        "text": "However, some have some significant drawbacks that impair its use. They can be susceptible to water damage and thus great care must be taken to ensure that the prosthesis remains dry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Water in wood normally moves from zones of higher to zones of lower moisture content (Walker \"et al.\", 1993). Drying starts from the exterior of the wood and moves towards the centre, and drying at the outside is also necessary to expel moisture from the inner zones of the wood. Wood subsequently attains equilibrium with the surrounding air in moisture content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Considering each of the factors, no one schedule is necessarily appropriate, even for similar loads of the same species. This is why there is so much timber drying research focused on the development of effective drying schedules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rolling bed dryer",
        "text": "Large bulks of biomass is permanently circulated and mixed by highly effective paddles. This basic idea combines the flow of large bulks of product good heat transfer with continuous movement of the product for even drying results. The drying air is supplied through a perforated plate under the moving bulk of product. Depending on the amount of ventilation., it is possible to separate fine materials such as dust, fibers, and sand from the bulk material collecting this separately alongside the ongoing drying process. This simultaneous cleaning occurs through the use of the material against itself to remove, separate, and collect fine materials such as fibers, sand and dust from the drying bulk material. Having this occur at the same time as the drying process saves not only time and energy, but also maintains better the caloric value of the residual biomass and reduces ash content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Workbench (woodworking)",
        "text": "There are trade offs with the choice of construction material. Solid wood has many advantages including strength, workability, appearance. A plywood or hardboard bench top has the advantages of being stable, relatively inexpensive. The practical drawbacks of a plywood or composite bench top are that they don't hold their corners and edges well, and they can't be resurfaced with a plane\u2014something that is needed from time to time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dry rot treatment",
        "text": "But then dry wood doesn't rot \u2013 so what is actually being 'guaranteed? Certainly not any chemical treatment that has been applied since it is clearly implied that if treated timber becomes damp it will rot. So what was the value of the preservative treatment? Obviously none!"
      },
      {
        "title": "Woodturning",
        "text": "Moisture content affects both the ease of cutting wood and the final shape of the work when it dries. Wetter wood cuts easily with a continuous ribbon of shavings that are relatively dust-free. However, the wet wood moves as it dries. shrinking less along the grain. These variable changes may add the illusion of an oval bowl, or draw attention to features of the wood. Dry wood is necessary for turnings that require precision, as in the fit of a lid to a box, or in forms where pieces are glued together."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The successful control of drying defects in a drying process consists in maintaining a balance between the rate of evaporation of moisture from the surface and the rate of outward movement of moisture from the interior of the wood. The way in which drying can be controlled will now be explained. One of the most successful ways of wood drying or seasoning would be kiln drying, where the wood is placed into a kiln compartment in stacks and dried by steaming, and releasing the steam slowly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biomass",
        "text": "When combusted in combustion facilities with the same heat-to-electricity conversion efficiency, oven dry wood emits slightly less CO2 per unit of heat produced, compared to oven dry coal. However, many biomass-only combustion facilities are relatively small and inefficient, compared to the typically much larger coal plants. Further, raw biomass (for instance wood chips) can have higher moisture content than coal (especially if the coal has been dried). When this is the case, more of the wood's inherent energy must be spent solely on evaporating moisture, compared to the drier coal, which means that the amount of CO2 emitted per unit produced heat will be higher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miter saw",
        "text": "One of the main disadvantages is relatively poor wood chip and dust extraction, as so much of the blade is exposed when cutting, especially in bevel cuts; consequently there is a tendency for chips to fly about."
      },
      {
        "title": "Convectant drying",
        "text": "Added advantages of the convectant drying system are that the system controls the environment being dried, removing the potential for mold proliferation and expelling airborne particulates, odours and mold spores to the outside. In addition to the benefits of a faster drying process, use of the process can result in significant reduction in: the need to strip out structural components, secondary damage, environmental impacts, overall cost savings relating to the incident - in particular when being used on more severe water damage or construction drying projects."
      },
      {
        "title": "I-joist",
        "text": "The advantage of I-joists is they are less likely to bow, crown, twist, cup, check or split as would a dimensional piece of lumber. I joists' dimensional soundness and little or no shrinkage help eliminate squeaky floors. The disadvantage is very rapid structural failure when directly exposed to fire, reducing the time available for residents to escape and increasing the danger to firefighters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood gas generator",
        "text": "The disadvantages of wood gas generators are:\n*the large specific size\n*the relatively slow starting speed; the time to heat the initially cold batch of wood to the necessary temperature level can take many minutes and in bigger plants even hours until the designed power is reached.\n*a batch burning operation, that some designs feature, and that regularly interrupts the gas producing process.\n*the stop operation out of a high load level is difficult (for example the stop of the engine using the gas): the residual heat still produces gas, which for a certain time leaves the gasifier either without control, or has to be used in a burner\n*the primary combustible fuel-gas produced during gasification is carbon monoxide: it is an intentional fuel-product, and is subsequently burned to safe carbon dioxide in the engine (or other application) along with the other fuel-gases; however, continuous exposure to carbon monoxide can be fatal to humans even in small to moderate concentrations.\n*the humidity of the wood (usually 15 to 20%) and the water vapor created by the O- and H-atoms of the dry wood itself (about 0.4 liters of water loaded with organic substances per kg of dry wood) condenses during the gas cooling and filtering procedure and yields a liquid (see also wood tar), which needs specific waste water treatment. This treatment requires about 25 to 35% of the created wood gas energy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fibre saturation point",
        "text": "Fibre saturation point is a term used in wood mechanics and especially wood drying, to denote the point in the drying process at which only water bound in the cell walls remains - all other water, called free water, having been removed from the cell cavities. Further drying of the wood results in strengthening of the wood fibres, and is usually accompanied by shrinkage. Wood is normally dried to a point where it is in equilibrium with the atmospheric moisture content or relative humidity, and since this varies so does the equilibrium moisture content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clog (British)",
        "text": "Another disadvantage is that the wood has a tendency to split if taken from the centre of the tree. So much alder was used for clogs that in parts of Wales it was called \"Pren Clocsia\" (Clog Wood) rather"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiln",
        "text": "The economics of different wood drying technologies are based on the total energy, capital, insurance/risk, environmental impacts, labor, maintenance, and product degradation costs. These costs, which can be a significant part of plant costs, involve the differential impact of the presence of drying equipment in a specific plant. Every piece of equipment from the green trimmer to the infeed system at the planer mill is part of the \"drying system\". The true costs of the drying system can only be determined when comparing the total plant costs and risks with and without drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dry rot",
        "text": "The perpetual saturation of wood with water also inhibits dry rot, as does perpetual dryness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood retains its hygroscopic characteristics after it is put into use. It is then subjected to fluctuating humidity, the dominant factor in determining its EMC. These fluctuations may be more or less cyclical, such as diurnal changes or annual seasonal changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drying",
        "text": "Among non-food products, some of those that require considerable drying are wood (as part of timber processing), paper, flax, and washing powder. The first two, owing to their organic origins, may develop mold if insufficiently dried. Another benefit of drying is a reduction in volume and weight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Freeze drying is accomplished by lowering the pressure in a chamber containing the wood to a few millibars, while lowering the temperature of the chamber to below the eutectic point of the material. Heat is typically added slowly to the material to allow the water contained in the wood to sublimate directly into vapor, and be deposited on the sides of the vacuum chamber or in the cold trap through which the chamber is evacuated. Freeze drying through sublimation typically takes about 10 times the energy that is taken through evaporation of water by heat. In practice, freeze drying of wood can be accomplished by placing room temperature wood in a vacuum chamber that can be chilled to -30 degrees C or lower, evacuating the chamber to a few millibars, and at the same time cooling the chamber to a freezing temperature. The latent heat in the wood will come out through the water vapor and condense as ice on the inside of the chamber. After a few hours under vacuum and freezing conditions, the chamber is returned to normal pressure, the wood removed and bagged in plastic to keep water from condensing on it, and allowed to return to room temperature over a few hours to a day. The cycle is then repeated, each time the latent heat in the wood is removed through the water content in the wood sublimating and/or evaporating and condensing on the sides of the container and in the cold trap. The cycles are repeated until the moisture content of the wood is at a pre-determined acceptable level. Instead of cycling the wood in the chamber, heat can be added to the wood at a rate that matches the rate of sublimation of ice in the wood to water vapor, which is deposited on the inside of the chamber or in the cold trap. An advantage to freeze drying wood is that the form of the wood is maintained, and shrinkage does not typically occur. Shrinkage will occur over time after the wood is freeze dried, but this typically will not cause defects in the wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood",
        "text": "In heartwood it occurs only in the first and last forms. Wood that is thoroughly air-dried retains 8\u201316% of the water in the cell walls, and none, or practically none, in the other forms. Even oven-dried wood retains a small percentage of moisture, but for all except chemical purposes, may be considered absolutely dry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The timber of living trees and fresh logs contains a large amount of water which often constitutes over 50% of the wood's weight. Water has a significant influence on wood. Wood continually exchanges moisture or water with its surroundings, although the rate of exchange is strongly affected by the degree to which wood is sealed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood preservation",
        "text": "With the introduction of strict volatile organic compound (VOC) laws in the European Union, LOSPs have disadvantages due to the high cost and long process times associated with vapour-recovery systems. LOSPs have been emulsified into water-based solvents. While this does significantly reduce VOC emissions, the timber swells during treatment, removing many of the advantages of LOSP formulations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Drying defects are the most common form of degrade in timber, next to natural problems such as knots (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Softwoods such as pine are typically much lighter and easier to process than hardwoods such as fruit tree wood. The density of softwoods ranges from to , while hardwoods are to . Once dried, both consist of approximately 12% of moisture (\"Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996\"). Because of hardwood's denser and more complex structure, its permeability is much less than that of softwood, making it more difficult to dry. Although there are about a hundred times more species of hardwood trees than softwood trees, the ability to be dried and processed faster and more easily makes softwood the main supply of commercial wood today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "It is reported that the ratio of the longitudinal to the transverse (radial and tangential) diffusion rates for wood ranges from about 100 at a moisture content of 5%, to 2\u20134 at a moisture content of 25% (Langrish and Walker, 1993). Radial diffusion is somewhat faster than tangential diffusion. Although longitudinal diffusion is most rapid, it is of practical importance only when short pieces are dried. Generally the timber boards are much longer than in width or thickness. For example, a typical size of a green board used for this research was 6m long, 250\u00a0mm in width and 43\u00a0mm in thickness. If the boards are quartersawn, then the width will be in the radial direction whereas the thickness will be in tangential direction, and vice versa for plain-sawn boards. Most of the moisture is removed from wood by lateral movement during drying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Treethanol",
        "text": "Another drawback to the processing of cellulosic ethanol is that there is little known about the waste/by products from the processing. Of particular concern to some is the biological method of pre-treatment. It is estimated that there is the possibility of producing almost as much (if not more) waste than usable ethanol, with waste products including mold, bacteria, yeast, biological toxins and allergens produced by these microorganisms, enzymes, and other chemicals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Log house",
        "text": "Mills that have a kiln on site have the option of artificially accelerating the drying process. Green timber is placed inside a large oven, where heat removes moisture from them; however, they can suffer severe checking and cracking if the kiln controls are not properly monitored during the drying process. Use of a kiln can reduce the drying time from many months to several weeks. Kiln-drying usually results in an average moisture content of 18-20% (\"average\" means the average moisture content of the outside and the center of the log)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biological wood oxidation",
        "text": "The main disadvantage of biological wood oxidation is that the heat production rate is low and it is not possible to drain enough hot water for a longer period of time. It is reported that the heat production rate from biological wood oxidation usually varies from 0.02 to 0.95 W/kg DM, depending on the different conditions, which is much lower (200\u20136000 times lower) compared to a domestic stove for wood burning. In order to get a reasonable hot water service, the pile mass of biological wood oxidation is usually large. For example, the mass of biomeiler varies from 10 tons to 50 tons. So far, there is little information about the weight loss of woodchips in biomeiler and turbomeiler due to the poor homogenization of the woodchips pile. Several reasons might result in the low heat production rate of biomeiler: improper temperature, low humidity and low oxygen availability. The first reason is the low oxygen availability. Biomeiler is a big pile of woodchips and its core part has low rate of air exchange. The air flow in the core part of biomeiler largely depends on the pore size and particle size of woodchips. Biological wood oxidation is an aerobic process, which is strongly inhibited by the low oxygen availability. It was reported that the best availability of oxygen is a free pore volume of around 30% and an air volume of approximately 50%. However, in the core part of biomeiler, the oxygen availability is usually low. Jean Pain found that methane was even generated in the biomeiler pile. Another reason could be the improper temperature, which means that the temperature in the center part is too high and in the outside part is too low. The temperature of a biomeiler can reach 70\u00a0\u00b0C in the center part, which is not good for fast biological wood oxidation because the proper temperature for the growth of wood decaying fungi and bacteria in composting varies from 40 to 55\u00a0\u00b0C. The temperature in the outside part of biomeiler may be low because the generated heat is likely lost to the ambient air. In winter the biomeiler might even stop. The last reason is the low humidity. Tons of water is initially added to the biomeiler pile in order to wet the woodchips. However, the generated heat is drying the pile of woodchips. The higher heat production, the drier woodchips. Humidity is an important factor affecting microbial activity. Research shows that humidity below 40% decreases the microbial activity and if the humidity exceeds 60%, the air flow through biomeiler can be obstructed, making the presence of oxygen the limiting factor. It was reported that the dry part of biomeiler is only less than 20% and this number is 60% in the center part of biomeiler. Therefore, the heat production rate of biomeiler is low."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Drying timber is one method of adding value to sawn products from the primary wood processing industries. According to the Australian Forest and Wood Products Research and Development Corporation (FWPRDC), green sawn hardwood, which is sold at about $350 per cubic metre or less, increases in value to $2,000 per cubic metre or more with drying and processing. However, currently used conventional drying processes often result in significant quality problems from cracks, both externally and internally, reducing the value of the product. For example, in Queensland (Anon, 1997), on the assumption that 10% of the dried softwood is devalued by $200 per cubic metre because of drying defects, saw millers are losing about $5 million a year. In Australia, the loss could be $40 million a year for softwood and an equal or higher amount for hardwood. Thus, proper drying under controlled conditions prior to use is of great importance in timber use, in countries where climatic conditions vary considerably at different times of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grain drying",
        "text": "The column formed in this kind of dryer is made up of two vertical perforated steel sheets, which is about 12 inches thick each. The capacity of column batch dryers is too small to store grains. The advantages of column batch, stationary bed dryer are easy to move and the dyer can be used as cooler; while the disadvantages are time losing when cooling, loading and unloading and unequal moisture distribution when drying is completed. When column batch recirculating dryer is used, the moisture content variation problem is avoided, but the additional handling process may result in grain spoilage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timber recycling",
        "text": "Timber recycling\n--Benefits.\n--Drawbacks.\n--Recycling timber.\n--Examples.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Differential transverse shrinkage of wood is related to:\n# the alternation of late wood and early wood increments within the annual ring;\n# the influence of wood rays on the radial direction (Kollmann and Cote, 1968);\n# the features of the cell wall structure such as microfibril angle modifications and pits;\n# the chemical composition of the middle lamella."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brettstapel",
        "text": "It is one of a few construction methods that can be entirely fabricated from timber. Although some variations do still use glue and nails, these are not necessary and avoiding these means a healthier indoor air quality can be achieved. The timber itself locks in vast amounts of carbon dioxide without emitting harmful toxins found in other materials, benefiting both the user and the environment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laboratory drying rack",
        "text": "It is better than using towel or compressed air, due to the fact that it can introduce fibers and impurities, that can contaminate the solution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Broadly, there are two methods by which timber can be dried:\n* natural drying or air drying\n* artificial drying"
      },
      {
        "title": "Drying",
        "text": "The following are some general methods of drying:\n*Application of hot air (convective or direct drying). Air heating increases the drying force for heat transfer and accelerates drying. It also reduces air relative humidity, further increasing the driving force for drying. In the falling rate period, as moisture content falls, the solids heat up and the higher temperatures speed up diffusion of water from the interior of the solid to the surface. However, product quality considerations limit the applicable rise to air temperature. Excessively hot air can almost completely dehydrate the solid surface, so that its pores shrink and almost close, leading to crust formation or \"case hardening\", which is usually undesirable. For instance in wood (timber) drying, air is heated (which speeds up drying) though some steam is also added to it (which hinders drying rate to a certain extent) in order to avoid excessive surface dehydration and product deformation owing to high moisture gradients across timber thickness. Spray drying belongs in this category.\n*Indirect or contact drying (heating through a hot wall), as drum drying, vacuum drying. Again, higher wall temperatures will speed up drying but this is limited by product degradation or case-hardening. Drum drying belongs in this category.\n*Dielectric drying (radiofrequency or microwaves being absorbed inside the material) is the focus of intense research nowadays. It may be used to assist air drying or vacuum drying. Researchers have found that microwave finish drying speeds up the otherwise very low drying rate at the end of the classical drying methods.\n*Freeze drying or lyophilization is a drying method where the solvent is frozen prior to drying and is then sublimed, i.e., passed to the gas phase directly from the solid phase, below the melting point of the solvent. It is increasingly applied to dry foods, beyond its already classical pharmaceutical or medical applications. It keeps biological properties of proteins, and retains vitamins and bioactive compounds. Pressure can be reduced by a high vacuum pump (though freeze drying at atmospheric pressure is possible in dry air). If using a vacuum pump, the vapor produced by sublimation is removed from the system by converting it into ice in a condenser, operating at very low temperatures, outside the freeze drying chamber.\n*Supercritical drying (superheated steam drying) involves steam drying of products containing water. This process is feasible because water in the product is boiled off, and joined with the drying medium, increasing its flow. It is usually employed in closed circuit and allows a proportion of latent heat to be recovered by recompression, a feature which is not possible with conventional air drying, for instance. The process has potential for use in foods if carried out at reduced pressure, to lower the boiling point.\n*Natural air drying takes place when materials are dried with unheated forced air, taking advantage of its natural drying potential. The process is slow and weather-dependent, so a wise strategy \"fan off-fan on\" must be devised considering the following conditions: Air temperature, relative humidity and moisture content and temperature of the material being dried. Grains are increasingly dried with this technique, and the total time (including fan off and on periods) may last from one week to various months, if a winter rest can be tolerated in cold areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "The EMC of wood varies with the ambient relative humidity (a function of temperature) significantly, to a lesser degree with the temperature. Siau (1984) reported that the EMC also varies very slightly with species, mechanical stress, drying history of wood, density, extractives content and the direction of sorption in which the moisture change takes place (i.e. adsorption or desorption)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood drying may be described as the art of ensuring that gross dimensional changes through shrinkage are confined to the drying process. Ideally, wood is dried to that equilibrium moisture content as will later (in service) be attained by the wood. Thus, further dimensional change will be kept to a minimum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "1910.265(f)(3)(i)(c): Adequate means shall be provided to firmly secure main doors, when they are disengaged from carriers and hangers, to prevent toppling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Instant coffee",
        "text": "One drawback with spray drying is that the particles it produces are too fine to be used effectively by the consumer; they must first be either steam-fused in towers similar to spray dryers or by belt agglomeration to produce particles of suitable size."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "For example, at 150\u00b0F, using the Arden Buck equation, the saturation vapor pressure of water is found to be about . The time constant for drying a red oak board at 150\u00b0F is then formula_17 days, which is the time required to reduce the moisture content to 1/e = 37% of its initial deviation from equilibrium. If the relative humidity is 0.50, then using the Hailwood-Horrobin equation the moisture content of the wood at equilibrium is about 7.4%. The time to reduce the lumber from 85% moisture content to 25% moisture content is then about 4.5 days. Higher temperatures will yield faster drying times, but they will also create greater stresses in the wood due because the moisture gradient will be larger. For firewood, this is not an issue but for woodworking purposes, high stresses will cause the wood to crack and be unusable. Normal drying times to obtain minimal seasoning checks (cracks) in 25mm (1inch or 4/4 lumber) Red Oak ranges from 22 to 30 days, and in 8/4, (50mm or 2inch) it will range from 65 to 90 days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Convectant drying",
        "text": "Both systems use heat, air exchanges and controlled manipulation of the indoor environment to reduce the drying time compared to traditional methods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Treethanol",
        "text": "Treethanol\n--Summary.\n--Production.\n--Sources.\n--Applications.\n--Advantages.\n--Drawbacks.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "where \"a\", \"b\" and \"n\" are constants and formula_14 is the saturation vapor pressure of water at temperature \"T\". For time measured in days, length in inches, and formula_15 measured in mmHg, the following values of the constants were found for red oak lumber.\n:\"a\" = 0.0575\n:\"b\" = 0.00142\n:\"n\" = 1.52"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cordwood construction",
        "text": "Less dense and more airy woods are superior because they shrink and expand in lower proportions than dense hardwoods. Most wood can be used in a wall if it is dried properly and stabilized to the external climate's relative humidity. Furthermore, while log ends of different species can be mixed in a wall, log-ends of identical species and source limit expansion/contraction variables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumber",
        "text": "Wood with less than 25% moisture (dry weight basis) can remain free of decay for centuries. Similarly, wood submerged in water may not be attacked by fungi if the amount of oxygen is inadequate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "While conventional drying uses warm, dry air to skim water off the surface, vacuum kilns can boil water from within the wood. This enables a good vacuum kiln to dry very thick wood very quickly. It is possible to dry 12/4 Red Oak fresh off the saw to 7% in 11 days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cutting mill",
        "text": "Cutting mill\n--History.\n--Advantages.\n--Disadvantages.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood drying\n--Types of wood.\n--Wood\u2013water relationships.\n----Moisture content.\n----Fibre saturation point.\n----Equilibrium moisture content.\n----Moisture content of wood in service.\n----Shrinkage and swelling.\n----Mechanisms of moisture movement.\n------Moisture passageways.\n------Moisture movement space.\n----Driving forces for moisture movement.\n------Capillary action.\n------Moisture content differences.\n------Moisture movement directions for diffusion.\n----Reasons for splits and cracks during timber drying and their control.\n----Influence of temperature, relative humidity and rate of air circulation.\n----Classification of timbers for drying.\n----Model.\n--Methods of drying timber.\n----Air drying.\n----Kiln drying.\n------Kiln drying schedules.\n----Dehumidification kiln.\n----Vacuum kiln.\n----Solar kiln.\n----Water seasoning.\n----Boiling or steam seasoning.\n----Chemical or salt seasoning.\n----Electrical seasoning.\n----Freeze drying.\n--Drying defects.\n--Wood-drying kiln.\n--OSHA Standards regarding Dry Kiln Facilities.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood is air-dried or dried in a purpose built oven (kiln). Usually the wood is sawn before drying, but sometimes the log is dried whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dry rot treatment",
        "text": "Guarantees are therefore of questionable value and may be difficult to enforce. However, the point will still be raised that if the fungicide treatment is really effective, it should not matter whether or not the treated timber gets wet again. If, on the other hand, a fungicide-treated piece of timber must be kept dry to stop it rotting, it cannot be much more resistant to rot than wood that has not been treated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alternate wetting and drying",
        "text": "The major disadvantage of AWD method is the increased N2O emissions. Also, rice productivity can reduce by following AWD for non-trained farmers. High weed growth rate in the crop field is a major problem from the farmers' point of view."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Modern high-temperature, high-air-velocity conventional kilns can typically dry green lumber in 10 hours down to a moisture content of 18%. However, 1-inch-thick green Red Oak requires about 28 days to dry down to a moisture content of 8%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Weep",
        "text": "The advantage of the tube type is that it is less conspicuous. However, the small holes may not allow air to circulate and vent out the moisture very well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alkenylsuccinic anhydrides",
        "text": "The disadvantages of ASA are in particular:\n* High hydrolysis tendency\n* Very low storage stability\n* Emulsion production only at the paper machine with high investment and operating costs\n* Risk of formation of sticky deposits in the machine\n* Oily deposits in the dryer area"
      },
      {
        "title": "Composite lumber",
        "text": "Working with composite lumber is similar to working with wood. However, composite lumber has the added benefit of being less likely to split or delaminate. Some composite lumber is also engineered to be lighter weight for easier handling. Composite lumber is also more stain, scratch, and mold resistant, and is therefore supposed to have a longer life than wood lumber."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "It is probably impossible to completely eliminate dimensional change in wood, but elimination of change in size may be approximated by chemical modification. For example, wood can be treated with chemicals to replace the hydroxyl groups with other hydrophobic functional groups of modifying agents (Stamm, 1964). Among all the existing processes, wood modification with acetic anhydride has been noted for the high anti-shrink or anti-swell efficiency (ASE) attainable without damage to wood. However, acetylation of wood has been slow to be commercialised due to the cost, corrosion and the entrapment of the acetic acid in wood. There is an extensive volume of literature relating to the chemical modification of wood (Rowell, 1983, 1991; Kumar, 1994; Haque, 1997)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Electrical seasoning involves running an electric current through the lumber causing heat to build up drying the wood. This method is expensive but is fast and uniform quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Firewood",
        "text": "There is debate about whether wood will dry more quickly when covered. There is a trade-off between the surface of the wood getting wet vs. allowing as much wind and sun as possible to access the stack. A cover can be almost any material that sheds water \u2013 a large piece of plywood, sheet metal, terracotta tiles, or an oiled canvas cloth, even cheap plastic sheeting may also be used. Wood will not dry when \"completely\" enclosed. Ideally pallets or scrap wood should be used to raise the wood from the ground, reducing rot and increasing air flow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "1910.265(f)(3)(ii)(b): Escape doors shall be of adequate height and width to accommodate an average size man."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moisture meter",
        "text": "Newly-cut logs can have a moisture content (MC) of 80% or more, depending on species. Since wood shrinks, and can also split, twist or otherwise change shape as it dries, most wood is dried before being used. This is most often done using a kiln, but may use the air drying method, which is much slower. In most parts of the United States, the minimum moisture content that can be generally obtained in air drying is about 12 to 15 percent. Most air-dried material is usually closer to 20 percent moisture content when used."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Bray Griffith",
        "text": "Suppose the location of lumber yard, dry kiln, lumber shed and factory to be such as shown in Fig. I. Note How the lumber must travel back and forth, crossing the same space three times. Compare this with the arrangement shown in Fig. II.The lumber is taken the shortest possible distance and never goes over the same ground twice. Where buildings have been permanently located it may not be possible to change the general plan, but improvements can be made in nearly all cases. Take the plan in Fig. I: If the lumber yard was located immediately back of the dry kiln, at least 25 per cent of the labor of handling the lumber would be saved. The plans which we have shown illustrate examples of good and bad system in the location of one class of stock."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pullthrough",
        "text": "Pull-through layouts quickly increased in popularity because of the several performance advantages they offer. These advantages include that it permits enhanced machinery arrangements at the front end of the cotton ginning process, permits larger drying air volumes with greater horsepower efficiency, allows more forgiving division of cotton flow streams, and offers better cotton gin housekeeping due to natural evacuation of airborne dirt and lint from the building from the suction fans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wood drying",
        "text": "Wood contains water in three forms:\n; Free water: The bulk of water contained in the cell lumina is only held by capillary forces. It is not bound chemically and is called free water. Free water is not in the same thermodynamic state as liquid water: energy is required to overcome the capillary forces. Furthermore, free water may contain chemicals, altering the drying characteristics of wood.\n; Bound or hygroscopic water: Bound water is bound to the wood via hydrogen bonds. The attraction of wood for water arises from the presence of free hydroxyl (OH) groups in the cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin molecules in the cell wall. The hydroxyl groups are negatively charged. Because water is a polar liquid, the free hydroxyl groups in cellulose attract and hold water by hydrogen bonding.\n; Vapor: Water in cell lumina in the form of water vapour is normally negligible at normal temperature and humidity."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the most traditional style of wood drying?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Wood drying can be done in a kiln, resulting in kiln-dried timber or lumber, or it can be dried in air, which is the more traditional method."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is kiln-dried lumber superior to air dried lumber?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Advantages of kiln-dried lumber include higher throughput and better control of the final moisture content."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is having moisture in lumber important?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I couldn't find the information you requested, but I did learn that wood is a hygroscopic material, which means it naturally absorbs and releases water to balance its internal moisture content with the surrounding environment."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does wood tend to shrink or swell when wet?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I don't have a direct answer as to whether wood shrinks swells when wet, but a \"check\" is a crack on the surface of the wood caused by the outside of a timber shrinking and it occurs more frequently at the ends of lumber because of the more rapid drying in these locations."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How long can well maintained lumber last for?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I couldn't find how long lumber lasts in general but those treated with a  preservative are able to last 5 to 10 times the service life of untreated wood."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you give me a little more information about air drying lumber?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The technique of air drying consists mainly of making a stack of sawn timber (with the layers of boards separated by stickers) on raised foundations, in a clean, cool, dry and shady place, the rate of drying largely depends on climatic conditions, and on the air movement. Would you like to know more of the benefits or drawbacks of air drying lumber?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Sure? What are the drawbacks?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Benefits: It can be less expensive to use this drying method (there are still costs associated with storing the wood, and with the slower process of getting the wood to market), and air drying often produces a higher quality, more easily workable wood than with kiln drying. Drawbacks: Depending on the climate, it takes several months to a number of years to air-dry the wood."
    ],
    "topic": "Wood drying",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Wood drying:51",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wood drying",
          "Methods of drying timber",
          "Air drying"
        ],
        "ctx": "The rate of loss of moisture can be controlled by coating the planks with any substance that is relatively impermeable to moisture; ordinary mineral oil is usually quite effective. Coating the ends of logs with oil or thick paint improves their quality upon drying. Wrapping planks or logs in materials which will allow some movement of moisture, generally works very well provided the wood is first treated against fungal infection by coating in petrol/gasoline or oil. Mineral oil will generally not soak in more than 1\u20132\u00a0mm below the surface and is easily removed by planing when the timber is suitably dry.\n* Benefits: It can be less expensive to use this drying method (there are still costs associated with storing the wood, and with the slower process of getting the wood to market), and air drying often produces a higher quality, more easily workable wood than with kiln drying.\n* Drawbacks: Depending on the climate, it takes several months to a number of years to air-dry the wood."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Wood drying:51",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wood drying",
          "Methods of drying timber",
          "Air drying"
        ],
        "ctx": "The rate of loss of moisture can be controlled by coating the planks with any substance that is relatively impermeable to moisture; ordinary mineral oil is usually quite effective. Coating the ends of logs with oil or thick paint improves their quality upon drying. Wrapping planks or logs in materials which will allow some movement of moisture, generally works very well provided the wood is first treated against fungal infection by coating in petrol/gasoline or oil. Mineral oil will generally not soak in more than 1\u20132\u00a0mm below the surface and is easily removed by planing when the timber is suitably dry.\n* Benefits: It can be less expensive to use this drying method (there are still costs associated with storing the wood, and with the slower process of getting the wood to market), and air drying often produces a higher quality, more easily workable wood than with kiln drying.\n* Drawbacks: Depending on the climate, it takes several months to a number of years to air-dry the wood."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching enthusiasts have also made their own hand-held GPS devices using a Lego Mindstorms NXT GPS sensor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching is an outdoor recreational activity, in which participants use a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or mobile device and other navigational techniques to hide and seek containers, called \"geocaches\" or \"caches\", at specific locations marked by coordinates all over the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaches vary in size, difficulty, and location. Simple caches that are placed near a roadside are often called \"drive-bys\", \"park 'n grabs\" (PNGs), or \"cache and dash\". Geocaches may also be complex, involving lengthy searches, significant travel, or use of specialist equipment such as SCUBA diving, kayaking, or abseiling. Different geocaching websites list different variations per their own policies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "There are a few kinds of events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching\n--History.\n--Geocaches.\n----Variations.\n----Geocache types.\n------Geodashing.\n------Stratocaching.\n--Technology.\n----Obtaining data.\n----Converting and filtering data.\n----Mobile devices.\n--Ethics.\n--Reception.\n----Laws and legislation.\n--Notable incidents.\n--Websites and data ownership.\n----First page.\n----Geocaching.com.\n----Opencaching Network.\n----OpenCaching.com.\n----Other sites.\n------GPSgames.\n------NaviCache.\n------TerraCaching.\n------Extremcaching.\n------Geocaching Australia.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Finally, a USB Cache or Dead Drop cache location has a USB flash drive embedded into walls or other structures. The cache is retrieved by connecting a device that has a USB port and that is able to read standard text files. This type is available at opencaching.us."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A Traditional cache is the most common type and consists of a container with a logbook. Exact coordinates where the cache is located are given."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The following cache types don't contain a physical logbook."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Extremcaching is a German private database for alternative geocaches with a focus on T5 / climbing caches, night caches and lost place caches. For extreme caching all you need is an extreme caching account, a GPS device with coordinates or a GPS-enabled smartphone with geocaching or outdoor navigation software, e.g. c:geo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "For the traditional geocache, a geocacher will place a waterproof container containing a log book (with pen and/or pencil) and trade items or trackables, then record the cache's coordinates. These coordinates, along with other details of the location, are posted on a listing site (see list of some sites below). Other geocachers obtain the coordinates from that listing site and seek out the cache using their handheld GPS receivers. The finding geocachers record their exploits in the logbook and online, but then must return the cache to the same coordinates so that other geocachers may find it. Geocachers are free to take objects (except the logbook, pencil, or stamp) from the cache in exchange for leaving something of similar or higher value."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A Letterbox cache or a Letterbox hybrid cache is a combination of a geocache and a letterbox in the same container. A letterbox has a rubber stamp and a logbook instead of tradable items. Letterboxers carry their own stamp with them, to stamp the letterbox's log book and inversely stamp their personal log book with the letterbox stamp. The hybrid cache contains the important materials for this and may or may not include trade items."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Numerous websites list geocaches around the world. Geocaching websites vary in many ways, including control of data."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dexter Industries",
        "text": "According to Geocaching.com, \"geocaching is a high-tech treasure hunting game played throughout the world by adventure seekers equipped with GPS devices. The basic idea is to locate hidden containers, called geocaches, outdoors and then share your experiences online.\" By using the NXT and the dGPS sensor, the user is able to create a hand held GPS. The accompanying dGPS geocaching software takes GPS coordinates of a target in decimal-degrees, references them against the coordinates of the NXT's current position, and then calculates the distance the NXT is from its destination as well as the compass angle. By turning the NXT hand held GPS in the correct direction according to the embedded compass, the user can reach the geocache. The software also allows the user to record the latitude and longitude to plot the user's journey in Google Maps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Paperless geocaching means hunting a geocache without a physical printout of the cache description. Traditionally, this means that the seeker has an electronic means of viewing the cache information in the field, such as pre-downloading the information to a PDA or other electronic device. Various applications are able to directly upload and read GPX files without further conversion. Newer GPS devices released by Garmin, DeLorme and Magellan have the ability to read GPX files directly, thus eliminating the need for a PDA. Other methods include viewing real-time information on a portable computer with internet access or with an Internet-enabled smart phone. The latest advancement of this practice involves installing dedicated applications on a smart phone with a built-in GPS receiver. Seekers can search for and download caches in their immediate vicinity directly to the application and use the on-board GPS receiver to find the cache."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A typical cache is a small waterproof container containing a logbook and sometimes a pen or pencil. The geocacher signs the log with their established code name and dates it, in order to prove that they found the cache. After signing the log, the cache must be placed back exactly where the person found it. Larger containers such as plastic storage containers (Tupperware or similar) or ammunition boxes can also contain items for trading, such as toys or trinkets, usually of more sentimental worth than financial. Geocaching shares many aspects with benchmarking, trigpointing, orienteering, treasure-hunting, letterboxing, waymarking and Munzee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of Internet-related articles",
        "text": "Geocaching -"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching was originally similar to the game letterboxing (which originated in 1854), which uses clues and references to landmarks embedded in stories. Geocaching was conceived shortly after the removal of Selective Availability from the Global Positioning System on May 2, 2000 (Blue Switch Day.), because the improved accuracy of the system allowed for a small container to be specifically placed and located."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Earthcaches are virtual caches that are organized by the Geological Society of America. The cacher usually has to perform a task which teaches an educational lesson about the earth science of the cache area. They are listed at geocaching.com."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The website geocaching.com now sells mobile applications which allow users to view caches through a variety of different devices. Currently, the Android, iPhone, and Windows Phone mobile platforms have applications in their respective stores. The apps also allow for a trial version with limited functionality. The site promotes mobile applications, and lists over two dozen applications (both mobile and browser/desktop based) that are using their proprietary but royalty-free public application programming interface (API). Developers at c:geo have criticised Groundspeak for being incompatible with open-source development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching is legal in most countries and is usually positively received when explained to law enforcement officials. However, certain types of placements can be problematic. Although generally disallowed, hiders could place caches on private property without adequate permission (intentionally or otherwise), which encourages cache finders to trespass. Historic buildings and structures have also been damaged by geocachers, who have wrongly believed the geocache to be placed within, or on the roof of, the buildings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scavenger hunt",
        "text": "Geocaching is an outdoor treasure-hunting game in which the participants use a global positioning system (GPS) receiver or other navigational techniques to hide and seek containers (called \"geocaches\" or \"caches\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A Chirp cache is a Garmin-created innovative advance on multi-caches using new wireless beacon technology. The Chirp stores hints, multicache coordinates, counts visitors and confirms the cache is nearby. These caches were fully supported at OpenCaching.com, but they caused considerable discussion and some controversy at Groundspeak, where they were given a new \"attribute\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Over time, a variety of different hide-and-seek-type activities have been created or abandoned, so that \"geocaching\" may now refer to hiding and seeking containers, or locations or information without containers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geotextile tube",
        "text": "Geotextile tube\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching Australia is a community website for geocachers in Australia and New Zealand as well as many other countries. Geocaching Australia also has many unique cache types such as Burke And Wills, Moveable_cache & Podcache geocaches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "An independent accounting of the early history documents several controversial actions taken by Irish and Grounded, Inc., a predecessor to Groundspeak, to increase \"commercialization and monopolistic control over the hobby\". More recently, other similar hobbies such as Munzee have attracted some geocachers by rapidly adopting smart-phone technology, which has caused \"some resistance from geocaching organizers about placing caches along with Munzees\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Webcam caches are virtual caches whose coordinates have a public webcam. The finder is often required to capture their image from the webcam for verification of the find. New webcam caches are no longer allowed by Groundspeak, but they remain supported by opencaching.us."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The reception from authorities and the general public outside geocache participants has been mixed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geokrety",
        "text": "When dropping a GeoKret into a cache listed at geocaching.com only, the coordinates must be entered manually. A browser plug-in for Mozilla Firefox and Google Chrome is available to automate this. A Free and open-source software android app, GeoKrety Logger, is available on F-Droid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A variety of geocaching applications are available for geocache data management, file-type translation, and personalization. Geocaching software can assign special icons or search (filter) for caches based on certain criteria (e.g. distance from an assigned point, difficulty, date last found)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching company Groundspeak allows extraterrestrial caches, e.g. the Moon or Mars, although presently, the website provides only earthbound coordinates. The first published extraterrestrial geocache was GC1BE91, which was on the International Space Station between 2008 and 2017. It used the Baikonur launch area in Kazakhstan as its position. The original cache contained a travel bug (the first geocaching trackable item in space), which stayed on the station until it was brought back to earth in 2013. Due to fire restrictions on board the station, the geocache contained no official paper logbook. As of February 2021, only one confirmed geocacher (in 2013) has actually found the geocache, although others have claimed to have found it providing varying amounts of evidence. To commemorate the occasion, Groundspeak allowed specialized geocaching events to be published across the world, allowing attendees to obtain a virtual souvenir on their profile."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geodashing is an outdoor sport in which teams of players use GPS receivers to find and visit randomly selected \"dashpoints\" (also called \"waypoints\") around the world and report what they find. The objective is to visit as many dashpoints as possible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "GPX files containing information such as a cache description and information about recent visitors to the cache are available from various listing sites. Geocachers may upload geocache data (also known as waypoints) from various websites in various formats, most commonly in file-type GPX, which uses XML. Some websites allow geocachers to search (build queries) for multiple caches within a geographic area based on criteria such as ZIP code or coordinates, downloading the results as an email attachment on a schedule. In recent years, Android and iPhone users have been able to download apps such as GeoBeagle that allow them to use their 3G and GPS-enabled devices to actively search for and download new caches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Three adult geocachers, a 24-year-old woman and her parents, were trapped in a cave and rescued by firefighters in Rochester, New York, United States, while searching for an ammo can in 2012. Rochester Fire Department spokesman Lt. Ted Kuppinger said, \"It's difficult, because you're invested in it, you want to find something like that, so people will probably try to push themselves more than they should, but you need to be prudent about what you're capable of doing.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Moving/travelling caches are found at a listed set of coordinates. The finder hides the cache in a different location, and updates the listing, essentially becomes the hider, and the next finder continues the cycle. This cache type is supported at opencaching.us while it has been discontinued at geocaching.com."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Additionally \"c:geo - opensource\" is a free opensource full function application for Android phones that is very popular. This app includes similar features to the official Geocaching mobile application, such as: View caches on a live map (Google Maps or OpenStreet Maps), navigation using a compass, map, or other applications, logging finds online and offline, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Over time many variations of geocaches have developed. Different platforms often have their own rules on which types are allowed or how they are classified. The following cache types are supported by both geocaching.com and opencaching.us unless stated otherwise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Locationless/reverse caches are similar to a scavenger hunt. A description is given for something to find, such as a one-room schoolhouse, and the finder locates an example of this object. The finder records the location using their GPS receiver and often takes a picture at the location showing the named object and his or her GPS receiver. Typically others are not allowed to log that same location as a find."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geohashing",
        "text": "Geohashing is an outdoor recreational activity inspired by the webcomic \"xkcd\", in which participants have to reach a random location (chosen by a computer algorithm), prove their achievement by taking a picture of a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or another mobile device and then tell the story of their trip online. Proof based on non-electronic navigation is also acceptable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Finally, a GPS Adventures Maze Exhibit is an exhibit at various museums and science centers in which participants in the maze learn about geocaching. These \"events\" have their own cache type on geocaching.com and include many non-geocachers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A Multi-cache consists of one or more stages, each of them containing the coordinates for the next one; the final stage contains a physical container with the logbook. An Offset cache is a multi-cache in which the initial coordinates are for a location containing information that encodes the final cache coordinates. An example would be to direct the finder to a plaque where the digits of a date on the plaque correspond to coordinates of the final cache."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Guest Book caches use guest books often found in museums, tourist information centers, etc. They are listed exclusively at opencaching.us."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching from space is a combination of flight to near space, the geocaching game, and a unique science experiment. The first Stratocaching event was held on 16 November 2013 in Prague and was successful. Ten caches and two \"radioseeds\" went up to into the stratosphere on a gondola called Dropion module carried by a high-altitude balloon. The caches and seeds then fell to earth for people to find."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Unlike geocaching, nothing is to be left at the dashpoints; the sole objective is to visit them within the time limit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Solar System model",
        "text": "Several sets of geocaching caches have been laid out as Solar System models."
      },
      {
        "title": "GPS in the earthmoving industry",
        "text": "Hydraulic excavators are just beginning to be integrated using GPS technology and are typically indicate only. Excavators use GPS technology in conjunction with angle sensors integrated in the machine's boom, stick, and bucket. This allows the operator to see how deep they are digging by comparing the actual bucket location to the site design on the GPS display."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The Illinois Department of Natural Resources requires geocachers who wish to place a geocache at any Illinois state park to submit the location on a USGS 7.5 minute topographical map, the name and contact information of the person(s) wishing to place the geocache, a list of the original items to be included in the geocache, and a picture of the container that is to be placed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geo-fence",
        "text": "Geofencing uses technologies like GPS, or even IP address ranges to build their virtual fence. These virtual fences can be used to track the physical location of the device active in the particular region or the fence area. The location of the person using the device is taken as geocoding data and can be used further for advertising purposes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Regional rules for placement of caches have become quite complex. For example, in Virginia, the Virginia Department of Transportation and the Wildlife Management Agency now forbids the placement of geocaches on all land controlled by those agencies. Some cities, towns and recreation areas allow geocaches with few or no restrictions, but others require compliance with lengthy permitting procedures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Container sizes range from \"nanos\", particularly magnetic nanos, which can be smaller than the tip of a finger and have only enough room to store the log sheet, to 20-liter (5 gallon) buckets or even larger containers, such as entire trucks. The most common cache containers in rural areas are lunch-box-sized plastic storage containers or surplus military ammunition cans. Ammo cans are considered the gold standard of containers because they are very sturdy, waterproof, animal- and fire-resistant, and relatively cheap, and have plenty of room for trade items. Smaller containers are more common in urban areas because they can be more easily hidden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geo-fence",
        "text": "The use of a geofence is called geofencing, and one example of use involves a location-aware device of a location-based service (LBS) user entering or exiting a geo-fence. This activity could trigger an alert to the device's user as well as messaging to the geo-fence operator. This info, which could contain the location of the device, could be sent to a mobile telephone or an email account."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "If a geocache has been vandalized or stolen by a person who is not familiar with geocaching, it is said to have been \"muggled\". The term plays off the fact that those not familiar with geocaching are called muggles, a word borrowed from the \"Harry Potter\" series of books which were rising in popularity at the same time geocaching started."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geoid",
        "text": "This is why many handheld GPS receivers have built-in undulation lookup tables to determine the height above sea level."
      },
      {
        "title": "GeoVector",
        "text": "In 1998, \"Clipper\" project was initiated. The company built a prototype device known internally as The \"Little Guy\", a handheld \"pointable\" information appliance independent of a visual or video element."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geokrety",
        "text": "A GeoKret can be anything, but in most cases it is a small puppet or other small toy, which can be placed in geocache containers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A more controversial version of paperless caching involves mass-downloading only the coordinates and cache names (or waypoint IDs) for hundreds of caches into older receivers. This is a common practice of some cachers and has been used successfully for years. In many cases, however, the cache description and hint are never read by the seeker before hunting the cache. This means they are unaware of potential restrictions such as limited hunt times, park open/close times, off-limit areas, and suggested parking locations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Explorer 36",
        "text": "The geodetic instrumentation systems included:\n* C-Band Radar Transponder\n* Laser Tracking Reflector\n* Magnetometer\n* NASA Minitrack System\n* Optical Beacon System\n* Precipitating Electron Detector\n* Radio Doppler System\n* Radio Range/Rate System\n* SECOR Range Transponder"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Typical cache \"treasures\", also known in the geocaching world as SWAG (a backronym of \"stuff we all get\"), are not high in monetary value but may hold personal value to the finder. Aside from the logbook, common cache contents are unusual coins or currency, small toys, ornamental buttons, CDs, or books. Although not required, many geocachers decide to leave behind signature items, such as personal Geocoins, pins, or craft items, to mark their presence at the cache location. Disposable cameras are popular as they allow for anyone who found the cache to take a picture which can be developed and uploaded to a Geocaching web site listed below. Also common are objects that are moved from cache to cache called \"hitchhikers\", such as Travel Bugs or Geocoins, whose travels may be logged and followed online. Cachers who initially place a Travel Bug or Geocoins often assign specific goals for their trackable items. Examples of goals are to be placed in a certain cache a long distance from home, or to travel to a certain country, or to travel faster and farther than other hitchhikers in a race. Less common trends are site-specific information pages about the historic significance of the site, types of trees, birds in the area or other such information. Higher-value items are occasionally included in geocaches as a reward for the First to Find (called \"FTF\"), or in locations which are harder to reach. Dangerous or illegal items, weapons, food and drugs are not allowed and are specifically against the rules of most geocache listing sites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geodesy",
        "text": "For local detail surveys, tacheometers are commonly employed although the old-fashioned rectangular technique using angle prism and steel tape is still an inexpensive alternative. Real-time kinematic (RTK) GPS techniques are used as well. Data collected are tagged and recorded digitally for entry into a Geographic Information System (GIS) database."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A Wherigo cache is a multi-stage cache hunt that uses a Wherigo \"cartridge\" to guide the player to find a physical cache sometime during cartridge play, usually at the end. Not all Wherigo cartridges incorporate geocaches into game play. Wherigo caches are unique to the geocaching.com website. Wherigo is a GPS location-aware software platform initially released in January 2008. Authors can develop self-enclosed story files (called \"cartridges\") that are read by the Wherigo player software, installed on either a GPS unit or smartphone. The player and story take advantage of the location information provided by the GPS to trigger in-game events, such as using a virtual object or interacting with characters. Completing an adventure can require reaching different locations and solving puzzles. Cartridges are coded in Lua. Lua may be used directly, but a builder application is usually used. The Wherigo site offers a builder application and a database of adventures free for download, though the builder has remained in its Alpha version since its last release in May 2008. The official player is only available for Pocket PC. A built-in player is available on Garmin Colorado and Oregon GPS models. The Wherigo Foundation was organized in December 2012. The group is composed of all Wherigo application developers who, up until that time, had been acting and developing separately. Their goal is to provide a consistent Wherigo experience across platforms, connect Wherigo applications via an API, and add modern features to the Wherigo platform. While Groundspeak is aware of this project, the company has yet to take a position."
      },
      {
        "title": "Accropode",
        "text": "The use of a remote-release hook is used for placing the unit, while underwater placements may be enhanced by GPS, adhering to a theoretical grid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sensorvault",
        "text": "It has been used by law enforcement to obtain a geo-fence warrant and to search for all devices within the vicinity of a crime, (within a geo-fenced area) and after looking at those devices' movements and narrowing those devices down to potential suspects or witnesses, then asking Google for the information about the owners of those devices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The activity was originally referred to as the \"GPS stash hunt\" or \"gpsstashing.\" This was changed shortly after the original hide when it was suggested in the gpsstash eGroup that \"stash\" could have negative connotations and the term \"geocaching\" was adopted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geotechnical engineering",
        "text": "Geophysical exploration is also sometimes used. Geophysical techniques used for subsurface exploration include measurement of seismic waves (pressure, shear, and Rayleigh waves), surface-wave methods and/or downhole methods, and electromagnetic surveys (magnetometer, resistivity, and ground-penetrating radar).\n# Medium / Heavy-duty percussion drilling winches.\n# Heavy-duty rotary diamond core drill machine.\n# Light duty geo machine.\n# Manual winches with tripod.\n# Dynamic cone penetration test machine.\n# Static cone penetration machine.\n# Pressure meter test machine.\n# Field vane shear test machine.\n# Field CBR (California Bearing Ratio) test machine.\n# Block vibration test machine.\n# Rapid moisture meter machine.\n# In Situ density core cutter machine.\n# Standard Penetration Test machine.\n# Field permeability single and double packer machine.\n# DESIGN OF BRIDGES: Foundation type and Depth Recommendation\n# DESIGN OF TUNNEL: RMR and Q value calculation\n# STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF BUILDINGS: Bring out the safe bearing load\n# DESIGN OF RETAINING STRUCTURES: Recommendation of Ground improvement technique"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "OpenCaching.com (short: OX) was a site created and run by Garmin from 2010 to 2015, which had the stated aim of being as free and open as possible with no paid content. Caches were approved by a community process and coordinates were available without an account. The service closed on 14 August 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "GeoServer",
        "text": "GeoServer is a web application, supporting any common servlet container (a standalone distribution is available with the Jetty (web server) as an embedded server). GeoWebCache, a Java-based caching component similar to TileCache, is bundled with GeoServer, but available separately. Similarly, GeoServer packages GeoTools as a Java library, but it is also available separately."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caving equipment",
        "text": "The most common device used by cave surveyors is a sighting compass, such as that manufactured by Suunto or Silva, that can be read to the half-degree. Compasses used for cave surveying have to be rugged to cope with the harsh conditions. For high grade surveys, inclinometers are required, and are sometimes made in combined units with compasses. Recently, digital compasses and inclinometers have been developed by enthusiasts, some with wireless connections to PDAs, though these have not yet attained widespread use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geomessaging",
        "text": "Geomessaging\n--Geomessage media.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "GPSBabel",
        "text": "GPSBabel is popular in the Geocaching community because it enables people with incompatible GPS units to share data."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geo-fence",
        "text": "Geo-fence can be used for location based messaging for tourist safety and communication."
      },
      {
        "title": "W3C Geolocation API",
        "text": "Simple JavaScript code that checks if the browser has the Geolocation API implemented and then uses it to get the current position of the device. this code creates a function which can be called on HTML using codice_1:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Virtual caches are coordinates for a location, which has some other described object. Validation for finding a virtual cache generally requires one to email the cache hider with information such as a date or a name on a plaque, or to post a picture of oneself at the site with GPS receiver in hand. New virtual caches are no longer allowed by Groundspeak, but they remain supported by other sites. The Groundspeak website no longer lists new caches without a physical container, including virtual and webcam caches; however, older caches of these types have been grandfathered in (except for locationless/reverse, which are completely archived). On August 24, 2017, Groundspeak announced \"Virtual Rewards\", allowing 4000 new virtual caches to be placed during the following year. Earthcaches are one of the two exceptions to the no-container rule; they are caches in which players must answer geological questions to complete the cache. The other exception is for event caches; for an event to qualify, it must be specifically or mainly for geocachers, and must have a minimum duration dependent upon its category (CITO, regular, Mega, or Giga). Attendees of event caches can log that they 'attended', which will increment their number of found caches. Groundspeak created a waymarking website to handle all other non-physical caches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The second geocaching trackable in space is TB5EFXK which is attached to the SHERLOC calibration target on board the Mars Perseverance Rover, which landed on Mars on 18 February 2021. Geocachers will be given the opportunity to virtually discover the trackable once the WATSON camera sends back its first photographs of the calibration target that contains the tracking code number. The code is printed on a prototype helmet visor material that will be used to test how well it can withstand the Martian environment. This will help scientists in creating a viable Martian spacesuit for future manned missions to Mars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geophysical survey (archaeology)",
        "text": "Common hand-held metal detectors are widely used by archaeologists. Most of these instruments do not create a logged data set and thus cannot be used for directly creating maps, but used in a systematic manner they can be a useful tool in archaeological research. Sometimes external data loggers are attached to such detectors which collect information about detected materials and corresponding gps coordinates for further processing. Misuse of these instruments on archaeological sites by treasure hunters and artifact collectors has been a serious problem in archaeological preservation however cooperative efforts between skilled amateur operators and academic teams are emerging in the field."
      },
      {
        "title": "GeoJSON",
        "text": "\"type\": \"LineString\","
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Mystery/puzzle caches require one to discover information or solve a puzzle to find the cache. Some mystery caches provide a puzzle that must be solved to determine the physical cache location. Caches which do not fit into other categories are classified as mystery caches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "GPSgames.org is an online community dedicated to all kinds of games involving Global Positioning System receivers. GPSgames.org allows traditional geocaches as well as virtual, locationless, and traveler geocaches. Geodashing, Shutterspot, GeoVexilla, MinuteWar, GeoPoker, and GeoGolf are among the GPS games available. GPSgames.org has been 100% free since 2001, through donations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geotagged photograph",
        "text": "Some manufacturers of military and professional mapping-grade GPS instruments have integrated a GPS receiver with a laser rangefinder and digital camera. These multi-functional tools are able to determine a remote subject's GPS position by calculating the subject's geographic location relative to the camera's GPS position. These instruments are commonly used in military applications when an aircraft or operator is targeting an area, the position is inaccessible (for example over a valley or wetland), there are personal health & safety concerns (motorway traffic), or the user wants to quickly capture multiple targets from a single, safe position (trees, street signage and furniture)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geopositioning",
        "text": "Geopositioning, also known as geotracking, geolocalization, geolocating, geolocation, or geoposition fixing is the process of determining or estimating the geographic position of an object."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geopositioning",
        "text": "Specific instances include: animal geotracking, the process of inferring the location of animals; Positioning system, the mechanisms for the determination of geographic positions in general; internet geolocation, geolocating a device connected to the internet; and mobile phone tracking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geotagging",
        "text": "Devices use GPS, A-GPS or both. A-GPS can be faster getting an initial fix if within range of a cell phone tower, and may work better inside buildings. Traditional GPS does not need cell phone towers and uses standard GPS signals outside of urban areas. Traditional GPS tends to use more battery power. Almost any digital camera can be coupled with a stand-alone GPS and post processed with photo mapping software, to write the location information to the image's exif header."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Several deaths have occurred while caching."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geomancer (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Geomancer (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "GeoVector",
        "text": "A video showing the functionality of Pointing is on YouTube."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geo-fence",
        "text": "Geofencing is critical to telematics. It allows users of the system to draw zones around places of work, customer's sites and secure areas. These geo-fences when crossed by an equipped vehicle or person can trigger a warning to the user or operator via SMS or email."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deformation monitoring",
        "text": "Measuring devices (or sensors) can be sorted in two main groups, geodetic and geotechnical sensors. Both measuring devices can be seamlessly combined in modern deformation monitoring.\n*Geodetic measuring devices measure georeferenced (relative to established locations outside the monitoring area) displacements or movements in one, two or three dimensions. It includes the use of instruments such as total stations, levels, InSAR, and global navigation satellite system receivers.\n*Geotechnical measuring devices measure displacements or movements and related environmental effects or conditions without external georeferencing. It includes the use of instruments such as extensometers, piezometers, pressuremeters, rain gauges, thermometers, barometers, tiltmeters, accelerometers, seismometers etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geo (microformat)",
        "text": "Use of Geo allows parsing tools (for example other websites, or Firefox's Operator extension) to extract the locations, and display them using some other website or mapping tool, or to load them into a GPS device, index or aggregate them, or convert them into an alternative format."
      },
      {
        "title": "LoRa",
        "text": "LoRa devices have geolocation capabilities used for trilaterating positions of devices via timestamps from gateways."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A Night cache is multi-stage and intended to be found at night by following a series of reflectors with a flashlight to the final cache location. Considered a variant of the Mystery cache on \"geoocaching.com\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "TopoFusion",
        "text": "TopoFusion has been found useful by those engaged in the sport of geocaching."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geodimeter",
        "text": "Geodimeter\n--Electronic mechanism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A BIT cache is a laminated card with a QR code, similar to Munzee. The BIT Cache also contains a URL and a password, for logging purposes. They are listed exclusively on opencaching.us."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Cache-In Trash-Out (CITO) Events are coordinated activities of trash pickup and other maintenance tasks (such as constructing footpaths, planting trees and removing invasive species) to improve the environment. CITO is an ongoing environmental initiative created by Groundspeak Inc. related to geocaching which encourages geocachers to clean up parks and other areas. This is done in two ways: specific events, traditionally around the time of Earth Day each year, in which groups go around picking up litter and maintaining the landscape while finding geocaches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Real-time geotagging",
        "text": "One alternative to GPS is WiFi triangulation which uses the MAC addresses of nearby wireless access points to determine position. Automatic geotagging relies on media acquisition devices that contain GPS, aGPS, or WiFi or other local positioning systems. Many camera phones use all these methods: GPS, aGPS, cell tower signals, and WiFi triangulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rupshu",
        "text": "https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?language=en&pagename=lago_Tso_Moriri&params=32.911701_N_78.310101_E_scale:5000type:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rupshu",
        "text": "https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?language=en&pagename=Gya&params=33.649801_N_77.739801_E_scale:5000type:Gya"
      },
      {
        "title": "Institut national de l'information g\u00e9ographique et foresti\u00e8re",
        "text": "In July 2007, G\u00e9portail \u2013 an online map service \u2013 began offering 3D movable views in a similar style to GoogleEarth. To use this function, it is necessary to install the plugin TerraExplorer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Erratic Rock State Natural Site",
        "text": "Geocaching is an outdoor recreational treasure hunt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geophone",
        "text": "Geophones have historically been passive analog devices and typically comprise a spring-mounted wire coil moving within the field of a case-mounted permanent magnet to generate an electrical signal. Recent designs have been based on microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technology which generates an electrical response to ground motion through an active feedback circuit to maintain the position of a small piece of silicon."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of cameras which provide geotagging",
        "text": "List of cameras which provide geotagging\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What type of device is used for geocaching?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Currently, the Android, iPhone, and Windows Phone mobile platforms have applications in their respective stores for geocaching.",
      "Participants use a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or a mobile device such as an Android, iPhone orWindows Phone."
    ],
    "topic": "Geocaching",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:46",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "Technology",
          "Mobile devices"
        ],
        "ctx": "The website geocaching.com now sells mobile applications which allow users to view caches through a variety of different devices. Currently, the Android, iPhone, and Windows Phone mobile platforms have applications in their respective stores. The apps also allow for a trial version with limited functionality. The site promotes mobile applications, and lists over two dozen applications (both mobile and browser/desktop based) that are using their proprietary but royalty-free public application programming interface (API). Developers at c:geo have criticised Groundspeak for being incompatible with open-source development."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching"
        ],
        "ctx": "Geocaching is an outdoor recreational activity, in which participants use a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or mobile device and other navigational techniques to hide and seek containers, called \"geocaches\" or \"caches\", at specific locations marked by coordinates all over the world."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:46",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "Technology",
          "Mobile devices"
        ],
        "ctx": "The website geocaching.com now sells mobile applications which allow users to view caches through a variety of different devices. Currently, the Android, iPhone, and Windows Phone mobile platforms have applications in their respective stores. The apps also allow for a trial version with limited functionality. The site promotes mobile applications, and lists over two dozen applications (both mobile and browser/desktop based) that are using their proprietary but royalty-free public application programming interface (API). Developers at c:geo have criticised Groundspeak for being incompatible with open-source development."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching was originally similar to the game letterboxing (which originated in 1854), which uses clues and references to landmarks embedded in stories. Geocaching was conceived shortly after the removal of Selective Availability from the Global Positioning System on May 2, 2000 (Blue Switch Day.), because the improved accuracy of the system allowed for a small container to be specifically placed and located."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The first game, organized by gpsgames.org, ran for two months (June and July 2001); each subsequent game has run for one month. Players are often encouraged to take pictures at the dashpoints and upload them to the site."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching is an outdoor recreational activity, in which participants use a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or mobile device and other navigational techniques to hide and seek containers, called \"geocaches\" or \"caches\", at specific locations marked by coordinates all over the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The first website to list geocaches was announced by Mike Teague on May 8, 2000. On September 2, 2000, Jeremy Irish emailed the gpsstash mailing list that he had registered the domain name geocaching.com and had set up his own Web site. He copied the caches from Mike Teague's database into his own. On September 6, Mike Teague announced that Jeremy Irish was taking over cache listings. , Teague had logged only 5 caches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "There are a few kinds of events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The first documented placement of a GPS-located cache took place on May 3, 2000, by Dave Ulmer of Beavercreek, Oregon. The location was posted on the Usenet newsgroup sci.geo.satellite-nav at . Within three days, the cache had been found twice, first by Mike Teague. According to Dave Ulmer's message, this cache was a black plastic bucket that was partially buried and contained software, videos, books, money, a can of beans, and a slingshot. The geocache and most of its contents were eventually destroyed by a lawn mower; the can of beans was the only item salvaged and was turned into a trackable item called the \"Original Can of Beans\". Another geocache and plaque called the Original Stash Tribute Plaque now sit at the site."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching enthusiasts have also made their own hand-held GPS devices using a Lego Mindstorms NXT GPS sensor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beavercreek, Oregon",
        "text": "Beavercreek is the birthplace of geocaching. The first documented placement of a GPS-located cache took place on May\u00a03, 2000, by Dave Ulmer of Beavercreek a few miles west of the community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The reception from authorities and the general public outside geocache participants has been mixed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching from space is a combination of flight to near space, the geocaching game, and a unique science experiment. The first Stratocaching event was held on 16 November 2013 in Prague and was successful. Ten caches and two \"radioseeds\" went up to into the stratosphere on a gondola called Dropion module carried by a high-altitude balloon. The caches and seeds then fell to earth for people to find."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The activity was originally referred to as the \"GPS stash hunt\" or \"gpsstashing.\" This was changed shortly after the original hide when it was suggested in the gpsstash eGroup that \"stash\" could have negative connotations and the term \"geocaching\" was adopted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching company Groundspeak allows extraterrestrial caches, e.g. the Moon or Mars, although presently, the website provides only earthbound coordinates. The first published extraterrestrial geocache was GC1BE91, which was on the International Space Station between 2008 and 2017. It used the Baikonur launch area in Kazakhstan as its position. The original cache contained a travel bug (the first geocaching trackable item in space), which stayed on the station until it was brought back to earth in 2013. Due to fire restrictions on board the station, the geocache contained no official paper logbook. As of February 2021, only one confirmed geocacher (in 2013) has actually found the geocache, although others have claimed to have found it providing varying amounts of evidence. To commemorate the occasion, Groundspeak allowed specialized geocaching events to be published across the world, allowing attendees to obtain a virtual souvenir on their profile."
      },
      {
        "title": "UNSW School of Surveying and Geospatial Engineering",
        "text": "In 1978, the launch of the first GPS satellite saw a revolution in the way position is measured. GPS research commenced at the School in 1984 and in the early 1990s, under Professor Chris Rizos, all GPS-related research was organised under the Satellite Navigation and Positioning (SNAP) group and was expanded to encompass other navigation technologies and applications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geoweb",
        "text": "The interest in a Geoweb has been advanced by new technologies, concepts and products, specifically the popularization of GPS positioning with the introduction of the iPhone in 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "OpenCaching.com (short: OX) was a site created and run by Garmin from 2010 to 2015, which had the stated aim of being as free and open as possible with no paid content. Caches were approved by a community process and coordinates were available without an account. The service closed on 14 August 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "In 2008, two lost hikers on Mount Hood, Oregon, United States, after spending the night in a snow cave, stumbled across a geocache and were able to phone this information out to rescuers, resulting in their timely rescue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching\n--History.\n--Geocaches.\n----Variations.\n----Geocache types.\n------Geodashing.\n------Stratocaching.\n--Technology.\n----Obtaining data.\n----Converting and filtering data.\n----Mobile devices.\n--Ethics.\n--Reception.\n----Laws and legislation.\n--Notable incidents.\n--Websites and data ownership.\n----First page.\n----Geocaching.com.\n----Opencaching Network.\n----OpenCaching.com.\n----Other sites.\n------GPSgames.\n------NaviCache.\n------TerraCaching.\n------Extremcaching.\n------Geocaching Australia.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of Internet-related articles",
        "text": "Geocaching -"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geotagging",
        "text": "One of the first attempts to initiate the geotagging aspect of searching and locating articles seems to be the now-inoperative site Wikinear.com, launched in 2008, which showed the user Wikipedia pages that are geographically closest to one's current location."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geohashing",
        "text": "Geohashing is an outdoor recreational activity inspired by the webcomic \"xkcd\", in which participants have to reach a random location (chosen by a computer algorithm), prove their achievement by taking a picture of a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or another mobile device and then tell the story of their trip online. Proof based on non-electronic navigation is also acceptable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "An independent accounting of the early history documents several controversial actions taken by Irish and Grounded, Inc., a predecessor to Groundspeak, to increase \"commercialization and monopolistic control over the hobby\". More recently, other similar hobbies such as Munzee have attracted some geocachers by rapidly adopting smart-phone technology, which has caused \"some resistance from geocaching organizers about placing caches along with Munzees\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "GPSgames.org is an online community dedicated to all kinds of games involving Global Positioning System receivers. GPSgames.org allows traditional geocaches as well as virtual, locationless, and traveler geocaches. Geodashing, Shutterspot, GeoVexilla, MinuteWar, GeoPoker, and GeoGolf are among the GPS games available. GPSgames.org has been 100% free since 2001, through donations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scavenger hunt",
        "text": "Geocaching is an outdoor treasure-hunting game in which the participants use a global positioning system (GPS) receiver or other navigational techniques to hide and seek containers (called \"geocaches\" or \"caches\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Three adult geocachers, a 24-year-old woman and her parents, were trapped in a cave and rescued by firefighters in Rochester, New York, United States, while searching for an ammo can in 2012. Rochester Fire Department spokesman Lt. Ted Kuppinger said, \"It's difficult, because you're invested in it, you want to find something like that, so people will probably try to push themselves more than they should, but you need to be prudent about what you're capable of doing.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Institut national de l'information g\u00e9ographique et foresti\u00e8re",
        "text": "In July 2007, G\u00e9portail \u2013 an online map service \u2013 began offering 3D movable views in a similar style to GoogleEarth. To use this function, it is necessary to install the plugin TerraExplorer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaches vary in size, difficulty, and location. Simple caches that are placed near a roadside are often called \"drive-bys\", \"park 'n grabs\" (PNGs), or \"cache and dash\". Geocaches may also be complex, involving lengthy searches, significant travel, or use of specialist equipment such as SCUBA diving, kayaking, or abseiling. Different geocaching websites list different variations per their own policies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Finally, a GPS Adventures Maze Exhibit is an exhibit at various museums and science centers in which participants in the maze learn about geocaching. These \"events\" have their own cache type on geocaching.com and include many non-geocachers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geosocial networking",
        "text": "By 2008, expanded geolocation technologies including cell tower localization became available and devices such as digital cameras and camera phones began to integrate features such as Wi-Fi connectivity and GPS navigation into more sophisticated capabilities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geomorphometry",
        "text": "Although geomorphometry started with ideas of Brisson (1808) and Gauss (1827), the field did not evolve much until the development of GIS and DEM datasets in the 1970s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geokrety",
        "text": "When dropping a GeoKret into a cache listed at geocaching.com only, the coordinates must be entered manually. A browser plug-in for Mozilla Firefox and Google Chrome is available to automate this. A Free and open-source software android app, GeoKrety Logger, is available on F-Droid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inverse distance weighting",
        "text": "At the Harvard Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis, beginning in 1965, a varied collection of scientists converged to rethink, among other things, what are now called geographic information systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Numerous websites list geocaches around the world. Geocaching websites vary in many ways, including control of data."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grupo Especial de Operaciones",
        "text": "The first access course of the GEO ended on 19 January 1979, with a ceremony attended by Juan Carlos I and Queen Sof\u00eda of Spain. On 23 February of that year, the unit was announced to the press."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geohashing",
        "text": "Originally a stub where people willing to try the algorithm in real life were to issue their reports, the geohashing official wiki expanded in the following weeks and was a working website as early as June 2008. The current expedition protocol was then established during the following years, with the creation of humorous awards, regional meetups and a hall of amazingness for the various geohasher achievements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Traditional geocaching gave birth to GeoCaching \u2013 an active urban game of the Encounter project. The game is quite similar to geocaching but has time limitations and hints."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Over time, a variety of different hide-and-seek-type activities have been created or abandoned, so that \"geocaching\" may now refer to hiding and seeking containers, or locations or information without containers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Cachers have been approached by police and questioned when they were seen as acting suspiciously. Other times, investigation of a cache location after suspicious activity was reported has resulted in police and bomb squad discovery of the geocache, such as the evacuation of a busy street in Wetherby, Yorkshire, England in 2011, and a street in Alvaston, Derby in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The largest site is Geocaching.com, owned by Groundspeak Inc., which began operating in late 2000. With a worldwide membership and a freemium business model, the website claims millions of caches and members in over 200 countries. Hides and events are reviewed by volunteer regional cache reviewers before publication. Free membership allows users access to coordinates, descriptions, and logs for some caches; for a fee, users are allowed additional search tools, the ability to download large amounts of cache information onto their gps at once, instant email notifications about new caches, and access to premium-member-only caches. Geocaching Headquarters are located in Seattle, Washington, United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geodashing is an outdoor sport in which teams of players use GPS receivers to find and visit randomly selected \"dashpoints\" (also called \"waypoints\") around the world and report what they find. The objective is to visit as many dashpoints as possible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geoheritage",
        "text": "The first reference to geoheritage as such was at a 1993 conference held in the UK, the Malvern International Conference on Geological and Landscape Conservation (Joyce 1994b; O'Halloran et al. 1994), geoconservation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The website geocaching.com now sells mobile applications which allow users to view caches through a variety of different devices. Currently, the Android, iPhone, and Windows Phone mobile platforms have applications in their respective stores. The apps also allow for a trial version with limited functionality. The site promotes mobile applications, and lists over two dozen applications (both mobile and browser/desktop based) that are using their proprietary but royalty-free public application programming interface (API). Developers at c:geo have criticised Groundspeak for being incompatible with open-source development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A Traditional cache is the most common type and consists of a container with a logbook. Exact coordinates where the cache is located are given."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geohashing",
        "text": "On May 21, 2008, the 426th \"xkcd\" comic was published. Titled \"Geohashing\", it described a way for a computer to create an algorithm that could generate random Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates each day based on the Dow Jones Industrial Average and the current date. The algorithm was quickly seized by the \"xkcd\" community, which used it as intended by \"xkcd\" creator Randall Munroe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Positioning system",
        "text": "Early works in this area include the Place Lab project, which started in 2003 and went inactive in 2006. Later methods let smartphones combine the accuracy of GPS with the low power consumption of cell-ID transition point finding."
      },
      {
        "title": "GPS drawing",
        "text": "The idea was first implemented on land by artists Hugh Pryor and Jeremy Wood, whose work includes a 13-mile wide fish in Oxfordshire, spiders with legs 21 miles long in Port Meadow, Oxford, and \"the world's biggest \"IF'\" with a total length is 537\u00a0km, and the height of the drawing in typographic units is 319,334,400 points. Typical computer fonts at standard resolutions are between 8 and 12 points."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neogeography",
        "text": "Immediate precursor terms in the industry press were: \"the geospatial Web\" and \"the geoaware Web\" (both 2005); \"Where 2.0\" (2005); \"a dissident cartographic aesthetic\" and \"mapping and counter-mapping\" (2006). These terms arose with the concept of Web 2.0, around the increased public appeal of mapping and geospatial technologies that occurred with the release of such tools as \"slippy maps\" such as Google Maps, Google Earth, and also with the decreased cost of geolocated mobile devices such as GPS units. Subsequently, the use of geospatial technologies began to see increased integration with non-geographically focused applications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "If a geocache has been vandalized or stolen by a person who is not familiar with geocaching, it is said to have been \"muggled\". The term plays off the fact that those not familiar with geocaching are called muggles, a word borrowed from the \"Harry Potter\" series of books which were rising in popularity at the same time geocaching started."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "In 2015, the coastguard were called to a group of geocachers who were spotted walking into the Severn Estuary off the coast of Clevedon, England, in search of clues to a multi-cache. Although they felt they were safe and were able to return to land, they were considered to be in danger and were airlifted back to the shore."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "GPX files containing information such as a cache description and information about recent visitors to the cache are available from various listing sites. Geocachers may upload geocache data (also known as waypoints) from various websites in various formats, most commonly in file-type GPX, which uses XML. Some websites allow geocachers to search (build queries) for multiple caches within a geographic area based on criteria such as ZIP code or coordinates, downloading the results as an email attachment on a schedule. In recent years, Android and iPhone users have been able to download apps such as GeoBeagle that allow them to use their 3G and GPS-enabled devices to actively search for and download new caches."
      },
      {
        "title": "GeoAccess",
        "text": "GeoAccess\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dexter Industries",
        "text": "According to Geocaching.com, \"geocaching is a high-tech treasure hunting game played throughout the world by adventure seekers equipped with GPS devices. The basic idea is to locate hidden containers, called geocaches, outdoors and then share your experiences online.\" By using the NXT and the dGPS sensor, the user is able to create a hand held GPS. The accompanying dGPS geocaching software takes GPS coordinates of a target in decimal-degrees, references them against the coordinates of the NXT's current position, and then calculates the distance the NXT is from its destination as well as the compass angle. By turning the NXT hand held GPS in the correct direction according to the embedded compass, the user can reach the geocache. The software also allows the user to record the latitude and longitude to plot the user's journey in Google Maps."
      },
      {
        "title": "GeoVector",
        "text": "In 1998, \"Clipper\" project was initiated. The company built a prototype device known internally as The \"Little Guy\", a handheld \"pointable\" information appliance independent of a visual or video element."
      },
      {
        "title": "GeoReader",
        "text": "GeoReader was created by David Moreau of Fayetteville, New York, and was launched on the Android Market in September 2010 and the iPhone market in June 2012. It was a 2010 SMAATO Mobile Advertising Awards Nominee, and a finalist in the 2010 European Satellite Navigation Competition. It is consistently selected as a top application in its field of interest (travel, entertainment, social location)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surveying",
        "text": "The US Air Force launched the first prototype satellites of the Global Positioning System (GPS) in 1978. GPS used a larger constellation of satellites and improved signal transmission to provide more accuracy. Early GPS observations required several hours of observations by a static receiver to reach survey accuracy requirements. Recent improvements to both satellites and receivers allow Real Time Kinematic (RTK) surveying. RTK surveys get high-accuracy measurements by using a fixed base station and a second roving antenna. The position of the roving antenna can be tracked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "For the traditional geocache, a geocacher will place a waterproof container containing a log book (with pen and/or pencil) and trade items or trackables, then record the cache's coordinates. These coordinates, along with other details of the location, are posted on a listing site (see list of some sites below). Other geocachers obtain the coordinates from that listing site and seek out the cache using their handheld GPS receivers. The finding geocachers record their exploits in the logbook and online, but then must return the cache to the same coordinates so that other geocachers may find it. Geocachers are free to take objects (except the logbook, pencil, or stamp) from the cache in exchange for leaving something of similar or higher value."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Earthcaches are virtual caches that are organized by the Geological Society of America. The cacher usually has to perform a task which teaches an educational lesson about the earth science of the cache area. They are listed at geocaching.com."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geosteering",
        "text": "Geosteering\n--History.\n--Description.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geodemography",
        "text": "In 1987, geodemographic systems were first introduced as social analysis tools with CCN's (later Experian) introduction of the MOSAIC system. In 1990, RDA Research built their first system, geoSmart."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geohash",
        "text": "Apparently, in the late 2000s, G. Niemeyer still didn't know about Morton's work, and reinvented it, adding the use of base32 representation. In February 2008, together with the announcement of the system, he launched the website codice_1, which allows users to convert geographic coordinates to short URLs which uniquely identify positions on the Earth, so that referencing them in emails, forums, and websites is more convenient."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The second geocaching trackable in space is TB5EFXK which is attached to the SHERLOC calibration target on board the Mars Perseverance Rover, which landed on Mars on 18 February 2021. Geocachers will be given the opportunity to virtually discover the trackable once the WATSON camera sends back its first photographs of the calibration target that contains the tracking code number. The code is printed on a prototype helmet visor material that will be used to test how well it can withstand the Martian environment. This will help scientists in creating a viable Martian spacesuit for future manned missions to Mars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Extremcaching is a German private database for alternative geocaches with a focus on T5 / climbing caches, night caches and lost place caches. For extreme caching all you need is an extreme caching account, a GPS device with coordinates or a GPS-enabled smartphone with geocaching or outdoor navigation software, e.g. c:geo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Global Positioning System",
        "text": "The GPS was initially developed assuming use of a numerical least-squares solution method\u2014i.e., before closed-form solutions were found."
      },
      {
        "title": "Global Positioning System",
        "text": "Another important predecessor to GPS came from a different branch of the United States military. In 1964, the United States Army orbited its first Sequential Collation of Range (SECOR) satellite used for geodetic surveying. The SECOR system included three ground-based transmitters at known locations that would send signals to the satellite transponder in orbit. A fourth ground-based station, at an undetermined position, could then use those signals to fix its location precisely. The last SECOR satellite was launched in 1969."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "In October 2016, four people discovered a crashed car at the bottom of a ravine in Benton, Washington, United States, while out geocaching. They spotted the driver still trapped inside, and alerted the emergency services who effected a rescue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Address geocoding",
        "text": "In 1964, the Harvard Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis developed groundbreaking software code \u2013 e.g. GRID, and SYMAP \u2013 all of which were sources for commercial development of GIS."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geomessaging",
        "text": "Geomessaging\n--Geomessage media.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Unlike geocaching, nothing is to be left at the dashpoints; the sole objective is to visit them within the time limit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Additionally \"c:geo - opensource\" is a free opensource full function application for Android phones that is very popular. This app includes similar features to the official Geocaching mobile application, such as: View caches on a live map (Google Maps or OpenStreet Maps), navigation using a compass, map, or other applications, logging finds online and offline, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geodetic control network",
        "text": "The geodetic use of satellites began around the same time. By using bright satellites like Echo I, Echo II and Pageos, global networks were determined, which later provided support for the theory of plate tectonics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geographic information retrieval",
        "text": "In 2005 the Cross-Language Evaluation Forum added a geographic track, GeoCLEF. GeoCLEF was the first TREC-style evaluation forum for GIR systems and provided participants a chance to compare systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Global Positioning System",
        "text": "In the 1970s, the ground-based OMEGA navigation system, based on phase comparison of signal transmission from pairs of stations, became the first worldwide radio navigation system. Limitations of these systems drove the need for a more universal navigation solution with greater accuracy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas Maclear",
        "text": "Between 1841 and 1848, Maclear would be occupied in performing a geodetic survey for the purpose of recalculating the figure of the Earth (its dimensions and shape) via an arc measurement. He caused a beacon to be erected on top of Table Mountain which was used as a triangulation station for the checking of de Lacaille's arc measurement."
      },
      {
        "title": "UNSW School of Surveying and Geospatial Engineering",
        "text": "From 1984, the School made important contributions to the development of high accuracy (centimetre-level) positioning algorithms suitable for surveying and geodesy applications. In the early 1990s, all GPS-related research was organised under the Satellite Navigation and Positioning (SNAP) group. From 2004, this also included other wireless and inertial positioning technologies, and space techniques such as Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR). The School's research areas have extended to GNSS research, aspects of signal processing for the design of GNSS receivers, integrated navigation systems, new designs for terrestrial-based navigation systems and a variety of positioning/navigation applications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geopositioning",
        "text": "Specific instances include: animal geotracking, the process of inferring the location of animals; Positioning system, the mechanisms for the determination of geographic positions in general; internet geolocation, geolocating a device connected to the internet; and mobile phone tracking."
      },
      {
        "title": "International Geosynthetics Society",
        "text": "Dr. Giroud credits engineer Joe Fluet with coining the term \"geosynthetics\" in 1983, though it was not until 1994 that the IGS replaced \"Geotextile\" with \"Geosynthetics\" in its official identity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Triangulation (surveying)",
        "text": "Today, large-scale triangulation networks for positioning have largely been superseded by the global navigation satellite systems established since the 1980s, but many of the control points for the earlier surveys still survive as valued historical features in the landscape, such as the concrete triangulation pillars set up for retriangulation of Great Britain (1936\u20131962), or the triangulation points set up for the Struve Geodetic Arc (1816\u20131855), now scheduled as a UNESCO World Heritage Site."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geohashing",
        "text": "Geohashing\n--Invention and spread.\n--Geohash.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The following cache types don't contain a physical logbook."
      },
      {
        "title": "GeoVector",
        "text": "GeoVector's first patent in this domain, since issued as 5,815,411, was filed September 10, 1993."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republican Seismic Survey Center of Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences",
        "text": "One of the methods that is now widespread in the world is based on the technologies of global navigation satellite systems (GNSS). With the advent of GPS-technology, which is the first of the implemented GNSS technologies, the opportunity to implement a high-precision (3\u201310\u00a0mm in all dimensions) of geodetic monitoring vast areas at relatively low cost of funds and time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fairfield Geotechnologies",
        "text": "In 1989, it introduced its first, non-exclusive 3D survey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Several deaths have occurred while caching."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The Illinois Department of Natural Resources requires geocachers who wish to place a geocache at any Illinois state park to submit the location on a USGS 7.5 minute topographical map, the name and contact information of the person(s) wishing to place the geocache, a list of the original items to be included in the geocache, and a picture of the container that is to be placed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calico Early Man Site",
        "text": "The debate centers on whether the \"tools\" were made by humans (i.e., artifacts), or through typical geological processes (i.e. geofacts). The general scientific consensus is that the subsurface items are geofacts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Playfinder",
        "text": "In November 2015, the MyLocalPitch iPhone App was released to market, allowing users to book and search for venues using geolocation."
      },
      {
        "title": "GeoGuessr",
        "text": "Geoguessr is a geographical browser game in which players guess locations from street view imagery. Launched in May 2013, the game now features multiple modes for both single- and multiplayer competitions."
      },
      {
        "title": "GeoLotto",
        "text": "GeoLotto, formerly known as Geosweep, was created in 2010 by London based technology company, Geonomics. The idea started with brothers Henry and James Oakes who secured funding for a prototype location-based betting website, later funded by a \u00a32 million investment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Global Positioning System",
        "text": "Leick et al. (2015) states that \"Bancroft's (1985) solution is a very early, if not the first, closed-form solution.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Operation Phototrack",
        "text": "With knowledge of the camera's latitude/longitude position and its elevation above sea level, both obtainable from USGS (U. S. Geological Survey) 7\u00bd-minute quadrangle maps (before the days of Global Positioning System devices), comparison of the track with the star background could define the satellite's successive positions. To correlate those positions with times, breaks in the lines were created by interrupting the exposures at times known by their relationship with radio time signals broadcast by the U. S. National Bureau of Standards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geofact",
        "text": "Geofact\n--Origins.\n--Archeological errors.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Virtual caches are coordinates for a location, which has some other described object. Validation for finding a virtual cache generally requires one to email the cache hider with information such as a date or a name on a plaque, or to post a picture of oneself at the site with GPS receiver in hand. New virtual caches are no longer allowed by Groundspeak, but they remain supported by other sites. The Groundspeak website no longer lists new caches without a physical container, including virtual and webcam caches; however, older caches of these types have been grandfathered in (except for locationless/reverse, which are completely archived). On August 24, 2017, Groundspeak announced \"Virtual Rewards\", allowing 4000 new virtual caches to be placed during the following year. Earthcaches are one of the two exceptions to the no-container rule; they are caches in which players must answer geological questions to complete the cache. The other exception is for event caches; for an event to qualify, it must be specifically or mainly for geocachers, and must have a minimum duration dependent upon its category (CITO, regular, Mega, or Giga). Attendees of event caches can log that they 'attended', which will increment their number of found caches. Groundspeak created a waymarking website to handle all other non-physical caches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Address geocoding",
        "text": "2008 and 2009 saw the growth of interactive, user-oriented geocoding platforms \u2013 namely MapQuest, Google Maps, Bing Maps, and Global Positioning Systems (GPS). These platforms were made even more accessible to the public with the simultaneous growth of the mobile industry, specifically smartphones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geotextile tube",
        "text": "Geotextile tube\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "GeoOrbital",
        "text": "GeoOrbital\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "GeoRSS",
        "text": "<description>December 28, 2007 05:24:17 GMT</description>"
      },
      {
        "title": "GPS week number rollover",
        "text": "The first rollover took place midnight (UTC) August 21 to 22, 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geoset",
        "text": "Geoset\n--History.\n--Technology.\n--Recognition.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Over time many variations of geocaches have developed. Different platforms often have their own rules on which types are allowed or how they are classified. The following cache types are supported by both geocaching.com and opencaching.us unless stated otherwise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Setjetting",
        "text": "The term was first coined in the US press in the \"New York Post\" by journalist Gretchen Kelly in 2008. An analysis about the use of Geospatial technologies in setjetting was proposed by Thierry Joliveau in The Cartographic Journal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Location-based service",
        "text": "The Global Positioning System was first developed by the United States Department of Defense in the 1970s, and was made available for worldwide use and use by civilians in the 1980s. Research forerunners of today's location-based services include the infrared Active Badge system (1989\u20131993), the Ericsson-Europolitan GSM LBS trial by J\u00f6rgen Johansson (1995), and the master thesis written by Nokia employee Timo Rantalainen in 1995."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What type of device is used for geocaching?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Participants use a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or a mobile device such as an Android, iPhone orWindows Phone."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did geocaching first begin?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "On May 3rd, 2000 the first recorded GPS-located cache placement took place, it was a plastic bucket, and was found twice within the next three days.",
      "Geocaching was originally similar to the game letterboxing from 1854, which uses clues and references to landmarks embedded in stories. It was conceived shortly after the removal of Selective Availability from the Global Positioning System on May 2, 2000."
    ],
    "topic": "Geocaching",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "The first documented placement of a GPS-located cache took place on May 3, 2000, by Dave Ulmer of Beavercreek, Oregon. The location was posted on the Usenet newsgroup sci.geo.satellite-nav at . Within three days, the cache had been found twice, first by Mike Teague. According to Dave Ulmer's message, this cache was a black plastic bucket that was partially buried and contained software, videos, books, money, a can of beans, and a slingshot. The geocache and most of its contents were eventually destroyed by a lawn mower; the can of beans was the only item salvaged and was turned into a trackable item called the \"Original Can of Beans\". Another geocache and plaque called the Original Stash Tribute Plaque now sit at the site."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "Geocaching was originally similar to the game letterboxing (which originated in 1854), which uses clues and references to landmarks embedded in stories. Geocaching was conceived shortly after the removal of Selective Availability from the Global Positioning System on May 2, 2000 (Blue Switch Day.), because the improved accuracy of the system allowed for a small container to be specifically placed and located."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching was originally similar to the game letterboxing (which originated in 1854), which uses clues and references to landmarks embedded in stories. Geocaching was conceived shortly after the removal of Selective Availability from the Global Positioning System on May 2, 2000 (Blue Switch Day.), because the improved accuracy of the system allowed for a small container to be specifically placed and located."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bernhard Ho\u00ebcker",
        "text": "In his free time, he does geocaching, among other things."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "If a geocache has been vandalized or stolen by a person who is not familiar with geocaching, it is said to have been \"muggled\". The term plays off the fact that those not familiar with geocaching are called muggles, a word borrowed from the \"Harry Potter\" series of books which were rising in popularity at the same time geocaching started."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The first website to list geocaches was announced by Mike Teague on May 8, 2000. On September 2, 2000, Jeremy Irish emailed the gpsstash mailing list that he had registered the domain name geocaching.com and had set up his own Web site. He copied the caches from Mike Teague's database into his own. On September 6, Mike Teague announced that Jeremy Irish was taking over cache listings. , Teague had logged only 5 caches."
      },
      {
        "title": "G\u00e9o Dorival",
        "text": "Justin Marie Georges \"G\u00e9o\" Dorival (Paris, 5 November 1879 - Louveciennes, 22 March 1968) was a French poster artist. He also made glass plates for shadow puppet theatres, such as the 1910 premiere of Aucassin et Nicolette (Le Flem opera)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean Geoffroy",
        "text": "Around 1876, he met Pierre-Jules Hetzel, who hired him to be an illustrator of books for young people. After 1880, he signed his illustrations with the name \"G\u00e9o\". He also became friends with Doctor , who had worked with Louis Pasteur, and became an enthusiastic campaigner for Pasteurization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Architech",
        "text": "These notable people have been members of Architech society."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philippe Buache",
        "text": "Philippe Buache (born La Neuville-au-Pont, 7 February 1700; died Paris, 24 January 1773) was a French geographer, known for inventing a new system of geography and popularizing this field."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "There are a few kinds of events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger Agache",
        "text": "In 1978, Roger Agache was awarded the Grand Prix de G\u00e9ographie, and in 1983 he received the Grand Prix National de l'Arch\u00e9ologie."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geo Verbanck",
        "text": "Geo (Georges) Verbanck (28 February 1881 \u2013 12 December 1961) was a Belgian sculptor and medalist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Bakis",
        "text": "Bakis is considered as the \"inventor of the concept of geocybergeography\". He considers that human beings still live in a geographical classical space but this space is modified by the use of ICT. Today, it includes new attributes making it more complex."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The first game, organized by gpsgames.org, ran for two months (June and July 2001); each subsequent game has run for one month. Players are often encouraged to take pictures at the dashpoints and upload them to the site."
      },
      {
        "title": "Josep Dom\u00e8nech i Estap\u00e0",
        "text": "He graduated in 1881, and became professor of geodesy (1888) and descriptive geometry (1895) at the University of Barcelona, and member of the Acad\u00e8mia de Ci\u00e8ncies i Arts (1883), of which he subsequently became president(1914)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philippe Buache",
        "text": "Buache was nominated first geographer of the king in 1729. He established the division of the world by seas and river systems. He believed in a southern continent, an hypothesis which was confirmed by later discoveries. In 1754, he published an \"Atlas physique.\" He also wrote several pamphlets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Georges Deicha",
        "text": "Deicha, besides his scientific work, was also a sculptor, mainly in bas-relief technique. For instance Deicha created medals representing V. Agafonov, P. Milyukov, Leon Bertrand, Ami Bou\u00e9, Louis Barrabe, Pierre Pruvost, and Raymond Furon. Most of these medals are used as awards by the French Geological Society."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Davidovits",
        "text": "Joseph Davidovits (born 23 March 1935) is a French materials scientist known for the invention of geopolymer chemistry. He posited that the blocks of the Great Pyramid are not carved stone but mostly a form of limestone concrete or man-made stone. He holds the Ordre National du M\u00e9rite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching company Groundspeak allows extraterrestrial caches, e.g. the Moon or Mars, although presently, the website provides only earthbound coordinates. The first published extraterrestrial geocache was GC1BE91, which was on the International Space Station between 2008 and 2017. It used the Baikonur launch area in Kazakhstan as its position. The original cache contained a travel bug (the first geocaching trackable item in space), which stayed on the station until it was brought back to earth in 2013. Due to fire restrictions on board the station, the geocache contained no official paper logbook. As of February 2021, only one confirmed geocacher (in 2013) has actually found the geocache, although others have claimed to have found it providing varying amounts of evidence. To commemorate the occasion, Groundspeak allowed specialized geocaching events to be published across the world, allowing attendees to obtain a virtual souvenir on their profile."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laroche-pr\u00e8s-Feyt",
        "text": "Laroche-pr\u00e8s-Feyt\n--Geography.\n--Notable people.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Philippe Buache",
        "text": "His nephew, Jean Nicolas Buache (born La Neuville-au-Pont, 15 February 1741; died Paris, 21 November 1825), was also a geographer of the king."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuesmes",
        "text": "Cuesmes\n--History.\n----People who were buried in Cuesmes.\n----Famous people who lived in Cuesmes.\n--Geography.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The reception from authorities and the general public outside geocache participants has been mixed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean Geoffroy",
        "text": "Henri-Jules-Jean Geoffroy, also known by the pseudonym G\u00e9o (1 March 1853, Marennes - 15 December 1924, Paris) was a French painter and illustrator, known primarily for his genre scenes with children. Some sources give his first names in reverse order."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of human geographers",
        "text": "The following is a list of notable human geographers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicolas Guisn\u00e9e",
        "text": "He was named \"associ\u00e9 g\u00e9om\u00e8tre\" at the Royal Academy of Sciences on 15 January 1707. He died in Paris."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c9lis\u00e9e Reclus",
        "text": "Jacques \u00c9lis\u00e9e Reclus (; 15 March 18304 July 1905) was a renowned French geographer, writer and anarchist. He produced his 19-volume masterwork, \"La Nouvelle G\u00e9ographie universelle, la terre et les hommes\" (\"Universal Geography\"), over a period of nearly 20 years (1875\u20131894). In 1892 he was awarded the Gold Medal of the Paris Geographical Society for this work, despite having been banished from France because of his political activism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean Brunhes",
        "text": "Jean Brunhes (, born 25 October 1869, Toulouse, France-died 25 August 1930, Boulogne-Billancourt) was a French geographer. His most famous book is \"La g\u00e9ographie humaine\" (\"Human Geography\"). He was the director of \"The Archives of the Planet\", an international photographic project sponsored by Albert Kahn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger Agache",
        "text": "Roger Agache (August 16, 1926 \u2013 September 17, 2011) was a French archaeologist. He was among the first to take part in aerial archaeology in France, and helped to develop a methodology for aerial prospecting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philippe Buache",
        "text": "Buache was trained under the geographer Guillaume Delisle, whose daughter he married, and whom he succeeded in the Acad\u00e9mie des sciences in 1730."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "An independent accounting of the early history documents several controversial actions taken by Irish and Grounded, Inc., a predecessor to Groundspeak, to increase \"commercialization and monopolistic control over the hobby\". More recently, other similar hobbies such as Munzee have attracted some geocachers by rapidly adopting smart-phone technology, which has caused \"some resistance from geocaching organizers about placing caches along with Munzees\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Georges Lacour-Gayet",
        "text": "His schoolmates included the future geographers Bertrand Auerbach, Marcel Dubois and Paul Dupuy, and the future historians Salomon Reinach and Gustave Lanson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geomancers (comics)",
        "text": "The first Geomancer was Khanit, who was chosen in 3500 BC. Later Geomancers included Buck McHenry, Geoff McHenry, Lucinda Mendez, Yuri Pierce, Ana Kawainui, Rokland Tate and Aram Anni-Padda."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ball\u0131germe",
        "text": "\u00c7atalca Culture and Tourism Association President Ahmet Rasim Y\u00fccel told \"S\u00f6zc\u00fc\" newspaper that \"according to the rumors that are spoken among the people and which are not original, the people who made these works put gold between the stones and asked the people to use them in times of absence.This unfounded gossip is dragging people here. They are tearing up these historical artefacts with fake treasure maps in their hands.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Nona Orbach",
        "text": "Orbach invented a character called Mound Hacker, who leaves ostraca at archeological sites and maps them on Google Earth. Each ostracon on Google Earth links to her blog, which is dedicated primarily to the loss of the Great Library of Alexandria. Using various metaphorical devices, the blog offers a commentary on how humanity develops massive bodies of knowledge and easily loses them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herbert E. Balch",
        "text": "He left school at 14 and became telegraph messenger boy at Wells Post Office. He remained at the post office for his entire working life, working his way up to postmaster. Whilst working as a messenger, he spent a lot of time at the village of Wookey Hole. He began caving with other teenagers from the village in the mid-1880s. After attending a talk by William Boyd Dawkins, he took an interest in cave archeology and especially in stratigraphy. In the 1890s, Balch was introduced to the caves of the Mendip Hills by Thomas Willcox, manager of the Priddy lead mines. While caving with Willcox at Lamb Leer in 1897, one of Balch's ropes snapped. He saved himself by catching a guide rope, but the fall rendered him unconscious, suffering serious friction burns and back injuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bertrand Auerbach",
        "text": "The \"Annales de G\u00e9ographie\" was founded by Vidal de La Blache in 1891."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dropquote",
        "text": "With geocaching puzzles, coordinates can be hidden in a quote puzzle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tibor Sekelj",
        "text": "Traveling certainly helped make him a geographer, but he also was forced to become a true cartographer during his travels. In that regard he researched and designed charts of several previously uncharted parts of South America, especially in Bolivia and Brazil. As a result, a river was named after him: Rio Tibor. He published word maps in Esperanto and edited a professional review \"\u00abGeografia Revuo\u00bb\" between 1956 and 1964. In 1950 he became a member of Guatemala society about history and geography and, because of his merits in this area, in 1946 the Royal Geographical Society of United Kingdom accepted him as an \"FRGS\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry De la Beche",
        "text": "Sir Henry Thomas De la Beche KCB, FRS (10 February 179613 April 1855) was an English geologist and palaeontologist, the first director of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, who helped pioneer early geological survey methods. He was the first President of the Palaeontographical Society."
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of Woman Geographers",
        "text": "The society's first president was Harriet Chalmers Adams, who held the post from December 1925 until 1933. Marion Stirling Pugh served as its president twice, in 1960\u20131963 and 1969\u20131972. Famous members included: historian Mary Ritter Beard, photographer Margaret Bourke-White, novelist Fannie Hurst, mountain climber Annie Smith Peck, anthropologist Margaret Mead, Eleanor Roosevelt, and author Grace Gallatin Seton Thompson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean-Baptiste Beno\u00eet Eyri\u00e8s",
        "text": "In 1821 he became one of the 217 founding members of the world's first geographical society, the Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de G\u00e9ographie, remaining one of the most active and on its central committee until his death; he was named honorary president, a prestigious title given to the likes of Pierre-Simon Laplace, Georges Cuvier, Alexander von Humboldt and Fran\u00e7ois-Ren\u00e9 de Chateaubriand. He was a recognised geographer, and Jules Dumont d'Urville named a mountain \"Eyri\u00e8s\" after him near Humboldt Bay during his voyage on the \"Astrolabe\". He was admitted to the Acad\u00e9mie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 1839, was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1840 and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1841, and was awarded the Legion of Honour in 1844."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Traditional geocaching gave birth to GeoCaching \u2013 an active urban game of the Encounter project. The game is quite similar to geocaching but has time limitations and hints."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles Jacot-Guillarmod",
        "text": "Asked by the Chinese Government, he went to teach geodesy and topography at the Military Academy in Pekin from 1916 to 1922."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de G\u00e9ographie",
        "text": "The society was to be associated in time with the greatest French and foreign explorers from Ren\u00e9 Cailli\u00e9, the first European to return alive from the town of Timbuktu, to the underwater explorer Jacques Cousteau, and leading geographers, among them Vidal de la Blache, founder of the French School of Geopolitics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Vidal de La Blache",
        "text": "Vidal de la Blache founded the French school of geography and, together with and Lucien Gallois, the \"Annales de G\u00e9ographie\" (1893), of which he was the editor until his death. The \"Annales de G\u00e9ographie\" became an influential academic journal that promoted the concept of human geography as the study of man and his relationship to his environment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geo Verbanck",
        "text": "Many artists had the opportunity to develop their sculpting skills in his atelier in Ghent."
      },
      {
        "title": "GeoWizard",
        "text": "Davies is known for his skill at \"GeoGuessr\", a browser game in which the player must identify locations in Google Street View."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard Owen (geologist)",
        "text": "In 1889, he entered a contest held by the Belgian government to find ways to popularize the study of geography. Owen received an honorable mention for the relief maps made of putty that he had shipped to Brussels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guillermo Kuitca",
        "text": "Kuitca is well known \u201cfor his use of maps \u2013 particularly his transcriptions of topography onto mattresses\u201d. Kuitca says he uses the image of a map \u201cto get lost\u2026 not to get oriented.\u201d Stemming from his experimentation with aerial views of floor plans, Kuitca moved to maps because \u201che liked the way they occupy a space somewhere between the abstract and the representational.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Green anarchism",
        "text": "\u00c9lis\u00e9e Reclus (15 March 1830 \u2013 4 July 1905), also known as Jacques \u00c9lis\u00e9e Reclus, was a renowned French geographer, writer and anarchist. He produced his 19-volume masterwork \"La Nouvelle G\u00e9ographie universelle, la terre et les hommes\" (\"Universal Geography\"), over a period of nearly 20 years (1875\u20131894). In 1892, he was awarded the prestigious Gold Medal of the Paris Geographical Society for this work, despite his having been banished from France because of his political activism. According to Kirkpatrick Sale:"
      },
      {
        "title": "G\u00e9o Ham",
        "text": "In 1918, he was received at the \u00c9cole nationale sup\u00e9rieure des arts d\u00e9coratifs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herbert E. Balch",
        "text": "Balch became interested in stratigraphy and cave archaeology after attending a talk by William Boyd Dawkins. Balch led much of the exploration through the caves near Wookey Hole village, discovering and mapping many caves. He also made discoveries of artefacts used by the people who lived in the caves during the Iron Age. Balch was a founder member of the Wells Natural History and Archaeology Society and through the society he founded the Wells Museum, largely including his own collection of artefacts."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c9mile Haug",
        "text": "Gustave \u00c9mile Haug (19 June 1861 - 28 August 1927) was a French geologist and paleontologist known for his contribution to the geosyncline theory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The first documented placement of a GPS-located cache took place on May 3, 2000, by Dave Ulmer of Beavercreek, Oregon. The location was posted on the Usenet newsgroup sci.geo.satellite-nav at . Within three days, the cache had been found twice, first by Mike Teague. According to Dave Ulmer's message, this cache was a black plastic bucket that was partially buried and contained software, videos, books, money, a can of beans, and a slingshot. The geocache and most of its contents were eventually destroyed by a lawn mower; the can of beans was the only item salvaged and was turned into a trackable item called the \"Original Can of Beans\". Another geocache and plaque called the Original Stash Tribute Plaque now sit at the site."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian Leopold von Buch",
        "text": "Buch's geological excursions, even in countries which he had repeatedly visited before, continued without interruption until a very advanced age: eight months before his death he visited the mountains of Auvergne, and on returning home he read a paper on the Jurassic formation before the Academy of Berlin. Humboldt, who had known him intimately for a period of more than sixty years, called him the greatest geologist of that period. Buch was unmarried and lived aloof from the world, entirely devoted to scientific pursuits. His excursions were always taken on foot, with a staff in his hand, and the large pockets of his overcoat filled with papers and geological instruments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Podgorica",
        "text": "Below are some of the most notable people who were either born or spent most of their lives in Podgorica:"
      },
      {
        "title": "William Balchin",
        "text": "William George Victor Balchin (20 June 1916 \u2013 30 July 2007) was a British geographer. He was noted for original research in geology and significant contributions to geography, and for establishing the academic concept of graphicacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Numerous websites list geocaches around the world. Geocaching websites vary in many ways, including control of data."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching is an outdoor recreational activity, in which participants use a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or mobile device and other navigational techniques to hide and seek containers, called \"geocaches\" or \"caches\", at specific locations marked by coordinates all over the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aaron Arrowsmith",
        "text": "He moved to Soho Square, London from Winston, County Durham when about twenty years of age, and was employed by John Cary, the engraver and William Faden. He became Hydrographer to the Prince of Wales and subsequently to the King in 1820. In January 1790 he made himself famous by his large chart of the world on Mercator projection. Four years later he published another large map of the world on the globular projection, with a companion volume of explanation."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of geodesy",
        "text": "In 1505 the cosmographer and explorer Duarte Pacheco Pereira calculated the value of the degree of the meridian arc with a margin of error of only 4%, when the current error at the time varied between 7 and 15%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geo Verbanck",
        "text": "In 1896 Verbanck moved to another workplace, this time of the renowned sculptor Alo\u00efs de Beule, who ran a studio which produced a broad range of artwork such as crucifixes, stations, allegorical statues, steles and busts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Three adult geocachers, a 24-year-old woman and her parents, were trapped in a cave and rescued by firefighters in Rochester, New York, United States, while searching for an ammo can in 2012. Rochester Fire Department spokesman Lt. Ted Kuppinger said, \"It's difficult, because you're invested in it, you want to find something like that, so people will probably try to push themselves more than they should, but you need to be prudent about what you're capable of doing.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Frederick Kelley",
        "text": "immense energy but also with many mistakes, later he confesses.\" \u201cWhen, in 1851, I started studying scientific history and geographic contours of Central America, ignoring much of what had been written in the past and, of course, nothing could learn valuable data that has been accumulated since. \""
      },
      {
        "title": "Hans Reck",
        "text": "He was the third geologist to do so."
      },
      {
        "title": "Choranche",
        "text": "Famous is . The grottoes were discovered end the 19th Century and hide a unique sight of fine stalactites."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c9mile Cartailhac",
        "text": "Cartailhac was born in Marseille. He became interested in prehistory (studies of which were then just beginning) at a very young age. He made excavations around the dolmens in Aveyron, and also in Portugal, Iceland and the Balearic Islands. In 1867 he was the supervisor of the prehistory section at a world's fair in Paris. Two years later, he became the chief editor of the revue \"Mat\u00e9riaux pour l'histoire naturelle et primitive de l'homme\" founded by Gabriel de Mortillet. This position he held until 1887. From 1882 he taught at the university in Toulouse and in 1897 he was elected a curator of Acad\u00e9mie des Jeux floraux. After changing his opinion about Altamira, he became one of the founders of the studies of the cave art and one of the scientists (together with e. g. Henri Breuil) who recognised its importance. With Breuil he made the initial survey of the Caves of Gargas at Aventignan in the Pyrenees, and where F\u00e9lix R\u00e9gnault discovered Gravettian cave art in 1906. He was (together with Breuill and Marcellin Boule) one of the founders of \"Institut de pal\u00e9ontologie humaine\" in Paris (following a generous donation from Albert I)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beavercreek, Oregon",
        "text": "Beavercreek is the birthplace of geocaching. The first documented placement of a GPS-located cache took place on May\u00a03, 2000, by Dave Ulmer of Beavercreek a few miles west of the community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bertrand Auerbach",
        "text": "His schoolmates included the future geographers Marcel Dubois and Paul Dupuy, and the future historians Georges Lacour-Gayet, Salomon Reinach and Gustave Lanson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arne Bjerhammar",
        "text": "inventors. However, many geodesists (and mathematicians) know him for the first"
      },
      {
        "title": "Eberhard Zangger",
        "text": "Zangger began concentrating on geoarchaeology in 1982. His early research work and discoveries included the coastal situation of Dimini in Neolithic Central Greece, the extent of Lake Lerna in the Argive Plain, the age and function of the Mycenaean river diversion and extent of the lower town of Tiryns, the insular character of Asine, the artificial harbor of Nestor at Pylos, including its clean water flushing mechanism, and a human-made dam in Minoan Monastiraki in central Crete."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Soleillet",
        "text": "The geographer \u00c9lis\u00e9e Reclus, who created the 19-volume \"G\u00e9ographie universelle\" (1875\u201394), saw Soleillet as one of the best explorers of the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jave la Grande",
        "text": "As explained by Sir Henry Yule, the editor of an English edition of Marco Polo's travels: \"Some geographers of the 16th century, following the old editions which carried the travellers south-east of Java to the land of \"Boeach\" (or Locac), introduced in their maps a continent in that situation\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geo Verbanck",
        "text": "When he retired in 1941, Verbanck was awarded the Belgian state prize \"Great prize of plastic arts\" for his entire oeuvre."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenneth S. Fagg",
        "text": "Kenneth S. Fagg (May 29, 1901 \u2013 January 7, 1980) was a twentieth-century American commercial artist, perhaps best known as a co-creator of the world's largest geophysical relief globe, exhibited at the 1958 Brussels World's Fair."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry De la Beche",
        "text": "The following geographic features are named after De la Beche:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geo Verbanck",
        "text": "Verbanck remained active as a sculptor until his death in 1961."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Choffat",
        "text": "In 1892 he was made \"honorary doctor of\" the University of Zurich and in 1900 received the Auguste Viquesnel Prize ( \"Prix Auguste Viquesnel\" ) conferred by the Geological Society of France, the first time the prestigious prize was given to a foreigner. He was also distinguished with the degree of Commander of the Order of Isabel the Catholic of Spain (in 1892) and the degree of Commander of the Order of Santiago (in 1896)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Georges Deicha",
        "text": "Georges Deicha (1917 - 2011) was a geologist and mineralogist, known for his pioneering work on fluid inclusions.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geoje",
        "text": "Some notable people from Geoje include:\n*Former President Kim Young-sam\n*Poet Yu Chi-hwan, better known by his pen-name Cheongma.\n*President Moon Jae-in"
      },
      {
        "title": "Antoine Vacher",
        "text": "Vacher made several contributions to the \"Annales de G\u00e9ographie\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geopolitics",
        "text": "French geographer and geopolitician Jacques Ancel (1879-1936) is considered to be the first theoretician of geopolitics in France, and gave a notable series of lectures at the European Center of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in Paris and published \"G\u00e9opolitique\" in 1936. Like Reclus, Ancel rejects German determinist views on geopolitics (including Haushofer's doctrines)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Georges Goyon",
        "text": "As author:\n* \"Les inscriptions et graffiti des voyageurs sur la Grande Pyramide. Pr\u00e9f. de \u00c9t. Drioton. \", Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 royale de g\u00e9ographie, Cairo, 1944.\n* \"Le papyrus de Turin dit \"des Mines d'or\" et le Wadi Hammamat\", Institut fran\u00e7ais d'arch\u00e9ologie orientale du Caire, 1949.\n* \"Le Tombeau d'Ankhou \u00e0 Saqqarah\", Paul Geuthner, Paris, 1959.\n* \"Le Secret des b\u00e2tisseurs des grandes pyramides - Kh\u00e9ops\", Pygmalion Editions, 1983.\n* \"La D\u00e9couverte des tr\u00e9sors de Tanis\", \u00c9ditions Pers\u00e9a, 1987."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas Maclear",
        "text": "Between 1841 and 1848, Maclear would be occupied in performing a geodetic survey for the purpose of recalculating the figure of the Earth (its dimensions and shape) via an arc measurement. He caused a beacon to be erected on top of Table Mountain which was used as a triangulation station for the checking of de Lacaille's arc measurement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herbert E. Balch",
        "text": "Herbert Ernest Balch (4 November 1869 \u2013 27 May 1958) MA FSA was an English archaeologist, naturalist, caver and geologist who explored the caves of the Mendip Hills and pioneered many of the techniques used by modern cavers. Born in Wells, he gained a scholarship to The Blue School before leaving school at the age of 14 to become a messenger for Wells Post Office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fran\u00e7ois Pouqueville",
        "text": "His books also gave a precise and detailed description of the geography, archaeology, topography, and geology of the areas he traveled through and visited, and his observations were highly regarded by later explorers and by the geographer Jean-Denis Barbi\u00e9 du Bocage, author of a fine atlas attached to Barthelemy's\"Voyage du jeune Anarcharsis en Gr\u00e8ce dans le milieu du quatri\u00e8me si\u00e8cle avant l'\u00e8re vulgaire\", and who was a founder of the Societe de geographie in 1821."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tiszacs\u00e9cse",
        "text": "Tiszacs\u00e9cse\n--Geography.\n--History.\n--Famous people.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Broch of Mousa",
        "text": "The site was visited by the antiquarian George Low during his tour of 1774, and he provided the first drawings of the broch. It was visited by Sir Walter Scott in 1814, who described it as \"a Pictish fortress, the most entire probably in the world.\" The geologist and antiquarian Samuel Hibbert visited it in 1818 and provided a detailed account of the site. The first accurate survey was conducted by Sir Henry Dryden in 1852 and 1866."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pierre Gourou",
        "text": "Pierre Gourou (31 August 1900 \u2013 13 May 1999) was a French geographer. In 1984, he received the Patron's Medal from the Royal Geographical Society."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atienza",
        "text": "Atienza\n--Geology.\n--Notable people.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ron Resch",
        "text": "Ron Resch (Ronald Dale Resch) was an artist, computer scientist, and applied geometrist, known for his work involving folding paper, Origami Tessellations and 3D polyhedrons."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c9mile Cartailhac",
        "text": "\u00c9mile Cartailhac (15 February 1845 \u2013 26 November 1921) was a French prehistorian, one of the founding fathers of the studies of the cave art. He is perhaps best remembered because of his involvement with the Altamira paintings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geyve",
        "text": "Geyve\n--Geography.\n--Economy.\n--History.\n--Landmarks.\n--Notable people.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Wheatley (geographer)",
        "text": "Wheatley's obituary says of him that he was a \"man of ideas, of exacting standards and often of forceful expression. He was the first British geographer to explore sources in Chinese and Arabic as well as in English for the historical geography of South-East Asia and the Arab world. Only the grand thesis was good enough for him.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Louis Gallou\u00e9dec",
        "text": "Louis Gallou\u00e9dec (17 February 1864 \u2013 23 January 1937) was a French geographer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Achurch",
        "text": "Achurch\n--History.\n--Notable people.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "On 9 June 2018 four people in Prague, Czech Republic, were surprised by a strong sudden storm while searching for a cache in 4\u00a0km long tunnel. They were carried by the tidal wave for almost the whole length of the tunnel to the Vltava river where the tunnel ends. One woman was found dead in the river a few hours later. Six days later a second body, that of a man in the group, was found in the river. Two exhausted drowning people were rescued from the river suffering mostly from numerous bruises and blunt traumas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Constant Pr\u00e9vost",
        "text": "From 1821-1829 he was professor of geology at the Athenaeum at Paris, and he took a leading part with Ami Boue, G\u00e9rard Paul Deshayes and Jules Desnoyers in the founding of the Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 g\u00e9ologique de France (1830). In 1831 he became assistant professor and afterwards honorary professor of geology to the faculty of sciences of the Sorbonne. He was on hand with an artist to witness the undersea volcano that produced Ferdinandea (now Graham Bank) off the south coast of Sicily that July; he named it \"\u00cele Julia\", for its July appearance, and reported in the \"Bulletin de la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 G\u00e9ologique de France\" In 1848 he was elected to his late mentor Brogniart's seat in the \"Acad\u00e9mie des sciences\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Julian Nott (balloonist)",
        "text": "Nott hypothesized that two millennia ago, the Nazca Lines geoglyphs could have been formed with guidance of Nazca leaders in a balloon, possibly the earliest balloon flights in human history. \u00a0 In 1975 to support this theory, he designed and piloted the Nazca Prehistoric Balloon, using only methods and materials available to the Pre-Inca Peruvians 1,000 years ago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geo Verbanck",
        "text": "While his work was originally influenced by the curved lines of Art Nouveau, during the interwar period it would gradually evolve into a more linear and angular Art Deco expression. After the Second World War, his work continued to evolve towards a softer round design.\n* Monument in honour of the Van Eyck brothers (1912) \u2013 Ghent, Geraard de Duivelhof.\n* Frieze \"Justice\" \u2013 with Themis \u2013 (1955\u20131961) \u2013 Ghent, )"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What type of device is used for geocaching?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Participants use a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or a mobile device such as an Android, iPhone orWindows Phone."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did geocaching first begin?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Geocaching was originally similar to the game letterboxing from 1854, which uses clues and references to landmarks embedded in stories. It was conceived shortly after the removal of Selective Availability from the Global Positioning System on May 2, 2000."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did any famous people geocache?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
    ],
    "topic": "Geocaching",
    "ground_truth_ctx": []
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "There are a few kinds of events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bernhard Ho\u00ebcker",
        "text": "In his free time, he does geocaching, among other things."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Numerous websites list geocaches around the world. Geocaching websites vary in many ways, including control of data."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A Traditional cache is the most common type and consists of a container with a logbook. Exact coordinates where the cache is located are given."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The reception from authorities and the general public outside geocache participants has been mixed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching\n--History.\n--Geocaches.\n----Variations.\n----Geocache types.\n------Geodashing.\n------Stratocaching.\n--Technology.\n----Obtaining data.\n----Converting and filtering data.\n----Mobile devices.\n--Ethics.\n--Reception.\n----Laws and legislation.\n--Notable incidents.\n--Websites and data ownership.\n----First page.\n----Geocaching.com.\n----Opencaching Network.\n----OpenCaching.com.\n----Other sites.\n------GPSgames.\n------NaviCache.\n------TerraCaching.\n------Extremcaching.\n------Geocaching Australia.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaches vary in size, difficulty, and location. Simple caches that are placed near a roadside are often called \"drive-bys\", \"park 'n grabs\" (PNGs), or \"cache and dash\". Geocaches may also be complex, involving lengthy searches, significant travel, or use of specialist equipment such as SCUBA diving, kayaking, or abseiling. Different geocaching websites list different variations per their own policies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The following cache types don't contain a physical logbook."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Over time many variations of geocaches have developed. Different platforms often have their own rules on which types are allowed or how they are classified. The following cache types are supported by both geocaching.com and opencaching.us unless stated otherwise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching is an outdoor recreational activity, in which participants use a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or mobile device and other navigational techniques to hide and seek containers, called \"geocaches\" or \"caches\", at specific locations marked by coordinates all over the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Earthcaches are virtual caches that are organized by the Geological Society of America. The cacher usually has to perform a task which teaches an educational lesson about the earth science of the cache area. They are listed at geocaching.com."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "If a geocache has been vandalized or stolen by a person who is not familiar with geocaching, it is said to have been \"muggled\". The term plays off the fact that those not familiar with geocaching are called muggles, a word borrowed from the \"Harry Potter\" series of books which were rising in popularity at the same time geocaching started."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching Australia is a community website for geocachers in Australia and New Zealand as well as many other countries. Geocaching Australia also has many unique cache types such as Burke And Wills, Moveable_cache & Podcache geocaches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of Internet-related articles",
        "text": "Geocaching -"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Over time, a variety of different hide-and-seek-type activities have been created or abandoned, so that \"geocaching\" may now refer to hiding and seeking containers, or locations or information without containers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "An independent accounting of the early history documents several controversial actions taken by Irish and Grounded, Inc., a predecessor to Groundspeak, to increase \"commercialization and monopolistic control over the hobby\". More recently, other similar hobbies such as Munzee have attracted some geocachers by rapidly adopting smart-phone technology, which has caused \"some resistance from geocaching organizers about placing caches along with Munzees\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching company Groundspeak allows extraterrestrial caches, e.g. the Moon or Mars, although presently, the website provides only earthbound coordinates. The first published extraterrestrial geocache was GC1BE91, which was on the International Space Station between 2008 and 2017. It used the Baikonur launch area in Kazakhstan as its position. The original cache contained a travel bug (the first geocaching trackable item in space), which stayed on the station until it was brought back to earth in 2013. Due to fire restrictions on board the station, the geocache contained no official paper logbook. As of February 2021, only one confirmed geocacher (in 2013) has actually found the geocache, although others have claimed to have found it providing varying amounts of evidence. To commemorate the occasion, Groundspeak allowed specialized geocaching events to be published across the world, allowing attendees to obtain a virtual souvenir on their profile."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Several deaths have occurred while caching."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Guest Book caches use guest books often found in museums, tourist information centers, etc. They are listed exclusively at opencaching.us."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching was originally similar to the game letterboxing (which originated in 1854), which uses clues and references to landmarks embedded in stories. Geocaching was conceived shortly after the removal of Selective Availability from the Global Positioning System on May 2, 2000 (Blue Switch Day.), because the improved accuracy of the system allowed for a small container to be specifically placed and located."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "In many countries there are regional geocaching sites, but these mostly only compile lists of caches in the area from the three main sites. Many of them also accept unique listings of caches for their site, but these listings tend to be less popular than the international sites, although occasionally the regional sites may have more caches than the international sites. There are some exceptions though, e.g. in the former Soviet Union, the site Geocaching.su remains popular because it accepts listings in the Cyrillic script. Additional international sites include Geocaching.de, a German website, and Geocaching Australia, which accepts listings of cache types deprecated by geocaching.com, cache types such as TrigPoint and Moveable caches, as well as traditional geocache types."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A typical cache is a small waterproof container containing a logbook and sometimes a pen or pencil. The geocacher signs the log with their established code name and dates it, in order to prove that they found the cache. After signing the log, the cache must be placed back exactly where the person found it. Larger containers such as plastic storage containers (Tupperware or similar) or ammunition boxes can also contain items for trading, such as toys or trinkets, usually of more sentimental worth than financial. Geocaching shares many aspects with benchmarking, trigpointing, orienteering, treasure-hunting, letterboxing, waymarking and Munzee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching is legal in most countries and is usually positively received when explained to law enforcement officials. However, certain types of placements can be problematic. Although generally disallowed, hiders could place caches on private property without adequate permission (intentionally or otherwise), which encourages cache finders to trespass. Historic buildings and structures have also been damaged by geocachers, who have wrongly believed the geocache to be placed within, or on the roof of, the buildings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Three adult geocachers, a 24-year-old woman and her parents, were trapped in a cave and rescued by firefighters in Rochester, New York, United States, while searching for an ammo can in 2012. Rochester Fire Department spokesman Lt. Ted Kuppinger said, \"It's difficult, because you're invested in it, you want to find something like that, so people will probably try to push themselves more than they should, but you need to be prudent about what you're capable of doing.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Typical cache \"treasures\", also known in the geocaching world as SWAG (a backronym of \"stuff we all get\"), are not high in monetary value but may hold personal value to the finder. Aside from the logbook, common cache contents are unusual coins or currency, small toys, ornamental buttons, CDs, or books. Although not required, many geocachers decide to leave behind signature items, such as personal Geocoins, pins, or craft items, to mark their presence at the cache location. Disposable cameras are popular as they allow for anyone who found the cache to take a picture which can be developed and uploaded to a Geocaching web site listed below. Also common are objects that are moved from cache to cache called \"hitchhikers\", such as Travel Bugs or Geocoins, whose travels may be logged and followed online. Cachers who initially place a Travel Bug or Geocoins often assign specific goals for their trackable items. Examples of goals are to be placed in a certain cache a long distance from home, or to travel to a certain country, or to travel faster and farther than other hitchhikers in a race. Less common trends are site-specific information pages about the historic significance of the site, types of trees, birds in the area or other such information. Higher-value items are occasionally included in geocaches as a reward for the First to Find (called \"FTF\"), or in locations which are harder to reach. Dangerous or illegal items, weapons, food and drugs are not allowed and are specifically against the rules of most geocache listing sites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Moving/travelling caches are found at a listed set of coordinates. The finder hides the cache in a different location, and updates the listing, essentially becomes the hider, and the next finder continues the cycle. This cache type is supported at opencaching.us while it has been discontinued at geocaching.com."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger Agache",
        "text": "In 1978, Roger Agache was awarded the Grand Prix de G\u00e9ographie, and in 1983 he received the Grand Prix National de l'Arch\u00e9ologie."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "For the traditional geocache, a geocacher will place a waterproof container containing a log book (with pen and/or pencil) and trade items or trackables, then record the cache's coordinates. These coordinates, along with other details of the location, are posted on a listing site (see list of some sites below). Other geocachers obtain the coordinates from that listing site and seek out the cache using their handheld GPS receivers. The finding geocachers record their exploits in the logbook and online, but then must return the cache to the same coordinates so that other geocachers may find it. Geocachers are free to take objects (except the logbook, pencil, or stamp) from the cache in exchange for leaving something of similar or higher value."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Mystery/puzzle caches require one to discover information or solve a puzzle to find the cache. Some mystery caches provide a puzzle that must be solved to determine the physical cache location. Caches which do not fit into other categories are classified as mystery caches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dropquote",
        "text": "With geocaching puzzles, coordinates can be hidden in a quote puzzle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching enthusiasts have also made their own hand-held GPS devices using a Lego Mindstorms NXT GPS sensor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching from space is a combination of flight to near space, the geocaching game, and a unique science experiment. The first Stratocaching event was held on 16 November 2013 in Prague and was successful. Ten caches and two \"radioseeds\" went up to into the stratosphere on a gondola called Dropion module carried by a high-altitude balloon. The caches and seeds then fell to earth for people to find."
      },
      {
        "title": "Erratic Rock State Natural Site",
        "text": "Geocaching is an outdoor recreational treasure hunt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcafozes",
        "text": "Alcafozes\n--History.\n--Geography.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Scavenger hunt",
        "text": "Geocaching is an outdoor treasure-hunting game in which the participants use a global positioning system (GPS) receiver or other navigational techniques to hide and seek containers (called \"geocaches\" or \"caches\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of human geographers",
        "text": "The following is a list of notable human geographers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geofact",
        "text": "Geofact\n--Origins.\n--Archeological errors.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The first website to list geocaches was announced by Mike Teague on May 8, 2000. On September 2, 2000, Jeremy Irish emailed the gpsstash mailing list that he had registered the domain name geocaching.com and had set up his own Web site. He copied the caches from Mike Teague's database into his own. On September 6, Mike Teague announced that Jeremy Irish was taking over cache listings. , Teague had logged only 5 caches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Armin Gruen",
        "text": "Nasca Lines/Geoglyphs, Adobe pyramids of Tucume, Machu Picchu, Pinchango Alto, petroglyphs of Chichictara (all Peru), Mount Everest, Ayers Rock (Australia), reconstruction of the two Great Buddhas of Bamiyan, pre-Columbian site of Xochicalco (Mexico), Maya site of Copan (Honduras), Bayon/Angkor Wat (Cambodia), Drapham Dzong (Bhutan), Weary Herakles (Antalya, Turkey), Khmer Head (Rietberg Museum), Zurich 1800 city model relief, Alfred Escher memorial, St. Gallen Globe (all Zurich), Pfyffer Relief (Lucerne). See also all past and present projects at the Institute of Geodesy and Photogrammetry (IGP), ETH Zurich."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Traditional geocaching gave birth to GeoCaching \u2013 an active urban game of the Encounter project. The game is quite similar to geocaching but has time limitations and hints."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Extremcaching is a German private database for alternative geocaches with a focus on T5 / climbing caches, night caches and lost place caches. For extreme caching all you need is an extreme caching account, a GPS device with coordinates or a GPS-enabled smartphone with geocaching or outdoor navigation software, e.g. c:geo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A Multi-cache consists of one or more stages, each of them containing the coordinates for the next one; the final stage contains a physical container with the logbook. An Offset cache is a multi-cache in which the initial coordinates are for a location containing information that encodes the final cache coordinates. An example would be to direct the finder to a plaque where the digits of a date on the plaque correspond to coordinates of the final cache."
      },
      {
        "title": "TopoFusion",
        "text": "TopoFusion has been found useful by those engaged in the sport of geocaching."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geo Verbanck",
        "text": "Thanks to his broad crafts education he thoroughly mastered working with all kinds of materials:bronze, bluestone, marble, Euville (limestone), ivory and various types of wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nazca Lines",
        "text": "Based on the results of geophysical investigations and the observation of geological faults, David Johnson argued that some geoglyphs followed the paths of aquifers from which aqueducts (or \"puquios\") collected water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geomancer (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Geomancer (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Finally, a GPS Adventures Maze Exhibit is an exhibit at various museums and science centers in which participants in the maze learn about geocaching. These \"events\" have their own cache type on geocaching.com and include many non-geocachers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tryokhrechye",
        "text": "Tryokhrechye\n--Geography.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geodesic (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Geodesic (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "In 2015, the coastguard were called to a group of geocachers who were spotted walking into the Severn Estuary off the coast of Clevedon, England, in search of clues to a multi-cache. Although they felt they were safe and were able to return to land, they were considered to be in danger and were airlifted back to the shore."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geo Verbanck",
        "text": "Geo (Georges) Verbanck (28 February 1881 \u2013 12 December 1961) was a Belgian sculptor and medalist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocache listing websites have their own guidelines for acceptable geocache publications. Government agencies and others responsible for public use of land often publish guidelines for geocaching, and a \"Geocacher's Creed\" posted on the Internet asks participants to \"avoid causing disruptions or public alarm\". Generally accepted rules are to not endanger others, to minimize the impact on nature, to respect private property, and to avoid public alarm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geo Verbanck",
        "text": "Geo Verbanck\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n--Style.\n--Selection of important works.\n----War memorials.\n----Building decoration.\n----Funeral monuments.\n----Portrait busts and medallions.\n----Applied arts.\n----Medals, emergency coins.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geostachys",
        "text": "Geostachys\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Architech",
        "text": "These notable people have been members of Architech society."
      },
      {
        "title": "Darwin Guyot",
        "text": "Darwin Guyot\n--Name and research history.\n--Geography and geomorphology.\n--Geologic history.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A variety of geocaching applications are available for geocache data management, file-type translation, and personalization. Geocaching software can assign special icons or search (filter) for caches based on certain criteria (e.g. distance from an assigned point, difficulty, date last found)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Cachers have been approached by police and questioned when they were seen as acting suspiciously. Other times, investigation of a cache location after suspicious activity was reported has resulted in police and bomb squad discovery of the geocache, such as the evacuation of a busy street in Wetherby, Yorkshire, England in 2011, and a street in Alvaston, Derby in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geofact",
        "text": "Artifacts are interpreted as geofacts so often that they have entire articles filled with correcting excavations. Archeological geologist Paul V. Henrich (2002) corrects journalist Graham Hancock in article, \u201cArtifacts or Geofacts? Alternative Interpretations of Items from the Gulf of Cambay\u201d of his alleged artifacts found in the Gulf of Cambay, India is geofacts. Henrich illustrates in pictures that these designed artifacts were a combination of cement, layered coarse and fine laminated sand stacked tightly together from lamented lake silts with enough porosity appearing rigid to look like a human design. Other corrections Henrich made were Hancock\u2019s \u201cCambay pendants\u201d large flat rock objects with a hole in between assumed as jewelry but are naturally formed holes created by marine organisms. Henrich claims during excavations the team should have a geologist on site because they are experts in rock formations to help distinguish between an artifact and geofact."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geodesic bicombing",
        "text": "Geodesic bicombing\n--Definition.\n--Different classes of geodesic bicombings.\n--Examples.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of geographers",
        "text": "List of geographers\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaulon",
        "text": "Geocaulon\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geode (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Geode (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "GeoAccess",
        "text": "GeoAccess\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The activity was originally referred to as the \"GPS stash hunt\" or \"gpsstashing.\" This was changed shortly after the original hide when it was suggested in the gpsstash eGroup that \"stash\" could have negative connotations and the term \"geocaching\" was adopted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "In 2008, two lost hikers on Mount Hood, Oregon, United States, after spending the night in a snow cave, stumbled across a geocache and were able to phone this information out to rescuers, resulting in their timely rescue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Huckle buckle beanstalk",
        "text": "A modern and more adult variation of Huckle Buckle Beanstalk is Geocaching."
      },
      {
        "title": "G\u00e9o Dorival",
        "text": "Justin Marie Georges \"G\u00e9o\" Dorival (Paris, 5 November 1879 - Louveciennes, 22 March 1968) was a French poster artist. He also made glass plates for shadow puppet theatres, such as the 1910 premiere of Aucassin et Nicolette (Le Flem opera)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gbach",
        "text": "Gbach\n--Geography.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The first documented placement of a GPS-located cache took place on May 3, 2000, by Dave Ulmer of Beavercreek, Oregon. The location was posted on the Usenet newsgroup sci.geo.satellite-nav at . Within three days, the cache had been found twice, first by Mike Teague. According to Dave Ulmer's message, this cache was a black plastic bucket that was partially buried and contained software, videos, books, money, a can of beans, and a slingshot. The geocache and most of its contents were eventually destroyed by a lawn mower; the can of beans was the only item salvaged and was turned into a trackable item called the \"Original Can of Beans\". Another geocache and plaque called the Original Stash Tribute Plaque now sit at the site."
      },
      {
        "title": "Georges Deicha",
        "text": "Deicha, besides his scientific work, was also a sculptor, mainly in bas-relief technique. For instance Deicha created medals representing V. Agafonov, P. Milyukov, Leon Bertrand, Ami Bou\u00e9, Louis Barrabe, Pierre Pruvost, and Raymond Furon. Most of these medals are used as awards by the French Geological Society."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Ter-Stepanian",
        "text": "In the field of Hydrogeology, he identified and described, types of hydrogeological cross-sections in canyons which cut through basalts and clays lying beneath them. He developed a piezometric method to carry out a field identification of the vertical total filtration pressure necessary to analyze the effective tension in the body of the landslide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The Illinois Department of Natural Resources requires geocachers who wish to place a geocache at any Illinois state park to submit the location on a USGS 7.5 minute topographical map, the name and contact information of the person(s) wishing to place the geocache, a list of the original items to be included in the geocache, and a picture of the container that is to be placed."
      },
      {
        "title": "GeoJSON",
        "text": "\"type\": \"FeatureCollection\","
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Davidovits",
        "text": "Joseph Davidovits (born 23 March 1935) is a French materials scientist known for the invention of geopolymer chemistry. He posited that the blocks of the Great Pyramid are not carved stone but mostly a form of limestone concrete or man-made stone. He holds the Ordre National du M\u00e9rite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcafache",
        "text": "Alcafache\n--History.\n--Geography.\n--Culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Relaciones geogr\u00e1ficas",
        "text": "Today, many of the manuscript versions of these questionnaires are found in four different locations: The General Archive of the Indies in Seville, the Real Academia de la Historia in Madrid, the Benson Library at the University of Texas at Austin, and the University of Glasgow Library."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry De la Beche",
        "text": "The following geographic features are named after De la Beche:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hilarographa sipiroca",
        "text": "The name refers to the type locality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antoine Vacher",
        "text": "Vacher made several contributions to the \"Annales de G\u00e9ographie\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of geodesy",
        "text": "In South America Bouguer noticed, as did George Everest in the 19th century Great Trigonometric Survey of India, that the astronomical vertical tended to be pulled in the direction of large mountain ranges, due to the gravitational attraction of these huge piles of rock. As this vertical is everywhere perpendicular to the idealized surface of mean sea level, or the geoid, this means that the figure of the Earth is even more irregular than an ellipsoid of revolution. Thus the study of the \"undulation of the geoid\" became the next great undertaking in the science of studying the figure of the Earth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Josep Dom\u00e8nech i Estap\u00e0",
        "text": "He graduated in 1881, and became professor of geodesy (1888) and descriptive geometry (1895) at the University of Barcelona, and member of the Acad\u00e8mia de Ci\u00e8ncies i Arts (1883), of which he subsequently became president(1914)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Albert Auguste Cochon de Lapparent",
        "text": "With Achille Delesse he was for many years editor of the \"Revue de g\u00e9ologie\" and contributed to the \"Extraits de g\u00e9ologie\", and he joined with Alfred Potier in the geological surveys undertaken in connection with the Channel Tunnel proposals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Challenge caches require a geocacher to complete a reasonably attainable geocaching-related task before being able to log the find. Examples include finding a number of caches that meet a category, completing a number of cache finds within a period of time, or finding a cache for every calendar day. On geocaching.com it is considered a subtype of the Mystery cache, while it is a type on its own on opencaching.us."
      },
      {
        "title": "MIT Guyot",
        "text": "MIT Guyot\n--Name and research history.\n--Geography and geology.\n----Local setting.\n----Regional setting.\n----Composition.\n--Geologic history.\n----First volcanism.\n----Carbonate platform and late volcanism.\n----Drowning and later evolution.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geodetic (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Geodetic (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of geophysicists",
        "text": "List of geophysicists\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The death of a 21-year-old experienced cacher, in December 2011, \"while attempting a Groundspeak cache that does not look all that dangerous,\" led to discussions of whether changes should be made, and whether cache owners or Groundspeak could be held liable. Groundspeak have since updated their geocaching.com Terms of Use Agreement which specifies that geocachers find geocaches at their own risk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuesmes",
        "text": "Cuesmes\n--History.\n----People who were buried in Cuesmes.\n----Famous people who lived in Cuesmes.\n--Geography.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Albaching",
        "text": "Albaching\n--Geography.\n----Structure.\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Webcam caches are virtual caches whose coordinates have a public webcam. The finder is often required to capture their image from the webcam for verification of the find. New webcam caches are no longer allowed by Groundspeak, but they remain supported by opencaching.us."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caours",
        "text": "Caours\n--Geography.\n--History.\n----Stone-age archaeology.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jotabeche",
        "text": "Jotabeche\n--Geography and structure.\n--Geology.\n----Local.\n----Composition.\n--Glaciation.\n--Eruptive history.\n--Archeology.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Beavercreek, Oregon",
        "text": "Beavercreek is the birthplace of geocaching. The first documented placement of a GPS-located cache took place on May\u00a03, 2000, by Dave Ulmer of Beavercreek a few miles west of the community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "In October 2016, four people discovered a crashed car at the bottom of a ravine in Benton, Washington, United States, while out geocaching. They spotted the driver still trapped inside, and alerted the emergency services who effected a rescue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Y Garn Goch",
        "text": "Y Garn Goch\n--Geology.\n--Archaeology.\n--Access.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Container sizes range from \"nanos\", particularly magnetic nanos, which can be smaller than the tip of a finger and have only enough room to store the log sheet, to 20-liter (5 gallon) buckets or even larger containers, such as entire trucks. The most common cache containers in rural areas are lunch-box-sized plastic storage containers or surplus military ammunition cans. Ammo cans are considered the gold standard of containers because they are very sturdy, waterproof, animal- and fire-resistant, and relatively cheap, and have plenty of room for trade items. Smaller containers are more common in urban areas because they can be more easily hidden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Columbia Park (Tri-Cities)",
        "text": "Geocaching in the park is a popular activity. In 2015 there were 19 geocaches in Columbia Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocoin",
        "text": "Personal geocoins are a personal signature item that normally bears the geocacher's handle and personal design. For example, it was Jon Stanley's (aka moun10bike) original manufacture of a coin that started the hobby in the geocaching game. It has a stylized mountain bike and his caching handle, and on the back the geocaching logo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Georges Deicha",
        "text": "Georges Deicha (1917 - 2011) was a geologist and mineralogist, known for his pioneering work on fluid inclusions.<br>"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What type of device is used for geocaching?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Participants use a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or a mobile device such as an Android, iPhone orWindows Phone."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did geocaching first begin?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Geocaching was originally similar to the game letterboxing from 1854, which uses clues and references to landmarks embedded in stories. It was conceived shortly after the removal of Selective Availability from the Global Positioning System on May 2, 2000."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did any famous people geocache?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the different types of geocaching?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Over time many variations of geocaches have developed; a Traditional cache is the most common type; a Multi-cache consists of one or more stages; and Mystery/puzzle caches require one to discover information. Which of these types of geocaching interests you?",
      "Different platforms often have their own rules on which types are allowed or how they are classified. Would you like to learn more about Mystery/puzzle cache, Multi-cache or Traditional cache?"
    ],
    "topic": "Geocaching",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "Geocaches",
          "Geocache types"
        ],
        "ctx": "Over time many variations of geocaches have developed. Different platforms often have their own rules on which types are allowed or how they are classified. The following cache types are supported by both geocaching.com and opencaching.us unless stated otherwise."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "Geocaches",
          "Geocache types"
        ],
        "ctx": "A Traditional cache is the most common type and consists of a container with a logbook. Exact coordinates where the cache is located are given."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:18",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "Geocaches",
          "Geocache types"
        ],
        "ctx": "A Multi-cache consists of one or more stages, each of them containing the coordinates for the next one; the final stage contains a physical container with the logbook. An Offset cache is a multi-cache in which the initial coordinates are for a location containing information that encodes the final cache coordinates. An example would be to direct the finder to a plaque where the digits of a date on the plaque correspond to coordinates of the final cache."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:19",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "Geocaches",
          "Geocache types"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mystery/puzzle caches require one to discover information or solve a puzzle to find the cache. Some mystery caches provide a puzzle that must be solved to determine the physical cache location. Caches which do not fit into other categories are classified as mystery caches."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "Geocaches",
          "Geocache types"
        ],
        "ctx": "Over time many variations of geocaches have developed. Different platforms often have their own rules on which types are allowed or how they are classified. The following cache types are supported by both geocaching.com and opencaching.us unless stated otherwise."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "Geocaches",
          "Geocache types"
        ],
        "ctx": "A Traditional cache is the most common type and consists of a container with a logbook. Exact coordinates where the cache is located are given."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:18",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "Geocaches",
          "Geocache types"
        ],
        "ctx": "A Multi-cache consists of one or more stages, each of them containing the coordinates for the next one; the final stage contains a physical container with the logbook. An Offset cache is a multi-cache in which the initial coordinates are for a location containing information that encodes the final cache coordinates. An example would be to direct the finder to a plaque where the digits of a date on the plaque correspond to coordinates of the final cache."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:19",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "Geocaches",
          "Geocache types"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mystery/puzzle caches require one to discover information or solve a puzzle to find the cache. Some mystery caches provide a puzzle that must be solved to determine the physical cache location. Caches which do not fit into other categories are classified as mystery caches."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Mystery/puzzle caches require one to discover information or solve a puzzle to find the cache. Some mystery caches provide a puzzle that must be solved to determine the physical cache location. Caches which do not fit into other categories are classified as mystery caches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Over time many variations of geocaches have developed. Different platforms often have their own rules on which types are allowed or how they are classified. The following cache types are supported by both geocaching.com and opencaching.us unless stated otherwise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A Traditional cache is the most common type and consists of a container with a logbook. Exact coordinates where the cache is located are given."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The following cache types don't contain a physical logbook."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A Night cache is multi-stage and intended to be found at night by following a series of reflectors with a flashlight to the final cache location. Considered a variant of the Mystery cache on \"geoocaching.com\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Challenge caches require a geocacher to complete a reasonably attainable geocaching-related task before being able to log the find. Examples include finding a number of caches that meet a category, completing a number of cache finds within a period of time, or finding a cache for every calendar day. On geocaching.com it is considered a subtype of the Mystery cache, while it is a type on its own on opencaching.us."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Moving/travelling caches are found at a listed set of coordinates. The finder hides the cache in a different location, and updates the listing, essentially becomes the hider, and the next finder continues the cycle. This cache type is supported at opencaching.us while it has been discontinued at geocaching.com."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaches vary in size, difficulty, and location. Simple caches that are placed near a roadside are often called \"drive-bys\", \"park 'n grabs\" (PNGs), or \"cache and dash\". Geocaches may also be complex, involving lengthy searches, significant travel, or use of specialist equipment such as SCUBA diving, kayaking, or abseiling. Different geocaching websites list different variations per their own policies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Earthcaches are virtual caches that are organized by the Geological Society of America. The cacher usually has to perform a task which teaches an educational lesson about the earth science of the cache area. They are listed at geocaching.com."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching is an outdoor recreational activity, in which participants use a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or mobile device and other navigational techniques to hide and seek containers, called \"geocaches\" or \"caches\", at specific locations marked by coordinates all over the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Typical cache \"treasures\", also known in the geocaching world as SWAG (a backronym of \"stuff we all get\"), are not high in monetary value but may hold personal value to the finder. Aside from the logbook, common cache contents are unusual coins or currency, small toys, ornamental buttons, CDs, or books. Although not required, many geocachers decide to leave behind signature items, such as personal Geocoins, pins, or craft items, to mark their presence at the cache location. Disposable cameras are popular as they allow for anyone who found the cache to take a picture which can be developed and uploaded to a Geocaching web site listed below. Also common are objects that are moved from cache to cache called \"hitchhikers\", such as Travel Bugs or Geocoins, whose travels may be logged and followed online. Cachers who initially place a Travel Bug or Geocoins often assign specific goals for their trackable items. Examples of goals are to be placed in a certain cache a long distance from home, or to travel to a certain country, or to travel faster and farther than other hitchhikers in a race. Less common trends are site-specific information pages about the historic significance of the site, types of trees, birds in the area or other such information. Higher-value items are occasionally included in geocaches as a reward for the First to Find (called \"FTF\"), or in locations which are harder to reach. Dangerous or illegal items, weapons, food and drugs are not allowed and are specifically against the rules of most geocache listing sites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Guest Book caches use guest books often found in museums, tourist information centers, etc. They are listed exclusively at opencaching.us."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A Multi-cache consists of one or more stages, each of them containing the coordinates for the next one; the final stage contains a physical container with the logbook. An Offset cache is a multi-cache in which the initial coordinates are for a location containing information that encodes the final cache coordinates. An example would be to direct the finder to a plaque where the digits of a date on the plaque correspond to coordinates of the final cache."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "There are a few kinds of events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Finally, a USB Cache or Dead Drop cache location has a USB flash drive embedded into walls or other structures. The cache is retrieved by connecting a device that has a USB port and that is able to read standard text files. This type is available at opencaching.us."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A typical cache is a small waterproof container containing a logbook and sometimes a pen or pencil. The geocacher signs the log with their established code name and dates it, in order to prove that they found the cache. After signing the log, the cache must be placed back exactly where the person found it. Larger containers such as plastic storage containers (Tupperware or similar) or ammunition boxes can also contain items for trading, such as toys or trinkets, usually of more sentimental worth than financial. Geocaching shares many aspects with benchmarking, trigpointing, orienteering, treasure-hunting, letterboxing, waymarking and Munzee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scavenger hunt",
        "text": "Geocaching is an outdoor treasure-hunting game in which the participants use a global positioning system (GPS) receiver or other navigational techniques to hide and seek containers (called \"geocaches\" or \"caches\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Encounter (game)",
        "text": "The teams look for hidden caches within a city or a region area. Every cache is a plastic container with a code written on the bottom. When the code is found, team members send it to the server to get the riddle for the next cache. The same tradition about souvenirs as in Geocaching applies here. The teams search for the caches following locations descriptions and by unraveling various riddles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Virtual caches are coordinates for a location, which has some other described object. Validation for finding a virtual cache generally requires one to email the cache hider with information such as a date or a name on a plaque, or to post a picture of oneself at the site with GPS receiver in hand. New virtual caches are no longer allowed by Groundspeak, but they remain supported by other sites. The Groundspeak website no longer lists new caches without a physical container, including virtual and webcam caches; however, older caches of these types have been grandfathered in (except for locationless/reverse, which are completely archived). On August 24, 2017, Groundspeak announced \"Virtual Rewards\", allowing 4000 new virtual caches to be placed during the following year. Earthcaches are one of the two exceptions to the no-container rule; they are caches in which players must answer geological questions to complete the cache. The other exception is for event caches; for an event to qualify, it must be specifically or mainly for geocachers, and must have a minimum duration dependent upon its category (CITO, regular, Mega, or Giga). Attendees of event caches can log that they 'attended', which will increment their number of found caches. Groundspeak created a waymarking website to handle all other non-physical caches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Finally, a GPS Adventures Maze Exhibit is an exhibit at various museums and science centers in which participants in the maze learn about geocaching. These \"events\" have their own cache type on geocaching.com and include many non-geocachers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Numerous websites list geocaches around the world. Geocaching websites vary in many ways, including control of data."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Over time, a variety of different hide-and-seek-type activities have been created or abandoned, so that \"geocaching\" may now refer to hiding and seeking containers, or locations or information without containers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A Letterbox cache or a Letterbox hybrid cache is a combination of a geocache and a letterbox in the same container. A letterbox has a rubber stamp and a logbook instead of tradable items. Letterboxers carry their own stamp with them, to stamp the letterbox's log book and inversely stamp their personal log book with the letterbox stamp. The hybrid cache contains the important materials for this and may or may not include trade items."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "For the traditional geocache, a geocacher will place a waterproof container containing a log book (with pen and/or pencil) and trade items or trackables, then record the cache's coordinates. These coordinates, along with other details of the location, are posted on a listing site (see list of some sites below). Other geocachers obtain the coordinates from that listing site and seek out the cache using their handheld GPS receivers. The finding geocachers record their exploits in the logbook and online, but then must return the cache to the same coordinates so that other geocachers may find it. Geocachers are free to take objects (except the logbook, pencil, or stamp) from the cache in exchange for leaving something of similar or higher value."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Locationless/reverse caches are similar to a scavenger hunt. A description is given for something to find, such as a one-room schoolhouse, and the finder locates an example of this object. The finder records the location using their GPS receiver and often takes a picture at the location showing the named object and his or her GPS receiver. Typically others are not allowed to log that same location as a find."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "GPX files containing information such as a cache description and information about recent visitors to the cache are available from various listing sites. Geocachers may upload geocache data (also known as waypoints) from various websites in various formats, most commonly in file-type GPX, which uses XML. Some websites allow geocachers to search (build queries) for multiple caches within a geographic area based on criteria such as ZIP code or coordinates, downloading the results as an email attachment on a schedule. In recent years, Android and iPhone users have been able to download apps such as GeoBeagle that allow them to use their 3G and GPS-enabled devices to actively search for and download new caches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A Wherigo cache is a multi-stage cache hunt that uses a Wherigo \"cartridge\" to guide the player to find a physical cache sometime during cartridge play, usually at the end. Not all Wherigo cartridges incorporate geocaches into game play. Wherigo caches are unique to the geocaching.com website. Wherigo is a GPS location-aware software platform initially released in January 2008. Authors can develop self-enclosed story files (called \"cartridges\") that are read by the Wherigo player software, installed on either a GPS unit or smartphone. The player and story take advantage of the location information provided by the GPS to trigger in-game events, such as using a virtual object or interacting with characters. Completing an adventure can require reaching different locations and solving puzzles. Cartridges are coded in Lua. Lua may be used directly, but a builder application is usually used. The Wherigo site offers a builder application and a database of adventures free for download, though the builder has remained in its Alpha version since its last release in May 2008. The official player is only available for Pocket PC. A built-in player is available on Garmin Colorado and Oregon GPS models. The Wherigo Foundation was organized in December 2012. The group is composed of all Wherigo application developers who, up until that time, had been acting and developing separately. Their goal is to provide a consistent Wherigo experience across platforms, connect Wherigo applications via an API, and add modern features to the Wherigo platform. While Groundspeak is aware of this project, the company has yet to take a position."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A BIT cache is a laminated card with a QR code, similar to Munzee. The BIT Cache also contains a URL and a password, for logging purposes. They are listed exclusively on opencaching.us."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching Australia is a community website for geocachers in Australia and New Zealand as well as many other countries. Geocaching Australia also has many unique cache types such as Burke And Wills, Moveable_cache & Podcache geocaches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dropquote",
        "text": "With geocaching puzzles, coordinates can be hidden in a quote puzzle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "In many countries there are regional geocaching sites, but these mostly only compile lists of caches in the area from the three main sites. Many of them also accept unique listings of caches for their site, but these listings tend to be less popular than the international sites, although occasionally the regional sites may have more caches than the international sites. There are some exceptions though, e.g. in the former Soviet Union, the site Geocaching.su remains popular because it accepts listings in the Cyrillic script. Additional international sites include Geocaching.de, a German website, and Geocaching Australia, which accepts listings of cache types deprecated by geocaching.com, cache types such as TrigPoint and Moveable caches, as well as traditional geocache types."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of Internet-related articles",
        "text": "Geocaching -"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "An Event Cache is a gathering organized and attended by geocachers. It is not a true cache, but is treated as such by geocaching platforms: it can be \"found\" upon attending the event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A variety of geocaching applications are available for geocache data management, file-type translation, and personalization. Geocaching software can assign special icons or search (filter) for caches based on certain criteria (e.g. distance from an assigned point, difficulty, date last found)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Extremcaching is a German private database for alternative geocaches with a focus on T5 / climbing caches, night caches and lost place caches. For extreme caching all you need is an extreme caching account, a GPS device with coordinates or a GPS-enabled smartphone with geocaching or outdoor navigation software, e.g. c:geo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching\n--History.\n--Geocaches.\n----Variations.\n----Geocache types.\n------Geodashing.\n------Stratocaching.\n--Technology.\n----Obtaining data.\n----Converting and filtering data.\n----Mobile devices.\n--Ethics.\n--Reception.\n----Laws and legislation.\n--Notable incidents.\n--Websites and data ownership.\n----First page.\n----Geocaching.com.\n----Opencaching Network.\n----OpenCaching.com.\n----Other sites.\n------GPSgames.\n------NaviCache.\n------TerraCaching.\n------Extremcaching.\n------Geocaching Australia.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A Chirp cache is a Garmin-created innovative advance on multi-caches using new wireless beacon technology. The Chirp stores hints, multicache coordinates, counts visitors and confirms the cache is nearby. These caches were fully supported at OpenCaching.com, but they caused considerable discussion and some controversy at Groundspeak, where they were given a new \"attribute\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Cachers have been approached by police and questioned when they were seen as acting suspiciously. Other times, investigation of a cache location after suspicious activity was reported has resulted in police and bomb squad discovery of the geocache, such as the evacuation of a busy street in Wetherby, Yorkshire, England in 2011, and a street in Alvaston, Derby in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Webcam caches are virtual caches whose coordinates have a public webcam. The finder is often required to capture their image from the webcam for verification of the find. New webcam caches are no longer allowed by Groundspeak, but they remain supported by opencaching.us."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A more controversial version of paperless caching involves mass-downloading only the coordinates and cache names (or waypoint IDs) for hundreds of caches into older receivers. This is a common practice of some cachers and has been used successfully for years. In many cases, however, the cache description and hint are never read by the seeker before hunting the cache. This means they are unaware of potential restrictions such as limited hunt times, park open/close times, off-limit areas, and suggested parking locations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geograficus",
        "text": "The game has an internal interactive encyclopedia that contains scientific information and clues on how to complete the puzzles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geokrety",
        "text": "When dropping a GeoKret into a cache listed at geocaching.com only, the coordinates must be entered manually. A browser plug-in for Mozilla Firefox and Google Chrome is available to automate this. A Free and open-source software android app, GeoKrety Logger, is available on F-Droid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Additionally, Opencaching sites allow users to rate and report on existing geocaches. This allows users to see what other cachers think of the cache and it encourages participants to place higher quality caches. The rating system also greatly reduces the problem of abandoned or unsatisfactory caches still being listed after repeated negative comments or posts in the cache logs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The website geocaching.com now sells mobile applications which allow users to view caches through a variety of different devices. Currently, the Android, iPhone, and Windows Phone mobile platforms have applications in their respective stores. The apps also allow for a trial version with limited functionality. The site promotes mobile applications, and lists over two dozen applications (both mobile and browser/desktop based) that are using their proprietary but royalty-free public application programming interface (API). Developers at c:geo have criticised Groundspeak for being incompatible with open-source development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "As well as concerns about littering and bomb threats, some geocachers hide their caches in inappropriate locations, such as electrical boxes, that may encourage risky behaviour, especially amongst children. Hides in these areas are discouraged, and cache listing websites enforce guidelines that disallow certain types of placements. However, as cache reviewers typically cannot see exactly where and how every particular cache is hidden, problematic hides can slip through. Ultimately it is also up to cache finders to use discretion when attempting to search for a cache, and report any problems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Caches might also be hidden in places where the act of searching can make a finder look suspicious (e.g. near schools, children's playgrounds, banks, courthouses, or in residential neighborhoods), or where the container placement could be mistaken for a drug stash or a bomb (especially in urban settings, under bridges, near banks, courthouses, or embassies). As a result, geocachers are strongly advised to label their geocaches where possible, so that they are not mistaken for a harmful object if discovered by non-geocachers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The reception from authorities and the general public outside geocache participants has been mixed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching company Groundspeak allows extraterrestrial caches, e.g. the Moon or Mars, although presently, the website provides only earthbound coordinates. The first published extraterrestrial geocache was GC1BE91, which was on the International Space Station between 2008 and 2017. It used the Baikonur launch area in Kazakhstan as its position. The original cache contained a travel bug (the first geocaching trackable item in space), which stayed on the station until it was brought back to earth in 2013. Due to fire restrictions on board the station, the geocache contained no official paper logbook. As of February 2021, only one confirmed geocacher (in 2013) has actually found the geocache, although others have claimed to have found it providing varying amounts of evidence. To commemorate the occasion, Groundspeak allowed specialized geocaching events to be published across the world, allowing attendees to obtain a virtual souvenir on their profile."
      },
      {
        "title": "Solar System model",
        "text": "Several sets of geocaching caches have been laid out as Solar System models."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Regional rules for placement of caches have become quite complex. For example, in Virginia, the Virginia Department of Transportation and the Wildlife Management Agency now forbids the placement of geocaches on all land controlled by those agencies. Some cities, towns and recreation areas allow geocaches with few or no restrictions, but others require compliance with lengthy permitting procedures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The activity was originally referred to as the \"GPS stash hunt\" or \"gpsstashing.\" This was changed shortly after the original hide when it was suggested in the gpsstash eGroup that \"stash\" could have negative connotations and the term \"geocaching\" was adopted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Erratic Rock State Natural Site",
        "text": "Geocaching is an outdoor recreational treasure hunt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cach\u00e9 ObjectScript",
        "text": "SAMPLE> DO ^hello"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The Opencaching Network provides independent, non-commercial listing sites based in the cacher's country or region. The Opencaching Network lists the most types of caches, including traditional, virtual, moving, multi, quiz, webcam, BIT, guest book, USB, event and MP3. The Opencaching Network is less restrictive than many sites, and does not charge for the use of the sites, the service being community driven. Some (or all) listings may or may not be required to be reviewed by community volunteers before being published and although cross-listing is permitted, it is discouraged. Some listings are listed on other sites, but there are many that are unique to the Opencaching Network. Features include the ability to organize one's favourite caches, build custom searches, be instantly notified of new caches in one's area, seek and create caches of all types, export GPX queries, statpics, etc. Each Opencaching Node provides the same API for free (called \"OKAPI\") for use by developers who want to create third-party applications able to use the Opencaching Network's content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The largest site is Geocaching.com, owned by Groundspeak Inc., which began operating in late 2000. With a worldwide membership and a freemium business model, the website claims millions of caches and members in over 200 countries. Hides and events are reviewed by volunteer regional cache reviewers before publication. Free membership allows users access to coordinates, descriptions, and logs for some caches; for a fee, users are allowed additional search tools, the ability to download large amounts of cache information onto their gps at once, instant email notifications about new caches, and access to premium-member-only caches. Geocaching Headquarters are located in Seattle, Washington, United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cach\u00e9 ObjectScript",
        "text": "ClassMethod HelloWorld()"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching is legal in most countries and is usually positively received when explained to law enforcement officials. However, certain types of placements can be problematic. Although generally disallowed, hiders could place caches on private property without adequate permission (intentionally or otherwise), which encourages cache finders to trespass. Historic buildings and structures have also been damaged by geocachers, who have wrongly believed the geocache to be placed within, or on the roof of, the buildings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geokrety",
        "text": "Geokrety are not associated with any particular geocaching service. Users are allowed to place GeoKrety in caches registered in any database, as well as in other locations (e.g. at home), in which case they are required to provide the coordinates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Magnetic nano",
        "text": "Some geocache listing websites, such as Geocaching.com, don't have 'nano' as a size to select from when creating a cache listing, so geocachers are advised to list nano geocaches as 'micro', as they are less than 10 millilitres in volume"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geokrety",
        "text": "In order to log a move or discovery of a GeoKret, users are required to enter its Tracking Code and the location or cache where they left it. The cache can be identified by its waypoint, cache name (the coordinates are acquired automatically from most geocaching services) or by coordinates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "OpenCaching.com (short: OX) was a site created and run by Garmin from 2010 to 2015, which had the stated aim of being as free and open as possible with no paid content. Caches were approved by a community process and coordinates were available without an account. The service closed on 14 August 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Container sizes range from \"nanos\", particularly magnetic nanos, which can be smaller than the tip of a finger and have only enough room to store the log sheet, to 20-liter (5 gallon) buckets or even larger containers, such as entire trucks. The most common cache containers in rural areas are lunch-box-sized plastic storage containers or surplus military ammunition cans. Ammo cans are considered the gold standard of containers because they are very sturdy, waterproof, animal- and fire-resistant, and relatively cheap, and have plenty of room for trade items. Smaller containers are more common in urban areas because they can be more easily hidden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Huckle buckle beanstalk",
        "text": "A modern and more adult variation of Huckle Buckle Beanstalk is Geocaching."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of biogeographical puzzles",
        "text": "List of biogeographical puzzles\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching was originally similar to the game letterboxing (which originated in 1854), which uses clues and references to landmarks embedded in stories. Geocaching was conceived shortly after the removal of Selective Availability from the Global Positioning System on May 2, 2000 (Blue Switch Day.), because the improved accuracy of the system allowed for a small container to be specifically placed and located."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocoin",
        "text": "When a cache listed at geocaching.com contains a geocoin, an icon (often unique to the type of the coin) is shown on the cache page's \"Inventory\" section. This icon will also appear in the inventory of any cacher holding one as well as in each cacher's historical trackable item listing. Icons will also remain in the inventory of cachers who log the 'discovery' of a geocoin's number without physically removing it from a cache. \"Icon collecting\" \u2013 the act of having these icons listed in one's trackables listing \u2013 is an associated hobby. Many people bring geocoins with unique icons to geocaching events so that others may see the coins and use the tracking number to collect the icons online, and it is not uncommon for collectors to activate some or all of the coins in their collections in order to have a matching online collection of icons associated with their geocaching.com accounts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The death of a 21-year-old experienced cacher, in December 2011, \"while attempting a Groundspeak cache that does not look all that dangerous,\" led to discussions of whether changes should be made, and whether cache owners or Groundspeak could be held liable. Groundspeak have since updated their geocaching.com Terms of Use Agreement which specifies that geocachers find geocaches at their own risk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Unlike geocaching, nothing is to be left at the dashpoints; the sole objective is to visit them within the time limit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cach\u00e9 ObjectScript",
        "text": "SAMPLE> DO ##class(User.Helloworld).HelloWorld()"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Traditional geocaching gave birth to GeoCaching \u2013 an active urban game of the Encounter project. The game is quite similar to geocaching but has time limitations and hints."
      },
      {
        "title": "GeoJSON",
        "text": "\"type\": \"FeatureCollection\","
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Terracaching.com seeks to provide high-quality caches made so by the difficulty of the hide or from the quality of the location. Membership is managed through a sponsorship system, and each cache is under continual peer review from other members. Terracaching.com embraces virtual caches alongside traditional or multi-stage caches and includes many locationless caches among the thousands of caches in its database. It is increasingly attracting members who like the point system. In Europe, TerraCaching is supported by Terracaching.eu. This site is translated in different European languages, has an extended FAQ and extra supporting tools for TerraCaching. TerraCaching strongly discourages caches that are listed on other sites (so-called double-listing)."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Puzzle Place",
        "text": "<onlyinclude></onlyinclude>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geochloa",
        "text": "Geochloa\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching enthusiasts have also made their own hand-held GPS devices using a Lego Mindstorms NXT GPS sensor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Additionally \"c:geo - opensource\" is a free opensource full function application for Android phones that is very popular. This app includes similar features to the official Geocaching mobile application, such as: View caches on a live map (Google Maps or OpenStreet Maps), navigation using a compass, map, or other applications, logging finds online and offline, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cedar Sink",
        "text": "Geocaching is also a common treasure-hunt like recreation activity in Cedar Sink. Several caches are hidden in Cedar Sink and Mammoth Caves area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cache stampede",
        "text": "\"value\" \u2190 cache_read(\"key\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The first website to list geocaches was announced by Mike Teague on May 8, 2000. On September 2, 2000, Jeremy Irish emailed the gpsstash mailing list that he had registered the domain name geocaching.com and had set up his own Web site. He copied the caches from Mike Teague's database into his own. On September 6, Mike Teague announced that Jeremy Irish was taking over cache listings. , Teague had logged only 5 caches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geokrety",
        "text": "GeoKrety are not trade items, therefore it is not compulsory to put something in a cache to take a GeoKret, nor is it required to take something from a cache in exchange for a GK. If a geocacher wants to take something from a cache, they are obligated to make a trade before placing the GK. Furthermore, there is no obligation to pick up a GeoKret from a cache as users can simply mark the item as \"discovered\" on the website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cache prefetching",
        "text": "for (int i=0; i<1024; i++) {"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cache prefetching",
        "text": "for (int i=0; i<1024; i++) {"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The first documented placement of a GPS-located cache took place on May 3, 2000, by Dave Ulmer of Beavercreek, Oregon. The location was posted on the Usenet newsgroup sci.geo.satellite-nav at . Within three days, the cache had been found twice, first by Mike Teague. According to Dave Ulmer's message, this cache was a black plastic bucket that was partially buried and contained software, videos, books, money, a can of beans, and a slingshot. The geocache and most of its contents were eventually destroyed by a lawn mower; the can of beans was the only item salvaged and was turned into a trackable item called the \"Original Can of Beans\". Another geocache and plaque called the Original Stash Tribute Plaque now sit at the site."
      },
      {
        "title": "GeoJSON",
        "text": "\"type\": \"Point\","
      },
      {
        "title": "GrabCAD",
        "text": "GrabCAD\n--History.\n--Products.\n----Community.\n----Workbench.\n----Toolbox.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Robot Cache",
        "text": "Robot Cache\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The first game, organized by gpsgames.org, ran for two months (June and July 2001); each subsequent game has run for one month. Players are often encouraged to take pictures at the dashpoints and upload them to the site."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fringe search",
        "text": "if g_child >= g_cached"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geokrety",
        "text": "A GeoKret can be anything, but in most cases it is a small puppet or other small toy, which can be placed in geocache containers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cache stampede",
        "text": "if (!\"value\") {"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geomancer (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Geomancer (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Download Cache",
        "text": "Q."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Schools have also been evacuated when a cache has been seen by teachers or police, such as the case of Fairview High School in Boulder, Colorado in 2009. A number of caches have been destroyed by bomb squads. Diverse locations, from rural cemeteries to Disneyland, have been locked down as a result of such scares."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "If a geocache has been vandalized or stolen by a person who is not familiar with geocaching, it is said to have been \"muggled\". The term plays off the fact that those not familiar with geocaching are called muggles, a word borrowed from the \"Harry Potter\" series of books which were rising in popularity at the same time geocaching started."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cach\u00e9 ObjectScript",
        "text": "write \"hello world\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cach\u00e9 ObjectScript",
        "text": "Write \"Hello World\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Cache-In Trash-Out (CITO) Events are coordinated activities of trash pickup and other maintenance tasks (such as constructing footpaths, planting trees and removing invasive species) to improve the environment. CITO is an ongoing environmental initiative created by Groundspeak Inc. related to geocaching which encourages geocachers to clean up parks and other areas. This is done in two ways: specific events, traditionally around the time of Earth Day each year, in which groups go around picking up litter and maintaining the landscape while finding geocaches."
      },
      {
        "title": "GeoJSON",
        "text": "1,2],[0,-2,"
      },
      {
        "title": "GB Cave",
        "text": "GB Cave\n--Description.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geode (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Geode (disambiguation)\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What type of device is used for geocaching?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Participants use a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or a mobile device such as an Android, iPhone orWindows Phone."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did geocaching first begin?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Geocaching was originally similar to the game letterboxing from 1854, which uses clues and references to landmarks embedded in stories. It was conceived shortly after the removal of Selective Availability from the Global Positioning System on May 2, 2000."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did any famous people geocache?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the different types of geocaching?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Different platforms often have their own rules on which types are allowed or how they are classified. Would you like to learn more about Mystery/puzzle cache, Multi-cache or Traditional cache?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I want to learn more about Mystery/puzzle cache geocaching."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Mystery/puzzle caches require one to discover information or solve a puzzle to find the cache.  Some mystery caches provide a puzzle that must be solved to determine the physical cache location; caches which do not fit into other categories are classified as mystery caches.",
      "Mystery/puzzle caches require one to discover information or solve a puzzle to find the cache. Some mystery caches provide a puzzle that must be solved to determine the physical cache location. Caches which do not fit into other categories are classified as mystery caches."
    ],
    "topic": "Geocaching",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:19",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "Geocaches",
          "Geocache types"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mystery/puzzle caches require one to discover information or solve a puzzle to find the cache. Some mystery caches provide a puzzle that must be solved to determine the physical cache location. Caches which do not fit into other categories are classified as mystery caches."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:19",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "Geocaches",
          "Geocache types"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mystery/puzzle caches require one to discover information or solve a puzzle to find the cache. Some mystery caches provide a puzzle that must be solved to determine the physical cache location. Caches which do not fit into other categories are classified as mystery caches."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Regional rules for placement of caches have become quite complex. For example, in Virginia, the Virginia Department of Transportation and the Wildlife Management Agency now forbids the placement of geocaches on all land controlled by those agencies. Some cities, towns and recreation areas allow geocaches with few or no restrictions, but others require compliance with lengthy permitting procedures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching is legal in most countries and is usually positively received when explained to law enforcement officials. However, certain types of placements can be problematic. Although generally disallowed, hiders could place caches on private property without adequate permission (intentionally or otherwise), which encourages cache finders to trespass. Historic buildings and structures have also been damaged by geocachers, who have wrongly believed the geocache to be placed within, or on the roof of, the buildings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Mystery/puzzle caches require one to discover information or solve a puzzle to find the cache. Some mystery caches provide a puzzle that must be solved to determine the physical cache location. Caches which do not fit into other categories are classified as mystery caches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocache listing websites have their own guidelines for acceptable geocache publications. Government agencies and others responsible for public use of land often publish guidelines for geocaching, and a \"Geocacher's Creed\" posted on the Internet asks participants to \"avoid causing disruptions or public alarm\". Generally accepted rules are to not endanger others, to minimize the impact on nature, to respect private property, and to avoid public alarm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A typical cache is a small waterproof container containing a logbook and sometimes a pen or pencil. The geocacher signs the log with their established code name and dates it, in order to prove that they found the cache. After signing the log, the cache must be placed back exactly where the person found it. Larger containers such as plastic storage containers (Tupperware or similar) or ammunition boxes can also contain items for trading, such as toys or trinkets, usually of more sentimental worth than financial. Geocaching shares many aspects with benchmarking, trigpointing, orienteering, treasure-hunting, letterboxing, waymarking and Munzee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The South Carolina House of Representatives passed Bill 3777 in 2005, stating, \"It is unlawful for a person to engage in the activity of geocaching or letterboxing in a cemetery or in an historic or archeological site or property publicly identified by an historical marker without the express written consent of the owner or entity which oversees that cemetery site or property.\" The bill was referred to committee on first reading in the Senate and has been there ever since."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Virtual caches are coordinates for a location, which has some other described object. Validation for finding a virtual cache generally requires one to email the cache hider with information such as a date or a name on a plaque, or to post a picture of oneself at the site with GPS receiver in hand. New virtual caches are no longer allowed by Groundspeak, but they remain supported by other sites. The Groundspeak website no longer lists new caches without a physical container, including virtual and webcam caches; however, older caches of these types have been grandfathered in (except for locationless/reverse, which are completely archived). On August 24, 2017, Groundspeak announced \"Virtual Rewards\", allowing 4000 new virtual caches to be placed during the following year. Earthcaches are one of the two exceptions to the no-container rule; they are caches in which players must answer geological questions to complete the cache. The other exception is for event caches; for an event to qualify, it must be specifically or mainly for geocachers, and must have a minimum duration dependent upon its category (CITO, regular, Mega, or Giga). Attendees of event caches can log that they 'attended', which will increment their number of found caches. Groundspeak created a waymarking website to handle all other non-physical caches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The death of a 21-year-old experienced cacher, in December 2011, \"while attempting a Groundspeak cache that does not look all that dangerous,\" led to discussions of whether changes should be made, and whether cache owners or Groundspeak could be held liable. Groundspeak have since updated their geocaching.com Terms of Use Agreement which specifies that geocachers find geocaches at their own risk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Typical cache \"treasures\", also known in the geocaching world as SWAG (a backronym of \"stuff we all get\"), are not high in monetary value but may hold personal value to the finder. Aside from the logbook, common cache contents are unusual coins or currency, small toys, ornamental buttons, CDs, or books. Although not required, many geocachers decide to leave behind signature items, such as personal Geocoins, pins, or craft items, to mark their presence at the cache location. Disposable cameras are popular as they allow for anyone who found the cache to take a picture which can be developed and uploaded to a Geocaching web site listed below. Also common are objects that are moved from cache to cache called \"hitchhikers\", such as Travel Bugs or Geocoins, whose travels may be logged and followed online. Cachers who initially place a Travel Bug or Geocoins often assign specific goals for their trackable items. Examples of goals are to be placed in a certain cache a long distance from home, or to travel to a certain country, or to travel faster and farther than other hitchhikers in a race. Less common trends are site-specific information pages about the historic significance of the site, types of trees, birds in the area or other such information. Higher-value items are occasionally included in geocaches as a reward for the First to Find (called \"FTF\"), or in locations which are harder to reach. Dangerous or illegal items, weapons, food and drugs are not allowed and are specifically against the rules of most geocache listing sites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching is an outdoor recreational activity, in which participants use a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or mobile device and other navigational techniques to hide and seek containers, called \"geocaches\" or \"caches\", at specific locations marked by coordinates all over the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The placement of geocaches has occasional critics among some government personnel and the public at large who consider it littering. Some geocachers act to mitigate this perception by picking up litter while they search for geocaches, a practice referred to in the community as \"Cache In Trash Out\". Events and caches are often organized revolving around this practice, with many areas seeing significant cleanup that would otherwise not take place, or would instead require federal, state or local funds to accomplish. Geocachers are also encouraged to clean up after themselves by retrieving old containers once a cache has been removed from play."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaches vary in size, difficulty, and location. Simple caches that are placed near a roadside are often called \"drive-bys\", \"park 'n grabs\" (PNGs), or \"cache and dash\". Geocaches may also be complex, involving lengthy searches, significant travel, or use of specialist equipment such as SCUBA diving, kayaking, or abseiling. Different geocaching websites list different variations per their own policies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A more controversial version of paperless caching involves mass-downloading only the coordinates and cache names (or waypoint IDs) for hundreds of caches into older receivers. This is a common practice of some cachers and has been used successfully for years. In many cases, however, the cache description and hint are never read by the seeker before hunting the cache. This means they are unaware of potential restrictions such as limited hunt times, park open/close times, off-limit areas, and suggested parking locations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geokrety",
        "text": "GeoKrety are not trade items, therefore it is not compulsory to put something in a cache to take a GeoKret, nor is it required to take something from a cache in exchange for a GK. If a geocacher wants to take something from a cache, they are obligated to make a trade before placing the GK. Furthermore, there is no obligation to pick up a GeoKret from a cache as users can simply mark the item as \"discovered\" on the website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "For the traditional geocache, a geocacher will place a waterproof container containing a log book (with pen and/or pencil) and trade items or trackables, then record the cache's coordinates. These coordinates, along with other details of the location, are posted on a listing site (see list of some sites below). Other geocachers obtain the coordinates from that listing site and seek out the cache using their handheld GPS receivers. The finding geocachers record their exploits in the logbook and online, but then must return the cache to the same coordinates so that other geocachers may find it. Geocachers are free to take objects (except the logbook, pencil, or stamp) from the cache in exchange for leaving something of similar or higher value."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The following cache types don't contain a physical logbook."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "As well as concerns about littering and bomb threats, some geocachers hide their caches in inappropriate locations, such as electrical boxes, that may encourage risky behaviour, especially amongst children. Hides in these areas are discouraged, and cache listing websites enforce guidelines that disallow certain types of placements. However, as cache reviewers typically cannot see exactly where and how every particular cache is hidden, problematic hides can slip through. Ultimately it is also up to cache finders to use discretion when attempting to search for a cache, and report any problems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sears-Kay Ruin",
        "text": "According to the law \"Any person who shall appropriate, excavate, injure, or destroy any historic or prehistoric ruin or monument, or any object of antiquity, situated on lands owned or controlled by the Government of the United States, without the permission of the Secretary of the Department of the Government having jurisdiction over the lands on which said antiquities are situated, shall, upon conviction, be fined or be imprisoned for a period of not more than ninety days, or shall suffer both fine and imprisonment, in the discretion of the court.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Cachers have been approached by police and questioned when they were seen as acting suspiciously. Other times, investigation of a cache location after suspicious activity was reported has resulted in police and bomb squad discovery of the geocache, such as the evacuation of a busy street in Wetherby, Yorkshire, England in 2011, and a street in Alvaston, Derby in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "In April 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the township of Highlands East, Ontario, Canada temporarily banned geocaching, over concerns that geocache containers cannot be properly disinfected between finds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Caches might also be hidden in places where the act of searching can make a finder look suspicious (e.g. near schools, children's playgrounds, banks, courthouses, or in residential neighborhoods), or where the container placement could be mistaken for a drug stash or a bomb (especially in urban settings, under bridges, near banks, courthouses, or embassies). As a result, geocachers are strongly advised to label their geocaches where possible, so that they are not mistaken for a harmful object if discovered by non-geocachers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Earthcaches are virtual caches that are organized by the Geological Society of America. The cacher usually has to perform a task which teaches an educational lesson about the earth science of the cache area. They are listed at geocaching.com."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geo-blocking",
        "text": "The new rules only apply if the other party is a consumer or a company that purchases services or products exclusively for end use (B2C, B2B). Geo-blocking regulation does not apply if products are sold to business customers for commercial purposes. The Geoblocking Ordinance does not completely prohibit geoblocking and geo-discrimination: it only prohibits certain forms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Web cache",
        "text": "In 1998, the DMCA added rules to the United States Code (17 U.S.C. \u00a7: 512) that exempts system operators from copyright liability for the purposes of caching."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geo-blocking",
        "text": "Geo-blocking regulations prohibit geo-blocking and geo-discrimination in three situations:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The reception from authorities and the general public outside geocache participants has been mixed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yahoo! litigation",
        "text": "In 1999, a complaint was instituted against GeoCities stating that the corporation violated the provisions of the Federal Trade Commission Act under 14 USC \u00a745, which states in relevant part, \"Unfair methods of competition in or affecting commerce, and unfair or deceptive acts or practices in or affecting commerce, are hereby declared unlawful.\" The FTC found that GeoCities was engaged in deceptive acts and practices in contravention to their stated privacy act. Subsequently, a consent order was entered into which prohibits GeoCities from misrepresenting the purpose for which it collects and/or uses personal identifying information from consumers. A copy of the complaint and order can be found at 127 F.T.C. 94 (page 94)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Challenge caches require a geocacher to complete a reasonably attainable geocaching-related task before being able to log the find. Examples include finding a number of caches that meet a category, completing a number of cache finds within a period of time, or finding a cache for every calendar day. On geocaching.com it is considered a subtype of the Mystery cache, while it is a type on its own on opencaching.us."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Mesa",
        "text": "According to the law \"Any person who shall appropriate, excavate, injure, or destroy any historic or prehistoric ruin or monument, or any object of antiquity, situated on lands owned or controlled by the Government of the United States, without the permission of the Secretary of the Department of the Government having jurisdiction over the lands on which said antiquities are situated, shall, upon conviction, be fined or be imprisoned for a period of not more than ninety days, or shall suffer both fine and imprisonment, in the discretion of the court.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The Illinois Department of Natural Resources requires geocachers who wish to place a geocache at any Illinois state park to submit the location on a USGS 7.5 minute topographical map, the name and contact information of the person(s) wishing to place the geocache, a list of the original items to be included in the geocache, and a picture of the container that is to be placed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sago Mine disaster",
        "text": "In the first set of rules, the state Office of MHST will require caches of air supplies to give each miner at least 16 additional devices. Mines with coal seams taller than four feet (1.2 m) must have caches every in each working section. In smaller mines, there must be caches every . Operators must submit plans for cache locations within 30 days for review and suggestions for change; however there is no deadline for equipping the mines with the caches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scavenger hunt",
        "text": "Geocaching is an outdoor treasure-hunting game in which the participants use a global positioning system (GPS) receiver or other navigational techniques to hide and seek containers (called \"geocaches\" or \"caches\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yahoo! GeoCities",
        "text": "During 1999, a complaint was instituted against GeoCities stating that the corporation violated the provisions of the Federal Trade Commission Act, specifically , which states in relevant part, \"Unfair methods of competition in or affecting commerce, and unfair or deceptive acts or practices in or affecting commerce, are hereby declared unlawful.\" The FTC found that GeoCities was engaged in deceptive acts and practices in contravention to their stated privacy act. Subsequently, a consent order was entered into which prohibits GeoCities from misrepresenting the purpose for which it collects and/or uses personal identifying information from consumers. A copy of the complaint and order can be found at 127 F.T.C. 94 (page 94)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Encounter (game)",
        "text": "The teams look for hidden caches within a city or a region area. Every cache is a plastic container with a code written on the bottom. When the code is found, team members send it to the server to get the riddle for the next cache. The same tradition about souvenirs as in Geocaching applies here. The teams search for the caches following locations descriptions and by unraveling various riddles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Container sizes range from \"nanos\", particularly magnetic nanos, which can be smaller than the tip of a finger and have only enough room to store the log sheet, to 20-liter (5 gallon) buckets or even larger containers, such as entire trucks. The most common cache containers in rural areas are lunch-box-sized plastic storage containers or surplus military ammunition cans. Ammo cans are considered the gold standard of containers because they are very sturdy, waterproof, animal- and fire-resistant, and relatively cheap, and have plenty of room for trade items. Smaller containers are more common in urban areas because they can be more easily hidden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act",
        "text": "If the cached material is made available to end users the system provider must follow the Section 512(c) takedown and put back provisions. Note that this provision only applies to cached material originated by a third party, not by the provider itself. Also, the content of the material must not be modified as a result of the caching process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A Traditional cache is the most common type and consists of a container with a logbook. Exact coordinates where the cache is located are given."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Over time many variations of geocaches have developed. Different platforms often have their own rules on which types are allowed or how they are classified. The following cache types are supported by both geocaching.com and opencaching.us unless stated otherwise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antiquities Law of the State of Israel of 1978",
        "text": "No person is allowed to dig or search for antiquities, including the use of a metal detector. No person is allowed to gather antiquities unless the person has obtained a license to do so from the Director. If a person is found on an antiquity site with digging tools in his/her possession or nearby then the person is presumed to have intended to discover antiquities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Where's George?",
        "text": "The \"Where's George?\" site says it \"prohibits trading or exchanging bills with friends, family or anyone known to the bill distributor for the purpose of re-entry\". This rule is to encourage natural circulation of the currency, and to prevent multiple fake hits from happening on any bill. As a result, all bill entry notes containing the word \"geocache\" or \"cache\" are tagged as a geocache bill. The site has also dropped a separate listing of \"Top 10 Geocache bills\" and is cautioning that, if geocache sites are used too often, \"all Geocache bills will be removed from this site\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antiquities Act",
        "text": "For any excavation, the Act requires that a permit (Antiquities Permit) be obtained from the Secretary of the department which has jurisdiction over those lands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A Night cache is multi-stage and intended to be found at night by following a series of reflectors with a flashlight to the final cache location. Considered a variant of the Mystery cache on \"geoocaching.com\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A Letterbox cache or a Letterbox hybrid cache is a combination of a geocache and a letterbox in the same container. A letterbox has a rubber stamp and a logbook instead of tradable items. Letterboxers carry their own stamp with them, to stamp the letterbox's log book and inversely stamp their personal log book with the letterbox stamp. The hybrid cache contains the important materials for this and may or may not include trade items."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "An independent accounting of the early history documents several controversial actions taken by Irish and Grounded, Inc., a predecessor to Groundspeak, to increase \"commercialization and monopolistic control over the hobby\". More recently, other similar hobbies such as Munzee have attracted some geocachers by rapidly adopting smart-phone technology, which has caused \"some resistance from geocaching organizers about placing caches along with Munzees\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Finally, a GPS Adventures Maze Exhibit is an exhibit at various museums and science centers in which participants in the maze learn about geocaching. These \"events\" have their own cache type on geocaching.com and include many non-geocachers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tenley Park",
        "text": "The Recreation Board has also allowed geocaches to be placed within the park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Treasure hunting",
        "text": "In 1906, the Secretaries of the Interior of Agriculture and War made an act for the preservation of American Antiquities (ancient artifacts). This act says that each of the Interior would have their own specific authority over different artifacts or locations based on their department. These artifacts and locations are as follows: Historic landmarks, historic monuments, objects of antiquity, objects of scientific value and historical value. The Secretary of Agriculture has jurisdiction over artifacts and monuments found within the outer limits of forest reserves. The secretary of War for any land that resides in or near a military reserve. The lands that are controlled by the US Government will be supervised by the respective Secretary. Permits will not be granted to those trying to move or take any monument or artifact that can be preserved in its original place and remain an ancient monument. A permit will not be granted to someone \"whose eyes are bigger than their stomach.\" In other words, those trying to explore a vast amount of area with little help and the job seems to not be done within the time limit designated by the certain someone, that permit will not be granted. Each permit will be granted by the respective Secretaries that have jurisdiction over those certain sites. Also including to the permit just stated above you also need these following requirements: The name of the Institution making the request, how much time it will take, the date, the person in charge of the project, what type of project it is going to be, excavating, gathering or examining, and the museum where the artifact will be shown and preserved. Each permit will only be granted for 3 years or less. An extension can be granted if progress is shown. Permits will not be in effect if work does not begin within six months of getting the permit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orcaella",
        "text": "Regulations have been set in order to mitigate bycatch, however net attendance rules and gear modifications are hardly enforced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power law of cache misses",
        "text": "The power law for cache misses can be stated as\n: formula_1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A BIT cache is a laminated card with a QR code, similar to Munzee. The BIT Cache also contains a URL and a password, for logging purposes. They are listed exclusively on opencaching.us."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Moving/travelling caches are found at a listed set of coordinates. The finder hides the cache in a different location, and updates the listing, essentially becomes the hider, and the next finder continues the cycle. This cache type is supported at opencaching.us while it has been discontinued at geocaching.com."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mapinguari National Park",
        "text": "Law 12.678 of 25 June 2012 slightly reduced the park's size and allowed mining activities in the buffer zone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Over time, a variety of different hide-and-seek-type activities have been created or abandoned, so that \"geocaching\" may now refer to hiding and seeking containers, or locations or information without containers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Erratic Rock State Natural Site",
        "text": "Geocaching is an outdoor recreational treasure hunt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Schools have also been evacuated when a cache has been seen by teachers or police, such as the case of Fairview High School in Boulder, Colorado in 2009. A number of caches have been destroyed by bomb squads. Diverse locations, from rural cemeteries to Disneyland, have been locked down as a result of such scares."
      },
      {
        "title": "Treasure trove",
        "text": "U.S. Federal laws governing recovery of treasure are governed by the Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979, Under ARPA, \"archaeological resources\" more than one hundred years old on public lands belong to the government. The term \"archaeological resource\" means any material remains of past human life or activities which are \"of archaeological interest\", as determined by federal regulations. Such regulations include, but are not limited to: pottery, basketry, bottles, weapons, weapon projectiles, tools, structures or portions of structures, pit houses, rock paintings, rock carvings, intaglios, graves, human skeletal materials, or any portion or piece of any of the foregoing items. The definition of \"archaeological resource\" and \"archaeological interest\" has been broadly interpreted under U.S. agency regulations in recent years to include nearly anything of human origin more than 100 years old, while permits to allow recovery of such items have been largely restricted to digs by credentialed archaeologists. The effect of ARPA as currently defined by federal regulations outlaws virtually all treasure hunting of items more than 100 years old, even treasure troves of gold and silver coin or scrip, under penalty of total forfeiture. Furthermore, the Federal policy against spoliation and removal of \"archaeological resources\" of any type from federal or Indian lands, even coins and scrip less than 100 years old, means it is unlikely that a finder of gold or silver coinage on Federal lands will prevail with an argument that the find constitutes a treasure trove of coinage, but rather \"embedded property\" that belongs to the property owner, i.e. the government. The broad use of ARPA to target not only archaeological looting but also to prohibit all treasure hunting on federal or Indian lands has been criticized on the grounds that total prohibition and forfeiture simply encourages concealment or misrepresentation of the age of the found coinage or treasure trove, thus hampering archaeological research, as archaeologists cannot study items that when found will never be reported.\n*Geocaching\n*Gold coin\n*Hoard\n*Lost, mislaid, and abandoned property\n*Silver coin\n*Treasure Valuation Committee\n*.\n*, paras. 1077\u20131100.\n*, paras. 1161\u20131163.\n*, paras. 1039\u20131040.\n*\"Attorney-General v. Moore\" [1893] 1 Ch. 676\n*\"Attorney-General v. Trustees of the British Museum\" [1903] 2 Ch. 598\n*\"Attorney-General of the Duchy of Lancaster v. G.E. Overton (Farms) Ltd.\" [1982] Ch. 277, C.A.\n*\"Lord Advocate v. University of Aberdeen\" 1963. S.C. 533\n*\"R. v. Thomas & Willett\" (1863) Le. & Ca. 313, 12 W.R. 108"
      },
      {
        "title": "Grand Staircase\u2013Escalante National Monument",
        "text": "A more difficult problem is the resolution of United States Revised statute 2477 (R.S. 2477) road claims. R.S. 2477 (Section 8 of the 1866 Mining Act) states: \"The right-of-way for the construction of highways over public lands, not reserved for public uses, is hereby granted.\" The statute was repealed by the Federal Land Policy and Management Act (FLPMA) of 1976, but the repeal was subject to valid existing rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Locationless/reverse caches are similar to a scavenger hunt. A description is given for something to find, such as a one-room schoolhouse, and the finder locates an example of this object. The finder records the location using their GPS receiver and often takes a picture at the location showing the named object and his or her GPS receiver. Typically others are not allowed to log that same location as a find."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics",
        "text": "Failure to provide information within the specified deadlines, or providing false information is a crime subject to a fine, initially, of up to 10 times the highest minimum wage in the country, and up to twice this limit on later occasions.\n:* National System of Consumer Price Indices\n::* National Index of Consumer Prices (INPC)\n::* Broad National Consumer Price Index (IPCA)\n::* National Index of Construction (INCC)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Webcam caches are virtual caches whose coordinates have a public webcam. The finder is often required to capture their image from the webcam for verification of the find. New webcam caches are no longer allowed by Groundspeak, but they remain supported by opencaching.us."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gruta do Lago Azul Natural Monument",
        "text": "Regulations are designed to prevent any damage to the cave."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching\n--History.\n--Geocaches.\n----Variations.\n----Geocache types.\n------Geodashing.\n------Stratocaching.\n--Technology.\n----Obtaining data.\n----Converting and filtering data.\n----Mobile devices.\n--Ethics.\n--Reception.\n----Laws and legislation.\n--Notable incidents.\n--Websites and data ownership.\n----First page.\n----Geocaching.com.\n----Opencaching Network.\n----OpenCaching.com.\n----Other sites.\n------GPSgames.\n------NaviCache.\n------TerraCaching.\n------Extremcaching.\n------Geocaching Australia.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Guest Book caches use guest books often found in museums, tourist information centers, etc. They are listed exclusively at opencaching.us."
      },
      {
        "title": "Backcountry",
        "text": "Some jurisdictions have discussed placing limits on human access to the backcountry during times of particular danger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Three adult geocachers, a 24-year-old woman and her parents, were trapped in a cave and rescued by firefighters in Rochester, New York, United States, while searching for an ammo can in 2012. Rochester Fire Department spokesman Lt. Ted Kuppinger said, \"It's difficult, because you're invested in it, you want to find something like that, so people will probably try to push themselves more than they should, but you need to be prudent about what you're capable of doing.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching Australia is a community website for geocachers in Australia and New Zealand as well as many other countries. Geocaching Australia also has many unique cache types such as Burke And Wills, Moveable_cache & Podcache geocaches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "GPX files containing information such as a cache description and information about recent visitors to the cache are available from various listing sites. Geocachers may upload geocache data (also known as waypoints) from various websites in various formats, most commonly in file-type GPX, which uses XML. Some websites allow geocachers to search (build queries) for multiple caches within a geographic area based on criteria such as ZIP code or coordinates, downloading the results as an email attachment on a schedule. In recent years, Android and iPhone users have been able to download apps such as GeoBeagle that allow them to use their 3G and GPS-enabled devices to actively search for and download new caches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geokrety",
        "text": "Geokrety are not associated with any particular geocaching service. Users are allowed to place GeoKrety in caches registered in any database, as well as in other locations (e.g. at home), in which case they are required to provide the coordinates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Extremcaching is a German private database for alternative geocaches with a focus on T5 / climbing caches, night caches and lost place caches. For extreme caching all you need is an extreme caching account, a GPS device with coordinates or a GPS-enabled smartphone with geocaching or outdoor navigation software, e.g. c:geo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "If a geocache has been vandalized or stolen by a person who is not familiar with geocaching, it is said to have been \"muggled\". The term plays off the fact that those not familiar with geocaching are called muggles, a word borrowed from the \"Harry Potter\" series of books which were rising in popularity at the same time geocaching started."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antiquities and Monuments Ordinance",
        "text": "According to the Ordinance, any one without permits granted by the Secretary for Home Affairs, is not allowed to excavate, carry on building or other works, plant or fell trees or deposit earth or refuse on or in any proposed monuments or monuments; or demolish, remove, obstruct, deface or interfere with any proposed monuments or monuments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Archaeology in Quebec",
        "text": "Under the Archaeological Research Law, no person can conduct a dig to unearth any goods without having first obtained an archaeological research permit from the minister, regardless of ownership of the land. This permit which is valid for a year from the date it was delivered, if granted, grants the holder permissions to conduct digs and unearth any artefacts uncovered. Even though the permit is good for a full year, the minister at any point in time has the right and power to revoke it if it is felt that the owner has not conforming to the conditions stated by the law and regulations. In the case where the archaeological excavation has to be conducted by someone other than the holder of the permit, the owner of the permit must give the government written consent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "In many countries there are regional geocaching sites, but these mostly only compile lists of caches in the area from the three main sites. Many of them also accept unique listings of caches for their site, but these listings tend to be less popular than the international sites, although occasionally the regional sites may have more caches than the international sites. There are some exceptions though, e.g. in the former Soviet Union, the site Geocaching.su remains popular because it accepts listings in the Cyrillic script. Additional international sites include Geocaching.de, a German website, and Geocaching Australia, which accepts listings of cache types deprecated by geocaching.com, cache types such as TrigPoint and Moveable caches, as well as traditional geocache types."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dragon protocol",
        "text": "For any given pair of caches, the permitted states of a given cache block in conjunction with the states of the other cache's states, are as follows (the states abbreviated in the order above):"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mining engineering",
        "text": "The law requires that states set up their own Reclamation Departments and legislate laws related to reclamation for coal mining operations. The states may impose additional regulations and regulate other minerals in addition to coal for land reclamation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Southeast Arizona Land Exchange and Conservation Act of 2013",
        "text": "The bill would require the Secretary, if so requested by Resolution Copper, to issue separate special use permits to it to carry out mineral exploration activities: (1) under the Oak Flat Withdrawal Area from existing drill pads outside the Area, if they would not disturb the surface of the area; and (2) within the Withdrawal Area (with the exception of within the Oak Flat Campground), if they are conducted from a single exploratory drill pad which is located to minimize visual and noise impacts on the Campground."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power law of cache misses",
        "text": "The validity of the power law of cache misses also depends on the size of the working memory set in a given process and also on the temporal re-reference pattern of cache blocks in a process. If a process has a small working memory set relative to the cache size, capacity misses are unlikely and the power law does not hold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Finally, a USB Cache or Dead Drop cache location has a USB flash drive embedded into walls or other structures. The cache is retrieved by connecting a device that has a USB port and that is able to read standard text files. This type is available at opencaching.us."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "A Multi-cache consists of one or more stages, each of them containing the coordinates for the next one; the final stage contains a physical container with the logbook. An Offset cache is a multi-cache in which the initial coordinates are for a location containing information that encodes the final cache coordinates. An example would be to direct the finder to a plaque where the digits of a date on the plaque correspond to coordinates of the final cache."
      },
      {
        "title": "Restrictions on geographic data in China",
        "text": "Chinese law and regulations also rule on the contents of any published map:\n* The \u516c\u5f00\u5730\u56fe\u5185\u5bb9\u8868\u793a\u82e5\u5e72\u89c4\u5b9a (\"some rules on the content presentation of public maps\") of 2003 by the Bureau of Surveying and Mapping (BSM) prohibits the representation of sensitive information such as airports (except those specially listed), military bases, and waterway depths. It also describes the handling and naming of disputed territories and former Qing territories ceded to Russia.\n* The \u516c\u5f00\u5730\u56fe\u5185\u5bb9\u8868\u793a\u8865\u5145\u89c4\u5b9a\uff08\u8bd5\u884c\uff09(\"supplementary rules on the content presentation of public maps, trial version\") of 2009 from the BSM additionally prohibits, among other things:\n** Locations having a precision of finer than 50 meters and the use of grids finer than 100 meters for elevation data.\n** Showing the locations of key infrastructure (power, dams, weather stations) and public safety installations (prisons, mandatory drug rehab facilities).\n** Showing the internal structures of airports and ferry ports.\n** Showing the weight and height limits of bridges, roads, and tunnels; showing the material of roads.\n* The \u5730\u56fe\u7ba1\u7406\u6761\u4f8b (\"map management regulation\") of 2015 from the State Council mandates that all Internet maps must be stored in mainland China, among other rules about national security. The law also details punishments, some of which criminal, for violations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Naturschutzgebiet",
        "text": "The use of the term \"Naturschutzgebiet\" or terms that could be confused with it for anything other than the legally protected areas is forbidden under this law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laws protecting monuments by country",
        "text": "Throughout the world, different laws exist that protect monuments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The website geocaching.com now sells mobile applications which allow users to view caches through a variety of different devices. Currently, the Android, iPhone, and Windows Phone mobile platforms have applications in their respective stores. The apps also allow for a trial version with limited functionality. The site promotes mobile applications, and lists over two dozen applications (both mobile and browser/desktop based) that are using their proprietary but royalty-free public application programming interface (API). Developers at c:geo have criticised Groundspeak for being incompatible with open-source development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Federal Cave Resources Protection Act of 1988",
        "text": "The Federal Cave Resources Protection Act of 1988 or FCRPA is a United States federal law that aims \"to secure, protect, and preserve significant caves on Federal lands for the perpetual use, enjoyment, and benefit of all people; and to foster increased cooperation and exchange of information between governmental authorities and those who utilize caves located on Federal lands for scientific, education, or recreational purposes.\" The law was approved on November 18, 1988. Specific effects of the act include prohibiting the disclosure of locations of significant caves, removing cave resources, and vandalizing or disturbing cave resources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "The largest site is Geocaching.com, owned by Groundspeak Inc., which began operating in late 2000. With a worldwide membership and a freemium business model, the website claims millions of caches and members in over 200 countries. Hides and events are reviewed by volunteer regional cache reviewers before publication. Free membership allows users access to coordinates, descriptions, and logs for some caches; for a fee, users are allowed additional search tools, the ability to download large amounts of cache information onto their gps at once, instant email notifications about new caches, and access to premium-member-only caches. Geocaching Headquarters are located in Seattle, Washington, United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stream Protection Rule",
        "text": "The revocation of these regulations left unclear what regulation would be used to implement the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mendocino County GMO Ban",
        "text": "The trend towards federal deregulation of GEOs leaves local municipalities facing a much tougher challenge in prohibiting them. Jurisdictional issues bring into question the legal standing of county ordinances regulating GEOs. Federal pre-emption statutes may override them if challenged. GE crops are regulated by the EPA under the pesticide guidelines in FIFRA (Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act) according to which \"\u2026a state shall not impose any requirements for labeling or packaging in addition to or different from those under\" FIFRA. Some legal experts contend that any regulation of GEOs must take place at the federal level because of this statute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the Governor-General's right to remove the proclamation of an emergency camp through the \"Government Gazette\".\n;Section 7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sandbagging (law)",
        "text": "Sandbagging (law)\n--Legal status of sandbagging.\n----United States.\n----United Kingdom.\n----Canada.\n----Japan.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Law on Mining Concessions",
        "text": "Law on Mining Concessions\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aboriginal Heritage Act 1988",
        "text": "Within South Australia it is a criminal offence to:\n* excavate land uncovering Aboriginal sites, objects or remains without the Minister's authority;\n* damage Aboriginal sites, objects or remains without authority;\n* fail to report the discovery of an Aboriginal site or object or remains to the Minister (though this obligation does not apply to tourists, hikers, and other non-land owners/occupiers)\n* fail to comply with directions the responsible Minister may give (in the form of a notice to interested parties) prohibiting or restricting access to Aboriginal sites, objects or remains."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that the regulations be published in the Government Gazette in both official languages and furthermore published at the camp in the language of the occupiers.\n;Section 6.4"
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that no person, except authorised by law, could enter or remain in or on land or buildings without the permission of the owner or lawful occupier. Nor could one, except by lawful reason, enter or remain in a native location, village or area except by the permission of the local authority or person in legal control of the area.\n;Section 2.1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness Act",
        "text": "Mining became restricted in the BWCA and the Secretary of Agriculture has the authority to acquire mineral rights in the Wilderness and along three road corridors in a Mining Protection Area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Preventing Government Waste and Protecting Coal Mining Jobs in America",
        "text": "The bill would require the Secretary of the Interior to: (1) publish notice of a determination when all states that wish to assume exclusive jurisdiction of such mining regulation have incorporated the rule in their programs; (2) assess the effectiveness of the rule's implementation during the five-year period following such notice; and (3) report to Congress an evaluation of the rule's effectiveness, any ways in which it inhibits energy production, and any proposed changes to the rule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jaipur Metro",
        "text": "Phase I-B is also not in accordance with Jaipur's archaeological laws, which states that any kind of digging/tunneling work in the vicinity of heritage sites is not allowed. The Badi Chaupar and Choti Chaupar have already been removed for Metro work. According to the archaeological laws, whoever destroys, injures, mutilates, defaces, alters, removes, disperses, misuses, imperils or allows to fall into decay a protected monument, or removes from a protected monument any sculpture, carving image, bas-relief, inscription or other like object, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to six months with a fine which may extend to five thousand rupees or with both."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power law of cache misses",
        "text": "The power law can only give an estimate of the miss rate only up to a certain value of cache size. A large enough cache eliminates capacity misses and increasing the cache size further will not reduce the miss rate any further, contrary to the power law's prediction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geocaching",
        "text": "Geocaching company Groundspeak allows extraterrestrial caches, e.g. the Moon or Mars, although presently, the website provides only earthbound coordinates. The first published extraterrestrial geocache was GC1BE91, which was on the International Space Station between 2008 and 2017. It used the Baikonur launch area in Kazakhstan as its position. The original cache contained a travel bug (the first geocaching trackable item in space), which stayed on the station until it was brought back to earth in 2013. Due to fire restrictions on board the station, the geocache contained no official paper logbook. As of February 2021, only one confirmed geocacher (in 2013) has actually found the geocache, although others have claimed to have found it providing varying amounts of evidence. To commemorate the occasion, Groundspeak allowed specialized geocaching events to be published across the world, allowing attendees to obtain a virtual souvenir on their profile."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geo-blocking",
        "text": "3) In certain situations, it is no longer allowed to apply other general conditions to foreign customers:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Renewable energy law",
        "text": "Laws and Regulations Applicable to Geothermal Energy Development. ... A number of federal laws, regulations, and Executive Orders apply to geothermal energy development activities. For the most part, state laws and regulations do not apply to geothermal energy development on tribal lands"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What type of device is used for geocaching?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Participants use a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or a mobile device such as an Android, iPhone orWindows Phone."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did geocaching first begin?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Geocaching was originally similar to the game letterboxing from 1854, which uses clues and references to landmarks embedded in stories. It was conceived shortly after the removal of Selective Availability from the Global Positioning System on May 2, 2000."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did any famous people geocache?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the different types of geocaching?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Different platforms often have their own rules on which types are allowed or how they are classified. Would you like to learn more about Mystery/puzzle cache, Multi-cache or Traditional cache?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I want to learn more about Mystery/puzzle cache geocaching."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mystery/puzzle caches require one to discover information or solve a puzzle to find the cache.  Some mystery caches provide a puzzle that must be solved to determine the physical cache location; caches which do not fit into other categories are classified as mystery caches."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any laws or regulations that deal with geocaching?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Yes, there are regulations, laws, or legal proceedings in Highlands East of Ontario, Canada; Illinois, South Carolina, and Virginia. Which one would you like to know about?",
      "Regional rules for placement of caches have become quite complex. Would you like to learn more about laws in South Carolina, Illinois, or Canada?"
    ],
    "topic": "Geocaching",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:58",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "Reception",
          "Laws and legislation"
        ],
        "ctx": "The South Carolina House of Representatives passed Bill 3777 in 2005, stating, \"It is unlawful for a person to engage in the activity of geocaching or letterboxing in a cemetery or in an historic or archeological site or property publicly identified by an historical marker without the express written consent of the owner or entity which oversees that cemetery site or property.\" The bill was referred to committee on first reading in the Senate and has been there ever since."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:57",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "Reception",
          "Laws and legislation"
        ],
        "ctx": "Regional rules for placement of caches have become quite complex. For example, in Virginia, the Virginia Department of Transportation and the Wildlife Management Agency now forbids the placement of geocaches on all land controlled by those agencies. Some cities, towns and recreation areas allow geocaches with few or no restrictions, but others require compliance with lengthy permitting procedures."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:59",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "Reception",
          "Laws and legislation"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Illinois Department of Natural Resources requires geocachers who wish to place a geocache at any Illinois state park to submit the location on a USGS 7.5 minute topographical map, the name and contact information of the person(s) wishing to place the geocache, a list of the original items to be included in the geocache, and a picture of the container that is to be placed."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:60",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "Reception",
          "Laws and legislation"
        ],
        "ctx": "In April 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the township of Highlands East, Ontario, Canada temporarily banned geocaching, over concerns that geocache containers cannot be properly disinfected between finds."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:57",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "Reception",
          "Laws and legislation"
        ],
        "ctx": "Regional rules for placement of caches have become quite complex. For example, in Virginia, the Virginia Department of Transportation and the Wildlife Management Agency now forbids the placement of geocaches on all land controlled by those agencies. Some cities, towns and recreation areas allow geocaches with few or no restrictions, but others require compliance with lengthy permitting procedures."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:58",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "Reception",
          "Laws and legislation"
        ],
        "ctx": "The South Carolina House of Representatives passed Bill 3777 in 2005, stating, \"It is unlawful for a person to engage in the activity of geocaching or letterboxing in a cemetery or in an historic or archeological site or property publicly identified by an historical marker without the express written consent of the owner or entity which oversees that cemetery site or property.\" The bill was referred to committee on first reading in the Senate and has been there ever since."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:59",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "Reception",
          "Laws and legislation"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Illinois Department of Natural Resources requires geocachers who wish to place a geocache at any Illinois state park to submit the location on a USGS 7.5 minute topographical map, the name and contact information of the person(s) wishing to place the geocache, a list of the original items to be included in the geocache, and a picture of the container that is to be placed."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Geocaching:60",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Geocaching",
          "Reception",
          "Laws and legislation"
        ],
        "ctx": "In April 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the township of Highlands East, Ontario, Canada temporarily banned geocaching, over concerns that geocache containers cannot be properly disinfected between finds."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Federal holidays in the United States",
        "text": "On June 16, 2021, the U.S. Congress passed legislation to make Juneteenth (June 19) a federal holiday. The day commemorates the end of slavery in Texas in 1865. President Joe Biden signed this bill into law on June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth is a federal holiday in the United States. For decades, activists and congress members (led by many African Americans) proposed legislation, advocated for, and built support for state and national observances. During his campaign for president in June 2020, Joe Biden publicly celebrated the holiday. President Donald Trump, during his campaign for reelection, added making the day a national holiday part of his \"Platinum Plan for Black America\". Spurred on by the advocates and the Congressional Black Caucus, on June\u00a015, 2021, the Senate unanimously passed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act, establishing Juneteenth as a federal holiday; it subsequently passed through the House of Representatives by a 415\u201314 vote on June\u00a016. President Joe Biden signed the bill () on June\u00a017, 2021, making Juneteenth the eleventh American federal holiday and the first to obtain legal observance as a federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was designated in 1983. According to the bill, federal government employees will now get to take the day off every year on June 19, or should the date fall on a Saturday or Sunday, they will get the Monday or Friday closest to the Saturday or Sunday on which the date falls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Juneteenth is an American federal holiday celebrating the emancipation of African-Americans and the abolition of slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In the 2000s and 2010s, activists continued a long process to push Congress towards official recognition of Juneteenth. Organizations such as the National Juneteenth Observance Foundation sought a Congressional designation of Juneteenth as a national day of observance. In 2016, Opal Lee, often referred to as the \"grandmother of Juneteenth\", walked from Fort Worth, Texas to Washington D.C. to advocate for a federal holiday. When it was officially made a federal holiday on June 17, 2021, it became one of five date-specific federal holidays along with New Year's Day (January\u00a01), Independence Day (July\u00a04), Veterans Day (November\u00a011), and Christmas Day (December\u00a025). Juneteenth will coincide with Father's Day in 2022, 2033, 2039, 2044, and 2050. Juneteenth is the first new federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was declared a holiday in 1986. Juneteenth also falls within the statutory Honor America Days period, which lasts for 21 days from Flag Day (June 14) to Independence Day (July 4)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ralph Norman",
        "text": "In June 2021, Norman was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tom McClintock",
        "text": "In June 2021, McClintock was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "End of slavery in the United States of America",
        "text": "Juneteenth is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of African-American slaves. It is also often observed for celebrating African-American culture. Originating in Galveston, Texas, it has been celebrated annually on June 19 in various parts of the United States since 1865. The day was recognized as a federal holiday on June\u00a017, 2021, when President Joe Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act into law. Juneteenth's commemoration is on the anniversary date of the June 19, 1865, announcement of General Order No.\u00a03 by Union Army general Gordon Granger, proclaiming freedom for slaves in Texas, which was the last state of the Confederacy with institutional slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Celebratory traditions often include public readings of the Emancipation Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot\" and \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\", and the reading of works by noted African-American writers, such as Ralph Ellison and Maya Angelou. Some Juneteenth celebrations also include rodeos, street fairs, cookouts, family reunions, park parties, historical reenactments, and Miss Juneteenth contests. When Juneteenth became a federal holiday on June 17, 2021, it was the first new federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was adopted in 1983."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth (officially Juneteenth National Independence Day and also known as Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence Day) is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African-Americans. It is also often observed for celebrating African-American culture. Originating in Galveston, Texas, it has been celebrated annually on June 19 in various parts of the United States since 1865. The day was recognized as a federal holiday on June\u00a017, 2021, when President Joe Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act into law. Juneteenth's commemoration is on the anniversary date of the June 19, 1865, announcement of General Order No.\u00a03 by Union Army general Gordon Granger, proclaiming freedom for enslaved people in Texas, which was the last state of the Confederacy with institutional slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scott DesJarlais",
        "text": "In June 2021, DesJarlais was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In June 2019, Governor of Pennsylvania Tom Wolf recognized Juneteenth as a holiday in the state. In 2020, state governors of Virginia, New York, and New Jersey signed an executive order recognizing Juneteenth as a paid day of leave for state employees. In 2021, Governor of Oregon Kate Brown signed an executive order recognizing Juneteenth as a paid day of leave for state employees. On June\u00a016, 2021, Illinois Governor J. B. Pritzker signed House Bill\u00a03922, establishing Juneteenth as a paid state holiday starting in 2022; since 2003, it had been a state ceremonial observance in Illinois."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tom Tiffany",
        "text": "In June 2021, Tiffany was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andy Biggs",
        "text": "In June 2021, Biggs was among 14 House Republicans who voted against passing legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In the late 1970s, when the Texas Legislature declared Juneteenth a \"holiday of significance ... particularly to the blacks of Texas,\" it became the first state to establish Juneteenth as a state holiday. The bill passed through the Texas Legislature in 1979 and was officially made a state holiday on January\u00a01, 1980. Before 2000, three more U.S. states officially observed the day, and over the next two decades it was recognized as an official observance in all states, except South Dakota, until becoming a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Gosar",
        "text": "In June 2021, Gosar was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Opal Lee",
        "text": "On June 17, 2021, President Joe Biden signed Senate Bill S. 475, making Juneteenth the eleventh federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth\n--Celebrations and traditions.\n--History.\n----Early history.\n------The Civil War and celebrations of emancipation.\n------End of slavery in Texas.\n------Early Juneteenth celebrations.\n------Decline during Jim Crow.\n----Revival.\n------1960s\u20131980s.\n------Prayer breakfast and commemorative celebrations.\n------Official statewide recognitions.\n------Juneteenth in pop culture and mass media.\n------2020 Trump campaign scheduling controversy.\n------Becoming a federal holiday.\n--Legal observance.\n----State and local.\n----National.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ronny Jackson",
        "text": "In June 2021, Jackson was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Joe Biden",
        "text": "On June 17, Biden signed into law a bill creating Juneteenth as a federal holiday; the day celebrates the end of slavery in the U.S."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mo Brooks",
        "text": "In June 2021, Brooks was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday. His rationale for his vote was that the holiday's date was too exclusive and significant only to Texas, and that the freeing of slaves should be celebrated on another day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Rogers (Alabama politician)",
        "text": "In June 2021, Rogers was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against establishing June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Peoples and first Black Oregonian Senator Avel Gordly led an effort to make Juneteenth a statewide holiday in 2001. The resolution passed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doug LaMalfa",
        "text": "In June 2021, LaMalfa was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish Juneteenth, a celebration of the end of slavery, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andrew Clyde",
        "text": "In June 2021, Clyde was among 14 House Republicans who voted against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday. \"The Atlanta Journal-Constitution\" reported that Clyde \"supported the holiday but didn't like its title, Juneteenth National Independence Day\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "North Dakota approved recognition of Juneteenth as a state recognized annual holiday on April 13, 2021, with Hawaii becoming the 49th state to recognize the holiday on June 16, 2021. On June 16, 2020 South Dakota Governor Kristi Noem proclaimed that the following June 19, 2020 was to be Juneteenth Day for that year only, spurning calls for it to be recognized annually, rather than just for 2020. As of June 2021, South Dakota is the only state that has not yet independently recognized Juneteenth as an annual state holiday or observance, according to the Congressional Research Service; nonetheless, its law provides for following the federal law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Randolph Bracy",
        "text": "In June 2020, Bracy began a push to make Juneteenth a state holiday, with June 19th marking the date the news of the Emancipation Proclamation reached Texas, the westernmost member of the former Confederacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In 1996, the first federal legislation to recognize \"Juneteenth Independence Day\" was introduced in the U.S. House of Representatives, H.J.\u00a0Res.\u00a0195, sponsored by Barbara-Rose Collins (D-MI). In 1997, Congress recognized the day through Senate Joint Resolution\u00a011 and House Joint Resolution\u00a056. In 2013, the U.S. Senate passed Senate Resolution\u00a0175, acknowledging Lula Briggs Galloway (late president of the National Association of Juneteenth Lineage), who \"successfully worked to bring national recognition to Juneteenth Independence Day\", and the continued leadership of the National Juneteenth Observance Foundation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charlie Baker",
        "text": "In June 2020, Baker signed a law making Juneteenth an official state holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Some cities and counties have also recognized Juneteenth through proclamation. In 2020, Juneteenth was formally recognized by New York City (as an annual official city holiday and public school holiday, starting in 2021), although in 2022 it will be observed as a school holiday on June 20. Cook County, Illinois, adopted an ordinance to make Juneteenth a paid county holiday. The City and County of Honolulu recognizes it as an \"annual day of honor and reflection\", and Portland, Oregon (as a day of remembrance and action and a paid holiday for city employees)."
      },
      {
        "title": "African-American culture",
        "text": "Less-widely observed outside of the African-American community is Emancipation Day popularly known as Juneteenth or Freedom Day, in recognition of the official reading of the Emancipation Proclamation on June 19, 1865, in Texas. Juneteenth is a day when African Americans reflect on their unique history and heritage. It is one of the fastest growing African-American holidays with observances in the United States. Juneteenth was recognized as federal holiday in 2021, and was first observed as such on June 19, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melanie Morgan (politician)",
        "text": "Morgan sponsored House bill 1016 to designate June 19 (\"Juneteenth\") as a state holiday. The House passed the bill in February on an 89-9 vote. The bill passed the Democratic-led Senate on a bipartisan 47-1. Governor Jay Inslee signed the bill on May 13, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Texas was the first state to recognize the date, in 1980. By 2002, eight states officially recognized Juneteenth and four years later 15 states recognized the holiday. By 2008, nearly half of states observed the holiday as a ceremonial observance. By 2019, 47 states and the District of Columbia recognized Juneteenth, although as of 2020 only Texas had adopted the holiday as a paid holiday for state employees. In the yearlong aftermath of the murder of George Floyd that occurred on May 25, 2020, nine states had designated Juneteenth a paid holiday, including New York, Washington, and Virginia. In 2020, Massachusetts Governor Charles Baker issued a proclamation that the day would be marked as \"Juneteenth Independence Day\". This followed the filing of bills by both the House and Senate to make Juneteenth a state holiday. Baker did not comment on these bills specifically, but promised to grant the observance of Juneteenth greater importance. On June 16, 2021, Illinois adopted a law changing its ceremonial holiday to a paid state holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The holiday has gained mainstream awareness outside African-American communities through depictions in entertainment media, such as episodes of TV series \"Atlanta\" (2016) and \"Black-ish\" (2017), the latter of which featured musical numbers about the holiday by Aloe Blacc, The Roots, and Fonzworth Bentley. In 2018, Apple added Juneteenth to its calendars in iOS under official U.S. holidays. Some private companies have adopted Juneteenth as a paid day off for employees, while others have officially marked the day in other ways, such as a moment of silence. In 2020, several American corporations and educational institutions, including Twitter, the National Football League, Nike, announced that they would treat Juneteenth as a company holiday, providing a paid day off to their workers, and Google Calendar added Juneteenth to its U.S. Holidays calendar. Also in 2020, a number of major universities formally recognized Juneteenth, either as a \"day of reflection\" or as a university holiday with paid time off for faculty and staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clay Smothers",
        "text": "In 1979, Smothers opposed the bill to create Juneteenth as a Texas state holiday observing the end of slavery in the state. Smothers belittled the observance as mere \"ceremoniously grinning and bursting watermelons on the Capitol grounds\" and \"a fraudulent holiday\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Southgate\u2013Lewis House",
        "text": "On June 19, 2021, the annual Juneteenth Celebration became the newest federal holiday: officially, Juneteenth National Independence Day (Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence). This traditional annual celebration commemorates the ending of slavery in the United States \u2013 the emancipation of enslaved African Americans. A photograph of the Southgate\u2013Lewis House shows how the home of the W. H. Passon Historical Society was utilized on the very day the new Juneteenth National Independence Day was celebrated. The banners on the west elevation of the house (shown herein) depict distinguished African Americans in Government, Education, Literature, Medicine, and Sports. The banners on the north elevation (shown herein) depict distinguished African Americans in Religion and the Military."
      },
      {
        "title": "Matt Rosendale",
        "text": "In June 2021, Rosendale was among 21 House Republicans who voted against a resolution to give the Congressional Gold Medal to police officers who defended the U.S. Capitol on January 6. Also in June 2021, Rosendale was among fourteen House Republicans who voted against passing legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "In 2011 and 2013, Oregon politician Lew Frederick introduced bills to recognize Peoples. It was enrolled and signed by the governor on May 1, 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History",
        "text": "Juneteenth is the oldest nationally celebrated commemoration of the ending of slavery in the United States. In 2021, days after President Joe Biden signed a law making Juneteenth, June 19, a federal holiday, the museum presented a hybrid virtual and in-person three-day celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "During the 1950s and 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement focused the attention of African Americans on expanding freedom and integrating. As a result, observations of the holiday declined again (though it was still celebrated in Texas)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Federal holidays in the United States",
        "text": "New Year's Day, Juneteenth, Independence Day, Veterans Day, and Christmas Day are observed on the same calendar date each year, irrespective of the day of the week. When a holiday falls on a Saturday, federal employees who work Monday to Friday observe the holiday on the previous Friday. Federal employees who work on Saturday observe the holiday on Saturday and, for them, Friday is a regular work day. Holidays that fall on a Sunday are observed by federal workers the following Monday. The other holidays always fall on a specific day of the week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Opal Lee",
        "text": "In June 2021, at the age of 94, her efforts succeeded as a bill to make Juneteenth a federal holiday was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Joe Biden. She was an honored guest at the bill signing ceremony, receiving the first of many pens Biden used to sign the document. As she sat in the front row, she received a standing ovation and Biden got down on one knee to greet her."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Juneteenth may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Observance today is primarily in local celebrations. In many places, Juneteenth has become a multicultural holiday. Traditions include public readings of the Emancipation Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot\" and \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\", and reading of works by noted African-American writers, such as Ralph Ellison and Maya Angelou. Celebrations include picnics, rodeos, street fairs, cookouts, family reunions, park parties, historical reenactments, blues festivals and Miss Juneteenth contests. Strawberry soda is a traditional drink associated with the celebration. The Mascogos, the descendants of Black Seminoles, who have resided in Coahuila, Mexico, since 1852, also celebrate Juneteenth."
      },
      {
        "title": "African-American neighborhood",
        "text": "Although Juneteenth has increased in national and international popularity, the holiday began among Black Texans in Galveston, Texas when enslaved persons learned of the Emancipation Proclamation two years late, because slaveholders had purposefully kept this information from them. Today, several Black communities in Texas and beyond recognize June 19 as a complicated but celebratory holiday. It is also known as Jubilee Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Darrell Jackson (politician)",
        "text": "In 2020, Jackson introduced legislation to make Juneteenth a statewide holiday. In 2020, Jackson won an uncontested race for his seat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honor America Days",
        "text": "Honor America Days are a United States Federal Observance observed June 14 to July 4. According to 36 U.S.C. \u00a7 112, the 21 days from Flag Day through Independence Day (including, as of 2021, the federal holiday of Juneteenth) is a period to honor the United States. On these days, U.S. Congress declares that there be public gatherings and activities during that period at which the people of the United States can celebrate and honor their country in an appropriate way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Columbus, Ohio",
        "text": "The Juneteenth Ohio Festival is held each year at Franklin Park on Father's Day weekend. Started by Mustafaa Shabazz, Juneteenth Ohio is one of the largest African American festivals in the United States, including three full days of music, food, dance, and entertainment by local and national recording artists. The festival holds a Father's Day celebration, honoring local fathers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harriet Tubman Day",
        "text": "Harriet Tubman Day is an American holiday in honor of the anti-slavery activist Harriet Tubman, observed on March 10, and in the U.S. state of New York. Observances also occur locally around the U.S. state of Maryland. After Juneteenth became a federal holiday, there are growing calls for this day to also be observed at the federal level."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Petersburg, Florida",
        "text": "Juneteenth celebrations are hosted on June 19 to honor the end of slavery in the United States. Peace Protests followed by a celebration in Williams Park take place in St. Pete to honor the holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Peoples helped make Juneteenth recognized by the City of Portland in 1972. Mayor Sam Adams and Amanda Fritz declared Peoples the \"Mother of Juneteenth\" in 2011. Juneteenth became an observed holiday for the City of Portland and Multnomah County employees in 2020, as part of a resolution to address structural racism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tiffany Dena Loftin",
        "text": "On June 19, 2020, Loftin told PEOPLE.com that \"The significance of Juneteenth has always been meaningful in the Black community. However, in the face of the continuous onslaught of racial incidents, police brutality and killings, and hate crimes, we're witnessing a renewed effort to uplift holidays that bring attention to the real history of this country.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Since the 1980s and 1990s, the holiday has been more widely celebrated among African-American communities and has seen increasing mainstream attention in the US. In 1991, there was an exhibition by the Anacostia Community Museum (part of the Smithsonian Institution) called \u201cJuneteenth \u201991, Freedom Revisited\u201d. In 1994, a group of community leaders gathered at Christian Unity Baptist Church in New Orleans to work for greater national celebration of Juneteenth. Expatriates have celebrated it in cities abroad, such as Paris. Some US military bases in other countries sponsor celebrations, in addition to those of private groups. In 1999, Ralph Ellison's novel \"Juneteenth\" was published, increasing recognition of the holiday. By 2006, at least 200 cities celebrated the day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Opal Lee",
        "text": "Lee campaigned for decades to make Juneteenth a federal holiday. She has promoted the idea by leading walks each year, representing the 2.5 years it took for news of the Emancipation Proclamation to reach Texas. At the age of 89, she conducted a symbolic walk from Fort Worth to Washington, D.C., leaving in September 2016 and arriving in Washington in January 2017. She was hoping to plead the case for a federal holiday directly to President Barack Obama. Lee has not only marched in Texas, but also in Fort Smith and Little Rock, Arkansas; Las Vegas, Nevada; Madison and Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Atlanta, Georgia; Selma, Alabama; and the Carolinas. She promoted a petition for a Juneteenth federal holiday at Change.org; the petition received 1.6 million signatures. She said, \"It's going to be a national holiday, I have no doubt about it. My point is let's make it a holiday in my lifetime.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Celebrations date to 1866, at first involving church-centered community gatherings in Texas. They spread across the South and became more commercialized in the 1920s and 1930s, often centering on a food festival. Participants in the Great Migration out of the South carried their celebrations to other parts of the country. During the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, these celebrations were eclipsed by the nonviolent determination to achieve civil rights, but grew in popularity again in the 1970s with a focus on African American freedom and African-American arts. Beginning with Texas by proclamation in 1938, and by legislation in 1979, 49 U.S. states and the District of Columbia have formally recognized the holiday in various ways. With its adoption in certain parts of Mexico, the holiday became an international holiday. Juneteenth is celebrated by the Mascogos, descendants of Black Seminoles who escaped from slavery in 1852 and settled in Coahuila, Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas Massie",
        "text": "In June 2021, Massie was one of 21 House Republicans to vote against a resolution to give the Congressional Gold Medal to police officers who defended the U.S. Capitol on January 6. Also in June 2021, he was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth (officially named \"Juneteenth National Independence Day\"), as a federal holiday. He said he \"fully support[ed] creating a day to celebrate the abolition of slavery\" but opposed its being named \"Independence Day.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Trading day",
        "text": "Juneteenth was added as a national holiday and market holiday on June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Juneteenth, a celebration of emancipation from slavery, was introduced to Oregon in 1945 by Kaiser Shipyard worker Clara Peoples, was recognized by the city of Portland in 1972, statewide in 2013, and federally in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Columbus, Ohio",
        "text": "The Juneteenth Ohio Festival is held each year at Franklin Park on Father's Day weekend. Started by Mustafaa Shabazz, JuneteenthOhio is one of the largest African American festivals in the United States, including three full days of music, food, dance, and entertainment by local and national recording artists. The festival holds a Father's Day celebration, honoring local fathers."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in Houston",
        "text": "The State of Texas made Juneteenth a holiday at the state level after Al Edwards, a member of the Texas House of Representatives from Houston, proposed it as a bill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reactions to the murder of George Floyd",
        "text": "Target and Best Buy made Juneteenth a company holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Federal holidays in the United States",
        "text": "Christmas Day as a federal or public holiday is also sometimes objected to by various sources, usually due to its ties with the Christian religion. In December 1999, the Western Division of the United States District Court for the Southern District of Ohio, in the case \"Ganulin v. United States\", denied the charge that Christmas Day's federal status violated the Establishment Clause of the Constitution, ruling that \"the Christmas holiday has become largely secularized\", and that \"by giving federal employees a paid vacation day on Christmas, the government is doing no more than recognizing the cultural significance of the holiday\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In the early 20th century, economic and political forces led to a decline in Juneteenth celebrations. From 1890 to 1908, Texas and all former Confederate states passed new constitutions or amendments that effectively disenfranchised black people, excluding them from the political process. White-dominated state legislatures passed Jim Crow laws imposing second-class status. Gladys L. Knight writes the decline in celebration was in part because \"upwardly mobile blacks ... were ashamed of their slave past and aspired to assimilate into mainstream culture. Younger generations of blacks, becoming further removed from slavery were occupied with school ... and other pursuits.\" Others who migrated to the Northern United States could not take time off or simply dropped the celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holidays with paid time off in the United States",
        "text": "In 2020, Nike became the first company to mark Juneteenth as a paid holiday.\n* List of Federal Holidays by Year from the U.S. Government (see Office of Personnel Management)\n* Additional holidays referenced by the Society for Human Resource Management: Good Friday 26%, Easter Monday 6%, Yom Kippur 7%, Day before Thanksgiving 3\u20138%, Day after Thanksgiving 69\u201375%, Day before Christmas Eve 33%, Christmas Eve 78\u201379%, Day after Christmas 40\u201364%, Day before New Year's Eve 25\u201371% depending if it falls on a weekend, New Year's Eve 71%, Passover 3%, Hanukkah 1%, Ramadan 1%, Ash Wednesday 1%, Diwali 1%, Eid al-Adha 1%, Vietnamese New Year <1%, Chinese New Year <1%"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chip Roy",
        "text": "Roy was one of 14 Republicans to vote against the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act, which passed 415-14. The bill recognized as a public holiday a commemoration of June 19, 1865, the day slaves in Galveston, Texas, learned that two and a half years earlier President Abraham Lincoln had issued the Emancipation Proclamation freeing any slave held in rebel states. Roy took issue with the bill's name, saying, \"Juneteenth should be commemorated \u2026[but] the holiday should not be called 'Juneteenth National Independence Day' but rather 'Juneteenth National Emancipation (or Freedom or otherwise) Day.' This name needlessly divides our nation on a matter that should instead bring us together by creating a separate Independence Day based on the color of one's skin.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Dennis Deer",
        "text": "July, 2020 Commissioners Deer and Moore withdrew their separate resolutions and combined their resolutions to make Juneteenth a Cook County Holiday. The measure was unanimously passed in December 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The 2020 mother-daughter film on the holiday's pageant culture, \"Miss Juneteenth\", celebrates African-American women who are \u201cdetermined to stand on their own,\u201d while a resourceful mother is \u201cgetting past a sexist tendency in her community to keep women in their place.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in San Antonio",
        "text": "The State of Texas made Juneteenth a holiday at the state level after Al Edwards, a member of the Texas House of Representatives from Houston, proposed it as a bill."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Floyd protests in Columbus, Ohio",
        "text": "On June 19, Franklin County (containing most of the city of Columbus) announced it is replacing Columbus Day as a paid holiday for its government employees with Juneteenth, celebrating the abolition of slavery in the U.S. The change will go into effect June 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Floyd protests in Columbus, Ohio",
        "text": "On June 19, Franklin County (containing most of the city of Columbus) announced it is replacing Columbus Day as a paid holiday for its government employees with Juneteenth, celebrating the abolition of slavery in the U.S. The change will go into effect June 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Federal holidays in the United States",
        "text": "The original four holidays were:\n* New Year's Day\n* Independence Day\n* Thanksgiving Day\n* Christmas Day"
      },
      {
        "title": "Holidays with paid time off in the United States",
        "text": "Texas law allows a state employee to replace a partial staffing holiday with one of the following holidays. On these holidays, the state agency is generally required to stay open with minimum staff.\n* March 20 \u2013 April 23 (floating Friday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Good Friday\n* March 31\u00a0\u2013 Cesar Chavez Day (added in section 662.013, was not one of the original \"optional holidays\" declared in 1999)\n* September 5 \u2013 October 5 (floating date)\u00a0\u2013 Rosh Hashanah\n* September 14 \u2013 October 14 (floating date)\u00a0\u2013 Yom Kippur\n* All federal holidays\n* January 6\u00a0\u2013 Three Kings Day\n* March 31\u00a0\u2013 Transfer Day\n* March 19 \u2013 April 22 (floating Thursday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Holy Thursday\n* March 20 \u2013 April 23 (floating Friday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Good Friday\n* March 23 \u2013 April 26 (floating Monday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Easter Monday\n* July 3\u00a0\u2013 Emancipation Day\n* October 8\u201314 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 Columbus Day\u00a0\u2013 Virgin Islands\u2013Puerto Rico Friendship Day\n* November 1\u00a0\u2013 D. Hamilton Jackson Day\n* December 26\u00a0\u2013 Christmas Second Day\n* All federal holidays except Juneteenth\n* July 24\u00a0\u2013 Pioneer Day\n* All federal holidays except Columbus Day\n* March 1\u20137 (floating Tuesday)\u00a0\u2013 Town Meeting Day\n* August 16\u00a0\u2013 Bennington Battle Day\n* All federal holidays\n* February 15\u201321 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 The federal holiday \"Washington's Birthday\" is recognized as \"George Washington Day\".\n* October 8\u201314 (Floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 The federal holiday \"Columbus Day\" is recognized as \"Columbus Day and Yorktown Victory Day\", which honors the final victory at the Siege of Yorktown in the Revolutionary War.\n* November 2\u20138 (floating Tuesday) Election Day\n* November 23\u201329 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 Day after Thanksgiving\n* All federal holidays except Martin Luther King Jr. Day\n* All Friday holidays are celebrated on Saturday and all Monday holidays are celebrated on Tuesday to account for the time zone difference with the states. Weekday holidays such as Thanksgiving are celebrated as they fall.\n* March 20 \u2013 April 23 (floating Friday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Good Friday\n* March 22 \u2013 April 25 (floating Sunday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Easter (listed to account for park closing, which normally opens Sundays)\n* April 13\u201315\u00a0\u2013 Songkran Festival\n* December 31\u00a0\u2013 New Year's Eve\n* All federal holidays except Columbus Day\n* All federal holidays\n* June 20\u00a0\u2013 West Virginia Day\n* November 2\u20138 (floating Tuesday)\u00a0\u2013 Election Day / Susan B. Anthony Day (even numbered years only),\n* November 23\u201329 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 Day after Thanksgiving\n* December 24\u00a0\u2013 Christmas Eve (See note below)\n* December 31\u00a0\u2013 New Year's Eve (See note below)\n* Note: Christmas Eve and New Year's Eve are half day holidays and are not shifted if they fall on Saturday or Sunday.\n* All federal holidays except Washington's Birthday and Columbus Day\n* December 24\u00a0\u2013 Christmas Eve\n* December 31\u00a0\u2013 New Year's Eve\n* January 1\u00a0\u2013 New Year's Day"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth flag",
        "text": "The flag was flown above the Illinois State Capitol on June 19, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emancipation Day",
        "text": "In Texas, Emancipation Day is celebrated on June 19. It commemorates the announcement in Texas of the abolition of slavery made on that day in 1865. It is commonly known as Juneteenth. Since the late 20th century, this date has gained recognition beyond Texas, and became a federal holiday in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Opal Lee",
        "text": "Opal Lee (born October 7, 1926) is an American retired teacher, counselor, and activist in the movement to make Juneteenth a federally-recognized holiday. She is often described as the \"grandmother of Juneteenth\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth flag",
        "text": "The white star and surrounding star-burst alludes to Texas and the \"freedom of African Americans in all 50 states\". The curve behind the star is representative of a new horizon and the colors were taken from the red, white, and blue flag of the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public holidays in the United States",
        "text": ", there are eleven annual federal holidays in the United States, and one additional quadrennial holiday (Inauguration Day). Pursuant to the Uniform Monday Holiday Act of 1968 (effective 1971), official holidays are observed on a Monday, except for New Year's Day, Juneteenth, Independence Day, Veterans Day, Thanksgiving, and Christmas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miss Juneteenth",
        "text": "Miss Juneteenth is a 2020 American drama film written and directed by Channing Godfrey Peoples and starring Nicole Beharie, Kendrick Sampson, and Alexis Chikaeze. The plot follows a single mom and former teen beauty queen who enters her daughter into the local Miss Juneteenth pageant. The film premiered at Sundance in January 2020, and was released via video on demand on June 19, 2020, coinciding with the 155th anniversary of the titular holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The Great Depression forced many black people off farms and into the cities to find work, where they had difficulty taking the day off to celebrate. From 1936 to 1951, the Texas State Fair served as a destination for celebrating the holiday, contributing to its revival. In 1936, an estimated 150,000 to 200,000 people joined the holiday's celebration in Dallas. In 1938, Governor of Texas James V. Allred issued a proclamation stating in part:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth celebrations often include lectures and exhibitions on African-American culture. The modern holiday places much emphasis upon teaching about African-American heritage. Karen M. Thomas wrote in \"Emerge\" that \"community leaders have latched on to [Juneteenth] to help instill a sense of heritage and pride in black youth.\" Celebrations are commonly accompanied by voter registration efforts, the performing of plays, and retelling stories. The holiday is also a celebration of soul food and other food with African-American influences. In \"Tourism Review International\", Anne Donovan and Karen DeBres write that \"Barbecue is the centerpiece of most Juneteenth celebrations\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Peoples died in October 5, 2015, at age 89. The annual parade was named the \"Clara Peoples Freedom Trail Parade\" beginning in 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Texas in the American Civil War",
        "text": "Federal troops didn't arrive in Texas to restore order until June 19, 1865, when Union Maj. Gen. Gordon Granger and 2,000 Union soldiers arrived on Galveston Island to take possession of the state and enforce the new freedoms of former slaves. The Texas holiday Juneteenth commemorates this date. The Stars and Stripes were not raised over Austin until June 25."
      },
      {
        "title": "Independence Day (United States)",
        "text": "According to , Independence Day is a federal holiday, so all non-essential federal institutions (such as the postal service and federal courts) are closed on that day. While the legal holiday remains on July 4, if that date happens to be on a Saturday or Sunday, then federal government employees will instead take the day off on the adjacent Friday or Monday, respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joe Biden",
        "text": "On June 17, Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act, which officially declared Juneteenth a federal holiday. Juneteenth is the first new federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was declared a holiday in 1986. In July 2021, amid a slowing of the COVID-19 vaccination rate in the country and the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant, Biden said that the country has \"a pandemic for those who haven't gotten the vaccination\" and that it was therefore \"gigantically important\" for Americans to be vaccinated, touting the vaccines' effectiveness against hospitalizations and deaths from COVID-19. He also criticized the prevalence of COVID-19 misinformation on social media, saying it was \"killing people\". In September 2021, Biden announced AUKUS, a security pact between Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States, to ensure \"peace and stability in the Indo-Pacific over the long term\"; the deal included nuclear-powered submarines built for Australia's use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "By 2020, Peoples' granddaughter, Jenelle Jack, was the director of Juneteenth Oregon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lift Every Voice and Sing",
        "text": "In mid-2020, \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\" began to receive wider public attention amid nationwide protests over the police murder of George Floyd: it was sung during demonstrations and other events which were held in solidarity. Presidential candidate Joe Biden referenced the hymn in his action plan for addressing racial disparities in the United States, which was titled \"Lift Every Voice: The Biden Plan for Black America\". On June 19, 2020, Google featured a Juneteenth-themed animation on its home page, set to a spoken word rendition of the hymn's first verse by LeVar Burton. In 2021, Vanessa Williams sung \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\" on the PBS Independence Day special \"A Capitol Fourth\", commemorating the recognition of Juneteenth as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stanley Moore (politician)",
        "text": "On the Cook County Board of Commissioners, in collaboration with fellow commissioner Dennis Deer, Moore wrote legislation which was passed in December 2020 to make Juneteenth a paid holiday in Cook County."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Juneteenth in Oregon\n--Timeline.\n--Clara Peoples.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Closer (2021 film)",
        "text": "Chappelle celebrates the adoption of the Juneteenth holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The holiday is considered the \"longest-running African-American holiday\" and has been called \"America's second Independence Day\". Juneteenth is usually celebrated on the third Saturday in June. Historian Mitch Kachun considers that celebrations of the end of slavery have three goals: \"to celebrate, to educate, and to agitate\". Early celebrations consisted of baseball, fishing, and rodeos. African Americans were often prohibited from using public facilities for their celebrations, so they were often held at churches or near water. Celebrations were also characterized by elaborate large meals and people wearing their best clothing. It was common for former enslaved people and their descendants to make a pilgrimage to Galveston. As early festivals received news coverage, Janice Hume and Noah Arceneaux consider that they \"served to assimilate African-American memories within the dominant 'American story'.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Federal holidays in the United States",
        "text": "Inauguration Day, held on January 20 every four years following a quadrennial presidential election, is considered a paid holiday for federal employees in the Washington, D.C., area by the Office of Personnel Management. However, it is not considered a federal holiday in the United States equivalent to the eleven holidays mentioned above."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth (Atlanta)",
        "text": "\"Juneteenth\" is the ninth episode of the first season of the American comedy-drama television series \"Atlanta\". The episode was written by Stefani Robinson, and directed by Janicza Bravo. It was first broadcast on FX in the United States on October 25, 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Al Edwards (politician)",
        "text": "Edwards was a thirteen-term elected member of the Texas House of Representative, serving in that capacity from 1978 to 2007. In 1979, he authored and sponsored House Bill 1016, making June 19 (\"Juneteenth\") a state paid holiday in Texas. He founded Juneteenth, U.S.A., in 1979 along with Al Edwards Real Estate and Mortgage Company. The Juneteenth legislation finally passed in 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "Federal holidays in the United States",
        "text": "Although many states recognize most or all federal holidays as state holidays, the federal government cannot enact laws to compel them to do so. Furthermore, states can recognize other days as state holidays that are not federal holidays. For example, the State of Texas recognizes all federal holidays except Columbus Day, and in addition recognizes the Friday after Thanksgiving, Christmas Eve, and the day after Christmas as state holidays. Furthermore, Texas does not follow the federal rule of closing either the Friday before if a holiday falls on a Saturday, or the Monday after if a holiday falls on a Sunday (offices are open on those Fridays or Mondays), but does have \"partial staffing holidays\" (such as March 2, which is Texas Independence Day) and \"optional holidays\" (such as Good Friday)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In 2020, controversy ensued when President Donald Trump initially scheduled his first political rally since the COVID-19 pandemic's outbreak for June 19 in Tulsa, Oklahoma, site of the 1921 race massacre in the Greenwood district. Two days after announcing the rally in Tulsa, President Trump asked a Black secret service agent about Juneteenth. \"Yes, I know what it is,\" the agent said to Trump, \"and it\u2019s very offensive to me that you\u2019re having this rally on Juneteenth.\" That night, Trump tweeted that he wished to change the date of his rally. He postponed it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Malcolm X Day",
        "text": "Malcolm X Day is an American holiday in honor of Malcolm X that is celebrated on either May 19 (his birthday) or the third Friday of May. The commemoration of the civil rights leader has been proposed as an official state holiday in the U.S. state of Illinois in 2015 and Missouri as recent as 2019. As of present, only the city of Berkeley, California, observes the holiday with city offices and schools closed. After Juneteenth became a federal holiday, there are growing calls for Malcolm X Day to also be observed as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holidays with paid time off in the United States",
        "text": "In general, most state governments observe the same holidays that the federal government observes. However, while that is true for most states, every state includes and omits holidays to fit the culture relevant to its population. \"All federal holidays\" in state observations below excludes Inauguration Day, which is only observed by Washington, DC, and federal employees in that area.\n* All federal holidays\n* January 15\u201321 (floating Monday) \u2013 this federal holiday is renamed \"Robert E. Lee/Martin Luther King Birthday\"\n* February 15\u201321 (floating Monday) \u2013 this federal holiday is renamed \"George Washington/Thomas Jefferson Birthday\"\n* April 22\u201328 (floating Monday) \u2013 Confederate Memorial Day\n* June 1\u20137 (floating Monday) \u2013 Birthday of Jefferson Davis\n* October 8\u201314 (floating Monday) \u2013 Renamed Columbus Day / Fraternal Day / American Indian Heritage Day\n* All Alabama state holidays\n* February 3 \u2013 March 9 (floating Tuesday using Computus) \u00a0\u2013 Mardi Gras\n* All Alabama state holidays\n* February 3 \u2013 March 9 (floating Tuesday using Computus) \u00a0\u2013 Mardi Gras\n* All Alabama state holidays\n* November 8\u201314 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 Barack Obama Day\n* All federal holidays except Columbus Day\n* March 25\u201331 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 Seward's Day\n* October 18\u00a0\u2013 Alaska Day\n* All federal holidays\n* April 17\u00a0\u2013 Flag Day\n* December 26\u00a0\u2013 Family Day\n* All federal holidays\n* January 15\u201321 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 this federal holiday is renamed \"Dr. Martin Luther King Jr./Civil Rights Day\".\n* February 15\u201321 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 this federal holiday is renamed \"Lincoln/Washington Presidents' Day\".\n* All federal holidays except Columbus Day\n* February 15\u201321 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 this federal holiday is renamed \"George Washington's Birthday and Daisy Gatson Bates Day\".\n* December 24\u00a0\u2013 Christmas Eve\n* All federal holidays except Columbus Day\n* March 31 (fixed)\u00a0\u2013 C\u00e9sar Ch\u00e1vez Day\n* November 23\u201329 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 day after Thanksgiving\n* All California state holidays (schools closed)\n* January 23\u00a0\u2013 Ed Roberts Day (schools open, but with related instructions)\n* January 30\u00a0\u2013 Fred Korematsu Day of Civil Liberties (schools open, but with related instructions)\n* February 6\u00a0\u2013 Ronald Reagan Day (schools open, but with related instructions)\n* February 12\u00a0\u2013 Lincoln's Birthday (schools closed) (some school districts observe the holiday on the second Monday in February)\n* February 15\u00a0\u2013 Susan B. Anthony Day (schools open, but with related instructions)\n* March 5\u00a0\u2013 death of Crispus Attucks (schools open, but with related instructions)\n* March 7\u00a0\u2013 birthday of Luther Burbank / Arbor Day (schools open, but with related instructions)\n* March 30\u00a0\u2013 Vietnamese Veterans Day (schools open, but with related instructions)\n* April 6\u00a0\u2013 California Poppy Day (schools open, but with related instructions)\n* April 21\u00a0\u2013 John Muir Day (schools open, but with related instructions)\n* May 8\u201314 (floating Wednesday)\u00a0\u2013 Day of the Teacher (schools open, but with related instructions)\n* May 22\u00a0\u2013 Harvey Milk Day (schools open, but with related instructions)\n* September 22\u201328 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 Native American Day (schools closed)\n* October 25\u00a0\u2013 Larry Itliong Day (schools open, but with related instructions)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Holidays with paid time off in the United States",
        "text": "Florida's laws separate the definitions between paid versus legal holidays. The following list shows only the legal holidays that were not defined as \"paid holidays\":\n* All Florida state holidays\n* January 18\u00a0\u2013 Martin Luther King Jr.\n* February 3 \u2013 March 9 (floating Tuesday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Shrove Tuesday / Mardi Gras\n* February 12\u00a0\u2013 Lincoln's Birthday\n* February 15\u00a0\u2013 Susan B. Anthony Day\n* February 15\u201321 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 Washington's Birthday (reincluded because the holiday is not listed under the Florida government holidays)\n* March 20 \u2013 April 23 (floating Friday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Good Friday\n* April 2\u00a0\u2013 Pascua Florida Day\n* April 26\u00a0\u2013 Confederate Memorial Day\n* June 3\u00a0\u2013 birthday of Jefferson Davis\n* June 14\u00a0\u2013 Flag Day\n* October 8\u201314 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 renamed holiday as Columbus and Farmers' Day\n* November 2\u20138 (floating Tuesday)\u00a0\u2013 Election Day\n* All Florida state holidays\n* February 15\u201321 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 Presidents' Day (reincluded because the Florida state government omits this holiday)\n* March 20 \u2013 April 23 (floating Friday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Good Friday\n* September 5 \u2013 October 5 (floating date)\u00a0\u2013 Rosh Hashannah\n* September 14 \u2013 October 14 (floating date)\u00a0\u2013 Yom Kippur\n* All Florida state holidays\n* February 15\u201321 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 Presidents' Day (reincluded because the Florida state government excludes this date)\n* October 8\u201314 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 Columbus Day (reincluded because the Florida state government excludes this date)\n* All federal holidays except President's Day\n* April 24\u201330 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 Confederate Memorial Day\n* November 23\u201329 (Friday after Thanksgiving)\u00a0\u2013 State Holiday, formerly Robert E. Lee Day (observed in other states around January 19)\n* December 24\u00a0\u2013 Washington's Birthday observed. If December 24 is a Wednesday, then this holiday is observed on Friday December 26.\n* All federal holidays\n* March 7\u00a0\u2013 Guam History and Chamorro Heritage Day\n* July 21\u00a0\u2013 Liberation Day\n* November 2\u00a0\u2013 All Souls' Day\n* December 8\u00a0\u2013 Lady of Camarin Day\n* All federal holidays except Columbus Day and Juneteenth\n* March 20 \u2013 April 23 (floating Friday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Good Friday\n* March 26\u00a0\u2013 Prince Jonah Kuhio Kalanianaole Day\n* June 11\u00a0\u2013 Kamehameha Day\n* August 15\u201321 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 Statehood Day\n* November 2\u20138 (floating Tuesday)\u00a0\u2013 Election Day\n* All federal holidays\n* January 15\u201321 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 this federal holiday is renamed \"Martin Luther King Jr.\u2013Idaho Human Rights Day\"\n* All federal holidays\n* February 12\u00a0\u2013 Lincoln's Birthday\n* November 2\u20138 (floating Tuesday)\u00a0\u2013 Election Day\n* November 23\u201329 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 day after Thanksgiving\n* All Illinois state holidays except the Day after Thanksgiving\n* March 1\u20137 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 Pulaski Day\n* All federal holidays except Washington's Birthday\n* March 20 \u2013 April 23 (floating Friday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Good Friday\n* May 1\u20137 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 Primary Election Day\n* November 2\u20138 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 General Election Day\n* November 23\u201329 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 Lincoln's Birthday to occur on day after Thanksgiving\n* December 24\u00a0\u2013 Washington's Birthday to occur on Christmas Eve\n* All federal holidays except Washington's Birthday and Columbus Day\n* November 23\u201329 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 Day after Thanksgiving\n* All federal holidays except Washington's Birthday and Columbus Day\n* All federal holidays except Washington's Birthday and Columbus Day\n* March 20 \u2013 April 23 (floating Friday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Good Friday\n* November 23\u201329 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 Day after Thanksgiving\n* December 24\u00a0\u2013 Christmas Eve\n* December 31\u00a0\u2013 New Year's Eve\n* All federal holidays except Columbus Day\n* February 3 \u2013 March 9 (floating Tuesday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Mardi Gras\n* March 20 \u2013 April 23 (floating Friday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Good Friday\n* November 2\u20138 (floating Tuesday)\u00a0\u2013 Election Day\n* All Louisiana state holidays\n* November 1\u00a0\u2013 All Saints' Day\n* November 23\u201329 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 Day after Thanksgiving\n* December 24\u00a0\u2013 Christmas Eve\n* December 31\u00a0\u2013 New Year's Eve\n* All Louisiana state holidays\n* January 20\u00a0\u2013 Inauguration Day (every four years)\n* All federal holidays\n* April 15\u201321 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 Patriots' Day\n* November 23\u201329 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 Day after Thanksgiving\n* All federal holidays\n* November 2\u20138 (floating Tuesday)\u00a0\u2013 Election Day (every 2 years)\n* November 23\u201329 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 Native American Heritage Day\n* All federal holidays\n* April 15\u201321 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 Patriots' Day\n* All Massachusetts state holidays\n* March 17\u00a0\u2013 Evacuation Day\n* June 17\u00a0\u2013 Bunker Hill Day\n* All federal holidays except Columbus Day\n* November 2\u20138 (floating Tuesday)\u00a0\u2013 General Election Day (even numbered years only)\n* November 23\u201329 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 Day after Thanksgiving\n* December 24\u00a0\u2013 Christmas Eve (if Christmas Eve falls on Sunday as it does in 2023, December 22 is the observed holiday)\n* December 31\u00a0\u2013 New Year's Eve (if New Year's Eve falls on Sunday as it does in 2023, December 29 is the observed holiday)\n* All federal holidays except Columbus Day\n* November 23\u201329 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 Day after Thanksgiving\n* All federal holidays except Columbus Day\n* January 15\u201321 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 this federal holiday is renamed \"Martin Luther King's and Robert E. Lee's Birthdays\"\n* April 24\u201330 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 Confederate Memorial Day\n* May 25\u201331 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 renamed National Memorial Day / Jefferson Davis Birthday\n* November 11\u00a0\u2013 renamed Armistice Day (Veterans Day)\n* All federal holidays\n* February 12\u00a0\u2013 Lincoln's Birthday\n* May 8\u00a0\u2013 Truman Day\n* All federal holidays\n* November 2\u20138 (floating Tuesday)\u00a0\u2013 General Election Day\n* All federal holidays\n* April 24\u201330 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 Arbor Day\n* November 23\u201329 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 Day after Thanksgiving\n* All federal holidays except Columbus Day.\n* October 25\u201331 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 Nevada Day\n* November 23\u201329 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 Family Day\n* All federal holidays (offices remain open on Columbus Day)\n* January 15\u201321 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 this federal holiday is renamed Martin Luther King Jr. Civil Rights Day\n* November 23\u201329 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 the day after Thanksgiving\n* All federal holidays\n* March 20 \u2013 April 23 (floating Friday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Good Friday\n* November 2\u20138 (floating Tuesday)\u00a0\u2013 Election Day\n**Friday following 4th Thursday in November - Day After Thanksgiving (this used to be a state holiday for all branches of government; it is sometimes still proclaimed as a holiday for the Judicial branch of government, usually not until November.)\n* All federal holidays except Washington's Birthday\n* November 23\u201329 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 holiday in lieu of Presidents' Day\n* All federal holidays\n* February 12\u00a0\u2013 Lincoln's Birthday\n* November 2\u20138 (floating Tuesday)\u00a0\u2013 Election Day\n* All New York State holidays and most national school holidays\n* January 21 \u2013 February 20 (floating on full moon date)\u00a0\u2013 Lunar New Year\n* February\u00a0\u2013 Mid-Winter Recess (includes Lincoln's Birthday and Washington's Birthday)\n* March 20 \u2013 April 23 (floating Friday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Good Friday\n* April\u00a0\u2013 Spring Recess\n* July\u2013August\u00a0\u2013 Summer vacation (includes Independence Day)\n* September 5 \u2013 October 5 (floating date)\u00a0\u2013 Rosh Hashannah\n* September 14 \u2013 October 14 (floating date)\u00a0\u2013 Yom Kippur\n* December\u00a0\u2013 Winter Recess (includes Christmas and New Year's Day)\n* Eid al-Fitr (date can vary year-round)\u00a0\u2013 Schools are closed if the holiday falls within the academic year\n* Eid al-Adha (date can vary year-round)\u00a0\u2013 Schools are closed if the holiday falls within the academic year\n* Diwali\n* All federal holidays except Washington's Birthday and Columbus Day, plus the following four state holidays:\n* March 20 \u2013 April 23 (floating Friday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Good Friday\n* November 23\u201329 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 Day After Thanksgiving\n* December 22\u201328 (floating days)\u00a0\u2013 Christmas Eve and Day after Christmas (three days sequentially; adjusted if any falls on a weekend)\n* All federal holidays except Columbus Day\n* March 20 \u2013 April 23 (floating Friday using Computus)\u00a0- Good Friday\n* All federal holidays\n* March 24\u00a0\u2013 Commonwealth Covenant Day\n* March 20 \u2013 April 23 (floating Friday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Good Friday\n* November 4\u00a0\u2013 Citizenship Day\n* December 9\u00a0\u2013 Constitution Day\n* All federal holidays\n* All Ohio holidays except Columbus Day\n* November 2\u20138 (floating Tuesday) Election Day\n* All federal holidays except Columbus Day\n* November 23\u201329 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 Day after Thanksgiving\n* December 26\u00a0\u2013 Day after Christmas\n* All federal holidays except Columbus Day\n* All federal holidays\n* March 20 \u2013 April 23 (floating Friday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Good Friday\n* November 2\u20138 (floating Tuesday)\u00a0\u2013 Election Day\n* November 23\u201329 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 Day after Thanksgiving\n* All federal holidays\n* January 6\u00a0\u2013 Three Kings Day/Epiphany\n* January 8\u201314 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 Eugenio Mar\u00eda de Hostos Birthday\n* March 22\u00a0\u2013 Emancipation Day\n* March 20 \u2013 April 23 (floating Friday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Good Friday\n* March 22 \u2013 April 25 (floating Sunday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Easter\n* April 15\u201321 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 Jos\u00e9 de Diego Birthday\n* May 8\u201314 (floating Sunday)\u00a0\u2013 Mother's Day\n* June 15\u201321 (floating Sunday)\u00a0\u2013 Father's Day\n* July 15\u201321 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 Luis Mu\u00f1oz Rivera Birthday\n* July 25\u00a0\u2013 Constitution of Puerto Rico Day\n* July 27\u00a0\u2013 Jos\u00e9 Celso Barbosa Birthday\n* November 19\u00a0\u2013 Discovery of Puerto Rico Day\n* All federal holidays except Washington's Birthday\n* August 8\u201314 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 Victory Day\n* November 2\u20138 (floating Tuesday)\u00a0\u2013 Election Day\n* All federal holidays except Columbus Day\n* May 10\u00a0\u2013 Confederate Memorial Day\n* November 23\u201329 (floating Friday)\u00a0\u2013 Day after Thanksgiving\n* December 24\u00a0\u2013 Christmas Eve\n* December 26\u00a0\u2013 Day after Christmas\n* All federal holidays except Columbus Day\n* October 8\u201314 (floating Monday)\u00a0\u2013 Native Americans Day\n* All federal holidays except Columbus Day\n* March 20 \u2013 April 23 (floating Friday using Computus)\u00a0\u2013 Good Friday\n* December 24\u00a0\u2013 Christmas Eve"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ashton Villa",
        "text": "June 19 has since become known as Juneteenth, a portmanteau of the words June and nineteenth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth flag",
        "text": "The Juneteenth flag is a flag that marks Juneteenth. It was created in 1997 and first flown in 2000."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Juneteenth a federal holiday in the USA?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Yes, it is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African-Americans.",
      "Juneteenth (officially Juneteenth National Independence Day and also known as Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence Day is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African-Americans. Would you like to know more about Juneteenth?"
    ],
    "topic": "Juneteenth",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Juneteenth:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Juneteenth"
        ],
        "ctx": "Juneteenth (officially Juneteenth National Independence Day and also known as Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence Day) is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African-Americans. It is also often observed for celebrating African-American culture. Originating in Galveston, Texas, it has been celebrated annually on June 19 in various parts of the United States since 1865. The day was recognized as a federal holiday on June\u00a017, 2021, when President Joe Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act into law. Juneteenth's commemoration is on the anniversary date of the June 19, 1865, announcement of General Order No.\u00a03 by Union Army general Gordon Granger, proclaiming freedom for enslaved people in Texas, which was the last state of the Confederacy with institutional slavery."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Juneteenth:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Juneteenth"
        ],
        "ctx": "Juneteenth (officially Juneteenth National Independence Day and also known as Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence Day) is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African-Americans. It is also often observed for celebrating African-American culture. Originating in Galveston, Texas, it has been celebrated annually on June 19 in various parts of the United States since 1865. The day was recognized as a federal holiday on June\u00a017, 2021, when President Joe Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act into law. Juneteenth's commemoration is on the anniversary date of the June 19, 1865, announcement of General Order No.\u00a03 by Union Army general Gordon Granger, proclaiming freedom for enslaved people in Texas, which was the last state of the Confederacy with institutional slavery."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth (officially Juneteenth National Independence Day and also known as Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence Day) is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African-Americans. It is also often observed for celebrating African-American culture. Originating in Galveston, Texas, it has been celebrated annually on June 19 in various parts of the United States since 1865. The day was recognized as a federal holiday on June\u00a017, 2021, when President Joe Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act into law. Juneteenth's commemoration is on the anniversary date of the June 19, 1865, announcement of General Order No.\u00a03 by Union Army general Gordon Granger, proclaiming freedom for enslaved people in Texas, which was the last state of the Confederacy with institutional slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Juneteenth is an American federal holiday celebrating the emancipation of African-Americans and the abolition of slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "End of slavery in the United States of America",
        "text": "Juneteenth is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of African-American slaves. It is also often observed for celebrating African-American culture. Originating in Galveston, Texas, it has been celebrated annually on June 19 in various parts of the United States since 1865. The day was recognized as a federal holiday on June\u00a017, 2021, when President Joe Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act into law. Juneteenth's commemoration is on the anniversary date of the June 19, 1865, announcement of General Order No.\u00a03 by Union Army general Gordon Granger, proclaiming freedom for slaves in Texas, which was the last state of the Confederacy with institutional slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In the 2000s and 2010s, activists continued a long process to push Congress towards official recognition of Juneteenth. Organizations such as the National Juneteenth Observance Foundation sought a Congressional designation of Juneteenth as a national day of observance. In 2016, Opal Lee, often referred to as the \"grandmother of Juneteenth\", walked from Fort Worth, Texas to Washington D.C. to advocate for a federal holiday. When it was officially made a federal holiday on June 17, 2021, it became one of five date-specific federal holidays along with New Year's Day (January\u00a01), Independence Day (July\u00a04), Veterans Day (November\u00a011), and Christmas Day (December\u00a025). Juneteenth will coincide with Father's Day in 2022, 2033, 2039, 2044, and 2050. Juneteenth is the first new federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was declared a holiday in 1986. Juneteenth also falls within the statutory Honor America Days period, which lasts for 21 days from Flag Day (June 14) to Independence Day (July 4)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Celebratory traditions often include public readings of the Emancipation Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot\" and \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\", and the reading of works by noted African-American writers, such as Ralph Ellison and Maya Angelou. Some Juneteenth celebrations also include rodeos, street fairs, cookouts, family reunions, park parties, historical reenactments, and Miss Juneteenth contests. When Juneteenth became a federal holiday on June 17, 2021, it was the first new federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was adopted in 1983."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth is a federal holiday in the United States. For decades, activists and congress members (led by many African Americans) proposed legislation, advocated for, and built support for state and national observances. During his campaign for president in June 2020, Joe Biden publicly celebrated the holiday. President Donald Trump, during his campaign for reelection, added making the day a national holiday part of his \"Platinum Plan for Black America\". Spurred on by the advocates and the Congressional Black Caucus, on June\u00a015, 2021, the Senate unanimously passed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act, establishing Juneteenth as a federal holiday; it subsequently passed through the House of Representatives by a 415\u201314 vote on June\u00a016. President Joe Biden signed the bill () on June\u00a017, 2021, making Juneteenth the eleventh American federal holiday and the first to obtain legal observance as a federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was designated in 1983. According to the bill, federal government employees will now get to take the day off every year on June 19, or should the date fall on a Saturday or Sunday, they will get the Monday or Friday closest to the Saturday or Sunday on which the date falls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Some cities and counties have also recognized Juneteenth through proclamation. In 2020, Juneteenth was formally recognized by New York City (as an annual official city holiday and public school holiday, starting in 2021), although in 2022 it will be observed as a school holiday on June 20. Cook County, Illinois, adopted an ordinance to make Juneteenth a paid county holiday. The City and County of Honolulu recognizes it as an \"annual day of honor and reflection\", and Portland, Oregon (as a day of remembrance and action and a paid holiday for city employees)."
      },
      {
        "title": "African-American culture",
        "text": "Less-widely observed outside of the African-American community is Emancipation Day popularly known as Juneteenth or Freedom Day, in recognition of the official reading of the Emancipation Proclamation on June 19, 1865, in Texas. Juneteenth is a day when African Americans reflect on their unique history and heritage. It is one of the fastest growing African-American holidays with observances in the United States. Juneteenth was recognized as federal holiday in 2021, and was first observed as such on June 19, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In June 2019, Governor of Pennsylvania Tom Wolf recognized Juneteenth as a holiday in the state. In 2020, state governors of Virginia, New York, and New Jersey signed an executive order recognizing Juneteenth as a paid day of leave for state employees. In 2021, Governor of Oregon Kate Brown signed an executive order recognizing Juneteenth as a paid day of leave for state employees. On June\u00a016, 2021, Illinois Governor J. B. Pritzker signed House Bill\u00a03922, establishing Juneteenth as a paid state holiday starting in 2022; since 2003, it had been a state ceremonial observance in Illinois."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Observance today is primarily in local celebrations. In many places, Juneteenth has become a multicultural holiday. Traditions include public readings of the Emancipation Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot\" and \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\", and reading of works by noted African-American writers, such as Ralph Ellison and Maya Angelou. Celebrations include picnics, rodeos, street fairs, cookouts, family reunions, park parties, historical reenactments, blues festivals and Miss Juneteenth contests. Strawberry soda is a traditional drink associated with the celebration. The Mascogos, the descendants of Black Seminoles, who have resided in Coahuila, Mexico, since 1852, also celebrate Juneteenth."
      },
      {
        "title": "African-American neighborhood",
        "text": "Although Juneteenth has increased in national and international popularity, the holiday began among Black Texans in Galveston, Texas when enslaved persons learned of the Emancipation Proclamation two years late, because slaveholders had purposefully kept this information from them. Today, several Black communities in Texas and beyond recognize June 19 as a complicated but celebratory holiday. It is also known as Jubilee Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Southgate\u2013Lewis House",
        "text": "On June 19, 2021, the annual Juneteenth Celebration became the newest federal holiday: officially, Juneteenth National Independence Day (Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence). This traditional annual celebration commemorates the ending of slavery in the United States \u2013 the emancipation of enslaved African Americans. A photograph of the Southgate\u2013Lewis House shows how the home of the W. H. Passon Historical Society was utilized on the very day the new Juneteenth National Independence Day was celebrated. The banners on the west elevation of the house (shown herein) depict distinguished African Americans in Government, Education, Literature, Medicine, and Sports. The banners on the north elevation (shown herein) depict distinguished African Americans in Religion and the Military."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History",
        "text": "Juneteenth is the oldest nationally celebrated commemoration of the ending of slavery in the United States. In 2021, days after President Joe Biden signed a law making Juneteenth, June 19, a federal holiday, the museum presented a hybrid virtual and in-person three-day celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth\n--Celebrations and traditions.\n--History.\n----Early history.\n------The Civil War and celebrations of emancipation.\n------End of slavery in Texas.\n------Early Juneteenth celebrations.\n------Decline during Jim Crow.\n----Revival.\n------1960s\u20131980s.\n------Prayer breakfast and commemorative celebrations.\n------Official statewide recognitions.\n------Juneteenth in pop culture and mass media.\n------2020 Trump campaign scheduling controversy.\n------Becoming a federal holiday.\n--Legal observance.\n----State and local.\n----National.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Since the 1980s and 1990s, the holiday has been more widely celebrated among African-American communities and has seen increasing mainstream attention in the US. In 1991, there was an exhibition by the Anacostia Community Museum (part of the Smithsonian Institution) called \u201cJuneteenth \u201991, Freedom Revisited\u201d. In 1994, a group of community leaders gathered at Christian Unity Baptist Church in New Orleans to work for greater national celebration of Juneteenth. Expatriates have celebrated it in cities abroad, such as Paris. Some US military bases in other countries sponsor celebrations, in addition to those of private groups. In 1999, Ralph Ellison's novel \"Juneteenth\" was published, increasing recognition of the holiday. By 2006, at least 200 cities celebrated the day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "During the 1950s and 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement focused the attention of African Americans on expanding freedom and integrating. As a result, observations of the holiday declined again (though it was still celebrated in Texas)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In the late 1970s, when the Texas Legislature declared Juneteenth a \"holiday of significance ... particularly to the blacks of Texas,\" it became the first state to establish Juneteenth as a state holiday. The bill passed through the Texas Legislature in 1979 and was officially made a state holiday on January\u00a01, 1980. Before 2000, three more U.S. states officially observed the day, and over the next two decades it was recognized as an official observance in all states, except South Dakota, until becoming a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harriet Tubman Day",
        "text": "Harriet Tubman Day is an American holiday in honor of the anti-slavery activist Harriet Tubman, observed on March 10, and in the U.S. state of New York. Observances also occur locally around the U.S. state of Maryland. After Juneteenth became a federal holiday, there are growing calls for this day to also be observed at the federal level."
      },
      {
        "title": "Federal holidays in the United States",
        "text": "On June 16, 2021, the U.S. Congress passed legislation to make Juneteenth (June 19) a federal holiday. The day commemorates the end of slavery in Texas in 1865. President Joe Biden signed this bill into law on June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Texas was the first state to recognize the date, in 1980. By 2002, eight states officially recognized Juneteenth and four years later 15 states recognized the holiday. By 2008, nearly half of states observed the holiday as a ceremonial observance. By 2019, 47 states and the District of Columbia recognized Juneteenth, although as of 2020 only Texas had adopted the holiday as a paid holiday for state employees. In the yearlong aftermath of the murder of George Floyd that occurred on May 25, 2020, nine states had designated Juneteenth a paid holiday, including New York, Washington, and Virginia. In 2020, Massachusetts Governor Charles Baker issued a proclamation that the day would be marked as \"Juneteenth Independence Day\". This followed the filing of bills by both the House and Senate to make Juneteenth a state holiday. Baker did not comment on these bills specifically, but promised to grant the observance of Juneteenth greater importance. On June 16, 2021, Illinois adopted a law changing its ceremonial holiday to a paid state holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Floyd protests",
        "text": "Protests continued over the weekend of June 19 in many cities, and observations of Juneteenth gained a new awareness. Jon Batiste, bandleader for \"The Late Show with Stephen Colbert\", took part in a Juneteenth day of protests, marches, rallies and vigils to \"celebrate, show solidarity, and fight for equal rights and treatment of Black people\" in Brooklyn. Batiste also appeared in concert with Matt Whitaker in a performance presented in partnership with Sing For Hope, performed on the steps of the Brooklyn Public Library."
      },
      {
        "title": "Randolph Bracy",
        "text": "In June 2020, Bracy began a push to make Juneteenth a state holiday, with June 19th marking the date the news of the Emancipation Proclamation reached Texas, the westernmost member of the former Confederacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In 1996, the first federal legislation to recognize \"Juneteenth Independence Day\" was introduced in the U.S. House of Representatives, H.J.\u00a0Res.\u00a0195, sponsored by Barbara-Rose Collins (D-MI). In 1997, Congress recognized the day through Senate Joint Resolution\u00a011 and House Joint Resolution\u00a056. In 2013, the U.S. Senate passed Senate Resolution\u00a0175, acknowledging Lula Briggs Galloway (late president of the National Association of Juneteenth Lineage), who \"successfully worked to bring national recognition to Juneteenth Independence Day\", and the continued leadership of the National Juneteenth Observance Foundation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jon Batiste",
        "text": "In June 2020, Batiste took part in the Juneteenth celebration in Brooklyn, New York with a day of protests, marches, rallies, and vigils to \"celebrate, show solidarity, and fight for equal rights and treatment of Black people\". Performing on the steps of the Brooklyn Public Library, Batiste was joined by Matt Whitaker in a performance presented in partnership with Sing For Hope."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Petersburg, Florida",
        "text": "Juneteenth celebrations are hosted on June 19 to honor the end of slavery in the United States. Peace Protests followed by a celebration in Williams Park take place in St. Pete to honor the holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The holiday is considered the \"longest-running African-American holiday\" and has been called \"America's second Independence Day\". Juneteenth is usually celebrated on the third Saturday in June. Historian Mitch Kachun considers that celebrations of the end of slavery have three goals: \"to celebrate, to educate, and to agitate\". Early celebrations consisted of baseball, fishing, and rodeos. African Americans were often prohibited from using public facilities for their celebrations, so they were often held at churches or near water. Celebrations were also characterized by elaborate large meals and people wearing their best clothing. It was common for former enslaved people and their descendants to make a pilgrimage to Galveston. As early festivals received news coverage, Janice Hume and Noah Arceneaux consider that they \"served to assimilate African-American memories within the dominant 'American story'.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth soon saw a revival as black people began tying their struggle to that of ending slavery. In Atlanta, some campaigners for equality wore Juneteenth buttons. During the 1968 Poor People's Campaign to Washington, DC, called by Rev. Ralph Abernathy, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference made June 19 the \"Solidarity Day of the Poor People\u2019s Campaign\". In the subsequent revival, large celebrations in Minneapolis and Milwaukee emerged, as well as across the Eastern United States. In 1974, Houston began holding large-scale celebrations again, and Fort Worth, Texas, followed the next year. Around 30,000 people attended festivities at Sycamore Park in Fort Worth the following year. The 1978 Milwaukee celebration was described as drawing over 100,000 attendees. In the late 1980s, there were major celebrations of Juneteenth in California, Wisconsin, Illinois, Georgia, and Washington, D.C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Juneteenth may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In the early 20th century, economic and political forces led to a decline in Juneteenth celebrations. From 1890 to 1908, Texas and all former Confederate states passed new constitutions or amendments that effectively disenfranchised black people, excluding them from the political process. White-dominated state legislatures passed Jim Crow laws imposing second-class status. Gladys L. Knight writes the decline in celebration was in part because \"upwardly mobile blacks ... were ashamed of their slave past and aspired to assimilate into mainstream culture. Younger generations of blacks, becoming further removed from slavery were occupied with school ... and other pursuits.\" Others who migrated to the Northern United States could not take time off or simply dropped the celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clay Smothers",
        "text": "In 1979, Smothers opposed the bill to create Juneteenth as a Texas state holiday observing the end of slavery in the state. Smothers belittled the observance as mere \"ceremoniously grinning and bursting watermelons on the Capitol grounds\" and \"a fraudulent holiday\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ralph Norman",
        "text": "In June 2021, Norman was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The holiday has gained mainstream awareness outside African-American communities through depictions in entertainment media, such as episodes of TV series \"Atlanta\" (2016) and \"Black-ish\" (2017), the latter of which featured musical numbers about the holiday by Aloe Blacc, The Roots, and Fonzworth Bentley. In 2018, Apple added Juneteenth to its calendars in iOS under official U.S. holidays. Some private companies have adopted Juneteenth as a paid day off for employees, while others have officially marked the day in other ways, such as a moment of silence. In 2020, several American corporations and educational institutions, including Twitter, the National Football League, Nike, announced that they would treat Juneteenth as a company holiday, providing a paid day off to their workers, and Google Calendar added Juneteenth to its U.S. Holidays calendar. Also in 2020, a number of major universities formally recognized Juneteenth, either as a \"day of reflection\" or as a university holiday with paid time off for faculty and staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "North Dakota approved recognition of Juneteenth as a state recognized annual holiday on April 13, 2021, with Hawaii becoming the 49th state to recognize the holiday on June 16, 2021. On June 16, 2020 South Dakota Governor Kristi Noem proclaimed that the following June 19, 2020 was to be Juneteenth Day for that year only, spurning calls for it to be recognized annually, rather than just for 2020. As of June 2021, South Dakota is the only state that has not yet independently recognized Juneteenth as an annual state holiday or observance, according to the Congressional Research Service; nonetheless, its law provides for following the federal law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Columbus, Ohio",
        "text": "The Juneteenth Ohio Festival is held each year at Franklin Park on Father's Day weekend. Started by Mustafaa Shabazz, Juneteenth Ohio is one of the largest African American festivals in the United States, including three full days of music, food, dance, and entertainment by local and national recording artists. The festival holds a Father's Day celebration, honoring local fathers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chip Roy",
        "text": "Roy was one of 14 Republicans to vote against the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act, which passed 415-14. The bill recognized as a public holiday a commemoration of June 19, 1865, the day slaves in Galveston, Texas, learned that two and a half years earlier President Abraham Lincoln had issued the Emancipation Proclamation freeing any slave held in rebel states. Roy took issue with the bill's name, saying, \"Juneteenth should be commemorated \u2026[but] the holiday should not be called 'Juneteenth National Independence Day' but rather 'Juneteenth National Emancipation (or Freedom or otherwise) Day.' This name needlessly divides our nation on a matter that should instead bring us together by creating a separate Independence Day based on the color of one's skin.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Scott DesJarlais",
        "text": "In June 2021, DesJarlais was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "During the American Civil War (1861\u20131865), emancipation came at different times to various places in the Southern United States. Large celebrations of emancipation, often called Jubilees (recalling the biblical Jubilee in which enslaved people were freed) occurred on September\u00a022, January 1, July\u00a04, August\u00a01, April\u00a06, and November\u00a01, among other dates. In Texas, emancipation came late: enforced in Texas on June\u00a019, 1865, as the southern rebellion collapsed, emancipation became a well known cause of celebration. While June 19, 1865, was not actually the 'end of slavery' even in Texas (like the Emancipation Proclamation, itself, General Gordon's military order had to be acted upon) and although it has competed with other dates for emancipation's celebration, ordinary African Americans created, preserved, and spread a shared commemoration of slavery's wartime demise across the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth celebrations often include lectures and exhibitions on African-American culture. The modern holiday places much emphasis upon teaching about African-American heritage. Karen M. Thomas wrote in \"Emerge\" that \"community leaders have latched on to [Juneteenth] to help instill a sense of heritage and pride in black youth.\" Celebrations are commonly accompanied by voter registration efforts, the performing of plays, and retelling stories. The holiday is also a celebration of soul food and other food with African-American influences. In \"Tourism Review International\", Anne Donovan and Karen DeBres write that \"Barbecue is the centerpiece of most Juneteenth celebrations\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Celebrations date to 1866, at first involving church-centered community gatherings in Texas. They spread across the South and became more commercialized in the 1920s and 1930s, often centering on a food festival. Participants in the Great Migration out of the South carried their celebrations to other parts of the country. During the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, these celebrations were eclipsed by the nonviolent determination to achieve civil rights, but grew in popularity again in the 1970s with a focus on African American freedom and African-American arts. Beginning with Texas by proclamation in 1938, and by legislation in 1979, 49 U.S. states and the District of Columbia have formally recognized the holiday in various ways. With its adoption in certain parts of Mexico, the holiday became an international holiday. Juneteenth is celebrated by the Mascogos, descendants of Black Seminoles who escaped from slavery in 1852 and settled in Coahuila, Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Washington Carver Museum and Cultural Center",
        "text": "The Juneteenth Exhibit is the core of the George Washington Carver Museum, Cultural, and Genealogy Center's permanent exhibits. The displays and information provided help visitors understand the significance of freedom to formerly enslaved African Americans. Multimedia presentations introduce students to the earliest and present day Juneteenth celebrations. It also provides the opportunity to learn about Texas\u2019 participation in the Civil War, history of the celebration, why the holiday is significant for all Americans, as well as contrasting and comparing early commemorations and modern day activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Washington Carver Museum and Cultural Center",
        "text": "The sculptures show how the news of freedom spread. Juneteenth began on June 19, 1865, with an order read by General Gordon Grainger\u2014a law that the Emancipation Proclamation was enforced. So Legislature learned of freedom first, then the news reached The Pastor (who represents the faith leader in African American Community). The Pastor told the enslaved people represented by the Freed Man and Freed Woman, and they shared the news with youth-the Child figure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charlie Baker",
        "text": "In June 2020, Baker signed a law making Juneteenth an official state holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Although this event has come to be celebrated as the end of slavery, emancipation for the remaining enslaved in two Union border states (Delaware and Kentucky), would not come until several months later, on December\u00a018, 1865, when ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment was announced. The freedom of formerly enslaved people in Texas was given state law status in a series of Texas Supreme Court decisions between 1868 and 1874."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in San Antonio",
        "text": "Juneteenth is an annual celebration recognizing the emancipation of black slaves in Texas. President Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation and published it on January 1, 1863, but it did not reach Texas until June 19, 1865. Over the next few years, African-American populations across Texas collected money to buy property dedicated to Juneteenth celebrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tiffany Dena Loftin",
        "text": "On June 19, 2020, Loftin told PEOPLE.com that \"The significance of Juneteenth has always been meaningful in the Black community. However, in the face of the continuous onslaught of racial incidents, police brutality and killings, and hate crimes, we're witnessing a renewed effort to uplift holidays that bring attention to the real history of this country.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Columbus, Ohio",
        "text": "The Juneteenth Ohio Festival is held each year at Franklin Park on Father's Day weekend. Started by Mustafaa Shabazz, JuneteenthOhio is one of the largest African American festivals in the United States, including three full days of music, food, dance, and entertainment by local and national recording artists. The festival holds a Father's Day celebration, honoring local fathers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Peoples and first Black Oregonian Senator Avel Gordly led an effort to make Juneteenth a statewide holiday in 2001. The resolution passed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Capitol Hill Occupied Protest",
        "text": "On June 19, events ranging from a \"grief ritual\" to a dance party were held to observe Juneteenth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The Great Depression forced many black people off farms and into the cities to find work, where they had difficulty taking the day off to celebrate. From 1936 to 1951, the Texas State Fair served as a destination for celebrating the holiday, contributing to its revival. In 1936, an estimated 150,000 to 200,000 people joined the holiday's celebration in Dallas. In 1938, Governor of Texas James V. Allred issued a proclamation stating in part:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Formerly enslaved people in Galveston celebrated after the announcement. On June\u00a019, 1866, one year after the announcement, freedmen in Texas organized the first of what became the annual celebration of \"Jubilee Day\". Early celebrations were used as political rallies to give voting instructions to newly freed African Americans. Early independence celebrations often occurred on January\u00a01 or\u00a04."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth flag",
        "text": "The white star and surrounding star-burst alludes to Texas and the \"freedom of African Americans in all 50 states\". The curve behind the star is representative of a new horizon and the colors were taken from the red, white, and blue flag of the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In 1997, activist Ben Haith created the Juneteenth flag, which was further refined by illustrator Lisa Jeanne Graf. In 2000, the flag was first hoisted at the Roxbury Heritage State Park in Boston by Haith. The star at the center represents Texas and the extension of freedom for all African Americans throughout the whole nation. The burst around the star represents a nova and the red curve represents a horizon, standing for a new era for African Americans. The red, white, and blue colors represent the American flag, which shows that African Americans and their enslaved ancestors are Americans, and the national belief in liberty and justice for all citizens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Joe Biden",
        "text": "On June 17, Biden signed into law a bill creating Juneteenth as a federal holiday; the day celebrates the end of slavery in the U.S."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hitchcock, Texas",
        "text": "Each year Juneteenth is celebrated in the Stringfellow Orchards, a complex previously owned by a slave owner. The Texas Historical Commission enacted a historical marker in 1992. In 2004, the site had not been previously maintained, but John Collins discovered the site in 2004 and, with his wife Doris, later purchased it. the Collinses remain the owners."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ashton Villa",
        "text": "Former slaves in Galveston rejoiced in the streets with jubilant celebrations. Juneteenth celebrations began in Texas the following year. Across many parts of Texas, freed people pooled their funds to purchase land specifically for their communities' increasingly large Juneteenth gatherings \u2014 including Houston's Emancipation Park, Mexia's Booker T. Washington Park, and Emancipation Park in Austin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doug LaMalfa",
        "text": "In June 2021, LaMalfa was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish Juneteenth, a celebration of the end of slavery, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tom Tiffany",
        "text": "In June 2021, Tiffany was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ronny Jackson",
        "text": "In June 2021, Jackson was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In some cities, black people were barred from using public parks because of state-sponsored segregation of facilities. Across parts of Texas, freed people pooled their funds to purchase land to hold their celebrations. The day was first celebrated in Austin in 1867 under the auspices of the Freedmen's Bureau, and it had been listed on a \"calendar of public events\" by 1872. That year, black leaders in Texas raised $1,000 for the purchase of of land to celebrate Juneteenth, today known as Houston's Emancipation Park. The observation was soon drawing thousands of attendees across Texas; an estimated 30,000 black people celebrated at Booker T. Washington Park in Limestone County, Texas, established in 1898 for Juneteenth celebrations. Blacks began using the word Juneteenth early in the 1890s for Jubilee Day. A Texas periodical \"The Current Issue\" used the word as early as 1909, and that year a book on San Antonio, Texas remarked with condescension on \"June 'teenth\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gordon Granger",
        "text": "This set off joyous demonstrations by the freed people, originating the annual Juneteenth celebration, which commemorates the abolition of slavery in Texas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tom McClintock",
        "text": "In June 2021, McClintock was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Juneteenth, a celebration of emancipation from slavery, was introduced to Oregon in 1945 by Kaiser Shipyard worker Clara Peoples, was recognized by the city of Portland in 1972, statewide in 2013, and federally in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trading day",
        "text": "Juneteenth was added as a national holiday and market holiday on June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The 2020 mother-daughter film on the holiday's pageant culture, \"Miss Juneteenth\", celebrates African-American women who are \u201cdetermined to stand on their own,\u201d while a resourceful mother is \u201cgetting past a sexist tendency in her community to keep women in their place.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "George Floyd protests in Columbus, Ohio",
        "text": "On June 19, Franklin County (containing most of the city of Columbus) announced it is replacing Columbus Day as a paid holiday for its government employees with Juneteenth, celebrating the abolition of slavery in the U.S. The change will go into effect June 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Floyd protests in Columbus, Ohio",
        "text": "On June 19, Franklin County (containing most of the city of Columbus) announced it is replacing Columbus Day as a paid holiday for its government employees with Juneteenth, celebrating the abolition of slavery in the U.S. The change will go into effect June 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in Houston",
        "text": "The State of Texas made Juneteenth a holiday at the state level after Al Edwards, a member of the Texas House of Representatives from Houston, proposed it as a bill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mo Brooks",
        "text": "In June 2021, Brooks was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday. His rationale for his vote was that the holiday's date was too exclusive and significant only to Texas, and that the freeing of slaves should be celebrated on another day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Peoples died in October 5, 2015, at age 89. The annual parade was named the \"Clara Peoples Freedom Trail Parade\" beginning in 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in Houston",
        "text": "Juneteenth is an annual celebration recognizing the emancipation of black slaves in Texas. President Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation and published it on January 1, 1863, but it did not reach Galveston, Texas until June 19, 1865. Over the next few years, African-American populations across Texas collected money to buy property dedicated to Juneteenth celebrations. In Houston, the effort was led by the Reverend Jack Yates, a Baptist minister and former slave. His church, Antioch Baptist, and Trinity Methodist Episcopal Church formed the Colored People's Festival and Emancipation Park Association. In 1872, they pooled $800 to put down on ten acres of open land as home for their Juneteenth celebration. In honor of their freedom, they named it Emancipation Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Gosar",
        "text": "In June 2021, Gosar was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Opal Lee",
        "text": "Opal Lee (born October 7, 1926) is an American retired teacher, counselor, and activist in the movement to make Juneteenth a federally-recognized holiday. She is often described as the \"grandmother of Juneteenth\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas Massie",
        "text": "In June 2021, Massie was one of 21 House Republicans to vote against a resolution to give the Congressional Gold Medal to police officers who defended the U.S. Capitol on January 6. Also in June 2021, he was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth (officially named \"Juneteenth National Independence Day\"), as a federal holiday. He said he \"fully support[ed] creating a day to celebrate the abolition of slavery\" but opposed its being named \"Independence Day.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Reactions to the murder of George Floyd",
        "text": "Target and Best Buy made Juneteenth a company holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Floyd protests in Nebraska",
        "text": "On Juneteenth, dozens came to Highland Park in Hastings to show support for Black Lives Matter. Speakers of color explained the history of the holiday, expressed a desire for more Black history to be taught in public schools, and related experiences of racism in central Nebraska. Demonstrators then marched along 14th Street to Burlington Avenue. Participants were asked to wear masks and not include profanity on signs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honor America Days",
        "text": "Honor America Days are a United States Federal Observance observed June 14 to July 4. According to 36 U.S.C. \u00a7 112, the 21 days from Flag Day through Independence Day (including, as of 2021, the federal holiday of Juneteenth) is a period to honor the United States. On these days, U.S. Congress declares that there be public gatherings and activities during that period at which the people of the United States can celebrate and honor their country in an appropriate way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andrew Clyde",
        "text": "In June 2021, Clyde was among 14 House Republicans who voted against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday. \"The Atlanta Journal-Constitution\" reported that Clyde \"supported the holiday but didn't like its title, Juneteenth National Independence Day\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ronald Myers",
        "text": "In 1994 a group of community leaders from across the country gathered at Christian Unity Baptist Church in New Orleans, to work for greater national recognition of Juneteenth, a holiday celebrating the end of slavery. Myers was elected Chairman of this advocacy effort, and continues to serve as chairman of the National Juneteenth Holiday Campaign, National Juneteenth Christian Leadership Council, National Juneteenth Observance Foundation, and the National Association of Juneteenth Jazz Presenters."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in San Antonio",
        "text": "The State of Texas made Juneteenth a holiday at the state level after Al Edwards, a member of the Texas House of Representatives from Houston, proposed it as a bill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Opal Lee",
        "text": "On June 17, 2021, President Joe Biden signed Senate Bill S. 475, making Juneteenth the eleventh federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth flag",
        "text": "The flag was first flown at the Roxbury Heritage State Park in Boston in 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery in the United States",
        "text": "The war ended on June 22, 1865, and following that surrender, the Emancipation Proclamation was enforced throughout remaining regions of the South that had not yet freed the slaves. Slavery officially continued for a couple of months in other locations. Federal troops arrived in Galveston, Texas, on June 19, 1865, to enforce the emancipation. The commemoration of that event, Juneteenth National Independence Day, has been declared a national holiday in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miss Juneteenth",
        "text": "The director of photography was Daniel Patterson, the production designer was Olivia Peebles, and Rachel Dainer-Best was the costume designer. Filming took place during July and August 2019 in Fort Worth, Texas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brevard County Social Services",
        "text": "In June, the Juneteenth Festival is held, commemorating the freeing of the slaves at the end of the Civil War. This attracts about 500 attendees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Peoples helped make Juneteenth recognized by the City of Portland in 1972. Mayor Sam Adams and Amanda Fritz declared Peoples the \"Mother of Juneteenth\" in 2011. Juneteenth became an observed holiday for the City of Portland and Multnomah County employees in 2020, as part of a resolution to address structural racism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "President Abraham Lincoln issued the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation in the midst of the Civil War, announcing on September 22, 1862, that if the rebels did not end the fighting and rejoin the Union by January 1, 1863, he would issue the Emancipation Proclamation. It became effective on January\u00a01, 1863, declaring that all enslaved persons in the Confederate States of America in rebellion and not in Union hands were freed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Opal Lee",
        "text": "In June 1939, her parents bought a house in the 900 block of East Annie Street, then a mostly white area. On June 19, 1939, 500 white rioters vandalized and burned down her home. Lee was twelve years old at the time. Recalling it years later, she said, \"The fact that it happened on the 19th day of June has spurred me to make people understand that Juneteenth is not just a festival.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Commemoration of the American Civil War",
        "text": "As one of the activities for the State of Texas in this Sesquicentennial era, the city of Galveston has raised funds to erect a marker commemorating Juneteenth. This is significant as on June 19, 1865, Federal troops finally arrived in Galveston, Texas to declare that the Emancipation Proclamation has been signed two and one half years prior and that General Robert Lee has surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse in Virginia on April 9 of that year. The War is over. A contraction of June 19 becomes Juneteenth, the designation of a day of joyous celebration that slavery is over and is annually commemorated. The Galveston Historical Society is also making available a seventy-two page pamphlet of African Americans in Texas: A Lasting Legacy Timeline that may be Downloaded at this site. This pamphlet includes a multitude of historical sites related to African American history in the State of Texas including churches, school, museums and residential and community districts. Photographs and brief synopsis of the locales are provided."
      },
      {
        "title": "Opal Lee",
        "text": "Lee campaigned for decades to make Juneteenth a federal holiday. She has promoted the idea by leading walks each year, representing the 2.5 years it took for news of the Emancipation Proclamation to reach Texas. At the age of 89, she conducted a symbolic walk from Fort Worth to Washington, D.C., leaving in September 2016 and arriving in Washington in January 2017. She was hoping to plead the case for a federal holiday directly to President Barack Obama. Lee has not only marched in Texas, but also in Fort Smith and Little Rock, Arkansas; Las Vegas, Nevada; Madison and Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Atlanta, Georgia; Selma, Alabama; and the Carolinas. She promoted a petition for a Juneteenth federal holiday at Change.org; the petition received 1.6 million signatures. She said, \"It's going to be a national holiday, I have no doubt about it. My point is let's make it a holiday in my lifetime.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "George Washington Carver Museum and Cultural Center",
        "text": "The blank pedestal is where visitors can stand and be a part of the piece and continue the Juneteenth Story\u2014to remember, to reflect, and to be inspired to share the emancipation story with others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicole A. Taylor",
        "text": "Her second cookbook, on Juneteenth celebrations, is forthcoming from Simon & Schuster."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Floyd protests in New York City",
        "text": "A statue of George Floyd was unveiled on Juneteenth in 2021 in the Flatbush neighborhood of Brooklyn. The bust is planned to be in Brooklyn temporarily before moving to Union Square in Manhattan. Days later, the statue was vandalized, painting it black and tagging it with a Patriot Front stencil, the name of a far-right white supremacist group."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States Colored Troops Memorial Statue (Lexington Park, Maryland)",
        "text": "A yearly Juneteenth celebration gathering is now held at the memorial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emancipation Day",
        "text": "In Texas, Emancipation Day is celebrated on June 19. It commemorates the announcement in Texas of the abolition of slavery made on that day in 1865. It is commonly known as Juneteenth. Since the late 20th century, this date has gained recognition beyond Texas, and became a federal holiday in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sons of the Revolution",
        "text": "The New York society has organized infrequent Evacuation Day observances of the anniversary of the British departure on November 25, 1783, from New York after the Revolution. After a controversial New York Police Department denial on May 21, 2008, of a New York society application for a parade permit, officials accepted the application on July 30, 2008, for society members to march down Broadway from New York City Hall to Battery Park, \"where reenactors in period costumes will lower a Union Jack and raise the Stars and Stripes in a symbolic reprise of what happened in 1783. British and French diplomats, along with others who had roles in the American colonies' struggle for independence,\" were invited to attend."
      },
      {
        "title": "Texas in the American Civil War",
        "text": "Federal troops didn't arrive in Texas to restore order until June 19, 1865, when Union Maj. Gen. Gordon Granger and 2,000 Union soldiers arrived on Galveston Island to take possession of the state and enforce the new freedoms of former slaves. The Texas holiday Juneteenth commemorates this date. The Stars and Stripes were not raised over Austin until June 25."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "In 2011 and 2013, Oregon politician Lew Frederick introduced bills to recognize Peoples. It was enrolled and signed by the governor on May 1, 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gordon Granger",
        "text": "Granger is best remembered for issuing General Order No. 3 on June 19, 1865, in Galveston, Texas, further informing residents of, and enforcing, Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation which set all Confederate states' slaves free on January 1, 1863. June 19 is now commemorated by the federal holiday of Juneteenth."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of slavery in Texas",
        "text": "June 19, the day of the Emancipation announcement, has been celebrated annually in Texas and other states as Juneteenth."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Juneteenth a federal holiday in the USA?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Juneteenth (officially Juneteenth National Independence Day and also known as Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence Day is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African-Americans. Would you like to know more about Juneteenth?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me more about Juneteenth's observance in New York state!"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "On May 25, 2020, New York designated Juneteenth a paid holiday.",
      "Starting in 2020, New York recognized Juneteenth as a paid day of leave for state employees."
    ],
    "topic": "Juneteenth",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Juneteenth:31",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Juneteenth",
          "Legal observance",
          "State and local"
        ],
        "ctx": "Texas was the first state to recognize the date, in 1980. By 2002, eight states officially recognized Juneteenth and four years later 15 states recognized the holiday. By 2008, nearly half of states observed the holiday as a ceremonial observance. By 2019, 47 states and the District of Columbia recognized Juneteenth, although as of 2020 only Texas had adopted the holiday as a paid holiday for state employees. In the yearlong aftermath of the murder of George Floyd that occurred on May 25, 2020, nine states had designated Juneteenth a paid holiday, including New York, Washington, and Virginia. In 2020, Massachusetts Governor Charles Baker issued a proclamation that the day would be marked as \"Juneteenth Independence Day\". This followed the filing of bills by both the House and Senate to make Juneteenth a state holiday. Baker did not comment on these bills specifically, but promised to grant the observance of Juneteenth greater importance. On June 16, 2021, Illinois adopted a law changing its ceremonial holiday to a paid state holiday."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Juneteenth:23",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Juneteenth",
          "History",
          "Revival",
          "Official statewide recognitions"
        ],
        "ctx": "In June 2019, Governor of Pennsylvania Tom Wolf recognized Juneteenth as a holiday in the state. In 2020, state governors of Virginia, New York, and New Jersey signed an executive order recognizing Juneteenth as a paid day of leave for state employees. In 2021, Governor of Oregon Kate Brown signed an executive order recognizing Juneteenth as a paid day of leave for state employees. On June\u00a016, 2021, Illinois Governor J. B. Pritzker signed House Bill\u00a03922, establishing Juneteenth as a paid state holiday starting in 2022; since 2003, it had been a state ceremonial observance in Illinois."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth is a federal holiday in the United States. For decades, activists and congress members (led by many African Americans) proposed legislation, advocated for, and built support for state and national observances. During his campaign for president in June 2020, Joe Biden publicly celebrated the holiday. President Donald Trump, during his campaign for reelection, added making the day a national holiday part of his \"Platinum Plan for Black America\". Spurred on by the advocates and the Congressional Black Caucus, on June\u00a015, 2021, the Senate unanimously passed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act, establishing Juneteenth as a federal holiday; it subsequently passed through the House of Representatives by a 415\u201314 vote on June\u00a016. President Joe Biden signed the bill () on June\u00a017, 2021, making Juneteenth the eleventh American federal holiday and the first to obtain legal observance as a federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was designated in 1983. According to the bill, federal government employees will now get to take the day off every year on June 19, or should the date fall on a Saturday or Sunday, they will get the Monday or Friday closest to the Saturday or Sunday on which the date falls."
      },
      {
        "title": "End of slavery in the United States of America",
        "text": "Juneteenth is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of African-American slaves. It is also often observed for celebrating African-American culture. Originating in Galveston, Texas, it has been celebrated annually on June 19 in various parts of the United States since 1865. The day was recognized as a federal holiday on June\u00a017, 2021, when President Joe Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act into law. Juneteenth's commemoration is on the anniversary date of the June 19, 1865, announcement of General Order No.\u00a03 by Union Army general Gordon Granger, proclaiming freedom for slaves in Texas, which was the last state of the Confederacy with institutional slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Some cities and counties have also recognized Juneteenth through proclamation. In 2020, Juneteenth was formally recognized by New York City (as an annual official city holiday and public school holiday, starting in 2021), although in 2022 it will be observed as a school holiday on June 20. Cook County, Illinois, adopted an ordinance to make Juneteenth a paid county holiday. The City and County of Honolulu recognizes it as an \"annual day of honor and reflection\", and Portland, Oregon (as a day of remembrance and action and a paid holiday for city employees)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In the 2000s and 2010s, activists continued a long process to push Congress towards official recognition of Juneteenth. Organizations such as the National Juneteenth Observance Foundation sought a Congressional designation of Juneteenth as a national day of observance. In 2016, Opal Lee, often referred to as the \"grandmother of Juneteenth\", walked from Fort Worth, Texas to Washington D.C. to advocate for a federal holiday. When it was officially made a federal holiday on June 17, 2021, it became one of five date-specific federal holidays along with New Year's Day (January\u00a01), Independence Day (July\u00a04), Veterans Day (November\u00a011), and Christmas Day (December\u00a025). Juneteenth will coincide with Father's Day in 2022, 2033, 2039, 2044, and 2050. Juneteenth is the first new federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was declared a holiday in 1986. Juneteenth also falls within the statutory Honor America Days period, which lasts for 21 days from Flag Day (June 14) to Independence Day (July 4)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth (officially Juneteenth National Independence Day and also known as Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence Day) is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African-Americans. It is also often observed for celebrating African-American culture. Originating in Galveston, Texas, it has been celebrated annually on June 19 in various parts of the United States since 1865. The day was recognized as a federal holiday on June\u00a017, 2021, when President Joe Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act into law. Juneteenth's commemoration is on the anniversary date of the June 19, 1865, announcement of General Order No.\u00a03 by Union Army general Gordon Granger, proclaiming freedom for enslaved people in Texas, which was the last state of the Confederacy with institutional slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In the late 1970s, when the Texas Legislature declared Juneteenth a \"holiday of significance ... particularly to the blacks of Texas,\" it became the first state to establish Juneteenth as a state holiday. The bill passed through the Texas Legislature in 1979 and was officially made a state holiday on January\u00a01, 1980. Before 2000, three more U.S. states officially observed the day, and over the next two decades it was recognized as an official observance in all states, except South Dakota, until becoming a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Texas was the first state to recognize the date, in 1980. By 2002, eight states officially recognized Juneteenth and four years later 15 states recognized the holiday. By 2008, nearly half of states observed the holiday as a ceremonial observance. By 2019, 47 states and the District of Columbia recognized Juneteenth, although as of 2020 only Texas had adopted the holiday as a paid holiday for state employees. In the yearlong aftermath of the murder of George Floyd that occurred on May 25, 2020, nine states had designated Juneteenth a paid holiday, including New York, Washington, and Virginia. In 2020, Massachusetts Governor Charles Baker issued a proclamation that the day would be marked as \"Juneteenth Independence Day\". This followed the filing of bills by both the House and Senate to make Juneteenth a state holiday. Baker did not comment on these bills specifically, but promised to grant the observance of Juneteenth greater importance. On June 16, 2021, Illinois adopted a law changing its ceremonial holiday to a paid state holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Celebratory traditions often include public readings of the Emancipation Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot\" and \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\", and the reading of works by noted African-American writers, such as Ralph Ellison and Maya Angelou. Some Juneteenth celebrations also include rodeos, street fairs, cookouts, family reunions, park parties, historical reenactments, and Miss Juneteenth contests. When Juneteenth became a federal holiday on June 17, 2021, it was the first new federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was adopted in 1983."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In June 2019, Governor of Pennsylvania Tom Wolf recognized Juneteenth as a holiday in the state. In 2020, state governors of Virginia, New York, and New Jersey signed an executive order recognizing Juneteenth as a paid day of leave for state employees. In 2021, Governor of Oregon Kate Brown signed an executive order recognizing Juneteenth as a paid day of leave for state employees. On June\u00a016, 2021, Illinois Governor J. B. Pritzker signed House Bill\u00a03922, establishing Juneteenth as a paid state holiday starting in 2022; since 2003, it had been a state ceremonial observance in Illinois."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Juneteenth is an American federal holiday celebrating the emancipation of African-Americans and the abolition of slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "African-American culture",
        "text": "Less-widely observed outside of the African-American community is Emancipation Day popularly known as Juneteenth or Freedom Day, in recognition of the official reading of the Emancipation Proclamation on June 19, 1865, in Texas. Juneteenth is a day when African Americans reflect on their unique history and heritage. It is one of the fastest growing African-American holidays with observances in the United States. Juneteenth was recognized as federal holiday in 2021, and was first observed as such on June 19, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Federal holidays in the United States",
        "text": "On June 16, 2021, the U.S. Congress passed legislation to make Juneteenth (June 19) a federal holiday. The day commemorates the end of slavery in Texas in 1865. President Joe Biden signed this bill into law on June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Observance today is primarily in local celebrations. In many places, Juneteenth has become a multicultural holiday. Traditions include public readings of the Emancipation Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot\" and \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\", and reading of works by noted African-American writers, such as Ralph Ellison and Maya Angelou. Celebrations include picnics, rodeos, street fairs, cookouts, family reunions, park parties, historical reenactments, blues festivals and Miss Juneteenth contests. Strawberry soda is a traditional drink associated with the celebration. The Mascogos, the descendants of Black Seminoles, who have resided in Coahuila, Mexico, since 1852, also celebrate Juneteenth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Since the 1980s and 1990s, the holiday has been more widely celebrated among African-American communities and has seen increasing mainstream attention in the US. In 1991, there was an exhibition by the Anacostia Community Museum (part of the Smithsonian Institution) called \u201cJuneteenth \u201991, Freedom Revisited\u201d. In 1994, a group of community leaders gathered at Christian Unity Baptist Church in New Orleans to work for greater national celebration of Juneteenth. Expatriates have celebrated it in cities abroad, such as Paris. Some US military bases in other countries sponsor celebrations, in addition to those of private groups. In 1999, Ralph Ellison's novel \"Juneteenth\" was published, increasing recognition of the holiday. By 2006, at least 200 cities celebrated the day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth\n--Celebrations and traditions.\n--History.\n----Early history.\n------The Civil War and celebrations of emancipation.\n------End of slavery in Texas.\n------Early Juneteenth celebrations.\n------Decline during Jim Crow.\n----Revival.\n------1960s\u20131980s.\n------Prayer breakfast and commemorative celebrations.\n------Official statewide recognitions.\n------Juneteenth in pop culture and mass media.\n------2020 Trump campaign scheduling controversy.\n------Becoming a federal holiday.\n--Legal observance.\n----State and local.\n----National.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Harriet Tubman Day",
        "text": "Harriet Tubman Day is an American holiday in honor of the anti-slavery activist Harriet Tubman, observed on March 10, and in the U.S. state of New York. Observances also occur locally around the U.S. state of Maryland. After Juneteenth became a federal holiday, there are growing calls for this day to also be observed at the federal level."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In 1996, the first federal legislation to recognize \"Juneteenth Independence Day\" was introduced in the U.S. House of Representatives, H.J.\u00a0Res.\u00a0195, sponsored by Barbara-Rose Collins (D-MI). In 1997, Congress recognized the day through Senate Joint Resolution\u00a011 and House Joint Resolution\u00a056. In 2013, the U.S. Senate passed Senate Resolution\u00a0175, acknowledging Lula Briggs Galloway (late president of the National Association of Juneteenth Lineage), who \"successfully worked to bring national recognition to Juneteenth Independence Day\", and the continued leadership of the National Juneteenth Observance Foundation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honor America Days",
        "text": "Honor America Days are a United States Federal Observance observed June 14 to July 4. According to 36 U.S.C. \u00a7 112, the 21 days from Flag Day through Independence Day (including, as of 2021, the federal holiday of Juneteenth) is a period to honor the United States. On these days, U.S. Congress declares that there be public gatherings and activities during that period at which the people of the United States can celebrate and honor their country in an appropriate way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "North Dakota approved recognition of Juneteenth as a state recognized annual holiday on April 13, 2021, with Hawaii becoming the 49th state to recognize the holiday on June 16, 2021. On June 16, 2020 South Dakota Governor Kristi Noem proclaimed that the following June 19, 2020 was to be Juneteenth Day for that year only, spurning calls for it to be recognized annually, rather than just for 2020. As of June 2021, South Dakota is the only state that has not yet independently recognized Juneteenth as an annual state holiday or observance, according to the Congressional Research Service; nonetheless, its law provides for following the federal law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Southgate\u2013Lewis House",
        "text": "On June 19, 2021, the annual Juneteenth Celebration became the newest federal holiday: officially, Juneteenth National Independence Day (Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence). This traditional annual celebration commemorates the ending of slavery in the United States \u2013 the emancipation of enslaved African Americans. A photograph of the Southgate\u2013Lewis House shows how the home of the W. H. Passon Historical Society was utilized on the very day the new Juneteenth National Independence Day was celebrated. The banners on the west elevation of the house (shown herein) depict distinguished African Americans in Government, Education, Literature, Medicine, and Sports. The banners on the north elevation (shown herein) depict distinguished African Americans in Religion and the Military."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ralph Norman",
        "text": "In June 2021, Norman was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The holiday has gained mainstream awareness outside African-American communities through depictions in entertainment media, such as episodes of TV series \"Atlanta\" (2016) and \"Black-ish\" (2017), the latter of which featured musical numbers about the holiday by Aloe Blacc, The Roots, and Fonzworth Bentley. In 2018, Apple added Juneteenth to its calendars in iOS under official U.S. holidays. Some private companies have adopted Juneteenth as a paid day off for employees, while others have officially marked the day in other ways, such as a moment of silence. In 2020, several American corporations and educational institutions, including Twitter, the National Football League, Nike, announced that they would treat Juneteenth as a company holiday, providing a paid day off to their workers, and Google Calendar added Juneteenth to its U.S. Holidays calendar. Also in 2020, a number of major universities formally recognized Juneteenth, either as a \"day of reflection\" or as a university holiday with paid time off for faculty and staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History",
        "text": "Juneteenth is the oldest nationally celebrated commemoration of the ending of slavery in the United States. In 2021, days after President Joe Biden signed a law making Juneteenth, June 19, a federal holiday, the museum presented a hybrid virtual and in-person three-day celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In the early 20th century, economic and political forces led to a decline in Juneteenth celebrations. From 1890 to 1908, Texas and all former Confederate states passed new constitutions or amendments that effectively disenfranchised black people, excluding them from the political process. White-dominated state legislatures passed Jim Crow laws imposing second-class status. Gladys L. Knight writes the decline in celebration was in part because \"upwardly mobile blacks ... were ashamed of their slave past and aspired to assimilate into mainstream culture. Younger generations of blacks, becoming further removed from slavery were occupied with school ... and other pursuits.\" Others who migrated to the Northern United States could not take time off or simply dropped the celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth soon saw a revival as black people began tying their struggle to that of ending slavery. In Atlanta, some campaigners for equality wore Juneteenth buttons. During the 1968 Poor People's Campaign to Washington, DC, called by Rev. Ralph Abernathy, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference made June 19 the \"Solidarity Day of the Poor People\u2019s Campaign\". In the subsequent revival, large celebrations in Minneapolis and Milwaukee emerged, as well as across the Eastern United States. In 1974, Houston began holding large-scale celebrations again, and Fort Worth, Texas, followed the next year. Around 30,000 people attended festivities at Sycamore Park in Fort Worth the following year. The 1978 Milwaukee celebration was described as drawing over 100,000 attendees. In the late 1980s, there were major celebrations of Juneteenth in California, Wisconsin, Illinois, Georgia, and Washington, D.C."
      },
      {
        "title": "African-American neighborhood",
        "text": "Although Juneteenth has increased in national and international popularity, the holiday began among Black Texans in Galveston, Texas when enslaved persons learned of the Emancipation Proclamation two years late, because slaveholders had purposefully kept this information from them. Today, several Black communities in Texas and beyond recognize June 19 as a complicated but celebratory holiday. It is also known as Jubilee Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Celebrations date to 1866, at first involving church-centered community gatherings in Texas. They spread across the South and became more commercialized in the 1920s and 1930s, often centering on a food festival. Participants in the Great Migration out of the South carried their celebrations to other parts of the country. During the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, these celebrations were eclipsed by the nonviolent determination to achieve civil rights, but grew in popularity again in the 1970s with a focus on African American freedom and African-American arts. Beginning with Texas by proclamation in 1938, and by legislation in 1979, 49 U.S. states and the District of Columbia have formally recognized the holiday in various ways. With its adoption in certain parts of Mexico, the holiday became an international holiday. Juneteenth is celebrated by the Mascogos, descendants of Black Seminoles who escaped from slavery in 1852 and settled in Coahuila, Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Capitol Hill Occupied Protest",
        "text": "On June 19, events ranging from a \"grief ritual\" to a dance party were held to observe Juneteenth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "During the 1950s and 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement focused the attention of African Americans on expanding freedom and integrating. As a result, observations of the holiday declined again (though it was still celebrated in Texas)."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Petersburg, Florida",
        "text": "Juneteenth celebrations are hosted on June 19 to honor the end of slavery in the United States. Peace Protests followed by a celebration in Williams Park take place in St. Pete to honor the holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clay Smothers",
        "text": "In 1979, Smothers opposed the bill to create Juneteenth as a Texas state holiday observing the end of slavery in the state. Smothers belittled the observance as mere \"ceremoniously grinning and bursting watermelons on the Capitol grounds\" and \"a fraudulent holiday\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jon Batiste",
        "text": "In June 2020, Batiste took part in the Juneteenth celebration in Brooklyn, New York with a day of protests, marches, rallies, and vigils to \"celebrate, show solidarity, and fight for equal rights and treatment of Black people\". Performing on the steps of the Brooklyn Public Library, Batiste was joined by Matt Whitaker in a performance presented in partnership with Sing For Hope."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The holiday is considered the \"longest-running African-American holiday\" and has been called \"America's second Independence Day\". Juneteenth is usually celebrated on the third Saturday in June. Historian Mitch Kachun considers that celebrations of the end of slavery have three goals: \"to celebrate, to educate, and to agitate\". Early celebrations consisted of baseball, fishing, and rodeos. African Americans were often prohibited from using public facilities for their celebrations, so they were often held at churches or near water. Celebrations were also characterized by elaborate large meals and people wearing their best clothing. It was common for former enslaved people and their descendants to make a pilgrimage to Galveston. As early festivals received news coverage, Janice Hume and Noah Arceneaux consider that they \"served to assimilate African-American memories within the dominant 'American story'.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of observances in the United States by presidential proclamation",
        "text": "Bold text indicates a public holiday, on which most government agencies and major businesses are closed.\n* January 16: Religious Freedom Day\n* 3rd Monday in January: Martin Luther King Jr. Federal Holiday\n* 3rd Sunday in January: National Sanctity of Human Life Day\n* various March/April: Education and Sharing Day (based on Hebrew calendar)\n*February 15: Susan B. Anthony Day\n*March 10: Harriet Tubman Day\n*March 19: National Day of Honor\n*March 25: Greek Independence Day\n*March 29: National Vietnam War Veterans Day\n*March 31: Cesar Chavez Day\n*March 31: Transgender Day of Visibility\n* April 6: National Tartan Day\n*2nd Thursday in April: National D.A.R.E. Day\n*April 9: National Former Prisoner of War Recognition Day\n*April 14: Pan American Day and Pan American Week\n*May 1: Loyalty Day\n*May 1: Law Day, U.S.A.\n*May 15: Peace Officers Memorial Day\n*1st Thursday in May: National Day of Prayer\n*2nd Friday in May: Military Spouse Day\n*2nd Sunday in May: Mother's Day\n*3rd Friday in May: National Defense Transportation Day and National Transportation Week\n*3rd Saturday in May: Armed Forces Day\n* May 19: Malcolm X Day\n*May 22: National Maritime Day\n*May 25: National Missing Children's Day\n*last Monday in May: Memorial Day\n*1st Monday in June: National Child's Day\n*June 14: Flag Day and National Flag Week\n*June 19: Juneteenth\n*3rd Sunday in June: Father's Day\n*July 27: National Korean War Veterans Armistice Day\n*last Sunday in July: Parent's Day\n*August 16: National Airborne Day\n*August 26: Women's Equality Day\n*1st Monday in September: Labor Day\n*1st Sunday after Labor Day: National Grandparents' Day\n*weekend before September 11: National Days of Prayer and Remembrance\n*September 11: Patriot Day\n*September 11: Emergency Number Day\n*3rd Friday in September National POW/MIA Recognition Day\n*September 17: Constitution Day and Citizenship Day and Constitution Week\n*September 22: American Business Women's Day\n*September 28: National Good Neighbor Day\n*4th Monday in September: Family Day\n*last Sunday in September: Gold Star Mother's Day\n*1st Monday in October: Child Health Day\n*October 6: German-American Day\n*2nd Monday in October: Columbus Day\n*October 9: Leif Erikson Day\n*October 11: General Pulaski Memorial Day\n*October 15: White Cane Safety Day\n*October 24: United Nations Day\n*November 9: World Freedom Day\n*November 11: Veterans Day\n*November 15: National Philanthropy Day\n*November 15: America Recycles Day\n*4th Thursday in November: Thanksgiving Day\n*Friday after Thanksgiving: Native American Heritage Day\n*December 1: World AIDS Day\n*December 3: International Day of Persons with Disabilities\n*December 7: National Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day\n*December 10: Human Rights Day and Human Rights Week\n*December 15: Bill of Rights Day\n*December 17: Wright Brothers Day\n*1st week of March: Save Your Vision Week\n*3rd week of March: National Poison Prevention Week\n*last week of April: National Volunteer Week\n*varies in April: Crime Victims' Rights Week\n*varies in April: National Park Week\n*first week of May: Public Service Recognition Week\n*third week of May: World Trade Week\n*third week of May: National Hurricane Preparedness Week\n*week prior to Memorial Day: National Safe Boating Week\n*third week of July: Captive Nations Week\n*3rd week of September: National Farm Safety and Health Week\n*varies in September: National Historically Black Colleges and Universities Week\n*week of October 9: Fire Prevention Week\n*week of 2nd Sunday in October: National School Lunch Week\n*week of 3rd Sunday in October: National Forest Products Week\n*3rd week in October: National Character Counts Week\n*varies in October: Minority Enterprise Development Week\n*week prior to Thanksgiving: National Farm-City Week\n*week of Thanksgiving: National Family Week\n*August 16\u201322: National Employer Support of the Guard and Reserve Week\n* January: National Mentoring Month\n* January: Stalking Awareness Month\n* January: Slavery and Human Trafficking Prevention Month\n* February: American Heart Month\n* February: Black History Month\n* February: Teen Dating Violence Awareness Month\n* March: American Red Cross Month\n* March: Women's History Month\n* March: Irish-American Heritage Month\n* April: Cancer Control Month\n* April: National Donate Life Month\n* April: National Child Abuse Prevention Month\n* April: National Sexual Assault Awareness Month\n* April: National Financial Literacy Month\n* May: Older Americans Month\n* May: Jewish American Heritage Month\n* May: Asian Pacific American Heritage Month\n* May: Mental Health Awareness Month\n* May: National Physical Fitness and Sports Month\n* May: National Foster Care Month\n* June: Gay and Lesbian Pride Month\n* June: Caribbean-American Heritage Month\n* June: Great Outdoors Month\n* June: National Oceans Month\n* June: African-American Music Appreciation Month\n* July: National Ice Cream Month\n* September: National Childhood Cancer Awareness Month\n* September: National Sickle Cell Awareness Month\n* September: National Alcohol and Drug Addiction Recovery Month\n* September: National Ovarian and Prostate Cancer Awareness Month\n* September: National Wilderness Month\n* September: National Preparedness Month\n* September: National Childhood Obesity Awareness Month\n* September: Prostate Cancer Awareness Month\n* September 15 \u2013 October 15: National Hispanic Heritage Month\n* October: National Information Literacy Awareness Month\n* October: Italian-American Heritage and Culture Month\n* October: Country Music Month\n* October: National Breast Cancer Awareness Month\n* October: National Domestic Violence Awareness Month\n* October: National Arts & Humanities Month\n* October: National Disability Employment Awareness Month\n* October: National Cyber Security Awareness Month\n* October: National Energy Awareness Month\n*October:National Down Syndrome Awareness Month\n* November: National Entrepreneurship Month\n* November: Military Family Month\n* November: National Bone Marrow Donor Awareness Month\n* November: National Hospice Month\n* November: National Adoption Month\n* November: National Family Caregivers Month\n* November: National Alzheimer's Disease Awareness Month\n* November: National Diabetes Month\n* November: National American Indian Heritage Month\n* November: National Critical Infrastructure Protection Month\n* December: National Impaired Driving Prevention Month"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tiffany Dena Loftin",
        "text": "On June 19, 2020, Loftin told PEOPLE.com that \"The significance of Juneteenth has always been meaningful in the Black community. However, in the face of the continuous onslaught of racial incidents, police brutality and killings, and hate crimes, we're witnessing a renewed effort to uplift holidays that bring attention to the real history of this country.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Randolph Bracy",
        "text": "In June 2020, Bracy began a push to make Juneteenth a state holiday, with June 19th marking the date the news of the Emancipation Proclamation reached Texas, the westernmost member of the former Confederacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Floyd protests",
        "text": "Protests continued over the weekend of June 19 in many cities, and observations of Juneteenth gained a new awareness. Jon Batiste, bandleader for \"The Late Show with Stephen Colbert\", took part in a Juneteenth day of protests, marches, rallies and vigils to \"celebrate, show solidarity, and fight for equal rights and treatment of Black people\" in Brooklyn. Batiste also appeared in concert with Matt Whitaker in a performance presented in partnership with Sing For Hope, performed on the steps of the Brooklyn Public Library."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charlie Baker",
        "text": "In June 2020, Baker signed a law making Juneteenth an official state holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Joe Biden",
        "text": "On June 17, Biden signed into law a bill creating Juneteenth as a federal holiday; the day celebrates the end of slavery in the U.S."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth celebrations often include lectures and exhibitions on African-American culture. The modern holiday places much emphasis upon teaching about African-American heritage. Karen M. Thomas wrote in \"Emerge\" that \"community leaders have latched on to [Juneteenth] to help instill a sense of heritage and pride in black youth.\" Celebrations are commonly accompanied by voter registration efforts, the performing of plays, and retelling stories. The holiday is also a celebration of soul food and other food with African-American influences. In \"Tourism Review International\", Anne Donovan and Karen DeBres write that \"Barbecue is the centerpiece of most Juneteenth celebrations\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scott DesJarlais",
        "text": "In June 2021, DesJarlais was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Columbus, Ohio",
        "text": "The Juneteenth Ohio Festival is held each year at Franklin Park on Father's Day weekend. Started by Mustafaa Shabazz, Juneteenth Ohio is one of the largest African American festivals in the United States, including three full days of music, food, dance, and entertainment by local and national recording artists. The festival holds a Father's Day celebration, honoring local fathers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "During the American Civil War (1861\u20131865), emancipation came at different times to various places in the Southern United States. Large celebrations of emancipation, often called Jubilees (recalling the biblical Jubilee in which enslaved people were freed) occurred on September\u00a022, January 1, July\u00a04, August\u00a01, April\u00a06, and November\u00a01, among other dates. In Texas, emancipation came late: enforced in Texas on June\u00a019, 1865, as the southern rebellion collapsed, emancipation became a well known cause of celebration. While June 19, 1865, was not actually the 'end of slavery' even in Texas (like the Emancipation Proclamation, itself, General Gordon's military order had to be acted upon) and although it has competed with other dates for emancipation's celebration, ordinary African Americans created, preserved, and spread a shared commemoration of slavery's wartime demise across the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tom McClintock",
        "text": "In June 2021, McClintock was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tom Tiffany",
        "text": "In June 2021, Tiffany was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The Great Depression forced many black people off farms and into the cities to find work, where they had difficulty taking the day off to celebrate. From 1936 to 1951, the Texas State Fair served as a destination for celebrating the holiday, contributing to its revival. In 1936, an estimated 150,000 to 200,000 people joined the holiday's celebration in Dallas. In 1938, Governor of Texas James V. Allred issued a proclamation stating in part:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Peoples and first Black Oregonian Senator Avel Gordly led an effort to make Juneteenth a statewide holiday in 2001. The resolution passed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chip Roy",
        "text": "Roy was one of 14 Republicans to vote against the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act, which passed 415-14. The bill recognized as a public holiday a commemoration of June 19, 1865, the day slaves in Galveston, Texas, learned that two and a half years earlier President Abraham Lincoln had issued the Emancipation Proclamation freeing any slave held in rebel states. Roy took issue with the bill's name, saying, \"Juneteenth should be commemorated \u2026[but] the holiday should not be called 'Juneteenth National Independence Day' but rather 'Juneteenth National Emancipation (or Freedom or otherwise) Day.' This name needlessly divides our nation on a matter that should instead bring us together by creating a separate Independence Day based on the color of one's skin.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Columbus, Ohio",
        "text": "The Juneteenth Ohio Festival is held each year at Franklin Park on Father's Day weekend. Started by Mustafaa Shabazz, JuneteenthOhio is one of the largest African American festivals in the United States, including three full days of music, food, dance, and entertainment by local and national recording artists. The festival holds a Father's Day celebration, honoring local fathers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In 1997, activist Ben Haith created the Juneteenth flag, which was further refined by illustrator Lisa Jeanne Graf. In 2000, the flag was first hoisted at the Roxbury Heritage State Park in Boston by Haith. The star at the center represents Texas and the extension of freedom for all African Americans throughout the whole nation. The burst around the star represents a nova and the red curve represents a horizon, standing for a new era for African Americans. The red, white, and blue colors represent the American flag, which shows that African Americans and their enslaved ancestors are Americans, and the national belief in liberty and justice for all citizens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trading day",
        "text": "Juneteenth was added as a national holiday and market holiday on June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth flag",
        "text": "The flag was first flown at the Roxbury Heritage State Park in Boston in 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Opal Lee",
        "text": "On June 17, 2021, President Joe Biden signed Senate Bill S. 475, making Juneteenth the eleventh federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Gosar",
        "text": "In June 2021, Gosar was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Peoples helped make Juneteenth recognized by the City of Portland in 1972. Mayor Sam Adams and Amanda Fritz declared Peoples the \"Mother of Juneteenth\" in 2011. Juneteenth became an observed holiday for the City of Portland and Multnomah County employees in 2020, as part of a resolution to address structural racism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "In 2011 and 2013, Oregon politician Lew Frederick introduced bills to recognize Peoples. It was enrolled and signed by the governor on May 1, 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melanie Morgan (politician)",
        "text": "Morgan sponsored House bill 1016 to designate June 19 (\"Juneteenth\") as a state holiday. The House passed the bill in February on an 89-9 vote. The bill passed the Democratic-led Senate on a bipartisan 47-1. Governor Jay Inslee signed the bill on May 13, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gordon Granger",
        "text": "This set off joyous demonstrations by the freed people, originating the annual Juneteenth celebration, which commemorates the abolition of slavery in Texas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doug LaMalfa",
        "text": "In June 2021, LaMalfa was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish Juneteenth, a celebration of the end of slavery, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mo Brooks",
        "text": "In June 2021, Brooks was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday. His rationale for his vote was that the holiday's date was too exclusive and significant only to Texas, and that the freeing of slaves should be celebrated on another day."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Washington Carver Museum and Cultural Center",
        "text": "The Juneteenth Exhibit is the core of the George Washington Carver Museum, Cultural, and Genealogy Center's permanent exhibits. The displays and information provided help visitors understand the significance of freedom to formerly enslaved African Americans. Multimedia presentations introduce students to the earliest and present day Juneteenth celebrations. It also provides the opportunity to learn about Texas\u2019 participation in the Civil War, history of the celebration, why the holiday is significant for all Americans, as well as contrasting and comparing early commemorations and modern day activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas Massie",
        "text": "In June 2021, Massie was one of 21 House Republicans to vote against a resolution to give the Congressional Gold Medal to police officers who defended the U.S. Capitol on January 6. Also in June 2021, he was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth (officially named \"Juneteenth National Independence Day\"), as a federal holiday. He said he \"fully support[ed] creating a day to celebrate the abolition of slavery\" but opposed its being named \"Independence Day.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In some cities, black people were barred from using public parks because of state-sponsored segregation of facilities. Across parts of Texas, freed people pooled their funds to purchase land to hold their celebrations. The day was first celebrated in Austin in 1867 under the auspices of the Freedmen's Bureau, and it had been listed on a \"calendar of public events\" by 1872. That year, black leaders in Texas raised $1,000 for the purchase of of land to celebrate Juneteenth, today known as Houston's Emancipation Park. The observation was soon drawing thousands of attendees across Texas; an estimated 30,000 black people celebrated at Booker T. Washington Park in Limestone County, Texas, established in 1898 for Juneteenth celebrations. Blacks began using the word Juneteenth early in the 1890s for Jubilee Day. A Texas periodical \"The Current Issue\" used the word as early as 1909, and that year a book on San Antonio, Texas remarked with condescension on \"June 'teenth\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ronny Jackson",
        "text": "In June 2021, Jackson was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ronald Myers",
        "text": "In 1994 a group of community leaders from across the country gathered at Christian Unity Baptist Church in New Orleans, to work for greater national recognition of Juneteenth, a holiday celebrating the end of slavery. Myers was elected Chairman of this advocacy effort, and continues to serve as chairman of the National Juneteenth Holiday Campaign, National Juneteenth Christian Leadership Council, National Juneteenth Observance Foundation, and the National Association of Juneteenth Jazz Presenters."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in Houston",
        "text": "The State of Texas made Juneteenth a holiday at the state level after Al Edwards, a member of the Texas House of Representatives from Houston, proposed it as a bill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ashton Villa",
        "text": "Former slaves in Galveston rejoiced in the streets with jubilant celebrations. Juneteenth celebrations began in Texas the following year. Across many parts of Texas, freed people pooled their funds to purchase land specifically for their communities' increasingly large Juneteenth gatherings \u2014 including Houston's Emancipation Park, Mexia's Booker T. Washington Park, and Emancipation Park in Austin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andrew Clyde",
        "text": "In June 2021, Clyde was among 14 House Republicans who voted against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday. \"The Atlanta Journal-Constitution\" reported that Clyde \"supported the holiday but didn't like its title, Juneteenth National Independence Day\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of observances in the United States by presidential proclamation",
        "text": "U.S. law provides for the declaration of selected public observances by the President of the United States as designated by Congress or by the discretion of the President. Generally the President will provide a statement about the purpose and significance of the observance, and call on the people of the United States to observe the day \"with appropriate ceremonies and activities\". These events are typically to honor or commemorate a public issue or social cause, ethnic group, historic event or noted individual. However, (with several exceptions) there is no requirement that government or business close on these days, and many members of the general public may not be aware that such holidays even exist. Holidays proclaimed in this way may be considered a U.S. \"national observance\", but it would be improper to refer to them as \"federal holidays\". Many of these observances designated by Congress are authorized under permanent law under Title 36, U.S. Code, in which cases the President is under obligation to issue an annual proclamation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holidays with paid time off in the United States",
        "text": "In 2020, Nike became the first company to mark Juneteenth as a paid holiday.\n* List of Federal Holidays by Year from the U.S. Government (see Office of Personnel Management)\n* Additional holidays referenced by the Society for Human Resource Management: Good Friday 26%, Easter Monday 6%, Yom Kippur 7%, Day before Thanksgiving 3\u20138%, Day after Thanksgiving 69\u201375%, Day before Christmas Eve 33%, Christmas Eve 78\u201379%, Day after Christmas 40\u201364%, Day before New Year's Eve 25\u201371% depending if it falls on a weekend, New Year's Eve 71%, Passover 3%, Hanukkah 1%, Ramadan 1%, Ash Wednesday 1%, Diwali 1%, Eid al-Adha 1%, Vietnamese New Year <1%, Chinese New Year <1%"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in San Antonio",
        "text": "Juneteenth is an annual celebration recognizing the emancipation of black slaves in Texas. President Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation and published it on January 1, 1863, but it did not reach Texas until June 19, 1865. Over the next few years, African-American populations across Texas collected money to buy property dedicated to Juneteenth celebrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Juneteenth, a celebration of emancipation from slavery, was introduced to Oregon in 1945 by Kaiser Shipyard worker Clara Peoples, was recognized by the city of Portland in 1972, statewide in 2013, and federally in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Federal holidays in the United States",
        "text": "New Year's Day, Juneteenth, Independence Day, Veterans Day, and Christmas Day are observed on the same calendar date each year, irrespective of the day of the week. When a holiday falls on a Saturday, federal employees who work Monday to Friday observe the holiday on the previous Friday. Federal employees who work on Saturday observe the holiday on Saturday and, for them, Friday is a regular work day. Holidays that fall on a Sunday are observed by federal workers the following Monday. The other holidays always fall on a specific day of the week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andy Biggs",
        "text": "In June 2021, Biggs was among 14 House Republicans who voted against passing legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ashton Villa",
        "text": "Although many claims have been made to Ashton Villa's central role in the original 1865 pronouncement, no extant historical evidence supports such assertions. On June 21, 2014, the Galveston Historical Foundation and Texas Historical Commission erected a Juneteenth plaque where the Osterman Building once stood signifying the location of Major General Granger's Union Headquarters and subsequent issuance of General Order No. 3. On June 19, 2006 a statue of Al Edwards, named \"Unknown Legislator\" was dedicated on the grounds of Ashton Villa during the annual prayer breakfast and celebration begun by Edwards in 1979, and hosted annually on the grounds of Ashton Villa every Juneteenth. The 9-foot tall statue of the Democratic State Representative from Houston, originally intended for the state capitol grounds in Austin, Texas is depicted holding up the piece of 1979 legislation making Juneteenth a paid Texas State holiday. The proclamatory pose of the statue evokes the very proclamation the holiday is meant to honor. Edwards' annual prayer breakfast and celebration, first held in 1979, take place every Juneteenth at Ashton Villa and include a reading of the 1862 Emancipation Proclamation and 1865 General Order No. 3 (with a local historian portraying Major General Granger addressing the crowd from the home's balcony).. Despite Edwards' death from natural causes on April 29, 2020, the prayer breakfast and memorial celebration at Ashton Villa continued with the late legislator's son, Jason Edwards, speaking in his place."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in San Antonio",
        "text": "The State of Texas made Juneteenth a holiday at the state level after Al Edwards, a member of the Texas House of Representatives from Houston, proposed it as a bill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hitchcock, Texas",
        "text": "Each year Juneteenth is celebrated in the Stringfellow Orchards, a complex previously owned by a slave owner. The Texas Historical Commission enacted a historical marker in 1992. In 2004, the site had not been previously maintained, but John Collins discovered the site in 2004 and, with his wife Doris, later purchased it. the Collinses remain the owners."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The 2020 mother-daughter film on the holiday's pageant culture, \"Miss Juneteenth\", celebrates African-American women who are \u201cdetermined to stand on their own,\u201d while a resourceful mother is \u201cgetting past a sexist tendency in her community to keep women in their place.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "George Floyd protests in Columbus, Ohio",
        "text": "On June 19, Franklin County (containing most of the city of Columbus) announced it is replacing Columbus Day as a paid holiday for its government employees with Juneteenth, celebrating the abolition of slavery in the U.S. The change will go into effect June 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Floyd protests in Columbus, Ohio",
        "text": "On June 19, Franklin County (containing most of the city of Columbus) announced it is replacing Columbus Day as a paid holiday for its government employees with Juneteenth, celebrating the abolition of slavery in the U.S. The change will go into effect June 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States Colored Troops Memorial Statue (Lexington Park, Maryland)",
        "text": "A yearly Juneteenth celebration gathering is now held at the memorial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Juneteenth may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "July",
        "text": "\"This list does not necessarily imply either official status nor general observance.\"\n*Season of Emancipation 14 April to 23 August (Barbados)\n*Honor America Days: 14 June to 4 July (United States)\n*In Catholic tradition, July is the Month of the Most Precious Blood of Jesus.\n*National Hot Dog Month (United States)\n*National Ice Cream Month (United States)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth flag",
        "text": "The white star and surrounding star-burst alludes to Texas and the \"freedom of African Americans in all 50 states\". The curve behind the star is representative of a new horizon and the colors were taken from the red, white, and blue flag of the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Formerly enslaved people in Galveston celebrated after the announcement. On June\u00a019, 1866, one year after the announcement, freedmen in Texas organized the first of what became the annual celebration of \"Jubilee Day\". Early celebrations were used as political rallies to give voting instructions to newly freed African Americans. Early independence celebrations often occurred on January\u00a01 or\u00a04."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Although this event has come to be celebrated as the end of slavery, emancipation for the remaining enslaved in two Union border states (Delaware and Kentucky), would not come until several months later, on December\u00a018, 1865, when ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment was announced. The freedom of formerly enslaved people in Texas was given state law status in a series of Texas Supreme Court decisions between 1868 and 1874."
      },
      {
        "title": "Matt Rosendale",
        "text": "In June 2021, Rosendale was among 21 House Republicans who voted against a resolution to give the Congressional Gold Medal to police officers who defended the U.S. Capitol on January 6. Also in June 2021, Rosendale was among fourteen House Republicans who voted against passing legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In 1979, Democratic State Representative Al Edwards of Houston, Texas, successfully sponsored legislation to make Juneteenth a paid Texas state holiday. The same year, he hosted the inaugural Al Edwards prayer breakfast and commemorative celebration on the grounds of the 1859 home, Ashton Villa. As one of the few existing buildings from the Civil War era and popular in local myth and legend as the location of Major General Granger\u2019s announcement, Edwards's annual celebration includes a local historian dressed as the Union general reading General Order No.\u00a03 from the second story balcony of the home. The Emancipation Proclamation is also read and speeches are made. Representative Al Edwards died of natural causes April\u00a029, 2020, at the age of 83, but the annual prayer breakfast and commemorative celebration continued at Ashton Villa, with the late legislator's son Jason Edwards speaking in his father\u2019s place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth flag",
        "text": "The flag was flown above the Illinois State Capitol on June 19, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emancipation Day",
        "text": "In Texas, Emancipation Day is celebrated on June 19. It commemorates the announcement in Texas of the abolition of slavery made on that day in 1865. It is commonly known as Juneteenth. Since the late 20th century, this date has gained recognition beyond Texas, and became a federal holiday in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of observances in the United States by presidential proclamation",
        "text": "The following observances have been mandated or authorized by Congress or the President, but are no longer proclaimed or observed on a regular basis."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Washington Carver Museum and Cultural Center",
        "text": "The sculptures show how the news of freedom spread. Juneteenth began on June 19, 1865, with an order read by General Gordon Grainger\u2014a law that the Emancipation Proclamation was enforced. So Legislature learned of freedom first, then the news reached The Pastor (who represents the faith leader in African American Community). The Pastor told the enslaved people represented by the Freed Man and Freed Woman, and they shared the news with youth-the Child figure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Opal Lee",
        "text": "In June 2021, at the age of 94, her efforts succeeded as a bill to make Juneteenth a federal holiday was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Joe Biden. She was an honored guest at the bill signing ceremony, receiving the first of many pens Biden used to sign the document. As she sat in the front row, she received a standing ovation and Biden got down on one knee to greet her."
      },
      {
        "title": "Malcolm X Day",
        "text": "Malcolm X Day is an American holiday in honor of Malcolm X that is celebrated on either May 19 (his birthday) or the third Friday of May. The commemoration of the civil rights leader has been proposed as an official state holiday in the U.S. state of Illinois in 2015 and Missouri as recent as 2019. As of present, only the city of Berkeley, California, observes the holiday with city offices and schools closed. After Juneteenth became a federal holiday, there are growing calls for Malcolm X Day to also be observed as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "June",
        "text": "\"(All Baha'i, Islamic, and Jewish observances begin at the sundown prior to the date listed, and end at sundown of the date in question unless otherwise noted.)\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Opal Lee",
        "text": "Lee campaigned for decades to make Juneteenth a federal holiday. She has promoted the idea by leading walks each year, representing the 2.5 years it took for news of the Emancipation Proclamation to reach Texas. At the age of 89, she conducted a symbolic walk from Fort Worth to Washington, D.C., leaving in September 2016 and arriving in Washington in January 2017. She was hoping to plead the case for a federal holiday directly to President Barack Obama. Lee has not only marched in Texas, but also in Fort Smith and Little Rock, Arkansas; Las Vegas, Nevada; Madison and Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Atlanta, Georgia; Selma, Alabama; and the Carolinas. She promoted a petition for a Juneteenth federal holiday at Change.org; the petition received 1.6 million signatures. She said, \"It's going to be a national holiday, I have no doubt about it. My point is let's make it a holiday in my lifetime.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Zora Martin-Felton",
        "text": "In the early 1990s, Felton was instrumental in organizing day-long Juneteenth celebrations in Anacostia, which was an prominent step towards broader recognition of Juneteenth in Washington, D.C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flag Day (United States)",
        "text": "In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson issued a proclamation that officially established June 14 as Flag Day; on August 3, 1949, National Flag Day was established by an Act of Congress. Flag Day is not an official federal holiday. Title 36 of the United States Code, Subtitle I, Part A, CHAPTER 1, \u00a7 110 is the official statute on Flag Day; however, it is at the president's discretion to officially proclaim the observance. On June 14, 1937, Pennsylvania became the first U.S. state to celebrate Flag Day as a state holiday, beginning in the town of Rennerdale. New York Consolidated Laws designate the second Sunday in June as Flag Day, a state holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery in the United States",
        "text": "The war ended on June 22, 1865, and following that surrender, the Emancipation Proclamation was enforced throughout remaining regions of the South that had not yet freed the slaves. Slavery officially continued for a couple of months in other locations. Federal troops arrived in Galveston, Texas, on June 19, 1865, to enforce the emancipation. The commemoration of that event, Juneteenth National Independence Day, has been declared a national holiday in 2021."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Juneteenth a federal holiday in the USA?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Juneteenth (officially Juneteenth National Independence Day and also known as Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence Day is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African-Americans. Would you like to know more about Juneteenth?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me more about Juneteenth's observance in New York state!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "On May 25, 2020, New York designated Juneteenth a paid holiday."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How is Juneteenth observed in the national level in the USA?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "According to the bill, federal government employees will now get to take the day off every year on June 19, or should the date fall on a Saturday or Sunday, they will get the Monday or Friday closest to the Saturday or Sunday on which the date falls.",
      "Early celebrations consisted of baseball, fishing, rodeos, and were also characterized by elaborate large meals and people wearing ones' best clothing. Observance today is primarily in local celebrations, including traditions such as public readings of the Emancipation Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot\" and \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\", and reading of works by noted African-American writers, such as Ralph Ellison and Maya Angelou."
    ],
    "topic": "Juneteenth",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Juneteenth:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Juneteenth",
          "Legal observance",
          "National"
        ],
        "ctx": "Juneteenth is a federal holiday in the United States. For decades, activists and congress members (led by many African Americans) proposed legislation, advocated for, and built support for state and national observances. During his campaign for president in June 2020, Joe Biden publicly celebrated the holiday. President Donald Trump, during his campaign for reelection, added making the day a national holiday part of his \"Platinum Plan for Black America\". Spurred on by the advocates and the Congressional Black Caucus, on June\u00a015, 2021, the Senate unanimously passed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act, establishing Juneteenth as a federal holiday; it subsequently passed through the House of Representatives by a 415\u201314 vote on June\u00a016. President Joe Biden signed the bill () on June\u00a017, 2021, making Juneteenth the eleventh American federal holiday and the first to obtain legal observance as a federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was designated in 1983. According to the bill, federal government employees will now get to take the day off every year on June 19, or should the date fall on a Saturday or Sunday, they will get the Monday or Friday closest to the Saturday or Sunday on which the date falls."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Juneteenth:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Juneteenth",
          "Celebrations and traditions"
        ],
        "ctx": "The holiday is considered the \"longest-running African-American holiday\" and has been called \"America's second Independence Day\". Juneteenth is usually celebrated on the third Saturday in June. Historian Mitch Kachun considers that celebrations of the end of slavery have three goals: \"to celebrate, to educate, and to agitate\". Early celebrations consisted of baseball, fishing, and rodeos. African Americans were often prohibited from using public facilities for their celebrations, so they were often held at churches or near water. Celebrations were also characterized by elaborate large meals and people wearing their best clothing. It was common for former enslaved people and their descendants to make a pilgrimage to Galveston. As early festivals received news coverage, Janice Hume and Noah Arceneaux consider that they \"served to assimilate African-American memories within the dominant 'American story'.\""
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Juneteenth:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Juneteenth",
          "Celebrations and traditions"
        ],
        "ctx": "Observance today is primarily in local celebrations. In many places, Juneteenth has become a multicultural holiday. Traditions include public readings of the Emancipation Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot\" and \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\", and reading of works by noted African-American writers, such as Ralph Ellison and Maya Angelou. Celebrations include picnics, rodeos, street fairs, cookouts, family reunions, park parties, historical reenactments, blues festivals and Miss Juneteenth contests. Strawberry soda is a traditional drink associated with the celebration. The Mascogos, the descendants of Black Seminoles, who have resided in Coahuila, Mexico, since 1852, also celebrate Juneteenth."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Celebratory traditions often include public readings of the Emancipation Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot\" and \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\", and the reading of works by noted African-American writers, such as Ralph Ellison and Maya Angelou. Some Juneteenth celebrations also include rodeos, street fairs, cookouts, family reunions, park parties, historical reenactments, and Miss Juneteenth contests. When Juneteenth became a federal holiday on June 17, 2021, it was the first new federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was adopted in 1983."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Juneteenth is an American federal holiday celebrating the emancipation of African-Americans and the abolition of slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth (officially Juneteenth National Independence Day and also known as Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence Day) is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African-Americans. It is also often observed for celebrating African-American culture. Originating in Galveston, Texas, it has been celebrated annually on June 19 in various parts of the United States since 1865. The day was recognized as a federal holiday on June\u00a017, 2021, when President Joe Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act into law. Juneteenth's commemoration is on the anniversary date of the June 19, 1865, announcement of General Order No.\u00a03 by Union Army general Gordon Granger, proclaiming freedom for enslaved people in Texas, which was the last state of the Confederacy with institutional slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Observance today is primarily in local celebrations. In many places, Juneteenth has become a multicultural holiday. Traditions include public readings of the Emancipation Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot\" and \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\", and reading of works by noted African-American writers, such as Ralph Ellison and Maya Angelou. Celebrations include picnics, rodeos, street fairs, cookouts, family reunions, park parties, historical reenactments, blues festivals and Miss Juneteenth contests. Strawberry soda is a traditional drink associated with the celebration. The Mascogos, the descendants of Black Seminoles, who have resided in Coahuila, Mexico, since 1852, also celebrate Juneteenth."
      },
      {
        "title": "End of slavery in the United States of America",
        "text": "Juneteenth is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of African-American slaves. It is also often observed for celebrating African-American culture. Originating in Galveston, Texas, it has been celebrated annually on June 19 in various parts of the United States since 1865. The day was recognized as a federal holiday on June\u00a017, 2021, when President Joe Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act into law. Juneteenth's commemoration is on the anniversary date of the June 19, 1865, announcement of General Order No.\u00a03 by Union Army general Gordon Granger, proclaiming freedom for slaves in Texas, which was the last state of the Confederacy with institutional slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth is a federal holiday in the United States. For decades, activists and congress members (led by many African Americans) proposed legislation, advocated for, and built support for state and national observances. During his campaign for president in June 2020, Joe Biden publicly celebrated the holiday. President Donald Trump, during his campaign for reelection, added making the day a national holiday part of his \"Platinum Plan for Black America\". Spurred on by the advocates and the Congressional Black Caucus, on June\u00a015, 2021, the Senate unanimously passed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act, establishing Juneteenth as a federal holiday; it subsequently passed through the House of Representatives by a 415\u201314 vote on June\u00a016. President Joe Biden signed the bill () on June\u00a017, 2021, making Juneteenth the eleventh American federal holiday and the first to obtain legal observance as a federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was designated in 1983. According to the bill, federal government employees will now get to take the day off every year on June 19, or should the date fall on a Saturday or Sunday, they will get the Monday or Friday closest to the Saturday or Sunday on which the date falls."
      },
      {
        "title": "African-American neighborhood",
        "text": "Although Juneteenth has increased in national and international popularity, the holiday began among Black Texans in Galveston, Texas when enslaved persons learned of the Emancipation Proclamation two years late, because slaveholders had purposefully kept this information from them. Today, several Black communities in Texas and beyond recognize June 19 as a complicated but celebratory holiday. It is also known as Jubilee Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "African-American culture",
        "text": "Less-widely observed outside of the African-American community is Emancipation Day popularly known as Juneteenth or Freedom Day, in recognition of the official reading of the Emancipation Proclamation on June 19, 1865, in Texas. Juneteenth is a day when African Americans reflect on their unique history and heritage. It is one of the fastest growing African-American holidays with observances in the United States. Juneteenth was recognized as federal holiday in 2021, and was first observed as such on June 19, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Southgate\u2013Lewis House",
        "text": "On June 19, 2021, the annual Juneteenth Celebration became the newest federal holiday: officially, Juneteenth National Independence Day (Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence). This traditional annual celebration commemorates the ending of slavery in the United States \u2013 the emancipation of enslaved African Americans. A photograph of the Southgate\u2013Lewis House shows how the home of the W. H. Passon Historical Society was utilized on the very day the new Juneteenth National Independence Day was celebrated. The banners on the west elevation of the house (shown herein) depict distinguished African Americans in Government, Education, Literature, Medicine, and Sports. The banners on the north elevation (shown herein) depict distinguished African Americans in Religion and the Military."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In the 2000s and 2010s, activists continued a long process to push Congress towards official recognition of Juneteenth. Organizations such as the National Juneteenth Observance Foundation sought a Congressional designation of Juneteenth as a national day of observance. In 2016, Opal Lee, often referred to as the \"grandmother of Juneteenth\", walked from Fort Worth, Texas to Washington D.C. to advocate for a federal holiday. When it was officially made a federal holiday on June 17, 2021, it became one of five date-specific federal holidays along with New Year's Day (January\u00a01), Independence Day (July\u00a04), Veterans Day (November\u00a011), and Christmas Day (December\u00a025). Juneteenth will coincide with Father's Day in 2022, 2033, 2039, 2044, and 2050. Juneteenth is the first new federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was declared a holiday in 1986. Juneteenth also falls within the statutory Honor America Days period, which lasts for 21 days from Flag Day (June 14) to Independence Day (July 4)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth celebrations often include lectures and exhibitions on African-American culture. The modern holiday places much emphasis upon teaching about African-American heritage. Karen M. Thomas wrote in \"Emerge\" that \"community leaders have latched on to [Juneteenth] to help instill a sense of heritage and pride in black youth.\" Celebrations are commonly accompanied by voter registration efforts, the performing of plays, and retelling stories. The holiday is also a celebration of soul food and other food with African-American influences. In \"Tourism Review International\", Anne Donovan and Karen DeBres write that \"Barbecue is the centerpiece of most Juneteenth celebrations\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth\n--Celebrations and traditions.\n--History.\n----Early history.\n------The Civil War and celebrations of emancipation.\n------End of slavery in Texas.\n------Early Juneteenth celebrations.\n------Decline during Jim Crow.\n----Revival.\n------1960s\u20131980s.\n------Prayer breakfast and commemorative celebrations.\n------Official statewide recognitions.\n------Juneteenth in pop culture and mass media.\n------2020 Trump campaign scheduling controversy.\n------Becoming a federal holiday.\n--Legal observance.\n----State and local.\n----National.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Since the 1980s and 1990s, the holiday has been more widely celebrated among African-American communities and has seen increasing mainstream attention in the US. In 1991, there was an exhibition by the Anacostia Community Museum (part of the Smithsonian Institution) called \u201cJuneteenth \u201991, Freedom Revisited\u201d. In 1994, a group of community leaders gathered at Christian Unity Baptist Church in New Orleans to work for greater national celebration of Juneteenth. Expatriates have celebrated it in cities abroad, such as Paris. Some US military bases in other countries sponsor celebrations, in addition to those of private groups. In 1999, Ralph Ellison's novel \"Juneteenth\" was published, increasing recognition of the holiday. By 2006, at least 200 cities celebrated the day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "During the 1950s and 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement focused the attention of African Americans on expanding freedom and integrating. As a result, observations of the holiday declined again (though it was still celebrated in Texas)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The holiday is considered the \"longest-running African-American holiday\" and has been called \"America's second Independence Day\". Juneteenth is usually celebrated on the third Saturday in June. Historian Mitch Kachun considers that celebrations of the end of slavery have three goals: \"to celebrate, to educate, and to agitate\". Early celebrations consisted of baseball, fishing, and rodeos. African Americans were often prohibited from using public facilities for their celebrations, so they were often held at churches or near water. Celebrations were also characterized by elaborate large meals and people wearing their best clothing. It was common for former enslaved people and their descendants to make a pilgrimage to Galveston. As early festivals received news coverage, Janice Hume and Noah Arceneaux consider that they \"served to assimilate African-American memories within the dominant 'American story'.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History",
        "text": "Juneteenth is the oldest nationally celebrated commemoration of the ending of slavery in the United States. In 2021, days after President Joe Biden signed a law making Juneteenth, June 19, a federal holiday, the museum presented a hybrid virtual and in-person three-day celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Federal holidays in the United States",
        "text": "On June 16, 2021, the U.S. Congress passed legislation to make Juneteenth (June 19) a federal holiday. The day commemorates the end of slavery in Texas in 1865. President Joe Biden signed this bill into law on June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In the late 1970s, when the Texas Legislature declared Juneteenth a \"holiday of significance ... particularly to the blacks of Texas,\" it became the first state to establish Juneteenth as a state holiday. The bill passed through the Texas Legislature in 1979 and was officially made a state holiday on January\u00a01, 1980. Before 2000, three more U.S. states officially observed the day, and over the next two decades it was recognized as an official observance in all states, except South Dakota, until becoming a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In the early 20th century, economic and political forces led to a decline in Juneteenth celebrations. From 1890 to 1908, Texas and all former Confederate states passed new constitutions or amendments that effectively disenfranchised black people, excluding them from the political process. White-dominated state legislatures passed Jim Crow laws imposing second-class status. Gladys L. Knight writes the decline in celebration was in part because \"upwardly mobile blacks ... were ashamed of their slave past and aspired to assimilate into mainstream culture. Younger generations of blacks, becoming further removed from slavery were occupied with school ... and other pursuits.\" Others who migrated to the Northern United States could not take time off or simply dropped the celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Celebrations date to 1866, at first involving church-centered community gatherings in Texas. They spread across the South and became more commercialized in the 1920s and 1930s, often centering on a food festival. Participants in the Great Migration out of the South carried their celebrations to other parts of the country. During the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, these celebrations were eclipsed by the nonviolent determination to achieve civil rights, but grew in popularity again in the 1970s with a focus on African American freedom and African-American arts. Beginning with Texas by proclamation in 1938, and by legislation in 1979, 49 U.S. states and the District of Columbia have formally recognized the holiday in various ways. With its adoption in certain parts of Mexico, the holiday became an international holiday. Juneteenth is celebrated by the Mascogos, descendants of Black Seminoles who escaped from slavery in 1852 and settled in Coahuila, Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ralph Norman",
        "text": "In June 2021, Norman was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tiffany Dena Loftin",
        "text": "On June 19, 2020, Loftin told PEOPLE.com that \"The significance of Juneteenth has always been meaningful in the Black community. However, in the face of the continuous onslaught of racial incidents, police brutality and killings, and hate crimes, we're witnessing a renewed effort to uplift holidays that bring attention to the real history of this country.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Randolph Bracy",
        "text": "In June 2020, Bracy began a push to make Juneteenth a state holiday, with June 19th marking the date the news of the Emancipation Proclamation reached Texas, the westernmost member of the former Confederacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chip Roy",
        "text": "Roy was one of 14 Republicans to vote against the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act, which passed 415-14. The bill recognized as a public holiday a commemoration of June 19, 1865, the day slaves in Galveston, Texas, learned that two and a half years earlier President Abraham Lincoln had issued the Emancipation Proclamation freeing any slave held in rebel states. Roy took issue with the bill's name, saying, \"Juneteenth should be commemorated \u2026[but] the holiday should not be called 'Juneteenth National Independence Day' but rather 'Juneteenth National Emancipation (or Freedom or otherwise) Day.' This name needlessly divides our nation on a matter that should instead bring us together by creating a separate Independence Day based on the color of one's skin.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Andrew Clyde",
        "text": "In June 2021, Clyde was among 14 House Republicans who voted against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday. \"The Atlanta Journal-Constitution\" reported that Clyde \"supported the holiday but didn't like its title, Juneteenth National Independence Day\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in San Antonio",
        "text": "Juneteenth is an annual celebration recognizing the emancipation of black slaves in Texas. President Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation and published it on January 1, 1863, but it did not reach Texas until June 19, 1865. Over the next few years, African-American populations across Texas collected money to buy property dedicated to Juneteenth celebrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in Houston",
        "text": "The State of Texas made Juneteenth a holiday at the state level after Al Edwards, a member of the Texas House of Representatives from Houston, proposed it as a bill."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Washington Carver Museum and Cultural Center",
        "text": "The Juneteenth Exhibit is the core of the George Washington Carver Museum, Cultural, and Genealogy Center's permanent exhibits. The displays and information provided help visitors understand the significance of freedom to formerly enslaved African Americans. Multimedia presentations introduce students to the earliest and present day Juneteenth celebrations. It also provides the opportunity to learn about Texas\u2019 participation in the Civil War, history of the celebration, why the holiday is significant for all Americans, as well as contrasting and comparing early commemorations and modern day activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Peoples and first Black Oregonian Senator Avel Gordly led an effort to make Juneteenth a statewide holiday in 2001. The resolution passed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The Great Depression forced many black people off farms and into the cities to find work, where they had difficulty taking the day off to celebrate. From 1936 to 1951, the Texas State Fair served as a destination for celebrating the holiday, contributing to its revival. In 1936, an estimated 150,000 to 200,000 people joined the holiday's celebration in Dallas. In 1938, Governor of Texas James V. Allred issued a proclamation stating in part:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "North Dakota approved recognition of Juneteenth as a state recognized annual holiday on April 13, 2021, with Hawaii becoming the 49th state to recognize the holiday on June 16, 2021. On June 16, 2020 South Dakota Governor Kristi Noem proclaimed that the following June 19, 2020 was to be Juneteenth Day for that year only, spurning calls for it to be recognized annually, rather than just for 2020. As of June 2021, South Dakota is the only state that has not yet independently recognized Juneteenth as an annual state holiday or observance, according to the Congressional Research Service; nonetheless, its law provides for following the federal law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mo Brooks",
        "text": "In June 2021, Brooks was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday. His rationale for his vote was that the holiday's date was too exclusive and significant only to Texas, and that the freeing of slaves should be celebrated on another day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The holiday has gained mainstream awareness outside African-American communities through depictions in entertainment media, such as episodes of TV series \"Atlanta\" (2016) and \"Black-ish\" (2017), the latter of which featured musical numbers about the holiday by Aloe Blacc, The Roots, and Fonzworth Bentley. In 2018, Apple added Juneteenth to its calendars in iOS under official U.S. holidays. Some private companies have adopted Juneteenth as a paid day off for employees, while others have officially marked the day in other ways, such as a moment of silence. In 2020, several American corporations and educational institutions, including Twitter, the National Football League, Nike, announced that they would treat Juneteenth as a company holiday, providing a paid day off to their workers, and Google Calendar added Juneteenth to its U.S. Holidays calendar. Also in 2020, a number of major universities formally recognized Juneteenth, either as a \"day of reflection\" or as a university holiday with paid time off for faculty and staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Some cities and counties have also recognized Juneteenth through proclamation. In 2020, Juneteenth was formally recognized by New York City (as an annual official city holiday and public school holiday, starting in 2021), although in 2022 it will be observed as a school holiday on June 20. Cook County, Illinois, adopted an ordinance to make Juneteenth a paid county holiday. The City and County of Honolulu recognizes it as an \"annual day of honor and reflection\", and Portland, Oregon (as a day of remembrance and action and a paid holiday for city employees)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Joe Biden",
        "text": "On June 17, Biden signed into law a bill creating Juneteenth as a federal holiday; the day celebrates the end of slavery in the U.S."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In 1996, the first federal legislation to recognize \"Juneteenth Independence Day\" was introduced in the U.S. House of Representatives, H.J.\u00a0Res.\u00a0195, sponsored by Barbara-Rose Collins (D-MI). In 1997, Congress recognized the day through Senate Joint Resolution\u00a011 and House Joint Resolution\u00a056. In 2013, the U.S. Senate passed Senate Resolution\u00a0175, acknowledging Lula Briggs Galloway (late president of the National Association of Juneteenth Lineage), who \"successfully worked to bring national recognition to Juneteenth Independence Day\", and the continued leadership of the National Juneteenth Observance Foundation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scott DesJarlais",
        "text": "In June 2021, DesJarlais was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in San Antonio",
        "text": "The State of Texas made Juneteenth a holiday at the state level after Al Edwards, a member of the Texas House of Representatives from Houston, proposed it as a bill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doug LaMalfa",
        "text": "In June 2021, LaMalfa was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish Juneteenth, a celebration of the end of slavery, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The 2020 mother-daughter film on the holiday's pageant culture, \"Miss Juneteenth\", celebrates African-American women who are \u201cdetermined to stand on their own,\u201d while a resourceful mother is \u201cgetting past a sexist tendency in her community to keep women in their place.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Petersburg, Florida",
        "text": "Juneteenth celebrations are hosted on June 19 to honor the end of slavery in the United States. Peace Protests followed by a celebration in Williams Park take place in St. Pete to honor the holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Texas was the first state to recognize the date, in 1980. By 2002, eight states officially recognized Juneteenth and four years later 15 states recognized the holiday. By 2008, nearly half of states observed the holiday as a ceremonial observance. By 2019, 47 states and the District of Columbia recognized Juneteenth, although as of 2020 only Texas had adopted the holiday as a paid holiday for state employees. In the yearlong aftermath of the murder of George Floyd that occurred on May 25, 2020, nine states had designated Juneteenth a paid holiday, including New York, Washington, and Virginia. In 2020, Massachusetts Governor Charles Baker issued a proclamation that the day would be marked as \"Juneteenth Independence Day\". This followed the filing of bills by both the House and Senate to make Juneteenth a state holiday. Baker did not comment on these bills specifically, but promised to grant the observance of Juneteenth greater importance. On June 16, 2021, Illinois adopted a law changing its ceremonial holiday to a paid state holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tom McClintock",
        "text": "In June 2021, McClintock was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ronny Jackson",
        "text": "In June 2021, Jackson was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ronald Myers",
        "text": "In 1994 a group of community leaders from across the country gathered at Christian Unity Baptist Church in New Orleans, to work for greater national recognition of Juneteenth, a holiday celebrating the end of slavery. Myers was elected Chairman of this advocacy effort, and continues to serve as chairman of the National Juneteenth Holiday Campaign, National Juneteenth Christian Leadership Council, National Juneteenth Observance Foundation, and the National Association of Juneteenth Jazz Presenters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clay Smothers",
        "text": "In 1979, Smothers opposed the bill to create Juneteenth as a Texas state holiday observing the end of slavery in the state. Smothers belittled the observance as mere \"ceremoniously grinning and bursting watermelons on the Capitol grounds\" and \"a fraudulent holiday\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ashton Villa",
        "text": "Former slaves in Galveston rejoiced in the streets with jubilant celebrations. Juneteenth celebrations began in Texas the following year. Across many parts of Texas, freed people pooled their funds to purchase land specifically for their communities' increasingly large Juneteenth gatherings \u2014 including Houston's Emancipation Park, Mexia's Booker T. Washington Park, and Emancipation Park in Austin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trading day",
        "text": "Juneteenth was added as a national holiday and market holiday on June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charlie Baker",
        "text": "In June 2020, Baker signed a law making Juneteenth an official state holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Darrell Jackson (politician)",
        "text": "In 2020, Jackson introduced legislation to make Juneteenth a statewide holiday. In 2020, Jackson won an uncontested race for his seat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "During the American Civil War (1861\u20131865), emancipation came at different times to various places in the Southern United States. Large celebrations of emancipation, often called Jubilees (recalling the biblical Jubilee in which enslaved people were freed) occurred on September\u00a022, January 1, July\u00a04, August\u00a01, April\u00a06, and November\u00a01, among other dates. In Texas, emancipation came late: enforced in Texas on June\u00a019, 1865, as the southern rebellion collapsed, emancipation became a well known cause of celebration. While June 19, 1865, was not actually the 'end of slavery' even in Texas (like the Emancipation Proclamation, itself, General Gordon's military order had to be acted upon) and although it has competed with other dates for emancipation's celebration, ordinary African Americans created, preserved, and spread a shared commemoration of slavery's wartime demise across the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In 1997, activist Ben Haith created the Juneteenth flag, which was further refined by illustrator Lisa Jeanne Graf. In 2000, the flag was first hoisted at the Roxbury Heritage State Park in Boston by Haith. The star at the center represents Texas and the extension of freedom for all African Americans throughout the whole nation. The burst around the star represents a nova and the red curve represents a horizon, standing for a new era for African Americans. The red, white, and blue colors represent the American flag, which shows that African Americans and their enslaved ancestors are Americans, and the national belief in liberty and justice for all citizens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In some cities, black people were barred from using public parks because of state-sponsored segregation of facilities. Across parts of Texas, freed people pooled their funds to purchase land to hold their celebrations. The day was first celebrated in Austin in 1867 under the auspices of the Freedmen's Bureau, and it had been listed on a \"calendar of public events\" by 1872. That year, black leaders in Texas raised $1,000 for the purchase of of land to celebrate Juneteenth, today known as Houston's Emancipation Park. The observation was soon drawing thousands of attendees across Texas; an estimated 30,000 black people celebrated at Booker T. Washington Park in Limestone County, Texas, established in 1898 for Juneteenth celebrations. Blacks began using the word Juneteenth early in the 1890s for Jubilee Day. A Texas periodical \"The Current Issue\" used the word as early as 1909, and that year a book on San Antonio, Texas remarked with condescension on \"June 'teenth\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In June 2019, Governor of Pennsylvania Tom Wolf recognized Juneteenth as a holiday in the state. In 2020, state governors of Virginia, New York, and New Jersey signed an executive order recognizing Juneteenth as a paid day of leave for state employees. In 2021, Governor of Oregon Kate Brown signed an executive order recognizing Juneteenth as a paid day of leave for state employees. On June\u00a016, 2021, Illinois Governor J. B. Pritzker signed House Bill\u00a03922, establishing Juneteenth as a paid state holiday starting in 2022; since 2003, it had been a state ceremonial observance in Illinois."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melanie Morgan (politician)",
        "text": "Morgan sponsored House bill 1016 to designate June 19 (\"Juneteenth\") as a state holiday. The House passed the bill in February on an 89-9 vote. The bill passed the Democratic-led Senate on a bipartisan 47-1. Governor Jay Inslee signed the bill on May 13, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In 1979, Democratic State Representative Al Edwards of Houston, Texas, successfully sponsored legislation to make Juneteenth a paid Texas state holiday. The same year, he hosted the inaugural Al Edwards prayer breakfast and commemorative celebration on the grounds of the 1859 home, Ashton Villa. As one of the few existing buildings from the Civil War era and popular in local myth and legend as the location of Major General Granger\u2019s announcement, Edwards's annual celebration includes a local historian dressed as the Union general reading General Order No.\u00a03 from the second story balcony of the home. The Emancipation Proclamation is also read and speeches are made. Representative Al Edwards died of natural causes April\u00a029, 2020, at the age of 83, but the annual prayer breakfast and commemorative celebration continued at Ashton Villa, with the late legislator's son Jason Edwards speaking in his father\u2019s place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Juneteenth may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Rogers (Alabama politician)",
        "text": "In June 2021, Rogers was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against establishing June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Columbus, Ohio",
        "text": "The Juneteenth Ohio Festival is held each year at Franklin Park on Father's Day weekend. Started by Mustafaa Shabazz, Juneteenth Ohio is one of the largest African American festivals in the United States, including three full days of music, food, dance, and entertainment by local and national recording artists. The festival holds a Father's Day celebration, honoring local fathers."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in Houston",
        "text": "Juneteenth is an annual celebration recognizing the emancipation of black slaves in Texas. President Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation and published it on January 1, 1863, but it did not reach Galveston, Texas until June 19, 1865. Over the next few years, African-American populations across Texas collected money to buy property dedicated to Juneteenth celebrations. In Houston, the effort was led by the Reverend Jack Yates, a Baptist minister and former slave. His church, Antioch Baptist, and Trinity Methodist Episcopal Church formed the Colored People's Festival and Emancipation Park Association. In 1872, they pooled $800 to put down on ten acres of open land as home for their Juneteenth celebration. In honor of their freedom, they named it Emancipation Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth soon saw a revival as black people began tying their struggle to that of ending slavery. In Atlanta, some campaigners for equality wore Juneteenth buttons. During the 1968 Poor People's Campaign to Washington, DC, called by Rev. Ralph Abernathy, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference made June 19 the \"Solidarity Day of the Poor People\u2019s Campaign\". In the subsequent revival, large celebrations in Minneapolis and Milwaukee emerged, as well as across the Eastern United States. In 1974, Houston began holding large-scale celebrations again, and Fort Worth, Texas, followed the next year. Around 30,000 people attended festivities at Sycamore Park in Fort Worth the following year. The 1978 Milwaukee celebration was described as drawing over 100,000 attendees. In the late 1980s, there were major celebrations of Juneteenth in California, Wisconsin, Illinois, Georgia, and Washington, D.C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harriet Tubman Day",
        "text": "Harriet Tubman Day is an American holiday in honor of the anti-slavery activist Harriet Tubman, observed on March 10, and in the U.S. state of New York. Observances also occur locally around the U.S. state of Maryland. After Juneteenth became a federal holiday, there are growing calls for this day to also be observed at the federal level."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gordon Granger",
        "text": "This set off joyous demonstrations by the freed people, originating the annual Juneteenth celebration, which commemorates the abolition of slavery in Texas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tom Tiffany",
        "text": "In June 2021, Tiffany was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Columbus, Ohio",
        "text": "The Juneteenth Ohio Festival is held each year at Franklin Park on Father's Day weekend. Started by Mustafaa Shabazz, JuneteenthOhio is one of the largest African American festivals in the United States, including three full days of music, food, dance, and entertainment by local and national recording artists. The festival holds a Father's Day celebration, honoring local fathers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Opal Lee",
        "text": "On June 17, 2021, President Joe Biden signed Senate Bill S. 475, making Juneteenth the eleventh federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andy Biggs",
        "text": "In June 2021, Biggs was among 14 House Republicans who voted against passing legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Juneteenth, a celebration of emancipation from slavery, was introduced to Oregon in 1945 by Kaiser Shipyard worker Clara Peoples, was recognized by the city of Portland in 1972, statewide in 2013, and federally in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hitchcock, Texas",
        "text": "Each year Juneteenth is celebrated in the Stringfellow Orchards, a complex previously owned by a slave owner. The Texas Historical Commission enacted a historical marker in 1992. In 2004, the site had not been previously maintained, but John Collins discovered the site in 2004 and, with his wife Doris, later purchased it. the Collinses remain the owners."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Gosar",
        "text": "In June 2021, Gosar was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth flag",
        "text": "Many in the African American community have adopted the Pan-African flag to represent Juneteenth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth flag",
        "text": "The white star and surrounding star-burst alludes to Texas and the \"freedom of African Americans in all 50 states\". The curve behind the star is representative of a new horizon and the colors were taken from the red, white, and blue flag of the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Opal Lee",
        "text": "Opal Lee (born October 7, 1926) is an American retired teacher, counselor, and activist in the movement to make Juneteenth a federally-recognized holiday. She is often described as the \"grandmother of Juneteenth\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Formerly enslaved people in Galveston celebrated after the announcement. On June\u00a019, 1866, one year after the announcement, freedmen in Texas organized the first of what became the annual celebration of \"Jubilee Day\". Early celebrations were used as political rallies to give voting instructions to newly freed African Americans. Early independence celebrations often occurred on January\u00a01 or\u00a04."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas Massie",
        "text": "In June 2021, Massie was one of 21 House Republicans to vote against a resolution to give the Congressional Gold Medal to police officers who defended the U.S. Capitol on January 6. Also in June 2021, he was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth (officially named \"Juneteenth National Independence Day\"), as a federal holiday. He said he \"fully support[ed] creating a day to celebrate the abolition of slavery\" but opposed its being named \"Independence Day.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Peoples helped make Juneteenth recognized by the City of Portland in 1972. Mayor Sam Adams and Amanda Fritz declared Peoples the \"Mother of Juneteenth\" in 2011. Juneteenth became an observed holiday for the City of Portland and Multnomah County employees in 2020, as part of a resolution to address structural racism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Capitol Hill Occupied Protest",
        "text": "On June 19, events ranging from a \"grief ritual\" to a dance party were held to observe Juneteenth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Commemoration of the American Civil War",
        "text": "As one of the activities for the State of Texas in this Sesquicentennial era, the city of Galveston has raised funds to erect a marker commemorating Juneteenth. This is significant as on June 19, 1865, Federal troops finally arrived in Galveston, Texas to declare that the Emancipation Proclamation has been signed two and one half years prior and that General Robert Lee has surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse in Virginia on April 9 of that year. The War is over. A contraction of June 19 becomes Juneteenth, the designation of a day of joyous celebration that slavery is over and is annually commemorated. The Galveston Historical Society is also making available a seventy-two page pamphlet of African Americans in Texas: A Lasting Legacy Timeline that may be Downloaded at this site. This pamphlet includes a multitude of historical sites related to African American history in the State of Texas including churches, school, museums and residential and community districts. Photographs and brief synopsis of the locales are provided."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Washington Carver Museum and Cultural Center",
        "text": "The sculptures show how the news of freedom spread. Juneteenth began on June 19, 1865, with an order read by General Gordon Grainger\u2014a law that the Emancipation Proclamation was enforced. So Legislature learned of freedom first, then the news reached The Pastor (who represents the faith leader in African American Community). The Pastor told the enslaved people represented by the Freed Man and Freed Woman, and they shared the news with youth-the Child figure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Opal Lee",
        "text": "Lee campaigned for decades to make Juneteenth a federal holiday. She has promoted the idea by leading walks each year, representing the 2.5 years it took for news of the Emancipation Proclamation to reach Texas. At the age of 89, she conducted a symbolic walk from Fort Worth to Washington, D.C., leaving in September 2016 and arriving in Washington in January 2017. She was hoping to plead the case for a federal holiday directly to President Barack Obama. Lee has not only marched in Texas, but also in Fort Smith and Little Rock, Arkansas; Las Vegas, Nevada; Madison and Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Atlanta, Georgia; Selma, Alabama; and the Carolinas. She promoted a petition for a Juneteenth federal holiday at Change.org; the petition received 1.6 million signatures. She said, \"It's going to be a national holiday, I have no doubt about it. My point is let's make it a holiday in my lifetime.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Emancipation Day",
        "text": "In Texas, Emancipation Day is celebrated on June 19. It commemorates the announcement in Texas of the abolition of slavery made on that day in 1865. It is commonly known as Juneteenth. Since the late 20th century, this date has gained recognition beyond Texas, and became a federal holiday in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stanley Moore (politician)",
        "text": "On the Cook County Board of Commissioners, in collaboration with fellow commissioner Dennis Deer, Moore wrote legislation which was passed in December 2020 to make Juneteenth a paid holiday in Cook County."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jon Batiste",
        "text": "In June 2020, Batiste took part in the Juneteenth celebration in Brooklyn, New York with a day of protests, marches, rallies, and vigils to \"celebrate, show solidarity, and fight for equal rights and treatment of Black people\". Performing on the steps of the Brooklyn Public Library, Batiste was joined by Matt Whitaker in a performance presented in partnership with Sing For Hope."
      },
      {
        "title": "African Cemetery No. 2 (Lexington, Kentucky)",
        "text": "Since 2005, Juneteenth Jubilee has been celebrated annually honoring Civil War veterans. An American flag is placed on each grave and every name is read aloud."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lift Every Voice and Sing",
        "text": "In mid-2020, \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\" began to receive wider public attention amid nationwide protests over the police murder of George Floyd: it was sung during demonstrations and other events which were held in solidarity. Presidential candidate Joe Biden referenced the hymn in his action plan for addressing racial disparities in the United States, which was titled \"Lift Every Voice: The Biden Plan for Black America\". On June 19, 2020, Google featured a Juneteenth-themed animation on its home page, set to a spoken word rendition of the hymn's first verse by LeVar Burton. In 2021, Vanessa Williams sung \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\" on the PBS Independence Day special \"A Capitol Fourth\", commemorating the recognition of Juneteenth as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Seventy thousand people attended a \"Juneteenth Jamboree\" in 1951. From 1940 through 1970, in the second wave of the Great Migration, more than five million black people left Texas, Louisiana and other parts of the South for the North and the West Coast. As historian Isabel Wilkerson writes, \"The people from Texas took Juneteenth Day to Los Angeles, Oakland, Seattle, and other places they went.\" In 1945, Juneteenth was introduced in San Francisco by a migrant from Texas, Wesley Johnson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Opal Lee",
        "text": "In June 2021, at the age of 94, her efforts succeeded as a bill to make Juneteenth a federal holiday was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Joe Biden. She was an honored guest at the bill signing ceremony, receiving the first of many pens Biden used to sign the document. As she sat in the front row, she received a standing ovation and Biden got down on one knee to greet her."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ashton Villa",
        "text": "Although many claims have been made to Ashton Villa's central role in the original 1865 pronouncement, no extant historical evidence supports such assertions. On June 21, 2014, the Galveston Historical Foundation and Texas Historical Commission erected a Juneteenth plaque where the Osterman Building once stood signifying the location of Major General Granger's Union Headquarters and subsequent issuance of General Order No. 3. On June 19, 2006 a statue of Al Edwards, named \"Unknown Legislator\" was dedicated on the grounds of Ashton Villa during the annual prayer breakfast and celebration begun by Edwards in 1979, and hosted annually on the grounds of Ashton Villa every Juneteenth. The 9-foot tall statue of the Democratic State Representative from Houston, originally intended for the state capitol grounds in Austin, Texas is depicted holding up the piece of 1979 legislation making Juneteenth a paid Texas State holiday. The proclamatory pose of the statue evokes the very proclamation the holiday is meant to honor. Edwards' annual prayer breakfast and celebration, first held in 1979, take place every Juneteenth at Ashton Villa and include a reading of the 1862 Emancipation Proclamation and 1865 General Order No. 3 (with a local historian portraying Major General Granger addressing the crowd from the home's balcony).. Despite Edwards' death from natural causes on April 29, 2020, the prayer breakfast and memorial celebration at Ashton Villa continued with the late legislator's son, Jason Edwards, speaking in his place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honor America Days",
        "text": "Honor America Days are a United States Federal Observance observed June 14 to July 4. According to 36 U.S.C. \u00a7 112, the 21 days from Flag Day through Independence Day (including, as of 2021, the federal holiday of Juneteenth) is a period to honor the United States. On these days, U.S. Congress declares that there be public gatherings and activities during that period at which the people of the United States can celebrate and honor their country in an appropriate way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicole Love Hendrickson",
        "text": "Hendrickson has issued proclamations celebrating Juneteenth and, for the first time in Gwinnett's history, acknowledging the 1911 lynching of Charles Hale in Lawrenceville, Georgia. Hendrickson is also the first Gwinnett County Chair to issue a proclamation recognizing LGBTQ+ Pride Month."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Floyd protests in Nebraska",
        "text": "On Juneteenth, dozens came to Highland Park in Hastings to show support for Black Lives Matter. Speakers of color explained the history of the holiday, expressed a desire for more Black history to be taught in public schools, and related experiences of racism in central Nebraska. Demonstrators then marched along 14th Street to Burlington Avenue. Participants were asked to wear masks and not include profanity on signs."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Washington Carver Museum and Cultural Center",
        "text": "The blank pedestal is where visitors can stand and be a part of the piece and continue the Juneteenth Story\u2014to remember, to reflect, and to be inspired to share the emancipation story with others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reactions to the murder of George Floyd",
        "text": "Target and Best Buy made Juneteenth a company holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicole A. Taylor",
        "text": "Her second cookbook, on Juneteenth celebrations, is forthcoming from Simon & Schuster."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dennis Deer",
        "text": "July, 2020 Commissioners Deer and Moore withdrew their separate resolutions and combined their resolutions to make Juneteenth a Cook County Holiday. The measure was unanimously passed in December 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Although this event has come to be celebrated as the end of slavery, emancipation for the remaining enslaved in two Union border states (Delaware and Kentucky), would not come until several months later, on December\u00a018, 1865, when ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment was announced. The freedom of formerly enslaved people in Texas was given state law status in a series of Texas Supreme Court decisions between 1868 and 1874."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "President Abraham Lincoln issued the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation in the midst of the Civil War, announcing on September 22, 1862, that if the rebels did not end the fighting and rejoin the Union by January 1, 1863, he would issue the Emancipation Proclamation. It became effective on January\u00a01, 1863, declaring that all enslaved persons in the Confederate States of America in rebellion and not in Union hands were freed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black Parade (song)",
        "text": "The song was released on June 19, 2020, which marked the 155th anniversary of Juneteenth, the holiday celebrating the emancipation of those who had been enslaved in the United States and which originated in Beyonc\u00e9's home state of Texas. Upon announcing the release of the single on Instagram, Beyonc\u00e9 wrote: \"Happy Juneteenth Weekend! I hope we continue to share joy and celebrate each other, even in the midst of struggle. Please continue to remember our beauty, strength and power. \"BLACK PARADE\" celebrates you, your voice and your joy and will benefit Black-owned small businesses.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery in the United States",
        "text": "The war ended on June 22, 1865, and following that surrender, the Emancipation Proclamation was enforced throughout remaining regions of the South that had not yet freed the slaves. Slavery officially continued for a couple of months in other locations. Federal troops arrived in Galveston, Texas, on June 19, 1865, to enforce the emancipation. The commemoration of that event, Juneteenth National Independence Day, has been declared a national holiday in 2021."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Juneteenth a federal holiday in the USA?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Juneteenth (officially Juneteenth National Independence Day and also known as Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence Day is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African-Americans. Would you like to know more about Juneteenth?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me more about Juneteenth's observance in New York state!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "On May 25, 2020, New York designated Juneteenth a paid holiday."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How is Juneteenth observed in the national level in the USA?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Early celebrations consisted of baseball, fishing, rodeos, and were also characterized by elaborate large meals and people wearing ones' best clothing. Observance today is primarily in local celebrations, including traditions such as public readings of the Emancipation Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot\" and \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\", and reading of works by noted African-American writers, such as Ralph Ellison and Maya Angelou."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Juneteenth a national holiday?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Juneteenth is a federal holiday in the United States.",
      "Juneteenth is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African-Americans. It is also often observed for celebrating African-American culture."
    ],
    "topic": "Juneteenth",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Juneteenth:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Juneteenth"
        ],
        "ctx": "Juneteenth (officially Juneteenth National Independence Day and also known as Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence Day) is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African-Americans. It is also often observed for celebrating African-American culture. Originating in Galveston, Texas, it has been celebrated annually on June 19 in various parts of the United States since 1865. The day was recognized as a federal holiday on June\u00a017, 2021, when President Joe Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act into law. Juneteenth's commemoration is on the anniversary date of the June 19, 1865, announcement of General Order No.\u00a03 by Union Army general Gordon Granger, proclaiming freedom for enslaved people in Texas, which was the last state of the Confederacy with institutional slavery."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Juneteenth:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Juneteenth"
        ],
        "ctx": "Juneteenth (officially Juneteenth National Independence Day and also known as Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence Day) is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African-Americans. It is also often observed for celebrating African-American culture. Originating in Galveston, Texas, it has been celebrated annually on June 19 in various parts of the United States since 1865. The day was recognized as a federal holiday on June\u00a017, 2021, when President Joe Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act into law. Juneteenth's commemoration is on the anniversary date of the June 19, 1865, announcement of General Order No.\u00a03 by Union Army general Gordon Granger, proclaiming freedom for enslaved people in Texas, which was the last state of the Confederacy with institutional slavery."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Juneteenth is an American federal holiday celebrating the emancipation of African-Americans and the abolition of slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In the early 20th century, economic and political forces led to a decline in Juneteenth celebrations. From 1890 to 1908, Texas and all former Confederate states passed new constitutions or amendments that effectively disenfranchised black people, excluding them from the political process. White-dominated state legislatures passed Jim Crow laws imposing second-class status. Gladys L. Knight writes the decline in celebration was in part because \"upwardly mobile blacks ... were ashamed of their slave past and aspired to assimilate into mainstream culture. Younger generations of blacks, becoming further removed from slavery were occupied with school ... and other pursuits.\" Others who migrated to the Northern United States could not take time off or simply dropped the celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth (officially Juneteenth National Independence Day and also known as Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence Day) is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African-Americans. It is also often observed for celebrating African-American culture. Originating in Galveston, Texas, it has been celebrated annually on June 19 in various parts of the United States since 1865. The day was recognized as a federal holiday on June\u00a017, 2021, when President Joe Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act into law. Juneteenth's commemoration is on the anniversary date of the June 19, 1865, announcement of General Order No.\u00a03 by Union Army general Gordon Granger, proclaiming freedom for enslaved people in Texas, which was the last state of the Confederacy with institutional slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "End of slavery in the United States of America",
        "text": "Juneteenth is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of African-American slaves. It is also often observed for celebrating African-American culture. Originating in Galveston, Texas, it has been celebrated annually on June 19 in various parts of the United States since 1865. The day was recognized as a federal holiday on June\u00a017, 2021, when President Joe Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act into law. Juneteenth's commemoration is on the anniversary date of the June 19, 1865, announcement of General Order No.\u00a03 by Union Army general Gordon Granger, proclaiming freedom for slaves in Texas, which was the last state of the Confederacy with institutional slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "During the 1950s and 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement focused the attention of African Americans on expanding freedom and integrating. As a result, observations of the holiday declined again (though it was still celebrated in Texas)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Celebratory traditions often include public readings of the Emancipation Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot\" and \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\", and the reading of works by noted African-American writers, such as Ralph Ellison and Maya Angelou. Some Juneteenth celebrations also include rodeos, street fairs, cookouts, family reunions, park parties, historical reenactments, and Miss Juneteenth contests. When Juneteenth became a federal holiday on June 17, 2021, it was the first new federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was adopted in 1983."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth\n--Celebrations and traditions.\n--History.\n----Early history.\n------The Civil War and celebrations of emancipation.\n------End of slavery in Texas.\n------Early Juneteenth celebrations.\n------Decline during Jim Crow.\n----Revival.\n------1960s\u20131980s.\n------Prayer breakfast and commemorative celebrations.\n------Official statewide recognitions.\n------Juneteenth in pop culture and mass media.\n------2020 Trump campaign scheduling controversy.\n------Becoming a federal holiday.\n--Legal observance.\n----State and local.\n----National.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In the 2000s and 2010s, activists continued a long process to push Congress towards official recognition of Juneteenth. Organizations such as the National Juneteenth Observance Foundation sought a Congressional designation of Juneteenth as a national day of observance. In 2016, Opal Lee, often referred to as the \"grandmother of Juneteenth\", walked from Fort Worth, Texas to Washington D.C. to advocate for a federal holiday. When it was officially made a federal holiday on June 17, 2021, it became one of five date-specific federal holidays along with New Year's Day (January\u00a01), Independence Day (July\u00a04), Veterans Day (November\u00a011), and Christmas Day (December\u00a025). Juneteenth will coincide with Father's Day in 2022, 2033, 2039, 2044, and 2050. Juneteenth is the first new federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was declared a holiday in 1986. Juneteenth also falls within the statutory Honor America Days period, which lasts for 21 days from Flag Day (June 14) to Independence Day (July 4)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Observance today is primarily in local celebrations. In many places, Juneteenth has become a multicultural holiday. Traditions include public readings of the Emancipation Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot\" and \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\", and reading of works by noted African-American writers, such as Ralph Ellison and Maya Angelou. Celebrations include picnics, rodeos, street fairs, cookouts, family reunions, park parties, historical reenactments, blues festivals and Miss Juneteenth contests. Strawberry soda is a traditional drink associated with the celebration. The Mascogos, the descendants of Black Seminoles, who have resided in Coahuila, Mexico, since 1852, also celebrate Juneteenth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Juneteenth may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth is a federal holiday in the United States. For decades, activists and congress members (led by many African Americans) proposed legislation, advocated for, and built support for state and national observances. During his campaign for president in June 2020, Joe Biden publicly celebrated the holiday. President Donald Trump, during his campaign for reelection, added making the day a national holiday part of his \"Platinum Plan for Black America\". Spurred on by the advocates and the Congressional Black Caucus, on June\u00a015, 2021, the Senate unanimously passed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act, establishing Juneteenth as a federal holiday; it subsequently passed through the House of Representatives by a 415\u201314 vote on June\u00a016. President Joe Biden signed the bill () on June\u00a017, 2021, making Juneteenth the eleventh American federal holiday and the first to obtain legal observance as a federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was designated in 1983. According to the bill, federal government employees will now get to take the day off every year on June 19, or should the date fall on a Saturday or Sunday, they will get the Monday or Friday closest to the Saturday or Sunday on which the date falls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Celebrations date to 1866, at first involving church-centered community gatherings in Texas. They spread across the South and became more commercialized in the 1920s and 1930s, often centering on a food festival. Participants in the Great Migration out of the South carried their celebrations to other parts of the country. During the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, these celebrations were eclipsed by the nonviolent determination to achieve civil rights, but grew in popularity again in the 1970s with a focus on African American freedom and African-American arts. Beginning with Texas by proclamation in 1938, and by legislation in 1979, 49 U.S. states and the District of Columbia have formally recognized the holiday in various ways. With its adoption in certain parts of Mexico, the holiday became an international holiday. Juneteenth is celebrated by the Mascogos, descendants of Black Seminoles who escaped from slavery in 1852 and settled in Coahuila, Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In the late 1970s, when the Texas Legislature declared Juneteenth a \"holiday of significance ... particularly to the blacks of Texas,\" it became the first state to establish Juneteenth as a state holiday. The bill passed through the Texas Legislature in 1979 and was officially made a state holiday on January\u00a01, 1980. Before 2000, three more U.S. states officially observed the day, and over the next two decades it was recognized as an official observance in all states, except South Dakota, until becoming a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clay Smothers",
        "text": "In 1979, Smothers opposed the bill to create Juneteenth as a Texas state holiday observing the end of slavery in the state. Smothers belittled the observance as mere \"ceremoniously grinning and bursting watermelons on the Capitol grounds\" and \"a fraudulent holiday\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ralph Norman",
        "text": "In June 2021, Norman was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Federal holidays in the United States",
        "text": "On June 16, 2021, the U.S. Congress passed legislation to make Juneteenth (June 19) a federal holiday. The day commemorates the end of slavery in Texas in 1865. President Joe Biden signed this bill into law on June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The Great Depression forced many black people off farms and into the cities to find work, where they had difficulty taking the day off to celebrate. From 1936 to 1951, the Texas State Fair served as a destination for celebrating the holiday, contributing to its revival. In 1936, an estimated 150,000 to 200,000 people joined the holiday's celebration in Dallas. In 1938, Governor of Texas James V. Allred issued a proclamation stating in part:"
      },
      {
        "title": "African-American neighborhood",
        "text": "Although Juneteenth has increased in national and international popularity, the holiday began among Black Texans in Galveston, Texas when enslaved persons learned of the Emancipation Proclamation two years late, because slaveholders had purposefully kept this information from them. Today, several Black communities in Texas and beyond recognize June 19 as a complicated but celebratory holiday. It is also known as Jubilee Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Since the 1980s and 1990s, the holiday has been more widely celebrated among African-American communities and has seen increasing mainstream attention in the US. In 1991, there was an exhibition by the Anacostia Community Museum (part of the Smithsonian Institution) called \u201cJuneteenth \u201991, Freedom Revisited\u201d. In 1994, a group of community leaders gathered at Christian Unity Baptist Church in New Orleans to work for greater national celebration of Juneteenth. Expatriates have celebrated it in cities abroad, such as Paris. Some US military bases in other countries sponsor celebrations, in addition to those of private groups. In 1999, Ralph Ellison's novel \"Juneteenth\" was published, increasing recognition of the holiday. By 2006, at least 200 cities celebrated the day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In 1996, the first federal legislation to recognize \"Juneteenth Independence Day\" was introduced in the U.S. House of Representatives, H.J.\u00a0Res.\u00a0195, sponsored by Barbara-Rose Collins (D-MI). In 1997, Congress recognized the day through Senate Joint Resolution\u00a011 and House Joint Resolution\u00a056. In 2013, the U.S. Senate passed Senate Resolution\u00a0175, acknowledging Lula Briggs Galloway (late president of the National Association of Juneteenth Lineage), who \"successfully worked to bring national recognition to Juneteenth Independence Day\", and the continued leadership of the National Juneteenth Observance Foundation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Randolph Bracy",
        "text": "In June 2020, Bracy began a push to make Juneteenth a state holiday, with June 19th marking the date the news of the Emancipation Proclamation reached Texas, the westernmost member of the former Confederacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trading day",
        "text": "Juneteenth was added as a national holiday and market holiday on June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tom McClintock",
        "text": "In June 2021, McClintock was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gordon Granger",
        "text": "This set off joyous demonstrations by the freed people, originating the annual Juneteenth celebration, which commemorates the abolition of slavery in Texas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Southgate\u2013Lewis House",
        "text": "On June 19, 2021, the annual Juneteenth Celebration became the newest federal holiday: officially, Juneteenth National Independence Day (Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence). This traditional annual celebration commemorates the ending of slavery in the United States \u2013 the emancipation of enslaved African Americans. A photograph of the Southgate\u2013Lewis House shows how the home of the W. H. Passon Historical Society was utilized on the very day the new Juneteenth National Independence Day was celebrated. The banners on the west elevation of the house (shown herein) depict distinguished African Americans in Government, Education, Literature, Medicine, and Sports. The banners on the north elevation (shown herein) depict distinguished African Americans in Religion and the Military."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In June 2019, Governor of Pennsylvania Tom Wolf recognized Juneteenth as a holiday in the state. In 2020, state governors of Virginia, New York, and New Jersey signed an executive order recognizing Juneteenth as a paid day of leave for state employees. In 2021, Governor of Oregon Kate Brown signed an executive order recognizing Juneteenth as a paid day of leave for state employees. On June\u00a016, 2021, Illinois Governor J. B. Pritzker signed House Bill\u00a03922, establishing Juneteenth as a paid state holiday starting in 2022; since 2003, it had been a state ceremonial observance in Illinois."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Some cities and counties have also recognized Juneteenth through proclamation. In 2020, Juneteenth was formally recognized by New York City (as an annual official city holiday and public school holiday, starting in 2021), although in 2022 it will be observed as a school holiday on June 20. Cook County, Illinois, adopted an ordinance to make Juneteenth a paid county holiday. The City and County of Honolulu recognizes it as an \"annual day of honor and reflection\", and Portland, Oregon (as a day of remembrance and action and a paid holiday for city employees)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Peoples and first Black Oregonian Senator Avel Gordly led an effort to make Juneteenth a statewide holiday in 2001. The resolution passed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Joe Biden",
        "text": "On June 17, Biden signed into law a bill creating Juneteenth as a federal holiday; the day celebrates the end of slavery in the U.S."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ashton Villa",
        "text": "Former slaves in Galveston rejoiced in the streets with jubilant celebrations. Juneteenth celebrations began in Texas the following year. Across many parts of Texas, freed people pooled their funds to purchase land specifically for their communities' increasingly large Juneteenth gatherings \u2014 including Houston's Emancipation Park, Mexia's Booker T. Washington Park, and Emancipation Park in Austin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The holiday is considered the \"longest-running African-American holiday\" and has been called \"America's second Independence Day\". Juneteenth is usually celebrated on the third Saturday in June. Historian Mitch Kachun considers that celebrations of the end of slavery have three goals: \"to celebrate, to educate, and to agitate\". Early celebrations consisted of baseball, fishing, and rodeos. African Americans were often prohibited from using public facilities for their celebrations, so they were often held at churches or near water. Celebrations were also characterized by elaborate large meals and people wearing their best clothing. It was common for former enslaved people and their descendants to make a pilgrimage to Galveston. As early festivals received news coverage, Janice Hume and Noah Arceneaux consider that they \"served to assimilate African-American memories within the dominant 'American story'.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History",
        "text": "Juneteenth is the oldest nationally celebrated commemoration of the ending of slavery in the United States. In 2021, days after President Joe Biden signed a law making Juneteenth, June 19, a federal holiday, the museum presented a hybrid virtual and in-person three-day celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Texas was the first state to recognize the date, in 1980. By 2002, eight states officially recognized Juneteenth and four years later 15 states recognized the holiday. By 2008, nearly half of states observed the holiday as a ceremonial observance. By 2019, 47 states and the District of Columbia recognized Juneteenth, although as of 2020 only Texas had adopted the holiday as a paid holiday for state employees. In the yearlong aftermath of the murder of George Floyd that occurred on May 25, 2020, nine states had designated Juneteenth a paid holiday, including New York, Washington, and Virginia. In 2020, Massachusetts Governor Charles Baker issued a proclamation that the day would be marked as \"Juneteenth Independence Day\". This followed the filing of bills by both the House and Senate to make Juneteenth a state holiday. Baker did not comment on these bills specifically, but promised to grant the observance of Juneteenth greater importance. On June 16, 2021, Illinois adopted a law changing its ceremonial holiday to a paid state holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth celebrations often include lectures and exhibitions on African-American culture. The modern holiday places much emphasis upon teaching about African-American heritage. Karen M. Thomas wrote in \"Emerge\" that \"community leaders have latched on to [Juneteenth] to help instill a sense of heritage and pride in black youth.\" Celebrations are commonly accompanied by voter registration efforts, the performing of plays, and retelling stories. The holiday is also a celebration of soul food and other food with African-American influences. In \"Tourism Review International\", Anne Donovan and Karen DeBres write that \"Barbecue is the centerpiece of most Juneteenth celebrations\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tom Tiffany",
        "text": "In June 2021, Tiffany was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charlie Baker",
        "text": "In June 2020, Baker signed a law making Juneteenth an official state holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scott DesJarlais",
        "text": "In June 2021, DesJarlais was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Petersburg, Florida",
        "text": "Juneteenth celebrations are hosted on June 19 to honor the end of slavery in the United States. Peace Protests followed by a celebration in Williams Park take place in St. Pete to honor the holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doug LaMalfa",
        "text": "In June 2021, LaMalfa was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish Juneteenth, a celebration of the end of slavery, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Capitol Hill Occupied Protest",
        "text": "On June 19, events ranging from a \"grief ritual\" to a dance party were held to observe Juneteenth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "During the American Civil War (1861\u20131865), emancipation came at different times to various places in the Southern United States. Large celebrations of emancipation, often called Jubilees (recalling the biblical Jubilee in which enslaved people were freed) occurred on September\u00a022, January 1, July\u00a04, August\u00a01, April\u00a06, and November\u00a01, among other dates. In Texas, emancipation came late: enforced in Texas on June\u00a019, 1865, as the southern rebellion collapsed, emancipation became a well known cause of celebration. While June 19, 1865, was not actually the 'end of slavery' even in Texas (like the Emancipation Proclamation, itself, General Gordon's military order had to be acted upon) and although it has competed with other dates for emancipation's celebration, ordinary African Americans created, preserved, and spread a shared commemoration of slavery's wartime demise across the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth soon saw a revival as black people began tying their struggle to that of ending slavery. In Atlanta, some campaigners for equality wore Juneteenth buttons. During the 1968 Poor People's Campaign to Washington, DC, called by Rev. Ralph Abernathy, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference made June 19 the \"Solidarity Day of the Poor People\u2019s Campaign\". In the subsequent revival, large celebrations in Minneapolis and Milwaukee emerged, as well as across the Eastern United States. In 1974, Houston began holding large-scale celebrations again, and Fort Worth, Texas, followed the next year. Around 30,000 people attended festivities at Sycamore Park in Fort Worth the following year. The 1978 Milwaukee celebration was described as drawing over 100,000 attendees. In the late 1980s, there were major celebrations of Juneteenth in California, Wisconsin, Illinois, Georgia, and Washington, D.C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mo Brooks",
        "text": "In June 2021, Brooks was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday. His rationale for his vote was that the holiday's date was too exclusive and significant only to Texas, and that the freeing of slaves should be celebrated on another day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chip Roy",
        "text": "Roy was one of 14 Republicans to vote against the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act, which passed 415-14. The bill recognized as a public holiday a commemoration of June 19, 1865, the day slaves in Galveston, Texas, learned that two and a half years earlier President Abraham Lincoln had issued the Emancipation Proclamation freeing any slave held in rebel states. Roy took issue with the bill's name, saying, \"Juneteenth should be commemorated \u2026[but] the holiday should not be called 'Juneteenth National Independence Day' but rather 'Juneteenth National Emancipation (or Freedom or otherwise) Day.' This name needlessly divides our nation on a matter that should instead bring us together by creating a separate Independence Day based on the color of one's skin.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "North Dakota approved recognition of Juneteenth as a state recognized annual holiday on April 13, 2021, with Hawaii becoming the 49th state to recognize the holiday on June 16, 2021. On June 16, 2020 South Dakota Governor Kristi Noem proclaimed that the following June 19, 2020 was to be Juneteenth Day for that year only, spurning calls for it to be recognized annually, rather than just for 2020. As of June 2021, South Dakota is the only state that has not yet independently recognized Juneteenth as an annual state holiday or observance, according to the Congressional Research Service; nonetheless, its law provides for following the federal law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Formerly enslaved people in Galveston celebrated after the announcement. On June\u00a019, 1866, one year after the announcement, freedmen in Texas organized the first of what became the annual celebration of \"Jubilee Day\". Early celebrations were used as political rallies to give voting instructions to newly freed African Americans. Early independence celebrations often occurred on January\u00a01 or\u00a04."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Juneteenth, a celebration of emancipation from slavery, was introduced to Oregon in 1945 by Kaiser Shipyard worker Clara Peoples, was recognized by the city of Portland in 1972, statewide in 2013, and federally in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andrew Clyde",
        "text": "In June 2021, Clyde was among 14 House Republicans who voted against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday. \"The Atlanta Journal-Constitution\" reported that Clyde \"supported the holiday but didn't like its title, Juneteenth National Independence Day\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reactions to the murder of George Floyd",
        "text": "Target and Best Buy made Juneteenth a company holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In some cities, black people were barred from using public parks because of state-sponsored segregation of facilities. Across parts of Texas, freed people pooled their funds to purchase land to hold their celebrations. The day was first celebrated in Austin in 1867 under the auspices of the Freedmen's Bureau, and it had been listed on a \"calendar of public events\" by 1872. That year, black leaders in Texas raised $1,000 for the purchase of of land to celebrate Juneteenth, today known as Houston's Emancipation Park. The observation was soon drawing thousands of attendees across Texas; an estimated 30,000 black people celebrated at Booker T. Washington Park in Limestone County, Texas, established in 1898 for Juneteenth celebrations. Blacks began using the word Juneteenth early in the 1890s for Jubilee Day. A Texas periodical \"The Current Issue\" used the word as early as 1909, and that year a book on San Antonio, Texas remarked with condescension on \"June 'teenth\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In 1979, Democratic State Representative Al Edwards of Houston, Texas, successfully sponsored legislation to make Juneteenth a paid Texas state holiday. The same year, he hosted the inaugural Al Edwards prayer breakfast and commemorative celebration on the grounds of the 1859 home, Ashton Villa. As one of the few existing buildings from the Civil War era and popular in local myth and legend as the location of Major General Granger\u2019s announcement, Edwards's annual celebration includes a local historian dressed as the Union general reading General Order No.\u00a03 from the second story balcony of the home. The Emancipation Proclamation is also read and speeches are made. Representative Al Edwards died of natural causes April\u00a029, 2020, at the age of 83, but the annual prayer breakfast and commemorative celebration continued at Ashton Villa, with the late legislator's son Jason Edwards speaking in his father\u2019s place."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in San Antonio",
        "text": "Juneteenth is an annual celebration recognizing the emancipation of black slaves in Texas. President Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation and published it on January 1, 1863, but it did not reach Texas until June 19, 1865. Over the next few years, African-American populations across Texas collected money to buy property dedicated to Juneteenth celebrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Peoples helped make Juneteenth recognized by the City of Portland in 1972. Mayor Sam Adams and Amanda Fritz declared Peoples the \"Mother of Juneteenth\" in 2011. Juneteenth became an observed holiday for the City of Portland and Multnomah County employees in 2020, as part of a resolution to address structural racism."
      },
      {
        "title": "African-American culture",
        "text": "Less-widely observed outside of the African-American community is Emancipation Day popularly known as Juneteenth or Freedom Day, in recognition of the official reading of the Emancipation Proclamation on June 19, 1865, in Texas. Juneteenth is a day when African Americans reflect on their unique history and heritage. It is one of the fastest growing African-American holidays with observances in the United States. Juneteenth was recognized as federal holiday in 2021, and was first observed as such on June 19, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Gosar",
        "text": "In June 2021, Gosar was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tiffany Dena Loftin",
        "text": "On June 19, 2020, Loftin told PEOPLE.com that \"The significance of Juneteenth has always been meaningful in the Black community. However, in the face of the continuous onslaught of racial incidents, police brutality and killings, and hate crimes, we're witnessing a renewed effort to uplift holidays that bring attention to the real history of this country.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in Houston",
        "text": "The State of Texas made Juneteenth a holiday at the state level after Al Edwards, a member of the Texas House of Representatives from Houston, proposed it as a bill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ashton Villa",
        "text": "June 19 has since become known as Juneteenth, a portmanteau of the words June and nineteenth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ronny Jackson",
        "text": "In June 2021, Jackson was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The holiday has gained mainstream awareness outside African-American communities through depictions in entertainment media, such as episodes of TV series \"Atlanta\" (2016) and \"Black-ish\" (2017), the latter of which featured musical numbers about the holiday by Aloe Blacc, The Roots, and Fonzworth Bentley. In 2018, Apple added Juneteenth to its calendars in iOS under official U.S. holidays. Some private companies have adopted Juneteenth as a paid day off for employees, while others have officially marked the day in other ways, such as a moment of silence. In 2020, several American corporations and educational institutions, including Twitter, the National Football League, Nike, announced that they would treat Juneteenth as a company holiday, providing a paid day off to their workers, and Google Calendar added Juneteenth to its U.S. Holidays calendar. Also in 2020, a number of major universities formally recognized Juneteenth, either as a \"day of reflection\" or as a university holiday with paid time off for faculty and staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hitchcock, Texas",
        "text": "Each year Juneteenth is celebrated in the Stringfellow Orchards, a complex previously owned by a slave owner. The Texas Historical Commission enacted a historical marker in 1992. In 2004, the site had not been previously maintained, but John Collins discovered the site in 2004 and, with his wife Doris, later purchased it. the Collinses remain the owners."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Washington Carver Museum and Cultural Center",
        "text": "The Juneteenth Exhibit is the core of the George Washington Carver Museum, Cultural, and Genealogy Center's permanent exhibits. The displays and information provided help visitors understand the significance of freedom to formerly enslaved African Americans. Multimedia presentations introduce students to the earliest and present day Juneteenth celebrations. It also provides the opportunity to learn about Texas\u2019 participation in the Civil War, history of the celebration, why the holiday is significant for all Americans, as well as contrasting and comparing early commemorations and modern day activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Washington Carver Museum and Cultural Center",
        "text": "The sculptures show how the news of freedom spread. Juneteenth began on June 19, 1865, with an order read by General Gordon Grainger\u2014a law that the Emancipation Proclamation was enforced. So Legislature learned of freedom first, then the news reached The Pastor (who represents the faith leader in African American Community). The Pastor told the enslaved people represented by the Freed Man and Freed Woman, and they shared the news with youth-the Child figure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "In 2011 and 2013, Oregon politician Lew Frederick introduced bills to recognize Peoples. It was enrolled and signed by the governor on May 1, 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The 2020 mother-daughter film on the holiday's pageant culture, \"Miss Juneteenth\", celebrates African-American women who are \u201cdetermined to stand on their own,\u201d while a resourceful mother is \u201cgetting past a sexist tendency in her community to keep women in their place.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Melanie Morgan (politician)",
        "text": "Morgan sponsored House bill 1016 to designate June 19 (\"Juneteenth\") as a state holiday. The House passed the bill in February on an 89-9 vote. The bill passed the Democratic-led Senate on a bipartisan 47-1. Governor Jay Inslee signed the bill on May 13, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miss Juneteenth",
        "text": "The director of photography was Daniel Patterson, the production designer was Olivia Peebles, and Rachel Dainer-Best was the costume designer. Filming took place during July and August 2019 in Fort Worth, Texas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andy Biggs",
        "text": "In June 2021, Biggs was among 14 House Republicans who voted against passing legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Darrell Jackson (politician)",
        "text": "In 2020, Jackson introduced legislation to make Juneteenth a statewide holiday. In 2020, Jackson won an uncontested race for his seat."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Closer (2021 film)",
        "text": "Chappelle celebrates the adoption of the Juneteenth holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas Massie",
        "text": "In June 2021, Massie was one of 21 House Republicans to vote against a resolution to give the Congressional Gold Medal to police officers who defended the U.S. Capitol on January 6. Also in June 2021, he was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth (officially named \"Juneteenth National Independence Day\"), as a federal holiday. He said he \"fully support[ed] creating a day to celebrate the abolition of slavery\" but opposed its being named \"Independence Day.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in Houston",
        "text": "Juneteenth is an annual celebration recognizing the emancipation of black slaves in Texas. President Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation and published it on January 1, 1863, but it did not reach Galveston, Texas until June 19, 1865. Over the next few years, African-American populations across Texas collected money to buy property dedicated to Juneteenth celebrations. In Houston, the effort was led by the Reverend Jack Yates, a Baptist minister and former slave. His church, Antioch Baptist, and Trinity Methodist Episcopal Church formed the Colored People's Festival and Emancipation Park Association. In 1872, they pooled $800 to put down on ten acres of open land as home for their Juneteenth celebration. In honor of their freedom, they named it Emancipation Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in San Antonio",
        "text": "The State of Texas made Juneteenth a holiday at the state level after Al Edwards, a member of the Texas House of Representatives from Houston, proposed it as a bill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicole A. Taylor",
        "text": "Her second cookbook, on Juneteenth celebrations, is forthcoming from Simon & Schuster."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Peoples died in October 5, 2015, at age 89. The annual parade was named the \"Clara Peoples Freedom Trail Parade\" beginning in 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth flag",
        "text": "The flag was designed in 1997 by Lisa Jeanne Graf for the National Juneteenth Celebration Foundation. The flag was revised in 2000, and in 2007 the text \"June 19, 1865\" was added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Although this event has come to be celebrated as the end of slavery, emancipation for the remaining enslaved in two Union border states (Delaware and Kentucky), would not come until several months later, on December\u00a018, 1865, when ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment was announced. The freedom of formerly enslaved people in Texas was given state law status in a series of Texas Supreme Court decisions between 1868 and 1874."
      },
      {
        "title": "Columbus, Ohio",
        "text": "The Juneteenth Ohio Festival is held each year at Franklin Park on Father's Day weekend. Started by Mustafaa Shabazz, Juneteenth Ohio is one of the largest African American festivals in the United States, including three full days of music, food, dance, and entertainment by local and national recording artists. The festival holds a Father's Day celebration, honoring local fathers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Seventy thousand people attended a \"Juneteenth Jamboree\" in 1951. From 1940 through 1970, in the second wave of the Great Migration, more than five million black people left Texas, Louisiana and other parts of the South for the North and the West Coast. As historian Isabel Wilkerson writes, \"The people from Texas took Juneteenth Day to Los Angeles, Oakland, Seattle, and other places they went.\" In 1945, Juneteenth was introduced in San Francisco by a migrant from Texas, Wesley Johnson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Opal Lee",
        "text": "On June 17, 2021, President Joe Biden signed Senate Bill S. 475, making Juneteenth the eleventh federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Rogers (Alabama politician)",
        "text": "In June 2021, Rogers was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against establishing June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Columbus, Ohio",
        "text": "The Juneteenth Ohio Festival is held each year at Franklin Park on Father's Day weekend. Started by Mustafaa Shabazz, JuneteenthOhio is one of the largest African American festivals in the United States, including three full days of music, food, dance, and entertainment by local and national recording artists. The festival holds a Father's Day celebration, honoring local fathers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ashton Villa",
        "text": "Although many claims have been made to Ashton Villa's central role in the original 1865 pronouncement, no extant historical evidence supports such assertions. On June 21, 2014, the Galveston Historical Foundation and Texas Historical Commission erected a Juneteenth plaque where the Osterman Building once stood signifying the location of Major General Granger's Union Headquarters and subsequent issuance of General Order No. 3. On June 19, 2006 a statue of Al Edwards, named \"Unknown Legislator\" was dedicated on the grounds of Ashton Villa during the annual prayer breakfast and celebration begun by Edwards in 1979, and hosted annually on the grounds of Ashton Villa every Juneteenth. The 9-foot tall statue of the Democratic State Representative from Houston, originally intended for the state capitol grounds in Austin, Texas is depicted holding up the piece of 1979 legislation making Juneteenth a paid Texas State holiday. The proclamatory pose of the statue evokes the very proclamation the holiday is meant to honor. Edwards' annual prayer breakfast and celebration, first held in 1979, take place every Juneteenth at Ashton Villa and include a reading of the 1862 Emancipation Proclamation and 1865 General Order No. 3 (with a local historian portraying Major General Granger addressing the crowd from the home's balcony).. Despite Edwards' death from natural causes on April 29, 2020, the prayer breakfast and memorial celebration at Ashton Villa continued with the late legislator's son, Jason Edwards, speaking in his place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In 1997, activist Ben Haith created the Juneteenth flag, which was further refined by illustrator Lisa Jeanne Graf. In 2000, the flag was first hoisted at the Roxbury Heritage State Park in Boston by Haith. The star at the center represents Texas and the extension of freedom for all African Americans throughout the whole nation. The burst around the star represents a nova and the red curve represents a horizon, standing for a new era for African Americans. The red, white, and blue colors represent the American flag, which shows that African Americans and their enslaved ancestors are Americans, and the national belief in liberty and justice for all citizens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zora Martin-Felton",
        "text": "In the early 1990s, Felton was instrumental in organizing day-long Juneteenth celebrations in Anacostia, which was an prominent step towards broader recognition of Juneteenth in Washington, D.C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Davian Chester",
        "text": "On June 19, 2019, upon realizing Google had not done anything to honor the anniversary date of Juneteenth, he posted his own alternative doodle. It went viral in a matter of hours and he became an instant news story with major news outlets reporting on what he had done. This introduced the rest of the world to his work and to a holiday that until then was primarily only celebrated by African-Americans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In 2020, controversy ensued when President Donald Trump initially scheduled his first political rally since the COVID-19 pandemic's outbreak for June 19 in Tulsa, Oklahoma, site of the 1921 race massacre in the Greenwood district. Two days after announcing the rally in Tulsa, President Trump asked a Black secret service agent about Juneteenth. \"Yes, I know what it is,\" the agent said to Trump, \"and it\u2019s very offensive to me that you\u2019re having this rally on Juneteenth.\" That night, Trump tweeted that he wished to change the date of his rally. He postponed it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth flag",
        "text": "The white star and surrounding star-burst alludes to Texas and the \"freedom of African Americans in all 50 states\". The curve behind the star is representative of a new horizon and the colors were taken from the red, white, and blue flag of the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dennis Deer",
        "text": "July, 2020 Commissioners Deer and Moore withdrew their separate resolutions and combined their resolutions to make Juneteenth a Cook County Holiday. The measure was unanimously passed in December 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Juneteenth in Oregon\n--Timeline.\n--Clara Peoples.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ronald Myers",
        "text": "In 1994 a group of community leaders from across the country gathered at Christian Unity Baptist Church in New Orleans, to work for greater national recognition of Juneteenth, a holiday celebrating the end of slavery. Myers was elected Chairman of this advocacy effort, and continues to serve as chairman of the National Juneteenth Holiday Campaign, National Juneteenth Christian Leadership Council, National Juneteenth Observance Foundation, and the National Association of Juneteenth Jazz Presenters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "By 2020, Peoples' granddaughter, Jenelle Jack, was the director of Juneteenth Oregon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brevard County Social Services",
        "text": "In June, the Juneteenth Festival is held, commemorating the freeing of the slaves at the end of the Civil War. This attracts about 500 attendees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth flag",
        "text": "The flag was first flown at the Roxbury Heritage State Park in Boston in 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Washington Carver Museum and Cultural Center",
        "text": "The Juneteenth Sculptures are created by Adrienne Rison Isom and Eddie Dixon. Isom, a native Austinite, created 3 of the sculpture pieces\u2014Freed Man & Freed Woman, and Child (the girl figure). And Dixon created the remaining work\u2014Law Maker and Pastor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Opal Lee",
        "text": "In June 1939, her parents bought a house in the 900 block of East Annie Street, then a mostly white area. On June 19, 1939, 500 white rioters vandalized and burned down her home. Lee was twelve years old at the time. Recalling it years later, she said, \"The fact that it happened on the 19th day of June has spurred me to make people understand that Juneteenth is not just a festival.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth flag",
        "text": "The Juneteenth flag is a flag that marks Juneteenth. It was created in 1997 and first flown in 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth (novel)",
        "text": "A fuller version of the manuscript was published as \"Three Days Before the Shooting...\" on February 2, 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth (Atlanta)",
        "text": "Juneteenth (Atlanta)\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n----Development.\n--Reception.\n----Viewers.\n----Critical reviews.\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Juneteenth a federal holiday in the USA?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Juneteenth (officially Juneteenth National Independence Day and also known as Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence Day is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African-Americans. Would you like to know more about Juneteenth?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me more about Juneteenth's observance in New York state!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "On May 25, 2020, New York designated Juneteenth a paid holiday."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How is Juneteenth observed in the national level in the USA?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Early celebrations consisted of baseball, fishing, rodeos, and were also characterized by elaborate large meals and people wearing ones' best clothing. Observance today is primarily in local celebrations, including traditions such as public readings of the Emancipation Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot\" and \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\", and reading of works by noted African-American writers, such as Ralph Ellison and Maya Angelou."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Juneteenth a national holiday?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Juneteenth is a federal holiday in the United States."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What led to the celebration of Juneteenth ?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Celebrations date to 1866 in Texas, spreading throughout the South in the 1920s and 30s.",
      "Originating in Galveston, Texas, it has been celebrated annually on June 19 in various parts of the United States since 1865. The day was recognized as a federal holiday on June 17, 2021, when President Joe Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act into law.[7][8] Juneteenth's commemoration is on the anniversary date of the June 19, 1865, announcement of General Order No. 3 by Union Army general Gordon Granger, proclaiming freedom for enslaved people in Texas, which was the last state of the Confederacy with institutional slavery."
    ],
    "topic": "Juneteenth",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Juneteenth:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Juneteenth"
        ],
        "ctx": "Celebrations date to 1866, at first involving church-centered community gatherings in Texas. They spread across the South and became more commercialized in the 1920s and 1930s, often centering on a food festival. Participants in the Great Migration out of the South carried their celebrations to other parts of the country. During the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, these celebrations were eclipsed by the nonviolent determination to achieve civil rights, but grew in popularity again in the 1970s with a focus on African American freedom and African-American arts. Beginning with Texas by proclamation in 1938, and by legislation in 1979, 49 U.S. states and the District of Columbia have formally recognized the holiday in various ways. With its adoption in certain parts of Mexico, the holiday became an international holiday. Juneteenth is celebrated by the Mascogos, descendants of Black Seminoles who escaped from slavery in 1852 and settled in Coahuila, Mexico."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Juneteenth:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Juneteenth"
        ],
        "ctx": "Juneteenth (officially Juneteenth National Independence Day and also known as Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence Day) is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African-Americans. It is also often observed for celebrating African-American culture. Originating in Galveston, Texas, it has been celebrated annually on June 19 in various parts of the United States since 1865. The day was recognized as a federal holiday on June\u00a017, 2021, when President Joe Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act into law. Juneteenth's commemoration is on the anniversary date of the June 19, 1865, announcement of General Order No.\u00a03 by Union Army general Gordon Granger, proclaiming freedom for enslaved people in Texas, which was the last state of the Confederacy with institutional slavery."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The Great Depression forced many black people off farms and into the cities to find work, where they had difficulty taking the day off to celebrate. From 1936 to 1951, the Texas State Fair served as a destination for celebrating the holiday, contributing to its revival. In 1936, an estimated 150,000 to 200,000 people joined the holiday's celebration in Dallas. In 1938, Governor of Texas James V. Allred issued a proclamation stating in part:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In the early 20th century, economic and political forces led to a decline in Juneteenth celebrations. From 1890 to 1908, Texas and all former Confederate states passed new constitutions or amendments that effectively disenfranchised black people, excluding them from the political process. White-dominated state legislatures passed Jim Crow laws imposing second-class status. Gladys L. Knight writes the decline in celebration was in part because \"upwardly mobile blacks ... were ashamed of their slave past and aspired to assimilate into mainstream culture. Younger generations of blacks, becoming further removed from slavery were occupied with school ... and other pursuits.\" Others who migrated to the Northern United States could not take time off or simply dropped the celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "During the 1950s and 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement focused the attention of African Americans on expanding freedom and integrating. As a result, observations of the holiday declined again (though it was still celebrated in Texas)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth soon saw a revival as black people began tying their struggle to that of ending slavery. In Atlanta, some campaigners for equality wore Juneteenth buttons. During the 1968 Poor People's Campaign to Washington, DC, called by Rev. Ralph Abernathy, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference made June 19 the \"Solidarity Day of the Poor People\u2019s Campaign\". In the subsequent revival, large celebrations in Minneapolis and Milwaukee emerged, as well as across the Eastern United States. In 1974, Houston began holding large-scale celebrations again, and Fort Worth, Texas, followed the next year. Around 30,000 people attended festivities at Sycamore Park in Fort Worth the following year. The 1978 Milwaukee celebration was described as drawing over 100,000 attendees. In the late 1980s, there were major celebrations of Juneteenth in California, Wisconsin, Illinois, Georgia, and Washington, D.C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gordon Granger",
        "text": "This set off joyous demonstrations by the freed people, originating the annual Juneteenth celebration, which commemorates the abolition of slavery in Texas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ashton Villa",
        "text": "Former slaves in Galveston rejoiced in the streets with jubilant celebrations. Juneteenth celebrations began in Texas the following year. Across many parts of Texas, freed people pooled their funds to purchase land specifically for their communities' increasingly large Juneteenth gatherings \u2014 including Houston's Emancipation Park, Mexia's Booker T. Washington Park, and Emancipation Park in Austin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Celebrations date to 1866, at first involving church-centered community gatherings in Texas. They spread across the South and became more commercialized in the 1920s and 1930s, often centering on a food festival. Participants in the Great Migration out of the South carried their celebrations to other parts of the country. During the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, these celebrations were eclipsed by the nonviolent determination to achieve civil rights, but grew in popularity again in the 1970s with a focus on African American freedom and African-American arts. Beginning with Texas by proclamation in 1938, and by legislation in 1979, 49 U.S. states and the District of Columbia have formally recognized the holiday in various ways. With its adoption in certain parts of Mexico, the holiday became an international holiday. Juneteenth is celebrated by the Mascogos, descendants of Black Seminoles who escaped from slavery in 1852 and settled in Coahuila, Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Observance today is primarily in local celebrations. In many places, Juneteenth has become a multicultural holiday. Traditions include public readings of the Emancipation Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot\" and \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\", and reading of works by noted African-American writers, such as Ralph Ellison and Maya Angelou. Celebrations include picnics, rodeos, street fairs, cookouts, family reunions, park parties, historical reenactments, blues festivals and Miss Juneteenth contests. Strawberry soda is a traditional drink associated with the celebration. The Mascogos, the descendants of Black Seminoles, who have resided in Coahuila, Mexico, since 1852, also celebrate Juneteenth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "During the American Civil War (1861\u20131865), emancipation came at different times to various places in the Southern United States. Large celebrations of emancipation, often called Jubilees (recalling the biblical Jubilee in which enslaved people were freed) occurred on September\u00a022, January 1, July\u00a04, August\u00a01, April\u00a06, and November\u00a01, among other dates. In Texas, emancipation came late: enforced in Texas on June\u00a019, 1865, as the southern rebellion collapsed, emancipation became a well known cause of celebration. While June 19, 1865, was not actually the 'end of slavery' even in Texas (like the Emancipation Proclamation, itself, General Gordon's military order had to be acted upon) and although it has competed with other dates for emancipation's celebration, ordinary African Americans created, preserved, and spread a shared commemoration of slavery's wartime demise across the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth\n--Celebrations and traditions.\n--History.\n----Early history.\n------The Civil War and celebrations of emancipation.\n------End of slavery in Texas.\n------Early Juneteenth celebrations.\n------Decline during Jim Crow.\n----Revival.\n------1960s\u20131980s.\n------Prayer breakfast and commemorative celebrations.\n------Official statewide recognitions.\n------Juneteenth in pop culture and mass media.\n------2020 Trump campaign scheduling controversy.\n------Becoming a federal holiday.\n--Legal observance.\n----State and local.\n----National.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "End of slavery in the United States of America",
        "text": "Juneteenth is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of African-American slaves. It is also often observed for celebrating African-American culture. Originating in Galveston, Texas, it has been celebrated annually on June 19 in various parts of the United States since 1865. The day was recognized as a federal holiday on June\u00a017, 2021, when President Joe Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act into law. Juneteenth's commemoration is on the anniversary date of the June 19, 1865, announcement of General Order No.\u00a03 by Union Army general Gordon Granger, proclaiming freedom for slaves in Texas, which was the last state of the Confederacy with institutional slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth (officially Juneteenth National Independence Day and also known as Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence Day) is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African-Americans. It is also often observed for celebrating African-American culture. Originating in Galveston, Texas, it has been celebrated annually on June 19 in various parts of the United States since 1865. The day was recognized as a federal holiday on June\u00a017, 2021, when President Joe Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act into law. Juneteenth's commemoration is on the anniversary date of the June 19, 1865, announcement of General Order No.\u00a03 by Union Army general Gordon Granger, proclaiming freedom for enslaved people in Texas, which was the last state of the Confederacy with institutional slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Celebratory traditions often include public readings of the Emancipation Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot\" and \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\", and the reading of works by noted African-American writers, such as Ralph Ellison and Maya Angelou. Some Juneteenth celebrations also include rodeos, street fairs, cookouts, family reunions, park parties, historical reenactments, and Miss Juneteenth contests. When Juneteenth became a federal holiday on June 17, 2021, it was the first new federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was adopted in 1983."
      },
      {
        "title": "Randolph Bracy",
        "text": "In June 2020, Bracy began a push to make Juneteenth a state holiday, with June 19th marking the date the news of the Emancipation Proclamation reached Texas, the westernmost member of the former Confederacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Formerly enslaved people in Galveston celebrated after the announcement. On June\u00a019, 1866, one year after the announcement, freedmen in Texas organized the first of what became the annual celebration of \"Jubilee Day\". Early celebrations were used as political rallies to give voting instructions to newly freed African Americans. Early independence celebrations often occurred on January\u00a01 or\u00a04."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clay Smothers",
        "text": "In 1979, Smothers opposed the bill to create Juneteenth as a Texas state holiday observing the end of slavery in the state. Smothers belittled the observance as mere \"ceremoniously grinning and bursting watermelons on the Capitol grounds\" and \"a fraudulent holiday\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In some cities, black people were barred from using public parks because of state-sponsored segregation of facilities. Across parts of Texas, freed people pooled their funds to purchase land to hold their celebrations. The day was first celebrated in Austin in 1867 under the auspices of the Freedmen's Bureau, and it had been listed on a \"calendar of public events\" by 1872. That year, black leaders in Texas raised $1,000 for the purchase of of land to celebrate Juneteenth, today known as Houston's Emancipation Park. The observation was soon drawing thousands of attendees across Texas; an estimated 30,000 black people celebrated at Booker T. Washington Park in Limestone County, Texas, established in 1898 for Juneteenth celebrations. Blacks began using the word Juneteenth early in the 1890s for Jubilee Day. A Texas periodical \"The Current Issue\" used the word as early as 1909, and that year a book on San Antonio, Texas remarked with condescension on \"June 'teenth\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hitchcock, Texas",
        "text": "Each year Juneteenth is celebrated in the Stringfellow Orchards, a complex previously owned by a slave owner. The Texas Historical Commission enacted a historical marker in 1992. In 2004, the site had not been previously maintained, but John Collins discovered the site in 2004 and, with his wife Doris, later purchased it. the Collinses remain the owners."
      },
      {
        "title": "African-American neighborhood",
        "text": "Although Juneteenth has increased in national and international popularity, the holiday began among Black Texans in Galveston, Texas when enslaved persons learned of the Emancipation Proclamation two years late, because slaveholders had purposefully kept this information from them. Today, several Black communities in Texas and beyond recognize June 19 as a complicated but celebratory holiday. It is also known as Jubilee Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in San Antonio",
        "text": "Juneteenth is an annual celebration recognizing the emancipation of black slaves in Texas. President Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation and published it on January 1, 1863, but it did not reach Texas until June 19, 1865. Over the next few years, African-American populations across Texas collected money to buy property dedicated to Juneteenth celebrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Texas",
        "text": "Texas descended into anarchy for two months between the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia and the assumption of authority by Union General Gordon Granger. Violence marked the early months of Reconstruction. Juneteenth commemorates the announcement of the Emancipation Proclamation in Galveston by General Gordon Granger, almost two and a half years after the original announcement. President Johnson, in 1866, declared the civilian government restored in Texas. Despite not meeting reconstruction requirements, Congress resumed allowing elected Texas representatives into the federal government in 1870. Social volatility continued as the state struggled with agricultural depression and labor issues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Texas in the American Civil War",
        "text": "Federal troops didn't arrive in Texas to restore order until June 19, 1865, when Union Maj. Gen. Gordon Granger and 2,000 Union soldiers arrived on Galveston Island to take possession of the state and enforce the new freedoms of former slaves. The Texas holiday Juneteenth commemorates this date. The Stars and Stripes were not raised over Austin until June 25."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Juneteenth is an American federal holiday celebrating the emancipation of African-Americans and the abolition of slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Star of the Republic Museum",
        "text": "On the 19th of June 1865, Union General Gordon Granger arrived in Galveston and made a declaration of freedom ending the bondage of approximately 250,000 enslaved men, women and children in Texas. Since that time, Juneteenth has been celebrated and remembered by picnics, parades, family reunions, pageants, barbecues and games. The Brazos Valley has a rich history in celebrating Juneteenth, including the Juneteenth parade in Brenham, TX, which began in the early 1870s and continues to this day. Washington on the Brazos will observe this important occasion with its Juneteenth Heritage Celebration from 10 a.m. to 4:30\u00a0p.m. on Saturday, June 23, 2018 at the park. This family friendly event will include artifact exhibits; music; art displays; prominent guest speakers and historians; church choir performances; food.\n;Christmas on the Brazos"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In 1979, Democratic State Representative Al Edwards of Houston, Texas, successfully sponsored legislation to make Juneteenth a paid Texas state holiday. The same year, he hosted the inaugural Al Edwards prayer breakfast and commemorative celebration on the grounds of the 1859 home, Ashton Villa. As one of the few existing buildings from the Civil War era and popular in local myth and legend as the location of Major General Granger\u2019s announcement, Edwards's annual celebration includes a local historian dressed as the Union general reading General Order No.\u00a03 from the second story balcony of the home. The Emancipation Proclamation is also read and speeches are made. Representative Al Edwards died of natural causes April\u00a029, 2020, at the age of 83, but the annual prayer breakfast and commemorative celebration continued at Ashton Villa, with the late legislator's son Jason Edwards speaking in his father\u2019s place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Since the 1980s and 1990s, the holiday has been more widely celebrated among African-American communities and has seen increasing mainstream attention in the US. In 1991, there was an exhibition by the Anacostia Community Museum (part of the Smithsonian Institution) called \u201cJuneteenth \u201991, Freedom Revisited\u201d. In 1994, a group of community leaders gathered at Christian Unity Baptist Church in New Orleans to work for greater national celebration of Juneteenth. Expatriates have celebrated it in cities abroad, such as Paris. Some US military bases in other countries sponsor celebrations, in addition to those of private groups. In 1999, Ralph Ellison's novel \"Juneteenth\" was published, increasing recognition of the holiday. By 2006, at least 200 cities celebrated the day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Although this event has come to be celebrated as the end of slavery, emancipation for the remaining enslaved in two Union border states (Delaware and Kentucky), would not come until several months later, on December\u00a018, 1865, when ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment was announced. The freedom of formerly enslaved people in Texas was given state law status in a series of Texas Supreme Court decisions between 1868 and 1874."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ashton Villa",
        "text": "Although many claims have been made to Ashton Villa's central role in the original 1865 pronouncement, no extant historical evidence supports such assertions. On June 21, 2014, the Galveston Historical Foundation and Texas Historical Commission erected a Juneteenth plaque where the Osterman Building once stood signifying the location of Major General Granger's Union Headquarters and subsequent issuance of General Order No. 3. On June 19, 2006 a statue of Al Edwards, named \"Unknown Legislator\" was dedicated on the grounds of Ashton Villa during the annual prayer breakfast and celebration begun by Edwards in 1979, and hosted annually on the grounds of Ashton Villa every Juneteenth. The 9-foot tall statue of the Democratic State Representative from Houston, originally intended for the state capitol grounds in Austin, Texas is depicted holding up the piece of 1979 legislation making Juneteenth a paid Texas State holiday. The proclamatory pose of the statue evokes the very proclamation the holiday is meant to honor. Edwards' annual prayer breakfast and celebration, first held in 1979, take place every Juneteenth at Ashton Villa and include a reading of the 1862 Emancipation Proclamation and 1865 General Order No. 3 (with a local historian portraying Major General Granger addressing the crowd from the home's balcony).. Despite Edwards' death from natural causes on April 29, 2020, the prayer breakfast and memorial celebration at Ashton Villa continued with the late legislator's son, Jason Edwards, speaking in his place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In the late 1970s, when the Texas Legislature declared Juneteenth a \"holiday of significance ... particularly to the blacks of Texas,\" it became the first state to establish Juneteenth as a state holiday. The bill passed through the Texas Legislature in 1979 and was officially made a state holiday on January\u00a01, 1980. Before 2000, three more U.S. states officially observed the day, and over the next two decades it was recognized as an official observance in all states, except South Dakota, until becoming a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in Houston",
        "text": "Juneteenth is an annual celebration recognizing the emancipation of black slaves in Texas. President Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation and published it on January 1, 1863, but it did not reach Galveston, Texas until June 19, 1865. Over the next few years, African-American populations across Texas collected money to buy property dedicated to Juneteenth celebrations. In Houston, the effort was led by the Reverend Jack Yates, a Baptist minister and former slave. His church, Antioch Baptist, and Trinity Methodist Episcopal Church formed the Colored People's Festival and Emancipation Park Association. In 1872, they pooled $800 to put down on ten acres of open land as home for their Juneteenth celebration. In honor of their freedom, they named it Emancipation Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in Austin",
        "text": "Texas was the last Confederate state with institutional slavery until June 19, 1865 following the announcement of General Order No. 3 by Union Army General Gordon Granger, proclaiming freedom for enslaved people in Texas.\u00a0 Juneteenth celebrations were first celebrated in Austin in 1867 under the auspices of the\u00a0Freedmen's Bureau, and it had been listed on a \"calendar of public events\" by 1872.\u00a0That year, black leaders in Texas raised $1,000 for the purchase of 10 acres (4\u00a0ha) of land to celebrate Juneteenth, today known as\u00a0Houston's\u00a0Emancipation Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "The holiday is considered the \"longest-running African-American holiday\" and has been called \"America's second Independence Day\". Juneteenth is usually celebrated on the third Saturday in June. Historian Mitch Kachun considers that celebrations of the end of slavery have three goals: \"to celebrate, to educate, and to agitate\". Early celebrations consisted of baseball, fishing, and rodeos. African Americans were often prohibited from using public facilities for their celebrations, so they were often held at churches or near water. Celebrations were also characterized by elaborate large meals and people wearing their best clothing. It was common for former enslaved people and their descendants to make a pilgrimage to Galveston. As early festivals received news coverage, Janice Hume and Noah Arceneaux consider that they \"served to assimilate African-American memories within the dominant 'American story'.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Commemoration of the American Civil War",
        "text": "As one of the activities for the State of Texas in this Sesquicentennial era, the city of Galveston has raised funds to erect a marker commemorating Juneteenth. This is significant as on June 19, 1865, Federal troops finally arrived in Galveston, Texas to declare that the Emancipation Proclamation has been signed two and one half years prior and that General Robert Lee has surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse in Virginia on April 9 of that year. The War is over. A contraction of June 19 becomes Juneteenth, the designation of a day of joyous celebration that slavery is over and is annually commemorated. The Galveston Historical Society is also making available a seventy-two page pamphlet of African Americans in Texas: A Lasting Legacy Timeline that may be Downloaded at this site. This pamphlet includes a multitude of historical sites related to African American history in the State of Texas including churches, school, museums and residential and community districts. Photographs and brief synopsis of the locales are provided."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Juneteenth may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In the 2000s and 2010s, activists continued a long process to push Congress towards official recognition of Juneteenth. Organizations such as the National Juneteenth Observance Foundation sought a Congressional designation of Juneteenth as a national day of observance. In 2016, Opal Lee, often referred to as the \"grandmother of Juneteenth\", walked from Fort Worth, Texas to Washington D.C. to advocate for a federal holiday. When it was officially made a federal holiday on June 17, 2021, it became one of five date-specific federal holidays along with New Year's Day (January\u00a01), Independence Day (July\u00a04), Veterans Day (November\u00a011), and Christmas Day (December\u00a025). Juneteenth will coincide with Father's Day in 2022, 2033, 2039, 2044, and 2050. Juneteenth is the first new federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was declared a holiday in 1986. Juneteenth also falls within the statutory Honor America Days period, which lasts for 21 days from Flag Day (June 14) to Independence Day (July 4)."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Washington Carver Museum and Cultural Center",
        "text": "The Juneteenth Exhibit is the core of the George Washington Carver Museum, Cultural, and Genealogy Center's permanent exhibits. The displays and information provided help visitors understand the significance of freedom to formerly enslaved African Americans. Multimedia presentations introduce students to the earliest and present day Juneteenth celebrations. It also provides the opportunity to learn about Texas\u2019 participation in the Civil War, history of the celebration, why the holiday is significant for all Americans, as well as contrasting and comparing early commemorations and modern day activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mo Brooks",
        "text": "In June 2021, Brooks was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday. His rationale for his vote was that the holiday's date was too exclusive and significant only to Texas, and that the freeing of slaves should be celebrated on another day."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of slavery in Texas",
        "text": "June 19, the day of the Emancipation announcement, has been celebrated annually in Texas and other states as Juneteenth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History",
        "text": "Juneteenth is the oldest nationally celebrated commemoration of the ending of slavery in the United States. In 2021, days after President Joe Biden signed a law making Juneteenth, June 19, a federal holiday, the museum presented a hybrid virtual and in-person three-day celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Seventy thousand people attended a \"Juneteenth Jamboree\" in 1951. From 1940 through 1970, in the second wave of the Great Migration, more than five million black people left Texas, Louisiana and other parts of the South for the North and the West Coast. As historian Isabel Wilkerson writes, \"The people from Texas took Juneteenth Day to Los Angeles, Oakland, Seattle, and other places they went.\" In 1945, Juneteenth was introduced in San Francisco by a migrant from Texas, Wesley Johnson."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Petersburg, Florida",
        "text": "Juneteenth celebrations are hosted on June 19 to honor the end of slavery in the United States. Peace Protests followed by a celebration in Williams Park take place in St. Pete to honor the holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Southgate\u2013Lewis House",
        "text": "On June 19, 2021, the annual Juneteenth Celebration became the newest federal holiday: officially, Juneteenth National Independence Day (Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence). This traditional annual celebration commemorates the ending of slavery in the United States \u2013 the emancipation of enslaved African Americans. A photograph of the Southgate\u2013Lewis House shows how the home of the W. H. Passon Historical Society was utilized on the very day the new Juneteenth National Independence Day was celebrated. The banners on the west elevation of the house (shown herein) depict distinguished African Americans in Government, Education, Literature, Medicine, and Sports. The banners on the north elevation (shown herein) depict distinguished African Americans in Religion and the Military."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Juneteenth celebrations often include lectures and exhibitions on African-American culture. The modern holiday places much emphasis upon teaching about African-American heritage. Karen M. Thomas wrote in \"Emerge\" that \"community leaders have latched on to [Juneteenth] to help instill a sense of heritage and pride in black youth.\" Celebrations are commonly accompanied by voter registration efforts, the performing of plays, and retelling stories. The holiday is also a celebration of soul food and other food with African-American influences. In \"Tourism Review International\", Anne Donovan and Karen DeBres write that \"Barbecue is the centerpiece of most Juneteenth celebrations\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chip Roy",
        "text": "Roy was one of 14 Republicans to vote against the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act, which passed 415-14. The bill recognized as a public holiday a commemoration of June 19, 1865, the day slaves in Galveston, Texas, learned that two and a half years earlier President Abraham Lincoln had issued the Emancipation Proclamation freeing any slave held in rebel states. Roy took issue with the bill's name, saying, \"Juneteenth should be commemorated \u2026[but] the holiday should not be called 'Juneteenth National Independence Day' but rather 'Juneteenth National Emancipation (or Freedom or otherwise) Day.' This name needlessly divides our nation on a matter that should instead bring us together by creating a separate Independence Day based on the color of one's skin.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Galveston, Texas",
        "text": "Juneteenth, which is the oldest nationally celebrated commemoration of the ending of slavery in the United States, owes its origins to the announcement of the Emancipation Proclamation upon the return of Union forces to Galveston in 1865. Galveston was the first city in Texas to provide a secondary school and public library for African Americans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Federal holidays in the United States",
        "text": "On June 16, 2021, the U.S. Congress passed legislation to make Juneteenth (June 19) a federal holiday. The day commemorates the end of slavery in Texas in 1865. President Joe Biden signed this bill into law on June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Capitol Hill Occupied Protest",
        "text": "On June 19, events ranging from a \"grief ritual\" to a dance party were held to observe Juneteenth."
      },
      {
        "title": "June Moon",
        "text": "Milano Tilden and Carl Hunt directed a revival that opened at the Ambassador Theatre on May 15, 1933 and ran for 49 performances. The cast included Thomas Gillen as Fred, Emily Lowry as Edna, Fred Irving Lewis as Paul, and Lee Patrick reprising the role of Eileen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tiffany Dena Loftin",
        "text": "On June 19, 2020, Loftin told PEOPLE.com that \"The significance of Juneteenth has always been meaningful in the Black community. However, in the face of the continuous onslaught of racial incidents, police brutality and killings, and hate crimes, we're witnessing a renewed effort to uplift holidays that bring attention to the real history of this country.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ralph Norman",
        "text": "In June 2021, Norman was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexia, Texas",
        "text": "Mexia hosts a large Juneteenth celebration every year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doug LaMalfa",
        "text": "In June 2021, LaMalfa was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish Juneteenth, a celebration of the end of slavery, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Texas was the first state to recognize the date, in 1980. By 2002, eight states officially recognized Juneteenth and four years later 15 states recognized the holiday. By 2008, nearly half of states observed the holiday as a ceremonial observance. By 2019, 47 states and the District of Columbia recognized Juneteenth, although as of 2020 only Texas had adopted the holiday as a paid holiday for state employees. In the yearlong aftermath of the murder of George Floyd that occurred on May 25, 2020, nine states had designated Juneteenth a paid holiday, including New York, Washington, and Virginia. In 2020, Massachusetts Governor Charles Baker issued a proclamation that the day would be marked as \"Juneteenth Independence Day\". This followed the filing of bills by both the House and Senate to make Juneteenth a state holiday. Baker did not comment on these bills specifically, but promised to grant the observance of Juneteenth greater importance. On June 16, 2021, Illinois adopted a law changing its ceremonial holiday to a paid state holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in Houston",
        "text": "The State of Texas made Juneteenth a holiday at the state level after Al Edwards, a member of the Texas House of Representatives from Houston, proposed it as a bill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Peoples and first Black Oregonian Senator Avel Gordly led an effort to make Juneteenth a statewide holiday in 2001. The resolution passed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Juneteenth, a celebration of emancipation from slavery, was introduced to Oregon in 1945 by Kaiser Shipyard worker Clara Peoples, was recognized by the city of Portland in 1972, statewide in 2013, and federally in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth flag",
        "text": "The flag was designed in 1997 by Lisa Jeanne Graf for the National Juneteenth Celebration Foundation. The flag was revised in 2000, and in 2007 the text \"June 19, 1865\" was added."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Washington Carver Museum and Cultural Center",
        "text": "The sculptures show how the news of freedom spread. Juneteenth began on June 19, 1865, with an order read by General Gordon Grainger\u2014a law that the Emancipation Proclamation was enforced. So Legislature learned of freedom first, then the news reached The Pastor (who represents the faith leader in African American Community). The Pastor told the enslaved people represented by the Freed Man and Freed Woman, and they shared the news with youth-the Child figure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victory Grill",
        "text": "On Juneteenth weekend of 1987, East 11th came alive with music again at a large reunion bash which brought many of the Victory's former musicians and fans together again. The Victory Grill closed for a period of time after October 10, 1988, when it suffered major damage from a fire that spread from an adjoining vacant building."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miss Juneteenth",
        "text": "The director of photography was Daniel Patterson, the production designer was Olivia Peebles, and Rachel Dainer-Best was the costume designer. Filming took place during July and August 2019 in Fort Worth, Texas."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of slavery in Colorado",
        "text": "Juneteenth, which began to be celebrated in Denver in the 1950s, commemorates emancipation of African Americans and focuses on education and achievement. By the 1980s, it was one of the country's largest Juneteenth celebrations. In 2012, Juneteenth Music Festival LLC was organized to reinvigorate the festival which had been in decline since the early 1990s. It supports \"redevelopment and elimination of financial blight in Denver, Colorado\u2019s Historic Five Points Neighborhood.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "National Revival Day",
        "text": "National Revival Day\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Texas",
        "text": "When news of the Emancipation Proclamation arrived in Galveston on June 19, 1865, freed slaves rejoiced, creating the celebration of Juneteenth. The State had suffered little during the war, but trade and finance had been disrupted. Angry returning veterans seized state property, and Texas went through a period of extensive violence and disorder. Most outrages took place in northern Texas; outlaws based in the Indian Territory plundered and murdered without distinction of party."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trading day",
        "text": "Juneteenth was added as a national holiday and market holiday on June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blackdom, New Mexico",
        "text": "Juneteenth celebrations in the community were well-known, and many white ranchers in the area were invited to the community for a large festival and baseball game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brevard County Social Services",
        "text": "In June, the Juneteenth Festival is held, commemorating the freeing of the slaves at the end of the Civil War. This attracts about 500 attendees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Whitehouse, Texas",
        "text": "Civic leaders established the YesterYear Celebration to educate residents about the community's history and heritage. The festival is held on the fourth weekend each June and includes activities such as parades, carnivals, historic battle reenactments, pageants, and trade days."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in San Antonio",
        "text": "The State of Texas made Juneteenth a holiday at the state level after Al Edwards, a member of the Texas House of Representatives from Houston, proposed it as a bill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charlie Baker",
        "text": "In June 2020, Baker signed a law making Juneteenth an official state holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tom McClintock",
        "text": "In June 2021, McClintock was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "In 1996, the first federal legislation to recognize \"Juneteenth Independence Day\" was introduced in the U.S. House of Representatives, H.J.\u00a0Res.\u00a0195, sponsored by Barbara-Rose Collins (D-MI). In 1997, Congress recognized the day through Senate Joint Resolution\u00a011 and House Joint Resolution\u00a056. In 2013, the U.S. Senate passed Senate Resolution\u00a0175, acknowledging Lula Briggs Galloway (late president of the National Association of Juneteenth Lineage), who \"successfully worked to bring national recognition to Juneteenth Independence Day\", and the continued leadership of the National Juneteenth Observance Foundation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "Peoples died in October 5, 2015, at age 89. The annual parade was named the \"Clara Peoples Freedom Trail Parade\" beginning in 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Longstanding urban legend places the historic reading of General Order No.\u00a03 at Ashton Villa; however, no extant historical evidence supports such claims. On June\u00a021, 2014, the Galveston Historical Foundation and Texas Historical Commission erected a Juneteenth plaque where the Osterman Building once stood signifying the location of Major General Granger's Union Headquarters and subsequent issuance of his general orders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth flag",
        "text": "The white star and surrounding star-burst alludes to Texas and the \"freedom of African Americans in all 50 states\". The curve behind the star is representative of a new horizon and the colors were taken from the red, white, and blue flag of the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "By 2020, Peoples' granddaughter, Jenelle Jack, was the director of Juneteenth Oregon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ronald Myers",
        "text": "In 1994 a group of community leaders from across the country gathered at Christian Unity Baptist Church in New Orleans, to work for greater national recognition of Juneteenth, a holiday celebrating the end of slavery. Myers was elected Chairman of this advocacy effort, and continues to serve as chairman of the National Juneteenth Holiday Campaign, National Juneteenth Christian Leadership Council, National Juneteenth Observance Foundation, and the National Association of Juneteenth Jazz Presenters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scott DesJarlais",
        "text": "In June 2021, DesJarlais was one of 14 House Republicans to vote against legislation to establish June 19, or Juneteenth, as a federal holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Southern Decadence",
        "text": "With the theme \"Southern Decadence Rebirth\", the event rebounded in 2006, attracting near-normal crowds."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Floyd protests",
        "text": "Protests continued over the weekend of June 19 in many cities, and observations of Juneteenth gained a new awareness. Jon Batiste, bandleader for \"The Late Show with Stephen Colbert\", took part in a Juneteenth day of protests, marches, rallies and vigils to \"celebrate, show solidarity, and fight for equal rights and treatment of Black people\" in Brooklyn. Batiste also appeared in concert with Matt Whitaker in a performance presented in partnership with Sing For Hope, performed on the steps of the Brooklyn Public Library."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gordon Granger",
        "text": "Granger is best remembered for issuing General Order No. 3 on June 19, 1865, in Galveston, Texas, further informing residents of, and enforcing, Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation which set all Confederate states' slaves free on January 1, 1863. June 19 is now commemorated by the federal holiday of Juneteenth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "President Abraham Lincoln issued the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation in the midst of the Civil War, announcing on September 22, 1862, that if the rebels did not end the fighting and rejoin the Union by January 1, 1863, he would issue the Emancipation Proclamation. It became effective on January\u00a01, 1863, declaring that all enslaved persons in the Confederate States of America in rebellion and not in Union hands were freed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ashton Villa",
        "text": "June 19 has since become known as Juneteenth, a portmanteau of the words June and nineteenth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Garland Anderson (playwright)",
        "text": "He attempted to revive the play in late November, with attention from David Belasco and investors from Texas. The \"Amsterdam News\" published lists of contributors to the revival. Anderson was invited to address churches, and appeared on WNYC. The revival continued for a few more weeks, thanks to the unexpected contributors from Texas. Anderson supported a new church in December; two weeks later there was favorable critical publicity, and he spoke at another church. However, the revival closed in mid-January 1926. Anderson appeared on WRNY in March, and in May he was in Los Angeles exploring movie rights and future productions of \"Appearances\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philolexian Society",
        "text": "On Saturday, October 16, 2010, the society celebrated the 25th anniversary of its revival with a reception and meeting for students, alumni (known as \"Geezers\"), and various supporters; the occasion was dubbed \"Resurgam 25.\" The debate topic, \"Resolved: The Philolexian Society Has Never Had It So Good\" was overwhelmingly approved."
      },
      {
        "title": "African-American culture",
        "text": "Less-widely observed outside of the African-American community is Emancipation Day popularly known as Juneteenth or Freedom Day, in recognition of the official reading of the Emancipation Proclamation on June 19, 1865, in Texas. Juneteenth is a day when African Americans reflect on their unique history and heritage. It is one of the fastest growing African-American holidays with observances in the United States. Juneteenth was recognized as federal holiday in 2021, and was first observed as such on June 19, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Unamended Christadelphians",
        "text": "From the 1970s onwards various attempts have been made to bring about reunion in North America, but have made little progress outside of the Pacific Coast, where all Christadelphians are now \"Central\". Reunion efforts continue in the Midwest and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "More isolated geographically, planters and other slaveholders had migrated into Texas from eastern states to escape the fighting, and many brought enslaved people with them, increasing by the thousands the enslaved population in the state at the end of the Civil War. Although most lived in rural areas, more than 1,000 resided in both Galveston and Houston by 1860, with several hundred in other large towns. By 1865, there were an estimated 250,000 enslaved people in Texas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Darrell Jackson (politician)",
        "text": "In 2020, Jackson introduced legislation to make Juneteenth a statewide holiday. In 2020, Jackson won an uncontested race for his seat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aimee Semple McPherson",
        "text": "The appeal of McPherson's revival events from 1919 to 1922 surpassed any touring event of theater or politics in American history. She broke attendance records recently set by Billy Sunday and frequently used his temporary tabernacle structures to hold her meetings. One such revival was held in a boxing ring, and throughout the boxing event, she carried a sign reading \"knock out the Devil\". In San Diego the city called in the National Guard to control a revival crowd of over 30,000 people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brownsville Revival",
        "text": "One writer offered this description of the revival in 1998:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth in Oregon",
        "text": "In 2011 and 2013, Oregon politician Lew Frederick introduced bills to recognize Peoples. It was enrolled and signed by the governor on May 1, 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zora Martin-Felton",
        "text": "In the early 1990s, Felton was instrumental in organizing day-long Juneteenth celebrations in Anacostia, which was an prominent step towards broader recognition of Juneteenth in Washington, D.C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "North Dakota approved recognition of Juneteenth as a state recognized annual holiday on April 13, 2021, with Hawaii becoming the 49th state to recognize the holiday on June 16, 2021. On June 16, 2020 South Dakota Governor Kristi Noem proclaimed that the following June 19, 2020 was to be Juneteenth Day for that year only, spurning calls for it to be recognized annually, rather than just for 2020. As of June 2021, South Dakota is the only state that has not yet independently recognized Juneteenth as an annual state holiday or observance, according to the Congressional Research Service; nonetheless, its law provides for following the federal law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Les Aventures de P\u00e9l\u00e9e",
        "text": "Les Aventures de P\u00e9l\u00e9e\n--Revivals.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jon Batiste",
        "text": "In June 2020, Batiste took part in the Juneteenth celebration in Brooklyn, New York with a day of protests, marches, rallies, and vigils to \"celebrate, show solidarity, and fight for equal rights and treatment of Black people\". Performing on the steps of the Brooklyn Public Library, Batiste was joined by Matt Whitaker in a performance presented in partnership with Sing For Hope."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beauvilles",
        "text": "6. The Revival 3:47"
      },
      {
        "title": "Thriplow",
        "text": "This tradition started in 1969, to raise money for repairs to the church, and has run each year since (except for 2001 when the weekend was cancelled due to foot-and-mouth disease, and 2020/21 when it was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic)."
      },
      {
        "title": "1859 revival",
        "text": "1859 revival\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juneteenth",
        "text": "Some cities and counties have also recognized Juneteenth through proclamation. In 2020, Juneteenth was formally recognized by New York City (as an annual official city holiday and public school holiday, starting in 2021), although in 2022 it will be observed as a school holiday on June 20. Cook County, Illinois, adopted an ordinance to make Juneteenth a paid county holiday. The City and County of Honolulu recognizes it as an \"annual day of honor and reflection\", and Portland, Oregon (as a day of remembrance and action and a paid holiday for city employees)."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Juneteenth a federal holiday in the USA?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Juneteenth (officially Juneteenth National Independence Day and also known as Jubilee Day, Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Black Independence Day is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African-Americans. Would you like to know more about Juneteenth?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me more about Juneteenth's observance in New York state!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "On May 25, 2020, New York designated Juneteenth a paid holiday."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How is Juneteenth observed in the national level in the USA?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Early celebrations consisted of baseball, fishing, rodeos, and were also characterized by elaborate large meals and people wearing ones' best clothing. Observance today is primarily in local celebrations, including traditions such as public readings of the Emancipation Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot\" and \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\", and reading of works by noted African-American writers, such as Ralph Ellison and Maya Angelou."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Juneteenth a national holiday?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Juneteenth is a federal holiday in the United States."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What led to the celebration of Juneteenth ?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Celebrations date to 1866 in Texas, spreading throughout the South in the 1920s and 30s."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Was there a revival in Juneteenth celebrations?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Great Depression forced many black people off farms and into the cities to find work, where they had difficulty taking the day off to celebrate, but from 1936 to 1951, the Texas State Fair served as a destination for celebrating the holiday, contributing to its revival. Juneteenth also saw a revival in the 1960s and 1970s as black people began tying their struggle to that of ending slavery."
    ],
    "topic": "Juneteenth",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Juneteenth:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Juneteenth",
          "History",
          "Early history",
          "Decline during Jim Crow"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Great Depression forced many black people off farms and into the cities to find work, where they had difficulty taking the day off to celebrate. From 1936 to 1951, the Texas State Fair served as a destination for celebrating the holiday, contributing to its revival. In 1936, an estimated 150,000 to 200,000 people joined the holiday's celebration in Dallas. In 1938, Governor of Texas James V. Allred issued a proclamation stating in part:"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Juneteenth:20",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Juneteenth",
          "History",
          "Revival",
          "1960s\u20131980s"
        ],
        "ctx": "Juneteenth soon saw a revival as black people began tying their struggle to that of ending slavery. In Atlanta, some campaigners for equality wore Juneteenth buttons. During the 1968 Poor People's Campaign to Washington, DC, called by Rev. Ralph Abernathy, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference made June 19 the \"Solidarity Day of the Poor People\u2019s Campaign\". In the subsequent revival, large celebrations in Minneapolis and Milwaukee emerged, as well as across the Eastern United States. In 1974, Houston began holding large-scale celebrations again, and Fort Worth, Texas, followed the next year. Around 30,000 people attended festivities at Sycamore Park in Fort Worth the following year. The 1978 Milwaukee celebration was described as drawing over 100,000 attendees. In the late 1980s, there were major celebrations of Juneteenth in California, Wisconsin, Illinois, Georgia, and Washington, D.C."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "International trade and water",
        "text": "In July 2010, the UN General Assembly declared that access to clean water and sanitation is a human right. The assembly did not specify whether a public authority or the private sector would be best capable of providing this right.\n* Gaza blockade\n* Shared vision planning\n* Spragg Bag\n* Water law\n* Water privatization\n* Water trading\n* World Water Monitoring Day"
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The human right to water and sanitation (HRWS) is a principle that acknowledges that clean drinking water and sanitation are essential to every person's life. It was recognised as a human right by the United Nations General Assembly on 28 July 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Contention exists regarding whose, if anyone's, responsibility it is to ensure the human right to water and sanitation. Often, two schools of thought emerge from such discourse: it is the state's responsibility to provide access to clean water to people versus the privatization of distribution and sanitation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The clearest definition of the human right to water was issued by the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in General Comment 15 drafted in 2002. It was a non-binding interpretation that access to water was a condition for the enjoyment of the right to an adequate standard of living, inextricably related to the right to the highest attainable standard of health, and therefore a human right. It stated: \"The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sanitation",
        "text": "The overall purposes of sanitation are to provide a healthy living environment for everyone, to protect the natural resources (such as surface water, groundwater, soil), and to provide safety, security and dignity for people when they defecate or urinate.The Human Right to Water and Sanitation was recognized by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly in 2010. It has been recognized in international law through human rights treaties, declarations and other standards. It is derived from the human right to an adequate standard of living."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dublin Statement",
        "text": "On 30 September 2010, the 15th Session of the UN Human Rights Council passed Resolution A/HRC/15/L.14, reaffirming an earlier General Assembly resolution (64/292 of 28 July 2010) which \"recognized the right to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a human right that is essential for the full enjoyment of life and all human rights\". Resolution A/HRC/15/L.14 clarifies that \"the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation is derived from the right to an adequate standard of living and inextricably related to the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, as well as the right to life and human dignity\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Congress recognized that injection wells were a potential threat to groundwater quality when they passed the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) of 1974. This instructed the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to create a national program that would prevent underground injection activities that would endanger underground drinking sources. The EPA must regulate underground injection of fluids and wastes through wells that discharge or may release such material into or above an underground reservoir of drinkable water. The EPA has promoted several Underground Injection Control (UCI) regulations in order to protect underground reservoirs of drinkable water from being contaminated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "In November 2006, EPA published its \"Ground Water Rule\", due to concerns that public water systems supplied by ground water would be vulnerable to contamination from harmful microorganisms, including fecal matter. The objective of the regulation, promulgated under the authority of the Safe Drinking Water Act, is to keep microbial pathogens out of public water sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Human right to water and sanitation\n--International context.\n--Legal foundations and recognition.\n--International jurisprudence.\n----Inter-American Court of Human Rights.\n----International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes.\n------\"Azurix Corp v. Argentina\".\n------\"Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania\".\n--Right to water in domestic law.\n----South Africa.\n------\"Residents of Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Local Council\".\n------\"Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg\".\n----India.\n------\"Delhi Water Supply v. State of Haryana\".\n------\"Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar\".\n------World Rights to Water Day.\n----New Zealand.\n----United States.\n------\"Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. United States Army Corps of Engineers\".\n----Australia.\n--Remaining discussions.\n----Transboundary effects.\n------Water Dispute Between India and Pakistan.\n----Water commercialization versus state provision.\n----Pluralism perspectives as a mean to protect the right of a socially weak community.\n--Organizations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "The United Nations (UN) has determined that access to clean water and sanitation facilities is a basic human right. However few countries have included a human right to water in enforceable legislation. Over 2 billion people in the world lack access to water that is free of health risks. By 2017, eighty countries provided access to clean water for more than 99% of their population. From 2000 to 2017, the global population that lacked access to clean water decreased from nearly 20% to roughly 10%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), protects groundwater by regulating the disposal of solid waste and hazardous waste. The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), also known as \"Superfund,\" requires remediation of abandoned hazardous waste sites."
      },
      {
        "title": "United Nations Water Conference",
        "text": "UN Resolution formally recognizes the right to water and sanitation and acknowledges they are essential for human rights. The Resolution calls upon States and international organizations to provide financial resources and technology, especially to developing countries, to provide safe, clean, accessible, and affordable drinking water and sanitation for all Water is a human right for everyone to have."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Wastewater discharges to groundwater are regulated by the Underground Injection Control Program (UIC) under the Safe Drinking Water Act. UIC permits are issued by 34 state agencies and EPA regional offices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Organizations working on the rights to water and sanitation are listed below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality legislation of the United States",
        "text": "Public Health Law Section 225 gives the public health council authority to create and modify the State Sanitary Code. Part 5 of the New York State Sanitary Code (10NYCRR5) regulates water supply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Following intense negotiations, 122 countries formally acknowledged \"the Human Right to Water and Sanitation\" in General Assembly Resolution 64/292 on 28 July 2010. It recognized the right of every human being to have access to sufficient water for personal and domestic uses (between 50 and 100 liters of water per person per day), which must be safe, acceptable and affordable (water costs should not exceed 3% of household income), and physically accessible (the water source has to be within 1,000 meters of the home and collection time should not exceed 30 minutes).\" The General Assembly declared that clean drinking water is \"essential to the full enjoyment of life and all other human rights\". In September 2010, the UN Human Rights Council adopted a resolution recognizing that the human right to water and sanitation forms part of the right to an adequate standard of living."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "A revised UN resolution in 2015 highlighted that the two rights were separate but equal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water resources law",
        "text": "The human right to water places the main responsibilities upon governments to ensure that people can enjoy \"sufficient, safe, accessible and affordable water, without discrimination\". Most especially, governments are expected to take reasonable steps to avoid a contaminated water supply and to ensure there are no water access distinctions amongst citizens. Today all states have at least ratified one human rights convention which explicitly or implicitly recognizes the right, and they all have signed at least one political declaration recognizing this right."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) is the principal federal law in the United States intended to ensure safe drinking water for the public. Pursuant to the act, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is required to set standards for drinking water quality and oversee all states, localities, and water suppliers that implement the standards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Without the existence of an international body that can enforce it, the human right to water relies upon the activity of national courts. The basis for this has been established through the constitutionalisation of economic, social and cultural rights (ESCR) through one of two means: as \"directive principles\" that are goals and are often non-justiciable; or as expressly protected and enforceable through the courts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Subsequent resolutions extended the mandate of the Special Rapporteur and defined each state's role in the respect of these rights. The most recent General Assembly Resolution 7/169 of 2015 has been called a declaration of \"The Human Rights to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation. It recognized the distinction between the right to water and the right to sanitation. This decision was made due to concern about the right to sanitation being overlooked when compared to the right to water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Given the fact that access to water is a cross-border source of concern and potential conflict in the Middle East, South Asia, the Eastern Mediterranean and parts of North America amongst other places, some non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and scholars argue that the right to water also has a trans-national or extraterritorial aspect. They argue that given the fact that water supplies naturally overlap and cross borders, states also have a legal obligation not to act in a way that might have a negative effect on the enjoyment of human rights in other states. The formal acknowledgement of this legal obligation could prevent the negative effects of the global \"water crunch\" (as a future threat and one negative result of human over-population)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality legislation of the United States",
        "text": "Some state and local governments have issued rules to protect users of private wells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "A further step was taken in 2005 by the former UN Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights which issued guidelines to assist governments to achieve and respect the human right to water and sanitation. These guidelines led the UN Human Rights Council to assign Catarina de Albuquerque as an independent expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitation in 2008. She wrote a detailed report in 2009 that outlined human rights obligations to sanitation, and the CESCR responded by stating that sanitation should be recognized by all states."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Scholars also called attention to the importance of possible UN recognition of human rights to water and sanitation at the end of the twentieth century. Two early efforts to define the human right to water came from law professor Stephen McCaffrey of the University of the Pacific in 1992 and Dr. Peter Gleick in 1999. McCaffrey stated that \"Such a right could be envisaged as part and parcel of the right to food or sustenance, the right to health, or most fundamentally, the right to life. Gleick added: \"that access to a basic water requirement is a fundamental human right implicitly and explicitly supported by international law, declarations, and State practice.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "The environmental and drinking water quality regulation is the responsibility of state departments of health or environment and the EPA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "ESCR are not explicitly protected in New Zealand at the current time, either by the Human Rights or Bill of Rights Acts, therefore the right to water is not defended by law there. The New Zealand Law Society has recently indicated that this country would give further consideration to the legal status of economic, social and cultural rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "When examining specific aspects of water policy, the majority tends to focus on protecting drinking water from over extraction by businesses for commercial purposes rather than outlining local requirements for drinking water. While the rest of the United States began to benefit from closer accessibility to water, these specific communities were ignored, evident through the creation of new laws and regulations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Also notable is the case of \"Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar\", where a discharge of sludge from the washeries into the Bokaro River was petitioned against by way of public interest litigation. The courts found that the right to life, as protected by Article 21 of the Constitution of India, included the right to enjoy pollution-free water. The case failed upon the facts and it was held that the petition had been filed not in any public interest but for the petitioner's personal interest and therefore a continuation of litigation would amount to an abuse of process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "\"The International Bill of Human Rights\"- which comprises the 1966: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR); 1966: Articles 11 and 12 of the 1966 International Covenant of Economic, Social, and Cultural Right (ICERS); and 1948: Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) documented the evolution of human right to water and sanitation and other water-associated rights to be recognised in worldwide decree."
      },
      {
        "title": "World Toilet Day",
        "text": "The Human Right to Water and Sanitation was recognized as a human right by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly on 28 July 2010. Lack of access to sanitation (toilets) has an impact on public health, dignity, and safety. The spread of many diseases (e.g. soil-transmitted helminthiasis, diarrhea, schistosomiasis) and stunted growth in children is directly related to people being exposed to human feces because toilets are either not available or not used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The UN Committee for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) overseeing ICESCR compliance came to similar conclusions as these scholars with General Comment 15 in 2002. It found that a right to water was implicitly part of the right to an adequate standard of living and related to the right to the highest attainable standard of health and the rights to adequate housing and adequate food. It defines that \"The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses. An adequate amount of safe water is necessary to prevent death from dehydration, to reduce the risk of water-related disease and to provide for consumption, cooking, personal and domestic hygienic requirements.\" Several countries agreed and formally acknowledged the right to water to be part of their treaty obligations under the ICESCR (e.g., Germany; United Kingdom; Netherlands) after publication of General Comment 15."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality legislation of the United States",
        "text": "In the United States, public drinking water is governed by the laws and regulations enacted by the federal and state governments. Certain ordinances may also be created at a more local level. The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) is the principal federal law. The SDWA authorizes the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to create and enforce regulations to achieve the SDWA goals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The HRWS has been recognized in international law through human rights treaties, declarations and other standards. Some commentators have derived the human right to water beyond the General Assembly resolution from Article 11.1 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), making it binding under international law. Other treaties that explicitly recognize the HRWS include the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). The first resolutions about the HRWS were passed by the UN General Assembly and the UN Human Rights Council in 2010. They acknowledged that there was a human right to sanitation connected to the human right to water, since the lack of sanitation reduces the quality of water downstream, so subsequent discussions have continued emphasizing both rights together. In July 2010, United Nations (UN) General Assembly Resolution 64/292 acknowledged the human right to receive safe, affordable, and clean accessible water and sanitation services. During that General Assembly, it accepted that for the comprehension of enjoyment in life and all human rights, safe and clean drinking water as well as sanitation is acknowledged as a human right. The acceptance that access to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a free human right in the General Assembly\u2019s Resolution (64/292) brings an important worldwide governmental control of it. The fulfillment of a productive and healthy life will transpire by recognizing broadly the significance of accessing dependable and clean water and sanitation services."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) of 1966 codified the economic, social, and cultural rights found within the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) of 1948. Neither of these early documents explicitly recognized human rights to water and sanitation. Several later international human rights conventions, however, had provisions that explicitly recognized rights to water and sanitation.\n* The 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) has Article 14.2 that states that \"parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in rural areas to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, that they participate in and benefit from rural development and, in particular shall ensure to women the right:\u2026 (h) To enjoy adequate living conditions, particularly in relation to housing, sanitation, electricity and water supply, transport and communications.\"\n* The 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) has Article 24 that provides that \"parties recognize the right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health and to facilities for the treatment of illness and rehabilitation of health \u2026 2. States parties shall pursue full implementation of this right and, in particular, shall take appropriate measures... (c) To combat disease and malnutrition, including within the framework of primary health care, through, inter alia\u2026 the provision of adequate nutritious foods and clean drinking water...\"\n* The 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) has Article 28(2)(a) that requires that \"parties recognize the right of persons with disabilities to social protection and to the enjoyment of that right without discrimination on the basis of disability, and shall take appropriate steps to safeguard and promote the realization of this right, including measures to ensure equal access by persons with disabilities to clean water services, and to ensure access to appropriate and affordable services, devices and other assistance for disability-related needs.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Self-supply of water and sanitation",
        "text": "The criticism is based on the assumption that the Human Right to Water and Sanitation imply that the government directly has to deliver water and sanitation services to everyone. However, as the United Nation's Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights to Water and Sanitation pointed out, the government can also opt for a strategy of strengthening capacities of the private sector under a supported self-supply approach, allowing its resources to be used efficiently and reaching people in sparsely populated rural areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Kenya",
        "text": "In 2010 Kenya adopted a new constitution that enshrines the human right to water and sanitation in Article 43(1). Specifically, it states that every person has the right \"to accessible and adequate housing and to reasonable standards of sanitation\", as well as the right \"to clean and safe water in adequate quantities\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality legislation of the United States",
        "text": "The SDWA also contains provisions that require water supplies to develop emergency plans, water supply operators to be licensed, and watersheds to be protected. The Act does not cover private wells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Drinking water quality standards were first issued in 1914 by the United States Public Health Service. However they were only enforceable for interstate transportation carriers (such as railroads) at specific points where water was transferred."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Today, there are still communities around the United States that do not have access to clean water. While some regions have developed alternatives to deal with this inaccessibility, others are still struggling with this issue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "In South Africa, the right to water is enshrined in the constitution and implemented by ordinary statutes. This is evidence of a slight modification of the second technique of constitutionalisation referred to as the \"subsidiary legislation model\". This means that a large portion of the content and implementation of the right is done an ordinary domestic statute with some constitutional standing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "In 2017, the U.S. Global Water Strategy was passed, where the U.S. Government will work with countries in order to achieve four objective: increase access to safe drinking water, while promoting hygienes and sanitation services, protect freshwater resources, promote cooperation on shared waters, and strengthen water financing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Further reasoning for the decision was based on General Comment 12 on the Right to Food, made by the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights imposing upon parties to the agreement the obligation to observe and respect already existing access to adequate food by not implementing any encroaching measures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The two most prominent cases in India regarding the right to water illustrate that although this is not explicitly protected in the Constitution of India, it has been interpreted by the courts that the right to life includes the right to safe and sufficient water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality legislation of the United States",
        "text": "Public water supply regulation in New York predates the Federal Safe Drinking Water Act by decades. As in California, New York has over the years, in accordance with 40CFR142, modified its sanitary code to implement the rules in the federal code."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water right",
        "text": "Due to the dependence upon clean water, many nations, states and municipalities have enacted regulations to preemptively protect water quality and quantity. This right of a government to regulate water quality is premised upon protecting downstream navigable waters from contamination which are publicly owned and include the right to receive these waters undiminished under both the riparian and appropriation doctrines under the Clean Water Act."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Water security is projected to be a problem in the future since future population growth will most likely occur in areas that are currently water stressed. Ensuring that the United States remains water secure will require policies that will ensure fair distribution of existing water sources, protecting water sources from becoming depleted, maintaining good wastewater disposal, and maintaining existing water infrastructure. Currently there are no national limits for US groundwater or surface water withdrawal. If limits are imposed, the people most impacted will be the largest water withdrawers from a water source."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "More recently, under the Drinking Water Security Act of 2009, the EPA is now required to establish risk-based performance standards for community water systems serving more than 3,300 people."
      },
      {
        "title": "WASH",
        "text": "The human rights to water and sanitation prohibit discrimination on the grounds of \"race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth, disability or other status\". These are all dimensions of inequality in WASH services."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water quality law",
        "text": "The SDWA governs public water systems in the United States, and is administered by EPA and states. Bottled water is regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sanitation",
        "text": "The Human Right to Water and Sanitation was recognized by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly in 2010. Sanitation is a global development priority and the subject of Sustainable Development Goal 6. The estimate in 2017 by JMP states that 4.5 billion people currently do not have safely managed sanitation. Lack of access to sanitation has an impact not only on public health but also on human dignity and personal safety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), \"Improving the security of our nation's drinking water and wastewater infrastructures has become a top priority since the events of 9/11. Significant actions are underway to assess and reduce vulnerabilities to potential terrorist attacks; to plan for and practice response to emergencies and incidents; and to develop new security technologies to detect and monitor contaminants and prevent security breaches.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Congress passed the \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\" tightening the definition of \"lead free\" plumbing, in 2011. EPA published a final rule implementing the law on September 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Most Americans are served by publicly owned water and sewer utilities. Public water systems, which serve more than 25 customers or 15 service connections, are regulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and state agencies under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). Eleven percent of Americans receive water from private (so-called \"investor-owned\") utilities. In rural areas, cooperatives often provide drinking water. Finally, over 13 million households are served by their own wells. The accessibility of water not only depends on geographical location, but on the communities that belong to those regions. Of the millions who lack access to clean water, the majority are low-income minority individuals. Wastewater systems are also regulated by EPA and state governments under the Clean Water Act (CWA). Public utilities commissions or public service commissions regulate tariffs charged by private utilities. In some states they also regulate tariffs by public utilities. EPA also provides funding to utilities through state revolving funds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The court found that the discontinuation of the existing water source, which had not adhered to the \"fair and reasonable\" requirements of the South African Water Services Act, was illegal. It is important to note that the decision pre-dates the adoption of the UN General Comment No. 15."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter Gleick",
        "text": "A 1996 paper from Gleick argued for defining and quantifying a basic water requirement of 50 liters of water per person per day for drinking, cooking, cleaning, and sanitation, and the United Nations cited this work in General Comment 15, drafted in 2002, which provided their clearest definition of the human right to water to that point United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in General Comment 15 drafted in 2002. General Comment 15 was a non-binding interpretation that access to water was a condition for the enjoyment of the right to an adequate standard of living, inextricably related to the right to the highest attainable standard of health, and therefore a human right. It stated: \"The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses.\" In 2010, the UN General Assembly formally adopted the human right to water and sanitation in General Assembly Resolution 64/292 on 28 July 2010. That Resolution recognized the right of every human being to have access to sufficient, safe, and affordable water for personal and domestic uses. In September 2010, the UN Human Rights Council adopted a resolution recognizing that the human right to water and sanitation forms part of the right to an adequate standard of living. Gleick\u2019s work on basic water requirements and human rights was also used in the \"Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg\" court case in South Africa addressing the human right to water in Phiri, one of the oldest areas of the Soweto township. The Pacific Institute contributed legal testimony for this case based on the work of Dr. Peter Gleick and the work of the Centre for Applied Legal Studies (CALS) of the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa and the Pacific Institute in Oakland, California was acknowledged with a 2008 Business Ethics Network BENNY Award."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "The SDWA prohibits any underground injection which endangers drinking water sources. The Ninth Circuit United States Court of Appeals while enforcing this prohibition of \"harmful injections into drinking water aquifers\" explains that underground injection of even clean water can result in the illegal movement of a fluid containing a contaminant into an USDW:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Jordan",
        "text": "The 2015 Report of the UN Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation encouraged the Ministry of Water and Irrigation and Water Authorities to make more information accessible by creating a system of public information through various media channels, including online. These should include information relating to water and sanitation, such as the results of water sampling. Thus strengthening the human right of access to information. According to the report these measures are also crucial for gaining public confidence in water quality, the reliability of services and encourage people to accept tariff reform."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Guatemala",
        "text": "There is no law granting all people the right to clean drinking water in Guatemala."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Here a water usage dispute arose due to the fact that the state of Haryana was using the Jamuna River for irrigation, while the residents of Delhi needed it for the purpose of drinking. It was reasoned that domestic use overrode the commercial use of water and the court ruled that Haryana must allow enough water to get to Delhi for consumption and domestic use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The HRWS obliges governments to ensure that people can enjoy quality, available, acceptable, accessible, and affordable water and sanitation. Affordability of water considers the extent to which the cost of water becomes inhibitive such that it requires one to sacrifice access to other essential goods and services. Generally, a rule of thumb for the affordability of water is that it should not surpass 3\u20135% of households' income. Accessibility of water considers the time taken, convenience in reaching the source and risks involved while getting to the source of water. Water must be accessible to every citizen, meaning that water should not be further than 1,000 meters or 3,280 feet and must be within 30 minutes. Availability of water considers whether the supply of water is available in adequate amounts, reliable and sustainable. Quality of water considers whether water is safe for consumption, including for drinking or other activities. For acceptability of water, it must not have any odor and should not consist of any color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The ICESCR requires signatory countries to progressively achieve and respect all human rights, including those of water and sanitation. They should work quickly and efficiently to increase access and improve service."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human rights in Solomon Islands",
        "text": "The right to sanitation is an integral part of the right to an adequate standard of living, defined in Article 11(1) of the ICESCR. As well as relating to right to health, housing and water, the UN CRC recognizes the right for access to sanitation. According to a 2009 survey of Honiara, only a quarter of residents had adequate toilet facilities. Around 55 percent relieved themselves either in the sea, a river, or nearby toilets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "In 2015, 9% of 500-person-or-larger community water systems monitored by the EPA, covering approximately 21 million people, violated at least one health standard. Between 1984 and 2018, between 4 and 28% of the American population received contaminated water in any given year. There are several aspects of drinking water quality that are of some concern in the United States, including \"Cryptosporidium,\" disinfection by-products, lead, perchlorates, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and pharmaceutical substances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "In the first half of the 20th century water supply and sanitation were a local government responsibility with regulation at the state level; the federal government played almost no role in the sector at that time. This changed with the enactment of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, which provided for comprehensive planning, technical services, research, and financial assistance by the federal government to state and local governments for sanitary infrastructure. The Act was amended in 1965, establishing a uniform set of water quality standards and creating a Federal Water Pollution Control Administration authorized to set standards where states failed to do so."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act",
        "text": "It requires the review of methods and means by which terrorists or other individuals or groups could disrupt the supply of safe drinking water or take other actions which could render drinking water significantly less safe for human consumption, and increases penalties under the Safe Drinking Water Act for tampering with drinking water systems and authorizes appropriations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in New Zealand",
        "text": "Access to water and sanitation was declared a human right by the United Nations General Assembly on 28 July 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water resources law",
        "text": "The right to use water to satisfy basic human needs for personal and domestic uses has been protected under international human rights law. When incorporated in national legal frameworks, this right is articulated to other water rights within the broader body of water law. The human right to water has been recognized in international law through a wide range of international documents, including international human rights treaties, declarations and other standards. Additionally, the United Nations passed a resolution stating that the member states \"recognizes the right to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a human right that is essential for the full enjoyment of life and all human rights.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Since 2002, under the Bioterrorism Act, a water utility supplying more than 3,300 people must take at least the following measures to ensure security of the water supply:\n* Conduct an assessment of the facility's vulnerabilities to vandalism, insider sabotage, or terrorist attack, and submit the report to the EPA.\n* Show that the facility has an up-to-date emergency response plan, should an incident occur."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Water shortages and increasing consumption of freshwater make this right incredibly complicated. As the world population rapidly increases, freshwater shortages will cause many problems. A shortage in the quantity of water brings up the question of whether or not water should be transferred from one country to another."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The right to water has been considered in the Inter-American Court of Human Rights case of the \"Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay\". The issues involved the states failure to acknowledge indigenous communities' property rights over ancestral lands. In 1991, the state removed the indigenous Sawhoyamaxa community from the land resulting in their loss of access to basic essential services, like water, food, schooling and health services. This fell within the scope of the American Convention on Human Rights; encroaching the right to life. Water is included in this right, as part of access to land. The courts required the lands to be returned, compensation provided, and basic goods and services to be implemented, while the community was in the process of having their lands returned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Right2Water",
        "text": "Right2Water is a campaign to commit the European Union and member states to implement the human right to water and sanitation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Nigeria",
        "text": "In 2011, the government voted in the United Nations in favor of a resolution making water and sanitation a human right. However, it has not passed legislation to enshrine the human right to water and sanitation in national law. The country is not on track to reach the Millennium Development Goal for water and sanitation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "In 2000, the Federal Court concluded the agreement that allowed indigenous landowners to take water for traditional purposes. However, the use is limited to traditional purpose, which did not include irrigation as a traditional practice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality legislation of the United States",
        "text": "Occasionally, the Public Health Law is also amended to regulate water supply, e.g. Article 11 of the NY Public Health Law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water quality law",
        "text": "Water designated for human consumption as drinking water may be subject to specific drinking water quality standards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "In March 2021 EPA announced that it will develop national drinking water standards for perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) in public water systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Cities, utilities, state governments and the federal government have addressed the above issues in various ways. To keep pace with demand from an increasing population, utilities traditionally have augmented supplies. However, faced with increasing costs and droughts, water conservation is beginning to receive more attention and is being supported through the federal WaterSense program. The reuse of treated wastewater for non-potable uses is also becoming increasingly common. Pollution through wastewater discharges, a major issue in the 1960s, has been brought largely under control."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "The SDWA includes a whistleblower protection provision. Employees in the US who believe they were fired or suffered another adverse action related to enforcement of this law have 30 days to file a written complaint with the Occupational Safety and Health Administration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "One way to address the funding needs of utilities to respond to the various challenges they face without increasing the burden of water bills on users is federal financial assistance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "In its Infrastructure Report Card the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) gave both the U.S. drinking water and wastewater infrastructure a grade of D\u2212 in 2005, down from D in 2001. According to the report, \"the nation's drinking water system faces a staggering public investment need to replace aging facilities, comply with safe drinking water regulations and meet future needs.\" Investment needs are about $19 billion/year for sanitation and $14 billion/year for drinking water, totaling $33 billion/year. State and local governments invested $35.1 billion in water supply and sanitation in 2008, including 16.3 billion for drinking water supply and 18.8 billion for sanitation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sanitation",
        "text": "Sanitation refers to public health conditions related to clean drinking water and treatment and disposal of human excreta and sewage. Preventing human contact with feces is part of sanitation, as is hand washing with soap. Sanitation systems aim to protect human health by providing a clean environment that will stop the transmission of disease, especially through the fecal\u2013oral route. For example, diarrhea, a main cause of malnutrition and stunted growth in children, can be reduced through adequate sanitation. There are many other diseases which are easily transmitted in communities that have low levels of sanitation, such as ascariasis (a type of intestinal worm infection or helminthiasis), cholera, hepatitis, polio, schistosomiasis, and trachoma, to name just a few."
      },
      {
        "title": "United Nations Water Conference",
        "text": "These draft guidelines were intended to assist government policymakers, international agencies and members of civil society working in the water and sanitation sector to implement the right to drinking water and sanitation. These guidelines do not legally define the right to water and sanitation, but provide a guide for its implementation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Financial assistance for improvements to sewage treatment facilities is available to state and local governments through the Clean Water State Revolving Fund, a low interest loan program."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clean Water Act",
        "text": "Section 301 of the Act prohibits discharges to waters of the U.S. except with a permit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human rights and development",
        "text": "SDG 6: \"Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Wellhead protection program",
        "text": "The Wellhead Protection Program in the 1986 amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act requires states to protect underground sources of drinking water from contaminants that may adversely affect human health. More than one-third of the people in the United States depend on groundwater for drinking water. However, residential, municipal, commercial, industrial, and agricultural activities can all contaminate groundwater. In the event of contamination, a community's drinking water supply can develop poor quality or be lost altogether. Groundwater contamination might not be detected for a long period of time and health problems can occur from drinking contaminated water. Cleanup of a contaminated underground source of drinking water may be impossible or so difficult it costs thousands or millions of dollars. The U.S. Congress requiring Wellhead Protection Programs by 42 U.S.C. \u00a7 300h\u20137 in the Safe Drinking Water Act applied the concept that it is better to prevent groundwater contamination than try to remediate it. U.S. Congress by 42 U.S.C. \u00a7 300h\u20137 requires identification of the areas that need implementation of control measures in order to protect public water supply wells from contamination as \"wellhead protection areas\". Communities can use the police power established by the Tenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution to enforce zoning and subdivision regulations to protect drinking water sources. Thereby communities can direct development away from areas that would pose a threat to drinking water sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "In cases where contamination might still reach consumers, fast and efficient communication systems are necessary. All these factors also point to the need for organized and practiced emergency procedures and preparedness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water Rights Protection Act",
        "text": "The Water Rights Protection Act () is a bill that would prevent federal agencies from requiring certain entities to relinquish their water rights to the United States in order to use public lands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Comprehensive federal regulations for water supply and sanitation were introduced in the 1970s, in reaction to increased public awareness of environmental degradation nationwide. In 1970 EPA was established by the Richard Nixon administration, and authority for managing various environmental programs was transferred to the new agency. In 1972, Congress passed the Clean Water Act (CWA), requiring industrial plants and municipal sewage plants to improve their waste treatment practices in order to limit the effect of contaminants on freshwater sources. In 1974, the Safe Drinking Water Act was adopted for the regulation of public water systems. It was motivated by a resurgence in concern about the safety of drinking water due to breakthroughs in chemistry that revealed organic chemicals in water that were tentatively linked with cancer. This law specified a number of contaminants that must be closely monitored and reported to residents should they exceed the maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) allowed. EPA was charged with creating standards for drinking water for all public systems, defined as those that served more than 25 customers or 15 service connections. The new law required federal and state governments to closely monitor local drinking water utilities for safety and compliance with federal standards. The CWA set the unprecedented goal of eliminating all water pollution by 1985 and authorized massive expenditures of $24.6 billion in research and construction grants for municipal sewage treatment. The funds initially provided an incentive to build centralized wastewater collection and treatment infrastructure for municipalities, instead of decentralized systems. However, the 1977 amendments to the CWA required communities to consider alternatives to the conventional centralized sewer systems, and financial assistance was made available for such alternatives. In the mid-1990s decentralized systems served approximately 25 percent of the U.S. population, and approximately 37 percent of new housing developments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the European Union",
        "text": "Member States shall ensure that such drinking water:\n* does not contain any concentration of micro-organisms, parasites or any other substance which constitutes a potential human health risk;\n* meets the minimum requirements (microbiological and chemical parameters and those relating to radioactivity) laid down by the directive.\n* They will take any other action needed to guarantee the healthiness and purity of water intended for human consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States involves a number of issues including water scarcity, pollution, a backlog of investment, concerns about the affordability of water for the poorest, and a rapidly retiring workforce. Increased variability and intensity of rainfall as a result of climate change is expected to produce both more severe droughts and flooding, with potentially serious consequences for water supply and for pollution from combined sewer overflows. Droughts are likely to particularly affect the 66 percent of Americans whose communities depend on surface water. As for drinking water quality, there are concerns about disinfection by-products, lead, perchlorates, PFAS and pharmaceutical substances, but generally drinking water quality in the U.S. is good."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water",
        "text": "According to the World Health Organization, \"access to safe drinking-water is essential to health, a basic human right and a component of effective policy for health protection.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the European Union",
        "text": "The Directive is intended to protect human health by laying down healthiness and purity requirements which must be met by drinking water within the Community (see water quality). It applies to all water intended for human consumption apart from natural mineral waters and waters which are medicinal products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The following cases from the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) concern the contracts established between governments and corporations for the maintenance of waterways. Although the cases regard questions of investment, commentators have noted that the indirect impact of the right to water upon the verdicts is significant. World Bank data shows that water privatization spiked starting in the 1990s and significant growth in privatization continued into the 2000s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality legislation of the United States",
        "text": "Other laws that govern the operation of water supply, such as the Transportation Corporation Law, Town Law, and the Public Service Law, affect water quality indirectly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality standards",
        "text": "In the United States, the federal legislation controlling drinking water quality is the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) which is implemented by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), mainly through state or territorial health agencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "The SDWA applies to every public water system (PWS) in the United States. There are currently over 148,000 public water systems providing water to almost all Americans at some time in their lives. The Act does not cover private wells (in 2020, 13% of US households were served by private wells)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "There are a number of professional associations, trade associations and other non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that are actively engaged in water supply and sanitation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Department of Water and Sanitation",
        "text": "Department of Water and Sanitation\n--Corruption and incapacitation.\n--Water security.\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What laws in the United States protect access to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "There have been several!  Would you like to know more about the Safe Drinking Water Act, Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act, the 1987 Water Quality Act, or the establishment of the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund by Congress?",
      "The Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948 provides for comprehensive plans by the federal government to state and local governments for sanitation, and it was amended in 1965, establishing a uniform set of water quality standards and creating a Federal Water Pollution Control Administration authorized to set standards where states failed to do so."
    ],
    "topic": "Human right to water and sanitation",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States:72",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
          "Issues",
          "Pollution",
          "Drinking water quality"
        ],
        "ctx": "Congress passed the \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\" tightening the definition of \"lead free\" plumbing, in 2011. EPA published a final rule implementing the law on September 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States:127",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
          "Responses to address issues",
          "Pollution control"
        ],
        "ctx": "The 1987 Water Quality Act amended the CWA, replacing the sewage treatment construction grant program with a system of subsidized loans, using the Clean Water State Revolving Fund (CWSRF). The loans use a combination of 80% federal funds and 20% matching funds from states. New challenges arose, such as the need to address combined sewer overflows for which EPA issued a policy in 1994, and which was codified into law by Congress in 2000. In 1996 Congress established the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund, in order to finance investments to improve compliance with more stringent drinking water quality standards."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States:106",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
          "Responses to address issues",
          "Demand-side management"
        ],
        "ctx": "Demand-side management, including the reduction of leakage in the distribution network and water conservation, are other options that are being considered and, in some cases, also applied to address water scarcity. For example, Seattle has reduced per capita water use from per day in 1990 to per day in 2007 through a comprehensive water conservation program including pricing policies, education, regulations and rebates for water-saving appliances. Other cities such as Atlanta and Las Vegas have also launched water conservation programs that are somewhat less comprehensive than the one in Seattle concerning indoor water use. However, Las Vegas has intentionally focused on curbing outdoor water demand, which accounts for 70% of residential water use in the city, through reductions in turf area and incentives for the use of rains sensors, irrigation controllers and pool covers. At the federal level, the Energy Policy Act of 1992 set standards for water-efficient appliances, replacing the per flush (gpf) toilet with a new 1.6 gpf/6 litres per flush maximum standard for all new toilets."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States:16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
          "History",
          "After 1948: Enter the federal government"
        ],
        "ctx": "Comprehensive federal regulations for water supply and sanitation were introduced in the 1970s, in reaction to increased public awareness of environmental degradation nationwide. In 1970 EPA was established by the Richard Nixon administration, and authority for managing various environmental programs was transferred to the new agency. In 1972, Congress passed the Clean Water Act (CWA), requiring industrial plants and municipal sewage plants to improve their waste treatment practices in order to limit the effect of contaminants on freshwater sources. In 1974, the Safe Drinking Water Act was adopted for the regulation of public water systems. It was motivated by a resurgence in concern about the safety of drinking water due to breakthroughs in chemistry that revealed organic chemicals in water that were tentatively linked with cancer. This law specified a number of contaminants that must be closely monitored and reported to residents should they exceed the maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) allowed. EPA was charged with creating standards for drinking water for all public systems, defined as those that served more than 25 customers or 15 service connections. The new law required federal and state governments to closely monitor local drinking water utilities for safety and compliance with federal standards. The CWA set the unprecedented goal of eliminating all water pollution by 1985 and authorized massive expenditures of $24.6 billion in research and construction grants for municipal sewage treatment. The funds initially provided an incentive to build centralized wastewater collection and treatment infrastructure for municipalities, instead of decentralized systems. However, the 1977 amendments to the CWA required communities to consider alternatives to the conventional centralized sewer systems, and financial assistance was made available for such alternatives. In the mid-1990s decentralized systems served approximately 25 percent of the U.S. population, and approximately 37 percent of new housing developments."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States:15",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
          "History",
          "After 1948: Enter the federal government"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the first half of the 20th century water supply and sanitation were a local government responsibility with regulation at the state level; the federal government played almost no role in the sector at that time. This changed with the enactment of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, which provided for comprehensive planning, technical services, research, and financial assistance by the federal government to state and local governments for sanitary infrastructure. The Act was amended in 1965, establishing a uniform set of water quality standards and creating a Federal Water Pollution Control Administration authorized to set standards where states failed to do so."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Congress passed the \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\" tightening the definition of \"lead free\" plumbing, in 2011. EPA published a final rule implementing the law on September 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "Congress passed the \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\" in 2011. This amendment, effective in 2014, tightened the definition of \"lead-free\" plumbing fixtures and fittings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality in the United States",
        "text": "Congress passed the \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\" in 2011. This amendment to the SDWA, effective in 2014, tightened the definition of \"lead-free\" plumbing fixtures and fittings. EPA published a final rule implementing the amendment on September 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "The 1986 Safe Drinking Water Act amendments defined \"lead-free\" plumbing and prohibited the use of plumbing for public water supply that did not meet the new definition. The amendments also required the EPA to set standards limiting the concentration of lead in public water systems. The \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\", enacted in 2011, tightened the definition of \"lead-free\" plumbing fixtures and fittings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Organizations working on the rights to water and sanitation are listed below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Right2Water",
        "text": "Right2Water is a campaign to commit the European Union and member states to implement the human right to water and sanitation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Congress recognized that injection wells were a potential threat to groundwater quality when they passed the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) of 1974. This instructed the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to create a national program that would prevent underground injection activities that would endanger underground drinking sources. The EPA must regulate underground injection of fluids and wastes through wells that discharge or may release such material into or above an underground reservoir of drinkable water. The EPA has promoted several Underground Injection Control (UCI) regulations in order to protect underground reservoirs of drinkable water from being contaminated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Human right to water and sanitation\n--International context.\n--Legal foundations and recognition.\n--International jurisprudence.\n----Inter-American Court of Human Rights.\n----International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes.\n------\"Azurix Corp v. Argentina\".\n------\"Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania\".\n--Right to water in domestic law.\n----South Africa.\n------\"Residents of Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Local Council\".\n------\"Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg\".\n----India.\n------\"Delhi Water Supply v. State of Haryana\".\n------\"Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar\".\n------World Rights to Water Day.\n----New Zealand.\n----United States.\n------\"Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. United States Army Corps of Engineers\".\n----Australia.\n--Remaining discussions.\n----Transboundary effects.\n------Water Dispute Between India and Pakistan.\n----Water commercialization versus state provision.\n----Pluralism perspectives as a mean to protect the right of a socially weak community.\n--Organizations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Since the late twentieth century, there has been a shift in money and resources allocated towards funding new water infrastructure. Specifically, federal funding for water accessibility has dropped nearly 70% since the 1980s. In addition, federal spending has fallen from $76 per person in 1977 to just $11 per person in 2014. The responsibility of funding water and sanitation projects has moved from the federal government to local governments. While this method may be sustainable for a large majority of communities, groups that are located in impoverished areas do not have the financial resources to embark on large water projects. In the last several years, local and state governments have been forced to increase their spending to compensate for the withdrawal of federal funds."
      },
      {
        "title": "International trade and water",
        "text": "In July 2010, the UN General Assembly declared that access to clean water and sanitation is a human right. The assembly did not specify whether a public authority or the private sector would be best capable of providing this right.\n* Gaza blockade\n* Shared vision planning\n* Spragg Bag\n* Water law\n* Water privatization\n* Water trading\n* World Water Monitoring Day"
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The human right to water and sanitation (HRWS) is a principle that acknowledges that clean drinking water and sanitation are essential to every person's life. It was recognised as a human right by the United Nations General Assembly on 28 July 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Right2Water",
        "text": "Right2Water\n--The commission\u2019s answer.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "A further step was taken in 2005 by the former UN Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights which issued guidelines to assist governments to achieve and respect the human right to water and sanitation. These guidelines led the UN Human Rights Council to assign Catarina de Albuquerque as an independent expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitation in 2008. She wrote a detailed report in 2009 that outlined human rights obligations to sanitation, and the CESCR responded by stating that sanitation should be recognized by all states."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "A revised UN resolution in 2015 highlighted that the two rights were separate but equal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "To implement the 2011 \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\", EPA published a final rule on September 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "With low income minority communities already being disproportionately affected by water access issues, the cut in federal spending only furthers the disparities that these groups face. These communities lack the resources to solve this issue on their own and look towards the federal government for assistance. However, their lack of involvement and general disregard for these communities leads to the continuation of their troubles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The right to water has been considered in the Inter-American Court of Human Rights case of the \"Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay\". The issues involved the states failure to acknowledge indigenous communities' property rights over ancestral lands. In 1991, the state removed the indigenous Sawhoyamaxa community from the land resulting in their loss of access to basic essential services, like water, food, schooling and health services. This fell within the scope of the American Convention on Human Rights; encroaching the right to life. Water is included in this right, as part of access to land. The courts required the lands to be returned, compensation provided, and basic goods and services to be implemented, while the community was in the process of having their lands returned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "In 1987 Congress passed the Water Quality Act, which replaced the construction grant program with a system of subsidized loans using the Clean Water State Revolving Fund (CWSRF). The intention at the time was to completely phase out federal funding after a few years. Funding peaked in 1991 and continued at high levels thereafter, despite the original intentions. New challenges arose, such as the need to address combined sewer overflows for which EPA issued a policy in 1994. In 1996 Congress established the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund, building on the success of the CWSRF, in order to finance investments to improve compliance with more stringent drinking water quality standards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "The United Nations (UN) has determined that access to clean water and sanitation facilities is a basic human right. However few countries have included a human right to water in enforceable legislation. Over 2 billion people in the world lack access to water that is free of health risks. By 2017, eighty countries provided access to clean water for more than 99% of their population. From 2000 to 2017, the global population that lacked access to clean water decreased from nearly 20% to roughly 10%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Financial assistance for improvements to sewage treatment facilities is available to state and local governments through the Clean Water State Revolving Fund, a low interest loan program."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), protects groundwater by regulating the disposal of solid waste and hazardous waste. The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), also known as \"Superfund,\" requires remediation of abandoned hazardous waste sites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The court found that the discontinuation of the existing water source, which had not adhered to the \"fair and reasonable\" requirements of the South African Water Services Act, was illegal. It is important to note that the decision pre-dates the adoption of the UN General Comment No. 15."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dublin Statement",
        "text": "On 30 September 2010, the 15th Session of the UN Human Rights Council passed Resolution A/HRC/15/L.14, reaffirming an earlier General Assembly resolution (64/292 of 28 July 2010) which \"recognized the right to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a human right that is essential for the full enjoyment of life and all human rights\". Resolution A/HRC/15/L.14 clarifies that \"the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation is derived from the right to an adequate standard of living and inextricably related to the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, as well as the right to life and human dignity\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Contention exists regarding whose, if anyone's, responsibility it is to ensure the human right to water and sanitation. Often, two schools of thought emerge from such discourse: it is the state's responsibility to provide access to clean water to people versus the privatization of distribution and sanitation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "The 1987 Water Quality Act amended the CWA, replacing the sewage treatment construction grant program with a system of subsidized loans, using the Clean Water State Revolving Fund (CWSRF). The loans use a combination of 80% federal funds and 20% matching funds from states. New challenges arose, such as the need to address combined sewer overflows for which EPA issued a policy in 1994, and which was codified into law by Congress in 2000. In 1996 Congress established the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund, in order to finance investments to improve compliance with more stringent drinking water quality standards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poverty reduction",
        "text": "In law, there has been a move to establish the absence of poverty as a human right."
      },
      {
        "title": "Waters of the United States Regulatory Overreach Protection Act of 2014",
        "text": "H.R. 5078 contains no intergovernmental or private-sector mandates as defined in the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act, and any costs incurred by state, local, or tribal governments would result from participation in a voluntary federal program."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental Law and Policy Center",
        "text": "Used the Clean Water Act to require stringent phosphorus reduction and anti-degradation standards in Iowa and Wisconsin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act",
        "text": "It requires the review of methods and means by which terrorists or other individuals or groups could disrupt the supply of safe drinking water or take other actions which could render drinking water significantly less safe for human consumption, and increases penalties under the Safe Drinking Water Act for tampering with drinking water systems and authorizes appropriations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Also notable is the case of \"Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar\", where a discharge of sludge from the washeries into the Bokaro River was petitioned against by way of public interest litigation. The courts found that the right to life, as protected by Article 21 of the Constitution of India, included the right to enjoy pollution-free water. The case failed upon the facts and it was held that the petition had been filed not in any public interest but for the petitioner's personal interest and therefore a continuation of litigation would amount to an abuse of process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Health in Rwanda",
        "text": "From 1990 to 2012, an improvement in the drinking water coverage was registered from 59% to 67% and the use of surface water reduced from 25% to 11%.<ref name=\"WHO/UNICEF/JMP 2014\">WHO/UNICEF/JMP 2014</ref> There was also an improvement in the sanitation coverage from 1990 to 2012. This was from 30% to 64%. The unimproved sanitary facilities reduced further from 59% to 23%, while open defecation reduced from 7% to 3%."
      },
      {
        "title": "United Nations Water Conference",
        "text": "UN Resolution formally recognizes the right to water and sanitation and acknowledges they are essential for human rights. The Resolution calls upon States and international organizations to provide financial resources and technology, especially to developing countries, to provide safe, clean, accessible, and affordable drinking water and sanitation for all Water is a human right for everyone to have."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Subsequent resolutions extended the mandate of the Special Rapporteur and defined each state's role in the respect of these rights. The most recent General Assembly Resolution 7/169 of 2015 has been called a declaration of \"The Human Rights to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation. It recognized the distinction between the right to water and the right to sanitation. This decision was made due to concern about the right to sanitation being overlooked when compared to the right to water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "One way to address the funding needs of utilities to respond to the various challenges they face without increasing the burden of water bills on users is federal financial assistance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) is the principal federal law in the United States intended to ensure safe drinking water for the public. Pursuant to the act, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is required to set standards for drinking water quality and oversee all states, localities, and water suppliers that implement the standards."
      },
      {
        "title": "End Water Poverty",
        "text": "End Water Poverty is an international campaign calling for sanitation and potable water for all. UN figures show that worldwide, 2.6 billion people live without anywhere to excrete in a sanitary manner and over one billion have no safe water to drink. Over 4,900 children every day from preventable water-related diseases."
      },
      {
        "title": "International Community for the Relief of Suffering and Starvation",
        "text": "Joyce, Tina M.; McGuigan, Kevin G.; Elmore-Meegan, Michael; Conroy, Ron\u00e1n M. (1996). \"Inactivation of fecal bacteria in drinking water by solar heating\". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 62 (2): 399\u2013402. PMC 167810. ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Community-led total sanitation",
        "text": "More debate is still needed regarding humans rights consequences of posttriggering punitive measures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "ESCR are not explicitly protected in New Zealand at the current time, either by the Human Rights or Bill of Rights Acts, therefore the right to water is not defended by law there. The New Zealand Law Society has recently indicated that this country would give further consideration to the legal status of economic, social and cultural rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water resources law",
        "text": "The human right to water places the main responsibilities upon governments to ensure that people can enjoy \"sufficient, safe, accessible and affordable water, without discrimination\". Most especially, governments are expected to take reasonable steps to avoid a contaminated water supply and to ensure there are no water access distinctions amongst citizens. Today all states have at least ratified one human rights convention which explicitly or implicitly recognizes the right, and they all have signed at least one political declaration recognizing this right."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of February 17, 2009, provided $4 billion for the Clean Water SRF, $2 billion for the Drinking Water SRF and, among others, $126 million for water recycling projects through the United States Bureau of Reclamation. This program exceeded previous levels of financing, since Congress approved only US$1.5 billion of federal funding for State Revolving Funds in 2008. This was much below the historical average of US$3 billion/year for the Clean Water State Revolving Fund (1987\u20132006) and US$1.2 billion/year for the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund (1997\u20132005). The share of federal funding for sanitation has declined from almost 50% in the early 1980s to about 20% in the early 1990s. A May 2016 article asserted that there has been \"a huge federal retreat from helping cities fund water projects,\" stating that overall federal spending on water utilities \"has dropped 75 percent since 1977,\" and that experts expect more situations like the Flint water crisis to emerge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "Congress tightened the definition of \"lead free\" plumbing in a 2011 amendment to the Act. EPA published a final rule implementing the amendment on September 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Senator Paul Simon Water for the World Act of 2009",
        "text": "The purpose of this bill is to provide 100,000,000 people with first-time access to safe drinking water and sanitation on a sustainable basis by 2015 by improving the capacity of the United States Government to fully implement the Senator Paul Simon Water for the Poor Act of 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Wastewater discharges to groundwater are regulated by the Underground Injection Control Program (UIC) under the Safe Drinking Water Act. UIC permits are issued by 34 state agencies and EPA regional offices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human viruses in water",
        "text": "The quality of drinking water is ensured through a framework of water safety plans that ensures the safe disposal of human waste so that drinking water supplies are not contaminated. Improving the water supply, sanitation, hygiene and management of our water resources could prevent ten percent of total global disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Today, there are still communities around the United States that do not have access to clean water. While some regions have developed alternatives to deal with this inaccessibility, others are still struggling with this issue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "The 1986 amendments require EPA to set standards limiting the concentration of lead in public water systems, and defines \"lead free\" pipes as:\n:(1) solders and flux containing not more than 0.2 percent lead;\n:(2) pipes and pipe fittings containing not more than 8.0 percent lead; and\n:(3) plumbing fittings and fixtures as defined in industry-developed voluntary standards (issued no later than August 6, 1997), or standards developed by EPA in lieu of voluntary standards."
      },
      {
        "title": "United Nations Water Conference",
        "text": "WASH created the new 2015 objectives:\n# No open defecation\n# Basic access to drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene for households, schools and health facilities.\n# Increase the population without home access to safely drinking water and sanitation services.\n# Elimination of inequalities by population groups as to allow more access to services."
      },
      {
        "title": "Susan Look Avery",
        "text": "Let us also thank God and take courage, that women, through whom sanitation must come... are thinking and speaking on the subject - the prevention of vice, crime and sorrow as never before; with an earnestness born of conviction of responsibility and the fervent desire to meet it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Following intense negotiations, 122 countries formally acknowledged \"the Human Right to Water and Sanitation\" in General Assembly Resolution 64/292 on 28 July 2010. It recognized the right of every human being to have access to sufficient water for personal and domestic uses (between 50 and 100 liters of water per person per day), which must be safe, acceptable and affordable (water costs should not exceed 3% of household income), and physically accessible (the water source has to be within 1,000 meters of the home and collection time should not exceed 30 minutes).\" The General Assembly declared that clean drinking water is \"essential to the full enjoyment of life and all other human rights\". In September 2010, the UN Human Rights Council adopted a resolution recognizing that the human right to water and sanitation forms part of the right to an adequate standard of living."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "The \"Water Infrastructure Improvements for the Nation Act\" added several provisions to the SDWA, along with providing financial assistance to the city of Flint, Michigan in responding to its lead contamination crisis, as well as assistance for other communities. The provisions include:\n* expanding the water infrastructure public-private partnership loan program\n* requiring public notification when household drinking water contains lead levels above the EPA action level (currently 0.015\u00a0mg/L)\n* establishing a voluntary program for testing for lead in drinking water at schools and childcare centers\n* creating a public information clearinghouse on alternative drinking water delivery systems.\n* America's Water Infrastructure Act of 2018"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Cities, utilities, state governments and the federal government have addressed the above issues in various ways. To keep pace with demand from an increasing population, utilities traditionally have augmented supplies. However, faced with increasing costs and droughts, water conservation is beginning to receive more attention and is being supported through the federal WaterSense program. The reuse of treated wastewater for non-potable uses is also becoming increasingly common. Pollution through wastewater discharges, a major issue in the 1960s, has been brought largely under control."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply",
        "text": "The fact that we are still so far from achieving universal access to clean water and sanitation shows that public water authorities, in their current state, are not working well enough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water quality law",
        "text": "Water designated for human consumption as drinking water may be subject to specific drinking water quality standards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The following cases from the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) concern the contracts established between governments and corporations for the maintenance of waterways. Although the cases regard questions of investment, commentators have noted that the indirect impact of the right to water upon the verdicts is significant. World Bank data shows that water privatization spiked starting in the 1990s and significant growth in privatization continued into the 2000s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The HRWS has been recognized in international law through human rights treaties, declarations and other standards. Some commentators have derived the human right to water beyond the General Assembly resolution from Article 11.1 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), making it binding under international law. Other treaties that explicitly recognize the HRWS include the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). The first resolutions about the HRWS were passed by the UN General Assembly and the UN Human Rights Council in 2010. They acknowledged that there was a human right to sanitation connected to the human right to water, since the lack of sanitation reduces the quality of water downstream, so subsequent discussions have continued emphasizing both rights together. In July 2010, United Nations (UN) General Assembly Resolution 64/292 acknowledged the human right to receive safe, affordable, and clean accessible water and sanitation services. During that General Assembly, it accepted that for the comprehension of enjoyment in life and all human rights, safe and clean drinking water as well as sanitation is acknowledged as a human right. The acceptance that access to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a free human right in the General Assembly\u2019s Resolution (64/292) brings an important worldwide governmental control of it. The fulfillment of a productive and healthy life will transpire by recognizing broadly the significance of accessing dependable and clean water and sanitation services."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water Rights Protection Act",
        "text": "\"This summary is based largely on the summary provided by the Congressional Research Service, a public domain source.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Without the existence of an international body that can enforce it, the human right to water relies upon the activity of national courts. The basis for this has been established through the constitutionalisation of economic, social and cultural rights (ESCR) through one of two means: as \"directive principles\" that are goals and are often non-justiciable; or as expressly protected and enforceable through the courts."
      },
      {
        "title": "UN-Water",
        "text": "Water is vital for reducing the global burden of disease and improving the health, welfare and productivity of populations. Today, 2.1 billion people lack access to safely managed drinking water services and 4.5 billion people lack safely managed sanitation services."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "In addition to requiring more contaminants to be regulated, the 1986 amendments included:\n*Wellhead protection\n*New monitoring for certain substances\n*Filtration for certain surface water systems\n*Disinfection for certain groundwater systems\n*Restriction on lead in solder and plumbing\n*More enforcement powers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water Rights Protection Act",
        "text": "The Water Rights Protection Act () is a bill that would prevent federal agencies from requiring certain entities to relinquish their water rights to the United States in order to use public lands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comprehensive Rural Health Project",
        "text": "With the institution of these workers, there has been a significant reduction in child malnutrition, diarrhea, pneumonia, leprosy, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria, along with other common diseases associated with standing water from the lack of sanitation and liquid waste disposal systems [6]."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality legislation of the United States",
        "text": "Some state and local governments have issued rules to protect users of private wells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Jordan",
        "text": "The 2015 Report of the UN Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation encouraged the Ministry of Water and Irrigation and Water Authorities to make more information accessible by creating a system of public information through various media channels, including online. These should include information relating to water and sanitation, such as the results of water sampling. Thus strengthening the human right of access to information. According to the report these measures are also crucial for gaining public confidence in water quality, the reliability of services and encourage people to accept tariff reform."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda",
        "text": "Source: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper 2002, p.\u00a051 and p.\u00a025, quoting the 2001 inventory of rural water supply systems"
      },
      {
        "title": "Human rights and development",
        "text": "SDG 6: \"Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Further reasoning for the decision was based on General Comment 12 on the Right to Food, made by the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights imposing upon parties to the agreement the obligation to observe and respect already existing access to adequate food by not implementing any encroaching measures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality legislation of the United States",
        "text": "In the United States, public drinking water is governed by the laws and regulations enacted by the federal and state governments. Certain ordinances may also be created at a more local level. The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) is the principal federal law. The SDWA authorizes the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to create and enforce regulations to achieve the SDWA goals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Jordan",
        "text": "The UN Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation called in a 2014 report on donors to prioritize their cooperation in tackling non-revenue water through small scale, effective interventions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water Resources Development Act of 1992",
        "text": "Directs dam drawdown mitigation, risk, and design deficiency studies in Washington. West Virginia, and California."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) of 1966 codified the economic, social, and cultural rights found within the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) of 1948. Neither of these early documents explicitly recognized human rights to water and sanitation. Several later international human rights conventions, however, had provisions that explicitly recognized rights to water and sanitation.\n* The 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) has Article 14.2 that states that \"parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in rural areas to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, that they participate in and benefit from rural development and, in particular shall ensure to women the right:\u2026 (h) To enjoy adequate living conditions, particularly in relation to housing, sanitation, electricity and water supply, transport and communications.\"\n* The 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) has Article 24 that provides that \"parties recognize the right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health and to facilities for the treatment of illness and rehabilitation of health \u2026 2. States parties shall pursue full implementation of this right and, in particular, shall take appropriate measures... (c) To combat disease and malnutrition, including within the framework of primary health care, through, inter alia\u2026 the provision of adequate nutritious foods and clean drinking water...\"\n* The 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) has Article 28(2)(a) that requires that \"parties recognize the right of persons with disabilities to social protection and to the enjoyment of that right without discrimination on the basis of disability, and shall take appropriate steps to safeguard and promote the realization of this right, including measures to ensure equal access by persons with disabilities to clean water services, and to ensure access to appropriate and affordable services, devices and other assistance for disability-related needs.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Canada",
        "text": "Following the 2015 Canadian federal election additional funds were allocated to remove the long-term drinking water advisories (DWA)s over the next five years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "Safe Drinking Water Act\n--National Primary Drinking Water Regulations.\n----Microorganisms.\n----Disinfectants.\n----Disinfection by-products.\n----Inorganic Chemicals.\n------\"Lead Free\" plumbing requirements.\n----Organic Chemicals.\n----Radionuclides.\n--Secondary standards.\n--Health advisories.\n--State standards.\n--Future standards.\n----Unregulated contaminants.\n----Perchlorate.\n----Perfluorinated alkylated substances.\n----Non-community water systems.\n--Monitoring, compliance and enforcement.\n--Protection of Underground Sources of Drinking Water.\n----Underground Injection Control (UIC) Program.\n------Hydraulic fracturing exemption.\n----Wellhead protection areas.\n----Emergency power.\n----Judicial review and civil actions.\n--Related programs.\n----Airline water supplies.\n----Source water assessment.\n----Whistleblower protection.\n--History.\n----Prelude.\n----1974 Act.\n----1986 amendments.\n----1996 SDWA amendments.\n----2005 amendment.\n----2011 amendment.\n----2015 amendments.\n----2016 amendments.\n--Environmental justice.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Scholars also called attention to the importance of possible UN recognition of human rights to water and sanitation at the end of the twentieth century. Two early efforts to define the human right to water came from law professor Stephen McCaffrey of the University of the Pacific in 1992 and Dr. Peter Gleick in 1999. McCaffrey stated that \"Such a right could be envisaged as part and parcel of the right to food or sustenance, the right to health, or most fundamentally, the right to life. Gleick added: \"that access to a basic water requirement is a fundamental human right implicitly and explicitly supported by international law, declarations, and State practice.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Here a water usage dispute arose due to the fact that the state of Haryana was using the Jamuna River for irrigation, while the residents of Delhi needed it for the purpose of drinking. It was reasoned that domestic use overrode the commercial use of water and the court ruled that Haryana must allow enough water to get to Delhi for consumption and domestic use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water Rights Protection Act",
        "text": "H.R. 3189 contains no intergovernmental or private-sector mandates as defined in the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act and would not affect the budgets of state, local, or tribal governments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water Resources Development Act of 1996",
        "text": "Requires\n* a report on rural sanitation projects in Alaska\n* credit toward non-Federal cost share a study of projects in Arizona\n* plans and studies for various projects review in California\n* completing a limited reevaluation of the authorized St. Louis Harbor Project in the vicinity of the Chain Rocks Canal, Illinois\n* specified environmental impact assistance to Illinois\n* investigation of potential solutions to flooding and related problems in South Dakota."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reclaimed water",
        "text": "In the U.S., the Clean Water Act of 1972 mandated elimination of the discharge of untreated waste from municipal and industrial sources to make water safe for fishing and recreation. The US federal government provided billions of dollars in grants for building sewage treatment plants around the country. Modern treatment plants, usually using oxidation and/or chlorination in addition to primary and secondary treatment, were required to meet certain standards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda",
        "text": "If the figures were comparable, this would imply a massive decrease in access to water and sanitation in both urban and rural areas over the preceding five years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "The environmental and drinking water quality regulation is the responsibility of state departments of health or environment and the EPA."
      },
      {
        "title": "United Nations Water Conference",
        "text": "These draft guidelines were intended to assist government policymakers, international agencies and members of civil society working in the water and sanitation sector to implement the right to drinking water and sanitation. These guidelines do not legally define the right to water and sanitation, but provide a guide for its implementation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "The SDWA prohibits any underground injection which endangers drinking water sources. The Ninth Circuit United States Court of Appeals while enforcing this prohibition of \"harmful injections into drinking water aquifers\" explains that underground injection of even clean water can result in the illegal movement of a fluid containing a contaminant into an USDW:"
      },
      {
        "title": "End Water Poverty",
        "text": "End Water Poverty\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation",
        "text": "The Ministry has requested various governmental departments to avoid the usage of plastic bottles to provide drinking water during governmental meetings etc., and instead, to make arrangements for providing drinking water that do not result in the generation of plastic waste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda",
        "text": "The following table compares access to water supply according to various sources, highlighting the difficulty to obtain reliable data on the change in access to water supply because of different definitions used. The data appear to indicate that access decreased over time, while in the same period significant investments were undertaken in rural water supply. The government's 2002 Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper acknowledges that indeed \"sustained access to potable water sources has probably declined in rural areas\" since 1995. A main reason is poor maintenance and insufficient cost recovery, leading to the breakdown of systems shutting down water supply's, in particular those relying on pumping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Numerous efforts have been undertaken in the United States to control the pollution of water resources and to make drinking water safe. The most comprehensive federal regulations and standards for the water treatment industry were implemented in the 1970s, in reaction to a huge increase in environmental concerns in the country. In 1972, Congress passed the Clean Water Act (CWA), with the unprecedented goal of eliminating all water pollution by 1985 and authorized expenditures of $24.6 billion in research and construction grants. In 1974, Congress passed the Safe Drinking Water Act, specifying a number of contaminants that had to be closely monitored and reported to residents should they exceed the maximum contaminant levels. The CWA included substantial federal grant funding to improve sewage treatment infrastructure in the form of construction grants to local governments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "In the first half of the 20th century water supply and sanitation were a local government responsibility with regulation at the state level; the federal government played almost no role in the sector at that time. This changed with the enactment of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, which provided for comprehensive planning, technical services, research, and financial assistance by the federal government to state and local governments for sanitary infrastructure. The Act was amended in 1965, establishing a uniform set of water quality standards and creating a Federal Water Pollution Control Administration authorized to set standards where states failed to do so."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The clearest definition of the human right to water was issued by the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in General Comment 15 drafted in 2002. It was a non-binding interpretation that access to water was a condition for the enjoyment of the right to an adequate standard of living, inextricably related to the right to the highest attainable standard of health, and therefore a human right. It stated: \"The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Clean Water Act",
        "text": "In the Water Quality Act of 1987, Congress responded to the stormwater problem by defining industrial stormwater dischargers and municipal separate storm sewer systems (often called \"MS4\") as point sources, and requiring them to obtain NPDES permits, by specific deadlines. The permit exemption for agricultural discharges continued, but Congress created several programs and grants, including a demonstration grant program at the EPA to expand the research and development of non point controls and management practices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "It was held in the High Court that the city's by-laws did not provide for the installation of meters and that their installation was unlawful. Further, as the meters halted supply of water to residence once the free basic water supply had ended, this was deemed an unlawful discontinuation of the water supply. The court held the residents of Phiri should be provided with a free basic water supply of 50 litres per person per day. The work of the Centre for Applied Legal Studies (CALS) of the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa and the Pacific Institute in Oakland, California shared a 2008 Business Ethics Network BENNY Award for their work on this case. The Pacific Institute contributed legal testimony based on the work of Dr. Peter Gleick defining a human right to water and quantifying basic human needs for water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Self-supply of water and sanitation",
        "text": "The criticism is based on the assumption that the Human Right to Water and Sanitation imply that the government directly has to deliver water and sanitation services to everyone. However, as the United Nation's Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights to Water and Sanitation pointed out, the government can also opt for a strategy of strengthening capacities of the private sector under a supported self-supply approach, allowing its resources to be used efficiently and reaching people in sparsely populated rural areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "There are a number of professional associations, trade associations and other non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that are actively engaged in water supply and sanitation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "In response to the Flint, Michigan water crisis, EPA published a revised LCR on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines when the \"action level\" for lead is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States\n--History.\n----Piped water supply until 1948.\n----Sanitation until 1948.\n----After 1948: Enter the federal government.\n--Technical and environmental overview.\n----Infrastructure.\n----Water sources.\n------Cities supplied primarily by surface water without filtration.\n------Cities supplied primarily by surface water with water treatment.\n------Cities supplied primarily by groundwater.\n------Cities supplied by a mix of groundwater and surface water.\n------Rainwater harvesting.\n----Water use.\n--Institutional overview.\n----Service providers.\n----Regulators.\n----Wastewater treatment.\n----Other stakeholders.\n--Issues.\n----Water scarcity and climate change.\n----Water security.\n----Pollution.\n------Sewer overflows.\n------Drinking water quality.\n------Groundwater pollution.\n----Investment gap.\n----Access.\n------Historical Causes of Limited Access to Water.\n--------Affected regions across the United States.\n------Federal Spending on Water Accessibility.\n----Pricing and affordability.\n----Retiring workforce.\n----Fluoridation.\n--Responses to address issues.\n----Supply-side management.\n----Demand-side management.\n----Water reuse.\n------Indirect potable reuse (IPR).\n------Direct potable reuse (DPR).\n----Pollution control.\n----Federal assistance.\n----Protecting water utilities from terrorist attack.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wellhead protection program",
        "text": "The Wellhead Protection Program in the 1986 amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act requires states to protect underground sources of drinking water from contaminants that may adversely affect human health. More than one-third of the people in the United States depend on groundwater for drinking water. However, residential, municipal, commercial, industrial, and agricultural activities can all contaminate groundwater. In the event of contamination, a community's drinking water supply can develop poor quality or be lost altogether. Groundwater contamination might not be detected for a long period of time and health problems can occur from drinking contaminated water. Cleanup of a contaminated underground source of drinking water may be impossible or so difficult it costs thousands or millions of dollars. The U.S. Congress requiring Wellhead Protection Programs by 42 U.S.C. \u00a7 300h\u20137 in the Safe Drinking Water Act applied the concept that it is better to prevent groundwater contamination than try to remediate it. U.S. Congress by 42 U.S.C. \u00a7 300h\u20137 requires identification of the areas that need implementation of control measures in order to protect public water supply wells from contamination as \"wellhead protection areas\". Communities can use the police power established by the Tenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution to enforce zoning and subdivision regulations to protect drinking water sources. Thereby communities can direct development away from areas that would pose a threat to drinking water sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1961",
        "text": "This section was repealed by section 5(4) of the Water Act 1981."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jobs, Growth and Long-term Prosperity Act",
        "text": "The Municipal Water and Wastewater Survey, the \"only national study of water consumption habits, is being cut after being in place since 1983 (May 2012).\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Water shortages and increasing consumption of freshwater make this right incredibly complicated. As the world population rapidly increases, freshwater shortages will cause many problems. A shortage in the quantity of water brings up the question of whether or not water should be transferred from one country to another."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water",
        "text": "Reducing usage by using drinking (potable) water only for human consumption is another option. In some cities such as Hong Kong, seawater is extensively used for flushing toilets citywide in order to conserve freshwater resources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "On June 18, 2020 EPA announced that it was withdrawing its 2019 proposal and its 2011 regulatory determination, stating that it had taken \"proactive steps\" with state and local governments to address perchlorate contamination. In September 2020 NRDC filed suit against EPA for its failure to regulate perchlorate, and stated that 26 million people may be affected by perchlorate in their drinking water."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What laws in the United States protect access to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There have been several!  Would you like to know more about the Safe Drinking Water Act, Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act, the 1987 Water Quality Act, or the establishment of the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund by Congress?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act please."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Congress passed the Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act in 2011. This amendment, effective in 2014, tightened the definition of \"lead-free\" plumbing fixtures and fittings."
    ],
    "topic": "Human right to water and sanitation",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Safe Drinking Water Act:56",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Safe Drinking Water Act",
          "History",
          "2011 amendment"
        ],
        "ctx": "Congress passed the \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\" in 2011. This amendment, effective in 2014, tightened the definition of \"lead-free\" plumbing fixtures and fittings."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "Congress passed the \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\" in 2011. This amendment, effective in 2014, tightened the definition of \"lead-free\" plumbing fixtures and fittings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality in the United States",
        "text": "Congress passed the \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\" in 2011. This amendment to the SDWA, effective in 2014, tightened the definition of \"lead-free\" plumbing fixtures and fittings. EPA published a final rule implementing the amendment on September 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "The 1986 Safe Drinking Water Act amendments defined \"lead-free\" plumbing and prohibited the use of plumbing for public water supply that did not meet the new definition. The amendments also required the EPA to set standards limiting the concentration of lead in public water systems. The \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\", enacted in 2011, tightened the definition of \"lead-free\" plumbing fixtures and fittings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Congress passed the \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\" tightening the definition of \"lead free\" plumbing, in 2011. EPA published a final rule implementing the law on September 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "The 1986 amendments require EPA to set standards limiting the concentration of lead in public water systems, and defines \"lead free\" pipes as:\n:(1) solders and flux containing not more than 0.2 percent lead;\n:(2) pipes and pipe fittings containing not more than 8.0 percent lead; and\n:(3) plumbing fittings and fixtures as defined in industry-developed voluntary standards (issued no later than August 6, 1997), or standards developed by EPA in lieu of voluntary standards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "Congress tightened the definition of \"lead free\" plumbing in a 2011 amendment to the Act. EPA published a final rule implementing the amendment on September 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "To implement the 2011 \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\", EPA published a final rule on September 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "In addition to requiring more contaminants to be regulated, the 1986 amendments included:\n*Wellhead protection\n*New monitoring for certain substances\n*Filtration for certain surface water systems\n*Disinfection for certain groundwater systems\n*Restriction on lead in solder and plumbing\n*More enforcement powers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "In response to the Flint, Michigan water crisis, EPA published revisions to the Lead and Copper Rule on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines when the \"action level\" for lead is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation. Several citizen and environmental groups immediately filed lawsuits challenging the rule. On March 12, 2021 EPA delayed the effective date of the rule to June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead contamination in Washington, D.C., drinking water",
        "text": "In March 2005, the EPA proposed changes strengthening the Lead and Copper Rule. The changes require utilities to give test results directly to homeowners, and to notify state and federal regulators before changing water-treatment methods. Critics, such as Clean Water Action, called the changes \"revisions at the margins.\" Rick Maas, co-director of the Environmental Quality Institute at the University of North Carolina, said the revisions would \"solve maybe 5 to 10 percent of the problem\" with the Rule. Trade organizations, such as the American Water Works Association, found the changes \"basically reasonable.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "In response to the Flint, Michigan water crisis, EPA published a revised LCR on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines when the \"action level\" for lead is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Community Fire Safety Act of 2013",
        "text": "This exemption that would allow fire hydrants to continue under current previous lead guidelines is similar to the one already provided for shower valves. Toilets and bidets are already exempt as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "Safe Drinking Water Act\n--National Primary Drinking Water Regulations.\n----Microorganisms.\n----Disinfectants.\n----Disinfection by-products.\n----Inorganic Chemicals.\n------\"Lead Free\" plumbing requirements.\n----Organic Chemicals.\n----Radionuclides.\n--Secondary standards.\n--Health advisories.\n--State standards.\n--Future standards.\n----Unregulated contaminants.\n----Perchlorate.\n----Perfluorinated alkylated substances.\n----Non-community water systems.\n--Monitoring, compliance and enforcement.\n--Protection of Underground Sources of Drinking Water.\n----Underground Injection Control (UIC) Program.\n------Hydraulic fracturing exemption.\n----Wellhead protection areas.\n----Emergency power.\n----Judicial review and civil actions.\n--Related programs.\n----Airline water supplies.\n----Source water assessment.\n----Whistleblower protection.\n--History.\n----Prelude.\n----1974 Act.\n----1986 amendments.\n----1996 SDWA amendments.\n----2005 amendment.\n----2011 amendment.\n----2015 amendments.\n----2016 amendments.\n--Environmental justice.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "EPA published the \"Lead and Copper Rule Minor Revisions\" (LCRMR) in January 2000. This rule required water suppliers to install the best available corrosion control mechanisms and to continually observe water levels, even if corrosion control was implemented. The revisions were effective April 11, 2000. Additional corrections and minor revisions were made in 2004 and 2006. A 2007 amendment added new requirements in the areas of monitoring, treatment processes, public education, customer awareness, and lead service line replacement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Community Fire Safety Act of 2013",
        "text": "The Community Fire Safety Act of 2013 would amend the Safe Drinking Water Act to exempt fire hydrants from certain prohibitions against the use of lead pipes, solder, and flux."
      },
      {
        "title": "Community Fire Safety Act of 2013",
        "text": "The bill would direct the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to: (1) consult with and seek the advice of the National Drinking Water Advisory Council on potential changes to federal regulations pertaining to lead; and (2) request the Council to consider sources of lead throughout drinking water distribution systems, including through components used to reroute drinking water during distribution system repairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality in the United States",
        "text": "In response to the Flint water crisis, EPA published revisions to the LCR on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines when the action level for lead is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation. Several citizen and environmental groups immediately filed lawsuits challenging the rule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "Uruguay set the lead exposure of drinking water to 0.05\u00a0mg/L in 2000 through Decree 315/94, 2nd edition. It also banned lead water pipes and fittings in 2004. The country set new standards in 2011 through Decree 375/11 to lowered exposure level to 0.03\u00a0mg/L and to achieve 0.01\u00a0mg/L level by 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dublin Statement",
        "text": "On 30 September 2010, the 15th Session of the UN Human Rights Council passed Resolution A/HRC/15/L.14, reaffirming an earlier General Assembly resolution (64/292 of 28 July 2010) which \"recognized the right to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a human right that is essential for the full enjoyment of life and all human rights\". Resolution A/HRC/15/L.14 clarifies that \"the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation is derived from the right to an adequate standard of living and inextricably related to the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, as well as the right to life and human dignity\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "While lead in drinking water continues to persist as a public health problem in some communities, the source of the lead is generally from the lead service lines, rather than the water delivered by the utility. EPA's Lead and Copper Rule (LCR) does not set an MCL, but requires a utility to take action when the lead level at a customer location reaches 0.015 mg/L. A typical utility action is to adjust the chemistry of the drinking water with anti-corrosive additives, but replacement of lead service lines (pipes that connect the water main to the home) is also an option. Most communities have avoided lead service line replacement due to the high cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "The approaches to reduce lead exposure in water distribution systems to meet that goal have also been different. For example, the United Kingdom took the short- and medium-term strategy of dosing the water with orthophosphate as a corrosion control measure and considered lead service line replacement as the long-term strategy. By 2010 (3 years before the new lower standard), 95% of public water supplies were treated with orthophosphate. The tests had 99.8% compliance of 0.025\u00a0mg/L 2003 standard and 99.0% compliance of 0.01\u00a0mg/L 2013 standard. However, many other European countries considered the practice of adding orthophosphate to the water supply to be undesirable as it would result in sewage with higher concentrations of nutrient. That could potentially create problems of harmful algal blooms. An example of a country that took another approach was Germany. The southern part of Germany had prohibited lead pipes more than 100 years ago. However, northern Germany continued to use lead pipes until the 1970s. The approach to meet the new standard for Germany was to put a focus on getting rid of lead service lines. Water utilities in northern Germany had already been working on lead service line replacements since the adoption of the Directive, in order to meet the 2003 standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "The Lead and Copper Rule (LCR) is a United States federal regulation (40 CFR 141.80 et seq.) that limits the concentration of lead and copper allowed in public drinking water at the consumer's tap, as well as limiting the permissible amount of pipe corrosion occurring due to the water itself. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) first issued the rule in 1991 pursuant to the Safe Drinking Water Act. The EPA promulgated the regulations following studies that concluded that copper and lead have an adverse effect on individuals. The LCR sought to therefore limit the levels of these metals in water through improving water treatment centers, determining copper and lead levels for customers who use lead plumbing parts, and eliminating the water source as a source of lead and copper. If the lead and copper levels exceed the \"action levels\" water suppliers are required to educate their consumers on how to reduce exposure to lead. A 2004-2005 study of the LCR by the EPA noted that the system had been effective in 96 percent of systems serving at least 3,300 people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental policy of the Donald Trump administration",
        "text": "Saying \"We are delivering on the president's commitment that all Americans have access to clean and safe drinking water,\" on October 10, 2019, the administration announced their proposals for new regulations on lead and copper in drinking water. The draft plan includes requirements that water utilities disclose inventories of lead service pipes and requires that daycare centers and schools report elevated lead levels within 24 hours rather than the current standard of 30 days. However, environmental activists are critical of the relaxation of other standards that have been proposed that slow the timetable for the replacement of lead pipes found to contain high levels of lead, extending the replacement time from 7 percent of lead service lines each year to just 3 percent. The Natural Resources Defense Council calls the slower timetable for lead pipe replacement \"a huge weakening change that will swallow up the few small improvements in the proposal.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Water Act 2003",
        "text": "Paragraph 22 was repealed by Part 1A of Schedule 27 to the Equality Act 2010, as inserted by article 3(3)(a) of, and Schedule 3 to, the Equality Act 2010 (Public Authorities and Consequential and Supplementary Amendments) Order 2011 (SI 2011/1060)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Canada",
        "text": "Following the 2015 Canadian federal election additional funds were allocated to remove the long-term drinking water advisories (DWA)s over the next five years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pipe (fluid conveyance)",
        "text": "Lead piping is still found in old domestic and other water distribution systems, but is no longer permitted for new potable water piping installations due to its toxicity. Many building codes now require that lead piping in residential or institutional installations be replaced with non-toxic piping or that the tubes' interiors be treated with phosphoric acid. According to a senior researcher and lead expert with the Canadian Environmental Law Association, \"...there is no safe level of lead [for human exposure]\". In 1991 the US EPA issued the Lead and Copper Rule, it is a federal regulation which limits the concentration of lead and copper allowed in public drinking water, as well as the permissible amount of pipe corrosion occurring due to the water itself. In the US it's estimated that 6.5 million lead service lines (pipes that connect water mains to home plumbing) installed before the 1930s are still in use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "The \"Water Infrastructure Improvements for the Nation Act\" added several provisions to the SDWA, along with providing financial assistance to the city of Flint, Michigan in responding to its lead contamination crisis, as well as assistance for other communities. The provisions include:\n* expanding the water infrastructure public-private partnership loan program\n* requiring public notification when household drinking water contains lead levels above the EPA action level (currently 0.015\u00a0mg/L)\n* establishing a voluntary program for testing for lead in drinking water at schools and childcare centers\n* creating a public information clearinghouse on alternative drinking water delivery systems.\n* America's Water Infrastructure Act of 2018"
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "EPA issued an initial lead and copper regulation in 1991. The regulation specifies a Treatment Technique rather than an MCL."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ras Baraka",
        "text": "In 2019 the Ras Baraka administration began a massive effort to replace lead water pipes that were causing lead in drinking water to exceed federal limits. By spring of 2021, local officials had removed more than 20,000 lead service lines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "A revised UN resolution in 2015 highlighted that the two rights were separate but equal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1936",
        "text": "The words \"or the water authority for the area\" in section 50(1) were repealed by section 190(3) of, and Part I of Schedule 27 to, the Water Act 1989."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1936",
        "text": "This section was repealed by section 3(1) of, and Part I of Schedule 3 to, the Water Consolidation (Consequential Provisions) Act 1991. In section 19(2), the words from \u201cand if\u201d onwards were repealed by section 190(3) of, and Part I of Schedule 27 to, the Water Act 1989."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the Republic of Ireland",
        "text": "The Environmental Protection Agency's 2011 report on drinking water stated that drinking water quality in public water supplies was continuing to improve. At that time, chemical standard compliance stood at 99.5%. 1.3% of supplies were found to have had E.coli, a reduction of 86% since 2005. 10.2% of private group supplies had E.coli, down from 11.6% in 2010. 7.7% of small private supplies were found to have E.coli exceedences, down from 7.4% in 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water Act 2003",
        "text": "This section will be repealed when paragraph 132 of Schedule 7 to the Water Act 2014 comes into force."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "On 3 November 1998, the European Union adopted Directive 98/83/EC to set standards on drinking water. This included a plan to lower the lead contamination in the water distribution systems of member states. The Directive sets the maximum lead concentration in drinking water at 0.025\u00a0mg/L by 2003, and 0.01 by 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality in the United States",
        "text": "In 2021, President Joe Biden's federal $2.3 trillion American Jobs Plan proposed spending $45 billion on lead pipe removal, which is the estimated cost of removing all remaining lead pipes nationwide. Bipartisan negotiations reduced this to $15 billion in the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, which contained only $550 billion in new spending. $11 billion in the bill allocated generally to drinking water infrastructure could also be spent on led pipe removal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The human right to water and sanitation (HRWS) is a principle that acknowledges that clean drinking water and sanitation are essential to every person's life. It was recognised as a human right by the United Nations General Assembly on 28 July 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "In 2000, lead contamination in Washington, D.C. drinking water was caused by changing the disinfection chemical from chlorine to chloramine for water treatment. This was done as a measure to limit disinfection byproducts according to a new regulation of the United States Environmental Protection Agency. The change inadvertently reduced the protective mineral coating properties in the water. That caused the scaling that had been covering the interior surface of lead service lines for decades to be reduced to the point that it allowed lead to leach into the water. The solution was to replace all 23,000 lead service lines. However, 15,000 of those was done as partial replacements which was found to be ineffective."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead contamination in Washington, D.C., drinking water",
        "text": "At an oversight hearing before the House Committee on Government Reform in early March 2004, Marc Edwards testified that his studies showed the change from chlorine to chloramine was the cause of the elevated lead levels. He stated that the chloramine-treated water was leaching lead not only from the old lead lines, but also from brass fixtures in homes. Brass is made with lead; even brass classified as \"lead free\" under the Safe Drinking Water Act can contain up to eight percent lead. Edwards said that this could be the cause of the high lead levels in areas where WASA did not use lead lines. He also cautioned that replacing lead service lines with copper could make the problem worse; newly installed copper lines could react with the chloramine in a way that would increase corrosion of the remaining lead lines in the system. The chief of the Washington Aqueduct disagreed, saying that tests taken after the chloramine treatment commenced didn't show any additional corrosiveness. He believed corrosion inhibitors, like orthophosphate, could be added to the water to prevent lead leaching. In the spring of 2004, a temporary switch from chloramine back to chlorine for annual pipe flushing caused a 25 to 30 percent drop in lead levels, lending credence to the chloramine theory. In one home that was tested by WASA before and after the switch, lead levels dropped tenfold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water Act 2003",
        "text": "The Water Act 2014 (Consequential Amendments etc.) Order 2017 (SI 2017/506) was made under sections 103(1)(a) and (2) of the Water Act 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "Refuse Act",
        "text": "Congress enacted major amendments to the FWPCA in 1972. (\"See\" Clean Water Act.) Included in the legislation was a new discharge permit program, called the \"National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System\" (NPDES), which replaced the Refuse Act permit program. The amendments assigned lead responsibility for implementation of NPDES to the newly formed Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality in the United States",
        "text": "In Washington, DC a pipe replacement program began in 2004 to replace lead service connections to about 35,000 homes. The effectiveness of the program was questioned in 2008 by DC Water, the city's utility. In 2016, more than 5,000 drinking water systems were found to be in violation of the lead and copper rule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1936",
        "text": "This section was repealed by section 190(3) of, and Part I of Schedule 27 to, the Water Act 1989."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1936",
        "text": "This section was repealed by section 190(3) of, and Part I of Schedule 27 to, the Water Act 1989."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1936",
        "text": "This section was repealed by section 190(3) of, and Part I of Schedule 27 to, the Water Act 1989."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead contamination in Washington, D.C., drinking water",
        "text": "The EPA formally reduced its oversight of WASA in May 2006, after testing showed the lead levels had remained below 15 ppb for a full year. However, the agency continued to require WASA to submit 100 samples every six months for at least another year; the normal requirement is 50 samples a year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lima",
        "text": "The permissible limit of lead in the water supply is 0.05 milligrams per liter, according to the Norm ITINTEC. In January 2014, the concentration of minerals in water treatment facilities of SEDAPAL was 0.051 iron, 0.005 lead, 0.0012 cadmium and 0.0810 aluminum. These values increased 15.9% and 33.3% in iron and cadmium with respect to January 2013 and a decrease of 16.7% and 12.4% in lead and aluminum. The values are within the recommended limits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rural Water Supplies and Sewerage Act 1944",
        "text": "The Act was repealed on 1 April 1996 as a result of the passing of the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The court found that the discontinuation of the existing water source, which had not adhered to the \"fair and reasonable\" requirements of the South African Water Services Act, was illegal. It is important to note that the decision pre-dates the adoption of the UN General Comment No. 15."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "EPA published a revised LCR on January 15, 2021 and on March 12, 2021 delayed the effective date to June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "A further step was taken in 2005 by the former UN Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights which issued guidelines to assist governments to achieve and respect the human right to water and sanitation. These guidelines led the UN Human Rights Council to assign Catarina de Albuquerque as an independent expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitation in 2008. She wrote a detailed report in 2009 that outlined human rights obligations to sanitation, and the CESCR responded by stating that sanitation should be recognized by all states."
      },
      {
        "title": "Feargal Quinn",
        "text": "A further example relates to the Social Welfare and Pensions (Amendment) Bill 2014 \u2013 a Senator Quinn Bill which sought to remove from Irish Water, the power to require its customers to provide their PPS numbers to the entity. Following the publication of the Bill, the Government announced that it had decided to \"discontinue\" the requirement for Irish Water customers to produce their PPS number. The Government subsequently amended the law to mirror Quinn's proposal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1936",
        "text": "This section was repealed by section 190(3) of, and Part I of Schedule 27 to, the Water Act 1989. The proviso to section 20(2) was repealed by section 40(3) of, and Schedule 9 to, the Water Act 1973."
      },
      {
        "title": "Health in Rwanda",
        "text": "From 1990 to 2012, an improvement in the drinking water coverage was registered from 59% to 67% and the use of surface water reduced from 25% to 11%.<ref name=\"WHO/UNICEF/JMP 2014\">WHO/UNICEF/JMP 2014</ref> There was also an improvement in the sanitation coverage from 1990 to 2012. This was from 30% to 64%. The unimproved sanitary facilities reduced further from 59% to 23%, while open defecation reduced from 7% to 3%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water Act 2003",
        "text": "This section was repealed by article 4(3) of, and paragraph 101(4) of Schedule 4 to, the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012 (Fines on Summary Conviction) Regulations 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water Act 2003",
        "text": "This section was repealed by article 4(3) of, and paragraph 101(3) of Schedule 4 to, the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012 (Fines on Summary Conviction) Regulations 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Community-led total sanitation",
        "text": "More debate is still needed regarding humans rights consequences of posttriggering punitive measures."
      },
      {
        "title": "International trade and water",
        "text": "In July 2010, the UN General Assembly declared that access to clean water and sanitation is a human right. The assembly did not specify whether a public authority or the private sector would be best capable of providing this right.\n* Gaza blockade\n* Shared vision planning\n* Spragg Bag\n* Water law\n* Water privatization\n* Water trading\n* World Water Monitoring Day"
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "The 1986 SDWA amendments required EPA to apply future NPDWRs to both community and non-transient non-community water systems when it evaluated and revised current regulations. The first case in which this was applied was the \"Phase I\" final rule, published on July 8, 1987. At that time NPDWRs were promulgated for certain synthetic volatile organic compounds and applied to non-transient non-community water systems as well as community water systems. This rulemaking also clarified that non-transient non-community water systems were not subject to MCLs that were promulgated before July 8, 1987. The 1986 amendments were signed into law by President Ronald Reagan on June 19, 1986."
      },
      {
        "title": "Community Fire Safety Act of 2013",
        "text": "The Community Fire Safety Act of 2013 () is a bill that would prevent the Environmental Protection Agency from requiring that all new fire hydrants in the United States be lead-free beginning in 2014. The bill was passed by the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1961",
        "text": "This section was repealed by section 5(4) of the Water Act 1981."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1936",
        "text": "This section was repealed by section 40(3) of, and Schedule 9 to, the Water Act 1973."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1936",
        "text": "This section was repealed by section 40(3) of, and Schedule 9 to, the Water Act 1973."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1936",
        "text": "This section was repealed by section 40(3) of, and Schedule 9 to, the Water Act 1973."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1936",
        "text": "This section was repealed by section 40(3) of, and Schedule 9 to, the Water Act 1973."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marc Edwards (professor)",
        "text": "In 2011, the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation's Public Health Law Research Program funded a $450,000 study of the 1991 Lead and Copper Rule, an EPA regulation relating to drinking water. Edwards will spearhead the study."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead contamination in Washington, D.C., drinking water",
        "text": "The review panel convened by \"Environmental Health Perspectives\" released its findings in June 2009, finding that the controversial sentence was included due to \"inattention to detail\" and found no evidence that Guidotti was trying to mislead readers. The panel recommended that Guidotti submit an apology and correction; he did so. The panel said it found evidence that neither Guidotti nor WASA intended for the utility to exercise approval over the research conclusions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "In response to the Flint, Michigan water crisis, EPA published a final rule on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines (LSLs) when the action level is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation. The EPA takes the position that although 3% is less than 7%, the new replacement program has fewer loopholes. Under the prior version, water systems were able to \"test out\" of the LSL replacement program, delay implementation because they did not have LSL inventories, or complete partial replacements and therefore, few water systems ever satisfied the full 7%. Several citizen and environmental groups immediately filed lawsuits challenging the rule. On March 12, 2021 EPA delayed the effective date of the rule to June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bill Johnson (Ohio politician)",
        "text": "The House also passed Johnson's Stop the War on Coal Act, which would stop the creation of any new rules that threaten mining jobs. Both pieces of legislation have been sent to the Senate for consideration. Johnson sponsored H.R. 4036, the Pass a Budget Now Act, which would cut legislators' pay if a budget is not passed by April 15 of each year.\n* Committee on Energy and Commerce\n** Subcommittee on Commerce, Manufacturing, and Trade\n** Subcommittee on Environment and Economy\n** Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations\n* Committee on Science, Space and Technology\n** Subcommittee on Space\n* Congressional Arts Caucus\n*Congressional Western Caucus\n*Republican Study Committee\n*Republican Main Street Partnership\n*Republican Governance Group\n*Problem Solvers Caucus\n* Community Fire Safety Act of 2013 (H.R. 3588; 113th Congress) \u2013 Johnson introduced this bill into the House on November 21, 2013. The bill would prevent the Environmental Protection Agency from requiring that all new fire hydrants in the United States be lead-free beginning in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Massachusetts Water Resources Authority",
        "text": "MWRA and municipal water mains are made of concrete, steel, and iron, but as of 2016, about 5% of service lines (between the street and buildings, running from public to private property) in various municipalities were still made of lead. In 2016, during the Flint water crisis, the MWRA board approved $100 million in zero-interest loans for lead pipe removal. Each affected municipality is responsible for designing and operating its own program; MWRA estimates this funding will be enough to removal all lead service pipes from the entire system. MWRA has adjusted water pH since 1996 to avoid corrosion and leaching of lead from remaining pipes into drinking water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Avgas",
        "text": "Under a federal court order to set a new standard by October 15, 2008, the EPA cut the acceptable limits for atmospheric lead from the previous standard of 1.5\u00a0\u00b5g/m3 to 0.15\u00a0\u00b5g/m3. This was the first change to the standard since 1978 and represents an order of magnitude reduction over previous levels. The new standard requires the 16,000 remaining USA sources of lead, which include lead smelting, airplane fuels, military installations, mining and metal smelting, iron and steel manufacturing, industrial boilers and process heaters, hazardous waste incineration, and production of batteries, to reduce their emissions by October 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1936",
        "text": "This section was repealed by section 133(2) of, and Schedule 7 to, the Building Act 1984. In section 41(1), the words from the beginning to \"this Act\" were repealed by section 40(3) of, and Schedule 9 to, the Water Act 1973."
      },
      {
        "title": "Community Fire Safety Act of 2013",
        "text": "On October 22, 2013, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) made an announcement about how it would apply new regulations from the 2010 Reduction of Lead In Drinking Water Act () to fire hydrants. According to the EPA, \"Information available to EPA indicates that fire hydrants can be, and are, used in emergency situations to provide drinking water when there are disruptions to the normal operations of the drinking water distribution system. Therefore, as a class, hydrants would not qualify for the exclusion for pipes, fittings and fixtures used exclusively for nonpotable services.\" The October 22, 2013 announcement \"came as a total surprise to communities whose inventories of new, uninstalled fire hydrants would be rendered obsolete on January 4.\" The Community Fire Safety Act of 2013 was introduced in response to this ruling from the EPA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jennifer Rice",
        "text": "Rice introduced a private member's bill in April 2016, \"Drinking Water Protection (Safe Water for Schools) Amendment Act\" (Bill M-215), which would require the regular testing of drinking water in schools. The bill was in response to elevated lead levels found in Prince Rupert and Kitimat schools, and had the support of the British Columbia Teachers' Federation. The bill did not advance beyond the first reading, but the government still adopted a system of reminders for school districts to test for lead on an annual basis and report back to the Ministry of Education. Independent MLA Vicki Huntington and political columnist Vaughn Palmer praised Rice for her work on drinking water safety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water Act 2003",
        "text": "Paragraph 33 was repealed by section 91(1) of, and paragraph 170 of Schedule 12 to, the Postal Services Act 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead contamination in Washington, D.C., drinking water",
        "text": "In January 2006, the Government Accountability Office released a study criticizing the EPA's efforts monitoring lead levels in drinking water across the United States.Although the study found that lead in drinking water had generally declined since the 1990s, it noted that data collection problems \"may be undermining the intended level of public health protection.\" There have been studies that show that there is no safe level for lead consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1936",
        "text": "These sections were repealed by section 190(3) of, and Part I of Schedule 27 to, the Water Act 1989."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Israel",
        "text": "According to the Ministry of Environment, 97.9% of the tests complied with drinking water quality standards. An analysis of results since 1989, when disinfection of groundwater was first introduced, has shown a constant improvement in the quality of drinking water, with the percentage of violations decreasing from 8.4% in 1989 to 2.1% in 1999. In 2000, the Minister of Health signed an amended version of public health regulations which raise chemical standards for water quality to very stringent standards. Maximum levels for 38 new chemical substances\u2014including pesticides, organic solvents and petroleum products\u2014were set for the first time while existing standards for nitrates, lead, cadmium and zinc were tightened."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brass",
        "text": "Also in California, lead-free materials must be used for \"each component that comes into contact with the wetted surface of pipes and pipe fittings, plumbing fittings and fixtures\". On 01 January 2010, the maximum amount of lead in \"lead-free brass\" in California was reduced from 4% to 0.25% lead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality in the United States",
        "text": "A typical utility action is to adjust the chemistry of the drinking water with anti-corrosive additives, but replacement of customer pipes is also an option. Most communities have avoided customer pipe replacement due to the high cost. Some water systems have undertaken programs to remove all lead service lines, especially after the publicity surrounding the Flint, Michigan water crisis in 2016. In 2018, NPR reported that about 180 towns were operating removal programs using financing from federal, state, or local taxpayers, other water customers, and charitable donations to provide grants or loans to property owners to cover the cost of removal. This includes systems in Boston (Massachusetts Water Resources Authority), Cincinnati (Greater Cincinnati Water Works), Gary (Indiana American Water), Detroit (Detroit Water and Sewerage Department), and Lansing. Madison, Wisconsin removed all of its lead service pipes over 11 years, starting in 2001."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water Act 2003",
        "text": "The words \", water supply licensees and sewerage licensees\" were substituted for \"and licensed water suppliers\" in section 52(3)(a) by section 56 of, and paragraph 133(2)(a) of Schedule 7 to, the Water Act 2014. The words \"water supply licensees\" were substituted for \"licensed water suppliers\" in section 52(3)(b) by section 56 of, and paragraph 133(2)(b) of Schedule 7 to, the Water Act 2014. The words \", water supply licensees and sewerage licensees\" were substituted for \"and licensed water suppliers\" in section 52(3)(c) by section 56 of, and paragraph 133(2)(c) of Schedule 7 to, the Water Act 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1936",
        "text": "The words \"directly or\" in section 48(1) were repealed by section 3(1) of, and Part I of Schedule 3 to, the Water Consolidation (Consequential Provisions) Act 1991. Section 48(1A) was repealed by section 3(1) of, and Part I of Schedule 3 to, the Water Consolidation (Consequential Provisions) Act 1991."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1961",
        "text": "This section was repealed by section 190(3) of, and Part I of Schedule 27 to, the Water Act 1989."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "In 2015, Irish Water sent out a warning that 126 households in Wexford had the level of lead that exceeded the limit. It urged residents to stop using their water for drinking unless a five to ten minute flush had been performed. The company also recommended owners to replace their lead service lines which are responsibility of property owners in Ireland. Starting in 2017, more than 30 areas across Ireland had found to have unsafe level of lead. Irish Water had been replacing lead service lines at their own costs as part of their leakage reduction program."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "EPA first issued the Lead and Copper Rule on June 7, 1991. The rule required public water systems serving more than 50,000 people to survey their corrosion control systems and to obtain state approval for their systems by January 1, 1997. Smaller systems were only required to replace their pipelines if action levels were exceeded in measurements taken at the tap."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint water crisis",
        "text": "After the crisis in Flint, Michigan, Trump's administration created a new set of regulations that would allow states to react more effectively and in a faster manner in the event of a public health crisis. These changes, proposed in amendments to the Lead and Copper Rule, still allow lead water lines to service communities, which has drawn a lot of criticisms from the public. This new proposal highlighted four changes in the Lead and Copper Rule, a rule that previously has not been revised in years. The proposed revisions consist of:\n* Requiring water systems to create a database of where the lead pipes are located, and when the water running through the pipes reaches lead levels greater than 15 parts per billion, the problem must be investigated and fixed.\n* Create an alert when water samples reach 10 parts per billion so that communities can determine how to lower the lead levels in the water before it reaches 15 parts per billion.\n* Require water systems to alert customers within a one-day period if their water sample tests higher than 15 parts per million.\n* Require water systems to replace water service lines to a home if they are contaminated with lead, and if the homeowner chooses to replace the piping. Every year thereafter, the water system must replace three percent of the lead contaminated water system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water Act 2003",
        "text": "Section 57(7) was repealed by article 4(3) of, and paragraph 101(2) of Schedule 4 to, the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012 (Fines on Summary Conviction) Regulations 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water Act 2003",
        "text": "The word \"and\" at the end of section 52(1)(c) was repealed by article 4(1) of, and paragraph 421(2)(a) of Schedule 2 to, the Natural Resources Body for Wales (Functions) Order 2013. Section 52(1)(ca) was inserted by article 4(1) of, and paragraph 421(2)(b) of Schedule 2 to, the Natural Resources Body for Wales (Functions) Order 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Subsequent resolutions extended the mandate of the Special Rapporteur and defined each state's role in the respect of these rights. The most recent General Assembly Resolution 7/169 of 2015 has been called a declaration of \"The Human Rights to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation. It recognized the distinction between the right to water and the right to sanitation. This decision was made due to concern about the right to sanitation being overlooked when compared to the right to water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Chile",
        "text": "Under the government of Christian Democrat President Eduardo Frei, the law was amended in 1998 to promote private sector participation. The stated motive was to increase efficiency, to improve service quality and to mobilize capital to extend wastewater treatment. Subsequently, all regional branches of SENDOS, as well as the water and sanitation companies of Santiago and Valparaiso, were privatized. Staffing was further reduced, new complaints management procedures were introduced and the share of collected wastewater treated increased significantly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "Through the Energy Policy Act of 2005, the Safe Drinking Water Act was amended to exclude the underground injection of any fluids or propping agents other than diesel fuels used in hydraulic fracturing operations from being considered as \"underground injections\" for the purposes of the law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1936",
        "text": "This section was repealed by section 3(1) of, and Part I of Schedule 3 to, the Water Consolidation (Consequential Provisions) Act 1991."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1936",
        "text": "This section was repealed by section 3(1) of, and Part I of Schedule 3 to, the Water Consolidation (Consequential Provisions) Act 1991."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1936",
        "text": "This section was repealed by section 3(1) of, and Part I of Schedule 3 to, the Water Consolidation (Consequential Provisions) Act 1991."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1961",
        "text": "This section was repealed by section 40(3) of, and Schedule 9 to, the Water Act 1973."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1961",
        "text": "This section was repealed by section 40(3) of, and Schedule 9 to, the Water Act 1973."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water Act 2003",
        "text": "As to the effect of this section, see paragraph 3(d) of Schedule 2 to the Water Act 2014 (Commencement No. 6, Transitional Provisions and Savings) Order 2016 (SI 2016/465) (C 26)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Waikouaiti",
        "text": "Following lead scare, the Dunedin City Council announced on 11 February that it would drain a raw water reservoir and replace five kilometers of old pipes in order to reassure residents of Waikouaiti, Karitane and Hawksbury. By 10 March, the Southern District Health Board confirmed that 1,512 people had been tested, with blood test results indicating that nobody had a blood lead level requiring hospitalisation and that long term exposure to lead from the water supply was limited. In July 2021 the City Council removed its recommendation to not drink from the areas water supply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reducing Regulatory Burdens Act of 2013",
        "text": "The Reducing Regulatory Burdens Act of 2013 would amend the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (commonly known as the Clean Water Act (CWA)) to prohibit the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) or a state from requiring a permit under the CWA for a discharge from a point source into navigable waters of a pesticide authorized for sale, distribution, or use under FIFRA, or the residue of such a pesticide, resulting from the application of such pesticide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the Republic of Ireland",
        "text": "According to an unattributed opinion piece in the Irish Times, if the Water Services Bill, 2003, had been passed earlier and implemented effectively, people would not have had to boil their drinking water in Galway in 2007 because of an outbreak of cryptosporidiosis."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What laws in the United States protect access to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There have been several!  Would you like to know more about the Safe Drinking Water Act, Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act, the 1987 Water Quality Act, or the establishment of the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund by Congress?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act please."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Congress passed the Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act in 2011. This amendment, effective in 2014, tightened the definition of \"lead-free\" plumbing fixtures and fittings."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has there been any modifications to the Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act after 2014?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Yes, there are several of note, including additional requirements and a change in the rules about replacing lead service lines. Which of those would you like to know more about?"
    ],
    "topic": "Human right to water and sanitation",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Lead and Copper Rule:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Lead and Copper Rule",
          "Adoption"
        ],
        "ctx": "In response to the Flint, Michigan water crisis, EPA published a final rule on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines (LSLs) when the action level is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation. The EPA takes the position that although 3% is less than 7%, the new replacement program has fewer loopholes. Under the prior version, water systems were able to \"test out\" of the LSL replacement program, delay implementation because they did not have LSL inventories, or complete partial replacements and therefore, few water systems ever satisfied the full 7%. Several citizen and environmental groups immediately filed lawsuits challenging the rule. On March 12, 2021 EPA delayed the effective date of the rule to June 17, 2021."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "In response to the Flint, Michigan water crisis, EPA published a revised LCR on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines when the \"action level\" for lead is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "In addition to requiring more contaminants to be regulated, the 1986 amendments included:\n*Wellhead protection\n*New monitoring for certain substances\n*Filtration for certain surface water systems\n*Disinfection for certain groundwater systems\n*Restriction on lead in solder and plumbing\n*More enforcement powers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The court found that the discontinuation of the existing water source, which had not adhered to the \"fair and reasonable\" requirements of the South African Water Services Act, was illegal. It is important to note that the decision pre-dates the adoption of the UN General Comment No. 15."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "The 1986 Safe Drinking Water Act amendments defined \"lead-free\" plumbing and prohibited the use of plumbing for public water supply that did not meet the new definition. The amendments also required the EPA to set standards limiting the concentration of lead in public water systems. The \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\", enacted in 2011, tightened the definition of \"lead-free\" plumbing fixtures and fittings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "The \"Water Infrastructure Improvements for the Nation Act\" added several provisions to the SDWA, along with providing financial assistance to the city of Flint, Michigan in responding to its lead contamination crisis, as well as assistance for other communities. The provisions include:\n* expanding the water infrastructure public-private partnership loan program\n* requiring public notification when household drinking water contains lead levels above the EPA action level (currently 0.015\u00a0mg/L)\n* establishing a voluntary program for testing for lead in drinking water at schools and childcare centers\n* creating a public information clearinghouse on alternative drinking water delivery systems.\n* America's Water Infrastructure Act of 2018"
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality in the United States",
        "text": "In response to the Flint water crisis, EPA published revisions to the LCR on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines when the action level for lead is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation. Several citizen and environmental groups immediately filed lawsuits challenging the rule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "A further step was taken in 2005 by the former UN Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights which issued guidelines to assist governments to achieve and respect the human right to water and sanitation. These guidelines led the UN Human Rights Council to assign Catarina de Albuquerque as an independent expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitation in 2008. She wrote a detailed report in 2009 that outlined human rights obligations to sanitation, and the CESCR responded by stating that sanitation should be recognized by all states."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The ICESCR requires signatory countries to progressively achieve and respect all human rights, including those of water and sanitation. They should work quickly and efficiently to increase access and improve service."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The human right to water and sanitation (HRWS) is a principle that acknowledges that clean drinking water and sanitation are essential to every person's life. It was recognised as a human right by the United Nations General Assembly on 28 July 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "In response to the Flint, Michigan water crisis, EPA published revisions to the Lead and Copper Rule on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines when the \"action level\" for lead is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation. Several citizen and environmental groups immediately filed lawsuits challenging the rule. On March 12, 2021 EPA delayed the effective date of the rule to June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Following intense negotiations, 122 countries formally acknowledged \"the Human Right to Water and Sanitation\" in General Assembly Resolution 64/292 on 28 July 2010. It recognized the right of every human being to have access to sufficient water for personal and domestic uses (between 50 and 100 liters of water per person per day), which must be safe, acceptable and affordable (water costs should not exceed 3% of household income), and physically accessible (the water source has to be within 1,000 meters of the home and collection time should not exceed 30 minutes).\" The General Assembly declared that clean drinking water is \"essential to the full enjoyment of life and all other human rights\". In September 2010, the UN Human Rights Council adopted a resolution recognizing that the human right to water and sanitation forms part of the right to an adequate standard of living."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Further reasoning for the decision was based on General Comment 12 on the Right to Food, made by the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights imposing upon parties to the agreement the obligation to observe and respect already existing access to adequate food by not implementing any encroaching measures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dublin Statement",
        "text": "On 30 September 2010, the 15th Session of the UN Human Rights Council passed Resolution A/HRC/15/L.14, reaffirming an earlier General Assembly resolution (64/292 of 28 July 2010) which \"recognized the right to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a human right that is essential for the full enjoyment of life and all human rights\". Resolution A/HRC/15/L.14 clarifies that \"the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation is derived from the right to an adequate standard of living and inextricably related to the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, as well as the right to life and human dignity\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Community-led total sanitation",
        "text": "Even more stringent criteria which may be required before a community is awarded \"ODF status\" might include:\n*Safe drinking water and storage.\n*Food hygiene.\n*Greywater disposal.\n*Solid waste management.\n*Provision of toilets for schools, markets, clinic or visitors to the community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the European Union",
        "text": "Member States shall ensure that such drinking water:\n* does not contain any concentration of micro-organisms, parasites or any other substance which constitutes a potential human health risk;\n* meets the minimum requirements (microbiological and chemical parameters and those relating to radioactivity) laid down by the directive.\n* They will take any other action needed to guarantee the healthiness and purity of water intended for human consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Congress passed the \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\" tightening the definition of \"lead free\" plumbing, in 2011. EPA published a final rule implementing the law on September 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "The 1986 amendments require EPA to set standards limiting the concentration of lead in public water systems, and defines \"lead free\" pipes as:\n:(1) solders and flux containing not more than 0.2 percent lead;\n:(2) pipes and pipe fittings containing not more than 8.0 percent lead; and\n:(3) plumbing fittings and fixtures as defined in industry-developed voluntary standards (issued no later than August 6, 1997), or standards developed by EPA in lieu of voluntary standards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Water shortages and increasing consumption of freshwater make this right incredibly complicated. As the world population rapidly increases, freshwater shortages will cause many problems. A shortage in the quantity of water brings up the question of whether or not water should be transferred from one country to another."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "It was held in the High Court that the city's by-laws did not provide for the installation of meters and that their installation was unlawful. Further, as the meters halted supply of water to residence once the free basic water supply had ended, this was deemed an unlawful discontinuation of the water supply. The court held the residents of Phiri should be provided with a free basic water supply of 50 litres per person per day. The work of the Centre for Applied Legal Studies (CALS) of the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa and the Pacific Institute in Oakland, California shared a 2008 Business Ethics Network BENNY Award for their work on this case. The Pacific Institute contributed legal testimony based on the work of Dr. Peter Gleick defining a human right to water and quantifying basic human needs for water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "\"The International Bill of Human Rights\"- which comprises the 1966: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR); 1966: Articles 11 and 12 of the 1966 International Covenant of Economic, Social, and Cultural Right (ICERS); and 1948: Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) documented the evolution of human right to water and sanitation and other water-associated rights to be recognised in worldwide decree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The UN Committee for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) overseeing ICESCR compliance came to similar conclusions as these scholars with General Comment 15 in 2002. It found that a right to water was implicitly part of the right to an adequate standard of living and related to the right to the highest attainable standard of health and the rights to adequate housing and adequate food. It defines that \"The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses. An adequate amount of safe water is necessary to prevent death from dehydration, to reduce the risk of water-related disease and to provide for consumption, cooking, personal and domestic hygienic requirements.\" Several countries agreed and formally acknowledged the right to water to be part of their treaty obligations under the ICESCR (e.g., Germany; United Kingdom; Netherlands) after publication of General Comment 15."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in New Zealand",
        "text": "Access to water and sanitation was declared a human right by the United Nations General Assembly on 28 July 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "More recently, under the Drinking Water Security Act of 2009, the EPA is now required to establish risk-based performance standards for community water systems serving more than 3,300 people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The quantity of water to be provided was further discussed in \"Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg\". The case revolved around the distribution of water through pipes to Phiri, one of the oldest areas of Soweto. This case concerned two major issues: whether or not the city's policy regarding the supply of free basic water, 6 kilolitres per month to each account holder in the city was in conflict with Section 27 of the South African Constitution or Section 11 of the Water Services Act. The second issue being whether or not the installation of pre-paid water meters was lawful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The mandate of Catarina de Albuquerque as \"Independent expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitation\" was extended and renamed as \"Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation\" after the resolutions in 2010. Through her reports to the Human Rights Council and the UN General Assembly, she continued clarifying the scope and content of the human right to water and sanitation. As Special Rapporteur, she addressed issues such as: Human Rights Obligations Related to Non-State Service Provision in Water and Sanitation (2010); Financing for the Realization of the Rights to Water and Sanitation (2011); Wastewater management in the realization of the rights to water and sanitation (2013); and Sustainability and non-retrogression in the realization of the rights to water and sanitation (2013). L\u00e9o Heller was appointed in 2014 to be the second Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) of 1966 codified the economic, social, and cultural rights found within the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) of 1948. Neither of these early documents explicitly recognized human rights to water and sanitation. Several later international human rights conventions, however, had provisions that explicitly recognized rights to water and sanitation.\n* The 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) has Article 14.2 that states that \"parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in rural areas to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, that they participate in and benefit from rural development and, in particular shall ensure to women the right:\u2026 (h) To enjoy adequate living conditions, particularly in relation to housing, sanitation, electricity and water supply, transport and communications.\"\n* The 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) has Article 24 that provides that \"parties recognize the right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health and to facilities for the treatment of illness and rehabilitation of health \u2026 2. States parties shall pursue full implementation of this right and, in particular, shall take appropriate measures... (c) To combat disease and malnutrition, including within the framework of primary health care, through, inter alia\u2026 the provision of adequate nutritious foods and clean drinking water...\"\n* The 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) has Article 28(2)(a) that requires that \"parties recognize the right of persons with disabilities to social protection and to the enjoyment of that right without discrimination on the basis of disability, and shall take appropriate steps to safeguard and promote the realization of this right, including measures to ensure equal access by persons with disabilities to clean water services, and to ensure access to appropriate and affordable services, devices and other assistance for disability-related needs.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Scholars also called attention to the importance of possible UN recognition of human rights to water and sanitation at the end of the twentieth century. Two early efforts to define the human right to water came from law professor Stephen McCaffrey of the University of the Pacific in 1992 and Dr. Peter Gleick in 1999. McCaffrey stated that \"Such a right could be envisaged as part and parcel of the right to food or sustenance, the right to health, or most fundamentally, the right to life. Gleick added: \"that access to a basic water requirement is a fundamental human right implicitly and explicitly supported by international law, declarations, and State practice.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "A revised UN resolution in 2015 highlighted that the two rights were separate but equal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Kenya",
        "text": "In 2010 Kenya adopted a new constitution that enshrines the human right to water and sanitation in Article 43(1). Specifically, it states that every person has the right \"to accessible and adequate housing and to reasonable standards of sanitation\", as well as the right \"to clean and safe water in adequate quantities\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the European Union",
        "text": "Compared to the previous European drinking water directive of 1980 the number of parameters has been reduced, allowing member to add parameters such as magnesium, total hardness, phenols, zinc, phosphate, calcium and chlorite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Wellbeing",
        "text": "The permissive documents of Rospotrebnadzor are mandatory to draw up for the production included into the List of the goods to go through sanitary control by crossing the border of the CU, that was approved by the Commission of the CU on 18 July 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human rights in Solomon Islands",
        "text": "The right to sanitation is an integral part of the right to an adequate standard of living, defined in Article 11(1) of the ICESCR. As well as relating to right to health, housing and water, the UN CRC recognizes the right for access to sanitation. According to a 2009 survey of Honiara, only a quarter of residents had adequate toilet facilities. Around 55 percent relieved themselves either in the sea, a river, or nearby toilets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Community-led total sanitation",
        "text": "Catarina de Alburquerque, the former United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Water and Sanitation, is quoted as saying that \"Observers have also recognized that incentives for encouraging behavior change and the construction of latrines are sometimes unacceptable, and include public shaming, including photographing, of those who still practice open defecation.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Belgium",
        "text": "Belgian constitution. If a 2006 proposal before the Belgian Senate is passed, the Constitution of Belgium will be amended with a new paragraph on Article 23 recognising a constitutional \"right to an adequate water supply, sufficient in quality and quantity\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Subsequent resolutions extended the mandate of the Special Rapporteur and defined each state's role in the respect of these rights. The most recent General Assembly Resolution 7/169 of 2015 has been called a declaration of \"The Human Rights to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation. It recognized the distinction between the right to water and the right to sanitation. This decision was made due to concern about the right to sanitation being overlooked when compared to the right to water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The right to water has been considered in the Inter-American Court of Human Rights case of the \"Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay\". The issues involved the states failure to acknowledge indigenous communities' property rights over ancestral lands. In 1991, the state removed the indigenous Sawhoyamaxa community from the land resulting in their loss of access to basic essential services, like water, food, schooling and health services. This fell within the scope of the American Convention on Human Rights; encroaching the right to life. Water is included in this right, as part of access to land. The courts required the lands to be returned, compensation provided, and basic goods and services to be implemented, while the community was in the process of having their lands returned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Bolivia",
        "text": "The Bolivian Norm NB 688, an important technical norm for the design and construction of sewage and sanitation, was revised in 2001. The revised norm permits the installation of more efficient and of lower cost condominial sewerage systems and helps to increase sanitation coverage with limited funds."
      },
      {
        "title": "International trade and water",
        "text": "In July 2010, the UN General Assembly declared that access to clean water and sanitation is a human right. The assembly did not specify whether a public authority or the private sector would be best capable of providing this right.\n* Gaza blockade\n* Shared vision planning\n* Spragg Bag\n* Water law\n* Water privatization\n* Water trading\n* World Water Monitoring Day"
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality in the United States",
        "text": "Congress passed the \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\" in 2011. This amendment to the SDWA, effective in 2014, tightened the definition of \"lead-free\" plumbing fixtures and fittings. EPA published a final rule implementing the amendment on September 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter Gleick",
        "text": "A 1996 paper from Gleick argued for defining and quantifying a basic water requirement of 50 liters of water per person per day for drinking, cooking, cleaning, and sanitation, and the United Nations cited this work in General Comment 15, drafted in 2002, which provided their clearest definition of the human right to water to that point United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in General Comment 15 drafted in 2002. General Comment 15 was a non-binding interpretation that access to water was a condition for the enjoyment of the right to an adequate standard of living, inextricably related to the right to the highest attainable standard of health, and therefore a human right. It stated: \"The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses.\" In 2010, the UN General Assembly formally adopted the human right to water and sanitation in General Assembly Resolution 64/292 on 28 July 2010. That Resolution recognized the right of every human being to have access to sufficient, safe, and affordable water for personal and domestic uses. In September 2010, the UN Human Rights Council adopted a resolution recognizing that the human right to water and sanitation forms part of the right to an adequate standard of living. Gleick\u2019s work on basic water requirements and human rights was also used in the \"Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg\" court case in South Africa addressing the human right to water in Phiri, one of the oldest areas of the Soweto township. The Pacific Institute contributed legal testimony for this case based on the work of Dr. Peter Gleick and the work of the Centre for Applied Legal Studies (CALS) of the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa and the Pacific Institute in Oakland, California was acknowledged with a 2008 Business Ethics Network BENNY Award."
      },
      {
        "title": "2004 Uruguayan constitutional referendum",
        "text": "The proposed amendment to the constitution dealt with the issue of water supply and sanitation, including a statement that access to piped water and sanitation were fundamental human rights, and that\n:\"The public service of sewerage and the public service of water supplying for the human consumption, will be served exclusively and directly by state legal persons.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "EPA published the \"Lead and Copper Rule Minor Revisions\" (LCRMR) in January 2000. This rule required water suppliers to install the best available corrosion control mechanisms and to continually observe water levels, even if corrosion control was implemented. The revisions were effective April 11, 2000. Additional corrections and minor revisions were made in 2004 and 2006. A 2007 amendment added new requirements in the areas of monitoring, treatment processes, public education, customer awareness, and lead service line replacement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "These standards are incorporated into the permits, which may include additional treatment requirements for individual plants developed on a case-by-case basis. NPDES permits must be renewed every five years. EPA has authorized 47 state agencies to issue and enforce NPDES permits. EPA regional offices issue permits for the rest of the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Community Fire Safety Act of 2013",
        "text": "This exemption that would allow fire hydrants to continue under current previous lead guidelines is similar to the one already provided for shower valves. Toilets and bidets are already exempt as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "In South Africa, the right to water is enshrined in the constitution and implemented by ordinary statutes. This is evidence of a slight modification of the second technique of constitutionalisation referred to as the \"subsidiary legislation model\". This means that a large portion of the content and implementation of the right is done an ordinary domestic statute with some constitutional standing."
      },
      {
        "title": "International development",
        "text": "The provision of water and sanitation is an engineering challenge, as well as a societal and political challenge as it includes education and behaviour change elements and is closely connected with shelter, politics and human rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water politics",
        "text": "Most importantly, fresh water is a fundamental requirement of all living organisms, crops, livestock and humanity included. The UNDP considers access to it a basic human right and a prerequisite for peace. The Ex-UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan stated in 2001, \"Access to safe water is a fundamental human need and, therefore, a basic human right. Contaminated water jeopardizes both the physical and social health of all people. It is an affront to human dignity.\" With increased development, many industries, including forestry, agriculture, mining, manufacturing and recreation require sizable additional amounts of freshwater to operate. This, however, has led to increases in air and water pollution, which in turn have reduced the quality of water supply. More sustainable development practices are advantageous and necessary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Jordan",
        "text": "The 2015 Report of the UN Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation encouraged the Ministry of Water and Irrigation and Water Authorities to make more information accessible by creating a system of public information through various media channels, including online. These should include information relating to water and sanitation, such as the results of water sampling. Thus strengthening the human right of access to information. According to the report these measures are also crucial for gaining public confidence in water quality, the reliability of services and encourage people to accept tariff reform."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in New Zealand",
        "text": "There are also significant challenges in meeting statutory requirements for the safety of drinking water, and the environmental expectations for management of stormwater and wastewater. Climate change adaptation, and providing for population growth add to these challenges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The HRWS has been recognized in international law through human rights treaties, declarations and other standards. Some commentators have derived the human right to water beyond the General Assembly resolution from Article 11.1 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), making it binding under international law. Other treaties that explicitly recognize the HRWS include the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). The first resolutions about the HRWS were passed by the UN General Assembly and the UN Human Rights Council in 2010. They acknowledged that there was a human right to sanitation connected to the human right to water, since the lack of sanitation reduces the quality of water downstream, so subsequent discussions have continued emphasizing both rights together. In July 2010, United Nations (UN) General Assembly Resolution 64/292 acknowledged the human right to receive safe, affordable, and clean accessible water and sanitation services. During that General Assembly, it accepted that for the comprehension of enjoyment in life and all human rights, safe and clean drinking water as well as sanitation is acknowledged as a human right. The acceptance that access to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a free human right in the General Assembly\u2019s Resolution (64/292) brings an important worldwide governmental control of it. The fulfillment of a productive and healthy life will transpire by recognizing broadly the significance of accessing dependable and clean water and sanitation services."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation reported that 663 million people did not have access to improved sources of drinking water and more than 2.4 billion people lacked access to basic sanitation services in 2015. Access to clean water is a major problem for many parts of the world. Acceptable sources include \"household connections, public standpipes, boreholes, protected dug wells, protected springs and rainwater collections.\" Although 9 percent of the global population lacks access to water, there are \"regions particularly delayed, such as Sub-Saharan Africa\". The UN further emphasizes that \"about 1.5 million children under the age of five die each year and 443 million school days are lost because of water- and sanitation-related diseases.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "ESCR are not explicitly protected in New Zealand at the current time, either by the Human Rights or Bill of Rights Acts, therefore the right to water is not defended by law there. The New Zealand Law Society has recently indicated that this country would give further consideration to the legal status of economic, social and cultural rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human rights in Kiribati",
        "text": "The rights to water and sanitation derive from the right to an adequate standard of living, recognised in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, CRC and CEDAW \u2013 all of which Kiribati is party to. The government of Kiribati introduced the National Water Resources Policy in 2008 which was supplemented by the introduction of the National Sanitation Policy (NSP) in 2010. The NSP acknowledges that water supply and resource issues in Kiribati are some of the most complex in the world due to a combination of factors including the density of population and the impact of climate change. Both policies contain forty priority issues that required short term attention and an additional twenty-seven requiring attention within the next decade. These policies were criticised by the UN Special Rapporteur in the 2012 Special Report on the human right to drinking water and sanitation in Kiribati. She considered them to be over ambitious and unfocused, with the need for a clear legal framework to be implemented in the country to give national ownership to the issues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in New Zealand",
        "text": "The legal framework includes the Health Act 1956, amended in 2007, the Local Government Act 2002 and the Resource Management Act 1991."
      },
      {
        "title": "Self-supply of water and sanitation",
        "text": "The criticism is based on the assumption that the Human Right to Water and Sanitation imply that the government directly has to deliver water and sanitation services to everyone. However, as the United Nation's Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights to Water and Sanitation pointed out, the government can also opt for a strategy of strengthening capacities of the private sector under a supported self-supply approach, allowing its resources to be used efficiently and reaching people in sparsely populated rural areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The HRWS obliges governments to ensure that people can enjoy quality, available, acceptable, accessible, and affordable water and sanitation. Affordability of water considers the extent to which the cost of water becomes inhibitive such that it requires one to sacrifice access to other essential goods and services. Generally, a rule of thumb for the affordability of water is that it should not surpass 3\u20135% of households' income. Accessibility of water considers the time taken, convenience in reaching the source and risks involved while getting to the source of water. Water must be accessible to every citizen, meaning that water should not be further than 1,000 meters or 3,280 feet and must be within 30 minutes. Availability of water considers whether the supply of water is available in adequate amounts, reliable and sustainable. Quality of water considers whether water is safe for consumption, including for drinking or other activities. For acceptability of water, it must not have any odor and should not consist of any color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "Safe Drinking Water Act\n--National Primary Drinking Water Regulations.\n----Microorganisms.\n----Disinfectants.\n----Disinfection by-products.\n----Inorganic Chemicals.\n------\"Lead Free\" plumbing requirements.\n----Organic Chemicals.\n----Radionuclides.\n--Secondary standards.\n--Health advisories.\n--State standards.\n--Future standards.\n----Unregulated contaminants.\n----Perchlorate.\n----Perfluorinated alkylated substances.\n----Non-community water systems.\n--Monitoring, compliance and enforcement.\n--Protection of Underground Sources of Drinking Water.\n----Underground Injection Control (UIC) Program.\n------Hydraulic fracturing exemption.\n----Wellhead protection areas.\n----Emergency power.\n----Judicial review and civil actions.\n--Related programs.\n----Airline water supplies.\n----Source water assessment.\n----Whistleblower protection.\n--History.\n----Prelude.\n----1974 Act.\n----1986 amendments.\n----1996 SDWA amendments.\n----2005 amendment.\n----2011 amendment.\n----2015 amendments.\n----2016 amendments.\n--Environmental justice.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil Affairs Staging Area",
        "text": "Water sanitation instruction included: a general discussion of sources of supply, types of equipment, sterilization methods, water discipline, etc. Training aids consisted of: lister bag, knapsack filter, testing sets, automatic chlorinator, pumps, pumping and hypo-chlorinator, purification set No. 1 filter, mobile purification unit, distillation unit, charts, water cans and water trailer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Without the existence of an international body that can enforce it, the human right to water relies upon the activity of national courts. The basis for this has been established through the constitutionalisation of economic, social and cultural rights (ESCR) through one of two means: as \"directive principles\" that are goals and are often non-justiciable; or as expressly protected and enforceable through the courts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The big respondents took the case to the Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA) which held that the city's water policy had been formulated based upon a material error of law in regards to the city's obligation to provide the minimum set in the South African National Standard, therefore it was set aside. The court also held the quantity for dignified human existence in compliance with section 27 of the constitution was in fact 42 litres per person per day rather than 50 litres per person per day. The SCA declared that the installation of water meters was illegal, but suspended the order for two years to give the city an opportunity to rectify the situation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1904",
        "text": "The act required all new residential construction to include \"running water and an internal drainage system.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Human rights and development",
        "text": "SDG 6: \"Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Community-led total sanitation",
        "text": "More debate is still needed regarding humans rights consequences of posttriggering punitive measures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The issues went further to the Constitutional Court, which held that the duty created by the constitution required that the state take reasonable legislative and other measures progressively to realise the achievement of the right to access of water, within its available resource. the Constitutional Court also held that it is a matter for the legislature and executive institution of government to act within the allowance of their budgets and that the scrutiny of their programs is a matter of democratic accountability. Therefore, the minimum content set out by the regulation 3(b) is constitutional, rendering the bodies to deviate upwards and further it is inappropriate for a court to determine the achievement of any social and economic right the government has taken steps to implement. The courts had instead focused their inquiry on whether the steps taken by Government are reasonable, and whether the Government subjects its policies to regular review. The judgment has been criticized for deploying an \"unnecessarily limiting concept of judicial deference\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public toilet",
        "text": "Several billion people lack access to improved water and sanitation and must travel long distances or wait until night time to defecate under cover of darkness. Women and girls manage menstruation which increases their water and sanitation requirements for several days each month. Amongst the UN sustainable development goals there is a specific references to achieving access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all paying special attention to the needs of women and girls in vulnerable situations (indicator 6.2)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The clearest definition of the human right to water was issued by the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in General Comment 15 drafted in 2002. It was a non-binding interpretation that access to water was a condition for the enjoyment of the right to an adequate standard of living, inextricably related to the right to the highest attainable standard of health, and therefore a human right. It stated: \"The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in New Zealand",
        "text": "The recommendations arising from Stage 2 of the Inquiry including wide-ranging proposals for legislative and regulatory changes to drive systematic improvements in the management of drinking water nationwide. The recommendations also included mandatory treatment of all drinking water networks and certain self-supplied systems, and the review of drinking water standards and guidelines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Organizations working on the rights to water and sanitation are listed below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Peru",
        "text": "The WHO observed that in 2000 the municipal participation in assistance to rural services was insufficient to different extents, ranging from its total exclusion to the need for support in the preparation of the technical records and the complete integration in the planning, financing, and construction supervision processes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water and Sanitation Extension Program",
        "text": "After source testing, water is collected and piped through high-density polyethylene pipes to a storage reservoir, and then onwards into the village where each home or cluster of homes is provided with a tap-stand providing 45-70\u00a0liters of water per capita per day. Responsible water use and management is promoted in areas where supply is limited through village education sessions. Communities contribute to the construction of the water supply scheme by providing local material and unskilled labor free of cost to the program. WASEP ensures that water is potable at all points in the supply chain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Building regulations in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "Adequate sanitation facilities i.e. toilet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "While lead in drinking water continues to persist as a public health problem in some communities, the source of the lead is generally from the lead service lines, rather than the water delivered by the utility. EPA's Lead and Copper Rule (LCR) does not set an MCL, but requires a utility to take action when the lead level at a customer location reaches 0.015 mg/L. A typical utility action is to adjust the chemistry of the drinking water with anti-corrosive additives, but replacement of lead service lines (pipes that connect the water main to the home) is also an option. Most communities have avoided lead service line replacement due to the high cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water Resources Development Act of 1996",
        "text": "Amends the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 to add permit requirements with respect to site designations for the dumping of dredged, chemical, radioactive, and other materials."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brumado",
        "text": "In 2012, the IBGE indicated that in 17 159 homes had treated water. The selective collect is also done. To meet the requirements of Federal Law No. 11445, of January 5, 2007, regulated by Federal Decree 7217 of June 21, 2010 \u2014 Which obliges municipalities to create efficient means to eliminate garbage and other waste produced \u2014 It is discussed the elaboration of the new sanitation plan for the city."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Also notable is the case of \"Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar\", where a discharge of sludge from the washeries into the Bokaro River was petitioned against by way of public interest litigation. The courts found that the right to life, as protected by Article 21 of the Constitution of India, included the right to enjoy pollution-free water. The case failed upon the facts and it was held that the petition had been filed not in any public interest but for the petitioner's personal interest and therefore a continuation of litigation would amount to an abuse of process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Here a water usage dispute arose due to the fact that the state of Haryana was using the Jamuna River for irrigation, while the residents of Delhi needed it for the purpose of drinking. It was reasoned that domestic use overrode the commercial use of water and the court ruled that Haryana must allow enough water to get to Delhi for consumption and domestic use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "Congress passed the \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\" in 2011. This amendment, effective in 2014, tightened the definition of \"lead-free\" plumbing fixtures and fittings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Health Act 1875",
        "text": "The Act required all new residential construction to include running water and an internal drainage system, and also led to the government prohibiting the construction of shoddy housing by building contractors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the Republic of Ireland",
        "text": "According to a 2011 EPA report, 11 of 174 agglomerations covered by the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive did not have the required level of wastewater treatment, but were expected to have secondary treatment by 2015. 70% of agglomerations (larger urban areas in Ireland) were compliant with the requirements of the Directive in 2011, an improvement on 63% compliance in 2010 and 57% in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Bolivia",
        "text": "The government of Evo Morales considers passing a new water and sanitation services law called \u201cWater for Life\u201d. According to vice-minister Rene Orellana, under this law the legal concept of the concession would be eliminated. A preferential electricity tariff would be introduced for EPSAs and community water rights would be strengthened."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The two most prominent cases in India regarding the right to water illustrate that although this is not explicitly protected in the Constitution of India, it has been interpreted by the courts that the right to life includes the right to safe and sufficient water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water Resources Development Act of 1996",
        "text": "Authorizes additional capacity at a dredged material disposal facility as long as the non-Federal interest agrees to pay all costs associated with the construction of the additional capacity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "The United Nations (UN) has determined that access to clean water and sanitation facilities is a basic human right. However few countries have included a human right to water in enforceable legislation. Over 2 billion people in the world lack access to water that is free of health risks. By 2017, eighty countries provided access to clean water for more than 99% of their population. From 2000 to 2017, the global population that lacked access to clean water decreased from nearly 20% to roughly 10%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in South Africa",
        "text": "The town George faced water shortages and had decided on an IPR strategy (2009/2010), where final effluents from its Outeniqua WWTP are treated to a very high quality through UF and disinfection prior to being returned to the main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. This initiative augments the existing supply by 10,000\u00a0m3 per day, approximately one third of the drinking water demand. The process configuration includes the following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, and chlorine disinfection. Provision has been made for powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if required as an additional operational barrier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Self-supply of water and sanitation",
        "text": "Self-supply of water and sanitation\n--Definition.\n--Background.\n----Costs.\n--Approaches for water supply.\n----Manually drilled wells.\n----Private wells, tube wells, upgraded family wells.\n----Rope pumps and pitcher pumps.\n----Rainwater harvesting.\n----Household water treatment.\n----EMAS technologies in Bolivia.\n--Approaches for sanitation.\n--Challenges.\n----Health risks.\n----Poverty.\n----Role of government.\n----Human right to water and sanitation.\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Human right to water and sanitation\n--International context.\n--Legal foundations and recognition.\n--International jurisprudence.\n----Inter-American Court of Human Rights.\n----International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes.\n------\"Azurix Corp v. Argentina\".\n------\"Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania\".\n--Right to water in domestic law.\n----South Africa.\n------\"Residents of Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Local Council\".\n------\"Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg\".\n----India.\n------\"Delhi Water Supply v. State of Haryana\".\n------\"Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar\".\n------World Rights to Water Day.\n----New Zealand.\n----United States.\n------\"Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. United States Army Corps of Engineers\".\n----Australia.\n--Remaining discussions.\n----Transboundary effects.\n------Water Dispute Between India and Pakistan.\n----Water commercialization versus state provision.\n----Pluralism perspectives as a mean to protect the right of a socially weak community.\n--Organizations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and state environmental agencies set wastewater standards under the Clean Water Act. Point sources must obtain surface water discharge permits through the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). Point sources include industrial facilities, municipal governments (sewage treatment plants and storm sewer systems), other government facilities such as military bases, and some agricultural facilities, such as animal feedlots. EPA sets basic national wastewater standards: The \"Secondary Treatment Regulation\" applies to municipal sewage treatment plants, and the \"Effluent guidelines\" which are regulations for categories of industrial facilities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water and Sanitation Extension Program",
        "text": "WASEP installs infrastructure for the disposal of dirty (gray) and excess (spillover) water at each tap-stand, comprising cemented platforms with a drain, leading to either a soakage pit or an existing overland channel, where it is diluted before re-entering the =water supply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "In response to the Flint, Michigan water crisis, EPA published a final rule on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines (LSLs) when the action level is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation. The EPA takes the position that although 3% is less than 7%, the new replacement program has fewer loopholes. Under the prior version, water systems were able to \"test out\" of the LSL replacement program, delay implementation because they did not have LSL inventories, or complete partial replacements and therefore, few water systems ever satisfied the full 7%. Several citizen and environmental groups immediately filed lawsuits challenging the rule. On March 12, 2021 EPA delayed the effective date of the rule to June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water Resources Development Act of 1996",
        "text": "Requires\n* a report on rural sanitation projects in Alaska\n* credit toward non-Federal cost share a study of projects in Arizona\n* plans and studies for various projects review in California\n* completing a limited reevaluation of the authorized St. Louis Harbor Project in the vicinity of the Chain Rocks Canal, Illinois\n* specified environmental impact assistance to Illinois\n* investigation of potential solutions to flooding and related problems in South Dakota."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water Resources Development Act of 1992",
        "text": "Spells out various reporting requirements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Costa Rica",
        "text": "Relevant laws include the following:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in South Africa",
        "text": "The passing of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa in 1996 created a new, constitutional dispensation with a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among those rights are the section 24(a) right to an environment that is not harmful to health or well-being, and the section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water resources management in Bolivia",
        "text": "The Water and Sanitation Services Law No. 2029 of 1999, was revised in 2000 after Cochabamba's water war into Law No. 2066. The new law includes provisions for protection of traditional water-sharing arrangements through a system of official licenses and increase local communities participation in decision making processes such as the establishment of water tariffs. The Agency for the Supervision of Basic Sanitation (SISAB), (Superintendencia de Agua y Saneamiento Basico) which grants concessions and licenses and establishes the principles to set prices, tariffs, taxes, and quotas, was not modified by the new Law. The Government of Evo Morales considers passing a new water and sanitation services law called \u201cWater for Life\u201d. According to Vice-Minister Rene Orellana, this new legal framework would eliminate the SISAB and introduce a decentralized regulator in its place. Regulatory taxes would be eliminated along with the legal concept of the concession. A preferential electricity tariff would be introduced for EPSAs and community water rights would be strengthened."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Israel",
        "text": "According to the Ministry of Environment, 97.9% of the tests complied with drinking water quality standards. An analysis of results since 1989, when disinfection of groundwater was first introduced, has shown a constant improvement in the quality of drinking water, with the percentage of violations decreasing from 8.4% in 1989 to 2.1% in 1999. In 2000, the Minister of Health signed an amended version of public health regulations which raise chemical standards for water quality to very stringent standards. Maximum levels for 38 new chemical substances\u2014including pesticides, organic solvents and petroleum products\u2014were set for the first time while existing standards for nitrates, lead, cadmium and zinc were tightened."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Since 2002, under the Bioterrorism Act, a water utility supplying more than 3,300 people must take at least the following measures to ensure security of the water supply:\n* Conduct an assessment of the facility's vulnerabilities to vandalism, insider sabotage, or terrorist attack, and submit the report to the EPA.\n* Show that the facility has an up-to-date emergency response plan, should an incident occur."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Brazil",
        "text": "Access to at least basic water increased from 94% to 97% between 2000 and 2015; an increase in access to at least basic sanitation from 73% to 86% in the same period;"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water and Sanitation Extension Program",
        "text": "To design, provide and then maintain sustainable water and sanitation services requires the development of local capacity. WASEP provides communities with engineering and construction training and services, non-local materials, skilled labor, and health and hygiene education. Partner villages provide local materials, unskilled labor and operation and maintenance funds, which account for over 45% of the total costs. Both male and female villagers are involved at all stages of the intervention, to ensure that they are motivated to independently take ownership of completed projects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Folkewall",
        "text": "Greywater: The water feeding the plants in the wall must be free of heavy metals and/or unsafe pollutants, notably human waste. This requires using source-separating toilets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Guyana",
        "text": "In 1994 GS&WC was made an autonomous public sector institution under the control of the Minister of Works and Communications through the Georgetown Sewerage and Water Amendment Act Number 4."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What laws in the United States protect access to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There have been several!  Would you like to know more about the Safe Drinking Water Act, Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act, the 1987 Water Quality Act, or the establishment of the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund by Congress?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act please."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Congress passed the Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act in 2011. This amendment, effective in 2014, tightened the definition of \"lead-free\" plumbing fixtures and fittings."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has there been any modifications to the Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act after 2014?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes, there are several of note, including additional requirements and a change in the rules about replacing lead service lines. Which of those would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about the additional requirements added?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines (LSLs) when the action level is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation.The EPA takes the position that although 3% is less than 7%, the new replacement program has fewer loopholes.",
      "The additional requirements were for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools."
    ],
    "topic": "Human right to water and sanitation",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Lead and Copper Rule:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Lead and Copper Rule",
          "Adoption"
        ],
        "ctx": "In response to the Flint, Michigan water crisis, EPA published a final rule on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines (LSLs) when the action level is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation. The EPA takes the position that although 3% is less than 7%, the new replacement program has fewer loopholes. Under the prior version, water systems were able to \"test out\" of the LSL replacement program, delay implementation because they did not have LSL inventories, or complete partial replacements and therefore, few water systems ever satisfied the full 7%. Several citizen and environmental groups immediately filed lawsuits challenging the rule. On March 12, 2021 EPA delayed the effective date of the rule to June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Lead and Copper Rule:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Lead and Copper Rule",
          "Adoption"
        ],
        "ctx": "In response to the Flint, Michigan water crisis, EPA published a final rule on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines (LSLs) when the action level is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation. The EPA takes the position that although 3% is less than 7%, the new replacement program has fewer loopholes. Under the prior version, water systems were able to \"test out\" of the LSL replacement program, delay implementation because they did not have LSL inventories, or complete partial replacements and therefore, few water systems ever satisfied the full 7%. Several citizen and environmental groups immediately filed lawsuits challenging the rule. On March 12, 2021 EPA delayed the effective date of the rule to June 17, 2021."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "In response to the Flint, Michigan water crisis, EPA published a revised LCR on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines when the \"action level\" for lead is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "In response to the Flint, Michigan water crisis, EPA published a final rule on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines (LSLs) when the action level is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation. The EPA takes the position that although 3% is less than 7%, the new replacement program has fewer loopholes. Under the prior version, water systems were able to \"test out\" of the LSL replacement program, delay implementation because they did not have LSL inventories, or complete partial replacements and therefore, few water systems ever satisfied the full 7%. Several citizen and environmental groups immediately filed lawsuits challenging the rule. On March 12, 2021 EPA delayed the effective date of the rule to June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality in the United States",
        "text": "In response to the Flint water crisis, EPA published revisions to the LCR on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines when the action level for lead is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation. Several citizen and environmental groups immediately filed lawsuits challenging the rule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "In response to the Flint, Michigan water crisis, EPA published revisions to the Lead and Copper Rule on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines when the \"action level\" for lead is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation. Several citizen and environmental groups immediately filed lawsuits challenging the rule. On March 12, 2021 EPA delayed the effective date of the rule to June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "While lead in drinking water continues to persist as a public health problem in some communities, the source of the lead is generally from the lead service lines, rather than the water delivered by the utility. EPA's Lead and Copper Rule (LCR) does not set an MCL, but requires a utility to take action when the lead level at a customer location reaches 0.015 mg/L. A typical utility action is to adjust the chemistry of the drinking water with anti-corrosive additives, but replacement of lead service lines (pipes that connect the water main to the home) is also an option. Most communities have avoided lead service line replacement due to the high cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "Lead service line\n--Background.\n--Health effects.\n--Regulations.\n----Argentina.\n----Australia.\n----European Union.\n----Canada.\n----United States.\n----Uruguay.\n--Replacements.\n----Responsibilities.\n----Partial replacements.\n----Full replacements.\n----Post replacement flushing procedures.\n----Replacement progress.\n--Mitigation.\n----Internal corrosion control.\n----Flushing.\n----Filters.\n--Widespread hazards and causes.\n----Changing of water source.\n----Changing of disinfection chemical.\n----Changing of corrosion control chemical.\n----Adjustment of pH levels.\n----Physical disturbances.\n----Unspecified causes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "A partial lead service line replacement involves replacing a service line in only one portion (whether it is the public or private portion) and leave the other portion intact. This practice does not completely remove the lead source from the water distribution. Additionally, studies have found that a partial lead service line replacement can cause short-term elevation of lead concentration due to the disturbances during the replacement. An Advisory Board of the United States Environmental Protection Agency concluded in 2011 that they had enough data to show that such practice could pose a public health risk. An Advisory Committee of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention agreed with that position. Therefore, a partial lead service line replacement should be avoided. In 2014, the American Water Works Association published a communication guideline with a definition of a partial lead service line replacement to include a repair and a reconnection to a lead service line. It recommended that entire lead service line should be replaced instead of a partial replacement. They also provided a guidance on homeowner notifications before partial replacements and water utilities' commitment to follow-up tests. In 2017, a study of the Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee on Transport, Infrastructure and Communities concurred that partial replacements can aggravate the problem of lead exceedances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "As of 2019, federal regulations in the United States specify an \"action level\" for lead at 0.015\u00a0mg/L. A public water system is required to monitor its water supply at customer locations. If more than 10% of tap water samples exceed the lead action level (or the copper action level of 1.3 ppm), the supplier must take additional steps to control corrosion. Other actions may include installation of treatment, checking of source water, removal of lead-containing plumbing, and public education. If corrosion control and monitoring of source water measures fail to keep lead exposure under the action level, water utilities must initiate a lead service line replacement program with at least 7% of total lead service lines identified at the beginning of the program to be replaced annually."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "A full lead service line replacement involves replacing the entire service line from the water main to the building inlet. This includes the public and the private portions of the line. In a full lead service line replacement, there should be a coordination with the property owner as it may involve going through obstacles such as trees, driveways, and walls. Sometime, there is a need to break through the customer's basement wall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "While full lead service line replacement is the permanent solution, such undertaking will take years or decades. Water utilities and customers need to use other strategies to mitigate the lead exposure risks in the short term."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint water crisis",
        "text": "However, critics are calling for the replacement of all lead service lines in communities; a project that would cost billions of dollars, which was not a part of the proposed amendments to the Lead and Copper Rule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "In 2000, lead contamination in Washington, D.C. drinking water was caused by changing the disinfection chemical from chlorine to chloramine for water treatment. This was done as a measure to limit disinfection byproducts according to a new regulation of the United States Environmental Protection Agency. The change inadvertently reduced the protective mineral coating properties in the water. That caused the scaling that had been covering the interior surface of lead service lines for decades to be reduced to the point that it allowed lead to leach into the water. The solution was to replace all 23,000 lead service lines. However, 15,000 of those was done as partial replacements which was found to be ineffective."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "The approaches to reduce lead exposure in water distribution systems to meet that goal have also been different. For example, the United Kingdom took the short- and medium-term strategy of dosing the water with orthophosphate as a corrosion control measure and considered lead service line replacement as the long-term strategy. By 2010 (3 years before the new lower standard), 95% of public water supplies were treated with orthophosphate. The tests had 99.8% compliance of 0.025\u00a0mg/L 2003 standard and 99.0% compliance of 0.01\u00a0mg/L 2013 standard. However, many other European countries considered the practice of adding orthophosphate to the water supply to be undesirable as it would result in sewage with higher concentrations of nutrient. That could potentially create problems of harmful algal blooms. An example of a country that took another approach was Germany. The southern part of Germany had prohibited lead pipes more than 100 years ago. However, northern Germany continued to use lead pipes until the 1970s. The approach to meet the new standard for Germany was to put a focus on getting rid of lead service lines. Water utilities in northern Germany had already been working on lead service line replacements since the adoption of the Directive, in order to meet the 2003 standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "The ownership structure of service lines varies among water utilities. Depending on localities, the entire length of a service line from the water main to the building inlet may be owned by the water utility, or the property owner. There can also be a partial ownership scenario where the water utility and the property owner share ownership of the service line, thus, replacing the entire lead service line requires a cooperation between the two entities. In the shared ownership, the water utility typically owns the communication pipe and the curb stop, and property owner owns the supply pipe. In this scenario, when the water utility owned section of a lead service line is called \"public lead service line\", and the section owned by the property owner is called \"private lead service line\". When only one part of a lead service line (either public or private) is replaced, it is called \"partial lead service line replacement\". When both sides are replaced at the same time, it is called \"full lead service line replacement\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "In 2016, water in Newark, New Jersey started having elevated lead levels. A year earlier, the city tried to adjust the pH levels in order to control carcinogens in the system. The result of higher acidity caused the sodium silicate that was used successfully as corrosion inhibitor for two decades to stop working. It took the city until 2018 to figure out the short-term solution to change to use orthophosphate, but that would take another six months to become effective. Water bottles and water filters were distributed as a stop gap. The long-term solution was for the city to do 18,000 full lead service line replacements. The city took unprecedented steps by borrowing $120 million to shorten the replacement timeframe to 3 years from 10 years, and working with legislators to come up with a law that allows the city to force replace the private portion of the lines free of charge and without any permission from property owners."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "Also with the water related projects, Mayor Emanuel borrowed $412 million from 2011 to 2016 with two-thirds of that money went to replacements of water mains, but those projects didn't include lead service line replacements. The workers would reconnect lead service lines to the newly installed water mains. In 2016, the city claimed that there was no evidence of risks associated with that method. The claim contradicted the 2013 EPA report and another finding in 2015 by the City of Milwaukee that prompted Milwaukee to stop installing new water mains. In addition to potential issues with reconnecting lead service lines back to water mains, there were also concerns about how the city repaired damages. During the projects, when the city damaged a lead service line, the city workers would cut off the broken part of the lead service line and replace that short section with a copper line. A scientist who tested the water after that repair procedure was done on his home found an extremely high level of lead. However, the city did not perform any tests or notified any homeowners on such repairs as that type of repairs was not considered to be a partial lead service line replacement, therefore, follow-up tests were not required by regulations. An EPA Advisory Board concluded that the procedure could be more dangerous than a partial lead service line replacement. After 87 months of work when the city completed two-thirds of the water main replacement project, the total amount of repairs using that procedure was still not available. There was an incomplete record that only showed a one-month snapshot to indicate that nine such repairs were done during that month."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pittsburgh Water and Sewer Authority",
        "text": "As of March 2020 and since June 2016, the Pittsburgh Water and Sewer Authority has been working to replace lead service lines. These lines had been built with lead because it was a readily available material and was easy to work with. However, exposure to lead is directly connected with multiple health problems, particularly in children. No lead is present in water that has been treated by PWSA; lead only enters water through older service lines as it travels to buildings. PWSA has been working in conjunction with local home and business owners to replace these pipes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead abatement in the United States",
        "text": "A typical water utility action is to adjust the chemistry of the drinking water with anti-corrosive additives, but replacement of lead service lines (pipes that connect water mains to customers) is also an option. Most communities have avoided lead service line replacement due to the high cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "Lead exposure in drinking water that is caused by lead service lines can be mitigated in a short term by using corrosion control techniques. However, the only long-term solution is to completely replace them with other materials. Below is a partial list of replacement efforts by water utilities around the world:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "Even in the case that private lead service line replacements that are fully funded at no cost to property owners, some owners still refuse to allow their water utility to work in their property for various reasons, such as fearing of damages done to the property, or not wanting workers to be inside. For example, in Pittsburgh, 10% of property owners refused the no-cost private lead service line replacement. This problem is exacerbated in rental properties where tenants had no authority to accept the offer, and the landlords do not see the value of the investment. For cities with a large amount of renters, it will be difficult to complete a full lead service line replacement program without any forms of mandate through a local ordinance. Alternately, some common law jurisdictions may have enough legal precedent in regard to public nuisance law. The court may allow the municipality to access a private property to address the public health threat without having to obtain a permission from the property owner."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental policy of the Donald Trump administration",
        "text": "Saying \"We are delivering on the president's commitment that all Americans have access to clean and safe drinking water,\" on October 10, 2019, the administration announced their proposals for new regulations on lead and copper in drinking water. The draft plan includes requirements that water utilities disclose inventories of lead service pipes and requires that daycare centers and schools report elevated lead levels within 24 hours rather than the current standard of 30 days. However, environmental activists are critical of the relaxation of other standards that have been proposed that slow the timetable for the replacement of lead pipes found to contain high levels of lead, extending the replacement time from 7 percent of lead service lines each year to just 3 percent. The Natural Resources Defense Council calls the slower timetable for lead pipe replacement \"a huge weakening change that will swallow up the few small improvements in the proposal.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "A lead service line (LSL, also known as lead service pipe, and lead connection pipe) is a pipe made of lead which is used in potable water distribution to connect a water main to a user's premises."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ras Baraka",
        "text": "In 2019 the Ras Baraka administration began a massive effort to replace lead water pipes that were causing lead in drinking water to exceed federal limits. By spring of 2021, local officials had removed more than 20,000 lead service lines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "Although a full lead service line replacement is a preferred method, it does not come as risk free. There are short-term elevation of lead concentration as well, but it tends to release less lead and to release lead for a shorter period of time. A research has found that even with a full lead service line replacement to completely remove lead source, lead exposure can still exist in the home. In the study it is particularly true when the water source is rich in manganese and iron that has caused the scale build-ups in the interior wall of the home's pipes. The scales can absorb lead from the time before the replacement. When the scales crumble from the pipe walls even after the replacement, they carry lead to customer's tap in particulate form which may continue after the replacement for years. Therefore, an internal plumbing flushing is still required after a full lead service line replacement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "In Chicago, after Mayor Rahm Emanuel took office in 2011, he initiated a $481 million water conservation initiative that included household water meter replacements. The work was carried in a multi-year project. In 2013, a study by United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) concluded that disturbances to lead service lines including street work or water meter installation could cause the leaching of lead to be elevated for months or years. During Mayor Emanuel's administration, the city consistently denied that it had any widespread problems of lead in water, and continued the meter installation. In July 2019, Mayor Lori Lightfoot who took office in the same year announced that the tests had shown elevated levels of lead in more than 1 in 5 metered homes, and she ordered to halt the meter installation program. The city also faced a lawsuit filed on behalf of the residents to force the city to solve the problem by replacing their lead service lines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pittsburgh water crisis",
        "text": "After a lead test revealed Pittsburgh's water supply was exceeding the federal limit in 2016, the PWSA was ordered to replace public lead service lines. However, as the PWSA embarked on this task, an unexpected obstacle interfered with the progress of the lead pipe removal. Since they were only required to replace public water lines, private lead lines were left behind. This actually leaves the possibility of exacerbating the lead contamination since construction on the public lines physically disturbs the private lines, thus breaking up the lining within the pipes meant to prevent lead erosion. Because of this risk, the practice of removing only public service lines was discontinued mid-2017. A couple of months after the city ceased removing lead lines, legislation was passed that allowed the PWSA to use Pittsburgh's public safety powers to remove both public and private lines. The best, long-term solution is to remove all of the lead service lines in the city, but despite the legislation allowing for this to happen, it is still a lengthy and expensive endeavor that is unlikely to be fulfilled within the next ten years and could cost close to $400 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Newark water crisis",
        "text": "In March 2019, Newark announced the Lead Service Line Replacement Program, which aimed to remove all 18,000 lead pipes throughout the water system. More than 38,000 water filters were distributed to city residents, in addition to bottled water. A November 2019 report released by the Newark city government said that \"97.5% of the filters reduced lead to 10 parts-per-billion (ppb) or below.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Water distribution system",
        "text": "As water main work can disturb lead service lines, which can result in elevated lead levels in drinking water, it is recommended that when a water utility plans a water main renewal project, it should work with property owners to replace lead service lines as part of the project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead contamination in Washington, D.C., drinking water",
        "text": "The first media attention came in late 2002, when the \"Washington City Paper\" ran an article about a resident of American University Park whose water tested six to 18 times the EPA Lead and Copper Rule's action level. WASA found that homes in its service area with lead service lines averaged five times the EPA limit for lead during a year-long period. The results were unexpected; the EPA scientist overseeing DC's water suggested that drought conditions might have raised the alkalinity levels of the Potomac River, leading to a change in the pH of the water. As a result, WASA was required to start replacing seven percent of the district's lead service lines each year until the levels dropped below 0.015 milligrams per liter. At the time, about 23,000 WASA customers had lead service lines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "The most certain way to eliminate lead exposure in drinking water from the lead service lines is to replace them with pipes made from other materials. However, the replacements are time-consuming and costly. The difficulty is exacerbated in many locations by ownership structure that has a shared responsibility between water utilities and property owners, which requires cooperation between the two entities. Some water utilities employed corrosion control as a short-term solution while working through the long-term replacement projects. A potential issue with corrosion control is a constant monitoring of its effectiveness. There have been widespread lead exposures resulting from failures of corrosion control, such as the Flint water crisis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead contamination in Washington, D.C., drinking water",
        "text": "On January 21, 2005, the EPA ordered WASA to notify more than 400 homeowners that the agency had mistakenly told them their house's water lead levels were safe, and to replace an additional 500 service lines to comply with federal law. The EPA said that WASA had flushed the water line for five minutes before running the lead tests for those homes, resulting in artificially low readings; such a lengthy flush is not permitted by EPA standards. The EPA did not believe that the flushes were done intentionally by WASA to reduce lead levels. The testing had been done as part of an effort to avoid the expense of replacing lead lines in areas where it found low lead levels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint water crisis",
        "text": "After the crisis in Flint, Michigan, Trump's administration created a new set of regulations that would allow states to react more effectively and in a faster manner in the event of a public health crisis. These changes, proposed in amendments to the Lead and Copper Rule, still allow lead water lines to service communities, which has drawn a lot of criticisms from the public. This new proposal highlighted four changes in the Lead and Copper Rule, a rule that previously has not been revised in years. The proposed revisions consist of:\n* Requiring water systems to create a database of where the lead pipes are located, and when the water running through the pipes reaches lead levels greater than 15 parts per billion, the problem must be investigated and fixed.\n* Create an alert when water samples reach 10 parts per billion so that communities can determine how to lower the lead levels in the water before it reaches 15 parts per billion.\n* Require water systems to alert customers within a one-day period if their water sample tests higher than 15 parts per million.\n* Require water systems to replace water service lines to a home if they are contaminated with lead, and if the homeowner chooses to replace the piping. Every year thereafter, the water system must replace three percent of the lead contaminated water system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "In 2017 a report from French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES) indicated that many older properties are at risk of high lead concentration, especially for those properties located in areas with older water distribution systems. The agency urged property owners to take mitigation efforts including replacements of water pipes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "After work done on or near a lead service line, whether it is a partial or full replacement, or other disturbances such as changing of the water meter, the water utility should perform a flushing procedure to take out lead that has been lodged into the building plumbing. Homeowner should not run water through any water filter devices, use hot water or ice makers, or consume tap water until the flushing procedure is completed. For this special flushing procedure, the water utility will perform an initial flush after the work is done. Then the worker will start from the lowest floor to open all cold water taps, showers and bathtub faucets throughout the home. Faucet aerators will be remove during this procedure. At the top floor where the last tap is open, wait for 30 minutes, then start turning off the tap and put back the faucet aerators from the top floor down to the lowest floor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality in the United States",
        "text": "In Washington, DC a pipe replacement program began in 2004 to replace lead service connections to about 35,000 homes. The effectiveness of the program was questioned in 2008 by DC Water, the city's utility. In 2016, more than 5,000 drinking water systems were found to be in violation of the lead and copper rule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint water crisis",
        "text": "An extensive lead service pipe replacement effort has been underway since 2016, with innovative techniques such as machine learning used to predict the number and location of lead pipes. In early 2017, some officials asserted that the water quality had returned to acceptable levels, but in January 2019, residents and officials expressed doubt about the cleanliness of the water. There were an estimated 2,500 lead service pipes still in place as of April 2019. As of December 8, 2020, fewer than 500 service lines still needed to be inspected. As of July 16, 2021, 27,133 water service lines had been excavated and inspected, resulting in the replacement of 10,059 lead pipes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "EPA published the \"Lead and Copper Rule Minor Revisions\" (LCRMR) in January 2000. This rule required water suppliers to install the best available corrosion control mechanisms and to continually observe water levels, even if corrosion control was implemented. The revisions were effective April 11, 2000. Additional corrections and minor revisions were made in 2004 and 2006. A 2007 amendment added new requirements in the areas of monitoring, treatment processes, public education, customer awareness, and lead service line replacement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality in the United States",
        "text": "A typical utility action is to adjust the chemistry of the drinking water with anti-corrosive additives, but replacement of customer pipes is also an option. Most communities have avoided customer pipe replacement due to the high cost. Some water systems have undertaken programs to remove all lead service lines, especially after the publicity surrounding the Flint, Michigan water crisis in 2016. In 2018, NPR reported that about 180 towns were operating removal programs using financing from federal, state, or local taxpayers, other water customers, and charitable donations to provide grants or loans to property owners to cover the cost of removal. This includes systems in Boston (Massachusetts Water Resources Authority), Cincinnati (Greater Cincinnati Water Works), Gary (Indiana American Water), Detroit (Detroit Water and Sewerage Department), and Lansing. Madison, Wisconsin removed all of its lead service pipes over 11 years, starting in 2001."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint water crisis",
        "text": "A federal lawsuit filed on January 27, 2016, seeks the replacement of all lead service lines in Flint at no cost to residents following claims city and state leaders violated federal laws designed to protect drinking water. It is also asking the court to force city and state officials to provide safe drinking water to Flint residents and require them to follow federal regulations for testing and treating water to control for lead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead contamination in Washington, D.C., drinking water",
        "text": "As of January 2006, WASA said that about 29 percent of its customers had chosen to replace the lead service lines within the customer's property. In a January press release, WASA said that the average lead level in its most recent tests was 7 ppb. The authority also claimed that a voluntary blood-lead-level screening it funded showed no identifiable public health impact from the elevated lead levels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pipe (fluid conveyance)",
        "text": "Lead piping is still found in old domestic and other water distribution systems, but is no longer permitted for new potable water piping installations due to its toxicity. Many building codes now require that lead piping in residential or institutional installations be replaced with non-toxic piping or that the tubes' interiors be treated with phosphoric acid. According to a senior researcher and lead expert with the Canadian Environmental Law Association, \"...there is no safe level of lead [for human exposure]\". In 1991 the US EPA issued the Lead and Copper Rule, it is a federal regulation which limits the concentration of lead and copper allowed in public drinking water, as well as the permissible amount of pipe corrosion occurring due to the water itself. In the US it's estimated that 6.5 million lead service lines (pipes that connect water mains to home plumbing) installed before the 1930s are still in use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "In 2015, Irish Water sent out a warning that 126 households in Wexford had the level of lead that exceeded the limit. It urged residents to stop using their water for drinking unless a five to ten minute flush had been performed. The company also recommended owners to replace their lead service lines which are responsibility of property owners in Ireland. Starting in 2017, more than 30 areas across Ireland had found to have unsafe level of lead. Irish Water had been replacing lead service lines at their own costs as part of their leakage reduction program."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "EPA first issued the Lead and Copper Rule on June 7, 1991. The rule required public water systems serving more than 50,000 people to survey their corrosion control systems and to obtain state approval for their systems by January 1, 1997. Smaller systems were only required to replace their pipelines if action levels were exceeded in measurements taken at the tap."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "In 2014, Pittsburgh water crisis was caused by unauthorized switching of anti-corrosion agent from soda ash to caustic soda. The city had been using soda ash for decades as a corrosion control chemical. Soda ash's alkalinity helps the metals to be less corrosive. It also has another property that leaves a solid residue which encourages mineral buildup as a protective layer within the interior surface of the pipes. Although caustic soda has similar alkalinity, it does not help in buildup creation. After switching the corrosion control chemical, the buildup in the city's distribution system started to disappear causing leaching in the lead service lines. The short-term solution was to use orthophosphate to create coating. The long-term solution was to do full lead service line replacements. The city started the replacements in 2016. By 2019, 4,200 lead service lines had been replaced. On the same year, the city budgeted $49 million to replace another 4,400 public service lines and offer no cost private line replacements at the same time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead contamination in Washington, D.C., drinking water",
        "text": "In March 2005, the EPA proposed changes strengthening the Lead and Copper Rule. The changes require utilities to give test results directly to homeowners, and to notify state and federal regulators before changing water-treatment methods. Critics, such as Clean Water Action, called the changes \"revisions at the margins.\" Rick Maas, co-director of the Environmental Quality Institute at the University of North Carolina, said the revisions would \"solve maybe 5 to 10 percent of the problem\" with the Rule. Trade organizations, such as the American Water Works Association, found the changes \"basically reasonable.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead contamination in Washington, D.C., drinking water",
        "text": "A 2010 study by Brown at the CDC essentially confirmed Edwards's findings. It also found that the 15,000 \"partial pipe replacements\" performed by WASA\u2014where lead service lines were replaced up to a homeowner's property line, but no further\u2014may not have effectively reduced lead levels, and may have made the problem worse. WASA spent $97 million to replace 17,000 pipes, including the 15,000 partial replacements. A \"Post\" article about the report lead to jammed phone lines at WASA and increased demand for bottled-water delivery. The study indicated that there is no safe level of lead in drinking water, and that children in homes with even a partial lead service line are at a much higher risk of lead poisoning than those with no lead in the line. WASA said the finding \"is not news\" to them; General Manager George Hawkins told WAMU that the utility had been acting as if the CDC's findings were fact for some time before the report was released. Hawkins said that WAMU was not seeing elevated levels of lead in homes with partial pipe replacements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Congress passed the \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\" tightening the definition of \"lead free\" plumbing, in 2011. EPA published a final rule implementing the law on September 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Denver Water",
        "text": "Lead pipes were used to hook homes to water mains until the World War II era; they were banned in 1971. \"Utility spokesman Travis Thompson said Denver Water\u2019s service area was left with between 64,000 and 84,000 homes with lead service lines.\" A $500 million program to replace them is proceeding as of 2021 at the rate of about 5,000 homes a year. Whether a particular address has a lead service line may be searched for on a page on the Denver Water website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "When there is an involvement with private ownership, it complicates a full lead service line replacement. A major issue is the cost of the replacement. In the United States, a replacement can cost between $3,000 to $5,000 (2018 estimate) for the private side. This can be a major financial burden for homeowners. Even with different incentives for homeowners such as interest-free loans, or using ratepayer money to cover part of the cost, the homeowners are still hesitant. Using the ratepayer money to fund private lead service line replacements in itself is a subject of a debate. People who advocate for it argue that benefits to the public health outweigh a small increase in water rates that impacts everyone. On the other side, there is a concern that the increased rates can cause hardship, and there is a public policy question on using ratepayer money to make private property improvements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint water crisis",
        "text": "Dan Kildee, the Democratic party congressman in the House of Representatives representing the Michigan 5th district which includes Flint, re-introduced on July 10, 2019, a bill in the House, originally introduced in 2017, as HR 3677, the National Opportunity for Lead Exposure Accountability and Deterrence Act (NO LEAD) of 2017. Tammy Duckworth, Democratic Senator for Illinois, announced on the same day, July 10, 2019, the introduction of a bill in the Senate as S. 2086, the National Opportunity for Lead Exposure Accountability and Deterrence (NO LEAD) of 2019. The nearly-identical bills aim to help ensure drinking water across the USA is safe from lead and copper contamination, and would update the Lead and Copper Rule, lowering the lead action level from 15 parts per billion (ppb) currently, to 10 ppb by 2020 and 5 ppb by 2026. The bill would also create a lead-service-line inventory to help monitor contaminated service lines and ensure the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) develops a universal testing protocol to make sure the entire lead service line is replaced if water contamination is detected, as partial replacement does not eliminate the risk of contamination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cache replacement policies",
        "text": "On a cache miss, the line with the RRPV equal to the maximum possible RRPV is evicted (for example, with 3-bit values, the line with the RRPV of 23 = 7 is evicted), if no lines have this value, all RRPVs in the set are incremented by 1 until one reaches it. A tie breaker is needed, and usually it's the first line on the left. This increment is needed to make sure that older lines are aged properly and will be evicted if they aren't reused."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "Uruguay set the lead exposure of drinking water to 0.05\u00a0mg/L in 2000 through Decree 315/94, 2nd edition. It also banned lead water pipes and fittings in 2004. The country set new standards in 2011 through Decree 375/11 to lowered exposure level to 0.03\u00a0mg/L and to achieve 0.01\u00a0mg/L level by 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "The 1986 Safe Drinking Water Act amendments defined \"lead-free\" plumbing and prohibited the use of plumbing for public water supply that did not meet the new definition. The amendments also required the EPA to set standards limiting the concentration of lead in public water systems. The \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\", enacted in 2011, tightened the definition of \"lead-free\" plumbing fixtures and fittings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "In the 2010s, one-third of American communities still had lead service lines, with an estimate to be up to six million. Elimination had been extremely difficult due to the high cost of identifying, locating, removing, and preventing the many potential sources of lead in various water distributions systems in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dayne Walling",
        "text": "In early September 2015, Walling requested an additional $10 million from the state government to replace water service lines with lead or lead solder and for the city to step up development of a corrosion control plan to be finished by the end of the year. After meeting with Doctor Mona Hanna-Attisha, the lead doctor of the Hurley Hospital Lead Study, Walling issued an advisory on lead while the state still had issue with the study. Doctors recommended ending the use of the Flint river as a water supply, but were told in a meeting with Walling and other city officials that such a move would bankrupt the city."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "While MCLs are risk-based standards, and the code requires the water supplier take various actions based on the MCL, the Lead and Copper Rule regulates the level of contamination at the customers' taps based on \"action levels.\" The rule does not define an MCL for lead or copper. This approach allows some percentage of the customer taps to exceed the \"action level\" without the water system having to take action. Especially for the larger public water systems, having the supplier change the tendency of the water to dissolve lead in the customer plumbing may be more cost effective than having thousands of customers replace their plumbing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead poisoning",
        "text": "Like Flint MI and Washington DC, a similar situation affects the State of Wisconsin, where estimates call for replacement of up to 176,000 underground pipes made of lead known as lead service lines. The city of Madison, Wisconsin addressed the issue and replaced all of their lead service lines, but there are still others that have yet to follow suit. While there are chemical methods that could help reduce the amount of lead in the water distributed, a permanent fix would be to replace the pipes completely. While the state may replace the pipes below ground, it will be up to the homeowners to replace the pipes on their property, at an average cost of $3,000. Experts say that if the city were to replace their pipes and the citizens were to keep the old pipes located within their homes, there would be a potential for more lead to dissolve into their drinking water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "As of early 2020 Argentina sets a standard of 0.05\u00a0mg/l based on Resolution no. 523/95-MTSS which is an amendment of law 19587."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "On 3 November 1998, the European Union adopted Directive 98/83/EC to set standards on drinking water. This included a plan to lower the lead contamination in the water distribution systems of member states. The Directive sets the maximum lead concentration in drinking water at 0.025\u00a0mg/L by 2003, and 0.01 by 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead contamination in Washington, D.C., drinking water",
        "text": "In August 2004, the Army Corps of Engineers started adding orthophosphate to the water in hopes of preventing lead leeching. By November, WASA's board of directors had committed to a plan that would replace all of the agency's 23,000 lead pipes by 2010, at a cost of $300 million\u2014starting with 2,800 lead pipes to be replaced in 2005. WASA estimated that the repairs would cost residents $6 to $7 a month. The agency was not legally responsible for the portion of the lead service lines within a homeowner's property lines; however, they offered to perform the work at a set rate, and arranged a low-interest loan program with Wachovia Bank to help homeowners afford the cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality in the United States",
        "text": "Congress passed the \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\" in 2011. This amendment to the SDWA, effective in 2014, tightened the definition of \"lead-free\" plumbing fixtures and fittings. EPA published a final rule implementing the amendment on September 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Debbie Stabenow",
        "text": "Stabenow secured $100 million to repair and replace the water lines in Flint, Michigan, which were contaminating the drinking water with lead. She also pushed to include a program that would provide fresh fruits and vegetables to Flint children as part of the Farm Bill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint water crisis",
        "text": "The water crisis in Flint, Michigan has made it apparent that reform needs to be made nationwide to improve water infrastructure. Michigan, as the center of the water crisis, has since strengthened its Lead and Copper Rule, making it the strongest advocate against lead contaminated water in the country. The new Lead and Copper Rule in Michigan requires that all lead contaminated pipes be replaced within the next twenty years. In 2019, the Environmental Protection Agency suggested the first change to the Lead and Copper Rule in almost three decades to set more strict protocols for when lead is identified in water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sanitary sewer",
        "text": "Another popular method for replacing aged or damaged lines is called pipe bursting, where a new pipe, typically PVC or ABS plastic, is drawn through the old pipe behind an \"expander head\" that breaks apart the old pipe as the new one is drawn through behind it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "EPA published a revised LCR on January 15, 2021 and on March 12, 2021 delayed the effective date to June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "Lead exposure is a public health hazard as it causes developmental effects in fetuses, infants, and young children. It also has other health effects in adults. According to World Health Organization, the presence of lead service lines is the most significant contributor of lead contamination in drinking water in many countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead contamination in Washington, D.C., drinking water",
        "text": "In 2001, more than half the water samples taken from 53 DC-area homes under the procedures required by the EPA's Lead and Copper Rule showed levels of lead exceeding the national standard of 15 parts per billion (ppb). Lead disrupts the physical and mental development of fetuses, babies, and young children, and can cause kidney problems and high blood pressure in adults. The rule does not assume that there is a \"safe\" level of exposure, but notes that 15 ppb is an \"action level\" where utilities must take action. The rule was created in 1991, after research showed that drinking water could account for one-fifth of all lead intake. Lead is not normally present in drinking water; it is released from the inside surface of lead service lines (pipes that run from the main to the house), joints connected with lead-based solder, and lead fixtures inside the house. Based on these findings, WASA was required to notify the public and implement plans to replace lead service lines in key areas of the municipal water system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Avgas",
        "text": "Under a federal court order to set a new standard by October 15, 2008, the EPA cut the acceptable limits for atmospheric lead from the previous standard of 1.5\u00a0\u00b5g/m3 to 0.15\u00a0\u00b5g/m3. This was the first change to the standard since 1978 and represents an order of magnitude reduction over previous levels. The new standard requires the 16,000 remaining USA sources of lead, which include lead smelting, airplane fuels, military installations, mining and metal smelting, iron and steel manufacturing, industrial boilers and process heaters, hazardous waste incineration, and production of batteries, to reduce their emissions by October 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint water crisis",
        "text": "On January 28, 2016, Democratic U.S. Senators Debbie Stabenow and Gary Peters and Representative Dan Kildee proposed an amendment to pending federal energy legislation to add the special appropriation of up to $400 million to replace and repair the lead service lines in Flint and $200 million more to create a center for lead research in Flint. They also said the state could choose to match up to $400 million for its share of infrastructure repairs in Flint. The newly amended bill was rejected by the Senate on February 4. A new $220 million bill to address the crisis was proposed in the U.S. Senate on February 24."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead contamination in Washington, D.C., drinking water",
        "text": "At an oversight hearing before the House Committee on Government Reform in early March 2004, Marc Edwards testified that his studies showed the change from chlorine to chloramine was the cause of the elevated lead levels. He stated that the chloramine-treated water was leaching lead not only from the old lead lines, but also from brass fixtures in homes. Brass is made with lead; even brass classified as \"lead free\" under the Safe Drinking Water Act can contain up to eight percent lead. Edwards said that this could be the cause of the high lead levels in areas where WASA did not use lead lines. He also cautioned that replacing lead service lines with copper could make the problem worse; newly installed copper lines could react with the chloramine in a way that would increase corrosion of the remaining lead lines in the system. The chief of the Washington Aqueduct disagreed, saying that tests taken after the chloramine treatment commenced didn't show any additional corrosiveness. He believed corrosion inhibitors, like orthophosphate, could be added to the water to prevent lead leaching. In the spring of 2004, a temporary switch from chloramine back to chlorine for annual pipe flushing caused a 25 to 30 percent drop in lead levels, lending credence to the chloramine theory. In one home that was tested by WASA before and after the switch, lead levels dropped tenfold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "In certain cases when flushing is not practical, such as having a very long lead service line, using filters may be considered. When choosing filters, water consumers should select the products that remove \"total lead\" that includes filtering of dissolved lead and lead particles. In United States, it is recommended that the filters are certified according to American National Standard Institute/National Science Foundation Standard 53"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "There were widespread lead contamination in drinking water incidents related to lead service lines. These were caused by many reasons that resulted in elevated levels of lead leaching."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rick Snyder",
        "text": "According to the Detroit News and NPR, \"...in March 2016 Snyder released a new 75-point action plan to address the contamination crisis, calling for a \u201cmuch higher standard\u201d for drinking water regulations but stopping short of advocating for complete replacement of all underground lead service lines in the city. The plan included short-, intermediate- and long-term goals, including making infrastructure improvements; creating a data-sharing agreement with state and federal environmental agencies; and setting up a protocol for a \u201cdrinkability declaration\u201d for Flint water.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "In 2014, Flint water crisis was caused by switching of water source from Detroit Water and Sewerage Department's treated water to Flint River which would be treated locally in Flint. The treated Flint River water changed the water properties in Flint's distribution system in three areas. First the corrosion inhibitor was not added to the treated water. Secondly, the pH level had been changed over time to lower levels. Thirdly, the chloride level was higher than treated Detroit's water. The combination of these factors contributed to the corrosiveness of the water, causing corrosion to lead and iron pipes. The solution was to switch the water source back to Detroit's water supply and replace 30,000 lead service lines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "The Lead and Copper Rule (LCR) is a United States federal regulation (40 CFR 141.80 et seq.) that limits the concentration of lead and copper allowed in public drinking water at the consumer's tap, as well as limiting the permissible amount of pipe corrosion occurring due to the water itself. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) first issued the rule in 1991 pursuant to the Safe Drinking Water Act. The EPA promulgated the regulations following studies that concluded that copper and lead have an adverse effect on individuals. The LCR sought to therefore limit the levels of these metals in water through improving water treatment centers, determining copper and lead levels for customers who use lead plumbing parts, and eliminating the water source as a source of lead and copper. If the lead and copper levels exceed the \"action levels\" water suppliers are required to educate their consumers on how to reduce exposure to lead. A 2004-2005 study of the LCR by the EPA noted that the system had been effective in 96 percent of systems serving at least 3,300 people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Specified local lines",
        "text": "Article 8 of the JNR Reconstruction Act (officially the Act on Special Measures concerning Reconstruction Promotion of Management of Japanese National Railways, Act No. 111 of 1980) directed JNR to specify unprofitable lines (\"specified local lines\") that should be replaced by bus operations based on certain criteria set by a Cabinet Order."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "In modern times, lead was still widely used in water distribution systems and plumbing hardware before the early 20th century, including lead pipes, leaded solder and leaded alloys. One part of the systems is the connections between the water mains and the water user locations. A service line is a pipe that makes the connection, which was also made of lead in those days. The first portion of the service line called gooseneck that connects to a valve at the water main requires to be flexible to allow some movements. Lead goosenecks (also called lead service connections or LSCs) were commonly used at the time due to the durability and flexibility. In colder-weather areas, the connection between the water main and the rest of the service line is subjected to expansion and contraction during changing temperatures. When a stiffer service line made of galvanized steel pipe was used, a lead gooseneck was installed to connect to the water main to reduce breakages by such expansion and contraction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "EPA published a white paper in 2016 discussing options for additional revisions to the rule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "Lead had been associated with plumbing since the ancient times. The chemical symbol of lead (\"Pb\") was derived from the Latin word \"plumbum\" which means waterworks or plumbing as lead was used to make water pipes. Lead water lines have also been known to be harmful since ancient times, though this is sometimes contested."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "In 1992, the federal government set the guideline to have the Maximum Allowable Concentration (MAC) of lead in drinking water at 0.01\u00a0mg/L. On 8 March 2019, Health Canada updated the guideline to lower the MAC of lead to 0.005\u00a0mg/L, one of the lowest values in the world. Regulation of these guidelines are performed at the provincial level, and is inconsistent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "In 2004, Australia lowered lead exposure limit to 0.01\u00a0mg/L from 0.05 through the 2004 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines. However, this is a guideline, not a mandatory standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pittsburgh water crisis",
        "text": "Pittsburgh's water lines include a significant number of lead pipes which have inevitably eroded to a certain degree within the past few decades. In 2014, the Pittsburgh Water and Sewer Authority (PWSA) broke state law by switching from soda ash to caustic soda as an anti-corrosion treatment without first receiving the necessary approval and permits from the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) as required by Pennsylvania. This unauthorized switch sparked an increase in erosion levels that made the water's lead levels spike beyond the federal limit of 15 ppm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "The 1986 amendments require EPA to set standards limiting the concentration of lead in public water systems, and defines \"lead free\" pipes as:\n:(1) solders and flux containing not more than 0.2 percent lead;\n:(2) pipes and pipe fittings containing not more than 8.0 percent lead; and\n:(3) plumbing fittings and fixtures as defined in industry-developed voluntary standards (issued no later than August 6, 1997), or standards developed by EPA in lieu of voluntary standards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Community Fire Safety Act of 2013",
        "text": "The bill would direct the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to: (1) consult with and seek the advice of the National Drinking Water Advisory Council on potential changes to federal regulations pertaining to lead; and (2) request the Council to consider sources of lead throughout drinking water distribution systems, including through components used to reroute drinking water during distribution system repairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Benton Harbor, Michigan",
        "text": "Concerns were with the health impacts of lead poisoning. As a result, residents were supplied with free bottled water, including for use with brushing teeth and cooking, for residences and schools. In September 2021, $10 million was budgeted to replace the lead service lines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint water crisis",
        "text": "On February 18, 2016, the state gave Flint a $2 million grant that will go towards replacing lead service lines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rail replacement bus service",
        "text": "Substitute bus transport () is governed by the Road Traffic Act (111/1994 Coll.), which allows the operator of a national, regional, tram, trolleybus or special line to operate substitute transport for up to 90 days in the case of interrupted or temporarily restricted traffic on the line without the requirement to apply for a bus line license and approval of the line's schedule. The law also mandates that vehicles used for substitute transport must be marked as such."
      },
      {
        "title": "Newark, New Jersey",
        "text": "In 2016, annual testing of the water in Newark's public schools revealed elevated lead levels; more than 30 schools shut off their water fountains and turned to bottled water. In August 2019 the crisis over lead contamination in drinking water resurfaced because of new warnings from federal environmental officials. It is believed that the contamination was caused by aging lead pipes and changes in the water supply that makes the water more corrosive, causing lead from the pipes to be spread to the water inside. In August 2019, New Jersey began supplying water bottles to Newark residents in certain designated neighborhoods. On August 26, 2019, Newark officials announced a $120 million plan to expedite replacing the city's lead service lines in under three years. The 29,000 families affected by the contaminated water were provided with filters and bottled water. After testing in September, it was found that the filters were successful in 97% of homes tested, though bottled water would still be made available to those who request it. Long term-plans include the replacement of lead service lines from the water supply to homes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Peru",
        "text": "When mayors change in Peru this often leads to the removal of the general manager of the municipal service provider (EPS) or of the head of the municipal department in charge of water supply in smaller municipalities that do not have an EPS. In 1999 it was estimated that the EPS changed general managers on the average every 17 months. This happens although the majority of the EPS are made up of several provincial municipalities, which in theory should decrease the influence of city governments and reduce the political interference in the administration of companies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "To implement the 2011 \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\", EPA published a final rule on September 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adult Blood Lead Epidemiology and Surveillance",
        "text": "U.S. Department of Health and Human Services recommends that BLLs among all adults be reduced to <10\u00a0\u00b5g/dL. OSHA Lead Standards require medical removal from lead exposures only after a construction worker's BLL reaches or exceeds 50\u00a0\u00b5g/dL or a general industry worker's BLL reaches or exceeds 60\u00a0\u00b5g/dL."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "On 4 November 2019, Concordia University published a year-long study which found that one-third of water samples from 11 major Canadian cities tested higher for MAC of lead than the national guideline, with the highest levels recorded from samples in Montreal, Prince Rupert, and Regina. It was also found that some municipalities only had estimates on the number of lead service lines still in use, with no exact data available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "Congress passed the \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\" in 2011. This amendment, effective in 2014, tightened the definition of \"lead-free\" plumbing fixtures and fittings."
      },
      {
        "title": "District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority",
        "text": "The story was picked up by \"The Washington Post\", which ran front-page stories about the problem in January 2004. This led to a Congressional investigation, which found that the CDC had made \"scientifically indefensible\" claims about the lack of health effects from the lead in DC's water supply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "Most of the lead found in drinking water leaches from lead service lines, the customer's pipes, fittings, and solder rather than from the source water. As a result, \"sampling is done from the customer's taps\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "There are two parts in a service line. The first part is the pipe that connects the water main to the \"curb stop\" which is a stop valve that is located around the street curb or the property line. That first section is called \"communication pipe\". The second part is the pipe that connects the curb stop to the building inlet or a water meter. This part is called \"supply pipe\". Depending on local water utilities, sometimes the meter is located at the property line instead. When the water meter is located at that alternative position, the pipe section that connects the water main to the water meter is the communication pipe, and the section that connects the water meter to the building isolation valve is the supply pipe. Lead service lines can be in one of these scenarios: the communication pipe section can be made of lead, that is called lead communication pipe; the supply pipe section can be made of lead, that is called lead supply pipe; the entire length can be made out of lead; or only a small section of the communication pipe at the water main is made out of lead (lead gooseneck)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead service line",
        "text": "In the early 20th century, many communities started to realize health risks of lead and began to phase out some of the lead-containing products. In Australia, the use of lead service lines was restricted in the 1930s, while other countries still continued the practice of using lead service lines decades later. An example is in the United States, where many cities were allowed to use lead service lines up to the 1980s. Not only they were allowed, some parts of the United States required to use lead service lines until 1987. This resulted in as many as 3.3 million lead service lines and 6.4 million lead goosenecks in the country. In England and Wales, there were about 8.9 million homes with lead service lines as of 1997."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint water crisis",
        "text": "On July 18, 2016, city council approved a $500,000 contract with three companies for the second phase of lead pipe replacements: WT Stevens, and Johnson & Wood were awarded $320,000 contracts to do no more than 50 homes each. Goyette was awarded $619,500 to tackle replacing lead lines at 150 Flint homes. The city is using $25 million in funding approved by the Michigan legislature in June that was allocated for replacing Flint lead tainted pipes for Fast Start's third phase which will replace infrastructure at an estimated 5,000 homes in Flint."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "These standards are incorporated into the permits, which may include additional treatment requirements for individual plants developed on a case-by-case basis. NPDES permits must be renewed every five years. EPA has authorized 47 state agencies to issue and enforce NPDES permits. EPA regional offices issue permits for the rest of the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint water crisis",
        "text": "On October 10, 2016, city council approved contracts to replace pipes at 788 more homes before winter. The third phase will be funded using a portion of $25 million approved by the Michigan Legislature in June that was allocated for replacing Flint lead tainted pipes for Fast Start's third phase, which will replace infrastructure at an estimated 5,000 homes in Flint. Goyette will be paid $1,663,300.60 for replacements at 260 addresses in city wards two, six and eight. WT Stevens will be paid $2,306,384 for replacements at 488 addresses in city wards three, four, eight and nine."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What laws in the United States protect access to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There have been several!  Would you like to know more about the Safe Drinking Water Act, Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act, the 1987 Water Quality Act, or the establishment of the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund by Congress?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act please."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Congress passed the Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act in 2011. This amendment, effective in 2014, tightened the definition of \"lead-free\" plumbing fixtures and fittings."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has there been any modifications to the Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act after 2014?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes, there are several of note, including additional requirements and a change in the rules about replacing lead service lines. Which of those would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about the additional requirements added?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines (LSLs) when the action level is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation.The EPA takes the position that although 3% is less than 7%, the new replacement program has fewer loopholes."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I see. What about the change in the rules about replacing lead service lines?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines when the \"action level\" for lead is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation.[18][19] Several citizen and environmental groups immediately filed lawsuits challenging the rule, on March 12, 2021 EPA delayed the effective date of the rule to June 17, 2021.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "That information is addressed in the prior response, but I can better speak to the additional requirements added. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools."
    ],
    "topic": "Human right to water and sanitation",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Lead and Copper Rule:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Lead and Copper Rule",
          "Adoption"
        ],
        "ctx": "In response to the Flint, Michigan water crisis, EPA published a final rule on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines (LSLs) when the action level is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation. The EPA takes the position that although 3% is less than 7%, the new replacement program has fewer loopholes. Under the prior version, water systems were able to \"test out\" of the LSL replacement program, delay implementation because they did not have LSL inventories, or complete partial replacements and therefore, few water systems ever satisfied the full 7%. Several citizen and environmental groups immediately filed lawsuits challenging the rule. On March 12, 2021 EPA delayed the effective date of the rule to June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Lead and Copper Rule:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Lead and Copper Rule",
          "Adoption"
        ],
        "ctx": "In response to the Flint, Michigan water crisis, EPA published a final rule on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines (LSLs) when the action level is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation. The EPA takes the position that although 3% is less than 7%, the new replacement program has fewer loopholes. Under the prior version, water systems were able to \"test out\" of the LSL replacement program, delay implementation because they did not have LSL inventories, or complete partial replacements and therefore, few water systems ever satisfied the full 7%. Several citizen and environmental groups immediately filed lawsuits challenging the rule. On March 12, 2021 EPA delayed the effective date of the rule to June 17, 2021."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Also notable is the case of \"Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar\", where a discharge of sludge from the washeries into the Bokaro River was petitioned against by way of public interest litigation. The courts found that the right to life, as protected by Article 21 of the Constitution of India, included the right to enjoy pollution-free water. The case failed upon the facts and it was held that the petition had been filed not in any public interest but for the petitioner's personal interest and therefore a continuation of litigation would amount to an abuse of process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The court found that the discontinuation of the existing water source, which had not adhered to the \"fair and reasonable\" requirements of the South African Water Services Act, was illegal. It is important to note that the decision pre-dates the adoption of the UN General Comment No. 15."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The following cases from the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) concern the contracts established between governments and corporations for the maintenance of waterways. Although the cases regard questions of investment, commentators have noted that the indirect impact of the right to water upon the verdicts is significant. World Bank data shows that water privatization spiked starting in the 1990s and significant growth in privatization continued into the 2000s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The right to water has been considered in the Inter-American Court of Human Rights case of the \"Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay\". The issues involved the states failure to acknowledge indigenous communities' property rights over ancestral lands. In 1991, the state removed the indigenous Sawhoyamaxa community from the land resulting in their loss of access to basic essential services, like water, food, schooling and health services. This fell within the scope of the American Convention on Human Rights; encroaching the right to life. Water is included in this right, as part of access to land. The courts required the lands to be returned, compensation provided, and basic goods and services to be implemented, while the community was in the process of having their lands returned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Here a water usage dispute arose due to the fact that the state of Haryana was using the Jamuna River for irrigation, while the residents of Delhi needed it for the purpose of drinking. It was reasoned that domestic use overrode the commercial use of water and the court ruled that Haryana must allow enough water to get to Delhi for consumption and domestic use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "A revised UN resolution in 2015 highlighted that the two rights were separate but equal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "In response to the Flint, Michigan water crisis, EPA published a revised LCR on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines when the \"action level\" for lead is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "In 2000, the Federal Court concluded the agreement that allowed indigenous landowners to take water for traditional purposes. However, the use is limited to traditional purpose, which did not include irrigation as a traditional practice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "In response to the Flint, Michigan water crisis, EPA published revisions to the Lead and Copper Rule on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines when the \"action level\" for lead is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation. Several citizen and environmental groups immediately filed lawsuits challenging the rule. On March 12, 2021 EPA delayed the effective date of the rule to June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The human right to water and sanitation (HRWS) is a principle that acknowledges that clean drinking water and sanitation are essential to every person's life. It was recognised as a human right by the United Nations General Assembly on 28 July 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Contention exists regarding whose, if anyone's, responsibility it is to ensure the human right to water and sanitation. Often, two schools of thought emerge from such discourse: it is the state's responsibility to provide access to clean water to people versus the privatization of distribution and sanitation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Without the existence of an international body that can enforce it, the human right to water relies upon the activity of national courts. The basis for this has been established through the constitutionalisation of economic, social and cultural rights (ESCR) through one of two means: as \"directive principles\" that are goals and are often non-justiciable; or as expressly protected and enforceable through the courts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "It was held in the High Court that the city's by-laws did not provide for the installation of meters and that their installation was unlawful. Further, as the meters halted supply of water to residence once the free basic water supply had ended, this was deemed an unlawful discontinuation of the water supply. The court held the residents of Phiri should be provided with a free basic water supply of 50 litres per person per day. The work of the Centre for Applied Legal Studies (CALS) of the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa and the Pacific Institute in Oakland, California shared a 2008 Business Ethics Network BENNY Award for their work on this case. The Pacific Institute contributed legal testimony based on the work of Dr. Peter Gleick defining a human right to water and quantifying basic human needs for water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Following intense negotiations, 122 countries formally acknowledged \"the Human Right to Water and Sanitation\" in General Assembly Resolution 64/292 on 28 July 2010. It recognized the right of every human being to have access to sufficient water for personal and domestic uses (between 50 and 100 liters of water per person per day), which must be safe, acceptable and affordable (water costs should not exceed 3% of household income), and physically accessible (the water source has to be within 1,000 meters of the home and collection time should not exceed 30 minutes).\" The General Assembly declared that clean drinking water is \"essential to the full enjoyment of life and all other human rights\". In September 2010, the UN Human Rights Council adopted a resolution recognizing that the human right to water and sanitation forms part of the right to an adequate standard of living."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality in the United States",
        "text": "In response to the Flint water crisis, EPA published revisions to the LCR on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines when the action level for lead is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation. Several citizen and environmental groups immediately filed lawsuits challenging the rule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Human right to water and sanitation\n--International context.\n--Legal foundations and recognition.\n--International jurisprudence.\n----Inter-American Court of Human Rights.\n----International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes.\n------\"Azurix Corp v. Argentina\".\n------\"Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania\".\n--Right to water in domestic law.\n----South Africa.\n------\"Residents of Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Local Council\".\n------\"Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg\".\n----India.\n------\"Delhi Water Supply v. State of Haryana\".\n------\"Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar\".\n------World Rights to Water Day.\n----New Zealand.\n----United States.\n------\"Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. United States Army Corps of Engineers\".\n----Australia.\n--Remaining discussions.\n----Transboundary effects.\n------Water Dispute Between India and Pakistan.\n----Water commercialization versus state provision.\n----Pluralism perspectives as a mean to protect the right of a socially weak community.\n--Organizations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "International trade and water",
        "text": "In July 2010, the UN General Assembly declared that access to clean water and sanitation is a human right. The assembly did not specify whether a public authority or the private sector would be best capable of providing this right.\n* Gaza blockade\n* Shared vision planning\n* Spragg Bag\n* Water law\n* Water privatization\n* Water trading\n* World Water Monitoring Day"
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The first notable case in which the courts did so was the \"Residents of Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Local Council\". The case was brought by residents of a block of flats (Bon Vista Mansions), following the disconnection of the water supply by the local Council, resulting from the failure to pay water charges. The court held that in adherence to the South African Constitution, that constitutionally all persons ought to have access to water as a right."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Secondly, a similar case encountered by the ICSID is that of \"Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania\". This was again a case of a private water company in a contractual dispute with a government, this time the United Republic of Tanzania. This contract was for the operation and management of the Dar es Salaam water system. In May 2005, the Tanzania government ended the contract with Biwater Gauff for its alleged failure to meet performance guarantees. In July 2008, the Tribunal issued its decision on the case, declaring that the Tanzania government had violated the agreement with Biwater Gauff. It did not however award monetary damages to Biwater, acknowledging that public interest concerns were paramount in the dispute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clean Water Rule",
        "text": "On August 30, 2021, the United States District Court for the District of Arizona threw out the 2020 replacement rule in \"Pasqua Yaqui Tribe et al v. EPA.\" The court stated that EPA made serious procedural errors in its issuance of the 2020 rule and that implementation of the rule would lead to \"serious environmental harm.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Organizations working on the rights to water and sanitation are listed below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The first notable case regarding the right to water in the ICSID is that of \"Azurix Corp v. Argentina\". The dispute was between the Argentine Republic and Azurix Corporation regarding discrepancies arising from a 30-year contract between the parties to operate the water supply of various provinces. A consideration in regard to the right to water is implicitly made during the arbitration for compensation, where it was held that Azurix was entitled to a fair return on the market value of the investment. This was rather than the requested US$438.6 million, citing that a reasonable business person could not expect such a return, given the limits of water price increases and improvements that would be required to ensure a well-functioning, clean water system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carmen Consuelo Cerezo",
        "text": "On March 28, 2018, Cerezo ruled in \"Arroyo v. Rossell\u00f3\" that Puerto Rico must allow transgender people to change their gender marker on their birth certificate. In her opinion, Cerezo wrote,The right to identify our own existence lies at the heart of one\u2019s humanity. And so, we must heed their voices: \u2018the woman that I am,\u2019 \u2018the man that I am.\u2019 Plaintiffs know they are not fodder for memoranda legalese. They have stepped up for those whose voices, debilitated by raw discrimination, have been hushed into silence. They cannot wait for another generation, hoping for a lawmaker to act. They, like Linda Brown, took the steps to the courthouse to demand what is due: their right to exist, to live more and die less.In August 2018, Cerezo ordered Mora Development Corp. to pay $3 million for a Clean Water Act violation after the corporation discharged more than 29 million gallons of sewage into the municipal stormwater system and into Quilan Creek as well as discharging sewage into the La Plata River without proper treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "World Toilet Day",
        "text": "The Human Right to Water and Sanitation was recognized as a human right by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly on 28 July 2010. Lack of access to sanitation (toilets) has an impact on public health, dignity, and safety. The spread of many diseases (e.g. soil-transmitted helminthiasis, diarrhea, schistosomiasis) and stunted growth in children is directly related to people being exposed to human feces because toilets are either not available or not used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "A further step was taken in 2005 by the former UN Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights which issued guidelines to assist governments to achieve and respect the human right to water and sanitation. These guidelines led the UN Human Rights Council to assign Catarina de Albuquerque as an independent expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitation in 2008. She wrote a detailed report in 2009 that outlined human rights obligations to sanitation, and the CESCR responded by stating that sanitation should be recognized by all states."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "In \"Pilchen v. City of Auburn, New York\", a single mother named Diane Pilchen was living as a rental tenant in a foreclosed house, in which the owner (landlord) of the house had failed to pay the water bill for some time. The City of Auburn billed Pilchen for the landlord's arrears, and repeatedly shut her water service off without notice when she could not pay these debts, making the house uninhabitable. The city condemned the home and forced Pilchen and her child to move out. Pilchen was represented by the Public Utility Law Project of New York (PULP) in the lawsuit. The City of Auburn attempted unsuccessfully to argue that water is not a constitutional right because bottled water could be used instead, an argument that was contested by PULP as absurd. In 2010, Pilchen won summary judgment in which it was determined that shutting off the water violated her constitutional rights, and that Pilchen could not be billed and stopped from having water due to an unrelated party's delays in paying water bills."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The quantity of water to be provided was further discussed in \"Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg\". The case revolved around the distribution of water through pipes to Phiri, one of the oldest areas of Soweto. This case concerned two major issues: whether or not the city's policy regarding the supply of free basic water, 6 kilolitres per month to each account holder in the city was in conflict with Section 27 of the South African Constitution or Section 11 of the Water Services Act. The second issue being whether or not the installation of pre-paid water meters was lawful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Water shortages and increasing consumption of freshwater make this right incredibly complicated. As the world population rapidly increases, freshwater shortages will cause many problems. A shortage in the quantity of water brings up the question of whether or not water should be transferred from one country to another."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The big respondents took the case to the Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA) which held that the city's water policy had been formulated based upon a material error of law in regards to the city's obligation to provide the minimum set in the South African National Standard, therefore it was set aside. The court also held the quantity for dignified human existence in compliance with section 27 of the constitution was in fact 42 litres per person per day rather than 50 litres per person per day. The SCA declared that the installation of water meters was illegal, but suspended the order for two years to give the city an opportunity to rectify the situation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Further reasoning for the decision was based on General Comment 12 on the Right to Food, made by the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights imposing upon parties to the agreement the obligation to observe and respect already existing access to adequate food by not implementing any encroaching measures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "\"The International Bill of Human Rights\"- which comprises the 1966: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR); 1966: Articles 11 and 12 of the 1966 International Covenant of Economic, Social, and Cultural Right (ICERS); and 1948: Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) documented the evolution of human right to water and sanitation and other water-associated rights to be recognised in worldwide decree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Given the fact that access to water is a cross-border source of concern and potential conflict in the Middle East, South Asia, the Eastern Mediterranean and parts of North America amongst other places, some non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and scholars argue that the right to water also has a trans-national or extraterritorial aspect. They argue that given the fact that water supplies naturally overlap and cross borders, states also have a legal obligation not to act in a way that might have a negative effect on the enjoyment of human rights in other states. The formal acknowledgement of this legal obligation could prevent the negative effects of the global \"water crunch\" (as a future threat and one negative result of human over-population)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Community-led total sanitation",
        "text": "More debate is still needed regarding humans rights consequences of posttriggering punitive measures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sanitation",
        "text": "The overall purposes of sanitation are to provide a healthy living environment for everyone, to protect the natural resources (such as surface water, groundwater, soil), and to provide safety, security and dignity for people when they defecate or urinate.The Human Right to Water and Sanitation was recognized by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly in 2010. It has been recognized in international law through human rights treaties, declarations and other standards. It is derived from the human right to an adequate standard of living."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clean Water Rule",
        "text": "The lack of a majority opinion in the 2006 \"Rapanos\" case prompted a second set of EPA guidelines directing the agency to determine wetlands protection on a case-by-case basis. This contributed to an uptick in lawsuits for the next 8 years challenging the EPA's regulatory authority over streams and wetlands. Seeking to reduce confusion and to restore the original scope of WOTUS to pre-SWANCC levels, repeated unsuccessful attempts were made to pass the Clean Water Authority Restoration Act (CWRA) in each Congress from 2002 to 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clean Water Act",
        "text": "Any U.S. citizen may file a citizen suit against any person who has allegedly violated an effluent standard or limitation (i.e., a provision in an NPDES permit) or against the EPA Administrator if the Administrator failed to perform any non-discretionary act or duty required by the CWA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint water crisis",
        "text": "A federal lawsuit filed on January 27, 2016, seeks the replacement of all lead service lines in Flint at no cost to residents following claims city and state leaders violated federal laws designed to protect drinking water. It is also asking the court to force city and state officials to provide safe drinking water to Flint residents and require them to follow federal regulations for testing and treating water to control for lead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The HRWS has been recognized in international law through human rights treaties, declarations and other standards. Some commentators have derived the human right to water beyond the General Assembly resolution from Article 11.1 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), making it binding under international law. Other treaties that explicitly recognize the HRWS include the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). The first resolutions about the HRWS were passed by the UN General Assembly and the UN Human Rights Council in 2010. They acknowledged that there was a human right to sanitation connected to the human right to water, since the lack of sanitation reduces the quality of water downstream, so subsequent discussions have continued emphasizing both rights together. In July 2010, United Nations (UN) General Assembly Resolution 64/292 acknowledged the human right to receive safe, affordable, and clean accessible water and sanitation services. During that General Assembly, it accepted that for the comprehension of enjoyment in life and all human rights, safe and clean drinking water as well as sanitation is acknowledged as a human right. The acceptance that access to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a free human right in the General Assembly\u2019s Resolution (64/292) brings an important worldwide governmental control of it. The fulfillment of a productive and healthy life will transpire by recognizing broadly the significance of accessing dependable and clean water and sanitation services."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tom Rooney (Florida politician)",
        "text": "In September, a federal judge temporarily stopped the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers from imposing federal water quality standards on former croplands in the Everglades, ruling that the Corps had changed its rules about water quality standards on former croplands without proper public notice and hearing. In December, 2010, Florida Attorney General Bill McCollum and Attorney General-elect Pam Bondi decided to file a lawsuit against the EPA regarding its proposed numeric nutrient rule. Rooney endorsed that decision, saying that \"this lawsuit will put a stop to the EPA's misguided assaults on Florida's families and industries.\" Senator George LeMieux also endorsed the legal challenge to the EPA rule for Florida."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Development Goal 6",
        "text": "The United Nations (UN) has determined that access to clean water and sanitation facilities is a basic human right. However few countries have included a human right to water in enforceable legislation. Over 2 billion people in the world lack access to water that is free of health risks. By 2017, eighty countries provided access to clean water for more than 99% of their population. From 2000 to 2017, the global population that lacked access to clean water decreased from nearly 20% to roughly 10%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead and Copper Rule",
        "text": "In response to the Flint, Michigan water crisis, EPA published a final rule on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines (LSLs) when the action level is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation. The EPA takes the position that although 3% is less than 7%, the new replacement program has fewer loopholes. Under the prior version, water systems were able to \"test out\" of the LSL replacement program, delay implementation because they did not have LSL inventories, or complete partial replacements and therefore, few water systems ever satisfied the full 7%. Several citizen and environmental groups immediately filed lawsuits challenging the rule. On March 12, 2021 EPA delayed the effective date of the rule to June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint water crisis",
        "text": "Two of the lawsuits had reached the Sixth Circuit Appeals Court; in both cases, the Court rejected the city officials' claims of immunity to allow the cases to continue. The Sixth Circuit asserted the citizens had a right to remedy since the officials' decision to switch water sources in 2014 harmed the citizens' Constitutional right to \"bodily integrity\". The officials had petitioned to the Supreme Court of the United States on the question of immunity, but in January 2020, the Supreme Court declined to hear either case, allowing both cases to proceed at the lower court."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The two most prominent cases in India regarding the right to water illustrate that although this is not explicitly protected in the Constitution of India, it has been interpreted by the courts that the right to life includes the right to safe and sufficient water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in Nigeria",
        "text": "In 2011, the government voted in the United Nations in favor of a resolution making water and sanitation a human right. However, it has not passed legislation to enshrine the human right to water and sanitation in national law. The country is not on track to reach the Millennium Development Goal for water and sanitation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "ESCR are not explicitly protected in New Zealand at the current time, either by the Human Rights or Bill of Rights Acts, therefore the right to water is not defended by law there. The New Zealand Law Society has recently indicated that this country would give further consideration to the legal status of economic, social and cultural rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sanitation",
        "text": "The Human Right to Water and Sanitation was recognized by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly in 2010. Sanitation is a global development priority and the subject of Sustainable Development Goal 6. The estimate in 2017 by JMP states that 4.5 billion people currently do not have safely managed sanitation. Lack of access to sanitation has an impact not only on public health but also on human dignity and personal safety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter Gleick",
        "text": "A 1996 paper from Gleick argued for defining and quantifying a basic water requirement of 50 liters of water per person per day for drinking, cooking, cleaning, and sanitation, and the United Nations cited this work in General Comment 15, drafted in 2002, which provided their clearest definition of the human right to water to that point United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in General Comment 15 drafted in 2002. General Comment 15 was a non-binding interpretation that access to water was a condition for the enjoyment of the right to an adequate standard of living, inextricably related to the right to the highest attainable standard of health, and therefore a human right. It stated: \"The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses.\" In 2010, the UN General Assembly formally adopted the human right to water and sanitation in General Assembly Resolution 64/292 on 28 July 2010. That Resolution recognized the right of every human being to have access to sufficient, safe, and affordable water for personal and domestic uses. In September 2010, the UN Human Rights Council adopted a resolution recognizing that the human right to water and sanitation forms part of the right to an adequate standard of living. Gleick\u2019s work on basic water requirements and human rights was also used in the \"Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg\" court case in South Africa addressing the human right to water in Phiri, one of the oldest areas of the Soweto township. The Pacific Institute contributed legal testimony for this case based on the work of Dr. Peter Gleick and the work of the Centre for Applied Legal Studies (CALS) of the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa and the Pacific Institute in Oakland, California was acknowledged with a 2008 Business Ethics Network BENNY Award."
      },
      {
        "title": "Center for Justice and Accountability",
        "text": "On April 27, 2007, Judge Brinkema of the Federal District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia dismissed the human rights lawsuit, ruling that the defendant enjoyed immunity from civil actions under the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human rights in Solomon Islands",
        "text": "The right to sanitation is an integral part of the right to an adequate standard of living, defined in Article 11(1) of the ICESCR. As well as relating to right to health, housing and water, the UN CRC recognizes the right for access to sanitation. According to a 2009 survey of Honiara, only a quarter of residents had adequate toilet facilities. Around 55 percent relieved themselves either in the sea, a river, or nearby toilets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clean Water Act",
        "text": "The Sixth Circuit appeals court stay was overturned on January 22, 2018 when the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that challenges to the 2015 rule must be filed in United States district courts. EPA then formally suspended the 2015 regulation and announced plans to issue a new version later in 2018. The Trump administration formally repealed the WOTUS rule on October 22, 2019 and published a replacement rule on April 21, 2020. On August 30, 2021, the United States District Court for the District of Arizona threw out the 2020 replacement rule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "EPA published a proposed rule for perchlorate on June 26, 2019, with a proposed MCL of 0.056\u00a0mg/L for public water systems. On June 18, 2020 EPA announced that it was withdrawing its 2019 proposal, stating that it had taken \"proactive steps\" with state and local governments to address perchlorate contamination. In September 2020 the Natural Resources Defense Council filed suit against EPA for its failure to regulate perchlorate, and stated that 26 million people may be affected by perchlorate in their drinking water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead contamination in Washington, D.C., drinking water",
        "text": "In March 2005, the EPA proposed changes strengthening the Lead and Copper Rule. The changes require utilities to give test results directly to homeowners, and to notify state and federal regulators before changing water-treatment methods. Critics, such as Clean Water Action, called the changes \"revisions at the margins.\" Rick Maas, co-director of the Environmental Quality Institute at the University of North Carolina, said the revisions would \"solve maybe 5 to 10 percent of the problem\" with the Rule. Trade organizations, such as the American Water Works Association, found the changes \"basically reasonable.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The UN Committee for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) overseeing ICESCR compliance came to similar conclusions as these scholars with General Comment 15 in 2002. It found that a right to water was implicitly part of the right to an adequate standard of living and related to the right to the highest attainable standard of health and the rights to adequate housing and adequate food. It defines that \"The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses. An adequate amount of safe water is necessary to prevent death from dehydration, to reduce the risk of water-related disease and to provide for consumption, cooking, personal and domestic hygienic requirements.\" Several countries agreed and formally acknowledged the right to water to be part of their treaty obligations under the ICESCR (e.g., Germany; United Kingdom; Netherlands) after publication of General Comment 15."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Scholars also called attention to the importance of possible UN recognition of human rights to water and sanitation at the end of the twentieth century. Two early efforts to define the human right to water came from law professor Stephen McCaffrey of the University of the Pacific in 1992 and Dr. Peter Gleick in 1999. McCaffrey stated that \"Such a right could be envisaged as part and parcel of the right to food or sustenance, the right to health, or most fundamentally, the right to life. Gleick added: \"that access to a basic water requirement is a fundamental human right implicitly and explicitly supported by international law, declarations, and State practice.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "Subsequent resolutions extended the mandate of the Special Rapporteur and defined each state's role in the respect of these rights. The most recent General Assembly Resolution 7/169 of 2015 has been called a declaration of \"The Human Rights to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation. It recognized the distinction between the right to water and the right to sanitation. This decision was made due to concern about the right to sanitation being overlooked when compared to the right to water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The ICESCR requires signatory countries to progressively achieve and respect all human rights, including those of water and sanitation. They should work quickly and efficiently to increase access and improve service."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public Facilities Privacy & Security Act",
        "text": "On July 23, 2019, federal judge Thomas D. Schroeder approved the 2017 settlement, clarifying that transgender people have the right to use restrooms in state-owned buildings that match their gender identities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water contamination in Lawrence and Morgan Counties, Alabama",
        "text": "Along with 3M Co, Daikin and its subsidiary Dyneon LLC got sued for its water contamination in the Tennessee River. According to the West Morgan-East Lawrence Water and Sewer Authority, Daikin settled its portion of the lawsuit by paying $5 million involving with the water contamination containing PFOA and PFOS. The settlement consisted of $3.9 million going into the water's authority's temporary filtration system and $450,000 will be divided amongst the water systems in the state. In relations to the settlement, Daikin admitted that they did no wrong in the disposal of the chemicals and customers are reimbursed for their water bills during the \"do-not-drink warning\" period. Although the lawsuit has been ongoing for a while, the EPA issued a health advisory on May 19, 2016, to advised women of childbearing age to not use the drinking water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Changing World Technologies",
        "text": "In 2007, two residents filed a lawsuit against Renewable Environmental Solutions because they say they suffered due to odors from the operation. They also filed to expand the suit to a class action. A judge denied class action status on March 9, 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drinking water quality in the United States",
        "text": "On June 18, 2020 EPA announced that it was withdrawing its 2019 proposal and its 2011 regulatory determination, stating that it had taken \"proactive steps\" with state and local governments to address perchlorate contamination. In September 2020 the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) filed suit against EPA for its failure to regulate perchlorate. NRDC stated that the chemical has now been detected in 26 states, and that 26 million people may be affected by perchlorate in their drinking water."
      },
      {
        "title": "WASH",
        "text": "The human rights to water and sanitation prohibit discrimination on the grounds of \"race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth, disability or other status\". These are all dimensions of inequality in WASH services."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The clearest definition of the human right to water was issued by the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in General Comment 15 drafted in 2002. It was a non-binding interpretation that access to water was a condition for the enjoyment of the right to an adequate standard of living, inextricably related to the right to the highest attainable standard of health, and therefore a human right. It stated: \"The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "In June 2004, CoAC concluded an intergovernmental accord on a National Water Initiative (NWI), promoting recognition of indigenous right to water. However, NWI is not concerned broadly about complex history of settler-colonialism, which has systematically created a unequal pattern of water distribution. Indigenous people in Australia are constantly seeking the right to water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Institute for Justice & Democracy in Haiti",
        "text": "In November 2011, IJDH and BAI filed 5,000 claims to the U.N demanding accountability for the cholera epidemic. The case calls for the UN to implement a national water and sanitation system, fully compensate the victims of the epidemic, and issue a public apology. Various responses were both supportive and critical of this endeavor. Victoria Fan, in a joint post with Richard Cash from the Harvard School of Public Health, suggests that the lawsuit focused on the wrong culprit. Rather than addressing the problems of the environment and seeing this as a global failure to Haitians, the lawsuit is just playing a form of the \u201cblame game\u201d."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation reported that 663 million people did not have access to improved sources of drinking water and more than 2.4 billion people lacked access to basic sanitation services in 2015. Access to clean water is a major problem for many parts of the world. Acceptable sources include \"household connections, public standpipes, boreholes, protected dug wells, protected springs and rainwater collections.\" Although 9 percent of the global population lacks access to water, there are \"regions particularly delayed, such as Sub-Saharan Africa\". The UN further emphasizes that \"about 1.5 million children under the age of five die each year and 443 million school days are lost because of water- and sanitation-related diseases.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Hodge decision",
        "text": "The Environmental Defense Fund filed suit against EBMUD in 1972 on the premise of apprehension towards the future of the Lower American River fish population. In addition, SARA and Sacramento County joined the lawsuit as co-plaintiffs ensuing the lawsuit of \"Environmental Defense Fund, et al. v. East Bay Municipal Utility District\" (EDF v. EBMUD). After 17 years of legal maneuvering, Judge Hodge decided to enforce new flow requirements on the American River, updating the flow requirements referred to as D-893, to the Hodge Flows. In addition, he terminated EBMUD's right to sell water taken from the American River. However, the decision also cemented EBMUD's right from the 1970 federal contract, allowing the diversion of up to of water from the American River, north of Sacramento, to remain in place. Judge Hodge addressed that EBMUD had other reasonable and feasible alternatives for obtaining water for its customers. Thus, EBMUD can only divert water from the American River when specified Hodge Flows are present in the river. Nevertheless, according to the Hodge Decision, if a water agency does not have any other feasible alternatives to obtaining water, the agency does not have to abide by the Hodge standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Idaho v. United States",
        "text": "The tribe has proceeded to file lawsuits requiring cleanup against mining companies for contamination of waters and land. State and federal politicians have moved to limit the damages that could be collected against the companies."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States Fish and Wildlife Service v. Sierra Club",
        "text": "In 2011, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) proposed a new rule for using water from natural sources for cooling of industrial equipment. Since aquatic species may be drawn up in the uptake of this water, including endangered species, the EPA was required under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 to consult with the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) to determine if this rule would properly safeguard"
      },
      {
        "title": "Clean Water Rule",
        "text": "The rule was contested in litigation. In 2017 the Trump administration announced its intent to review and rescind or revise the rule. A Supreme Court ruling on January 22, 2018 returned the rule's nationwide authority after the rule was decided to be illegal by a lower court. It gave back jurisdiction previously complicated by decisions from the circuit courts of appeals. Two weeks later, the Trump administration formally suspended the rule until February 6, 2020. The Trump administration formally repealed the WOTUS rule on September 12, 2019 and published a replacement rule on April 21, 2020. On August 30, 2021, the United States District Court for the District of Arizona threw out the 2020 replacement rule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water resources law",
        "text": "The human right to water places the main responsibilities upon governments to ensure that people can enjoy \"sufficient, safe, accessible and affordable water, without discrimination\". Most especially, governments are expected to take reasonable steps to avoid a contaminated water supply and to ensure there are no water access distinctions amongst citizens. Today all states have at least ratified one human rights convention which explicitly or implicitly recognizes the right, and they all have signed at least one political declaration recognizing this right."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The mandate of Catarina de Albuquerque as \"Independent expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitation\" was extended and renamed as \"Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation\" after the resolutions in 2010. Through her reports to the Human Rights Council and the UN General Assembly, she continued clarifying the scope and content of the human right to water and sanitation. As Special Rapporteur, she addressed issues such as: Human Rights Obligations Related to Non-State Service Provision in Water and Sanitation (2010); Financing for the Realization of the Rights to Water and Sanitation (2011); Wastewater management in the realization of the rights to water and sanitation (2013); and Sustainability and non-retrogression in the realization of the rights to water and sanitation (2013). L\u00e9o Heller was appointed in 2014 to be the second Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safe Drinking Water Act",
        "text": "On June 18, 2020 EPA announced that it was withdrawing its 2019 proposal and its 2011 regulatory determination, stating that it had taken \"proactive steps\" with state and local governments to address perchlorate contamination. In September 2020 NRDC filed suit against EPA for its failure to regulate perchlorate, and stated that 26 million people may be affected by perchlorate in their drinking water."
      },
      {
        "title": "United Nations Water Conference",
        "text": "UN Resolution formally recognizes the right to water and sanitation and acknowledges they are essential for human rights. The Resolution calls upon States and international organizations to provide financial resources and technology, especially to developing countries, to provide safe, clean, accessible, and affordable drinking water and sanitation for all Water is a human right for everyone to have."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dublin Statement",
        "text": "On 30 September 2010, the 15th Session of the UN Human Rights Council passed Resolution A/HRC/15/L.14, reaffirming an earlier General Assembly resolution (64/292 of 28 July 2010) which \"recognized the right to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a human right that is essential for the full enjoyment of life and all human rights\". Resolution A/HRC/15/L.14 clarifies that \"the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation is derived from the right to an adequate standard of living and inextricably related to the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, as well as the right to life and human dignity\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clean Water Rule",
        "text": "After thirteen states sued to block the rule, U.S. Chief District Judge for North Dakota Ralph R. Erickson issued a preliminary injunction in 2015, hours before the rule was to take effect, blocking regulation in those states. In a separate case, the Sixth Circuit Court temporarily halted implementation of the 2015 Rule by issuing a nationwide stay on October 9, 2015, which was the day before the rule was supposed to come into effect. The Sixth Circuit's decision was overturned on January 22, 2018 when the Supreme Court of the United States issued a unanimous decision that the appeals courts do not have original jurisdiction to review challenges to the Clean Water Act and, therefore, lack the authority to issue a stay. Rather, challenges to the 2015 Rule must be filed in United States district courts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Community-led total sanitation",
        "text": "Catarina de Alburquerque, the former United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Water and Sanitation, is quoted as saying that \"Observers have also recognized that incentives for encouraging behavior change and the construction of latrines are sometimes unacceptable, and include public shaming, including photographing, of those who still practice open defecation.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Range Resources",
        "text": "In March 2012, the EPA dropped its order against the company. The company said the move could help its $4.2 million defamation lawsuit against a Parker County couple who alleged in a $6.5 million lawsuit that Range contaminated their drinking water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wastewater discharge standards in Latin America",
        "text": "In June 2007, the Sanitary Services Superintendent's Office (SISS) started a lawsuit against the paper company Licancel after \"not complying with the 90 Supreme Decrete, that regulates waste water disposal\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The opponents believe that the consequence of water being a human right excludes private sector involvement and requires that water should be given to all people because it is essential to life. Access to water as a human right is used by some NGOs as a means to combat privatization efforts. A human right to water \"generally rests on two justifications: the non-substitutability of drinking water (\"essential for life\"), and the fact that many other human rights which are explicitly recognized in the UN Conventions are predicated upon an (assumed) availability of water (e.g. the right to food).\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) of 1966 codified the economic, social, and cultural rights found within the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) of 1948. Neither of these early documents explicitly recognized human rights to water and sanitation. Several later international human rights conventions, however, had provisions that explicitly recognized rights to water and sanitation.\n* The 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) has Article 14.2 that states that \"parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in rural areas to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, that they participate in and benefit from rural development and, in particular shall ensure to women the right:\u2026 (h) To enjoy adequate living conditions, particularly in relation to housing, sanitation, electricity and water supply, transport and communications.\"\n* The 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) has Article 24 that provides that \"parties recognize the right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health and to facilities for the treatment of illness and rehabilitation of health \u2026 2. States parties shall pursue full implementation of this right and, in particular, shall take appropriate measures... (c) To combat disease and malnutrition, including within the framework of primary health care, through, inter alia\u2026 the provision of adequate nutritious foods and clean drinking water...\"\n* The 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) has Article 28(2)(a) that requires that \"parties recognize the right of persons with disabilities to social protection and to the enjoyment of that right without discrimination on the basis of disability, and shall take appropriate steps to safeguard and promote the realization of this right, including measures to ensure equal access by persons with disabilities to clean water services, and to ensure access to appropriate and affordable services, devices and other assistance for disability-related needs.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jenner & Block",
        "text": "Jenner & Block has continued to represent environmental groups such as the Alliance for the Great Lakes and Natural Resources Defense Council in a Clean Water Act suit against Chicago's Metropolitan Water Reclamation District regarding raw sewage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clean Water Rule",
        "text": "Clean Water Rule\n--Key provisions of the rescinded 2015 rule.\n--Defining \u2018Waters of the United States\u2019.\n----Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook County (SWANCC) v. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.\n----Rapanos v. United States.\n--Development.\n--Implications for stakeholders.\n--Legal challenges and opposition.\n----Partisan and industry opposition.\n----Federal stay.\n--Trump administration.\n--Biden administration.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "Congress passed the \"Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act\" tightening the definition of \"lead free\" plumbing, in 2011. EPA published a final rule implementing the law on September 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hendler v. United States",
        "text": "Upstream from the plaintiff's property there were some acid pits, which overflowed as a result of some heavy rain. The State of California undertook to clean it up. The Government then entered upon the plaintiff's land, without consent and over their objection, for the purpose of sinking wells for monitoring ground water migration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley Emergency Water Delivery Act",
        "text": "Title II: San Joaquin River Restoration - Title II would direct the Secretary of the Interior to cease any action to implement the Stipulation of Settlement dated September 13, 2006, in the litigation entitled Natural Resources Defense Council, et al. v. Kirk Rodgers, et al., U.S. District Court, Eastern District of California."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in the United States",
        "text": "In November 2006, EPA published its \"Ground Water Rule\", due to concerns that public water systems supplied by ground water would be vulnerable to contamination from harmful microorganisms, including fecal matter. The objective of the regulation, promulgated under the authority of the Safe Drinking Water Act, is to keep microbial pathogens out of public water sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Climate change litigation",
        "text": "In September 2019, a group of six children and young adults from Portugal filed a lawsuit at the European Court of Human Rights. Supported by the British NGO Global Legal Action Network (GLAN), they argue that tougher climate action is needed to safeguard their future physical and mental well-being. The court asked 33 European governments to explain by February 2021 whether their failure to tackle global heating violates Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Water supply and sanitation in South Africa",
        "text": "In April 2008 the South African High Court found the practice of prepaid meters in Soweto unconstitutional, and wrote that denying the poor access to adequate water \"is to deny them the rights to health and to lead a dignified lifestyle.\" Further, the judge stated that \"25 liters per person per day is insufficient for the residents of Phiri\", and ordered the city to provide free basic water in the amount of 50 liters per person per day with the option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) for more use. The Court apparently assumed a household size of eight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sackett v. Environmental Protection Agency (2012)",
        "text": "The United States District Court for the District of Idaho ruled against the Sacketts, finding that the area in question was a wetland and had been filled without necessary permits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Formosa Plastics Corp",
        "text": "In March 2019, the trial began and in June 2019, U.S. District Judge Kenneth M. Hoyt ruled against Formosa Plastics, noting the company's consistent violation of state-issued permits and federal laws. In October 2019, Formosa Plastics agreed to pay US$50 million over five years in a settlement to fund projects reversing water pollution damage in Calhoun County and also comply with \"zero discharge\" of plastic pollutants in the future, making it the largest settlement of a Clean Water Act suit filed by private individuals. This controversy was portrayed in episode 12 (\"Point Comfort\") of the Netflix series Dirty Money in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tom Rooney (Florida politician)",
        "text": "In 2008 the public interest law firm Earthjustice sued the EPA on behalf of five environmental groups, claiming that delays by both state and federal governments in establishing quantitative (rather than qualitative) limits for nutrient pollution of Florida's waters were unacceptable. In August 2009 the Obama administration settled the lawsuit by agreeing to begin the process of imposing enforceable EPA standards for nutrient levels in the public waters of Florida."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clean Water Action",
        "text": "Clean Water Action has endorsed both causes and political actors. In 2008, Clean Water Action and Earth Justice brought a lawsuit against the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection for not complying with state and federal water protection laws by allowing partially treated fracking wastewater to be discharged into the Monongahela River. The court ruled in favor of the plaintiff. In 2012, the group supported the re-election of President Barack Obama."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human right to water and sanitation",
        "text": "In 2016, there was a prominent case known as \"Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. United States Army Corps of Engineers,\" where the Sioux Tribe challenged the building of the Dakota Access Pipeline (DAPL). This crude oil pipeline spans over four states, which includes the beginning in North Dakota, then passes through both South Dakota and Iowa, and ends in Illinois. The Standing Rock Reservation is located near the border of North and South Dakota and the pipeline is built within a half a mile of it. Since the pipeline was built near the reservation, the tribe feared that historical and cultural significance of Lake Oahe would be tampered with, even though the pipeline doesn't run directly through the lake. Lake Oahe provides basic water necessities for the Sioux Tribe such as drinking water and for sanitation. The construction of the oil pipeline means that there is a higher risk of an oil spill into Lake Oahe, which made the tribe concerned. The Sioux Tribe sued the DAPL company as they believed that the creation of the pipeline was violating the National Environmental Policy Act and the National Historic Preservation Act. After the 2016 briefing, the court was unable to come to a conclusion, so the court decided to do additional briefings. After 5 briefings in 2017 and 1 briefing in 2018, the court has allowed the construction of the pipeline, but the Standing Rock tribe continues to fight to ensure that pipeline is removed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Southern Environmental Law Center",
        "text": "When the Trump administration announced its effort to gut clean water protections from wetlands and streams that feed drinking water sources for 200 million Americans (and 32 million people in the South), SELC responded with a federal lawsuit that more than a dozen other groups signed on to."
      },
      {
        "title": "Center for Environmental Health",
        "text": "In one of its early legal cases, CEH tested 16 home water filters and found 6 that were leeching lead into filtered water, above California safety limits. CEH brought Prop 65 lawsuits against the 6 companies. One company withdrew one filter model from the market and offered customers who had purchased the product a refund."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human rights in Kiribati",
        "text": "The rights to water and sanitation derive from the right to an adequate standard of living, recognised in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, CRC and CEDAW \u2013 all of which Kiribati is party to. The government of Kiribati introduced the National Water Resources Policy in 2008 which was supplemented by the introduction of the National Sanitation Policy (NSP) in 2010. The NSP acknowledges that water supply and resource issues in Kiribati are some of the most complex in the world due to a combination of factors including the density of population and the impact of climate change. Both policies contain forty priority issues that required short term attention and an additional twenty-seven requiring attention within the next decade. These policies were criticised by the UN Special Rapporteur in the 2012 Special Report on the human right to drinking water and sanitation in Kiribati. She considered them to be over ambitious and unfocused, with the need for a clear legal framework to be implemented in the country to give national ownership to the issues."
      },
      {
        "title": "U.S. Army Corps of Engineers civil works controversies",
        "text": "The Court's most recent ruling was in June 2006 in Rapanos v. United States. At issue was the way the Federal government regulates the nation's wetlands under the Clean Water Act. The law has been contentious with property owners because it requires a permit for filling and dredging wetlands that empty into navigable waters and their tributaries. Developers have long challenged the Corps' right to regulate wetlands that are not free-flowing into navigable waters. Narrowly avoiding gutting of the Clean Water Act, the Supreme Court voted 5\u20134 to send the case back to the lower courts for a ruling."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Civil Action",
        "text": "A report from the Environmental Protection Agency (which later filed its own lawsuits against the companies based on new evidence) concludes from sludge removed from the site that both companies had contaminated the wells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lashrecse Aird",
        "text": "In 2021, Aird passed HJ 538, a resolution that recognizes access to clean, potable, and affordable water is a necessary human right and established initiatives to ensure no Virginian goes without access to this essential need. Aird is an advocate for reproductive freedom and serves on the board of the Virginia League for Planned Parenthood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flint water crisis",
        "text": "In January 2016, a coalition of local and national groups, including the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), filed suit seeking federal court intervention to secure access to safe drinking water for the people of Flint, Michigan. In November 2016, a federal judge ordered the implementation of door-to-door delivery of bottled water to every home without a properly installed and maintained faucet filter. In March 2018, a settlement was reached that required the city to replace thousands of lead service lines and return to using the predictive model."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What laws in the United States protect access to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There have been several!  Would you like to know more about the Safe Drinking Water Act, Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act, the 1987 Water Quality Act, or the establishment of the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund by Congress?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act please."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Congress passed the Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act in 2011. This amendment, effective in 2014, tightened the definition of \"lead-free\" plumbing fixtures and fittings."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has there been any modifications to the Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act after 2014?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes, there are several of note, including additional requirements and a change in the rules about replacing lead service lines. Which of those would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about the additional requirements added?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines (LSLs) when the action level is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation.The EPA takes the position that although 3% is less than 7%, the new replacement program has fewer loopholes."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I see. What about the change in the rules about replacing lead service lines?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines when the \"action level\" for lead is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation.[18][19] Several citizen and environmental groups immediately filed lawsuits challenging the rule, on March 12, 2021 EPA delayed the effective date of the rule to June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Have any of the lawsuits been settled or won requiring changings to the rules?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I don't have any more information about the lawsuits challenging the rule, other than that on March 12, 2021 EPA delayed the effective date of the rule to June 17, 2021.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I couldn't find any lawsuits that specifically changed the rule but due to the Flint water crisis, the EPA published a final rule but several citizen and environmental groups filed lawsuits challenging the rule but I can't find if the outcomes had any effects."
    ],
    "topic": "Human right to water and sanitation",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Lead and Copper Rule:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Lead and Copper Rule",
          "Adoption"
        ],
        "ctx": "In response to the Flint, Michigan water crisis, EPA published a final rule on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines (LSLs) when the action level is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation. The EPA takes the position that although 3% is less than 7%, the new replacement program has fewer loopholes. Under the prior version, water systems were able to \"test out\" of the LSL replacement program, delay implementation because they did not have LSL inventories, or complete partial replacements and therefore, few water systems ever satisfied the full 7%. Several citizen and environmental groups immediately filed lawsuits challenging the rule. On March 12, 2021 EPA delayed the effective date of the rule to June 17, 2021."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Lead and Copper Rule:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Lead and Copper Rule",
          "Adoption"
        ],
        "ctx": "In response to the Flint, Michigan water crisis, EPA published a final rule on January 15, 2021 addressing testing, pipe replacement and related issues. The rule mandates additional requirements for sampling tap water, corrosion control, public outreach and testing water in schools. The rule continues the requirement for replacement of lead service lines (LSLs) when the action level is exceeded, but requires that a utility replace at least 3 percent of its lines annually, compared to 7 percent under the prior regulation. The EPA takes the position that although 3% is less than 7%, the new replacement program has fewer loopholes. Under the prior version, water systems were able to \"test out\" of the LSL replacement program, delay implementation because they did not have LSL inventories, or complete partial replacements and therefore, few water systems ever satisfied the full 7%. Several citizen and environmental groups immediately filed lawsuits challenging the rule. On March 12, 2021 EPA delayed the effective date of the rule to June 17, 2021."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "A fish hatchery is a place for artificial breeding, hatching, and rearing through the early life stages of animals\u2014finfish and shellfish in particular. Hatcheries produce larval and juvenile fish, shellfish, and crustaceans, primarily to support the aquaculture industry where they are transferred to on-growing systems, such as fish farms, to reach harvest size. Some species that are commonly raised in hatcheries include Pacific oysters, shrimp, Indian prawns, salmon, tilapia and scallops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "A generalized commercial scale hatchery would contain a broodstock holding and spawning area, feed culture facility, larval culture area, juvenile culture area, pump facilities, laboratory, quarantine area, and offices and bathrooms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Hatchery designs are highly flexible and are tailored to the requirements of site, species produced, geographic location, funding and personal preferences. Many hatchery facilities are small and coupled to larger on-growing operations, whilst others may produce juveniles solely for sale. Very small-scale hatcheries are often utilized in subsistence farming to supply families or communities particularly in south-east Asia. A small-scale hatchery unit consists of larval rearing tanks, filters, live food production tanks and a flow through water supply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hatchery",
        "text": "Fish hatcheries are used to cultivate and breed a large number of fish in an enclosed environment. Fish farms use hatcheries to cultivate fish to sell for food, or ornamental purposes, eliminating the need to find the fish in the wild and even providing some species outside their natural season. They raise the fish until they are ready to be eaten or sold to aquarium stores. Other hatcheries release the juvenile fish into a river, lake or the ocean to support commercial, tribal, or recreational fishing or to supplement the natural numbers of threatened or endangered species, a practice known as fish stocking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Fish hatchery\n--Purpose.\n--Production steps.\n----Broodstock.\n----Spawning.\n----Fertilisation.\n----Larvae.\n----Settlement of shellfish.\n--Hatchery design.\n----Expense.\n--Issues.\n----Genetic.\n----Fish farms.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hatchery",
        "text": "A hatchery is a facility where eggs are hatched under artificial conditions, especially those of fish, poultry or even turtles. It may be used for ex-situ conservation purposes, i.e. to breed rare or endangered species under controlled conditions; alternatively, it may be for economic reasons (i.e. to enhance food supplies or fishery resources)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Animal husbandry",
        "text": "Fish hatcheries provide larval and juvenile fish, crustaceans and shellfish, for use in aquaculture systems. When large enough these are transferred to growing-on tanks and sold to fish farms to reach harvest size. Some species that are commonly raised in hatcheries include shrimps, prawns, salmon, tilapia, oysters and scallops. Similar facilities can be used to raise species with conservation needs to be released into the wild, or game fish for restocking waterways. Important aspects of husbandry at these early stages include selection of breeding stock, control of water quality and nutrition. In the wild, there is a massive amount of mortality at the nursery stage; farmers seek to minimise this while at the same time maximising growth rates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Fish farming or pisciculture involves commercial breeding of fish, usually for food, in fish tanks or artificial enclosures such as fish ponds. It is a particular type of aquaculture, which is the controlled cultivation and harvesting of aquatic animals such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and so on, in natural or pseudo-natural environment. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Worldwide, the most important fish species produced in fish farming are carp, catfish, salmon and tilapia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Other arguments that surround fish farms such as the supplementation of feed from wild caught species, the prevalence of disease, fish welfare issues and potential effects on the environment are also issues for hatchery facilities. For more information see: Aquaculture, Mariculture, Fish farming"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing",
        "text": "Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture. It involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural population is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Fish species raised by fish farms include salmon, carp, tilapia, catfish and trout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Hatcheries produce larval and juvenile fish and shellfish for transferral to aquaculture facilities where they are \u2018on-grown\u2019 to reach harvest size. Hatchery production confers three main benefits to the industry:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "1. Out of season production"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "There is much interest in supplementing exploited stocks of fish by releasing juveniles that may be wild caught and reared in nurseries before transplanting, or produced solely within a hatchery. Culture of finfish larvae has been utilised extensively in the United States in stock enhancement efforts to replenish natural populations. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service have established a National Fish Hatchery System to support the conservation of native fish species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hatchery",
        "text": "Hatchery\n--Fish hatcheries.\n--Poultry hatcheries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Consistent supply of fish from aquaculture facilities is an important market requirement. Broodstock conditioning can extend the natural spawning season and thus the supply of juveniles to farms. Supply can be further guaranteed by sourcing from hatcheries in the opposite hemisphere i.e. with opposite seasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "The value of global aquaculture farming"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Conditioning is achieved by holding broodstock in flow-through tanks at optimal conditions for light, temperature, salinity, flow rate and food availability (optimal levels are species specific)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Labour is generally the largest cost in hatchery production making up more that 50% of total costs. Hatcheries are a business and thus economic viability and scale of production are vital considerations. The cost of production for stock-enhancement programmes is further complicated by the difficulty of assessing the benefits to wild populations from restocking activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture",
        "text": "The farming of fish is the most common form of aquaculture. It involves raising fish commercially in tanks, fish ponds, or ocean enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Worldwide, the most important fish species used in fish farming are, in order, carp, salmon, tilapia, and catfish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cronulla Fisheries Centre",
        "text": "Fish hatchery was established in . Building constructed prior to 1914, probably -1907. It was originally a laboratory wing (with open verandah on both sides) and a hatchery hall comprising a single open space containing fish tanks. It was thought to be vacant -1930. The Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research (later ... Organisation) CSIR/CSIRO operations post-1938 were in this building. The hall remained open until 1950.\n;Boat shed"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "In 2008 aquaculture accounted for 46% of total food fish supply, around 115 million tonnes. Although wild caught juveniles are still utilised in the industry, concerns over sustainability of extracting juveniles, and the variable timing and magnitude of natural spawning events, make hatchery production an attractive alternative to support the growing demands of aquaculture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of fishing articles",
        "text": "Fish hatchery -"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "3. Reduce dependence on wild-caught juveniles"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "The hatchery production of shellfish also involves a crucial settling phase where free-swimming larvae settle out of the water onto a substrate and undergo metamorphosis if suitable conditions are found. Once metamorphosis has taken place the juveniles are generally known as spat, it is this phase which is then transported to on-growing facilities. Settlement behaviour is governed by a range of cues including substrate type, water flow, temperature, and the presence of chemical cues indicating the presence of adults, or a food source etc. Hatchery facilities therefore need to understand these cues to induce settlement and also be able to substitute artificial substrates to allow for easy handling and transportation with minimal mortality."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Fish Hatchery System",
        "text": "The original purpose of the NFHS was to supplement declining native stocks of coastal and lake food fish through fish propagation. The NFHS has extensive experience culturing over 100 different aquatic species, and now propagates fish for reasons beyond supplementing declining food species. Hatchery-reared fish are now used to replace fish that were lost from natural events including drought, flood, habitat destruction, or human influences such as over-harvest, pollution, habitat loss due to development and dam construction. This is necessary in order to establish fish populations that meet specific management needs, and to provide for the creation of new and expanded recreational fisheries opportunities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Prior to fertilisation, eggs can be gently washed to remove wastes and bacteria that may contaminate cultures. Promoting cross-fertilisation between a large number of individuals is necessary to retain genetic diversity in hatchery produced stock. Batches of eggs are kept separate, fertilised with sperm obtained from several males and allowed to stand for an hour or two before samples are analyzed under a microscope to ensure high rates of fertilisation and to estimate numbers to be transferred to larval rearing tanks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salisbury Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The hatchery was established in 1931, and was the first not located near a railroad, previously the method by which the state's other hatcheries delivered their stock to its destinations. Designed by Walker and Walker of Montpelier, the hatchery buildings are more architecturally distinctive than earlier hatcheries, with a number of Craftsman touches. It was established due to a documented decline in the number of fish in the state's waterways, primarily the result of sport fishing. In the 1950s, the facility was expanded by the addition of a feed storage building, and in the 1960s concrete raceways were added. The breeding and rearing facility north of the road houses an unusual light-managed environment to facilitate continuous propagation of fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Fish Hatchery System",
        "text": "The National Fish Hatchery System (NFHS) was established by the U.S. Congress in 1871 through the creation of a U.S. Commissioner for Fish and Fisheries. This system of fish hatcheries is now administered by the Fisheries Program of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), an agency within the United States Department of the Interior."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lake Fish Hatchery Historic District",
        "text": "Building 726 was the hatchery itself, built in a similar style about 1930 and transferred to the Park Service in 1959. The one story building encloses about . An arched log truss is a prominent feature of the end elevation, together with a rubblestone chimney. The hatchery building was designed to accommodate park visitors, with an aquarium space with glazed panels to allow visitors to view the fish at tank level, and a balcony above the hatching troughs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Broodstock conditioning is the process of bringing adults into spawning condition by promoting the development of gonads. Broodstock conditioning can also extend spawning beyond natural spawning periods, or for production of species reared outside their natural geographic range with different environmental conditions. Some hatcheries collect wild adults and then bring them in for conditioning whilst others maintain a permanent breeding stock."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nimbus Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The hatchery is part of a greater interconnected network within the region. The dams upstream from the hatchery generate power, supply water, and are a main source of flood control. As shown in figure 3, the weirs guide salmon in the direction of the ladder to enter the hatchery, preventing them from travelling upstream. From November through March river water flows down the fish ladder to encourage fish to enter and climb the steps to the hatchery. The gate at the foot of the ladder is closed when the holding pool at the top is full in order to prevent overcrowding. Ripe (ready to spawn) fish are brought from this holding pool into the hatchery spawning deck, where workers collect eggs from the females and milt from the males. Fertilized eggs are placed in hatching jars, with river water upwelling from the bottom to simulate natural conditions. When the eggs are ready to hatch the jars are tipped into large tubs where the baby fish (alevin) will remain while they absorb their yolk sacs and become free-swimming. They are then moved outside to raceway pools where they are fed multiple times a day and grow rapidly. Once the fish are ready to begin their outmigration to the ocean, at 60 fish to the pound for salmon and 4 fish to the pound for steelhead trout, they are loaded into tanker trucks and transported to the river for release. From here they make their way downstream and eventually journey out to sea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carpenter's Brook Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "In the 19th Century, the national fish stocking system was a large need, and the national system of using fish hatcheries was started in the 1870s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hatchery",
        "text": "Researchers have raised concerns about hatchery fish potentially breeding with wild fish. Hatchery fish may in some cases compete with wild fish. In the United States and Canada, there have been several salmon and steelhead hatchery reform projects intended to reduce the possibility of negative impacts from hatchery programs. Most salmon and steelhead hatcheries are managed better and follow up to date management practices to ensure any risks are curtailed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neosho National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The US Fish and Wildlife Service operates fish hatcheries throughout the United States. These hatcheries are a significant part of fisheries conservation and restoration efforts by producing and releasing rare, endangered and other fish back into America\u2019s lakes and rivers. Some of these hatcheries also help mitigate the loss of fishing from the large federal dams built in the last century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Genetic modification is conducted in some hatcheries to improve the quality and yield of farmed species. Artificial fertilisation facilitates selective breeding programs which aim to improve production characteristics such as growth rate, disease resistance, survival, colour, increased fecundity and/or lower age of maturation. Genetic improvement can be mediated by selective breeding, via hybridization, or other genetic manipulation techniques."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaduvur",
        "text": "Hatcheries produce katla, mirgal, and rogue fish primarily to support the agriculture industry where they are transferred to on-growing systems i.e. fish farms to reach harvest size."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "2. Genetic improvement"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pitkin Hatchery",
        "text": "The facility focuses on broodstock and production of trout and kokanee salmon. Hatchery staff works to support the raising of 1 million fish annually, including 150,000 catchable rainbow trout. Rio Grande cutthroat trout are also raised as brood fish. Their source of water comes from a groundwater spring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "is estimated to be US$98.4 billion in 2008 with China significantly dominating the market; however, the value of aquaculture hatchery and nursery production has yet to be estimated. Additional hatchery production for small-scale domestic uses, which is particularly prevalent in South-East Asia or for conservation programmes, has also yet to be quantified."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dexter National Fish Hatchery & Technology Center",
        "text": "Currently, the Center uses four different methods. These methods are used as an identification tool. Biologists both in the field and on-site are able to identify fish that are reared at a facility versus those that are wild:"
      },
      {
        "title": "National Fish Hatchery System",
        "text": "In 1872, the first federal fish hatchery, known as the Baird Hatchery, was established on the McCloud River in California. The NFHS has since grown into a large complex system devoted to conserving U.S. fishery resources."
      },
      {
        "title": "White River National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The mission of the hatchery was to produce and release Atlantic salmon fry in tributaries throughout the Connecticut River watershed. The hatchery previously supplied over 650,000 lake trout yearlings for stocking Lake Erie and Lake Ontario."
      },
      {
        "title": "White River National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The White River National Fish Hatchery is a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service coldwater fish production facility located near Bethel, Vermont. Hatchery staff works to support both the Connecticut River Atlantic Salmon Restoration Program (since 1978) and the Lower Great Lakes Lake Trout Restoration Program. The White River National Fish Hatchery is one of four offices in the Western New England Complex."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wray Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The Wray Fish Hatchery is a Colorado Parks and Wildlife warm and cold water fish production facility located near Chief Creek and Stalker Lake in Yuma County."
      },
      {
        "title": "Old McKenzie Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The hatchery facilities were used by the State of Oregon to grow trout and salmon until the early 1950s. Over the years, it grew to be a large operation. In 1951, the hatchery collected 1,530,560 fish eggs for breeding. The state then decided to replace the old hatchery with a modern production facility. Between 1952 and 1953, the entire hatchery operation was moved to a new facility about a half-mile downstream from the original site adjacent to the Leaburg Dam. The old hatchery was closed in 1953."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Feeding is an important component of the rearing process. Although many species are able to grow on maternal reserves alone (lecithotrophy), most commercially produced species require feeding to optimise survival, growth, yield and juvenile quality. Nutritional requirements are species specific and also vary with larval stage. Carnivorous fish are commonly fed with live prey; rotifers are usually offered to early larvae due to their small size, progressing to larger \"Artemia\" nauplii or zooplankton. The production of live feed on-site or buying-in is one of the biggest costs for hatchery facilities as it is a labour-intensive process. The development of artificial feeds is targeted to reduce the costs involved in live feed production and increase the consistency of nutrition, however decreased growth and survival has been found with these alternatives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drayton Plains State Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "in what was then Drayton Plains, Michigan (now Waterford Township). Its purpose was to raise bass fingerlings on its 18-acre site."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bellvue-Watson Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "This hatchery also contains Colorado's Fish Research Hatchery, which first began operation in 1968. The staff is responsible for the improvement of hatchery techniques and aquaculture advancement. Methods include conducting feed and fish strain performance evaluations and work to improve both rearing survival and post-stocking survival of hatchery fish. Various areas of study include whirling disease resistant strain research, broodstock, and optimization of production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salisbury Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The Salisbury Fish Hatchery is located on both sides of Vermont Route 53, about east of its junction with United States Route 7. The facility takes up more than , although the improved area is relatively modest. Most of the production complex is located on the south side of the highway, with a long and narrow wood-frame structure covering a concrete raceway in which some rearing takes place. The main complex includes a residence and the main hatchery building, which houses a series of troughs in which breeding occurs. The entire complex is fed by a series of freshwater springs and an aquifer, a critical element in the decision to locate the hatchery here. The breeding operating is highly dependent on a continuous supply of fresh water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Rearing larvae through the early life stages is conducted in nurseries which are generally closely associated with hatcheries for fish culture whilst it is common for shellfish nurseries to exist separately. Nursery culture of larvae to rear juveniles of a size suitable for transferral to on-growing facilities can be performed in a variety of different systems which may be entirely land-based, or larvae may be later transferred to sea-based rearing systems which reduce the need to supply feed. Juvenile survival is dependent on very high quality water conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crystal Lake Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The process first begins at the Pine Creek Fish Trap. Workers from the hatchery collect fish to be spawned, then sort through them to select the best suited fish to be bred. They then gently squeeze out fish eggs and sperm into a pan to get fertilized. The fertilized eggs are incubated in tubes under special conditions until they can be moved to inside holding tanks. Then when they are large enough they are put outside in large concrete holding tanks with netting the surrounds the whole outside area to prevent birds of prey from eating the growing fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "D.C. Booth Historic National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The D.C. Booth Historic National Fish Hatchery and Archives, also known as the Spearfish Fisheries Center or Spearfish Fisheries Complex and formerly known as the Spearfish National Fish Hatchery, is one of 70 fish hatcheries that were opened by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as part of the National Fish Hatchery System. The hatchery was established near Spearfish, South Dakota in 1896, with the purpose of introducing and establishing populations of trout in the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming. It is one of the oldest fish hatcheries in the United States and is the second-oldest in the American West. The hatchery spawns and releases about 20,000 to 30,000 rainbow trout each year. The hatchery doubles as a fisheries archive with the purpose of preserving records and early historical artifacts. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carpenter's Brook Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The fish hatchery was opened on its current location along NY 321 in 1938. The fish hatchery was a subsidy of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and a service from Onondaga County. This was started when the New Deal started the Works Progress Administration, which helped develop the project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dexter National Fish Hatchery & Technology Center",
        "text": "The station maintains a genetically diverse broodstock for each species. Fish are raised from these broodstocks with the intent of reintroducing them into their native habitat."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Fish Hatchery System",
        "text": "Currently, the system comprises 70 national fish hatcheries, nine fish health centers, seven fish technology centers, and a historic national fish hatchery. National fish hatcheries are located in 35 states and produce more than 60 different species of fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of fishing articles",
        "text": "National Fish Hatchery System -"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lake Fish Hatchery Historic District",
        "text": "Other facilities built at about the same time included boathouses, a dock, and rearing ponds, which have not survived."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mokelumne River Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The hatchery was built in 1963 to offset the loss of fish spawning habitat due to the construction of Camanche Dam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lake Fish Hatchery Historic District",
        "text": "The chief building of the district is Building 725, the South District Office for the park and the former Fish and Wildlife Service messhall. The building was built in 1935 using a \"logs out\" technique of construction, in which the log frame is exposed on the outside and the sheathing is set in, giving the interior a smooth wall finish."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Colorado fish hatcheries",
        "text": "Fish hatcheries are an important tool in the scientific world for native fish species conservation. There is an abundance of environmental impacts which have caused an expansion in the captive breeding programs to prevent the extinction of many population. Specific impacts that are protected against in hatcheries include habitat loss, pollution and more natural causes such as predation, competitors, or disease. The goal of many fish hatcheries is to preserve natural species with the intention of releasing them back into their natural habitat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coleman National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "Coleman National Fish Hatchery\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "D.C. Booth Historic National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "Fish Car No. 3 is a reproduction of a railcar that was used before the invention of refrigerated tanker trucks. For about 66 years, ten railcars like this one were used to haul trout throughout the Black Hills. The nearby ice house is a replica of the 1899 original. Once used to store blocks of ice for transporting fish and their eggs, it currently serves as the Fish Culture Hall of Fame to honor pioneers and innovators in the field of aquaculture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dworshak National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "Steelhead, chinook and coho salmon are spawned and reared at the facility. The hatchery attempts to mitigate or make up for some of the lost spawning area by collecting mature adult fish, fertilizing their eggs, and raising them for 1\u20131\u00bd years, until they are large enough to begin their 500-mile journey to the Pacific Ocean. The young fish must survive a variety of hazards in the long journey, including swimming past eight dams on the Snake and Columbia Rivers. During the summer months the dams increase their water releases to aid fish migration downstream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of fishing articles",
        "text": "List of National Fish Hatcheries in the United States -"
      },
      {
        "title": "Delafield Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "bass were grown in the six outdoor ponds - a more natural environment. Adult bass were allowed to build nests and fertilize the eggs. When the youngsters hatched and grew enough, they were transferred from the ponds to the wild."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Natural spawning can occur in hatcheries during the regular spawning season however where more control over spawning time is required spawning of mature animals can be induced by a variety of methods. Some of the more common methods are:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fawn River State Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "Fawn River State Fish Hatchery, also known as the Orland Fish Hatchery, is a historic hatchery located at Orland and Millgrove Township, Steuben County, Indiana. It was developed between 1935 and 1937 by the Works Progress Administration, and dedicated in 1942. Contributing resources include the entrance arch, fieldstone bridge, eight rearing ponds, the property manager's residence, the Colonial Revival style hatchery building, a dam impounding the supply pond, four small pools, and six large rearing ponds."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Fish Hatchery System",
        "text": "When early pioneers began migrating to the western United States, there were no catch limits on fish and no laws preventing people from modifying fish habitats to meet human needs for water, food, and safety. As settlement progressed, abundant fish populations began to decline. By 1870, growing concern for such declines prompted fishery studies, which spurred the establishment of fish spawning stations for collecting and hatching fish eggs and stocking small fish back into waters with declining fisheries. Many of these early spawning stations later became fish hatcheries, marking the beginning of the Fisheries Program and the NFHS."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salisbury Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The Salisbury Fish Hatchery is a state-operated fish hatchery on Vermont Route 53 in Salisbury, Vermont. Established in 1931, it produces broodstock trout for distribution to the other hatcheries in the state. Its facilities were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1994. The facility may be toured by arrangement, but there is no visitors center."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mokelumne River Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The Mokelumne River River Fish Hatchery is a fish hatchery in San Joaquin County, California, built in 1963 by the East Bay Municipal Utility District (EBMUD)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wray Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "Wray Fish Hatchery\n--History.\n--Fish Species.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Roxbury Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The Roxbury Fish Hatchery is located in rural Roxbury, on the west side of Vermont 12A south of Thurston Hill Road. It is set on of land, in a narrow strip between the highway and the railroad tracks of the Central Vermont Railway. Its principal feature is a series of freshwater pools, which are fed in part by local springs, and in part by a raceway diverting water from Flint Brook, which parallels the highway to the east. The hatchery's built infrastructure includes the original 1891 hatchery building, a c. 1894 building for the preparation of fish food, an 1897 carriage barn, a storage barn built by the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) in the mid-1930s, and the c. 1960 state biological research station. It presently produces brook trout and rainbow trout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carpenter's Brook Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "Carpenter's Brook Fish Hatchery is a county-maintained fish hatchery in the town of Elbridge, New York. The fish hatchery is located along New York State Route 321, at the intersection with former New York State Route 368 (now County Route\u00a0107). The location is maintained by Onondaga County's Parks commission, running full-time around the year with certain hours. Opened in 1938, it is only one of four county-maintained fish hatcheries in the state of New York at the current time. The fish hatchery produces over 70,000 trout annually. The staff of the hatchery, along with other volunteers, help fund retail sales and local fish stores with $4 million annually."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drayton Plains State Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "In the late 1920s, sportfishing was well established as a leisure time activity in Michigan. As a result, fish production moved away from food fish and focused on sport fish species including, brown trout, rainbow trout and brook trout along with many warm-water species. Most Michigan Department of Natural Resources fisheries work on the Great Lakes was abandoned as these fisheries were dominated by commercial fishing. Hatchery technology had improved by this time to allow the production of larger fish and the time period from 1930-1949 is considered the Fingerling Era."
      },
      {
        "title": "Raipur Fish Hatchery and Training Centre",
        "text": "The Raipur Upazila has 8 fish farms, 14 dairy farms, 72 poultry farms and this one hatchery. As of 2004, the government-owned hatchery was able to produce 504 kilograms of hatchlings a year, which mostly consisted of endemic species like \"Catla catla\" (katla), \"Labeo rohita\" (rui), \"Cirrhinus cirrhosus\" (mrigal), \"Labeo calbasu\" (kalabaus), \"Clarias batrachus\" (magur), and \"Channa striata\" (shingi)."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of National Fish Hatcheries in the United States",
        "text": "List of National Fish Hatcheries in the United States\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "D.C. Booth Historic National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The Pond Gift Shop and information center is located in a restored turn-of-the-century hatchery building. The main fish viewing area includes feeding machines that visitors can operate. There is also an underwater viewing area beside the main fish area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lester River Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The Lester River Fish Hatchery was a federal fish hatchery in Duluth, Minnesota, United States. It was built at the mouth of the Lester River in the 1880s to propagate fish for the Lake Superior commercial fishery. The hatchery closed in 1946 and the facility was sold to the University of Minnesota Duluth, which used it as its Limnological Research Station. The surviving four buildings are noted for their Stick and Shingle Style architecture, forming a distinctive landmark to local residents as well as tourists heading to Superior's North Shore."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allegheny National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "Annually producing as many as 1.3 million fish in the early 1990s, the hatchery now produces an estimated 660,000 fish for Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. It maintains a broodstock population of approximately 2000 fish. Broodstock are used to produce eggs for Lake Michigan as well as for the Erie and Ontario programs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture of salmonids",
        "text": "Modern commercial hatcheries for supplying salmon smolts to aquaculture net pens have been shifting to recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS)s where the water is recycled within the hatchery. This allows location of the hatchery to be independent of a significant fresh water supply and allows economical temperature control to both speed up and slow down the growth rate to match the needs of the net pens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Chemical injection: A number of chemicals can be used to induce spawning with various hormones being the most commonly used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jackson National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "Jackson National Fish Hatchery is a National fish hatchery in Jackson, Wyoming. The hatchery is run by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The hatchery is physically located on the National Elk Refuge, a protected feeding ground for elk that winter in the Jackson Hole valley. The fish hatchery produces fish for a distribution area in Wyoming and Idaho."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Hatchery facilities present three main problems in the field of genetics. The first is that maintenance of a small number of broodstock can cause inbreeding and potentially lead to inbreeding depression thus affecting the success of the facility. Secondly, hatchery reared juveniles, even from a fairly large broodstock, can have greatly reduced genetic diversity compared to wild populations (the situation is comparable to the founder effect). Such fish that escape from farms or are released for restocking purposes may adversely affect wild population genetics and viability. This is of particular concern where escaped fish have been actively bred or are otherwise genetically modified. The third key issue is that genetic modification of food items is highly undesirable for many people. See Genetically modified food controversies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mokelumne River Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "It is located in northeast San Joaquin County, California at the base of the Camanche Dam and is reached by taking McIntire Road north from State Route 12."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allegheny National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allegheny National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The Allegheny National Fish Hatchery was established by Congress in 1959 to produce rainbow, brook, and brown trout for northwestern Pennsylvania streams. Construction began in the late 1960s. Fish production began on site in 1974."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kooskia National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "Kooskia National Fish Hatchery\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Coleman National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "In 1942, the Coleman National Fish Hatchery (Coleman NFH) was established under an act of the U.S. Congress to mitigate the loss of historic spawning habitat caused by the construction of dams. The fish hatchery is located in Shasta County, California near the town of Anderson on the north bank of Battle Creek approximately east of the Sacramento River. Coleman NFH covers approximately of land owned by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), with an additional of land in perpetual easements for pipelines and access. It is the largest salmon hatchery in the continental United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caledonia Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "Caledonia Fish Hatchery\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "National Fish Hatchery System",
        "text": "The Service's Fisheries Program and its fish hatchery system have played a vital role in conserving America's fishery resources for over 130 years. The program was established mainly to address the following:\n* The growing concern over the observed decline in the United States' fishery resources;\n* the lack of information concerning the status of the Nation's fisheries; and\n* the need to define and protect U.S. fishing rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natchitoches National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "Natchitoches National Fish Hatchery has 53 ponds, each approximately in area. In addition, the facility has the Harold B. Wales Environmental Education Classroom, which is used for kindergarten through twelfth grade and for teacher workshops. The classroom seats 32 students and has 16 student grade dissecting microscopes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dworshak National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The Dworshak hatchery is unique because of its ability to control the water temperature in the steelhead rearing ponds. By keeping the temperature at 54 degrees Fahrenheit, the juvenile steelheads are able to be released after one year at a length of 8\u00a0inches. In cold water, it would take an additional year to grow those same 8\u00a0inches. The hatchery accomplishes this through the recirculation of up to 90 percent of its water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Welaka National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The state of Florida built the hatchery in 1926, running it for over a decade. The facilities were turned over to the U.S. government in 1938, who have been in charge since then."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish stocking",
        "text": "Before being released into rivers, lakes, ponds, and occasionally oceans across the country, fish are raised in a fish hatchery. Just like humans have a demand for groceries, anglers have a demand for fish. When the supply is running low in a given body of water, fish are transported from hatcheries in a large water tank or airplane to their respective locations. The costs associated with stocking are typically covered by angler associations, commercial fishermen, state fish and game agencies, and at times government subsidies; today, most stocking is conducted by state fish and game departments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lake Fish Hatchery Historic District",
        "text": "Building 729 was an office and summer residence for the Fish and Wildlife Service's hatchery director. Built in 1932, the one story building matches its neighbors, in an L-shaped plan. Buildings 730 and 731 are smaller residences, built about 1931. Building 732, a garage, was built in 1930 with six bays. Building 733 was a FWS bunkhouse, built in 1930 with about . Building 735, a wash house, and 737, an oil house, complete the ensemble."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leadville National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "Leadville National Fish Hatchery\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oroville\u2013Thermalito Complex",
        "text": "The Feather River Fish Hatchery was built to compensate for spawning grounds lost to returning salmon and Steelhead trout with the construction of Oroville Dam in the early 1960s. Salmon and steelhead raised at the hatchery are transported in oxygenated, temperature-controlled tanks and released in the Feather and Sacramento Rivers, Lake Oroville, and/or in the Delta near the San Francisco Bay area. These fish account for an estimated 20 percent of the ocean sport and commercial catch in the Pacific Ocean. Hatchery salmon are also planted in Lake Oroville. The first salmon and steelhead entered the hatchery in September 1967. Today, the facility accommodates an average 8,000 fish. The Feather River Fish Hatchery was constructed between 1966 and 1967."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Manual stripping : For shellfish, gonads are generally removed and gametes are extracted or washed free. Fish can be manually stripped of eggs and sperm by stroking the anaesthetised fish under the pectoral fins towards the anus causing gametes to freely flow out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fawn River State Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "Fawn River State Fish Hatchery\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Raipur Fish Hatchery and Training Centre",
        "text": "Raipur Fish Hatchery and Training Centre is a fish hatchery in Raipur Upazila, Lakshmipur District, Bangladesh. One of the six main fish hatcheries in Bangladesh, it was the largest hatchery in the district during the Noakhali Rural Development Project implemented during 1978-1992 by DANIDA, a Danish development agency. One of the three Principal Scientific Officers (PSO) of the Department of Fisheries of Bangladesh governments is assigned to Raipur Hatchery. It also is one of three training centers directly governed by the Director General of the Department, along with Fisheries Training Institute (Chandpur) and Fisheries Training Academy in (Dhaka)."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is a fish hatchery generally defined as?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "A fish hatchery is a place for artificial breeding, hatching, and rearing finfish and shellfish. Pacific oysters, shrimp, Indian prawns, salmon, tilapia and scallops are commonly found in hatcheries.",
      "A fish hatchery is a place for artificial breeding, hatching, and rearing through the early life stages of animals. Hatcheries produce larval and juvenile fish, shellfish, and crustaceans, to support the aquaculture industry where they are transferred to on-growing systems to reach harvest size."
    ],
    "topic": "Fish farming",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Fish hatchery:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fish hatchery"
        ],
        "ctx": "A fish hatchery is a place for artificial breeding, hatching, and rearing through the early life stages of animals\u2014finfish and shellfish in particular. Hatcheries produce larval and juvenile fish, shellfish, and crustaceans, primarily to support the aquaculture industry where they are transferred to on-growing systems, such as fish farms, to reach harvest size. Some species that are commonly raised in hatcheries include Pacific oysters, shrimp, Indian prawns, salmon, tilapia and scallops."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Fish hatchery:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fish hatchery"
        ],
        "ctx": "A fish hatchery is a place for artificial breeding, hatching, and rearing through the early life stages of animals\u2014finfish and shellfish in particular. Hatcheries produce larval and juvenile fish, shellfish, and crustaceans, primarily to support the aquaculture industry where they are transferred to on-growing systems, such as fish farms, to reach harvest size. Some species that are commonly raised in hatcheries include Pacific oysters, shrimp, Indian prawns, salmon, tilapia and scallops."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "A fish hatchery is a place for artificial breeding, hatching, and rearing through the early life stages of animals\u2014finfish and shellfish in particular. Hatcheries produce larval and juvenile fish, shellfish, and crustaceans, primarily to support the aquaculture industry where they are transferred to on-growing systems, such as fish farms, to reach harvest size. Some species that are commonly raised in hatcheries include Pacific oysters, shrimp, Indian prawns, salmon, tilapia and scallops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Animal husbandry",
        "text": "Fish hatcheries provide larval and juvenile fish, crustaceans and shellfish, for use in aquaculture systems. When large enough these are transferred to growing-on tanks and sold to fish farms to reach harvest size. Some species that are commonly raised in hatcheries include shrimps, prawns, salmon, tilapia, oysters and scallops. Similar facilities can be used to raise species with conservation needs to be released into the wild, or game fish for restocking waterways. Important aspects of husbandry at these early stages include selection of breeding stock, control of water quality and nutrition. In the wild, there is a massive amount of mortality at the nursery stage; farmers seek to minimise this while at the same time maximising growth rates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "There is much interest in supplementing exploited stocks of fish by releasing juveniles that may be wild caught and reared in nurseries before transplanting, or produced solely within a hatchery. Culture of finfish larvae has been utilised extensively in the United States in stock enhancement efforts to replenish natural populations. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service have established a National Fish Hatchery System to support the conservation of native fish species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Hatchery designs are highly flexible and are tailored to the requirements of site, species produced, geographic location, funding and personal preferences. Many hatchery facilities are small and coupled to larger on-growing operations, whilst others may produce juveniles solely for sale. Very small-scale hatcheries are often utilized in subsistence farming to supply families or communities particularly in south-east Asia. A small-scale hatchery unit consists of larval rearing tanks, filters, live food production tanks and a flow through water supply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture in New Zealand",
        "text": "Hatchery reared seed is not suitable for the rack systems which are still used by much of the industry. Pacific oysters on these racks are cultured from wild spat, most of which is gathered in the Kaipara Harbour. However, other systems are increasingly being used, including hanging longlines and plastic trays. The Cawthron Institute is the main provider of hatchery spat, and can selectively breed spat to specifications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Prior to fertilisation, eggs can be gently washed to remove wastes and bacteria that may contaminate cultures. Promoting cross-fertilisation between a large number of individuals is necessary to retain genetic diversity in hatchery produced stock. Batches of eggs are kept separate, fertilised with sperm obtained from several males and allowed to stand for an hour or two before samples are analyzed under a microscope to ensure high rates of fertilisation and to estimate numbers to be transferred to larval rearing tanks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "A generalized commercial scale hatchery would contain a broodstock holding and spawning area, feed culture facility, larval culture area, juvenile culture area, pump facilities, laboratory, quarantine area, and offices and bathrooms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hatchery",
        "text": "Fish hatcheries are used to cultivate and breed a large number of fish in an enclosed environment. Fish farms use hatcheries to cultivate fish to sell for food, or ornamental purposes, eliminating the need to find the fish in the wild and even providing some species outside their natural season. They raise the fish until they are ready to be eaten or sold to aquarium stores. Other hatcheries release the juvenile fish into a river, lake or the ocean to support commercial, tribal, or recreational fishing or to supplement the natural numbers of threatened or endangered species, a practice known as fish stocking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture of salmonids",
        "text": "Conventional hatchery systems operate flow-through, where spring water or other water sources flow into the hatchery. The eggs are then hatched in trays and the salmon smolts are produced in raceways. The waste products from the growing salmon fry and the feed are usually discharged into the local river. Conventional flow-through hatcheries, for example the majority of Alaska's enhancement hatcheries, use more than of water to produce a kg of smolts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Consistent supply of fish from aquaculture facilities is an important market requirement. Broodstock conditioning can extend the natural spawning season and thus the supply of juveniles to farms. Supply can be further guaranteed by sourcing from hatcheries in the opposite hemisphere i.e. with opposite seasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture of salmonids",
        "text": "Modern commercial hatcheries for supplying salmon smolts to aquaculture net pens have been shifting to recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS)s where the water is recycled within the hatchery. This allows location of the hatchery to be independent of a significant fresh water supply and allows economical temperature control to both speed up and slow down the growth rate to match the needs of the net pens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hatchery",
        "text": "A hatchery is a facility where eggs are hatched under artificial conditions, especially those of fish, poultry or even turtles. It may be used for ex-situ conservation purposes, i.e. to breed rare or endangered species under controlled conditions; alternatively, it may be for economic reasons (i.e. to enhance food supplies or fishery resources)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nimbus Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The hatchery is part of a greater interconnected network within the region. The dams upstream from the hatchery generate power, supply water, and are a main source of flood control. As shown in figure 3, the weirs guide salmon in the direction of the ladder to enter the hatchery, preventing them from travelling upstream. From November through March river water flows down the fish ladder to encourage fish to enter and climb the steps to the hatchery. The gate at the foot of the ladder is closed when the holding pool at the top is full in order to prevent overcrowding. Ripe (ready to spawn) fish are brought from this holding pool into the hatchery spawning deck, where workers collect eggs from the females and milt from the males. Fertilized eggs are placed in hatching jars, with river water upwelling from the bottom to simulate natural conditions. When the eggs are ready to hatch the jars are tipped into large tubs where the baby fish (alevin) will remain while they absorb their yolk sacs and become free-swimming. They are then moved outside to raceway pools where they are fed multiple times a day and grow rapidly. Once the fish are ready to begin their outmigration to the ocean, at 60 fish to the pound for salmon and 4 fish to the pound for steelhead trout, they are loaded into tanker trucks and transported to the river for release. From here they make their way downstream and eventually journey out to sea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "In 2008 aquaculture accounted for 46% of total food fish supply, around 115 million tonnes. Although wild caught juveniles are still utilised in the industry, concerns over sustainability of extracting juveniles, and the variable timing and magnitude of natural spawning events, make hatchery production an attractive alternative to support the growing demands of aquaculture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Fish farming or pisciculture involves commercial breeding of fish, usually for food, in fish tanks or artificial enclosures such as fish ponds. It is a particular type of aquaculture, which is the controlled cultivation and harvesting of aquatic animals such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and so on, in natural or pseudo-natural environment. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Worldwide, the most important fish species produced in fish farming are carp, catfish, salmon and tilapia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "Dedicated hatcheries are running breeding programmes to increase the freshwater pearl mussel numbers. Natural Resources Wales have a hatchery at Cynrig near Brecon, and another hatchery is near to the Kielder Beck in Northumberland. The Cynrig Hatchery also have a breeding programme for the white clawed crayfish (Austropotamobius pallipes) which has suffered a severe decline in Britain (and across Europe) as a result of insecticides and having no natural resistance to a crayfish plague introduced by alien species. Since the crayfish programme was started in 2009, the hatchery has successfully bred and released over 5,000 crayfish into British rivers. In the wild, the crayfish have a 10% chance of survival, the ones released from the hatchery are estimated to have an 80% survival rate, with evidence of first generation crayfish breeding the second generation completely naturally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Fish hatchery\n--Purpose.\n--Production steps.\n----Broodstock.\n----Spawning.\n----Fertilisation.\n----Larvae.\n----Settlement of shellfish.\n--Hatchery design.\n----Expense.\n--Issues.\n----Genetic.\n----Fish farms.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Hatcheries produce larval and juvenile fish and shellfish for transferral to aquaculture facilities where they are \u2018on-grown\u2019 to reach harvest size. Hatchery production confers three main benefits to the industry:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Other arguments that surround fish farms such as the supplementation of feed from wild caught species, the prevalence of disease, fish welfare issues and potential effects on the environment are also issues for hatchery facilities. For more information see: Aquaculture, Mariculture, Fish farming"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinook salmon",
        "text": "Today, the salmon are hatched in land-based hatcheries (several of which exist) and transferred to sea cages or freshwater farms, where they are grown out to harvestable size of . The broodstock for the farms is usually selected from existing farm stock or sometimes sourced from wild populations. Eggs and milt are stripped manually from sexually mature salmon and incubated under conditions replicating the streams and rivers where the salmon would spawn naturally (around ). After hatching, the baby salmon are typically grown to smolt stage (around six-months of age) before they are transferred to the sea cages or ponds. Most sea cage farming occurs in the Marlborough Sounds, Stewart Island, and Akaroa Harbour, while freshwater operations in Canterbury, Otago, and Tasman use ponds, raceways, and hydrocanals for growout operations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dworshak National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "Steelhead, chinook and coho salmon are spawned and reared at the facility. The hatchery attempts to mitigate or make up for some of the lost spawning area by collecting mature adult fish, fertilizing their eggs, and raising them for 1\u20131\u00bd years, until they are large enough to begin their 500-mile journey to the Pacific Ocean. The young fish must survive a variety of hazards in the long journey, including swimming past eight dams on the Snake and Columbia Rivers. During the summer months the dams increase their water releases to aid fish migration downstream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nimbus Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "Each year the hatchery raises around 4 million baby salmon. Winter runs of steelhead trout produce nearly 430,000 annually. Fish grow to about 4-6 inches in length at the hatchery before being released into the American River. To measure the success of hatchery programs and release points, one quarter of the salmon and all of the steelhead have their adipose fin clipped and a coded wire tag implanted in their nose which contains information on hatchery of origin, age, and release site. Nimbus Fish Hatchery is one of many interconnected Hatcheries in the state of California that are put in place to mitigate impacts on sensitive species. Other Salmon and Steelhead Hatcheries include: Iron Gate Fish Hatchery, Mad River Fish Hatchery, Trinity River Salmon and Steelhead Hatchery, Feather River Fish Hatchery, Warm Springs Fish Hatchery, Silverado Fisheries Base, Merced River Salmon Hatchery, and Mokelune River fish Hatchery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nimbus Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The hatchery is operated by the California Department of Fish and Wildlife and owned and funded by the Bureau of Reclamation as mitigation for Folsom and Nimbus Dams. To meet Reclamation's requirements, 4 million juvenile Chinook salmon and 430,000 steelhead trout are raised in the hatchery and then released to complete their journey down the river. Reclamation, the USFWS, and CDFW (formerly CDFG) decided for the Hatchery to be able to hold 30 million Chinook salmon eggs with the ability to expand to 50 million if necessary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinnoctopus cordiformis",
        "text": "Octopods have two different strategies in terms of spawning, the female can either hatch few large eggs which are well developed hatchlings and adopt the benthic promptly. The females can also spawn large quantities of small eggs, these turn into 'planktonic free-swimming paralarvae', these have small suckers, few chromatophores and a translucent musculature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Delafield Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "bass were grown in the six outdoor ponds - a more natural environment. Adult bass were allowed to build nests and fertilize the eggs. When the youngsters hatched and grew enough, they were transferred from the ponds to the wild."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pitkin Hatchery",
        "text": "The facility focuses on broodstock and production of trout and kokanee salmon. Hatchery staff works to support the raising of 1 million fish annually, including 150,000 catchable rainbow trout. Rio Grande cutthroat trout are also raised as brood fish. Their source of water comes from a groundwater spring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Labour is generally the largest cost in hatchery production making up more that 50% of total costs. Hatcheries are a business and thus economic viability and scale of production are vital considerations. The cost of production for stock-enhancement programmes is further complicated by the difficulty of assessing the benefits to wild populations from restocking activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dexter National Fish Hatchery & Technology Center",
        "text": "The station maintains a genetically diverse broodstock for each species. Fish are raised from these broodstocks with the intent of reintroducing them into their native habitat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Old McKenzie Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The hatchery facilities were used by the State of Oregon to grow trout and salmon until the early 1950s. Over the years, it grew to be a large operation. In 1951, the hatchery collected 1,530,560 fish eggs for breeding. The state then decided to replace the old hatchery with a modern production facility. Between 1952 and 1953, the entire hatchery operation was moved to a new facility about a half-mile downstream from the original site adjacent to the Leaburg Dam. The old hatchery was closed in 1953."
      },
      {
        "title": "Delafield Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "Walleye fry were propagated by placing eggs in Chase jars. Then water was fed into the bottom of the jar, passing up through the eggs. After the fish hatched they swam through the jars to the two large tanks, from which they were transferred to lakes and streams. The Delafield hatchery could produce 50 million walleye fry per year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing",
        "text": "Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture. It involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural population is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Fish species raised by fish farms include salmon, carp, tilapia, catfish and trout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "The hatchery production of shellfish also involves a crucial settling phase where free-swimming larvae settle out of the water onto a substrate and undergo metamorphosis if suitable conditions are found. Once metamorphosis has taken place the juveniles are generally known as spat, it is this phase which is then transported to on-growing facilities. Settlement behaviour is governed by a range of cues including substrate type, water flow, temperature, and the presence of chemical cues indicating the presence of adults, or a food source etc. Hatchery facilities therefore need to understand these cues to induce settlement and also be able to substitute artificial substrates to allow for easy handling and transportation with minimal mortality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Manual stripping : For shellfish, gonads are generally removed and gametes are extracted or washed free. Fish can be manually stripped of eggs and sperm by stroking the anaesthetised fish under the pectoral fins towards the anus causing gametes to freely flow out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaduvur",
        "text": "Hatcheries produce katla, mirgal, and rogue fish primarily to support the agriculture industry where they are transferred to on-growing systems i.e. fish farms to reach harvest size."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hatchery",
        "text": "Researchers have raised concerns about hatchery fish potentially breeding with wild fish. Hatchery fish may in some cases compete with wild fish. In the United States and Canada, there have been several salmon and steelhead hatchery reform projects intended to reduce the possibility of negative impacts from hatchery programs. Most salmon and steelhead hatcheries are managed better and follow up to date management practices to ensure any risks are curtailed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Feeding is an important component of the rearing process. Although many species are able to grow on maternal reserves alone (lecithotrophy), most commercially produced species require feeding to optimise survival, growth, yield and juvenile quality. Nutritional requirements are species specific and also vary with larval stage. Carnivorous fish are commonly fed with live prey; rotifers are usually offered to early larvae due to their small size, progressing to larger \"Artemia\" nauplii or zooplankton. The production of live feed on-site or buying-in is one of the biggest costs for hatchery facilities as it is a labour-intensive process. The development of artificial feeds is targeted to reduce the costs involved in live feed production and increase the consistency of nutrition, however decreased growth and survival has been found with these alternatives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Commercial fish feed",
        "text": "Specialised feeds are produced for fish hatcheries. In species such as salmon and trout, the newly hatched fry first feed from their yolk sacs and then can be fed with starter feeds. Marine species such as sea bass, sea bream, flounders and turbot consume the nutrition in their yolk sacs during the first few days post hatching and then are fed for several weeks on live prey, in the form of rotifers and brine shrimp (Artemia)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roaring Judy Hatchery",
        "text": "Hatchery staff works to support the production of over 3 million kokanee salmon fry, 100,000 subcatchable trout, and 180,000 catchable trout. Their source of water comes from groundwater spring and well water. Salmon are released into the East River through underground pipes. This process is done at night to give high survival odds. After release, salmon come back to the hatchery after approximately three years and ten months. They are able to do so through sensitive odor-detection to locate their birth water. The hatchery staff then strips the eggs and sperm to reproduce the salmon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hatchery",
        "text": "Hatchery\n--Fish hatcheries.\n--Poultry hatcheries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian prawn",
        "text": "Although hatcheries in the developing countries still depend on wild seed, maturation can be induced by eyestalk ablation technique where eyestalks of females are unilaterally ablated to stimulate endocrine activity. The ablated females spawn after 4 days, with a peak observed at days 5\u20136. However it is expensive to raise spawners in captivity and ablated shrimps result in less hardy fry with low survival rate. Even though the fecundity of the ablated females may not differ significantly, the hatch rates of ablated females was found to be markedly less (37.8% to 58.1%) than that of unablated females (69.2%). It is also found that wild females are more fecund per unit weight than ablated females. However quantitatively the number of spawns, eggs and nauplii produced by ablated females is ten, eight and six times respectively that of unablated females."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oroville\u2013Thermalito Complex",
        "text": "The Feather River Fish Hatchery was built to compensate for spawning grounds lost to returning salmon and Steelhead trout with the construction of Oroville Dam in the early 1960s. Salmon and steelhead raised at the hatchery are transported in oxygenated, temperature-controlled tanks and released in the Feather and Sacramento Rivers, Lake Oroville, and/or in the Delta near the San Francisco Bay area. These fish account for an estimated 20 percent of the ocean sport and commercial catch in the Pacific Ocean. Hatchery salmon are also planted in Lake Oroville. The first salmon and steelhead entered the hatchery in September 1967. Today, the facility accommodates an average 8,000 fish. The Feather River Fish Hatchery was constructed between 1966 and 1967."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "1. Out of season production"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Conditioning is achieved by holding broodstock in flow-through tanks at optimal conditions for light, temperature, salinity, flow rate and food availability (optimal levels are species specific)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinook salmon",
        "text": "Farming of the species in New Zealand began in the 1970s, when hatcheries were initially set up to enhance and support wild fish stocks with the first commercial operations initiating in 1976. After some opposition against their establishment by societal groups, including anglers, the first sea cage farm was established in 1983 at Big Glory Bay in Stewart Island by British Petroleum NZ Ltd."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salisbury Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The hatchery was established in 1931, and was the first not located near a railroad, previously the method by which the state's other hatcheries delivered their stock to its destinations. Designed by Walker and Walker of Montpelier, the hatchery buildings are more architecturally distinctive than earlier hatcheries, with a number of Craftsman touches. It was established due to a documented decline in the number of fish in the state's waterways, primarily the result of sport fishing. In the 1950s, the facility was expanded by the addition of a feed storage building, and in the 1960s concrete raceways were added. The breeding and rearing facility north of the road houses an unusual light-managed environment to facilitate continuous propagation of fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Raipur Fish Hatchery and Training Centre",
        "text": "The Raipur Upazila has 8 fish farms, 14 dairy farms, 72 poultry farms and this one hatchery. As of 2004, the government-owned hatchery was able to produce 504 kilograms of hatchlings a year, which mostly consisted of endemic species like \"Catla catla\" (katla), \"Labeo rohita\" (rui), \"Cirrhinus cirrhosus\" (mrigal), \"Labeo calbasu\" (kalabaus), \"Clarias batrachus\" (magur), and \"Channa striata\" (shingi)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hillarys, Western Australia",
        "text": "There is a hatchery serving the aquaculture industry of marine shellfish in Hillarys. In 2020, spat of the black-lip rock oyster was grown in the hatchery and relocated to one of the trial sites on the coast off Karratha and Derby, at specially selected sites at Cossack and West Lewis Island. This was the first time that the oysters had been commercially grown in WA, in an industry which is expected to grow and provide an economic boost and employment opportunities for Indigenous people in the Pilbara region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mossom Creek Hatchery",
        "text": "The hatchery is operated by Burrard Inlet Marine Enhancement Society, a non-profit group, and relies on volunteers year round. They also work closely with other organizations such as the Pacific WildLife Foundation and the Port Moody Ecological Society. Eggs and milt are collected from chum and coho salmon in the fall and early winter from Mossom Creek, Noons Creek (in cooperation with the Port Moody Ecological Society), and sometimes other river systems such as the Indian River. The eggs are fertilized and placed in stacked incubators until they hatch. During the winter, eggs hatch into alevins which absorb their yolk sacks to become fry. Chum are released into the streams as large fry in the spring. Coho smolts that are a year old are also released, as the coho fry must spend an extra year in the hatchery's large rearing tubs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bellvue-Watson Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "This hatchery also contains Colorado's Fish Research Hatchery, which first began operation in 1968. The staff is responsible for the improvement of hatchery techniques and aquaculture advancement. Methods include conducting feed and fish strain performance evaluations and work to improve both rearing survival and post-stocking survival of hatchery fish. Various areas of study include whirling disease resistant strain research, broodstock, and optimization of production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of fishing articles",
        "text": "Fish hatchery -"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture",
        "text": "The farming of fish is the most common form of aquaculture. It involves raising fish commercially in tanks, fish ponds, or ocean enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Worldwide, the most important fish species used in fish farming are, in order, carp, salmon, tilapia, and catfish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture of salmonids",
        "text": "Salmonids are usually farmed in two stages and in some places maybe more. First, the salmon are hatched from eggs and raised on land in freshwater tanks. Increasing the accumulated thermal units of water during incubation reduces time to hatching. When they are 12 to 18 months old, the smolt (juvenile salmon) are transferred to floating sea cages or net pens anchored in sheltered bays or fjords along a coast. This farming in a marine environment is known as mariculture. There they are fed pelleted feed for another 12 to 24 months, when they are harvested."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milkfish",
        "text": "Milkfish hatcheries, like most hatcheries, contain a variety of cultures, for example, rotifers, green algae, and brine shrimp, as well as the target species. They can either be intensive or semi-intensive. Semi-intensive methods are more profitable at US$6.67 per thousand fry in 1998, compared with $27.40 for intensive methods. However, the experience required by labour for semi-intensive hatcheries is higher than intensive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mariculture",
        "text": "Enhanced Stocking (also known as sea ranching) is a Japanese principle based on operant conditioning and the migratory nature of certain species. The fishermen raise hatchlings in a closely knitted net in a harbor, sounding an underwater horn before each feeding. When the fish are old enough they are freed from the net to mature in the open sea. During spawning season, about 80% of these fish return to their birthplace. The fishermen sound the horn and then net those fish that respond."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gavins Point National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "Hatchery staff rear threatened and endangered fish species, including the Pallid sturgeon and American paddlefish. The hatchery also rears and stocks many game fish species including: walleye, Bluegill, yellow perch, Rainbow trout, Largemouth bass, Smallmouth bass, Black crappie and others throughout the Missouri River Region. The hatchery complex is open to the public and contains a small exhibit area, administrative offices, 2 hatching jar batteries, 9 indoor cement tanks, workshop, and feed room. Visitors are welcome to view the eggs in the hatching jars and the fish being raised in the tanks. Eight outdoor raceways are used to rear trout and to temporarily hold other species. Six 1/6 acre and 30 1.3-acre earthen ponds are used to for raising cool and warm water fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "is estimated to be US$98.4 billion in 2008 with China significantly dominating the market; however, the value of aquaculture hatchery and nursery production has yet to be estimated. Additional hatchery production for small-scale domestic uses, which is particularly prevalent in South-East Asia or for conservation programmes, has also yet to be quantified."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poudre Rearing Unit",
        "text": "Hatchery staff works to produce millions of broodstock rainbow trout and greenback cutthroat trout eggs. They stock 50,000 trout in public waters on the front range. Their source of water comes from surface water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neosho National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The US Fish and Wildlife Service operates fish hatcheries throughout the United States. These hatcheries are a significant part of fisheries conservation and restoration efforts by producing and releasing rare, endangered and other fish back into America\u2019s lakes and rivers. Some of these hatcheries also help mitigate the loss of fishing from the large federal dams built in the last century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cronulla Fisheries Centre",
        "text": "Fish hatchery was established in . Building constructed prior to 1914, probably -1907. It was originally a laboratory wing (with open verandah on both sides) and a hatchery hall comprising a single open space containing fish tanks. It was thought to be vacant -1930. The Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research (later ... Organisation) CSIR/CSIRO operations post-1938 were in this building. The hall remained open until 1950.\n;Boat shed"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Rearing larvae through the early life stages is conducted in nurseries which are generally closely associated with hatcheries for fish culture whilst it is common for shellfish nurseries to exist separately. Nursery culture of larvae to rear juveniles of a size suitable for transferral to on-growing facilities can be performed in a variety of different systems which may be entirely land-based, or larvae may be later transferred to sea-based rearing systems which reduce the need to supply feed. Juvenile survival is dependent on very high quality water conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "The value of global aquaculture farming"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Hatchery facilities present three main problems in the field of genetics. The first is that maintenance of a small number of broodstock can cause inbreeding and potentially lead to inbreeding depression thus affecting the success of the facility. Secondly, hatchery reared juveniles, even from a fairly large broodstock, can have greatly reduced genetic diversity compared to wild populations (the situation is comparable to the founder effect). Such fish that escape from farms or are released for restocking purposes may adversely affect wild population genetics and viability. This is of particular concern where escaped fish have been actively bred or are otherwise genetically modified. The third key issue is that genetic modification of food items is highly undesirable for many people. See Genetically modified food controversies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish stocking",
        "text": "Before being released into rivers, lakes, ponds, and occasionally oceans across the country, fish are raised in a fish hatchery. Just like humans have a demand for groceries, anglers have a demand for fish. When the supply is running low in a given body of water, fish are transported from hatcheries in a large water tank or airplane to their respective locations. The costs associated with stocking are typically covered by angler associations, commercial fishermen, state fish and game agencies, and at times government subsidies; today, most stocking is conducted by state fish and game departments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cawthron Institute",
        "text": "An international team led by Cawthron is developing farming systems enabling multiple shellfish species to be grown in open ocean sites, with sustainable production efficiencies and maintenance costs. Research is underway to increase the sustainability and efficiency of the wild scampi capture fishery and explore new techniques for a land-based production of this high-value species. A study of the factors influencing the feed conversion efficiency of farmed Chinook salmon aims to improve husbandry, health and fish quality, while reducing environmental impacts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture in New Zealand",
        "text": "Over two-thirds of New Zealand's aquaculture product comes from mussels and oysters. These shellfish are cultivated in two distinct stages; first spat needs to be collected, then the spat is grown in a grow-out facility.\n* Spat, also called seed, is the free-swimming larval stage of a shellfish. Spat is cultured in hatcheries, and can be grown in tanks on land. Hatcheries can also be associated with research facilities where spat can be selectively bred to specifications, as broodstock.\n* A grow-out facility is the place where the spat are raised to market size, usually in enclosures anchored in coastal waters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natchitoches National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The Pallid sturgeon (\"Scaphirhynchus albus\") is a member of the sturgeon family. The hatchery is working to develop spawning and culture techniques to raise a large number of Pallid sturgeon. Workers at the hatchery hope to raise enough of these fish to take the species off of the Endangered Species List."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lake Oroville",
        "text": "Today the hatchery is managed by the California Department of Fish and Wildlife raising spring and fall-run Chinook salmon and steelhead along the Feather River, directly below Lake Oroville. The hatchery is divided into two sections. The first section located on the east side of Table Mountain Boulevard includes: fish barrier dam, observation platform and underwater viewing. The second section located on the west side of Table Mountain Boulevard includes: spawning room, hatchery and rearing ponds. Salmon spawning operations can be observed mid-September until mid-November, but fish are present in the rearing ponds all year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Avoca Park",
        "text": "The hatchery stocked Indiana's waters with largemouth bass, bluegill, red-eared sunfish and black crappie for years until Indiana DNR began the process of decommissioning in 2013 and it fell into disrepair. During operation, the hatchery produced 500,000 to 1 million fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oncorhynchus",
        "text": "Declines in the abundance of wild salmon due to over fishing placed greater pressure on hatcheries to increase production and restore the wild salmon stock to supply fisheries. The problem is that hatcheries can never truly replicate the environment of wild salmon, an issue which often results in physiological and behavioral differences between wild salmon and those reared in hatcheries. These differences are often the product of genetic changes associated with inbreeding, artificial selection, and natural selection, as well as different environmental pressures acting on hatchery fish than wild populations. Due to the size selective nature of fishing favoring larger fish, a reduction in average size of the adult salmon has been observed over time. The smaller salmon make a greater proportion of the remaining individuals continuing the population, and problems arise when these hatchery-reared fish are introduced into the wild populations. Unlike wild salmon, larger salmon are selected for in hatcheries and are typically much larger than wild salmon. The result is that hatchery-produced salmon tend to out-compete wild salmon for space, food, and other resources. Some salmon species in hatcheries exhibit predatory behavior toward wild salmon because they grow to be much larger. Regardless of whether predation is observed, natural social interactions are disturbed by the release of large numbers of hatchery-reared salmon where wild populations are low because salmon in hatcheries naturally have a higher propensity towards aggressive behavior."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture of tilapia",
        "text": "Once a high performing tilapia strain (or strains) has been developed, the establishment of satellite hatcheries will increase the availability and decrease the costs of seed stock. These public and private hatcheries will act as multipliers for the superior genetics developed at RGCA and the sites for dissemination of quality broodstock to fish farmers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salmon conservation",
        "text": "The problem with hatcheries lies in the subtle connections between elements of the salmon system. The earliest hatcheries were simply egg-incubating that released small fry into the streams. Through this system, people tried to protect the eggs in the bottom of stream so that they would reduce the mortality of young salmon hoping to increase the salmon population. People raise them to fingerling size before turning them loose, and people put salmon in the tightly packed space. However, people feed them a mixture of fish offal, horse meat, tripe, and condemned pork and beef. As a result, it causes disease, furthermore, the disease infects from one salmon to others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oystering machinery",
        "text": "Nowadays hatcheries have expanded with more machines than before. The hatchery is not a factory, it is a place for oysters to grow and be harvested and then transported to a factory. The oyster larva has a soft body. It begins to grow an outer skin and when that happens the larvae are old enough to find an obstacle to settle on. The hatchery has many interesting machines and equipment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trinity River (California)",
        "text": "After the completion of Lewiston Dam in 1963, the Bureau of Reclamation constructed the Trinity River Fish Hatchery to raise young steelhead, coho and chinook salmon. The primary purpose of the hatchery was to compensate for the loss of of anadromous fish habitat above Lewiston Dam. The hatchery is operated by the California Department of Fish and Wildlife to produce returns of 7,500 coho, 6,000 spring chinook, 70,000 fall chinook and 22,000 steelhead each year. In 2014, the California Fish Hatchery Review Project found that Trinity Hatchery raised coho were out-competing wild stocks. The hatchery has since been required to carefully time releases of young fish in order to reduce the risk of competition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of microalgae in hatcheries",
        "text": "Culture of microalgae in hatcheries\n--Hatchery production techniques.\n----Open pond system.\n----Air-lift method.\n----Closed reactors.\n------Horizontal photobioreactors.\n------Vertical systems.\n----Flat plate reactors.\n----Fermentor-type reactors.\n--Commercial applications.\n----Use in aquaculture.\n----Human nutrition.\n----Biofuel production.\n----Pharmaceuticals and cosmetics.\n----Biofertilizer.\n----Other uses.\n--Issues.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tectus niloticus",
        "text": "Hatchery-reared individuals are usually lab-spawned and raised. Broodstock can be collected from local wild populations and from sites in which juveniles are to be released. Spawning is usually induced by heat shock under laboratory conditions;. Larvae are grown on coral rubble and shell grit, and are fed with benthic diatoms. (\"Nitzschia spp.\" and \"Navicula spp.\"). Juveniles used in cage experiments have an initial size of 8\u00a0mm shell diameter. Other experiments start at 15mm basal shell width."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cawthron Institute",
        "text": "This national centre for shellfish aquaculture research began in 1993 as a collection of recycled huts and a tunnel house. \u00a0Earlier decades had seen many unsuccessful attempts by New Zealand scientists to grow Greenshell\u00a0mussels in a hatchery. \u00a0A government-backed research project provided the funding for a small research hatchery and success was achieved in 1999.\u00a0 Eighteen years later, a new company, SPATnz Ltd, was formed by three major mussel producers to breed Greenshell mussels on a commercial scale."
      },
      {
        "title": "USFC Fish Hawk",
        "text": "\"Fish Hawk\"s main deck was filled with hatching equipment to allow her to serve as a floating hatchery for American shad, striped bass, mackerel, and herring. A pump supplying of water per hour and two distribution tanks fed the equipment. Fertilized fish eggs were placed in 36 hatching cones, each capable of hatching 200,000 American shad eggs, and feed valves regulated the current through the cones to keep the eggs gently in motion so they would not mat or settle to the bottom. \"Fish Hawk\" also had 18 hatching cylinders \u2013 each capable of holding 250,000 eggs \u2013 with wire gauze bottoms; the cylinders were suspended from beams hanging over the sides of the ship and partially submerged, with nine on each side. Cam machinery caused the cylinders to rise gently and drop more rapidly for about , which made the eggs circulate freely without settling on the bottom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Centropomus parallelus",
        "text": "This species is caught and sold as a food fish. Because of its market value it is studied for its potential as a farmed fish in the aquaculture industry. It is easy to rear in captivity, it can be raised on fish food rather than live prey, and it has a good feed conversion ratio, efficiently turning feed into meat. So far researchers have achieved \"massive production of juveniles\" in the laboratory, and viable methods for commercial production are being studied. In one successful trial, fat snook were grown from eggs placed in a substrate of \"Nannochloropsis\" algae, and the larvae that hatched were reared on a diet of rotifers and brine shrimp larvae. They were then \"weaned\" to a high-protein dry diet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Howietoun Fishery",
        "text": "The eggs were transferred to hatching boxes which Maitland had designed after the eggs had hatched the fry were moved to rearing boxes and once they were large enough they moved once more into the plank ponds. The packing and transporting of live ova at the time was to over-pack in the hope that enough would survive the journey, Maitland revised how live ova and fish should be transported."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pacific oyster",
        "text": "Pacific oyster broodstocks in hatcheries are kept in optimum conditions so the production of large amounts of high quality eggs and sperm can be achieved. Pacific oyster females are very fecund, and individuals of 70\u2013100 g live weight can produce 50\u201380 million eggs in a single spawn. Broodstock adults are held in tanks at 20\u201322\u00a0\u00b0C, supplied with cultured algae and with salinities of 25\u201332 ppt. These individuals can be induced to spawn by thermal shock treatment. Yet, the eggs from a small sample of females (about six) are more commonly stripped from the gonads using Pasteur pipettes and fertilized by sperm from a similar number of males."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coleman National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "Before the construction of the Shasta and Keswick Dams, Chinook Salmon and steelhead were free to migrate to the upper reaches of the Sacramento, Pit and McCloud Rivers to spawn. Chinook salmon and steelhead returning from the ocean, travel up the Sacramento River and Battle Creek where they are enticed by water flow into the hatchery. Eggs are collected, fertilized and incubated artificially until they hatch. The young fish are then raised in ponds at the hatchery until they are sufficient size to be released and return to the ocean. Long term production goals for Coleman NFH Complex are as follows: 12,000,000 fall Chinook salmon, 1,200,000 late-fall Chinook salmon, 250,000 winter Chinook salmon, and 600,000 steelhead annually. Winter Chinook salmon are reared at the Livingston Stone National Fish Hatchery, a sub-station of Coleman NFH, located at the base of Shasta Dam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture",
        "text": "A similar process is used in the salmon-farming section of this industry; juveniles are taken from hatcheries and a variety of methods are used to aid them in their maturation. For example, as stated above, some of the most important fish species in the industry, salmon, can be grown using a cage system. This is done by having netted cages, preferably in open water that has a strong flow, and feeding the salmon a special food mixture that aids their growth. This process allows for year-round growth of the fish, thus a higher harvest during the correct seasons. An additional method, known sometimes as sea ranching, has also been used within the industry. Sea ranching involves raising fish in a hatchery for a brief time and then releasing them into marine waters for further development, whereupon the fish are recaptured when they have matured."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian prawn",
        "text": "Compared with traditional type of management, semi-intensive production are on a relatively smaller scale with 0.2\u20132 hectare ponds and also deeper 1.0\u20131.5 m. Stock densities can range from 20\u201325 PL/m2 using hatchery derived seeds for monoculture. Natural feeds are grown by application of fertilizers and supplementary feeds are also given during the culture at a rate of 4\u20135 times a day. Water exchange at the rate of 30%\u201340% is carried out using pumps. Supplementary aeration is also provided using 4\u20136 aerators per hectare. A culture period may last from 100\u2013150 days depending on various factors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natchitoches National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The Bluegill (\"Lepomis macrochirus\") is a fish that is quite easy to catch. The hatchery raises many of these fish every year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salisbury Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The Salisbury Fish Hatchery is a state-operated fish hatchery on Vermont Route 53 in Salisbury, Vermont. Established in 1931, it produces broodstock trout for distribution to the other hatcheries in the state. Its facilities were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1994. The facility may be toured by arrangement, but there is no visitors center."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scallop aquaculture",
        "text": "One of the most important aspects of hatchery rearing is obtaining and maintaining broodstock. Broodstock must be conditioned so to stimulate gonad development leading up to spawning and much research has been devoted to identifying the best diets and water quality requirements for broodstock. Once broodstock have been conditioned, spawning can be induced. This is most commonly achieved by varying water temperature, increasing water circulation, or by an injection of serotonin (a neurotransmitter). Following spawning, scallop eggs will develop into the \u201cD\u201d larval (shelled) stage in 2 to 4 days post-fertilization. As larvae, they continue to grow and can be fed a variety of microalgal diets with mixed algal diets being reported as giving higher growth rates than single species diets. Settlement of larvae in hatcheries typically occurs between 35 and 45 days after fertilization of the scallop eggs when larvae are approximately 250 \u03bcm in size. Following settlement, the larvae undergo metamorphosis where they rearrange their body form to begin their life as a seafloor dwelling juvenile scallop. Mortality rates are often highest during metamorphosis as larvae go through a series of behavioral and anatomical changes such as loss of the velum (the larval feeding structure) and development of new filter-feeding mechanisms and gills. Post-settlement spat may be further grown in nursery tanks before being transferred to an on-growing system such as pearl nets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coleman National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "In 1942, the Coleman National Fish Hatchery (Coleman NFH) was established under an act of the U.S. Congress to mitigate the loss of historic spawning habitat caused by the construction of dams. The fish hatchery is located in Shasta County, California near the town of Anderson on the north bank of Battle Creek approximately east of the Sacramento River. Coleman NFH covers approximately of land owned by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), with an additional of land in perpetual easements for pipelines and access. It is the largest salmon hatchery in the continental United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pamunkey",
        "text": "In 1998, the tribe built a shad hatchery to ensure continuation of an important food source. When shad are caught, the eggs of females are taken and placed into a bucket. Sperm from males are put into the same bucket. At holding tanks, the fertilized eggs are allowed to grow and hatch. Once the new fish are grown enough, usually after 21 days, they are flushed back into the river. Chief Miles estimated that seven million fry were put back into the river in 1998 and probably triple that number in 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mt. Shavano Hatchery",
        "text": "Hatchery staff works to support the raising of 420,000 Whirling Disease negative catchable trout and about 2.6 million subcatchable trout and kokanee salmon annually. Rainbow trout, Snake River cutthroat, cutthroat/rainbow crosses (cutbow), as well as kokanee salmon are raised at the unit. Their source of water comes from a groundwater spring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bivalvia",
        "text": "Oysters, mussels, clams, scallops and other bivalve species are grown with food materials that occur naturally in their culture environment in the sea and lagoons. One-third of the world's farmed food fish harvested in 2010 was achieved without the use of feed, through the production of bivalves and filter-feeding carps. European flat oysters (\"Ostrea edulis\") were first farmed by the Romans in shallow ponds and similar techniques are still in use. Seed oysters are either raised in a hatchery or harvested from the wild. Hatchery production provides some control of the broodstock but remains problematic because disease-resistant strains of this oyster have not yet been developed. Wild spats are harvested either by broadcasting empty mussel shells on the seabed or by the use of long, small-mesh nets filled with mussel shells supported on steel frames. The oyster larvae preferentially settle out on the mussel shells. Juvenile oysters are then grown on in nursery trays and are transferred to open waters when they reach in length."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Lobster Hatchery",
        "text": "The charity's conservation work focuses on enhancing the stocks of lobsters in the coastal waters of Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly. Should stocks collapse (as they have done elsewhere) this work would shift its focus to restocking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture in New Zealand",
        "text": "Farming in the sea (mariculture) for king salmon is sometimes called sea-cage ranching. Sea-cage ranching takes place in large floating net cages, about 25 metres across and 15 metres deep, moored to the sea floor in clean, fast-flowing coastal waters. Smolt (young fish) from freshwater hatcheries are transferred to cages containing several thousand salmon, and remain there for the rest of their life. They are fed fishmeal pellets high in protein and oil. Most of this fishmeal is imported from Australia. The salmon are harvested when they are about two years old, weighing 2.5 to 4 kilograms. Sea cages are located in the Marlborough Sounds, Akaroa Harbour and Stewart Island."
      },
      {
        "title": "White River National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "The mission of the hatchery was to produce and release Atlantic salmon fry in tributaries throughout the Connecticut River watershed. The hatchery previously supplied over 650,000 lake trout yearlings for stocking Lake Erie and Lake Ontario."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cronulla Fisheries Centre",
        "text": "The Cronulla hatchery, experimental pool and laboratory were built in 1904, commissioned in 1905 and became fully operational in early 1906. Initial stocks of the hatchery included whiting, red bream, flathead, trevally and crayfish. Later snapper and other finfish were introduced. These all flourished in the pond but did not spawn. Dannevig had more success with flounder from Tasmania, resulting in the liberation of 20 million young fish into Port Hacking, Botany Bay, Middle Harbour and Brisbane Water. The hatchering continued to culture finfish and shellfish species but more emphasis was placed on investigations into the biology of local species by hatchery staff and staff from Sydney University. The hatchery was closed in 1914, and the NSW Government embarked on other fisheries related projects including developing a commercial ocean trawl fishery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paranephrops",
        "text": "New Zealand Clearwater Crayfish Ltd farm grows the northern koura species \"P. planifrons\" using a gravity-fed system with pond culture and raceways. A key step in this koura farm is the depuration of koura in clean running water without food for up to 2 days to purge the gut cavity. This enables the tail to be presented as an appealing white flesh to the consumer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dexter National Fish Hatchery & Technology Center",
        "text": "Broodfish from these species are purposely reared at the Center for spawning. Each year the Center will spawn over 350 pairs of the broodfish using the induced spawning method. These pairs will produce over 3.5 million eggs. This count does not include those that will spawn naturally in the earthen ponds. Fish from each spawn will be taken and held at the station for future broodstock, ensuring genetic diversity. Different pairs of each species are spawned each year, discouraging spawning of the same fish year after year."
      },
      {
        "title": "D.C. Booth Historic National Fish Hatchery",
        "text": "In August 2013, it was announced that the hatchery would shut down on October 1, 2013, after the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service issued a nationwide hatchery shutdown due to priority being given to other programs and insufficient funding. The announcement was met with opposition by U.S. Senator Tim Johnson and U.S. Representative Kristi Noem, both from South Dakota; as well as Spearfish Mayor Dana Boke. Due to public efforts to keep the hatchery open, its closure was indefinitely suspended in September, with its operations allowed to continue through the 2014 Fiscal Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Genetic modification is conducted in some hatcheries to improve the quality and yield of farmed species. Artificial fertilisation facilitates selective breeding programs which aim to improve production characteristics such as growth rate, disease resistance, survival, colour, increased fecundity and/or lower age of maturation. Genetic improvement can be mediated by selective breeding, via hybridization, or other genetic manipulation techniques."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pueblo Hatchery",
        "text": "Hatchery staff works to support the raising of fry, fingerlings, and catchables of rainbow trout. The hatchery raises crappie, bluegills, largemouth bass, brown trout, saugeye, wiper and walleye. Their source of water comes from surface water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scott Creek (Santa Cruz County)",
        "text": "The steelhead and coho salmon hatchery on Big Creek is operated by The Monterey Bay Salmon and Trout Project (MBSTP). The hatchery uses spawning wild steelhead trout to obtain eggs and milt so that the genetics of the hatchery fish are wild. The hatchery site was historically known as Kingfisher Flats."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is a fish hatchery generally defined as?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A fish hatchery is a place for artificial breeding, hatching, and rearing finfish and shellfish. Pacific oysters, shrimp, Indian prawns, salmon, tilapia and scallops are commonly found in hatcheries."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are octopi and squids also raised in hatcheries?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "While I couldn't anything regarding squid, octopus farming is a nascent industry with a Spanish firm announcing they would begin octopus farming in 2022.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I did not find any mention of hatcheries for squid, but I did find maintaining high survival rates for paralarvae appears to be the main factor limiting the development of a fully closed life cycle octopus hatchery system."
    ],
    "topic": "Fish farming",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Octopus aquaculture:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Octopus aquaculture"
        ],
        "ctx": "Octopus aquaculture describes the captive-raising of octopuses and commercial sale of their meat. A complex and labor-intensive form of farming, octopus aquaculture is being driven by strong market demand in the Mediterranean and in South American and Asian countries. Annual global demand for octopus more than doubled from 1980 to 2019, from roughly 180,000 to about 370,000 tons. The supply of octopus has been constrained by overfishing in many key fisheries and proponents of farming suggest human-induced culturing could help restock natural populations. Opponents of the nascent industry argue that cephalopod intelligence and emotional capacity, as well as the solitary and carnivorous character of octopuses, make them particularly ill-suited to intensive, captive breeding. Commercial sale may stimulate market demand, hastening rather than offsetting the decline in wild stocks. An announcement that a Spanish firm would begin octopus aquaculture as early as 2022 prompted ethical and scientific controversy."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Octopus aquaculture:9",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Octopus aquaculture",
          "Paralarva"
        ],
        "ctx": "The bottleneck currently hindering the commercial development of octopus aquaculture is the difficulty of rearing octopus during their early paralarva stage. Paralarva is the name given to the larva of cephalopods. Paralarvae are small, less than 3 millimetres at hatching, with a long planktonic life stage. Current rearing techniques are inadequate, resulting in very high mortality rates. Results vary when octopus paralarvae are fed different combinations of prey. The best results have been with a mix of brine shrimp and other living prey, such as crab zoeae. However the survival and settlement rates of the paralarvae is typically low in such studies, highlighting the difficulties in raising octopus paralarvae. Maintaining high survival rates for paralarvae appears to be the main factor limiting the development of a fully closed life cycle octopus hatchery system."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The composite fish culture system is a technology developed in India by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research in the 1970s. In this system, of both local and imported fish, a combination of five or six fish species is used in a single fish pond. These species are selected so that they do not compete for food among them by having different types of food habitats. As a result, the food available in all the parts of the pond is used. Fish used in this system include catla and silver carp which are surface feeders, rohu, a column feeder, and mrigal and common carp, which are bottom feeders. Other fish also feed on the excreta of the common carp, and this helps contribute to the efficiency of the system which in optimal conditions produces 3000\u20136000\u00a0kg of fish per hectare per year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Fish farming\n--Categories.\n----Intensive aquaculture.\n--Fish farms.\n----Cage system.\n------Copper-alloy nets.\n----Open net pen system.\n------Negative external effects.\n----Irrigation ditch or pond systems.\n------Composite fish culture.\n----Integrated recycling systems.\n----Classic fry farming.\n--Issues.\n----Feeding.\n----Stocking density.\n----Parasites & disease.\n----Ecosystem impacts.\n----Siting.\n----Genetic modification.\n----Labeling.\n--Indoor fish farming.\n--Slaughter methods.\n----Inhumane methods.\n----More humane methods.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The open net pens system is a method that takes place in natural waters, such as rivers, lakes, near the coast or offshore. The breeders are rearing the fish in large cages, floating in the water. The fish are living in natural water, but are isolated with a net. So the only barrier separating the fish from the surrounding environment is a net, this allows the water to flow from the \u2018natural\u2019 surrounding through the fish farms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colima",
        "text": "Principle catches include tuna and squid, in which Colima ranks nationally at third and fourth place respectively. Other commercial species include huachinangos, red porgy, combers, wahoo, and mojarra. Fish farming mostly concerns raising shrimp along lakes and lagoons, such as Cuyutl\u00e1n, Chupadero, and Potrero Grande, with an annual production of about 5,000 tons. Some oyster raising takes place as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "In these kinds of systems fish production per unit of surface can be increased at will, as long as sufficient oxygen, fresh water and food are provided. Because of the requirement of sufficient fresh water, a massive water purification system must be integrated in the fish farm. One way to achieve this is to combine hydroponic horticulture and water treatment, see below. The exception to this rule are cages which are placed in a river or sea, which supplements the fish crop with sufficient oxygenated water. Some environmentalists object to this practice."
      },
      {
        "title": "The End of the Line (book)",
        "text": "Fish farming is the process of growing fish in an artificial environment. The traditional method involves feeding fish waste vegetables, and this is being done in developing countries. Modern fish farming involves feeding processed small wild fish to large carnivorous fish such as salmon, trout, and prawns. However, modern fish farming often relies on fish taken from the water in the developing world to feed the fish being sold in the developing world. Furthermore, fish farms introduce alien species to local environments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The largest-scale pure fish farms use a system derived (admittedly much refined) from the New Alchemy Institute in the 1970s. Basically, large plastic fish tanks are placed in a greenhouse. A hydroponic bed is placed near, above or between them. When tilapia are raised in the tanks, they are able to eat algae, which naturally grow in the tanks when the tanks are properly fertilized."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Fish farming or pisciculture involves commercial breeding of fish, usually for food, in fish tanks or artificial enclosures such as fish ponds. It is a particular type of aquaculture, which is the controlled cultivation and harvesting of aquatic animals such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and so on, in natural or pseudo-natural environment. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Worldwide, the most important fish species produced in fish farming are carp, catfish, salmon and tilapia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing",
        "text": "Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture. It involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural population is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Fish species raised by fish farms include salmon, carp, tilapia, catfish and trout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vessel monitoring system",
        "text": "Chile is currently the world's largest producer of farmed salmon and has a burgeoning mussel culture industry that is supplying a growing world market. Other fisheries of interest include alfonsino, anchovies, cod, cuttlefish, hake, mackerel, ray, sardines, sea bream, squid, and swordfish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mariculture",
        "text": "In cage culture, several different methods are used for feeding farmed fish \u2013 from simple hand feeding to sophisticated computer-controlled systems with automated food dispensers coupled with \"in situ\" uptake sensors that detect consumption rates. In coastal fish farms, overfeeding primarily leads to increased disposition of detritus on the seafloor (potentially smothering seafloor dwelling invertebrates and altering the physical environment), while in hatcheries and land-based farms, excess food goes to waste and can potentially impact the surrounding catchment and local coastal environment. This impact is usually highly local, and depends significantly on the settling velocity of waste feed and the current velocity (which varies both spatially and temporally) and depth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture in Canada",
        "text": "This system is the first alternative culture system. Named \"SARGO\u2122 Fin Farm System\", the system was established in 1994 for intensive finfish production in both marine and freshwater environment. The system consists of six circular bags that are made of a heavy-gauge plastic installed in a steel frame floating at the surface and held in place by anchors in the same way as the net-pens. Electrical upwelling pumps continuously pump fresh seawater into the bags, and portable liquid oxygen tanks are used to provide oxygen to the cultured fish. A specially designed outlet is used to exit the waste-water and entered the marine environment untreated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing industry",
        "text": "Fish farming involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosed pools, usually for food. Fish species raised by fish farms include carp, salmon, tilapia, catfish and cod. Increasing demands on wild fisheries by commercial fishing operations have caused widespread overfishing. Fish farming offers an alternative solution to the increasing market demand for fish and fish protein."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable fishery",
        "text": "Over the years, fish farming has made a name for itself in the fishing industry as a means of ensuring that the world's fish supplies do not deplete so rapidly. Sometimes referred to as \"aquaculture\", fish farming, when done right, \"can\" be one a very environmentally-friendly way to harvest fish. Fish farms are regulated by laws and management plans, which prevents it from falling prey to the same phenomenon of overfishing, which cripples the fish populations and marine ecosystem as a whole. The basic premise of fish farming is just what it sounds like\u2014to breed and raise fish in enclosed environments, then eventually sell the grown fish as food for consumers. Salmon, cod, and halibut are three types of finfish that are often farm-raised. The actual enclosures in which the fish grow and swim are made of mesh \"cages\" submerged underwater."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Since the system lives in a greenhouse, it adapts to almost all temperate climates, and may also adapt to tropical climates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Octopus aquaculture",
        "text": "Whether octopus farming is profitable depends in large part on how much it costs to maintain a steady supply of crustaceans. Economic profitability can be maximized without significantly compromising biological productivity by incorporating a mix of fish and crustacean-based feed strategies. Garc\u00eda Garc\u00eda and Cerezo Velverde (2006) found a feeding regime of one day of crab followed by three days of fish can reduce the cost of producing one kg of octopus by a predicted value of \u20ac2.96."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paranephrops",
        "text": "New Zealand Clearwater Crayfish Ltd farm grows the northern koura species \"P. planifrons\" using a gravity-fed system with pond culture and raceways. A key step in this koura farm is the depuration of koura in clean running water without food for up to 2 days to purge the gut cavity. This enables the tail to be presented as an appealing white flesh to the consumer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "This is also called a \"flow through system\" Trout and other sport fish are often raised from eggs to fry or fingerlings and then trucked to streams and released. Normally, the fry are raised in long, shallow, concrete tanks, fed with fresh stream water. The fry receive commercial fish food in pellets. While not as efficient as the New Alchemists' method, it is also far simpler and has been used for many years to stock streams with sport fish. European eel (\"Anguilla anguilla\") aquaculturalists procure a limited supply of glass eels, juvenile stages of the European eel which swim north from the Sargasso Sea breeding grounds, for their farms. The European eel is threatened with extinction because of the excessive catch of glass eels by Spanish fishermen and overfishing of adult eels in, e.g., the Dutch IJsselmeer, Netherlands. Although European eel larvae can survive for several weeks, the full life cycle has not yet been achieved in captivity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Farming carnivorous fish such as salmon, however, does not always reduce pressure on wild fisheries, as such farmed fish are usually fed fishmeal and fish oil extracted from wild forage fish. The 2008 global returns for fish farming recorded by the FAO totaled 33.8 million tonnes worth about US$60 billion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture, forestry, and fishing in Japan",
        "text": "Japan also has greatly advanced the techniques of aquaculture or sea farming. In this system, artificial insemination and hatching techniques are used to breed fish and shellfish, which are then released into rivers or seas. These fish and shellfish are caught after they grow bigger. Salmon is raised this way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing in Chile",
        "text": "Following a period of brutal overfishing, Chile set up a quota system in 2001, which helped stocks stabilize. This quota system existed to distribute quotas of catch for both pescadores artesanales (traditional, artisanal fisherman) and the industrial fishing market. This quota applied both to where and when fishermen can go after their catch as well as what types of fish they can catch and how many in a given period. Although companies and coalitions of individuals are free to sell their quotas, they were originally allocated on the basis of the historical division of the catch among firms. That gave established operators, which got free quotas, an advantage over new entrants, which had to buy them from rivals. A series of mergers have put 91% of the total industrial quota for jack mackerel, sardines, pilchards and hake in the hands of just four companies. This law expired in 2012. It was replaced by the controversial Ley de Pesca or Ley Longueira whose passage has now been shown to have been influenced by bribes paid by Corpesca industrial fisheries to three politicians from the Iquique region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Capiz",
        "text": "Apart from a surplus of agricultural products, Capiz is also a major supplier of prawn and milkfish (bangus). Other agro-industrial harvests include blue marlin, squid, oysters, shrimp, seaweed, and angel wings. Rich fish ponds attract investors to venture into prawn culture, prawn feed manufacture, seaweed farming and the distribution and processing of other marine products. A robust workforce of 445,246 operates with a literacy rate of 92.04%. Its relatively unexplored caves are said to have high deposits of mineral resources such as limestone, gold and metal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "In Southeast Asia, the traditional cage farming platform is called kelong."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Within intensive and extensive aquaculture methods, numerous specific types of fish farms are used; each has benefits and applications unique to its design."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture",
        "text": "The farming of fish is the most common form of aquaculture. It involves raising fish commercially in tanks, fish ponds, or ocean enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Worldwide, the most important fish species used in fish farming are, in order, carp, salmon, tilapia, and catfish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Offshore aquaculture",
        "text": "While the ranching systems currently used for tuna use open net cages at the surface of the sea (as is done also in salmon farming), the offshore technology usually uses submersible cages. These large rigid cages \u2013 each one able to hold many thousands of fish \u2013 are anchored on the sea floor, but can move up and down the water column. They are attached to buoys on the surface which frequently contain a mechanism for feeding and storage for equipment. Similar technology is being used in waters near the Bahamas, China, the Philippines, Portugal, Puerto Rico, and Spain. By submerging cages or shellfish culture systems, wave effects are minimized and interference with boating and shipping is reduced. Offshore farms can be made more efficient and safer if remote control is used, and technologies such as an 18-tonne buoy that feeds and monitors fish automatically over long periods are being developed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaponics",
        "text": "In order for aquaponic systems to be financially successful and make a profit whilst also covering its operating expenses, the hydroponic plant components and fish rearing components need to almost constantly be at maximum production capacity. To keep the bio-mass of fish in the system at its maximum (without limiting fish growth), there are 3 main stocking method that can help maintain this maximum.\n* \"Sequential rearing:\" Multiple age groups of fish share a rearing tank, and when an age group reaches market size they are selectively harvested and replaced with the same amount of fingerlings. Downsides to this method include stressing out the entire pool of fish during each harvest, missing fish resulting in a waste of food/space, and the difficulty of keeping accurate records with frequent harvests.\n* \"Stock splitting:\" Large quantities of fingerlings are stocked at once and then split into two groups once the tank hits maximum capacity, which is easier to record and eliminates fish being \"forgotten\". A stress-free way of doing this operation is via \"swimways\" that connect various rearing tanks and a series of hatches/moving screens/pumps that move the fish around.\n* \"Multiple rearing units:\" Entire groups of fish are moved to larger rearing tanks once their current tank hits maximum capacity. Such systems usually have 2\u20134 tanks that share a filtration system, and when the largest tank is harvested, the other fish groups are each moved up into a bigger tank whilst the smallest tank is restocked with fingerlings. It is also common for there to be several rearing tanks yet no ways to move fish between them, which eliminates the labor of moving fish and allows each tank to be undisturbed during harvesting, even if the space usage is inefficient when the fish are fingerlings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arapaiminae",
        "text": "Both \"Arapaima\" and \"Heterotis\" are farmed in their respective regions as relatively large and hardy food-fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greenfish recirculation technology",
        "text": "have appeared as well as verification of the system in full-scale farming operations with wet feed and semi-moist fish feed. One of the most important describes the advanced simulator for full-scale recirculation in an aquaculture system with algorithms for complete mass balances calculations, involving: growth of fish, addition of fish feeds, production of waste, bacterial growth and the dynamics of the water purification system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Santa Cruz Province, Argentina",
        "text": "Sea fishing, and its later industrialization at the fishing ports of Puerto Deseado, Puerto San Juli\u00e1n, Puerto Santa Cruz and R\u00edo Gallegos produces prawn, squid, hake and dozens of others. Most of the production is frozen and exported."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pseudoplatystoma",
        "text": "\"Pseudoplatystoma\" species are of considerable economic value; all are sold in fish markets throughout South America. They are important food fish for human consumption. \"P. fasciatum\" has a succulent, yellowish flesh without \"stray\" bones. \"P. tigrinum\" is the most important catfish in gill-net fisheries of Guapor\u00e9 and Marmor\u00e9 Rivers. These fish are being overexploited in their range, and uncontrolled fishing possibly has led to the disappearance of \"Pseudoplatystoma\" species in some local tributaries of the Amazon, Orinoco, and Magdalena. In the Argentine province of Entre R\u00edos alone, about 27,000 tonnes of \"Pseudoplatystoma\" species are harvested every year, comprising 70 to 80% of the total capture there, mostly concentrated on the fishing area near the city of Victoria, opposite Rosario, Santa Fe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Urban aquaculture",
        "text": "There are three general types of aquaculture systems based on the way they are managed. They include extensive, semi-intensive and intensive systems. Extensive aquaculture systems are usually conducted in medium-to-large-sized ponds or water bodies. The fish production depends on the natural productivity of the water, making this system low cost and maintenance. With semi-intensive fish farming, the production of fish per unit is low. However, they tend to be incomplete and are rarely used as a sole food source. Intensive fish farming involves that the quantity of fish produced per unit of rearing area is great. To intensify the culture, production factors have to be controlled to improve the production conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute",
        "text": "The technologies for the seed production and grow-out culture of cobia (\"Rachycentron canadum\"), groupers (\"Epinephelus coioides\") silver pompano (\"Trachinotus blochii\"), Indian pompano (\"Trachinotus mookalee\") and pink ear emperor (\"Lethrinus lentjan\") have been developed and demonstrated by the CMFRI, while efforts are on to bring more promising species under farming. In addition, five species of snappers and carangids have been prioritized for developing seed production technology. Hatchery production technology for mussel, edible oyster and 14 varieties of marine ornamentals, including Marcia's anthias, clowns, damsels, hybrids, camel shrimp and cleaner shrimp has been achieved. The indigenously developed Re-Circulatory Aquaculture System (RAS) is also functioning at the institute to boost seed production round the year. The establishment of national brood banks of Cobia and Pompano in Mandapam and Vizhinjam Centres of the institute with funding support of the NFDB is a testimony to the determination of the institute for providing necessary support for hatchery technologies of commercially important food fishes that will enhance their mariculture prospects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mariculture",
        "text": "Enhanced Stocking (also known as sea ranching) is a Japanese principle based on operant conditioning and the migratory nature of certain species. The fishermen raise hatchlings in a closely knitted net in a harbor, sounding an underwater horn before each feeding. When the fish are old enough they are freed from the net to mature in the open sea. During spawning season, about 80% of these fish return to their birthplace. The fishermen sound the horn and then net those fish that respond."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture in Canada",
        "text": "The two types of land-based systems are separated based on the type of water in which they operate. Generally, the saltwater land-based systems are temporary rearing technologies for the early stages of growth; with subsequent transition of the livestock to marine environments. This method of aquaculture is often implemented for stocking of wild populations which are under threat. These hatcheries which breed and raise juvenile fish are also utilized in freshwater stocking programs as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Buada Lagoon",
        "text": "The failure of these attempts to get the fish farming industry running again then led to the establishment of a semi-intensive aquaculture programme, also Taiwanese, in 2001 which involved building concrete basins 20\u00a0m long, 10\u00a0m wide and 1.5\u00a0m deep. These were equipped with oxygenators, nets and specially adapted feeding. The idea was to allow fish farmers to raise milkfish using seawater, and without having to share the water with tilapias."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "One problem with such composite fish culture is that many of these fish breed only during monsoon. Even if fish are collected from the wild, they can be mixed with other species, as well. So, a major problem in fish farming is the lack of availability of good-quality stock. To overcome this problem, ways have now been worked out to breed these fish in ponds using hormonal stimulation. This has ensured the supply of pure fish stock in desired quantities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture",
        "text": "In a hypothetical family-scale fish/microalga /bivalve/seaweed farm, based on pilot scale data, at least 60% of nutrient input reached commercial products, nearly three times more than in modern net pen farms. Expected average annual yields of the system for a hypothetical were of seabream, of bivalves and of seaweeds. These results required precise water quality control and attention to suitability for bivalve nutrition, due to the difficulty in maintaining consistent phytoplankton populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "P\u00f3voa de Varzim",
        "text": "Marine fish farming started in 1994 by SafiEstela, an aquafarming firm established in 1968. It uses the latest knowledge on the breeding and production of high-valued seafood species, including soles, with intricate fish husbandry. It was part of the European Maximus consortium of 8 SME and 6 RTD performers involving states in Atlantic Europe, with innovative scientific processes in a number of interrelated disciplines, including growth physiology, quality, fish welfare and stunning methods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture of salmonids",
        "text": "An older method of harvesting is to use a sweep net, which operates a bit like a purse seine net. The sweep net is a big net with weights along the bottom edge. It is stretched across the pen with the bottom edge extending to the bottom of the pen. Lines attached to the bottom corners are raised, herding some fish into the purse, where they are netted. Before killing, the fish are usually rendered unconscious in water saturated in carbon dioxide, although this practice is being phased out in some countries due to ethical and product quality concerns. More advanced systems use a percussive-stun harvest system that kills the fish instantly and humanely with a blow to the head from a pneumatic piston. They are then bled by cutting the gill arches and immediately immersing them in iced water. Harvesting and killing methods are designed to minimize scale loss, and avoid the fish releasing stress hormones, which negatively affect flesh quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Master of Fisheries Science",
        "text": "Most of the fish farms employ professional fisheries graduates as Farm In Charge. Apart from this, the fish feed requirement is growing steadily. There are 33 feed mills with an installed capacity of 150 000 tpa. This sector is providing direct employment to about 0.3 million people and ancillary activities provide employment to 0.6-0.7 million people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Despite these important site conditions, the open net pen method is, or should say was, very popular in Norway and China. This is because of the cost friendliness and efficiency of this method."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Some producers have adapted their intensive systems in an effort to provide consumers with fish that do not carry dormant forms of viruses and diseases."
      },
      {
        "title": "10th edition of Systema Naturae",
        "text": "Linnaeus divided the fishes based upon the position of the ventral and pectoral fins, into the following orders and genera:\n*Apodes: \"Muraena\" (eels), \"Gymnotus\" (electric knifefishes), \"Trichiurus\" (cutlassfishes), \"Anarhichas\" (wolffishes), \"Ammodytes\" (sand eels), \"Stromateus\" (butterfishes) & \"Xiphias\" (swordfishes)\n*Jugulares: \"Callionymus\" (dragonets), \"Uranoscopus\" (stargazers), \"Trachinus\" (weevers), \"Gadus\" (cod & kin) & \"Ophidion\" (cusk-wels)\n*Thoracici: \"Cyclopterus\" (lumpfishes), \"Echeneis\" (remoras), \"Coryphaena\" (dolphinfishes), \"Gobius\" (gobies), \"Cottus\" (sculpins), \"Scorpaena\" (scorpionfishes), \"Zeus\" (john dories), \"Pleuronectes\" (flatfishes), \"Chaetodon\" (butterflyfishes), \"Sparus\" (breams & porgies), \"Labrus\" (wrasses), \"Sciaena\" (snappers), \"Perca\" (perch), \"Gasterosteus\" (sticklebacks), \"Scomber\" (mackerel & tuna), \"Mullus\" (goatfishes) & \"Trigla\" (sea robins)\n*Abdominales: \"Cobitis\" (loaches), \"Silurus\" (catfishes), \"Loricaria\" (suckermouth catfishes), \"Salmo\" (salmon & trout), \"Fistularia\" (cornetfishes), \"Esox\" (pike), \"Argentina\" (herring smelts), \"Atherina\" (silversides), \"Mugil\" (mullet), \"Exocoetus\" (flying fishes), \"Polynemus\" (threadfins), \"Clupea\" (herring) & \"Cyprinus\" (carp)\n*Branchiostegi: \"Mormyrus\" (elephantfishes), \"Balistes\" (triggerfishes), \"Ostracion\" (boxfishes), \"Tetrodon\" (pufferfishes), \"Diodon\" (porcupinefishes), \"Centriscus\" (snipefishes), \"Syngnathus\" (pipefishes & seahorses) & \"Pegasus\" (seamoths)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "These use irrigation ditches or farm ponds to raise fish. The basic requirement is to have a ditch or pond that retains water, possibly with an above-ground irrigation system (many irrigation systems use buried pipes with headers.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Animal husbandry",
        "text": "Fish hatcheries provide larval and juvenile fish, crustaceans and shellfish, for use in aquaculture systems. When large enough these are transferred to growing-on tanks and sold to fish farms to reach harvest size. Some species that are commonly raised in hatcheries include shrimps, prawns, salmon, tilapia, oysters and scallops. Similar facilities can be used to raise species with conservation needs to be released into the wild, or game fish for restocking waterways. Important aspects of husbandry at these early stages include selection of breeding stock, control of water quality and nutrition. In the wild, there is a massive amount of mortality at the nursery stage; farmers seek to minimise this while at the same time maximising growth rates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Very-high-intensity recycle aquaculture systems (RAS, also Recirculating Aquaculture Systems), where all the production parameters are controlled, are being used for high-value species. By recycling water, little is used per unit of production. However, the process has high capital and operating costs. The higher cost structures mean that RAS is economical only for high-value products, such as broodstock for egg production, fingerlings for net pen aquaculture operations, sturgeon production, research animals, and some special niche markets such as live fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rice-fish system",
        "text": "Rice-fish systems are only one type of integrated rice-field system: 19 other models exist, for example rice-crayfish, rice-crab and rice-turtle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Common Fisheries Policy",
        "text": "Fish farming is the fastest growing area of world food production. In 1995 it produced one-third of the world's fish and shellfish by value. The main species in the EU are trout, salmon, mussels and oysters, but interest has been shown in sea bass, sea bream and turbot. Community support began in 1971 for inland fish farming, but was extended to other areas in the late 1970s. EU support covers similar areas to other land installations, but with additional concerns of technical and environmental problems caused by introducing major fish concentrations where farms are built. The industry suffers problems due to fluctuating demand for farmed fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saltwater aquaponics",
        "text": "Currently, many conventional fish farming practices take place in the coastal zones with open circulation. This places an enormous load of urine and soluble nitrogen (that the feed and waste from fish release) at high concentrations into the ecological region. This can have many environmentally deleterious effects. In response to this, alternative aquaculture developments are quickly arising- Namely, recirculating aquaculture systems. By creating a closed system, fish farming has given locational freedom to the practice allowing for more inland developments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture",
        "text": "A similar process is used in the salmon-farming section of this industry; juveniles are taken from hatcheries and a variety of methods are used to aid them in their maturation. For example, as stated above, some of the most important fish species in the industry, salmon, can be grown using a cage system. This is done by having netted cages, preferably in open water that has a strong flow, and feeding the salmon a special food mixture that aids their growth. This process allows for year-round growth of the fish, thus a higher harvest during the correct seasons. An additional method, known sometimes as sea ranching, has also been used within the industry. Sea ranching involves raising fish in a hatchery for a brief time and then releasing them into marine waters for further development, whereupon the fish are recaptured when they have matured."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "From 2011, a team from the University of Waterloo led by Tahbit Chowdhury and Gordon Graff examined vertical RAS aquaculture designs aimed at producing protein-rich fish species. However, because of its high capital and operating costs, RAS has generally been restricted to practices such as broodstock maturation, larval rearing, fingerling production, research animal production, specific pathogen-free animal production, and caviar and ornamental fish production. As such, research and design work by Chowdhury and Graff remains difficult to implement. Although the use of RAS for other species is considered by many aquaculturalists to be currently impractical, some limited successful implementation of RAS has occurred with high-value product such as barramundi, sturgeon, and live tilapia in the US, eels and catfish in the Netherlands, trout in Denmark and salmon is planned in Scotland and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable fishery",
        "text": "A relatively new concept is relationship farming. This is a way of operating farms so they restore the food chain in their area. Re-establishing a healthy food chain can result in the farm automatically filtering out impurities from feed water and air, feeding its own food chain, and additionally producing high net yields for harvesting. An example is the large cattle ranch Veta La Palma in southern Spain. Relationship farming was first made popular by Joel Salatin who created a 220 hectare relationship farm featured prominently in Michael Pollan's book \"The Omnivore's Dilemma\" (2006) and the documentary films, \"Food, Inc.\" and \"Fresh\". The basic concept of relationship farming is to put effort into building a healthy food chain, and then the food chain does the hard work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mingachevir",
        "text": "As of 2008, Mingachevir fish farm functions in the city, which farms three types of fishes, including carp, silver carp and sturgeon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Secondly, farmed fish are kept in concentrations never seen in the wild (e.g. 50,000 fish in a area.). However, fish tend also to be animals that aggregate into large schools at high density. Most successful aquaculture species are schooling species, which do not have social problems at high density. Aquaculturists feel that operating a rearing system above its design capacity or above the social density limit of the fish will result in decreased growth rate and increased feed conversion ratio (kg dry feed/kg of fish produced), which results in increased cost and risk of health problems along with a decrease in profits. Stressing the animals is not desirable, but the concept of and measurement of stress must be viewed from the perspective of the animal using the scientific method."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "A fish hatchery is a place for artificial breeding, hatching, and rearing through the early life stages of animals\u2014finfish and shellfish in particular. Hatcheries produce larval and juvenile fish, shellfish, and crustaceans, primarily to support the aquaculture industry where they are transferred to on-growing systems, such as fish farms, to reach harvest size. Some species that are commonly raised in hatcheries include Pacific oysters, shrimp, Indian prawns, salmon, tilapia and scallops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish Meat",
        "text": "Finally, they visit a carp farm in Burdur Province, an inland farm where the fish feed very low on the food chain. The feed conversion ratio is much lower than in the carnivorous fish they had seen. The fish waste was used to grow vegetables, and the waste water flowed downstream to nourish farms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bachelor of Fisheries Science",
        "text": "Most of the fish farms employ professional fisheries graduates as Farm In Charge. Apart from this, the fish feed requirement is growing steadily. There are 33 feed mills with an installed capacity of 150 000 tpa. This sector is providing direct employment to about 0.3 million people and ancillary activities provide employment to 0.6\u20130.7 million people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agulhas Bank",
        "text": "Several pelagic species are heavily harvested by the commercial fleet: purse-seine fishery is used to catch sardines, anchovies, and round herring; mid-water trawl fishery to catch horse mackerel and chub mackerel; pelagic longline and pole fishery to catch tunas and swordfish; while hook and line are used inshore to catch squid and teleost species, including snoek and geelbek. All these species are relatively common and are considered having an important role in the ecosystem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing in India",
        "text": "India's breeding and culture technologies include primarily different species of carp, including the important Indian major carp species (notably catla, mrigal and rohu); other species such as catfish, murrel and prawns are recent additions. The culture systems adopted in the country vary greatly depending on the input available in any particular region as well as on the investment capabilities of the farmer. While extensive aquaculture is carried out in comparatively large water bodies with stocking of the fish seed as the only input beyond utilising natural productivity, elements of fertilisation and feeding have been introduced into semi-intensive culture. The different culture systems in Indian practice include:\n*Intensive pond culture with supplementary feeding and aeration (10\u201315 tonnes/ha/yr)\n*Composite carp culture (4\u20136 tonnes/ha/yr)\n*Weed-based carp polyculture (3\u20134 tonnes/ha/yr)\n*Integrated fish farming with poultry, pigs, ducks, horticulture, etc. (3\u20135 tonnes/ha/yr)\n*Pen culture (3\u20135 tonnes/ha/yr)\n*Cage culture (10\u201315\u00a0kg/m2/yr)\n*Running-water fish culture (20\u201350\u00a0kg/m2/yr)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "One of the drawbacks to recirculating aquaculture systems is the need for periodic water exchanges. However, the rate of water exchange can be reduced through aquaponics, such as the incorporation of hydroponically grown plants and denitrification. Both methods reduce the amount of nitrate in the water, and can potentially eliminate the need for water exchanges, closing the aquaculture system from the environment. The amount of interaction between the aquaculture system and the environment can be measured through the cumulative feed burden (CFB kg/M3), which measures the amount of feed that goes into the RAS relative to the amount of water and waste discharged. The environmental impact of larger indoor fish farming system will be linked to the local infrastructure, and water supply. Areas which are more drought-prone, indoor fish farms might flow out wastewater for watering agricultural farms, reducing the water affliction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Octopus aquaculture",
        "text": "Commercial aquaculture so far has been confined to starting with young juveniles caught in the wild, weighing about 750\u00a0g. In Spain, these juveniles are purchased from local fishermen and transferred to offshore floating sea cages. There they are fattened with bycatch (fish, molluscs and crabs) for several months until a commercial size, about 3 kilograms, is reached. However, acquiring juveniles in this way, from the wild, further increases the fishing pressure on octopus stocks that are already managed badly, possibly producing cascades in marine ecosystems. A cost analysis of this practice found that over 40% of total costs went into acquiring the juveniles. The profitability of this approach is low, depending as it does on fishing and the supply of sub-adults, a costly and highly variable process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing in Israel",
        "text": "Kibbutz Nir David was a pioneer of fishing farming in 1939.\n* Carp is (carp - Cyprinus carpio - Common carp)\n* Eye trout - rainbow (trout, your name - Oncorhynchus mykiss - Rainbow trout)\n* Golden Spruce (Dennis, Charles Bird - Sparus aurata - Gilt-head sea bream)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian Atlantic Cod",
        "text": "In commercial aquaculture there are two main areas of farming: the onshore facility and the offshore sea cages. In the onshore facility there are a number of storage tanks that are key to the early development of Cod and many other cold water fish. These livestock storage include: the incubators (where eggs are fertilized and allowed to hatch), the larval tanks (slightly larger tanks where the larvae is grown), the circular tanks (last stage before fish leave the onshore facility, where metamorphosis occurs) and finally storage tanks where the fish can be temporarily stored as they are transported from truck, to boat, to sea site. Before the fish are taken to sea cage sites, some companies insert microchips into the fish to monitor population and patterns in the fish to improve the raising for future generations. The microchips are removed once fish are ready for market. After being transported to the ocean via private company or government ships, the fish are gently poured into a sea cage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Buru",
        "text": "Animal farming is of secondary importance, but its role is gradually increasing. The major animals are cows (41,349 animals ), buffalo (3,699), chickens (more than 1,346,000), ducks (195,000), sheep (26,950), domestic pigs (1,276) and horses (497). In 2008, there were 410 fishing enterprises with the annual catch of 3,891 tonnes of fish and seafood. The major commercial species are tuna (900 tonnes), sardines (420 tonnes) and mackerel (385 tonnes)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable Technology Optimization Research Center",
        "text": "While many commercial aquaponics systems use fish that can easily be sold for food, the species used at STORC were not chosen with that consideration in mind. CSUS Biology professor Dr. Ron Coleman was a consultant for STORC as they were choosing the specific types of fish species they would be using in the aquaponics systems. Carp, catfish, bass, bluegill, and Sacramento perch are all common fish species that are found in the numerous aquaponic tanks at STORC. All of these species were chosen for their native status in the Western United States and due to the ease at which they grow in captivity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Octopus aquaculture",
        "text": "Octopus live short lives, grow quickly and mature early and they typically reach 2 to 3 kg, high weights for an invertebrate. Octopuses are 75 to 90% muscle at their total live weight, basically a pure protein food with very little fat. In nature there is little overlap between successive generations, which makes them sensitive to changing environmental conditions. It is currently difficult to culture the early life stages of octopus and maintain high survival rates for their paralarvae, mainly because of high mortality rates by poor zoo-technical conditions or equipment, and also because of conspecific cannibalism. A requirement for live and high-quality food is another constraint: crab zoea or rotifer are necessary, since Artemia, microalgae, or pellets is insufficient. These difficulties have limited the development of fully closed life cycle octopus hatchery systems. In 2021, Nueva Pescanova Group located in Spain, announced that they had achieved many generations of \"Octopus vulgaris\" by culture; the conditions octopuses are to be kept in, type of food, and killing techniques were not disclosed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "A number of large, well-capitalized ventures in this area have failed. Managing both the biology and markets is complicated. One future development is the combination of integrated recycling systems with urban farming as tried in Sweden by the Greenfish Initiative."
      },
      {
        "title": "Overfishing",
        "text": "Fish farming can enclose the entire breeding cycle of the fish, with fish being bred in captivity. Some fish prove difficult to breed in captivity and can be caught in the wild as juveniles and brought into captivity to increase their weight. With scientific progress, more species are being made to breed in captivity. This was the case with southern bluefin tuna, which were first bred in captivity in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Luis, Aurora",
        "text": "With regards to the type of fishing gears, the majority of the fisherman uses hook and the line type. The species caught using this type are frigate tunas, big eye scads, yellow fin tunas, pacific sailfish groupers, Spanish mackerels and slip mouth, round scads, maya-maya, flying fish, bumo and saray. Other types gears used are spear guns, gillnets and the casting net. The municipality of San Luis together with BFAR has provided payaos to fisherman association of coastal barangays to increase fish catch of fisherman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Integrated floating cage aquageoponics system",
        "text": "Professor Dr. M. Mahfujul Haque, the leading researcher of the IFCAS project, recommends a stocking density for monosex Tilapia of 100 fry per cubic meter. For vegetables, cucumber, bean, bitter melon, Asian spinach etc. are recommended. Tilapia production of 31\u00a0kg and 52\u00a0kg per 9 m2 were found within 120 days of period in the IFCAS placed heavily shaded and moderately-shaded ponds, respectively. On-station and farmer participatory on-farm research works are underway focusing suitable fish species combination in the cage of IFCAS to determine its optimum productivity potential."
      },
      {
        "title": "Humboldt squid",
        "text": "The method used by both artisanal fishermen as well as more industrial operations to catch the squid is known as jigging. Squid jigging is a relatively novel method of fishing in the Americas. It is done by handlining by artisanal fishermen, or by using mechanical jiggers. Jigging involves constantly jerking the line up and down to simulate prey, a reel with an elliptical or oval-shaped hub helps with this. Squid jigging is done at night, using bright overhead lights from the fishing boats which reflect brightly off the jigs and plankton in the seawater, luring the squid toward the surface to feed. Squids seem to like to strike at the jigs from adjacent shadowed areas, especially the shade under the hull of the boat. Often as many as 8 to 12 jigs are on snoods on one handline, and many more are used on automated squid jigging systems. The lines are hung anywhere from 10 to 100m in depth, depending on the power of the lamps used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Raising ornamental coldwater fish (goldfish or koi), although theoretically much more profitable due to the higher income per weight of fish produced, has been successfully carried out only in the 21st century. The increased incidences of dangerous viral diseases of koi carp, together with the high value of the fish, has led to initiatives in closed-system koi breeding and growing in a number of countries. Today, a few commercially successful intensive koi-growing facilities are operating in the UK, Germany, and Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haller Park",
        "text": "The fish farm is a part of Haller Park. In 1971, The fish farming project started alongside the reforestation project. Rene Haller created a fish tank system. The purpose of the tank system was to give the fish a chance to swim in a constant current. A tilapia farm was also created in 1980 because of the success of the fish tanks. It produced 30\u201335 tons per year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Because of the oceans water flows through and other reasons, open net pen culture is seen as a high-risk method for the environment. The flow allows chemicals, parasites, waste and diseases to spread in the enclosed environment, and this is not in advance for the natural environment. Another negative consequence is the high escaping rate of the cultured fish in these open net pens. These escaped fish pose also a high risk to the surrounding ecosystems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Animal husbandry in Brazil",
        "text": "The country's fish production totaled 485.2 thousand tons in 2017. Paran\u00e1 (20.2%), S\u00e3o Paulo (9.8%) and Rond\u00f4nia (8.2%) had the largest participation. The city of Nova Aurora led the national production. Tilapia, with 283.2 thousand tons, represented 58.4% of fish farming. Tambaqui, with 18.2%, is the second most created species. The North Region is the largest producer of tambaqui."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Aquaculture not only impacts the fish on the farm, but it also influences other species, which in return are attracted to or repelled by the farms. Mobile fauna, such as crustaceans, fish, birds, and marine mammals, interact with the process of aquaculture, but the long-term or ecological effects as a result of these interactions is still unknown. Some of these fauna may be attracted or demonstrate repulsion. The attraction/repulsion mechanism has various direct and indirect effects on wild organisms at individual and population levels. The interactions that wild organisms have with aquaculture may have implications on the management of fisheries species and the ecosystem in relation to how the fish farms are structured and organized."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Semi-submersible marine technology is beginning to impact fish farming. In 2018, 1.5 million salmon are in the middle of a year-long trial at Ocean Farm 1 off the coast of Norway. The semi-submersible project is the world's first deep-sea aquaculture project, and includes -high by -diameter pen made from a series of mesh-wire frames and nets, designed to disperse wastes better than more conventional farms in sheltered coastal waters, and therefore, be able to support higher fish packing density."
      },
      {
        "title": "M\u0113rsrags",
        "text": "In the 1960s the development of the fish farm collective resulted in a great increase in the production of fish and canned products. The first block of flats and a distant steam heating plant were built. A new fish processing plant was constructed as well as a net repair shop and an engineering workshop. The village roads were repaired and asphalted. Fishing remains an important aspect of the economy, with smoked fish being one of the local specialties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in Western Australia",
        "text": "Kingfish broodstock was initially caught at the nearby Abrolhos Islands and eggs were hatched and cultured after six weeks at the Challenger Institute of Technology in Fremantle. Once the fingerlings reached a minimum weight of one gram, they were transferred to the Batavia Coast Maritime Institute and fed until they were large enough to be transferred into farm's floating sea cage. Early production was sold to the domestic Australian market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Master of Fisheries Science",
        "text": "The fish processing industry is well developed in the country. There are about 236 EU-approved processing plants and 33 exclusive cold storage facility (storing fish & fishery products only) are available. In addition to this, 215 ice plants, 481 shrimp peeling plants, 371 freezing plants, 495 cold storage units, 7 canning plants, 16 fish meal plants, 11 surimi plants, and one agar-agar production unit are also present. Lot of jobs are available in the above units."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Cage farming of fishes in open seas is also gaining in popularity. Given concerns of disease, poaching, poor water quality, etc., generally pond systems are considered simpler to start and easier to manage. Also, the past occurrences of cage-failures leading to escapes, have raised concern regarding the culture of non-native fish species in dam or open-water cages. On August 22, 2017, there was a massive failure of such cages at a commercial fishery in Washington state in Puget Sound, leading to release of nearly 300,000 Atlantic salmon in non-native waters. This is believed to risk endangering the native Pacific salmon species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Commercial fishing",
        "text": "Fish farming is the raising of fish for food in underwater enclosures, otherwise known as aquaculture. There are environmental hazards such as waste, damage to ecosystems, and negative effects on humans. Because they are so densely packed together, the fecal matter that accumulates can create algal blooms, or deadly parasites and viruses that thrive on the filthy environment. These can infect wild fish that swim near the enclosure, or whole colonies of fish if an infected farm fish escapes the enclosure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture in Australia",
        "text": "Two types of marine abalone systems include sea cage technology and a special converted grow out vessel. Broodstock is sourced from the wild and juvenile abalone grown in hatchery complexes. The stock is then transferred to special sea cages with unique grow out plates and the stock is managed and harvested on a continuous basis by groups of commercial divers. Operations are performed round the clock, seven days a week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rice-fish system",
        "text": "Until the 1980s, the rice-fish systems were low maintenance since the main appeal was the optimization of space and the possibility to grow additional animal protein together with rice as a staple food. The need to optimize the space was further emphasized by a growing population in various countries. However, from the 1980s on, the system developed rapidly with new species being included such as the Chinese mitten crab (\"Eriocheir sinensis\"), the red swamp crayfish (\"Procambarus clarkia\") and softshell turtles only to name a few. The integration of new theories and new technologies also allowed for a boom in the industry: in China, the space used for rice fields went from to and the production increased dramatically, going from to between 1983 and 1994."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pterocaesio",
        "text": "\"Pterocaesio\" fusiliers are not very important food fish. Where fisheries land them they are caught using drive-in nets, gill nets, traps, by trawling and handlining. The landed fish are sold fresh and preserved as salt fish. Tuna fisheries may catch numbers of both juveniles and adults of some species to use as bait."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medialuna ancietae",
        "text": "\"Medialuna ancietae\" is esteemed as a sport fish and is the subject of both recreational and artisanal spear-fishing. Historically, along with \"Graus nigra\" and the Chilean sheepshead (\"Semicossyphus darwini\"), \"M. ancietae\" constituted more than 98% of the fish caught by spear-fishing. However, unregulated fishing has reduced the numbers of these fish to such an extent that by 2015, \"M. ancietae\" was rarely seen; the community structure of the kelp forest has been affected by this reduction in the populations of carnivorous fishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Integrated floating cage aquageoponics system",
        "text": "The Integrated Floating Cage Aquageoponics System (IFCAS) was developed as an aquaculture-horticulture based on the concept of integrated farming system approach firstly in Bangladesh in 2013 to produce fish and vegetables in floating condition where waste materials (fish feces and unused feed) from fish culture dissolved in the pond water and settled on the bottom mud are used for vegetables production. Of the newly adopted term \"aquageoponics\", aqua, geo and ponics means water, mud/soil and cultivation, respectively. In fact, aquageoponics is a new version of traditional aquaponics where soil is used as a medium instead of conventional media such as hydroton, pebbles, and sponges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in Albania",
        "text": "Extensive marine fish cultivation has been practiced in the country in the 1950s. The marine finfish industry is an inshore and offshore sea cage-farming sector. Trouts are developed mainly in the southeast, southwest and north, while carps are primary found in the center and north. Marine finfish culture is dominated by species including rainbow trout, european bass, gilt-head bream, common carp, silver carp, bighead carp, grass carp and ohrid trout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Global demand is increasing for dietary fish protein, which has resulted in widespread overfishing in wild fisheries, resulting in significant decrease in fish stocks and even complete depletion in some regions. Fish farming allows establishment of artificial fish colonies that are provided with sufficient feeding, protection from natural predators and competitive threats, access to veterinarian service, and easier harvesting when needed, while being separate from and thus do not usually impact the sustainable yields of wild fish populations. While fish farming are practised worldwide, China alone provides 62% of the world's farmed fish production. As of 2016, more than 50% of seafood was produced by aquaculture. In the last three decades, aquaculture has been the main driver of the increase in fisheries and aquaculture production, with an average growth of 5.3 percent per year in the period 2000\u20132018, reaching a record 82.1 million tonnes in 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Animal domestication and management in the Philippines",
        "text": "Some of the many fish that were caught include catfish, carp, snappers, mullets, sharks, rays, parrotfish, yellow fish tuna, and mackerel. In some villages, fishing was regulated and reserved for markets due to orders from chiefs.\u00a0 In the Boxer's Codex, it explains how some protective gear and helmets were made using fish skins. Fish were also used as a sacrifice during rituals that involved pig slaughtering. In Manila, there is evidence of Tagalogs having used fish as sacrifices to anito spirits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prijedor",
        "text": "Among fish production, Prijedor has a fruit growing industry, gardening industry, crop farming industry, mill and bakery industries, stock farming industry, processing industries, as well as a milk industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The tank water is slowly circulated to the hydroponic beds, where the tilapia waste feeds commercial plant crops. Carefully cultured microorganisms in the hydroponic bed convert ammonia to nitrates, and the plants are fertilized by the nitrates and phosphates. Other wastes are strained out by the hydroponic media, which double as an aerated pebble-bed filter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishery",
        "text": "Most fisheries are wild fisheries, but farmed fisheries are increasing. Farming can occur in coastal areas, such as with oyster farms, or the aquaculture of salmon, but more typically fish farming occurs inland, in lakes, ponds, tanks and other enclosures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Santa Catalina, Ilocos Sur",
        "text": "The farmers in the locality do not produce livestock or poultry in commercial scale but mostly on the backyard level. Livestock such as cows and water buffalo were being raised to help farmers in their farm needs and serves as working animal. Likewise goats were raised but not in herds and these are for local and home consumption of the farmers. Likewise farmers do not raise poultry in commercial scale but they raised chickens in backyard scale. Most farmers raised fighting cocks which commands higher prices in the market. The total area for fishponds is 53.9021 hectares. These fishponds are almost located in every barangay but the biggest area is at barangay Cabittaogan. Fishponds are classified as a) brackish pond where milkfish are cultured, b) freshwater for the production of tilapia, c) fish cages, d) Municipal fishing grounds which were found within 15 kilometers from the shoreline of coastal barangay and e) communal fishing grounds found in Govantes River."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The risk of infections by parasites such as fish lice, fungi (\"Saprolegnia\" spp.), intestinal worms (such as nematodes or trematodes), bacteria (e.g., \"Yersinia\" spp., \"Pseudomonas\" spp.), and protozoa (such as dinoflagellates) is similar to that in animal husbandry, especially at high population densities. However, animal husbandry is a larger and more technologically mature area of human agriculture and has developed better solutions to pathogen problems. Intensive aquaculture has to provide adequate water quality (oxygen, ammonia, nitrite, etc.) levels to minimize stress on the fish. This requirement makes control of the pathogen problem more difficult. Intensive aquaculture requires tight monitoring and a high level of expertise of the fish farmer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iquitos v\u00e1rzea",
        "text": "Fish include pacu (genera \"Metynnis\" and \"Mylossoma\"), tambaqui (\"Colossoma macropomum\"), pirarucu (\"Arapaima gigas\"), dusky narrow hatchetfish (\"Triportheus angulatus\") and pirana (genus \"Serrasalmus\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Riau",
        "text": "The land fishery product processing industry can be divided into four types, namely floating nets, ponds, public fisheries and ponds. In 2015, fish production from floating nets was 5,378.56 tons or decreased by 82.52 percent. This decrease was caused by a decrease in the number of floating nets as many as 157,638 units. Fish production in public fisheries also decreased by 3.9 percent due to a decrease in the number of households. Fish pond production increased by 5,425.2 tons or 10.8 percent. Temporary data on fish pond production showed a drastic decrease of 82.23 percent even though the number of fish ponds increased by 89.15 hectares compared to 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mariculture",
        "text": "One of the methods of mariculture that is used widely throughout the industry is sea ranching. Sea ranching gained popularity within the industry around 1974. When looking at the effectiveness of this method of fish production, it needs to be set up within the right environment. When sea ranching is done within the right environment for the species, it can prove itself to be a profitable method to produce the crop if the right growth conditions are met. Many species have been studied through the use of sea ranching, which include salmon, cod, scallops, certain species of prawn, European lobsters, abalone and sea cucumbers. Species that are grown within the methods of sea ranching, do not have any additional artificial feed requirements because they are living off of the naturally occurring nutrients within the body of water that the sea pen is set up. Typical practice involving the use of sea ranching and sea pens calls for the juveniles of the crop species to be planted on the bottom of the body of water within the pen, and as they grow and develop, they start to utilize more of the water column within their sea pen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of fisheries",
        "text": "Wild fishery \u2013 a fishery is an area with an associated fish or aquatic population which is harvested for its commercial value. Fisheries can be marine or freshwater. They can also be wild or farmed.\n* Ocean fisheries \u2013\n* Diversity of fish \u2013 Fish are very diverse and are categorized in many ways.\n* Coastal fish \u2013 Coastal fish, also called offshore fish or neritic fish, are fish that inhabit the sea between the shoreline and the edge of the continental shelf.\n* Coral reef fish \u2013 Coral reef fish are fish which live amongst or in close relation to coral reefs.\n* Demersal fish \u2013 Demersal fish live on or near the bottom of the sea or lakes.\n* Forage fish \u2013 Forage fish, also called prey fish or bait fish, are small pelagic fish which are preyed on by larger predators for food.\n* Pelagic fish \u2013 Pelagic fish live near the surface or in the water column of coastal, ocean and lake waters, but not on the bottom of the sea or the lake.\n* Cod fisheries \u2013 Cod fisheries are fisheries for cod.\n* Crab fisheries \u2013 Crab fisheries are fisheries which capture or farm crabs.\n* Eel fisheries \u2013 The spawning area of the Japanese eel, \"Anguilla japonica\", has also been precisely located to be to the west of the Suruga seamount\n* Krill fisheries \u2013 The krill fishery is the commercial fishery of krill, small shrimp-like marine animals that live in the oceans worldwide.\n* Lobster fisheries \u2013 Lobster fishing, sometimes called lobstering, is the commercial or recreational harvesting of marine lobsters, spiny lobsters or crayfish.\n* Shrimp and prawn fisheries \u2013\n* Eel ladder \u2013 An eel ladder is type of fish ladder designed to help eels swim past barriers, such as dams and weirs or even natural barriers, to reach upriver feeding grounds.\n* Fish ladder \u2013 A fish ladder, also known as a fishway, fish pass or fish steps, is a structure on or around artificial barriers to facilitate diadromous fishes' natural migration.\n* Fish screen \u2013 A fish screen is designed to prevent fish from swimming or being drawn into an aqueduct, cooling water intake, dam or other diversion on a river, lake or waterway where water is taken for human use.\n* Migration \u2013 Many types of fish migrate on a regular basis, on time scales ranging from daily to annually or longer, and over distances ranging from a few metres to thousands of kilometres.\n* Salmon run \u2013 The salmon run is the time when salmon, which have migrated from the ocean, swim to the upper reaches of rivers where they spawn on gravel beds.\n* Sardine run \u2013 The sardine run of southern Africa occurs from May through July when billions of sardines \u2013 or more specifically the Southern African pilchard \"Sardinops sagax\" \u2013 spawn in the cool waters of the Agulhas Bank and move northward along the east coast of South Africa.\n* Shoaling and schooling \u2013 In biology, any group of fish that stay together for social reasons are shoaling, and if the group is swimming in the same direction in a coordinated manner, they are schooling .\n* Marine habitats \u2013 The sedimentologist Francis Shepard classified coasts as \"primary\" or \"secondary\".\n* Marine snow \u2013 In the deep ocean, marine snow is a continuous shower of mostly organic detritus falling from the upper layers of the water column.\n* Water column \u2013 A water column is a conceptual column of water from surface to bottom sediments.\n* Upwelling \u2013 Upwelling is an oceanographic phenomenon that involves wind-driven motion of dense, cooler, and usually nutrient-rich water towards the ocean surface, replacing the warmer, usually nutrient-depleted surface water.\n* Humboldt current \u2013 The Humboldt Current, also known as the Peru Current, is a cold, low-salinity ocean current that flows north-westward along the west coast of South America from the southern tip of Chile to northern Peru.\n* Algal blooms algal bloom\n* Dead zones \u2013 Dead zones are hypoxic areas in the world's oceans, the observed incidences of which have been increasing since oceanographers began noting them in the 1970s.\n* Fish kill \u2013 The term fish kill, known also as fish die-off and as fish mortality, is a localized die-off of fish populations which may also be associated with more generalised mortality of aquatic life. The most common cause is reduced oxygen in the water, which in turn may be due to factors such as drought, algae bloom, overpopulation, or a sustained increase in water temperature."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is a fish hatchery generally defined as?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A fish hatchery is a place for artificial breeding, hatching, and rearing finfish and shellfish. Pacific oysters, shrimp, Indian prawns, salmon, tilapia and scallops are commonly found in hatcheries."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are octopi and squids also raised in hatcheries?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "While I couldn't anything regarding squid, octopus farming is a nascent industry with a Spanish firm announcing they would begin octopus farming in 2022."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the different types of fish farming systems?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "There are many, but a few include cage systems, open net pen systems, irrigation ditch or pond systems and integrated recycling systems.",
      "Would you like to learn more about different types of fish farming systems such as Cage system, Copper-alloy nets or Open net pen system?"
    ],
    "topic": "Fish farming",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Fish farming:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fish farming",
          "Fish farms",
          "Cage system"
        ],
        "ctx": "Fish cages are placed in lakes, bayous, ponds, rivers, or oceans to contain and protect fish until they can be harvested. The method is also called \"off-shore cultivation\" when the cages are placed in the sea. They can be constructed of a wide variety of components. Fish are stocked in cages, artificially fed, and harvested when they reach market size. A few advantages of fish farming with cages are that many types of waters can be used (rivers, lakes, filled quarries, etc.), many types of fish can be raised, and fish farming can co-exist with sport fishing and other water uses."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Fish farming:23",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fish farming",
          "Fish farms",
          "Open net pen system"
        ],
        "ctx": "The open net pens system is a method that takes place in natural waters, such as rivers, lakes, near the coast or offshore. The breeders are rearing the fish in large cages, floating in the water. The fish are living in natural water, but are isolated with a net. So the only barrier separating the fish from the surrounding environment is a net, this allows the water to flow from the \u2018natural\u2019 surrounding through the fish farms."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Fish farming:29",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fish farming",
          "Fish farms",
          "Irrigation ditch or pond systems"
        ],
        "ctx": "These use irrigation ditches or farm ponds to raise fish. The basic requirement is to have a ditch or pond that retains water, possibly with an above-ground irrigation system (many irrigation systems use buried pipes with headers.)"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Fish farming:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fish farming",
          "Fish farms",
          "Integrated recycling systems"
        ],
        "ctx": "One of the largest problems with freshwater pisciculture is that it can use a million gallons of water per acre (about 1 m3 of water per m2) each year. Extended water purification systems allow for the reuse (recycling) of local water."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Fish farming:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fish farming",
          "Fish farms",
          "Cage system"
        ],
        "ctx": "Fish cages are placed in lakes, bayous, ponds, rivers, or oceans to contain and protect fish until they can be harvested. The method is also called \"off-shore cultivation\" when the cages are placed in the sea. They can be constructed of a wide variety of components. Fish are stocked in cages, artificially fed, and harvested when they reach market size. A few advantages of fish farming with cages are that many types of waters can be used (rivers, lakes, filled quarries, etc.), many types of fish can be raised, and fish farming can co-exist with sport fishing and other water uses."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Fish farming:19",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fish farming",
          "Fish farms",
          "Cage system",
          "Copper-alloy nets"
        ],
        "ctx": "Recently, copper alloys have become important netting materials in aquaculture. Copper alloys are antimicrobial, that is, they destroy bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, and other microbes. In the marine environment, the antimicrobial/algaecidal properties of copper alloys prevent biofouling, which can briefly be described as the undesirable accumulation, adhesion, and growth of microorganisms, plants, algae, tube worms, barnacles, mollusks, and other organisms."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Fish farming:23",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fish farming",
          "Fish farms",
          "Open net pen system"
        ],
        "ctx": "The open net pens system is a method that takes place in natural waters, such as rivers, lakes, near the coast or offshore. The breeders are rearing the fish in large cages, floating in the water. The fish are living in natural water, but are isolated with a net. So the only barrier separating the fish from the surrounding environment is a net, this allows the water to flow from the \u2018natural\u2019 surrounding through the fish farms."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The open net pens system is a method that takes place in natural waters, such as rivers, lakes, near the coast or offshore. The breeders are rearing the fish in large cages, floating in the water. The fish are living in natural water, but are isolated with a net. So the only barrier separating the fish from the surrounding environment is a net, this allows the water to flow from the \u2018natural\u2019 surrounding through the fish farms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Fish farming\n--Categories.\n----Intensive aquaculture.\n--Fish farms.\n----Cage system.\n------Copper-alloy nets.\n----Open net pen system.\n------Negative external effects.\n----Irrigation ditch or pond systems.\n------Composite fish culture.\n----Integrated recycling systems.\n----Classic fry farming.\n--Issues.\n----Feeding.\n----Stocking density.\n----Parasites & disease.\n----Ecosystem impacts.\n----Siting.\n----Genetic modification.\n----Labeling.\n--Indoor fish farming.\n--Slaughter methods.\n----Inhumane methods.\n----More humane methods.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "In Southeast Asia, the traditional cage farming platform is called kelong."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "In these kinds of systems fish production per unit of surface can be increased at will, as long as sufficient oxygen, fresh water and food are provided. Because of the requirement of sufficient fresh water, a massive water purification system must be integrated in the fish farm. One way to achieve this is to combine hydroponic horticulture and water treatment, see below. The exception to this rule are cages which are placed in a river or sea, which supplements the fish crop with sufficient oxygenated water. Some environmentalists object to this practice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The composite fish culture system is a technology developed in India by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research in the 1970s. In this system, of both local and imported fish, a combination of five or six fish species is used in a single fish pond. These species are selected so that they do not compete for food among them by having different types of food habitats. As a result, the food available in all the parts of the pond is used. Fish used in this system include catla and silver carp which are surface feeders, rohu, a column feeder, and mrigal and common carp, which are bottom feeders. Other fish also feed on the excreta of the common carp, and this helps contribute to the efficiency of the system which in optimal conditions produces 3000\u20136000\u00a0kg of fish per hectare per year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mariculture",
        "text": "In cage culture, several different methods are used for feeding farmed fish \u2013 from simple hand feeding to sophisticated computer-controlled systems with automated food dispensers coupled with \"in situ\" uptake sensors that detect consumption rates. In coastal fish farms, overfeeding primarily leads to increased disposition of detritus on the seafloor (potentially smothering seafloor dwelling invertebrates and altering the physical environment), while in hatcheries and land-based farms, excess food goes to waste and can potentially impact the surrounding catchment and local coastal environment. This impact is usually highly local, and depends significantly on the settling velocity of waste feed and the current velocity (which varies both spatially and temporally) and depth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Cage farming of fishes in open seas is also gaining in popularity. Given concerns of disease, poaching, poor water quality, etc., generally pond systems are considered simpler to start and easier to manage. Also, the past occurrences of cage-failures leading to escapes, have raised concern regarding the culture of non-native fish species in dam or open-water cages. On August 22, 2017, there was a massive failure of such cages at a commercial fishery in Washington state in Puget Sound, leading to release of nearly 300,000 Atlantic salmon in non-native waters. This is believed to risk endangering the native Pacific salmon species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ceratothoa oestroides",
        "text": "Within a fish farm, it is common practice to decrease the number of wild fish population by fish net, as well as periodically clean the floating cages nets, depending on the season. Horton and Okamura (2001) suggest grading of smaller and larger fish and their separation, mooring the cages in deeper sites with sufficient currents to disperse the juvenile parasites in a direction away from the cages. Often, in cases of heavy parasitism and mortality, reducing the fish density is enough to remedy the situation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Fish farming or pisciculture involves commercial breeding of fish, usually for food, in fish tanks or artificial enclosures such as fish ponds. It is a particular type of aquaculture, which is the controlled cultivation and harvesting of aquatic animals such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and so on, in natural or pseudo-natural environment. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Worldwide, the most important fish species produced in fish farming are carp, catfish, salmon and tilapia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture in Canada",
        "text": "The conventional net-pen is an open mesh net that is suspended within a framework constructed of steel, wood or plastic, that floats at the surface and held in place by down-haul weights. The arrangement of the cages (net pens) varies considerably. On Canada's east coast typical cages are circular and constructed of high density poly pipe (HDPE). The cages are 60m to 150m in circumference and moored individually within a grid system. On the west coast the cages are often steel with 8 to 24 cages in a group, half on each side of a main walkway. The cages are typically 15m to 30m across and 15m to 30m deep. Natural currents bring fresh, oxygenated water to the net pens and carry away soluble waste. The solid waste fecal material and uneaten feed settle to the ocean bottom near the cage site. Note that the amount of uneaten feed is negligible because the farmers cannot afford to waste feed, which is typically about 60% of their production cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture of salmonids",
        "text": "In contrast to closed or recirculating systems, the open net cages of salmonid farming lower production costs, but provide no effective barrier to the discharge of wastes, parasites, and disease into the surrounding coastal waters. Farmed salmon in open net cages can escape into wild habitats, for example, during storms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The largest-scale pure fish farms use a system derived (admittedly much refined) from the New Alchemy Institute in the 1970s. Basically, large plastic fish tanks are placed in a greenhouse. A hydroponic bed is placed near, above or between them. When tilapia are raised in the tanks, they are able to eat algae, which naturally grow in the tanks when the tanks are properly fertilized."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Fish cages are placed in lakes, bayous, ponds, rivers, or oceans to contain and protect fish until they can be harvested. The method is also called \"off-shore cultivation\" when the cages are placed in the sea. They can be constructed of a wide variety of components. Fish are stocked in cages, artificially fed, and harvested when they reach market size. A few advantages of fish farming with cages are that many types of waters can be used (rivers, lakes, filled quarries, etc.), many types of fish can be raised, and fish farming can co-exist with sport fishing and other water uses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Since the system lives in a greenhouse, it adapts to almost all temperate climates, and may also adapt to tropical climates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Though the cage-industry has made numerous technological advances in cage construction in recent years, the risk of damage and escape due to storms is always a concern."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Despite these important site conditions, the open net pen method is, or should say was, very popular in Norway and China. This is because of the cost friendliness and efficiency of this method."
      },
      {
        "title": "The End of the Line (book)",
        "text": "Fish farming is the process of growing fish in an artificial environment. The traditional method involves feeding fish waste vegetables, and this is being done in developing countries. Modern fish farming involves feeding processed small wild fish to large carnivorous fish such as salmon, trout, and prawns. However, modern fish farming often relies on fish taken from the water in the developing world to feed the fish being sold in the developing world. Furthermore, fish farms introduce alien species to local environments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture in Canada",
        "text": "This system is the first alternative culture system. Named \"SARGO\u2122 Fin Farm System\", the system was established in 1994 for intensive finfish production in both marine and freshwater environment. The system consists of six circular bags that are made of a heavy-gauge plastic installed in a steel frame floating at the surface and held in place by anchors in the same way as the net-pens. Electrical upwelling pumps continuously pump fresh seawater into the bags, and portable liquid oxygen tanks are used to provide oxygen to the cultured fish. A specially designed outlet is used to exit the waste-water and entered the marine environment untreated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Because of the oceans water flows through and other reasons, open net pen culture is seen as a high-risk method for the environment. The flow allows chemicals, parasites, waste and diseases to spread in the enclosed environment, and this is not in advance for the natural environment. Another negative consequence is the high escaping rate of the cultured fish in these open net pens. These escaped fish pose also a high risk to the surrounding ecosystems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing",
        "text": "Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture. It involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural population is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Fish species raised by fish farms include salmon, carp, tilapia, catfish and trout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Integrated floating cage aquageoponics system",
        "text": "The Integrated Floating Cage Aquageoponics System (IFCAS) was developed as an aquaculture-horticulture based on the concept of integrated farming system approach firstly in Bangladesh in 2013 to produce fish and vegetables in floating condition where waste materials (fish feces and unused feed) from fish culture dissolved in the pond water and settled on the bottom mud are used for vegetables production. Of the newly adopted term \"aquageoponics\", aqua, geo and ponics means water, mud/soil and cultivation, respectively. In fact, aquageoponics is a new version of traditional aquaponics where soil is used as a medium instead of conventional media such as hydroton, pebbles, and sponges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Integrated floating cage aquageoponics system",
        "text": "A 9 m2 rectangular iron-bar made structure was constructed, having four concave grooves in its four corners for holding floats of plastic drums. The whole bottom of the structure was surrounded by a rectangular nylon net cage with the dimensions of length-3.66 m \u00d7 width-2.44 m \u00d7 depth-1.25 m. Under the four corners and middle points of the net, half-brick weights were hung to ensure that the net retained a rectangular structure under the water. In the middle of both widths of IFCAS, two pits filled with dried pond mud of the same pond are used as medium for vegetable plantation. On the top of the structure, a scaffold was made using split bamboo and net for vegetables to climb on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish processing",
        "text": "Fish can be kept alive in floating cages, wells and fish ponds. In aquaculture, holding basins are used where the water is continuously filtered and its temperature and oxygen level are controlled. In China, floating cages are constructed in rivers out of palm woven baskets, while in South America simple fish yards are built in the backwaters of rivers. Live fish can be transported by methods which range from simple artisanal methods where fish are placed in plastic bags with an oxygenated atmosphere, to sophisticated systems which use trucks that filter and recycle the water, and add oxygen and regulate temperature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atlantic salmon",
        "text": "There are many different commercially available cage designs built to operate in a wide variety of aquatic conditions. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) cages are widely used, with HDPE pipes forming a floating collar ring onto which the fish net pen is secured and suspended in the water below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The resistance of organism growth on copper alloy nets also provides a cleaner and healthier environment for farmed fish to grow and thrive. Traditional netting involves regular and labor-intensive cleaning. In addition to its antifouling benefits, copper netting has strong structural and corrosion-resistant properties in marine environments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Integrated floating cage aquageoponics system",
        "text": "Professor Dr. M. Mahfujul Haque, the leading researcher of the IFCAS project, recommends a stocking density for monosex Tilapia of 100 fry per cubic meter. For vegetables, cucumber, bean, bitter melon, Asian spinach etc. are recommended. Tilapia production of 31\u00a0kg and 52\u00a0kg per 9 m2 were found within 120 days of period in the IFCAS placed heavily shaded and moderately-shaded ponds, respectively. On-station and farmer participatory on-farm research works are underway focusing suitable fish species combination in the cage of IFCAS to determine its optimum productivity potential."
      },
      {
        "title": "Commercial fishing",
        "text": "Fish farming is the raising of fish for food in underwater enclosures, otherwise known as aquaculture. There are environmental hazards such as waste, damage to ecosystems, and negative effects on humans. Because they are so densely packed together, the fecal matter that accumulates can create algal blooms, or deadly parasites and viruses that thrive on the filthy environment. These can infect wild fish that swim near the enclosure, or whole colonies of fish if an infected farm fish escapes the enclosure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Within intensive and extensive aquaculture methods, numerous specific types of fish farms are used; each has benefits and applications unique to its design."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of fishing articles",
        "text": "National Fish Hatchery System -"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "These use irrigation ditches or farm ponds to raise fish. The basic requirement is to have a ditch or pond that retains water, possibly with an above-ground irrigation system (many irrigation systems use buried pipes with headers.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "One problem with such composite fish culture is that many of these fish breed only during monsoon. Even if fish are collected from the wild, they can be mixed with other species, as well. So, a major problem in fish farming is the lack of availability of good-quality stock. To overcome this problem, ways have now been worked out to breed these fish in ponds using hormonal stimulation. This has ensured the supply of pure fish stock in desired quantities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of fishing articles",
        "text": "Fish farming -"
      },
      {
        "title": "Saltwater aquaponics",
        "text": "Currently, many conventional fish farming practices take place in the coastal zones with open circulation. This places an enormous load of urine and soluble nitrogen (that the feed and waste from fish release) at high concentrations into the ecological region. This can have many environmentally deleterious effects. In response to this, alternative aquaculture developments are quickly arising- Namely, recirculating aquaculture systems. By creating a closed system, fish farming has given locational freedom to the practice allowing for more inland developments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing industry",
        "text": "Fish farming involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosed pools, usually for food. Fish species raised by fish farms include carp, salmon, tilapia, catfish and cod. Increasing demands on wild fisheries by commercial fishing operations have caused widespread overfishing. Fish farming offers an alternative solution to the increasing market demand for fish and fish protein."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishkeeping",
        "text": "Fishkeeping\n--Origins of fishkeeping.\n--Types of fishkeeping systems.\n----Freshwater.\n----Saltwater.\n----Brackish water.\n--Aquarium maintenance.\n----Water conditions.\n----Nitrogen cycle.\n------The process.\n------Maintaining the nitrogen cycle.\n----Tank capacity.\n------Tank size.\n------Other factors.\n--Fishkeeping industry.\n----Aquatic suppliers.\n----Animal welfare.\n--Fish breeding.\n--Conservation.\n----Collecting.\n------Cyanide.\n----Captive breeding and aquaculture.\n----Invasive species.\n----Humane treatment.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable fishery",
        "text": "Over the years, fish farming has made a name for itself in the fishing industry as a means of ensuring that the world's fish supplies do not deplete so rapidly. Sometimes referred to as \"aquaculture\", fish farming, when done right, \"can\" be one a very environmentally-friendly way to harvest fish. Fish farms are regulated by laws and management plans, which prevents it from falling prey to the same phenomenon of overfishing, which cripples the fish populations and marine ecosystem as a whole. The basic premise of fish farming is just what it sounds like\u2014to breed and raise fish in enclosed environments, then eventually sell the grown fish as food for consumers. Salmon, cod, and halibut are three types of finfish that are often farm-raised. The actual enclosures in which the fish grow and swim are made of mesh \"cages\" submerged underwater."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture in New Zealand",
        "text": "Farming in the sea (mariculture) for king salmon is sometimes called sea-cage ranching. Sea-cage ranching takes place in large floating net cages, about 25 metres across and 15 metres deep, moored to the sea floor in clean, fast-flowing coastal waters. Smolt (young fish) from freshwater hatcheries are transferred to cages containing several thousand salmon, and remain there for the rest of their life. They are fed fishmeal pellets high in protein and oil. Most of this fishmeal is imported from Australia. The salmon are harvested when they are about two years old, weighing 2.5 to 4 kilograms. Sea cages are located in the Marlborough Sounds, Akaroa Harbour and Stewart Island."
      },
      {
        "title": "Integrated floating cage aquageoponics system",
        "text": "Filling the gap of supply and demand of fish and vegetables for improving household nutrition, the ANEP (Agriculture and Nutrition Extension Project) funded by the European Union (EU) works in Barisal District of Bangladesh following an integrated aquaculture-agriculture approach. Pond dykes in Barisal are commonly used for planting trees by the rural people which provide cooking fuel, fruits, and timber for sale. Trees on the pond dyke create shadow, which reduce sunlight penetration to the edges of the pond and the dykes. In this context, IFCAS was developed in the shaded ponds without changing the vegetative nature of pond dykes following the collegial principles of action research. In the whole process of action research, farmers, researchers and developers from Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh, Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Bangladesh, WorldFish-ANEP, and Bangladesh Fisheries Research Forum (BFRF) together were involved in the trial of this technology. The concept of IFCAS was developed by Dr. M. Mahfujul Haque (Ripon), Professor, Department of Aquaculture, BAU, Mymensingh who led the action research as the Principal Investigator."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture",
        "text": "The farming of fish is the most common form of aquaculture. It involves raising fish commercially in tanks, fish ponds, or ocean enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Worldwide, the most important fish species used in fish farming are, in order, carp, salmon, tilapia, and catfish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rice-fish system",
        "text": "Rice-fish systems are only one type of integrated rice-field system: 19 other models exist, for example rice-crayfish, rice-crab and rice-turtle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture in Australia",
        "text": "There are many small to medium freshwater fish farms throughout Australia, growing a wide range of species including Murray cod, silver perch, jade perch and eels. Systems vary from intensive tank rearing systems to automatic systems to pond and dam systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Fish Hatchery System",
        "text": "Currently, the system comprises 70 national fish hatcheries, nine fish health centers, seven fish technology centers, and a historic national fish hatchery. National fish hatcheries are located in 35 states and produce more than 60 different species of fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fisheries College and Research Institute",
        "text": "The college has developed a low cost cage-based technology for open water fish culture. The college has also organized a training program for the local farmers in using the technology. The institute also conducts regular training programs for fishermen, fish farmers and fish processors."
      },
      {
        "title": "How Much Is the Fish?",
        "text": "How Much Is the Fish?\n--Samples.\n--Background.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture of salmonids",
        "text": "An older method of harvesting is to use a sweep net, which operates a bit like a purse seine net. The sweep net is a big net with weights along the bottom edge. It is stretched across the pen with the bottom edge extending to the bottom of the pen. Lines attached to the bottom corners are raised, herding some fish into the purse, where they are netted. Before killing, the fish are usually rendered unconscious in water saturated in carbon dioxide, although this practice is being phased out in some countries due to ethical and product quality concerns. More advanced systems use a percussive-stun harvest system that kills the fish instantly and humanely with a blow to the head from a pneumatic piston. They are then bled by cutting the gill arches and immediately immersing them in iced water. Harvesting and killing methods are designed to minimize scale loss, and avoid the fish releasing stress hormones, which negatively affect flesh quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture of salmonids",
        "text": "Sea cages, also called sea pens or net pens, are usually made of mesh framed with steel or plastic. They can be square or circular, across and deep, with volumes between . A large sea cage can contain up to 90,000 fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Overfishing",
        "text": "Fish farming can enclose the entire breeding cycle of the fish, with fish being bred in captivity. Some fish prove difficult to breed in captivity and can be caught in the wild as juveniles and brought into captivity to increase their weight. With scientific progress, more species are being made to breed in captivity. This was the case with southern bluefin tuna, which were first bred in captivity in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Secondly, farmed fish are kept in concentrations never seen in the wild (e.g. 50,000 fish in a area.). However, fish tend also to be animals that aggregate into large schools at high density. Most successful aquaculture species are schooling species, which do not have social problems at high density. Aquaculturists feel that operating a rearing system above its design capacity or above the social density limit of the fish will result in decreased growth rate and increased feed conversion ratio (kg dry feed/kg of fish produced), which results in increased cost and risk of health problems along with a decrease in profits. Stressing the animals is not desirable, but the concept of and measurement of stress must be viewed from the perspective of the animal using the scientific method."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Some producers have adapted their intensive systems in an effort to provide consumers with fish that do not carry dormant forms of viruses and diseases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greenfish recirculation technology",
        "text": "have appeared as well as verification of the system in full-scale farming operations with wet feed and semi-moist fish feed. One of the most important describes the advanced simulator for full-scale recirculation in an aquaculture system with algorithms for complete mass balances calculations, involving: growth of fish, addition of fish feeds, production of waste, bacterial growth and the dynamics of the water purification system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Very-high-intensity recycle aquaculture systems (RAS, also Recirculating Aquaculture Systems), where all the production parameters are controlled, are being used for high-value species. By recycling water, little is used per unit of production. However, the process has high capital and operating costs. The higher cost structures mean that RAS is economical only for high-value products, such as broodstock for egg production, fingerlings for net pen aquaculture operations, sturgeon production, research animals, and some special niche markets such as live fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture in Canada",
        "text": "Canada has been using the net pen system since the 1970s. Net pen, or cage, technology started to be used seriously in Canada in the early 1980s in New Brunswick when joint government /private projects introduced cage technology from Norway. Cage culture started seriously in B.C. in the late 1980s. Smaller scale cage culture developed in freshwaters as well, including Georgian Bay, Ontario and Lake Diefenbaker, Sask. and B.C. The oldest operating cage farm in Canada is actually in Georgian Bay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Offshore aquaculture",
        "text": "The expense of offshore systems means it is important to avoid fish escapes. However, it is likely there will be escapes as the offshore industry expands. This could have significant consequences for native species, even if the farmed fish are inside their native range. Submersible cages are fully closed and therefore escapes can only occur through damage to the structure. Offshore cages must withstand the high energy of the environment and attacks by predators such as sharks. The outer netting is made of Spectra \u2013 a super-strong polyethylene fibre \u2013 wrapped tightly around the frame, leaving no slack for predators to grip. However, the fertilised eggs of cod are able to pass through the cage mesh in ocean enclosures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The tank water is slowly circulated to the hydroponic beds, where the tilapia waste feeds commercial plant crops. Carefully cultured microorganisms in the hydroponic bed convert ammonia to nitrates, and the plants are fertilized by the nitrates and phosphates. Other wastes are strained out by the hydroponic media, which double as an aerated pebble-bed filter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Urban aquaculture",
        "text": "There are three general types of aquaculture systems based on the way they are managed. They include extensive, semi-intensive and intensive systems. Extensive aquaculture systems are usually conducted in medium-to-large-sized ponds or water bodies. The fish production depends on the natural productivity of the water, making this system low cost and maintenance. With semi-intensive fish farming, the production of fish per unit is low. However, they tend to be incomplete and are rarely used as a sole food source. Intensive fish farming involves that the quantity of fish produced per unit of rearing area is great. To intensify the culture, production factors have to be controlled to improve the production conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Offshore aquaculture",
        "text": "While the ranching systems currently used for tuna use open net cages at the surface of the sea (as is done also in salmon farming), the offshore technology usually uses submersible cages. These large rigid cages \u2013 each one able to hold many thousands of fish \u2013 are anchored on the sea floor, but can move up and down the water column. They are attached to buoys on the surface which frequently contain a mechanism for feeding and storage for equipment. Similar technology is being used in waters near the Bahamas, China, the Philippines, Portugal, Puerto Rico, and Spain. By submerging cages or shellfish culture systems, wave effects are minimized and interference with boating and shipping is reduced. Offshore farms can be made more efficient and safer if remote control is used, and technologies such as an 18-tonne buoy that feeds and monitors fish automatically over long periods are being developed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Marine Scotland has kept records of caged fish escapes since 1999. The have recorded 357 fish escape incidents with 3,795,206 fish escaping into fresh and salt water. One company, Dawnfresh Farming Limited has been responsible for 40 incident and 152,790 Rainbow Trout escaping in to freshwater lochs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture",
        "text": "A similar process is used in the salmon-farming section of this industry; juveniles are taken from hatcheries and a variety of methods are used to aid them in their maturation. For example, as stated above, some of the most important fish species in the industry, salmon, can be grown using a cage system. This is done by having netted cages, preferably in open water that has a strong flow, and feeding the salmon a special food mixture that aids their growth. This process allows for year-round growth of the fish, thus a higher harvest during the correct seasons. An additional method, known sometimes as sea ranching, has also been used within the industry. Sea ranching involves raising fish in a hatchery for a brief time and then releasing them into marine waters for further development, whereupon the fish are recaptured when they have matured."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ceratothoa oestroides",
        "text": "Growth of farmed fish can be depressed and fish can suffer from post-haemorrhagic anaemia. Growth of market size caged fish infected with the parasite can be reduced by up to 20% compared to market size, uninfected caged fish. For example, parasitised sea bass (\"Dicentrarchus labrax\") in the age group of 291\u2013293 days had reduced growth by 20.1% (14 g) and reduced length of 7.1% (12.63\u00a0mm) compared to non-parasitised fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copper alloys in aquaculture",
        "text": "In the aquaculture industry, sound animal husbandry translates to keeping fish clean, well fed, healthy, and not overcrowded. One solution to keeping farmed fish healthy is to contain them in antifouling copper alloy nets and structures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Master of Fisheries Science",
        "text": "Most of the fish farms employ professional fisheries graduates as Farm In Charge. Apart from this, the fish feed requirement is growing steadily. There are 33 feed mills with an installed capacity of 150 000 tpa. This sector is providing direct employment to about 0.3 million people and ancillary activities provide employment to 0.6-0.7 million people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haller Park",
        "text": "The fish farm is a part of Haller Park. In 1971, The fish farming project started alongside the reforestation project. Rene Haller created a fish tank system. The purpose of the tank system was to give the fish a chance to swim in a constant current. A tilapia farm was also created in 1980 because of the success of the fish tanks. It produced 30\u201335 tons per year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eyrarbakki",
        "text": "and an aluminum frying-pan plant. However, the main fish factory"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish Meat",
        "text": "They visit a high tech seabass farm, partly automated and equipped with video surveillance. While this is one of the more efficient ways of raising fish since the fish farmers can use the minimum amount of feed to fatten their fish, it is very expensive. It also causes a lot of waste and pollution with excess feed and fish waste falling below the cage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saltwater fish",
        "text": "Saltwater fish\n--Diet.\n--Captivity.\n--Habitats.\n--Threats.\n----Overfishing.\n------Species affected by overfishing.\n----Cage aquaculture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Urban aquaculture",
        "text": "There are numerous ways of using urban aquaculture systems. There are farming systems such as water-based systems which mostly use cages and pens. Land-based systems make use of ponds, tanks and raceways. Recycling systems are usually high control enclosed systems, whereas irrigated farm systems are for livestock fish, agriculture and irrigation ponds(Fao.org, 2019). However, it can be said that water-based systems are the most often used systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "One of the drawbacks to recirculating aquaculture systems is the need for periodic water exchanges. However, the rate of water exchange can be reduced through aquaponics, such as the incorporation of hydroponically grown plants and denitrification. Both methods reduce the amount of nitrate in the water, and can potentially eliminate the need for water exchanges, closing the aquaculture system from the environment. The amount of interaction between the aquaculture system and the environment can be measured through the cumulative feed burden (CFB kg/M3), which measures the amount of feed that goes into the RAS relative to the amount of water and waste discharged. The environmental impact of larger indoor fish farming system will be linked to the local infrastructure, and water supply. Areas which are more drought-prone, indoor fish farms might flow out wastewater for watering agricultural farms, reducing the water affliction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Farming carnivorous fish such as salmon, however, does not always reduce pressure on wild fisheries, as such farmed fish are usually fed fishmeal and fish oil extracted from wild forage fish. The 2008 global returns for fish farming recorded by the FAO totaled 33.8 million tonnes worth about US$60 billion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing in Uganda",
        "text": "Pond culture is the most common system in the country. Other forms of fish culture such as cage culture are only starting to be discussed especially by the emerging commercial fish farmers. Previously farmers, 99 percent of whom were subsistence fish farmers, had ponds ranging anywhere from 50 m2 to 200 m2. The majority (an estimated 60 percent) remain at a subsistence level of production with little or no technical inputs or management. With the drive to commercialise aquaculture, production efforts to increase the pond surface have resulted in a current average of 500 m2 per pond. Farmers at this level have adopted the use of inputs such as quality fish seed and feed. The feed, however, is still usually made on-farm using formulae provided by the Aquaculture Research and Development Centre, Kajjansi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in Western Australia",
        "text": "Fish farming in Western Australia is an experimental part of the state's seafood sector. Prominent operators and lessees include Indian Ocean Fresh Australia and Huon Aquaculture, and the primary commercial species are yellowtail kingfish in the Mid West aquaculture zone and barramundi in the Kimberley aquaculture zone. Pink snapper is another species considered as a sea cage fish farming prospect. The Mid West aquaculture zone lies between Geraldton and the Abrolhos Islands, and the Kimberly aquaculture zone is in Cone Bay north of Derby. The sector is represented by Erica Starling as spokesperson for the Marine Fishfarmers Association."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Proper stunning renders the fish unconscious immediately and for a sufficient period of time such that the fish is killed in the slaughter process (e.g. through exsanguination) without regaining consciousness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian Atlantic Cod",
        "text": "In commercial aquaculture there are two main areas of farming: the onshore facility and the offshore sea cages. In the onshore facility there are a number of storage tanks that are key to the early development of Cod and many other cold water fish. These livestock storage include: the incubators (where eggs are fertilized and allowed to hatch), the larval tanks (slightly larger tanks where the larvae is grown), the circular tanks (last stage before fish leave the onshore facility, where metamorphosis occurs) and finally storage tanks where the fish can be temporarily stored as they are transported from truck, to boat, to sea site. Before the fish are taken to sea cage sites, some companies insert microchips into the fish to monitor population and patterns in the fish to improve the raising for future generations. The microchips are removed once fish are ready for market. After being transported to the ocean via private company or government ships, the fish are gently poured into a sea cage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of fishing articles",
        "text": "Fish processing facility -"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pollachius virens",
        "text": "Norwegian scientists documented that saithe have made a habit of congregating around fish farms and feeding on uneaten salmon feeds which get through the net walls of the cages."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Fish Hatchery System",
        "text": "National Fish Hatchery System\n--History.\n--The Fisheries Program.\n--Responsibilities.\n--Conservation.\n--Achievements.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Recirculating aquaculture system",
        "text": "A series of treatment processes is utilized to maintain water quality in intensive fish farming operations. These steps are often done in order or sometimes in tandem. After leaving the vessel holding fish the water is first treated for solids before entering a biofilter to convert ammonia, next degassing and oxygenation occur, often followed by heating/cooling and sterilization. Each of these processes can be completed by using a variety of different methods and equipment, but regardless all must take place to ensure a healthy environment that maximizes fish growth and health."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bachelor of Fisheries Science",
        "text": "Most of the fish farms employ professional fisheries graduates as Farm In Charge. Apart from this, the fish feed requirement is growing steadily. There are 33 feed mills with an installed capacity of 150 000 tpa. This sector is providing direct employment to about 0.3 million people and ancillary activities provide employment to 0.6\u20130.7 million people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dexter National Fish Hatchery & Technology Center",
        "text": "Currently, the Center uses four different methods. These methods are used as an identification tool. Biologists both in the field and on-site are able to identify fish that are reared at a facility versus those that are wild:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rice-fish system",
        "text": "Rice-fish system\n--History.\n--Principle.\n--Rice-fish symbiotic relation.\n--Benefits.\n----Economical.\n----Farmers.\n----Productivity and profitability.\n----Tourism.\n----Public Health.\n----Environmental.\n--Applications.\n----Developing countries.\n----Climate change.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rice-fish system",
        "text": "Rice-fish systems are based upon the Rice-Fish Symbiosis theory. Both rice (a semiaquatic wetland crop) and fish are grown in the same aquatic ecosystem and both benefit from this, creating a mutualistic relationship. The principle has evolved through the years and major technological advances allowed for the popularisation of the practice. A notable improvement was the addition of channels in the previously flat rice fields that allowed for the fish to continue growing even during rice harvest and dry seasons. This was coupled with the introduction of fences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish counter",
        "text": "Some systems such as the Riverwatcher use the infrared scanner to trigger a digital camera to capture between 1 and 5 photos or a short video clip of each fish. The computer then automatically links the images to other information contained in the database for that individual fish such as size, passing hour, speed, silhouette image, temperature etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture",
        "text": "In a hypothetical family-scale fish/microalga /bivalve/seaweed farm, based on pilot scale data, at least 60% of nutrient input reached commercial products, nearly three times more than in modern net pen farms. Expected average annual yields of the system for a hypothetical were of seabream, of bivalves and of seaweeds. These results required precise water quality control and attention to suitability for bivalve nutrition, due to the difficulty in maintaining consistent phytoplankton populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish factory",
        "text": "A fish factory, also called a fish plant, fish processing facility, is a facility where fish processing is performed. Fish factories range in the size and range of species of fish they process. Some species of fish, such as mackerel and herring, and can be caught at sea by large pelagic trawlers and offloaded to the factory within a few days of being caught. Or the fish can be caught by freezer trawlers that freeze the fish before providing it to factories, or by factory ships which can do the processing themselves on board. Some fish factories have fishing vessels catching fish for them at a given times of the year. This is to do with quotas and seasons conflicting how much and when the fish can be landed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paranephrops",
        "text": "New Zealand Clearwater Crayfish Ltd farm grows the northern koura species \"P. planifrons\" using a gravity-fed system with pond culture and raceways. A key step in this koura farm is the depuration of koura in clean running water without food for up to 2 days to purge the gut cavity. This enables the tail to be presented as an appealing white flesh to the consumer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saltwater fish",
        "text": "Cage aquaculture involves rearing aquatic organisms in natural water sources while enclosed in a mesh/net cage that allows water from the surrounding environment to freely flow in and out. Cage aquaculture in marine environments has been particularly controversial because of the effects it has on the surrounding ecosystem thus, affecting wild marine fish populations. The main impacts of cage aquaculture are reduced water quality from fish sewage, high potential of genetic pollution of wild stocks due to escapees from aquaculture cages and the possibility of introducing an invasive species if the fish being reared are non-native . Fish sewage is the combination of fish feed, fecal material and antibiotics that is accumulated on the seafloor and in the water column from fish that are being farmed. It is not only harmful to wild fish stocks but it also poses a threat to marine plant life which is often a food source for wild fish stocks. Fish sewage is harmful because it pollutes the surrounding ecosystem and can cause problems like eutrophication, transmission of parasites and diseases to wild populations and developmental abnormalities on surrounding wild fish. Genetic pollution of wild fish populations is a common risk that cage aquaculture faces. For example, there are many scientific papers that have examined the effects of Atlantic Salmon escaping from their enclosures and interacting with wild populations. Farmed salmon have lower fitness (low survival rates and reproductive success) than a wild salmon would due to differences in artificial and natural selection. Artificial selection that chooses phenotypic traits that are desired for human consumption will alter the genetics of wild stocks if farmed fish interact and breed with wild populations. This would result in the reduction of fitness related traits that wild stocks possess which is a serious threat to these populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saltwater aquaponics",
        "text": "Fish farmers' lack of experience with this system can result in massive deaths. Inappropriate disinfection, mistakes in oxygen supply, mismanagement of fish seed, and poor estimation of nitrifying capacity, can force the faculties to shut down. Other problems include the lack of backups (i.e. power and materials) in case of emergencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Buada Lagoon",
        "text": "The failure of these attempts to get the fish farming industry running again then led to the establishment of a semi-intensive aquaculture programme, also Taiwanese, in 2001 which involved building concrete basins 20\u00a0m long, 10\u00a0m wide and 1.5\u00a0m deep. These were equipped with oxygenators, nets and specially adapted feeding. The idea was to allow fish farmers to raise milkfish using seawater, and without having to share the water with tilapias."
      },
      {
        "title": "M\u0113rsrags",
        "text": "In the 1960s the development of the fish farm collective resulted in a great increase in the production of fish and canned products. The first block of flats and a distant steam heating plant were built. A new fish processing plant was constructed as well as a net repair shop and an engineering workshop. The village roads were repaired and asphalted. Fishing remains an important aspect of the economy, with smoked fish being one of the local specialties."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Fish Hatchery System",
        "text": "The original purpose of the NFHS was to supplement declining native stocks of coastal and lake food fish through fish propagation. The NFHS has extensive experience culturing over 100 different aquatic species, and now propagates fish for reasons beyond supplementing declining food species. Hatchery-reared fish are now used to replace fish that were lost from natural events including drought, flood, habitat destruction, or human influences such as over-harvest, pollution, habitat loss due to development and dam construction. This is necessary in order to establish fish populations that meet specific management needs, and to provide for the creation of new and expanded recreational fisheries opportunities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture in Canada",
        "text": "To reduce the environmental impact of aquaculture and especially of salmon farming, researches are being conducted to find alternatives to existing technologies. For the time being the marine net-pens is the only technology that dominates the aquaculture system in Canada. Lately, new alternatives such as closed-containment systems have generated much interest. Culturing fish in a closed environment not only can help fish farmers to better control the rearing conditions but also improve the quality of the fish. Closed containment systems could reduce the environmental impact of the salmon farming industry's current practices. Some of the benefits of these systems are: reduced fish escapes, minimized predator interactions, reduced disease transmission, lower feed inputs, higher stocking densities, and improved waste management capabilities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rice-fish system",
        "text": "Rice-fish systems also have a positive impact on farmers, as it seems that there is a decrease in manual labour since fish act as weed and pest controllers as well as fertilizers. On the other hand, this might be undermined by the need to prepare the fields for fish stocking and fish harvesting which leads to an increased labour. The farmer's income is also impacted by the integrated rice cultures, with an estimated increase of over 23%. Moreover, a series of studies show that it also benefits the farmer's diet by integrating fish protein."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of agriculture",
        "text": "Fishing \u2013 activity of trying to catch fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild. Techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping.\n*Fishery \u2013 facility engaged in raising or harvesting fish"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rice-fish system",
        "text": "The use of rice-fish systems has resulted in an increase in rice yields and in turn in productivity. Studies have shown that it allowed the increase from 6.7 tons to 7.5 tons of rice and simultaneously also from 0.75 tons to 2.25 tons of fish. The productivity is enhanced by the nutrient recycling created by the fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Using this method, water allotments can be stored in ponds or ditches, usually lined with bentonite clay. In small systems, the fish are often fed commercial fish food, and their waste products can help fertilize the fields. In larger ponds, the pond grows water plants and algae as fish food. Some of the most successful ponds grow introduced strains of plants, as well as introduced strains of fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arctic char",
        "text": "The land-based Arctic char farming systems are among the most environmentally responsible fish farming designs. They remove particulate matter and effluent prior to releasing water from the fish tanks into the environment. Sludge removed from the water is used to fertilize terrestrial crops. Leftovers from fish processing may be incorporated into dog food or delivered to local compost facilities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish curve",
        "text": "giving the overall area for the fish as:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Raising ornamental coldwater fish (goldfish or koi), although theoretically much more profitable due to the higher income per weight of fish produced, has been successfully carried out only in the 21st century. The increased incidences of dangerous viral diseases of koi carp, together with the high value of the fish, has led to initiatives in closed-system koi breeding and growing in a number of countries. Today, a few commercially successful intensive koi-growing facilities are operating in the UK, Germany, and Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in Western Australia",
        "text": "Kingfish broodstock was initially caught at the nearby Abrolhos Islands and eggs were hatched and cultured after six weeks at the Challenger Institute of Technology in Fremantle. Once the fingerlings reached a minimum weight of one gram, they were transferred to the Batavia Coast Maritime Institute and fed until they were large enough to be transferred into farm's floating sea cage. Early production was sold to the domestic Australian market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish fillet processor",
        "text": "Processing can start either on the fishing vessel or at the plants. For example, some time the fishes are beheaded and gutted on par the fishing vessel its self."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishnet (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Fishnet or fish net may also refer to:"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is a fish hatchery generally defined as?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A fish hatchery is a place for artificial breeding, hatching, and rearing finfish and shellfish. Pacific oysters, shrimp, Indian prawns, salmon, tilapia and scallops are commonly found in hatcheries."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are octopi and squids also raised in hatcheries?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "While I couldn't anything regarding squid, octopus farming is a nascent industry with a Spanish firm announcing they would begin octopus farming in 2022."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the different types of fish farming systems?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to learn more about different types of fish farming systems such as Cage system, Copper-alloy nets or Open net pen system?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Yes, tell about the Cage system."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Fish cages are placed in lakes, bayous, ponds, rivers, or oceans to contain and protect fish until they can be harvested. A few advantages of fish farming with cages are that many types of waters can be used (rivers, lakes, filled quarries, etc.), many types of fish can be raised, and fish farming can co-exist with sport fishing and other water uses.",
      "Fish cages are placed in lakes, bayous, ponds, rivers, or oceans, then stocked with fish. There the fish are artificially fed and harvested when they reach market size."
    ],
    "topic": "Fish farming",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Fish farming:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fish farming",
          "Fish farms",
          "Cage system"
        ],
        "ctx": "Fish cages are placed in lakes, bayous, ponds, rivers, or oceans to contain and protect fish until they can be harvested. The method is also called \"off-shore cultivation\" when the cages are placed in the sea. They can be constructed of a wide variety of components. Fish are stocked in cages, artificially fed, and harvested when they reach market size. A few advantages of fish farming with cages are that many types of waters can be used (rivers, lakes, filled quarries, etc.), many types of fish can be raised, and fish farming can co-exist with sport fishing and other water uses."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Fish farming:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fish farming",
          "Fish farms",
          "Cage system"
        ],
        "ctx": "Fish cages are placed in lakes, bayous, ponds, rivers, or oceans to contain and protect fish until they can be harvested. The method is also called \"off-shore cultivation\" when the cages are placed in the sea. They can be constructed of a wide variety of components. Fish are stocked in cages, artificially fed, and harvested when they reach market size. A few advantages of fish farming with cages are that many types of waters can be used (rivers, lakes, filled quarries, etc.), many types of fish can be raised, and fish farming can co-exist with sport fishing and other water uses."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Other arguments that surround fish farms such as the supplementation of feed from wild caught species, the prevalence of disease, fish welfare issues and potential effects on the environment are also issues for hatchery facilities. For more information see: Aquaculture, Mariculture, Fish farming"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Cage farming of fishes in open seas is also gaining in popularity. Given concerns of disease, poaching, poor water quality, etc., generally pond systems are considered simpler to start and easier to manage. Also, the past occurrences of cage-failures leading to escapes, have raised concern regarding the culture of non-native fish species in dam or open-water cages. On August 22, 2017, there was a massive failure of such cages at a commercial fishery in Washington state in Puget Sound, leading to release of nearly 300,000 Atlantic salmon in non-native waters. This is believed to risk endangering the native Pacific salmon species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Debate between bird and fish",
        "text": "The initial speech of Fish:\n:...Bird...there is no insult, ..! Croaking ...noise in the marshes ...squawking! Forever gobbling away greedily, while your heart is dripping with evil! Standing on the plain you can keep pecking away until they chase you off! The farmer's sons lay lines and nets for you..(and continues)..You cause damage in the vegetable plots..(more)..Bird, you are shameless: you fill the courtyard with your droppings. The courtyard sweeper-boy who cleans the house chases after you...(etc)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "Salmon farming has also led to criticism from wildlife groups, conservationist and anglers, all of whom point to lower levels of wild salmon swimming up river to spawn. They allege that the mass proliferation of sea farming methods has had a detrimental effect on the wild salmon species. One journalist pointed out that a cage could hold up to 70,000 fish, which he said was the equivalent of \"..a series of floating battery hen sheds; salmon has long been sold on the prospect of cleanliness and health. The impression is fraudulent.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Though the cage-industry has made numerous technological advances in cage construction in recent years, the risk of damage and escape due to storms is always a concern."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robin Austin",
        "text": "Members of Austin's constituency depend on a healthy wild salmon run for tourism, and for both sport and commercial fishing. Consequently, the large body of evidence suggesting that open net fish farms may lead to a decline in the population of wild salmon in river and ocean systems where they are located has led to widespread antagonism towards open net fish farming in Northern British Columbia, and particularly in the Skeena area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "One problem with such composite fish culture is that many of these fish breed only during monsoon. Even if fish are collected from the wild, they can be mixed with other species, as well. So, a major problem in fish farming is the lack of availability of good-quality stock. To overcome this problem, ways have now been worked out to breed these fish in ponds using hormonal stimulation. This has ensured the supply of pure fish stock in desired quantities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Fish farming\n--Categories.\n----Intensive aquaculture.\n--Fish farms.\n----Cage system.\n------Copper-alloy nets.\n----Open net pen system.\n------Negative external effects.\n----Irrigation ditch or pond systems.\n------Composite fish culture.\n----Integrated recycling systems.\n----Classic fry farming.\n--Issues.\n----Feeding.\n----Stocking density.\n----Parasites & disease.\n----Ecosystem impacts.\n----Siting.\n----Genetic modification.\n----Labeling.\n--Indoor fish farming.\n--Slaughter methods.\n----Inhumane methods.\n----More humane methods.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Concern remains that resultant bacterial growth fertilised by fish faeces strips the water of oxygen, reducing or killing off the local marine life. Once an area has been so contaminated, fish farms are typically moved to new, uncontaminated areas. This practice has angered nearby fishermen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Fish cages are placed in lakes, bayous, ponds, rivers, or oceans to contain and protect fish until they can be harvested. The method is also called \"off-shore cultivation\" when the cages are placed in the sea. They can be constructed of a wide variety of components. Fish are stocked in cages, artificially fed, and harvested when they reach market size. A few advantages of fish farming with cages are that many types of waters can be used (rivers, lakes, filled quarries, etc.), many types of fish can be raised, and fish farming can co-exist with sport fishing and other water uses."
      },
      {
        "title": "The End of the Line (book)",
        "text": "Fish farming is the process of growing fish in an artificial environment. The traditional method involves feeding fish waste vegetables, and this is being done in developing countries. Modern fish farming involves feeding processed small wild fish to large carnivorous fish such as salmon, trout, and prawns. However, modern fish farming often relies on fish taken from the water in the developing world to feed the fish being sold in the developing world. Furthermore, fish farms introduce alien species to local environments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in South Australia",
        "text": "Former Greens MLC Mark Parnell raised concerns that the industry and the way aquaculture zones were being managed was effectively privatising the coastline. He also warned of the threat of the spread of seacages and pollution of the seabed if the industry was allowed to grow without constraint."
      },
      {
        "title": "Commercial fishing",
        "text": "Fish farming is the raising of fish for food in underwater enclosures, otherwise known as aquaculture. There are environmental hazards such as waste, damage to ecosystems, and negative effects on humans. Because they are so densely packed together, the fecal matter that accumulates can create algal blooms, or deadly parasites and viruses that thrive on the filthy environment. These can infect wild fish that swim near the enclosure, or whole colonies of fish if an infected farm fish escapes the enclosure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing industry in Switzerland",
        "text": "Fish farming in Switzerland has long been done in private pools or ponds isolated from the country's waterways and waterbodies. In 2020 a German cooperative proposed a whitefish farm using cages in Lake Constance as a way to boost that lake's declining catches. Swiss fishermen joined their German colleagues in vehement opposition to the project, staging a 100-boat flotilla on the lake one weekend as a protest. They were concerned about not only the pollution that might occur but the possible spread of disease from farmed fish to the wild population their livelihood depends on, no matter what assurances the cooperative made about being able to prevent that. While the IGKB, the tri-national commission that regulates the lake, already prohibits caged fish farming within the lake, the fishermen want the ban to be made statutory as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Fish farming or pisciculture involves commercial breeding of fish, usually for food, in fish tanks or artificial enclosures such as fish ponds. It is a particular type of aquaculture, which is the controlled cultivation and harvesting of aquatic animals such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and so on, in natural or pseudo-natural environment. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Worldwide, the most important fish species produced in fish farming are carp, catfish, salmon and tilapia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saltwater fish",
        "text": "Cage aquaculture involves rearing aquatic organisms in natural water sources while enclosed in a mesh/net cage that allows water from the surrounding environment to freely flow in and out. Cage aquaculture in marine environments has been particularly controversial because of the effects it has on the surrounding ecosystem thus, affecting wild marine fish populations. The main impacts of cage aquaculture are reduced water quality from fish sewage, high potential of genetic pollution of wild stocks due to escapees from aquaculture cages and the possibility of introducing an invasive species if the fish being reared are non-native . Fish sewage is the combination of fish feed, fecal material and antibiotics that is accumulated on the seafloor and in the water column from fish that are being farmed. It is not only harmful to wild fish stocks but it also poses a threat to marine plant life which is often a food source for wild fish stocks. Fish sewage is harmful because it pollutes the surrounding ecosystem and can cause problems like eutrophication, transmission of parasites and diseases to wild populations and developmental abnormalities on surrounding wild fish. Genetic pollution of wild fish populations is a common risk that cage aquaculture faces. For example, there are many scientific papers that have examined the effects of Atlantic Salmon escaping from their enclosures and interacting with wild populations. Farmed salmon have lower fitness (low survival rates and reproductive success) than a wild salmon would due to differences in artificial and natural selection. Artificial selection that chooses phenotypic traits that are desired for human consumption will alter the genetics of wild stocks if farmed fish interact and breed with wild populations. This would result in the reduction of fitness related traits that wild stocks possess which is a serious threat to these populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robin Austin",
        "text": "The report drew widespread criticism from the aquaculture industry because it called for the industry to move to ocean-based closed containment within five years. According to the report, open net fish farms may contribute to the decline of wild salmon populations through the spread of parasitic sea lice and diseases from the farmed fish to migrating salmon fry. The industry claims that moving to closed-containment is tantamount to ending finfish aquaculture off the British Columbia coast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gord Johns",
        "text": "Johns called for significant reforms to fish farm operations to address the risk to wild salmon posed by open-pen net farms. He called on the federal government to work with the Province of British Columbia and local First Nations to move from open net operations to land-based facilities - an approach that he argued would reduce the risk of the spread of sea lice and other diseases spreading to native wild species. Johns has been critical of the government for changing its 2019 campaign commitment to end open-net fish farming by 2025, replacing it with a commitment to developing a plan instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish physiology",
        "text": "Animal welfare advocates raise concerns about the possible suffering of fish caused by angling. Some countries, such as Germany have banned specific types of fishing, and the British RSPCA now formally prosecutes individuals who are cruel to fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing in Israel",
        "text": "Eilat has developed in recent years \"aquaculture - growing fish in cages in the sea bream. This activity is controversial, dealing with environmental Achsagofim argue that this activity causes an ecological disaster area flora and fauna. The cages are expected to leave the final June 2008, following a government decision about it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Darumbal",
        "text": "There have been several controversies regarding fisheries licensing and conservation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Hatchery facilities present three main problems in the field of genetics. The first is that maintenance of a small number of broodstock can cause inbreeding and potentially lead to inbreeding depression thus affecting the success of the facility. Secondly, hatchery reared juveniles, even from a fairly large broodstock, can have greatly reduced genetic diversity compared to wild populations (the situation is comparable to the founder effect). Such fish that escape from farms or are released for restocking purposes may adversely affect wild population genetics and viability. This is of particular concern where escaped fish have been actively bred or are otherwise genetically modified. The third key issue is that genetic modification of food items is highly undesirable for many people. See Genetically modified food controversies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in South Australia",
        "text": "In 2008, some recreational anglers expressed their disapproval of the industry, noting escapes of farmed fish, marine debris and the loss of amenity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Krishnammal Jagannathan",
        "text": "To address prawn farm issue the Jagannathans organised the whole of LAFTI's village movement to raise awareness among the people to oppose the prawn farms. Since 1993, the villagers have offered Satygraha (non-violent resistance), through rallies, fasts, and demonstrations in protest of establishing the prawn farms. They have been beaten up by hired goons, their houses have been burnt, and LAFTI workers have been imprisoned, because of false accusations of looting and arson. Undeterred by this, Jagannathan filed a 'public interest petition' in the Indian Supreme Court, which in turn asked NEERI (National Environmental Engineering Institute of India) to investigate the matter. NEERI's investigation report highlighted the environmental cost of the prawn farms to the nation and recommended all prawn farms within 500 meters of the coast to be banned. In December 1996 the Supreme Court issued a ruling against intensive shrimp farming in cultivable lands within 500 meters of the coastal area. It is said that because of the prawn farmers' local political influence, the Supreme Court judgement was not implemented on the ground. The legal battle around the prawn farms is still not resolved and the Jagannathans continue their struggle to establish non-exploitative, eco-friendly communities in the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture",
        "text": "However, the controversial issue in aquaculture is whether fish and farmed marine invertebrates are actually sentient, or have the perception and awareness to experience suffering. Although no evidence of this has been found in marine invertebrates, recent studies conclude that fish do have the necessary receptors (nociceptors) to sense noxious stimuli and so are likely to experience states of pain, fear and stress. Consequently, welfare in aquaculture is directed at vertebrates, finfish in particular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The open net pens system is a method that takes place in natural waters, such as rivers, lakes, near the coast or offshore. The breeders are rearing the fish in large cages, floating in the water. The fish are living in natural water, but are isolated with a net. So the only barrier separating the fish from the surrounding environment is a net, this allows the water to flow from the \u2018natural\u2019 surrounding through the fish farms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian vegetarianism",
        "text": "According to Clough and King, the fact that Jesus ate fish (and possibly other meat) only shows that, \"in some circumstances\", it is \"sometimes\" permissible to eat \"some\" meats, but that practices in the modern, industrialized farming system (such as the mass killing of day-old male chicks from laying hens) make the consumption of meat produced in such farms morally problematic"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in South Australia",
        "text": "In 2005, conservationists raised concerns about the growing prospect of the aquaculture industry taking precedence over the establishment of state managed marine parks and the conservation of threatened species. The Conservation Council of South Australia called for a moratorium on new aquaculture developments, but was unsuccessful. The Wilderness Society also supported the moratorium call after marine debris from an abalone farm was distributed along 170\u00a0km of coastline following a storm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Raising ornamental coldwater fish (goldfish or koi), although theoretically much more profitable due to the higher income per weight of fish produced, has been successfully carried out only in the 21st century. The increased incidences of dangerous viral diseases of koi carp, together with the high value of the fish, has led to initiatives in closed-system koi breeding and growing in a number of countries. Today, a few commercially successful intensive koi-growing facilities are operating in the UK, Germany, and Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Debate between bird and fish",
        "text": "The 2nd and 3rd paragraphs continue:\n:They bring you into the fattening shed. They let you moo like cattle, bleat like sheep. They pour out cool water in jugs for you. They drag you away for the daily sacrifice. (the 2nd, 3rd paragraphs continue for several lines)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified fish",
        "text": "Critics have objected to use of genetic engineering per se on several grounds, including ethical concerns, ecological concerns (especially about gene flow), and economic concerns raised by the fact GM techniques and GM organisms are subject to intellectual property law. GMOs also are involved in controversies over GM food with respect to whether using GM fish as safe is safe, whether it would exacerbate or cause fish allergies, whether it should be labeled, and whether GM fish and crops are needed to address the world's food needs. These controversies have led to litigation, international trade disputes, and protests, and to restrictive regulation of commercial products in most countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Overfishing",
        "text": "Fish farming can enclose the entire breeding cycle of the fish, with fish being bred in captivity. Some fish prove difficult to breed in captivity and can be caught in the wild as juveniles and brought into captivity to increase their weight. With scientific progress, more species are being made to breed in captivity. This was the case with southern bluefin tuna, which were first bred in captivity in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish",
        "text": "Animal welfare advocates raise concerns about the possible suffering of fish caused by angling. Some countries, such as Germany have banned specific types of fishing, and the British RSPCA now formally prosecutes individuals who are cruel to fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in South Australia",
        "text": "Between 2008 and 2011, tuna baron and kingfish farmer Hagen Stehr expressed his view that desalination brine from a proposed desalination plant would have widespread impacts on fish farming, wild fisheries and the giant Australian cuttlefish aggregation. He also warned of a huge compensation claim should the water quality be impacted by mining-related activities. His concerns were shared by other aquaculture and commercial fishing interests and supported by research by oceanographer, Jochen Kaempf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hatchery",
        "text": "Researchers have raised concerns about hatchery fish potentially breeding with wild fish. Hatchery fish may in some cases compete with wild fish. In the United States and Canada, there have been several salmon and steelhead hatchery reform projects intended to reduce the possibility of negative impacts from hatchery programs. Most salmon and steelhead hatcheries are managed better and follow up to date management practices to ensure any risks are curtailed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing industry",
        "text": "Fish farming involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosed pools, usually for food. Fish species raised by fish farms include carp, salmon, tilapia, catfish and cod. Increasing demands on wild fisheries by commercial fishing operations have caused widespread overfishing. Fish farming offers an alternative solution to the increasing market demand for fish and fish protein."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture in Canada",
        "text": "A significant issue that many aquaculture operations are faced with, particularly in marine environments, is accidental interactions between farmed fish and the surrounding natural ecosystem. There are many potential issues which can result in farmed fish interacting with wild. Various means of equipment failure can lead to farmed fish escaping their pens and dispersing into the wild:\n* infrastructure failure (e.g. a result of extreme weather damage)\n* boat operations (e.g. collisions and propeller damage)\n* predation (e.g. seals, sea lions)\n* vandalism\n* fish handling errors\n* technical deficiencies (inadequate or damaged parts in cage systems)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Other potential problems faced by aquaculturists include the obtaining of various permits and water-use rights, profitability, concerns about invasive species and genetic engineering depending on what species are involved, and interaction with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ganges Delta",
        "text": "In the last decades of the 20th century, scientists helped the poor people of the delta to improve fish farming methods. By turning unused ponds into viable fish farms and improving methods of raising fish in existing ponds, many people can now earn a living raising and selling fish. Using new systems, fish production in existing ponds has increased 800%. Shrimp are farmed in containers or cages that are submerged in open water. Most are exported."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing",
        "text": "Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture. It involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural population is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Fish species raised by fish farms include salmon, carp, tilapia, catfish and trout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Common Fisheries Policy",
        "text": "Fish farming is the fastest growing area of world food production. In 1995 it produced one-third of the world's fish and shellfish by value. The main species in the EU are trout, salmon, mussels and oysters, but interest has been shown in sea bass, sea bream and turbot. Community support began in 1971 for inland fish farming, but was extended to other areas in the late 1970s. EU support covers similar areas to other land installations, but with additional concerns of technical and environmental problems caused by introducing major fish concentrations where farms are built. The industry suffers problems due to fluctuating demand for farmed fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "In Southeast Asia, the traditional cage farming platform is called kelong."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "In these kinds of systems fish production per unit of surface can be increased at will, as long as sufficient oxygen, fresh water and food are provided. Because of the requirement of sufficient fresh water, a massive water purification system must be integrated in the fish farm. One way to achieve this is to combine hydroponic horticulture and water treatment, see below. The exception to this rule are cages which are placed in a river or sea, which supplements the fish crop with sufficient oxygenated water. Some environmentalists object to this practice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "In regards to genetically modified, farmed salmon, concern has been raised over their proven reproductive advantage and how it could potentially decimate local fish populations, if released into the wild. Biologist Rick Howard did a controlled laboratory study where wild fish and GMO fish were allowed to breed. In 1989, the AquaBounty Technologies developed the Aqua Advantage salmon. The concerns and critiques of cultivating this GMO fish in aquaculture are that the fish will escape and interact with other fish ultimately leading to the reproduction with other fishes. However, the FDA, has determined that while net pens would not be the most appropriate to prevent escapes, that raising the salmon in Panama waters would result effective in the prevention of escape because the water conditions there would fail to support long-term survival of the salmon in the case that they escaped. Another method of preventing Aqua Advantage fish from impacting the ecosystems in the case they escape suggested by the FDA was to create sterile triploid females. This way concerns on reproducing with other fishes would be out of the question. The GMO fish crowded out the wild fish in spawning beds, but the offspring were less likely to survive. The colorant used to make pen-raised salmon appear rosy like the wild fish has been linked with retinal problems in humans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polachira",
        "text": "Consequently, there are complaints from farmers that the authorities of the local self-government intend to catch and sell fish from Polachira by drying its fields and have no intention to help the farmers in their paddy cultivation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish Wars",
        "text": "By 1964, the dispute over fishing rights began to receive national media attention. Several celebrities took up the cause, including Marlon Brando, Buffy Sainte-Marie, and Dick Gregory. Brando was arrested in March 1964 for taking two steelhead trout as part of a protest with the Puyallup tribe. The movement also brought in other Native groups from outside the region, such as the National Indian Youth Council and Hank Adams from the Quinault Reservation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kathy Dunderdale",
        "text": "During the October 2011, provincial election, Dunderdale said \"We've got too many people chasing too few fish, and these plants are going to collapse and fail because they're not on sound economic models\". She said there was overcapacity in the fishing industry and that fish processing plants would need to close. Minister Jackman, who represents a district that relies heavily on the fishing industry, continued to face much criticism for his performance in the fisheries portfolio and was re-elected by just 40 votes. The day after winning a majority government, Dunderdale stated in an interview that tough decisions were looming in the industry. She again stated there was overcapacity and structural problems in the fishery and that her government was ready to make the tough decisions that were long overdue. Dunderdale swore in her new cabinet weeks after the election and shuffled Jackman to the Department to Education, Darin King succeeded him as the Minister of Fisheries and Aquaculture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arapaima",
        "text": "In Thailand, the only legal breeding farm is located in Tambon Phrong Maduea, Amphoe Mueang Nakhon Pathom, Nakhon Pathom Province. This has been approved by both the Department of Fisheries and CITES since early 2018, and has been exporting them worldwide as an aquarium fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "British Record (Rod Caught) Fish Committee",
        "text": "The second controversial event was when the BRFC refused to accept Chris Yates 51lb 8oz carp capture in 1980 because at the time the fishes body needed to be provided as evidence, and Yates had returned the carp to the water alive and well. Following this controversial and monumental decision, the rule to provide dead fish as evidence was rescinded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The largest-scale pure fish farms use a system derived (admittedly much refined) from the New Alchemy Institute in the 1970s. Basically, large plastic fish tanks are placed in a greenhouse. A hydroponic bed is placed near, above or between them. When tilapia are raised in the tanks, they are able to eat algae, which naturally grow in the tanks when the tanks are properly fertilized."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish Wars",
        "text": "Tempers flared again in 1976 when wildlife officials closed a number of fishing areas, ostensibly to allow the salmon population to recover. Some tribal members claimed the laws were intended to favor white fishermen, and refused to obey the new laws. A number of small riots and demonstrations ensued. By the mid-1980s, however, cooperation between the various tribes led to a stronger, unified presence in fisheries management under the terms of the Boldt Decision, effectively putting an end to the violence, though legal disputes continue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in South Australia",
        "text": "Fish farm nutrient pollution has impacted Louth Bay in southern Spencer Gulf, where it led to seagrass loss and algal blooms in the mid 2000s. Residents argued that the bay, which is semi-enclosed by Louth Island and Rabbit Island is a slow flushing system unsuitable for fish farming."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing in India",
        "text": "National laws include the British-era Indian Fisheries Act, 1897, which penalizes the killing of fish by poisoning water and by using explosives; the Environment Protection Act, 1986, being an umbrella act containing provisions for all environment related issues affecting fisheries and aquaculture industry in India, the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 and the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 prevents the fishing of rare species of fishes. In 1996, the Indian Supreme Court prohibited the setting up of Shrimp farm ponds except traditional and improved traditional types of ponds on the Coastal Regulation Zone and on the Chilka Lake and Pulicat Lake. The Order No 722 (E) of 2002 prohibited the use of certain antibiotics and pharmacologically active substances in hatcheries of production of the juveniles and larvae, or in manufacturing the fish feed or in processing fish products. In 2017, the Indian government banned selling of 158 fish species of ornamental fishes and also made it mandatory that a full-time fishery expert be present in the Ornamental fish farm for inspecting the health of the fishes. Regulations regarding the tank size, stocking density of fish and volume of water were also introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ceratothoa oestroides",
        "text": "Within a fish farm, it is common practice to decrease the number of wild fish population by fish net, as well as periodically clean the floating cages nets, depending on the season. Horton and Okamura (2001) suggest grading of smaller and larger fish and their separation, mooring the cages in deeper sites with sufficient currents to disperse the juvenile parasites in a direction away from the cages. Often, in cases of heavy parasitism and mortality, reducing the fish density is enough to remedy the situation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mariculture",
        "text": "In cage culture, several different methods are used for feeding farmed fish \u2013 from simple hand feeding to sophisticated computer-controlled systems with automated food dispensers coupled with \"in situ\" uptake sensors that detect consumption rates. In coastal fish farms, overfeeding primarily leads to increased disposition of detritus on the seafloor (potentially smothering seafloor dwelling invertebrates and altering the physical environment), while in hatcheries and land-based farms, excess food goes to waste and can potentially impact the surrounding catchment and local coastal environment. This impact is usually highly local, and depends significantly on the settling velocity of waste feed and the current velocity (which varies both spatially and temporally) and depth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hells Gate (British Columbia)",
        "text": "This decision sparked a major controversy in the Pacific fisheries and research community, which became divided along national lines. American William Thompson, head researcher for the IPSFC, was criticized by Canadian zoologist William Ricker who claimed that the IPSFC research was unreliable and that fishways were not a means to preserving Fraser salmon. Ricker believed that Hells Gate posed no threat to migrating salmon, and that commercial over-fishing did. He held that stringent regulations should be placed on fishing for Fraser salmon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing in Chile",
        "text": "The main argument used by Minister Longueira to defend the legislation was that it was going to \u201cpromote the sustainability of fishing resources,\u201d but, upon examination, this is not the case. \u201cThe government\u2019s motive is to reinforce the economic model in place; there is a political interest in making fishery resources belong to someone,\u201d says Cosme Caracciolo, an artisanal fisherman and a member of the National Council for the Defense of Artisanal Fishing (CONDEPP). \u201cUnder this fisheries law, 20-year renewable concessions have been awarded, creating ownership over fish that have not yet been born. It\u2019s absurd! It\u2019s applying capitalism to living resources\u201d. \u201cThey now want to increase the quota for jack mackerel, which is recognized as an endangered species,\u201d Caracciolo laments. The head of World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) for Chile's Sustainable Fisheries Program, Mauricio G\u00e1lvez, backs this view. He insists \u201cthe decision of the Chilean National Fishery Council to increase the catch quota of jack mackerel by 11.9 per cent is completely unacceptable, given the current overexploitation of the stock\u201d. One of the simplest methods for identifying a troubled fishery is to compare the average size of mature stock over a period of time. In the case of hake, another popular catch off the cost of Chile, the median length for mature stock has shrunk from 37 centimeters a decade ago to 28 centimeters today. Efforts have been made to block the \u201cFisheries Act\u201d through petitions to the Constitutional Court sponsored by a number of Congress representatives, but these efforts have yet to see progress. Most of these protests come from indigenous communities, but also from artisanal coalitions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slot limit",
        "text": "The issue of protected slot limits, in some cases, is marked in controversy. The protected slot limit and the angler's desire to harvest fish can be in conflict. The main challenge lies in the economic, ecological, and social factors that fisheries managers must consider when implementing harvest regulations such as protected slot limits. Take, for example, the situation involving Lake Mille Lacs in central Minnesota. Anglers spend millions of dollars and travel countless miles to fish for Lake Mille Lacs walleye (\"Sander vitreus\") which is highly sought after for its table fare as well as its sporting qualities. In the case of Lake Mille Lacs there has long been a protected slot limit for walleye."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish Meat",
        "text": "They visit a high tech seabass farm, partly automated and equipped with video surveillance. While this is one of the more efficient ways of raising fish since the fish farmers can use the minimum amount of feed to fatten their fish, it is very expensive. It also causes a lot of waste and pollution with excess feed and fish waste falling below the cage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Farming carnivorous fish such as salmon, however, does not always reduce pressure on wild fisheries, as such farmed fish are usually fed fishmeal and fish oil extracted from wild forage fish. The 2008 global returns for fish farming recorded by the FAO totaled 33.8 million tonnes worth about US$60 billion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in South Australia",
        "text": "Sea cage fish farming in South Australia began at an experimental scale in the early 1990s. Since that time, South Australia has developed legislation and regulations for the industry. An Aquaculture Advisory Council composed of various industry, government and external stakeholders was formed to inform the process. Aquaculture zones for prescribed use have been established across the state's waters. Companies apply to the South Australian government to lease an area of water within these zones to grow certain permitted species. Some of the zones are shallow or otherwise unsuitable for fish farming and instead are allocated for Pacific oysters or blue mussels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Tanks saturated with carbon dioxide have been used to make fish unconscious. Their gills are then cut with a knife so that the fish bleed out before they are further processed. This is no longer considered a humane method of slaughter. Methods that induce much less physiological stress are electrical or percussive stunning and this has led to the phasing out of the carbon dioxide slaughter method in Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified fish",
        "text": "Critics have objected to GM fish on several grounds, including ecological concerns, animal welfare concerns and with respect to whether using them as food is safe and whether GM fish are needed to help address the world's food needs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified fish",
        "text": "In intensive fish farming, the fish are kept at high stocking densities. This means they suffer from frequent transmission of contagious diseases, a problem which is being addressed by GM research. Grass carp (\"Ctenopharyngodon idella\") have been modified with a transgene coding for human lactoferrin, which doubles their survival rate relative to control fish after exposure to \"Aeromonas\" bacteria and Grass carp hemorrhage virus. Cecropin has been used in channel catfish to enhance their protection against several pathogenic bacteria by 2\u20134 times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable fishery",
        "text": "Over the years, fish farming has made a name for itself in the fishing industry as a means of ensuring that the world's fish supplies do not deplete so rapidly. Sometimes referred to as \"aquaculture\", fish farming, when done right, \"can\" be one a very environmentally-friendly way to harvest fish. Fish farms are regulated by laws and management plans, which prevents it from falling prey to the same phenomenon of overfishing, which cripples the fish populations and marine ecosystem as a whole. The basic premise of fish farming is just what it sounds like\u2014to breed and raise fish in enclosed environments, then eventually sell the grown fish as food for consumers. Salmon, cod, and halibut are three types of finfish that are often farm-raised. The actual enclosures in which the fish grow and swim are made of mesh \"cages\" submerged underwater."
      },
      {
        "title": "R v Gladstone",
        "text": "Chief Justice Lamer, for the majority, found that there was an aboriginal right to sell herring spawn under the \"Van der Peet\" test. In analyzing the rights infringement, he rejected prioritizing limited natural resources as described in \"R v Sparrow\". Instead, he suggested that in the regulation of commercial fishing the regard should be given to regional fairness among all people when distributing fishing resources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The large number of fish kept long-term in a single location contributes to habitat destruction of the nearby areas. The high concentrations of fish produce a significant amount of condensed faeces, often contaminated with drugs, which again affects local waterways."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Secondly, farmed fish are kept in concentrations never seen in the wild (e.g. 50,000 fish in a area.). However, fish tend also to be animals that aggregate into large schools at high density. Most successful aquaculture species are schooling species, which do not have social problems at high density. Aquaculturists feel that operating a rearing system above its design capacity or above the social density limit of the fish will result in decreased growth rate and increased feed conversion ratio (kg dry feed/kg of fish produced), which results in increased cost and risk of health problems along with a decrease in profits. Stressing the animals is not desirable, but the concept of and measurement of stress must be viewed from the perspective of the animal using the scientific method."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "A Parliamentary committee raised the possibility of salmon farms being located on land to avoid the prevalence of sea lice. One speaker at the committee's hearing stated that they were spending \u00a350\u00a0million to produce of fish, and that the added cost of building concrete structures to house the fish would cost extra and would be power hungry, therefore negating the benefits of having open pens/cages in the sea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saltwater aquaponics",
        "text": "Currently, many conventional fish farming practices take place in the coastal zones with open circulation. This places an enormous load of urine and soluble nitrogen (that the feed and waste from fish release) at high concentrations into the ecological region. This can have many environmentally deleterious effects. In response to this, alternative aquaculture developments are quickly arising- Namely, recirculating aquaculture systems. By creating a closed system, fish farming has given locational freedom to the practice allowing for more inland developments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seafood mislabelling",
        "text": "The issue has two sides. In some foreign countries, clean water supplies for aquaculture are extremely limited. Untreated animal manure and human waste are used as feed in shrimp farms and tilapia farms in China and Thailand, in addition to the collection of waste products accumulating from inadequate sewage treatment. In order to prevent the spread of bacteria and disease in contaminated water, some foreign fish farms put U.S.-banned antibiotics into their fishmeal. However, because the more stringent growing regulations in the US increase the price of food, imports from nations without these regulations are increasing based on price and profit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in South Australia",
        "text": "In 2006, two casually-employed fish farm workers from Whyalla were told to go home by their employer SAAMS after participating in a protected industrial action."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in South Australia",
        "text": "Vocal critics of the scale and frequency of Yellowtail kingfish escapes, including Allan Suter, called for a ban on kingfish farming entirely in 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "If aquaculture farms are placed in an areas with strong current, pollutants can be flushed out of the area fairly quickly. This help manage the pollution problem and also aids in overall fish growth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Because of the oceans water flows through and other reasons, open net pen culture is seen as a high-risk method for the environment. The flow allows chemicals, parasites, waste and diseases to spread in the enclosed environment, and this is not in advance for the natural environment. Another negative consequence is the high escaping rate of the cultured fish in these open net pens. These escaped fish pose also a high risk to the surrounding ecosystems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "These use irrigation ditches or farm ponds to raise fish. The basic requirement is to have a ditch or pond that retains water, possibly with an above-ground irrigation system (many irrigation systems use buried pipes with headers.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish Wars",
        "text": "In 1974's United States v. Washington, U.S. District Court Judge George Hugo Boldt stated that treaty right fishermen must be allowed to take up to 50% of all potential fishing harvests, and required that they have an equal voice in the management of the fishery. He emphasized that no court decision or act of Congress had annulled what the treaties preserved for the Native tribes. He declared that when the Native people signed the Camp Stevens treaty of 1855, they had not secured a right from non-natives, but had agreed only to share their resources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in South Australia",
        "text": "Kingston Council encouraged PIRSA to permit sea cages closer to shore in 2004."
      },
      {
        "title": "Debate between bird and fish",
        "text": "The debate then begins starting with Fish addressing Bird."
      },
      {
        "title": "British Record (Rod Caught) Fish Committee",
        "text": "On the 31st October 2007, The BRFC decide that no further claims will be considered for the Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) to prevent importation of record sized illegal fish. Phillip Kingsbury's 44lb 8oz specimen caught at Horton Church Lake in 2006 has been frozen in time as a snapshot of the record as it stood at that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "M\u0113rsrags",
        "text": "In the 1960s the development of the fish farm collective resulted in a great increase in the production of fish and canned products. The first block of flats and a distant steam heating plant were built. A new fish processing plant was constructed as well as a net repair shop and an engineering workshop. The village roads were repaired and asphalted. Fishing remains an important aspect of the economy, with smoked fish being one of the local specialties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish stocking",
        "text": "In 2005, California's Center for Biological Diversity submitted a petition to the Department of Fish and Game requesting that the state initiate a review of its fish stocking practices. The reform campaign aimed to protect existing habitats and native populations of fish and amphibians. Finally, in 2008, the Sacramento Superior Court ordered the state to consult with various groups in finding ways to protect native species from fish stocking practices. Initially, the California Department of Fish and Game agreed to eliminate the environmental harm of its stocking practices, but when it filed its impact report in 2011, protection of native fish and amphibians was clearly not a priority. The agency was brought to court again but was promptly denied. With the state Commission denying the Department of Fish and Game's proposed changes for fish stocking, private hatcheries continue to stock state waters under the same permit regulations. The Department aimed to require that all hatcheries and fisheries pay for biological assessment before stocking, thus preventing many of its negative consequences. However, the state of California made it clear that it will not make fisheries go through the stringent permitting process. In February of 2015, the California Third District of Appeals struck down the Department of Fish and Wildlife's permitting requirement on recreational fishing, which would have essentially driven fish farms and hatcheries out of business. This ruling ensures fishermen in California will have the opportunity to fish in stocked lakes and ponds in the future."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish Wars",
        "text": "In 1957, Washington state's supreme court split 4\u20134 on the issue regarding the arrest of Robert Satiacum, a Puyallup and Yakima man, for fishing steelhead with fixed gill nets out-of-season. Although a treaty had guaranteed Native people in the region the right to fish in their traditional ways, this arrest, and the others that occurred at the time, showed that the rights of the Natives were not been upheld or protected. Since case was settled in the lower courts, and the judges found Satiacum guilty, the state was allowed to make decisions regarding the fishing and hunting of Native Americans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish Canneries Reference",
        "text": "In a 4-3 decision concerning Question 3, it was held that the Minister must issue fishing licenses to all qualified persons that paid the appropriate fee, and there was no discretionary authority to withhold such licenses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Buddha Jumps Over the Wall",
        "text": "Use of shark fin, which is sometimes harvested by shark finning, and abalone, which is implicated in destructive fishing practices, are controversial for both environmental and ethical reasons. Imitation shark fin and farmed abalone are available as alternatives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Farmers' lore jokes",
        "text": "In February 2017, the Federal Ministry of the Environment (BMU) published 11 \"New Farming Rules\" on its website and on posters at the start of a campaign to draw attention to problems with conventional agriculture \"in a playgul an humorous way\". These include sayings such as \"If the pig stands on one leg, the pigsty is too small\", or \"If poison hits the plants, the birds remain silent\". This led to protests by the farmers' associations, who felt defamed. This had led to an apology to the farmers and the suspension of the campaign."
      },
      {
        "title": "2016 Massachusetts Question 3",
        "text": "Proponents of Question 3 focused on the animal welfare impacts of the initiative, framing the requirement for animals to be able to turn around and extend their limbs as a modest and minimal reform. However, opponents charged that the measure could have negative effects on animals and farm workers. The operators of the only caged egg farm in the state, Diemand Farm of Wendell, described how their previous cage-free system had resulted in cannibalism, crowding, hygiene problems, and uneven access to food and water, concerns echoed by statewide allies. They also argued that chickens did not need to be able to spread both wings, as they could extend them one at a time to stretch while caged. Even some farmers who used cage-free systems for welfare reasons expressed concern that the question would be decided by voters who did not have experience with agriculture, or appreciation for the complexity of the issue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Painted fish",
        "text": "In February 2006, the UK's Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) confirmed that it would not be making it illegal to sell dyed fish in the UK under the Animal Welfare Bill."
      },
      {
        "title": "CraFarms",
        "text": "In 2001, the Fish and Game Council started the public campaign for cleaner waterways downstream of dairy farms that later became known as the dirty dairying campaign. They identified dairy farms as a major factor in polluting the waterways, with one cow causing as much pollution as fourteen humans. The Crafars first prosecution for discharging dairy effluent into waterways came in 2001 when Valley View Ltd, of which Mr Crafar is a director was fined $13,000 for an unlawful discharge of effluent on to land where it could enter waterways. According to Allan Crafar, from 2003 new compliance codes were implemented that caught out many farmers including the Crafars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sensory systems in fish",
        "text": "Animal welfare advocates raise concerns about the possible suffering of fish caused by angling. Some countries, such as Germany have banned specific types of fishing, and the British RSPCA now prosecutes individuals who are cruel to fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fisheries Act (Canada)",
        "text": "Concerns have been raised and it remains an active debate as to whether there is a conflict of interest to have the minister responsible for the well-being of the fisheries industry to be the same minister responsible for preservation of coastal environment and fish habitat. The government contends that healthy ecosystems are also good for fishing prospects, and so the interests are aligned, not in conflict. Opponents contend there is already evidence of conflict causing changes in policy, that the expert opinion in the Cohen Commission highlighted the issue before, and that the government seemed to grant many exemptions to the normal critical level that would normally trigger dramatic restrictions on fishing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catfish Dispute",
        "text": "In the U.S., catfish is raised generally in Mississippi, Arkansas and Louisiana in ponds. With the increasing number of catfish imported from Vietnam, U.S. domestic producers began to worry about their profit margins. In 2002, Vietnamese catfish captured around 20 percent of American frozen fish market. In 2012, this figure went up to 60 percent. American catfish producers decided to take proper measurement eventually. The Association of Catfish Farmers of America represented these American domestic producers to file lawsuits against the mass imports of Vietnamese catfish starting in 2001."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "In 2008, the US National Organic Standards Board allowed farmed fish to be labeled as organic provided less than 25% of their feed came from wild fish. This decision was criticized by the advocacy group Food & Water Watch as \"bending the rules\" about organic labeling. In the European Union, fish labeling as to species, method of production and origin has been required since 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basa (fish)",
        "text": "Several environmental organisations concerned with marine ecosystems have raised concerns about basa. OceanWise, an environmental organisation associated with the Vancouver Aquarium, has flagged farmed basa for its potential pollution of ecosystems and interference with wild species. It writes, \"Open cage farming in Southeast Asia is associated with disease transfer to wild basa. There are also concerns about feed quality, farm operating standards and the biological impact of using wild stock for culturing.\" The Monterey Bay Aquarium currently lists the basa in its \"red flag\" or \"avoid\" category. Both groups cite USA farmed catfish as a more sustainable alternative."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Angel defamation case",
        "text": "I have never really understood about live fish in tanks in restaurants. If they are seen as a way to guarantee freshness, then surely we ought also to have live pigs in pens in the middle of restaurants, ready for slaughter to ensure the freshest possible loin of pork and the odd steer waiting patiently to be zapped by the electric hammer before transformation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Huron, California",
        "text": "In July 2009, action by the Federal Bureau of Reclamation to protect threatened fish reduced irrigation pumping to parts of the California Central Valley causing canals leading into Huron and the surrounding areas and the farms that rely on them to dry up. Unemployment has reached over 40% as farms dried up. Governor Schwarzenegger stated the federal action is putting the fish \"above the needs of millions of Californians.\" The issue received coverage on the \"Hannity\" program from Fox News broadcasting from Huron. Comedian Paul Rodriguez acted as a celebrity spokesperson criticizing the action, as his mother owns a farm in the area. Fox's coverage of the issue has been criticized, and the California Progress Report argued that Huron's problems are more the result of poor water management decisions by the local water district than by federal government. Environmental and fishing groups have argued that the action to protect fish will ultimately save more jobs in the fishing and tourism industries than will be lost in agriculture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hilary Franz",
        "text": "On August 19, 2017, a fish farm near Cypress Island in Skagit County accidentally released hundreds of thousands of Atlantic salmon. Franz ordered an investigation into the farm and announced that the farm would be removed for various violations of its state license and lease agreement. Franz was also part of the state government's effort to halt federal plans for offshore drilling in the Pacific Ocean near the Olympic Peninsula."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in Madagascar",
        "text": "Fishing is popular as a sideline by farmers who supplement their farm produce with fish from freshwater rivers, lakes, and ponds. Perhaps two-thirds of the total yearly catch is consumed for subsistence; transportation costs to the capital make the price of marketed fish prohibitively expensive to other domestic consumers. The introduction of tilapia fish from the African mainland in the 1950s increased inland aquaculture. Many families, particularly in the central highlands, have established fish ponds to raise carp, black bass, or trout. The breeding of fish in rice fields, however, requires sophisticated water control and a strong guard against dynamiting, poisoning, and poaching, which remain chronic problems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish meal",
        "text": "The production and large-scale use of fishmeal are controversial. The lucrative market for fishmeal as a feed encourages corporate fisheries not to limit their yields of by-catch (from which fish meal is made), and thus leads to depletion of ecosystems, environmental damage, and the collapse of local fisheries. Its role in facilitating the breeding and over-feeding of millions of pigs and chickens on factory farms has also been criticized by animal rights and animal welfare groups. Manufacturers of fishmeal counter that fishmeal's role in the feeding and breeding of millions of farm animals leads to the production of more food and the feeding of millions of people around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing industry in the United States",
        "text": "Until 2016, commercial fish farming was prohibited in federal waters, meaning that the Gulf of Mexico was closed to the practice. NOAA announced in January 2016, however, that companies can now set up commercial aquaculture in the Gulf. This is the first opening of federal waters to fish farming, which NOAA hopes will increase production and reduce the US's dependence on foreign fish imports."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is a fish hatchery generally defined as?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A fish hatchery is a place for artificial breeding, hatching, and rearing finfish and shellfish. Pacific oysters, shrimp, Indian prawns, salmon, tilapia and scallops are commonly found in hatcheries."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are octopi and squids also raised in hatcheries?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "While I couldn't anything regarding squid, octopus farming is a nascent industry with a Spanish firm announcing they would begin octopus farming in 2022."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the different types of fish farming systems?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to learn more about different types of fish farming systems such as Cage system, Copper-alloy nets or Open net pen system?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Yes, tell about the Cage system."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Fish cages are placed in lakes, bayous, ponds, rivers, or oceans to contain and protect fish until they can be harvested. A few advantages of fish farming with cages are that many types of waters can be used (rivers, lakes, filled quarries, etc.), many types of fish can be raised, and fish farming can co-exist with sport fishing and other water uses."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is there any controversy in fish farming?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Yes, there are several controversies related to fish farming farming such as feeding, stocking density, Parasites & disease and Ecosystem impacts. Are to interested to learn more about any of them?"
    ],
    "topic": "Fish farming",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Fish farming:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fish farming"
        ],
        "ctx": "Global demand is increasing for dietary fish protein, which has resulted in widespread overfishing in wild fisheries, resulting in significant decrease in fish stocks and even complete depletion in some regions. Fish farming allows establishment of artificial fish colonies that are provided with sufficient feeding, protection from natural predators and competitive threats, access to veterinarian service, and easier harvesting when needed, while being separate from and thus do not usually impact the sustainable yields of wild fish populations. While fish farming are practised worldwide, China alone provides 62% of the world's farmed fish production. As of 2016, more than 50% of seafood was produced by aquaculture. In the last three decades, aquaculture has been the main driver of the increase in fisheries and aquaculture production, with an average growth of 5.3 percent per year in the period 2000\u20132018, reaching a record 82.1 million tonnes in 2018."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Fish farming:0",
        "passage_titles": [],
        "ctx": "Fish farming\n--Categories.\n----Intensive aquaculture.\n--Fish farms.\n----Cage system.\n------Copper-alloy nets.\n----Open net pen system.\n------Negative external effects.\n----Irrigation ditch or pond systems.\n------Composite fish culture.\n----Integrated recycling systems.\n----Classic fry farming.\n--Issues.\n----Feeding.\n----Stocking density.\n----Parasites & disease.\n----Ecosystem impacts.\n----Siting.\n----Genetic modification.\n----Labeling.\n--Indoor fish farming.\n--Slaughter methods.\n----Inhumane methods.\n----More humane methods.\n"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Fish farming:0",
        "passage_titles": [],
        "ctx": "Fish farming\n--Categories.\n----Intensive aquaculture.\n--Fish farms.\n----Cage system.\n------Copper-alloy nets.\n----Open net pen system.\n------Negative external effects.\n----Irrigation ditch or pond systems.\n------Composite fish culture.\n----Integrated recycling systems.\n----Classic fry farming.\n--Issues.\n----Feeding.\n----Stocking density.\n----Parasites & disease.\n----Ecosystem impacts.\n----Siting.\n----Genetic modification.\n----Labeling.\n--Indoor fish farming.\n--Slaughter methods.\n----Inhumane methods.\n----More humane methods.\n"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Fish farming:0",
        "passage_titles": [],
        "ctx": "Fish farming\n--Categories.\n----Intensive aquaculture.\n--Fish farms.\n----Cage system.\n------Copper-alloy nets.\n----Open net pen system.\n------Negative external effects.\n----Irrigation ditch or pond systems.\n------Composite fish culture.\n----Integrated recycling systems.\n----Classic fry farming.\n--Issues.\n----Feeding.\n----Stocking density.\n----Parasites & disease.\n----Ecosystem impacts.\n----Siting.\n----Genetic modification.\n----Labeling.\n--Indoor fish farming.\n--Slaughter methods.\n----Inhumane methods.\n----More humane methods.\n"
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Other arguments that surround fish farms such as the supplementation of feed from wild caught species, the prevalence of disease, fish welfare issues and potential effects on the environment are also issues for hatchery facilities. For more information see: Aquaculture, Mariculture, Fish farming"
      },
      {
        "title": "The End of the Line (book)",
        "text": "Fish farming is the process of growing fish in an artificial environment. The traditional method involves feeding fish waste vegetables, and this is being done in developing countries. Modern fish farming involves feeding processed small wild fish to large carnivorous fish such as salmon, trout, and prawns. However, modern fish farming often relies on fish taken from the water in the developing world to feed the fish being sold in the developing world. Furthermore, fish farms introduce alien species to local environments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Fish farming\n--Categories.\n----Intensive aquaculture.\n--Fish farms.\n----Cage system.\n------Copper-alloy nets.\n----Open net pen system.\n------Negative external effects.\n----Irrigation ditch or pond systems.\n------Composite fish culture.\n----Integrated recycling systems.\n----Classic fry farming.\n--Issues.\n----Feeding.\n----Stocking density.\n----Parasites & disease.\n----Ecosystem impacts.\n----Siting.\n----Genetic modification.\n----Labeling.\n--Indoor fish farming.\n--Slaughter methods.\n----Inhumane methods.\n----More humane methods.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "One problem with such composite fish culture is that many of these fish breed only during monsoon. Even if fish are collected from the wild, they can be mixed with other species, as well. So, a major problem in fish farming is the lack of availability of good-quality stock. To overcome this problem, ways have now been worked out to breed these fish in ponds using hormonal stimulation. This has ensured the supply of pure fish stock in desired quantities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Concern remains that resultant bacterial growth fertilised by fish faeces strips the water of oxygen, reducing or killing off the local marine life. Once an area has been so contaminated, fish farms are typically moved to new, uncontaminated areas. This practice has angered nearby fishermen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Fish farming or pisciculture involves commercial breeding of fish, usually for food, in fish tanks or artificial enclosures such as fish ponds. It is a particular type of aquaculture, which is the controlled cultivation and harvesting of aquatic animals such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and so on, in natural or pseudo-natural environment. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Worldwide, the most important fish species produced in fish farming are carp, catfish, salmon and tilapia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Commercial fishing",
        "text": "Fish farming is the raising of fish for food in underwater enclosures, otherwise known as aquaculture. There are environmental hazards such as waste, damage to ecosystems, and negative effects on humans. Because they are so densely packed together, the fecal matter that accumulates can create algal blooms, or deadly parasites and viruses that thrive on the filthy environment. These can infect wild fish that swim near the enclosure, or whole colonies of fish if an infected farm fish escapes the enclosure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing industry",
        "text": "Fish farming involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosed pools, usually for food. Fish species raised by fish farms include carp, salmon, tilapia, catfish and cod. Increasing demands on wild fisheries by commercial fishing operations have caused widespread overfishing. Fish farming offers an alternative solution to the increasing market demand for fish and fish protein."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of fishing articles",
        "text": "Fish farming -"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The large number of fish kept long-term in a single location contributes to habitat destruction of the nearby areas. The high concentrations of fish produce a significant amount of condensed faeces, often contaminated with drugs, which again affects local waterways."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing",
        "text": "Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture. It involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural population is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Fish species raised by fish farms include salmon, carp, tilapia, catfish and trout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Farming carnivorous fish such as salmon, however, does not always reduce pressure on wild fisheries, as such farmed fish are usually fed fishmeal and fish oil extracted from wild forage fish. The 2008 global returns for fish farming recorded by the FAO totaled 33.8 million tonnes worth about US$60 billion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Cage farming of fishes in open seas is also gaining in popularity. Given concerns of disease, poaching, poor water quality, etc., generally pond systems are considered simpler to start and easier to manage. Also, the past occurrences of cage-failures leading to escapes, have raised concern regarding the culture of non-native fish species in dam or open-water cages. On August 22, 2017, there was a massive failure of such cages at a commercial fishery in Washington state in Puget Sound, leading to release of nearly 300,000 Atlantic salmon in non-native waters. This is believed to risk endangering the native Pacific salmon species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish Meat",
        "text": "Finally, they visit a carp farm in Burdur Province, an inland farm where the fish feed very low on the food chain. The feed conversion ratio is much lower than in the carnivorous fish they had seen. The fish waste was used to grow vegetables, and the waste water flowed downstream to nourish farms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The risk of infections by parasites such as fish lice, fungi (\"Saprolegnia\" spp.), intestinal worms (such as nematodes or trematodes), bacteria (e.g., \"Yersinia\" spp., \"Pseudomonas\" spp.), and protozoa (such as dinoflagellates) is similar to that in animal husbandry, especially at high population densities. However, animal husbandry is a larger and more technologically mature area of human agriculture and has developed better solutions to pathogen problems. Intensive aquaculture has to provide adequate water quality (oxygen, ammonia, nitrite, etc.) levels to minimize stress on the fish. This requirement makes control of the pathogen problem more difficult. Intensive aquaculture requires tight monitoring and a high level of expertise of the fish farmer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in South Australia",
        "text": "Fish farming in South Australia\n--Economics.\n--History.\n--Criticism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "Salmon farming has also led to criticism from wildlife groups, conservationist and anglers, all of whom point to lower levels of wild salmon swimming up river to spawn. They allege that the mass proliferation of sea farming methods has had a detrimental effect on the wild salmon species. One journalist pointed out that a cage could hold up to 70,000 fish, which he said was the equivalent of \"..a series of floating battery hen sheds; salmon has long been sold on the prospect of cleanliness and health. The impression is fraudulent.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Overfishing",
        "text": "Fish farming can enclose the entire breeding cycle of the fish, with fish being bred in captivity. Some fish prove difficult to breed in captivity and can be caught in the wild as juveniles and brought into captivity to increase their weight. With scientific progress, more species are being made to breed in captivity. This was the case with southern bluefin tuna, which were first bred in captivity in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in South Australia",
        "text": "Between 2008 and 2011, tuna baron and kingfish farmer Hagen Stehr expressed his view that desalination brine from a proposed desalination plant would have widespread impacts on fish farming, wild fisheries and the giant Australian cuttlefish aggregation. He also warned of a huge compensation claim should the water quality be impacted by mining-related activities. His concerns were shared by other aquaculture and commercial fishing interests and supported by research by oceanographer, Jochen Kaempf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Though the cage-industry has made numerous technological advances in cage construction in recent years, the risk of damage and escape due to storms is always a concern."
      },
      {
        "title": "Common Fisheries Policy",
        "text": "Fish farming is the fastest growing area of world food production. In 1995 it produced one-third of the world's fish and shellfish by value. The main species in the EU are trout, salmon, mussels and oysters, but interest has been shown in sea bass, sea bream and turbot. Community support began in 1971 for inland fish farming, but was extended to other areas in the late 1970s. EU support covers similar areas to other land installations, but with additional concerns of technical and environmental problems caused by introducing major fish concentrations where farms are built. The industry suffers problems due to fluctuating demand for farmed fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robin Austin",
        "text": "Members of Austin's constituency depend on a healthy wild salmon run for tourism, and for both sport and commercial fishing. Consequently, the large body of evidence suggesting that open net fish farms may lead to a decline in the population of wild salmon in river and ocean systems where they are located has led to widespread antagonism towards open net fish farming in Northern British Columbia, and particularly in the Skeena area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Secondly, farmed fish are kept in concentrations never seen in the wild (e.g. 50,000 fish in a area.). However, fish tend also to be animals that aggregate into large schools at high density. Most successful aquaculture species are schooling species, which do not have social problems at high density. Aquaculturists feel that operating a rearing system above its design capacity or above the social density limit of the fish will result in decreased growth rate and increased feed conversion ratio (kg dry feed/kg of fish produced), which results in increased cost and risk of health problems along with a decrease in profits. Stressing the animals is not desirable, but the concept of and measurement of stress must be viewed from the perspective of the animal using the scientific method."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in South Australia",
        "text": "In 2008, some recreational anglers expressed their disapproval of the industry, noting escapes of farmed fish, marine debris and the loss of amenity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Some producers have adapted their intensive systems in an effort to provide consumers with fish that do not carry dormant forms of viruses and diseases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in South Australia",
        "text": "Former Greens MLC Mark Parnell raised concerns that the industry and the way aquaculture zones were being managed was effectively privatising the coastline. He also warned of the threat of the spread of seacages and pollution of the seabed if the industry was allowed to grow without constraint."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shishamo",
        "text": "Due to declining catches in recent years, attempts have been made to commercially farm the fish in Japan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Raising ornamental coldwater fish (goldfish or koi), although theoretically much more profitable due to the higher income per weight of fish produced, has been successfully carried out only in the 21st century. The increased incidences of dangerous viral diseases of koi carp, together with the high value of the fish, has led to initiatives in closed-system koi breeding and growing in a number of countries. Today, a few commercially successful intensive koi-growing facilities are operating in the UK, Germany, and Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "M\u0113rsrags",
        "text": "In the 1960s the development of the fish farm collective resulted in a great increase in the production of fish and canned products. The first block of flats and a distant steam heating plant were built. A new fish processing plant was constructed as well as a net repair shop and an engineering workshop. The village roads were repaired and asphalted. Fishing remains an important aspect of the economy, with smoked fish being one of the local specialties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Aquaculture not only impacts the fish on the farm, but it also influences other species, which in return are attracted to or repelled by the farms. Mobile fauna, such as crustaceans, fish, birds, and marine mammals, interact with the process of aquaculture, but the long-term or ecological effects as a result of these interactions is still unknown. Some of these fauna may be attracted or demonstrate repulsion. The attraction/repulsion mechanism has various direct and indirect effects on wild organisms at individual and population levels. The interactions that wild organisms have with aquaculture may have implications on the management of fisheries species and the ecosystem in relation to how the fish farms are structured and organized."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mariculture",
        "text": "In cage culture, several different methods are used for feeding farmed fish \u2013 from simple hand feeding to sophisticated computer-controlled systems with automated food dispensers coupled with \"in situ\" uptake sensors that detect consumption rates. In coastal fish farms, overfeeding primarily leads to increased disposition of detritus on the seafloor (potentially smothering seafloor dwelling invertebrates and altering the physical environment), while in hatcheries and land-based farms, excess food goes to waste and can potentially impact the surrounding catchment and local coastal environment. This impact is usually highly local, and depends significantly on the settling velocity of waste feed and the current velocity (which varies both spatially and temporally) and depth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robin Austin",
        "text": "The report drew widespread criticism from the aquaculture industry because it called for the industry to move to ocean-based closed containment within five years. According to the report, open net fish farms may contribute to the decline of wild salmon populations through the spread of parasitic sea lice and diseases from the farmed fish to migrating salmon fry. The industry claims that moving to closed-containment is tantamount to ending finfish aquaculture off the British Columbia coast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing",
        "text": "Increased demands on wild fisheries by commercial fishing has caused widespread overfishing. Fish farming offers an alternative solution to the increasing market demand for fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Debate between bird and fish",
        "text": "The initial speech of Fish:\n:...Bird...there is no insult, ..! Croaking ...noise in the marshes ...squawking! Forever gobbling away greedily, while your heart is dripping with evil! Standing on the plain you can keep pecking away until they chase you off! The farmer's sons lay lines and nets for you..(and continues)..You cause damage in the vegetable plots..(more)..Bird, you are shameless: you fill the courtyard with your droppings. The courtyard sweeper-boy who cleans the house chases after you...(etc)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Howietoun Fishery",
        "text": "Maitland's method for fish farming was a product of trial and error as there was no theory at the time, he kept eight-year-old fish as breeders and stripped the females of their eggs and collected the male milt in October. Maitland deduced that young fish spawn gave way to weak offspring, mature fish had to be used to gain strong offspring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The open net pens system is a method that takes place in natural waters, such as rivers, lakes, near the coast or offshore. The breeders are rearing the fish in large cages, floating in the water. The fish are living in natural water, but are isolated with a net. So the only barrier separating the fish from the surrounding environment is a net, this allows the water to flow from the \u2018natural\u2019 surrounding through the fish farms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in South Australia",
        "text": "In 2005, conservationists raised concerns about the growing prospect of the aquaculture industry taking precedence over the establishment of state managed marine parks and the conservation of threatened species. The Conservation Council of South Australia called for a moratorium on new aquaculture developments, but was unsuccessful. The Wilderness Society also supported the moratorium call after marine debris from an abalone farm was distributed along 170\u00a0km of coastline following a storm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "In these kinds of systems fish production per unit of surface can be increased at will, as long as sufficient oxygen, fresh water and food are provided. Because of the requirement of sufficient fresh water, a massive water purification system must be integrated in the fish farm. One way to achieve this is to combine hydroponic horticulture and water treatment, see below. The exception to this rule are cages which are placed in a river or sea, which supplements the fish crop with sufficient oxygenated water. Some environmentalists object to this practice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Proper stunning renders the fish unconscious immediately and for a sufficient period of time such that the fish is killed in the slaughter process (e.g. through exsanguination) without regaining consciousness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish Meat",
        "text": "Caplow decides that the ideal fish farm uses a minimal amount of energy, cause a minimal amount of pollution and involve growing fish that are as low on the food chain as possible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental impact of fishing",
        "text": "Fish farming has been proposed as a more sustainable alternative to traditional capture of wild fish. However, fish farming has been found to have negative impacts on nearby wild fish and farming of predatory fish like salmon can rely on fish feed that is based on fish meal and oil from wild fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The site of the fish farm is crucial for the farm to be a success or not. Before any fish farm is settled, it is highly recommended to be selective with the site location of the farm. The site must be examined on some essential elements. Important conditions on the location are:\n# A good interchange of water and also a high replacement of bottom water.\n# On all depths should be a good current condition. This is necessary, because of the organic particles that should be able to be carried away using the stream.\n# A gravel and sand bottom are qualified for fish farming, although bottoms with silt and mud are not qualified. These should be avoided.\n# A net should be at least or more above the bottom, so depth is important."
      },
      {
        "title": "Galaxidi",
        "text": "In recent years commercial fish farming has been developing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "A 2008 meta-analysis of available data shows that salmon farming reduces the survival of associated wild salmon populations. This relationship has been shown to hold for Atlantic, steelhead, pink, chum, and coho salmon. The decrease in survival or abundance often exceeds 50%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish Meat",
        "text": "(a fish ecologist) are concerned by how little consumers know about the farm-raised fish they buy. They decide to investigate the state of aquaculture by sailing around Turkey, a country known for its rich tradition in fishing, but transitioning to aquaculture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Within intensive and extensive aquaculture methods, numerous specific types of fish farms are used; each has benefits and applications unique to its design."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Global demand is increasing for dietary fish protein, which has resulted in widespread overfishing in wild fisheries, resulting in significant decrease in fish stocks and even complete depletion in some regions. Fish farming allows establishment of artificial fish colonies that are provided with sufficient feeding, protection from natural predators and competitive threats, access to veterinarian service, and easier harvesting when needed, while being separate from and thus do not usually impact the sustainable yields of wild fish populations. While fish farming are practised worldwide, China alone provides 62% of the world's farmed fish production. As of 2016, more than 50% of seafood was produced by aquaculture. In the last three decades, aquaculture has been the main driver of the increase in fisheries and aquaculture production, with an average growth of 5.3 percent per year in the period 2000\u20132018, reaching a record 82.1 million tonnes in 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "Hatchery facilities present three main problems in the field of genetics. The first is that maintenance of a small number of broodstock can cause inbreeding and potentially lead to inbreeding depression thus affecting the success of the facility. Secondly, hatchery reared juveniles, even from a fairly large broodstock, can have greatly reduced genetic diversity compared to wild populations (the situation is comparable to the founder effect). Such fish that escape from farms or are released for restocking purposes may adversely affect wild population genetics and viability. This is of particular concern where escaped fish have been actively bred or are otherwise genetically modified. The third key issue is that genetic modification of food items is highly undesirable for many people. See Genetically modified food controversies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "In Southeast Asia, the traditional cage farming platform is called kelong."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Today 50% of the world's seafood is farm-raised."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in South Australia",
        "text": "In 2006, two casually-employed fish farm workers from Whyalla were told to go home by their employer SAAMS after participating in a protected industrial action."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gord Johns",
        "text": "Johns called for significant reforms to fish farm operations to address the risk to wild salmon posed by open-pen net farms. He called on the federal government to work with the Province of British Columbia and local First Nations to move from open net operations to land-based facilities - an approach that he argued would reduce the risk of the spread of sea lice and other diseases spreading to native wild species. Johns has been critical of the government for changing its 2019 campaign commitment to end open-net fish farming by 2025, replacing it with a commitment to developing a plan instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish Meat",
        "text": "They visit a high tech seabass farm, partly automated and equipped with video surveillance. While this is one of the more efficient ways of raising fish since the fish farmers can use the minimum amount of feed to fatten their fish, it is very expensive. It also causes a lot of waste and pollution with excess feed and fish waste falling below the cage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Puthukkudiyiruppu (Mullaitivu)",
        "text": "Most of the villagers are farmers and there is a significant proportion that fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in Western Australia",
        "text": "Fish farming in Western Australia\n--History.\n--Zoning.\n--Government support.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in South Australia",
        "text": "An attempt to establish finfish farming at Wool Bay in GUlf St Vincent was rejected by SARFAC, the South Australian Recreational Fishing Council on grounds that the location was inappropriate. The farm was not established."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "A number of large, well-capitalized ventures in this area have failed. Managing both the biology and markets is complicated. One future development is the combination of integrated recycling systems with urban farming as tried in Sweden by the Greenfish Initiative."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishery",
        "text": "Most fisheries are wild fisheries, but farmed fisheries are increasing. Farming can occur in coastal areas, such as with oyster farms, or the aquaculture of salmon, but more typically fish farming occurs inland, in lakes, ponds, tanks and other enclosures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture",
        "text": "However, the controversial issue in aquaculture is whether fish and farmed marine invertebrates are actually sentient, or have the perception and awareness to experience suffering. Although no evidence of this has been found in marine invertebrates, recent studies conclude that fish do have the necessary receptors (nociceptors) to sense noxious stimuli and so are likely to experience states of pain, fear and stress. Consequently, welfare in aquaculture is directed at vertebrates, finfish in particular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Master of Fisheries Science",
        "text": "Most of the fish farms employ professional fisheries graduates as Farm In Charge. Apart from this, the fish feed requirement is growing steadily. There are 33 feed mills with an installed capacity of 150 000 tpa. This sector is providing direct employment to about 0.3 million people and ancillary activities provide employment to 0.6-0.7 million people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Because of the oceans water flows through and other reasons, open net pen culture is seen as a high-risk method for the environment. The flow allows chemicals, parasites, waste and diseases to spread in the enclosed environment, and this is not in advance for the natural environment. Another negative consequence is the high escaping rate of the cultured fish in these open net pens. These escaped fish pose also a high risk to the surrounding ecosystems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Diseases and parasites are the most commonly cited reasons for such decreases. Some species of sea lice have been noted to target farmed coho and Atlantic salmon. Such parasites have been shown to have an effect on nearby wild fish. One place that has garnered international media attention is British Columbia's Broughton Archipelago. There, juvenile wild salmon must \"run a gauntlet\" of large fish farms located off-shore near river outlets before making their way to sea. The farms allegedly cause such severe sea lice infestations that one study predicted in 2007 a 99% collapse in the wild salmon population by 2011. This claim, however, has been criticized by numerous scientists who question the correlation between increased fish farming and increases in sea lice infestation among wild salmon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in South Australia",
        "text": "Fish farm nutrient pollution has impacted Louth Bay in southern Spencer Gulf, where it led to seagrass loss and algal blooms in the mid 2000s. Residents argued that the bay, which is semi-enclosed by Louth Island and Rabbit Island is a slow flushing system unsuitable for fish farming."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ceratothoa oestroides",
        "text": "Within a fish farm, it is common practice to decrease the number of wild fish population by fish net, as well as periodically clean the floating cages nets, depending on the season. Horton and Okamura (2001) suggest grading of smaller and larger fish and their separation, mooring the cages in deeper sites with sufficient currents to disperse the juvenile parasites in a direction away from the cages. Often, in cases of heavy parasitism and mortality, reducing the fish density is enough to remedy the situation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Debate between bird and fish",
        "text": "The 2nd and 3rd paragraphs continue:\n:They bring you into the fattening shed. They let you moo like cattle, bleat like sheep. They pour out cool water in jugs for you. They drag you away for the daily sacrifice. (the 2nd, 3rd paragraphs continue for several lines)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The largest-scale pure fish farms use a system derived (admittedly much refined) from the New Alchemy Institute in the 1970s. Basically, large plastic fish tanks are placed in a greenhouse. A hydroponic bed is placed near, above or between them. When tilapia are raised in the tanks, they are able to eat algae, which naturally grow in the tanks when the tanks are properly fertilized."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bachelor of Fisheries Science",
        "text": "Most of the fish farms employ professional fisheries graduates as Farm In Charge. Apart from this, the fish feed requirement is growing steadily. There are 33 feed mills with an installed capacity of 150 000 tpa. This sector is providing direct employment to about 0.3 million people and ancillary activities provide employment to 0.6\u20130.7 million people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish hatchery",
        "text": "The value of global aquaculture farming"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of fishing articles",
        "text": "Minister for Agriculture, Food and the Marine -"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The issue of feeds in fish farming has been a controversial one. Many cultured fishes (tilapia, carp, catfish, many others) can be raised on a strictly herbivore diet. Top-level carnivores (most salmonidae species in particular) on the other hand, depend on fish feed, of which a large portion is usually derived from wild-caught fish (anchovies, menhaden, etc.). Vegetable-derived proteins have successfully replaced fish meal in feeds for carnivorous fishes, but vegetable-derived oils have not successfully been incorporated into the diets of carnivores. Research is underway to try to change this, such that even salmon and other carnivores could be successfully fed with vegetable products. The F3 Challenge (Fish-Free Feed Challenge), as explained by a report from \"Wired\" in February 2017, \"is a race to sell 100,000 metric tons of fish food, without the fish. Earlier this month, start-ups from places like Pakistan, China, and Belgium joined their American competition at the Google headquarters in Mountain View, California, showing off feed made from seaweed extracts, yeast, and algae grown in bioreactors.\" Not only do the feeds for carnivorous fish, like certain salmon species, remain controversial due to the containment of wild caught fish like anchovies, but they are not helping the health of the fish, as is the case in Norway. Between 2003 and 2007, Aldrin et al., examined three infectious diseases in Norwegian salmon fish farms\u2014heart and skeletal muscle inflammation, pancreas disease, and infectious salmon anemia. In 2014, Martinez-Rubio et al., conducted a study in which cardiomyopathy syndrome (CMS), a severe cardiac disease in Atlantic salmon (\"Salmo salar\"), was investigated pertaining the effects of functional feeds with reduced lipid content and increased eicosapentaenoic acid levels in controlling CMS in salmon after infection with Piscine Myocarditis Virus (PMCV). Functional feeds are defined as high-quality feeds that beyond purposes of nutrition, they are formulated with health promoting features that could be beneficial in supporting disease resistance, such as CMS. In choosing a clinical nutrition approach using functional feeds could, potentially move away from chemotherapeutic and antibiotic treatments, which could lower the costs of disease treatment and management in fish farms. In this investigation three fishmeal-based diets were served\u2014one made of 31% lipid and the other two made of 18% lipid (one contained fishmeal and the other krill meal. Results demonstrated a significant difference in the immune and inflammatory responses and pathology in heart tissue as the fish were infected with PMCV. Fish fed with functional feeds with low lipid content demonstrated milder and delayed inflammatory response and therefore, less severe heart lesions at earlier and later stages after have PMCV infection."
      },
      {
        "title": "M. C. Nandeesha",
        "text": "Along with fish breeding, fish feeds are critical to the success of fish farming. In parallel with his fish breeding work, M.C. Nandeesaha was very active in the early work on fish feeds for the freshwater species such as Anabas testudineus (climbing perch), Catla catla, other carps and other freshwater fish species, especially focusing on finding non-conventional, locally available and nutritionally effective feed ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sustainable fishery",
        "text": "Over the years, fish farming has made a name for itself in the fishing industry as a means of ensuring that the world's fish supplies do not deplete so rapidly. Sometimes referred to as \"aquaculture\", fish farming, when done right, \"can\" be one a very environmentally-friendly way to harvest fish. Fish farms are regulated by laws and management plans, which prevents it from falling prey to the same phenomenon of overfishing, which cripples the fish populations and marine ecosystem as a whole. The basic premise of fish farming is just what it sounds like\u2014to breed and raise fish in enclosed environments, then eventually sell the grown fish as food for consumers. Salmon, cod, and halibut are three types of finfish that are often farm-raised. The actual enclosures in which the fish grow and swim are made of mesh \"cages\" submerged underwater."
      },
      {
        "title": "Debate between bird and fish",
        "text": "The debate then begins starting with Fish addressing Bird."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Because of parasite problems, some aquaculture operators frequently use strong antibiotic drugs to keep the fish alive, but many fish still die prematurely at rates up to 30%. Additionally, other common drugs used in salmonid fish farms in North America and Europe include anesthetic, chemotherapeutic, and anthelmintic agents. In some cases, these drugs have entered the environment. Additionally, the residual presence of these drugs in human food products has become controversial. Use of antibiotics in food production is thought to increase the prevalence of antibiotic resistance in human diseases. At some facilities, the use of antibiotic drugs in aquaculture has decreased considerably due to vaccinations and other techniques. However, most fish-farming operations still use antibiotics, many of which escape into the surrounding environment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in South Australia",
        "text": "In the summer of 2020-2021, the tuna fleet had difficulty catching their quota."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ceratothoa oestroides",
        "text": "Growth of farmed fish can be depressed and fish can suffer from post-haemorrhagic anaemia. Growth of market size caged fish infected with the parasite can be reduced by up to 20% compared to market size, uninfected caged fish. For example, parasitised sea bass (\"Dicentrarchus labrax\") in the age group of 291\u2013293 days had reduced growth by 20.1% (14 g) and reduced length of 7.1% (12.63\u00a0mm) compared to non-parasitised fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture in Canada",
        "text": "A significant issue that many aquaculture operations are faced with, particularly in marine environments, is accidental interactions between farmed fish and the surrounding natural ecosystem. There are many potential issues which can result in farmed fish interacting with wild. Various means of equipment failure can lead to farmed fish escaping their pens and dispersing into the wild:\n* infrastructure failure (e.g. a result of extreme weather damage)\n* boat operations (e.g. collisions and propeller damage)\n* predation (e.g. seals, sea lions)\n* vandalism\n* fish handling errors\n* technical deficiencies (inadequate or damaged parts in cage systems)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Genetically modified fish",
        "text": "In intensive fish farming, the fish are kept at high stocking densities. This means they suffer from frequent transmission of contagious diseases, a problem which is being addressed by GM research. Grass carp (\"Ctenopharyngodon idella\") have been modified with a transgene coding for human lactoferrin, which doubles their survival rate relative to control fish after exposure to \"Aeromonas\" bacteria and Grass carp hemorrhage virus. Cecropin has been used in channel catfish to enhance their protection against several pathogenic bacteria by 2\u20134 times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The tank water is slowly circulated to the hydroponic beds, where the tilapia waste feeds commercial plant crops. Carefully cultured microorganisms in the hydroponic bed convert ammonia to nitrates, and the plants are fertilized by the nitrates and phosphates. Other wastes are strained out by the hydroponic media, which double as an aerated pebble-bed filter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Other potential problems faced by aquaculturists include the obtaining of various permits and water-use rights, profitability, concerns about invasive species and genetic engineering depending on what species are involved, and interaction with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "These use irrigation ditches or farm ponds to raise fish. The basic requirement is to have a ditch or pond that retains water, possibly with an above-ground irrigation system (many irrigation systems use buried pipes with headers.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Buru",
        "text": "Animal farming is of secondary importance, but its role is gradually increasing. The major animals are cows (41,349 animals ), buffalo (3,699), chickens (more than 1,346,000), ducks (195,000), sheep (26,950), domestic pigs (1,276) and horses (497). In 2008, there were 410 fishing enterprises with the annual catch of 3,891 tonnes of fish and seafood. The major commercial species are tuna (900 tonnes), sardines (420 tonnes) and mackerel (385 tonnes)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of agriculture",
        "text": "Fishing \u2013 activity of trying to catch fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild. Techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping.\n*Fishery \u2013 facility engaged in raising or harvesting fish"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in South Australia",
        "text": "In 2011, a new 10,000 hectare zone for fish farming was proposed off Tumby Bay in southern Spencer Gulf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish Meat",
        "text": "At a trout farm in the Taurus mountains, Caplow is impressed by the management of their freshwater streams, recycling the water several times through each stage of the fish growing process from egg to fish before allowing it to rejoin the stream. But the problem remains that the fish from their feed comes from far away, and the trout must themselves be transported long distances to reach consumers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The cost of inputs per unit of fish weight is higher than in extensive farming, especially because of the high cost of fish feed. It must contain a much higher level of protein (up to 60%) than cattle feed and a balanced amino acid composition, as well. These higher protein-level requirements are a consequence of the higher feed efficiency of aquatic animals (higher feed conversion ratio [FCR], that is, kg of feed per kg of animal produced). Fish such as salmon have an FCR around 1.1\u00a0kg of feed per kg of salmon whereas chickens are in the 2.5\u00a0kg of feed per kg of chicken range. Fish do not use energy to keep warm, eliminating some carbohydrates and fats in the diet, required to provide this energy. This may be offset, though, by the lower land costs and the higher production which can be obtained due to the high level of input control."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "If aquaculture farms are placed in an areas with strong current, pollutants can be flushed out of the area fairly quickly. This help manage the pollution problem and also aids in overall fish growth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The lice and pathogen problems of the 1990s facilitated the development of current treatment methods for sea lice and pathogens, which reduced the stress from parasite/pathogen problems. However, being in an ocean environment, the transfer of disease organisms from the wild fish to the aquaculture fish is an ever-present risk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming in Western Australia",
        "text": "The sector's development has been supported by the Royalties for Regions scheme. In 2011, the West Australian government allocated just under $2 million to develop aquaculture zones near Geraldton and another at Cone Bay in the Kimberley. The Kimberley aquaculture zone commenced production of barramundi in 2014. The 2016 trial was partly funded by the West Australian government and proceeds from the sale of fish were being returned to the Government. In 2020, the West Australian government announced that it would project manage the $7 million development of a hatchery at Geraldton to produce yellowtail kingfish at a rate of 200,000 bi-monthly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian vegetarianism",
        "text": "According to Clough and King, the fact that Jesus ate fish (and possibly other meat) only shows that, \"in some circumstances\", it is \"sometimes\" permissible to eat \"some\" meats, but that practices in the modern, industrialized farming system (such as the mass killing of day-old male chicks from laying hens) make the consumption of meat produced in such farms morally problematic"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing down the food web",
        "text": "Also, fish farming in the Mediterranean is a net fish consumer. Large amounts of animal feed are needed to feed a high trophic fish like the bluefin tuna. This feed consists of fishmeal processed from forage fishes like sardines and anchovies that humans would otherwise consume directly. In addition to ecological issues, this raises ethical issues. Much of the fish suitable for direct human consumption is being used to grow higher trophic level fish to indulge a relatively small group of affluent consumers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "Aeration of the water is essential, as fish need a sufficient oxygen level for growth. This is achieved by bubbling, cascade flow, or aqueous oxygen. \"Clarias\" spp. can breathe atmospheric air and can tolerate much higher levels of pollutants than trout or salmon, which makes aeration and water purification less necessary and makes \"Clarias\" species especially suited for intensive fish production. In some \"Clarias\" farms, about 10% of the water volume can consist of fish biomass."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquaculture",
        "text": "The decline in wild fish stocks has increased the demand for farmed fish. However, finding alternative sources of protein and oil for fish feed is necessary so the aquaculture industry can grow sustainably; otherwise, it represents a great risk for the over-exploitation of forage fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fishing down the food web",
        "text": "While the mean trophic level in wild fisheries has been decreasing, the mean trophic level amongst farmed fish has been increasing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Overfishing",
        "text": "Aquaculture involves the farming of fish in captivity. This approach effectively privatizes fish stocks and creates incentives for farmers to conserve their stocks. It also reduces environmental impact. However, farming carnivorous fish, such as salmon, does not always reduce pressure on wild fisheries, since carnivorous farmed fish are usually fed fishmeal and fish oil extracted from wild forage fish. The various species of Pacific salmon and Atlantic salmon are relatively easy to raise in captivity and such aquacultural operations have existed for more than 150 years. Largescale releases of salmon raised in captivity to supplement wild salmon runs will usually increase fishing pressure on the much less abundant wild salmon runs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish farming",
        "text": "The composite fish culture system is a technology developed in India by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research in the 1970s. In this system, of both local and imported fish, a combination of five or six fish species is used in a single fish pond. These species are selected so that they do not compete for food among them by having different types of food habitats. As a result, the food available in all the parts of the pond is used. Fish used in this system include catla and silver carp which are surface feeders, rohu, a column feeder, and mrigal and common carp, which are bottom feeders. Other fish also feed on the excreta of the common carp, and this helps contribute to the efficiency of the system which in optimal conditions produces 3000\u20136000\u00a0kg of fish per hectare per year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Manirampur Upazila",
        "text": "A lot of people are now cultivating fish in 'Fish Gher' which is a sort of fish farm in the low-lying areas of Maniranmpur."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thatha Hakiman",
        "text": "Fish farming is another emerging sector of the village, Thatha Hakiman which can boost the living stander of the people if the government provides assistance in this regard. Fish farming has been started on hundreds of acres of barren land of the village. Dengue and other water-born diseases is a threat to local peoples due to accumulated water in fish farming pounds. One side the sector can be helpful in boosting the economy of the area while on the other side, it is also posing threat to peoples' health, which needed government urgent attention."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haller Park",
        "text": "The fish farm is a part of Haller Park. In 1971, The fish farming project started alongside the reforestation project. Rene Haller created a fish tank system. The purpose of the tank system was to give the fish a chance to swim in a constant current. A tilapia farm was also created in 1980 because of the success of the fish tanks. It produced 30\u201335 tons per year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fish meal",
        "text": "The production and large-scale use of fishmeal are controversial. The lucrative market for fishmeal as a feed encourages corporate fisheries not to limit their yields of by-catch (from which fish meal is made), and thus leads to depletion of ecosystems, environmental damage, and the collapse of local fisheries. Its role in facilitating the breeding and over-feeding of millions of pigs and chickens on factory farms has also been criticized by animal rights and animal welfare groups. Manufacturers of fishmeal counter that fishmeal's role in the feeding and breeding of millions of farm animals leads to the production of more food and the feeding of millions of people around the world."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is a fish hatchery generally defined as?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A fish hatchery is a place for artificial breeding, hatching, and rearing finfish and shellfish. Pacific oysters, shrimp, Indian prawns, salmon, tilapia and scallops are commonly found in hatcheries."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are octopi and squids also raised in hatcheries?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "While I couldn't anything regarding squid, octopus farming is a nascent industry with a Spanish firm announcing they would begin octopus farming in 2022."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the different types of fish farming systems?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to learn more about different types of fish farming systems such as Cage system, Copper-alloy nets or Open net pen system?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Yes, tell about the Cage system."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Fish cages are placed in lakes, bayous, ponds, rivers, or oceans to contain and protect fish until they can be harvested. A few advantages of fish farming with cages are that many types of waters can be used (rivers, lakes, filled quarries, etc.), many types of fish can be raised, and fish farming can co-exist with sport fishing and other water uses."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is there any controversy in fish farming?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes, there are several controversies related to fish farming farming such as feeding, stocking density, Parasites & disease and Ecosystem impacts. Are to interested to learn more about any of them?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the controversies that relate to parasites and diseases."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Juvenile wild salmon must \"run a gauntlet\" of large fish farms located off-shore near river outlets before making their way to sea; the farms allegedly cause such severe sea lice infestations that one study predicted in 2007 a 99% collapse in the wild salmon population by 2011. This claim, however, has been criticized by numerous scientists who question the correlation between increased fish farming and increases in sea lice infestation among wild salmon.",
      "Sea lice can cause deadly infestations of both farm-grown and wild salmon, and large numbers of highly populated, open-net salmon farms can create large concentrations of sea lice, which causes reduction in the survival of wild salmon populations. For Atlantic, steelhead, pink, chum, and coho salmon, the decrease in survival or abundance often exceeds 50%."
    ],
    "topic": "Fish farming",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Fish farming:46",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fish farming",
          "Issues",
          "Parasites & disease"
        ],
        "ctx": "Diseases and parasites are the most commonly cited reasons for such decreases. Some species of sea lice have been noted to target farmed coho and Atlantic salmon. Such parasites have been shown to have an effect on nearby wild fish. One place that has garnered international media attention is British Columbia's Broughton Archipelago. There, juvenile wild salmon must \"run a gauntlet\" of large fish farms located off-shore near river outlets before making their way to sea. The farms allegedly cause such severe sea lice infestations that one study predicted in 2007 a 99% collapse in the wild salmon population by 2011. This claim, however, has been criticized by numerous scientists who question the correlation between increased fish farming and increases in sea lice infestation among wild salmon."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Fish farming:44",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fish farming",
          "Issues",
          "Parasites & disease"
        ],
        "ctx": "Sea lice, particularly \"Lepeophtheirus salmonis\" and various \"Caligus\" species, including \"C. clemensi\" and \"C. rogercresseyi\", can cause deadly infestations of both farm-grown and wild salmon. Sea lice are ectoparasites which feed on mucus, blood, and skin, and migrate and latch onto the skin of wild salmon during free-swimming, planktonic \"nauplii\" and \"copepodid\" larval stages, which can persist for several days. Large numbers of highly populated, open-net salmon farms can create exceptionally large concentrations of sea lice; when exposed in river estuaries containing large numbers of open-net farms, many young wild salmon are infected, and do not survive as a result. Adult salmon may survive otherwise critical numbers of sea lice, but small, thin-skinned juvenile salmon migrating to sea are highly vulnerable. On the Pacific coast of Canada, the louse-induced mortality of pink salmon in some regions is commonly over 80%. In Scotland, official figures show that more than nine million fish were lost to disease, parasites, botched treatment attempts and other problems on fish farms between 2016 and 2019. One of the treatments for parasite infestations involved bathing fish in hydrogen peroxide, which can harm or kill farmed fish if they are in a weak condition or if the chemical concentration is too strong."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Fish farming:45",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fish farming",
          "Issues",
          "Parasites & disease"
        ],
        "ctx": "A 2008 meta-analysis of available data shows that salmon farming reduces the survival of associated wild salmon populations. This relationship has been shown to hold for Atlantic, steelhead, pink, chum, and coho salmon. The decrease in survival or abundance often exceeds 50%."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "The following drinks have been classified in the US as sweetened beverages if they contained sugar or other caloric sweeteners: fruit or fruit-flavored drinks, energy drinks, flavored water, coffees, teas, nonalcoholic wines and beers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Added sugar",
        "text": "Sweetened beverages contain a syrup mixture of the monosaccharides glucose and fructose, which is formed by hydrolytic saccharification of the disaccharide sucrose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Media"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "A sweetened beverage is any beverage with added sugar. It has been described as \"liquid candy\". Consumption of sweetened beverages has been linked to weight gain, obesity, and associated health risks. According to the CDC, consumption of sweetened beverages is also associated with unhealthy behaviors like smoking, not getting enough sleep and exercise, and eating fast food often and not enough fruits regularly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Household"
      },
      {
        "title": "Added sugar",
        "text": "Added sugar\n--Usage.\n----In the United States.\n----Sweetened beverages.\n--Guidelines.\n----World Health Organization.\n----European Food Safety Authority.\n----American Heart Association.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Obesity prevalence is due to genetic, metabolic, cultural, environmental, socioeconomic, and behavioral factors. Along with the increase in overweight and obese populations, the consumption of carbohydrates, particularly in the form of added sugars has increased."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Sugar sweetened beverages or sugary drinks are beverages that contain any form of added sugars. Out of the entire diet, Americans add sugar to beverages more so than any other product. Sugar-Sweetened beverages or sugary drinks are the leading source of added sugars in the American diet. Added sugars include syrups and other caloric sweeteners. Other examples of added sugars, especially ones that can be listed as an ingredient, include brown sugar, corn sweetener, corn syrup, dextrose, fructose, glucose, high fructose corn syrup, honey, invert sugar, lactose, malt syrup, maltose, molasses, raw sugar, sucrose, trehalose, and turbinado sugar. The added sugar content is associated with several health concerns like weight gain, obesity, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, liver disease, dental implications, and gout. Naturally occurring sugars, such as those in fruit or milk, are not added sugars. Even though there are several beverages/drinks that have sugar in them, some beverages, such as milk, fruit juice, and diet drinks, fall into a \"gray\" area because of different contributions to health and weight gain is more complex. Sugar-sweetened beverages contain added sugars such as sucrose or fructose, often in large amounts, which contribute to the overall energy density of diets. The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed guidance on free sugars. Based on the impact of free sugars intake and its effects on weight gain and dental issues the WHO has taken action on such problems. Free sugars include monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods and beverages by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, and sugars naturally present in honey, syrups, fruit juices and fruit juice concentrates. Current evidence suggests that increasing consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages is associated with weight gain. Reducing consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages can also reduce the risk of unhealthy weight gain in adults. For a normal calorie diet, calories from added sugars should be less than 10 percent of the daily calorie limit. Eating habits that include a lesser amount of added sugars, that can be from reduced intake of sugary drinks, can be associated with reduced risk of CVD in adults, and moderate evidence indicates that these eating patterns are associated with reduced risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and some types of cancer in adults."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "The increase in consumption of sweetened beverages has been described as a worldwide health problem, but it is particularly visible in the United States, from where most popular drinks, like sodas, have originated. In the US, sweetened beverages such as most sodas are the most widely consumed type of foods containing added sugar, and they account for about a third of all consumption of added sugars (about half if counted together with fruit juice; about twice the amount that is gained from the categories of \"desserts\" and \"sweets\"). They represent about 7% of total energy intake, where they can account for up to 15% in children, and have been described as the \"largest single food source of calories in the US diet\". The consumption of sweetened beverages has increased in the US since the 1970s, accounting for a significant portion (perhaps as high as a half) of the rise in caloric intake among the American populace. Some more recent research suggests that the added sugar consumption in the US has started declining in the 21st century, due to a related decrease in the consumption of sweetened beverages, encouraged by the government health awareness initiative and other programs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "A number of studies suggest that there is a significant correlation between increased consumption of sweetened beverages and weight gain leading to obesity. There has also been an association between consumption of sweetened beverages and health risks such as coronary heart disease and diabetes. Due to negative health effects of overconsumption of sweetened beverages, a sweetened beverage tax (soda tax) has been recommended by the Institute of Medicine in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Oral health has shown to be affected with regard to sugar sweetened beverage consumption. Acid erosion and dental caries have been the main health concerns to sugar sweetened beverages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "The consumption of sugar sweetened beverages has increased over the years; this includes caffeinated and un-caffeinated drinks. The rise in consumption of soft drinks is due to the current convenience, availability, and accessibility of sugar sweetened beverages today. Over these years an increase in concern and action towards the accessibility of sugar sweetened beverages have been taken through policy. Government officials and doctors alike have responded to the increase in sugar sweetened beverages and its health effects. Internists have further discussed adding extreme sugar sweetened beverages consumption to the list of usual questions about alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs that lead to hypokalemia. Although low potassium levels are tolerated in healthy adults, as cola consumption increases things like obesity, hypertension, and diabetes can be developed from hypokalemia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "The World Health Organization has advised reducing intake of free sugars, such as monosaccharides and disaccharides that are added to beverages by manufacturers, cooks, or consumers. Studies have supported WHO's guidance as well. A 2006 clinical trial found that when over weight or obese adults replaced caloric beverages with water or noncaloric beverages for 6 months, they averaged weight losses of 2\u20132.5%. In addition, The Obesity Society recommends minimizing children's intake of sugar-sweetened beverages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Y. Claire Wang",
        "text": "Y. Claire Wang\n--Research.\n----Sugar-sweetened beverages.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Some countries have tried to reduce sugary beverages in an effort to bring liquid caloric intake down. Mexico placed a tax on sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) in 2014. Drinks that were not taxed included drinks with NNSs, milk with no added sugar, and water. Other governments are active in placing policy on school lunches or what is being offered in school cafeterias in regards to beverages. Governmental activity is trying to eventually slow down the obesity epidemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Sweetened beverage\n--Sugar-related health concerns.\n----Non-nutritive sweeteners in sugar-sweetened beverages.\n--Health implications of sugar sweetened beverages.\n----Outlook on the population's health.\n----Sugar addiction.\n----Milk vs sweetened beverage consumption.\n----Obesity.\n----Impact on oral health.\n----Effects on blood potassium levels.\n----Pregnancy.\n----Risk of type II diabetes.\n------Type II diabetes pathogenesis.\n--In the United States.\n----Influence of the household and media/advertisement.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Taste preferences and eating behaviors in children are molded at a young age by factors, such as parents' habits and advertisements. One study compared what adults and children considered when choosing beverages. For the most part, adults considered whether beverages had sugar, caffeine, and additives. Some of the 7- to 10-year-old children in the study also mentioned \"additives\" and \"caffeine\", which may be unfamiliar terms to them. This showed the possibility of the parents' influence on their children's decision-making on food choice and eating behaviors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Fruit juices generally contain lower amounts of sugar than carbonated sugar sweetened beverages. The acidity levels found in fruit juices vary, with citrus based juices having the lowest pH levels. The low acidity found in fruit juices cause higher risk of cavities with enamel exposure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "There is a strong link between sugar-sweetened beverage consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes. However, the high risk of type 2 diabetes is unlikely to be caused directly by sugar, with a 2016 \"British Medical Bulletin\" article stating the evidence is unconvincing. It is likely that weight gain caused by sugar-sweetened beverage consumption is what increases the risk of type 2 diabetes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Efforts to reduce consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages and obesity include both monetary penalties and limiting exposure to sugar-sweetened beverages. For example, numerous states, including Vermont have proposed taxing sugar-sweetened beverages or increasing the prices to reduce consumption. Economists estimate that increasing sugar sweetened beverage prices by 10% would reduce sugar sweetened beverage consumption by 12%. Global experts in fiscal policies concluded that a minimum of 20% increase in sugar-sweetened beverage taxes would result in proportional reduction in consumption. Other solutions target children, focusing on prohibiting sugar-sweetened beverages on school/after care property, including vending machines and lunches. Limits are also being considered on sugar-sweetened beverages in the workplace. Furthermore, beverage companies are being approached about reducing portion sizing of sugar-sweetened beverages because portion sizes have increased substantially over the past few decades."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juice",
        "text": "Depending on trends and regulations, beverages listed as \"100% juice\" may actually contain unlisted additives. For example, most orange juice contains added ethyl butyrate (to enhance flavor), vitamin C (as ascorbic acid), and water (if from concentrate). When fruit juice is too sour, acidic, or rich to consume, it may be diluted with water and sugar to create an \"-ade\" (such as lemonade, limeade, cherryade, and orangeade). The 'ade' suffix may also refer to any sweetened, fruit-flavored drink, whether or not it actually contains any juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetener (disambiguation)",
        "text": "A sweetener is a substance added to food or drink to impart the flavor of sweetness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Added sugar",
        "text": "Added sugars or free sugars are sugar carbohydrates (caloric sweeteners) added to food and beverages at some point before their consumption. These include added carbohydrates (monosaccharides and disaccharides), and more broadly, sugars naturally present in honey, syrup, and fruit juice. They can take multiple chemical forms, including sucrose, glucose, fructose, and dextrose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Hypokalemia is a potassium deficiency. It is defined by the level of potassium in the blood; levels 3.5 and 5.0 mmoL are considered to be normal while levels below 3.5\u00a0mmol/L are defined as hypokalemia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thickened fluids",
        "text": "4 \u2013 Extremely thick \u2013 drinks of this stage should require a spoon to drink and are comparable to pureed foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetener",
        "text": "A sweetener is a substance added to food or drink to impart the flavor of sweetness, either because it contains a type of sugar, or because it contains a sweet-tasting sugar substitute. Many artificial sweeteners have been invented and are now used in commercially produced food and drink. Natural non-sugar sweeteners also exist, such as glycyrrhizin found in licorice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Syrup",
        "text": "A variety of beverages call for sweetening to offset the tartness of some juices used in the drink recipes. Granulated sugar does not dissolve easily in cold drinks or ethyl alcohol. Since the following syrups are liquids, they are easily mixed with other liquids in mixed drinks, making them superior alternatives to granulated sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugary drink tax",
        "text": "Obesity is also a global public and health policy concern, with the percentage of overweight and obese people in many developed and middle income countries rising rapidly. Consumption of added sugar in sugar-sweetened beverages has been positively correlated with high calorie intake, and through it, with excess weight and obesity. The addition of one sugar-sweetened beverage per day to the normal US diet can amount to 15 pounds of weight gain over the course of 1 year. Added sugar is a common feature of many processed and convenience foods such as breakfast cereals, chocolate, ice cream, cookies, yogurts and drinks produced by retailers. The ubiquity of sugar-sweetened beverages and their appeal to younger consumers has made their consumption a subject of particular concern by public health professionals. In both the United States and the United Kingdom, sugar sweetened drinks are the top calorie source in teenager's diets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Added sugar",
        "text": "Based on a 2012 study on the use of caloric and noncaloric sweeteners in some 85,000 food and beverage products, 74% contain added sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Congener (beverages)",
        "text": "Congener (beverages)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "American Beverage Association",
        "text": "In September 2009, a \"New England Journal of Medicine\" study called for taxes on sugar-sweetened beverages saying that these actions would cut rates of diet-related diseases and health care costs. Written by experts in nutrition, public health and economics, the study called for an excise tax of a penny per ounce on soft drinks and other beverages that have added sweeteners such as sucrose, high fructose corn syrup or fruit-juice concentrates. The expectation is that such a tax could reduce calorie consumption from sweetened beverages by 10% and create revenue that governments could use to pay for health programs. A report on the \"New England Journal of Medicine\" study can be read here"
      },
      {
        "title": "International (Nice) Classification of Goods and Services",
        "text": "\"Class 32\" Beers; mineral and aerated waters and other non-alcoholic beverages; fruit beverages and fruit juices; syrups and other preparations for making beverages"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dryness (taste)",
        "text": "Dryness is a property of beverages that describes the lack of a sweet taste. This may be due to a lack of sugars, the presence of some other taste that masks sweetness, or an underabundance of simple carbohydrates that can be converted to sugar by enzymes in the mouth (amylase in particular). The term \"dry\" may be applied to types of beer, wine, distilled spirits, or any other beverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "-ade (suffix)",
        "text": "-ade is a suffix used for a fruit\u2013 (often citrus) flavored beverage. These drinks may be carbonated or non-carbonated. Widespread examples include lemonade, cherryade, limeade, and orangeade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cauim",
        "text": "A characteristic feature of the beverage is that the starting material is cooked, chewed, and fermented, so that enzymes (including amylase) present in human saliva can break down the starch into fermentable sugars. (This principle was originally used also for Japanese sake.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Soft drink",
        "text": "From 1977 to 2002, Americans doubled their consumption of sweetened beverages\u2014a trend that was paralleled by doubling the prevalence of obesity. The consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages is associated with weight and obesity, and changes in consumption can help predict changes in weight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tab (drink)",
        "text": "Tab has been reformulated several times. It was initially sweetened with a mixture of cyclamate and saccharin. After the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a ban on cyclamate in 1969, sodium saccharin was used as the beverage's primary sweetener."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soft drink",
        "text": "A soft drink (see \u00a7 Terminology for other names) is a drink that usually contains water (often carbonated), a sweetener, and a natural and/or artificial flavoring. The sweetener may be a sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, fruit juice, a sugar substitute (in the case of \"diet drinks\"), or some combination of these. Soft drinks may also contain caffeine, colorings, preservatives, and/or other ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dennis Deer",
        "text": "2017 sweetened beverage tax repeal"
      },
      {
        "title": "Flavored syrup",
        "text": "Flavored syrup\n--In coffee and espresso drinks.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of drinks",
        "text": "Drinks are liquids that can be consumed. In addition to basic needs, drinks form part of the culture of human society. In a commercial setting, drinks, other than water, may be termed beverages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lemonade",
        "text": "Lemonade is a sweetened lemon-flavored beverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diet drink",
        "text": "Diet drink\n--History.\n--Sweeteners.\n----Aspartame.\n----Cyclamates.\n----Sucralose and acesulfame potassium; \"sugar-free\" soft drinks.\n----Stevia.\n--Amount of artificial sweeteners in diet soft drinks.\n--Health concerns.\n--Nomenclature.\n--Reduced-calorie drinks.\n--Consumption.\n--Regulation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "International (Nice) Classification of Goods and Services",
        "text": "\"Class 33\" Alcoholic beverages (except beers)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Drink mixer",
        "text": "Drink mixer\n--Caffeinated beverages.\n--Carbonated mixers and sodas.\n--Dairy products.\n--Juices.\n--Prepared mixes.\n--Sauces.\n--Syrups.\n--Other mixers.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcoholic drink",
        "text": "Alcoholic drink\n--Fermented drinks.\n----Beer.\n----Cider.\n----Fermented tea.\n----Fermented water.\n------Fermented sugar water.\n----Mead.\n----Pulque.\n----Rice wine.\n----Wine.\n----Others.\n--Distilled beverages.\n----Rectified spirit.\n----Congeners.\n--Amount of use.\n--Reasons for use.\n----Ap\u00e9ritifs and digestifs.\n----Caloric content.\n------Distilled spirits.\n------Other beverages.\n----Flavoring.\n--Alcohol measurement.\n----Alcohol concentration.\n----Serving measures.\n------Shot sizes.\n------Standard drinks.\n--Laws.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Garnish (food)",
        "text": "Garnishes for beverages include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Functional beverage",
        "text": "Powdered mixes may be added to boiling water or hot milk to make the drink at home. Powder mixes may be prepared at home, and are sold at grocery stores and online."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inverted sugar syrup",
        "text": "Inverted sugar syrup is the basis in sweetened beverages.\n* Sweet reserve is a wine term referring to a portion of selected unfermented grape must, free of microorganisms, to be added to wine as a sweetening component. When wine ferments, glucose is fermented at a faster rate than fructose. Thus, arresting fermentation after a significant portion of the sugars have fermented results in a wine where the residual sugar consists mainly of fructose, while the use of S\u00fcssreserve will result in a wine where the sweetness comes from a mixture of glucose and fructose.\n* Alcoholic beverage manufacturers often add invert sugar in the production of drinks like gin, beer and sparkling wines for flavouring. Candi sugar, similar to invert sugar, is used in the brewing of Belgian-style beers to boost alcohol content without drastically increasing the body of the beer; it is frequently found in the styles of beer known as dubbel and tripel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Functional beverage",
        "text": "Health experts are concerned about the increased consumption and popularity of functional beverages. Although these beverages may serve to hydrate the individual, they may not mitigate or even address today's major health issues, such as obesity, heart disease, and cancer. Most functional beverages are sweetened, and consumption of sweetened beverages is associated with higher levels of obesity and heart disease. Most of these drinks contain significant amounts of sugars and hence calories, which would add to discretionary and total caloric intake. As such, these ingredients pose health risks because of what they contain (sugar and caffeine) or what they replace in the diet (vitamin and mineral-rich foods)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetening (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sweetening may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lychee wine",
        "text": "The sweetener may be added now, later or even not at all according to the preference of winemakers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anadenanthera colubrina",
        "text": "A sweetened drink is made from the bark."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of soft drinks by country",
        "text": "This is a list of soft drinks in order of the brand's country of origin. A soft drink is a beverage that typically contains water (often, but not always, carbonated water), usually a sweetener and usually a flavoring agent. The sweetener may be sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, fruit juice, sugar substitutes (in the case of diet drinks) or some combination of these. Soft drinks may also contain caffeine, colorings, preservatives and other ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of sociology of food articles",
        "text": "- distilled beverage"
      },
      {
        "title": "Soft drink",
        "text": "sweetened cordial flavored with rosewater, violets or cinnamon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Functional beverage",
        "text": "Functional beverages include dairy beverages, sports and performance drinks, energy drinks, ready-to-drink teas, \"smart\" drinks, fortified fruit drinks, plant milks, and enhanced water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcoholic drink",
        "text": "Fermented sugar water is fermented water with added refined sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeinated drink",
        "text": "Caffeinated drink\n--Beverages.\n----Coffee.\n----Tea.\n----Soft drinks and energy drinks.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Frequency of sugar sweetened beverages results in dental caries, which are caused by Streptococcus bacteria. Dental caries is an infectious oral disease and is the breakdown of the teeth due to the bacteria in the mouth. It occurs when bacteria within the plaque metabolize the sugar, releasing various acids as waste compounds. As the acids are released, they form holes in the teeth which dissolve the enamel. The sugars, therefore provide a passageway for the activities of the oral bacteria, lowering salivary pH. The bacteria alone are not the sole cause of tooth decay, as it is the presence of these sugars that inhibit the production of acid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "It is a common stereotype of the Southeastern United States that due to the popularity of sweet iced tea in the region, unsweetened iced tea is not available or is frowned upon. It is often the case, however, that the term \"tea\" is assumed by default to mean sweetened iced tea in that region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nectar (drink)",
        "text": "In some countries, the beverage industry distinguishes nectars from drinks labeled as \"juice\". In the United States and the United Kingdom, the term \"fruit juice\" is restricted to beverages that are 100% pure juice, whereas a \"nectar\" may be diluted (to a degree limited by regulations) with water and contain additives besides fruit juice, including natural and artificial sweeteners, and preservatives. In New Zealand, the usage is reversed, with \"juice\" denoting a sweetened fruit drink, whereas nectar refers to pure fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetener (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sweetener may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of hot drinks",
        "text": "This list of hot drinks comprises drinks that are typically served hot. Drinks are liquids specifically prepared for human consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mate (drink)",
        "text": "In the sweet version artificial sweeteners are also often added. As an alternative sweetener, natural (\"Stevia rebaudiana\") is preferred, which is an herb whose leaves are added in order to give a touch of sweetness. This is used principally in Paraguay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fuze Beverage",
        "text": "Some Fuze products, such as Fuze Iced Tea, are sweetened with HFCS and sucralose, an artificial sweetener."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diet drink",
        "text": "The ideal goal in artificial sweetening is to replicate the exact taste and texture effects of sucrose with one or more of these non-caloric sweeteners. Despite decades of research and development, this goal remains elusive. Most sweeteners carry a marked aftertaste, often described as \"bitter\" or \"metallic\". The perception of this aftertaste has been studied intensively, and appears to be based on genetic factors that vary from person to person."
      },
      {
        "title": "Old fashioned (cocktail)",
        "text": "Some modern variants have greatly sweetened the old-fashioned, e.g. by adding blood orange soda to make a fizzy old-fashioned, or muddled strawberries to make a strawberry old-fashioned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soft drink",
        "text": "The term \"soft drink\" is a category in the beverage industry, and is broadly used in product labeling and on restaurant menus. However, in many countries such drinks are more commonly referred to by regional names, including \"soda\", \"pop\", \"cool drink\", and \"fizzy drink\". Other lesser used terms include \"carbonated drink\", \"cold drink\", \"fizzy juice\", \"lolly water\", \"seltzer\", \"coke\", \"soda pop\", \"tonic\", and \"mineral\". Due to the high sugar content in typical soft drinks, they may also be called \"sugary drinks\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Research studies have indicated that there is a correlation between drinking sugar-sweetened beverages and gaining weight or becoming obese. Sugar-sweetened beverages do not provide the feeling of fullness like solid foods do, which may cause one to consume more of the beverage. According to the Center for Disease Control, the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System Survey found that 30.1% of American adults consume at least one sugar-sweetened beverage daily. Around the United States, sugar-sweetened beverage intake differs based on geographic regions and socio-demographic characteristics. States known for their obesity rates also had high consumption rates of sugar-sweetened beverages. For example, 47.1% of Mississippi adults consume at least one sugar-sweetened beverage a day. Their obesity rate correlates, with 35.6% of the adult population being obese in 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar substitute",
        "text": "High consumption of artificially sweetened beverages was associated with a 12% higher risk of all-cause mortality and a 23% higher risk of CVD mortality in a 2021 meta-analysis. A 2020 meta-analysis found a similar result, with the highest consuming group having a 13% higher risk of all-cause mortality and a 25% higher risk of CVD mortality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetening (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sweetening (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Functional beverage",
        "text": "Highly caffeinated, often highly sweetened \"energy drinks\" have become popular on the beverage market in the United States, as well as globally, in the past decade. Consumer demand has helped generate a new generation of \"energy drink\" brands containing similar amounts of caffeine, calories, and sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glucose",
        "text": "Various sources of glucose, such as grape juice (for wine) or malt (for beer), are used for fermentation to ethanol during the production of alcoholic beverages. Most soft drinks in the US use HFCS-55 (with a fructose content of 55% in the dry mass), while most other HFCS-sweetened foods in the US use HFCS-42 (with a fructose content of 42% in the dry mass). In Mexico, on the other hand, soft drinks are sweetened by cane sugar, which has a higher sweetening power. In addition, glucose syrup is used, inter alia, in the production of confectionery such as candies, toffee and fondant. Typical chemical reactions of glucose when heated under water-free conditions are caramelization and, in presence of amino acids, the Maillard reaction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taste",
        "text": "As for the assignment of 1 or 100 to the index substances, this makes no difference to the rankings themselves, only to whether the values are displayed as whole numbers or decimal points. Glucose remains about three-quarters as sweet as sucrose whether displayed as 75 or 0.75."
      },
      {
        "title": "Concentrate",
        "text": "Most sodas and soft drinks are produced as highly concentrated syrups and later diluted with carbonated water directly before consumption or bottling. Such concentrated syrups are sometimes retailed to the end-consumer because of their relatively low price and considerable weight savings. Condensed milk is also produced for transport weight savings and resistance to spoilage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Traditional food",
        "text": "This article also includes information about traditional beverages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punch (drink)",
        "text": "To one and a half of sweet,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sherry",
        "text": "The classification by sweetness is:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taste",
        "text": "Sweetness is produced by the presence of sugars, some proteins, and other substances such as alcohols like anethol, glycerol and propylene glycol, saponins such as glycyrrhizin, artificial sweeteners (organic compounds with a variety of structures), and lead compounds such as lead acetate. It is often connected to aldehydes and ketones, which contain a carbonyl group. Many foods can be perceived as sweet regardless of their actual sugar content. For example, some plants such as liquorice, anise or stevia can be used as sweeteners. Rebaudioside A is a steviol glycoside coming from stevia that is 200 times sweeter than sugar. Lead acetate and other lead compounds were used as sweeteners, mostly for wine, until lead poisoning became known. Romans used to deliberately boil the must inside of lead vessels to make a sweeter wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweeten",
        "text": "Sweeten\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetening (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sweetening is the process of making food more sweet. Wikipedia does not yet have an article on this process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soft drink",
        "text": "Carbonated beverages are prepared by mixing chilled flavored syrup with chilled carbonated water. Carbonation levels range up to 5 volumes of CO2 per liquid volume. Ginger ale, colas, and related drinks are carbonated with 3.5 volumes. Other drinks, often fruity ones, are carbonated less."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of regional beverages of the United States",
        "text": "The following is a list of notable beverages associated with (and often limited to) specific regions of the United States. See also: List of regional dishes of the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ginger tea",
        "text": "Milk, either fresh or condensed, might be added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soft drink",
        "text": "The consumption of sugar-sweetened soft drinks can also be associated with many weight-related diseases, including diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular risk factors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetener (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sweetener (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweet Tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sweet Tea (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juice",
        "text": "In the US, \"fruit juice\" can only legally be used to describe a product which is 100% fruit juice. A blend of fruit juice(s) with other ingredients, such as high-fructose corn syrup, is called a \"juice cocktail\" or \"juice drink\". According to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the term \"nectar\" is generally accepted in the US and in international trade for a diluted juice to denote a beverage that contains fruit juice or puree, water, and artificial sweeteners. \"No added sugar\" is commonly printed on labels of juice containers, but the products may contain large amounts of naturally occurring sugars; however, sugar content is listed with other carbohydrates on labels in many countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coffee preparation",
        "text": "Alcoholic spirits and liqueurs can be added to coffee, often sweetened and with cream floated on top. These beverages are often given names according to the alcoholic addition:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian trademark law",
        "text": "Class 32 . Beers, mineral and aerated waters, and other non-alcoholic drinks; fruit drinks and fruit juices; syrups and other preparations for making beverages"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of drinks",
        "text": "\u2013 a soft drink is a drink that typically contains water (often, but not always, carbonated water), usually a sweetener and usually a flavoring agent. The sweetener may be sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, fruit juice, sugar substitutes (in the case of diet drinks) or some combination of these. Soft drinks may also contain caffeine, colorings, preservatives and other ingredients.\n* List of brand name soft drink products\n* List of soft drink flavors\n* List of soft drink producers\n* List of soft drinks by country\n*"
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian trademark law",
        "text": "Class 33 .Alcoholic beverages(except beers)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Due to its ability to dissociate the sensation of sweet from caloric intake via hormonal changes, NNSs may increase appetite and promote larger food consumption and weight gain. Studies have found various negative health outcomes associated with NNSs, including weight gain, obesity, metabolic syndrome, type II diabetes, cardiovascular events, and bladder cancer. NNSs pose a greater risk to children especially because caloric compensation after consumption of NNSs is more complete in children who, compared to adults, lack social cues, learned behaviors, and self-control. Children compensate for NNSs consumption by increasing meal-associated calories and thus are at a higher risk of NNSs-associated weight gain. One study researched the effect of NNSs with cardiovascular disease. The research was taken using post menopausal women. Women who consumed two or more diet drinks (containing NNSs) were found to be 30% at risk for cardiovascular disease. There has been a decline in liquid calories due to the introduction of NNSs."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "\"Sweet tea\", with sugar or corn syrup added (usually while the tea is still hot from brewing), the mixture then being cooled with ice, is ubiquitous in the Southeastern United States. In these states, when a person says \"tea\", they normally mean sweetened iced tea. The unsweetened variant is often called \"unsweet\" tea instead of unsweetened or plain. The consumption of sweet tea with many meals leads to it sometimes called the \"table wine of the South\", and this trait is considered an important marker of the culture of the Southern United States. Southern sweet tea is made by brewing tea at double strength, adding a large amount of sugar to the freshly brewed hot tea, and diluting to the proper strength. It is served over a glass full of ice cubes and is often garnished with a slice of lemon. While high fructose corn syrup is commonly used as a sweetener for commercially manufactured tea, more often consumers are unaware of this, and when made at home, refined sugar is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Day's Beverages",
        "text": "Day's Beverages\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetener",
        "text": "Sweetener\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cola",
        "text": "A variety of different sweeteners may be added to cola, often partly dependent on local agricultural policy. High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is predominantly used in the United States and Canada due to the lower cost of government-subsidized corn. In Europe, however, HFCS is subject to production quotas designed to encourage the production of sugar; sugar is thus typically used to sweeten sodas. In addition, stevia or an artificial sweetener may be used; \"sugar-free\" or \"diet\" colas typically contain artificial sweeteners only."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Healthy schools campaign is an initiative set forth by Michelle Obama that promotes nutritional enrichment through food an education. The national initiatives under this program are cooking up change, green clean schools, school nurse leadership, and national collaborations. As a result, many of the sugary drinks/ sodas in elementary, middle, and high schools have been replaced by water and other nutritious drinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweet Sugar",
        "text": "Sweet Sugar may refer to:"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is added to a beverage to be classified as sweetened beverage?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "A sweetened beverage is any beverage with added sugar.",
      "Sugar is the ingredient added to make it a sweetened beverage."
    ],
    "topic": "Sweetened beverage",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Sweetened beverage:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sweetened beverage"
        ],
        "ctx": "A sweetened beverage is any beverage with added sugar. It has been described as \"liquid candy\". Consumption of sweetened beverages has been linked to weight gain, obesity, and associated health risks. According to the CDC, consumption of sweetened beverages is also associated with unhealthy behaviors like smoking, not getting enough sleep and exercise, and eating fast food often and not enough fruits regularly."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Sweetened beverage:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sweetened beverage"
        ],
        "ctx": "A sweetened beverage is any beverage with added sugar. It has been described as \"liquid candy\". Consumption of sweetened beverages has been linked to weight gain, obesity, and associated health risks. According to the CDC, consumption of sweetened beverages is also associated with unhealthy behaviors like smoking, not getting enough sleep and exercise, and eating fast food often and not enough fruits regularly."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Added sugar",
        "text": "Sweetened beverages contain a syrup mixture of the monosaccharides glucose and fructose, which is formed by hydrolytic saccharification of the disaccharide sucrose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "The following drinks have been classified in the US as sweetened beverages if they contained sugar or other caloric sweeteners: fruit or fruit-flavored drinks, energy drinks, flavored water, coffees, teas, nonalcoholic wines and beers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "A sweetened beverage is any beverage with added sugar. It has been described as \"liquid candy\". Consumption of sweetened beverages has been linked to weight gain, obesity, and associated health risks. According to the CDC, consumption of sweetened beverages is also associated with unhealthy behaviors like smoking, not getting enough sleep and exercise, and eating fast food often and not enough fruits regularly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Media"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Household"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Sugar sweetened beverages or sugary drinks are beverages that contain any form of added sugars. Out of the entire diet, Americans add sugar to beverages more so than any other product. Sugar-Sweetened beverages or sugary drinks are the leading source of added sugars in the American diet. Added sugars include syrups and other caloric sweeteners. Other examples of added sugars, especially ones that can be listed as an ingredient, include brown sugar, corn sweetener, corn syrup, dextrose, fructose, glucose, high fructose corn syrup, honey, invert sugar, lactose, malt syrup, maltose, molasses, raw sugar, sucrose, trehalose, and turbinado sugar. The added sugar content is associated with several health concerns like weight gain, obesity, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, liver disease, dental implications, and gout. Naturally occurring sugars, such as those in fruit or milk, are not added sugars. Even though there are several beverages/drinks that have sugar in them, some beverages, such as milk, fruit juice, and diet drinks, fall into a \"gray\" area because of different contributions to health and weight gain is more complex. Sugar-sweetened beverages contain added sugars such as sucrose or fructose, often in large amounts, which contribute to the overall energy density of diets. The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed guidance on free sugars. Based on the impact of free sugars intake and its effects on weight gain and dental issues the WHO has taken action on such problems. Free sugars include monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods and beverages by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, and sugars naturally present in honey, syrups, fruit juices and fruit juice concentrates. Current evidence suggests that increasing consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages is associated with weight gain. Reducing consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages can also reduce the risk of unhealthy weight gain in adults. For a normal calorie diet, calories from added sugars should be less than 10 percent of the daily calorie limit. Eating habits that include a lesser amount of added sugars, that can be from reduced intake of sugary drinks, can be associated with reduced risk of CVD in adults, and moderate evidence indicates that these eating patterns are associated with reduced risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and some types of cancer in adults."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Obesity prevalence is due to genetic, metabolic, cultural, environmental, socioeconomic, and behavioral factors. Along with the increase in overweight and obese populations, the consumption of carbohydrates, particularly in the form of added sugars has increased."
      },
      {
        "title": "Added sugar",
        "text": "Added sugar\n--Usage.\n----In the United States.\n----Sweetened beverages.\n--Guidelines.\n----World Health Organization.\n----European Food Safety Authority.\n----American Heart Association.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Y. Claire Wang",
        "text": "Y. Claire Wang\n--Research.\n----Sugar-sweetened beverages.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "A number of studies suggest that there is a significant correlation between increased consumption of sweetened beverages and weight gain leading to obesity. There has also been an association between consumption of sweetened beverages and health risks such as coronary heart disease and diabetes. Due to negative health effects of overconsumption of sweetened beverages, a sweetened beverage tax (soda tax) has been recommended by the Institute of Medicine in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Syrup",
        "text": "A variety of beverages call for sweetening to offset the tartness of some juices used in the drink recipes. Granulated sugar does not dissolve easily in cold drinks or ethyl alcohol. Since the following syrups are liquids, they are easily mixed with other liquids in mixed drinks, making them superior alternatives to granulated sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Fruit juices generally contain lower amounts of sugar than carbonated sugar sweetened beverages. The acidity levels found in fruit juices vary, with citrus based juices having the lowest pH levels. The low acidity found in fruit juices cause higher risk of cavities with enamel exposure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "The increase in consumption of sweetened beverages has been described as a worldwide health problem, but it is particularly visible in the United States, from where most popular drinks, like sodas, have originated. In the US, sweetened beverages such as most sodas are the most widely consumed type of foods containing added sugar, and they account for about a third of all consumption of added sugars (about half if counted together with fruit juice; about twice the amount that is gained from the categories of \"desserts\" and \"sweets\"). They represent about 7% of total energy intake, where they can account for up to 15% in children, and have been described as the \"largest single food source of calories in the US diet\". The consumption of sweetened beverages has increased in the US since the 1970s, accounting for a significant portion (perhaps as high as a half) of the rise in caloric intake among the American populace. Some more recent research suggests that the added sugar consumption in the US has started declining in the 21st century, due to a related decrease in the consumption of sweetened beverages, encouraged by the government health awareness initiative and other programs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "The consumption of sugar sweetened beverages has increased over the years; this includes caffeinated and un-caffeinated drinks. The rise in consumption of soft drinks is due to the current convenience, availability, and accessibility of sugar sweetened beverages today. Over these years an increase in concern and action towards the accessibility of sugar sweetened beverages have been taken through policy. Government officials and doctors alike have responded to the increase in sugar sweetened beverages and its health effects. Internists have further discussed adding extreme sugar sweetened beverages consumption to the list of usual questions about alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs that lead to hypokalemia. Although low potassium levels are tolerated in healthy adults, as cola consumption increases things like obesity, hypertension, and diabetes can be developed from hypokalemia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Efforts to reduce consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages and obesity include both monetary penalties and limiting exposure to sugar-sweetened beverages. For example, numerous states, including Vermont have proposed taxing sugar-sweetened beverages or increasing the prices to reduce consumption. Economists estimate that increasing sugar sweetened beverage prices by 10% would reduce sugar sweetened beverage consumption by 12%. Global experts in fiscal policies concluded that a minimum of 20% increase in sugar-sweetened beverage taxes would result in proportional reduction in consumption. Other solutions target children, focusing on prohibiting sugar-sweetened beverages on school/after care property, including vending machines and lunches. Limits are also being considered on sugar-sweetened beverages in the workplace. Furthermore, beverage companies are being approached about reducing portion sizing of sugar-sweetened beverages because portion sizes have increased substantially over the past few decades."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetener (disambiguation)",
        "text": "A sweetener is a substance added to food or drink to impart the flavor of sweetness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Added sugar",
        "text": "Added sugars or free sugars are sugar carbohydrates (caloric sweeteners) added to food and beverages at some point before their consumption. These include added carbohydrates (monosaccharides and disaccharides), and more broadly, sugars naturally present in honey, syrup, and fruit juice. They can take multiple chemical forms, including sucrose, glucose, fructose, and dextrose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetener",
        "text": "A sweetener is a substance added to food or drink to impart the flavor of sweetness, either because it contains a type of sugar, or because it contains a sweet-tasting sugar substitute. Many artificial sweeteners have been invented and are now used in commercially produced food and drink. Natural non-sugar sweeteners also exist, such as glycyrrhizin found in licorice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Oral health has shown to be affected with regard to sugar sweetened beverage consumption. Acid erosion and dental caries have been the main health concerns to sugar sweetened beverages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juice",
        "text": "Depending on trends and regulations, beverages listed as \"100% juice\" may actually contain unlisted additives. For example, most orange juice contains added ethyl butyrate (to enhance flavor), vitamin C (as ascorbic acid), and water (if from concentrate). When fruit juice is too sour, acidic, or rich to consume, it may be diluted with water and sugar to create an \"-ade\" (such as lemonade, limeade, cherryade, and orangeade). The 'ade' suffix may also refer to any sweetened, fruit-flavored drink, whether or not it actually contains any juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Taste preferences and eating behaviors in children are molded at a young age by factors, such as parents' habits and advertisements. One study compared what adults and children considered when choosing beverages. For the most part, adults considered whether beverages had sugar, caffeine, and additives. Some of the 7- to 10-year-old children in the study also mentioned \"additives\" and \"caffeine\", which may be unfamiliar terms to them. This showed the possibility of the parents' influence on their children's decision-making on food choice and eating behaviors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "The World Health Organization has advised reducing intake of free sugars, such as monosaccharides and disaccharides that are added to beverages by manufacturers, cooks, or consumers. Studies have supported WHO's guidance as well. A 2006 clinical trial found that when over weight or obese adults replaced caloric beverages with water or noncaloric beverages for 6 months, they averaged weight losses of 2\u20132.5%. In addition, The Obesity Society recommends minimizing children's intake of sugar-sweetened beverages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "There is a strong link between sugar-sweetened beverage consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes. However, the high risk of type 2 diabetes is unlikely to be caused directly by sugar, with a 2016 \"British Medical Bulletin\" article stating the evidence is unconvincing. It is likely that weight gain caused by sugar-sweetened beverage consumption is what increases the risk of type 2 diabetes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dryness (taste)",
        "text": "Dryness is a property of beverages that describes the lack of a sweet taste. This may be due to a lack of sugars, the presence of some other taste that masks sweetness, or an underabundance of simple carbohydrates that can be converted to sugar by enzymes in the mouth (amylase in particular). The term \"dry\" may be applied to types of beer, wine, distilled spirits, or any other beverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Sweetened beverage\n--Sugar-related health concerns.\n----Non-nutritive sweeteners in sugar-sweetened beverages.\n--Health implications of sugar sweetened beverages.\n----Outlook on the population's health.\n----Sugar addiction.\n----Milk vs sweetened beverage consumption.\n----Obesity.\n----Impact on oral health.\n----Effects on blood potassium levels.\n----Pregnancy.\n----Risk of type II diabetes.\n------Type II diabetes pathogenesis.\n--In the United States.\n----Influence of the household and media/advertisement.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Some countries have tried to reduce sugary beverages in an effort to bring liquid caloric intake down. Mexico placed a tax on sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) in 2014. Drinks that were not taxed included drinks with NNSs, milk with no added sugar, and water. Other governments are active in placing policy on school lunches or what is being offered in school cafeterias in regards to beverages. Governmental activity is trying to eventually slow down the obesity epidemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cauim",
        "text": "A characteristic feature of the beverage is that the starting material is cooked, chewed, and fermented, so that enzymes (including amylase) present in human saliva can break down the starch into fermentable sugars. (This principle was originally used also for Japanese sake.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Inverted sugar syrup",
        "text": "Inverted sugar syrup is the basis in sweetened beverages.\n* Sweet reserve is a wine term referring to a portion of selected unfermented grape must, free of microorganisms, to be added to wine as a sweetening component. When wine ferments, glucose is fermented at a faster rate than fructose. Thus, arresting fermentation after a significant portion of the sugars have fermented results in a wine where the residual sugar consists mainly of fructose, while the use of S\u00fcssreserve will result in a wine where the sweetness comes from a mixture of glucose and fructose.\n* Alcoholic beverage manufacturers often add invert sugar in the production of drinks like gin, beer and sparkling wines for flavouring. Candi sugar, similar to invert sugar, is used in the brewing of Belgian-style beers to boost alcohol content without drastically increasing the body of the beer; it is frequently found in the styles of beer known as dubbel and tripel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drink mixer",
        "text": "Many other food and beverage items can be used in mixed drinks. These are some other common ones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drink mixer",
        "text": "Carbonation adds a festive flair to drinks. It also increases the absorption of the alcohol into the blood stream due to increased pressure in the stomach, potentially resulting in faster intoxication.\n* Bitter lemonflavored with quinine and lemon (both juice and pith)\n* Carbonated water (also called club soda, soda water, seltzer water, or sparkling water)\n* Cola \u2013 Coca-Cola, Pepsi, etc.\n* Ginger ale\n* Ginger beer\n* Hoppy\n* Lemon Sour\n* Lemon\u2013lime soda7 Up, Sprite, etc.\n* Root beer, orange, grape, and cherry soda, and various other fruit and herb\u2013flavored soft drinks are used, but typically they have not been as popular as the drinks listed above.\n* Tonic water - The essential ingredient is quinine. Sugar and other flavorings are also commonly added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taste",
        "text": "Sweetness is produced by the presence of sugars, some proteins, and other substances such as alcohols like anethol, glycerol and propylene glycol, saponins such as glycyrrhizin, artificial sweeteners (organic compounds with a variety of structures), and lead compounds such as lead acetate. It is often connected to aldehydes and ketones, which contain a carbonyl group. Many foods can be perceived as sweet regardless of their actual sugar content. For example, some plants such as liquorice, anise or stevia can be used as sweeteners. Rebaudioside A is a steviol glycoside coming from stevia that is 200 times sweeter than sugar. Lead acetate and other lead compounds were used as sweeteners, mostly for wine, until lead poisoning became known. Romans used to deliberately boil the must inside of lead vessels to make a sweeter wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soft drink",
        "text": "A soft drink (see \u00a7 Terminology for other names) is a drink that usually contains water (often carbonated), a sweetener, and a natural and/or artificial flavoring. The sweetener may be a sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, fruit juice, a sugar substitute (in the case of \"diet drinks\"), or some combination of these. Soft drinks may also contain caffeine, colorings, preservatives, and/or other ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugary drink tax",
        "text": "Obesity is also a global public and health policy concern, with the percentage of overweight and obese people in many developed and middle income countries rising rapidly. Consumption of added sugar in sugar-sweetened beverages has been positively correlated with high calorie intake, and through it, with excess weight and obesity. The addition of one sugar-sweetened beverage per day to the normal US diet can amount to 15 pounds of weight gain over the course of 1 year. Added sugar is a common feature of many processed and convenience foods such as breakfast cereals, chocolate, ice cream, cookies, yogurts and drinks produced by retailers. The ubiquity of sugar-sweetened beverages and their appeal to younger consumers has made their consumption a subject of particular concern by public health professionals. In both the United States and the United Kingdom, sugar sweetened drinks are the top calorie source in teenager's diets."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Beverage Association",
        "text": "In September 2009, a \"New England Journal of Medicine\" study called for taxes on sugar-sweetened beverages saying that these actions would cut rates of diet-related diseases and health care costs. Written by experts in nutrition, public health and economics, the study called for an excise tax of a penny per ounce on soft drinks and other beverages that have added sweeteners such as sucrose, high fructose corn syrup or fruit-juice concentrates. The expectation is that such a tax could reduce calorie consumption from sweetened beverages by 10% and create revenue that governments could use to pay for health programs. A report on the \"New England Journal of Medicine\" study can be read here"
      },
      {
        "title": "Drink mixer",
        "text": "Drink mixer\n--Caffeinated beverages.\n--Carbonated mixers and sodas.\n--Dairy products.\n--Juices.\n--Prepared mixes.\n--Sauces.\n--Syrups.\n--Other mixers.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Glucose",
        "text": "Various sources of glucose, such as grape juice (for wine) or malt (for beer), are used for fermentation to ethanol during the production of alcoholic beverages. Most soft drinks in the US use HFCS-55 (with a fructose content of 55% in the dry mass), while most other HFCS-sweetened foods in the US use HFCS-42 (with a fructose content of 42% in the dry mass). In Mexico, on the other hand, soft drinks are sweetened by cane sugar, which has a higher sweetening power. In addition, glucose syrup is used, inter alia, in the production of confectionery such as candies, toffee and fondant. Typical chemical reactions of glucose when heated under water-free conditions are caramelization and, in presence of amino acids, the Maillard reaction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drink mixer",
        "text": "Juices are flavorful additions. Some add sweetness, others add a sour tang, and add a sweet-tart sensation. Fruit juices are common additions to rum-based cocktails.\n* Apple cider (not to be confused with \"cider\", known as \"hard cider\" in the U.S.)\n* Coconut milk or coconut water\n* Cranberry juice\n* Grape juice\n* Grapefruit juice\n* Lemon juice\n* Lemonade\n* Lime juice, unsweetened\n* Limeade\n* Olive juice\n* Orange juice\n* Pineapple juice\n* Tomato juice \u2013 plain or flavored (V\u20138, Clamato, etc.)\n* Wheatgrass juice"
      },
      {
        "title": "Diet drink",
        "text": "The ideal goal in artificial sweetening is to replicate the exact taste and texture effects of sucrose with one or more of these non-caloric sweeteners. Despite decades of research and development, this goal remains elusive. Most sweeteners carry a marked aftertaste, often described as \"bitter\" or \"metallic\". The perception of this aftertaste has been studied intensively, and appears to be based on genetic factors that vary from person to person."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thickened fluids",
        "text": "4 \u2013 Extremely thick \u2013 drinks of this stage should require a spoon to drink and are comparable to pureed foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetness",
        "text": "The color of food can affect sweetness perception. Adding more red color to a drink increases its perceived sweetness. In a study darker colored solutions were rated 2\u201310% higher than lighter ones despite having 1% less sucrose concentration. The effect of color is believed to be due to cognitive expectations. Some odors smell sweet and memory confuses whether sweetness was tasted or smelled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Added sugar",
        "text": "Based on a 2012 study on the use of caloric and noncaloric sweeteners in some 85,000 food and beverage products, 74% contain added sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Frequency of sugar sweetened beverages results in dental caries, which are caused by Streptococcus bacteria. Dental caries is an infectious oral disease and is the breakdown of the teeth due to the bacteria in the mouth. It occurs when bacteria within the plaque metabolize the sugar, releasing various acids as waste compounds. As the acids are released, they form holes in the teeth which dissolve the enamel. The sugars, therefore provide a passageway for the activities of the oral bacteria, lowering salivary pH. The bacteria alone are not the sole cause of tooth decay, as it is the presence of these sugars that inhibit the production of acid."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of drinks",
        "text": "Drinks are liquids that can be consumed. In addition to basic needs, drinks form part of the culture of human society. In a commercial setting, drinks, other than water, may be termed beverages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coffee preparation",
        "text": "Alcoholic spirits and liqueurs can be added to coffee, often sweetened and with cream floated on top. These beverages are often given names according to the alcoholic addition:"
      },
      {
        "title": "-ade (suffix)",
        "text": "-ade is a suffix used for a fruit\u2013 (often citrus) flavored beverage. These drinks may be carbonated or non-carbonated. Widespread examples include lemonade, cherryade, limeade, and orangeade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drink",
        "text": "Cola, orange, various roots, ginger, and lemon/lime are commonly used to create non-alcoholic carbonated drinks; sugars and preservatives may be added later."
      },
      {
        "title": "Old fashioned (cocktail)",
        "text": "Some modern variants have greatly sweetened the old-fashioned, e.g. by adding blood orange soda to make a fizzy old-fashioned, or muddled strawberries to make a strawberry old-fashioned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Congener (beverages)",
        "text": "Congener (beverages)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Functional beverage",
        "text": "Powdered mixes may be added to boiling water or hot milk to make the drink at home. Powder mixes may be prepared at home, and are sold at grocery stores and online."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Hypokalemia is a potassium deficiency. It is defined by the level of potassium in the blood; levels 3.5 and 5.0 mmoL are considered to be normal while levels below 3.5\u00a0mmol/L are defined as hypokalemia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taste",
        "text": "Sweetness is subjectively measured by comparing the threshold values, or level at which the presence of a dilute substance can be detected by a human taster, of different sweet substances. Substances are usually measured relative to sucrose, which is usually given an arbitrary index of 1 or 100. Rebaudioside A is 100 times sweeter than sucrose; fructose is about 1.4 times sweeter; glucose, a sugar found in honey and vegetables, is about three-quarters as sweet; and lactose, a milk sugar, is one-half as sweet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glass rimmer",
        "text": "Anything that complements the flavor of the liquor in the drink can be used to rim a glass. Most common materials used are salt and sugar. There are colorful sugars, usually used for cake decorations. There are also flavored salts and sugars. More advanced materials can be used as well like wasabi sugar or wasabi salt for hot and spicy drinks; vanilla sugar, cinnamon sugar, ginger sugar, gingerbread spice and similar for enhancing eggnog and seasonal drinks; salt & pepper, celery salt or celery pepper for the Bloody Mary and Bloody Caesar (cocktail) ; powdered chocolate, chocolate sprinkles, and ground coconut for sweet or tropical drinks; Graham cracker crumbs for a Sidecar (cocktail); Jell-O powder and Kool-Aid powder are interesting variations for novelty drinks; and crushed candy cane secured with marshmallow Cr\u00e8me for seasonal cocktails."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flavoring",
        "text": "In one study, adding more red color to a drink increased the perceived sweetness, with darker colored solutions being rated 2\u201310% better than lighter ones, though it had 1% less sucrose concentration. Food manufacturers exploit this phenomenon; for example, different colors of the US products Froot Loops cereal and most brands of Gummy Bears often use the same flavorings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flavored syrup",
        "text": "Flavored syrup\n--In coffee and espresso drinks.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetness",
        "text": "A few substances alter the way sweet taste is perceived. One class of these inhibits the perception of sweet tastes, whether from sugars or from highly potent sweeteners. Commercially, the most important of these is lactisole, a compound produced by Domino Sugar. It is used in some jellies and other fruit preserves to bring out their fruit flavors by suppressing their otherwise strong sweetness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcoholic drink",
        "text": "Alcoholic drink\n--Fermented drinks.\n----Beer.\n----Cider.\n----Fermented tea.\n----Fermented water.\n------Fermented sugar water.\n----Mead.\n----Pulque.\n----Rice wine.\n----Wine.\n----Others.\n--Distilled beverages.\n----Rectified spirit.\n----Congeners.\n--Amount of use.\n--Reasons for use.\n----Ap\u00e9ritifs and digestifs.\n----Caloric content.\n------Distilled spirits.\n------Other beverages.\n----Flavoring.\n--Alcohol measurement.\n----Alcohol concentration.\n----Serving measures.\n------Shot sizes.\n------Standard drinks.\n--Laws.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of soft drinks by country",
        "text": "This is a list of soft drinks in order of the brand's country of origin. A soft drink is a beverage that typically contains water (often, but not always, carbonated water), usually a sweetener and usually a flavoring agent. The sweetener may be sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, fruit juice, sugar substitutes (in the case of diet drinks) or some combination of these. Soft drinks may also contain caffeine, colorings, preservatives and other ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mate (drink)",
        "text": "In the sweet version artificial sweeteners are also often added. As an alternative sweetener, natural (\"Stevia rebaudiana\") is preferred, which is an herb whose leaves are added in order to give a touch of sweetness. This is used principally in Paraguay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soft drink",
        "text": "From 1977 to 2002, Americans doubled their consumption of sweetened beverages\u2014a trend that was paralleled by doubling the prevalence of obesity. The consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages is associated with weight and obesity, and changes in consumption can help predict changes in weight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anadenanthera colubrina",
        "text": "A sweetened drink is made from the bark."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taste",
        "text": "As for the assignment of 1 or 100 to the index substances, this makes no difference to the rankings themselves, only to whether the values are displayed as whole numbers or decimal points. Glucose remains about three-quarters as sweet as sucrose whether displayed as 75 or 0.75."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soft drink",
        "text": "Most soft drinks contain high concentrations of simple carbohydrates: glucose, fructose, sucrose and other simple sugars. If oral bacteria ferment carbohydrates and produce acids that may dissolve tooth enamel and induce dental decay, then sweetened drinks may increase the risk of dental caries. The risk would be greater if the frequency of consumption is high."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cola",
        "text": "A variety of different sweeteners may be added to cola, often partly dependent on local agricultural policy. High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is predominantly used in the United States and Canada due to the lower cost of government-subsidized corn. In Europe, however, HFCS is subject to production quotas designed to encourage the production of sugar; sugar is thus typically used to sweeten sodas. In addition, stevia or an artificial sweetener may be used; \"sugar-free\" or \"diet\" colas typically contain artificial sweeteners only."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Research studies have indicated that there is a correlation between drinking sugar-sweetened beverages and gaining weight or becoming obese. Sugar-sweetened beverages do not provide the feeling of fullness like solid foods do, which may cause one to consume more of the beverage. According to the Center for Disease Control, the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System Survey found that 30.1% of American adults consume at least one sugar-sweetened beverage daily. Around the United States, sugar-sweetened beverage intake differs based on geographic regions and socio-demographic characteristics. States known for their obesity rates also had high consumption rates of sugar-sweetened beverages. For example, 47.1% of Mississippi adults consume at least one sugar-sweetened beverage a day. Their obesity rate correlates, with 35.6% of the adult population being obese in 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dessert",
        "text": "Desserts can contain many spices and extracts to add a variety of flavors. Salt and acids are added to desserts to balance sweet flavors and create a contrast in flavors. Some desserts are coffee-flavored, for example an iced coffee souffl\u00e9 or coffee biscuits. Alcohol can also be used as an ingredient, to make alcoholic desserts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetening (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sweetening may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Drink mixer",
        "text": "The key ingredient in a syrup is sugar, which sweetens any drink into which it is mixed. Other flavors are often added to a sugar syrup.\n* Demerara syrup \u2013 A combination of Demerara sugar, a natural brown sugar, and water.\n* Falernum \u2013 Of Caribbean origin, flavored with almonds, ginger and/or cloves, and lime.\n* Fassionola - A passion fruit, orange and guava juice syrup; variations include hibiscus and strawberry flavors\n* Grenadine \u2013 Originally made from pomegranate juice, modern varieties vary in composition.\n* Lime juice, sweetened \u2013 Rose's lime juice, etc.\n* Orgeat \u2013 Flavored with almonds and either rose water or orange flower water.\n* Simple syrup \u2013 A combination of granulated sugar and water.\n* Sour mix \u2013 Also known as sweet and sour mix, a combination of simple syrup and lemon or lime juice.\n* Squash \u2013 A concentrated fruit- or herbal-flavored syrup."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of drinks",
        "text": "\u2013 a soft drink is a drink that typically contains water (often, but not always, carbonated water), usually a sweetener and usually a flavoring agent. The sweetener may be sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, fruit juice, sugar substitutes (in the case of diet drinks) or some combination of these. Soft drinks may also contain caffeine, colorings, preservatives and other ingredients.\n* List of brand name soft drink products\n* List of soft drink flavors\n* List of soft drink producers\n* List of soft drinks by country\n*"
      },
      {
        "title": "Soft drink",
        "text": "The consumption of sugar-sweetened soft drinks can also be associated with many weight-related diseases, including diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular risk factors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soft drink",
        "text": "The term \"soft drink\" is a category in the beverage industry, and is broadly used in product labeling and on restaurant menus. However, in many countries such drinks are more commonly referred to by regional names, including \"soda\", \"pop\", \"cool drink\", and \"fizzy drink\". Other lesser used terms include \"carbonated drink\", \"cold drink\", \"fizzy juice\", \"lolly water\", \"seltzer\", \"coke\", \"soda pop\", \"tonic\", and \"mineral\". Due to the high sugar content in typical soft drinks, they may also be called \"sugary drinks\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Functional beverage",
        "text": "Health experts are concerned about the increased consumption and popularity of functional beverages. Although these beverages may serve to hydrate the individual, they may not mitigate or even address today's major health issues, such as obesity, heart disease, and cancer. Most functional beverages are sweetened, and consumption of sweetened beverages is associated with higher levels of obesity and heart disease. Most of these drinks contain significant amounts of sugars and hence calories, which would add to discretionary and total caloric intake. As such, these ingredients pose health risks because of what they contain (sugar and caffeine) or what they replace in the diet (vitamin and mineral-rich foods)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Dietary improvements in expecting mothers are important for the future health of the mother and child. Sugar-sweetened beverages among other beverages like coffee and alcohol are recommended to be reduced in intake. A Norwegian study, showed that pregnant woman minimized their intake of sugar-sweetened beverages, alcohol, and coffee, when educated about the negative effects these beverages can have on their unborn child. The statistics for each beverage showed that among alcohol, coffee, and sugar-sweetened beverages, sugar-sweetened beverages were still consumed more despite there being a minimized intake. The minimized intake of coffee and alcohol is due to the less harmful effects sugar-sweetened beverages have compared to coffee and alcohol. The report declares that the minimized intake may be due to alcohol and coffee being a part of socializing and therefore becomes substituted by sugar-sweetened beverages at social events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Garnish (food)",
        "text": "Garnishes for beverages include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetener (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sweetener may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Soft drink",
        "text": "Carbonated beverages are prepared by mixing chilled flavored syrup with chilled carbonated water. Carbonation levels range up to 5 volumes of CO2 per liquid volume. Ginger ale, colas, and related drinks are carbonated with 3.5 volumes. Other drinks, often fruity ones, are carbonated less."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lemonade",
        "text": "The suffix \"-ade\" may also be applied to other similar drinks made with different fruits, such as limeade, orangeade, or cherryade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mate (drink)",
        "text": "Some drinkers like to add sugar or honey, creating or (sweet mate), instead of sugarless (bitter mate), a practice said to be more common in Brazil outside its southernmost state. Some people also like to add lemon or orange peel, some herbs or even coffee, but these are mostly rejected by people who like to stick to the \"original\" mate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Acid erosion is defined as the loss of tooth enamel caused by acid attack. When consuming carbonated sugar sweetened beverages, acid deposits on the teeth, attacking the enamel. Over a gradual period, the enamel is worn down, which can lead to dental caries. Erosion of tooth enamel begins at a pH of 5.5, and ingredients found in sugar sweetened beverages such as phosphoric acid and citric acid significantly contribute to the demineralization of the enamel. Citric acid in various sugar sweetened beverages can cause chelation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soft drink",
        "text": "sweetened cordial flavored with rosewater, violets or cinnamon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Consumption of sports and energy drinks have been linked to irreversible tooth damage. This is especially common in adolescents who consume about 30-50% of the beverages that are on the market. Studies have shown that energy drinks have caused twice as much damage on teeth than sports drinks. Citric acid, the preservative found in many sugar sweetened beverages causes stripping of the enamel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetening (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sweetening is the process of making food more sweet. Wikipedia does not yet have an article on this process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcoholic drink",
        "text": "Fermented sugar water is fermented water with added refined sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drink mixer",
        "text": "The addition of a sauce usually imparts a surprising new taste to a familiar drink. Hot sauces are commonly used in drinking games.\n* Honey\n* Hot sauce \u2013 Tabasco sauce, etc.\n* Worcestershire sauce"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bandrek",
        "text": "This hot beverage is made of a mixture of ginger water, palm sugar and cinnamon. Other ingredients such as, star anise, cloves, coriander seeds, cardamom pods, lemongrass, and a small amount of black pepper are sometimes added. Milk can also be added to the mix, depending on one's taste. Sweetened condensed milk or coconut milk is commonly used for this purpose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punch (drink)",
        "text": "To one and a half of sweet,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "There are three mechanisms that lead to potassium deficiency due to cola drinks. They are as follows: (1) a large intake of glucose which leads to an intracellular redistribution of potassium; (2) potassium wasting due to large masses of indigestible fructose in the gastrointestinal tract; (3) the caffeine in cola drinks lead to diuresis, an increase in the sodium-potassium pumps via cellular phosphodiesterase inhibition, increased renin levels, and also produced metabolic alkalosis which all lead to hypokalemia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lemonade",
        "text": "Lemonade is a sweetened lemon-flavored beverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetness of wine",
        "text": "Wine can also be sweetened by the addition of sugar in some form, after fermentation is completed \u2013 the German method like the \"S\u00fcssreserve\". In Roman times, this was done in preparing mulsum, wine freshly sweetened with honey and flavored with spices, used as an ap\u00e9ritif, and also in the manufacture of conditum, which had similar ingredients but was matured and stored before drinking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tab (drink)",
        "text": "Tab has been reformulated several times. It was initially sweetened with a mixture of cyclamate and saccharin. After the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a ban on cyclamate in 1969, sodium saccharin was used as the beverage's primary sweetener."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fuze Beverage",
        "text": "Some Fuze products, such as Fuze Iced Tea, are sweetened with HFCS and sucralose, an artificial sweetener."
      },
      {
        "title": "Concentrate",
        "text": "Most sodas and soft drinks are produced as highly concentrated syrups and later diluted with carbonated water directly before consumption or bottling. Such concentrated syrups are sometimes retailed to the end-consumer because of their relatively low price and considerable weight savings. Condensed milk is also produced for transport weight savings and resistance to spoilage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beverage-can stove",
        "text": "Fuel must never be added when the flame is still burning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sour gas",
        "text": "Sour gas\n--Methods for sweetening.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeinated drink",
        "text": "Caffeinated drink\n--Beverages.\n----Coffee.\n----Tea.\n----Soft drinks and energy drinks.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweet Sugar",
        "text": "Sweet Sugar may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Soft drink",
        "text": "The origins of soft drinks lie in the development of fruit-flavored drinks. In the medieval Middle East, a variety of fruit-flavored soft drinks were widely drunk, such as sharbat, and were often sweetened with ingredients such as sugar, syrup and honey. Other common ingredients included lemon, apple, pomegranate, tamarind, jujube, sumac, musk, mint and ice. Middle Eastern drinks later became popular in medieval Europe, where the word \"syrup\" was derived from Arabic. In Tudor England, 'water imperial' was widely drunk; it was a sweetened drink with lemon flavor and containing cream of tartar. 'Manays Cryste' was a"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lean (drug)",
        "text": "To create a drinkable mixture, the cough syrup is combined with soft drinks, especially fruit-flavored drinks such as Sprite, Mountain Dew or Fanta, and is typically served in a foam cup. A hard candy, usually a Jolly Rancher, may be added to give the mixture a sweeter flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Added sugar",
        "text": "In the United States, added sugars may include sucrose or high-fructose corn syrup, both primarily composed of about half glucose and half fructose. Other types of added sugar ingredients include beet and cane sugars, all types of corn syrup (including solids), malt syrup, maple syrup, pancake syrup, fructose sweetener, liquid fructose, fruit juice concentrate, honey, and molasses. The most common types of foods containing added sugars are sweetened beverages, including most soft drinks, which represent 20% of daily calorie consumption, twice the recommendation of the World Health Organization (WHO)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juice",
        "text": "In the US, \"fruit juice\" can only legally be used to describe a product which is 100% fruit juice. A blend of fruit juice(s) with other ingredients, such as high-fructose corn syrup, is called a \"juice cocktail\" or \"juice drink\". According to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the term \"nectar\" is generally accepted in the US and in international trade for a diluted juice to denote a beverage that contains fruit juice or puree, water, and artificial sweeteners. \"No added sugar\" is commonly printed on labels of juice containers, but the products may contain large amounts of naturally occurring sugars; however, sugar content is listed with other carbohydrates on labels in many countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diet drink",
        "text": "Several different sweeteners are used to replace sugar in low-calorie diet beverages. The primary compounds worldwide are aspartame, saccharin, sucralose, cyclamates (outside the US), acesulfame potassium (\"Ace K\"), and stevia."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is added to a beverage to be classified as sweetened beverage?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sugar is the ingredient added to make it a sweetened beverage."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What other things can be added to a drink to make it sweeter?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Added sugars or free sugars are sugar carbohydrates added to beverages and may include sucrose or high-fructose corn syrup beet and cane sugars, malt syrup, maple syrup, fructose sweetener, liquid fructose, fruit juice concentrate, aspartame, monk fruit extract, saccharin, sucralose, and/or stevia.",
      "Artificial sweeteners may be derived through manufacturing of plant extracts or processed by chemical synthesis. Sugar substitute products are commercially available in various forms, such as small pills, powders, and packets."
    ],
    "topic": "Sweetened beverage",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Added sugar:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Added sugar",
          "Usage",
          "In the United States"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the United States, added sugars may include sucrose or high-fructose corn syrup, both primarily composed of about half glucose and half fructose. Other types of added sugar ingredients include beet and cane sugars, all types of corn syrup (including solids), malt syrup, maple syrup, pancake syrup, fructose sweetener, liquid fructose, fruit juice concentrate, honey, and molasses. The most common types of foods containing added sugars are sweetened beverages, including most soft drinks, which represent 20% of daily calorie consumption, twice the recommendation of the World Health Organization (WHO)."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Added sugar:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Added sugar"
        ],
        "ctx": "Added sugars or free sugars are sugar carbohydrates (caloric sweeteners) added to food and beverages at some point before their consumption. These include added carbohydrates (monosaccharides and disaccharides), and more broadly, sugars naturally present in honey, syrup, and fruit juice. They can take multiple chemical forms, including sucrose, glucose, fructose, and dextrose."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Sugar substitute:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sugar substitute"
        ],
        "ctx": "In North America, common sugar substitutes include aspartame, monk fruit extract, saccharin, sucralose, and stevia; cyclamate is also used outside the United States. These sweeteners are a fundamental ingredient in diet drinks to sweeten them without adding calories. Additionally, sugar alcohols such as erythritol, xylitol, and sorbitol are derived from sugars."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Sugar substitute:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sugar substitute"
        ],
        "ctx": "A sugar substitute is a food additive that provides a sweet taste like that of sugar while containing significantly less food energy than sugar-based sweeteners, making it a zero-calorie () or low-calorie sweetener. Artificial sweeteners may be derived through manufacturing of plant extracts or processed by chemical synthesis. Sugar substitute products are commercially available in various forms, such as small pills, powders, and packets."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Norbu (sweetener)",
        "text": "Monk fruit extract has been developed as a sweetener for food and beverages. Though the monk fruit contains carbohydrates such as fructose and glucose, Norbu is made only from the extracted mongrosides of the monk fruit. Norbu also contains erythritol as a sweetener and a binding and filling agent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar substitute",
        "text": "Stevia (pure extracted steviol glycosides) has an ADI of 4 and a MSI of 200 to 400, where for monk fruit, no ADI has been determined and the MSI is 250 to 400."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siraitia grosvenorii",
        "text": "The monk fruit is notable for its sweetness, which can be concentrated from its juice. The fruit contains 25 to 38% of various carbohydrates, mainly fructose and glucose. The sweetness of the fruit is increased by the mogrosides, a group of triterpene glycosides (saponins). The five different mogrosides are numbered from I to V; the main component is mogroside V, which is also known as esgoside."
      },
      {
        "title": "Added sugar",
        "text": "Sweetened beverages contain a syrup mixture of the monosaccharides glucose and fructose, which is formed by hydrolytic saccharification of the disaccharide sucrose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugarcane mill",
        "text": "The clarified juice is concentrated in a multiple-effect evaporator to make a syrup of about 50 percent sucrose by weight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar substitute",
        "text": "Mogrosides, extracted from monk fruit and commonly called \"luo han guo\", are recognized as safe for human consumption and are used in commercial products worldwide. As of 2017, it is not a permitted sweetener in the European Union, although it is allowed as a flavor at concentrations where it does not function as a sweetener. In 2017, a Chinese company requested a scientific review of its mogroside product by the European Food Safety Authority. It is the basis of McNeil Nutritionals's tabletop sweetener Nectresse in the United States and Norbu Sweetener in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Norbu (sweetener)",
        "text": "Norbu is a sugar substitute containing monk fruit extract and erythritol, marketed as a sweetener for beverages, baking, and cooking. Norbu sweetener was launched in Coles Supermarkets and Woolworths Supermarkets> in 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siraitia grosvenorii",
        "text": "Siraitia grosvenorii, also known as monkfruit or luohan guo, is a herbaceous perennial vine of the gourd family, Cucurbitaceae. It is native to southern China and northern Thailand. The plant is cultivated for its fruit extract, called mogrosides, which creates a sweetness sensation 250 times stronger than sucrose. Mogroside extract has been used as a low-calorie sweetener for drinks and in traditional Chinese medicine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fruit2O",
        "text": "Fruit2O was originally made by Veryfine Products of Littleton, Massachusetts, which used spring water, citric acid, natural flavors, sodium benzoate and potassium sorbate (to preserve freshness) and Splenda (sucralose) as its only sweetener. When Kraft purchased the company, it discontinued making the beverage with spring water, and added the artificial sweetener Ace-K (acesulfame potassium). Recently, Veryfine Products (Late 2008?) was spun off Kraft and Fruit2O returned to only using Sucralose for a sweetener."
      },
      {
        "title": "Non-centrifugal cane sugar",
        "text": "The cane juice is generally extracted from cleaned and eventually shredded cane stalks by mechanical processes, commonly with simple crushers consisting of three metal rollers. It is filtered to separate bagasse particles and/or allowed to settle so to eliminate solid impurities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extract",
        "text": "The majority of concentrated fruit flavors such as banana, cherry, peach, pineapple, raspberry and strawberry, are produced by combining a variety of esters with special oils. Suitable coloring is generally obtained by the use of dyes. Among the esters most generally employed are ethyl acetate and ethyl butyrate. The chief factors in the production of artificial banana, pineapple, and strawberry extract are amyl acetate and amyl butyrate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charantoside",
        "text": "Charantosides I through VIII can be extracted from the fresh fruit with methanol and ethyl acetate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siraitia grosvenorii",
        "text": "In this process, the peel and seeds are removed, and the pulped fruit is made into a fruit concentrate or puree. Additional juice may be extracted from the remaining pulp by hot water. The juice is homogenized, acidified slightly to prevent gelling and improve the flavor, then treated with pectinase or other enzymes to break down the pectin. Most of the off-flavor agents are then removed with ion-exchange resins, such as sulfonated polystyrene-divinylbenzene copolymer or polyacrylic acid. Alternatively, the off-flavors can be adsorbed by agents like charcoal or bentonite, which are removed by filtration; or precipitated with gelatin or other gelling agents. Most of the remaining sulfurous volatiles are then removed by low-pressure evaporation. The juice is then pasteurized to inactivate remaining natural enzymes and kill micro-organisms. The process is claimed to preserve a substantial fraction of the mogrosides present in the fruit, with the resulting sweetness at a level about 250 times stronger than sucrose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Golden syrup",
        "text": "An equivalent golden syrup product may be made from beet sugar by processing the clarified, partially evaporated beet juice to break down (invert) most of the disaccharide sucrose into its constituents monosaccharides glucose and fructose. In this process none of the sucrose is ever crystallized from the beet juice. Inversion may be done by acid hydrolysis or by adding an enzyme, invertase. This produces a free flowing (invert) syrup that will not crystallize. Typically in acid hydrolysis, the disaccharides are split by hydrochloric acid, resulting in a solution which is acidic; neutrality is restored by the addition of lye, which is sodium hydroxide. As a result, syrup made by this method contains some common salt, sodium chloride."
      },
      {
        "title": "Earthen plaster",
        "text": "Cactus juice is extracted by immersing cut leaves in water for as long as two weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fros\u00e9 (drink)",
        "text": "The rose wine is generally frozen and then ground in a blender, or made into a slush in a machine. Sugar is then added as a syrup or dissolved in water, strawberry without seeds or pulp, and lemon juice, blended together."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fructose",
        "text": "Table 1 also shows the amount of sucrose found in common fruits and vegetables. Sugarcane and sugar beet have a high concentration of sucrose, and are used for commercial preparation of pure sucrose. Extracted cane or beet juice is clarified, removing impurities; and concentrated by removing excess water. The end-product is 99.9%-pure sucrose. Sucrose-containing sugars include common white sugar and powdered sugar, as well as brown sugar.\n: The carbohydrate figure is calculated in the USDA database and does not always correspond to the sum of the sugars, the starch, and the \"dietary fiber\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siraitia grosvenorii",
        "text": "The sweet taste of the fruit comes mainly from mogrosides, a group of triterpene glycosides that make up about 1% of the flesh of the fresh fruit. Through solvent extraction, a powder containing 80% mogrosides can be obtained, the main one being mogroside-5 (esgoside). Other similar agents in the fruit are siamenoside and neomogroside."
      },
      {
        "title": "Momordicoside",
        "text": "Momordicosides A, B, F1, F2 K\u2013N, and S can be extracted from the fruit with methanol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inverted sugar syrup",
        "text": "Inverted sugar syrup is the basis in sweetened beverages.\n* Sweet reserve is a wine term referring to a portion of selected unfermented grape must, free of microorganisms, to be added to wine as a sweetening component. When wine ferments, glucose is fermented at a faster rate than fructose. Thus, arresting fermentation after a significant portion of the sugars have fermented results in a wine where the residual sugar consists mainly of fructose, while the use of S\u00fcssreserve will result in a wine where the sweetness comes from a mixture of glucose and fructose.\n* Alcoholic beverage manufacturers often add invert sugar in the production of drinks like gin, beer and sparkling wines for flavouring. Candi sugar, similar to invert sugar, is used in the brewing of Belgian-style beers to boost alcohol content without drastically increasing the body of the beer; it is frequently found in the styles of beer known as dubbel and tripel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fructose",
        "text": "Commercially, fructose is derived from sugar cane, sugar beets, and maize. High-fructose corn syrup is a mixture of glucose and fructose as monosaccharides. Sucrose is a compound with one molecule of glucose covalently linked to one molecule of fructose. All forms of fructose, including fruits and juices, are commonly added to foods and drinks for palatability and taste enhancement, and for browning of some foods, such as baked goods. About 240,000 tonnes of crystalline fructose are produced annually."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vanilla",
        "text": "Under this scheme, vanilla extract is normally made from Grade B fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of sugars",
        "text": "Malting is a way of processing starchy grains like wheat and barley into sugar, so \"malt extract\" will be mostly sugar. Sugar is mostly extracted from plants by juicing them, then drying the purified juice, so \"evaporated cane juice crystals\" or \"concentrated grape juice\" are also very similar to pure sugars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arenga pinnata",
        "text": "Sugar (jaggery) is also commonly derived from the fresh sap in Indonesia and the Philippines. These are traditionally prevented from fermenting by placing crushed chili or ginger in the collecting container. The sap is boiled until it reduces to a thick syrup which is then dried into a brown sugar. Similar sugar extraction methods are also traditionally used for other sugar palms, like the buri palm (\"Corypha elata\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Curau",
        "text": "The extracted liquid is combined with the sugar and any other ingredients, and thickened to a creamy consistency by cooking on the stove for about 45 minutes (or in the microwave oven for 12\u201315 minutes), stirring frequently. The cream is then poured into appropriate containers (dessert cups, muffin molds, shallow baking pans, etc.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Grapefruit seed extract",
        "text": "GSE is prepared by grinding the grapefruit seed and juiceless pulp, then mixing with glycerin. Commercially available GSE is made from the seed, pulp, glycerin, and synthetic preservatives all blended together."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar substitute",
        "text": "In North America, common sugar substitutes include aspartame, monk fruit extract, saccharin, sucralose, and stevia; cyclamate is also used outside the United States. These sweeteners are a fundamental ingredient in diet drinks to sweeten them without adding calories. Additionally, sugar alcohols such as erythritol, xylitol, and sorbitol are derived from sugars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hydroxy alpha sanshool",
        "text": "To isolate the molecule from the pepper in form of an extract, steam distillation can be used: Dried peels"
      },
      {
        "title": "Y. Claire Wang",
        "text": "Y. Claire Wang\n--Research.\n----Sugar-sweetened beverages.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sucrose",
        "text": "For human consumption, sucrose is extracted and refined from either sugarcane or sugar beet. Sugar mills \u2013 typically located in tropical regions near where sugarcane is grown \u2013 crush the cane and produce raw sugar which is shipped to other factories for refining into pure sucrose. Sugar beet factories are located in temperate climates where the beet is grown, and process the beets directly into refined sugar. The sugar-refining process involves washing the raw sugar crystals before dissolving them into a sugar syrup which is filtered and then passed over carbon to remove any residual colour. The sugar syrup is then concentrated by boiling under a vacuum and crystallized as the final purification process to produce crystals of pure sucrose that are clear, odorless, and sweet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sucrose",
        "text": "Beet sugar producers slice the washed beets, then extract the sugar with hot water in a \"diffuser\". An alkaline solution (\"milk of lime\" and carbon dioxide from the lime kiln) then serves to precipitate impurities (see carbonatation). After filtration, evaporation concentrates the juice to a content of about 70% solids, and controlled crystallisation extracts the sugar. A centrifuge removes the sugar crystals from the liquid, which gets recycled in the crystalliser stages. When economic constraints prevent the removal of more sugar, the manufacturer discards the remaining liquid, now known as molasses, or sells it on to producers of animal feed."
      },
      {
        "title": "McNeil Consumer Healthcare",
        "text": "In 2012, it started to sell a monk fruit-based sweetener called Nectresse."
      },
      {
        "title": "15,16-Dihydroxy-alpha-eleostearic acid",
        "text": "The compound can be extracted from the fruit with ethanol, and is soluble in ethyl acetate but not in water or acetone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugarcane mill",
        "text": "There are two processes for extracting juice from cane:\n*Milling, and\n*Diffusion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agave syrup",
        "text": "An alternative method used to process the agave juice without heat is described in a United States patent for a process that uses enzymes derived from the mold \"Aspergillus niger\" to convert the inulin-rich extract into fructose. In slightly greater detail, the polyfructose extract obtained from the mashed agave pulp is hydrolyzed via a chemical process patented in 1998, with inulin enzymes (obtained from \"Aspergillus niger\"), to produce a hydrolyzed fructose extract. Concentrating the fructose yields the familiar syrup. Agave syrup (nectar) is not listed on the inventory of foods generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "Commercial squeezed orange juice is pasteurized and filtered before being evaporated under vacuum and heat. After removal of most of the water, this concentrate, about 65% sugar by weight, is then stored at about . Essences, Vitamin C, and oils extracted during the vacuum concentration process may be added back to restore flavor and nutrition (see below)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sirop de Li\u00e8ge",
        "text": "Cored fruit is cooked slowly until it falls apart, releasing the pectin from the skin. The compote is then pushed through a , removing the skin, and breaking the fruit into mush. It is then reduced by slow cooking over several hours until the pectin sets, in the same way jam is, then tested by dropping a test piece into cold water. Typically, 6\u20138 kg of fruit produce 1 kg of syrup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adjuncts",
        "text": "Sucrose may come from sugar-cane or from sugar-beet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey extraction",
        "text": "The table below outlines the extraction process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inverted sugar syrup",
        "text": "simple syrup, sugar syrup, sugar water, bar syrup, or sucrose inversion, is a syrup mixture of the monosaccharides glucose, and fructose, that is made by hydrolytic saccharification of the disaccharide sucrose. This mixture's optical rotation is opposite to that of the original sugar, which is why it is called an \"invert\" sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Umeboshi",
        "text": "Umeboshi are traditionally made by harvesting ume fruit when they ripen around June and packing them in barrels with 20% salt per weight of fruit. The salt extracts juice, which the ume then soak in for about two weeks. This salty, sour liquid is marketed as \"umezu\" (\u6885\u9162; often calqued as 'ume vinegar', although it is not a true vinegar.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fraxinus ornus",
        "text": "A sugary extract from the sap may be obtained by making a cut in the bark; this was compared in late medieval times (attested by around 1400 AD) with the biblical manna, giving rise to the English name of the tree, and some of the vernacular names from its native area (\"fresno del man\u00e1\" in Spanish, \"frassino da manna\" in Italian). In fact, the sugar mannose and the sugar alcohol mannitol both derive their names from the extract."
      },
      {
        "title": "Merox",
        "text": "After decantation of the disulfides, the regenerated \"lean\" caustic solution is recirculated back to the top of the extractor to continue extracting mercaptans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Triple sec",
        "text": "Triple sec is usually made from orange peels steeped in a spirit derived from sugar beet due to its neutral flavor. Oranges are then harvested when their skin is still green and they have not fully ripened, so the essential oils remain in the skin and not the flesh of the fruit. This spirit is then redistilled and mixed with more neutral spirit, water, and powdered beet sugar resulting in the final liqueur. This process creates a spirit that has a very strong and distinct orange flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugarcane",
        "text": "After filtering any remaining solids, the clarified syrup is decolorized by filtration through activated carbon. Bone char or coal-based activated carbon is traditionally used in this role. Some remaining color-forming impurities are adsorbed by the carbon. The purified syrup is then concentrated to supersaturation and repeatedly crystallized in a vacuum, to produce white refined sugar. As in a sugar mill, the sugar crystals are separated from the molasses by centrifuging. Additional sugar is recovered by blending the remaining syrup with the washings from affination and again crystallizing to produce brown sugar. When no more sugar can be economically recovered, the final molasses still contains 20\u201330% sucrose and 15\u201325% glucose and fructose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Media"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hydroxy alpha sanshool",
        "text": "of the fruit are immersed in a mixture of lower alcohols (for example ethanol) and water with a mass"
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor sweetening process",
        "text": "These sulfur compounds can be removed with the following chemical reactions:\n:<chem>\\overset{sour~gasoline}{2RSH} + {Na2PbO2} + S ->[\\text{in the presence of NaOH}] \\overset{alkyl~disulfide}{R-S-S-R} + {PbS} + 2NaOH</chem>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dr Pepper",
        "text": "A handful of United States bottling plants still use sugar to sweeten Dr Pepper. The Dr Pepper bottling plant in Dublin, Texas used to produce such a beverage, known as Dublin Dr Pepper. In the 1980s, plant owner W.P. \"Bill\" Kloster (June 7, 1918 September 27, 1999) refused to convert the plant to high fructose corn syrup. Other bottlers still using sugar include Temple Bottling Company, in Temple, Texas, Ab-Tex in Abilene, and West Jefferson Dr Pepper of West Jefferson, NC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbonatation",
        "text": "The target is a large particle that naturally settles rapidly to leave a clear juice. The juice at the end is approximately 15 \u00b0Bx and 90% sucrose. The pH of the thin juice produced is a balance between removing as much calcium from the solution and the expected pH drop across later processing. If the juice goes acidic in the crystallisation stages then sucrose rapidly breaks down to glucose and fructose; not only do glucose and fructose affect crystallisation but they are \"molassagenic\" taking equivalent amounts of sucrose on to the molasses stage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey extraction",
        "text": "Once uncapped, the frames are then placed in a honey extractor, which spins them so that most of the honey is removed by centrifugal force. Care must be taken to ensure that all frames are loaded correctly, as the comb is angled slightly upwards to prevent the honey flowing out; if loaded incorrectly, this can also prevent the honey flowing out during extraction. Once extracted, the resulting honey will contain bits of wax and must be passed through a screen so that clean liquid honey results."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar refinery",
        "text": "After any remaining solids are filtered out, the clarified syrup is decolorized by filtration through the use of bone char, which is made from the bones of cattle, a bed of activated carbon or, in more modern plants, ion-exchange resin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fuzzy extractor",
        "text": "(2) Rep formula_118: recover formula_119 and output formula_120."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gnetum gnemon",
        "text": "The extraction of dried leaf of \"Gnetum gnemon\" with acetone water (1:1) gave \"C\"-glycosylflavones (isovitexin, vicenin II, isoswertisin, swertisin, swertiajaponin, isoswertiajaponin)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marmite",
        "text": "While the process is secret, the general method for making yeast extract on a commercial scale is to add salt to a suspension of yeast, making the solution hypertonic, which results in the cells shrivelling; this triggers autolysis, during which the yeast self-destructs. The dying yeast cells are then heated to complete their breakdown, and since yeast cells have thick cell walls which would detract from the smoothness of the end product, the husks are sieved out. As with other yeast extracts, Marmite contains free glutamic acid, the monosodium salt of which being monosodium glutamate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor sweetening process",
        "text": "If the mixture is now treated with powdered sulfur, which has a high affinity for lead, a black suspension of lead sulfide forms, and conversion of the mercaptide into a so-called disulfide (which remains in the oil) is induced:\n:<chem> -(RS)2Pb + S -> RS-SR + PbS</chem>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Nov\u00fd Dv\u016fr Monastery",
        "text": ", the monastery is a home of about twenty monks, who manufacture several products: face cream \"Cr\u00e8me R\u00e9paratrice\" with an extract of corn sprouts, linden and orange tree with ECOCERT certification; four sorts of mustard (two are produced via organic farming), which are sold next to Czech Republic also in France, Germany, Austria and Hungary. The recipes of both products were created by monks in Nov\u00fd Dv\u016fr and the other products of Nov\u00fd Dv\u016fr such as jam, coffee and dietary supplements originate from their home monastery Sept-Fons Abbey in France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muscovado",
        "text": "Muscovado is made from the juice of sugar cane that is evaporated until crystallisation occurs. The viscous suspension of crystals and mother liquor (molasses) is called massecuite. In the 19th century several techniques were used for sugar production. Muscovado is today produced by three main methods:\n* The manual production method is to crystallise (granulate) massecuite by cooling it in pans and continuously shearing it by stirring with a large spatula (typically used in India) or by pressing it with the feet (typically used in Africa).\n* The industrial centrifuge method invented in late 18th to early 19th century, in which massecuite is crystallised using a centrifuge to separate a crystal-rich mush that is drained of its molasses in a vessel under gravity.\n* Modern industrial methods using a spray drier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chambord (liqueur)",
        "text": "After the infusion is extracted, a second set of spirits is added to the fruit and allowed to rest for a few weeks. After this second infusion is drawn off, the remaining fruit is pressed to obtain the natural sugars and juice. The fruit-infused spirits and juices from the final pressing are then combined, and finally, the berry infusion is combined with a proprietary blend of cognac, natural vanilla extract, black raspberries, citrus peel, honey, and herbs and spices. The liqueur is 16.5% alcohol by volume."
      },
      {
        "title": "Succade",
        "text": "Recipes vary from region to region, but the general principle is to boil the fruit, steep it in increasingly strong sugar solutions for a number of weeks, and then dry off any remaining water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fructose",
        "text": "Fructose may be anaerobically fermented by yeast or bacteria. Yeast enzymes convert sugar (sucrose, glucose, or fructose, but not lactose) to ethanol and carbon dioxide. Some of the carbon dioxide produced during fermentation will remain dissolved in water, where it will reach equilibrium with carbonic acid. The dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid produce the carbonation in some fermented beverages, such as champagne."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atchara",
        "text": "The mixture is placed in airtight jars where it will keep without refrigeration, however once opened it is preferably kept chilled to maintain its flavour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guinness Yeast Extract",
        "text": "In February 2007 Marmite produced a limited edition Guinness Marmite of 300,000 250g jars of their yeast extract with 30% Guinness yeast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy molasses",
        "text": "The alcohols are removed from the liquid extract by evaporation and the distillation residue is an aqueous solution of the sugars and other soy solubles. This solution is concentrated to viscous honey-like consistency to yield soy molasses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mageu",
        "text": "Its taste is derived predominantly from the lactic acid that is produced during fermentation, but commercial mageu is often flavored and sweetened, much in the way commercially-available yogurt is. Similar beverages are also made in other parts of Africa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drink",
        "text": "The process of extracting juice from fruits and vegetables can take a number of forms. Simple crushing of most fruits will provide a significant amount of liquid, though a more intense pressure can be applied to get the maximum amount of juice from the fruit. Both crushing and pressing are processes used in the production of wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inverted sugar syrup",
        "text": "Crystallized invert sugar solutions can be restored to their liquid state by gently heating.\n*Honey which is mostly a mixture of glucose and fructose, being similar to invert syrup therefore, can remain a liquid for longer periods of time.\n*Jam contains invert sugar formed by the heating process and the acid content of the fruit. This sugar preserves the jam for long periods of time.\n*Golden syrup is a syrup of about 55% invert syrup and 45% table sugar (sucrose).\n*Fondant filling for chocolates is unique in that the conversion enzyme is added, but not activated by acidification (microenvironment pH adjustment) or cofactor addition depending on the enzyme(s), before the filling is enrobed with chocolate. The very viscous (and thus formable) filling then becomes less viscous with time, giving the creamy consistency desired. This results from the sub-optimal enzyme(s) conditions purposely created by withholding activation factors, which allows only a fraction of the enzyme(s) to be active, or allows all enzyme(s) to proceed at only a fraction of the biological rate [biologically, it's realistically a combination of both: a reduced number of functional enzymes, with the ones that do function having reduced catalytic kinetics/rates].\n*Cigarettes use inverted sugar as a \"casing\" to add flavour.\n*Cadbury Creme Eggs are filled with inverted sugar syrup produced by processing fondant with invertase.\n*Sour Patch Kids also contain inverted sugar to add sweet flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fruit syrup",
        "text": "Fruit syrup\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rhum Barbancourt",
        "text": "Barbancourt is made directly from sugar cane juice rather than the sugar cane by-product molasses. This is similar to the rhum agricole of Martinique, which is strictly controlled by law. Fermenting fresh sugar cane juice provides a more flavorful product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palm syrup",
        "text": "The harvested guarapo is then brought to, or collected by, a local processing plant, or may be processed on site. Processing involves boiling the guarapo for several hours until it is reduced by about 90% to a dark brown syrup that is rich and sweet. It is then packaged, typically in glass jars. Palm syrup will tend to thicken and crystallize over time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar beet",
        "text": "Before entering the next stage, the thin juice may receive soda ash to modify the pH and sulphitation with a sulfur-based compound to reduce colour formation due to decomposition of monosaccharides under heat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squeeze a Flower",
        "text": "Brother George is the only monk at the Italian Monastery who knows the secret recipe of the popular liqueur that is the sole source of income for the monastery. When he feels their sole distributor, a local wine merchant, is not giving the monastery a fair price, he leaves and moves to Australia. There he works at a vineyard picking grapes and starts making the liqueur in his spare time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Old Monk",
        "text": "Old Monk Rum is an iconic vatted Indian dark rum, launched in 1954. It is a dark rum with a distinct vanilla flavour, with an alcohol content of 42.8%. It is produced in Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mohan Meakin",
        "text": "Old Monk is a vatted Indian rum, blended and aged for 7 years (though there is also more expensive, 12-year-old version). It is dark, with an alcohol content of 42.8 (army issue alcohol content is 50%). It is produced by Mohan Meakin, based in Mohan Nagar, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh."
      },
      {
        "title": "McIntosh Sugarworks",
        "text": "In the middle room, the extracted juice was boiled and clarified into a syrup. The syrup was then allowed to crystallize into granules and the molasses was drained off. The middle room had an earthen instead of wooden floor due to the high temperatures and open flame used to boil the syrup. The boiling operation there involved multiple kettles that allowed for the different stages of condensing the juice into syrup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar beet",
        "text": "Carbonatation is a procedure which removes impurities from raw juice before it undergoes crystallization. First, the juice is mixed with hot milk of lime (a suspension of calcium hydroxide in water). This treatment precipitates a number of impurities, including multivalent anions such as sulfate, phosphate, citrate and oxalate, which precipitate as their calcium salts and large organic molecules such as proteins, saponins and pectins, which aggregate in the presence of multivalent cations. In addition, the alkaline conditions convert the simple sugars, glucose and fructose, along with the amino acid glutamine, to chemically stable carboxylic acids. Left untreated, these sugars and amines would eventually frustrate crystallization of the sucrose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hoshi-imo",
        "text": "Not to be mistaken for mold, this is a form of crystallized sugar that emerges as the sweet potatoes dry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peppermint extract",
        "text": "Peppermint extract can be obtained through steam distillation, solvent extraction, and soxhlet extraction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mors (drink)",
        "text": "Mors () is a non-carbonated Russian fruit drink prepared from berries, mainly from lingonberry and cranberry (although sometimes blueberries, strawberries, raspberries or sea-buckthorn). It is made by boiling berries with sugar or honey and lemon juice or by mixing pure juice with sweetened water. Some modern commercial brands use fermented and clarified juices blending with sugar syrup and drinking water. Instead of juice, fruit extracts may be used with the addition of aromatic essences, organic food acids, sugars, dyes, and drinking water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor sweetening process",
        "text": "With no sulfur added, but in the presence of atmospheric oxygen, the same conversion occurs, but only slowly, and probably not completely:\n:<chem> 2(RS)2Pb + 4NaOH + O2 -> 2RS-SR + 2Na2PbO2 + 2H2O</chem>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yeast extract",
        "text": "Yeast extracts in liquid form can be dried to a light paste or a dry powder. This is not the same as nutritional yeast, which are made from intact cells not directly hydrolyzed and consequently have a lighter flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Merox",
        "text": "unit. The regenerated lean Merox caustic is then pumped back to the top of the extractor for reuse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gambier (extract)",
        "text": "To make gambier, the leaves are first boiled in water. They absorb it and turn brownish in color. The leaves are then pressed mechanically to squeeze and extract liquid. This liquid is then dried into a semi-solid paste and molded into cubes, which are dried in the sun."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extract",
        "text": "Artificial extracts generally do not possess the delicacy of natural fruit flavor, but usually taste sufficiently similar to be useful when true essences are unobtainable or too expensive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ram press (food)",
        "text": "The \"fruit ram press\" and \"cider ram press\" are both types of fruit presses that extract the juices out of the fruit through pressure. The second makes apple cider."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zarex (drink)",
        "text": "As of July 1, 2021, the web site of ZaRex Cape Cod MA (http://www.zarexcapecodma.com/) says that they are \"Preparing to return\" and lists a phone number for ordering. They indicate that they have revised the recipe by removing fructose and will be producing one flavor, raspberry, \"to insure success.\" The actual manufacturing of the syrup will be done by Lancaster Fine Foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar beet",
        "text": "The thin juice is concentrated by multiple-effect evaporation to make a thick juice, roughly 60% sucrose by weight and similar in appearance to maple syrup. Thick juice can be stored in tanks for later processing, reducing the load on the crystallization plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fruit2O",
        "text": "The current ingredients vary slightly with each flavor, but generally include purified water, less than 2% of natural flavor, citric acid, tartaric acid, malic acid, sucralose (Splenda), acesulfame potassium, sodium benzoate, and potassium sorbate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Isomalt",
        "text": "Isomalt is manufactured in a two-stage process in which sucrose is first transformed into isomaltulose, a reducing disaccharide (6-\"O\"-\u03b1--glucopyranosido--fructose). The isomaltulose is then hydrogenated, using a Raney nickel catalyst. The final product \u2014 isomalt \u2014 is an equimolar composition of 6-\"O\"-\u03b1--glucopyranosido--sorbitol (1,6-GPS) and 1-\"O\"-\u03b1--glucopyranosido--mannitol-dihydrate (1,1-GPM-dihydrate)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugarcane juice",
        "text": "Sugarcane juice is the liquid extracted from pressed sugarcane. It is consumed as a beverage in many places, especially where sugarcane is commercially grown, such as Southeast Asia, the Indian Subcontinent, North Africa, and Latin America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guerin Spranger",
        "text": "They also produced vanilla extract."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jaggery",
        "text": "All types of the sugar come in blocks or pastes of solidified concentrated sugar syrup heated to . Traditionally, the syrup is made by boiling raw sugarcane juice or palm sap in large, shallow, round-bottomed vessels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extract",
        "text": "An extract is a substance made by extracting a part of a raw material, often by using a solvent such as ethanol, oil or water. Extracts may be sold as tinctures, absolutes or in powder form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goyaglycoside",
        "text": "Goyaglycosides c and d can be extracted from the fresh fruit with methanol and ethyl acetate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mr. Monk in Outer Space",
        "text": "To prove his point, Monk produces a piece of gum in the backseat of the cab. He notes that it appears two days old, proving that Conrad Stipe was in this cab recently - the piece of chewing gum in Bisson's cab is identical to a piece of gum that Monk noticed in the cab Stipe took from his hotel to the convention on the morning he was killed. To prove that Lorber's death is connected to them, Monk produces a candy wrapper and reveals that it came from a bowl of coffee candies in Lorber's office. Recalling that Randy and Stottlemeyer helped themselves to coffee candies from this bowl, Monk figures the shooter must have taken one for himself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kilju",
        "text": "Flavored kilju from fruits for example doesn't necessarily have to be sweet as long as all sugar is consumed by the yeast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guinness Foreign Extra Stout",
        "text": "Guinness Flavour Extract, a dehydrated, hopped wort extract made from barley malt and roasted barley, is used for overseas production of the stout. The syrup is shipped from Ireland, where it is added at the ratio of 1:49 to locally brewed pale beer. Each year, six million litres of GFE are made using 9,000 tonnes of barley. Guinness Flavour Extract was first created by scientists working for the company in the early 1960s. In 2003, production of GFE was relocated from St James's Gate to the former Cherry's brewery in Mary Street, Waterford, but in 2013 production returned to St James's."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research",
        "text": "The JQC laboratory is equipped with Auto-Pol 800 and Rapi-Pol extractor for sugarcane and sugarbeet juice quality analysis to check oBrix, pol% juice, purity quotient, reducing sugars, dextran content and fibre content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steam juicer",
        "text": "When loading the charge of berries into the strainer section sugar may be added (in alternating layers) the amount depending on the projected use, sugar also acts as a preservative. Other additives may be pectin to prepare jellies, ascorbic acid to improve shelf life and other ingredients that will dissolve and mix with the juice as it is extracted. To get a consistent batch of juice the whole charge is allowed to extract and then bottled when complete; draining of the juice as it extracts will result in different compositions from start to end of the batch. Long dwell times in juicers made from aluminium when preparing acid juices is not recommended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prune juice",
        "text": "Prune juice is often produced using hot extraction methods, whereby the prunes are cooked in hot water, becoming a liquid extract, which is then processed into juice. The process of heating and extraction may occur several times with the same batch of prunes, with the collective extracts from each processing then mixed together to create the final product. Prune juice is a mass-produced product."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is added to a beverage to be classified as sweetened beverage?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sugar is the ingredient added to make it a sweetened beverage."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What other things can be added to a drink to make it sweeter?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Added sugars or free sugars are sugar carbohydrates added to beverages and may include sucrose or high-fructose corn syrup beet and cane sugars, malt syrup, maple syrup, fructose sweetener, liquid fructose, fruit juice concentrate, aspartame, monk fruit extract, saccharin, sucralose, and/or stevia."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me how monk fruit extract is made?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "It is obtained through solvent extraction, a powder containing 80% mogrosides will be obtained.",
      "Through solvent extraction, a powder containing 80% mogrosides can be obtained, the main one being mogroside-5 (esgoside). In this process, the peel and seeds are removed, and the pulped fruit is made into a fruit concentrate or puree, and additional juice may be extracted from the remaining pulp by hot water."
    ],
    "topic": "Sweetened beverage",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Siraitia grosvenorii:20",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Siraitia grosvenorii",
          "Sweetening agent"
        ],
        "ctx": "The sweet taste of the fruit comes mainly from mogrosides, a group of triterpene glycosides that make up about 1% of the flesh of the fresh fruit. Through solvent extraction, a powder containing 80% mogrosides can be obtained, the main one being mogroside-5 (esgoside). Other similar agents in the fruit are siamenoside and neomogroside."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Siraitia grosvenorii:20",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Siraitia grosvenorii",
          "Sweetening agent"
        ],
        "ctx": "The sweet taste of the fruit comes mainly from mogrosides, a group of triterpene glycosides that make up about 1% of the flesh of the fresh fruit. Through solvent extraction, a powder containing 80% mogrosides can be obtained, the main one being mogroside-5 (esgoside). Other similar agents in the fruit are siamenoside and neomogroside."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Siraitia grosvenorii:21",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Siraitia grosvenorii",
          "Sweetening agent"
        ],
        "ctx": "In this process, the peel and seeds are removed, and the pulped fruit is made into a fruit concentrate or puree. Additional juice may be extracted from the remaining pulp by hot water. The juice is homogenized, acidified slightly to prevent gelling and improve the flavor, then treated with pectinase or other enzymes to break down the pectin. Most of the off-flavor agents are then removed with ion-exchange resins, such as sulfonated polystyrene-divinylbenzene copolymer or polyacrylic acid. Alternatively, the off-flavors can be adsorbed by agents like charcoal or bentonite, which are removed by filtration; or precipitated with gelatin or other gelling agents. Most of the remaining sulfurous volatiles are then removed by low-pressure evaporation. The juice is then pasteurized to inactivate remaining natural enzymes and kill micro-organisms. The process is claimed to preserve a substantial fraction of the mogrosides present in the fruit, with the resulting sweetness at a level about 250 times stronger than sucrose."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Norbu (sweetener)",
        "text": "Monk fruit extract has been developed as a sweetener for food and beverages. Though the monk fruit contains carbohydrates such as fructose and glucose, Norbu is made only from the extracted mongrosides of the monk fruit. Norbu also contains erythritol as a sweetener and a binding and filling agent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siraitia grosvenorii",
        "text": "The monk fruit is notable for its sweetness, which can be concentrated from its juice. The fruit contains 25 to 38% of various carbohydrates, mainly fructose and glucose. The sweetness of the fruit is increased by the mogrosides, a group of triterpene glycosides (saponins). The five different mogrosides are numbered from I to V; the main component is mogroside V, which is also known as esgoside."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungry ghost",
        "text": "One story is of a rich man who traveled selling sugar-cane juice. One day a monk came to his house looking for some juice to cure an illness. The man had to leave, so he instructed his wife to give the monk the drink in his absence. Instead of doing this, she secretly urinated in the monk's bowl, added sugar cane juice to it and gave it to the monk. The monk was not deceived, he poured out the bowl and left. When the wife died she was reborn as a hungry ghost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Addicted to Curry",
        "text": "Addicted to Curry\n--Story.\n--Publication.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Addicted to Curry chapters",
        "text": "List of Addicted to Curry chapters\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar substitute",
        "text": "Mogrosides, extracted from monk fruit and commonly called \"luo han guo\", are recognized as safe for human consumption and are used in commercial products worldwide. As of 2017, it is not a permitted sweetener in the European Union, although it is allowed as a flavor at concentrations where it does not function as a sweetener. In 2017, a Chinese company requested a scientific review of its mogroside product by the European Food Safety Authority. It is the basis of McNeil Nutritionals's tabletop sweetener Nectresse in the United States and Norbu Sweetener in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar substitute",
        "text": "Stevia (pure extracted steviol glycosides) has an ADI of 4 and a MSI of 200 to 400, where for monk fruit, no ADI has been determined and the MSI is 250 to 400."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "In a recent study, the notion of sugar addiction has been challenged. The study examined a sample of 1495 human participants to determine if foods mainly containing sugar cause \"addiction-like\" problems that meet clinical Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders criteria for substance dependence. The researchers also investigated whether potential dependence on sugar relates to body weight and negative affectivity such as mood depression. The results revealed that the majority of participants experienced at least one symptom of food dependence for combined high-fat savoury (30%) and high-fat sweet (25%) foods while only a minority experienced such problems for low-fat/savoury (2%) and mainly sugar-containing foods (5%). Furthermore, while addictive-like symptoms for high-fat savoury and high-fat sweet foods correlated to overweight conditions, this was not found to be the case for foods mainly containing sugar. Consequently, the findings indicated that sugary foods have a minimal role to contributing to food dependence and the increased risk of weight gain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hard Candy Fitness",
        "text": "The following are included in the \"Addicted to Sweat\" series:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kilju",
        "text": "Flavored kilju from fruits for example doesn't necessarily have to be sweet as long as all sugar is consumed by the yeast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Evidence regarding sugar addiction is mainly based on literature and research conducted on animals. There is a biomedical and neurological science behind the usage of mini-pigs and lab rodents. In these animal species, there are similarities with humans in terms of cognition, development of food preferences and eating disorders, digestive anatomy and functions, as well as brain development. Research has demonstrated that, under certain conditions, rats can develop addiction-like behaviors with respect to sugar. The food addiction model asserts that excessive consumption of palatable foods may be understood within the same neurobiological framework as drug addiction. The test subjects have similar brain anomalies as those described in humans. Drug addiction has an impact on the brain's reward center and substance abuse. In drug addiction, there is a \"drug-seeking\" behavior, which is similar having a \"sweet tooth\" and seeking to satisfy the desire for a sweet item. Reward from eating is controlled by the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) pathway. In the animal study, a fructose and glucose diet induced modifications in several brain regions involved in reward and eating behavior. The observations from the study asserts that food and drug consumption share a common neurobiology that \"hijack\" a neural system that primarily processes natural rewards like foods. Sugar is believed to stimulate dopamine in the central nervous system. In summary, the research provided several clinical facts and evidences on the effects of sugar consumption on the central nervous system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drunken monkey hypothesis",
        "text": "Drunken monkey hypothesis proposes that human attraction to ethanol may derive from dependence of the primate ancestors of \"Homo sapiens\" on ripe and fermenting fruit as a dominant food source. Ethanol naturally occurs in ripe and overripe fruit when yeasts ferment sugars, and consequently early primates (and many other fruit-eating animals) have evolved a genetically based behavioral attraction to the molecule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pseudocydonia",
        "text": "The fruit is hard and astringent, though it softens and becomes less astringent after a period of frost. It can be used to make jam, much like quince. In Korea, the fruit is used to make \"mogwa-cheong\" (preserved quince) and \"mogwa-cha\" (quince tea)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hopje",
        "text": "He was addicted to coffee and the story goes that one night he left his coffee with sugar and cream on the heater, where it evaporated. On tasting the resulting substance, he loved it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Datura metel",
        "text": "The \"mondjo\" is a plant of the Solaneae [sic.] family which possesses intoxicating properties...it seems that the \"mondjo\" dries up the saliva of all who drink it, but, in the case of the truly guilty, this effect is greatly accentuated; the jaws become locked. They try to speak but can only say \"be-be-be-be\" (they stammer)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Added sugar",
        "text": "Sweetened beverages contain a syrup mixture of the monosaccharides glucose and fructose, which is formed by hydrolytic saccharification of the disaccharide sucrose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Upadesamrta",
        "text": "7) The holy name, character, pastimes and activities of Krsna are all transcendentally sweet like sugar candy. Although the tongue of one afflicted by the jaundice of avidya [ignorance] cannot taste anything sweet, it is wonderful that simply by carefully chanting these sweet names every day, a natural relish awakens within his tongue, and his disease is gradually destroyed at the root."
      },
      {
        "title": "M\u00fcskirat resmi",
        "text": "Christian priests and monks were generally exempt from m\u00fcskirat resmi on alcoholic drinks for their own personal use, and also for masses."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unrefined sweeteners",
        "text": "A variety of molasses are made with fruit:\n*Carob molasses is made from the pulp of the carob tree's fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "That Sugar Film",
        "text": "Interviews with experts attribute this change to the high level of sugar he was ingesting, and in particular suggest that fructose may be the main culprit. It is suggested that artificial sweeteners may be no better."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Consumption of sports and energy drinks have been linked to irreversible tooth damage. This is especially common in adolescents who consume about 30-50% of the beverages that are on the market. Studies have shown that energy drinks have caused twice as much damage on teeth than sports drinks. Citric acid, the preservative found in many sugar sweetened beverages causes stripping of the enamel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "A sweetened beverage is any beverage with added sugar. It has been described as \"liquid candy\". Consumption of sweetened beverages has been linked to weight gain, obesity, and associated health risks. According to the CDC, consumption of sweetened beverages is also associated with unhealthy behaviors like smoking, not getting enough sleep and exercise, and eating fast food often and not enough fruits regularly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Im Sang-ok",
        "text": "When Im Sang-ok left the temple, monk Suk-Sung of Chuwolam gave him a glass for wine, which is called Gyeyoungbae, it make liquid leak to bottom when its filled over 80%of its volume. Im Sang-ok controlled his greed remembering that glass."
      },
      {
        "title": "Addicted to Food",
        "text": "Addicted to Food\n--Premise.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Addiction psychology",
        "text": "When under stress, the brain is unable to achieve homeostasis. As a result, the brain reverts to allostasis, which in turn alters the brains ability to process pleasure, which is experienced at the hedonic \"set point\" (see figures one). Thus, previous pleasures may become no longer pleasurable. This is also known as anhedonia, or \"pleasure deafness\". When stressed, the addict may experience extreme craving\u2014an intense, emotional, obsessive experience."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trailanga",
        "text": "On many occasions, Trailanga was seen to drink deadly poisons with no ill effect. In one instance, a skeptic wanted to expose him as a fraud. The monk was accustomed to breaking his long fasts with buckets of clabbered milk (buttermilk), so the skeptic brought him a bucket of calcium-lime mixture used for whitewashing walls instead. The monk drank the entire bucket with no ill effect\u2014instead, the skeptic fell to the ground writhing in pain. The monk broke his usual silence to explain the law of karma, of cause and effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion and alcohol",
        "text": "Observant Buddhists typically avoid consuming alcohol (\"sur\u0101merayamajja\", referring to types of intoxicating fermented beverages), as it violates the 5th of the Five Precepts, the basic Buddhist code of ethics and can disrupt mindfulness and impede one's progress in the Noble Eightfold Path."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siraitia grosvenorii",
        "text": "The sweet taste of the fruit comes mainly from mogrosides, a group of triterpene glycosides that make up about 1% of the flesh of the fresh fruit. Through solvent extraction, a powder containing 80% mogrosides can be obtained, the main one being mogroside-5 (esgoside). Other similar agents in the fruit are siamenoside and neomogroside."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sura (alcoholic drink)",
        "text": "In Buddhist texts \"sur\u0101h\" is mentioned as one of intoxicating drinks, along with (Pali) \"meraya\" (Sanskrit \"maireya\", a drink made with sugar cane and several spices) and \"majja\" (maybe equivalent of Sanskrit \"madhu\", mead or hydromel), and renunciation of its usage constitutes the 5th of the Buddhist precepts (pa\u00f1ca-s\u012bl\u0101ni): \"I undertake the training rule to abstain from fermented drinks which cause heedlessness\" (\"Sur\u0101merayamajjapam\u0101da\u1e6d\u1e6dh\u0101n\u0101 verama\u1e47\u012b sikkh\u0101pada\u1e43 sam\u0101diy\u0101mi\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ramakrishna",
        "text": "Ramakrishna is quoted in the Nikhilananda Gospel, \"The devotee of God wants to eat sugar, and not to become sugar.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Contest",
        "text": "The Season 5 premiere of \"Big Mouth\", titled \"No Nut November\", directly parodies the episode. The main characters agree to abstain from masturbation in an animated version of Monk's Caf\u00e9."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fruit2O",
        "text": "Fruit2O was originally made by Veryfine Products of Littleton, Massachusetts, which used spring water, citric acid, natural flavors, sodium benzoate and potassium sorbate (to preserve freshness) and Splenda (sucralose) as its only sweetener. When Kraft purchased the company, it discontinued making the beverage with spring water, and added the artificial sweetener Ace-K (acesulfame potassium). Recently, Veryfine Products (Late 2008?) was spun off Kraft and Fruit2O returned to only using Sucralose for a sweetener."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inexhaustible Chalice",
        "text": "People suffering from alcoholism, drug addiction, and other dependencies continue to appeal to God for help and healing through the icon of the Inexhaustible Chalice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sra peang",
        "text": "In the 1960s, when the first evangelical missionaries, Thompson and Smith, arrived to Mondulkiri, they refused to drink from what they considered to be a major animist practice. Thereafter, drinking from rice wine jars was strictly forbidden by the Christian and Missionary Alliance missionaries. In contrast, Catholic missionaries allowed the Bunong tribe which to continue using wine jars as a sign of alliance and community, to the wine jars of the marriage in Cana where Jesus turned water into wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "McNeil Consumer Healthcare",
        "text": "In 2012, it started to sell a monk fruit-based sweetener called Nectresse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Addicted to Curry",
        "text": "\"Addicted to Curry\" is the story of Sonezaki Yui, a schoolgirl, whose father is the owner of Curry House Cooking Ganesha. Yui, who frequently adopts strays and starving animals she finds on the street, one day finds a young man lying in the road and, out of her good nature, wants to give him something to eat. She trips and hits him in the face with a soda can, and runs away. The young man, Koenji Makito, follows her curry scent back to the restaurant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dom P\u00e9rignon (monk)",
        "text": "Prior to blending he would taste the grapes without knowing the source vineyard to avoid influencing his perceptions. References to his \"blind tasting of wine\" have led to the common misconception that Dom P\u00e9rignon was blind."
      },
      {
        "title": "Addicted to Music",
        "text": "Addicted to Music\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ray Charles",
        "text": "Charles stated in his 1978 autobiography, \"Brother Ray: Ray Charles' Own Story\", that he became hooked on women after losing his virginity at 12 years old to a woman about 20. \"Cigarettes and smack [heroin] are the two truly addictive habits I've known. You might add women,\" he said. \"My obsession centers on women\u2014did then [when young] and does now. I can't leave them alone,\" he added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jahannam",
        "text": "Inmates of hell will be thirsty and hungry \"constantly\". Their fluids will include boiling water (Q.6:70), melted brass, and/or be bitterly cold, \"unclean, full of pus\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Succade",
        "text": "Recipes vary from region to region, but the general principle is to boil the fruit, steep it in increasingly strong sugar solutions for a number of weeks, and then dry off any remaining water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Magic truffle",
        "text": "Physical addiction is impossible with truffles, but there can be mental addiction, although that is quite rare, due to the diminishing effect after frequent use in a short time. This can be found in the following reference, Buy-Magic-Truffles.com."
      },
      {
        "title": "Psychotria viridis",
        "text": "The Machiguenga people of Peru use juice from the leaves as eye drops to treat migraine headaches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion and drugs",
        "text": "So the monk drank the mug of beer and then he became very drunk. In his drunkenness he proceeded to kill the goat and sleep with the woman, breaking all three vows and, at least in his eyes, doing much harm in the world. The lesson of this story is meant to be that, at least according to the cultures from which it delineates, alcohol causes one to break all of one's vows, in a sense that one could say it is the cause of all other harmful deeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Acrotriche depressa",
        "text": "The fruits are eaten out-of-hand, or used in jams and jellies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abbey of Our Lady of Gethsemani",
        "text": "Gethsemani once sustained itself solely through donations, by growing its own foods and selling timber. Today, in keeping with the observance of the Rule of St. Benedict, the monks of Gethsemani raise money for the monastery by producing fruitcake and fudge; they also collect royalties received from sales of Thomas Merton's books. The fruitcake is made with Kentucky bourbon as well as cherries, pineapples, raisins, dates and nuts. The months of November and December are particularly busy for Gethsemani Farms, with the monks receiving and filling large orders for the holiday season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Botanical identity of soma\u2013haoma",
        "text": "Bhairavdutt convinces the swami to join him in partaking the \"soma\". The taste, says Swami Rama, is \"a little bit bitter and sour.\" Bhairavdutt becomes inebriated and dances wildly, claiming he is Shiva. Several students attempt to restrain the apparently slightly built Bhairavdutt, but are unable to do so. Meanwhile, Swami Rama develops a crippling headache, a symptom which is compatible with the effects of high doses of ephedrine. No hallucinogenic effects are described by Swami Rama."
      },
      {
        "title": "Book of the First Monks",
        "text": "The other part of the goal of this life is granted us as the free gift of God: namely, to taste somewhat in the heart and to experience in the soul, not only after death but even in this mortal life, the intensity of the divine [P]resence and the sweetness of the glory of [H]eaven. This is to drink of the torrent of the love of God. God promised it to Elijah in the words: \"You shall drink from the brook.\" It is in view of this double end that the monk ought to give himself to the eremitic and prophetic life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Addicted to Fresno",
        "text": "Addicted to Fresno\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n--Release.\n--Reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vipakasruta",
        "text": "These people however simply do not just experience their fruit, but it is explained what they did in the past that brought about the fruit that they experience."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jos\u00e9 F\u00e9lix Aldao",
        "text": "Aldao returned to the province of Mendoza in 1824 and dedicated himself to wine production. He would gradually become addicted to drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sevenia benguelae",
        "text": "Adults are attracted to fermenting fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food and drink prohibitions",
        "text": "Buddhist monks and lay people are forbidden from eating elephant meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mogroside",
        "text": "Some mogrosides are used in traditional Chinese medicine and some are extracted for manufacturing as sweeteners. Mogroside V extract from \"S. grosvenorii\" fruit is 250 times sweeter than sucrose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abstinence pledge",
        "text": "For your greater glory and consolation, O Sacred Heart of Jesus, for your sake to give good example, to practice self-denial, to make reparation to you for the sins of intemperance and for the conversion of excessive drinkers, I will abstain for life from all intoxicating drinks. Amen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pruno",
        "text": "Inmates are not permitted to have alcoholic beverages, and correctional officers confiscate pruno whenever and wherever they find it. In an effort to eradicate pruno, some wardens have gone as far as banning all fresh fruit, fruit juices, and fruit-based food products from prison cafeterias. But even this is not always enough; there are pruno varieties made almost entirely from sauerkraut and orange juice. Food hoarding in the inmate cells in both prisons and jails allows the inmates to acquire ingredients and produce pruno. During jail and prison inmate cell searches, correctional officers remove excessive or unauthorized food items to halt the production of pruno. Pruno is hidden under bunks, inside toilets, inside walls, trash cans, in the shower area and anywhere inmates feel is safe to brew their pruno away from the prying eyes of correctional officers and jailers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hyphaene compressa",
        "text": "The people of Eastern Africa depend on the fruit from the doum palm \"Hyphaene compressa\" in different ways. It is popular as a food source, more so during times of food shortage, and is commonly bought and sold in local markets The mesocarp or pulp of the young fruit can be made into a non-alcoholic juice drink which children enjoy. The seed coat within the mesocarp is hard to crack but the nut inside can be eaten or crushed into a powder to flavor other food items."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ry\u014dkan",
        "text": "It is common practice for a monk to abstain from eating meat. Once a young monk sat to dinner with Ry\u014dkan and watched him eat fish. When asked why, Ry\u014dkan replied, \u201cI eat fish when it's offered, but I also let the fleas and flies feast on me [when sleeping at night]. Neither bothers me at all.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Y. Claire Wang",
        "text": "Y. Claire Wang\n--Research.\n----Sugar-sweetened beverages.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Subodhananda",
        "text": "Subodhananda was addicted lifelong to his morning cup of tea and when Ramakrishna was ill in his Cossipore garden house, the young Subodh prescribed tea as a remedy for his sore throat. However, it was rejected by the attending doctor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Htanthi mont",
        "text": "This snack is a steamed rice cake made of pulverised cooked rice or rice flour, coconut milk, baking soda, sugar, and the pulp of slightly fermented toddy palm and coconut fruits, and then garnished with coconut shavings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hundredth monkey effect",
        "text": "According to Watson, the scientists observed that some of the monkeys learned to wash sweet potatoes, initially through an 18-month-old female member (named \"Imo\" by the researchers) of the troop in 1953. Imo discovered that sand and grit could be removed from the potatoes by washing them in a stream or in the ocean. Gradually, this new potato-washing habit spread through the troop\u2014in the usual fashion, through observation and repetition. (Unlike most food customs, this behavior was learned by the older generation of monkeys from younger ones.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ann E. Kelley",
        "text": "Kelly furthermore showed that food can act as an addictive substance. She found that the consumption of salty and sweet foods was influenced injection of a \u03bc-opioid antagonist into the nucleus accumbens in a similar way the intake of alcohol, but not the intake of water, was."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seshadri Swamigal",
        "text": "Similarly, a devotee of Bhagavan Sri Ramana Maharshi who took to narcotic substances in pursuit of spirituality, much against Bhagavan's advice, sought refuge with Seshadri Swamigal, who said \"Well, I told you before itself, to avoid it.\". This comment, to avoid narcotic substances, was made by Bhagavan to the devotee, and yet Seshadri Swamigal could respond likewise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweet Temptation",
        "text": "Sweet Temptation may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Javad Mojabi",
        "text": "They have made me thirstier for that clear naked spring,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Addiction",
        "text": "Reviews of preclinical studies indicate that long-term frequent and excessive consumption of high fat or sugar foods can produce an addiction (food addiction). This can include chocolate. Chocolates' sweet flavour and pharmacological ingredients is known to create a strong craving or feel 'addictive' by the consumer. A person who has a strong liking for chocolate may refer to themselves as a chocoholic. Chocolate is not yet formally recognised by the DSM-5 as a diagnosable addiction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hyalacrotes",
        "text": "Hyalacrotes\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Household"
      },
      {
        "title": "Khmer sastra",
        "text": "Palm-leaves gets attacked by mold, insects, moisture and weather, especially in a tropical climate, and in order to preserve Khmer sastras, a strategy of minute copying has been the usual recipe for the Buddhist monks. Because of this practice, most of the present day Khmer sastras were probably produced in the 19th century, as copies of former times sastras."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lecythis ollaria",
        "text": "The paradise nut is a large tree with spreading branches. It is in the same family as the Brazil nut tree (\"Bertholletia excelsa\") and has a similar fruit. This is a large woody Capsule (fruit)capsule with a lid which bursts open when the seeds are ripe. Monkeys are said to put their hands inside the capsule in order to extract the seeds which have a fleshy interior rich in oil and a woody outer casing."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Harvey Kellogg",
        "text": "Those experiencing temptation were to avoid stimulating food and drinks, and eat very little meat, if any."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monkey gland sauce",
        "text": "Despite its name, the sauce has nothing to do with monkeys or their glands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Isidore of Pelusium",
        "text": "His advice with regard to those who were embracing the monastic state was that they should not at first be made to feel all the austerities of the rule lest they should be repelled, nor should they be left idle and exempt from ordinary tasks lest they should acquire habits of laziness, but they should led step by step to what is most perfect. Great abstinences serve no purpose unless they are accompanied by the mortification of the senses. A monk's habit should if possible be of skins, and his food consist of herbs, unless bodily weakness require something more."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asura (Buddhism)",
        "text": "While all the gods of the K\u0101madh\u0101tu are subject to passions to some degree, the asuras above all are addicted to them, especially wrath, pride, envy, insincerity, falseness, boasting, and bellicosity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neeti Sastra",
        "text": "48. Will Neem ever acquire sweetness even if it is grown on top of a mountain of molasses and watered thousands of times with milk?"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mohsen Hashtroodi",
        "text": "Th\u00e8se de doctorat, Universit\u00e9 de Paris."
      },
      {
        "title": "Schinus molle",
        "text": "The Inca used the sweet outer part of ripe fruit to make a drink. Berries were rubbed carefully to avoid mixing with the bitter inner parts, the mix strained and then left for a few days to produce a drink. It was also boiled down for syrup or mixed with maize to make nourishing gruel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Media"
      },
      {
        "title": "I'm Addicted",
        "text": "I'm Addicted may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squeeze a Flower",
        "text": "Brother George is the only monk at the Italian Monastery who knows the secret recipe of the popular liqueur that is the sole source of income for the monastery. When he feels their sole distributor, a local wine merchant, is not giving the monastery a fair price, he leaves and moves to Australia. There he works at a vineyard picking grapes and starts making the liqueur in his spare time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Episodic-like memory",
        "text": "Chimpanzees, orangutans, and bonobos were tested using an adapted design by Clayton and colleagues for experimenting with scrub jays. After five minutes and again at one hour, the apes were presented with the choice of selecting hidden frozen juice, less-preferred grapes, or an empty platform. While the juice was the preferred item, it would melt before the hour. Subjects were both male and female. Food item placement was changed during multiple trials so that the study was not accidentally measuring familiarity. The primates rarely chose the empty platform, and after five minutes preferred the juice solution over the grape. After an hour, while a smaller number of primates chose the juice, the majority of apes still reached for melted juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Renegade Monk (cheese)",
        "text": "Renegade Monk (cheese)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "FGF21",
        "text": "A single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) of the FGF21 gene \u2013 the FGF21 rs838133 variant (frequency 44.7%) \u2013 has been identified as a genetic mechanism responsible for the sweet tooth behavioral phenotype, a trait associated with cravings for sweets and high sugar consumption, in both humans and mice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devotional pictures for swallowing",
        "text": "From Uganda it is known that in the end of the 1990s followers of a famous Christian charismatic preacher and magic healer soaked his photographs in water and drank from it in order to swallow up parts of his healing power."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food and drink prohibitions",
        "text": "Some people consider consumption of primates to be close to human cannibalism due to monkeys and apes being close relatives of human beings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jujube",
        "text": "Leaves contain saponin and Ziziphin, which suppresses the ability to perceive sweet taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sevenia garega",
        "text": "Adults are attracted to fermenting fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pseudathyma plutonica",
        "text": "Adults are attracted to fermenting fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Manchineel",
        "text": "When ingested, the fruit is reportedly \"pleasantly sweet\" at first, with a subsequent \"strange peppery feeling ... gradually progress[ing] to a burning, tearing sensation and tightness of the throat.\" Symptoms continue to worsen until the patient can \"barely swallow solid food because of the excruciating pain and the feeling of a huge obstructing pharyngeal lump.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Succade",
        "text": "The continual process of drenching the fruit in syrup causes the fruit to become saturated with sugar, thereby preventing the growth of spoilage microorganisms."
      },
      {
        "title": "FGF21",
        "text": "A single-nucleotide polymorphism of the FGF21 gene \u2013 the FGF21 rs838133 variant (frequency 44.7%) \u2013 has been identified as a genetic mechanism responsible for the sweet tooth behavioral phenotype, a trait associated with cravings for sweets and high sugar consumption, in both humans and mice."
      },
      {
        "title": "I'm Addicted",
        "text": "I'm Addicted\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Guy Hands",
        "text": "In May 2019, he admitted to \"The Times\" that he had an addiction to roast potatoes and gravy and that he had sought treatment from hypnosis to combat it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Buddhism and the body",
        "text": "Buddhist scriptures talk a great deal about the general idea of attachment to sensual pleasures, but do not directly address the issue of substance addiction as it is understood in contemporary society. Jataka stories and certain rules governing lay and monastic behavior do discuss the use of alcohol and intoxicants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Norbu (sweetener)",
        "text": "Norbu is a sugar substitute containing monk fruit extract and erythritol, marketed as a sweetener for beverages, baking, and cooking. Norbu sweetener was launched in Coles Supermarkets and Woolworths Supermarkets> in 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Pitman Vegetarian Hotel",
        "text": "Mahatma Gandhi is known to have received jars of Nuto Cream and Nuto Cream Soup from the company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dr Pepper",
        "text": "A handful of United States bottling plants still use sugar to sweeten Dr Pepper. The Dr Pepper bottling plant in Dublin, Texas used to produce such a beverage, known as Dublin Dr Pepper. In the 1980s, plant owner W.P. \"Bill\" Kloster (June 7, 1918 September 27, 1999) refused to convert the plant to high fructose corn syrup. Other bottlers still using sugar include Temple Bottling Company, in Temple, Texas, Ab-Tex in Abilene, and West Jefferson Dr Pepper of West Jefferson, NC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Innocent Drinks",
        "text": "Three academic papers, produced by researchers at Oxford Brookes University and the University of Aberdeen were commissioned by Innocent. In the first study, scientists at the Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, said suggestions that pur\u00e9eing fruit destroys the cell wall matrix that gives fruit its structure and makes smoothies less fibrous than fruit eaten whole were not justified."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese (recreational drug)",
        "text": "According to a 14-year-old girl being treated at the Phoenix Academy, water is added to the heroin. The watered-down heroin, often called \"monkey juice,\" is mixed with Tylenol PM tablets. The makers of Cheese heat the mixture to remove excess water, resulting in the final product."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is added to a beverage to be classified as sweetened beverage?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sugar is the ingredient added to make it a sweetened beverage."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What other things can be added to a drink to make it sweeter?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Added sugars or free sugars are sugar carbohydrates added to beverages and may include sucrose or high-fructose corn syrup beet and cane sugars, malt syrup, maple syrup, fructose sweetener, liquid fructose, fruit juice concentrate, aspartame, monk fruit extract, saccharin, sucralose, and/or stevia."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me how monk fruit extract is made?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Through solvent extraction, a powder containing 80% mogrosides can be obtained, the main one being mogroside-5 (esgoside). In this process, the peel and seeds are removed, and the pulped fruit is made into a fruit concentrate or puree, and additional juice may be extracted from the remaining pulp by hot water."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is it possible to be addicted to sweetened beverages?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Evidence regarding sugar addiction is mainly based on literature and research conducted on animals; human research has also been conducted on sugar (in the form of sugar-sweetened beverages) and its effects on the kidneys. In a recent study, the notion of sugar addiction has been challenged and the findings indicated that sugary foods have a minimal role to contributing to food dependence and the increased risk of weight gain."
    ],
    "topic": "Sweetened beverage",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Sweetened beverage:7",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sweetened beverage",
          "Health implications of sugar sweetened beverages",
          "Sugar addiction"
        ],
        "ctx": "Evidence regarding sugar addiction is mainly based on literature and research conducted on animals. There is a biomedical and neurological science behind the usage of mini-pigs and lab rodents. In these animal species, there are similarities with humans in terms of cognition, development of food preferences and eating disorders, digestive anatomy and functions, as well as brain development. Research has demonstrated that, under certain conditions, rats can develop addiction-like behaviors with respect to sugar. The food addiction model asserts that excessive consumption of palatable foods may be understood within the same neurobiological framework as drug addiction. The test subjects have similar brain anomalies as those described in humans. Drug addiction has an impact on the brain's reward center and substance abuse. In drug addiction, there is a \"drug-seeking\" behavior, which is similar having a \"sweet tooth\" and seeking to satisfy the desire for a sweet item. Reward from eating is controlled by the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) pathway. In the animal study, a fructose and glucose diet induced modifications in several brain regions involved in reward and eating behavior. The observations from the study asserts that food and drug consumption share a common neurobiology that \"hijack\" a neural system that primarily processes natural rewards like foods. Sugar is believed to stimulate dopamine in the central nervous system. In summary, the research provided several clinical facts and evidences on the effects of sugar consumption on the central nervous system."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Sweetened beverage:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sweetened beverage",
          "Health implications of sugar sweetened beverages",
          "Sugar addiction"
        ],
        "ctx": "Human research has also been conducted on sugar (in the form of sugar-sweetened beverages) and its effects on the kidneys. Sugar consumption has been associated with the rising prevalence of chronic kidney disease in the United States. Since 1997, the nation has dramatically increased sugar consumption to nearly half a pound per person per day. Much of this increase is driven by high fructose syrup (HFCS) consumption, which now amounts to over 62\u00a0lb per person per year, largely in form of sugar-sweetened beverages. In addition to dietary sugar being associated with CKD risk factors, data from animal studies do suggest that sugar consumption may independently affect kidney disease risk. Studies have been conducted to highlight the severity of sugary sweetened beverage consumption. These studies were completed with a variety of test subjects to account for age, sex, diets, lifestyle choices, physical activity, smoking, level of education, and health status. The variety in the test subjects created a wide spectrum of results to match any individual. Also, the experiments consisted of a variety of consumption frequencies. Some studies only consumed one glass of a sugary sweetened beverage a week, while others consumed more than seven glasses of a sugary sweetened beverage a week."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Sweetened beverage:9",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sweetened beverage",
          "Health implications of sugar sweetened beverages",
          "Sugar addiction"
        ],
        "ctx": "In a recent study, the notion of sugar addiction has been challenged. The study examined a sample of 1495 human participants to determine if foods mainly containing sugar cause \"addiction-like\" problems that meet clinical Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders criteria for substance dependence. The researchers also investigated whether potential dependence on sugar relates to body weight and negative affectivity such as mood depression. The results revealed that the majority of participants experienced at least one symptom of food dependence for combined high-fat savoury (30%) and high-fat sweet (25%) foods while only a minority experienced such problems for low-fat/savoury (2%) and mainly sugar-containing foods (5%). Furthermore, while addictive-like symptoms for high-fat savoury and high-fat sweet foods correlated to overweight conditions, this was not found to be the case for foods mainly containing sugar. Consequently, the findings indicated that sugary foods have a minimal role to contributing to food dependence and the increased risk of weight gain."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Whether caffeine can result in an addictive disorder depends on how addiction is defined. Compulsive caffeine consumption under any circumstances has not been observed, and caffeine is therefore not generally considered addictive. However, some diagnostic models, such as the and ICD-10, include a classification of caffeine addiction under a broader diagnostic model. Some state that certain users can become addicted and therefore unable to decrease use even though they know there are negative health effects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "Caffeine use is classified as a dependence, not an addiction. For a drug to be considered addictive, it must activate the brain's reward circuit. Caffeine, like addictive drugs, enhances dopamine signaling in the brain (is eugeroic), but not enough to activate the brain's reward circuit like addictive substances such as cocaine, morphine, and nicotine. Caffeine dependence forms due to caffeine antagonizing the adenosine A2A receptor, effectively blocking adenosine from the adenosine receptor site. This delays the onset of drowsiness and releases dopamine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Caffeine does not appear to be a reinforcing stimulus, and some degree of aversion may actually occur, with people preferring placebo over caffeine in a study on drug abuse liability published in an NIDA research monograph. Some state that research does not provide support for an underlying biochemical mechanism for caffeine addiction. Other research states it can affect the reward system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "Mild physical dependence can result from long-term caffeine use. Caffeine addiction, or a pathological and compulsive form of use, has not been documented in humans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "\"Caffeine addiction\" was added to the ICDM-9 and ICD-10. However, its addition was contested with claims that this diagnostic model of caffeine addiction is not supported by evidence. The American Psychiatric Association's does not include the diagnosis of a \"caffeine addiction\" but proposes criteria for the disorder for more study."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "When a person becomes caffeine dependent, it can cause a person to suffer different physiological effects which could lead to withdrawal. Symptoms can range from mild to severe that are dependent on the amount of caffeine consumed daily. Tests are still being done to get a better understanding of the effects that occur to someone when they become dependent on different forms of caffeine to make it through the day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine use for sport",
        "text": "Those who use caffeine regularly, most often drinking at least one coffee a day, can become dependent and addicted. If caffeine use for these people is stopped they may have withdrawals symptoms of feeling tired and headaches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "Caffeine dependence is the condition of having a substance dependence on caffeine, a commonplace central nervous system stimulant drug which occurs in nature in coffee, tea, yerba mate, cocoa, and other plants. Caffeine is also an additive in many consumer products, including beverages such as caffeinated alcoholic beverages, energy drinks, colas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "Tolerance levels regarding caffeine typically vary from person to person. Caffeine tolerance occurs when the stimulatory effects of caffeine decrease over time due to regular consumption. According to H.P. Ammon from the National Library of Medicine, caffeine tolerance occurs when the body responds to an intake of caffeine through the up-regulation of adenosine-receptors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "Caffeine's mechanism of action is somewhat different from that of cocaine and the substituted amphetamines; caffeine blocks adenosine receptors A1 and A2A. Adenosine is a by-product of cellular activity, and stimulation of adenosine receptors produces feelings of tiredness and the need to sleep. Caffeine's ability to block these receptors means the levels of the body's natural stimulants, dopamine and norepinephrine, continue at higher levels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neuroenhancement",
        "text": "The need to remain \"alert\" and \"focused\" can also been seen in the trend of caffeine consumption. The caffeine consumption for both students and the general population of the US is around 90%. Students who consume neuroenhancements also had a higher frequency of consuming psychoactive lifestyle drugs such as cannabis. This demonstrates a trend of psychological addiction amongst neuroenhancement users."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine (data page)",
        "text": "Caffeine (data page)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Autonomic nervous system",
        "text": "Caffeine is a bioactive ingredient found in commonly consumed beverages such as coffee, tea, and sodas. Short-term physiological effects of caffeine include increased blood pressure and sympathetic nerve outflow. Habitual consumption of caffeine may inhibit physiological short-term effects. Consumption of caffeinated espresso increases parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers; however, decaffeinated espresso inhibits parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers. It is possible that other bioactive ingredients in decaffeinated espresso may also contribute to the inhibition of parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "Continued exposure to caffeine leads the body to create more adenosine-receptors in the central nervous system, which makes it more sensitive to the effects of adenosine. It reduces the stimulatory effects of caffeine by increasing tolerance, and it increases the withdrawal symptoms of caffeine as the body becomes more sensitive to the effects of adenosine once caffeine intake decreases. Caffeine tolerance develops very quickly. Tolerance to the sleep disruption effects of caffeine were seen after consumption of 400mg of caffeine 3times a day for 7days, whereas complete tolerance was observed after consumption of 300mg taken 3times a day for 18days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glucose test",
        "text": "Some foods contain caffeine (coffee, tea, colas, energy drinks etc.). Blood sugar levels of healthy people are generally not significantly changed by caffeine, but in diabetics caffeine intake may elevate these levels via its ability to stimulate the adrenergic nervous system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jeffrey Rose",
        "text": "\u201cCaffeine, Health and Recovery\u201d from \"RECOVER\" Magazine July 2004 by Jeffrey Rose, Clinical Hypnotist and Nutritionist"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hosmer\u2013Lemeshow test",
        "text": "Suppose that, in the caffeine study, the researcher was not able to assign 30 volunteers to each dose. Instead, 170 volunteers reported the estimated amount of caffeine they consumed in the previous 24 hours. The data are shown in the table below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hosmer\u2013Lemeshow test",
        "text": "The logistic model suggests that the highest proportion of A scores will occur in volunteers who consume zero mg caffeine, when in fact the highest proportion of A scores occurs in volunteer consuming in the range of 100 to 150\u00a0mg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "It is not recommended for children under the age of 18 to consume several caffeinated drinks according to the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). If they were to consume caffeine it is recommended to follow some guidelines so they do not consume too much throughout the day. If they do, they can become dependent on caffeine and without it can suffer many different side effects. These include increase of heart rate and blood pressure, sleep disturbance, mood swings, and acidic problems. Long lasting problems on children's nervous system and cardiovascular system are currently unknown and studies are still being conducted on it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gateway drug effect",
        "text": "Controlled animal and human studies showed that caffeine (energy drinks) in combination with alcohol increased the craving for more alcohol more strongly than alcohol alone. These findings correspond to epidemiological data that people who consume energy drinks generally showed an increased tendency to take alcohol and other substances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hallucination",
        "text": "High caffeine consumption has been linked to an increase in likelihood of one experiencing auditory hallucinations. A study conducted by the La Trobe University School of Psychological Sciences revealed that as few as five cups of coffee a day (approximately 500\u00a0mg of caffeine) could trigger the phenomenon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "A 2011 review found that increased caffeine intake was associated with a variation in two genes that increase the rate of caffeine catabolism. Subjects who had this mutation on both chromosomes consumed 40\u00a0mg more caffeine per day than others. This is presumably due to the need for a higher intake to achieve a comparable desired effect, not that the gene led to a disposition for greater incentive of habituation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeinated drink",
        "text": "The consumption of caffeinated drinks is often intended entirely or partly for the physical and mental effects of caffeine. Examples include the consumption of tea or coffee with breakfast in many westernized societies, in order to 'wake oneself up', or the deliberate consumption of energy drinks by students wishing to study through the night, or revellers seeking to maintain an alert attitude during social recreation. Caffeine can cause a physical dependence, if consumed in excessive amounts. The need for caffeine can be identified when individuals feel headaches, fatigue and muscle pain 24 hours after their last energy drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeinism",
        "text": "caffeine use. This syndrome regularly happens when a person ingested large amounts of caffeine from any source (e.g., more than 400\u2013500\u00a0mg at a time)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cross-tolerance",
        "text": "Cigarette smoking produces increased metabolic tolerance to caffeine due to upregulation of the CYP1A enzyme family (see aryl hydrocarbon receptor)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Low caffeine coffee",
        "text": "In large amounts, and especially over extended periods of time, caffeine can lead to a condition known as \"caffeinism.\" Caffeinism usually combines caffeine dependency with a wide range of unpleasant physical and mental conditions including nervousness, irritability, anxiety, tremulousness, muscle twitching (hyperreflexia), insomnia, headaches, respiratory alkalosis, and heart palpitations. Furthermore, because caffeine increases the production of stomach acid, high consumption over time may lead to peptic ulcers, erosive esophagitis, and gastroesophageal reflux disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeinated alcoholic drink",
        "text": "Chocolate can be used as a side dish. 100 grams of milk chocolate contains 20 mg of caffeine, whereas 100 grams of dark chocolate contains 90 mg of caffeine. Additionally, caffeine can be consumed in tablet or powder form alongside many alcoholic drinks to achieve similar effects.\n* Caffeine's primary mechanism of action is as an adenosine receptor antagonist in the brain.\n* Ethanol is an adenosine reuptake inhibitor"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine (data page)",
        "text": "This page provides supplementary chemical data on caffeine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "Caffeine is consumed by many each day and from this a dependence is formed. For the most part caffeine consumption is safe, but consuming over 400\u00a0mg of caffeine has shown adverse physiological and psychological effects; especially in people that have pre-existing conditions. When adults form a dependence on caffeine, it can cause a range of health problems such as headaches, insomnia, dizziness, cardiac issues, hypertension and others. When an adult is dependent on this substance, they must consume a certain amount of caffeine every day to avoid these effects from occurring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nutrition facts label",
        "text": "Health researchers have called for the mandatory labelling of food products with added caffeine, which is a psychoactive nervous system stimulant. If over-consumed, caffeine can cause seizures, kidney problems, liver problems, heart arrhythmia, and death. The Coca-Cola Company and PepsiCo began labelling caffeine content in 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "Serena Dudek",
        "text": "In an article titled \"Coffee for your thoughts: New study suggests caffeine can help learning, memory\" from the Columbia Chronicle, Dudek discussed her work on the CA2 region of the hippocampus. She discusses her work in which she observed the CA2 region in rats after administering caffeine. Her team then removed and observed the rat brains and found that caffeine improved synaptic strength in the CA2 region of the brain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge",
        "text": "A few months later, Runge identified caffeine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Smoking tobacco increases caffeine clearance by 56%. Cigarette smoking induces the cytochrome P450 1A2 enzyme that breaks down caffeine, which may lead to increased caffeine tolerance and coffee consumption for regular smokers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pfeffern\u00fcsse",
        "text": "In 1820, the Brothers Grimm warned their sister Charlotte () against excessive consumption: \"Don't eat too much of the pepper nuts, they should get very hot!\" At that time, nutmeg was considered an aphrodisiac, and cardamom as invigorating as caffeine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine use for sport",
        "text": "Caffeine is most commonly known for being in coffee. It is also found in tea, chocolate, soft drinks, energy drinks and medications. It is possible to become dependent on caffeine. Coffee is made from coffee beans, which are an exotic bean, roasted fruit from the Coffea arabica bush."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "Caffeine dependence\n--Dependence.\n----Addiction vs. Dependence.\n--Physiological effects.\n----Adults.\n------Pregnancy.\n----Children and Teenagers.\n--Tolerance.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Caffeine from coffee or other beverages is absorbed by the small intestine within 45 minutes of ingestion and distributed throughout all bodily tissues. Peak blood concentration is reached within 1\u20132\u00a0hours. It is eliminated by first-order kinetics. Caffeine can also be absorbed rectally, evidenced by suppositories of ergotamine tartrate and caffeine (for the relief of migraine) and of chlorobutanol and caffeine (for the treatment of hyperemesis). However, rectal absorption is less efficient than oral: the maximum concentration (Cmax) and total amount absorbed (AUC) are both about 30% (i.e., 1/3.5) of the oral amounts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Commercial supplies of caffeine are not usually manufactured synthetically because the chemical is readily available as a byproduct of decaffeination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stress in medical students",
        "text": "Medical students have been known to consume caffeinated beverages to be active and alert during time of studying. These students drink large quantities of coffee, tea, cola, and energy drinks. Though an increased intake of caffeine can increase the levels of adenosine, adrenaline, cortisol and dopamine in the blood, caffeine also inhibits the absorption of some nutrients, increasing the acidity of the gastrointestinal tract and depleting the levels of calcium, magnesium, iron and other trace minerals of the body through urinary excretion. Furthermore, caffeine decreases blood flow to the brain by as much as 30 percent, and it decreases the stimulation of insulin, a hormone that helps regulate the body's blood sugar level."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeic",
        "text": "Caffeic\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Caffeine (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Gaudiya Vaishnavas generally also abstain from caffeine, because they believe it clouds the mind and over-stimulates the senses. To be initiated under a guru, one must have had no caffeine, alcohol, nicotine or other drugs, for at least a year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "In 1911, caffeine became the focus of one of the earliest documented health scares, when the US government seized 40 barrels and 20 kegs of Coca-Cola syrup in Chattanooga, Tennessee, alleging the caffeine in its drink was \"injurious to health\". Although the Supreme Court later ruled in favor of Coca-Cola in \"United States v. Forty Barrels & Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola\", two bills were introduced to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1912 to amend the Pure Food and Drug Act, adding caffeine to the list of \"habit-forming\" and \"deleterious\" substances, which must be listed on a product's label."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Caffeine in coffee and other caffeinated drinks can affect gastrointestinal motility and gastric acid secretion. In postmenopausal women, high caffeine consumption can accelerate bone loss."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeinated drink",
        "text": "Many caffeinated drinks also have decaffeinated counterparts, for those who enjoy the taste, but wish to limit their caffeine intake because of its physical effects, or due to religious or medical perceptions of the drug and its effects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "In a recent study, the notion of sugar addiction has been challenged. The study examined a sample of 1495 human participants to determine if foods mainly containing sugar cause \"addiction-like\" problems that meet clinical Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders criteria for substance dependence. The researchers also investigated whether potential dependence on sugar relates to body weight and negative affectivity such as mood depression. The results revealed that the majority of participants experienced at least one symptom of food dependence for combined high-fat savoury (30%) and high-fat sweet (25%) foods while only a minority experienced such problems for low-fat/savoury (2%) and mainly sugar-containing foods (5%). Furthermore, while addictive-like symptoms for high-fat savoury and high-fat sweet foods correlated to overweight conditions, this was not found to be the case for foods mainly containing sugar. Consequently, the findings indicated that sugary foods have a minimal role to contributing to food dependence and the increased risk of weight gain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "Evidence regarding sugar addiction is mainly based on literature and research conducted on animals. There is a biomedical and neurological science behind the usage of mini-pigs and lab rodents. In these animal species, there are similarities with humans in terms of cognition, development of food preferences and eating disorders, digestive anatomy and functions, as well as brain development. Research has demonstrated that, under certain conditions, rats can develop addiction-like behaviors with respect to sugar. The food addiction model asserts that excessive consumption of palatable foods may be understood within the same neurobiological framework as drug addiction. The test subjects have similar brain anomalies as those described in humans. Drug addiction has an impact on the brain's reward center and substance abuse. In drug addiction, there is a \"drug-seeking\" behavior, which is similar having a \"sweet tooth\" and seeking to satisfy the desire for a sweet item. Reward from eating is controlled by the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) pathway. In the animal study, a fructose and glucose diet induced modifications in several brain regions involved in reward and eating behavior. The observations from the study asserts that food and drug consumption share a common neurobiology that \"hijack\" a neural system that primarily processes natural rewards like foods. Sugar is believed to stimulate dopamine in the central nervous system. In summary, the research provided several clinical facts and evidences on the effects of sugar consumption on the central nervous system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chocoholic",
        "text": "Chocoholic\n--Addiction.\n----Criticism.\n----Genetics.\n----Craving.\n----Management techniques.\n------Blood sugar.\n------Caffeine.\n--Cause by ingredients.\n----Cocoa bean.\n------Cocoa solids.\n------Cocoa butter.\n------Raw chocolate.\n----Additives.\n------Alcohol.\n------Sugars.\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chocoholic",
        "text": "It is also known that there is an association between the FTO gene and intake of sugar and caffeine. The FTO gene works to regulate the body's energy usage. Some variants of the FTO gene play a major role in the connectivity in the reward circuit of the meso-striato prefrontal regions, which act to process information and focus one's attention, and are linked to disorders such as addiction. Studies have found that the presence of chromosome 16 can uphold genetic variations that influence the intake of sweet foods, such as chocolate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Caffeine is toxic to birds and to dogs and cats, and has a pronounced adverse effect on mollusks, various insects, and spiders. This is at least partly due to a poor ability to metabolize the compound, causing higher levels for a given dose per unit weight. Caffeine has also been found to enhance the reward memory of honey bees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "If pregnant, it is recommended not to consume over 200\u00a0mg of caffeine a day (depending on size of person). If a pregnant female consumes high levels of caffeine, it can result in low birth weights due to loss of blood flow to the placenta which could lead to an increase health problems later in that child's life. It can also result in premature labor, reduced fertility, and other reproductive issues. If a female is depended on an excessive amount of caffeine to get them through the day, it is recommended to talk to their healthcare provider to either eliminate the dependency of caffeine or to become less dependent on it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine-induced sleep disorder",
        "text": "Keeping in mind that caffeine content in beverages and food varies and that some individuals are more sensitive to caffeine consumption than others are, moderation of caffeine is key. Between 200 and 300 mg of caffeine is considered \"moderate\" for most adults. While children can consume caffeine, it is advised to refrain children and adolescence from consuming caffeine due to their growing brains and to allow them to develop healthy sleep patterns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decaffeination",
        "text": "Both of these studies tested the caffeine content of store-brewed coffee, suggesting that the caffeine may be residual from the normal coffee served rather than poorly decaffeinated coffee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Liquid\u2013liquid extraction",
        "text": "Caffeine can also be extracted from coffee beans and tea leaves using a direct organic extraction. The beans or leaves can be soaked in ethyl acetate which favorably dissolves the caffeine, leaving a majority of the coffee or tea flavor remaining in the initial sample."
      },
      {
        "title": "Serena Dudek",
        "text": "In a Newsweek article called \"Buff Your Brain\" Serena Dudek and her colleagues' 2011 research on the effects of caffeine in lab rodents was highlighted. Serena Dudek's research found that rats that were given an equivalent shot of two cups of coffee had stronger electrical activity between neurons in their hippocampus area called CA2."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Consumption of per day is associated with a condition known as \"<dfn>caffeinism</dfn>.\" Caffeinism usually combines caffeine dependency with a wide range of unpleasant symptoms including nervousness, irritability, restlessness, insomnia, headaches, and palpitations after caffeine use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "One U.S. company is marketing oral dissolvable caffeine strips. Another intake route is SpazzStick, a caffeinated lip balm. Alert Energy Caffeine Gum was introduced in the United States in 2013, but was voluntarily withdrawn after an announcement of an investigation by the FDA of the health effects of added caffeine in foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Acute ingestion of caffeine in large doses (at least 250\u2013300\u00a0mg, equivalent to the amount found in 2\u20133 cups of coffee or 5\u20138 cups of tea) results in a short-term stimulation of urine output in individuals who have been deprived of caffeine for a period of days or weeks. This increase is due to both a diuresis (increase in water excretion) and a natriuresis (increase in saline excretion); it is mediated via proximal tubular adenosine receptor blockade. The acute increase in urinary output may increase the risk of dehydration. However, chronic users of caffeine develop a tolerance to this effect and experience no increase in urinary output."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chocoholic",
        "text": "Dark chocolates' high caffeine and theobromine content can cause addiction due to both of their psychological effects. This is as a result of its higher content of cacao compared to other forms of chocolate. The amount of caffeine in dark chocolate can vary from 35 to 200\u00a0mg\u200950\u2009g\u22121 while milk chocolate contains lower amounts of caffeine (14\u00a0mg\u200950\u2009g\u22121)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Caffeine also causes the release of dopamine in the dorsal striatum and nucleus accumbens core (a substructure within the ventral striatum), but not the nucleus accumbens shell, by antagonizing A1 receptors in the axon terminal of dopamine neurons and A1\u2013A2A heterodimers (a receptor complex composed of 1 adenosine A1 receptor and 1 adenosine A2A receptor) in the axon terminal of glutamate neurons. During chronic caffeine use, caffeine-induced dopamine release within the nucleus accumbens core is markedly reduced due to drug tolerance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tip of the tongue",
        "text": "Caffeine can have multiple effects at the cellular level but is primarily notable for the alertness effect that it has on people. Research has been performed involving phonological priming and TOTs in which participants took either 200\u00a0mg of caffeine or a placebo. The participants answered 100 general knowledge questions, each with one correct answer. For each question, participants read 10 priming words that were displayed on a monitor for a short period of time. Each list of 10 priming words had between two and eight words that were phonologically related to the correct answer of the question, with the remaining words being unrelated. Caffeinated participants had fewer TOT experiences than the placebo group, suggesting better memory recall. However, in the unrelated condition, the caffeinated group did not do as well as the placebo group in their ability to retrieve words. The results suggest that this dose of caffeine (equivalent to two cups of coffee) can temporarily hinder a person's short-term recall of certain words. Moreover, the general advantageous effect of caffeine on attention can be ruled out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Because caffeine is both water- and lipid-soluble, it readily crosses the blood\u2013brain barrier that separates the bloodstream from the interior of the brain. Once in the brain, the principal mode of action is as a nonselective antagonist of adenosine receptors (in other words, an agent that reduces the effects of adenosine). The caffeine molecule is structurally similar to adenosine, and is capable of binding to adenosine receptors on the surface of cells without activating them, thereby acting as a competitive antagonist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Caffeine is a proven ergogenic aid in humans. Caffeine improves athletic performance in aerobic (especially endurance sports) and anaerobic conditions. Moderate doses of caffeine (around 5\u00a0mg/kg) can improve sprint performance, cycling and running time trial performance, endurance (i.e., it delays the onset of muscle fatigue and central fatigue), and cycling power output. Caffeine increases basal metabolic rate in adults. Caffeine ingestion prior to aerobic exercise increases fat oxidation, particularly in persons with low physical fitness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeinism",
        "text": "Attempting to abruptly discontinue all consumption of caffeine-containing products from the diet is not usually recommended. The person could suffer from severe symptoms of caffeine withdrawal including headaches, fatigue, and difficulty concentrating. It is recommended that the person reduces caffeine consumption gradually to avoid withdrawal as attempts to suddenly discontinue all caffeine consumption are frequently abandoned due to the severity of the withdrawal symptoms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine-Free Coca-Cola",
        "text": "Caffeine-Free Coca-Cola\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Recently discovered bacteria \"Pseudomonas putida\" CBB5 can live on pure caffeine and can cleave caffeine into carbon dioxide and ammonia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diet drink",
        "text": "Many consumers are concerned about possible health effects of sugar substitutes and caffeine overuse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alia Crum",
        "text": "Crum determined that the perception of a food item as more or less indulgent could influence the production of the hormone ghrelin. Similarly, believing that a beverage contains caffeine can increase blood pressure."
      },
      {
        "title": "TRPA1",
        "text": "In 2008, it was observed that caffeine suppresses activity of human TRPA1, but it was found that mouse TRPA1 channels expressed in sensory neurons cause an aversion to drinking caffeine-containing water, suggesting that the TRPA1 channels mediate the perception of caffeine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gateway drug effect",
        "text": "Students who regularly consume caffeinated energy drinks have a greater risk of alcohol use disorder, cocaine use and misuse of prescription stimulants. The elevated risk remains after accounting for prior substance use and other risk factors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "In the absence of caffeine and when a person is awake and alert, little adenosine is present in (CNS) neurons. With a continued wakeful state, over time adenosine accumulates in the neuronal synapse, in turn binding to and activating adenosine receptors found on certain CNS neurons; when activated, these receptors produce a cellular response that ultimately increases drowsiness. When caffeine is consumed, it antagonizes adenosine receptors; in other words, caffeine prevents adenosine from activating the receptor by blocking the location on the receptor where adenosine binds to it. As a result, caffeine temporarily prevents or relieves drowsiness, and thus maintains or restores alertness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine (service)",
        "text": "Caffeine (service)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Adiponectin",
        "text": "Several studies have found a positive correlation in caffeine consumption and increased adiponectin levels, although the mechanism for this is unknown and requires more research."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Caffeine may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Effect of caffeine on memory",
        "text": "Researchers have found that long-term consumption of low dose caffeine slowed hippocampus-dependent learning and impaired long-term memory in mice. Caffeine consumption for 4 weeks also significantly reduced hippocampal neurogenesis, a process by which the brain creates new neurons to assist in memory retention, compared to controls during the experiment. The conclusion was that long-term consumption of caffeine could inhibit hippocampus-dependent learning and memory partially through inhibition of hippocampal neurogenesis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "The differing perceptions in the effects of ingesting beverages made from various plants containing caffeine could be explained by the fact that these beverages also contain varying mixtures of other methylxanthine alkaloids, including the cardiac stimulants theophylline and theobromine, and polyphenols that can form insoluble complexes with caffeine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Addiction",
        "text": "Reviews of preclinical studies indicate that long-term frequent and excessive consumption of high fat or sugar foods can produce an addiction (food addiction). This can include chocolate. Chocolates' sweet flavour and pharmacological ingredients is known to create a strong craving or feel 'addictive' by the consumer. A person who has a strong liking for chocolate may refer to themselves as a chocoholic. Chocolate is not yet formally recognised by the DSM-5 as a diagnosable addiction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Caffeinated beverages are widely consumed by Muslims today. In the 16th century, some Muslim authorities made unsuccessful attempts to ban them as forbidden \"intoxicating beverages\" under Islamic dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Some analog substances have been created which mimic caffeine's properties with either function or structure or both. Of the latter group are the xanthines DMPX and 8-chlorotheophylline, which is an ingredient in dramamine. Members of a class of nitrogen substituted xanthines are often proposed as potential alternatives to caffeine. Many other xanthine analogues constituting the adenosine receptor antagonist class have also been elucidated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Products containing caffeine include coffee, tea, soft drinks (\"colas\"), energy drinks, other beverages, chocolate, caffeine tablets, other oral products, and inhalation products. According to a 2020 study in the United States, coffee is the major source of caffeine intake in middle-aged adults, while soft drinks and tea are the major sources in adolescents. Energy drinks are more commonly consumed as a source of caffeine in adolescents as compared to adults."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "The \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\" describes four caffeine-related disorders including intoxication, withdrawal, anxiety, and sleep."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffey",
        "text": "Caffey\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Some other caffeine analogs:\n* Dipropylcyclopentylxanthine\n* 8-Cyclopentyl-1,3-dimethylxanthine\n* 8-Phenyltheophylline"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports nutrition",
        "text": "Caffeine has been around since the 1900s and became popularly used in the 1970s when its power of masking fatigue became highly recognized. Similarly, the caffeine found in energy drinks and coffee shows an increased reaction performance and feelings of energy, focus and alertness in quickness and reaction anaerobic power tests. In other words, consuming an energy drink or any drink with caffeine increases short time/rapid exercise performance (like short full-speed sprints and heavy power weight lifting). Caffeine is chemically similar to adenosine, a type of sugar that helps in the regulation of important body processes, including the firing of neurotransmitters. Caffeine takes the place of adenosine in your brain, attaching itself to the same neural receptors affected by adenosine, and causing your neurons to fire more rapidly, hence caffeine's stimulating effects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeinated drink",
        "text": "Beverages containing caffeine include coffee, tea, soft drinks (\"colas\"), energy drinks, other beverages. According to a 2020 study in the United States, coffee is the major source of caffeine intake in middle-aged adults, while soft drinks and tea are the major sources in adolescents. Energy drinks are more commonly consumed as a source of caffeine in adolescents as compared to adults."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Caffeine is a bitter, white crystalline purine, a methylxanthine alkaloid, and is chemically related to the adenine and guanine bases of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). It is found in the seeds, fruits, nuts, or leaves of a number of plants native to Africa, East Asia and South America, and helps to protect them against herbivores and from competition by preventing the germination of nearby seeds, as well as encouraging consumption by select animals such as honey bees. The best-known source of caffeine is the coffee bean, the seed of the \"Coffea\" plant. People may drink beverages containing caffeine to relieve or prevent drowsiness and to improve cognitive performance. To make these drinks, caffeine is extracted by steeping the plant product in water, a process called infusion. Caffeine-containing drinks, such as coffee, tea, and cola, are consumed globally in high volumes. In 2020, almost 10 million tonnes of coffee beans were consumed globally. Caffeine is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive drug. Unlike most other psychoactive substances, caffeine remains largely unregulated and legal in nearly all parts of the world. Caffeine is also an outlier as its use is seen as socially acceptable in most cultures and even encouraged in others, particularly in the Western world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Pelletier's article on caffeine was the first to use the term in print (in the French form \"Caf\u00e9ine\" from the French word for coffee: \"caf\u00e9\"). It corroborates Berzelius's account:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dehydrogenase",
        "text": "Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine), the substrate in the above reaction, is a purine alkaloid found in a variety of plant species, such as coffee, cacao, cola, and tea leaves. Caffeine has also been used as a cardiac, neurological, and respiratory stimulant. Because of its prevalence in the modern world in the form of beverages, food, and medicine, caffeine has become one of the world's major agro-industrial wastes. Thus, caffeine has become more noticeable in surface water, groundwater, and waste water effluents all over the world. In addition to being an addictive substance, it has also been shown to lead to adverse health effects, such as irregular sleeping patterns, increase in blood pressure, palpitations, and anxiety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "A protective effect of caffeine against Alzheimer's disease and dementia is possible but the evidence is inconclusive. It may protect people from liver cirrhosis. Caffeine may lessen the severity of acute mountain sickness if taken a few hours prior to attaining a high altitude. One meta analysis has found that caffeine consumption is associated with a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes. Regular caffeine consumption reduces the risk of developing Parkinson's disease and slows the rate of progression of Parkinson's disease. Caffeine consumption may be associated with reduced risk of depression, although conflicting results have been reported."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cafferata",
        "text": "Cafferata\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Effect of caffeine on memory",
        "text": "Caffeine users are subject to state dependent memory effects when under the effects of caffeine. For example, a study tasked two groups of subjects to remember word lists; half of them had caffeine while the other half were given placebos. When brought back the next day, each original group was now split in half, half of them given the same treatment they were encoded under, the other half given the opposite treatment. Ultimately the study showed that subjects that were under the same treatment in both encoding and retrieval out performed the other groups. This study does not support a decline or enhancement in working memory due to caffeine but rather a state dependent effect instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "According to the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11), cases of very high caffeine intake (e.g. > 5 g) may result in caffeine intoxication with symptoms including mania, depression, lapses in judgement, disorientation, disinhibition, delusions, hallucinations or psychosis, and rhabdomyolysis (breakdown of skeletal muscle tissue)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cafunfo",
        "text": "Cafunfo\n--Reading.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hosmer\u2013Lemeshow test",
        "text": "A researcher wishes to know if caffeine improves performance on a memory test. Volunteers consume different amounts of caffeine from 0 to 500\u00a0mg, and their score on the memory test is recorded. The results are shown in the table below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Around thirty plant species are known to contain caffeine. Common sources are the \"beans\" (seeds) of the two cultivated coffee plants, \"Coffea arabica\" and \"Coffea canephora\" (the quantity varies, but 1.3% is a typical value); and of the cocoa plant, \"Theobroma cacao\"; the leaves of the tea plant; and kola nuts. Other sources include the leaves of yaupon holly, South American holly yerba mate, and Amazonian holly guayusa; and seeds from Amazonian maple guarana berries. Temperate climates around the world have produced unrelated caffeine-containing plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffenol",
        "text": "Caffenol\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Autonomic nervous system",
        "text": "The effects of caffeine on parasympathetic activity may vary depending on the position of the individual when autonomic responses are measured. One study found that the seated position inhibited autonomic activity after caffeine consumption (75\u00a0mg); however, parasympathetic activity increased in the supine position. This finding may explain why some habitual caffeine consumers (75\u00a0mg or less) do not experience short-term effects of caffeine if their routine requires many hours in a seated position. It is important to note that the data supporting increased parasympathetic activity in the supine position was derived from an experiment involving participants between the ages of 25 and 30 who were considered healthy and sedentary. Caffeine may influence autonomic activity differently for individuals who are more active or elderly."
      },
      {
        "title": "That Sugar Film",
        "text": "Interviews with experts attribute this change to the high level of sugar he was ingesting, and in particular suggest that fructose may be the main culprit. It is suggested that artificial sweeteners may be no better."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetened beverage",
        "text": "There is a strong link between sugar-sweetened beverage consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes. However, the high risk of type 2 diabetes is unlikely to be caused directly by sugar, with a 2016 \"British Medical Bulletin\" article stating the evidence is unconvincing. It is likely that weight gain caused by sugar-sweetened beverage consumption is what increases the risk of type 2 diabetes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coffee",
        "text": "According to an article in the \"Journal of the American Dietetic Association\", coffee has the following caffeine content, depending on how it is prepared:"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is added to a beverage to be classified as sweetened beverage?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sugar is the ingredient added to make it a sweetened beverage."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What other things can be added to a drink to make it sweeter?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Added sugars or free sugars are sugar carbohydrates added to beverages and may include sucrose or high-fructose corn syrup beet and cane sugars, malt syrup, maple syrup, fructose sweetener, liquid fructose, fruit juice concentrate, aspartame, monk fruit extract, saccharin, sucralose, and/or stevia."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me how monk fruit extract is made?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Through solvent extraction, a powder containing 80% mogrosides can be obtained, the main one being mogroside-5 (esgoside). In this process, the peel and seeds are removed, and the pulped fruit is made into a fruit concentrate or puree, and additional juice may be extracted from the remaining pulp by hot water."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is it possible to be addicted to sweetened beverages?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Evidence regarding sugar addiction is mainly based on literature and research conducted on animals; human research has also been conducted on sugar (in the form of sugar-sweetened beverages) and its effects on the kidneys. In a recent study, the notion of sugar addiction has been challenged and the findings indicated that sugary foods have a minimal role to contributing to food dependence and the increased risk of weight gain."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you become addicted to caffeine then?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Yes, Caffeine dependence is the condition of having a substance dependence on caffeine, a commonplace central nervous system stimulant drug which occurs in nature in coffee, tea, yerba mate, cocoa, and other plants. Caffeine's mechanism of action is somewhat different from that of cocaine and the substituted amphetamines; caffeine blocks adenosine receptors A1 and A2A.",
      "Absolutely! It's called Caffeine dependence, which is the condition of having a substance dependence on caffeine."
    ],
    "topic": "Sweetened beverage",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Caffeine dependence:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Caffeine dependence"
        ],
        "ctx": "Caffeine dependence is the condition of having a substance dependence on caffeine, a commonplace central nervous system stimulant drug which occurs in nature in coffee, tea, yerba mate, cocoa, and other plants. Caffeine is also an additive in many consumer products, including beverages such as caffeinated alcoholic beverages, energy drinks, colas."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Caffeine dependence:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Caffeine dependence"
        ],
        "ctx": "Caffeine's mechanism of action is somewhat different from that of cocaine and the substituted amphetamines; caffeine blocks adenosine receptors A1 and A2A. Adenosine is a by-product of cellular activity, and stimulation of adenosine receptors produces feelings of tiredness and the need to sleep. Caffeine's ability to block these receptors means the levels of the body's natural stimulants, dopamine and norepinephrine, continue at higher levels."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Caffeine dependence:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Caffeine dependence"
        ],
        "ctx": "Caffeine dependence is the condition of having a substance dependence on caffeine, a commonplace central nervous system stimulant drug which occurs in nature in coffee, tea, yerba mate, cocoa, and other plants. Caffeine is also an additive in many consumer products, including beverages such as caffeinated alcoholic beverages, energy drinks, colas."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "When a person becomes caffeine dependent, it can cause a person to suffer different physiological effects which could lead to withdrawal. Symptoms can range from mild to severe that are dependent on the amount of caffeine consumed daily. Tests are still being done to get a better understanding of the effects that occur to someone when they become dependent on different forms of caffeine to make it through the day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "Caffeine dependence is the condition of having a substance dependence on caffeine, a commonplace central nervous system stimulant drug which occurs in nature in coffee, tea, yerba mate, cocoa, and other plants. Caffeine is also an additive in many consumer products, including beverages such as caffeinated alcoholic beverages, energy drinks, colas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "Mild physical dependence can result from long-term caffeine use. Caffeine addiction, or a pathological and compulsive form of use, has not been documented in humans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "The \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\" describes four caffeine-related disorders including intoxication, withdrawal, anxiety, and sleep."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Consumption of per day is associated with a condition known as \"<dfn>caffeinism</dfn>.\" Caffeinism usually combines caffeine dependency with a wide range of unpleasant symptoms including nervousness, irritability, restlessness, insomnia, headaches, and palpitations after caffeine use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "Caffeine use is classified as a dependence, not an addiction. For a drug to be considered addictive, it must activate the brain's reward circuit. Caffeine, like addictive drugs, enhances dopamine signaling in the brain (is eugeroic), but not enough to activate the brain's reward circuit like addictive substances such as cocaine, morphine, and nicotine. Caffeine dependence forms due to caffeine antagonizing the adenosine A2A receptor, effectively blocking adenosine from the adenosine receptor site. This delays the onset of drowsiness and releases dopamine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "Caffeine's mechanism of action is somewhat different from that of cocaine and the substituted amphetamines; caffeine blocks adenosine receptors A1 and A2A. Adenosine is a by-product of cellular activity, and stimulation of adenosine receptors produces feelings of tiredness and the need to sleep. Caffeine's ability to block these receptors means the levels of the body's natural stimulants, dopamine and norepinephrine, continue at higher levels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "Studies have demonstrated that people who take in a minimum of 100mg of caffeine per day (about the amount in one cup of coffee) can acquire a physical dependence that would trigger withdrawal symptoms that include headaches, muscle pain and stiffness, lethargy, nausea, vomiting, depressed mood, and marked irritability. Professor Roland R. Griffiths, a professor of neurology at Johns Hopkins in Baltimore strongly believes that caffeine withdrawal should be classified as a psychological disorder. His research suggested that withdrawal affects 50% of habitual coffee drinkers, beginning within 12\u201324 hours after cessation of caffeine intake, and peaking in 20\u201348 hours, lasting as long as 9 days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine use for sport",
        "text": "Those who use caffeine regularly, most often drinking at least one coffee a day, can become dependent and addicted. If caffeine use for these people is stopped they may have withdrawals symptoms of feeling tired and headaches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "Tolerance levels regarding caffeine typically vary from person to person. Caffeine tolerance occurs when the stimulatory effects of caffeine decrease over time due to regular consumption. According to H.P. Ammon from the National Library of Medicine, caffeine tolerance occurs when the body responds to an intake of caffeine through the up-regulation of adenosine-receptors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "Caffeine dependence\n--Dependence.\n----Addiction vs. Dependence.\n--Physiological effects.\n----Adults.\n------Pregnancy.\n----Children and Teenagers.\n--Tolerance.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "Continued exposure to caffeine leads the body to create more adenosine-receptors in the central nervous system, which makes it more sensitive to the effects of adenosine. It reduces the stimulatory effects of caffeine by increasing tolerance, and it increases the withdrawal symptoms of caffeine as the body becomes more sensitive to the effects of adenosine once caffeine intake decreases. Caffeine tolerance develops very quickly. Tolerance to the sleep disruption effects of caffeine were seen after consumption of 400mg of caffeine 3times a day for 7days, whereas complete tolerance was observed after consumption of 300mg taken 3times a day for 18days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeinism",
        "text": "Attempting to abruptly discontinue all consumption of caffeine-containing products from the diet is not usually recommended. The person could suffer from severe symptoms of caffeine withdrawal including headaches, fatigue, and difficulty concentrating. It is recommended that the person reduces caffeine consumption gradually to avoid withdrawal as attempts to suddenly discontinue all caffeine consumption are frequently abandoned due to the severity of the withdrawal symptoms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Withdrawal can cause mild to clinically significant distress or impairment in daily functioning. The frequency at which this occurs is self-reported at 11%, but in lab tests only half of the people who report withdrawal actually experience it, casting doubt on many claims of dependence. Mild physical dependence and withdrawal symptoms may occur upon abstinence, with greater than 100\u00a0mg caffeine per day, although these symptoms last no longer than a day. Some symptoms associated with psychological dependence may also occur during withdrawal. The diagnostic criteria for caffeine withdrawal require a previous prolonged daily use of caffeine. Following 24 hours of a marked reduction in consumption, a minimum of 3 of these signs or symptoms is required to meet withdrawal criteria: difficulty concentrating, depressed mood/irritability, flu-like symptoms, headache, and fatigue. Additionally, the signs and symptoms must disrupt important areas of functioning and are not associated with effects of another condition"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "Caffeine is consumed by many each day and from this a dependence is formed. For the most part caffeine consumption is safe, but consuming over 400\u00a0mg of caffeine has shown adverse physiological and psychological effects; especially in people that have pre-existing conditions. When adults form a dependence on caffeine, it can cause a range of health problems such as headaches, insomnia, dizziness, cardiac issues, hypertension and others. When an adult is dependent on this substance, they must consume a certain amount of caffeine every day to avoid these effects from occurring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "According to the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11), cases of very high caffeine intake (e.g. > 5 g) may result in caffeine intoxication with symptoms including mania, depression, lapses in judgement, disorientation, disinhibition, delusions, hallucinations or psychosis, and rhabdomyolysis (breakdown of skeletal muscle tissue)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeinism",
        "text": "Symptoms associated with high doses of caffeine include\n#muscle twitching,\n#rambling flow of thought and speech,\n#tachycardia and cardiac arrhythmia,\n#periods of inexhaustibility, and\n#psychomotor agitation,\n#anorexia (loss of appetite)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Psychological dependence",
        "text": "Symptoms of psychological dependence include:\n*Anxiety\n*Panic attack\n*Dysphoria\n*Anhedonia\n*Craving\n*Stress"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeinism",
        "text": "caffeine use. This syndrome regularly happens when a person ingested large amounts of caffeine from any source (e.g., more than 400\u2013500\u00a0mg at a time)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeinated drink",
        "text": "The consumption of caffeinated drinks is often intended entirely or partly for the physical and mental effects of caffeine. Examples include the consumption of tea or coffee with breakfast in many westernized societies, in order to 'wake oneself up', or the deliberate consumption of energy drinks by students wishing to study through the night, or revellers seeking to maintain an alert attitude during social recreation. Caffeine can cause a physical dependence, if consumed in excessive amounts. The need for caffeine can be identified when individuals feel headaches, fatigue and muscle pain 24 hours after their last energy drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "Low caffeine coffee",
        "text": "In large amounts, and especially over extended periods of time, caffeine can lead to a condition known as \"caffeinism.\" Caffeinism usually combines caffeine dependency with a wide range of unpleasant physical and mental conditions including nervousness, irritability, anxiety, tremulousness, muscle twitching (hyperreflexia), insomnia, headaches, respiratory alkalosis, and heart palpitations. Furthermore, because caffeine increases the production of stomach acid, high consumption over time may lead to peptic ulcers, erosive esophagitis, and gastroesophageal reflux disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Caffeine overdose can result in a state of central nervous system over-stimulation known as caffeine intoxication, a clinically significant temporary condition that develops during, or shortly after, the consumption of caffeine. This syndrome typically occurs only after ingestion of large amounts of caffeine, well over the amounts found in typical caffeinated beverages and caffeine tablets (e.g., more than 400\u2013500\u00a0mg at a time). According to the DSM-5, caffeine intoxication may be diagnosed if five (or more) of the following symptoms develop after recent consumption of caffeine: restlessness, nervousness, excitement, insomnia, flushed face, diuresis (increased production of urine), gastrointestinal disturbance, muscle twitching, rambling flow of thought and speech, tachycardia (increased heart rate) or cardiac arrythmia, periods of inexhaustibility, and psychomotor agitation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeinism",
        "text": "The symptoms of caffeine intoxication are comparable to the symptoms of overdoses of other stimulants. In cases of much larger overdoses, mania, depression, lapses in judgment, disorientation, disinhibition, delusions, weight loss, loss of appetite, hallucinations, or psychosis may occur."
      },
      {
        "title": "Benzodiazepine dependence",
        "text": "The signs and symptoms of benzodiazepine dependence include feeling unable to cope without the drug, unsuccessful"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "It is not recommended for children under the age of 18 to consume several caffeinated drinks according to the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). If they were to consume caffeine it is recommended to follow some guidelines so they do not consume too much throughout the day. If they do, they can become dependent on caffeine and without it can suffer many different side effects. These include increase of heart rate and blood pressure, sleep disturbance, mood swings, and acidic problems. Long lasting problems on children's nervous system and cardiovascular system are currently unknown and studies are still being conducted on it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Whether caffeine can result in an addictive disorder depends on how addiction is defined. Compulsive caffeine consumption under any circumstances has not been observed, and caffeine is therefore not generally considered addictive. However, some diagnostic models, such as the and ICD-10, include a classification of caffeine addiction under a broader diagnostic model. Some state that certain users can become addicted and therefore unable to decrease use even though they know there are negative health effects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Psychological dependence",
        "text": "Studies have shown that in rats experiencing ethanol withdrawal, stimulant withdrawal or opioid withdrawal, the nucleus accumbens shows lower levels of serotonin and dopamine than controls. These decreases are associated with depression and anxiety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "The ICD-11 includes caffeine dependence as a distinct diagnostic category, which closely mirrors the DSM-5's proposed set of criteria for \"caffeine-use disorder\".\u00a0 Caffeine use disorder refers to dependence on caffeine characterized by failure to control caffeine consumption despite negative physiological consequences. The APA, which published the DSM-5, acknowledged that there was sufficient evidence in order to create a diagnostic model of caffeine dependence for the DSM-5, but they noted that the clinical significance of the disorder is unclear. Due to this inconclusive evidence on clinical significance, the DSM-5 classifies caffeine-use disorder as a \"condition for further study\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeinism",
        "text": "The signs and symptoms are divided into one group that can appear after an intake of as little as 100\u00a0mg of caffeine (roughly the amount contained in a cup of brewed coffee) and another group of symptoms that appear at higher levels of intake (more than 1 g per day). Low-dose symptoms include\n#restlessness,\n#nervousness,\n#excitement,\n#insomnia,\n#flushed face,\n#diuresis (increased urination), and\n#gastrointestinal disturbance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "\"Caffeine addiction\" was added to the ICDM-9 and ICD-10. However, its addition was contested with claims that this diagnostic model of caffeine addiction is not supported by evidence. The American Psychiatric Association's does not include the diagnosis of a \"caffeine addiction\" but proposes criteria for the disorder for more study."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Caffeine does not appear to be a reinforcing stimulus, and some degree of aversion may actually occur, with people preferring placebo over caffeine in a study on drug abuse liability published in an NIDA research monograph. Some state that research does not provide support for an underlying biochemical mechanism for caffeine addiction. Other research states it can affect the reward system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeinism",
        "text": "According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, caffeine overdose can result in a state of excessive stimulation of the central nervous system and the essential feature of Caffeine Intoxication is the recent consumption of caffeine. This diagnosis requires the presence of at least five signs or symptoms, from a list of 12, that develop during or shortly after"
      },
      {
        "title": "Amphetamine dependence",
        "text": "Amphetamine dependence\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cocaine dependence",
        "text": "The symptoms of cocaine withdrawal range from moderate to severe: dysphoria, depression, anxiety, decreased libido, psychological and physical weakness, pain, and compulsive cravings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Addiction",
        "text": "Past editions have used physical dependence and the associated withdrawal syndrome to identify an addictive state. Physical dependence occurs when the body has adjusted by incorporating the substance into its \"normal\" functioning \u2013 i.e., attains homeostasis \u2013 and therefore physical withdrawal symptoms occur upon cessation of use. Tolerance is the process by which the body continually adapts to the substance and requires increasingly larger amounts to achieve the original effects. Withdrawal refers to physical and psychological symptoms experienced when reducing or discontinuing a substance that the body has become dependent on. Symptoms of withdrawal generally include but are not limited to body aches, anxiety, irritability, intense cravings for the substance, nausea, hallucinations, headaches, cold sweats, tremors, and seizures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeinism",
        "text": "In moderate doses, caffeine is used to reduce physical fatigue, to prevent drowsiness and sleep, and to maintain and restore mental alertness and wakefulness. However, at higher doses, these stimulatory effects can become excessive and lead to a wide range of unpleasant symptoms including a dysphoric physical and mental state that is labeled caffeinism and is also known colloquially as \"coffee nerves\" or \"caffeine jitters.\" These symptoms including nervousness, irritability, restlessness, insomnia, headaches, and palpitations after caffeine use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine dependence",
        "text": "If pregnant, it is recommended not to consume over 200\u00a0mg of caffeine a day (depending on size of person). If a pregnant female consumes high levels of caffeine, it can result in low birth weights due to loss of blood flow to the placenta which could lead to an increase health problems later in that child's life. It can also result in premature labor, reduced fertility, and other reproductive issues. If a female is depended on an excessive amount of caffeine to get them through the day, it is recommended to talk to their healthcare provider to either eliminate the dependency of caffeine or to become less dependent on it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder",
        "text": "Diagnosis according to the DSM-5 is dependent on various criteria. Patients must present symptoms of either panic attacks or anxiety. There must also be evidence that the panic or anxiety symptoms are a direct result of the use of the intoxicating substance. In caffeine-induced anxiety disorder, such symptoms would be due to the consumption of caffeine. The DSM-5 makes the distinction that the substance must be physiologically capable of leading to the anxiety and panic symptoms. This establishes the relationship between the abused chemical agent and the observed clinical effects. Caffeine has been proven to act as an antagonist on adenosine receptors, which acts as a stimulant and therefore fulfills this criteria. Symptoms must also not have a more likely clinical cause, such as another type of anxiety disorder, come before the ingestion of the intoxicating substance, or last for an extended amount of time after stopping the use of the substance. Diagnosis also requires that the panic attacks or anxiety due to the use of the intoxicating substance cause a certain amount of disturbance in the patient or lead to deficiency of varying types of daily performance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Caffeine in a dose dependent manner increases alertness in both fatigued and normal individuals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poppy tea",
        "text": "Additionally, frequent use results in high tolerance and dependence. Chemical dependency builds in relation to the frequency of use, dosage, age, sex, weight and medical condition. Once chemical dependency has developed, abrupt cessation of use will cause withdrawal; symptoms include leg and abdominal cramps, mydriasis, vomiting, diarrhea, headache, insomnia, cravings, lethargy and anxiety. Symptoms of withdrawal usually fade after 4\u201310 days but cravings and psychological dependence may continue for longer, in some cases up to a year. Treatment methods for addiction are generally the same for any opioid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barbiturate dependence",
        "text": "Psychological addiction to barbiturates can develop quickly. The patients will then have a strong desire to take any barbiturate-like drug. The chronic use of barbiturates leads to moderate degradation of the personality with narrowing of interests, passivity and loss of volition. The somatic signs include hypomimia, problems articulating, weakening of reflexes, and ataxia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Addictive personality",
        "text": "People with addictive personalities typically switch from one addiction to the next. These individuals may show impulsive behavior such as excessive caffeine consumption, Internet use, eating chocolate or other sugar-laden foods, television watching, or even running."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeinism",
        "text": "Caffeinism\n--Signs and symptoms.\n--Treatment.\n--Epidemiology.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sleep deprivation",
        "text": "While there are short-term performance benefits to caffeine consumption, overuse can lead to insomnia symptoms or worsen pre-existing insomnia. Consuming caffeine to stay awake at night may lead to sleeplessness, anxiety, frequent nighttime awakenings, and overall poorer sleep quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical dependence",
        "text": "Physical dependence\n--Symptoms.\n--Treatment.\n--Rebound syndrome.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Acute ingestion of caffeine in large doses (at least 250\u2013300\u00a0mg, equivalent to the amount found in 2\u20133 cups of coffee or 5\u20138 cups of tea) results in a short-term stimulation of urine output in individuals who have been deprived of caffeine for a period of days or weeks. This increase is due to both a diuresis (increase in water excretion) and a natriuresis (increase in saline excretion); it is mediated via proximal tubular adenosine receptor blockade. The acute increase in urinary output may increase the risk of dehydration. However, chronic users of caffeine develop a tolerance to this effect and experience no increase in urinary output."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food addiction",
        "text": "Psychological dependence has also been observed with the occurrence of withdrawal symptoms when consumption of these foods stops by replacement with foods low in sugar and fat. Because this addictive behavior is not biological, one cannot develop a trait that codes for an eating disorder, so professionals address this by providing behavior therapy and by asking a series of questions called the YFAS questionnaire, a diagnostic criteria of substance dependence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder",
        "text": "In cases of prolonged consumption of excess amounts of caffeine, studies show that individuals exhibit a reduced response to HPA axis activation by the hormone ACTH and a generalized increase in basal levels of stress hormone corticosterone. Researchers concluded that the sensitivity of adrenal glands to ACTH is diminished by caffeine consumption. People diagnosed with panic disorder show less HPA activity following stressful stimuli than their healthy control counterparts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder",
        "text": "Caffeine's widespread appeal is due primarily to its mild psychostimulant properties, which increase alertness and cognitive arousal and diminish fatigue. Caffeine also produces a wide range of other symptoms, including upregulation of the cardiovascular system, increased global cognitive processing, and improved physical functioning. Cardiovascular effects can range from increased heart rate and reactivity to severe cardiac arrhythmia. The cognitive effects of caffeine include increased performance in memory, attention, and text reading. The physical effects of caffeine include lowered sensations of pain, less perceived effort, and increased muscle strength and endurance. However, at doses above ~400\u00a0mg, both cognitive and physical performance begins to worsen and symptoms of anxiety increase. One study that explored ad lib caffeine consumption in 159 college students found that high consumers reported lower academic performance. The same study also concluded that moderate and high consumers combined reported significantly higher trait anxiety and depression scores when compared with abstainers. These anxiety symptoms include persisting insomnia, nervousness, and mood fluctuations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "The differing perceptions in the effects of ingesting beverages made from various plants containing caffeine could be explained by the fact that these beverages also contain varying mixtures of other methylxanthine alkaloids, including the cardiac stimulants theophylline and theobromine, and polyphenols that can form insoluble complexes with caffeine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Psychological dependence",
        "text": "The major differences between psychological dependence and physical dependence are the symptoms they cause. While symptoms of psychological dependence relate to emotional and motivational impairment, physical dependence entails somatic symptoms e.g. increased heart rate, sweating, tremor. The type of dependence experienced after chronic use varies between different substances (see table 1)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Psychological dependence",
        "text": "Psychological dependence is a cognitive disorder that involves emotional\u2013motivational withdrawal symptoms, e.g. anxiety and anhedonia, upon cessation of prolonged drug abuse or certain repetitive behaviours. It develops through frequent exposure to a psychoactive substance or behaviour, though behavioural dependence is less talked about. The specific mechanism involves a neuronal counter-adaption, which could be mediated through changes in neurotransmittor activity or altered receptor expression. Withdrawal symptoms can be attenuated by environmental enrichment and physical activity. Psychological dependence is not to be confused with physical dependence, which induces physical withdrawal symptoms upon discontinuation of use. However they are not mutually exclusive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food addiction",
        "text": "Food addiction has some physical signs and symptoms. Decreased energy; not being able to be as active as in the past, not being able to be as active as others around, also a decrease in efficiency due to the lack of energy. Having trouble sleeping; being tired all the time such as fatigue, oversleeping, or the complete opposite and not being able to sleep such as insomnia. Other physical signs and symptoms are restlessness, irritability, digestive disorders, and headaches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gateway drug effect",
        "text": "Controlled animal and human studies showed that caffeine (energy drinks) in combination with alcohol increased the craving for more alcohol more strongly than alcohol alone. These findings correspond to epidemiological data that people who consume energy drinks generally showed an increased tendency to take alcohol and other substances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder",
        "text": "Some of these processes include wakefulness, stimulation, and mood and cognition enhancement. Low doses can result in psychological effects of \"mild euphoria, alertness, and enhanced cognitive performance\"; higher doses produce physiological side effects of nausea, anxiety, trembling, and jitteriness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Psychological dependence",
        "text": "Changes in receptor expression have also been linked to various symptoms of drug withdrawal. For example, in a study of rats undergoing nicotine withdrawal there has been observed a down regulation of \u03b16\u03b22*n-icotinic acetylcholine receptors in the mesostriatal dopaminergic pathways."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lormetazepam",
        "text": "Psychological dependence can manifest itself as a reliance on a drug to cope with everyday life or in the form of craving."
      },
      {
        "title": "Severity of Alcohol Dependence Questionnaire",
        "text": "It is divided into five sections:\n* Physical withdrawal symptoms\n* Affective withdrawal symptoms\n* Craving and relief drinking\n* Typical daily consumption\n* Reinstatement of dependence after a period of abstinence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical dependence",
        "text": "A wide range of drugs whilst not causing a true physical dependence can still cause withdrawal symptoms or rebound effects during dosage reduction or especially abrupt or rapid withdrawal. These can include caffeine, stimulants, steroidal drugs and antiparkinsonian drugs. It is debated whether the entire antipsychotic drug class causes true physical dependency, a subset, or if none do. But, if discontinued too rapidly, it could cause an acute withdrawal syndrome. When talking about illicit drugs rebound withdrawal, especially with stimulants, it is sometimes referred to as \"coming down\" or \"crashing\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Addiction psychology",
        "text": "When under stress, the brain is unable to achieve homeostasis. As a result, the brain reverts to allostasis, which in turn alters the brains ability to process pleasure, which is experienced at the hedonic \"set point\" (see figures one). Thus, previous pleasures may become no longer pleasurable. This is also known as anhedonia, or \"pleasure deafness\". When stressed, the addict may experience extreme craving\u2014an intense, emotional, obsessive experience."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Minor undesired symptoms from caffeine ingestion not sufficiently severe to warrant a psychiatric diagnosis are common and include mild anxiety, jitteriness, insomnia, increased sleep latency, and reduced coordination. Caffeine can have negative effects on anxiety disorders. According to a 2011 literature review, caffeine use is positively associated with anxiety and panic disorders. At high doses, typically greater than 300\u00a0mg, caffeine can both cause and worsen anxiety. For some people, discontinuing caffeine use can significantly reduce anxiety. In moderate doses, caffeine has been associated with reduced symptoms of depression and lower suicide risk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeinism",
        "text": "Treatment of mild caffeine intoxication is directed toward symptom relief; severe intoxication may require peritoneal dialysis, hemodialysis, or hemofiltration. Control of caffeine intake requires awareness of the caffeine content of caffeinated beverages, over-the-counter drugs, and other sources of caffeine in the diet. Such information is not easy to obtain. The content of brewed beverages such as coffee and tea varies greatly based on the method of preparation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stimulant",
        "text": "Caffeine's mechanism of action differs from many stimulants, as it produces stimulant effects by inhibiting adenosine receptors. Adenosine receptors are thought to be a large driver of drowsiness and sleep, and their action increases with extended wakefulness. Caffeine has been found to increase striatal dopamine in animal models, as well as inhibit the inhibitory effect of adenosine receptors on dopamine receptors, however the implications for humans are unknown. Unlike most stimulants, caffeine has no addictive potential. Caffeine does not appear to be a reinforcing stimulus, and some degree of aversion may actually occur, which people preferring placebo over caffeine in a study on drug abuse liability published in an NIDA research monograph. In large telephone surveys only 11% reported dependence symptoms. However, when people were tested in labs, only half of those who claim dependence actually experienced it, casting doubt on caffeine's ability to produce dependence and putting societal pressures in the spotlight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neuroenhancement",
        "text": "The need to remain \"alert\" and \"focused\" can also been seen in the trend of caffeine consumption. The caffeine consumption for both students and the general population of the US is around 90%. Students who consume neuroenhancements also had a higher frequency of consuming psychoactive lifestyle drugs such as cannabis. This demonstrates a trend of psychological addiction amongst neuroenhancement users."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeinism",
        "text": "Caffeinism is a state of intoxication caused by excessive consumption of caffeine. This intoxication covers a variety of unpleasant physical and mental symptoms associated with the consumption of excessive amounts of caffeine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine (service)",
        "text": "Caffeine (service)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Barbiturate dependence",
        "text": "Barbiturate dependence\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Benzodiazepine dependence",
        "text": "Animal studies have shown that repeated withdrawal from benzodiazepines leads to increasingly severe withdrawal symptoms, including an increased risk of seizures; this phenomenon is known as kindling. Kindling phenomena are well established for repeated ethanol (alcohol) withdrawal; alcohol has a very similar mechanism of tolerance and withdrawal to benzodiazepines, involving the GABA, NMDA, and AMPA receptors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Autonomic nervous system",
        "text": "Caffeine is a bioactive ingredient found in commonly consumed beverages such as coffee, tea, and sodas. Short-term physiological effects of caffeine include increased blood pressure and sympathetic nerve outflow. Habitual consumption of caffeine may inhibit physiological short-term effects. Consumption of caffeinated espresso increases parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers; however, decaffeinated espresso inhibits parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers. It is possible that other bioactive ingredients in decaffeinated espresso may also contribute to the inhibition of parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cocaine",
        "text": "Cocaine dependence develops after even brief periods of regular cocaine use and produces a withdrawal state with emotional-motivational deficits upon cessation of cocaine use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Substance dependence",
        "text": "Questionnaires"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder",
        "text": "Caffeine is a methylxanthine, and is hydrophobic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketamine",
        "text": "Although the incidence of ketamine dependence is unknown, some people who regularly use ketamine develop ketamine dependence. Animal experiments also confirm the risk of misuse. Additionally, the rapid onset of effects following insufflation may increase potential use as a recreational drug. The short duration of effects promotes bingeing. Ketamine tolerance rapidly develops, even with repeated medical use, prompting the use of higher doses. Some daily users reported withdrawal symptoms, primarily anxiety, shaking, sweating, and palpitations, following the attempts to stop. Cognitive deficits as well as increased dissociation and delusion symptoms were observed in frequent recreational users of ketamine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Caffeine (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicotine dependence",
        "text": "When these receptors are not occupied by nicotine, they are believed to produce withdrawal symptoms. These symptoms can include cravings for nicotine, anger, irritability, anxiety, depression, impatience, trouble sleeping, restlessness, hunger, weight gain, and difficulty concentrating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenny-Caffey syndrome",
        "text": "People affected by KCS1 have most of the above-mentioned abnormalities and symptoms. They may also exhibit liver disease during the first month of life, abnormally low levels of white blood cells, improper function of T-cells, intellectual disabilities, and/or underdeveloped, malformed nails."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "In the absence of caffeine and when a person is awake and alert, little adenosine is present in (CNS) neurons. With a continued wakeful state, over time adenosine accumulates in the neuronal synapse, in turn binding to and activating adenosine receptors found on certain CNS neurons; when activated, these receptors produce a cellular response that ultimately increases drowsiness. When caffeine is consumed, it antagonizes adenosine receptors; in other words, caffeine prevents adenosine from activating the receptor by blocking the location on the receptor where adenosine binds to it. As a result, caffeine temporarily prevents or relieves drowsiness, and thus maintains or restores alertness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stimulant use disorder",
        "text": "If a substance is used over a long period of time and the user becomes dependent upon it, a substance use disorder may develop. Substance use may lead to substance dependence and with time, addiction. Both mental and physiological dependence requires the development of tolerance leading to withdrawal symptoms. Stimulants come in a very large variety of subtypes and among the most common are caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, methamphetamine, amphetamines, amphetamine congeners, electronic cigarettes, diet pills, plant stimulants, energy drinks, and the ever-evolving designer stimulants such as bath salts. Caffeine and nicotine are the most popular stimulants used today, with roughly 400 million cups of coffee consumed daily and 36.5 million current cigarette smokers, according to a 2015 study conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Nicotine, however, is treated separately psychiatrically under tobacco use disorder. Conversely, caffeine misuse does not qualify as an addictive disorder; thus it can not be diagnosed as a stimulant use disorder or any other substance use disorder. Certain isolated conditions related to caffeine are recognized in the DSM-5\u2019s \"substance-related\" section, however: caffeine intoxication, caffeine withdrawal and other caffeine-induced disorders (e.g., Anxiety and Sleep Disorders)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cocaine dependence",
        "text": "Cocaine dependence\n--Signs and symptoms.\n----Withdrawal symptoms.\n--Epidemiology and prevalence rates.\n--Risk.\n--Treatment.\n----Therapy.\n----Medications.\n------Vaccine.\n--Research.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder",
        "text": "While many factors contribute to individual differences in a person's response to caffeine, such as environmental and demographic factors (i.e. age, drug use, circadian factors, etc.), genetics play an important role in individual variability. This inconsistency in responses to caffeine can take place either at the metabolic or at the drug-receptor level. The effects of genetic factors can occur either directly by changing acute or chronic reactions to the drug or indirectly by altering other psychological or physiological processes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder",
        "text": "In addition to the criteria above, it is important to recognize that the diagnostic criteria for substance/medication-induced anxiety disorder are not met if the symptoms of panic come before the intoxication by the substance. In caffeine-induced anxiety disorder, a diagnosis will not be made if symptoms of anxiety or panic precede the ingestion of caffeine. Also, if symptoms persist for more than one month after substance intoxication, the diagnosis cannot be made. Persistence and continuation of symptoms beyond the initial consumption of caffeine suggest an alternate diagnosis that would better explain the long-lasting symptoms. Anxiety symptoms caused by caffeine are often mistaken for serious mental disorders including bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, leaving patients medicated for the wrong issue. A caffeine-induced anxiety disorder diagnosis should be made, rather than a substance abuse or intoxication diagnosis, when symptoms of panic attacks or anxiety predominate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Benzodiazepine dependence",
        "text": "Withdrawal symptoms typically consist of a mirror image of the drug's effects: Sedative effects and suppression of REM and SWS stages of sleep can be replaced by insomnia, nightmares, and hypnogogic hallucinations; its antianxiety effects are replaced with anxiety and panic; muscle-relaxant effects are replaced with muscular spasms or cramps; and anticonvulsant effects are replaced with seizures, especially in cold turkey or overly-rapid withdrawal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Psychological dependence",
        "text": "Change in neurotransmitter activity"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine-induced sleep disorder",
        "text": "Caffeine-induced sleep disorder\n--Caffeine and age.\n--Mechanism of caffeine.\n--Caffeine consumption.\n----Overconsumption.\n----Moderation.\n--Consequences of sleep disruption.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder is a subclass of the DSM-5 diagnosis of substance/medication-induced anxiety disorder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Afife Jale",
        "text": "She found herself in financial trouble, and began suffering acute headache. She became addicted to morphine after her doctor applied a morphine based therapy to her."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder",
        "text": "Though antagonism of adenosine receptors is the primary mechanism of caffeine, Introduction of the methylxanthine into the body also increases the rate of release and recycling of some monoamine neurotransmitters such as noradrenaline and dopamine. Caffeine also has an excitatory effect on mesocortical cholinergic neurons by acting as an antagonist on adenosine receptors that normally inhibit the neuron."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine (data page)",
        "text": "Caffeine (data page)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine & Big Dreams",
        "text": "Caffeine & Big Dreams\n--Critical reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Low caffeine coffee",
        "text": "There are four caffeine-induced psychiatric disorders recognized by the \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition\": caffeine intoxication, caffeine-induced anxiety disorder, caffeine-induced sleep disorder, and caffeine-related disorder not otherwise specified (NOS)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jeffrey Rose",
        "text": "\u201cCaffeine, Health and Recovery\u201d from \"RECOVER\" Magazine July 2004 by Jeffrey Rose, Clinical Hypnotist and Nutritionist"
      },
      {
        "title": "Secondary mania",
        "text": "According to Ogawa and Ueki, secondary mania has also been associated with caffeine consumption. A 43-year-old man, with no prior history of mental illness, reportedly switched to drinking 10 cups of coffee a day. After consuming this amount, he was reported to have manic symptoms such as elevated mood, talkativeness, hyperactivity, grandiosity, flight of ideas, and insomnia. This led to his admission into a hospital. After examination, they removed caffeine from the man's diet, resulting in the cessation of manic symptoms. The doctors then concluded that either the caffeine had acted as a catalyst for bipolar disorder or that he had secondary mania. Unfortunately, little research is done on studying the interaction between mood disorders and caffeine."
      },
      {
        "title": "State-dependent memory",
        "text": "In contrast, studies show the lack of effects caffeine has on state-dependent memory. With subjects either consuming no beverage or a caffeinated coffee at time of memorizing a word list, and then undergoing the same treatment at recall, there was no significant difference between either group's ability to recall the memorized word list."
      },
      {
        "title": "Effect of caffeine on memory",
        "text": "Caffeine users are subject to state dependent memory effects when under the effects of caffeine. For example, a study tasked two groups of subjects to remember word lists; half of them had caffeine while the other half were given placebos. When brought back the next day, each original group was now split in half, half of them given the same treatment they were encoded under, the other half given the opposite treatment. Ultimately the study showed that subjects that were under the same treatment in both encoding and retrieval out performed the other groups. This study does not support a decline or enhancement in working memory due to caffeine but rather a state dependent effect instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hosmer\u2013Lemeshow test",
        "text": "The graph below shows the observed proportion of successes in the data versus the expected proportion as predicted by the logistic model that includes the caffeine^2 term."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caffeine",
        "text": "Caffeine in coffee and other caffeinated drinks can affect gastrointestinal motility and gastric acid secretion. In postmenopausal women, high caffeine consumption can accelerate bone loss."
      },
      {
        "title": "Substance dependence",
        "text": "Two factors have been identified as playing pivotal roles in psychological dependence: the neuropeptide \"corticotropin-releasing factor\" (CRF) and the gene transcription factor \"cAMP response element binding protein\" (CREB). The nucleus accumbens (NAcc) is one brain structure that has been implicated in the psychological component of drug dependence. In the NAcc, CREB is activated by cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) immediately after a high and triggers changes in gene expression that affect proteins such as dynorphin; dynorphin peptides reduce dopamine release into the NAcc by temporarily inhibiting the reward pathway. A sustained activation of CREB thus forces a larger dose to be taken to reach the same effect. In addition, it leaves the user feeling generally depressed and dissatisfied, and unable to find pleasure in previously enjoyable activities, often leading to a return to the drug for another dose."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of caffeinated alcoholic drinks",
        "text": "List of caffeinated alcoholic drinks\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gateway drug effect",
        "text": "Students who regularly consume caffeinated energy drinks have a greater risk of alcohol use disorder, cocaine use and misuse of prescription stimulants. The elevated risk remains after accounting for prior substance use and other risk factors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Resignation syndrome",
        "text": "Young people reportedly develop depressive symptoms, become socially withdrawn, and become motionless and speechless as a reaction to stress and hopelessness. In the worst cases, children reject any food or drink and have to be fed by feeding tube; the condition can persist for years. Recovery ensues within months to years and is claimed to be dependent on the restoration of hope to the family."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is added to a beverage to be classified as sweetened beverage?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sugar is the ingredient added to make it a sweetened beverage."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What other things can be added to a drink to make it sweeter?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Added sugars or free sugars are sugar carbohydrates added to beverages and may include sucrose or high-fructose corn syrup beet and cane sugars, malt syrup, maple syrup, fructose sweetener, liquid fructose, fruit juice concentrate, aspartame, monk fruit extract, saccharin, sucralose, and/or stevia."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me how monk fruit extract is made?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Through solvent extraction, a powder containing 80% mogrosides can be obtained, the main one being mogroside-5 (esgoside). In this process, the peel and seeds are removed, and the pulped fruit is made into a fruit concentrate or puree, and additional juice may be extracted from the remaining pulp by hot water."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is it possible to be addicted to sweetened beverages?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Evidence regarding sugar addiction is mainly based on literature and research conducted on animals; human research has also been conducted on sugar (in the form of sugar-sweetened beverages) and its effects on the kidneys. In a recent study, the notion of sugar addiction has been challenged and the findings indicated that sugary foods have a minimal role to contributing to food dependence and the increased risk of weight gain."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you become addicted to caffeine then?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Absolutely! It's called Caffeine dependence, which is the condition of having a substance dependence on caffeine."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the symptoms of caffeine dependence?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Studies have demonstrated that people who take in a minimum of 100 mg of caffeine per day (about the amount in one cup of coffee) can acquire a physical dependence that would trigger withdrawal symptoms that include headaches, muscle pain and stiffness, lethargy, nausea, vomiting, depressed mood, and marked irritability."
    ],
    "topic": "Sweetened beverage",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Caffeine dependence:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Caffeine dependence",
          "Dependence",
          "Addiction vs. Dependence"
        ],
        "ctx": "Studies have demonstrated that people who take in a minimum of 100mg of caffeine per day (about the amount in one cup of coffee) can acquire a physical dependence that would trigger withdrawal symptoms that include headaches, muscle pain and stiffness, lethargy, nausea, vomiting, depressed mood, and marked irritability. Professor Roland R. Griffiths, a professor of neurology at Johns Hopkins in Baltimore strongly believes that caffeine withdrawal should be classified as a psychological disorder. His research suggested that withdrawal affects 50% of habitual coffee drinkers, beginning within 12\u201324 hours after cessation of caffeine intake, and peaking in 20\u201348 hours, lasting as long as 9 days."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox Quesada (; born 2 July 1942) is a Mexican businessman and politician who served as the 62nd President of Mexico from 1 December 2000 to 30 November 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "American immigration to Mexico",
        "text": "One known Mexican of U.S. ancestry is former president Vicente Fox, whose paternal grandfather, Joseph Louis Fox, was born in Cincinnati, Ohio and emigrated to Mexico in 1897."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox was elected President of Mexico in the 2000 presidential election, a historically significant election since it made him the first president elected from an opposition party since the election of Francisco I. Madero in 1911. Fox finished in first place with 42 percent of the vote."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During Fox's presidency the net migration rate in Mexico increased 152% from -2.84 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants to -4.32; in the same period, population growth decreased 35% from 1.57% to 1.16%. Fox, who was said to be \"proud\" of Mexican immigrants in the U.S. has acknowledged the importance of remittances by both legal and illegal Mexican workers in the U.S. (now the #1 source of revenue for the country)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox spread his image as one of peace and welcomed many to his own ranch in Guanajuato, Mexico. When Fox welcomed U.S. President George W. Bush to the ranch, both presidents were wearing Fox's signature black cowboy boots, prompting \"The Wall Street Journal\" to call it \"The Boot Summit\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During his campaign for president, Vicente Fox became well known for his cowboy style and quirkiness. As a speaker, Fox usually attracted big crowds in the early years of his presidency. At , Fox easily stood out in most crowds, and is believed to be one of the tallest presidents in Mexico's history. After his inauguration, President Fox usually wore suits for formal occasions, but opted to wear his signature boots and jeans during his many visits around Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After serving as president of Mexico for six years, Fox returned to his home state of Guanajuato, where he now resides with his wife and family. Since leaving the presidency, Fox has been involved in public speaking and the development of the Vicente Fox Center of Studies, Library and Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During Fox's term, Mexico actively sought (and gained) a temporary seat on the UN Security Council. However, Luis Ernesto Derbez, Secretary of Foreign Affairs after Casta\u00f1eda, unsuccessfully ran for the position of Secretary General of the Organization of American States, losing to Chilean Jos\u00e9 Miguel Insulza."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After leaving office in December 2006, Fox has maintained himself in the public eye by speaking in countries such as Nigeria, Ireland, Canada, and the United States about topics such as the controversial 2006 election and the Iraq War. In Mexico, Fox has been criticized by some for his busy post-presidency since former Mexican presidents are traditionally expected to stay out of the political spotlight. In response, Fox has stated, \"There is no reason to hold to the anti-democratic rules of those who still live in the authoritarian past . . . now that Mexico is a democracy, every citizen has the right to express himself, even a former president.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox was born on 2 July 1942 in Mexico City, the second of nine children. His father, Jos\u00e9 Luis Fox Pont, was a Mexican of German, French and Spanish descent. His mother, Mercedes Quesada Etxaide, was a Basque immigrant from San Sebasti\u00e1n, Gipuzkoa, in Spain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foxilandia",
        "text": "Chapter 14 of Luis Mandoki's \"Who is Mr. L\u00f3pez\" documentary is titled \"Foxilandia\") journalists Miguel \u00c1ngel Granados Chapa, Jaime Avil\u00e9s and professors Denise Dresser (Autonomous Technological Institute of Mexico, ITAM) and Lorenzo Meyer (Colegio de M\u00e9xico, COLMEX) and news anchor Joaqu\u00edn L\u00f3pez-D\u00f3riga contrast Fox's official declarations with reality as well as Fox's campaign promises and its results such as:\n* Economy growing at a 7% rate and creating 1,350,000 jobs, while the economy grew 0.7% from 2001-2003 and unemployment grew 188% Nevertheless, the rise in unemployment can be attributed to the record deficit in the United States.\n* Promise of deep political change but the Undersecretary of Finance during Carlos Salinas's government became Secretary of Finance during Fox's term and the Secretary of Finance during Ernesto Zedillo's government became Governor of the Bank of Mexico.\n* Fox highlighted a change in customs in Mexican politics by saying that in his term the President would not interfere with the electoral process. The documentary shows video-footage of several demonstrations of Fox supporting the candidates of the ruling party and of Alfonso Durazo, his former personal secretary, declaring that no previous President was ever as active campaigning for candidates of his own party as was Fox. However, it is widely known in Mexico that Presidents before Vicente Fox always handpicked their successor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "On 7 July 1997, after the opposition parties first won a majority in the Chamber of Deputies, Vicente Fox decided to run for President of Mexico. In spite of opposition within his political party, Fox secured his candidacy representing the Alliance for Change, a political coalition formed by the National Action Party and the Green Ecological Party of Mexico on 14 November 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Niurka Marcos",
        "text": "She was part of the first group of foreigners naturalized by President Vicente Fox, and has three Mexican-born children: Itzcoatl \"Kiko\", Romina, and Emilio."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In August 2006, \"El Universal\" polled 600 people in Mexico City, where L\u00f3pez Obrador served as Head of Government from 2000 to 2005. 59% believed that the 2006 elections were fraudulent and 63% believed votes should have been recounted. In February 2007, Fox declared about the desafuero process of L\u00f3pez Obrador:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox served as President of Mexico from December 1, 2000 to November 30, 2006. His victory in the federal elections in 2000 ended more than 70 years rule of the Institutional Revolutionary Party."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "This is in spite of the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre. Jorge Monta\u00f1o, a former Mexican ambassador to the United States considered Fox was \"naive\" to think farmers would easily give up their lands and that his government should have taken more time negotiating with the farmers instead of simply sending out engineers to measure runways and calculate flight paths. Monta\u00f1o also declared that the compensation these farmers were offered were the minimum allowed under the law (3,000 pesos an acre, roughly 275 US dollars) before raising the offer to 21,000 pesos an acre (1,900 US dollars)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "On 12 January 2007, over a month after he left office, Fox announced the construction of a center of studies, library and museum that was labeled by the U.S. press as Mexico's first presidential library. The project will be a library, museum, a center for the advancement of democracy, a study center and a hotel, and it will be completely privately funded. It is expected to be a genuine U.S.-style presidential library. It will be built in Fox's home state of Guanajuato, in his home town of San Francisco del Rinc\u00f3n."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "While museums are abundant throughout the country, there is nothing comparable to a presidential library where personal documents, records, and gifts amassed by the country's leader are open to the public. Fox's library will be modeled after the Bill Clinton Library in Little Rock, Arkansas, which, according to the former president, will allow Mexicans to enjoy, for the first time in Mexico's history, a library in which to review the documents, images and records that made up his six years as president."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "On 2 July 2000, his 58th birthday, Fox won the presidential election with 43% (15,989,636 votes) of the popular vote, followed by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) candidate Francisco Labastida with 36% (13,579,718 votes), and Cuauht\u00e9moc C\u00e1rdenas of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) with 17% (6,256,780 votes). Fox declared victory that same night, a victory that was ratified by then-President Zedillo. After the final results were announced, President-elect Fox addressed thousands of supporters and celebrated his victory with them at the Angel of Independence monument in Mexico City. His opponents conceded the election later that night."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "He spent a year at Campion High School in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin where he learned English. Upon reaching college age, Fox moved to Mexico City to attend the Universidad Iberoamericana and received a bachelor's degree in business administration in 1964. Then in 1974, Fox received a certificate in management skills from Harvard Business School."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In 2001, Fox announced the construction of a 2.3 billion dollar international airport in the municipalities of Texcoco and San Salvador Atenco in the State of M\u00e9xico to relieve congestion at the overcrowded Mexico City airport, the busiest in Latin America. This new airport would bring thousands of new jobs to an area ravaged by extreme poverty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox's autobiography, entitled \"Revolution of Hope: The Life, Faith and Dreams of a Mexican President\", was released in September 2007. To promote its release, Fox toured many U.S. cities to do book-signings and interviews with U.S. media. During his tour, however, he faced protests from Mexican immigrants who accused him of actions that forced them to emigrate and find jobs in the United States. He faced the subject several times during interviews, such as one held with Fox News's Bill O'Reilly, who questioned him about the massive illegal immigration problem of Mexicans into the United States. Finally, during an interview with Telemundo's Rub\u00e9n Luengas, the interviewer asked Fox about allegations concerning some properties of Vicente Fox's wife, Marta Sahag\u00fan. After Fox explained the situation, he asked the interviewer not to make false accusations and to prove what he was saying. Luengas said, \"I'm telling you in your face, I'm not a liar.\" After this, Fox walked out of the studio, calling the interviewer a \"liar,\" \"vulgar,\" and \"stupid.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Russell also pointed to 2006 comments by political scientist Soledad Loaeza, who noted, \"The eager candidate became a reluctant president who avoided tough choices and appeared hesitant and unable to hide the weariness caused by the responsibilities and constraints of the office.\" Russell also asserted that Fox \"had little success in fighting crime. Even though he maintained the macroeconomic stability inherited from his predecessor, economic growth barely exceeded the rate of population increase. Similarly, the lack of fiscal reform left tax collection at a rate similar to that of Haiti . . . .\" Finally, Russell noted that \"during Fox's administration, only 1.4\u00a0million formal-sector jobs were created, leading to massive immigration to the United States and an explosive increase in informal employment.\" Ultimately, however, Russell concluded that Fox will be viewed by history as a transitional figure who was able to defeat one of Mexico's long-entrenched political parties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox responded that the FTAA could be created with all of the countries in the Americas with the exception of Venezuela or the countries of the Mercosur."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox\n--Early years.\n----Business career.\n----Family life.\n--Early political career.\n----Governor of Guanajuato.\n----Campaign for president.\n------Election results.\n--Presidency.\n----Public image.\n------Approval ratings.\n----Legacy and assessment.\n--Post-presidential life.\n----Public speaking and advocacy.\n----Criticism of Donald Trump.\n----Autobiography.\n----Fox Center of Studies, Library and Museum.\n----Centrist Democratic International.\n----Statue controversy.\n----Health.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During the country's tenure as a rotating member of the UN Security Council, Mexico did not support the U.S-led 2003 invasion of Iraq,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After the cancellation, 76% of Mexicans polled thought more unrest would follow the president during his term."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration",
        "text": "During Fox's presidency the net migration rate in Mexico increased 152% from \u22122.84 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants to \u22124.32; in the same period, population growth decreased 35% from 1.57% to 1.16%. Fox, who was said to be \"proud\" of Mexican immigrants in the U.S. has acknowledged the importance of remittances by both legal and illegal Mexican workers in the U.S. (now the #1 source of revenue for the country)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biblioteca Vasconcelos",
        "text": "Then President of Mexico Vicente Fox inaugurated the library on 16 May 2006, and stated that this was one of the most advanced constructions of the 21st century, and that it would be spoken of throughout the world. This inauguration took place a week before the deadline the president had to promote his accomplishments before the 2006 presidential election."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexican drug war",
        "text": "In 2000, Vicente Fox, from the right-wing PAN party, became the first Mexican president since the Mexican Revolution not to be from the PRI; his presidency passed with relative peace, having a crime index not too different from that of previous administrations, and Mexican public opinion was mainly optimistic with the regime change, with Mexico showing a decline in homicide rates from 2000 to 2007. One of the Fox's administration's strongest criticisms arose from its management of the peasant unrest in San Salvador Atenco."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luis Echeverr\u00eda",
        "text": "After the defeat of the PRI in the general elections of July 2000, it emerged that Vicente Fox (the president from 2000 to 2006) had met privately with Echeverr\u00eda at the latter's home in Mexico City numerous times during the former's presidential campaign in 1999 and 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "President of Mexico",
        "text": "Along with Carlos Salinas de Gortari, three other surviving former presidents (Luis Echeverr\u00eda, Vicente Fox, and Enrique Pe\u00f1a Nieto) still live in Mexico. On 30 June 2006, Echeverr\u00eda was placed under house arrest under charges of genocide for his role as Secretary of the Interior during the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre. The house arrest was lifted in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The Human Development Index (HDI) is a comparative measure of life expectancy, literacy, education, and standard of living for countries worldwide. The table on the right shows Mexico's Human Development Index (HDI) from 1975 to 2003 along with yearly percentage increases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The number of registered workers affiliated to the Mexican Social Security Institute decreased from 11,026,370 in December 2000 to 10,881,160. Unemployment increased from 2.7% in 2002 to 3.2 in 2003, and the number of non-payroll workers increased to 20 million people or roughly half of the population able to work. Jobs in maquiladoras decreased by 30%"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In October 2007, an announcement was made in the municipality of Boca del R\u00edo, Veracruz, that a 3-meter (10\u00a0ft) statue of Vicente Fox was to be erected to honor the former president. This aroused criticism from the opposition Party of the Democratic Revolution towards Boca del R\u00edo's mayor, who was affiliated with the same political party (PAN) as Fox."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Campaigning as a right-wing populist, Fox ran for and was elected president on the National Action Party (PAN) ticket, becoming the first president not from the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) since 1929. He is currently the co-president of the Centrist Democrat International, an international organization of centre-right political parties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Job creation stalled during Fox's first four years. According to the Economist Intelligence Unit not only were no jobs created from 2000-2004 but the number of street vendors increased 40%. This workforce does not pay income or sales tax and significant minority participates in illicit activities such as smuggling and piracy. The latter grew during Fox's term to an 8 billion industry. Net sales of the clothing industry in Mexico is calculated at approximately 1,500 million dollars, of which 910 million are from smuggled clothing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox joined four other Latin American presidents at the One Young World Summit 2014 in Dublin, Ireland, to discuss the Telef\u00f3nica Millennial Survey. He told those in the audience that eradicating corruption \"has to start with education\" and that his focus is now on promoting leadership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In 2002, Mexico reached a GDP per capita of 9,381 dollars per year and thus became a medium-high income country. Five years later, Mexico upgraded from beneficiary to full contributor to the United Nations Development Program."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox remarried on 2 July 2001, while serving as President of Mexico, to Marta Mar\u00eda Sahag\u00fan Jim\u00e9nez (until then his spokesperson). The wedding date was the first anniversary of his presidential election and his 59th birthday. For both Fox and Sahag\u00fan Jim\u00e9nez, it was their second marriage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox spent his childhood and adolescence at the family ranch in San Francisco del Rinc\u00f3n in Guanajuato. Fox has polydactyly, having six toes on each foot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Julie M. Weise",
        "text": "While completing her degrees, Weise worked amongst Mexico\u2019s President Vicente Fox's administration as a speechwriter and researcher for the cabinet-level Office of the President for Mexicans Living Abroad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Presidency of Vicente Fox\n--Cabinet.\n--Economy.\n----Currency and inflation.\n----Growth.\n----Employment and income.\n----Finance and investments.\n--Human development.\n--Relations with Congress.\n----Investigations.\n--Foreign policy.\n----Relations with the United States.\n------Immigration.\n----Casta\u00f1eda Doctrine.\n----Iraq War.\n----Plan Puebla Panama.\n------2005 Summit at Mar del Plata.\n--Education, science, and technology.\n----Jos\u00e9 Vasconcelos Library.\n--Texcoco and San Salvador Atenco.\n--Institutional image.\n--2006 presidential election.\n--Approval ratings.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign relations of Mexico",
        "text": "For many years, the Mexican government showed limited interest in the issues. However, former President Vicente Fox actively sought to recognize the contribution of migrants to the U.S. and Mexico and to pursue a bilateral migration agreement with the U.S. government, which eventually failed. The current administration has placed an emphasis on how to create jobs in Mexico, enhance border security, and protect Mexican citizens living abroad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "On 7 August 2021, it was reported and confirmed that Vicente Fox and his wife Martha Sahag\u00fan were preventively admitted to a hospital in Le\u00f3n, Guanajuato after being infected with COVID-19 during the pandemic in Mexico, but without serious symptoms.\n* Collar of the Order of the Liberator General San Mart\u00edn (Argentina)\n* Grand Star of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria (Austria, 2005)\n* Grand Cross of the Order of Vytautas the Great (Lithuania, 14 January 2002)\n* Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (United Kingdom)\n* Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (Spain, 8 November 2002)\n* Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim (Sweden, 22 October 2002)\n*History of Mexico\n*List of presidents of Mexico\n*Politics of Mexico\n* Schmidt, Samuel (2000). \"M\u00e9xico encadenado: El legado de Zedillo y los retos de Fox\". M\u00e9xico, D.F.: Colibr\u00ed.\n* Vicente Fox website during his Presidency\n* Vicente Fox Museum and Library\n* Extended bio and presidential tenure, by CIDOB Foundation\n* Vicente Fox Interview on The Hour with George Stroumboulopoulos\n*\n* Miguel Angel Mancera Espinosa"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ram\u00f3n Mart\u00edn Huerta",
        "text": "From 1988 to 1991 he served in the lower house of the Mexican Congress. He was assigned personal secretary of former Governor Carlos Medina Plascencia. When Vicente Fox was elected Governor of Guanajuato he became a cabinet member and later, when Fox resigned in 1999 to run for the presidency, he was appointed substitute governor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox Center of Studies, Library and Museum",
        "text": "The Vicente Fox Center of Studies, Library and Museum is a presidential history center founded by former President of Mexico (2000-2006) Vicente Fox in San Crist\u00f3bal near his ranch in Guanajuato, Mexico. The Center is funded by the Fox Center Civil Association."
      },
      {
        "title": "President of Mexico",
        "text": "The Constitution does not establish formal academic qualifications to serve as president. Most presidents during the 19th Century and early 20th century, however, had careers in one of two fields: the armed forces (typically the army) or the law. President Manuel \u00c1vila Camacho (1940\u201346) was the last president to have been a career military officer. Most of his successors have been lawyers; in fact, all the presidents between 1958 and 1988 graduated from law school. Presidents Salinas (1988\u201394) and Zedillo (1994\u20132000) were both trained as economists. Since the democratic transition, presidents have a wider academic background. Although Presidents Calder\u00f3n (2006\u201312) and Pe\u00f1a Nieto (2012\u201318) were both lawyers, President Fox (2000\u201306) studied business administration and Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador, the current president, studied political sciences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador criticized the \"Casta\u00f1eda Doctrine\", saying that Mexico should not \"get involved in the internal lives of other people, because we do not want other people involved in our internal lives\". Indeed, the new foreign policy doctrine openly invited other nations to scrutinize Mexican affairs, criticizing the Estrada Doctrine as offering an excuse to ignore foreign criticism. Finally, Jos\u00e9 Gal\u00e1n, an editorialist in \"La Jornada\", accused the Fox administration of not doing enough to stop border violence against Mexican nationals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "President Fox was the first President to have an institutional image that did not display the complete National Coat of Arms, causing controversy. The use of the \"slashed eagle\" (\"\u00e1guila mocha\", in Spanish), as it was called by critics (the word \"mocha\" having a negative connotation, mocho meaning both chopped and prudish Catholic), was extended to all the dependencies of the Executive Branch substituting the Seal of the United Mexican States (located at the bottom right corner of the Institutional logo) by the acronym of the dependencies. Successor President Felipe Calder\u00f3n returned to using the complete coat of arms. Apart from criticism to showing only part of the Nation's Coat of Arms, some criticized the inclusion of the color blue to the Administration's institutional image (used in one-color depictions of the logo), as said color is associated to Fox's PAN party, and to a presumptive \"F\"-like band in the bottom of the image, which, critics suggested, gave more emphasis to Fox's personal image than to the Institution of the President."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Before Vicente Fox, Mexico practiced the Estrada Doctrine, so named after its creator, Genaro Estrada (Secretary of Foreign Affairs during the Presidency of Pascual Ortiz Rubio). The Estrada Doctrine favored an enclosed view of sovereignty. It claimed that foreign governments should not judge, for good or bad, governments or changes in governments in other nations, because it would imply a breach of their sovereignty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During Fox's administration, Mexico pushed for \"comprehensive\" reform of U.S. immigration law that addressed the problem of Illegal immigration to the United States. The issue had been called \"The Whole Enchilada\" by Fox's administration, which stated that \"immigration reform in the United States should address mutual border problems, the rights of undocumented immigrants, and the development of regions in Mexico that 'expel' migrants\". However, according to former U.S. ambassador to Mexico Jeffrey Davidow, all discussions between the parties on immigration were informal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During Fox's presidency, the Mexican Stock Exchange reached record highs throughout his term. The record highs were caused by a better economic outlook throughout his term, larger foreign currency reserves, and a better debt rating that lowered interest rates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Mexico suffered a drop in competitiveness during Fox's administration. In 2006, Mexico ranked 56th of 60 countries in the World Competitiveness Yearbook due to poor infrastructure, ease of doing business and high manufacturing costs such as electricity. Fox's large investment in infrastructure did not translate in lower costs, because of a lack of coordination between government bodies. To address this in 2004, Fox launched an Economic Policy for Competitivity (\"Pol\u00edtica Econ\u00f3mica para la Competitividad\" or PEC) however, improvement is not expected until after 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Mexico experienced some level of currency devaluation at the end of three of the four presidential terms from 1970 to 1994. Ernesto Zedillo floated the peso at the beginning of his term (1994\u20132000). Zedillo passed the office to Fox without an economic emergency. In 2006, Vicente Fox, like Zedillo in 2000, left office without a significant devaluation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "As seen in the graphic, after taking office the particularly high points of his approval ratings were:\n* August 2002 (58% approval, 39% disapproval, 3% unsure), after Fox suspended the construction of a new airport in the State of Mexico following months of protests by local residents who had resisted their displacement.\n* May 2003 (57% approval, 37% disapproval, 6% unsure), after Fox announced that Mexico would not support the US invasion of Iraq.\n*Throughout 2006, his average approval rating was 58% and his average disapproval rating was 37%, as Fox was in his last year as president and the public focus was on the Presidential elections of that year. The popularity enjoyed by Fox during this period, however, didn't seem to largely benefit the Presidential candidate of his party (PAN) Felipe Calder\u00f3n, who was controversially declared winner with only 35.9% of the votes, against Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador of the PRD who officially obtained 35.3% of the votes and claimed that the election had been fraudulent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In October 2006, two months before leaving office, Fox declared that the social conflicts of Atenco and Chiapas were solved and that Oaxaca would be solved before his successor took office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In an interview with Anderson Cooper on 25 January 2017, and during an appearance on Conan O'Brien's late night talk show on 1 March 2017, Fox again asserted that Mexico should not have to pay for the wall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Super Deluxe",
        "text": "In 2017, Vicente Fox, the former President of Mexico, appeared in a series of videos on the channel. In these videos, Fox criticized Trump on a variety of issues including his proposal to build a wall between America and Mexico and his Cinco de Mayo taco bowl tweet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "According to Banco de M\u00e9xico (Mexico's Central Bank), inflation rates during Fox's term went from 11%, in January 2000, at the beginning of his term, to 4.05% in December 2006. During most of Fox's term, inflation was consistently below 6%, mostly around 4.5%. According to the Central Bank, inflation hadn't been that low since before 1973 (the lowest inflation between 1973 and 1999 was above 6%, frequently reaching double and even sometimes triple-digits). Mexico created an estimated 1 million new jobs in 2006, a record."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of presidential qualifications by country",
        "text": "The constitution of Mexico requires the \"candidate to be natural-born citizen\" of Mexico with at least one parent who is a natural-born citizen of Mexico. The person should be at least 35 years of age and \"should have resided\" in Mexico for at least 20 years in his entire lifetime and for the entire year before the election. The person should not be a secretary or under-secretary of state, attorney general, or governor of a state at least 6 months prior to the election."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "As seen in the graphic, after taking office the particularly high points of his approval ratings were:\n* August 2002 (58% approval, 39% disapproval, 3% unsure), after Fox accepted to suspend the construction of a new airport in the State of Mexico, which had led to months of protests by local residents who resisted their displacement.\n* May 2003 (57% approval, 37% disapproval, 6% unsure), after Fox announced that Mexico would not support the US invasion of Iraq.\n*Through out 2006, his approval rating in average was 58% and his average disapproval rating was of 37%, as Fox was on his last year as president and the public focus was on the Presidential elections of that year. The popularity enjoyed by Fox during this period, however, didn't seem to largely benefit the Presidential candidate of his party (PAN) Felipe Calder\u00f3n, who was controversially declared winner with only 35.9% of the votes, against Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador of the PRD who officially obtained 35.3% of the votes and claimed that the election had been fraudulent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Despite his apology, Fox continued to criticize Trump to the international media and troll Trump on Twitter, stating, \"I'm committed to be Donald Trump's shadow until he is done with politics.\" Fox would later go on to congratulate President-elect Joe Biden and his victory in the 2020 United States presidential election, defeating Trump. When Trump visited Mexico on 31 August 2016 upon President Enrique Pe\u00f1a Nieto's invitation, Fox slammed the visit, calling it a \"desperate move\" on the part of Pe\u00f1a Nieto and stating, \"He is not welcome in Mexico. We don't like him. We don't want him. We reject his visit.\" Trump responded by pointing out Fox's previous invitation, to which Fox clarified that he invited Trump to Mexico on the condition that he used the visit to apologize to the Mexican people. He directly addressed the American people the next day on CNN, where he described Trump as a \"false prophet\" who is \"absolutely crazy\" and warned that they need to \"wake up\" and realize the harm that Trump's immigration and economic policies would inflict on the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "According to Ren\u00e9 Drucker, coordinator of basic science research for National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), \"no other government in recent history has neglected research in the basic sciences as Fox's\". Fox's plan for the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnolog\u00eda, (CONACYT), was that by 2006 this organization would receive 1% of GDP. However the budget for this organization for 2006 reached only 0.33%. Federal government investment on Research and development in 2004 was 0.41% in Mexico versus 0.95% in Brazil and 0.6% in Chile."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox's cabinet blamed the low growth on the slowdown of the Economy of the United States, but that country started growing again in 2002-2003. Mexico did not grow at the same pace and was surpassed by China as the second-largest trade partner of the United States. Fox had promised growth of 7% during his campaign and blamed Congress for the low economic growth but his administration had foreseen growth of 3.4% even without the approval of structural reforms, especially fiscal reforms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Marco Aurelio Garcia, one of Brazilian President Luiz In\u00e1cio Lula da Silva's closest advisers, declared that Fox was too hasty in supporting the FTAA. Garcia declared that Fox's comment that the FTAA would be created with or without the Mercosur angered many. Fox did not applaud after Argentine President Kirchner's presentation, and when Fox attempted to raise the issue of the FTAA, Kirchner retorted that the FTAA was not on the Summit agenda. Fox responded to the press declaring that Kirchner was more concerned with pleasing people in his country than the success of the Summit. Kirchner replied that Fox should attend to the Mexicans because it was the Argentine people who voted for him."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Mexico",
        "text": "Emphasizing the need to upgrade infrastructure, modernize the tax system and labor laws, integrate with the U.S. economy, and allow private investment in the energy sector, Vicente Fox Quesada, the candidate of the National Action Party (PAN), was elected the 69th president of Mexico on 2 July 2000, ending PRI's 71-year-long control of the office. Though Fox's victory was due in part to popular discontent with decades of unchallenged PRI hegemony, also, Fox's opponent, president Zedillo, conceded defeat on the night of the election\u2014a first in Mexican history. A further sign of the quickening of Mexican democracy was the fact that PAN failed to win a majority in both chambers of Congress\u2014a situation that prevented Fox from implementing his reform pledges. Nonetheless, the transfer of power in 2000 was quick and peaceful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Felipe Calder\u00f3n",
        "text": "On 30 November 2006, outgoing President Vicente Fox Quesada and still President-elect Felipe Calder\u00f3n Hinojosa stood side by side on national television as Fox turned over the presidential sash to a cadet, who handed it to Calder\u00f3n. Afterwards, Fox read a short speech indicating that he had concluded his mandate by receiving the flag \"that had accompanied him during the last six years which he had devoted himself completely to the service of Mexico and had the utmost honor of being the president of the republic\". Calder\u00f3n then made a speech to the Mexican public indicating that he would still attend the inauguration ceremony at the Chamber of Deputies. He made a call to unity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Felipe Calder\u00f3n",
        "text": "Felipe de Jes\u00fas Calder\u00f3n Hinojosa (; born 19 August 1962) is a Mexican politician who served as the 63rd President of Mexico from 1 December 2006 to 30 November 2012 and Secretary of Energy during the presidency of Vicente Fox between 2003 and 2004. He was a member of the National Action Party (\"Partido Acci\u00f3n Nacional\", PAN) for 30 years before quitting the party in November 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Julio Frenk",
        "text": "Following the election of Vicente Fox in Mexico's 2000 presidential election, Frenk was appointed minister of health of Mexico, a position he held until December 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign relations of Mexico",
        "text": "During the first presidency of the National Action Party, Vicente Fox appointed Jorge Casta\u00f1eda to be his Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Casta\u00f1eda immediately broke with the Estrada Doctrine, promoting what was called by critics the \"Casta\u00f1eda Doctrine\". The new foreign policy called for an openness and an acceptance of criticism from the international community, and the increase of Mexican involvement in foreign affairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juanacatl\u00e1n",
        "text": "Many people of Jalisco blame former President Vicente Fox's completed project, The El Caj\u00f3n Dam, a hydroelectric dam on the R\u00edo Grande de Santiago in the Mexican state of Nayarit."
      },
      {
        "title": "George W. Romney",
        "text": "Questions were occasionally asked about Romney's eligibility to run for President owing to his birth in Mexico, given the ambiguity in the United States Constitution over the phrase \"natural-born citizen\". Romney would depart the race before the matter could be more definitively resolved, although the preponderance of opinion then and since has been that he was eligible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In an interview with Univision's Jorge Ramos in February 2016, Fox responded to then-candidate Trump's proposal to build a wall at the border between the United States and Mexico at Mexico's expense, declaring in English, \"I am not going to pay for that fucking wall. He should pay for it. He's got the money.\" Fox went on to call Trump a \"crazy guy\" and a \"false prophet,\" and questioned the claim that Trump received 44% of the Hispanic vote in the Republican caucus in Nevada. Trump took to Twitter in response, demanding that Fox apologize for using \"the F word while discussing the wall.\" Fox eventually apologized for the remark, while also asking for Trump to apologize for his remarks about Mexicans and inviting Trump to visit Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Several media pundits and think tanks like COHA judged the \"Casta\u00f1eda Doctrine\" \"overtly submissive\" to the United States. COHA's opinion was based on Mexico's support of Guatemala for a seat in the UN Security council, instead of supporting Venezuela, the contending candidate for the seat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alliance for Change (Mexico)",
        "text": "With 43.43% of the popular vote in a three-horse race, the Alliance for Change's candidate for the position of President of Mexico, Vicente Fox, was declared the winner of the election, putting an end to 70 years of hegemonic rule by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). Between them, the two parties also won 221 seats in the Chamber of Deputies (of 500) and 51 in the Senate (of 128)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crime in Mexico",
        "text": "President Vicente Fox took power in December 2000 promising to crack down on crime and improve a judicial system rife with corruption and ineptitude. Upon taking office, he established a new ministry of Security and Police, doubled the pay for police officers, and committed to other ethics reforms. President Fox also cited drug trafficking and drug consumption as the top cross-border priority issue."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Action Party (Mexico)",
        "text": "In the 2000 presidential elections, the candidate of the \"Alianza por el Cambio\" (\"Alliance for Change\"), formed by the PAN and the Ecologist Green Party of Mexico (PVEM), Vicente Fox Quesada won 42.5% of the popular vote and was elected president of Mexico. Fox was the first opposition candidate to defeat the candidate of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) and its precursors after 71 years. It was a significant victory not only for the PAN, but Mexican democracy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elections in Mexico",
        "text": "Candidates for president must be at least 35 years old. They must be Mexican citizens by birth, as must one of their parents. They must have been residents of Mexico for at least 20 years. They also cannot have been either the governor of a state or the chief of government of Mexico City for six months prior to the election."
      },
      {
        "title": "XHTVM-TDT",
        "text": "The Mexican government was extremely slow to react. Owing to the timing of the events around the Christmas holiday, neither the RTC (General Directorate of Radio, Television and Film) nor the Secretariat of Communications and Transportation did anything, despite petitions from CNI and Azteca alike for the federal government to take a position on the takeover. On January 6, during a visit to the remodeled press room at Los Pinos, CNI subdirector of news Roberto L\u00f3pez Agust\u00edn approached President Vicente Fox and demanded that he take a stand on the issue. On his way to the presidential plane, other reporters asked questions about the XHTVM situation. Fox, however, merely said, \"\u00bfY yo por qu\u00e9?\" (\"And why me?\"), leading to one of his greatest political blunders in his tenure as president."
      },
      {
        "title": "President of Mexico",
        "text": "The current President, Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador, was elected in 2018 with a modern-era record of 53% of the popular vote in 2018. The most recent former president, Enrique Pe\u00f1a Nieto won 38% of the popular vote in 2012. Former President Felipe Calder\u00f3n won with 36.38% of the votes in the 2006 general election, finishing only 0.56% above his nearest rival, Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador (who contested the official results). In 2000, former President Vicente Fox was elected with a plurality of 43% of the popular vote, Ernesto Zedillo won 48.7% of the vote in 1994, and his predecessor Carlos Salinas won with a majority of 50.4% in the 1988 election."
      },
      {
        "title": "North American Union",
        "text": "In 2001, President of Mexico Vicente Fox said in an interview for \"\" that in the long term he sought with the United States a \"convergence of our two economies, convergence on the basic and fundamental variables of the economy, convergence on rates of interest, convergence on income of people, convergence on salaries.\" He suggested this might take as long as 20 years to be realized, but the ultimate \"convergence\" he saw between the United States and Mexico would allow them to \"erase that border, open up that border for [the] free flow of products, merchandises, [and] capital as well as people\". After leaving office, he continued to support the concept, while expressing his disappointment with the changed American political situation which made it seem more difficult to come to fruition. In an online discussion of his book \"Revolution of Hope: The Life, Faith, and Dreams of A Mexican President\" Fox cited the process of European integration and asked a question, \"Why can't we be not only partners in the long term, but a North American Union?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Foxilandia",
        "text": "Foxilandia is a critical term used in the Mexican political culture to make reference to the administration (2000\u20132006) of President Vicente Fox."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gilberto Rinc\u00f3n Gallardo",
        "text": "Then-President Vicente Fox appointed him president of the National Council to Prevent Discrimination \"(Consejo Nacional para Prevenir la Discriminaci\u00f3n, CONAPRED)\" on 11 July 2003. He was confirmed by President Felipe Calder\u00f3n in 2006 and held the position until his death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox was one of the few presidents to avoid a major economic upheaval, although the economy grew at the slowest pace in history, second only to the de la Madrid administration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Controversies of the 2006 Mexican general election",
        "text": "According to the Constitution, the President Elect must take the Oath of Office on December 1, before a joint session of Congress; the Constitution also states that the presidential term begins on December 1. Members of Congress belonging to the parties in the Coalition had threatened to disrupt the ceremony, with actions similar to those that prevented Vicente Fox from delivering his State of the Union address on September 1. According to the Constitution, if the elected president does not take the Oath of Office on 1 December before a joint session, the presidency is declared vacant and an interim president must be named and new elections called."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colotl\u00e1n",
        "text": "A small village in the municipality, called Agua Gorda, is the birthplace of Victoriano Huerta M\u00e1rquez, President of Mexico from 1913 to 1914. He was born on December 23, 1850, son of Jes\u00fas Huerta and Refugio M\u00e1rquez, who was purportedly of Huichol descent. Victoriano Huerta is one of the few Presidents of Mexico who were originally from the Jalisco state (with Valent\u00edn G\u00f3mez Far\u00edas who served as acting president twice)"
      },
      {
        "title": "2000 Mexican general election",
        "text": "This historically significant election made Fox the first president elected from an opposition party since Francisco I. Madero in 1910, and the first one in 71 years to defeat, with 42 percent of the vote, the then-dominant Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexico",
        "text": "In 2000, after 71 years, the PRI lost a presidential election to Vicente Fox of the opposition conservative National Action Party (PAN). In the 2006 presidential election, Felipe Calder\u00f3n from the PAN was declared the winner, with a very narrow margin (0.58%) over leftist politician Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador then the candidate of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD). L\u00f3pez Obrador, however, contested the election and pledged to create an \"alternative government\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fernando Iglesias Calder\u00f3n",
        "text": "Iglesias was born in Mexico City on 30 May 1856. His father, Jos\u00e9 Mar\u00eda Iglesias, served as interim president of Mexico during the autumn of 1876. His mother, Juana Calder\u00f3n Tapia, was a daughter of Jos\u00e9 Mar\u00eda Calder\u00f3n, who served several times as governor of Puebla."
      },
      {
        "title": "Valentino Lan\u00fas",
        "text": "He is also a producer of various TV shows and movies. His last venture is called \"Artesanos\", a promising film by creator Santiago Pando, a famous mystic, well known for having been the brain behind the successful political campaign that placed Vicente Fox as the first Mexican President to win over 80 years of the ruling party PRI."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In 1991, after serving in the Chamber of Deputies, Fox sought the governorship in Guanajuato, but lost the election to Ram\u00f3n Aguirre Vel\u00e1zquez of the PRI. Following the election, local discontent was so great that the state congress appointed Carlos Medina Plascencia of the PAN as interim governor. Four years later, Fox ran again, this time winning by a vote of 2 to 1. As governor, Fox promoted government efficiency and transparency. He was one of the first state governors of Mexico to give a clear, public and timely account of the finances of his state."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "President Fox appointed Jorge Casta\u00f1eda to be his Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Casta\u00f1eda immediately broke with the Estrada Doctrine, promoting what was called by critics the \"Casta\u00f1eda Doctrine\". The new foreign policy called for an openness and an acceptance of criticism from the international community, and the increase of national involvement in foreign affairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During the Calder\u00f3n administration restoration efforts cost another 32 million pesos (roughly 3 million dollars)"
      },
      {
        "title": "George Romney 1968 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Questions were occasionally asked about Romney's eligibility to hold the office of President due to his birth in Mexico, given an asserted ambiguity in the United States Constitution over the phrase \"natural-born citizen\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Horacio Sandoval",
        "text": "Made the artwork for the Mexican Government Presidency comic propaganda, \"2 de Julio, El Cambio en M\u00e9xico ya Nadie lo Para\" (2002), and \"Acciones\" (2003), for President Vicente Fox' administration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Minimum wages during Fox's administration increased at a nominal rate of 34% from $35.12 pesos per day in 2000 to $47.05 in 2006. However, Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) terms, real wages decreased 3.8%, from $80.27 to $77.07. According to Banco de M\u00e9xico, this compares favorably to previous administrations, for wages had decreased by 75% from $296.22 PPP pesos per day in January 1976, to $73.91 PPP pesos per day in December 1999. Minimum wages had decreased, in real terms, an average of 38% per Presidential administration from 1976 to 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foxilandia",
        "text": "It was first used during the appearance of President Fox before the Congress of the Union in September 2004, in arguments by the opposition that Fox's vision of Mexico greatly differed from theirs. The connotation is that \"Foxilandia\", or Fox's vision, is impossible, unrealistic, a fantasy, while, in logical contrast, theirs would be balanced and realistic."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Mexico",
        "text": "Fox was a very strong candidate, but an ineffective president who was weakened by PAN's minority status in Congress. Historian Philip Russell summarizes the strengths and weaknesses of Fox as president:\n:Marketed on television, Fox made a far better candidate than he did president. He failed to take charge and provide cabinet leadership, failed to set priorities, and turned a blind eye to alliance building...By 2006, as political scientist Soledad Loaeza noted, \"the eager candidate became a reluctant president who avoided tough choices and appeared hesitant and unable to hide the weariness caused by the responsibilities and constraints of the office.\" ...He had little success in fighting crime. Even though he maintained the macroeconomic stability inherited from his predecessor, economic growth barely exceeded the rate of population increase. Similarly, the lack of fiscal reform left tax collection at a rate similar to that of Haiti...Finally, during Fox's administration, only 1.4 million formal-sector jobs were created, leading to massive immigration to the United States and an explosive increase in informal employment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roberto de la Madrid",
        "text": "News reports at the time spoke of his ambition to be President. He said that he was eligible to be president of either the United States or Mexico, but chose to enter Mexican politics because he figured the odds of becoming president were better in Mexico. By a coincidence of history, unrelated Miguel de la Madrid became President of Mexico in 1982."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the Mexican President have to be born in Mexico?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "It is required that to be eligible for the office on must be a natural-born citizen of Mexico able to exercise full citizenship rights, with at least one parent who is a natural-born citizen of Mexico."
    ],
    "topic": "Vicente Fox",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "President of Mexico:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "President of Mexico",
          "Requirements to hold office"
        ],
        "ctx": "To be eligible to serve as president, Article 82 of the Constitution specifies that the following requirements must be met:\n* Be a natural-born citizen of Mexico (\"mexicano por nacimiento\") able to exercise full citizenship rights, with at least one parent who is a natural-born citizen of Mexico.\n* Be a resident of Mexico for at least twenty years.\n* Be at least thirty-five years of age at the time of the election.\n* Be a resident of Mexico for the entire year prior to the election (although absences of 30 days or fewer are explicitly stated not to interrupt residency).\n* Not be an official or minister of any church or religious denomination.\n* Not be in active military service during the six months prior to the election.\n* Not be a secretary of state or under-secretary of state, attorney general, governor of a state, or head of the government of Mexico City, unless \"separated from the post\" (resigned or been granted permanent leave of absence) at least six months prior to the election.\n* Not have been president already, even in a provisional capacity (see Succession below)."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Niurka Marcos",
        "text": "She was part of the first group of foreigners naturalized by President Vicente Fox, and has three Mexican-born children: Itzcoatl \"Kiko\", Romina, and Emilio."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)",
        "text": "George W. Romney, who ran for the Republican party presidential nomination in 1968, was born in Mexico to American parents. Romney's grandfather, a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, had emigrated to Mexico in 1886 with his three wives and their children, after the U.S. federal government outlawed polygamy. However Romney's parents (monogamous under new church doctrine) retained their U.S. citizenship and returned to the United States with him and his siblings in 1912. Romney's eligibility for president became moot when Richard Nixon was nominated as the Republican presidential candidate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox was born on 2 July 1942 in Mexico City, the second of nine children. His father, Jos\u00e9 Luis Fox Pont, was a Mexican of German, French and Spanish descent. His mother, Mercedes Quesada Etxaide, was a Basque immigrant from San Sebasti\u00e1n, Gipuzkoa, in Spain."
      },
      {
        "title": "American immigration to Mexico",
        "text": "One known Mexican of U.S. ancestry is former president Vicente Fox, whose paternal grandfather, Joseph Louis Fox, was born in Cincinnati, Ohio and emigrated to Mexico in 1897."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)",
        "text": "Every president to date was either a citizen at the adoption of the Constitution in 1789 or born in the United States; of the former group, all except one had two parents with citizenship in what would become the U.S. (Andrew Jackson). Of those in the latter group, every president except two (Chester A. Arthur and Barack Obama) had two U.S.-citizen parents. Further, four additional U.S. Presidents had one or both of his U.S.-citizen parents not born on U.S. soil (James Buchanan, Woodrow Wilson, Herbert Hoover, and Donald Trump)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natural-born-citizen clause",
        "text": "The constitution of Mexico requires the \"candidate to be natural-born citizen\" of Mexico with at least one parent who is a natural-born citizen of Mexico. The person should be at least 35 years of age and \"should have resided\" in Mexico for at least 20 years in his entire lifetime and for the entire year before the election. The person should not be a secretary or under-secretary of state, attorney general, or governor of a state at least 6 months prior to the election."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During Fox's presidency the net migration rate in Mexico increased 152% from -2.84 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants to -4.32; in the same period, population growth decreased 35% from 1.57% to 1.16%. Fox, who was said to be \"proud\" of Mexican immigrants in the U.S. has acknowledged the importance of remittances by both legal and illegal Mexican workers in the U.S. (now the #1 source of revenue for the country)."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Action Party (Mexico)",
        "text": "Guillermo Bustamente Manilla, a member of the PAN and the president of the National Parents Union (UNPF) is the father of Guillermo Bustamante Artas\u00e1nchez, a law director of the Secretary of the Interior, Carlos Abascal, during Fox's presidency and worked in the Calder\u00f3n administration against abortion and same-sex civil unions. He called the latter as \"anti-natural.\" He has publicly asked voters not to cast votes for \"abortionist\" parties and those who are in favor of homosexual relationships.\n*Manuel G\u00f3mez Mor\u00edn 1939-1949\n*Juan Guti\u00e9rrez Lascur\u00e1in 1949-1956\n*Alfonso Ituarte Serv\u00edn 1956-1958\n*Jos\u00e9 Gonz\u00e1lez Torres 1958-1962\n*Adolfo Christlieb Ibarrola 1962-1968\n*Ignacio Lim\u00f3n Maurer 1968-1969\n*Manuel Gonz\u00e1lez Hinojosa 1969-1972\n*Jos\u00e9 \u00c1ngel Conchelo D\u00e1vila 1972-1975\n*Efra\u00edn Gonz\u00e1lez Morf\u00edn 19751\n*Ra\u00fal Gonz\u00e1lez Schmall 1975 \"(interim)\"\n*Manuel Gonz\u00e1lez Hinojosa 1975-1978\n*Avel Vicencio Tovar 1978-1984\n*Pablo Emilio Madero 1984-1987\n*Luis H. \u00c1lvarez 1987-1993\n*Carlos Castillo Peraza 1993-1996\n*Felipe Calder\u00f3n Hinojosa 1996-1999\n*Luis Felipe Bravo Mena 1999-2005\n*Manuel Espino Barrientos 2005-2007\n*Germ\u00e1n Mart\u00ednez C\u00e1zares 2007-2009\n*C\u00e9sar Nava V\u00e1zquez 2009-2010\n*Gustavo Madero Mu\u00f1oz 2010-2014\n*Cecilia Romero Castillo 2014\n*Ricardo Anaya Cort\u00e9s 2014\u20132015\n*Gustavo Madero Mu\u00f1oz 2015\n*Ricardo Anaya Cort\u00e9s 2015\u201320171\n*Dami\u00e1n Zepeda Vidales 2017-2018\n*Marcelo Torres Cofi\u00f1o 2018\n*Marko Antonio Cort\u00e9s Mendoza 2018\u2013present"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of presidential qualifications by country",
        "text": "The constitution of Mexico requires the \"candidate to be natural-born citizen\" of Mexico with at least one parent who is a natural-born citizen of Mexico. The person should be at least 35 years of age and \"should have resided\" in Mexico for at least 20 years in his entire lifetime and for the entire year before the election. The person should not be a secretary or under-secretary of state, attorney general, or governor of a state at least 6 months prior to the election."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carlos Hank Gonz\u00e1lez",
        "text": "Constitutionally barred from running for the Mexican presidency by a provision then in force which excluded those with a foreign-born parent from holding the office. His father, Jorge Hank Weber, was German and a colonel in both the German and Mexican armies. However, Carlos Hank had great influence in the PRI party, culminating in the late 1980s and early 1990s during the presidency of Carlos Salinas de Gortari."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Romney 1968 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Questions were occasionally asked about Romney's eligibility to hold the office of President due to his birth in Mexico, given an asserted ambiguity in the United States Constitution over the phrase \"natural-born citizen\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Romney 1968 presidential campaign",
        "text": "His Mormon paternal grandfather and his three wives had gone to Mexico in 1886, but none of them ever relinquished U.S. citizenship. Romney's parents chose U.S. citizenship for their children, including George. The family left Mexico and came to the United States in 1912 during the Mexican Revolution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox Quesada (; born 2 July 1942) is a Mexican businessman and politician who served as the 62nd President of Mexico from 1 December 2000 to 30 November 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andrew Leo Bettwy",
        "text": "Bettwy was a Mexican citizen by birth (\"doble nacionalid\"). His mother Mary Bettwy n\u00e9e Maria Jesus Laura Chenoweth Escalante was born in Mexico, and his grandmother, Laura Escalante Chenoweth (1875\u20131968), was a native of Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico. Laura's father, Vicente Escalante, was Mayor of Hermosillo, and her brother-in-law (through her sister Amparo Escalante) was Ram\u00f3n Corral who served in several public offices in Mexico, including the Governor of Sonora and Vice President of the Republic with President Porfirio D\u00edaz from 1904 to 1911."
      },
      {
        "title": "Erika Buenfil",
        "text": "In 2005, Buenfil became a mother, having given birth to Nicol\u00e1s de Jes\u00fas. Controversy followed when the press pressured her to mention the name of the child's father, which she refused to do. She later revealed that the father of her child is the son of Mexican ex-president Ernesto Zedillo. When asked how her relationship with the father of her child is, she said in 2011 that \"it does not exist. Doesn't know where he is, he knows nothing.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Fernando Iglesias Calder\u00f3n",
        "text": "Iglesias was born in Mexico City on 30 May 1856. His father, Jos\u00e9 Mar\u00eda Iglesias, served as interim president of Mexico during the autumn of 1876. His mother, Juana Calder\u00f3n Tapia, was a daughter of Jos\u00e9 Mar\u00eda Calder\u00f3n, who served several times as governor of Puebla."
      },
      {
        "title": "President of Mexico",
        "text": "The Constitution does not establish formal academic qualifications to serve as president. Most presidents during the 19th Century and early 20th century, however, had careers in one of two fields: the armed forces (typically the army) or the law. President Manuel \u00c1vila Camacho (1940\u201346) was the last president to have been a career military officer. Most of his successors have been lawyers; in fact, all the presidents between 1958 and 1988 graduated from law school. Presidents Salinas (1988\u201394) and Zedillo (1994\u20132000) were both trained as economists. Since the democratic transition, presidents have a wider academic background. Although Presidents Calder\u00f3n (2006\u201312) and Pe\u00f1a Nieto (2012\u201318) were both lawyers, President Fox (2000\u201306) studied business administration and Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador, the current president, studied political sciences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)",
        "text": "Some presidential candidates were not born in a U.S. state or did not have two U.S.-citizen parents. In addition, one U.S. vice president (Al Gore) was born in Washington, D.C. and another (Charles Curtis) was born in the Kansas Territory; Vice President Kamala Harris' parents were not U.S. citizens at the time of her birth. This does not necessarily mean that these officeholders or candidates were ineligible, only that there was some controversy about their eligibility, which may have been resolved in favor of eligibility."
      },
      {
        "title": "George W. Romney",
        "text": "Questions were occasionally asked about Romney's eligibility to run for President owing to his birth in Mexico, given the ambiguity in the United States Constitution over the phrase \"natural-born citizen\". Romney would depart the race before the matter could be more definitively resolved, although the preponderance of opinion then and since has been that he was eligible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colotl\u00e1n",
        "text": "A small village in the municipality, called Agua Gorda, is the birthplace of Victoriano Huerta M\u00e1rquez, President of Mexico from 1913 to 1914. He was born on December 23, 1850, son of Jes\u00fas Huerta and Refugio M\u00e1rquez, who was purportedly of Huichol descent. Victoriano Huerta is one of the few Presidents of Mexico who were originally from the Jalisco state (with Valent\u00edn G\u00f3mez Far\u00edas who served as acting president twice)"
      },
      {
        "title": "NXIVM",
        "text": "Seven socially prominent Mexicans, including Emilio Salinas Occelli (son of former president Carlos Salinas de Gortari) and Ana Cristina Fox (daughter of former president Vicente Fox), Rosa Laura Junco, Loreta Garza D\u00e1vila (a business leader from Nuevo Leon), Daniela Padilla, Camila, and M\u00f3nica Dur\u00e1n, have been accused of involvement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Russell also pointed to 2006 comments by political scientist Soledad Loaeza, who noted, \"The eager candidate became a reluctant president who avoided tough choices and appeared hesitant and unable to hide the weariness caused by the responsibilities and constraints of the office.\" Russell also asserted that Fox \"had little success in fighting crime. Even though he maintained the macroeconomic stability inherited from his predecessor, economic growth barely exceeded the rate of population increase. Similarly, the lack of fiscal reform left tax collection at a rate similar to that of Haiti . . . .\" Finally, Russell noted that \"during Fox's administration, only 1.4\u00a0million formal-sector jobs were created, leading to massive immigration to the United States and an explosive increase in informal employment.\" Ultimately, however, Russell concluded that Fox will be viewed by history as a transitional figure who was able to defeat one of Mexico's long-entrenched political parties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Riva Palacio",
        "text": "His father was Mariano Riva Palacio, a moderate liberal, and his mother was Mar\u00eda de los Dolores Guerrero Hern\u00e1ndez, daughter of independence hero and President of Mexico Vicente Guerrero and Mar\u00eda de Guadalupe Hern\u00e1ndez. Vicente's father worked for the Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico in Quer\u00e9taro during the French intervention in Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foxilandia",
        "text": "Chapter 14 of Luis Mandoki's \"Who is Mr. L\u00f3pez\" documentary is titled \"Foxilandia\") journalists Miguel \u00c1ngel Granados Chapa, Jaime Avil\u00e9s and professors Denise Dresser (Autonomous Technological Institute of Mexico, ITAM) and Lorenzo Meyer (Colegio de M\u00e9xico, COLMEX) and news anchor Joaqu\u00edn L\u00f3pez-D\u00f3riga contrast Fox's official declarations with reality as well as Fox's campaign promises and its results such as:\n* Economy growing at a 7% rate and creating 1,350,000 jobs, while the economy grew 0.7% from 2001-2003 and unemployment grew 188% Nevertheless, the rise in unemployment can be attributed to the record deficit in the United States.\n* Promise of deep political change but the Undersecretary of Finance during Carlos Salinas's government became Secretary of Finance during Fox's term and the Secretary of Finance during Ernesto Zedillo's government became Governor of the Bank of Mexico.\n* Fox highlighted a change in customs in Mexican politics by saying that in his term the President would not interfere with the electoral process. The documentary shows video-footage of several demonstrations of Fox supporting the candidates of the ruling party and of Alfonso Durazo, his former personal secretary, declaring that no previous President was ever as active campaigning for candidates of his own party as was Fox. However, it is widely known in Mexico that Presidents before Vicente Fox always handpicked their successor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Felipe Calder\u00f3n",
        "text": "Following his father's example, he joined the PAN, with the desire of one day becoming Mexico's president. It was in the National Action Party that Calder\u00f3n met his wife, Margarita Zavala, who served in Congress as a federal deputy. They have three children, Mar\u00eda, Luis Felipe and Juan Pablo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jacques Rogozinski",
        "text": "He arrived in Mexico with a refugee status from United Nations for World War II (laissez-passer) the same status as his parents. He was born in Paris-France, on 8 October 1950. His parents are of Polish descent, survivors of Nazi concentration camps during the Holocaust in World War II. They emigrated to Mexico when he was 10 months old and obtained Mexican nationality through the naturalization process at age 31. The only nationality that he has ever had has been the Mexican nationality, in France a person is not granted the nationality by birth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After serving as president of Mexico for six years, Fox returned to his home state of Guanajuato, where he now resides with his wife and family. Since leaving the presidency, Fox has been involved in public speaking and the development of the Vicente Fox Center of Studies, Library and Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of political families",
        "text": "The Obreg\u00f3n family (father, son)\n*Alvaro Obreg\u00f3n (President of Mexico, 1920\u201324)\n**Alvaro Obregon Tapia (Governor of Sonora, 1955\u201361)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)",
        "text": "In a 2012 New York case, \"Strunk v. N.Y. State Board of Elections\", the \"pro se\" plaintiff challenged Barack Obama's presence on the presidential ballot, based on his own interpretation that \"natural born citizen\" required the president \"to have been born on United States soil \"and\" have \"two\" United States \"born\" parents\" (emphasis added). To this the Court responded, \"Article II, section 1, clause 5 does not state this. No legal authority has ever stated that the Natural Born Citizen clause means what plaintiff Strunk claims it says. ... Moreover, President Obama is the sixth U.S. President to have had one or both of his parents not born on U.S. soil\". The opinion then listed Andrew Jackson, James Buchanan, Chester A. Arthur, Woodrow Wilson, and Herbert Hoover. (Donald Trump may now be added to that list.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox spent his childhood and adolescence at the family ranch in San Francisco del Rinc\u00f3n in Guanajuato. Fox has polydactyly, having six toes on each foot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox was elected President of Mexico in the 2000 presidential election, a historically significant election since it made him the first president elected from an opposition party since the election of Francisco I. Madero in 1911. Fox finished in first place with 42 percent of the vote."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim Plunkett",
        "text": "Plunkett was born to Mexican-American parents with an Irish-German grandfather on his paternal side. Plunkett's father was a news vendor afflicted with progressive blindness, who had to support his blind wife along with their three children. Plunkett's parents were both born in New Mexico, both Mexican Americans; his mother, whose maiden name was Carmen Blea, was born in Santa Fe and his father, William Gutierrez Plunkett, was born in Albuquerque. Carmen was also of Native American ancestry. His father William died of a heart attack in 1969."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fil\u00edsola",
        "text": "He had several descendants around Mexico, especially in the North. He married and had a family in Mexico City and male descendants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "On 7 August 2021, it was reported and confirmed that Vicente Fox and his wife Martha Sahag\u00fan were preventively admitted to a hospital in Le\u00f3n, Guanajuato after being infected with COVID-19 during the pandemic in Mexico, but without serious symptoms.\n* Collar of the Order of the Liberator General San Mart\u00edn (Argentina)\n* Grand Star of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria (Austria, 2005)\n* Grand Cross of the Order of Vytautas the Great (Lithuania, 14 January 2002)\n* Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (United Kingdom)\n* Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (Spain, 8 November 2002)\n* Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim (Sweden, 22 October 2002)\n*History of Mexico\n*List of presidents of Mexico\n*Politics of Mexico\n* Schmidt, Samuel (2000). \"M\u00e9xico encadenado: El legado de Zedillo y los retos de Fox\". M\u00e9xico, D.F.: Colibr\u00ed.\n* Vicente Fox website during his Presidency\n* Vicente Fox Museum and Library\n* Extended bio and presidential tenure, by CIDOB Foundation\n* Vicente Fox Interview on The Hour with George Stroumboulopoulos\n*\n* Miguel Angel Mancera Espinosa"
      },
      {
        "title": "Camerina Pav\u00f3n y Oviedo",
        "text": "Member of an ideologically divided family, granddaughter of Jos\u00e9 Ignacio Pav\u00f3n, the President of the Supreme Court of Justice (1858) Acting President of the country (1860) and supporter of bringing Maximilian, her father was liberal and Catholic, like herself, and close to the presidents Benito Ju\u00e1rez and Porfirio D\u00edaz. She was born into a wealthy family, which later had shortcomings, partly due to the struggles between the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party. To cope better with things, the family moved to Doctora 118 Street in Tacubaya, then a suburb of Mexico City."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)",
        "text": "Joseph Dellapenna, retired Professor of Law at Villanova University, also considers \"natural born\" to encompass only persons born in the United States; argues that foreign-born children of U.S. citizens are naturalized at birth, but not natural born; and on this basis rejects the presidential eligibility of both Ted Cruz and John McCain. Citing \"Rogers v. Bellei\" in support of this interpretation, Dellapenna asserts that \"Without addressing this judicial holding, any conclusion that 'natural born citizen' includes any person who becomes a citizen at birth is insupportable.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of political families",
        "text": "The Calder\u00f3n Hinojosa family (father, children, daughter-in-law)\n*Luis Calder\u00f3n Vega, founder of the National Action Party (PAN).\n**Felipe Calder\u00f3n Hinojosa, President of Mexico 2006\u20132012, son of Calder\u00f3n Vega.\n**Margarita Zavala de Calder\u00f3n, former PAN deputy, wife of Calder\u00f3n Hinojosa.\n**Luisa Mar\u00eda Calder\u00f3n Hinojosa, former PAN senator, daughter of Calder\u00f3n Vega.\n**Juan Luis Calder\u00f3n Hinojosa, public servant in Michoac\u00e1n, son of Calder\u00f3n Vega.\n**Carmen de F\u00e1tima Calder\u00f3n Hinojosa, public servant in Michoac\u00e1n, daughter of Calder\u00f3n Vega."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "This is in spite of the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre. Jorge Monta\u00f1o, a former Mexican ambassador to the United States considered Fox was \"naive\" to think farmers would easily give up their lands and that his government should have taken more time negotiating with the farmers instead of simply sending out engineers to measure runways and calculate flight paths. Monta\u00f1o also declared that the compensation these farmers were offered were the minimum allowed under the law (3,000 pesos an acre, roughly 275 US dollars) before raising the offer to 21,000 pesos an acre (1,900 US dollars)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During Fox's term, Mexico actively sought (and gained) a temporary seat on the UN Security Council. However, Luis Ernesto Derbez, Secretary of Foreign Affairs after Casta\u00f1eda, unsuccessfully ran for the position of Secretary General of the Organization of American States, losing to Chilean Jos\u00e9 Miguel Insulza."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicol\u00e1s Maduro",
        "text": "Opposition deputies have assured that the birth certificate of Maduro must say that he is the son of a Colombian mother, which would represent the proof that confirms that the president has double nationality and that he cannot hold any office under Article 41 of the constitution. Deputy Dennis Fern\u00e1ndez has headed a special commission that investigates the origins of the president and has declared that \"Maduro's mother is a Colombian citizen\" and that the Venezuelan head of State would also be Colombian. The researcher, historian and former deputy Walter M\u00e1rquez declared months after the presidential elections that Maduro's mother was born in Colombia and not in Rubio, T\u00e1chira. M\u00e1rquez has also declared that Maduro \"was born in Bogot\u00e1, according to the verbal testimonies of people who knew him as a child in Colombia and the documentary research we did\" and what \"there are more than 10 witnesses that corroborate this information, five of them live in Bogot\u00e1\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jes\u00fas Padilla",
        "text": "Although he was born in the United States, according to Article 30 of the Mexican Constitution, he was born Mexican as he is the son of Mexicans born in a foreign country. Chivas owner Jorge Vergara's take on the nationality question is simple: \"We go by the definition in the Constitution,\" Vergara says. \"Mexican law says that you are a Mexican if you are born outside Mexico and both parents are Mexican.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Enrique Morones",
        "text": "While working for the Padres, Enrique became the first person to receive dual US/Mexican nationality, and received his documents from Mexican President Ernesto Zedillo in 1998. [Source: Morones, Enrique (2012). The Power of One: The Story of the Border Angels. San Diego State University Press. p.\u00a07.]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)",
        "text": "The first nine presidents and the 12th president (Zachary Taylor) were all citizens at the adoption of the constitution in 1789, with all being born within the territory held by the United States and recognized in the Treaty of Paris. All presidents who have served since were born in the United States. Of the 45 individuals who became president, there have been eight that had at least one parent who was not born on U.S. soil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration",
        "text": "During Fox's presidency the net migration rate in Mexico increased 152% from \u22122.84 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants to \u22124.32; in the same period, population growth decreased 35% from 1.57% to 1.16%. Fox, who was said to be \"proud\" of Mexican immigrants in the U.S. has acknowledged the importance of remittances by both legal and illegal Mexican workers in the U.S. (now the #1 source of revenue for the country)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luis Calder\u00f3n Vega",
        "text": "He was the father of Felipe Calder\u00f3n, who was elected president in the 2006 presidential elections."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During his campaign for president, Vicente Fox became well known for his cowboy style and quirkiness. As a speaker, Fox usually attracted big crowds in the early years of his presidency. At , Fox easily stood out in most crowds, and is believed to be one of the tallest presidents in Mexico's history. After his inauguration, President Fox usually wore suits for formal occasions, but opted to wear his signature boots and jeans during his many visits around Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miguel Alem\u00e1n Gonz\u00e1lez",
        "text": "His son, Miguel Alem\u00e1n Vald\u00e9s, served as the 46th President of Mexico from 1946 to 1952."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In August 2006, \"El Universal\" polled 600 people in Mexico City, where L\u00f3pez Obrador served as Head of Government from 2000 to 2005. 59% believed that the 2006 elections were fraudulent and 63% believed votes should have been recounted. In February 2007, Fox declared about the desafuero process of L\u00f3pez Obrador:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "According to Ren\u00e9 Drucker, coordinator of basic science research for National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), \"no other government in recent history has neglected research in the basic sciences as Fox's\". Fox's plan for the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnolog\u00eda, (CONACYT), was that by 2006 this organization would receive 1% of GDP. However the budget for this organization for 2006 reached only 0.33%. Federal government investment on Research and development in 2004 was 0.41% in Mexico versus 0.95% in Brazil and 0.6% in Chile."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salvador Zubir\u00e1n",
        "text": "In 1985, in Chihuahua, he married Mar\u00eda Luisa L\u00f3pez-Collada M\u00e1rquez de Richardson, the widow of American banker William B. Richardson II. By this marriage, he became the stepfather of the American politician and one-time presidential hopeful Bill Richardson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elvira Arellano",
        "text": "On August 29, 2007, Elvira Arellano asked Mexican President Felipe Calderon to request the U.S. government for a special visa to visit her son, and called for assistance to the 600,000 Mexican mothers who are in similar circumstances, as well as the 12 million undocumented immigrants in the U.S."
      },
      {
        "title": "Same-sex marriage in Mexico",
        "text": "Guillermo Bustamante Manilla, a PAN member and president of the National Union of Parents of Families ({{lang-es|Uni\u00f3n Nacional de Padres de Familia}}), as well as the father of Guillermo Bustamante Artas\u00e1nchez, a law director of the Secretary of the Interior, opposes abortion and same-sex civil unions and has described the latter as \"anti-natural.\" He has publicly asked voters not to cast votes for \"abortionists\" parties and those who are in favor of homosexual relationships."
      },
      {
        "title": "P\u00edo Romero Bosque",
        "text": "He is reputed to be one of the few, if not the only, Salvadoran president who was able to strike a political balance in government during his administration. This balance is often known as the \"natural mix\" \u2013 a balance between concession to demands of the various components of society and repression of the same in a given country. He was a scion of the Mel\u00e9ndez\u2013Qui\u00f1\u00f3nez \"dynasty\", who, rather than impose his own heir as president, allowed a democratization of the country with its first free elections in 1931, won by Arturo Araujo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Before Vicente Fox, Mexico practiced the Estrada Doctrine, so named after its creator, Genaro Estrada (Secretary of Foreign Affairs during the Presidency of Pascual Ortiz Rubio). The Estrada Doctrine favored an enclosed view of sovereignty. It claimed that foreign governments should not judge, for good or bad, governments or changes in governments in other nations, because it would imply a breach of their sovereignty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "On 2 July 2000, his 58th birthday, Fox won the presidential election with 43% (15,989,636 votes) of the popular vote, followed by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) candidate Francisco Labastida with 36% (13,579,718 votes), and Cuauht\u00e9moc C\u00e1rdenas of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) with 17% (6,256,780 votes). Fox declared victory that same night, a victory that was ratified by then-President Zedillo. After the final results were announced, President-elect Fox addressed thousands of supporters and celebrated his victory with them at the Angel of Independence monument in Mexico City. His opponents conceded the election later that night."
      },
      {
        "title": "National System for Integral Family Development",
        "text": "Its national director reports directly to the President of Mexico, and the role was traditionally held by the First Lady until 2000, when President Vicente Fox, who was unmarried, appointed Ana Teresa Aranda to the post. Its local chapters report to municipal presidents and governors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "President Fox was the first President to have an institutional image that did not display the complete National Coat of Arms, causing controversy. The use of the \"slashed eagle\" (\"\u00e1guila mocha\", in Spanish), as it was called by critics (the word \"mocha\" having a negative connotation, mocho meaning both chopped and prudish Catholic), was extended to all the dependencies of the Executive Branch substituting the Seal of the United Mexican States (located at the bottom right corner of the Institutional logo) by the acronym of the dependencies. Successor President Felipe Calder\u00f3n returned to using the complete coat of arms. Apart from criticism to showing only part of the Nation's Coat of Arms, some criticized the inclusion of the color blue to the Administration's institutional image (used in one-color depictions of the logo), as said color is associated to Fox's PAN party, and to a presumptive \"F\"-like band in the bottom of the image, which, critics suggested, gave more emphasis to Fox's personal image than to the Institution of the President."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Pablo Guelatao",
        "text": "Guelatao is the birthplace of President Benito Ju\u00e1rez, whose parents were Zapotec peasants. He was the first indigenous president of Mexico. When he was born, Guelatao had a population of fewer than 100 people, and fell under the jurisdiction of the larger neighbouring town of Ixtl\u00e1n. Ju\u00e1rez was baptised in the parish church at Ixtl\u00e1n, which is now known as Ixtl\u00e1n de Ju\u00e1rez in his honour. Guelatao became an independent municipality in 1824, after Mexico gained independence from Spain. The town has a small museum dedicated to Ju\u00e1rez."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of foreign-born United States Cabinet members",
        "text": "Since most foreign-born Cabinet members are not natural-born citizens\u2014meaning that they were not born in the United States or born abroad to American parents\u2014they are ineligible to exercise the powers of the president of the United States in the event that \"neither a President nor Vice President\" is able to \"discharge the powers and duties\" of the presidency as specified in the Presidential Succession Act of 1947. A notable exception was HUD Secretary George W. Romney, who was a birthright U.S. citizen because his parents were U.S. citizens and, in fact, had been a candidate in the Republican presidential primaries the prior year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rafael \u00c1ngel Calder\u00f3n Fournier",
        "text": "His father was Rafael \u00c1ngel Calder\u00f3n Guardia, who served as president from 1940 to 1944. His mother was Maria del Rosario Fournier Mora. He was born while his parents were in exile."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jorge Casta\u00f1eda Gutman",
        "text": "Casta\u00f1eda was born in Mexico City. His father was Jorge Casta\u00f1eda y \u00c1lvarez de la Rosa who served as Secretary of Foreign Affairs (1979\u20131982), during the administration of Jos\u00e9 L\u00f3pez Portillo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eric Garcetti",
        "text": "Garcetti's paternal grandfather, Salvador, was born in Parral, Chihuahua, Mexico. Salvador was brought by his family to the United States as a child after his father, Massimo \"Max\" Garcetti, was murdered by hanging during the Mexican Revolution. Max had immigrated to Mexico from Italy. He married a Mexican woman and became a judge. His paternal grandmother, Juanita Iberri, was born in Arizona, one of 19 children born to an immigrant father from Sonora, Mexico, and an Arizona-born mother whose father and mother were both Mexican."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reynaldo Hahn",
        "text": "Hahn was born in Caracas, Venezuela, on 9 August 1874, the youngest child of Carlos (\"n\u00e9\" Karl) Hahn (1822\u20131897) and his wife Elena Mar\u00eda \"n\u00e9e\" de Echenagucia (1831\u20131912). Carlos Hahn, the eldest son of a Jewish family in Hamburg, emigrated to Venezuela in 1845 at the age of twenty-two, making a highly successful business career there. He converted to Roman Catholicism to marry Elena de Echenagucia; she was of Spanish descent on her father's side and Dutch-English on her mother's. When his friend and associate Antonio Guzm\u00e1n Blanco became president of the country in 1877, Carlos became Blanco's financial adviser. The Hahns had eleven or twelve children, nine of whom lived to adulthood. Reynaldo, known as \"Nano\", was the youngest, twenty years younger than his eldest brother. He was brought up speaking fluent German, Spanish and (having a British nanny) English."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexican 20-peso note",
        "text": "Benito Pablo Juarez Garcia (San Pablo Guelatao, Oaxaca, March 21, 1806 - Mexico City, July 18, 1872) was a Mexican lawyer and politician, Zapotec Indian origin, president of Mexico repeatedly December 18, 1857 to 18 July 1872. You will be known as the \"Father of the Americas\" 3 is celebrated her sentence \"Among individuals, as among nations, respect for the rights of others is peace\" ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexico",
        "text": "In 2000, after 71 years, the PRI lost a presidential election to Vicente Fox of the opposition conservative National Action Party (PAN). In the 2006 presidential election, Felipe Calder\u00f3n from the PAN was declared the winner, with a very narrow margin (0.58%) over leftist politician Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador then the candidate of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD). L\u00f3pez Obrador, however, contested the election and pledged to create an \"alternative government\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juan Mar\u00eda Bordaberry",
        "text": "One of his sons, Pedro Bordaberry, himself presidential candidate and a former minister, has been vocal in public support for his father, and, by strong implication, for a measure of justification for the role of the civilian-military government of 1973\u20131985. Another son, Santiago Bordaberry, is a rancher and religious activist and has been prominent in the former President's public defence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hereditary politicians",
        "text": "Whereas Ferdinand got elected as the President in 1965 \u2013 defeating incumbent Diosdado Macapagal \u2013 and holding the office for a total of 21 years, his son Bongbong did not run for presidency. Instead, he ran as a vice-presidential candidate under the Nacionalista Party during the 2016 presidential elections where he lost by merely 263,473 votes to Leni Robredo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jorge Matute Remus",
        "text": "Matute Remus was born in Guadalajara, the son of Juan Matute Gil and Mar\u00eda Concepci\u00f3n Remus and second of five children. In his early years he had to work to help the household economy due to impoverishment caused by the Mexican revolution. In 1941 he married Esmeralda Villase\u00f1or y Villase\u00f1or and had four children: Juan Jorge, Elena, Esmeralda and Pedro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jes\u00fas Carranza",
        "text": "Jes\u00fas Carranza was married to Mar\u00eda de Jes\u00fas Garza and had 15 children; among them was Venustiano Carranza, who later became President of Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adolfo L\u00f3pez Mateos",
        "text": "When Carlos Salinas de Gortari became president of Mexico (1988-1994), he had the remains of L\u00f3pez Mateos and his wife exhumed and moved to L\u00f3pez Mateos's birthplace in Mexico State. A monument to the late president was erected there. This unusual step was likely due to Salinas' family animus toward L\u00f3pez Mateos. Salinas's father Ra\u00fal Salinas Lozano had been a cabinet minister in L\u00f3pez Mateos's government and was passed over for the party nomination to be the next president of Mexico. The town is now formally named Ciudad L\u00f3pez Mateos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "On 7 July 1997, after the opposition parties first won a majority in the Chamber of Deputies, Vicente Fox decided to run for President of Mexico. In spite of opposition within his political party, Fox secured his candidacy representing the Alliance for Change, a political coalition formed by the National Action Party and the Green Ecological Party of Mexico on 14 November 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hank Aguirre",
        "text": "Nicknamed \"Mex\" because he was of Mexican descent, Aguirre was born on January 31, 1931, in Azusa, California, to Jenny Alva was born in Los Angeles Ca, and Jose Aguirre. Jose was born in Jalisco, Mexico in 1902 and emigrated with his family during the time of the Mexican Revolution. Jose and Jenny had seven children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Benito Ju\u00e1rez",
        "text": "Ju\u00e1rez was born in an adobe house in San Pablo Guelatao, Oaxaca, located in the mountain range since named for him and now known as the Sierra Ju\u00e1rez. His parents, Br\u00edgida Garc\u00eda and Marcelino Ju\u00e1rez, were Zapotec peasants. He had an older sister. Both parents died of complications of diabetes when Ju\u00e1rez was three years old. Shortly afterward, his grandparents died as well, so after that his uncle raised him. He described his parents as \"\"indios de la raza primitiva del pa\u00eds\",\" that is, \"Indians from the primitive race of the country.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Maximilian I of Mexico",
        "text": "As Maximilian and Carlota had no children, they adopted Agust\u00edn de Iturbide y Green and his cousin Salvador de Iturbide y de Marz\u00e1n, both grandsons of Agust\u00edn de Iturbide, who had briefly reigned as Emperor of Mexico in the 1820s. Agustin's mother, Alicia Iturbide, an American who was born Alice Green, agreed under duress to give up her child. Soon after, she pled with Maximilian to renounce the adoption contract, but he had her forcibly deported from Mexico without her child."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of political families",
        "text": "The C\u00e1rdenas family (grandfather, father, son)\n*L\u00e1zaro C\u00e1rdenas (President of Mexico, 1934\u201340)\n**Cuauht\u00e9moc C\u00e1rdenas (Head of Government of the Federal District, 1997\u20131999)\n***L\u00e1zaro C\u00e1rdenas Batel (Governor of Michoac\u00e1n, 2002\u20132008)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ana Mar\u00eda Huarte",
        "text": "Together they had 10 children:\n*Agust\u00edn Jer\u00f3nimo de Iturbide y Huarte, Prince Imperial of Mexico (1807\u20131866) father of Jesusa de Iturbide Fern\u00e1ndez\n*Sabina de Iturbide y Huarte (1809\u20131871)\n*Juana de Iturbide y Huarte (1811\u20131828)\n*Josefa de Iturbide y Huarte (1814\u20131891)\n*\u00c1ngel de Iturbide y Huarte (1816\u20131872) father of Agust\u00edn de Iturbide y Green\n*Mar\u00eda de Iturbide y Huarte (1818\u20131849)\n*Dolores de Iturbide y Huarte (1819\u20131820)\n*Salvador de Iturbide y Huarte (1820\u20131856) father of Salvador de Iturbide y de Marz\u00e1n\n*Felipe de Iturbide y Huarte (1822\u20131853)\n*Agust\u00edn Cosme de Iturbide y Huarte (1824\u20131873)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox served as President of Mexico from December 1, 2000 to November 30, 2006. His victory in the federal elections in 2000 ended more than 70 years rule of the Institutional Revolutionary Party."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After leaving office in December 2006, Fox has maintained himself in the public eye by speaking in countries such as Nigeria, Ireland, Canada, and the United States about topics such as the controversial 2006 election and the Iraq War. In Mexico, Fox has been criticized by some for his busy post-presidency since former Mexican presidents are traditionally expected to stay out of the political spotlight. In response, Fox has stated, \"There is no reason to hold to the anti-democratic rules of those who still live in the authoritarian past . . . now that Mexico is a democracy, every citizen has the right to express himself, even a former president.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cl\u00edmaco Calder\u00f3n",
        "text": "His parents were Carlos Calder\u00f3n Reyes and Clotilde Reyes Fonseca, half sister of future President Rafael Reyes Prieto. He was married to Amelia P\u00e9rez Triana, daughter of President Santiago P\u00e9rez de Manosalba."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juana Calder\u00f3n Tapia",
        "text": "The future President of M\u00e9xico, General Pedro Mar\u00eda de Anaya, taught her French, which she subsequently learned to read, write, and translate. A very cultured woman, Calder\u00f3n loved reading; she read books from M\u00e9xico, France, and Spain, especially poetry. Calder\u00f3n married Jos\u00e9 Mar\u00eda Iglesias in May 1849 in Quer\u00e9taro; the officiating priest at the wedding would soon become Bishop of Tulancingo. Juana focused entirely to his home and to take care to her four children, they had two more but they did not survive to adulthood:\n*Jos\u00e9 Mar\u00eda Iglesias Calder\u00f3n (Mexico City; March 15, 1850)\n*Carlos Iglesias Calder\u00f3n (Mexico City; December 10, 1851)\n*Julia Iglesias Calder\u00f3n (Mexico City; April 27, 1853), she never married.\n*Fernando Iglesias Calder\u00f3n (Mexico City; May 30, 1856 - May 26, 1942), liberal as his father was, when Madero's Revolution won and then the Constitutionalist, he served as senator for the Distrito Federal in 1912 to 1913 and 1920 to 1924, and president of the Liberal Party in 1912. Three times he was offered the post of Secretary of Foreign Affairs (Secretar\u00eda de Relaciones Exteriores), a position he declined in the administrations of Francisco I. Madero Venustiano Carranza and Adolfo de la Huerta, who later put him as ambassador in Washington, D.C., where he served until 1923. Fernando Iglesias Calderon also noted as a historian and journalist. He is the author of several books, among them: \"La traici\u00f3n de Maximiliano\" y \"la Capilla Expiatoria\"; \"El ego\u00edsmo norteamericano durante la Intervenci\u00f3n Francesa\", y \"Las supuestas traiciones de Ju\u00e1rez\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agust\u00edn de Iturbide y Green",
        "text": "He became the adopted son with the title of Prince of Iturbide, along with his cousin Salvador de It\u00farbide y de Marz\u00e1n, of Mexico's only other royal heads of state, Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico and Empress Carlota of Mexico. , but he had no children. His claims passed to Maria Josepha Sophia de Iturbide, the daughter of his cousin, Salvador."
      },
      {
        "title": "President of Mexico",
        "text": "The current President, Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador, was elected in 2018 with a modern-era record of 53% of the popular vote in 2018. The most recent former president, Enrique Pe\u00f1a Nieto won 38% of the popular vote in 2012. Former President Felipe Calder\u00f3n won with 36.38% of the votes in the 2006 general election, finishing only 0.56% above his nearest rival, Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador (who contested the official results). In 2000, former President Vicente Fox was elected with a plurality of 43% of the popular vote, Ernesto Zedillo won 48.7% of the vote in 1994, and his predecessor Carlos Salinas won with a majority of 50.4% in the 1988 election."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silvia Pinal",
        "text": "Silvia Ver\u00f3nica Pasquel Hidalgo was born in Guaymas, Sonora, Mexico, on 12 September 1931. Her parents were Mar\u00eda Luisa Hidalgo Aguilar and Mois\u00e9s Pasquel. Pasquel was an orchestra conductor at the Mexican radio station XEW. Pinal's mother became pregnant with Pasquel when she was only 15 years old. Her father did not recognize her and Pinal did not know him until she was 11 years old. On the part of her biological father, Pinal had three more brothers: Eugenio, Mois\u00e9s and Virginia. however, Pinal never spent time with the Pasquel family. Pinal spent her first years behind the counter of a seafood restaurant located near the XEW where her mother worked. When Pinal was five years old, her mother married Luis G. Pinal, whom they called \"El Caballero Pinal\", a journalist, military man and politician twenty years older than her. Pinal recognized Pinal as his daughter. Mr. Pinal had three more daughters from a previous marriage: Mercedes, Beatriz and Eugenia. Her adoptive father held several public positions in Mexico. He was municipal president of Tequisquiapan, Quer\u00e9taro. The family lived in several cities of Mexico as Quer\u00e9taro, Acapulco, Monterrey, Chilpancingo, Cuernavaca and Puebla, finally settled in Mexico City."
      },
      {
        "title": "Birth tourism",
        "text": "Mexicans who are citizens by birth are individuals that were born in Mexican territory regardless of parents' nationality or immigration status in Mexico. Individuals born on Mexican merchant or Navy ships or Mexican-registered aircraft, regardless of parents' nationality, are still considered Mexican citizens. Only naturalized Mexicans can lose their Mexican citizenship."
      },
      {
        "title": "L\u00e1zaro C\u00e1rdenas Batel",
        "text": "C\u00e1rdenas Batel is a member of a distinguished political family: his grandfather, L\u00e1zaro C\u00e1rdenas del R\u00edo, served as President of Mexico from 1934 to 1940, and his father, Cuauht\u00e9moc C\u00e1rdenas, has been a presidential candidate on three occasions and was the first democratically elected Head of Government of the Federal District (Mexico City). Both father and grandfather also served as governors of Michoac\u00e1n."
      },
      {
        "title": "Francisco I. Madero",
        "text": "Francisco I. Madero was the first-born son of Evaristo's first-born son of his first marriage, Francisco Ignacio Madero Hern\u00e1ndez and Mercedes Gonz\u00e1lez Trevi\u00f1o, and was Evaristo's first-born grandson. Young Francisco was the first of his father's eleven children. This wealthy and prolific extended family could provide vast resources to young Francisco when he challenged Porfirio D\u00edaz for the presidency in 1910. He was a sickly child, and was small in stature as an adult. It is widely believed that Madero's middle initial, I, stood for Indalecio, but according to his birth certificate it stood for Ignacio. On the birth certificate, Ignacio was written with the archaic spelling of Ygnacio."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexican nationality law",
        "text": "In 1884 a Civil Code was developed which legally incapacitated married women. Two years later, Ignacio Luis Vallarta became the architect of a new law on naturalization. The Law of Alienship and Naturalization (Ley de Extranjer\u00eda y Naturalizaci\u00f3n) of 1886 would largely remain in force until 1934. Under its terms, birthright nationals were limited to those born in the territory or born abroad and the legitimate, legitimized, or illegitimate but legally recognized children of a Mexican father. Nationality could only be derived from the mother if the father was unknown or the child was illegitimate and unrecognized by the father. Foundlings born in Mexico were also considered birthright nationals. The law continued the practice that married women and minor children automatically derived the nationality of their husbands and independent nationality for married women was banned. To prevent the possibility of statelessness of a wife, there was a provision in the law that if the husband's nation did not grant a Mexican woman married to a foreigner his nationality, she could retain her birthright nationality. If the husband died, a former Mexican national who was a widow could retrieve her nationality by establishing residence in Mexico and advising the proper authorities. A woman who had gained nationality from marriage to a Mexican could relinquish it by acquiring other nationality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Lozano",
        "text": "In 2000, he was asked to speak at \"Mobilizing Parents for Prevention,\" a plenary session sponsored by the Office of National Drug Control Policy in the Executive Office of the President. Lozano spoke about his family heritage and the importance of the traditional values in guiding and encouraging young people to pursue a life of service and volunteerism. \"My father\u2019s side came from Chihuahua, Mexico. My mother\u2019s side are Apache from southwestern New Mexico,\" he said. \"These two people defined for me what I understand today to be an Honorable Son: a son of integrity, a son who responds to the honor of his father\u2019s name, a son who treats his mother with respect. I had a father who worked seven days a week, and a mother who carried a broom seven days a week \u2013 not to sweep the floor but to crack it on our backs if we didn\u2019t respond the way we should have while Daddy wasn\u2019t there.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Marco A. L\u00f3pez Jr.",
        "text": "Born in Nogales, Sonora, Mexico, and raised in Nogales, Arizona, United States, Lopez became a United States citizen through naturalization. Lopez earned a bachelor's degree in liberal studies and political science from the University of Arizona."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Campaigning as a right-wing populist, Fox ran for and was elected president on the National Action Party (PAN) ticket, becoming the first president not from the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) since 1929. He is currently the co-president of the Centrist Democrat International, an international organization of centre-right political parties."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Wasson",
        "text": "This is the Mexican National Prize and was given for his contribution to the children of Mexico. He is the only US citizen to receive this award.\n* Good Samaritan Award from the National Catholic Development Conference - 1979\n* Franciscan International Award - 1981\n* Order of the Aztec Eagle - 1990"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ernesto Zedillo",
        "text": "The presidential election of 2 July 2000 was a watershed in Mexican history for several reasons. The PRI presidential candidate, Francisco Labastida was not designated by the sitting president (as all former presidential nominees from the PRI had been until that point), but by an open internal primary of the party. Changes in the electoral rules meant that the government did not control voting as it had previously in the Ministry of the Interior. Elections were now the jurisdiction of the Federal Electoral Institute (IFE), with Mexicans having faith that elections would be free and fair. IFE implemented new procedures regarding campaigns and balloting, with rules for finance, guarantee of the secret ballot, and unbiased counting of votes. Also important were some 10,000 Mexican poll watchers and over 850 foreign observers, including ex-president of the U.S., Jimmy Carter. Zapatista leader Subcomandante Marcos declared that the election was a \"dignified and respectable battleground.\" The results of the election were even more historic. For the first time since the founding of Zedillo's party in 1929, an opposition candidate won, a peaceful change from an authoritarian government. Zedillo went on national television when the polls closed, declaring that Vicente Fox had won. In Fox's autobiography he writes, \"There are still those old-guard \"priistas\" who consider Ernesto Zedillo a traitor to his class for his actions on the night of 2 July 2000, as the party boss who betrayed the machine. But in that moment President Zedillo became a true democrat ... In minutes he preempted any possibility of violent resistance from hard-line \"priistas\". It was an act of electoral integrity that will forever mark the mild-mannered economist as a historic figure of Mexico's peaceful transition to democracy.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Rafael Calder\u00f3n Mu\u00f1oz",
        "text": "Married to Ana Mar\u00eda, they were the parents of President Rafael \u00c1ngel Calder\u00f3n Guardia, in 1940, Calder\u00f3n Mu\u00f1oz became one of the vice presidents of the country along with Teodoro Picado Michalski, Jorge Hine Sabor\u00edo and Francisco Calder\u00f3n Guardia, which he held until his death in 1943."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox\n--Early years.\n----Business career.\n----Family life.\n--Early political career.\n----Governor of Guanajuato.\n----Campaign for president.\n------Election results.\n--Presidency.\n----Public image.\n------Approval ratings.\n----Legacy and assessment.\n--Post-presidential life.\n----Public speaking and advocacy.\n----Criticism of Donald Trump.\n----Autobiography.\n----Fox Center of Studies, Library and Museum.\n----Centrist Democratic International.\n----Statue controversy.\n----Health.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox spread his image as one of peace and welcomed many to his own ranch in Guanajuato, Mexico. When Fox welcomed U.S. President George W. Bush to the ranch, both presidents were wearing Fox's signature black cowboy boots, prompting \"The Wall Street Journal\" to call it \"The Boot Summit\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pedro Guillermo",
        "text": "He was born in Media Chiva, in the Hato Mayor del Rey municipality, Hato Mayor province, Dominican Republic, on June 29, 1814. His parents were vegan merchants, Jos\u00e9 Guillermo and Francisca Guerrero, born in Barcelona, Venezuela. On November 20, 1843, he married Rosal\u00eda Bastardo with whom he had three children, two girls who died and a male named Ces\u00e1reo Guillermo Bastardo, who later became President of the Republic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jos\u00e9 L\u00f3pez Portillo y Rojas",
        "text": "His grandson Jos\u00e9 L\u00f3pez Portillo y Pacheco, was the president of Mexico from 1976 to 1982."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alejandro Galvis Galvis",
        "text": "Born on 13 February 1891 in Curit\u00ed, Santander, he was the youngest child of Jes\u00fas Galvis Arena and Hortencia Galvis Galvis, his siblings were Guillermo, Rodolfo and Leopoldo, and shortly after his birth, his mother died of cancer. While serving as diplomat in Mexico he met Tina Galvis Baroni, a Cuban lady of Italian descent whom he married in March 1938 in Mexico City, but who died later that year on 7 December 1938 after giving birth to their daughter Tina. Back in Colombia, he married Alicia Ram\u00edrez Navas on 18 January 1941 in Curit\u00ed, and with whom he had four children, Hortensia, Alejandro, Silvia, and Virgilio."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jose Gallegos",
        "text": "Born in the United States to Mexican parents, Gallegos holds a U.S. and Mexican citizenship, which makes him eligible to represent either the United States or Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Justino Fern\u00e1ndez",
        "text": "Justino Fernandez Garcia was born on September 28, 1904 in Mexico City. He was the grandson of the jurist Alonso Tom\u00e1s Fern\u00e1ndez P\u00e9rez, a magistrate in the supreme court, and Do\u00f1a Mar\u00eda de los Dolores Mondo\u00f1o y Fern\u00e1ndez. Son of , originally from Mexico City, who served as a member of the Mexican Constituent Congress which wrote the 1857 Constitution of Mexico. His mother was Sergia Garcia a native of Valladolid, Spain and his father's second wife. His nephew, Justino Reyes Retana Fern\u00e1ndez, served in the Mexican Airforce with the 201st Fighter Squadron during World War II."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the Mexican President have to be born in Mexico?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It is required that to be eligible for the office on must be a natural-born citizen of Mexico able to exercise full citizenship rights, with at least one parent who is a natural-born citizen of Mexico."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has there ever been a Mexican president who only had one natural-born parent?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information.",
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
    ],
    "topic": "Vicente Fox",
    "ground_truth_ctx": []
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox Quesada (; born 2 July 1942) is a Mexican businessman and politician who served as the 62nd President of Mexico from 1 December 2000 to 30 November 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox spread his image as one of peace and welcomed many to his own ranch in Guanajuato, Mexico. When Fox welcomed U.S. President George W. Bush to the ranch, both presidents were wearing Fox's signature black cowboy boots, prompting \"The Wall Street Journal\" to call it \"The Boot Summit\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During Fox's term, Mexico actively sought (and gained) a temporary seat on the UN Security Council. However, Luis Ernesto Derbez, Secretary of Foreign Affairs after Casta\u00f1eda, unsuccessfully ran for the position of Secretary General of the Organization of American States, losing to Chilean Jos\u00e9 Miguel Insulza."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "This is in spite of the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre. Jorge Monta\u00f1o, a former Mexican ambassador to the United States considered Fox was \"naive\" to think farmers would easily give up their lands and that his government should have taken more time negotiating with the farmers instead of simply sending out engineers to measure runways and calculate flight paths. Monta\u00f1o also declared that the compensation these farmers were offered were the minimum allowed under the law (3,000 pesos an acre, roughly 275 US dollars) before raising the offer to 21,000 pesos an acre (1,900 US dollars)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Russell also pointed to 2006 comments by political scientist Soledad Loaeza, who noted, \"The eager candidate became a reluctant president who avoided tough choices and appeared hesitant and unable to hide the weariness caused by the responsibilities and constraints of the office.\" Russell also asserted that Fox \"had little success in fighting crime. Even though he maintained the macroeconomic stability inherited from his predecessor, economic growth barely exceeded the rate of population increase. Similarly, the lack of fiscal reform left tax collection at a rate similar to that of Haiti . . . .\" Finally, Russell noted that \"during Fox's administration, only 1.4\u00a0million formal-sector jobs were created, leading to massive immigration to the United States and an explosive increase in informal employment.\" Ultimately, however, Russell concluded that Fox will be viewed by history as a transitional figure who was able to defeat one of Mexico's long-entrenched political parties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Job creation stalled during Fox's first four years. According to the Economist Intelligence Unit not only were no jobs created from 2000-2004 but the number of street vendors increased 40%. This workforce does not pay income or sales tax and significant minority participates in illicit activities such as smuggling and piracy. The latter grew during Fox's term to an 8 billion industry. Net sales of the clothing industry in Mexico is calculated at approximately 1,500 million dollars, of which 910 million are from smuggled clothing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foxilandia",
        "text": "Chapter 14 of Luis Mandoki's \"Who is Mr. L\u00f3pez\" documentary is titled \"Foxilandia\") journalists Miguel \u00c1ngel Granados Chapa, Jaime Avil\u00e9s and professors Denise Dresser (Autonomous Technological Institute of Mexico, ITAM) and Lorenzo Meyer (Colegio de M\u00e9xico, COLMEX) and news anchor Joaqu\u00edn L\u00f3pez-D\u00f3riga contrast Fox's official declarations with reality as well as Fox's campaign promises and its results such as:\n* Economy growing at a 7% rate and creating 1,350,000 jobs, while the economy grew 0.7% from 2001-2003 and unemployment grew 188% Nevertheless, the rise in unemployment can be attributed to the record deficit in the United States.\n* Promise of deep political change but the Undersecretary of Finance during Carlos Salinas's government became Secretary of Finance during Fox's term and the Secretary of Finance during Ernesto Zedillo's government became Governor of the Bank of Mexico.\n* Fox highlighted a change in customs in Mexican politics by saying that in his term the President would not interfere with the electoral process. The documentary shows video-footage of several demonstrations of Fox supporting the candidates of the ruling party and of Alfonso Durazo, his former personal secretary, declaring that no previous President was ever as active campaigning for candidates of his own party as was Fox. However, it is widely known in Mexico that Presidents before Vicente Fox always handpicked their successor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox was born on 2 July 1942 in Mexico City, the second of nine children. His father, Jos\u00e9 Luis Fox Pont, was a Mexican of German, French and Spanish descent. His mother, Mercedes Quesada Etxaide, was a Basque immigrant from San Sebasti\u00e1n, Gipuzkoa, in Spain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox also pushed for the consolidation of small firms, promoted the overseas sales of goods manufactured in Guanajuato, and created an extensive system of small loans to allow the poor to open a \"changarro\" (a small shop) and buy a car and a television. Under Fox, Guanajuato became the fifth most important Mexican state economy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Valentino Lan\u00fas",
        "text": "He is also a producer of various TV shows and movies. His last venture is called \"Artesanos\", a promising film by creator Santiago Pando, a famous mystic, well known for having been the brain behind the successful political campaign that placed Vicente Fox as the first Mexican President to win over 80 years of the ruling party PRI."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "According to Ren\u00e9 Drucker, coordinator of basic science research for National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), \"no other government in recent history has neglected research in the basic sciences as Fox's\". Fox's plan for the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnolog\u00eda, (CONACYT), was that by 2006 this organization would receive 1% of GDP. However the budget for this organization for 2006 reached only 0.33%. Federal government investment on Research and development in 2004 was 0.41% in Mexico versus 0.95% in Brazil and 0.6% in Chile."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After serving as president of Mexico for six years, Fox returned to his home state of Guanajuato, where he now resides with his wife and family. Since leaving the presidency, Fox has been involved in public speaking and the development of the Vicente Fox Center of Studies, Library and Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The Jos\u00e9 Vasconcelos Library, labeled by the press as the \"Megabiblioteca\" (\"megalibrary\"), was Fox's largest investment in infrastructure. The library is spread on and had an initial planned cost of 954 million pesos (roughly 98 million dollars)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox was elected President of Mexico in the 2000 presidential election, a historically significant election since it made him the first president elected from an opposition party since the election of Francisco I. Madero in 1911. Fox finished in first place with 42 percent of the vote."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox\n--Early years.\n----Business career.\n----Family life.\n--Early political career.\n----Governor of Guanajuato.\n----Campaign for president.\n------Election results.\n--Presidency.\n----Public image.\n------Approval ratings.\n----Legacy and assessment.\n--Post-presidential life.\n----Public speaking and advocacy.\n----Criticism of Donald Trump.\n----Autobiography.\n----Fox Center of Studies, Library and Museum.\n----Centrist Democratic International.\n----Statue controversy.\n----Health.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Campaigning as a right-wing populist, Fox ran for and was elected president on the National Action Party (PAN) ticket, becoming the first president not from the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) since 1929. He is currently the co-president of the Centrist Democrat International, an international organization of centre-right political parties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "On 7 July 1997, after the opposition parties first won a majority in the Chamber of Deputies, Vicente Fox decided to run for President of Mexico. In spite of opposition within his political party, Fox secured his candidacy representing the Alliance for Change, a political coalition formed by the National Action Party and the Green Ecological Party of Mexico on 14 November 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During Fox's presidency, the Mexican Stock Exchange reached record highs throughout his term. The record highs were caused by a better economic outlook throughout his term, larger foreign currency reserves, and a better debt rating that lowered interest rates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "He spent a year at Campion High School in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin where he learned English. Upon reaching college age, Fox moved to Mexico City to attend the Universidad Iberoamericana and received a bachelor's degree in business administration in 1964. Then in 1974, Fox received a certificate in management skills from Harvard Business School."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During his campaign for president, Vicente Fox became well known for his cowboy style and quirkiness. As a speaker, Fox usually attracted big crowds in the early years of his presidency. At , Fox easily stood out in most crowds, and is believed to be one of the tallest presidents in Mexico's history. After his inauguration, President Fox usually wore suits for formal occasions, but opted to wear his signature boots and jeans during his many visits around Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After retiring from Coca-Cola, Fox began to participate in various public activities in Guanajuato, where he created the \"Patronato de la Casa Cuna Amigo Daniel\", an orphanage. He was also the president of the Patronato Loyola, a sponsor of the Le\u00f3n campus of the Universidad Iberoamericana and of the Lux Institute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox was one of the few presidents to avoid a major economic upheaval, although the economy grew at the slowest pace in history, second only to the de la Madrid administration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During Fox's presidency the net migration rate in Mexico increased 152% from -2.84 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants to -4.32; in the same period, population growth decreased 35% from 1.57% to 1.16%. Fox, who was said to be \"proud\" of Mexican immigrants in the U.S. has acknowledged the importance of remittances by both legal and illegal Mexican workers in the U.S. (now the #1 source of revenue for the country)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "On 2 July 2000, his 58th birthday, Fox won the presidential election with 43% (15,989,636 votes) of the popular vote, followed by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) candidate Francisco Labastida with 36% (13,579,718 votes), and Cuauht\u00e9moc C\u00e1rdenas of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) with 17% (6,256,780 votes). Fox declared victory that same night, a victory that was ratified by then-President Zedillo. After the final results were announced, President-elect Fox addressed thousands of supporters and celebrated his victory with them at the Angel of Independence monument in Mexico City. His opponents conceded the election later that night."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox promoted a regional development initiative called Plan Puebla Panama, later renamed Proyecto Mesoam\u00e9rica, which focused on infrastructure, economic development and growth, and market connections between Mexico and seven Central American economies. The pro-business orientation of the plan faced criticism from the Zapatista rebels and some civil society groups in Central America. The plan envisioned US$20 billion over 25 years to create a development corridor, funded in part through matching funds from the private sector and from international financial institutions. Fox's successor Felipe Calder\u00f3n expressed interest in continuing the plan but gave it no new funding midway through his term in office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During the Calder\u00f3n administration restoration efforts cost another 32 million pesos (roughly 3 million dollars)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Mexico suffered a drop in competitiveness during Fox's administration. In 2006, Mexico ranked 56th of 60 countries in the World Competitiveness Yearbook due to poor infrastructure, ease of doing business and high manufacturing costs such as electricity. Fox's large investment in infrastructure did not translate in lower costs, because of a lack of coordination between government bodies. To address this in 2004, Fox launched an Economic Policy for Competitivity (\"Pol\u00edtica Econ\u00f3mica para la Competitividad\" or PEC) however, improvement is not expected until after 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox's cabinet blamed the low growth on the slowdown of the Economy of the United States, but that country started growing again in 2002-2003. Mexico did not grow at the same pace and was surpassed by China as the second-largest trade partner of the United States. Fox had promised growth of 7% during his campaign and blamed Congress for the low economic growth but his administration had foreseen growth of 3.4% even without the approval of structural reforms, especially fiscal reforms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In addition to some debate controversies, Fox also faced some controversy due to \"Amigos de Fox\" (Friends of Fox), a nonprofit fundraising group established by Denise Monta\u00f1o. The group was instrumental in getting Vicente Fox elected President of Mexico, and the phrase \"Amigos de Fox\" was used as a campaign slogan referring to the millions of people supporting Fox in the 2000 presidential election."
      },
      {
        "title": "Felipe Calder\u00f3n",
        "text": "Soon after Vicente Fox took office as president, Calder\u00f3n was appointed director of Banobras, a state-owned development bank. He was accused by political opponents of committing abuse, disputing use of certain legal procedures to finance property valued between three and five million Mexican pesos (between US$300,000 and $500,000); however, once political objections arose, he used other means to formalize his transaction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox spent his childhood and adolescence at the family ranch in San Francisco del Rinc\u00f3n in Guanajuato. Fox has polydactyly, having six toes on each foot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "On 12 January 2007, over a month after he left office, Fox announced the construction of a center of studies, library and museum that was labeled by the U.S. press as Mexico's first presidential library. The project will be a library, museum, a center for the advancement of democracy, a study center and a hotel, and it will be completely privately funded. It is expected to be a genuine U.S.-style presidential library. It will be built in Fox's home state of Guanajuato, in his home town of San Francisco del Rinc\u00f3n."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox served as President of Mexico from December 1, 2000 to November 30, 2006. His victory in the federal elections in 2000 ended more than 70 years rule of the Institutional Revolutionary Party."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The number of registered workers affiliated to the Mexican Social Security Institute decreased from 11,026,370 in December 2000 to 10,881,160. Unemployment increased from 2.7% in 2002 to 3.2 in 2003, and the number of non-payroll workers increased to 20 million people or roughly half of the population able to work. Jobs in maquiladoras decreased by 30%"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Minimum wages during Fox's administration increased at a nominal rate of 34% from $35.12 pesos per day in 2000 to $47.05 in 2006. However, Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) terms, real wages decreased 3.8%, from $80.27 to $77.07. According to Banco de M\u00e9xico, this compares favorably to previous administrations, for wages had decreased by 75% from $296.22 PPP pesos per day in January 1976, to $73.91 PPP pesos per day in December 1999. Minimum wages had decreased, in real terms, an average of 38% per Presidential administration from 1976 to 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In August 2006, \"El Universal\" polled 600 people in Mexico City, where L\u00f3pez Obrador served as Head of Government from 2000 to 2005. 59% believed that the 2006 elections were fraudulent and 63% believed votes should have been recounted. In February 2007, Fox declared about the desafuero process of L\u00f3pez Obrador:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "President Fox appointed Jorge Casta\u00f1eda to be his Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Casta\u00f1eda immediately broke with the Estrada Doctrine, promoting what was called by critics the \"Casta\u00f1eda Doctrine\". The new foreign policy called for an openness and an acceptance of criticism from the international community, and the increase of national involvement in foreign affairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox Center of Studies, Library and Museum",
        "text": "The Vicente Fox Center of Studies, Library and Museum is a presidential history center founded by former President of Mexico (2000-2006) Vicente Fox in San Crist\u00f3bal near his ranch in Guanajuato, Mexico. The Center is funded by the Fox Center Civil Association."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In 2001, Fox announced the construction of a 2.3 billion dollar international airport in the municipalities of Texcoco and San Salvador Atenco in the State of M\u00e9xico to relieve congestion at the overcrowded Mexico City airport, the busiest in Latin America. This new airport would bring thousands of new jobs to an area ravaged by extreme poverty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ram\u00f3n Mart\u00edn Huerta",
        "text": "From 1988 to 1991 he served in the lower house of the Mexican Congress. He was assigned personal secretary of former Governor Carlos Medina Plascencia. When Vicente Fox was elected Governor of Guanajuato he became a cabinet member and later, when Fox resigned in 1999 to run for the presidency, he was appointed substitute governor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Presidency of Vicente Fox\n--Cabinet.\n--Economy.\n----Currency and inflation.\n----Growth.\n----Employment and income.\n----Finance and investments.\n--Human development.\n--Relations with Congress.\n----Investigations.\n--Foreign policy.\n----Relations with the United States.\n------Immigration.\n----Casta\u00f1eda Doctrine.\n----Iraq War.\n----Plan Puebla Panama.\n------2005 Summit at Mar del Plata.\n--Education, science, and technology.\n----Jos\u00e9 Vasconcelos Library.\n--Texcoco and San Salvador Atenco.\n--Institutional image.\n--2006 presidential election.\n--Approval ratings.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Before Vicente Fox, Mexico practiced the Estrada Doctrine, so named after its creator, Genaro Estrada (Secretary of Foreign Affairs during the Presidency of Pascual Ortiz Rubio). The Estrada Doctrine favored an enclosed view of sovereignty. It claimed that foreign governments should not judge, for good or bad, governments or changes in governments in other nations, because it would imply a breach of their sovereignty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In contrast with his predecessors, President Fox chose the members of his cabinet through head hunters. At the beginning of his term, Fox dubbed his Cabinet as \"el gabinetazo\" (\"the Super Cabinet\"), as a way to recognize the capacity of the Cabinet members. Fox had originally stated that the Cabinet chosen at the beginning of his term would last 6 years, throughout his term, however, this did not happen. Felipe Calder\u00f3n Hinojosa served as Secretary of Energy for eight months, and resigned under pressure relating to his Presidential ambitions, when competing against Secretary of the Interior, Santiago Creel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juanacatl\u00e1n",
        "text": "Many people of Jalisco blame former President Vicente Fox's completed project, The El Caj\u00f3n Dam, a hydroelectric dam on the R\u00edo Grande de Santiago in the Mexican state of Nayarit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "As president, he mostly followed the neoliberal economic policies that his predecessors from the PRI had adopted since the late 1980s. The first half of his administration saw a further shift of the federal government to the right, strong relations with the United States and George W. Bush, unsuccessful attempts to apply a value-added tax to medicines and to build an airport in Texcoco, and a major diplomatic conflict with Cuban leader Fidel Castro. The murder of human rights lawyer Digna Ochoa in 2001 called into question the Fox administration's commitment to breaking with the authoritarian past of the PRI era."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In 1991, after serving in the Chamber of Deputies, Fox sought the governorship in Guanajuato, but lost the election to Ram\u00f3n Aguirre Vel\u00e1zquez of the PRI. Following the election, local discontent was so great that the state congress appointed Carlos Medina Plascencia of the PAN as interim governor. Four years later, Fox ran again, this time winning by a vote of 2 to 1. As governor, Fox promoted government efficiency and transparency. He was one of the first state governors of Mexico to give a clear, public and timely account of the finances of his state."
      },
      {
        "title": "Niurka Marcos",
        "text": "She was part of the first group of foreigners naturalized by President Vicente Fox, and has three Mexican-born children: Itzcoatl \"Kiko\", Romina, and Emilio."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Marco Aurelio Garcia, one of Brazilian President Luiz In\u00e1cio Lula da Silva's closest advisers, declared that Fox was too hasty in supporting the FTAA. Garcia declared that Fox's comment that the FTAA would be created with or without the Mercosur angered many. Fox did not applaud after Argentine President Kirchner's presentation, and when Fox attempted to raise the issue of the FTAA, Kirchner retorted that the FTAA was not on the Summit agenda. Fox responded to the press declaring that Kirchner was more concerned with pleasing people in his country than the success of the Summit. Kirchner replied that Fox should attend to the Mexicans because it was the Argentine people who voted for him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Mexico experienced some level of currency devaluation at the end of three of the four presidential terms from 1970 to 1994. Ernesto Zedillo floated the peso at the beginning of his term (1994\u20132000). Zedillo passed the office to Fox without an economic emergency. In 2006, Vicente Fox, like Zedillo in 2000, left office without a significant devaluation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amigos de Fox",
        "text": "Amigos de Fox was the name of the civil organization of support of Vicente Fox as the President of Mexico. This organization was created in 1999 by the late Jos\u00e9 Luis Gonz\u00e1lez Gonz\u00e1lez ( \"El Bigot\u00f3n\", Spanish: \"Big-mustached\"), a businessman friend of Fox, and former employee of Coca-Cola-Mexico, like Fox."
      },
      {
        "title": "XHTVM-TDT",
        "text": "The Mexican government was extremely slow to react. Owing to the timing of the events around the Christmas holiday, neither the RTC (General Directorate of Radio, Television and Film) nor the Secretariat of Communications and Transportation did anything, despite petitions from CNI and Azteca alike for the federal government to take a position on the takeover. On January 6, during a visit to the remodeled press room at Los Pinos, CNI subdirector of news Roberto L\u00f3pez Agust\u00edn approached President Vicente Fox and demanded that he take a stand on the issue. On his way to the presidential plane, other reporters asked questions about the XHTVM situation. Fox, however, merely said, \"\u00bfY yo por qu\u00e9?\" (\"And why me?\"), leading to one of his greatest political blunders in his tenure as president."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luis Echeverr\u00eda",
        "text": "After the defeat of the PRI in the general elections of July 2000, it emerged that Vicente Fox (the president from 2000 to 2006) had met privately with Echeverr\u00eda at the latter's home in Mexico City numerous times during the former's presidential campaign in 1999 and 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Action Party (Mexico)",
        "text": "In the 2000 presidential elections, the candidate of the \"Alianza por el Cambio\" (\"Alliance for Change\"), formed by the PAN and the Ecologist Green Party of Mexico (PVEM), Vicente Fox Quesada won 42.5% of the popular vote and was elected president of Mexico. Fox was the first opposition candidate to defeat the candidate of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) and its precursors after 71 years. It was a significant victory not only for the PAN, but Mexican democracy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Although Fox's victory in the 2000 election and the end of seven decades of PRI rule raised great expectations of change among the Mexican people, his administration was criticized for failing to fulfill those expectations, as little progress was made in fighting corruption, crime, poverty, unemployment and inequality. Few key reforms were implemented during the Fox administration, which became characterised by a growing sense of power vacuum as Fox was increasingly perceived by Mexican society and political actors as a \"lame duck\" incapable of pushing the ambitious reform agenda that swept him into power in 2000. Alejandro Cacho points out that \"Fox incarnated the hope of alternancy [...] and he managed to kick the PRI out of Los Pinos, but his government was a disappointment. Corruption persisted; in fact, his sons-in-law (the Bribiesca-Sahag\u00fan brothers) became rich quickly and without explanation. The economy wasn't much better than it had been under Ernesto Zedillo, the wages didn't increase significantly, neither did jobs. His \"super cabinet\" [\"gabinetazo\", as Fox himself referred to it] created more controversy than it did good results. His wife, Marta Sahag\u00fan, had a big influence in the presidential decisions\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox responded that the FTAA could be created with all of the countries in the Americas with the exception of Venezuela or the countries of the Mercosur."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ram\u00f3n Mu\u00f1oz Guti\u00e9rrez",
        "text": "Mu\u00f1\u00f3z Guti\u00e9rrez studied psychology at the Universidad de Guanajuato and later worked for different companies including Grupo Bimbo. When Vicente Fox became Governor of Guanajuato Mu\u00f1\u00f3z joined Fox's cabinet and became a close advisor, and later, when Fox took the presidential office in 2000 Mu\u00f1\u00f3z was designated a member of the Mexican Executive Cabinet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During the nationally televised presidential debate, Fox's main opponent, Francisco Labastida, claimed that Fox had repeatedly called him a \"sissy\" and a \"cross-dresser\" (\"la vestida\", a pun on his last name). Fox's campaign slogans were \"\u00a1Ya!\" (\"Right now!\"), \"Ya ganamos\" (\"We've already won\"), and \"Vota Alianza por el Cambio\" (\"Vote for Alliance for Change\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Mexico",
        "text": "Emphasizing the need to upgrade infrastructure, modernize the tax system and labor laws, integrate with the U.S. economy, and allow private investment in the energy sector, Vicente Fox Quesada, the candidate of the National Action Party (PAN), was elected the 69th president of Mexico on 2 July 2000, ending PRI's 71-year-long control of the office. Though Fox's victory was due in part to popular discontent with decades of unchallenged PRI hegemony, also, Fox's opponent, president Zedillo, conceded defeat on the night of the election\u2014a first in Mexican history. A further sign of the quickening of Mexican democracy was the fact that PAN failed to win a majority in both chambers of Congress\u2014a situation that prevented Fox from implementing his reform pledges. Nonetheless, the transfer of power in 2000 was quick and peaceful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After leaving office in December 2006, Fox has maintained himself in the public eye by speaking in countries such as Nigeria, Ireland, Canada, and the United States about topics such as the controversial 2006 election and the Iraq War. In Mexico, Fox has been criticized by some for his busy post-presidency since former Mexican presidents are traditionally expected to stay out of the political spotlight. In response, Fox has stated, \"There is no reason to hold to the anti-democratic rules of those who still live in the authoritarian past . . . now that Mexico is a democracy, every citizen has the right to express himself, even a former president.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox joined four other Latin American presidents at the One Young World Summit 2014 in Dublin, Ireland, to discuss the Telef\u00f3nica Millennial Survey. He told those in the audience that eradicating corruption \"has to start with education\" and that his focus is now on promoting leadership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homero Ni\u00f1o de Rivera",
        "text": "He collaborated with Vicente Fox in the presidential campaign, then within his government was Director of Information at the Secretariat of Communications and Transport (2001-2003), Director of Strategic Planning of the Secretariat of the Interior(2004-2005) and Corporate Communication Manager of PEMEX (2005-2006)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "President Fox was the first President to have an institutional image that did not display the complete National Coat of Arms, causing controversy. The use of the \"slashed eagle\" (\"\u00e1guila mocha\", in Spanish), as it was called by critics (the word \"mocha\" having a negative connotation, mocho meaning both chopped and prudish Catholic), was extended to all the dependencies of the Executive Branch substituting the Seal of the United Mexican States (located at the bottom right corner of the Institutional logo) by the acronym of the dependencies. Successor President Felipe Calder\u00f3n returned to using the complete coat of arms. Apart from criticism to showing only part of the Nation's Coat of Arms, some criticized the inclusion of the color blue to the Administration's institutional image (used in one-color depictions of the logo), as said color is associated to Fox's PAN party, and to a presumptive \"F\"-like band in the bottom of the image, which, critics suggested, gave more emphasis to Fox's personal image than to the Institution of the President."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "As seen in the graphic, after taking office the particularly high points of his approval ratings were:\n* August 2002 (58% approval, 39% disapproval, 3% unsure), after Fox accepted to suspend the construction of a new airport in the State of Mexico, which had led to months of protests by local residents who resisted their displacement.\n* May 2003 (57% approval, 37% disapproval, 6% unsure), after Fox announced that Mexico would not support the US invasion of Iraq.\n*Through out 2006, his approval rating in average was 58% and his average disapproval rating was of 37%, as Fox was on his last year as president and the public focus was on the Presidential elections of that year. The popularity enjoyed by Fox during this period, however, didn't seem to largely benefit the Presidential candidate of his party (PAN) Felipe Calder\u00f3n, who was controversially declared winner with only 35.9% of the votes, against Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador of the PRD who officially obtained 35.3% of the votes and claimed that the election had been fraudulent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pemexgate",
        "text": "Vicente Fox was often accused by PRI legislators for witch-hunting based on false accusations. Although many investigations occurred, the lack of prosecutions made people wonder if the government had made a deal with the PRI for leniency. One of the many rumors said that the deal was made to cover the Amigos de Fox case, which involved the president himself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biblioteca Vasconcelos",
        "text": "Then President of Mexico Vicente Fox inaugurated the library on 16 May 2006, and stated that this was one of the most advanced constructions of the 21st century, and that it would be spoken of throughout the world. This inauguration took place a week before the deadline the president had to promote his accomplishments before the 2006 presidential election."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign relations of Mexico",
        "text": "During the first presidency of the National Action Party, Vicente Fox appointed Jorge Casta\u00f1eda to be his Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Casta\u00f1eda immediately broke with the Estrada Doctrine, promoting what was called by critics the \"Casta\u00f1eda Doctrine\". The new foreign policy called for an openness and an acceptance of criticism from the international community, and the increase of Mexican involvement in foreign affairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pemexgate",
        "text": "Vicente Fox, as promised during his presidential campaign, made efforts to clarify past corruptions during his presidency. His first few years in office were high in public profile due to all the news related to allegations of corruption followed by his pledge to pursue it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox's autobiography, entitled \"Revolution of Hope: The Life, Faith and Dreams of a Mexican President\", was released in September 2007. To promote its release, Fox toured many U.S. cities to do book-signings and interviews with U.S. media. During his tour, however, he faced protests from Mexican immigrants who accused him of actions that forced them to emigrate and find jobs in the United States. He faced the subject several times during interviews, such as one held with Fox News's Bill O'Reilly, who questioned him about the massive illegal immigration problem of Mexicans into the United States. Finally, during an interview with Telemundo's Rub\u00e9n Luengas, the interviewer asked Fox about allegations concerning some properties of Vicente Fox's wife, Marta Sahag\u00fan. After Fox explained the situation, he asked the interviewer not to make false accusations and to prove what he was saying. Luengas said, \"I'm telling you in your face, I'm not a liar.\" After this, Fox walked out of the studio, calling the interviewer a \"liar,\" \"vulgar,\" and \"stupid.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "On 7 August 2021, it was reported and confirmed that Vicente Fox and his wife Martha Sahag\u00fan were preventively admitted to a hospital in Le\u00f3n, Guanajuato after being infected with COVID-19 during the pandemic in Mexico, but without serious symptoms.\n* Collar of the Order of the Liberator General San Mart\u00edn (Argentina)\n* Grand Star of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria (Austria, 2005)\n* Grand Cross of the Order of Vytautas the Great (Lithuania, 14 January 2002)\n* Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (United Kingdom)\n* Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (Spain, 8 November 2002)\n* Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim (Sweden, 22 October 2002)\n*History of Mexico\n*List of presidents of Mexico\n*Politics of Mexico\n* Schmidt, Samuel (2000). \"M\u00e9xico encadenado: El legado de Zedillo y los retos de Fox\". M\u00e9xico, D.F.: Colibr\u00ed.\n* Vicente Fox website during his Presidency\n* Vicente Fox Museum and Library\n* Extended bio and presidential tenure, by CIDOB Foundation\n* Vicente Fox Interview on The Hour with George Stroumboulopoulos\n*\n* Miguel Angel Mancera Espinosa"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "GDP growth dropped from an average of 5.1% in the Zedillo administration to the lowest in a decade, an average of 2.2% during Fox's administration. According to Fox's first government report address (equivalent to the state of the union address in the United States), affected sectors were mining (-1.5% growth), manufacturing (-2.28% growth), and construction (-5.36%), while electricity, gas and water (1.76% growth) and services (2.65%) did not decrease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "As seen in the graphic, after taking office the particularly high points of his approval ratings were:\n* August 2002 (58% approval, 39% disapproval, 3% unsure), after Fox suspended the construction of a new airport in the State of Mexico following months of protests by local residents who had resisted their displacement.\n* May 2003 (57% approval, 37% disapproval, 6% unsure), after Fox announced that Mexico would not support the US invasion of Iraq.\n*Throughout 2006, his average approval rating was 58% and his average disapproval rating was 37%, as Fox was in his last year as president and the public focus was on the Presidential elections of that year. The popularity enjoyed by Fox during this period, however, didn't seem to largely benefit the Presidential candidate of his party (PAN) Felipe Calder\u00f3n, who was controversially declared winner with only 35.9% of the votes, against Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador of the PRD who officially obtained 35.3% of the votes and claimed that the election had been fraudulent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexican drug war",
        "text": "In 2000, Vicente Fox, from the right-wing PAN party, became the first Mexican president since the Mexican Revolution not to be from the PRI; his presidency passed with relative peace, having a crime index not too different from that of previous administrations, and Mexican public opinion was mainly optimistic with the regime change, with Mexico showing a decline in homicide rates from 2000 to 2007. One of the Fox's administration's strongest criticisms arose from its management of the peasant unrest in San Salvador Atenco."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During the country's tenure as a rotating member of the UN Security Council, Mexico did not support the U.S-led 2003 invasion of Iraq,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador criticized the \"Casta\u00f1eda Doctrine\", saying that Mexico should not \"get involved in the internal lives of other people, because we do not want other people involved in our internal lives\". Indeed, the new foreign policy doctrine openly invited other nations to scrutinize Mexican affairs, criticizing the Estrada Doctrine as offering an excuse to ignore foreign criticism. Finally, Jos\u00e9 Gal\u00e1n, an editorialist in \"La Jornada\", accused the Fox administration of not doing enough to stop border violence against Mexican nationals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Francisco Gil D\u00edaz",
        "text": "Francisco Gil D\u00edaz (born 2 September 1943 in Mexico City) is a Mexican economist who served as Secretary of Finance in the cabinet of President Vicente Fox and currently serves as regional chairman of Telef\u00f3nica for Mexico and Central America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After the cancellation, 76% of Mexicans polled thought more unrest would follow the president during his term."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flavio Sosa",
        "text": "During the 2000 elections, his organization \"Nueva Izquierda de Oaxaca\" (\"the New Left of Oaxaca\") supported Vicente Fox (now ex-President)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In 2002, Mexico reached a GDP per capita of 9,381 dollars per year and thus became a medium-high income country. Five years later, Mexico upgraded from beneficiary to full contributor to the United Nations Development Program."
      },
      {
        "title": "Francisco Javier Mayorga Casta\u00f1eda",
        "text": "Francisco Javier Mayorga Casta\u00f1eda (born 17 April 1951) is a Mexican businessman and politician who served as Secretary of Agriculture in the cabinet of President Felipe Calder\u00f3n from 7 September 2009 to November 30, 2012. He had previously served in the same post from 28 September 2005 to 30 November 2006 in the administration of President Vicente Fox."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In October 2006, two months before leaving office, Fox declared that the social conflicts of Atenco and Chiapas were solved and that Oaxaca would be solved before his successor took office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gilberto Rinc\u00f3n Gallardo",
        "text": "Then-President Vicente Fox appointed him president of the National Council to Prevent Discrimination \"(Consejo Nacional para Prevenir la Discriminaci\u00f3n, CONAPRED)\" on 11 July 2003. He was confirmed by President Felipe Calder\u00f3n in 2006 and held the position until his death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During Fox's term, the number of registered taxpayers grew by 35%. According to data by the Tributary Administration Service, the main driver behind this increase was salaried workers, starting in 2004, which grew by 217% compared to 2000. The more than 12 million salaried workers who are registered to pay tax constitute 56% of the taxpaying base."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "According to Banco de M\u00e9xico (Mexico's Central Bank), inflation rates during Fox's term went from 11%, in January 2000, at the beginning of his term, to 4.05% in December 2006. During most of Fox's term, inflation was consistently below 6%, mostly around 4.5%. According to the Central Bank, inflation hadn't been that low since before 1973 (the lowest inflation between 1973 and 1999 was above 6%, frequently reaching double and even sometimes triple-digits). Mexico created an estimated 1 million new jobs in 2006, a record."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "While museums are abundant throughout the country, there is nothing comparable to a presidential library where personal documents, records, and gifts amassed by the country's leader are open to the public. Fox's library will be modeled after the Bill Clinton Library in Little Rock, Arkansas, which, according to the former president, will allow Mexicans to enjoy, for the first time in Mexico's history, a library in which to review the documents, images and records that made up his six years as president."
      },
      {
        "title": "Felipe Calder\u00f3n",
        "text": "On 30 November 2006, outgoing President Vicente Fox Quesada and still President-elect Felipe Calder\u00f3n Hinojosa stood side by side on national television as Fox turned over the presidential sash to a cadet, who handed it to Calder\u00f3n. Afterwards, Fox read a short speech indicating that he had concluded his mandate by receiving the flag \"that had accompanied him during the last six years which he had devoted himself completely to the service of Mexico and had the utmost honor of being the president of the republic\". Calder\u00f3n then made a speech to the Mexican public indicating that he would still attend the inauguration ceremony at the Chamber of Deputies. He made a call to unity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox remarried on 2 July 2001, while serving as President of Mexico, to Marta Mar\u00eda Sahag\u00fan Jim\u00e9nez (until then his spokesperson). The wedding date was the first anniversary of his presidential election and his 59th birthday. For both Fox and Sahag\u00fan Jim\u00e9nez, it was their second marriage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "HDI improved in the first three years of the Fox administration 0.206% annually, .62% in total, the lowest increase in almost three decades. During the last year of the Zedillo administration Mexico reached, for the first time in history, a HDI of 0.8 which is considered to represent high development. During that period countries such as Canada, France and Great Britain reported low increases and even some decreases while Cuba surpassed Mexico at 0.817, Costa Rica reached 0.838, Argentina scored 0.863 and Brazil increased 1.17%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jorge Casta\u00f1eda Gutman",
        "text": "Casta\u00f1eda's political career began as a member of the Mexican Communist Party but he has since moved to the political center. He served as an advisor to Cuauht\u00e9moc C\u00e1rdenas during his (failed) presidential campaign in 1988 and advised Vicente Fox during his (successful) presidential campaign in 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Several media pundits and think tanks like COHA judged the \"Casta\u00f1eda Doctrine\" \"overtly submissive\" to the United States. COHA's opinion was based on Mexico's support of Guatemala for a seat in the UN Security council, instead of supporting Venezuela, the contending candidate for the seat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Secretary of Commerce and Industrial Development (Mexico)",
        "text": "When President Vicente Fox took office the name of the SECOFI was changed to Secretariat of Economy (\"Secretar\u00eda de Econom\u00eda\" or \"SE\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In October 2007, an announcement was made in the municipality of Boca del R\u00edo, Veracruz, that a 3-meter (10\u00a0ft) statue of Vicente Fox was to be erected to honor the former president. This aroused criticism from the opposition Party of the Democratic Revolution towards Boca del R\u00edo's mayor, who was affiliated with the same political party (PAN) as Fox."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Quesada",
        "text": "He was born in Copiap\u00f3 in 1812. He attended school at the Instituto Nacional, earning his law degree in 1834. He lived in Copiap\u00f3 in the heyday of mining nearby at Cha\u00f1arcillo and Atacama. For many years, he was an attorney with the old and respected firm of Gallo and Goyenechea, which promoted mining in the province and northern coast. In 1865 he wrote a draft \"Mining Code\" on behalf of the Supreme Government, based in part on Mexico's industrial code. He worked in the press of Copiap\u00f3 and belonged to the Radical Party. He was active in the constitutional revolution of 1859 and belonged to the Copiap\u00f3's radical assembly. On several occasions, he worked in the Municipality of Copiap\u00f3. He died in Copiap\u00f3 in 1877."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The parliamentary groups of the PAN, PRI, PRD and PVEM in the Senate approved a motion to express their disillusionment about the performance of Fox and Derbez, his Secretary of Foreign Affairs, at the Summit"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Tax revenue as a proportion of GDP fell from 10.6% at the beginning of his administration to 9.7% at the end of his term. In contrast with previous administrations, as a proportion of GDP debt did not grow during Fox's term."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After securing the election, Fox received substantial media coverage, as well as numerous congratulatory messages and phone calls from world leaders, including then-President of the United States Bill Clinton. He took office on 1 December 2000, the first time since 1917 that an opposition candidate had taken power from the long-reigning Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)\n:\"See article Fox administration\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Housing was among Fox's top priorities. By 2006, the Infonavit, the federal fund for workers' housing, had 60% \"market share\" in the mortgage business, granting 435,000 credits a year, with an expected yearly growth of 24%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The second half of his administration was marked by his conflict with Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador, then Mexico City's Mayor. The PAN and the Fox administration unsuccessfully attempted to remove L\u00f3pez Obrador from office and to prevent him from participating in the 2006 presidential elections. The Fox administration also became embroiled with diplomatic conflicts with Venezuela and Bolivia after supporting the creation of the Free Trade Area of the Americas, which was opposed by those two countries. His last year in office oversaw the controversial 2006 elections, where the PAN candidate Felipe Calder\u00f3n was declared winner by a very narrow margin over his opponent L\u00f3pez Obrador, who claimed that the elections were rigged and refused to recognize the results, calling for protests across the country. In the same year, the southern state of Oaxaca was the scene of a teacher's strike which culminated into protests and violent clashes asking for the resignation of governor Ulises Ruiz Ortiz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexican presidential expenses controversy",
        "text": "The Mexican presidential expenses controversy, widely dubbed Toallagate (\"towelgate\"), was a political scandal that occurred in Mexico in 2001 involving expenditures on the residence of President Vicente Fox. The affair caused severe embarrassment to the Fox administration and resulted in the resignations of Carlos Rojas, the head of the presidential acquisitions committee, and at least three members of Rojas' staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Desafuero of Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador",
        "text": "The \"desafuero\" process started and gathered momentum during the second half of the Vicente Fox presidency, characterised by a growing sense of power vacuum as Fox was increasingly perceived by Mexican society and political actors as a \"lame duck\" incapable of pushing the ambitious reform agenda that swept him into power in 2000. The Fox presidency was also besieged by cabinet defections and the growing popularity of L\u00f3pez Obrador, who was running significantly ahead of all other likely candidates in all presidential election polls and seemed to be immune to political scandals involving his inner circle.\n* Political and social reactions in favor of the \"desafuero\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "With the support of Manuel Clouthier, Vicente Fox joined the Partido Acci\u00f3n Nacional on 1 March 1988. That same year, he was elected to the federal Chamber of Deputies, representing the Third Federal District in Le\u00f3n, Guanajuato."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the Mexican President have to be born in Mexico?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It is required that to be eligible for the office on must be a natural-born citizen of Mexico able to exercise full citizenship rights, with at least one parent who is a natural-born citizen of Mexico."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has there ever been a Mexican president who only had one natural-born parent?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were some of the business ventures of Vicente Fox Quesada?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "From 1964 to 1979 Fox worked for the Coca-Cola Company in Mexico, rising from delivery truck driver to the President and Chief Executive.",
      "He worked in Coca-Cola as a route supervisor and drove a delivery truck in 1964. After 9 years he rose to the top as President and Chief Executive of Coca-Cola Mexico, after retiring he did various public activities in Guanajuato like an orphanage."
    ],
    "topic": "Vicente Fox",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Vicente Fox:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vicente Fox",
          "Early years",
          "Business career"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 1964, Fox was hired by the Coca-Cola Company as a route supervisor and drove a delivery truck. After nine years, he had risen to the top, serving as the President and Chief Executive of Coca-Cola Mexico; after six years in this role, he was invited to lead all of Coca-Cola's operations in Latin America, but Fox declined and later resigned from Coca-Cola in 1979. It was during the Fox's leadership of Coca-Cola Mexico that Coke became Mexico's top-selling soft drink, increasing Coca-Cola's sales by almost 50%."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Vicente Fox:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vicente Fox",
          "Early years",
          "Business career"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 1964, Fox was hired by the Coca-Cola Company as a route supervisor and drove a delivery truck. After nine years, he had risen to the top, serving as the President and Chief Executive of Coca-Cola Mexico; after six years in this role, he was invited to lead all of Coca-Cola's operations in Latin America, but Fox declined and later resigned from Coca-Cola in 1979. It was during the Fox's leadership of Coca-Cola Mexico that Coke became Mexico's top-selling soft drink, increasing Coca-Cola's sales by almost 50%."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Vicente Fox:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vicente Fox",
          "Early years",
          "Business career"
        ],
        "ctx": "After retiring from Coca-Cola, Fox began to participate in various public activities in Guanajuato, where he created the \"Patronato de la Casa Cuna Amigo Daniel\", an orphanage. He was also the president of the Patronato Loyola, a sponsor of the Le\u00f3n campus of the Universidad Iberoamericana and of the Lux Institute."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox Quesada (; born 2 July 1942) is a Mexican businessman and politician who served as the 62nd President of Mexico from 1 December 2000 to 30 November 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Campaigning as a right-wing populist, Fox ran for and was elected president on the National Action Party (PAN) ticket, becoming the first president not from the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) since 1929. He is currently the co-president of the Centrist Democrat International, an international organization of centre-right political parties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "On 7 July 1997, after the opposition parties first won a majority in the Chamber of Deputies, Vicente Fox decided to run for President of Mexico. In spite of opposition within his political party, Fox secured his candidacy representing the Alliance for Change, a political coalition formed by the National Action Party and the Green Ecological Party of Mexico on 14 November 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "With the support of Manuel Clouthier, Vicente Fox joined the Partido Acci\u00f3n Nacional on 1 March 1988. That same year, he was elected to the federal Chamber of Deputies, representing the Third Federal District in Le\u00f3n, Guanajuato."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After retiring from Coca-Cola, Fox began to participate in various public activities in Guanajuato, where he created the \"Patronato de la Casa Cuna Amigo Daniel\", an orphanage. He was also the president of the Patronato Loyola, a sponsor of the Le\u00f3n campus of the Universidad Iberoamericana and of the Lux Institute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During Fox's term, Mexico actively sought (and gained) a temporary seat on the UN Security Council. However, Luis Ernesto Derbez, Secretary of Foreign Affairs after Casta\u00f1eda, unsuccessfully ran for the position of Secretary General of the Organization of American States, losing to Chilean Jos\u00e9 Miguel Insulza."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jos\u00e9 Vicente de Freitas",
        "text": "As a military man, he did not intend to get involved in politics, but events and his prestige determined that he should, for the positions he eventually held in the political context."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Russell also pointed to 2006 comments by political scientist Soledad Loaeza, who noted, \"The eager candidate became a reluctant president who avoided tough choices and appeared hesitant and unable to hide the weariness caused by the responsibilities and constraints of the office.\" Russell also asserted that Fox \"had little success in fighting crime. Even though he maintained the macroeconomic stability inherited from his predecessor, economic growth barely exceeded the rate of population increase. Similarly, the lack of fiscal reform left tax collection at a rate similar to that of Haiti . . . .\" Finally, Russell noted that \"during Fox's administration, only 1.4\u00a0million formal-sector jobs were created, leading to massive immigration to the United States and an explosive increase in informal employment.\" Ultimately, however, Russell concluded that Fox will be viewed by history as a transitional figure who was able to defeat one of Mexico's long-entrenched political parties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox was elected President of Mexico in the 2000 presidential election, a historically significant election since it made him the first president elected from an opposition party since the election of Francisco I. Madero in 1911. Fox finished in first place with 42 percent of the vote."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "On 2 July 2000, his 58th birthday, Fox won the presidential election with 43% (15,989,636 votes) of the popular vote, followed by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) candidate Francisco Labastida with 36% (13,579,718 votes), and Cuauht\u00e9moc C\u00e1rdenas of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) with 17% (6,256,780 votes). Fox declared victory that same night, a victory that was ratified by then-President Zedillo. After the final results were announced, President-elect Fox addressed thousands of supporters and celebrated his victory with them at the Angel of Independence monument in Mexico City. His opponents conceded the election later that night."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "From then on, relation between the Legislative and the Executive were strained. Lawmakers from opposition parties admitted they had a hard time dealing with Fox, while lawmakers from Fox's party claimed that there were \"legislative excesses\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ram\u00f3n Mart\u00edn Huerta",
        "text": "From 1988 to 1991 he served in the lower house of the Mexican Congress. He was assigned personal secretary of former Governor Carlos Medina Plascencia. When Vicente Fox was elected Governor of Guanajuato he became a cabinet member and later, when Fox resigned in 1999 to run for the presidency, he was appointed substitute governor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In 1991, after serving in the Chamber of Deputies, Fox sought the governorship in Guanajuato, but lost the election to Ram\u00f3n Aguirre Vel\u00e1zquez of the PRI. Following the election, local discontent was so great that the state congress appointed Carlos Medina Plascencia of the PAN as interim governor. Four years later, Fox ran again, this time winning by a vote of 2 to 1. As governor, Fox promoted government efficiency and transparency. He was one of the first state governors of Mexico to give a clear, public and timely account of the finances of his state."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The parliamentary groups of the PAN, PRI, PRD and PVEM in the Senate approved a motion to express their disillusionment about the performance of Fox and Derbez, his Secretary of Foreign Affairs, at the Summit"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox\n--Early years.\n----Business career.\n----Family life.\n--Early political career.\n----Governor of Guanajuato.\n----Campaign for president.\n------Election results.\n--Presidency.\n----Public image.\n------Approval ratings.\n----Legacy and assessment.\n--Post-presidential life.\n----Public speaking and advocacy.\n----Criticism of Donald Trump.\n----Autobiography.\n----Fox Center of Studies, Library and Museum.\n----Centrist Democratic International.\n----Statue controversy.\n----Health.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jos\u00e9 Vicente Cuadra",
        "text": "Vicente Cuadra really didn't enjoy being in the front lines of politics. His brother, \"Jose Joaquin\", was better suited for that. Vicente, himself, preferred working behind the scenes like he did when he helped draft the Constitution of 1858. When his term of office was over, Cuadra retired to spending time with his family, overseeing his businesses, and writing. He didn't get much involved in the politics of the country and would rarely offer \"the opinion of a statesman\" unless it was warranted. The irony is that in 1891, Gen. Jos\u00e9 Santos Zelaya of the Liberal Party, taking advantage of splits within the Conservative party, began an economic and political campaign to ruin all of the Conservatives in the country, targeting the icons such as Vicente Cuadra. The former president's businesses were wiped out, most of his lands were confiscated, and his writings were burned. The final insult was that the 79-year-old Cuadra was imprisoned for a few weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foxilandia",
        "text": "Chapter 14 of Luis Mandoki's \"Who is Mr. L\u00f3pez\" documentary is titled \"Foxilandia\") journalists Miguel \u00c1ngel Granados Chapa, Jaime Avil\u00e9s and professors Denise Dresser (Autonomous Technological Institute of Mexico, ITAM) and Lorenzo Meyer (Colegio de M\u00e9xico, COLMEX) and news anchor Joaqu\u00edn L\u00f3pez-D\u00f3riga contrast Fox's official declarations with reality as well as Fox's campaign promises and its results such as:\n* Economy growing at a 7% rate and creating 1,350,000 jobs, while the economy grew 0.7% from 2001-2003 and unemployment grew 188% Nevertheless, the rise in unemployment can be attributed to the record deficit in the United States.\n* Promise of deep political change but the Undersecretary of Finance during Carlos Salinas's government became Secretary of Finance during Fox's term and the Secretary of Finance during Ernesto Zedillo's government became Governor of the Bank of Mexico.\n* Fox highlighted a change in customs in Mexican politics by saying that in his term the President would not interfere with the electoral process. The documentary shows video-footage of several demonstrations of Fox supporting the candidates of the ruling party and of Alfonso Durazo, his former personal secretary, declaring that no previous President was ever as active campaigning for candidates of his own party as was Fox. However, it is widely known in Mexico that Presidents before Vicente Fox always handpicked their successor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jorge Casta\u00f1eda Gutman",
        "text": "Casta\u00f1eda's political career began as a member of the Mexican Communist Party but he has since moved to the political center. He served as an advisor to Cuauht\u00e9moc C\u00e1rdenas during his (failed) presidential campaign in 1988 and advised Vicente Fox during his (successful) presidential campaign in 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During the nationally televised presidential debate, Fox's main opponent, Francisco Labastida, claimed that Fox had repeatedly called him a \"sissy\" and a \"cross-dresser\" (\"la vestida\", a pun on his last name). Fox's campaign slogans were \"\u00a1Ya!\" (\"Right now!\"), \"Ya ganamos\" (\"We've already won\"), and \"Vota Alianza por el Cambio\" (\"Vote for Alliance for Change\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "He spent a year at Campion High School in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin where he learned English. Upon reaching college age, Fox moved to Mexico City to attend the Universidad Iberoamericana and received a bachelor's degree in business administration in 1964. Then in 1974, Fox received a certificate in management skills from Harvard Business School."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After securing the election, Fox received substantial media coverage, as well as numerous congratulatory messages and phone calls from world leaders, including then-President of the United States Bill Clinton. He took office on 1 December 2000, the first time since 1917 that an opposition candidate had taken power from the long-reigning Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)\n:\"See article Fox administration\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The second half of his administration was marked by his conflict with Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador, then Mexico City's Mayor. The PAN and the Fox administration unsuccessfully attempted to remove L\u00f3pez Obrador from office and to prevent him from participating in the 2006 presidential elections. The Fox administration also became embroiled with diplomatic conflicts with Venezuela and Bolivia after supporting the creation of the Free Trade Area of the Americas, which was opposed by those two countries. His last year in office oversaw the controversial 2006 elections, where the PAN candidate Felipe Calder\u00f3n was declared winner by a very narrow margin over his opponent L\u00f3pez Obrador, who claimed that the elections were rigged and refused to recognize the results, calling for protests across the country. In the same year, the southern state of Oaxaca was the scene of a teacher's strike which culminated into protests and violent clashes asking for the resignation of governor Ulises Ruiz Ortiz."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Action Party (Mexico)",
        "text": "In the 2000 presidential elections, the candidate of the \"Alianza por el Cambio\" (\"Alliance for Change\"), formed by the PAN and the Ecologist Green Party of Mexico (PVEM), Vicente Fox Quesada won 42.5% of the popular vote and was elected president of Mexico. Fox was the first opposition candidate to defeat the candidate of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) and its precursors after 71 years. It was a significant victory not only for the PAN, but Mexican democracy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homero Ni\u00f1o de Rivera",
        "text": "He collaborated with Vicente Fox in the presidential campaign, then within his government was Director of Information at the Secretariat of Communications and Transport (2001-2003), Director of Strategic Planning of the Secretariat of the Interior(2004-2005) and Corporate Communication Manager of PEMEX (2005-2006)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Politics of Mexico",
        "text": "In the 1997 mid-term elections, no party held majority in the Chamber of Deputies, and in 2000 the first opposition party president was sworn in office since 1929. Vicente Fox won the election with 43% of the vote, followed by PRI candidate Francisco Labastida with 36%, and Cuauht\u00e9moc C\u00e1rdenas of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) with 17%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After serving as president of Mexico for six years, Fox returned to his home state of Guanajuato, where he now resides with his wife and family. Since leaving the presidency, Fox has been involved in public speaking and the development of the Vicente Fox Center of Studies, Library and Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Although Fox's victory in the 2000 election and the end of seven decades of PRI rule raised great expectations of change among the Mexican people, his administration was criticized for failing to fulfill those expectations, as little progress was made in fighting corruption, crime, poverty, unemployment and inequality. Few key reforms were implemented during the Fox administration, which became characterised by a growing sense of power vacuum as Fox was increasingly perceived by Mexican society and political actors as a \"lame duck\" incapable of pushing the ambitious reform agenda that swept him into power in 2000. Alejandro Cacho points out that \"Fox incarnated the hope of alternancy [...] and he managed to kick the PRI out of Los Pinos, but his government was a disappointment. Corruption persisted; in fact, his sons-in-law (the Bribiesca-Sahag\u00fan brothers) became rich quickly and without explanation. The economy wasn't much better than it had been under Ernesto Zedillo, the wages didn't increase significantly, neither did jobs. His \"super cabinet\" [\"gabinetazo\", as Fox himself referred to it] created more controversy than it did good results. His wife, Marta Sahag\u00fan, had a big influence in the presidential decisions\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pemexgate",
        "text": "Vicente Fox, as promised during his presidential campaign, made efforts to clarify past corruptions during his presidency. His first few years in office were high in public profile due to all the news related to allegations of corruption followed by his pledge to pursue it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ram\u00f3n Mu\u00f1oz Guti\u00e9rrez",
        "text": "Mu\u00f1\u00f3z Guti\u00e9rrez studied psychology at the Universidad de Guanajuato and later worked for different companies including Grupo Bimbo. When Vicente Fox became Governor of Guanajuato Mu\u00f1\u00f3z joined Fox's cabinet and became a close advisor, and later, when Fox took the presidential office in 2000 Mu\u00f1\u00f3z was designated a member of the Mexican Executive Cabinet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During his campaign for president, Vicente Fox became well known for his cowboy style and quirkiness. As a speaker, Fox usually attracted big crowds in the early years of his presidency. At , Fox easily stood out in most crowds, and is believed to be one of the tallest presidents in Mexico's history. After his inauguration, President Fox usually wore suits for formal occasions, but opted to wear his signature boots and jeans during his many visits around Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pemexgate",
        "text": "Vicente Fox was often accused by PRI legislators for witch-hunting based on false accusations. Although many investigations occurred, the lack of prosecutions made people wonder if the government had made a deal with the PRI for leniency. One of the many rumors said that the deal was made to cover the Amigos de Fox case, which involved the president himself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jos\u00e9 Vicente Concha",
        "text": "During the presidential election of 1914, two candidates were running for office, Nicol\u00e1s Esguerra for the liberal party and Concha for the conservative party. Concha obtained 300,735 votes and Esguerra obtained 36,763."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox also pushed for the consolidation of small firms, promoted the overseas sales of goods manufactured in Guanajuato, and created an extensive system of small loans to allow the poor to open a \"changarro\" (a small shop) and buy a car and a television. Under Fox, Guanajuato became the fifth most important Mexican state economy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luis Echeverr\u00eda",
        "text": "After the defeat of the PRI in the general elections of July 2000, it emerged that Vicente Fox (the president from 2000 to 2006) had met privately with Echeverr\u00eda at the latter's home in Mexico City numerous times during the former's presidential campaign in 1999 and 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Job creation stalled during Fox's first four years. According to the Economist Intelligence Unit not only were no jobs created from 2000-2004 but the number of street vendors increased 40%. This workforce does not pay income or sales tax and significant minority participates in illicit activities such as smuggling and piracy. The latter grew during Fox's term to an 8 billion industry. Net sales of the clothing industry in Mexico is calculated at approximately 1,500 million dollars, of which 910 million are from smuggled clothing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The number of registered workers affiliated to the Mexican Social Security Institute decreased from 11,026,370 in December 2000 to 10,881,160. Unemployment increased from 2.7% in 2002 to 3.2 in 2003, and the number of non-payroll workers increased to 20 million people or roughly half of the population able to work. Jobs in maquiladoras decreased by 30%"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In addition to some debate controversies, Fox also faced some controversy due to \"Amigos de Fox\" (Friends of Fox), a nonprofit fundraising group established by Denise Monta\u00f1o. The group was instrumental in getting Vicente Fox elected President of Mexico, and the phrase \"Amigos de Fox\" was used as a campaign slogan referring to the millions of people supporting Fox in the 2000 presidential election."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jos\u00e9 Carrasco Torrico",
        "text": "He became an important member of the Liberal Party, entering Congress as a Deputy from 1888 to 1889. He held a long public life, being elected Senior Officer of the Ministry of War in 1899, Prefect of the department of Oruro in 1900, Senator between 1904 and 1909, and Deputy in 1910. In 1913, he was elected second vice president during the second administration of Ismael Montes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During Fox's term, the number of registered taxpayers grew by 35%. According to data by the Tributary Administration Service, the main driver behind this increase was salaried workers, starting in 2004, which grew by 217% compared to 2000. The more than 12 million salaried workers who are registered to pay tax constitute 56% of the taxpaying base."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jos\u00e9 Vicente de Freitas",
        "text": "His most active participation in political life began in 1915 - when General Pimenta de Castro was President of the Republic and Manuel de Arriaga was head of government - he was invited to the position of Civil Governor of Funchal between February and May 1915. He would later be elected as a deputy by the Funchal circle through the Governmental Party."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Saadi",
        "text": "Saadi later took part in a famous television debate with Dante Caputo on November 14, 1984, arguing against the Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1984 between Chile and Argentina. In 1987 he swapped jobs with his son, Ram\u00f3n, becoming governor once again whilst his son became a Senator. He remained powerful in the party, and that year, decided that the Justicialist Party would not pay the $8 million ransom demanded for the return of the hands of Juan Per\u00f3n, which had been stolen in June or July of that year. Vicente died in office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flavio Sosa",
        "text": "During the 2000 elections, his organization \"Nueva Izquierda de Oaxaca\" (\"the New Left of Oaxaca\") supported Vicente Fox (now ex-President)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Emilio Sojo",
        "text": "Maestro Sojo also involved himself in domestic politics: he was one of the founders of the Accion Democratica Party (AD) in 1941. In 1958 was elected senator of the Republic by the Miranda state and was re-elected in 1963."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Mexico",
        "text": "Emphasizing the need to upgrade infrastructure, modernize the tax system and labor laws, integrate with the U.S. economy, and allow private investment in the energy sector, Vicente Fox Quesada, the candidate of the National Action Party (PAN), was elected the 69th president of Mexico on 2 July 2000, ending PRI's 71-year-long control of the office. Though Fox's victory was due in part to popular discontent with decades of unchallenged PRI hegemony, also, Fox's opponent, president Zedillo, conceded defeat on the night of the election\u2014a first in Mexican history. A further sign of the quickening of Mexican democracy was the fact that PAN failed to win a majority in both chambers of Congress\u2014a situation that prevented Fox from implementing his reform pledges. Nonetheless, the transfer of power in 2000 was quick and peaceful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox served as President of Mexico from December 1, 2000 to November 30, 2006. His victory in the federal elections in 2000 ended more than 70 years rule of the Institutional Revolutionary Party."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roberto Madrazo",
        "text": "Madrazo accepted the outcome, but his aggressive internal campaign had weakened Labastida's candidacy in the eyes of the electorate, and was seen as a major factor in his defeat by the National Action Party (PAN) candidate Vicente Fox Quesada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "He failed to take charge and provide cabinet leadership, failed to set priorities, and turned a blind eye to alliance building.\" Fox himself asserted in 2001 (one year into his administration) that he much preferred his experience as candidate than actually being president."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In August 2006, \"El Universal\" polled 600 people in Mexico City, where L\u00f3pez Obrador served as Head of Government from 2000 to 2005. 59% believed that the 2006 elections were fraudulent and 63% believed votes should have been recounted. In February 2007, Fox declared about the desafuero process of L\u00f3pez Obrador:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Alliance for Change (Mexico)",
        "text": "With 43.43% of the popular vote in a three-horse race, the Alliance for Change's candidate for the position of President of Mexico, Vicente Fox, was declared the winner of the election, putting an end to 70 years of hegemonic rule by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). Between them, the two parties also won 221 seats in the Chamber of Deputies (of 500) and 51 in the Senate (of 128)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox openly supported Santiago Creel to become the PAN candidate in 2006. When Felipe Calder\u00f3n was chosen, Fox endorsed him. On Chapter 14 of Luis Mandoki's \"Who is Mr. L\u00f3pez?\" documentary titled \"Foxilandia\" Alfonso Durazo, Fox's former personal secretary, declared that no previous President was ever as active campaigning as Fox. After Calder\u00f3n's win, L\u00f3pez Obrador contested the elections. The Electoral Tribunal of the Judicial Power of the Federation declared the election to be clean but highlighted Fox's influence, declaring that it was the greatest irregularity in the election. Alfonsina Bertha Navarro, minister of the Electoral Tribunal, declared:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After leaving office in December 2006, Fox has maintained himself in the public eye by speaking in countries such as Nigeria, Ireland, Canada, and the United States about topics such as the controversial 2006 election and the Iraq War. In Mexico, Fox has been criticized by some for his busy post-presidency since former Mexican presidents are traditionally expected to stay out of the political spotlight. In response, Fox has stated, \"There is no reason to hold to the anti-democratic rules of those who still live in the authoritarian past . . . now that Mexico is a democracy, every citizen has the right to express himself, even a former president.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In October 2006, two months before leaving office, Fox declared that the social conflicts of Atenco and Chiapas were solved and that Oaxaca would be solved before his successor took office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In 1964, Fox was hired by the Coca-Cola Company as a route supervisor and drove a delivery truck. After nine years, he had risen to the top, serving as the President and Chief Executive of Coca-Cola Mexico; after six years in this role, he was invited to lead all of Coca-Cola's operations in Latin America, but Fox declined and later resigned from Coca-Cola in 1979. It was during the Fox's leadership of Coca-Cola Mexico that Coke became Mexico's top-selling soft drink, increasing Coca-Cola's sales by almost 50%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In his inaugural speech, Fox said that his Presidency marked a new era of relations between the three political branches. \"The President will propose, and the Congress will dispose\", he said. This implied that Fox would respect the separation of powers and negotiate with Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hugo Blanco (politician)",
        "text": "He involved himself in school strikes against Manuel A. Odr\u00eda, which the students won. At age 20 he traveled to Buenos Aires and began studying in the university. There he joined a workers' party after he met Argentinian Trotskyists. Without finishing his agronomic studies in Argentina's Universidad de la Plata he became a worker in a factory because he did not want to work for the landowners."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "President Fox appointed Jorge Casta\u00f1eda to be his Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Casta\u00f1eda immediately broke with the Estrada Doctrine, promoting what was called by critics the \"Casta\u00f1eda Doctrine\". The new foreign policy called for an openness and an acceptance of criticism from the international community, and the increase of national involvement in foreign affairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jos\u00e9 Vicente Rangel",
        "text": "Born in Caracas, he returned to Venezuela following the downfall of the dictatorship of Marcos P\u00e9rez Jim\u00e9nez in 1958 and was elected to the Congress that same year, representing the Democratic Republican Union (\"Uni\u00f3n Republicana Democr\u00e1tica,\" URD). In addition to his political activities, he worked as a lawyer and journalist. He also made presidential bids on three occasions: in the 1973 presidential election and 1978 presidential election as candidate of \"MAS \u2013 Movimiento al Socialismo\" (Movement for Socialism), and in the 1983 presidential election as candidate of \"MEP \u2013 Movimiento Electoral del Pueblo\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "As president, he mostly followed the neoliberal economic policies that his predecessors from the PRI had adopted since the late 1980s. The first half of his administration saw a further shift of the federal government to the right, strong relations with the United States and George W. Bush, unsuccessful attempts to apply a value-added tax to medicines and to build an airport in Texcoco, and a major diplomatic conflict with Cuban leader Fidel Castro. The murder of human rights lawyer Digna Ochoa in 2001 called into question the Fox administration's commitment to breaking with the authoritarian past of the PRI era."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Having assumed office with an approval rating of 80%, by the time he left office in 2006 his public image had become exhausted by the controversial presidential elections of that year and the few reforms implemented."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "As seen in the graphic, after taking office the particularly high points of his approval ratings were:\n* August 2002 (58% approval, 39% disapproval, 3% unsure), after Fox accepted to suspend the construction of a new airport in the State of Mexico, which had led to months of protests by local residents who resisted their displacement.\n* May 2003 (57% approval, 37% disapproval, 6% unsure), after Fox announced that Mexico would not support the US invasion of Iraq.\n*Through out 2006, his approval rating in average was 58% and his average disapproval rating was of 37%, as Fox was on his last year as president and the public focus was on the Presidential elections of that year. The popularity enjoyed by Fox during this period, however, didn't seem to largely benefit the Presidential candidate of his party (PAN) Felipe Calder\u00f3n, who was controversially declared winner with only 35.9% of the votes, against Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador of the PRD who officially obtained 35.3% of the votes and claimed that the election had been fraudulent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Presidency of Vicente Fox\n--Cabinet.\n--Economy.\n----Currency and inflation.\n----Growth.\n----Employment and income.\n----Finance and investments.\n--Human development.\n--Relations with Congress.\n----Investigations.\n--Foreign policy.\n----Relations with the United States.\n------Immigration.\n----Casta\u00f1eda Doctrine.\n----Iraq War.\n----Plan Puebla Panama.\n------2005 Summit at Mar del Plata.\n--Education, science, and technology.\n----Jos\u00e9 Vasconcelos Library.\n--Texcoco and San Salvador Atenco.\n--Institutional image.\n--2006 presidential election.\n--Approval ratings.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Gallo",
        "text": "Supported by conservatives since his attempted removal of Governor Vergara, he was the Anti-Personalist UCR candidate for Vice-President, as running mate to Leopoldo Melo, in the 1928 elections. Yrigoyen defeated their ticket in a landslide, however."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexican drug war",
        "text": "In 2000, Vicente Fox, from the right-wing PAN party, became the first Mexican president since the Mexican Revolution not to be from the PRI; his presidency passed with relative peace, having a crime index not too different from that of previous administrations, and Mexican public opinion was mainly optimistic with the regime change, with Mexico showing a decline in homicide rates from 2000 to 2007. One of the Fox's administration's strongest criticisms arose from its management of the peasant unrest in San Salvador Atenco."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jos\u00e9 Luis El\u00edas",
        "text": "His first political participation occurred in the 1995 elections when he was a candidate for Congress under the Fujimorist Cambio 90-New Majority without obtaining representation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juan Vicente Chiarino",
        "text": "On the occasion of the 1982 primaries, Chiarino reappeared on the public stage. Two years later, participate in discussions of the Park Hotel and the Naval Club Pact, turning points in the transition from Civic-military dictatorship of Uruguay to democracy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miguel \u00c1ngel Barberena Vega",
        "text": "In 1970, he occupied a [curule] seat as Senator, representing his home state in the XLIX and XLVIII Legislatures. He joined a partisan task committee, first in 1971, as the officer of the National Confederation of Popular Organizations (CNOP in Spanish) in the State of Nuevo Le\u00f3n, and then as General Delegate to the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI in the State of Baja California Norte."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ernesto Zedillo",
        "text": "The presidential election of 2 July 2000 was a watershed in Mexican history for several reasons. The PRI presidential candidate, Francisco Labastida was not designated by the sitting president (as all former presidential nominees from the PRI had been until that point), but by an open internal primary of the party. Changes in the electoral rules meant that the government did not control voting as it had previously in the Ministry of the Interior. Elections were now the jurisdiction of the Federal Electoral Institute (IFE), with Mexicans having faith that elections would be free and fair. IFE implemented new procedures regarding campaigns and balloting, with rules for finance, guarantee of the secret ballot, and unbiased counting of votes. Also important were some 10,000 Mexican poll watchers and over 850 foreign observers, including ex-president of the U.S., Jimmy Carter. Zapatista leader Subcomandante Marcos declared that the election was a \"dignified and respectable battleground.\" The results of the election were even more historic. For the first time since the founding of Zedillo's party in 1929, an opposition candidate won, a peaceful change from an authoritarian government. Zedillo went on national television when the polls closed, declaring that Vicente Fox had won. In Fox's autobiography he writes, \"There are still those old-guard \"priistas\" who consider Ernesto Zedillo a traitor to his class for his actions on the night of 2 July 2000, as the party boss who betrayed the machine. But in that moment President Zedillo became a true democrat ... In minutes he preempted any possibility of violent resistance from hard-line \"priistas\". It was an act of electoral integrity that will forever mark the mild-mannered economist as a historic figure of Mexico's peaceful transition to democracy.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox spread his image as one of peace and welcomed many to his own ranch in Guanajuato, Mexico. When Fox welcomed U.S. President George W. Bush to the ranch, both presidents were wearing Fox's signature black cowboy boots, prompting \"The Wall Street Journal\" to call it \"The Boot Summit\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In 2003, money-laundering charges were lodged against \"Amigos de Fox\", but were dropped shortly before the July 2003 midterm elections."
      },
      {
        "title": "XHTVM-TDT",
        "text": "The Mexican government was extremely slow to react. Owing to the timing of the events around the Christmas holiday, neither the RTC (General Directorate of Radio, Television and Film) nor the Secretariat of Communications and Transportation did anything, despite petitions from CNI and Azteca alike for the federal government to take a position on the takeover. On January 6, during a visit to the remodeled press room at Los Pinos, CNI subdirector of news Roberto L\u00f3pez Agust\u00edn approached President Vicente Fox and demanded that he take a stand on the issue. On his way to the presidential plane, other reporters asked questions about the XHTVM situation. Fox, however, merely said, \"\u00bfY yo por qu\u00e9?\" (\"And why me?\"), leading to one of his greatest political blunders in his tenure as president."
      },
      {
        "title": "Desafuero of Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador",
        "text": "The \"desafuero\" process started and gathered momentum during the second half of the Vicente Fox presidency, characterised by a growing sense of power vacuum as Fox was increasingly perceived by Mexican society and political actors as a \"lame duck\" incapable of pushing the ambitious reform agenda that swept him into power in 2000. The Fox presidency was also besieged by cabinet defections and the growing popularity of L\u00f3pez Obrador, who was running significantly ahead of all other likely candidates in all presidential election polls and seemed to be immune to political scandals involving his inner circle.\n* Political and social reactions in favor of the \"desafuero\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Gil Cueva Tabardillo",
        "text": "Before getting involved in politics, Cueva Tabardillo worked in agriculture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Gallo",
        "text": "Born in San Miguel de Tucum\u00e1n, Gallo joined the Radical Civic Union (UCR) from its inception, forming part of a group of young people who worked with Hip\u00f3lito Yrigoyen in the mid-1890s to secure universal male suffrage. Following the passage of the S\u00e1enz Pe\u00f1a Law to that effect, he was elected to Congress in 1912 on the UCR ticket, and to the Senate (1919-1923), always representing the city of Buenos Aires."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ram\u00f3n Mart\u00edn Huerta",
        "text": "During the 1980s he joined the PAN and became an active member. He was Director of Guanajuato's Industrials Association; there he met Vicente Fox and introduced him into politics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Francisco Labastida",
        "text": "Francisco Labastida Ochoa (; born 14 August 1942) is a Mexican economist and politician affiliated with the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), who became the first presidential candidate of his party to lose a presidential election, which he did in the 2000 presidential election to Vicente Fox."
      },
      {
        "title": "Francisco R. Almada",
        "text": "At a young age he joined in the antireelectionist movement in opposition to President Porfirio D\u00edaz. Soon he became involved in electoral politics, leading to three terms as president of the municipality of Ch\u00ednipas, all between 1918 and 1920. Three times he was deputy to the state legislature (1922, 1924 and 1928\u201330). Thereafter he served two terms in the federal Chamber of Deputies (1928\u201330 and, after reelection, 1930\u201332). He was a member of the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Malaqu\u00edas Concha",
        "text": "His political participation began in his university years. When he was 22, he installed his law firm and acquired renown and prestige due to his dedication to defend people's causes without financial means. He joined the Radical Party and he separated from it in 1887 to create the Democratic Party. There, he promoted political life democratization through universal suffrage or secular and free education. His followers were workers and artisans who under his protection promoted the social question."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alfonso Durazo",
        "text": "In May 2000 he resigned from the PRI and joined the presidential campaign of Vicente Fox. Fox appointed Durazo as his private secretary after the July 2000 election and also became the presidential spokesman in 2003. Durazo resigned from his positions in 2004 and heavily criticised Fox's administration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pedro Cerisola",
        "text": "Cerisola headed Vicente Fox's campaign for the presidency. In 2000 President Fox designated him Secretary of Communications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Reyes",
        "text": "In 1885, he was elected Senator for Coquimbo for the period 1885\u20131891; and was one of the principal supporters of the presidential bid of Jos\u00e9 Francisco Vergara, who went on to lose the party nomination to Jos\u00e9 Manuel Balmaceda. On June 5, 1889 was elected President of the Senate; position he resigned shortly after and was one of the few senators who refused to sign the \"Act of Destitution\" of President Balmaceda; and did not participate in the 1891 Chilean Civil War. In 1894, President Jorge Montt asked him to head a coalition cabinet, but he refused."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During the course of his campaign, a presidential debate was organized, but the three main contenders (Fox, Francisco Labastida of the PRI, and Cuauht\u00e9moc C\u00e1rdenas of the PRD) disagreed on the details. One notable disagreement, which was broadcast on national television, was whether the presidential debate should be held that same day or on the following Friday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox was expelled from the PAN in 2013, after having endorsed the PRI presidential candidate, Enrique Pe\u00f1a Nieto, in the 2012 elections. In the 2018 election Fox again endorsed the other PRI's candidate, now Jos\u00e9 Antonio Meade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Minimum wages during Fox's administration increased at a nominal rate of 34% from $35.12 pesos per day in 2000 to $47.05 in 2006. However, Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) terms, real wages decreased 3.8%, from $80.27 to $77.07. According to Banco de M\u00e9xico, this compares favorably to previous administrations, for wages had decreased by 75% from $296.22 PPP pesos per day in January 1976, to $73.91 PPP pesos per day in December 1999. Minimum wages had decreased, in real terms, an average of 38% per Presidential administration from 1976 to 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "As seen in the graphic, after taking office the particularly high points of his approval ratings were:\n* August 2002 (58% approval, 39% disapproval, 3% unsure), after Fox suspended the construction of a new airport in the State of Mexico following months of protests by local residents who had resisted their displacement.\n* May 2003 (57% approval, 37% disapproval, 6% unsure), after Fox announced that Mexico would not support the US invasion of Iraq.\n*Throughout 2006, his average approval rating was 58% and his average disapproval rating was 37%, as Fox was in his last year as president and the public focus was on the Presidential elections of that year. The popularity enjoyed by Fox during this period, however, didn't seem to largely benefit the Presidential candidate of his party (PAN) Felipe Calder\u00f3n, who was controversially declared winner with only 35.9% of the votes, against Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador of the PRD who officially obtained 35.3% of the votes and claimed that the election had been fraudulent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Ruiz Monrabal",
        "text": "Ruiz qualified as a lawyer at the University of Valencia. During his time at University he became President of the Rural Catholic Youth group and a member of Young Catholic Action. In the 1960s he became involved with Christian democratic groups helping to found the Democratic Union of the Valencian Country () in 1967 and becoming Secretary General of that group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jos\u00e9 Joaqu\u00edn Trejos Fern\u00e1ndez",
        "text": "Without any political experience he won the presidential election of 1966 as candidate of a \"Unificaci\u00f3n Nacional\" coalition. His victory was a close win over Daniel Oduber Quir\u00f3s, with less than 4000 votes in his favor. Voters elected 26 congressmen from his party and the opposition won 29 seats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Francisco Javier Garc\u00eda Cabeza de Vaca",
        "text": "In the late 1990s, Garc\u00eda joined the PAN and began his political career. He served as a regional coordinator for the 1998 Tamaulipas gubernatorial election, and in 2000, he coordinated the Organizaci\u00f3n Amigos de Fox A.C. Zona Norte de Tamaulipas and was a member of the Consejo Estatal Amigos de Fox, both organizations devoted to the presidential campaign of Vicente Fox. That same year, voters sent him to the LVIII Legislature, where he served as the secretary of the Commission on Population, Borders and Migratory Matters and sat on two work commissions. In 2004, Garc\u00eda became a national councilor for the PAN, a position he would hold until 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elpidio Quirino",
        "text": "Quirino ran for re-election to the presidency with Jos\u00e9 Yulo as vice president in 1953 despite his ill health. His Secretary of National Defense, Ramon F. Magsaysay, resigned from office and joined the Nacionalista Party. Other prominent Liberals including Vice President Fernando L\u00f3pez, Ambassador Carlos P. Romulo and Senators Tom\u00e1s Cabili and Juan Sumulong also bolted Quirino's party."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Tax revenue as a proportion of GDP fell from 10.6% at the beginning of his administration to 9.7% at the end of his term. In contrast with previous administrations, as a proportion of GDP debt did not grow during Fox's term."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "This is in spite of the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre. Jorge Monta\u00f1o, a former Mexican ambassador to the United States considered Fox was \"naive\" to think farmers would easily give up their lands and that his government should have taken more time negotiating with the farmers instead of simply sending out engineers to measure runways and calculate flight paths. Monta\u00f1o also declared that the compensation these farmers were offered were the minimum allowed under the law (3,000 pesos an acre, roughly 275 US dollars) before raising the offer to 21,000 pesos an acre (1,900 US dollars)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carlos Lleras Restrepo",
        "text": "Lleras became involved in politics at an early age. In 1929, he was elected by the liberal party as delegate to the National Convention of Apulo. By age 21 he was a member in the national committee of the Colombian Liberal Party. Lleras was elected to the state senate of Cundinamarca, and later MP as congressman in the House of Representatives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "On 12 January 2007, over a month after he left office, Fox announced the construction of a center of studies, library and museum that was labeled by the U.S. press as Mexico's first presidential library. The project will be a library, museum, a center for the advancement of democracy, a study center and a hotel, and it will be completely privately funded. It is expected to be a genuine U.S.-style presidential library. It will be built in Fox's home state of Guanajuato, in his home town of San Francisco del Rinc\u00f3n."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fernando Nobre",
        "text": "Since then, he has not had involvement in politics except for some political commentaries in television."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "On 20 September 2007, Fox was elected co-president of the Centrist Democratic International (along with the re-elected Pier Ferdinando Casini) at its leaders' meeting in Rome. The CDI is the international organization of political parties that counts Fox's party, the National Action Party, as a member."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Aguilar Cubero",
        "text": "During his political career he has several positions, among them Magistrate of the Supreme Court of Justice, Vice-president of the Republic and President of the Congress (September\u2013October 1856), Minister of Property, War, and the Navy (1859\u20131860), Second in designation to the Presidency (1860\u20131861) and then Secretary of Property, War and the Navy (1860\u20131861)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Ruiz Monrabal",
        "text": "He headed the party list in Valencia Province at the 1977 General Election but was unsuccessful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Felipe Calder\u00f3n",
        "text": "Soon after Vicente Fox took office as president, Calder\u00f3n was appointed director of Banobras, a state-owned development bank. He was accused by political opponents of committing abuse, disputing use of certain legal procedures to finance property valued between three and five million Mexican pesos (between US$300,000 and $500,000); however, once political objections arose, he used other means to formalize his transaction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chiapas conflict",
        "text": "On 2 July 2000, the first non-PRI president was elected, Vicente Fox, ending the PRI's 71 year grip on the office. His campaign focused on increasing economic growth and ending government corruption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juan Serrano Oteiza",
        "text": "He began his political involvement with the Federal Democratic Republican Party. Later, he joined \"Fomento de las Artes\", a center for popular education, becoming its First Secretary and one of its most influential members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox blamed the Atenco group, led by Ignacio Valle, for the incident and ordered his arrest calling the group an \"insult to society\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the Mexican President have to be born in Mexico?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It is required that to be eligible for the office on must be a natural-born citizen of Mexico able to exercise full citizenship rights, with at least one parent who is a natural-born citizen of Mexico."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has there ever been a Mexican president who only had one natural-born parent?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were some of the business ventures of Vicente Fox Quesada?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "He worked in Coca-Cola as a route supervisor and drove a delivery truck in 1964. After 9 years he rose to the top as President and Chief Executive of Coca-Cola Mexico, after retiring he did various public activities in Guanajuato like an orphanage."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did Vicente Fox Quesada become involved in politics?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "His political career began in 1988 after joining the Partido Accion Nacional with the support of Manuel Clouthier.",
      "He joined the  Partido Acci\u00f3n Nacional on March 1, 1988, and was elected to the federal Chamber of Deputies that same year. He ran for governor of Guanajuato in 1991 but lost, four years later he ran again and won by a vote of 2 to 1."
    ],
    "topic": "Vicente Fox",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Vicente Fox:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vicente Fox",
          "Early political career"
        ],
        "ctx": "With the support of Manuel Clouthier, Vicente Fox joined the Partido Acci\u00f3n Nacional on 1 March 1988. That same year, he was elected to the federal Chamber of Deputies, representing the Third Federal District in Le\u00f3n, Guanajuato."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Vicente Fox:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vicente Fox",
          "Early political career"
        ],
        "ctx": "With the support of Manuel Clouthier, Vicente Fox joined the Partido Acci\u00f3n Nacional on 1 March 1988. That same year, he was elected to the federal Chamber of Deputies, representing the Third Federal District in Le\u00f3n, Guanajuato."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Vicente Fox:18",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vicente Fox",
          "Early political career",
          "Governor of Guanajuato"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 1991, after serving in the Chamber of Deputies, Fox sought the governorship in Guanajuato, but lost the election to Ram\u00f3n Aguirre Vel\u00e1zquez of the PRI. Following the election, local discontent was so great that the state congress appointed Carlos Medina Plascencia of the PAN as interim governor. Four years later, Fox ran again, this time winning by a vote of 2 to 1. As governor, Fox promoted government efficiency and transparency. He was one of the first state governors of Mexico to give a clear, public and timely account of the finances of his state."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox Quesada (; born 2 July 1942) is a Mexican businessman and politician who served as the 62nd President of Mexico from 1 December 2000 to 30 November 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox\n--Early years.\n----Business career.\n----Family life.\n--Early political career.\n----Governor of Guanajuato.\n----Campaign for president.\n------Election results.\n--Presidency.\n----Public image.\n------Approval ratings.\n----Legacy and assessment.\n--Post-presidential life.\n----Public speaking and advocacy.\n----Criticism of Donald Trump.\n----Autobiography.\n----Fox Center of Studies, Library and Museum.\n----Centrist Democratic International.\n----Statue controversy.\n----Health.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In an interview with Univision's Jorge Ramos in February 2016, Fox responded to then-candidate Trump's proposal to build a wall at the border between the United States and Mexico at Mexico's expense, declaring in English, \"I am not going to pay for that fucking wall. He should pay for it. He's got the money.\" Fox went on to call Trump a \"crazy guy\" and a \"false prophet,\" and questioned the claim that Trump received 44% of the Hispanic vote in the Republican caucus in Nevada. Trump took to Twitter in response, demanding that Fox apologize for using \"the F word while discussing the wall.\" Fox eventually apologized for the remark, while also asking for Trump to apologize for his remarks about Mexicans and inviting Trump to visit Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox has been an outspoken critic of U.S. President Donald Trump, beginning with Trump's bid for the Republican candidacy in the 2016 presidential election."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Campaigning as a right-wing populist, Fox ran for and was elected president on the National Action Party (PAN) ticket, becoming the first president not from the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) since 1929. He is currently the co-president of the Centrist Democrat International, an international organization of centre-right political parties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Despite his apology, Fox continued to criticize Trump to the international media and troll Trump on Twitter, stating, \"I'm committed to be Donald Trump's shadow until he is done with politics.\" Fox would later go on to congratulate President-elect Joe Biden and his victory in the 2020 United States presidential election, defeating Trump. When Trump visited Mexico on 31 August 2016 upon President Enrique Pe\u00f1a Nieto's invitation, Fox slammed the visit, calling it a \"desperate move\" on the part of Pe\u00f1a Nieto and stating, \"He is not welcome in Mexico. We don't like him. We don't want him. We reject his visit.\" Trump responded by pointing out Fox's previous invitation, to which Fox clarified that he invited Trump to Mexico on the condition that he used the visit to apologize to the Mexican people. He directly addressed the American people the next day on CNN, where he described Trump as a \"false prophet\" who is \"absolutely crazy\" and warned that they need to \"wake up\" and realize the harm that Trump's immigration and economic policies would inflict on the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During Fox's term, Mexico actively sought (and gained) a temporary seat on the UN Security Council. However, Luis Ernesto Derbez, Secretary of Foreign Affairs after Casta\u00f1eda, unsuccessfully ran for the position of Secretary General of the Organization of American States, losing to Chilean Jos\u00e9 Miguel Insulza."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Several media pundits and think tanks like COHA judged the \"Casta\u00f1eda Doctrine\" \"overtly submissive\" to the United States. COHA's opinion was based on Mexico's support of Guatemala for a seat in the UN Security council, instead of supporting Venezuela, the contending candidate for the seat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During a September 2016 appearance on the radio show \"El Show de Piol\u00edn\", Fox smashed a Trump pi\u00f1ata hanging on the streets of Los Angeles while loudly singing the traditional Pi\u00f1ata song. Upon breaking it open, Fox noted its lack of contents and remarked, \"Empty. Totally Empty. He doesn't have any brains.\" Discussing the event during a subsequent interview with \"GQ\", Fox expanded, \"I had such a joy in my heart by doing that, because in Mexico, pi\u00f1atas are very meaningful. Pi\u00f1atas are a celebration. Pi\u00f1atas let you send messages. And the message is: Trump is empty inside. He's empty in his head. That's why I put my hand into his head. There was no brain there. That's what he is, an empty person.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox spread his image as one of peace and welcomed many to his own ranch in Guanajuato, Mexico. When Fox welcomed U.S. President George W. Bush to the ranch, both presidents were wearing Fox's signature black cowboy boots, prompting \"The Wall Street Journal\" to call it \"The Boot Summit\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In August 2006, \"El Universal\" polled 600 people in Mexico City, where L\u00f3pez Obrador served as Head of Government from 2000 to 2005. 59% believed that the 2006 elections were fraudulent and 63% believed votes should have been recounted. In February 2007, Fox declared about the desafuero process of L\u00f3pez Obrador:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "On 2 July 2000, his 58th birthday, Fox won the presidential election with 43% (15,989,636 votes) of the popular vote, followed by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) candidate Francisco Labastida with 36% (13,579,718 votes), and Cuauht\u00e9moc C\u00e1rdenas of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) with 17% (6,256,780 votes). Fox declared victory that same night, a victory that was ratified by then-President Zedillo. After the final results were announced, President-elect Fox addressed thousands of supporters and celebrated his victory with them at the Angel of Independence monument in Mexico City. His opponents conceded the election later that night."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox has continued criticizing Trump on Twitter after the election. In a series of tweets in January 2017, Fox again criticized Trump's proposed Mexican border wall, calling it a \"racist monument\" and insisted that Mexico will never fund it, calling on Trump to \"be honest with US taxpayers\" about that fact. Following the release of a U.S. government intelligence report that accused Russia of interfering in the 2016 election to ensure Trump's victory, Fox tweeted, \"Sr Trump, the intelligence report is devastating. Losing election by more than 3M votes and in addition this. Are you a legitimate president?\" Fox further criticized Trump's response to the intelligence report, calling him a \"bully\" and a \"bluff\" and stating that Trump is \"bringing in a new era of dictatorship.\" Though on 12 January, Fox broke with his criticism of Trump and simply tweeted, \"America Will Survive.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In July 2017, Fox was an international observer to the unofficial Venezuelan referendum held by the opposition. During the trip, Fox gave a speech that compared the referendum to the 2000 Mexican elections. He said that \"this battle has been won\" and \"step by step, vote by vote, the dictator will leave.\" He was subsequently declared a persona non grata by the Venezuelan government. Venezuelan Foreign Minister Samuel Moncada said that Fox had taken advantage of the country's hospitality and \"was paid to come to Venezuela to promote violence and the intervention of foreign powers.\" Moncado said the ban came from Maduro and criticized Fox and the other former Latin American leaders invited as observers (Andr\u00e9s Pastrana, Jorge Quiroga, Laura Chinchilla and Miguel \u00c1ngel Rodr\u00edguez) as \"political sicarios,\" \"clowns\" and \"mercenaries\" that \"sell themselves to the highest bidder to go to various destinations and repeat what they are told.\" Fox said he was not surprised by the ban and that the vote would weaken Maduro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Having assumed office with an approval rating of 80%, by the time he left office in 2006 his public image had become exhausted by the controversial presidential elections of that year and the few reforms implemented."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ram\u00f3n Mart\u00edn Huerta",
        "text": "From 1988 to 1991 he served in the lower house of the Mexican Congress. He was assigned personal secretary of former Governor Carlos Medina Plascencia. When Vicente Fox was elected Governor of Guanajuato he became a cabinet member and later, when Fox resigned in 1999 to run for the presidency, he was appointed substitute governor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador",
        "text": "In 2018, the Mexican publication \"Aristegui Noticias\" criticized Vicente Fox for what it characterized as \"extreme\" verbal insults on Twitter towards L\u00f3pez Obrador's crackdown on institutional corruption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "As seen in the graphic, after taking office the particularly high points of his approval ratings were:\n* August 2002 (58% approval, 39% disapproval, 3% unsure), after Fox accepted to suspend the construction of a new airport in the State of Mexico, which had led to months of protests by local residents who resisted their displacement.\n* May 2003 (57% approval, 37% disapproval, 6% unsure), after Fox announced that Mexico would not support the US invasion of Iraq.\n*Through out 2006, his approval rating in average was 58% and his average disapproval rating was of 37%, as Fox was on his last year as president and the public focus was on the Presidential elections of that year. The popularity enjoyed by Fox during this period, however, didn't seem to largely benefit the Presidential candidate of his party (PAN) Felipe Calder\u00f3n, who was controversially declared winner with only 35.9% of the votes, against Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador of the PRD who officially obtained 35.3% of the votes and claimed that the election had been fraudulent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Russell also pointed to 2006 comments by political scientist Soledad Loaeza, who noted, \"The eager candidate became a reluctant president who avoided tough choices and appeared hesitant and unable to hide the weariness caused by the responsibilities and constraints of the office.\" Russell also asserted that Fox \"had little success in fighting crime. Even though he maintained the macroeconomic stability inherited from his predecessor, economic growth barely exceeded the rate of population increase. Similarly, the lack of fiscal reform left tax collection at a rate similar to that of Haiti . . . .\" Finally, Russell noted that \"during Fox's administration, only 1.4\u00a0million formal-sector jobs were created, leading to massive immigration to the United States and an explosive increase in informal employment.\" Ultimately, however, Russell concluded that Fox will be viewed by history as a transitional figure who was able to defeat one of Mexico's long-entrenched political parties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flavio Sosa",
        "text": "During the 2000 elections, his organization \"Nueva Izquierda de Oaxaca\" (\"the New Left of Oaxaca\") supported Vicente Fox (now ex-President)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "As seen in the graphic, after taking office the particularly high points of his approval ratings were:\n* August 2002 (58% approval, 39% disapproval, 3% unsure), after Fox suspended the construction of a new airport in the State of Mexico following months of protests by local residents who had resisted their displacement.\n* May 2003 (57% approval, 37% disapproval, 6% unsure), after Fox announced that Mexico would not support the US invasion of Iraq.\n*Throughout 2006, his average approval rating was 58% and his average disapproval rating was 37%, as Fox was in his last year as president and the public focus was on the Presidential elections of that year. The popularity enjoyed by Fox during this period, however, didn't seem to largely benefit the Presidential candidate of his party (PAN) Felipe Calder\u00f3n, who was controversially declared winner with only 35.9% of the votes, against Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador of the PRD who officially obtained 35.3% of the votes and claimed that the election had been fraudulent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "While the lowest points of his approval ratings were:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After leaving office in December 2006, Fox has maintained himself in the public eye by speaking in countries such as Nigeria, Ireland, Canada, and the United States about topics such as the controversial 2006 election and the Iraq War. In Mexico, Fox has been criticized by some for his busy post-presidency since former Mexican presidents are traditionally expected to stay out of the political spotlight. In response, Fox has stated, \"There is no reason to hold to the anti-democratic rules of those who still live in the authoritarian past . . . now that Mexico is a democracy, every citizen has the right to express himself, even a former president.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Since May 2017, Fox has appeared in a series of humorous videos seriously denouncing Donald Trump, including \"Vicente Fox is Running for President of the United States\" (fake announcement for the candidacy) which was released in September."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The number of registered workers affiliated to the Mexican Social Security Institute decreased from 11,026,370 in December 2000 to 10,881,160. Unemployment increased from 2.7% in 2002 to 3.2 in 2003, and the number of non-payroll workers increased to 20 million people or roughly half of the population able to work. Jobs in maquiladoras decreased by 30%"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After the cancellation, 76% of Mexicans polled thought more unrest would follow the president during his term."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "President Fox appointed Jorge Casta\u00f1eda to be his Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Casta\u00f1eda immediately broke with the Estrada Doctrine, promoting what was called by critics the \"Casta\u00f1eda Doctrine\". The new foreign policy called for an openness and an acceptance of criticism from the international community, and the increase of national involvement in foreign affairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox blamed the Atenco group, led by Ignacio Valle, for the incident and ordered his arrest calling the group an \"insult to society\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In October 2006, two months before leaving office, Fox declared that the social conflicts of Atenco and Chiapas were solved and that Oaxaca would be solved before his successor took office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "With the support of Manuel Clouthier, Vicente Fox joined the Partido Acci\u00f3n Nacional on 1 March 1988. That same year, he was elected to the federal Chamber of Deputies, representing the Third Federal District in Le\u00f3n, Guanajuato."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The parliamentary groups of the PAN, PRI, PRD and PVEM in the Senate approved a motion to express their disillusionment about the performance of Fox and Derbez, his Secretary of Foreign Affairs, at the Summit"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox was elected President of Mexico in the 2000 presidential election, a historically significant election since it made him the first president elected from an opposition party since the election of Francisco I. Madero in 1911. Fox finished in first place with 42 percent of the vote."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During the nationally televised presidential debate, Fox's main opponent, Francisco Labastida, claimed that Fox had repeatedly called him a \"sissy\" and a \"cross-dresser\" (\"la vestida\", a pun on his last name). Fox's campaign slogans were \"\u00a1Ya!\" (\"Right now!\"), \"Ya ganamos\" (\"We've already won\"), and \"Vota Alianza por el Cambio\" (\"Vote for Alliance for Change\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In 1991, after serving in the Chamber of Deputies, Fox sought the governorship in Guanajuato, but lost the election to Ram\u00f3n Aguirre Vel\u00e1zquez of the PRI. Following the election, local discontent was so great that the state congress appointed Carlos Medina Plascencia of the PAN as interim governor. Four years later, Fox ran again, this time winning by a vote of 2 to 1. As governor, Fox promoted government efficiency and transparency. He was one of the first state governors of Mexico to give a clear, public and timely account of the finances of his state."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During Fox's presidency the net migration rate in Mexico increased 152% from -2.84 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants to -4.32; in the same period, population growth decreased 35% from 1.57% to 1.16%. Fox, who was said to be \"proud\" of Mexican immigrants in the U.S. has acknowledged the importance of remittances by both legal and illegal Mexican workers in the U.S. (now the #1 source of revenue for the country)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Super Deluxe",
        "text": "In 2017, Vicente Fox, the former President of Mexico, appeared in a series of videos on the channel. In these videos, Fox criticized Trump on a variety of issues including his proposal to build a wall between America and Mexico and his Cinco de Mayo taco bowl tweet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The day after Trump won the election, Fox wrote an editorial on the \"International Business Times\" website where he lamented Trump's victory and explored what Mexico could do in response. \"Even though Trump is not the prettiest person in the room, we still have to dance with him. Now, we ought to look out for ourselves and find a way to work with the most powerful economy in the world, which is now led by an authoritarian racist[...]Donald Trump's promises have an expiration date. When the time comes to truly deliver to the American people, his \"billion dollar show\" will finally crumble beneath his feet,\" Fox wrote, concluding his editorial with, \"I find quite sad that America, formerly the most open and cutting edge nation, has chosen to lock itself down inside concrete walls. It's tragic that fear, anger and wrath took over and pierced the hearts of their people. It will be hard to recover from this wound; but we better start working to heal as quickly as possible \u2013 and bring down the walls that blinded us in the beginning.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Tax revenue as a proportion of GDP fell from 10.6% at the beginning of his administration to 9.7% at the end of his term. In contrast with previous administrations, as a proportion of GDP debt did not grow during Fox's term."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After serving as president of Mexico for six years, Fox returned to his home state of Guanajuato, where he now resides with his wife and family. Since leaving the presidency, Fox has been involved in public speaking and the development of the Vicente Fox Center of Studies, Library and Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hugo L\u00f3pez-Gatell Ram\u00edrez",
        "text": "While many Mexicans reacted with sympathy to L\u00f3pez-Gatell's announcement in February 2021 that he had tested positive for COVID-19, , a gubernatorial candidate in Nuevo Leon, called for him to resign, and former president Vicente Fox criticized him on social media."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "On 7 July 1997, after the opposition parties first won a majority in the Chamber of Deputies, Vicente Fox decided to run for President of Mexico. In spite of opposition within his political party, Fox secured his candidacy representing the Alliance for Change, a political coalition formed by the National Action Party and the Green Ecological Party of Mexico on 14 November 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Marco Aurelio Garcia, one of Brazilian President Luiz In\u00e1cio Lula da Silva's closest advisers, declared that Fox was too hasty in supporting the FTAA. Garcia declared that Fox's comment that the FTAA would be created with or without the Mercosur angered many. Fox did not applaud after Argentine President Kirchner's presentation, and when Fox attempted to raise the issue of the FTAA, Kirchner retorted that the FTAA was not on the Summit agenda. Fox responded to the press declaring that Kirchner was more concerned with pleasing people in his country than the success of the Summit. Kirchner replied that Fox should attend to the Mexicans because it was the Argentine people who voted for him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Minimum wages during Fox's administration increased at a nominal rate of 34% from $35.12 pesos per day in 2000 to $47.05 in 2006. However, Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) terms, real wages decreased 3.8%, from $80.27 to $77.07. According to Banco de M\u00e9xico, this compares favorably to previous administrations, for wages had decreased by 75% from $296.22 PPP pesos per day in January 1976, to $73.91 PPP pesos per day in December 1999. Minimum wages had decreased, in real terms, an average of 38% per Presidential administration from 1976 to 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During the Calder\u00f3n administration restoration efforts cost another 32 million pesos (roughly 3 million dollars)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Foxilandia",
        "text": "Chapter 14 of Luis Mandoki's \"Who is Mr. L\u00f3pez\" documentary is titled \"Foxilandia\") journalists Miguel \u00c1ngel Granados Chapa, Jaime Avil\u00e9s and professors Denise Dresser (Autonomous Technological Institute of Mexico, ITAM) and Lorenzo Meyer (Colegio de M\u00e9xico, COLMEX) and news anchor Joaqu\u00edn L\u00f3pez-D\u00f3riga contrast Fox's official declarations with reality as well as Fox's campaign promises and its results such as:\n* Economy growing at a 7% rate and creating 1,350,000 jobs, while the economy grew 0.7% from 2001-2003 and unemployment grew 188% Nevertheless, the rise in unemployment can be attributed to the record deficit in the United States.\n* Promise of deep political change but the Undersecretary of Finance during Carlos Salinas's government became Secretary of Finance during Fox's term and the Secretary of Finance during Ernesto Zedillo's government became Governor of the Bank of Mexico.\n* Fox highlighted a change in customs in Mexican politics by saying that in his term the President would not interfere with the electoral process. The documentary shows video-footage of several demonstrations of Fox supporting the candidates of the ruling party and of Alfonso Durazo, his former personal secretary, declaring that no previous President was ever as active campaigning for candidates of his own party as was Fox. However, it is widely known in Mexico that Presidents before Vicente Fox always handpicked their successor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "As Fox frequently uses Twitter (in English) to respond to tweets by President Trump, he has attracted more than 1\u00a0million followers on his Twitter account."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "He failed to take charge and provide cabinet leadership, failed to set priorities, and turned a blind eye to alliance building.\" Fox himself asserted in 2001 (one year into his administration) that he much preferred his experience as candidate than actually being president."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador criticized the \"Casta\u00f1eda Doctrine\", saying that Mexico should not \"get involved in the internal lives of other people, because we do not want other people involved in our internal lives\". Indeed, the new foreign policy doctrine openly invited other nations to scrutinize Mexican affairs, criticizing the Estrada Doctrine as offering an excuse to ignore foreign criticism. Finally, Jos\u00e9 Gal\u00e1n, an editorialist in \"La Jornada\", accused the Fox administration of not doing enough to stop border violence against Mexican nationals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "This is in spite of the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre. Jorge Monta\u00f1o, a former Mexican ambassador to the United States considered Fox was \"naive\" to think farmers would easily give up their lands and that his government should have taken more time negotiating with the farmers instead of simply sending out engineers to measure runways and calculate flight paths. Monta\u00f1o also declared that the compensation these farmers were offered were the minimum allowed under the law (3,000 pesos an acre, roughly 275 US dollars) before raising the offer to 21,000 pesos an acre (1,900 US dollars)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Later in September 2016, \"The Washington Post\" reported that Fox had received multiple emails from Trump's campaign soliciting donations throughout the month. Fox received the first email on 9 September, which he posted on Twitter and responded, \"Donald Trump, I won't pay for that fucking wall! Also, campaigning in Mexico? Running out of money and friends?\" Fox received two additional emails on 24 and 27 September, both of which he also posted on Twitter and mocked as being \"desperate\" and \"begging.\" The revelation of the emails has raised concern, as accepting campaign donations from foreign nationals is illegal in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In contrast with his predecessors, President Fox chose the members of his cabinet through head hunters. At the beginning of his term, Fox dubbed his Cabinet as \"el gabinetazo\" (\"the Super Cabinet\"), as a way to recognize the capacity of the Cabinet members. Fox had originally stated that the Cabinet chosen at the beginning of his term would last 6 years, throughout his term, however, this did not happen. Felipe Calder\u00f3n Hinojosa served as Secretary of Energy for eight months, and resigned under pressure relating to his Presidential ambitions, when competing against Secretary of the Interior, Santiago Creel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Upon his arrival Hugo Ch\u00e1vez, president of Venezuela, declared:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "On 7 August 2021, it was reported and confirmed that Vicente Fox and his wife Martha Sahag\u00fan were preventively admitted to a hospital in Le\u00f3n, Guanajuato after being infected with COVID-19 during the pandemic in Mexico, but without serious symptoms.\n* Collar of the Order of the Liberator General San Mart\u00edn (Argentina)\n* Grand Star of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria (Austria, 2005)\n* Grand Cross of the Order of Vytautas the Great (Lithuania, 14 January 2002)\n* Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (United Kingdom)\n* Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (Spain, 8 November 2002)\n* Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim (Sweden, 22 October 2002)\n*History of Mexico\n*List of presidents of Mexico\n*Politics of Mexico\n* Schmidt, Samuel (2000). \"M\u00e9xico encadenado: El legado de Zedillo y los retos de Fox\". M\u00e9xico, D.F.: Colibr\u00ed.\n* Vicente Fox website during his Presidency\n* Vicente Fox Museum and Library\n* Extended bio and presidential tenure, by CIDOB Foundation\n* Vicente Fox Interview on The Hour with George Stroumboulopoulos\n*\n* Miguel Angel Mancera Espinosa"
      },
      {
        "title": "Roberto Madrazo",
        "text": "Madrazo accepted the outcome, but his aggressive internal campaign had weakened Labastida's candidacy in the eyes of the electorate, and was seen as a major factor in his defeat by the National Action Party (PAN) candidate Vicente Fox Quesada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "GDP growth dropped from an average of 5.1% in the Zedillo administration to the lowest in a decade, an average of 2.2% during Fox's administration. According to Fox's first government report address (equivalent to the state of the union address in the United States), affected sectors were mining (-1.5% growth), manufacturing (-2.28% growth), and construction (-5.36%), while electricity, gas and water (1.76% growth) and services (2.65%) did not decrease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In October 2007, an announcement was made in the municipality of Boca del R\u00edo, Veracruz, that a 3-meter (10\u00a0ft) statue of Vicente Fox was to be erected to honor the former president. This aroused criticism from the opposition Party of the Democratic Revolution towards Boca del R\u00edo's mayor, who was affiliated with the same political party (PAN) as Fox."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The Jos\u00e9 Vasconcelos Library, labeled by the press as the \"Megabiblioteca\" (\"megalibrary\"), was Fox's largest investment in infrastructure. The library is spread on and had an initial planned cost of 954 million pesos (roughly 98 million dollars)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "On 12 January 2007, over a month after he left office, Fox announced the construction of a center of studies, library and museum that was labeled by the U.S. press as Mexico's first presidential library. The project will be a library, museum, a center for the advancement of democracy, a study center and a hotel, and it will be completely privately funded. It is expected to be a genuine U.S.-style presidential library. It will be built in Fox's home state of Guanajuato, in his home town of San Francisco del Rinc\u00f3n."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During Fox's term, the number of registered taxpayers grew by 35%. According to data by the Tributary Administration Service, the main driver behind this increase was salaried workers, starting in 2004, which grew by 217% compared to 2000. The more than 12 million salaried workers who are registered to pay tax constitute 56% of the taxpaying base."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In a national survey conducted in 2012 by BGC-Excelsior regarding former presidents, 32% of the respondents considered that the Fox administration was \"very good\" or \"good\", 25% responded that it was an \"average\" administration, and 42% responded that it was a \"very bad\" or \"bad\" administration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Job creation stalled during Fox's first four years. According to the Economist Intelligence Unit not only were no jobs created from 2000-2004 but the number of street vendors increased 40%. This workforce does not pay income or sales tax and significant minority participates in illicit activities such as smuggling and piracy. The latter grew during Fox's term to an 8 billion industry. Net sales of the clothing industry in Mexico is calculated at approximately 1,500 million dollars, of which 910 million are from smuggled clothing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The second half of his administration was marked by his conflict with Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador, then Mexico City's Mayor. The PAN and the Fox administration unsuccessfully attempted to remove L\u00f3pez Obrador from office and to prevent him from participating in the 2006 presidential elections. The Fox administration also became embroiled with diplomatic conflicts with Venezuela and Bolivia after supporting the creation of the Free Trade Area of the Americas, which was opposed by those two countries. His last year in office oversaw the controversial 2006 elections, where the PAN candidate Felipe Calder\u00f3n was declared winner by a very narrow margin over his opponent L\u00f3pez Obrador, who claimed that the elections were rigged and refused to recognize the results, calling for protests across the country. In the same year, the southern state of Oaxaca was the scene of a teacher's strike which culminated into protests and violent clashes asking for the resignation of governor Ulises Ruiz Ortiz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During his campaign for president, Vicente Fox became well known for his cowboy style and quirkiness. As a speaker, Fox usually attracted big crowds in the early years of his presidency. At , Fox easily stood out in most crowds, and is believed to be one of the tallest presidents in Mexico's history. After his inauguration, President Fox usually wore suits for formal occasions, but opted to wear his signature boots and jeans during his many visits around Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jos\u00e9 Vicente Cuadra",
        "text": "Vicente Cuadra really didn't enjoy being in the front lines of politics. His brother, \"Jose Joaquin\", was better suited for that. Vicente, himself, preferred working behind the scenes like he did when he helped draft the Constitution of 1858. When his term of office was over, Cuadra retired to spending time with his family, overseeing his businesses, and writing. He didn't get much involved in the politics of the country and would rarely offer \"the opinion of a statesman\" unless it was warranted. The irony is that in 1891, Gen. Jos\u00e9 Santos Zelaya of the Liberal Party, taking advantage of splits within the Conservative party, began an economic and political campaign to ruin all of the Conservatives in the country, targeting the icons such as Vicente Cuadra. The former president's businesses were wiped out, most of his lands were confiscated, and his writings were burned. The final insult was that the 79-year-old Cuadra was imprisoned for a few weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In addition to some debate controversies, Fox also faced some controversy due to \"Amigos de Fox\" (Friends of Fox), a nonprofit fundraising group established by Denise Monta\u00f1o. The group was instrumental in getting Vicente Fox elected President of Mexico, and the phrase \"Amigos de Fox\" was used as a campaign slogan referring to the millions of people supporting Fox in the 2000 presidential election."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Gallo",
        "text": "Supported by conservatives since his attempted removal of Governor Vergara, he was the Anti-Personalist UCR candidate for Vice-President, as running mate to Leopoldo Melo, in the 1928 elections. Yrigoyen defeated their ticket in a landslide, however."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox was one of the few presidents to avoid a major economic upheaval, although the economy grew at the slowest pace in history, second only to the de la Madrid administration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jorge Casta\u00f1eda Gutman",
        "text": "Casta\u00f1eda's political career began as a member of the Mexican Communist Party but he has since moved to the political center. He served as an advisor to Cuauht\u00e9moc C\u00e1rdenas during his (failed) presidential campaign in 1988 and advised Vicente Fox during his (successful) presidential campaign in 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox served as President of Mexico from December 1, 2000 to November 30, 2006. His victory in the federal elections in 2000 ended more than 70 years rule of the Institutional Revolutionary Party."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The library had to be closed in March 2007 because of construction defects. The Superior Auditor of the Federation detected 36 irregularities and issued 13 motions of responsibility for public servants. Among the irregularities was the misplacement of marble blocks. Repairs cost 15 million pesos (roughly 1.4 million dollars)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Presidency of Vicente Fox\n--Cabinet.\n--Economy.\n----Currency and inflation.\n----Growth.\n----Employment and income.\n----Finance and investments.\n--Human development.\n--Relations with Congress.\n----Investigations.\n--Foreign policy.\n----Relations with the United States.\n------Immigration.\n----Casta\u00f1eda Doctrine.\n----Iraq War.\n----Plan Puebla Panama.\n------2005 Summit at Mar del Plata.\n--Education, science, and technology.\n----Jos\u00e9 Vasconcelos Library.\n--Texcoco and San Salvador Atenco.\n--Institutional image.\n--2006 presidential election.\n--Approval ratings.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox openly supported Santiago Creel to become the PAN candidate in 2006. When Felipe Calder\u00f3n was chosen, Fox endorsed him. On Chapter 14 of Luis Mandoki's \"Who is Mr. L\u00f3pez?\" documentary titled \"Foxilandia\" Alfonso Durazo, Fox's former personal secretary, declared that no previous President was ever as active campaigning as Fox. After Calder\u00f3n's win, L\u00f3pez Obrador contested the elections. The Electoral Tribunal of the Judicial Power of the Federation declared the election to be clean but highlighted Fox's influence, declaring that it was the greatest irregularity in the election. Alfonsina Bertha Navarro, minister of the Electoral Tribunal, declared:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Desafuero of Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador",
        "text": "The \"desafuero\" process started and gathered momentum during the second half of the Vicente Fox presidency, characterised by a growing sense of power vacuum as Fox was increasingly perceived by Mexican society and political actors as a \"lame duck\" incapable of pushing the ambitious reform agenda that swept him into power in 2000. The Fox presidency was also besieged by cabinet defections and the growing popularity of L\u00f3pez Obrador, who was running significantly ahead of all other likely candidates in all presidential election polls and seemed to be immune to political scandals involving his inner circle.\n* Political and social reactions in favor of the \"desafuero\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox was expelled from the PAN in 2013, after having endorsed the PRI presidential candidate, Enrique Pe\u00f1a Nieto, in the 2012 elections. In the 2018 election Fox again endorsed the other PRI's candidate, now Jos\u00e9 Antonio Meade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Although Fox's victory in the 2000 election and the end of seven decades of PRI rule raised great expectations of change among the Mexican people, his administration was criticized for failing to fulfill those expectations, as little progress was made in fighting corruption, crime, poverty, unemployment and inequality. Few key reforms were implemented during the Fox administration, which became characterised by a growing sense of power vacuum as Fox was increasingly perceived by Mexican society and political actors as a \"lame duck\" incapable of pushing the ambitious reform agenda that swept him into power in 2000. Alejandro Cacho points out that \"Fox incarnated the hope of alternancy [...] and he managed to kick the PRI out of Los Pinos, but his government was a disappointment. Corruption persisted; in fact, his sons-in-law (the Bribiesca-Sahag\u00fan brothers) became rich quickly and without explanation. The economy wasn't much better than it had been under Ernesto Zedillo, the wages didn't increase significantly, neither did jobs. His \"super cabinet\" [\"gabinetazo\", as Fox himself referred to it] created more controversy than it did good results. His wife, Marta Sahag\u00fan, had a big influence in the presidential decisions\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In an interview with Anderson Cooper on 25 January 2017, and during an appearance on Conan O'Brien's late night talk show on 1 March 2017, Fox again asserted that Mexico should not have to pay for the wall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "From then on, relation between the Legislative and the Executive were strained. Lawmakers from opposition parties admitted they had a hard time dealing with Fox, while lawmakers from Fox's party claimed that there were \"legislative excesses\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In his inaugural speech, Fox said that his Presidency marked a new era of relations between the three political branches. \"The President will propose, and the Congress will dispose\", he said. This implied that Fox would respect the separation of powers and negotiate with Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "According to Ren\u00e9 Drucker, coordinator of basic science research for National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), \"no other government in recent history has neglected research in the basic sciences as Fox's\". Fox's plan for the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnolog\u00eda, (CONACYT), was that by 2006 this organization would receive 1% of GDP. However the budget for this organization for 2006 reached only 0.33%. Federal government investment on Research and development in 2004 was 0.41% in Mexico versus 0.95% in Brazil and 0.6% in Chile."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During the course of his campaign, a presidential debate was organized, but the three main contenders (Fox, Francisco Labastida of the PRI, and Cuauht\u00e9moc C\u00e1rdenas of the PRD) disagreed on the details. One notable disagreement, which was broadcast on national television, was whether the presidential debate should be held that same day or on the following Friday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox Center of Studies, Library and Museum",
        "text": "The Vicente Fox Center of Studies, Library and Museum is a presidential history center founded by former President of Mexico (2000-2006) Vicente Fox in San Crist\u00f3bal near his ranch in Guanajuato, Mexico. The Center is funded by the Fox Center Civil Association."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox spent his childhood and adolescence at the family ranch in San Francisco del Rinc\u00f3n in Guanajuato. Fox has polydactyly, having six toes on each foot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Quesada",
        "text": "Vicente Quesada\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "XHTVM-TDT",
        "text": "The Mexican government was extremely slow to react. Owing to the timing of the events around the Christmas holiday, neither the RTC (General Directorate of Radio, Television and Film) nor the Secretariat of Communications and Transportation did anything, despite petitions from CNI and Azteca alike for the federal government to take a position on the takeover. On January 6, during a visit to the remodeled press room at Los Pinos, CNI subdirector of news Roberto L\u00f3pez Agust\u00edn approached President Vicente Fox and demanded that he take a stand on the issue. On his way to the presidential plane, other reporters asked questions about the XHTVM situation. Fox, however, merely said, \"\u00bfY yo por qu\u00e9?\" (\"And why me?\"), leading to one of his greatest political blunders in his tenure as president."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "As president, he mostly followed the neoliberal economic policies that his predecessors from the PRI had adopted since the late 1980s. The first half of his administration saw a further shift of the federal government to the right, strong relations with the United States and George W. Bush, unsuccessful attempts to apply a value-added tax to medicines and to build an airport in Texcoco, and a major diplomatic conflict with Cuban leader Fidel Castro. The murder of human rights lawyer Digna Ochoa in 2001 called into question the Fox administration's commitment to breaking with the authoritarian past of the PRI era."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After securing the election, Fox received substantial media coverage, as well as numerous congratulatory messages and phone calls from world leaders, including then-President of the United States Bill Clinton. He took office on 1 December 2000, the first time since 1917 that an opposition candidate had taken power from the long-reigning Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)\n:\"See article Fox administration\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox joined four other Latin American presidents at the One Young World Summit 2014 in Dublin, Ireland, to discuss the Telef\u00f3nica Millennial Survey. He told those in the audience that eradicating corruption \"has to start with education\" and that his focus is now on promoting leadership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Felipe Calder\u00f3n",
        "text": "On 30 November 2006, outgoing President Vicente Fox Quesada and still President-elect Felipe Calder\u00f3n Hinojosa stood side by side on national television as Fox turned over the presidential sash to a cadet, who handed it to Calder\u00f3n. Afterwards, Fox read a short speech indicating that he had concluded his mandate by receiving the flag \"that had accompanied him during the last six years which he had devoted himself completely to the service of Mexico and had the utmost honor of being the president of the republic\". Calder\u00f3n then made a speech to the Mexican public indicating that he would still attend the inauguration ceremony at the Chamber of Deputies. He made a call to unity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "President Fox was the first President to have an institutional image that did not display the complete National Coat of Arms, causing controversy. The use of the \"slashed eagle\" (\"\u00e1guila mocha\", in Spanish), as it was called by critics (the word \"mocha\" having a negative connotation, mocho meaning both chopped and prudish Catholic), was extended to all the dependencies of the Executive Branch substituting the Seal of the United Mexican States (located at the bottom right corner of the Institutional logo) by the acronym of the dependencies. Successor President Felipe Calder\u00f3n returned to using the complete coat of arms. Apart from criticism to showing only part of the Nation's Coat of Arms, some criticized the inclusion of the color blue to the Administration's institutional image (used in one-color depictions of the logo), as said color is associated to Fox's PAN party, and to a presumptive \"F\"-like band in the bottom of the image, which, critics suggested, gave more emphasis to Fox's personal image than to the Institution of the President."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Gonzalez (politician)",
        "text": "Gonzalez received the Order of the Quetzal in January 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "When Fox took office on 1 December 2000, his approval rating neared 80%, being the first president in 71 years who wasn't a member of the PRI. During the rest of his presidency, his average approval rating was of 53%, while his average disapproval rating was of 40%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After retiring from Coca-Cola, Fox began to participate in various public activities in Guanajuato, where he created the \"Patronato de la Casa Cuna Amigo Daniel\", an orphanage. He was also the president of the Patronato Loyola, a sponsor of the Le\u00f3n campus of the Universidad Iberoamericana and of the Lux Institute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pemexgate",
        "text": "Vicente Fox, as promised during his presidential campaign, made efforts to clarify past corruptions during his presidency. His first few years in office were high in public profile due to all the news related to allegations of corruption followed by his pledge to pursue it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jorge Casta\u00f1eda Gutman",
        "text": "After winning the election, Fox appointed Casta\u00f1eda as his Secretary of Foreign Affairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fern\u00e1ndez",
        "text": "On 16 April 2016, at the end of his farewell concert, he cried out that he would \"spit on\" the then Republican Party primary candidate for the U.S. presidential election Donald Trump for his anti-immigration speech. Fern\u00e1ndez, later that year, expressed his support for Hillary Clinton with a song titled \"El Corrido de Hillary Clinton\". Following the last debate between Clinton and Trump, Clinton invited Fern\u00e1ndez to the celebration at the Craig Ranch Regional Park Amphitheater, Las Vegas, U.S."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juanacatl\u00e1n",
        "text": "Many people of Jalisco blame former President Vicente Fox's completed project, The El Caj\u00f3n Dam, a hydroelectric dam on the R\u00edo Grande de Santiago in the Mexican state of Nayarit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox remarried on 2 July 2001, while serving as President of Mexico, to Marta Mar\u00eda Sahag\u00fan Jim\u00e9nez (until then his spokesperson). The wedding date was the first anniversary of his presidential election and his 59th birthday. For both Fox and Sahag\u00fan Jim\u00e9nez, it was their second marriage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In 2003, money-laundering charges were lodged against \"Amigos de Fox\", but were dropped shortly before the July 2003 midterm elections."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexican drug war",
        "text": "In 2000, Vicente Fox, from the right-wing PAN party, became the first Mexican president since the Mexican Revolution not to be from the PRI; his presidency passed with relative peace, having a crime index not too different from that of previous administrations, and Mexican public opinion was mainly optimistic with the regime change, with Mexico showing a decline in homicide rates from 2000 to 2007. One of the Fox's administration's strongest criticisms arose from its management of the peasant unrest in San Salvador Atenco."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "When Fox took office on 1 December 2000, his approval rating neared 80%. During the rest of his presidency, his average approval rating was of 53%, while his average disapproval rating was of 40%."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the Mexican President have to be born in Mexico?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It is required that to be eligible for the office on must be a natural-born citizen of Mexico able to exercise full citizenship rights, with at least one parent who is a natural-born citizen of Mexico."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has there ever been a Mexican president who only had one natural-born parent?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were some of the business ventures of Vicente Fox Quesada?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "He worked in Coca-Cola as a route supervisor and drove a delivery truck in 1964. After 9 years he rose to the top as President and Chief Executive of Coca-Cola Mexico, after retiring he did various public activities in Guanajuato like an orphanage."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did Vicente Fox Quesada become involved in politics?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "He joined the  Partido Acci\u00f3n Nacional on March 1, 1988, and was elected to the federal Chamber of Deputies that same year. He ran for governor of Guanajuato in 1991 but lost, four years later he ran again and won by a vote of 2 to 1."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the opinion of Donald Trump on Vicente Fox Quesada?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I was not able to find anything definitive as to how Trump feels about Vicente Fox Quesada, but I did find out that Vicente has been an outspoken critic of Trump, beginning with Trump's bid for the Republican candidacy in the 2016 presidential election.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I don't have any information on Trump's opinion on Vicente Fox, but Trump replied on Twitter to him, demanding that Fox apologize for using \"the F word while discussing the wall.\" Fox eventually apologized for the remark, while also asking for Trump to apologize for his remarks about Mexicans and inviting Trump to visit Mexico."
    ],
    "topic": "Vicente Fox",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Vicente Fox:47",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vicente Fox",
          "Post-presidential life",
          "Criticism of Donald Trump"
        ],
        "ctx": "Fox has been an outspoken critic of U.S. President Donald Trump, beginning with Trump's bid for the Republican candidacy in the 2016 presidential election."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Vicente Fox:48",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vicente Fox",
          "Post-presidential life",
          "Criticism of Donald Trump"
        ],
        "ctx": "In an interview with Univision's Jorge Ramos in February 2016, Fox responded to then-candidate Trump's proposal to build a wall at the border between the United States and Mexico at Mexico's expense, declaring in English, \"I am not going to pay for that fucking wall. He should pay for it. He's got the money.\" Fox went on to call Trump a \"crazy guy\" and a \"false prophet,\" and questioned the claim that Trump received 44% of the Hispanic vote in the Republican caucus in Nevada. Trump took to Twitter in response, demanding that Fox apologize for using \"the F word while discussing the wall.\" Fox eventually apologized for the remark, while also asking for Trump to apologize for his remarks about Mexicans and inviting Trump to visit Mexico."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In an interview with Univision's Jorge Ramos in February 2016, Fox responded to then-candidate Trump's proposal to build a wall at the border between the United States and Mexico at Mexico's expense, declaring in English, \"I am not going to pay for that fucking wall. He should pay for it. He's got the money.\" Fox went on to call Trump a \"crazy guy\" and a \"false prophet,\" and questioned the claim that Trump received 44% of the Hispanic vote in the Republican caucus in Nevada. Trump took to Twitter in response, demanding that Fox apologize for using \"the F word while discussing the wall.\" Fox eventually apologized for the remark, while also asking for Trump to apologize for his remarks about Mexicans and inviting Trump to visit Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Despite his apology, Fox continued to criticize Trump to the international media and troll Trump on Twitter, stating, \"I'm committed to be Donald Trump's shadow until he is done with politics.\" Fox would later go on to congratulate President-elect Joe Biden and his victory in the 2020 United States presidential election, defeating Trump. When Trump visited Mexico on 31 August 2016 upon President Enrique Pe\u00f1a Nieto's invitation, Fox slammed the visit, calling it a \"desperate move\" on the part of Pe\u00f1a Nieto and stating, \"He is not welcome in Mexico. We don't like him. We don't want him. We reject his visit.\" Trump responded by pointing out Fox's previous invitation, to which Fox clarified that he invited Trump to Mexico on the condition that he used the visit to apologize to the Mexican people. He directly addressed the American people the next day on CNN, where he described Trump as a \"false prophet\" who is \"absolutely crazy\" and warned that they need to \"wake up\" and realize the harm that Trump's immigration and economic policies would inflict on the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox has continued criticizing Trump on Twitter after the election. In a series of tweets in January 2017, Fox again criticized Trump's proposed Mexican border wall, calling it a \"racist monument\" and insisted that Mexico will never fund it, calling on Trump to \"be honest with US taxpayers\" about that fact. Following the release of a U.S. government intelligence report that accused Russia of interfering in the 2016 election to ensure Trump's victory, Fox tweeted, \"Sr Trump, the intelligence report is devastating. Losing election by more than 3M votes and in addition this. Are you a legitimate president?\" Fox further criticized Trump's response to the intelligence report, calling him a \"bully\" and a \"bluff\" and stating that Trump is \"bringing in a new era of dictatorship.\" Though on 12 January, Fox broke with his criticism of Trump and simply tweeted, \"America Will Survive.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox Quesada (; born 2 July 1942) is a Mexican businessman and politician who served as the 62nd President of Mexico from 1 December 2000 to 30 November 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Marco Aurelio Garcia, one of Brazilian President Luiz In\u00e1cio Lula da Silva's closest advisers, declared that Fox was too hasty in supporting the FTAA. Garcia declared that Fox's comment that the FTAA would be created with or without the Mercosur angered many. Fox did not applaud after Argentine President Kirchner's presentation, and when Fox attempted to raise the issue of the FTAA, Kirchner retorted that the FTAA was not on the Summit agenda. Fox responded to the press declaring that Kirchner was more concerned with pleasing people in his country than the success of the Summit. Kirchner replied that Fox should attend to the Mexicans because it was the Argentine people who voted for him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During a September 2016 appearance on the radio show \"El Show de Piol\u00edn\", Fox smashed a Trump pi\u00f1ata hanging on the streets of Los Angeles while loudly singing the traditional Pi\u00f1ata song. Upon breaking it open, Fox noted its lack of contents and remarked, \"Empty. Totally Empty. He doesn't have any brains.\" Discussing the event during a subsequent interview with \"GQ\", Fox expanded, \"I had such a joy in my heart by doing that, because in Mexico, pi\u00f1atas are very meaningful. Pi\u00f1atas are a celebration. Pi\u00f1atas let you send messages. And the message is: Trump is empty inside. He's empty in his head. That's why I put my hand into his head. There was no brain there. That's what he is, an empty person.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador criticized the \"Casta\u00f1eda Doctrine\", saying that Mexico should not \"get involved in the internal lives of other people, because we do not want other people involved in our internal lives\". Indeed, the new foreign policy doctrine openly invited other nations to scrutinize Mexican affairs, criticizing the Estrada Doctrine as offering an excuse to ignore foreign criticism. Finally, Jos\u00e9 Gal\u00e1n, an editorialist in \"La Jornada\", accused the Fox administration of not doing enough to stop border violence against Mexican nationals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Super Deluxe",
        "text": "In 2017, Vicente Fox, the former President of Mexico, appeared in a series of videos on the channel. In these videos, Fox criticized Trump on a variety of issues including his proposal to build a wall between America and Mexico and his Cinco de Mayo taco bowl tweet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador",
        "text": "In 2018, the Mexican publication \"Aristegui Noticias\" criticized Vicente Fox for what it characterized as \"extreme\" verbal insults on Twitter towards L\u00f3pez Obrador's crackdown on institutional corruption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox spread his image as one of peace and welcomed many to his own ranch in Guanajuato, Mexico. When Fox welcomed U.S. President George W. Bush to the ranch, both presidents were wearing Fox's signature black cowboy boots, prompting \"The Wall Street Journal\" to call it \"The Boot Summit\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Several media pundits and think tanks like COHA judged the \"Casta\u00f1eda Doctrine\" \"overtly submissive\" to the United States. COHA's opinion was based on Mexico's support of Guatemala for a seat in the UN Security council, instead of supporting Venezuela, the contending candidate for the seat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In an interview with Anderson Cooper on 25 January 2017, and during an appearance on Conan O'Brien's late night talk show on 1 March 2017, Fox again asserted that Mexico should not have to pay for the wall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Russell also pointed to 2006 comments by political scientist Soledad Loaeza, who noted, \"The eager candidate became a reluctant president who avoided tough choices and appeared hesitant and unable to hide the weariness caused by the responsibilities and constraints of the office.\" Russell also asserted that Fox \"had little success in fighting crime. Even though he maintained the macroeconomic stability inherited from his predecessor, economic growth barely exceeded the rate of population increase. Similarly, the lack of fiscal reform left tax collection at a rate similar to that of Haiti . . . .\" Finally, Russell noted that \"during Fox's administration, only 1.4\u00a0million formal-sector jobs were created, leading to massive immigration to the United States and an explosive increase in informal employment.\" Ultimately, however, Russell concluded that Fox will be viewed by history as a transitional figure who was able to defeat one of Mexico's long-entrenched political parties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After leaving office in December 2006, Fox has maintained himself in the public eye by speaking in countries such as Nigeria, Ireland, Canada, and the United States about topics such as the controversial 2006 election and the Iraq War. In Mexico, Fox has been criticized by some for his busy post-presidency since former Mexican presidents are traditionally expected to stay out of the political spotlight. In response, Fox has stated, \"There is no reason to hold to the anti-democratic rules of those who still live in the authoritarian past . . . now that Mexico is a democracy, every citizen has the right to express himself, even a former president.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox has been an outspoken critic of U.S. President Donald Trump, beginning with Trump's bid for the Republican candidacy in the 2016 presidential election."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During the nationally televised presidential debate, Fox's main opponent, Francisco Labastida, claimed that Fox had repeatedly called him a \"sissy\" and a \"cross-dresser\" (\"la vestida\", a pun on his last name). Fox's campaign slogans were \"\u00a1Ya!\" (\"Right now!\"), \"Ya ganamos\" (\"We've already won\"), and \"Vota Alianza por el Cambio\" (\"Vote for Alliance for Change\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "This is in spite of the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre. Jorge Monta\u00f1o, a former Mexican ambassador to the United States considered Fox was \"naive\" to think farmers would easily give up their lands and that his government should have taken more time negotiating with the farmers instead of simply sending out engineers to measure runways and calculate flight paths. Monta\u00f1o also declared that the compensation these farmers were offered were the minimum allowed under the law (3,000 pesos an acre, roughly 275 US dollars) before raising the offer to 21,000 pesos an acre (1,900 US dollars)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox blamed the Atenco group, led by Ignacio Valle, for the incident and ordered his arrest calling the group an \"insult to society\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox\n--Early years.\n----Business career.\n----Family life.\n--Early political career.\n----Governor of Guanajuato.\n----Campaign for president.\n------Election results.\n--Presidency.\n----Public image.\n------Approval ratings.\n----Legacy and assessment.\n--Post-presidential life.\n----Public speaking and advocacy.\n----Criticism of Donald Trump.\n----Autobiography.\n----Fox Center of Studies, Library and Museum.\n----Centrist Democratic International.\n----Statue controversy.\n----Health.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The parliamentary groups of the PAN, PRI, PRD and PVEM in the Senate approved a motion to express their disillusionment about the performance of Fox and Derbez, his Secretary of Foreign Affairs, at the Summit"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "President Fox appointed Jorge Casta\u00f1eda to be his Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Casta\u00f1eda immediately broke with the Estrada Doctrine, promoting what was called by critics the \"Casta\u00f1eda Doctrine\". The new foreign policy called for an openness and an acceptance of criticism from the international community, and the increase of national involvement in foreign affairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In July 2017, Fox was an international observer to the unofficial Venezuelan referendum held by the opposition. During the trip, Fox gave a speech that compared the referendum to the 2000 Mexican elections. He said that \"this battle has been won\" and \"step by step, vote by vote, the dictator will leave.\" He was subsequently declared a persona non grata by the Venezuelan government. Venezuelan Foreign Minister Samuel Moncada said that Fox had taken advantage of the country's hospitality and \"was paid to come to Venezuela to promote violence and the intervention of foreign powers.\" Moncado said the ban came from Maduro and criticized Fox and the other former Latin American leaders invited as observers (Andr\u00e9s Pastrana, Jorge Quiroga, Laura Chinchilla and Miguel \u00c1ngel Rodr\u00edguez) as \"political sicarios,\" \"clowns\" and \"mercenaries\" that \"sell themselves to the highest bidder to go to various destinations and repeat what they are told.\" Fox said he was not surprised by the ban and that the vote would weaken Maduro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In his inaugural speech, Fox said that his Presidency marked a new era of relations between the three political branches. \"The President will propose, and the Congress will dispose\", he said. This implied that Fox would respect the separation of powers and negotiate with Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After the cancellation, 76% of Mexicans polled thought more unrest would follow the president during his term."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The day after Trump won the election, Fox wrote an editorial on the \"International Business Times\" website where he lamented Trump's victory and explored what Mexico could do in response. \"Even though Trump is not the prettiest person in the room, we still have to dance with him. Now, we ought to look out for ourselves and find a way to work with the most powerful economy in the world, which is now led by an authoritarian racist[...]Donald Trump's promises have an expiration date. When the time comes to truly deliver to the American people, his \"billion dollar show\" will finally crumble beneath his feet,\" Fox wrote, concluding his editorial with, \"I find quite sad that America, formerly the most open and cutting edge nation, has chosen to lock itself down inside concrete walls. It's tragic that fear, anger and wrath took over and pierced the hearts of their people. It will be hard to recover from this wound; but we better start working to heal as quickly as possible \u2013 and bring down the walls that blinded us in the beginning.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During Fox's term, Mexico actively sought (and gained) a temporary seat on the UN Security Council. However, Luis Ernesto Derbez, Secretary of Foreign Affairs after Casta\u00f1eda, unsuccessfully ran for the position of Secretary General of the Organization of American States, losing to Chilean Jos\u00e9 Miguel Insulza."
      },
      {
        "title": "Felipe Calder\u00f3n",
        "text": "On 30 November 2006, outgoing President Vicente Fox Quesada and still President-elect Felipe Calder\u00f3n Hinojosa stood side by side on national television as Fox turned over the presidential sash to a cadet, who handed it to Calder\u00f3n. Afterwards, Fox read a short speech indicating that he had concluded his mandate by receiving the flag \"that had accompanied him during the last six years which he had devoted himself completely to the service of Mexico and had the utmost honor of being the president of the republic\". Calder\u00f3n then made a speech to the Mexican public indicating that he would still attend the inauguration ceremony at the Chamber of Deputies. He made a call to unity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In October 2006, two months before leaving office, Fox declared that the social conflicts of Atenco and Chiapas were solved and that Oaxaca would be solved before his successor took office."
      },
      {
        "title": "2005 Mexico\u2013Venezuela diplomatic crisis",
        "text": "Following Fox's declarations, on November 10, 2005, Venezuelan President Hugo Ch\u00e1vez stated in a speech to supporters in Caracas that he was saddened that \"the president of a people like the Mexicans lets himself become the puppy of the empire\" for what he alleged was Fox's obsequience to U.S. trade interests in his promotion of the newly stalled FTAA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Later in September 2016, \"The Washington Post\" reported that Fox had received multiple emails from Trump's campaign soliciting donations throughout the month. Fox received the first email on 9 September, which he posted on Twitter and responded, \"Donald Trump, I won't pay for that fucking wall! Also, campaigning in Mexico? Running out of money and friends?\" Fox received two additional emails on 24 and 27 September, both of which he also posted on Twitter and mocked as being \"desperate\" and \"begging.\" The revelation of the emails has raised concern, as accepting campaign donations from foreign nationals is illegal in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In August 2006, \"El Universal\" polled 600 people in Mexico City, where L\u00f3pez Obrador served as Head of Government from 2000 to 2005. 59% believed that the 2006 elections were fraudulent and 63% believed votes should have been recounted. In February 2007, Fox declared about the desafuero process of L\u00f3pez Obrador:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During Fox's presidency the net migration rate in Mexico increased 152% from -2.84 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants to -4.32; in the same period, population growth decreased 35% from 1.57% to 1.16%. Fox, who was said to be \"proud\" of Mexican immigrants in the U.S. has acknowledged the importance of remittances by both legal and illegal Mexican workers in the U.S. (now the #1 source of revenue for the country)."
      },
      {
        "title": "XHTVM-TDT",
        "text": "The Mexican government was extremely slow to react. Owing to the timing of the events around the Christmas holiday, neither the RTC (General Directorate of Radio, Television and Film) nor the Secretariat of Communications and Transportation did anything, despite petitions from CNI and Azteca alike for the federal government to take a position on the takeover. On January 6, during a visit to the remodeled press room at Los Pinos, CNI subdirector of news Roberto L\u00f3pez Agust\u00edn approached President Vicente Fox and demanded that he take a stand on the issue. On his way to the presidential plane, other reporters asked questions about the XHTVM situation. Fox, however, merely said, \"\u00bfY yo por qu\u00e9?\" (\"And why me?\"), leading to one of his greatest political blunders in his tenure as president."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In September 2017, Fox was once again in the news after President Trump announced he would end the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program in six months if the U.S. congress failed to pass legislation to address the issue. In response, Fox tweeted to President Trump's Twitter account, \"Ending DACA is on the top of the vilest acts you\u2019ve pulled off. You\u2019re destroying the legacy of greater men before you.\" In another tweet, Fox suggested that President Trump's DACA decision was a result of him compensating for earlier failures to pass healthcare legislation to replace the Affordable Care Act. Fox then went on to post a video in which he claimed that President Trump had \"failed America\" and stated that \"[t]his measure is cruel and heartless, worse than any machine. You\u2019re cancelling the future of 800,000 children and young people.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Upon his arrival Hugo Ch\u00e1vez, president of Venezuela, declared:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During the Calder\u00f3n administration restoration efforts cost another 32 million pesos (roughly 3 million dollars)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In October 2007, an announcement was made in the municipality of Boca del R\u00edo, Veracruz, that a 3-meter (10\u00a0ft) statue of Vicente Fox was to be erected to honor the former president. This aroused criticism from the opposition Party of the Democratic Revolution towards Boca del R\u00edo's mayor, who was affiliated with the same political party (PAN) as Fox."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "As seen in the graphic, after taking office the particularly high points of his approval ratings were:\n* August 2002 (58% approval, 39% disapproval, 3% unsure), after Fox accepted to suspend the construction of a new airport in the State of Mexico, which had led to months of protests by local residents who resisted their displacement.\n* May 2003 (57% approval, 37% disapproval, 6% unsure), after Fox announced that Mexico would not support the US invasion of Iraq.\n*Through out 2006, his approval rating in average was 58% and his average disapproval rating was of 37%, as Fox was on his last year as president and the public focus was on the Presidential elections of that year. The popularity enjoyed by Fox during this period, however, didn't seem to largely benefit the Presidential candidate of his party (PAN) Felipe Calder\u00f3n, who was controversially declared winner with only 35.9% of the votes, against Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador of the PRD who officially obtained 35.3% of the votes and claimed that the election had been fraudulent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During his campaign for president, Vicente Fox became well known for his cowboy style and quirkiness. As a speaker, Fox usually attracted big crowds in the early years of his presidency. At , Fox easily stood out in most crowds, and is believed to be one of the tallest presidents in Mexico's history. After his inauguration, President Fox usually wore suits for formal occasions, but opted to wear his signature boots and jeans during his many visits around Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Since May 2017, Fox has appeared in a series of humorous videos seriously denouncing Donald Trump, including \"Vicente Fox is Running for President of the United States\" (fake announcement for the candidacy) which was released in September."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Minimum wages during Fox's administration increased at a nominal rate of 34% from $35.12 pesos per day in 2000 to $47.05 in 2006. However, Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) terms, real wages decreased 3.8%, from $80.27 to $77.07. According to Banco de M\u00e9xico, this compares favorably to previous administrations, for wages had decreased by 75% from $296.22 PPP pesos per day in January 1976, to $73.91 PPP pesos per day in December 1999. Minimum wages had decreased, in real terms, an average of 38% per Presidential administration from 1976 to 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The library had to be closed in March 2007 because of construction defects. The Superior Auditor of the Federation detected 36 irregularities and issued 13 motions of responsibility for public servants. Among the irregularities was the misplacement of marble blocks. Repairs cost 15 million pesos (roughly 1.4 million dollars)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign policy of the Hugo Ch\u00e1vez administration",
        "text": "On 10 November 2005, Ch\u00e1vez referenced Mexican President Vicente Fox during a speech to supporters in Caracas, saying \"the president of a people like the Mexicans lets himself become the puppy dog of the empire\" for what he alleged was Fox's support of U.S. trade interests in his promotion of the newly stalled FTAA. Additionally, on 13 November 2005 episode of his weekly talk show, \"Al\u00f3 Presidente\", Ch\u00e1vez stated that the Mexican president was \"bleeding from his wounds\" and warned Fox not to \"mess\" with him, lest he \"get stung.\" Fox, upon hearing the remarks, expressed his outrage and threatened to recall the Mexican ambassador to Venezuela if the Chavez did not promptly issue an apology. However, Ch\u00e1vez simply recalled Venezuela's own ambassador to Mexico City, Vladimir Villegas. The Mexican ambassador to Caracas was recalled the following day. Although ties between the two countries have been strained, neither country will say that diplomatic ties have been indefinitely severed. Several groups in both Mexico and Venezuela are working to restore the diplomatic relationship between the two countries. In August 2007, each country reinstated her ambassador to the other, restoring full diplomatic relations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "As seen in the graphic, after taking office the particularly high points of his approval ratings were:\n* August 2002 (58% approval, 39% disapproval, 3% unsure), after Fox suspended the construction of a new airport in the State of Mexico following months of protests by local residents who had resisted their displacement.\n* May 2003 (57% approval, 37% disapproval, 6% unsure), after Fox announced that Mexico would not support the US invasion of Iraq.\n*Throughout 2006, his average approval rating was 58% and his average disapproval rating was 37%, as Fox was in his last year as president and the public focus was on the Presidential elections of that year. The popularity enjoyed by Fox during this period, however, didn't seem to largely benefit the Presidential candidate of his party (PAN) Felipe Calder\u00f3n, who was controversially declared winner with only 35.9% of the votes, against Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador of the PRD who officially obtained 35.3% of the votes and claimed that the election had been fraudulent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Having assumed office with an approval rating of 80%, by the time he left office in 2006 his public image had become exhausted by the controversial presidential elections of that year and the few reforms implemented."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In his final state of the union address in September 2006, leftist lawmakers prevented Fox from speaking. He became the first president to not read his report before Congress and instead gave a televised address to the nation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox responded that the FTAA could be created with all of the countries in the Americas with the exception of Venezuela or the countries of the Mercosur."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox's autobiography, entitled \"Revolution of Hope: The Life, Faith and Dreams of a Mexican President\", was released in September 2007. To promote its release, Fox toured many U.S. cities to do book-signings and interviews with U.S. media. During his tour, however, he faced protests from Mexican immigrants who accused him of actions that forced them to emigrate and find jobs in the United States. He faced the subject several times during interviews, such as one held with Fox News's Bill O'Reilly, who questioned him about the massive illegal immigration problem of Mexicans into the United States. Finally, during an interview with Telemundo's Rub\u00e9n Luengas, the interviewer asked Fox about allegations concerning some properties of Vicente Fox's wife, Marta Sahag\u00fan. After Fox explained the situation, he asked the interviewer not to make false accusations and to prove what he was saying. Luengas said, \"I'm telling you in your face, I'm not a liar.\" After this, Fox walked out of the studio, calling the interviewer a \"liar,\" \"vulgar,\" and \"stupid.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In contrast with his predecessors, President Fox chose the members of his cabinet through head hunters. At the beginning of his term, Fox dubbed his Cabinet as \"el gabinetazo\" (\"the Super Cabinet\"), as a way to recognize the capacity of the Cabinet members. Fox had originally stated that the Cabinet chosen at the beginning of his term would last 6 years, throughout his term, however, this did not happen. Felipe Calder\u00f3n Hinojosa served as Secretary of Energy for eight months, and resigned under pressure relating to his Presidential ambitions, when competing against Secretary of the Interior, Santiago Creel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "President Fox was the first President to have an institutional image that did not display the complete National Coat of Arms, causing controversy. The use of the \"slashed eagle\" (\"\u00e1guila mocha\", in Spanish), as it was called by critics (the word \"mocha\" having a negative connotation, mocho meaning both chopped and prudish Catholic), was extended to all the dependencies of the Executive Branch substituting the Seal of the United Mexican States (located at the bottom right corner of the Institutional logo) by the acronym of the dependencies. Successor President Felipe Calder\u00f3n returned to using the complete coat of arms. Apart from criticism to showing only part of the Nation's Coat of Arms, some criticized the inclusion of the color blue to the Administration's institutional image (used in one-color depictions of the logo), as said color is associated to Fox's PAN party, and to a presumptive \"F\"-like band in the bottom of the image, which, critics suggested, gave more emphasis to Fox's personal image than to the Institution of the President."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "He failed to take charge and provide cabinet leadership, failed to set priorities, and turned a blind eye to alliance building.\" Fox himself asserted in 2001 (one year into his administration) that he much preferred his experience as candidate than actually being president."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alpazat cave rescue",
        "text": "Then-President Vicente Fox sent a letter of protest to London about the affair, saying, \"We are asking the British government to tell us whether these people are military personnel, and if they are, what they are doing there.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Adolfo Aguilar Z\u00ednser",
        "text": "Following a speech to students at Mexico City's Ibero-American University on November 11, 2003, in which Aguilar claimed that the political and intellectual class of the United States sees Mexico as \"a country whose position is that of a back yard\" \"(patio trasero)\" and that Washington was interested in only \"a relationship of convenience and subordination\" and \"a weekend fling\" \"(un noviazgo de fin de semana)\", President Fox requested his resignation on 18 November. Two days later, Aguilar announced his resignation in writing accusing Fox of treason and submission to US interests. Aguilar saw nothing controversial in his speech, considering it \"obvious and historical\"; it was, however, spun in the media to imply that Aguilar himself believed that Mexico was the US's backyard and was thus unworthy to represent the country at the UN. The speech served as a pretext to fire him and placate the US, although Mexico never gave the US what it wanted: support for the 2003 invasion of Iraq."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Before Vicente Fox, Mexico practiced the Estrada Doctrine, so named after its creator, Genaro Estrada (Secretary of Foreign Affairs during the Presidency of Pascual Ortiz Rubio). The Estrada Doctrine favored an enclosed view of sovereignty. It claimed that foreign governments should not judge, for good or bad, governments or changes in governments in other nations, because it would imply a breach of their sovereignty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Minatitl\u00e1n shooting",
        "text": "Former Mexican presidents Vicente Fox and Felipe Calder\u00f3n also criticized the President's attitude, with Calder\u00f3n blaming L\u00f3pez Obrador's \"corrupt regime\" for the insecurity that led to the shooting, and Fox responding to L\u00f3pez Obrador's tweet against his political opponents saying \"What a shame that even tragedies are used by you as a springboard for aggression. It's not all about you, AMLO. To speak about the people does not mean to govern them, but to take care of them. No more violence! #Minatitlan\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In addition to some debate controversies, Fox also faced some controversy due to \"Amigos de Fox\" (Friends of Fox), a nonprofit fundraising group established by Denise Monta\u00f1o. The group was instrumental in getting Vicente Fox elected President of Mexico, and the phrase \"Amigos de Fox\" was used as a campaign slogan referring to the millions of people supporting Fox in the 2000 presidential election."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador",
        "text": "In 2006, the Spanish newspaper \"El Pa\u00eds\" criticized L\u00f3pez Obrador for what it characterized as \"extreme\" verbal insults toward Mexican government institutions and President Vicente Fox."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox's cabinet blamed the low growth on the slowdown of the Economy of the United States, but that country started growing again in 2002-2003. Mexico did not grow at the same pace and was surpassed by China as the second-largest trade partner of the United States. Fox had promised growth of 7% during his campaign and blamed Congress for the low economic growth but his administration had foreseen growth of 3.4% even without the approval of structural reforms, especially fiscal reforms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foxilandia",
        "text": "Chapter 14 of Luis Mandoki's \"Who is Mr. L\u00f3pez\" documentary is titled \"Foxilandia\") journalists Miguel \u00c1ngel Granados Chapa, Jaime Avil\u00e9s and professors Denise Dresser (Autonomous Technological Institute of Mexico, ITAM) and Lorenzo Meyer (Colegio de M\u00e9xico, COLMEX) and news anchor Joaqu\u00edn L\u00f3pez-D\u00f3riga contrast Fox's official declarations with reality as well as Fox's campaign promises and its results such as:\n* Economy growing at a 7% rate and creating 1,350,000 jobs, while the economy grew 0.7% from 2001-2003 and unemployment grew 188% Nevertheless, the rise in unemployment can be attributed to the record deficit in the United States.\n* Promise of deep political change but the Undersecretary of Finance during Carlos Salinas's government became Secretary of Finance during Fox's term and the Secretary of Finance during Ernesto Zedillo's government became Governor of the Bank of Mexico.\n* Fox highlighted a change in customs in Mexican politics by saying that in his term the President would not interfere with the electoral process. The documentary shows video-footage of several demonstrations of Fox supporting the candidates of the ruling party and of Alfonso Durazo, his former personal secretary, declaring that no previous President was ever as active campaigning for candidates of his own party as was Fox. However, it is widely known in Mexico that Presidents before Vicente Fox always handpicked their successor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "As Fox frequently uses Twitter (in English) to respond to tweets by President Trump, he has attracted more than 1\u00a0million followers on his Twitter account."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During Fox's presidency, the Mexican Stock Exchange reached record highs throughout his term. The record highs were caused by a better economic outlook throughout his term, larger foreign currency reserves, and a better debt rating that lowered interest rates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "While the lowest points of his approval ratings were:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "From then on, relation between the Legislative and the Executive were strained. Lawmakers from opposition parties admitted they had a hard time dealing with Fox, while lawmakers from Fox's party claimed that there were \"legislative excesses\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "On 2 July 2000, his 58th birthday, Fox won the presidential election with 43% (15,989,636 votes) of the popular vote, followed by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) candidate Francisco Labastida with 36% (13,579,718 votes), and Cuauht\u00e9moc C\u00e1rdenas of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) with 17% (6,256,780 votes). Fox declared victory that same night, a victory that was ratified by then-President Zedillo. After the final results were announced, President-elect Fox addressed thousands of supporters and celebrated his victory with them at the Angel of Independence monument in Mexico City. His opponents conceded the election later that night."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Presidency of Vicente Fox\n--Cabinet.\n--Economy.\n----Currency and inflation.\n----Growth.\n----Employment and income.\n----Finance and investments.\n--Human development.\n--Relations with Congress.\n----Investigations.\n--Foreign policy.\n----Relations with the United States.\n------Immigration.\n----Casta\u00f1eda Doctrine.\n----Iraq War.\n----Plan Puebla Panama.\n------2005 Summit at Mar del Plata.\n--Education, science, and technology.\n----Jos\u00e9 Vasconcelos Library.\n--Texcoco and San Salvador Atenco.\n--Institutional image.\n--2006 presidential election.\n--Approval ratings.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Tax revenue as a proportion of GDP fell from 10.6% at the beginning of his administration to 9.7% at the end of his term. In contrast with previous administrations, as a proportion of GDP debt did not grow during Fox's term."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Job creation stalled during Fox's first four years. According to the Economist Intelligence Unit not only were no jobs created from 2000-2004 but the number of street vendors increased 40%. This workforce does not pay income or sales tax and significant minority participates in illicit activities such as smuggling and piracy. The latter grew during Fox's term to an 8 billion industry. Net sales of the clothing industry in Mexico is calculated at approximately 1,500 million dollars, of which 910 million are from smuggled clothing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Although Fox's victory in the 2000 election and the end of seven decades of PRI rule raised great expectations of change among the Mexican people, his administration was criticized for failing to fulfill those expectations, as little progress was made in fighting corruption, crime, poverty, unemployment and inequality. Few key reforms were implemented during the Fox administration, which became characterised by a growing sense of power vacuum as Fox was increasingly perceived by Mexican society and political actors as a \"lame duck\" incapable of pushing the ambitious reform agenda that swept him into power in 2000. Alejandro Cacho points out that \"Fox incarnated the hope of alternancy [...] and he managed to kick the PRI out of Los Pinos, but his government was a disappointment. Corruption persisted; in fact, his sons-in-law (the Bribiesca-Sahag\u00fan brothers) became rich quickly and without explanation. The economy wasn't much better than it had been under Ernesto Zedillo, the wages didn't increase significantly, neither did jobs. His \"super cabinet\" [\"gabinetazo\", as Fox himself referred to it] created more controversy than it did good results. His wife, Marta Sahag\u00fan, had a big influence in the presidential decisions\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "GDP growth dropped from an average of 5.1% in the Zedillo administration to the lowest in a decade, an average of 2.2% during Fox's administration. According to Fox's first government report address (equivalent to the state of the union address in the United States), affected sectors were mining (-1.5% growth), manufacturing (-2.28% growth), and construction (-5.36%), while electricity, gas and water (1.76% growth) and services (2.65%) did not decrease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "As president, he mostly followed the neoliberal economic policies that his predecessors from the PRI had adopted since the late 1980s. The first half of his administration saw a further shift of the federal government to the right, strong relations with the United States and George W. Bush, unsuccessful attempts to apply a value-added tax to medicines and to build an airport in Texcoco, and a major diplomatic conflict with Cuban leader Fidel Castro. The murder of human rights lawyer Digna Ochoa in 2001 called into question the Fox administration's commitment to breaking with the authoritarian past of the PRI era."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After serving as president of Mexico for six years, Fox returned to his home state of Guanajuato, where he now resides with his wife and family. Since leaving the presidency, Fox has been involved in public speaking and the development of the Vicente Fox Center of Studies, Library and Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Estrada Doctrine",
        "text": "Jorge Casta\u00f1eda Gutman, who would later serve a two-year term as the Secretary of Foreign Affairs during the Vicente Fox administration, criticized Mexico's foreign policy in 1987:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In a national survey conducted in 2012 by BGC-Excelsior regarding former presidents, 32% of the respondents considered that the Fox administration was \"very good\" or \"good\", 25% responded that it was an \"average\" administration, and 42% responded that it was a \"very bad\" or \"bad\" administration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The Jos\u00e9 Vasconcelos Library, labeled by the press as the \"Megabiblioteca\" (\"megalibrary\"), was Fox's largest investment in infrastructure. The library is spread on and had an initial planned cost of 954 million pesos (roughly 98 million dollars)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The second half of his administration was marked by his conflict with Andr\u00e9s Manuel L\u00f3pez Obrador, then Mexico City's Mayor. The PAN and the Fox administration unsuccessfully attempted to remove L\u00f3pez Obrador from office and to prevent him from participating in the 2006 presidential elections. The Fox administration also became embroiled with diplomatic conflicts with Venezuela and Bolivia after supporting the creation of the Free Trade Area of the Americas, which was opposed by those two countries. His last year in office oversaw the controversial 2006 elections, where the PAN candidate Felipe Calder\u00f3n was declared winner by a very narrow margin over his opponent L\u00f3pez Obrador, who claimed that the elections were rigged and refused to recognize the results, calling for protests across the country. In the same year, the southern state of Oaxaca was the scene of a teacher's strike which culminated into protests and violent clashes asking for the resignation of governor Ulises Ruiz Ortiz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ram\u00f3n Mart\u00edn Huerta",
        "text": "From 1988 to 1991 he served in the lower house of the Mexican Congress. He was assigned personal secretary of former Governor Carlos Medina Plascencia. When Vicente Fox was elected Governor of Guanajuato he became a cabinet member and later, when Fox resigned in 1999 to run for the presidency, he was appointed substitute governor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Alberto Fern\u00e1ndez",
        "text": "On 9 June 2021, during a working meeting with business leaders alongside Spanish Prime Minister Pedro S\u00e1nchez at the Casa Rosada, Fern\u00e1ndez sought to play up the Argentinian ties with Europe by saying that \"The Mexicans came from the Indians, the Brazilians came from the jungle, but we Argentines came from the ships. And they were ships that came from Europe.\" Fern\u00e1ndez erroneously attributed the quote to the Mexican poet, essayist and diplomat Octavio Paz, although it had originated from lyrics by local musician and personal friend Litto Nebbia. Faced with the negative backlash to his comments, on the same day Fern\u00e1ndez apologized on Twitter and the next day sent a letter to the director of the National Institute Against Discrimination, Xenophobia and Racism (INADI), clarifying his comments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Mexico hosted several international summits during Fox's administration. The Monterrey Summit of 2001 adopted the so-called Monterrey Consensus. President Fox and his Foreign Relations cabinet were protagonists of one of the most serious diplomatic controversies of his administration. At the Summit, many heads of State were invited to the International Conference on Financing for Development. Early in the meeting Cuban President Fidel Castro surprisingly stood and said that he was leaving the city because of \"a special situation created by my participation in this Summit\". Fox repeatedly denied Castro's subsequent allegations that he was asked to leave the summit, responding to a U.S. request. Several weeks after the incident, a recording of a phone call between Fox and Castro where the Mexican president asks Castro to leave before George Bush arrived at the summit was leaked to the press."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox was one of the few presidents to avoid a major economic upheaval, although the economy grew at the slowest pace in history, second only to the de la Madrid administration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pemexgate",
        "text": "Vicente Fox, as promised during his presidential campaign, made efforts to clarify past corruptions during his presidency. His first few years in office were high in public profile due to all the news related to allegations of corruption followed by his pledge to pursue it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "PAN members accused Veracruz's governor, Fidel Herrera Beltr\u00e1n, of \"ordering the attack on the statue,\" and Fox called the governor intolerant. Others in the media argued that the installation of the statue was inappropriate, since former President Fox was facing allegations relating to an illicit enrichment scandal at the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The number of registered workers affiliated to the Mexican Social Security Institute decreased from 11,026,370 in December 2000 to 10,881,160. Unemployment increased from 2.7% in 2002 to 3.2 in 2003, and the number of non-payroll workers increased to 20 million people or roughly half of the population able to work. Jobs in maquiladoras decreased by 30%"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexican drug war",
        "text": "In 2000, Vicente Fox, from the right-wing PAN party, became the first Mexican president since the Mexican Revolution not to be from the PRI; his presidency passed with relative peace, having a crime index not too different from that of previous administrations, and Mexican public opinion was mainly optimistic with the regime change, with Mexico showing a decline in homicide rates from 2000 to 2007. One of the Fox's administration's strongest criticisms arose from its management of the peasant unrest in San Salvador Atenco."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Vicente Fox joined four other Latin American presidents at the One Young World Summit 2014 in Dublin, Ireland, to discuss the Telef\u00f3nica Millennial Survey. He told those in the audience that eradicating corruption \"has to start with education\" and that his focus is now on promoting leadership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cry of Dolores",
        "text": "Many presidents add their \"personal touch\" to the Grito and this can be controversial. President Vicente Fox frequently took liberties with it, adding and removing items, addressing Mexicans in both genders, and in 2001 wishing long life to \"our agreements\". Pe\u00f1a Nieto gave \"vivas\" to victims of recent earthquakes in 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Mexico suffered a drop in competitiveness during Fox's administration. In 2006, Mexico ranked 56th of 60 countries in the World Competitiveness Yearbook due to poor infrastructure, ease of doing business and high manufacturing costs such as electricity. Fox's large investment in infrastructure did not translate in lower costs, because of a lack of coordination between government bodies. To address this in 2004, Fox launched an Economic Policy for Competitivity (\"Pol\u00edtica Econ\u00f3mica para la Competitividad\" or PEC) however, improvement is not expected until after 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luis Carlos Heinze",
        "text": "In a public hearing held in the municipality of Vicente Dutra in November 2013, Heinze said that \"quilombolas, Indians, gays, lesbians\" are \"everything that is not good.\" In February 2014 these comments were published in the national newspapers, although Heinze stood by his words and said that he meant what he said. He also said that he supported forming a private militia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During Fox's administration, Mexico pushed for \"comprehensive\" reform of U.S. immigration law that addressed the problem of Illegal immigration to the United States. The issue had been called \"The Whole Enchilada\" by Fox's administration, which stated that \"immigration reform in the United States should address mutual border problems, the rights of undocumented immigrants, and the development of regions in Mexico that 'expel' migrants\". However, according to former U.S. ambassador to Mexico Jeffrey Davidow, all discussions between the parties on immigration were informal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alberto Fernandez (diplomat)",
        "text": "The State Department reacted by denying that he had made the comments, claiming that they had been \"mistranslated.\" After independent translators confirmed the translation as being correct, a news release issued by the State Department quoted an apology from Fernandez: \"Upon reading the transcript of my appearance on Al-Jazeera, I realized that I seriously misspoke by using the phrase 'there has been arrogance and stupidity' by the U.S. in Iraq. This represents neither my views nor those of the State Department. I apologize.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "During the country's tenure as a rotating member of the UN Security Council, Mexico did not support the U.S-led 2003 invasion of Iraq,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Fox was elected President of Mexico in the 2000 presidential election, a historically significant election since it made him the first president elected from an opposition party since the election of Francisco I. Madero in 1911. Fox finished in first place with 42 percent of the vote."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The proposed airport plan would relocate 4,375 families and convert of farmland. Peasants from these areas resisted relocation and formed the Community Front in Defense of Land in 2002. The protests turned violent as protesters took hostages and state forces had to negotiate their release, while Fox announced no change in plans had been considered. After the federal government's failure to negotiate with the farmers, plans for the new airport had to be abandoned. The protesters, many of whom wore black ski masks made famous by rebels in Chiapas became instant heroes to poor farmers nationwide. while journalists, like Sergio Sarmiento called this issue \"the biggest failure\" of Fox's tenure and declared:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "On 7 August 2021, it was reported and confirmed that Vicente Fox and his wife Martha Sahag\u00fan were preventively admitted to a hospital in Le\u00f3n, Guanajuato after being infected with COVID-19 during the pandemic in Mexico, but without serious symptoms.\n* Collar of the Order of the Liberator General San Mart\u00edn (Argentina)\n* Grand Star of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria (Austria, 2005)\n* Grand Cross of the Order of Vytautas the Great (Lithuania, 14 January 2002)\n* Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (United Kingdom)\n* Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (Spain, 8 November 2002)\n* Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim (Sweden, 22 October 2002)\n*History of Mexico\n*List of presidents of Mexico\n*Politics of Mexico\n* Schmidt, Samuel (2000). \"M\u00e9xico encadenado: El legado de Zedillo y los retos de Fox\". M\u00e9xico, D.F.: Colibr\u00ed.\n* Vicente Fox website during his Presidency\n* Vicente Fox Museum and Library\n* Extended bio and presidential tenure, by CIDOB Foundation\n* Vicente Fox Interview on The Hour with George Stroumboulopoulos\n*\n* Miguel Angel Mancera Espinosa"
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign relations of Mexico",
        "text": "During the first presidency of the National Action Party, Vicente Fox appointed Jorge Casta\u00f1eda to be his Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Casta\u00f1eda immediately broke with the Estrada Doctrine, promoting what was called by critics the \"Casta\u00f1eda Doctrine\". The new foreign policy called for an openness and an acceptance of criticism from the international community, and the increase of Mexican involvement in foreign affairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jos\u00e9 Vicente de Freitas",
        "text": "Following his resignation as Prime-Minister he expresses his dissenting position on a conservative, nationalist constitutional revision project and the rise of the National Union as a single party, contrary to the objectives of its creation. In his sharp critics, published in the media, he concluded that \"If States have to be strong, then freedom of thought cannot cease to exist.\", this would motivate Oliveira Salazar to dismiss him from the capital, on 15 February 1933, his term would nevertheless end on paper on 31 December 1934, thus ceasing its political career."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "Mexico experienced some level of currency devaluation at the end of three of the four presidential terms from 1970 to 1994. Ernesto Zedillo floated the peso at the beginning of his term (1994\u20132000). Zedillo passed the office to Fox without an economic emergency. In 2006, Vicente Fox, like Zedillo in 2000, left office without a significant devaluation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "The first major controversy occurred during the discussion of comprehensive tax reform that included a value added tax of 15% on all products, including food and medicine, to replace the complex system of discretionary exceptions that still exists today. Congress rejected Fox's proposal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Vicente Fox",
        "text": "In 2001, Fox announced the construction of a 2.3 billion dollar international airport in the municipalities of Texcoco and San Salvador Atenco in the State of M\u00e9xico to relieve congestion at the overcrowded Mexico City airport, the busiest in Latin America. This new airport would bring thousands of new jobs to an area ravaged by extreme poverty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carlos Fuentes",
        "text": "Mexican President Felipe Calder\u00f3n wrote on Twitter, \"I am profoundly sorry for the death of our loved and admired Carlos Fuentes, writer and universal Mexican. Rest in peace.\" Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa stated, \"with him, we lose a writer whose work and whose presence left a deep imprint\". French President Fran\u00e7ois Hollande called Fuentes \"a great friend of our country\" and stated that Fuentes had \"defended with ardour a simple and dignified idea of humanity\". Salman Rushdie tweeted \"RIP Carlos my friend\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicente Fox",
        "text": "After securing the election, Fox received substantial media coverage, as well as numerous congratulatory messages and phone calls from world leaders, including then-President of the United States Bill Clinton. He took office on 1 December 2000, the first time since 1917 that an opposition candidate had taken power from the long-reigning Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)\n:\"See article Fox administration\""
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the Mexican President have to be born in Mexico?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It is required that to be eligible for the office on must be a natural-born citizen of Mexico able to exercise full citizenship rights, with at least one parent who is a natural-born citizen of Mexico."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has there ever been a Mexican president who only had one natural-born parent?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were some of the business ventures of Vicente Fox Quesada?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "He worked in Coca-Cola as a route supervisor and drove a delivery truck in 1964. After 9 years he rose to the top as President and Chief Executive of Coca-Cola Mexico, after retiring he did various public activities in Guanajuato like an orphanage."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did Vicente Fox Quesada become involved in politics?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "He joined the  Partido Acci\u00f3n Nacional on March 1, 1988, and was elected to the federal Chamber of Deputies that same year. He ran for governor of Guanajuato in 1991 but lost, four years later he ran again and won by a vote of 2 to 1."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the opinion of Donald Trump on Vicente Fox Quesada?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I don't have any information on Trump's opinion on Vicente Fox, but Trump replied on Twitter to him, demanding that Fox apologize for using \"the F word while discussing the wall.\" Fox eventually apologized for the remark, while also asking for Trump to apologize for his remarks about Mexicans and inviting Trump to visit Mexico."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were the remarks that Vicente Fox Quesada made?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The remark Vicente Fox said was: \"I am not going to pay for that fucking wall. He should pay for it. He's got the money.\".",
      "In an interview with Univision's Jorge Ramos in February 2016, Fox responded to then-candidate Trump's proposal to build a wall at the border between the United States and Mexico at Mexico's expense, declaring in English, \"I am not going to pay for that fucking wall. He should pay for it. He's got the money.\""
    ],
    "topic": "Vicente Fox",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Vicente Fox:48",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vicente Fox",
          "Post-presidential life",
          "Criticism of Donald Trump"
        ],
        "ctx": "In an interview with Univision's Jorge Ramos in February 2016, Fox responded to then-candidate Trump's proposal to build a wall at the border between the United States and Mexico at Mexico's expense, declaring in English, \"I am not going to pay for that fucking wall. He should pay for it. He's got the money.\" Fox went on to call Trump a \"crazy guy\" and a \"false prophet,\" and questioned the claim that Trump received 44% of the Hispanic vote in the Republican caucus in Nevada. Trump took to Twitter in response, demanding that Fox apologize for using \"the F word while discussing the wall.\" Fox eventually apologized for the remark, while also asking for Trump to apologize for his remarks about Mexicans and inviting Trump to visit Mexico."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Vicente Fox:48",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vicente Fox",
          "Post-presidential life",
          "Criticism of Donald Trump"
        ],
        "ctx": "In an interview with Univision's Jorge Ramos in February 2016, Fox responded to then-candidate Trump's proposal to build a wall at the border between the United States and Mexico at Mexico's expense, declaring in English, \"I am not going to pay for that fucking wall. He should pay for it. He's got the money.\" Fox went on to call Trump a \"crazy guy\" and a \"false prophet,\" and questioned the claim that Trump received 44% of the Hispanic vote in the Republican caucus in Nevada. Trump took to Twitter in response, demanding that Fox apologize for using \"the F word while discussing the wall.\" Fox eventually apologized for the remark, while also asking for Trump to apologize for his remarks about Mexicans and inviting Trump to visit Mexico."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The hamburger first appeared in the 19th or early 20th century. The modern hamburger was a product of the culinary needs of a society rapidly changing due to industrialization and the emergence of the working class and the middle class with the resulting demand for mass-produced, affordable food that could be consumed outside of the home."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Considerable evidence suggests that either the United States or Germany (the city of Hamburg) was the first country where two slices of bread and a ground beef steak were combined into a \"hamburger sandwich\" and sold. There is some controversy over the origin of the hamburger because its two basic ingredients, bread and beef, had been prepared and consumed separately for many years in different countries before their combination. Shortly after its creation, the hamburger quickly included all of its currently typically characteristic trimmings, including onions, lettuce, and sliced pickles."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "There is good evidence that the first hamburger served on a bun was made by Oscar Bilby of Tulsa, Oklahoma, in 1891."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Many recipes and dishes traveled along with transatlantic immigrants to their destinations in the New World. Some authors question whether the [[Hamburg America Line]] was part of this, arguing that the hamburger was created to meet needs that arose amongst immigrants already in the New World. Others, however, support the thesis that the Hamburg America Line brought the first Hamburger steaks from Europe to the Americas. The hamburger as it is known today has multiple invention claims ranging between 1885 and 1904, but it is clearly the product of the early 20th century. During the following 100 years, the hamburger spread throughout the world as a result of the emerging concept of fast food and a new business model: the [[Chain store|franchise]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The exact origin of the hamburger may never be known with any certainty. Most historians believe that it was invented by a cook who placed a Hamburg steak between two slices of bread in a small town in Texas, and others credit the founder of White Castle for developing the \"Hamburger Sandwich.\" Records from that time are scarce, however."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "All claims for invention occur between 1885 and 1904, making it probable that the hamburger was created sometime in these two decades. Despite varieties, there are common elements in all of the narratives, most notably that the hamburger was born as a food associated with major events such as [[amusement park]]s, [[fair]]s, [[Meeting|conferences]], and festivals. All the hypotheses also share the presence of [[street vendor]]s."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "The Library of Congress credits Danish immigrant Louis Lassen of Louis' Lunch, a small lunch wagon in New Haven, Connecticut, with selling the first hamburger and steak sandwich in the U.S. in 1895."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Prior to the disputed invention of the hamburger in the United States, similar foods already existed in the culinary tradition of Europe. The Apicius cookbook, a collection of ancient Roman recipes that may date to the early 4th century, details a preparation of beef called \"isicia omentata\"; served as a baked patty in which beef is mixed with pine kernels, black and green peppercorns, and white wine, \"isicia omentata\" may be the earliest precursor to the hamburger."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "History of the hamburger\n--Beginning.\n----Hamburg and its port.\n----Hamburg steak.\n--Invention.\n----North America.\n----Controversial origins.\n----Ingredients.\n--Commercialization.\n----White Castle System.\n----McDonald's era.\n----Variants.\n--Culinary history.\n--Global phenomenon.\n--Present day.\n----Nutritional controversies.\n----Media.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[Category:History of the hamburger| ]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The first automobile [[production line]] was created by [[Karl Benz]] in Germany in 1888. The widespread appearance of telephones occurred at the beginning of the 20th century, along with other modern means of communication, including radio. For the average American who had not eaten in a restaurant in his or her entire life, the fast food chains that appeared in the cities offered an alternative form of restaurant in which eating was very much a public activity. The concept of a \"[[greasy spoon]]\" was thus born with these restaurants, in which [[hygiene]] suffered in exchange for more inexpensive food. On the other hand, there was a growing [[interconnected]] world in which trips by car, bus, and rail became increasingly available. All these means of transport were improving at the time, and soon it was necessary to feed a growing population that was \"in permanent transit\", frequently moving through different cities [[business travel|on business]]. [[George Pullman]] invented the [[sleeping car]] and the [[dining car]] in response to the needs of these people in the 1870s. Similarly, the English immigrant [[Fred Harvey (entrepreneur)|Frederick Henry Harvey]] was the first to use \"dynamic mass movement\" in restoring the [[Fred Harvey Company]], which catered to the patrons of a chain of hotels located near railway stations, as well as offering catering, services, and high quality products on the trains themselves."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[Category:Hamburgers (food)]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Among the vegetables that come with the hamburger, the first described in the literature on its history is the onion, usually finely sliced in rings. Thus, the hamburger came to continue the long American tradition of sandwiches featuring some kind of plant product, whether that be lettuce (as in the case of the [[BLT sandwich]]), [[sauerkraut]] (as on the [[reuben sandwich|reuben]]), [[coleslaw]], or [[pickled cucumber|pickles]]. It is possible that after the creation of the hamburger by uniting the steak with the bread, vegetables were included to give the finished product a more \"natural\" appearance and taste. All of these condiments were incorporated into the classical image of the hamburger during its golden age, the 1940s. In some cases, the hamburger is prepared differently and distinctly to add regional flavor, as in the case of [[Tex-Mex]] style burgers, which are served with a side of [[chili con carne]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:\u05d4\u05de\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d2\u05e8_\u05d8\u05d1\u05e2\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A [[vegan]] version of the hamburger]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[Category:History of food and drink]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[Category:American sandwiches]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "The family of Oscar Weber Bilby claim the first-known hamburger on a bun was served on July 4, 1891, on Grandpa Oscar's farm. The bun was a yeast bun. In 1995, Governor Frank Keating proclaimed that the first true hamburger on a bun was created and consumed in Tulsa, Oklahoma in 1891, calling Tulsa, \"The Real Birthplace of the Hamburger.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:Mass-produced hamburgers.jpg|250px|thumb|left|The hamburger solved the technical problem of mass-producing semi-processed food.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "There are many additional claims as to the origin of the hamburger. Some enthusiasts claim the hamburger could have been created in S\u00e3o Gon\u00e7alo, a municipality located in the Brazilian state of Rio de Janeiro, in the 18th century by a Chef named Sauerbrown \"Little\" Victor, but this claim has no supporting evidence to back the opinion. A local newspaper claims that Louis Lassen, a Danish immigrant who arrived in America in 1880, sold butter and eggs as a street vendor. In 1974, in an [[interview]] with \"[[The New York Times]]\", he recounted how he created a hamburger steak sandwich with small strips of beef for a restaurant known as [[Louis' Lunch]]. Lassen's family claims 1900 as the year of his invention. Revealed in a public confrontation between the grandson of Louis, Kenneth Davis Lassen Fletch, and his uncle, documentation signed under notary in 1900 demonstrates the development of the hamburger, as it stresses the difference between a \"hamburger steak\" and a \"hamburger sandwich\". Louis' Lunch flame broils the hamburgers in the original vertical [[cast iron]] [[gas stoves]] manufactured by the Bridge and Beach, Co., [[St. Louis, Missouri]], in 1898. The stoves use hinged steel wire [[Gridiron (cooking)|gridirons]] to hold the hamburgers in place while they [[cooking|cook]] simultaneously on both sides. The gridirons were made by Luigi Pieragostini and patented in 1938."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "The origin of the hamburger is unclear, though \"hamburger steak sandwiches\" have been advertised in U.S. newspapers from New York to Hawaii since at least the 1890s. The invention of hamburgers is commonly attributed to various people, including Charlie Nagreen, Frank and Charles Menches, Oscar Weber Bilby, Fletcher Davis, or Louis Lassen. White Castle traces the origin of the hamburger to Hamburg, Germany with its invention by Otto Kuase. Some have pointed to a recipe for \u201cHamburgh sausages\u201d on toasted bread, which was published in \u201cThe Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy\u201d by Hannah Glasse in 1747. However, hamburgers gained national recognition at the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair when the \"New York Tribune\" referred to the hamburger as \"the innovation of a food vendor on the pike\". No conclusive argument has ever ended the dispute over invention. An article from ABC News sums up: \"One problem is that there is little written history. Another issue is that the spread of the burger happened largely at the World's Fair, from tiny vendors that came and went in an instant. And it is entirely possible that more than one person came up with the idea at the same time in different parts of the country.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Louis' Lunch",
        "text": "An article from ABC News sums up the problems of identifying the origins of the hamburger by stating, \"One problem is that there is little written history. Another issue is that the spread of the burger happened largely at the World's Fair, from tiny vendors that came and went in an instant. And it is entirely possible that more than one person came up with the idea at the same time in different parts of the country.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Fletcher Davis of Athens, Texas claimed to have invented the hamburger. According to oral histories, in the 1880s he opened a lunch counter in Athens and served a 'burger' of fried ground beef patties with mustard and Bermuda onion between two slices of bread, with a pickle on the side. The story is that in 1904, Davis and his wife Ciddy ran a sandwich stand at the St. Louis World's Fair. Historian Frank X. Tolbert, noted that Athens resident Clint Murchison said his grandfather dated the hamburger to the 1880s with 'Old Dave' a.k.a. Fletcher Davis. A photo of \"Old Dave's Hamburger Stand\" from 1904 was sent to Tolbert as evidence of the claim."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "The Texas historian Frank X. Tolbert attributes the invention of the hamburger to Fletcher Davis of Athens, Texas. Davis is believed to have sold hamburgers at his caf\u00e9 at 115 Tyler Street in Athens, Texas, in the late 1880s, before bringing them to the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair.\n;Menches Brothers 1885"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "As with the invention of the hamburger, the exact origins of the [[cheeseburger]] are unknown. Several chefs claim to have been the first to add a slice of cheese to a hamburger. [[Lionel Sternberger]] of Rite Spot in [[Pasadena, California]], takes credit for the cheeseburger, claiming that he invented it between 1924 and 1926. A description from a 1928 menu from the [[O'Dell Restaurant]] in Los Angeles reveals that it was serving burgers with slices of cheese at the time. Luis Ballast, owner of the Humpty Dumpty drive-in restaurant in [[Denver]], Colorado, made an attempt to create a cheeseburger with a [[registered trademark]] known as a \"yellowburger\" in 1935. J.C. Reynolds, the operator of a bar in [[Southern California]] from 1932 to 1984, popularized a [[pimento]] burger. [[Processed cheese]], the type of cheese most used in cheeseburgers, was invented in 1911 by Walter Gerber of [[Thun]], Switzerland, although the first U.S. patent awarded for it was given to [[James L. Kraft]] in 1916. [[Kraft Foods]] went on to create the first commercial version of sliced processed cheese, which was first introduced to the market in 1950."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "One of the first \"birth of the burger\" stories belongs to Canton, Ohio, natives Frank and Charles Menches who were food vendors at the 1885 Erie County Fair outside of Buffalo, New York, also known as the Hamburg Fair. Legend has it that during the course of the Fair, the Menches ran out of their signature menu item of pork sausage sandwiches. Their local supplier, Hamburg butcher Andrew Klein, was reluctant to butcher more hogs during a period of unseasonable late summer heat and suggested to substitute the use of ground beef. The brothers fired some up, but both found it dry and bland. They added coffee, brown sugar and other ingredients to create a unique taste. The original sandwiches were sold with just ketchup and sliced onions. With new found success with their beef sandwich, they christened it the \u201chamburger\u201d after the Erie County Fair's home town of [[Hamburg, New York|Hamburg]]. \"National Birth of the Burger Day\" is celebrated on September 18 to honor the invention of the burger in 1885 at the Hamburg Fair. In the 1920s, carnival historian John C. Kunzog interviewed Frank Menches about his experience at the Erie County Fair. His detailed hamburger story was published in this book, \u201cTanbark & Tinsel\u201d published in 1970."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In the same year that Charlie Nagreen claimed to have developed his \"Hamburger Charlie\", the brothers and street cooks Frank and Charles Menches of [[Akron, Ohio]], claimed to have sold a ground beef [[sandwich]] at the [[Erie County Fair]]. They assert that the name of the hamburger was derived from the town [[Hamburg (town), New York|Hamburg]], New York, in [[Erie County, New York|Erie County]], the first place in which it had been sold. This statement has been very poorly documented or substantiated, and in the case of an oral tradition, it is not without its contradictions. Its famous description of the [[secret ingredient]]s used in the recipes, such as coffee or [[brown sugar]], is primitive."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Hamburg steak, once served between two slices of bread, began to be prepared with a variety of different ingredients that were included either in the sandwich itself or as a side dish accompanying it on a plate. One of these accompaniments, which is still common with today's burger, is [[ketchup]], a type of [[tomato sauce]] with a blend of [[flavor]]s between [[sweet]] and [[sour]] that was first produced commercially in 1869 by entrepreneur and chef [[Henry John Heinz]] in [[Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania]]. His company was originally called the \"Anchor Pickle and Vinegar Works\", but in 1888 it was renamed [[H. J. Heinz Company|F. & J. Heinz]]. The use of ketchup by American consumers grew quickly after this date, and it was not long before hamburgers were almost universally accompanied by ketchup by the end of the nineteenth and into the early 20th century. [[Mustard (condiment)|Mustard]] is a significantly older [[condiment]], as it is thought that the [[ancient Rome|ancient Romans]] used a dressing made with non-fermented grapes and [[grape seed]]s known as \"mustum ardens\". Another ingredient incorporated into the burger, [[mayonnaise]], appears to have been present in 18th century France, after the naval victory of [[Louis-Fran\u00e7ois-Armand du Plessis de Richelieu]] in the port of [[Mah\u00f3n]] in [[Menorca]] around 1756."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "The hamburger bun was invented in 1916 by a fry cook named Walter Anderson, who co-founded White Castle in 1921."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:DaviesStallStLawrenceMarket.jpg|300px|thumb|left|William Davies Company stall at the St. Lawrence Market in Toronto, Canada. Scenes such as this became common during the early twentieth century in the United States and Canada as the meat market grew rapidly.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Various non-specific claims of invention relate to the term \"hamburger steak\" without mention of its being a sandwich. The first printed American menu which listed hamburger is said to be an 1834 menu from Delmonico's in New York. However, the printer of the original menu was not in business in 1834. In 1889, a menu from Walla Walla Union in Washington offered hamburger steak as a menu item."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "During the first half of the 19th century, most European emigrants to the New World embarked from Hamburg, and New York City was their most common destination. Restaurants in New York offered \"Hamburg-style American fillet\", or even \"beefsteak \u00e0 la Hambourgeoise\". Early American preparations of minced beef were therefore made to fit the tastes of European immigrants, evoking memories of the port of Hamburg and the world they left behind."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:Big Mac hamburger - Japan (1).jpg|300px|thumb|The [[Big Mac]] popularized an evolution in the image of the hamburger.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Western New York",
        "text": "At the 1885 Erie County Fair (known as the Hamburg Fair) in Hamburg, New York, Frank and Charles Menches sold a ground beef sandwich, which is one of the earliest claims of the invention of the hamburger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seymour, Wisconsin",
        "text": "\"Hamburger\" Charlie Nagreen served the world's first hamburger at the Seymour Fair of 1885 when he decided to flatten a meatball and place it between slices of bread to increase portability."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "In April 1995, the Dallas Morning News reported on an Oklahoma author who said that Tulsa beat out Texas as the birthplace of the delicacy. Michael Wallis, author of \"Route 66, The Mother Road\", was quoted by the newspaper as saying that he had discovered Tulsa's place in culinary history, which he made while researching the state\u2019s tastiest hamburgers. He started at the restaurant that has been voted Tulsa's best burger more often than any other restaurant since 1933, Weber\u2019s Root Beer Stand. Wallis\u2019 research revealed that Oscar Weber Bilby was the first person to serve a real hamburger when, on July 4, 1891, ground beef was served on his wife\u2019s homemade buns at a Fourth of July party on his farm, just west of present-day Tulsa. Until then, ground beef had been served in Athens, Texas, on simple slices of bread, known then and presently as a \"patty melt\". According to the Tulsa-based author, the bun is essential. Therefore, in 1995, Governor Frank Keating cited Athens, Texas' serving of ground beef between two slices of bread as a minor accomplishment. The governor's April 1995 proclamation also cites the first true hamburger on the bun, after meticulous research, was created and consumed in Tulsa in 1891. The Governor's Proclamation cites April 13, 1995, in Tulsa as \"The Real Birthplace of the Hamburger.\"\n;Louis' Lunch 1895"
      },
      {
        "title": "Louis' Lunch",
        "text": "In 2000, the Library of Congress recognized Louis' Lunch as the creator of the hamburger after being backed by United States Representative Rosa L. DeLauro. The Library of Congress stated that Louis Lassen sold the first hamburger and steak sandwich in the U.S. in 1900. \"New York\" magazine states, \"The dish actually had no name until some rowdy sailors from Hamburg named the meat on a bun after themselves years later,\" noting also that this claim is subject to dispute."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:White Castle Building No. 8.jpg|250px|thumb|The 1936 [[White Castle Building No. 8]] in [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]]]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "History of the hamburger in the United States\n--Hamburger bun.\n----U.S. hamburger restaurants.\n--Variations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "The following restaurants have either played a part in the creation of the hamburger sandwich, developed a unique cooking method, or were the first to sell them nationwide:\n* Louis' Lunch 1895, New Haven, Connecticut. Louis' Lunch has been selling steak and hamburger sandwiches since 1895, when Louis Lassen opened his lunch wagon. This small establishment, which advertises itself as the oldest hamburger restaurant in the U.S., is credited by some with having invented the classic American hamburger when Louis sandwiched a ground steak patty between two pieces of white toast for a busy office worker in 1900. Louis' Lunch flame broils the hamburgers in the original 1898 Bridge & Beach vertical cast iron gas stoves using locally developed steel wire gridirons to hold the hamburgers in place during cooking (U.S. Patent #2,148,879). In 1974, \"The New York Times\" published a story about Louis' Lunch claiming to have invented the hamburger. The U.S. Library of Congress' American Folklife Center Local Legacies Project website credits Louis' Lunch as the maker of America's first hamburger and steak sandwich. The hamburger is still served today on two pieces of toast and not a bun.\n* Dyer's Burgers, 1912, Memphis, Tennessee, deep-fried burgers using a cast-iron skillet.\n* White Castle, 1921, Wichita, Kansas. Following the war, hamburgers became unpopular until the White Castle restaurant chain marketed and sold large numbers of small two-and-a-half-inch square hamburgers. They started to punch five holes in each patty, which helps them cook evenly and eliminates the need to flip the burgers. Their burger first sold for five cents. White Castle holds a U.S trademark on the word \"slyders.\" The White Castle building was modeled after the water tower building in Chicago, with the turrets and fortress-like walls. White Castle was the first to sell their hamburgers in grocery stores and vending machines. They also created the industrial-strength spatula, and were the first to mass-produce the paper hat. Today, there are more than 400 White Castle restaurants around the country, selling over 550 million hamburgers per year.\n*The Rite Spot, circa 1925, Pasadena, California. Lionel Sternberger claims to have invented the cheeseburger.\n* Kaelin's Restaurant, 1934, Louisville, Kentucky. This Kentucky restaurant claims to have invented the cheeseburger in 1934.\n* Humpty Dumpty Drive-In, 1935, Denver, Colorado. A trademark for the name \"cheeseburger\" was awarded to Louis Ballast of the Humpty Dumpty Drive-In in 1935.\n* Jack\u2019s Lunch, 1930s, Middletown, Connecticut. The steamed cheeseburger is believed to have been invented at this restaurant operated by Jack Fitzgerald.\n* Bob's Pantry (Bob's Big Boy), 1937, Glendale, California. Bob Wian invented the double deck cheeseburger. The Big Boy double deck hamburger lent its name to his restaurant chain."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "The Seymour Community Historical Society of Seymour, Wisconsin, credits Charlie Nagreen, now known as \"Hamburger Charlie\", with the invention of the hamburger. Nagreen was 15 when he reportedly made sandwiches out of meatballs that he was selling at the 1885 Seymour Fair (now the Outagamie County Fair) to make it easier for customers to eat while walking. The Historical Society explains that Nagreen named the hamburger after the Hamburg steak, with which local German immigrants were familiar.\n;Oscar Bilby 1891"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "After various controversies in the 20th century, including a nutritional controversy in the late 1990s, the burger is now readily identified with the United States, and a particular style of cuisine, namely fast food. Along with fried chicken and apple pie, the hamburger has become a culinary icon in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Fictional characters related to the hamburger, such as the [[Ronald McDonald]] [[clown]] character designed by [[Willard Scott]] who first appeared on television in 1963, soon became a recognizable part of [[American culture]]. The burger also made appearances in [[underground comix]] such as [[Zap Comix#2]] during the late 1960s, in which cartoonist [[Robert Crumb]] designed a character called \"Hamburger Hi-Jinx\". By the end of the decade, [[pop art]] was including the hamburger as an artistic element, appearing in the works of [[Andy Warhol]] (\"Dual Hamburger\"), [[Claes Oldenburg]] (\"Floor Burger\"), [[Mel Ramos]] (\"Vinaburger\", 1965), and more recently, [[David LaChapelle]] (\"Death by Hamburger\", 2002)."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "During the [[Cold War]], the hamburger became a [[national symbol]] of the United States. As private outdoor social events, often held in [[backyard]]s and featuring a [[barbecue]], became more widespread during the mid-1950s, the hamburger gained a new culinary and social relevance in the country. By the late 1960s, hamburgers began to grow in size as various burger chains competed with each other, resulting in Burger King launching the [[Whopper]] and [[McDonald's]] launching the [[Quarter Pounder]]. As the race between the major chains grew more intense, the prices of their burgers increased, and the days when a hamburger could be bought for just a few cents were numbered."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "At the same time the hamburger was growing in popularity around the world, it took on a variety of local features in different locations. Such examples of this include ground meat made from local animals, such as [[kangaroo]]s in Australia, or [[Tex-Mex]]-style dishes like [[chilli con carne]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The dawn of the 20th century witnessed the need to provide food for people living in highly productive urban centers with high population densities. Food also had to be economically affordable for the working class in order for them to maintain their [[Employment|labor]] and industrial production. The burger was born in a time when people needed to eat both \"fast\" and \"cheap\". Technological advances in the field of [[food preservation]], as well as improvements in agricultural production and transportation, made it possible for hamburgers to be a practical choice of food for urban dwellers since their very creation. The [[socio-economic]] environment of the United States at the time of the burger's rise to popularity coincided with the end of World War I and the beginning of the [[Great Depression]] of 1929. This environment was particularly favorable for fostering inexpensive food, which was one reason why five-cent hamburgers were so popular. After its invention during the first decade of the 20th century, the hamburger came to be marketed on a large scale, after \"visionaries\" realized that it would benefit greatly from a mass production process."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The modern hamburger was developed in the United States, but by the end of World War II, around the middle of the 20th century, it began to spread to other countries as fast food became [[globalization|globalized]]. The main cause of this gradual globalization was the successes of the large [[restaurant chain]]s. Their desires to expand their businesses and increase their profits resulted in them creating [[Chain store|franchises]] around the world. [[McDonald's]] was among the first of the burger chains to take the global establishment of its brand seriously, but it was not the only one. [[Wimpy (restaurant)|Wimpy]] began operating in the United Kingdom in 1954, 20 years before McDonald's began operation in the country, and by 1970 it had expanded to over a thousand restaurants in 23 countries. On August 21, 1971, in [[Zaandam]], near [[Amsterdam]] in the Netherlands, [[Ahold]] opened its first European franchise. In the 1970s, McDonald's began to expand into Europe and Australia. In Asia, Japan saw the establishment of its own fast food chain in 1972: , an abbreviation of \"Mountain, Ocean, Sun\", which eventually became a direct competitor to McDonald's. All of its products, however, were variations on the burger adapted to the Asian world, including the teriyaki burger, takumi burger, and [[riceburger]]. In Hong Kong, [[Aji Ichiban]] competed with large chains before it spread quickly throughout Asia. One of the first hamburger [[vending machine]]s debuted in Amsterdam in 1941 under the brand \"[[FEBO]]\", its name derived from its original place of creation, the [[Ferdinand Bolstraat]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:In-N-Out Burger cheeseburger meal.jpg|250px|thumb|left|The modern hamburger with its familiar sides, French fries and a drink]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Charlie Nagreen",
        "text": "The name of the hamburger came from the idea of \"Hamburg steak\", or ground beef. Since this was a popular item in Seymour at the time of the 1885 fair, Nagreen decided to call the sandwich the \"Hamburger\". This version of events is supported by local history organizations."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Contemporary American society also witnessed the creation of new fast foods that originated from the traditional cuisine of various ethnic groups from around the world. For example, [[German Americans|German immigrant]] Charles Feltman invented the [[hot dog]] in 1867 in his stall in [[Coney Island]], New York by pairing a [[Hot dog|frankfurter]] with a bread bun. Imitators such as Harry Magley and Charles Stevens soon began selling hot dogs at [[New York Yankees|New York Polo Grounds]] baseball games. Similarly, [[Italian Americans|Italian immigrants]] sold [[ice cream]] from vending carts in the streets or pasta at their restaurants. [[Chinese Americans|Chinese immigrants]] initially opened restaurants to cater to their fellow Chinese-Americans, but they gradually became accepted by the American clientele, sometimes resulting in truly Chinese-American cuisine such as [[chop suey]]. In this diverse world of ethnic foods, the hamburger was able to rise to mainstream popularity and become a national food of the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Although debunked by the Washington Post, a popular myth recorded by Connecticut Congresswoman Rosa DeLauro stated the first hamburger served in America was by Louis Lassen, a Danish immigrant, after he opened Louis' Lunch in New Haven in 1895. Louis' Lunch, a small lunch wagon in New Haven, Connecticut, is said to have sold the first hamburger and steak sandwich in the U.S. in 1900. \"New York Magazine\" states that \"The dish actually had no name until some rowdy sailors from Hamburg named the meat on a bun after themselves years later\", noting also that this claim is subject to dispute. A customer ordered a quick hot meal and Louis was out of steaks. Taking ground beef trimmings, Louis made a patty and grilled it, putting it between two slices of toast. Some critics like Josh Ozersky, a food editor for \"New York Magazine\", claim that this sandwich was not a hamburger because the bread was toasted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheeseburger",
        "text": "Adding cheese to hamburgers became popular in 1920. There are several competing claims as to who created the first cheeseburger. Lionel Sternberger is reputed to have introduced the cheeseburger in 1924 at the age of 16. He was working as a fry cook at his father's Pasadena, California sandwich shop, \"The Rite Spot\", and \"experimentally dropped a slab of American cheese on a sizzling hamburger.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Another alleged inventor of the hamburger is the cook Fletcher Davis (better known as \"Old Dave\"), who claimed to have had the idea of putting ground beef between two pieces of Texas Toast when one of his customers was in too much of a hurry to sit down for a meal. The customer walked away with his Hamburger Steak and seemed so content that Old Dave offered his new carryout meal as a staple menu item at the end of 1880 in [[Athens, Texas]]. Fletcher had a stall with his wife at the [[Louisiana Purchase Exposition|St. Louis World's Fair]] of 1904. Texan journalist [[Frank X. Tolbert]] mentions a salesman named Fletcher Davis who served hamburgers in a caf\u00e9 at 115 Tyler Street in Athens during the late 1880s. The locals claim that Davis was selling beef sandwiches during that time, without having a clear name for his invention. During the 1980s, the [[Dairy Queen]] [[ice cream]] chain filmed a documentary about the birthplace of the hamburger featuring Davis' story. The story of \"Old Dave's Hamburger Sandwich\" is also found mentioned in Ronald L. McDonald's book \"The Complete Hamburger\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "Residents of Hamburg, New York, which was named after Hamburg, Germany, attribute the hamburger to Ohioans Frank Menches and Charles Menches. According to legend, the Menches brothers were vendors at the 1885 Erie County Fair (then called the Buffalo Fair) when they ran out of sausage for sandwiches and used beef instead. They named the resulting sandwich after the location of the fair. However, Frank Menches's obituary in \"The New York Times\" stated, instead, that these events took place at the 1892 Summit County Fair in Akron, Ohio.\n;Charlie Nagreen 1885"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "According to White Castle, Otto Kuase was the inventor of the hamburger. In 1891, he created a beef patty cooked in butter and topped with a fried egg. German sailors would later omit the fried egg."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In the 1970s, major hamburger chains began to use considerable resources in marketing their products. They began to compete directly with each other through their advertising, much of which was [[comparative advertising|comparative]] and often featured direct [[allusion]]s and comparisons. The event came to be jokingly referred to as the \"[[burger wars]]\" by many Americans. By the end of the 1980s, the era of [[slogan]]s in large chain restaurants had begun."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rundst\u00fcck warm",
        "text": "It has been suggested that the rundst\u00fcck warm may be a precursor to the hamburger, but ultimately, \"food historians disagree on the modern burger\u2019s origins\". Some historians argue that the hamburger descends from the rundst\u00fcck warm, while others believe that the hamburger originates from somewhere else."
      },
      {
        "title": "Texan cuisine",
        "text": "An early claim to the invention of the hamburger was Fletcher Davis of Athens, Texas, who claimed to have served it at his restaurant at a time when there were more cows than people in Texas. According to oral histories, in the 1880s, he opened a lunch counter in Athens and served a \"burger\" of fried ground beef patties with mustard and Bermuda onion between two slices of bread; with a pickle on the side."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger Stand",
        "text": "Hamburger Stand\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "One of the earliest claims comes from Charlie Nagreen, who in 1885 sold a meatball between two slices of bread at the Seymour Fair now sometimes called the Outagamie County Fair. The Seymour Community Historical Society of Seymour, Wisconsin, credits Nagreen, now known as \"Hamburger Charlie\", with the invention. Nagreen was fifteen when he was reportedly selling pork sandwiches at the 1885 Seymour Fair, made so customers could eat while walking. The Historical Society explains that Nagreen named the hamburger after the Hamburg steak with which local German immigrants were familiar."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "By the 1960s, American society had become highly [[automobile|motorized]], largely due to the 1956 [[Federal Highway Act]] passed by President [[Dwight Eisenhower]] and inspired by the [[German Autobahn]], as well as the impressive growth rates of American [[automobile manufacturer]]s at the time. Due to the extensive use of cars at the time, hamburgers were often served at [[drive-in]]s, often by waiters known as [[carhop]]s. Drive-in restaurants first appeared in the United States in the early 1930s, and gradually become a common sight across the country. The ability to serve hamburgers to customers in their cars was seen as a business opportunity by countless fast-food chains, especially [[McDonald's]]. The popularity of the hamburger grew rapidly among the American population during this period, and statistics indicate that the average American was eating three burgers per week."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "At the end of the 19th century, a new generation of [[cola]] emerged, a beverage that would soon join beer as the most traditional drinks served alongside the hamburger. The first recipe for [[Coca-Cola]] was invented in 1885 in [[Columbus, Georgia]], by grocer [[John Pemberton]]. Originally called [[coca wine]] (the trademark was \"Pemberton's French Wine Coca\"), it may have been inspired by the formidable success of [[Vin Mariani]], a European coca wine. In the late 19th century, it was sold as a [[bottle]]d [[soft drink]] in most of the United States. In the early 20th century, another beverage, [[Pepsi]], was created by [[pharmacist]] [[Caleb Bradham]] and quickly came to rival the sales of Coca-Cola. [[Strategic alliance]]s between large burger restaurant chains and these two soft drink companies greatly increased the beverages' availability to the general public."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1890\u20131945)",
        "text": "1916 Hamburger bun\n* A hamburger bun is a bread roll sliced horizontally containing a hamburger, usually a patty consisting of ground meat that also typically contains lettuce, bacon, tomato, onion, pickles, cheese and condiments such as mustard, mayonnaise, ketchup and relish. The hamburger bun was invented in 1916 by a fry cook named Walter Anderson, who co-founded White Castle in 1921."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In the 20th century, the hamburger has appeared as the central topic in some books on the literature of culinary topics. An example of this is \"[[Fast Food Nation|Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal]]\", published by [[investigative journalist]] [[Eric Schlosser]] in 2001, that examines the local and global influence of the American fast food industry. An example of a modern variation of the hamburger is the so-called \"gourmet burger\", which is made by [[haute cuisine]] chefs with patties that include [[luxury good|luxury]] ingredients. One of the first such burgers was cooked in New York City by chef [[Daniel Boulud]] in June 2001, and subsequently sold for US$29 with [[loin]], ribs Bres, canned [[black truffle]]s, and a [[mirepoix (cuisine)|mirepoix]] of vegetables. The [[Manhattan]] restaurant \"Old Homestead\", one of the oldest [[steakhouse]]s in the country, offers a $44 hamburger with beef-bred Japanese [[wagy\u016b]]. An haute cuisine burger created by [[Richard Blais]], a student of [[Ferran Adri\u00e0]], was introduced in 2004 at a restaurant in [[Atlanta]], where it is served with a crystal chain and a silk [[ribbon]]. In response to the haute cuisine take on the hamburger, others have created more humble versions. Alberto Chicote of [[Madrid]] makes homemade hamburgers in his kitchen, using [[Iberia]]n pork along with homemade [[ketchup]] and [[mustard (condiment)|mustard]]. In 1993, Max Schondor created a hamburger made of soy. In a 2005 episode of [[SpongeBob SquarePants]], the adventurous title character visits [[Mr. Krabs]]'s popular [[Krabby Patty]] burgers, where hamburgers figure prominently in the story."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The word \"sandwich\" was not recorded until the 18th century. Many cultures claim invention of the sandwich, but it was given its name around the year 1765 in honor of the English aristocrat John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, who preferred to eat sandwiches so he could play cards without soiling his fingers. However, it was not until 1840 when Elizabeth Leslie Cook included a sandwich recipe in her cookbook that it appeared in the local cuisine of the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "1900s (decade)",
        "text": "The Tour de France starts for the first time in 1903.\n* U.S. New Haven, Connecticut Louis Lassen of Louis' Lunch makes the first modern-day hamburger sandwich. According to family legend, one day in 1900 a local businessman dashed into the small New Haven lunch wagon and pleaded for a lunch to go. According to the Lassen family, the customer, Gary Widmore, exclaimed \"Louie! I'm in a rush, slap a meatpuck between two planks and step on it!\". Louis Lassen, the establishment's owner, placed his own blend of ground steak trimmings between two slices of toast and sent the gentleman on his way, so the story goes, with America's alleged first hamburger being served.\n*Umberto Boccioni\n*Pierre Bonnard\n*Georges Braque\n*Paul C\u00e9zanne\n*Marc Chagall\n*Edgar Degas\n*Andr\u00e9 Derain\n*Raoul Dufy\n*Paul Gauguin\n*Juan Gris\n*Wassily Kandinsky\n*Gustav Klimt\n*Fernand L\u00e9ger\n*Kazimir Malevich\n*Henri Matisse\n*Amedeo Modigliani\n*Claude Monet\n*Pablo Picasso\n*Pierre-Auguste Renoir\n*Auguste Rodin\n*Georges Rouault\n*Henri Rousseau\n*Albert Pinkham Ryder\n*Egon Schiele\n*Gino Severini\n*Paul Signac\n*Henri Toulouse-Lautrec\n*Suzanne Valadon\n*Maurice de Vlaminck\n*Gustave Caillebotte\n*\u00c9douard Manet\n*Camille Pissarro\n*Georges Seurat\n*Alfred Sisley\n*Eugen d'Albert\n*Hugo Alfv\u00e9n\n*Egbert Van Alstyne\n*Broncho Billy Anderson\n*Fatty Arbuckle\n*Louis Daniel Armstrong\n*Kurt Atterberg\n*B\u00e9la Bart\u00f3k\n*Nora Bayes\n*Jagdish Chandra Bose\n*Irving Berlin\n*Francis Boggs\n*Frank Bridge\n*Alfred Bryan\n*Vincent P. Bryan\n*Ferruccio Busoni\n*Enrico Caruso\n*Gustave Charpentier\n*Thurland Chattaway\n*Francesco Cilea\n*Will D. Cobb\n*Bob Cole\n*Frederick Converse\n*Henry Creamer\n*Henry Walford Davies\n*Peter Dawson\n*Claude Debussy\n*Frederick Delius\n*Paul Dresser\n*Anton\u00edn Dvo\u0159\u00e1k\n*Gus Edwards\n*Edward Elgar\n*August Enna\n*Manuel de Falla\n*Geraldine Farrar\n*Fred Fisher\n*Paul Le Flem\n*Sigmund Freud\n*Rudolf Friml\n*Julius Fu\u010d\u00edk\n*Amelita Galli-Curci\n*Mary Garden\n*Edward German\n*Alexander Glazunov\n*Emilio de Gogorza\n*Percy Grainger\n*Enrique Granados\n*D. W. Griffith\n*Guy d'Hardelot\n*Hamilton Harty\n*The Haydn Quartet\n*Anna Held\n*Victor Herbert\n*Max Hoffmann\n*Gustav Holst\n*Abe Holzmann\n*David Horsley\n*Harry Houdini\n*Mississippi John Hurt\n*Jen\u00f6 Huszka\n*Mikhail Ippolitov-Ivanov\n*Carrie Jacobs-Bond\n*Alfred Jarry\n*William Jerome\n*J. Rosamond Johnson\n*James Weldon Johnson\n*Scott Joplin\n*Gus Kahn\n*Jerome Kern\n*Rudyard Kipling\n*Carl Laemmle\n*Harry Lauder\n*Lead Belly\n*Franz Leh\u00e1r\n*Ruggiero Leoncavallo\n*Paul Lincke\n*Gustav Mahler\n*Arthur Marshall\n*Jules Massenet\n*Nikolai Karlovich Medtner\n*Nellie Melba\n*Georges M\u00e9li\u00e8s\n*Kerry Mills\n*Billy Murray\n*Evelyn Nesbit\n*Ethelbert Woodbridge Nevin\n*Carl Nielsen\n*Jack Norworth\n*V\u00edt\u011bzslav Nov\u00e1k\n*Maude Nugent\n*Sidney Olcott\n*Charles Path\u00e9\n*Edwin S. Porter\n*Giacomo Puccini\n*Sergei Rachmaninoff\n*Maurice Ravel\n*Ottorino Respighi\n*Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov\n*Landon Ronald\n*Paul Sarebresole\n*Erik Satie\n*Arnold Schoenberg\n*Jean Schwartz\n*James Scott\n*Alexander Scriabin\n*William Selig\n*Chris Smith\n*Harry B. Smith\n*Ethel Smyth\n*John Philip Sousa\n*George Kirke Spoor\n*Charles Villiers Stanford\n*Andrew B. Sterling\n*Oscar Strauss\n*Harry Von Tilzer\n*Tom Turpin\n*Edgard Var\u00e8se\n*Vesta Victoria\n*Anton Webern\n*Percy Wenrich\n*Bert Williams\n*Harry Williams\n*Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari\n*Amy Woodforde-Finden\n*Israel Zangwill\n*Ferdinand von Zeppelin\n*Charles A. Zimmerman\n* 1900s in literature"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "An example of the popularity and identification that the burger enjoyed among the American public was the name of the [[Battle of Hamburger Hill]], which occurred in May 1969 during the [[Vietnam War]]. Its name was inspired by the number of American and [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] casualties, which made the scene resembles a \"butcher\". The hamburger was also the inspiration of [[Star Wars]] creator [[George Lucas]]'s design for the [[Millennium Falcon]] ship. Hamburgers also appear in computer games, as in the case of [[BurgerTime]], an [[arcade game|arcade-style game]] created in 1982 by [[Data East|Data East Corporation]]. The hamburger also appears prominently on [[Television in the United States|American television]] shows such as \"[[American Eats]]\" and \"[[Man v. Food]]\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Another version of the creation of the hamburger is that of German cook Otto Kuasw, who created a very popular sailors' sandwich made of a fillet of beef patty fried in butter, served with a [[fried egg]], between two [[Toast (food)|toasted buns]] in 1891, at a post in [[Hamburg]], Germany. The sandwich was called the \"Deutsches Beefsteak\", German for \"German beefsteak\". Many of the sailors traveling on ships between Hamburg and New York requested a similar \"Hamburg style\" sandwich at American steakhouses."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:Find the differences (painting by Peter Klashorst).jpg|350px|thumb|In the 1960s, McDonald's advertised the ability of a customer to eat the same burger anywhere in the United States, and a few decades later it made the same feat possible in much of the world.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger Dom",
        "text": "Hamburger Dom\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "On November 16, 1916, chef and entrepreneur Walter \"Walt\" Anderson opened a hamburger stand in [[Wichita, Kansas]], that used hygienic cooking methods, including [[grilling|grills]] and [[spatula]]s, and impressed his Wichita customers so much that many would become regular patrons. At this time, the hamburger was still not widely known by the American public. Anderson added [[onion ring]]s to the burgers while they grilled, giving them a distinctive flavor. As demand increased, customers often bought his hamburgers by the [[dozen]], giving rise to the company's subsequently popular [[slogan]]: \"buy 'em by the sack\". Despite some growth, Anderson had opened only four stands in the busiest areas of the city. In 1926, Edgar Waldo \"Billy\" Ingram collaborated with Anderson to open the first [[White Castle (restaurant)|White Castle restaurant]] in Wichita. The restaurant was founded on the idea of cooking a hamburger quickly, giving it the honor of being the first [[fast food restaurant]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "It is not known when the first restaurant recipe for steak tartare appeared. While not providing a clear name, the first description of steak tartare was given by Jules Verne in 1875 in his novel \"Michael Strogoff\". There are certain similarities between steak tartare and the German dishes Labskaus and Mett. Other similar raw, chopped meats appeared in the 20th century. One of the oldest references to a Hamburgh [\"sic\"] Sausage appeared in 1763 in Hannah Glasse's \"Art of Cookery, Made Plain and Easy\". Hamburgh Sausage is made with minced meat and a variety of spices, including nutmeg, cloves, black pepper, garlic, and salt, and is typically served with toast. Other dishes are also made with minced meat, such as meatloaf, the Serbian pljeskavica, the Arab kofta, and meatballs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Steak burgers are first mentioned in the 1920s. Like other hamburgers, they may be prepared with various accompaniments and toppings."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Walter Anderson contributed a number of novel ideas to White Castle during its early years, including the creation of a special [[spatula]] and a special bread for the burgers. In 1949, an employee named Earl Howell calculated the amount of time that it took to break hamburgers apart in a presentable fashion, eventually leading him to create the [[perforated]] burger. By 1951, White Castle had incorporated five perforations into its burgers. Before Anderson, hamburgers were cooked on a grill for an indefinite period of time and minced meat balls were \"crushed\" into conventional [[sliced bread|slices of bread]], like a sandwich. The meat was frozen and hamburgers came to be cooked from frozen, instead of using fresh meat. White Castle revolutionized the burger-making process by regularizing the finished products and using hygienic preparation techniques that were in clear view of the customers."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Minced meat was a delicacy in medieval cuisine, red meat usually being restricted to the higher classes. Very little mincing was done by medieval butchers or recorded in the cookbooks of the time, perhaps because it was not part of the sausage-making process that preserves meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The hamburger was very popular among Americans during the [[interwar period|postwar period]] following World War I, even in popular culture. An example of this was the prominent appearance of hamburgers in [[E. C. Segar]]'s \"[[Thimble Theatre]]\" [[comic strip]], which prominently featured a [[cartoon character]] named [[Popeye the Sailor]] who ate [[spinach]] to sustain his superhuman strength. Popeye's first appearance was as a [[supporting character]] on January 17, 1929, alongside many other characters. One of these characters was [[J. Wellington Wimpy]] (often shortened to just \"Wimpy\"), a lover of hamburgers who was both polite and gluttonous. His signature phrase, \"I will gladly pay you Tuesday for a hamburger today\", became popular and widely known. During the height of his popularity in the 1930s, Wimpy introduced the hamburger to the youth of the time as a healthy food. It also resulted in the creation of a chain of fast food restaurants called [[Wimpy (restaurant)|Wimpy's]] in his honor, which sold hamburgers for ten cents. In a similar fashion, the fictional character [[Jughead Jones]], who first appeared in [[Archie Comics]] in 1941, was passionate about food generally, and hamburgers specifically."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asher Hamburger",
        "text": "Hamburger was born to a Jewish family at Kerche Sch\u00f6nbache or , near Wuzburg, Bavaria, in 1821. When young, he was apprenticed to a ropemaker. He came to the United States in 1839 and settled in New York City, where he first worked in a tassel factory, then moved to Pennsylvania, where he began a small general store."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburg",
        "text": "The American hamburger may have developed from Hamburg's \"Frikadeller\": a pan-fried patty (usually larger and thicker than its American counterpart) made from a mixture of ground beef, soaked stale bread, egg, chopped onion, salt and pepper, usually served with potatoes and vegetables like any other piece of meat, not usually on a bun. The Oxford Dictionary defined a \"Hamburger steak\" in 1802: a sometimes-smoked and -salted piece of meat, that, according to some sources, came from Hamburg to America. The name and food, \"hamburger\", has entered all English-speaking countries, and derivative words in non-English speaking countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Many different variants of the hamburger have been created over the years, some of which have become very popular. Much of this diversity has been the product of other restaurant chains that have tried to reproduce the success of McDonald's and White Castle, while others served to influence McDonald's. An example of a restaurant that influenced McDonald's and its imitators is [[Big Boy (restaurant)|Big Boy]], which was first opened in 1936 by [[Bob Wian]] in [[Glendale, California]], and became known in that locale as [[Bob's Big Boy]]. It was at this restaurant that a major hamburger variant, the double deck cheeseburger, with two beef patties, was first made. Wian's creation was distinctively served by Big Boy restaurants with the bun sliced twice, the center slice\u2014known as the club section\u2014separating the two patties. The chain also popularized the drive-in restaurant format, taken and simplified by McDonald's type fast food operators. By the 1960s, Big Boy had expanded throughout the United States and Canada. Despite the benefits it provided to Wian, the chain was sold along with the rights to their signature Big Boy hamburger to the [[Marriott Corporation]] in 1967. This same year McDonald's franchisee Jim Delligatti, created an imitation of the Big Boy \u2014 the Big Mac. An example of the many McDonald's and White Castle imitators is [[Kewpee Hamburgers]], a fast-food chain founded in 1923 in [[Flint, Michigan]], by Samuel V. Blair as \"[[Kewpee|Kewpee Hotel Hamburgs]].\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:AstronautsEatingBurgers.jpg|350px|thumb|right|Astronauts eating hamburgers in space, thanks to the design of the [[space food]] provided at the [[International Space Station]] (ISS)]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In 1937, Patrick McDonald and his two sons [[Richard and Maurice McDonald|Richard and Maurice]] inaugurated the simple restaurant \"Airdrome\" on Huntington Drive (Route 66) near the airport in the American city of [[Monrovia, California#History|Monrovia, California]]. The success of its sales eventually led to the May 15, 1940, opening of a restaurant named [[McDonald's]] along [[U.S. Route 66]] in [[San Bernardino, California]]. After analyzing their sales, the brothers discovered that, to their surprise, 80% of their [[revenue]] was coming from selling hamburgers. The menu initially featured 25 different dishes, the majority of which were [[barbecue]]d. Through their new restaurant, the McDonald brothers introduced the notion of fast food to parts of the Western United States by 1948. From the beginning, McDonald's focused on making hot dogs and hamburgers as efficiently and quickly as possible. During the 1940s, simple and formative concepts took root at McDonald's, including the preparation and service of burgers in just one minute and the ability for customers to eat in their own cars in a \"[[drive-in]]\" style. All the while, the restaurant was trying to further develop a hamburger that was inexpensive enough to be within the economic reach of most Americans. By the 1950s, the concept of drive-in style service had become firmly established and hamburgers and cars had become closely connected in the minds of many Americans. It was now not only possible for a customer to purchase a hamburger without getting out of a car, and a customer also no longer needed to wait to be served. The McDonald brothers built upon the achievements of their original San Bernardino restaurant when in 1953 they began franchising their now famous chain restaurants, starting in [[Phoenix, Arizona]], and [[Downey, California]] (the latter of which is [[Oldest McDonald's restaurant|still in operation]]). Later, [[Ray Kroc]] opened one in the northwest Chicago suburb of [[Des Plaines, Illinois]] on April 15, 1955, which has now been converted into the [[McDonald's USA First Store Museum|McDonald's Museum]]. It is noteworthy that the original McDonald's [[mascot]] was a hamburger faced cook called \"[[Speedee]]\" that would serve as the iconographic identity of the company until being replaced by the clown [[Ronald McDonald]] in 1963."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "Hamburgers may be described by their combined uncooked weight. A single, uncooked burger weighing a nominal four ounces or 113.5\u00a0grams is a \"quarter pounder\". Instead of a \"double hamburger\", one might encounter a third- or half-pounder, weighing eight ounces or 227\u00a0grams. Burger patties are nearly always specified in fractions of a pound."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The industrial use of mechanical meat shredding was the technical advance that helped popularize the Hamburg steak. The first [[meat grinder]] was invented in the early 19th century by the German engineer [[Karl Drais]]. The machine made it possible for minced meat to be sold at market in large quantities at reasonable prices. By 1845, numerous patents existed for improved meat grinders in the United States. These machines could all shred meat to sizes before unimaginable. Before this, minced meat was prepared by hand at home using specialized [[chisel]]s, intensive manual labor that severely limited the amount that could be produced. It is very likely that the invention of the meat grinder contributed directly to the popularization of Hamburg steak, while the steak gradually became distant from its German roots in the minds of many Americans. Minced meat also came to be used in other popular American foods, including [[hot dog]]s and [[meatloaf]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:Taiwan McDonald's chicken rice burger 20050218.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Vietnamese [[riceburger]] is a product of the globalization of the hamburger.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Louis' Lunch",
        "text": "Many others claim to be the creator of the hamburger, including Charlie Nagreen, brothers Frank and Charles Menches, Oscar Weber Bilby, and Fletcher Davis. White Castle traces the origin of the hamburger to Hamburg, Germany, with its invention by Otto Kuase. However, it gained national recognition at the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair when the \"New-York Tribune\" namelessly attributed the hamburger as \"the innovation of a food vendor on the pike.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The hamburger's international popularity demonstrates the larger globalization of food that also includes the rise in global popularity of other national dishes, including the Italian pizza, Chinese fried rice and Japanese sushi. The hamburger has spread from continent to continent perhaps because it matches familiar elements in different culinary cultures. This global culinary culture has been produced, in part, by the concept of selling processed food, first launched in the 1920s by the White Castle restaurant chain and its visionary Edgar Waldo \"Billy\" Ingram and then refined by McDonald's in the 1940s. This global expansion provides economic points of comparison like the Big Mac Index, by which one can compare the purchasing power of different countries where the Big Mac hamburger is sold."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In the United States during the 20th century, there have been numerous celebrations marking the centenary of the burger. Two locations in particular organized high-profile events to celebrate 100 years of the hamburger. One was held in [[Athens, Texas]], in November 2006, in honor of Fletcher Davis. In a resolution made by the state of Texas, it was established that Athens is the \"Original Home of Hamburger\". However, in August 2007, the state of [[Wisconsin]] made the same claim on behalf of the town of [[Seymour, Wisconsin|Seymour]], the home of [[Charlie Nagreen]] who also claimed to be the creator of the hamburger. These two decisions have split the honor of creating the hamburger between these two American cities. The town of Seymour continues to annually celebrate a \"Burger Fest\" on the first Saturday of each August."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:Popeye-meets-ali-baba crop.jpg|thumb|right|[[J. Wellington Wimpy]] (Wimpy), on the left one of [[Popeye]]'s friends from a 1937 cartoon, had a tremendous craving for hamburgers.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Burger King",
        "text": "Besides the creation of the company's signature piece of equipment, the flame broiler, the company added two more features during this period that have since become closely associated with the chain. The first to be created was its mascot, the Burger King in 1955. The character would become a staple of its advertising over the next 60 years. The second creation was the company's signature sandwich, the Whopper. It was created in 1957 by James McLamore and originally sold for 37 cents. McLamore created the burger after he noticed that a rival restaurant was having success selling a larger burger. Believing that the success of the rival product was its size, he devised the Whopper. The name was chosen because he felt that it conveyed \"imagery of something big\". Finally, the company made its first forays into advertising in the new medium of television with commercials for the chain in 1958."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Another development facilitating the invention and popularization of the proto-hamburger was the increased production of beef through livestock intensification. By the late 19th century, an increasing amount of land was being devoted to cattle and a growing number of people being employed as [[cowboy]]s, resulting in the United States becoming one of the world's largest producers and consumers of beef. The 1880s were declared \"The Golden Age of Beef\", during which the abundance of rural beef production made vital its transportation by rail from agricultural to urban areas. This gave rise to various methods of meat preservation for making possible the consumption of fresh meat in urban and industrialized areas, among the [[refrigerator car]]s and different methods of packaging meat (such as [[corned beef]]), which were promoted by industrialists like [[Gustavus Swift]] (1839\u20131903). Around this time, the city of Chicago, along with other cities on the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]], became a focal point for the large-scale processing of beef. Beef was already inexpensive at that time, and it was available to the working class. This put the Hamburg steak within reach of the vast majority of the population, giving rise to what some authors jokingly call the \"American beef dream\". In this era, the number of [[steakhouse]]s that specialized in serving steaks increased markedly; some restaurants even served steak along with seafood, in a dish known as [[Surf and turf]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "A hamburger (or burger) is a sandwich that consists of a cooked ground meat patty, usually beef, placed between halves of a sliced bun or between slices of bread or toast. Hamburgers are often served with various condiments, such as dill relish (condiment), mayonnaise, and other options including lettuce, tomato, onion, pickles, and cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "One of the possible fathers of the hamburger is [[Charlie Nagreen]] (1871\u20131951) of [[Seymour, Wisconsin]], who at the age of 15 sold Hamburg steaks from a street stall at the annual Outagamie County Fair. Nagreen said he began by selling Hamburg steaks, but these did not have much success because people wanted to freely move around the festival without the need to eat them at his stand. In response to this, in 1885 Nagreen decided to flatten the hamburger steak and insert it between two slices of bread, so that the public could move freely from booth to booth while eating his sandwich, an innovation that was well received by his customers. This became known as the \"Hamburger Charlie\", and Nagreen's creation was sold at the festival until his death in 1951. To this day, his accomplishment is celebrated annually with a \"Burger Fest\" in his honor in his hometown of Seymour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "The term \"hamburger\" originally derives from Hamburg, the second-largest city in Germany; however, there is no certain connection between the food and the city."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "After World War II, a number of hamburger restaurants known as InstaBurger King (later [[Burger King]]) began emerging, the first of which was opened on December 4, 1954, in a suburb of Miami, Florida. It was established by [[James McLamore]] and [[David Edgerton]], both of whom were students at the [[Cornell University School of Hotel Administration]]. McLamore had visited the original McDonald's in San Bernardino, California, when it was still owned by the McDonald brothers, and saw the potential that existed for the [[mass production]] of hamburgers. He was so inspired by this visit that he decided to create a similar burger chain himself. By 1959, Burger King already had five restaurants in [[Miami metropolitan area|metropolitan Miami]], and its early success prompted McLamore and Edgerton to expand throughout the United States by using a [[franchising|franchise system]] that allowed them to grow the business at a relatively low cost. They formed Burger King Corporation as a parent company to the franchises they were selling throughout the United States. The Burger King Corporation was acquired by the [[Pillsbury Company]] in 1967, and during the 1970s, it began to expand outside the United States, principally in South America and Europe. [[Burger King]]'s core product has long been the [[Whopper]], which was created in 1957 by founder James McLamore and initially sold for 37 cents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Hamburger\n--Etymology and terminology.\n--History.\n----Claims of invention.\n------Louis Lassen.\n------Charlie Nagreen.\n------Otto Kuase.\n------Oscar Weber Bilby.\n------Frank and Charles Menches.\n------Fletcher Davis.\n------Other hamburger-steak claims.\n--Today.\n----Safety.\n--Variations.\n----Other meats.\n----Veggie burgers.\n----Steak burgers.\n----United States and Canada.\n----France.\n----Mexico.\n----United Kingdom and Ireland.\n----Australia and New Zealand.\n----China.\n----Japan.\n----Denmark.\n----Other countries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger Stuten-Preis",
        "text": "Hamburger Stuten-Preis\n--History.\n--Records.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Louis' Lunch",
        "text": "Detractors of the Louis' Lunch claim include Josh Ozersky, a food editor for New York Magazine. In Ozersky's book, \"The Hamburger: A History\", Ozersky denies the claim based on the definition of a hamburger and told the \"New Haven Register\", \"If you say it can be on toast, you're essentially redefining the hamburger out of existence. The hamburger as the world knows it means a sandwich of ground beef on a bun.\" However, Motz's \"Hamburger America\" notes that the hamburger bun did not exist in 1900 nor did so for another 20 years. Ozersky's book also notes earlier claimants and recognizes Walter Anderson for creating the modern hamburger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hanni R\u00fctzler",
        "text": "On 5 August 2013, R\u00fctzler took part in food testing the world's first lab-grown burger, which was cooked and eaten at a news conference in London. Scientists from Maastricht University in the Netherlands, led by professor Mark Post, had taken stem cells from a cow and grown them into strips of muscle which they then combined to make a burger. Tissue for the London demonstration was cultivated in May 2013, using about 20,000 thin strips of cultured muscle tissue. Funding of around \u20ac250,000 came from an anonymous donor later revealed to be Sergey Brin. The burger was cooked by chef Richard McGeown of Couch's Great House Restaurant, Polperro, Cornwall, and tasted by critics R\u00fctzler and Josh Schonwald, as well as lead researcher Post. R\u00fctzler stated,"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of insurance",
        "text": "Hamburger Feuerkasse () is the first officially established fire insurance company in the world, and the oldest existing insurance enterprise available to the public, having started in 1676."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States Bakery",
        "text": "In collaboration with Engelbert Franz of Franz Bakery, W.P. Yaw of Yaw's Top Notch Restaurant invented the diameter hamburger bun in the late 1920s. Though others are credited with creating a bread product to use for the first hamburgers known to the world, Franz is credited for inventing the hamburger bun in its current worldwide accepted form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Randy Atcher",
        "text": "In 1953, White Castle began advertising its hamburgers through the show, the first of several companies who contracted product placement."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did the hamburger first come to exist?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The hamburger first appeared in the 19th or early 20th century; the invention of hamburgers is commonly attributed to various people, including Charlie Nagreen, Frank and Charles Menches, Oscar Weber Bilby, Fletcher Davis, or Louis Lassen. The McDonald brothers opened their first restaurant adjacent to the Monrovia Airport in 1937.",
      "As versions of the meal have been served for over a century, its origin remains ambiguous. The popular book The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy by Hannah Glasse included a recipe in 1758 as \"Hamburgh sausage\", while a similar snack was also popular in Hamburg by the name \"Rundst\u00fcck warm\" (\"bread roll warm\") in 1869 or earlier, and supposedly eaten by many emigrants on their way to America, but may have contained roasted beefsteak rather than Frikadeller."
    ],
    "topic": "History of the hamburger",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "History of the hamburger:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "History of the hamburger"
        ],
        "ctx": "The hamburger first appeared in the 19th or early 20th century. The modern hamburger was a product of the culinary needs of a society rapidly changing due to industrialization and the emergence of the working class and the middle class with the resulting demand for mass-produced, affordable food that could be consumed outside of the home."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Hamburger:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Hamburger",
          "History",
          "Claims of invention"
        ],
        "ctx": "The origin of the hamburger is unclear, though \"hamburger steak sandwiches\" have been advertised in U.S. newspapers from New York to Hawaii since at least the 1890s. The invention of hamburgers is commonly attributed to various people, including Charlie Nagreen, Frank and Charles Menches, Oscar Weber Bilby, Fletcher Davis, or Louis Lassen. White Castle traces the origin of the hamburger to Hamburg, Germany with its invention by Otto Kuase. Some have pointed to a recipe for \u201cHamburgh sausages\u201d on toasted bread, which was published in \u201cThe Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy\u201d by Hannah Glasse in 1747. However, hamburgers gained national recognition at the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair when the \"New York Tribune\" referred to the hamburger as \"the innovation of a food vendor on the pike\". No conclusive argument has ever ended the dispute over invention. An article from ABC News sums up: \"One problem is that there is little written history. Another issue is that the spread of the burger happened largely at the World's Fair, from tiny vendors that came and went in an instant. And it is entirely possible that more than one person came up with the idea at the same time in different parts of the country.\""
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oldest McDonald's restaurant:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oldest McDonald's restaurant",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "The McDonald brothers opened their first restaurant adjacent to the Monrovia Airport in 1937. It was a tiny octagonal building informally called The Airdrome. That octagonal building was later moved to 1398 North E Street in San Bernardino, California in 1940. It was originally a barbecue drive-in, but the brothers discovered that most of their profits came from hamburgers. In 1948, they closed their restaurant for three months, reopening it in December as a walk-up hamburger stand that sold hamburgers, potato chips, and orange juice; the following year, french fries and Coca-Cola were added to the menu. This simplified menu, and food preparation using assembly line principles, allowed them to sell hamburgers for 15\u00a0cents, or about half as much as at a sit-down restaurant. The restaurant was very successful, and the brothers started to franchise the concept in 1953."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Hamburger:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Hamburger",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "As versions of the meal have been served for over a century, its origin remains ambiguous. The popular book \"The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy\" by Hannah Glasse included a recipe in 1758 as \"Hamburgh sausage\", which suggested to serve it \"roasted with toasted bread under it\". A similar snack was also popular in Hamburg by the name \"Rundst\u00fcck warm\" (\"bread roll warm\") in 1869 or earlier, and supposedly eaten by many emigrants on their way to America, but may have contained roasted beefsteak rather than Frikadeller. Hamburg steak is reported to have been served between two pieces of bread on the Hamburg America Line, which began operations in 1847. Each of these may mark the invention of the Hamburger, and explain the name."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "History of the hamburger\n--Beginning.\n----Hamburg and its port.\n----Hamburg steak.\n--Invention.\n----North America.\n----Controversial origins.\n----Ingredients.\n--Commercialization.\n----White Castle System.\n----McDonald's era.\n----Variants.\n--Culinary history.\n--Global phenomenon.\n--Present day.\n----Nutritional controversies.\n----Media.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Since the latter part of the 20th century, the burger has undergone several [[controversy|controversies]] regarding its nutritional values. In an era in which a growing amount of the world's population has become either [[overweight]] or more conscious of weight and the need for a healthy diet in general, the appearance of exceptionally larger burgers (popularly known as \"XXL hamburgers\") has generated considerable controversy. One example of this is the [[Triple Whopper]], which surpasses the one thousand calorie threshold established by the Health Strategy Against Obesity, which is promoted by the health institutes of the Spanish Association of Food and Nutrition Safety (AESAN). AESAN works to prevent the growth of the incidence of [[obesity]] in all people, particularly children. More generally, [[dietitian]]s are beginning to see that the consumption of foods high in [[calorie]]s can cause excessive [[appetite]]. In response to this message, many restaurant chains have reduced the calories in their burgers since the beginning of the 20th century. The late 20th century witnessed a lawsuit brought by [[McDonald's]] against two [[environmental activist]]s, [[Helen Steel]] and David Morris, that was colloquially known as \"[[McLibel]]\". McDonald's took action following the publication of a [[pamphlet]] by Steel and Morris that was entitled \"What\u2019s wrong with McDonald\u2019s: Everything they don\u2019t want you to know\", which was subsequently developed into a documentary called \"[[McLibel (film)|McLibel]]\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "After various controversies in the 20th century, including a nutritional controversy in the late 1990s, the burger is now readily identified with the United States, and a particular style of cuisine, namely fast food. Along with fried chicken and apple pie, the hamburger has become a culinary icon in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Josh Barro",
        "text": "Barro used the term \"hamburger problem\" to criticize the perceived tendency of some progressives in the United States to hassle people on their personal choices. For example, eating meat hamburgers can be criticized based on the arguments that it is harmful for animals, it contributes to global warming and it is unhealthy."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Fictional characters related to the hamburger, such as the [[Ronald McDonald]] [[clown]] character designed by [[Willard Scott]] who first appeared on television in 1963, soon became a recognizable part of [[American culture]]. The burger also made appearances in [[underground comix]] such as [[Zap Comix#2]] during the late 1960s, in which cartoonist [[Robert Crumb]] designed a character called \"Hamburger Hi-Jinx\". By the end of the decade, [[pop art]] was including the hamburger as an artistic element, appearing in the works of [[Andy Warhol]] (\"Dual Hamburger\"), [[Claes Oldenburg]] (\"Floor Burger\"), [[Mel Ramos]] (\"Vinaburger\", 1965), and more recently, [[David LaChapelle]] (\"Death by Hamburger\", 2002)."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The hamburger first appeared in the 19th or early 20th century. The modern hamburger was a product of the culinary needs of a society rapidly changing due to industrialization and the emergence of the working class and the middle class with the resulting demand for mass-produced, affordable food that could be consumed outside of the home."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In 2004, [[Morgan Spurlock]] addressed the obsessive consumption of hamburgers by some Americans by directing and starring in the documentary film \"[[Super Size Me]]\". In the film, he himself eats only [[McDonald's]] food for an entire month and documents how his health changes. That same year saw the premiere of \"[[Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle]]\", a film in which [[White Castle (restaurant)|White Castle restaurants]] played a vital part. Two years later, in 2006, the film \"[[Fast Food Nation (film)|Fast Food Nation]]\" presented a fictional representation of the intrigues and machinations of the [[meat industry]] on the border between Mexico and the United States. It is largely based on the 2001 book \"[[Fast Food Nation|Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal]]\".\n* [[Food history]]\n* [[Hamburger]]\n* [[History of the hamburger in the United States]]\n* [[List of hamburgers]]\n* Kominicki, JL (April 29, 1990) \"Ground for glory\" (second page) \"[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|European Stars and Stripes]]\". Darmstadt, Germany. Sunday Magazine, 6\u20137. via [[newspaperarchive.com]]\u00a0[[File:Open Access logo PLoS.svg|link=Open access|frameless|14x14px]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Felicia Langer",
        "text": "As a result of the criticism, and in response to Arno Hamburger\u00b4s return of his award, Gert Haller, the highest ranking state secretary in the office of the President of Germany, Horst K\u00f6hler, wrote a letter to Hamburger saying that the grievance caused by the awarding was \"terribly unfortunate.\" After requests by Hamburger he stated there was no legal basis to withdraw the award."
      },
      {
        "title": "Louis' Lunch",
        "text": "Detractors of the Louis' Lunch claim include Josh Ozersky, a food editor for New York Magazine. In Ozersky's book, \"The Hamburger: A History\", Ozersky denies the claim based on the definition of a hamburger and told the \"New Haven Register\", \"If you say it can be on toast, you're essentially redefining the hamburger out of existence. The hamburger as the world knows it means a sandwich of ground beef on a bun.\" However, Motz's \"Hamburger America\" notes that the hamburger bun did not exist in 1900 nor did so for another 20 years. Ozersky's book also notes earlier claimants and recognizes Walter Anderson for creating the modern hamburger."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In the same year that Charlie Nagreen claimed to have developed his \"Hamburger Charlie\", the brothers and street cooks Frank and Charles Menches of [[Akron, Ohio]], claimed to have sold a ground beef [[sandwich]] at the [[Erie County Fair]]. They assert that the name of the hamburger was derived from the town [[Hamburg (town), New York|Hamburg]], New York, in [[Erie County, New York|Erie County]], the first place in which it had been sold. This statement has been very poorly documented or substantiated, and in the case of an oral tradition, it is not without its contradictions. Its famous description of the [[secret ingredient]]s used in the recipes, such as coffee or [[brown sugar]], is primitive."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The high production and consumption of beef cattle in the United States made the [[meat industry]] increasingly powerful by the end of the 19th century. [[Corporate corruption|Corruption]] problems soon arose in the meat industry, problems that endangered both quality and hygiene. At the beginning of the 20th century, [[Upton Sinclair]] published \"[[The Jungle]]\", a novel about conspiracies and corruption in the American meat industry, intended as a veiled criticism of the industry itself. The book raised popular awareness about the safety of meat processing and helped lead to the creation of the [[Pure Food and Drug Act]], which was sponsored by the [[Food and Drug Administration]]. \"The Jungle\" was a milestone in the subsequent history of the hamburger, as it led the American public to force restaurant chains to prove the safety of their cooked meat. In 1933, Arthur Kallett published a similar book, entitled \"100 million guinea pigs; Dangers in Everyday foods, drugs, and cosmetics\", which warned consumers specifically about the content [[preservative]]s in hamburgers."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:\u05d4\u05de\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d2\u05e8_\u05d8\u05d1\u05e2\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A [[vegan]] version of the hamburger]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[Category:History of the hamburger| ]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The dawn of the 20th century witnessed the need to provide food for people living in highly productive urban centers with high population densities. Food also had to be economically affordable for the working class in order for them to maintain their [[Employment|labor]] and industrial production. The burger was born in a time when people needed to eat both \"fast\" and \"cheap\". Technological advances in the field of [[food preservation]], as well as improvements in agricultural production and transportation, made it possible for hamburgers to be a practical choice of food for urban dwellers since their very creation. The [[socio-economic]] environment of the United States at the time of the burger's rise to popularity coincided with the end of World War I and the beginning of the [[Great Depression]] of 1929. This environment was particularly favorable for fostering inexpensive food, which was one reason why five-cent hamburgers were so popular. After its invention during the first decade of the 20th century, the hamburger came to be marketed on a large scale, after \"visionaries\" realized that it would benefit greatly from a mass production process."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In the 1970s, major hamburger chains began to use considerable resources in marketing their products. They began to compete directly with each other through their advertising, much of which was [[comparative advertising|comparative]] and often featured direct [[allusion]]s and comparisons. The event came to be jokingly referred to as the \"[[burger wars]]\" by many Americans. By the end of the 1980s, the era of [[slogan]]s in large chain restaurants had begun."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:White Castle Building No. 8.jpg|250px|thumb|The 1936 [[White Castle Building No. 8]] in [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]]]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Many recipes and dishes traveled along with transatlantic immigrants to their destinations in the New World. Some authors question whether the [[Hamburg America Line]] was part of this, arguing that the hamburger was created to meet needs that arose amongst immigrants already in the New World. Others, however, support the thesis that the Hamburg America Line brought the first Hamburger steaks from Europe to the Americas. The hamburger as it is known today has multiple invention claims ranging between 1885 and 1904, but it is clearly the product of the early 20th century. During the following 100 years, the hamburger spread throughout the world as a result of the emerging concept of fast food and a new business model: the [[Chain store|franchise]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[Category:Hamburgers (food)]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:Mass-produced hamburgers.jpg|250px|thumb|left|The hamburger solved the technical problem of mass-producing semi-processed food.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[Category:History of food and drink]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In the 20th century, the hamburger has appeared as the central topic in some books on the literature of culinary topics. An example of this is \"[[Fast Food Nation|Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal]]\", published by [[investigative journalist]] [[Eric Schlosser]] in 2001, that examines the local and global influence of the American fast food industry. An example of a modern variation of the hamburger is the so-called \"gourmet burger\", which is made by [[haute cuisine]] chefs with patties that include [[luxury good|luxury]] ingredients. One of the first such burgers was cooked in New York City by chef [[Daniel Boulud]] in June 2001, and subsequently sold for US$29 with [[loin]], ribs Bres, canned [[black truffle]]s, and a [[mirepoix (cuisine)|mirepoix]] of vegetables. The [[Manhattan]] restaurant \"Old Homestead\", one of the oldest [[steakhouse]]s in the country, offers a $44 hamburger with beef-bred Japanese [[wagy\u016b]]. An haute cuisine burger created by [[Richard Blais]], a student of [[Ferran Adri\u00e0]], was introduced in 2004 at a restaurant in [[Atlanta]], where it is served with a crystal chain and a silk [[ribbon]]. In response to the haute cuisine take on the hamburger, others have created more humble versions. Alberto Chicote of [[Madrid]] makes homemade hamburgers in his kitchen, using [[Iberia]]n pork along with homemade [[ketchup]] and [[mustard (condiment)|mustard]]. In 1993, Max Schondor created a hamburger made of soy. In a 2005 episode of [[SpongeBob SquarePants]], the adventurous title character visits [[Mr. Krabs]]'s popular [[Krabby Patty]] burgers, where hamburgers figure prominently in the story."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "By the 1960s, American society had become highly [[automobile|motorized]], largely due to the 1956 [[Federal Highway Act]] passed by President [[Dwight Eisenhower]] and inspired by the [[German Autobahn]], as well as the impressive growth rates of American [[automobile manufacturer]]s at the time. Due to the extensive use of cars at the time, hamburgers were often served at [[drive-in]]s, often by waiters known as [[carhop]]s. Drive-in restaurants first appeared in the United States in the early 1930s, and gradually become a common sight across the country. The ability to serve hamburgers to customers in their cars was seen as a business opportunity by countless fast-food chains, especially [[McDonald's]]. The popularity of the hamburger grew rapidly among the American population during this period, and statistics indicate that the average American was eating three burgers per week."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "The Texas historian Frank X. Tolbert attributes the invention of the hamburger to Fletcher Davis of Athens, Texas. Davis is believed to have sold hamburgers at his caf\u00e9 at 115 Tyler Street in Athens, Texas, in the late 1880s, before bringing them to the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair.\n;Menches Brothers 1885"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "Residents of Hamburg, New York, which was named after Hamburg, Germany, attribute the hamburger to Ohioans Frank Menches and Charles Menches. According to legend, the Menches brothers were vendors at the 1885 Erie County Fair (then called the Buffalo Fair) when they ran out of sausage for sandwiches and used beef instead. They named the resulting sandwich after the location of the fair. However, Frank Menches's obituary in \"The New York Times\" stated, instead, that these events took place at the 1892 Summit County Fair in Akron, Ohio.\n;Charlie Nagreen 1885"
      },
      {
        "title": "Battle of Hamburger Hill",
        "text": "The debate over Hamburger Hill reached the United States Congress, with particularly severe criticism of military leadership by Senators Edward Kennedy, George McGovern, and Stephen M. Young. In its 27 June issue, \"Life\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:DaviesStallStLawrenceMarket.jpg|300px|thumb|left|William Davies Company stall at the St. Lawrence Market in Toronto, Canada. Scenes such as this became common during the early twentieth century in the United States and Canada as the meat market grew rapidly.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger Morgenpost",
        "text": "The newspaper was attacked by an arsonist on January 11, possibly relating to the cartoons."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "During the [[Cold War]], the hamburger became a [[national symbol]] of the United States. As private outdoor social events, often held in [[backyard]]s and featuring a [[barbecue]], became more widespread during the mid-1950s, the hamburger gained a new culinary and social relevance in the country. By the late 1960s, hamburgers began to grow in size as various burger chains competed with each other, resulting in Burger King launching the [[Whopper]] and [[McDonald's]] launching the [[Quarter Pounder]]. As the race between the major chains grew more intense, the prices of their burgers increased, and the days when a hamburger could be bought for just a few cents were numbered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Hamburger\n--Etymology and terminology.\n--History.\n----Claims of invention.\n------Louis Lassen.\n------Charlie Nagreen.\n------Otto Kuase.\n------Oscar Weber Bilby.\n------Frank and Charles Menches.\n------Fletcher Davis.\n------Other hamburger-steak claims.\n--Today.\n----Safety.\n--Variations.\n----Other meats.\n----Veggie burgers.\n----Steak burgers.\n----United States and Canada.\n----France.\n----Mexico.\n----United Kingdom and Ireland.\n----Australia and New Zealand.\n----China.\n----Japan.\n----Denmark.\n----Other countries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "The origin of the hamburger is unclear, though \"hamburger steak sandwiches\" have been advertised in U.S. newspapers from New York to Hawaii since at least the 1890s. The invention of hamburgers is commonly attributed to various people, including Charlie Nagreen, Frank and Charles Menches, Oscar Weber Bilby, Fletcher Davis, or Louis Lassen. White Castle traces the origin of the hamburger to Hamburg, Germany with its invention by Otto Kuase. Some have pointed to a recipe for \u201cHamburgh sausages\u201d on toasted bread, which was published in \u201cThe Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy\u201d by Hannah Glasse in 1747. However, hamburgers gained national recognition at the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair when the \"New York Tribune\" referred to the hamburger as \"the innovation of a food vendor on the pike\". No conclusive argument has ever ended the dispute over invention. An article from ABC News sums up: \"One problem is that there is little written history. Another issue is that the spread of the burger happened largely at the World's Fair, from tiny vendors that came and went in an instant. And it is entirely possible that more than one person came up with the idea at the same time in different parts of the country.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The hamburger was very popular among Americans during the [[interwar period|postwar period]] following World War I, even in popular culture. An example of this was the prominent appearance of hamburgers in [[E. C. Segar]]'s \"[[Thimble Theatre]]\" [[comic strip]], which prominently featured a [[cartoon character]] named [[Popeye the Sailor]] who ate [[spinach]] to sustain his superhuman strength. Popeye's first appearance was as a [[supporting character]] on January 17, 1929, alongside many other characters. One of these characters was [[J. Wellington Wimpy]] (often shortened to just \"Wimpy\"), a lover of hamburgers who was both polite and gluttonous. His signature phrase, \"I will gladly pay you Tuesday for a hamburger today\", became popular and widely known. During the height of his popularity in the 1930s, Wimpy introduced the hamburger to the youth of the time as a healthy food. It also resulted in the creation of a chain of fast food restaurants called [[Wimpy (restaurant)|Wimpy's]] in his honor, which sold hamburgers for ten cents. In a similar fashion, the fictional character [[Jughead Jones]], who first appeared in [[Archie Comics]] in 1941, was passionate about food generally, and hamburgers specifically."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "During the first half of the 19th century, most European emigrants to the New World embarked from Hamburg, and New York City was their most common destination. Restaurants in New York offered \"Hamburg-style American fillet\", or even \"beefsteak \u00e0 la Hambourgeoise\". Early American preparations of minced beef were therefore made to fit the tastes of European immigrants, evoking memories of the port of Hamburg and the world they left behind."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger University",
        "text": "Hamburger University was satirized in the 1986 comedy \"Hamburger... The Motion Picture\". It was also spoofed by McDonald's itself in a commercial with Ronald McDonald in which several animatronic hamburgers were shown graduating."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[Category:American sandwiches]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Good Burger",
        "text": "Retrospective reviews well after the initial release have described its continued popularity; Nathan Rabin said that the film \"obviously connected with a lot of children at the time of the film's release and holds up surprisingly well 18 years later.\" Courtney Eckerle said, \"The 90s generation will never forget [this deliciously terrible movie]\" and Tara Aquino of \"Mental Floss\" called it \"a silly cult hit that's indelibly a part of Generation Y.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "There are many additional claims as to the origin of the hamburger. Some enthusiasts claim the hamburger could have been created in S\u00e3o Gon\u00e7alo, a municipality located in the Brazilian state of Rio de Janeiro, in the 18th century by a Chef named Sauerbrown \"Little\" Victor, but this claim has no supporting evidence to back the opinion. A local newspaper claims that Louis Lassen, a Danish immigrant who arrived in America in 1880, sold butter and eggs as a street vendor. In 1974, in an [[interview]] with \"[[The New York Times]]\", he recounted how he created a hamburger steak sandwich with small strips of beef for a restaurant known as [[Louis' Lunch]]. Lassen's family claims 1900 as the year of his invention. Revealed in a public confrontation between the grandson of Louis, Kenneth Davis Lassen Fletch, and his uncle, documentation signed under notary in 1900 demonstrates the development of the hamburger, as it stresses the difference between a \"hamburger steak\" and a \"hamburger sandwich\". Louis' Lunch flame broils the hamburgers in the original vertical [[cast iron]] [[gas stoves]] manufactured by the Bridge and Beach, Co., [[St. Louis, Missouri]], in 1898. The stoves use hinged steel wire [[Gridiron (cooking)|gridirons]] to hold the hamburgers in place while they [[cooking|cook]] simultaneously on both sides. The gridirons were made by Luigi Pieragostini and patented in 1938."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of fast food",
        "text": "In 2016 the company replaced the high-fructose corn syrup in its hamburger buns with sugar and removed antibiotics that are \"important to human medicine\" from its chicken. They also removed artificial preservatives from their cooking oil, pork sausage patties, eggs served on the breakfast menu, and Chicken McNuggets. The skin, safflower oil and citric acid from the McNuggets was also replaced with pea starch, rice starch and powdered lemon juice. These changes were made in an effort to target \"health-conscious consumers.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "An example of the popularity and identification that the burger enjoyed among the American public was the name of the [[Battle of Hamburger Hill]], which occurred in May 1969 during the [[Vietnam War]]. Its name was inspired by the number of American and [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] casualties, which made the scene resembles a \"butcher\". The hamburger was also the inspiration of [[Star Wars]] creator [[George Lucas]]'s design for the [[Millennium Falcon]] ship. Hamburgers also appear in computer games, as in the case of [[BurgerTime]], an [[arcade game|arcade-style game]] created in 1982 by [[Data East|Data East Corporation]]. The hamburger also appears prominently on [[Television in the United States|American television]] shows such as \"[[American Eats]]\" and \"[[Man v. Food]]\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Contemporary American society also witnessed the creation of new fast foods that originated from the traditional cuisine of various ethnic groups from around the world. For example, [[German Americans|German immigrant]] Charles Feltman invented the [[hot dog]] in 1867 in his stall in [[Coney Island]], New York by pairing a [[Hot dog|frankfurter]] with a bread bun. Imitators such as Harry Magley and Charles Stevens soon began selling hot dogs at [[New York Yankees|New York Polo Grounds]] baseball games. Similarly, [[Italian Americans|Italian immigrants]] sold [[ice cream]] from vending carts in the streets or pasta at their restaurants. [[Chinese Americans|Chinese immigrants]] initially opened restaurants to cater to their fellow Chinese-Americans, but they gradually became accepted by the American clientele, sometimes resulting in truly Chinese-American cuisine such as [[chop suey]]. In this diverse world of ethnic foods, the hamburger was able to rise to mainstream popularity and become a national food of the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carson Nugget",
        "text": "Carson Nugget\n--History.\n----Awful Awful Burger.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "There is good evidence that the first hamburger served on a bun was made by Oscar Bilby of Tulsa, Oklahoma, in 1891."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:Big Mac hamburger - Japan (1).jpg|300px|thumb|The [[Big Mac]] popularized an evolution in the image of the hamburger.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rudolf Burger",
        "text": "Philosopher Konrad Paul Liessmann defended \"Anders\" and responded: \"[...] therefore the circumstances are dancing; but where is the rose?\". In 1992 Burger both criticised Austria's foreign policy at the Balkans as \"warmonger\" (in German: kriegsgeil) and at the same time requested to let the parties of the war exsanguinate. These comments caused a nationwide controversy. In 2000 Burger criticised the \"Thursday Demonstrations\" against the Sch\u00fcssel/Haider coalition as an \"antifascist carnival\" and again unchained a national debate. Finally, in 2001 he angered a lot of critical intellectuals with his request to forget and close the debates on guilt and remembrance. Historian Heribert Schiedel therefore named him \"the black and blue court philosopher,\" black referring to \u00d6VP, blue to FP\u00d6."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "All claims for invention occur between 1885 and 1904, making it probable that the hamburger was created sometime in these two decades. Despite varieties, there are common elements in all of the narratives, most notably that the hamburger was born as a food associated with major events such as [[amusement park]]s, [[fair]]s, [[Meeting|conferences]], and festivals. All the hypotheses also share the presence of [[street vendor]]s."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "The Seymour Community Historical Society of Seymour, Wisconsin, credits Charlie Nagreen, now known as \"Hamburger Charlie\", with the invention of the hamburger. Nagreen was 15 when he reportedly made sandwiches out of meatballs that he was selling at the 1885 Seymour Fair (now the Outagamie County Fair) to make it easier for customers to eat while walking. The Historical Society explains that Nagreen named the hamburger after the Hamburg steak, with which local German immigrants were familiar.\n;Oscar Bilby 1891"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In 1937, Patrick McDonald and his two sons [[Richard and Maurice McDonald|Richard and Maurice]] inaugurated the simple restaurant \"Airdrome\" on Huntington Drive (Route 66) near the airport in the American city of [[Monrovia, California#History|Monrovia, California]]. The success of its sales eventually led to the May 15, 1940, opening of a restaurant named [[McDonald's]] along [[U.S. Route 66]] in [[San Bernardino, California]]. After analyzing their sales, the brothers discovered that, to their surprise, 80% of their [[revenue]] was coming from selling hamburgers. The menu initially featured 25 different dishes, the majority of which were [[barbecue]]d. Through their new restaurant, the McDonald brothers introduced the notion of fast food to parts of the Western United States by 1948. From the beginning, McDonald's focused on making hot dogs and hamburgers as efficiently and quickly as possible. During the 1940s, simple and formative concepts took root at McDonald's, including the preparation and service of burgers in just one minute and the ability for customers to eat in their own cars in a \"[[drive-in]]\" style. All the while, the restaurant was trying to further develop a hamburger that was inexpensive enough to be within the economic reach of most Americans. By the 1950s, the concept of drive-in style service had become firmly established and hamburgers and cars had become closely connected in the minds of many Americans. It was now not only possible for a customer to purchase a hamburger without getting out of a car, and a customer also no longer needed to wait to be served. The McDonald brothers built upon the achievements of their original San Bernardino restaurant when in 1953 they began franchising their now famous chain restaurants, starting in [[Phoenix, Arizona]], and [[Downey, California]] (the latter of which is [[Oldest McDonald's restaurant|still in operation]]). Later, [[Ray Kroc]] opened one in the northwest Chicago suburb of [[Des Plaines, Illinois]] on April 15, 1955, which has now been converted into the [[McDonald's USA First Store Museum|McDonald's Museum]]. It is noteworthy that the original McDonald's [[mascot]] was a hamburger faced cook called \"[[Speedee]]\" that would serve as the iconographic identity of the company until being replaced by the clown [[Ronald McDonald]] in 1963."
      },
      {
        "title": "Avant-garde",
        "text": "B\u00fcrger's essay also greatly influenced the work of contemporary American art historians such as the German Benjamin H. D. Buchloh (born 1941). Buchloh, in the collection of essays \"Neo-avantgarde and Culture Industry\" (2000), critically argues for a dialectical approach to these positions. Subsequent criticism theorized the limitations of these approaches, noting their circumscribed areas of analysis, including Eurocentric, chauvinist, and genre-specific definitions."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The hamburger's international popularity demonstrates the larger globalization of food that also includes the rise in global popularity of other national dishes, including the Italian pizza, Chinese fried rice and Japanese sushi. The hamburger has spread from continent to continent perhaps because it matches familiar elements in different culinary cultures. This global culinary culture has been produced, in part, by the concept of selling processed food, first launched in the 1920s by the White Castle restaurant chain and its visionary Edgar Waldo \"Billy\" Ingram and then refined by McDonald's in the 1940s. This global expansion provides economic points of comparison like the Big Mac Index, by which one can compare the purchasing power of different countries where the Big Mac hamburger is sold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Louis' Lunch",
        "text": "An article from ABC News sums up the problems of identifying the origins of the hamburger by stating, \"One problem is that there is little written history. Another issue is that the spread of the burger happened largely at the World's Fair, from tiny vendors that came and went in an instant. And it is entirely possible that more than one person came up with the idea at the same time in different parts of the country.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Considerable evidence suggests that either the United States or Germany (the city of Hamburg) was the first country where two slices of bread and a ground beef steak were combined into a \"hamburger sandwich\" and sold. There is some controversy over the origin of the hamburger because its two basic ingredients, bread and beef, had been prepared and consumed separately for many years in different countries before their combination. Shortly after its creation, the hamburger quickly included all of its currently typically characteristic trimmings, including onions, lettuce, and sliced pickles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goedeker's",
        "text": "Goedeker's\n--History.\n--Goedeker\u2019s today.\n--Criticism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:Find the differences (painting by Peter Klashorst).jpg|350px|thumb|In the 1960s, McDonald's advertised the ability of a customer to eat the same burger anywhere in the United States, and a few decades later it made the same feat possible in much of the world.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Among the vegetables that come with the hamburger, the first described in the literature on its history is the onion, usually finely sliced in rings. Thus, the hamburger came to continue the long American tradition of sandwiches featuring some kind of plant product, whether that be lettuce (as in the case of the [[BLT sandwich]]), [[sauerkraut]] (as on the [[reuben sandwich|reuben]]), [[coleslaw]], or [[pickled cucumber|pickles]]. It is possible that after the creation of the hamburger by uniting the steak with the bread, vegetables were included to give the finished product a more \"natural\" appearance and taste. All of these condiments were incorporated into the classical image of the hamburger during its golden age, the 1940s. In some cases, the hamburger is prepared differently and distinctly to add regional flavor, as in the case of [[Tex-Mex]] style burgers, which are served with a side of [[chili con carne]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The first automobile [[production line]] was created by [[Karl Benz]] in Germany in 1888. The widespread appearance of telephones occurred at the beginning of the 20th century, along with other modern means of communication, including radio. For the average American who had not eaten in a restaurant in his or her entire life, the fast food chains that appeared in the cities offered an alternative form of restaurant in which eating was very much a public activity. The concept of a \"[[greasy spoon]]\" was thus born with these restaurants, in which [[hygiene]] suffered in exchange for more inexpensive food. On the other hand, there was a growing [[interconnected]] world in which trips by car, bus, and rail became increasingly available. All these means of transport were improving at the time, and soon it was necessary to feed a growing population that was \"in permanent transit\", frequently moving through different cities [[business travel|on business]]. [[George Pullman]] invented the [[sleeping car]] and the [[dining car]] in response to the needs of these people in the 1870s. Similarly, the English immigrant [[Fred Harvey (entrepreneur)|Frederick Henry Harvey]] was the first to use \"dynamic mass movement\" in restoring the [[Fred Harvey Company]], which catered to the patrons of a chain of hotels located near railway stations, as well as offering catering, services, and high quality products on the trains themselves."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The modern hamburger was developed in the United States, but by the end of World War II, around the middle of the 20th century, it began to spread to other countries as fast food became [[globalization|globalized]]. The main cause of this gradual globalization was the successes of the large [[restaurant chain]]s. Their desires to expand their businesses and increase their profits resulted in them creating [[Chain store|franchises]] around the world. [[McDonald's]] was among the first of the burger chains to take the global establishment of its brand seriously, but it was not the only one. [[Wimpy (restaurant)|Wimpy]] began operating in the United Kingdom in 1954, 20 years before McDonald's began operation in the country, and by 1970 it had expanded to over a thousand restaurants in 23 countries. On August 21, 1971, in [[Zaandam]], near [[Amsterdam]] in the Netherlands, [[Ahold]] opened its first European franchise. In the 1970s, McDonald's began to expand into Europe and Australia. In Asia, Japan saw the establishment of its own fast food chain in 1972: , an abbreviation of \"Mountain, Ocean, Sun\", which eventually became a direct competitor to McDonald's. All of its products, however, were variations on the burger adapted to the Asian world, including the teriyaki burger, takumi burger, and [[riceburger]]. In Hong Kong, [[Aji Ichiban]] competed with large chains before it spread quickly throughout Asia. One of the first hamburger [[vending machine]]s debuted in Amsterdam in 1941 under the brand \"[[FEBO]]\", its name derived from its original place of creation, the [[Ferdinand Bolstraat]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:Taiwan McDonald's chicken rice burger 20050218.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Vietnamese [[riceburger]] is a product of the globalization of the hamburger.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Hamburger",
        "text": "Joseph Hamburger (1922 \u2013 August 21, 1997) was an American historian."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "The hamburger bun was invented in 1916 by a fry cook named Walter Anderson, who co-founded White Castle in 1921."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "History of the hamburger in the United States\n--Hamburger bun.\n----U.S. hamburger restaurants.\n--Variations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "United States v. Nixon",
        "text": "Burger's first draft was deemed problematic and insufficient by the rest of the court, leading the other Justices to criticize and re-write major parts of the draft. The final draft would eventually heavily incorporate Justice Blackmun's re-writing of Facts of the Case, Justice Douglas' appealability section, Justice Brennan's thoughts on standing, Justice White's standards on admissibility and relevance, and Justices Powell and Stewart's interpretation of the executive privilege."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Tower Hamburgers",
        "text": "White Tower Hamburgers\n--History.\n----Lawsuit.\n----Peak and decline.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rudolf Burger",
        "text": "Burger is well appreciated for his elegant style as an essayist and his avid love for intellectual criticism. His cynicism stirred some controversies, starting in 1990, when he opened the G\u00fcnther Anders symposium of the city of Vienna by speaking of \"moralistic extortion\", comparing Anders and Heidegger, equating their philosophies, and finally stating:"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Ingram soon realized that the word \"burger\" evoked connotations of [[circus]] performances at livestock markets and greasy pieces of meat eaten in the poorest districts of the city in the collective mind of the American public. He tried to change those connotations from White Castle's earliest days. At the same time, he became known to some as the [[Henry Ford]] of the hamburger, while inventing a restaurant concept he called the \"White Castle System\", which helped the hamburger achieve fame. Between 1923 and 1931, the \"White Castle System\" established almost a hundred restaurants in cities throughout the [[Midwestern United States]]. In order to raise awareness among White Castle employees, a [[newsletter]] entitled \"The hot hamburger\" was circulated throughout the company, which challenged the employees to improve the sale of the burgers with a simple idea: to be able to prepare burgers rapidly so anyone could purchase and eat them anytime and anywhere. Instead of waiting for half an hour to be served at a traditional restaurant, the White Castle System provided rapid service and a menu centered around the hamburger. At the time, the hamburger was typically served with coffee. [[Upton Sinclair]]'s \"[[The Jungle]]\" had already caused public outrage over the safety of processed meat, so by the 1920s, the general public had come to expect a clean and hygienic hamburger. In addition to offering clean and safe food, White Castle offered regularity and standardization, ensuring that each patty was served in the same manner in each restaurant. At the time, this was an entirely novel idea that would revolutionize the sale of food itself with a style that would come to be known as fast food. During its early years, White Castle emphasized providing quality coffee, and collaborated with universities to publish studies on the nutritional quality of their hamburgers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tom Hamburger",
        "text": "Hamburger has received numerous awards during his career. He won the White House Correspondent Association's Raymond Clapper Memorial Award, and was a finalist for the Goldsmith Award for Investigative Reporting and the Pulitzer Prize for his work on conflict of interest on the federal bench for the \"Star-Tribune\" in 1996."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Burger",
        "text": "\"American Burger\" received mixed reviews from critics although its technical aspects were praised. Borg & Macdonald were also praised for their roles as Adorable Cheerleader & Fat Nerd respectively by the Ostersund Posten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry's Hamburgers",
        "text": "Henry's Hamburgers\n--History.\n----Growth.\n----Decline.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "K\u00e4te Hamburger",
        "text": "Hamburger earned her doctorate in 1922 in Munich. Expelled by the Nazis because of her Jewish heritage, she immigrated to Sweden in 1934, where she lived until 1956, earning her living as a language teacher, journalist and writer. She resumed her university career on her return to Germany, writing about Thomas Mann and Rainer Maria Rilke, among others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taste (sociology)",
        "text": "Many critics have voiced their opinion against the growing influence of mass culture, fearing the decline in global divergence of culture. For example, it is claimed that the convenience of getting the same hamburger at fast food places like McDonald's can reduce consumer interest in traditional culinary experiences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leo Bogart",
        "text": "\"Professor Is Criticized for Anti-Semitic Past,\" New York Times (Nov. 28, 1991)."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:In-N-Out Burger cheeseburger meal.jpg|250px|thumb|left|The modern hamburger with its familiar sides, French fries and a drink]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "One of the first \"birth of the burger\" stories belongs to Canton, Ohio, natives Frank and Charles Menches who were food vendors at the 1885 Erie County Fair outside of Buffalo, New York, also known as the Hamburg Fair. Legend has it that during the course of the Fair, the Menches ran out of their signature menu item of pork sausage sandwiches. Their local supplier, Hamburg butcher Andrew Klein, was reluctant to butcher more hogs during a period of unseasonable late summer heat and suggested to substitute the use of ground beef. The brothers fired some up, but both found it dry and bland. They added coffee, brown sugar and other ingredients to create a unique taste. The original sandwiches were sold with just ketchup and sliced onions. With new found success with their beef sandwich, they christened it the \u201chamburger\u201d after the Erie County Fair's home town of [[Hamburg, New York|Hamburg]]. \"National Birth of the Burger Day\" is celebrated on September 18 to honor the invention of the burger in 1885 at the Hamburg Fair. In the 1920s, carnival historian John C. Kunzog interviewed Frank Menches about his experience at the Erie County Fair. His detailed hamburger story was published in this book, \u201cTanbark & Tinsel\u201d published in 1970."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger Machine",
        "text": "Burger Machine\n--History.\n--Other information.\n--Permit controversy.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burgeranch",
        "text": "One scholar connected the rise of Burgerranch, along with Burger King and McDonalds, to the Americanization of Israeli society."
      },
      {
        "title": "Warren E. Burger",
        "text": "Through speeches like this, Burger became known as a critic of Chief Justice Warren and an advocate of a literal, strict-constructionist reading of the U.S. Constitution. Nixon's agreement with these views, being expressed by a readily confirmable, sitting federal appellate judge, led to the nomination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger Stand",
        "text": "Hamburger Stand\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:AstronautsEatingBurgers.jpg|350px|thumb|right|Astronauts eating hamburgers in space, thanks to the design of the [[space food]] provided at the [[International Space Station]] (ISS)]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthony Bourdain",
        "text": "With regard to criticism of the Chinese, Bourdain stated: \"The way in which people dismiss whole centuries-old cultures\u2014often older than their own and usually non-white\u2014with just utter contempt aggravates me. People who suggest I shouldn't go to a country like China, look at or film it, because some people eat dog there, I find that racist, frankly. Understand people first: their economic, living situation.\" Regarding what he considered to be the myth that monosodium glutamate in Chinese food is unhealthy, Bourdain said: \"It's a lie. You know what causes Chinese restaurant syndrome? Racism. 'Ooh I have a headache; it must have been the Chinese guy.'\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Samuel B. Hamburger",
        "text": "Hamburger was a member of the National Museum of Art, the Geographical Society, the Manuscript Society, The Lambs, the Independent Order B'nai B'rith, the Federation of Jewish Philanthropic Societies of New York City, the University Settlement, the Actors Fund of America, and the Jewish Publication Society."
      },
      {
        "title": "Institute for Historical Review",
        "text": "In April 2004, following a complaint by the David S. Wyman Institute for Holocaust Studies, \"The Nation\" magazine refused to accept advertising from the IHR, stating \"[T]here is a strong presumption against censoring any advertisement, especially if we disagree with its politics. This case, however, is different. Their arguments are 'patently fraudulent. Weber responded with critical commentary in a letter to Leigh Novog of the advertising department of \"The Nation\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burgerim",
        "text": "Burgerim\n--History.\n--Menu.\n--Controversy.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Israel",
        "text": "Burger King Israel\n--History.\n----Initial run.\n----Failed re-emergence attempts.\n----Re-emergence.\n--Controversy.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The exact origin of the hamburger may never be known with any certainty. Most historians believe that it was invented by a cook who placed a Hamburg steak between two slices of bread in a small town in Texas, and others credit the founder of White Castle for developing the \"Hamburger Sandwich.\" Records from that time are scarce, however."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Yugoslavia and Serbia"
      },
      {
        "title": "National Review",
        "text": "[\"National Review\"] stands athwart history, yelling Stop, at a time when no one is inclined to do so, or to have much patience with those who so urge it\u2026 it is out of place because, in its maturity, literate America rejected conservatism in favor of radical social experimentation\u2026since ideas rule the world, the ideologues, having won over the intellectual class, simply walked in and started to\u2026run just about everything. There never was an age of conformity quite like this one, or a camaraderie quite like the Liberals\u2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Annelie Botes",
        "text": "In November 2010, in an interview with the newspaper Rapport, she caused controversy by declaring that she did not like black people or understand them. Following the statements, the newspaper \"Die Burger\" decided to withdraw her column. She refused to retract her remarks and to condemn them. She added that it was \"perhaps unfair\" to put all black people in the same category."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Best Burger in New York",
        "text": "Future Ted begins by stating that when he first moved to New York City, it was an ugly, dirty place. He goes on to say that it changed, unfortunately, with good bars becoming banks, like Goliath National Bank, the bank Barney's company just bought, which Barney advises Marshall to get a job at. Lily rebukes this suggestion, saying even though Marshall has been to a lot of bad job interviews, he is still going to be an environmental lawyer."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Hamburg steak, once served between two slices of bread, began to be prepared with a variety of different ingredients that were included either in the sandwich itself or as a side dish accompanying it on a plate. One of these accompaniments, which is still common with today's burger, is [[ketchup]], a type of [[tomato sauce]] with a blend of [[flavor]]s between [[sweet]] and [[sour]] that was first produced commercially in 1869 by entrepreneur and chef [[Henry John Heinz]] in [[Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania]]. His company was originally called the \"Anchor Pickle and Vinegar Works\", but in 1888 it was renamed [[H. J. Heinz Company|F. & J. Heinz]]. The use of ketchup by American consumers grew quickly after this date, and it was not long before hamburgers were almost universally accompanied by ketchup by the end of the nineteenth and into the early 20th century. [[Mustard (condiment)|Mustard]] is a significantly older [[condiment]], as it is thought that the [[ancient Rome|ancient Romans]] used a dressing made with non-fermented grapes and [[grape seed]]s known as \"mustum ardens\". Another ingredient incorporated into the burger, [[mayonnaise]], appears to have been present in 18th century France, after the naval victory of [[Louis-Fran\u00e7ois-Armand du Plessis de Richelieu]] in the port of [[Mah\u00f3n]] in [[Menorca]] around 1756."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Fletcher Davis of Athens, Texas claimed to have invented the hamburger. According to oral histories, in the 1880s he opened a lunch counter in Athens and served a 'burger' of fried ground beef patties with mustard and Bermuda onion between two slices of bread, with a pickle on the side. The story is that in 1904, Davis and his wife Ciddy ran a sandwich stand at the St. Louis World's Fair. Historian Frank X. Tolbert, noted that Athens resident Clint Murchison said his grandfather dated the hamburger to the 1880s with 'Old Dave' a.k.a. Fletcher Davis. A photo of \"Old Dave's Hamburger Stand\" from 1904 was sent to Tolbert as evidence of the claim."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greg Mankiw",
        "text": "Controversy also arose from a rhetorical question posed by the report and repeated by Mankiw in a speech about the report: \"when a fast-food restaurant sells a hamburger, is it providing a service or combining inputs to manufacture a product?\" He intended to point out that the distinction between manufacturing jobs and service industry jobs is somewhat arbitrary and so is a poor basis for policy. Even though the issue was not raised in the report, a news account led to criticism that the administration was seeking to cover up job losses in manufacturing by redefining jobs like cooking hamburgers as manufacturing."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Cow Who Wanted to Be a Hamburger",
        "text": "The Academy Film Archive preserved \"The Cow Who Wanted to Be a Hamburger\" in 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bitburg controversy",
        "text": "Reagan was criticised for this statement by opponents of the visit. Equating Nazi soldiers with Holocaust victims, responded Rabbi Alexander M. Schindler, president of the Union of American Hebrew Congregations, was \"a callous offence for the Jewish people\". Some believed Communications Director Pat Buchanan had written the statement, which he denied in 1999. Kohl confirmed an earlier press comment that in the last days of the war he was able to avoid service in the SS because he was only 15, \"but they hanged a boy from a tree who was perhaps only two years older with a sign saying 'traitor' because he had tried to run away rather than serve.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Natasha Leggero",
        "text": "On December 31, 2013, Leggero was criticized for a joke that she told during NBC's \"New Year's Eve with Carson Daly\", when, in response to a controversial tweet posted by SpaghettiOs on the anniversary of the Pearl Harbor attack, she said: \"It sucks that the only survivors of Pearl Harbor are being mocked by the only food they can still chew.\" Her remarks were met with a backlash over social media. In response, Leggero posted in a blog entry that she did not feel that \"the amazing courage of American veterans and specifically those who survived Pearl Harbor is in any way diminished by a comedian making a joke about dentures on television. Do we really believe that the people who fought and defended our freedom against Nazis and the Axis powers will find a joke about SpaghettiO's too much to bear? Sorry, I have more respect for Veterans than to think their honor can be impugned by a glamorous, charming comedian in a fur hat.\" She also called on those offended by the remarks to donate to Disabled American Veterans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steven Milloy",
        "text": "Responding to criticism of the safety of the food product Quorn by the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), Milloy accused CSPI of having an undisclosed relationship with Quorn's main competitor, Gardenburger. Writing for FoxNews.com, Milloy said that \"CSPI appears to have an unsavory relationship with Quorn competitor, Gardenburger\" and called the CSPI's complaints \"unscrupulous shrieking\", noting comments in CSPI newsletters like \"Remember the saturated fat and the E.coli bacteria that could be hiding inside [a hamburger]? You can keep the taste but forget the worries with Gardenburger.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Picnic on the Grass",
        "text": "The press reviews were generally positive and described the film as charming and beautiful. Negative response came from the political left, where critics disapproved of the film's treatment of progress and depiction of a European superstate; the subject of European unification was topical and sensitive due to the creation of the European Economic Community in 1957. In spite of the generally good reviews, the film was a commercial failure, and has attracted little attention from general audiences over the years. Some modern critics have seen its implicit critiques of technocracy and dogged rationalism as both prophetic and of increasing relevance to today's world."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "At the same time the hamburger was growing in popularity around the world, it took on a variety of local features in different locations. Such examples of this include ground meat made from local animals, such as [[kangaroo]]s in Australia, or [[Tex-Mex]]-style dishes like [[chilli con carne]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants",
        "text": "On October 21, 2013, \"The New York Times\" published a Retro Report video about the media reaction and an accompanying article about the changes in coffee drinking over 20 years. \"The New York Times\" noted how the details of Liebeck's story lost length and context as it was reported worldwide. The report underscored that the narrative of the story was distorted in the media, in which the \"condensed telling of the story created its own version of the truth\" where McDonald's rather than Liebeck was portrayed as the victim."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oldest McDonald's restaurant",
        "text": "Very few early McDonald's restaurants remain, largely because McDonald's Corporation required its franchisees to update their buildings. The original hexagonal McDonald's hamburger stand in San Bernardino was demolished in 1953 to be replaced by a building in the now familiar Golden Arches style; in an oversight, the McDonald brothers failed to retain rights to the McDonald's name when they sold the chain to Kroc, and were forced to rename it \"The Big M\". It went out of business and was demolished in 1972, although part of the sign remains; an independent McDonald's museum was opened on the site in 1998."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hans Hamburger",
        "text": "Hamburger obtained his Ph.D. from the University of Munich in 1914 under the supervision of Alfred Pringsheim and after war service obtained his Habilitation for a thesis on \"Extensions of the Stieltjes moment problem\". He was appointed Privatdozent at the University of Berlin in 1921 and professor at the University of Cologne in 1926. He left Cologne in 1935, after the imposition of the Nuremberg Laws, and returned to his mother's home in Berlin. In 1939, he left Germany, and from 1941 to 1946 he was lecturer at the University of Southampton. After the war, he received an invitation to return to Cologne, but instead moved to the University of Ankara in 1947. He returned to Cologne in 1953."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Cow Who Wanted to Be a Hamburger",
        "text": "The Cow Who Wanted to Be a Hamburger\n--Production.\n--Awards.\n--Preservation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of graphic design",
        "text": "This is a look alike poster advertisement for Wendy's \"where's the Beef?\" campaign. In the TV version of this ad, Clara Peller, a gray-haired actress, stared at an unimpressive looking hamburger and asked, \"Where's the beef?\" This simple message was so sharp that by asking the same question about his rival's program Vice President Walter Mondale effectively neutralized Colorado Senator Gary Hart's momentum in the 1984 presidential campaign."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did the hamburger first come to exist?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The hamburger first appeared in the 19th or early 20th century; the invention of hamburgers is commonly attributed to various people, including Charlie Nagreen, Frank and Charles Menches, Oscar Weber Bilby, Fletcher Davis, or Louis Lassen. The McDonald brothers opened their first restaurant adjacent to the Monrovia Airport in 1937."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the hamburger face any criticism nowadays?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "While I cannot find any criticism, raw hamburger may contain harmful bacteria that can produce food-borne illness such as Escherichia coli, due to the occasional initial improper preparation of the meat.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "Hamburgers are often served in fast food restaurants, and as such, fast food restaurants have come under criticism over concerns ranging from claimed negative health effects, alleged animal cruelty, cases of worker exploitation, and claims of cultural degradation via shifts in people's eating patterns away from traditional foods."
    ],
    "topic": "History of the hamburger",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Hamburger:22",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Hamburger",
          "Today",
          "Safety"
        ],
        "ctx": "Raw hamburger may contain harmful bacteria that can produce food-borne illness such as , due to the occasional initial improper preparation of the meat, so caution is needed during handling and cooking. Because of the potential for food-borne illness, the USDA recommends hamburgers be cooked to an internal temperature of . If cooked to this temperature, they are considered well-done."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Fast food:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fast food"
        ],
        "ctx": "The fastest form of \"fast food\" consists of pre-cooked meals kept in readiness for a customer's arrival (Boston Market rotisserie chicken, Little Caesars pizza, etc.), with waiting time reduced to mere seconds. Other fast food outlets, primarily the hamburger outlets (McDonald's, Burger King, etc.) use mass-produced pre-prepared ingredients (bagged buns and condiments, frozen beef patties, vegetables which are prewashed, pre-sliced, or both; etc.) but the hamburgers and french fries are always cooked fresh (or at least relatively recently) and assembled \"to order\" (like at a diner)."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Fast food:44",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fast food",
          "Criticism"
        ],
        "ctx": "Fast-food chains have come under criticism over concerns ranging from claimed negative health effects, alleged animal cruelty, cases of worker exploitation, and claims of cultural degradation via shifts in people's eating patterns away from traditional foods."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Since the latter part of the 20th century, the burger has undergone several [[controversy|controversies]] regarding its nutritional values. In an era in which a growing amount of the world's population has become either [[overweight]] or more conscious of weight and the need for a healthy diet in general, the appearance of exceptionally larger burgers (popularly known as \"XXL hamburgers\") has generated considerable controversy. One example of this is the [[Triple Whopper]], which surpasses the one thousand calorie threshold established by the Health Strategy Against Obesity, which is promoted by the health institutes of the Spanish Association of Food and Nutrition Safety (AESAN). AESAN works to prevent the growth of the incidence of [[obesity]] in all people, particularly children. More generally, [[dietitian]]s are beginning to see that the consumption of foods high in [[calorie]]s can cause excessive [[appetite]]. In response to this message, many restaurant chains have reduced the calories in their burgers since the beginning of the 20th century. The late 20th century witnessed a lawsuit brought by [[McDonald's]] against two [[environmental activist]]s, [[Helen Steel]] and David Morris, that was colloquially known as \"[[McLibel]]\". McDonald's took action following the publication of a [[pamphlet]] by Steel and Morris that was entitled \"What\u2019s wrong with McDonald\u2019s: Everything they don\u2019t want you to know\", which was subsequently developed into a documentary called \"[[McLibel (film)|McLibel]]\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "History of the hamburger\n--Beginning.\n----Hamburg and its port.\n----Hamburg steak.\n--Invention.\n----North America.\n----Controversial origins.\n----Ingredients.\n--Commercialization.\n----White Castle System.\n----McDonald's era.\n----Variants.\n--Culinary history.\n--Global phenomenon.\n--Present day.\n----Nutritional controversies.\n----Media.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In the 1970s, major hamburger chains began to use considerable resources in marketing their products. They began to compete directly with each other through their advertising, much of which was [[comparative advertising|comparative]] and often featured direct [[allusion]]s and comparisons. The event came to be jokingly referred to as the \"[[burger wars]]\" by many Americans. By the end of the 1980s, the era of [[slogan]]s in large chain restaurants had begun."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "After various controversies in the 20th century, including a nutritional controversy in the late 1990s, the burger is now readily identified with the United States, and a particular style of cuisine, namely fast food. Along with fried chicken and apple pie, the hamburger has become a culinary icon in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of fast food",
        "text": "In 2016 the company replaced the high-fructose corn syrup in its hamburger buns with sugar and removed antibiotics that are \"important to human medicine\" from its chicken. They also removed artificial preservatives from their cooking oil, pork sausage patties, eggs served on the breakfast menu, and Chicken McNuggets. The skin, safflower oil and citric acid from the McNuggets was also replaced with pea starch, rice starch and powdered lemon juice. These changes were made in an effort to target \"health-conscious consumers.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Josh Barro",
        "text": "Barro used the term \"hamburger problem\" to criticize the perceived tendency of some progressives in the United States to hassle people on their personal choices. For example, eating meat hamburgers can be criticized based on the arguments that it is harmful for animals, it contributes to global warming and it is unhealthy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Between 1871 and 1884, \"Hamburg Beefsteak\" was on the \"Breakfast and Supper Menu\" of the Clipper Restaurant at 311/313 Pacific Street in San Fernando, California. It cost 10 cents\u2014the same price as mutton chops, pig's feet in batter, and stewed veal. It was not, however, on the dinner menu. Only \"Pig's Head\", \"Calf Tongue\", and \"Stewed Kidneys\" were listed. Another claim ties the hamburger to Summit County, New York or Ohio. Summit County, Ohio exists, but Summit County, New York does not.\n* 1921: White Castle, Wichita, Kansas. Due to widely anti-German sentiment in the U.S. during World War I, an alternative name for hamburgers was Salisbury steak. Following the war, hamburgers became unpopular until the White Castle restaurant chain marketed and sold large numbers of small square hamburgers, known as \"sliders\". They started to create five holes in each patty, which help them cook evenly and eliminate the need to flip the burger. In 1995 White Castle began selling frozen hamburgers in convenience stores and vending machines.\n* 1923: Kewpee Hamburgers, or Kewpee Hotels, Flint, Michigan. Kewpee was the second hamburger chain and peaked at 400 locations before World War II. Many of these were licensed but not strictly franchised. Many closed during WWII. Between 1955 and 1967, another wave closed or caused changes of name. In 1967 the Kewpee licensor moved the company to a franchise system. Currently only five locations exist.\n* 1926: White Tower Hamburgers\n* 1927: Little Tavern\n* 1930s: White Castle (II; run by Henry Cassada)\n* 1931: Krystal (restaurant)\n* 1936: Big Boy. In 1937, Bob Wian created the double deck hamburger at his hamburger stand in Glendale California. Big Boy would become the name of the hamburger, the mascot and the restaurants. Big Boy expanded nationally through regional franchising and subfranchising. Primarily operating as drive-in restaurants in the 1950s, interior dining gradually replaced curb service by the early 1970s. Many franchises have closed or operate independently, but at the remaining American restaurants, the Big Boy double deck hamburger remains the signature item.\n* 1940: McDonald's restaurant, San Bernardino, California, was opened by Richard and Maurice McDonald. Their introduction of the \"Speedee Service System\" in 1948 established the principles of the modern fast-food restaurant. The McDonald brothers began franchising in 1953. In 1961, Ray Kroc (the supplier of their multi-mixer milkshake machines) purchased the company from the brothers for $2.7 million and a 1.9% royalty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Louis' Lunch",
        "text": "Detractors of the Louis' Lunch claim include Josh Ozersky, a food editor for New York Magazine. In Ozersky's book, \"The Hamburger: A History\", Ozersky denies the claim based on the definition of a hamburger and told the \"New Haven Register\", \"If you say it can be on toast, you're essentially redefining the hamburger out of existence. The hamburger as the world knows it means a sandwich of ground beef on a bun.\" However, Motz's \"Hamburger America\" notes that the hamburger bun did not exist in 1900 nor did so for another 20 years. Ozersky's book also notes earlier claimants and recognizes Walter Anderson for creating the modern hamburger."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Ingram soon realized that the word \"burger\" evoked connotations of [[circus]] performances at livestock markets and greasy pieces of meat eaten in the poorest districts of the city in the collective mind of the American public. He tried to change those connotations from White Castle's earliest days. At the same time, he became known to some as the [[Henry Ford]] of the hamburger, while inventing a restaurant concept he called the \"White Castle System\", which helped the hamburger achieve fame. Between 1923 and 1931, the \"White Castle System\" established almost a hundred restaurants in cities throughout the [[Midwestern United States]]. In order to raise awareness among White Castle employees, a [[newsletter]] entitled \"The hot hamburger\" was circulated throughout the company, which challenged the employees to improve the sale of the burgers with a simple idea: to be able to prepare burgers rapidly so anyone could purchase and eat them anytime and anywhere. Instead of waiting for half an hour to be served at a traditional restaurant, the White Castle System provided rapid service and a menu centered around the hamburger. At the time, the hamburger was typically served with coffee. [[Upton Sinclair]]'s \"[[The Jungle]]\" had already caused public outrage over the safety of processed meat, so by the 1920s, the general public had come to expect a clean and hygienic hamburger. In addition to offering clean and safe food, White Castle offered regularity and standardization, ensuring that each patty was served in the same manner in each restaurant. At the time, this was an entirely novel idea that would revolutionize the sale of food itself with a style that would come to be known as fast food. During its early years, White Castle emphasized providing quality coffee, and collaborated with universities to publish studies on the nutritional quality of their hamburgers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of fast food",
        "text": "Many fast food restaurants added labels to their menus by listing the nutritional information below each item. The intent was to inform consumers of the caloric and nutritional content of the food being served there and result in directing consumers to the healthier options available. However, reports do not display any significant drop in sales at sandwich or burger locations which highlights no change in consumer behavior even after food was labeled."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "During the first half of the 19th century, most European emigrants to the New World embarked from Hamburg, and New York City was their most common destination. Restaurants in New York offered \"Hamburg-style American fillet\", or even \"beefsteak \u00e0 la Hambourgeoise\". Early American preparations of minced beef were therefore made to fit the tastes of European immigrants, evoking memories of the port of Hamburg and the world they left behind."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:DaviesStallStLawrenceMarket.jpg|300px|thumb|left|William Davies Company stall at the St. Lawrence Market in Toronto, Canada. Scenes such as this became common during the early twentieth century in the United States and Canada as the meat market grew rapidly.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In 2004, [[Morgan Spurlock]] addressed the obsessive consumption of hamburgers by some Americans by directing and starring in the documentary film \"[[Super Size Me]]\". In the film, he himself eats only [[McDonald's]] food for an entire month and documents how his health changes. That same year saw the premiere of \"[[Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle]]\", a film in which [[White Castle (restaurant)|White Castle restaurants]] played a vital part. Two years later, in 2006, the film \"[[Fast Food Nation (film)|Fast Food Nation]]\" presented a fictional representation of the intrigues and machinations of the [[meat industry]] on the border between Mexico and the United States. It is largely based on the 2001 book \"[[Fast Food Nation|Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal]]\".\n* [[Food history]]\n* [[Hamburger]]\n* [[History of the hamburger in the United States]]\n* [[List of hamburgers]]\n* Kominicki, JL (April 29, 1990) \"Ground for glory\" (second page) \"[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|European Stars and Stripes]]\". Darmstadt, Germany. Sunday Magazine, 6\u20137. via [[newspaperarchive.com]]\u00a0[[File:Open Access logo PLoS.svg|link=Open access|frameless|14x14px]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:Mass-produced hamburgers.jpg|250px|thumb|left|The hamburger solved the technical problem of mass-producing semi-processed food.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:\u05d4\u05de\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d2\u05e8_\u05d8\u05d1\u05e2\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A [[vegan]] version of the hamburger]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:White Castle Building No. 8.jpg|250px|thumb|The 1936 [[White Castle Building No. 8]] in [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]]]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The high production and consumption of beef cattle in the United States made the [[meat industry]] increasingly powerful by the end of the 19th century. [[Corporate corruption|Corruption]] problems soon arose in the meat industry, problems that endangered both quality and hygiene. At the beginning of the 20th century, [[Upton Sinclair]] published \"[[The Jungle]]\", a novel about conspiracies and corruption in the American meat industry, intended as a veiled criticism of the industry itself. The book raised popular awareness about the safety of meat processing and helped lead to the creation of the [[Pure Food and Drug Act]], which was sponsored by the [[Food and Drug Administration]]. \"The Jungle\" was a milestone in the subsequent history of the hamburger, as it led the American public to force restaurant chains to prove the safety of their cooked meat. In 1933, Arthur Kallett published a similar book, entitled \"100 million guinea pigs; Dangers in Everyday foods, drugs, and cosmetics\", which warned consumers specifically about the content [[preservative]]s in hamburgers."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In the 20th century, the hamburger has appeared as the central topic in some books on the literature of culinary topics. An example of this is \"[[Fast Food Nation|Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal]]\", published by [[investigative journalist]] [[Eric Schlosser]] in 2001, that examines the local and global influence of the American fast food industry. An example of a modern variation of the hamburger is the so-called \"gourmet burger\", which is made by [[haute cuisine]] chefs with patties that include [[luxury good|luxury]] ingredients. One of the first such burgers was cooked in New York City by chef [[Daniel Boulud]] in June 2001, and subsequently sold for US$29 with [[loin]], ribs Bres, canned [[black truffle]]s, and a [[mirepoix (cuisine)|mirepoix]] of vegetables. The [[Manhattan]] restaurant \"Old Homestead\", one of the oldest [[steakhouse]]s in the country, offers a $44 hamburger with beef-bred Japanese [[wagy\u016b]]. An haute cuisine burger created by [[Richard Blais]], a student of [[Ferran Adri\u00e0]], was introduced in 2004 at a restaurant in [[Atlanta]], where it is served with a crystal chain and a silk [[ribbon]]. In response to the haute cuisine take on the hamburger, others have created more humble versions. Alberto Chicote of [[Madrid]] makes homemade hamburgers in his kitchen, using [[Iberia]]n pork along with homemade [[ketchup]] and [[mustard (condiment)|mustard]]. In 1993, Max Schondor created a hamburger made of soy. In a 2005 episode of [[SpongeBob SquarePants]], the adventurous title character visits [[Mr. Krabs]]'s popular [[Krabby Patty]] burgers, where hamburgers figure prominently in the story."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Among the vegetables that come with the hamburger, the first described in the literature on its history is the onion, usually finely sliced in rings. Thus, the hamburger came to continue the long American tradition of sandwiches featuring some kind of plant product, whether that be lettuce (as in the case of the [[BLT sandwich]]), [[sauerkraut]] (as on the [[reuben sandwich|reuben]]), [[coleslaw]], or [[pickled cucumber|pickles]]. It is possible that after the creation of the hamburger by uniting the steak with the bread, vegetables were included to give the finished product a more \"natural\" appearance and taste. All of these condiments were incorporated into the classical image of the hamburger during its golden age, the 1940s. In some cases, the hamburger is prepared differently and distinctly to add regional flavor, as in the case of [[Tex-Mex]] style burgers, which are served with a side of [[chili con carne]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Many recipes and dishes traveled along with transatlantic immigrants to their destinations in the New World. Some authors question whether the [[Hamburg America Line]] was part of this, arguing that the hamburger was created to meet needs that arose amongst immigrants already in the New World. Others, however, support the thesis that the Hamburg America Line brought the first Hamburger steaks from Europe to the Americas. The hamburger as it is known today has multiple invention claims ranging between 1885 and 1904, but it is clearly the product of the early 20th century. During the following 100 years, the hamburger spread throughout the world as a result of the emerging concept of fast food and a new business model: the [[Chain store|franchise]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "During the [[Cold War]], the hamburger became a [[national symbol]] of the United States. As private outdoor social events, often held in [[backyard]]s and featuring a [[barbecue]], became more widespread during the mid-1950s, the hamburger gained a new culinary and social relevance in the country. By the late 1960s, hamburgers began to grow in size as various burger chains competed with each other, resulting in Burger King launching the [[Whopper]] and [[McDonald's]] launching the [[Quarter Pounder]]. As the race between the major chains grew more intense, the prices of their burgers increased, and the days when a hamburger could be bought for just a few cents were numbered."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The dawn of the 20th century witnessed the need to provide food for people living in highly productive urban centers with high population densities. Food also had to be economically affordable for the working class in order for them to maintain their [[Employment|labor]] and industrial production. The burger was born in a time when people needed to eat both \"fast\" and \"cheap\". Technological advances in the field of [[food preservation]], as well as improvements in agricultural production and transportation, made it possible for hamburgers to be a practical choice of food for urban dwellers since their very creation. The [[socio-economic]] environment of the United States at the time of the burger's rise to popularity coincided with the end of World War I and the beginning of the [[Great Depression]] of 1929. This environment was particularly favorable for fostering inexpensive food, which was one reason why five-cent hamburgers were so popular. After its invention during the first decade of the 20th century, the hamburger came to be marketed on a large scale, after \"visionaries\" realized that it would benefit greatly from a mass production process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greg Mankiw",
        "text": "Controversy also arose from a rhetorical question posed by the report and repeated by Mankiw in a speech about the report: \"when a fast-food restaurant sells a hamburger, is it providing a service or combining inputs to manufacture a product?\" He intended to point out that the distinction between manufacturing jobs and service industry jobs is somewhat arbitrary and so is a poor basis for policy. Even though the issue was not raised in the report, a news account led to criticism that the administration was seeking to cover up job losses in manufacturing by redefining jobs like cooking hamburgers as manufacturing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Texan cuisine",
        "text": "A photo of \"Old Dave's Hamburger Stand\" from the 1904 connection was sent to Tolbert as evidence of the claim. Also the \"New York Tribune\" namelessly attributed the innovation of the hamburger to the stand on the pike."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The hamburger first appeared in the 19th or early 20th century. The modern hamburger was a product of the culinary needs of a society rapidly changing due to industrialization and the emergence of the working class and the middle class with the resulting demand for mass-produced, affordable food that could be consumed outside of the home."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Fictional characters related to the hamburger, such as the [[Ronald McDonald]] [[clown]] character designed by [[Willard Scott]] who first appeared on television in 1963, soon became a recognizable part of [[American culture]]. The burger also made appearances in [[underground comix]] such as [[Zap Comix#2]] during the late 1960s, in which cartoonist [[Robert Crumb]] designed a character called \"Hamburger Hi-Jinx\". By the end of the decade, [[pop art]] was including the hamburger as an artistic element, appearing in the works of [[Andy Warhol]] (\"Dual Hamburger\"), [[Claes Oldenburg]] (\"Floor Burger\"), [[Mel Ramos]] (\"Vinaburger\", 1965), and more recently, [[David LaChapelle]] (\"Death by Hamburger\", 2002)."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Fat Cow",
        "text": "Besha Rodell in the \"LA Weekly\" was disappointed with the food on offer at The Fat Cow, saying that her fries were \"tepid\" and that the Kobe burger \"tasted no more special than any pub burger anywhere in America\". She was more impressed by a couple of dishes: a salmon with celeriac coleslaw and a pizza with burrata and sausage, but she criticized Ramsay for trading on his name, and summed it up by saying that What galls is the act of misleading those folks, the people who are curious about all the hype given to food these days, who might decide to put themselves into Ramsay's hands to help them figure it out. The hoodwinking of those customers is the real reason this restaurant is more offensive than the sum of its not-very-good parts."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[Category:Hamburgers (food)]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "White Tower Hamburgers",
        "text": "White Tower Hamburgers\n--History.\n----Lawsuit.\n----Peak and decline.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Taste (sociology)",
        "text": "Many critics have voiced their opinion against the growing influence of mass culture, fearing the decline in global divergence of culture. For example, it is claimed that the convenience of getting the same hamburger at fast food places like McDonald's can reduce consumer interest in traditional culinary experiences."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[Category:History of the hamburger| ]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "History of the hamburger in the United States\n--Hamburger bun.\n----U.S. hamburger restaurants.\n--Variations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "By the 1960s, American society had become highly [[automobile|motorized]], largely due to the 1956 [[Federal Highway Act]] passed by President [[Dwight Eisenhower]] and inspired by the [[German Autobahn]], as well as the impressive growth rates of American [[automobile manufacturer]]s at the time. Due to the extensive use of cars at the time, hamburgers were often served at [[drive-in]]s, often by waiters known as [[carhop]]s. Drive-in restaurants first appeared in the United States in the early 1930s, and gradually become a common sight across the country. The ability to serve hamburgers to customers in their cars was seen as a business opportunity by countless fast-food chains, especially [[McDonald's]]. The popularity of the hamburger grew rapidly among the American population during this period, and statistics indicate that the average American was eating three burgers per week."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[Category:History of food and drink]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The first automobile [[production line]] was created by [[Karl Benz]] in Germany in 1888. The widespread appearance of telephones occurred at the beginning of the 20th century, along with other modern means of communication, including radio. For the average American who had not eaten in a restaurant in his or her entire life, the fast food chains that appeared in the cities offered an alternative form of restaurant in which eating was very much a public activity. The concept of a \"[[greasy spoon]]\" was thus born with these restaurants, in which [[hygiene]] suffered in exchange for more inexpensive food. On the other hand, there was a growing [[interconnected]] world in which trips by car, bus, and rail became increasingly available. All these means of transport were improving at the time, and soon it was necessary to feed a growing population that was \"in permanent transit\", frequently moving through different cities [[business travel|on business]]. [[George Pullman]] invented the [[sleeping car]] and the [[dining car]] in response to the needs of these people in the 1870s. Similarly, the English immigrant [[Fred Harvey (entrepreneur)|Frederick Henry Harvey]] was the first to use \"dynamic mass movement\" in restoring the [[Fred Harvey Company]], which catered to the patrons of a chain of hotels located near railway stations, as well as offering catering, services, and high quality products on the trains themselves."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "White Castle had a very large progression of sales, and its success was such, that by 1926, it had already generated competitors and [[imitator]]s in the emerging hamburger business. One of these imitators also had a highly similar name, [[White Tower Hamburgers]] of [[Milwaukee]], [[Wisconsin]], founded by the father and son tandem of John E. and Thomas E. Saxe. The creation of White Tower led to numerous legal battles between it and White Castle during the 1930s. By 1930, White Castle already had 116 restaurants spread over a distance of , all of which were located within the United States. [1] The company eventually became a large restaurant chain, however, there has never been a restaurant outside of the United States. The American [[shortage]] of beef during World War II had little effect on sales across White Castle, due to the effect of [[vertical integration]] along with the appearance of fast food chains that operated on a [[franchising|franchise]] model that emphasized [[horizontal integration]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red Hen restaurant controversy",
        "text": "In May 2019, co-owner Stephanie Wilkinson wrote in the \"Washington Post\" that the restaurant had been receiving hate mail for nearly a year, but \"[f]or every hateful message, there was one of gratitude.\" She reported that \"business is still good,\" and \"to everyone who might be fearful about taking a stand, I say don't be. Resistance is not futile, for you or your business.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The hamburger's international popularity demonstrates the larger globalization of food that also includes the rise in global popularity of other national dishes, including the Italian pizza, Chinese fried rice and Japanese sushi. The hamburger has spread from continent to continent perhaps because it matches familiar elements in different culinary cultures. This global culinary culture has been produced, in part, by the concept of selling processed food, first launched in the 1920s by the White Castle restaurant chain and its visionary Edgar Waldo \"Billy\" Ingram and then refined by McDonald's in the 1940s. This global expansion provides economic points of comparison like the Big Mac Index, by which one can compare the purchasing power of different countries where the Big Mac hamburger is sold."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Contemporary American society also witnessed the creation of new fast foods that originated from the traditional cuisine of various ethnic groups from around the world. For example, [[German Americans|German immigrant]] Charles Feltman invented the [[hot dog]] in 1867 in his stall in [[Coney Island]], New York by pairing a [[Hot dog|frankfurter]] with a bread bun. Imitators such as Harry Magley and Charles Stevens soon began selling hot dogs at [[New York Yankees|New York Polo Grounds]] baseball games. Similarly, [[Italian Americans|Italian immigrants]] sold [[ice cream]] from vending carts in the streets or pasta at their restaurants. [[Chinese Americans|Chinese immigrants]] initially opened restaurants to cater to their fellow Chinese-Americans, but they gradually became accepted by the American clientele, sometimes resulting in truly Chinese-American cuisine such as [[chop suey]]. In this diverse world of ethnic foods, the hamburger was able to rise to mainstream popularity and become a national food of the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "The Texas historian Frank X. Tolbert attributes the invention of the hamburger to Fletcher Davis of Athens, Texas. Davis is believed to have sold hamburgers at his caf\u00e9 at 115 Tyler Street in Athens, Texas, in the late 1880s, before bringing them to the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair.\n;Menches Brothers 1885"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Prior to the disputed invention of the hamburger in the United States, similar foods already existed in the culinary tradition of Europe. The Apicius cookbook, a collection of ancient Roman recipes that may date to the early 4th century, details a preparation of beef called \"isicia omentata\"; served as a baked patty in which beef is mixed with pine kernels, black and green peppercorns, and white wine, \"isicia omentata\" may be the earliest precursor to the hamburger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steven Milloy",
        "text": "Responding to criticism of the safety of the food product Quorn by the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), Milloy accused CSPI of having an undisclosed relationship with Quorn's main competitor, Gardenburger. Writing for FoxNews.com, Milloy said that \"CSPI appears to have an unsavory relationship with Quorn competitor, Gardenburger\" and called the CSPI's complaints \"unscrupulous shrieking\", noting comments in CSPI newsletters like \"Remember the saturated fat and the E.coli bacteria that could be hiding inside [a hamburger]? You can keep the taste but forget the worries with Gardenburger.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Burgerim",
        "text": "Burgerim\n--History.\n--Menu.\n--Controversy.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:Find the differences (painting by Peter Klashorst).jpg|350px|thumb|In the 1960s, McDonald's advertised the ability of a customer to eat the same burger anywhere in the United States, and a few decades later it made the same feat possible in much of the world.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Texan cuisine",
        "text": "An early claim to the invention of the hamburger was Fletcher Davis of Athens, Texas, who claimed to have served it at his restaurant at a time when there were more cows than people in Texas. According to oral histories, in the 1880s, he opened a lunch counter in Athens and served a \"burger\" of fried ground beef patties with mustard and Bermuda onion between two slices of bread; with a pickle on the side."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger Stand",
        "text": "Hamburger Stand\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "An example of the popularity and identification that the burger enjoyed among the American public was the name of the [[Battle of Hamburger Hill]], which occurred in May 1969 during the [[Vietnam War]]. Its name was inspired by the number of American and [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] casualties, which made the scene resembles a \"butcher\". The hamburger was also the inspiration of [[Star Wars]] creator [[George Lucas]]'s design for the [[Millennium Falcon]] ship. Hamburgers also appear in computer games, as in the case of [[BurgerTime]], an [[arcade game|arcade-style game]] created in 1982 by [[Data East|Data East Corporation]]. The hamburger also appears prominently on [[Television in the United States|American television]] shows such as \"[[American Eats]]\" and \"[[Man v. Food]]\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Considerable evidence suggests that either the United States or Germany (the city of Hamburg) was the first country where two slices of bread and a ground beef steak were combined into a \"hamburger sandwich\" and sold. There is some controversy over the origin of the hamburger because its two basic ingredients, bread and beef, had been prepared and consumed separately for many years in different countries before their combination. Shortly after its creation, the hamburger quickly included all of its currently typically characteristic trimmings, including onions, lettuce, and sliced pickles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of fast food",
        "text": "Criticism of fast food includes claims of negative health effects, animal cruelty, cases of worker exploitation, children targeted marketing and claims of cultural degradation via shifts in people's eating patterns away from traditional foods. Fast food chains have come under fire from consumer groups, such as the Center for Science in the Public Interest, a longtime fast food critic over issues such as caloric content, trans fats and portion sizes. Social scientists have highlighted how the prominence of fast food narratives in popular urban legends suggests that modern consumers have an ambivalent relationship (characterized by guilt) with fast food, particularly in relation to children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry's Hamburgers",
        "text": "Henry's Hamburgers\n--History.\n----Growth.\n----Decline.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burgeranch",
        "text": "One scholar connected the rise of Burgerranch, along with Burger King and McDonalds, to the Americanization of Israeli society."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Minced meat was a delicacy in medieval cuisine, red meat usually being restricted to the higher classes. Very little mincing was done by medieval butchers or recorded in the cookbooks of the time, perhaps because it was not part of the sausage-making process that preserves meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "At the same time the hamburger was growing in popularity around the world, it took on a variety of local features in different locations. Such examples of this include ground meat made from local animals, such as [[kangaroo]]s in Australia, or [[Tex-Mex]]-style dishes like [[chilli con carne]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Many different variants of the hamburger have been created over the years, some of which have become very popular. Much of this diversity has been the product of other restaurant chains that have tried to reproduce the success of McDonald's and White Castle, while others served to influence McDonald's. An example of a restaurant that influenced McDonald's and its imitators is [[Big Boy (restaurant)|Big Boy]], which was first opened in 1936 by [[Bob Wian]] in [[Glendale, California]], and became known in that locale as [[Bob's Big Boy]]. It was at this restaurant that a major hamburger variant, the double deck cheeseburger, with two beef patties, was first made. Wian's creation was distinctively served by Big Boy restaurants with the bun sliced twice, the center slice\u2014known as the club section\u2014separating the two patties. The chain also popularized the drive-in restaurant format, taken and simplified by McDonald's type fast food operators. By the 1960s, Big Boy had expanded throughout the United States and Canada. Despite the benefits it provided to Wian, the chain was sold along with the rights to their signature Big Boy hamburger to the [[Marriott Corporation]] in 1967. This same year McDonald's franchisee Jim Delligatti, created an imitation of the Big Boy \u2014 the Big Mac. An example of the many McDonald's and White Castle imitators is [[Kewpee Hamburgers]], a fast-food chain founded in 1923 in [[Flint, Michigan]], by Samuel V. Blair as \"[[Kewpee|Kewpee Hotel Hamburgs]].\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "The hamburger restaurant most associated by the public with the term \"fast food\" was created by two brothers originally from Nashua, New Hampshire. Richard and Maurice McDonald opened a barbecue drive-in in 1940 in the city of San Bernardino, California. After discovering that most of their profits came from hamburgers, the brothers closed their restaurant for three months and reopened it in 1948 as a walk-up stand offering a simple menu of hamburgers, french fries, shakes, coffee, and Coca-Cola, served in disposable paper wrapping. As a result, they could produce hamburgers and fries constantly, without waiting for customer orders, and could serve them immediately; hamburgers cost 15 cents, about half the price at a typical diner. Their streamlined production method, which they named the \"Speedee Service System\" was influenced by the production line innovations of Henry Ford."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "In April 1995, the Dallas Morning News reported on an Oklahoma author who said that Tulsa beat out Texas as the birthplace of the delicacy. Michael Wallis, author of \"Route 66, The Mother Road\", was quoted by the newspaper as saying that he had discovered Tulsa's place in culinary history, which he made while researching the state\u2019s tastiest hamburgers. He started at the restaurant that has been voted Tulsa's best burger more often than any other restaurant since 1933, Weber\u2019s Root Beer Stand. Wallis\u2019 research revealed that Oscar Weber Bilby was the first person to serve a real hamburger when, on July 4, 1891, ground beef was served on his wife\u2019s homemade buns at a Fourth of July party on his farm, just west of present-day Tulsa. Until then, ground beef had been served in Athens, Texas, on simple slices of bread, known then and presently as a \"patty melt\". According to the Tulsa-based author, the bun is essential. Therefore, in 1995, Governor Frank Keating cited Athens, Texas' serving of ground beef between two slices of bread as a minor accomplishment. The governor's April 1995 proclamation also cites the first true hamburger on the bun, after meticulous research, was created and consumed in Tulsa in 1891. The Governor's Proclamation cites April 13, 1995, in Tulsa as \"The Real Birthplace of the Hamburger.\"\n;Louis' Lunch 1895"
      },
      {
        "title": "MrBeast Burger",
        "text": "Although many customers tried to contact Donaldson to express their complaints directly, others came to Donaldson's defense and redirected the blame to the restaurants preparing the orders. Because the chain is operated as a ghost kitchen, the orders are cooked by staff of the contracted restaurant, hence the quality of an order can be determinant on the location it was ordered from."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The McDonald brothers intensively studied the existing kitchen protocol of their restaurants in an effort to improve them. They looked at different options that could increase the speed of cooking hamburgers, designing and patenting special [[grilling|grills]] that had a higher output, made their [[cutlery]] and other [[kitchen utensil]]s [[disposable]], and introduced [[dishwasher]]s that reduced the costs of water, soap, and [[Employment|labor]]. The brothers also created a detailed system for operating each kitchen throughout the franchise in a similar and largely standardized manner, as well as recruiting adolescents as employees in the kitchens."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In the same year that Charlie Nagreen claimed to have developed his \"Hamburger Charlie\", the brothers and street cooks Frank and Charles Menches of [[Akron, Ohio]], claimed to have sold a ground beef [[sandwich]] at the [[Erie County Fair]]. They assert that the name of the hamburger was derived from the town [[Hamburg (town), New York|Hamburg]], New York, in [[Erie County, New York|Erie County]], the first place in which it had been sold. This statement has been very poorly documented or substantiated, and in the case of an oral tradition, it is not without its contradictions. Its famous description of the [[secret ingredient]]s used in the recipes, such as coffee or [[brown sugar]], is primitive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Louis' Lunch",
        "text": "Critics of the restaurant hinge on its dislike of condiments, particularly ketchup; customers who ask for it are ejected from the premises. In episode 10 of \"Burger Land\", the \"no ketchup\" sign is visible hanging in the restaurant and an informative caption pops up to read \"Yale students who try to sneak in ketchup are asked to leave.\" According to \"American Food Roots,\" signage and an exchange of stories confirms the policy. Tom Gilbert wrote, \"Louis\u2019 Lunch is a very friendly place as long as you get with the program, which always has been about serving quality beef and making sure that nothing ruins or upstages it. As Jeff [Lassen] will tell you, that means no puffy, sweet bun, no well-done meat and no ketchup...\" Both Connecticut Museum Quest and American Food Roots note the strong presence for the restaurant's way and Menuism goes so far as to note it the #2 of \"the 5 Least Welcome Places for Ketchup.\" Even \"Esquire\" affirms, \"You can get your hamburger sandwich topped with onions, tomato, and a squirt of Cheez-Wiz. Just don't ask for anything else.\" On the wall a sign reads \"this is not Burger King you can't \"have it your way.\" You get it my way or you don't get the damn thing.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:Taiwan McDonald's chicken rice burger 20050218.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Vietnamese [[riceburger]] is a product of the globalization of the hamburger.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The modern hamburger was developed in the United States, but by the end of World War II, around the middle of the 20th century, it began to spread to other countries as fast food became [[globalization|globalized]]. The main cause of this gradual globalization was the successes of the large [[restaurant chain]]s. Their desires to expand their businesses and increase their profits resulted in them creating [[Chain store|franchises]] around the world. [[McDonald's]] was among the first of the burger chains to take the global establishment of its brand seriously, but it was not the only one. [[Wimpy (restaurant)|Wimpy]] began operating in the United Kingdom in 1954, 20 years before McDonald's began operation in the country, and by 1970 it had expanded to over a thousand restaurants in 23 countries. On August 21, 1971, in [[Zaandam]], near [[Amsterdam]] in the Netherlands, [[Ahold]] opened its first European franchise. In the 1970s, McDonald's began to expand into Europe and Australia. In Asia, Japan saw the establishment of its own fast food chain in 1972: , an abbreviation of \"Mountain, Ocean, Sun\", which eventually became a direct competitor to McDonald's. All of its products, however, were variations on the burger adapted to the Asian world, including the teriyaki burger, takumi burger, and [[riceburger]]. In Hong Kong, [[Aji Ichiban]] competed with large chains before it spread quickly throughout Asia. One of the first hamburger [[vending machine]]s debuted in Amsterdam in 1941 under the brand \"[[FEBO]]\", its name derived from its original place of creation, the [[Ferdinand Bolstraat]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "The following restaurants have either played a part in the creation of the hamburger sandwich, developed a unique cooking method, or were the first to sell them nationwide:\n* Louis' Lunch 1895, New Haven, Connecticut. Louis' Lunch has been selling steak and hamburger sandwiches since 1895, when Louis Lassen opened his lunch wagon. This small establishment, which advertises itself as the oldest hamburger restaurant in the U.S., is credited by some with having invented the classic American hamburger when Louis sandwiched a ground steak patty between two pieces of white toast for a busy office worker in 1900. Louis' Lunch flame broils the hamburgers in the original 1898 Bridge & Beach vertical cast iron gas stoves using locally developed steel wire gridirons to hold the hamburgers in place during cooking (U.S. Patent #2,148,879). In 1974, \"The New York Times\" published a story about Louis' Lunch claiming to have invented the hamburger. The U.S. Library of Congress' American Folklife Center Local Legacies Project website credits Louis' Lunch as the maker of America's first hamburger and steak sandwich. The hamburger is still served today on two pieces of toast and not a bun.\n* Dyer's Burgers, 1912, Memphis, Tennessee, deep-fried burgers using a cast-iron skillet.\n* White Castle, 1921, Wichita, Kansas. Following the war, hamburgers became unpopular until the White Castle restaurant chain marketed and sold large numbers of small two-and-a-half-inch square hamburgers. They started to punch five holes in each patty, which helps them cook evenly and eliminates the need to flip the burgers. Their burger first sold for five cents. White Castle holds a U.S trademark on the word \"slyders.\" The White Castle building was modeled after the water tower building in Chicago, with the turrets and fortress-like walls. White Castle was the first to sell their hamburgers in grocery stores and vending machines. They also created the industrial-strength spatula, and were the first to mass-produce the paper hat. Today, there are more than 400 White Castle restaurants around the country, selling over 550 million hamburgers per year.\n*The Rite Spot, circa 1925, Pasadena, California. Lionel Sternberger claims to have invented the cheeseburger.\n* Kaelin's Restaurant, 1934, Louisville, Kentucky. This Kentucky restaurant claims to have invented the cheeseburger in 1934.\n* Humpty Dumpty Drive-In, 1935, Denver, Colorado. A trademark for the name \"cheeseburger\" was awarded to Louis Ballast of the Humpty Dumpty Drive-In in 1935.\n* Jack\u2019s Lunch, 1930s, Middletown, Connecticut. The steamed cheeseburger is believed to have been invented at this restaurant operated by Jack Fitzgerald.\n* Bob's Pantry (Bob's Big Boy), 1937, Glendale, California. Bob Wian invented the double deck cheeseburger. The Big Boy double deck hamburger lent its name to his restaurant chain."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:In-N-Out Burger cheeseburger meal.jpg|250px|thumb|left|The modern hamburger with its familiar sides, French fries and a drink]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of fast food",
        "text": "Criticism of fast food\n--Health based criticisms.\n----Food poisoning risk.\n----Food-contact paper packaging.\n----Fast food and diet.\n--Fast food commercials.\n--Consumer responsibility.\n--The CSR Halo Effect.\n--Worker discrepancies and strikes.\n--Fast food and the pandemic.\n--Packaging waste.\n----Disposable Tableware as a Business Model.\n--Fast food industry's response to criticism.\n----Animal cruelty.\n----Nutrition and health.\n----Source reduction.\n----Cage-free hens.\n----Proximity of fast food locations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ray Kroc",
        "text": "Kroc maintained the assembly line \"Speedee Service System\" for hamburger preparation that was introduced by the McDonald brothers in 1948. He standardized operations, ensuring every burger would taste the same in every restaurant. He set strict rules for franchisees on how the food was to be made, portion sizes, cooking methods and times, and packaging. Kroc also rejected cost-cutting measures like using soybean filler in the hamburger patties. These strict rules also were applied to customer service standards with such mandates that money be refunded to clients whose orders were not correct or to customers who had to wait more than five minutes for their food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Louis' Lunch",
        "text": "An article from ABC News sums up the problems of identifying the origins of the hamburger by stating, \"One problem is that there is little written history. Another issue is that the spread of the burger happened largely at the World's Fair, from tiny vendors that came and went in an instant. And it is entirely possible that more than one person came up with the idea at the same time in different parts of the country.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Fletcher Davis of Athens, Texas claimed to have invented the hamburger. According to oral histories, in the 1880s he opened a lunch counter in Athens and served a 'burger' of fried ground beef patties with mustard and Bermuda onion between two slices of bread, with a pickle on the side. The story is that in 1904, Davis and his wife Ciddy ran a sandwich stand at the St. Louis World's Fair. Historian Frank X. Tolbert, noted that Athens resident Clint Murchison said his grandfather dated the hamburger to the 1880s with 'Old Dave' a.k.a. Fletcher Davis. A photo of \"Old Dave's Hamburger Stand\" from 1904 was sent to Tolbert as evidence of the claim."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carson Nugget",
        "text": "Carson Nugget\n--History.\n----Awful Awful Burger.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "Burger King has been involved in several legal disputes and cases, as both plaintiff and defendant, in the years since its founding in 1954. Depending on the ownership and executive staff at the time of these incidents, the company's responses to these challenges have ranged from a conciliatory dialog with its critics and litigants, to a more aggressive opposition with questionable tactics and negative consequences. The company's response to these various issues has drawn praise as well as accusations of political appeasement from different parties over the years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steve Cuozzo",
        "text": "In 2005, the \"Post\" stopped running classic reviews directed towards \"eating one's way through a new place every week,\" which was part of a trend in United States newspapers at that time. Cuozzo attributed the decline of the newspaper restaurant critic to the dilution of the power of the critic through the numerous websites and blogs that allowed people to express their opinions about their meals. Cuozzo also noted that restaurants had become bigger, more complex, and more press-savvy as other factors in the decline of the newspaper restaurant critic. In July 2008, Cuozzo appeared on \"Just in with Laura Ingraham\", a news program broadcast on the Fox News Channel."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:Big Mac hamburger - Japan (1).jpg|300px|thumb|The [[Big Mac]] popularized an evolution in the image of the hamburger.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Avant-garde",
        "text": "B\u00fcrger's essay also greatly influenced the work of contemporary American art historians such as the German Benjamin H. D. Buchloh (born 1941). Buchloh, in the collection of essays \"Neo-avantgarde and Culture Industry\" (2000), critically argues for a dialectical approach to these positions. Subsequent criticism theorized the limitations of these approaches, noting their circumscribed areas of analysis, including Eurocentric, chauvinist, and genre-specific definitions."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "All claims for invention occur between 1885 and 1904, making it probable that the hamburger was created sometime in these two decades. Despite varieties, there are common elements in all of the narratives, most notably that the hamburger was born as a food associated with major events such as [[amusement park]]s, [[fair]]s, [[Meeting|conferences]], and festivals. All the hypotheses also share the presence of [[street vendor]]s."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In 1937, Patrick McDonald and his two sons [[Richard and Maurice McDonald|Richard and Maurice]] inaugurated the simple restaurant \"Airdrome\" on Huntington Drive (Route 66) near the airport in the American city of [[Monrovia, California#History|Monrovia, California]]. The success of its sales eventually led to the May 15, 1940, opening of a restaurant named [[McDonald's]] along [[U.S. Route 66]] in [[San Bernardino, California]]. After analyzing their sales, the brothers discovered that, to their surprise, 80% of their [[revenue]] was coming from selling hamburgers. The menu initially featured 25 different dishes, the majority of which were [[barbecue]]d. Through their new restaurant, the McDonald brothers introduced the notion of fast food to parts of the Western United States by 1948. From the beginning, McDonald's focused on making hot dogs and hamburgers as efficiently and quickly as possible. During the 1940s, simple and formative concepts took root at McDonald's, including the preparation and service of burgers in just one minute and the ability for customers to eat in their own cars in a \"[[drive-in]]\" style. All the while, the restaurant was trying to further develop a hamburger that was inexpensive enough to be within the economic reach of most Americans. By the 1950s, the concept of drive-in style service had become firmly established and hamburgers and cars had become closely connected in the minds of many Americans. It was now not only possible for a customer to purchase a hamburger without getting out of a car, and a customer also no longer needed to wait to be served. The McDonald brothers built upon the achievements of their original San Bernardino restaurant when in 1953 they began franchising their now famous chain restaurants, starting in [[Phoenix, Arizona]], and [[Downey, California]] (the latter of which is [[Oldest McDonald's restaurant|still in operation]]). Later, [[Ray Kroc]] opened one in the northwest Chicago suburb of [[Des Plaines, Illinois]] on April 15, 1955, which has now been converted into the [[McDonald's USA First Store Museum|McDonald's Museum]]. It is noteworthy that the original McDonald's [[mascot]] was a hamburger faced cook called \"[[Speedee]]\" that would serve as the iconographic identity of the company until being replaced by the clown [[Ronald McDonald]] in 1963."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Tower Hamburgers",
        "text": "White Tower Hamburgers was a fast food restaurant chain that was founded in 1926 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. With its similar white fortress-like buildings and menu it is considered to be an imitator of White Castle chain that was founded in 1921. The chain was successful and expanded to other cities, including Chicago, Indianapolis, Cleveland, Dayton, Detroit, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh,Baltimore, New York City, Albany, Boston, Richmond, Virginia, and as far south as Sarasota, Florida. During the Great Depression, White Tower sold hamburgers for five cents. The whiteness of the restaurant was meant among other things to evoke the notion of hygienic conditions, and the chain had staff dressed as nurses, dubbed the \"Towerettes,\" to help make this argument."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[Category:American sandwiches]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chili burger",
        "text": "Food author John T. Edge considers the invention the milestone that marks the start of \"traceable history of burgers in LA\", a first step to what he considers the \"baroque\" character of the Los Angeles hamburger scene. By interviewing former customers and friends decades after the fact, columnist Jack Smith wrote a definitive article in 1974 about DeForest and the dish that he had invented which became a very important part of the history of Los Angeles. What helped spread the popularity of this dish was Deforest's diverse clientele which included doctors coming off the late shift at the local county hospital, fight fans on their way home after attending matches at the Olympic Auditorium, and people associated with the Hollywood film industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Another development facilitating the invention and popularization of the proto-hamburger was the increased production of beef through livestock intensification. By the late 19th century, an increasing amount of land was being devoted to cattle and a growing number of people being employed as [[cowboy]]s, resulting in the United States becoming one of the world's largest producers and consumers of beef. The 1880s were declared \"The Golden Age of Beef\", during which the abundance of rural beef production made vital its transportation by rail from agricultural to urban areas. This gave rise to various methods of meat preservation for making possible the consumption of fresh meat in urban and industrialized areas, among the [[refrigerator car]]s and different methods of packaging meat (such as [[corned beef]]), which were promoted by industrialists like [[Gustavus Swift]] (1839\u20131903). Around this time, the city of Chicago, along with other cities on the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]], became a focal point for the large-scale processing of beef. Beef was already inexpensive at that time, and it was available to the working class. This put the Hamburg steak within reach of the vast majority of the population, giving rise to what some authors jokingly call the \"American beef dream\". In this era, the number of [[steakhouse]]s that specialized in serving steaks increased markedly; some restaurants even served steak along with seafood, in a dish known as [[Surf and turf]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Hamburg steak, once served between two slices of bread, began to be prepared with a variety of different ingredients that were included either in the sandwich itself or as a side dish accompanying it on a plate. One of these accompaniments, which is still common with today's burger, is [[ketchup]], a type of [[tomato sauce]] with a blend of [[flavor]]s between [[sweet]] and [[sour]] that was first produced commercially in 1869 by entrepreneur and chef [[Henry John Heinz]] in [[Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania]]. His company was originally called the \"Anchor Pickle and Vinegar Works\", but in 1888 it was renamed [[H. J. Heinz Company|F. & J. Heinz]]. The use of ketchup by American consumers grew quickly after this date, and it was not long before hamburgers were almost universally accompanied by ketchup by the end of the nineteenth and into the early 20th century. [[Mustard (condiment)|Mustard]] is a significantly older [[condiment]], as it is thought that the [[ancient Rome|ancient Romans]] used a dressing made with non-fermented grapes and [[grape seed]]s known as \"mustum ardens\". Another ingredient incorporated into the burger, [[mayonnaise]], appears to have been present in 18th century France, after the naval victory of [[Louis-Fran\u00e7ois-Armand du Plessis de Richelieu]] in the port of [[Mah\u00f3n]] in [[Menorca]] around 1756."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Tower Hamburgers",
        "text": "In 1929, White Castle sued White Tower in Minnesota for unfair competition and White Tower counter-sued in Michigan as White Tower had arrived in Michigan first. The Minnesota case ended in 1930 in favor of White Castle, forcing White Tower to end its use of similar building designs, slogans and name along with a $82,000 judgment. The Michigan case dragged on until 1934, revealing the hiring away of a White Castle location operator and photographing of the latest White Castle to keep up on design. The United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit later affirmed the lower court's rulings that they had copied White Castle deliberately. White Castle refrained from forcing a name change for White Tower but did require new locations to pay a royalty fee, and to send photos of the locations. Having to change its look, White Tower first used an art deco, then modernistic designs. Territorially, White Tower and White Castle stayed away from each other from then on."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The menus of many American restaurants during the 19th century included a Hamburg beefsteak that was often sold for breakfast. A variant of Hamburg steak is the \"[[Salisbury steak]]\", which is usually served with a [[gravy]] similar in texture to [[brown sauce]]. Invented by Dr. [[James Salisbury]] (1823\u20131905), the term \"Salisbury steak\" has been used in the United States since 1897. Nowadays, in the city of Hamburg as well as in parts of [[northern Germany]], this type dish is called [[Frikadelle]], Frikandelle, or Bulette, which is similar to the meatball. The term \"hamburger steak\" was replaced by \"hamburger\" by 1930, which has in turn been somewhat displaced by the simpler term, \"burger\". The latter term is now commonly used as a suffix to create new words for different variants of the hamburger, including [[cheeseburger]], [[porkburger]], [[bacon]]burger and [[moose]]burger. There are other foods with names derived from German cities that are shortened in different ways in [[American English]]. An example is the [[Hot dog|frankfurter]], often abbreviated as \"frank\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Another alleged inventor of the hamburger is the cook Fletcher Davis (better known as \"Old Dave\"), who claimed to have had the idea of putting ground beef between two pieces of Texas Toast when one of his customers was in too much of a hurry to sit down for a meal. The customer walked away with his Hamburger Steak and seemed so content that Old Dave offered his new carryout meal as a staple menu item at the end of 1880 in [[Athens, Texas]]. Fletcher had a stall with his wife at the [[Louisiana Purchase Exposition|St. Louis World's Fair]] of 1904. Texan journalist [[Frank X. Tolbert]] mentions a salesman named Fletcher Davis who served hamburgers in a caf\u00e9 at 115 Tyler Street in Athens during the late 1880s. The locals claim that Davis was selling beef sandwiches during that time, without having a clear name for his invention. During the 1980s, the [[Dairy Queen]] [[ice cream]] chain filmed a documentary about the birthplace of the hamburger featuring Davis' story. The story of \"Old Dave's Hamburger Sandwich\" is also found mentioned in Ronald L. McDonald's book \"The Complete Hamburger\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of African Americans in Houston",
        "text": "In 2021 Alison Cook of the \"Houston Chronicle\" wrote that hamburger restaurants in historically black neighborhoods in Houston typically prepare hamburgers \"exceptionally charred and well-done\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "May Company California",
        "text": "In 1882, only one year later, Hamburger's moved to the Ponet-Bumiller Block at 45 N. Spring St. (post-1890 numbering: 145 N. Spring), SW corner of Temple, in a space of 46 by 100 ft. Later, it expanded into the north half of the ground floor of the newly built Phillips Block, NW corner of Spring and Franklin, then in 1887 into the south half. In April 1899 it added the Ponet store 20 ft to the north of the Bumiller Block."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "On November 16, 1916, chef and entrepreneur Walter \"Walt\" Anderson opened a hamburger stand in [[Wichita, Kansas]], that used hygienic cooking methods, including [[grilling|grills]] and [[spatula]]s, and impressed his Wichita customers so much that many would become regular patrons. At this time, the hamburger was still not widely known by the American public. Anderson added [[onion ring]]s to the burgers while they grilled, giving them a distinctive flavor. As demand increased, customers often bought his hamburgers by the [[dozen]], giving rise to the company's subsequently popular [[slogan]]: \"buy 'em by the sack\". Despite some growth, Anderson had opened only four stands in the busiest areas of the city. In 1926, Edgar Waldo \"Billy\" Ingram collaborated with Anderson to open the first [[White Castle (restaurant)|White Castle restaurant]] in Wichita. The restaurant was founded on the idea of cooking a hamburger quickly, giving it the honor of being the first [[fast food restaurant]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of fast food",
        "text": "In the fall of 2007, an investigator working for the Humane Society of the United States documented inhumane treatment of downed dairy cows, those too weak to walk, at a slaughterhouse in Chino, California. Plant workers at the Hallmark/Westland facility were filmed using a forklift to forcibly move cows who could not rise to their feet, dragging them with chains, kicking them, spraying high-pressure water hoses into their nostrils and shocking them with electric prods, all in an effort to get them to stand long enough for the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) veterinary inspector to pass them for slaughter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rundst\u00fcck warm",
        "text": "It has been suggested that the rundst\u00fcck warm may be a precursor to the hamburger, but ultimately, \"food historians disagree on the modern burger\u2019s origins\". Some historians argue that the hamburger descends from the rundst\u00fcck warm, while others believe that the hamburger originates from somewhere else."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger Machine",
        "text": "Burger Machine\n--History.\n--Other information.\n--Permit controversy.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "In-N-Out Burger",
        "text": "In June 2007, the company filed a lawsuit against an American Fork, Utah, restaurant named Chadder's for trademark infringement, claiming that the \"look and feel\" of the restaurant too closely resembled that of In-N-Out, and that the restaurant violated trademarked menu items, such as \"Animal Style\", \"Protein Style\", \"Double-Double\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The hamburger was very popular among Americans during the [[interwar period|postwar period]] following World War I, even in popular culture. An example of this was the prominent appearance of hamburgers in [[E. C. Segar]]'s \"[[Thimble Theatre]]\" [[comic strip]], which prominently featured a [[cartoon character]] named [[Popeye the Sailor]] who ate [[spinach]] to sustain his superhuman strength. Popeye's first appearance was as a [[supporting character]] on January 17, 1929, alongside many other characters. One of these characters was [[J. Wellington Wimpy]] (often shortened to just \"Wimpy\"), a lover of hamburgers who was both polite and gluttonous. His signature phrase, \"I will gladly pay you Tuesday for a hamburger today\", became popular and widely known. During the height of his popularity in the 1930s, Wimpy introduced the hamburger to the youth of the time as a healthy food. It also resulted in the creation of a chain of fast food restaurants called [[Wimpy (restaurant)|Wimpy's]] in his honor, which sold hamburgers for ten cents. In a similar fashion, the fictional character [[Jughead Jones]], who first appeared in [[Archie Comics]] in 1941, was passionate about food generally, and hamburgers specifically."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "The origin of the hamburger is unclear, though \"hamburger steak sandwiches\" have been advertised in U.S. newspapers from New York to Hawaii since at least the 1890s. The invention of hamburgers is commonly attributed to various people, including Charlie Nagreen, Frank and Charles Menches, Oscar Weber Bilby, Fletcher Davis, or Louis Lassen. White Castle traces the origin of the hamburger to Hamburg, Germany with its invention by Otto Kuase. Some have pointed to a recipe for \u201cHamburgh sausages\u201d on toasted bread, which was published in \u201cThe Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy\u201d by Hannah Glasse in 1747. However, hamburgers gained national recognition at the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair when the \"New York Tribune\" referred to the hamburger as \"the innovation of a food vendor on the pike\". No conclusive argument has ever ended the dispute over invention. An article from ABC News sums up: \"One problem is that there is little written history. Another issue is that the spread of the burger happened largely at the World's Fair, from tiny vendors that came and went in an instant. And it is entirely possible that more than one person came up with the idea at the same time in different parts of the country.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Parsons Restaurant",
        "text": "As the business matured the food improved, and it was an early adopter of the idea of traceability, buying all its meat from the mid 1980s from the Lower Hurst Farm herd of Herefords and Texels in Derbyshire, well before BSE became a problem. Jonathan Meades, writing for \"The Times\" stated \"If one is going to eat hamburgers \u2013 and this one usually isn\u2019t \u2013 Parsons is probably the place to do it.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Kitchen Bar",
        "text": "The original pub's demolition caused considerable controversy, drawing national newspaper attention. Henry McDonald, writing in \"The Observer\", recalled:"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "There are many additional claims as to the origin of the hamburger. Some enthusiasts claim the hamburger could have been created in S\u00e3o Gon\u00e7alo, a municipality located in the Brazilian state of Rio de Janeiro, in the 18th century by a Chef named Sauerbrown \"Little\" Victor, but this claim has no supporting evidence to back the opinion. A local newspaper claims that Louis Lassen, a Danish immigrant who arrived in America in 1880, sold butter and eggs as a street vendor. In 1974, in an [[interview]] with \"[[The New York Times]]\", he recounted how he created a hamburger steak sandwich with small strips of beef for a restaurant known as [[Louis' Lunch]]. Lassen's family claims 1900 as the year of his invention. Revealed in a public confrontation between the grandson of Louis, Kenneth Davis Lassen Fletch, and his uncle, documentation signed under notary in 1900 demonstrates the development of the hamburger, as it stresses the difference between a \"hamburger steak\" and a \"hamburger sandwich\". Louis' Lunch flame broils the hamburgers in the original vertical [[cast iron]] [[gas stoves]] manufactured by the Bridge and Beach, Co., [[St. Louis, Missouri]], in 1898. The stoves use hinged steel wire [[Gridiron (cooking)|gridirons]] to hold the hamburgers in place while they [[cooking|cook]] simultaneously on both sides. The gridirons were made by Luigi Pieragostini and patented in 1938."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "One of the possible fathers of the hamburger is [[Charlie Nagreen]] (1871\u20131951) of [[Seymour, Wisconsin]], who at the age of 15 sold Hamburg steaks from a street stall at the annual Outagamie County Fair. Nagreen said he began by selling Hamburg steaks, but these did not have much success because people wanted to freely move around the festival without the need to eat them at his stand. In response to this, in 1885 Nagreen decided to flatten the hamburger steak and insert it between two slices of bread, so that the public could move freely from booth to booth while eating his sandwich, an innovation that was well received by his customers. This became known as the \"Hamburger Charlie\", and Nagreen's creation was sold at the festival until his death in 1951. To this day, his accomplishment is celebrated annually with a \"Burger Fest\" in his honor in his hometown of Seymour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nation's Giant Hamburgers",
        "text": "Russ Harvey bought a six-stool hot dog stand on San Pablo Ave, where it meets with the end of San Pablo Dam Rd. in 1952 with money he obtained through the sale of his 1948 Buick. He subsequently added hamburgers to the menu of the hot dog restaurant with a focus on large portions. This gastronomic decision proved successful with the clientele. The restaurant's name was changed to \"Harvey's Giant Hamburgers\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "In-N-Out Burger",
        "text": "The chain's image has also made it popular in some unusual ways. For example, In-N-Out is still considered acceptable in some areas with strong opposition to corporate food restaurants, such as McDonald's. Anyone with a business interest in San Francisco's Fisherman's Wharf district said they opposed every other fast-food chain except In-N-Out because they wanted to maintain the flavor of family-owned, decades-old businesses in the area, with one saying locals would ordinarily \"be up in arms about a fast-food operation coming to Fisherman's Wharf\", but \"this is different\". California native and Colorado Rockies player Jason Giambi would often visit In-N-Out Burger when on the West Coast with his former team, the New York Yankees. He said he tried to open an In-N-Out Burger restaurant in New York, but was unsuccessful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Byron Hamburgers",
        "text": "In July 2016, the company attracted adverse publicity after calling their London workers to a faked Health and Safety briefing following a request by the Home Office. Immigration officials present at the venue arrested several employees, deporting 35 for immigration offences. This led to protests outside several of their branches in London, including the release of live cockroaches and locusts at some premises and a call to boycott the chain."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "Residents of Hamburg, New York, which was named after Hamburg, Germany, attribute the hamburger to Ohioans Frank Menches and Charles Menches. According to legend, the Menches brothers were vendors at the 1885 Erie County Fair (then called the Buffalo Fair) when they ran out of sausage for sandwiches and used beef instead. They named the resulting sandwich after the location of the fair. However, Frank Menches's obituary in \"The New York Times\" stated, instead, that these events took place at the 1892 Summit County Fair in Akron, Ohio.\n;Charlie Nagreen 1885"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did the hamburger first come to exist?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The hamburger first appeared in the 19th or early 20th century; the invention of hamburgers is commonly attributed to various people, including Charlie Nagreen, Frank and Charles Menches, Oscar Weber Bilby, Fletcher Davis, or Louis Lassen. The McDonald brothers opened their first restaurant adjacent to the Monrovia Airport in 1937."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the hamburger face any criticism nowadays?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Hamburgers are often served in fast food restaurants, and as such, fast food restaurants have come under criticism over concerns ranging from claimed negative health effects, alleged animal cruelty, cases of worker exploitation, and claims of cultural degradation via shifts in people's eating patterns away from traditional foods."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are hamburger establishments doing to counteract the criticisms?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "To combat criticism, fast-food restaurants are starting to offer more health-friendly menu items and reduce packaging waste.",
      "To combat criticism, fast-food restaurants are starting to offer more health-friendly menu items. In addition to health critics, there are suggestions for the fast-food industry to become more eco-friendly, with the chains responding by reducing packaging waste."
    ],
    "topic": "History of the hamburger",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Fast food:46",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fast food",
          "Criticism"
        ],
        "ctx": "To combat criticism, fast-food restaurants are starting to offer more health-friendly menu items. In addition to health critics, there are suggestions for the fast-food industry to become more eco-friendly. The chains have responded by \"reducing packaging waste\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Fast food:46",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fast food",
          "Criticism"
        ],
        "ctx": "To combat criticism, fast-food restaurants are starting to offer more health-friendly menu items. In addition to health critics, there are suggestions for the fast-food industry to become more eco-friendly. The chains have responded by \"reducing packaging waste\"."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "The hamburger restaurant most associated by the public with the term \"fast food\" was created by two brothers originally from Nashua, New Hampshire. Richard and Maurice McDonald opened a barbecue drive-in in 1940 in the city of San Bernardino, California. After discovering that most of their profits came from hamburgers, the brothers closed their restaurant for three months and reopened it in 1948 as a walk-up stand offering a simple menu of hamburgers, french fries, shakes, coffee, and Coca-Cola, served in disposable paper wrapping. As a result, they could produce hamburgers and fries constantly, without waiting for customer orders, and could serve them immediately; hamburgers cost 15 cents, about half the price at a typical diner. Their streamlined production method, which they named the \"Speedee Service System\" was influenced by the production line innovations of Henry Ford."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "The origin of \"fast food\" is uncertain, but one possibility is a hamburger stand that was founded by Walter Anderson in Wichita, Kansas. Known today as White Castle, the fast-food chain began to spread throughout the Midwest, offering a simple menu with hamburgers, Coca-Cola and coffee. By the 1920s White Castle had become a nationally recognized chain, and until the 1940s White Castle-style architecture was standard for fast-food hamburger outlets throughout the United States. Other local burger chains include Winstead's, Max & Erma's and Schoop's Hamburgers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "Most historians agree that the American company White Castle was the first fast food outlet, starting in Wichita, Kansas in 1916 with food stands and founding in 1921, selling hamburgers for five cents apiece from its inception and spawning numerous competitors and emulators. What is certain, however, is that White Castle made the first significant effort to standardize the food production in, look of, and operation of fast food hamburger restaurants. William Ingram's and Walter Anderson's White Castle System created the first fast food supply chain to provide meat, buns, paper goods, and other supplies to their restaurants, pioneered the concept of the multi-state hamburger restaurant chain, standardized the look and construction of the restaurants themselves, and even developed a construction division that manufactured and built the chain's prefabricated restaurant buildings. The McDonald's Speedee Service System and, much later, Ray Kroc's McDonald's outlets and Hamburger University all built on principles, systems and practices that White Castle had already established between 1923 and 1932."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Castle (restaurant)",
        "text": "Anderson is credited with the invention of the hamburger bun as well as \"the kitchen as assembly line, and the cook as infinitely replaceable technician,\" hence giving rise to the modern fast-food phenomenon. Due to White Castle's innovation of having chain-wide standardized methods, customers could be sure that they would receive the same product and service in every White Castle restaurant."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In 1937, Patrick McDonald and his two sons [[Richard and Maurice McDonald|Richard and Maurice]] inaugurated the simple restaurant \"Airdrome\" on Huntington Drive (Route 66) near the airport in the American city of [[Monrovia, California#History|Monrovia, California]]. The success of its sales eventually led to the May 15, 1940, opening of a restaurant named [[McDonald's]] along [[U.S. Route 66]] in [[San Bernardino, California]]. After analyzing their sales, the brothers discovered that, to their surprise, 80% of their [[revenue]] was coming from selling hamburgers. The menu initially featured 25 different dishes, the majority of which were [[barbecue]]d. Through their new restaurant, the McDonald brothers introduced the notion of fast food to parts of the Western United States by 1948. From the beginning, McDonald's focused on making hot dogs and hamburgers as efficiently and quickly as possible. During the 1940s, simple and formative concepts took root at McDonald's, including the preparation and service of burgers in just one minute and the ability for customers to eat in their own cars in a \"[[drive-in]]\" style. All the while, the restaurant was trying to further develop a hamburger that was inexpensive enough to be within the economic reach of most Americans. By the 1950s, the concept of drive-in style service had become firmly established and hamburgers and cars had become closely connected in the minds of many Americans. It was now not only possible for a customer to purchase a hamburger without getting out of a car, and a customer also no longer needed to wait to be served. The McDonald brothers built upon the achievements of their original San Bernardino restaurant when in 1953 they began franchising their now famous chain restaurants, starting in [[Phoenix, Arizona]], and [[Downey, California]] (the latter of which is [[Oldest McDonald's restaurant|still in operation]]). Later, [[Ray Kroc]] opened one in the northwest Chicago suburb of [[Des Plaines, Illinois]] on April 15, 1955, which has now been converted into the [[McDonald's USA First Store Museum|McDonald's Museum]]. It is noteworthy that the original McDonald's [[mascot]] was a hamburger faced cook called \"[[Speedee]]\" that would serve as the iconographic identity of the company until being replaced by the clown [[Ronald McDonald]] in 1963."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "After various controversies in the 20th century, including a nutritional controversy in the late 1990s, the burger is now readily identified with the United States, and a particular style of cuisine, namely fast food. Along with fried chicken and apple pie, the hamburger has become a culinary icon in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "Fast-food restaurants with standardized product and franchised service models began to appear and spread with the development of the highway system. White Castle (1916) was one of the first examples. Franchising was introduced in 1921 by A&W Root Beer. The McDonald brothers created their \"Speedee Service System\" in 1948. Other examples include Burger King, KFC, Wendy's, Pizza Hut, Little Caesars, Domino's Pizza and Papa John's Pizza."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Ingram soon realized that the word \"burger\" evoked connotations of [[circus]] performances at livestock markets and greasy pieces of meat eaten in the poorest districts of the city in the collective mind of the American public. He tried to change those connotations from White Castle's earliest days. At the same time, he became known to some as the [[Henry Ford]] of the hamburger, while inventing a restaurant concept he called the \"White Castle System\", which helped the hamburger achieve fame. Between 1923 and 1931, the \"White Castle System\" established almost a hundred restaurants in cities throughout the [[Midwestern United States]]. In order to raise awareness among White Castle employees, a [[newsletter]] entitled \"The hot hamburger\" was circulated throughout the company, which challenged the employees to improve the sale of the burgers with a simple idea: to be able to prepare burgers rapidly so anyone could purchase and eat them anytime and anywhere. Instead of waiting for half an hour to be served at a traditional restaurant, the White Castle System provided rapid service and a menu centered around the hamburger. At the time, the hamburger was typically served with coffee. [[Upton Sinclair]]'s \"[[The Jungle]]\" had already caused public outrage over the safety of processed meat, so by the 1920s, the general public had come to expect a clean and hygienic hamburger. In addition to offering clean and safe food, White Castle offered regularity and standardization, ensuring that each patty was served in the same manner in each restaurant. At the time, this was an entirely novel idea that would revolutionize the sale of food itself with a style that would come to be known as fast food. During its early years, White Castle emphasized providing quality coffee, and collaborated with universities to publish studies on the nutritional quality of their hamburgers."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The first automobile [[production line]] was created by [[Karl Benz]] in Germany in 1888. The widespread appearance of telephones occurred at the beginning of the 20th century, along with other modern means of communication, including radio. For the average American who had not eaten in a restaurant in his or her entire life, the fast food chains that appeared in the cities offered an alternative form of restaurant in which eating was very much a public activity. The concept of a \"[[greasy spoon]]\" was thus born with these restaurants, in which [[hygiene]] suffered in exchange for more inexpensive food. On the other hand, there was a growing [[interconnected]] world in which trips by car, bus, and rail became increasingly available. All these means of transport were improving at the time, and soon it was necessary to feed a growing population that was \"in permanent transit\", frequently moving through different cities [[business travel|on business]]. [[George Pullman]] invented the [[sleeping car]] and the [[dining car]] in response to the needs of these people in the 1870s. Similarly, the English immigrant [[Fred Harvey (entrepreneur)|Frederick Henry Harvey]] was the first to use \"dynamic mass movement\" in restoring the [[Fred Harvey Company]], which catered to the patrons of a chain of hotels located near railway stations, as well as offering catering, services, and high quality products on the trains themselves."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "Drive through fast food was invented in this area, but so was the concept of the gourmet burger movement, giving birth to chains like In-N-Out Burger, with many variations of burgers including chili, multiple patties, avocado, special sauces, and Angus or wagyu beef. Common accompaniments include thick milkshakes in various flavors like mint, chocolate, peanut butter, vanilla, strawberry, and mango."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food",
        "text": "As automobiles became popular and more affordable following World War I, drive-in restaurants were introduced. The American company White Castle, founded by Billy Ingram and Walter Anderson in Wichita, Kansas in 1921, is generally credited with opening the second fast food outlet and first hamburger chain, selling hamburgers for five cents each. Walter Anderson had built the first White Castle restaurant in Wichita in 1916, introducing the limited menu, high-volume, low-cost, high-speed hamburger restaurant. Among its innovations, the company allowed customers to see the food being prepared. White Castle was successful from its inception and spawned numerous competitors."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Contemporary American society also witnessed the creation of new fast foods that originated from the traditional cuisine of various ethnic groups from around the world. For example, [[German Americans|German immigrant]] Charles Feltman invented the [[hot dog]] in 1867 in his stall in [[Coney Island]], New York by pairing a [[Hot dog|frankfurter]] with a bread bun. Imitators such as Harry Magley and Charles Stevens soon began selling hot dogs at [[New York Yankees|New York Polo Grounds]] baseball games. Similarly, [[Italian Americans|Italian immigrants]] sold [[ice cream]] from vending carts in the streets or pasta at their restaurants. [[Chinese Americans|Chinese immigrants]] initially opened restaurants to cater to their fellow Chinese-Americans, but they gradually became accepted by the American clientele, sometimes resulting in truly Chinese-American cuisine such as [[chop suey]]. In this diverse world of ethnic foods, the hamburger was able to rise to mainstream popularity and become a national food of the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food",
        "text": "Fast food\n--History.\n----Pre-industrial Old World.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n------Working conditions.\n--On the go.\n----Filling stations.\n----Street vendors and concessions.\n--Cuisine.\n----Variants.\n--Business.\n--Advertising.\n--Employment.\n--Globalization.\n--Criticism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "Over time, fast food restaurants have been growing rapidly, especially in urban neighborhoods. According to US research, low-income and predominantly African-American neighborhoods have greater exposure to fast food outlets than higher income and predominantly white areas. This has put into question whether urbanized neighborhoods were targeted, which causes a more unhealthy group of people compared to people from a higher socioeconomic status. It has also been shown that there is a lower chance of finding a fast food restaurant in a suburban neighborhood. In a study of selected US locations, Morland et al. (2002) found the number of fast food restaurants and bars was inversely proportional to the wealth of the neighborhood, and that predominantly African-American residential areas were four times less likely to have a supermarket near them than predominantly white areas.\n* 1872: Walter Scott of Providence, RI outfitted a horse-drawn lunch wagon with a simple kitchen, bringing hot dinners to workers\n* 1916: Walter Anderson built the first White Castle in Wichita, KS in 1916, introducing the limited menu, high volume, low cost, high speed hamburger restaurant\n* 1919: A&W Root Beer took its product out of the soda fountain and into a roadside stand\n* 1921: A&W Root Beer began franchising its syrup\n* 1930s: Howard Johnson's pioneered the concept of franchising restaurants, formally standardizing menus, signage, and advertising\n* 1967: McDonald's opens its first restaurants outside the US."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In the 20th century, the hamburger has appeared as the central topic in some books on the literature of culinary topics. An example of this is \"[[Fast Food Nation|Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal]]\", published by [[investigative journalist]] [[Eric Schlosser]] in 2001, that examines the local and global influence of the American fast food industry. An example of a modern variation of the hamburger is the so-called \"gourmet burger\", which is made by [[haute cuisine]] chefs with patties that include [[luxury good|luxury]] ingredients. One of the first such burgers was cooked in New York City by chef [[Daniel Boulud]] in June 2001, and subsequently sold for US$29 with [[loin]], ribs Bres, canned [[black truffle]]s, and a [[mirepoix (cuisine)|mirepoix]] of vegetables. The [[Manhattan]] restaurant \"Old Homestead\", one of the oldest [[steakhouse]]s in the country, offers a $44 hamburger with beef-bred Japanese [[wagy\u016b]]. An haute cuisine burger created by [[Richard Blais]], a student of [[Ferran Adri\u00e0]], was introduced in 2004 at a restaurant in [[Atlanta]], where it is served with a crystal chain and a silk [[ribbon]]. In response to the haute cuisine take on the hamburger, others have created more humble versions. Alberto Chicote of [[Madrid]] makes homemade hamburgers in his kitchen, using [[Iberia]]n pork along with homemade [[ketchup]] and [[mustard (condiment)|mustard]]. In 1993, Max Schondor created a hamburger made of soy. In a 2005 episode of [[SpongeBob SquarePants]], the adventurous title character visits [[Mr. Krabs]]'s popular [[Krabby Patty]] burgers, where hamburgers figure prominently in the story."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The McDonald brothers intensively studied the existing kitchen protocol of their restaurants in an effort to improve them. They looked at different options that could increase the speed of cooking hamburgers, designing and patenting special [[grilling|grills]] that had a higher output, made their [[cutlery]] and other [[kitchen utensil]]s [[disposable]], and introduced [[dishwasher]]s that reduced the costs of water, soap, and [[Employment|labor]]. The brothers also created a detailed system for operating each kitchen throughout the franchise in a similar and largely standardized manner, as well as recruiting adolescents as employees in the kitchens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "In his best-selling 2001 book \"Fast Food Nation\", investigative journalist Eric Schlosser leveled a broad, socioeconomic critique against the fast food industry, documenting how fast food rose from small, family-run businesses (like the McDonald brothers' burger joint) into large, multinational corporate juggernauts whose economies of scale radically transformed agriculture, meat processing, and labor markets in the late twentieth century. Schlosser argues that while the innovations of the fast food industry gave Americans more and cheaper dining options, it has come at the price of destroying the environment, economy, and small-town communities of rural America while shielding consumers from the real costs of their convenient meal, both in terms of health and the broader impact of large-scale food production and processing on workers, animals, and land."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Between 1871 and 1884, \"Hamburg Beefsteak\" was on the \"Breakfast and Supper Menu\" of the Clipper Restaurant at 311/313 Pacific Street in San Fernando, California. It cost 10 cents\u2014the same price as mutton chops, pig's feet in batter, and stewed veal. It was not, however, on the dinner menu. Only \"Pig's Head\", \"Calf Tongue\", and \"Stewed Kidneys\" were listed. Another claim ties the hamburger to Summit County, New York or Ohio. Summit County, Ohio exists, but Summit County, New York does not.\n* 1921: White Castle, Wichita, Kansas. Due to widely anti-German sentiment in the U.S. during World War I, an alternative name for hamburgers was Salisbury steak. Following the war, hamburgers became unpopular until the White Castle restaurant chain marketed and sold large numbers of small square hamburgers, known as \"sliders\". They started to create five holes in each patty, which help them cook evenly and eliminate the need to flip the burger. In 1995 White Castle began selling frozen hamburgers in convenience stores and vending machines.\n* 1923: Kewpee Hamburgers, or Kewpee Hotels, Flint, Michigan. Kewpee was the second hamburger chain and peaked at 400 locations before World War II. Many of these were licensed but not strictly franchised. Many closed during WWII. Between 1955 and 1967, another wave closed or caused changes of name. In 1967 the Kewpee licensor moved the company to a franchise system. Currently only five locations exist.\n* 1926: White Tower Hamburgers\n* 1927: Little Tavern\n* 1930s: White Castle (II; run by Henry Cassada)\n* 1931: Krystal (restaurant)\n* 1936: Big Boy. In 1937, Bob Wian created the double deck hamburger at his hamburger stand in Glendale California. Big Boy would become the name of the hamburger, the mascot and the restaurants. Big Boy expanded nationally through regional franchising and subfranchising. Primarily operating as drive-in restaurants in the 1950s, interior dining gradually replaced curb service by the early 1970s. Many franchises have closed or operate independently, but at the remaining American restaurants, the Big Boy double deck hamburger remains the signature item.\n* 1940: McDonald's restaurant, San Bernardino, California, was opened by Richard and Maurice McDonald. Their introduction of the \"Speedee Service System\" in 1948 established the principles of the modern fast-food restaurant. The McDonald brothers began franchising in 1953. In 1961, Ray Kroc (the supplier of their multi-mixer milkshake machines) purchased the company from the brothers for $2.7 million and a 1.9% royalty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Hamburgers are usually a feature of fast food restaurants. The hamburgers served in major fast food establishments are usually mass-produced in factories and frozen for delivery to the site. These hamburgers are thin and of uniform thickness, differing from the traditional American hamburger prepared in homes and conventional restaurants, which is thicker and prepared by hand from ground beef. Most American hamburgers are round, but some fast-food chains, such as Wendy's, sell square-cut hamburgers. Hamburgers in fast food restaurants are usually grilled on a flat-top, but some firms, such as Burger King, use a gas flame grilling process. At conventional American restaurants, hamburgers may be ordered \"rare\", but normally are served medium-well or well-done for food safety reasons. Fast food restaurants do not usually offer this option."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "History of the hamburger\n--Beginning.\n----Hamburg and its port.\n----Hamburg steak.\n--Invention.\n----North America.\n----Controversial origins.\n----Ingredients.\n--Commercialization.\n----White Castle System.\n----McDonald's era.\n----Variants.\n--Culinary history.\n--Global phenomenon.\n--Present day.\n----Nutritional controversies.\n----Media.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Many different variants of the hamburger have been created over the years, some of which have become very popular. Much of this diversity has been the product of other restaurant chains that have tried to reproduce the success of McDonald's and White Castle, while others served to influence McDonald's. An example of a restaurant that influenced McDonald's and its imitators is [[Big Boy (restaurant)|Big Boy]], which was first opened in 1936 by [[Bob Wian]] in [[Glendale, California]], and became known in that locale as [[Bob's Big Boy]]. It was at this restaurant that a major hamburger variant, the double deck cheeseburger, with two beef patties, was first made. Wian's creation was distinctively served by Big Boy restaurants with the bun sliced twice, the center slice\u2014known as the club section\u2014separating the two patties. The chain also popularized the drive-in restaurant format, taken and simplified by McDonald's type fast food operators. By the 1960s, Big Boy had expanded throughout the United States and Canada. Despite the benefits it provided to Wian, the chain was sold along with the rights to their signature Big Boy hamburger to the [[Marriott Corporation]] in 1967. This same year McDonald's franchisee Jim Delligatti, created an imitation of the Big Boy \u2014 the Big Mac. An example of the many McDonald's and White Castle imitators is [[Kewpee Hamburgers]], a fast-food chain founded in 1923 in [[Flint, Michigan]], by Samuel V. Blair as \"[[Kewpee|Kewpee Hotel Hamburgs]].\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Many recipes and dishes traveled along with transatlantic immigrants to their destinations in the New World. Some authors question whether the [[Hamburg America Line]] was part of this, arguing that the hamburger was created to meet needs that arose amongst immigrants already in the New World. Others, however, support the thesis that the Hamburg America Line brought the first Hamburger steaks from Europe to the Americas. The hamburger as it is known today has multiple invention claims ranging between 1885 and 1904, but it is clearly the product of the early 20th century. During the following 100 years, the hamburger spread throughout the world as a result of the emerging concept of fast food and a new business model: the [[Chain store|franchise]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "By the 1960s, American society had become highly [[automobile|motorized]], largely due to the 1956 [[Federal Highway Act]] passed by President [[Dwight Eisenhower]] and inspired by the [[German Autobahn]], as well as the impressive growth rates of American [[automobile manufacturer]]s at the time. Due to the extensive use of cars at the time, hamburgers were often served at [[drive-in]]s, often by waiters known as [[carhop]]s. Drive-in restaurants first appeared in the United States in the early 1930s, and gradually become a common sight across the country. The ability to serve hamburgers to customers in their cars was seen as a business opportunity by countless fast-food chains, especially [[McDonald's]]. The popularity of the hamburger grew rapidly among the American population during this period, and statistics indicate that the average American was eating three burgers per week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ray Kroc",
        "text": "Kroc maintained the assembly line \"Speedee Service System\" for hamburger preparation that was introduced by the McDonald brothers in 1948. He standardized operations, ensuring every burger would taste the same in every restaurant. He set strict rules for franchisees on how the food was to be made, portion sizes, cooking methods and times, and packaging. Kroc also rejected cost-cutting measures like using soybean filler in the hamburger patties. These strict rules also were applied to customer service standards with such mandates that money be refunded to clients whose orders were not correct or to customers who had to wait more than five minutes for their food."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[Category:Hamburgers (food)]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "Some trace the modern history of fast food in the United States to 7 July 1912, with the opening of a fast food restaurant called the Automat in New York. The Automat was a cafeteria with its prepared foods behind small glass windows and coin-operated slots. Joseph Horn and Frank Hardart had already opened the first Horn & Hardart Automat in Philadelphia in 1902, but their \"Automat\" at Broadway and 13th Street, in New York City, created a sensation. Numerous Automat restaurants were built around the country to deal with the demand. Automats remained extremely popular throughout the 1920s and 1930s. The company also popularized the notion of \"take-out\" food, with their slogan \"Less work for Mother\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "Arguably, the first fast food restaurants originated in the United States with White Castle in 1921. Today, American-founded fast food chains such as McDonald's (est. 1940) and KFC (est. 1952) are multinational corporations with outlets across the globe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quick (restaurant)",
        "text": "Quick Restaurants is an originally Belgian chain of hamburger fast food restaurants currently based in Bobigny, Seine-Saint-Denis, France. Founded in 1971 by Belgian entrepreneur Baron Fran\u00e7ois Vaxelaire, Quick is the first hamburger chain founded in Europe with around 400 restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "In the post-World War II period in the United States, fast food chains like McDonald's rapidly gained a reputation for their cleanliness, fast service, and a child-friendly atmosphere where families on the road could grab a quick meal. Prior to the rise of the fast food chain restaurant, people generally had a choice between diners where the quality of the food was often questionable and service lacking, or high-end restaurants that were expensive and impractical for families with children. The modern, stream-lined convenience of the fast food restaurant provided a new alternative and appealed to Americans' instinct for ideas and products associated with progress, technology, and innovation. Fast food restaurants rapidly became the eatery \"everyone could agree on\", with many featuring child-size menu combos, play areas, and whimsical branding campaigns, like the iconic Ronald McDonald, designed to appeal to younger customers. Parents could have a few minutes of peace while children played or amused themselves with the toys included in their Happy Meal. There is a long history of fast food advertising campaigns, many of which are directed at children."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[Category:History of food and drink]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "During the first half of the 19th century, most European emigrants to the New World embarked from Hamburg, and New York City was their most common destination. Restaurants in New York offered \"Hamburg-style American fillet\", or even \"beefsteak \u00e0 la Hambourgeoise\". Early American preparations of minced beef were therefore made to fit the tastes of European immigrants, evoking memories of the port of Hamburg and the world they left behind."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food",
        "text": "The fastest form of \"fast food\" consists of pre-cooked meals kept in readiness for a customer's arrival (Boston Market rotisserie chicken, Little Caesars pizza, etc.), with waiting time reduced to mere seconds. Other fast food outlets, primarily the hamburger outlets (McDonald's, Burger King, etc.) use mass-produced pre-prepared ingredients (bagged buns and condiments, frozen beef patties, vegetables which are prewashed, pre-sliced, or both; etc.) but the hamburgers and french fries are always cooked fresh (or at least relatively recently) and assembled \"to order\" (like at a diner)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "At roughly the same time as Kroc was conceiving what eventually became McDonald's Corporation, two Miami, Florida businessmen, James McLamore and David Edgerton, opened a franchise of the predecessor to what is now the international fast food restaurant chain Burger King. McLamore had visited the original McDonald's hamburger stand belonging to the McDonald brothers; sensing potential in their innovative assembly line-based production system, he decided he wanted to open a similar operation of his own. The two partners eventually decided to invest their money in Jacksonville, Florida-based Insta-Burger King. Originally opened in 1953, the founders and owners of the chain, Kieth G. Kramer and his wife's uncle Matthew Burns, opened their first stores around a piece of equipment known as the Insta-Broiler. The Insta-Broiler oven proved so successful at cooking burgers, they required all of their franchises to carry the device. By 1959 McLamore and Edgarton were operating several locations within the Miami-Dade area and were growing at a fast clip. Despite the success of their operation, the partners discovered that the design of the insta-broiler made the unit's heating elements prone to degradation from the drippings of the beef patties. The pair eventually created a mechanized gas grill that avoided the problems by changing the way the meat patties were cooked in the unit. After the original company began to falter in 1959, it was purchased by McLamore and Edgerton who renamed the company Burger King."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[Category:History of the hamburger| ]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "On November 16, 1916, chef and entrepreneur Walter \"Walt\" Anderson opened a hamburger stand in [[Wichita, Kansas]], that used hygienic cooking methods, including [[grilling|grills]] and [[spatula]]s, and impressed his Wichita customers so much that many would become regular patrons. At this time, the hamburger was still not widely known by the American public. Anderson added [[onion ring]]s to the burgers while they grilled, giving them a distinctive flavor. As demand increased, customers often bought his hamburgers by the [[dozen]], giving rise to the company's subsequently popular [[slogan]]: \"buy 'em by the sack\". Despite some growth, Anderson had opened only four stands in the busiest areas of the city. In 1926, Edgar Waldo \"Billy\" Ingram collaborated with Anderson to open the first [[White Castle (restaurant)|White Castle restaurant]] in Wichita. The restaurant was founded on the idea of cooking a hamburger quickly, giving it the honor of being the first [[fast food restaurant]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "Cities like New York did not want fast food to compete with local establishments but the expansion of suburbs in the 1950s allowed fast-food franchises to grow into these areas that lacked restaurants. The popularity of Midwestern fast food like the iconic pizza and burgers started as a rejection of the drive-in model. \"Car hops\" were replaced by the franchise model including McDonald's, Wendy's, Domino's and Pizza Hut. (McDonald's was originally founded in California in 1940, but purchased by Ray Kroc and moved to Des Plaines, Illinois in 1955.) The growth of these franchises was bolstered by the development of interstate roads through the Midwest."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Another development facilitating the invention and popularization of the proto-hamburger was the increased production of beef through livestock intensification. By the late 19th century, an increasing amount of land was being devoted to cattle and a growing number of people being employed as [[cowboy]]s, resulting in the United States becoming one of the world's largest producers and consumers of beef. The 1880s were declared \"The Golden Age of Beef\", during which the abundance of rural beef production made vital its transportation by rail from agricultural to urban areas. This gave rise to various methods of meat preservation for making possible the consumption of fresh meat in urban and industrialized areas, among the [[refrigerator car]]s and different methods of packaging meat (such as [[corned beef]]), which were promoted by industrialists like [[Gustavus Swift]] (1839\u20131903). Around this time, the city of Chicago, along with other cities on the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]], became a focal point for the large-scale processing of beef. Beef was already inexpensive at that time, and it was available to the working class. This put the Hamburg steak within reach of the vast majority of the population, giving rise to what some authors jokingly call the \"American beef dream\". In this era, the number of [[steakhouse]]s that specialized in serving steaks increased markedly; some restaurants even served steak along with seafood, in a dish known as [[Surf and turf]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:Mass-produced hamburgers.jpg|250px|thumb|left|The hamburger solved the technical problem of mass-producing semi-processed food.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In 2004, [[Morgan Spurlock]] addressed the obsessive consumption of hamburgers by some Americans by directing and starring in the documentary film \"[[Super Size Me]]\". In the film, he himself eats only [[McDonald's]] food for an entire month and documents how his health changes. That same year saw the premiere of \"[[Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle]]\", a film in which [[White Castle (restaurant)|White Castle restaurants]] played a vital part. Two years later, in 2006, the film \"[[Fast Food Nation (film)|Fast Food Nation]]\" presented a fictional representation of the intrigues and machinations of the [[meat industry]] on the border between Mexico and the United States. It is largely based on the 2001 book \"[[Fast Food Nation|Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal]]\".\n* [[Food history]]\n* [[Hamburger]]\n* [[History of the hamburger in the United States]]\n* [[List of hamburgers]]\n* Kominicki, JL (April 29, 1990) \"Ground for glory\" (second page) \"[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|European Stars and Stripes]]\". Darmstadt, Germany. Sunday Magazine, 6\u20137. via [[newspaperarchive.com]]\u00a0[[File:Open Access logo PLoS.svg|link=Open access|frameless|14x14px]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The modern hamburger was developed in the United States, but by the end of World War II, around the middle of the 20th century, it began to spread to other countries as fast food became [[globalization|globalized]]. The main cause of this gradual globalization was the successes of the large [[restaurant chain]]s. Their desires to expand their businesses and increase their profits resulted in them creating [[Chain store|franchises]] around the world. [[McDonald's]] was among the first of the burger chains to take the global establishment of its brand seriously, but it was not the only one. [[Wimpy (restaurant)|Wimpy]] began operating in the United Kingdom in 1954, 20 years before McDonald's began operation in the country, and by 1970 it had expanded to over a thousand restaurants in 23 countries. On August 21, 1971, in [[Zaandam]], near [[Amsterdam]] in the Netherlands, [[Ahold]] opened its first European franchise. In the 1970s, McDonald's began to expand into Europe and Australia. In Asia, Japan saw the establishment of its own fast food chain in 1972: , an abbreviation of \"Mountain, Ocean, Sun\", which eventually became a direct competitor to McDonald's. All of its products, however, were variations on the burger adapted to the Asian world, including the teriyaki burger, takumi burger, and [[riceburger]]. In Hong Kong, [[Aji Ichiban]] competed with large chains before it spread quickly throughout Asia. One of the first hamburger [[vending machine]]s debuted in Amsterdam in 1941 under the brand \"[[FEBO]]\", its name derived from its original place of creation, the [[Ferdinand Bolstraat]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast casual restaurant",
        "text": "Fast casual restaurant\n--History.\n--Definition.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The hamburger first appeared in the 19th or early 20th century. The modern hamburger was a product of the culinary needs of a society rapidly changing due to industrialization and the emergence of the working class and the middle class with the resulting demand for mass-produced, affordable food that could be consumed outside of the home."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Among the vegetables that come with the hamburger, the first described in the literature on its history is the onion, usually finely sliced in rings. Thus, the hamburger came to continue the long American tradition of sandwiches featuring some kind of plant product, whether that be lettuce (as in the case of the [[BLT sandwich]]), [[sauerkraut]] (as on the [[reuben sandwich|reuben]]), [[coleslaw]], or [[pickled cucumber|pickles]]. It is possible that after the creation of the hamburger by uniting the steak with the bread, vegetables were included to give the finished product a more \"natural\" appearance and taste. All of these condiments were incorporated into the classical image of the hamburger during its golden age, the 1940s. In some cases, the hamburger is prepared differently and distinctly to add regional flavor, as in the case of [[Tex-Mex]] style burgers, which are served with a side of [[chili con carne]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The menus of many American restaurants during the 19th century included a Hamburg beefsteak that was often sold for breakfast. A variant of Hamburg steak is the \"[[Salisbury steak]]\", which is usually served with a [[gravy]] similar in texture to [[brown sauce]]. Invented by Dr. [[James Salisbury]] (1823\u20131905), the term \"Salisbury steak\" has been used in the United States since 1897. Nowadays, in the city of Hamburg as well as in parts of [[northern Germany]], this type dish is called [[Frikadelle]], Frikandelle, or Bulette, which is similar to the meatball. The term \"hamburger steak\" was replaced by \"hamburger\" by 1930, which has in turn been somewhat displaced by the simpler term, \"burger\". The latter term is now commonly used as a suffix to create new words for different variants of the hamburger, including [[cheeseburger]], [[porkburger]], [[bacon]]burger and [[moose]]burger. There are other foods with names derived from German cities that are shortened in different ways in [[American English]]. An example is the [[Hot dog|frankfurter]], often abbreviated as \"frank\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of fast food",
        "text": "Many fast food restaurants added labels to their menus by listing the nutritional information below each item. The intent was to inform consumers of the caloric and nutritional content of the food being served there and result in directing consumers to the healthier options available. However, reports do not display any significant drop in sales at sandwich or burger locations which highlights no change in consumer behavior even after food was labeled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geri's Hamburgers",
        "text": "Geri's Hamburgers was a fast food restaurant chain in northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin, United States. Geri's started sometime in 1962 and was modeled largely after the early McDonald's style restaurants at the time. One of the original owners of Geri's was a former vice president for McDonald's. Geri's restaurants, at least in the early days, had little or no inside seating, and were geared towards fast take-out service. In fact the cartoon icon used by Geri's on its marquee was very similar to the \"Mr. Speedee\" used by McDonald's, and even closer to the later McDonald's characters such as Mayor McCheese, being in the form of a hamburger with eyes, and arms and legs coming from the sides and bottom of the bun. There were at least 13 Geri's restaurants by 1980. Red, blue and white were the main exterior colors, often in the form of tiles."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In the 1970s, major hamburger chains began to use considerable resources in marketing their products. They began to compete directly with each other through their advertising, much of which was [[comparative advertising|comparative]] and often featured direct [[allusion]]s and comparisons. The event came to be jokingly referred to as the \"[[burger wars]]\" by many Americans. By the end of the 1980s, the era of [[slogan]]s in large chain restaurants had begun."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Training Table",
        "text": "The chain was unusual among fast food restaurants because of its system for ordering food. Customers sat at tables or booths, as they would in a typical fast casual restaurant. Each table or booth had an in-house telephone associated with it. When customers had decided on what they wanted to order, they would pick up the telephone, which would automatically ring to the order station in the kitchen. A staff member would answer and take the customer's order over the phone. When the order was ready, the kitchen staff would ring back to the phone at the table, which would signal the customers to go to the front so they could pay for and pick up their food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wetson's",
        "text": "The Wetson's chain was started by Herbert (Herb) Wetanson. While on a road trip to San Bernardino, California, Herb happened to stop by the original McDonald's Hamburger Drive In restaurant, owned and operated by the McDonald brothers. Having grown up working in his father Carl Wetanson\u2019s restaurants, Herb was drawn to this new and unique style of what would later become known as a \"fast food\" restaurant."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "History of the hamburger in the United States\n--Hamburger bun.\n----U.S. hamburger restaurants.\n--Variations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Griff's Hamburgers",
        "text": "The restaurant buildings were of a patented A-frame design, produced by Valentine Diner of Wichita, Kansas. Later restaurants sported more conventional architecture. A bright yellow sign read HAMBURGERS in big block capitals. The restaurants offered both drive-thrus and patio dining."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:\u05d4\u05de\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d2\u05e8_\u05d8\u05d1\u05e2\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A [[vegan]] version of the hamburger]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The dawn of the 20th century witnessed the need to provide food for people living in highly productive urban centers with high population densities. Food also had to be economically affordable for the working class in order for them to maintain their [[Employment|labor]] and industrial production. The burger was born in a time when people needed to eat both \"fast\" and \"cheap\". Technological advances in the field of [[food preservation]], as well as improvements in agricultural production and transportation, made it possible for hamburgers to be a practical choice of food for urban dwellers since their very creation. The [[socio-economic]] environment of the United States at the time of the burger's rise to popularity coincided with the end of World War I and the beginning of the [[Great Depression]] of 1929. This environment was particularly favorable for fostering inexpensive food, which was one reason why five-cent hamburgers were so popular. After its invention during the first decade of the 20th century, the hamburger came to be marketed on a large scale, after \"visionaries\" realized that it would benefit greatly from a mass production process."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Rosenberg",
        "text": "In the early 1960s, Rosenberg founded a fast food chain, Howdy Beefburgers (later Howdy Beef n' Burger), in Massachusetts, locating many of its restaurants beside Dunkin' Donuts shops so they could share common parking lots to compete with larger chains such as McDonald's for retail space and customer draw. Howdy Beefburgers was inspired by \"The Howdy Doody Show\" that had run on television from 1947 to 1960, and even adapted Howdy Doody as its mascot. Serving such products as hamburgers, French fries, fish sandwiches and New England clam chowder, the chain had restaurants in as many as 27 locations throughout New England before dissolving toward the end of the 1970s."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "At the same time the hamburger was growing in popularity around the world, it took on a variety of local features in different locations. Such examples of this include ground meat made from local animals, such as [[kangaroo]]s in Australia, or [[Tex-Mex]]-style dishes like [[chilli con carne]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "White Castle had a very large progression of sales, and its success was such, that by 1926, it had already generated competitors and [[imitator]]s in the emerging hamburger business. One of these imitators also had a highly similar name, [[White Tower Hamburgers]] of [[Milwaukee]], [[Wisconsin]], founded by the father and son tandem of John E. and Thomas E. Saxe. The creation of White Tower led to numerous legal battles between it and White Castle during the 1930s. By 1930, White Castle already had 116 restaurants spread over a distance of , all of which were located within the United States. [1] The company eventually became a large restaurant chain, however, there has never been a restaurant outside of the United States. The American [[shortage]] of beef during World War II had little effect on sales across White Castle, due to the effect of [[vertical integration]] along with the appearance of fast food chains that operated on a [[franchising|franchise]] model that emphasized [[horizontal integration]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Minced meat was a delicacy in medieval cuisine, red meat usually being restricted to the higher classes. Very little mincing was done by medieval butchers or recorded in the cookbooks of the time, perhaps because it was not part of the sausage-making process that preserves meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Types of restaurants",
        "text": "Fast food restaurants emphasize speed of service. Operations range from small-scale street vendors with food carts to multibillion-dollar corporations like McDonald's and Burger King. Food is ordered not from the table, but from a front counter (or in some cases, using an electronic terminal). Diners typically then carry their own food from the counter to a table of their choosing, and afterward dispose of any waste from their trays. Drive-through and take-out service may also be available. Fast food restaurants are known in the restaurant industry as QSRs or quick-service restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of fast food",
        "text": "In 2016 the company replaced the high-fructose corn syrup in its hamburger buns with sugar and removed antibiotics that are \"important to human medicine\" from its chicken. They also removed artificial preservatives from their cooking oil, pork sausage patties, eggs served on the breakfast menu, and Chicken McNuggets. The skin, safflower oil and citric acid from the McNuggets was also replaced with pea starch, rice starch and powdered lemon juice. These changes were made in an effort to target \"health-conscious consumers.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "In the United States, hamburgers may be classified into one of two primary categories: fast food hamburgers or individually prepared burgers made in homes and restaurants. The latter are traditionally prepared \"with everything\" (or \"all the way\", \"deluxe\", \"the works\", \"dragged through the garden\", or, in some regions, \"all dressed\"), which includes lettuce, tomato, onion, and sliced pickles (or pickle relish). Cheese (usually processed cheese slices, but often Cheddar, Swiss, pepper jack, or blue cheese), either melted on the meat patty or crumbled on top, is a popular option. In the Carolinas a time-honored popular style for hamburgers (and hot dogs) served in diners and homes (but not fast food chains) is \"all the way\" meaning mustard, slaw, chili and onions."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[Category:American sandwiches]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of McDonald's",
        "text": "In April 1952, the brothers decided they needed an entirely new building in order to achieve two goals: further efficiency improvements, and a more eye-catching appearance. They collected recommendations for an architect and interviewed at least four, finally choosing Stanley Clark Meston, an architect practicing in nearby Fontana. The brothers and Meston worked together closely in the design of their new building. They achieved the extra efficiencies they needed by, among other things, drawing the actual measurements of every piece of equipment in chalk on a tennis court behind the McDonald house (with Meston's assistant Charles Fish). The new restaurant's design achieved a high level of notice thanks to gleaming surfaces of red and white ceramic tile, stainless steel, brightly colored sheet metal, and glass; pulsing red, white, yellow, and green neon; and two 25-foot yellow sheet-metal arches trimmed in neon, called \"golden arches\" even at the design stage. A third, smaller arch sign at the roadside hosted a pudgy character in a chef's hat, known as Speedee, striding across the top, trimmed in animated neon. Further marketing techniques were implemented to change McDonald's from a sit down restaurant to a fast food chain. They used such things as turning off the heating to prevent people wanting to stay so long, fixed and angled seating so the customer would sit over their food promoting them to eat faster, spreading the seats farther apart so being less of a sociable place to dine in, and giving their customers branded cone shaped cups forcing them to hold their drink while eating which would speed up the eating process."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Hamburg steak, once served between two slices of bread, began to be prepared with a variety of different ingredients that were included either in the sandwich itself or as a side dish accompanying it on a plate. One of these accompaniments, which is still common with today's burger, is [[ketchup]], a type of [[tomato sauce]] with a blend of [[flavor]]s between [[sweet]] and [[sour]] that was first produced commercially in 1869 by entrepreneur and chef [[Henry John Heinz]] in [[Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania]]. His company was originally called the \"Anchor Pickle and Vinegar Works\", but in 1888 it was renamed [[H. J. Heinz Company|F. & J. Heinz]]. The use of ketchup by American consumers grew quickly after this date, and it was not long before hamburgers were almost universally accompanied by ketchup by the end of the nineteenth and into the early 20th century. [[Mustard (condiment)|Mustard]] is a significantly older [[condiment]], as it is thought that the [[ancient Rome|ancient Romans]] used a dressing made with non-fermented grapes and [[grape seed]]s known as \"mustum ardens\". Another ingredient incorporated into the burger, [[mayonnaise]], appears to have been present in 18th century France, after the naval victory of [[Louis-Fran\u00e7ois-Armand du Plessis de Richelieu]] in the port of [[Mah\u00f3n]] in [[Menorca]] around 1756."
      },
      {
        "title": "Texan cuisine",
        "text": "An early claim to the invention of the hamburger was Fletcher Davis of Athens, Texas, who claimed to have served it at his restaurant at a time when there were more cows than people in Texas. According to oral histories, in the 1880s, he opened a lunch counter in Athens and served a \"burger\" of fried ground beef patties with mustard and Bermuda onion between two slices of bread; with a pickle on the side."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cafeteria",
        "text": "Between 1960 and 1981, the popularity of cafeterias was overcome by the fast food restaurant and fast casual restaurant formats."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The hamburger was very popular among Americans during the [[interwar period|postwar period]] following World War I, even in popular culture. An example of this was the prominent appearance of hamburgers in [[E. C. Segar]]'s \"[[Thimble Theatre]]\" [[comic strip]], which prominently featured a [[cartoon character]] named [[Popeye the Sailor]] who ate [[spinach]] to sustain his superhuman strength. Popeye's first appearance was as a [[supporting character]] on January 17, 1929, alongside many other characters. One of these characters was [[J. Wellington Wimpy]] (often shortened to just \"Wimpy\"), a lover of hamburgers who was both polite and gluttonous. His signature phrase, \"I will gladly pay you Tuesday for a hamburger today\", became popular and widely known. During the height of his popularity in the 1930s, Wimpy introduced the hamburger to the youth of the time as a healthy food. It also resulted in the creation of a chain of fast food restaurants called [[Wimpy (restaurant)|Wimpy's]] in his honor, which sold hamburgers for ten cents. In a similar fashion, the fictional character [[Jughead Jones]], who first appeared in [[Archie Comics]] in 1941, was passionate about food generally, and hamburgers specifically."
      },
      {
        "title": "Horn & Hardart",
        "text": "The restaurant chain remained popular into the 1960s, featuring not only automats but sit-down waitress service restaurants, cafeterias, and bakery shops. In the late 1960s, consultants attempted to develop automats with interior decoration relevant to surrounding neighborhoods; thus, the Automat on 14th Street was decorated with psychedelic posters. The eateries began to close with the rise of fast-food restaurants, which offered fare over the counter with normal cash transactions."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:Big Mac hamburger - Japan (1).jpg|300px|thumb|The [[Big Mac]] popularized an evolution in the image of the hamburger.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:DaviesStallStLawrenceMarket.jpg|300px|thumb|left|William Davies Company stall at the St. Lawrence Market in Toronto, Canada. Scenes such as this became common during the early twentieth century in the United States and Canada as the meat market grew rapidly.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "The fast food industry is popular in the United States, the source of most of its innovation, and many major international chains are based there. Seen as symbols of US dominance and perceived cultural imperialism, American fast food franchises have often been the target of Anti-globalization protests and demonstrations against the US government. In 2005, for example, rioters in Karachi, Pakistan, who were initially angered because of the bombing of a Shiite mosque, destroyed a KFC restaurant."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "During the [[Cold War]], the hamburger became a [[national symbol]] of the United States. As private outdoor social events, often held in [[backyard]]s and featuring a [[barbecue]], became more widespread during the mid-1950s, the hamburger gained a new culinary and social relevance in the country. By the late 1960s, hamburgers began to grow in size as various burger chains competed with each other, resulting in Burger King launching the [[Whopper]] and [[McDonald's]] launching the [[Quarter Pounder]]. As the race between the major chains grew more intense, the prices of their burgers increased, and the days when a hamburger could be bought for just a few cents were numbered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "In other parts of the world, American and American-style fast food outlets have been popular for their quality, customer service, and novelty, even though they are often the targets of popular anger towards American foreign policy or globalization more generally. Many consumers nonetheless see them as symbols of the wealth, progress, and well-ordered openness of Western society and they therefore become trendy attractions in many cities around the world, particularly among younger people with more varied tastes."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The expansion and standardization of the hamburger has led to the creation of a price index that can be used as an economic reference between different countries known as the [[Big Mac Index]]. It measures the worth (in US$) of a burger in different parts of the world, allowing for the comparison of the [[purchasing power parity]] of 120 national economies in which McDonald's does business. American sociologist [[George Ritzer]] coined the related concept of \"[[McDonaldization]]\" in his 1995 book \"McDonaldization of Society.\" Another byproduct of the globalization of fast food was the creation of international [[competitive eating]] contests that involve contestants from many different countries. One of the best known is the [[Krystal Square Off]], run by the fast-food chain [[Krystal (restaurant)|Krystal]] and sponsored by the [[International Federation of Competitive Eating]] (IFOC), which has been held annually since 2004."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean Wells (artist)",
        "text": "Echoing a time in the 50s and 60s when fast food culture \"was just taking hold,\" Wells' approach to the major food groups of hamburgers, hotdogs, and diner fare such as pie, fries and soda pop transforms the \"ordinary into the extraordinary\". Wells' \"Urban Fruit Tree\" (2007) also contains these elements, but she has created gigantic variations in such pieces as the five-foot long \"Mustard Only\" (2007), the prolific Hamburger series(2008\u20132012), multiple iterations of \"Hot Dog\" (2007\u20132012), \"Donut\" (2010), \"Strawberry Cupcake\" (2010), \"Cherry Pie\" (2011), and drinks such as \"Corona\" (2008), \"7 Up\" (2009), and \"Coke\" (2008\u20132012). In 2010, Wells did a series of food items that looked as if they had been enlarged and then dipped in gold or silver. \"Silver Cake\", \"Silver Burger on Tray\" and \"Gold Burger\" are all included in this series."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Castle (restaurant)",
        "text": "The earliest buildings, such as Indianapolis White Castle #3, built in 1927, had exteriors of white enamel-glazed brick and interiors of enameled steel. The Indianapolis unit was in operation until 1979, making it, at the time of its closure, the longest-operating fast food restaurant in the country. The company constructed this style of building from 1924 to 1929. White Castle Building No. 8, in Minneapolis, Minnesota, originally built in 1936 and remodeled (photo in infobox above), is an example of the chain's buildings with prefabricated white porcelain enamel on steel exteriors. The building measured by and was designed to resemble the Chicago Water Tower, with octagonal buttresses, crenelated towers, and a parapet wall."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "The following restaurants have either played a part in the creation of the hamburger sandwich, developed a unique cooking method, or were the first to sell them nationwide:\n* Louis' Lunch 1895, New Haven, Connecticut. Louis' Lunch has been selling steak and hamburger sandwiches since 1895, when Louis Lassen opened his lunch wagon. This small establishment, which advertises itself as the oldest hamburger restaurant in the U.S., is credited by some with having invented the classic American hamburger when Louis sandwiched a ground steak patty between two pieces of white toast for a busy office worker in 1900. Louis' Lunch flame broils the hamburgers in the original 1898 Bridge & Beach vertical cast iron gas stoves using locally developed steel wire gridirons to hold the hamburgers in place during cooking (U.S. Patent #2,148,879). In 1974, \"The New York Times\" published a story about Louis' Lunch claiming to have invented the hamburger. The U.S. Library of Congress' American Folklife Center Local Legacies Project website credits Louis' Lunch as the maker of America's first hamburger and steak sandwich. The hamburger is still served today on two pieces of toast and not a bun.\n* Dyer's Burgers, 1912, Memphis, Tennessee, deep-fried burgers using a cast-iron skillet.\n* White Castle, 1921, Wichita, Kansas. Following the war, hamburgers became unpopular until the White Castle restaurant chain marketed and sold large numbers of small two-and-a-half-inch square hamburgers. They started to punch five holes in each patty, which helps them cook evenly and eliminates the need to flip the burgers. Their burger first sold for five cents. White Castle holds a U.S trademark on the word \"slyders.\" The White Castle building was modeled after the water tower building in Chicago, with the turrets and fortress-like walls. White Castle was the first to sell their hamburgers in grocery stores and vending machines. They also created the industrial-strength spatula, and were the first to mass-produce the paper hat. Today, there are more than 400 White Castle restaurants around the country, selling over 550 million hamburgers per year.\n*The Rite Spot, circa 1925, Pasadena, California. Lionel Sternberger claims to have invented the cheeseburger.\n* Kaelin's Restaurant, 1934, Louisville, Kentucky. This Kentucky restaurant claims to have invented the cheeseburger in 1934.\n* Humpty Dumpty Drive-In, 1935, Denver, Colorado. A trademark for the name \"cheeseburger\" was awarded to Louis Ballast of the Humpty Dumpty Drive-In in 1935.\n* Jack\u2019s Lunch, 1930s, Middletown, Connecticut. The steamed cheeseburger is believed to have been invented at this restaurant operated by Jack Fitzgerald.\n* Bob's Pantry (Bob's Big Boy), 1937, Glendale, California. Bob Wian invented the double deck cheeseburger. The Big Boy double deck hamburger lent its name to his restaurant chain."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Edgerton",
        "text": "He returned to Florida to become manager of Howard Johnson's Restaurants, which had locations in Miami and Orlando. At the time, he became interested in opening a Dairy Queen, with a burger section, when he met business partner and fellow restaurateur and Cornell University alumnus James McLamore. Together, they developed Insta-Burger King, the forerunner of the concept of the Burger King model of fast service, limited menu and low prices. Customers came into the restaurant to pay for orders in advance, as opposed to the traditional method of carhops attending customers directly and bringing their orders to their vehicles. The corporation opened Burger King stores and went on to introduce the Whopper burger in 1957, when it also dropped \"Insta\" from the name. At this same time, Edgerton, frustrated with the issue-prone Insta machines, created the flame broiler, which would provide the signature flavor for Burger King."
      },
      {
        "title": "FLIP Burger Boutique",
        "text": "Barry Mills conceived the restaurant's concept as wanting to expand the definition of a what he thought was a hamburger. He sought inspiration from the new growth of hamburger eateries in Los Angeles and New York City, yet disliked their approaches, thinking it would hinder innovation\u2014being bound to a traditional diner-style burger."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:White Castle Building No. 8.jpg|250px|thumb|The 1936 [[White Castle Building No. 8]] in [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]]]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "White Castle (restaurant)",
        "text": "Since fast food was unknown in the United States at the time of White Castle's founding, there was no infrastructure to support the business, as is common with today's fast-food restaurants. The company established centralized bakeries, meat supply plants, and warehouses to supply itself. It was said that the only things that they did not do themselves were raise the cows and grow their own wheat. Ingram developed a device to produce previously unheard of paper hats (for employees to wear as part of the uniform)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "In the immigrant neighbourhoods of fast-growing American industrial cities, housewives purchased ready-made food through street peddlers, hucksters, push carts, and small shops operated from private homes. This opened the way for the rapid entry of entirely new items such as pizza, spaghetti with meatballs, bagels, hoagies, pretzels, and pierogies into American eating habits, and firmly established fast food in the American culinary experience."
      },
      {
        "title": "James L. Watson (anthropologist)",
        "text": "Western values of consumer discipline gradually implemented into Hong Kong's society. Consumers have accepted key elements of the American fast food formula, but with localized adaptations. The establishment of an American-inspired model of customers queuing was introduced. Queue monitors were sanctioned in order to encourage the formation of orderly lines at McDonald's, which later became an in-restaurant norm by the 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "McDonald's, a fast food supplier, opened its first franchised restaurant in the US in 1955 (1974 in the UK). It has become a phenomenally successful enterprise in terms of financial growth, brand-name recognition, and worldwide expansion. Ray Kroc, who bought the franchising license from the McDonald brothers, pioneered concepts which emphasized standardization. He introduced uniform products, identical in all respects at each outlet, to increase sales. Kroc also insisted on cutting food costs as much as possible, eventually using the McDonald's Corporation's size to force suppliers to conform to this ethos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steven Izenour",
        "text": "In 1979, continuing his studies into the relationship of architecture and pop culture, Izenour and fellow architect Paul Hirshorn published a monograph about the White Tower Hamburgers fast food chain. Their book contained selected photographs taken in a variety of styles\u2014from the stark and deadpan to family album-like snapshots. In an affectionately written introductory essay, Hirshorn and Izenour described the identifiable and idiosyncratic commercial architectural style of the 1930s and 1940s, and documented the development of the White Tower's architecture and stylistic variations. They used interviews with former White Tower employees, including Charles Johnson, White Tower's architect for over forty years, to set their analysis of the buildings within a broader context of corporate culture, mass marketing, and the rise of franchising in the twentieth century."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:In-N-Out Burger cheeseburger meal.jpg|250px|thumb|left|The modern hamburger with its familiar sides, French fries and a drink]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "A fast food restaurant, also known as a quick service restaurant (QSR) within the industry, is a specific type of restaurant that serves fast food cuisine and has minimal table service. The food served in fast food restaurants is typically part of a \"meat-sweet diet\", offered from a limited menu, cooked in bulk in advance and kept hot, finished and packaged to order, and usually available for take away, though seating may be provided. Fast food restaurants are typically part of a restaurant chain or franchise operation that provides standardized ingredients and/or partially prepared foods and supplies to each restaurant through controlled supply channels. The term \"fast food\" was recognized in a dictionary by Merriam\u2013Webster in 1951."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The hamburger's international popularity demonstrates the larger globalization of food that also includes the rise in global popularity of other national dishes, including the Italian pizza, Chinese fried rice and Japanese sushi. The hamburger has spread from continent to continent perhaps because it matches familiar elements in different culinary cultures. This global culinary culture has been produced, in part, by the concept of selling processed food, first launched in the 1920s by the White Castle restaurant chain and its visionary Edgar Waldo \"Billy\" Ingram and then refined by McDonald's in the 1940s. This global expansion provides economic points of comparison like the Big Mac Index, by which one can compare the purchasing power of different countries where the Big Mac hamburger is sold."
      },
      {
        "title": "1950s American automobile culture",
        "text": "A number of other successful \"drive up\" businesses have their roots in the 1950s, including McDonald's (expanded c. 1955), which had no dine-in facilities, requiring customers to park and walk up to the window, taking their order \"to go\". Automation and the lack of dining facilities allowed McDonald's to sell burgers for 15 cents each, instead of the typical 35 cents, and people were buying them by the bagful. By 1948, they had fired their carhops, installed larger grills, reduced their menu and radically changed the industry by introducing assembly-line methods of food production, similar to the auto industry, dubbing it the \"Speedee Service System\". They redesigned their sign specifically to make it easier to see from the road, creating the now familiar yellow double-arch structure. Businessman Ray Kroc joined McDonald's as a franchise agent in 1955. He subsequently purchased the chain from the McDonald brothers and oversaw its worldwide growth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg sandwich",
        "text": "Prompted by meat rationing during World War II, manager Bruce LaPlante introduced the first fast food egg dish with a fried egg sandwich at a St. Louis White Castle. However, the dish was unpopular, and was abandoned as soon as wartime meat rationing was lifted. Fast food restaurants did not begin serving egg dishes again until the 1970s, starting with the McDonald's Egg McMuffin, invented in 1971 by a McDonald's franchisee in Santa Barbara, California."
      },
      {
        "title": "James L. Watson (anthropologist)",
        "text": "Before 1975, hamburgers, fries and sandwiches were presumed as snacks. McDonald\u2019s saw it as their duty to construct a franchise and positively enforce the notion that their food could be considered a full meal. Western values of fast food were not a significant cultural phenomenon in Hong Kong until the early 1980s, when young consumers slowly changed the eating habits of their elders from consuming traditional Chinese food to eating fast food."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The success of the White Castle chain was rooted largely in the power of propaganda, something that was both an original innovation and necessary to change the public's negative perception of the hamburger. In 1931, it became the first restaurant to [[newspaper advertisement|advertise in newspapers]], using its old \"buy 'em by the sack\" slogan. White Castle also pioneered the concept of [[take-out]] service, and the restaurant is further known for being the first to market square burgers, called \"[[slider (sandwich)|sliders]]\", which were sold for five cents into the 1940s. White Castle was founded in March 1921 in Wichita, Kansas, by Billy Ingram and his business partner, the cook Walter Anderson, and they opened a second restaurant in [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]] in 1924. In 1932, White Castle created its first subsidiary: Paperlynen Company, which provided the [[carton]]s and [[wrapping paper]] that the food was served in, as well as the hats worn by the kitchen staff. It acquired [[porcelain]] companies in a similar fashion, placing them in charge of building small White Castle restaurants using white porcelain facades."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry's Hamburgers",
        "text": "Henry's Hamburgers is a former American fast-food restaurant chain of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. Only one franchise store remains today."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Walter Anderson contributed a number of novel ideas to White Castle during its early years, including the creation of a special [[spatula]] and a special bread for the burgers. In 1949, an employee named Earl Howell calculated the amount of time that it took to break hamburgers apart in a presentable fashion, eventually leading him to create the [[perforated]] burger. By 1951, White Castle had incorporated five perforations into its burgers. Before Anderson, hamburgers were cooked on a grill for an indefinite period of time and minced meat balls were \"crushed\" into conventional [[sliced bread|slices of bread]], like a sandwich. The meat was frozen and hamburgers came to be cooked from frozen, instead of using fresh meat. White Castle revolutionized the burger-making process by regularizing the finished products and using hygienic preparation techniques that were in clear view of the customers."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In the late 19th century, the Hamburg steak became popular on the menus of many restaurants in the port of New York. This might consist of a fried patty of chopped beef, eggs, onions, and seasoning, or it might be lightly salted and often smoked, and served raw in a dish along with onions and [[bread crumbs]. The oldest document that refers to the Hamburg steak is a [[Delmonico's Restaurant]] menu from 1873 which offered customers an 11-cent plate of Hamburg steak that had been developed by American chef [[Charles Ranhofer]] (1836\u20131899). This price was high for the time, twice the price of a simple fillet of beef steak. However, by the end of the century the Hamburg steak was gaining popularity because of its ease of preparation decreasing cost. This is evident from its detailed description in some of the most popular cookbooks of the day. Documents show that this preparation style was used by 1887 in some U.S. restaurants and was also used for feeding patients in hospitals; the Hamburg steak was served raw or lightly cooked and was accompanied by a raw [[egg (food)|egg]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "Norman E. Brinker",
        "text": "With the Steak and Ale chain, Brinker originated the concept of the modern casual dining restaurant that is now ubiquitous in the marketplace. One of the innovations that Brinker introduced with Steak and Ale was the salad bar . Besides the novel concept of having customers leave their tables to serve themselves from a salad buffet, the Dallas-based chain also created the now common stock introduction of \"Hi, my name is ______, and I will be your waiter tonight.\" These ideas were part of an overall plan to establish a restaurant that was more relaxed with a more casual atmosphere. Over the next ten years, he went on to establish a niche industry that was situated between the fast-food and higher-priced gourmet segments of the restaurant field. By 1976, he had taken the chain to 109 restaurants, and had successfully introduced the American consumer to the concept of the chain restaurant. He then sold his company to Pillsbury and assumed a position in the company's restaurant division."
      },
      {
        "title": "Smashburger",
        "text": "With $15 million in capital, the two bought a Denver restaurant, Icon Burger, to experiment with cooking and management techniques for a higher-end burger restaurant. The founders then spent six months developing an efficient and fast \"kitchen engine\", designing the restaurant's kitchen to have modular surfaces, and with a central griddle that houses a refrigerated area underneath where meatballs are stored. This allows the burger cook to be properly supplied without having to walk away from the griddle. The kitchen concept was later adapted and standardized for every Smashburger location. The restaurant's signature \"smashing\" technique is achieved with a special cutter and technique, which also allows it to train new cooks quickly and open new locations without having to redesign the back-end process. They used flattop grills for the kitchen and rejected char broilers or barbecue grills, and the founders did a blind taste test of 300 kinds of beef, including varieties of Wagyu and Kobe, for the burgers before settling on chopped Angus beef. The founders systematically narrowed down the options until they came to just four, and found that all were Angus beef provided by different distributors."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Castle (restaurant)",
        "text": "White Castle is an American regional hamburger restaurant chain with 377 locations across 13 states, with its greatest presence in the Midwest and New York metropolitan area. It has been generally credited as the world's first fast-food hamburger chain, founded on September 13, 1921. It is known for its small, square hamburgers referred to as \"sliders\". The burgers were initially priced at five cents until 1929 and remained at 10 cents until 1949. In the 1940s, White Castle periodically ran promotional ads in local newspapers which contained coupons offering five burgers for ten cents, takeout only."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Fast food franchises sell American-style fast food hamburgers in Australia and New Zealand. The traditional Australasian hamburgers are usually bought from fish and chip shops or milk bars, rather than from chain restaurants. These traditional hamburgers are becoming less common as older-style fast food outlets decrease in number. The hamburger meat is almost always ground beef, or \"mince\" as it is more commonly referred to in Australia and New Zealand. They commonly include tomato, lettuce, grilled onion and meat as minimum\u2014in this form, known in Australia as a \"plain hamburger\", which often also includes a slice of beetroot\u2014and, optionally, can include cheese, beetroot, pineapple, a fried egg and bacon. If all these optional ingredients are included, it is known in Australia as \"burger with the lot\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of fast food restaurant chains",
        "text": "List of fast food restaurant chains\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food",
        "text": "To combat criticism, fast-food restaurants are starting to offer more health-friendly menu items. In addition to health critics, there are suggestions for the fast-food industry to become more eco-friendly. The chains have responded by \"reducing packaging waste\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did the hamburger first come to exist?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The hamburger first appeared in the 19th or early 20th century; the invention of hamburgers is commonly attributed to various people, including Charlie Nagreen, Frank and Charles Menches, Oscar Weber Bilby, Fletcher Davis, or Louis Lassen. The McDonald brothers opened their first restaurant adjacent to the Monrovia Airport in 1937."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the hamburger face any criticism nowadays?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Hamburgers are often served in fast food restaurants, and as such, fast food restaurants have come under criticism over concerns ranging from claimed negative health effects, alleged animal cruelty, cases of worker exploitation, and claims of cultural degradation via shifts in people's eating patterns away from traditional foods."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are hamburger establishments doing to counteract the criticisms?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "To combat criticism, fast-food restaurants are starting to offer more health-friendly menu items. In addition to health critics, there are suggestions for the fast-food industry to become more eco-friendly, with the chains responding by reducing packaging waste."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What restaurant chain lead the way in developing the fast food style of restaurant?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Arguably, the first fast food restaurants originated in the United States with White Castle in 1921. Today, American-founded fast food chains such as McDonald's and KFC are multinational corporations with outlets across the globe.",
      "The American company White Castle, founded by Billy Ingram and Walter Anderson in Wichita, Kansas in 1921, is generally credited with opening the second fast food outlet and first hamburger chain, selling hamburgers for five cents each."
    ],
    "topic": "History of the hamburger",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Fast food:25",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fast food",
          "Cuisine",
          "Variants"
        ],
        "ctx": "Pizza is a common fast food category in the United States, with nationwide chains including Papa John's, Domino's Pizza, Sbarro and Pizza Hut. It trails only the burger industry in supplying children's fast food calories. Menus are more limited and standardized than in traditional pizzerias, and pizza delivery is offered."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Fast food:11",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fast food",
          "History",
          "United States"
        ],
        "ctx": "As automobiles became popular and more affordable following World War I, drive-in restaurants were introduced. The American company White Castle, founded by Billy Ingram and Walter Anderson in Wichita, Kansas in 1921, is generally credited with opening the second fast food outlet and first hamburger chain, selling hamburgers for five cents each. Walter Anderson had built the first White Castle restaurant in Wichita in 1916, introducing the limited menu, high-volume, low-cost, high-speed hamburger restaurant. Among its innovations, the company allowed customers to see the food being prepared. White Castle was successful from its inception and spawned numerous competitors."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Between 1871 and 1884, \"Hamburg Beefsteak\" was on the \"Breakfast and Supper Menu\" of the Clipper Restaurant at 311/313 Pacific Street in San Fernando, California. It cost 10 cents\u2014the same price as mutton chops, pig's feet in batter, and stewed veal. It was not, however, on the dinner menu. Only \"Pig's Head\", \"Calf Tongue\", and \"Stewed Kidneys\" were listed. Another claim ties the hamburger to Summit County, New York or Ohio. Summit County, Ohio exists, but Summit County, New York does not.\n* 1921: White Castle, Wichita, Kansas. Due to widely anti-German sentiment in the U.S. during World War I, an alternative name for hamburgers was Salisbury steak. Following the war, hamburgers became unpopular until the White Castle restaurant chain marketed and sold large numbers of small square hamburgers, known as \"sliders\". They started to create five holes in each patty, which help them cook evenly and eliminate the need to flip the burger. In 1995 White Castle began selling frozen hamburgers in convenience stores and vending machines.\n* 1923: Kewpee Hamburgers, or Kewpee Hotels, Flint, Michigan. Kewpee was the second hamburger chain and peaked at 400 locations before World War II. Many of these were licensed but not strictly franchised. Many closed during WWII. Between 1955 and 1967, another wave closed or caused changes of name. In 1967 the Kewpee licensor moved the company to a franchise system. Currently only five locations exist.\n* 1926: White Tower Hamburgers\n* 1927: Little Tavern\n* 1930s: White Castle (II; run by Henry Cassada)\n* 1931: Krystal (restaurant)\n* 1936: Big Boy. In 1937, Bob Wian created the double deck hamburger at his hamburger stand in Glendale California. Big Boy would become the name of the hamburger, the mascot and the restaurants. Big Boy expanded nationally through regional franchising and subfranchising. Primarily operating as drive-in restaurants in the 1950s, interior dining gradually replaced curb service by the early 1970s. Many franchises have closed or operate independently, but at the remaining American restaurants, the Big Boy double deck hamburger remains the signature item.\n* 1940: McDonald's restaurant, San Bernardino, California, was opened by Richard and Maurice McDonald. Their introduction of the \"Speedee Service System\" in 1948 established the principles of the modern fast-food restaurant. The McDonald brothers began franchising in 1953. In 1961, Ray Kroc (the supplier of their multi-mixer milkshake machines) purchased the company from the brothers for $2.7 million and a 1.9% royalty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food",
        "text": "As automobiles became popular and more affordable following World War I, drive-in restaurants were introduced. The American company White Castle, founded by Billy Ingram and Walter Anderson in Wichita, Kansas in 1921, is generally credited with opening the second fast food outlet and first hamburger chain, selling hamburgers for five cents each. Walter Anderson had built the first White Castle restaurant in Wichita in 1916, introducing the limited menu, high-volume, low-cost, high-speed hamburger restaurant. Among its innovations, the company allowed customers to see the food being prepared. White Castle was successful from its inception and spawned numerous competitors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "The origin of \"fast food\" is uncertain, but one possibility is a hamburger stand that was founded by Walter Anderson in Wichita, Kansas. Known today as White Castle, the fast-food chain began to spread throughout the Midwest, offering a simple menu with hamburgers, Coca-Cola and coffee. By the 1920s White Castle had become a nationally recognized chain, and until the 1940s White Castle-style architecture was standard for fast-food hamburger outlets throughout the United States. Other local burger chains include Winstead's, Max & Erma's and Schoop's Hamburgers."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "The following restaurants have either played a part in the creation of the hamburger sandwich, developed a unique cooking method, or were the first to sell them nationwide:\n* Louis' Lunch 1895, New Haven, Connecticut. Louis' Lunch has been selling steak and hamburger sandwiches since 1895, when Louis Lassen opened his lunch wagon. This small establishment, which advertises itself as the oldest hamburger restaurant in the U.S., is credited by some with having invented the classic American hamburger when Louis sandwiched a ground steak patty between two pieces of white toast for a busy office worker in 1900. Louis' Lunch flame broils the hamburgers in the original 1898 Bridge & Beach vertical cast iron gas stoves using locally developed steel wire gridirons to hold the hamburgers in place during cooking (U.S. Patent #2,148,879). In 1974, \"The New York Times\" published a story about Louis' Lunch claiming to have invented the hamburger. The U.S. Library of Congress' American Folklife Center Local Legacies Project website credits Louis' Lunch as the maker of America's first hamburger and steak sandwich. The hamburger is still served today on two pieces of toast and not a bun.\n* Dyer's Burgers, 1912, Memphis, Tennessee, deep-fried burgers using a cast-iron skillet.\n* White Castle, 1921, Wichita, Kansas. Following the war, hamburgers became unpopular until the White Castle restaurant chain marketed and sold large numbers of small two-and-a-half-inch square hamburgers. They started to punch five holes in each patty, which helps them cook evenly and eliminates the need to flip the burgers. Their burger first sold for five cents. White Castle holds a U.S trademark on the word \"slyders.\" The White Castle building was modeled after the water tower building in Chicago, with the turrets and fortress-like walls. White Castle was the first to sell their hamburgers in grocery stores and vending machines. They also created the industrial-strength spatula, and were the first to mass-produce the paper hat. Today, there are more than 400 White Castle restaurants around the country, selling over 550 million hamburgers per year.\n*The Rite Spot, circa 1925, Pasadena, California. Lionel Sternberger claims to have invented the cheeseburger.\n* Kaelin's Restaurant, 1934, Louisville, Kentucky. This Kentucky restaurant claims to have invented the cheeseburger in 1934.\n* Humpty Dumpty Drive-In, 1935, Denver, Colorado. A trademark for the name \"cheeseburger\" was awarded to Louis Ballast of the Humpty Dumpty Drive-In in 1935.\n* Jack\u2019s Lunch, 1930s, Middletown, Connecticut. The steamed cheeseburger is believed to have been invented at this restaurant operated by Jack Fitzgerald.\n* Bob's Pantry (Bob's Big Boy), 1937, Glendale, California. Bob Wian invented the double deck cheeseburger. The Big Boy double deck hamburger lent its name to his restaurant chain."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "On November 16, 1916, chef and entrepreneur Walter \"Walt\" Anderson opened a hamburger stand in [[Wichita, Kansas]], that used hygienic cooking methods, including [[grilling|grills]] and [[spatula]]s, and impressed his Wichita customers so much that many would become regular patrons. At this time, the hamburger was still not widely known by the American public. Anderson added [[onion ring]]s to the burgers while they grilled, giving them a distinctive flavor. As demand increased, customers often bought his hamburgers by the [[dozen]], giving rise to the company's subsequently popular [[slogan]]: \"buy 'em by the sack\". Despite some growth, Anderson had opened only four stands in the busiest areas of the city. In 1926, Edgar Waldo \"Billy\" Ingram collaborated with Anderson to open the first [[White Castle (restaurant)|White Castle restaurant]] in Wichita. The restaurant was founded on the idea of cooking a hamburger quickly, giving it the honor of being the first [[fast food restaurant]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Castle (restaurant)",
        "text": "White Castle is an American regional hamburger restaurant chain with 377 locations across 13 states, with its greatest presence in the Midwest and New York metropolitan area. It has been generally credited as the world's first fast-food hamburger chain, founded on September 13, 1921. It is known for its small, square hamburgers referred to as \"sliders\". The burgers were initially priced at five cents until 1929 and remained at 10 cents until 1949. In the 1940s, White Castle periodically ran promotional ads in local newspapers which contained coupons offering five burgers for ten cents, takeout only."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:White Castle Building No. 8.jpg|250px|thumb|The 1936 [[White Castle Building No. 8]] in [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]]]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The success of the White Castle chain was rooted largely in the power of propaganda, something that was both an original innovation and necessary to change the public's negative perception of the hamburger. In 1931, it became the first restaurant to [[newspaper advertisement|advertise in newspapers]], using its old \"buy 'em by the sack\" slogan. White Castle also pioneered the concept of [[take-out]] service, and the restaurant is further known for being the first to market square burgers, called \"[[slider (sandwich)|sliders]]\", which were sold for five cents into the 1940s. White Castle was founded in March 1921 in Wichita, Kansas, by Billy Ingram and his business partner, the cook Walter Anderson, and they opened a second restaurant in [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]] in 1924. In 1932, White Castle created its first subsidiary: Paperlynen Company, which provided the [[carton]]s and [[wrapping paper]] that the food was served in, as well as the hats worn by the kitchen staff. It acquired [[porcelain]] companies in a similar fashion, placing them in charge of building small White Castle restaurants using white porcelain facades."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "Most historians agree that the American company White Castle was the first fast food outlet, starting in Wichita, Kansas in 1916 with food stands and founding in 1921, selling hamburgers for five cents apiece from its inception and spawning numerous competitors and emulators. What is certain, however, is that White Castle made the first significant effort to standardize the food production in, look of, and operation of fast food hamburger restaurants. William Ingram's and Walter Anderson's White Castle System created the first fast food supply chain to provide meat, buns, paper goods, and other supplies to their restaurants, pioneered the concept of the multi-state hamburger restaurant chain, standardized the look and construction of the restaurants themselves, and even developed a construction division that manufactured and built the chain's prefabricated restaurant buildings. The McDonald's Speedee Service System and, much later, Ray Kroc's McDonald's outlets and Hamburger University all built on principles, systems and practices that White Castle had already established between 1923 and 1932."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "White Castle had a very large progression of sales, and its success was such, that by 1926, it had already generated competitors and [[imitator]]s in the emerging hamburger business. One of these imitators also had a highly similar name, [[White Tower Hamburgers]] of [[Milwaukee]], [[Wisconsin]], founded by the father and son tandem of John E. and Thomas E. Saxe. The creation of White Tower led to numerous legal battles between it and White Castle during the 1930s. By 1930, White Castle already had 116 restaurants spread over a distance of , all of which were located within the United States. [1] The company eventually became a large restaurant chain, however, there has never been a restaurant outside of the United States. The American [[shortage]] of beef during World War II had little effect on sales across White Castle, due to the effect of [[vertical integration]] along with the appearance of fast food chains that operated on a [[franchising|franchise]] model that emphasized [[horizontal integration]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Castle (restaurant)",
        "text": "Anderson is credited with the invention of the hamburger bun as well as \"the kitchen as assembly line, and the cook as infinitely replaceable technician,\" hence giving rise to the modern fast-food phenomenon. Due to White Castle's innovation of having chain-wide standardized methods, customers could be sure that they would receive the same product and service in every White Castle restaurant."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Many different variants of the hamburger have been created over the years, some of which have become very popular. Much of this diversity has been the product of other restaurant chains that have tried to reproduce the success of McDonald's and White Castle, while others served to influence McDonald's. An example of a restaurant that influenced McDonald's and its imitators is [[Big Boy (restaurant)|Big Boy]], which was first opened in 1936 by [[Bob Wian]] in [[Glendale, California]], and became known in that locale as [[Bob's Big Boy]]. It was at this restaurant that a major hamburger variant, the double deck cheeseburger, with two beef patties, was first made. Wian's creation was distinctively served by Big Boy restaurants with the bun sliced twice, the center slice\u2014known as the club section\u2014separating the two patties. The chain also popularized the drive-in restaurant format, taken and simplified by McDonald's type fast food operators. By the 1960s, Big Boy had expanded throughout the United States and Canada. Despite the benefits it provided to Wian, the chain was sold along with the rights to their signature Big Boy hamburger to the [[Marriott Corporation]] in 1967. This same year McDonald's franchisee Jim Delligatti, created an imitation of the Big Boy \u2014 the Big Mac. An example of the many McDonald's and White Castle imitators is [[Kewpee Hamburgers]], a fast-food chain founded in 1923 in [[Flint, Michigan]], by Samuel V. Blair as \"[[Kewpee|Kewpee Hotel Hamburgs]].\""
      },
      {
        "title": "White Castle (restaurant)",
        "text": "Ingram's business savvy not only was responsible for White Castle's success but for the popularization of the hamburger. On January 14, 2014, \"Time\" labeled the White Castle slider as the most influential burger of all time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry's Restaurants",
        "text": "Jerry Lederer, a resident of Louisville, Kentucky, had been inspired by the success of White Castle hamburger stands and decided to open his own hamburger stand named White Tavern Shop. The five-stool restaurant opened in 1929, in Shelbyville, Kentucky. White Tavern expanded during the 1930s, and by 1943, it had 13 locations in three states."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:DaviesStallStLawrenceMarket.jpg|300px|thumb|left|William Davies Company stall at the St. Lawrence Market in Toronto, Canada. Scenes such as this became common during the early twentieth century in the United States and Canada as the meat market grew rapidly.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Ingram soon realized that the word \"burger\" evoked connotations of [[circus]] performances at livestock markets and greasy pieces of meat eaten in the poorest districts of the city in the collective mind of the American public. He tried to change those connotations from White Castle's earliest days. At the same time, he became known to some as the [[Henry Ford]] of the hamburger, while inventing a restaurant concept he called the \"White Castle System\", which helped the hamburger achieve fame. Between 1923 and 1931, the \"White Castle System\" established almost a hundred restaurants in cities throughout the [[Midwestern United States]]. In order to raise awareness among White Castle employees, a [[newsletter]] entitled \"The hot hamburger\" was circulated throughout the company, which challenged the employees to improve the sale of the burgers with a simple idea: to be able to prepare burgers rapidly so anyone could purchase and eat them anytime and anywhere. Instead of waiting for half an hour to be served at a traditional restaurant, the White Castle System provided rapid service and a menu centered around the hamburger. At the time, the hamburger was typically served with coffee. [[Upton Sinclair]]'s \"[[The Jungle]]\" had already caused public outrage over the safety of processed meat, so by the 1920s, the general public had come to expect a clean and hygienic hamburger. In addition to offering clean and safe food, White Castle offered regularity and standardization, ensuring that each patty was served in the same manner in each restaurant. At the time, this was an entirely novel idea that would revolutionize the sale of food itself with a style that would come to be known as fast food. During its early years, White Castle emphasized providing quality coffee, and collaborated with universities to publish studies on the nutritional quality of their hamburgers."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "History of the hamburger\n--Beginning.\n----Hamburg and its port.\n----Hamburg steak.\n--Invention.\n----North America.\n----Controversial origins.\n----Ingredients.\n--Commercialization.\n----White Castle System.\n----McDonald's era.\n----Variants.\n--Culinary history.\n--Global phenomenon.\n--Present day.\n----Nutritional controversies.\n----Media.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "During the first half of the 19th century, most European emigrants to the New World embarked from Hamburg, and New York City was their most common destination. Restaurants in New York offered \"Hamburg-style American fillet\", or even \"beefsteak \u00e0 la Hambourgeoise\". Early American preparations of minced beef were therefore made to fit the tastes of European immigrants, evoking memories of the port of Hamburg and the world they left behind."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Tower Hamburgers",
        "text": "At its peak in the 1950s there were 230 White Tower locations. The chain began a slow decline. The last location, in Toledo, Ohio, is still open and operational."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The hamburger's international popularity demonstrates the larger globalization of food that also includes the rise in global popularity of other national dishes, including the Italian pizza, Chinese fried rice and Japanese sushi. The hamburger has spread from continent to continent perhaps because it matches familiar elements in different culinary cultures. This global culinary culture has been produced, in part, by the concept of selling processed food, first launched in the 1920s by the White Castle restaurant chain and its visionary Edgar Waldo \"Billy\" Ingram and then refined by McDonald's in the 1940s. This global expansion provides economic points of comparison like the Big Mac Index, by which one can compare the purchasing power of different countries where the Big Mac hamburger is sold."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Tower Hamburgers",
        "text": "White Tower Hamburgers was a fast food restaurant chain that was founded in 1926 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. With its similar white fortress-like buildings and menu it is considered to be an imitator of White Castle chain that was founded in 1921. The chain was successful and expanded to other cities, including Chicago, Indianapolis, Cleveland, Dayton, Detroit, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh,Baltimore, New York City, Albany, Boston, Richmond, Virginia, and as far south as Sarasota, Florida. During the Great Depression, White Tower sold hamburgers for five cents. The whiteness of the restaurant was meant among other things to evoke the notion of hygienic conditions, and the chain had staff dressed as nurses, dubbed the \"Towerettes,\" to help make this argument."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "The hamburger restaurant most associated by the public with the term \"fast food\" was created by two brothers originally from Nashua, New Hampshire. Richard and Maurice McDonald opened a barbecue drive-in in 1940 in the city of San Bernardino, California. After discovering that most of their profits came from hamburgers, the brothers closed their restaurant for three months and reopened it in 1948 as a walk-up stand offering a simple menu of hamburgers, french fries, shakes, coffee, and Coca-Cola, served in disposable paper wrapping. As a result, they could produce hamburgers and fries constantly, without waiting for customer orders, and could serve them immediately; hamburgers cost 15 cents, about half the price at a typical diner. Their streamlined production method, which they named the \"Speedee Service System\" was influenced by the production line innovations of Henry Ford."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "History of the hamburger in the United States\n--Hamburger bun.\n----U.S. hamburger restaurants.\n--Variations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "White Tower Hamburgers",
        "text": "John E. Saxe and Thomas E. Saxe started White Tower Hamburgers after investigating various White Castle locations, observing operations and hiring a White Castle operator. The first location opened near Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. By the end of 1927, there were six locations in Milwaukee and Racine, Wisconsin. In 1929, White Tower put 30 locations in Detroit alone. Despite the Depression, White Tower expanded to 130 locations. White Tower placed many of its restaurants near train and trolley stops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Castle (restaurant chain)",
        "text": "During its heyday, Royal Castle sold its hamburgers for 15 cents, and fries and Birch Beer for 7 cents each. Singer, who was from Columbus, Ohio, was inspired by the success of White Castle, which had moved its headquarters to Columbus from Wichita, Kansas, in 1934."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "After various controversies in the 20th century, including a nutritional controversy in the late 1990s, the burger is now readily identified with the United States, and a particular style of cuisine, namely fast food. Along with fried chicken and apple pie, the hamburger has become a culinary icon in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Castle (restaurant)",
        "text": "At the time, Americans were hesitant to eat ground beef after Upton Sinclair's 1906 novel \"The Jungle\" had publicized the poor sanitation practices of the meat packing industry. The founders set out to change the public's perception of the cleanliness of the industry they were creating. To invoke a feeling of cleanliness, their restaurants were small buildings with stainless steel interiors, and employees outfitted with spotless uniforms. Their first restaurants in Wichita were a success, and the company branched out into other Midwestern markets, starting in 1922 with El Dorado, Kansas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Today, the b\u00f8fsandwich, fl\u00e6skestegssandwich, and their many variations co-exist with the more typical hamburger, with the opening of the first Burger King restaurant in 1977 popularizing the original dish in Denmark. Many local, high-end burger restaurants dot the major cities, including Popl, an offshoot of Noma."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Walter Anderson contributed a number of novel ideas to White Castle during its early years, including the creation of a special [[spatula]] and a special bread for the burgers. In 1949, an employee named Earl Howell calculated the amount of time that it took to break hamburgers apart in a presentable fashion, eventually leading him to create the [[perforated]] burger. By 1951, White Castle had incorporated five perforations into its burgers. Before Anderson, hamburgers were cooked on a grill for an indefinite period of time and minced meat balls were \"crushed\" into conventional [[sliced bread|slices of bread]], like a sandwich. The meat was frozen and hamburgers came to be cooked from frozen, instead of using fresh meat. White Castle revolutionized the burger-making process by regularizing the finished products and using hygienic preparation techniques that were in clear view of the customers."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of hamburger restaurants",
        "text": "This is a list of notable hamburger restaurants. A hamburger is a sandwich consisting of one or more cooked patties of ground meat (usually beef) usually placed inside a sliced hamburger bun. Hamburgers are often served with lettuce, bacon, tomato, onion, pickles, cheese, and condiments such as mustard, mayonnaise, ketchup, and relish. This list includes restaurants and fast food restaurants that primarily serve hamburgers and related food items."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In 1937, Patrick McDonald and his two sons [[Richard and Maurice McDonald|Richard and Maurice]] inaugurated the simple restaurant \"Airdrome\" on Huntington Drive (Route 66) near the airport in the American city of [[Monrovia, California#History|Monrovia, California]]. The success of its sales eventually led to the May 15, 1940, opening of a restaurant named [[McDonald's]] along [[U.S. Route 66]] in [[San Bernardino, California]]. After analyzing their sales, the brothers discovered that, to their surprise, 80% of their [[revenue]] was coming from selling hamburgers. The menu initially featured 25 different dishes, the majority of which were [[barbecue]]d. Through their new restaurant, the McDonald brothers introduced the notion of fast food to parts of the Western United States by 1948. From the beginning, McDonald's focused on making hot dogs and hamburgers as efficiently and quickly as possible. During the 1940s, simple and formative concepts took root at McDonald's, including the preparation and service of burgers in just one minute and the ability for customers to eat in their own cars in a \"[[drive-in]]\" style. All the while, the restaurant was trying to further develop a hamburger that was inexpensive enough to be within the economic reach of most Americans. By the 1950s, the concept of drive-in style service had become firmly established and hamburgers and cars had become closely connected in the minds of many Americans. It was now not only possible for a customer to purchase a hamburger without getting out of a car, and a customer also no longer needed to wait to be served. The McDonald brothers built upon the achievements of their original San Bernardino restaurant when in 1953 they began franchising their now famous chain restaurants, starting in [[Phoenix, Arizona]], and [[Downey, California]] (the latter of which is [[Oldest McDonald's restaurant|still in operation]]). Later, [[Ray Kroc]] opened one in the northwest Chicago suburb of [[Des Plaines, Illinois]] on April 15, 1955, which has now been converted into the [[McDonald's USA First Store Museum|McDonald's Museum]]. It is noteworthy that the original McDonald's [[mascot]] was a hamburger faced cook called \"[[Speedee]]\" that would serve as the iconographic identity of the company until being replaced by the clown [[Ronald McDonald]] in 1963."
      },
      {
        "title": "Louis' Lunch",
        "text": "Many others claim to be the creator of the hamburger, including Charlie Nagreen, brothers Frank and Charles Menches, Oscar Weber Bilby, and Fletcher Davis. White Castle traces the origin of the hamburger to Hamburg, Germany, with its invention by Otto Kuase. However, it gained national recognition at the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair when the \"New-York Tribune\" namelessly attributed the hamburger as \"the innovation of a food vendor on the pike.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "The hamburger bun was invented in 1916 by a fry cook named Walter Anderson, who co-founded White Castle in 1921."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of hamburger restaurants",
        "text": "List of hamburger restaurants\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Landrum's Hamburger System No. 1",
        "text": "The Landrum's Hamburger System No. 1, at 1300 S. Virginia St. in Reno, Nevada, USA, was built in 1947. It was a Moderne style building that has also been known as Chili Cheez Cafe. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1998. Yelp has indicated that this location has closed."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "By the 1960s, American society had become highly [[automobile|motorized]], largely due to the 1956 [[Federal Highway Act]] passed by President [[Dwight Eisenhower]] and inspired by the [[German Autobahn]], as well as the impressive growth rates of American [[automobile manufacturer]]s at the time. Due to the extensive use of cars at the time, hamburgers were often served at [[drive-in]]s, often by waiters known as [[carhop]]s. Drive-in restaurants first appeared in the United States in the early 1930s, and gradually become a common sight across the country. The ability to serve hamburgers to customers in their cars was seen as a business opportunity by countless fast-food chains, especially [[McDonald's]]. The popularity of the hamburger grew rapidly among the American population during this period, and statistics indicate that the average American was eating three burgers per week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Griff's Hamburgers",
        "text": "The restaurant buildings were of a patented A-frame design, produced by Valentine Diner of Wichita, Kansas. Later restaurants sported more conventional architecture. A bright yellow sign read HAMBURGERS in big block capitals. The restaurants offered both drive-thrus and patio dining."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The hamburger was very popular among Americans during the [[interwar period|postwar period]] following World War I, even in popular culture. An example of this was the prominent appearance of hamburgers in [[E. C. Segar]]'s \"[[Thimble Theatre]]\" [[comic strip]], which prominently featured a [[cartoon character]] named [[Popeye the Sailor]] who ate [[spinach]] to sustain his superhuman strength. Popeye's first appearance was as a [[supporting character]] on January 17, 1929, alongside many other characters. One of these characters was [[J. Wellington Wimpy]] (often shortened to just \"Wimpy\"), a lover of hamburgers who was both polite and gluttonous. His signature phrase, \"I will gladly pay you Tuesday for a hamburger today\", became popular and widely known. During the height of his popularity in the 1930s, Wimpy introduced the hamburger to the youth of the time as a healthy food. It also resulted in the creation of a chain of fast food restaurants called [[Wimpy (restaurant)|Wimpy's]] in his honor, which sold hamburgers for ten cents. In a similar fashion, the fictional character [[Jughead Jones]], who first appeared in [[Archie Comics]] in 1941, was passionate about food generally, and hamburgers specifically."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger University",
        "text": "Hamburger University\n--History.\n--Locations.\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "At the same time the hamburger was growing in popularity around the world, it took on a variety of local features in different locations. Such examples of this include ground meat made from local animals, such as [[kangaroo]]s in Australia, or [[Tex-Mex]]-style dishes like [[chilli con carne]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "Other popular toppings include bacon, avocado or guacamole, sliced saut\u00e9ed mushrooms, sliced sauce and/or chili (usually without beans). Somewhat less common toppings include fried egg, scrambled egg, feta cheese, salsa, pineapple, Jalape\u00f1os and other varieties of chile peppers, anchovies, slices of ham or bologna, pastrami, or teriyaki-seasoned beef, tartar sauce, french fries, onion rings, or potato chips."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "Condiments may be added to the hamburger or offered separately on the side. The three most common condiments are mustard, mayonnaise, and ketchup. However, salad dressings and barbecue sauce are also popular. McDonald's uses their own \"Big Mac sauce\" on their signature Big Mac hamburger. Heinz 57 sauce is popular among burger enthusiasts."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In the 20th century, the hamburger has appeared as the central topic in some books on the literature of culinary topics. An example of this is \"[[Fast Food Nation|Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal]]\", published by [[investigative journalist]] [[Eric Schlosser]] in 2001, that examines the local and global influence of the American fast food industry. An example of a modern variation of the hamburger is the so-called \"gourmet burger\", which is made by [[haute cuisine]] chefs with patties that include [[luxury good|luxury]] ingredients. One of the first such burgers was cooked in New York City by chef [[Daniel Boulud]] in June 2001, and subsequently sold for US$29 with [[loin]], ribs Bres, canned [[black truffle]]s, and a [[mirepoix (cuisine)|mirepoix]] of vegetables. The [[Manhattan]] restaurant \"Old Homestead\", one of the oldest [[steakhouse]]s in the country, offers a $44 hamburger with beef-bred Japanese [[wagy\u016b]]. An haute cuisine burger created by [[Richard Blais]], a student of [[Ferran Adri\u00e0]], was introduced in 2004 at a restaurant in [[Atlanta]], where it is served with a crystal chain and a silk [[ribbon]]. In response to the haute cuisine take on the hamburger, others have created more humble versions. Alberto Chicote of [[Madrid]] makes homemade hamburgers in his kitchen, using [[Iberia]]n pork along with homemade [[ketchup]] and [[mustard (condiment)|mustard]]. In 1993, Max Schondor created a hamburger made of soy. In a 2005 episode of [[SpongeBob SquarePants]], the adventurous title character visits [[Mr. Krabs]]'s popular [[Krabby Patty]] burgers, where hamburgers figure prominently in the story."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The exact origin of the hamburger may never be known with any certainty. Most historians believe that it was invented by a cook who placed a Hamburg steak between two slices of bread in a small town in Texas, and others credit the founder of White Castle for developing the \"Hamburger Sandwich.\" Records from that time are scarce, however."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Contemporary American society also witnessed the creation of new fast foods that originated from the traditional cuisine of various ethnic groups from around the world. For example, [[German Americans|German immigrant]] Charles Feltman invented the [[hot dog]] in 1867 in his stall in [[Coney Island]], New York by pairing a [[Hot dog|frankfurter]] with a bread bun. Imitators such as Harry Magley and Charles Stevens soon began selling hot dogs at [[New York Yankees|New York Polo Grounds]] baseball games. Similarly, [[Italian Americans|Italian immigrants]] sold [[ice cream]] from vending carts in the streets or pasta at their restaurants. [[Chinese Americans|Chinese immigrants]] initially opened restaurants to cater to their fellow Chinese-Americans, but they gradually became accepted by the American clientele, sometimes resulting in truly Chinese-American cuisine such as [[chop suey]]. In this diverse world of ethnic foods, the hamburger was able to rise to mainstream popularity and become a national food of the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger Hamlet",
        "text": "Hamburger Hamlet or \"The Hamlet\", was a chain of restaurants based in Los Angeles, a point of reference for Angelenos and for the creative industries that were located in the city. Opened in 1950 by film actor Harry Lewis with his future wife Marilyn (m.1952), it grew to a chain of 24 locations, including Chicago and the Washington, D.C. metro areas. before they were all either sold or closed down."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "An example of the popularity and identification that the burger enjoyed among the American public was the name of the [[Battle of Hamburger Hill]], which occurred in May 1969 during the [[Vietnam War]]. Its name was inspired by the number of American and [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] casualties, which made the scene resembles a \"butcher\". The hamburger was also the inspiration of [[Star Wars]] creator [[George Lucas]]'s design for the [[Millennium Falcon]] ship. Hamburgers also appear in computer games, as in the case of [[BurgerTime]], an [[arcade game|arcade-style game]] created in 1982 by [[Data East|Data East Corporation]]. The hamburger also appears prominently on [[Television in the United States|American television]] shows such as \"[[American Eats]]\" and \"[[Man v. Food]]\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In 2004, [[Morgan Spurlock]] addressed the obsessive consumption of hamburgers by some Americans by directing and starring in the documentary film \"[[Super Size Me]]\". In the film, he himself eats only [[McDonald's]] food for an entire month and documents how his health changes. That same year saw the premiere of \"[[Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle]]\", a film in which [[White Castle (restaurant)|White Castle restaurants]] played a vital part. Two years later, in 2006, the film \"[[Fast Food Nation (film)|Fast Food Nation]]\" presented a fictional representation of the intrigues and machinations of the [[meat industry]] on the border between Mexico and the United States. It is largely based on the 2001 book \"[[Fast Food Nation|Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal]]\".\n* [[Food history]]\n* [[Hamburger]]\n* [[History of the hamburger in the United States]]\n* [[List of hamburgers]]\n* Kominicki, JL (April 29, 1990) \"Ground for glory\" (second page) \"[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|European Stars and Stripes]]\". Darmstadt, Germany. Sunday Magazine, 6\u20137. via [[newspaperarchive.com]]\u00a0[[File:Open Access logo PLoS.svg|link=Open access|frameless|14x14px]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "White Tower Hamburgers",
        "text": "In 1941, White Tower Management Corporation moved its headquarters to Six Suburban Ave., Stamford, Connecticut. At its peak in the mid-1950s, the chain had 230 stores in several states. It tested the \"Tower-O-Matic\" automated restaurant in the 1950s and 60s with little success. It also attempted a sit-down restaurant called Marbett's. Many later suburban White Tower restaurants featured curb service with car hops."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "The Texas historian Frank X. Tolbert attributes the invention of the hamburger to Fletcher Davis of Athens, Texas. Davis is believed to have sold hamburgers at his caf\u00e9 at 115 Tyler Street in Athens, Texas, in the late 1880s, before bringing them to the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair.\n;Menches Brothers 1885"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kaffee Burger",
        "text": "The restaurant has existed since 1890. The restaurant continued to ran as a private company in the GDR. Since the 1970s, the Kaffee Burger became popular in East Berlin, with Volksb\u00fchne making a significant contribution to its popularity. Popular artists such as Thomas Brasch, Adolf Endler, Thomas K\u00f6rner, Heiner M\u00fcller, Ulrich Plenzdorf, Klaus Schlesinger, Katharina Thalbach, Bettina Wegner have frequently visited."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nation's Giant Hamburgers",
        "text": "Russ Harvey bought a six-stool hot dog stand on San Pablo Ave, where it meets with the end of San Pablo Dam Rd. in 1952 with money he obtained through the sale of his 1948 Buick. He subsequently added hamburgers to the menu of the hot dog restaurant with a focus on large portions. This gastronomic decision proved successful with the clientele. The restaurant's name was changed to \"Harvey's Giant Hamburgers\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Texan cuisine",
        "text": "An early claim to the invention of the hamburger was Fletcher Davis of Athens, Texas, who claimed to have served it at his restaurant at a time when there were more cows than people in Texas. According to oral histories, in the 1880s, he opened a lunch counter in Athens and served a \"burger\" of fried ground beef patties with mustard and Bermuda onion between two slices of bread; with a pickle on the side."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The first automobile [[production line]] was created by [[Karl Benz]] in Germany in 1888. The widespread appearance of telephones occurred at the beginning of the 20th century, along with other modern means of communication, including radio. For the average American who had not eaten in a restaurant in his or her entire life, the fast food chains that appeared in the cities offered an alternative form of restaurant in which eating was very much a public activity. The concept of a \"[[greasy spoon]]\" was thus born with these restaurants, in which [[hygiene]] suffered in exchange for more inexpensive food. On the other hand, there was a growing [[interconnected]] world in which trips by car, bus, and rail became increasingly available. All these means of transport were improving at the time, and soon it was necessary to feed a growing population that was \"in permanent transit\", frequently moving through different cities [[business travel|on business]]. [[George Pullman]] invented the [[sleeping car]] and the [[dining car]] in response to the needs of these people in the 1870s. Similarly, the English immigrant [[Fred Harvey (entrepreneur)|Frederick Henry Harvey]] was the first to use \"dynamic mass movement\" in restoring the [[Fred Harvey Company]], which catered to the patrons of a chain of hotels located near railway stations, as well as offering catering, services, and high quality products on the trains themselves."
      },
      {
        "title": "May Company California",
        "text": "In 1882, only one year later, Hamburger's moved to the Ponet-Bumiller Block at 45 N. Spring St. (post-1890 numbering: 145 N. Spring), SW corner of Temple, in a space of 46 by 100 ft. Later, it expanded into the north half of the ground floor of the newly built Phillips Block, NW corner of Spring and Franklin, then in 1887 into the south half. In April 1899 it added the Ponet store 20 ft to the north of the Bumiller Block."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger Hamlet",
        "text": "The restaurants served hamburgers topped with what were considered exotic combinations of toppings, such as a bacon cheeseburger with Russian dressing. A famed side dish were the \"little fried onions\". Tomato relish was provided at each table. They also served omelettes and Mexican dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The menus of many American restaurants during the 19th century included a Hamburg beefsteak that was often sold for breakfast. A variant of Hamburg steak is the \"[[Salisbury steak]]\", which is usually served with a [[gravy]] similar in texture to [[brown sauce]]. Invented by Dr. [[James Salisbury]] (1823\u20131905), the term \"Salisbury steak\" has been used in the United States since 1897. Nowadays, in the city of Hamburg as well as in parts of [[northern Germany]], this type dish is called [[Frikadelle]], Frikandelle, or Bulette, which is similar to the meatball. The term \"hamburger steak\" was replaced by \"hamburger\" by 1930, which has in turn been somewhat displaced by the simpler term, \"burger\". The latter term is now commonly used as a suffix to create new words for different variants of the hamburger, including [[cheeseburger]], [[porkburger]], [[bacon]]burger and [[moose]]burger. There are other foods with names derived from German cities that are shortened in different ways in [[American English]]. An example is the [[Hot dog|frankfurter]], often abbreviated as \"frank\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Popl (restaurant)",
        "text": "Popl (restaurant)\n--History.\n--Burgers.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "During the [[Cold War]], the hamburger became a [[national symbol]] of the United States. As private outdoor social events, often held in [[backyard]]s and featuring a [[barbecue]], became more widespread during the mid-1950s, the hamburger gained a new culinary and social relevance in the country. By the late 1960s, hamburgers began to grow in size as various burger chains competed with each other, resulting in Burger King launching the [[Whopper]] and [[McDonald's]] launching the [[Quarter Pounder]]. As the race between the major chains grew more intense, the prices of their burgers increased, and the days when a hamburger could be bought for just a few cents were numbered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1890\u20131945)",
        "text": "1916 Hamburger bun\n* A hamburger bun is a bread roll sliced horizontally containing a hamburger, usually a patty consisting of ground meat that also typically contains lettuce, bacon, tomato, onion, pickles, cheese and condiments such as mustard, mayonnaise, ketchup and relish. The hamburger bun was invented in 1916 by a fry cook named Walter Anderson, who co-founded White Castle in 1921."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Castle (restaurant)",
        "text": "On January 14, 2014, \"Time\" labeled the White Castle slider as the most influential burger of all time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asher Hamburger",
        "text": "In 1908, his firm built the Hamburger Building, the \"Great White Store\" at Eighth and Broadway, now better known as the Downtown Los Angeles May Co. Building, which at that time was the largest retail building in the West and the country's largest steel-frame structure. Attached to the south end was \"Hamburger's Majestic Theater,\" built for stage shows and opera. It was turned into a motion picture theater and later torn down to become a parking lot."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Hamburg steak, once served between two slices of bread, began to be prepared with a variety of different ingredients that were included either in the sandwich itself or as a side dish accompanying it on a plate. One of these accompaniments, which is still common with today's burger, is [[ketchup]], a type of [[tomato sauce]] with a blend of [[flavor]]s between [[sweet]] and [[sour]] that was first produced commercially in 1869 by entrepreneur and chef [[Henry John Heinz]] in [[Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania]]. His company was originally called the \"Anchor Pickle and Vinegar Works\", but in 1888 it was renamed [[H. J. Heinz Company|F. & J. Heinz]]. The use of ketchup by American consumers grew quickly after this date, and it was not long before hamburgers were almost universally accompanied by ketchup by the end of the nineteenth and into the early 20th century. [[Mustard (condiment)|Mustard]] is a significantly older [[condiment]], as it is thought that the [[ancient Rome|ancient Romans]] used a dressing made with non-fermented grapes and [[grape seed]]s known as \"mustum ardens\". Another ingredient incorporated into the burger, [[mayonnaise]], appears to have been present in 18th century France, after the naval victory of [[Louis-Fran\u00e7ois-Armand du Plessis de Richelieu]] in the port of [[Mah\u00f3n]] in [[Menorca]] around 1756."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "In April 1995, the Dallas Morning News reported on an Oklahoma author who said that Tulsa beat out Texas as the birthplace of the delicacy. Michael Wallis, author of \"Route 66, The Mother Road\", was quoted by the newspaper as saying that he had discovered Tulsa's place in culinary history, which he made while researching the state\u2019s tastiest hamburgers. He started at the restaurant that has been voted Tulsa's best burger more often than any other restaurant since 1933, Weber\u2019s Root Beer Stand. Wallis\u2019 research revealed that Oscar Weber Bilby was the first person to serve a real hamburger when, on July 4, 1891, ground beef was served on his wife\u2019s homemade buns at a Fourth of July party on his farm, just west of present-day Tulsa. Until then, ground beef had been served in Athens, Texas, on simple slices of bread, known then and presently as a \"patty melt\". According to the Tulsa-based author, the bun is essential. Therefore, in 1995, Governor Frank Keating cited Athens, Texas' serving of ground beef between two slices of bread as a minor accomplishment. The governor's April 1995 proclamation also cites the first true hamburger on the bun, after meticulous research, was created and consumed in Tulsa in 1891. The Governor's Proclamation cites April 13, 1995, in Tulsa as \"The Real Birthplace of the Hamburger.\"\n;Louis' Lunch 1895"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Fictional characters related to the hamburger, such as the [[Ronald McDonald]] [[clown]] character designed by [[Willard Scott]] who first appeared on television in 1963, soon became a recognizable part of [[American culture]]. The burger also made appearances in [[underground comix]] such as [[Zap Comix#2]] during the late 1960s, in which cartoonist [[Robert Crumb]] designed a character called \"Hamburger Hi-Jinx\". By the end of the decade, [[pop art]] was including the hamburger as an artistic element, appearing in the works of [[Andy Warhol]] (\"Dual Hamburger\"), [[Claes Oldenburg]] (\"Floor Burger\"), [[Mel Ramos]] (\"Vinaburger\", 1965), and more recently, [[David LaChapelle]] (\"Death by Hamburger\", 2002)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oldest McDonald's restaurant",
        "text": "Very few early McDonald's restaurants remain, largely because McDonald's Corporation required its franchisees to update their buildings. The original hexagonal McDonald's hamburger stand in San Bernardino was demolished in 1953 to be replaced by a building in the now familiar Golden Arches style; in an oversight, the McDonald brothers failed to retain rights to the McDonald's name when they sold the chain to Kroc, and were forced to rename it \"The Big M\". It went out of business and was demolished in 1972, although part of the sign remains; an independent McDonald's museum was opened on the site in 1998."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Various fast food outlets and restaurants such as Burger King, Carl's Jr., Hardee's, IHOP, Steak 'n Shake, Mr. Steak, and Freddy's market steak burgers. Some restaurants offer high-end burgers prepared from aged beef. Additionally, many restaurants have used the term \"steak burger\" at various times."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "The Seymour Community Historical Society of Seymour, Wisconsin, credits Charlie Nagreen, now known as \"Hamburger Charlie\", with the invention of the hamburger. Nagreen was 15 when he reportedly made sandwiches out of meatballs that he was selling at the 1885 Seymour Fair (now the Outagamie County Fair) to make it easier for customers to eat while walking. The Historical Society explains that Nagreen named the hamburger after the Hamburg steak, with which local German immigrants were familiar.\n;Oscar Bilby 1891"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Another development facilitating the invention and popularization of the proto-hamburger was the increased production of beef through livestock intensification. By the late 19th century, an increasing amount of land was being devoted to cattle and a growing number of people being employed as [[cowboy]]s, resulting in the United States becoming one of the world's largest producers and consumers of beef. The 1880s were declared \"The Golden Age of Beef\", during which the abundance of rural beef production made vital its transportation by rail from agricultural to urban areas. This gave rise to various methods of meat preservation for making possible the consumption of fresh meat in urban and industrialized areas, among the [[refrigerator car]]s and different methods of packaging meat (such as [[corned beef]]), which were promoted by industrialists like [[Gustavus Swift]] (1839\u20131903). Around this time, the city of Chicago, along with other cities on the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]], became a focal point for the large-scale processing of beef. Beef was already inexpensive at that time, and it was available to the working class. This put the Hamburg steak within reach of the vast majority of the population, giving rise to what some authors jokingly call the \"American beef dream\". In this era, the number of [[steakhouse]]s that specialized in serving steaks increased markedly; some restaurants even served steak along with seafood, in a dish known as [[Surf and turf]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Castle (restaurant chain)",
        "text": "By the 1970s the Royal Castle chain began to lose ground to other fast-food hamburger chains, including McDonald\u2019s as well as Burger King, which also had been founded in Miami in 1954. In 1975, the remaining shareholders of Royal Castle voted to liquidate the company at $2 a share, down from the $12 per share when the company had been acquired by Performance Systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "The Columbus, Ohio area is the home and birthplace of many well-known fast-food chains, especially those known for hamburgers. Wendy's opened its first store in Columbus in 1969, and is now headquartered in nearby Dublin. America's oldest hamburger chain, White Castle, is based there."
      },
      {
        "title": "H.A. Winston & Co.",
        "text": "Quickly, H.A. Winston & Co. became famous for its 7- and 10-ounce hamburgers, collectively referred to as \"GourmetBerger\" whose numerous options for topping were referred to and ordered by either its topping number or name."
      },
      {
        "title": "In-N-Out Burger",
        "text": "This design is a popular image on In-N-Out ads and artwork, which often shows classic cars such as 1965 Mustangs and 1968 Firebirds visiting the original restaurants. The original Covina restaurant, located on Arrow Highway west of Grand Avenue, was forced to close in the early 1990s due to re-engineering and development of the area. A modern design, drive-up/dining room restaurant was built a few hundred feet away. The replacement building was much larger, being nearly half the size of the previous building's lot."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Manna",
        "text": "The White Mana, located at 470 Tonnele Avenue () in Western Slope in Jersey City is a historical landmark, as well as the first Manna to open, and was the 1939 World's Fair building. When originally introduced, it was called the \"diner of the future\" and an \"Introduction to Fast Food.\" According to the present owner, Mario Costa, Jr., the difference in spelling was the result of an error when the sign was serviced. It is famous for its hamburgers and sells approximately 3,000 a week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "The origin of the hamburger is unclear, though \"hamburger steak sandwiches\" have been advertised in U.S. newspapers from New York to Hawaii since at least the 1890s. The invention of hamburgers is commonly attributed to various people, including Charlie Nagreen, Frank and Charles Menches, Oscar Weber Bilby, Fletcher Davis, or Louis Lassen. White Castle traces the origin of the hamburger to Hamburg, Germany with its invention by Otto Kuase. Some have pointed to a recipe for \u201cHamburgh sausages\u201d on toasted bread, which was published in \u201cThe Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy\u201d by Hannah Glasse in 1747. However, hamburgers gained national recognition at the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair when the \"New York Tribune\" referred to the hamburger as \"the innovation of a food vendor on the pike\". No conclusive argument has ever ended the dispute over invention. An article from ABC News sums up: \"One problem is that there is little written history. Another issue is that the spread of the burger happened largely at the World's Fair, from tiny vendors that came and went in an instant. And it is entirely possible that more than one person came up with the idea at the same time in different parts of the country.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Nation's Giant Hamburgers",
        "text": "In 1961 local teenager Dale Power was hired as a janitor and continued his employment from high school to bachelor's and master's degrees at the nearby University of California, Berkeley. In 1970 he purchased his first restaurant in the Jack London Square District in neighboring Oakland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry's Hamburgers",
        "text": "Although the reasons remain mostly unclear, by the mid-1970s Henry's Hamburger locations were closing at a fast rate."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "Standard toppings on hamburgers may vary depending upon location, particularly at restaurants that are not national or regional franchises. A \"Texas burger\" uses mustard as the only sauce, and comes with or without vegetables, jalapeno slices, and cheese. In New Mexico and parts of the Southwest, green chile burgers are very common. In the Upper Midwest, particularly Wisconsin, burgers are often made with a buttered bun, butter as one of the ingredients of the patty, or with a pat of butter on top of the burger patty. This is called a \"Butter Burger\". In the Carolinas, a Carolina-style hamburger \"with everything\" may be served with cheese, chili, onions, mustard, and coleslaw. National hamburger chain Wendy's sells a \"Carolina Classic\" burger with these toppings in these areas. In Hawaii, hamburgers are often topped with teriyaki sauce, derived from the Japanese-American culture, and locally grown pineapple. In areas of the Midwest and East Coast, a hamburger served with lettuce, tomato, and onion is called a \"California burger\". This usage is sufficiently widespread to appear on the menus of Dairy Queen. In the Western U.S., a \"California\" burger often denotes a cheeseburger with guacamole and bacon added. Pastrami burgers are particularly popular in Salt Lake City, Utah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ollie Gleichenhaus",
        "text": "Oliver George Gleichenhaus (September 30, 1911 \u2013 January 10, 1991) named the \"re-inventor\" of the hamburger, was an American restaurateur, best known for his small North Miami Beach, Florida restaurant \"Ollie's Sandwich Shop\", located at Third Avenue and 23rd Street, where in the mid-1930s, he created his signature \"Ollie Burger\" which he prepared with his secret blend of 23 herbs and spices. Extremely profane and irascible, Gleichenhaus was known to curse at and eject diners who requested condiments like ketchup to add to his \"perfect burgers\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "According to White Castle, Otto Kuase was the inventor of the hamburger. In 1891, he created a beef patty cooked in butter and topped with a fried egg. German sailors would later omit the fried egg."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "Residents of Hamburg, New York, which was named after Hamburg, Germany, attribute the hamburger to Ohioans Frank Menches and Charles Menches. According to legend, the Menches brothers were vendors at the 1885 Erie County Fair (then called the Buffalo Fair) when they ran out of sausage for sandwiches and used beef instead. They named the resulting sandwich after the location of the fair. However, Frank Menches's obituary in \"The New York Times\" stated, instead, that these events took place at the 1892 Summit County Fair in Akron, Ohio.\n;Charlie Nagreen 1885"
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry's Hamburgers",
        "text": "Henry's Hamburgers\n--History.\n----Growth.\n----Decline.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Horn & Hardart",
        "text": "The restaurant chain remained popular into the 1960s, featuring not only automats but sit-down waitress service restaurants, cafeterias, and bakery shops. In the late 1960s, consultants attempted to develop automats with interior decoration relevant to surrounding neighborhoods; thus, the Automat on 14th Street was decorated with psychedelic posters. The eateries began to close with the rise of fast-food restaurants, which offered fare over the counter with normal cash transactions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wetson's",
        "text": "Upon arriving home from the military, Wetanson began scouting locations on Long Island for the first of his hamburger restaurants. Recognizing that the Levittown area of Long Island shared a similar post-war demographic to that of San Bernardino, he found a closed Mayflower coffee and donut shop in that town and, along with his younger brother Errol Wetanson, in 1959 at this location opened the first Wetson's. At its peak the Wetson's chain comprised over 70 restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The modern hamburger was developed in the United States, but by the end of World War II, around the middle of the 20th century, it began to spread to other countries as fast food became [[globalization|globalized]]. The main cause of this gradual globalization was the successes of the large [[restaurant chain]]s. Their desires to expand their businesses and increase their profits resulted in them creating [[Chain store|franchises]] around the world. [[McDonald's]] was among the first of the burger chains to take the global establishment of its brand seriously, but it was not the only one. [[Wimpy (restaurant)|Wimpy]] began operating in the United Kingdom in 1954, 20 years before McDonald's began operation in the country, and by 1970 it had expanded to over a thousand restaurants in 23 countries. On August 21, 1971, in [[Zaandam]], near [[Amsterdam]] in the Netherlands, [[Ahold]] opened its first European franchise. In the 1970s, McDonald's began to expand into Europe and Australia. In Asia, Japan saw the establishment of its own fast food chain in 1972: , an abbreviation of \"Mountain, Ocean, Sun\", which eventually became a direct competitor to McDonald's. All of its products, however, were variations on the burger adapted to the Asian world, including the teriyaki burger, takumi burger, and [[riceburger]]. In Hong Kong, [[Aji Ichiban]] competed with large chains before it spread quickly throughout Asia. One of the first hamburger [[vending machine]]s debuted in Amsterdam in 1941 under the brand \"[[FEBO]]\", its name derived from its original place of creation, the [[Ferdinand Bolstraat]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Castle (restaurant chain)",
        "text": "Royal Castle was a Miami, Florida-based hamburger restaurant chain known for its miniature hamburgers that were similar to White Castle's hamburgers, and its Birch Beer beverage, a version of root beer. It was founded in 1938 by William Singer, with an initial restaurant located at N.E. Second Avenue and 79th Street in Miami. Royal Castle eventually grew to 175 locations throughout Florida, Georgia, Ohio, and Louisiana, with the bulk of them in Miami. One Royal Castle still exists in Miami, at 2700 NW 79th Street."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "Drive through fast food was invented in this area, but so was the concept of the gourmet burger movement, giving birth to chains like In-N-Out Burger, with many variations of burgers including chili, multiple patties, avocado, special sauces, and Angus or wagyu beef. Common accompaniments include thick milkshakes in various flavors like mint, chocolate, peanut butter, vanilla, strawberry, and mango."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Tower Hamburgers",
        "text": "White Tower Hamburgers\n--History.\n----Lawsuit.\n----Peak and decline.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "White Castle (restaurant)",
        "text": "Walter (Walt) A. Anderson (1880\u20131963), a cook, had been running food stands in Wichita since 1916, when he opened his first diner in a converted streetcar. After a second and third location, he was looking to open a fourth location when he met Edgar Waldo \"Billy\" A. Ingram, an insurance and real-estate man, and together they started the White Castle chain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geri's Hamburgers",
        "text": "Geri's Hamburgers was a fast food restaurant chain in northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin, United States. Geri's started sometime in 1962 and was modeled largely after the early McDonald's style restaurants at the time. One of the original owners of Geri's was a former vice president for McDonald's. Geri's restaurants, at least in the early days, had little or no inside seating, and were geared towards fast take-out service. In fact the cartoon icon used by Geri's on its marquee was very similar to the \"Mr. Speedee\" used by McDonald's, and even closer to the later McDonald's characters such as Mayor McCheese, being in the form of a hamburger with eyes, and arms and legs coming from the sides and bottom of the bun. There were at least 13 Geri's restaurants by 1980. Red, blue and white were the main exterior colors, often in the form of tiles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "An original and indigenous rival to the big two U.S. giants was the quintessentially British fast-food chain Wimpy, originally known as Wimpy Bar (opened 1954 at the Lyon's Corner House in Coventry Street London), which served its hamburgers on a plate with British-style chips, accompanied by cutlery and delivered to the customer's table. In the late 1970s, to compete with McDonald's, Wimpy began to open American-style counter-service restaurants and the brand disappeared from many UK high streets when those restaurants were re-branded as Burger Kings between 1989 and 1990 by the then-owner of both brands, Grand Metropolitan. A management buyout in 1990 split the brands again and now Wimpy table-service restaurants can still be found in many town centres whilst new counter-service Wimpys are now often found at motorway service stations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oldest McDonald's restaurant",
        "text": "The McDonald brothers opened their first restaurant adjacent to the Monrovia Airport in 1937. It was a tiny octagonal building informally called The Airdrome. That octagonal building was later moved to 1398 North E Street in San Bernardino, California in 1940. It was originally a barbecue drive-in, but the brothers discovered that most of their profits came from hamburgers. In 1948, they closed their restaurant for three months, reopening it in December as a walk-up hamburger stand that sold hamburgers, potato chips, and orange juice; the following year, french fries and Coca-Cola were added to the menu. This simplified menu, and food preparation using assembly line principles, allowed them to sell hamburgers for 15\u00a0cents, or about half as much as at a sit-down restaurant. The restaurant was very successful, and the brothers started to franchise the concept in 1953."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Rosenberg",
        "text": "In the early 1960s, Rosenberg founded a fast food chain, Howdy Beefburgers (later Howdy Beef n' Burger), in Massachusetts, locating many of its restaurants beside Dunkin' Donuts shops so they could share common parking lots to compete with larger chains such as McDonald's for retail space and customer draw. Howdy Beefburgers was inspired by \"The Howdy Doody Show\" that had run on television from 1947 to 1960, and even adapted Howdy Doody as its mascot. Serving such products as hamburgers, French fries, fish sandwiches and New England clam chowder, the chain had restaurants in as many as 27 locations throughout New England before dissolving toward the end of the 1970s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gino's Hamburgers",
        "text": "The restaurant was known for hamburgers such as the Sirloiner, which was made from sirloin steak (and was originally a staple of Tops Drive Inn), the Jumbo Gino, which was very similar to the Whopper and the Gino Giant, which predated and later competed with the Big Mac. The company held the franchise for Kentucky Fried Chicken in the Mid-Atlantic states. The company's jingle, played during radio advertisements in the early years was \"Everybody goes to Gino's, 'cause Gino's is the place to go!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry's Hamburgers",
        "text": "Henry's Hamburgers is a former American fast-food restaurant chain of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. Only one franchise store remains today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger Chef",
        "text": "By 1972, its number of locations (1,200) was surpassed only by McDonald's (1,600). They offered a double burger, called the Big Shef, and later the quarter-pound (113 gram) hamburger, Super Shef. Subsequently, they added the Works Bar, where customers added their own toppings to hamburgers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caf\u00e9 Achteck",
        "text": "There are now only about a dozen remaining, as well as two much larger rectangular examples. The large rectangular example at Schlesisches Tor U-Bahn station has been repurposed as a hamburger bar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bob's Big Boy",
        "text": "The original Bob's Big Boy (initially called Bob's Pantry) was the 10-stool hamburger stand in Glendale, California, which founder Bob Wian purchased in 1936 and expanded into a drive-in restaurant. It eventually outgrew itself, and was replaced by a larger Bob's restaurant similar in style to the Burbank location. The larger restaurant opened in 1956 and could accommodate 90 customers inside seated in booths and at the counter, along with a separate area to serve additional take-out patrons, while the drive-in could service 55 cars at a time. The building was designed by architects Wayne McAllister and William C. Wagner, and was one of McAllister's last designs before resigning from architecture in 1956. This location was known as \"Bob's #1\" and remained as a Bob's until it was closed and demolished in 1989."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Some restaurants offer elaborate hamburgers using expensive cuts of meat and various cheeses, toppings, and sauces. One example is the Bobby's Burger Palace chain founded by well-known chef and Food Network star Bobby Flay."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Another alleged inventor of the hamburger is the cook Fletcher Davis (better known as \"Old Dave\"), who claimed to have had the idea of putting ground beef between two pieces of Texas Toast when one of his customers was in too much of a hurry to sit down for a meal. The customer walked away with his Hamburger Steak and seemed so content that Old Dave offered his new carryout meal as a staple menu item at the end of 1880 in [[Athens, Texas]]. Fletcher had a stall with his wife at the [[Louisiana Purchase Exposition|St. Louis World's Fair]] of 1904. Texan journalist [[Frank X. Tolbert]] mentions a salesman named Fletcher Davis who served hamburgers in a caf\u00e9 at 115 Tyler Street in Athens during the late 1880s. The locals claim that Davis was selling beef sandwiches during that time, without having a clear name for his invention. During the 1980s, the [[Dairy Queen]] [[ice cream]] chain filmed a documentary about the birthplace of the hamburger featuring Davis' story. The story of \"Old Dave's Hamburger Sandwich\" is also found mentioned in Ronald L. McDonald's book \"The Complete Hamburger\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did the hamburger first come to exist?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The hamburger first appeared in the 19th or early 20th century; the invention of hamburgers is commonly attributed to various people, including Charlie Nagreen, Frank and Charles Menches, Oscar Weber Bilby, Fletcher Davis, or Louis Lassen. The McDonald brothers opened their first restaurant adjacent to the Monrovia Airport in 1937."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the hamburger face any criticism nowadays?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Hamburgers are often served in fast food restaurants, and as such, fast food restaurants have come under criticism over concerns ranging from claimed negative health effects, alleged animal cruelty, cases of worker exploitation, and claims of cultural degradation via shifts in people's eating patterns away from traditional foods."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are hamburger establishments doing to counteract the criticisms?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "To combat criticism, fast-food restaurants are starting to offer more health-friendly menu items. In addition to health critics, there are suggestions for the fast-food industry to become more eco-friendly, with the chains responding by reducing packaging waste."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What restaurant chain lead the way in developing the fast food style of restaurant?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The American company White Castle, founded by Billy Ingram and Walter Anderson in Wichita, Kansas in 1921, is generally credited with opening the second fast food outlet and first hamburger chain, selling hamburgers for five cents each."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Besides White Castle and McDonald's what are other popular hamburger establishments?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "While I could not find a list of popular restaurants, Burger King reported it had 17,796 outlets in 100 countries.",
      "Burger King is another well known hamburger chain."
    ],
    "topic": "History of the hamburger",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Burger King:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Burger King"
        ],
        "ctx": "As of December 31, 2018, Burger King reported it had 17,796 outlets in 100 countries. Of these, nearly half are located in the United States, and 99.7% are privately owned and operated, with its new owners moving to an almost entirely franchised model in 2013. Burger King has historically used several variations of franchising to expand its operations. The manner in which the company licenses its franchisees varies depending on the region, with some regional franchises, known as master franchises, responsible for selling franchise sub-licenses on the company's behalf. Burger King's relationship with its franchises has not always been harmonious. Occasional spats between the two have caused numerous issues, and in several instances, the company's and its licensees' relations have degenerated into precedent-setting court cases. Burger King's Australian franchise Hungry Jack's is the only franchise to operate under a different name, due to a trademark dispute and a series of legal cases between the two."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Fast food:37",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Fast food",
          "Advertising"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Council of Better Business Bureaus started the Children's Food and Beverage Advertising Initiative in 2006 which asked fast food companies to pledge to \"advertise only more healthful products to children\" with McDonald's and Burger King signing on. However, despite a slight increase in healthful food advertising, the effectiveness of this initiative has been disputed by studies that reveal that \"children couldn't remember or identify healthful foods in the ads, and that 81 percent of the 99 3 to 7 year olds in that study recalled French fries\" even though there were no French fries in the advertisement."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "History of the hamburger\n--Beginning.\n----Hamburg and its port.\n----Hamburg steak.\n--Invention.\n----North America.\n----Controversial origins.\n----Ingredients.\n--Commercialization.\n----White Castle System.\n----McDonald's era.\n----Variants.\n--Culinary history.\n--Global phenomenon.\n--Present day.\n----Nutritional controversies.\n----Media.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The hamburger's international popularity demonstrates the larger globalization of food that also includes the rise in global popularity of other national dishes, including the Italian pizza, Chinese fried rice and Japanese sushi. The hamburger has spread from continent to continent perhaps because it matches familiar elements in different culinary cultures. This global culinary culture has been produced, in part, by the concept of selling processed food, first launched in the 1920s by the White Castle restaurant chain and its visionary Edgar Waldo \"Billy\" Ingram and then refined by McDonald's in the 1940s. This global expansion provides economic points of comparison like the Big Mac Index, by which one can compare the purchasing power of different countries where the Big Mac hamburger is sold."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "Condiments may be added to the hamburger or offered separately on the side. The three most common condiments are mustard, mayonnaise, and ketchup. However, salad dressings and barbecue sauce are also popular. McDonald's uses their own \"Big Mac sauce\" on their signature Big Mac hamburger. Heinz 57 sauce is popular among burger enthusiasts."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Among the vegetables that come with the hamburger, the first described in the literature on its history is the onion, usually finely sliced in rings. Thus, the hamburger came to continue the long American tradition of sandwiches featuring some kind of plant product, whether that be lettuce (as in the case of the [[BLT sandwich]]), [[sauerkraut]] (as on the [[reuben sandwich|reuben]]), [[coleslaw]], or [[pickled cucumber|pickles]]. It is possible that after the creation of the hamburger by uniting the steak with the bread, vegetables were included to give the finished product a more \"natural\" appearance and taste. All of these condiments were incorporated into the classical image of the hamburger during its golden age, the 1940s. In some cases, the hamburger is prepared differently and distinctly to add regional flavor, as in the case of [[Tex-Mex]] style burgers, which are served with a side of [[chili con carne]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Hamburg steak, once served between two slices of bread, began to be prepared with a variety of different ingredients that were included either in the sandwich itself or as a side dish accompanying it on a plate. One of these accompaniments, which is still common with today's burger, is [[ketchup]], a type of [[tomato sauce]] with a blend of [[flavor]]s between [[sweet]] and [[sour]] that was first produced commercially in 1869 by entrepreneur and chef [[Henry John Heinz]] in [[Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania]]. His company was originally called the \"Anchor Pickle and Vinegar Works\", but in 1888 it was renamed [[H. J. Heinz Company|F. & J. Heinz]]. The use of ketchup by American consumers grew quickly after this date, and it was not long before hamburgers were almost universally accompanied by ketchup by the end of the nineteenth and into the early 20th century. [[Mustard (condiment)|Mustard]] is a significantly older [[condiment]], as it is thought that the [[ancient Rome|ancient Romans]] used a dressing made with non-fermented grapes and [[grape seed]]s known as \"mustum ardens\". Another ingredient incorporated into the burger, [[mayonnaise]], appears to have been present in 18th century France, after the naval victory of [[Louis-Fran\u00e7ois-Armand du Plessis de Richelieu]] in the port of [[Mah\u00f3n]] in [[Menorca]] around 1756."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In the 20th century, the hamburger has appeared as the central topic in some books on the literature of culinary topics. An example of this is \"[[Fast Food Nation|Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal]]\", published by [[investigative journalist]] [[Eric Schlosser]] in 2001, that examines the local and global influence of the American fast food industry. An example of a modern variation of the hamburger is the so-called \"gourmet burger\", which is made by [[haute cuisine]] chefs with patties that include [[luxury good|luxury]] ingredients. One of the first such burgers was cooked in New York City by chef [[Daniel Boulud]] in June 2001, and subsequently sold for US$29 with [[loin]], ribs Bres, canned [[black truffle]]s, and a [[mirepoix (cuisine)|mirepoix]] of vegetables. The [[Manhattan]] restaurant \"Old Homestead\", one of the oldest [[steakhouse]]s in the country, offers a $44 hamburger with beef-bred Japanese [[wagy\u016b]]. An haute cuisine burger created by [[Richard Blais]], a student of [[Ferran Adri\u00e0]], was introduced in 2004 at a restaurant in [[Atlanta]], where it is served with a crystal chain and a silk [[ribbon]]. In response to the haute cuisine take on the hamburger, others have created more humble versions. Alberto Chicote of [[Madrid]] makes homemade hamburgers in his kitchen, using [[Iberia]]n pork along with homemade [[ketchup]] and [[mustard (condiment)|mustard]]. In 1993, Max Schondor created a hamburger made of soy. In a 2005 episode of [[SpongeBob SquarePants]], the adventurous title character visits [[Mr. Krabs]]'s popular [[Krabby Patty]] burgers, where hamburgers figure prominently in the story."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Considerable evidence suggests that either the United States or Germany (the city of Hamburg) was the first country where two slices of bread and a ground beef steak were combined into a \"hamburger sandwich\" and sold. There is some controversy over the origin of the hamburger because its two basic ingredients, bread and beef, had been prepared and consumed separately for many years in different countries before their combination. Shortly after its creation, the hamburger quickly included all of its currently typically characteristic trimmings, including onions, lettuce, and sliced pickles."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Walter Anderson contributed a number of novel ideas to White Castle during its early years, including the creation of a special [[spatula]] and a special bread for the burgers. In 1949, an employee named Earl Howell calculated the amount of time that it took to break hamburgers apart in a presentable fashion, eventually leading him to create the [[perforated]] burger. By 1951, White Castle had incorporated five perforations into its burgers. Before Anderson, hamburgers were cooked on a grill for an indefinite period of time and minced meat balls were \"crushed\" into conventional [[sliced bread|slices of bread]], like a sandwich. The meat was frozen and hamburgers came to be cooked from frozen, instead of using fresh meat. White Castle revolutionized the burger-making process by regularizing the finished products and using hygienic preparation techniques that were in clear view of the customers."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "At the same time the hamburger was growing in popularity around the world, it took on a variety of local features in different locations. Such examples of this include ground meat made from local animals, such as [[kangaroo]]s in Australia, or [[Tex-Mex]]-style dishes like [[chilli con carne]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Contemporary American society also witnessed the creation of new fast foods that originated from the traditional cuisine of various ethnic groups from around the world. For example, [[German Americans|German immigrant]] Charles Feltman invented the [[hot dog]] in 1867 in his stall in [[Coney Island]], New York by pairing a [[Hot dog|frankfurter]] with a bread bun. Imitators such as Harry Magley and Charles Stevens soon began selling hot dogs at [[New York Yankees|New York Polo Grounds]] baseball games. Similarly, [[Italian Americans|Italian immigrants]] sold [[ice cream]] from vending carts in the streets or pasta at their restaurants. [[Chinese Americans|Chinese immigrants]] initially opened restaurants to cater to their fellow Chinese-Americans, but they gradually became accepted by the American clientele, sometimes resulting in truly Chinese-American cuisine such as [[chop suey]]. In this diverse world of ethnic foods, the hamburger was able to rise to mainstream popularity and become a national food of the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "During the first half of the 19th century, most European emigrants to the New World embarked from Hamburg, and New York City was their most common destination. Restaurants in New York offered \"Hamburg-style American fillet\", or even \"beefsteak \u00e0 la Hambourgeoise\". Early American preparations of minced beef were therefore made to fit the tastes of European immigrants, evoking memories of the port of Hamburg and the world they left behind."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Prior to the disputed invention of the hamburger in the United States, similar foods already existed in the culinary tradition of Europe. The Apicius cookbook, a collection of ancient Roman recipes that may date to the early 4th century, details a preparation of beef called \"isicia omentata\"; served as a baked patty in which beef is mixed with pine kernels, black and green peppercorns, and white wine, \"isicia omentata\" may be the earliest precursor to the hamburger."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:White Castle Building No. 8.jpg|250px|thumb|The 1936 [[White Castle Building No. 8]] in [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]]]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "After various controversies in the 20th century, including a nutritional controversy in the late 1990s, the burger is now readily identified with the United States, and a particular style of cuisine, namely fast food. Along with fried chicken and apple pie, the hamburger has become a culinary icon in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "American-style pickles, now a common addition to hamburgers and sandwiches, were brought by Polish Jews, and Austro-Hungarian Jews brought a recipe for almond horns that now is a common regional cookie, diverting from the original recipe in dipping the ends in dark chocolate."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The modern hamburger was developed in the United States, but by the end of World War II, around the middle of the 20th century, it began to spread to other countries as fast food became [[globalization|globalized]]. The main cause of this gradual globalization was the successes of the large [[restaurant chain]]s. Their desires to expand their businesses and increase their profits resulted in them creating [[Chain store|franchises]] around the world. [[McDonald's]] was among the first of the burger chains to take the global establishment of its brand seriously, but it was not the only one. [[Wimpy (restaurant)|Wimpy]] began operating in the United Kingdom in 1954, 20 years before McDonald's began operation in the country, and by 1970 it had expanded to over a thousand restaurants in 23 countries. On August 21, 1971, in [[Zaandam]], near [[Amsterdam]] in the Netherlands, [[Ahold]] opened its first European franchise. In the 1970s, McDonald's began to expand into Europe and Australia. In Asia, Japan saw the establishment of its own fast food chain in 1972: , an abbreviation of \"Mountain, Ocean, Sun\", which eventually became a direct competitor to McDonald's. All of its products, however, were variations on the burger adapted to the Asian world, including the teriyaki burger, takumi burger, and [[riceburger]]. In Hong Kong, [[Aji Ichiban]] competed with large chains before it spread quickly throughout Asia. One of the first hamburger [[vending machine]]s debuted in Amsterdam in 1941 under the brand \"[[FEBO]]\", its name derived from its original place of creation, the [[Ferdinand Bolstraat]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:Taiwan McDonald's chicken rice burger 20050218.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Vietnamese [[riceburger]] is a product of the globalization of the hamburger.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1890\u20131945)",
        "text": "1916 Hamburger bun\n* A hamburger bun is a bread roll sliced horizontally containing a hamburger, usually a patty consisting of ground meat that also typically contains lettuce, bacon, tomato, onion, pickles, cheese and condiments such as mustard, mayonnaise, ketchup and relish. The hamburger bun was invented in 1916 by a fry cook named Walter Anderson, who co-founded White Castle in 1921."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In 2004, [[Morgan Spurlock]] addressed the obsessive consumption of hamburgers by some Americans by directing and starring in the documentary film \"[[Super Size Me]]\". In the film, he himself eats only [[McDonald's]] food for an entire month and documents how his health changes. That same year saw the premiere of \"[[Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle]]\", a film in which [[White Castle (restaurant)|White Castle restaurants]] played a vital part. Two years later, in 2006, the film \"[[Fast Food Nation (film)|Fast Food Nation]]\" presented a fictional representation of the intrigues and machinations of the [[meat industry]] on the border between Mexico and the United States. It is largely based on the 2001 book \"[[Fast Food Nation|Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal]]\".\n* [[Food history]]\n* [[Hamburger]]\n* [[History of the hamburger in the United States]]\n* [[List of hamburgers]]\n* Kominicki, JL (April 29, 1990) \"Ground for glory\" (second page) \"[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|European Stars and Stripes]]\". Darmstadt, Germany. Sunday Magazine, 6\u20137. via [[newspaperarchive.com]]\u00a0[[File:Open Access logo PLoS.svg|link=Open access|frameless|14x14px]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "Other popular toppings include bacon, avocado or guacamole, sliced saut\u00e9ed mushrooms, sliced sauce and/or chili (usually without beans). Somewhat less common toppings include fried egg, scrambled egg, feta cheese, salsa, pineapple, Jalape\u00f1os and other varieties of chile peppers, anchovies, slices of ham or bologna, pastrami, or teriyaki-seasoned beef, tartar sauce, french fries, onion rings, or potato chips."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Fictional characters related to the hamburger, such as the [[Ronald McDonald]] [[clown]] character designed by [[Willard Scott]] who first appeared on television in 1963, soon became a recognizable part of [[American culture]]. The burger also made appearances in [[underground comix]] such as [[Zap Comix#2]] during the late 1960s, in which cartoonist [[Robert Crumb]] designed a character called \"Hamburger Hi-Jinx\". By the end of the decade, [[pop art]] was including the hamburger as an artistic element, appearing in the works of [[Andy Warhol]] (\"Dual Hamburger\"), [[Claes Oldenburg]] (\"Floor Burger\"), [[Mel Ramos]] (\"Vinaburger\", 1965), and more recently, [[David LaChapelle]] (\"Death by Hamburger\", 2002)."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "History of the hamburger in the United States\n--Hamburger bun.\n----U.S. hamburger restaurants.\n--Variations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The exact origin of the hamburger may never be known with any certainty. Most historians believe that it was invented by a cook who placed a Hamburg steak between two slices of bread in a small town in Texas, and others credit the founder of White Castle for developing the \"Hamburger Sandwich.\" Records from that time are scarce, however."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "The origin of the hamburger is unclear, though \"hamburger steak sandwiches\" have been advertised in U.S. newspapers from New York to Hawaii since at least the 1890s. The invention of hamburgers is commonly attributed to various people, including Charlie Nagreen, Frank and Charles Menches, Oscar Weber Bilby, Fletcher Davis, or Louis Lassen. White Castle traces the origin of the hamburger to Hamburg, Germany with its invention by Otto Kuase. Some have pointed to a recipe for \u201cHamburgh sausages\u201d on toasted bread, which was published in \u201cThe Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy\u201d by Hannah Glasse in 1747. However, hamburgers gained national recognition at the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair when the \"New York Tribune\" referred to the hamburger as \"the innovation of a food vendor on the pike\". No conclusive argument has ever ended the dispute over invention. An article from ABC News sums up: \"One problem is that there is little written history. Another issue is that the spread of the burger happened largely at the World's Fair, from tiny vendors that came and went in an instant. And it is entirely possible that more than one person came up with the idea at the same time in different parts of the country.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "During the [[Cold War]], the hamburger became a [[national symbol]] of the United States. As private outdoor social events, often held in [[backyard]]s and featuring a [[barbecue]], became more widespread during the mid-1950s, the hamburger gained a new culinary and social relevance in the country. By the late 1960s, hamburgers began to grow in size as various burger chains competed with each other, resulting in Burger King launching the [[Whopper]] and [[McDonald's]] launching the [[Quarter Pounder]]. As the race between the major chains grew more intense, the prices of their burgers increased, and the days when a hamburger could be bought for just a few cents were numbered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Hamburger\n--Etymology and terminology.\n--History.\n----Claims of invention.\n------Louis Lassen.\n------Charlie Nagreen.\n------Otto Kuase.\n------Oscar Weber Bilby.\n------Frank and Charles Menches.\n------Fletcher Davis.\n------Other hamburger-steak claims.\n--Today.\n----Safety.\n--Variations.\n----Other meats.\n----Veggie burgers.\n----Steak burgers.\n----United States and Canada.\n----France.\n----Mexico.\n----United Kingdom and Ireland.\n----Australia and New Zealand.\n----China.\n----Japan.\n----Denmark.\n----Other countries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:\u05d4\u05de\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d2\u05e8_\u05d8\u05d1\u05e2\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A [[vegan]] version of the hamburger]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburg",
        "text": "The American hamburger may have developed from Hamburg's \"Frikadeller\": a pan-fried patty (usually larger and thicker than its American counterpart) made from a mixture of ground beef, soaked stale bread, egg, chopped onion, salt and pepper, usually served with potatoes and vegetables like any other piece of meat, not usually on a bun. The Oxford Dictionary defined a \"Hamburger steak\" in 1802: a sometimes-smoked and -salted piece of meat, that, according to some sources, came from Hamburg to America. The name and food, \"hamburger\", has entered all English-speaking countries, and derivative words in non-English speaking countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Louis' Lunch",
        "text": "Many others claim to be the creator of the hamburger, including Charlie Nagreen, brothers Frank and Charles Menches, Oscar Weber Bilby, and Fletcher Davis. White Castle traces the origin of the hamburger to Hamburg, Germany, with its invention by Otto Kuase. However, it gained national recognition at the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair when the \"New-York Tribune\" namelessly attributed the hamburger as \"the innovation of a food vendor on the pike.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Burgeranch",
        "text": "One scholar connected the rise of Burgerranch, along with Burger King and McDonalds, to the Americanization of Israeli society."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "The hamburger bun was invented in 1916 by a fry cook named Walter Anderson, who co-founded White Castle in 1921."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Many recipes and dishes traveled along with transatlantic immigrants to their destinations in the New World. Some authors question whether the [[Hamburg America Line]] was part of this, arguing that the hamburger was created to meet needs that arose amongst immigrants already in the New World. Others, however, support the thesis that the Hamburg America Line brought the first Hamburger steaks from Europe to the Americas. The hamburger as it is known today has multiple invention claims ranging between 1885 and 1904, but it is clearly the product of the early 20th century. During the following 100 years, the hamburger spread throughout the world as a result of the emerging concept of fast food and a new business model: the [[Chain store|franchise]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Between 1871 and 1884, \"Hamburg Beefsteak\" was on the \"Breakfast and Supper Menu\" of the Clipper Restaurant at 311/313 Pacific Street in San Fernando, California. It cost 10 cents\u2014the same price as mutton chops, pig's feet in batter, and stewed veal. It was not, however, on the dinner menu. Only \"Pig's Head\", \"Calf Tongue\", and \"Stewed Kidneys\" were listed. Another claim ties the hamburger to Summit County, New York or Ohio. Summit County, Ohio exists, but Summit County, New York does not.\n* 1921: White Castle, Wichita, Kansas. Due to widely anti-German sentiment in the U.S. during World War I, an alternative name for hamburgers was Salisbury steak. Following the war, hamburgers became unpopular until the White Castle restaurant chain marketed and sold large numbers of small square hamburgers, known as \"sliders\". They started to create five holes in each patty, which help them cook evenly and eliminate the need to flip the burger. In 1995 White Castle began selling frozen hamburgers in convenience stores and vending machines.\n* 1923: Kewpee Hamburgers, or Kewpee Hotels, Flint, Michigan. Kewpee was the second hamburger chain and peaked at 400 locations before World War II. Many of these were licensed but not strictly franchised. Many closed during WWII. Between 1955 and 1967, another wave closed or caused changes of name. In 1967 the Kewpee licensor moved the company to a franchise system. Currently only five locations exist.\n* 1926: White Tower Hamburgers\n* 1927: Little Tavern\n* 1930s: White Castle (II; run by Henry Cassada)\n* 1931: Krystal (restaurant)\n* 1936: Big Boy. In 1937, Bob Wian created the double deck hamburger at his hamburger stand in Glendale California. Big Boy would become the name of the hamburger, the mascot and the restaurants. Big Boy expanded nationally through regional franchising and subfranchising. Primarily operating as drive-in restaurants in the 1950s, interior dining gradually replaced curb service by the early 1970s. Many franchises have closed or operate independently, but at the remaining American restaurants, the Big Boy double deck hamburger remains the signature item.\n* 1940: McDonald's restaurant, San Bernardino, California, was opened by Richard and Maurice McDonald. Their introduction of the \"Speedee Service System\" in 1948 established the principles of the modern fast-food restaurant. The McDonald brothers began franchising in 1953. In 1961, Ray Kroc (the supplier of their multi-mixer milkshake machines) purchased the company from the brothers for $2.7 million and a 1.9% royalty."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Ingram soon realized that the word \"burger\" evoked connotations of [[circus]] performances at livestock markets and greasy pieces of meat eaten in the poorest districts of the city in the collective mind of the American public. He tried to change those connotations from White Castle's earliest days. At the same time, he became known to some as the [[Henry Ford]] of the hamburger, while inventing a restaurant concept he called the \"White Castle System\", which helped the hamburger achieve fame. Between 1923 and 1931, the \"White Castle System\" established almost a hundred restaurants in cities throughout the [[Midwestern United States]]. In order to raise awareness among White Castle employees, a [[newsletter]] entitled \"The hot hamburger\" was circulated throughout the company, which challenged the employees to improve the sale of the burgers with a simple idea: to be able to prepare burgers rapidly so anyone could purchase and eat them anytime and anywhere. Instead of waiting for half an hour to be served at a traditional restaurant, the White Castle System provided rapid service and a menu centered around the hamburger. At the time, the hamburger was typically served with coffee. [[Upton Sinclair]]'s \"[[The Jungle]]\" had already caused public outrage over the safety of processed meat, so by the 1920s, the general public had come to expect a clean and hygienic hamburger. In addition to offering clean and safe food, White Castle offered regularity and standardization, ensuring that each patty was served in the same manner in each restaurant. At the time, this was an entirely novel idea that would revolutionize the sale of food itself with a style that would come to be known as fast food. During its early years, White Castle emphasized providing quality coffee, and collaborated with universities to publish studies on the nutritional quality of their hamburgers."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Minced meat was a delicacy in medieval cuisine, red meat usually being restricted to the higher classes. Very little mincing was done by medieval butchers or recorded in the cookbooks of the time, perhaps because it was not part of the sausage-making process that preserves meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "The following restaurants have either played a part in the creation of the hamburger sandwich, developed a unique cooking method, or were the first to sell them nationwide:\n* Louis' Lunch 1895, New Haven, Connecticut. Louis' Lunch has been selling steak and hamburger sandwiches since 1895, when Louis Lassen opened his lunch wagon. This small establishment, which advertises itself as the oldest hamburger restaurant in the U.S., is credited by some with having invented the classic American hamburger when Louis sandwiched a ground steak patty between two pieces of white toast for a busy office worker in 1900. Louis' Lunch flame broils the hamburgers in the original 1898 Bridge & Beach vertical cast iron gas stoves using locally developed steel wire gridirons to hold the hamburgers in place during cooking (U.S. Patent #2,148,879). In 1974, \"The New York Times\" published a story about Louis' Lunch claiming to have invented the hamburger. The U.S. Library of Congress' American Folklife Center Local Legacies Project website credits Louis' Lunch as the maker of America's first hamburger and steak sandwich. The hamburger is still served today on two pieces of toast and not a bun.\n* Dyer's Burgers, 1912, Memphis, Tennessee, deep-fried burgers using a cast-iron skillet.\n* White Castle, 1921, Wichita, Kansas. Following the war, hamburgers became unpopular until the White Castle restaurant chain marketed and sold large numbers of small two-and-a-half-inch square hamburgers. They started to punch five holes in each patty, which helps them cook evenly and eliminates the need to flip the burgers. Their burger first sold for five cents. White Castle holds a U.S trademark on the word \"slyders.\" The White Castle building was modeled after the water tower building in Chicago, with the turrets and fortress-like walls. White Castle was the first to sell their hamburgers in grocery stores and vending machines. They also created the industrial-strength spatula, and were the first to mass-produce the paper hat. Today, there are more than 400 White Castle restaurants around the country, selling over 550 million hamburgers per year.\n*The Rite Spot, circa 1925, Pasadena, California. Lionel Sternberger claims to have invented the cheeseburger.\n* Kaelin's Restaurant, 1934, Louisville, Kentucky. This Kentucky restaurant claims to have invented the cheeseburger in 1934.\n* Humpty Dumpty Drive-In, 1935, Denver, Colorado. A trademark for the name \"cheeseburger\" was awarded to Louis Ballast of the Humpty Dumpty Drive-In in 1935.\n* Jack\u2019s Lunch, 1930s, Middletown, Connecticut. The steamed cheeseburger is believed to have been invented at this restaurant operated by Jack Fitzgerald.\n* Bob's Pantry (Bob's Big Boy), 1937, Glendale, California. Bob Wian invented the double deck cheeseburger. The Big Boy double deck hamburger lent its name to his restaurant chain."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[Category:Hamburgers (food)]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Many different variants of the hamburger have been created over the years, some of which have become very popular. Much of this diversity has been the product of other restaurant chains that have tried to reproduce the success of McDonald's and White Castle, while others served to influence McDonald's. An example of a restaurant that influenced McDonald's and its imitators is [[Big Boy (restaurant)|Big Boy]], which was first opened in 1936 by [[Bob Wian]] in [[Glendale, California]], and became known in that locale as [[Bob's Big Boy]]. It was at this restaurant that a major hamburger variant, the double deck cheeseburger, with two beef patties, was first made. Wian's creation was distinctively served by Big Boy restaurants with the bun sliced twice, the center slice\u2014known as the club section\u2014separating the two patties. The chain also popularized the drive-in restaurant format, taken and simplified by McDonald's type fast food operators. By the 1960s, Big Boy had expanded throughout the United States and Canada. Despite the benefits it provided to Wian, the chain was sold along with the rights to their signature Big Boy hamburger to the [[Marriott Corporation]] in 1967. This same year McDonald's franchisee Jim Delligatti, created an imitation of the Big Boy \u2014 the Big Mac. An example of the many McDonald's and White Castle imitators is [[Kewpee Hamburgers]], a fast-food chain founded in 1923 in [[Flint, Michigan]], by Samuel V. Blair as \"[[Kewpee|Kewpee Hotel Hamburgs]].\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[Category:History of food and drink]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "An example of the popularity and identification that the burger enjoyed among the American public was the name of the [[Battle of Hamburger Hill]], which occurred in May 1969 during the [[Vietnam War]]. Its name was inspired by the number of American and [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] casualties, which made the scene resembles a \"butcher\". The hamburger was also the inspiration of [[Star Wars]] creator [[George Lucas]]'s design for the [[Millennium Falcon]] ship. Hamburgers also appear in computer games, as in the case of [[BurgerTime]], an [[arcade game|arcade-style game]] created in 1982 by [[Data East|Data East Corporation]]. The hamburger also appears prominently on [[Television in the United States|American television]] shows such as \"[[American Eats]]\" and \"[[Man v. Food]]\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "According to White Castle, Otto Kuase was the inventor of the hamburger. In 1891, he created a beef patty cooked in butter and topped with a fried egg. German sailors would later omit the fried egg."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[French fries]] are an invention of the [[Low Countries]], and Belgian historian Jo Gerard mentions that they originated around 1680 in both Belgium and the [[Spanish Netherlands]], specifically in the area of \"the [[Meuse (river)|Meuse valley]] between [[Dinant]] and [[Li\u00e8ge]]\". The people of this region used to prepare meals with small amounts of [[fried fish]], but when the river froze over and fishing became impossible, they would cut up potatoes and fry them in [[animal fat|animal oil]]. French fries were introduced as a [[snack]] in American caf\u00e9s during the early 19th century, but they did not become popular until large fast food companies such as [[McDonald's]] and [[Burger King]] incorporated them into their menus during the mid-20th century. The improvements in [[frozen food|potato freezing]] technology made by [[J.R. Simplot]] of [[Idaho City]] in 1953, made the large scale production of French fries possible. Before the potatoes were frozen, however, they had still lost some of their flavor during frying, but new processes such as a further improved Simplot invention avoided this inconvenience by 1967, largely thanks to the use of a mixture of cow [[tallow]] and [[soybean oil]]. This allowed Simplot and McDonald's founder [[Ray Kroc]] to collaborate, resulting in ready-peeled potatoes from Simplot's farms being delivered directly to McDonald's kitchens, where they were fried and served to customers. Initially, however, there were safety concerns raised over some fries and the kitchens in which they were prepared, leading some companies, such as [[White Castle (restaurant)|White Castle]], to remove them from their menus during the 1950s."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Castle (restaurant)",
        "text": "Anderson is credited with the invention of the hamburger bun as well as \"the kitchen as assembly line, and the cook as infinitely replaceable technician,\" hence giving rise to the modern fast-food phenomenon. Due to White Castle's innovation of having chain-wide standardized methods, customers could be sure that they would receive the same product and service in every White Castle restaurant."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The hamburger first appeared in the 19th or early 20th century. The modern hamburger was a product of the culinary needs of a society rapidly changing due to industrialization and the emergence of the working class and the middle class with the resulting demand for mass-produced, affordable food that could be consumed outside of the home."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[Category:History of the hamburger| ]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "In Mexico, burgers (called \"hamburguesas\") are served with ham and slices of American cheese fried on top of the meat patty. The toppings include avocado, jalape\u00f1o slices, shredded lettuce, onion and tomato. The bun has mayonnaise, ketchup and mustard. Bacon may also be added, which can be fried or grilled along with the meat patty. A slice of pineapple may be added to a hamburger for a \"Hawaiian hamburger\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The company began to expand at a much faster rate when 52-year-old ice cream machinery salesman [[Ray Kroc]] took over as its chief executive. Kroc was the initiator of both McDonald's expansion across the United States and the definitive standardization of its burgers. He was not alone, however, as some of his co-workers were also very productive and innovative. McDonald's executive and [[food scientist]] [[Herb Peterson]] invented the [[McMuffin]] in 1972 and also the now famous greeting, \"May I have your order, please?\". In another key development, [[Jim Delligatti]] of the [[Pittsburgh]] franchise invented the [[Big Mac]] in 1967. The McDonald's successful expansion was mainly due to its use of the franchise system, an innovation borrowed from a sewing machine manufacturer, the [[Singer Corporation]]. Singer had developed it during the late 19th century, and it was so successful that it was soon adopted by its competitors. Nowadays, McDonald's even has its own university for training its staff: [[Hamburger University]], located in [[Oak Brook, Illinois]]. Graduates receive a degree entitled \"bachelor of hamburgerology with a minor in French fries\". As McDonald's expanded into other countries, it encountered more opposition and general difficulties, as was the case in 1996 when it opened a restaurant in New Delhi amid outcry from Indian leaders. In 1995, the country with the most McDonald's restaurants (aside from the United States) was Japan, followed by Canada and Germany, while the company itself had restaurants in more than 100 countries. Throughout its history, the company has become a symbol of [[globalization]] and [[Western culture]], sometimes resulting in it being the subject of [[anger]] and protests in various parts of the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:Big Mac hamburger - Japan (1).jpg|300px|thumb|The [[Big Mac]] popularized an evolution in the image of the hamburger.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:Find the differences (painting by Peter Klashorst).jpg|350px|thumb|In the 1960s, McDonald's advertised the ability of a customer to eat the same burger anywhere in the United States, and a few decades later it made the same feat possible in much of the world.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In the same year that Charlie Nagreen claimed to have developed his \"Hamburger Charlie\", the brothers and street cooks Frank and Charles Menches of [[Akron, Ohio]], claimed to have sold a ground beef [[sandwich]] at the [[Erie County Fair]]. They assert that the name of the hamburger was derived from the town [[Hamburg (town), New York|Hamburg]], New York, in [[Erie County, New York|Erie County]], the first place in which it had been sold. This statement has been very poorly documented or substantiated, and in the case of an oral tradition, it is not without its contradictions. Its famous description of the [[secret ingredient]]s used in the recipes, such as coffee or [[brown sugar]], is primitive."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "A hamburger (or burger) is a sandwich that consists of a cooked ground meat patty, usually beef, placed between halves of a sliced bun or between slices of bread or toast. Hamburgers are often served with various condiments, such as dill relish (condiment), mayonnaise, and other options including lettuce, tomato, onion, pickles, and cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "Standard toppings on hamburgers may vary depending upon location, particularly at restaurants that are not national or regional franchises. A \"Texas burger\" uses mustard as the only sauce, and comes with or without vegetables, jalapeno slices, and cheese. In New Mexico and parts of the Southwest, green chile burgers are very common. In the Upper Midwest, particularly Wisconsin, burgers are often made with a buttered bun, butter as one of the ingredients of the patty, or with a pat of butter on top of the burger patty. This is called a \"Butter Burger\". In the Carolinas, a Carolina-style hamburger \"with everything\" may be served with cheese, chili, onions, mustard, and coleslaw. National hamburger chain Wendy's sells a \"Carolina Classic\" burger with these toppings in these areas. In Hawaii, hamburgers are often topped with teriyaki sauce, derived from the Japanese-American culture, and locally grown pineapple. In areas of the Midwest and East Coast, a hamburger served with lettuce, tomato, and onion is called a \"California burger\". This usage is sufficiently widespread to appear on the menus of Dairy Queen. In the Western U.S., a \"California\" burger often denotes a cheeseburger with guacamole and bacon added. Pastrami burgers are particularly popular in Salt Lake City, Utah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "A high-quality hamburger patty is made entirely of ground (minced) beef and seasonings; these may be described as \"all-beef hamburger\" or \"all-beef patties\" to distinguish them from inexpensive hamburgers made with cost-savers like added flour, textured vegetable protein, ammonia treated defatted beef trimmings (which the company Beef Products Inc, calls \"lean finely textured beef\"), advanced meat recovery, or other fillers. In the 1930s ground liver was sometimes added. Some cooks prepare their patties with binders like eggs or breadcrumbs. Seasonings may include salt and pepper and others like as parsley, onions, soy sauce, Thousand Island dressing, onion soup mix, or Worcestershire sauce. Many name brand seasoned salt products are also used."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[Category:American sandwiches]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Another development facilitating the invention and popularization of the proto-hamburger was the increased production of beef through livestock intensification. By the late 19th century, an increasing amount of land was being devoted to cattle and a growing number of people being employed as [[cowboy]]s, resulting in the United States becoming one of the world's largest producers and consumers of beef. The 1880s were declared \"The Golden Age of Beef\", during which the abundance of rural beef production made vital its transportation by rail from agricultural to urban areas. This gave rise to various methods of meat preservation for making possible the consumption of fresh meat in urban and industrialized areas, among the [[refrigerator car]]s and different methods of packaging meat (such as [[corned beef]]), which were promoted by industrialists like [[Gustavus Swift]] (1839\u20131903). Around this time, the city of Chicago, along with other cities on the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]], became a focal point for the large-scale processing of beef. Beef was already inexpensive at that time, and it was available to the working class. This put the Hamburg steak within reach of the vast majority of the population, giving rise to what some authors jokingly call the \"American beef dream\". In this era, the number of [[steakhouse]]s that specialized in serving steaks increased markedly; some restaurants even served steak along with seafood, in a dish known as [[Surf and turf]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King products",
        "text": "As the company expanded both inside and outside the United States, it introduced localized versions of its products that conform to regional tastes and cultural or religious beliefs. In countries with predominantly Islamic populations, such as Saudi Arabia, pork is not served due to Muslim dietary laws. In Muslim countries, meat is slaughtered using the halal method and labeled as such. Similar adaptations also occurred in Israel, where kosher dietary laws forbid the mixture of meat and dairy products. Before the company exited the country in 2010, many of its locations in Israel were fully kosher."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The menus of many American restaurants during the 19th century included a Hamburg beefsteak that was often sold for breakfast. A variant of Hamburg steak is the \"[[Salisbury steak]]\", which is usually served with a [[gravy]] similar in texture to [[brown sauce]]. Invented by Dr. [[James Salisbury]] (1823\u20131905), the term \"Salisbury steak\" has been used in the United States since 1897. Nowadays, in the city of Hamburg as well as in parts of [[northern Germany]], this type dish is called [[Frikadelle]], Frikandelle, or Bulette, which is similar to the meatball. The term \"hamburger steak\" was replaced by \"hamburger\" by 1930, which has in turn been somewhat displaced by the simpler term, \"burger\". The latter term is now commonly used as a suffix to create new words for different variants of the hamburger, including [[cheeseburger]], [[porkburger]], [[bacon]]burger and [[moose]]burger. There are other foods with names derived from German cities that are shortened in different ways in [[American English]]. An example is the [[Hot dog|frankfurter]], often abbreviated as \"frank\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:In-N-Out Burger cheeseburger meal.jpg|250px|thumb|left|The modern hamburger with its familiar sides, French fries and a drink]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "As the company expanded both inside and outside the US, it introduced localized versions of its products that conform to regional tastes and cultural or religious beliefs. International variations add ingredients such as teriyaki or beetroot and fried egg to the Whopper; beer in Germany, Italy, and Spain; and halal or kosher products in the Middle East and Israel. To generate additional sales, BK will occasionally introduce limited time offers (LTOs) that are versions of its core products, or new products intended for either long or short term sales. Items such as the Texas Double Whopper and various sandwiches made with mushrooms and Swiss cheese have been rotated in and out of its menu for several years, while products such as its 1993 Meatloaf Specialty Sandwich offering and accompanying limited table service, along with special dinner platters, failed to generate interest and were discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "There are many additional claims as to the origin of the hamburger. Some enthusiasts claim the hamburger could have been created in S\u00e3o Gon\u00e7alo, a municipality located in the Brazilian state of Rio de Janeiro, in the 18th century by a Chef named Sauerbrown \"Little\" Victor, but this claim has no supporting evidence to back the opinion. A local newspaper claims that Louis Lassen, a Danish immigrant who arrived in America in 1880, sold butter and eggs as a street vendor. In 1974, in an [[interview]] with \"[[The New York Times]]\", he recounted how he created a hamburger steak sandwich with small strips of beef for a restaurant known as [[Louis' Lunch]]. Lassen's family claims 1900 as the year of his invention. Revealed in a public confrontation between the grandson of Louis, Kenneth Davis Lassen Fletch, and his uncle, documentation signed under notary in 1900 demonstrates the development of the hamburger, as it stresses the difference between a \"hamburger steak\" and a \"hamburger sandwich\". Louis' Lunch flame broils the hamburgers in the original vertical [[cast iron]] [[gas stoves]] manufactured by the Bridge and Beach, Co., [[St. Louis, Missouri]], in 1898. The stoves use hinged steel wire [[Gridiron (cooking)|gridirons]] to hold the hamburgers in place while they [[cooking|cook]] simultaneously on both sides. The gridirons were made by Luigi Pieragostini and patented in 1938."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "In the United States, hamburgers may be classified into one of two primary categories: fast food hamburgers or individually prepared burgers made in homes and restaurants. The latter are traditionally prepared \"with everything\" (or \"all the way\", \"deluxe\", \"the works\", \"dragged through the garden\", or, in some regions, \"all dressed\"), which includes lettuce, tomato, onion, and sliced pickles (or pickle relish). Cheese (usually processed cheese slices, but often Cheddar, Swiss, pepper jack, or blue cheese), either melted on the meat patty or crumbled on top, is a popular option. In the Carolinas a time-honored popular style for hamburgers (and hot dogs) served in diners and homes (but not fast food chains) is \"all the way\" meaning mustard, slaw, chili and onions."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "Another version of the creation of the hamburger is that of German cook Otto Kuasw, who created a very popular sailors' sandwich made of a fillet of beef patty fried in butter, served with a [[fried egg]], between two [[Toast (food)|toasted buns]] in 1891, at a post in [[Hamburg]], Germany. The sandwich was called the \"Deutsches Beefsteak\", German for \"German beefsteak\". Many of the sailors traveling on ships between Hamburg and New York requested a similar \"Hamburg style\" sandwich at American steakhouses."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of McDonald's products",
        "text": "Hamburger (formerly known as the Junior Burger in some countries) consists of a ground beef patty, with ketchup, mustard, dill pickle slices and re-hydrated onions on a toasted bun. In most of the New York City area, it is served without mustard. It is also sold as a cheeseburger, double cheeseburger and triple cheeseburger all of which have 1, 2 or 3 slices of cheese respectively. A triple burger and a bacon double cheeseburger are optional items and are not available in all restaurants or markets. The hamburger and cheeseburger are the company's original grilled burger offerings, having been served as part of the 1948 menu."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "By the 1960s, American society had become highly [[automobile|motorized]], largely due to the 1956 [[Federal Highway Act]] passed by President [[Dwight Eisenhower]] and inspired by the [[German Autobahn]], as well as the impressive growth rates of American [[automobile manufacturer]]s at the time. Due to the extensive use of cars at the time, hamburgers were often served at [[drive-in]]s, often by waiters known as [[carhop]]s. Drive-in restaurants first appeared in the United States in the early 1930s, and gradually become a common sight across the country. The ability to serve hamburgers to customers in their cars was seen as a business opportunity by countless fast-food chains, especially [[McDonald's]]. The popularity of the hamburger grew rapidly among the American population during this period, and statistics indicate that the average American was eating three burgers per week."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "As with the invention of the hamburger, the exact origins of the [[cheeseburger]] are unknown. Several chefs claim to have been the first to add a slice of cheese to a hamburger. [[Lionel Sternberger]] of Rite Spot in [[Pasadena, California]], takes credit for the cheeseburger, claiming that he invented it between 1924 and 1926. A description from a 1928 menu from the [[O'Dell Restaurant]] in Los Angeles reveals that it was serving burgers with slices of cheese at the time. Luis Ballast, owner of the Humpty Dumpty drive-in restaurant in [[Denver]], Colorado, made an attempt to create a cheeseburger with a [[registered trademark]] known as a \"yellowburger\" in 1935. J.C. Reynolds, the operator of a bar in [[Southern California]] from 1932 to 1984, popularized a [[pimento]] burger. [[Processed cheese]], the type of cheese most used in cheeseburgers, was invented in 1911 by Walter Gerber of [[Thun]], Switzerland, although the first U.S. patent awarded for it was given to [[James L. Kraft]] in 1916. [[Kraft Foods]] went on to create the first commercial version of sliced processed cheese, which was first introduced to the market in 1950."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In 1937, Patrick McDonald and his two sons [[Richard and Maurice McDonald|Richard and Maurice]] inaugurated the simple restaurant \"Airdrome\" on Huntington Drive (Route 66) near the airport in the American city of [[Monrovia, California#History|Monrovia, California]]. The success of its sales eventually led to the May 15, 1940, opening of a restaurant named [[McDonald's]] along [[U.S. Route 66]] in [[San Bernardino, California]]. After analyzing their sales, the brothers discovered that, to their surprise, 80% of their [[revenue]] was coming from selling hamburgers. The menu initially featured 25 different dishes, the majority of which were [[barbecue]]d. Through their new restaurant, the McDonald brothers introduced the notion of fast food to parts of the Western United States by 1948. From the beginning, McDonald's focused on making hot dogs and hamburgers as efficiently and quickly as possible. During the 1940s, simple and formative concepts took root at McDonald's, including the preparation and service of burgers in just one minute and the ability for customers to eat in their own cars in a \"[[drive-in]]\" style. All the while, the restaurant was trying to further develop a hamburger that was inexpensive enough to be within the economic reach of most Americans. By the 1950s, the concept of drive-in style service had become firmly established and hamburgers and cars had become closely connected in the minds of many Americans. It was now not only possible for a customer to purchase a hamburger without getting out of a car, and a customer also no longer needed to wait to be served. The McDonald brothers built upon the achievements of their original San Bernardino restaurant when in 1953 they began franchising their now famous chain restaurants, starting in [[Phoenix, Arizona]], and [[Downey, California]] (the latter of which is [[Oldest McDonald's restaurant|still in operation]]). Later, [[Ray Kroc]] opened one in the northwest Chicago suburb of [[Des Plaines, Illinois]] on April 15, 1955, which has now been converted into the [[McDonald's USA First Store Museum|McDonald's Museum]]. It is noteworthy that the original McDonald's [[mascot]] was a hamburger faced cook called \"[[Speedee]]\" that would serve as the iconographic identity of the company until being replaced by the clown [[Ronald McDonald]] in 1963."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "White Castle had a very large progression of sales, and its success was such, that by 1926, it had already generated competitors and [[imitator]]s in the emerging hamburger business. One of these imitators also had a highly similar name, [[White Tower Hamburgers]] of [[Milwaukee]], [[Wisconsin]], founded by the father and son tandem of John E. and Thomas E. Saxe. The creation of White Tower led to numerous legal battles between it and White Castle during the 1930s. By 1930, White Castle already had 116 restaurants spread over a distance of , all of which were located within the United States. [1] The company eventually became a large restaurant chain, however, there has never been a restaurant outside of the United States. The American [[shortage]] of beef during World War II had little effect on sales across White Castle, due to the effect of [[vertical integration]] along with the appearance of fast food chains that operated on a [[franchising|franchise]] model that emphasized [[horizontal integration]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "After World War II, a number of hamburger restaurants known as InstaBurger King (later [[Burger King]]) began emerging, the first of which was opened on December 4, 1954, in a suburb of Miami, Florida. It was established by [[James McLamore]] and [[David Edgerton]], both of whom were students at the [[Cornell University School of Hotel Administration]]. McLamore had visited the original McDonald's in San Bernardino, California, when it was still owned by the McDonald brothers, and saw the potential that existed for the [[mass production]] of hamburgers. He was so inspired by this visit that he decided to create a similar burger chain himself. By 1959, Burger King already had five restaurants in [[Miami metropolitan area|metropolitan Miami]], and its early success prompted McLamore and Edgerton to expand throughout the United States by using a [[franchising|franchise system]] that allowed them to grow the business at a relatively low cost. They formed Burger King Corporation as a parent company to the franchises they were selling throughout the United States. The Burger King Corporation was acquired by the [[Pillsbury Company]] in 1967, and during the 1970s, it began to expand outside the United States, principally in South America and Europe. [[Burger King]]'s core product has long been the [[Whopper]], which was created in 1957 by founder James McLamore and initially sold for 37 cents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "In Denmark, the hamburger was introduced in 1949, though it was called the b\u00f8fsandwich. There are many variations. While the original b\u00f8fsandwich was simply a generic meat patty containing a mix of beef and horse meat, though with slightly different garnish (mustard, ketchup and soft onions), it has continued to evolve. Today, a b\u00f8fsandwich usually contains a beef patty, pickled cucumber, raw, pickled, fried and/or soft onions, pickled red beets, mustard, ketchup, remoulade, and perhaps most strikingly, is often overflowing with brown gravy, which is sometimes even poured on top of the assembled b\u00f8fsandwich. The original b\u00f8fsandwich is still on the menu at the same restaurant from which it originated in 1949, now run by the grandson of the original owner."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "It is not known when the first restaurant recipe for steak tartare appeared. While not providing a clear name, the first description of steak tartare was given by Jules Verne in 1875 in his novel \"Michael Strogoff\". There are certain similarities between steak tartare and the German dishes Labskaus and Mett. Other similar raw, chopped meats appeared in the 20th century. One of the oldest references to a Hamburgh [\"sic\"] Sausage appeared in 1763 in Hannah Glasse's \"Art of Cookery, Made Plain and Easy\". Hamburgh Sausage is made with minced meat and a variety of spices, including nutmeg, cloves, black pepper, garlic, and salt, and is typically served with toast. Other dishes are also made with minced meat, such as meatloaf, the Serbian pljeskavica, the Arab kofta, and meatballs."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The first automobile [[production line]] was created by [[Karl Benz]] in Germany in 1888. The widespread appearance of telephones occurred at the beginning of the 20th century, along with other modern means of communication, including radio. For the average American who had not eaten in a restaurant in his or her entire life, the fast food chains that appeared in the cities offered an alternative form of restaurant in which eating was very much a public activity. The concept of a \"[[greasy spoon]]\" was thus born with these restaurants, in which [[hygiene]] suffered in exchange for more inexpensive food. On the other hand, there was a growing [[interconnected]] world in which trips by car, bus, and rail became increasingly available. All these means of transport were improving at the time, and soon it was necessary to feed a growing population that was \"in permanent transit\", frequently moving through different cities [[business travel|on business]]. [[George Pullman]] invented the [[sleeping car]] and the [[dining car]] in response to the needs of these people in the 1870s. Similarly, the English immigrant [[Fred Harvey (entrepreneur)|Frederick Henry Harvey]] was the first to use \"dynamic mass movement\" in restoring the [[Fred Harvey Company]], which catered to the patrons of a chain of hotels located near railway stations, as well as offering catering, services, and high quality products on the trains themselves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Condiments might be added to a hamburger or may be offered separately on the side including ketchup, mustard, mayonnaise, relish, salad dressings and barbecue sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Other toppings can include bacon, avocado or guacamole, sliced saut\u00e9ed mushrooms, cheese sauce, chili (usually without beans), fried egg, scrambled egg, feta cheese, blue cheese, salsa, pineapple, jalape\u00f1os and other kinds of chili peppers, anchovies, slices of ham or bologna, pastrami or teriyaki-seasoned beef, tartar sauce, french fries, onion rings or potato chips.\n*Standard toppings on hamburgers may depend upon location, particularly at restaurants that are not national or regional franchises.\n*Restaurants may offer hamburgers with multiple meat patties. The most common variants are double and triple hamburgers, but California-based burger chain In-N-Out once sold a sandwich with one hundred patties, called a \"100x100.\"\n*Pastrami burgers may be served in Salt Lake City, Utah.\n* A patty melt consists of a patty, saut\u00e9ed onions and cheese between two slices of rye bread. The sandwich is then buttered and fried.\n* A slider is a very small square hamburger patty, served on an equally small bun and usually sprinkled with diced onions. According to the earliest citations, the name originated aboard U.S. Navy ships, due to the manner in which greasy burgers slid across the galley grill as the ship pitched and rolled. Other versions claim the term \"slider\" originated from the hamburgers served by flight line galleys at military airfields, which were so greasy they slid right through one; or because their small size allows them to \"slide\" right down the throat in one or two bites.\n* In Alberta, Canada a \"kubie burger\" is a hamburger made with a pressed Ukrainian sausage (kubasa).\n* A butter burger, found commonly throughout Wisconsin and the upper midwest is a normal burger with a pad of butter as a topping, or a heavily buttered bun. It is the signature menu item of the restaurant chain Culver's.\n* The Fat Boy, is an iconic hamburger with chili meat sauce originating in the Greek burger restaurants of Winnipeg, Manitoba\n* In Minnesota, a \"Juicy Lucy\" (also spelled \"Jucy Lucy\"), is a hamburger having cheese inside the meat patty rather than on top. A piece of cheese is surrounded by raw meat and cooked until it melts, resulting in a molten core of cheese within the patty. This scalding hot cheese tends to gush out at the first bite, so servers frequently instruct customers to let the sandwich cool for a few minutes before consumption.\n* A low carb burger is a hamburger served without a bun and replaced with large slices of lettuce with mayonnaise or mustard being the sauces primarily used.\n* A ramen burger, invented by Keizo Shimamoto, is a hamburger patty sandwiched between two discs of compressed ramen noodles in lieu of a traditional bun.\n* Luther Burger is a bacon cheeseburger with two glazed doughnuts instead of buns.\n* Steamed cheeseburger is a cheeseburger where the burger is steamed instead of grilled. It was invented in Connecticut."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "One of the first \"birth of the burger\" stories belongs to Canton, Ohio, natives Frank and Charles Menches who were food vendors at the 1885 Erie County Fair outside of Buffalo, New York, also known as the Hamburg Fair. Legend has it that during the course of the Fair, the Menches ran out of their signature menu item of pork sausage sandwiches. Their local supplier, Hamburg butcher Andrew Klein, was reluctant to butcher more hogs during a period of unseasonable late summer heat and suggested to substitute the use of ground beef. The brothers fired some up, but both found it dry and bland. They added coffee, brown sugar and other ingredients to create a unique taste. The original sandwiches were sold with just ketchup and sliced onions. With new found success with their beef sandwich, they christened it the \u201chamburger\u201d after the Erie County Fair's home town of [[Hamburg, New York|Hamburg]]. \"National Birth of the Burger Day\" is celebrated on September 18 to honor the invention of the burger in 1885 at the Hamburg Fair. In the 1920s, carnival historian John C. Kunzog interviewed Frank Menches about his experience at the Erie County Fair. His detailed hamburger story was published in this book, \u201cTanbark & Tinsel\u201d published in 1970."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "In the 1970s, major hamburger chains began to use considerable resources in marketing their products. They began to compete directly with each other through their advertising, much of which was [[comparative advertising|comparative]] and often featured direct [[allusion]]s and comparisons. The event came to be jokingly referred to as the \"[[burger wars]]\" by many Americans. By the end of the 1980s, the era of [[slogan]]s in large chain restaurants had begun."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The success of the White Castle chain was rooted largely in the power of propaganda, something that was both an original innovation and necessary to change the public's negative perception of the hamburger. In 1931, it became the first restaurant to [[newspaper advertisement|advertise in newspapers]], using its old \"buy 'em by the sack\" slogan. White Castle also pioneered the concept of [[take-out]] service, and the restaurant is further known for being the first to market square burgers, called \"[[slider (sandwich)|sliders]]\", which were sold for five cents into the 1940s. White Castle was founded in March 1921 in Wichita, Kansas, by Billy Ingram and his business partner, the cook Walter Anderson, and they opened a second restaurant in [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]] in 1924. In 1932, White Castle created its first subsidiary: Paperlynen Company, which provided the [[carton]]s and [[wrapping paper]] that the food was served in, as well as the hats worn by the kitchen staff. It acquired [[porcelain]] companies in a similar fashion, placing them in charge of building small White Castle restaurants using white porcelain facades."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "The hamburger is considered a national dish of the United States. In the United States and Canada, burgers may be classified as two main types: fast food hamburgers and individually prepared burgers made in homes and restaurants. The latter are often prepared with a variety of toppings, including lettuce, tomato, onion, and often sliced pickles (or pickle relish). French fries often accompany the burger. Cheese (usually processed cheese slices but often Cheddar, Swiss, pepper jack, or blue), either melted directly on the meat patty or crumbled on top, is generally an option."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The McDonald brothers intensively studied the existing kitchen protocol of their restaurants in an effort to improve them. They looked at different options that could increase the speed of cooking hamburgers, designing and patenting special [[grilling|grills]] that had a higher output, made their [[cutlery]] and other [[kitchen utensil]]s [[disposable]], and introduced [[dishwasher]]s that reduced the costs of water, soap, and [[Employment|labor]]. The brothers also created a detailed system for operating each kitchen throughout the franchise in a similar and largely standardized manner, as well as recruiting adolescents as employees in the kitchens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "In Turkey, in addition to the internationally familiar offerings, numerous localized variants of the hamburger may be found, such as the Islak Burger (lit. \"Wet-Burger\"), which a beef slider doused in seasoned tomato sauce and steamed inside a special glass chamber, and has its origins in the Turkish fast food retailer Kizilkayalar. Other variations include lamb-burgers and offal-burgers, which are offered by local fast food businesses and global chains alike, such as McDonald's and Burger King. Most burger shops have also adopted a pizzeria-like approach when it comes to home delivery, and almost all major fast food chains deliver."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "A hamburger (or burger for short) is a food consisting of fillings \u2014usually a patty of ground meat, typically beef\u2014placed inside a sliced bun or bread roll. Hamburgers are often served with cheese, lettuce, tomato, onion, pickles, bacon, or chilis; condiments such as ketchup, mustard, mayonnaise, relish, or a \"special sauce\", often a variation of Thousand Island dressing; and are frequently placed on sesame seed buns. A hamburger topped with cheese is called a cheeseburger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of the United States",
        "text": "Iconic American dishes such as apple pie, donuts, fried chicken, pizza, hamburgers, and hot dogs derive from the recipes of various immigrants and domestic innovations. French fries, Mexican dishes such as burritos and tacos, and pasta dishes freely adapted from Italian sources are consumed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States",
        "text": "The origin of \"fast food\" is uncertain, but one possibility is a hamburger stand that was founded by Walter Anderson in Wichita, Kansas. Known today as White Castle, the fast-food chain began to spread throughout the Midwest, offering a simple menu with hamburgers, Coca-Cola and coffee. By the 1920s White Castle had become a nationally recognized chain, and until the 1940s White Castle-style architecture was standard for fast-food hamburger outlets throughout the United States. Other local burger chains include Winstead's, Max & Erma's and Schoop's Hamburgers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Yugoslavia and Serbia"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The hamburger was very popular among Americans during the [[interwar period|postwar period]] following World War I, even in popular culture. An example of this was the prominent appearance of hamburgers in [[E. C. Segar]]'s \"[[Thimble Theatre]]\" [[comic strip]], which prominently featured a [[cartoon character]] named [[Popeye the Sailor]] who ate [[spinach]] to sustain his superhuman strength. Popeye's first appearance was as a [[supporting character]] on January 17, 1929, alongside many other characters. One of these characters was [[J. Wellington Wimpy]] (often shortened to just \"Wimpy\"), a lover of hamburgers who was both polite and gluttonous. His signature phrase, \"I will gladly pay you Tuesday for a hamburger today\", became popular and widely known. During the height of his popularity in the 1930s, Wimpy introduced the hamburger to the youth of the time as a healthy food. It also resulted in the creation of a chain of fast food restaurants called [[Wimpy (restaurant)|Wimpy's]] in his honor, which sold hamburgers for ten cents. In a similar fashion, the fictional character [[Jughead Jones]], who first appeared in [[Archie Comics]] in 1941, was passionate about food generally, and hamburgers specifically."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "All claims for invention occur between 1885 and 1904, making it probable that the hamburger was created sometime in these two decades. Despite varieties, there are common elements in all of the narratives, most notably that the hamburger was born as a food associated with major events such as [[amusement park]]s, [[fair]]s, [[Meeting|conferences]], and festivals. All the hypotheses also share the presence of [[street vendor]]s."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:DaviesStallStLawrenceMarket.jpg|300px|thumb|left|William Davies Company stall at the St. Lawrence Market in Toronto, Canada. Scenes such as this became common during the early twentieth century in the United States and Canada as the meat market grew rapidly.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Texan cuisine",
        "text": "An early claim to the invention of the hamburger was Fletcher Davis of Athens, Texas, who claimed to have served it at his restaurant at a time when there were more cows than people in Texas. According to oral histories, in the 1880s, he opened a lunch counter in Athens and served a \"burger\" of fried ground beef patties with mustard and Bermuda onion between two slices of bread; with a pickle on the side."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "On November 16, 1916, chef and entrepreneur Walter \"Walt\" Anderson opened a hamburger stand in [[Wichita, Kansas]], that used hygienic cooking methods, including [[grilling|grills]] and [[spatula]]s, and impressed his Wichita customers so much that many would become regular patrons. At this time, the hamburger was still not widely known by the American public. Anderson added [[onion ring]]s to the burgers while they grilled, giving them a distinctive flavor. As demand increased, customers often bought his hamburgers by the [[dozen]], giving rise to the company's subsequently popular [[slogan]]: \"buy 'em by the sack\". Despite some growth, Anderson had opened only four stands in the busiest areas of the city. In 1926, Edgar Waldo \"Billy\" Ingram collaborated with Anderson to open the first [[White Castle (restaurant)|White Castle restaurant]] in Wichita. The restaurant was founded on the idea of cooking a hamburger quickly, giving it the honor of being the first [[fast food restaurant]]."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger Rings",
        "text": "Burger Rings\n--History.\n--Ingredients.\n--Flavours.\n--Marketing.\n--In popular culture.\n--International variants.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "The Texas historian Frank X. Tolbert attributes the invention of the hamburger to Fletcher Davis of Athens, Texas. Davis is believed to have sold hamburgers at his caf\u00e9 at 115 Tyler Street in Athens, Texas, in the late 1880s, before bringing them to the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair.\n;Menches Brothers 1885"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "[[File:Mass-produced hamburgers.jpg|250px|thumb|left|The hamburger solved the technical problem of mass-producing semi-processed food.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Herta Heuwer",
        "text": "Food historians such as Petra Foede believe that, as with most culinary creation myths, several rather than a single person were involved in developing this dish, sausage sellers experimenting with various spice mixes in order to replace the tomato ketchup that was unavailable during the immediate postwar years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Fletcher Davis of Athens, Texas claimed to have invented the hamburger. According to oral histories, in the 1880s he opened a lunch counter in Athens and served a 'burger' of fried ground beef patties with mustard and Bermuda onion between two slices of bread, with a pickle on the side. The story is that in 1904, Davis and his wife Ciddy ran a sandwich stand at the St. Louis World's Fair. Historian Frank X. Tolbert, noted that Athens resident Clint Murchison said his grandfather dated the hamburger to the 1880s with 'Old Dave' a.k.a. Fletcher Davis. A photo of \"Old Dave's Hamburger Stand\" from 1904 was sent to Tolbert as evidence of the claim."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger in the United States",
        "text": "Hamburgers may be described by their combined uncooked weight. A single, uncooked burger weighing a nominal four ounces or 113.5\u00a0grams is a \"quarter pounder\". Instead of a \"double hamburger\", one might encounter a third- or half-pounder, weighing eight ounces or 227\u00a0grams. Burger patties are nearly always specified in fractions of a pound."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger Dom",
        "text": "Hamburger Dom\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The expansion and standardization of the hamburger has led to the creation of a price index that can be used as an economic reference between different countries known as the [[Big Mac Index]]. It measures the worth (in US$) of a burger in different parts of the world, allowing for the comparison of the [[purchasing power parity]] of 120 national economies in which McDonald's does business. American sociologist [[George Ritzer]] coined the related concept of \"[[McDonaldization]]\" in his 1995 book \"McDonaldization of Society.\" Another byproduct of the globalization of fast food was the creation of international [[competitive eating]] contests that involve contestants from many different countries. One of the best known is the [[Krystal Square Off]], run by the fast-food chain [[Krystal (restaurant)|Krystal]] and sponsored by the [[International Federation of Competitive Eating]] (IFOC), which has been held annually since 2004."
      },
      {
        "title": "Louis' Lunch",
        "text": "An article from ABC News sums up the problems of identifying the origins of the hamburger by stating, \"One problem is that there is little written history. Another issue is that the spread of the burger happened largely at the World's Fair, from tiny vendors that came and went in an instant. And it is entirely possible that more than one person came up with the idea at the same time in different parts of the country.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Hamburgers in buns, on the other hand, are predominantly the domain of fast food chains. Japan has homegrown hamburger chain restaurants such as MOS Burger, First Kitchen and Freshness Burger. Local varieties of burgers served in Japan include teriyaki burgers, burgers (containing ) and burgers containing shrimp . Some of the more unusual examples include the rice burger, where the bun is made of rice, and the luxury 1,000-yen (US$10) \"Takumi Burger\" (meaning \"artisan taste\"), featuring avocados, freshly grated wasabi, and other rare seasonal ingredients. In terms of the actual patty, there are burgers made with Kobe beef, butchered from cows that are fed with beer and massaged daily. McDonald's Japan also recently launched a McPork burger, made with US pork. McDonald's has been gradually losing market share in Japan to these local hamburger chains, due in part to the preference of Japanese diners for fresh ingredients and more refined, \"upscale\" hamburger offerings. Burger King once retreated from Japan, but re-entered the market in summer 2007 in cooperation with the Korean-owned Japanese fast-food chain Lotteria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger Helper",
        "text": "Hamburger Helper\n--History.\n--Hamburger varieties.\n--Other varieties.\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Hamburger (disambiguation)\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did the hamburger first come to exist?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The hamburger first appeared in the 19th or early 20th century; the invention of hamburgers is commonly attributed to various people, including Charlie Nagreen, Frank and Charles Menches, Oscar Weber Bilby, Fletcher Davis, or Louis Lassen. The McDonald brothers opened their first restaurant adjacent to the Monrovia Airport in 1937."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does the hamburger face any criticism nowadays?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Hamburgers are often served in fast food restaurants, and as such, fast food restaurants have come under criticism over concerns ranging from claimed negative health effects, alleged animal cruelty, cases of worker exploitation, and claims of cultural degradation via shifts in people's eating patterns away from traditional foods."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are hamburger establishments doing to counteract the criticisms?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "To combat criticism, fast-food restaurants are starting to offer more health-friendly menu items. In addition to health critics, there are suggestions for the fast-food industry to become more eco-friendly, with the chains responding by reducing packaging waste."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What restaurant chain lead the way in developing the fast food style of restaurant?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The American company White Castle, founded by Billy Ingram and Walter Anderson in Wichita, Kansas in 1921, is generally credited with opening the second fast food outlet and first hamburger chain, selling hamburgers for five cents each."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Besides White Castle and McDonald's what are other popular hamburger establishments?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "While I could not find a list of popular restaurants, Burger King reported it had 17,796 outlets in 100 countries."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What ingredients are added to hamburger by other cultures to make it their own?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "There are many variations, would you like to know about Indian, East Asian, Pakistani, or Turkish variations?",
      "Local features in different locations include ground meat made from local animals, such as kangaroos in Australia, or Tex-Mex-style dishes like chilli con carne; a rice burger is a variation on the traditional hamburger with compressed rice patties substituted for the hamburger buns; in Mexico, burgers (called hamburguesas) are served with ham and slices of American cheese fried on top of the meat patty."
    ],
    "topic": "History of the hamburger",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Hamburger:67",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Hamburger",
          "Variations",
          "Other countries"
        ],
        "ctx": "India"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Hamburger:64",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Hamburger",
          "Variations",
          "Other countries"
        ],
        "ctx": "East Asia"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Hamburger:69",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Hamburger",
          "Variations",
          "Other countries"
        ],
        "ctx": "Pakistan"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Hamburger:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Hamburger"
        ],
        "ctx": "The term \"burger\" can also be applied to the meat patty on its own, especially in the United Kingdom, where the term \"patty\" is rarely used, or the term can even refer simply to ground beef. Since the term \"hamburger\" usually implies beef, for clarity \"burger\" may be prefixed with the type of meat or meat substitute used, as in beef burger, turkey burger, bison burger, portobello burger, or veggie burger. In Australia and New Zealand, a piece of chicken breast on a bun is known as a chicken burger, which would generally not be considered to be a \"burger\" in the United States; Americans would generally call it a \"chicken sandwich\", but in Australian English and New Zealand English a \"sandwich\" requires sliced bread (not a bun), so it would not be considered a \"sandwich\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "History of the hamburger:59",
        "passage_titles": [
          "History of the hamburger",
          "Global phenomenon"
        ],
        "ctx": "At the same time the hamburger was growing in popularity around the world, it took on a variety of local features in different locations. Such examples of this include ground meat made from local animals, such as [[kangaroo]]s in Australia, or [[Tex-Mex]]-style dishes like [[chilli con carne]]."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Rice burger:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Rice burger"
        ],
        "ctx": "A rice burger or riceburger is a variation on the traditional hamburger with compressed rice patties substituted for the hamburger buns. The MOS Burger fast-food restaurant chain introduced the rice burger in Japan 1987, and since then it has become a popular food item in East Asia. Beginning around 2005 McDonald's also offered a rice burger in some of its Asian stores, with mixed results."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Hamburger:43",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Hamburger",
          "Variations",
          "Mexico"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Mexico, burgers (called \"hamburguesas\") are served with ham and slices of American cheese fried on top of the meat patty. The toppings include avocado, jalape\u00f1o slices, shredded lettuce, onion and tomato. The bun has mayonnaise, ketchup and mustard. Bacon may also be added, which can be fried or grilled along with the meat patty. A slice of pineapple may be added to a hamburger for a \"Hawaiian hamburger\"."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "The function of iron cash coins was similar to that of Daqian, as it was primarily used as a way to continue paying the salaries of bannermen and other government workers. According to Qing government memorials, large amounts of iron cash coins were used as a means to pay salaries between the years 1856 and 1857 due to a noted justification that \"the Chinese public was craving for small change\". By the year 1856 the iron 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins were so much depreciated that they were dropped out of general circulation. From this point onwards only iron 1 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins would remain in general circulation, however, it was common for shops to deny them as a form of payment and there was extensive counterfeiting of iron cash coins, which further lowered the public's trust in them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "It is possible that China first began using iron cash coins during the Western Han dynasty, this was concluded after a number of iron Ban Liang (\u534a\u5169) cash coins were unearthed in Western Han era tombs in the Hunanese cities of Hengyang and Changsha between the years 1955 and 1959. Other specimens of iron Ban Liang cash coins were also unearthed in the province of Sichuan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Iron cash coins were produced during the Han dynasty, Three Kingdoms period, Northern and Southern dynasties period, Five dynasties and Ten kingdoms period, Song dynasty, Jin dynasty (1115\u20131234), Western Xia dynasty, Ming dynasty, and Qing dynasty, but not during the Zhou dynasty, Jin dynasty (266\u2013420), Sui dynasty, Tang dynasty, Liao dynasty, and Yuan dynasty periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "As a result of government corruption, a large number of iron cash coins were cast near the final years of Emperor Zhezong's reign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "While the earlier recorded iron cash coins in Chinese history were Wu Zhu's (\u4e94\u9296, 118 BC\u2013618 AD), the unearthing or iron Ban Liang (\u534a\u5169) cash coins produced during the Western Han dynasty during the 1950s indicates that they may have been much older than first thought. The largest number of iron cash coins would be produced during the Song dynasty period as a result of a scarcity of copper and high military expenditures, among other reasons. The last government attempt at issuing iron cash coins occurred during the 1850s the under the reign of the Manchu Qing dynasty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Iron cash coins (; Vietnamese: \"Thi\u1ebft ti\u1ec1n\") are a type of Chinese cash coin that were produced at various times during the monetary history of imperial China as well as in Japan and Vietnam. Iron cash coins were often produced in regions where the supply of copper was insufficient, or as a method of paying for high military expenditures at times of war, as well as for exports at times of trade deficits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "In the year 978 an iron cash coin was worth of a copper-alloy cash coin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Only a single entry in the Qing government archive mentions them from this point, as it is stated that in the year 1856 the government of the Qing dynasty had 431,515.849 strings of iron cash coins deposited in the imperial treasury vault. This entry may be seen as supplementary evidence to suggest that copper-alloy cash coinage had almost completely disappeared in or before this year. Iron cash coins would soon become valueless and the coinage was ultimately suspended in the year 1859."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "In January of the year 1855 the province of Zhili started casting iron cash coins, a trial casting for a single year was to deliver 120,000 strings of standard cash coins to be brought to Beijing. This work was then carried out by one of the Chinese branch mints with 10 furnaces that was located just outside of the western suburbs of Baoding by the Lingyu Temple (\u9748\u96f2\u5bae). In May of the year 1857, the four existing copper furnaces of the main Zhili provincial mint in Baoding were altered to be iron cash coin furnaces and a new iron cash coin furnace added, while at the same time 10 new furnaces for the production of iron cash coins was added to the Zhili branch mint. The Zhili provincial mint had ceased the production of 10 \"w\u00e9n\" iron cash coins in June 1857."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Iron cash coins were not exclusively produced by the Chinese, as other cash coin producing countries would also issue them under similar circumstances or by private mints. In Japan iron \"Kan'ei Ts\u016bh\u014d\" (\u5bdb\u6c38\u901a\u5bf3) cash coins were produced by the Kamedo mint in the 1760s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "While initially iron cash coins were mainly minted by the Ministry of Revenue mint and Ministry of Public Works mint in Beijing, afterwards the government of the Qing dynasty established a specific iron cash coins mint, known as the iron cash office (\u9435\u9322\u5c40). The iron cash office also stored the iron cash coins. While the actual production numbers of iron cash coins remains unclear because of the limited entries about them in the records maintained by the Qing treasury, Peng Xinwei estimated, based on information he had gathered from Qing government memorials, that there had been an average annual production of 1,808,160 strings of iron cash coins between the year 1854 and 1855 and an annual production of 1,360,920 strings of iron cash coins during the years 1856 until 1859."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "From the year 523 onwards the government of the Liang dynasty decided to cast iron Wu Zhu cash coins due to the fact that iron was both relatively easy and not expensive to acquire in what is today Sichuan. The iron cash coins issued by the Liang dynasty are quite distinctive from other iron cash coins as they have 4 lines that radiate outwards from each corner of the square center hole which is why they're referred to as \"four corner coins\" (\u56db\u51fa\u9322, \"s\u00ec ch\u016b qi\u00e1n\"). As it became quite common for the people to cast iron cash coins privately based on these government issues it wasn't long before their quantities increased so drastically that it required cartloads of these iron Wu Zhu cash coins to pay for anything, even to this day these Wu Zhu's are quite common due to the widespread private production that plagued these iron issues. After them the Taiqing Fengle (\u592a\u6e05\u8c50\u6a02, \"Tai Qing Prosperous and Happy\") cash coin was cast under the reign of Emperor Wu, these cash coins were actually believed to be Chinese numismatic charms until recently and were named after the Taiqing period (547-549)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "During the second month of the year 1854 the government of the Qing dynasty supplemented the already debased Xianfeng coinage system with iron cash coins. The intrinsic value of iron cash coins was substantially lower than that of even the copper-alloy Zhiqian and Daqian. The aim the government had with the introduction of iron cash coins was to provide small change for a market that highly demanded it, as the Chinese market was already flooded with large denomination cash coinage and the Zhiqian 1 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins) by this point had become a rarity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "From the beginning of the dynasty, iron coins were extensively used in present-day Sichuan and Shaanxi where copper was not readily available. Between 976 and 984, a total of 100,000 strings of iron coins was produced in Fujian as well. In 993, for paying the land tax one iron coin was equal to one bronze, for the salary of clerks and soldiers one bronze equalled five iron coins, but in trade ten iron coins were needed for one bronze coin. In 1005, four mints in Sichuan produced over 500,000 strings of iron coins a year. This declined to 210,000 strings by the beginning of the Qingli period (1041). At this time, the mints were ordered to cast 3 million strings of iron cash to meet military expenses in Shaanxi. However, by 1056, casting was down to 100,000 strings a year, and in 1059 minting was halted for 10 years in Jiazhou and Qiongzhou, leaving only Xingzhou producing 30,000 strings a year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ban Liang",
        "text": "It is possible that China first began using iron cash coins (\u9421\u9322, \"tieqian\") during the Western Han dynasty, this was concluded after a number of iron Ban Liang cash coins were unearthed in Western Han era tombs in the Hunanese cities of Hengyang and Changsha between the years 1955 and 1959. Other specimens of iron Ban Liang cash coins were also unearthed in the province of Sichuan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "The Southern Song dynasty saw the emergence of paper money, while coins were increasingly becoming a rarity. Iron cash coins also started to be used in greater numbers, at first due to the lack of copper, but later even as more copper was found the production of iron cash coins remained cheaper and an abundance of iron made it more attractive for the government to produce, while several problems such as the fact that iron is harder to inscribe, and that iron corrodes faster ensured the continued production of copper cash coins. From the year 1180 until the end of the Song dynasty very few bronze coins were produced by the government as the preference went to iron, this was because bronze cash coins needed to have a specific typeface which was more intricate to produce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Iron cash coin mints were also planned to be opened in the cities of Tianjin, Zhengding, and Daming for the production of 1 \"w\u00e9n\" iron cash coins, but only Zhengding had established a mint for iron cash coins which had 10 furnaces in operation. In July of the year 1859 there were a total of 35 furnaces for the production of iron cash coins in the cities of Baoding and Zhengding and at that time around 1,000,000 strings of iron cash coins had been cast at both mints. Because the Chinese people weren't using iron cash coins it was reported that 30 furnaces in Zhengding (which presumably also includes the furnaces of the Zhili provincial branch mint) were to be closed. In November 1859, the remaining 5 iron cash coin furnaces situated in Baoding were also closed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Issued by Wang Yanzheng:\n* Tiande Tongbao () are made of iron. When Wang Yanzheng was proclaimed Emperor, he changed the name of the kingdom to Yin, but later restored the name of Min. One of these iron coins, which were cast in 944, was worth 100 ordinary cash."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "The function of iron cash coins was similar to that of Daqian, as it was primarily used as a way to continue paying the salaries of bannermen and other government workers. According to Qing government memorials, large amounts of iron cash coins were used as a means to pay salaries between the years 1856 and 1857 due to a noted justification that \"the Chinese public was craving for small change\". By the year 1856 the iron 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins were so much depreciated that they were dropped out of general circulation. From this point onwards only iron 1 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins would remain in general circulation, however, it was common for shops to deny them as a form of payment and there was extensive counterfeiting of iron cash coins, which further lowered the public's trust in them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Over the course of Chinese history a number of monarchs had tried to introduce iron cash coins to the market, but as their subjects never took to them, most of these attempts to issue them were rather short-lived. Sometimes bronze coins that were cast had a certain amount of iron in them, but in these cases the iron was not mixed into the copper-alloy itself, as it was just not removed during the production process, for example with some Warring States period round hole coins with the inscription \"Yuan\" (\u57a3) which was made of about 30% iron. The mechanical strength of the cast coinages was thus reduced, but in the case of coins this was not as important as with tools as they did not serve any practical means other than their commodity value."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "In the city of Cangzhou there is a museum dedicated to the iron cash coins produced during the Song dynasty period known as the Tieqian Ku (), which literally translates into English as either the \"iron cash coins treasury\" or \"iron cash coins mint\".\n*\n* Peng Xinwei (\u5f6d\u4fe1\u5a01) (1954 [2007]). \"Zhongguo huobi shi\" (\u4e2d\u570b\u8ca8\u5e63\u53f2) (Shanghai: Qunlian chubanshe), 580\u2013581, 597\u2013605. (in Mandarin Chinese).\n* Peng Xinwei (\u5f6d\u4fe1\u5a01) (1994) \"A monetary history of China\" (translated by Edward H. Kaplan). Western Washington University (Bellingham, Washington)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "During the Xining period (from 1068), minting was increased, and by the Yuanfeng period (from 1078) it was reported that there were nine iron coin mints, three in Sichuan and six in Shaanxi, producing over a million strings a year. Thereafter, output declined gradually."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Merchant guilds in the province of Sichuan were worldwide the first people to develop officially accepted letters of exchange, or paper money, in the forms of Jiaozi (\u4ea4\u5b50), Qianyin (\u9322\u5f15), and Feiqian (\u98db\u9322), thess first forms of paper currency were provided with the security of iron cash coins.\n* Songyuan Tongbao. (). Written in \"li\" script. The inscription is based on the \"Kaiyuan Tongbao\" series of cash coins. It has a nominal weight of 1 \"qian\". Various dots and crescents are found on the reverse. It was first cast in 960 and then until the end of Emperor Taizu's reign. Casting of iron cash coins started at Baizhangxian, Yazhou, in Sichuan, from 970. Ten furnaces cast 9,000 strings a year.\n* Taiping Tongbao () (976\u2013989). Written in \"li\" script. Various dots and crescents are found on the reverse. There are also iron cash coins with this inscription. The small iron coins come from Sichuan and 10 were equivalent to one bronze coin. The large iron cash coin have a large dot above on the reverse. This coin was cast at Jianzhou, Fujian in 983, and was intended to be equivalent to 3 bronze coins.\n* Chunhua Yuanbao () (990\u2013994). Written in regular, running, and grass script. There are also small and large iron coins. They have a nominal value of 10. In 991, 20,000 iron coins were needed in the market for one roll of silk. Permission was requested to alter the casting to Value Ten coins in the Imperial Script pattern. In one year only 3,000 strings were cast. They were not considered convenient, so casting was stopped.\n* Xianping Yuanbao () (998\u20131003). Written in regular script. They are found in both bronze and iron.\n* Jingde Yuanbao () (1004\u20131007). Written in regular script. They are made of bronze; Iron with Value Two; or Iron with Value Ten. The large iron cash coins were minted at Jiazhou and Qiongzhou in Sichuan in the year 1005. They weighed 4 \"qian\" each.\n* Xiangfu Yuanbao () (1008\u20131016). Written in regular script. They are made of bronze or iron. They come in medium size and large sizes. The large iron coins were cast from 1014 to 1016 in Yizhou, Sichuan. Their nominal value was 10 cash and weight 3.2 \"qian.\"\n* Tianxi Tongbao () (1017\u20131022). Written in regular script. They are made of bronze or iron. At this time, there were copper coin mints at Yongping in Jiangxi, Yongfeng in Anhui, Kuangning in Fujian, Fengguo in Shanxi, and in the capital city. There were also three iron coin mints in Sichuan.\n* Mingdao Yuanbao () (1032\u20131033). Written in seal and regular script. There are also iron cash coins with this inscription.\n* Jingyou Yuanbao () (1034\u20131038). Written in seal and regular script. There are both small and large iron coins.\n* Huangsong Tongbao () (1039\u20131054) use seal and regular script, and have many variations. They are made of iron and have two forms with either small or large characters. The small character iron coins are associated with casting in Shaanxi and Shanxi in the Qing Li period (from 1044). The large character iron cash coins are associated with Sichuan mints. The histories say that the Huang Song coin was cast in Baoyuan 2 \u2013 1039. As it is rather common, and there are no bronze small cash from the next three periods, it appears to have been issued for longer than one year.\n* Kangding Yuanbao () (1040). Written in \"li\" script. They are made of iron and come in both small and medium sizes.\n* Qingli Zhongbao () (1041\u20131048). Written in regular script. There are two forms: large bronze coins and large iron coins. The Qing Li large bronze coins, intended to be worth 10 cash, were cast in Jiangnan to fund the war with the Tangut Western Xia Empire. Iron coins were cast in Shanxi and other prefectures. The large cash coins caused prices to leap up, causing inflation, and both public and private interests suffered. In 1048, the large iron coins were devalued to 3 iron cash."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "The Iron Wu Zhu's of Chengjia, which resemble the Western Han dynasty Wu Zhu coin, is attributed to Gongsun Shu, who rebelled in Sichuan in AD 25, and issued iron coins, two being equal to one \"Jian Wu Wu Zhu\" (). Head of the \"zhu\" component rounded. Typical of Eastern Han Wu Zhu's. In AD 30, a ditty was sung by the youths of Sichuan: \"The yellow bull! the white belly! Let Wu Zhu cash coins return\". This ridiculed the tokens of Wang Mang and the iron coins of Gongsun Shu, which were withdrawn by the Eastern Han Emperor Guangwu in the 16th year of Jian Wu (AD 40). The Emperor was advised that the foundation of the wealth of a country depends on a good political economy, which was found in the good old Wu Zhu coinage, and so reissued the Wu Zhu cash coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "After the Song dynasty was done with \"pacifying\" Sichuan, the Emperor of the Song dynasty had the bronze cash coins that were circulating in the area sent back to the Song Chinese capital city.\u00a0The bronze cash coins were then replaced with those cast of iron, this then caused the price of goods to soar in the region resulting in great hardship to the local populace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bingqian",
        "text": "It is currently unknown why these very heavy cash coins with broad rims were produced. Chinese numismatist Sun Zhonghui () in his \"Guqian Bitujie\" (\u53e4\u9322\u5e63\u5716\u89e3) attributed these Bingqian with certainty to the Northern Song dynasty period. Furthermore, in \"Guqian Bitujie\" he hypothesised that the Bingqian were created in what is now known as Sichuan because the government of the Song dynasty had confiscated all copper items and circulating bronze cash coins, which resulted in a shortage of copper in the region. The government had then introduced iron cash coins, or \"tieqian\" (\u9421\u9322), which had dramatically increased the purchasing power of the copper-alloy cash coins while decreasing the purchasing power of iron cash coins. At the time there were three mints operating in Sichuan producing iron cash coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "In the year 1883 the imperial government of the Qing dynasty made an attempt to restore the copper-alloy cash coins back to their original units, because the new units had created chaos among private money shops in China who were willing to pay premium copper-alloy cash coins to call back their own privately produced banknotes that were issued in \"Beijing cash\" (Jingqian) units. This was done out of a fear of the large capital cost of having to later redeem their banknotes that were based on the previous standards of copper-alloy cash coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Tieqian\n--Overview.\n--Ban Liang cash coins.\n----Western Han dynasty.\n--Wu Zhu cash coins.\n----Chengjia.\n----Liang dynasty.\n--The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms.\n----Kingdom of Min.\n----Kingdom of Chu.\n----Southern Tang Kingdom.\n--Song dynasty.\n----Northern Song dynasty.\n----Southern Song dynasty.\n--Qing dynasty.\n--Iron cash coins museum.\n--Sources.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wu Zhu",
        "text": "From the year 523 onwards the government of the Liang dynasty decided to cast iron Wu Zhu cash coins due to the fact that iron was both relatively easy and not expensive to acquire in what is today Sichuan. The iron cash coins issued by the Liang dynasty are quite distinctive from other iron cash coins as they have 4 lines that radiate outwards from each corner of the square center hole which is why they're referred to as \"four corner coins\" (\u56db\u51fa\u9322, \"s\u00ec ch\u016b qi\u00e1n\"). As it became quite common for the people to cast iron cash coins privately based on these government issues it wasn't long before their quantities increased so drastically that it required cartloads of these iron Wu Zhu cash coins to pay for anything, even to this day these Wu Zhu's are quite common due to the widespread private production that plagued these iron issues. After them the Taiqing Fengle (\u592a\u6e05\u8c50\u6a02, \"Tai Qing Prosperous and Happy\") cash coin was cast under the reign of Emperor Wu, these cash coins were actually believed to be Chinese numismatic charms until recently and were named after the Taiqing period (547-549)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "The denominations of the newly introduced iron cash coins included 1 \"w\u00e9n\", 5 \"w\u00e9n\", and 10 \"w\u00e9n\". The intrinsic value of the 1 \"w\u00e9n\" iron cash coin represented a debasement of 70% compared to the copper-alloy 1 \"w\u00e9n\" Zhiqian. The market price of iron in 1854 was 40 \"w\u00e9n\" (in Zhiqian) per catty. A catty of iron could be cast into 133 1 \"w\u00e9n\" iron cash coins, or 66 5 \"w\u00e9n\" iron cash coins (which would have a total nominal value of 330 \"w\u00e9n\"), or 53 10 \"w\u00e9n\" iron cash coins (which would have a total nominal value of 530 \"w\u00e9n\"). Disregarding the cost of manufacturing the Chinese itself, a 1 \"w\u00e9n\" iron cash coin indicated a debasement of 70%. Iron cash coins were easily produced with iron scrap, which on the market cost 15 \"w\u00e9n\" per catty in 1854."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Chinese coinage",
        "text": "From the beginning of the dynasty, iron coins were extensively used in present-day Sichuan and Shaanxi where copper was not readily available. Between 976 and 984, a total of 100,000 strings of iron coins was produced in Fujian as well. In 993, for paying the land tax one iron coin was equal to one bronze, for the salary of clerks and soldiers one bronze equalled five iron coins, but in trade ten iron coins were needed for one bronze coin. In 1005, four mints in Sichuan produced over 500,000 strings of iron coins a year. This declined to 210,000 strings by the beginning of the Qingli period (1041). At this time, the mints were ordered to cast 3\u00a0million strings of iron cash to meet military expenses in Shaanxi. However, by 1056, casting was down to 100,000 strings a year, and in 1059 minting was halted for 10 years in Jiazhou and Qiongzhou, leaving only Xingzhou producing 30,000 strings a year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Issued by Wang Shenzhi:\n* Kaiyuan Tongbao () have a large dot above on the reverse side. They are made of iron and date from 922. The same coin cast in bronze is extremely rare."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Emperor Yuan Zong (Li Jing) (943\u2013961):\n* Baoda Yuanbao () has on the reverse the character \"tian\" above. They are made of iron and date between 943\u2013957. There is also an extremely rare bronze example of this coin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Most Daqian were copper-alloy cash coins, but iron and lead Daqian were also produced during the Xianfeng era."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Iron cash coin mints were also planned to be opened in the cities of Tianjin, Zhengding, and Daming for the production of 1 \"w\u00e9n\" iron cash coins, but only Zhengding had established a mint for iron cash coins which had 10 furnaces in operation. In July of the year 1859 there were a total of 35 furnaces for the production of iron cash coins in the cities of Baoding and Zhengding and at that time around 1,000,000 strings of iron cash coins had been cast at both mints. Because the Chinese people weren't using iron cash coins it was reported that 30 furnaces in Zhengding (which presumably also includes the furnaces of the Zhili provincial branch mint) were to be closed. In November 1859, the remaining 5 iron cash coin furnaces situated in Baoding were also closed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "In the early 17th century an increase in the price of copper caused the government to reduce the amount of copper in the composition of the Zhiqian in favour of lead. Cash coins with the inscriptions Tianqi Tongbao (\u5929\u555f\u901a\u5bf6) and Chongzhen Tongbao (\u5d07\u798e\u901a\u5bf6) were of poorer quality than those producing during preceding periods, these cash coins tended to be both thin and bristle, due to the lowered amount of copper in their compositions. Chinese people at this point started to refrain from using copper-alloy cash coins and the markets preferred the usage of silver ingots instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "The reserves that the government of the Qing dynasty had set aside for those who would redeem the Da-Qing Baochao banknotes turned out to be too low to meet the demand. During some audits conducted by the Ministry of Revenue their turned out to be major irregularities with the reserves held by the private and provincial note issuing banks. Eventually, the Chinese government would abandon any policy other than one of keeping their banknotes in general circulation by forcing them on the Chinese population under a continued threat of punishments and penalties and also by making their redemption by its holders as difficult as possible. The complete crash of the new currency systems occurred during the winter of Xianfeng 6 (1856) all the way into Xianfeng 7 (1857). The iron 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coin drastically declined in its value, one of the reasons for this was the fact that it was being counterfeited on a large scale. At this time both peasants and merchants from the province of Zhili stopped accepting the coin as a form of payment. After in the spring of Xianfeng 7 (1857) the convertibility of Hubu Guanpiao tael notes into Da-Qing Baochao cash notes was partly restored by the lot method at the Yu banks. The Ministry of Revenue had attempted to stop the large scale counterfeiting and to force the provincial governments of China to start accepting both iron and copper-alloy Daqian cash coins and Da-Qing Baochao cash notes for tax payments, but quickly abandoned proposing iron Daqian cash coins and settled on a cash coin system of iron 1 \"w\u00e9n\" coins and copper-alloy 10 \"w\u00e9n\" coins, this system would prevail until the year Xianfeng 10 (1860). Because of this the standard copper-alloy cash coins completely disappeared from the Chinese market while all standard prices kept using them as a base unit of account leading to a price increase of 500% when paying with Daqian cash coins and Da-Qing Baochao cash notes. This had an immediate negative effect on the soldiers of the banner armies as the central government was forced to pay the soldiers in grain to prevent a famine. The collapse of the iron Daqian cash coins had an immediate effect on the Da-Qing Baochao banknotes as large denomination iron cash coins served as the reserve of the cash notes issued by the Yu banks, which in turn handled the exchange of the Da-Qing Baochao series. This resulted in the cash notes issued by the Yu banks to become quickly depreciated and by extend the Da-Qing Baochao. The Yu banks went bankrupt and were forced to close their doors, this failure led to privately produced banknotes which were valued 4 times as much as the government-issued banknotes on the market further ushering in a decline for the Da-Qing Baochao."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Under the Xuantong Emperor both traditional copper cash coins, and modern machine-struck coins continued to be minted simultaneously, though only the Ministry of Revenue in Beijing and a few provincial mints continued to cast traditional cash coins as most mints had started to exclusively produce machined coins, and Kucha was the only mint still operating in Xinjiang casting \"red cash\" under the Xuantong Emperor. Under the Xuantong Emperor Beijing's 2 central government operated mints would close. In 1910 new machine-made coins were issued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "In January of the year 1855 the province of Zhili started casting iron cash coins, a trial casting for a single year was to deliver 120,000 strings of standard cash coins to be brought to Beijing. This work was then carried out by one of the Chinese branch mints with 10 furnaces that was located just outside of the western suburbs of Baoding by the Lingyu Temple (\u9748\u96f2\u5bae). In May of the year 1857, the four existing copper furnaces of the main Zhili provincial mint in Baoding were altered to be iron cash coin furnaces and a new iron cash coin furnace added, while at the same time 10 new furnaces for the production of iron cash coins was added to the Zhili branch mint. The Zhili provincial mint had ceased the production of 10 \"w\u00e9n\" iron cash coins in June 1857."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "While initially iron cash coins were mainly minted by the Ministry of Revenue mint and Ministry of Public Works mint in Beijing, afterwards the government of the Qing dynasty established a specific iron cash coins mint, known as the iron cash office (\u9435\u9322\u5c40). The iron cash office also stored the iron cash coins. While the actual production numbers of iron cash coins remains unclear because of the limited entries about them in the records maintained by the Qing treasury, Peng Xinwei estimated, based on information he had gathered from Qing government memorials, that there had been an average annual production of 1,808,160 strings of iron cash coins between the year 1854 and 1855 and an annual production of 1,360,920 strings of iron cash coins during the years 1856 until 1859."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese burial money",
        "text": "During the Tang dynasty period clay coins weren't exclusively produced as burial coins, as there was an area that was declared to be a form of \"autonomous region\" in what is today known as Hebei that at the time was under the dominion of Liu Rengong, a local warlord. Thus autonous region manufactured both clay cash coins and iron cash coins, Liu Rengong would then force the inhabitants of his territory to trade in their older bronze cash coins for these new low intrinsic value cash coins. This experiment is a rare case in the monetary history of China where clay cash coins were officially produced by a government for circulation and not exclusively for funeral use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "The nominal value of both the Daqian and the \"guan-hao qianpiao\" did not reflect reality, as for example in the year 1861 one would get only 7,500 \"w\u00e9n\" in cash coins (or 750 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins) when cashing in government-issued cash notes of 15,000 \"w\u00e9n\". Furthermore, unlike physical cash coins, the \"string of cash coins\" currency unit, or \"di\u00e0o\" (\u540a), was used to represent 1000 \"w\u00e9n\" in government documents, but only 500 physical cash coins were paid out per paper string. In the year 1854 as the copper reserves of the Qing dynasty were being depleted the government of the Qing dynasty began issuing iron Daqian known as \"tieqian\" (\u9421\u9322). The process under which the Xianfeng inflation unfolded revealed as much about the capacity of the government of the Qing dynasty to coerce as the constraint in its monetary management. Only a few years after the introduction of the above currencies, they would all start being heavily discounted on the market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Issued by Wang Yanxi:\n* Yonglong Tongbao () have the character \"Min\" () on the reverse and comes from the Fujian region. There is a crescent below. It is made of iron and dates from 942. One of these large Yong Long coins was worth 10 small coins and 100 lead coins. A string of 500 of these poorly made Min iron coins were popularly called a \"kao\" ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Because copper-alloy cash coins had very little value they were not likely to be used as a store of value and because moving them was very heavy and expensive, copper-alloy cash coins were also not used that often for long distance trade due to their inconvenience. This meant that when large denomination cash coins were overvalued, the Chinese people were far more likely to melt these cash coins down for counterfeiting than they would try to export them to other regions. This also made it more likely for the copper-alloy cash coins that originated from the regions in close proximity to Beijing to send their cash coins to the city to be melted into counterfeit Daqian."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "In the year 1433, due to the devaluation of the Da-Ming Baochao banknotes, the government of the Ming dynasty resumed the casting of cash coins again. The casting of these new Xuande Tongbao cash coins was divided between the two Ministry of Public Works mints in both capital cities. Furthermore, Xuande Tongbao cash coins were also produced at the branch mints in Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Fujian, and Guangdong. The official production of cash coins ceased once again for seven decades in 1435 and the private production of copper-alloy cash coins would once again become commonplace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "In the year 1890 the government of the Qing dynasty decided that \"red cash coins\" should circulate in both southern and northern Xinjiang and that they were to be equivalent of 1.2 \"qi\u00e1n\" or 1.0 \"qi\u00e1n\" standard cash coins of the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "In the year 1503 under the Hongzhi Emperor the production of cash coins was resumed and the Zhiqian were given a standard weight of 1.2 \"qi\u00e1n\", the government stipulated that for each catty of pure copper two taels of \"haoyin\" (\u597d\u935a, \"superior tin\") was to be added to the alloy of these coins. As the government of the Ming dynasty had closed its coin mints for such a long period of time, the government was forced to pardon illegal producers and hire them as mint workers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Only a single entry in the Qing government archive mentions them from this point, as it is stated that in the year 1856 the government of the Qing dynasty had 431,515.849 strings of iron cash coins deposited in the imperial treasury vault. This entry may be seen as supplementary evidence to suggest that copper-alloy cash coinage had almost completely disappeared in or before this year. Iron cash coins would soon become valueless and the coinage was ultimately suspended in the year 1859."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "Standard copper-alloy cash coins were cast by using models, known as \"fanzhu\" (\u7b35\u9444), in these state-operated mints, of which there were two in the city of Beijing, and one in almost each provincial capital city. Zhiqian were to be produced in casting rounds, known as \"m\u01ceo\" (\u536f), these casting rounds had a predefined number of cash coins to be produced, copying the imperial standard with their exact standardised dimensions and metallic compositions. The obverse side of the standard cash coin would always contain the current reign era name with \"Tongbao\" (\u901a\u5bf6) inscribed on it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Supreme Commander Ma Yin:\n* Tiance Fubao () are made of iron. Ma Yin, originally a carpenter, was given the rank of Supreme Commander of Tiance, Hunan, by Emperor Zhu Wen of the Later Liang, and minted this coin in 911 to commemorate the event. Ma Yin later became King Wumu of Chu.\n* Qianfeng Quanbao () are made of iron. According to the histories, because there was much lead and iron in Hunan, Ma Yin took the advice of his minister Gao Yu to cast lead and iron coins at Changsha in 925. One of these was worth ten copper cash, and their circulation was confined to Changsha. Merchants traded in these coins, to the benefit of the State. In 2000, a hoard of over 3,000 of these coins was found near Changsha. Extremely rare bronze specimens are also known.\n* Guangzheng Tongbao () are made of bronze and iron. The bronze coins were cast by Meng Chang from the beginning of this period, 938. In 956, iron coins began to be cast to cover additional military expenses. They circulated until 963."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "In the year 1801 the government of the Qing dynasty set the quota on the copper to be collected in the southern circuit of Xinjiang to 21,100 \"jin\", of this copper a total of 2,600 strings of p\u016bl cash coins were to be manufactured. Each of these cash coins were set to have a weight of 1.2 \"qi\u00e1n\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "During the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor the government of the Qing dynasty introduced a number of currency reforms that re-introduced multiple denominations, these large denomination cash coins were referred to as Daqian (\"big cash\"). These cash coins were produced until the year 1890 and the standard 1 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coin would become the norm again until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911. Xianfeng era Zhiqian (or 1 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins) were cast of copper, iron, and zinc. All Xianfeng era Zhiqian had the obverse inscription Xianfeng Tongbao (\u54b8\u8c50\u901a\u5bf6)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Although the output of copper currency had expanded immensely by 1085, some fifty copper mines were shut down between the years 1078 and 1085. Although there were on average more copper mines found in Northern Song China than in the previous Tang dynasty, this case was reversed during the Southern Song with a sharp decline and depletion of mined copper deposits by 1165. Even though copper cash was abundant in the late 11th century, Chancellor Wang Anshi's tax substitution for corv\u00e9e labor and government takeover of agricultural finance loans meant that people now had to find additional cash, driving up the price of copper money which would become scarce. To make matters worse, large amounts of government-issued copper currency exited the country via international trade, while the Liao dynasty and Western Xia actively pursued the exchange of their iron-minted coins for Song copper coins. As evidenced by an 1103 decree, the Song government became cautious about its outflow of iron currency into the Liao Empire when it ordered that the iron was to be alloyed with tin in the smelting process, thus depriving the Liao of a chance to melt down the currency to make iron weapons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cash (Chinese coin)",
        "text": "During most of their history the cast cash coins of China were predominantly made from bronze or other copper-alloys such as brass. However, other materials had at different times in Chinese history also been used for the manufacture of cash coins such as iron (see Tieqian), lead, silver, and gold. While silver and gold were also used for other currencies in Chinese history, as it has in most other cultures around the world, but also cowry shells, clay, bone, jade, iron, lead, tin, and bamboo (see Bamboo tally) were also materials that have been used for money at various points in Chinese history. Iron cash coins and lead cash coins were often used in cases when there was an insufficient supply of copper. 2 iron cash coins were usually worth only a single bronze cash coin. Because of oxidation, iron cash coins are rarely in very good condition today, especially if they were excavated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "Under the Xuantong Emperor \"Red Cash\" with the inscription Xuantong Tongbao (\u5ba3\u7d71\u901a\u5bf6) continued to be produced but at lower number than before at the Kucha mint, this was as the Kucha mint was the only mint still operating in Xinjiang at the time, but as the Kucha mint closed down in 1911 a year before the fall of the Qing dynasty the production of \"Red Cash\" officially ended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Many provinces were still slow to adopt machine mints, often due to the high costs associated with them, the machine mint of Tianjin cost 27,000 taels of silver but the cost of making a single string of machine-struck 1 \"qi\u00e1n\" cash coins more than twice as high as their face value forcing the Tianjin mint to buy more furnaces until it eventually had to close down in 1900."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xin dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Specimens of Huo Quan cash coins exist which are made of iron or iron-alloys. Some of these Huo Quan cash coins tend to have no inscription at all. Others Huo Quan cash coins exist as two cash coins that are joined together because during their production process they were never chiselled apart from each other after being removed from the coin mould."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "During the second month of the year 1854 the government of the Qing dynasty supplemented the already debased coinage system with iron cash coins. The intrinsic value of iron cash coins was substantially lower than that of even the copper-alloy Zhiqian and Daqian. The aim the government had with the introduction of iron cash coins was to provide small change for a market that highly demanded it, as the Chinese market was already flooded with large denomination cash coinage and the Zhiqian 1 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins) by this point had become a rarity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "Xinjiang already had a rich history of its own Chinese-style coinage, red cash coins are a continuation of this history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "In July 1854 a superintendent of the Ministry of Revenue mint reported that different metals like gold, silver, copper, iron, and zinc are alike when used and believed that if copper could be substituted for iron, iron could be substituted for zinc. The Ministry of Revenue mint initiated trial castings of zinc cash coins, but caused the mint staff to be anxious over the fact that zinc cash coinage is very brittle and easy to break. It was then decided to make cash coins with an alloy of 80% (brittle) zinc and 20% (soft) lead, as these zinc-alloy cash coins would then be better to circulate and would be more acceptable for the people. It was then proposed to replace the monthly production of 2 \"m\u01ceo\" (\u536f) of Zhiqian with the zinc-alloy cash coins because the Ministry of Revenue mint had zinc in store, which would immediately allow the mint to save 100,000 catty of copper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "By the late Qing dynasty it had become apparent that carrying strings of cash coins was inconvenient compared to modern currencies. In 1900, 8 shillings converted into 32.6587 kilograms of copper cash coins and it was noted that if one of the straw strings holding the coins would break that it would cost more picking those coins up in time than the value retrieved from those coins. This was one of the many different factors leading Chinese people to more readily accept the modernisation of the currency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "In the year 1570 during the reign of the Longqing Emperor cash coins with a weight of 1.3 \"qi\u00e1n\" were once again cast until the death of the emperor in 1572."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Five Metal Value Ten coins are Chinese cash coins that were issued by the Ministry of Revenue made from an alloy of tin, iron, copper, silver, and gold. They contain the obverse inscriptions Tongzhi Zhongbao (\u540c\u6cbb\u91cd\u5bf6) or Guangxu Zhongbao (\u5149\u7dd2\u91cd\u5bf6) and are all based on 10 \"w\u00e9n\" Daqian. These special cash coins notably contain the mint marks of Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Ili, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Yunnan, Zhejiang, and Zhili despite no Daqian from these periods being produced at any of these mints. These special cash coins were created to serve as a new year's present.\n* Vietnamese v\u0103n (currency unit)\n* Hartill, David, \"Qing cash\", Royal Numismatic Society Special Publication 37, London, 2003.\n* Peng Xinwei (\u5f6d\u4fe1\u5a01) (1954 [2007]). \"Zhongguo huobi shi\" (\u4e2d\u570b\u8ca8\u5e63\u53f2) (Shanghai: Qunlian chubanshe), 580\u2013581, 597\u2013605. (in Mandarin Chinese).\n* Peng Xinwei (\u5f6d\u4fe1\u5a01) (1994) \"A monetary history of China\" (translated by Edward H. Kaplan). Western Washington University (Bellingham, Washington)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "The initial alloy was fixed at 70% copper, known as \"hongtong\" (\u7d05\u9285) and 30% of zinc, known as \"baiqian\" (\u767d\u925b). The two imperial mints in Beijing were the only places where official standard cash coins were manufactured during the early years of the Qing dynasty period. The later official alloy was altered to 60% copper and 40% zinc and/or lead, but the actual compositions would \"de facto\" be determined by the private market, causing the government of the Qing dynasty to alter the official copper-alloy of the Zhiqian over time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Daqian (Traditional Chinese: \u5927\u9322, \"big cash\") are large-denomination cash coins produced in the Qing dynasty starting from 1853 until 1890. Large denomination cash coins were previously used in earlier Chinese dynasties and had faced similar issues as 19th-century Daqian. The term referred to cash coins with a denomination of 4 \"w\u00e9n\" or higher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianlong Tongbao",
        "text": "As the Qianlong Emperor ordered in 1775 that 20% of all cash coins cast in Xinjiang should bear the inscription \"Qianlong Tongbao\" even after the end of his reign as an \"eternal reminder\" of the Manchu conquest of the region, for this reason the majority of \"red cash coins\" with this inscription were actually produced after the Qianlong era as their production lasted until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 making many of them hard to attribute. Under the Jiaqing Emperor the cash coins produced by the Aksu Mint continued using the description \"Qianlong Tongbao\" and made up 20% of all cash coins produced in this era in Aksu. The ratio of Qianlong Tongbao cash coins produced in Xinjiang after the death of the Qianlong Emperor increased at certain times to 30% or even 40%. As so many Qianlong Tongbao cash coins were produced in Xinjiang until 1911 the vast majority of Xinjiang cash coins with this inscription were produced after the Qianlong period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "The melting down of copper artifacts which were of great historical and religious significance upset a number Conservative government officials, which further added to the already ad reputation of the Tianqi Tongbao cash coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianlong Tongbao",
        "text": "The Qianlong era saw the founding of the Zhili mint in the city of Baoding (\u4fdd\u5b9a) as well as several mints in the newly conquered region of Xinjiang, some of these mints oversaw the production of \"red cash coins\" (\u7d05\u9322) which were made of nearly pure copper. In the middle of the Qianlong era as much as 3,700,000 strings of cash were produced annually. Early Qianlong Tongbao cash coins contained no tin and were referred to as \"yellow cash coins\" (\u9ec3\u9322), however in 1740 2% tin was added and in 1741 coins were ordered to be made of an alloy of 50% copper, 41.5% zinc, 6.5% lead, and 2% tin to reduce the likelihood of people melting down coins to make utensils, did not allow to reuse the material because it would become brittle and objects would more easily break. All while the Qing government encouraged to sell their utensils to the state mints to be melted into coinage, these cash coins are commonly referred to as \"green cash coins\" (\u9752\u9322) even though their colour appears to be just as yellow as the earlier cash coins. The production cost of these new Qianlong Tongbao cash coins was about 15% of the material value and their intrinsic value exceeded their nominal one. Yet in actuality not all provincial mints followed the imperial directive to change the alloy of the coinage and continued to produce the cheaper copper-zinc alloy which was used before. From this period onwards the Ministry of Public Works Mint manufactured 12,490 strings of cash coins annually (with 1,000 cash coins per string)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "The government of the Ming dynasty attempted to collect all older cash coins and to recast them into 1 \"w\u00e9n\" coins with a weight of 1 \"qi\u00e1n\" (which is about 3.7 grams in the metric system)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jiaozi (currency)",
        "text": "Long after being abolished the Jiaozi continued to circulate until in 1256 a currency reform replaced the leftover Jiaozi banknotes and remaining iron cash coins with the Huizi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianzhuang",
        "text": "Throughout Chinese history cash coins were put on strings in 10 groups of (supposedly) 100 cash coins each, these strings were separated by a knot between each group. During the Qing dynasty period strings of cash coins rarely actually contained 1000 cash coins and usually had something like 950 or 980 or a similar quantity, these amounts were due to local preferences rather than being random in any form. In the larger cities \"qianzhuang\" would make specific strings of cash coins for specific markets. The \"qianzhuang\" existed because at the time there were many different kinds of cash coins circulating in China including old Chinese cash coins from previous dynasties (\u53e4\u9322), Korean cash coins, Japanese cash coins (\u502d\u9322), Vietnamese cash coins, large and small genuine Qing dynasty cash coins, and different kinds of counterfeits, such as illegally private minted cash coins. Some of these strings would contain exclusively genuine Zhiqian, while other strings could contain between 30% and 50% of counterfeit and underweight cash coins. The actual number of cash coins on a string and the percentage of counterfeits in a string was generally known to everyone who resided in that town by the type of knots that were used. Each of these different kind of strings of cash coins fulfilled different functions. For example, one string of cash coins was acceptable to be used in a local grain market while it would not be accepted at a meat market, while another type of string was able to be used in both markets while not to pay for taxes. The \"qianzhuang\" sorted all cash coins into very specific categories, then they would make up appropriate kinds of strings that were intended for use in specific markets or to pay for taxes to the government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Chinese coinage",
        "text": "Issued by Wang Yanzheng:\n* Tian De tong bao () are made of iron. When Wang Yanzheng was proclaimed Emperor, he changed the name of the kingdom to Yin, but later restored the name of Min. One of these iron coins, which were cast in 944, was worth 100 ordinary cash."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "During the Guangxu era \"red cash coins\" with the \"Boo Ciowan\" () mint marks were produced in Xinjiang, but these cash coins were not produced by the Ministry of Revenue Mint in Beijing, these Hongqian were likely produced by the Aksu Mint and/or the Kucha Mint for circulation in the Ili region. One theory is that this might have been the local idea of what \"a regulation cash coin\" (\u5236\u9322) looks like and that this mint mark was used to instill more trust into these Hongqian."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "Other terms used during the Ming dynasty for various types of cash coins include \"yangqian\" (\u6837\u9322, \"Model coin\"), also known as \"Beiqian\" (\u5317\u9322, \"Northern coin\"), which referred to full weight (1 \"qi\u00e1n\") and fine quality cash coins had were delivered to Beijing as seigniorage revenue. \"Fengqian\" (\u4ff8\u9322, \"Stipend coin\") which referred to second rate cash coins that had a weight of 0.9 \"qi\u00e1n\" and were distributed through the salaries of government officials and emoluments. and \"Shangqian\" (\u8cde\u9322, \"Tip money\") which is a term used to refer to cash coins that were small, thin, and very fragile (comparable to \"Sizhuqian\") that were used to pay the wages of employees of the imperial government (including the mint workers themselves) and was one of the most commonly circulating types of cash coins during the Ming dynasty among the general population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chengjia",
        "text": "Gongsun Shu abolished Han dynasty copper coins and issued his own Wu Zhu coins for Chengjia, which resemble the Han Wu Zhu coins but are made of iron, possibly because Sichuan was then China's dominant producer of the metal. However, the change of currency proved unpopular with the people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "In the year 1859 the 50 \"w\u00e9n\" and 100 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins were officially discontinued, the Kucha mint then started collecting them for re-casting them into 10 \"w\u00e9n\" Daqian, a single string of either denomination could produce 3 strings of 10 \"w\u00e9n\" Daqian."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xin dynasty coinage",
        "text": "The \"Small Coin, Value One\" and \"Large Coin, Fifty\" cash coins are fairly common, but all the other cash coins of the \"six coins\" are rare today. The Daquan Wushi (\u5927\u6cc9\u4e94\u5341, \"Large Coin, Fifty\") exists in many sizes and varieties. Some rarer Daquan Wushi have a \"si chu\" (\u56db\u51fa) design, this design has four outward lines extending from the square centre hole towards the outer rim."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "Despite the government preferring paper money over copper-alloy cash coins, the Chinese market had a high demand for them, this demand would stimulate an overproduction of forgeries that inundated the markets of Ming China, often these forged cash coins were cast in such miserable quality that a single real Zhiqian could buy 300 fake ones. Consequently, this caused inflation in many different places."
      },
      {
        "title": "Southern Song dynasty coinage",
        "text": "In the year 1173 during the reign of Emperor Xiaozong the period title was proclaimed to be Chunxi with the \"Chun\" written as \"\u7eaf\". Only six days later after this proclamation, the \"Chun\" was officially changed to be written in Hanzi as \"\u6df3\".\u00a0The Tongan mint in the Anhui region produced a very small quantity of Chunxi Yuanbao (\u7eaf\u7199\u5143\u5bf6) iron cash coins with the chun written as \"\u7eaf\".\u00a0 These diminutive iron coins today are considered to be very rare. Furthermore, during the beginning of the Chunxi period, bronze cash coins produced from this era and continuing to the very end of the Southern Song dynasty, tended to have their inscriptions (or legends) written in a form of Chinese calligraphy that is today known as the \"Song style script\" or \"regular script\".\u00a0For this reason, there are in fact fewer number of varieties of bronze Song dynasty cash coins from this period onwards compared to those from earlier periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cash (Chinese coin)",
        "text": "The square hole in the middle of cash coins served to allow for them to be strung together in strings of 1000 cash coins and valued at 1 tael of silver (but variants of regional standards as low as 500 cash coins per string also existed), 1000 coins strung together were referred to as a \"chu\u00e0n\" (\u4e32) or \"di\u00e0o\" (\u540a) and were accepted by traders and merchants per string because counting the individual coins would cost too much time. Because the strings were often accepted without being checked for damaged coins and coins of inferior quality and copper-alloys these strings would eventually be accepted based on their nominal value rather than their weight, this system is comparable to that of a fiat currency. Because the counting and stringing together of cash coins was such a time consuming task people known as \"qi\u00e1np\u00f9\" (\u9322\u92ea) would string cash coins together in strings of 100 coins of which ten would form a single \"chu\u00e0n\". The \"qi\u00e1np\u00f9\" would receive payment for their services in the form of taking a few cash coins from every string they composed, because of this a \"chu\u00e0n\" was more likely to consist of 990 coins rather than 1000 coins and because the profession of \"qi\u00e1np\u00f9\" had become a universally accepted practice these \"chu\u00e0ns\" were often still nominally valued at 1000 cash coins. The number of coins in a single string was locally determined as in one district a string could consist of 980 cash coins, while in another district this could only be 965 cash coins, these numbers were based on the local salaries of the \"qi\u00e1np\u00f9\". During the Qing dynasty the \"qi\u00e1np\u00f9\" would often search for older and rarer coins to sell these to coin collectors at a higher price."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "Peng Xinwei estimated that during the late Qing dynasty period, the total copper sector (copper coins including standard cash and the new Da-Qing Tongbi minted after the year 1900) constituted only 17% of the total money in circulation in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kangxi Tongbao",
        "text": "In 1684 the ratio of copper to zinc in the alloys in the Kangxi Tongbao cash coins was reduced from 70% to 60% all while the standard weight was lowered to 1 \"qi\u00e1n\" again and were known as Zhongqian (\u91cd\u9322), while the central government's mints in Beijing started producing cash coins with a weight of 0.7 \"qi\u00e1n\" known as Xiaoqian (\u5c0f\u9322) or Qingqian (\u8f15\u9322). The Kangxi Tongbao was officially fixed against silver with a ratio of 1000 Zhongqian per tael of silver in an attempt to establish a bimetallic system. The Xiaoqian were only worth 0.7 tael of silver per string of 1000 coins (which would equate to 14.3 Xiaoqian per fen of silver), however by the middle of the eighteenth century the Xiaoqian disappeared from circulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Chinese cash coins by inscription",
        "text": "Under the Southern Song dynasty it became customary to add the date of issue on the reverse of the coin and as copper shortages and phenomena known as \"currency famines\" (\u9322\u8352) plagued the land both iron cash coins and paper money (in the form of Jiaozi, Guanzi, and Huizi notes) became more common leading to a decline of the production of bronze coinage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "During the Guangxu period posthumous Daoguang Tongbao \"red cash coins\" of 10 \"w\u00e9n\" were produced in Xinjiang."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "Initially, the Da-Qing Baochao banknotes were able to be redeemed through the local Yu, Ch'ien and T'ien banks in a proportion of Zhiqian (\u5236\u9322, \"standard cash coins\"), Daqian (\u5927\u9322, \"big cash\"), silver, or the Hubu Guanpiao tael notes as was officially set by government regulation. As an example Manchu bannermen were to be paid in 8 parts ordinary cash coins to 2 parts large denomination cash coins, while members of the imperial household received 6 strings (\u4e32, \"chu\u00e0n\") of standard cash coins for each 10 strings which were disbursed. Comparatively, government contractors and private merchants tended to receive more multi-denomination cash coins over standard cash coins due to their lower position. Under inflationary pressure the Chinese government wasn't able to maintain parity for its currencies. By the year Xianfeng 5 (1855) the majority of the high denomination cash coins were abolished because it was both being deprecated at a rapid paste and there was an epidemic of counterfeiting. At this point the higher denomination which still continued to be produced and circulate was the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coin, though it was only worth 70% of its nominal value on the market. During this period both the Da-Qing Baochao and Hubu Guanpiao banknotes were worth only 50% their nominal value. Privately produced cash notes around the same time were fixed to the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" Daqian and lost 60% of their value between the years 1852 and 1856. Both government issued banknotes and Yu Bank issued banknotes were only valued half that of privately issued banknotes in 1856."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "At the introduction of red cash system in Southern Xinjiang in 1760, the exchange rate of standard cash (or \"yellow cash\") and \"red cash\" was set at 10 standard cash coins were worth 1 \"red cash coin\". During two or three subsequent years this exchange rate was decreased to 5:1. When used in the Northern or Eastern circuits of Xinjiang, the \"red cash coins\" were considered equal in value as the standard cash coins that circulated there. The areas where the Dzungar p\u016bls had most circulated such as Yarkant, Hotan, and Kashgar were the sites of mints operated by the Qing government, as the official mint of the Dzungar Khanate was in the city of Yarkent the Qing used this mint to cast the new \"red cash coins\" and new mints were established in Aksu and Ili. As the Jiaqing Emperor ordered that 10% of all cash coins cast in Xinjiang should bear the inscription \"Qianlong Tongbao\" the majority of \"red cash coins\" with this inscription were actually produced after the Qianlong era as their production lasted until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 making many of them hard to attribute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "Under the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor \"Red Cash\" coins were excessively manufactured negating the reforms implemented by the Daoguang Emperor causing inflation in the region. As the Taiping rebellion and the Second Opium War had prompted the Qing government to start issuing high denomination cash coins in other parts of the Qing dynasty, this soon spread to Xinjiang mainly due to the decreased subsidies for military expenditures in Xinjiang lowering the soldiers' salaries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Southern Song dynasty coinage",
        "text": "The Southern Song dynasty saw the emergence of paper money, while coins were increasingly becoming a rarity. Iron cash coins also started to be used in greater numbers, at first due to the lack of copper, but later even as more copper was found the production of iron cash coins remained cheaper and an abundance of iron made it more attractive for the government to produce, while several problems such as the fact that iron is harder to inscribe, and that iron corrodes faster ensured the continued production of copper cash coins. Despite the chronic shortages of copper the Southern Song used special coins as a form of psychological warfare against Jin army defectors, and copper coins (and later silver sycees) would remain the standard of administration even for the newly introduced paper money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Both the inflationary policy of debasing the copper currencies and the issuance of inconvertible paper money were also largely confined to the Beijing capital region and the immediate neighbouring provinces, this was due to the Qing government's limited political control over much of China at the time of Taiping Rebellion. During this era the introduction of the \"big cash coins\" unit in the capital city made interregional a lot more difficult to conduct because of the regional currency units that existed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "Until the Kangxi Tongbao (\u5eb7\u7199\u901a\u5bf6) the official composition of the Zhiqian remained at 60% copper and 40% zinc and/or lead, the Yongzheng Tongbao (\u96cd\u6b63\u901a\u5bf6) cash coins had a composition of 50% copper and 50% zinc and/or lead, and the Qianlong Tongbao (\u4e7e\u9686\u901a\u5bf6) had an additional 2% tin added to their official alloy. The Zhiqian that contained tin were referred to as Qingqian (\u9752\u9322, \"green cash\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ming dynasty coinage",
        "text": "In the early 17th century an increase in the price of copper caused the government to reduce the amount of copper in the composition of the Zhiqian in favour of lead. Cash coins with the inscriptions Tianqi Tongbao (\u5929\u555f\u901a\u5bf6) and Chongzhen Tongbao (\u5d07\u798e\u901a\u5bf6) were of poorer quality than those producing during preceding periods, these cash coins tended to be both thin and bristle, due to the lowered amount of copper in their compositions. Chinese people at this point started to refrain from using copper-alloy cash coins and the markets preferred the usage of silver ingots instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Chinese coinage",
        "text": "No coins were produced with the \"Qian Xing\" period title, which only lasted one year, 1022.\n* Tian Sheng yuan bao () (1023\u20131031). Written in seal, regular and \"li\" script.\n* Ming Dao yuan bao () (1032\u20131033). Written in seal and regular script. There are iron coins with this inscription.\n* Jing You yuan bao () (1034\u20131038). Written in seal and regular script. There are both small and large iron coins.\n* Huang Song tong bao () (1039\u20131054) use seal and regular script, and have many variations. They are made of iron and have two forms with either small or large characters. The small character iron coins are associated with casting in Shaanxi and Shanxi in the Qing Li period (from 1044). The large character iron coins are associated with Sichuan mints."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "The standard Xuantong Tongbao (\u5ba3\u7d71\u901a\u5bf6) cash coins produced at the Ministry of Revenue mint between the years 1909 and 1910 had a weight of 6 \"f\u0113n\" and were both cast and machine-struck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Until the year 1890 the imperial government mints in Beijing continued producing Guangxu Zhongbao (\u5149\u7dd2\u91cd\u5bf6) Daqian of 10 \"w\u00e9n\", until they were superseded by the Da-Qing Tongbi coins which would fulfil the same role in the monetary system of China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "In the year 1853 the production of large denomination cash coins commenced at the Kucha Mint, these \"red cash coins\" were produced using local weight standards and not the ones set by the Ministry of Revenue because of their high copper content. In the year 1855 new denominations of 4 w\u00e9n and 8 w\u00e9n were introduced at the Yining mint, further the \u00dcr\u00fcmqi mint started issuing cash coins with high denominations in response. New mints were established at Kucha, and Kashgar while the Yarkant mint was re-opened. Coins also started being cast in bronze, brass, lead, and iron; this system received a chaotic response from Xinjiang's market. The Xianfeng era \"red cash coins\" produced at the Kashgar mint contain an obscure vertically written vorm of Arabic script."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jin dynasty coinage (1115\u20131234)",
        "text": "In the beginning iron coins continued to circulate but this had become to be perceived as an inconvenience so the Jin government ordered the immediate ban on melting down copper for usage other than currency, and was quick to open more copper mines to manage the production of copper coinage. 3 mints were opened that together produced 140,000 strings of coins a year (or 140,000,000 cash coins annually), after inflation had become a problem this production became less profitable for the Jin government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianlong Tongbao",
        "text": "As a reminder to the people of Xinjiang that the Manchus conquered the region one in five cash coins produced in that region after the death of the Qianlong Emperor was ordered to bear the inscription \"Qianlong Tongbao\" (Emperor Qianlong Money), as a consequence cash coins with this inscription continued to be produced until the end of the dynasty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "The government attempted to prohibit the use of copper currency in border regions and in seaports, but the Song-issued copper coin became common in the Liao, Western Xia, Japanese, and Southeast Asian economies. The Song government would turn to other types of material for its currency in order to ease the demand on the government mint, including the issuing of iron coinage and paper banknotes. In the year 976, the percentage of issued currency using copper coinage was 65%; after 1135, this had dropped significantly to 54%, a government attempt to debase the copper currency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shengbao (currency)",
        "text": "During the Great Leap Forward, Communist Party chairman Mao Zedong had encouraged every Chinese commune and urban neighbourhood to build their own backyard steel furnaces; this policy was proclaimed in the party's five-year plan in order to further accelerate China's economic and industrial development. In the villages \"scrap iron\" was to be collected for building these furnaces; this \"scrap iron\" was often collected from usable iron utensils and other iron tools. In one Chinese village a technician collecting the iron to build the local furnace received a string of between ten and twenty Taiping Heavenly Kingdom iron cash coins to be melted down to make the furnace; the technician thought that destroying these cash coins would be \"a waste\" and hid them in his pocket and secretly brought them to his house. Later these iron cash coins passed down to his descendants.\n* Qing dynasty coinage"
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "Prior to the Manchu conquest of China, the Later Jin dynasty already produced its own cash coins with the inscriptions Abkai fulingga han jiha (), Tianming Tongbao (\u5929\u547d\u901a\u5bf6), and Sure han ni jiha ()."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are iron cash coins still used today?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "I'm sorry, but I could not find the information you requested. However, I did find that the last government attempt at issuing iron cash coins occurred during the 1850s the under the reign of the Manchu Qing dynasty."
    ],
    "topic": "Tieqian",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Tieqian:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tieqian"
        ],
        "ctx": "While the earlier recorded iron cash coins in Chinese history were Wu Zhu's (\u4e94\u9296, 118 BC\u2013618 AD), the unearthing or iron Ban Liang (\u534a\u5169) cash coins produced during the Western Han dynasty during the 1950s indicates that they may have been much older than first thought. The largest number of iron cash coins would be produced during the Song dynasty period as a result of a scarcity of copper and high military expenditures, among other reasons. The last government attempt at issuing iron cash coins occurred during the 1850s the under the reign of the Manchu Qing dynasty."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Only a single entry in the Qing government archive mentions them from this point, as it is stated that in the year 1856 the government of the Qing dynasty had 431,515.849 strings of iron cash coins deposited in the imperial treasury vault. This entry may be seen as supplementary evidence to suggest that copper-alloy cash coinage had almost completely disappeared in or before this year. Iron cash coins would soon become valueless and the coinage was ultimately suspended in the year 1859."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "The reserves that the government of the Qing dynasty had set aside for those who would redeem the Da-Qing Baochao banknotes turned out to be too low to meet the demand. During some audits conducted by the Ministry of Revenue their turned out to be major irregularities with the reserves held by the private and provincial note issuing banks. Eventually, the Chinese government would abandon any policy other than one of keeping their banknotes in general circulation by forcing them on the Chinese population under a continued threat of punishments and penalties and also by making their redemption by its holders as difficult as possible. The complete crash of the new currency systems occurred during the winter of Xianfeng 6 (1856) all the way into Xianfeng 7 (1857). The iron 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coin drastically declined in its value, one of the reasons for this was the fact that it was being counterfeited on a large scale. At this time both peasants and merchants from the province of Zhili stopped accepting the coin as a form of payment. After in the spring of Xianfeng 7 (1857) the convertibility of Hubu Guanpiao tael notes into Da-Qing Baochao cash notes was partly restored by the lot method at the Yu banks. The Ministry of Revenue had attempted to stop the large scale counterfeiting and to force the provincial governments of China to start accepting both iron and copper-alloy Daqian cash coins and Da-Qing Baochao cash notes for tax payments, but quickly abandoned proposing iron Daqian cash coins and settled on a cash coin system of iron 1 \"w\u00e9n\" coins and copper-alloy 10 \"w\u00e9n\" coins, this system would prevail until the year Xianfeng 10 (1860). Because of this the standard copper-alloy cash coins completely disappeared from the Chinese market while all standard prices kept using them as a base unit of account leading to a price increase of 500% when paying with Daqian cash coins and Da-Qing Baochao cash notes. This had an immediate negative effect on the soldiers of the banner armies as the central government was forced to pay the soldiers in grain to prevent a famine. The collapse of the iron Daqian cash coins had an immediate effect on the Da-Qing Baochao banknotes as large denomination iron cash coins served as the reserve of the cash notes issued by the Yu banks, which in turn handled the exchange of the Da-Qing Baochao series. This resulted in the cash notes issued by the Yu banks to become quickly depreciated and by extend the Da-Qing Baochao. The Yu banks went bankrupt and were forced to close their doors, this failure led to privately produced banknotes which were valued 4 times as much as the government-issued banknotes on the market further ushering in a decline for the Da-Qing Baochao."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "While the earlier recorded iron cash coins in Chinese history were Wu Zhu's (\u4e94\u9296, 118 BC\u2013618 AD), the unearthing or iron Ban Liang (\u534a\u5169) cash coins produced during the Western Han dynasty during the 1950s indicates that they may have been much older than first thought. The largest number of iron cash coins would be produced during the Song dynasty period as a result of a scarcity of copper and high military expenditures, among other reasons. The last government attempt at issuing iron cash coins occurred during the 1850s the under the reign of the Manchu Qing dynasty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Many provinces were still slow to adopt machine mints, often due to the high costs associated with them, the machine mint of Tianjin cost 27,000 taels of silver but the cost of making a single string of machine-struck 1 \"qi\u00e1n\" cash coins more than twice as high as their face value forcing the Tianjin mint to buy more furnaces until it eventually had to close down in 1900."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "In January of the year 1855 the province of Zhili started casting iron cash coins, a trial casting for a single year was to deliver 120,000 strings of standard cash coins to be brought to Beijing. This work was then carried out by one of the Chinese branch mints with 10 furnaces that was located just outside of the western suburbs of Baoding by the Lingyu Temple (\u9748\u96f2\u5bae). In May of the year 1857, the four existing copper furnaces of the main Zhili provincial mint in Baoding were altered to be iron cash coin furnaces and a new iron cash coin furnace added, while at the same time 10 new furnaces for the production of iron cash coins was added to the Zhili branch mint. The Zhili provincial mint had ceased the production of 10 \"w\u00e9n\" iron cash coins in June 1857."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "The function of iron cash coins was similar to that of Daqian, as it was primarily used as a way to continue paying the salaries of bannermen and other government workers. According to Qing government memorials, large amounts of iron cash coins were used as a means to pay salaries between the years 1856 and 1857 due to a noted justification that \"the Chinese public was craving for small change\". By the year 1856 the iron 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins were so much depreciated that they were dropped out of general circulation. From this point onwards only iron 1 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins would remain in general circulation, however, it was common for shops to deny them as a form of payment and there was extensive counterfeiting of iron cash coins, which further lowered the public's trust in them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Under the Xuantong Emperor both traditional copper cash coins, and modern machine-struck coins continued to be minted simultaneously, though only the Ministry of Revenue in Beijing and a few provincial mints continued to cast traditional cash coins as most mints had started to exclusively produce machined coins, and Kucha was the only mint still operating in Xinjiang casting \"red cash\" under the Xuantong Emperor. Under the Xuantong Emperor Beijing's 2 central government operated mints would close. In 1910 new machine-made coins were issued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "In January of the year 1855 the province of Zhili started casting iron cash coins, a trial casting for a single year was to deliver 120,000 strings of standard cash coins to be brought to Beijing. This work was then carried out by one of the Chinese branch mints with 10 furnaces that was located just outside of the western suburbs of Baoding by the Lingyu Temple (\u9748\u96f2\u5bae). In May of the year 1857, the four existing copper furnaces of the main Zhili provincial mint in Baoding were altered to be iron cash coin furnaces and a new iron cash coin furnace added, while at the same time 10 new furnaces for the production of iron cash coins was added to the Zhili branch mint. The Zhili provincial mint had ceased the production of 10 \"w\u00e9n\" iron cash coins in June 1857."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "In the year 1883 the imperial government of the Qing dynasty made an attempt to restore the copper-alloy cash coins back to their original units, because the new units had created chaos among private money shops in China who were willing to pay premium copper-alloy cash coins to call back their own privately produced banknotes that were issued in \"Beijing cash\" (Jingqian) units. This was done out of a fear of the large capital cost of having to later redeem their banknotes that were based on the previous standards of copper-alloy cash coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "The function of iron cash coins was similar to that of Daqian, as it was primarily used as a way to continue paying the salaries of bannermen and other government workers. According to Qing government memorials, large amounts of iron cash coins were used as a means to pay salaries between the years 1856 and 1857 due to a noted justification that \"the Chinese public was craving for small change\". By the year 1856 the iron 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins were so much depreciated that they were dropped out of general circulation. From this point onwards only iron 1 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins would remain in general circulation, however, it was common for shops to deny them as a form of payment and there was extensive counterfeiting of iron cash coins, which further lowered the public's trust in them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "The Southern Song dynasty saw the emergence of paper money, while coins were increasingly becoming a rarity. Iron cash coins also started to be used in greater numbers, at first due to the lack of copper, but later even as more copper was found the production of iron cash coins remained cheaper and an abundance of iron made it more attractive for the government to produce, while several problems such as the fact that iron is harder to inscribe, and that iron corrodes faster ensured the continued production of copper cash coins. From the year 1180 until the end of the Song dynasty very few bronze coins were produced by the government as the preference went to iron, this was because bronze cash coins needed to have a specific typeface which was more intricate to produce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Only a single entry in the Qing government archive mentions them from this point, as it is stated that in the year 1856 the government of the Qing dynasty had 431,515.849 strings of iron cash coins deposited in the imperial treasury vault. This entry may be seen as supplementary evidence to suggest that copper-alloy cash coinage had almost completely disappeared in or before this year. Iron cash coins would soon become valueless and the coinage was ultimately suspended in the year 1859."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "Initially, the Da-Qing Baochao banknotes were able to be redeemed through the local Yu, Ch'ien and T'ien banks in a proportion of Zhiqian (\u5236\u9322, \"standard cash coins\"), Daqian (\u5927\u9322, \"big cash\"), silver, or the Hubu Guanpiao tael notes as was officially set by government regulation. As an example Manchu bannermen were to be paid in 8 parts ordinary cash coins to 2 parts large denomination cash coins, while members of the imperial household received 6 strings (\u4e32, \"chu\u00e0n\") of standard cash coins for each 10 strings which were disbursed. Comparatively, government contractors and private merchants tended to receive more multi-denomination cash coins over standard cash coins due to their lower position. Under inflationary pressure the Chinese government wasn't able to maintain parity for its currencies. By the year Xianfeng 5 (1855) the majority of the high denomination cash coins were abolished because it was both being deprecated at a rapid paste and there was an epidemic of counterfeiting. At this point the higher denomination which still continued to be produced and circulate was the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coin, though it was only worth 70% of its nominal value on the market. During this period both the Da-Qing Baochao and Hubu Guanpiao banknotes were worth only 50% their nominal value. Privately produced cash notes around the same time were fixed to the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" Daqian and lost 60% of their value between the years 1852 and 1856. Both government issued banknotes and Yu Bank issued banknotes were only valued half that of privately issued banknotes in 1856."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "In a 1962 study Yang Duanliu cited memorials which were written to the Xianfeng Emperor which attempted to show him that his order to the provinces to keep fifty percent of their reserves in silver was ignored by provincial authorities and that the actual ratio of reserves varied substantially across different provinces. Meanwhile, some Chinese provinces did not keep any silver reserves at all, while the province of Henan (a province very close to the capital city of Beijing) did not even accept the Hubu Guanpiao banknotes they themselves issued as a form of payment for provincial taxes. Yang claims that these inadequate reserve ratios and local insubordination to imperial government laws and edicts were to blame why by the year Qixiang 1 (1862) government banknotes had completely disappeared from circulation. Jerome Ch'\u00ean meanwhile suggested that the Ministry of Revenue made the rampant inflation a lot more worse by insisting that no more than half of individual tax remittance could be made with either Da-Qing Baochao cash notes or Hubu Guanpiao tael notes with the remainder of the taxes being demanded in either cash coins or silver."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "By the late Qing dynasty it had become apparent that carrying strings of cash coins was inconvenient compared to modern currencies. In 1900, 8 shillings converted into 32.6587 kilograms of copper cash coins and it was noted that if one of the straw strings holding the coins would break that it would cost more picking those coins up in time than the value retrieved from those coins. This was one of the many different factors leading Chinese people to more readily accept the modernisation of the currency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "From the beginning of the dynasty, iron coins were extensively used in present-day Sichuan and Shaanxi where copper was not readily available. Between 976 and 984, a total of 100,000 strings of iron coins was produced in Fujian as well. In 993, for paying the land tax one iron coin was equal to one bronze, for the salary of clerks and soldiers one bronze equalled five iron coins, but in trade ten iron coins were needed for one bronze coin. In 1005, four mints in Sichuan produced over 500,000 strings of iron coins a year. This declined to 210,000 strings by the beginning of the Qingli period (1041). At this time, the mints were ordered to cast 3 million strings of iron cash to meet military expenses in Shaanxi. However, by 1056, casting was down to 100,000 strings a year, and in 1059 minting was halted for 10 years in Jiazhou and Qiongzhou, leaving only Xingzhou producing 30,000 strings a year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Iron cash coins were produced during the Han dynasty, Three Kingdoms period, Northern and Southern dynasties period, Five dynasties and Ten kingdoms period, Song dynasty, Jin dynasty (1115\u20131234), Western Xia dynasty, Ming dynasty, and Qing dynasty, but not during the Zhou dynasty, Jin dynasty (266\u2013420), Sui dynasty, Tang dynasty, Liao dynasty, and Yuan dynasty periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "While initially iron cash coins were mainly minted by the Ministry of Revenue mint and Ministry of Public Works mint in Beijing, afterwards the government of the Qing dynasty established a specific iron cash coins mint, known as the iron cash office (\u9435\u9322\u5c40). The iron cash office also stored the iron cash coins. While the actual production numbers of iron cash coins remains unclear because of the limited entries about them in the records maintained by the Qing treasury, Peng Xinwei estimated, based on information he had gathered from Qing government memorials, that there had been an average annual production of 1,808,160 strings of iron cash coins between the year 1854 and 1855 and an annual production of 1,360,920 strings of iron cash coins during the years 1856 until 1859."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "As a result of government corruption, a large number of iron cash coins were cast near the final years of Emperor Zhezong's reign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "It is possible that China first began using iron cash coins during the Western Han dynasty, this was concluded after a number of iron Ban Liang (\u534a\u5169) cash coins were unearthed in Western Han era tombs in the Hunanese cities of Hengyang and Changsha between the years 1955 and 1959. Other specimens of iron Ban Liang cash coins were also unearthed in the province of Sichuan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "During the second month of the year 1854 the government of the Qing dynasty supplemented the already debased Xianfeng coinage system with iron cash coins. The intrinsic value of iron cash coins was substantially lower than that of even the copper-alloy Zhiqian and Daqian. The aim the government had with the introduction of iron cash coins was to provide small change for a market that highly demanded it, as the Chinese market was already flooded with large denomination cash coinage and the Zhiqian 1 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins) by this point had become a rarity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "The coins produced under the Tongzhi Emperor remained of inferior quality with the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" coin being reduced from 4.4 to 3.2 \"qi\u00e1n\" in 1867. Copper shortages remained and illegal casting would only become a larger problem as the provincial mints remained closed or barely productive. The first machine-struck cash coins were also produced under the Tongzhi Emperor in Paris at the request of governour Zuo Zongtang in 1866, but the government of the Qing refused to introduce machine-made coinage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cash (Chinese coin)",
        "text": "The last Chinese cash coins were struck, not cast, during the reigns of the Qing Guangxu and Xuantong Emperors shortly before the fall of the Empire in 1911, though even after the fall of the Qing dynasty production briefly continued under the Republic of China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "In the year 1433, due to the devaluation of the Da-Ming Baochao banknotes, the government of the Ming dynasty resumed the casting of cash coins again. The casting of these new Xuande Tongbao cash coins was divided between the two Ministry of Public Works mints in both capital cities. Furthermore, Xuande Tongbao cash coins were also produced at the branch mints in Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Fujian, and Guangdong. The official production of cash coins ceased once again for seven decades in 1435 and the private production of copper-alloy cash coins would once again become commonplace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Iron cash coin mints were also planned to be opened in the cities of Tianjin, Zhengding, and Daming for the production of 1 \"w\u00e9n\" iron cash coins, but only Zhengding had established a mint for iron cash coins which had 10 furnaces in operation. In July of the year 1859 there were a total of 35 furnaces for the production of iron cash coins in the cities of Baoding and Zhengding and at that time around 1,000,000 strings of iron cash coins had been cast at both mints. Because the Chinese people weren't using iron cash coins it was reported that 30 furnaces in Zhengding (which presumably also includes the furnaces of the Zhili provincial branch mint) were to be closed. In November 1859, the remaining 5 iron cash coin furnaces situated in Baoding were also closed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianlong Tongbao",
        "text": "By the end of the Qianlong era Yunnan's copper mines started depleting the production of cash coins was lowered by the end of the Qianlong era, and the copper content was debased once more. 1794 all provincial mints were forced to close their doors, but subsequently reopened in 1796."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Iron cash coin mints were also planned to be opened in the cities of Tianjin, Zhengding, and Daming for the production of 1 \"w\u00e9n\" iron cash coins, but only Zhengding had established a mint for iron cash coins which had 10 furnaces in operation. In July of the year 1859 there were a total of 35 furnaces for the production of iron cash coins in the cities of Baoding and Zhengding and at that time around 1,000,000 strings of iron cash coins had been cast at both mints. Because the Chinese people weren't using iron cash coins it was reported that 30 furnaces in Zhengding (which presumably also includes the furnaces of the Zhili provincial branch mint) were to be closed. In November 1859, the remaining 5 iron cash coin furnaces situated in Baoding were also closed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "These denominations weren't produced in large numbers as the Qing dynasty would be overthrown by the Xinhai revolution only a year later. By the end of the Qing dynasty the government's attempts at modernising the monetary system had failed and machined coins circulated alongside traditional coinages, this situation would continue under the Republic of China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chengjia",
        "text": "Gongsun Shu abolished Han dynasty copper coins and issued his own Wu Zhu coins for Chengjia, which resemble the Han Wu Zhu coins but are made of iron, possibly because Sichuan was then China's dominant producer of the metal. However, the change of currency proved unpopular with the people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianlong Tongbao",
        "text": "As the Qianlong Emperor ordered in 1775 that 20% of all cash coins cast in Xinjiang should bear the inscription \"Qianlong Tongbao\" even after the end of his reign as an \"eternal reminder\" of the Manchu conquest of the region, for this reason the majority of \"red cash coins\" with this inscription were actually produced after the Qianlong era as their production lasted until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 making many of them hard to attribute. Under the Jiaqing Emperor the cash coins produced by the Aksu Mint continued using the description \"Qianlong Tongbao\" and made up 20% of all cash coins produced in this era in Aksu. The ratio of Qianlong Tongbao cash coins produced in Xinjiang after the death of the Qianlong Emperor increased at certain times to 30% or even 40%. As so many Qianlong Tongbao cash coins were produced in Xinjiang until 1911 the vast majority of Xinjiang cash coins with this inscription were produced after the Qianlong period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Under the Xianfeng Emperor the government of the Qing dynasty faced large crises, most notably the Taiping Rebellion, which had heavily burdened the government's expenditures, as a response the government had introduced a large number of monetary reforms including the introduction of cash coins with high nominal values, while their intrinsic values were significantly lower. These cash coins were not well received by the Chinese public and their circulation was not long as the market would reject them rather quickly after their introduction. After 1855 all denominations of the Daqian other than the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" ceased to be produced, while the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins would continue to circulate at only 20% their nominal value."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "In a 1962 study Yang Duanliu cited memorials which were written to the Xianfeng Emperor which attempted to show him that his order to the provinces to keep fifty percent of their reserves in silver was ignored by provincial authorities and that the actual ratio of reserves varied substantially across different provinces. Meanwhile, some Chinese provinces did not keep any silver reserves at all, while the province of Henan (a province very close to the capital city of Beijing) did not even accept the Hubu Guanpiao banknotes they themselves issued as a form of payment for provincial taxes. Yang claims that these inadequate reserve ratios and local insubordination to imperial government laws and edicts were to blame why by the year Qixiang 1 (1862) government banknotes had completely disappeared from circulation. Jerome Ch'\u00ean meanwhile suggested that the Ministry of Revenue made the rampant inflation a lot more worse by insisting that no more than half of individual tax remittance could be made with either Da-Qing Baochao cash notes or Hubu Guanpiao tael notes with the remainder of the taxes being demanded in either cash coins or silver."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianlong Tongbao",
        "text": "As a reminder to the people of Xinjiang that the Manchus conquered the region one in five cash coins produced in that region after the death of the Qianlong Emperor was ordered to bear the inscription \"Qianlong Tongbao\" (Emperor Qianlong Money), as a consequence cash coins with this inscription continued to be produced until the end of the dynasty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "Under the Xuantong Emperor \"Red Cash\" with the inscription Xuantong Tongbao (\u5ba3\u7d71\u901a\u5bf6) continued to be produced but at lower number than before at the Kucha mint, this was as the Kucha mint was the only mint still operating in Xinjiang at the time, but as the Kucha mint closed down in 1911 a year before the fall of the Qing dynasty the production of \"Red Cash\" officially ended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "From the year 523 onwards the government of the Liang dynasty decided to cast iron Wu Zhu cash coins due to the fact that iron was both relatively easy and not expensive to acquire in what is today Sichuan. The iron cash coins issued by the Liang dynasty are quite distinctive from other iron cash coins as they have 4 lines that radiate outwards from each corner of the square center hole which is why they're referred to as \"four corner coins\" (\u56db\u51fa\u9322, \"s\u00ec ch\u016b qi\u00e1n\"). As it became quite common for the people to cast iron cash coins privately based on these government issues it wasn't long before their quantities increased so drastically that it required cartloads of these iron Wu Zhu cash coins to pay for anything, even to this day these Wu Zhu's are quite common due to the widespread private production that plagued these iron issues. After them the Taiqing Fengle (\u592a\u6e05\u8c50\u6a02, \"Tai Qing Prosperous and Happy\") cash coin was cast under the reign of Emperor Wu, these cash coins were actually believed to be Chinese numismatic charms until recently and were named after the Taiqing period (547-549)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "In the year 1859 the 50 \"w\u00e9n\" and 100 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins were officially discontinued, the Kucha mint then started collecting them for re-casting them into 10 \"w\u00e9n\" Daqian, a single string of either denomination could produce 3 strings of 10 \"w\u00e9n\" Daqian."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "In July 1854 a superintendent of the Ministry of Revenue mint reported that different metals like gold, silver, copper, iron, and zinc are alike when used and believed that if copper could be substituted for iron, iron could be substituted for zinc. The Ministry of Revenue mint initiated trial castings of zinc cash coins, but caused the mint staff to be anxious over the fact that zinc cash coinage is very brittle and easy to break. It was then decided to make cash coins with an alloy of 80% (brittle) zinc and 20% (soft) lead, as these zinc-alloy cash coins would then be better to circulate and would be more acceptable for the people. It was then proposed to replace the monthly production of 2 \"m\u01ceo\" (\u536f) of Zhiqian with the zinc-alloy cash coins because the Ministry of Revenue mint had zinc in store, which would immediately allow the mint to save 100,000 catty of copper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongwu Tongbao",
        "text": "The production of the Hongwu Tongbao cash coins itself was started in the year 1368, bronze cash coins were cast in five denominations which included 1 w\u00e9n (\u5c0f\u5e73), 2 w\u00e9n (\u6298\u4e8c), 3 w\u00e9n (\u6298\u4e09), 5 w\u00e9n (\u6298\u4e94), and 10 w\u00e9n (\u7576\u5341), however in 1371 the production of larger sized Hongwu Tongbao and Dazhong Tongbao cash coins were discontinued due to the fact that people didn't accept them for their nominal value on the market. Between the years 1375 and 1376 the production of cash coins was completely stopped but was later resumed, however a national shortage of copper forced the government of the Ming dynasty to completely suspend the manufacture of cash coins in 1387 for a period of two years, after the mintage of Chinese cash coins was resumed in 1389 the standard weights were set where copper Hongwu Tongbao coins of 1 \"w\u00e9n\" would weigh 1 \"qi\u00e1n\", 2 \"w\u00e9n\" weighed 2 \"qi\u00e1n\", 3 \"w\u00e9n\" weighed 3 \"qi\u00e1n\", 5 \"w\u00e9n\" weighed 5 \"qi\u00e1n\", and 10 \"w\u00e9n\" weighed 1 \"li\u01ceng\", while in 1390 the weight of the 1 \"w\u00e9n\" Hongwu Tongbao cash coins was increased to 1.2 \"qi\u00e1n\". It was also officially stipulated by law that the Hongwu Tongbao cash coins would be made from 100% copper and that 160 of the 1 \"qi\u00e1n\" cash coins would be made from one jin (\u65a4) of copper. The complete production of Chinese copper cash coins was suspended in the year 1393 when the usage of copper coinage was also made illegal in favour of the Da Ming Baochao banknotes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Under the Guangxu Emperor various attempts at reforming the Qing dynasty's currency system were implemented. Machine-made copper coins without square holes were introduced in Guangdong in 1899, and by 1906 15 machine operated mints operated in 12 provinces. The introduction of these machine-struck coins marked the beginning of the end of coin casting in China. In 1895 the Guangzhou Machine Mint had 90 presses becoming the largest mint in the world followed by the British Royal Mint with only 16 presses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bingqian",
        "text": "It is currently unknown why these very heavy cash coins with broad rims were produced. Chinese numismatist Sun Zhonghui () in his \"Guqian Bitujie\" (\u53e4\u9322\u5e63\u5716\u89e3) attributed these Bingqian with certainty to the Northern Song dynasty period. Furthermore, in \"Guqian Bitujie\" he hypothesised that the Bingqian were created in what is now known as Sichuan because the government of the Song dynasty had confiscated all copper items and circulating bronze cash coins, which resulted in a shortage of copper in the region. The government had then introduced iron cash coins, or \"tieqian\" (\u9421\u9322), which had dramatically increased the purchasing power of the copper-alloy cash coins while decreasing the purchasing power of iron cash coins. At the time there were three mints operating in Sichuan producing iron cash coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "In March 1860, the Ministry of Revenue proposed to the Xianfeng Emperor to stop issuing both the Da-Qing Baochao cash notes and Hubu Guanpiao tael notes and to cease validating old ones. By the year Xianfeng 11 (1861) the Da-Qing Baochao experienced such severe deprecation that people auctioned it off for only 3% of their nominal value. At this time these banknotes would not be (or could not be) redeemed by the note issuing banks. In July of that year, it became common for labourers to reject them as their salary. In this year a run on the banks occurred. By September these banknotes ceased circulating in China altogether. While certain individuals such as government officials and foreigners would get the exact amounts of cash coins as stipulated on the banknotes, the average Chinese was forced into a highly competitive bidding market to receive \"any\" metal coinage. In these auctions, the person who was willing to exchange the largest number of paper banknotes for a certain number of high denomination cash coins would win. The repudiation of these Da-Qing Baochao banknotes by the official banks and semi-official issuers such as private banks and pawnshops would condemn hoards of hardworking Chinese peasants to a life never-ending impoverishment and misery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "In the spring of the year 1572 the government of the Ming dynasty once again resumed the production of standard cash coins at the Beijing and Nanjing mints. It did not take long for the mints to be opened in Yunnan, Shanxi, Shandong, Henan, Shaanxi, Jiangxi, Fujian, and Huguang, these Zhiqian all weighed 1.3 \"qi\u00e1n\". The alloy of the Wanli Tongbao (\u842c\u66c6\u901a\u5bf6) cash coins was set at 93.8% brass and 6.2% tin. The rising price of copper, lack of skilled mint workers, and poor distribution from the government mints all contributed to the failure of the Wanli Tongbao cash coins by the year 1579. The first provincial mint to close was that of Yunnan in the year 1580 which was quickly followed by most provincial mints in 1582. The only successful provincial mints were of Huguang, where three different local mints cast their own cash coins that did not conform to the Zhiqian standards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianlong Tongbao",
        "text": "The Qianlong era saw the founding of the Zhili mint in the city of Baoding (\u4fdd\u5b9a) as well as several mints in the newly conquered region of Xinjiang, some of these mints oversaw the production of \"red cash coins\" (\u7d05\u9322) which were made of nearly pure copper. In the middle of the Qianlong era as much as 3,700,000 strings of cash were produced annually. Early Qianlong Tongbao cash coins contained no tin and were referred to as \"yellow cash coins\" (\u9ec3\u9322), however in 1740 2% tin was added and in 1741 coins were ordered to be made of an alloy of 50% copper, 41.5% zinc, 6.5% lead, and 2% tin to reduce the likelihood of people melting down coins to make utensils, did not allow to reuse the material because it would become brittle and objects would more easily break. All while the Qing government encouraged to sell their utensils to the state mints to be melted into coinage, these cash coins are commonly referred to as \"green cash coins\" (\u9752\u9322) even though their colour appears to be just as yellow as the earlier cash coins. The production cost of these new Qianlong Tongbao cash coins was about 15% of the material value and their intrinsic value exceeded their nominal one. Yet in actuality not all provincial mints followed the imperial directive to change the alloy of the coinage and continued to produce the cheaper copper-zinc alloy which was used before. From this period onwards the Ministry of Public Works Mint manufactured 12,490 strings of cash coins annually (with 1,000 cash coins per string)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "In the year 1866 the city of Ili was conquered by Mu'azzam Khan, which was followed by a Russian occupation of the region in 1871, during this era the Russian ruble started circulating in the region, but after the region was returned to the Qing the Ili Mint would never produce any cash coins ever again. The production of Tongzhi Tongbao (\u540c\u6cbb\u901a\u5bf6) cash coins would completely stop in the region following the loss of the cities which hosted the provincial mints during the Dungan uprisings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "After the Song dynasty was done with \"pacifying\" Sichuan, the Emperor of the Song dynasty had the bronze cash coins that were circulating in the area sent back to the Song Chinese capital city.\u00a0The bronze cash coins were then replaced with those cast of iron, this then caused the price of goods to soar in the region resulting in great hardship to the local populace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cash (Chinese coin)",
        "text": "After the fall of the Qing empire, local production of cash coins continued, including the \"Min Guo Tong Bao\" (\u6c11\u570b\u901a\u5bf6) coins in 1912, but were phased out in favour of the new Yuan-based coins. During Yuan Shikai's brief attempt at monarchy as the Empire of China, cash coins were minted as part of the \"Hong Xiang Tong Bao\" (\u6d2a\u61b2\u901a\u5bf6) series in 1916 but not circulated. The coin continued to be used unofficially in China until the mid-20th century. Vietnamese cash continued to be cast up until the early 1940s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "As a result, the mints operated by the government of the Qing dynasty saw less motivation to produce more copper-alloy cash coins as they were now more expensive to make, as it now cost more silver to import sufficient amounts of copper for their production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "Under the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor \"Red Cash\" coins were excessively manufactured negating the reforms implemented by the Daoguang Emperor causing inflation in the region. As the Taiping rebellion and the Second Opium War had prompted the Qing government to start issuing high denomination cash coins in other parts of the Qing dynasty, this soon spread to Xinjiang mainly due to the decreased subsidies for military expenditures in Xinjiang lowering the soldiers' salaries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "During the Xining period (from 1068), minting was increased, and by the Yuanfeng period (from 1078) it was reported that there were nine iron coin mints, three in Sichuan and six in Shaanxi, producing over a million strings a year. Thereafter, output declined gradually."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vietnamese cash",
        "text": "However, in 1871 the production of zinc cash coins stopped as many mines were being blocked by Chinese pirates and the continued production of these coins would be too expensive. Other reasons for the discontinuation of zinc cash coins despite them being indispensable to the general populace were because they were heavy compared to their nominal value and the metal was quite brittle. Following the establishment of the French colony of Cochinchina the chaotic monetary situation of \u0110\u1ea1i Nam severely worsened as Qing Chinese merchants quickly took advantage of it and started producing poor quality cash coins to bring to the colony where no regulations against their activities existed. The T\u1ef1 \u0110\u1ee9c Emperor tried to search Qing merchant ships, make outposts block their entry, and ban Qing Chinese merchants from bringing in too much money. Though by 1879 the Nguy\u1ec5n court was forced to accept the copper-alloy \"H\u00e0nh d\u1ecb d\u1ea1ng ti\u1ec1n\" (deformed money) at a value of 3 zinc cash coins, provided that the cash coin in question was quite similar in quality to the indigenous Vietnamese currency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During the early Tongzhi era (, 1862\u20131874), the provincial governments of Henan and Sichuan completely stopped accepting paper money for tax payments and again began requiring tax payments exclusively in silver, yet the provincial government of Zhili continued to accept the paper notes for tax payments, at least in a certain proportion to silver, which was preferred. The Xianfeng era paper currency was ultimately given up in 1868."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Tongbi",
        "text": "Due to a shortage of copper at the end of the Qing dynasty, the mint of Guangzhou, Guangdong began striking round copper coins without square holes in June 1900. \"T\u00f3ngyu\u00e1n\" () or \"T\u00f3ngb\u01cen\" () and they were struck in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 30 \"w\u00e9n\". These struck coins were well received because of their higher quality compared to cast coins and their convenience in carriage, as well as their uniform weight and copper content compared to the less consistent alloys of cast Chinese coinage. As these coins were profitable to manufacture it did not take long before other provinces started making machine-struck cash coins too, and soon 20 bureaus were opened across China. As these coins became more common they eventually replaced the old cast coins as the main medium of exchange for small purchases among the Chinese people. The first of these provincial machine-struck copper-alloy coins had the inscription Guangxu Yuanbao (\u5149\u7dd2\u5143\u5bf6) and a weight of 7.46 grams. These early Cantonese milled coinage were inspired by copper coins from British Hong Kong. Due to the success of these Cantonese milled coins, the government of the province of Fujian started minting their own version of this coin in August 1900."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kangxi Tongbao",
        "text": "In the year Kangxi 1 (or the Gregorian year 1662) all provincial mints in the Qing dynasty were closed down with the exception of the Jiangning Mint. Meanwhile in Kangxi 5 (1667) all provincial mints would re-open again but three years later a large number of them would close down due to the high price of copper in China at the time. The Guangzhou Mint in Guangdong started casting Kangxi Tongbao cash coins with a weight of 1.4 Mace (1 mace = 3.73 gram) in the year Kangxi 7 (1668) which was heavier than those in many other provinces. Those responsible for the transportation of copper rarely made the mints in time, and while copper prices were rising daily the Ministry of Revenue still maintained a fixed rate of exchange between copper and silver causing many provincial mints to quickly lose money, while on paper they were still profitable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "Before their value had dropped as significantly as it did, the Ministry of Revenue had already given the orders to cease the production and distribution of the Hubu Guanpiao in the year Xianfeng 7 (1857). During the final year that the Hubu Guanpiao banknotes were issued, the Chinese government produced 60,2000,000 silver taels}} in paper money onto the market. During this same period, the total tax revenue collected by the imperial Chinese government amounted to only 86,600,000 taels in silver. After the Tongzhi Emperor ascended to the throne of the Qing dynasty, this monetary policy was ended. A total of 9,780,000 taels in Hubu Guanpiao banknotes had been printed by the time that they had been officially deprecated. After this point, all further emissions of official Chinese paper money were the Da-Qing Baochao denominated in copper-alloy cash coins as the tael notes started slowly disappearing from the market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Under the Jiaqing Emperor the Chinese population had reached 300,000,000 which was twice as much as just a century prior, famines had plagued the land, the government was corrupt, and hoards of secret Anti-Manchu organisations popped up everywhere, stability would not return until 1803 but this had come at tremendously high costs. The Qing government started to increase quotas for the production of copper cash coins while constantly changing the standard content of the alloys beginning with 60% copper, and 40% zinc in 1796 to 54% copper, 43% zinc, and 3% lead not long after. Corruption plagued the provincial mints, and the exchange rate between cash and taels rose from 900 w\u00e9n for 1 tael of silver to 1200 w\u00e9n for a single tael, this was also due to a large outflow of silver to European and American merchants which pressured the Chinese monetary system. Under the Jiaqing Emperor an annual quota of 2,586,000 strings of cash coins for production was set, but in reality this number was rarely met."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "Peng Xinwei estimated that during the late Qing dynasty period, the total copper sector (copper coins including standard cash and the new Da-Qing Tongbi minted after the year 1900) constituted only 17% of the total money in circulation in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ban Liang",
        "text": "It is possible that China first began using iron cash coins (\u9421\u9322, \"tieqian\") during the Western Han dynasty, this was concluded after a number of iron Ban Liang cash coins were unearthed in Western Han era tombs in the Hunanese cities of Hengyang and Changsha between the years 1955 and 1959. Other specimens of iron Ban Liang cash coins were also unearthed in the province of Sichuan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Under the Daoguang Emperor China's silver reserves were depleting due to the trade of opium with other countries, and as Chinese cash coins were based on the silver standard this eventually lead to the debasement of Qing era cash coinage under Daoguang because the costs of producing cast copper coins was higher by about one third than the face value of the cast coins themselves, by 1845 2,000 w\u00e9n was needed for a single tael of silver. Coins produced under the Daoguang Emperor tend to be diminutive compared to earlier Qing dynasty coinage because of this reason."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianlong Tongbao",
        "text": "During the first few years of the reign of the Qianlong Emperor China had suffered from a shortage of cash coins due to the contemporary scarcity of copper, but soon Yunnan's copper mines started producing a large surplus of copper allowing the Qing government to swiftly increase the money supply and minting more coins at a faster pace. The cash coins produced during this early period are similar in size and quality as the preceding Kangxi Tongbao (\u5eb7\u7199\u901a\u5bf6) and Yongzheng Tongbao (\u96cd\u6b63\u901a\u5bf6) cash coins, but over time the quality and size of the Qianlong Tongbao would deteriorate. Like the preceding Yongzheng Tongbao coinage all Qianlong Tongbao cash coins exclusively use Manchu mint marks characterised by the character \"\" (Boo) on the left side and the name of the issuing mint in the Manchu language on the right. A special characteristic of some Qianlong Tongbao cash coins is that the Chinese character \"Long\" (\u9686) at the bottom is sometimes written with a \"Fou\" (\u7f36) instead of the usual \"Sheng\" (\u751f)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Both the inflationary policy of debasing the copper currencies and the issuance of inconvertible paper money were also largely confined to the Beijing capital region and the immediate neighbouring provinces, this was due to the Qing government's limited political control over much of China at the time of Taiping Rebellion. During this era the introduction of the \"big cash coins\" unit in the capital city made interregional a lot more difficult to conduct because of the regional currency units that existed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "Prior to the Manchu conquest of China, the Later Jin dynasty already produced its own cash coins with the inscriptions Abkai fulingga han jiha (), Tianming Tongbao (\u5929\u547d\u901a\u5bf6), and Sure han ni jiha ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "While initially iron cash coins were mainly minted by the Ministry of Revenue mint and Ministry of Public Works mint in Beijing, afterwards the government of the Qing dynasty established a specific iron cash coins mint, known as the iron cash office (\u9435\u9322\u5c40). The iron cash office also stored the iron cash coins. While the actual production numbers of iron cash coins remains unclear because of the limited entries about them in the records maintained by the Qing treasury, Peng Xinwei estimated, based on information he had gathered from Qing government memorials, that there had been an average annual production of 1,808,160 strings of iron cash coins between the year 1854 and 1855 and an annual production of 1,360,920 strings of iron cash coins during the years 1856 until 1859."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "During the second month of the year 1854 the government of the Qing dynasty supplemented the already debased coinage system with iron cash coins. The intrinsic value of iron cash coins was substantially lower than that of even the copper-alloy Zhiqian and Daqian. The aim the government had with the introduction of iron cash coins was to provide small change for a market that highly demanded it, as the Chinese market was already flooded with large denomination cash coinage and the Zhiqian 1 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins) by this point had become a rarity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Over the course of Chinese history a number of monarchs had tried to introduce iron cash coins to the market, but as their subjects never took to them, most of these attempts to issue them were rather short-lived. Sometimes bronze coins that were cast had a certain amount of iron in them, but in these cases the iron was not mixed into the copper-alloy itself, as it was just not removed during the production process, for example with some Warring States period round hole coins with the inscription \"Yuan\" (\u57a3) which was made of about 30% iron. The mechanical strength of the cast coinages was thus reduced, but in the case of coins this was not as important as with tools as they did not serve any practical means other than their commodity value."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jin dynasty coinage (1115\u20131234)",
        "text": "In the beginning iron coins continued to circulate but this had become to be perceived as an inconvenience so the Jin government ordered the immediate ban on melting down copper for usage other than currency, and was quick to open more copper mines to manage the production of copper coinage. 3 mints were opened that together produced 140,000 strings of coins a year (or 140,000,000 cash coins annually), after inflation had become a problem this production became less profitable for the Jin government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "However, the government did not keep adequate reserves of hard currency to back the new banknotes up. Many provincial governments didn't allow for taxes to be paid using paper money, and after a few years the government started refusing to convert the new paper money into hard currency; consequently, the Chinese people started to distrust it as a valid medium of exchange. In response to the ever more expensive military expenditures caused by the Taiping Rebellion, the government produced more and more high denomination banknotes, which were not convertible. This caused hyperinflation; by the year Xianfeng 9 (1859) the currency had become completely depreciated and was abolished."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "In the year 1503 under the Hongzhi Emperor the production of cash coins was resumed and the Zhiqian were given a standard weight of 1.2 \"qi\u00e1n\", the government stipulated that for each catty of pure copper two taels of \"haoyin\" (\u597d\u935a, \"superior tin\") was to be added to the alloy of these coins. As the government of the Ming dynasty had closed its coin mints for such a long period of time, the government was forced to pardon illegal producers and hire them as mint workers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "While the government of the Qing dynasty was initially hesitant to adopt a new monetary policy, they settled on debasing the copper-alloy currency, issuing inconvertible banknotes, and establishing new government banks. In reality, the new monetarily policies were rushed and their implementation differed greatly from the actual proposals, furthermore the implementation would prove to be completely incoherent. Eventually the monetary policy of the Qing dynasty during the Xianfeng era had degenerated to forcing a debased copper-alloy currency on the Chinese people, while creating many obstacles that would prevent these new cash coins from ever returning to the government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Because casting is a very simple process many private (illegal) mints started producing fake cash coins known as \"S\u012bzh\u00f9qi\u00e1n\" (\u79c1\u9444\u9322) because government mints often couldn't meet the market's demand for money, as there barely was a difference in quality between \"real\" or \"Zh\u00ecqi\u00e1n\" (\u5236\u9322) and \"fake\" coins, the sizhuqian were just as widely accepted by the general population as means of payment. Though barter had remained common during most of the Qing era, by the mid 19th century the Chinese market had evolved to be highly monetised. Due to the inflation caused by various military crises under the Xianfeng Emperor new larger denomination cash coins were issued, cash coins of 4 w\u00e9n and higher being referred to as \"D\u00e0qi\u00e1n\" (\u5927\u9322)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "During the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor the government of the Qing dynasty introduced a number of currency reforms that re-introduced multiple denominations, these large denomination cash coins were referred to as Daqian (\"big cash\"). These cash coins were produced until the year 1890 and the standard 1 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coin would become the norm again until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911. Xianfeng era Zhiqian (or 1 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins) were cast of copper, iron, and zinc. All Xianfeng era Zhiqian had the obverse inscription Xianfeng Tongbao (\u54b8\u8c50\u901a\u5bf6)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianlong Tongbao",
        "text": "Qianlong Tongbao (; Vietnamese: \"C\u00e0n Long Th\u00f4ng B\u1ea3o\") is an inscription used on cash coins produced under the reign of the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing dynasty. Initially the Qianlong Tongbao cash coins were equal to its predecessors in their weight and quality but as expensive military expenditures such as the Ten Great Campaigns began to take their financial toll on the government of the Qing dynasty the quality of these cash coins started to steadily decrease. The weight of the Qianlong Tongbao was changed several times and tin was added to their alloy to both reduce costs and to prevent people from melting down the coins to make utensils. As the intrinsic value of these coins was higher than their nominal value many provincial mints started reporting annual losses and were forced to close down, meanwhile the copper content of the coinage continued to be lowered while the copper mines of China were depleting. The Qianlong era also saw the conquest of Xinjiang and the introduction of cash coins to this new region of the Qing Empire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "The Kucha Mint was reopened following the Manchu reconquest of Xinjiang in the year 1878, the initial casting from the Kucha mint wasn't of a high standard. A memorial about the Kucha mint issued during the 6th month of the 11th year of the Guangxu Emperor (July 1885) notes that on the 26th day of the 7th month, twenty mint employees from the 78 that were originally employed by the Kucha were to be detached for the establishment of a small fire furnace that would chiefly be used for the production of cash coin patterns. 500 cash coins made up a \"gua\", which reportedly weighed 4 catties and 1 tael, with each cash coin weighing 1 \"qi\u00e1n\" 3 \"f\u0113n\". Of these cash coins, 40% were produced with the inscription Qianlong Tongbao, while the other 60% used the Guangxu era name. The reverse side of these cash coins featured both Manchu and Arabic script, and additionally also used the Chinese character \"\u963f\" (\"\u0101\") to further indicate the mint of production, while on the bottom of the reverse side of these cash coins is the Chinese character \"\u5341\" (\"sh\u00ed\"). The character \"\u5341\" was placed on them because what the Qing government described as the \"turbaned people\" did not accept the cash coins at their value without the written denomination being \"\u7576\u5341\" (\"d\u0101ng sh\u00ed\"). The \"turbaned people\", as described in the memorial, as they suspected that these cash coins weren't genuine government produced cash coins and were often unwilling to use them. In some of the four old Western cities some cash coins that did not have the Chinese characters \"\u7576\u5341\" were only accepted at half a cash coin and they were usually used as a change."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "Niv Horesh suggests that the reason the Qing dynasty suffered from hyperinflation during the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor was not only because the banknotes issued by the government at the time were inadequately backed up by hard currency, but that the Xianfeng Emperor approved the issuance of heavily debased and ill-fated Daqian. Horesh blamed the 9,200,000 taels in war indemnities imposed on the Qing by foreign powers following the Opium Wars that were demanded from the Qing in March of the year 1850 as a strong motivation for the Xianfeng regime to start debasing its currency despite the fact that high denomination low intrinsic value cash coins has had a tainted reputation throughout Chinese history. In December 1850, a much larger threat to the rule of the Qing appeared in the form of a major civil war during the Taiping Rebellion meaning that the issuing of Daqian and paper currency were seen as a last ditch emergency measure which the government had to undertake for its continued rule. According to Ch'\u00ean many of the court officials that voiced their support for using banknotes were also in favour of issuing the Daqian and even iron cash coins as a means to alleviate the fiscal crisis as well as the general shortage of copper cash coins that were caused by the Taiping rebels expanding through Southeast China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "The minting of copper-alloy cash coinage was decentralised due to the very high transaction cost of moving large amounts of metallic coins (and especially heavy copper-alloy cash coins that tended to have small values). Sometimes the production of copper coinage at provincial state mints was suspended but minting at the imperial mints in Beijing was always ensured by the Qing government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "In the year 1884 Xinjiang was upgraded to the status of \"province\" ending military and Lifan Yuan rule over the region, while the \"Red Cash\" system was reintroduced in Kashgaria now at a value of 4 w\u00e9n. However, at the end of the reign of the Guangxu Emperor \"Red Cash\" was discontinued at the Aksu mint in 1892 because of the rising costs of charcoal needed to produce the coins. The Aksu mint was transferred to Kucha mint. Though the Kashgar mint re-opened in 1888 it outsourced some of the production of \"Red Cash\" to Kucha and Aksu resulting in cash coins being cast with the Chinese mint mark of Kashgar but the Manchu and Arabic mint marks of the actual mint of casting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianshi Hutong",
        "text": "During the Qing Dynasty, Qianshi was a financial center of monetary exchange, home to 26 mints producing copper coins for nearly every bank in the city. The lane narrowed as these banks expanded. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the lane lost its function following the reformation of the monetary system and the production of paper currency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "In 1644, the Qing dynasty captured Beijing from the Shun dynasty, and then marched south capturing the forces loyal to the Ming. One of the first monetary policies they enacted was accepting Ming dynasty cash coins at only half the value of Qing dynasty cash coins, because of this Ming era coinage was removed from circulation to be melted into Qing dynasty coinage, this is why in modern times even Song dynasty coins are more common than those from the more recent Ming dynasty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kangxi Tongbao",
        "text": "A mint was established in Tainan, Taiwan in the year 1689 but it didn't produce much cash coins and was closed down in 1692, for this reason Taiwanese Kangxi Tongbao coins tend to be very rare today. Kangxi Tongbao cash coins produced in the province of Yunnan are notably quite reddish in colour, there were at least seven different mints in existence in Yunnan Province during the Kangxi period. After the governor of the Yunnan and Guizhou found out that there were so much brass cash coins produced by the Yunnan Mints. The high supply of the brass cash coins had caused the price of the cash coins relative to silver to reduce. The government needed to pay 30% of cash coins instead of silver as military salary. This proved to be very inconvenient for the soldiers. This later caused disturbances to arise in the military. After the governor of these provinces put down the trouble, he urged the government to cease the production of cash coins in the province of Yunnan and to pay the soldiers exclusively in silver. All the Yunnan Mints were then closed down in the year Kangxi 28 (1689). Between the years 1674 and 1681 during the Revolt of the Three Feudatories the province of Yunnan was in the hands of the rebel Wu Sangui and later his grandson Wu Shifan who cast his own cash coins with their own inscriptions there, these cash coins didn't use the same mint marks as the Kangxi Tongbao."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "As the government of the Qing dynasty rather quickly realised that the banknotes denominated in copper-alloy cash coins were more popular than those denominated in silver, because of the relatively high nominal value of the latter, the imperial government began promoting the Da-Qing Baochao more. In the year 1855 the government ramped up the production of cash notes and established 5 more Yu Group government banks for their exchange. The Yu banks had insufficient reserves to actually exchange the Da-Qing Baochao cash notes for real copper, so they exchanged them for their own banknotes. Because the Yu banks had seriously over-issued their own banknotes compared to their very limited reserves, they would all close their doors in the year 1857."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Chinese coinage",
        "text": "From the beginning of the dynasty, iron coins were extensively used in present-day Sichuan and Shaanxi where copper was not readily available. Between 976 and 984, a total of 100,000 strings of iron coins was produced in Fujian as well. In 993, for paying the land tax one iron coin was equal to one bronze, for the salary of clerks and soldiers one bronze equalled five iron coins, but in trade ten iron coins were needed for one bronze coin. In 1005, four mints in Sichuan produced over 500,000 strings of iron coins a year. This declined to 210,000 strings by the beginning of the Qingli period (1041). At this time, the mints were ordered to cast 3\u00a0million strings of iron cash to meet military expenses in Shaanxi. However, by 1056, casting was down to 100,000 strings a year, and in 1059 minting was halted for 10 years in Jiazhou and Qiongzhou, leaving only Xingzhou producing 30,000 strings a year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "The new coins often bore the inscription \"Gu\u0101ng X\u00f9 Yu\u00e1n B\u01ceo\" (\u5149\u7dd2\u5143\u5bf6) with an image of a Dragon and featured English, Chinese, and Manchu inscriptions. Further these coins tended to have their relation with China's older coinages (most often with cash coins) on the bottom, or their value in relation to silver coinage, and the Manchu words indicated the place of mintage. Meanwhile, the 10 w\u00e9n \"traditional\" cash coins were discontinued as the production of these more modern coins began."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "Following capture of Beijing by the Manchus from the Shun dynasty in the year 1644, the government of the Qing dynasty established two imperial mints, one under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Revenue and one under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public Works. The standard cash coins produced at the Ministry of Revenue mint would later bear the Manchu mint mark \" (Boo Ciowan) and those cast at the Ministry of Public Works mint would have the Manchu mint mark \" (Boo Yuwan). The Qing government then further stipulated that every province should establish their own provincial mint for the production of copper-alloy cash coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "After the fall of the Qing dynasty sycees were demonetised in 1933 and Qing dynasty silver coins in 1935 as they were replaced with paper money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "In the early 17th century an increase in the price of copper caused the government to reduce the amount of copper in the composition of the Zhiqian in favour of lead. Cash coins with the inscriptions Tianqi Tongbao (\u5929\u555f\u901a\u5bf6) and Chongzhen Tongbao (\u5d07\u798e\u901a\u5bf6) were of poorer quality than those producing during preceding periods, these cash coins tended to be both thin and bristle, due to the lowered amount of copper in their compositions. Chinese people at this point started to refrain from using copper-alloy cash coins and the markets preferred the usage of silver ingots instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cash (Chinese coin)",
        "text": "During the late Qing dynasty under the reign of the Guangxu Emperor in the mid 19th century the first machine-struck cash coins were produced, from 1889 a machine operated mint in Guangzhou, Guangdong province opened where the majority of the machine-struck cash would be produced. Machine-made cash coins tend to be made from brass rather than from more pure copper as cast coins often were, and later the copper content of the alloy decreased while cheaper metals like lead and tin were used in larger quantities giving the coins a yellowish tint. Another effect of the contemporary copper shortages was that the Qing government started importing Korean 5 fun coins and overstruck them with \"10 cash\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "Niv Horesh suggests that the reason the Qing dynasty suffered from hyperinflation during the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor was not only because the banknotes issued by the government at the time were inadequately backed up by hard currency, but that the Xianfeng Emperor approved the issuance of heavily debased and ill-fated Daqian. Horesh blamed the 9,200,000 taels in war indemnities imposed on the Qing by foreign powers following the Opium Wars that were demanded from the Qing in March of the year 1850 as a strong motivation for the Xianfeng regime to start debasing its currency despite the fact that high denomination low intrinsic value cash coins have had a tainted reputation throughout Chinese history. In December 1850 a way larger threat to the rule of the Qing appeared in the form of a major civil war during the Taiping Rebellion meaning that the issuing of Daqian and paper currency were seen as a last-ditch emergency measure which the government had to undertake for its continued rule. According to Ch'\u00ean many of the court officials that voiced their support for using banknotes were also in favour of issuing the Daqian and even iron cash coins as a means to alleviate the fiscal crisis as well as the general shortage of copper cash coins that were caused by the Taiping rebels expanding through Southeast China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "The imperial government would continue to try to maintain the official exchange rate between copper-alloy cash coins and silver, but this only made copper-alloy cash coins into an \"undervalued currency\" and further discouraged it from circulating as people would hoard the coins driving them out of the market, further increasing their relative scarcity to silver (as is described by Gresham's law). This severely negatively affected the economy of rural areas where copper-alloy cash coins circulated as the principal (if not only) currency and was used in high frequency for the daily transactions of most (if not all) people in these regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Due to the prevalence of \"cheap silver\" (an enormous decrease of the global price of silver) the copper-alloy cash coin-based economy of China suffered deflation which discouraged the export of Chinese products. International trade was further discouraged because of the scarcity of copper-alloy cash coins in rural China during the late 19th century. This scarcity not only discouraged international trade, but also long-distance exchanges within China because of the deflationary pressure. Furthermore, this scarcity of small denomination copper-alloy cash coins in China was having a negative impact on daily transactions, especially in the inland rural areas where absolutely no business was done in silver and the local people had an inelastic demand for these coins. The rural Chinese workers tended to only receive their salaries in copper-alloy cash coins and would pay their taxes in silver using the official government set exchange rates between the two metal currencies. When the scarcity started causing deflation the rural workers would receive lower salaries, but the government kept maintaining a relatively high exchange rate between the two currencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kangxi Tongbao",
        "text": "In 1684 the ratio of copper to zinc in the alloys in the Kangxi Tongbao cash coins was reduced from 70% to 60% all while the standard weight was lowered to 1 \"qi\u00e1n\" again and were known as Zhongqian (\u91cd\u9322), while the central government's mints in Beijing started producing cash coins with a weight of 0.7 \"qi\u00e1n\" known as Xiaoqian (\u5c0f\u9322) or Qingqian (\u8f15\u9322). The Kangxi Tongbao was officially fixed against silver with a ratio of 1000 Zhongqian per tael of silver in an attempt to establish a bimetallic system. The Xiaoqian were only worth 0.7 tael of silver per string of 1000 coins (which would equate to 14.3 Xiaoqian per fen of silver), however by the middle of the eighteenth century the Xiaoqian disappeared from circulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Under the Yongzheng Emperor various measures were undertaken to ensure a vast supply of cash coins, though the weight was increased to 1.4 \"qi\u00e1n\" per w\u00e9n, the copper content was lowered from 60% to 50% in 1727. In 1726 the Ministry of Revenue was split into 4 agencies each named after a wind direction, and in 1728 all provincial mints were ordered to open again as only the mint of Yunnan was operating prior to this order, and finally in 1728 the Ministry of Public Works mint was split into a \"new Ministry of Public Works mint\", and an \"old Ministry of Public Works mint\". Though by 1733 the Qing government realised that the costs of making standard cash coins at a weight of 1.4 \"qi\u00e1n\" was too much, so they lowered it back to 1.2 \"qi\u00e1n\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Iron cash coins were not exclusively produced by the Chinese, as other cash coin producing countries would also issue them under similar circumstances or by private mints. In Japan iron \"Kan'ei Ts\u016bh\u014d\" (\u5bdb\u6c38\u901a\u5bf3) cash coins were produced by the Kamedo mint in the 1760s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The reason why the government was forced to reform the imperial monetary system with a very complex system during the Taiping Rebellion was because the rebels had blocked the access of mint metals from the southwest of China, but more money was still needed to fight the ongoing insurgency. The advisors of the Xianfeng Emperor not only introduced copper-alloy cash coins with higher denominations than one, as well as introducing new cash coins made of metals other than brass, but also revived paper money in the shape of the \"Xianfeng baochao\" (). Quite important for the war effort is the fact that the imperial Qing government earned some revenue by issuing these new types of currencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Tieqian\n--Overview.\n--Ban Liang cash coins.\n----Western Han dynasty.\n--Wu Zhu cash coins.\n----Chengjia.\n----Liang dynasty.\n--The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms.\n----Kingdom of Min.\n----Kingdom of Chu.\n----Southern Tang Kingdom.\n--Song dynasty.\n----Northern Song dynasty.\n----Southern Song dynasty.\n--Qing dynasty.\n--Iron cash coins museum.\n--Sources.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Qing dynasty coinage (; Manchu: ; M\u00f6llendorff: \"Daicing jiha\") was based on a bimetallic standard of copper and silver coinage. The Manchu-led Qing dynasty was established in 1636 and ruled over China proper from 1644 until it was overthrown by the Xinhai Revolution in 1912. The Qing dynasty saw the transformation of a traditional cash coin based cast coinage monetary system into a modern currency system with machine-struck coins, while the old traditional silver ingots would slowly be replaced by silver coins based on those of the Mexican peso. After the Qing dynasty was abolished its currency was replaced by the Chinese yuan of the Republic of China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "At this point in time it became clear that physical metal supplies would not reach the capital of Beijing, the preferred substitute turned out to be banknotes. Government officials were very much aware that the issuing of banknotes had to happen within very strict limits because the increases to the supply of metal currencies needed to be matched or the new currency would face the same levels of inflation has had happened several times before in the history of China. Despite knowing all the risks and the predicted hyperinflation paired with many examples of historical precedent, the central government decided to pursue issuing more banknotes than they were able to back up because of the pressing matters of the Taiping Rebellion. In reality, there was no other means that the government of the Qing dynasty would be able to pay for the war and the inflation was a calculated risk deemed worth it. In the city of Beijing the parity between \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins and the Da-Qing Baochao was maintained, but at the same time the entirety of the Jingqian system would become deprecated in relation to the Zhiqian system and silver prices. Both 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins and Da-Qing Baochao cash notes were heavily discounted when traded with privately issued banknotes. Around the same time the price of silver declined throughout China, by the year Xianfeng 6 (1856) it had declined to 50% its value of what it was in Xianfeng 2 (1852), the exchange rate between Jingqian and silver had increased by 192% and would go up to 300% only two years later. This was however, only reflected on the paper money market for private cash notes as government-issued cash notes continued to lose their value."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "As the chaotic circulation of various denominations of cash coins had continued, this invited foreign silver money from Central Asia to start circulating in the Xinjiang region. After the Russian Empire had occupied the northern region of Xinjiang in 1871 Russian rubles started circulating. Eventually 3 parallel currency systems were in place while p\u016bl coins from the Dzungar Khanate kept circulating in Kashgaria a century after the region was annexed by the Qing dynasty. The Dungan revolt lead by the Tajik Muhammad Yaqub Beg was defeated in 1878 during the Qing reconquest of Xinjiang, and the Russians returned the territory they had occupied after signing a treaty in 1880 at Yining."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Chinese cash coins by inscription",
        "text": "Under the Ming dynasty the policy of predominantly using paper money (such as the Da Ming Baochao banknotes) which was started under the Mongols would continue until 1505 when Spanish dollars and other silver coins became the dominant currency. Native production of cash coins had ceased between 1375 and 1376, from 1387 until 1379, from 1393 (as paper money superseded cast coinage completely) until 1433, and finally from 1435 until 1503."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Tongbi",
        "text": "The government of the Qing dynasty established a modern coin factory at the Ministry of Revenue Mint (formerly the \"Tianjin Silver Money General Mint\") in Tianjin in the year 1903, the mint began to produce milled copper-alloy coins in 1905. At the same time, the government of the Qing dynasty ordered the entire country to produce the Da-Qing Tongbi coins to replace the former \"Guangxu Yuanbao\" and unified and standardised national currency system. The government of the Qing dynasty hoped to regain control of its currency system in order to also get more control over its own internal affairs. In the year 1906, the Ministry of Revenue had issued the \"Regulations on the Rectification Law\" (\u6574\u9813\u571c\u6cd5\u7ae0\u7a0b), and had merged 24 mints around China into only 9."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xin dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Eventually Wang Mang was forced to abolish the revived Zhou dynasty coinages in favour of cash coins. But after the fall of the Xin dynasty, the restored Han dynasty reintroduced the Wu Zhu cash coins, but the Huo Quan (\u8ca8\u6cc9) cash coins introduced during the Xin dynasty would continue to be produced for some time after its fall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "By the end of the 19th century provincial governments started setting up their own note issuing banks like the Hupeh Provincial Bank (, ) with branches in Wuchang and Hankou. The issued a series of banknotes known as the \"Hubei guanpiao\" (). These banknotes were denominated in taels for silver and strings for copper-alloy cash coins. The Hubei was abolished over a decade after the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1927 with the bankruptcy of the ."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are iron cash coins still used today?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I'm sorry, but I could not find the information you requested. However, I did find that the last government attempt at issuing iron cash coins occurred during the 1850s the under the reign of the Manchu Qing dynasty."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why did China stop making the coins after the Manchu Qing dynasty?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Under the Guangxu Emperor, there were various attempts at reforming the Qing dynasty's currency system. Machine-made copper coins and machines operated mints were introduced, signaling the end of coin casting in China."
    ],
    "topic": "Tieqian",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Qing dynasty coinage:18",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Qing dynasty coinage",
          "History",
          "Modernisation under the Guangxu Emperor"
        ],
        "ctx": "Under the Guangxu Emperor various attempts at reforming the Qing dynasty's currency system were implemented. Machine-made copper coins without square holes were introduced in Guangdong in 1899, and by 1906 15 machine operated mints operated in 12 provinces. The introduction of these machine-struck coins marked the beginning of the end of coin casting in China. In 1895 the Guangzhou Machine Mint had 90 presses becoming the largest mint in the world followed by the British Royal Mint with only 16 presses."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The Imperial Bank of China (, IBC) was founded in 1897 based on a suggestion made by Sheng Xuanhuai (, 1844\u20131916). In 1898 it began issuing the first Chinese commercial cheques () which were denominated in taels or in yuan. The IBC is also notable for being the first Chinese bank to order its banknotes from foreign printing bureaus. In 1913 (after the fall of the Qing dynasty) the Imperial Bank of China was renamed the Commercial Bank of China (). Various provincial authorities also started issuing local paper money during this era. In the province of Hubei, the local money office () started producing banknotes of 1000 which used the traditional Chinese banknote designs. Later, in 1899, the Zhang Zhidong (), Viceroy of Huguang ordered the local money office to also start making modern-style banknotes. The production of these was outsourced to the Empire of Japan using high-quality methods; however, the design of these banknotes was still vertical as opposed to the horizontal banknotes used elsewhere. In the province of Guangdong, a series of modern-style banknotes was introduced in 1904 which were denominated in 1 yuan, 5 yuan, and 10 yuan. These banknotes were printed by the Japanese Ministry of the Treasury (), but unlike the notes printed for Hubei had a Western-style vertical design."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monetary policy",
        "text": "Paper money originated from promissory notes termed \"jiaozi\" in 7th century China. Jiaozi did not replace metallic currency, and were used alongside the copper coins. The succeeding Yuan Dynasty was the first government to use paper currency as the predominant circulating medium. In the later course of the dynasty, facing massive shortages of specie to fund war and maintain their rule, they began printing paper money without restrictions, resulting in hyperinflation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "The precursor of paper money (\u7d19\u5e63) known as \"Flying cash\" were issued by the Tang dynasty, however these bills of exchange could in no way be considered to be a form of paper money as they weren't meant to be a medium of exchange and were only negotiable between two distant points. The first true paper money in the world was issued under the Song dynasty, these were promissory notes issued by merchants in Sichuan known as the Jiaozi, under the reign of Emperor Zhenzong (997\u20131022) the government of the Song Dynasty granted a monopoly for the production of Jiaozi notes to sixteen wealthy merchants in Sichuan, as these merchants were slow to redeem their banknotes and inflation started affecting these private banknotes the government nationalised paper money in the year 1023 under the Bureau of Exchange. As these paper notes were backed by the government they were instantly successful and the people regarded them to be equally trustworthy as cash coins, other types of paper notes issued under the Song dynasty include the Huizi and the Guanzi. Before the Mongol Empire conquered China the Jin dynasty also issued paper money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "The precursor of paper money (\u7d19\u5e63) known as \"Flying cash\" were issued by the Tang dynasty, however these bills of exchange could in no way be considered to be a form of paper money as they weren't meant to be a medium of exchange and were only negotiable between two distant points. The first true paper money in the world was issued under the Song dynasty, these were promissory notes issued by merchants in Sichuan known as the Jiaozi, under the reign of Emperor Zhenzong (997\u20131022) the government of the Song Dynasty granted a monopoly for the production of Jiaozi notes to sixteen wealthy merchants in Sichuan, as these merchants were slow to redeem their banknotes and inflation started affecting these private banknotes the government nationalised paper money in the year 1023 under the Bureau of Exchange. As these paper notes were backed by the government they were instantly successful and the people regarded them to be equally trustworthy as cash coins, other types of paper notes issued under the Song dynasty include the Huizi and the Guanzi. Before the Mongol Empire conquered China the Jin dynasty also issued paper money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "By the end of the 19th century provincial governments started setting up their own note issuing banks like the Hupeh Provincial Bank (, ) with branches in Wuchang and Hankou. The issued a series of banknotes known as the \"Hubei guanpiao\" (). These banknotes were denominated in taels for silver and strings for copper-alloy cash coins. The Hubei was abolished over a decade after the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1927 with the bankruptcy of the ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da Ming Baochao",
        "text": "The precursor of paper money (\u7d19\u5e63) known as \"Flying cash\" were issued by the Tang dynasty, however these bills of exchange could in no way be considered to be a form of paper money as they weren\u2019t meant to be a medium of exchange and were only negotiable between two distant points. The first true paper money in the world was issued under the Song dynasty, these were promissory notes issued by merchants in Sichuan known as the Jiaozi, under the reign of Emperor Zhenzong (997\u20131022) the government of the Song Dynasty granted a monopoly for the production of Jiaozi notes to sixteen wealthy merchants in Sichuan, as these merchants were slow to redeem their banknotes and inflation started affecting these private banknotes the government nationalised paper money in the year 1023 under the Bureau of Exchange. As these paper notes were backed by the government they were instantly successful and the people regarded them to be equally trustworthy as cash coins, other types of paper notes issued under the Song dynasty include the Huizi and the Guanzi. Before the Mongol Empire conquered China the Jurchen Jin dynasty also issued paper money, the Jiaochao (\u4ea4\u9214)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During the early Tongzhi era (, 1862\u20131874), the provincial governments of Henan and Sichuan completely stopped accepting paper money for tax payments and again began requiring tax payments exclusively in silver, yet the provincial government of Zhili continued to accept the paper notes for tax payments, at least in a certain proportion to silver, which was preferred. The Xianfeng era paper currency was ultimately given up in 1868."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During the transition from Ming to Qing, the Manchu government issued banknotes known as \"Hubu guanpiao\" () or \"Shunzhi guanpiao\" (). They were first issued in the year 1651 on initiative of the Minister of Revenue, Wei Xiangshu () during the war with the remnants of the Ming dynasty to cover the more immediate expenses of the Manchus; as the finances of the Qing during this period were in dire distress, these banknotes were declared void only a decade after their issue. Peng Xinwei suggests that the Manchus started issuing banknotes in response to the treasury of the Qing dynasty experiencing funding shortfalls which were occasioned by the a campaign to occupy the island of Zhoushan (near modern Shanghai). An annual amount of 128,000 \"gu\u00e0n\" () were issued, with a total sum of 1.28 million being produced before they were abolished. The denominations of the followed the pattern of the Ming dynasty period paper notes, but as historiographical sources about the early Qing era paper money are scarce, not much can be known about them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "It is possible that China first began using iron cash coins during the Western Han dynasty, this was concluded after a number of iron Ban Liang (\u534a\u5169) cash coins were unearthed in Western Han era tombs in the Hunanese cities of Hengyang and Changsha between the years 1955 and 1959. Other specimens of iron Ban Liang cash coins were also unearthed in the province of Sichuan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "Over the course of its 268 years, the central government of the Qing dynasty (1644\u20131912) issued traditional Chinese paper money (vertically printed) only twice. The second time was included the second series of the Hubu Guanpiao which was introduced under the Xianfeng Emperor in response to the high military expenditures there government had to spend during the Taiping Rebellion, this second series was introduced alongside the copper-alloy cash coins-based Da-Qing Baochao (\u5927\u6e05\u5bf6\u9214) banknotes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "It has been suggested by Taiwanese economic historian Lin Man-houng that Chinese money shops did not start with the production of their own private banknotes until the end of the Qianlong period, these shops were very likely to have been more developed in Northern China, where these money shops produced banknotes which were mostly denominated in cash coins while banknotes from Southern China tended to be denominated in taels of silver. It is also possible that private-order banknotes could have emerged earlier in the 18th century and that their presence would become very common by the 1820s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "It has been suggested by Taiwanese economic historian Lin Man-houng that Chinese money shops did not start with the production of their own private banknotes until the end of the Qianlong period, these shops were very likely to have been more developed in Northern China, where these money shops produced banknotes which were mostly denominated in cash coins while banknotes from Southern China tended to be denominated in taels of silver. It is also possible that private-order banknotes could have emerged earlier in the 18th century and that their presence would become very common by the 1820s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The paper money of the Qing dynasty (Traditional Chinese: ) was periodically used alongside a bimetallic coinage system of copper-alloy cash coins and silver sycees; paper money was used during different periods of Chinese history under the Qing dynasty, having acquired experiences from the prior Song, Jin, Yuan, and Ming dynasties which adopted paper money but where uncontrolled printing led to hyperinflation. During the youngest days of the Qing dynasty paper money was used but this was quickly abolished as the government sought not to repeat history for a fourth time; however, under the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor, due to several large wars and rebellions (most notably the Taiping Rebellion), the Qing government was forced to issue paper money again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During this era, privately produced paper notes and promissory notes known as () were used in the Chinese market that were mostly issued by private banks () and other merchants. These banknotes were known as (, 'corporate notes', (, 'silver notes'), or (, 'cash notes'). As is usual for China, the names designating privately produced banknotes varied greatly across the country, with names being used such as (), (), (), (), or (). The denominations used on them varied greatly with some reaching as high as 5 \"di\u00e0o\" (, 'string of cash coins'). It has been suggested by Taiwanese economic historian Lin Man-houng that Chinese money shops did not start the production of their own private banknotes until the end of the Qianlong period. These shops were very likely to have been more developed in Northern China, where these money shops produced banknotes which were mostly denominated in cash coins, while banknotes from Southern China tended to be denominated in taels of silver. It is also possible that private-order banknotes could have emerged earlier in the 18th century and that their presence would become very common by the 1820s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During the period when the and series of banknotes were introduced, nine government banks in Beijing (of which four were newly established institutions) started issuing another type of cash note known as the (). These cash notes were backed by reserves kept in Daqian rather than standard cash coins. The were modeled after privately produced banknotes known as the (). These private cash notes would also continue to circulate alongside the new currencies. Both the and were based on the Jingqian accounting unit of cash coins as was used in Beijing. This meant that, for example, if one were to exchange 15,000 worth of or cash notes in the year 1861, that person would only receive 7500 worth of physical coins (or 750 cash coins of 10 to be more precise). This practice was asymmetrical as government documents noted a string of cash coins as 1000 while paying out only 500 for these cash notes. Both the cash notes and tael notes continued to be accepted in the practice of office selling and would continue to circulate in the provinces of China proper as non-interest bearing debentures until 1867\u20131868."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic history of China before 1912",
        "text": "Paper receipts of deposit first appeared in the 10th century, but the first officially sponsored bills were introduced in Sichuan Province, where the currency was metallic and extremely heavy. Although businesses began to issue private bills of exchange, by the mid-11th century the central government introduced its paper money, produced using woodblock printing and backed by bronze coins. The Song government had also been amassing large amounts of paper tribute. Each year before 1101, the prefecture of Xinan (modern Xi-xian, Anhui) alone sent 1,500,000 sheets of paper in seven different varieties to the capital at Kaifeng. In the Southern Song, standard currency bearing a marked face value, was used. However, a lack of standards caused face values to wildly fluctuate. A nationwide standard paper currency was not produced until 1274, two years before the Southern Song's fall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The monetary units \"yuan\" ( and ) were first seen during the late 18th century and were used on foreign-issued banknotes. In 1895 the first Chinese banknotes denominated in yuan () were issued, by the government-owned State Railway Company of Beiyang (). These banknotes were printed in London and are generally seen as the first modern paper bills of China, as they are designed horizontally and in a much smaller format than the traditional Chinese paper notes, and are inscribed in Mandarin Chinese and English (\"Imperial Chinese Railways\"). In 1895 the Central Paper Money Office in Tainan () in Taiwan issued banknotes denominated in the currency unit dayuan (, 'big yuan'), and had the denominations 1 dayuan, 5 dayuan, and 10 dayuan; however, these banknotes followed the traditional design of Chinese paper notes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "The first radical change to the Chinese monetary system involved the authorization and introduction of \"big cash coins\" (\u5927\u9322 - known today as multiple cash coins). This measurement was seen as one of the only remaining options left, and simultaneously the Qing government decided to reintroduce paper currency. Xianfeng's paper money consisted of two types of paper bank notes, the first of which was denominated in qian, or copper cash; and the second type, in silver taels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The opened its first branch in China in 1899 in Shanghai and quickly opened more branches in Beijing, Hankou, Kunming, and Tianjin. All of these branches produced banknotes denominated in dollars for local circulation in China. At the Shanghai branch the French had made an attempt at issuing banknotes denominated in taels but this programme was almost immediately abandoned as non-remunerative. The banknotes produced by the were tri-lingual, printed in French, English, and Mandarin Chinese, making them the only foreign bank to employ three languages on their paper money in China. Denominations on banknotes produced by the were described in both French francs and Mexican piastres. These banknotes circulated in relatively small quantities in China until 1940, and consequently tend to be quite rare today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "After the outbreak of World War I, the was forced to suspend its operations in China. At the time that it had to cease operating in China, an amount of 2,595,968 taels worth of banknotes was circulating. In 1917 the Chinese republican government revoked the bank's privilege to produce its own paper notes for the Chinese market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "The Taiping Rebellion had caused the government of the Qing dynasty to fall into an extreme debt spiral which forced it to reconsider introducing paper money as a medium for exchange. This was advertised by the imperial government as a necessary evil because of a shortage of bronze which meant that the production of cash coinage had to be heavily scaled doen. The pauperised Chinese public was for centuries uncompromisingly minded against the idea of paper money emissions in any way, shape, or form and would not accept it for any reason. Half a century earlier in the year 1814, when Cai Zhiding (\u8521\u4e4b\u5b9a, Ts'ai Chih-Ting), who was a high official in the Ministry of State, petitioned to the court of the Jiaqing Emperor advocating the resumption of a paper money currency, this request was denied. Cai was later severely rebuked in the Jiaqing Emperor's memorial in which he pointed out that neither the Chinese government nor any individuals in the past had experienced benefits from the circulation of a paper money. The Jiaqing Emperor was not fully without justification in asserting his stance against paper currency, as the era Ming banknotes from their introduction had been inconvertible into metal currencies. With no government backing into any other forms of currency these banknotes were swiftly depreciated. While this may seem only logical today the Chinese had to learn this lesson the hard way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During the latter half of the 19th century various foreign banking corporations and credit institutes started doing business in China. The paper notes issued by these companies started circulating in China leading to many local companies imitating their designs and even outsourcing the production of paper money. The strong influence of these foreign banks had a modernising effect on both the economy and the currency of the Qing dynasty, leading to the imperial government issuing their own versions of modern paper money. The denominations on the paper money were as chaotic as that of the coinage types and the different exchange rates used regionally were also applied locally, while banknotes denominated in copper-alloy currency had a different value than banknotes denominated in silver currency. Concurrently banknotes issued by different branches or different banks were also discounted with paper bills issued by more reliable banks being both valued more and in higher demand than those issued by institutions with a less favourable reputation."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Chinese currency",
        "text": "Tang merchants rapidly adopted forms of paper currency starting with promissory notes in Sichuan called \"flying money\" (\"feiqian\"). These proved so useful the state took over production of this form of paper money with the first state-backed printing in 1024. By the 12th century, various forms of paper money had become the dominant forms of currency in China and were known by a variety of names such as \"jiaozi\", \"huizi\", \"kuaizi\", or \"guanzi\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of money",
        "text": "Paper money was introduced in Song dynasty China during the 11th century. The development of the banknote began in the seventh century, with local issues of paper currency. Its roots were in merchant receipts of deposit during the Tang dynasty (618\u2013907), as merchants and wholesalers desired to avoid the heavy bulk of copper coinage in large commercial transactions. The issue of credit notes is often for a limited duration, and at some discount to the promised amount later. The jiaozi nevertheless did not replace coins during the Song Dynasty; paper money was used alongside the coins. The central government soon observed the economic advantages of printing paper money, issuing a monopoly right of several of the deposit shops to the issuance of these certificates of deposit. By the early 12th century, the amount of banknotes issued in a single year amounted to an annual rate of 26 million strings of cash coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "These banknotes were all introduced in 1854 and during the first few months after they were minted, they started being distributed in the form of salary for both government officials and the military; however, the imperial government itself did not accept them as a method of payment including for taxation, likewise many provincial governments also refused to accept the new paper currency. Later on these banknotes were slowly gaining acceptance throughout the Qing Empire. Consequentially due to their limited acceptability these paper notes were severely discounted in the private market sector, if accepted at all. In 1855 a cash note of 1000 or a silver note of 1 tael were just accepted for 450 Beijing cash (, ) or 200-300 standard cash coins by the private market. The market value of paper currency would consistently decrease as the imperial government kept printing both more of it and higher denominations, and by 1861 the government mandated paper money had overstayed their usefulness and consequently was completely abolished. During this year had already disappeared from general circulation, and a 1,000 cash note had a market value of as little as 26 , or 52 at the most."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da Ming Baochao",
        "text": "Overprinting led to severe hyperinflation and distrust of paper currency. The Hongzhi Emperor and Zhengde Emperor abolished the production and use of banknotes. In the year 1535, 1 \"gu\u00e0n\" of paper money rather than being exchanged for 1000 copper-alloy cash coins was valued at only 0.28th of a coin. A proposal was made in 1643 to reintroduce paper money in order to finance the expenditures caused by the difficult situation that the Ming dynasty faced at the time confronted by the rebel Li Zicheng."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "The first radical change to the Chinese monetary system involved the authorization and introduction of \"big cash coins\" (\u5927\u9322 - known today as multiple cash coins). This measurement was seen as one of the only remaining options left, and simultaneously the Qing government decided to reintroduce paper currency. Xianfeng's paper money consisted of two types of paper bank notes, the first of which was denominated in qian, or copper cash; and the second type, in silver taels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During most of the Manchu Qing dynasty, the monetary system largely relied mostly on copper-alloy cash coins () denominated in \"w\u00e9n\" () for small transactions and the general retail market and silver sycees ( or ) denominated in taels () for larger transactions and the wholesale market. The general exchange rates between these two currencies fluctuated based both on time and on the location they were traded in, however the official exchange course was set by the imperial government as 1000 of copper-alloy cash coins for 1 tael of silver. Prior to 1800, the exchange rates were actually closer to 700 or 800 for 1 tael, but by the 19th century this had increased to 1200 . By the second half of the 19th century the imperial government of the Qing decided to experiment with cash coins that had a denomination higher than 1 which were known as Daqian, (, 'large money') because of copper shortages, but as the shortages ran higher the government decided to reintroduce paper money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The central government of the Qing dynasty only attempted to regulate Chinese banks and its currency near the end of the dynasty. By the time that the Qing started finally implementing financial reforms, China was beholden to the mercy of foreign powers; because of this the issue of foreign banknotes in China and restrictions on foreign banking and foreign banks (including British banks) in general were generally not made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese cash (currency unit)",
        "text": "The world's first paper money, issued in China between the 7th and 15th centuries, was denominated in w\u00e9n. The notes carried depictions of coins, sometimes in strings of ten. The notes of the Yuan dynasty suffered from hyperinflation due to over production without sufficient coins to back them and were withdrawn. Chinese paper money reappeared in the 19th century during the Qing dynasty. In 1853, Da-Qing Baochao notes were introduced in denominations of 500, 1000 and 2000 w\u00e9n. 5000 w\u00e9n notes followed in 1856, with 10,000, 50,000 and 100,000 w\u00e9n notes added in 1857. The last of these notes were issued in 1859."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banknote",
        "text": "Paper currency first developed in Tang dynasty China during the 7th century, although true paper money did not appear until the 11th century, during the Song dynasty. The usage of paper currency later spread throughout the Mongol Empire or Yuan dynasty China. European explorers like Marco Polo introduced the concept in Europe during the 13th century. Napoleon issued paper banknotes in the early 1800s. Cash paper money originated as receipts for value held on account \"value received\", and should not be conflated with promissory \"sight bills\" which were issued with a promise to convert at a later date."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Under the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor the \"Da-Qing baochao\" () was introduced. These were based on the earlier Da-Ming baochao from the Ming dynasty in style and layout and denominated in Zhiqian (, 'standard cash coins') which were the high quality cash coins issued by the two central government mints in Beijing. For this reason they were popularly nicknamed (, 'cash notes'). These banknotes were initially issued in the denominations 250 , 500 , 1,000 , 1,500 , and 2,000 but as the Chinese economy was suffering from inflation denominations of 5,000 , 10,000 , 50,000 and 100,000 were introduced. The notes were imprinted with a statement that they were convertible into copper cash coins, however the statement also included the line that these banknotes could not be used for tax payment to the government. In reality the were not redeemable at all. Imperial China saw itself as being at the center of the universe and that all territory \"Under the Heavens\" () and \"Regions Within the Four Seas\" () were included within their domains, and for this reason the copper-alloy cash notes of this era bear the four characters () in their right border design, which translated into English means 'to circulate under the heavens'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banknote",
        "text": "True paper money, called \"jiaozi\", developed from these promissory notes by the 11th century, during the Song dynasty. By 960, the Song government was short of copper for striking coins, and issued the first generally circulating notes. These notes were a promise by the ruler to redeem them later for some other object of value, usually specie. The issue of credit notes was often for a limited duration, and at some discount to the promised amount later. The \"jiaozi\" did not replace coins but was used alongside them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "After the it was only rarely suggested by court officials to reintroduce paper money to the Qing Empire. Among these were Cai Zhiding () in 1814 and Wang Yide (\u738b\u61ff\u5fb7) in his treatise on money known as (). Peng Xinwei suggested that the Manchu rulers of the Qing were very much atavistic towards the inflationary pressure that the earlier Jurchen Empire experienced after they had abused their ability to print Jiaochao banknotes. Modern scholars argue that the banknotes issued during the Shunzhi period, while only brief, likely entrenched the reluctance of the Qing dynasty to issue banknotes because this issue also proved inflationary confirming their fears."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "The Taiping Rebellion had caused the government of the Qing dynasty to fall into an extreme debt spiral which forced it to reconsider introducing paper money as a medium for exchange. This was advertised by the imperial government as a necessary evil because of a shortage of bronze which meant that the production of cash coinage had to be heavily scaled down. The pauperised Chinese public was for centuries uncompromisingly minded against the idea of paper money emissions in any way, shape, or form and would not accept it for any reason. Half a century earlier in the year 1814, when Cai Zhiding (\u8521\u4e4b\u5b9a, Ts'ai Chih-Ting), who was a high official in the Ministry of State, petitioned to the court of the Jiaqing Emperor advocating the resumption of a paper money currency, this request was denied. Cai was later severely rebuked in the Jiaqing Emperor's memorial in which he pointed out that neither the Chinese government nor any individuals in the past had experienced benefits from the circulation of a paper money. The Jiaqing Emperor was not fully without justification in asserting his stance against paper currency, as the era Ming banknotes from their introduction had been inconvertible into metal currencies. With no government backing into any other forms of currency these banknotes were swiftly depreciated. While this may seem only logical today the Chinese had to learn this lesson the hard way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "As the government of the Qing dynasty saw that banknotes that were denominated in \"metropolitan cash\" could circulate well in the Chinese market, the Qing government, besides promoting government issued cash notes, also started to focus on the promotion of official banknotes with three major measures. The first of these measures was having the imperial government place large amounts of capital into the Qian and Tian banks and then encouraging them to produce more banknotes. These newly produced Qian and Tian banknotes were then directly transferred to the Qing Treasury vault and were used to pay for imperial government expenditures. The second measure undertaken to help promote official banknotes was depositing money with the Yu banks, as these banks primarily dealt with exchanging cash notes for their own banknotes. The third and final measure undertaken to help promote official banknotes was establishing the Copper Donation Bureau, or () in Mandarin. The Copper Donation Bureau was originally created to encourage the citizens of the Qing dynasty to donate their copper in exchange for titles and/or degrees; afterwards the Copper Donation Bureau became solely responsible for receiving all kinds of donations to the Qing government, such as the () and the (). With these donations, the Copper Donation Bureau had enough reserves to issue its own banknotes (similar to the official banknotes) that were also put directly into the imperial government's Treasury to be used for its expenditures, where they were mostly used to pay for the bannermen's salaries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "An alternative narrative argues that privately issued banknotes by native banks and local money shops had become a fundamental in the late-Imperial Chinese currency system a long time before the entry of Western banking corporations into China during the late 1840s. An important hypothesis of this alternative narrative speculates that the Chinese population at the time did not trust government-issued banknotes, while banknotes issued by established private banks, shops and financiers tended to be well-accepted by the general populace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fiat money",
        "text": "The Song Dynasty in China was the first to issue paper money, \"jiaozi\", about the 10th century CE. Although the notes were valued at a certain exchange rate for gold, silver, or silk, conversion was never allowed in practice. The notes were initially to be redeemed after three years' service, to be replaced by new notes for a 3% service charge, but, as more of them were printed without notes being retired, inflation became evident. The government made several attempts to maintain the value of the paper money by demanding taxes partly in currency and making other laws, but the damage had been done, and the notes became disfavored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money",
        "text": "In premodern China, the need for credit and for circulating a medium that was less of a burden than exchanging thousands of copper coins led to the introduction of paper money, commonly known today as \"banknote\"s. This economic phenomenon was a slow and gradual process that took place from the late Tang dynasty (618\u2013907) into the Song dynasty (960\u20131279). It began as a means for merchants to exchange heavy coinage for receipts of deposit issued as promissory notes from shops of wholesalers, notes that were valid for temporary use in a small regional territory. In the 10th century, the Song dynasty government began circulating these notes amongst the traders in their monopolized salt industry. The Song government granted several shops the sole right to issue banknotes, and in the early 12th century the government finally took over these shops to produce state-issued currency. Yet the banknotes issued were still regionally valid and temporary; it was not until the mid 13th century that a standard and uniform government issue of paper money was made into an acceptable nationwide currency. The already widespread methods of woodblock printing and then Pi Sheng's movable type printing by the 11th century was the impetus for the massive production of paper money in premodern China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "Eventually, the arguments for reintroduction of paper money prevailed and the Da-Qing Baochao and Da-Qing Hubu Guanpiao were introduced in the year Xianfeng 3 (1853). The banknotes denominated in copper-alloy cash coins and the banknotes denominated in taels of silver were introduced simultaneously to the Chinese market by the government. Unlike the earlier Da-Ming Baochao banknotes these paper notes were to be backed by the government and were supposed to be fully convertible on demand. Banknotes denominated in copper-alloy cash coins were referred to as Chaopiao (\u9214\u7968, or \"precious notes\") and Qianpiao (\u9322\u7968, or \"cash notes\", which was a reference to their (initial) convertibility into strings of copper-alloy cash coins). In the year Xianfeng 3 (1853) the Ministry of Revenue also gave authorisation to the local provincial governments of China to directly issue banknotes denominated in copper-alloy cash coins and silver taels, these banknotes bore its official seal and were valid throughout the empire. The Da-Qing Baochao banknotes rather than being smoothly introduced to the local markets were \"dumped\" (Lanfa) on purveyors of goods and services to the bureaucracy of the Qing government and were not as easily accepted back in tax payments to the government by these same purveyors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Currency",
        "text": "In premodern China, the need for lending and for a medium of exchange that was less physically cumbersome than large numbers of copper coins led to the introduction of paper money, i.e. banknotes. Their introduction was a gradual process that lasted from the late Tang dynasty (618\u2013907) into the Song dynasty (960\u20131279). It began as a means for merchants to exchange heavy coinage for receipts of deposit issued as promissory notes by wholesalers' shops. These notes were valid for temporary use in a small regional territory. In the 10th century, the Song dynasty government began to circulate these notes amongst the traders in its monopolized salt industry. The Song government granted several shops the right to issue banknotes, and in the early 12th century the government finally took over these shops to produce state-issued currency. Yet the banknotes issued were still only locally and temporarily valid: it was not until the mid 13th century that a standard and uniform government issue of paper money became an acceptable nationwide currency. The already widespread methods of woodblock printing and then Bi Sheng's movable type printing by the 11th century were the impetus for the mass production of paper money in premodern China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inflation",
        "text": "Song Dynasty China introduced the practice of printing paper money to create fiat currency. During the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, the government spent a great deal of money fighting costly wars, and reacted by printing more money, leading to inflation. Fearing the inflation that plagued the Yuan dynasty, the Ming Dynasty initially rejected the use of paper money, and reverted to using copper coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fiat money",
        "text": "The succeeding Yuan Dynasty was the first dynasty of China to use paper currency as the predominant circulating medium. The founder of the Yuan Dynasty, Kublai Khan, issued paper money known as Jiaochao during his reign. The original notes during the Yuan Dynasty were restricted in area and duration as in the Song Dynasty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jiaochao",
        "text": "In 1260, the first year of Kublai Khan's rule, he issued two different Jiaochao notes. The first in July was backed by silk but was unsuccessful. The second was in October which used the silver standard. It was the first paper currency to be used as the predominant circulating medium in the history of China. The primary press was the Imperial Mint established in 1260, probably in Yanjing. It was certainly located in Khanbaliq after that city was established the same decade. Regional capitals were sometimes authorized to print money as well. The money of the various eras of the Yuan were also separately known, as the Zhongtong notes and Zhiyuan notes of the reign of Kublai Khan. They too suffered from devaluation and hyperinflation. In 1350 the final series of banknotes, the Zhizheng Jiaochao (\u81f3\u6b63\u4ea4\u9214) was issued. Unlike earlier notes, this was a fiat currency and was widely rejected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During the later part of the Qing dynasty era there was a discussion on whether or not the imperial Chinese government would have to establish a national bank, which it finally did in 1905. Peng Shu () stated before the introduction of new banknotes that the national bank would have to keep sufficient reserves in \"tangible\" money () at all times. The large number of private notes that were being produced all over the empire was to be restricted by introducing a stamp duty (). The reformer Liang Qichao campaigned for the government of the Qing dynasty to emulate the Western world and Japan by embracing the gold standard, unifying the currencies of China, and issuing government-backed banknotes with a \u2153 metallic reserve. At the end of 1905 the Ta-Ching Bank of the Ministry of Revenue () was founded, and the production of the banknotes was entrusted to the prints of the Beiyang Newspaper () in Northern China. In 1906 the government of the Qing dynasty sent students to Japan to be educated in modern printing techniques, with the aim to have the Shanghai Commercial Press () print the cheques of the Ministry's Bank. The Ta-Ching Bank of the Ministry of Revenue were still issuing two different types of banknotes. One series was denominated in tael, known as the (), and had denominations of 1 tael, 5 taels, 10 taels, 50 taels, and 100 taels. The other series was denominated in yuan, known as the () and was issued in denominations of 1 yuan, 5 yuan, 10 yuan, 50 yuan, and 100 yuan. In the year 1907 the Ta-Ching Bank of the Ministry of Revenue was renamed the Ta-Ching Government Bank (); accordingly the inscription on all banknotes had to be changed to reflect this."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "Before their value had dropped as significantly as it did, the Ministry of Revenue had already given the orders to cease the production and distribution of the Hubu Guanpiao in the year Xianfeng 7 (1857). During the final year that the Hubu Guanpiao banknotes were issued, the Chinese government produced 60,2000,000 silver taels}} in paper money onto the market. During this same period, the total tax revenue collected by the imperial Chinese government amounted to only 86,600,000 taels in silver. After the Tongzhi Emperor ascended to the throne of the Qing dynasty, this monetary policy was ended. A total of 9,780,000 taels in Hubu Guanpiao banknotes had been printed by the time that they had been officially deprecated. After this point, all further emissions of official Chinese paper money were the Da-Qing Baochao denominated in copper-alloy cash coins as the tael notes started slowly disappearing from the market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "In the early 20th century the government of the Qing dynasty attempted to decimalise the currency among many other economic reforms and established a national bank to oversee the production of paper money; however, the chaotic monetary situation continued to plague interregional trade and would later be inherited by the Republic of China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During the late Qing dynasty period the old paper notes remained in common usage; these included the traditional privately produced paper notes which were printed on one side of the bill issued by merchant banks known as (), (), and () and pawn shops known as (), as well as the old-style banknotes issued by provincial government institutions, to the modern banknotes which were introduced by a dozen or so of foreign banks operating in China and modern Chinese banks which were created in very large numbers in the later years of the 19th century. Furthermore, there were also banknotes which were brought into the Chinese financial markets by imperial government-owned firms like railway companies, and foreign bills coming to China through the trade ports like Shanghai. The large spectrum of these types of paper money reflected the structure of the general Chinese credit market in the late Qing period. The traditional Chinese credit institutes were local banks, banks, banks, and pawnshops, of which a considerably number was always to be found in each city across the Chinese Empire. Many provincial governments founded their own local provincial, state-owned banks which were known as () or (); in some provinces even several modern credit institutes were to be found, like the Yuning Bank () and the Yusu Bank () in the province of Jiangsu. Quite a few of these provincial credit companies opened branches in other provinces due to their success."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "During the transition from Ming to Qing the Manchu government issued banknotes known as \"Hubu Guanpiao\" (\u6236\u90e8\u5b98\u7968) or \"Shunzhi Guanpiao\" (\u9806\u6cbb\u5b98\u7968) or \"Shunzhi Chaoguan\" (\u9806\u6cbb\u9214\u8cab) which were first issued in the year 1651 on initiative of the Minister of Revenue, Wei Xiangshu (\u9b4f\u8c61\u6a1e) during the war with the remnants of the Ming dynasty to cover the more immediate expenses of the Manchus as the finances of the Qing during this period were in dire distress, these banknotes were declared void only a decade after their issued. An annual amount of 128,000 \"gu\u00e0n\" (\u8cab) were issued, with a total sum of 1.28 million \"gu\u00e0n\" being produced before they were abolished. The denominations of the Hubu Guanpiao followed the pattern of the Ming dynasty period paper notes, but as historiographical sources about the early Qing era paper money are scarce, not much can be known about them. After the Hubu Guanpiao it was only rarely suggested by court officials to reintroduce paper money to the Qing Empire, among these were Cai Zhiding (\u8521\u4e4b\u5b9a) in 1814 and Wang Yide (\u738b\u61ff\u5fb7) in his treatise on money known as \"Qianbi Chuyan\" (\u9322\u5e63\u82bb\u8a00)."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Chinese currency",
        "text": "The Mongol-founded Yuan dynasty (Chinese: , 1271\u20131368) also attempted to use paper currency. Unlike the Tang dynasty, they created a unified, national system that was not backed by silver or gold. The currency issued by the Yuan was the world's first fiat currency, known as Jiaochao. The Yuan government attempted to prohibit all transactions in or possession of silver or gold, which had to be turned over to the government. Inflation in 1260 caused the government to replace the existing paper currency with a new one in 1287, but inflation that resulted from undisciplined printing remained a problem for the Yuan court until the end of the Yuan dynasty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jiaozi (currency)",
        "text": "Jiaozi () was a form of promissory note which appeared around the 11th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. Numismatists regard it as the first paper money in history, a development of the Chinese Song Dynasty (960\u20131279 AD). Early Jiaozi notes did not have standard denominations but were denominated according to the needs of the purchaser and ranged from 500 \"w\u00e9n\" to 5 \"gu\u00e0n\". The government office that issued these notes or the Jiaozi wu () demanded a payment or exchange fee () of 30 w\u00e9n per gu\u00e0n exchanged from coins to banknote. The Jiaozi were usually issued biannually. In the region of Liang-Huai () these banknotes were referred to as Huaijiao (\u6dee\u4ea4) and were introduced in 1136 but their circulation stopped quickly after their introduction. Generally the lower the denominations of the Jiaozi the more popular they became, and as the government initially wasn't able to properly regulate their production, their existence eventually lead to undesirably high rates of inflation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banknote",
        "text": "Even before this point, the Song government was amassing large amounts of paper tribute. It was recorded that each year before 1101, the prefecture of Xin'an (modern Shexian, Anhui) alone would send 1,500,000 sheets of paper in seven different varieties to the capital at Kaifeng. In 1101, the Emperor Huizong of Song decided to lessen the amount of paper taken in the tribute quota, because it was causing detrimental effects and creating heavy burdens on the people of the region. However, the government still needed masses of paper product for the exchange certificates and the state's new issuing of paper money. For the printing of paper money alone, the Song government established several government-run factories in the cities of Huizhou, Chengdu, Hangzhou, and Anqi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "However, the government did not keep adequate reserves of hard currency to back the new banknotes up and many provincial governments didn't allow for taxes to be paid using paper money, after a few years the government started refusing to convert the new paper money into hard currency and the Chinese people started to distrust it as a valid medium of exchange. In response to the ever more expensive military expenditures because of the Taiping Rebellion the government started producing more and more high denomination banknotes which were not convertible causing hyperinflation, in the year Xianfeng 8 (1858) the government completely depreciated the Hubu Guanpiao series in favour of the Da-Qing Baochao."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ban Liang",
        "text": "It is possible that China first began using iron cash coins (\u9421\u9322, \"tieqian\") during the Western Han dynasty, this was concluded after a number of iron Ban Liang cash coins were unearthed in Western Han era tombs in the Hunanese cities of Hengyang and Changsha between the years 1955 and 1959. Other specimens of iron Ban Liang cash coins were also unearthed in the province of Sichuan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The reason why the government was forced to reform the imperial monetary system with a very complex system during the Taiping Rebellion was because the rebels had blocked the access of mint metals from the southwest of China, but more money was still needed to fight the ongoing insurgency. The advisors of the Xianfeng Emperor not only introduced copper-alloy cash coins with higher denominations than one, as well as introducing new cash coins made of metals other than brass, but also revived paper money in the shape of the \"Xianfeng baochao\" (). Quite important for the war effort is the fact that the imperial Qing government earned some revenue by issuing these new types of currencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Merchant guilds in the province of Sichuan were worldwide the first people to develop officially accepted letters of exchange, or paper money, in the forms of Jiaozi (\u4ea4\u5b50), Qianyin (\u9322\u5f15), and Feiqian (\u98db\u9322), thess first forms of paper currency were provided with the security of iron cash coins.\n* Songyuan Tongbao. (). Written in \"li\" script. The inscription is based on the \"Kaiyuan Tongbao\" series of cash coins. It has a nominal weight of 1 \"qian\". Various dots and crescents are found on the reverse. It was first cast in 960 and then until the end of Emperor Taizu's reign. Casting of iron cash coins started at Baizhangxian, Yazhou, in Sichuan, from 970. Ten furnaces cast 9,000 strings a year.\n* Taiping Tongbao () (976\u2013989). Written in \"li\" script. Various dots and crescents are found on the reverse. There are also iron cash coins with this inscription. The small iron coins come from Sichuan and 10 were equivalent to one bronze coin. The large iron cash coin have a large dot above on the reverse. This coin was cast at Jianzhou, Fujian in 983, and was intended to be equivalent to 3 bronze coins.\n* Chunhua Yuanbao () (990\u2013994). Written in regular, running, and grass script. There are also small and large iron coins. They have a nominal value of 10. In 991, 20,000 iron coins were needed in the market for one roll of silk. Permission was requested to alter the casting to Value Ten coins in the Imperial Script pattern. In one year only 3,000 strings were cast. They were not considered convenient, so casting was stopped.\n* Xianping Yuanbao () (998\u20131003). Written in regular script. They are found in both bronze and iron.\n* Jingde Yuanbao () (1004\u20131007). Written in regular script. They are made of bronze; Iron with Value Two; or Iron with Value Ten. The large iron cash coins were minted at Jiazhou and Qiongzhou in Sichuan in the year 1005. They weighed 4 \"qian\" each.\n* Xiangfu Yuanbao () (1008\u20131016). Written in regular script. They are made of bronze or iron. They come in medium size and large sizes. The large iron coins were cast from 1014 to 1016 in Yizhou, Sichuan. Their nominal value was 10 cash and weight 3.2 \"qian.\"\n* Tianxi Tongbao () (1017\u20131022). Written in regular script. They are made of bronze or iron. At this time, there were copper coin mints at Yongping in Jiangxi, Yongfeng in Anhui, Kuangning in Fujian, Fengguo in Shanxi, and in the capital city. There were also three iron coin mints in Sichuan.\n* Mingdao Yuanbao () (1032\u20131033). Written in seal and regular script. There are also iron cash coins with this inscription.\n* Jingyou Yuanbao () (1034\u20131038). Written in seal and regular script. There are both small and large iron coins.\n* Huangsong Tongbao () (1039\u20131054) use seal and regular script, and have many variations. They are made of iron and have two forms with either small or large characters. The small character iron coins are associated with casting in Shaanxi and Shanxi in the Qing Li period (from 1044). The large character iron cash coins are associated with Sichuan mints. The histories say that the Huang Song coin was cast in Baoyuan 2 \u2013 1039. As it is rather common, and there are no bronze small cash from the next three periods, it appears to have been issued for longer than one year.\n* Kangding Yuanbao () (1040). Written in \"li\" script. They are made of iron and come in both small and medium sizes.\n* Qingli Zhongbao () (1041\u20131048). Written in regular script. There are two forms: large bronze coins and large iron coins. The Qing Li large bronze coins, intended to be worth 10 cash, were cast in Jiangnan to fund the war with the Tangut Western Xia Empire. Iron coins were cast in Shanxi and other prefectures. The large cash coins caused prices to leap up, causing inflation, and both public and private interests suffered. In 1048, the large iron coins were devalued to 3 iron cash."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fiat money",
        "text": "China has a long history with paper money, beginning in the 7th century CE. During the 11th century, the government established a monopoly on its issuance, and about the end of the 12th century, convertibility was suspended. The use of such money became widespread during the subsequent Yuan and Ming dynasties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "However, the government did not keep adequate reserves of hard currency to back the new banknotes up. Many provincial governments didn't allow for taxes to be paid using paper money, and after a few years the government started refusing to convert the new paper money into hard currency; consequently, the Chinese people started to distrust it as a valid medium of exchange. In response to the ever more expensive military expenditures caused by the Taiping Rebellion, the government produced more and more high denomination banknotes, which were not convertible. This caused hyperinflation; by the year Xianfeng 9 (1859) the currency had become completely depreciated and was abolished."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "By the middle of the 1800s various Western credit institutes and foreign banking corporations were operating in the Qing dynasty. During the late 1840s they began producing bills of exchange, promissory notes, or other forms of paper money for the Chinese market, which the Chinese referred to as (). This introduced modern credit instruments to the traditional Chinese business world and greatly bolstered the reformist monetary discourse in China and would later be emulated by homegrown Chinese modern banks. This affected both the private market and the imperial Chinese bureaucracy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sycee",
        "text": "Paper money and bonds started to be used in China in the 9th century. However, due to monetary problems such as enormous local variations in monetary supply and exchange rates, rapid changes in the relative value of silver and copper, coin fraud, inflation, and political uncertainty with changing regimes, until the time of the Republic payment by weight of silver was the standard practice, and merchants carried their own scales with them. Most of the so-called \"opium scales\" seen in museums were actually for weighing payments in silver. The tael was still the basis of the silver currency and sycees remained in use until the end of the Qing Dynasty. Common weights were 50 taels, 10 taels, and 5 down to 1 tael."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of paper",
        "text": "During the Tang dynasty (618\u2013907) paper was folded and sewn into square bags to preserve the flavor of tea. In the same period, it was written that tea was served from baskets with multi-colored paper cups and paper napkins of different size and shape. During the Song dynasty (960\u20131279) the government produced the world's first known paper-printed money, or banknote (\"see Jiaozi and Huizi\"). Paper money was bestowed as gifts to government officials in special paper envelopes. During the Yuan dynasty (1271\u20131368), the first well-documented European in Medieval China, the Venetian merchant Marco Polo remarked how the Chinese burned paper effigies shaped as male and female servants, camels, horses, suits of clothing and armor while cremating the dead during funerary rites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Prior to the outbreak of the first world war, the French operated two banking corporations in China which were granted banknote issue rights by the Chinese government; these were the Banque de l'Indochine and the Banque Industrielle de Chine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The Oriental Bank Corporation, which was the first foreign bank to conduct its business in China by opening a local branch, also opened up a branch in the Bund where it then started issuing its own banknotes. The British-owned Chartered Mercantile Bank of India, London and China which issued the banknotes of the Hong Kong dollar from 1859 until 1892 was later reorganised as the Mercantile Bank of India and stopped operating in China. After the fall of the Qing dynasty and when the Republic of China's rule over the mainland came to an end, the only British Indian bank still operating in China was the Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The first of these, the Oriental Bank Corporation, was quick to establish a branch in Qing territory. The Oriental Bank Corporation went bankrupt in 1884. The London-based Chartered Mercantile Bank of India, London and China opened a branch in the British crown colony of Hong Kong in 1845 and some time after the branch's establishment commenced issuing banknotes denominated in Spanish milled dollars as Mexican dollars due to the former wide circulation of Spanish silver dollar, even in Ming dynasty times, through trade with the Philippines as part of the Spanish East Indies in the Spanish colonial empire that minted the silver coins from Mexico. This series of paper notes was based upon the Carlos silver dollar, which at the time was still the generally preferred medium of exchange among Chinese merchants. The Chartered Mercantile Bank of India, London and China later opened a branch in the British concession of the port city of Shanghai in October of 1854, where they issued both silver dollar and tael banknotes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Banknotes produced by the East Turkestan branches of the Russo-Asiatic Bank (Kashgar, Yining, and Changuchak) during the Republican period circulating between 1913 and 1924 still prominently depicted imperial Chinese symbols such as the five-fingered dragon on both sides. They were distinguished from banknotes produced by other foreign banking corporations because they were denominated in fixed weights of pure gold, rather than specific monetary units. The banknotes from this era were printed by Bradbury Wilkinson and Company in London, United Kingdom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banknotes of the Ta-Ching Government Bank",
        "text": "Following the opening up of many treaty port cities of China after its defeat during the First Opium War during the 1840s, a large number of major foreign banks entered China and started issuing their own banknotes there for local circulation. During this same era provincial governments started setting up their own official banks to enhance their financial resources. The boom of financial institutions during this era meant that various forms of paper money, private banknotes, foreign banknotes, and many different kinds of local coinages circulated concurrently creating a very chaotic Chinese currency system. During the later part of the Qing dynasty era there was a discussion on whether or not the imperial Chinese government would have to establish a national bank which it finally did in 1905. Peng Shu (\u5f6d\u8ff0) stated before the introduction of new banknotes that the national bank would have to keep sufficient reserves in \"touchable\" money (\u73fe\u91d1) at all times. The large number of private notes that were being produced all over the empire was to be restricted by introducing a stamp duty (\u5370\u82b1\u7a05). The reformer Liang Qichao campaigned for the government of the Qing dynasty to emulate the Western world and Japan by embracing the gold standard, unify refractory the currencies of China, and issue government-backed banknotes with a \u2153 metallic reserve. In order to unify the national currency system, in 1905, the government of the Qing dynasty established the \"Ta-Ching Bank of the Ministry of Revenue\" (\u5927\u6e05\u6236\u90e8\u9280\u884c) in Beijing, becoming the earliest officially opened national bank in China. The newly established national bank had a dual nature of being both a central bank and a commercial bank. The production of the banknotes was entrusted to the prints of the Beiyang Newspaper (\u5317\u6d0b\u5831\u5c40) in Northern China. In 1906 the government of the Qing dynasty sent students to Japan to be educated about modern printing techniques, with the aim to have the Shanghai Commercial Press (\u4e0a\u6d77\u5546\u52d9\u5370\u66f8\u9928) print the cheques of the Ministry's Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Yuan dynasty",
        "text": "He issued paper banknotes known as Jiaochao () in 1273. Paper currency had been issued and used in China before Yuan time; by 960, the Song dynasty, short of copper for striking coins, issued the first generally circulating notes. However, during the Song dynasty, paper money was used alongside the coins. On the other hand, Yuan was the first dynasty in China to use paper currency as the predominant circulating medium. The Yuan bureaucrats made paper bills from the mulberry bark paper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economy of the Song dynasty",
        "text": "The central government soon observed the economic advantages of printing paper money, issuing a monopoly right of several of the deposit shops to the issuance of these certificates of deposit. By the early 12th century, the amount of banknotes issued in a single year amounted to an annual rate of 26\u00a0million strings of cash coins. By the 1120s the central government officially stepped in and produced their own state-issued paper money (using woodblock printing). Even before this point, the Song government was amassing large amounts of paper tribute. It was recorded that each year before 1101 AD, the prefecture of Xinan (modern Xi-xian, Anhui) alone would send 1,500,000 sheets of paper in seven different varieties to the capital at Kaifeng. In that year of 1101, the Emperor Huizong of Song decided to lessen the amount of paper taken in the tribute quota, because it was causing detrimental effects and creating heavy burdens on the people of the region. However, the government still needed masses of paper product for the exchange certificates and the state's new issuing of paper money. For the printing of paper money alone, the Song court established several government-run factories in the cities of Huizhou, Chengdu, Hangzhou, and Anqi. The size of the workforce employed in these paper money factories were quite large, as it was recorded in 1175 AD that the factory at Hangzhou alone employed more than a thousand workers a day. However, the government issues of paper money were not yet nationwide standards of currency at that point; issues of banknotes were limited to regional zones of the empire, and were valid for use only in a designated and temporary limit of 3-year's time. The geographic limitation changed between the years 1265 and 1274, when the late Southern Song government finally produced a nationwide standard currency of paper money, once its widespread circulation was backed by gold or silver. The range of varying values for these banknotes was perhaps from one string of cash to one hundred at the most. In later dynasties, the use and enforcement of paper currency was a method undertaken by the government as a response to the counterfeiting of copper coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Chinese currency",
        "text": "Around 210\u00a0BC, the first emperor of China Qin Shi Huang (260\u2013210\u00a0BC) abolished all other forms of local currency and introduced a uniform copper coin. Paper money was invented in China in the 9th century, but the base unit of currency remained the copper coin. Copper coins were used as the chief denomination of currency in China until the introduction of the yuan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The reserves that the Qing government deposited into the Qian and Tian banks were not enough; government documents stated that the Qian banks received government endowments of 20,000 \"di\u00e0o\" () in as initial capital directly from the imperial Chinese Treasury from the Ministry of Revenue. The government documents do not specify how often they pumped money into the official banks, nor is it specified in which form of currency the payment to these banks was realised. The imperial treasury records show that in 1853 a total number of 13,784 taels of silver was transferred from the government to the Qian and Tian banks \"as their 20% reserve money\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "Peng Xinwei estimated that during the late Qing dynasty period, the total copper sector (copper coins including standard cash and the new Da-Qing Tongbi minted after the year 1900) constituted only 17% of the total money in circulation in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During this era another type of banknote was also introduced known as the (, 'silver notes') or (, 'silver notes') which were issued by the Ministry of Revenue and were commonly known as \"Hubu guanpiao\" () for this fact. These silver notes were issued in denominations of values 1 tael, 3 taels, 5 taels, 10 taels, and 50 taels. These banknotes had a guideline written in both Manchu and Mandarin Chinese declaring that they had to be discounted by 2% when they exchanged into Beijing market silver and when counted against the Kuping tael, the notes were discounted at 6 per cent. The conversion rate between copper-alloy cash notes () and silver tael notes () was two cash notes to one silver note, these banknotes exchangeable into copper cash coins and silver, but only in certain institutions in Beijing under the Ministry of Revenue. The term () was first used exclusively for paper notes issued by the imperial government, but later on was also used to refer to privately produced paper notes issued by private market banks and merchant companies."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of printing",
        "text": "In the Jin dynasty, copper-block prints were slotted with two square holes for embedding bronze movable type characters, each selected from 1000 different characters, such that each printed paper money had a different combination of markers. A copper block printed paper banknote dated between 1215 and 1216 in the collection of Luo Zhenyu's \"Pictorial Paper Money of the Four Dynasties\", 1914, shows two special characters: one called \"Ziliao\", the other called \"Zihao\", for the purpose of preventing counterfeit. Over the \"Ziliao\" there is a small character (\u8f36) printed with movable copper type, while over the \"Zihao\" there is an empty square hole; apparently the associated copper metal type was lost. Another sample of Song dynasty money of the same period in the collection of Shanghai Museum has two empty square holes above \"Ziliao\" as well as \"Zihou\", due to the loss of two copper movable types."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "In the year 1854 new Daqian were introduced, these had denominations ranging from 5 \"w\u00e9n\" to 1000 \"w\u00e9n\". During this same time the government of the Qing dynasty began issuing convertible cash bank notes, or \"guan-hao qianpiao\" (\u5b98\u865f\u9322\u7968), which were mostly backed in Daqian. These government-issued banknotes were modeled after private bank notes, known as \"sihao qianpiao\" (\u79c1\u865f\u9322\u7968), which would continue to circulate even after the introduction of these government notes. These banknotes were issued by nine different government banks, four of these banks newly established for their circulation. Both the Daqian and \"guan-hao qianpiao\" were calculated using the Jingqian (\u4eac\u9322) unit of account, but they were complicated by the fact that the nominal value of these government banknotes denominated the debt owed to be satisfied by the payment of cash coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Song dynasty",
        "text": "The annual output of minted copper currency in 1085 reached roughly six billion coins. The most notable advancement in the Song economy was the establishment of the world's first government issued paper-printed money, known as Jiaozi (see also \"Huizi\"). For the printing of paper money, the Song court established several government-run factories in the cities of Huizhou, Chengdu, Hangzhou, and Anqi. The size of the workforce employed in paper money factories was large; it was recorded in 1175 that the factory at Hangzhou employed more than a thousand workers a day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese industrialization",
        "text": "The annual output of minted copper currency in 1085 alone reached roughly six billion coins. The most notable advancement in the Song economy was the establishment of the world's first government issued paper-printed money, known as Jiaozi (\"see also Huizi\"). For the printing of paper money alone, the Song court established several government-run factories in the cities of Huizhou, Chengdu, Hangzhou, and Anqi. The size of the workforce employed in paper money factories was large; it was recorded in 1175 that the factory at Hangzhou employed more than a thousand workers a day."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Beijing",
        "text": "Paper money was first issued in Beijing during the Jin. The Lugou Bridge, over the Yongding River southwest of the city, was built in 1189. Seventeen Jin emperors are buried in Fangshan District, including those whose tombs were originally built in Shangjing and moved to Zhongdu. The city's population grew from 82,000 in 1125 to 400,000 in 1207 (and from 340,000 in the surrounding region to 1.6 million)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tael",
        "text": "During the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor, the government of the Qing dynasty was forced to re-introduce paper money, among the paper money it produced were the Hubu Guanpiao (\u6236\u90e8\u5b98\u7968) silver notes that were denominated in taels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "To finance their enormous military expenditures the government took several monetary initiatives, the government introduced the Da-Qing Baochao (\u5927\u6e05\u5bf6\u9214) copper-alloy cash-notes and the Hubu Guanpiao (\u6236\u90e8\u5b98\u7968) silver tael-notes although the empire's silver reserves were woefully inadequate to back the new paper currency. The size and weight of the 1 \"w\u00e9n\" Xianfeng Tongbao cash coins were reduced, this was done to save copper which was in short supply due to the supply lines from the copper mines of the Yunnan being disrupted by the wars that occurred in Southern China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Despite the fact that the number of these banks was not very high, their business proved to have a great impact on the modernisation of the financial and monetary system of China during the late imperial and the early Republican era. Even certain government-owned institutions like the railway corporations can be seen as modern credit institutes because they issued their own modernised paper money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Chinese historian Peng Xinwei stated that in 1900, privately produced banknotes made up only 3% of the total volume of Chinese currency stock. This number would (according to Niv Horesh) be unlikely to surpass 6% if banknotes denominated in silver currencies were taken into account (these banknotes were produced by government banks and modern banking corporations). Foreign banks operating in China generally did not disclose the volume of banknotes issued by them circulating in China proper; the fact that they did not openly disclose this resulted in inflated estimates thereof over the years. For this reason Horesh states that it would be very implausible to assume that the ratio of all banknotes as part of the entirety of the Chinese money stock was any significant number higher than 10% even as late as 1900."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "During the transition from Ming to Qing the Manchu government-issued banknotes known as Hubu Guanpiao (\u6236\u90e8\u5b98\u7968) or \"Shunzhi Guanpiao\" (\u9806\u6cbb\u5b98\u7968) or \"Shunzhi Chaoguan\" (\u9806\u6cbb\u9214\u8cab) which were first issued in the year 1651 on initiative of the Minister of Revenue, Wei Xiangshu (\u9b4f\u8c61\u6a1e) during the war with the remnants of the Ming dynasty to cover the more immediate expenses of the Manchus as the finances of the Qing during this period were in dire distress, these banknotes were declared void only a decade after their issued. An annual amount of 128,000 \"gu\u00e0n\" (\u8cab) of these early Manchu banknotes were issued, with a total sum of 1.28 million \"gu\u00e0n\" being produced before they were abolished. The denominations of the Hubu Guanpiao followed the pattern of the Ming dynasty period paper notes, but as historiographical sources about the early Qing era paper money are scarce, not much can be known about them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The Deutsch-Asiatische Bank (DAB) was created on 15 May 1889 and was notable for being the first major non-British foreign banking corporation in China during the Qing dynasty period, and for being the only German bank with the right to issue its own notes in China. The main priority for the was to finance imperials loans requested by the Qing government with a special focus on both railways and mining operations within the sphere of interest held by the German Empire in the province of Shandong. The initial capital the paid to the government of the Qing dynasty numbered 5,000,000 taels, a number which would steadily increase as time went by. In 1896 the entered into a cooperation with the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC) to underwrite Chinese government loans aggregating \u00a332,000,000. The money for these government loans was secured by collecting the revenue of the Imperial Maritime Customs and taxes collected on Chinese salt. The project, which cost 54,000,000 gold mark, led to the construction of of railways from the city of Qingdao, German Kiautschou to Tsinan. Additionally it paid 12,000,000 gold mark for the establishment of new mining operations in Shandong. The bank was later also involved with British, French and Russian interests to build railways outside of the German sphere of interest. The banknotes issued by the were denominated in silver taels and silver dollars. The paper money that the bank was allowed to bring into circulation was tightly controlled by the German imperial government in Berlin and it was always in small quantities. The initial emission of banknotes occurred in 1907 and was strictly controlled by the German government, well managed, and in great demand. The second issue occurred during the Republic of China in 1914 after the banknotes arrived shortly before the Japanese invasion during World War I. Because of the war, only a small number of banknotes actually entered circulation. Although the banknotes of the DAB had no printer's imprint on them, it was generally believed that they were produced in the Leipzig plant of the German printing company Giesecke+Devrient. All banknotes produced by this bank depict the German national personification Germania alongside the imperial German eagle and a Chinese dragon prominently displayed on them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The main financial institutions serving as intermediaries between the Europeans and the Chinese for financial purposes were the \"qianzhuang\" (, known in English as \"money shops\" or \"native banks\"); the tended to be small proprietorships which had unlimited liability. These financial institutions were often sparsely aligned along family and linguistic ties and they were rarely patronised by the local government authorities. Larger would issue company scrip against individual deposits which were known as (, 'shop coupon'). This scrip was also accepted by proximate shops, but to cash these out would take around 10\u201315 days after it was given to the shop. This was because couriers would have to liaise with the issuing shop in order to rule out fraudulent notes. During the 1860s the of Shanghai started looking to the foreign banking companies as a source of capital, and by 1888, sixty-two of the largest had engaged in borrowing millions of taels in silver in loans from foreign banks on a yearly basis. The would mobilise their domestic resources to an order of magnitude that would exceed the paid-up capital that they initially received several times over; this happened mostly through issuing banknotes and deposit receipts. British banks operating in China would often accept as a security for the loans they gave out to . This makes it plausible that chop loans originated because of the widely used prevalence of in China; British banks could not simply reject them when they were being offered to them by foreign merchants in China. During this era foreign banking companies tended to have an account with at least one , since only the guilds operated by them could clear the large number of forms that were circulating in the city of Shanghai. This happened through a rather elaborate daily mechanism which was dubbed (, 'draft exchange')."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banknote",
        "text": "The founder of the Yuan dynasty, Kublai Khan, issued paper money known as Jiaochao. The original notes were restricted by area and duration, as in the Song dynasty, but in the later years, facing massive shortages of specie to fund their rule, the paper money began to be issued without restrictions on duration. Venetian merchants were impressed by the fact that the Chinese paper money was guaranteed by the State."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Of paramount principle among the business interests of the Chinese government during the Qing dynasty was the financing of 2,800 miles of newly constructed railroads in the Yangtze valley. All these expensive loans with various foreign banking corporations were secured by China's salt tax as well as Chinese customs revenues. By making so many loans to the Chinese government, foreign banking companies were able to establish what were essentially spheres of influence in different regions of China, with the Russians in the northeast (specifically Manchuria), the United Kingdom which enjoyed more influence in the Yangtze valley, the Japanese Empire which exercised their influence in the northern and central regions of China, and the French who were more influential in the southern regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Following the Chinese tradition of issuing new money in a new reign, the Xuantong administration had the design of the official Ta-Ching Government Bank paper notes somewhat changed to herald in the new emperor. The new design was inspired by the designs of the banknotes of the United States dollar of this era; some banknotes showed the portrait of Li Hongzhang, and others depicted that of Zaifeng, Prince Chun who at the time was the current Chinese Minister of Finance. At the eve of the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, there were 5,400,000 tael worth of banknotes circulating in China, and 12,400,000 yuan in banknotes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "The inconvertible paper notes that were also issued and pushed through the Chinese market received the full coercive power of the central state. These monetary policies led to immediate market reaction in the areas where they circulated, in fact, upon rumour, would cause the closure of local money shops and was behind a capital flight out of the capital city of Beijing. Public distrust in China towards these new monies even worsened when in the end, governmental agencies refused to accept \"big cash\" as a form of payment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The banknotes were supposed to enjoy circulation in all territories of the Qing dynasty. In order to facilitate this widespread adoption of the new paper currency, the banknotes were issued to the general public through semi-official banks known as the Yu banks, Ch'ien banks, and T'ien bank groups; these semi-official banks served as the fiscal agents of the Ministry of Revenue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Strictly speaking, the Xianfeng-era banknotes issued by the official banks did not fall under the monies issued by the Qing government. However, the status and function of official banks was intertwined with that of the Daqian, , and , and the over-issue of banknotes by the official banks was probably the real reason for the Xianfeng inflation. Because the official banks were neither directly controlled by the Ministry of Revenue or supervised by them, and the fact that their operations were semi-commercial (as in they were operated by private merchants), few records of official banknotes exist today. Of the Tian, Qian, and Yu banks, the Qian banks were the oldest, as they were established in the year 1853 with four branch offices. The Qian banks were operated directly by the Ministry of Revenue for the purpose of salary payment of the bannermen. The Tian Group of banks was originally the royal pawnshop operated by the Imperial Household Department of the Qing dynasty (Neiwufu) in 1841, in order to increase the private vault of the imperial household (which completely was separate from the imperial government vault). The Tian Group was converted to official banks in 1854 in order to \"facilitate\" the Tian banks into the service of salary payment for government officials. The Yu Group of banks was established in 1855; the Yu banks were semi-official banks and were operated by private merchants with imperial charter and would (very infrequently) receive deposits from the Ministry of Revenue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "In reality however, these banking groups were both independent from the Chinese government and from each other and weren't under any form of imperial government supervision. There were five \"Yu Banks\" which were already existing Chinese private banks, while the Ch'ien and T'ien banks were large cash shops which received a government license to distribute the new paper currency. The T'ien shops also fulfilled the purpose of being publicly funded pawnshops; they dealt in both pawned items and deposits. It is important to note that none of these institutions would survive the inflation, drowning in an ever increasing sea of cash notes. By the year Xianfeng 11 (1861) these institutions had all closed as they went bankrupt. The fall of the T'ien shops was quickened by Chinese peasants who, with the inflation affecting the paper money running rampant, opted to speedily redeem their pawned items with the depreciated Da-Qing baochao. This run on the T'ien shops practically doomed the Chinese pawnshop business overnight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhuangpiao",
        "text": "The Zhuangpiao (), alternatively known as \"Yinqianpiao\" (\u9280\u9322\u7968, \"silver money notes\"), \"Huipiao\" (\u6703\u7968, \"corporate notes\"), \"Pingtie\" (\u6191\u5e16), \"Duitie\" (\u514c\u5e16), \"Shangtie\" (\u4e0a\u5e16), \"Hupingtie\" (\u58fa\u74f6\u5e16), or \"Qitie\" (\u671f\u5e16) in different contexts, refer to privately produced paper money (or company scrip) made in China during the Qing dynasty and early Republic of China periods issued by small private banks known as \"qianzhuang\". Other than banknotes \"qianzhuang\" also issued \"Tiexian\" (\u8cbc\u73fe, \"discountable notes\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "The Southern Song dynasty saw the emergence of paper money, while coins were increasingly becoming a rarity. Iron cash coins also started to be used in greater numbers, at first due to the lack of copper, but later even as more copper was found the production of iron cash coins remained cheaper and an abundance of iron made it more attractive for the government to produce, while several problems such as the fact that iron is harder to inscribe, and that iron corrodes faster ensured the continued production of copper cash coins. From the year 1180 until the end of the Song dynasty very few bronze coins were produced by the government as the preference went to iron, this was because bronze cash coins needed to have a specific typeface which was more intricate to produce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The reserves of the semi-private Yu banks seemed to be the weakest of all the official banks: they had an initial capital reserve of about 10,000 ; the Yu banks would later receive government deposits that were composed mainly of iron cash coins and lead cash coins. Because of their low capital reserves, the Yu banks experienced the worst case of over-issuing paper money, which caused a great demand for exchanging cash notes against a limited reserve of mainly Daqian and Zhiqian. After a number of bank runs, the Yu banks all folded in 1857; subsequently the Qian and Tian banks all folded due to bank runs in June of 1861."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The denominations of the contemporary coinage were chaotic with different standards being used across regions, making it confusing to exchange between areas due to the wide range of systems and denominations used to categorise the many coinages of the Qing. There was likewise a wide range of types of paper notes. The traditional copper-allow cash was reflected in cash notes (). Some of these banknotes used the traditional government-mandated exchange rate of 1,000 \"w\u00e9n\" per string of cash coins ( or ) in a system for cash coins known as (), while others used differing local exchange rates, like the Eastern cash or () of the Fengtian province, with 160 cash coins per string, or the \"metropolitan cash\" () from Beijing, which had an exchange rate of 500 cash coins per string. Local banknotes usually reflected local exchange rates. During the late Qing dynasty Japanese cash coins circulated in China, as well as cash coins from earlier dynasties of different shapes and sizes at different exchange rates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty\n--History.\n----and other early Qing paper money.\n----Xianfeng era paper money.\n----Foreign banks and the currency reforms of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.\n----Establishing a national bank.\n--List of banknotes denominated in copper-alloy cash coins issued during the Xianfeng era.\n--List of banknotes denominated in silver taels issued during the Xianfeng era.\n--Banknotes produced by Belgian banks.\n--Banknotes produced by British banks.\n----Early British Indian banks in China.\n----Later British banks.\n----The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation.\n--Banknotes produced by French banks.\n--Banknotes produced by Japanese banks.\n----Bank of Taiwan.\n----Yokohama Specie Bank.\n--Banknotes produced by Russian banks.\n----Russo-Chinese Bank.\n----Russo-Asiatic Bank.\n--Deutsch-Asiatische Bank.\n--International Banking Corporation.\n--Netherlands Trading Society.\n--Currency units used on paper money during the late Qing period.\n--Denominations on banknotes of foreign banks in Qing China.\n--Banknotes as a percentage of the Chinese money stock during the late Qing dynasty.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianzhuang",
        "text": "In the city of Hankou the \"piaohao\" were prosperous before the \"qianzhuang\" were, this might have been due to connections with the political circle. Less is known about the origins of the Hankou \"qianzhuang\" which could be either due to the immense number of aliases used to describe \"qianzhuang\" or the fact that the Qing government wasn't good at record keeping during this early era. The trade conducted by \"qianzhuang\" in Hankou is locally referred to as \"Yin-Qian\" (\u9280\u9322). Between the years 1841 and 1850 the Hankou \"qianzhuang\" were dominated by merchants from the Jiangxi province, the larger \"qianzhuang\" from this era had an average \"benqian\" (\u672c\u9322, \"principal capital\") which ranged between 6000 and 10,000 taels of silver, and on average they issued hundreds of thousands of \"Huapiao\" (\u532f\u7968, \"remittance notes\") banknotes for circulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "Before the establishment of the Ming dynasty the Mongol Yuan dynasty had suffered from a severe case of hyperinflation which made the paper money issued by them worthless. Under the reign of the Yuan dynasty copper cash coins remained in circulation with the inscriptions Zhida Tongbao (\u81f3\u5927\u901a\u5bf6), Dayuan Tongbao (\u5927\u5143\u901a\u5bf6), and Zhizheng Tongbao (\u81f3\u6b63\u901a\u5bf6) forming the majority of the circulating issues and \"strings of cash coins\" remaining a currency unit. Silver then started to occupy a paramount place in the Mongol economy and was supplemented by government issued paper money. Under the reign of Kublai Khan the Zhongtong Jiaochao (\u4e2d\u7d71\u4ea4\u9214) was issued whose value was based on the fabric silk. Under the reign of K\u00fcl\u00fcg Khan in the year 1308 the Zhiyuan Baochao (\u81f3\u5143\u5bf6\u9214) was issued which was supplemented with the silver-based Zhida Yinchao (\u81f3\u5927\u9280\u9214), but these circulated only for a year. The final series of paper money issued by the government of the Yuan dynasty from 1350 were the Zhizheng Jiaochao (\u81f3\u6b63\u4ea4\u9214). A major difference between how paper money was used under the Mongols and under the Song dynasty was that, in certain regions of the Yuan dynasty, paper notes were the only acceptable form of currency and could not be exchanged in either copper cash coins or silver sycees. Exchanging paper money into copper or silver was known as \"du\u00ecxi\u00e0n\" (\u514c\u73fe, \"convert into specie\") which was the main reason why earlier forms of paper money were deemed reliable. As these regions were completely dependent on paper money inflation hit them more severely as their notes could not be converted into a currency based on any intrinsic value, for this reason the Mongols allowed their subjects to continue using copper-alloy cash coins and issued new ones every now and then. During the last few decades of the Yuan dynasty the inflation caused people to lose their trust in paper money and barter became the most common means of exchange."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "In 1912 the Sino-Belgian Bank changed its name to the Banque Belge Pour l'\u00c9tranger. Banknotes issued after 1912 during the Republican period carried the new name of the bank to reflect this change. At the Shanghai International Settlement the circulation of paper notes was by the never allowed to exceed 1,000,000 dollars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "Before the establishment of the Ming dynasty the Mongol Yuan dynasty had suffered from a severe case of hyperinflation which made the paper money issued by them worthless. Under the reign of the Yuan dynasty copper cash coins remained in circulation with the inscriptions Zhida Tongbao (\u81f3\u5927\u901a\u5bf6), Dayuan Tongbao (\u5927\u5143\u901a\u5bf6), and Zhizheng Tongbao (\u81f3\u6b63\u901a\u5bf6) forming the majority of the circulating issues and \"strings of cash coins\" remaining a currency unit. Silver then started to occupy a paramount place in the Mongol economy and was supplemented by government issued paper money. Under the reign of Kublai Khan the Zhongtong Jiaochao (\u4e2d\u7d71\u4ea4\u9214) was issued whose value was based on the fabric silk. Under the reign of K\u00fcl\u00fcg Khan in the year 1308 the Zhiyuan Baochao (\u81f3\u5143\u5bf6\u9214) was issued which was supplemented with the silver-based Zhida Yinchao (\u81f3\u5927\u9280\u9214), but these circulated only for a year. The final series of paper money issued by the government of the Yuan dynasty from 1350 were the Zhizheng Jiaochao (\u81f3\u6b63\u4ea4\u9214). A major difference between how paper money was used under the Mongols and under the Song dynasty was that, in certain regions of the Yuan dynasty, paper notes were the only acceptable form of currency and could not be exchanged in either copper cash coins or silver sycees. Exchanging paper money into copper or silver was known as \"du\u00ecxi\u00e0n\" (\u514c\u73fe, \"convert into specie\") which was the main reason why earlier forms of paper money were deemed reliable. As these regions were completely dependent on paper money inflation hit them more severely as their notes could not be converted into a currency based on any intrinsic value, for this reason the Mongols allowed their subjects to continue using copper-alloy cash coins and issued new ones every now and then. During the last few decades of the Yuan dynasty the inflation caused people to lose their trust in paper money and barter became the most common means of exchange."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are iron cash coins still used today?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I'm sorry, but I could not find the information you requested. However, I did find that the last government attempt at issuing iron cash coins occurred during the 1850s the under the reign of the Manchu Qing dynasty."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why did China stop making the coins after the Manchu Qing dynasty?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Under the Guangxu Emperor, there were various attempts at reforming the Qing dynasty's currency system. Machine-made copper coins and machines operated mints were introduced, signaling the end of coin casting in China."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did China first begin using paper money?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The first known banknote was first developed in China during the Tang and Song dynasties, starting in the 7th century. Its roots were in merchant receipts of deposit during the Tang dynasty (618\u2013907), as merchants and wholesalers desired to avoid the heavy bulk of copper coinage in large commercial transactions."
    ],
    "topic": "Tieqian",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Banknote:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Banknote"
        ],
        "ctx": "In China during the Han dynasty, promissory notes appeared in 118 BC and were made of leather. Rome may have used a durable lightweight substance as promissory notes in 57 AD which have been found in London. However, Carthage was purported to have issued bank notes on parchment or leather before 146 BC. Hence Carthage may be the oldest user of lightweight promissory notes. The first known banknote was first developed in China during the Tang and Song dynasties, starting in the 7th century. Its roots were in merchant receipts of deposit during the Tang dynasty (618\u2013907), as merchants and wholesalers desired to avoid the heavy bulk of copper coinage in large commercial transactions. During the Yuan dynasty (1271\u20131368), banknotes were adopted by the Mongol Empire. In Europe, the concept of banknotes was first introduced during the 13th century by travelers such as Marco Polo, with European banknotes appearing in 1661 in Sweden."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "History of paper",
        "text": "During the Tang dynasty (618\u2013907) paper was folded and sewn into square bags to preserve the flavor of tea. In the same period, it was written that tea was served from baskets with multi-colored paper cups and paper napkins of different size and shape. During the Song dynasty (960\u20131279) the government produced the world's first known paper-printed money, or banknote (\"see Jiaozi and Huizi\"). Paper money was bestowed as gifts to government officials in special paper envelopes. During the Yuan dynasty (1271\u20131368), the first well-documented European in Medieval China, the Venetian merchant Marco Polo remarked how the Chinese burned paper effigies shaped as male and female servants, camels, horses, suits of clothing and armor while cremating the dead during funerary rites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "The handmade paper which was used to produce both the Da-Qing Baochao cash notes and Da-Qing Hubu Guanpiao tael notes was sized, the paper itself may have been produced in Northern China or Korea. The paper can be described as being hard, thin, and a bit yellowish in colour, while the texture could be described as being lumpy. The design of the banknotes was uniform, this suggests that the imperial Chinese government would have probably distributed them to the provincial note-issuing banks and offices itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of printing",
        "text": "In the Jin dynasty, copper-block prints were slotted with two square holes for embedding bronze movable type characters, each selected from 1000 different characters, such that each printed paper money had a different combination of markers. A copper block printed paper banknote dated between 1215 and 1216 in the collection of Luo Zhenyu's \"Pictorial Paper Money of the Four Dynasties\", 1914, shows two special characters: one called \"Ziliao\", the other called \"Zihao\", for the purpose of preventing counterfeit. Over the \"Ziliao\" there is a small character (\u8f36) printed with movable copper type, while over the \"Zihao\" there is an empty square hole; apparently the associated copper metal type was lost. Another sample of Song dynasty money of the same period in the collection of Shanghai Museum has two empty square holes above \"Ziliao\" as well as \"Zihou\", due to the loss of two copper movable types."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhuangpiao",
        "text": "The Zhuangpiao (), alternatively known as \"Yinqianpiao\" (\u9280\u9322\u7968, \"silver money notes\"), \"Huipiao\" (\u6703\u7968, \"corporate notes\"), \"Pingtie\" (\u6191\u5e16), \"Duitie\" (\u514c\u5e16), \"Shangtie\" (\u4e0a\u5e16), \"Hupingtie\" (\u58fa\u74f6\u5e16), or \"Qitie\" (\u671f\u5e16) in different contexts, refer to privately produced paper money (or company scrip) made in China during the Qing dynasty and early Republic of China periods issued by small private banks known as \"qianzhuang\". Other than banknotes \"qianzhuang\" also issued \"Tiexian\" (\u8cbc\u73fe, \"discountable notes\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Banknotes produced by the East Turkestan branches of the Russo-Asiatic Bank (Kashgar, Yining, and Changuchak) during the Republican period circulating between 1913 and 1924 still prominently depicted imperial Chinese symbols such as the five-fingered dragon on both sides. They were distinguished from banknotes produced by other foreign banking corporations because they were denominated in fixed weights of pure gold, rather than specific monetary units. The banknotes from this era were printed by Bradbury Wilkinson and Company in London, United Kingdom."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of paper",
        "text": "Cai Lun's biography in the \"Twenty-Four Histories\" says:\n:In ancient times writings and inscriptions were generally made on tablets of bamboo or on pieces of silk called chih. But silk being costly and bamboos heavy they were not convenient to use. Tshai Lun then initiated the idea of making paper from the bark of trees, remnants of hemp, rags of cloth and fishing nets. He submitted the process to the emperor in the first year of Yuan-Hsing (105 CE) and received praise for his ability. From this time, paper has been in use everywhere and is universally called the paper of Marquis Tshai."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The Imperial Bank of China (, IBC) was founded in 1897 based on a suggestion made by Sheng Xuanhuai (, 1844\u20131916). In 1898 it began issuing the first Chinese commercial cheques () which were denominated in taels or in yuan. The IBC is also notable for being the first Chinese bank to order its banknotes from foreign printing bureaus. In 1913 (after the fall of the Qing dynasty) the Imperial Bank of China was renamed the Commercial Bank of China (). Various provincial authorities also started issuing local paper money during this era. In the province of Hubei, the local money office () started producing banknotes of 1000 which used the traditional Chinese banknote designs. Later, in 1899, the Zhang Zhidong (), Viceroy of Huguang ordered the local money office to also start making modern-style banknotes. The production of these was outsourced to the Empire of Japan using high-quality methods; however, the design of these banknotes was still vertical as opposed to the horizontal banknotes used elsewhere. In the province of Guangdong, a series of modern-style banknotes was introduced in 1904 which were denominated in 1 yuan, 5 yuan, and 10 yuan. These banknotes were printed by the Japanese Ministry of the Treasury (), but unlike the notes printed for Hubei had a Western-style vertical design."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "American numismatist John E. Sandrock examined the Da-Qing Baochao banknotes produced during the years Xianfeng 7 (1857), Xianfeng 8 (1858), and Xianfeng 9 (1859) after which he concluded that the banknotes denominated in 1000 \"w\u00e9n\" and 2000 \"w\u00e9n\" were printed in two varieties of paper. He noted that the Da-Qing Hubu Guanpiao tael notes were made from a much heavier and thicker kind of paper which he also described as being softer to the touch of ones hands \u2013 almost blotter-like in quality. The paper used for these Da-Qing Hubu Guanpiao tael notes is full of large, stringy fibers, which Sandrock thought was most probably made from bamboo. Some of the Da-Qing Baochao cash coins with the denominations of 1000 \"w\u00e9n\" and 2000 \"w\u00e9n\" were made from the same type of paper as the Da-Qing Hubu Guanpiao tael notes. John E. Sandrock speculates that because the larger denominations of 5,000 \"w\u00e9n\", 10,000 \"w\u00e9n\", 50,000 \"w\u00e9n\", and 100,000 \"w\u00e9n\" were not authorised to be created until the years Xianfeng 6 (1856) and Xianfeng 7 (1857), that by the year Xianfeng 6 the imperial Chinese government the paper used to produce the cash notes may have run out or that the contract for it may have been canceled. When these larger denomination Da-Qing Baochao cash notes were authorised, they must have been printed on whatever paper was available at the time for the Chinese government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The designs of the banknotes of the Bank of Taiwan were not uniform nor were their sizes; the designs of these banknotes seems to have been dictated by local Chinese customs. Some had a vertical design, such as the banknotes produced by the Xiamen (Amoy) and Shantou (Swatow) branches, while those produced at the Guangzhou (Canton), Hankou, Jiujiang, Shanghai, and Fuzhou branches were all horizontal, although the general shape of the banknotes and their design patterns also differ between branches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "By the end of the 19th century provincial governments started setting up their own note issuing banks like the Hupeh Provincial Bank (, ) with branches in Wuchang and Hankou. The issued a series of banknotes known as the \"Hubei guanpiao\" (). These banknotes were denominated in taels for silver and strings for copper-alloy cash coins. The Hubei was abolished over a decade after the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1927 with the bankruptcy of the ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "It is possible that China first began using iron cash coins during the Western Han dynasty, this was concluded after a number of iron Ban Liang (\u534a\u5169) cash coins were unearthed in Western Han era tombs in the Hunanese cities of Hengyang and Changsha between the years 1955 and 1959. Other specimens of iron Ban Liang cash coins were also unearthed in the province of Sichuan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banknote",
        "text": "Even before this point, the Song government was amassing large amounts of paper tribute. It was recorded that each year before 1101, the prefecture of Xin'an (modern Shexian, Anhui) alone would send 1,500,000 sheets of paper in seven different varieties to the capital at Kaifeng. In 1101, the Emperor Huizong of Song decided to lessen the amount of paper taken in the tribute quota, because it was causing detrimental effects and creating heavy burdens on the people of the region. However, the government still needed masses of paper product for the exchange certificates and the state's new issuing of paper money. For the printing of paper money alone, the Song government established several government-run factories in the cities of Huizhou, Chengdu, Hangzhou, and Anqi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banknote",
        "text": "True paper money, called \"jiaozi\", developed from these promissory notes by the 11th century, during the Song dynasty. By 960, the Song government was short of copper for striking coins, and issued the first generally circulating notes. These notes were a promise by the ruler to redeem them later for some other object of value, usually specie. The issue of credit notes was often for a limited duration, and at some discount to the promised amount later. The \"jiaozi\" did not replace coins but was used alongside them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianzhuang",
        "text": "The Hupeh Provincial Bank (\u6e56\u5317\u5b98\u9322\u5c40, \"Hubei Guan-Qianju\"), a provincial government-owned \"qianzhuang\" issued their own banknotes which were known as the Hubei Guanpiao (\u6e56\u5317\u5b98\u7968), these banknotes were denominated in taels for silver and strings for copper-alloy cash coins. The Hubei Guanpiao had magistrate seals affixed on them as endorsements, as the \"zhuangpiao\" by the local \"qianzhuang\" formerly practiced. In March of the year 1901 Zhang Zhidong commanded his subordinates to repudiate those magistrate seals on the Hubei Guanpiao banknotes that were issued as Zhang forthrightly explained to them that his foreign-made printing machines applied anti-forgery techniques, and that acquiescing seals would hamper circulating and competing banknotes issued by modern banks in China. The Hubei Guanpiao was abolished in 1927 with the bankruptcy of the Hubei Guan-Qianju. After the Hubei Guan-Qianju filed for bankruptcy in 1927 35 million strings in Hubei Guanpiao banknotes, which accounted for about half of the total of Hubei Guanpiao issued, were lost in the lengthy recall process by the defunct banks, as these banknotes had become completely worthless."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "The precursor of paper money (\u7d19\u5e63) known as \"Flying cash\" were issued by the Tang dynasty, however these bills of exchange could in no way be considered to be a form of paper money as they weren't meant to be a medium of exchange and were only negotiable between two distant points. The first true paper money in the world was issued under the Song dynasty, these were promissory notes issued by merchants in Sichuan known as the Jiaozi, under the reign of Emperor Zhenzong (997\u20131022) the government of the Song Dynasty granted a monopoly for the production of Jiaozi notes to sixteen wealthy merchants in Sichuan, as these merchants were slow to redeem their banknotes and inflation started affecting these private banknotes the government nationalised paper money in the year 1023 under the Bureau of Exchange. As these paper notes were backed by the government they were instantly successful and the people regarded them to be equally trustworthy as cash coins, other types of paper notes issued under the Song dynasty include the Huizi and the Guanzi. Before the Mongol Empire conquered China the Jin dynasty also issued paper money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "The precursor of paper money (\u7d19\u5e63) known as \"Flying cash\" were issued by the Tang dynasty, however these bills of exchange could in no way be considered to be a form of paper money as they weren't meant to be a medium of exchange and were only negotiable between two distant points. The first true paper money in the world was issued under the Song dynasty, these were promissory notes issued by merchants in Sichuan known as the Jiaozi, under the reign of Emperor Zhenzong (997\u20131022) the government of the Song Dynasty granted a monopoly for the production of Jiaozi notes to sixteen wealthy merchants in Sichuan, as these merchants were slow to redeem their banknotes and inflation started affecting these private banknotes the government nationalised paper money in the year 1023 under the Bureau of Exchange. As these paper notes were backed by the government they were instantly successful and the people regarded them to be equally trustworthy as cash coins, other types of paper notes issued under the Song dynasty include the Huizi and the Guanzi. Before the Mongol Empire conquered China the Jin dynasty also issued paper money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Chinese historian Peng Xinwei stated that in 1900, privately produced banknotes made up only 3% of the total volume of Chinese currency stock. This number would (according to Niv Horesh) be unlikely to surpass 6% if banknotes denominated in silver currencies were taken into account (these banknotes were produced by government banks and modern banking corporations). Foreign banks operating in China generally did not disclose the volume of banknotes issued by them circulating in China proper; the fact that they did not openly disclose this resulted in inflated estimates thereof over the years. For this reason Horesh states that it would be very implausible to assume that the ratio of all banknotes as part of the entirety of the Chinese money stock was any significant number higher than 10% even as late as 1900."
      },
      {
        "title": "Papermaking",
        "text": "The traditional inventor attribution is of Cai Lun, an official attached to the Imperial court during the Han Dynasty (202 BCE \u2013 220 CE), said to have invented paper about 105 CE using mulberry and other bast fibres along with fishnets, old rags, and hemp waste. Paper used as a writing medium had become widespread by the 3rd century and, by the 6th century, toilet paper was starting to be used in China as well. During the Tang Dynasty (618\u2013907 CE) paper was folded and sewn into square bags to preserve the flavour of tea, while the later Song Dynasty (960\u20131279 CE) was the first government to issue paper-printed money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da Ming Baochao",
        "text": "The precursor of paper money (\u7d19\u5e63) known as \"Flying cash\" were issued by the Tang dynasty, however these bills of exchange could in no way be considered to be a form of paper money as they weren\u2019t meant to be a medium of exchange and were only negotiable between two distant points. The first true paper money in the world was issued under the Song dynasty, these were promissory notes issued by merchants in Sichuan known as the Jiaozi, under the reign of Emperor Zhenzong (997\u20131022) the government of the Song Dynasty granted a monopoly for the production of Jiaozi notes to sixteen wealthy merchants in Sichuan, as these merchants were slow to redeem their banknotes and inflation started affecting these private banknotes the government nationalised paper money in the year 1023 under the Bureau of Exchange. As these paper notes were backed by the government they were instantly successful and the people regarded them to be equally trustworthy as cash coins, other types of paper notes issued under the Song dynasty include the Huizi and the Guanzi. Before the Mongol Empire conquered China the Jurchen Jin dynasty also issued paper money, the Jiaochao (\u4ea4\u9214)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "List of banknotes denominated in copper-alloy cash coins issued during the Xianfeng era:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Merchant guilds in the province of Sichuan were worldwide the first people to develop officially accepted letters of exchange, or paper money, in the forms of Jiaozi (\u4ea4\u5b50), Qianyin (\u9322\u5f15), and Feiqian (\u98db\u9322), thess first forms of paper currency were provided with the security of iron cash coins.\n* Songyuan Tongbao. (). Written in \"li\" script. The inscription is based on the \"Kaiyuan Tongbao\" series of cash coins. It has a nominal weight of 1 \"qian\". Various dots and crescents are found on the reverse. It was first cast in 960 and then until the end of Emperor Taizu's reign. Casting of iron cash coins started at Baizhangxian, Yazhou, in Sichuan, from 970. Ten furnaces cast 9,000 strings a year.\n* Taiping Tongbao () (976\u2013989). Written in \"li\" script. Various dots and crescents are found on the reverse. There are also iron cash coins with this inscription. The small iron coins come from Sichuan and 10 were equivalent to one bronze coin. The large iron cash coin have a large dot above on the reverse. This coin was cast at Jianzhou, Fujian in 983, and was intended to be equivalent to 3 bronze coins.\n* Chunhua Yuanbao () (990\u2013994). Written in regular, running, and grass script. There are also small and large iron coins. They have a nominal value of 10. In 991, 20,000 iron coins were needed in the market for one roll of silk. Permission was requested to alter the casting to Value Ten coins in the Imperial Script pattern. In one year only 3,000 strings were cast. They were not considered convenient, so casting was stopped.\n* Xianping Yuanbao () (998\u20131003). Written in regular script. They are found in both bronze and iron.\n* Jingde Yuanbao () (1004\u20131007). Written in regular script. They are made of bronze; Iron with Value Two; or Iron with Value Ten. The large iron cash coins were minted at Jiazhou and Qiongzhou in Sichuan in the year 1005. They weighed 4 \"qian\" each.\n* Xiangfu Yuanbao () (1008\u20131016). Written in regular script. They are made of bronze or iron. They come in medium size and large sizes. The large iron coins were cast from 1014 to 1016 in Yizhou, Sichuan. Their nominal value was 10 cash and weight 3.2 \"qian.\"\n* Tianxi Tongbao () (1017\u20131022). Written in regular script. They are made of bronze or iron. At this time, there were copper coin mints at Yongping in Jiangxi, Yongfeng in Anhui, Kuangning in Fujian, Fengguo in Shanxi, and in the capital city. There were also three iron coin mints in Sichuan.\n* Mingdao Yuanbao () (1032\u20131033). Written in seal and regular script. There are also iron cash coins with this inscription.\n* Jingyou Yuanbao () (1034\u20131038). Written in seal and regular script. There are both small and large iron coins.\n* Huangsong Tongbao () (1039\u20131054) use seal and regular script, and have many variations. They are made of iron and have two forms with either small or large characters. The small character iron coins are associated with casting in Shaanxi and Shanxi in the Qing Li period (from 1044). The large character iron cash coins are associated with Sichuan mints. The histories say that the Huang Song coin was cast in Baoyuan 2 \u2013 1039. As it is rather common, and there are no bronze small cash from the next three periods, it appears to have been issued for longer than one year.\n* Kangding Yuanbao () (1040). Written in \"li\" script. They are made of iron and come in both small and medium sizes.\n* Qingli Zhongbao () (1041\u20131048). Written in regular script. There are two forms: large bronze coins and large iron coins. The Qing Li large bronze coins, intended to be worth 10 cash, were cast in Jiangnan to fund the war with the Tangut Western Xia Empire. Iron coins were cast in Shanxi and other prefectures. The large cash coins caused prices to leap up, causing inflation, and both public and private interests suffered. In 1048, the large iron coins were devalued to 3 iron cash."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "An approximate 10% of all banknotes produced by the Japanese Bank of Taiwan were circulating on mainland China at any given time."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of paper",
        "text": "Archaeological evidence of papermaking predates the traditional attribution given to Cai Lun, an imperial eunuch official of the Han dynasty (202 BCE \u2013 220 CE), thus the exact date or inventor of paper cannot be deduced. The earliest extant paper fragment was unearthed at Fangmatan in Gansu province, and was likely part of a map, dated to 179\u2013141 BCE. Fragments of paper have also been found at Dunhuang dated to 65 BCE and at Yumen pass, dated to 8 BCE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Science and technology of the Han dynasty",
        "text": "While maps drawn in ink on flat silk cloths have been found in the tomb of the Marquess of Dai (interred in 168 BCE at Mawangdui, Hunan province), the earliest known paper map found in China, dated 179\u2013141 BCE and located at Fangmatan (near Tianshui, Gansu province), is incidentally the oldest known piece of paper. Yet Chinese hempen paper of the Western Han and early Eastern Han eras was of a coarse quality and used primarily as wrapping paper. The papermaking process was not formally introduced until the Eastern Han court eunuch Cai Lun (50\u2013121 CE) created a process in 105 where mulberry tree bark, hemp, old linens, and fish nets were boiled together to make a pulp that was pounded, stirred in water, and then dunked with a wooden sieve containing a reed mat that was shaken, dried, and bleached into sheets of paper. The oldest known piece of paper with writing on it comes from the ruins of a Chinese watchtower at Tsakhortei, Alxa League, Inner Mongolia, dated precisely to 110 CE when the Han garrison abandoned the area following a nomadic Xiongnu attack. By the 3rd century, paper became one of China's chief writing mediums."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "The Hubu Guanpiao tael notes were block printed in dark blue ink on handmade paper and the Chinese characters on them were written vertically and its appearance was similar to that of all ancient Chinese paper money that came before it. The official seals (or \"chops\") on them were vermilion in colour and the dates and serial numbers on them were handwritten in black ink by the issuing parties. Like the Da-Qing Baochao the date appeared on the left side of the banknote and was written vertically within a column, unlike the Da-Qing Baochao the Hubu Guanpiao didn't only contain the reign year (or \"era date\") such as \"Xianfeng 5\", but also specified on which day and month the banknote was issued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xuan paper",
        "text": "Xuan paper was first mentioned in ancient Chinese books \"Notes of Past Famous Paintings\" and \"New Book of Tang\". It was originally produced in the Tang dynasty in Jing County, which was under the jurisdiction of Xuan Prefecture (Xuanzhou), hence the name Xuan paper. During the Tang dynasty, the paper was often a mixture of hemp (the first fiber used for paper in China) and mulberry fiber. By the Song dynasty, the paper producing industries in Huizhou and Chizhou were gradually transferred to Jing County."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Iron cash coins were produced during the Han dynasty, Three Kingdoms period, Northern and Southern dynasties period, Five dynasties and Ten kingdoms period, Song dynasty, Jin dynasty (1115\u20131234), Western Xia dynasty, Ming dynasty, and Qing dynasty, but not during the Zhou dynasty, Jin dynasty (266\u2013420), Sui dynasty, Tang dynasty, Liao dynasty, and Yuan dynasty periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "The Chinese at the time manufactured ink from various plant substances which they mixed with coloured earths and soot. This resulted in a deep black ink which had both an excellent colour and strength and was of high quality. This was ink used to provide the variable data on notes, such as the date, the serial number, among others were all applied with a paintbrush. Today the ink which was applied to the Da-Qing Baochao appears almost as fresh as the day that the characters were written down because of its high quality. The blue printing inks which was used in the block printing process was of similar quality and also appear very clearly today. Meanwhile, the vermilion ink which was used to impress the various authenticating seals (or chops) upon the banknotes also depict both a good colour and penetration of the paper. Comparatively the inks which were used on the earlier Da-Ming Baochao banknotes from the Ming dynasty, for example, tended to dry out and would become brittle and flake off leaving often only traces in many cases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Four Treasures of the Study",
        "text": "Paper (Chinese: \"traditional\" \u7d19, \"simplified\" \u7eb8; Pinyin: \"\") was first developed in China in the first decade of 100 AD. Previous to its invention, bamboo slips and silks were used for writing material. Several methods of paper production developed over the centuries in China. However, the paper which was considered of highest value was that of the Jingxian (\u6cfe\u53bf) in Anhui province."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During the period when the and series of banknotes were introduced, nine government banks in Beijing (of which four were newly established institutions) started issuing another type of cash note known as the (). These cash notes were backed by reserves kept in Daqian rather than standard cash coins. The were modeled after privately produced banknotes known as the (). These private cash notes would also continue to circulate alongside the new currencies. Both the and were based on the Jingqian accounting unit of cash coins as was used in Beijing. This meant that, for example, if one were to exchange 15,000 worth of or cash notes in the year 1861, that person would only receive 7500 worth of physical coins (or 750 cash coins of 10 to be more precise). This practice was asymmetrical as government documents noted a string of cash coins as 1000 while paying out only 500 for these cash notes. Both the cash notes and tael notes continued to be accepted in the practice of office selling and would continue to circulate in the provinces of China proper as non-interest bearing debentures until 1867\u20131868."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhuangpiao",
        "text": "The Hupeh Provincial Bank (\u6e56\u5317\u5b98\u9322\u5c40, \"Hubei Guan-Qianju\"), a provincial government-owned \"qianzhuang\" issued their own banknotes which were known as the Hubei Guanpiao (\u6e56\u5317\u5b98\u7968), these banknotes were denominated in taels for silver and strings for copper-alloy cash coins. The Hubei Guanpiao had magistrate seals affixed on them as endorsements, as the \"zhuangpiao\" by the local \"qianzhuang\" formerly practiced. In March of the year 1901 Zhang Zhidong commanded his subordinates to repudiate those magistrate seals on the Hubei Guanpiao banknotes that were issued as Zhang forthrightly explained to them that his foreign-made printing machines applied anti-forgery techniques, and that acquiescing seals would hamper circulating and competing banknotes issued by modern banks in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of money",
        "text": "Paper money was introduced in Song dynasty China during the 11th century. The development of the banknote began in the seventh century, with local issues of paper currency. Its roots were in merchant receipts of deposit during the Tang dynasty (618\u2013907), as merchants and wholesalers desired to avoid the heavy bulk of copper coinage in large commercial transactions. The issue of credit notes is often for a limited duration, and at some discount to the promised amount later. The jiaozi nevertheless did not replace coins during the Song Dynasty; paper money was used alongside the coins. The central government soon observed the economic advantages of printing paper money, issuing a monopoly right of several of the deposit shops to the issuance of these certificates of deposit. By the early 12th century, the amount of banknotes issued in a single year amounted to an annual rate of 26 million strings of cash coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of paper",
        "text": "During the Shang (1600\u20131050 BCE) and Zhou (1050\u2013256 BCE) dynasties of ancient China, documents were ordinarily written on bone or bamboo (on tablets or on bamboo strips sewn and rolled together into scrolls), making them very heavy, awkward, and hard to transport. The light material of silk was sometimes used as a recording medium, but was normally too expensive to consider. The Han dynasty Chinese court official Cai Lun (c. 50\u2013121 CE) is credited as the inventor of a method of papermaking (inspired by wasps and bees) using rags and other plant fibers in 105 CE. However, the discovery of specimens bearing written Chinese characters in 2006 at Fangmatan in north-east China's Gansu Province suggests that paper was in use by the ancient Chinese military more than 100 years before Cai, in 8 BCE, and possibly much earlier as the map fragment found at the Fangmatan tomb site dates from the early 2nd century BCE. It therefore would appear that \"Cai Lun's contribution was to improve this skill systematically and scientifically, fix a recipe for papermaking\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianzhuang",
        "text": "In the city of Hankou the \"piaohao\" were prosperous before the \"qianzhuang\" were, this might have been due to connections with the political circle. Less is known about the origins of the Hankou \"qianzhuang\" which could be either due to the immense number of aliases used to describe \"qianzhuang\" or the fact that the Qing government wasn't good at record keeping during this early era. The trade conducted by \"qianzhuang\" in Hankou is locally referred to as \"Yin-Qian\" (\u9280\u9322). Between the years 1841 and 1850 the Hankou \"qianzhuang\" were dominated by merchants from the Jiangxi province, the larger \"qianzhuang\" from this era had an average \"benqian\" (\u672c\u9322, \"principal capital\") which ranged between 6000 and 10,000 taels of silver, and on average they issued hundreds of thousands of \"Huapiao\" (\u532f\u7968, \"remittance notes\") banknotes for circulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "After the outbreak of World War I, the was forced to suspend its operations in China. At the time that it had to cease operating in China, an amount of 2,595,968 taels worth of banknotes was circulating. In 1917 the Chinese republican government revoked the bank's privilege to produce its own paper notes for the Chinese market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "Except for the denomination of the Da-Qing Baochao, which was carved into the block and was therefore printed into the design itself, all other variables on the paper such as block and serial numbers as well as the chops of minor officials, tended to be applied using black ink. At the upper left part of the Da-Qing Baochao, the reign title of the Xianfeng Emperor was printed with the year that the banknote was produced, on the other side the serial number could be seen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Printing and writing paper",
        "text": "The history of paper is often attributed to the Han dynasty (25-220 AD) when Cai Lun, a Chinese court official and inventor, made paper sheets using the \u201cbark of trees, remnants of hemp, rags of cloth, and fishing nets.\u201d Cai Lun's method of papermaking received praise during his time for offering a more convenient alternative to writing on silk or bamboo tablets, which were the traditional materials in ancient Chinese writing."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Chinese currency",
        "text": "Tang merchants rapidly adopted forms of paper currency starting with promissory notes in Sichuan called \"flying money\" (\"feiqian\"). These proved so useful the state took over production of this form of paper money with the first state-backed printing in 1024. By the 12th century, various forms of paper money had become the dominant forms of currency in China and were known by a variety of names such as \"jiaozi\", \"huizi\", \"kuaizi\", or \"guanzi\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banknote",
        "text": "The first banknote-type instrument was used in China in the 7th century, during the Tang dynasty (618\u2013907). Merchants would issue what are today called promissory notes in the form of receipts of deposit to wholesalers to avoid using the heavy bulk of copper coinage in large commercial transactions. Before the use of these notes, the Chinese used coins that were circular, with a rectangular hole in the middle. Coins could be strung together on a rope. Merchants, if they were rich enough, found that the strings were too heavy to carry around easily, especially for large transactions. To solve this problem, coins could be left with a trusted person, with the merchant being given a slip of paper (the receipt) recording how much money they had deposited with that person. When they returned with the paper to that person, their coins would be returned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monetary policy",
        "text": "Paper money originated from promissory notes termed \"jiaozi\" in 7th century China. Jiaozi did not replace metallic currency, and were used alongside the copper coins. The succeeding Yuan Dynasty was the first government to use paper currency as the predominant circulating medium. In the later course of the dynasty, facing massive shortages of specie to fund war and maintain their rule, they began printing paper money without restrictions, resulting in hyperinflation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During this era, privately produced paper notes and promissory notes known as () were used in the Chinese market that were mostly issued by private banks () and other merchants. These banknotes were known as (, 'corporate notes', (, 'silver notes'), or (, 'cash notes'). As is usual for China, the names designating privately produced banknotes varied greatly across the country, with names being used such as (), (), (), (), or (). The denominations used on them varied greatly with some reaching as high as 5 \"di\u00e0o\" (, 'string of cash coins'). It has been suggested by Taiwanese economic historian Lin Man-houng that Chinese money shops did not start the production of their own private banknotes until the end of the Qianlong period. These shops were very likely to have been more developed in Northern China, where these money shops produced banknotes which were mostly denominated in cash coins, while banknotes from Southern China tended to be denominated in taels of silver. It is also possible that private-order banknotes could have emerged earlier in the 18th century and that their presence would become very common by the 1820s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banknote",
        "text": "The workforce employed in these paper money factories was quite large; it was recorded in 1175 that the factory at Hangzhou alone employed more than a thousand workers a day. However, the government issues of paper money were not yet nationwide standards of currency at that point; issues of banknotes were limited to regional areas of the empire, and were valid for use only in a designated and temporary limit of three years."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of books",
        "text": "While paper used for wrapping and padding was used in China since the 2nd century BC, paper used as a writing medium only became widespread by the 3rd century. By the 6th century in China, sheets of paper were beginning to be used for toilet paper as well. During the Tang dynasty (618\u2013907 CE) paper was folded and sewn into square bags to preserve the flavor of tea. The Song dynasty (960\u20131279) that followed was the first government to issue paper currency."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of paper",
        "text": "After its origin in central China, the production and use of paper spread steadily. It is clear that paper was used at Dunhuang by 150 CE, in Loulan in the modern-day province of Xinjiang by 200, and in Turpan by 399. Paper was concurrently introduced in Japan sometime between the years 280 and 610."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The opened its first branch in China in 1899 in Shanghai and quickly opened more branches in Beijing, Hankou, Kunming, and Tianjin. All of these branches produced banknotes denominated in dollars for local circulation in China. At the Shanghai branch the French had made an attempt at issuing banknotes denominated in taels but this programme was almost immediately abandoned as non-remunerative. The banknotes produced by the were tri-lingual, printed in French, English, and Mandarin Chinese, making them the only foreign bank to employ three languages on their paper money in China. Denominations on banknotes produced by the were described in both French francs and Mexican piastres. These banknotes circulated in relatively small quantities in China until 1940, and consequently tend to be quite rare today."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of printing in East Asia",
        "text": "The typical example of this kind of bronze movable type embedded copper-block printing is a printed \"check\" of Jin Dynasty with two square holes for embedding two bronze movable type characters, each selected from 1000 different characters, such that each printed paper money has different combination of markers. A copper block printed paper money dated between 1215\u20131216 in the collection of Luo Zhenyu's \"Pictorial Paper Money of the Four Dynasties\", 1914, shows two special characters one called \"Ziliao\", the other called \"Zihao\" for the purpose of preventing counterfeit; over the \"Ziliao\" there is a small character (\u8f36) printed with movable copper type, while over the \"Zihao\" there is an empty square hole, apparently the associated copper metal type was lost. Another sample of Song dynasty money of the same period in the collection of Shanghai Museum has two empty square holes above \"Ziliao\" as well as \"Zihou\", due to the loss of two copper movable types. Song dynasty bronze block embedded with bronze metal movable type printed paper money was issued in large scale and in circulation for a long time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Issued by Wang Yanzheng:\n* Tiande Tongbao () are made of iron. When Wang Yanzheng was proclaimed Emperor, he changed the name of the kingdom to Yin, but later restored the name of Min. One of these iron coins, which were cast in 944, was worth 100 ordinary cash."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "As a result of government corruption, a large number of iron cash coins were cast near the final years of Emperor Zhezong's reign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During the transition from Ming to Qing, the Manchu government issued banknotes known as \"Hubu guanpiao\" () or \"Shunzhi guanpiao\" (). They were first issued in the year 1651 on initiative of the Minister of Revenue, Wei Xiangshu () during the war with the remnants of the Ming dynasty to cover the more immediate expenses of the Manchus; as the finances of the Qing during this period were in dire distress, these banknotes were declared void only a decade after their issue. Peng Xinwei suggests that the Manchus started issuing banknotes in response to the treasury of the Qing dynasty experiencing funding shortfalls which were occasioned by the a campaign to occupy the island of Zhoushan (near modern Shanghai). An annual amount of 128,000 \"gu\u00e0n\" () were issued, with a total sum of 1.28 million being produced before they were abolished. The denominations of the followed the pattern of the Ming dynasty period paper notes, but as historiographical sources about the early Qing era paper money are scarce, not much can be known about them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "It has been suggested by Taiwanese economic historian Lin Man-houng that Chinese money shops did not start with the production of their own private banknotes until the end of the Qianlong period, these shops were very likely to have been more developed in Northern China, where these money shops produced banknotes which were mostly denominated in cash coins while banknotes from Southern China tended to be denominated in taels of silver. It is also possible that private-order banknotes could have emerged earlier in the 18th century and that their presence would become very common by the 1820s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banknote",
        "text": "Paper currency first developed in Tang dynasty China during the 7th century, although true paper money did not appear until the 11th century, during the Song dynasty. The usage of paper currency later spread throughout the Mongol Empire or Yuan dynasty China. European explorers like Marco Polo introduced the concept in Europe during the 13th century. Napoleon issued paper banknotes in the early 1800s. Cash paper money originated as receipts for value held on account \"value received\", and should not be conflated with promissory \"sight bills\" which were issued with a promise to convert at a later date."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese calligraphy",
        "text": "In China, \"Xuanzhi\" (\u5ba3\u7d19), traditionally made in Anhui province, is the preferred type of paper. It is made from the Tatar wingceltis (\"Pteroceltis tatarianovii\"), as well as other materials including rice, the paper mulberry (\"Broussonetia papyrifera\"), bamboo, hemp, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During the early Tongzhi era (, 1862\u20131874), the provincial governments of Henan and Sichuan completely stopped accepting paper money for tax payments and again began requiring tax payments exclusively in silver, yet the provincial government of Zhili continued to accept the paper notes for tax payments, at least in a certain proportion to silver, which was preferred. The Xianfeng era paper currency was ultimately given up in 1868."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The difference of the Tian, Qian, and Yu banks from private financial institutions was that they were responsible for changing government paper notes (mostly the cash notes) into real money (a combination of Daqian, iron cash coins, and official banknotes). With the Tian, Qian, and Yu banks acting as intermediaries, the government issued paper notes of Ministry of Revenue became convertible: they were linked to both the Daqian and a larger amount in unbacked official banknotes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Only a single entry in the Qing government archive mentions them from this point, as it is stated that in the year 1856 the government of the Qing dynasty had 431,515.849 strings of iron cash coins deposited in the imperial treasury vault. This entry may be seen as supplementary evidence to suggest that copper-alloy cash coinage had almost completely disappeared in or before this year. Iron cash coins would soon become valueless and the coinage was ultimately suspended in the year 1859."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The reserves that the Qing government deposited into the Qian and Tian banks were not enough; government documents stated that the Qian banks received government endowments of 20,000 \"di\u00e0o\" () in as initial capital directly from the imperial Chinese Treasury from the Ministry of Revenue. The government documents do not specify how often they pumped money into the official banks, nor is it specified in which form of currency the payment to these banks was realised. The imperial treasury records show that in 1853 a total number of 13,784 taels of silver was transferred from the government to the Qian and Tian banks \"as their 20% reserve money\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianzhuang",
        "text": "During the late 19th century \"zhuangpiao\" banknotes were a common method of payment in the credit business of Shanghai and were both accepted by local and foreign banks. The Qianzhuang would mobilise their domestic resources to an order of magnitude that would exceed the paid-up capital that they initially received several times over, this happened mostly through issuing banknotes and deposit receipts. British banks operating in China would often accept \"zhuangpiao\" as a security for the loans they gave out to \"qianzhuang\". This makes it plausible that chop loans originated because of the widely used prevalence of \"zhuangpiao\" in China that British banks could simply not just to reject them when they were being offered to them by foreign merchants in China. During this era foreign banking companies tended to have an account at least one \"qianzhuang\", since only the guilds operated by them could clear the large number \"zhuangpiao\" forms that were circulating in the city of Shanghai, this happened through a rather elaborate daily mechanism which was dubbed \"Huihua\" (\u975e\u532f, \"draft exchange\"). The \"huihuazhuang\" credit banks of Shanghai enjoyed special privileges over the smaller banks such as the right to both issue and to accept \"yinpiao\" (\u9280\u7968, \"silver notes\") denominated in silver taels and \"qianpiao\" (\u9322\u7968, \"cash notes\") denominated in copper-alloy cash coins. The \"huihuazhuang\" credit banks also operated deposits and issued various types of paper money such as the discountable notes known as \"tiexian\" (\u8cbc\u73fe), furthermore they also issued their own banknotes (\"zhuangpiao\") and bills of exchange (which were known as \"huapiao\" (\u532f\u7968, \"remittance notes\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Under the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor the \"Da-Qing baochao\" () was introduced. These were based on the earlier Da-Ming baochao from the Ming dynasty in style and layout and denominated in Zhiqian (, 'standard cash coins') which were the high quality cash coins issued by the two central government mints in Beijing. For this reason they were popularly nicknamed (, 'cash notes'). These banknotes were initially issued in the denominations 250 , 500 , 1,000 , 1,500 , and 2,000 but as the Chinese economy was suffering from inflation denominations of 5,000 , 10,000 , 50,000 and 100,000 were introduced. The notes were imprinted with a statement that they were convertible into copper cash coins, however the statement also included the line that these banknotes could not be used for tax payment to the government. In reality the were not redeemable at all. Imperial China saw itself as being at the center of the universe and that all territory \"Under the Heavens\" () and \"Regions Within the Four Seas\" () were included within their domains, and for this reason the copper-alloy cash notes of this era bear the four characters () in their right border design, which translated into English means 'to circulate under the heavens'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The total amount of banknotes issued by the Qian, Tian, and Yu banks is difficult to estimate because none of their bank account books have survived into the modern age. However, the number of official banknotes that were printed specifically for use in expenditures of the government of the Qing dynasty can be found in the imperial treasury records. The total number of official banknotes issued through government expenditure (from both the Qian and Tian Groups of official banks and the Copper Donation Bureau) was the equivalent to 31,953,038 taels of silver. As this rough estimate does not include the official banknotes that circulated in the private market through the money exchange services of these banks, and in particular the amount of banknotes issued by the Yu banks, the total quantity of official banknotes that circulated in the contemporary Chinese market was likely much higher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yuan (currency)",
        "text": "The number of banks issuing paper money increased after the revolution. Significant national issuers included the \"Commercial Bank of China\" (the former Imperial Bank), the \"Bank of China\" (the former Ta-Ch'ing Government Bank), the \"Bank of Communications\", the \"Ningpo Commercial Bank\", the \"Central Bank of China\" and the \"Farmers Bank of China\". Of these, only the Central Bank of China issued notes beyond 1943. An exceptionally large number of banknotes were issued during the Republican era (1911\u20131949) by provincial banks (both Nationalist and Communist)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During this era another type of banknote was also introduced known as the (, 'silver notes') or (, 'silver notes') which were issued by the Ministry of Revenue and were commonly known as \"Hubu guanpiao\" () for this fact. These silver notes were issued in denominations of values 1 tael, 3 taels, 5 taels, 10 taels, and 50 taels. These banknotes had a guideline written in both Manchu and Mandarin Chinese declaring that they had to be discounted by 2% when they exchanged into Beijing market silver and when counted against the Kuping tael, the notes were discounted at 6 per cent. The conversion rate between copper-alloy cash notes () and silver tael notes () was two cash notes to one silver note, these banknotes exchangeable into copper cash coins and silver, but only in certain institutions in Beijing under the Ministry of Revenue. The term () was first used exclusively for paper notes issued by the imperial government, but later on was also used to refer to privately produced paper notes issued by private market banks and merchant companies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Toilet paper",
        "text": "During the later Tang dynasty (618\u2013907 AD), an Arab traveller to China in the year 851 AD remarked:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "List of note issuing foreign banks in imperial and early republican China:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Banknote",
        "text": "Most banknotes are made from cotton paper with a weight of 80 to 90\u00a0grams per square meter. The cotton is sometimes mixed with linen, abaca, or other textile fibres. Generally, the paper used is different from ordinary paper: it is much more resilient, resists wear and tear (the average life of a banknote is two years), and also does not contain the usual agents that make ordinary paper glow slightly under ultraviolet light. Unlike most printing and writing paper, banknote paper is infused with polyvinyl alcohol or gelatin, instead of water, to give it extra strength. Early Chinese banknotes were printed on paper made of mulberry bark. Mitsumata (\"Edgeworthia chrysantha\") and other fibers are used in Japanese banknote paper (a kind of Washi)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "As the Qing dynasty starting regaining territory in the areas held by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, they immediately started issuing Da-Qing Baochao and Hubu Guanpiao banknotes in these places. These issues were controlled using two different ideogram systems for the indexes and prefixes, the Chinese characters utilised by these systems were based on the Thousand Character Classic (\u5343\u5b57\u6587, \"Qi\u0101nz\u00ec W\u00e9n\"). The prefixed Chinese character (which would appear in the series block preceding the actual serial number on each banknote) was actually one of these thousand classical ideograms, it is known that the first 320 characters from this series were reserved for the Peking Metropolitan District. By contrast, early Hubu Guanpiao tael notes of the Xianfeng era, which were issued through the Peking Metropolitan District, the provincial treasuries of China, and the Chinese military commissaries, used a different prefix character system, this system was based upon the Five Confucian Virtues as opposed to the thousand character classic-based system of the Da-Qing Baochao. In the markets of Beijing the new Xianfeng banknotes could not be used, so as people could not purchase any actual goods with them in the capital market many Bannermen lost a large part of their disposable income because of this inability to actually purchase things with their salary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "In the year 1854 new Daqian were introduced, these had denominations ranging from 5 \"w\u00e9n\" to 1000 \"w\u00e9n\". During this same time the government of the Qing dynasty began issuing convertible cash bank notes, or \"guan-hao qianpiao\" (\u5b98\u865f\u9322\u7968), which were mostly backed in Daqian. These government-issued banknotes were modeled after private bank notes, known as \"sihao qianpiao\" (\u79c1\u865f\u9322\u7968), which would continue to circulate even after the introduction of these government notes. These banknotes were issued by nine different government banks, four of these banks newly established for their circulation. Both the Daqian and \"guan-hao qianpiao\" were calculated using the Jingqian (\u4eac\u9322) unit of account, but they were complicated by the fact that the nominal value of these government banknotes denominated the debt owed to be satisfied by the payment of cash coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "It has been suggested by Taiwanese economic historian Lin Man-houng that Chinese money shops did not start with the production of their own private banknotes until the end of the Qianlong period, these shops were very likely to have been more developed in Northern China, where these money shops produced banknotes which were mostly denominated in cash coins while banknotes from Southern China tended to be denominated in taels of silver. It is also possible that private-order banknotes could have emerged earlier in the 18th century and that their presence would become very common by the 1820s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money",
        "text": "In premodern China, the need for credit and for circulating a medium that was less of a burden than exchanging thousands of copper coins led to the introduction of paper money, commonly known today as \"banknote\"s. This economic phenomenon was a slow and gradual process that took place from the late Tang dynasty (618\u2013907) into the Song dynasty (960\u20131279). It began as a means for merchants to exchange heavy coinage for receipts of deposit issued as promissory notes from shops of wholesalers, notes that were valid for temporary use in a small regional territory. In the 10th century, the Song dynasty government began circulating these notes amongst the traders in their monopolized salt industry. The Song government granted several shops the sole right to issue banknotes, and in the early 12th century the government finally took over these shops to produce state-issued currency. Yet the banknotes issued were still regionally valid and temporary; it was not until the mid 13th century that a standard and uniform government issue of paper money was made into an acceptable nationwide currency. The already widespread methods of woodblock printing and then Pi Sheng's movable type printing by the 11th century was the impetus for the massive production of paper money in premodern China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "Over the course of its 268 years, the central government of the Qing dynasty (1644\u20131912) issued traditional Chinese paper money (vertically printed) only twice. The second time was included the second series of the Hubu Guanpiao which was introduced under the Xianfeng Emperor in response to the high military expenditures there government had to spend during the Taiping Rebellion, this second series was introduced alongside the copper-alloy cash coins-based Da-Qing Baochao (\u5927\u6e05\u5bf6\u9214) banknotes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "The Southern Song dynasty saw the emergence of paper money, while coins were increasingly becoming a rarity. Iron cash coins also started to be used in greater numbers, at first due to the lack of copper, but later even as more copper was found the production of iron cash coins remained cheaper and an abundance of iron made it more attractive for the government to produce, while several problems such as the fact that iron is harder to inscribe, and that iron corrodes faster ensured the continued production of copper cash coins. From the year 1180 until the end of the Song dynasty very few bronze coins were produced by the government as the preference went to iron, this was because bronze cash coins needed to have a specific typeface which was more intricate to produce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During the late Qing dynasty period the old paper notes remained in common usage; these included the traditional privately produced paper notes which were printed on one side of the bill issued by merchant banks known as (), (), and () and pawn shops known as (), as well as the old-style banknotes issued by provincial government institutions, to the modern banknotes which were introduced by a dozen or so of foreign banks operating in China and modern Chinese banks which were created in very large numbers in the later years of the 19th century. Furthermore, there were also banknotes which were brought into the Chinese financial markets by imperial government-owned firms like railway companies, and foreign bills coming to China through the trade ports like Shanghai. The large spectrum of these types of paper money reflected the structure of the general Chinese credit market in the late Qing period. The traditional Chinese credit institutes were local banks, banks, banks, and pawnshops, of which a considerably number was always to be found in each city across the Chinese Empire. Many provincial governments founded their own local provincial, state-owned banks which were known as () or (); in some provinces even several modern credit institutes were to be found, like the Yuning Bank () and the Yusu Bank () in the province of Jiangsu. Quite a few of these provincial credit companies opened branches in other provinces due to their success."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "List of banknotes denominated in silver tael sycees issued during the Xianfeng era:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Banknote",
        "text": "Silk and other fibers have been commonly used in the manufacture of various banknote papers, intended to provide both additional durability and security. Crane and Company patented banknote paper with embedded silk threads in 1844 and has supplied paper to the United States Treasury since 1879. Banknotes printed on pure silk \"paper\" include \"emergency money\" Notgeld issues from a number of German towns in 1923 during a period of fiscal crisis and hyperinflation. Most notoriously, Bielefeld produced a number of silk, leather, velvet, linen and wood issues. These issues were produced primarily for collectors, rather than for circulation. They are in demand by collectors. Banknotes printed on cloth include a number of Communist Revolutionary issues in China from areas such as Xinjiang, or Sinkiang, in the United Islamic Republic of East Turkestan in 1933. Emergency money was also printed in 1902 on khaki shirt fabric during the Boer War."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The quantity of banknotes of the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation made the amounts produced by other foreign banking corporations in China at the time look minuscule by comparison. The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation produced the banknotes of the Hong Kong dollar during its colonial era."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Issued by Wang Shenzhi:\n* Kaiyuan Tongbao () have a large dot above on the reverse side. They are made of iron and date from 922. The same coin cast in bronze is extremely rare."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of paper",
        "text": "Paper is thin nonwoven material traditionally made from a combination of milled plant and textile fibres. The first paper-like plant-based writing sheet was papyrus in Egypt (4th Century BC), but the first true paper, the first true papermaking process was documented in China during the Eastern Han period (25\u2013220 CE), traditionally attributed to the court official Cai Lun. This plant-puree conglomerate produced by pulp mills and paper mills was used for writing, drawing, and money. During the 8th century, Chinese papermaking spread to the Islamic world, replacing papyrus. By the 11th century, papermaking was brought to Europe, where it replaced animal-skin-based parchment and wood panels. By the 13th century, papermaking was refined with paper mills using waterwheels in Spain. Later improvements to the papermaking process came in 19th century Europe with the invention of wood-based papers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The monetary units \"yuan\" ( and ) were first seen during the late 18th century and were used on foreign-issued banknotes. In 1895 the first Chinese banknotes denominated in yuan () were issued, by the government-owned State Railway Company of Beiyang (). These banknotes were printed in London and are generally seen as the first modern paper bills of China, as they are designed horizontally and in a much smaller format than the traditional Chinese paper notes, and are inscribed in Mandarin Chinese and English (\"Imperial Chinese Railways\"). In 1895 the Central Paper Money Office in Tainan () in Taiwan issued banknotes denominated in the currency unit dayuan (, 'big yuan'), and had the denominations 1 dayuan, 5 dayuan, and 10 dayuan; however, these banknotes followed the traditional design of Chinese paper notes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "In 1912 the Sino-Belgian Bank changed its name to the Banque Belge Pour l'\u00c9tranger. Banknotes issued after 1912 during the Republican period carried the new name of the bank to reflect this change. At the Shanghai International Settlement the circulation of paper notes was by the never allowed to exceed 1,000,000 dollars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ban Liang",
        "text": "It is possible that China first began using iron cash coins (\u9421\u9322, \"tieqian\") during the Western Han dynasty, this was concluded after a number of iron Ban Liang cash coins were unearthed in Western Han era tombs in the Hunanese cities of Hengyang and Changsha between the years 1955 and 1959. Other specimens of iron Ban Liang cash coins were also unearthed in the province of Sichuan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "While the banknotes of the Qian, Tian, and Yu banks were denominated in \"metropolitan cash\" () or , in the official government treasury accounts all figures for banknotes were kept with () as the main unit of account. The figures for these official banknotes were converted by the official ratio between and , which was 2,000:1 (this means that the official ratio between a and a is 2:1). The reported total amount of official banknotes possessed by the imperial treasury was 63,906,076 , and was equivalent to 31,953,038 taels of silver at the official government-set exchange rate between copper-alloy cash coins and silver in 1853. The Chinese government records were deliberately kept vague to cover up the obvious fact that there was a shortage of capital."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic history of China before 1912",
        "text": "Paper receipts of deposit first appeared in the 10th century, but the first officially sponsored bills were introduced in Sichuan Province, where the currency was metallic and extremely heavy. Although businesses began to issue private bills of exchange, by the mid-11th century the central government introduced its paper money, produced using woodblock printing and backed by bronze coins. The Song government had also been amassing large amounts of paper tribute. Each year before 1101, the prefecture of Xinan (modern Xi-xian, Anhui) alone sent 1,500,000 sheets of paper in seven different varieties to the capital at Kaifeng. In the Southern Song, standard currency bearing a marked face value, was used. However, a lack of standards caused face values to wildly fluctuate. A nationwide standard paper currency was not produced until 1274, two years before the Southern Song's fall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty\n--History.\n----and other early Qing paper money.\n----Xianfeng era paper money.\n----Foreign banks and the currency reforms of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.\n----Establishing a national bank.\n--List of banknotes denominated in copper-alloy cash coins issued during the Xianfeng era.\n--List of banknotes denominated in silver taels issued during the Xianfeng era.\n--Banknotes produced by Belgian banks.\n--Banknotes produced by British banks.\n----Early British Indian banks in China.\n----Later British banks.\n----The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation.\n--Banknotes produced by French banks.\n--Banknotes produced by Japanese banks.\n----Bank of Taiwan.\n----Yokohama Specie Bank.\n--Banknotes produced by Russian banks.\n----Russo-Chinese Bank.\n----Russo-Asiatic Bank.\n--Deutsch-Asiatische Bank.\n--International Banking Corporation.\n--Netherlands Trading Society.\n--Currency units used on paper money during the late Qing period.\n--Denominations on banknotes of foreign banks in Qing China.\n--Banknotes as a percentage of the Chinese money stock during the late Qing dynasty.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of paper",
        "text": "According to Jonathan Bloom \u2013 a scholar of Islamic and Asian Art with a focus on paper and printing, the connection between Chinese prisoners and the introduction of paper in Central Asia is \"unlikely to be factual\". Archaeological evidence shows that paper was already known and used in Samarkand decades before 751 CE. Seventy-six texts in Sogdian, Arabic, and Chinese have also been found near Panjakent, likely predating the Muslim conquest of Transoxiana. Bloom argues that based on differences in Chinese and Central Asian papermaking techniques and materials, the story of Chinese papermakers directly introducing paper to Central Asia is probably metaphorical. Chinese paper was mostly made of bast fibers while Islamic paper was primarily made of waste material like rags. The paper-making innovations in Central Asia may be pre-Islamic, probably aided by the Buddhist merchants and monks of China and Central Asia. The Islamic civilization helped spread paper and paper-making into the Middle East after the 8th-century, from where it arrived into Europe centuries later, and then to many other parts of the world. A historical remnant of this legacy is the continued use of the word \"ream\" to count bundles of paper, a word derived from Arabic \"rizma\" (bundle, bale)."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of paper",
        "text": "The production process may have originated from the practice of pounding and stirring rags in water, after which the matted fibres were collected on a mat. The bark of paper mulberry was particularly valued and high quality paper was developed in the late Han period using the bark of \"t\u00e1n\" (\u6a80; sandalwood). Although bark paper emerged during the Han dynasty, the predominant material used for paper was hemp until the Tang dynasty when rattan and mulberry bark paper gradually prevailed. After the Tang dynasty, rattan paper declined because it required specific growing areas, was slow in growth, and had a long regeneration cycle. The most prestigious kind of bark paper was known as Chengxintang Paper, which emerged during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, and was only used for imperial purposes. Ouyang Xiu described it as shiny, elaborate, smooth, and elastic. In the Eastern Jin period a fine bamboo screen-mould treated with insecticidal dye for permanence was used in papermaking. After printing was popularized during the Song dynasty the demand for paper grew substantially. The supply of bark could not keep up with the demand for paper, resulting in the invention of new kinds of paper using bamboo during the Song dynasty. In the year 1101, 1.5 million sheets of paper were sent to the capital."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hua Sui",
        "text": "During the Qing Dynasty (1644\u20131911), the imperial court had made wooden movable type the official printing method, overseen by the official Jin Jian (d. 1794) who had 253,000 wooden movable type font characters made in 1733. However, the Qing government also sponsored bronze-type printing, as they crafted 250,000 bronze characters earlier in 1725 to print the \"Gujin Tushu Jicheng\" (\u53e4\u4eca\u5716\u66f8\u96c6\u6210, \"Complete Collection of Illustrations and Writings from the Earliest to Current Times\"). The encyclopedia encompassed 5020 volumes in length, as sixty six copies of the encyclopedia were made. Although the bronze characters were kept safe and deposited in the Wuying Palace, they were all melted down in 1744 in order to forge coin currency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hua Sui",
        "text": "In more recent times [late 13th century], type has also been made of tin by casting. It is strung on an iron wire, and thus made fast in the columns of the form, in order to print books with it. But none of this type took ink readily, and it made untidy printing in most cases. For that reason they were not used long."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of books",
        "text": "Papermaking has traditionally been traced to China about 105 CE, when Cai Lun, an official attached to the Imperial court during the Han dynasty (202 BCE \u2013 220 CE), created a sheet of paper using mulberry and other bast fibres along with fishnets, old rags, and hemp waste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The Tian, Qian, and Yu banks were all modeled on the private \"qianzhuang\" that were operating in Beijing at the time. The Tian, Qian, and Yu banks offered money exchange services, accepted deposits, and issued their own banknotes denominated in \"metropolitan cash\" (), hence they were known as () or (). Different banking groups would also deliver slightly different financial services and their funding situation also differed from each other. The banknotes issued by the Tian, Qian, and Yu banks were initially fully convertible, which made them similar to the already circulating \"zhuangpiao\". Because of their similarities with the , the official banknotes were both recognised and widely used in the market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The old paper notes issued by the International Banking Corporation were very popular in China and in great demand, and were always redeemed by the bank without being discounted as was very common for other institutions. When called in, the banknotes were canceled by the bank by cutting them in half. Many banknotes of the International Banking Corporation today found in collections were altered by gluing the two halves together and tend to bear mismatched serial numbers as a result; these banknotes are worth very little when compared to unaltered specimens found today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "In the year 978 an iron cash coin was worth of a copper-alloy cash coin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banknote",
        "text": "The founder of the Yuan dynasty, Kublai Khan, issued paper money known as Jiaochao. The original notes were restricted by area and duration, as in the Song dynasty, but in the later years, facing massive shortages of specie to fund their rule, the paper money began to be issued without restrictions on duration. Venetian merchants were impressed by the fact that the Chinese paper money was guaranteed by the State."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movable type",
        "text": "The typical example of this kind of bronze movable type embedded copper-block printing is a printed \"check\" of the Jin Dynasty with two square holes for embedding two bronze movable-type characters, each selected from 1,000 different characters, such that each printed paper note has a different combination of markers. A copper-block printed note dated between 1215 and 1216 in the collection of Luo Zhenyu's \"Pictorial Paper Money of the Four Dynasties\", 1914, shows two special characters \u2013 one called \"Ziliao\", the other called \"Zihao\" \u2013 for the purpose of preventing counterfeiting; over the \"Ziliao\" there is a small character (\u8f36) printed with movable copper type, while over the \"Zihao\" there is an empty square hole \u2013 apparently the associated copper metal type was lost. Another sample of Song dynasty money of the same period in the collection of the Shanghai Museum has two empty square holes above \"Ziliao\" as well as \"Zihou\", due to the loss of the two copper movable types. Song dynasty bronze block embedded with bronze metal movable type printed paper money was issued on a large scale and remained in circulation for a long time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "Before their value had dropped as significantly as it did, the Ministry of Revenue had already given the orders to cease the production and distribution of the Hubu Guanpiao in the year Xianfeng 7 (1857). During the final year that the Hubu Guanpiao banknotes were issued, the Chinese government produced 60,2000,000 silver taels}} in paper money onto the market. During this same period, the total tax revenue collected by the imperial Chinese government amounted to only 86,600,000 taels in silver. After the Tongzhi Emperor ascended to the throne of the Qing dynasty, this monetary policy was ended. A total of 9,780,000 taels in Hubu Guanpiao banknotes had been printed by the time that they had been officially deprecated. After this point, all further emissions of official Chinese paper money were the Da-Qing Baochao denominated in copper-alloy cash coins as the tael notes started slowly disappearing from the market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Piaohao",
        "text": "Some issued their own paper bills, which were known as (), (), (), and (), with different functions (many of these banknotes represented letters of exchange). These banknotes were seen as \"making good for the missing of a kind of paper money or paper currency in the monetary system of the (early) Qing dynasty period\", as well as for the failed Da-Qing Baochao and Hubu Guanpiao banknotes issued during the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Prior to the outbreak of the first world war, the French operated two banking corporations in China which were granted banknote issue rights by the Chinese government; these were the Banque de l'Indochine and the Banque Industrielle de Chine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhuangpiao",
        "text": "Chinese historian Peng Xinwei stated that in the year 1900 privately produced banknotes made up only 3% of the total volume of Chinese currency stock."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper",
        "text": "The oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern paper date to the 2nd century BCE in China. The pulp papermaking process is ascribed to Cai Lun, a 2nd-century CE Han court eunuch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "John E. Sandrock suspects that the wooden blocks from which the Da-Qing Baochao cash notes were printed were most likely also carved in the location of where these cash notes were issued, since he noted that upon a close examination of a number of them, these banknotes reveal quite a number of prominent differences among them. He noted that in some cases that different Chinese characters are used for conveying the same intended meaning, in other cases different systems of numbering were utilised depending on place of issue, and in others the physical dimensions of similar or the same ideograms (Chinese characters) differ between them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The reserves of the semi-private Yu banks seemed to be the weakest of all the official banks: they had an initial capital reserve of about 10,000 ; the Yu banks would later receive government deposits that were composed mainly of iron cash coins and lead cash coins. Because of their low capital reserves, the Yu banks experienced the worst case of over-issuing paper money, which caused a great demand for exchanging cash notes against a limited reserve of mainly Daqian and Zhiqian. After a number of bank runs, the Yu banks all folded in 1857; subsequently the Qian and Tian banks all folded due to bank runs in June of 1861."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economy of the Song dynasty",
        "text": "The central government soon observed the economic advantages of printing paper money, issuing a monopoly right of several of the deposit shops to the issuance of these certificates of deposit. By the early 12th century, the amount of banknotes issued in a single year amounted to an annual rate of 26\u00a0million strings of cash coins. By the 1120s the central government officially stepped in and produced their own state-issued paper money (using woodblock printing). Even before this point, the Song government was amassing large amounts of paper tribute. It was recorded that each year before 1101 AD, the prefecture of Xinan (modern Xi-xian, Anhui) alone would send 1,500,000 sheets of paper in seven different varieties to the capital at Kaifeng. In that year of 1101, the Emperor Huizong of Song decided to lessen the amount of paper taken in the tribute quota, because it was causing detrimental effects and creating heavy burdens on the people of the region. However, the government still needed masses of paper product for the exchange certificates and the state's new issuing of paper money. For the printing of paper money alone, the Song court established several government-run factories in the cities of Huizhou, Chengdu, Hangzhou, and Anqi. The size of the workforce employed in these paper money factories were quite large, as it was recorded in 1175 AD that the factory at Hangzhou alone employed more than a thousand workers a day. However, the government issues of paper money were not yet nationwide standards of currency at that point; issues of banknotes were limited to regional zones of the empire, and were valid for use only in a designated and temporary limit of 3-year's time. The geographic limitation changed between the years 1265 and 1274, when the late Southern Song government finally produced a nationwide standard currency of paper money, once its widespread circulation was backed by gold or silver. The range of varying values for these banknotes was perhaps from one string of cash to one hundred at the most. In later dynasties, the use and enforcement of paper currency was a method undertaken by the government as a response to the counterfeiting of copper coins."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are iron cash coins still used today?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I'm sorry, but I could not find the information you requested. However, I did find that the last government attempt at issuing iron cash coins occurred during the 1850s the under the reign of the Manchu Qing dynasty."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why did China stop making the coins after the Manchu Qing dynasty?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Under the Guangxu Emperor, there were various attempts at reforming the Qing dynasty's currency system. Machine-made copper coins and machines operated mints were introduced, signaling the end of coin casting in China."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did China first begin using paper money?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The first known banknote was first developed in China during the Tang and Song dynasties, starting in the 7th century. Its roots were in merchant receipts of deposit during the Tang dynasty (618\u2013907), as merchants and wholesalers desired to avoid the heavy bulk of copper coinage in large commercial transactions."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What kind of paper was it made from?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I could not find what the the notes were made out of, but they were first used by a private merchant enterprise."
    ],
    "topic": "Tieqian",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Jiaozi (currency):3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Jiaozi (currency)",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Jiaozi was first used in present-day Sichuan by a private merchant enterprise. They were issued to replace the heavy coins (\u9435\u9322) that circulated at the time. These early Jiaozi were issued in high denominations such as 1000 qi\u00e0n, which was equal to one thousand coins that of security. As denominations were not standard their nominal value was annually added by the issuing company. During the first 5 years of circulation there were no standard designs or limitations for the Jiaozi but after 5 years the sixteen largest Sichuanese merchant companies founded the Paper Note Bank (Jiaozi hu \u4ea4\u5b50\u6236, or Jiaozi bu \u4ea4\u5b50\u92ea) which standardised banknotes for them to eventually become a recognised form of currency by the local government with a standard exchange fee of 30 w\u00e9n per string of cash in paper currency.."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "The inconvertible paper notes that were also issued and pushed through the Chinese market received the full coercive power of the central state. These monetary policies led to immediate market reaction in the areas where they circulated, in fact, upon rumour, would cause the closure of local money shops and was behind a capital flight out of the capital city of Beijing. Public distrust in China towards these new monies even worsened when in the end, governmental agencies refused to accept \"big cash\" as a form of payment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "The first radical change to the Chinese monetary system involved the authorization and introduction of \"big cash coins\" (\u5927\u9322 - known today as multiple cash coins). This measurement was seen as one of the only remaining options left, and simultaneously the Qing government decided to reintroduce paper currency. Xianfeng's paper money consisted of two types of paper bank notes, the first of which was denominated in qian, or copper cash; and the second type, in silver taels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "The first radical change to the Chinese monetary system involved the authorization and introduction of \"big cash coins\" (\u5927\u9322 - known today as multiple cash coins). This measurement was seen as one of the only remaining options left, and simultaneously the Qing government decided to reintroduce paper currency. Xianfeng's paper money consisted of two types of paper bank notes, the first of which was denominated in qian, or copper cash; and the second type, in silver taels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "However, the government did not keep adequate reserves of hard currency to back the new banknotes up. Many provincial governments didn't allow for taxes to be paid using paper money, and after a few years the government started refusing to convert the new paper money into hard currency; consequently, the Chinese people started to distrust it as a valid medium of exchange. In response to the ever more expensive military expenditures caused by the Taiping Rebellion, the government produced more and more high denomination banknotes, which were not convertible. This caused hyperinflation; by the year Xianfeng 9 (1859) the currency had become completely depreciated and was abolished."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The difference of the Tian, Qian, and Yu banks from private financial institutions was that they were responsible for changing government paper notes (mostly the cash notes) into real money (a combination of Daqian, iron cash coins, and official banknotes). With the Tian, Qian, and Yu banks acting as intermediaries, the government issued paper notes of Ministry of Revenue became convertible: they were linked to both the Daqian and a larger amount in unbacked official banknotes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "In 1912 the Sino-Belgian Bank changed its name to the Banque Belge Pour l'\u00c9tranger. Banknotes issued after 1912 during the Republican period carried the new name of the bank to reflect this change. At the Shanghai International Settlement the circulation of paper notes was by the never allowed to exceed 1,000,000 dollars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Following the Chinese tradition of issuing new money in a new reign, the Xuantong administration had the design of the official Ta-Ching Government Bank paper notes somewhat changed to herald in the new emperor. The new design was inspired by the designs of the banknotes of the United States dollar of this era; some banknotes showed the portrait of Li Hongzhang, and others depicted that of Zaifeng, Prince Chun who at the time was the current Chinese Minister of Finance. At the eve of the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, there were 5,400,000 tael worth of banknotes circulating in China, and 12,400,000 yuan in banknotes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yuan (currency)",
        "text": "The number of banks issuing paper money increased after the revolution. Significant national issuers included the \"Commercial Bank of China\" (the former Imperial Bank), the \"Bank of China\" (the former Ta-Ch'ing Government Bank), the \"Bank of Communications\", the \"Ningpo Commercial Bank\", the \"Central Bank of China\" and the \"Farmers Bank of China\". Of these, only the Central Bank of China issued notes beyond 1943. An exceptionally large number of banknotes were issued during the Republican era (1911\u20131949) by provincial banks (both Nationalist and Communist)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "However, the government did not keep adequate reserves of hard currency to back the new banknotes up and many provincial governments didn't allow for taxes to be paid using paper money, after a few years the government started refusing to convert the new paper money into hard currency and the Chinese people started to distrust it as a valid medium of exchange. In response to the ever more expensive military expenditures because of the Taiping Rebellion the government started producing more and more high denomination banknotes which were not convertible causing hyperinflation, in the year Xianfeng 8 (1858) the government completely depreciated the Hubu Guanpiao series in favour of the Da-Qing Baochao."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "By the end of the 19th century provincial governments started setting up their own note issuing banks like the Hupeh Provincial Bank (, ) with branches in Wuchang and Hankou. The issued a series of banknotes known as the \"Hubei guanpiao\" (). These banknotes were denominated in taels for silver and strings for copper-alloy cash coins. The Hubei was abolished over a decade after the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1927 with the bankruptcy of the ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During the period when the and series of banknotes were introduced, nine government banks in Beijing (of which four were newly established institutions) started issuing another type of cash note known as the (). These cash notes were backed by reserves kept in Daqian rather than standard cash coins. The were modeled after privately produced banknotes known as the (). These private cash notes would also continue to circulate alongside the new currencies. Both the and were based on the Jingqian accounting unit of cash coins as was used in Beijing. This meant that, for example, if one were to exchange 15,000 worth of or cash notes in the year 1861, that person would only receive 7500 worth of physical coins (or 750 cash coins of 10 to be more precise). This practice was asymmetrical as government documents noted a string of cash coins as 1000 while paying out only 500 for these cash notes. Both the cash notes and tael notes continued to be accepted in the practice of office selling and would continue to circulate in the provinces of China proper as non-interest bearing debentures until 1867\u20131868."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During the early Tongzhi era (, 1862\u20131874), the provincial governments of Henan and Sichuan completely stopped accepting paper money for tax payments and again began requiring tax payments exclusively in silver, yet the provincial government of Zhili continued to accept the paper notes for tax payments, at least in a certain proportion to silver, which was preferred. The Xianfeng era paper currency was ultimately given up in 1868."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "In the year 1883 the imperial government of the Qing dynasty made an attempt to restore the copper-alloy cash coins back to their original units, because the new units had created chaos among private money shops in China who were willing to pay premium copper-alloy cash coins to call back their own privately produced banknotes that were issued in \"Beijing cash\" (Jingqian) units. This was done out of a fear of the large capital cost of having to later redeem their banknotes that were based on the previous standards of copper-alloy cash coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "In the year 1854 new Daqian were introduced, these had denominations ranging from 5 \"w\u00e9n\" to 1000 \"w\u00e9n\". During this same time the government of the Qing dynasty began issuing convertible cash bank notes, or \"guan-hao qianpiao\" (\u5b98\u865f\u9322\u7968), which were mostly backed in Daqian. These government-issued banknotes were modeled after private bank notes, known as \"sihao qianpiao\" (\u79c1\u865f\u9322\u7968), which would continue to circulate even after the introduction of these government notes. These banknotes were issued by nine different government banks, four of these banks newly established for their circulation. Both the Daqian and \"guan-hao qianpiao\" were calculated using the Jingqian (\u4eac\u9322) unit of account, but they were complicated by the fact that the nominal value of these government banknotes denominated the debt owed to be satisfied by the payment of cash coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "After the outbreak of World War I, the was forced to suspend its operations in China. At the time that it had to cease operating in China, an amount of 2,595,968 taels worth of banknotes was circulating. In 1917 the Chinese republican government revoked the bank's privilege to produce its own paper notes for the Chinese market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Under the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor the \"Da-Qing baochao\" () was introduced. These were based on the earlier Da-Ming baochao from the Ming dynasty in style and layout and denominated in Zhiqian (, 'standard cash coins') which were the high quality cash coins issued by the two central government mints in Beijing. For this reason they were popularly nicknamed (, 'cash notes'). These banknotes were initially issued in the denominations 250 , 500 , 1,000 , 1,500 , and 2,000 but as the Chinese economy was suffering from inflation denominations of 5,000 , 10,000 , 50,000 and 100,000 were introduced. The notes were imprinted with a statement that they were convertible into copper cash coins, however the statement also included the line that these banknotes could not be used for tax payment to the government. In reality the were not redeemable at all. Imperial China saw itself as being at the center of the universe and that all territory \"Under the Heavens\" () and \"Regions Within the Four Seas\" () were included within their domains, and for this reason the copper-alloy cash notes of this era bear the four characters () in their right border design, which translated into English means 'to circulate under the heavens'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "The Taiping Rebellion had caused the government of the Qing dynasty to fall into an extreme debt spiral which forced it to reconsider introducing paper money as a medium for exchange. This was advertised by the imperial government as a necessary evil because of a shortage of bronze which meant that the production of cash coinage had to be heavily scaled doen. The pauperised Chinese public was for centuries uncompromisingly minded against the idea of paper money emissions in any way, shape, or form and would not accept it for any reason. Half a century earlier in the year 1814, when Cai Zhiding (\u8521\u4e4b\u5b9a, Ts'ai Chih-Ting), who was a high official in the Ministry of State, petitioned to the court of the Jiaqing Emperor advocating the resumption of a paper money currency, this request was denied. Cai was later severely rebuked in the Jiaqing Emperor's memorial in which he pointed out that neither the Chinese government nor any individuals in the past had experienced benefits from the circulation of a paper money. The Jiaqing Emperor was not fully without justification in asserting his stance against paper currency, as the era Ming banknotes from their introduction had been inconvertible into metal currencies. With no government backing into any other forms of currency these banknotes were swiftly depreciated. While this may seem only logical today the Chinese had to learn this lesson the hard way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The central government of the Qing dynasty only attempted to regulate Chinese banks and its currency near the end of the dynasty. By the time that the Qing started finally implementing financial reforms, China was beholden to the mercy of foreign powers; because of this the issue of foreign banknotes in China and restrictions on foreign banking and foreign banks (including British banks) in general were generally not made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The reason why the government was forced to reform the imperial monetary system with a very complex system during the Taiping Rebellion was because the rebels had blocked the access of mint metals from the southwest of China, but more money was still needed to fight the ongoing insurgency. The advisors of the Xianfeng Emperor not only introduced copper-alloy cash coins with higher denominations than one, as well as introducing new cash coins made of metals other than brass, but also revived paper money in the shape of the \"Xianfeng baochao\" (). Quite important for the war effort is the fact that the imperial Qing government earned some revenue by issuing these new types of currencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "These banknotes were all introduced in 1854 and during the first few months after they were minted, they started being distributed in the form of salary for both government officials and the military; however, the imperial government itself did not accept them as a method of payment including for taxation, likewise many provincial governments also refused to accept the new paper currency. Later on these banknotes were slowly gaining acceptance throughout the Qing Empire. Consequentially due to their limited acceptability these paper notes were severely discounted in the private market sector, if accepted at all. In 1855 a cash note of 1000 or a silver note of 1 tael were just accepted for 450 Beijing cash (, ) or 200-300 standard cash coins by the private market. The market value of paper currency would consistently decrease as the imperial government kept printing both more of it and higher denominations, and by 1861 the government mandated paper money had overstayed their usefulness and consequently was completely abolished. During this year had already disappeared from general circulation, and a 1,000 cash note had a market value of as little as 26 , or 52 at the most."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "Over the course of its 268 years, the central government of the Qing dynasty (1644\u20131912) issued traditional Chinese paper money (vertically printed) only twice. The second time was included the second series of the Hubu Guanpiao which was introduced under the Xianfeng Emperor in response to the high military expenditures there government had to spend during the Taiping Rebellion, this second series was introduced alongside the copper-alloy cash coins-based Da-Qing Baochao (\u5927\u6e05\u5bf6\u9214) banknotes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fiat money",
        "text": "The Song Dynasty in China was the first to issue paper money, \"jiaozi\", about the 10th century CE. Although the notes were valued at a certain exchange rate for gold, silver, or silk, conversion was never allowed in practice. The notes were initially to be redeemed after three years' service, to be replaced by new notes for a 3% service charge, but, as more of them were printed without notes being retired, inflation became evident. The government made several attempts to maintain the value of the paper money by demanding taxes partly in currency and making other laws, but the damage had been done, and the notes became disfavored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Despite the fact that the number of these banks was not very high, their business proved to have a great impact on the modernisation of the financial and monetary system of China during the late imperial and the early Republican era. Even certain government-owned institutions like the railway corporations can be seen as modern credit institutes because they issued their own modernised paper money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Piaohao",
        "text": "The main income of the , namely interest\u2010free deposits to the government of the Qing dynasty and intergovernmental transfers between different departments and provinces, disappeared overnight as there was no longer a Chinese government. The only institutional change brought to the Chinese financial system by the late Qing dynasty, the standardisation of currency, had completely ended the domestic money exchange business in which the were operating. As more chaos affected China, the \"s\"' borrowers defaulted. They lacked any collateral\u2014their reputation had always been enough to get a loan. The shareholders were completely unprotected due to their unlimited liability. The \"s\"' capital shareholders and managers, due to the indemnification clauses which were present in their employment contracts, had to face the full losses causing many fortunes to be lost in the chaos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The Imperial Bank of China (, IBC) was founded in 1897 based on a suggestion made by Sheng Xuanhuai (, 1844\u20131916). In 1898 it began issuing the first Chinese commercial cheques () which were denominated in taels or in yuan. The IBC is also notable for being the first Chinese bank to order its banknotes from foreign printing bureaus. In 1913 (after the fall of the Qing dynasty) the Imperial Bank of China was renamed the Commercial Bank of China (). Various provincial authorities also started issuing local paper money during this era. In the province of Hubei, the local money office () started producing banknotes of 1000 which used the traditional Chinese banknote designs. Later, in 1899, the Zhang Zhidong (), Viceroy of Huguang ordered the local money office to also start making modern-style banknotes. The production of these was outsourced to the Empire of Japan using high-quality methods; however, the design of these banknotes was still vertical as opposed to the horizontal banknotes used elsewhere. In the province of Guangdong, a series of modern-style banknotes was introduced in 1904 which were denominated in 1 yuan, 5 yuan, and 10 yuan. These banknotes were printed by the Japanese Ministry of the Treasury (), but unlike the notes printed for Hubei had a Western-style vertical design."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianzhuang",
        "text": "The Hupeh Provincial Bank (\u6e56\u5317\u5b98\u9322\u5c40, \"Hubei Guan-Qianju\"), a provincial government-owned \"qianzhuang\" issued their own banknotes which were known as the Hubei Guanpiao (\u6e56\u5317\u5b98\u7968), these banknotes were denominated in taels for silver and strings for copper-alloy cash coins. The Hubei Guanpiao had magistrate seals affixed on them as endorsements, as the \"zhuangpiao\" by the local \"qianzhuang\" formerly practiced. In March of the year 1901 Zhang Zhidong commanded his subordinates to repudiate those magistrate seals on the Hubei Guanpiao banknotes that were issued as Zhang forthrightly explained to them that his foreign-made printing machines applied anti-forgery techniques, and that acquiescing seals would hamper circulating and competing banknotes issued by modern banks in China. The Hubei Guanpiao was abolished in 1927 with the bankruptcy of the Hubei Guan-Qianju. After the Hubei Guan-Qianju filed for bankruptcy in 1927 35 million strings in Hubei Guanpiao banknotes, which accounted for about half of the total of Hubei Guanpiao issued, were lost in the lengthy recall process by the defunct banks, as these banknotes had become completely worthless."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During this era, privately produced paper notes and promissory notes known as () were used in the Chinese market that were mostly issued by private banks () and other merchants. These banknotes were known as (, 'corporate notes', (, 'silver notes'), or (, 'cash notes'). As is usual for China, the names designating privately produced banknotes varied greatly across the country, with names being used such as (), (), (), (), or (). The denominations used on them varied greatly with some reaching as high as 5 \"di\u00e0o\" (, 'string of cash coins'). It has been suggested by Taiwanese economic historian Lin Man-houng that Chinese money shops did not start the production of their own private banknotes until the end of the Qianlong period. These shops were very likely to have been more developed in Northern China, where these money shops produced banknotes which were mostly denominated in cash coins, while banknotes from Southern China tended to be denominated in taels of silver. It is also possible that private-order banknotes could have emerged earlier in the 18th century and that their presence would become very common by the 1820s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "The Taiping Rebellion had caused the government of the Qing dynasty to fall into an extreme debt spiral which forced it to reconsider introducing paper money as a medium for exchange. This was advertised by the imperial government as a necessary evil because of a shortage of bronze which meant that the production of cash coinage had to be heavily scaled down. The pauperised Chinese public was for centuries uncompromisingly minded against the idea of paper money emissions in any way, shape, or form and would not accept it for any reason. Half a century earlier in the year 1814, when Cai Zhiding (\u8521\u4e4b\u5b9a, Ts'ai Chih-Ting), who was a high official in the Ministry of State, petitioned to the court of the Jiaqing Emperor advocating the resumption of a paper money currency, this request was denied. Cai was later severely rebuked in the Jiaqing Emperor's memorial in which he pointed out that neither the Chinese government nor any individuals in the past had experienced benefits from the circulation of a paper money. The Jiaqing Emperor was not fully without justification in asserting his stance against paper currency, as the era Ming banknotes from their introduction had been inconvertible into metal currencies. With no government backing into any other forms of currency these banknotes were swiftly depreciated. While this may seem only logical today the Chinese had to learn this lesson the hard way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Only a few years after their introduction both the Daqian and the government-issued paper money would start to be steeply discounted on the Chinese commercial markets. Daqian at this time would start to be traded at their intrinsic value rather than their nominal value. Because of their low intrinsic value and general inconvenience, all Daqian with denominations higher than 50 \"w\u00e9n\" were discontinued within a year of their introduction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhuangpiao",
        "text": "The Zhuangpiao (), alternatively known as \"Yinqianpiao\" (\u9280\u9322\u7968, \"silver money notes\"), \"Huipiao\" (\u6703\u7968, \"corporate notes\"), \"Pingtie\" (\u6191\u5e16), \"Duitie\" (\u514c\u5e16), \"Shangtie\" (\u4e0a\u5e16), \"Hupingtie\" (\u58fa\u74f6\u5e16), or \"Qitie\" (\u671f\u5e16) in different contexts, refer to privately produced paper money (or company scrip) made in China during the Qing dynasty and early Republic of China periods issued by small private banks known as \"qianzhuang\". Other than banknotes \"qianzhuang\" also issued \"Tiexian\" (\u8cbc\u73fe, \"discountable notes\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Chinese historian Peng Xinwei stated that in 1900, privately produced banknotes made up only 3% of the total volume of Chinese currency stock. This number would (according to Niv Horesh) be unlikely to surpass 6% if banknotes denominated in silver currencies were taken into account (these banknotes were produced by government banks and modern banking corporations). Foreign banks operating in China generally did not disclose the volume of banknotes issued by them circulating in China proper; the fact that they did not openly disclose this resulted in inflated estimates thereof over the years. For this reason Horesh states that it would be very implausible to assume that the ratio of all banknotes as part of the entirety of the Chinese money stock was any significant number higher than 10% even as late as 1900."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "As the Qing dynasty starting regaining territory in the areas held by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, they immediately started issuing Da-Qing Baochao and Hubu Guanpiao banknotes in these places. These issues were controlled using two different ideogram systems for the indexes and prefixes, the Chinese characters utilised by these systems were based on the Thousand Character Classic (\u5343\u5b57\u6587, \"Qi\u0101nz\u00ec W\u00e9n\"). The prefixed Chinese character (which would appear in the series block preceding the actual serial number on each banknote) was actually one of these thousand classical ideograms, it is known that the first 320 characters from this series were reserved for the Peking Metropolitan District. By contrast, early Hubu Guanpiao tael notes of the Xianfeng era, which were issued through the Peking Metropolitan District, the provincial treasuries of China, and the Chinese military commissaries, used a different prefix character system, this system was based upon the Five Confucian Virtues as opposed to the thousand character classic-based system of the Da-Qing Baochao. In the markets of Beijing the new Xianfeng banknotes could not be used, so as people could not purchase any actual goods with them in the capital market many Bannermen lost a large part of their disposable income because of this inability to actually purchase things with their salary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "In reality however, these banking groups were both independent from the Chinese government and from each other and weren't under any form of imperial government supervision. There were five \"Yu Banks\" which were already existing Chinese private banks, while the Ch'ien and T'ien banks were large cash shops which received a government license to distribute the new paper currency. The T'ien shops also fulfilled the purpose of being publicly funded pawnshops; they dealt in both pawned items and deposits. It is important to note that none of these institutions would survive the inflation, drowning in an ever increasing sea of cash notes. By the year Xianfeng 11 (1861) these institutions had all closed as they went bankrupt. The fall of the T'ien shops was quickened by Chinese peasants who, with the inflation affecting the paper money running rampant, opted to speedily redeem their pawned items with the depreciated Da-Qing baochao. This run on the T'ien shops practically doomed the Chinese pawnshop business overnight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "Before their value had dropped as significantly as it did, the Ministry of Revenue had already given the orders to cease the production and distribution of the Hubu Guanpiao in the year Xianfeng 7 (1857). During the final year that the Hubu Guanpiao banknotes were issued, the Chinese government produced 60,2000,000 silver taels}} in paper money onto the market. During this same period, the total tax revenue collected by the imperial Chinese government amounted to only 86,600,000 taels in silver. After the Tongzhi Emperor ascended to the throne of the Qing dynasty, this monetary policy was ended. A total of 9,780,000 taels in Hubu Guanpiao banknotes had been printed by the time that they had been officially deprecated. After this point, all further emissions of official Chinese paper money were the Da-Qing Baochao denominated in copper-alloy cash coins as the tael notes started slowly disappearing from the market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During the transition from Ming to Qing, the Manchu government issued banknotes known as \"Hubu guanpiao\" () or \"Shunzhi guanpiao\" (). They were first issued in the year 1651 on initiative of the Minister of Revenue, Wei Xiangshu () during the war with the remnants of the Ming dynasty to cover the more immediate expenses of the Manchus; as the finances of the Qing during this period were in dire distress, these banknotes were declared void only a decade after their issue. Peng Xinwei suggests that the Manchus started issuing banknotes in response to the treasury of the Qing dynasty experiencing funding shortfalls which were occasioned by the a campaign to occupy the island of Zhoushan (near modern Shanghai). An annual amount of 128,000 \"gu\u00e0n\" () were issued, with a total sum of 1.28 million being produced before they were abolished. The denominations of the followed the pattern of the Ming dynasty period paper notes, but as historiographical sources about the early Qing era paper money are scarce, not much can be known about them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Both the Daqian and paper currencies proved to be short-lived solutions for the government of the Qing dynasty, with the acceptance of the Daqian coinage having ended within three or four years from its inception. In the capital Beijing, this change would simply translate into a permanent nominal adjustment in the units of accounts used within the city, with a one-time jump in the nominal price level increasing it fivefold based on the Daqian units."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The paper money of the Qing dynasty (Traditional Chinese: ) was periodically used alongside a bimetallic coinage system of copper-alloy cash coins and silver sycees; paper money was used during different periods of Chinese history under the Qing dynasty, having acquired experiences from the prior Song, Jin, Yuan, and Ming dynasties which adopted paper money but where uncontrolled printing led to hyperinflation. During the youngest days of the Qing dynasty paper money was used but this was quickly abolished as the government sought not to repeat history for a fourth time; however, under the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor, due to several large wars and rebellions (most notably the Taiping Rebellion), the Qing government was forced to issue paper money again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "American numismatist John E. Sandrock examined the Da-Qing Baochao banknotes produced during the years Xianfeng 7 (1857), Xianfeng 8 (1858), and Xianfeng 9 (1859) after which he concluded that the banknotes denominated in 1000 \"w\u00e9n\" and 2000 \"w\u00e9n\" were printed in two varieties of paper. He noted that the Da-Qing Hubu Guanpiao tael notes were made from a much heavier and thicker kind of paper which he also described as being softer to the touch of ones hands \u2013 almost blotter-like in quality. The paper used for these Da-Qing Hubu Guanpiao tael notes is full of large, stringy fibers, which Sandrock thought was most probably made from bamboo. Some of the Da-Qing Baochao cash coins with the denominations of 1000 \"w\u00e9n\" and 2000 \"w\u00e9n\" were made from the same type of paper as the Da-Qing Hubu Guanpiao tael notes. John E. Sandrock speculates that because the larger denominations of 5,000 \"w\u00e9n\", 10,000 \"w\u00e9n\", 50,000 \"w\u00e9n\", and 100,000 \"w\u00e9n\" were not authorised to be created until the years Xianfeng 6 (1856) and Xianfeng 7 (1857), that by the year Xianfeng 6 the imperial Chinese government the paper used to produce the cash notes may have run out or that the contract for it may have been canceled. When these larger denomination Da-Qing Baochao cash notes were authorised, they must have been printed on whatever paper was available at the time for the Chinese government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "After the it was only rarely suggested by court officials to reintroduce paper money to the Qing Empire. Among these were Cai Zhiding () in 1814 and Wang Yide (\u738b\u61ff\u5fb7) in his treatise on money known as (). Peng Xinwei suggested that the Manchu rulers of the Qing were very much atavistic towards the inflationary pressure that the earlier Jurchen Empire experienced after they had abused their ability to print Jiaochao banknotes. Modern scholars argue that the banknotes issued during the Shunzhi period, while only brief, likely entrenched the reluctance of the Qing dynasty to issue banknotes because this issue also proved inflationary confirming their fears."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "Despite the government preferring paper money over copper-alloy cash coins, the Chinese market had a high demand for them, this demand would stimulate an overproduction of forgeries that inundated the markets of Ming China, often these forged cash coins were cast in such miserable quality that a single real Zhiqian could buy 300 fake ones. Consequently, this caused inflation in many different places."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Both the inflationary policy of debasing the copper currencies and the issuance of inconvertible paper money were also largely confined to the Beijing capital region and the immediate neighbouring provinces, this was due to the Qing government's limited political control over much of China at the time of Taiping Rebellion. During this era the introduction of the \"big cash coins\" unit in the capital city made interregional a lot more difficult to conduct because of the regional currency units that existed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "To finance their enormous military expenditures the government took several monetary initiatives, the government introduced the Da-Qing Baochao (\u5927\u6e05\u5bf6\u9214) copper-alloy cash-notes and the Hubu Guanpiao (\u6236\u90e8\u5b98\u7968) silver tael-notes although the empire's silver reserves were woefully inadequate to back the new paper currency. The size and weight of the 1 \"w\u00e9n\" Xianfeng Tongbao cash coins were reduced, this was done to save copper which was in short supply due to the supply lines from the copper mines of the Yunnan being disrupted by the wars that occurred in Southern China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "In the early 20th century the government of the Qing dynasty attempted to decimalise the currency among many other economic reforms and established a national bank to oversee the production of paper money; however, the chaotic monetary situation continued to plague interregional trade and would later be inherited by the Republic of China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "After the year Xianfeng 4 the imperial Chinese Ministry of Revenue had attempted to re-number previously issued Da-Qing Baochao cash notes and Hubu Guanpiao tael notes for a to date unknown reason, the new serial numbers were placed in black ink using character prefixes which are not from the Thousand Year Classic at the bottom left corner of the banknote. It remains a mystery why certain banknotes were renumbered late during the Taiping Rebellion. These re-issued banknotes are notably listed separately in the Standard Catalog of World Paper Money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "An alternative narrative argues that privately issued banknotes by native banks and local money shops had become a fundamental in the late-Imperial Chinese currency system a long time before the entry of Western banking corporations into China during the late 1840s. An important hypothesis of this alternative narrative speculates that the Chinese population at the time did not trust government-issued banknotes, while banknotes issued by established private banks, shops and financiers tended to be well-accepted by the general populace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The reserves that the Qing government deposited into the Qian and Tian banks were not enough; government documents stated that the Qian banks received government endowments of 20,000 \"di\u00e0o\" () in as initial capital directly from the imperial Chinese Treasury from the Ministry of Revenue. The government documents do not specify how often they pumped money into the official banks, nor is it specified in which form of currency the payment to these banks was realised. The imperial treasury records show that in 1853 a total number of 13,784 taels of silver was transferred from the government to the Qian and Tian banks \"as their 20% reserve money\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "The measures taken during the Taiping Rebellion made the Chinese monetary system even more complicated as it introduced a large number of different types of currency which all circulated concurrently as legal tender. The hyperinflation during the Xianfeng era was caused by the government of the Qing dynasty, in its desperate scramble for revenue, continuously debasing the copper content of its coinage. Furthermore, the banknotes it had issued were all declared to be inconvertible shortly after their issuance. The debasement of the copper content was commenced on 24 April of the year 1853 with the introduction of the Daqian (\u5927\u9322, \"big money\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Banknotes produced by the East Turkestan branches of the Russo-Asiatic Bank (Kashgar, Yining, and Changuchak) during the Republican period circulating between 1913 and 1924 still prominently depicted imperial Chinese symbols such as the five-fingered dragon on both sides. They were distinguished from banknotes produced by other foreign banking corporations because they were denominated in fixed weights of pure gold, rather than specific monetary units. The banknotes from this era were printed by Bradbury Wilkinson and Company in London, United Kingdom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da Ming Baochao",
        "text": "The Da Ming Baochao also wasn't backed by any forms of hard currency or reserves and the government never set any limitations on their production. These circumstances all lead to the paper currency of the Ming dynasty to start suffering from inflation, in the year 1376 new legislation was introduced to remove older more worn out notes from circulation by having them replaced for new banknotes at the cost of a fee known as \"Gongmofei\" (\u5de5\u58a8\u8cbb, \"g\u014dng m\u00f2 f\u00e8i\") which was set at 30 \"w\u00e9n\" per paper note. However in the year 1380 a new law restricted the replacement of paper notes which were unreadable, this caused the people to accept these older banknotes at reduced value, during this time the government stopped accepting worn out banknotes and in some cases didn't even accept banknotes which frustrated the people. During this period the government of the Ming dynasty only threw more banknotes on the market in various forms such as military salaries (\u8ecd\u9909, \"j\u016bn xi\u01ceng\"), while they themselves hardly accepted or replaced any existing paper money causing the people to lose trust in the Da Ming Baochao. In the year 1380 the Imperial Secretariat was abolished, and the Ministry of Revenue (\u6236\u90e8, \"h\u00f9 b\u00f9\") was made responsible for the manufacture of the Da Ming Baochao paper notes, the Ministry of Works (\u5de5\u90e8, \"g\u014dng b\u00f9\") for that of the copper-alloy Hongwu Tongbao cash coins. In the year 1389 the government of the Ming dynasty released treasury notes with lower denominations \"as a help to the people\" (\u4ee5\u4fbf\u6c11\u7528) and improve internal trade, these were the denominations of 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 \"w\u00e9n\" and depicted unstrung cash coins. Under the reign of the Yongle Emperor the Da Ming Baochao was fixed to be the exclusive valid paper money for the rest of the dynasty and because of this the paper currency of the Ming would see no further alterations or reforms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "At this point in time it became clear that physical metal supplies would not reach the capital of Beijing, the preferred substitute turned out to be banknotes. Government officials were very much aware that the issuing of banknotes had to happen within very strict limits because the increases to the supply of metal currencies needed to be matched or the new currency would face the same levels of inflation has had happened several times before in the history of China. Despite knowing all the risks and the predicted hyperinflation paired with many examples of historical precedent, the central government decided to pursue issuing more banknotes than they were able to back up because of the pressing matters of the Taiping Rebellion. In reality, there was no other means that the government of the Qing dynasty would be able to pay for the war and the inflation was a calculated risk deemed worth it. In the city of Beijing the parity between \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins and the Da-Qing Baochao was maintained, but at the same time the entirety of the Jingqian system would become deprecated in relation to the Zhiqian system and silver prices. Both 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins and Da-Qing Baochao cash notes were heavily discounted when traded with privately issued banknotes. Around the same time the price of silver declined throughout China, by the year Xianfeng 6 (1856) it had declined to 50% its value of what it was in Xianfeng 2 (1852), the exchange rate between Jingqian and silver had increased by 192% and would go up to 300% only two years later. This was however, only reflected on the paper money market for private cash notes as government-issued cash notes continued to lose their value."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During most of the Manchu Qing dynasty, the monetary system largely relied mostly on copper-alloy cash coins () denominated in \"w\u00e9n\" () for small transactions and the general retail market and silver sycees ( or ) denominated in taels () for larger transactions and the wholesale market. The general exchange rates between these two currencies fluctuated based both on time and on the location they were traded in, however the official exchange course was set by the imperial government as 1000 of copper-alloy cash coins for 1 tael of silver. Prior to 1800, the exchange rates were actually closer to 700 or 800 for 1 tael, but by the 19th century this had increased to 1200 . By the second half of the 19th century the imperial government of the Qing decided to experiment with cash coins that had a denomination higher than 1 which were known as Daqian, (, 'large money') because of copper shortages, but as the shortages ran higher the government decided to reintroduce paper money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banknotes of the Ta-Ching Government Bank",
        "text": "During the transition from Ming to Qing the Manchu government issued banknotes to finance its expensive military campaigns, but following their conquest of China they abolished these banknotes. Under the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor the Da-Qing Baochao (\u5927\u6e05\u5bf6\u9214) copper-alloy cash coins-based banknotes and Hubu Guanpiao (\u6236\u90e8\u5b98\u7968) silver tael-based banknotes were introduced in response to the Taiping Rebellion, but these banknotes would suffer severe inflation due to mismanagement and were eventually abolished causing the Chinese populace to distrust government-issued paper money once again, though private banknotes would continue to be trusted and to circulate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "The handmade paper which was used to produce both the Da-Qing Baochao cash notes and Da-Qing Hubu Guanpiao tael notes was sized, the paper itself may have been produced in Northern China or Korea. The paper can be described as being hard, thin, and a bit yellowish in colour, while the texture could be described as being lumpy. The design of the banknotes was uniform, this suggests that the imperial Chinese government would have probably distributed them to the provincial note-issuing banks and offices itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "Due to their inability to be redeemed the Da-Qing Baochao became widely depreciated, while it is common for 1000 \"w\u00e9n\" banknotes from the year Xianfeng 3 (1853) to have so many stamps of endorsements that there was no more space for any more chops, a banknote of the same domination from the year Xianfeng 9 (1859) would have few if any endorsements. The value of the government-issued paper money was so depreciated by the year Xianfeng 10 (1860) that provincial issued were curtailed by this time. By Xianfeng 10 (1860) the rate between government-mandated cash notes and privately produced cash notes had become stable a rate of 2:1, this only increased to 3.5:1 before the monetary crash of 1861."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The old paper notes issued by the International Banking Corporation were very popular in China and in great demand, and were always redeemed by the bank without being discounted as was very common for other institutions. When called in, the banknotes were canceled by the bank by cutting them in half. Many banknotes of the International Banking Corporation today found in collections were altered by gluing the two halves together and tend to bear mismatched serial numbers as a result; these banknotes are worth very little when compared to unaltered specimens found today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During the late Qing dynasty period the old paper notes remained in common usage; these included the traditional privately produced paper notes which were printed on one side of the bill issued by merchant banks known as (), (), and () and pawn shops known as (), as well as the old-style banknotes issued by provincial government institutions, to the modern banknotes which were introduced by a dozen or so of foreign banks operating in China and modern Chinese banks which were created in very large numbers in the later years of the 19th century. Furthermore, there were also banknotes which were brought into the Chinese financial markets by imperial government-owned firms like railway companies, and foreign bills coming to China through the trade ports like Shanghai. The large spectrum of these types of paper money reflected the structure of the general Chinese credit market in the late Qing period. The traditional Chinese credit institutes were local banks, banks, banks, and pawnshops, of which a considerably number was always to be found in each city across the Chinese Empire. Many provincial governments founded their own local provincial, state-owned banks which were known as () or (); in some provinces even several modern credit institutes were to be found, like the Yuning Bank () and the Yusu Bank () in the province of Jiangsu. Quite a few of these provincial credit companies opened branches in other provinces due to their success."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "Initially, the Da-Qing Baochao banknotes were able to be redeemed through the local Yu, Ch'ien and T'ien banks in a proportion of Zhiqian (\u5236\u9322, \"standard cash coins\"), Daqian (\u5927\u9322, \"big cash\"), silver, or the Hubu Guanpiao tael notes as was officially set by government regulation. As an example Manchu bannermen were to be paid in 8 parts ordinary cash coins to 2 parts large denomination cash coins, while members of the imperial household received 6 strings (\u4e32, \"chu\u00e0n\") of standard cash coins for each 10 strings which were disbursed. Comparatively, government contractors and private merchants tended to receive more multi-denomination cash coins over standard cash coins due to their lower position. Under inflationary pressure the Chinese government wasn't able to maintain parity for its currencies. By the year Xianfeng 5 (1855) the majority of the high denomination cash coins were abolished because it was both being deprecated at a rapid paste and there was an epidemic of counterfeiting. At this point the higher denomination which still continued to be produced and circulate was the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coin, though it was only worth 70% of its nominal value on the market. During this period both the Da-Qing Baochao and Hubu Guanpiao banknotes were worth only 50% their nominal value. Privately produced cash notes around the same time were fixed to the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" Daqian and lost 60% of their value between the years 1852 and 1856. Both government issued banknotes and Yu Bank issued banknotes were only valued half that of privately issued banknotes in 1856."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During the later part of the Qing dynasty era there was a discussion on whether or not the imperial Chinese government would have to establish a national bank, which it finally did in 1905. Peng Shu () stated before the introduction of new banknotes that the national bank would have to keep sufficient reserves in \"tangible\" money () at all times. The large number of private notes that were being produced all over the empire was to be restricted by introducing a stamp duty (). The reformer Liang Qichao campaigned for the government of the Qing dynasty to emulate the Western world and Japan by embracing the gold standard, unifying the currencies of China, and issuing government-backed banknotes with a \u2153 metallic reserve. At the end of 1905 the Ta-Ching Bank of the Ministry of Revenue () was founded, and the production of the banknotes was entrusted to the prints of the Beiyang Newspaper () in Northern China. In 1906 the government of the Qing dynasty sent students to Japan to be educated in modern printing techniques, with the aim to have the Shanghai Commercial Press () print the cheques of the Ministry's Bank. The Ta-Ching Bank of the Ministry of Revenue were still issuing two different types of banknotes. One series was denominated in tael, known as the (), and had denominations of 1 tael, 5 taels, 10 taels, 50 taels, and 100 taels. The other series was denominated in yuan, known as the () and was issued in denominations of 1 yuan, 5 yuan, 10 yuan, 50 yuan, and 100 yuan. In the year 1907 the Ta-Ching Bank of the Ministry of Revenue was renamed the Ta-Ching Government Bank (); accordingly the inscription on all banknotes had to be changed to reflect this."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The Tian, Qian, and Yu banks were all modeled on the private \"qianzhuang\" that were operating in Beijing at the time. The Tian, Qian, and Yu banks offered money exchange services, accepted deposits, and issued their own banknotes denominated in \"metropolitan cash\" (), hence they were known as () or (). Different banking groups would also deliver slightly different financial services and their funding situation also differed from each other. The banknotes issued by the Tian, Qian, and Yu banks were initially fully convertible, which made them similar to the already circulating \"zhuangpiao\". Because of their similarities with the , the official banknotes were both recognised and widely used in the market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Strictly speaking, the Xianfeng-era banknotes issued by the official banks did not fall under the monies issued by the Qing government. However, the status and function of official banks was intertwined with that of the Daqian, , and , and the over-issue of banknotes by the official banks was probably the real reason for the Xianfeng inflation. Because the official banks were neither directly controlled by the Ministry of Revenue or supervised by them, and the fact that their operations were semi-commercial (as in they were operated by private merchants), few records of official banknotes exist today. Of the Tian, Qian, and Yu banks, the Qian banks were the oldest, as they were established in the year 1853 with four branch offices. The Qian banks were operated directly by the Ministry of Revenue for the purpose of salary payment of the bannermen. The Tian Group of banks was originally the royal pawnshop operated by the Imperial Household Department of the Qing dynasty (Neiwufu) in 1841, in order to increase the private vault of the imperial household (which completely was separate from the imperial government vault). The Tian Group was converted to official banks in 1854 in order to \"facilitate\" the Tian banks into the service of salary payment for government officials. The Yu Group of banks was established in 1855; the Yu banks were semi-official banks and were operated by private merchants with imperial charter and would (very infrequently) receive deposits from the Ministry of Revenue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monetary policy",
        "text": "Paper money originated from promissory notes termed \"jiaozi\" in 7th century China. Jiaozi did not replace metallic currency, and were used alongside the copper coins. The succeeding Yuan Dynasty was the first government to use paper currency as the predominant circulating medium. In the later course of the dynasty, facing massive shortages of specie to fund war and maintain their rule, they began printing paper money without restrictions, resulting in hyperinflation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The designs of the banknotes of the Bank of Taiwan were not uniform nor were their sizes; the designs of these banknotes seems to have been dictated by local Chinese customs. Some had a vertical design, such as the banknotes produced by the Xiamen (Amoy) and Shantou (Swatow) branches, while those produced at the Guangzhou (Canton), Hankou, Jiujiang, Shanghai, and Fuzhou branches were all horizontal, although the general shape of the banknotes and their design patterns also differ between branches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banknote",
        "text": "Even before this point, the Song government was amassing large amounts of paper tribute. It was recorded that each year before 1101, the prefecture of Xin'an (modern Shexian, Anhui) alone would send 1,500,000 sheets of paper in seven different varieties to the capital at Kaifeng. In 1101, the Emperor Huizong of Song decided to lessen the amount of paper taken in the tribute quota, because it was causing detrimental effects and creating heavy burdens on the people of the region. However, the government still needed masses of paper product for the exchange certificates and the state's new issuing of paper money. For the printing of paper money alone, the Song government established several government-run factories in the cities of Huizhou, Chengdu, Hangzhou, and Anqi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianzhuang",
        "text": "When the Da-Qing Baochao (\u5927\u6e05\u5bf6\u9214) cash notes were suffering from inflation privately produced \"zhuangpiao\" cash notes were valued at double the nominal value of these government-issued cash notes, a number which increased to three and a half times as much before they were finally abolished in 1859."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During the latter half of the 19th century various foreign banking corporations and credit institutes started doing business in China. The paper notes issued by these companies started circulating in China leading to many local companies imitating their designs and even outsourcing the production of paper money. The strong influence of these foreign banks had a modernising effect on both the economy and the currency of the Qing dynasty, leading to the imperial government issuing their own versions of modern paper money. The denominations on the paper money were as chaotic as that of the coinage types and the different exchange rates used regionally were also applied locally, while banknotes denominated in copper-alloy currency had a different value than banknotes denominated in silver currency. Concurrently banknotes issued by different branches or different banks were also discounted with paper bills issued by more reliable banks being both valued more and in higher demand than those issued by institutions with a less favourable reputation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da Ming Baochao",
        "text": "Overprinting led to severe hyperinflation and distrust of paper currency. The Hongzhi Emperor and Zhengde Emperor abolished the production and use of banknotes. In the year 1535, 1 \"gu\u00e0n\" of paper money rather than being exchanged for 1000 copper-alloy cash coins was valued at only 0.28th of a coin. A proposal was made in 1643 to reintroduce paper money in order to finance the expenditures caused by the difficult situation that the Ming dynasty faced at the time confronted by the rebel Li Zicheng."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tael",
        "text": "During the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor, the government of the Qing dynasty was forced to re-introduce paper money, among the paper money it produced were the Hubu Guanpiao (\u6236\u90e8\u5b98\u7968) silver notes that were denominated in taels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "Eventually, the arguments for reintroduction of paper money prevailed and the Da-Qing Baochao and Da-Qing Hubu Guanpiao were introduced in the year Xianfeng 3 (1853). The banknotes denominated in copper-alloy cash coins and the banknotes denominated in taels of silver were introduced simultaneously to the Chinese market by the government. Unlike the earlier Da-Ming Baochao banknotes these paper notes were to be backed by the government and were supposed to be fully convertible on demand. Banknotes denominated in copper-alloy cash coins were referred to as Chaopiao (\u9214\u7968, or \"precious notes\") and Qianpiao (\u9322\u7968, or \"cash notes\", which was a reference to their (initial) convertibility into strings of copper-alloy cash coins). In the year Xianfeng 3 (1853) the Ministry of Revenue also gave authorisation to the local provincial governments of China to directly issue banknotes denominated in copper-alloy cash coins and silver taels, these banknotes bore its official seal and were valid throughout the empire. The Da-Qing Baochao banknotes rather than being smoothly introduced to the local markets were \"dumped\" (Lanfa) on purveyors of goods and services to the bureaucracy of the Qing government and were not as easily accepted back in tax payments to the government by these same purveyors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banknote",
        "text": "True paper money, called \"jiaozi\", developed from these promissory notes by the 11th century, during the Song dynasty. By 960, the Song government was short of copper for striking coins, and issued the first generally circulating notes. These notes were a promise by the ruler to redeem them later for some other object of value, usually specie. The issue of credit notes was often for a limited duration, and at some discount to the promised amount later. The \"jiaozi\" did not replace coins but was used alongside them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During this era another type of banknote was also introduced known as the (, 'silver notes') or (, 'silver notes') which were issued by the Ministry of Revenue and were commonly known as \"Hubu guanpiao\" () for this fact. These silver notes were issued in denominations of values 1 tael, 3 taels, 5 taels, 10 taels, and 50 taels. These banknotes had a guideline written in both Manchu and Mandarin Chinese declaring that they had to be discounted by 2% when they exchanged into Beijing market silver and when counted against the Kuping tael, the notes were discounted at 6 per cent. The conversion rate between copper-alloy cash notes () and silver tael notes () was two cash notes to one silver note, these banknotes exchangeable into copper cash coins and silver, but only in certain institutions in Beijing under the Ministry of Revenue. The term () was first used exclusively for paper notes issued by the imperial government, but later on was also used to refer to privately produced paper notes issued by private market banks and merchant companies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "By the middle of the 1800s various Western credit institutes and foreign banking corporations were operating in the Qing dynasty. During the late 1840s they began producing bills of exchange, promissory notes, or other forms of paper money for the Chinese market, which the Chinese referred to as (). This introduced modern credit instruments to the traditional Chinese business world and greatly bolstered the reformist monetary discourse in China and would later be emulated by homegrown Chinese modern banks. This affected both the private market and the imperial Chinese bureaucracy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "The reserves that the government of the Qing dynasty had set aside for those who would redeem the Da-Qing Baochao banknotes turned out to be too low to meet the demand. During some audits conducted by the Ministry of Revenue their turned out to be major irregularities with the reserves held by the private and provincial note issuing banks. Eventually, the Chinese government would abandon any policy other than one of keeping their banknotes in general circulation by forcing them on the Chinese population under a continued threat of punishments and penalties and also by making their redemption by its holders as difficult as possible. The complete crash of the new currency systems occurred during the winter of Xianfeng 6 (1856) all the way into Xianfeng 7 (1857). The iron 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coin drastically declined in its value, one of the reasons for this was the fact that it was being counterfeited on a large scale. At this time both peasants and merchants from the province of Zhili stopped accepting the coin as a form of payment. After in the spring of Xianfeng 7 (1857) the convertibility of Hubu Guanpiao tael notes into Da-Qing Baochao cash notes was partly restored by the lot method at the Yu banks. The Ministry of Revenue had attempted to stop the large scale counterfeiting and to force the provincial governments of China to start accepting both iron and copper-alloy Daqian cash coins and Da-Qing Baochao cash notes for tax payments, but quickly abandoned proposing iron Daqian cash coins and settled on a cash coin system of iron 1 \"w\u00e9n\" coins and copper-alloy 10 \"w\u00e9n\" coins, this system would prevail until the year Xianfeng 10 (1860). Because of this the standard copper-alloy cash coins completely disappeared from the Chinese market while all standard prices kept using them as a base unit of account leading to a price increase of 500% when paying with Daqian cash coins and Da-Qing Baochao cash notes. This had an immediate negative effect on the soldiers of the banner armies as the central government was forced to pay the soldiers in grain to prevent a famine. The collapse of the iron Daqian cash coins had an immediate effect on the Da-Qing Baochao banknotes as large denomination iron cash coins served as the reserve of the cash notes issued by the Yu banks, which in turn handled the exchange of the Da-Qing Baochao series. This resulted in the cash notes issued by the Yu banks to become quickly depreciated and by extend the Da-Qing Baochao. The Yu banks went bankrupt and were forced to close their doors, this failure led to privately produced banknotes which were valued 4 times as much as the government-issued banknotes on the market further ushering in a decline for the Da-Qing Baochao."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "Peng Xinwei estimated that during the late Qing dynasty period, the total copper sector (copper coins including standard cash and the new Da-Qing Tongbi minted after the year 1900) constituted only 17% of the total money in circulation in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic history of China before 1912",
        "text": "The Yuan Government revolutionised the economy by introducing paper currency as the predominant circulating medium. The founder of the Yuan dynasty, Kublai Khan, issued paper money known as Chao in his reign. Chinese paper money was guaranteed by the State and not by the private merchant or private banker. The concept of banknotes was not brought up in the world ever since until during the 13th century in Europe, with proper banknotes appearing in the 17th century. The original notes during the Yuan dynasty were restricted in area and duration as in the Song dynasty, but in the later course of the dynasty, facing massive shortages of specie to fund their ruling in China, began printing paper money without restrictions on duration. Chinese paper money was therefore guaranteed by the State and not by the private merchant or private banker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "During the transition from Ming to Qing the Manchu government issued banknotes known as \"Hubu Guanpiao\" (\u6236\u90e8\u5b98\u7968) or \"Shunzhi Guanpiao\" (\u9806\u6cbb\u5b98\u7968) or \"Shunzhi Chaoguan\" (\u9806\u6cbb\u9214\u8cab) which were first issued in the year 1651 on initiative of the Minister of Revenue, Wei Xiangshu (\u9b4f\u8c61\u6a1e) during the war with the remnants of the Ming dynasty to cover the more immediate expenses of the Manchus as the finances of the Qing during this period were in dire distress, these banknotes were declared void only a decade after their issued. An annual amount of 128,000 \"gu\u00e0n\" (\u8cab) were issued, with a total sum of 1.28 million \"gu\u00e0n\" being produced before they were abolished. The denominations of the Hubu Guanpiao followed the pattern of the Ming dynasty period paper notes, but as historiographical sources about the early Qing era paper money are scarce, not much can be known about them. After the Hubu Guanpiao it was only rarely suggested by court officials to reintroduce paper money to the Qing Empire, among these were Cai Zhiding (\u8521\u4e4b\u5b9a) in 1814 and Wang Yide (\u738b\u61ff\u5fb7) in his treatise on money known as \"Qianbi Chuyan\" (\u9322\u5e63\u82bb\u8a00)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "During this period 9 government banks in Beijing (of which 4 were newly established institutions) started issuing another type of cash note known as the Guanhao Qianpiao (\u5b98\u865f\u9322\u7968), these cash notes were backed by reserved kept in Daqian rather than standard cash coins. The Guanhao Qianpiao were modeled after privately produced banknotes known as the \"Sihao Qianpiao\" (\u79c1\u865f\u9322\u7968), these private cash notes would also continue to circulate alongside the new currencies. Both the Guanhao Qianpiao and Sihao Qianpiao were based on the Jingqian accounting unit of cash coins as was used in Beijing, this meant that for example of one were to exchange 15,000 \"w\u00e9n\" worth of Guanhao Qianpiao or Sihao Qianpiao cash notes in the year 1861 that person would only receive 7500 \"w\u00e9n\" worth of physical coins (or 750 cash coins of 10 \"w\u00e9n\" to be more precise). This practice was asymmetrical as government documents noted a string of cash coins as 1000 \"w\u00e9n\" while paying out only 500 \"w\u00e9n\" for these cash notes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The opened its first branch in China in 1899 in Shanghai and quickly opened more branches in Beijing, Hankou, Kunming, and Tianjin. All of these branches produced banknotes denominated in dollars for local circulation in China. At the Shanghai branch the French had made an attempt at issuing banknotes denominated in taels but this programme was almost immediately abandoned as non-remunerative. The banknotes produced by the were tri-lingual, printed in French, English, and Mandarin Chinese, making them the only foreign bank to employ three languages on their paper money in China. Denominations on banknotes produced by the were described in both French francs and Mexican piastres. These banknotes circulated in relatively small quantities in China until 1940, and consequently tend to be quite rare today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Under the Xianfeng Emperor the government of the Qing dynasty faced large crises, most notably the Taiping Rebellion, which had heavily burdened the government's expenditures, as a response the government had introduced a large number of monetary reforms including the introduction of cash coins with high nominal values, while their intrinsic values were significantly lower. These cash coins were not well received by the Chinese public and their circulation was not long as the market would reject them rather quickly after their introduction. After 1855 all denominations of the Daqian other than the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" ceased to be produced, while the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins would continue to circulate at only 20% their nominal value."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jiaochao",
        "text": "Later in 1294, in order to control the treasury, Gaykhatu of the Ilkhanate in Persia attempted to introduce paper money in his khanate, which imitated the notes issued by the Yuan dynasty so closely that they even had Chinese words printed on them. However, the experiment proved to be a complete failure, and Gaykhatu was assassinated shortly afterward."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The banknotes were supposed to enjoy circulation in all territories of the Qing dynasty. In order to facilitate this widespread adoption of the new paper currency, the banknotes were issued to the general public through semi-official banks known as the Yu banks, Ch'ien banks, and T'ien bank groups; these semi-official banks served as the fiscal agents of the Ministry of Revenue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "After the abolition of the Da-Qing Baochao and the Hubu Guanpiao banknotes the government of the Qing dynasty did not produce any banknotes anymore for decades. The final phase of Qing banknote issuance lasted from 1897 right until the Xinhai Revolution ousted the monarchy in 1912. These later issues were substantively different from the earlier two issues because, by then, banknotes had been imported from Western printers. These new banknotes were often horizontal-shaped in design which were novel in Chinese terms. Because of their horizontal designs and better security issues harder to forge by Chinese counterfeiters. The majority of these new banknotes were disbursed by semiofficial modern Chinese banks based on the models presented by Western and Japanese banks in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "The nominal value of both the Daqian and the \"guan-hao qianpiao\" did not reflect reality, as for example in the year 1861 one would get only 7,500 \"w\u00e9n\" in cash coins (or 750 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins) when cashing in government-issued cash notes of 15,000 \"w\u00e9n\". Furthermore, unlike physical cash coins, the \"string of cash coins\" currency unit, or \"di\u00e0o\" (\u540a), was used to represent 1000 \"w\u00e9n\" in government documents, but only 500 physical cash coins were paid out per paper string. In the year 1854 as the copper reserves of the Qing dynasty were being depleted the government of the Qing dynasty began issuing iron Daqian known as \"tieqian\" (\u9421\u9322). The process under which the Xianfeng inflation unfolded revealed as much about the capacity of the government of the Qing dynasty to coerce as the constraint in its monetary management. Only a few years after the introduction of the above currencies, they would all start being heavily discounted on the market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "While the banknotes of the Qian, Tian, and Yu banks were denominated in \"metropolitan cash\" () or , in the official government treasury accounts all figures for banknotes were kept with () as the main unit of account. The figures for these official banknotes were converted by the official ratio between and , which was 2,000:1 (this means that the official ratio between a and a is 2:1). The reported total amount of official banknotes possessed by the imperial treasury was 63,906,076 , and was equivalent to 31,953,038 taels of silver at the official government-set exchange rate between copper-alloy cash coins and silver in 1853. The Chinese government records were deliberately kept vague to cover up the obvious fact that there was a shortage of capital."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "The Da-Qing Baochao banknotes were supposed to enjoy circulation in all territories of the Qing dynasty. In order to facilitate this widespread adoption of the new paper currency the Da-Qing Baochao banknotes were issued to the general public through semi-official banks known as the Yu banks, Ch'ien banks, and T'ien bank groups, these semi-official banks served as the fiscal agents of the Ministry of Revenue. In reality, however, these banking groups were both independent from the Chinese government and from each other and weren't under any form of imperial government supervision. There were 5 \"Yu Banks\" which were already existing Chinese private banks, while the Ch'ien and T'ien banks were large cash shops which received a government license to distribute the new paper currency. The T'ien shops also fulfilled the purpose of being publicly funded pawnshops, they dealt in both pawned items and deposits. It is important to note that none of these institutions would survive the inflation, drowning in an ever-increasing sea of Da-Qing Baochao cash notes. By the year Xianfeng 11 (1861) these institutions had all closed as they went bankrupt. The fall of the T'ien shops was quickened by Chinese peasants who, with the inflation affecting the paper money running rampant, opted to speedily redeem their pawned items with the depreciated Da-Qing Baochao. This run on the T'ien shops had practically doomed the Chinese pawnshop business overnight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The number of banknotes produced by the Netherlands Trading Society in circulation in China was at all times relatively small in quantity because Dutch law had a substantial requirement for reserves to be held to back up the paper money issued that went into circulation. In 1909 the Netherlands Trading Society issued banknotes with the denominations 1 dollar, 5 dollars, and 10 dollars, and later under the Republic of China government in 1922 banknotes with denominations of 100 dollars and 500 dollars were issued. All banknotes issued by the Netherlands Trading Society in China had a principal vignette that depicted a Chinese warrior bearing a sword, clad in Chinese armour, and an ancient stone bridge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The total amount of banknotes issued by the Qian, Tian, and Yu banks is difficult to estimate because none of their bank account books have survived into the modern age. However, the number of official banknotes that were printed specifically for use in expenditures of the government of the Qing dynasty can be found in the imperial treasury records. The total number of official banknotes issued through government expenditure (from both the Qian and Tian Groups of official banks and the Copper Donation Bureau) was the equivalent to 31,953,038 taels of silver. As this rough estimate does not include the official banknotes that circulated in the private market through the money exchange services of these banks, and in particular the amount of banknotes issued by the Yu banks, the total quantity of official banknotes that circulated in the contemporary Chinese market was likely much higher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The reserves of the semi-private Yu banks seemed to be the weakest of all the official banks: they had an initial capital reserve of about 10,000 ; the Yu banks would later receive government deposits that were composed mainly of iron cash coins and lead cash coins. Because of their low capital reserves, the Yu banks experienced the worst case of over-issuing paper money, which caused a great demand for exchanging cash notes against a limited reserve of mainly Daqian and Zhiqian. After a number of bank runs, the Yu banks all folded in 1857; subsequently the Qian and Tian banks all folded due to bank runs in June of 1861."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The Sino-Belgian Bank/ enjoyed a positive reputation in China and its banknotes were at all times well-received and could easily be redeemed at the bank's offices. The was forced to cease its business when the Chinese republican government took over the Chinese economy from foreign management in the year 1935."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "List of banknotes denominated in copper-alloy cash coins issued during the Xianfeng era:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Banknotes of the Ta-Ching Government Bank",
        "text": "In the year 1906, the government of the Qing dynasty was reformed and in the year 1908 the Ta-Ching Bank of the Ministry of Revenue changed its name to the Ta-Ching Government Bank (\u5927\u6e05\u9280\u884c) and the inscriptions of the banknotes issued by it had to be changed to reflect its new name. The banknotes issued before the name change were all printed by the Beiyang Newspaper. Because there is no advanced engraving technology for banknotes in China at the time and the banknotes that were printed by the Beiyang Newspaper's commercial press were both expensive to make and easy to imitate, the government of the Qing dynasty had later commissioned the American Bank Note Company to print new banknotes for the Ta-Ching Government Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "It has been suggested by Taiwanese economic historian Lin Man-houng that Chinese money shops did not start with the production of their own private banknotes until the end of the Qianlong period, these shops were very likely to have been more developed in Northern China, where these money shops produced banknotes which were mostly denominated in cash coins while banknotes from Southern China tended to be denominated in taels of silver. It is also possible that private-order banknotes could have emerged earlier in the 18th century and that their presence would become very common by the 1820s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "After the American Civil War ended with a decisive victory for the United States of America in 1865, the Asiatic Bank had to close its doors in 1866 as the cheap cotton from the Southern United States was freely available on the British market again, ending the experiment with the production of cotton in British India and Ceylon. All banknotes issued by the Asiatic Bank to circulate in Qing China had an identical design but had different branch names on them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ta-Ching Government Bank",
        "text": "Following the Chinese tradition of issuing new money in a new reign, the Xuantong administration had the design of the official Ta-Ching Government Bank paper notes somewhat changed to herald in the new emperor. The new design was inspired by the designs of the banknotes of the United States dollar of this era; some banknotes showed the portrait of Li Hongzhang, and others depicted that of Zaifeng, Prince Chun who at the time was the current Chinese Minister of Finance. At the eve of the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, there were 5,400,000 tael worth of Yinliang banknotes circulating in China, and 12,400,000 yuan in Yinyuan banknotes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "After the Taiping Rebellion had depleted the imperial treasury of the Qing dynasty the government reformed the cash coin system to include higher denominations with low intrinsic values essentially creating a fiat currency; this was a radical departure from China's past where the value of cash coins was dependent on their weight rather than any denominations. The same developments which lead to the creation of the new Xianfeng coinage had also necessitated the reintroduction of paper money in China after it was absent for two centuries. The new paper currency came in two forms, one was the copper-alloy cash coins-based Da-Qing Baochao and the other was the silver sycee-based Hubu Guanpiao (\u6236\u90e8\u5b98\u7968) which were both introduced simultaneously with the new debased cash coinage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "It has been suggested by Taiwanese economic historian Lin Man-houng that Chinese money shops did not start with the production of their own private banknotes until the end of the Qianlong period, these shops were very likely to have been more developed in Northern China, where these money shops produced banknotes which were mostly denominated in cash coins while banknotes from Southern China tended to be denominated in taels of silver. It is also possible that private-order banknotes could have emerged earlier in the 18th century and that their presence would become very common by the 1820s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Only a single entry in the Qing government archive mentions them from this point, as it is stated that in the year 1856 the government of the Qing dynasty had 431,515.849 strings of iron cash coins deposited in the imperial treasury vault. This entry may be seen as supplementary evidence to suggest that copper-alloy cash coinage had almost completely disappeared in or before this year. Iron cash coins would soon become valueless and the coinage was ultimately suspended in the year 1859."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "During the second month of the year 1854 the government of the Qing dynasty supplemented the already debased Xianfeng coinage system with iron cash coins. The intrinsic value of iron cash coins was substantially lower than that of even the copper-alloy Zhiqian and Daqian. The aim the government had with the introduction of iron cash coins was to provide small change for a market that highly demanded it, as the Chinese market was already flooded with large denomination cash coinage and the Zhiqian 1 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins) by this point had become a rarity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "The precursor of paper money (\u7d19\u5e63) known as \"Flying cash\" were issued by the Tang dynasty, however these bills of exchange could in no way be considered to be a form of paper money as they weren't meant to be a medium of exchange and were only negotiable between two distant points. The first true paper money in the world was issued under the Song dynasty, these were promissory notes issued by merchants in Sichuan known as the Jiaozi, under the reign of Emperor Zhenzong (997\u20131022) the government of the Song Dynasty granted a monopoly for the production of Jiaozi notes to sixteen wealthy merchants in Sichuan, as these merchants were slow to redeem their banknotes and inflation started affecting these private banknotes the government nationalised paper money in the year 1023 under the Bureau of Exchange. As these paper notes were backed by the government they were instantly successful and the people regarded them to be equally trustworthy as cash coins, other types of paper notes issued under the Song dynasty include the Huizi and the Guanzi. Before the Mongol Empire conquered China the Jin dynasty also issued paper money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianzhuang",
        "text": "Following the 1935 currency reform the government of the Republic of China introduced the \"fabi\" (\u6cd5\u5e63, \"legal tender\"), from November of the year 1935 to December 1936, the 3 officially sanctioned note-issuing banks issued the new paper currency, the \"fabi\" was completely detached from the silver standard. The Central Government of the Republic of China had enacted these currency reforms to limit currency issuance to three major government controlled banks: the Bank of China, Central Bank of China, Bank of Communications, and later the Farmers Bank of China. Chinese people were required by government mandate to hand in all of their current silver reserves in return for the newly introduced \"fabi\", this was primarily done by the government in order to supply the silver that the Chinese government owed to the United States. The Chinese government and the central bank were careful to do a controlled release of about 2,000,000,000 yuan worth of new \"fabi\" banknotes, this was done in order to prevent inflation, and the government had taken many precautions to distribute these banknotes both gradually and fairly. In the first few months following the release of the \"fabi\" banknotes, the Chinese government did this to wait to see whether the Chinese public would place their trust in the new, unified Chinese currency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "In a 1962 study Yang Duanliu cited memorials which were written to the Xianfeng Emperor which attempted to show him that his order to the provinces to keep fifty percent of their reserves in silver was ignored by provincial authorities and that the actual ratio of reserves varied substantially across different provinces. Meanwhile, some Chinese provinces did not keep any silver reserves at all, while the province of Henan (a province very close to the capital city of Beijing) did not even accept the Hubu Guanpiao banknotes they themselves issued as a form of payment for provincial taxes. Yang claims that these inadequate reserve ratios and local insubordination to imperial government laws and edicts were to blame why by the year Qixiang 1 (1862) government banknotes had completely disappeared from circulation. Jerome Ch'\u00ean meanwhile suggested that the Ministry of Revenue made the rampant inflation a lot more worse by insisting that no more than half of individual tax remittance could be made with either Da-Qing Baochao cash notes or Hubu Guanpiao tael notes with the remainder of the taxes being demanded in either cash coins or silver."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are iron cash coins still used today?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I'm sorry, but I could not find the information you requested. However, I did find that the last government attempt at issuing iron cash coins occurred during the 1850s the under the reign of the Manchu Qing dynasty."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why did China stop making the coins after the Manchu Qing dynasty?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Under the Guangxu Emperor, there were various attempts at reforming the Qing dynasty's currency system. Machine-made copper coins and machines operated mints were introduced, signaling the end of coin casting in China."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did China first begin using paper money?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The first known banknote was first developed in China during the Tang and Song dynasties, starting in the 7th century. Its roots were in merchant receipts of deposit during the Tang dynasty (618\u2013907), as merchants and wholesalers desired to avoid the heavy bulk of copper coinage in large commercial transactions."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What kind of paper was it made from?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I could not find what the the notes were made out of, but they were first used by a private merchant enterprise."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did China's paper money change after the Chinese Revolution?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "As the Chinese Communist Party soon gained control of the Mainland provinces. It was replaced by currency issued by the People's Bank of China which was less prone to inflation ."
    ],
    "topic": "Tieqian",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "History of Chinese currency:23",
        "passage_titles": [
          "History of Chinese currency",
          "Republic of China",
          "1949\u20132001"
        ],
        "ctx": "This currency was short-lived, as the Communist Party of China soon gained control of the Mainland provinces. It was replaced by currency issued by the People's Bank of China which was less prone to inflation."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "Despite the government preferring paper money over copper-alloy cash coins, the Chinese market had a high demand for them, this demand would stimulate an overproduction of forgeries that inundated the markets of Ming China, often these forged cash coins were cast in such miserable quality that a single real Zhiqian could buy 300 fake ones. Consequently, this caused inflation in many different places."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Because copper-alloy cash coins had very little value they were not likely to be used as a store of value and because moving them was very heavy and expensive, copper-alloy cash coins were also not used that often for long distance trade due to their inconvenience. This meant that when large denomination cash coins were overvalued, the Chinese people were far more likely to melt these cash coins down for counterfeiting than they would try to export them to other regions. This also made it more likely for the copper-alloy cash coins that originated from the regions in close proximity to Beijing to send their cash coins to the city to be melted into counterfeit Daqian."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "However, the government did not keep adequate reserves of hard currency to back the new banknotes up. Many provincial governments didn't allow for taxes to be paid using paper money, and after a few years the government started refusing to convert the new paper money into hard currency; consequently, the Chinese people started to distrust it as a valid medium of exchange. In response to the ever more expensive military expenditures caused by the Taiping Rebellion, the government produced more and more high denomination banknotes, which were not convertible. This caused hyperinflation; by the year Xianfeng 9 (1859) the currency had become completely depreciated and was abolished."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "However, the government did not keep adequate reserves of hard currency to back the new banknotes up and many provincial governments didn't allow for taxes to be paid using paper money, after a few years the government started refusing to convert the new paper money into hard currency and the Chinese people started to distrust it as a valid medium of exchange. In response to the ever more expensive military expenditures because of the Taiping Rebellion the government started producing more and more high denomination banknotes which were not convertible causing hyperinflation, in the year Xianfeng 8 (1858) the government completely depreciated the Hubu Guanpiao series in favour of the Da-Qing Baochao."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianzhuang",
        "text": "The Hupeh Provincial Bank (\u6e56\u5317\u5b98\u9322\u5c40, \"Hubei Guan-Qianju\"), a provincial government-owned \"qianzhuang\" issued their own banknotes which were known as the Hubei Guanpiao (\u6e56\u5317\u5b98\u7968), these banknotes were denominated in taels for silver and strings for copper-alloy cash coins. The Hubei Guanpiao had magistrate seals affixed on them as endorsements, as the \"zhuangpiao\" by the local \"qianzhuang\" formerly practiced. In March of the year 1901 Zhang Zhidong commanded his subordinates to repudiate those magistrate seals on the Hubei Guanpiao banknotes that were issued as Zhang forthrightly explained to them that his foreign-made printing machines applied anti-forgery techniques, and that acquiescing seals would hamper circulating and competing banknotes issued by modern banks in China. The Hubei Guanpiao was abolished in 1927 with the bankruptcy of the Hubei Guan-Qianju. After the Hubei Guan-Qianju filed for bankruptcy in 1927 35 million strings in Hubei Guanpiao banknotes, which accounted for about half of the total of Hubei Guanpiao issued, were lost in the lengthy recall process by the defunct banks, as these banknotes had become completely worthless."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counterfeit money",
        "text": "In the 1990s, the portrait of Chairman Mao Zedong was placed on the banknotes of the People's Republic of China to combat counterfeiting, as he was recognised better than the generic designs on the renminbi notes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "In the year 1883 the imperial government of the Qing dynasty made an attempt to restore the copper-alloy cash coins back to their original units, because the new units had created chaos among private money shops in China who were willing to pay premium copper-alloy cash coins to call back their own privately produced banknotes that were issued in \"Beijing cash\" (Jingqian) units. This was done out of a fear of the large capital cost of having to later redeem their banknotes that were based on the previous standards of copper-alloy cash coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counterfeit money",
        "text": "When paper money was introduced in China in the 13th century, wood from mulberry trees was used to make money. To control access to the paper, guards were stationed around mulberry forests, while counterfeiters were punished by death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "It is notable that the Hubu Guanpiao contained a warning to currency counterfeiters while the Da-Qing Baochao did not, the earliest Chinese paper currencies such as the flying cash from the Tang dynasty and the Jiaozi, Huizi, and Guanzi all contained these warnings. American numismatist John E. Sandrock speculates that the Xianfeng Emperor thought that it was unnecessary to issue a warning on the Da-Qing Baochao as they were of comparatively minor value, while those who would make counterfeit Hubu Guanpiao banknotes would be executed through decapitation. Foreigners residing in Shanghai in the year 1857 reported that the Chinese government commonly decapitated currency counterfeiters, which would indicate that the practice was a common occurrence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "The introduction of the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coin was only reluctantly accepted by the Chinese market, and it introduction had caused rampant counterfeiting of it. These counterfeits did not weigh as much as the government issued 10 \"w\u00e9n\" Daqian. Furthermore, the Daqian were all intended to circulate side-by-side with the already existing currencies in China, and then be accepted at face value and the older coinage wasn't collected by the government for re-melting. Eventually the weight of the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins was reduced to only 0.22 taels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianzhuang",
        "text": "Throughout Chinese history cash coins were put on strings in 10 groups of (supposedly) 100 cash coins each, these strings were separated by a knot between each group. During the Qing dynasty period strings of cash coins rarely actually contained 1000 cash coins and usually had something like 950 or 980 or a similar quantity, these amounts were due to local preferences rather than being random in any form. In the larger cities \"qianzhuang\" would make specific strings of cash coins for specific markets. The \"qianzhuang\" existed because at the time there were many different kinds of cash coins circulating in China including old Chinese cash coins from previous dynasties (\u53e4\u9322), Korean cash coins, Japanese cash coins (\u502d\u9322), Vietnamese cash coins, large and small genuine Qing dynasty cash coins, and different kinds of counterfeits, such as illegally private minted cash coins. Some of these strings would contain exclusively genuine Zhiqian, while other strings could contain between 30% and 50% of counterfeit and underweight cash coins. The actual number of cash coins on a string and the percentage of counterfeits in a string was generally known to everyone who resided in that town by the type of knots that were used. Each of these different kind of strings of cash coins fulfilled different functions. For example, one string of cash coins was acceptable to be used in a local grain market while it would not be accepted at a meat market, while another type of string was able to be used in both markets while not to pay for taxes. The \"qianzhuang\" sorted all cash coins into very specific categories, then they would make up appropriate kinds of strings that were intended for use in specific markets or to pay for taxes to the government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "The measures taken during the Taiping Rebellion made the Chinese monetary system even more complicated as it introduced a large number of different types of currency which all circulated concurrently as legal tender. The hyperinflation during the Xianfeng era was caused by the government of the Qing dynasty, in its desperate scramble for revenue, continuously debasing the copper content of its coinage. Furthermore, the banknotes it had issued were all declared to be inconvertible shortly after their issuance. The debasement of the copper content was commenced on 24 April of the year 1853 with the introduction of the Daqian (\u5927\u9322, \"big money\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Both the inflationary policy of debasing the copper currencies and the issuance of inconvertible paper money were also largely confined to the Beijing capital region and the immediate neighbouring provinces, this was due to the Qing government's limited political control over much of China at the time of Taiping Rebellion. During this era the introduction of the \"big cash coins\" unit in the capital city made interregional a lot more difficult to conduct because of the regional currency units that existed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "In a 1962 study Yang Duanliu cited memorials which were written to the Xianfeng Emperor which attempted to show him that his order to the provinces to keep fifty percent of their reserves in silver was ignored by provincial authorities and that the actual ratio of reserves varied substantially across different provinces. Meanwhile, some Chinese provinces did not keep any silver reserves at all, while the province of Henan (a province very close to the capital city of Beijing) did not even accept the Hubu Guanpiao banknotes they themselves issued as a form of payment for provincial taxes. Yang claims that these inadequate reserve ratios and local insubordination to imperial government laws and edicts were to blame why by the year Qixiang 1 (1862) government banknotes had completely disappeared from circulation. Jerome Ch'\u00ean meanwhile suggested that the Ministry of Revenue made the rampant inflation a lot more worse by insisting that no more than half of individual tax remittance could be made with either Da-Qing Baochao cash notes or Hubu Guanpiao tael notes with the remainder of the taxes being demanded in either cash coins or silver."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "Initially, the Da-Qing Baochao banknotes were able to be redeemed through the local Yu, Ch'ien and T'ien banks in a proportion of Zhiqian (\u5236\u9322, \"standard cash coins\"), Daqian (\u5927\u9322, \"big cash\"), silver, or the Hubu Guanpiao tael notes as was officially set by government regulation. As an example Manchu bannermen were to be paid in 8 parts ordinary cash coins to 2 parts large denomination cash coins, while members of the imperial household received 6 strings (\u4e32, \"chu\u00e0n\") of standard cash coins for each 10 strings which were disbursed. Comparatively, government contractors and private merchants tended to receive more multi-denomination cash coins over standard cash coins due to their lower position. Under inflationary pressure the Chinese government wasn't able to maintain parity for its currencies. By the year Xianfeng 5 (1855) the majority of the high denomination cash coins were abolished because it was both being deprecated at a rapid paste and there was an epidemic of counterfeiting. At this point the higher denomination which still continued to be produced and circulate was the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coin, though it was only worth 70% of its nominal value on the market. During this period both the Da-Qing Baochao and Hubu Guanpiao banknotes were worth only 50% their nominal value. Privately produced cash notes around the same time were fixed to the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" Daqian and lost 60% of their value between the years 1852 and 1856. Both government issued banknotes and Yu Bank issued banknotes were only valued half that of privately issued banknotes in 1856."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "In a 1962 study Yang Duanliu cited memorials which were written to the Xianfeng Emperor which attempted to show him that his order to the provinces to keep fifty percent of their reserves in silver was ignored by provincial authorities and that the actual ratio of reserves varied substantially across different provinces. Meanwhile, some Chinese provinces did not keep any silver reserves at all, while the province of Henan (a province very close to the capital city of Beijing) did not even accept the Hubu Guanpiao banknotes they themselves issued as a form of payment for provincial taxes. Yang claims that these inadequate reserve ratios and local insubordination to imperial government laws and edicts were to blame why by the year Qixiang 1 (1862) government banknotes had completely disappeared from circulation. Jerome Ch'\u00ean meanwhile suggested that the Ministry of Revenue made the rampant inflation a lot more worse by insisting that no more than half of individual tax remittance could be made with either Da-Qing Baochao cash notes or Hubu Guanpiao tael notes with the remainder of the taxes being demanded in either cash coins or silver."
      },
      {
        "title": "Korean yang",
        "text": "Not long after these new copper coins were introduced, black market counterfeit versions of the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" appeared, illegal mints or \"private mints\" (\u5c40\u79c1) opened all over China and started producing more coins than the Qing government's set quotas allowed there to be circulating on the market. Both Chinese and foreigners soon started producing struck cash coins of inferior quality often with traces of the Korean 5 fun coins they were overstruck on, or with characters and symbols not found on official government issued coins. Joseon began minting modern-style machine-struck copper coins in 1892, which was 8 years before the Qing dynasty did so in China.\u00a0These coins were often minted by Korean businessmen and former Japanese Samurai (specifically \"R\u014dnin\") looking to make a profit on exchanging the low value copper coins into silver dollars as a single Chinese silver dollar had the purchasing power of 1000 Korean fun. The majority of the counterfeit coins bear the inscription that they were minted in either Zhejiang province or Shandong province, but they circulated all over the coastal regions of China. Because the hand-operated presses used by the counterfeiters did not exert enough pressure on the coins to sufficiently obliterate the inscriptions and symbols on the Korean 5 fun coins, the counterfeit Qing dynasty 10 \"w\u00e9n\" coins made using this method would usually exhibit a combination of both the Chinese Da-Qing Tongbi and Korean 5 fun designs. For example there can still be traces of a wreath surrounding the dragon or minor traces of the original Korean inscription."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "While military expenses were the main reason the government of the Qing dynasty return to issuing banknotes again after four hundred years without using them. There were also other arguments in favour of a paper currency; the earlier advantages of adopting paper currencies had not been entirely forgotten by the Chinese people. The people supporting the reintroduction of fiat money claimed that it could be produced at minimal cost and could circulate widely within the Chinese empire. Being lightweight, paper money could be carried around my traders and officials with ease and concealed on one's person as opposed to strings of cash coins which were always visible and a low-effort target for potential robbers. Another argument in favour was that banknotes were not dividable into various grades of purity like is customary for precious metals like silver. Nor does paper money have to be weighed whenever it is used in a monetary transaction. Neither can banknotes be clipped by dishonest money lenders as was so often the case with silver coins and sycees. The strongest arguments in favour of the use of paper held over hard forms of currency from the government's perspective were twofold. The first reason was that if paper took the place of copper and copper-alloys would stop used in casting cash coins, the copper saved could be used in the production of weapons for the imperial Chinese and provincial armies. The second reason was that in the case replacing of silver coinages, if the mercantile (merchants) and commercial (business owners) classes could be brought to the persuasion to accept paper banknotes in lieu of silver, then the silver saved could be stored up in the government coffers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "The reserves that the government of the Qing dynasty had set aside for those who would redeem the Da-Qing Baochao banknotes turned out to be too low to meet the demand. During some audits conducted by the Ministry of Revenue their turned out to be major irregularities with the reserves held by the private and provincial note issuing banks. Eventually, the Chinese government would abandon any policy other than one of keeping their banknotes in general circulation by forcing them on the Chinese population under a continued threat of punishments and penalties and also by making their redemption by its holders as difficult as possible. The complete crash of the new currency systems occurred during the winter of Xianfeng 6 (1856) all the way into Xianfeng 7 (1857). The iron 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coin drastically declined in its value, one of the reasons for this was the fact that it was being counterfeited on a large scale. At this time both peasants and merchants from the province of Zhili stopped accepting the coin as a form of payment. After in the spring of Xianfeng 7 (1857) the convertibility of Hubu Guanpiao tael notes into Da-Qing Baochao cash notes was partly restored by the lot method at the Yu banks. The Ministry of Revenue had attempted to stop the large scale counterfeiting and to force the provincial governments of China to start accepting both iron and copper-alloy Daqian cash coins and Da-Qing Baochao cash notes for tax payments, but quickly abandoned proposing iron Daqian cash coins and settled on a cash coin system of iron 1 \"w\u00e9n\" coins and copper-alloy 10 \"w\u00e9n\" coins, this system would prevail until the year Xianfeng 10 (1860). Because of this the standard copper-alloy cash coins completely disappeared from the Chinese market while all standard prices kept using them as a base unit of account leading to a price increase of 500% when paying with Daqian cash coins and Da-Qing Baochao cash notes. This had an immediate negative effect on the soldiers of the banner armies as the central government was forced to pay the soldiers in grain to prevent a famine. The collapse of the iron Daqian cash coins had an immediate effect on the Da-Qing Baochao banknotes as large denomination iron cash coins served as the reserve of the cash notes issued by the Yu banks, which in turn handled the exchange of the Da-Qing Baochao series. This resulted in the cash notes issued by the Yu banks to become quickly depreciated and by extend the Da-Qing Baochao. The Yu banks went bankrupt and were forced to close their doors, this failure led to privately produced banknotes which were valued 4 times as much as the government-issued banknotes on the market further ushering in a decline for the Da-Qing Baochao."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "The inconvertible paper notes that were also issued and pushed through the Chinese market received the full coercive power of the central state. These monetary policies led to immediate market reaction in the areas where they circulated, in fact, upon rumour, would cause the closure of local money shops and was behind a capital flight out of the capital city of Beijing. Public distrust in China towards these new monies even worsened when in the end, governmental agencies refused to accept \"big cash\" as a form of payment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Tongbi",
        "text": "Not long after these new copper coins were introduced, black market counterfeit versions of the 10 w\u00e9n appeared, illegal mints or \"private mints\" (\u5c40\u79c1) opened all over China and started producing more coins than the Qing government's set quotas allowed there to be circulating on the market. Both Chinese and foreigners soon started producing struck cash coins of inferior quality often with traces of the Korean 5 fun coins they were overstruck on, or with characters and symbols not found on official government issued coins. Joseon began minting modern-style machine-struck copper-alloy coins in 1892, which was 8 years before the Qing dynasty did so in China.\u00a0These coins were often minted by Korean businessmen and former Japanese Samurai (specifically \"R\u014dnin\") looking to make a profit on exchanging the low value copper coins into silver dollars as a single Chinese silver dollar had the purchasing power of 1000 Korean fun. The majority of the counterfeit coins bear the inscription that they were minted in either Zhejiang province or Shandong province, but they circulated all over the coastal regions of China. Because the hand-operated presses used by the counterfeiters did not exert enough pressure on the coins to sufficiently obliterate the inscriptions and symbols on the Korean 5 fun coins, the counterfeit Qing dynasty 10 \"w\u00e9n\" coins made using this method would usually exhibit a combination of both the Chinese Da-Qing Tongbi and Korean 5 fun designs. For example, there can still be traces of a wreath surrounding the dragon or minor traces of the original Korean inscription."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second series of the renminbi",
        "text": "The \u00a53, \u00a55 and \u00a510 notes of 1953 series were printed in the Soviet Union. As a result of the Sino-Soviet split, the Soviets started printing these banknotes as counterfeits as a part of Economic warfare against China and thus such counterfeit notes were found in Xinjiang after several border conflicts. The use of the 1953 series banknotes was halted on April 15, 1964 to be withdrawn and these banknotes were recalled completely on May 15, 1964. The 1953 series is the only series of Renminbi to include a \uffe53 banknote."
      },
      {
        "title": "String of cash coins (currency unit)",
        "text": "Under the Ming dynasty the Da-Ming Baochao would also continue using as a currency unit for its denominations. The 1 Da-Ming Baochao banknote was originally good for 1,000 copper-alloy cash coins and had a size of 36.4\u00d722\u00a0cm, making it the largest Chinese paper banknote ever produced. In the middle of its design was an image of a string of cash coins () to show what it was worth. At the bottom of the Da-Ming Baochao banknote was text which explained that it was issued by the (, 'Palace Secretariat'), that it was a valid type of currency used concurrently with copper-alloy cash coins, and that counterfeiters would face a penalty and those who notified the authorities of counterfeiting would be highly rewarded. Despite originally circulating concurrently with cash coins, the Da-Ming Baochao became a fiat currency and would later no longer be able to be exchanged for any actual cash coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "China Banknote Printing and Minting Corporation",
        "text": "In addition, the People's Bank of China has its own printing technology research division which research new techniques for creating banknotes and making counterfeiting more difficult."
      },
      {
        "title": "Huizi (currency)",
        "text": "As Huizi notes were easily forged the currency became deprecated to the point that a banknote of 200 \"w\u00e9n\" couldn't buy a single straw sandal anymore near the end of the dynasty. The value of the Huizi had lowered so much that a \"gu\u00e0n\" was only accepted at between 300 and 400 cash coins, which caused people to start hoarding these coins and remove them from circulation which had a devastating effect on the economy. As the Mongols continued marching south the Chinese military required more money causing the government to print an excessive amount of Huizi banknotes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "An important security feature of these banknotes were camel's hair brush strokes found at the right edges of the Da-Qing Baochao. These black ink strokes were actually already made prior to the cutting of the notes from their tallies in an attempt to prevent counterfeit currency from being produced as it was the best-known security feature available at the time. These brush strokes would overlap with the counterfoil that remained in the tally kept by the issuing government or Nam official when the banknote was cut and later removed. As these brush strokes contained hundreds of very small hairlines which together formed random patterns, they were not dissimilar from individual human fingerprints since it was highly unlikely that any two followed the same patterns. These banknotes were testified to be genuine or false by comparing two halves and the serial number, the banknote could only be declared genuine if the patterns matched. John E. Sandrock has claimed to only have seen a single Da-Qing Baochao which did not have this security feature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "In the provinces of Zhili, Shanxi, Henan, and the region of Manchuria (Jilin, Fengtien, and Heilongjiang) in the north of China the circulation of the Da-Qing Baochao banknotes was extensive, meanwhile these banknotes also enjoyed circulation in Central China where they vacillated with the spoils and fortunes of the war. The Da-Qing Baochao banknotes tended not to circulate much in Southern China which (with the notable exception of Fujian) was a stronghold of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. The local authorities of the city of Fuzhou, Fujian also issued banknotes denominated in cash coins to the market, their reason was the fact that there was a severe lack of cash coins circulating in the market at that time and that these banknotes would help alleviate this scarcity. The Fuzhou government often opted to pay using heavily debased cash coins, this happened to the extent that the copper reserves which backed this issue up had lost much of its value, which compounded inflationary pressures and justified the longstanding mistrust of paper money that the Chinese public had for the medium."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhuangpiao",
        "text": "The Hupeh Provincial Bank (\u6e56\u5317\u5b98\u9322\u5c40, \"Hubei Guan-Qianju\"), a provincial government-owned \"qianzhuang\" issued their own banknotes which were known as the Hubei Guanpiao (\u6e56\u5317\u5b98\u7968), these banknotes were denominated in taels for silver and strings for copper-alloy cash coins. The Hubei Guanpiao had magistrate seals affixed on them as endorsements, as the \"zhuangpiao\" by the local \"qianzhuang\" formerly practiced. In March of the year 1901 Zhang Zhidong commanded his subordinates to repudiate those magistrate seals on the Hubei Guanpiao banknotes that were issued as Zhang forthrightly explained to them that his foreign-made printing machines applied anti-forgery techniques, and that acquiescing seals would hamper circulating and competing banknotes issued by modern banks in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banknote seal (China)",
        "text": "The economy of China during the Song dynasty outpaced the supply of traditional coinage, leading the government to issue banknotes (\"Jiaozi\" (\u4ea4\u5b50)) to increase the money supply. Subsequently, a government department was created to manage cash affairs, with its responsibilities including producing and issuing cash, and combating counterfeiting. The cash seal was developed as an anti-counterfeiting measure; official banknotes received a red, sometimes black or purple, stamp at their centres. This forced counterfeiters to attempt to replicate the seal, presumably leading to distinguishable lower quality stamps. Severe punishments, including the death penalty, were given to counterfeiters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "It has always been a challenge for the imperial Chinese government to debase the copper coinage to make its production more adorable. This was because debased coinages will be discounted on the market and always invite widespread counterfeiting. The solution to this problem was by introducing new machine-struck coinages that were produced by steam powered machines, this would make it more difficult for counterfeiters to produce fake coinages as the initial costs to purchase the machines needed for counterfeiting were very high and discouraged many would-be counterfeiters. The new technology allowed the Qing government to cast high-quality, standardised coins with machined edges. Therefore the new technology provided a for the government of the Qing dynasty a way to mint sufficient token coins at an affordable cost without inviting forgers to debase the new coinages even further."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "As a result of government corruption, a large number of iron cash coins were cast near the final years of Emperor Zhezong's reign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Because casting is a very simple process many private (illegal) mints started producing fake cash coins known as \"S\u012bzh\u00f9qi\u00e1n\" (\u79c1\u9444\u9322) because government mints often couldn't meet the market's demand for money, as there barely was a difference in quality between \"real\" or \"Zh\u00ecqi\u00e1n\" (\u5236\u9322) and \"fake\" coins, the sizhuqian were just as widely accepted by the general population as means of payment. Though barter had remained common during most of the Qing era, by the mid 19th century the Chinese market had evolved to be highly monetised. Due to the inflation caused by various military crises under the Xianfeng Emperor new larger denomination cash coins were issued, cash coins of 4 w\u00e9n and higher being referred to as \"D\u00e0qi\u00e1n\" (\u5927\u9322)."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Chinese currency",
        "text": "This currency was short-lived, as the Communist Party of China soon gained control of the Mainland provinces. It was replaced by currency issued by the People's Bank of China which was less prone to inflation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guanzi (currency)",
        "text": "Members of the court sought to discourage the introduction of the Sichuanese Jiaozi because it wasn't backed by copper coins in sufficient numbers like the guanzi were, which is why after 1131 the guanzi, alongside the Huizi, would remain the paramount form of paper money in Southeast China. The central government had issued a number of guanzi valued at 800,000 \"m\u00edn\" in 1159 which were planned to expire and be replaced after 3 years. The region of Huaidong had only printed 400,000 \"m\u00edn\" in guanzi that were referred to as Gongju (\u516c\u64da) in 1159 but these already expired after 2 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da Ming Baochao",
        "text": "Overprinting led to severe hyperinflation and distrust of paper currency. The Hongzhi Emperor and Zhengde Emperor abolished the production and use of banknotes. In the year 1535, 1 \"gu\u00e0n\" of paper money rather than being exchanged for 1000 copper-alloy cash coins was valued at only 0.28th of a coin. A proposal was made in 1643 to reintroduce paper money in order to finance the expenditures caused by the difficult situation that the Ming dynasty faced at the time confronted by the rebel Li Zicheng."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Taiwan dollar",
        "text": "It is relatively easy for the government to disseminate these denominations through various government bodies that do official business with the citizens, such as the post office, the tax authority, or state owned banks. There is also a conspiracy theory against the Democratic Progressive Party, the ruling party at the time the two denominations were issued. The conspiracy states that putting Chiang Kai-shek on a rarely used banknote would \"practically\" remove him from the currency, while \"nominally\" including him on the currency would not upset supporters on the other side of the political spectrum that much (the Pan-Blue Coalition)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "As the government had created a plurality of issuing offices across China a system was created in order to keep track of which Chinese government agency issued any particular banknote. This was seen as necessary as it would be able to be used to tell which banknotes were genuine and which ones were fraudulent when they would be presented to the government to be paid out in taels of silver sycees. The area in which the Hubu Guanpiao series of banknotes actually circulated at any given point in time was mostly determined by the fortunes of war and the leftover areas still held by the imperial Qing forces at the time. As more territory formerly held by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom was retaken after 1853 the government of the Qing dynasty was quick to release Da-Qing Baochao and Hubu Guanpiao banknotes into these retaken areas for local circulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counterfeit money",
        "text": "In May 2017, Australian currency training notes (used in-house by Chinese banks in the training of bank tellers) were circulated briefly in Darwin, Northern Territory, with seven cases reported by the Northern Territory Police of notes being offered and taken as real money. The $100 (Australian dollar) notes had Chinese language characters printed on them but otherwise had the color and feel of real notes, and the Chinese characters can be disguised when the note is folded. They had been sold through eBay, with the disclaimer of not being for circulation. China also has an equivalent $50 (U.S. dollar) \"training money\", that has previously appeared in the USA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "After the abolition of the Da-Qing Baochao and the Hubu Guanpiao banknotes the government of the Qing dynasty did not produce any banknotes anymore for decades. The final phase of Qing banknote issuance lasted from 1897 right until the Xinhai Revolution ousted the monarchy in 1912. These later issues were substantively different from the earlier two issues because, by then, banknotes had been imported from Western printers. These new banknotes were often horizontal-shaped in design which were novel in Chinese terms. Because of their horizontal designs and better security issues harder to forge by Chinese counterfeiters. The majority of these new banknotes were disbursed by semiofficial modern Chinese banks based on the models presented by Western and Japanese banks in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Issued by Wang Shenzhi:\n* Kaiyuan Tongbao () have a large dot above on the reverse side. They are made of iron and date from 922. The same coin cast in bronze is extremely rare."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "Eventually, the arguments for reintroduction of paper money prevailed and the Da-Qing Baochao and Da-Qing Hubu Guanpiao were introduced in the year Xianfeng 3 (1853). The banknotes denominated in copper-alloy cash coins and the banknotes denominated in taels of silver were introduced simultaneously to the Chinese market by the government. Unlike the earlier Da-Ming Baochao banknotes these paper notes were to be backed by the government and were supposed to be fully convertible on demand. Banknotes denominated in copper-alloy cash coins were referred to as Chaopiao (\u9214\u7968, or \"precious notes\") and Qianpiao (\u9322\u7968, or \"cash notes\", which was a reference to their (initial) convertibility into strings of copper-alloy cash coins). In the year Xianfeng 3 (1853) the Ministry of Revenue also gave authorisation to the local provincial governments of China to directly issue banknotes denominated in copper-alloy cash coins and silver taels, these banknotes bore its official seal and were valid throughout the empire. The Da-Qing Baochao banknotes rather than being smoothly introduced to the local markets were \"dumped\" (Lanfa) on purveyors of goods and services to the bureaucracy of the Qing government and were not as easily accepted back in tax payments to the government by these same purveyors."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of confidence tricks",
        "text": "In 2014, a rural co-operative in Nanjing, China constructed an entire brick-and-mortar fake bank with uniformed clerks behind counters; the unlicensed bank operated for a little over a year, then defaulted on its obligations, swindling Chinese savers out of 200 million Chinese yuan. Onecoin is a European example."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "After the year Xianfeng 4 the imperial Chinese Ministry of Revenue had attempted to re-number previously issued Da-Qing Baochao cash notes and Hubu Guanpiao tael notes for a to date unknown reason, the new serial numbers were placed in black ink using character prefixes which are not from the Thousand Year Classic at the bottom left corner of the banknote. It remains a mystery why certain banknotes were renumbered late during the Taiping Rebellion. These re-issued banknotes are notably listed separately in the Standard Catalog of World Paper Money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fake Indian currency note",
        "text": "Although fake currency is being printed with precision, the Crime Investigation Department (CID) says that they can be detected with some effort. Currency printed by local racketeers can be detected easily as they use the photographic method, hand engraved blocks, lithographic processes and computer colour scanning. In counterfeit notes, the watermark is made by using opaque ink, painting with white solution, stamping with a dye engraved with the picture of Mahatma Gandhi. Then oil, grease or wax is applied to give the picture a translucent feel. In genuine notes, the security thread is incorporated into the paper at the time of manufacture. But in fake notes, the security thread is imitated by drawing a line with a pencil, by printing a line with grey ink, or by using aluminium thread while pasting two thin sheets of paper. Forgers find it difficult to reproduce the same shape of individual numbers again and again with accuracy. The alignment of figures is also difficult to maintain. Spreading of ink, smaller or bigger number, inadequate gaps, and different alignments in numbers should be regarded with suspicion. In counterfeit notes, the printed lines will be broken and there may also be ink smudges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "After the abolition of the Da-Qing Baochao and the Hubu Guanpiao banknotes the government of the Qing dynasty did not produce any banknotes anymore for decades. The final phase of Qing banknote issuance lasted from 1897 right until the Xinhai Revolution ousted the monarchy in 1912. These later issues were substantively different from the earlier two issues because, by then, banknotes had been imported from Western printers. These new banknotes were often horizontal-shaped in design which was novel in Chinese terms. Because of their horizontal designs and better security issues harder to forge by Chinese counterfeiters. The majority of these new banknotes were disbursed by semiofficial modern Chinese banks based on the models presented by Western and Japanese banks in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banknotes of the Ta-Ching Government Bank",
        "text": "During the transition from Ming to Qing the Manchu government issued banknotes to finance its expensive military campaigns, but following their conquest of China they abolished these banknotes. Under the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor the Da-Qing Baochao (\u5927\u6e05\u5bf6\u9214) copper-alloy cash coins-based banknotes and Hubu Guanpiao (\u6236\u90e8\u5b98\u7968) silver tael-based banknotes were introduced in response to the Taiping Rebellion, but these banknotes would suffer severe inflation due to mismanagement and were eventually abolished causing the Chinese populace to distrust government-issued paper money once again, though private banknotes would continue to be trusted and to circulate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "The Taiping Rebellion had caused the government of the Qing dynasty to fall into an extreme debt spiral which forced it to reconsider introducing paper money as a medium for exchange. This was advertised by the imperial government as a necessary evil because of a shortage of bronze which meant that the production of cash coinage had to be heavily scaled doen. The pauperised Chinese public was for centuries uncompromisingly minded against the idea of paper money emissions in any way, shape, or form and would not accept it for any reason. Half a century earlier in the year 1814, when Cai Zhiding (\u8521\u4e4b\u5b9a, Ts'ai Chih-Ting), who was a high official in the Ministry of State, petitioned to the court of the Jiaqing Emperor advocating the resumption of a paper money currency, this request was denied. Cai was later severely rebuked in the Jiaqing Emperor's memorial in which he pointed out that neither the Chinese government nor any individuals in the past had experienced benefits from the circulation of a paper money. The Jiaqing Emperor was not fully without justification in asserting his stance against paper currency, as the era Ming banknotes from their introduction had been inconvertible into metal currencies. With no government backing into any other forms of currency these banknotes were swiftly depreciated. While this may seem only logical today the Chinese had to learn this lesson the hard way."
      },
      {
        "title": "String of cash coins (currency unit)",
        "text": "In actual circulation, however, cash coins throughout Chinese history were put on strings in ten groups of (supposedly) one hundred coins each; these strings were separated by a knot between each group. During the Qing dynasty period, strings of cash coins rarely actually contained 1000 cash coins and usually had something like 950 or 980 or a similar quantity; these amounts were due to local preferences rather than being random in any form. In the larger cities cash shops would make specific strings of cash coins for specific markets. The cash shops existed because at the time there were many different kinds of cash coins circulating in China, including old Chinese cash coins from previous dynasties (), Korean cash coins, Japanese cash coins (), Vietnamese cash coins, large and small genuine Qing dynasty cash coins, and different kinds of counterfeits, such as illegally private-minted cash coins. Some of these strings would contain exclusively genuine Zhiqian, while other strings could contain between 30% and 50% of counterfeit and underweight cash coins. The actual number of cash coins on a string and the percentage of counterfeits in a string was generally known to everyone who resided in that town by the type of knots that were used. Each of these different kind of strings of cash coins fulfilled different functions. For example, one string of cash coins was acceptable to be used in a local grain market, while it would not be accepted at a meat market, while another type of string was able to be used in both markets but not to pay taxes. The cash shops sorted all cash coins into very specific categories, then would make up appropriate kinds of strings that were intended for use in specific markets or to pay taxes to the government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counterfeit money",
        "text": "In the late twentieth century, advances in computer and photocopy technology made it possible for people without sophisticated training to copy currency easily. In response, national engraving bureaus began to include new, more sophisticated anti-counterfeiting systems such as holograms, multi-colored bills, embedded devices such as strips, raised printing, microprinting, watermarks, and color-shifting inks whose colors changed depending on the angle of the light, and the use of design features such as the \"EURion constellation\" which disables modern photocopiers. Software programs such as Adobe Photoshop have been modified by their manufacturers to obstruct manipulation of scanned images of banknotes. There also exist patches to counteract these measures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhuangpiao",
        "text": "The Hubei Guanpiao was abolished in 1927 with the bankruptcy of the Hubei Guan-Qianju. After the Hubei Guan-Qianju filed for bankruptcy in 1927 35 million strings in Hubei Guanpiao banknotes, which accounted for about half of the total of Hubei Guanpiao issued, were lost in the lengthy recall process by the defunct banks, as these banknotes had become completely worthless."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jiaozi (currency)",
        "text": "To combat counterfeiting, jiaozi were stamped with multiple banknote seals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xin dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Some Chinese numismatists are suspicious that the Xinbu Shiyi Zhu is in fact fake, they believe this because the Chinese calligraphy is different from any other Wang Mang era coinage and also the coin has four diagonal lines () that extend from the four corners of the square centre hole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Illicit activities of North Korea",
        "text": "Analyst Andrei Lankov has described the evidence for the counterfeiting of superdollars as merely circumstantial. Gregory Elich of the Korea Policy Institute has argued that these allegations are unfounded. According to Elich, North Korea's intaglio press from the 1970s would be incapable of printing the supernotes, and the paper and ink would be extremely difficult for North Korea to produce. Furthermore, he says that the amounts of supernotes produced are too small to be economical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ming dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Despite the government preferring paper money over copper-alloy cash coins, the Chinese market had a high demand for them, this demand would stimulate an overproduction of forgeries that inundated the markets of Ming China, often these forged cash coins were cast in such miserable quality that a single real Zhiqian could buy 300 fake ones. Consequently, this caused inflation in many different places. Under the reign of the Jiajing Emperor the government of the Ming dynasty would alleviate the situation by producing a large amount of Zhiqian with the inscription Jiajing Tongbao (\u5609\u9756\u901a\u5bf6) in the year Jiajing 5 (1527). In the year Jiajing 11 (1553) the government of the Ming dynasty cast 10,000,000 additional Jiajing Tongbao cash coins as well as Zhiqian with 9 earlier reign era names, a total amount of 1,000,000 \"d\u00ecng\" (\u9320)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianzhuang",
        "text": "Many \"qianzhuang\" issued their own scrip known as \"zhuangpiao\" (\u838a\u7968) and (if denominated in silver) \"yinqianpiao\" (\u9280\u9322\u7968, \"silver money notes\"). This scrip was also accepted by proximate shops but to cash these out would take around 10\u201315 days after it was given to the shop, this was because couriers would have to liaise with the issuing shop in order to verify their authenticity and rule out fraudulent \"zhuangpiao\" notes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counterfeit United States currency",
        "text": "There have been several instances where people have used the fraudulent notes as legitimate currency, often resulting in arrest. In March 2006, agents from ICE and the Secret Service seized 250 notes, each bearing a denomination of $1,000,000,000 (one billion dollars) from a West Hollywood apartment. The suspect had previously been arrested on federal charges for attempting to smuggle more than $37,000 in currency into the U.S. following a trip to South Korea in 2002. Much of the artwork on the notes was duplicated from the real $1000 bill, including the portrait of Grover Cleveland. Another incident involving similar notes bearing a denomination each of $500,000,000, occurred in Chiasso, Switzerland in June 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhuangpiao",
        "text": "The Zhuangpiao (), alternatively known as \"Yinqianpiao\" (\u9280\u9322\u7968, \"silver money notes\"), \"Huipiao\" (\u6703\u7968, \"corporate notes\"), \"Pingtie\" (\u6191\u5e16), \"Duitie\" (\u514c\u5e16), \"Shangtie\" (\u4e0a\u5e16), \"Hupingtie\" (\u58fa\u74f6\u5e16), or \"Qitie\" (\u671f\u5e16) in different contexts, refer to privately produced paper money (or company scrip) made in China during the Qing dynasty and early Republic of China periods issued by small private banks known as \"qianzhuang\". Other than banknotes \"qianzhuang\" also issued \"Tiexian\" (\u8cbc\u73fe, \"discountable notes\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banknotes of the Ta-Ching Government Bank",
        "text": "These banknotes were stipulated to become the only legal tender paper money in China in 1910, but due to the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 the Chinese currency system reverted to its original chaotic state during the early Republican era and the Ta-Ching Government Bank would be renamed to the Bank of China in 1912, which would continue to produce banknotes in Mainland China until 1942 and its Hong Kong branch is still one of the official note-issuing banks for the banknotes of the Hong Kong dollar today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinduoduo",
        "text": "In 2021, a Shanghai lawyer, YuHang Liu, sued Pinduoduo because their \"price cutting\" activity almost always have a remain of 0.9% before costumer actually got the money. Pinduoduo states that their is 6 places after the decimal place, the actual remaining is \"0.9996427%\u201c."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Chinese historian Peng Xinwei stated that in 1900, privately produced banknotes made up only 3% of the total volume of Chinese currency stock. This number would (according to Niv Horesh) be unlikely to surpass 6% if banknotes denominated in silver currencies were taken into account (these banknotes were produced by government banks and modern banking corporations). Foreign banks operating in China generally did not disclose the volume of banknotes issued by them circulating in China proper; the fact that they did not openly disclose this resulted in inflated estimates thereof over the years. For this reason Horesh states that it would be very implausible to assume that the ratio of all banknotes as part of the entirety of the Chinese money stock was any significant number higher than 10% even as late as 1900."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "As the Qing dynasty starting regaining territory in the areas held by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, they immediately started issuing Da-Qing Baochao and Hubu Guanpiao banknotes in these places. These issues were controlled using two different ideogram systems for the indexes and prefixes, the Chinese characters utilised by these systems were based on the Thousand Character Classic (\u5343\u5b57\u6587, \"Qi\u0101nz\u00ec W\u00e9n\"). The prefixed Chinese character (which would appear in the series block preceding the actual serial number on each banknote) was actually one of these thousand classical ideograms, it is known that the first 320 characters from this series were reserved for the Peking Metropolitan District. By contrast, early Hubu Guanpiao tael notes of the Xianfeng era, which were issued through the Peking Metropolitan District, the provincial treasuries of China, and the Chinese military commissaries, used a different prefix character system, this system was based upon the Five Confucian Virtues as opposed to the thousand character classic-based system of the Da-Qing Baochao. In the markets of Beijing the new Xianfeng banknotes could not be used, so as people could not purchase any actual goods with them in the capital market many Bannermen lost a large part of their disposable income because of this inability to actually purchase things with their salary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Not long after these new copper coins were introduced, black market counterfeit versions of the 10 w\u00e9n appeared, illegal mints opened all over China and started producing more coins than the Qing government's set quotas allowed there to be circulating on the market. Both Chinese and foreigners soon started producing struck cash coins of inferior quality often with traces of the Korean 5 fun coins they were overstruck on, or with characters and symbols not found on official government issued coins. These coins were often minted by Korean businessmen and former Japanese Samurai looking to make a profit on exchanging the low value copper coins into silver dollars as a single silver dollar had the purchasing power of 1000 Korean fun. The majority of the counterfeit coins bear the inscription that they were minted in either Zhejiang or Shandong, but they circulated all over the coastal regions of China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhuangpiao",
        "text": "A \"qianzhuang\" would issue a \"zhuangpiao\" after receiving a deposit and these notes could generally also be cashed in at other \"qianzhuang\" after they were confirmed to be genuine specimens by checking the banknote seals. \"zhuangpiao\" served as \"de facto\" banknotes in China during periods when the government had long stopped issuing them and were an alternative currency when government banknotes such as the Da-Qing Baochao and Hubu Guanpiao were later introduced and abolished."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "The function of iron cash coins was similar to that of Daqian, as it was primarily used as a way to continue paying the salaries of bannermen and other government workers. According to Qing government memorials, large amounts of iron cash coins were used as a means to pay salaries between the years 1856 and 1857 due to a noted justification that \"the Chinese public was craving for small change\". By the year 1856 the iron 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins were so much depreciated that they were dropped out of general circulation. From this point onwards only iron 1 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins would remain in general circulation, however, it was common for shops to deny them as a form of payment and there was extensive counterfeiting of iron cash coins, which further lowered the public's trust in them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "In March 1860, the Ministry of Revenue proposed to the Xianfeng Emperor to stop issuing both the Da-Qing Baochao cash notes and Hubu Guanpiao tael notes and to cease validating old ones. By the year Xianfeng 11 (1861) the Da-Qing Baochao experienced such severe deprecation that people auctioned it off for only 3% of their nominal value. At this time these banknotes would not be (or could not be) redeemed by the note issuing banks. In July of that year, it became common for labourers to reject them as their salary. In this year a run on the banks occurred. By September these banknotes ceased circulating in China altogether. While certain individuals such as government officials and foreigners would get the exact amounts of cash coins as stipulated on the banknotes, the average Chinese was forced into a highly competitive bidding market to receive \"any\" metal coinage. In these auctions, the person who was willing to exchange the largest number of paper banknotes for a certain number of high denomination cash coins would win. The repudiation of these Da-Qing Baochao banknotes by the official banks and semi-official issuers such as private banks and pawnshops would condemn hoards of hardworking Chinese peasants to a life never-ending impoverishment and misery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counterfeit money",
        "text": "Similarly, in America, Colonial paper currency printed by Benjamin Franklin and others often bore the phrase \"to counterfeit is death\". The theory behind such harsh punishments was that one who had the skills to counterfeit currency was considered a threat to the safety of the State, and had to be eliminated. Another explanation is the fact that issuing money that people could trust was both an economic imperative, as well as a (where applicable) Royal prerogative; therefore, counterfeiting was a crime against the state or ruler itself, rather than against the person who received the fake money. Far more fortunate was an earlier practitioner of the same art, active in the time of Emperor Justinian. Rather than executing Alexander the Barber, the Emperor chose to employ his talents in the government's own service."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese token (alternative currency)",
        "text": "After 1941 the Japanese puppet government over-issued paper money which lead to inflation and caused the smaller denomination token coins to disappear from circulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "It is possible that China first began using iron cash coins during the Western Han dynasty, this was concluded after a number of iron Ban Liang (\u534a\u5169) cash coins were unearthed in Western Han era tombs in the Hunanese cities of Hengyang and Changsha between the years 1955 and 1959. Other specimens of iron Ban Liang cash coins were also unearthed in the province of Sichuan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "In the capital city of Beijing the issuance of Da-Qing Baochao banknotes had exceeded over 15,000,000 strings of cash coins. Since local provincial officials tended to display a complete disregard and disdain for the idea of record keeping, no statistics regarding the issue of Da-Qing Baochao banknotes outside of Beijing has ever come to light. American numismatist John E. Sandrock speculates that these issues must have been comparable in number to, or greatly exceeded the number of cash coin-based banknotes issued in Beijing. In the provinces the central government tended to distribute Da-Qing Baochao banknotes into circulation by using both the civil service and the military. The salaries of civil servants and soldiers were partially paid in paper money, and by law, all cash shops and banks were required to accept the Da-Qing Baochao copper notes in lieu of actual cash coins. Meanwhile, the central government itself allowed for the Chinese people to pay a part of their taxes in banknotes. However, the ability of the imperial Chinese government to try and force the Da-Qing Baochao to circulate in the provinces was way more limited than its ability to do so in Beijing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fifth series of the renminbi",
        "text": "The new banknotes incorporate several measures to foil counterfeiting, including watermarks and inks that fluoresce under ultraviolet light. All but the \u00a51 banknote have a metallic strip, and the \u00a550 and \u00a5100 banknotes also feature numbers which change colour when viewed from different angles. The portrayals of different leaders on the \u00a5100 banknote, and of different nationalities of China, represented by two people in ethnic dress on the front of previous banknotes, have also been uniformly replaced with the image of Chinese Communist Party chairman Mao Zedong."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The old paper notes issued by the International Banking Corporation were very popular in China and in great demand, and were always redeemed by the bank without being discounted as was very common for other institutions. When called in, the banknotes were canceled by the bank by cutting them in half. Many banknotes of the International Banking Corporation today found in collections were altered by gluing the two halves together and tend to bear mismatched serial numbers as a result; these banknotes are worth very little when compared to unaltered specimens found today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "According to the American numismatist Andrew McFarland Davis different Chinese characters tended to be used to convey the same meaning on different banknotes. For example, while some banknotes had the insulation that those who informed the government of counterfeiting practices would receive a reward, other banknotes included a line where it was suggested that to receive the reward you had to physically bring the counterfeiters in for arrest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "Despite the memorial issued by the Ministry of Revenue, it is likely that local government officials were very much aware of how disruptive this monetary policy was and would lead to inflation. To many local government officials, the real issue at hand was actually with how much gaming the system they were able to get away with. The Da-Qing Baochao banknotes were convertible into Daqian cash coins at times, and while these multi-denominational cash coins were meant to circulate all over the Qing dynasty there isn't much evidence supporting that they also circulated in Beijing. Much of the central government's economic policies surrounded around making this new monetary system work and the practice of office selling would play a paramount role in this as the government would continue to accept both Da-Qing Baochao banknotes and Daqian cash coins in this endeavour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shanzhai",
        "text": "Since the 2010s, there has been a decrease in the prevalence of \"shanzhai\" products within China. Although some groups and individuals do still make replica or fake versions of popular products, the growth of well-established domestic companies producing low-cost and/or high-quality electronic goods has eclipsed much of the market for counterfeit goods. Groups that do counterfeit domestic companies are also often subject to legal repercussions for their actions, while the counterfeiting of foreign goods is much more difficult to prosecute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "The Regulations for the Trial Introduction of Guanpiao (\u8a66\u884c\u5b98\u7968\u7ae0\u7a0b) stated that the Hubu Guanpiao banknotes were redeemable in specie in both silver sycees or copper-alloy cash coins (or banknotes denominated in cash coins) at local banks. When the Hubu Guanpiao tael notes were first used to pay the salaries of government officials in the second month of the year 1853, the government of the Qing dynasty had made the promise that, after a period of six months, people could take the Hubu Guanpiao tael notes to the imperial Treasury to have them redeemed for their stated value in silver. Apparently by the eighth month of the year 1853 this promise by the government had not been kept. This did not turn out to be enforceable as official money shops in Beijing refused to pay out in silver, and merchant banks could not be forced to pay either. This effectively meant that the banknotes were non-redeemable. The Hubu Guanpiao were issued in the denominations of 1 tael, 3 taels, 5 taels, 10 taels, and 50 taels. Despite their face value, the Ministry of Revenue prohibited provincial governments from paying out actual silver for the Hubu Guanpiao. Only military officers and civilian employees at military headquarters were actually allowed to exchange their tael notes for silver. The circulation of a Hubu Guanpiao bill was confined to its province of issuance and provincial governments were further prohibited from returning the banknotes back to Beijing as a part of the payment of their yearly tax quotas. These policies all led to a humongous confusion over what should actually be done with the Hubu Guanpiao. Provincial governments refused to follow the stipulations set by the imperial Chinese government, provinces like Jiangsu and Zhejiang paid parts of their taxes using Hubu Guanpiao banknotes and the province of Fujian allowed them to be redeemed in silver specie within its borders. Not all exceptions were positive for the people, while in theory, 50% of all taxes could be paid using Hubu Guanpiao tael notes, some provinces and some local magistrates accepted only 30% or would even reject payments made in Hubu Guanpiao altogether."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "The Taiping Rebellion had caused the government of the Qing dynasty to fall into an extreme debt spiral which forced it to reconsider introducing paper money as a medium for exchange. This was advertised by the imperial government as a necessary evil because of a shortage of bronze which meant that the production of cash coinage had to be heavily scaled down. The pauperised Chinese public was for centuries uncompromisingly minded against the idea of paper money emissions in any way, shape, or form and would not accept it for any reason. Half a century earlier in the year 1814, when Cai Zhiding (\u8521\u4e4b\u5b9a, Ts'ai Chih-Ting), who was a high official in the Ministry of State, petitioned to the court of the Jiaqing Emperor advocating the resumption of a paper money currency, this request was denied. Cai was later severely rebuked in the Jiaqing Emperor's memorial in which he pointed out that neither the Chinese government nor any individuals in the past had experienced benefits from the circulation of a paper money. The Jiaqing Emperor was not fully without justification in asserting his stance against paper currency, as the era Ming banknotes from their introduction had been inconvertible into metal currencies. With no government backing into any other forms of currency these banknotes were swiftly depreciated. While this may seem only logical today the Chinese had to learn this lesson the hard way."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Chinese currency",
        "text": "After the defeat of Japan in 1945, the Central Bank of China issued a separate currency in the northeast to replace those issued by puppet banks. Termed \"\" (pinyin: \"D\u014dngb\u011bi ji\u01d4 sh\u011bng li\u00fat\u014dngqu\u00e0n\"), it was worth approximately 10 times more than fabi circulating elsewhere. It was replaced in 1948 by the gold yuan. The Northeastern Provinces yuan was an attempt to isolate certain regions of China from the hyperinflation that plagued the fabi currency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "As the general population of the Qing dynasty at the time was living in extreme poverty, the commodity of copper was the basis of the Chinese monetary system as the majority of the Chinese people had very little economic power and could barely survive off of their income, by contrast silver was the preferred currency of the upper class society including merchants, traders, and aristocrats. Millions of Chinese peasants for millennia knew of no other medium of exchange than copper-alloy cash coins. All daily purchases of the common people were counted in cash coins. The reintroduction of paper money was specifically denominated in copper-alloy cash coins to allow it to be trusted by the general Chinese populace, comparatively the paper money used by the Ming dynasty could not be converted into coinages of any kind which proved to be an extremely calamitous decision as it had effectively discouraged the reintroduction of paper money in China up until this point. However, the Taiping Rebellion brought both extensive devastation and high defense costs to the point that within 3 years the Xianfeng administration felt forced to re-adopt paper currency. At the same time, mints across China started releasing a substantial amount of new Daqian coins, whose nominal value vastly exceeded their intrinsic copper value. Both currencies would prove to become exceedingly inflationary as time passed by, this disrupted the market exchange rate of copper to silver and lead to unrest among the people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "In the year 1856 the Da-Qing Baochao cash notes had replaced the Hubu Guanpiao in land tax payments, this was done in order to avoid exchange rate losses for poorer peasants as generally their tax obligations were often calculated to only be fractions of taels making the Hubu Guanpiao disadvantageous for them to use. The Hubu Guanpiao would remain a form of legal tender for the payment of salt taxes, tea taxes, and customs as these taxes usually involved larger sums of money, but the domain of the tael notes would be severely limited by this step. The practice of office selling was still mostly done using Hubu Guanpiao tael notes and to purchase offices using them remained very secure, this made office selling contributions the most reliable way to withdraw the Hubu Guanpiao by the government after they came into circulation via salaries. The Hubu Guanpiao banknotes tended to be heavily discounted in exchange due to their inability to be redeemed and would eventually be entirely repudiated by the Chinese government. At their inglorious end, the Hubu Guanpiao banknotes became completely worthless and disappeared completely from the market by the year 1863."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yuan dynasty coinage",
        "text": "As the paper money was made out of inferior material it would often be easily damaged making it hard for the people to redeem, this led to rebellions in the southern regions which in turn caused the Yuan government to quickly print more money in order to finance its military expenditures, leading to a decreasing confidence in paper money causing hyperinflation. Eventually entire carts filled with banknotes were needed for simple transactions leading to the people disregarding paper money as currency and eventually barter had become the norm as coinage had already become a rarity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bingqian",
        "text": "Because large and heavy copper-alloy coins like these Bingqian would have had real monetary value in Sichuan at the time, Sun Zhonghui notes that the probability is quite likely that these extraordinarily large cash coins had circulated as a valid currency.\n* Some Bingqian have what are called \"si jue\" () reverses, these reverses are found on some Song dynasty period cash coins, which means that these cash coins have the corners of their square centre hole extend somewhat outwards towards the rim of the cash coin.\n* There have been Xianping Yuanbao Bingqian recorded with a diameter of 26.5 millimeters and a weight of 10.68 grams, 26.5 millimeters, 28.4 millimeters, a Xianping Yuanbao cash coin with a diameter of 30.1 millimeters and a thickness of 2.5 millimeters, one with a diameter of 32.5 millimeters, one with a diameter between 31 and 31.1 millimeters with a thickness between 4.5 and 4.53 millimeters,\u00a034.0 millimeters, and a Xianping Yuanbao Bingqian with a diameter of 44.0 millimeters, a thickness of 6 millimeters, and a weight of 72.0 grams, this specimen further had \"si chu\" (\u56db\u51fa, \"s\u00ec ch\u016b\").\n* There is a variant of the Bingqian known as \"the double-folded cake coins\" ().\n* A Xiangfu Yuanbao Bingqian, which are significantly rarer than Xianping Yuanbao Bingqian, has been recorded with a diameter of 26.4 millimeters and was listed at an auction in the city of Shanghai in the year 2014.\n* A Xianping Yuanbao with a diameter of 46.7 mm and a weight of 73.2 grams was sold at auction in the year 2013 for $2,623 (which at the time was 17,250 yuan).\n* The largest Bingqian known to exist is a Xianping Yuanbao with a diameter of 66 millimeters. This cash coin was owned by the Chinese numismatist Ma Dingxiang (\u99ac\u5b9a\u7965), it was listed at an auction in the year 2008 with an estimated price of $9,124 \u2013 $15,207 (or between 60,000 \u2013 100,000 yuan)."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of printing",
        "text": "In the Jin dynasty, copper-block prints were slotted with two square holes for embedding bronze movable type characters, each selected from 1000 different characters, such that each printed paper money had a different combination of markers. A copper block printed paper banknote dated between 1215 and 1216 in the collection of Luo Zhenyu's \"Pictorial Paper Money of the Four Dynasties\", 1914, shows two special characters: one called \"Ziliao\", the other called \"Zihao\", for the purpose of preventing counterfeit. Over the \"Ziliao\" there is a small character (\u8f36) printed with movable copper type, while over the \"Zihao\" there is an empty square hole; apparently the associated copper metal type was lost. Another sample of Song dynasty money of the same period in the collection of Shanghai Museum has two empty square holes above \"Ziliao\" as well as \"Zihou\", due to the loss of two copper movable types."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "In the year 1854 new Daqian were introduced, these had denominations ranging from 5 \"w\u00e9n\" to 1000 \"w\u00e9n\". During this same time the government of the Qing dynasty began issuing convertible cash bank notes, or \"guan-hao qianpiao\" (\u5b98\u865f\u9322\u7968), which were mostly backed in Daqian. These government-issued banknotes were modeled after private bank notes, known as \"sihao qianpiao\" (\u79c1\u865f\u9322\u7968), which would continue to circulate even after the introduction of these government notes. These banknotes were issued by nine different government banks, four of these banks newly established for their circulation. Both the Daqian and \"guan-hao qianpiao\" were calculated using the Jingqian (\u4eac\u9322) unit of account, but they were complicated by the fact that the nominal value of these government banknotes denominated the debt owed to be satisfied by the payment of cash coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "After the outbreak of World War I, the was forced to suspend its operations in China. At the time that it had to cease operating in China, an amount of 2,595,968 taels worth of banknotes was circulating. In 1917 the Chinese republican government revoked the bank's privilege to produce its own paper notes for the Chinese market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "Under the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor the \"Da-Qing baochao\" () was introduced. These were based on the earlier Da-Ming baochao from the Ming dynasty in style and layout and denominated in Zhiqian (, 'standard cash coins') which were the high quality cash coins issued by the two central government mints in Beijing. For this reason they were popularly nicknamed (, 'cash notes'). These banknotes were initially issued in the denominations 250 , 500 , 1,000 , 1,500 , and 2,000 but as the Chinese economy was suffering from inflation denominations of 5,000 , 10,000 , 50,000 and 100,000 were introduced. The notes were imprinted with a statement that they were convertible into copper cash coins, however the statement also included the line that these banknotes could not be used for tax payment to the government. In reality the were not redeemable at all. Imperial China saw itself as being at the center of the universe and that all territory \"Under the Heavens\" () and \"Regions Within the Four Seas\" () were included within their domains, and for this reason the copper-alloy cash notes of this era bear the four characters () in their right border design, which translated into English means 'to circulate under the heavens'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "Unlike the Hubu Guanpiao tael notes, the Da-Qing Baochao cash notes were initially well received by the Chinese market. While government reports indicate that the Da-Qing Baochao would often be refused by private business owners and shops, they were fairly easily exchanged for the banknotes issued by the official banks. Because shops often refused them, the Da-Qing Baochao cash notes were denominated in \"w\u00e9n\", instead of metropolitan cash (\u4eac\u9322, Jingqian), the currency unit commonly used on private banknotes in Beijing. The Da-Qing Baochao could also be quite easily purchased from the official banks at a discount and be used to pay for taxes and the purchase of titles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianzhuang",
        "text": "These censorship standards proved to be rather effective, this was because in some small Chinese towns where no local \"qianzhuang\" guild had been established there were sometimes fraudsters who ran a \"qianzhuang\", user it to absorb enough savings, and then they would roll up the money escape to somewhere else to avoid persecution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "During the period when the and series of banknotes were introduced, nine government banks in Beijing (of which four were newly established institutions) started issuing another type of cash note known as the (). These cash notes were backed by reserves kept in Daqian rather than standard cash coins. The were modeled after privately produced banknotes known as the (). These private cash notes would also continue to circulate alongside the new currencies. Both the and were based on the Jingqian accounting unit of cash coins as was used in Beijing. This meant that, for example, if one were to exchange 15,000 worth of or cash notes in the year 1861, that person would only receive 7500 worth of physical coins (or 750 cash coins of 10 to be more precise). This practice was asymmetrical as government documents noted a string of cash coins as 1000 while paying out only 500 for these cash notes. Both the cash notes and tael notes continued to be accepted in the practice of office selling and would continue to circulate in the provinces of China proper as non-interest bearing debentures until 1867\u20131868."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "The handmade paper which was used to produce both the Da-Qing Baochao cash notes and Da-Qing Hubu Guanpiao tael notes was sized, the paper itself may have been produced in Northern China or Korea. The paper can be described as being hard, thin, and a bit yellowish in colour, while the texture could be described as being lumpy. The design of the banknotes was uniform, this suggests that the imperial Chinese government would have probably distributed them to the provincial note-issuing banks and offices itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "The term \"Zhiqian\" was used to discern full-valued cash coins produced by the imperial government from older ones from the Song dynasty period, which were known as \"jiuqian\" (\u820a\u9322), and privately produced forgeries of non-standard weights and alloys that were referred to as \"siqian\" (\u79c1\u9322) or \"sizhuqian\" (\u79c1\u9444\u9322)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "Strictly speaking, the Xianfeng era banknotes issued by the official banks did not fall under the monies issued by the Qing government. However, the status and function of official banks was intertwined with that of the Daqian, Da-Qing Baochao, and Hubu Guanpiao, and the over-issue of banknotes by the official banks was probably the real reason for the Xianfeng inflation. Because the official banks were neither directly controlled by the Ministry of Revenue or supervised by them, and the fact that their operations were semi-commercial (as in they were operated by private merchants), few records of official banknotes exist today. In fact, it has not become uncommon for modern English language literature on the subject to claim that the Da-Qing Baochao were in fact issued by the official banks. In reality both the Hubu Guanpiao and the Da-Qing Baochao were issued by the Ministry of Revenue, while official banknotes, which were also often denominated in copper-alloy cash coins, were distinct. In his book \"Money and Monetary Policy in China\" King confuses the Da-Qing Baochao with the official banknotes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gold coin",
        "text": "Bullion coin counterfeits (of all types) used to be rare and fairly easy to detect when comparing their weights, colors and sizes to authentic pieces. This is because the cost of reproducing any given coin precisely can exceed the market value of the originals. However, since about 2015 counterfeit coins are \"flooding the market at an astonishing rate\" and \"it's gotten to the point where even people who deal with coins all the time may not be able to recognize a counterfeit coin right away\" (American Numismatic Association (ANA), 2016). The coins consist mostly of tungsten plated thinly with gold, have the correct weight, correct or near-correct dimensions and are professionally produced in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Daqian (Traditional Chinese: \u5927\u9322, \"big cash\") are large-denomination cash coins produced in the Qing dynasty starting from 1853 until 1890. Large denomination cash coins were previously used in earlier Chinese dynasties and had faced similar issues as 19th-century Daqian. The term referred to cash coins with a denomination of 4 \"w\u00e9n\" or higher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Renminbi",
        "text": "Renminbi currency production is carried out by a state owned corporation, China Banknote Printing and Minting Corporation (CBPMC; ) headquartered in Beijing. CBPMC uses several printing, engraving and minting facilities around the country to produce banknotes and coins for subsequent distribution. Banknote printing facilities are based in Beijing, Shanghai, Chengdu, Xi'an, Shijiazhuang, and Nanchang. Mints are located in Nanjing, Shanghai, and Shenyang. Also, high grade paper for the banknotes is produced at two facilities in Baoding and Kunshan. The Baoding facility is the largest facility in the world dedicated to developing banknote material according to its website. In addition, the People's Bank of China has its own printing technology research division that researches new techniques for creating banknotes and making counterfeiting more difficult."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Only a few years after their introduction both the Daqian and the government-issued paper money would start to be steeply discounted on the Chinese commercial markets. Daqian at this time would start to be traded at their intrinsic value rather than their nominal value. Because of their low intrinsic value and general inconvenience, all Daqian with denominations higher than 50 \"w\u00e9n\" were discontinued within a year of their introduction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Communist-controlled China (1927\u20131949)",
        "text": "The largest and most predominant currency produced by the Central Mint was the silver dollar. Unlike the paper bills and the copper coins, the silver dollars had no Communist symbols and instead, they were the direct copy of other silver dollars produced by other mints in China, including the most popular Chinese silver dollar with Yuan Shikai's head engraved, and the eagle silver dollar of the Mexican peso. This and the fact that the coin was made of the precious metal silver, enabled them to be circulated in the rest of China and thus was the trade currency of choice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper money of the Qing dynasty",
        "text": "The number of banknotes produced by the Netherlands Trading Society in circulation in China was at all times relatively small in quantity because Dutch law had a substantial requirement for reserves to be held to back up the paper money issued that went into circulation. In 1909 the Netherlands Trading Society issued banknotes with the denominations 1 dollar, 5 dollars, and 10 dollars, and later under the Republic of China government in 1922 banknotes with denominations of 100 dollars and 500 dollars were issued. All banknotes issued by the Netherlands Trading Society in China had a principal vignette that depicted a Chinese warrior bearing a sword, clad in Chinese armour, and an ancient stone bridge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Communist-controlled China (1927\u20131949)",
        "text": "Like the paper bill, the copper coins issued by the Central Mint also had \"Chinese Soviet Republic\" () in traditional Chinese characters engraved, and due to the fact that coins last longer than paper bills, these coins were issued and circulated in much greater numbers. However, these coins are currently rarer than the paper bill, mainly because the copper used was in need of cartridges, so these copper coins were recalled and replaced by silver dollars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Porcelain money",
        "text": "These were issued in Chinese settlements in the Malay states, for use in gaming establishments, and then as currency. The early tokens were imported from Siam/Thailand, and over time they began to be made locally too. They were easy and cheap to produce. To deal with large-scale counterfeiting, licensed issuers would change the designs frequently. This eventually led to the appearance of new-type gambling counters, called jokoh."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "Both the Da-Qing Baochao cash notes and Hubu Guanpiao tael notes continued to be accepted in the practice of office selling and would continue to circulate in the provinces of China proper as non-interest bearing debentures until the years 1867\u20131868, when all government-issued banknotes were officially declared invalid."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are iron cash coins still used today?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I'm sorry, but I could not find the information you requested. However, I did find that the last government attempt at issuing iron cash coins occurred during the 1850s the under the reign of the Manchu Qing dynasty."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why did China stop making the coins after the Manchu Qing dynasty?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Under the Guangxu Emperor, there were various attempts at reforming the Qing dynasty's currency system. Machine-made copper coins and machines operated mints were introduced, signaling the end of coin casting in China."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did China first begin using paper money?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The first known banknote was first developed in China during the Tang and Song dynasties, starting in the 7th century. Its roots were in merchant receipts of deposit during the Tang dynasty (618\u2013907), as merchants and wholesalers desired to avoid the heavy bulk of copper coinage in large commercial transactions."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What kind of paper was it made from?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I could not find what the the notes were made out of, but they were first used by a private merchant enterprise."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did China's paper money change after the Chinese Revolution?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "As the Chinese Communist Party soon gained control of the Mainland provinces. It was replaced by currency issued by the People's Bank of China which was less prone to inflation ."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is the currency used in China easy to counterfeit?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Are you asking about counterfeits related to the Yuan, New Taiwan dollar or Hong Kong dollar?"
    ],
    "topic": "Tieqian",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Yuan (currency):3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Yuan (currency)",
          "Current usage"
        ],
        "ctx": "Today, the term \"Yuan\" usually refers to the primary unit of account of the renminbi (RMB), the currency of the People's Republic of China. RMB banknotes start at one Yuan and go up to 100 Yuan. It is also used as a synonym of that currency, especially in international contexts \u2013 the ISO 4217 standard code for renminbi is CNY, an abbreviation of \"Chinese yuan\". (A similar case is the use of the terms \"sterling\" to designate British currency and \"pound\" for the unit of account.)"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Hong Kong dollar:33",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Hong Kong dollar",
          "Banknotes"
        ],
        "ctx": "The issue of Hong Kong dollar notes is governed today by the Hong Kong Monetary Authority (HKMA), the governmental currency board of Hong Kong. Under licence from the HKMA, three commercial banks issue their own banknotes for general circulation in the region. They are Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation Limited; the Bank of China (Hong Kong) Limited; and the Standard Chartered Bank (Hong Kong) Limited. Notes are also issued by the HKMA itself. In most countries of the world the issue of banknotes is handled exclusively by a single central bank or government. The arrangements in Hong Kong are unusual but not unique; a comparable system is used in the United Kingdom, where seven banks issue banknotes."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "New Taiwan dollar:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "New Taiwan dollar"
        ],
        "ctx": "The central bank of Taiwan has issued the New Taiwan Dollar since 2000. Prior to 2000, the Bank of Taiwan issued banknotes as the \"de facto\" central bank between 1949 and 1961, and after 1961 continued to issue banknotes as a delegate of the central bank. The central bank began issuing New Taiwan dollar banknotes in July 2000, and the notes issued by the Bank of Taiwan were taken out of circulation."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "Despite the government preferring paper money over copper-alloy cash coins, the Chinese market had a high demand for them, this demand would stimulate an overproduction of forgeries that inundated the markets of Ming China, often these forged cash coins were cast in such miserable quality that a single real Zhiqian could buy 300 fake ones. Consequently, this caused inflation in many different places."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Tieqian\n--Overview.\n--Ban Liang cash coins.\n----Western Han dynasty.\n--Wu Zhu cash coins.\n----Chengjia.\n----Liang dynasty.\n--The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms.\n----Kingdom of Min.\n----Kingdom of Chu.\n----Southern Tang Kingdom.\n--Song dynasty.\n----Northern Song dynasty.\n----Southern Song dynasty.\n--Qing dynasty.\n--Iron cash coins museum.\n--Sources.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Emperor Yuan Zong (Li Jing) (943\u2013961):\n* Baoda Yuanbao () has on the reverse the character \"tian\" above. They are made of iron and date between 943\u2013957. There is also an extremely rare bronze example of this coin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Issued by Wang Shenzhi:\n* Kaiyuan Tongbao () have a large dot above on the reverse side. They are made of iron and date from 922. The same coin cast in bronze is extremely rare."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianzhuang",
        "text": "The Hupeh Provincial Bank (\u6e56\u5317\u5b98\u9322\u5c40, \"Hubei Guan-Qianju\"), a provincial government-owned \"qianzhuang\" issued their own banknotes which were known as the Hubei Guanpiao (\u6e56\u5317\u5b98\u7968), these banknotes were denominated in taels for silver and strings for copper-alloy cash coins. The Hubei Guanpiao had magistrate seals affixed on them as endorsements, as the \"zhuangpiao\" by the local \"qianzhuang\" formerly practiced. In March of the year 1901 Zhang Zhidong commanded his subordinates to repudiate those magistrate seals on the Hubei Guanpiao banknotes that were issued as Zhang forthrightly explained to them that his foreign-made printing machines applied anti-forgery techniques, and that acquiescing seals would hamper circulating and competing banknotes issued by modern banks in China. The Hubei Guanpiao was abolished in 1927 with the bankruptcy of the Hubei Guan-Qianju. After the Hubei Guan-Qianju filed for bankruptcy in 1927 35 million strings in Hubei Guanpiao banknotes, which accounted for about half of the total of Hubei Guanpiao issued, were lost in the lengthy recall process by the defunct banks, as these banknotes had become completely worthless."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "In the year 1883 the imperial government of the Qing dynasty made an attempt to restore the copper-alloy cash coins back to their original units, because the new units had created chaos among private money shops in China who were willing to pay premium copper-alloy cash coins to call back their own privately produced banknotes that were issued in \"Beijing cash\" (Jingqian) units. This was done out of a fear of the large capital cost of having to later redeem their banknotes that were based on the previous standards of copper-alloy cash coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "As a result of government corruption, a large number of iron cash coins were cast near the final years of Emperor Zhezong's reign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "However, the government did not keep adequate reserves of hard currency to back the new banknotes up and many provincial governments didn't allow for taxes to be paid using paper money, after a few years the government started refusing to convert the new paper money into hard currency and the Chinese people started to distrust it as a valid medium of exchange. In response to the ever more expensive military expenditures because of the Taiping Rebellion the government started producing more and more high denomination banknotes which were not convertible causing hyperinflation, in the year Xianfeng 8 (1858) the government completely depreciated the Hubu Guanpiao series in favour of the Da-Qing Baochao."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "However, the government did not keep adequate reserves of hard currency to back the new banknotes up. Many provincial governments didn't allow for taxes to be paid using paper money, and after a few years the government started refusing to convert the new paper money into hard currency; consequently, the Chinese people started to distrust it as a valid medium of exchange. In response to the ever more expensive military expenditures caused by the Taiping Rebellion, the government produced more and more high denomination banknotes, which were not convertible. This caused hyperinflation; by the year Xianfeng 9 (1859) the currency had become completely depreciated and was abolished."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "In the city of Cangzhou there is a museum dedicated to the iron cash coins produced during the Song dynasty period known as the Tieqian Ku (), which literally translates into English as either the \"iron cash coins treasury\" or \"iron cash coins mint\".\n*\n* Peng Xinwei (\u5f6d\u4fe1\u5a01) (1954 [2007]). \"Zhongguo huobi shi\" (\u4e2d\u570b\u8ca8\u5e63\u53f2) (Shanghai: Qunlian chubanshe), 580\u2013581, 597\u2013605. (in Mandarin Chinese).\n* Peng Xinwei (\u5f6d\u4fe1\u5a01) (1994) \"A monetary history of China\" (translated by Edward H. Kaplan). Western Washington University (Bellingham, Washington)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhuangpiao",
        "text": "The Zhuangpiao (), alternatively known as \"Yinqianpiao\" (\u9280\u9322\u7968, \"silver money notes\"), \"Huipiao\" (\u6703\u7968, \"corporate notes\"), \"Pingtie\" (\u6191\u5e16), \"Duitie\" (\u514c\u5e16), \"Shangtie\" (\u4e0a\u5e16), \"Hupingtie\" (\u58fa\u74f6\u5e16), or \"Qitie\" (\u671f\u5e16) in different contexts, refer to privately produced paper money (or company scrip) made in China during the Qing dynasty and early Republic of China periods issued by small private banks known as \"qianzhuang\". Other than banknotes \"qianzhuang\" also issued \"Tiexian\" (\u8cbc\u73fe, \"discountable notes\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Because copper-alloy cash coins had very little value they were not likely to be used as a store of value and because moving them was very heavy and expensive, copper-alloy cash coins were also not used that often for long distance trade due to their inconvenience. This meant that when large denomination cash coins were overvalued, the Chinese people were far more likely to melt these cash coins down for counterfeiting than they would try to export them to other regions. This also made it more likely for the copper-alloy cash coins that originated from the regions in close proximity to Beijing to send their cash coins to the city to be melted into counterfeit Daqian."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Issued by Wang Yanxi:\n* Yonglong Tongbao () have the character \"Min\" () on the reverse and comes from the Fujian region. There is a crescent below. It is made of iron and dates from 942. One of these large Yong Long coins was worth 10 small coins and 100 lead coins. A string of 500 of these poorly made Min iron coins were popularly called a \"kao\" ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "The introduction of the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coin was only reluctantly accepted by the Chinese market, and it introduction had caused rampant counterfeiting of it. These counterfeits did not weigh as much as the government issued 10 \"w\u00e9n\" Daqian. Furthermore, the Daqian were all intended to circulate side-by-side with the already existing currencies in China, and then be accepted at face value and the older coinage wasn't collected by the government for re-melting. Eventually the weight of the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins was reduced to only 0.22 taels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Issued by Wang Yanzheng:\n* Tiande Tongbao () are made of iron. When Wang Yanzheng was proclaimed Emperor, he changed the name of the kingdom to Yin, but later restored the name of Min. One of these iron coins, which were cast in 944, was worth 100 ordinary cash."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Daqian\n--History.\n----Limited resources and background.\n----Monetary policy debates during the Xianfeng era.\n----Introduction of new monies.\n----Inflation and depreciation.\n----After 1855.\n----Qixiang era / Tongzhi era.\n----Guangxu era.\n--Five Metal Value Ten coins.\n--Sources.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianzhuang",
        "text": "In the year 1933 the government of the Republic of China abolished the ancient silver-based currency unit, the tael and completely replaced it with the yuan in a process known as the \"fei liang gai yuan\" (\u5ee2\u5169\u6539\u5143). During this time the Republican government cleared all banknotes denominated in the ancient tael currency, making all bills which used this currency unit obsolete."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "Initially, the Da-Qing Baochao banknotes were able to be redeemed through the local Yu, Ch'ien and T'ien banks in a proportion of Zhiqian (\u5236\u9322, \"standard cash coins\"), Daqian (\u5927\u9322, \"big cash\"), silver, or the Hubu Guanpiao tael notes as was officially set by government regulation. As an example Manchu bannermen were to be paid in 8 parts ordinary cash coins to 2 parts large denomination cash coins, while members of the imperial household received 6 strings (\u4e32, \"chu\u00e0n\") of standard cash coins for each 10 strings which were disbursed. Comparatively, government contractors and private merchants tended to receive more multi-denomination cash coins over standard cash coins due to their lower position. Under inflationary pressure the Chinese government wasn't able to maintain parity for its currencies. By the year Xianfeng 5 (1855) the majority of the high denomination cash coins were abolished because it was both being deprecated at a rapid paste and there was an epidemic of counterfeiting. At this point the higher denomination which still continued to be produced and circulate was the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coin, though it was only worth 70% of its nominal value on the market. During this period both the Da-Qing Baochao and Hubu Guanpiao banknotes were worth only 50% their nominal value. Privately produced cash notes around the same time were fixed to the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" Daqian and lost 60% of their value between the years 1852 and 1856. Both government issued banknotes and Yu Bank issued banknotes were only valued half that of privately issued banknotes in 1856."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "Hongqian\n--History.\n----Qianlong era.\n----Jiaqing era.\n----Daoguang era.\n----Xianfeng era.\n----Tongzhi era.\n----Arabic cash coins of Rashidin Khan Khoja.\n----Guangxu era.\n----Xuantong era.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fifth series of the new Taiwan dollar banknote",
        "text": "For years the old Chinese Nationalist yuan was still the official national currency of the Republic of China. The Chinese Nationalist yuan was also known as the \"fiat currency\" (\u6cd5\u5e63) or the \"silver yu\u00e1n\" (\u9280\u5143), even though it was decoupled from the value of silver during World War II. Many older statutes in ROC law have fines and fees denominated in this currency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "The measures taken during the Taiping Rebellion made the Chinese monetary system even more complicated as it introduced a large number of different types of currency which all circulated concurrently as legal tender. The hyperinflation during the Xianfeng era was caused by the government of the Qing dynasty, in its desperate scramble for revenue, continuously debasing the copper content of its coinage. Furthermore, the banknotes it had issued were all declared to be inconvertible shortly after their issuance. The debasement of the copper content was commenced on 24 April of the year 1853 with the introduction of the Daqian (\u5927\u9322, \"big money\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "It is notable that the Hubu Guanpiao contained a warning to currency counterfeiters while the Da-Qing Baochao did not, the earliest Chinese paper currencies such as the flying cash from the Tang dynasty and the Jiaozi, Huizi, and Guanzi all contained these warnings. American numismatist John E. Sandrock speculates that the Xianfeng Emperor thought that it was unnecessary to issue a warning on the Da-Qing Baochao as they were of comparatively minor value, while those who would make counterfeit Hubu Guanpiao banknotes would be executed through decapitation. Foreigners residing in Shanghai in the year 1857 reported that the Chinese government commonly decapitated currency counterfeiters, which would indicate that the practice was a common occurrence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Both the inflationary policy of debasing the copper currencies and the issuance of inconvertible paper money were also largely confined to the Beijing capital region and the immediate neighbouring provinces, this was due to the Qing government's limited political control over much of China at the time of Taiping Rebellion. During this era the introduction of the \"big cash coins\" unit in the capital city made interregional a lot more difficult to conduct because of the regional currency units that existed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "During the Guangxu era \"red cash coins\" with the \"Boo Ciowan\" () mint marks were produced in Xinjiang, but these cash coins were not produced by the Ministry of Revenue Mint in Beijing, these Hongqian were likely produced by the Aksu Mint and/or the Kucha Mint for circulation in the Ili region. One theory is that this might have been the local idea of what \"a regulation cash coin\" (\u5236\u9322) looks like and that this mint mark was used to instill more trust into these Hongqian."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhuangpiao",
        "text": "The Hupeh Provincial Bank (\u6e56\u5317\u5b98\u9322\u5c40, \"Hubei Guan-Qianju\"), a provincial government-owned \"qianzhuang\" issued their own banknotes which were known as the Hubei Guanpiao (\u6e56\u5317\u5b98\u7968), these banknotes were denominated in taels for silver and strings for copper-alloy cash coins. The Hubei Guanpiao had magistrate seals affixed on them as endorsements, as the \"zhuangpiao\" by the local \"qianzhuang\" formerly practiced. In March of the year 1901 Zhang Zhidong commanded his subordinates to repudiate those magistrate seals on the Hubei Guanpiao banknotes that were issued as Zhang forthrightly explained to them that his foreign-made printing machines applied anti-forgery techniques, and that acquiescing seals would hamper circulating and competing banknotes issued by modern banks in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "According to the American numismatist Andrew McFarland Davis different Chinese characters tended to be used to convey the same meaning on different banknotes. For example, while some banknotes had the insulation that those who informed the government of counterfeiting practices would receive a reward, other banknotes included a line where it was suggested that to receive the reward you had to physically bring the counterfeiters in for arrest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "After the year Xianfeng 4 the imperial Chinese Ministry of Revenue had attempted to re-number previously issued Da-Qing Baochao cash notes and Hubu Guanpiao tael notes for a to date unknown reason, the new serial numbers were placed in black ink using character prefixes which are not from the Thousand Year Classic at the bottom left corner of the banknote. It remains a mystery why certain banknotes were renumbered late during the Taiping Rebellion. These re-issued banknotes are notably listed separately in the Standard Catalog of World Paper Money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counterfeit money",
        "text": "In the 1990s, the portrait of Chairman Mao Zedong was placed on the banknotes of the People's Republic of China to combat counterfeiting, as he was recognised better than the generic designs on the renminbi notes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yuan (currency)",
        "text": "In the Republic of China, the common English name is the \"New Taiwan dollar\" but banknotes issued between 1949 and 1956 used \"yuan\" as the transliteration. More modern notes lack any transliteration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "It is possible that China first began using iron cash coins during the Western Han dynasty, this was concluded after a number of iron Ban Liang (\u534a\u5169) cash coins were unearthed in Western Han era tombs in the Hunanese cities of Hengyang and Changsha between the years 1955 and 1959. Other specimens of iron Ban Liang cash coins were also unearthed in the province of Sichuan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "The reserves that the government of the Qing dynasty had set aside for those who would redeem the Da-Qing Baochao banknotes turned out to be too low to meet the demand. During some audits conducted by the Ministry of Revenue their turned out to be major irregularities with the reserves held by the private and provincial note issuing banks. Eventually, the Chinese government would abandon any policy other than one of keeping their banknotes in general circulation by forcing them on the Chinese population under a continued threat of punishments and penalties and also by making their redemption by its holders as difficult as possible. The complete crash of the new currency systems occurred during the winter of Xianfeng 6 (1856) all the way into Xianfeng 7 (1857). The iron 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coin drastically declined in its value, one of the reasons for this was the fact that it was being counterfeited on a large scale. At this time both peasants and merchants from the province of Zhili stopped accepting the coin as a form of payment. After in the spring of Xianfeng 7 (1857) the convertibility of Hubu Guanpiao tael notes into Da-Qing Baochao cash notes was partly restored by the lot method at the Yu banks. The Ministry of Revenue had attempted to stop the large scale counterfeiting and to force the provincial governments of China to start accepting both iron and copper-alloy Daqian cash coins and Da-Qing Baochao cash notes for tax payments, but quickly abandoned proposing iron Daqian cash coins and settled on a cash coin system of iron 1 \"w\u00e9n\" coins and copper-alloy 10 \"w\u00e9n\" coins, this system would prevail until the year Xianfeng 10 (1860). Because of this the standard copper-alloy cash coins completely disappeared from the Chinese market while all standard prices kept using them as a base unit of account leading to a price increase of 500% when paying with Daqian cash coins and Da-Qing Baochao cash notes. This had an immediate negative effect on the soldiers of the banner armies as the central government was forced to pay the soldiers in grain to prevent a famine. The collapse of the iron Daqian cash coins had an immediate effect on the Da-Qing Baochao banknotes as large denomination iron cash coins served as the reserve of the cash notes issued by the Yu banks, which in turn handled the exchange of the Da-Qing Baochao series. This resulted in the cash notes issued by the Yu banks to become quickly depreciated and by extend the Da-Qing Baochao. The Yu banks went bankrupt and were forced to close their doors, this failure led to privately produced banknotes which were valued 4 times as much as the government-issued banknotes on the market further ushering in a decline for the Da-Qing Baochao."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "The term \"Zhiqian\" was used to discern full-valued cash coins produced by the imperial government from older ones from the Song dynasty period, which were known as \"jiuqian\" (\u820a\u9322), and privately produced forgeries of non-standard weights and alloys that were referred to as \"siqian\" (\u79c1\u9322) or \"sizhuqian\" (\u79c1\u9444\u9322)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bingqian",
        "text": "Because large and heavy copper-alloy coins like these Bingqian would have had real monetary value in Sichuan at the time, Sun Zhonghui notes that the probability is quite likely that these extraordinarily large cash coins had circulated as a valid currency.\n* Some Bingqian have what are called \"si jue\" () reverses, these reverses are found on some Song dynasty period cash coins, which means that these cash coins have the corners of their square centre hole extend somewhat outwards towards the rim of the cash coin.\n* There have been Xianping Yuanbao Bingqian recorded with a diameter of 26.5 millimeters and a weight of 10.68 grams, 26.5 millimeters, 28.4 millimeters, a Xianping Yuanbao cash coin with a diameter of 30.1 millimeters and a thickness of 2.5 millimeters, one with a diameter of 32.5 millimeters, one with a diameter between 31 and 31.1 millimeters with a thickness between 4.5 and 4.53 millimeters,\u00a034.0 millimeters, and a Xianping Yuanbao Bingqian with a diameter of 44.0 millimeters, a thickness of 6 millimeters, and a weight of 72.0 grams, this specimen further had \"si chu\" (\u56db\u51fa, \"s\u00ec ch\u016b\").\n* There is a variant of the Bingqian known as \"the double-folded cake coins\" ().\n* A Xiangfu Yuanbao Bingqian, which are significantly rarer than Xianping Yuanbao Bingqian, has been recorded with a diameter of 26.4 millimeters and was listed at an auction in the city of Shanghai in the year 2014.\n* A Xianping Yuanbao with a diameter of 46.7 mm and a weight of 73.2 grams was sold at auction in the year 2013 for $2,623 (which at the time was 17,250 yuan).\n* The largest Bingqian known to exist is a Xianping Yuanbao with a diameter of 66 millimeters. This cash coin was owned by the Chinese numismatist Ma Dingxiang (\u99ac\u5b9a\u7965), it was listed at an auction in the year 2008 with an estimated price of $9,124 \u2013 $15,207 (or between 60,000 \u2013 100,000 yuan)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianzhuang",
        "text": "In the city of Hankou the \"piaohao\" were prosperous before the \"qianzhuang\" were, this might have been due to connections with the political circle. Less is known about the origins of the Hankou \"qianzhuang\" which could be either due to the immense number of aliases used to describe \"qianzhuang\" or the fact that the Qing government wasn't good at record keeping during this early era. The trade conducted by \"qianzhuang\" in Hankou is locally referred to as \"Yin-Qian\" (\u9280\u9322). Between the years 1841 and 1850 the Hankou \"qianzhuang\" were dominated by merchants from the Jiangxi province, the larger \"qianzhuang\" from this era had an average \"benqian\" (\u672c\u9322, \"principal capital\") which ranged between 6000 and 10,000 taels of silver, and on average they issued hundreds of thousands of \"Huapiao\" (\u532f\u7968, \"remittance notes\") banknotes for circulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "The nominal value of both the Daqian and the \"guan-hao qianpiao\" did not reflect reality, as for example in the year 1861 one would get only 7,500 \"w\u00e9n\" in cash coins (or 750 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins) when cashing in government-issued cash notes of 15,000 \"w\u00e9n\". Furthermore, unlike physical cash coins, the \"string of cash coins\" currency unit, or \"di\u00e0o\" (\u540a), was used to represent 1000 \"w\u00e9n\" in government documents, but only 500 physical cash coins were paid out per paper string. In the year 1854 as the copper reserves of the Qing dynasty were being depleted the government of the Qing dynasty began issuing iron Daqian known as \"tieqian\" (\u9421\u9322). The process under which the Xianfeng inflation unfolded revealed as much about the capacity of the government of the Qing dynasty to coerce as the constraint in its monetary management. Only a few years after the introduction of the above currencies, they would all start being heavily discounted on the market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "The government attempted to prohibit the use of copper currency in border regions and in seaports, but the Song-issued copper coin became common in the Liao, Western Xia, Japanese, and Southeast Asian economies. The Song government would turn to other types of material for its currency in order to ease the demand on the government mint, including the issuing of iron coinage and paper banknotes. In the year 976, the percentage of issued currency using copper coinage was 65%; after 1135, this had dropped significantly to 54%, a government attempt to debase the copper currency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "The inconvertible paper notes that were also issued and pushed through the Chinese market received the full coercive power of the central state. These monetary policies led to immediate market reaction in the areas where they circulated, in fact, upon rumour, would cause the closure of local money shops and was behind a capital flight out of the capital city of Beijing. Public distrust in China towards these new monies even worsened when in the end, governmental agencies refused to accept \"big cash\" as a form of payment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "Under the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor \"Red Cash\" coins were excessively manufactured negating the reforms implemented by the Daoguang Emperor causing inflation in the region. As the Taiping rebellion and the Second Opium War had prompted the Qing government to start issuing high denomination cash coins in other parts of the Qing dynasty, this soon spread to Xinjiang mainly due to the decreased subsidies for military expenditures in Xinjiang lowering the soldiers' salaries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "In the year 978 an iron cash coin was worth of a copper-alloy cash coin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "In the year 1854 new Daqian were introduced, these had denominations ranging from 5 \"w\u00e9n\" to 1000 \"w\u00e9n\". During this same time the government of the Qing dynasty began issuing convertible cash bank notes, or \"guan-hao qianpiao\" (\u5b98\u865f\u9322\u7968), which were mostly backed in Daqian. These government-issued banknotes were modeled after private bank notes, known as \"sihao qianpiao\" (\u79c1\u865f\u9322\u7968), which would continue to circulate even after the introduction of these government notes. These banknotes were issued by nine different government banks, four of these banks newly established for their circulation. Both the Daqian and \"guan-hao qianpiao\" were calculated using the Jingqian (\u4eac\u9322) unit of account, but they were complicated by the fact that the nominal value of these government banknotes denominated the debt owed to be satisfied by the payment of cash coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "The Xianfeng era Hubu Guanpiao (\u6236\u90e8\u5b98\u7968) tael-based banknotes were created out of the same situation that created the Da-Qing Baochao (\u5927\u6e05\u5bf6\u9214) cash coins-based banknotes, with the main difference being in what form of currency these banknotes could be redeemed in."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "During the second month of the year 1854 the government of the Qing dynasty supplemented the already debased Xianfeng coinage system with iron cash coins. The intrinsic value of iron cash coins was substantially lower than that of even the copper-alloy Zhiqian and Daqian. The aim the government had with the introduction of iron cash coins was to provide small change for a market that highly demanded it, as the Chinese market was already flooded with large denomination cash coinage and the Zhiqian 1 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins) by this point had become a rarity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jiaozi (currency)",
        "text": "To combat counterfeiting, jiaozi were stamped with multiple banknote seals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "In the year 1890 the government of the Qing dynasty decided that \"red cash coins\" should circulate in both southern and northern Xinjiang and that they were to be equivalent of 1.2 \"qi\u00e1n\" or 1.0 \"qi\u00e1n\" standard cash coins of the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "To finance their enormous military expenditures the government took several monetary initiatives, the government introduced the Da-Qing Baochao (\u5927\u6e05\u5bf6\u9214) copper-alloy cash-notes and the Hubu Guanpiao (\u6236\u90e8\u5b98\u7968) silver tael-notes although the empire's silver reserves were woefully inadequate to back the new paper currency. The size and weight of the 1 \"w\u00e9n\" Xianfeng Tongbao cash coins were reduced, this was done to save copper which was in short supply due to the supply lines from the copper mines of the Yunnan being disrupted by the wars that occurred in Southern China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "As the Qing dynasty starting regaining territory in the areas held by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, they immediately started issuing Da-Qing Baochao and Hubu Guanpiao banknotes in these places. These issues were controlled using two different ideogram systems for the indexes and prefixes, the Chinese characters utilised by these systems were based on the Thousand Character Classic (\u5343\u5b57\u6587, \"Qi\u0101nz\u00ec W\u00e9n\"). The prefixed Chinese character (which would appear in the series block preceding the actual serial number on each banknote) was actually one of these thousand classical ideograms, it is known that the first 320 characters from this series were reserved for the Peking Metropolitan District. By contrast, early Hubu Guanpiao tael notes of the Xianfeng era, which were issued through the Peking Metropolitan District, the provincial treasuries of China, and the Chinese military commissaries, used a different prefix character system, this system was based upon the Five Confucian Virtues as opposed to the thousand character classic-based system of the Da-Qing Baochao. In the markets of Beijing the new Xianfeng banknotes could not be used, so as people could not purchase any actual goods with them in the capital market many Bannermen lost a large part of their disposable income because of this inability to actually purchase things with their salary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Only a few years after their introduction both the Daqian and the government-issued paper money would start to be steeply discounted on the Chinese commercial markets. Daqian at this time would start to be traded at their intrinsic value rather than their nominal value. Because of their low intrinsic value and general inconvenience, all Daqian with denominations higher than 50 \"w\u00e9n\" were discontinued within a year of their introduction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "The Chinese Daqian happened concurrent with and may have inspired similar debasements of cash coinages in Tokugawa Japan, Joseon-era Korea, the Ryukyu islands, and Nguy\u1ec5n-period Vietnam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "The Taiping Rebellion had caused the government of the Qing dynasty to fall into an extreme debt spiral which forced it to reconsider introducing paper money as a medium for exchange. This was advertised by the imperial government as a necessary evil because of a shortage of bronze which meant that the production of cash coinage had to be heavily scaled doen. The pauperised Chinese public was for centuries uncompromisingly minded against the idea of paper money emissions in any way, shape, or form and would not accept it for any reason. Half a century earlier in the year 1814, when Cai Zhiding (\u8521\u4e4b\u5b9a, Ts'ai Chih-Ting), who was a high official in the Ministry of State, petitioned to the court of the Jiaqing Emperor advocating the resumption of a paper money currency, this request was denied. Cai was later severely rebuked in the Jiaqing Emperor's memorial in which he pointed out that neither the Chinese government nor any individuals in the past had experienced benefits from the circulation of a paper money. The Jiaqing Emperor was not fully without justification in asserting his stance against paper currency, as the era Ming banknotes from their introduction had been inconvertible into metal currencies. With no government backing into any other forms of currency these banknotes were swiftly depreciated. While this may seem only logical today the Chinese had to learn this lesson the hard way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianzhuang",
        "text": "Many \"qianzhuang\" issued their own scrip known as \"zhuangpiao\" (\u838a\u7968) and (if denominated in silver) \"yinqianpiao\" (\u9280\u9322\u7968, \"silver money notes\"). This scrip was also accepted by proximate shops but to cash these out would take around 10\u201315 days after it was given to the shop, this was because couriers would have to liaise with the issuing shop in order to verify their authenticity and rule out fraudulent \"zhuangpiao\" notes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "In a 1962 study Yang Duanliu cited memorials which were written to the Xianfeng Emperor which attempted to show him that his order to the provinces to keep fifty percent of their reserves in silver was ignored by provincial authorities and that the actual ratio of reserves varied substantially across different provinces. Meanwhile, some Chinese provinces did not keep any silver reserves at all, while the province of Henan (a province very close to the capital city of Beijing) did not even accept the Hubu Guanpiao banknotes they themselves issued as a form of payment for provincial taxes. Yang claims that these inadequate reserve ratios and local insubordination to imperial government laws and edicts were to blame why by the year Qixiang 1 (1862) government banknotes had completely disappeared from circulation. Jerome Ch'\u00ean meanwhile suggested that the Ministry of Revenue made the rampant inflation a lot more worse by insisting that no more than half of individual tax remittance could be made with either Da-Qing Baochao cash notes or Hubu Guanpiao tael notes with the remainder of the taxes being demanded in either cash coins or silver."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Only a single entry in the Qing government archive mentions them from this point, as it is stated that in the year 1856 the government of the Qing dynasty had 431,515.849 strings of iron cash coins deposited in the imperial treasury vault. This entry may be seen as supplementary evidence to suggest that copper-alloy cash coinage had almost completely disappeared in or before this year. Iron cash coins would soon become valueless and the coinage was ultimately suspended in the year 1859."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Iron cash coins were produced during the Han dynasty, Three Kingdoms period, Northern and Southern dynasties period, Five dynasties and Ten kingdoms period, Song dynasty, Jin dynasty (1115\u20131234), Western Xia dynasty, Ming dynasty, and Qing dynasty, but not during the Zhou dynasty, Jin dynasty (266\u2013420), Sui dynasty, Tang dynasty, Liao dynasty, and Yuan dynasty periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yuan dynasty coinage",
        "text": "The reverse side of the Zhizheng Zhibao cash coins have to the left of the square centre hole the traditional Chinese characters indicating the nominal value of the coin, for example, the equivalent of \"w\u01d4 qi\u00e1n\" (\u4f0d\u9322, \"5 \"qi\u00e1n\"\") in paper money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianzhuang",
        "text": "Throughout Chinese history cash coins were put on strings in 10 groups of (supposedly) 100 cash coins each, these strings were separated by a knot between each group. During the Qing dynasty period strings of cash coins rarely actually contained 1000 cash coins and usually had something like 950 or 980 or a similar quantity, these amounts were due to local preferences rather than being random in any form. In the larger cities \"qianzhuang\" would make specific strings of cash coins for specific markets. The \"qianzhuang\" existed because at the time there were many different kinds of cash coins circulating in China including old Chinese cash coins from previous dynasties (\u53e4\u9322), Korean cash coins, Japanese cash coins (\u502d\u9322), Vietnamese cash coins, large and small genuine Qing dynasty cash coins, and different kinds of counterfeits, such as illegally private minted cash coins. Some of these strings would contain exclusively genuine Zhiqian, while other strings could contain between 30% and 50% of counterfeit and underweight cash coins. The actual number of cash coins on a string and the percentage of counterfeits in a string was generally known to everyone who resided in that town by the type of knots that were used. Each of these different kind of strings of cash coins fulfilled different functions. For example, one string of cash coins was acceptable to be used in a local grain market while it would not be accepted at a meat market, while another type of string was able to be used in both markets while not to pay for taxes. The \"qianzhuang\" sorted all cash coins into very specific categories, then they would make up appropriate kinds of strings that were intended for use in specific markets or to pay for taxes to the government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "The seals (or \"chops\") used on the Hubu Guanpiao tael notes differed from those present on the Da-Qing Baochao cash notes, the main seal placed by the Ministry of Revenue was red in colour and contained the text \"Ministry of Revenue Government Note\" in both Mandarin Chinese and Manchu, this seal was found on every banknote in the Hubu Guanpiao series. Another seal present on every specimen in this series was that of the \"Ministry of Revenue Issuing Department\", the name of this department is somewhat confusing, as it did not actually place any banknotes into circulation. There were 3 other agencies actually designed for the issuing of these banknotes into circulation the government of the Beijing Metropolitan District, provincial treasuries, and the various military commissaries. These agencies would all affix their own seal, these seals were either shaped like a square or a rectangle and were found on both the obverse and reverse sides of the tael notes, the presence of these seals meant that the banknote had entered circulation through one of these agencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Merchant guilds in the province of Sichuan were worldwide the first people to develop officially accepted letters of exchange, or paper money, in the forms of Jiaozi (\u4ea4\u5b50), Qianyin (\u9322\u5f15), and Feiqian (\u98db\u9322), thess first forms of paper currency were provided with the security of iron cash coins.\n* Songyuan Tongbao. (). Written in \"li\" script. The inscription is based on the \"Kaiyuan Tongbao\" series of cash coins. It has a nominal weight of 1 \"qian\". Various dots and crescents are found on the reverse. It was first cast in 960 and then until the end of Emperor Taizu's reign. Casting of iron cash coins started at Baizhangxian, Yazhou, in Sichuan, from 970. Ten furnaces cast 9,000 strings a year.\n* Taiping Tongbao () (976\u2013989). Written in \"li\" script. Various dots and crescents are found on the reverse. There are also iron cash coins with this inscription. The small iron coins come from Sichuan and 10 were equivalent to one bronze coin. The large iron cash coin have a large dot above on the reverse. This coin was cast at Jianzhou, Fujian in 983, and was intended to be equivalent to 3 bronze coins.\n* Chunhua Yuanbao () (990\u2013994). Written in regular, running, and grass script. There are also small and large iron coins. They have a nominal value of 10. In 991, 20,000 iron coins were needed in the market for one roll of silk. Permission was requested to alter the casting to Value Ten coins in the Imperial Script pattern. In one year only 3,000 strings were cast. They were not considered convenient, so casting was stopped.\n* Xianping Yuanbao () (998\u20131003). Written in regular script. They are found in both bronze and iron.\n* Jingde Yuanbao () (1004\u20131007). Written in regular script. They are made of bronze; Iron with Value Two; or Iron with Value Ten. The large iron cash coins were minted at Jiazhou and Qiongzhou in Sichuan in the year 1005. They weighed 4 \"qian\" each.\n* Xiangfu Yuanbao () (1008\u20131016). Written in regular script. They are made of bronze or iron. They come in medium size and large sizes. The large iron coins were cast from 1014 to 1016 in Yizhou, Sichuan. Their nominal value was 10 cash and weight 3.2 \"qian.\"\n* Tianxi Tongbao () (1017\u20131022). Written in regular script. They are made of bronze or iron. At this time, there were copper coin mints at Yongping in Jiangxi, Yongfeng in Anhui, Kuangning in Fujian, Fengguo in Shanxi, and in the capital city. There were also three iron coin mints in Sichuan.\n* Mingdao Yuanbao () (1032\u20131033). Written in seal and regular script. There are also iron cash coins with this inscription.\n* Jingyou Yuanbao () (1034\u20131038). Written in seal and regular script. There are both small and large iron coins.\n* Huangsong Tongbao () (1039\u20131054) use seal and regular script, and have many variations. They are made of iron and have two forms with either small or large characters. The small character iron coins are associated with casting in Shaanxi and Shanxi in the Qing Li period (from 1044). The large character iron cash coins are associated with Sichuan mints. The histories say that the Huang Song coin was cast in Baoyuan 2 \u2013 1039. As it is rather common, and there are no bronze small cash from the next three periods, it appears to have been issued for longer than one year.\n* Kangding Yuanbao () (1040). Written in \"li\" script. They are made of iron and come in both small and medium sizes.\n* Qingli Zhongbao () (1041\u20131048). Written in regular script. There are two forms: large bronze coins and large iron coins. The Qing Li large bronze coins, intended to be worth 10 cash, were cast in Jiangnan to fund the war with the Tangut Western Xia Empire. Iron coins were cast in Shanxi and other prefectures. The large cash coins caused prices to leap up, causing inflation, and both public and private interests suffered. In 1048, the large iron coins were devalued to 3 iron cash."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhuangpiao",
        "text": "A \"qianzhuang\" would issue a \"zhuangpiao\" after receiving a deposit and these notes could generally also be cashed in at other \"qianzhuang\" after they were confirmed to be genuine specimens by checking the banknote seals. \"zhuangpiao\" served as \"de facto\" banknotes in China during periods when the government had long stopped issuing them and were an alternative currency when government banknotes such as the Da-Qing Baochao and Hubu Guanpiao were later introduced and abolished."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Daqian (Traditional Chinese: \u5927\u9322, \"big cash\") are large-denomination cash coins produced in the Qing dynasty starting from 1853 until 1890. Large denomination cash coins were previously used in earlier Chinese dynasties and had faced similar issues as 19th-century Daqian. The term referred to cash coins with a denomination of 4 \"w\u00e9n\" or higher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "Xinjiang already had a rich history of its own Chinese-style coinage, red cash coins are a continuation of this history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "Both the Da-Qing Baochao cash notes and Hubu Guanpiao tael notes continued to be accepted in the practice of office selling and would continue to circulate in the provinces of China proper as non-interest bearing debentures until the years 1867\u20131868, when all government-issued banknotes were officially declared invalid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counterfeit consumer goods",
        "text": "Some counterfeiters have begun to manufacture their goods in the same factory as the authentic goods. \"Yuandan goods\" (\u539f\u5355) are those fakes that are produced in the same factory as legitimate designer pieces without authorized permission to do so. These goods are made from scraps and leftover materials from the genuine products, produced illegally, and sold on the black market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coin wrapper",
        "text": "Currency: Chinese yuan (Renminbi)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Tongbi",
        "text": "Da-Qing Tongbi\n--Name.\n--History.\n--Design.\n--Contemporary counterfeit Da-Qing Tongbi coins.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "An important security feature of these banknotes were camel's hair brush strokes found at the right edges of the Da-Qing Baochao. These black ink strokes were actually already made prior to the cutting of the notes from their tallies in an attempt to prevent counterfeit currency from being produced as it was the best-known security feature available at the time. These brush strokes would overlap with the counterfoil that remained in the tally kept by the issuing government or Nam official when the banknote was cut and later removed. As these brush strokes contained hundreds of very small hairlines which together formed random patterns, they were not dissimilar from individual human fingerprints since it was highly unlikely that any two followed the same patterns. These banknotes were testified to be genuine or false by comparing two halves and the serial number, the banknote could only be declared genuine if the patterns matched. John E. Sandrock has claimed to only have seen a single Da-Qing Baochao which did not have this security feature."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Chinese currency",
        "text": "After the defeat of Japan in 1945, the Central Bank of China issued a separate currency in the northeast to replace those issued by puppet banks. Termed \"\" (pinyin: \"D\u014dngb\u011bi ji\u01d4 sh\u011bng li\u00fat\u014dngqu\u00e0n\"), it was worth approximately 10 times more than fabi circulating elsewhere. It was replaced in 1948 by the gold yuan. The Northeastern Provinces yuan was an attempt to isolate certain regions of China from the hyperinflation that plagued the fabi currency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "Under the Xuantong Emperor \"Red Cash\" with the inscription Xuantong Tongbao (\u5ba3\u7d71\u901a\u5bf6) continued to be produced but at lower number than before at the Kucha mint, this was as the Kucha mint was the only mint still operating in Xinjiang at the time, but as the Kucha mint closed down in 1911 a year before the fall of the Qing dynasty the production of \"Red Cash\" officially ended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "In a 1962 study Yang Duanliu cited memorials which were written to the Xianfeng Emperor which attempted to show him that his order to the provinces to keep fifty percent of their reserves in silver was ignored by provincial authorities and that the actual ratio of reserves varied substantially across different provinces. Meanwhile, some Chinese provinces did not keep any silver reserves at all, while the province of Henan (a province very close to the capital city of Beijing) did not even accept the Hubu Guanpiao banknotes they themselves issued as a form of payment for provincial taxes. Yang claims that these inadequate reserve ratios and local insubordination to imperial government laws and edicts were to blame why by the year Qixiang 1 (1862) government banknotes had completely disappeared from circulation. Jerome Ch'\u00ean meanwhile suggested that the Ministry of Revenue made the rampant inflation a lot more worse by insisting that no more than half of individual tax remittance could be made with either Da-Qing Baochao cash notes or Hubu Guanpiao tael notes with the remainder of the taxes being demanded in either cash coins or silver."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bingqian",
        "text": "These heavy cash coins with wide rims are not standardised in both their size and their weight, which means that a large variety of Bingqian from this period have been recorded. It is currently unknown whether or not Bingqian actually circulated as an actual form of currency and what their contemporary value was."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Taiwan dollar",
        "text": "It is relatively easy for the government to disseminate these denominations through various government bodies that do official business with the citizens, such as the post office, the tax authority, or state owned banks. There is also a conspiracy theory against the Democratic Progressive Party, the ruling party at the time the two denominations were issued. The conspiracy states that putting Chiang Kai-shek on a rarely used banknote would \"practically\" remove him from the currency, while \"nominally\" including him on the currency would not upset supporters on the other side of the political spectrum that much (the Pan-Blue Coalition)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Iron cash coins (; Vietnamese: \"Thi\u1ebft ti\u1ec1n\") are a type of Chinese cash coin that were produced at various times during the monetary history of imperial China as well as in Japan and Vietnam. Iron cash coins were often produced in regions where the supply of copper was insufficient, or as a method of paying for high military expenditures at times of war, as well as for exports at times of trade deficits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bingqian",
        "text": "During the Ming dynasty some Chongzhen Tongbao ( were produced, these cash coins have a diameter of 24 millimeters and a weight of 5.9 grams, as well as \"si jue\" (\u56db\u8a23), which are four lines radiating outward from the four corners of the square centre hole on the reverse side of the coin.\n* Ma Dingxiang (\u9a6c\u5b9a\u7965) - \"Ancient Chinese coins\"\u300a\u5386\u4ee3\u53e4\u94b1\u56fe\u8bf4\u300b, August 1999 (1999\u5e748\u6708). (in Mandarin Chinese).\n* Peng Xinwei (\u5f6d\u4fe1\u5a01) (1954 [2007]). \"Zhongguo huobi shi\" (\u4e2d\u570b\u8ca8\u5e63\u53f2) (Shanghai: Qunlian chubanshe), 580\u2013581, 597\u2013605. (in Mandarin Chinese).\n* Peng Xinwei (\u5f6d\u4fe1\u5a01) (1994) \"A monetary history of China\" (translated by Edward H. Kaplan). Western Washington University (Bellingham, Washington).\n* Sun Zhonghui (\u5b6b\u4ef2\u532f) - \"Guqian Bitujie\" (\u53e4\u9322\u5e63\u5716\u89e3)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianzhuang",
        "text": "In the summer of 1896, under request of Zhang Zhidong, the provincial government of Hubei created the Hupeh Provincial Bank (\u6e56\u5317\u5b98\u9322\u5c40, \"Hubei Guan-Qianju\") in the city of Wuchang. The Hubei Guan-Qianju provincial bank established another branch office in the city of Hankou in January of the year 1897. Despite being established during the 1890s by a Chinese provincial government, it was not a modern-style bank but a province-owned \"qianzhuang\". Both the Wuchang and Hankou branches of the Hubei Guan-Qianju issued a series of banknotes known as the Hubei Guanpiao (\u6e56\u5317\u5b98\u7968) which was denominated in both silver taels and strings of copper-alloy cash coins. While the local government started restricting the public issuing of \"zhuangpiao\" banknotes by \"qianzhuang\", this new series of banknotes, which was under the aegis of Zhang's coin factory and provincial tax revenues, would circulate locally and had enjoyed a good reputation in its early years of their issuance, this fact ought to be accredited in part to Zhang and his policies. This changed however in the year 1926 when the issue of Hubei Guanpiao banknotes became erratic. Both the Wuchang and Hankou branches of the Hubei Guan-Qianju rushed into bankruptcy in 1927, this led to the establishment of another bank, the Hubei Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "Peng Xinwei estimated that during the late Qing dynasty period, the total copper sector (copper coins including standard cash and the new Da-Qing Tongbi minted after the year 1900) constituted only 17% of the total money in circulation in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Renminbi",
        "text": "Renminbi currency production is carried out by a state owned corporation, China Banknote Printing and Minting Corporation (CBPMC; ) headquartered in Beijing. CBPMC uses several printing, engraving and minting facilities around the country to produce banknotes and coins for subsequent distribution. Banknote printing facilities are based in Beijing, Shanghai, Chengdu, Xi'an, Shijiazhuang, and Nanchang. Mints are located in Nanjing, Shanghai, and Shenyang. Also, high grade paper for the banknotes is produced at two facilities in Baoding and Kunshan. The Baoding facility is the largest facility in the world dedicated to developing banknote material according to its website. In addition, the People's Bank of China has its own printing technology research division that researches new techniques for creating banknotes and making counterfeiting more difficult."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubu Guanpiao",
        "text": "After the abolition of the Da-Qing Baochao and the Hubu Guanpiao banknotes the government of the Qing dynasty did not produce any banknotes anymore for decades. The final phase of Qing banknote issuance lasted from 1897 right until the Xinhai Revolution ousted the monarchy in 1912. These later issues were substantively different from the earlier two issues because, by then, banknotes had been imported from Western printers. These new banknotes were often horizontal-shaped in design which were novel in Chinese terms. Because of their horizontal designs and better security issues harder to forge by Chinese counterfeiters. The majority of these new banknotes were disbursed by semiofficial modern Chinese banks based on the models presented by Western and Japanese banks in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "In reality the 5 \"w\u00e9n\" \"red cash coins\" circulated as 1 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins while the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" \"red cash coins\" circulated as 2 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins. Furthermore, the Chinese character \"\u5341\" was used by the people as a mark of authenticity rather than an indication of the cash coin's denomination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Until the year 1890 the imperial government mints in Beijing continued producing Guangxu Zhongbao (\u5149\u7dd2\u91cd\u5bf6) Daqian of 10 \"w\u00e9n\", until they were superseded by the Da-Qing Tongbi coins which would fulfil the same role in the monetary system of China."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Taiwan dollar",
        "text": "According to statute, one silver yuan is worth three New Taiwan dollars. Despite decades of inflation, this ratio has not been adjusted. This made the silver yuan a purely notational currency long ago, nearly impossible to buy, sell, or use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banknote seal (China)",
        "text": "The economy of China during the Song dynasty outpaced the supply of traditional coinage, leading the government to issue banknotes (\"Jiaozi\" (\u4ea4\u5b50)) to increase the money supply. Subsequently, a government department was created to manage cash affairs, with its responsibilities including producing and issuing cash, and combating counterfeiting. The cash seal was developed as an anti-counterfeiting measure; official banknotes received a red, sometimes black or purple, stamp at their centres. This forced counterfeiters to attempt to replicate the seal, presumably leading to distinguishable lower quality stamps. Severe punishments, including the death penalty, were given to counterfeiters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yuan (currency)",
        "text": "The traditional character is also used to denote the base unit of the Hong Kong dollar, the Macanese pataca, and the New Taiwan dollar. However, they do not share the same names for the subdivisions. The unit of a New Taiwan dollar is also referred to in Standard Chinese as \"yu\u00e1n\" and written as \u5143, \u5706 or \u5713."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tencent QQ",
        "text": "The People's Bank of China, China's central bank, tried to crack down on QQ Coins due to people using QQ Coins in exchange for real world goods. However, this only caused the value of QQ coins to rise as more and more third-party vendors started to accept them. Tencent claims the QQ Coin is a mere regular commodity, and is, therefore, not a currency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "At this point in time it became clear that physical metal supplies would not reach the capital of Beijing, the preferred substitute turned out to be banknotes. Government officials were very much aware that the issuing of banknotes had to happen within very strict limits because the increases to the supply of metal currencies needed to be matched or the new currency would face the same levels of inflation has had happened several times before in the history of China. Despite knowing all the risks and the predicted hyperinflation paired with many examples of historical precedent, the central government decided to pursue issuing more banknotes than they were able to back up because of the pressing matters of the Taiping Rebellion. In reality, there was no other means that the government of the Qing dynasty would be able to pay for the war and the inflation was a calculated risk deemed worth it. In the city of Beijing the parity between \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins and the Da-Qing Baochao was maintained, but at the same time the entirety of the Jingqian system would become deprecated in relation to the Zhiqian system and silver prices. Both 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins and Da-Qing Baochao cash notes were heavily discounted when traded with privately issued banknotes. Around the same time the price of silver declined throughout China, by the year Xianfeng 6 (1856) it had declined to 50% its value of what it was in Xianfeng 2 (1852), the exchange rate between Jingqian and silver had increased by 192% and would go up to 300% only two years later. This was however, only reflected on the paper money market for private cash notes as government-issued cash notes continued to lose their value."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "The introduction of the large denomination Xianfeng coinages happened concurrent with the \"Tenp\u014d Ts\u016bh\u014d\" 100 mon coin issued by the Tokugawa shogunate in 1835 (in reaction to government deficit), the 100 mun coin, known as the Dangbaekjeon, by the Joseon Kingdom of Korea in 1867, the Ryukyuan 100 mon and half Shu cash coins, and the large denomination T\u1ef1 \u0110\u1ee9c B\u1ea3o Sao cash coins in Vietnam. All of these large denomination cash coins also caused inflation on comparable levels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Tongbi",
        "text": "Not long after these new copper coins were introduced, black market counterfeit versions of the 10 w\u00e9n appeared, illegal mints or \"private mints\" (\u5c40\u79c1) opened all over China and started producing more coins than the Qing government's set quotas allowed there to be circulating on the market. Both Chinese and foreigners soon started producing struck cash coins of inferior quality often with traces of the Korean 5 fun coins they were overstruck on, or with characters and symbols not found on official government issued coins. Joseon began minting modern-style machine-struck copper-alloy coins in 1892, which was 8 years before the Qing dynasty did so in China.\u00a0These coins were often minted by Korean businessmen and former Japanese Samurai (specifically \"R\u014dnin\") looking to make a profit on exchanging the low value copper coins into silver dollars as a single Chinese silver dollar had the purchasing power of 1000 Korean fun. The majority of the counterfeit coins bear the inscription that they were minted in either Zhejiang province or Shandong province, but they circulated all over the coastal regions of China. Because the hand-operated presses used by the counterfeiters did not exert enough pressure on the coins to sufficiently obliterate the inscriptions and symbols on the Korean 5 fun coins, the counterfeit Qing dynasty 10 \"w\u00e9n\" coins made using this method would usually exhibit a combination of both the Chinese Da-Qing Tongbi and Korean 5 fun designs. For example, there can still be traces of a wreath surrounding the dragon or minor traces of the original Korean inscription."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daqian",
        "text": "Five Metal Value Ten coins are Chinese cash coins that were issued by the Ministry of Revenue made from an alloy of tin, iron, copper, silver, and gold. They contain the obverse inscriptions Tongzhi Zhongbao (\u540c\u6cbb\u91cd\u5bf6) or Guangxu Zhongbao (\u5149\u7dd2\u91cd\u5bf6) and are all based on 10 \"w\u00e9n\" Daqian. These special cash coins notably contain the mint marks of Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Ili, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Yunnan, Zhejiang, and Zhili despite no Daqian from these periods being produced at any of these mints. These special cash coins were created to serve as a new year's present.\n* Vietnamese v\u0103n (currency unit)\n* Hartill, David, \"Qing cash\", Royal Numismatic Society Special Publication 37, London, 2003.\n* Peng Xinwei (\u5f6d\u4fe1\u5a01) (1954 [2007]). \"Zhongguo huobi shi\" (\u4e2d\u570b\u8ca8\u5e63\u53f2) (Shanghai: Qunlian chubanshe), 580\u2013581, 597\u2013605. (in Mandarin Chinese).\n* Peng Xinwei (\u5f6d\u4fe1\u5a01) (1994) \"A monetary history of China\" (translated by Edward H. Kaplan). Western Washington University (Bellingham, Washington)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da Ming Baochao",
        "text": "Overprinting led to severe hyperinflation and distrust of paper currency. The Hongzhi Emperor and Zhengde Emperor abolished the production and use of banknotes. In the year 1535, 1 \"gu\u00e0n\" of paper money rather than being exchanged for 1000 copper-alloy cash coins was valued at only 0.28th of a coin. A proposal was made in 1643 to reintroduce paper money in order to finance the expenditures caused by the difficult situation that the Ming dynasty faced at the time confronted by the rebel Li Zicheng."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yuan (currency)",
        "text": "In 1917, the warlord in control of Manchuria, Zhang Zuolin, introduced a new currency, known as the Fengtien yuan or dollar, for use in the Three Eastern Provinces. It was valued at 1.2 yuan in the earlier (and still circulating) \"small money\" banknotes and was initially set equal to the Japanese yen. It maintained its value (at times being worth a little more than the yen) until 1925, when Zhang Zuolin's military involvement in the rest of China lead to an increase in banknote production and a fall in the currency's value. The currency lost most of its value in 1928 as a consequence of the disturbance following Zhang Zuolin's assassination. The Fengtien yuan was only issued in banknote form, with 1, 5 and 10 yuan notes issued in 1917, followed by 50 and 100 yuan notes in 1924. The last notes were issued in 1928."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shengbao (currency)",
        "text": "\"fantasy\" cash coins (\u675c\u64b0), fraudulent \"copies\" of coins that never actually existed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinduoduo",
        "text": "In 2021, a Shanghai lawyer, YuHang Liu, sued Pinduoduo because their \"price cutting\" activity almost always have a remain of 0.9% before costumer actually got the money. Pinduoduo states that their is 6 places after the decimal place, the actual remaining is \"0.9996427%\u201c."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "In the year 1859 the 50 \"w\u00e9n\" and 100 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins were officially discontinued, the Kucha mint then started collecting them for re-casting them into 10 \"w\u00e9n\" Daqian, a single string of either denomination could produce 3 strings of 10 \"w\u00e9n\" Daqian."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianzhuang",
        "text": "The first documented \"qianzhuang\" banking institution of Beijing was the \"Yinhao Huiguan\" (\u9280\u865f\u6703\u9928, \"bankers' guild hall\"), this bank had a shrine called \"Zhengyisi\" (\u6b63\u5df2\u7960) in its building, the \"Yinhao Huiguan\" was first mentioned in 1667 under the reign of the Manchu Qing dynasty. The first \"qianzhuang\" in Shanghai was founded seven decades later in 1736 was named the \"Qianye Gongsuo\" (\u9322\u696d\u516c\u6240, \"money industry office\"). The primary business of the \"qianzhuang\" was giving out loans in the Chinese hinterland to promote trade and the exchange of commodities with the coastal regions of China. Many \"qianzhuang\" engaged in the business exchanging copper-alloy cash coins and silver sycees and foreign coins and vice versa as China used a bimetallic currency system with fluctuating exchange rates. number of coins in a single string was locally determined as in one district a string could consist of 980 cash coins, while in another district this could only be 965 cash coins, these numbers were based on the local salaries of the \"qi\u00e1np\u00f9\". During the Qing dynasty the \"qi\u00e1np\u00f9\" would often search for older and rarer coins to sell these to coin collectors at a higher price. Remittances by \"qianzhuang\" would be carried out using a vast network of partner institutes, the owners of these other financial institutes would often hail from the same region, yet most of these small private banks would only operate locally. Comparatively, the financial landscape of northern China was very much focused on the imperial Chinese government. The \"qianzhuang\" were the main financial institutions serving as intermediaries between the Europeans and the Chinese for financial purposes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yuan dynasty coinage",
        "text": "As the paper money was made out of inferior material it would often be easily damaged making it hard for the people to redeem, this led to rebellions in the southern regions which in turn caused the Yuan government to quickly print more money in order to finance its military expenditures, leading to a decreasing confidence in paper money causing hyperinflation. Eventually entire carts filled with banknotes were needed for simple transactions leading to the people disregarding paper money as currency and eventually barter had become the norm as coinage had already become a rarity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "Despite the memorial issued by the Ministry of Revenue, it is likely that local government officials were very much aware of how disruptive this monetary policy was and would lead to inflation. To many local government officials, the real issue at hand was actually with how much gaming the system they were able to get away with. The Da-Qing Baochao banknotes were convertible into Daqian cash coins at times, and while these multi-denominational cash coins were meant to circulate all over the Qing dynasty there isn't much evidence supporting that they also circulated in Beijing. Much of the central government's economic policies surrounded around making this new monetary system work and the practice of office selling would play a paramount role in this as the government would continue to accept both Da-Qing Baochao banknotes and Daqian cash coins in this endeavour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "The standard Xuantong Tongbao (\u5ba3\u7d71\u901a\u5bf6) cash coins produced at the Ministry of Revenue mint between the years 1909 and 1910 had a weight of 6 \"f\u0113n\" and were both cast and machine-struck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yuan (currency)",
        "text": "The number of banks issuing paper money increased after the revolution. Significant national issuers included the \"Commercial Bank of China\" (the former Imperial Bank), the \"Bank of China\" (the former Ta-Ch'ing Government Bank), the \"Bank of Communications\", the \"Ningpo Commercial Bank\", the \"Central Bank of China\" and the \"Farmers Bank of China\". Of these, only the Central Bank of China issued notes beyond 1943. An exceptionally large number of banknotes were issued during the Republican era (1911\u20131949) by provincial banks (both Nationalist and Communist)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "Because casting is a very simple process many private (illegal) mints started producing fake cash coins known as \"S\u012bzh\u00f9qi\u00e1n\" (\u79c1\u9444\u9322) because government mints often couldn't meet the market's demand for money, as there barely was a difference in quality between \"real\" or \"Zh\u00ecqi\u00e1n\" (\u5236\u9322) and \"fake\" coins, the sizhuqian were just as widely accepted by the general population as means of payment. Though barter had remained common during most of the Qing era, by the mid 19th century the Chinese market had evolved to be highly monetised. Due to the inflation caused by various military crises under the Xianfeng Emperor new larger denomination cash coins were issued, cash coins of 4 w\u00e9n and higher being referred to as \"D\u00e0qi\u00e1n\" (\u5927\u9322)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scott Sumner",
        "text": "Sumner does not believe that China is manipulating its currency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "Strictly speaking, the Xianfeng era banknotes issued by the official banks did not fall under the monies issued by the Qing government. However, the status and function of official banks was intertwined with that of the Daqian, Da-Qing Baochao, and Hubu Guanpiao, and the over-issue of banknotes by the official banks was probably the real reason for the Xianfeng inflation. Because the official banks were neither directly controlled by the Ministry of Revenue or supervised by them, and the fact that their operations were semi-commercial (as in they were operated by private merchants), few records of official banknotes exist today. In fact, it has not become uncommon for modern English language literature on the subject to claim that the Da-Qing Baochao were in fact issued by the official banks. In reality both the Hubu Guanpiao and the Da-Qing Baochao were issued by the Ministry of Revenue, while official banknotes, which were also often denominated in copper-alloy cash coins, were distinct. In his book \"Money and Monetary Policy in China\" King confuses the Da-Qing Baochao with the official banknotes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "The Taiping Rebellion had caused the government of the Qing dynasty to fall into an extreme debt spiral which forced it to reconsider introducing paper money as a medium for exchange. This was advertised by the imperial government as a necessary evil because of a shortage of bronze which meant that the production of cash coinage had to be heavily scaled down. The pauperised Chinese public was for centuries uncompromisingly minded against the idea of paper money emissions in any way, shape, or form and would not accept it for any reason. Half a century earlier in the year 1814, when Cai Zhiding (\u8521\u4e4b\u5b9a, Ts'ai Chih-Ting), who was a high official in the Ministry of State, petitioned to the court of the Jiaqing Emperor advocating the resumption of a paper money currency, this request was denied. Cai was later severely rebuked in the Jiaqing Emperor's memorial in which he pointed out that neither the Chinese government nor any individuals in the past had experienced benefits from the circulation of a paper money. The Jiaqing Emperor was not fully without justification in asserting his stance against paper currency, as the era Ming banknotes from their introduction had been inconvertible into metal currencies. With no government backing into any other forms of currency these banknotes were swiftly depreciated. While this may seem only logical today the Chinese had to learn this lesson the hard way."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are iron cash coins still used today?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I'm sorry, but I could not find the information you requested. However, I did find that the last government attempt at issuing iron cash coins occurred during the 1850s the under the reign of the Manchu Qing dynasty."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why did China stop making the coins after the Manchu Qing dynasty?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Under the Guangxu Emperor, there were various attempts at reforming the Qing dynasty's currency system. Machine-made copper coins and machines operated mints were introduced, signaling the end of coin casting in China."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did China first begin using paper money?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The first known banknote was first developed in China during the Tang and Song dynasties, starting in the 7th century. Its roots were in merchant receipts of deposit during the Tang dynasty (618\u2013907), as merchants and wholesalers desired to avoid the heavy bulk of copper coinage in large commercial transactions."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What kind of paper was it made from?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I could not find what the the notes were made out of, but they were first used by a private merchant enterprise."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did China's paper money change after the Chinese Revolution?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "As the Chinese Communist Party soon gained control of the Mainland provinces. It was replaced by currency issued by the People's Bank of China which was less prone to inflation ."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is the currency used in China easy to counterfeit?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you asking about counterfeits related to the Yuan, New Taiwan dollar or Hong Kong dollar?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I would like to know more about counterfeits related to the Yuan."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I am not sure about how easy it would be to counterfeit the Chinese Yuan, but China as been taking measures to prevent counterfeit money for a long time. In fact, first cash seal, a type of seal used as an anti-counterfeiting measure on paper money or banknotes, first appeared during the Song dynasty in China."
    ],
    "topic": "Tieqian",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Banknote seal (China):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Banknote seal (China)"
        ],
        "ctx": "A cash seal (; \"Baochao\" means \"valuable money\", \"Yin\" means \"seal\") is a type of seal used as an anti-counterfeiting measure on paper money or banknotes. The cash seal first appeared during the Song dynasty in China."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "The intellectual property rights on photographs are protected in different jurisdictions by the laws governing copyright and moral rights. In some cases photography may be restricted by civil or criminal law. Publishing certain photographs can be restricted by privacy or other laws. Photography can be generally restricted in the interests of public morality and the protection of children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Richard Arnold has criticized the protection of photographs in this manner on two grounds. Firstly, it is argued that photographs should not be protected as artistic works, but should instead be protected in a manner similar to that of sound recordings and films. In other words, copyright should not protect the subject matter of a photograph as a matter of course as a consequence of a photograph being taken. It is argued that protection of photographs as artistic works is anomalous, in that photography is ultimately a medium of reproduction, rather than creation. As such, it is more similar to a film, or sound, recording than a painting or sculpture. Some photographers share this view. For example, Michael Reichmann described photography as an art of disclosure, as opposed to an art of inclusion. Secondly, it is argued that the protection of photographs as artistic works leads to bizarre results. Subject matter is protected irrespective of the artistic merit of a photograph. The subject matter of a photograph is protected even when it is not deserving of protection. For copyright to subsist in photographs as artistic works, the photographs must be original, since the English test for originality is based on skill, labour and judgment. That said, it is possible that the threshold of originality is very low. Essentially, by this, Arnold is arguing that whilst the subject matter of some photographs may deserve protection, it is inappropriate for the law to presume that the subject matter of all photographs is deserving of protection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Switzerland",
        "text": "Legal scholarship has attempted to summarise the Federal Supreme Court's jurisprudence on the threshold of originality as follows:\n* Images where only the object, but not the photograph, is individual are not protected, as e.g. in art catalogue photographs. Of course, the copyright status of the object depicted, e.g. a painting, must be considered independently.\n* \"Merely\" illustrative and portrait images also tend not to be protected, at least if the composition, post-processing etc. show no individual expression of thought.\n* Images are not protected \"per se\" because their object is famous or they attract great attention (e.g. the Abraham Zapruder pictures of the Kennedy assassination). On the other hand, an image can be a \"snapshot\" and still be protected as an individual work.\n* The impression is given that the mere \"aesthetic appeal\" of a photograph may contribute to its originality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Certain photographs may not be protected by copyright. Section 171(3) of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 gives courts jurisdiction to refrain from enforcing the copyright which subsists in works on the grounds of public interest. For example, patent diagrams are held to be in the public domain, and are thus not subject to copyright."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Copyright which subsists in a photograph protects not merely the photographer from direct copying of his/her work, but also from indirect copying to reproduce his/her work, where a substantial part of his/her work has been copied."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "A photograph can also be a mechanism of infringement of the copyright which subsists in another work. For example, a photograph which copies a substantial part of an artistic work, such as a sculpture, painting or another photograph (without permission) would infringe the copyright which subsists in those works."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "A very limited statutory right to privacy exists in the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. This right is held, for example, by someone who hires a photographer to photograph their wedding. The commissioner, irrespective of any copyright which he does or does not hold in the photograph, of a photograph which was commissioned for private and domestic purposes, where copyright subsists in the photograph, has the right not to have copies of the work issued to the public, the work exhibited in public or the work communicated to the public. However, this right will not be infringed if the rightholder gives permission. It will not be infringed if the photograph is incidentally included in an artistic work, film, or broadcast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "Initially, family, vacation, and other photographs taken spontaneously by individuals and not necessarily intended for publication were not treated as \"photographs\" for the purposes of copyright. Today, these are termed \"photographic works\" and are protected by copyright provided that they are the author's \"own intellectual creations\" (\u00a7 2 UrhG). The copyright of a \"photographic work\" expires seventy years after the author's death (\u00a72 64 UrhG)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Related rights",
        "text": "Each new technology for creative work has led to debate over what protection should be accorded to such works, as has been the case most recently for software copyright and database rights. Similar debates occurred over the copyright protection of photographs. The Berne Convention allows a shorter period of protection than for other works (twenty-five years from creation rather than fifty years \"post mortem auctoris\", Art.\u00a07.4), and many countries apply a different period of copyright protection to photographs than to other works. An alternative approach, adopted notably by Germany and Italy, has been to offer full copyright protection to photographs that are clearly \"artistic works\" and protect all photographs, whatever their creative value, by a shorter \"sui generis\" related right. This focuses the debate on those photographs that still have value at the end of the \"sui generis\" protection (no-one would bother to try to protect photographs without value), which are the photographs most likely original. However it also means that photographs are subject to a higher test of originality than other works of art, with copyright being reserved only for those the courts felt to be particularly meritorious, in contravention of the spirit (if not the letter) of the Berne Convention. The \"sui generis\" protections are found at \u00a7\u00a072, UrhG for Germany (50 years) and Arts.\u00a087\u201392, Legge 22 aprile 1941 n.\u00a0633 for Italy (20 years). The different treatment of photographs and other artistic works was eliminated by European Union Directive 93/98/EEC (Art.\u00a06), which states that the only applicable criterion for copyright protection is that the photograph be \"original in the sense that they are the author's own intellectual creation\", a lower criterion than used until then, but equivalent to the criterion used for other copyright works. The \"sui generis\" protection may be retained for photographs that do not meet this criterion (e.g., photographs taken automatically such as for a passport)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "It is possible to say with a high degree of confidence that photographs of three-dimensional objects, including artistic works, will be treated by a court as themselves original artistic works, and as such, will be subject to copyright. It is likely that a photograph (including a scan \u2013 digital scanning counts as photography for the purposes of the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988) of a two dimensional artistic work, such as another photograph or a painting will also be subject to copyright if a significant amount of skill, labour and judgment went into its creation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Whether this right is caused by horizontal effect of the Human Rights Act 1998 or is judicially created is a matter of some controversy. The right to privacy is protected by Article 8 of the convention. In the context of photography, it stands at odds to the Article 10 right of freedom of expression. As such, courts will consider the public interest in balancing the rights through the legal test of proportionality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Digital photograph restoration",
        "text": "Digitally scanned or captured images, both unaltered and restored image files are protected under copyright law. Courts agree that by its basic nature digitization involves reproduction\u2014an act exclusively reserved for copyright owners. The ownership of an artwork does not inherently carry with it the rights of reproduction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography",
        "text": "Photography is both restricted and protected by the law in many jurisdictions. Protection of photographs is typically achieved through the granting of copyright or moral rights to the photographer. In the United States, photography is protected as a First Amendment right and anyone is free to photograph anything seen in public spaces as long as it is in plain view. In the UK a recent law (Counter-Terrorism Act 2008) increases the power of the police to prevent people, even press photographers, from taking pictures in public places. In South Africa, any person may photograph any other person, without their permission, in public spaces and the only specific restriction placed on what may not be photographed by government is related to anything classed as national security. Each country has different laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "However, the subject matter of a photograph is not necessarily subject to an independent copyright. For example, in the Creation Records case, a photographer, attempting to create a photograph for an album cover, set up an elaborate and artificial scene. A photographer from a newspaper covertly photographed the scene and published it in the newspaper. The court held that the newspaper photographer did not infringe the official photographer's copyright. Copyright did not subsist in the scene itself \u2013 it was too temporary to be a collage, and could not be categorised as any other form of artistic work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "This decision contradicted the opinion of the Supreme Court, which was affirmed again in 2000 in a judgement of 7 December 2000, \"Telefonkarte\" (\"calling card\"), (Az. I ZR 146/98):\n:\"[...] Independently thereof the picture, for which the plaintiff claims the protection of \u00a7 72 UrhG , would have to be more its than a bare technical reproduction of an existing graphics. Because the technical reproduction procedure alone does not justify a photo protection (see BGH, judgement from 8 November 1989 \u2013 I ZR 14/88, GRUR 1990, 669, 673 \u2013 Bible reproduction, m.w. N.; Schricker/Vogel, copyright, 2. Aufl., \u00a7 72 UrhG Rdn. 22). Rather a minimum of personal mental performance is necessary, which is to be denied if a photo or a similarly manufactured product is not any more than the bare technical reproduction of an existing representation.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Medical imaging",
        "text": "The \"Cyber Law in Sweden\" states: \"Pictures can be protected as photographic works or as photographic pictures. The former requires a higher level of originality; the latter \"protects all types of photographs, also the ones taken\" by amateurs, or \"within medicine\" or science. The protection requires some sort of photographic technique being used, which includes digital cameras as well as holograms created by laser technique. The difference between the two types of work is the term of protection, which amounts to seventy years after the death of the author of a photographic work as opposed to fifty years, from the year in which the photographic picture was taken.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweat of the brow",
        "text": "In a copyright notice on \"digital images, photographs and the internet\" last updated in November 2015, the UK Intellectual Property Office stated that digital reproductions of public domain images are not protected by copyright, arguing that \"according to the Court of Justice of the European Union which has effect in UK law, copyright can only subsist in subject matter that is original in the sense that it is the author's own \"intellectual creation\". Given this criterion, it seems unlikely that what is merely a retouched, digitised image of an older work can be considered as \"original\".\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Federal legislation governs the questions of copyright and criminal offences with respect to photography. Otherwise, the common law (except, in the case of Quebec, the \"Civil Code of Quebec\"), generally determines when photography can take place.\n:* The \"Copyright Act\" provides that the duration of copyright for a photograph is the life of the author plus 50 years. Freedom of panorama is also allowed, with respect to photographs of sculptures and architectural works, and there is also protection for those who \"incidentally and not deliberately include a work or other subject-matter in another work or other subject-matter.\"\n:* The \"Criminal Code\" provides for punishment of various offences, including voyeurism, child pornography, trespassing at night, and paparazzi behaviour.\n:* The law of defamation, trespass and privacy is governed at the provincial level.\n::* The common-law provinces of British Columbia, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, Ontario and Saskatchewan have enacted privacy legislation dealing with personality rights, which supplement the law of trespass.\n::* In Quebec, the \"Civil Code\" goes further by specifying that \"keeping ... private life under observation by any means\" constitutes an additional ground of invasion of privacy. In \"Aubry v \u00c9ditions Vice-Versa Inc\", the Supreme Court of Canada held that, because of that, supplemented by Quebec's \"Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms\" privacy provisions, a photographer can take photographs in public places but may not publish them unless permission has been obtained from the subject, except where the subject appears in an incidental manner, or whose professional success depends on public opinion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of the Philippines",
        "text": "The Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines does not have a freedom of panorama provision, concerning the right to photograph artistic works in public spaces and use the resulting images for any purposes without the need to secure permission from the authors of the said works."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Infringement of the copyright which subsists in a photograph can be performed through copying the photograph. This is because the owner of the copyright in the photograph has the exclusive right to copy the photograph. For there to be infringement of the copyright in a photograph, there must be copying of a substantial part of the photograph."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Switzerland",
        "text": "In its 2003 \"Marley\" decision, the Federal Supreme Court found that the picture at issue (shot by a spectator with a handheld camera) had the required individual character by virtue of the aesthetic appeal of the picture, combined with the orientation of the picture's components and the distribution of light and shadow. It also found that it was a \"creation of the mind\" by being shot at a specific time during the singer's movement on the stage. Accordingly, the Court held that the picture was protected by copyright."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright Duration Directive",
        "text": "Before the directive, different Member States had applied widely different criteria of originality and creativity to the copyright protection of photographs. These were harmonised by article\u00a06, which states that the only permissible criterion for full protection (70 years pma) is that the photograph is \"original in the sense that [it is] the author's own intellectual creation\". Member States may protect photographs which do not meet this criterion by \"sui generis\" related rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Threshold of originality",
        "text": "In a 2003 decision, the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland ruled that a photo of Bob Marley taken at a concert by a spectator with a handheld camera was eligible for protection, because it had the required individual character by virtue of the aesthetic appeal of the picture, combined with the orientation of the picture's components and the distribution of light and shadow. It also found that the photograph was a \"creation of the mind\" by being shot at a specific time during the singer's movement on the stage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Integrated circuit",
        "text": "The possibility of copying by photographing each layer of an integrated circuit and preparing photomasks for its production on the basis of the photographs obtained is a reason for the introduction of legislation for the protection of layout designs. The US Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of 1984 established intellectual property protection for photomasks used to produce integrated circuits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Switzerland",
        "text": "Only \"works\" in the sense of the law, i.e. \"creations of the mind, literary or artistic, that have an individual character\", are protected by copyright. What exactly \"individuality\" (also referred to as originality) means for photographs has long been a focus of dispute. Up until 2020, it meant that many photographs lacked copyright protection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Copyright can subsist in an original photograph, i.e. a recording of light or other radiation on any medium on which an image is produced or from which an image by any means be produced, and which is not part of a film. Whilst photographs are classified as artistic works, the subsistence of copyright does not depend on artistic merit. The owner of the copyright in the photograph is the photographer \u2013 the person who creates it, by default. However, where a photograph is taken by an employee in the course of employment, the first owner of the copyright is the employer, unless there is an agreement to the contrary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Copyright in a photograph lasts for 70 years from the end of the year in which the photographer dies. A consequence of this lengthy period of existence of the copyright is that many family photographs which have no market value, but significant emotional value, remain subject to copyright, even when the original photographer cannot be traced (a problem known as copyright orphan), has given up photography, or died. In the absence of a licence, it will be an infringement of copyright in the photographs to copy them. When someone dies the rights will have transferred to someone else, perhaps through testamentary deposition (a will) or by inheritance. If there was no will, or if the photographer has not specified where the rights in the material should go, then the normal rules of inheritance will apply (although these rules are not specific to copyright and legal advice should be sought). Scanning old family photographs, without permission, to a digital file for personal use is prima facie an infringement of copyright."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of panorama",
        "text": "This non-commercial restriction was clarified in the 192nd issue of the \"Intellectual Property Right Journal\" by the Intellectual Property Office, Ministry of Economic Affairs. Accordingly, photographing murals painted on outdoor walls of village houses and using the resulting photographs on commercial postcards without muralist's permission complies with Article 58. It is the act of selling actual reproductions of artistic works that is prohibited in the law. A similar clarification was also made regarding use of images of Taipei 101. While the name \"Taipei 101\" is trademark-protected, no architect's permission is needed for the use of images of Taipei 101 in commercial postcards, as long as the representation depicts the building's exteriors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
        "text": "(ii) which is derived from the whole or part of a photograph or pseudo-photograph (or a combination of either or both),\" and including data stored on a computer disc or by any other form of electronic means that can be converted into such an image."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Switzerland",
        "text": "In 2020, the law was changed to provide even non-original photographs with copyright protection. Art. 2 par. 3bis of the Copyright Act, effective 1 April 2020, now provides: \"Photographic depictions and depictions of three-dimensional objects produced by a process similar to that of photography are considered works, even if they do not have individual character.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "It is generally agreed that a \"mechanical copy\", e.g. a photocopy), by digitizing (as with a scanner) as well as the reproduction of public-domain typographic originals (books, documents, etc.) and photos of public-domain originals (a picture from a picture) do not create a claim of ownership. In 1989, the then West German Bundesgerichtshof (supreme court) judged that identical reproductions, as described above, cannot be protected by copyright."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "As in most countries, to reproduce a copyright protected photo, the permission of the copyright owner must be obtained, and in some cases royalties paid. The law on reproduction of public domain images varies with the type of material."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "The photography of three-dimensional motifs always creates a photo (or sometimes also a photo work), which is protected under copyright law. This derives from the creative process, as the photographer must select a location, lighting, etc..."
      },
      {
        "title": "Street photography",
        "text": "The European Union's Human Rights Act 1998, which all EU countries have to uphold in their domestic law, establishes in a right to privacy. This can result in restrictions on the publication of photography. The right to privacy is protected by Article 8 of the convention. In the context of photography, it stands at odds to the Article 10 right of freedom of expression. As such, courts will usually consider the public interest in balancing the rights through the legal test of proportionality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "There is some controversy as to the legal status of photographs taken before 1949 in the first scenario, as it can be argued that the current practice of statutory interpretation in the courts would hold that copyright protection was moved to the general rule by the 1999 reform to such photographs that were taken by individuals or creator-controlled corporations. In any case, this argument states that the 2012 act effectively removed all such special rules that were formerly contained in s. 10 of the Copyright Act."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
        "text": "Whether or not a photograph or pseudo-photograph is indecent is a question of fact, and as a question of fact it is something for a jury or magistrate to decide. The jury should apply the standard of decency which ordinary right-thinking members of the public would set - the \"recognised standards of propriety\" as \"R v Stamford\" [1972] puts it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "In private property, photography may be prohibited or restricted by a property owner on their property."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph",
        "text": "The production or distribution of certain types of photograph has been forbidden under modern laws, such as those of government buildings, highly classified regions, private property, copyrighted works, children's genitalia, child pornography and less commonly pornography overall. These laws vary greatly between jurisdictions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Privacy law",
        "text": "During the military dictatorship era the 57 AK law prohibited taking photos of people without their permission but the law has since been superseded. The 2472/1997 law protects personal data of citizens but consent for taking photos of people is not required as long as they aren't used commercially or are used only for personal archiving (\"\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03ae \u03c7\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03b7\" / \"home use\"), for publication in editorial, educational, cultural, scientific or news publications, and for fine art purposes (e.g. street photography which has been uphold as legal by the courts whether done by professional or amateur photographers). However, photographing people or collecting their personal data for commercial (advertising) purposes requires their consent. The law gives photographers the right to commercially use photos of people who have not consented to the use of the images in which they appear if the depicted people have either been paid for the photo session as models (so there is no separation between editorial and commercial models in Greek law) or they have paid the photographer for obtaining the photo (this, for example, gives the right to wedding photographers to advertise their work using their photos of newly-wed couples they photographed in a professional capacity). In Greece the right to take photographs and publish them or sell licensing rights over them as fine art or editorial content is protected by the Constitution of Greece (Article 14 and other articles) and free speech laws as well as by case law and legal cases. Photographing the police or children and publishing the photographs in a non-commercial capacity is also legal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Photography of certain subject matter is restricted in the United Kingdom. In particular, the Protection of Children Act 1978 restricts making or possessing pornography of children under 18, or what looks like pornography of under-18s. There is no law prohibiting photographing children in public spaces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "In Germany, photo rights or \"Bildrechte\" are the copyrights that are attached to the \"author\" of the photograph and are specified in the \"Law for Copyright and similar Protection\" (\"Gesetz \u00fcber Urheberrecht und verwandte Schutzrechte\"). These rights deal with rights of reproduction, distribution, modification, attribution, and prohibitions against illegal modification or reproduction. The ownership rights of a picture are treated under the broader \"art copyright laws\". Furthermore, if a museum or gallery owns a work of art or a photograph, they are permitted to make their own stipulations as to the selling of illustrations and reproductions of their property. This relates to the German legal concept of the right of owner to undisturbed possession. Wolf Vostell said: \"Copyrights are like human rights\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Street photography",
        "text": "In terms of photographing property, in general under UK law one cannot prevent photography of private property from a public place, and in general the right to take photographs on private land upon which permission has been obtained is similarly unrestricted. However, landowners are permitted to impose any conditions they wish upon entry to a property, such as forbidding or restricting photography. There are however nuances to these broad principles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard Liebowitz",
        "text": "For his part, Liebowitz has argued that copyright law is the only tool that photographers have to protect their rights and livelihood in a digital media environment in which images are often reused without regard to proper licensing. However, in one case, a client was forced to repay $120,000 in legal bills to several media outlets Liebowitz sued on his behalf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
        "text": "'Photograph' shall include film, video-recording, copy of photograph or film or video-recording, photo comprised in a film or video-recording; negatives of photograph etc.; data on a computer etc. which can be converted to photograph etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Poland",
        "text": "According to the Art.21 of (valid until 1952) photographs lose copyright protection ten years after picture was taken. Series of scientific or artistic pictures lose copyright protection after 50 years. According to Art. 27 of (valid until May 23, 1994) photographs and series of photographs lose copyright protection ten years after publication date."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
        "text": "Where the age of the subject of a photograph is uncertain (i.e. where the identity of the subject is unknown), the subject's age shall be determined from the photograph."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nimmer on Copyright",
        "text": "In \"Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.\" the court held that photographs were \"writings\" within the meaning of the Copyright Clause and cited \"Nimmer on Copyright\", which stated that there \"appear to be at least two situations in which a photograph should be denied copyright for lack of originality\". Judge Lewis Kaplan considered one of those situations, as described by Nimmer, to be directly relevant, namely that \"where a photograph of a photograph or other printed matter is made that amounts to nothing more than slavish copying\". A slavish photographic copy of a painting thus, according to Nimmer, lacks originality and thus copyrightability under the U.S. Copyright Act."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.",
        "text": "Thus Kaplan applied US law to the issue of copyrightability, rather than UK law as in the first judgment. The second judgment provided a more detailed statement of the court's reasoning than the first judgment did. The court held that photographs were \"writings\" within the meaning of the Copyright Clause. It cited Melville Nimmer's \"Nimmer on Copyright\", which stated that there \"appear to be at least two situations in which a photograph should be denied copyright for lack of originality\". Kaplan considered one of those situations, as described by Nimmer, to be directly relevant, namely that \"where a photograph of a photograph or other printed matter is made that amounts to nothing more than slavish copying\". A slavish photographic copy of a painting thus, according to Nimmer, lacks originality and thus copyrightability under the US Copyright Act."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of the United Kingdom",
        "text": "A person who commissions the making of photographs or films for private and domestic use has a right to privacy. That means that such photographs may not be issued to the public, shown in public, or communicated to the public without the permission of the person who commissioned the photograph or film. Photographs jointly commissioned entitle all the commissioners to a privacy right. The right to privacy subsists for as long as the copyright term of the work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "If none of the 3 mentioned cases apply, it is only legal to share those images if the faces, voices and any identity signs are removed."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Press Photographers Association",
        "text": "Following the ruling, Senators Thom Tillis (R-North Carolina) and Patrick Leahy (D-Vermont), of the intellectual property subcommittee on the Senate Judiciary Committee, sent letters to the U.S. Copyright Office and the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office requesting a study detailing copyright infringements by state governments. The United States Copyright Office gave intellectual property owners suffering infringement by state entities until August 3, 2020 to publicly comment as part of this inquiry. In September of 2020 the U.S. Copyright Office began publishing those comments which reflect hundreds of copyright violations by state entities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "The photographer generally has full rights of the images meaning they can also publish it to something like social media without permission from the people in the image. Although there are exceptions in the following scenarios.\n* A breach of the Privacy act 1988\n* Was taken while trespassing on private property\n* A breach of duty, such as sharing confidential information"
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "According to \u00a7 72 Abs. 3 UrhG, copyrights for most photographs and pictures expire fifty years after their first publication. If the picture is not published for a period of 50 years after production of the photograph, then the protection ends. As long as the work appears at least once in that period, the period of protection is extended until 50 years after its first publication. For example, if a photo is taken in the year 2000 but is not published until 2049, the protection will be extended until 2099."
      },
      {
        "title": "Street photography",
        "text": "Germany protects the right to take photos in public, but also recognizes a \"right to one's own picture\". That means that even though pictures can often be \"taken\" without someones consent, they must not be published without the permission of the person in the picture. The law also protects specifically against defamation\u201d."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.",
        "text": "Kaplan stated that there is \"little doubt that many photographs, probably the overwhelming majority, reflect at least the modest amount of originality required for copyright protection\", citing prior judgments that had stated that \"[e]lements of originality [...] may include posing the subjects, lighting, angle, selection of film and camera, evoking the desired expression, and almost any other variant involved\". But he ruled that the plaintiff, by its own admission, had performed \"slavish copying\", which did not qualify for copyright protection. \"[I]ndeed\", he elaborated, \"the point of the exercise was to reproduce the underlying works with absolute fidelity\". He noted that \"[i]t is uncontested that Bridgeman's images are substantially exact reproductions of public domain works, albeit in a different medium\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.",
        "text": "Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp., 36 F. Supp. 2d 191 (S.D.N.Y. 1999), was a decision by the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, which ruled that exact photographic copies of public domain images could not be protected by copyright in the United States because the copies lack originality. Even though accurate reproductions might require a great deal of skill, experience and effort, the key element to determine whether a work is copyrightable under US law is originality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Online service provider law",
        "text": "Photographs created before 1 June 1957 have a 50-year copyright period, as do other works except engravings. Photographs published before August 1989 also have a 50-year copyright period.\n*flowchart for determining Crown Copyright status of literary, dramatic and musical works (PDF)\n*flowchart for determining Crown Copyright status of artistic works (PDF)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.",
        "text": "In November 2015, the Intellectual Property Office of the United Kingdom issued an official guide for individuals and businesses titled \"Copyright Notice: digital images, photographs and the internet\" that offers a judgment similar to that of \"Bridgeman v. Corel\". Updated 4 January 2021, the section of the guidance titled, \"Are digitised copies of older images protected by copyright?\" states that:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
        "text": "In \"R v Graham-Kerr\" (1988), the accused had taken photographs of a young boy at a nudist meeting at a public swimming baths. The Court of Appeal held that the motivation of the photographer had no influence on the decency or otherwise of the photographs taken; a photograph is an indecent photograph of a child if it is indecent, and if it shows a child."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
        "text": "In \"Goodland v DPP\" (2000), Lord Justice Simon Brown ruled that \"an image made by an exhibit which obviously consists, as this one does, of parts of two different photographs sellotaped together cannot be said to appear to be \"a photograph\". This means that, if an item does not appear to be a single photograph, it does not fall within the scope of the Protection of Children Act. A photocopy or scan of such an item may appear to be a single photograph and so fall under the Act and could therefore be illegal if it shows a child and is judged to be indecent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monkey selfie copyright dispute",
        "text": "The intellectual property lawyers Mary M. Luria and Charles Swan said that because the creator of the photograph is an animal and not a person, there is no copyright on the photograph, regardless of who owns the equipment with which the photograph was created. According to the American legal scholar Jessica Litman, \"No human author has rights to a photograph taken by a monkey\u00a0... The original monkey selfie is in the public domain\". She said that the US Copyright Office was clarifying existing practice, and not creating a new policy. However, the American art lawyer Nicholas O'Donnell of Sullivan & Worcester LLP commented that \"even if 'a photograph taken by a monkey' cannot be copyrighted by the monkey, it is not clear why that would categorically rule out any copyright for a human author in a work in which cameras are intentionally left in a place where some natural force or animal will cause them to snap a photo\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clip art",
        "text": "The United States District Court ruled in 1999 as part of Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp that exact copies of public domain images were not restricted under US copyright law, however the scope of this ruling only applies to photographs currently. It is \"originality,\"not skill, neither experience nor effort, which affects copyrightability of derivative images. In fact, the US Supreme Court in Feist v. Rural ruled that the difficulty of labor and expenses must be rejected as considerations in copyrightability."
      },
      {
        "title": "CEPIC",
        "text": "Another main issue is the protection of intellectual property and the payment of photographers. CEPIC speaks up for ethical codes and for the rights of photographers and Picture Agencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Photography and the law\n--Australia.\n----General.\n----Private property.\n----Publishing and rights.\n----Commercial purposes.\n--United Kingdom.\n----Legal restrictions on photography.\n----Anti-terrorism law.\n----Copyright.\n------Infringement.\n----Photography and privacy.\n--United States.\n--Canada.\n--Hong Kong.\n--Hungary.\n--Iceland.\n--Macau.\n--Mexico.\n--Philippines.\n--South Africa.\n--Spain.\n--Sudan and South Sudan.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Public domain",
        "text": "The Reiss-Engelhorn-Museen, a German art museum, brought a suit against Wikimedia Commons in 2016 for photographs uploaded to the database depicting pieces of art in the museum. The museum claimed that the photos were taken by their staff, and that photography within the museum by visitors was prohibited. Therefore, photos taken by the museum, even of material that itself had fallen into the public domain, were protected by copyright law and would need to be removed from the Wikimedia image repository. The court ruled that the photographs taken by the museum would be protected under the German Copyright Act, stating that since the photographer needed to make practical decisions about the photograph that it was protected material. The Wikimedia volunteer was ordered to remove the images from the site, as the museum's policy had been violated when the photos were taken."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
        "text": "The Act defines a \"pseudo-photograph\" as \"an image, whether made by computer-graphics or otherwise howsoever, which appears to be a photograph\", and"
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of panorama",
        "text": "In Italy freedom of panorama does not exist. Despite many official protests and a national initiative led by the lawyer Guido Scorza and the journalist Luca Spinelli (who highlighted the issue), the publishing of photographic reproductions of public places is still prohibited, in accordance with the old Italian copyright laws. A 2004 law called ' states, among other provisions, that to publish pictures of \"cultural goods\" (meaning in theory every cultural and artistic object and place) for commercial purposes, it is mandatory to obtain an authorization from the local branch of the Ministry of Arts and Cultural Heritage, the '."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of panorama",
        "text": "The Copyright Act also provides specific protection for the incidental inclusion of another work seen in the background of a photo. Photos that \"incidentally and not deliberately\" include another work do not infringe copyright."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Portrait Gallery and Wikimedia Foundation copyright dispute",
        "text": "In November 2015, the United Kingdom's Intellectual Property Office clarified in an informational document that, based on the opinion of the European Court of Justice, \"copyright can only subsist in subject matter that is original in the sense that it is the author's own 'intellectual creation'. Given this criterion, it seems unlikely that what is merely a retouched, digitised image of an older work can be considered as 'original'.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "R v Fellows; R v Arnold",
        "text": "R v. Fellows; R v. Arnold [1997] 1 Cr App R 244; [1997] 2 All E.R. 548, is a prominent English case on the statutory interpretation of section 1 of the Protection of Children Act 1978, and the Obscene Publications Act 1959, the definitions have since been amended by the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994. The Court of Appeal held that data on a computer that represents the original photograph is a copy of a photograph under the 1978 Act, therefore, downloading an indecent photograph from the internet constitutes making a copy or reproduction of an indecent photograph."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v. Sarony",
        "text": "Even if other visual works could be copyrighted, Burrow-Giles argued, photography was merely a mechanical process rather than an art, and could not embody an author's \"idea\". The Court accepted that this may be true of \"ordinary\" photographs, but this was not in the case of Sarony's image of Wilde. The trial court had found that Sarony had \"by posing the said Oscar Wilde in front of the camera, selecting and arranging the costume, draperies, and other various accessories in said photograph, arranging the subject so as to present graceful outlines, arranging and disposing the light and shade, suggesting and evoking the desired expression, and from such disposition, arrangement, or representation, made entirely by the plaintiff, he produced the picture in suit.\" This control that Sarony exercised over the subject matter, in the view of the Court, showed that he was the \"author\" of \"an original work of art\" and thus within the \"class\" of things for which the Constitution intended Congress to grant him exclusive rights under the copyright laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Street photography",
        "text": "For example, the case \"Nussenzweig v. DiCorcia\" established that taking, publishing and selling street photography (including street portraits) is legal, even without the consent of the person being portrayed, because photography is protected as free speech and art by the First Amendment. However, the Court of Appeals for the State of New York upheld the Nussenzweig decision solely on the basis of the statute of limitations expiring and did not address the free speech and First Amendment arguments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of panorama",
        "text": "Many countries have similar provisions restricting the scope of copyright law in order to explicitly permit photographs involving scenes of public places or scenes photographed from public places. Other countries, though, differ widely in their interpretation of the principle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Switzerland",
        "text": "In its 2004 \"Meili\" decision, the Court found that the picture at issue, shot by a reporter to document Christoph Meili with the files he had taken from his employer, lacked individual character. It found that the scope of conceptual and technical possibilities was not exploited, and that the photograph did not distinguish itself in any way from what was common use. For lack of an \"individual expression of thought\", therefore, the Court held that the image was not copyrighted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of panorama",
        "text": "The Intellectual property Code of the Philippines (Republic Act No. 8923) makes no specific provision for freedom of panorama. A very limited provision does exists at Section 184(d) which states \"the reproduction and communication to the public of literary, scientific or artistic works as part of reports of current events by means of photography, cinematography or broadcasting to the extent necessary for the purpose.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "Photograph copyright (Germany)\n--Periods of protection.\n----Photographs (\"Lichtbilder\").\n----Photographic works (\"Lichtbildwerke\").\n----Photos as documents of contemporary history.\n--Protection of reproductions.\n----Two-dimensional originals.\n----Three-dimensional motives.\n--International agreements.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "A right to privacy came into existence in UK law as a consequence of the incorporation of the European Convention on Human Rights into domestic law through the Human Rights Act 1998. This can result in restrictions on the publication of photography."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "While one can generally photograph private property and the people within it if the photographer is not within the bounds of the private property and cannot be asked to stop or delete the images, the owner can restrict recording whilst the photographer is on the private property. Failure to comply with orders to stop recording on the private property is not a criminal offence although it may be against the terms or policy of entrance and the photographer may be asked to leave; if they refuse to leave, they may be liable for trespassing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "In South Africa photographing people in public is legal. Reproducing and selling photographs of people is legal for editorial and limited fair use commercial purposes. There exists no case law to define what the limits on commercial use are. Civil law requires the consent of any identifiable persons for advertorial and promotional purposes. Property, including animals, do not enjoy any special consideration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monkey selfie copyright dispute",
        "text": "The British media lawyer Christina Michalos said that on the basis of British law on computer-generated art, it is arguable that Slater may own copyrights on the photograph, because he owned and presumably had set up the camera. Similarly, Serena Tierney, of London lawyers BDB, stated, \"If he checked the angle of the shot, set up the equipment to produce a picture with specific light and shade effects, set the exposure or used filters or other special settings, light and that everything required is in the shot, and all the monkey contributed was to press the button, then he would seem to have a passable claim that copyright subsists in the photo in the UK and that he is the author and so first owner.\" Furthermore, Andres Guadamuz, a lecturer in IP law at Sussex University, has written that existing European case law, particularly \"Infopaq International A/S v Danske Dagblades Forening\", makes it clear that the selection of photographs would be enough to warrant originality if the process reflects the personality of the photographer. Iain Connor, a partner in Pinsent Masons, similarly said that the photographer could claim they had \"put the camera in the hands of the monkey so [they had] taken some creative steps and therefore own the copyright,\" and that \"if it\u2019s an animal that presses the button, it should be the owner of the camera that owns the copyright to that photo.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Philip-Lorca diCorcia",
        "text": "In 2006, a New York trial court issued a ruling in a case involving one of his photographs. One of diCorcia's New York random subjects was Erno Nussenzweig, an Orthodox Jew who objected on religious grounds to diCorcia's publishing in an artistic exhibition a photograph taken of him without his permission. The photo's subject argued that his privacy and religious rights had been violated by both the taking and publishing of the photograph of him. The judge dismissed the lawsuit, finding that the photograph taken of Nussenzweig on a street is art - not commerce - and therefore is protected by the First Amendment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram",
        "text": "A German legal decision dated 5 November 1930 at the I. Zivilsenat des Reichsgericht on copyright law, used a photographic copy in a textbook of the picture of Charles enthroned in the book as an example, referring to \"The connection between the written work and a picture in it, the presentation and teaching purpose being to support the text\". The admissibility of the removal was denied because it does not adequately serve to illustrate the content. Today, the ruling doctrine of the true premise of the decision that the basic reproduction photography was protected, but no longer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Street photography",
        "text": "Production, publication and non-commercial sale of street photography is legal in Greece, without the need to have the consent of the shown person or persons. In Greece the right to take photographs and publish them or sell licensing rights over them as fine art or editorial content is protected by the Constitution of Greece (Article 14 and other articles) and free speech laws as well as by case law and legal cases. Photographing the police and publishing the photographs is also legal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Spain",
        "text": "Images are only concerned by this exception to copyright protection when they form an integral part of any of the above, for"
      },
      {
        "title": "Eiffel Tower",
        "text": "French doctrine and jurisprudence allows pictures incorporating a copyrighted work as long as their presence is incidental or accessory to the subject being represented, a reasoning akin to the \"de minimis\" rule. Therefore, SETE may be unable to claim copyright on photographs of Paris which happen to include the lit tower."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monkey selfie copyright dispute",
        "text": "On 22 August 2014, the day after the US Copyright Office published their opinion, a spokesperson for the UK Intellectual Property Office was quoted as saying that, while animals cannot own copyright under UK law, \"the question as to whether the photographer owns copyright is more complex. It depends on whether the photographer has made a creative contribution to the work and this is a decision which must be made by the courts.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "In some public property owned by government, such as law courts, government buildings, libraries, civic centres and some of the museums in Hong Kong, photography is not allowed without permission from the government. It is illegal to equip or take photographs and recording in a place of public entertainment, such as cinemas and indoor theaters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
        "text": "further a copy of a pseudo-photograph, including data stored on a computer disc or by any other form of electronic means that can be converted into a pseudo-photograph."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sculpture of the United States",
        "text": "United States courts have consistently held that sculptors maintain an intellectual property right to sculptures and are entitled to compensation if photographs are used for commercial purposes. The rights apply even if the sculptor no longer owns the sculpture or the sculpture is not even in a public space. The sculptor, however, could sign away those rights. Some other countries, such as Germany, give permission to take the photographs via the concept of \"Panoramafreiheit\", or Freedom of Panorama."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "If a raw photograph and/or reproduction of a public-domain original is published in a book, then the predominant jurisdiction assumes this illustration can be reproduced at will, without agreement of the photographer and the publishing house."
      },
      {
        "title": "Association of Photographers",
        "text": "The Association publishes a great deal of information of particular interest to all photographers concerned with their intellectual property rights and business practice, such as their Copyright4Clients web pages on the AOP's website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "In the United Kingdom there are no laws forbidding photography of private property from a public place. Photography is not restricted on land if the landowner has given permission to be on the land or the photographer has legal right to access, for example Byways Open to All Traffic or a public right of way or an area of open access land. The Metropolitan Police state in their own advice \"Members of the public and the media do not need a permit to film or photograph in public places and police have no power to stop them filming or photographing incidents or police personnel\". The IAC, Film and Video Institute recommends that one follows instruction given by police as there may be a reason/reasons for not filming, ignorance of said law(s) notwithstanding. An exception is an area that has prohibitions detailed within anti terrorism legislation. Civil proceeding can be taken if a person is filmed without consent, and privacy laws exist to protect a person where they can expect privacy. Two public locations in the UK, Trafalgar Square and Parliament Square, have a specific provision against photography for commercial purposes without the written permission of the Mayor or the Squares' Management Team and paying a fee, and permission is needed to photograph or film for commercial purposes in the Royal Parks or on any National Trust land."
      },
      {
        "title": "Street photography",
        "text": "If a picture is considered art, the courts will also consider the photographer's freedom of artistic expression; meaning that \"artful\" street photography can still be legally published in certain cases."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Right to Privacy (article)",
        "text": "If this conclusion is correct, then existing law does afford \"a principle which may be invoked to protect the privacy of the individual from invasion either by the too enterprising press, the photographer, or the possessor of any other modern device for recording or reproducing scenes or sounds.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Street photography",
        "text": "While also limiting photography in order to protect privacy rights, street photography can still be legal in France when pursued as an art form under certain circumstances. While in one prominent case the freedom of artistic expression trumped the individual's right to privacy, the legality will much depend on the individual case."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "If you are seeking to photograph for commercial purposes you may be required to gain permission from anyone who was involved in the film or photograph. Commercial purposes usually means that you are photographing for financial gain or to promote goods or services."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sui generis",
        "text": "Generally speaking, protection for intellectual property extends to intellectual creations in order to incentivize innovation, and depends upon the nature of the work and its \"characteristics\". The main types of intellectual property law are: copyright, which protects creative works; patent, which protects invention; trade secret, which protects information not generally known or readily ascertainable that is valuable to the secret holder; and trademark, which protects branding and other exclusive properties of products and services. Any matter that meets these criteria can be protected."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Portrait Gallery and Wikimedia Foundation copyright dispute",
        "text": "The 1999 United States District Court case \"Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.\" (in which Bridgeman Art Library sued the Corel Corporation for copyright infringement for distributing copies of digital reproductions of public domain paintings sourced from Bridgeman on a CD-ROM) established that \"a photograph which is no more than a copy of a work of another as exact as science and technology permits lacks originality. That is not to say that such a feat is trivial, simply not original.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Legality of recording by civilians",
        "text": "In the United States, anti-photography laws have been passed following the September 11, 2001 attacks and the increased popularity of camera phones. There might be local laws and policies governing the specific landmark or property in which one seeks to photograph. Laws on private property differ. Owners of private property in most places must authorize recording on their own property."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Switzerland",
        "text": "It follows that photographs taken from or of these documents are also in the public domain. However:\n* a photograph \"of\" an official document may constitute a protected work of its own if the photograph is sufficiently original (see below);\n* a photograph taken \"from\" an official document may have been copyrighted by someone other than the state and been reproduced with permission in the official document."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How is intellectual property protected such as photographs?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Violation of intellectual property rights, called \"infringement\" with respect to patents, copyright, and trademarks, and \"misappropriation\" with respect to trade secrets, may be a breach of civil law or criminal law, depending on the type of intellectual property involved, jurisdiction, and the nature of the action. Copyright infringement can be addressed by civil litigation and, in several jurisdictions, under criminal law.",
      "Are you interested in intellectual property law in the U.S., U.K., Germany, or some other country?"
    ],
    "topic": "Photography and the law",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Intellectual property:40",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Intellectual property",
          "Infringement, misappropriation, and enforcement",
          "Trademark infringement"
        ],
        "ctx": "Trademark infringement occurs when one party uses a trademark that is identical or confusingly similar to a trademark owned by another party, in relation to products or services which are identical or similar to the products or services of the other party. In many countries, a trademark receives protection without registration, but registering a trademark provides legal advantages for enforcement. Infringement can be addressed by civil litigation and, in several jurisdictions, under criminal law."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Intellectual property:36",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Intellectual property",
          "Infringement, misappropriation, and enforcement"
        ],
        "ctx": "Violation of intellectual property rights, called \"infringement\" with respect to patents, copyright, and trademarks, and \"misappropriation\" with respect to trade secrets, may be a breach of civil law or criminal law, depending on the type of intellectual property involved, jurisdiction, and the nature of the action."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Intellectual property:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Intellectual property",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Statute of Monopolies (1624) and the British Statute of Anne (1710) are seen as the origins of patent law and copyright respectively, firmly establishing the concept of intellectual property."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Intellectual property:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Intellectual property",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "The German equivalent was used with the founding of the North German Confederation whose constitution granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property (\"Schutz des geistigen Eigentums\") to the confederation. When the administrative secretariats established by the Paris Convention (1883) and the Berne Convention (1886) merged in 1893, they located in Berne, and also adopted the term intellectual property in their new combined title, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Intellectual property:9",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Intellectual property",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "The term can be found used in an October 1845 Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case \"Davoll et al. v. Brown\", in which Justice Charles L. Woodbury wrote that \"only in this way can we protect intellectual property, the labors of the mind, productions and interests are as much a man's own ... as the wheat he cultivates, or the flocks he rears.\" The statement that \"discoveries are ... property\" goes back earlier. Section 1 of the French law of 1791 stated, \"All new discoveries are the property of the author; to assure the inventor the property and temporary enjoyment of his discovery, there shall be delivered to him a patent for five, ten or fifteen years.\" In Europe, French author A. Nion mentioned \"propri\u00e9t\u00e9 intellectuelle\" in his \"Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs\", published in 1846."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "The intellectual property rights on photographs are protected in different jurisdictions by the laws governing copyright and moral rights. In some cases photography may be restricted by civil or criminal law. Publishing certain photographs can be restricted by privacy or other laws. Photography can be generally restricted in the interests of public morality and the protection of children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Switzerland",
        "text": "Legal scholarship has attempted to summarise the Federal Supreme Court's jurisprudence on the threshold of originality as follows:\n* Images where only the object, but not the photograph, is individual are not protected, as e.g. in art catalogue photographs. Of course, the copyright status of the object depicted, e.g. a painting, must be considered independently.\n* \"Merely\" illustrative and portrait images also tend not to be protected, at least if the composition, post-processing etc. show no individual expression of thought.\n* Images are not protected \"per se\" because their object is famous or they attract great attention (e.g. the Abraham Zapruder pictures of the Kennedy assassination). On the other hand, an image can be a \"snapshot\" and still be protected as an individual work.\n* The impression is given that the mere \"aesthetic appeal\" of a photograph may contribute to its originality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Certain photographs may not be protected by copyright. Section 171(3) of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 gives courts jurisdiction to refrain from enforcing the copyright which subsists in works on the grounds of public interest. For example, patent diagrams are held to be in the public domain, and are thus not subject to copyright."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "Initially, family, vacation, and other photographs taken spontaneously by individuals and not necessarily intended for publication were not treated as \"photographs\" for the purposes of copyright. Today, these are termed \"photographic works\" and are protected by copyright provided that they are the author's \"own intellectual creations\" (\u00a7 2 UrhG). The copyright of a \"photographic work\" expires seventy years after the author's death (\u00a72 64 UrhG)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of the Philippines",
        "text": "The Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines does not have a freedom of panorama provision, concerning the right to photograph artistic works in public spaces and use the resulting images for any purposes without the need to secure permission from the authors of the said works."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "As in most countries, to reproduce a copyright protected photo, the permission of the copyright owner must be obtained, and in some cases royalties paid. The law on reproduction of public domain images varies with the type of material."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweat of the brow",
        "text": "In a copyright notice on \"digital images, photographs and the internet\" last updated in November 2015, the UK Intellectual Property Office stated that digital reproductions of public domain images are not protected by copyright, arguing that \"according to the Court of Justice of the European Union which has effect in UK law, copyright can only subsist in subject matter that is original in the sense that it is the author's own \"intellectual creation\". Given this criterion, it seems unlikely that what is merely a retouched, digitised image of an older work can be considered as \"original\".\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "This decision contradicted the opinion of the Supreme Court, which was affirmed again in 2000 in a judgement of 7 December 2000, \"Telefonkarte\" (\"calling card\"), (Az. I ZR 146/98):\n:\"[...] Independently thereof the picture, for which the plaintiff claims the protection of \u00a7 72 UrhG , would have to be more its than a bare technical reproduction of an existing graphics. Because the technical reproduction procedure alone does not justify a photo protection (see BGH, judgement from 8 November 1989 \u2013 I ZR 14/88, GRUR 1990, 669, 673 \u2013 Bible reproduction, m.w. N.; Schricker/Vogel, copyright, 2. Aufl., \u00a7 72 UrhG Rdn. 22). Rather a minimum of personal mental performance is necessary, which is to be denied if a photo or a similarly manufactured product is not any more than the bare technical reproduction of an existing representation.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Photography and the law\n--Australia.\n----General.\n----Private property.\n----Publishing and rights.\n----Commercial purposes.\n--United Kingdom.\n----Legal restrictions on photography.\n----Anti-terrorism law.\n----Copyright.\n------Infringement.\n----Photography and privacy.\n--United States.\n--Canada.\n--Hong Kong.\n--Hungary.\n--Iceland.\n--Macau.\n--Mexico.\n--Philippines.\n--South Africa.\n--Spain.\n--Sudan and South Sudan.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "A photograph can also be a mechanism of infringement of the copyright which subsists in another work. For example, a photograph which copies a substantial part of an artistic work, such as a sculpture, painting or another photograph (without permission) would infringe the copyright which subsists in those works."
      },
      {
        "title": "Related rights",
        "text": "Each new technology for creative work has led to debate over what protection should be accorded to such works, as has been the case most recently for software copyright and database rights. Similar debates occurred over the copyright protection of photographs. The Berne Convention allows a shorter period of protection than for other works (twenty-five years from creation rather than fifty years \"post mortem auctoris\", Art.\u00a07.4), and many countries apply a different period of copyright protection to photographs than to other works. An alternative approach, adopted notably by Germany and Italy, has been to offer full copyright protection to photographs that are clearly \"artistic works\" and protect all photographs, whatever their creative value, by a shorter \"sui generis\" related right. This focuses the debate on those photographs that still have value at the end of the \"sui generis\" protection (no-one would bother to try to protect photographs without value), which are the photographs most likely original. However it also means that photographs are subject to a higher test of originality than other works of art, with copyright being reserved only for those the courts felt to be particularly meritorious, in contravention of the spirit (if not the letter) of the Berne Convention. The \"sui generis\" protections are found at \u00a7\u00a072, UrhG for Germany (50 years) and Arts.\u00a087\u201392, Legge 22 aprile 1941 n.\u00a0633 for Italy (20 years). The different treatment of photographs and other artistic works was eliminated by European Union Directive 93/98/EEC (Art.\u00a06), which states that the only applicable criterion for copyright protection is that the photograph be \"original in the sense that they are the author's own intellectual creation\", a lower criterion than used until then, but equivalent to the criterion used for other copyright works. The \"sui generis\" protection may be retained for photographs that do not meet this criterion (e.g., photographs taken automatically such as for a passport)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "It is generally agreed that a \"mechanical copy\", e.g. a photocopy), by digitizing (as with a scanner) as well as the reproduction of public-domain typographic originals (books, documents, etc.) and photos of public-domain originals (a picture from a picture) do not create a claim of ownership. In 1989, the then West German Bundesgerichtshof (supreme court) judged that identical reproductions, as described above, cannot be protected by copyright."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Richard Arnold has criticized the protection of photographs in this manner on two grounds. Firstly, it is argued that photographs should not be protected as artistic works, but should instead be protected in a manner similar to that of sound recordings and films. In other words, copyright should not protect the subject matter of a photograph as a matter of course as a consequence of a photograph being taken. It is argued that protection of photographs as artistic works is anomalous, in that photography is ultimately a medium of reproduction, rather than creation. As such, it is more similar to a film, or sound, recording than a painting or sculpture. Some photographers share this view. For example, Michael Reichmann described photography as an art of disclosure, as opposed to an art of inclusion. Secondly, it is argued that the protection of photographs as artistic works leads to bizarre results. Subject matter is protected irrespective of the artistic merit of a photograph. The subject matter of a photograph is protected even when it is not deserving of protection. For copyright to subsist in photographs as artistic works, the photographs must be original, since the English test for originality is based on skill, labour and judgment. That said, it is possible that the threshold of originality is very low. Essentially, by this, Arnold is arguing that whilst the subject matter of some photographs may deserve protection, it is inappropriate for the law to presume that the subject matter of all photographs is deserving of protection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "It is possible to say with a high degree of confidence that photographs of three-dimensional objects, including artistic works, will be treated by a court as themselves original artistic works, and as such, will be subject to copyright. It is likely that a photograph (including a scan \u2013 digital scanning counts as photography for the purposes of the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988) of a two dimensional artistic work, such as another photograph or a painting will also be subject to copyright if a significant amount of skill, labour and judgment went into its creation."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Press Photographers Association",
        "text": "Following the ruling, Senators Thom Tillis (R-North Carolina) and Patrick Leahy (D-Vermont), of the intellectual property subcommittee on the Senate Judiciary Committee, sent letters to the U.S. Copyright Office and the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office requesting a study detailing copyright infringements by state governments. The United States Copyright Office gave intellectual property owners suffering infringement by state entities until August 3, 2020 to publicly comment as part of this inquiry. In September of 2020 the U.S. Copyright Office began publishing those comments which reflect hundreds of copyright violations by state entities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "However, the subject matter of a photograph is not necessarily subject to an independent copyright. For example, in the Creation Records case, a photographer, attempting to create a photograph for an album cover, set up an elaborate and artificial scene. A photographer from a newspaper covertly photographed the scene and published it in the newspaper. The court held that the newspaper photographer did not infringe the official photographer's copyright. Copyright did not subsist in the scene itself \u2013 it was too temporary to be a collage, and could not be categorised as any other form of artistic work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Copyright which subsists in a photograph protects not merely the photographer from direct copying of his/her work, but also from indirect copying to reproduce his/her work, where a substantial part of his/her work has been copied."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "A very limited statutory right to privacy exists in the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. This right is held, for example, by someone who hires a photographer to photograph their wedding. The commissioner, irrespective of any copyright which he does or does not hold in the photograph, of a photograph which was commissioned for private and domestic purposes, where copyright subsists in the photograph, has the right not to have copies of the work issued to the public, the work exhibited in public or the work communicated to the public. However, this right will not be infringed if the rightholder gives permission. It will not be infringed if the photograph is incidentally included in an artistic work, film, or broadcast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reiss Engelhorn Museum",
        "text": "In a related case, in May 2017, the Oberlandesgericht of Stuttgart ruled with reference to the concept of property (\"Sacheigentum\"). Property is addressed by of the German constitution. The Stuttgart court ruled that under German law already skill and effort restricts a photo under rules for 50 years, even though no creativity is involved and thus the more elaborate restrictions of a Lichtbildwerk do not apply (70 years pma). The court has allowed an appeal to the Federal Court of Justice (Bundesgerichtshof)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "In Germany, photo rights or \"Bildrechte\" are the copyrights that are attached to the \"author\" of the photograph and are specified in the \"Law for Copyright and similar Protection\" (\"Gesetz \u00fcber Urheberrecht und verwandte Schutzrechte\"). These rights deal with rights of reproduction, distribution, modification, attribution, and prohibitions against illegal modification or reproduction. The ownership rights of a picture are treated under the broader \"art copyright laws\". Furthermore, if a museum or gallery owns a work of art or a photograph, they are permitted to make their own stipulations as to the selling of illustrations and reproductions of their property. This relates to the German legal concept of the right of owner to undisturbed possession. Wolf Vostell said: \"Copyrights are like human rights\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Whether this right is caused by horizontal effect of the Human Rights Act 1998 or is judicially created is a matter of some controversy. The right to privacy is protected by Article 8 of the convention. In the context of photography, it stands at odds to the Article 10 right of freedom of expression. As such, courts will consider the public interest in balancing the rights through the legal test of proportionality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "The photography of three-dimensional motifs always creates a photo (or sometimes also a photo work), which is protected under copyright law. This derives from the creative process, as the photographer must select a location, lighting, etc..."
      },
      {
        "title": "Digital photograph restoration",
        "text": "Digitally scanned or captured images, both unaltered and restored image files are protected under copyright law. Courts agree that by its basic nature digitization involves reproduction\u2014an act exclusively reserved for copyright owners. The ownership of an artwork does not inherently carry with it the rights of reproduction."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Portrait Gallery and Wikimedia Foundation copyright dispute",
        "text": "In November 2015, the United Kingdom's Intellectual Property Office clarified in an informational document that, based on the opinion of the European Court of Justice, \"copyright can only subsist in subject matter that is original in the sense that it is the author's own 'intellectual creation'. Given this criterion, it seems unlikely that what is merely a retouched, digitised image of an older work can be considered as 'original'.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "In the United States, a Federal court decided, in its 1999 case \"Bridgeman Art Library vs. Corel Corporation\", that original, faithful photographs of paintings were not copyrightable, since the originality is missing. (United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, 18 February 1999). The software producer Corel Corp. had used slides of the Bridgeman Art Library for the picture collection of its own CD-ROM."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of panorama",
        "text": "This non-commercial restriction was clarified in the 192nd issue of the \"Intellectual Property Right Journal\" by the Intellectual Property Office, Ministry of Economic Affairs. Accordingly, photographing murals painted on outdoor walls of village houses and using the resulting photographs on commercial postcards without muralist's permission complies with Article 58. It is the act of selling actual reproductions of artistic works that is prohibited in the law. A similar clarification was also made regarding use of images of Taipei 101. While the name \"Taipei 101\" is trademark-protected, no architect's permission is needed for the use of images of Taipei 101 in commercial postcards, as long as the representation depicts the building's exteriors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Federal legislation governs the questions of copyright and criminal offences with respect to photography. Otherwise, the common law (except, in the case of Quebec, the \"Civil Code of Quebec\"), generally determines when photography can take place.\n:* The \"Copyright Act\" provides that the duration of copyright for a photograph is the life of the author plus 50 years. Freedom of panorama is also allowed, with respect to photographs of sculptures and architectural works, and there is also protection for those who \"incidentally and not deliberately include a work or other subject-matter in another work or other subject-matter.\"\n:* The \"Criminal Code\" provides for punishment of various offences, including voyeurism, child pornography, trespassing at night, and paparazzi behaviour.\n:* The law of defamation, trespass and privacy is governed at the provincial level.\n::* The common-law provinces of British Columbia, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, Ontario and Saskatchewan have enacted privacy legislation dealing with personality rights, which supplement the law of trespass.\n::* In Quebec, the \"Civil Code\" goes further by specifying that \"keeping ... private life under observation by any means\" constitutes an additional ground of invasion of privacy. In \"Aubry v \u00c9ditions Vice-Versa Inc\", the Supreme Court of Canada held that, because of that, supplemented by Quebec's \"Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms\" privacy provisions, a photographer can take photographs in public places but may not publish them unless permission has been obtained from the subject, except where the subject appears in an incidental manner, or whose professional success depends on public opinion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Switzerland",
        "text": "Only \"works\" in the sense of the law, i.e. \"creations of the mind, literary or artistic, that have an individual character\", are protected by copyright. What exactly \"individuality\" (also referred to as originality) means for photographs has long been a focus of dispute. Up until 2020, it meant that many photographs lacked copyright protection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.",
        "text": "In November 2015, the Intellectual Property Office of the United Kingdom issued an official guide for individuals and businesses titled \"Copyright Notice: digital images, photographs and the internet\" that offers a judgment similar to that of \"Bridgeman v. Corel\". Updated 4 January 2021, the section of the guidance titled, \"Are digitised copies of older images protected by copyright?\" states that:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sculpture of the United States",
        "text": "United States courts have consistently held that sculptors maintain an intellectual property right to sculptures and are entitled to compensation if photographs are used for commercial purposes. The rights apply even if the sculptor no longer owns the sculpture or the sculpture is not even in a public space. The sculptor, however, could sign away those rights. Some other countries, such as Germany, give permission to take the photographs via the concept of \"Panoramafreiheit\", or Freedom of Panorama."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "If a raw photograph and/or reproduction of a public-domain original is published in a book, then the predominant jurisdiction assumes this illustration can be reproduced at will, without agreement of the photographer and the publishing house."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "Photograph copyright (Germany)\n--Periods of protection.\n----Photographs (\"Lichtbilder\").\n----Photographic works (\"Lichtbildwerke\").\n----Photos as documents of contemporary history.\n--Protection of reproductions.\n----Two-dimensional originals.\n----Three-dimensional motives.\n--International agreements.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Switzerland",
        "text": "In its 2003 \"Marley\" decision, the Federal Supreme Court found that the picture at issue (shot by a spectator with a handheld camera) had the required individual character by virtue of the aesthetic appeal of the picture, combined with the orientation of the picture's components and the distribution of light and shadow. It also found that it was a \"creation of the mind\" by being shot at a specific time during the singer's movement on the stage. Accordingly, the Court held that the picture was protected by copyright."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "Beyond that there is the international copyright agreement from 6 September 1952 (BGBl. part of II/1955, S. 101 FF.) revised on 24 July 1971 in Paris (BGBl. part of II/1973, S. 1111 FF). This is enforceable through INTERPOL."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Switzerland",
        "text": "In 2020, the law was changed to provide even non-original photographs with copyright protection. Art. 2 par. 3bis of the Copyright Act, effective 1 April 2020, now provides: \"Photographic depictions and depictions of three-dimensional objects produced by a process similar to that of photography are considered works, even if they do not have individual character.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Infringement of the copyright which subsists in a photograph can be performed through copying the photograph. This is because the owner of the copyright in the photograph has the exclusive right to copy the photograph. For there to be infringement of the copyright in a photograph, there must be copying of a substantial part of the photograph."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph",
        "text": "The production or distribution of certain types of photograph has been forbidden under modern laws, such as those of government buildings, highly classified regions, private property, copyrighted works, children's genitalia, child pornography and less commonly pornography overall. These laws vary greatly between jurisdictions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography",
        "text": "Photography is both restricted and protected by the law in many jurisdictions. Protection of photographs is typically achieved through the granting of copyright or moral rights to the photographer. In the United States, photography is protected as a First Amendment right and anyone is free to photograph anything seen in public spaces as long as it is in plain view. In the UK a recent law (Counter-Terrorism Act 2008) increases the power of the police to prevent people, even press photographers, from taking pictures in public places. In South Africa, any person may photograph any other person, without their permission, in public spaces and the only specific restriction placed on what may not be photographed by government is related to anything classed as national security. Each country has different laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright Duration Directive",
        "text": "Before the directive, different Member States had applied widely different criteria of originality and creativity to the copyright protection of photographs. These were harmonised by article\u00a06, which states that the only permissible criterion for full protection (70 years pma) is that the photograph is \"original in the sense that [it is] the author's own intellectual creation\". Member States may protect photographs which do not meet this criterion by \"sui generis\" related rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Intellectual property",
        "text": "Another aspect of current U.S. Intellectual Property legislation is its focus on individual and joint works; thus, copyright protection can only be obtained in 'original' works of authorship. Critics like Philip Bennet argue that this does not provide adequate protection against cultural appropriation of indigenous knowledge, for which a collective IP regime is needed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "In private property, photography may be prohibited or restricted by a property owner on their property."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard Liebowitz",
        "text": "For his part, Liebowitz has argued that copyright law is the only tool that photographers have to protect their rights and livelihood in a digital media environment in which images are often reused without regard to proper licensing. However, in one case, a client was forced to repay $120,000 in legal bills to several media outlets Liebowitz sued on his behalf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Integrated circuit",
        "text": "The possibility of copying by photographing each layer of an integrated circuit and preparing photomasks for its production on the basis of the photographs obtained is a reason for the introduction of legislation for the protection of layout designs. The US Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of 1984 established intellectual property protection for photomasks used to produce integrated circuits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Spain",
        "text": "Images are only concerned by this exception to copyright protection when they form an integral part of any of the above, for"
      },
      {
        "title": "National Portrait Gallery and Wikimedia Foundation copyright dispute",
        "text": "Fred von Lohmann, an attorney with the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) remarked that the situation comes down to asking whether US companies and citizens would be \"bound by the most restrictive copyright law anywhere on the planet, or by U.S. law?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Clip art",
        "text": "The United States District Court ruled in 1999 as part of Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp that exact copies of public domain images were not restricted under US copyright law, however the scope of this ruling only applies to photographs currently. It is \"originality,\"not skill, neither experience nor effort, which affects copyrightability of derivative images. In fact, the US Supreme Court in Feist v. Rural ruled that the difficulty of labor and expenses must be rejected as considerations in copyrightability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.",
        "text": "Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp., 36 F. Supp. 2d 191 (S.D.N.Y. 1999), was a decision by the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, which ruled that exact photographic copies of public domain images could not be protected by copyright in the United States because the copies lack originality. Even though accurate reproductions might require a great deal of skill, experience and effort, the key element to determine whether a work is copyrightable under US law is originality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monkey selfie copyright dispute",
        "text": "On 22 August 2014, the day after the US Copyright Office published their opinion, a spokesperson for the UK Intellectual Property Office was quoted as saying that, while animals cannot own copyright under UK law, \"the question as to whether the photographer owns copyright is more complex. It depends on whether the photographer has made a creative contribution to the work and this is a decision which must be made by the courts.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "If none of the 3 mentioned cases apply, it is only legal to share those images if the faces, voices and any identity signs are removed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Intellectual property protection of typefaces",
        "text": "Intellectual property protection of typefaces\n--Copyright.\n----Germany.\n----Ireland.\n----Israel.\n----Japan.\n----Russia.\n----Switzerland.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n--Design patents.\n--Trademarks.\n--Licensing.\n--Lawsuits.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Medical imaging",
        "text": "The \"Cyber Law in Sweden\" states: \"Pictures can be protected as photographic works or as photographic pictures. The former requires a higher level of originality; the latter \"protects all types of photographs, also the ones taken\" by amateurs, or \"within medicine\" or science. The protection requires some sort of photographic technique being used, which includes digital cameras as well as holograms created by laser technique. The difference between the two types of work is the term of protection, which amounts to seventy years after the death of the author of a photographic work as opposed to fifty years, from the year in which the photographic picture was taken.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.",
        "text": "Thus Kaplan applied US law to the issue of copyrightability, rather than UK law as in the first judgment. The second judgment provided a more detailed statement of the court's reasoning than the first judgment did. The court held that photographs were \"writings\" within the meaning of the Copyright Clause. It cited Melville Nimmer's \"Nimmer on Copyright\", which stated that there \"appear to be at least two situations in which a photograph should be denied copyright for lack of originality\". Kaplan considered one of those situations, as described by Nimmer, to be directly relevant, namely that \"where a photograph of a photograph or other printed matter is made that amounts to nothing more than slavish copying\". A slavish photographic copy of a painting thus, according to Nimmer, lacks originality and thus copyrightability under the US Copyright Act."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Copyright in a photograph lasts for 70 years from the end of the year in which the photographer dies. A consequence of this lengthy period of existence of the copyright is that many family photographs which have no market value, but significant emotional value, remain subject to copyright, even when the original photographer cannot be traced (a problem known as copyright orphan), has given up photography, or died. In the absence of a licence, it will be an infringement of copyright in the photographs to copy them. When someone dies the rights will have transferred to someone else, perhaps through testamentary deposition (a will) or by inheritance. If there was no will, or if the photographer has not specified where the rights in the material should go, then the normal rules of inheritance will apply (although these rules are not specific to copyright and legal advice should be sought). Scanning old family photographs, without permission, to a digital file for personal use is prima facie an infringement of copyright."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Poland",
        "text": "According to the Art.21 of (valid until 1952) photographs lose copyright protection ten years after picture was taken. Series of scientific or artistic pictures lose copyright protection after 50 years. According to Art. 27 of (valid until May 23, 1994) photographs and series of photographs lose copyright protection ten years after publication date."
      },
      {
        "title": "Intellectual property protection of typefaces",
        "text": "In 1981, Germany passed a special extension (\"Schriftzeichengesetz\") to the design patent law (\"Geschmacksmustergesetz\") for protecting typeface designs. This also permits typefaces to be registered as designs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of panorama",
        "text": "The Intellectual property Code of the Philippines (Republic Act No. 8923) makes no specific provision for freedom of panorama. A very limited provision does exists at Section 184(d) which states \"the reproduction and communication to the public of literary, scientific or artistic works as part of reports of current events by means of photography, cinematography or broadcasting to the extent necessary for the purpose.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Street photography",
        "text": "Germany protects the right to take photos in public, but also recognizes a \"right to one's own picture\". That means that even though pictures can often be \"taken\" without someones consent, they must not be published without the permission of the person in the picture. The law also protects specifically against defamation\u201d."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of panorama",
        "text": "Many countries have similar provisions restricting the scope of copyright law in order to explicitly permit photographs involving scenes of public places or scenes photographed from public places. Other countries, though, differ widely in their interpretation of the principle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Property law",
        "text": "A particularly difficult question is whether people have rights to intellectual property developed by others from their body parts. In the pioneering case on this issue, the Supreme Court of California held in \"Moore v. Regents of the University of California\" (1990) that individuals do not have such a property right."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public domain",
        "text": "The Reiss-Engelhorn-Museen, a German art museum, brought a suit against Wikimedia Commons in 2016 for photographs uploaded to the database depicting pieces of art in the museum. The museum claimed that the photos were taken by their staff, and that photography within the museum by visitors was prohibited. Therefore, photos taken by the museum, even of material that itself had fallen into the public domain, were protected by copyright law and would need to be removed from the Wikimedia image repository. The court ruled that the photographs taken by the museum would be protected under the German Copyright Act, stating that since the photographer needed to make practical decisions about the photograph that it was protected material. The Wikimedia volunteer was ordered to remove the images from the site, as the museum's policy had been violated when the photos were taken."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Copyright can subsist in an original photograph, i.e. a recording of light or other radiation on any medium on which an image is produced or from which an image by any means be produced, and which is not part of a film. Whilst photographs are classified as artistic works, the subsistence of copyright does not depend on artistic merit. The owner of the copyright in the photograph is the photographer \u2013 the person who creates it, by default. However, where a photograph is taken by an employee in the course of employment, the first owner of the copyright is the employer, unless there is an agreement to the contrary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "European Union law eliminated the concept of \"historical photos\" on 1 July 1995."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nimmer on Copyright",
        "text": "In \"Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.\" the court held that photographs were \"writings\" within the meaning of the Copyright Clause and cited \"Nimmer on Copyright\", which stated that there \"appear to be at least two situations in which a photograph should be denied copyright for lack of originality\". Judge Lewis Kaplan considered one of those situations, as described by Nimmer, to be directly relevant, namely that \"where a photograph of a photograph or other printed matter is made that amounts to nothing more than slavish copying\". A slavish photographic copy of a painting thus, according to Nimmer, lacks originality and thus copyrightability under the U.S. Copyright Act."
      },
      {
        "title": "Intellectual property in China",
        "text": "Copyright law is mainly governed by the \"\" (\u4e2d\u534e\u4eba\u6c11\u5171\u548c\u56fd\u8457\u4f5c\u6743\u6cd5) and the \"Implementing Rules for the Copyright Law of the PRC\" (\u8457\u4f5c\u6743\u6cd5\u5b9e\u65bd\u6761\u4f8b), the Copyright Law of the PRC adopted and promulgated in 1990 and the \"Implementing Rules\" adopted in 1991 and revised in 2002. In most cases the copyright term is the life of the author plus 50 years, but for cinematographic and photographic works and works created by a company or organization the term is 50 years after first publication."
      },
      {
        "title": "Street photography",
        "text": "The European Union's Human Rights Act 1998, which all EU countries have to uphold in their domestic law, establishes in a right to privacy. This can result in restrictions on the publication of photography. The right to privacy is protected by Article 8 of the convention. In the context of photography, it stands at odds to the Article 10 right of freedom of expression. As such, courts will usually consider the public interest in balancing the rights through the legal test of proportionality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Photography of certain subject matter is restricted in the United Kingdom. In particular, the Protection of Children Act 1978 restricts making or possessing pornography of children under 18, or what looks like pornography of under-18s. There is no law prohibiting photographing children in public spaces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "According to \u00a7 72 Abs. 3 UrhG, copyrights for most photographs and pictures expire fifty years after their first publication. If the picture is not published for a period of 50 years after production of the photograph, then the protection ends. As long as the work appears at least once in that period, the period of protection is extended until 50 years after its first publication. For example, if a photo is taken in the year 2000 but is not published until 2049, the protection will be extended until 2099."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Portrait Gallery and Wikimedia Foundation copyright dispute",
        "text": "The 1999 United States District Court case \"Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.\" (in which Bridgeman Art Library sued the Corel Corporation for copyright infringement for distributing copies of digital reproductions of public domain paintings sourced from Bridgeman on a CD-ROM) established that \"a photograph which is no more than a copy of a work of another as exact as science and technology permits lacks originality. That is not to say that such a feat is trivial, simply not original.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Switzerland",
        "text": "In its 2004 \"Meili\" decision, the Court found that the picture at issue, shot by a reporter to document Christoph Meili with the files he had taken from his employer, lacked individual character. It found that the scope of conceptual and technical possibilities was not exploited, and that the photograph did not distinguish itself in any way from what was common use. For lack of an \"individual expression of thought\", therefore, the Court held that the image was not copyrighted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.",
        "text": "On November 13, 1998, Kaplan granted the defendant's motion for a summary dismissal of the suit. The court applied UK law to determine whether the plaintiff's photographs were copyrightable in the first place, and applied US law to determine whether copyright had been infringed. It determined that Bridgeman's photographs were not original works, and could not be validly copyrighted under UK law. It further determined that even if the photographs \"were\" copyrightable, no infringement could be deemed to have occurred under US law, because the only way in which Bridgeman's and Corel's photographs were similar was that \"both are exact reproductions of public domain works of art,\" so the only similarity between the two works was an uncopyrightable element: the public domain material itself. Therefore, under well-settled US law, there could be no infringement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.",
        "text": "Although the second judgment was based upon application of US law, Kaplan added that \"[w]hile the Court's conclusion as to the law governing copyrightability renders the point moot, the Court is persuaded that plaintiff's copyright claim would fail even if the governing law were that of the United Kingdom.\" He referred to the Privy Council case of \"Interlego v Tyco Industries\" for equivalent case law in the UK, where it had been held that \"[s]kill, labour or judgment merely in the process of copying cannot confer originality\". Further, the Privy Council had held in \"Interlego\" that \"[t]here must [...] be some element of material alteration or embellishment which suffices to make the totality of the work an original work\", rendering the mere change in medium of a work, on its own, not sufficient for copyrightability. Thus the question of originality and copyrightability of a \"slavish copy\", even one where the medium changed (i.e. from a painting to a photograph, and thence to a digitization of that photograph), would be decided the same under UK law as under US law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "There is some controversy as to the legal status of photographs taken before 1949 in the first scenario, as it can be argued that the current practice of statutory interpretation in the courts would hold that copyright protection was moved to the general rule by the 1999 reform to such photographs that were taken by individuals or creator-controlled corporations. In any case, this argument states that the 2012 act effectively removed all such special rules that were formerly contained in s. 10 of the Copyright Act."
      },
      {
        "title": "Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram",
        "text": "A German legal decision dated 5 November 1930 at the I. Zivilsenat des Reichsgericht on copyright law, used a photographic copy in a textbook of the picture of Charles enthroned in the book as an example, referring to \"The connection between the written work and a picture in it, the presentation and teaching purpose being to support the text\". The admissibility of the removal was denied because it does not adequately serve to illustrate the content. Today, the ruling doctrine of the true premise of the decision that the basic reproduction photography was protected, but no longer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Mexican law is similar to the law in the United States. Authorities may intimidate or prevent any holder of a camera if they come into close perimeters of Government buildings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Law of Taiwan",
        "text": "5. Photographic works."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright in architecture in the United States",
        "text": "Traditionally, architectural work has not been considered a derivative work in American location shooting, but as the effects of architectural copyright settle in, more architectural copyright holders are starting to demand it, and this practice may open up a wide field of litigation, especially in California. Although architectural copyright does not apply to pictures if the architectural work is regularly visible from a public place, it does not make such an exemption for the interior of a non-public building. Producers of news photography (still or motion) are theoretically protected by the first amendment or through the fair use doctrine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of the United Kingdom",
        "text": "A person who commissions the making of photographs or films for private and domestic use has a right to privacy. That means that such photographs may not be issued to the public, shown in public, or communicated to the public without the permission of the person who commissioned the photograph or film. Photographs jointly commissioned entitle all the commissioners to a privacy right. The right to privacy subsists for as long as the copyright term of the work."
      },
      {
        "title": "European intellectual property law",
        "text": "To guarantee the protection of the rights and economic rights of right holders can be achieved. The protection of moral rights provides an opportunity for both the author and performers particularly to restrain the work from distortions, damage or other modifications, which are detrimental to their honor or reputation. Copyright and proximity are also economically inherent, as they are authorized to commercialize the sale of protected works, especially in the form of licenses for payment of royalties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atomium",
        "text": "SABAM, Belgium's society for collecting copyrights, has claimed worldwide intellectual property rights on all reproductions of the image via the United States Artists Rights Society (ARS). For example, SABAM issued a demand that a United States website remove all images of the Atomium from its pages. The website responded by replacing all such images with a warning not to take photographs of the Atomium, and that A.S.B.L. Atomium will sue any individual or group if they show the photographs to anyone. SABAM confirmed that permission is required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "In some public property owned by government, such as law courts, government buildings, libraries, civic centres and some of the museums in Hong Kong, photography is not allowed without permission from the government. It is illegal to equip or take photographs and recording in a place of public entertainment, such as cinemas and indoor theaters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of panorama",
        "text": "In Italy freedom of panorama does not exist. Despite many official protests and a national initiative led by the lawyer Guido Scorza and the journalist Luca Spinelli (who highlighted the issue), the publishing of photographic reproductions of public places is still prohibited, in accordance with the old Italian copyright laws. A 2004 law called ' states, among other provisions, that to publish pictures of \"cultural goods\" (meaning in theory every cultural and artistic object and place) for commercial purposes, it is mandatory to obtain an authorization from the local branch of the Ministry of Arts and Cultural Heritage, the '."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Spain",
        "text": "(art.\u00a040, Intellectual Property Law)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Italy",
        "text": "The subject matter owed protection is provided for (identically) in both the Civil Code (art. 2575) and Law no. 633 (Art. 1): \"The object of the author's right is the work of intellect of creative character that belongs to the sciences, literature, music, figurative art, architecture, theatre, and cinematography, no matter the style or form of expression.\" There is no requirement that the work be fixed in any medium to attract copyright protection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monkey selfie copyright dispute",
        "text": "The intellectual property lawyers Mary M. Luria and Charles Swan said that because the creator of the photograph is an animal and not a person, there is no copyright on the photograph, regardless of who owns the equipment with which the photograph was created. According to the American legal scholar Jessica Litman, \"No human author has rights to a photograph taken by a monkey\u00a0... The original monkey selfie is in the public domain\". She said that the US Copyright Office was clarifying existing practice, and not creating a new policy. However, the American art lawyer Nicholas O'Donnell of Sullivan & Worcester LLP commented that \"even if 'a photograph taken by a monkey' cannot be copyrighted by the monkey, it is not clear why that would categorically rule out any copyright for a human author in a work in which cameras are intentionally left in a place where some natural force or animal will cause them to snap a photo\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ownership",
        "text": "Intellectual property laws are designed to protect different forms of intangible subject matter, although in some cases there is a degree of overlap.\n*Copyright may subsist in creative and artistic works (e.g. books, movies, music, paintings, photographs and software), giving a copyright holder the exclusive right to control reproduction or adaptation of such works for a certain period of time.\n*A patent may be granted in relation to an invention that is new, useful and not simply an obvious advancement over what existed when the application was filed. A patent gives the holder an exclusive right to commercially exploit the invention for a certain period of time (typically 20 years from the filing date of a patent application).\n*A trademark is a distinctive sign which is used to distinguish the products or services of one business from those of another business.\n*An industrial design right protects the form of appearance, style or design of an industrial object (e.g. spare parts, furniture or textiles).\n*A trade secret (also known as \"confidential information\") is an item of confidential information concerning the commercial practices or proprietary knowledge of a business."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Switzerland",
        "text": "It follows that photographs taken from or of these documents are also in the public domain. However:\n* a photograph \"of\" an official document may constitute a protected work of its own if the photograph is sufficiently original (see below);\n* a photograph taken \"from\" an official document may have been copyrighted by someone other than the state and been reproduced with permission in the official document."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arts Schools Network",
        "text": "\u2022 How to protect intellectual property"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sui generis",
        "text": "Generally speaking, protection for intellectual property extends to intellectual creations in order to incentivize innovation, and depends upon the nature of the work and its \"characteristics\". The main types of intellectual property law are: copyright, which protects creative works; patent, which protects invention; trade secret, which protects information not generally known or readily ascertainable that is valuable to the secret holder; and trademark, which protects branding and other exclusive properties of products and services. Any matter that meets these criteria can be protected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monkey selfie copyright dispute",
        "text": "The British media lawyer Christina Michalos said that on the basis of British law on computer-generated art, it is arguable that Slater may own copyrights on the photograph, because he owned and presumably had set up the camera. Similarly, Serena Tierney, of London lawyers BDB, stated, \"If he checked the angle of the shot, set up the equipment to produce a picture with specific light and shade effects, set the exposure or used filters or other special settings, light and that everything required is in the shot, and all the monkey contributed was to press the button, then he would seem to have a passable claim that copyright subsists in the photo in the UK and that he is the author and so first owner.\" Furthermore, Andres Guadamuz, a lecturer in IP law at Sussex University, has written that existing European case law, particularly \"Infopaq International A/S v Danske Dagblades Forening\", makes it clear that the selection of photographs would be enough to warrant originality if the process reflects the personality of the photographer. Iain Connor, a partner in Pinsent Masons, similarly said that the photographer could claim they had \"put the camera in the hands of the monkey so [they had] taken some creative steps and therefore own the copyright,\" and that \"if it\u2019s an animal that presses the button, it should be the owner of the camera that owns the copyright to that photo.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Spain",
        "text": "example the diagrams in a patent: otherwise the copyright is held by the author of the image (e.g. the photographer)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of the United Kingdom",
        "text": "In 2014 (updated 2015) the Intellectual Property Office issued an advice notice, which said, in part:<ref name=\"IPO-2014/1\"></ref>"
      },
      {
        "title": "United Kingdom intellectual property law",
        "text": "United Kingdom intellectual property law\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "In South Africa photographing people in public is legal. Reproducing and selling photographs of people is legal for editorial and limited fair use commercial purposes. There exists no case law to define what the limits on commercial use are. Civil law requires the consent of any identifiable persons for advertorial and promotional purposes. Property, including animals, do not enjoy any special consideration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Law of Thailand",
        "text": "Intellectual property law, that is patents, trademarks and copyright, are protected by the Patent Act BE 2522 (1979), Trademark Act BE 2534 (1991) and the Copyright Act BE 2537 (1994) and their amendments respectively. Trade secrets are protected by the Trade Secrets Act BE 2545 (2002). The Department of Intellectual Property (DIP) manages intellectual property matters such as registration and enforcement. A registration system exists for trademarks and patents. Copyright is automatically protected for 50 years and does not need registration, however it can be filed with the DIP. Disputes are first heard in the Intellectual Property and International Trade Court."
      },
      {
        "title": "3D printing",
        "text": "Any of the mentioned legal regimes may prohibit the distribution of the designs used in 3D printing, or the distribution or sale of the printed item. To be allowed to do these things, where an active intellectual property was involved, a person would have to contact the owner and ask for a licence, which may come with conditions and a price. However, many patent, design and copyright laws contain a standard limitation or exception for 'private', 'non-commercial' use of inventions, designs or works of art protected under intellectual property (IP). That standard limitation or exception may leave such private, non-commercial uses outside the scope of IP rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph copyright (Germany)",
        "text": "The revised Bern agreement copyright applies (RBUe) (BGBl. 1973 II S. 1071, 1985 II S. 81), originally the Bernese agreement, to the protection of works of literature and art from 9 September 1886. The agreement requires generally at least a 50-year period of protection for works from the death of the author, as well as at least 25 years for photographic works (art. 7 Abs. 4 RBUe) as a minimum standard for the national legislation. This applies to publications of a German work outside of Germany."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
        "text": "Whether or not a photograph or pseudo-photograph is indecent is a question of fact, and as a question of fact it is something for a jury or magistrate to decide. The jury should apply the standard of decency which ordinary right-thinking members of the public would set - the \"recognised standards of propriety\" as \"R v Stamford\" [1972] puts it."
      },
      {
        "title": "CEPIC",
        "text": "Another main issue is the protection of intellectual property and the payment of photographers. CEPIC speaks up for ethical codes and for the rights of photographers and Picture Agencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Turkey",
        "text": "Other laws applicable to the creation of audiovisual art are"
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "The photographer generally has full rights of the images meaning they can also publish it to something like social media without permission from the people in the image. Although there are exceptions in the following scenarios.\n* A breach of the Privacy act 1988\n* Was taken while trespassing on private property\n* A breach of duty, such as sharing confidential information"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How is intellectual property protected such as photographs?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you interested in intellectual property law in the U.S., U.K., Germany, or some other country?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'm interested in intellectual property law in the U.S."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Copyright can subsist in an original photograph, i.e. a recording of light or other radiation on any medium on which an image is produced, lasting for 70 years from the end of the year in which the photographer dies. Copyright protects not merely the photographer from direct copying of his/her work, but also from indirect copying to reproduce his/her work, where a substantial part of his/her work has been copied.",
      "In the US there are copyright laws to protect \"original works of authorships which includes photgraphs."
    ],
    "topic": "Photography and the law",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Photography and the law:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Photography and the law",
          "United Kingdom",
          "Copyright"
        ],
        "ctx": "Copyright can subsist in an original photograph, i.e. a recording of light or other radiation on any medium on which an image is produced or from which an image by any means be produced, and which is not part of a film. Whilst photographs are classified as artistic works, the subsistence of copyright does not depend on artistic merit. The owner of the copyright in the photograph is the photographer \u2013 the person who creates it, by default. However, where a photograph is taken by an employee in the course of employment, the first owner of the copyright is the employer, unless there is an agreement to the contrary."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Photography and the law:18",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Photography and the law",
          "United Kingdom",
          "Copyright"
        ],
        "ctx": "Copyright which subsists in a photograph protects not merely the photographer from direct copying of his/her work, but also from indirect copying to reproduce his/her work, where a substantial part of his/her work has been copied."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Photography and the law:19",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Photography and the law",
          "United Kingdom",
          "Copyright"
        ],
        "ctx": "Copyright in a photograph lasts for 70 years from the end of the year in which the photographer dies. A consequence of this lengthy period of existence of the copyright is that many family photographs which have no market value, but significant emotional value, remain subject to copyright, even when the original photographer cannot be traced (a problem known as copyright orphan), has given up photography, or died. In the absence of a licence, it will be an infringement of copyright in the photographs to copy them. When someone dies the rights will have transferred to someone else, perhaps through testamentary deposition (a will) or by inheritance. If there was no will, or if the photographer has not specified where the rights in the material should go, then the normal rules of inheritance will apply (although these rules are not specific to copyright and legal advice should be sought). Scanning old family photographs, without permission, to a digital file for personal use is prima facie an infringement of copyright."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Copyright law of the United States:7",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Copyright law of the United States",
          "Works subject to copyright law"
        ],
        "ctx": "The United States copyright law protects \"original works of authorship,\" fixed in a tangible medium including literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, and other intellectual works. This protection is available to both published and unpublished works. Copyright law includes the following types of works:\n* Literary\n* Musical\n* Dramatic\n* Pantomimes and choreographic works\n* Pictorial, graphic, and sculptural works\n* Audio-visual works\n* Sound recordings\n* Derivative works\n* Compilations\n* Architectural works"
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Federal legislation governs the questions of copyright and criminal offences with respect to photography. Otherwise, the common law (except, in the case of Quebec, the \"Civil Code of Quebec\"), generally determines when photography can take place.\n:* The \"Copyright Act\" provides that the duration of copyright for a photograph is the life of the author plus 50 years. Freedom of panorama is also allowed, with respect to photographs of sculptures and architectural works, and there is also protection for those who \"incidentally and not deliberately include a work or other subject-matter in another work or other subject-matter.\"\n:* The \"Criminal Code\" provides for punishment of various offences, including voyeurism, child pornography, trespassing at night, and paparazzi behaviour.\n:* The law of defamation, trespass and privacy is governed at the provincial level.\n::* The common-law provinces of British Columbia, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, Ontario and Saskatchewan have enacted privacy legislation dealing with personality rights, which supplement the law of trespass.\n::* In Quebec, the \"Civil Code\" goes further by specifying that \"keeping ... private life under observation by any means\" constitutes an additional ground of invasion of privacy. In \"Aubry v \u00c9ditions Vice-Versa Inc\", the Supreme Court of Canada held that, because of that, supplemented by Quebec's \"Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms\" privacy provisions, a photographer can take photographs in public places but may not publish them unless permission has been obtained from the subject, except where the subject appears in an incidental manner, or whose professional success depends on public opinion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Authorship and ownership in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "Section 13(2) of Canada's Copyright Act relates to the copyright in engravings, photographs, and portraits. A past version of the Copyright Act in section 13(2) assigns the copyright in engravings, photographs, and portraits not to the photographer or author but to the purchaser who provided valuable consideration in exchange for the work. In other words, a wedding photographer hired to take pictures at a wedding, will not own the photos rather than the client."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright Act (Canada)",
        "text": "As with other works, the copyright duration for a photograph is the life of the author plus 50 years. Until June 2012, the copyright owner of an engraving, photograph or portrait was considered to be the person who ordered the work once payment was made. The Copyright Modernization Act repealed s. 13(2) such that the copyright is no longer held by the commissioner. Subject to a contract that says otherwise, the owner is now the photographer and the commissioner is granted limited rights to display and transmit the photograph without his or her permission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Authorship and ownership in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "Section 32.2(f) will provide that it is not an infringement of copyright to use a photo or portrait for non-commercial purposes if you commissioned the photograph or portrait for valuable consideration. This provision is clearly intended to provide the purchasers of the wedding photos with the ability to enjoy the photos they bought and to share them. However, if a commercial purchaser wished to make copies, or if a non-commercial client wishes to own the copyright, they will need to bargain with the author because section 32.2(f) will not apply and section 13(1)will give first ownership to the author and the section 13(2) exception will be eliminated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "There is some controversy as to the legal status of photographs taken before 1949 in the first scenario, as it can be argued that the current practice of statutory interpretation in the courts would hold that copyright protection was moved to the general rule by the 1999 reform to such photographs that were taken by individuals or creator-controlled corporations. In any case, this argument states that the 2012 act effectively removed all such special rules that were formerly contained in s. 10 of the Copyright Act."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian property law",
        "text": "Intellectual property, as with most common law countries, remains entirely based in federal statute; however, there are common-law economic torts related to intellectual property, e.g., passing off. Canada tried to take the middle road between the United Kingdom and the United States in many of their intellectual property laws. Copyright law and trademark law in Canada was initially based on the English legislation but has since incorporated many changes from the US model and other places. Canadian patent law, however, was initially based on US legislation but has typically favoured the application of UK case law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Subject matter limitations in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "According to the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), signed by both the United States and Canada, copyright protection extends to expressions and not to ideas, procedures, methods of operation, or mathematical concepts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Subject matter limitations in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "Copyright protection is limited to the certain subject matter in Canada. Generally, every original literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic work is protected under copyright law. Ideas and facts are not copyrightable, subject to a few exceptions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Authorship and ownership in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "This modification of the Copyright Act may be of concern to purchasers of photographs who may worry that they will no longer be able to reproduce and share their photographs, or at least will have to incur some transaction cost in bargaining for permission to reproduce or purchase of the copyright. Bill C-11 does foresee this difficult and provides some remedy in section 32.2(f)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright Act (Canada)",
        "text": "The copyright of an artist's work is owned directly by the artist in most cases with the exception of \"engravings\", \"photographs\", \"portraits\", and works created in the course of employment. Furthermore, these rights can be alienated through assignment and licences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "Unauthorized copying of works can be permissible under the fair dealing exemption. In \"CCH Canadian Ltd. v. Law Society of Upper Canada\", the Supreme Court of Canada made a number of comments regarding fair dealing, and found that the placement of a photocopier in a law library did not constitute an invitation to violate copyright. In \"Alberta (Education) v Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright)\", the Court further clarified this exemption from copyright law in the context of education, finding that a teacher may photocopy a brief excerpt from a textbook in circumstances where it would be impractical to purchase a text book for each student."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "The Copyright Modernization Act, which came into force on November 7, 2012, altered the rules with respect to the term of copyright with respect to photographs so that the creator holds the copyright and moral rights to them, and the general rule of life plus 50 years thereafter applies all such works. However, there are two schools of thought with respect to how copyright applies to photographs created before that date:\n#Some commentators believe that the transitional rules implemented in the 1999 reform still apply.\n#Others assert that such rules were ousted when the 2012 act came into force, and that the general rule under s. 6 of the Copyright Act governs. This may also have had the collateral effect of reviving copyright in some works that had previously lapsed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Law of Canada",
        "text": "Copyright law of Canada governs the legally enforceable rights to creative and artistic works under the laws of Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "Similar protection is extended to copyright holders in countries that are parties to:\n* the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works,\n* the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations,\n* the WIPO Copyright Treaty, and\n* the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Street photography",
        "text": "While the common-law provinces follow the United Kingdom, with respect to the freedom to take pictures in a public place, Quebec law provides that, in most circumstances, their publication can take place only with the consent of the subjects therein."
      },
      {
        "title": "Th\u00e9berge v Galerie d'Art du Petit Champlain Inc",
        "text": "This is not to say that Canadian copyright law lives in splendid isolation from the rest of the world. Canada has adhered to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (1886) and subsequent revisions and additions, and other international treaties on the subject including the Universal Copyright Convention (1952), Can. T.S. 1962 No. 12."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "The copyright law of Canada governs the legally enforceable rights to creative and artistic works under the laws of Canada. Canada passed its first colonial copyright statute in 1832 but was subject to imperial copyright law established by Britain until 1921. Current copyright law was established by the Copyright Act of Canada which was first passed in 1921 and substantially amended in 1988, 1997, and 2012. All powers to legislate copyright law are in the jurisdiction of the Parliament of Canada by virtue of section 91(23) of the Constitution Act, 1867."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography in Canada",
        "text": "Concerns about the absence of a specific Canadian mode of photography were aired in the early 20th century, both by Canadians including Harold Mortimer-Lamb, who lamented that the Canadian natural world was not sufficiently represented, and at least one British critic who remarked that there was no evidence of a \"Canadian spirit\" in then-contemporary photographic output."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "The Canadian Intellectual Property Office (CIPO), part of Industry Canada, administers intellectual property laws concerning the registration of patents, trade-marks, copyrights, industrial designs and integrated circuit topographies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian intellectual property law",
        "text": "Under the Constitution Act, 1867, patent and copyright law are the exclusive jurisdiction of the Federal Government of Canada. While trademarks and industrial design are not specifically mentioned by the Constitution Act, the federal government has enacted legislation governing both. Canadian courts have upheld these pieces of legislation as being properly under the federal government's control."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "The Copyright Act, 1921, came into force in 1924. Though Canada was no longer subject to imperial copyright law, it was closely modelled on the UK Copyright Act 1911:\n* the term of copyright was extended to 50 years after the creator's death (but, where a work was not yet published at the time of death, its term was extended to 50 years after publication)\n* sound recordings were protected \"as if such contrivances were musical, literary or dramatic works\"\n* in the case of an engraving, photograph or portrait, the initial owner of the copyright was the person who commissioned the plate or other original\n* any remaining rights (if any) at common law were abolished"
      },
      {
        "title": "Limitations on copyrightability in Canadian copyright law",
        "text": "The ideas and facts vs. expression distinction in Canadian copyright law is essentially the same as that in the United States. The basic notion is that although a copyright may be present in a work it is not present in the underlying ideas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "After becoming a signatory country of World Intellectual Property Organization Internet Treaties in 1996, Canada implemented its terms in 2012 with the passage of the Copyright Modernization Act. The 2012 act focuses on anti-circumvention provisions for technical protection measures, the protection of authors' rights, and the public's rights concerning the copying of legally obtained materials."
      },
      {
        "title": "Authorship and ownership in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "The current government of Canada is presenting a new Bill, Bill C-11, which will legislate a new version of the copyright act in which section 13(2) will vanish. (Bill C-11 was passed and received Royal Assent on June 29, 2012.) The effect of this legislative act will be that the rule for first ownership of copyright in photographs, portraits, and engravings will revert to the general rule in section 13(1). Consequently, it will be the wedding photographer and not the client who will be the first owner of the copyright. If the client wishes to own the copyright in the wedding photos, the client will have to buy the copyright from the photographer in contract."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright Act (Canada)",
        "text": "In June 2005, the Government of Canada introduced Bill C-60 to amend the \"Copyright Act\". Bill C-60 sought to extend moral rights to performers of other people's works and repeal the photographer exception allowing people to gain de facto authorship of anything they photograph. The bill also proposed to make circumventing rights management schemes an offence, but mostly when done for the purpose of violating another right. The bill was never passed into law as Parliament was dissolved after a motion of non-confidence was passed in November 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian intellectual property law",
        "text": "Protections for copyright are governed by the Copyright Act of Canada. The Act was first passed in 1921, and has been amended several times over the years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Subject matter limitations in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "On the other hand, in the United States, names, titles, or short phrases are not protected by copyright even if they are novel or distinctive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright Act (Canada)",
        "text": "The determination of originality on the basis presented in \"CCH Canadian\" depends on the facts. For a large part, it depends on the degree to which the work originated from the author. Many factors are considered, The medium or form used is significant. Whether it comprises elements that are in the public domain or not, whether it the ordering of data or facts, or whether the form is pedestrian or novel. Mere selection is generally not enough. As well, it is significant to consider whether there are any artistic elements to it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "A work must be original and can include literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works or compilations. Copyright is granted the moment the work is created and does not distinguish work of a professional or that of an amateur. There is also no distinction between for profit or commercial use or for hobby purposes. Literary work includes anything that is written, such as speeches, essays and books and may be in any form. However, a short string of words or spontaneous speech is not covered. Dramatic works include the characters, scenes, choreography, cinematography, relationship between characters, dialogue and dramatic expression. Artistic works include sculptures, paintings, photographs, charts and engravings. Musical works include any musical compositions with or without words. Unexpressed ideas are not protected work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright Act (Canada)",
        "text": "According to s. 6 of the Act the copyright of a work lasts the life of the author plus 50 years from the end of the calendar year of death. Except if the work is a cinematographic work in which case it's 50 years from the date of publication or, if unpublished, 50 years from the date of making"
      },
      {
        "title": "Authorship and ownership in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "Section 13(4) of Canada's Copyright Act states that \"[t]he owner of the copyright in any work may assign the right, either wholly or partially, and either generally or subject to limitations[...]\" This provision signifies that the first owner of the copyright of a newly created work can sell the copyright or any part thereof to another person. Those sales would be generally governed by the law of contract just like any other contract and so on that count are not interesting in Intellectual Property law terms. However, there are still many intellectual property questions in relation to the transfer of copyright. Many of those questions relate to the different types of transfers which are contemplated by the act and exactly what kind and what extent of intellectual property is conveyed by each of them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian intellectual property law",
        "text": "However, the Supreme Court of Canada held in \"Th\u00e9berge v. Galerie d'Art du Petit Champlain Inc\". that Canadian copyright law is primarily utilitarian. It finds its purpose in promoting the public interest through providing incentives for the creation and dissemination of expressive works. This balance is reached by recognizing the creator's rights, while also recognizing their limited nature. It is recognized that \"it would be as inefficient to overcompensate artists and authors for the right of reproduction as it would be self-defeating to undercompensate them.\" This is contrasted by the American approach in \"Feist Publications Inc. v. Rural Tel. Co. Ltd.\" that focuses on public interest without consideration of obtaining a just reward to the creator."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright Act (Canada)",
        "text": "According to Section 44 of the \"Copyright Act\", copyright owners may apply to have copies of their work that, were they made in Canada would be infringing, and are about to be, or have been, imported into Canada dealt with by the Canada Border Services Agency. In these cases, such copies can be detained, and eventually destroyed or handed over to the copyright holder, at the discretion of the court."
      },
      {
        "title": "Subject matter limitations in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "In the United States, the subject matter of copyright has been codified in s. 102 of the Copyright Act of 1976. That provision states in part that copyright does not exist in any idea, procedure, process, system, method of operation, concept, principle, or discovery, regardless of the form in which it is described, explained, illustrated, or embodied in such work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Subject matter limitations in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "Networks are likely to be too small if network effects are not internalized. As ownership is an ideal method of internalization, intellectual property laws, especially copyright, allow networks to function effectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Authorship and ownership in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "There is also a second reason why section 13(2) would be more efficient then section 13(1) for items such as wedding photos. This reason is that there is probably asymmetry of information between the photographer and the client, meaning that the photographer is probably aware of the copyright rules while the client is probably not. Under the section 13(2) rule, because the client is initially vested with copyright, the photographer has to ask to buy the copyright from the client if the photographer wants the copyright. In the course of the negotiation, the client would become informed about the law. In this, section 13(2) is efficient in that it creates an incentive for more informed parties to share that information with less informed parties. As there is greater symmetry of information between the parties, transaction costs are less and bargaining is easier. However, if the photographer is the first owner of the copyright, he has no need to ask his client about purchase of the copyright and consequently it is unlikely that the client will learn about the copyright on the photographs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Law of Canada",
        "text": "Property law in Canada is the body of law concerning the rights of individuals over land, objects, and expression within Canada. It encompasses personal property, real property, and intellectual property."
      },
      {
        "title": "Authorship and ownership in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "An analysis in terms of Coase's theorem might determine that the rule from section 13(2) is more efficient than the rule in section 13(1) when it comes to products such as wedding photos because it is likely that people who purchase wedding photos will want to make copies. If the copyright is vested in the photographer, then the client would have to ask for permission each time they wanted to copy one of the photos or give a photo or a copy to another person. Each of these requests would create a transaction cost which would decrease the efficiency of exchange and possibly make it more difficult for the person who places the greatest value on the photos to control the copyright. Section 32.2(f) can play an important role in reducing these transaction costs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Subject matter limitations in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "The Copyright Act specifies that artistic works include paintings, drawings, maps, charts, plans, photos, engravings, sculptures, works of artistic craftsmanship, and architectural works, among other things. In \"DRG Inc v. Datafile\", the plaintiff argued that there was copyright as an artistic work in his filing system that incorporated colours, numbers, and letters. The court held that the filing system was improper subject matter for copyright because it served a functional purpose. However, the plaintiff was claiming copyright in the design of the labels, not in the label itself. The court said that the design was an artistic work because the term \"artistic work\" is simply a general description of works that find expression in a visual medium. Artistic work does not require artistic quality. Accordingly, there was copyright in the graphic design of the labels, but not in the filing system as a whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Subject matter limitations in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "In Canada, titles, names and short word combinations are usually not protected by copyright. A work or other subject matter must be something more substantial in order to merit the protection of copyright. However, s. 2 of the Copyright Act says that if a title is original and distinctive, it is protected as part of the work it relates to."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian intellectual property law",
        "text": "A patent gives inventors the right to exclude others from making, using, or selling an invention. A patented invention must be something new, useful, and ingenious. Patents can be obtained for products, apparatuses, manufacturing processes, chemical compositions, and significant improvements to existing inventions. Patents may not generally be obtained for scientific principles, abstract theorems, ideas, methods of conducting business, computer programs, and medical treatments. Some exceptions have been made. Patents are protected in Canada by the Patent Act (R.S.C., 1985, c. P-4)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Subject matter in Canadian patent law",
        "text": "An art or operation is an act or series of acts performed by some physical agent upon some physical object and producing in such object some change either of character or of condition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "New technological developments and the emergence of computers, photocopiers and recording devices led to a recognition that copyright law needed to be updated. Between 1954 and 1960 the Royal Commission on Patents, Copyright, and Industrial Design, known as the Ilsley Commission, published a series of reports. Its brief was \"to enquire as to whether federal legislation relating in any way to patents of invention, industrial designs, copyright and trade-marks affords reasonable incentive to invention and research, to the development of literary and artistic talents, to creativeness, and to making available to the Canadian public scientific, technical, literary and artistic creations and other adaptations, applications and uses, in a manner and on terms adequately safeguarding the paramount public interest.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "In order to encourage the local printing and publishing industry Canada made a number of diplomatic and legislative efforts to limit the effects of the 1842 Imperial Act. In a compromise arrangement Canada passed the Copyright Act, 1875, which provided for a term of twenty-eight years, with an option to renew for a further fourteen years, for any \"literary, scientific and artistic works or compositions\" published initially or contemporaneously in Canada, and such protection was available to anyone domiciled in Canada or any other British possession, or a citizen of any foreign country having an international copyright treaty with the United Kingdom, but it was contingent on the work being printed and published (or reprinted and republished) in Canada. By registering under the Canadian Act, British and foreign publishers gained exclusive access to the Canadian market by excluding American reprints."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian intellectual property law",
        "text": "Canadian intellectual property law\n--Jurisdiction.\n--Intellectual property rights.\n----Copyright.\n------Purpose.\n----Patents.\n----Trademarks.\n----Industrial design.\n----Integrated circuit topographies.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian intellectual property law",
        "text": "Canadian intellectual property law governs the regulation of the exploitation of intellectual property in Canada. Creators of intellectual property gain rights either by statute or by the common law. Intellectual property is governed both by provincial and federal jurisdiction, although most legislation and judicial activity occur at the federal level."
      },
      {
        "title": "Authorship and ownership in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "There are many exceptions to this general rule such as exceptions for freelancers, journalists, and academics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fixation in Canadian copyright law",
        "text": "In contrast, live telecasts lack any tangibility or permanence. Rather, images are captured on the field and transmitted to viewers as a television signal. The signal itself is constantly changing. While the plaintiff had argued that the process was analogous to a cinematographic production or photograph (both being subject to copyright), the court rejected this argument. Films and photographs produce something of a material form of more or less permanent endurance, that is, a negative of the image (or series of images)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography in Canada",
        "text": "Photographs have been taken in the area now known as Canada since 1839, by both amateurs and professionals. In the 19th century, commercial photography focussed on portraiture. But professional photographers were also involved in political and anthropological projects: they were brought along on expeditions to Western Canada and were engaged to document Indigenous peoples in Canada by government agencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "Copyright also extends to incomplete creations such as proposals, treatments and formats, and infringement can occur when subsequent audiovisual works use their elements without ever actually literally copying them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "The 1841 Act only granted copyright in books, maps, charts, musical compositions, prints, cuts and engravings. Copyright was only awarded if it was registered and a copy of the work deposited in the office of the registrar of the province before publication. The author or creator was required to be resident in the province in order to obtain copyright under the Act, though the Act was unclear on whether the work needed to have been first published in the Province. The objective of the colonial copyright statutes was to encourage the printing of books in Canada, though this was not made explicit to avoid conflict with imperial copyright law, which was primarily designed to protect English publishers. Britain forcefully demanded guarantees that British and Irish subjects were eligible for protection under Canadian colonial copyright law in the same way residents of the Canadian colony were."
      },
      {
        "title": "Limitations on copyrightability in Canadian copyright law",
        "text": "original work embodies it, the mere taking of that idea will not infringe. But if the idea is detailed, then there may be infringement. It is a question of degree\" suggesting that the doctrine of merger is inherent in the idea expression dichotomy and does not exist as an official principle of Canadian copyright law. Nonetheless in the same decision Justice Morden stated the following, \"The merger notion is a natural corollary of the idea/ expression distinction which, as I have said, is fundamental in copyright law in Canada, England and the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright Act (Canada)",
        "text": "According to s. 9(2), the duration of foreign works generally follow the Rule of the shorter term except in the case of NAFTA countries (i.e. USA and Mexico). Works from NAFTA countries follow the Canadian duration rule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "Subject to other provisions of the Act, a work will fall into the public domain:\n# 50 years after publication, in nearly all cases, if it was subject to Crown copyright.\n# 50 years after the death of its creator.\n# if the author is unknown, 75 years after publication or 100 years after its creation (whichever is less), otherwise (if not published) 75 years after its creation.\n# if it is a communications signal, 50 years after the signal is broadcast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Photography and the law\n--Australia.\n----General.\n----Private property.\n----Publishing and rights.\n----Commercial purposes.\n--United Kingdom.\n----Legal restrictions on photography.\n----Anti-terrorism law.\n----Copyright.\n------Infringement.\n----Photography and privacy.\n--United States.\n--Canada.\n--Hong Kong.\n--Hungary.\n--Iceland.\n--Macau.\n--Mexico.\n--Philippines.\n--South Africa.\n--Spain.\n--Sudan and South Sudan.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright Act (Canada)",
        "text": "Copyright grants the sole and exclusive right to create and recreate a work whether wholly or substantially. It also includes the sole rights to:\n*publish the work if unpublished\n*perform the work in public\n*to produce, reproduce, perform or publish any translation of the work,\n*in the case of a dramatic work, to convert it into a novel or other non-dramatic work,\n*in the case of a novel or other non-dramatic work, or of an artistic work, to convert it into a dramatic work, by way of performance in public or otherwise,\n*in the case of a literary, dramatic or musical work, to make any sound recording, cinematograph film or other contrivance by means of which the work may be mechanically reproduced or performed,\n*in the case of any literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work, to reproduce, adapt and publicly present the work as a cinematographic work,\n*in the case of any literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work, to communicate the work to the public by telecommunication,\n*to present at a public exhibition, for a purpose other than sale or hire, an artistic work created after June 7, 1988, other than a map, chart or plan,\n*in the case of a computer program that can be reproduced in the ordinary course of its use, other than by a reproduction during its execution in conjunction with a machine, device or computer, to rent out the computer program, and\n*in the case of a musical work, to rent out a sound recording in which the work is embodied,"
      },
      {
        "title": "An Act to amend the Copyright Act (38th Canadian Parliament, 1st Session)",
        "text": "Under Bill C-60, photographers commissioned to take photographs were to retain ownership of the copyright of these photographs. This change came as an attempt to generalize the treatment of authors under the act; in the existing act, photographers were treated differently. This made sense for corporate commissioning, giving the photographer substantial bargaining power. However, for the average consumer, the provisions removed rights, and control over the use, duplication, distribution, display, and derivations of such commissioned works were greatly compromised."
      },
      {
        "title": "Subject matter limitations in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "Subject matter limitations in copyright law in Canada\n--Statutory provisions.\n--Literary works.\n--Artistic work.\n--Unprotected subject matter.\n----Functional tools.\n----Methods of operation.\n----Words, titles, and short phrases.\n--Network effects and lock-in.\n----Network effects.\n----Lock-in.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "Copyright includes the right to first publish, reproduce, perform, transmit and show a work in public. It includes other subsidiary rights such as abridgment and translation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "It is unclear whether the subjects in interviews have copyright in the words they utter (and thus be considered to be their authors), as the courts have not definitively ruled on the issues of originality and fixation in such cases. However, in \"Gould Estate v Stoddart Publishing Co Ltd\", the Ontario Court of Appeal noted that \"offhand comments that [the interviewee] knew could find their way into the public domain ... [were] not the kind of disclosure which the \"Copyright Act\" intended to protect.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "Copyright law of Canada\n--History.\n----Colonial copyright law.\n----Confederation.\n----Copyright Act, 1921.\n------Reform (1988\u20132012).\n------Copyright review and consultation process (2017\u20132019).\n------Extension of copyright for certain sound recordings (2015).\n------Extension of copyright for published pseudonymous or anonymous works (2020).\n------Proposals for extension of copyright term.\n--Rights conferred.\n--Protected works.\n----Fair dealing.\n----Public domain.\n------General rule.\n------Posthumous works.\n------Photographs.\n------Sound recordings and performance rights.\n----Anti-circumvention.\n--Administration.\n----Copyright Board.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright Act (Canada)",
        "text": "Where the identity of the author is unknown (if the author is anonymous or pseudonymous) then the copyright lasts for either 50 years from the publication of the work or 75 years from the making of the work, whichever is shorter. However, if author's identity becomes commonly known during this time, the term provided in section 6 applies. The act also makes provisions for posthumous works."
      },
      {
        "title": "Subject matter limitations in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "Copyright subsists in literary works. The Copyright Act specifies that literary works include tables, computer programs, books, and pamphlets, among other things. Still, the law on what constitutes a literary work is largely unsettled in Canada. In \"Hollinrake v. Truswell\" (1894), the court noted that a literary work is intended to afford either information and instruction, or pleasure, in the form of literary enjoyment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Threshold of originality",
        "text": "Under Canadian copyright law, an eligible work must be original to its author, not copied from another work, and requires more than trivial or mechanical intellectual effort. In the case of \"CCH Canadian Ltd. v. Law Society of Upper Canada\", the Supreme Court of Canada examined the different approaches taken to the definition of originality. The Supreme Court ultimately concluded that the proper approach in Canadian law fell between the approach of labour and diligence, and that of creativity. Chief Justice McLachlin stated that the \"exercise of skill and judgment\" was necessary in order for an expression to attract copyright protection. Chief Justice McLachlin went on to state that the exercise of skill and judgement would require \"intellectual effort\" and \"must not be so trivial that it could be characterized as a purely mechanical exercise.\" It has been suggested that this approach taken by the Supreme Court of Canada is functionally the same as the approach taken by the Supreme Court of the United States in \"Feist Publications v. Rural Telephone Service\", and by some civil law courts as those courts require that a work demonstrate a \"modicum of creativity\" in decision making rather than a mechanical exercise in order to be original."
      },
      {
        "title": "CCH Canadian Ltd v Law Society of Upper Canada",
        "text": "In reaching its ruling, the Court needed to rule on four questions:\n# Were the publishers' materials \"original works\" protected by copyright?\n# Did the Great Library authorize copyright infringement by maintaining self-service photocopiers and copies of the publishers' works for its patrons' use?\n# Were the Law Society's dealings with the publishers' works \"fair dealing[s]\" under s. 29 of the \"Copyright Act\"?\n# Did Canada Law Book consent to have its works reproduced by the Great Library?"
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography in Canada",
        "text": "Comparing Canadian portraits of working people by Cal Bailey with their American counterparts by Irving Penn and Richard Avedon, Cousineau-Levine suggests that the Canadian portraits show their subjects as \"uprooted\" from their surroundings\u2014by contrast with the American portraits, which, according to Cousineau-Levine, do not depict people ill at ease in the frame. This tendency to dislocate the photographic subject from its background persists, says Cousineau-Levine, in Canadian architecture photography by artists including Orest Semchishen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Limitations on copyrightability in Canadian copyright law",
        "text": "The sc\u00e8nes \u00e0 faire doctrine states that certain elements of a creative work cannot be protected by copyright where they are mandated by or are customary to the genre."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "Before the 1999 reform of the Act, works that were published after the death of the author were protected by copyright for 50 years after publication, thus granting perpetual copyright to any work not yet published. This was revised so that protection is limited as follows:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Native American fashion",
        "text": "Soon after the change to US law, public debate in Canada over protection of intellectual property rights became a media topic. There are no Canadian laws which specifically protect against cultural appropriation. The government utilizes international agreements to uphold their fiduciary responsibility to First Nations. As in the US, laws cover communities as a whole and not individual copyright and it is difficult for indigenous peoples to prevent misappropriation of their names and symbols. Most protections that exist are to protect economic rather than heritage rights. In two cases, trademarks have been obtained to protect Native artists. Since 1959, the \"igloo tag\" may be used only by Inuit people to protect their works. The Cowichan Band Council has registered \"Genuine Cowichan Approved\" as a mark specifically for clothing designs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Picture of Light",
        "text": "An intellectual travelogue, the film examines the gulf between the knowable and ineffable. It is a meditation on nature, technology and a visual postcard from a corner of the country few Canadians ever get to see for themselves. Mettler used time-lapse photography to capture the dancing lights, and among other things, had to work in conditions so extreme, the camera had to be protected against temperatures dropping to minus 40 Celsius."
      },
      {
        "title": "Distributed Proofreaders",
        "text": "In addition to preserving Canadiana, DP Canada is notable because it is the first major effort to take advantage of Canada's copyright laws which may allow more works to be preserved. Unlike copyright law in some other countries, Canada has a \"life plus 50\" copyright term. This means that works by authors who died more than fifty years ago may be preserved in Canada, whereas in other parts of the world those works may not be distributed because they are still under copyright."
      },
      {
        "title": "Subject matter limitations in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "Two economic phenomenon that are relevant to intellectual property and subject matter limitations in particular are network effects and lock-in. In fact, several courts have considered these principles in deciding IP cases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "It is unclear to what extent British copyright law, or imperial law, starting with the 1709 Statute of Anne, applied to its colonies (including Canada), but the House of Lords had ruled in 1774, in \"Donaldson v Beckett\", that copyright was a creation of statute and could be limited in its duration. The first Canadian colonial copyright statute was the Copyright Act, 1832, passed by the Parliament of the Province of Lower Canada, granting copyright to residents of the province. The 1832 Act was short, and declared ambitions to encourage emergence of a literary and artistic nation and to encourage literature, bookshops and the local press. After the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada (Ontario and Quebec) were reunified to form the Province of Canada, the 1832 Act was repealed and with minor changes enacted as the Copyright Act, 1841."
      },
      {
        "title": "Subject matter limitations in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "In \"University of London Press v. University Tutorial Press\" (1916), the University of London sought copyright protection in examination papers, arguing that they were literary works. The court agreed, holding that literary work is \"work which is expressed in print or writing, irrespective of the question whether the quality or style is high.\" This decision suggested that literary work should be interpreted broadly to include anything written down."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright Act (Canada)",
        "text": "Section 5 of the \"Copyright Act\" applies copyright protection to all citizens, residents, and corporations of Berne Convention, Universal Copyright Convention and World Trade Organization countries. The status is determined at the time the work is created or published. The section also permits the Minister of Industry to certify that these rights are extended to other countries. These are listed in the Regulations"
      },
      {
        "title": "Moral rights in Canadian copyright law",
        "text": "Whereas moral rights are derived from the civil law tradition:\n:\"They treat the artist's oeuvre as an extension of his or her personality, possessing a dignity which is deserving of protection. They focus on the artist's right (which by s. 14.1(2) is not assignable, though it may be waived) to protect throughout the duration of the economic rights (even where these have been assigned elsewhere) both the integrity of the work and his or her authorship of it (or anonymity, as the author wishes).\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian art",
        "text": "Canadian art refers to the visual (including painting, photography, and printmaking) as well as plastic arts (such as sculpture) originating from the geographical area of contemporary Canada. Art in Canada is marked by thousands of years of habitation by Indigenous peoples followed by waves of immigration which included artists of European origins and subsequently by artists with heritage from countries all around the world. The nature of Canadian art reflects these diverse origins, as artists have taken their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the reality of their lives in Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian property law",
        "text": "Canadian property law, or property law in Canada, is the body of law concerning the rights of individuals over land, objects, and expression within Canada. It encompasses personal property, real property, and intellectual property. Unlike multiple other first world countries, the right to own property is only included through the \"Bill of Rights\", an ordinary Federal law, rather than constitutionalized through the \"Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diana Thorneycroft",
        "text": "A series of digital photographs, \"Canadians and Americans (best friends forever \u2026 it's complicated)\" looks at iconic moments and figures in American and Canadian history to explore the unbalanced relationship and power dynamic between the two neighbouring countries. The collection was exhibited at the Michael Gibson Gallery in London, Ontario in October of 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Switzerland",
        "text": "Legal scholarship has attempted to summarise the Federal Supreme Court's jurisprudence on the threshold of originality as follows:\n* Images where only the object, but not the photograph, is individual are not protected, as e.g. in art catalogue photographs. Of course, the copyright status of the object depicted, e.g. a painting, must be considered independently.\n* \"Merely\" illustrative and portrait images also tend not to be protected, at least if the composition, post-processing etc. show no individual expression of thought.\n* Images are not protected \"per se\" because their object is famous or they attract great attention (e.g. the Abraham Zapruder pictures of the Kennedy assassination). On the other hand, an image can be a \"snapshot\" and still be protected as an individual work.\n* The impression is given that the mere \"aesthetic appeal\" of a photograph may contribute to its originality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright Act (Canada)",
        "text": "The \"Act\" provides protection for all \"original literary, dramatic, musical and artistic\" works. Close attention has been paid to the use of the word \"original\". It has been well established that the foremost requirement for the subsistence of copyright is that the work is original."
      },
      {
        "title": "Personality rights",
        "text": "In \"Aubry v \u00c9ditions Vice-Versa Inc\", the Supreme Court of Canada also affirmed that under Quebec's \"Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms\" privacy provisions, a photographer can take photographs in public places but may not publish the picture unless permission has been obtained from the subject, except where the subject appears in an incidental manner, or whose professional success depends on public opinion. The relevant provisions of the \"Charter\" are:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "Following the UK \"Carwardine\" case, rights in performer's performances were also held to exist under the Canadian Act (although they were never enforced). This was abolished in 1971."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography in Canada",
        "text": "Around the turn of the 20th century, developments in printing technology made it possible for Canadian amateurs and professionals to produce their own photographic postcards. In 1913, 60million postcards were sent in Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Authorship and ownership in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "In summary, there is case law which provides that an author in the meaning of section 13(1) of Canada's Copyright Act must fix the work into a semi permanent form, but cannot be a mere amanuensis and must provide the originality and the skill and judgement of that expression."
      },
      {
        "title": "1925 in Canada",
        "text": "Stephen Leacock resents requirement that works of authors seeking Canadian copyright must be printed in Canada"
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "In 1877, the Ontario Court of Appeal ruled that the Imperial Act of 1842 continued to have effect in Canada, despite the passage of the Canadian Act of 1875. This effectively meant that Canadian copyright was a local scheme, whereas Imperial copyright conferred general protection throughout the British Empire. The application of Imperial copyright was strengthened by the earlier decision of the House of Lords in \"Routledge v Low\", which declared that residence of an author, no matter how temporary, anywhere in the British dominions while his book was being published in the United Kingdom, was sufficient to secure it. As the United States was not then a signatory to an international copyright treaty (thus rendering its citizens ineligible for Canadian copyright), many Americans took advantage of this ruling by visiting Canada while their books were being published in London (and thereby obtaining Imperial copyright)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian Artists' Representation v National Gallery of Canada",
        "text": "In 1988, the \"Copyright Act\" was amended to provide for an exhibition right \"to present at a public exhibition, for a purpose other than sale or hire, an artistic work created after June 7, 1988, other than a map, chart or plan.\" Such fees were to be negotiated directly with individual copyright holders or their authorized agents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "Under the Copyright Act 1911, the Parliament of Canada was granted authority to either extend its application to Canada or to repeal (subject to the preservation of all legal rights existing at the time of such repeal) any or all enactments passed by the Imperial Parliament (including the Act of 1911) so far as operative within the Dominion. Canada opted to exercise the latter choice, and, upon passage of the Copyright Act, 1921, it assumed complete jurisdiction over copyright and Imperial legislation in the matter ceased to have effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Child pornography laws in Canada",
        "text": "The current law criminalizes possession of purely fictional material and has been applied in the absence of any images of real children, including to possession of fictional stories with no pictures at all, or vice versa, cartoon pictures without any stories."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography in Canada",
        "text": "Photography in Canada\n--19th century.\n--20th century.\n--Contemporary.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "O Canada",
        "text": "Our guide is the law:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Indirect infringement in Canadian copyright law",
        "text": "(e) in the case of any literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work, to reproduce, adapt and publicly present the work as a cinematographic work,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright Act (Canada)",
        "text": "An artist's moral rights, however, are inalienable and stay with the artist their entire lives. As with copyrights, moral rights are inheritable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Patent Act (Canada)",
        "text": "Patents apply to physical inventions and process, but not literary works, most software and other forms of intellectual property. For more information see patentable subject matter in Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of panorama",
        "text": "Section 32.2(1) of the Copyright Act (Canada) states the following:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Subject matter limitations in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "In another English case, \"NLA v. Meltwater\", the court held that the headings or titles of newspaper articles may be separately protected as literary works because, in many cases, there is sufficient originality in the writing or conception of a title to an article. However, the outcome of Meltwater would be different in Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian trademark law",
        "text": "According to the Supreme Court of the United States, trademarks are very different from patents and copyrights to the extent that they require \"no fancy or imagination, no genius, no laborious thought\". The Supreme Court of Canada calls them \"something of an anomaly\". Unlike other branches of intellectual property law, protection of trademarks does not necessarily arise from any act of creativity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Defences in Canadian copyright law",
        "text": "In Canada, the \"Copyright Act\" provides a monopoly right to owners of copyrighted works. This implies no person can use the work without authorization or consent from the copyright owner. However, certain exceptions in the Act govern circumstances where a work will not be held to have been infringed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Authorship and ownership in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "Authorship and ownership in copyright law in Canada is an important and complex topic which lies at the nexus between Canada's Copyright Act, an important body of case law, and a number of compelling policy motives. Analysis of Authorship and ownership of copyrightable works in Canada can proceed by examination of the rules determining the initial allocation of copyrights, rules governing subsequent changes in ownership, and finally rules governing complex works such as compilations."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How is intellectual property protected such as photographs?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you interested in intellectual property law in the U.S., U.K., Germany, or some other country?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'm interested in intellectual property law in the U.S."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In the US there are copyright laws to protect \"original works of authorships which includes photgraphs."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How about in Canada?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Yes, the copyright law of Canada governs the legally enforceable rights to creative and artistic works under the laws of Canada.  Artistic works include sculptures, paintings, photographs, charts and engravings."
    ],
    "topic": "Photography and the law",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Copyright law of Canada:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Copyright law of Canada"
        ],
        "ctx": "The copyright law of Canada governs the legally enforceable rights to creative and artistic works under the laws of Canada. Canada passed its first colonial copyright statute in 1832 but was subject to imperial copyright law established by Britain until 1921. Current copyright law was established by the Copyright Act of Canada which was first passed in 1921 and substantially amended in 1988, 1997, and 2012. All powers to legislate copyright law are in the jurisdiction of the Parliament of Canada by virtue of section 91(23) of the Constitution Act, 1867."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Copyright law of Canada:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Copyright law of Canada",
          "Protected works"
        ],
        "ctx": "A work must be original and can include literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works or compilations. Copyright is granted the moment the work is created and does not distinguish work of a professional or that of an amateur. There is also no distinction between for profit or commercial use or for hobby purposes. Literary work includes anything that is written, such as speeches, essays and books and may be in any form. However, a short string of words or spontaneous speech is not covered. Dramatic works include the characters, scenes, choreography, cinematography, relationship between characters, dialogue and dramatic expression. Artistic works include sculptures, paintings, photographs, charts and engravings. Musical works include any musical compositions with or without words. Unexpressed ideas are not protected work."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "Unauthorized copying of works can be permissible under the fair dealing exemption. In \"CCH Canadian Ltd. v. Law Society of Upper Canada\", the Supreme Court of Canada made a number of comments regarding fair dealing, and found that the placement of a photocopier in a law library did not constitute an invitation to violate copyright. In \"Alberta (Education) v Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright)\", the Court further clarified this exemption from copyright law in the context of education, finding that a teacher may photocopy a brief excerpt from a textbook in circumstances where it would be impractical to purchase a text book for each student."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fair dealing in Canadian copyright law",
        "text": "In response to perceived wide-scale copyright infringement, copyright owners began to implement technological locks and digital rights management. However, hackers have continually demonstrated success in circumventing such measures. For example, Blu-ray discs employ the Advanced Access Copy System (AACS), which has been successfully attacked on numerous occasions. Furthermore, in the case of \"Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc v Gaudreault\" the Federal Court of Appeal held that such circumvention of technological locks does not constitute copyright infringement. In response, copyright owners lobbied governments to ratify the World Intellectual Property Organization Copyright Treaty which was passed in 1996. Article 11 prohibits circumvention of technological locks, which is implemented by s. 47 of the 2012 Act. S. 48 provides for criminal sanctions upon persons who circumvent such technological locks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Federal legislation governs the questions of copyright and criminal offences with respect to photography. Otherwise, the common law (except, in the case of Quebec, the \"Civil Code of Quebec\"), generally determines when photography can take place.\n:* The \"Copyright Act\" provides that the duration of copyright for a photograph is the life of the author plus 50 years. Freedom of panorama is also allowed, with respect to photographs of sculptures and architectural works, and there is also protection for those who \"incidentally and not deliberately include a work or other subject-matter in another work or other subject-matter.\"\n:* The \"Criminal Code\" provides for punishment of various offences, including voyeurism, child pornography, trespassing at night, and paparazzi behaviour.\n:* The law of defamation, trespass and privacy is governed at the provincial level.\n::* The common-law provinces of British Columbia, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, Ontario and Saskatchewan have enacted privacy legislation dealing with personality rights, which supplement the law of trespass.\n::* In Quebec, the \"Civil Code\" goes further by specifying that \"keeping ... private life under observation by any means\" constitutes an additional ground of invasion of privacy. In \"Aubry v \u00c9ditions Vice-Versa Inc\", the Supreme Court of Canada held that, because of that, supplemented by Quebec's \"Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms\" privacy provisions, a photographer can take photographs in public places but may not publish them unless permission has been obtained from the subject, except where the subject appears in an incidental manner, or whose professional success depends on public opinion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "There is some controversy as to the legal status of photographs taken before 1949 in the first scenario, as it can be argued that the current practice of statutory interpretation in the courts would hold that copyright protection was moved to the general rule by the 1999 reform to such photographs that were taken by individuals or creator-controlled corporations. In any case, this argument states that the 2012 act effectively removed all such special rules that were formerly contained in s. 10 of the Copyright Act."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "It is an offence under the Counter-Terrorism Act 2008 to publish or communicate a photograph of a constable (not including PCSOs), a member of the armed forces, or a member of the security services, which is of a kind likely to be useful to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism. There is a defence of acting with a reasonable excuse; however, the burden of proof is on the defence, under section 58A of the Terrorism Act 2000. A PCSO in 2009 cited Section 44 of the Terrorism Act 2000 to prevent a member of the public photographing him. Section 44 actually concerns stop and search powers. However, in January 2010 the stop-and-search powers granted under Section 44 were ruled illegal by the European Court of Human Rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright Act (Canada)",
        "text": "As with other works, the copyright duration for a photograph is the life of the author plus 50 years. Until June 2012, the copyright owner of an engraving, photograph or portrait was considered to be the person who ordered the work once payment was made. The Copyright Modernization Act repealed s. 13(2) such that the copyright is no longer held by the commissioner. Subject to a contract that says otherwise, the owner is now the photographer and the commissioner is granted limited rights to display and transmit the photograph without his or her permission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Subject matter limitations in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "According to the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), signed by both the United States and Canada, copyright protection extends to expressions and not to ideas, procedures, methods of operation, or mathematical concepts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Authorship and ownership in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "This modification of the Copyright Act may be of concern to purchasers of photographs who may worry that they will no longer be able to reproduce and share their photographs, or at least will have to incur some transaction cost in bargaining for permission to reproduce or purchase of the copyright. Bill C-11 does foresee this difficult and provides some remedy in section 32.2(f)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Authorship and ownership in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "Section 13(2) of Canada's Copyright Act relates to the copyright in engravings, photographs, and portraits. A past version of the Copyright Act in section 13(2) assigns the copyright in engravings, photographs, and portraits not to the photographer or author but to the purchaser who provided valuable consideration in exchange for the work. In other words, a wedding photographer hired to take pictures at a wedding, will not own the photos rather than the client."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of expression in Canada",
        "text": "In the 1970s, the Canadian national security apparatus abused its surveillance powers to illegally suppress left-leaning press outlets through arson, breaking and entering, and theft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diana Thorneycroft",
        "text": "The photographs is this series uses paraphernalia depicting Canadian tourism, identity, and culture to discuss spectacles of martyrdom and apathy to human suffering.\n* Agnes Etherington Art Gallery, Kingston, Ontario\n* Art Gallery of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta\n* Art Gallery of Southwestern Manitoba, Brandon, Manitoba\n* Art Gallery of Nova Scotia, Halifax, Nova Scotia\n* Bank of Montreal\n* Beaverbrook Art Gallery, Fredericton, New Brunswick\n* Canada Council Art Bank, Ottawa, Ontario\n* Canadian Museum of Civilization, Ottawa, Ontario\n* City of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario\n* Fotomuseum Winterthur, Winterthur, Switzerland\n* Gallery One One One, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba\n* Lerners LLP, London, Ontario\n* McMichael Canadian Art Collection, Kleinburg, Ontario\n* Mackenzie Art Gallery, Regina, Saskatchewan\n* Manitoba Printmakers Association, Winnipeg, Manitoba\n* Manitoba Arts Council Art Bank, Brandon, Manitoba\n* Martha McCarthy & Company, Toronto, Ontario\n* National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario\n* Royal Bank of Canada\n* Rosizo, Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation, State Museum and Exhibition Centre, Moscow, Russia\n* The Donovan Collection, St. Michael\u02bcs College, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario\n* The Nickel Arts Museum, Calgary, Alberta\n* Toronto Photographers Workshop, Toronto, Ontario\n* TD Bank Group\n* Vancouver Art Gallery, Vancouver, British Columbia\n* University of Winnipeg, Winnipeg, Manitoba\n* Winnipeg Art Gallery, Winnipeg, Manitoba"
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright Act (Canada)",
        "text": "The copyright of an artist's work is owned directly by the artist in most cases with the exception of \"engravings\", \"photographs\", \"portraits\", and works created in the course of employment. Furthermore, these rights can be alienated through assignment and licences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Terrorism in Canada",
        "text": "Canadian federal statutes establish a legal regime that prosecutes terrorists for their activities. The Public Prosecution Service of Canada (PPSC), under the Attorney General of Canada, prosecutes offenses on behalf of the Canadian government, including those involving national security such as terrorist activities. If a person carries out a terrorist attack or instructs someone else to carry out a terrorist attack, they are given a life sentence. Anyone who facilitates a terrorist attack is liable to imprisonment for no more than 10 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "The Copyright Modernization Act, which came into force on November 7, 2012, altered the rules with respect to the term of copyright with respect to photographs so that the creator holds the copyright and moral rights to them, and the general rule of life plus 50 years thereafter applies all such works. However, there are two schools of thought with respect to how copyright applies to photographs created before that date:\n#Some commentators believe that the transitional rules implemented in the 1999 reform still apply.\n#Others assert that such rules were ousted when the 2012 act came into force, and that the general rule under s. 6 of the Copyright Act governs. This may also have had the collateral effect of reviving copyright in some works that had previously lapsed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "It is an offence under section 58 of the Terrorism Act 2000 to take a photograph of a kind likely to be useful to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism, or possessing such a photograph. There is an identical defence of reasonable excuse. This offence (and possibly, but not necessarily the offence) covers only a photograph as described in of the Terrorism Act 2006. As such, it must be of a kind likely to provide practical assistance to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism. Whether the photograph in question is such is a matter for a jury, which is not required to look at the surrounding circumstances. The photograph must contain information of such a nature as to raise a reasonable suspicion that it was intended to be used to assist in the preparation or commission of an act of terrorism. It must call for an explanation. A photograph which is innocuous on its face will not fall foul of the provision if the prosecution adduces evidence that it was intended to be used for the purpose of committing or preparing a terrorist act. The defence may prove a reasonable excuse simply by showing that the photograph is possessed for a purpose other than to assist in the commission or preparation of an act of terrorism, even if the purpose of possession is otherwise unlawful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Malak Karsh",
        "text": "Library and Archives Canada have approximately 400,000 photographic images acquired in 1985 and 2015 from Malak's vast library of transparencies, negatives and prints. The images, captured between 1940 and 2001, include many colour photographs of Parliament Hill and the tulip festival, along with landscapes of Canada from sea to sea to sea. Other images feature Canadians at work in agriculture, forestry, industry and the arts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright Act (Canada)",
        "text": "In June 2005, the Government of Canada introduced Bill C-60 to amend the \"Copyright Act\". Bill C-60 sought to extend moral rights to performers of other people's works and repeal the photographer exception allowing people to gain de facto authorship of anything they photograph. The bill also proposed to make circumventing rights management schemes an offence, but mostly when done for the purpose of violating another right. The bill was never passed into law as Parliament was dissolved after a motion of non-confidence was passed in November 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Authorship and ownership in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "Section 32.2(f) will provide that it is not an infringement of copyright to use a photo or portrait for non-commercial purposes if you commissioned the photograph or portrait for valuable consideration. This provision is clearly intended to provide the purchasers of the wedding photos with the ability to enjoy the photos they bought and to share them. However, if a commercial purchaser wished to make copies, or if a non-commercial client wishes to own the copyright, they will need to bargain with the author because section 32.2(f) will not apply and section 13(1)will give first ownership to the author and the section 13(2) exception will be eliminated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Unfair Dealing",
        "text": "The film alleges that the terrorism charges brought against the \"Toronto 18\" were largely exaggerated or fabricated by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) and Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) in order to justify the controversial Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act, and increased funding for security and law enforcement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of expression in Canada",
        "text": "Communication has an importance in times of crisis to warn communities of disasters and help follow the impact of it. The terms of Canada's renewed Official Secrets Act causes fears in Canadian media in which they may not be free to report on abuses in the national security sphere because they could be prosecuted. The Canadian attitude to criminalizing speech associated with terrorism has so far been somewhat careful. Canada amended its 2001 Anti-terrorism Bill to provide that \"for a greater certainty, the expression of a political, religious, or ideological thought, belief or opinion\" will not constitute a terrorist activity unless the expression satisfies the other definition of terrorist activities. Canada did increase the ability to seize and remove hate propaganda from the Internet and new penalties for damage to religious property in connection to terrorism and hate speech."
      },
      {
        "title": "InDefence",
        "text": "Throughout the whole land, up on the glaciers and out on the sea, people arrayed themselves with slogans on placards and had pictures taken: \u201cMr. Brown, We Are Not Terrorists.\u201d Because as everyone knows, terrorists are brown men with long beards and turbans, and so it is obvious in a picture who is a terrorist and who isn\u2019t."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moral rights in Canadian copyright law",
        "text": "Justice Charles Gonthier in dissent held that the court not only needed to consider the infringement of moral rights but also the change in the medium of the painting [prohibited by section 3.(1)] and the change in the physical structure of the work [prohibited by section 28.2(3)]."
      },
      {
        "title": "Street photography",
        "text": "While the common-law provinces follow the United Kingdom, with respect to the freedom to take pictures in a public place, Quebec law provides that, in most circumstances, their publication can take place only with the consent of the subjects therein."
      },
      {
        "title": "2014 shootings at Parliament Hill, Ottawa",
        "text": "And only a fortnight ago, its parliament voted to join the coalition in support of the US bombing of Isis targets: the country's security agencies were clear that they believed the decision would heighten the risk of a terrorist attack. Lawmakers were drafting legislation to combat radical violence before this latest attack. Politicians should now pause before succumbing to the temptation to rush through laws that further restrict civil liberties in the name of national security. It would be a betrayal of all that Canada represents if it allowed exceptional, and horrific, events to remould that society."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian Artists' Representation v National Gallery of Canada",
        "text": "In 1988, the \"Copyright Act\" was amended to provide for an exhibition right \"to present at a public exhibition, for a purpose other than sale or hire, an artistic work created after June 7, 1988, other than a map, chart or plan.\" Such fees were to be negotiated directly with individual copyright holders or their authorized agents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ahmed Khadr",
        "text": "Khadr's Canadian property was raided by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police as part of Project O Canada in January 2002. There was also reference to a \"seized photograph\" that showed Khadr standing alongside an anti-aircraft gun along with anti-Soviet mujahideen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Photography and the law\n--Australia.\n----General.\n----Private property.\n----Publishing and rights.\n----Commercial purposes.\n--United Kingdom.\n----Legal restrictions on photography.\n----Anti-terrorism law.\n----Copyright.\n------Infringement.\n----Photography and privacy.\n--United States.\n--Canada.\n--Hong Kong.\n--Hungary.\n--Iceland.\n--Macau.\n--Mexico.\n--Philippines.\n--South Africa.\n--Spain.\n--Sudan and South Sudan.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian property law",
        "text": "Intellectual property, as with most common law countries, remains entirely based in federal statute; however, there are common-law economic torts related to intellectual property, e.g., passing off. Canada tried to take the middle road between the United Kingdom and the United States in many of their intellectual property laws. Copyright law and trademark law in Canada was initially based on the English legislation but has since incorporated many changes from the US model and other places. Canadian patent law, however, was initially based on US legislation but has typically favoured the application of UK case law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moral rights in Canadian copyright law",
        "text": "In \"Th\u00e9berge\", a 2002 decision of the Supreme Court of Canada, the plaintiff was an artist who sold paintings that were printed on poster paper. The defendant bought one of the posters and, using a specialized process, transferred the physical ink from the poster to a canvas. The main question in the case was whether there was copyright infringement. Justice Ian Binnie writing for the majority stated that there was a distinction between economic and moral rights:\n:\"The economic rights are based on a conception of artistic and literary works essentially as articles of commerce.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Counter-Terrorism Act 2008",
        "text": "Journalists who feared that this law would be abused by the police to threaten the taking of photographs of their activities staged a mass protest outside Scotland Yard in February 2009. Gordon Brown reaffirmed that the police have a legal right to restrict photography in public places, and stated \"the law applies to photographers as it does to anybody else in a public place\". The act however does not lay out restrictions for the photography of Community Support Officers as they do not hold the office of Constable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic terrorism",
        "text": "According to recent government statements Islamic terrorism is the biggest threat to Canada. The Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) reported that terrorist radicalization at home is now the chief preoccupation of Canada's spy agency. The most notorious arrest in Canada's fight on terrorism, was the 2006 Ontario terrorism plot in which 18 Al-Qaeda-inspired cell members were arrested for planning a mass bombing, shooting, and hostage taking terror plot throughout Southern Ontario. There have also been other arrests mostly in Ontario involving terror plots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diana Thorneycroft",
        "text": "Looking at the horrific history of crimes and atrocities perpetrated against vulnerable people in Canada, \"A People's History\" is a series of photographs based on dioramas created by the artist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Authorship and ownership in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "The current government of Canada is presenting a new Bill, Bill C-11, which will legislate a new version of the copyright act in which section 13(2) will vanish. (Bill C-11 was passed and received Royal Assent on June 29, 2012.) The effect of this legislative act will be that the rule for first ownership of copyright in photographs, portraits, and engravings will revert to the general rule in section 13(1). Consequently, it will be the wedding photographer and not the client who will be the first owner of the copyright. If the client wishes to own the copyright in the wedding photos, the client will have to buy the copyright from the photographer in contract."
      },
      {
        "title": "Terrorism Act 2000",
        "text": "Problematic use of Section 44 powers has not been restricted to political protestors; according to reports, journalists, amateur and professional photographers, trainspotters, politicians and children have been subject to stop and search under suspicion of being involved in terrorist activities while engaged in lawful acts such as photography. The taking of photographs in public spaces is permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (freedom of panorama), and while the Terrorism Act does not prohibit such activity, critics have alleged misuse of the powers of the Act to prevent lawful photography. (Further restrictions on photography have, however, been introduced with the Counter-Terrorism Act 2008)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee on Justice and Human Rights",
        "text": "The study was undertaken shortly after New Zealand's March 15, 2019 Christchurch mosque shootings in which two terrorist attacks resulted in the death of 51 people. The perpetrator was described in media reports as a far-right extremism who was part of the alt-right and whose manifesto revealed his obsession with white supremacy over Muslims."
      },
      {
        "title": "Defences in Canadian copyright law",
        "text": "The effect of \"CCH\" has been for Canada becoming less rigid than the UK in interpreting fair dealing, and more flexible than the US approach of fair use in its copyright law. Further expansion of the jurisprudence came in 2012 with \"SOCAN v Bell Canada\" and \"Alberta (Education) v Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright)\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Contents of the United States diplomatic cables leak (Americas)",
        "text": "Judd commented that cherry-picked sections of the court-ordered release of a DVD of Guantanamo detainee and Canadian citizen Omar Khadr would likely show three Canadian adults interrogating a kid who breaks down in tears. He observed that the images would no doubt trigger \"knee-jerk anti-Americanism\" and \"paroxysms of moral outrage, a Canadian specialty\", as well as lead to a new round of heightened pressure on the government to press for Khadr's return to Canada. He predicted that Harper's government would nonetheless continue to resist this pressure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Defences in Canadian copyright law",
        "text": "Regarding other specific matters concerning fair dealing:\n:* With respect to criticism and review, \"Criticism of a work need not be limited to criticism of style. It may also extend to the ideas to be found in a work and its social or moral implications.\" However, it must be done in good faith. As Lord Denning MR noted in \"Hubbard\", \"'It is not fair dealing for a rival in the trade to take copyright material and use it for his own benefit.\"\n:* With respect to news reporting, timeliness may sometimes require the use of copyrighted material without prior permission while the value, importance and interest in the story are still current. It has also been held that \"events, such as tragedies in which people are killed, continue to be current events so long as the events themselves continue to feature in the news.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Section 63 of the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008",
        "text": "The government was unsuccessful in shutting down such sites, since they are based in other countries and are legally made with consenting adults. In August 2005 the British government consulted on, instead, criminalising the possession of such images."
      },
      {
        "title": "Defences in Canadian copyright law",
        "text": "\"CCH Canadian Ltd v Law Society of Upper Canada\", expanded upon that, with the Supreme Court of Canada holding that fair dealing, as well as related exceptions, is a user\u2019s right. In order to maintain the proper balance between the rights of copyright owners and user\u2019s interest, it must not be interpreted restrictively. It is also integral to the Act, and the defence is always available. The Court gave a two-stage test for determining whether fair dealing applies:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Terrorism in Canada",
        "text": "Radicalization, or having radical thoughts, in Canada is not illegal or necessarily problematic in and of itself. The Constitution of Canada, through the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, protects the freedom of thought, belief, opinion, and expression of Canadians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muslim attitudes toward terrorism",
        "text": "The bombing attempt on Northwest Airlines Flight 253 was condemned by Muslim groups. In Canada, a group of Canadian and U.S. Islamic leaders issued a fatwa, or religious edict, condemning any attacks by extremists or terrorists on the United States or Canada and declaring that an attack by extremists on the two countries would constitute an attack on Muslims living in North America. \"In our view, these attacks are evil, and Islam requires Muslims to stand up against this evil,\" said the fatwa signed by the 20 imams associated with the Islamic Supreme Council of Canada. It concludes that Muslims \"must expose any person, Muslim or non-Muslim, who would cause harm to fellow Canadians or Americans\". One of the imams was reported saying: \"it is religious obligation upon Muslims, based upon the Qur'anic teachings, that we have to be loyal to the country where we live\". The fatwa also indicated that religious leaders have a duty to show others around the world that Muslims in Canada and the U.S. \"have complete freedom to practice Islam\" and that \"any attack on Canada and the United States is an attack on the freedom of Canadian and American Muslims.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of expression in Canada",
        "text": "The Internet has brought concerns about the limits of free speech that copyright law imposes. This can become a restriction on freedom of speech if a person wishes to use work without proper permission. Copyright protects the words and images used to portray the ideas but it does not protect the ideas themselves. When it comes to any restrictions on free speech there needs to be a valid justification for it, but the case of copyright seems to override the idea that it is against free speech\u2014rather a solution to the protection of people's words and images."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of expression in Canada",
        "text": "Despite the War Measures Act, the federal cabinet has power to censor the media by declaring a war emergency or an international emergency. The Emergencies Act does require that the acknowledgment of an emergency be presented before Parliament within seven days where the Parliament can have a chance to revoke it. Julian Sher, president of the 1000-member Canadian Association of Journalists, predicted that the media would launch a court challenge if the Charter of Rights was violated. However, cases in the past have seen courts approving military censorship. For example, during the Canadian army's confrontation with Mohawk warriors at Oka, Quebec, there were restrictions on the media including the cutoff of cellular telephones. In 1970, during the October crisis in Quebec, the War Measures Act was imposed and the media were not allowed to publish the manifestos of the Front de lib\u00e9ration du Qu\u00e9bec and even some journalists were jailed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Combat 18",
        "text": "Due to concerted efforts by Canadians on 21 June 2019, two neo-Nazi / alt-right groups were added to the Canadian terrorist list. This is in part due to Canada's response to the Christchurch mosque shootings and a petition to Canada's Federal Government: EPetition e-2019 by #NoPlace2Hate. This means that criminal acts by members of this group now additionally fall under Canada's Criminal Code for Terrorism which can include additional prison sentences for criminal acts including financial contributions to a known terrorist organisation."
      },
      {
        "title": "John O'Brian",
        "text": "The Bomb in the Wilderness contends that photography is one of the primary ways, if not the primary way, nuclear activities are interpreted and remembered. The book asks: Do photographs alert viewers to nuclear threat, numb them to its dangers, or do both at the same time? O\u2019Brian argues that the impact and global reach of Canada\u2019s nuclear programs have been felt ever since the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The book has been referred to as a \u201cfoundational text.\u201d\u00a0 Douglas Coupland writes, \u201cIt finds beauty in grotesque places [and] validates the reader\u2019s Cold War paranoia.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Picture of Light",
        "text": "An intellectual travelogue, the film examines the gulf between the knowable and ineffable. It is a meditation on nature, technology and a visual postcard from a corner of the country few Canadians ever get to see for themselves. Mettler used time-lapse photography to capture the dancing lights, and among other things, had to work in conditions so extreme, the camera had to be protected against temperatures dropping to minus 40 Celsius."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hate speech laws in Canada",
        "text": "In \"Khanna v Common Ground Publishing Corp.\", the British Columbia Human Rights Tribunal considered a complaint about an image on the cover of a magazine. The image was a representation of the Hindu god Shiva in the form of Nataraja. The representation had a circle of fire with modern artifacts, such as a hamburger. The Tribunal rejected the claim that the image would make it \"acceptable for others to express hatred and contempt for Hindus.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Censorship in Canada",
        "text": "In March 2019, following the Christchurch mosque shooting, Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Ralph Goodale stated that the government was planning to carefully evaluate whether social media platforms should be required to censor hate speech and extremist content."
      },
      {
        "title": "2014 shootings at Parliament Hill, Ottawa",
        "text": "A national poll by the Angus Reid organization released on November 25, 2014 revealed that Canadians in general were also split as well on whether the attack and shooting was an act of terrorism or mental illness. 38% felt that it was the result of mental illness, while 36% felt it was terrorism, with 25% undecided. Asked about what the federal government should do as a result, 54% felt that more initiatives should be done to prevent radicalization, while 34% favoured harsher punishments. On how to deal with homegrown terrorists, 54% felt that indefinite incarceration only motivated persons to commit crimes, while 46% felt it prevented violent crime."
      },
      {
        "title": "Artistic freedom",
        "text": "In Canada, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms protects artistic expression."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fair dealing in Canadian copyright law",
        "text": "Only a reasonably necessary amount of copying is permitted, but this requirement is interpreted broadly. The Supreme Court has stated that the allowable purposes must be given a \"large and liberal interpretation\" and \"It may be possible to deal fairly with a whole work ... for the purpose of research or private study, it may be essential to copy an entire academic article or an entire judicial decision.\" In the case of photos, for example, it is permissible to copy the entire work as it would be impossible to otherwise deal with the work. The greater the amount of the work copied, however, the higher the burden of justification will be. The Copyright Board of Canada has stated that \"where the amount copied was greater than 10 per cent of the work, we conclude that the amount copied tends to make the dealing unfair.\" The Board also notes that \"In Alberta, the Supreme Court repeated the assertion from CCH that the allowable fair-dealing purposes must be given a 'large and liberal interpretation.' In \"Governments\", the Board, after considering relevant legislation and case-law, concluded that \u2018all of the purposes enumerated in sections 29\u201329.2 of the Act must receive a large and liberal interpretation.' We have no reason to depart from this conclusion.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Unfair Dealing",
        "text": "The film refers to an article in \"Maclean's\" magazine, in which Muslim politician Wajid Khan tacitly admits that surveillance on at least one suspect was the result of him speaking out against Canada's role in the War in Afghanistan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human rights in Canada",
        "text": "In Canada, legal limitations on freedom of expression include:\n* Sedition, fraud, specific threats of violence, and disclosure of classified information\n* Civil offences involving libel, defamation, fraud, or workplace harassment\n* Violations of copyright laws\n* Criminal offences involving hate speech and genocide advocacy\n* Municipal by-laws that regulate signage or where protests may take place"
      },
      {
        "title": "Subject matter limitations in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "The Copyright Act specifies that artistic works include paintings, drawings, maps, charts, plans, photos, engravings, sculptures, works of artistic craftsmanship, and architectural works, among other things. In \"DRG Inc v. Datafile\", the plaintiff argued that there was copyright as an artistic work in his filing system that incorporated colours, numbers, and letters. The court held that the filing system was improper subject matter for copyright because it served a functional purpose. However, the plaintiff was claiming copyright in the design of the labels, not in the label itself. The court said that the design was an artistic work because the term \"artistic work\" is simply a general description of works that find expression in a visual medium. Artistic work does not require artistic quality. Accordingly, there was copyright in the graphic design of the labels, but not in the filing system as a whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "An Act to amend the Copyright Act (38th Canadian Parliament, 1st Session)",
        "text": "Under Bill C-60, photographers commissioned to take photographs were to retain ownership of the copyright of these photographs. This change came as an attempt to generalize the treatment of authors under the act; in the existing act, photographers were treated differently. This made sense for corporate commissioning, giving the photographer substantial bargaining power. However, for the average consumer, the provisions removed rights, and control over the use, duplication, distribution, display, and derivations of such commissioned works were greatly compromised."
      },
      {
        "title": "2014 shootings at Parliament Hill, Ottawa",
        "text": "The terror threat level in Canada was on October 21 raised to medium in light of the ramming attack and due to \"an increase in online 'general chatter' from radical groups including Islamic State and al-Qaeda.\" In his address to the nation following the shootings on October 22, Prime Minister Stephen Harper referred to the October 20 incident as an ISIL-inspired terrorist attack. Although both the October 20 and 22 attacks led to the death of Canadian soldiers, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) ruled out any direct connection between the attacks of October 20 and 22."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweat of the brow",
        "text": "In a copyright notice on \"digital images, photographs and the internet\" last updated in November 2015, the UK Intellectual Property Office stated that digital reproductions of public domain images are not protected by copyright, arguing that \"according to the Court of Justice of the European Union which has effect in UK law, copyright can only subsist in subject matter that is original in the sense that it is the author's own \"intellectual creation\". Given this criterion, it seems unlikely that what is merely a retouched, digitised image of an older work can be considered as \"original\".\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Subject matter limitations in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "Copyright protection is limited to the certain subject matter in Canada. Generally, every original literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic work is protected under copyright law. Ideas and facts are not copyrightable, subject to a few exceptions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Censorship in Canada",
        "text": "The Canadian Human Rights Act formerly prohibited hate messages in telecommunications under federal jurisdiction, such as broadcasting and the internet. Section 13 of the Act prohibited making a statement by telecommunication which \"is likely to expose a person or persons to 'hatred or contempt' by reason of the fact that that person or those persons are identifiable on the basis of a prohibited ground of discrimination.\" Those prohibited grounds of discrimination are on the basis of race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, age, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, family status, disability or conviction for an offence for which a pardon has been granted. Provinces such as British Columbia and Alberta have extended this prohibition to all publications. In 1990, the Supreme Court of Canada upheld the constitutionality of s. 13 of the Canadian Human Rights Act."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Switzerland",
        "text": "Legal scholarship has attempted to summarise the Federal Supreme Court's jurisprudence on the threshold of originality as follows:\n* Images where only the object, but not the photograph, is individual are not protected, as e.g. in art catalogue photographs. Of course, the copyright status of the object depicted, e.g. a painting, must be considered independently.\n* \"Merely\" illustrative and portrait images also tend not to be protected, at least if the composition, post-processing etc. show no individual expression of thought.\n* Images are not protected \"per se\" because their object is famous or they attract great attention (e.g. the Abraham Zapruder pictures of the Kennedy assassination). On the other hand, an image can be a \"snapshot\" and still be protected as an individual work.\n* The impression is given that the mere \"aesthetic appeal\" of a photograph may contribute to its originality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "The intellectual property rights on photographs are protected in different jurisdictions by the laws governing copyright and moral rights. In some cases photography may be restricted by civil or criminal law. Publishing certain photographs can be restricted by privacy or other laws. Photography can be generally restricted in the interests of public morality and the protection of children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic Supreme Council of Canada",
        "text": "In response to the bombing attempt on Northwest Airlines Flight 253 a group of Canadian and U.S. Islamic leaders associated with the Islamic Supreme Council of Canada issued a fatwa , or religious edict, on January 8, 2010 condemning any attacks by extremists or terrorists on the United States or Canada and declaring that an attack by extremists on the two countries would constitute an attack on Muslims living in North America. \"In our view, these attacks are evil, and Islam requires Muslims to stand up against this evil,\" said the fatwa signed by the 20 imams. It concludes that Muslims \"must expose any person, Muslim or non-Muslim, who would cause harm to fellow Canadians or Americans\". One of the imams was reported saying: \"it is religious obligation upon Muslims, based upon the Qur'anic teachings, that we have to be loyal to the country where we live\". The fatwa also indicated that religious leaders have a duty to show others around the world that Muslims in Canada and the U.S. \"have complete freedom to practise Islam\" and that \"any attack on Canada and the United States is an attack on the freedom of Canadian and American Muslims.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Diana Thorneycroft",
        "text": "A series of digital photographs, \"Canadians and Americans (best friends forever \u2026 it's complicated)\" looks at iconic moments and figures in American and Canadian history to explore the unbalanced relationship and power dynamic between the two neighbouring countries. The collection was exhibited at the Michael Gibson Gallery in London, Ontario in October of 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Defences in Canadian copyright law",
        "text": "\"Hubbard\" was adopted in Canadian jurisprudence in 1997 in \"Allen v Toronto Star Newspapers Ltd\", which ousted the 1943 Exchequer Court of Canada case of \"Zamacois v Douville and Marchand\" in the area of what constitutes fair dealing in illustrating a current news story. In so holding, Sedgwick J observed:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Law of Canada",
        "text": "Copyright law of Canada governs the legally enforceable rights to creative and artistic works under the laws of Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States v Burns",
        "text": "While the government had a sufficient objective for infringing the right, namely working with the US cooperatively to fight crime and to keep good relations with the US, it was not necessary to risk execution for these objectives to be met. Asking that the death penalty should not be sought should not hurt relations with the US because the extradition treaty allows for this. There was also a concern about keeping dangerous criminals out of Canada, but the Court replied that criminals might not find extradition with the risk of a life sentence more attractive than the risk of execution, and thus it was not proven criminals would flee to Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fair dealing in Canadian copyright law",
        "text": "While s. 47 empowered the Governor in Council to make regulations concerning the suspension of prohibition of circumvention of technological locks if same is having an adverse effect on fair dealing, it is uncertain to what extent such provision will be utilized. As a result, otherwise lawful fair dealing with copyrighted works will be prohibited, thereby nullifying fair dealing rights. The Canadian Government has stated that fair dealing and defences will not apply to circumvention of technological locks: \"contravention of this prohibition is not an infringement of copyright and the defences to infringement of copyright are not defences to these prohibitions.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Subject matter limitations in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "In \"University of London Press v. University Tutorial Press\" (1916), the University of London sought copyright protection in examination papers, arguing that they were literary works. The court agreed, holding that literary work is \"work which is expressed in print or writing, irrespective of the question whether the quality or style is high.\" This decision suggested that literary work should be interpreted broadly to include anything written down."
      },
      {
        "title": "Censorship in Canada",
        "text": "Censorship in Canada\n--Visual arts.\n----Corridart.\n----\"Will and Representation\".\n--Broadcasting.\n--Film.\n--Print.\n----\"Little Sisters Book and Art Emporium v Canada\".\n--Internet.\n----Online gambling.\n----Copyright infringement.\n----Extremist content.\n--Employers and employees.\n--Public servants.\n--Human rights laws.\n--Criticism of Canadian censorship.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Unfair Dealing",
        "text": "The film also scrutinizes the politically sensitive timing of the arrests, since they were carried out shortly before a Parliamentary Review of Canada's Anti-terrorism Act."
      },
      {
        "title": "Khalid Khawaja",
        "text": "A noted friend of the Egyptian-Canadian Khadr family, Khawaja spoke in their defence saying they were being unfairly targeted by Canadian authorities because of deference to the United States, and Islamophobia. He has also said that Canada is \"selfish and self-centred\" and deserves to be bombed by terrorists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.",
        "text": "Although the second judgment was based upon application of US law, Kaplan added that \"[w]hile the Court's conclusion as to the law governing copyrightability renders the point moot, the Court is persuaded that plaintiff's copyright claim would fail even if the governing law were that of the United Kingdom.\" He referred to the Privy Council case of \"Interlego v Tyco Industries\" for equivalent case law in the UK, where it had been held that \"[s]kill, labour or judgment merely in the process of copying cannot confer originality\". Further, the Privy Council had held in \"Interlego\" that \"[t]here must [...] be some element of material alteration or embellishment which suffices to make the totality of the work an original work\", rendering the mere change in medium of a work, on its own, not sufficient for copyrightability. Thus the question of originality and copyrightability of a \"slavish copy\", even one where the medium changed (i.e. from a painting to a photograph, and thence to a digitization of that photograph), would be decided the same under UK law as under US law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography in Canada",
        "text": "Concerns about the absence of a specific Canadian mode of photography were aired in the early 20th century, both by Canadians including Harold Mortimer-Lamb, who lamented that the Canadian natural world was not sufficiently represented, and at least one British critic who remarked that there was no evidence of a \"Canadian spirit\" in then-contemporary photographic output."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human rights in Canada",
        "text": "Some limitations remain controversial due to concerns that they infringe on freedom of expression."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Sorrow and the Terror",
        "text": "The book argued that due to immigration policies of the 1960s through the 1970s, the Canadian government allowed persons who were unable to integrate into Canadian culture, and that Canadian government had neglected admitting educated persons in favor of religious extremists in its immigration system. Blaise said that the AI182 bombing exposed a negative aspect of Canada's multiculturalism, and that in regards to Sikh terrorism, \"We are not talking of Sikhs and Hindus but of a political situation that has decayed into terrorism.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Moral rights in Canadian copyright law",
        "text": "Another perspective holds that allowing authors to protect their artwork may in fact damage artistic creation by preventing modification or in some case destruction of an artwork. Which position is correct is unclear, however, it is a fact that there is only a small amount of case law concerning moral rights. Furthermore, the statutory language around moral rights is ambiguous, and it is conceivable that moral rights may come into contention with fair dealings provisions, in which case a balancing of an author's moral rights and a user's fair dealing rights is necessary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamophobia in Canada",
        "text": "In 2015, then Prime Minister Stephen Harper, while answering questions about terrorism suspects, said \"it doesn't matter what the age of the person is, or whether they're in a basement, or whether they're in a mosque or somewhere else.\" The remarks were seen as casting mosques as \"venues of terrorism\", by the NCCM, who expressed concerns about increased attacks on mosques as a result of this perception. The leader of the Opposition said the remarks were Islamophobic, and noted that mosques actually work closely with security agencies in preventing radicalization. In response, Harper released a statement recognizing the Muslim community's efforts in fighting terror."
      },
      {
        "title": "Snow v Eaton Centre Ltd",
        "text": "The Copyright Act of Canada has also been amended since this case so that any modification to a painting, sculpture or engraving is deemed to prejudice the author. For those types of works, no evidence of actual prejudice is required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of religion in Canada",
        "text": "In Alberta v. Hutterian Brethren of Wilson Colony, the Supreme Court of Canada addressed whether the obligation to have a photograph on the driver's license violated the Hutterites' right to freedom of religion. The Court found that there was a \"prima facie\" discrimination but considered that the need to both protect the integrity of the licensing system and combat identity fraud was a justified limitation on the community's religious freedom. This decision illustrates another limit to reasonable accommodation: public interest. The Court explains that \"[g]iving effect to each of their religious claims could seriously undermine the universality of many regulatory programs [...] to the overall detriment of the community.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Defences in Canadian copyright law",
        "text": "The \"Copyright Act\" states that fair dealing exists when it is done:\n:* for the purpose of research, private study, education, parody or satire;\n:* for the purpose of criticism or review, as long as it mentions the source and, if mentioned, the author, performer, maker or broadcaster\n:* for the purpose of news reporting, as long as it mentions the source and, if mentioned, the author, performer, maker or broadcaster"
      },
      {
        "title": "Subject matter limitations in copyright law in Canada",
        "text": "Two economic phenomenon that are relevant to intellectual property and subject matter limitations in particular are network effects and lock-in. In fact, several courts have considered these principles in deciding IP cases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Defences in Canadian copyright law",
        "text": "In Canada, the \"Copyright Act\" provides a monopoly right to owners of copyrighted works. This implies no person can use the work without authorization or consent from the copyright owner. However, certain exceptions in the Act govern circumstances where a work will not be held to have been infringed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Law enforcement in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "Section 76 of the Counter-Terrorism Act 2008 came into force on 15 February 2009 making it an offence to elicit, attempt to elicit, or publish information \"...of a kind likely to be useful to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism\" about: a member of Her Majesty's Armed Forces; a constable, the Security Service, the Secret Intelligence Service, or Government Communications Headquarters. Any person found guilty faces 10 years imprisonment and an unlimited fine. It is a defence for a person charged with this offence to prove that they had a reasonable excuse for their action. It is not otherwise illegal to photograph or film a police officer in a public place per se. Any film or photography recorded whilst a constable is dealing with an incident may be seized as it becomes evidence under section 19 of PACE 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guerrillero Heroico",
        "text": "Despite conflicting claims about whether or not the image could have copyright established, Korda's children have sought to control commercial use of the image from defamation. Korda's daughter Diana Diaz pursued a 2003 lawsuit in France against a Paris-based press rights group Reporters Without Borders, for using the Che photograph in a poster campaign decrying Cuba as \"the world's largest jail\", aimed at dissuading French tourists from vacationing in Cuba after the jailing of 29 dissident journalists. In suing the group for 1.14 million euros, Diaz's lawyer, Randy Yaloz remarked that \"we are going after everyone who betrays the moral rights of my client\". Moral rights are a separate component of copyright law that are not recognized in the U.S., but are recognized in some other countries, notably in France where Diaz filed the lawsuit. Moral rights aim to protect the integrity of a work from defamation, distortion, slander, or offensive mutilation, even if the originator no longer owns the copyright. However, Reporters Without Borders stopped using the image before any legal judgment was rendered."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Portrait Gallery and Wikimedia Foundation copyright dispute",
        "text": "In November 2015, the United Kingdom's Intellectual Property Office clarified in an informational document that, based on the opinion of the European Court of Justice, \"copyright can only subsist in subject matter that is original in the sense that it is the author's own 'intellectual creation'. Given this criterion, it seems unlikely that what is merely a retouched, digitised image of an older work can be considered as 'original'.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Face to Face (photograph)",
        "text": "A study, published by Rima Wilkes and Michael Kehl in the academic journal \"Nations and Nationalism\", examined the different ways Canadians have responded to the photograph. \"People project onto this image what they want to see,\" says Rima Wilkes, \"You can think it\u2019s just a photograph and they don\u2019t lie, but you can interpret it any way you want.\" Wilkes suggests that many non-Indigenous people see the photograph as symbolic of Canadian peacekeeping, a view she suggests is \"misguided\" given the events of the Oka Crisis and the overwhelming numerical dominance of the Canadian forces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright Act (Canada)",
        "text": "An artist's moral rights, however, are inalienable and stay with the artist their entire lives. As with copyrights, moral rights are inheritable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of panorama",
        "text": "This non-commercial restriction was clarified in the 192nd issue of the \"Intellectual Property Right Journal\" by the Intellectual Property Office, Ministry of Economic Affairs. Accordingly, photographing murals painted on outdoor walls of village houses and using the resulting photographs on commercial postcards without muralist's permission complies with Article 58. It is the act of selling actual reproductions of artistic works that is prohibited in the law. A similar clarification was also made regarding use of images of Taipei 101. While the name \"Taipei 101\" is trademark-protected, no architect's permission is needed for the use of images of Taipei 101 in commercial postcards, as long as the representation depicts the building's exteriors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Limitations on copyrightability in Canadian copyright law",
        "text": "The sc\u00e8nes \u00e0 faire doctrine states that certain elements of a creative work cannot be protected by copyright where they are mandated by or are customary to the genre."
      },
      {
        "title": "Terrorism in Canada",
        "text": "Terrorism and mass attacks in Canada includes acts of terrorism, as well as mass shootings, vehicle-ramming attacks, mass stabbings, and other such acts committed in Canada that people may associate with terroristic tactics but have not been classified as terrorism by the Canadian legal system. (For example, the 2018 Toronto shooting was a mass shooting that law enforcement officials did not connect to terrorism.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of expression in Canada",
        "text": "Mark Steyn\u2019s 2006 book about the Muslim Diaspora in the West, \"America Alone\", was the subject of a complaint from Mohamed Elmasry, head of the Canadian Islamic Congress, stating that the article \"discriminates against Muslims on the basis of their religion. It exposes Muslims to hatred and contempt due to their religion\". The complaint against Steyn and Maclean's magazine, which excerpted the book when it was published in 2006, was heard before three human rights commissions: Ontario's, which declared it lacked jurisdiction; British Columbia's, which dismissed the complaint; and the Canadian Human Rights Commission, which dismissed the federal complaint without referring the matter to a tribunal. This case has been cited as a motivating factor in the repeal of Section 13 of the Canadian Human Rights Act, legislation that permitted federal human-rights complaints regarding \"the communication of hate messages by telephone or on the Internet\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Portrait Gallery and Wikimedia Foundation copyright dispute",
        "text": "However, British case law can take into account the amount of skill and labour that took place in the creation of a work for considering whether it can be copyrighted in that country. The letter from the National Portrait Gallery demands that the case should be heard in the UK under UK law and not in the U.S. under U.S. law. The issue of jurisdiction is complicated as the National Portrait Gallery is located in England, but Wikimedia Commons, and the uploader, are both located within the United States. The letter also claims that by making the images freely available on Wikimedia Commons, Coetzee would also be liable under the British Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 for any copyright infringement committed by other users who download and use the images."
      },
      {
        "title": "Terrorism in Canada",
        "text": "The \"Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade Act\" provides the Minister of Foreign Affairs with responsibility over all matters relating to the conduct of Canada's external affairs, including countering international terrorism and responding to terrorist incidents abroad. Moreover, the Government of Canada lists state supporters of terrorism under the \"State Immunity Act\", which (like the \"JVTA\") revokes certain legal immunities from listed countries, allowing civil suits to be filed against those countries in Canadian courts for loss or damage resulting from its involvement in terrorism anywhere in the world. In 2012, both Syria and Iran were listed."
      },
      {
        "title": "2006 Ontario terrorism plot",
        "text": "The arrests sparked several comments by politicians in the US regarding the security of Canada, as well that of the US. Congressman Peter King was reported on June 6 to have said that \"there's a large al-Qaeda presence in Canada \u2026 because of their very liberal immigration laws, because of how political asylum is granted so easily\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nazi Eyes on Canada",
        "text": "Nazi Eyes on Canada\n--Preservation status.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fair dealing",
        "text": "In a press release on the Government of Canada's Balanced Copyright site, the Honourable James Moore, Minister of Canadian Heritage and Official Languages, notes that the revamped bill \"delivers a common-sense balance between the interests of consumers and the rights of the creative community\". Critics of the bill point to \"excessively restrictive digital lock amendments\" that they claim will create a situation where people \"are entitled to use copyrighted content lawfully but [are] prevented from doing so\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-terrorism Act, 2015",
        "text": "On October 22, 2014, a series of shootings occurred on Parliament Hill and inside the Parliament of Canada in Ottawa, conducted by Michael Zehaf-Bibeau, which left one Canadian soldier and Zehaf-Bibeau dead. Prime Minister Harper labelled the shootings as a 'terrorist act', stating that \"this will lead us to strengthen our resolve and redouble our efforts and those of our national security agencies to take all necessary steps to identify and counter threats and keep Canada safe here at home, just as it will lead us to strengthen our resolve and redouble our efforts to work with our allies around the world and fight against the terrorist organizations who brutalize those in other countries with a hope.\" After the incident security on Parliament Hill was transferred to the RCMP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Canada",
        "text": "The Copyright Act, 1921, came into force in 1924. Though Canada was no longer subject to imperial copyright law, it was closely modelled on the UK Copyright Act 1911:\n* the term of copyright was extended to 50 years after the creator's death (but, where a work was not yet published at the time of death, its term was extended to 50 years after publication)\n* sound recordings were protected \"as if such contrivances were musical, literary or dramatic works\"\n* in the case of an engraving, photograph or portrait, the initial owner of the copyright was the person who commissioned the plate or other original\n* any remaining rights (if any) at common law were abolished"
      },
      {
        "title": "CCH Canadian Ltd v Law Society of Upper Canada",
        "text": "In reaching its ruling, the Court needed to rule on four questions:\n# Were the publishers' materials \"original works\" protected by copyright?\n# Did the Great Library authorize copyright infringement by maintaining self-service photocopiers and copies of the publishers' works for its patrons' use?\n# Were the Law Society's dealings with the publishers' works \"fair dealing[s]\" under s. 29 of the \"Copyright Act\"?\n# Did Canada Law Book consent to have its works reproduced by the Great Library?"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How is intellectual property protected such as photographs?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you interested in intellectual property law in the U.S., U.K., Germany, or some other country?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'm interested in intellectual property law in the U.S."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In the US there are copyright laws to protect \"original works of authorships which includes photgraphs."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How about in Canada?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes, the copyright law of Canada governs the legally enforceable rights to creative and artistic works under the laws of Canada.  Artistic works include sculptures, paintings, photographs, charts and engravings."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How are the intellectual property rights on photographs in the U.K. deal with terrorism?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Copyright law of the United Kingdom, contains regulations against incitement to terrorism."
    ],
    "topic": "Photography and the law",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Internet censorship in the United Kingdom:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Internet censorship in the United Kingdom"
        ],
        "ctx": "Internet censorship in the United Kingdom is conducted under a variety of laws, judicial processes, administrative regulations and voluntary arrangements. It is achieved by blocking access to sites as well as the use of laws that criminalise publication or possession of certain types of material. These include English defamation law, the Copyright law of the United Kingdom, regulations against incitement to terrorism and child pornography."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "It is an offence under the Counter-Terrorism Act 2008 to publish or communicate a photograph of a constable (not including PCSOs), a member of the armed forces, or a member of the security services, which is of a kind likely to be useful to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism. There is a defence of acting with a reasonable excuse; however, the burden of proof is on the defence, under section 58A of the Terrorism Act 2000. A PCSO in 2009 cited Section 44 of the Terrorism Act 2000 to prevent a member of the public photographing him. Section 44 actually concerns stop and search powers. However, in January 2010 the stop-and-search powers granted under Section 44 were ruled illegal by the European Court of Human Rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counter-Terrorism Act 2008",
        "text": "A Parliamentary written question about the policy regarding police preventing members of the public from taking photographs in public places hasn't been answered. But the Home Office issued a circular to the police in 2009 which reminds them that 'Legitimate journalistic activity (such as covering a demonstration for a newspaper) is likely to constitute such an excuse. Similarly an innocent tourist or other sight-seer taking a photograph of a police officer is likely to have a reasonable excuse.'"
      },
      {
        "title": "Counter-Terrorism Act 2008",
        "text": "Journalists who feared that this law would be abused by the police to threaten the taking of photographs of their activities staged a mass protest outside Scotland Yard in February 2009. Gordon Brown reaffirmed that the police have a legal right to restrict photography in public places, and stated \"the law applies to photographers as it does to anybody else in a public place\". The act however does not lay out restrictions for the photography of Community Support Officers as they do not hold the office of Constable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "It is an offence under section 58 of the Terrorism Act 2000 to take a photograph of a kind likely to be useful to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism, or possessing such a photograph. There is an identical defence of reasonable excuse. This offence (and possibly, but not necessarily the offence) covers only a photograph as described in of the Terrorism Act 2006. As such, it must be of a kind likely to provide practical assistance to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism. Whether the photograph in question is such is a matter for a jury, which is not required to look at the surrounding circumstances. The photograph must contain information of such a nature as to raise a reasonable suspicion that it was intended to be used to assist in the preparation or commission of an act of terrorism. It must call for an explanation. A photograph which is innocuous on its face will not fall foul of the provision if the prosecution adduces evidence that it was intended to be used for the purpose of committing or preparing a terrorist act. The defence may prove a reasonable excuse simply by showing that the photograph is possessed for a purpose other than to assist in the commission or preparation of an act of terrorism, even if the purpose of possession is otherwise unlawful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Photography and the law\n--Australia.\n----General.\n----Private property.\n----Publishing and rights.\n----Commercial purposes.\n--United Kingdom.\n----Legal restrictions on photography.\n----Anti-terrorism law.\n----Copyright.\n------Infringement.\n----Photography and privacy.\n--United States.\n--Canada.\n--Hong Kong.\n--Hungary.\n--Iceland.\n--Macau.\n--Mexico.\n--Philippines.\n--South Africa.\n--Spain.\n--Sudan and South Sudan.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Terrorism Act 2000",
        "text": "Problematic use of Section 44 powers has not been restricted to political protestors; according to reports, journalists, amateur and professional photographers, trainspotters, politicians and children have been subject to stop and search under suspicion of being involved in terrorist activities while engaged in lawful acts such as photography. The taking of photographs in public spaces is permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (freedom of panorama), and while the Terrorism Act does not prohibit such activity, critics have alleged misuse of the powers of the Act to prevent lawful photography. (Further restrictions on photography have, however, been introduced with the Counter-Terrorism Act 2008)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Law enforcement in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "Section 76 of the Counter-Terrorism Act 2008 came into force on 15 February 2009 making it an offence to elicit, attempt to elicit, or publish information \"...of a kind likely to be useful to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism\" about: a member of Her Majesty's Armed Forces; a constable, the Security Service, the Secret Intelligence Service, or Government Communications Headquarters. Any person found guilty faces 10 years imprisonment and an unlimited fine. It is a defence for a person charged with this offence to prove that they had a reasonable excuse for their action. It is not otherwise illegal to photograph or film a police officer in a public place per se. Any film or photography recorded whilst a constable is dealing with an incident may be seized as it becomes evidence under section 19 of PACE 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
        "text": "Whether or not a photograph or pseudo-photograph is indecent is a question of fact, and as a question of fact it is something for a jury or magistrate to decide. The jury should apply the standard of decency which ordinary right-thinking members of the public would set - the \"recognised standards of propriety\" as \"R v Stamford\" [1972] puts it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legality of recording by civilians",
        "text": "In the United States, anti-photography laws have been passed following the September 11, 2001 attacks and the increased popularity of camera phones. There might be local laws and policies governing the specific landmark or property in which one seeks to photograph. Laws on private property differ. Owners of private property in most places must authorize recording on their own property."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-terrorism legislation",
        "text": "France has passed a variety of anti-terrorist laws, the first of which being the 19th-century \"lois sc\u00e9l\u00e9rates\" restricting freedom of expression. Today, magistrates in the Justice Ministry anti-terrorism unit have authority to detain people suspected of \"conspiracy in relation to terrorism\" while evidence is gathered against them.\n* Offences against the State Acts 1939\u20131998 via the Special Criminal Court\n* Criminal Justice (Terrorist Offences) Act 2005"
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "The intellectual property rights on photographs are protected in different jurisdictions by the laws governing copyright and moral rights. In some cases photography may be restricted by civil or criminal law. Publishing certain photographs can be restricted by privacy or other laws. Photography can be generally restricted in the interests of public morality and the protection of children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Censorship in Turkey",
        "text": "The 1991 antiterrorism law (the Law on the Fight against Terrorism) has been invoked to charge and imprison journalists for activities that Human Rights Watch define as \u201cnonviolent political association\u201d and speech. The European Court of Human Rights has in multiple occasions found the law to amount to censorship and breach of freedom of expression."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-terrorism legislation",
        "text": "[protection money/extortion], acts of criminal trespass, distributing, publishing or pasting of a handbill or making graffiti"
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-terrorism Act, 2009",
        "text": "Human rights group, Odhikar, has called for the law to be repealed describing the act as a total for repression on those opposed to the government. Cases under this act need government approval for trials to begin, which are sometimes delayed, thus effectively placing the cases in legal limbo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-Terror Law of Turkey",
        "text": "The ATA is made up of five sections that serve different purposes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-terrorism legislation",
        "text": "As of 2008, detainees arrested under the Anti-Terror Law have access to lawyers at the very beginning of their detention."
      },
      {
        "title": "R v Bowden",
        "text": "The defence team, fancifully, submitted that the making offence applied only to pseudo-photographs. The prosecution submitted that making applied to photographs including digital photographs since the 1978 Act was, as the wording makes clear, seeking to prohibit the spread of indecent photographs as well as their production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-terrorism legislation",
        "text": "Anti-terrorism legislation are laws with the purpose of fighting terrorism. They usually, if not always, follow specific bombings or assassinations. Anti-terrorism legislation usually includes specific amendments allowing the state to bypass its own legislation when fighting terrorism-related crimes, under alleged grounds of necessity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020",
        "text": "Under the new law, a wrongfully detained person would have to file a suit against the government in order to get any remuneration for having been wrongfully accused."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-terrorism legislation",
        "text": "UK anti-terrorism legislation is subject to regular review by the Independent Reviewer of Terrorism Legislation.\n*Australian anti-terrorism legislation, 2004\n*Australian Anti-Terrorism Act 2005"
      },
      {
        "title": "Counter-Terrorism and Border Security Act 2019",
        "text": "Clause 2 amends Section 13 of the Terrorism Act 2000, making it an offence to publish images of: items of clothing or any other article (such as a flag) which would arouse suspicions that the person is a member or supporter of a proscribed organisation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Definition of terrorism",
        "text": "Saudi Interior Ministry issued a set of anti-terrorist laws in 2014. According to Article 1 and 2:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Whether this right is caused by horizontal effect of the Human Rights Act 1998 or is judicially created is a matter of some controversy. The right to privacy is protected by Article 8 of the convention. In the context of photography, it stands at odds to the Article 10 right of freedom of expression. As such, courts will consider the public interest in balancing the rights through the legal test of proportionality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counter-Terrorism Act 2008",
        "text": "The law against eliciting or publishing information \"likely to be useful to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism\" was extended to encompass police constables in a raft of unscrutinized amendments that passed into the Bill at the end of the debate when the Parliamentary timetable (which had been voted on earlier in the day) expired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-Terrorism Act 2005",
        "text": "The Anti-Terrorism Act 2005 is a counter-terrorism law passed by the Australian Parliament on 6 December 2005 intended to hamper the activities of any potential terrorists in the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c9lisabeth Guigou",
        "text": "Guigou also co-sponsored a 2000 law which articulated the French policy on presumption of innocence in media by prohibiting magazines and newspapers from publishing photographs of accused individuals wearing handcuffs or other scenes which may \"jeopardise a victim's dignity\". It forbids the publication of photographs of survivors of violent crimes, including terrorist attacks, without their permission. The law, which was unanimously supported by the Senate and later became known as the Guigou law, was openly opposed by leading publications such as \"Paris Match\", which ignores the law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Law on the fight against terrorism",
        "text": "The law was criticized for encroaching on personal freedoms and liberties, in particular, accessing phone and Internet data without a signed warrant from a judicial authority. \"Internet surveillance has now escaped from any legal proceedings to be placed under the direct control of the state,\" criticized \"Le Monde.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-terrorism legislation",
        "text": "The Cossiga decree-law was passed on 15 December 1979. It prolonged the length of preventive detention relative to terrorism suspicions and allowed wiretaps. Critics have pointed out that this violated articles 15 and 27 of the Constitution. The Cossiga decree-law also created the status of \"pentito\" (officially \"collaborators of justice\"): those accused of terrorism crimes and who accepted of confessing them and of informing the authorities about their accomplices could be liberated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ag-gag",
        "text": "In 2002, the conservative organization American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC) drafted the \"Animal and Ecological Terrorism Act\", a model law for distribution to lobbyists and state lawmakers. The model law proposed to prohibit \"entering an animal or research facility to take pictures by photograph, video camera, or other means with the intent to commit criminal activities or defame the facility or its owner\". It also created a \"terrorist registry\" for those convicted under the law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-Terror Law of Turkey",
        "text": "The Anti-Terror Law of Turkey (ATL), Anti-Terror Act of Turkey (ATA) or Ter\u00f6rle M\u00fccadele Yasas\u0131 (TMY) in Turkish, is a nation-wide law in Turkey that was written in 1991 to strongly criminalize acts of terrorism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Global security law",
        "text": "Initially \"any\" distribution of photographs was penalized."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-Terrorism Act 2005",
        "text": "Other commentary:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-terrorism legislation",
        "text": "Law n\u00b0191 of May 21, 1978, called \"Moro law\", and law n\u00b015 of February 6, 1980, were ratifications by the assembly of decrees of emergency enacted by the executive power, respectively on March 28, 1978, and on December 15, 1979.\n*Prevention of Terrorism Acts (Northern Ireland), 1974\u201389\n*Terrorism Act 2000\n*Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 (the Racial and Religious Hatred Act was supposed to be part of it as provisions, but it was dropped)\n* The Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 was intended to deal with the Law Lords' ruling of 16 December 2004, that the detention without trial of nine foreigners at HM Prison Belmarsh under Part IV of the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 was unlawful, being incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights. It was given Royal assent on 11 March 2005. The Act allows the Home Secretary to impose \"control orders\" on people they suspect of involvement in terrorism, which in some cases may derogate (opt out) from human rights laws. In April 2006, a High Court judge issued a declaration that section 3 of the Act was incompatible with the right to a fair trial under article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights. The Act was described by Mr Justice Sullivan as an 'affront to justice'. Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, JUSTICE and Liberty have opposed it. Criticism of the Act included complaints about the range of restrictions that could be imposed, the use of closed proceedings and special advocates to hear secret evidence against the detainee, and the possibility that evidence against detainees may include evidence obtained in other countries by torture.\n*The Terrorism Act 2006 increased the limit of pre-charge detention for terrorist suspects to 28 days after a rebellion by Labour MPs. Originally, the Government, and Prime Minister Tony Blair, had pushed for a 90-day detention period, but this was reduced to 28 days after a vote in the House of Commons. Home Office Minister Damian Green announced on 20 January 2011 that the period would revert to 14 days as the order extending the period to 28 days would be allowed to lapse at midnight on 24 January.\n*The Counter-Terrorism Act 2008, a section of which would have controversially increased the limit of pre-charge detention for terrorism suspects for 42 days. This measure was dropped from the bill after it failed to win approval in the House of Lords.\n* Terrorist Asset-Freezing (Temporary Provisions) Act 2010, which led to the\n* Terrorist Asset-Freezing etc. Act 2010\n* Terrorism Prevention and Investigation Measures Act 2011 received royal assent on 14 December that year.\n* Counter-Terrorism and Security Act 2015"
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-Terrorism Act 2005",
        "text": "Law Council of Australia president John North, suggested that such powers were designed to protect police in the event of a mistaken fatal shooting such as that of Jean Charles de Menezes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography",
        "text": "Photography is both restricted and protected by the law in many jurisdictions. Protection of photographs is typically achieved through the granting of copyright or moral rights to the photographer. In the United States, photography is protected as a First Amendment right and anyone is free to photograph anything seen in public spaces as long as it is in plain view. In the UK a recent law (Counter-Terrorism Act 2008) increases the power of the police to prevent people, even press photographers, from taking pictures in public places. In South Africa, any person may photograph any other person, without their permission, in public spaces and the only specific restriction placed on what may not be photographed by government is related to anything classed as national security. Each country has different laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-Terrorism Act",
        "text": "The Anti-Terrorism Act is the short title of several pieces of anti-terrorism legislation and may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Counter-Terrorism Act 2008",
        "text": "The Parliamentary debate on this law was limited because in earlier versions of the Bill the offence of eliciting or publishing information \"likely to be useful to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism\" only applied to people who were or had been members of Her Majesty's Forces, and not to the police. This was also the case throughout the debate in the Standing Committee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-Terrorism Act 2005",
        "text": "Attorney General Philip Ruddock said that the new laws are needed, on advice from the Australian Federal Police that existing laws would not protect Australians from London-style terrorist attacks.\n* Potential for preventive detention: detention for named individuals. Without evidence and without criminal involvement the detainee may be interrogated by Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO). Disclosing that an individual has been so detained or interrogated is, in almost all circumstances, a crime.\n* Control orders: Potential for restrictions on named individuals including; freedom of movement, freedom of association (including one's lawyer), banning the performing of named actions and owning named items, unlimited requirements to be (or not to be) at specified places at any or all times of the day and week, wear a tracking device, encouragement to submit to re-education. These restrictions are referred to as \"control orders\", and may be granted for a period of one year before review.\n* Significant restrictions on the right of any citizen to express certain opinions, including; criticism, or \"urging disaffection\", of the sovereign, the constitution, the government, the law, or 'different groups'. Exemptions may exist where the target of criticism is agreed to be 'in error'. Exemptions appear to exist where the claim is that a feature of a group of people is in some way offensive to the mainstream of society. Onus of proof is on the defendant, the presumption is not of innocence.\n* To recklessly provide funds to a potential terrorist is a criminal offence. Funds include money and equivalents and also assets. It is not necessary that the culprit know the receiver is a terrorist, only that they are reckless about the possibility. It is not necessary that the receiver be a terrorist, only that the first person is reckless about the possibility that they might be.\n* Police can request information from any source about any named person: any information about the person's travel, residence, telephone calls, financial transactions amongst other information; professional privilege does not apply. It can be an offence to disclose that such documents have been obtained.\n* A legislative provision for 'hoax offences' created a more serious charge for people who cause chaos for the public and emergency services by dreaming up devastating terrorist-inspired hoaxes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-terrorism legislation",
        "text": "\"creation of internal disturbances in violation of law or intended to violate law, commencement or continuation of illegal strikes, go-slows, lock-outs, vehicle snatching/lifting, damage to or destruction of State or private property, random firing to create panic, charging \"bhatha\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-terrorism legislation",
        "text": "\u2192(rev)Act on prohibition against the financing of terrorism and proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (March 29, 2016)\n*Act on anti-terrorism for the protection of citizens and public security (March 3, 2016)\n*Arab Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism (Cairo, April 1998)\n*Convention of the Organization of the Islamic Conference on Combating International Terrorism (Ouagadougou, July 1999)\n*EU Framework Decision on Terrorism\n*EU Directive 2017/541 on combating terrorism\n*Anna Maroufidou v. Sweden - 1981\n*Brogan and others v. the UK - 11209/84;11234/84;11266/84;... [1988] ECHR 24 (29 November 1988)\n* Belgium Anti-Terrorism Act 2003"
      },
      {
        "title": "R v Bowden",
        "text": "The 1994 Act had added the concept of pseudo-photographs to the law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-terrorism legislation",
        "text": "The Anti-terrorism Law has 10 chapters and 97 articles, taking effect on January 1, 2016. Before the promulgation of Anti-terrorism Law, though anti-terrorism laws can be found in the Criminal Law or some other emergency action regulations, there was not a systematic legal structure or source for anti-terrorism actions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-terrorism legislation",
        "text": "This act is effective from 11 June 2008. Under section 28 of this Act, anti terrorist special Tribunal is trying the crimes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
        "text": "The Act defines a \"pseudo-photograph\" as \"an image, whether made by computer-graphics or otherwise howsoever, which appears to be a photograph\", and"
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-terrorism legislation",
        "text": "Article 8 of the Anti-Terror Law (Law 3713; April 1991), slightly amended in 1995 and later repealed, imposed three-year prison sentences for \"separatist propaganda.\" Despite its name, the Anti-Terror Law punished many non-violent offences. Pacifists have been imprisoned under Article 8. For example, publisher Fatih Tas was prosecuted in 2002 under Article 8 at Istanbul State Security Court for translating and publishing writings by Noam Chomsky, summarizing the history of the human rights of Kurdish people in Turkey; he was acquitted, however, in February 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-mask law",
        "text": "On 22 November 2019, the High Court made the following remark:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Street photography",
        "text": "The United Kingdom has enacted domestic law in accordance with the Human Rights Act, which limits the publication of certain photographs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
        "text": "\"A person who either downloads images on to disc or who prints them off is making them. The Act is not only concerned with the original creation of images, but also their proliferation. Photographs or pseudo-photographs found on the Internet may have originated from outside the United Kingdom; to download or print within the jurisdiction is to create new material which hitherto may not have existed therein.\" (\"\"R v Bowden\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001",
        "text": "Part 4 allowed for the Home Secretary to certify any non-British citizen whom he suspected to be a terrorist and detain them indefinitely, pending deportation, even when such a deportation would be prohibited. The Law Lords ruled against the law in a case brought by nine of the detained suspected terrorists on 16 December 2004 (by issuing against it a declaration of incompatibility with the European Convention on Human Rights, as provided in the Human Rights Act 1998). The measure was effectively abolished the following March when it was up for review. Its powers were replaced with \"control orders\", brought in by the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-Terror Law of Turkey",
        "text": "Anti-Terror Law of Turkey\n--Background.\n--Contents.\n----First section.\n----Second section.\n----Third section.\n----Fourth section.\n----Fifth section.\n--Usage.\n--Criticisms.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Federal legislation governs the questions of copyright and criminal offences with respect to photography. Otherwise, the common law (except, in the case of Quebec, the \"Civil Code of Quebec\"), generally determines when photography can take place.\n:* The \"Copyright Act\" provides that the duration of copyright for a photograph is the life of the author plus 50 years. Freedom of panorama is also allowed, with respect to photographs of sculptures and architectural works, and there is also protection for those who \"incidentally and not deliberately include a work or other subject-matter in another work or other subject-matter.\"\n:* The \"Criminal Code\" provides for punishment of various offences, including voyeurism, child pornography, trespassing at night, and paparazzi behaviour.\n:* The law of defamation, trespass and privacy is governed at the provincial level.\n::* The common-law provinces of British Columbia, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, Ontario and Saskatchewan have enacted privacy legislation dealing with personality rights, which supplement the law of trespass.\n::* In Quebec, the \"Civil Code\" goes further by specifying that \"keeping ... private life under observation by any means\" constitutes an additional ground of invasion of privacy. In \"Aubry v \u00c9ditions Vice-Versa Inc\", the Supreme Court of Canada held that, because of that, supplemented by Quebec's \"Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms\" privacy provisions, a photographer can take photographs in public places but may not publish them unless permission has been obtained from the subject, except where the subject appears in an incidental manner, or whose professional success depends on public opinion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pseudo-photograph",
        "text": "In the U.K., the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 amended the Protection of Children Act 1978 so as to define the concept of an \"indecent pseudo-photograph of a child\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweat of the brow",
        "text": "In a copyright notice on \"digital images, photographs and the internet\" last updated in November 2015, the UK Intellectual Property Office stated that digital reproductions of public domain images are not protected by copyright, arguing that \"according to the Court of Justice of the European Union which has effect in UK law, copyright can only subsist in subject matter that is original in the sense that it is the author's own \"intellectual creation\". Given this criterion, it seems unlikely that what is merely a retouched, digitised image of an older work can be considered as \"original\".\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-Terrorism Act (Canada)",
        "text": "It was opposed by Parliamentarians Marjory LeBreton and Andrew Telegdi, and criminal defense lawyer David Paciocco, amongst others. Ziyad Mia, of the Toronto Muslim Lawyers Association, \"questioned whether the definition of terrorist activity would apply to a group that resisted, by acts of violence, the regimes of Saddam Hussein or Robert Mugabe,\" and pointed out that it criminalized the French Resistance and Nelson Mandela."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020",
        "text": "Because of other provisions of the law. these persons could be detained for up to 24 days (14 days with a possible 10-day extension), and would not be automatically compensated for wrongful imprisonment as they originally were under the Human Security Act of 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "Terrorism Acts",
        "text": "In his comprehensive commentary on the anti-terrorism legislation, Professor Clive Walker of the University of Leeds comments:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-terrorism legislation",
        "text": "Israel has suffered Arab terrorism from the day of its creation. Many years Israel has relied on mandatory regulations as a legal basis for fighting terrorism and for convicting terrorists both in civilian and military courts. In 2016, after a long and thorough work by the Minister of Justice Ayelet Shaked, the Israeli Knesset passed a comprehensive law against terrorism, forbidding any kind of terrorism and support of terrorism, and setting severe punishments for terrorists. The law also regulates legal efforts against terrorism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of law articles",
        "text": "Terrorism\u00a0\u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Censorship in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "British citizens have a negative right to freedom of expression under the common law. In 1998, the United Kingdom incorporated the European Convention into its domestic law under the Human Rights Act. However, there is a broad sweep of exceptions including threatening or abusive words or behaviour intending or likely to cause harassment, alarm or distress or cause a breach of the peace (which has been used to prohibit racist speech targeted at individuals), sending another any article which is indecent or grossly offensive with an intent to cause distress or anxiety (which has been used to prohibit speech of a racist or anti-religious nature), incitement, incitement to racial hatred, incitement to religious hatred, incitement to terrorism including encouragement of terrorism and dissemination of terrorist publications, glorifying terrorism, collection or possession of a document or record containing information likely to be of use to a terrorist, treason, sedition, obscenity, indecency including corruption of public morals and outraging public decency, defamation, prior restraint, restrictions on court reporting including names of victims and evidence and prejudicing or interfering with court proceedings, prohibition of post-trial interviews with jurors, time, manner, and place restrictions, harassment, privileged communications, trade secrets, classified material, copyright, patents, military conduct, and limitations on commercial speech such as advertising."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-terrorism legislation",
        "text": "The government first attempted to use the law against illegal street vendors who violently resisted removal by the police. These charges did not result in convictions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph",
        "text": "The production or distribution of certain types of photograph has been forbidden under modern laws, such as those of government buildings, highly classified regions, private property, copyrighted works, children's genitalia, child pornography and less commonly pornography overall. These laws vary greatly between jurisdictions."
      },
      {
        "title": "A. and Others v. the United Kingdom",
        "text": "The Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 was replaced by the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005, which was then later repealed by the Terrorism Prevention and Investigation Measures Act 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Counter Terrorism Security Office",
        "text": "Security considerations for requests to photograph sites"
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-terrorism legislation",
        "text": "\"1. Either by provocation or by apology... [anyone who has] encouraged one or several persons in committing either a stealing, or the crimes of murder, looting or arson...; 2. Or has addressed a provocation to military from the Army or the Navy, in the aim of diverting them from their military duties and the obedience due to their chiefs... will be deferred before courts and punished by a prison sentence of three months to two years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mohammed al-Qahtani",
        "text": "On 2 September 2014, a judicial panel for the Second US Circuit Court of Appeals in New York stated that pictures and videos of Qahtani, taken while in detention, should remain classified. The Center for Constitutional Rights, which represented Mohammed al-Qahtani for this federal lawsuit, had sought to disclose these audiovisual materials under the Freedom of Information Act. The judges decided that the release of these pictures and videos \"could logically and plausibly harm national security because these images are uniquely susceptible to use by anti-American extremists as propaganda to incite violence against United States interests domestically and abroad\". On March 9, 2015, the Supreme Court denied certiorari in his case."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counter-Terrorism Legislation Act 2021",
        "text": "In a July 2020 court case involving charges of possession of offensive weapons and objectionable material, the High Court's judgment stated that \"the absence of an offence of planning or preparing a terrorist act (falling short of existing inchoate offences) could be an Achilles heel.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "United Kingdom constitutional law",
        "text": "Second, censorship and obscenity laws have been a highly traditional limit on freedom of expression. The Theatres Act 1968 prohibits obscenity in plays, that is 'indecent, offensive, disgusting or injurious to morality' but with a defence in the public good, while the Video Recordings Act 1984 section 9 makes it illegal to supply of a video without a classification certificate, which is graded according to sexual or violent activity. Obscene publications, since early common law, have been banned although the idea of what is 'obscene' has changed from Victorian values. The Obscene Publications Act 1959 defines 'obscene' as having the effect to 'deprave and corrupt' people, and allows police or the Director of Public Prosecutions to search and seize obscene material, subject to a defence for literary, artistic, scientific or other merit. Pornography, but also non-sexual gay literature, was suppressed until the 1990s, There are around 70 cases each year, but today the Criminal Prosecution Service guidelines only recommend charges for 'extreme' cases. The controversial Digital Economy Act 2017, which would have required age verification on the basis of protecting children to access all pornographic websites, by requiring companies take bank card details, has been repeatedly delayed. Third, there are three main public order offences, based on incitement to disaffection, racial hatred, and terrorism. Disaffection means attempting to persuade the armed forces, police, or others, to revolt or even withhold services. Racial hatred means 'hatred against a group of persons defined by reference to colour, race, nationality (including citizenship) or ethnic or national origins', and it is an offence to threaten, abuse or insult anyone, including through displays, to stir up racial hatred. The same idea extends to religious hatred, sexual orientation and in practice disability. In international law, it is also explicit, that advocacy of hatred includes 'incitement to discrimination' (as well as hostility or violence). The Terrorism Act 2006 defines incitement to terrorism as 'direct or indirect encouragement or other inducement' for 'commission, preparation or instigation of acts of terrorism', as well as glorifying terrorist acts (that is 'any form of praise or celebration') punishable with 7 years in prison. Fourth, the laws of defamation and breach of confidence are designed to balance people's reputations and rights to privacy. The Defamation Act 2013 states that defamation means a statement that has or would 'cause serious harm to the reputation of the claimant', and if that claimant is a profit-making body this requires 'serious financial loss'. The truth is always a defence for stating something factual, and a defendant may always show their statement 'is substantially true', or that they made a statement of honest opinion, rather than an assertion of fact. Further, if the statement is in the public interest, it will not be unlawful. Connected to this, news outlets should ask someone who is a subject of a story for their side. Internet operators are liable for statements on their websites that are defamatory if the poster is hard to identify, and they fail on a notice by the claimant to remove the statement within 48 hours. There can be no claim for defamation if a defendant has the 'absolute privilege' of making a statement in Parliament or reports, in the course of high state duty, internal documents or a foreign embassy, or reports of courts' proceedings. There is also 'qualified privilege' which gives a defence to defamation, but only if the writer asks the subject for an explanation or contradiction, for any legislative proceedings outside the UK, public enquiries, non-British government documents, and matters of an international organisation. Given the global nature of media, a claim in the UK must ensure that the UK is the 'most appropriate place', there is no long trial by jury, and courts can order removal of claims from many websites if it has spread. Claims for breach of confidence are meant to protect the right to privacy. Examples have included an injunction against a retired security service officer who wrote a book called \"Spycatcher\" that revealed official secrets. But the government lost its claim to have an injunction against a newspaper on the effects of thalidomide on new births."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ex post facto law",
        "text": "As well as Statute law mentioned above, this now also includes 'court-made law'. The Parot doctrine, in which terrorists were denied the right (enshrined in a 1973 Statute) to earn a reduction in the length of their sentences by a Spanish court ruling in 2006 was judged by the European Court of Human Rights to be contrary to relevant articles on retroactivity & liberty and security in 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-terrorism legislation",
        "text": "The Reale Act was adopted on 22 May 1975. It allowed the police to carry out searches and arrest persons without being mandated by an investigative judge. Interrogation could take place without the presence of a lawyer. Critics underlined that this contradicted article 3 of the Constitution on equality before the law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-Terrorism Act",
        "text": "Anti-Terrorism Act\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "In the United Kingdom there are no laws forbidding photography of private property from a public place. Photography is not restricted on land if the landowner has given permission to be on the land or the photographer has legal right to access, for example Byways Open to All Traffic or a public right of way or an area of open access land. The Metropolitan Police state in their own advice \"Members of the public and the media do not need a permit to film or photograph in public places and police have no power to stop them filming or photographing incidents or police personnel\". The IAC, Film and Video Institute recommends that one follows instruction given by police as there may be a reason/reasons for not filming, ignorance of said law(s) notwithstanding. An exception is an area that has prohibitions detailed within anti terrorism legislation. Civil proceeding can be taken if a person is filmed without consent, and privacy laws exist to protect a person where they can expect privacy. Two public locations in the UK, Trafalgar Square and Parliament Square, have a specific provision against photography for commercial purposes without the written permission of the Mayor or the Squares' Management Team and paying a fee, and permission is needed to photograph or film for commercial purposes in the Royal Parks or on any National Trust land."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mohammed Atif Siddique",
        "text": "\u201cThe law in relation to section 57 of Terrorism Act 2000 has, since the trial judge charged the jury, further developed through a number of decisions in the English courts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-circumvention",
        "text": "Anti-circumvention refers to laws which prohibit the circumvention of technological barriers for using a digital good in certain ways which the rightsholders do not wish to allow. The requirement for anti-circumvention laws was globalized in 1996 with the creation of the World Intellectual Property Organization's Copyright Treaty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Richard Arnold has criticized the protection of photographs in this manner on two grounds. Firstly, it is argued that photographs should not be protected as artistic works, but should instead be protected in a manner similar to that of sound recordings and films. In other words, copyright should not protect the subject matter of a photograph as a matter of course as a consequence of a photograph being taken. It is argued that protection of photographs as artistic works is anomalous, in that photography is ultimately a medium of reproduction, rather than creation. As such, it is more similar to a film, or sound, recording than a painting or sculpture. Some photographers share this view. For example, Michael Reichmann described photography as an art of disclosure, as opposed to an art of inclusion. Secondly, it is argued that the protection of photographs as artistic works leads to bizarre results. Subject matter is protected irrespective of the artistic merit of a photograph. The subject matter of a photograph is protected even when it is not deserving of protection. For copyright to subsist in photographs as artistic works, the photographs must be original, since the English test for originality is based on skill, labour and judgment. That said, it is possible that the threshold of originality is very low. Essentially, by this, Arnold is arguing that whilst the subject matter of some photographs may deserve protection, it is inappropriate for the law to presume that the subject matter of all photographs is deserving of protection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "A right to privacy came into existence in UK law as a consequence of the incorporation of the European Convention on Human Rights into domestic law through the Human Rights Act 1998. This can result in restrictions on the publication of photography."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mohamed Omar Arte",
        "text": "In May 2015, Deputy Prime Minister Arte chaired a Federal Cabinet meeting, his first since being lightly wounded during an Al-Shabaab attack on the Central Hotel in Mogadishu in February of the year. The Council of Ministers therein passed an anti-terrorism law. The bill had earlier been approved by the federal ministers, but was subsequently repealed by lawmakers who called for amendments to the legislation. It is part of the government's broader strategy against Al-Shabaab and other anti-peace elements. The law aims to strengthen national security by more effectively countering radicalization and rooting out extremism. It is now slated to be put before parliament for deliberation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counter-Terrorism Legislation Act 2021",
        "text": "The Crown had, prior to the attack, tried and failed to charge the perpetrator under the Terrorism Suppression Act because planning to commit a terrorist attack was not an offence under the current law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "It is possible to say with a high degree of confidence that photographs of three-dimensional objects, including artistic works, will be treated by a court as themselves original artistic works, and as such, will be subject to copyright. It is likely that a photograph (including a scan \u2013 digital scanning counts as photography for the purposes of the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988) of a two dimensional artistic work, such as another photograph or a painting will also be subject to copyright if a significant amount of skill, labour and judgment went into its creation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Copyright which subsists in a photograph protects not merely the photographer from direct copying of his/her work, but also from indirect copying to reproduce his/her work, where a substantial part of his/her work has been copied."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Photography of certain subject matter is restricted in the United Kingdom. In particular, the Protection of Children Act 1978 restricts making or possessing pornography of children under 18, or what looks like pornography of under-18s. There is no law prohibiting photographing children in public spaces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-Terrorism Act 2005",
        "text": "The \"Shoot to kill\" clause instructs police to treat people wanted under detention orders in the same way that an equivalent clause in the current law treats wanted suspects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-Terror Law of Turkey",
        "text": "Though the act's name is the Anti-Terror law, it has been used to prosecute many non-violent actions. The broad definitions provided for terrorist acts and organizations in the first section allow for more actions to fall under the law's scope. The ATA is often used to prosecute Journalists. As of 2013, 71 journalists were charged under the ATA.\n* Bedri Adanir\n* Irfan Aktan\n*Necmiye Alpay\n* Erdogan Altan\n* Murat Alt\u00fcnoz\n*Ilkem Ezgi Asam\n*Fatih \u00d6zg\u00fcr Aydin\n*Zeycan Balci Simsek\n*Rifat Basaran\n*Ismail Besik\u00e7i\n*Ali Bulus\n*Gurbet \u00c7akar\n*Hasan Cakkalkurt\n*Ibrahim \u00c7i\u00e7ek\n* Ziya \u00c7i\u00e7ek\u00e7iI\n*\u00c7ayan Demirel\n*Temel Demirer\n*R\u00fcst\u00fc Demirkaya\n*Hatice Duman\n*Namik Durukan\n*Cevat D\u00fcs\u00fcn\n*Fusun Erdogan\n*Busra Ersanli\n*Merve Erol\n*Mustafa G\u00f6k\n*Kemal G\u00f6ktas\n*N. Mehmet G\u00fcler\n*Mehmet Karabas\n*Kadri Kaya\n*Ozan Kilin\u00e7\n*Vedat Kursun\n*Filiz Ko\u00e7ali\n*Ertu\u011frul Mavio\u011flu\n*Orhan Miroglu\n*Bayram Namaz\n*\u00d6nder \u00d6ner\n*Haci Orman\n*Emin Orhan\n*Ramazan Pekg\u00f6z\n*\u00c7etin Poyraz\n*Irmak Saadet\n*Veysi Saris\u00f6zen\n*Sedat Senoglu\n*G\u00f6k\u00e7er Tahincioglu\n*Hakan Tahmaz\n*Mehdi Tanrikulu\n*Tayip Temel\n*Behdin Tun\u00e7\n*Faysal Tun\u00e7\n*Ferhat Tun\u00e7\n*Nedim T\u00fcrfent\n*Ziya Ulusoy\n*Figen Y\u00fcksekdag\n*Leyla Zana\n*Deniz Zarakolu\n*Ragip Zarakolu\n* A draft copy of a book by Ahmet Sik exploring the \"relationship between the police and the influential Islamic \u201cG\u00fclen Movement \u201d\n* Bedri Adanir was arrested 5 January 2010 for publishing \"On Culture and Arts\" , a collection of speeches by Abdullah Ocalan , founding member of the banned Kurdish Workers\u2019 Party (PKK). \"The book is said to refer to Ocalan as \u201cchairman\u201d and PKK members as \u201cguerillas\u201d and \u201cmartyrs\u201d. He is accused of \u201cspreading propaganda for an illegal organisation\u201d. 38 copies were seized.\n*The book \"More Difficult Decisions than Death\" resulted in the 14 month incarceration of the author, N. Mehmet G\u00fcler."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Certain photographs may not be protected by copyright. Section 171(3) of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 gives courts jurisdiction to refrain from enforcing the copyright which subsists in works on the grounds of public interest. For example, patent diagrams are held to be in the public domain, and are thus not subject to copyright."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blasphemy law in Afghanistan",
        "text": "Writings considered anti-Islamic are prohibited under a vaguely worded media law which came into effect in March 2004. The law stipulates that journalists can be legally detained only with the approval of a seventeen-member commission of government officials and journalists. The authorities detained journalist Ali Mohaqiq Nasab in 2005 without regard for the media law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
        "text": "(i) which is not itself a photograph or pseudo-photograph, but"
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-terrorism legislation",
        "text": "Anti-terrorism legislation\n--Anti-terrorism in the 19th century.\n--International conventions related to terrorism and counter-terrorism cases.\n----Conventions open to all states.\n----Regional conventions.\n------South Korea.\n--Anti-terrorist legislation in the European Union.\n----France.\n----Italy.\n----United Kingdom.\n--Anti-terrorism legislation in common law countries (other than the UK).\n----Australia.\n----Bangladesh.\n----Pakistan.\n----Russia.\n--Anti-terrorism legislation in civil law countries (outside the European Union).\n----China.\n----Chile.\n----El Salvador.\n----Israel.\n----Peru.\n----Philippines.\n----Indonesia.\n----Turkey.\n--Ukraine.\n--Anti Terrorist Act, 2009 passed in Bangladesh.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Counter-Terrorism Act 2008",
        "text": "Counter-Terrorism Act 2008\n--Provisions of the Act.\n--Photographs of police officers in public places.\n--Post-charge questioning.\n--Abandoned provisions.\n----42 day terrorist detention without charge.\n----Secret coroner's inquests.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mitterrand doctrine",
        "text": "The French president opposed aspects of the [[anti-terrorism legislation|anti-terrorist laws]] passed in Italy during the 1970s and 1980s, which created the status of \"collaboratore di giustizia\" (\"collaborators with justice\", known commonly as \"[[pentito]]\"). This was similar to the \"[[crown witness]]\" legislation in the UK or the [[Witness Protection Program]] in the United States, in which people charged with crimes are allowed to become witnesses for the state and possibly to receive reduced sentences and protection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Following a prolonged campaign, including a series of demonstrations by photographers dealt with by police officers and PCSOs, the Metropolitan Police was forced to issue updated legal advice which confirms that \"Members of the public and the media do not need a permit to film or photograph in public places and police have no power to stop them filming or photographing incidents or police personnel\" and that \"The power to stop and search someone under Section 44 of the Terrorism Act 2000 no longer exists.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Related rights",
        "text": "Each new technology for creative work has led to debate over what protection should be accorded to such works, as has been the case most recently for software copyright and database rights. Similar debates occurred over the copyright protection of photographs. The Berne Convention allows a shorter period of protection than for other works (twenty-five years from creation rather than fifty years \"post mortem auctoris\", Art.\u00a07.4), and many countries apply a different period of copyright protection to photographs than to other works. An alternative approach, adopted notably by Germany and Italy, has been to offer full copyright protection to photographs that are clearly \"artistic works\" and protect all photographs, whatever their creative value, by a shorter \"sui generis\" related right. This focuses the debate on those photographs that still have value at the end of the \"sui generis\" protection (no-one would bother to try to protect photographs without value), which are the photographs most likely original. However it also means that photographs are subject to a higher test of originality than other works of art, with copyright being reserved only for those the courts felt to be particularly meritorious, in contravention of the spirit (if not the letter) of the Berne Convention. The \"sui generis\" protections are found at \u00a7\u00a072, UrhG for Germany (50 years) and Arts.\u00a087\u201392, Legge 22 aprile 1941 n.\u00a0633 for Italy (20 years). The different treatment of photographs and other artistic works was eliminated by European Union Directive 93/98/EEC (Art.\u00a06), which states that the only applicable criterion for copyright protection is that the photograph be \"original in the sense that they are the author's own intellectual creation\", a lower criterion than used until then, but equivalent to the criterion used for other copyright works. The \"sui generis\" protection may be retained for photographs that do not meet this criterion (e.g., photographs taken automatically such as for a passport)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
        "text": "In \"R v Graham-Kerr\" (1988), the accused had taken photographs of a young boy at a nudist meeting at a public swimming baths. The Court of Appeal held that the motivation of the photographer had no influence on the decency or otherwise of the photographs taken; a photograph is an indecent photograph of a child if it is indecent, and if it shows a child."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human rights in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "Second, censorship and obscenity laws have been a highly traditional limit on freedom of expression. The Theatres Act 1968 prohibits obscenity in plays, that is 'indecent, offensive, disgusting or injurious to morality' but with a defence in the public good, while the Video Recordings Act 1984 section 9 makes it illegal to supply of a video without a classification certificate, which is graded according to sexual or violent activity. Obscene publications, since early common law, have been banned although the idea of what is 'obscene' has changed from Victorian values. The Obscene Publications Act 1959 defines 'obscene' as having the effect to 'deprave and corrupt' people, and allows police or the Director of Public Prosecutions to search and seize obscene material, subject to a defence for literary, artistic, scientific or other merit. Pornography, but also non-sexual gay literature, was suppressed until the 1990s, There are around 70 cases each year, but today the Criminal Prosecution Service Guidelines only recommend charges for 'extreme' cases. The controversial Digital Economy Act 2017, which would have required age verification on the basis of protecting children to access all pornographic websites, by requiring companies take bank card details, has been repeatedly delayed. Third, there are three main public order offences, based on incitement to disaffection, racial hatred, and terrorism. Disaffection means attempting to persuade the armed forces, police, or others, to revolt or even withhold services. Racial hatred means 'hatred against a group of persons defined by reference to colour, race, nationality (including citizenship) or ethnic or national origins', and it is an offence to threaten, abuse or insult anyone, including through displays, to stir up racial hatred. The same idea extends to religious hatred, sexual orientation and in practice disability. In international law, it is also explicit, that advocacy of hatred includes 'incitement to discrimination' (as well as hostility or violence). The Terrorism Act 2006 defines incitement to terrorism as 'direct or indirect encouragement or other inducement' for 'commission, preparation or instigation of acts of terrorism', as well as glorifying terrorist acts (that is 'any form of praise or celebration') punishable with 7 years in prison. Fourth, the laws of defamation and breach of confidence are designed to balance people's reputations and rights to privacy. The Defamation Act 2013 states that defamation means a statement that has or would 'cause serious harm to the reputation of the claimant', and if that claimant is a profit making body this requires 'serious financial loss'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of the United Kingdom",
        "text": "A person who commissions the making of photographs or films for private and domestic use has a right to privacy. That means that such photographs may not be issued to the public, shown in public, or communicated to the public without the permission of the person who commissioned the photograph or film. Photographs jointly commissioned entitle all the commissioners to a privacy right. The right to privacy subsists for as long as the copyright term of the work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
        "text": "(ii) which is derived from the whole or part of a photograph or pseudo-photograph (or a combination of either or both),\" and including data stored on a computer disc or by any other form of electronic means that can be converted into such an image."
      },
      {
        "title": "United Arab Emirates Anti-Discrimination Law",
        "text": "The law deplores violence such as hate speech and promotion of discrimination on all media platforms. Any expression of hate against people and religion in spoken and published media is outlawed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "If none of the 3 mentioned cases apply, it is only legal to share those images if the faces, voices and any identity signs are removed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Law on the fight against terrorism",
        "text": "Law on the fight against terrorism\n--Background.\n--Legislation.\n--Criticisms.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Mexican law is similar to the law in the United States. Authorities may intimidate or prevent any holder of a camera if they come into close perimeters of Government buildings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counter-Terrorism Act 2008",
        "text": "The Act as passed contains various notable provisions:\n*Removal of the prohibition on post-charge questioning.\n*Longer terrorism sentences.\n*A register and monitoring for those convicted of terrorism related offences, similar to the Violent and Sex Offender Register.\n*Changes to some of the rules surrounding the use of \"intercept evidence\".\n*Powers to seize the assets of convicted terrorists.\n*Police will be able to remove documents from a property search to decide whether or not they need to be legally seized as part of an investigation.\n*Greater use of DNA samples, and powers to allow the police to take fingerprints or DNA from those subject to a control order."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-Terror Law of Turkey",
        "text": "The second section is made up of Articles 9\u201315. It \"regulates some special mechanisms to try terrorist crimes\". This includes the nomination of the State Security Courts as the court to prosecute acts that are criminalized by this law. Though, these courts were later disbanded through the 2004 amendments as part of Turkey's movement to become part of the European Union."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How is intellectual property protected such as photographs?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you interested in intellectual property law in the U.S., U.K., Germany, or some other country?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'm interested in intellectual property law in the U.S."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In the US there are copyright laws to protect \"original works of authorships which includes photgraphs."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How about in Canada?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes, the copyright law of Canada governs the legally enforceable rights to creative and artistic works under the laws of Canada.  Artistic works include sculptures, paintings, photographs, charts and engravings."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How are the intellectual property rights on photographs in the U.K. deal with terrorism?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Copyright law of the United Kingdom, contains regulations against incitement to terrorism."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the anti-terrorism law?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The law that deals with inciting terrorism is the Terrorism Act 2000, the first of a number of general Terrorism Acts passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, namely the Section 59.",
      "The Terrorism Act 2000 (c.11) is the first of a number of general Terrorism Acts passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Would you like to learn more about the provisions or the penalties?"
    ],
    "topic": "Photography and the law",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Terrorism Act 2000:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Terrorism Act 2000"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Terrorism Act 2000 (c.11) is the first of a number of general Terrorism Acts passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It superseded and repealed the Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act 1989 and the Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1996. It also replaced parts of the Criminal Justice (Terrorism and Conspiracy) Act 1998. The powers it provides the police have been controversial, leading to noted cases of alleged abuse, and to legal challenges in British and European courts. The stop-and-search powers under section 44 of the Act have been ruled illegal by the European Court of Human Rights."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Terrorism Act 2000:35",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Terrorism Act 2000",
          "Penalties"
        ],
        "ctx": "From Terrorism Act 2000\n* Section 11 membership of a proscribed organisation - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 12 support of a proscribed organisation - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 13: \"A person in a public place commits an offence if he (a)wears an item of clothing, or (b)wears, carries or displays an article, in such a way or in such circumstances as to arouse reasonable suspicion that he is a member or supporter of a proscribed organisation.\" - 6 months or a statutory fine\n* Section 15 fund raising for a proscribed organisation\n* Section 16 using money or property for terrorism\n* Section 17 funding terrorism\n* Section 18 money laundering to aid terrorism\n* Section 19 failure to disclose information - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 21A failure to disclose information: regulated sector - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 21D tipping off: regulated sector - 2 years or a fine or both\n** Section 22 penalties for an offence in sections 15 to 18 \u2013 14 years or a fine or both\n* Section 36 disobeying a constable in a cordoned area - 3 months or a fine or both\n* Section 38B failure to disclose information about an act of terrorism - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 39 unauthorised disclosure of information - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 47 failing to stop when required by a constable - 6 months or a level 5 fine or both\n* Section 51 parking in a prohibited area - 3 months or level 4 fine or both\n* Section 54 receiving or giving weapons training for terrorism - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 56 directing terrorist organisation - life imprisonment\n* Section 57 possession for terrorist purposes - 15 years or a fine or both\n* Section 58 collection of information to aid terrorism - 15 years or a fine or both\n* Section 58A eliciting, publishing or communicating information about members of armed forces - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 87 preventing an examination of documents - two years or a fine or both\n* Section 103 (crown official) possessing or communicating or collecting information useful for terrorism - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 59 inciting terrorism overseas: England and Wales - same penalty as under the appropriate Act\n** (a) murder,\n** (b) an offence under section 18 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (wounding with intent),\n** (c) an offence under section 23 or 24 of that Act (poison),\n** (d) an offence under section 28 or 29 of that Act (explosions), and\n** (e) an offence under section 1(2) of the Criminal Damage Act 1971 (endangering life by damaging property).\n* Section 60 inciting terrorism overseas: Northern Ireland - same penalty as under the appropriate Act\n** (a) murder,\n** (b) an offence under section 18 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (wounding with intent),\n** (c) an offence under section 23 or 24 of that Act (poison),\n** (d) an offence under section 28 or 29 of that Act (explosions), and\n** (e) an offence under Article 3(2) of the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (endangering life by damaging property).\n* Section 61 inciting terrorism overseas: Scotland - same penalty as under the appropriate Act\n** (a) murder,\n** (b) assault to severe injury, and\n** (c) reckless conduct which causes actual injury."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Terrorism Act 2000:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Terrorism Act 2000"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Terrorism Act 2000 (c.11) is the first of a number of general Terrorism Acts passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It superseded and repealed the Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act 1989 and the Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1996. It also replaced parts of the Criminal Justice (Terrorism and Conspiracy) Act 1998. The powers it provides the police have been controversial, leading to noted cases of alleged abuse, and to legal challenges in British and European courts. The stop-and-search powers under section 44 of the Act have been ruled illegal by the European Court of Human Rights."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Terrorism Act 2000:32",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Terrorism Act 2000",
          "Provisions",
          "Part 7"
        ],
        "ctx": "Part 7, comprising sections 65 to 113, contained particular provisions applying to Northern Ireland, that were to require parliamentary approval on an annual basis by means of a statutory instrument to continue in force. The part replaced previous provisions under the Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1996."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Terrorism Act 2000:35",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Terrorism Act 2000",
          "Penalties"
        ],
        "ctx": "From Terrorism Act 2000\n* Section 11 membership of a proscribed organisation - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 12 support of a proscribed organisation - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 13: \"A person in a public place commits an offence if he (a)wears an item of clothing, or (b)wears, carries or displays an article, in such a way or in such circumstances as to arouse reasonable suspicion that he is a member or supporter of a proscribed organisation.\" - 6 months or a statutory fine\n* Section 15 fund raising for a proscribed organisation\n* Section 16 using money or property for terrorism\n* Section 17 funding terrorism\n* Section 18 money laundering to aid terrorism\n* Section 19 failure to disclose information - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 21A failure to disclose information: regulated sector - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 21D tipping off: regulated sector - 2 years or a fine or both\n** Section 22 penalties for an offence in sections 15 to 18 \u2013 14 years or a fine or both\n* Section 36 disobeying a constable in a cordoned area - 3 months or a fine or both\n* Section 38B failure to disclose information about an act of terrorism - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 39 unauthorised disclosure of information - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 47 failing to stop when required by a constable - 6 months or a level 5 fine or both\n* Section 51 parking in a prohibited area - 3 months or level 4 fine or both\n* Section 54 receiving or giving weapons training for terrorism - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 56 directing terrorist organisation - life imprisonment\n* Section 57 possession for terrorist purposes - 15 years or a fine or both\n* Section 58 collection of information to aid terrorism - 15 years or a fine or both\n* Section 58A eliciting, publishing or communicating information about members of armed forces - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 87 preventing an examination of documents - two years or a fine or both\n* Section 103 (crown official) possessing or communicating or collecting information useful for terrorism - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 59 inciting terrorism overseas: England and Wales - same penalty as under the appropriate Act\n** (a) murder,\n** (b) an offence under section 18 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (wounding with intent),\n** (c) an offence under section 23 or 24 of that Act (poison),\n** (d) an offence under section 28 or 29 of that Act (explosions), and\n** (e) an offence under section 1(2) of the Criminal Damage Act 1971 (endangering life by damaging property).\n* Section 60 inciting terrorism overseas: Northern Ireland - same penalty as under the appropriate Act\n** (a) murder,\n** (b) an offence under section 18 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (wounding with intent),\n** (c) an offence under section 23 or 24 of that Act (poison),\n** (d) an offence under section 28 or 29 of that Act (explosions), and\n** (e) an offence under Article 3(2) of the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (endangering life by damaging property).\n* Section 61 inciting terrorism overseas: Scotland - same penalty as under the appropriate Act\n** (a) murder,\n** (b) assault to severe injury, and\n** (c) reckless conduct which causes actual injury."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Nth Room case",
        "text": "Before the revision, only the distribution, sale, lease, and provision of illegal photographs were subject to punishment; the current law added regulations that also sentenced those who possess, purchase, store, and watch illegal sexual photographs up to three years in prison or fined up to 30 million won. Even if the video was filmed by one\u2019s self, the law clarified the rule that if someone spreads it against their own will, the disseminator would be punished and the sentence will be raised."
      },
      {
        "title": "Perp walk",
        "text": "In the United Kingdom photographing or filming defendants on court premises is illegal under section 41 of the Criminal Justice Act 1925. and the Contempt of Court Act 1981. Former EDL leader Tommy Robinson was arrested for violating these statutes on May 10, 2017 when he tried to film suspected 'Muslim pedophiles' two days earlier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Law enforcement in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "Section 76 of the Counter-Terrorism Act 2008 came into force on 15 February 2009 making it an offence to elicit, attempt to elicit, or publish information \"...of a kind likely to be useful to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism\" about: a member of Her Majesty's Armed Forces; a constable, the Security Service, the Secret Intelligence Service, or Government Communications Headquarters. Any person found guilty faces 10 years imprisonment and an unlimited fine. It is a defence for a person charged with this offence to prove that they had a reasonable excuse for their action. It is not otherwise illegal to photograph or film a police officer in a public place per se. Any film or photography recorded whilst a constable is dealing with an incident may be seized as it becomes evidence under section 19 of PACE 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revenge porn",
        "text": "On 22 March 2018, the Legislative Assembly of the Northern Territory passed the \"Criminal Code Amendment (Intimate Images) Act (2018) (NT)\" that created specific criminal offences for distributing, or threatening to distribute, an intimate image or video without consent, and provided for Rectification Orders that empower a Court to order the removal and destruction of the intimate image or video, which commenced on 9 May 2018. The distribution of an intimate image offence is contained in \"s. 208AB\" of the \"Criminal Code Act (1983) (NT)\", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 3 years. The threatening to distribute an intimate image offence is contained in \"s. 208AC\" of the \"Criminal Code Act (1983) (NT)\", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 3 years. The contravention of a Rectification Order offence is contained in \"s. 208AE\" of the \"Criminal Code Act (1983) (NT)\", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 2 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "It is an offence under section 58 of the Terrorism Act 2000 to take a photograph of a kind likely to be useful to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism, or possessing such a photograph. There is an identical defence of reasonable excuse. This offence (and possibly, but not necessarily the offence) covers only a photograph as described in of the Terrorism Act 2006. As such, it must be of a kind likely to provide practical assistance to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism. Whether the photograph in question is such is a matter for a jury, which is not required to look at the surrounding circumstances. The photograph must contain information of such a nature as to raise a reasonable suspicion that it was intended to be used to assist in the preparation or commission of an act of terrorism. It must call for an explanation. A photograph which is innocuous on its face will not fall foul of the provision if the prosecution adduces evidence that it was intended to be used for the purpose of committing or preparing a terrorist act. The defence may prove a reasonable excuse simply by showing that the photograph is possessed for a purpose other than to assist in the commission or preparation of an act of terrorism, even if the purpose of possession is otherwise unlawful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Body image law",
        "text": "In contrast to the Israeli law, breaching it attracts criminal sanctions. Additionally, any photo that has been digitally altered must be labeled as such; failure to label these photos will result in a \"fine of 37,500 euros, or more than $41,000,\" and hiring a model without the verified medical certificate and requirements \"carries a fine of \u20ac75,000 and six months in jail.\" The law dictates that digitally altered images must be labeled \"applies only to advertising, not to editorial images in magazines or newspapers.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c9ric Ciotti",
        "text": "In 2020, Ciotti proposed a bill to the National Assembly which would prohibit the dissemination of images depicting functions of the national police, municipal police, military and customs officers; with a maximum penalty of 15,000 euros and a year in prison for violators."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revenge porn",
        "text": "In March 2013, the Parliament of South Australia passed the \"Summary Offences (Filming Offences) Amendment Act (2013) (SA)\" that specifically created a criminal offence for distributing an invasive image or video without consent, which commenced on 10 May 2013. The distribution of an invasive image offence is contained in \"s. 26C\" of the \"Summary Offences Act (1953) (SA)\", and the maximum penalty is A$10,000 or imprisonment for 2 years. In September 2016, the Parliament of South Australia further passed the \"Summary Offences (Filming and Sexting Offences) Amendment Act (2016)\" to create a criminal offence for threatening to distribute an invasive image or video, which commenced on 28 October 2018. The threatening to distribute offence is contained in \"s. 26DA\" of the \"Summary Offences Act (1953) (SA)\", and the maximum penalty is A$5,000 or imprisonment for 1 year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revenge porn",
        "text": "On 19 February 2019, the Parliament of Western Australia passed the \"Criminal Law Amendment (Intimate Images) Act (2018) (WA)\" that created specific criminal offences for distributing, or threatening to distribute, an intimate image or video without consent, and provided for Rectification Orders that empower a Court to order the removal and destruction of the intimate image or video, which commenced on 15 April 2019. The distribution of an intimate image offence is contained in \"s. 221BD of the Criminal Code Act Compilation Act (1913) (WA)\", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 3 years. The threatening to distribute an intimate image offence is contained in \"s. 338 of the Criminal Code Act Compilation Act (1913) (WA)\", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 3 years. The contravention of a Rectification Order offence is contained in \"s. 221BE of the Criminal Code Act Compilation Act (1913) (WA)\", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 1 year and an A$12,000 fine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revenge porn",
        "text": "On 21 June 2017, the Parliament of New South Wales passed the \"Crimes Amendment (Intimate Images) Act (2017) (NSW)\" that created specific criminal offences for distributing, or threatening to distribute, or threatening to record, an intimate image or video without consent, and provided for Rectification Orders that empower a Court to order the removal and destruction of the intimate image or video, which commenced on 28 August 2017. The distribution of an intimate image offence is contained in \"s. 91Q\" of the \"Crimes Act (1900) (NSW)\", and the maximum penalty is an A$11,000 fine, or imprisonment for 3 years, or both. The threatening to distribute, or threatening to record an intimate image offences, are contained in \"s. 91R\" of the \"Crimes Act (1900) (NSW)\", and the maximum penalty for either offences is an A$11,000 fine, or imprisonment for 3 years, or both. The contravention of a Rectification Order offence is contained in \"s. 91S\" of the \"Crimes Act (1900) (NSW)\", and the maximum penalty is an A$5,500 fine, or imprisonment for 2 years, or both."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revenge porn",
        "text": "In South Africa, the Films and Publications Amendment Act, 2019 makes it a crime to distribute a private sexual photograph or film without the consent of the pictured individual and with the intent to cause them harm. The penalty is a fine of up to R150,000 and/or up to two years' imprisonment; or double that if the victim is identifiable in the photograph or film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revenge porn",
        "text": "On 16 August 2017, the Legislative Assembly of the Australian Capital Territory passed the \"Crimes (Intimate Image Abuse) Amendment Act (2017) (ACT)\" that created specific criminal offences for distributing, or threatening to distribute, or threatening to capture, an intimate image or video without consent, and provided for Rectification Orders that empower a Court to order the removal and destruction of the intimate image or video, which commenced on 30 August 2017. The distribution of an intimate image offence is contained in \"s. 72C\" of the \"Crimes Act (1900) (ACT)\", and the maximum penalty is A$45,000 or imprisonment for 3 years, or both. The threatening to distribute, or threatening to capture, an intimate image offences are contained in \"s. 72E\" of the \"Crimes Act (1900) (ACT)\", and the maximum penalty is A$45,000 or imprisonment for 3 years, or both. The contravention of a Rectification Order offence is contained in \"s. 72H\" of the \"Crimes Act (1900) (ACT)\", and the maximum penalty is an A$30,000 fine, or imprisonment for 2 years, or both."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "It is an offence under the Counter-Terrorism Act 2008 to publish or communicate a photograph of a constable (not including PCSOs), a member of the armed forces, or a member of the security services, which is of a kind likely to be useful to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism. There is a defence of acting with a reasonable excuse; however, the burden of proof is on the defence, under section 58A of the Terrorism Act 2000. A PCSO in 2009 cited Section 44 of the Terrorism Act 2000 to prevent a member of the public photographing him. Section 44 actually concerns stop and search powers. However, in January 2010 the stop-and-search powers granted under Section 44 were ruled illegal by the European Court of Human Rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revenge porn",
        "text": "On 13 February 2019, the Parliament of Queensland passed the \"Criminal Code (Non-consensual Sharing of Intimate Images) Amendment Act (2019) (Qld)\" that created specific criminal offences for distributing, or threatening to distribute, an intimate image or video without consent, and provided for Rectification Orders that empower a Court to order the removal and destruction of the intimate image or video, which commenced on 21 February 2019. The distribution of an intimate image offence is contained in \"s. 223\" of the \"Criminal Code Act (1899) (Qld)\", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 3 years. The threatening to distribute an intimate image offence is contained in \"s. 229A\" of the \"Criminal Code Act (1899) (Qld)\", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 3 years. The contravention of a Rectification Order offence is contained in \"s. 229AA\" of the \"Criminal Code Act (1899) (Qld)\", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 2 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Upskirt",
        "text": "In 2010, an elderly man had his camera confiscated and was fined 12 day-fines for the act of \"public obscenity\" (which was thought to be the closest match in the criminal code), having taken dozens of upskirt photos in a shopping centre in Turku."
      },
      {
        "title": "Niq\u0101b",
        "text": "On 29 April 2010, the Belgian Chamber of Representatives adopted a law prohibiting people to wear \"attire and clothing masking the face in such a way that it impairs recognizability\". The penalty for violating this directive can run from up to 14 days imprisonment and a 250 euro fine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counter-Terrorism Act 2008",
        "text": "A Parliamentary written question about the policy regarding police preventing members of the public from taking photographs in public places hasn't been answered. But the Home Office issued a circular to the police in 2009 which reminds them that 'Legitimate journalistic activity (such as covering a demonstration for a newspaper) is likely to constitute such an excuse. Similarly an innocent tourist or other sight-seer taking a photograph of a police officer is likely to have a reasonable excuse.'"
      },
      {
        "title": "Section 63 of the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008",
        "text": "The law has been criticised for criminalising images where no crime took place in their creation. In the House of Lords debates Lord Wallace of Tankerness stated, \"Having engaged in it consensually would not be a crime, but to have a photograph of it in one's possession would be a crime. That does not seem to me to make sense\". The law has also been criticised for covering images of consenting adults\u2014for example, including some forms of BDSM or bondage pornography."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pro-ana",
        "text": "Boyer subsequently introduced another bill in September 2009 to mandate disclaimers on photographs in which body parts have been retouched, with the aim of reducing the impact of unrealism in photography on young girls and women. The bill was ostensibly targeted at advertising photography but could be broadly applicable to digitally manipulated photography in general, including thinspirational montages. It imposes a penalty of \u20ac37,500 per violation, with a possible rise to 50% of the cost of each advertisement. The bill did not pass its first reading and was relegated to the Committee of Social Affairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "R v Bowden",
        "text": "The defence team, fancifully, submitted that the making offence applied only to pseudo-photographs. The prosecution submitted that making applied to photographs including digital photographs since the 1978 Act was, as the wording makes clear, seeking to prohibit the spread of indecent photographs as well as their production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Child pornography laws in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "Child pornography laws in England, Wales and Northern Ireland are covered by the Protection of Children Act 1978 (\"the 1978 Act\"), which made it illegal to take, make, distribute, show, or possess for the intent of showing or distributing an indecent photograph of someone under the age of 18. The maximum penalty is 10 years in prison. In the context of digital media, saving an indecent image to a computer's hard drive is considered to be \"making\" the image, as it causes a copy to exist which did not exist before. Indecency is to be interpreted by a jury, who should apply the recognised standards of propriety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Child pornography laws in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "The 1978 Act was extended in 1994 (by the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994) to cover \"pseudo-photographs\" - images that appear to be photographs. The Sexual Offences Act 2003 amended the age of subjects to which the act applied from under 16 to under 18. In 2008 the Act was further extended (by the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008) to cover tracings, and other works derived from photographs or pseudo-photographs. In 2009 all sexual images depicting under 18s, not just those that were derived from photographs or pseudo-photographs, were criminalised by the Coroners and Justice Act 2009, under which any possession of images also became a criminal offence (whereas before it was legal to possess hard copies of images so long as there was no intention to show or distribute them to others)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Terrorism Suppression Act 2002",
        "text": "The penalties within the act are severe, with most offences carrying either 14 years or life imprisonment (the harshest penalty available in New Zealand)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graham Ovenden",
        "text": "In 2009 Ovenden was charged with 16 counts of creating \"indecent\" photographs or pseudo-photographs (i.e., artistic renderings which appear to be photographs) of children, and two counts of possessing 121 \"indecent\" photographs or pseudo-photographs of children. The 121 images are all versions or stages of the 16 works and had been deleted from Ovenden's computer at the time his home was raided in 2006. The images were subsequently undeleted by police. The prosecution argued that these images are \"indecent\" and that there can be no defence of creating or possessing \"indecent\" photographs or pseudo-photographs for artistic purposes. The defence argued that the works 121 images were temporary stages toward the creation of the 16 works, that those works constitute art and in no event were any of the works created with criminal intent. The Crown has not alleged that the images at issue depict any actual children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Happy slapping",
        "text": "In February 2007, an amendment aimed at criminalising \"happy slapping\" was added to a law \"on the prevention of delinquency\" by the Parliament of France based on a proposal from then Interior Minister Nicolas Sarkozy. The anti-happy-slapping clause appears as the last part of Article 44, which also deals with ambushing law enforcement personnel. The law equates filming or photographing certain classes of violent crimes, including severe beatings and rape, with being an accomplice of such crimes. The law makes it illegal to broadcast the images of such crimes, punishable by up to 5 years in prison and/or a \u20ac75,000 fine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Global security law",
        "text": "Initially \"any\" distribution of photographs was penalized."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act",
        "text": "Criminal sanctions follows violations of electronic surveillance by \"intentionally\" engaging in electronic surveillance under the color of law or through disclosing information known to have been obtained through unauthorized surveillance. The penalties for either act are fines up to US$10,000, up to five years in jail, or both."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988",
        "text": "The penalties for these copyright infringement offences may include:\n* Before a magistrates' Court, the penalties for distributing unauthorised files are a maximum fine of \u00a35,000 and/or six months imprisonment;\n* On indictment (in the Crown Court) some offences may attract an unlimited fine and up to 10 years imprisonment."
      },
      {
        "title": "R v Bowden",
        "text": "1.- (1) It is an offence for a person-\n:(a) to take, or permit to be taken or to make, any indecent photograph or pseudo-photograph of a child"
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Commissions Act 1902",
        "text": "A person served with a summons or a notice to produce documents must comply with that requirement, or face prosecution for an offence. The penalty for conviction upon such an offence is two years imprisonment. However, the Act excuses the penalty for failing to attend if a reasonable excuse can be provided (self-incrimination is not a reasonable excuse, however, as statements or documents tended by witnesses are not admissible in evidence against the witness)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Piggate",
        "text": "In November 2015, solicitor Myles Jackman said that performing a sexual act with a dead animal would not be illegal under the Sexual Offences Act 2003. He noted that possessing a photograph of such an act would be illegal under the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008 if it was produced for pornographic purposes, but not if the purpose was \"satire, political commentary or simple grossness\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photograph manipulation",
        "text": "In 2015, France proceeded to pass a law that battles against the use of unrealistic body images and anorexia in the fashion industry. This includes modeling and photography. The models now have to show they are healthy and have a BMI of over 18 through a note from their doctor. Employers breaking this law will be fined and can serve a jail sentence up to six months. When a creator of a photograph does not disclose that the picture is edited or retouched, no matter how small the edit, they may also receive a fine or 30% of the costs of what they used to create their ad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kurtley Beale",
        "text": "From the outcome of the independent tribunal, Beale admitted to sending an offensive photo and was fined $45,000 for a serious violation of the ARU Code of Conduct."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-mask law",
        "text": "According to the November 2013 \"Citizens' Security Law\" (), demonstration protesters who cover their faces may be fined up to \u20ac30,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counter-Terrorism and Border Security Act 2019",
        "text": "Clause 2 amends Section 13 of the Terrorism Act 2000, making it an offence to publish images of: items of clothing or any other article (such as a flag) which would arouse suspicions that the person is a member or supporter of a proscribed organisation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Terrorism Act 2006",
        "text": "This Part creates a series of new criminal offences intended to assist the police in tackling terrorism. They are:\n* Encouragement of terrorism (section 1): Prohibits the publishing of \"a statement that is likely to be understood by some or all of the members of the public to whom it is published as a direct or indirect encouragement or other inducement to them to the commission, preparation or instigation of acts of terrorism or Convention offences.\" Indirect encouragement statements include every statement which glorifies the commission or preparation (whether in the past, in the future or generally) of such acts or offences; and is a statement from which those members of the public could reasonably be expected to infer that what is being glorified is being glorified as conduct that should be emulated by them in existing circumstances.\" In England and Wales, a person guilty of this offence is liable, on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding seven years, or to a fine, or to both, or, on summary conviction, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding twelve months, or to a fine not exceeding the statutory maximum, or to both. In Scotland and Northern Ireland, a person guilty of this offence is liable, on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding seven years, or to a fine, or to both, or, on summary conviction, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months, or to a fine not exceeding the statutory maximum, or to both.\n* Disseminating terrorist publications (Section 2): Prohibits the dissemination of a publication which is either (a) likely to be understood as directly or indirectly encouraging terrorism, or (b) includes information which is likely to be understood as being useful in the commission or preparation of an act of terrorism. The maximum penalty is seven years' imprisonment.\n* Preparation of terrorist acts (Section 5): Prohibits anyone from engaging in any conduct in preparation for an intended act of terrorism. The maximum penalty is life imprisonment.\n* Training for terrorism (Section 6): Prohibits anyone from training others in terrorist activities, or from receiving training. The maximum penalty is 10 years' imprisonment.\n* Attendance at a place used for terrorist training (Section 8): Prohibits anyone from being at a place where training is going on (whether in the United Kingdom or abroad), provided the person knew or reasonably believed that it was happening. The maximum penalty is 10 years' imprisonment.\n* Making and possession of devices or materials (Section 9): Prohibits the making or possession of any radioactive device (i.e. a dirty bomb). The maximum penalty is life imprisonment.\n* Misuse of devices or material and misuse and damage of facilities (Section 10): Prohibits using radioactive materials or a radioactive device in a terrorist attack, and the sabotage of nuclear facilities which causes a radioactive leak. The maximum penalty is life imprisonment.\n* Terrorist threats relating to devices, materials or facilities (Section 11): Prohibits anyone from making threats to demand that they be given radioactive materials. The maximum penalty is life imprisonment.\n* Trespassing etc. on nuclear sites (Section 12): Extends a previous ban on trespassing, imposed by the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005, to cover any nuclear site."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revenge porn",
        "text": "In February 2015 the Criminal Justice and Courts Act 2015, which has a specific amendment dealing with such actions, received Royal Assent. Section 33 of the Act makes it an offence in England and Wales to disclose private sexual photographs and films without the consent of the individual depicted and with the intent to cause distress. There is a maximum sentence of two years' imprisonment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
        "text": "Whether or not a photograph or pseudo-photograph is indecent is a question of fact, and as a question of fact it is something for a jury or magistrate to decide. The jury should apply the standard of decency which ordinary right-thinking members of the public would set - the \"recognised standards of propriety\" as \"R v Stamford\" [1972] puts it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criminal Justice Act 1925",
        "text": "Section 41 prohibits the taking of photographs in a court in England and Wales, save for the Supreme Court. In September 2011, Lord Chancellor Kenneth Clarke announced that the government intended to partially repeal this ban in order to increase the public's understanding of the administration of justice. Initially, filming of the handing down of judgments in the Court of Appeal was to be permitted, with a view that filming of sentencing remarks will eventually be permitted in the Crown Court. However this was never implemented."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counter-Terrorism Act 2008",
        "text": "Any person found guilty faces 10 years imprisonment and an unlimited fine. It is a defence for a person charged with this offence to prove that they had a reasonable excuse for their action (for example, a newspaper feature on police brutality or corruption)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Section 63 of the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008",
        "text": "In January 2011, a man was tried before Stafford Crown Court for possession of staged images depicting a knife attack and a drowning in a bath. The prosecution said, \"There is a need to regulate images portraying sexual violence, to safeguard the decency of society and for the protection of women\". Expert witness for the defence Feona Attwood said the images were like stills from a 1970s Hammer horror film. The trial was a landmark, possibly the first such case tested by a jury. It was also notable as a case where the defendant admitted that he intentionally downloaded and retained the images in question (as opposed to, for example, accidental downloading)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graffiti in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "When the criminal damage caused by the graffiti exceeds \u00a35,000 the maximum penalty for individuals aged 18 or more is 10 years imprisonment and the maximum penalty for people ages between 12 and 17 is a detention and training order up to 24 months. Alternatively if the damage is less than \u00a35,000 the maximum sentence possible is 3 months imprisonment or a total fine of \u00a32,500 for adults. The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 allows police community support officers an alternative remedy by allowing them to issue penalty notices of \u00a350."
      },
      {
        "title": "Section 63 of the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008",
        "text": "The government was unsuccessful in shutting down such sites, since they are based in other countries and are legally made with consenting adults. In August 2005 the British government consulted on, instead, criminalising the possession of such images."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008",
        "text": "Section 69 extends the definition of \"indecent photographs\" in the Protection of Children Act 1978 (which creates offences relating to child pornography) to cover tracings of such photographs or pseudo-photographs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revenge porn",
        "text": "On 15 October 2014, the Parliament of Victoria passed the \"Crimes Amendment (Sexual Offences and Other Matters) Act (2014) (Vic)\" that created specific criminal offences for distributing, or threatening to distribute, a sexual image or video without consent, which commenced on 3 November 2014. The distribution of an intimate image offence is contained in \"s. 41DA\" of the \"Summary Offences Act (1966) (Vic)\", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 2 years. The threatening to distribute an intimate image offence is contained in \"s. 41DB\" of the \"Summary Offences Act (1966) (Vic)\", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 1 year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Terrorism Act 2000",
        "text": "Problematic use of Section 44 powers has not been restricted to political protestors; according to reports, journalists, amateur and professional photographers, trainspotters, politicians and children have been subject to stop and search under suspicion of being involved in terrorist activities while engaged in lawful acts such as photography. The taking of photographs in public spaces is permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (freedom of panorama), and while the Terrorism Act does not prohibit such activity, critics have alleged misuse of the powers of the Act to prevent lawful photography. (Further restrictions on photography have, however, been introduced with the Counter-Terrorism Act 2008)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
        "text": "Currently, the Act defines as offences, roughly:\n*To take or make any indecent photograph or pseudo-photograph of a child;\n*To show or distribute such (pseudo-)photographs;\n*To possess such (pseudo-)photographs with intent to show or distribute them;\n*To advertise for showing or distributing such (pseudo-)photographs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Taking a photograph in a court can be seen as a serious offence, leading to a prison sentence. The prohibition on taking photographs in the precincts is vague. It was designed to prevent the undermining of the dignity of the court, through the exploitation of images in low brow \"picture papers\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008",
        "text": "Section 63 creates a new offence of possessing \"an extreme pornographic image\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red light camera",
        "text": "In Hong-Kong, penalty for the failure to comply with traffic signals is a HK$5,000 fine and three months' jail for a first offense. Penalty for other offenses are a HK$10,000 penalty and six-month term."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
        "text": "This was upheld in \"R v Smith and Jayson\" (2003), where it was held that \"the mens rea necessary to constitute the offence [of making an indecent pseudo-photograph of a child] is that the act of making should be a deliberate and intentional act with knowledge that the image made is, or is likely to be, an indecent image of a child\" \""
      },
      {
        "title": "Contempt of Parliament",
        "text": "Punishments are limited under the Act to (for individuals) a fine of $5,000 and/or six months' imprisonment, or (for corporations) a fine of $25,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counter-Terrorism Act 2008",
        "text": "Journalists who feared that this law would be abused by the police to threaten the taking of photographs of their activities staged a mass protest outside Scotland Yard in February 2009. Gordon Brown reaffirmed that the police have a legal right to restrict photography in public places, and stated \"the law applies to photographers as it does to anybody else in a public place\". The act however does not lay out restrictions for the photography of Community Support Officers as they do not hold the office of Constable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revenge porn",
        "text": "A law criminalising revenge porn in Malta entered into force in November 2016. Article 208E of the Maltese Criminal Code punishes whoever, with an intent to cause distress, emotional harm or harm of any nature, discloses a private sexual photograph or film without the consent of the person or persons displayed or depicted in such photograph or film. Such person would, on conviction be liable to imprisonment for a term of up to two years or to a fine of not less than \u20ac3,000 and not more than \u20ac5,000, or to both such imprisonment and fine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Census in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "Under section 8 of the Census Act 1920, whoever refuses or neglects to comply with the census, makes a false declaration, makes, signs, or delivers a false document, or causes the same, or refuses to answer, or gives false answers, shall be liable on summary conviction and face a maximum fine of \u00a31,000. Exceptions exist for refusing or neglecting to respond to questions about religion, as stipulated by the Census (Amendment) Act 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "R v Bowden",
        "text": "The 1994 Act had added the concept of pseudo-photographs to the law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-mask law",
        "text": "The punishment for the violation of the given law was introduced in July 2014 and is provided by the federal code on administrative offences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Internet censorship and surveillance in Africa",
        "text": "The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights. Libel can be either a criminal offense or a civil matter. Penalties include two to six months in prison and fines of from 500,000 to five million CFA francs ($1,008 to $10,080). Penalties for libel, disrupting public order, and other offenses also include a one- to three-month publishing suspension for a first offense and a three- to six-month suspension for repeat offenses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fine (penalty)",
        "text": "Once a subject has been fined by an officer or photographed by a speed camera, he will receive a decision within four months. This decision will contain a short description of the violation, the place and time the violation was committed and sum of the fine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zoophilia",
        "text": "In the United Kingdom, Section 63 of the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008 criminalises possession of realistic pornographic images depicting sex with animals (see extreme pornography), including fake images and simulated acts, as well as images depicting sex with dead animals. The law provides for sentences of up to two years in prison; a sentence of 12 months was handed down in one case in 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Censorship in Turkey",
        "text": "Article 314 of the Penal Code is often invoked against journalists, particularly Kurds and leftists, due to its broad definition of terrorism and of membership in an armed organisation. It carries a minimum sentence of 7,5 years. According to the OSCE, most of 22 jailed journalists as of June 2014 had been charged or condemned based on Art. 314."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lubna al-Hussein",
        "text": "The full text of Article 152 in the Memorandum to the 1991 Penal Code is:\n:152 Obscene and Indecent Acts\n:(1) Whoever does in a public place an indecent act or an act contrary to public morals or wears an obscene outfit or contrary to public morals or causing an annoyance to public feelings shall be punished with flogging which may not exceed forty lashes or with fine or with both.\n:(2) The act shall be contrary to public morals if it is regarded as such according to the standard of the person's religion or the custom of the country where the act takes place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Photography of certain subject matter is restricted in the United Kingdom. In particular, the Protection of Children Act 1978 restricts making or possessing pornography of children under 18, or what looks like pornography of under-18s. There is no law prohibiting photographing children in public spaces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pseudo-photograph",
        "text": "In the U.K., the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 amended the Protection of Children Act 1978 so as to define the concept of an \"indecent pseudo-photograph of a child\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "R v Bowden",
        "text": "Bowden had been convicted at the Crown Court (by jury) in Cambridge on 12 counts of making indecent photography of a child contrary to section 1(1)(a) of the Protection of Children Act 1978. Before amended by the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, section 1(a) of the 1978 Act read:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dick pic",
        "text": "In French law, the practice can be considered as an act of exhibitionism, punishable by one year of imprisonment and a 15,000 euro fine, according to article 232-22 of the penal code. Article R.624-2 provides for a fine of 750 euros for anyone who sends a message contrary to decency without prior request from the recipient. Repeated practice will be considered harassment, punishable by two to three years of imprisonment and a fine of 30,000 to 45,000 euros depending on the age of the victim. Finally, if the recipient is a minor, the penalty is 7 years in prison and a 100,000 euro fine. In 2019, the correctional court of Roanne sentenced a recidivist man to three years in prison, after complaints from 49 victims, aged between 12 and 90 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Undesirable Publications Act",
        "text": "Taking part in an outdoor nude photo shoot may trigger the Miscellaneous Offences (Public Order and Nuisance) Act instead of the UPA, as in the case of two tourists taking nude photographs at Sentosa in 2016. In 2004, Steve Chia of the National Solidarity Party was let off with a warning after being found in possession of an obscene film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bieten",
        "text": "The usual penalty for breaches of the rules is a 2-point fine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Molka",
        "text": "Molka crimes can result in jail time or fines. The filming or distribution of intimate videos\u2014including if the subject consents to being filmed but does not consent to distribution of said video\u2014can result in up to five years in prison or a fine up to 30 million won (about USD$26,500). However, as of 2017, nearly 80 percent of fines actually implemented are less than 3 million won, and also nearly 80 percent of given fines are imposed on the suspect who distributed the footage rather than those who install and initially film from spy cameras. The amount of the fines implemented is also inadequate when considering the funds required to remove molka videos from online circulation even for one month."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
        "text": "1.\u2013 (1) Subject to sections 1A and 1B, it is an offence for a person\u2013\n:(a) to take, or permit to be taken or to make, any indecent photograph or pseudo-photograph of a child; or\n:(b) to distribute or show such indecent photographs or pseudo-photographs; or\n:(c) to have in his possession such indecent photographs or pseudo-photographs, with a view to their being distributed or shown by himself or others; or\n:(d) to publish or cause to be published any advertisement likely to be understood as conveying that the advertiser distributes or shows such indecent photographs or pseudo-photographs or intends to do so."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aadhaar Act, 2016",
        "text": "The Clause 34 states that providing false information in an attempt to impersonate carries a maximum penalty of 3 years in prison and/or a fine of . The Clause 38 states that unauthorised access to the Central Identities Data Repository, causing damaging to it or leaking the information stored on it carries a maximum penalty of 3 years in prison and/or a minimum fine or . The Clause 47 states that the complaints under this law must be tried under a Chief Metropolitan Magistrate or a Chief Judicial Magistrate, or a higher court. No court can recognise a complaint under this law unless filed by the UIDAI or a person authorised by it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Terrorism Act 2000",
        "text": "From Terrorism Act 2000\n* Section 11 membership of a proscribed organisation - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 12 support of a proscribed organisation - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 13: \"A person in a public place commits an offence if he (a)wears an item of clothing, or (b)wears, carries or displays an article, in such a way or in such circumstances as to arouse reasonable suspicion that he is a member or supporter of a proscribed organisation.\" - 6 months or a statutory fine\n* Section 15 fund raising for a proscribed organisation\n* Section 16 using money or property for terrorism\n* Section 17 funding terrorism\n* Section 18 money laundering to aid terrorism\n* Section 19 failure to disclose information - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 21A failure to disclose information: regulated sector - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 21D tipping off: regulated sector - 2 years or a fine or both\n** Section 22 penalties for an offence in sections 15 to 18 \u2013 14 years or a fine or both\n* Section 36 disobeying a constable in a cordoned area - 3 months or a fine or both\n* Section 38B failure to disclose information about an act of terrorism - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 39 unauthorised disclosure of information - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 47 failing to stop when required by a constable - 6 months or a level 5 fine or both\n* Section 51 parking in a prohibited area - 3 months or level 4 fine or both\n* Section 54 receiving or giving weapons training for terrorism - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 56 directing terrorist organisation - life imprisonment\n* Section 57 possession for terrorist purposes - 15 years or a fine or both\n* Section 58 collection of information to aid terrorism - 15 years or a fine or both\n* Section 58A eliciting, publishing or communicating information about members of armed forces - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 87 preventing an examination of documents - two years or a fine or both\n* Section 103 (crown official) possessing or communicating or collecting information useful for terrorism - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 59 inciting terrorism overseas: England and Wales - same penalty as under the appropriate Act\n** (a) murder,\n** (b) an offence under section 18 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (wounding with intent),\n** (c) an offence under section 23 or 24 of that Act (poison),\n** (d) an offence under section 28 or 29 of that Act (explosions), and\n** (e) an offence under section 1(2) of the Criminal Damage Act 1971 (endangering life by damaging property).\n* Section 60 inciting terrorism overseas: Northern Ireland - same penalty as under the appropriate Act\n** (a) murder,\n** (b) an offence under section 18 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (wounding with intent),\n** (c) an offence under section 23 or 24 of that Act (poison),\n** (d) an offence under section 28 or 29 of that Act (explosions), and\n** (e) an offence under Article 3(2) of the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (endangering life by damaging property).\n* Section 61 inciting terrorism overseas: Scotland - same penalty as under the appropriate Act\n** (a) murder,\n** (b) assault to severe injury, and\n** (c) reckless conduct which causes actual injury."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "It is contempt of court to take a photograph in any court of law of any person, being a judge of the court or a juror or a witness in or a party to any proceedings before the court, whether civil or criminal, or to publish such a photograph. This includes photographs taken in a court building or the precincts of the court."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-mask law",
        "text": "Parliament approved new legislation on 16 May 2017, which stipulates that people who wear clothing that covers their faces, such as burqas, niqabs, full face helmets or scarves (motorcyclists) etc. in places like universities, public transportation or courthouses will face fines of 150 euros (about $167). The measure took effect in October 2017. Shortly after the enactment on 1 October 2017, there were some incidents in which people were incorrectly fined by the police, leading some commentators to point out flaws in the law, or incorrect understanding of it amongst the police."
      },
      {
        "title": "Law against Hatred",
        "text": "The law establishes the penalty of between 8 and 10 years in jail for officials who delay the prevention or punishment of a hate crime and for health personnel who refuse to treat a person for reasons of hate. Article 21 establishes sentences of up to 20 years in jail for those who incite hatred, discrimination or violence against a person or group of persons by any means, and Article 22 legalizes the blocking of any type of media that are considered to violate the law through their content. The law indicates that the person who disseminates a \"hate message\" (broadly defined or undefined in the Law) on social networks must delete it within six hours of its publication, or else must pay a fine ranging from 50 thousand to 100 thousand tax units."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
        "text": "Protection of Children Act 1978\n--History.\n--Offences.\n--Amendments.\n----1994.\n----2008.\n--Definitions.\n----The \"making\" offence.\n----Definition of a child.\n----Definition of photograph.\n----Definition of indecent.\n----Definition of pseudo-photograph.\n--Offences committed abroad.\n--Interpretation.\n----Indecency.\n----Relevance of the age of a known subject.\n----Computer files.\n----Establishing mens rea.\n----Prosecuting a photograph where the age of the subject is unknown.\n----Making photographs (computer files).\n----Collages.\n--Sentencing.\n--Defences.\n----Marriage and enduring relationships.\n----Mens Rea.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hate speech laws in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "On 4 March 2010, a jury returned a verdict of guilty against Harry Taylor, who was charged under Part 4A of the Public Order Act 1986. Taylor was charged because he left anti-religious cartoons in the prayer-room of Liverpool's John Lennon Airport on three occasions in 2008. The airport chaplain, who was insulted, offended, and alarmed by the cartoons, called the police. On 23 April 2010, Judge Charles James of Liverpool Crown Court sentenced Taylor to a six-month term of imprisonment suspended for two years, made him subject to a five-year Anti-Social Behaviour Order (ASBO) (which bans him from carrying religiously offensive material in a public place), ordered him to perform 100 hours of unpaid work, and ordered him to pay \u00a3250 costs. Taylor was convicted of similar offences in 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Italy",
        "text": "Criminal penalties for infringers include fines and imprisonment (Art. 171). If the infringement is done with gainful or commercial intent the penalties are increased (Art. 171-ter)."
      },
      {
        "title": "R v Bowden",
        "text": "1.- (1) It is an offence for a person-\n:(a) to take, or permit to be taken, any indecent photograph of a child"
      },
      {
        "title": "Section 63 of the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008",
        "text": "As was demonstrated by a court decision in 2014, so long as it can be demonstrated that the recipient stored the images then it is not necessary to prove that those in possession of offending images had solicited them. Thus it is possible to contravene the law as a result of receiving unsolicited images."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blasphemy law in the United Arab Emirates",
        "text": "According to Article 312 of the Penal code, the following offences if perpetrated publicly shall be a subject to a jail sentence for a minimum period of one year in addition to a fine:\n* Offence to any of the Islamic sacred beliefs or rites.\n* Insult to any of the divine recognized religions.\n* Approving, encouraging or promoting sin or do any act that tempts towards committing it.\n* Knowingly eating pork meat by Muslims"
      },
      {
        "title": "Photography and the law",
        "text": "Photography and the law\n--Australia.\n----General.\n----Private property.\n----Publishing and rights.\n----Commercial purposes.\n--United Kingdom.\n----Legal restrictions on photography.\n----Anti-terrorism law.\n----Copyright.\n------Infringement.\n----Photography and privacy.\n--United States.\n--Canada.\n--Hong Kong.\n--Hungary.\n--Iceland.\n--Macau.\n--Mexico.\n--Philippines.\n--South Africa.\n--Spain.\n--Sudan and South Sudan.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rape pornography",
        "text": "In Scotland, the \"Criminal Justice and Licensing (Scotland) Act 2010\" criminalised possession of \"extreme\" pornography. This included depictions of rape, and \"other non-consensual penetrative sexual activity, whether violent or otherwise\", including those involving consenting adults and images that were faked. The maximum penalty is an unlimited fine and 3 years imprisonment. The law is not often used, and it resulted in only one prosecution during the first four years that it was in force."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flags and Emblems (Display) Act (Northern Ireland) 1954",
        "text": "Violations of the Act were punishable by up to a fine up to \u00a3500, or up to five years in prison."
      },
      {
        "title": "Revenge porn",
        "text": "On 16 August 2018, the Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia passed the \"Enhancing Online Safety (Non\u2011consensual Sharing of Intimate Images) Act (2018) (Cth)\" that created specific criminal offences (that operates in parallel to State and Territory criminal law) for distributing, or threatening to distribute, a sexual image or video without consent, which commenced on 1 September 2018. The distribution of a private sexual image offence is contained in \"s. 474.17A\" of the \"Criminal Code Act (1995) (Cth)\", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 5 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act",
        "text": "Criminal sanctions may be imposed in the event of a breach of a restraining order. Such breaches may result in prosecution and, upon conviction, a maximum fine of S$10,000 or imprisonment for up to two years or both. For second or subsequent offences, the maximum penalty is a fine of up to $20,000 or imprisonment for up to three years or both."
      },
      {
        "title": "Matthew Guy",
        "text": "In February 2022, Guy, along with Peter Walsh, David Davis, Gary Blackwood and Melina Bath, were fined $100 each for breaching face mask rules, after the Coalition MPs were photographed maskless while attending an event in Parliament House."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marine Le Pen",
        "text": "On 2 March 2017, the European Parliament voted to revoke Le Pen's immunity from prosecution for tweeting violent imagery. Le Pen had tweeted an image of beheaded journalist James Foley in December 2015, which was deleted following a request from Foley's family. Le Pen also faced prosecution for allegedly spending EU Parliament funds on her own political party; the lifting of her immunity from prosecution did not apply to the ongoing investigation into the misuse of parliamentary funds by the FN."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Foley (journalist)",
        "text": "In response to the widespread posting, viewing, and commenting on the video depicting Foley's murder, Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis Sir Bernard Hogan-Howe warned \"We would like to remind the public that viewing, downloading or disseminating extremist material within the UK may constitute an offence under terrorism legislation.\" He went on to explain that while viewing the video was technically a crime, his officers would be focused on tracking down those who shared the footage or glorified it. Twitter and YouTube executives also warned objectionable material would be deleted and accounts that posted it, or spread it, would be blocked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Censorship in Saudi Arabia",
        "text": "A 2011 royal decree extended the licensing requirement to include online newspapers and blogs and increased penalties for violations of the earlier press law. Those penalties include large fines, removal of the content, and potentially closure of the establishment responsible, along with suspending or banning the person or group from future publishing. In charging individuals with violations, the government often applies these laws, sometimes in conjunction with counterterrorism laws. These laws extend the definition of terrorism to include content that is damaging to Saudi Arabia, its reputation, stability, and security."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protection of Animals Act 1934",
        "text": "The penalties were fines of up to 100 pounds, or up to three months in gaol, per violation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daniel Andrews",
        "text": "In October 2021, Andrews was fined $400 for breaching face mask rules on two occasions, in both cases he walked through a car park at Parliament House to his press conference without wearing a mask."
      },
      {
        "title": "Duty to rescue",
        "text": "The photographers at the scene of the fatal car collision of Diana, Princess of Wales, were investigated for violation of the French law of \"non-assistance \u00e0 personne en danger\" (failing to provide assistance to a person in danger), which can be punished by up to 5 years of imprisonment and a fine of up to \u20ac75,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copyright law of Thailand",
        "text": "Whosoever infringes copyright or the performers shall be punished with a fine from 20,000-200,000 baht. If the offence is committed for commercial purposes, the offender shall be punished with imprisonment for a term from six months up to four years or a fine from 100,000-800,000 baht or both imprisonment and fine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Street photography",
        "text": "The United Kingdom has enacted domestic law in accordance with the Human Rights Act, which limits the publication of certain photographs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burqa",
        "text": "In Italy, by an anti-terrorism law passed in 1975, it is forbidden to wear any dress that hides the face of a person. At that time, Italy was facing domestic (not Islam-related) terrorism. In May 2010, it was reported that a Tunisian woman was fined \u20ac500 for this offence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the penalties for contravening Section 1 as a fine up to \u00a325, or up to three months imprisonment, or both.\n;Section 2.2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Critical Infrastructure Defence Act",
        "text": "Individuals prosecuted under this law may be subject to penalties as follows:\n*For a first offence: \"a fine not less than $1000 and not exceeding $10 000, or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 6 months, or to both a fine and imprisonment\".\n*Second or subsequent offence in relation to the same premise: \"a fine not less than $1000 and not exceeding $25 000, or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 6 months, or to both a fine and imprisonment\"\n*For corporations: \"a fine not less than $10 000 and not exceeding $200 000\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Censorship",
        "text": "British photographer and visual artist Graham Ovenden's photos and paintings were ordered to be destroyed by a London's magistrate court in 2015 for being \"indecent\" and their copies had been removed from the online Tate gallery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jedi census phenomenon",
        "text": "It was confirmed prior to the census that citizens were not liable for a fine in relation to question 10 (on religion). This was based on section 1(2) of the Census (Amendment) Act 2000, which amended section 8 of the Census Act 2000 to state that \"no person shall be liable to a penalty under subsection (1) for refusing or neglecting to state any particulars in respect of religion\". The change in the law was implemented by The Census (Amendment) Order 2000 and The Census (Amendment) Regulations 2000."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How is intellectual property protected such as photographs?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you interested in intellectual property law in the U.S., U.K., Germany, or some other country?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'm interested in intellectual property law in the U.S."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In the US there are copyright laws to protect \"original works of authorships which includes photgraphs."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How about in Canada?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes, the copyright law of Canada governs the legally enforceable rights to creative and artistic works under the laws of Canada.  Artistic works include sculptures, paintings, photographs, charts and engravings."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How are the intellectual property rights on photographs in the U.K. deal with terrorism?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Copyright law of the United Kingdom, contains regulations against incitement to terrorism."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the anti-terrorism law?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Terrorism Act 2000 (c.11) is the first of a number of general Terrorism Acts passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Would you like to learn more about the provisions or the penalties?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the penalties for violating the act?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "There are many sections defining the various offenses with penalties ranging from 3 months or level 4 fine or both to life imprisonment.",
      "The penalties differ depending on the violation, for example: Section 11 membership of a proscribed organisation - 10 years or a fine or both; Section 12 support of a proscribed organisation - 10 years or a fine or both; or Section 13: \"A person in a public place commits an offence if he (a)wears an item of clothing, or (b)wears, carries or displays an article, in such a way or in such circumstances as to arouse reasonable suspicion that he is a member or supporter of a proscribed organisation.\" - 6 months or a statutory fine."
    ],
    "topic": "Photography and the law",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Terrorism Act 2000:35",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Terrorism Act 2000",
          "Penalties"
        ],
        "ctx": "From Terrorism Act 2000\n* Section 11 membership of a proscribed organisation - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 12 support of a proscribed organisation - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 13: \"A person in a public place commits an offence if he (a)wears an item of clothing, or (b)wears, carries or displays an article, in such a way or in such circumstances as to arouse reasonable suspicion that he is a member or supporter of a proscribed organisation.\" - 6 months or a statutory fine\n* Section 15 fund raising for a proscribed organisation\n* Section 16 using money or property for terrorism\n* Section 17 funding terrorism\n* Section 18 money laundering to aid terrorism\n* Section 19 failure to disclose information - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 21A failure to disclose information: regulated sector - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 21D tipping off: regulated sector - 2 years or a fine or both\n** Section 22 penalties for an offence in sections 15 to 18 \u2013 14 years or a fine or both\n* Section 36 disobeying a constable in a cordoned area - 3 months or a fine or both\n* Section 38B failure to disclose information about an act of terrorism - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 39 unauthorised disclosure of information - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 47 failing to stop when required by a constable - 6 months or a level 5 fine or both\n* Section 51 parking in a prohibited area - 3 months or level 4 fine or both\n* Section 54 receiving or giving weapons training for terrorism - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 56 directing terrorist organisation - life imprisonment\n* Section 57 possession for terrorist purposes - 15 years or a fine or both\n* Section 58 collection of information to aid terrorism - 15 years or a fine or both\n* Section 58A eliciting, publishing or communicating information about members of armed forces - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 87 preventing an examination of documents - two years or a fine or both\n* Section 103 (crown official) possessing or communicating or collecting information useful for terrorism - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 59 inciting terrorism overseas: England and Wales - same penalty as under the appropriate Act\n** (a) murder,\n** (b) an offence under section 18 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (wounding with intent),\n** (c) an offence under section 23 or 24 of that Act (poison),\n** (d) an offence under section 28 or 29 of that Act (explosions), and\n** (e) an offence under section 1(2) of the Criminal Damage Act 1971 (endangering life by damaging property).\n* Section 60 inciting terrorism overseas: Northern Ireland - same penalty as under the appropriate Act\n** (a) murder,\n** (b) an offence under section 18 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (wounding with intent),\n** (c) an offence under section 23 or 24 of that Act (poison),\n** (d) an offence under section 28 or 29 of that Act (explosions), and\n** (e) an offence under Article 3(2) of the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (endangering life by damaging property).\n* Section 61 inciting terrorism overseas: Scotland - same penalty as under the appropriate Act\n** (a) murder,\n** (b) assault to severe injury, and\n** (c) reckless conduct which causes actual injury."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Terrorism Act 2000:35",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Terrorism Act 2000",
          "Penalties"
        ],
        "ctx": "From Terrorism Act 2000\n* Section 11 membership of a proscribed organisation - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 12 support of a proscribed organisation - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 13: \"A person in a public place commits an offence if he (a)wears an item of clothing, or (b)wears, carries or displays an article, in such a way or in such circumstances as to arouse reasonable suspicion that he is a member or supporter of a proscribed organisation.\" - 6 months or a statutory fine\n* Section 15 fund raising for a proscribed organisation\n* Section 16 using money or property for terrorism\n* Section 17 funding terrorism\n* Section 18 money laundering to aid terrorism\n* Section 19 failure to disclose information - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 21A failure to disclose information: regulated sector - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 21D tipping off: regulated sector - 2 years or a fine or both\n** Section 22 penalties for an offence in sections 15 to 18 \u2013 14 years or a fine or both\n* Section 36 disobeying a constable in a cordoned area - 3 months or a fine or both\n* Section 38B failure to disclose information about an act of terrorism - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 39 unauthorised disclosure of information - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 47 failing to stop when required by a constable - 6 months or a level 5 fine or both\n* Section 51 parking in a prohibited area - 3 months or level 4 fine or both\n* Section 54 receiving or giving weapons training for terrorism - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 56 directing terrorist organisation - life imprisonment\n* Section 57 possession for terrorist purposes - 15 years or a fine or both\n* Section 58 collection of information to aid terrorism - 15 years or a fine or both\n* Section 58A eliciting, publishing or communicating information about members of armed forces - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 87 preventing an examination of documents - two years or a fine or both\n* Section 103 (crown official) possessing or communicating or collecting information useful for terrorism - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 59 inciting terrorism overseas: England and Wales - same penalty as under the appropriate Act\n** (a) murder,\n** (b) an offence under section 18 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (wounding with intent),\n** (c) an offence under section 23 or 24 of that Act (poison),\n** (d) an offence under section 28 or 29 of that Act (explosions), and\n** (e) an offence under section 1(2) of the Criminal Damage Act 1971 (endangering life by damaging property).\n* Section 60 inciting terrorism overseas: Northern Ireland - same penalty as under the appropriate Act\n** (a) murder,\n** (b) an offence under section 18 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (wounding with intent),\n** (c) an offence under section 23 or 24 of that Act (poison),\n** (d) an offence under section 28 or 29 of that Act (explosions), and\n** (e) an offence under Article 3(2) of the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (endangering life by damaging property).\n* Section 61 inciting terrorism overseas: Scotland - same penalty as under the appropriate Act\n** (a) murder,\n** (b) assault to severe injury, and\n** (c) reckless conduct which causes actual injury."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Terrorism Act 2000:35",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Terrorism Act 2000",
          "Penalties"
        ],
        "ctx": "From Terrorism Act 2000\n* Section 11 membership of a proscribed organisation - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 12 support of a proscribed organisation - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 13: \"A person in a public place commits an offence if he (a)wears an item of clothing, or (b)wears, carries or displays an article, in such a way or in such circumstances as to arouse reasonable suspicion that he is a member or supporter of a proscribed organisation.\" - 6 months or a statutory fine\n* Section 15 fund raising for a proscribed organisation\n* Section 16 using money or property for terrorism\n* Section 17 funding terrorism\n* Section 18 money laundering to aid terrorism\n* Section 19 failure to disclose information - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 21A failure to disclose information: regulated sector - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 21D tipping off: regulated sector - 2 years or a fine or both\n** Section 22 penalties for an offence in sections 15 to 18 \u2013 14 years or a fine or both\n* Section 36 disobeying a constable in a cordoned area - 3 months or a fine or both\n* Section 38B failure to disclose information about an act of terrorism - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 39 unauthorised disclosure of information - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 47 failing to stop when required by a constable - 6 months or a level 5 fine or both\n* Section 51 parking in a prohibited area - 3 months or level 4 fine or both\n* Section 54 receiving or giving weapons training for terrorism - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 56 directing terrorist organisation - life imprisonment\n* Section 57 possession for terrorist purposes - 15 years or a fine or both\n* Section 58 collection of information to aid terrorism - 15 years or a fine or both\n* Section 58A eliciting, publishing or communicating information about members of armed forces - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 87 preventing an examination of documents - two years or a fine or both\n* Section 103 (crown official) possessing or communicating or collecting information useful for terrorism - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 59 inciting terrorism overseas: England and Wales - same penalty as under the appropriate Act\n** (a) murder,\n** (b) an offence under section 18 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (wounding with intent),\n** (c) an offence under section 23 or 24 of that Act (poison),\n** (d) an offence under section 28 or 29 of that Act (explosions), and\n** (e) an offence under section 1(2) of the Criminal Damage Act 1971 (endangering life by damaging property).\n* Section 60 inciting terrorism overseas: Northern Ireland - same penalty as under the appropriate Act\n** (a) murder,\n** (b) an offence under section 18 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (wounding with intent),\n** (c) an offence under section 23 or 24 of that Act (poison),\n** (d) an offence under section 28 or 29 of that Act (explosions), and\n** (e) an offence under Article 3(2) of the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (endangering life by damaging property).\n* Section 61 inciting terrorism overseas: Scotland - same penalty as under the appropriate Act\n** (a) murder,\n** (b) assault to severe injury, and\n** (c) reckless conduct which causes actual injury."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Terrorism Act 2000:35",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Terrorism Act 2000",
          "Penalties"
        ],
        "ctx": "From Terrorism Act 2000\n* Section 11 membership of a proscribed organisation - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 12 support of a proscribed organisation - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 13: \"A person in a public place commits an offence if he (a)wears an item of clothing, or (b)wears, carries or displays an article, in such a way or in such circumstances as to arouse reasonable suspicion that he is a member or supporter of a proscribed organisation.\" - 6 months or a statutory fine\n* Section 15 fund raising for a proscribed organisation\n* Section 16 using money or property for terrorism\n* Section 17 funding terrorism\n* Section 18 money laundering to aid terrorism\n* Section 19 failure to disclose information - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 21A failure to disclose information: regulated sector - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 21D tipping off: regulated sector - 2 years or a fine or both\n** Section 22 penalties for an offence in sections 15 to 18 \u2013 14 years or a fine or both\n* Section 36 disobeying a constable in a cordoned area - 3 months or a fine or both\n* Section 38B failure to disclose information about an act of terrorism - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 39 unauthorised disclosure of information - 5 years or a fine or both\n* Section 47 failing to stop when required by a constable - 6 months or a level 5 fine or both\n* Section 51 parking in a prohibited area - 3 months or level 4 fine or both\n* Section 54 receiving or giving weapons training for terrorism - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 56 directing terrorist organisation - life imprisonment\n* Section 57 possession for terrorist purposes - 15 years or a fine or both\n* Section 58 collection of information to aid terrorism - 15 years or a fine or both\n* Section 58A eliciting, publishing or communicating information about members of armed forces - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 87 preventing an examination of documents - two years or a fine or both\n* Section 103 (crown official) possessing or communicating or collecting information useful for terrorism - 10 years or a fine or both\n* Section 59 inciting terrorism overseas: England and Wales - same penalty as under the appropriate Act\n** (a) murder,\n** (b) an offence under section 18 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (wounding with intent),\n** (c) an offence under section 23 or 24 of that Act (poison),\n** (d) an offence under section 28 or 29 of that Act (explosions), and\n** (e) an offence under section 1(2) of the Criminal Damage Act 1971 (endangering life by damaging property).\n* Section 60 inciting terrorism overseas: Northern Ireland - same penalty as under the appropriate Act\n** (a) murder,\n** (b) an offence under section 18 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (wounding with intent),\n** (c) an offence under section 23 or 24 of that Act (poison),\n** (d) an offence under section 28 or 29 of that Act (explosions), and\n** (e) an offence under Article 3(2) of the Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (endangering life by damaging property).\n* Section 61 inciting terrorism overseas: Scotland - same penalty as under the appropriate Act\n** (a) murder,\n** (b) assault to severe injury, and\n** (c) reckless conduct which causes actual injury."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The orange originated in a region encompassing Southern China, Northeast India, and Myanmar, and the earliest mention of the sweet orange was in Chinese literature in 314 BC. , orange trees were found to be the most cultivated fruit tree in the world. Orange trees are widely grown in tropical and subtropical climates for their sweet fruit. The fruit of the orange tree can be eaten fresh, or processed for its juice or fragrant peel. , sweet oranges accounted for approximately 70% of citrus production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juice",
        "text": "Groups of grape pits dated to 8000 BCE show early evidence of juice production; although it is thought that the grapes may have been alternatively used to produce wine. One of the first regularly produced juices was lemonade, appearing in 16th-century Italy, as an import, after its conception in the Middle East. Orange juice originated in the 17th century. In the 18th century, James Lind linked citrus fruits to the prevention of scurvy, which, a century later, led to the implementation of the Merchant Shipping Act of 1867, requiring all ocean-bound British ships to carry citrus-based juice on board."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "Orange juice is a liquid extract of the orange tree fruit, produced by squeezing or reaming oranges. It comes in several different varieties, including blood orange, navel oranges, valencia orange, clementine, and tangerine. As well as variations in oranges used, some varieties include differing amounts of juice vesicles, known as \"pulp\" in American English, and \"(juicy) bits\" in British English. These vesicles contain the juice of the orange and can be left in or removed during the manufacturing process. How juicy these vesicles are depend upon many factors, such as species, variety, and season. In American English, the beverage name is often abbreviated as \"OJ\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Orange juice usually refers to the fruit juice obtained from squeezing orange."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Florida farmers obtained seeds from New Orleans around 1872, after which orange groves were established by grafting the sweet orange on to sour orange rootstocks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Orange juice is obtained by squeezing the fruit on a special tool (a \"juicer\" or \"squeezer\") and collecting the juice in a tray underneath. This can be made at home or, on a much larger scale, industrially. Brazil is the largest producer of orange juice in the world, followed by the United States, where it is one of the commodities traded on the New York Board of Trade. Frozen orange juice concentrate is made from freshly squeezed and filtered orange juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "While the origin of citrus fruits cannot be precisely identified, researchers believe they began to appear in Southeast Asia at least 4,000 BC. From there, they slowly spread to northern Africa, mainly through migration and trade. During the period of the Roman Empire, demand by higher-ranking members of society, along with increased trade, allowed the fruits to spread to southern Europe. Citrus fruits spread throughout Europe during the Middle Ages, and were then brought to the Americas by Spanish explorers. Worldwide trade in citrus fruits did not appear until the 20th century, and trade in orange juice developed as late as 1940."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carcaixent",
        "text": "The orange is the fruit made from Spain, through Valencia, and spreading throughout the rest of the world. In Greek mythology the \"Garden of the Hesperides\" is a mythological grove where apples grew tended to by nymphs and a dragon. Hercules, the hero of classical literature, killed the guardian, entered the garden and plucked those golden apples \u2013In later years it was thought that the \"golden apples\" might have actually been oranges, a fruit unknown to Europe before the Middle Ages. Several scholars defend that the etymology of the word comes from the Sanskrit term narang and the Persian word narensh. When Arabs brought orange farming to the Iberian Peninsula, they called the fruits naranjah. The Region of Valencia maintained the orange-farming tradition after the Arabic period, with references to orange trees in the city of Valencia dating back to the 14th century. In fact, there is an Orange Courtyard inside Valencia\u2019s 15th-century Silk Exchange market \"(La Llotja de la Seda)\", a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The first references to commercial orange plantations date back to the 18th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ivrea",
        "text": "The origin of the tradition to throw oranges is not well understood, particularly as oranges do not grow in the foothills of the Italian Alps and must be transported from Sicily. In 1994 an estimate of of oranges were brought to the city, mainly coming from the leftovers of the winter crop in southern Italy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The sweet orange is not a wild fruit, having arisen in domestication from a cross between a non-pure mandarin orange and a hybrid pomelo that had a substantial mandarin component. Since its chloroplast DNA is that of pomelo, it was likely the hybrid pomelo, perhaps a BC1 pomelo backcross, that was the maternal parent of the first orange. Based on genomic analysis, the relative proportions of the ancestral species in the sweet orange is approximately 42% pomelo and 58% mandarin. All varieties of the sweet orange descend from this original cross, differing only by mutations selected for during agricultural propagation. Sweet oranges have a distinct origin from the bitter orange, which arose independently, perhaps in the wild, from a cross between pure mandarin and pomelo parents. The earliest mention of the sweet orange in Chinese literature dates from 314 B.C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The word \"orange\" derives from the Sanskrit word for \"orange tree\" (\u0928\u093e\u0930\u0919\u094d\u0917 \"n\u0101ra\u1e45ga\"), which in turn derives from a Dravidian root word (compare \u0ba8\u0bb0\u0ba8\u0bcd\u0ba4\u0bae\u0bcd/\u0d28\u0d3e\u0d30\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19 \"narandam/naranja\" which refers to Bitter orange in Tamil and Malayalam). The Sanskrit word reached European languages through Persian \u0646\u0627\u0631\u0646\u06af (\"n\u0101rang\") and its Arabic derivative \u0646\u0627\u0631\u0646\u062c (\"n\u0101ranj\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Love for Three Oranges (fairy tale)",
        "text": "Scholar Jack Zipes suggests that the story \"may have originated\" in Italy, with later diffusion to the rest of Southern Europe and into the Orient."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "By 1949, orange juice processing plants in Florida were producing over 10 million gallons of concentrated orange juice. Consumers liked concentrated canned orange juice as it was affordable, tasty, convenient, and high in vitamin C. The preparation was simple: empty the container of frozen concentrate into a measured volume of water and stir. However, by the 1980s, food scientists developed a fresher-tasting juice known as reconstituted ready-to-serve juice. Eventually in the 1990s, \"not from concentrate\" (NFC) orange juice was developed. Orange juice is a common breakfast beverage in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (word)",
        "text": "The word ultimately derives from a Dravidian language \u2013 possibly Tamil \u0ba8\u0bbe\u0bb0\u0bae\u0bcd \"n\u0101ram\" or Telugu \u0c28\u0c3e\u0c30\u0c3f\u0c02\u0c1c \"n\u0101ri\u1e43ja\" or Malayalam \u0d28\u0d3e\u0d30\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u200c \"n\u0101ra\u014b\u014ba\" \u2014 via Sanskrit \u0928\u093e\u0930\u0919\u094d\u0917 \"n\u0101ra\u1e45ga\u1e25\" \"orange tree\". From there the word entered Persian \"n\u0101rang\" and then Arabic \"n\u0101ranj\". The initial \"n\" was lost through rebracketing in Italian and French, though some varieties of Arabic lost the \"n\" earlier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange, New Jersey",
        "text": "Orange had its origins in Connecticut's New Haven Colony. In 1666, a group of 30 of New Haven's families traveled by water to found \"a town on the Passayak\" River. They arrived on territory now encompassing Newark, the Oranges, and several other municipalities. The area was situated in the northeast portion of a land grant conveyed by King Charles II of England to his brother James, Duke of York. In 1664, James conveyed the land to two proprietors, Lord John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. Since Carteret had been Royal Governor of the Isle of Jersey, the territory became known as \"New Jersey.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Kishu mikan",
        "text": "The fruit is thought to have arisen in Southern China, where its name was recorded in the records of Jianchang during the Ming Dynasty, and its agricultural growth is widespread in Jiangxi province. Japanese oranges were cultivated from the cherry orange about 700 years ago. Genetic studies have found it to be closely related to the Huanglingmiao mandarin, carrying the same pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\") introgression, indicating that the two diverged from the same backcrossed domesticated ancestor. Under the Tanaka system of citrus taxonomy, it is a separate species, \"Citrus kinokuni\", while the Swingle system groups it with other pure and hybrid mandarins as a single species, \"Citrus reticulata\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "Common orange juice is made from the sweet orange. Different cultivars (for example, Valencia, Hamlin) have different properties, and a producer may mix cultivar juices to get the desired taste. Orange juice usually varies between shades of orange and yellow, although some ruby red or blood orange varieties are a reddish-orange or even pinkish. This is due to different pigmentation in ruby red oranges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Trees from groves in hammocks or areas covered with pine forest are budded on sour orange trees, a method that gives a high solids content. On sand, they are grafted on rough lemon rootstock. The Hamlin orange is one of the most popular juice oranges in Florida and replaces the Parson Brown variety as the principal early-season juice orange. This cultivar is now the leading early orange in Florida and, possibly, in the rest of the world.\n* Bahia: grown in Brazil and Uruguay\n* Bali: grown in Bali, Indonesia. Larger than other orange\n* Belladonna: grown in Italy\n* Berna: grown mainly in Spain\n* Biondo Comune (\"ordinary blond\"): widely grown in the Mediterranean basin, especially in North Africa, Egypt, Greece (where it is called \"koines\"), Italy (where it is also known as \"Liscio\"), and Spain; it also is called \"Beledi\" and \"Nostrale\"; in Italy, this variety ripens in December, earlier than the competing Tarocco variety\n* Biondo Riccio: grown in Italy\n*Byeonggyul: grown in Jeju Island, South Korea\n* Cadanera: a seedless orange of excellent flavor grown in Algeria, Morocco, and Spain; it begins to ripen in November and is known by a wide variety of trade names, such as Cadena Fina, Cadena sin Jueso, Precoce de Valence (\"early from Valencia\"), Precoce des Canaries, and Valence san Pepins (\"seedless Valencia\"); it was first grown in Spain in 1870\n* Calabrese or Calabrese Ovale: grown in Italy\n* Carvalhal: grown in Portugal\n* Castellana: grown in Spain\n* Charmute: grown in Brazil\n* Cherry Orange: grown in southern China and Japan\n* Clanor: grown in South Africa\n* Dom Jo\u00e3o: grown in Portugal\n* Fukuhara: grown in Japan\n* Gardner: grown in Florida, this mid-season orange ripens around the beginning of February, approximately the same time as the Midsweet variety; Gardner is about as hardy as Sunstar and Midsweet\n* Homosassa: grown in Florida\n* Jaffa orange: grown in the Middle East, also known as \"Shamouti\"\n* Jincheng: the most popular orange in China\n* Joppa: grown in South Africa and Texas\n* Khettmali: grown in Israel and Lebanon\n* Kona: a type of Valencia orange introduced in Hawaii in 1792 by Captain George Vancouver; for many decades in the nineteenth century, these oranges were the leading export from the Kona district on the Big Island of Hawaii; in Kailua-Kona, some of the original stock still bears fruit\n* Lima: grown in Brazil\n* Lue Gim Gong: grown in Florida, is an early scion developed by Lue Gim Gong, a Chinese immigrant known as the \"Citrus Genius\"; in 1888, Lue cross-pollinated two orange varieties \u2013 the Hart's late Valencia and the Mediterranean Sweet \u2013 and obtained a fruit both sweet and frost-tolerant; this variety was propagated at the Glen St. Mary Nursery, which in 1911 received the Silver Wilder Medal by the American Pomological Society; originally considered a hybrid, the Lue Gim Gong orange was later found to be a nucellar seedling of the Valencia type, which is properly called Lue Gim Gong; since 2006, the Lue Gim Gong variety is grown in Florida, although sold under the general name Valencia\n* Macetera: grown in Spain, it is known for its unique flavor\n* Malta: grown in Pakistan\n* Maltaise Blonde: grown in north Africa\n* Maltaise Ovale: grown in South Africa and in California under the names of Garey's or California Mediterranean Sweet\n* Marrs: grown in Texas, California and Iran, it is relatively low in acid\n* Medan: grown in Medan, Indonesia\n* Midsweet: grown in Florida, it is a newer scion similar to the Hamlin and Pineapple varieties, it is hardier than Pineapple and ripens later; the fruit production and quality are similar to those of the Hamlin, but the juice has a deeper color\n* Moro Tarocco: grown in Italy, it is oval, resembles a tangelo, and has a distinctive caramel-colored endocarp; this color is the result of a pigment called anthocarpium, not usually found in citruses, but common in red fruits and flowers; the original mutation occurred in Sicily in the seventeenth century\n* Narinja: grown in Andhra, South India\n* Parson Brown: grown in Florida, Mexico, and Turkey, it once was a widely grown Florida juice orange, its popularity has declined since new varieties with more juice, better yield, and higher acid and sugar content have been developed; it originated as a chance seedling in Florida in 1865; its fruits are round, medium large, have a thick, pebbly peel and contain 10 to 30 seeds; it still is grown because it is the earliest maturing fruit in the United States, usually maturing in early September in the Valley district of Texas, and from early October to January in Florida; its peel and juice color are poor, as is the quality of its juice\n* Pera: grown in Brazil, it is very popular in the Brazilian citrus industry and yielded 7.5 million metric tons in 2005\n* Pera Coroa: grown in Brazil\n* Pera Natal: grown in Brazil\n* Pera Rio: grown in Brazil\n* Pineapple: grown in North and South America and India\n* Pontianak: oval-shaped orange grown especially in Pontianak, Indonesia\n* Premier: grown in South Africa\n* Rhode Red: is a mutation of the Valencia orange, but the color of its flesh is more intense; it has more juice, and less acidity and vitamin C than the Valencia; it was discovered by Paul Rhode in 1955 in a grove near Sebring, Florida\n* Roble: it was first shipped from Spain in 1851 by Joseph Roble to his homestead in what is now Roble's Park in Tampa, Florida; it is known for its high sugar content\n* Queen: grown in South Africa\n* Salustiana: grown in North Africa\n* Sathgudi: grown in Tamil Nadu, South India\n* Seleta, Selecta: grown in Australia and Brazil, it is high in acid\n* Shamouti Masry: grown in Egypt; it is a richer variety of Shamouti\n* Sunstar: grown in Florida, this newer cultivar ripens in mid-season (December to March) and it is more resistant to cold and fruit-drop than the competing Pineapple variety; the color of its juice is darker than that of the competing Hamlin\n* Tomango: grown in South Africa\n* Verna: grown in Algeria, Mexico, Morocco, and Spain\n* Vicieda: grown in Algeria, Morocco, and Spain\n* Westin: grown in Brazil\n* X\u00e3 \u0110o\u00e0i orange: grown in Vietnam"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "According to a 1917 study by Palemon Dorsett, Archibald Dixon Shamel and Wilson Popenoe of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), a single mutation in a Selecta orange tree planted on the grounds of a monastery in Bahia, Brazil, probably yielded the first navel orange between 1810 and 1820. Nevertheless, a researcher at the University of California, Riverside, has suggested that the parent variety was more likely the Portuguese navel orange (\"Umbigo\"), described by Antoine Risso and Pierre Antoine Poiteau in their book \"Histoire naturelle des orangers\" (\"Natural History of Orange Trees\", 1818\u20131822). The mutation caused the orange to develop a second fruit at its base, opposite the stem, embedded within the peel of the primary orange. Navel oranges were introduced in Australia in 1824 and in Florida in 1835. In 1873, Eliza Tibbets planted two cuttings of the original tree in Riverside, California, where the fruit became known as \"Washington\". This cultivar was very successful, and rapidly spread to other countries. Because the mutation left the fruit seedless, therefore sterile, the only method to cultivate navel oranges was to graft cuttings onto other varieties of citrus trees. The California Citrus State Historic Park and the Orcutt Ranch Horticulture Center preserve the history of navel oranges in Riverside."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The lack of acid, which protects orange juice against spoilage in other groups, renders them generally unfit for processing as juice, so they are primarily eaten. They remain profitable in areas of local consumption, but rapid spoilage renders them unsuitable for export to major population centres of Europe, Asia, or the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The large citrus fruit of today evolved originally from small, edible berries over millions of years. Citrus species began to diverge from a common ancestor about 15 million years ago, at about the same time that \"Severinia\" (such as the Chinese box orange) diverged from the same ancestor. About 7 million years ago, the ancestors of \"Citrus\" split into the main genus, \"Citrus\", and the genus \"Poncirus\" (such as the trifoliate orange), which is closely enough related that it can still be hybridized with all other citrus and used as rootstock. These estimates are made using genetic mapping of plant chloroplasts. A DNA study published in \"Nature\" in 2018 concludes that the genus \"Citrus\" first evolved in the foothills of the Himalayas, in the area of Assam (India), western Yunnan (China), and northern Myanmar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "This cultivar was discovered by A. G. Hamlin near Glenwood, Florida, in 1879. The fruit is small, smooth, not highly colored, and juicy, with a pale yellow colored juice, especially in fruits that come from lemon rootstock. The fruit may be seedless, or may contain a number of small seeds. The tree is high-yielding and cold-tolerant and it produces good quality fruit, which is harvested from October to December. It thrives in humid subtropical climates. In cooler, more arid areas, the trees produce edible fruit, but too small for commercial use."
      },
      {
        "title": "South Orange, New Jersey",
        "text": "\"The time and circumstances under which the name South Orange originated will probably never be known,\" wrote historian William H. Shaw in 1884, \"and we are obliged to fall back on a tradition, that Mr. Nathan Squier first used the name in an advertisement offering wood for sale\" in 1795. Other sources attribute the derivation for all of The Oranges to King William III, Prince of Orange."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Love for Three Oranges (fairy tale)",
        "text": "According to his unpublished manuscript on the tale type, Walter Anderson concluded that the tale originated in Persia. The tale type then migrated through two different routs: one to the East, to India, and another to the West, to the Middle East and to the Mediterranean."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange Juice (band)",
        "text": "Orange Juice was a Scottish jangle pop band founded in the Glasgow suburb of Bearsden as the Nu-Sonics in 1976. They became Orange Juice in 1979, and became perhaps the most important band in the Scottish independent music scene that emerged in the post-punk era, inspired by contemporary punk bands including Subway Sect, Television, and Buzzcocks but also 1960s acts, most notably The Byrds and The Velvet Underground. Musically, the band bought together styles and genres that often appeared incongruous - e.g. country and Western, disco and punk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "Single strength orange juice (SSOJ) can either be \"not from concentrate\" (NFC) orange juice or juice that is reconstituted from a concentrate with the addition of water to reach a specific single strength brix level. The processing of SSOJ also begins with the selection of orange. The most common types of orange used to produce orange juice are the Pineapple orange, Valencia orange, and Washington Navel oranges from Florida and California. The manufacturing journey begins when oranges are delivered to processing plants by trucks holding about 35,000 to 40,000 pounds of fruit. The fruit is unloaded at the plant for inspection and grading to remove unsuitable fruit before the oranges enter the storage bins. An automatic sampler contraption removes oranges for determination of acid and soluble solids. The bins are organized based on ratio of soluble solids to acids in order to blend oranges appropriate to produce juice with uniform flavor. After the fruit leaves the bins, they are scrubbed with detergent on a rotary brush washer and subsequently rinsed with potable water. Throughout the processing stages, there are multiple points with facilities that inspect oranges and discard damaged fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Valencia orange",
        "text": "In 2012, the genome of the orange was sequenced, and was found to have with 29,445 protein-coding genes. It was also found that the sweet orange originated from a backcross hybrid between pummelo and mandarin orange."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citron",
        "text": "In Indo-Iranian languages, it is called , as against ('bitter orange'). Both names were borrowed into Arabic and introduced into Spain and Portugal after their occupation by Muslims in AD 711, whence the former became the source of the name \"orange\" through rebracketing (and the latter of 'toronja', which today describes the grapefruit in Spanish)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ribera Alta (comarca)",
        "text": "The orange is the fruit of the citrus sinensis or aurantium, a tree that first appeared in China and other southern areas of the Asian continent. The fruit made its way from the Far East to the European continent, reaching Spain, through Valencia, and spreading throughout the rest of the world. In Greek mythology the \"Garden of the Hesperides\" is a mythological grove where apples grew tended to by nymphs and a dragon. Hercules, the hero of classical literature, killed the guardian, entered the garden and plucked those golden apples \u2013In later years it was thought that the \"golden apples\" might have actually been oranges, a fruit unknown to Europe before the Middle Ages. Several scholars defend that the etymology of the word comes from the Sanskrit term narang and the Persian word narensh. When Arabs brought orange farming to the Iberian Peninsula, they called the fruits naranjah. The Region of Valencia maintained the orange-farming tradition after the Arabic period, with references to orange trees in the city of Valencia dating back to the 14th century. In fact, there is an Orange Courtyard inside Valencia\u2019s 15th century Silk Exchange market \"(La Llotja de la Seda)\", a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The first references to commercial orange plantations date back to the 18th century. At present, there are approximately 150,000 hectares of orange groves in the Region of Valencia producing orange and mandarin varieties including satsumas, clementines, navel oranges, common oranges, blood oranges, and hybrids, as the most important specimens"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Blood oranges are a natural mutation of \"C. sinensis\", although today the majority of them are hybrids. High concentrations of anthocyanin give the rind, flesh, and juice of the fruit their characteristic dark red color. Blood oranges were first discovered and cultivated in Sicily in the fifteenth century. Since then they have spread worldwide, but are grown especially in Spain and Italy under the names of \"sanguina\" and \"sanguinella\", respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "In Europe, the Moors introduced the orange to the Iberian Peninsula which was known as Al-Andalus, with large scale cultivation starting in the 10th century as evidenced by complex irrigation techniques specifically adapted to support orange orchards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Oranges were introduced to Florida by Spanish colonists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood orange",
        "text": "Blood oranges may have originated in the southern Mediterranean, where they have been grown since the 18th century. They are a common orange grown in Italy. The anthocyanins \u2013 which give the orange its distinct maroon color \u2013 will only develop when temperatures are low at night, as during the Mediterranean fall and winter. Blood oranges cultivated in the United States are in season from December to March (Texas), and from November to May (California)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "In the United States, groves are located mainly in Florida, California, and Texas. The majority of California's crop is sold as fresh fruit, whereas Florida's oranges are destined to juice products. The Indian River area of Florida is known for the high quality of its juice, which often is sold fresh in the United States and frequently blended with juice produced in other regions because Indian River trees yield very sweet oranges, but in relatively small quantities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Orange juice (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangelo",
        "text": "An orangelo (Spanish chironja \u2013 \"C. paradisi\" \u00d7 \"C. sinensis\") is a hybrid citrus fruit believed to have originated in Puerto Rico. The fruit, a cross between a grapefruit and an orange, had spontaneously appeared in the shade-providing trees grown on coffee plantations in the Puerto Rican highlands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The word entered Late Middle English in the fourteenth century via Old French \"orenge\" (in the phrase \"pomme d'orenge\"). The French word, in turn, comes from Old Proven\u00e7al \"auranja\", based on Arabic \"n\u0101ranj\". In several languages, the initial \"n\" present in earlier forms of the word dropped off because it may have been mistaken as part of an indefinite article ending in an \"n\" sound\u2014in French, for example, \"une norenge\" may have been heard as \"une orenge\". This linguistic change is called juncture loss. The color was named after the fruit, and the first recorded use of \"orange\" as a color name in English was in 1512."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "Due to the importance of oranges to the economy of Florida, \"the juice obtained from mature oranges of the species \"Citrus sinensis\" and hybrids thereof\" was adopted as the official beverage of Florida in 1967."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Orange Juice",
        "text": "with:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "In the United States, most orange juice and grapefruit is produced in Florida, while citrus fruits for consumption as fresh fruit are grown mainly in California, Arizona, and Texas. Smaller markets for citrus growth in the United States originate in South Carolina, Georgia, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and the gulf coastal states, including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, and Georgia, as well as North Carolina. Independent cultivars are found in Kentucky, Virginia, and even Missouri, Southern Illinois, and far Southern Kansas. The farther north the range, the more seasonal the cultivation. Florida produces approximately 100 million boxes annually (each box is 90 lbs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "For Canadian markets, orange juice must be the fruit juice obtained from clean, sound, and mature oranges. The juice must also contain a minimum of 1.20 milliequivalents of free amino acids per 100 millilitres, contain a minimum of 115 milligrams of potassium per 10 milliliters, and possess a minimum absorbance value for total polyphenolics of 0.380. Sweeteners such as sugar, invert sugar, dextrose or glucose solids may be added. The orange juice must have a Brix reading of at least 9.7, excluding the sweetening ingredients, and contain between 0.5 and 1.8 percent of acid by weight calculated as anhydrous citric acid. Added orange essences, orange oils and orange pulp adjusted in accordance with good manufacturing practice is permitted. Orange juice is also permitted to contain sugar, invert sugar, dextrose in dry form, glucose solids, a Class II preservative, amylase, cellulase and pectinase."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "In cooler parts of Europe, citrus fruit was grown in orangeries starting in the 17th century; many were as much status symbols as functional agricultural structures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grapefruit",
        "text": "Grapefruit originated as a natural hybrid. One ancestor of the grapefruit was the Jamaican sweet orange (\"Citrus sinensis\"), itself an ancient hybrid of Asian origin; the other was the Indonesian pomelo (\"C. maxima\"). Both \"C. sinensis\" and \"C. maxima\" were present in the West Indies by 1692. One story of the fruit's origin is that a certain \"Captain Shaddock\" brought pomelo seeds to Jamaica and bred the first fruit, which were then called \"shaddocks\". This apparently referred to a captain who traded in the West Indies in the 17th century. The grapefruit then probably originated as a naturally occurring hybrid between the two plants some time after they had been introduced there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "In the United Kingdom, orange juice from concentrate is a product of concentrated fruit juice with the addition of water. Any lost flavour or pulp of the orange juice during the initial concentration process may be restored in the final product to be equivalent to an average type of orange juice of the same kind. Any restored flavour or pulp must come from the same species of orange. Sugar may be added to the orange juice for regulating the acidic taste or sweetening, but must not exceed 150g per litre of orange juice. Across the UK, the final orange juice from concentrate product must contain a minimum Brix level of 11.2, excluding the additional sweetening ingredients. Vitamins and minerals may be added to the orange juice in accordance with Regulation (EC) 1925/2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Sweet oranges have also given rise to a range of hybrids, notably the grapefruit, which arose from a sweet orange x pomelo backcross. A spontaneous backcross of the grapefruit and sweet orange then resulted in the orangelo. Spontaneous and engineered backcrosses between the sweet orange and mandarin oranges or tangerines has produced a group collectively known as tangors, which includes the clementine and Murcott. More complex crosses have also been produced. The so-called Ambersweet orange is actually a complex sweet orange x (Orlando tangelo x clementine) hybrid, legally designated a sweet orange in the United States so it can be used in orange juices. The citranges are a group of intergeneric sweet orange x trifoliate orange hybrids."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "China could be a major player in the orange juice and processed citrus markets, except for high tariffs on citrus that make domestic sale more profitable. Though citrus originated in southeast Asia, current citrus production is low due to lower-than-average yields, high production and marketing costs, and disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Orange Juice may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Love for Three Oranges (fairy tale)",
        "text": "Richard McGillivray Dawkins, on the notes on his book on \"Modern Greek Folktales in Asia Minor\", suggested a Levantine origin for the tale, since even Portuguese variants retain an Eastern flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "Citrus juices contain flavonoids (especially in the pulp) that may have health benefits. Orange juice is also a source of the antioxidant hesperidin. Because of its citric acid content, orange juice is acidic, with a typical pH of around 3.5."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bergamot orange",
        "text": "The word bergamot is etymologically derived from the Italian word , ultimately of Turkish origin: (\"lord's pear\" or \"lord pear\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Common oranges (also called \"white\", \"round\", or \"blond\" oranges) constitute about two-thirds of all the orange production. The majority of this crop is used for juice extraction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (colour)",
        "text": "In the 18th century orange was sometimes used to depict the robes of Pomona, the goddess of fruitful abundance; her name came from the , the Latin word for fruit. Oranges themselves became more common in northern Europe, thanks to the 17th century invention of the heated greenhouse, a building type which became known as an orangerie. The French artist Jean-Honor\u00e9 Fragonard depicted an allegorical figure of \"inspiration\" dressed in orange."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (colour)",
        "text": "The House of Orange-Nassau was one of the most influential royal houses in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. It originated in 1163 the tiny Principality of Orange, a feudal state of north of Avignon in southern France. The Principality of Orange took its name not from the fruit, but from a Roman-Celtic settlement on the site which was founded in 36 or 35 BC and was named Arausio, after a Celtic water god; however, the name may have been slightly altered, and the town associated with the colour, because it was on the route by which quantities of oranges were brought from southern ports such as Marseille to northern France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Concentrate",
        "text": "The process of concentrating orange juice was patented in 1939. It was originally developed to provide World War II troops with a reliable source of vitamin C. Today, the majority of retailed orange juice is made from reconstituted orange juice concentrate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "Commercial orange juice with a long shelf life is made by pasteurizing the juice and removing the oxygen from it. This removes much of the taste, necessitating the later addition of a flavor pack, generally made from orange products. Additionally, some juice is further processed by drying and later rehydrating the juice, or by concentrating the juice and later adding water to the concentrate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "As oranges are rich in vitamin C and do not spoil easily, during the Age of Discovery, Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch sailors planted citrus trees along trade routes to prevent scurvy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carnival of Ivrea",
        "text": "Originally beans were thrown, then apples. Later, in the 19th century, oranges came to represent the stones thrown at the king's castle in order to demolish it. The origin of the tradition of throwing oranges is not well understood, particularly as oranges do not grow in the foothills of the Italian Alps and must be imported from Sicily. In 1994, an estimated of oranges were brought to the city, mainly coming from the leftovers of the winter crop in southern Italy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "The product was developed in 1948 at the University of Florida's Citrus Research and Education Center. Since, it has emerged as a soft commodity, and futures contracts have traded in New York since 1966. Options on FCOJ were introduced in 1985. From the late 1950s to the mid-1980s, the product had the greatest orange juice market share, but not-from-concentrate juices surpassed FCOJ in the 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jaffa orange",
        "text": "The \"Jaffa\" orange was a new variety developed by Arab farmers after emerging in the mid-19th century as a mutation on a tree of the 'Baladi' variety near the city of Jaffa. While the sour orange (\"C. aurantium\") was brought westward from China and India by local traders, who may have introduced it to Sicily and Spain, the \"Jaffa\" orange was developed from the sweet orange (\"C. sinensis\") which was brought from China to the Mediterranean region by Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in 1498."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Thomas Rivers, an English nurseryman, imported this variety from the Azores Islands and catalogued it in 1865 under the name Excelsior. Around 1870, he provided trees to S. B. Parsons, a Long Island nurseryman, who in turn sold them to E. H. Hart of Federal Point, Florida."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bergamot orange",
        "text": "The bergamot is a citrus fruit native to southern Italy. Production is mostly limited to the Ionian Sea coastal areas of the province of Reggio di Calabria in Italy, to such an extent that it is a symbol of the entire city. Most of the bergamot comes from a short stretch of land there, where the temperature is favourable. The fruit is also produced in Argentina, Brazil, Algeria, the Ivory Coast, Morocco, Tunisia, Turkey, and South-East Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cam s\u00e0nh",
        "text": "The () or King orange (\"Citrus reticulata\" \u00d7 \"sinensis\") is a citrus hybrid originating in Vietnam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange chicken",
        "text": "Orange chicken\n--Origin.\n--Popularity.\n--See also.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Orange juice contains only about one-fifth the citric acid of lime or lemon juice (which contain about 47\u00a0g/l)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jaffa orange",
        "text": "Developed by Arab farmers in the mid-19th century, the variety takes its name from the city of Jaffa where it was first produced for export. The orange was the primary citrus export for the city. It is, along with the navel and bitter orange, one of three main varieties of the fruit grown in the Mediterranean, Southern Europe, and the Middle East. The \"Jaffa\" is also cultivated in Cyprus, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Turkey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The orange is a hybrid between pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\") and mandarin (\"Citrus reticulata\"). The chloroplast genome, and therefore the maternal line, is that of pomelo. The sweet orange has had its full genome sequenced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (word)",
        "text": "The word is derived from a Dravidian language, and it passed through numerous other languages including Sanskrit and Old French before reaching the English language. The earliest uses of the word in English refer to the fruit, and the color was later named after the fruit. Before the English-speaking world was exposed to the fruit, the color was referred to as \"yellow-red\" (\"geoluread\" in Old English) or \"red-yellow\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "Because such processes remove the distinct aroma compounds that give orange juice a fresh-squeezed taste, producers later add back these compounds in a proprietary mixture, called a \"flavor pack\", in order to improve the taste and to ensure a consistent year-round taste. The compounds in the flavor packs are derived from orange peels. Producers do not mention the addition of flavor packs on the label of the orange juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Maltese: a small and highly colored variety, generally thought to have originated in Italy as a mutation and cultivated there for centuries. It also is grown extensively in southern Spain and Malta. It is used in sorbets and other desserts due to its rich burgundy color. Moro, originally from Sicily, it is common throughout Italy. This medium-sized fruit has a relatively long harvest, which lasts from December to April. Sanguinelli, a mutant of the Doble Fina, was discovered in 1929 in Almenara, in the Castell\u00f3n province of Spain. It is cultivated in Sicily. Tarocco is relatively new variety developed in Italy. It begins to ripen in late January."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leendert Konijn",
        "text": "With the assistance of the Ministry of Agriculture of The Netherlands, Konijn was able to import 1800 orange pits from California. The cultivation of navel oranges was his main product. However, he also cultivated on a smaller scale lemons (Villafranca and Ponderosa) and grapefruits (Trimph, Manis besaar, Van Kuyk I and Duncan)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mild Orange",
        "text": "Mild Orange originates from Dunedin, New Zealand. The band was originally formed by early childhood friends Josh Mehrtens and Josh Reid who met in kindergarten and by chance met again in university, and later joined by Tom Kelk and Jack Ferguson. All four members hold degrees from the University of Otago. Josh Mehrtens - Bachelor of Laws and Bachelor of Arts, Josh Reid - Masters in Sustainable Business, Tom Kelk Bachelor of Applied Science, Jack Ferguson - Bachelor of Arts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Today, navel oranges continue to be propagated through cutting and grafting. This does not allow for the usual selective breeding methodologies, and so all navel oranges can be considered fruits from that single, nearly 200-year-old tree: they have exactly the same genetic make-up as the original tree and are clones. This case is similar to that of the common yellow seedless banana, the Cavendish, or that of the Granny Smith apple. On rare occasions, however, further mutations can lead to new varieties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange Juice (band)",
        "text": "Orange Juice had their origin in the Nu Sonics, formed by Edwyn Collins with college friend Alan Duncan (on bass) in 1976: the band was named after the affordable Burns nu-sonic guitar used by Collins. Two students in the year below them - Steven Daly and James Kirk, previously in punk band, The Machetes - were drafted into the band in 1977, with a fifth member, Geoff Taylor, playing drums. A first gig was held in the Silver Thread in Paisley, November 1977, with Daly on lead vocals. Daly subsequently shifted to drums, and further local gigs followed as a four-piece, including one supporting Steel Pulse at Satellite City in January 1978, alongside Johnny and the Self-Abusers, later to be known as Simple Minds. Duncan left the band after a gig at Hardgate Town Hall, leaving the remaining members to search for a new bass player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synephrine",
        "text": "An analysis of 32 different orange \"jams\", originating mostly in the US and UK, but including samples from France, Italy, Spain, or Lebanon, showed synephrine levels ranging from 0.05\u00a0mg/g\u20130.0009\u00a0mg/g in those jams made from bitter oranges, and levels of 0.05\u00a0mg/g\u20130.006\u00a0mg/g of synephrine in jams made from sweet oranges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "A small fraction of fresh orange juice is canned. Canned orange juice retains vitamin C much better than bottled juice. The canned product loses flavor, however, when stored at room temperature for more than 12 weeks. In the early years of canned orange juice, the acidity of the juice caused the juice to have a metallic taste. In 1931, Dr. Philip Phillips developed a flash pasteurization process that eliminated this problem and significantly increased the market for canned orange juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oranges and Lemons",
        "text": "I do not know,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "Orange juice that is pasteurized and then sold to consumers without having been concentrated is labeled as \"not from concentrate\". Just as \"from concentrate\" processing, most \"not from concentrate\" processing reduces the natural flavor from the juice. The largest producers of \"not from concentrate\" use a production process where the juice is placed in aseptic storage, with the oxygen stripped from it, for up to a year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange Juice (band)",
        "text": "Orange Juice (band)\n--History.\n----Origins: The Nu Sonics.\n----The Postcard Years.\n----The Debut Album.\n----\"Rip It Up\" and Chart Success.\n----Later Years.\n----Legacy.\n--Discography.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Portuguese cuisine",
        "text": "The Persian orange, grown widely in southern Europe since the 11th century, was bitter. Sweet oranges were brought from India to Europe in the 15th century by Portuguese traders. Some Southeast Indo-European languages name the orange after Portugal, which was formerly its main source of imports."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The taste of oranges is determined mainly by the relative ratios of sugars and acids, whereas orange aroma derives from volatile organic compounds, including alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, terpenes, and esters. Bitter limonoid compounds, such as limonin, decrease gradually during development, whereas volatile aroma compounds tend to peak in mid\u2013 to late\u2013season development. Taste quality tends to improve later in harvests when there is a higher sugar/acid ratio with less bitterness. As a citrus fruit, the orange is acidic, with pH levels ranging from 2.9 to 4.0."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (colour)",
        "text": "In English, the colour orange is named after the appearance of the ripe orange fruit. The word comes from the , from the old term for the fruit, . The French word, in turn, comes from the Italian , based on Arabic (), borrowed from Persian derived from Sanskrit (), which in turn derives from a Dravidian root word (compare / \"/\" which refers to bitter orange in Tamil and Malayalam). The earliest known recorded use of \"orange\" as a colour name in English was in 1502, in a description of clothing purchased for Margaret Tudor. Another early recorded use was in 1512, in a will now filed with the Public Record Office. The place-name \"Orange\" has a separate etymology and is not related to that of the colour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Simply Orange Juice Company",
        "text": "The company is a major purchaser of Florida oranges for its orange juice, but also imports orange juice from Brazil and Mexico. Simply Orange uses a computer-modeled blending of orange juice sources, intending for the consumer to have a uniform taste year-round."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wanderwort",
        "text": "Another example is \"orange\", which originated in a Dravidian language (likely Tamil, Telugu or Malayalam), and whose likely path to English included, in order, Sanskrit, Persian, possibly Armenian, Arabic, Late Latin, Italian, and Old French."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grapefruit",
        "text": "Grapefruit is a citrus hybrid originating in Barbados. It is an accidental cross between the sweet orange (\"C. sinensis\") and the pomelo or shaddock (\"C. maxima\"), both of which were introduced from Asia in the 17th century. When found, it was called the \"forbidden fruit\". In the past it was referred to as the \"pomelo\", but that term is now the common name for \"Citrus maxima\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "East Orange, New Jersey",
        "text": "East Orange had its origins in Connecticut's New Haven Colony. In 1666, a group of 30 of New Haven's families traveled by water to found \"a town on the Passayak\" River. They arrived on territory now encompassing Newark, the Oranges, and several other municipalities. The area was situated in the northeast portion of a land grant conveyed by King Charles II of England to his brother James, Duke of York. In 1664, James conveyed the land to two proprietors, Lord John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. Since Carteret had been Royal Governor of the Isle of Jersey, the territory became known as \"New Jersey.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "In the United States, orange juice is regulated and standardized by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA or USFDA) of the United States Department of Health and Human Services. According to the FDA, orange juice from concentrate is a mixture of water with frozen concentrated orange juice or concentrated orange juice for manufacturing. Additional ingredients into the mixture may include fresh/frozen/pasteurized orange juice from mature oranges, orange oil, and orange pulp. Furthermore, one or more of the following optional sweetening ingredients may be added: sugar, sugar syrup, invert sugar, invert sugar syrup, dextrose, corn syrup, dried corn syrup, glucose syrup, and dried glucose syrup. The orange juice must contain a minimum Brix level of 11.8, which indicates the percentage of orange juice soluble solids, excluding any added sweetening ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "On a molecular level, orange juice is composed of organic acids, sugars, and phenolic compounds. The main organic acids found in orange juice are citric, malic, and ascorbic acid. The major sugars found in orange juice are sucrose, glucose, and fructose. There are approximately 13 phenolic compounds in orange juice including hydroxycinnamic acids, flavanones, hydroxybenzoic acids, hesperidin, narirutin, and ferulic acid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange Julius",
        "text": "The drink grew out of an orange juice stand opened in Los Angeles, California, in 1926 by Julius Freed. Sales were initially modest, about $20 a day (equivalent to approximately $ in dollars). In 1929, Bill Hamlin, Freed's real estate broker, developed a mixture that made the acidic orange juice less bothersome to his stomach. Freed's stand began serving the drink, which had a frothier, creamier texture. The sales at the stand increased substantially after the introduction of the new drink, going up to $100 a day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "Orange juice\n--History.\n--Nutrition.\n--Commercial orange juice and concentrate.\n----Frozen concentrated orange juice.\n----Not from concentrate.\n----Canned orange juice.\n----Freshly squeezed, unpasteurized juice.\n----Major orange juice brands.\n----Additives.\n----Types of orange.\n--Processing and manufacture.\n----Manufacture of frozen concentrated orange juice.\n----Manufacture of \"not from concentrate\".\n--Standards and regulations.\n----Regulations in Canada.\n----Regulations in the United States.\n----Regulations in the United Kingdom.\n--Physical and chemical properties.\n----Molecular composition.\n------Composition of the cloud.\n----Physical structure.\n------Heat treatment.\n------Properties of pulp.\n------Hydrocolloids.\n------Properties of pectin.\n------Interactions of pectin.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Poume d'oranges",
        "text": "Poume d'oranges is mentioned in Anglo-Norman manuscripts and other documents, which points to the influence of Arab cuisine on European cuisine. This influence is most likely due to the fact that Normans conquered Sicily in the 11th century, which was dominated by Arabs for several centuries. In southern Spain, the Moors ruled for centuries. A similar dish of Medieval origin is \"Teste de Turke\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Orange juice is traded internationally in the form of frozen concentrated orange juice to reduce the volume used, so that storage and transportation costs are lower."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Spanish travelers introduced the sweet orange into the American continent. On his second voyage in 1493, Christopher Columbus may have planted the fruit in Hispaniola. Subsequent expeditions in the mid-1500s brought sweet oranges to South America and Mexico, and to Florida in 1565, when Pedro Men\u00e9ndez de Avil\u00e9s founded St Augustine. Spanish missionaries brought orange trees to Arizona between 1707 and 1710, while the Franciscans did the same in San Diego, California, in 1769. An orchard was planted at the San Gabriel Mission around 1804 and a commercial orchard was established in 1841 near present-day Los Angeles. In Louisiana, oranges were probably introduced by French explorers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange and Lemons",
        "text": "Orange and Lemons\n--History.\n--Break-up.\n--Reuniting.\n--Controversies.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Carrot",
        "text": "The western carrot emerged in the Netherlands in the 17th century. There is a popular belief that its orange colour making it popular in those countries as an emblem of the House of Orange and the struggle for Dutch independence, although there is little evidence for this. The orange colour results from abundant carotenes in these cultivars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthony T. Rossi",
        "text": "In 1947, Rossi purchased a small orange juice company in western Florida and thus began the Tropicana Products company. Tropicana's early distribution of fresh orange juice was by way of hand-delivered juice jars to nearby homes, but demand grew, especially in New York City."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "The oranges then go through roller conveyors, which expose all sides of the fruit. The roller conveyors are efficiently built as they are well lighted, installed at a convenient height, and width to ensure all inspectors can reach the fruit to determine inadequacies. Some reasons why fruit may be rejected include indication of mold, rot, and ruptured peels. Afterwards, the oranges are separated based on size through machines prior to juice extraction. There are a number of different ways orange juice industry leaders extract their oranges. Some common methods include halving the fruit and pressing/reaming the orange to extract juice from the orange. One instrument inserts a tube through the orange peel and forces the juice out through the tube by squeezing the entire orange. Despite the variety of machines used to extract juices, all machines have commonalities in that they are rugged, fast, easy to clean and have the ability to reduce peel extractives into the juice. The extracted juice product does not contain the orange peel, but it may contain pulp and seeds, which are removed by finishers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oranges and Lemons",
        "text": "I'm sure I don't know,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (colour)",
        "text": "Before the 18th century, carrots from Asia were usually purple, while those in Europe were either white or red. Dutch farmers bred a variety that was orange; according to some sources, as a tribute to the stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland, William of Orange. The long orange Dutch carrot, first described in 1721, is the ancestor of the orange horn carrot, one of the most common types found in supermarkets today. It takes its name from the town of Hoorn, in the Netherlands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Old South (orange juice)",
        "text": "Old South (orange juice)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange, Vaucluse",
        "text": "Roman Orange was founded in 35\u00a0BC by veterans of the second legion as \"Arausio\" (after the local Celtic water god), or \"Colonia Julia Firma Secundanorum Arausio\" in full, \"the Julian colony of Arausio established by the soldiers of the second legion.\" The name was originally unrelated to that of the orange fruit, but was later conflated with it."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where do oranges originate from?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Oranges came from the region that includes Southern China, Northeast India, and Myanmar.",
      "The orange originated in Southern China, Northeast India, and Myanmar, with the earliest mention of the sweet orange being in Chinese literature in 314 BC."
    ],
    "topic": "Orange juice",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Orange (fruit):3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orange (fruit)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The orange originated in a region encompassing Southern China, Northeast India, and Myanmar, and the earliest mention of the sweet orange was in Chinese literature in 314 BC. , orange trees were found to be the most cultivated fruit tree in the world. Orange trees are widely grown in tropical and subtropical climates for their sweet fruit. The fruit of the orange tree can be eaten fresh, or processed for its juice or fragrant peel. , sweet oranges accounted for approximately 70% of citrus production."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Orange (fruit):3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orange (fruit)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The orange originated in a region encompassing Southern China, Northeast India, and Myanmar, and the earliest mention of the sweet orange was in Chinese literature in 314 BC. , orange trees were found to be the most cultivated fruit tree in the world. Orange trees are widely grown in tropical and subtropical climates for their sweet fruit. The fruit of the orange tree can be eaten fresh, or processed for its juice or fragrant peel. , sweet oranges accounted for approximately 70% of citrus production."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The orange originated in a region encompassing Southern China, Northeast India, and Myanmar, and the earliest mention of the sweet orange was in Chinese literature in 314 BC. , orange trees were found to be the most cultivated fruit tree in the world. Orange trees are widely grown in tropical and subtropical climates for their sweet fruit. The fruit of the orange tree can be eaten fresh, or processed for its juice or fragrant peel. , sweet oranges accounted for approximately 70% of citrus production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "In 2019, 79 million tonnes of oranges were grown worldwide, with Brazil producing 22% of the total, followed by China and India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Today, navel oranges continue to be propagated through cutting and grafting. This does not allow for the usual selective breeding methodologies, and so all navel oranges can be considered fruits from that single, nearly 200-year-old tree: they have exactly the same genetic make-up as the original tree and are clones. This case is similar to that of the common yellow seedless banana, the Cavendish, or that of the Granny Smith apple. On rare occasions, however, further mutations can lead to new varieties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The large citrus fruit of today evolved originally from small, edible berries over millions of years. Citrus species began to diverge from a common ancestor about 15 million years ago, at about the same time that \"Severinia\" (such as the Chinese box orange) diverged from the same ancestor. About 7 million years ago, the ancestors of \"Citrus\" split into the main genus, \"Citrus\", and the genus \"Poncirus\" (such as the trifoliate orange), which is closely enough related that it can still be hybridized with all other citrus and used as rootstock. These estimates are made using genetic mapping of plant chloroplasts. A DNA study published in \"Nature\" in 2018 concludes that the genus \"Citrus\" first evolved in the foothills of the Himalayas, in the area of Assam (India), western Yunnan (China), and northern Myanmar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Trees from groves in hammocks or areas covered with pine forest are budded on sour orange trees, a method that gives a high solids content. On sand, they are grafted on rough lemon rootstock. The Hamlin orange is one of the most popular juice oranges in Florida and replaces the Parson Brown variety as the principal early-season juice orange. This cultivar is now the leading early orange in Florida and, possibly, in the rest of the world.\n* Bahia: grown in Brazil and Uruguay\n* Bali: grown in Bali, Indonesia. Larger than other orange\n* Belladonna: grown in Italy\n* Berna: grown mainly in Spain\n* Biondo Comune (\"ordinary blond\"): widely grown in the Mediterranean basin, especially in North Africa, Egypt, Greece (where it is called \"koines\"), Italy (where it is also known as \"Liscio\"), and Spain; it also is called \"Beledi\" and \"Nostrale\"; in Italy, this variety ripens in December, earlier than the competing Tarocco variety\n* Biondo Riccio: grown in Italy\n*Byeonggyul: grown in Jeju Island, South Korea\n* Cadanera: a seedless orange of excellent flavor grown in Algeria, Morocco, and Spain; it begins to ripen in November and is known by a wide variety of trade names, such as Cadena Fina, Cadena sin Jueso, Precoce de Valence (\"early from Valencia\"), Precoce des Canaries, and Valence san Pepins (\"seedless Valencia\"); it was first grown in Spain in 1870\n* Calabrese or Calabrese Ovale: grown in Italy\n* Carvalhal: grown in Portugal\n* Castellana: grown in Spain\n* Charmute: grown in Brazil\n* Cherry Orange: grown in southern China and Japan\n* Clanor: grown in South Africa\n* Dom Jo\u00e3o: grown in Portugal\n* Fukuhara: grown in Japan\n* Gardner: grown in Florida, this mid-season orange ripens around the beginning of February, approximately the same time as the Midsweet variety; Gardner is about as hardy as Sunstar and Midsweet\n* Homosassa: grown in Florida\n* Jaffa orange: grown in the Middle East, also known as \"Shamouti\"\n* Jincheng: the most popular orange in China\n* Joppa: grown in South Africa and Texas\n* Khettmali: grown in Israel and Lebanon\n* Kona: a type of Valencia orange introduced in Hawaii in 1792 by Captain George Vancouver; for many decades in the nineteenth century, these oranges were the leading export from the Kona district on the Big Island of Hawaii; in Kailua-Kona, some of the original stock still bears fruit\n* Lima: grown in Brazil\n* Lue Gim Gong: grown in Florida, is an early scion developed by Lue Gim Gong, a Chinese immigrant known as the \"Citrus Genius\"; in 1888, Lue cross-pollinated two orange varieties \u2013 the Hart's late Valencia and the Mediterranean Sweet \u2013 and obtained a fruit both sweet and frost-tolerant; this variety was propagated at the Glen St. Mary Nursery, which in 1911 received the Silver Wilder Medal by the American Pomological Society; originally considered a hybrid, the Lue Gim Gong orange was later found to be a nucellar seedling of the Valencia type, which is properly called Lue Gim Gong; since 2006, the Lue Gim Gong variety is grown in Florida, although sold under the general name Valencia\n* Macetera: grown in Spain, it is known for its unique flavor\n* Malta: grown in Pakistan\n* Maltaise Blonde: grown in north Africa\n* Maltaise Ovale: grown in South Africa and in California under the names of Garey's or California Mediterranean Sweet\n* Marrs: grown in Texas, California and Iran, it is relatively low in acid\n* Medan: grown in Medan, Indonesia\n* Midsweet: grown in Florida, it is a newer scion similar to the Hamlin and Pineapple varieties, it is hardier than Pineapple and ripens later; the fruit production and quality are similar to those of the Hamlin, but the juice has a deeper color\n* Moro Tarocco: grown in Italy, it is oval, resembles a tangelo, and has a distinctive caramel-colored endocarp; this color is the result of a pigment called anthocarpium, not usually found in citruses, but common in red fruits and flowers; the original mutation occurred in Sicily in the seventeenth century\n* Narinja: grown in Andhra, South India\n* Parson Brown: grown in Florida, Mexico, and Turkey, it once was a widely grown Florida juice orange, its popularity has declined since new varieties with more juice, better yield, and higher acid and sugar content have been developed; it originated as a chance seedling in Florida in 1865; its fruits are round, medium large, have a thick, pebbly peel and contain 10 to 30 seeds; it still is grown because it is the earliest maturing fruit in the United States, usually maturing in early September in the Valley district of Texas, and from early October to January in Florida; its peel and juice color are poor, as is the quality of its juice\n* Pera: grown in Brazil, it is very popular in the Brazilian citrus industry and yielded 7.5 million metric tons in 2005\n* Pera Coroa: grown in Brazil\n* Pera Natal: grown in Brazil\n* Pera Rio: grown in Brazil\n* Pineapple: grown in North and South America and India\n* Pontianak: oval-shaped orange grown especially in Pontianak, Indonesia\n* Premier: grown in South Africa\n* Rhode Red: is a mutation of the Valencia orange, but the color of its flesh is more intense; it has more juice, and less acidity and vitamin C than the Valencia; it was discovered by Paul Rhode in 1955 in a grove near Sebring, Florida\n* Roble: it was first shipped from Spain in 1851 by Joseph Roble to his homestead in what is now Roble's Park in Tampa, Florida; it is known for its high sugar content\n* Queen: grown in South Africa\n* Salustiana: grown in North Africa\n* Sathgudi: grown in Tamil Nadu, South India\n* Seleta, Selecta: grown in Australia and Brazil, it is high in acid\n* Shamouti Masry: grown in Egypt; it is a richer variety of Shamouti\n* Sunstar: grown in Florida, this newer cultivar ripens in mid-season (December to March) and it is more resistant to cold and fruit-drop than the competing Pineapple variety; the color of its juice is darker than that of the competing Hamlin\n* Tomango: grown in South Africa\n* Verna: grown in Algeria, Mexico, Morocco, and Spain\n* Vicieda: grown in Algeria, Morocco, and Spain\n* Westin: grown in Brazil\n* X\u00e3 \u0110o\u00e0i orange: grown in Vietnam"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "According to a 1917 study by Palemon Dorsett, Archibald Dixon Shamel and Wilson Popenoe of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), a single mutation in a Selecta orange tree planted on the grounds of a monastery in Bahia, Brazil, probably yielded the first navel orange between 1810 and 1820. Nevertheless, a researcher at the University of California, Riverside, has suggested that the parent variety was more likely the Portuguese navel orange (\"Umbigo\"), described by Antoine Risso and Pierre Antoine Poiteau in their book \"Histoire naturelle des orangers\" (\"Natural History of Orange Trees\", 1818\u20131822). The mutation caused the orange to develop a second fruit at its base, opposite the stem, embedded within the peel of the primary orange. Navel oranges were introduced in Australia in 1824 and in Florida in 1835. In 1873, Eliza Tibbets planted two cuttings of the original tree in Riverside, California, where the fruit became known as \"Washington\". This cultivar was very successful, and rapidly spread to other countries. Because the mutation left the fruit seedless, therefore sterile, the only method to cultivate navel oranges was to graft cuttings onto other varieties of citrus trees. The California Citrus State Historic Park and the Orcutt Ranch Horticulture Center preserve the history of navel oranges in Riverside."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eliza Tibbets",
        "text": "The citrus industry in California was underway before Tibbets\u2019 cultivated the Washington navel orange. But there was no outstanding early and midseason variety of sweet orange generally adapted to the climate. Extant citrus was mostly seedling trees grown from seeds obtained locally or from the Spanish missions. Growers experimented, but there was a lack of standardization in quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kishu mikan",
        "text": "The fruit is thought to have arisen in Southern China, where its name was recorded in the records of Jianchang during the Ming Dynasty, and its agricultural growth is widespread in Jiangxi province. Japanese oranges were cultivated from the cherry orange about 700 years ago. Genetic studies have found it to be closely related to the Huanglingmiao mandarin, carrying the same pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\") introgression, indicating that the two diverged from the same backcrossed domesticated ancestor. Under the Tanaka system of citrus taxonomy, it is a separate species, \"Citrus kinokuni\", while the Swingle system groups it with other pure and hybrid mandarins as a single species, \"Citrus reticulata\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "In cooler parts of Europe, citrus fruit was grown in orangeries starting in the 17th century; many were as much status symbols as functional agricultural structures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Archibald Menzies, the botanist and naturalist on the Vancouver Expedition, collected orange seeds in South Africa, raised the seedlings onboard and gave them to several Hawaiian chiefs in 1792. Eventually, the sweet orange was grown in wide areas of the Hawaiian Islands, but its cultivation stopped after the arrival of the Mediterranean fruit fly in the early 1900s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ribera Alta (comarca)",
        "text": "The orange is the fruit of the citrus sinensis or aurantium, a tree that first appeared in China and other southern areas of the Asian continent. The fruit made its way from the Far East to the European continent, reaching Spain, through Valencia, and spreading throughout the rest of the world. In Greek mythology the \"Garden of the Hesperides\" is a mythological grove where apples grew tended to by nymphs and a dragon. Hercules, the hero of classical literature, killed the guardian, entered the garden and plucked those golden apples \u2013In later years it was thought that the \"golden apples\" might have actually been oranges, a fruit unknown to Europe before the Middle Ages. Several scholars defend that the etymology of the word comes from the Sanskrit term narang and the Persian word narensh. When Arabs brought orange farming to the Iberian Peninsula, they called the fruits naranjah. The Region of Valencia maintained the orange-farming tradition after the Arabic period, with references to orange trees in the city of Valencia dating back to the 14th century. In fact, there is an Orange Courtyard inside Valencia\u2019s 15th century Silk Exchange market \"(La Llotja de la Seda)\", a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The first references to commercial orange plantations date back to the 18th century. At present, there are approximately 150,000 hectares of orange groves in the Region of Valencia producing orange and mandarin varieties including satsumas, clementines, navel oranges, common oranges, blood oranges, and hybrids, as the most important specimens"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The sweet orange is not a wild fruit, having arisen in domestication from a cross between a non-pure mandarin orange and a hybrid pomelo that had a substantial mandarin component. Since its chloroplast DNA is that of pomelo, it was likely the hybrid pomelo, perhaps a BC1 pomelo backcross, that was the maternal parent of the first orange. Based on genomic analysis, the relative proportions of the ancestral species in the sweet orange is approximately 42% pomelo and 58% mandarin. All varieties of the sweet orange descend from this original cross, differing only by mutations selected for during agricultural propagation. Sweet oranges have a distinct origin from the bitter orange, which arose independently, perhaps in the wild, from a cross between pure mandarin and pomelo parents. The earliest mention of the sweet orange in Chinese literature dates from 314 B.C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "This cultivar was discovered by A. G. Hamlin near Glenwood, Florida, in 1879. The fruit is small, smooth, not highly colored, and juicy, with a pale yellow colored juice, especially in fruits that come from lemon rootstock. The fruit may be seedless, or may contain a number of small seeds. The tree is high-yielding and cold-tolerant and it produces good quality fruit, which is harvested from October to December. It thrives in humid subtropical climates. In cooler, more arid areas, the trees produce edible fruit, but too small for commercial use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leendert Konijn",
        "text": "With the assistance of the Ministry of Agriculture of The Netherlands, Konijn was able to import 1800 orange pits from California. The cultivation of navel oranges was his main product. However, he also cultivated on a smaller scale lemons (Villafranca and Ponderosa) and grapefruits (Trimph, Manis besaar, Van Kuyk I and Duncan)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "In the United States, most orange juice and grapefruit is produced in Florida, while citrus fruits for consumption as fresh fruit are grown mainly in California, Arizona, and Texas. Smaller markets for citrus growth in the United States originate in South Carolina, Georgia, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and the gulf coastal states, including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, and Georgia, as well as North Carolina. Independent cultivars are found in Kentucky, Virginia, and even Missouri, Southern Illinois, and far Southern Kansas. The farther north the range, the more seasonal the cultivation. Florida produces approximately 100 million boxes annually (each box is 90 lbs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rancho Camulos",
        "text": "Over the years, the vineyards were replaced by other fruits. Today, about are under cultivation, most of it oranges, but lemons, grapefruit, and avocados are grown too. This makes Camulos a rare instance of a surviving citrus operation. During the years 1920\u201345, the citrus industry underwent a period of great growth. In contrast to the natural desert-like conditions of the area, photographs of \"citrus belts\" were publicized that helped establish the image of Southern California for the nation as an idyllic farmland. After World War II, urban and suburban development displaced much of the Southern California citrus production, with the notable exception of the Santa Clara River Valley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Blood oranges are a natural mutation of \"C. sinensis\", although today the majority of them are hybrids. High concentrations of anthocyanin give the rind, flesh, and juice of the fruit their characteristic dark red color. Blood oranges were first discovered and cultivated in Sicily in the fifteenth century. Since then they have spread worldwide, but are grown especially in Spain and Italy under the names of \"sanguina\" and \"sanguinella\", respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Sweet oranges have also given rise to a range of hybrids, notably the grapefruit, which arose from a sweet orange x pomelo backcross. A spontaneous backcross of the grapefruit and sweet orange then resulted in the orangelo. Spontaneous and engineered backcrosses between the sweet orange and mandarin oranges or tangerines has produced a group collectively known as tangors, which includes the clementine and Murcott. More complex crosses have also been produced. The so-called Ambersweet orange is actually a complex sweet orange x (Orlando tangelo x clementine) hybrid, legally designated a sweet orange in the United States so it can be used in orange juices. The citranges are a group of intergeneric sweet orange x trifoliate orange hybrids."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Florida",
        "text": "Oranges have been grown and sold in Florida since 1872. Production dropped 59% from the 2008\u20139 season to the 2016\u20137 season. The decline was mostly due to canker, citrus greening disease, and hurricane damage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eliza Tibbets",
        "text": "Tibbets\u2019 success with the navel orange led to a rapid increase in citrus planting. and the citrus planted was predominantly the Washington navel orange. The commercial success of these early orchards soon led to a widespread interest in this variety, so that by 1900 it was the most extensively grown citrus fruit in California. Since then Washington navel orange budwood and trees have been taken from California across the seas to Japan, Australia, South Africa, and other tropical or semi-tropical districts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Darchawi",
        "text": "Oranges were cultivated until the year 1937 AD. It was said that each tree bore fruits so abundantly that trees could not sustain without support. They were commercially grown for traders mainly from Kailashahar. The dependency of the villagers on \"jhum\" cultivation immediately stopped. The cultivation of pineapple started from 1937 AD. The production was around 2 million units per annum during the peak production years between 1955 AD and 1982 AD. There was huge wastage due to insufficient processing technologies during that period. Pineapple cultivation has contributed much to their well being and improved quality of life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangelo",
        "text": "In 1956, Carlos G. Moscoso, from the Horticulture, Agricultural Extension Service of the University of Puerto Rico noticed trees that grew fruits that were larger and a brighter yellow than those of the other trees on the plantations."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Riverside, California",
        "text": "Tibbets' success with the navel orange had led to a rapid increase in citrus planting, and the citrus planted was predominantly the Washington navel orange. The commercial success of these early orchards soon led to a widespread interest in this variety, so that by 1900 it was the most extensively grown citrus fruit in California."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, world production of all citrus fruits in 2016 was 124 million tons, with about half of this production as oranges. According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), citrus production grew during the early 21st century mainly by the increase in cultivation areas, improvements in transportation and packaging, rising incomes and consumer preference for healthy foods. In 2019\u201320, world production of oranges was estimated to be 47.5\u00a0million tons, led by Brazil, Mexico, the European Union, and China as the largest producers."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Riverside, California",
        "text": "The citrus industry in California had begun before Tibbets' introduction of the Washington navel orange. However, there was no outstanding early and midseason variety of sweet orange generally adapted to the climate. Extant citrus was mostly seedling trees grown from seeds obtained locally or from the Spanish missions. Growers experimented, but there was a lack of standardization in quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carcaixent",
        "text": "The orange is the fruit made from Spain, through Valencia, and spreading throughout the rest of the world. In Greek mythology the \"Garden of the Hesperides\" is a mythological grove where apples grew tended to by nymphs and a dragon. Hercules, the hero of classical literature, killed the guardian, entered the garden and plucked those golden apples \u2013In later years it was thought that the \"golden apples\" might have actually been oranges, a fruit unknown to Europe before the Middle Ages. Several scholars defend that the etymology of the word comes from the Sanskrit term narang and the Persian word narensh. When Arabs brought orange farming to the Iberian Peninsula, they called the fruits naranjah. The Region of Valencia maintained the orange-farming tradition after the Arabic period, with references to orange trees in the city of Valencia dating back to the 14th century. In fact, there is an Orange Courtyard inside Valencia\u2019s 15th-century Silk Exchange market \"(La Llotja de la Seda)\", a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The first references to commercial orange plantations date back to the 18th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus indica",
        "text": "This wild orange plant was originally characterized as one of the likely ancestors of today's cultivated citrus fruits, if not the main one. It was considered to be the most \"primitive\" citrus. However, genomic analysis has revealed it to be a citrus hybrid, with maternal citron ancestry and also mandarin orange and unspecified papeda contributions. It can be used as a citrus rootstock for cultivated citrus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Different names have been given to the many varieties of the species. \"Orange\" applies primarily to the sweet orange \u2013 \"Citrus sinensis\" (L.) Osbeck. The orange tree is an evergreen, flowering tree, with an average height of , although some very old specimens can reach . Its oval leaves, alternately arranged, are long and have crenulate margins. Sweet oranges grow in a range of different sizes, and shapes varying from spherical to oblong. Inside and attached to the rind is a porous white tissue, the white, bitter mesocarp or albedo (\"pith\"). The orange contains a number of distinct \"carpels\" (segments) inside, typically about ten, each delimited by a membrane, and containing many juice-filled vesicles and usually a few seeds (\"pips\"). When unripe, the fruit is green. The grainy irregular rind of the ripe fruit can range from bright orange to yellow-orange, but frequently retains green patches or, under warm climate conditions, remains entirely green. Like all other citrus fruits, the sweet orange is non-climacteric. The \"Citrus sinensis\" group is subdivided into four classes with distinct characteristics: common oranges, blood or pigmented oranges, navel oranges, and acidless oranges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus trees grown in tubs and wintered under cover were a feature of Renaissance gardens, once glass-making technology enabled sufficient expanses of clear glass to be produced. An orangery was a feature of royal and aristocratic residences through the 17th and 18th centuries. The \"Orangerie\" at the Palace of the Louvre, 1617, inspired imitations that were not eclipsed until the development of the modern greenhouse in the 1840s. In the United States, the earliest surviving orangery is at the Tayloe House, Mount Airy, Virginia. George Washington had an orangery at Mount Vernon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Florida farmers obtained seeds from New Orleans around 1872, after which orange groves were established by grafting the sweet orange on to sour orange rootstocks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, world production of all citrus fruits in 2020 was , with about half of this production as oranges. According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), citrus production grew during the early 21st century mainly by the increase in cultivation areas, improvements in transportation and packaging, rising incomes and consumer preference for healthful foods. In 2019\u201320, world production of oranges was estimated to be , led by Brazil, China, India, EU, USA, Mexico, Egypt as the largest producers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nanfang Caomu Zhuang",
        "text": "Li notes that the \"Yiwu Zhi\" (quoted in the \"Qimin yaoshu\") may possibly be the original source for this \"Nanfang caomu zhuang\" entry: \"the orange tree has white flowers and reddish fruits, which have fragrant peels and also sweet taste. It is produced in Kiangnan and not elsewhere\". The \"Taiping Yulan\" quotes this same passage followed by an additional sentence: \"There is an orange grove in Chiao-chih, where an administrative officer is installed, with a salary of 300 \"shih\" (picul) [of rice], who is responsible for presenting an annual tribute of oranges to the royal court.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Hemerochory",
        "text": "Many of the old cultivated plants have spread around the world, primarily through emigrants from Europe. Grown for at least 4,000 years, wheat was introduced to America in the 16th century and Australia in the 19th century. Orange, lemons, apricots and peaches were originally native to China. They probably came via the Silk Road as early as the 3rd century BC. In Asia Minor and from there through the Romans to the Mediterranean. European settlers, in turn, used these species to grow fruit in suitable regions of America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "In 2019, world production of oranges was 79 million tonnes, led by Brazil with 22% of the total, followed by China, India, the United States, and Mexico as other major producers (table)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walipini",
        "text": "In Soviet Union era, some similar technics was developed to grow Citrus fruits (oranges, lemons, mandarins, tangerines, grapefruits, limes, pomeloes) at temperatures of minus 30 degrees Celsius. By 1950, the Soviet Union boasted 30,000 hectares of citrus plantations, producing 200,000 tonnes of fruits per year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "As oranges are rich in vitamin C and do not spoil easily, during the Age of Discovery, Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch sailors planted citrus trees along trade routes to prevent scurvy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Common oranges (also called \"white\", \"round\", or \"blond\" oranges) constitute about two-thirds of all the orange production. The majority of this crop is used for juice extraction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "China could be a major player in the orange juice and processed citrus markets, except for high tariffs on citrus that make domestic sale more profitable. Though citrus originated in southeast Asia, current citrus production is low due to lower-than-average yields, high production and marketing costs, and disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juice",
        "text": "Groups of grape pits dated to 8000 BCE show early evidence of juice production; although it is thought that the grapes may have been alternatively used to produce wine. One of the first regularly produced juices was lemonade, appearing in 16th-century Italy, as an import, after its conception in the Middle East. Orange juice originated in the 17th century. In the 18th century, James Lind linked citrus fruits to the prevention of scurvy, which, a century later, led to the implementation of the Merchant Shipping Act of 1867, requiring all ocean-bound British ships to carry citrus-based juice on board."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Cara cara oranges (also called \"red navel\") are a type of navel orange grown mainly in Venezuela, South Africa and in California's San Joaquin Valley. They are sweet and comparatively low in acid, with a bright orange rind similar to that of other navels, but their flesh is distinctively pinkish red. It is believed that they have originated as a cross between the Washington navel and the Brazilian Bahia navel, and they were discovered at the Hacienda Cara Cara in Valencia, Venezuela, in 1976."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Spanish travelers introduced the sweet orange into the American continent. On his second voyage in 1493, Christopher Columbus may have planted the fruit in Hispaniola. Subsequent expeditions in the mid-1500s brought sweet oranges to South America and Mexico, and to Florida in 1565, when Pedro Men\u00e9ndez de Avil\u00e9s founded St Augustine. Spanish missionaries brought orange trees to Arizona between 1707 and 1710, while the Franciscans did the same in San Diego, California, in 1769. An orchard was planted at the San Gabriel Mission around 1804 and a commercial orchard was established in 1841 near present-day Los Angeles. In Louisiana, oranges were probably introduced by French explorers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Commercially grown orange trees are propagated asexually by grafting a mature cultivar onto a suitable seedling rootstock to ensure the same yield, identical fruit characteristics, and resistance to diseases throughout the years. Propagation involves two stages: first, a rootstock is grown from seed. Then, when it is approximately one year old, the leafy top is cut off and a bud taken from a specific scion variety, is grafted into its bark. The scion is what determines the variety of orange, while the rootstock makes the tree resistant to pests and diseases and adaptable to specific soil and climatic conditions. Thus, rootstocks influence the rate of growth and have an effect on fruit yield and quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Maltese: a small and highly colored variety, generally thought to have originated in Italy as a mutation and cultivated there for centuries. It also is grown extensively in southern Spain and Malta. It is used in sorbets and other desserts due to its rich burgundy color. Moro, originally from Sicily, it is common throughout Italy. This medium-sized fruit has a relatively long harvest, which lasts from December to April. Sanguinelli, a mutant of the Doble Fina, was discovered in 1929 in Almenara, in the Castell\u00f3n province of Spain. It is cultivated in Sicily. Tarocco is relatively new variety developed in Italy. It begins to ripen in late January."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "Satsumas were also grown in the United States from the early 1900s, but Japan remained a major supplier. U.S. imports of these Japanese oranges was suspended due to hostilities with Japan during World War II. While they were one of the first Japanese goods allowed for export after the end of the war, residual hostility led to the rebranding of these oranges as \"mandarin\" oranges."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Love for Three Oranges (fairy tale)",
        "text": "According to his unpublished manuscript on the tale type, Walter Anderson concluded that the tale originated in Persia. The tale type then migrated through two different routs: one to the East, to India, and another to the West, to the Middle East and to the Mediterranean."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nanfengmiju",
        "text": "A small, sweet fruit, it is one of the most widely cultivated varieties of mandarin orange in China. It is thought to be a descendant of the Tang and Song Dynasty ruju, and related to the Japanese kishu, which is now also grown and sold in North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jaffa orange",
        "text": "The \"Jaffa\" orange was a new variety developed by Arab farmers after emerging in the mid-19th century as a mutation on a tree of the 'Baladi' variety near the city of Jaffa. While the sour orange (\"C. aurantium\") was brought westward from China and India by local traders, who may have introduced it to Sicily and Spain, the \"Jaffa\" orange was developed from the sweet orange (\"C. sinensis\") which was brought from China to the Mediterranean region by Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in 1498."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Like most citrus plants, oranges do well under moderate temperatures\u2014between \u2014and require considerable amounts of sunshine and water. It has been suggested the use of water resources by the citrus industry in the Middle East is a contributing factor to the desiccation of the region. Another significant element in the full development of the fruit is the temperature variation between summer and winter and, between day and night. In cooler climates, oranges can be grown indoors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "In Europe, the Moors introduced the orange to the Iberian Peninsula which was known as Al-Andalus, with large scale cultivation starting in the 10th century as evidenced by complex irrigation techniques specifically adapted to support orange orchards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother Orange Tree",
        "text": "The tree's survival proved that the citrus industry could thrive in the colder climate of Northern California, encouraging many people to grow oranges in the area around Oroville, although the vast majority produced in the region are of the navel orange variety instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Soost",
        "text": "Soost worked to develop important citrus varieties, including two noted grapefruits (the Oroblanco and the Melogold at that university's citrus experiment station in Riverside, California.) as well as two noted mandarins. Was a co-author of volume II of The Citrus Industry (book)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "While the origin of citrus fruits cannot be precisely identified, researchers believe they began to appear in Southeast Asia at least 4,000 BC. From there, they slowly spread to northern Africa, mainly through migration and trade. During the period of the Roman Empire, demand by higher-ranking members of society, along with increased trade, allowed the fruits to spread to southern Europe. Citrus fruits spread throughout Europe during the Middle Ages, and were then brought to the Americas by Spanish explorers. Worldwide trade in citrus fruits did not appear until the 20th century, and trade in orange juice developed as late as 1940."
      },
      {
        "title": "Valencia orange",
        "text": "In 2012, the genome of the orange was sequenced, and was found to have with 29,445 protein-coding genes. It was also found that the sweet orange originated from a backcross hybrid between pummelo and mandarin orange."
      },
      {
        "title": "Merriville House and Gardens",
        "text": "The citrus fruit grown found good markets in Sydney, Melbourne and Tasmania. With the establishment of irrigation area along the Murray during the 1890s and later irrigation developments in South Australia and southern New South Wales, these markets were seriously eroded. The citrus being grown in the newer districts produced the navel orange which were much superior to the common orange variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The orange is a hybrid between pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\") and mandarin (\"Citrus reticulata\"). The chloroplast genome, and therefore the maternal line, is that of pomelo. The sweet orange has had its full genome sequenced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jaffa orange",
        "text": "Developed by Arab farmers in the mid-19th century, the variety takes its name from the city of Jaffa where it was first produced for export. The orange was the primary citrus export for the city. It is, along with the navel and bitter orange, one of three main varieties of the fruit grown in the Mediterranean, Southern Europe, and the Middle East. The \"Jaffa\" is also cultivated in Cyprus, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Turkey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Thomas Rivers, an English nurseryman, imported this variety from the Azores Islands and catalogued it in 1865 under the name Excelsior. Around 1870, he provided trees to S. B. Parsons, a Long Island nurseryman, who in turn sold them to E. H. Hart of Federal Point, Florida."
      },
      {
        "title": "Toudja",
        "text": "Oranges are grown widely in the area. In Roman times its springs were an important source of water and there was an aqueduct taking water to the city of Saldae (now B\u00e9ja\u00efa)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Other citrus groups also known as oranges are:\n* Bergamot orange (\"Citrus bergamia Risso\"), grown mainly in Italy for its peel, producing a primary essence for perfumes, also used to flavor Earl Grey tea. It is a hybrid of bitter orange x lemon.\n* Bitter orange (\"Citrus aurantium\"), also known as Seville orange, sour orange (especially when used as rootstock for a sweet orange tree), bigarade orange and marmalade orange. Like the sweet orange, it is a pomelo x mandarin hybrid, but arose from a distinct hybridization event.\n* Mandarin orange (\"Citrus reticulata\") is an original species of citrus, and is a progenitor of the common orange.\n* Trifoliate orange (\"Poncirus trifoliata\"), sometimes included in the genus (classified as \"Citrus trifoliata\"). It often serves as a rootstock for sweet orange trees and other \"Citrus\" cultivars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bella Vista (homestead)",
        "text": "The citrus fruit grown found good markets in Sydney, Melbourne and Tasmania. With the establishment of irrigation area along the Murray River during the 1890s and later irrigation developments in South Australia and southern New South Wales, these markets were seriously eroded. The citrus being grown in the newer districts produced the navel orange which were much superior to the common orange variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The three ancestral (sometimes characterized as \"original\" or \"fundamental\") species in the genus \"Citrus\" associated with modern \"Citrus\" cultivars are the mandarin orange, pomelo, and citron. Almost all of the common commercially important citrus fruits (sweet oranges, lemons, grapefruit, limes, and so on) are hybrids involving these three species with each other, their main progenies, and other wild \"Citrus\" species within the last few thousand years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "It is possible to grow orange trees directly from seeds, but they may be infertile or produce fruit that may be different from its parent. For the seed of a commercial orange to grow, it must be kept moist at all times. One approach is placing the seeds between two sheets of damp paper towel until they germinate and then planting them, although many cultivators just set the seeds straight into the soil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eliza Tibbets",
        "text": "The growth that the Washington navel orange produced in Riverside spread throughout the state, driving the state and even the national economy. Citrus assumed a major place in California's economy. By 1917 Washington navel orange culture was a $30 million per year industry in California. By 1933 the orange industry had grown to an annual income of $67 million. From one million boxes of oranges in 1887 to more than 65.5 million boxes of oranges, lemons, and grapefruit in 1944, despite the depression years of the 1930s, the California citrus industry experienced nothing short of explosive growth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "Mandarins are one of the core ancestral citrus taxa, and are thought to have evolved in regions including South China and Japan in East Asia, and Vietnam in Southeast Asia. Mandarins appear to have been domesticated at least twice, in the north and south Nanling Mountains, derived from separate wild subspecies. Wild mandarins are still found there, including Daoxian mandarines (sometimes given the species name \"Citrus daoxianensis\") as well as some members of the group traditionally called 'Mangshan wild mandarins', a generic grouping for the wild mandarin-like fruit of the Mangshan area that includes both true mandarins (\"mangshanyeju\", the southern subspecies) and the genetically-distinct and only distantly-related Mangshanyegan. The wild mandarins were found to be free of the introgressed pomelo (\"C. maxima\") DNA found in domestic mandarins but they did appear to have small amounts (~1.8%) of introgression from the ichang papeda, which grows wild in the same region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Upland, California",
        "text": "The Ontario colony eventually became known for its citrus groves, but in 1882, orange trees were too scarce and expensive at $100 an acre to turn to citrus, so at first other types of fruit were planted. By 1884, Ontario Nursery owner D.A. Shaw reported that there were \"40,000 peach trees, 29,000 pear trees, 15,000 seedling apple trees, 16,000 grafted apple trees, 1,000 cherry trees, and 16,000 grape cuttings set out in orchards and vineyards.\" However, by 1889, some 2,000 acres of citrus orchards had been planted on Ontario, and Ontario was rated as having the second largest citrus acreage in the state."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangery",
        "text": "The building of orangeries became most widely fashionable after the end of the Eighty Years' War in 1648. The countries that started this trend were France, Germany, and the Netherlands, these countries being the ones that saw merchants begin importing large numbers of orange trees, banana plants, and pomegranates to cultivate for their beauty and scent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus \u00d7 sinensis",
        "text": "Citrus\" \u00d7 \"sinensis (sometimes written Citrus sinensis), also known as the sweet oranges, is a commonly cultivated family of oranges that includes blood oranges and navel oranges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eliza Tibbets",
        "text": "Tibbets accomplished much in her years in Riverside and Southern California, including successfully cultivating two grafted navel orange trees. When their fruit appeared at agricultural fairs, it attracted immediate attention. The hybrid came to dominate agricultural citrus orchards, as described below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lena B. Smithers Hughes",
        "text": "In 1931, she and her husband Ausker Hughes, a chemist, moved to Lake County, Florida, where they both worked on citrus research. By 1935, they had 75 acres of test groves under production. Together they developed a number of new orange strains that are precursors of widely planted present-day varieties, working especially with nucellar seedlings of Parson Brown and Valencia oranges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Apart from these core citrus species, Australian limes and the recently discovered mangshanyegan are grown. Kumquats and \"Clymenia\" spp. are now generally considered to belong within the genus \"Citrus\". Trifoliate orange, which is often used as commercial rootstock, is an outgroup and may or may not be categorized as a citrus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eliza Tibbets",
        "text": "The navel orange was not new when Tibbets introduced it to United States agriculture. A kind of navel was described and pictured by John Baptisti Ferrarius in 1646. Early Brazilian publications often referred to the Navel orange, or \"lavanja de ombigo\". The Washington navel is sterile \u2013 truly seedless and utterly devoid of pollen with pistils deformed in a way that makes seed production from the pollen of other varieties impossible. Hence, the Washington navel orange is propagated by grafting a bud from an existing tree onto separate (genetically distinct) rootstock. The Washington Navel orange is particularly prone to a type of mutation in which one branch or \"sport\" differs genetically from the rest of the tree. It first appeared as a sport on a Selecta sweet orange tree in Bahia, Brazil. A desirable sport like this enables growers to avoid the complications of genetic segregation and recombination by spreading the species through asexual propagation. Although asexual propagation required a certain amount of effort and level of expertise, this sport was extensively propagated in the vicinity of Bahia. Nowadays many important fruit crops are propagated asexually, including oranges, grapes, avocados, bananas and apples. In fact, all commercial citrus trees are grafted onto rootstock selected for adaptation to the soil, resistance to disease, and influence on fruit quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "The Nanling Mountains are also home to northern and southern genetic clusters of domestic mandarins that have similar levels of sugars in the fruit compared to their wild relatives, but appreciably (in some almost 90-fold) lower levels of citric acid. The clusters display different patterns of pomelo introgression, have different deduced historical population histories, and are most closely related to distinct wild mandarins, suggesting two independent domestications in the north and south. All tested domesticated cultivars were found to belong to one of these two genetic clusters, with varieties such as Nanfengmiju, Kishu and Satsuma deriving from the northern domestication event producing larger, redder fruit, while Willowleaf, Dancy, Sunki, Cleopatra, King, Ponkan, and others derived from the smaller, yellower-fruited southern cluster."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jaffa orange",
        "text": "After the Crimean War (1853\u201356), the most important innovation in local agriculture was the rapid expansion of citrus cultivation. Foremost among the varieties cultivated was the Jaffa (Shamouti) orange, and mention of it being exported to Europe first appears in British consular reports in the 1850s. One factor cited in the growth of the export market was the development of steamships in the first half of the 19th century, which enabled the export of oranges to the European markets in days rather than weeks. Another reason cited for the growth of the industry was the relative lack of European control over the cultivation of oranges compared to cotton, formerly a primary commodity crop of Palestine, but outpaced by the Jaffa orange."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "An orange is a fruit of various citrus species in the family Rutaceae (see list of plants known as orange); it primarily refers to \"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"sinensis\", which is also called sweet orange, to distinguish it from the related \"Citrus \u00d7 aurantium\", referred to as bitter orange. The sweet orange reproduces asexually (apomixis through nucellar embryony); varieties of sweet orange arise through mutations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jaffa orange",
        "text": "By 1939, Jewish-owned and Arab-owned orange orchards in Palestine covered , employed over 100,000 workers, and their produce was a primary export. During World War II (1939\u20131945) citrus-growing declined, but recovered after the war with the vigorous assistance of the British Mandate authorities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange production in Brazil",
        "text": "According to the statistical database of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, 702,200 hectares of oranges were harvested in 2013; this is down from 836,041 hectares in 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (colour)",
        "text": "Before the 18th century, carrots from Asia were usually purple, while those in Europe were either white or red. Dutch farmers bred a variety that was orange; according to some sources, as a tribute to the stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland, William of Orange. The long orange Dutch carrot, first described in 1721, is the ancestor of the orange horn carrot, one of the most common types found in supermarkets today. It takes its name from the town of Hoorn, in the Netherlands."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Love for Three Oranges (fairy tale)",
        "text": "In the 20th century, folklorist Stith Thompson suggested the tale had a regular occurrence in the Mediterranean Area, distributed along Italy, Greece, Spain and Portugal. French folklorist Paul Delarue, in turn, asserted that the highest number of variants are to be found in Turkey, Greece, Italy and Spain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rarotonga",
        "text": "Oranges had been introduced by the \"Bounty\" mutineers, and after annexation developed into a major export crop, though exports had been disrupted by poor shipping. In 1945 the industry was revived with a government-led citrus replanting scheme, and in 1961 a canning factory was opened to allow the export of juice. The industry survived until the 1980s, but collapsed after New Zealand adopted Rogernomics and removed privileged market access."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Lemons, pomelos, and sour oranges are believed to have been introduced to the Mediterranean later by Arab traders at around the 10th century CE; and sweet oranges by the Genoese and Portuguese from Asia during the 15th to 16th century. Mandarins were not introduced until the 19th century. This group of species has reached great importance in some of the Mediterranean countries, and in the case of orange, mandarin, and lemon trees, they found here soil and climatic conditions which allow them to achieve a high level of fruit quality, even better than in the regions from where they came."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of plants known as orange",
        "text": "Orange identifies various species of trees, some with edible fruit and some not. \"Citrus sinensis\" includes many of the cultivated oranges used for their fruit, the common supermarket orange. Other species called oranges include:\n* \"Aegle marmelos\", Japanese bitter orange\n*Some of the \"Citrus\" species, including:\n** \"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"sinensis\", sweet oranges, Valencia oranges, Navel oranges, and blood oranges\n**\"Citrus ampullacea\", flask-shaped orange\n** \"Citrus aurantium\", bitter orange, Seville orange, Indian lemon\n**\"Citrus bergamia\", bergamot orange\n**\"Citrus bigaradia\", bigarade orange\n**\"Citrus clementina\", clementine orange\n**\"Citrus indica\", Indian wild orange\n**\"Citrus leiocarpa\", koji orange, smooth-fruited orange\n**\"Citrus medioglobosa\", naruto orange\n**\"Citrus micrantha\", small-flowered bitter orange\n**\"Citrus myrtifolia\", myrtle-leafed orange\n**\"Citrus natsudaidai\", Japanese summer orange\n**\"Citrus nobilis\", mandarin orange\n**\"Citrus pyriformis\", pear-shaped orange\n**\"Citrus reticulata\", mandarin orange\n**\"Citrus suavissima\", pleasant orange\n**\"Citrus succosa\", sappy orange\n**\"Citrus suhuiensis\", suhui orange\n*\"Hortia\" species\n*\"Poncirus trifoliata\", Chinese bitter orange"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean-Louis Vignes",
        "text": "He was quite successful in agriculture. In 1834, he brought a few orange trees from Mission San Gabriel, and planted the first orange grove in Los Angeles. In 1851, he wrote that his two orange groves produced between 5000 and 6000 oranges per season. He also grew 400 peach trees, as well as apricots, pears, apples, figs, and walnuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rize",
        "text": "Historically, Rize grew oranges. However, weather destroyed the crops in the early 20th century, and the industry declined. The area also produced small amounts of manganese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange, New South Wales",
        "text": "Orange is a well-known fruit growing district, and produces apples, pears, and many stone fruits such as cherries, peaches, apricots, and plums; oranges are not grown in the area, since its climate is too cool. In recent years, a large number of vineyards have been planted in the area for rapidly expanding wine production. The growth of this wine industry, coupled with the further development of Orange as a gourmet food capital, has ensured Orange's status as a prominent tourism destination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "In 2019, world production of mandarin oranges (combined with tangerines, clementines, and satsumas in reporting to FAOSTAT) was 35.4 million tonnes, led by China with 56% of the global total (table). Producing more than one million tonnes each in 2019 were Spain, Turkey, Morocco, and Egypt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Berry (botany)",
        "text": "The history of cultivated citrus fruit remains unclear, although some recent research suggests a possible origin in Papuasia rather than continental southeast Asia. Chinese documents show that mandarins and pomelos were established in cultivation there by around 4,200 BP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cook Park, Orange",
        "text": "From the 1870s onwards a fine collection of exotic trees were planted including elms (\"Ulmus procera\") and weeping Scotch elm (\"U.glabra 'Pendula' \"), oaks (\"Quercus spp.\"), lindens (\"Tilia sp.\"), poplars (\"Populus sp.\"), redwoods or big trees (\"Sequoiadendron giganteum\"), cypresses (\"Cupressus sp.\"), firs (\"Abies sp.\"), ash (\"Fraxinus sp.\"), 4 Himalayan cedars (\"Cedrus deodara\") and walnuts (\"Juglans sp.\") are growing with two Bunya pines (\"Araucaria bidwillii\") and one Tasmanian blue gum (\"Eucalyptus globulus\"). It also has a specimen of blue/Himalayan pine (\"P.wallichiana\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "In the United States, groves are located mainly in Florida, California, and Texas. The majority of California's crop is sold as fresh fruit, whereas Florida's oranges are destined to juice products. The Indian River area of Florida is known for the high quality of its juice, which often is sold fresh in the United States and frequently blended with juice produced in other regions because Indian River trees yield very sweet oranges, but in relatively small quantities."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of rail transportation in California",
        "text": "For years, the overall scarcity of oranges in particular led to the general perception that they were suitable only for holiday table decoration or as indulgences for the affluent. During the 1870s, however, hybridization of California oranges led to the creation of several flavorful strains, chief among these the Navel and Valencia varieties, whose development allowed for year-round cultivation of the fruit. Substantial foreign (out-of-state) markets for California citrus would come into full stature by 1890, initiating a period referred to as the \"Orange Era\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (colour)",
        "text": "In the 18th century orange was sometimes used to depict the robes of Pomona, the goddess of fruitful abundance; her name came from the , the Latin word for fruit. Oranges themselves became more common in northern Europe, thanks to the 17th century invention of the heated greenhouse, a building type which became known as an orangerie. The French artist Jean-Honor\u00e9 Fragonard depicted an allegorical figure of \"inspiration\" dressed in orange."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Love for Three Oranges (fairy tale)",
        "text": "Scholar Jack Zipes suggests that the story \"may have originated\" in Italy, with later diffusion to the rest of Southern Europe and into the Orient."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother Orange Tree",
        "text": "As the years passed and the tree flourished, growing to a height of over 60 feet (18 m), it was a favorite attraction of miners. They would sample its fruit and save seeds to plant in the dooryards of their cabins. On average, it yielded about 600 pounds (273\u00a0kg) of oranges that ripened between February and May each year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood orange",
        "text": "The three most common types of blood oranges are the 'Tarocco' (native to Italy), the 'Sanguinello' (native to Spain), and the 'Moro', the newest variety of the three."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "According to genetic studies, the mandarin was one of the original citrus species; through breeding or natural hybridization, it is the ancestor of many hybrid citrus cultivars. With the citron and pomelo, it is the ancestor of the most commercially important hybrids (such as sweet and sour oranges, grapefruit, and many lemons and limes). The mandarin has also been hybridized with other citrus species, such as the desert lime and the kumquat. Though the ancestral mandarin was bitter, most commercial mandarin strains derive from hybridization with pomelo, which give them a sweet fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oranges and Lemons",
        "text": "There is considerable variation in the churches and lines attached to them in versions printed in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, which makes any overall meaning difficult to establish. The final two lines of the modern version were first collected by James Orchard Halliwell in the 1840s."
      },
      {
        "title": "University of California Citrus Experiment Station",
        "text": "The last quarter-century has also seen the release of several patented new varieties of citrus, starting with the 'Oroblanco' grapefruit in 1981 and continuing with the recent release of the 'Tango' mandarin. Another breeding program has yielded cowpea lines that are early-maturing and heat-tolerant, making them particularly well-suited to the drought conditions of West Africa, helping to reduce hunger and poverty there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The trees thrive in a consistently sunny, humid environment with fertile soil and adequate rainfall or irrigation. Abandoned trees in valleys may suffer, yet survive, the dry summer of Central California's Inner Coast Ranges. At any age, citrus grows well enough with infrequent irrigation in partial shade, but the fruit crop is smaller. Being of tropical and subtropical origin, oranges, like all citrus, are broadleaved and evergreen. They do not drop leaves except when stressed. The stems of many varieties have large sharp thorns. The trees flower in the spring, and fruit is set shortly afterward. Fruit begins to ripen in fall or early winter, depending on cultivar, and develops increasing sweetness afterward. Some cultivars of tangerines ripen by winter. Some, such as the grapefruit, may take up to 18 months to ripen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother Orange Tree",
        "text": "Originally planted in Bidwell's Bar near the Bidwell Bar Bridge, the tree is a Mediterranean sweet orange \"Citrus \u00d7 sinensis\" cultivar. The citrus rootstock was brought from Mazatl\u00e1n, Mexico, on a shipping vessel. The two-year-old orange tree, which was a novelty in Northern California at the time, was purchased in 1856 by Judge Joseph Lewis in the city of Sacramento and planted at the western approach to the bridge. The planting of the tree was done by Alfred Clarke, with the help of his foreman, Howard Burt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nanfang Caomu Zhuang",
        "text": "The \"Nanfang caomu zhuang\" has two entries (62 and 63) for \"Citrus\" trees: \"J\u00fa\" (\u6a58 \"Citrus \u00d7 sinensis\", Sweet Orange) and \"G\u0101n\" (\u67d1 \"Citrus reticulata\", Mandarin Orange)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jaffa orange",
        "text": "Exports grew from 200,000 oranges in 1845 to 38 million oranges by 1870. The citrus plantations of this time were primarily owned by wealthy Palestinian merchants and notables, rather than small farmers, as the fruits required large capital investments with no yield for several years. Fruits carrying the \"Jaffa orange\" label were first marketed by Sarona, a German Templer colony established in 1871. An 1872 account of Jaffa by a European traveller notes that \"Surrounding Jaffa are the orange gardens for which it is justly extolled, and which are a considerable source of wealth to the owners. The annual value of fruits grown in Jaffa was said to be 10,000 pounds.\" In the 1880s, an American grower, H.S. Sanford, tried to cultivate the \"Jaffa\" orange in Florida."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where do oranges originate from?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The orange originated in Southern China, Northeast India, and Myanmar, with the earliest mention of the sweet orange being in Chinese literature in 314 BC."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many types of oranges are grown today?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "There are over thirty varieties, including blood, navel, and mandarin."
    ],
    "topic": "Orange juice",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Orange (fruit):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orange (fruit)"
        ],
        "ctx": "An orange is a fruit of various citrus species in the family Rutaceae (see list of plants known as orange); it primarily refers to \"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"sinensis\", which is also called sweet orange, to distinguish it from the related \"Citrus \u00d7 aurantium\", referred to as bitter orange. The sweet orange reproduces asexually (apomixis through nucellar embryony); varieties of sweet orange arise through mutations."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "In 2019, 79 million tonnes of oranges were grown worldwide, with Brazil producing 22% of the total, followed by China and India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The orange originated in a region encompassing Southern China, Northeast India, and Myanmar, and the earliest mention of the sweet orange was in Chinese literature in 314 BC. , orange trees were found to be the most cultivated fruit tree in the world. Orange trees are widely grown in tropical and subtropical climates for their sweet fruit. The fruit of the orange tree can be eaten fresh, or processed for its juice or fragrant peel. , sweet oranges accounted for approximately 70% of citrus production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Today, navel oranges continue to be propagated through cutting and grafting. This does not allow for the usual selective breeding methodologies, and so all navel oranges can be considered fruits from that single, nearly 200-year-old tree: they have exactly the same genetic make-up as the original tree and are clones. This case is similar to that of the common yellow seedless banana, the Cavendish, or that of the Granny Smith apple. On rare occasions, however, further mutations can lead to new varieties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Trees from groves in hammocks or areas covered with pine forest are budded on sour orange trees, a method that gives a high solids content. On sand, they are grafted on rough lemon rootstock. The Hamlin orange is one of the most popular juice oranges in Florida and replaces the Parson Brown variety as the principal early-season juice orange. This cultivar is now the leading early orange in Florida and, possibly, in the rest of the world.\n* Bahia: grown in Brazil and Uruguay\n* Bali: grown in Bali, Indonesia. Larger than other orange\n* Belladonna: grown in Italy\n* Berna: grown mainly in Spain\n* Biondo Comune (\"ordinary blond\"): widely grown in the Mediterranean basin, especially in North Africa, Egypt, Greece (where it is called \"koines\"), Italy (where it is also known as \"Liscio\"), and Spain; it also is called \"Beledi\" and \"Nostrale\"; in Italy, this variety ripens in December, earlier than the competing Tarocco variety\n* Biondo Riccio: grown in Italy\n*Byeonggyul: grown in Jeju Island, South Korea\n* Cadanera: a seedless orange of excellent flavor grown in Algeria, Morocco, and Spain; it begins to ripen in November and is known by a wide variety of trade names, such as Cadena Fina, Cadena sin Jueso, Precoce de Valence (\"early from Valencia\"), Precoce des Canaries, and Valence san Pepins (\"seedless Valencia\"); it was first grown in Spain in 1870\n* Calabrese or Calabrese Ovale: grown in Italy\n* Carvalhal: grown in Portugal\n* Castellana: grown in Spain\n* Charmute: grown in Brazil\n* Cherry Orange: grown in southern China and Japan\n* Clanor: grown in South Africa\n* Dom Jo\u00e3o: grown in Portugal\n* Fukuhara: grown in Japan\n* Gardner: grown in Florida, this mid-season orange ripens around the beginning of February, approximately the same time as the Midsweet variety; Gardner is about as hardy as Sunstar and Midsweet\n* Homosassa: grown in Florida\n* Jaffa orange: grown in the Middle East, also known as \"Shamouti\"\n* Jincheng: the most popular orange in China\n* Joppa: grown in South Africa and Texas\n* Khettmali: grown in Israel and Lebanon\n* Kona: a type of Valencia orange introduced in Hawaii in 1792 by Captain George Vancouver; for many decades in the nineteenth century, these oranges were the leading export from the Kona district on the Big Island of Hawaii; in Kailua-Kona, some of the original stock still bears fruit\n* Lima: grown in Brazil\n* Lue Gim Gong: grown in Florida, is an early scion developed by Lue Gim Gong, a Chinese immigrant known as the \"Citrus Genius\"; in 1888, Lue cross-pollinated two orange varieties \u2013 the Hart's late Valencia and the Mediterranean Sweet \u2013 and obtained a fruit both sweet and frost-tolerant; this variety was propagated at the Glen St. Mary Nursery, which in 1911 received the Silver Wilder Medal by the American Pomological Society; originally considered a hybrid, the Lue Gim Gong orange was later found to be a nucellar seedling of the Valencia type, which is properly called Lue Gim Gong; since 2006, the Lue Gim Gong variety is grown in Florida, although sold under the general name Valencia\n* Macetera: grown in Spain, it is known for its unique flavor\n* Malta: grown in Pakistan\n* Maltaise Blonde: grown in north Africa\n* Maltaise Ovale: grown in South Africa and in California under the names of Garey's or California Mediterranean Sweet\n* Marrs: grown in Texas, California and Iran, it is relatively low in acid\n* Medan: grown in Medan, Indonesia\n* Midsweet: grown in Florida, it is a newer scion similar to the Hamlin and Pineapple varieties, it is hardier than Pineapple and ripens later; the fruit production and quality are similar to those of the Hamlin, but the juice has a deeper color\n* Moro Tarocco: grown in Italy, it is oval, resembles a tangelo, and has a distinctive caramel-colored endocarp; this color is the result of a pigment called anthocarpium, not usually found in citruses, but common in red fruits and flowers; the original mutation occurred in Sicily in the seventeenth century\n* Narinja: grown in Andhra, South India\n* Parson Brown: grown in Florida, Mexico, and Turkey, it once was a widely grown Florida juice orange, its popularity has declined since new varieties with more juice, better yield, and higher acid and sugar content have been developed; it originated as a chance seedling in Florida in 1865; its fruits are round, medium large, have a thick, pebbly peel and contain 10 to 30 seeds; it still is grown because it is the earliest maturing fruit in the United States, usually maturing in early September in the Valley district of Texas, and from early October to January in Florida; its peel and juice color are poor, as is the quality of its juice\n* Pera: grown in Brazil, it is very popular in the Brazilian citrus industry and yielded 7.5 million metric tons in 2005\n* Pera Coroa: grown in Brazil\n* Pera Natal: grown in Brazil\n* Pera Rio: grown in Brazil\n* Pineapple: grown in North and South America and India\n* Pontianak: oval-shaped orange grown especially in Pontianak, Indonesia\n* Premier: grown in South Africa\n* Rhode Red: is a mutation of the Valencia orange, but the color of its flesh is more intense; it has more juice, and less acidity and vitamin C than the Valencia; it was discovered by Paul Rhode in 1955 in a grove near Sebring, Florida\n* Roble: it was first shipped from Spain in 1851 by Joseph Roble to his homestead in what is now Roble's Park in Tampa, Florida; it is known for its high sugar content\n* Queen: grown in South Africa\n* Salustiana: grown in North Africa\n* Sathgudi: grown in Tamil Nadu, South India\n* Seleta, Selecta: grown in Australia and Brazil, it is high in acid\n* Shamouti Masry: grown in Egypt; it is a richer variety of Shamouti\n* Sunstar: grown in Florida, this newer cultivar ripens in mid-season (December to March) and it is more resistant to cold and fruit-drop than the competing Pineapple variety; the color of its juice is darker than that of the competing Hamlin\n* Tomango: grown in South Africa\n* Verna: grown in Algeria, Mexico, Morocco, and Spain\n* Vicieda: grown in Algeria, Morocco, and Spain\n* Westin: grown in Brazil\n* X\u00e3 \u0110o\u00e0i orange: grown in Vietnam"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "According to a 1917 study by Palemon Dorsett, Archibald Dixon Shamel and Wilson Popenoe of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), a single mutation in a Selecta orange tree planted on the grounds of a monastery in Bahia, Brazil, probably yielded the first navel orange between 1810 and 1820. Nevertheless, a researcher at the University of California, Riverside, has suggested that the parent variety was more likely the Portuguese navel orange (\"Umbigo\"), described by Antoine Risso and Pierre Antoine Poiteau in their book \"Histoire naturelle des orangers\" (\"Natural History of Orange Trees\", 1818\u20131822). The mutation caused the orange to develop a second fruit at its base, opposite the stem, embedded within the peel of the primary orange. Navel oranges were introduced in Australia in 1824 and in Florida in 1835. In 1873, Eliza Tibbets planted two cuttings of the original tree in Riverside, California, where the fruit became known as \"Washington\". This cultivar was very successful, and rapidly spread to other countries. Because the mutation left the fruit seedless, therefore sterile, the only method to cultivate navel oranges was to graft cuttings onto other varieties of citrus trees. The California Citrus State Historic Park and the Orcutt Ranch Horticulture Center preserve the history of navel oranges in Riverside."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "In the United States, most orange juice and grapefruit is produced in Florida, while citrus fruits for consumption as fresh fruit are grown mainly in California, Arizona, and Texas. Smaller markets for citrus growth in the United States originate in South Carolina, Georgia, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and the gulf coastal states, including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, and Georgia, as well as North Carolina. Independent cultivars are found in Kentucky, Virginia, and even Missouri, Southern Illinois, and far Southern Kansas. The farther north the range, the more seasonal the cultivation. Florida produces approximately 100 million boxes annually (each box is 90 lbs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eliza Tibbets",
        "text": "The citrus industry in California was underway before Tibbets\u2019 cultivated the Washington navel orange. But there was no outstanding early and midseason variety of sweet orange generally adapted to the climate. Extant citrus was mostly seedling trees grown from seeds obtained locally or from the Spanish missions. Growers experimented, but there was a lack of standardization in quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eliza Tibbets",
        "text": "Tibbets\u2019 success with the navel orange led to a rapid increase in citrus planting. and the citrus planted was predominantly the Washington navel orange. The commercial success of these early orchards soon led to a widespread interest in this variety, so that by 1900 it was the most extensively grown citrus fruit in California. Since then Washington navel orange budwood and trees have been taken from California across the seas to Japan, Australia, South Africa, and other tropical or semi-tropical districts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Blood oranges are a natural mutation of \"C. sinensis\", although today the majority of them are hybrids. High concentrations of anthocyanin give the rind, flesh, and juice of the fruit their characteristic dark red color. Blood oranges were first discovered and cultivated in Sicily in the fifteenth century. Since then they have spread worldwide, but are grown especially in Spain and Italy under the names of \"sanguina\" and \"sanguinella\", respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rancho Camulos",
        "text": "Over the years, the vineyards were replaced by other fruits. Today, about are under cultivation, most of it oranges, but lemons, grapefruit, and avocados are grown too. This makes Camulos a rare instance of a surviving citrus operation. During the years 1920\u201345, the citrus industry underwent a period of great growth. In contrast to the natural desert-like conditions of the area, photographs of \"citrus belts\" were publicized that helped establish the image of Southern California for the nation as an idyllic farmland. After World War II, urban and suburban development displaced much of the Southern California citrus production, with the notable exception of the Santa Clara River Valley."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Riverside, California",
        "text": "Tibbets' success with the navel orange had led to a rapid increase in citrus planting, and the citrus planted was predominantly the Washington navel orange. The commercial success of these early orchards soon led to a widespread interest in this variety, so that by 1900 it was the most extensively grown citrus fruit in California."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Florida",
        "text": "Oranges have been grown and sold in Florida since 1872. Production dropped 59% from the 2008\u20139 season to the 2016\u20137 season. The decline was mostly due to canker, citrus greening disease, and hurricane damage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leendert Konijn",
        "text": "With the assistance of the Ministry of Agriculture of The Netherlands, Konijn was able to import 1800 orange pits from California. The cultivation of navel oranges was his main product. However, he also cultivated on a smaller scale lemons (Villafranca and Ponderosa) and grapefruits (Trimph, Manis besaar, Van Kuyk I and Duncan)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Common oranges (also called \"white\", \"round\", or \"blond\" oranges) constitute about two-thirds of all the orange production. The majority of this crop is used for juice extraction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mother Orange Tree",
        "text": "The tree's survival proved that the citrus industry could thrive in the colder climate of Northern California, encouraging many people to grow oranges in the area around Oroville, although the vast majority produced in the region are of the navel orange variety instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "In the United States, groves are located mainly in Florida, California, and Texas. The majority of California's crop is sold as fresh fruit, whereas Florida's oranges are destined to juice products. The Indian River area of Florida is known for the high quality of its juice, which often is sold fresh in the United States and frequently blended with juice produced in other regions because Indian River trees yield very sweet oranges, but in relatively small quantities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "About a third of citrus fruit production goes for processing: more than 80% of this is for orange juice production. Demand for fresh and processed oranges continues to rise in excess of production, especially in developed countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kishu mikan",
        "text": "The fruit is thought to have arisen in Southern China, where its name was recorded in the records of Jianchang during the Ming Dynasty, and its agricultural growth is widespread in Jiangxi province. Japanese oranges were cultivated from the cherry orange about 700 years ago. Genetic studies have found it to be closely related to the Huanglingmiao mandarin, carrying the same pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\") introgression, indicating that the two diverged from the same backcrossed domesticated ancestor. Under the Tanaka system of citrus taxonomy, it is a separate species, \"Citrus kinokuni\", while the Swingle system groups it with other pure and hybrid mandarins as a single species, \"Citrus reticulata\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Merriville House and Gardens",
        "text": "The citrus fruit grown found good markets in Sydney, Melbourne and Tasmania. With the establishment of irrigation area along the Murray during the 1890s and later irrigation developments in South Australia and southern New South Wales, these markets were seriously eroded. The citrus being grown in the newer districts produced the navel orange which were much superior to the common orange variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Cara cara oranges (also called \"red navel\") are a type of navel orange grown mainly in Venezuela, South Africa and in California's San Joaquin Valley. They are sweet and comparatively low in acid, with a bright orange rind similar to that of other navels, but their flesh is distinctively pinkish red. It is believed that they have originated as a cross between the Washington navel and the Brazilian Bahia navel, and they were discovered at the Hacienda Cara Cara in Valencia, Venezuela, in 1976."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eliza Tibbets",
        "text": "The growth that the Washington navel orange produced in Riverside spread throughout the state, driving the state and even the national economy. Citrus assumed a major place in California's economy. By 1917 Washington navel orange culture was a $30 million per year industry in California. By 1933 the orange industry had grown to an annual income of $67 million. From one million boxes of oranges in 1887 to more than 65.5 million boxes of oranges, lemons, and grapefruit in 1944, despite the depression years of the 1930s, the California citrus industry experienced nothing short of explosive growth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eliza Tibbets",
        "text": "The progeny trees derived from this parent source tree continues to be the most popular navel grown in California. In the estimation of many, the fruit of the Washington navel remains the finest in size, flavor, quality, lack of seed, low rag and excellent holding capacity when the fruit is held on the tree. The navel orange remains as one of the most popular of all of the varieties of fresh fruit whether produced in California, Peru, South Africa, or Australia. Millions of trees were propagated from progeny of this mother tree, not only in California, but worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, world production of all citrus fruits in 2020 was , with about half of this production as oranges. According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), citrus production grew during the early 21st century mainly by the increase in cultivation areas, improvements in transportation and packaging, rising incomes and consumer preference for healthful foods. In 2019\u201320, world production of oranges was estimated to be , led by Brazil, China, India, EU, USA, Mexico, Egypt as the largest producers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, world production of all citrus fruits in 2016 was 124 million tons, with about half of this production as oranges. According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), citrus production grew during the early 21st century mainly by the increase in cultivation areas, improvements in transportation and packaging, rising incomes and consumer preference for healthy foods. In 2019\u201320, world production of oranges was estimated to be 47.5\u00a0million tons, led by Brazil, Mexico, the European Union, and China as the largest producers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "This cultivar was discovered by A. G. Hamlin near Glenwood, Florida, in 1879. The fruit is small, smooth, not highly colored, and juicy, with a pale yellow colored juice, especially in fruits that come from lemon rootstock. The fruit may be seedless, or may contain a number of small seeds. The tree is high-yielding and cold-tolerant and it produces good quality fruit, which is harvested from October to December. It thrives in humid subtropical climates. In cooler, more arid areas, the trees produce edible fruit, but too small for commercial use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "In 2019, world production of oranges was 79 million tonnes, led by Brazil with 22% of the total, followed by China, India, the United States, and Mexico as other major producers (table)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Navel oranges are characterized by the growth of a second fruit at the apex, which protrudes slightly and resembles a human navel. They are primarily grown for human consumption for various reasons: their thicker skin makes them easy to peel, they are less juicy and their bitterness \u2013 a result of the high concentrations of limonin and other limonoids \u2013 renders them less suitable for juice. Their widespread distribution and long harvest period have made navel oranges very popular. In the United States, they are available from November to April, with peak supplies in January, February, and March."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "Single strength orange juice (SSOJ) can either be \"not from concentrate\" (NFC) orange juice or juice that is reconstituted from a concentrate with the addition of water to reach a specific single strength brix level. The processing of SSOJ also begins with the selection of orange. The most common types of orange used to produce orange juice are the Pineapple orange, Valencia orange, and Washington Navel oranges from Florida and California. The manufacturing journey begins when oranges are delivered to processing plants by trucks holding about 35,000 to 40,000 pounds of fruit. The fruit is unloaded at the plant for inspection and grading to remove unsuitable fruit before the oranges enter the storage bins. An automatic sampler contraption removes oranges for determination of acid and soluble solids. The bins are organized based on ratio of soluble solids to acids in order to blend oranges appropriate to produce juice with uniform flavor. After the fruit leaves the bins, they are scrubbed with detergent on a rotary brush washer and subsequently rinsed with potable water. Throughout the processing stages, there are multiple points with facilities that inspect oranges and discard damaged fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "In cooler parts of Europe, citrus fruit was grown in orangeries starting in the 17th century; many were as much status symbols as functional agricultural structures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bella Vista (homestead)",
        "text": "The citrus fruit grown found good markets in Sydney, Melbourne and Tasmania. With the establishment of irrigation area along the Murray River during the 1890s and later irrigation developments in South Australia and southern New South Wales, these markets were seriously eroded. The citrus being grown in the newer districts produced the navel orange which were much superior to the common orange variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ribera Alta (comarca)",
        "text": "The orange is the fruit of the citrus sinensis or aurantium, a tree that first appeared in China and other southern areas of the Asian continent. The fruit made its way from the Far East to the European continent, reaching Spain, through Valencia, and spreading throughout the rest of the world. In Greek mythology the \"Garden of the Hesperides\" is a mythological grove where apples grew tended to by nymphs and a dragon. Hercules, the hero of classical literature, killed the guardian, entered the garden and plucked those golden apples \u2013In later years it was thought that the \"golden apples\" might have actually been oranges, a fruit unknown to Europe before the Middle Ages. Several scholars defend that the etymology of the word comes from the Sanskrit term narang and the Persian word narensh. When Arabs brought orange farming to the Iberian Peninsula, they called the fruits naranjah. The Region of Valencia maintained the orange-farming tradition after the Arabic period, with references to orange trees in the city of Valencia dating back to the 14th century. In fact, there is an Orange Courtyard inside Valencia\u2019s 15th century Silk Exchange market \"(La Llotja de la Seda)\", a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The first references to commercial orange plantations date back to the 18th century. At present, there are approximately 150,000 hectares of orange groves in the Region of Valencia producing orange and mandarin varieties including satsumas, clementines, navel oranges, common oranges, blood oranges, and hybrids, as the most important specimens"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Riverside, California",
        "text": "The citrus industry in California had begun before Tibbets' introduction of the Washington navel orange. However, there was no outstanding early and midseason variety of sweet orange generally adapted to the climate. Extant citrus was mostly seedling trees grown from seeds obtained locally or from the Spanish missions. Growers experimented, but there was a lack of standardization in quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "China could be a major player in the orange juice and processed citrus markets, except for high tariffs on citrus that make domestic sale more profitable. Though citrus originated in southeast Asia, current citrus production is low due to lower-than-average yields, high production and marketing costs, and disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "Orange juice is a liquid extract of the orange tree fruit, produced by squeezing or reaming oranges. It comes in several different varieties, including blood orange, navel oranges, valencia orange, clementine, and tangerine. As well as variations in oranges used, some varieties include differing amounts of juice vesicles, known as \"pulp\" in American English, and \"(juicy) bits\" in British English. These vesicles contain the juice of the orange and can be left in or removed during the manufacturing process. How juicy these vesicles are depend upon many factors, such as species, variety, and season. In American English, the beverage name is often abbreviated as \"OJ\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "In 2019, world production of mandarin oranges (combined with tangerines, clementines, and satsumas in reporting to FAOSTAT) was 35.4 million tonnes, led by China with 56% of the global total (table). Producing more than one million tonnes each in 2019 were Spain, Turkey, Morocco, and Egypt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Orange juice is obtained by squeezing the fruit on a special tool (a \"juicer\" or \"squeezer\") and collecting the juice in a tray underneath. This can be made at home or, on a much larger scale, industrially. Brazil is the largest producer of orange juice in the world, followed by the United States, where it is one of the commodities traded on the New York Board of Trade. Frozen orange juice concentrate is made from freshly squeezed and filtered orange juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Like most citrus plants, oranges do well under moderate temperatures\u2014between \u2014and require considerable amounts of sunshine and water. It has been suggested the use of water resources by the citrus industry in the Middle East is a contributing factor to the desiccation of the region. Another significant element in the full development of the fruit is the temperature variation between summer and winter and, between day and night. In cooler climates, oranges can be grown indoors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The large citrus fruit of today evolved originally from small, edible berries over millions of years. Citrus species began to diverge from a common ancestor about 15 million years ago, at about the same time that \"Severinia\" (such as the Chinese box orange) diverged from the same ancestor. About 7 million years ago, the ancestors of \"Citrus\" split into the main genus, \"Citrus\", and the genus \"Poncirus\" (such as the trifoliate orange), which is closely enough related that it can still be hybridized with all other citrus and used as rootstock. These estimates are made using genetic mapping of plant chloroplasts. A DNA study published in \"Nature\" in 2018 concludes that the genus \"Citrus\" first evolved in the foothills of the Himalayas, in the area of Assam (India), western Yunnan (China), and northern Myanmar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Washington navel orange tree (Riverside, California)",
        "text": "The navel orange is a mutation of regular sweet orange. This mutated orange was discovered in a monastery orchard in Brazil in 1820. In 1870 a cutting from the navel orange was sent to Washington, D.C., thus was called the Washington navel orange. The name \"navel orange\" is from the mutation at the bottom blossom end of the orange. The bottom of the orange has a depression looks somewhat like a human belly button. The mutation gives the navel orange no seeds. The Washington navel oranges were shipped all over the United States. As oranges cannot withstand freezing weather, the climate of Southern California is good for the Californian citrus industry and the navel orange."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Soost",
        "text": "Soost worked to develop important citrus varieties, including two noted grapefruits (the Oroblanco and the Melogold at that university's citrus experiment station in Riverside, California.) as well as two noted mandarins. Was a co-author of volume II of The Citrus Industry (book)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Sweet oranges have also given rise to a range of hybrids, notably the grapefruit, which arose from a sweet orange x pomelo backcross. A spontaneous backcross of the grapefruit and sweet orange then resulted in the orangelo. Spontaneous and engineered backcrosses between the sweet orange and mandarin oranges or tangerines has produced a group collectively known as tangors, which includes the clementine and Murcott. More complex crosses have also been produced. The so-called Ambersweet orange is actually a complex sweet orange x (Orlando tangelo x clementine) hybrid, legally designated a sweet orange in the United States so it can be used in orange juices. The citranges are a group of intergeneric sweet orange x trifoliate orange hybrids."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "Many brands of organic orange juices have become available on the market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange, New South Wales",
        "text": "Orange is a well-known fruit growing district, and produces apples, pears, and many stone fruits such as cherries, peaches, apricots, and plums; oranges are not grown in the area, since its climate is too cool. In recent years, a large number of vineyards have been planted in the area for rapidly expanding wine production. The growth of this wine industry, coupled with the further development of Orange as a gourmet food capital, has ensured Orange's status as a prominent tourism destination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "Satsumas were also grown in the United States from the early 1900s, but Japan remained a major supplier. U.S. imports of these Japanese oranges was suspended due to hostilities with Japan during World War II. While they were one of the first Japanese goods allowed for export after the end of the war, residual hostility led to the rebranding of these oranges as \"mandarin\" oranges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Citrus trees grown in tubs and wintered under cover were a feature of Renaissance gardens, once glass-making technology enabled sufficient expanses of clear glass to be produced. An orangery was a feature of royal and aristocratic residences through the 17th and 18th centuries. The \"Orangerie\" at the Palace of the Louvre, 1617, inspired imitations that were not eclipsed until the development of the modern greenhouse in the 1840s. In the United States, the earliest surviving orangery is at the Tayloe House, Mount Airy, Virginia. George Washington had an orangery at Mount Vernon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Archibald Menzies, the botanist and naturalist on the Vancouver Expedition, collected orange seeds in South Africa, raised the seedlings onboard and gave them to several Hawaiian chiefs in 1792. Eventually, the sweet orange was grown in wide areas of the Hawaiian Islands, but its cultivation stopped after the arrival of the Mediterranean fruit fly in the early 1900s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "Common orange juice is made from the sweet orange. Different cultivars (for example, Valencia, Hamlin) have different properties, and a producer may mix cultivar juices to get the desired taste. Orange juice usually varies between shades of orange and yellow, although some ruby red or blood orange varieties are a reddish-orange or even pinkish. This is due to different pigmentation in ruby red oranges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eliza Tibbets",
        "text": "The navel orange was not new when Tibbets introduced it to United States agriculture. A kind of navel was described and pictured by John Baptisti Ferrarius in 1646. Early Brazilian publications often referred to the Navel orange, or \"lavanja de ombigo\". The Washington navel is sterile \u2013 truly seedless and utterly devoid of pollen with pistils deformed in a way that makes seed production from the pollen of other varieties impossible. Hence, the Washington navel orange is propagated by grafting a bud from an existing tree onto separate (genetically distinct) rootstock. The Washington Navel orange is particularly prone to a type of mutation in which one branch or \"sport\" differs genetically from the rest of the tree. It first appeared as a sport on a Selecta sweet orange tree in Bahia, Brazil. A desirable sport like this enables growers to avoid the complications of genetic segregation and recombination by spreading the species through asexual propagation. Although asexual propagation required a certain amount of effort and level of expertise, this sport was extensively propagated in the vicinity of Bahia. Nowadays many important fruit crops are propagated asexually, including oranges, grapes, avocados, bananas and apples. In fact, all commercial citrus trees are grafted onto rootstock selected for adaptation to the soil, resistance to disease, and influence on fruit quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange production in Brazil",
        "text": "According to the statistical database of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, 702,200 hectares of oranges were harvested in 2013; this is down from 836,041 hectares in 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangelo",
        "text": "In 1956, Carlos G. Moscoso, from the Horticulture, Agricultural Extension Service of the University of Puerto Rico noticed trees that grew fruits that were larger and a brighter yellow than those of the other trees on the plantations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood orange",
        "text": "The three most common types of blood oranges are the 'Tarocco' (native to Italy), the 'Sanguinello' (native to Spain), and the 'Moro', the newest variety of the three."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood orange",
        "text": "Blood oranges may have originated in the southern Mediterranean, where they have been grown since the 18th century. They are a common orange grown in Italy. The anthocyanins \u2013 which give the orange its distinct maroon color \u2013 will only develop when temperatures are low at night, as during the Mediterranean fall and winter. Blood oranges cultivated in the United States are in season from December to March (Texas), and from November to May (California)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nanfengmiju",
        "text": "A small, sweet fruit, it is one of the most widely cultivated varieties of mandarin orange in China. It is thought to be a descendant of the Tang and Song Dynasty ruju, and related to the Japanese kishu, which is now also grown and sold in North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nagpur orange",
        "text": "Nagpur orange is a variety of mandarin orange (\"Citrus reticulata\") grown in Nagpur, Maharashtra, India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The lack of acid, which protects orange juice against spoilage in other groups, renders them generally unfit for processing as juice, so they are primarily eaten. They remain profitable in areas of local consumption, but rapid spoilage renders them unsuitable for export to major population centres of Europe, Asia, or the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walipini",
        "text": "In Soviet Union era, some similar technics was developed to grow Citrus fruits (oranges, lemons, mandarins, tangerines, grapefruits, limes, pomeloes) at temperatures of minus 30 degrees Celsius. By 1950, the Soviet Union boasted 30,000 hectares of citrus plantations, producing 200,000 tonnes of fruits per year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "The three ancestral (sometimes characterized as \"original\" or \"fundamental\") species in the genus \"Citrus\" associated with modern \"Citrus\" cultivars are the mandarin orange, pomelo, and citron. Almost all of the common commercially important citrus fruits (sweet oranges, lemons, grapefruit, limes, and so on) are hybrids involving these three species with each other, their main progenies, and other wild \"Citrus\" species within the last few thousand years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Different names have been given to the many varieties of the species. \"Orange\" applies primarily to the sweet orange \u2013 \"Citrus sinensis\" (L.) Osbeck. The orange tree is an evergreen, flowering tree, with an average height of , although some very old specimens can reach . Its oval leaves, alternately arranged, are long and have crenulate margins. Sweet oranges grow in a range of different sizes, and shapes varying from spherical to oblong. Inside and attached to the rind is a porous white tissue, the white, bitter mesocarp or albedo (\"pith\"). The orange contains a number of distinct \"carpels\" (segments) inside, typically about ten, each delimited by a membrane, and containing many juice-filled vesicles and usually a few seeds (\"pips\"). When unripe, the fruit is green. The grainy irregular rind of the ripe fruit can range from bright orange to yellow-orange, but frequently retains green patches or, under warm climate conditions, remains entirely green. Like all other citrus fruits, the sweet orange is non-climacteric. The \"Citrus sinensis\" group is subdivided into four classes with distinct characteristics: common oranges, blood or pigmented oranges, navel oranges, and acidless oranges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood orange",
        "text": "Blood orange\n--Cultivars.\n----Moro.\n----Tarocco.\n----Sanguinello.\n--History and background.\n--As food.\n----Nutrition.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Citrus fruits are produced all over the world; according to the FAO, as of 2016, about 79% of the world's total citrus production was grown in the Northern Hemisphere, with countries of the Mediterranean Basin contributing the largest volumes, while Brazil was the largest citrus producer in the Southern Hemisphere and the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Florida's Natural Growers",
        "text": "In the 1960s, consumer demand shifted to fresh-squeezed orange juice, and frozen concentrate sales declined while demand for chilled juices increased. In 1969, the cooperative took the name Citrus World and adopted the current name in 1998. It is currently composed of 12 growers: Waverly Growers Cooperative, Lake Placid Cooperative, Ben Hill Griffin Inc., Haines City Citrus Growers Association, Orange Growers Marketing Association, Lake Wales Citrus Growers Association, Hunt Brothers Cooperative, Citrus Marketing Services Inc, Peace River Packing Company, Dundee Citrus Growers Association, Winter Haven Citrus Growers Association, and Umatilla Citrus Growers Association."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eliza Tibbets",
        "text": "Eliza Tibbets\n--Early years.\n--Marriages and family.\n----Southern United States.\n----California.\n--Tibbets and the Washington navel orange.\n----Washington navel orange history.\n----California citrus industry.\n------Groves in California and beyond.\n--Legacy of introduction.\n----Scientific approach to improvements.\n----Conclusion.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "By 1949, orange juice processing plants in Florida were producing over 10 million gallons of concentrated orange juice. Consumers liked concentrated canned orange juice as it was affordable, tasty, convenient, and high in vitamin C. The preparation was simple: empty the container of frozen concentrate into a measured volume of water and stir. However, by the 1980s, food scientists developed a fresher-tasting juice known as reconstituted ready-to-serve juice. Eventually in the 1990s, \"not from concentrate\" (NFC) orange juice was developed. Orange juice is a common breakfast beverage in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jaffa orange",
        "text": "Developed by Arab farmers in the mid-19th century, the variety takes its name from the city of Jaffa where it was first produced for export. The orange was the primary citrus export for the city. It is, along with the navel and bitter orange, one of three main varieties of the fruit grown in the Mediterranean, Southern Europe, and the Middle East. The \"Jaffa\" is also cultivated in Cyprus, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Turkey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus \u00d7 sinensis",
        "text": "Citrus\" \u00d7 \"sinensis (sometimes written Citrus sinensis), also known as the sweet oranges, is a commonly cultivated family of oranges that includes blood oranges and navel oranges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Commercially grown orange trees are propagated asexually by grafting a mature cultivar onto a suitable seedling rootstock to ensure the same yield, identical fruit characteristics, and resistance to diseases throughout the years. Propagation involves two stages: first, a rootstock is grown from seed. Then, when it is approximately one year old, the leafy top is cut off and a bud taken from a specific scion variety, is grafted into its bark. The scion is what determines the variety of orange, while the rootstock makes the tree resistant to pests and diseases and adaptable to specific soil and climatic conditions. Thus, rootstocks influence the rate of growth and have an effect on fruit yield and quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "Mandarins are one of the core ancestral citrus taxa, and are thought to have evolved in regions including South China and Japan in East Asia, and Vietnam in Southeast Asia. Mandarins appear to have been domesticated at least twice, in the north and south Nanling Mountains, derived from separate wild subspecies. Wild mandarins are still found there, including Daoxian mandarines (sometimes given the species name \"Citrus daoxianensis\") as well as some members of the group traditionally called 'Mangshan wild mandarins', a generic grouping for the wild mandarin-like fruit of the Mangshan area that includes both true mandarins (\"mangshanyeju\", the southern subspecies) and the genetically-distinct and only distantly-related Mangshanyegan. The wild mandarins were found to be free of the introgressed pomelo (\"C. maxima\") DNA found in domestic mandarins but they did appear to have small amounts (~1.8%) of introgression from the ichang papeda, which grows wild in the same region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jaffa orange",
        "text": "By 1939, Jewish-owned and Arab-owned orange orchards in Palestine covered , employed over 100,000 workers, and their produce was a primary export. During World War II (1939\u20131945) citrus-growing declined, but recovered after the war with the vigorous assistance of the British Mandate authorities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rarotonga",
        "text": "Oranges had been introduced by the \"Bounty\" mutineers, and after annexation developed into a major export crop, though exports had been disrupted by poor shipping. In 1945 the industry was revived with a government-led citrus replanting scheme, and in 1961 a canning factory was opened to allow the export of juice. The industry survived until the 1980s, but collapsed after New Zealand adopted Rogernomics and removed privileged market access."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eliza Tibbets",
        "text": "Tibbets accomplished much in her years in Riverside and Southern California, including successfully cultivating two grafted navel orange trees. When their fruit appeared at agricultural fairs, it attracted immediate attention. The hybrid came to dominate agricultural citrus orchards, as described below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juice",
        "text": "Groups of grape pits dated to 8000 BCE show early evidence of juice production; although it is thought that the grapes may have been alternatively used to produce wine. One of the first regularly produced juices was lemonade, appearing in 16th-century Italy, as an import, after its conception in the Middle East. Orange juice originated in the 17th century. In the 18th century, James Lind linked citrus fruits to the prevention of scurvy, which, a century later, led to the implementation of the Merchant Shipping Act of 1867, requiring all ocean-bound British ships to carry citrus-based juice on board."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Riverside, California",
        "text": "The growth that the Washington Navel Orange (WNO) produced in Riverside spread throughout the state, driving the state and even the national economy. Citrus assumed a major place in California's economy. By 1917 WNO culture was a $30 million per year industry in California. By 1933 the WNO industry in CA had grown to an industry with an annual income of $67 million. From one million boxes of oranges in 1887 to more than 65.5 million boxes of oranges, lemons, and grapefruit in 1944, despite the depression years of the 1930s, the California citrus industry experienced nothing short of explosive growth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carcaixent",
        "text": "The orange is the fruit made from Spain, through Valencia, and spreading throughout the rest of the world. In Greek mythology the \"Garden of the Hesperides\" is a mythological grove where apples grew tended to by nymphs and a dragon. Hercules, the hero of classical literature, killed the guardian, entered the garden and plucked those golden apples \u2013In later years it was thought that the \"golden apples\" might have actually been oranges, a fruit unknown to Europe before the Middle Ages. Several scholars defend that the etymology of the word comes from the Sanskrit term narang and the Persian word narensh. When Arabs brought orange farming to the Iberian Peninsula, they called the fruits naranjah. The Region of Valencia maintained the orange-farming tradition after the Arabic period, with references to orange trees in the city of Valencia dating back to the 14th century. In fact, there is an Orange Courtyard inside Valencia\u2019s 15th-century Silk Exchange market \"(La Llotja de la Seda)\", a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The first references to commercial orange plantations date back to the 18th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus indica",
        "text": "This wild orange plant was originally characterized as one of the likely ancestors of today's cultivated citrus fruits, if not the main one. It was considered to be the most \"primitive\" citrus. However, genomic analysis has revealed it to be a citrus hybrid, with maternal citron ancestry and also mandarin orange and unspecified papeda contributions. It can be used as a citrus rootstock for cultivated citrus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Florida farmers obtained seeds from New Orleans around 1872, after which orange groves were established by grafting the sweet orange on to sour orange rootstocks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Koji orange",
        "text": "Besides Japan, it is grown in the United States, and other parts of East Asia including South Korea and China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Oranges account for the majority of citrus production but the industry also sees significant quantities of grapefruits, pomeloes, lemons, and limes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Toudja",
        "text": "Oranges are grown widely in the area. In Roman times its springs were an important source of water and there was an aqueduct taking water to the city of Saldae (now B\u00e9ja\u00efa)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Upland, California",
        "text": "The Ontario colony eventually became known for its citrus groves, but in 1882, orange trees were too scarce and expensive at $100 an acre to turn to citrus, so at first other types of fruit were planted. By 1884, Ontario Nursery owner D.A. Shaw reported that there were \"40,000 peach trees, 29,000 pear trees, 15,000 seedling apple trees, 16,000 grafted apple trees, 1,000 cherry trees, and 16,000 grape cuttings set out in orchards and vineyards.\" However, by 1889, some 2,000 acres of citrus orchards had been planted on Ontario, and Ontario was rated as having the second largest citrus acreage in the state."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The orange is a hybrid between pomelo (\"Citrus maxima\") and mandarin (\"Citrus reticulata\"). The chloroplast genome, and therefore the maternal line, is that of pomelo. The sweet orange has had its full genome sequenced."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Riverside, California",
        "text": "A key feature of the growth of the Washington Navel orange industry was a scientific approach to improvement. Study of propagation culture handling, transportation and other phases of producing distributing and marketing the crop was largely responsible for advancements used not only with citrus but also in other fruit industries. In 1893, cyanide gas was used to fight citrus scale. A U. S. Department of Agriculture scientist helped growers to harness nature's biological wrath during the \"decay crisis\" of 1905\u20131907, when alarming proportions of fruit spoiled in transit, and wed the industry to the scientific expertise of the USDA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Orange (fruit)\n--Taxonomy and terminology.\n--Etymology.\n--History.\n--Varieties.\n----Common.\n------Valencia.\n------Hamlin.\n----Navel.\n------Cara cara.\n----Blood.\n----Acidless.\n----Hybrid.\n--Attributes.\n----Sensory factors.\n----Nutritional value and phytochemicals.\n----Grading.\n--Cultivation.\n----Climate.\n----Propagation.\n----Harvest.\n----Degreening.\n----Storage.\n----Pests and diseases.\n------Cottony cushion scale.\n------Citrus greening disease.\n------Greasy spot.\n--Production.\n--Products.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Washington navel orange tree (Riverside, California)",
        "text": "The Parent Washington Navel Orange Tree is a tree grown by Eliza Tibbets in Riverside, California, in 1873. The Riverside County tree was designated a California Historic Landmark (No.20) on June 1, 1932, at the corner of Magnolia Street and Arlington Street, Riverside. The Bahia, Brazil, Washington navel orange was brought to the United States by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1870. The Department of Agriculture imported twelve trees; from these trees, some buds were grafted on to California sweet orange trees. The Washington Navel Orange is also called California Navel Orange."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Other citrus groups also known as oranges are:\n* Bergamot orange (\"Citrus bergamia Risso\"), grown mainly in Italy for its peel, producing a primary essence for perfumes, also used to flavor Earl Grey tea. It is a hybrid of bitter orange x lemon.\n* Bitter orange (\"Citrus aurantium\"), also known as Seville orange, sour orange (especially when used as rootstock for a sweet orange tree), bigarade orange and marmalade orange. Like the sweet orange, it is a pomelo x mandarin hybrid, but arose from a distinct hybridization event.\n* Mandarin orange (\"Citrus reticulata\") is an original species of citrus, and is a progenitor of the common orange.\n* Trifoliate orange (\"Poncirus trifoliata\"), sometimes included in the genus (classified as \"Citrus trifoliata\"). It often serves as a rootstock for sweet orange trees and other \"Citrus\" cultivars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Darchawi",
        "text": "Oranges were cultivated until the year 1937 AD. It was said that each tree bore fruits so abundantly that trees could not sustain without support. They were commercially grown for traders mainly from Kailashahar. The dependency of the villagers on \"jhum\" cultivation immediately stopped. The cultivation of pineapple started from 1937 AD. The production was around 2 million units per annum during the peak production years between 1955 AD and 1982 AD. There was huge wastage due to insufficient processing technologies during that period. Pineapple cultivation has contributed much to their well being and improved quality of life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus",
        "text": "Apart from these core citrus species, Australian limes and the recently discovered mangshanyegan are grown. Kumquats and \"Clymenia\" spp. are now generally considered to belong within the genus \"Citrus\". Trifoliate orange, which is often used as commercial rootstock, is an outgroup and may or may not be categorized as a citrus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunkist Growers, Incorporated",
        "text": "By 1914, Americans were consuming about forty oranges per person every year, up 80% from 1885."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "As oranges are rich in vitamin C and do not spoil easily, during the Age of Discovery, Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch sailors planted citrus trees along trade routes to prevent scurvy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chocolate navel orange",
        "text": "As of December 2021, only three orange cultivators were growing chocolate navel oranges, all in Spain. The season is generally short and they are generally significantly more expensive compared to regular oranges. They are grown from December to January or February."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rize",
        "text": "Historically, Rize grew oranges. However, weather destroyed the crops in the early 20th century, and the industry declined. The area also produced small amounts of manganese."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of plants known as orange",
        "text": "Orange identifies various species of trees, some with edible fruit and some not. \"Citrus sinensis\" includes many of the cultivated oranges used for their fruit, the common supermarket orange. Other species called oranges include:\n* \"Aegle marmelos\", Japanese bitter orange\n*Some of the \"Citrus\" species, including:\n** \"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"sinensis\", sweet oranges, Valencia oranges, Navel oranges, and blood oranges\n**\"Citrus ampullacea\", flask-shaped orange\n** \"Citrus aurantium\", bitter orange, Seville orange, Indian lemon\n**\"Citrus bergamia\", bergamot orange\n**\"Citrus bigaradia\", bigarade orange\n**\"Citrus clementina\", clementine orange\n**\"Citrus indica\", Indian wild orange\n**\"Citrus leiocarpa\", koji orange, smooth-fruited orange\n**\"Citrus medioglobosa\", naruto orange\n**\"Citrus micrantha\", small-flowered bitter orange\n**\"Citrus myrtifolia\", myrtle-leafed orange\n**\"Citrus natsudaidai\", Japanese summer orange\n**\"Citrus nobilis\", mandarin orange\n**\"Citrus pyriformis\", pear-shaped orange\n**\"Citrus reticulata\", mandarin orange\n**\"Citrus suavissima\", pleasant orange\n**\"Citrus succosa\", sappy orange\n**\"Citrus suhuiensis\", suhui orange\n*\"Hortia\" species\n*\"Poncirus trifoliata\", Chinese bitter orange"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oranges and Lemons",
        "text": "When I grow rich,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oranges and Lemons",
        "text": "When I grow rich,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Orange juice is traded internationally in the form of frozen concentrated orange juice to reduce the volume used, so that storage and transportation costs are lower."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "According to genetic studies, the mandarin was one of the original citrus species; through breeding or natural hybridization, it is the ancestor of many hybrid citrus cultivars. With the citron and pomelo, it is the ancestor of the most commercially important hybrids (such as sweet and sour oranges, grapefruit, and many lemons and limes). The mandarin has also been hybridized with other citrus species, such as the desert lime and the kumquat. Though the ancestral mandarin was bitter, most commercial mandarin strains derive from hybridization with pomelo, which give them a sweet fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Toddy (PepsiCo)",
        "text": "As result of this venture into juice production, in the 1950s Pedro Erasmo Santiago established the largest orange juice processing and juice concentrate facility in the world, Suconasa, today Cutrale, established in Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "It is possible to grow orange trees directly from seeds, but they may be infertile or produce fruit that may be different from its parent. For the seed of a commercial orange to grow, it must be kept moist at all times. One approach is placing the seeds between two sheets of damp paper towel until they germinate and then planting them, although many cultivators just set the seeds straight into the soil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Maltese: a small and highly colored variety, generally thought to have originated in Italy as a mutation and cultivated there for centuries. It also is grown extensively in southern Spain and Malta. It is used in sorbets and other desserts due to its rich burgundy color. Moro, originally from Sicily, it is common throughout Italy. This medium-sized fruit has a relatively long harvest, which lasts from December to April. Sanguinelli, a mutant of the Doble Fina, was discovered in 1929 in Almenara, in the Castell\u00f3n province of Spain. It is cultivated in Sicily. Tarocco is relatively new variety developed in Italy. It begins to ripen in late January."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "The Nanling Mountains are also home to northern and southern genetic clusters of domestic mandarins that have similar levels of sugars in the fruit compared to their wild relatives, but appreciably (in some almost 90-fold) lower levels of citric acid. The clusters display different patterns of pomelo introgression, have different deduced historical population histories, and are most closely related to distinct wild mandarins, suggesting two independent domestications in the north and south. All tested domesticated cultivars were found to belong to one of these two genetic clusters, with varieties such as Nanfengmiju, Kishu and Satsuma deriving from the northern domestication event producing larger, redder fruit, while Willowleaf, Dancy, Sunki, Cleopatra, King, Ponkan, and others derived from the smaller, yellower-fruited southern cluster."
      },
      {
        "title": "James W. Cameron",
        "text": "Together with Robert Soost he developed the Oroblanco and Melogold grapefruits, and the encore and pixie mandarins, which turned out to be of major importance. Since 1944, it have been developed with his attendance, 484 hybrid citrus seedlings."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where do oranges originate from?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The orange originated in Southern China, Northeast India, and Myanmar, with the earliest mention of the sweet orange being in Chinese literature in 314 BC."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many types of oranges are grown today?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are over thirty varieties, including blood, navel, and mandarin."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where are most oranges grown today?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Mostly Brazil. In 2019, 79 million tons of oranges were grown worldwide, with Brazil producing 22% of the total, followed by China and India.",
      "As of 2019, Brazil produced the most with 22% of the total 79 million tons grown worldwide."
    ],
    "topic": "Orange juice",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Orange (fruit):4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orange (fruit)"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2019, 79 million tonnes of oranges were grown worldwide, with Brazil producing 22% of the total, followed by China and India."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Orange (fruit):4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orange (fruit)"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2019, 79 million tonnes of oranges were grown worldwide, with Brazil producing 22% of the total, followed by China and India."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Orange juice (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Orange juice usually refers to the fruit juice obtained from squeezing orange."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Orange Juice may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "Orange juice is a liquid extract of the orange tree fruit, produced by squeezing or reaming oranges. It comes in several different varieties, including blood orange, navel oranges, valencia orange, clementine, and tangerine. As well as variations in oranges used, some varieties include differing amounts of juice vesicles, known as \"pulp\" in American English, and \"(juicy) bits\" in British English. These vesicles contain the juice of the orange and can be left in or removed during the manufacturing process. How juicy these vesicles are depend upon many factors, such as species, variety, and season. In American English, the beverage name is often abbreviated as \"OJ\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "O. J. Simpson",
        "text": "Simpson acquired the nickname \"Juice\" as a play on \"O.J.\", a common abbreviation for orange juice. \"Juice\" is also a colloquial synonym for electricity or electrical power, and hence a metaphor for any powerful entity; the Bills' offensive line at Simpson's peak was nicknamed \"The Electric Company\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Orange juice (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The word entered Late Middle English in the fourteenth century via Old French \"orenge\" (in the phrase \"pomme d'orenge\"). The French word, in turn, comes from Old Proven\u00e7al \"auranja\", based on Arabic \"n\u0101ranj\". In several languages, the initial \"n\" present in earlier forms of the word dropped off because it may have been mistaken as part of an indefinite article ending in an \"n\" sound\u2014in French, for example, \"une norenge\" may have been heard as \"une orenge\". This linguistic change is called juncture loss. The color was named after the fruit, and the first recorded use of \"orange\" as a color name in English was in 1512."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (word)",
        "text": "The word ultimately derives from a Dravidian language \u2013 possibly Tamil \u0ba8\u0bbe\u0bb0\u0bae\u0bcd \"n\u0101ram\" or Telugu \u0c28\u0c3e\u0c30\u0c3f\u0c02\u0c1c \"n\u0101ri\u1e43ja\" or Malayalam \u0d28\u0d3e\u0d30\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u200c \"n\u0101ra\u014b\u014ba\" \u2014 via Sanskrit \u0928\u093e\u0930\u0919\u094d\u0917 \"n\u0101ra\u1e45ga\u1e25\" \"orange tree\". From there the word entered Persian \"n\u0101rang\" and then Arabic \"n\u0101ranj\". The initial \"n\" was lost through rebracketing in Italian and French, though some varieties of Arabic lost the \"n\" earlier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (word)",
        "text": "The word orange is both a noun and an adjective in the English language. In both cases, it refers primarily to the orange fruit and the color orange, but has many other derivative meanings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (word)",
        "text": "The word is derived from a Dravidian language, and it passed through numerous other languages including Sanskrit and Old French before reaching the English language. The earliest uses of the word in English refer to the fruit, and the color was later named after the fruit. Before the English-speaking world was exposed to the fruit, the color was referred to as \"yellow-red\" (\"geoluread\" in Old English) or \"red-yellow\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Orange juice is obtained by squeezing the fruit on a special tool (a \"juicer\" or \"squeezer\") and collecting the juice in a tray underneath. This can be made at home or, on a much larger scale, industrially. Brazil is the largest producer of orange juice in the world, followed by the United States, where it is one of the commodities traded on the New York Board of Trade. Frozen orange juice concentrate is made from freshly squeezed and filtered orange juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citron",
        "text": "In Indo-Iranian languages, it is called , as against ('bitter orange'). Both names were borrowed into Arabic and introduced into Spain and Portugal after their occupation by Muslims in AD 711, whence the former became the source of the name \"orange\" through rebracketing (and the latter of 'toronja', which today describes the grapefruit in Spanish)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (word)",
        "text": "Another example by Tom Lehrer relies on the /\u02c8\u0251r\u0259nd\u0292/ pronunciation commonly used on the East Coast of the United States:\n:\"Eating an orange\"\n:\"While making love\"\n:\"Makes for bizarre enj-\"\n:\"oyment thereof.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The lack of acid, which protects orange juice against spoilage in other groups, renders them generally unfit for processing as juice, so they are primarily eaten. They remain profitable in areas of local consumption, but rapid spoilage renders them unsuitable for export to major population centres of Europe, Asia, or the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daidai",
        "text": "The native Japanese word for the color orange, or \"daidai-iro\", is derived from the name of this fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apelsin",
        "text": "A Swedish manufacturer of juice, Br\u00e4mhults, launched an advertising campaign in November 2009 called \"Apelsin to Jos\", which means literally \"Orange to Juice\" in Swedish. The slogan is a pun, and the campaign consists of the stunt of sending the band to a Nigerian town called Jos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Svenska Akademiens ordlista",
        "text": "In the 10th edition in 1973, the Academy tried to launch new alternative spellings such as \"jos\" (\"juice\"), without attracting any significant number of followers. The 11th edition of SAOL appeared in 1986 and the 12th edition in 1998. While the letter Q in the 8th edition only listed the letter Q itself, the 11th edition also listed \"quantum satis\", \"quenell\", \"quilt\" and \"quisling\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Acidless oranges are an early-season fruit with very low levels of acid. They also are called \"sweet\" oranges in the United States, with similar names in other countries: \"douce\" in France, \"sucrena\" in Spain, \"dolce\" or \"maltese\" in Italy, \"meski\" in North Africa and the Near East (where they are especially popular), \"\u015feker portakal\" (\"sugar orange\") in Turkey, \"succari\" in Egypt, and \"lima\" in Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (word)",
        "text": "Although \"sporange\", a variant of \"sporangium\", is an eye rhyme for \"orange\", it is not a true rhyme as its second syllable is pronounced with an unreduced vowel , and often stressed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The word \"orange\" derives from the Sanskrit word for \"orange tree\" (\u0928\u093e\u0930\u0919\u094d\u0917 \"n\u0101ra\u1e45ga\"), which in turn derives from a Dravidian root word (compare \u0ba8\u0bb0\u0ba8\u0bcd\u0ba4\u0bae\u0bcd/\u0d28\u0d3e\u0d30\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19 \"narandam/naranja\" which refers to Bitter orange in Tamil and Malayalam). The Sanskrit word reached European languages through Persian \u0646\u0627\u0631\u0646\u06af (\"n\u0101rang\") and its Arabic derivative \u0646\u0627\u0631\u0646\u062c (\"n\u0101ranj\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Orange juice is traded internationally as frozen, concentrated orange juice to reduce the volume used so that storage and transportation costs are lower."
      },
      {
        "title": "Toddy (PepsiCo)",
        "text": "As result of this venture into juice production, in the 1950s Pedro Erasmo Santiago established the largest orange juice processing and juice concentrate facility in the world, Suconasa, today Cutrale, established in Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange",
        "text": "Orange most often refers to:\n*Orange (colour), occurs between red and yellow in the visible spectrum\n*Orange (fruit), the fruit of the tree species \" Citrus\" \u00d7 \"sinensis\"\n** Orange blossom, its fragrant flower\n*Some other citrus or citrus-like fruit, see \"list of plants known as orange\"\n*\"Orange\" (word), both a noun and an adjective in the English language"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Orange Juice",
        "text": "with:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange production in Brazil",
        "text": "Three Brazilian companies dominate the orange-juice export market: Citrosuco SA Agroind\u00fastria, Sucocitrico Cutrale Ltda, and Louis Dreyfus Commodities Brasil SA. Together, these companies account for about 40% of Brazilian orange production and 98% of Brazilian juice exports. The domination of the market by these three companies is also blamed for the low orange prices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sonsorolese language",
        "text": "There is full reduplication in the Sonsorol language. E.g. 'orange' = , 'oranges' = ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Trees from groves in hammocks or areas covered with pine forest are budded on sour orange trees, a method that gives a high solids content. On sand, they are grafted on rough lemon rootstock. The Hamlin orange is one of the most popular juice oranges in Florida and replaces the Parson Brown variety as the principal early-season juice orange. This cultivar is now the leading early orange in Florida and, possibly, in the rest of the world.\n* Bahia: grown in Brazil and Uruguay\n* Bali: grown in Bali, Indonesia. Larger than other orange\n* Belladonna: grown in Italy\n* Berna: grown mainly in Spain\n* Biondo Comune (\"ordinary blond\"): widely grown in the Mediterranean basin, especially in North Africa, Egypt, Greece (where it is called \"koines\"), Italy (where it is also known as \"Liscio\"), and Spain; it also is called \"Beledi\" and \"Nostrale\"; in Italy, this variety ripens in December, earlier than the competing Tarocco variety\n* Biondo Riccio: grown in Italy\n*Byeonggyul: grown in Jeju Island, South Korea\n* Cadanera: a seedless orange of excellent flavor grown in Algeria, Morocco, and Spain; it begins to ripen in November and is known by a wide variety of trade names, such as Cadena Fina, Cadena sin Jueso, Precoce de Valence (\"early from Valencia\"), Precoce des Canaries, and Valence san Pepins (\"seedless Valencia\"); it was first grown in Spain in 1870\n* Calabrese or Calabrese Ovale: grown in Italy\n* Carvalhal: grown in Portugal\n* Castellana: grown in Spain\n* Charmute: grown in Brazil\n* Cherry Orange: grown in southern China and Japan\n* Clanor: grown in South Africa\n* Dom Jo\u00e3o: grown in Portugal\n* Fukuhara: grown in Japan\n* Gardner: grown in Florida, this mid-season orange ripens around the beginning of February, approximately the same time as the Midsweet variety; Gardner is about as hardy as Sunstar and Midsweet\n* Homosassa: grown in Florida\n* Jaffa orange: grown in the Middle East, also known as \"Shamouti\"\n* Jincheng: the most popular orange in China\n* Joppa: grown in South Africa and Texas\n* Khettmali: grown in Israel and Lebanon\n* Kona: a type of Valencia orange introduced in Hawaii in 1792 by Captain George Vancouver; for many decades in the nineteenth century, these oranges were the leading export from the Kona district on the Big Island of Hawaii; in Kailua-Kona, some of the original stock still bears fruit\n* Lima: grown in Brazil\n* Lue Gim Gong: grown in Florida, is an early scion developed by Lue Gim Gong, a Chinese immigrant known as the \"Citrus Genius\"; in 1888, Lue cross-pollinated two orange varieties \u2013 the Hart's late Valencia and the Mediterranean Sweet \u2013 and obtained a fruit both sweet and frost-tolerant; this variety was propagated at the Glen St. Mary Nursery, which in 1911 received the Silver Wilder Medal by the American Pomological Society; originally considered a hybrid, the Lue Gim Gong orange was later found to be a nucellar seedling of the Valencia type, which is properly called Lue Gim Gong; since 2006, the Lue Gim Gong variety is grown in Florida, although sold under the general name Valencia\n* Macetera: grown in Spain, it is known for its unique flavor\n* Malta: grown in Pakistan\n* Maltaise Blonde: grown in north Africa\n* Maltaise Ovale: grown in South Africa and in California under the names of Garey's or California Mediterranean Sweet\n* Marrs: grown in Texas, California and Iran, it is relatively low in acid\n* Medan: grown in Medan, Indonesia\n* Midsweet: grown in Florida, it is a newer scion similar to the Hamlin and Pineapple varieties, it is hardier than Pineapple and ripens later; the fruit production and quality are similar to those of the Hamlin, but the juice has a deeper color\n* Moro Tarocco: grown in Italy, it is oval, resembles a tangelo, and has a distinctive caramel-colored endocarp; this color is the result of a pigment called anthocarpium, not usually found in citruses, but common in red fruits and flowers; the original mutation occurred in Sicily in the seventeenth century\n* Narinja: grown in Andhra, South India\n* Parson Brown: grown in Florida, Mexico, and Turkey, it once was a widely grown Florida juice orange, its popularity has declined since new varieties with more juice, better yield, and higher acid and sugar content have been developed; it originated as a chance seedling in Florida in 1865; its fruits are round, medium large, have a thick, pebbly peel and contain 10 to 30 seeds; it still is grown because it is the earliest maturing fruit in the United States, usually maturing in early September in the Valley district of Texas, and from early October to January in Florida; its peel and juice color are poor, as is the quality of its juice\n* Pera: grown in Brazil, it is very popular in the Brazilian citrus industry and yielded 7.5 million metric tons in 2005\n* Pera Coroa: grown in Brazil\n* Pera Natal: grown in Brazil\n* Pera Rio: grown in Brazil\n* Pineapple: grown in North and South America and India\n* Pontianak: oval-shaped orange grown especially in Pontianak, Indonesia\n* Premier: grown in South Africa\n* Rhode Red: is a mutation of the Valencia orange, but the color of its flesh is more intense; it has more juice, and less acidity and vitamin C than the Valencia; it was discovered by Paul Rhode in 1955 in a grove near Sebring, Florida\n* Roble: it was first shipped from Spain in 1851 by Joseph Roble to his homestead in what is now Roble's Park in Tampa, Florida; it is known for its high sugar content\n* Queen: grown in South Africa\n* Salustiana: grown in North Africa\n* Sathgudi: grown in Tamil Nadu, South India\n* Seleta, Selecta: grown in Australia and Brazil, it is high in acid\n* Shamouti Masry: grown in Egypt; it is a richer variety of Shamouti\n* Sunstar: grown in Florida, this newer cultivar ripens in mid-season (December to March) and it is more resistant to cold and fruit-drop than the competing Pineapple variety; the color of its juice is darker than that of the competing Hamlin\n* Tomango: grown in South Africa\n* Verna: grown in Algeria, Mexico, Morocco, and Spain\n* Vicieda: grown in Algeria, Morocco, and Spain\n* Westin: grown in Brazil\n* X\u00e3 \u0110o\u00e0i orange: grown in Vietnam"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "Common orange juice is made from the sweet orange. Different cultivars (for example, Valencia, Hamlin) have different properties, and a producer may mix cultivar juices to get the desired taste. Orange juice usually varies between shades of orange and yellow, although some ruby red or blood orange varieties are a reddish-orange or even pinkish. This is due to different pigmentation in ruby red oranges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange drink",
        "text": "Because orange drinks can be confused with orange juice, the U.S. government requires orange drinks, as well as other beverages whose names allude to fruit products, to state the percentage of juice contained above the \"Nutrition Facts\" label. and requires companies to state them as orange drinks instead of orange juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "\"Citrus reticulata\" is from Latin, where reticulata means \"netted\". The name \"mandarin orange\" is a calque of Swedish \"mandarin apelsin\" [\"apelsin\" from German \"Apfelsine\" (\"Apfel\" + \"Sina\"), meaning \"Chinese apple\"], first attested in the 18th century. The form \"mandarine\" derives from the French name for this fruit. The reason for the epithet \"mandarin\" is not clear; it may relate to the yellow colour of some robes worn by mandarin dignitaries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ju Song",
        "text": "The word \"ju\", meaning \"orange (fruit or tree)\" is phonetically reminiscent of the word \"zh\u00f9\" (\u795d), which means \"to wish or pray for\", as in the phrase \"zh\u00f9 f\u00fa\" (\u795d\u798f), \"to wish or pray for good luck\", thus the orange is symbolically a \"harbinger of good luck\". Also in ancient times the emperor gave oranges to his officials,; thus the emperor could be said to be like an orange tree, both being a source of orange fruits (and the metaphor could be extended)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The USDA uses a separate grading system for oranges used for juice because appearance and texture are irrelevant in this case. There are only two grades: US Grade AA Juice and US Grade A Juice, which are given to the oranges before processing. Juice grades are determined by three factors:\n# The juiciness of the orange\n# The amount of solids in the juice (at least 10% solids are required for the AA grade)\n# The proportion of anhydric citric acid in fruit solids"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (word)",
        "text": "Orange (word)\n--Etymology.\n--Rhyme.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Etat libre d'Orange",
        "text": "Every flask is identical, the only variant being the name, surrounding the logo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Portuguese language",
        "text": "For instance, as Portuguese merchants were presumably the first to introduce the sweet orange in Europe, in several modern Indo-European languages the fruit has been named after them. Some examples are Albanian \"portokall\", Bosnian (archaic) \"portokal\", \"prtokal\", Bulgarian \u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b (\"portokal\"), Greek \u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9 (\"portok\u00e1li\"), Macedonian \"\", Persian \u067e\u0631\u062a\u0642\u0627\u0644 (\"porteghal\"), and Romanian \"portocal\u0103\". Related names can be found in other languages, such as Arabic \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u062a\u0642\u0627\u0644 (\"burtuq\u0101l\"), Georgian \u10e4\u10dd\u10e0\u10d7\u10dd\u10ee\u10d0\u10da\u10d8 (\"p'ort'oxali\"), Turkish \"portakal\" and Amharic \"birtukan\". Also, in southern Italian dialects (e.g. Neapolitan), an orange is \"portogallo\" or \"purtuallo\", literally \"(the) Portuguese (one)\", in contrast to standard Italian \"arancia\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Athletics abbreviations",
        "text": "The various organizing bodies of the sport are abbreviated into alphabet soup.\n* AAA = Amateur Athletic Association of England \u2013 England\n* AAA = Asian Athletics Association\n* AAU = Amateur Athletic Union USA amateur sports umbrella governing body formed 1887 until broken up in 1979 \u2013 USA\n* AFI = Athletics Federation of India - India\n* AK = Athletics Kenya \u2013 Kenya\n* ANA = Authorised Neutral Athletes\n* ANZ = Athletics New Zealand \u2013 New Zealand\n* APA = Association of Panamerican Athletics \u2013 North and South America\n* ARAF = All-Russia Athletic Federation \u2013 Russia\n* BAAA = Bahamas Association of Athletic Associations \u2013 Bahamas\n* BFLA = Belarus Athletic Federation \u2013 Belarus\n* CAA = Confederation of African Athletics\n* CACAC = Central American and Caribbean Athletic Confederation \u2013 Central America and Caribbean\n* CBAt = Confedera\u00e7\u00e3o Brasileira de Atletismo \u2013 Brasil\n* CISM = International Military Sports Council \u2013 Military athletics\n* CONSUDATLE = Confederaci\u00f3n Sudamericana de Atletismo \u2013 South America\n* CTAA = Chinese Taipei Athletics Association \u2013 Taiwan\n* DAF = Danish Athletics Federation \u2013 Denmark\n* DLFV = 1949\u20131990 Athletics Federation of East Germany\n* DLV = Deutscher Leichtathletik-Verband \u2013 Germany\n* EAA or EA = European Athletic Association/European Athletics\n* EAF = Ethiopian Athletic Federation \u2013 Ethiopia\n* EKJL = Eesti Kergej\u00f5ustikuliit \u2013 Estonia\n* FCA = Federaci\u00f3n Cubana de Atletismo \u2013 Cuba\n* FFA = F\u00e9d\u00e9ration fran\u00e7aise d'athl\u00e9tisme \u2013 France\n* FIDAL = Federazione Italiana di Atletica Leggera \u2013 Italy\n* FISU = International University Sports Federation \u2013 Student athletics\n* HKAAA = Hong Kong Association of Athletics Affiliates \u2013 Hong Kong. \"Hong Kong Amateur Athletic Association\" is sometimes used.\n* IAAF = International Association of Athletics Federations \u2013 World\n* IAU = International Association of Ultrarunners\n* IOC = International Olympic Committee \u2013 Olympics\n* IPC = International Paralympic Committee \u2013 Paralympic athletics\n* JAAA = Jamaica Athletics Administrative Association \u2013 Jamaica. \"Jamaica Amateur Athletic Association\" is sometimes used.\n* JAAF = Japan Association of Athletics Federations \u2013 Japan\n* KNAU = Royal Dutch Athletics Federation \u2013 Netherlands\n* OAA = Oceania Athletics Association\n* NACAC = North American, Central American and Caribbean Athletic Association \u2013 North America\n* NCAA = National Collegiate Athletic Association \u2013 USA Colleges and Universities\n* NFHS = National Federation of State High School Associations \u2013 USA High Schools\n* RFEA = Real Federaci\u00f3n Espa\u00f1ola de Atletismo \u2013 Spain\n* TAC = The Athletics Congress, predecessor to USA Track & Field 1979\u20131992 \u2013 USA\n* TAF = Turkish Athletic Federation \u2013 Turkey\n* UKA = UK Athletics \u2013 United Kingdom\n* USATF = USA Track & Field \u2013 USA\n* WA = World Athletics \u2013 World\n* WAVA = 1977\u20132001 World Association of Veteran Athletes \u2013 World Masters (athletes over age 35)\n* WMA = since 2001 World Masters Athletics \u2013 World Masters (athletes over age 35)\n* WMRA = World Mountain Running Association\n* ARRS = Association of Road Racing Statisticians\n* ATFS = Association of Track and Field Statisticians\n* AW = \"Athletics Weekly\"\n* NUTS = National Union of Track Statisticians \u2013 United Kingdom\n* T&FN = \"Track & Field News\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (name)",
        "text": "Orange is a surname and a given name."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange Rhyming Dictionary",
        "text": "Citations"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange production in Brazil",
        "text": "Brazil is also the world's largest exporter of orange juice. According to the United States Department of Agriculture, the country shipped 1.2 million metric tons of orange juice in 2012\u2014twelve times more than the United States, the world's 2nd-largest exporter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebrew abbreviations",
        "text": "When one of the letters is vav or yud, these may be read as vowels (\"u\"/\u201co\u201d and \"i\") instead: (\"duakh\"/\"dokh\" = , judgement and account); (\"admor\" = , hasidic rebbe; (\"shut\" = , questions and answers); (\"sakum\" = , knife spoon and fork); (\"tapuz\" = , orange, lit. golden apple); (\"um\" = , the United Nations); Bilu; Lehi. (An exception is , Beitar, pronounced \"beytar\".)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "For Canadian markets, orange juice must be the fruit juice obtained from clean, sound, and mature oranges. The juice must also contain a minimum of 1.20 milliequivalents of free amino acids per 100 millilitres, contain a minimum of 115 milligrams of potassium per 10 milliliters, and possess a minimum absorbance value for total polyphenolics of 0.380. Sweeteners such as sugar, invert sugar, dextrose or glucose solids may be added. The orange juice must have a Brix reading of at least 9.7, excluding the sweetening ingredients, and contain between 0.5 and 1.8 percent of acid by weight calculated as anhydrous citric acid. Added orange essences, orange oils and orange pulp adjusted in accordance with good manufacturing practice is permitted. Orange juice is also permitted to contain sugar, invert sugar, dextrose in dry form, glucose solids, a Class II preservative, amylase, cellulase and pectinase."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "In 2019, 79 million tonnes of oranges were grown worldwide, with Brazil producing 22% of the total, followed by China and India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laranjeiras (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Laranjeiras (Portuguese for \"orange trees\") may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (colour)",
        "text": "Before this word was introduced to the English-speaking world, \"saffron\" already existed in the English language. \"Crog\" also referred to the saffron colour, so that orange was also referred to as (\"yellow-red\") for reddish orange, or (\"yellow-saffron\") for yellowish orange. Alternatively, orange things were sometimes described as red such as red deer, red hair, the Red Planet and robin redbreast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (name)",
        "text": "Orange (name)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "-ade (suffix)",
        "text": "-ade is a suffix used for a fruit\u2013 (often citrus) flavored beverage. These drinks may be carbonated or non-carbonated. Widespread examples include lemonade, cherryade, limeade, and orangeade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Portuguese Empire",
        "text": "For instance, as Portuguese merchants were presumably the first to introduce the sweet orange in Europe, in several modern Indo-European languages the fruit has been named after them. Some examples are Albanian portokall, Bulgarian \u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b (\"portokal\"), Greek \u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9 (\"portokali\"), Macedonian \u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u043e\u043a\u0430\u043b (\"portokal\"), Persian \u067e\u0631\u062a\u0642\u0627\u0644 (\"porteghal\"), and Romanian portocal\u0103. Related names can be found in other languages, such as Arabic \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u062a\u0642\u0627\u0644 (\"bourtouqal\"), Georgian \u10e4\u10dd\u10e0\u10d7\u10dd\u10ee\u10d0\u10da\u10d8 (\"p'ort'oxali\"), Turkish portakal and Amharic \"birtukan\". Also, in southern Italian dialects (e.g., Neapolitan), an orange is \"portogallo\" or \"purtuallo\", literally \"(the) Portuguese (one)\", in contrast to standard Italian \"arancia\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Portmanteau",
        "text": "Sometimes the root of the second word is truncated, giving rise to a blend that resembles an acrostic:\n* (, 'orange' (fruit)), from (, 'apple') and (, 'gold')\n* (, 'potato'), from (, 'apple') and (, 'soil' or 'earth'), but the full (, 'apple of the soil' or 'apple of the earth') is more common"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange Juice in Bishop's Garden",
        "text": "The show is available in closed captioning for hearing-impaired viewers, in addition to being available with French, Spanish, and German subtitles. The show is also currently being translated into Spanish and Russian, as part of a larger translation push."
      },
      {
        "title": "Magyar Narancs",
        "text": "The name is a reference to the communist-era attempt to cultivate oranges in Hungary, which failed. The climate is not suitable and the oranges didn't ripen fully, and they were almost yellow and had a sour taste. This was parodied by the movie \"The Witness\", in which the only fruit from the plantation is eaten just before being presented to the great leader. In order to salvage the situation, a lemon is used as a replacement. The leader's reaction to the substitution (\"It's a bit more yellow, it's a bit more sour, but it's OURS!\") gave rise to the term \"Hungarian orange\", which has since become a metaphor, similar to the \"goulash communism\" used abroad. It was used to refer to the pseudo-communism in the communist era and to the pseudo-capitalism after the country became a democracy, and other phenomena. The orange was also used as the logo by the Fidesz (currently centre-right, but started as libertarian) party, for similar reasons. This however caused confusion since Fidesz became a conservative party and the magazine did not want to be identified with the changed party. To solve this, recently the orange basic colour of the magazine's headline has been changed to yellow which is also the actual colour of the \"Hungarian orange\", a lemon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Common oranges (also called \"white\", \"round\", or \"blond\" oranges) constitute about two-thirds of all the orange production. The majority of this crop is used for juice extraction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange",
        "text": "Orange may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Apples and oranges",
        "text": "Sometimes the two words sound similar, for example, Romanian (apples with pears) and the Hungarian (the season with the fashion)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lists of abbreviations",
        "text": "Abbreviations in other languages:"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Citrus Industry",
        "text": "Many of the mentioned are classical abbreviation authors, and the citations of their names are actually referring to this book."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juice",
        "text": "Depending on trends and regulations, beverages listed as \"100% juice\" may actually contain unlisted additives. For example, most orange juice contains added ethyl butyrate (to enhance flavor), vitamin C (as ascorbic acid), and water (if from concentrate). When fruit juice is too sour, acidic, or rich to consume, it may be diluted with water and sugar to create an \"-ade\" (such as lemonade, limeade, cherryade, and orangeade). The 'ade' suffix may also refer to any sweetened, fruit-flavored drink, whether or not it actually contains any juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Old South (orange juice)",
        "text": "Old South is the name of a brand of frozen concentrated orange juice (FCOJ) sold in Canada since 1939. It produces a number of different kinds of orange juice, as well as other fruit juices. The brand was formerly owned by the Pasco Beverage Company, a citrus growers' cooperative, and was bought by Louis Dreyfus Citrus, the third largest orange juice producer in the world, which is owned by the Louis Dreyfus Group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "In the U.S., the major orange juice brand is Tropicana Products (owned by PepsiCo Inc.), which possesses nearly 65% of the market share. Tropicana also has a large presence in Latin America, Europe, and Central Asia. Competing products include Minute Maid (of The Coca-Cola Company) and Florida's Natural (a Floridian agricultural cooperative that differentiates itself from the competition by being locally owned and using only Florida grown oranges; Tropicana and Simply Orange use a mixture of domestic and foreign stock)."
      },
      {
        "title": "1958 South African general election",
        "text": "Abbreviations in the province list.\n* Orange FS: Orange Free State\n* SW Africa: South-West Africa\n* NRM: Native Representative Members"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "In the United Kingdom, major orange juice brands include Del Monte and Princes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grapico",
        "text": "In 1955, Grapico Company of America expanded its fruit flavored brands into orange with Orangico, a play on the name Grapico. Orangico was to include real orange juice. The orange juice based Orangico did not sell well and the federal trademark eventually expired in 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "In Australia, Daily Juice (owned by National Foods) is a major brand of partially fresh, partially preserved, orange juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "IJ (digraph)",
        "text": "In Dutch names, interchangeability of \"i\", \"ij\" and \"y\" is frequent. Some names are changed unofficially for commercial reasons or by indifference:\n* Johan Cruijff/Cruyff, former football player and manager\n* Ruud van Nistelrooij/Nistelrooy, football player\n* Piet Heijn/Heyn/Hein, a Dutch West India Company admiral\n* Dirk Kuijt/Kuyt, football player\n* Arie Luijendijk/Luyendyk, race-driver\n* Spijker/Spyker, car manufacturer\n* Anner Bijlsma/Bylsma, cellist"
      },
      {
        "title": "Estonian orthography",
        "text": "The abbreviation period (full stop) may be used, but it is not mandatory. Commonly used abbreviations are usually written without the abbreviation period: \"t\", \"tn\", or \"t\u00e4n\" for \"t\u00e4nav\" 'street'; \"vt\" for \"vaata\" 'see'; \"jpt\" for \"ja paljud teised\" 'and many others'. Using the abbreviation period is recommended when an abbreviation may be misread as another word: \"joon.\" for \"joonis\" 'figure, draft' but \"joon\" 'line'. If an abbreviation of a word phrase may be mistaken for a word or for another abbreviation, periods are used after every letter but the last one, and spaces are not used: \"e.m.a\" for \"enne meie ajaarvamist\" but \"ema\" 'mother', \"m.a.j\" for \"meie ajaarvamise j\u00e4rgi\" but \"maj\" for \"majandus\" 'economy'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus production",
        "text": "Orange juice is traded internationally in the form of frozen concentrated orange juice to reduce the volume used, so that storage and transportation costs are lower."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juice (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Juice (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lists of abbreviations",
        "text": "Lists of abbreviations\n--English language abbreviations.\n--Acronyms.\n--Other languages.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lemonade",
        "text": "The suffix \"-ade\" may also be applied to other similar drinks made with different fruits, such as limeade, orangeade, or cherryade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (colour)",
        "text": "In English, the colour orange is named after the appearance of the ripe orange fruit. The word comes from the , from the old term for the fruit, . The French word, in turn, comes from the Italian , based on Arabic (), borrowed from Persian derived from Sanskrit (), which in turn derives from a Dravidian root word (compare / \"/\" which refers to bitter orange in Tamil and Malayalam). The earliest known recorded use of \"orange\" as a colour name in English was in 1502, in a description of clothing purchased for Margaret Tudor. Another early recorded use was in 1512, in a will now filed with the Public Record Office. The place-name \"Orange\" has a separate etymology and is not related to that of the colour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The Valencia orange is a late-season fruit, and therefore a popular variety when navel oranges are out of season. This is why an anthropomorphic orange was chosen as the mascot for the 1982 FIFA World Cup, held in Spain. The mascot was named Naranjito (\"little orange\") and wore the colors of the Spanish national football team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Secondary notation",
        "text": "- 2 boxes of fruit juice"
      },
      {
        "title": "International orange",
        "text": "International orange\n--Variations of international orange.\n----Aerospace.\n----Golden Gate Bridge.\n----Engineering.\n----Sports.\n----Trucking.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "UC Juice",
        "text": "In 2010 the paper changed its name once again, becoming \"The Campus Inquirer\". Which it is still named today."
      },
      {
        "title": "UC Juice",
        "text": "The original name for UC Juice was TechToday. It was changed due to the addition of the Academy for Performing Arts school on campus, rendering the name \"Tech\"Today unfitting for the campus newspaper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "The blood orange, with its distinct color and flavor, is generally considered favorably as a juice, and has found a niche as an ingredient variation in traditional Seville marmalade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juice (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Juice or The Juice may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Orange juice contains only about one-fifth the citric acid of lime or lemon juice (which contain about 47\u00a0g/l)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Douglas Dummett",
        "text": "In 1930 the Federal Trade Commission was forced to issue an order to stop growers in other areas of the state from labeling their oranges \"Indian River Citrus\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Golden apple",
        "text": "In many languages, the orange is referred to as a \"golden apple\". For example, the Greek \"\u03c7\u03c1\u03c5\u03c3\u03bf\u03bc\u03b7\u03bb\u03b9\u03ac,\" and Latin \"pomum aurantium\" both literally describe oranges as \"golden apples\". Other languages, like German, Finnish, Hebrew, and Russian, have more complex etymologies for the word \"orange\" that can be traced back to the same idea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "The blood orange is a mutant of the sweet orange. The mandarin orange and the clementine and tangerine varieties are often used for sparkling juice drinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fruit (slang)",
        "text": "\"Fruit Juice\" is a name of a magazine started in 1988 by \"two dykes and two poofters\" in Lismore in northern NSW Australia that was a focal point for the formation of the \"Tropical Fruits\" community group. It can also refer to semen for or from a gay man."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese orange",
        "text": "Chinese orange may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Svenska Akademiens ordlista",
        "text": "Whenever a new edition comes out lively discussions about new and changed entries erupt around the country. In some instances the Academy has been ahead of its times and has later had to change entries back to older spellings. \"Jos\" \u2013 \"juice\" is probably the most well-known instance. In 2015, the fourteenth edition (containing entries) was published."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Right Juice",
        "text": "The Right Juice is an English-language comedy-drama film produced in Algarve, Portugal. Directed by Kristjan Knigge, the original screenplay has been written by David Butler-Cole and Kristjan Knigge. Produced by Barbara Jane Boulter and Co-Produced by Chris Parker, the film is starring Mark Killeen, L\u00facia Moniz, Miguel Dami\u00e3o, Ellie Chidzey, and Beau McClellan. The film is about a, failed, bankrupt and fresh from the city, who is pursuing fulfillment by growing oranges on an old farm. He and his neighbour face unprincipled enemies in a highly amusing quest to save their valley from exploitation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "In the United States, orange juice is regulated and standardized by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA or USFDA) of the United States Department of Health and Human Services. According to the FDA, orange juice from concentrate is a mixture of water with frozen concentrated orange juice or concentrated orange juice for manufacturing. Additional ingredients into the mixture may include fresh/frozen/pasteurized orange juice from mature oranges, orange oil, and orange pulp. Furthermore, one or more of the following optional sweetening ingredients may be added: sugar, sugar syrup, invert sugar, invert sugar syrup, dextrose, corn syrup, dried corn syrup, glucose syrup, and dried glucose syrup. The orange juice must contain a minimum Brix level of 11.8, which indicates the percentage of orange juice soluble solids, excluding any added sweetening ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "International Fruit and Vegetable Juice Association",
        "text": "The International Fruit and Vegetable Juice Association (IFU) represents the worldwide juice sector interests as the registered non-governmental organization (NGO) at Codex Alimentarius. It also represents the sector with World Health Organization (WHO), World Trade Organization (WTO), World Customs Organization (WCO) and any other relevant governmental or intergovernmental organisation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synephrine",
        "text": "Juices from \"sweet\" oranges purchased in Brazilian markets were found to contain ~10\u201322\u00a0mg/L synephrine; commercial orange soft drinks obtained on the Brazilian market had an average synephrine content of ~1\u00a0mg/L. Commercial Italian orange juices contained ~13\u201332\u00a0mg/L of synephrine"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ampersand",
        "text": "The ampersand may still be used as an abbreviation for \"and\" in informal writing regardless of how \"and\" is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Duck \u00e0 l'orange",
        "text": "Duck \u00e0 l'orange\n--Variations.\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Crem Helado",
        "text": "In 1992, Meals announces an orange juice trademark called \"Country Hill\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shades of orange",
        "text": "Shades of orange\n--Orange (color wheel).\n--Computer web color oranges.\n----Orange (web color).\n----Dark orange (web color).\n--Aerospace and safety.\n----Safety orange.\n----International orange (Aerospace).\n----International orange (Golden Gate Bridge).\n--Additional definitions of orange.\n----Orange (Pantone).\n----Orange (Crayola).\n--Other variations of orange.\n----Papaya whip.\n----Peach.\n----Light orange.\n----Apricot.\n----Melon.\n----Atomic tangerine.\n----Xanthous.\n----Carrot orange.\n----Orange peel.\n----Princeton orange.\n----UT orange.\n----Spanish orange.\n----Tangerine.\n----Coral.\n----Pumpkin.\n----Tangelo.\n----Saffron.\n----Goldenrod.\n----Hunyadi yellow.\n----Giants orange.\n----Persimmon.\n----Butterscotch.\n----Persian orange.\n----Alloy orange.\n----Burnt orange.\n----Tiger\u2019s eye.\n----Brown.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "International Fruit and Vegetable Juice Association",
        "text": "The IFU was founded in Paris in 1949 as the International Federation of Fruit Juice Producers named International Fruit Juice Union. The name of the organisation was changed in 2015 to International Fruit and Vegetable Juice Association to reflect the diversity of the membership base. Today it is represented in 77 member countries across 6 continents."
      },
      {
        "title": "IJ (digraph)",
        "text": "When words or (first) names are shortened to their initials, in the Netherlands a word or proper name starting with \"IJ\" is abbreviated to \"IJ\". For example, \"IJsbrand Eises Ypma\" is shortened to \"IJ. E. Ypma\". Note that the digraph \"ei\" in \"Eises\", like other digraphs in Dutch, is shortened to one letter."
      },
      {
        "title": "1953 South African general election",
        "text": "Abbreviations in the province list.\n* Orange FS: Orange Free State\n* SW Africa: South-West Africa\n* NRM: Native Representative Members"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Orange Juice",
        "text": "The Orange Juice is a 1984 album by Scottish post-punk band Orange Juice. It was their last studio LP. The title was a tribute to The Velvet Underground's eponymous third album."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Singapore abbreviations",
        "text": "There are efforts to maintain some consistency among the initialisms. Three letters are used for government institutions (\"PUB\", \"HDB\", \"CPF\", \"MOH\", \"CWO\") and for expressways (\"AYE\", \"PIE\", \"KJE\"), while two letters are used for polytechnics (\"SP\", \"RP\"). To maintain this consistency, some abbreviations are not direct initials; for example \"CTE\" is used for \"Central Expressway\" instead of *\"CE\", and \"NP\" is used for \"Ngee Ann Polytechnic\" instead of *\"NAP\". When the Nanyang Technological University (\"NTU\") was established in 1991, the name was chosen instead of the alternative \"Nanyang University of Technology\" because the latter would have resulted in the unsuitable \"NUT\". While Anderson Secondary School has shortened its name to \"ANDSS\" instead of \"ASS\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lazy initialization",
        "text": "Fruit::GetFruit(\"Apple\");"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "By 1949, orange juice processing plants in Florida were producing over 10 million gallons of concentrated orange juice. Consumers liked concentrated canned orange juice as it was affordable, tasty, convenient, and high in vitamin C. The preparation was simple: empty the container of frozen concentrate into a measured volume of water and stir. However, by the 1980s, food scientists developed a fresher-tasting juice known as reconstituted ready-to-serve juice. Eventually in the 1990s, \"not from concentrate\" (NFC) orange juice was developed. Orange juice is a common breakfast beverage in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "M=SF",
        "text": "\"(original Dutch language novels are in light orange)\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (word)",
        "text": "It is widely believed that no common English word is a full rhyme for \"orange\", though there are half rhymes, such as \"hinge,\" \"lozenge,\" \"syringe,\" and \"porridge\", and slang or otherwise uncommon words exist. Although this property is not unique to the word\u2014one study of 5,411 one-syllable English words found 80 words with no rhymes\u2014the lack of rhyme for \"orange\" has garnered significant attention, and inspired many humorous verses."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Japanese Latin alphabetic abbreviations",
        "text": "List of Japanese Latin alphabetic abbreviations\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where do oranges originate from?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The orange originated in Southern China, Northeast India, and Myanmar, with the earliest mention of the sweet orange being in Chinese literature in 314 BC."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many types of oranges are grown today?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are over thirty varieties, including blood, navel, and mandarin."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where are most oranges grown today?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mostly Brazil. In 2019, 79 million tons of oranges were grown worldwide, with Brazil producing 22% of the total, followed by China and India."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Do other languages have any abbreviation for orange juice?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In American English, the beverage name is often abbreviated as \"OJ\"."
    ],
    "topic": "Orange juice",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Orange juice:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orange juice"
        ],
        "ctx": "Orange juice is a liquid extract of the orange tree fruit, produced by squeezing or reaming oranges. It comes in several different varieties, including blood orange, navel oranges, valencia orange, clementine, and tangerine. As well as variations in oranges used, some varieties include differing amounts of juice vesicles, known as \"pulp\" in American English, and \"(juicy) bits\" in British English. These vesicles contain the juice of the orange and can be left in or removed during the manufacturing process. How juicy these vesicles are depend upon many factors, such as species, variety, and season. In American English, the beverage name is often abbreviated as \"OJ\"."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "O. J. Simpson",
        "text": "Simpson acquired the nickname \"Juice\" as a play on \"O.J.\", a common abbreviation for orange juice. \"Juice\" is also a colloquial synonym for electricity or electrical power, and hence a metaphor for any powerful entity; the Bills' offensive line at Simpson's peak was nicknamed \"The Electric Company\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "In the United Kingdom, major orange juice brands include Del Monte and Princes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "In the U.S., the major orange juice brand is Tropicana Products (owned by PepsiCo Inc.), which possesses nearly 65% of the market share. Tropicana also has a large presence in Latin America, Europe, and Central Asia. Competing products include Minute Maid (of The Coca-Cola Company) and Florida's Natural (a Floridian agricultural cooperative that differentiates itself from the competition by being locally owned and using only Florida grown oranges; Tropicana and Simply Orange use a mixture of domestic and foreign stock)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "Orange juice is a liquid extract of the orange tree fruit, produced by squeezing or reaming oranges. It comes in several different varieties, including blood orange, navel oranges, valencia orange, clementine, and tangerine. As well as variations in oranges used, some varieties include differing amounts of juice vesicles, known as \"pulp\" in American English, and \"(juicy) bits\" in British English. These vesicles contain the juice of the orange and can be left in or removed during the manufacturing process. How juicy these vesicles are depend upon many factors, such as species, variety, and season. In American English, the beverage name is often abbreviated as \"OJ\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Old South (orange juice)",
        "text": "Old South is the name of a brand of frozen concentrated orange juice (FCOJ) sold in Canada since 1939. It produces a number of different kinds of orange juice, as well as other fruit juices. The brand was formerly owned by the Pasco Beverage Company, a citrus growers' cooperative, and was bought by Louis Dreyfus Citrus, the third largest orange juice producer in the world, which is owned by the Louis Dreyfus Group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jujyfruits",
        "text": "Jujyfruits\n--Description.\n--Ingredients.\n--Brand extension.\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "O. J. Simpson",
        "text": "Orenthal James Simpson (born July 9, 1947), nicknamed \"Juice\", is an American former football running back, broadcaster, actor, and advertising spokesman. Once a popular figure with the U.S. public, he is now best known for being tried for the murders of his former wife, Nicole Brown Simpson, and her friend Ron Goldman. Simpson was initially acquitted of the murders in criminal court but was later found responsible for both deaths in a civil trial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "Many brands of organic orange juices have become available on the market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "In Australia, Daily Juice (owned by National Foods) is a major brand of partially fresh, partially preserved, orange juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natural Alternatives International",
        "text": "One of their main products is Juice Plus, launched in 1993, which was brought up during the O. J. Simpson murder case in 1995, since O. J. Simpson was the product's chief spokesperson."
      },
      {
        "title": "LJJ",
        "text": "LJJ might be an acronym or abbreviation for:"
      },
      {
        "title": "OJ da Juiceman",
        "text": "32 Entertainment, is an Atlanta, Georgia based record label formed in 2007 by OJ da Juiceman. It is currently operating independently."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grapico",
        "text": "In 1955, Grapico Company of America expanded its fruit flavored brands into orange with Orangico, a play on the name Grapico. Orangico was to include real orange juice. The orange juice based Orangico did not sell well and the federal trademark eventually expired in 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Orange Juice may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Simply Orange Juice Company",
        "text": "The Simply Orange Juice Company is an American fruit juice company based in Apopka, Florida, that was founded in 2001 and is a brand of The Coca-Cola Company. It makes a number of not-from-concentrate orange juices and other juice drinks and fruit juices that are sold refrigerated in a distinctive clear plastic bottle and green twist top with a large green seal. The bottles have a wide body that starts tapering to a narrow neck at the top of the label."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Orange juice (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Apelsin",
        "text": "A Swedish manufacturer of juice, Br\u00e4mhults, launched an advertising campaign in November 2009 called \"Apelsin to Jos\", which means literally \"Orange to Juice\" in Swedish. The slogan is a pun, and the campaign consists of the stunt of sending the band to a Nigerian town called Jos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "The product was developed in 1948 at the University of Florida's Citrus Research and Education Center. Since, it has emerged as a soft commodity, and futures contracts have traded in New York since 1966. Options on FCOJ were introduced in 1985. From the late 1950s to the mid-1980s, the product had the greatest orange juice market share, but not-from-concentrate juices surpassed FCOJ in the 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (colour)",
        "text": "Several corporate brands use orange, such as Blogger, Fanta, FedEx, GlaxoSmithKline, Gulf, Hankook, Harley-Davidson, ING, J\u00e4germeister, Nickelodeon, Orange, the Women's National Basketball Association, The Home Depot, PornHub and TNT."
      },
      {
        "title": "O. J. Simpson",
        "text": "In the late 1990s, Simpson attempted to register \"O. J. Simpson\", \"O. J.\", and \"The Juice\" as trademarks for \"a broad range of goods, including figurines, trading cards, sportswear, medallions, coins, and prepaid telephone cards\". A \"concerned citizen\", William B. Ritchie, sued to oppose the granting of federal registration on the grounds that doing so would be immoral and scandalous. Simpson gave up the effort in 2000 and left California that year for Florida, settling in Miami. Florida is one of few states where pensions and/or residences cannot generally be seized to collect debts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "Orange juice\n--History.\n--Nutrition.\n--Commercial orange juice and concentrate.\n----Frozen concentrated orange juice.\n----Not from concentrate.\n----Canned orange juice.\n----Freshly squeezed, unpasteurized juice.\n----Major orange juice brands.\n----Additives.\n----Types of orange.\n--Processing and manufacture.\n----Manufacture of frozen concentrated orange juice.\n----Manufacture of \"not from concentrate\".\n--Standards and regulations.\n----Regulations in Canada.\n----Regulations in the United States.\n----Regulations in the United Kingdom.\n--Physical and chemical properties.\n----Molecular composition.\n------Composition of the cloud.\n----Physical structure.\n------Heat treatment.\n------Properties of pulp.\n------Hydrocolloids.\n------Properties of pectin.\n------Interactions of pectin.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "IJ",
        "text": "IJ, ij or iJ may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ooij",
        "text": "Ooij may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Orange Juice",
        "text": "with:"
      },
      {
        "title": "IJ (digraph)",
        "text": "In Dutch names, interchangeability of \"i\", \"ij\" and \"y\" is frequent. Some names are changed unofficially for commercial reasons or by indifference:\n* Johan Cruijff/Cruyff, former football player and manager\n* Ruud van Nistelrooij/Nistelrooy, football player\n* Piet Heijn/Heyn/Hein, a Dutch West India Company admiral\n* Dirk Kuijt/Kuyt, football player\n* Arie Luijendijk/Luyendyk, race-driver\n* Spijker/Spyker, car manufacturer\n* Anner Bijlsma/Bylsma, cellist"
      },
      {
        "title": "Japan Tobacco International",
        "text": "These brands account for 72% of JTI's sales:\n* Benson & Hedges\n* Camel (outside the US)\n* Glamour\n* LD\n* Mevius (Mild Seven)\n* Natural American Spirit (outside the US)\n* Silk Cut\n* Sobranie\n* Winston (outside the US)\n* Hamlet\n* Old Holborn\n* Amber Leaf\n* Gustavus Snus\n* Wings"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ollech & Wajs",
        "text": "In 2006 a collector of OW became the distributor of the brand for the French market, and in 2017, Albert J. Wajs passed the company over to him."
      },
      {
        "title": "OJ da Juiceman",
        "text": "Otis Williams Jr. (born November 23, 1981), better known by his stage name OJ da Juiceman, is an American rapper. OJ da Juiceman is also the founder of vanity label 32 Entertainment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Simply Orange Juice Company",
        "text": "The company was founded in 2001 by Minute Maid, launching three varieties of \"Simply Orange\" in the Northeastern United States. In 2002, it expanded to the Southeastern United States. By 2003, the company had national distribution. The three launch varieties of Simply Orange were \"Original\", \"Original with Calcium\" and \"Grove Made\". Simply Orange added a fourth variety in 2004: \"Country Stand with Calcium\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "IJ",
        "text": "IJ\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange drink",
        "text": "Because orange drinks can be confused with orange juice, the U.S. government requires orange drinks, as well as other beverages whose names allude to fruit products, to state the percentage of juice contained above the \"Nutrition Facts\" label. and requires companies to state them as orange drinks instead of orange juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ojjeh",
        "text": "Notable people with the surname include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Simply Orange Juice Company",
        "text": "The company is a major purchaser of Florida oranges for its orange juice, but also imports orange juice from Brazil and Mexico. Simply Orange uses a computer-modeled blending of orange juice sources, intending for the consumer to have a uniform taste year-round."
      },
      {
        "title": "IJ (digraph)",
        "text": "When words or (first) names are shortened to their initials, in the Netherlands a word or proper name starting with \"IJ\" is abbreviated to \"IJ\". For example, \"IJsbrand Eises Ypma\" is shortened to \"IJ. E. Ypma\". Note that the digraph \"ei\" in \"Eises\", like other digraphs in Dutch, is shortened to one letter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jif (lemon juice)",
        "text": "Jif (lemon juice)\n--Formulation.\n----Nutrition information.\n----Uses.\n--Packaging.\n--History.\n----Hax, Realemon and ReaLem brands.\n----Jif brand.\n----Competitors.\n--Marketing.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "O-J-I",
        "text": "O-J-I\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "O-I Glass",
        "text": "While legally known as Owens-Illinois, Inc., the company changed its trade name to O-I in 2005 to group its global operations under a single, cross-language and cross-culture brand name."
      },
      {
        "title": "U boj, u boj",
        "text": "oj, zbogom,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Simply Orange Juice Company",
        "text": "Simply Orange Juice Company\n--Company history.\n--Products.\n--Advertising.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "U boj, u boj",
        "text": "From everywhere around us"
      },
      {
        "title": "IJ (digraph)",
        "text": "In the Dutch phonetic radio alphabet, the codeword represents the \"IJ\". This is clearly different from the codeword \"Ypsilon\", which is used to represent the \"Y\". Dutch and Belgian armed forces use the official NATO phonetic alphabet, \"Y\" is \"Yankee\" and \"IJ\" is spelled out \"India Juliett\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Orange juice is traded internationally as frozen, concentrated orange juice to reduce the volume used so that storage and transportation costs are lower."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jell-O",
        "text": "The following are the flavors of Jell-O products that are currently being produced:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Zest-O",
        "text": "While touring Europe in 1979, Yao learned about the Doypack packaging format in one of the European trade exhibits he visited. He bought one machine and tried to market the Doypack packaging format to juice drink manufacturers in the Philippines. When no company took interest, he decided to market his own brand of fruit juice drink. He put up a company called SEMEXCO Marketing Corporation and launched Zest-O orange juice drink in 1980."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Orange juice usually refers to the fruit juice obtained from squeezing orange."
      },
      {
        "title": "ABJ",
        "text": "Abj is an abbreviation for abject, abjunction, and abjuration. ABJ may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "EUR-Lex",
        "text": "All the editions of the OJ are available on Eur-Lex, dating back to 1952, when they were available in French, Italian, Dutch and German. They can be easily retrieved via a search or by browsing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ojjeh",
        "text": "Ojjeh is a surname. It is a prominent family originally from Damascus, Syria. Descendants are present in Lebanon, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom, France, Switzerland, the USA etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "S. M. Jaleel and Company",
        "text": "SM Jaleel & Company Ltd, also known as SMJ, is the largest manufacturer of non alcoholic drinks in the English speaking Caribbean. Since inception in 1924 their portfolio of beverages are distributed to over 60 countries worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "TOJ",
        "text": "Toj or TOJ may refer to:ujhh"
      },
      {
        "title": "Olive Young (company)",
        "text": "The company started importing organic cosmetics from Juice Beauty, a popular US cosmetics brand, in 2009. It released CJ ONE, an integrated membership service for CJ Systems, in 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fruit soju",
        "text": "These are the main brands of fruit soju:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange Julius",
        "text": "Orange Julius is an American chain of fruit drink beverage stores. It has been in business since the late 1920s and is noted for a particular drink, also called an Orange Julius. The beverage is a mixture of ice, orange juice, sweetener, milk, powdered egg whites and vanilla flavoring."
      },
      {
        "title": "UJ",
        "text": "UJ may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (India)",
        "text": "The Orange brand in India, through a complicated set of mergers and divisions, was acquired and eventually retained by Orange S.A.; and currently operates as Orange Business Services India (OBS India)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange Julius",
        "text": "In the 1970s and early 1980s, Orange Julius beverage stands used the image of a devil with a pitchfork around an orange, with the slogan, \"A Devilish Good Drink\". The devil image resembled Sparky, the mascot of Arizona State University, and the company later dropped the logo and slogan after threats of a lawsuit from the ASU alumni association."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange Jordan",
        "text": "Orange Jordan\n--History.\n--Mobile.\n--ADSL.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Old South (orange juice)",
        "text": "McCain Foods Ltd. purchased the Old South Brand in 2000 in exchange for selling its citrus operation in the United States. Old South is the third-largest selling frozen juice concentrate brand in Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Etat libre d'Orange",
        "text": "Every flask is identical, the only variant being the name, surrounding the logo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (word)",
        "text": "Another example by Tom Lehrer relies on the /\u02c8\u0251r\u0259nd\u0292/ pronunciation commonly used on the East Coast of the United States:\n:\"Eating an orange\"\n:\"While making love\"\n:\"Makes for bizarre enj-\"\n:\"oyment thereof.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "PBJ",
        "text": "PBJ or PB&J may abbreviate for:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ooij",
        "text": "Ooij\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Toddy (PepsiCo)",
        "text": "As result of this venture into juice production, in the 1950s Pedro Erasmo Santiago established the largest orange juice processing and juice concentrate facility in the world, Suconasa, today Cutrale, established in Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "CJ Group",
        "text": "Notable CJ subsidiaries include CJ CheilJedang (Food and Beverage), CJ Korea Express (Logistics), CJ Olive Networks (Health & Beauty Stores & IT), CJ ENM (Entertainment and Retail), and CJ CGV (Cinema Chain). The group is chaired by Lee Jay-hyun, eldest grandson of Samsung's founder."
      },
      {
        "title": "S. M. Jaleel and Company",
        "text": "S. M. Jaleel and Company\n--Business Segment.\n--History.\n--Products Manufactured and Distributed by SMJ.\n----Juices & Juice Drinks.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gibeau Orange Julep",
        "text": "The Gibeau Orange Julep restaurant (also known colloquially as OJ or The Big Orange) is a roadside attraction and fast food restaurant in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The building is in the shape of an orange, three stories high, with a diameter of ."
      },
      {
        "title": "UJ",
        "text": "UJ\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "CJ CheilJedang",
        "text": "It has since expanded globally with offices in the U.S., China, Vietnam, Japan, and Germany. CJ packaged food products are currently exported to more than 100 countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ojjeh",
        "text": "Ojjeh\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "OBJ",
        "text": "Obj or OBJ may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "J2O",
        "text": "In 2001 due to growing brand success, the J2O packaging was redesigned and a fourth flavour, Orange & Cranberry, was introduced. In 2002, due to the brand's popularity within the on-trade sector, J2O was made available to the take-home market for the first time, with four-bottle packs being introduced into supermarkets and retail shops. The packaging was again changed in 2005, and Apple & Raspberry was introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Japan Crude Cocktail",
        "text": "The 11 refiners and primary distributors of the PAJ are Idemitsu Kosan, Cosmo Oil Marketing, TOA Oil, ENEOS, KASHIMA Oil, Kygnus Sekiyu, Taiyo Oil Company, Showa Yokkaichi Sekiyu, Fuji Oil Company, Seibu Oil and Cosmo Oil Company."
      },
      {
        "title": "O\u0161elj",
        "text": "O\u0161elj\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kush & Orange Juice",
        "text": "Kush & Orange Juice (abbreviated as Kush and OJ) is a mixtape by American rapper Wiz Khalifa. It was released on April 14, 2010, by Taylor Gang Records and Rostrum Records. Following its release, \"Kush & Orange Juice\" gained notoriety, making it the number-one trending topic on both Google and Twitter. On the same day, a link to the mixtape was posted for download on Wiz\u2019s Twitter. The hashtag #kushandorangejuice became the number-six trending topic on the microblogging service after its release and remained on the top trending items on Twitter for three days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orlando Juice",
        "text": "Orlando Juice\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "CJ Group",
        "text": "CJ Group\n--History.\n----1953 to 1970.\n----1971 to 1990.\n----1991 to 2001.\n----2003 to present.\n------Global expansion.\n--------Food and beverage service.\n--------Biotechnology and pharmaceutics.\n--------Home shopping and logistics.\n--------Entertainment and media.\n------Family feud.\n------Conviction of chairman.\n--Subsidiaries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Original Jazz Classics",
        "text": "Original Jazz Classics (or OJC) is a record label that founded in 1983 as an imprint of Fantasy Records."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange UK",
        "text": "From July 2008 to 2013, \"I am\"' became the main slogan, shortened from \"I am who I am because of everyone\", however, subsidiary slogans were used to describe the company's products and services, for example \"I am more focus, less fuzz\" was used to describe the Samsung Soul handset."
      },
      {
        "title": "OJ da Juiceman discography",
        "text": "OJ da Juiceman discography\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Crem Helado",
        "text": "In 1992, Meals announces an orange juice trademark called \"Country Hill\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Osakeyhti\u00f6",
        "text": "\"Julkinen osakeyhti\u00f6\" (pl. \"julkiset osakeyhti\u00f6t\") means \"public stock company\" and is abbreviated to oyj (). A \"julkinen osakeyhti\u00f6\" can be listed on the Helsinki Stock Exchange. The term's Swedish equivalent is \"Abp\" (\"publikt aktiebolag\"). An oyj may be called a public limited company or public company in English and may use the abbreviation PLC in the company name, for example."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of National Basketball Association players (I\u2013J)",
        "text": "This is a list of National Basketball Association players whose last names begin with I or J."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kia-Ora",
        "text": "The success of the Kia-Ora brand subsequently declined, overtaken by rival juice producers such as Robinsons. Coca-Cola eventually discontinued all variations except sugar-free orange and sugar-free mixed fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "IJ (Amsterdam)",
        "text": "Finally, the IJ could also come from the lake Almere or Flevo."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Kiwi Juice",
        "text": "FKJ has been described as a \"pioneer\" and \"one of the flag bearers\" of the new New French House genre. He was originally trained in sound engineering for film at a film school."
      },
      {
        "title": "I.O.I",
        "text": "I.O.I also endorsed CJ CheilJedang's dessert brand Petitzel Eclairs and Korean fashion brand Pancoat."
      },
      {
        "title": "SJ O",
        "text": "SJ O\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "J&O Irish Store",
        "text": "J&O Irish Store\n--Description and history.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "AAJ",
        "text": "AAJ or Aaj may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "OMV",
        "text": "[[Category:Austrian brands]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "UTJ",
        "text": "UTJ can be an abbreviation for:"
      },
      {
        "title": "R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company",
        "text": "RJR has a large brand portfolio, which includes Camel, Newport, Doral, Eclipse, Kent and Pall Mall. Other brands commercialized in the past were Barclay, Belair and Real."
      },
      {
        "title": "CJ Group",
        "text": "In the 1980s, CJ expanded to processed food items such as beverages and frozen foods, and entered the pharmaceutical business based on new advanced technologies. In 1984, CJ established ETI, a local subsidiary, in New Jersey, U.S. as a joint venture project In 1986 CJ's Biotechnology & Pharmaceutics division succeeded in becoming the third in the world to develop Alpha-interferon, an anticancer medicine, as well as launching 'Hepaccine-B', a hepatitis vaccine. It established Cheil Frozen Food and launched its beverage business in 1987. With the establishment of Cheil Jedang Indonesia in 1988 and the construction of a lysine and synthetic seasoning plant in Indonesia in 1990, CJ started reaching markets outside South Korea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Enema",
        "text": "\"In alphabetical order of the original brand names\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cadiz, Negros Occidental",
        "text": "So far, four companies (San Miguel Corp., Pepsi Cola, Coca-Cola and Jaz Cola) have established their distribution centers within the city."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungarian orthography",
        "text": "Names of products, articles, makes, and brands are written capitalized, e.g. . This does not include names which include the material or origin of the product, e.g. 'orange juice'. If the word showing the type is added to the name for clarification, it is done with a space, and in lowercase, e.g. 'Panangin pill'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange (fruit)",
        "text": "Orange juice is obtained by squeezing the fruit on a special tool (a \"juicer\" or \"squeezer\") and collecting the juice in a tray underneath. This can be made at home or, on a much larger scale, industrially. Brazil is the largest producer of orange juice in the world, followed by the United States, where it is one of the commodities traded on the New York Board of Trade. Frozen orange juice concentrate is made from freshly squeezed and filtered orange juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "International orange",
        "text": "International orange\n--Variations of international orange.\n----Aerospace.\n----Golden Gate Bridge.\n----Engineering.\n----Sports.\n----Trucking.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "LJ (programming language)",
        "text": "Category:Redirects from abbreviation"
      },
      {
        "title": "AAJ",
        "text": "AAJ\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where do oranges originate from?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The orange originated in Southern China, Northeast India, and Myanmar, with the earliest mention of the sweet orange being in Chinese literature in 314 BC."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many types of oranges are grown today?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are over thirty varieties, including blood, navel, and mandarin."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where are most oranges grown today?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mostly Brazil. In 2019, 79 million tons of oranges were grown worldwide, with Brazil producing 22% of the total, followed by China and India."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Do other languages have any abbreviation for orange juice?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In American English, the beverage name is often abbreviated as \"OJ\"."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who are the major OJ brands outside the US?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In the early nineties under Seagram, Tropicana also began to expand distribution to global markets and formed a partnership to process and distribute Kirin-Tropicana juices in Japan; Seagram Beverage Group acquired Dole Food Company's global juice business in 1995, including the Dole brands in North America, and Dole, Fruvita, Looza and Juice Bowl juices and nectars in Europe. Minute Maid 100% Juice has a presence in Canada."
    ],
    "topic": "Orange juice",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Tropicana Products:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tropicana Products",
          "History",
          "Going public and expansion: 1969\u20131997"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the early nineties under Seagram, Tropicana also began to expand distribution to global markets. They formed a partnership to process and distribute Kirin-Tropicana juices in Japan. By that time, the company was also distributing Tropicana Pure Premium in Canada, the United Kingdom, Ireland, France, Germany, Argentina, Panama and Sweden. As the 1990s continued, Tropicana further expanded internationally, entering several more Latin American countries, Hong Kong and China."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Tropicana Products:15",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tropicana Products",
          "History",
          "Going public and expansion: 1969\u20131997"
        ],
        "ctx": "Seagram Beverage Group acquired Dole Food Company's global juice business in 1995, including the Dole brands in North America, and Dole, Fruvita, Looza and Juice Bowl juices and nectars in Europe. Dole was operated under Tropicana Dole Beverages North America and Tropicana Dole Beverages International."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Minute Maid:16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Minute Maid",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2003, Minute Maid's division fully merged with Coca-Cola North America.\n*Minute Maid is marketed under the brand Cepita del Valle.\n**Apple, Homemade Apple, Homemade Orange, \"Multifruta\", \"Nutridefensas\" Apple, \"Nutridefensas\" Orange, Orange, Peach, Pineapple\n*Aquarius\n**Apple, Grape, Grapefruit, Lemonade, \"Multifruta\", Orange, Pear, Pink Grapefruit\n*Slightly Sparkling Aquarius\n**Zero Calories Citrus, Zero Calories Lemonade, Zero Calories Pear\n*Aquarius Zero\n**Apple, Grapefruit, Lemonade, Orange\n* Minute Maid Mais - Del Valle\n** Apple, Cashew, Cashew Mango, Grape, Guava, Mango, Orange, Passion fruit, Peach, Homemade Orange\n* Minute Maid 100% Juice\n** Pure Squeezed Orange Juice, Pulp Free Pure Squeezed Orange Juice, Home Squeezed Style Orange Juice, Original Orange Juice, Pulp Free Orange Juice, Low Acid Orange Juice, Apple Juice, Apple Grape, Grapefruit Juice, Fruit Blend, Tropical Orange, and Mixed Berry\n* Simply Orange Juice\n*Fortified Juices\n** Original Orange Juice with Calcium and Vitamin D, Orange Tangerine with Calcium and Vitamin D\n* Juice Drinks\n** Fruit Punch, Berry Punch, Cranberry Punch, Grape Punch, Mango Punch, Orange Guava Punch, Peach Punch, Raspberry Punch, Orange Punch, Cranberry Cocktail, Pink Grapefruit Cocktail\n* Lemonades\n**Lemonade, Pink Lemonade\n* Tim Horton's Bottled Coffee\n** Regular, Double Double, IcedCapp Moca\n* Del Valle"
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Juice Plus",
        "text": "University of California Berkeley Wellness Letter and MLMWatch commented on the unreliability of Juice Plus testimonials provided by former professional athlete O. J. Simpson. Simpson, known commonly as \"O. J.\" and \"The Juice\", signed a multi-year six-figure contract with NSA in January 1994 and became an official celebrity endorser of Juice Plus. In March 1994, Simpson was videotaped telling 4,000 Juice Plus distributors at a sales meeting that the product had cured his arthritis, improved his golf game, and freed him from using anti-arthritic drugs. However, regarding the murder of his ex-wife Nicole Brown Simpson and her friend, Ronald Goldman, for which Simpson was tried and acquitted, Simpson claimed in his defence that he was too incapacitated by arthritis to have committed the murders and had continued to take the anti-inflammatory drug sulfasalazine. As a result of the controversy surrounding Simpson, NSA cancelled his endorsement contract and stopped using the Simpson videotape to promote Juice Plus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "In the U.S., the major orange juice brand is Tropicana Products (owned by PepsiCo Inc.), which possesses nearly 65% of the market share. Tropicana also has a large presence in Latin America, Europe, and Central Asia. Competing products include Minute Maid (of The Coca-Cola Company) and Florida's Natural (a Floridian agricultural cooperative that differentiates itself from the competition by being locally owned and using only Florida grown oranges; Tropicana and Simply Orange use a mixture of domestic and foreign stock)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "Consumption of orange juice is under preliminary research for the potential to improve nutrition and affect chronic diseases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease",
        "text": "Further information from the CDC:\n* Risk of developing CJD increases with age.\n* CJD incidence was 3.5 cases per million among those over 50 years of age between 1979 and 2017.\n* Approximately 85% of CJD cases are sporadic and 10-15% of CJD cases are due to inherited mutations of the prion protein gene.\n* CJD deaths and age-adjusted death rate in the United States indicate an increasing trend in the number of deaths between 1979 and 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Odwalla",
        "text": "On October 7, 1996, Odwalla made a batch of apple juice using blemished fruit, resulting in one death and 66 sickened customers. Odwalla made and marketed unpasteurized fruit juices for the health segment of the juice market. This batch was contaminated with \"E. coli\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "1996 Odwalla E. coli outbreak",
        "text": "The outbreak occurred because Odwalla sold unpasteurized fruit juices, though pasteurization had long been standard in the juice industry, claiming that the process of pasteurization alters the flavor and destroys at least 30% of nutrients and enzymes in fruit juice. Instead, Odwalla relied on washing usable fruit with sanitizing chemicals before pressing. Because of the lack of pasteurization and numerous other flaws in its safety practices (one contractor warned that Odwalla's citrus processing equipment was poorly maintained and was breeding bacteria in \"black rotten crud\"), the company was charged with 16 criminal counts of distributing adulterated juice. Odwalla pleaded guilty, and was fined $1.5 million: at the time, the largest penalty in a food poisoning case in the United States. With the judge's permission, Odwalla donated $250,000 of the $1.5 million to fund research in preventing food-borne illnesses. In addition, the company spent roughly another $12 million settling about a dozen lawsuits from families whose children were infected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goji",
        "text": "In January 2007, marketing statements for a goji juice product were the subject of an investigative report by consumer advocacy program \"Marketplace\" produced by the Canadian television network, CBC. In the interview, Earl Mindell (then working for direct-marketing company \"FreeLife International, Inc.\") falsely claimed the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York had completed clinical studies showing that use of wolfberry juice would prevent 75% of human breast cancer cases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Noni juice",
        "text": "Although noni plants and juices have been promoted by practitioners of alternative medicine as a cure for a number of human maladies including HIV, heart disease and cancer, the American Cancer Society concluded that \"there is no reliable clinical evidence that noni juice is effective in preventing or treating cancer or any other disease in humans\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variant Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease",
        "text": "As of 2018, evidence suggests that while there may be prions in the blood of individuals with vCJD this is not the case in individuals with sporadic CJD."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tropicana Products",
        "text": "Seagram Beverage Group acquired Dole Food Company's global juice business in 1995, including the Dole brands in North America, and Dole, Fruvita, Looza and Juice Bowl juices and nectars in Europe. Dole was operated under Tropicana Dole Beverages North America and Tropicana Dole Beverages International."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordan S. Orange",
        "text": "Orange completed his Bachelor's degree, PhD, and medical degree from Brown University and conducted his residency training at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (CHOP), clinical fellowship at Boston Children's Hospital, and a post-doctoral research fellowship at Harvard University. While at Brown University, he discovered that natural killer cells produce cytokines to participate in defending the body against viruses. His thesis, published in 1996, was titled \"IL-12 and viral infections.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Marjory Warren",
        "text": "\"'* To prevent disease whenever possible;\"<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tropicana Products",
        "text": "Oranges have a limited growing season, and because there is demand for juice year round, an unspecified quantity of juice is deaerated and then stored for future packaging in chilled tanks to preserve quality. The aseptic tanks protect the juice from oxygen and light and hold the liquid at optimal temperatures just above freezing to maintain maximum nutrition. It has been reported that deaerated juice no longer tastes like oranges, and must be supplemented before consumption with orange oils in order to recreate the orange flavor. Pulp may be blended in at this point depending on the product."
      },
      {
        "title": "MonaVie",
        "text": "Company executives had repeatedly acknowledged ongoing problems with MonaVie distributors making unlawful claims that the juice can treat and prevent diseases. In a 2008 \"Newsweek\" article, CEO Dallin Larsen stated that \"his sales team can get him in hot water with the Feds\", and that it was \"next to impossible\" for the company to investigate distributors suspected of making false claims. Later in 2008, the company issued a statement acknowledging that many of its distributors, \"perhaps unwittingly,\" violated its advertising policies. In a 2009 \"Bloomberg News\" article, MonaVie executive vice-president and cofounder Randy Larsen stated that \"the company is struggling with independent distributors who promote the juice as a miracle drug.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Natural Alternatives International",
        "text": "One of their main products is Juice Plus, launched in 1993, which was brought up during the O. J. Simpson murder case in 1995, since O. J. Simpson was the product's chief spokesperson."
      },
      {
        "title": "1996 Odwalla E. coli outbreak",
        "text": "To boost sales following the recall, Odwalla reformulated five products to remove their apple juice content, and released them in November 1996. Flash pasteurization, as well as several other safety precautions, were introduced to the manufacturing process, and the juices reappeared on store shelves on December 5, 1996."
      },
      {
        "title": "1996 Odwalla E. coli outbreak",
        "text": "The 1996 Odwalla \"E. coli\" outbreak began on October 7, 1996, when American food company Odwalla produced a batch of unpasteurized apple juice using blemished fruit contaminated with \"E. coli\" bacterium, which ultimately killed a 16-month-old girl and sickened 70 people in California, Colorado, Washington state, and British Columbia, of whom 25 were hospitalized and 14 developed the hemolytic uremic syndrome. Odwalla made and marketed unpasteurized fruit juices for the health segment of the juice market."
      },
      {
        "title": "O. J. Simpson",
        "text": "Simpson acquired the nickname \"Juice\" as a play on \"O.J.\", a common abbreviation for orange juice. \"Juice\" is also a colloquial synonym for electricity or electrical power, and hence a metaphor for any powerful entity; the Bills' offensive line at Simpson's peak was nicknamed \"The Electric Company\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "O. J. Simpson",
        "text": "In the late 1990s, Simpson attempted to register \"O. J. Simpson\", \"O. J.\", and \"The Juice\" as trademarks for \"a broad range of goods, including figurines, trading cards, sportswear, medallions, coins, and prepaid telephone cards\". A \"concerned citizen\", William B. Ritchie, sued to oppose the granting of federal registration on the grounds that doing so would be immoral and scandalous. Simpson gave up the effort in 2000 and left California that year for Florida, settling in Miami. Florida is one of few states where pensions and/or residences cannot generally be seized to collect debts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Homer",
        "text": "In 2007, persistent memory problems he had been experiencing led to a diagnosis of Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease, a very rare and incurable degenerative neurological disorder. Several people close to him created \"Fight for Mike\", an organization that raised $7 million used to fund research in the neurology department of the University of California, San Francisco towards study and potential cure of the disease. The team at UCSF includes Dr. Stanley B. Prusiner, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1997 for his discovery of the prion, misfolded proteins that trigger CJD and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (\"mad cow disease\"). The team at UCSF was studying the use of Quinacrine, long used as an antimalarial drug, in the treatment of CJD."
      },
      {
        "title": "J. J. Spaun",
        "text": "NT = No tournament due to COVID-19 pandemic"
      },
      {
        "title": "O. J. Simpson",
        "text": "Orenthal James Simpson (born July 9, 1947), nicknamed \"Juice\", is an American former football running back, broadcaster, actor, and advertising spokesman. Once a popular figure with the U.S. public, he is now best known for being tried for the murders of his former wife, Nicole Brown Simpson, and her friend Ron Goldman. Simpson was initially acquitted of the murders in criminal court but was later found responsible for both deaths in a civil trial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Odwalla",
        "text": "A period of decline occurred as the result of a fatal outbreak of in 1996 that was caused by using bruised fruit that had been contaminated. Odwalla originally sold unpasteurized juices, claiming that the process of pasteurization altered the flavor of the juice. Following the \"E. coli\" outbreak and the death of at least one child, Odwalla adopted flash pasteurization and other sanitization procedures. Odwalla recalled its juices and experienced a 90% reduction in sales following the event. The company gradually recovered and, the following year, became profitable again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grape juice",
        "text": "Due mainly to the absence of rigorous clinical research, there are no confirmed health or anti-disease effects from consuming grape juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "1996 Odwalla E. coli outbreak",
        "text": "The next year, Dave Stevenson, Odwalla's technical services director who oversaw quality assurance, suggested to Odwalla executives that the company should add a chlorine rinse to guard against bacteria on the skin of processed fruit, supplementing its existing phosphoric acid wash process. However, this plan was dropped by Chip Bettle, Odwalla's senior vice president, who feared that the chemicals would harm the fruit and alter the flavor of the juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "2008 US beef protest in South Korea",
        "text": "\"Most Koreans eat 85 parts of the cow\u2026that are highly susceptible to prions that huddle in certain areas of the brain, eyes, intestines, spinal cords and backbones.\" Despite compliance with OIE rules, \"the first three shipments of U.S. beef to Korea contained bone fragments, including one shipment that contained an entire spine were banned over disease concerns last October.\" Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is a rare, degenerative, invariably fatal brain disorder. Typically, onset of symptoms occurs at approximately the age of 60. About 90 percent of patients die within one year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juice Plus",
        "text": "Juice Plus\n--History.\n----Foundation and early marketing.\n----Nutritional products.\n--Manufacturing.\n--ConsumerLab product testing.\n--Sales.\n--Product research.\n----Nutrients and phytochemicals.\n----Antioxidant activity.\n----Cardiovascular system.\n----Adverse effects.\n----Conflicts of interest in studies.\n--Advertising violations.\n--O. J. Simpson.\n--Juice Plus Children's Research Foundation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Juice (Serbian rapper)",
        "text": "He has his own clothing brand, 93 FUKRU, and several stores.\n*In 2010, he participated in Farma, however, he was disqualified after feuding with Milo\u0161 Bojani\u0107.\n*He won the first season of the reality TV show \"Dvor\", in 2011, winning the prize of 50,000 \u20ac, and an extra 10,000 \u20ac."
      },
      {
        "title": "Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy",
        "text": "Classic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) was discovered in 1920. It occurs sporadically over the world but is very rare. It affects about one person per million each year. Typically, the cause is unknown for these cases. It has been found to be passed on genetically in some cases. 250 patients contracted the disease through iatrogenic transmission (from use of contaminated surgical equipment). This was before equipment sterilization was required in 1976, and there have been no other iatrogenic cases since then. In order to prevent the spread of infection, the World Health Organization created a guide to tell health care workers what to do when CJD appears and how to dispose of contaminated equipment. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have been keeping surveillance on CJD cases, particularly by looking at death certificate information."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juice Plus",
        "text": "In June 2020, the US Federal Trade Commission (FTC) issued a warning letter to the Juice Plus Company for making unlawful claims that the company\u2019s products could treat or prevent COVID-19, as well as misleading claims that business opportunity participants were likely to earn substantial income."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jilly Juice",
        "text": "In 2018, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) warned Epperly about claims made regarding Jilly Juice in a letter that stated: \"It is against the law to make health claims, whether directly or indirectly, through advertising or other means, without adequate scientific support at the time the claims are made, or to exaggerate the benefits of products or services you are promoting\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tareq Salahi",
        "text": "Journey for the Cure claimed on its Internet web site that \"proudly, 100% of our financing goes directly to find the cure and we have no paid staff.\" Based on bank records obtained through the Virginia Office of Consumer Affairs' (OCA) investigation, the attorney general alleged that only 33% of JCF's expenditures in 2007, and 0.6% of its expenditures in 2008 went directly to disease prevention-related charities. Significant amounts were instead spent on fund raising overhead"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jews for Urban Justice",
        "text": "JUJ was involved in Martin Luther King Jr.'s Poor People's Campaign, the Mothers Day Welfare Rights March, and the Delano grape strike. In solidarity with the United Farm Workers strike, JUJ urged synagogues and rabbis in the DC area to forgo using California grapes in their sukkahs. JUJ succeeded in convincing Joseph Danzansky to stop carrying California grapes at Giant Food grocery store locations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Incidents during the Hajj",
        "text": ", the Saudi government asked \"elderly and chronically ill Muslims to avoid the Hajj this year\" and restricted the numbers of people allowed into the country due to Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Although MERS-CoV was not detected among pilgrims, this does not rule out risk of the disease at Hajj. The disease, though, is only mildly contagious."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eradication of infectious diseases",
        "text": "Following an epidemic of variant Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease (vCJD) in the UK in the 1990s, there have been campaigns to eliminate bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle across the European Union and beyond which have achieved large reductions in the number of cattle with this disease. Cases of vCJD have also fallen since then, from an annual peak of 29 cases in 2000 to five in 2008 and none in 2012. Two cases were reported in both 2013 and 2014: two in France; one in the United Kingdom and one in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "J. I. Rodale",
        "text": "One of Rodale's most successful projects was \"Prevention\" magazine, founded in 1950, which promotes disease prevention rather than trying to cure it later. It pioneered the return to whole grains, unrefined sweets, using little fat in food preparation, folk cures, herbal medicines and breastfeeding. It also promoted the consumption of higher than typical amounts of nutritional supplements and forgoing nicotine and caffeine. Rodale opposed the consumption of milk and sugar, which he blamed for many diseases. He was not a vegetarian and frequently denounced vegetarianism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Santaji Jagnade",
        "text": "(1) Avoid unhealthy competitions"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jelly bean rule",
        "text": "In 2009, the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), filed a lawsuit against The Coca-Cola Company for violating the Jelly Bean Rule. Coca-Cola was accused of making \"deceptive and unsubstantiated claims\" on its line of VitaminWater beverages. In the trial, the judge found the claims made on the packaging of VitaminWater to be misleading to consumers, leading them to believe that the consumption of the beverage would prevent disease, and provide general health. Examples of such statements can be found on the \"defense\" flavour, which says on its packaging \"\u2026 this combination of zinc and fortifying vitamins can help out \u2026 and keep you healthy as a horse\". The \"focus\" flavour says on its label that it contains vitamins and other nutrients that have been scientifically proven to reduce the risk of eye disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Kiwi Juice",
        "text": "FKJ has performed at music festivals including Coachella, Euphoria, CRSSD, Lollapalooza, and Lightning in a Bottle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variant Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease",
        "text": "In the UK, the primary cause of vCJD has been eating beef tainted with bovine spongiform encephalopathy. A 2012 study by the Health Protection Agency showed that around 1 in 2,000 people in the UK shows signs of abnormal prion accumulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordan S. Orange",
        "text": "Jordan Scott Orange is an American pediatric immunologist. Orange is credited with defining a new class of diseases known as natural killer cell deficiencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juice Plus",
        "text": "Jim Sears, a pediatrician and Juice Plus distributor/spokesperson who co-hosts the syndicated daytime television talk show The Doctors, claimed on a February 27, 2009 episode of the program that Juice Plus \"helps fight cancer\". In October 2009, Dr. Barrie R. Cassileth, Chair and Chief of Integrative Medicine at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, cautioned that while Juice Plus is being \"aggressively promoted to cancer patients based on claims of antioxidant effects\", the supplement should not be taken by patients because it can interfere with chemotherapy, nor should it be considered a substitute for fruits and vegetables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease",
        "text": "Prions, the infectious agent of CJD, may not be inactivated by means of routine surgical instrument sterilization procedures. The World Health Organization and the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommend that instrumentation used in such cases be immediately destroyed after use; short of destruction, it is recommended that heat and chemical decontamination be used in combination to process instruments that come in contact with high-infectivity tissues. Thermal depolymerization also destroys prions in infected organic and inorganic matter, since the process chemically attacks protein at the molecular level, although more effective and practical methods involve destruction by combinations of detergents and enzymes similar to biological washing powders."
      },
      {
        "title": "OJ da Juiceman",
        "text": "OJ da Juiceman was shot eight times on April 4, 2009 and performed a show that same week. The shooting has since left him with a permanent limp. After releasing over a dozen mixtapes hosted by such DJs as DJ Drama, Trap-a-Holics, DJ Holiday, DJ 5150, OJ da Juiceman founded the vanity label 32 Entertainment and signed to the Asylum Records in 2009. OJ's Asylum debut, \"The Otha Side of the Trap\", contained both new tracks and previously released mixtape tracks. The album included the single \"I'm Gettin' Money\" and another that featured Gucci Mane, \"Make tha Trap Say Aye\". OJ also appeared on Jadakiss's single \"Who's Real\" and R. Kelly's \"Supaman High\" and has a mixtape with DJ Holiday called \"Alaska in Atlanta\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "OJ da Juiceman discography",
        "text": "OJ da Juiceman discography\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hairy cell leukemia",
        "text": "Because the cause is unknown, no effective preventive measures can be taken, but the U.S. Institute of Medicine permits an association to exposure to herbicides (atrazine). The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs also considers it a service disability related to Agent Orange. Because the disease is rare, routine screening is not cost effective."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apple juice",
        "text": "From 2000 to 2010, there were over 1700 cases in North America of illnesses related to drinking unpasteurized juice and ciders. The pathogens related to these food-borne illnesses included parasites, bacteria, and viruses. The most common pathogens were \"\" and 0111, \"Salmonella\", \"Cryptosporidium\", \"Clostridium botulinum\", and Hepatitis A. Pathogens can be spread in a number of ways, such as contamination where the fruit is grown, being carried in contaminated containers, or due to poor handling and washing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shigellosis",
        "text": "Orthodox Jewish communities (OJCs) are a known risk group for shigellosis; \"Shigella sonnei\" is cyclically epidemic in these communities in Israel, with sporadic outbreaks occurring elsewhere in among these communities. \"Through phylogenetic and genomic analysis, we showed that strains from outbreaks in OJCs outside of Israel are distinct from strains in the general population and relate to a single multidrug-resistant sublineage of \"S. sonnei\" that prevails in Israel. Further Bayesian phylogenetic analysis showed that this strain emerged approximately 30 years ago, demonstrating the speed at which antimicrobial drug\u2013resistant pathogens can spread widely through geographically dispersed, but internationally connected, communities.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Crisis management",
        "text": "When Odwalla's apple juice was thought to be the cause of an outbreak of E. coli infection, the company lost a third of its market value. In October 1996, an outbreak of E. coli bacteria in Washington state, California, Colorado and British Columbia was traced to unpasteurized apple juice manufactured by natural juice maker Odwalla Inc. Forty-nine cases were reported, including the death of a small child. Within 24 hours, Odwalla conferred with the FDA and Washington state health officials; established a schedule of daily press briefings; sent out press releases which announced the recall; expressed remorse, concern and apology, and took responsibility for anyone harmed by their products; detailed symptoms of E. coli poisoning; and explained what consumers should do with any affected products. Odwalla then developed - through the help of consultants - effective thermal processes that would not harm the products' flavors when production resumed. All of these steps were communicated through close relations with the media and through full-page newspaper ads."
      },
      {
        "title": "OJ da Juiceman",
        "text": "32 Entertainment, is an Atlanta, Georgia based record label formed in 2007 by OJ da Juiceman. It is currently operating independently."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greek junta trials",
        "text": "One of the accused, Dimitrios Kofas, was notorious as the \"orange juice doctor\" because he prescribed orange juice as a panacea for any ailment, including those resulting from torture. In a patient case involving the Air Force officer Nikolaos Stapas, Kofas prescribed orange juice for hematuria caused by severe torture. The doctor was convicted for eleven documented cases of dereliction of his medical duties."
      },
      {
        "title": "O. J. Simpson murder case",
        "text": "Dr. Robert Huizenga testified on July 14, 1995 that Simpson was not physically capable of carrying out the murders due to chronic arthritis and old football injuries. During cross-examination, the prosecution produced an exercise video that Simpson made a few weeks before the murders titled \"O.J. Simpson Minimum Maintenance: Fitness for Men\", which demonstrated that Simpson was anything but frail. Dr. Huizenga admitted afterwards that Simpson could have committed the murders if he was in \"the throes of an adrenaline rush.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Tropicana Products",
        "text": "In 1952, with growth of the orange juice business in mind, Rossi purchased the Grapefruit Canning Company in Bradenton. The fresh fruit segments and orange juice business were so successful that he discontinued production of fruit boxes. He developed flash pasteurization in 1954, a process that rapidly raised the temperature of juice for a short time to preserve its fresh taste. For the first time, consumers could have the fresh taste of pure not-from-concentrate juice in a ready to serve chilled package. The juice, Tropicana Pure Premium, became the company\u2019s flagship product."
      },
      {
        "title": "1996 Odwalla E. coli outbreak",
        "text": "In a letter to \"The New York Times\" written on January 5, 1998, Odwalla's director of communications, Christopher C. Gallagher, wrote that \"Odwalla continuously upgraded its manufacturing process in the period leading up to the recall. Moreover, our primary indicator of overall quality was daily bacteria-level readings, which were relatively low and decreasing in apple juice\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tejbz",
        "text": "\u00d6jerfalk was born and grew up in Boden, Sweden. He was diagnosed with Crohn's disease at a young age, meaning he could not be as physically active as others, leading him to pick up computer games to fill and enjoy time around the age of 10. His first video game console was the Nintendo 64."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joe Cross (filmmaker)",
        "text": "In 2005, Cross weighed 22 stone (310 pounds = 140 kilograms) and suffered from an autoimmune condition, chronic urticaria, for which he had been taking medications such as the steroid prednisone for years. He spent his 30s trying traditional and non-traditional medicine to solve his illness. and unsuccessfully tried various diets in fits and starts. His daily diet mainly consisted of processed foods. Cross was a smoker and consumed alcohol regularly. According to Cross, he believed that his eating habits had caused his illness and he wanted to change his lifestyle. He wanted to get off medication as he believed that the medication or doctors were not able to offer a cure for his condition. In 2005 when he was 39, the doctors told him that with his health, he would die early and he decided to consume only juice for 60 days. Under the supervision of his doctor and a team that monitored his blood work regularly, he started the juice fast in May 2005. For his juice fast, he decided to travel across America while talking to people about their attitudes toward food. He travelled in a truck with a cameraman, a sound guy, a juicer and a generator. Cross survived on nothing but juices for 60 days during his juice fast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease",
        "text": "A case was reported in 1989 in a 25-year-old man from New Zealand, who also received dura mater transplant. Five New Zealanders have been confirmed to have died of the sporadic form of Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease (CJD) in 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Palmer Beasley",
        "text": "\"Dr. Beasley has saved countless lives from cirrhosis and liver cancer through his work on the epidemiology and prevention of hepatitis B,\" according to Herbert L. DuPont, Director of the Center for Infectious Diseases at UTSPH. \"He is a giant in the field of infectious diseases.\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fruitopia",
        "text": "By the end of the 1990s, Fruitopia had struggled to be profitable. In 2003, the Fruitopia line was all but discontinued in the United States, with some flavors being revamped under the Minute Maid moniker; Minute Maid, the world's largest juice brand, was largely responsible for the lagging sales of Fruitopia. A similar situation occurred with PepsiCo, who replaced their own Fruitopia clone, Fruit Works, with the enduring Tropicana moniker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange Juice in Bishop's Garden",
        "text": "Originally, \"OJinBG\" was primarily distributed by KoldCast TV, a now defunct Broadband Television Network that delivers on-demand entertainment programming to a global audience, via the Internet. This partnership enables Orange Juice in Bishops Garden to be viewed on iTunes, Zune, Boxee, and Roku."
      },
      {
        "title": "French Kiwi Juice",
        "text": "In April 2017, FKJ announced that he was performing at the 2017 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival at the Do Lab Stage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease",
        "text": "The condition is universally fatal. As of 1981, nobody is known to have lived longer than 2.5 years after the onset of CJD symptoms. The longest recorded survivor of variant Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease (vCJD) was Jonathan Simms, a Northern Irish man who lived 10 years after his diagnosis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tropicana Products",
        "text": "The oranges are then washed and the orange oil is extracted from the peel, which is later blended into the juice. The oranges are squeezed and the fresh juice is flash pasteurized. Tropicana developed flash pasteurization to minimize the time the orange juice is exposed to heat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange juice",
        "text": "During World War II, American soldiers rejected vitamin C-packed lemon crystals because of their unappetizing taste. Thus the government searched for a food that would fulfill the nutritional needs of the soldiers, have a desirable taste, and prevent diseases such as scurvy. The federal government and the Florida Department of Citrus worked with a group of scientists to develop a product superior to the canned orange juice available in the 1940s. The result was frozen concentrated orange juice; unfortunately, this was not until three years after the war had ended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aojiru",
        "text": "Aojiru was developed in October 1943 by Dr. , an army doctor who experimented with juices extracted from the discarded leaves of various vegetables in an attempt to supplement his family's meager wartime diet. He credited the cure of his son from pneumonia and of his wife from nephritis to aojiru, and in 1949 concluded that kale was the best ingredient for his juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus diseases",
        "text": "List of citrus diseases\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Alternaria citri",
        "text": "\"Alternaria citri\" can be found worldwide, in areas that store and produce citrus. Without proper management, the disease can lead to huge losses for citrus growers. In 1901, 10 to 30% of citrus crops in California were lost due to \"Alternaria citri\". Another source states that in India, between 1988 and 1990, more than 20% of mandarins in transport were lost to the disease. In general, the pathogen is most commonly found in navel orange orchards as the \"navel\" of the orange allows for easier infection compared to other citrus fruits. The pathogen can decrease fresh market quality and interfere with juice processing. The disease can be a problem with juice companies as accidental processing of an infected fruit will leave pieces of black tissue in the juice, making the product unsellable. Another complication with black rot is the potential delay in harvest time. A common management practice is to let the infected fruits drop prematurely in order to prevent contamination of the healthy crop. However, this tactic may delay harvest beyond the optimal time for fruit maturity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citrus greening disease",
        "text": "University of California scientists have discovered a peptide that prevented and treated citrus greening disease in greenhouse trials; as of 2021, it is being tested in field trials. The university entered into an exclusive license with Invaio to develop an enhanced injectable version of the product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variant Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease",
        "text": "Prion protein is detectable in lymphoid and appendix tissue up to two years before the onset of neurological symptoms in vCJD. Large scale studies in the UK have yielded an estimated prevalence of 493 per million, higher than the actual number of reported cases. This finding indicates a large number of asymptomatic cases and the need to monitor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jacob Vadakkanchery",
        "text": "He also regularly campaigns against preventive medicines and vaccines which has resulted in many cases being filed and getting him arrested several times During the public health crisis of Nipah virus infection in Kerala, he claimed that Nipah virus does not exist, and that the disease is a creation of the \"medical mafia\". He said that fruit bats, the primary reservoir of Nipah virus, eat only fruits and therefore cannot harbour viruses. He asked people to refrain from eating previously cooked meat to avoid spreading of fever instead of going to the hospital. He also challenged the public to visit the Nipah affected area of Perambra. He expressed confidence that no naturopath has yet been killed by Nipah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease",
        "text": "In recent years, studies have shown that the tumour marker neuron-specific enolase (NSE) is often elevated in CJD cases; however, its diagnostic utility is seen primarily when combined with a test for the 14-3-3 protein. , screening tests to identify infected asymptomatic individuals, such as blood donors, are not yet available, though methods have been proposed and evaluated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease",
        "text": "CJD is caused by a type of abnormal protein known as a prion. Infectious prions are misfolded proteins that can cause normally folded proteins to also become misfolded. About 85% of cases of CJD occur for unknown reasons, while about 7.5% of cases are inherited from a person's parents in an autosomal dominant manner. Exposure to brain or spinal tissue from an infected person may also result in spread. There is no evidence that sporadic CJD can spread among people via normal contact or blood transfusions, although this is possible in variant Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease. Diagnosis involves ruling out other potential causes. An electroencephalogram, spinal tap, or magnetic resonance imaging may support the diagnosis."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of diseases (J)",
        "text": "This is a list of diseases starting with the letter \"J\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign animal disease",
        "text": "U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ)"
      },
      {
        "title": "A\u00e7a\u00ed palm",
        "text": "The medical watchdog website Quackwatch said that \"a\u00e7a\u00ed juice has only middling levels of antioxidants \u2013 less than that of Concord grape, blueberry, and black cherry juices, but more than cranberry, orange, and apple juices.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "CJ CheilJedang",
        "text": "CJ was recently reported to be in talks with the US Corporation Dendreon who is in trials with a cancer vaccine called Provenge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juice Plus",
        "text": "There is no good evidence that Juice Plus offers health benefits. Many marketing claims made about Juice Plus products are false or misleading."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juice Plus",
        "text": "In a critique of Juice Plus, consumer health advocate and alternative medicine critic Stephen Barrett of MLM Watch remarked upon the previous association between two authors of a 1996 Juice Plus research study and United Sciences of America, Inc. (USAI), a multilevel marketing company that sold vitamin supplements with illegal claims that they could prevent many diseases. In 1986, lead author John A. Wise, who later co-authored several other Juice Plus research studies, was USAI's Executive Vice-President of Research and Development; and second author Robert J. Morin was a scientific advisor who helped design the products. State and federal enforcement actions drove USAI out of business in 1987. Wise became a consultant to Natural Alternatives International (NAI) in 1987 and a company executive (Vice-President of Research and Development) in 1992. Barrett noted that Wise was also an NAI shareholder and that production of Juice Plus for National Safety Associates (NSA) was responsible for 16% of NAIs sales in 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease",
        "text": "There is no specific treatment for CJD. Opioids may be used to help with pain, while clonazepam or sodium valproate may help with involuntary movements. CJD affects about one per million people per year. Onset is typically around 60 years of age. The condition was first described in 1920. It is classified as a type of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy. Inherited CJD accounts for about 10% of prion disease cases. Sporadic CJD is different from bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease) and variant Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease (vCJD)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease",
        "text": "People can also develop CJD because they carry a mutation of the gene that codes for the prion protein (\"PRNP\"). This occurs in only 5\u201310% of all CJD cases. In sporadic cases, the misfolding of the prion protein is a process that is hypothesized to occur as a result of the effects of aging on cellular machinery, explaining why the disease often appears later in life. An EU study determined that \"87% of cases were sporadic, 8% genetic, 5% iatrogenic and less than 1% variant.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Juicing",
        "text": "The American Journal of Public Health proposed that the Healthy Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010 in the United States eliminate 100% fruit juices since it has been linked to childhood obesity, and substitute instead with whole fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "OJB Jezreel",
        "text": "However, his kidney transplant failed again a week before his demise and OJB passed on. He is survived by his wife Mabel and her 3 children, June and her 3 Children Denzel, Emmanuel & Zion, and Korede and her 2 children Damilare & Ifebiyi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alexandria School of Medicine",
        "text": "Erasistratus rejected the humoral and pathology of the \"four juices\", starting from the view that the diseases were the result of accumulation of blood (plethora) or its deficiency in some part of the body, which resulted in humoral dyscrasia. According to him, the plethora is a vein full of blood, which flows into the arteries and mechanically expels the pneuma there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clara H. Hasse",
        "text": "Thomas Swann Harding credits this research with resulting \"in control methods which prevented this disease from wiping out the citrus crop in Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Texas.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Variant Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease",
        "text": "In 2004, a report showed that vCJD can be transmitted by blood transfusions. The finding alarmed healthcare officials because a large epidemic of the disease could result in the near future. A blood test for vCJD infection is possible but is not yet available for screening blood donations. Significant restrictions exist to protect the blood supply. The UK government banned anyone who had received a blood transfusion since January 1980 from donating blood. Since 1999 there has been a ban in the UK for using UK blood to manufacture fractional products such as albumin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael F. Holick",
        "text": "He developed a vitamin D absorption test and demonstrated that vitamin D was bioavailable in orange juice, leading to fortification of juice products in the United States. He also used the test to demonstrate the major cause of vitamin D deficiency in obesity is sequestration of vitamin D in the fat."
      },
      {
        "title": "J. T. Poston",
        "text": "NT = No tournament due to COVID-19 pandemic"
      },
      {
        "title": "Japan foot-and-mouth outbreak",
        "text": "(S/NJI-332) \"No magic bullet for FMD prevention: Minister denies preventive killing\","
      },
      {
        "title": "Curly top",
        "text": "There are no chemicals available for controlling the virus, but several cultural practices can help reduce or eliminate infections such as:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease",
        "text": "By 1985, a series of case reports in the United States showed that when injected, cadaver-extracted pituitary human growth hormone could transmit CJD to humans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordan's Syndrome",
        "text": "All cases of JS are caused by \"de novo\" missense point mutations in \"PPP2R5D\", which encodes a subunit of the enzyme PP2A. At least 8 different pathogenic mutations have been identified: E197K, E198K, E200K, E420K, P201R, W207R, Q211P, and P53S."
      },
      {
        "title": "Odwalla",
        "text": "After the \"E.\u00a0coli\" outbreak, Odwalla improved the safety of several of its production processes. Before the fruit entered the factory, it was washed, sorted and sanitized. Once it reached the plant, the apples, carrots, and citrus fruits were separated and washed again. The fruit was pressed to get the juice, which was then flash pasteurized and bottled. A sample underwent quality testing, and, if it passed, the batch was shipped in refrigerated trucks to various distribution centers in the United States. Odwalla juice had a relatively short shelf life compared to other beverages and thus required refrigeration. However, the shelf life was considerably extended after the introduction of flash pasteurization in 1996 and a new plastic bottle in 2001. Generally, Odwalla products were sold in special Odwalla-brand displays at grocery and convenience stores, instead of being intermixed with other products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease",
        "text": "The first report of suspected iatrogenic CJD was published in 1974. Animal experiments showed that corneas of infected animals could transmit CJD, and the causative agent spreads along visual pathways. A second case of CJD associated with a corneal transplant was reported without details. In 1977, CJD transmission caused by silver electrodes previously used in the brain of a person with CJD was first reported. Transmission occurred despite the decontamination of the electrodes with ethanol and formaldehyde. Retrospective studies identified four other cases likely of similar cause. The rate of transmission from a single contaminated instrument is unknown, although it is not 100%. In some cases, the exposure occurred weeks after the instruments were used on a person with CJD. In the 1980s it was discovered that Lyodura, a dura mater transplant product, was shown to transmit CJD from the donor to the recipient. This led to the product being banned in Canada but it was used in other countries such as Japan until 1993."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zest-O",
        "text": "While touring Europe in 1979, Yao learned about the Doypack packaging format in one of the European trade exhibits he visited. He bought one machine and tried to market the Doypack packaging format to juice drink manufacturers in the Philippines. When no company took interest, he decided to market his own brand of fruit juice drink. He put up a company called SEMEXCO Marketing Corporation and launched Zest-O orange juice drink in 1980."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juglans cinerea",
        "text": "The most serious disease of \"J. cinerea\" is butternut decline or butternut canker. In the past, the causal organism of this disease was thought to be a fungus, \"Melanconis juglandis\". Now this fungus has been associated with secondary infections and the primary causal organism of the disease has been identified as another species of fungus, \"Sirococcus clavigignenti-juglandacearum\". The fungus is spread by wide-ranging vectors, so isolation of a tree offers no protection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange Juice in Bishop's Garden",
        "text": "New episodes premiered weekly, every Wednesday during the season, accompanied by interactive social networking on the official website, blog, Twitter, and Facebook pages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease",
        "text": "Types of CJD include:\n* Sporadic (sCJD), caused by the spontaneous misfolding of prion-protein in an individual. This accounts for 85% of cases of CJD.\n* Familial (fCJD), caused by an inherited mutation in the prion-protein gene. This accounts for the majority of the other 15% of cases of CJD.\n* Acquired CJD, caused by contamination with tissue from an infected person, usually as the result of a medical procedure (iatrogenic CJD). Medical procedures that are associated with the spread of this form of CJD include blood transfusion from the infected person, use of human-derived pituitary growth hormones, gonadotropin hormone therapy, and corneal and meningeal transplants. Variant Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease (vCJD) is a type of acquired CJD potentially acquired from bovine spongiform encephalopathy or caused by consuming food contaminated with prions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Minute Maid",
        "text": "In 1973, the company released its first ready-to-drink, chilled orange juice product in the United States, entering an \"orange juice war\" with Tropicana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Club (brand)",
        "text": "In 1987 the brand name Royal Club was also attached to a product line of juices, previously marketed by Vrumona under the brand name B3. In 2001 Vrumona had to recall all 1 liter glass bottles Royal Club Fruits de Pays orange juice. These bottles contained too much yeast, thereby enhancing the risk of explosion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease",
        "text": "In 1992, it was recognized that human gonadotropin administered by injection could also transmit CJD from person to person."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where do oranges originate from?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The orange originated in Southern China, Northeast India, and Myanmar, with the earliest mention of the sweet orange being in Chinese literature in 314 BC."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many types of oranges are grown today?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are over thirty varieties, including blood, navel, and mandarin."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where are most oranges grown today?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mostly Brazil. In 2019, 79 million tons of oranges were grown worldwide, with Brazil producing 22% of the total, followed by China and India."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Do other languages have any abbreviation for orange juice?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In American English, the beverage name is often abbreviated as \"OJ\"."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who are the major OJ brands outside the US?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In the early nineties under Seagram, Tropicana also began to expand distribution to global markets and formed a partnership to process and distribute Kirin-Tropicana juices in Japan; Seagram Beverage Group acquired Dole Food Company's global juice business in 1995, including the Dole brands in North America, and Dole, Fruvita, Looza and Juice Bowl juices and nectars in Europe. Minute Maid 100% Juice has a presence in Canada."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does OJ prevent any diseases?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The federal government and the Florida Department of Citrus worked with a group of scientists to develop a product superior to the canned orange juice available in the 1940s in order to prevent diseases such as scurvy.",
      "Consumption of orange juice is under preliminary research for the potential to improve nutrition and affect chronic diseases. Citrus juices contain flavonoids (especially in the pulp) that may have health benefits; it has a high concentration of vitamin C, but also a very high concentration of simple sugars, comparable to soft drinks."
    ],
    "topic": "Orange juice",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Orange juice:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orange juice",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "During World War II, American soldiers rejected vitamin C-packed lemon crystals because of their unappetizing taste. Thus the government searched for a food that would fulfill the nutritional needs of the soldiers, have a desirable taste, and prevent diseases such as scurvy. The federal government and the Florida Department of Citrus worked with a group of scientists to develop a product superior to the canned orange juice available in the 1940s. The result was frozen concentrated orange juice; unfortunately, this was not until three years after the war had ended."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Orange juice:9",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orange juice",
          "Nutrition"
        ],
        "ctx": "Consumption of orange juice is under preliminary research for the potential to improve nutrition and affect chronic diseases."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Orange juice:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orange juice",
          "Nutrition"
        ],
        "ctx": "Citrus juices contain flavonoids (especially in the pulp) that may have health benefits. Orange juice is also a source of the antioxidant hesperidin. Because of its citric acid content, orange juice is acidic, with a typical pH of around 3.5."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Orange juice:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orange juice"
        ],
        "ctx": "The health value of orange juice is debatable: it has a high concentration of vitamin C, but also a very high concentration of simple sugars, comparable to soft drinks. As a result, some government nutritional advice has been adjusted to encourage substitution of orange juice with raw fruit, which is digested more slowly, and limit daily consumption."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Under Section 144 of the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012, squatting in residential property became a criminal offence on 1 September 2012. Squatting in non-residential property may be a civil or a criminal matter, depending upon the circumstances, and repossession by the owners, occupiers or intended occupiers may require legal process or police action."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of law articles",
        "text": "Squatting\u00a0\u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "The change in legislation has been referred to by Mike Weatherley as \"Weatherley's Law\" and came into force on 1 September 2012, making squatting in a residential building a criminal offence subject to arrest, fine and imprisonment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Kenneth Clarke then announced an amendment to the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Bill which would criminalise squatting in residential buildings. In 1991, Clarke stated \"There are no valid arguments in defence of squatting. It represents the seizure of another's property without consent.\" John McDonnell commented that \"by trying to sneak this amendment through the back door the government are attempting to bypass democracy.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatting is a criminal offence in Scotland, punishable by a fine or even imprisonment, under the Trespass (Scotland) Act 1865. The owner or lawful occupier of the property has the right to evict squatters without notice or applying to the court for an eviction order, although when evicting, they cannot do anything that would break the law, for example, use violence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "This situation has so far received the approval of Italian courts, which have been reluctant to defend the owners' rights. In contrast with the dominant jurisprudence, new case-law (from the Rome Tribunal and the Supreme Court of Cassation) instructs the government to pay damages in case of squatting if the institutions have failed to prevent it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Australia",
        "text": "In 2003, a legal squat was organised for ten people who moved onto the site of an old incinerator at Green Square."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "A total of 158 concerned academics, barristers and solicitors specialising in property law published a letter in \"The Guardian\" stating their concerns that \"misleading\" comments were being made in the mainstream media about squatting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Mexico",
        "text": "Squatting in Mexico\n--History.\n--Legal.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "Squatting is illegal and squatters can be evicted for trespassing. Some community organizations have used squatting as a tactic to house homeless people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "In November 2013, a squatter convicted under section 144 had his appeal upheld at Hove Crown Court. The man had been arrested on 3 September 2012, in what was seen by \"The Guardian\" as the \"first test of new legislation that makes squatting a criminal offence.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Criminal law refers to an \"occupier\" or \"trespasser\", and the Civil Procedure Rules part 55 refer to possession claims against \"trespassers\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "People who squatted in buildings would often put up a \"Section 6\" legal notice on the front door. The notice stated there were people living in the property who claimed they had a legal right to be there. It warned anyone \u2014 even the actual owner of the property \u2014 who tried to enter the building without lawful permission that they would be committing an offence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "In common law, through the legally recognized concept of adverse possession, a squatter can become a bona fide owner of property without compensation to the former owner. Implementation and specific requirements vary across locality. The typical requirements are that the occupation must be actual, continuous, exclusive, hostile and public."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "As with England, from 1 September 2012, squatting in a residential building was made a criminal offence subject to arrest, fine and imprisonment. Cardiff Squatters Network was formed in December 2012, to network together squatters citywide, and host \"skill-share\" workshops on squatting legally in commercial buildings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Malaysia",
        "text": "Order 89 of the Rules of Court 2012 allows owners to claim possession of property occupied by squatters, to be implemented by a writ of possession. When this law applies has been challenged by cases such as the Court of Appeal case of \"Tekad Urus Sdn v Penduduk-penduduk yang Menduduki Kawasan yang dipanggil Desa Perwira\" (2004, 2 CLJ 516)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "Squatting in the Philippines\n--Overview.\n--History.\n--Legal.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "LogMeIn Hamachi",
        "text": "and such \"squatting\" is against the established practice of the Internet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Many squatters legalised their homes or projects in the 1980s, for example Bonnington Square and Frestonia in London. More recently, there are still isolated examples such as the Invisible Circus in Bristol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the right to charge fees and levies for accommodation and services, establish different provisions for different classes of people and setting the penalties for contravening the regulations as a \u00a310 fine or two months imprisonment, or both and for subsequent convictions, \u00a325 fine or three months imprisonment, or both.\n;Section 6.3"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "In September 2012, the law was changed making trespass in a residential building with the intention of permanently residing a criminal offence. Although a Section 6 warning still applies for non-residential buildings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Uganda",
        "text": "Squatting in Uganda\n--Legality.\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that no person, except authorised by law, could enter or remain in or on land or buildings without the permission of the owner or lawful occupier. Nor could one, except by lawful reason, enter or remain in a native location, village or area except by the permission of the local authority or person in legal control of the area.\n;Section 2.1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Cambodia",
        "text": "Squatting in Cambodia\n--Legality.\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012",
        "text": "The creation of a new offence for squatting was proposed by Mike Weatherley, Member of Parliament (MP) for Hove in East Sussex, who had been campaigning against squatting since being elected to Parliament in 2010. In a consultation held in 2011, the government raised the option of criminalising squatting in commercial (non-residential) properties. Following responses to the consultation indicating a lower level of concern over such squatting, it indicated that it had no current plans to extend the definition of the offense."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adverse possession",
        "text": "\"Squatting\" became a criminal offense in England/Wales under Section 144 of the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012 (LASPO). The enforcement of LASPO was controversial, as 96% of those who responded did not wish to see any changes in the law regarding squatting. Nevertheless, the provision was introduced to the bill and at a late stage in the process. LASPO has not had an significant impact on the legal framework of adverse possession, but it is expected to have a larger impact on squatting and against those most vulnerable (e.g., the unhoused)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the penalties for the collection of fees or charges or exercising authority regarding the organizing of illegal squatting. Fine would not be more than \u00a3100, or up to twelve months imprisonment, or both. Included is the ability of the court to seize funds obtained during the illegal squatting.\n;Section 4.2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012",
        "text": "Rules regarding squatting commercial properties remained as layout in Section 6 of the Criminal Law Act 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "On 1 June 2010, squatting in the Netherlands became illegal and punishable when a decree was sent out that the squatting ban would be enforced from 1 October. Following legal challenges, on October 28, 2011, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands decided that the eviction of a squat can only occur after an intervention of a judge. The Dutch government assessed the effectiveness of the new law in 2015, releasing a report giving statistics on arrests and convictions between October 2010 and December 2014. During this time period, 529 people have been arrested for the act of occupying derelict buildings in 213 separate incidents. Of the 529 arrests, 210 were found guilty. Of those convicted, 39 people were imprisoned for the new offence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatting is the action of occupying an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential, that the squatter does not own, rent or otherwise have lawful permission to use. The United Nations estimated in 2003 that there were one billion slum residents and squatters globally. Squatting occurs worldwide and tends to occur when people who are poor and homeless find empty buildings or land to occupy for housing. It has a long history, broken down by country below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "In the United States, squatting is illegal and squatters can be evicted for trespassing. Real estate managers recommend that vacant properties be protected by erecting \"no trespassing\" signs, regular checks, tenant screening, and quickly finding new tenants. In Miami, municipal ordinance requires that property owner exercise all legal means to remove squatters and police are empowered to take actions to remove squatters from private property and then bill the owner or lessee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Nepal",
        "text": "Squatting in Nepal\n--History.\n--Legal.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "and Grant Shapps tweeted that \"these lawyers are sadly out of touch\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Thailand",
        "text": "Squatting in Thailand\n--Legal.\n--History.\n--Sor Por Kor.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatters' Action for Secure Homes",
        "text": "Squatting in residential buildings was criminalised in England and Wales by the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012. When the first jail sentences were handed down, SQUASH stated they were \"deeply disproportionate and unjust.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Malaysia",
        "text": "Squatting in Malaysia\n--History.\n--Legality.\n--Recent events.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the penalties for contravening Section 1 as a fine up to \u00a325, or up to three months imprisonment, or both.\n;Section 2.2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "In November 2012, Conservative MPs called for the criminalisation of squatting in commercial buildings as well, due to the perceived increase in the squatting of business properties. These included the following pubs: the Cross Keys in Chelsea, the Tournament in Earls Court (both in London) and the Upper Bell Inn near Chatham, Kent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adverse possession",
        "text": "Since September 2012, squatting in a residential building is a criminal offence, but this does not prevent title being claimed by reason of adverse possession even if the claimant is committing a criminal offence. This was confirmed in \"Best v Chief Land Registrar\", where it was held that criminal and land law should be kept separate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Netherlands",
        "text": "In 1987, the law was changed so that an owner could take anonymous squatters to court, rather than being required to know their names. A law was passed in 1994 which made it illegal to squat a building which had been empty for less than one year. After this, it became conventional for squatters to call the police after occupying a building and if the police were satisfied that the building had been empty for more than a year and that the squatters were living there (as evidenced by having a chair, a table and a bed) then the owner would need to make a court case to regain possession. Thus, squatting became a tactic to provide housing and also to fight speculation, conserve monumental buildings, provide groups with spaces and so on. An example of conservational squatting is Huize Ivicke in Wassenaar, a building which the owner refuses to repair. The villa was placed on a list of the most endangered monuments in Europe and it was squatted in 2018 by people wanting to prevent further dilapidation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "The majority of squatting is residential in nature. As a phenomenon it tends to occur when a poor and homeless population makes use of derelict property or land through urban homesteading. According to a 2003 estimate by the United Nations in the UN-Habitat report, there were about one billion people in squatter settlements and slums. According to an academic, Kesia Reeve, \"squatting is largely absent from policy and academic debate and is rarely conceptualised, as a problem, as a symptom, or as a social or housing movement.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Historically, there is a common law right (known as \"adverse possession\") to claim ownership of a dwelling after continual unopposed occupation of land or property for a given period of several years or more, depending on the laws to a particular jurisdiction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of law articles",
        "text": "Squatter\u00a0\u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "In February 2013, a homeless man named Daniel Gauntlett froze to death on the doorstep of an abandoned bungalow, in a case that has been linked with the new law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that after being convicted in Section 2.1, continuing to re-offend, the fine will be up to \u00a325, and up to seven days imprisonment per each day of the offence, or both.\n;Section 3.1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the power of Magistrates or Native Commissioners to decide, where the person or persons have been removed to a new area, to move them on to another area more suitable for accommodation or employment.\n;Section 6.1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Ireland",
        "text": "Illegal evictions also occur, such as a 2015 case in which three men were convicted of false imprisonment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Australia",
        "text": "In more recent times, there have been squats in the major cities such as Canberra, Melbourne and Sydney. It would be possible in theory for squatters to be charged with criminal trespass under the \"Inclosed Lands Protection Act\", but squatters are simply evicted when they are discovered. As in England and Wales and also the United States, adverse possession exists in Australian law, although it is rarely used by squatters. This means that if a squatter lives uninterruptedly in a property for over 12 years (15 in South Australia and Victoria) and against the wishes of the owner, the ownership of the property can be claimed by the squatter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatters in Indonesia live on both privately owned and government-owned land. For example, the former in Surabaya has been squatted since 2000s after being used as a prison for over 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting (Australian history)",
        "text": "From 1836 legislation was passed to legalise squatting with grazing rights available for ten pounds per year. This fee was for a lease of the land, rather than ownership, which is what the squatters wanted. The 1847 Orders in Council divided land into settled, intermediate and unsettled areas, with pastoral leases of one, eight and 14 years for each category respectively. From here on, squatters were able to purchase parts of their land, as opposed to just leasing it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the power of Magistrates or Native Commissioners to decide, where the person or persons have been removed to a new area, to move them on to another area more suitable for accommodation or employment.\n;Section 4.1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Netherlands",
        "text": "Some squats in cities have successfully legalised into still extant social centres and housing cooperatives such as ACU in Utrecht, the Grote Broek in Nijmegen, the Landbouwbelang in Maastricht, ORKZ in Groningen, the Poortgebouw in Rotterdam and Vrankrijk in Amsterdam. There have also been squats in the countryside such as Fort Pannerden and the Ruigoord village."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Squatting in England and Wales usually refers to a person who is not the owner, taking possession of land or an empty house. People squat for a variety of reasons which include needing a home, protest,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that the obstruction of the police and authorized persons was prohibited in terms of Sections 3 and 5 and were, subject to a conviction, of a fine of \u00a3100, one year in jail or both.\n;Section 8"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch squatting ban",
        "text": "On 28 October 2011, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands decided that the legally forced end of squatting can only occur after an intervention of a judge. The Dutch government assessed the effectiveness of the new law in 2015, releasing a report giving statistics on arrests and convictions between October 2010 and December 2014. During this time period, 529 people have been arrested for the act of occupying derelict buildings in 213 separate incidents. Of the 529 arrests, 210 were found guilty. Of those convicted, 39 people were imprisoned for the new offence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "In March 2011, Mike Weatherley, Conservative MP for Hove, proposed an Early Day Motion calling for the criminalisation of squatting. His campaign was backed by a series of articles in the \"Daily Telegraph\" in which Kenneth Clarke (the Secretary of Justice) and Grant Shapps (Minister of Housing) were reported to be backing the move."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "Squatting in the United States is the unauthorized use of real estate. Historically, squatting occurred during the California Gold Rush and when colonial European settlers established land rights. There was squatting during the Great Depression in Hoovervilles and also during World War II. Shanty towns returned to the US after the Great Recession of 2007 to 2009 and in the 2010s, there have been increasing numbers of people squatting foreclosed homes using fraudulent documents. In some cases, a squatter may be able to obtain ownership of property through adverse possession."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Vanuatu",
        "text": "Squatting in Vanuatu\n--History.\n--Legal.\n--Recent.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sherwood Syndrome",
        "text": "legislation that both criminalizes illegal squatting but promoting at the same time cheap social housing. Meanwhile, the police would arrest those whom who Piqu\u00e9 described as \"unbeatable\" or \"leaders\" who would later on be prosecuted according to law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Mike Weatherley replied that \"the self-proclaimed experts who signed the letter, sheep-like, have a huge vested interest when it comes to fees after all\""
      },
      {
        "title": "ASCII (squat)",
        "text": "ASCII became legalised when it moved into Jodenbreestraat 24 in January 2000, alongside the radical bookshop Fort van Sjakoo, but started squatting again when faced with a 900% rent increase."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Adverse possession, also known as squatter's rights, is a method of acquiring title to property through possession for a statutory period under certain conditions. Countries where this principle exists include England and the United States, based on common law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Netherlands",
        "text": "There are also squats which refused or were unable to legalise such as De Blauwe Aanslag in The Hague, Het Slaakhuis in Rotterdam, ADM in Amsterdam and the Landbouwbelang in Maastricht. The Landbouwbelang is a former grain silo beside the Meuse () river which houses 15 people and provides space for art exhibitions, music events and various festivals. Vrijplaats Koppenhinksteeg in Leiden was occupied in 1968 and eventually evicted in 2010. The complex, which included a bar, a freeshop, a library meeting rooms and offices for a group supporting illegal migrants, had been negotiating with the city council in order to legalise its activities until the talks stalled in 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Malaysia",
        "text": "The National Land Code 1965 (Section 425) defined squatting as occupation of land without permission from the appropriate authorities. The Essential (Clearance of Squatters) Regulations 1969 stated that any construction on land without permission from the appropriate authorities can be considered squatting. In 1974, this was adapted to also cover land. An important case was \"Sidek bin Haji Mohamad & 461 Ors v The Government of Malaysia\" (1982, 1 MLJ 313), which confirmed squatters have no right in law. Occupation of state-owned land is a crime punishable by a fine of up to RM10,000 or 1 year in prison, or both. Adverse possession is not recognised in Malaysia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting (Australian history)",
        "text": "Squatting is a historical Australian term that referred to someone who occupied a large tract of Crown land in order to graze livestock. Initially often having no legal rights to the land, squatters became recognised by the colonial government as owning the land by being the first (and often the only) European settlers in the area. Eventually, the term \"squattocracy\", a play on \"aristocracy\", came into usage to refer to squatters and the social and political power they possessed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that contrary to other laws, the Magistrates courts would have jurisdiction over the Act.\n;Section 9"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatting\n--Overview.\n--Africa.\n----Liberia.\n----South Africa.\n----Sudan.\n----Zimbabwe.\n--Asia.\n----Hong Kong and Chinese mainland.\n----India.\n----Philippines.\n----Turkey.\n--Europe, Central and Eastern.\n--Europe, Western.\n----Germany.\n----Iceland.\n----Ireland.\n----Italy.\n----Netherlands.\n----Spain.\n----United Kingdom.\n------England.\n------Northern Ireland.\n------Scotland.\n------Wales.\n--North America.\n----Canada.\n----United States.\n--Latin America and the Caribbean.\n----Bolivia.\n----Brazil.\n----Colombia.\n----Haiti.\n----Nicaragua.\n--Oceania.\n----Australia.\n----Cook Islands.\n----East Timor.\n----Kiribati.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Ireland",
        "text": "Squatting in Ireland\n--The legality of squatting in Ireland.\n--History.\n----2000s.\n----2010s.\n------Apollo House and the \"Home Sweet Home\" campaign.\n------Connolly Barracks in Cork City.\n----2020s.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Squatting in England and Wales\n--History.\n----16th- and 17th-century.\n----Post-World War II.\n----1960s.\n----1970s.\n------Tolmers Square.\n----1980s.\n----1990s.\n----2000s.\n--Legality.\n----Common law.\n----Criminal Law Act 1977.\n----Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994.\n----Civil Procedure Rules.\n----Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012.\n----Coronavirus pandemic.\n--After criminalisation.\n--2010s.\n----Bristol.\n----Cardiff.\n----London.\n----Manchester.\n----Elsewhere in England and Wales.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Criminal Law Act 1977",
        "text": "This section has been widely used by squatters in England and Wales, as it makes it a crime in most circumstances for the landlord to force entry, as long as the squatters are physically present and express opposition to the landlord's entry. \"Squatters rights\" do not apply when the property appears to be occupied (e.g. there are signs of current use, furniture, etc.)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Brazil",
        "text": "Squatting in Brazil\n--Legality.\n--Favela.\n--Inner city occupations.\n--Rural occupations.\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Two other squatters were also arrested and had previously had the charges against them dropped completely."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the courts right to pass civil judgement to claim funds or fees obtained during the illegal squatting if not seized at the time of conviction.\n;Section 5.1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that the person convicted in Section 2 could be issued with a court order to evict them from land, buildings, native location, village or area. Further defined that the person convicted could be issued with further court orders in order to evict and transfer the person or persons from an area to another area even outside the courts jurisdiction and ensure the destruction and removal of any buildings or structures on said land, buildings, native location, village or area.\n;Section 3.2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "In recent years and despite the criminalisation of squatting in 2012, people have continued for different reasons, including homelessness, activism and partying. Many cities have social centres, often with their roots in the squatters movement. The Bloomsbury Social Centre was a short-lived social centre in central London. The Advisory Service for Squatters continues to offer practical advice and legal support."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting (Australian history)",
        "text": "Literature:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "The amendment states that \"the new offence will be committed where a person is in a residential building as a trespasser having entered it as a trespasser, knows or ought to know that he or she is a trespasser and is living in the building or intends to live there for any period.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Section 6 of the Criminal Law Act 1977 covers the occupation of property. The Act was implemented to stop slum landlords forcibly evicting tenants (as was the case with the notorious London landlord Peter Rachman in the 1950s\u20131960s), and made \"violence for securing entry\" an offence. The law states:\n:if \"(a) there is someone present on those premises at the time who is opposed to the entry which the violence is intended to secure; and (b) the person using or threatening the violence knows that that is the case.\" The law does not distinguish for this purpose between violence to persons or property (e.g. breaking a door down)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "The Dublin Housing Action Committee (DHAC) was active between 1968 and 1971, occupying buildings to protest the housing crisis. The Prohibition of Forcible Entry and Occupation Act of 1971 criminalized squatting. Squatters can gain title to land and property by adverse possession as governed by the 1957 Statute of Limitations Act. From the 1990s onwards, there have been occasional political squats such as Disco Disco, Magpie and Grangegorman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "The most difficult part of claiming adverse possession for squatters is normally the requirement of continuous possession."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch squatting ban",
        "text": "Squatting became a criminal offence at midnight on 1 October 2010, passing from the civil courts to the criminal courts. In Amsterdam, squatters had previously occupied the former headquarters of the Dutch fire brigade in protest. In a press release, the squatters announced on 30 September that they would be handing the building at 99 Weesperzijde over to tenants arranged by the landlord. On the last weekend in September, squatters had camped out on the Dam Square overnight as a protest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that the regulations be published in the Government Gazette in both official languages and furthermore published at the camp in the language of the occupiers.\n;Section 6.4"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "The Government opened a consultation entitled 'Options for dealing with squatters' on 13 July 2011, which ran until 5 October. It was \"aimed at anyone affected by squatters or has experience of using the current law or procedures to get them evicted.\" The pro-squatting campaign group SQUASH stated that there were \"2,217 responses and over 90% of responses argued against taking any action on squatting.\" Groups supporting a change in the law included the Crown Prosecution Service, Transport for London and the Property Litigation Association. Groups against a change included the Metropolitan Police, squatter networks, The Law Society, homelessness charities and the National Union of Students."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Namibia",
        "text": "Squatting continues to be regulated by the Squatters Proclamation, AG 21 of 1985. Certain sections were struck out as unconstitutional following \"Shaanika and Others v Windhoek City Police and Others\" in 2013. In 2020, a land activist launched a challenge to the proclamation, claiming it was entirely unconstitutional."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criminal Law Act 1977",
        "text": "Section 6 is referred to in printed legal warnings, which are commonly displayed near the entrances to squatted buildings. Squatters are not protected by the Protection from Eviction Act 1977, which makes it a crime to evict tenants without following the legal process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In industrialized countries, there are often residential squats and also political squatting movements, which can be anarchist, autonomist or socialist in nature, for example in the self-managed social centres of Italy or squats in the United States. Oppositional movements from the 1960s and 1970s created freespaces in Denmark or squatting village in the Netherlands, and in England and Wales, there were estimated to be 50,000 squatters in the late 1970s. Each local situation determines the context: in Athens, Greece, there are refugee squats; Germany has social centres; in Spain there are many squats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "poverty, and recreation. Many squats are residential, some are also opened as social centres. Land may be occupied by New Age travellers or treesitters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Ukraine",
        "text": "The Soviet-era Criminal Code of Ukraine, enacted in 1961, did not legislate against squatters since the phenomenon was not widespread. After the protests of the returning Crimean Tatars, a new legal code was introduced in 2003 (retroactive to 2001) on the appeal of the Crimean Parliament. Following the change in the law, squatting in Crimea became punishable by fines, two years of hard labour and imprisonment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined, exception for Section 9, that the Governor-General proclaims areas to be under the control of the act and their date in the \"Government Gazette\".\n;Section 11.2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "An activist from Focus E15 was arrested on suspicion of squatting in 2015, when she was occupying a council flat in Stratford, London, in support of a mother who had been evicted. The charges were later dropped less than 24 hours before the court hearing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Australia",
        "text": "Squatting in Australia usually refers to a person who is not the owner, taking possession of land or an empty house. In 19th century Australian history, a squatter was a settler who occupied a large tract of Aboriginal land in order to graze livestock. At first this was done illegally, later under licence from the Crown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch squatting ban",
        "text": "The Dutch squatting ban refers to the law (Dutch: \"Wet Kraken en Leegstand\") introduced on 1 October 2010, under which squatting in the Netherlands became de jure illegal. Criminalization had first been proposed in the 1970s, but was opposed by the Council of Churches. In 2006, a new plan was proposed and backed by parties including VVD and PVV. When the new law was introduced, squatters occupied the former head office of the fire brigade and there were riots in Amsterdam and Nijmegen. In 2011, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands ruled that the legally forced end of squatting can only occur after an intervention of a judge. Between October 2010 and December 2014, 529 people were arrested for the act of occupying derelict buildings, in 213 separate incidents as a result of which 39 people were jailed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adverse possession",
        "text": "One of the reason why so few supported the criminalization of squatting was because the law prior to LASPO already protected residential property by making squatting in residential area a civil offense and establishing fast track applications to allow title holders to remove squatters within hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Anarchist author Colin Ward asserts: \"Squatting is the oldest mode of tenure in the world, and we are all descended from squatters. This is as true of the Queen [of the United Kingdom] with her as it is of the 54 percent of householders in Britain who are owner-occupiers. They are all the ultimate recipients of stolen land, for to regard our planet as a commodity offends every conceivable principle of natural rights.\" Others have a different view; UK police official Sue Williams, for example, has stated that \"Squatting is linked to anti-social behaviour and can cause a great deal of nuisance and distress to local residents. In some cases there may also be criminal activities involved.\" The public attitude toward squatting varies, depending on legal aspects, socioeconomic conditions, and the type of housing occupied by squatters. In particular, while squatting of municipal buildings may be treated leniently, squatting of private property can often lead to strongly negative reactions on the part of the general public and the authorities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatting has a long history in England. The occupation and cultivation of untended land motivated the Peasants' Revolt of 1381 and the Diggers in the 17th century. In the 20th century, squatters turned to abandoned buildings. Mass squats were organised in a number of prominent public buildings in central London, culminating in the occupation of 144 Piccadilly in 1969. The London Street Commune or \"Hippydilly\" garnered worldwide attention. There were estimated to be 50,000 squatters throughout Britain in the late 1970s, with the majority (30,000) living in London. The BBC reported in 2011 that the government estimated that there were \"20,000 squatters in the UK\" and \"650,000 empty properties\". On 1 September 2012, under Section 144 of the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012, squatting in residential property was criminalised by the Cameron\u2013Clegg coalition, punishable by up to six months in prison or a \u00a35000 fine, or both. The same year saw the first successful prosecution for squatting, resulting in a 12-week jail sentence. Section 61 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 provides police with additional power to remove trespassers when there is damage to land or property, trespassers are abusive, insulting or threatening or there are over six vehicles on premises related to squatters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "In September 2012, Alex Haigh was the first squatter imprisoned under the new law, receiving a sentence of 3 months after occupying a housing association property in London. Two men were then found guilty of squatting above the Lamb Inn, in Romford."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Malaysia",
        "text": "Squatting in Malaysia is the occupation of unused or derelict buildings or land without the permission of the owner. Squatting began after World War II and is governed by various laws. Recently the government has announced its intention to house squatters in affordable housing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Netherlands",
        "text": "Squatting in the Netherlands became a criminal offence on 1 October 2010. In 2016, a report was published by the Dutch Government which stated that between October 2010 and November 2014, 529 people had been arrested for the new crime of squatting, in 213 separate incidents. Of these arrested, 210 received convictions and 42 were found not guilty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Landbouwbelang (squat)",
        "text": "Even despite the Dutch squatting ban in 2009, getting the squatters removed requires an eviction court order. In order to have that granted, the owner of the building needs to present a development plan for the squatted building. According to the communication of the City of Maastricht there are currently none."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bundle of rights",
        "text": "Squatting presents a non-economic way for people to transfer parts of the bundle of rights. Depending on the applicable laws, a squatter can acquire property rights by simply occupying vacant land for an extended period of time. Areas with high concentrations of squatters are sometimes thought of as \"informal settlements.\" Squatters face great instability due to their lack of title and governmental efforts at \"blight removal\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is squatting legal?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "A squatter occupys an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential, that the squatter does not own, rent or otherwise have lawful permission to use and it's long history is broken down by country. What specific country would you like to know more about?",
      "Are you inquiring about residential squatting in the US, Australia or Ireland?"
    ],
    "topic": "Squatting",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Squatting:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Squatting"
        ],
        "ctx": "Squatting is the action of occupying an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential, that the squatter does not own, rent or otherwise have lawful permission to use. The United Nations estimated in 2003 that there were one billion slum residents and squatters globally. Squatting occurs worldwide and tends to occur when people who are poor and homeless find empty buildings or land to occupy for housing. It has a long history, broken down by country below."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Squatting:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Squatting"
        ],
        "ctx": "Squatting is the action of occupying an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential, that the squatter does not own, rent or otherwise have lawful permission to use. The United Nations estimated in 2003 that there were one billion slum residents and squatters globally. Squatting occurs worldwide and tends to occur when people who are poor and homeless find empty buildings or land to occupy for housing. It has a long history, broken down by country below."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Squatting in the United States:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Squatting in the United States"
        ],
        "ctx": "Squatting in the United States is the unauthorized use of real estate. Historically, squatting occurred during the California Gold Rush and when colonial European settlers established land rights. There was squatting during the Great Depression in Hoovervilles and also during World War II. Shanty towns returned to the US after the Great Recession of 2007 to 2009 and in the 2010s, there have been increasing numbers of people squatting foreclosed homes using fraudulent documents. In some cases, a squatter may be able to obtain ownership of property through adverse possession."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Squatting in Australia:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Squatting in Australia"
        ],
        "ctx": "Squatting in Australia usually refers to a person who is not the owner, taking possession of land or an empty house. In 19th century Australian history, a squatter was a settler who occupied a large tract of Aboriginal land in order to graze livestock. At first this was done illegally, later under licence from the Crown."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Squatting in Ireland:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Squatting in Ireland"
        ],
        "ctx": "Squatting in the Republic of Ireland is the occupation of unused land or derelict buildings without the permission of the owner. In the 1960s, the Dublin Housing Action Committee highlighted the housing crisis by squatting buildings. From the 1990s onwards there have been occasional political squats such as Grangegorman."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In Reykjav\u00edk, the capital of Iceland, there is a small tradition of squatting. In 1919, anarchists occupied a building and were quickly evicted. Squatters occupied an empty house in downtown Reykjav\u00edk on Vatnsstigur street in April 2009. The squatters set up a freeshop and had plans for a social centre, but the occupation was quickly evicted by the police and 22 people were arrested. Vatnsstigur 4 was briefly resquatted on May 7, 2009, in solidarity with the Rozbrat squat in Poland, which was threatened with eviction. Also in 2009, a group of graffiti artists called the Pretty Boys occupied Hverfisgata 34. Their intention was to make a clandestine gallery and then when they were not evicted, they legalised the space and called it Gallery Bosnia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Australia",
        "text": "A five-year-old squat was peacefully evicted in March 2008, when an office block in Balmain was demolished to make way for a park. The council voted to allow the squatters to stay in the building, which they called \"Iceland\", until the plans for demolition were in place. One of the squatters said, \"About 20 people have lived here over the years and it's been a place for band rehearsals, art projects, people practising dance routines, bike workshops. Squatting gives you a chance to think about things other than how you are going to pay the rent and ways to contribute to the world.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "When the Reykjav\u00edkur Akadem\u00edan (the Reykjav\u00edk Academy) was evicted at short notice from Hringbraut 121 in November 2011, it was occupied in protest. The space, which had hosted lectures and also Iceland's trade union and anarchist libraries, was moved to another location but the occupiers were unhappy that the new use of the building would be a guest house for tourists. An art exhibition was organised, with a camera obscura, live music and shadow theatre."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Norway",
        "text": "Squatting in Norway is taking possession of land or an empty house without the permission of the owner. The first public occupation was Hjelmsgate 3 in 1969 and self-managed social centres which were first squatted and then legalized include the Blitz House, Hausmania and UFFA. Brakkebygrenda was a land squat which has twice been evicted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatting\n--Overview.\n--Africa.\n----Liberia.\n----South Africa.\n----Sudan.\n----Zimbabwe.\n--Asia.\n----Hong Kong and Chinese mainland.\n----India.\n----Philippines.\n----Turkey.\n--Europe, Central and Eastern.\n--Europe, Western.\n----Germany.\n----Iceland.\n----Ireland.\n----Italy.\n----Netherlands.\n----Spain.\n----United Kingdom.\n------England.\n------Northern Ireland.\n------Scotland.\n------Wales.\n--North America.\n----Canada.\n----United States.\n--Latin America and the Caribbean.\n----Bolivia.\n----Brazil.\n----Colombia.\n----Haiti.\n----Nicaragua.\n--Oceania.\n----Australia.\n----Cook Islands.\n----East Timor.\n----Kiribati.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Norway",
        "text": "Squatting in Norway\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In industrialized countries, there are often residential squats and also political squatting movements, which can be anarchist, autonomist or socialist in nature, for example in the self-managed social centres of Italy or squats in the United States. Oppositional movements from the 1960s and 1970s created freespaces in Denmark or squatting village in the Netherlands, and in England and Wales, there were estimated to be 50,000 squatters in the late 1970s. Each local situation determines the context: in Athens, Greece, there are refugee squats; Germany has social centres; in Spain there are many squats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatting is the action of occupying an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential, that the squatter does not own, rent or otherwise have lawful permission to use. The United Nations estimated in 2003 that there were one billion slum residents and squatters globally. Squatting occurs worldwide and tends to occur when people who are poor and homeless find empty buildings or land to occupy for housing. It has a long history, broken down by country below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Norway",
        "text": "In Oslo, the capital of Norway, the first public occupation was Hjelmsgate 3 in 1969. It was quickly legalized and became a base for anarchism and countercultural activities. In the 1980s, buildings were occupied by a radical left-wing movement which had links to Denmark and Sweden. Most famously, houses on Skippergata were squatted and then after eviction, the Blitz House was occupied at Pilestredet 30. Blitz is a self-managed social centre which hosts radiOrakel (a feminist radio station), a bookshop, a music venue and a vegan caf\u00e9."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Norway",
        "text": "In Trondheim, the self-managed social centre UFFA was created in 1981. After the original building was burnt down, the centre moved to its present location. It houses a bookshop, a cafe, a concert space and offices for the anarchist newspaper \"Folk & R\u00f8vere\". Blitz, Hausmania and UFFA are all centres for anarchism in Norway."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Estonia",
        "text": "Squatting in Estonia is the occupation of unused land or derelict buildings without the permission of the owner. It is a tactic used by different groups including former factory workers, homeless people, artists and anarchists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gamle Oslo",
        "text": "Places formerly known for squatting, includes \"Brakkebygrenda\" (a.k.a. \"Br\u00e6kkers\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ungdomshuset",
        "text": "[[Category:Squatting in Denmark]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Ireland",
        "text": "Squatting in the Republic of Ireland is the occupation of unused land or derelict buildings without the permission of the owner. In the 1960s, the Dublin Housing Action Committee highlighted the housing crisis by squatting buildings. From the 1990s onwards there have been occasional political squats such as Grangegorman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Norway",
        "text": "Hausmania is a complex of buildings in Oslo that has been squatted from 1999 onwards. The cultural centre at Hausmannsgate 34 has a cinema, galleries, a vegan caf\u00e9 and a theatre. Hausmannsgate 34 was evicted in 2016 and 11 people were arrested. Brakkebygrenda was also occupied in 1999. It was a land squat where people lived in caravans and motorhomes, which has been evicted twice. The eviction in 2008 was resisted by between 30 and 40 squatters throwing projectiles, and a caravan was set on fire. In 2014, the site was evicted again in a large police operation, which closed nearby roads. Property developers Urbanium, who bought property on the Hausmania site, were reported by \"Klassekampen\" to have been involved in the eviction of Brakkebygrenda."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatters in Indonesia live on both privately owned and government-owned land. For example, the former in Surabaya has been squatted since 2000s after being used as a prison for over 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "The majority of squatting is residential in nature. As a phenomenon it tends to occur when a poor and homeless population makes use of derelict property or land through urban homesteading. According to a 2003 estimate by the United Nations in the UN-Habitat report, there were about one billion people in squatter settlements and slums. According to an academic, Kesia Reeve, \"squatting is largely absent from policy and academic debate and is rarely conceptualised, as a problem, as a symptom, or as a social or housing movement.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatting is a criminal offence in Scotland, punishable by a fine or even imprisonment, under the Trespass (Scotland) Act 1865. The owner or lawful occupier of the property has the right to evict squatters without notice or applying to the court for an eviction order, although when evicting, they cannot do anything that would break the law, for example, use violence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Estonia",
        "text": "Squatting in Estonia\n--History.\n--Anna Haava.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Netherlands",
        "text": "Squatting in the Netherlands, particularly in Amsterdam, became a rather institutionalised process, although the squatters movement continued to evolve with one development being the occupation of large office buildings by refugee collectives. One such group, We Are Here was established in 2012 and the collective had squatted over 30 buildings and parks by the end of 2017. In a different development, squatting was used as a tool to contest the construction of the Betuweroute, a freight railway route from Rotterdam to Germany. and other environmental protestors occupied several houses due to be demolished. This included a failed attempt to squat a building in Angeren."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Netherlands",
        "text": "Squatting in the Netherlands (Dutch: kraken) is the occupation of unused or derelict buildings or land without the permission of the owner. The modern squatters movement (Dutch: kraakbeweging) began in the 1960s in the Netherlands. By the 1980s, it had become a powerful anarchist social movement which regularly came into conflict with the state, particularly in Amsterdam with the Vondelstraat and coronation riots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Netherlands",
        "text": "In 1987, the law was changed so that an owner could take anonymous squatters to court, rather than being required to know their names. A law was passed in 1994 which made it illegal to squat a building which had been empty for less than one year. After this, it became conventional for squatters to call the police after occupying a building and if the police were satisfied that the building had been empty for more than a year and that the squatters were living there (as evidenced by having a chair, a table and a bed) then the owner would need to make a court case to regain possession. Thus, squatting became a tactic to provide housing and also to fight speculation, conserve monumental buildings, provide groups with spaces and so on. An example of conservational squatting is Huize Ivicke in Wassenaar, a building which the owner refuses to repair. The villa was placed on a list of the most endangered monuments in Europe and it was squatted in 2018 by people wanting to prevent further dilapidation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Local Authority Housing Departments, facing rising court costs when evicting squatters, often resorted to taking out the plumbing and toilets in empty buildings to deter squatters. In the 1970s, some housing councils would attempt to deter squatters from entering their properties by \"gutting\" the houses, rendering them uninhabitable by pouring concrete into toilets and sinks or smashing the ceilings and staircases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Many squatters legalised their homes or projects in the 1980s, for example Bonnington Square and Frestonia in London. More recently, there are still isolated examples such as the Invisible Circus in Bristol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Nevertheless, the 19th and early 20th centuries saw various land raids in which cottars attempted to occupy land for subsistence farming. In 1948, the Seven Men of Knoydart unsuccessfully squatted land owned by the Nazi-supporting Lord Brocket. The Forest Caf\u00e9 in Edinburgh squatted its old premises in 2011 before moving to a new site. There have been several road protest land squats such as Bilston Glen and Pollok Free State."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Ireland",
        "text": "Illegal evictions also occur, such as a 2015 case in which three men were convicted of false imprisonment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Croatia",
        "text": "Squatting in Croatia\n--History.\n--Social centres.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Thailand",
        "text": "Squatting in Thailand\n--Legal.\n--History.\n--Sor Por Kor.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in South Korea",
        "text": "Squatting in South Korea is the occupation of land or buildings without the permission of the relevant authorities. From the 1950s onwards, shanty towns called P'anjach'on formed around cities, in particular the capital Seoul. As well as providing housing, squatting is used as a tactic by groups opposing gentrification and striking workers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Raven's Ait, an island in the River Thames, was occupied in 2009. The squatters declared their intention to set up an eco conference centre. The eviction of these squatters took place on 1 May by police using boats and specialist climbing teams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Ireland",
        "text": "Many young people emigrated from Ireland in the 1980s and squatted in London. In Dublin, there was a political squat on Arran Quay in 1995."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Croatia",
        "text": "Squatting in Croatia has existed as a phenomenon since the decline of the Roman Empire. In the 1960s much private housing in major cities was illegally constructed or expanded and since the 1990s squatting is used as a tactic by feminists, punks and anarchists. Well-known (and mostly legalized) self-managed social centres such as the in Pula, Nigdjezemska in Zadar and (AKC) Medika in Zagreb."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Netherlands",
        "text": "Some squats in cities have successfully legalised into still extant social centres and housing cooperatives such as ACU in Utrecht, the Grote Broek in Nijmegen, the Landbouwbelang in Maastricht, ORKZ in Groningen, the Poortgebouw in Rotterdam and Vrankrijk in Amsterdam. There have also been squats in the countryside such as Fort Pannerden and the Ruigoord village."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In many of the world's poorer countries, there are extensive slums or shanty towns, typically built on the edges of major cities and consisting almost entirely of self-constructed housing built without the landowner's permission. While these settlements may in time become upgraded, they often start off as squats with minimal basic infrastructure. Thus, there is no legal link to sewerage, electricity or water. Such settlements also exist in industrialized countries, such as for example Ca\u00f1ada Real on the outskirts of Madrid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "A total of 158 concerned academics, barristers and solicitors specialising in property law published a letter in \"The Guardian\" stating their concerns that \"misleading\" comments were being made in the mainstream media about squatting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Estonia",
        "text": "The Contemporary Art Museum of Estonia was founded as a squat in part of a decommissioned central heating plant in the north of Tallinn. It then legalized in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Thailand",
        "text": "Squatting in Thailand was traditionally permissible under customary law and adverse possession can occur after ten years of continuous occupation. As of 2015, the capital Bangkok had over 2 million squatters, out of a population of around 10 million. A survey of slums across the country noted in 2000 that most were rented not squatted; Khlong Toei District in Bangkok contains both squatters and tenants. There are also squatters in rural areas. The 1975 Agricultural Land Reform Act aimed to redistribute land to poor people (including squatters) under the Sor Por Kor program and as of 2019, 36 million rai (or 5.8 million hectares) of land had been assigned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Kenya",
        "text": "Squatting in Kenya is the occupation of unused land or derelict buildings without the permission of the owner. During colonial occupation, indigenous peoples working on farms owned by white settlers were known as \"squatters\". As of 1945, there were over 200,000 of these licensed squatters in the Highlands and more than half were Kikuyu. The Mau Mau rebellion began amongst squatters in the late 1940s and after independence in the early 1960s, peasants started squatting land in rural areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Guyana",
        "text": "A study by the Land Tenure Centre of the University of Wisconsin published in 2001 stated that knowing exactly how much squatting was happening was difficult because of the varied ways in which people illegally accessed land, such as exploitation of administrative loopholes, staying on land after leases had ended, incrementally taking more land than was originally owned, as well as the conventional form of occupying unused property. Land invasions were most frequent on former co-operative farms or beside railways and reserves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Albania",
        "text": "Squatting in Albania is the occupation of unused land or derelict buildings without the permission of the owner. It began on a large scale in the 1990s, with internal migration towards former collectivised farmland and informal settlements on the periphery of the capital Tirana. Bathore near to Tirana had 40,000 squatters by the early 2000s. The Agency of Legalization, Upgrading, and Integration of Informal Zones and Buildings (ALUIZNI) had legalized 16,500 homes on 152 settlements by 2009. As of 2020, 25 per cent of the population of Albania's cities lived in informal settlements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Spain",
        "text": "Squatting in Spain refers to the occupation of unused or derelict buildings or land without the permission of the owner. In Francoist Spain migrant workers lived in slums on the periphery of cities. During the Spanish transition to democracy, residential squatting occurred in Spanish cities such as Barcelona, Bilbao, Madrid, Valencia and Zaragoza. From the 1980s onwards a new generation of squatters set up self-managed social centres which hosted events and campaigns. The 1995 Criminal Code among other things criminalised squatting, but failed to stop it. Social centres exist across the country and in Barcelona and Madrid in particular. In the Basque Country they are known as ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Thailand",
        "text": "privately owned land; enclaves on land owned by the Crown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heathen hof",
        "text": "Olsen also regarded as highly significant that only 9 meters from the south door of the building was an oval pit containing ash, charcoal, fragments of animal bone, and sooty stones. He pointed out that Icelandic farms usually disposed of their refuse down a slope, and interpreted this as a very large baking pit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Nepal",
        "text": "Squatting in Nepal occurs when people live on land or in buildings without the valid land ownership certificate (known as a Lal PurJa). The number of squatters has increased rapidly since the 1980s, as a result of factors such as internal migration to Kathmandu and civil war. In March 2021, the chairperson of the Commission on Landless Squatters stated that all landless squatters would receive ownership certificates within the following eighteen months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Serbia",
        "text": "Squatting in Serbia\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "As with England, from 1 September 2012, squatting in a residential building was made a criminal offence subject to arrest, fine and imprisonment. Cardiff Squatters Network was formed in December 2012, to network together squatters citywide, and host \"skill-share\" workshops on squatting legally in commercial buildings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In many West European countries since the 1960s and 1970s, there are both squatted houses used as residences and self-managed social centres where people pursue social and cultural activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "The Dublin Housing Action Committee (DHAC) was active between 1968 and 1971, occupying buildings to protest the housing crisis. The Prohibition of Forcible Entry and Occupation Act of 1971 criminalized squatting. Squatters can gain title to land and property by adverse possession as governed by the 1957 Statute of Limitations Act. From the 1990s onwards, there have been occasional political squats such as Disco Disco, Magpie and Grangegorman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Antigua and Barbuda",
        "text": "Squatting in the island country of Antigua and Barbuda in the West Indies is the occupation of unused land or derelict buildings without the permission of the owner. Historically, native Barbudans were seen as squatters and after Hurricane Irma in 2017, Prime Minister Gaston Browne offered people he termed squatters the chance to buy their land."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Slovenia",
        "text": "Squatting in Slovenia is the occupation of derelict buildings or unused land without the permission of the owner. Housing was illegally built from the 1960s onwards and informal settlements have been set up by Romani people or poor immigrants. In the capital Ljubljana, there is the autonomous zone of Metelkova and the Rog self-managed social centre was evicted in early 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In Belgium, the village of Doel was slowly occupied by squatters and used by street artists after becoming a ghost village when the plans to expand Port of Antwerp stalled. Christiania in Copenhagen, Denmark, is an independent community of almost 900 people founded in 1971 on the site of an abandoned military zone. In Copenhagen, as in other European cities such as Berlin and Amsterdam, the squatter movement was large in the 1980s. It was a social movement, providing housing and alternative culture. A flashpoint came in 1986 with the Battle of Ryesgade. Another flashpoint came in 2007 when Ungdomshuset was evicted. While not technically a squat until 14 December 2006, it was a social centre used by squatters and people involved in alternative culture more generally. After a year of protests, the city council donated a new building."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In 2012, activists from Occupy Belfast squatted a Bank of Ireland building in Belfast city centre and used it as a social space. Squatting in Northern Ireland was unaffected by the recent law change in England and Wales, and remains a civil matter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Uganda",
        "text": "Squatting in Uganda is the occupation of derelict buildings or unused land without the permission of the owner. The complicated history of land tenure has generated conflicts between squatters and owners."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Ukraine",
        "text": "Squatting () is the occupation of unused or derelict buildings or land without the permission of the owner. From the 17th century onwards, there have been waves of squatting in Ukraine. In the 21st century, squatting has been practiced by different groups such as artists, anarchists, Ukrainian nationalists, displaced Crimean Tatars returning to the region and refugees created by the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Fiji",
        "text": "In Fiji, 87% of the land mass is owned by indigenous clans under the Native Land Register (Fijian language: Vola ni Kawa Bula). The state owns 6% and the remaining 7% can be bought and sold. Originally, most squatting occurred on state land and now tribal lands are also squatted. Squatters on tribal lands tend to do so with informal permission (Fijian: Vakavanua), whereas squatters on the remaining 13% are more akin to the global view of squatters. The looseness in the definition of who is squatting can make it harder to generate accurate statistics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Nepal",
        "text": "Squatting in Nepal\n--History.\n--Legal.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Squatting in England and Wales usually refers to a person who is not the owner, taking possession of land or an empty house. People squat for a variety of reasons which include needing a home, protest,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Estonia",
        "text": "On the periphery of Tallinn, the capital of Estonia, workers at the Dvigatel factory were given land in the 1980s to build summer houses. After the factory shut down, the land was forgotten about by the authorities and people started lived there. Some were original residents, some were homeless squatters. In 2017, the nearby airport purchased the land parcels in order to expand and started to evict the site although a few residents had bought their land and pledged to not sell up. In the 1990s, the wooden houses surrounding Tallinn Baltic Station were the domain of squatters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch squatting ban",
        "text": "Squatters marked the ten year anniversary of the squatting ban on 1 October 2020 in a national campaign placing banners and posters on long-term empty places. In Utrecht, a banner was hung at a building on Burgemeester Reigerstraat which had been evicted in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Serbia",
        "text": "Squatting has come to refer to either Romani people occupying buildings or shacks built as second homes in suburban areas. A large Romani settlement called Cardboard city (Serbian: \u041a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u043e\u043d \u0441\u0438\u0442\u0438, Karton siti) was evicted in 2009. In Belgrade there have also been explicitly political self-managed social centres such as Rebel House, AKC Akcija and KUDRUC. In 2014, the derelict Zvezda cinema was occupied by activists and reopened."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Iran",
        "text": "Squatting in Iran\n--History.\n--Post-revolution.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Vanuatu",
        "text": "Squatting in Vanuatu\n--History.\n--Legal.\n--Recent.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatters in Malaysia live on both privately owned and government-owned land. Some squatters have lived on land owned by national electricity company Tenaga Nasional for over five decades."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Netherlands",
        "text": "There are also squats which refused or were unable to legalise such as De Blauwe Aanslag in The Hague, Het Slaakhuis in Rotterdam, ADM in Amsterdam and the Landbouwbelang in Maastricht. The Landbouwbelang is a former grain silo beside the Meuse () river which houses 15 people and provides space for art exhibitions, music events and various festivals. Vrijplaats Koppenhinksteeg in Leiden was occupied in 1968 and eventually evicted in 2010. The complex, which included a bar, a freeshop, a library meeting rooms and offices for a group supporting illegal migrants, had been negotiating with the city council in order to legalise its activities until the talks stalled in 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Netherlands",
        "text": "Squatting was criminalised in October 2010. Between then and November 2014, 529 people were arrested. Some recent high-profile evictions have included ADM, the Tabakspanden and De Vloek. The social movement continues in diminished form, with squatting still being used by certain groups, for example the migrant collective We Are Here."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "On 1 June 2010, squatting in the Netherlands became illegal and punishable when a decree was sent out that the squatting ban would be enforced from 1 October. Following legal challenges, on October 28, 2011, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands decided that the eviction of a squat can only occur after an intervention of a judge. The Dutch government assessed the effectiveness of the new law in 2015, releasing a report giving statistics on arrests and convictions between October 2010 and December 2014. During this time period, 529 people have been arrested for the act of occupying derelict buildings in 213 separate incidents. Of the 529 arrests, 210 were found guilty. Of those convicted, 39 people were imprisoned for the new offence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Iran",
        "text": "Squatting in Iran mostly occurs around the major cities, as rural migrants move to urban centres. From the 1950s onwards shanty towns have been set up and inhabitants are known as \"koukhnishinan\". Following the Iranian Revolution of 1979, squatter settlements increased, with the state sometimes evicting and sometimes legalizing the areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom to roam",
        "text": "In many areas, like South and East Iceland, only in uninhabited areas that are not protected maximum 3 Tents maybe pitched up for one night, if there is no camp-site in vicinity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In Thailand, although evictions have reduced their visibility or numbers in urban areas, many squatters still occupy land near railroad tracks, under overpasses, and waterways. Commercial squatting is common in Thailand, where businesses temporarily seize nearby public real estate (such as sidewalks, roadsides, beaches, etc.) and roll out their enterprise, and at closing time they fold it in and lock it up, thus avoiding the extra cost of having to rent more property. In the early 2000s, the government estimated that 37% of the population lived in low-income urban communities, over half of which were squatting public land or renting precariously. The National Housing Authority stated over 100,000 families were living under threat of immediate eviction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Suriname",
        "text": "Squatting in Suriname is the occupation of unused land or derelict buildings without the permission of the owner. Maroons and indigenous peoples such as Tiriy\u00f3 Amerindians have squatted buildings and illegal gold prospectors have occupied land."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Kenneth Clarke then announced an amendment to the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Bill which would criminalise squatting in residential buildings. In 1991, Clarke stated \"There are no valid arguments in defence of squatting. It represents the seizure of another's property without consent.\" John McDonnell commented that \"by trying to sneak this amendment through the back door the government are attempting to bypass democracy.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cybersquatting",
        "text": "The term is derived from \"squatting\", which is the act of occupying an abandoned or unoccupied space or building that the squatter does not own, rent, or otherwise have permission to use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "The trajectory of squatting in central and eastern Europe is very different from that of western Europe because, until recently, countries were part of the Communist Bloc and squatting is generally not tolerated. The first public squat in Romania was Carol 53 in Bucharest, occupied in 2012 by artists. This was a controversial project because in running the project the artists evicted a Roma family which was already silently squatting there. In Moldova, homeless people live in state-run shelters or squatter camps. Squatters in Centro 73, Moldova's first squatted, self-managed social centre, attempted to prevent the historical building's demolition, but were quickly evicted and given another building for art events. The oldest squat in Poland, Rozbrat, was founded in 1994 through the occupation of a former paint factory in Pozna\u0144. There are also squats in Bia\u0142ystok, Gda\u0144sk, Gliwice, Warsaw and Wroc\u0142aw. In Slovenia, the capital Ljubljana has an occupied former military barracks called Metelkova and the recently evicted former bicycle factory called Rog. Croatia has social centres such as the former Karlo Rojc barracks in Pula and (AKC) Medika in Zagreb. In Serbia however the tradition is more for Roma people to occupy buildings or for shacks to be built as second homes. A large Roma informal settlement called Cardboard city was evicted in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Albania",
        "text": "Squatting in Albania\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "In November 2012, Conservative MPs called for the criminalisation of squatting in commercial buildings as well, due to the perceived increase in the squatting of business properties. These included the following pubs: the Cross Keys in Chelsea, the Tournament in Earls Court (both in London) and the Upper Bell Inn near Chatham, Kent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Nigeria",
        "text": "Squatting in Nigeria refers to a person who is not the owner, taking possession of land or an empty house. Squatters migrate from the countryside to informal settlements in cities such as Abuja, Port Harcourt and in particular Lagos. Lagos had a population of over 14 million people in 2019 and many slums, including Makoko."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Ireland",
        "text": "Dublin Housing Action Committee's campaigning in the late 1960s resulted in some successes but also the Prohibition of Forcible Entry and Occupation Act of 1971, which criminalized squatting. Squatters can gain title to land and property by adverse possession as governed by the 1957 Statute of Limitations Act. An occupant is entitled to apply to the Property Registration Authority for legal possession provided they are in continuous and uninterrupted occupation of the property without the permission of the owner for 12 years. If the land is owned by the state the period is 30 years. In 2004, a squatter who had occupied a building for 16 years was unable to gain title because the owner had been paying for insurance on the house, while in 2008 radio presenter Pat Kenny failed to gain title to land owned by his neighbour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Netherlands",
        "text": "Squatting in the Netherlands in its modern form has its origins in the 1960s, when the country was suffering a housing shortage whilst at the same time many properties stood derelict. Property owners kept buildings empty in order to speculate and drive the market price upwards. As youth protest movements burgeoned, in particular Provo movement, squatting became seen as a political, anti-speculation protest. Marking the emergence of a squatters movement (Dutch: kraakbeweging) which focused upon collective action rather than individual initiatives, the term for squatting changed from \"secret occupation\" (Dutch: clandestien bezetten) to \"cracking\" (Dutch: kraken) and squatters became known as krakers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Sri Lanka",
        "text": "Squatting in Sri Lanka\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Younger squatters set up self-managed social centres which hosted events and campaigns. The 1995 Criminal Code among other things criminalised squatting, but failed to stop it. Social centres exist in cities across the country, for example Can Masdeu and Can Vies in Barcelona and Eskalera Karakola and La Ingobernable in Madrid. In the Basque Country the centres are known as . A well-known example was Kukutza in Bilbao."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Under Section 144 of the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012, squatting in residential property became a criminal offence on 1 September 2012. Squatting in non-residential property may be a civil or a criminal matter, depending upon the circumstances, and repossession by the owners, occupiers or intended occupiers may require legal process or police action."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of law articles",
        "text": "Squatting\u00a0\u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Sudan",
        "text": "Squatting in Sudan\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Croatia",
        "text": "In the 1960s, 39.5 per cent of all private housing in Zagreb was squatted, 49.3 per cent in Split and 66.8 per cent in Osijek. Squatting is criminalized by Articles 20-27 of the Croatian Ownership and other Proprietary Rights Act, and has become a form of subcultural activism in cities such as Zagreb from the 1990s onwards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Informal settlements in Kiribati are known as squatter settlements, as in Fiji and Samoa. Unlike most Pacific Island countries, it is possible to sell or buy customary land in Kiribati. Zoning laws are not implemented by the government and not widely recognised by local people. On the island of Kiritimati, squatters live in both villages and on old Burns Philp copra plantations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Malaysia",
        "text": "Squatting in Malaysia is the occupation of unused or derelict buildings or land without the permission of the owner. Squatting began after World War II and is governed by various laws. Recently the government has announced its intention to house squatters in affordable housing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Fiji",
        "text": "Squatting in Fiji is defined as being \"a resident of a dwelling which is illegal according to planning by-laws regardless of whether the landowner has given consent\". As of 2018, an estimated 20% of the total population was squatting, including people living on land owned by indigenous clans with informal permission (Fijian language: Vakavanua). Most squatters are on the larger islands such as Vanua Levu and Viti Levu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatting can be related to political movements, such as anarchist, autonomist, or socialist. It can be a means to conserve buildings or a protest action. Squats can be used by local communities as free shops, caf\u00e9s, venues, pirate radio stations or as multi-purpose autonomous social centres. Dutch sociologist Hans Pruijt separates types of squatters into five distinct categories:\n# Deprivation-based \u2013 homeless people squatting for housing need\n# An alternative housing strategy \u2013 people unprepared to wait on municipal lists to be housed take direct action\n# Entrepreneurial \u2013 people breaking into buildings to service the need of a community for cheap bars, clubs etc.\n# Conservational \u2013 preserving monuments because the authorities have let them decay\n# Political \u2013 activists squatting buildings as protests or to make social centres"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Fiji",
        "text": "Squatting in Fiji\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Albania",
        "text": "Squatters have sometimes occupied severely polluted sites, such as a derelict factory in Vlore or the former chemical plant at Porto Romano in Durr\u00ebs. As of 2002, around 6,000 people were living on the contaminated site at Durr\u00ebs. Chemicals such as chlorobenzene, chromium 6 and lindane were present at dangerously high levels yet the squatters distrusted officials who warned them and the state had no budget to secure the site. The World Heritage Site Butrint National Park has been looted in periods of instability, so squatters have been tolerated as guardians against theft and poaching."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatting in the Czech Republic began in its modern form when anarchist and punk activists inspired by squatting movements in Amsterdam and Berlin occupied derelict houses following the 1989 Velvet Revolution. Ladronka (1993\u20132000) became internationally famous as a hub for counter-cultural activities and anarchist organisation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Ireland",
        "text": "Squatting in Ireland\n--The legality of squatting in Ireland.\n--History.\n----2000s.\n----2010s.\n------Apollo House and the \"Home Sweet Home\" campaign.\n------Connolly Barracks in Cork City.\n----2020s.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Fiji",
        "text": "Fiji is an island country with 110 inhabited islands. As with other Pacific islands, urbanization and lack of governance have created issues for an expanding number of squatters, of which there were an estimated 90,000 to 100,000 in 2009. Development Plan 8 stated that a squatter is \"a resident of a dwelling which is illegal according to planning by-laws regardless of whether the landowner has given consent\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Uganda",
        "text": "Squatting in Uganda\n--Legality.\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Nigeria",
        "text": "In the late 1960s and early 1970s, there was less squatting in West Africa than in other areas of Africa and also Latin America, because cheaply rented property was available and traditional"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in South Korea",
        "text": "Squatting in South Korea\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch squatting ban",
        "text": "Squatting became a criminal offence at midnight on 1 October 2010, passing from the civil courts to the criminal courts. In Amsterdam, squatters had previously occupied the former headquarters of the Dutch fire brigade in protest. In a press release, the squatters announced on 30 September that they would be handing the building at 99 Weesperzijde over to tenants arranged by the landlord. On the last weekend in September, squatters had camped out on the Dam Square overnight as a protest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "In January 2018, there was a squatted homeless shelter in Manchester and the Loose Space collective were running a squat called the Wonder Inn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tabakspanden",
        "text": "The Tabakspanden were mostly squatted from 1983 onwards and all evicted in 2015. The buildings were relinquished by the squatters on Saturday March 22 2015, but on Tuesday 24, a different group of squatters reoccupied the buildings as a protest against gentrification. The police then mounted a major eviction operation on the Wednesday which was screened live by local media."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Kenya",
        "text": "Squatting in Kenya\n--History.\n--21st-century.\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is squatting legal?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A squatter occupys an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential, that the squatter does not own, rent or otherwise have lawful permission to use and it's long history is broken down by country. What specific country would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about squatting in Iceland."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In Reykjav\u00edk, the capital of Iceland, there is a small tradition of squatting with incidents occurring from 1919-2011. When the Reykjav\u00edkur Akadem\u00edan (the Reykjav\u00edk Academy) was evicted at short notice from Hringbraut 121 in November 2011, it was occupied in protest."
    ],
    "topic": "Squatting",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Squatting:41",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Squatting",
          "Europe, Western",
          "Iceland"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Reykjav\u00edk, the capital of Iceland, there is a small tradition of squatting. In 1919, anarchists occupied a building and were quickly evicted. Squatters occupied an empty house in downtown Reykjav\u00edk on Vatnsstigur street in April 2009. The squatters set up a freeshop and had plans for a social centre, but the occupation was quickly evicted by the police and 22 people were arrested. Vatnsstigur 4 was briefly resquatted on May 7, 2009, in solidarity with the Rozbrat squat in Poland, which was threatened with eviction. Also in 2009, a group of graffiti artists called the Pretty Boys occupied Hverfisgata 34. Their intention was to make a clandestine gallery and then when they were not evicted, they legalised the space and called it Gallery Bosnia."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Squatting:42",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Squatting",
          "Europe, Western",
          "Iceland"
        ],
        "ctx": "When the Reykjav\u00edkur Akadem\u00edan (the Reykjav\u00edk Academy) was evicted at short notice from Hringbraut 121 in November 2011, it was occupied in protest. The space, which had hosted lectures and also Iceland's trade union and anarchist libraries, was moved to another location but the occupiers were unhappy that the new use of the building would be a guest house for tourists. An art exhibition was organised, with a camera obscura, live music and shadow theatre."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatting\n--Overview.\n--Africa.\n----Liberia.\n----South Africa.\n----Sudan.\n----Zimbabwe.\n--Asia.\n----Hong Kong and Chinese mainland.\n----India.\n----Philippines.\n----Turkey.\n--Europe, Central and Eastern.\n--Europe, Western.\n----Germany.\n----Iceland.\n----Ireland.\n----Italy.\n----Netherlands.\n----Spain.\n----United Kingdom.\n------England.\n------Northern Ireland.\n------Scotland.\n------Wales.\n--North America.\n----Canada.\n----United States.\n--Latin America and the Caribbean.\n----Bolivia.\n----Brazil.\n----Colombia.\n----Haiti.\n----Nicaragua.\n--Oceania.\n----Australia.\n----Cook Islands.\n----East Timor.\n----Kiribati.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In Canada, there are two systems to register the ownership of land. Under the land title system, squatter rights, formally known as adverse possession, were abolished. However, under the registry system, these rights have been preserved. If a person occupies land for the required period of time as set out in provincial limitation acts and during that time no legal action is taken to evict them, then the ownership of the land transfers from the legal owner to the squatter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In Reykjav\u00edk, the capital of Iceland, there is a small tradition of squatting. In 1919, anarchists occupied a building and were quickly evicted. Squatters occupied an empty house in downtown Reykjav\u00edk on Vatnsstigur street in April 2009. The squatters set up a freeshop and had plans for a social centre, but the occupation was quickly evicted by the police and 22 people were arrested. Vatnsstigur 4 was briefly resquatted on May 7, 2009, in solidarity with the Rozbrat squat in Poland, which was threatened with eviction. Also in 2009, a group of graffiti artists called the Pretty Boys occupied Hverfisgata 34. Their intention was to make a clandestine gallery and then when they were not evicted, they legalised the space and called it Gallery Bosnia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In 2011, the 'Occupy Toronto squat team' squatted a basement at 238 Queen Street West and offered to take on a lease for 99 cents per year. They were evicted after eight hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Australia",
        "text": "A five-year-old squat was peacefully evicted in March 2008, when an office block in Balmain was demolished to make way for a park. The council voted to allow the squatters to stay in the building, which they called \"Iceland\", until the plans for demolition were in place. One of the squatters said, \"About 20 people have lived here over the years and it's been a place for band rehearsals, art projects, people practising dance routines, bike workshops. Squatting gives you a chance to think about things other than how you are going to pay the rent and ways to contribute to the world.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Spain",
        "text": "In the 1970s, there were self-built informal settlements or slums as new industrialised zones in cities drew working class migrants from rural areas. A contemporary slum is Ca\u00f1ada Real, where an estimated 40,000 to 50,000 people live along a 15km track formerly used as a drovers' road, on the boundary shared by Madrid and Rivas Vaciamadrid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "When the Reykjav\u00edkur Akadem\u00edan (the Reykjav\u00edk Academy) was evicted at short notice from Hringbraut 121 in November 2011, it was occupied in protest. The space, which had hosted lectures and also Iceland's trade union and anarchist libraries, was moved to another location but the occupiers were unhappy that the new use of the building would be a guest house for tourists. An art exhibition was organised, with a camera obscura, live music and shadow theatre."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Norway",
        "text": "Squatting in Norway\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Frances Street Squats",
        "text": "The Frances Street Squats were a set of six squatted houses, including one women-only building, that existed between February and November 1990 in Vancouver, Canada. They were occupied by SAVE (Squatters Alliance of Vancouver East) and took a stand against development which was generally supported by local people. The Vancouver Police Department evicted the buildings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Manitoba Day Award",
        "text": "Ron Stevens, Much Ado About Squat: Squatters and Homesteaders Ravage Riding Mountain Forest"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Norway",
        "text": "Squatting in Norway is taking possession of land or an empty house without the permission of the owner. The first public occupation was Hjelmsgate 3 in 1969 and self-managed social centres which were first squatted and then legalized include the Blitz House, Hausmania and UFFA. Brakkebygrenda was a land squat which has twice been evicted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gamle Oslo",
        "text": "Places formerly known for squatting, includes \"Brakkebygrenda\" (a.k.a. \"Br\u00e6kkers\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "The Frances Street Squats in Vancouver were a row of six buildings squatted for nine months in 1990. They were evicted in a large operation and a film was subsequently made, called \"The Beat of Frances Street\". In recent years, there have been a number of public squats which have brought together the two main contemporary reasons for squatting \u2013 homelessness and activism. Examples are the Lafontaine squat in Overdale, a district of Montr\u00e9al (2001), the Woodward's Squat in Vancouver (2002), the Infirmary Squat in Halifax (2002), the Pope Squat in Toronto (2002), the Seven Year Squat in Ottawa (2002), the Water Street Squat in Peterborough (2003), and the North Star hotel in Vancouver (2006). These were squats organised by anti-poverty groups which tended to be short-lived. The Woodward's building was a derelict department store which had stood empty for nine years. After being evicted from the building, two hundred squatters set up a tent city on the pavement outside. The action is credited with putting in motion the eventual redevelopment of the building. The Peterborough Coalition Against Poverty (PCAP) publicly squatted 1130 Water Street, a building which stood empty after a fire. The group offered to repair the place and return it to its use as low-income housing. City officials agreed to the repairs and then City Council voted to demolish the building. The cost of demolition was $8,900 and the cost of repairs had been projected to be $6,900. The North Star hotel was temporarily squatted as a protest against emptiness by the Vancouver Anti-Poverty Committee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frances Street Squats",
        "text": "In 1989, property developer Ning Yee purchased six houses on Frances Street in Vancouver, Canada, and evicted the tenants. In February 1990, four of the six houses were squatted after they had been scheduled for demolition. The other two houses were then also occupied, with one being women-only. The squatters set up a communal garden and a free shop. Two more buildings were occupied on McLean street and quickly evicted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Mexico",
        "text": "Squatting in Mexico has occurred on the periphery of Mexico City from the 19th century onwards. As of 2017, an estimated 25 per cent of Mexico's urban population lived in informal settlements. In Mexico City, there are self-managed social centres. The CORETT (Commission for the Regularization of Land Holdings) program aims to help squatters to register their land plots"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Serbia",
        "text": "Squatting in Serbia\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Mexico",
        "text": "In Mexico City, there are self-managed social centres such as Biblioteca Social Reconstruir, Chanti Ollin, Escuela de Cultura Popular M\u00e1rtires del 68 and Okupa Che. Chanti Ollin and Okupa Che were squatted. There are also art squats such as Casa Matus in Colonia Roma."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Croatia",
        "text": "Squatting in Croatia\n--History.\n--Social centres.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "The majority of squatting is residential in nature. As a phenomenon it tends to occur when a poor and homeless population makes use of derelict property or land through urban homesteading. According to a 2003 estimate by the United Nations in the UN-Habitat report, there were about one billion people in squatter settlements and slums. According to an academic, Kesia Reeve, \"squatting is largely absent from policy and academic debate and is rarely conceptualised, as a problem, as a symptom, or as a social or housing movement.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Iran",
        "text": "Squatting in Iran\n--History.\n--Post-revolution.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Haiti",
        "text": "Squatting in Haiti\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Czech Republic",
        "text": "Squatting in the Czech Republic\n--Communism.\n--Post-communism.\n--2010s.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Ukraine",
        "text": "Squatting () is the occupation of unused or derelict buildings or land without the permission of the owner. From the 17th century onwards, there have been waves of squatting in Ukraine. In the 21st century, squatting has been practiced by different groups such as artists, anarchists, Ukrainian nationalists, displaced Crimean Tatars returning to the region and refugees created by the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "Squatting is illegal and squatters can be evicted for trespassing. Some community organizations have used squatting as a tactic to house homeless people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatting is the action of occupying an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential, that the squatter does not own, rent or otherwise have lawful permission to use. The United Nations estimated in 2003 that there were one billion slum residents and squatters globally. Squatting occurs worldwide and tends to occur when people who are poor and homeless find empty buildings or land to occupy for housing. It has a long history, broken down by country below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In industrialized countries, there are often residential squats and also political squatting movements, which can be anarchist, autonomist or socialist in nature, for example in the self-managed social centres of Italy or squats in the United States. Oppositional movements from the 1960s and 1970s created freespaces in Denmark or squatting village in the Netherlands, and in England and Wales, there were estimated to be 50,000 squatters in the late 1970s. Each local situation determines the context: in Athens, Greece, there are refugee squats; Germany has social centres; in Spain there are many squats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In many of the world's poorer countries, there are extensive slums or shanty towns, typically built on the edges of major cities and consisting almost entirely of self-constructed housing built without the landowner's permission. While these settlements may in time become upgraded, they often start off as squats with minimal basic infrastructure. Thus, there is no legal link to sewerage, electricity or water. Such settlements also exist in industrialized countries, such as for example Ca\u00f1ada Real on the outskirts of Madrid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Ireland",
        "text": "Many young people emigrated from Ireland in the 1980s and squatted in London. In Dublin, there was a political squat on Arran Quay in 1995."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Croatia",
        "text": "In the 1960s, 39.5 per cent of all private housing in Zagreb was squatted, 49.3 per cent in Split and 66.8 per cent in Osijek. Squatting is criminalized by Articles 20-27 of the Croatian Ownership and other Proprietary Rights Act, and has become a form of subcultural activism in cities such as Zagreb from the 1990s onwards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Guyana",
        "text": "A study by the Land Tenure Centre of the University of Wisconsin published in 2001 stated that knowing exactly how much squatting was happening was difficult because of the varied ways in which people illegally accessed land, such as exploitation of administrative loopholes, staying on land after leases had ended, incrementally taking more land than was originally owned, as well as the conventional form of occupying unused property. Land invasions were most frequent on former co-operative farms or beside railways and reserves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Croatia",
        "text": "Squatting in Croatia has existed as a phenomenon since the decline of the Roman Empire. In the 1960s much private housing in major cities was illegally constructed or expanded and since the 1990s squatting is used as a tactic by feminists, punks and anarchists. Well-known (and mostly legalized) self-managed social centres such as the in Pula, Nigdjezemska in Zadar and (AKC) Medika in Zagreb."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ungdomshuset",
        "text": "[[Category:Squatting in Denmark]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in South Korea",
        "text": "Squatting in South Korea\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Ireland",
        "text": "Illegal evictions also occur, such as a 2015 case in which three men were convicted of false imprisonment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Ireland",
        "text": "Squatting in the Republic of Ireland is the occupation of unused land or derelict buildings without the permission of the owner. In the 1960s, the Dublin Housing Action Committee highlighted the housing crisis by squatting buildings. From the 1990s onwards there have been occasional political squats such as Grangegorman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squat effect",
        "text": "Squat is also mentioned as a factor in the collision of the bulk carriers \"Tecam Sea\" and \"Federal Fuji\" in the port of Sorel, Quebec, in April 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "1906 in Canada",
        "text": "Reconciling rules on homesteading and traditional Doukhobor communal practice is complicated by poverty, religious freedom and squatting"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Nevertheless, the 19th and early 20th centuries saw various land raids in which cottars attempted to occupy land for subsistence farming. In 1948, the Seven Men of Knoydart unsuccessfully squatted land owned by the Nazi-supporting Lord Brocket. The Forest Caf\u00e9 in Edinburgh squatted its old premises in 2011 before moving to a new site. There have been several road protest land squats such as Bilston Glen and Pollok Free State."
      },
      {
        "title": "1921 in Canada",
        "text": "Police reject pleas to bust exposed knees"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Fiji",
        "text": "Squatting in Fiji\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "In February 2013, a homeless man named Daniel Gauntlett froze to death on the doorstep of an abandoned bungalow, in a case that has been linked with the new law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Serbia",
        "text": "Squatting has come to refer to either Romani people occupying buildings or shacks built as second homes in suburban areas. A large Romani settlement called Cardboard city (Serbian: \u041a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u043e\u043d \u0441\u0438\u0442\u0438, Karton siti) was evicted in 2009. In Belgrade there have also been explicitly political self-managed social centres such as Rebel House, AKC Akcija and KUDRUC. In 2014, the derelict Zvezda cinema was occupied by activists and reopened."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Mexico",
        "text": "Squatting in Mexico\n--History.\n--Legal.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Millbrook, Victoria",
        "text": "Denholm, David. \"Squatting\" in \"The Oxford Companion to Australian History\", edited by Graeme Davidson. John Hirst & Stuart MacIntyre, Oxford University Press, 1998."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatting is a criminal offence in Scotland, punishable by a fine or even imprisonment, under the Trespass (Scotland) Act 1865. The owner or lawful occupier of the property has the right to evict squatters without notice or applying to the court for an eviction order, although when evicting, they cannot do anything that would break the law, for example, use violence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frances Street Squats",
        "text": "The squatters formed a group called SAVE (Squatters Alliance of Vancouver East). Spokesperson Penny Singh said \"We will not be bullied out by uniforms, black boots and badges\". A SAVE press release stated \"Habitable houses should not be left unoccupied\". They used the solidarity of their group to address the Vancouver city council about the housing crisis in the city."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Estonia",
        "text": "Squatting in Estonia\n--History.\n--Anna Haava.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Pakistan",
        "text": "Squatting in Pakistan\n--History.\n--Regularization.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Mexico",
        "text": "As of 2017, an estimated 25 per cent of Mexico's urban population lived in informal settlements, in areas such as hillsides or the beds of lakes. Squatting occurs in cities such as Puebla, Playa del Carmen and Tijuana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Many squatters legalised their homes or projects in the 1980s, for example Bonnington Square and Frestonia in London. More recently, there are still isolated examples such as the Invisible Circus in Bristol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "Squatting in the Philippines\n--Overview.\n--History.\n--Legal.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "An activist from Focus E15 was arrested on suspicion of squatting in 2015, when she was occupying a council flat in Stratford, London, in support of a mother who had been evicted. The charges were later dropped less than 24 hours before the court hearing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Croatia",
        "text": "In 1989, feminists organized through the Women's Group Tresnjevka squatted an apartment in Zagreb to shelter women escaping domestic violence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Occupy Canada",
        "text": "On November 5, The Council of Canadians donated a portable toilet to the camp, which had previously been using a makeshift toilet inside a tent. However, it was removed by the city on November 7."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Australia",
        "text": "In more recent times, there have been squats in the major cities such as Canberra, Melbourne and Sydney. It would be possible in theory for squatters to be charged with criminal trespass under the \"Inclosed Lands Protection Act\", but squatters are simply evicted when they are discovered. As in England and Wales and also the United States, adverse possession exists in Australian law, although it is rarely used by squatters. This means that if a squatter lives uninterruptedly in a property for over 12 years (15 in South Australia and Victoria) and against the wishes of the owner, the ownership of the property can be claimed by the squatter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "The Advisory Service for Squatters (ASS) continued the work of the Family Squatting Advisory Service, running a volunteer service helping squatters. ASS has been in continuous existence for almost forty years. It publishes the \"Squatters' Handbook\" and has drafted a legal warning to be used by squatters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Australia",
        "text": "In 2003, a legal squat was organised for ten people who moved onto the site of an old incinerator at Green Square."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Cambodia",
        "text": "Squatting in Cambodia\n--Legality.\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Thailand",
        "text": "Squatting in Thailand\n--Legal.\n--History.\n--Sor Por Kor.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Netherlands",
        "text": "Squatting in the Netherlands, particularly in Amsterdam, became a rather institutionalised process, although the squatters movement continued to evolve with one development being the occupation of large office buildings by refugee collectives. One such group, We Are Here was established in 2012 and the collective had squatted over 30 buildings and parks by the end of 2017. In a different development, squatting was used as a tool to contest the construction of the Betuweroute, a freight railway route from Rotterdam to Germany. and other environmental protestors occupied several houses due to be demolished. This included a failed attempt to squat a building in Angeren."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the powers of the Local Authority, under the directions of the Minister of Justice or Native Affairs, to establish an emergency camp for displaced persons and issue regulations, approved by the Governor-General, to administer, maintain and provide health and sanitation to the camp.\n;Section 6.2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Malek National Museum and Library",
        "text": "Bar sare p\u0101y ne\u0161astan: Squatting"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in South Korea",
        "text": "Squatting in South Korea is the occupation of land or buildings without the permission of the relevant authorities. From the 1950s onwards, shanty towns called P'anjach'on formed around cities, in particular the capital Seoul. As well as providing housing, squatting is used as a tactic by groups opposing gentrification and striking workers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Norway",
        "text": "In Oslo, the capital of Norway, the first public occupation was Hjelmsgate 3 in 1969. It was quickly legalized and became a base for anarchism and countercultural activities. In the 1980s, buildings were occupied by a radical left-wing movement which had links to Denmark and Sweden. Most famously, houses on Skippergata were squatted and then after eviction, the Blitz House was occupied at Pilestredet 30. Blitz is a self-managed social centre which hosts radiOrakel (a feminist radio station), a bookshop, a music venue and a vegan caf\u00e9."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Argentina",
        "text": "Squatting in Argentina\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Guyana",
        "text": "Squatting in Guyana\n--History.\n--Regularization plans.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "1943 in Canada",
        "text": "Canada threatens to step back if not given more say in new UN Relief and Rehabilitation Organization"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Sri Lanka",
        "text": "Squatting in Sri Lanka\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Iran",
        "text": "Squatting in Iran mostly occurs around the major cities, as rural migrants move to urban centres. From the 1950s onwards shanty towns have been set up and inhabitants are known as \"koukhnishinan\". Following the Iranian Revolution of 1979, squatter settlements increased, with the state sometimes evicting and sometimes legalizing the areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "The Dublin Housing Action Committee (DHAC) was active between 1968 and 1971, occupying buildings to protest the housing crisis. The Prohibition of Forcible Entry and Occupation Act of 1971 criminalized squatting. Squatters can gain title to land and property by adverse possession as governed by the 1957 Statute of Limitations Act. From the 1990s onwards, there have been occasional political squats such as Disco Disco, Magpie and Grangegorman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "In November 2012, Conservative MPs called for the criminalisation of squatting in commercial buildings as well, due to the perceived increase in the squatting of business properties. These included the following pubs: the Cross Keys in Chelsea, the Tournament in Earls Court (both in London) and the Upper Bell Inn near Chatham, Kent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Netherlands",
        "text": "Some squats in cities have successfully legalised into still extant social centres and housing cooperatives such as ACU in Utrecht, the Grote Broek in Nijmegen, the Landbouwbelang in Maastricht, ORKZ in Groningen, the Poortgebouw in Rotterdam and Vrankrijk in Amsterdam. There have also been squats in the countryside such as Fort Pannerden and the Ruigoord village."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Ukraine",
        "text": "Squatting in Ukraine\n--History.\n--Tatars.\n--Recent events.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "The trajectory of squatting in central and eastern Europe is very different from that of western Europe because, until recently, countries were part of the Communist Bloc and squatting is generally not tolerated. The first public squat in Romania was Carol 53 in Bucharest, occupied in 2012 by artists. This was a controversial project because in running the project the artists evicted a Roma family which was already silently squatting there. In Moldova, homeless people live in state-run shelters or squatter camps. Squatters in Centro 73, Moldova's first squatted, self-managed social centre, attempted to prevent the historical building's demolition, but were quickly evicted and given another building for art events. The oldest squat in Poland, Rozbrat, was founded in 1994 through the occupation of a former paint factory in Pozna\u0144. There are also squats in Bia\u0142ystok, Gda\u0144sk, Gliwice, Warsaw and Wroc\u0142aw. In Slovenia, the capital Ljubljana has an occupied former military barracks called Metelkova and the recently evicted former bicycle factory called Rog. Croatia has social centres such as the former Karlo Rojc barracks in Pula and (AKC) Medika in Zagreb. In Serbia however the tradition is more for Roma people to occupy buildings or for shacks to be built as second homes. A large Roma informal settlement called Cardboard city was evicted in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Taiwan",
        "text": "From the 1950s onwards, many immigrants from China squatted on public land in Taiwan, in informal settlements. The government began to rehouse the squatters from the 1970s onwards, demolishing 900 settlements by 1984. In 2006, it mandated the removal of squatters under the Principles for the Disposal of Occupied National Public Use Real-Estate Managed by Administrative Authorities, with no provision for alternative housing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In the history of the United States, squatting occurred during the California Gold Rush and World War II. Hoovervilles were homeless camps built across the country during the Great Depression in the 1930s. They were named after Herbert Hoover, who was president of the country at the time. In the late 2000s, shanty towns again sprang up across the US. During the Great Recession (2007\u20132009) there were increasing numbers of people squatting foreclosed homes. There were also reports of people resquatting their own foreclosed homes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Australia",
        "text": "The activists squatting empty buildings on Broadway which were owned by South Sydney City Council were evicted in 2001, a few months after the 2000 Olympics. They had organised art exhibitions, parties, political film nights and a free caf\u00e9."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatters in Indonesia live on both privately owned and government-owned land. For example, the former in Surabaya has been squatted since 2000s after being used as a prison for over 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of law articles",
        "text": "Squatting\u00a0\u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "A total of 158 concerned academics, barristers and solicitors specialising in property law published a letter in \"The Guardian\" stating their concerns that \"misleading\" comments were being made in the mainstream media about squatting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Nigeria",
        "text": "In the late 1960s and early 1970s, there was less squatting in West Africa than in other areas of Africa and also Latin America, because cheaply rented property was available and traditional"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Nepal",
        "text": "Squatting in Nepal occurs when people live on land or in buildings without the valid land ownership certificate (known as a Lal PurJa). The number of squatters has increased rapidly since the 1980s, as a result of factors such as internal migration to Kathmandu and civil war. In March 2021, the chairperson of the Commission on Landless Squatters stated that all landless squatters would receive ownership certificates within the following eighteen months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting (Australian history)",
        "text": "Literature:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Squatting in England and Wales usually refers to a person who is not the owner, taking possession of land or an empty house. People squat for a variety of reasons which include needing a home, protest,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatting in the Czech Republic began in its modern form when anarchist and punk activists inspired by squatting movements in Amsterdam and Berlin occupied derelict houses following the 1989 Velvet Revolution. Ladronka (1993\u20132000) became internationally famous as a hub for counter-cultural activities and anarchist organisation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frances Street Squats",
        "text": "No criminal charges were made. Following the eviction, the squatters occupied the offices of the Mayor Gordon Campbell. Representatives of the Committee of Progressive Electors condemned the police for acting in a \"inappropriate and vulgar\" way at the eviction and requested a public inquiry, comparing the events to the Oka Crisis. Mayor Campbell defended the actions of the police and the \"Vancouver Sun\" confirmed no weapons had been found."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Antigua and Barbuda",
        "text": "In the capital St. John's, squatting is widespread due to the lack of affordable land or housing. Adverse possession can be achieved by continuously occupying privately owned land for fifteen years. As on other Caribbean islands, squatted informal settlements and slums have substandard living conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Croatia",
        "text": "AKC Medika in Zagreb is a social centre that has a bar, a music venue, galleries and office space for radical groups. The venue is called Attack and there is also a bicycle repair workshop, an infoshop and a film studio. There is also the illegal and mixed use squat known as or Squat on Kne\u017eija."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In 2012, activists from Occupy Belfast squatted a Bank of Ireland building in Belfast city centre and used it as a social space. Squatting in Northern Ireland was unaffected by the recent law change in England and Wales, and remains a civil matter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Ukraine",
        "text": "At the beginning of World War II, refugees came to Ukraine from Poland and squatted in cities such as Lviv. Following the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the USSR, people made informal shelters along the Dnieper, for example on the edge of Kremenchuk. The shacks often had telephone numbers written on a sign, to indicate ownership. Between 1990 and 1994, there was the Parkomuna art squat in Kyiv, at Mykhailivska Street 18A (previously known as Paris Commune street). Artists associated with the space include Arsen Savadov. A book was published to accompany an exhibition about the project in 2019. From 2005 onwards, there was the SOSka art squat in Kharkiv."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Vanuatu",
        "text": "Squatting in Vanuatu\n--History.\n--Legal.\n--Recent.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada Camp",
        "text": "After the 1993-1995 Oslo Accords, the Palestinian Authority became involved in the relocation process. It was not until 27 December 2000 that the last families were able to return. Canada also provided funds for the construction of a community centre in Tall as-Sultan for the benefit of the returning families."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Norway",
        "text": "In Trondheim, the self-managed social centre UFFA was created in 1981. After the original building was burnt down, the centre moved to its present location. It houses a bookshop, a cafe, a concert space and offices for the anarchist newspaper \"Folk & R\u00f8vere\". Blitz, Hausmania and UFFA are all centres for anarchism in Norway."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Honduras",
        "text": "Squatting in Honduras\n--History.\n--2010s.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada",
        "text": "The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14,000 years ago. The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada. The included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks. Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Suriname",
        "text": "Squatting in Suriname\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Nepal",
        "text": "Squatting in Nepal\n--History.\n--Legal.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "In the United States, squatting is illegal and squatters can be evicted for trespassing. Real estate managers recommend that vacant properties be protected by erecting \"no trespassing\" signs, regular checks, tenant screening, and quickly finding new tenants. In Miami, municipal ordinance requires that property owner exercise all legal means to remove squatters and police are empowered to take actions to remove squatters from private property and then bill the owner or lessee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hutterites",
        "text": "Approximately 75% of all Hutterites reside in Canada, with the remaining 25% in the United States.\n;Canada"
      },
      {
        "title": "Frances Street Squats",
        "text": "The Frances Street squats were evicted on November 27, 1990, when the Vancouver Police Department (VPD) deployed over 80 officers. 12 were charged with mischief and obstructing a police officer. Twenty five officers were from the Emergency Response Team and the city also engaged a helicopter, a bomb squad, police vans, fire engines, dumpster trucks and ambulances. Constable Bob Cooper stated that the VPD had \"very reliable information that radical elements have taken control of the issue\" and that squatters were in possession of \"three shotguns, two handguns, molotov-cocktails, and other homemade weapons\". After searching the site for two days, the police found no weapons."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is squatting legal?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A squatter occupys an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential, that the squatter does not own, rent or otherwise have lawful permission to use and it's long history is broken down by country. What specific country would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about squatting in Iceland."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Reykjav\u00edk, the capital of Iceland, there is a small tradition of squatting with incidents occurring from 1919-2011. When the Reykjav\u00edkur Akadem\u00edan (the Reykjav\u00edk Academy) was evicted at short notice from Hringbraut 121 in November 2011, it was occupied in protest."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about squatting in Canada?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In Canada under the land title system squatting has been abolished, while under the registry squatting rights have been preserved."
    ],
    "topic": "Squatting",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Squatting:58",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Squatting",
          "North America",
          "Canada"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Canada, there are two systems to register the ownership of land. Under the land title system, squatter rights, formally known as adverse possession, were abolished. However, under the registry system, these rights have been preserved. If a person occupies land for the required period of time as set out in provincial limitation acts and during that time no legal action is taken to evict them, then the ownership of the land transfers from the legal owner to the squatter."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "Squatting in the Philippines occurs when people build makeshift houses called \"barong-barong\"; urban areas such as Metro Manila and Metro Davao have large informal settlements. The Philippine Statistics Authority has defined a squatter, or alternatively \"informal dwellers\", as \"One who settles on the land of another without title or right or without the owner's consent whether in urban or rural areas\". Squatting is criminalized by the Urban Development and Housing Act of 1992 (RA 7279), also known as the Lina Law. There have been various attempts to regularize squatter settlements, such as the Zonal Improvement Program and the Community Mortgage Program. In 2018, the Philippine Statistics Authority estimated that out of the country's population of about 106 million, 4.5 million were homeless."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "Squatting in the Philippines\n--Overview.\n--History.\n--Legal.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "The Urban Development and Housing Act of 1992 (RA 7279), also known as the Lina Law after its proponent Joey Lina, criminalized squatting yet discouraged evictions except in certain cases, such as when the occupation was carried out by \"professional squatters and squatting syndicates\". The Marcos decree which had previously outlawed squatting was annulled by the Anti-Squatting Law Repeal Act of 1997 (RA 8368)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "The Philippine Statistics Authority has defined a squatter as \"One who settles on the land of another without title or right or without the owner's consent whether in urban or rural areas\". Local media and journalists refer to squatters as \"informal settlers.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "President Ferdinand Marcos announced martial law in December 1972 and by 1975 he had introduced a decree criminalizing squatting in an attempt to stop the expansion of informal settlements. The dictatorship often forcibly relocated squatters to sites 30 or 40 km outside cities. First Lady Imelda Marcos wanted to beautify Manila and therefore evicted thousands of squatters when the city hosted the 1974 Miss Universe Pageant and the 1976 meeting of the IMF and World Bank. She commented in 1982 that \"professional squatters [were] plain land-grabbers taking advantage of the compassionate society\". The government attempted to resettle the squatters elsewhere, only for the squatters to return to their homes which were near where they worked, so the Zonal Improvement Program (ZIP) was started in the late 1970s. Slums were then upgraded in situ: The occupations were regularized and supplied with sanitation and electricity. There were squatters at the U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay and the Clark Air Base in the 1980s. In this time, the government began to forcibly resettle squatters again, moving them to places such as Bagong Silang in Caloocan and Payatas in Quezon City. Resistance to evictions fed into the opposition to the Marcos dictatorship and resulted in the 1986 People Power Revolution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In the early 1980s, the squatter population grew and the government of Ferdinand Marcos made attempts to relocate squatters to low-cost housing projects. The sites were not prepared well, and moved people far away from their employment and social networks. Projects included the former Smokey Mountain landfill at Tondo, Taguig (BLISS Housing Project), and Rodriguez, Rizal. Philippine law distinguishes between squatters who squat because of poverty and those who squat in hopes of getting a payment to leave the property. In 1982, Imelda Marcos referred to the latter group as \"professional squatters [...] plain land-grabbers taking advantage of the compassionate society\". Philippines-based media and journalists refer to squatters as \"informal settlers\". The Community Mortgage Program was set up in 1992, aiming to help low-income families transition from squatting to affordable housing. By 2001, around 106,000 families had found secure housing in over 800 separate communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "Squatters build makeshift houses called \"barong-barong\" on unused land. The occupations increased after World War II as people moved from rural to urban areas. In Davao City, there was a scramble for land previously owned by Japanese people and these occupations were legalized in the 1950s by the government. By 1968, there were an estimated 75,000 squatters living in informal settlements and inner-city slums. At the Port of Manila, land was reclaimed in the 1950s in Tondo and quickly occupied by squatters. By 1968, there were over 20,000 households in the informal settlement. Elsewhere in Manila, parks and military land were occupied. The Zone One Tondo Organization (ZOTO) was set up in 1970 to represent squatter interests in Tondo and campaign for land rights. It inspired other groups and the Ugnayan ng Maralitang Tagalunsod (UMT) was founded in 1976 to campaign for squatters on a national scale. The first mass eviction on record in Manila was in 1951 and the largest took place in late 1963 and early 1964 when 90,000 people were displaced. By 1978, there were estimated to be two million squatters in Manila, occupying 415 different locations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In Canada, there are two systems to register the ownership of land. Under the land title system, squatter rights, formally known as adverse possession, were abolished. However, under the registry system, these rights have been preserved. If a person occupies land for the required period of time as set out in provincial limitation acts and during that time no legal action is taken to evict them, then the ownership of the land transfers from the legal owner to the squatter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatting\n--Overview.\n--Africa.\n----Liberia.\n----South Africa.\n----Sudan.\n----Zimbabwe.\n--Asia.\n----Hong Kong and Chinese mainland.\n----India.\n----Philippines.\n----Turkey.\n--Europe, Central and Eastern.\n--Europe, Western.\n----Germany.\n----Iceland.\n----Ireland.\n----Italy.\n----Netherlands.\n----Spain.\n----United Kingdom.\n------England.\n------Northern Ireland.\n------Scotland.\n------Wales.\n--North America.\n----Canada.\n----United States.\n--Latin America and the Caribbean.\n----Bolivia.\n----Brazil.\n----Colombia.\n----Haiti.\n----Nicaragua.\n--Oceania.\n----Australia.\n----Cook Islands.\n----East Timor.\n----Kiribati.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "After World War II many people were left homeless in the Philippines and they built makeshift houses called \"barong-barong\" on abandoned private land. The first mass eviction on record in Manila was 1951 and the largest was in late 1963 and early 1964 when 90,000 people were displaced. By 1978, there were estimated to be two million squatters in Manila, occupying 415 different locations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Metro Manila",
        "text": "During the time of President Ferdinand Marcos, the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank supported the programs for the \"development of relocation\" and \"on-site development.\" Carmona and Dasmari\u00f1as in Cavite and San Pedro in Laguna opened as relocation sites. Along with the establishment of the National Housing Authority (Philippines), Presidential Decree 772 made squatting a crime, making the Philippines one of only two countries (the other is South Africa) where squatting is a crime. The government formulated the National Shelter Program which became the over-all framework for dealing with housing needs of all income classes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "The Community Mortgage Program was set up in 1992, aiming to help low-income families transition from squatting to affordable housing. By 2001, around 106,000 families had found secure housing in over 800 separate communities. In 1993, slums in Metro Manila were estimated to contain 2.39 million people, or 30.5 per cent of the area's total population and 706,185 people had been assisted by the ZIP. Impoverished squatters lived on landfill sites such as Smokey Mountain and Payatas dumpsite, working as scavengers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "Out of the country's population of about 106 million, an estimated 4.5 million were homeless according to the Philippine Statistics Authority; of these 3 million were in the capital Manila. Causes of homelessness include poverty and destruction of homes due to natural calamities and climate change."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatters in Indonesia live on both privately owned and government-owned land. For example, the former in Surabaya has been squatted since 2000s after being used as a prison for over 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Taiwan",
        "text": "From the 1950s onwards, many immigrants from China squatted on public land in Taiwan, in informal settlements. The government began to rehouse the squatters from the 1970s onwards, demolishing 900 settlements by 1984. In 2006, it mandated the removal of squatters under the Principles for the Disposal of Occupied National Public Use Real-Estate Managed by Administrative Authorities, with no provision for alternative housing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatters in Malaysia live on both privately owned and government-owned land. Some squatters have lived on land owned by national electricity company Tenaga Nasional for over five decades."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Mexico",
        "text": "Squatting in Mexico has occurred on the periphery of Mexico City from the 19th century onwards. As of 2017, an estimated 25 per cent of Mexico's urban population lived in informal settlements. In Mexico City, there are self-managed social centres. The CORETT (Commission for the Regularization of Land Holdings) program aims to help squatters to register their land plots"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Cambodia",
        "text": "There are many land disputes and the government has created the Cadastral Commission and the National Authority for Land Dispute Resolutions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Malaysia",
        "text": "Squatting in Malaysia is the occupation of unused or derelict buildings or land without the permission of the owner. Squatting began after World War II and is governed by various laws. Recently the government has announced its intention to house squatters in affordable housing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Malaysia",
        "text": "Order 89 of the Rules of Court 2012 allows owners to claim possession of property occupied by squatters, to be implemented by a writ of possession. When this law applies has been challenged by cases such as the Court of Appeal case of \"Tekad Urus Sdn v Penduduk-penduduk yang Menduduki Kawasan yang dipanggil Desa Perwira\" (2004, 2 CLJ 516)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Sri Lanka",
        "text": "The Government of Sri Lanka owns 80 per cent of the country's land and the rest is privately owned. Land is presumed to be owned by the state unless proven otherwise, under the State Lands Encroachments Ordinance. The government created state-sponsored land settlement schemes (SLSS) to house the population, mandated by the 1840 Crown Land (Encroachment) Ordinance (revised in 1949) and the 1935 Land Development Ordinance. As an unintended side-effect of these provisions, squatting occurs in SLSS zones because it is hard to transfer ownership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Mexico",
        "text": "The CORETT (Commission for the Regularization of Land Holdings) program aims to help squatters to register their land plots and has given titles to 2.5 million homes since its formation in 1993. CORETT runs the Programa de Apoyo de los Avecindados en Condiciones de Pobreza Patrimonial para Regularizar Asentimientos Humanos Irregulares (PASPRAH, Program to Support Regularization for Residents in Informal Settlements Who Lack Title and Live in Conditions of Material Poverty) which offers financial support of up to 10,000 pesos to help families register their land."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Sri Lanka",
        "text": "Squatting in Sri Lanka occurs when people are displaced by war or natural disasters, find it difficult to transfer title or build shanty towns. The Government of Sri Lanka has attempted to regularize squatter settlements. In 2020, there were reported to be over 600,000 squatters on state land."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the powers of the Local Authority, under the directions of the Minister of Justice or Native Affairs, to establish an emergency camp for displaced persons and issue regulations, approved by the Governor-General, to administer, maintain and provide health and sanitation to the camp.\n;Section 6.2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Malaysia",
        "text": "The National Land Code 1965 (Section 425) defined squatting as occupation of land without permission from the appropriate authorities. The Essential (Clearance of Squatters) Regulations 1969 stated that any construction on land without permission from the appropriate authorities can be considered squatting. In 1974, this was adapted to also cover land. An important case was \"Sidek bin Haji Mohamad & 461 Ors v The Government of Malaysia\" (1982, 1 MLJ 313), which confirmed squatters have no right in law. Occupation of state-owned land is a crime punishable by a fine of up to RM10,000 or 1 year in prison, or both. Adverse possession is not recognised in Malaysia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Landbouwbelang (squat)",
        "text": "Even despite the Dutch squatting ban in 2009, getting the squatters removed requires an eviction court order. In order to have that granted, the owner of the building needs to present a development plan for the squatted building. According to the communication of the City of Maastricht there are currently none."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada\u2013Philippines waste dispute",
        "text": "In an analysis of the situation in January 2019, Antonio La Vi\u00f1a said that there was nothing for the Philippines to do but wait on Canadian retrieval of the trash. About three months later, in the wake of the 2019 Luzon earthquake, Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte lashed out at Canada over the garbage remaining in Manila. After accusing Canada of denigrating Filipinos, Duterte proclaimed that if the trash was not removed by Canada within a week (by April 30, 2019), the Philippines would declare war on Canada. In response to Duterte's threat, the Canadian ambassador to the Philippines said, \"I won't comment on the specific words of the president or his tone, but I will say this: Our prime minister committed and has recommitted to resolving this issue, including taking the waste back to Canada.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Spain",
        "text": "In the 1970s, there were self-built informal settlements or slums as new industrialised zones in cities drew working class migrants from rural areas. A contemporary slum is Ca\u00f1ada Real, where an estimated 40,000 to 50,000 people live along a 15km track formerly used as a drovers' road, on the boundary shared by Madrid and Rivas Vaciamadrid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "This situation has so far received the approval of Italian courts, which have been reluctant to defend the owners' rights. In contrast with the dominant jurisprudence, new case-law (from the Rome Tribunal and the Supreme Court of Cassation) instructs the government to pay damages in case of squatting if the institutions have failed to prevent it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Sri Lanka",
        "text": "Squatting in Sri Lanka\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Slums in Metro Manila",
        "text": "Local groups and community-based organizations have lobbied for the rights of residents within slums and squatter settlements throughout the decades. In 1956, local associations successfully lobbied for Republic Act No 1597, which allowed squatter communities to purchase land they were occupying\u2014although President Ramon Magsaysay died before fully implementing the law. Another prominent squatter organization was the Zone One Tondo Organization (ZOTO)\u2014they were very active in the 1970s. ZOTO had numerous successful initiatives: they obtained funding and material resources for Typhoon Yoling victims, they pushed back the land expansion of an industrial firm, they obtained relocation sites for people displaced by business development, and they were recognized by the World Bank at the community's representative in negotiations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Malaysia",
        "text": "Federal Territories Minister Khalid Abdul Samad declared in 2019 that the government intended to house squatters in affordable housing. During the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia, people from Palau squatted at Kg Sembulan Tengah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In many of the world's poorer countries, there are extensive slums or shanty towns, typically built on the edges of major cities and consisting almost entirely of self-constructed housing built without the landowner's permission. While these settlements may in time become upgraded, they often start off as squats with minimal basic infrastructure. Thus, there is no legal link to sewerage, electricity or water. Such settlements also exist in industrialized countries, such as for example Ca\u00f1ada Real on the outskirts of Madrid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Metro Manila",
        "text": "From 1960 to 1992, the government transferred some 328,000 families to resettlement sites 25\u201340\u00a0km from Metro Manila. According to the Asian Coalition on Housing Rights, during Corazon C. Aquino's time, the government would bring some 100,000 persons to relocation sites yearly. During the said period, Sapang Palay and Carmona had a 60% abandonment rate. Congress enacted RA 7279 or the Urban Development and Housing Act (UDHA) in 1992. The law gave a new name for the squatters: informal settlers. Essentially, UDHA gives protection for big private ownership of land in the urban areas, ensuring that these are protected from illegal occupants. The law also widened the scope of private sector participation in the National Shelter Program (NSP)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Taiwan",
        "text": "Squatting in Taiwan is the occupation of unused land or derelict buildings without the permission of the owner. Squatting was fuelled by migrants from China from the 1950s onwards and in addition cities such as Taipei were swelled by internal migrants from the countryside. In order to create Daan Forest Park, 12,000 squatters were evicted. The informal settlement at Treasure Hill has been recognized as cultural heritage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "More recently governments have switched from a policy of eradication to one of giving squatters title to their lands, as part of various programs to move people out of slums and to alleviate poverty. Inspired by the World Bank and the thinking of economists such as Hernando de Soto, the programs aim to provide better housing and to promote entrepreneurship, for the former squatters can use their houses as collateral to secure business loans. Former squatters found that it was hard to maintain the property title over time after deaths or divorces and that banks changed their loan requirements so as to exclude them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that the regulations be published in the Government Gazette in both official languages and furthermore published at the camp in the language of the occupiers.\n;Section 6.4"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Pakistan",
        "text": "Squatting in Pakistan\n--History.\n--Regularization.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rehabilitation of the Pasig River",
        "text": "The illegal squatters who relocated received financial assistance of P24,240. Those who have opted to be relocated or who have simply been forced to relocate by the government have been relocated to:\n# Kasiglahan Village I: Rodriguez, Rizal\n# Kasiglahan Village II: c5, Taguig City\n# Kasiglahan Village III: Trece Martires, Cavite\n# Kasiglahan Village IV & V: General Trias\n# Villa San Isidro: Rodriguez, Rizal\n# Jaime Cardinal Sin Village: Santa Ana, Manila"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Mexico",
        "text": "Squatting in Mexico\n--History.\n--Legal.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in South Korea",
        "text": "Squatting in South Korea\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Malaysia",
        "text": "Before World War II there was not much squatting in Malaysia. Squatting by displaced people increased during the Japanese occupation between 1941 and 1945. Whilst fighting for independence from the British Empire, the Malayan National Liberation Army (MNLA) found support amongst the 500,000 Chinese squatters living on the edge of the jungle. To counter the threat, the squatters were forcibly resettled into camps. After the Malayan Declaration of Independence in 1957, squatting in Malaysia increased as the country industrialised and many people moved from the countryside to the capital Kuala Lumpur. Squatters occupied government land and infill sites such as railway cuttings and swampy land. By the 1970s, estimates of the number of squatters in Kuala Lumpur ranged from 175,000 to 225,000 people. In 1973, 80% had no electricity, 75% no running water and 35% no sewerage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada\u2013Philippines waste dispute",
        "text": "The intricacies of international treaties, the private company involved, and Canadian regulations complicated the situation through 2019 when Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte, began threatening Canada with ultimata. On May 30, 2019, 69 containers of Canadian trash were shipped back."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rehabilitation of the Pasig River",
        "text": "Because the majority of the people living on the edges of the river are illegal squatters, it is very difficult to monitor the amount of garbage or waste \u2014 or to treat either of them. It is estimated that 65% of the waste flowing down the Pasig River is due to these illegal settlement villages. Philippine law states that the government has the legal right to relocate the people in these illegal settlements to 3\u00a0m away from the shore of the river. This is under controversy as the government wants people to be 10\u00a0m away from the river's edge to ensure that the river stays clean, to add a buffer zone against potential flooding, to create parks and walkways, and to allow access for ships and emergency services."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Malaysia",
        "text": "Squatting in Malaysia\n--History.\n--Legality.\n--Recent events.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Thailand",
        "text": "privately owned land; enclaves on land owned by the Crown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Thailand",
        "text": "Squatting in Thailand was traditionally permissible under customary law and adverse possession can occur after ten years of continuous occupation. As of 2015, the capital Bangkok had over 2 million squatters, out of a population of around 10 million. A survey of slums across the country noted in 2000 that most were rented not squatted; Khlong Toei District in Bangkok contains both squatters and tenants. There are also squatters in rural areas. The 1975 Agricultural Land Reform Act aimed to redistribute land to poor people (including squatters) under the Sor Por Kor program and as of 2019, 36 million rai (or 5.8 million hectares) of land had been assigned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada\u2013Philippines waste dispute",
        "text": "Canada\u2013Philippines waste dispute\n--Garbage.\n--Repatriation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in South Korea",
        "text": "Squatting in South Korea is the occupation of land or buildings without the permission of the relevant authorities. From the 1950s onwards, shanty towns called P'anjach'on formed around cities, in particular the capital Seoul. As well as providing housing, squatting is used as a tactic by groups opposing gentrification and striking workers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Australia",
        "text": "In more recent times, there have been squats in the major cities such as Canberra, Melbourne and Sydney. It would be possible in theory for squatters to be charged with criminal trespass under the \"Inclosed Lands Protection Act\", but squatters are simply evicted when they are discovered. As in England and Wales and also the United States, adverse possession exists in Australian law, although it is rarely used by squatters. This means that if a squatter lives uninterruptedly in a property for over 12 years (15 in South Australia and Victoria) and against the wishes of the owner, the ownership of the property can be claimed by the squatter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Thailand",
        "text": "Squatting in Thailand\n--Legal.\n--History.\n--Sor Por Kor.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Peru",
        "text": "Squatting in Peru follows the trajectory of other Latin American cities, in that factors such as internal migration to urban areas, lack of affordable housing and ineffective governance have resulted in large informal settlements. Peruvian law states that squatters on publicly owned land cannot be evicted if they have stayed there for over 24 hours. Instead they can apply for legal title to the courts and if the land has not been developed over the previous decade, they are likely to win the case. In the countryside, many haciendas (large farms) were squatted in the 1950s by mestizo peasants and most occupations were tolerated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Haiti",
        "text": "Squatting in Haiti\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Guyana",
        "text": "Squatting in Guyana\n--History.\n--Regularization plans.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Thailand",
        "text": "From 1925 onwards, adverse possession requires ten years of continuous occupation under Section 1382 of the Civil and Commercial Code. After he had seized power in 1957, the Prime Minister of Thailand Sarit Thanarat cancelled the 1954 act with Proclamation 49. Following the popular uprising of 1973 and various peasant revolts, the Agricultural Land Reform Act was introduced in 1975. It was intended to redistribute state land, including to those already squatting on it. The program was known as Sor Por Kor (SPK)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Cambodia",
        "text": "Squatting in Cambodia\n--Legality.\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "In the United States, squatting is illegal and squatters can be evicted for trespassing. Real estate managers recommend that vacant properties be protected by erecting \"no trespassing\" signs, regular checks, tenant screening, and quickly finding new tenants. In Miami, municipal ordinance requires that property owner exercise all legal means to remove squatters and police are empowered to take actions to remove squatters from private property and then bill the owner or lessee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "The Kalipunan ng Damayang Mahihirap (Kadamay, or Federation of Mutual Aid for the Poor) carried out the Pandi housing project occupation in March 2017. The occupation of over 5,000 housing units built by the National Housing Authority (NHA) in Bulacan was at first condemned by President Rodrigo Duterte and then regularized. The group then attempted to squat NHA property in Rodriguez, Rizal the following year and in 2019 it picketed the NHA offices in Quezon City."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In Thailand, although evictions have reduced their visibility or numbers in urban areas, many squatters still occupy land near railroad tracks, under overpasses, and waterways. Commercial squatting is common in Thailand, where businesses temporarily seize nearby public real estate (such as sidewalks, roadsides, beaches, etc.) and roll out their enterprise, and at closing time they fold it in and lock it up, thus avoiding the extra cost of having to rent more property. In the early 2000s, the government estimated that 37% of the population lived in low-income urban communities, over half of which were squatting public land or renting precariously. The National Housing Authority stated over 100,000 families were living under threat of immediate eviction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of law articles",
        "text": "Squatting\u00a0\u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Honduras",
        "text": "Squatting in Honduras is the occupation of unused land or derelict buildings without the permission of the owner. As the population of Honduras grew from the 1960s onwards, peasants occupied land. The Government of Honduras responded by giving peasants title to land and deporting Salvadoran migrants. The measures had limited success and in the 2010s, squatters continued to self-organise land invasions. The indigenous Miskito people are affected by squatters who practice illegal logging and drugs trafficking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada\u2013Philippines waste dispute",
        "text": "On June 4, with the refuse matter considered settled, Philippine Executive Secretary Salvador Medialdea lifted Duterte's five-day bans on traveling to Canada and doing business with Canadian officials. By June 6 though, the Philippine ambassador to Canada had not yet returned. Finally, on June 29, 2019, 69 containers of Chronic Plastics' wayward trash arrived at the Roberts Bank Superport in Delta, British Columbia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Taiwan",
        "text": "Squatting in Taiwan\n--History.\n--Taipei.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatting is the action of occupying an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential, that the squatter does not own, rent or otherwise have lawful permission to use. The United Nations estimated in 2003 that there were one billion slum residents and squatters globally. Squatting occurs worldwide and tends to occur when people who are poor and homeless find empty buildings or land to occupy for housing. It has a long history, broken down by country below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Antigua and Barbuda",
        "text": "In the capital St. John's, squatting is widespread due to the lack of affordable land or housing. Adverse possession can be achieved by continuously occupying privately owned land for fifteen years. As on other Caribbean islands, squatted informal settlements and slums have substandard living conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slums in Metro Manila",
        "text": "In 1975, Ferdinand Marcos signed a presidential decree that made squatting on private and government-owned land illegal. Thus, resident of slums are also referred to as \"informal settlers\" and usually do not hold legal claim over the land they are living on. There are certain cases where the right of eminent domain has been pursued, although legal judgements rarely benefit those living in the slums. Some have argued that while technically illegal, the forced demolitions of homes is a waste of housing property since residents have made significant investments in their homes\u2014some worth more than several thousands of pesos each."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Chile",
        "text": "In the mid-1990s, the ruling Concertaci\u00f3n coalition introduced Chile Barrio, a plan to house all squatters by 2002. The program was then extended to 2007, by which time it had placed 85.5% of the squatters identified in 1996 into subsidized housing. However, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development (MINVU) had profiled over 20,000 new squatters and therefore a new program called L\u00ednea de Atenci\u00f3n a Campamentos (LAC or Focus on Settlements) was set up."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Guyana",
        "text": "A study by the Land Tenure Centre of the University of Wisconsin published in 2001 stated that knowing exactly how much squatting was happening was difficult because of the varied ways in which people illegally accessed land, such as exploitation of administrative loopholes, staying on land after leases had ended, incrementally taking more land than was originally owned, as well as the conventional form of occupying unused property. Land invasions were most frequent on former co-operative farms or beside railways and reserves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Mexico",
        "text": "As of 2017, an estimated 25 per cent of Mexico's urban population lived in informal settlements, in areas such as hillsides or the beds of lakes. Squatting occurs in cities such as Puebla, Playa del Carmen and Tijuana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Peru",
        "text": "Squatting in Peru\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Can Masdeu",
        "text": "The grounds governed by the squat include almost a hectare of land in use as gardens, an abandoned nunnery, and hospital facility, and about of mostly hilly forests. The building spans four floors and is draped over the side of a hill. It includes 24 different rooms of various sizes including a large hall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Cambodia",
        "text": "Squatting is not an activity defined in Cambodian law. In the Khmer language, \"squatter\" means an anarchist and \"squatters settlements\" literally translate as \"places where anarchy and confusion reign\" therefore"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kampung Pandan",
        "text": "More squatter houses were built in the early 1990s as there were demand from illegal immigrants (mostly Indonesian) who worked in various industries especially the emerging commercial development (construction). In early 2000s, the squatter areas were demolished."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Mexico",
        "text": "In Mexico City, there are self-managed social centres such as Biblioteca Social Reconstruir, Chanti Ollin, Escuela de Cultura Popular M\u00e1rtires del 68 and Okupa Che. Chanti Ollin and Okupa Che were squatted. There are also art squats such as Casa Matus in Colonia Roma."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting (Australian history)",
        "text": "Literature:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Taiwan",
        "text": "Taipei grew rapidly as more immigrants arrived and also migrants from rural areas moved to the city; in 1989 the Public Housing Department estimated there were 196 hectares of land occupied by squatters. In 1997, the clearance of 996 squatter households on land reserved for parks 14 and 15 beside the Linsen North Road resulted in the suicide of an elderly squatter. Daan Forest Park was created in the 1990s after 12,000 squatters were evicted to make way for it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Netherlands",
        "text": "Squatting in the Netherlands\n--Beginnings.\n--Consolidation.\n--Developments.\n--Criminalisation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Torre de Manila",
        "text": "The Knights of Rizal filed a petition with the Supreme Court of the Philippines on September 12, 2014, first, to issue a temporary restraining order (TRO) to suspend the construction, and then if successful, to order the demolition of the building, citing the Cultural Properties Preservation and Protection Act (Republic Act No. 4846), the National Cultural Heritage Act, and the building's zoning violations. The Knights suggested that the Supreme Court should create a \"Writ of Pamana\" (\"heritage\") or \"Writ of Kasaysayan\" (\"history\") similar to the existing \"Writ of Kalikasan\" (\"nature\") as a special legal remedy to enable quicker action on the part of the Supreme Court to protect the country's heritage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "Squatting is illegal and squatters can be evicted for trespassing. Some community organizations have used squatting as a tactic to house homeless people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Mexico",
        "text": "Indigenous migrants have squatted on the periphery of cities such as Mexico City from the 19th century onwards. The 1917 Constitution of Mexico gave indigenous people the right to property, yet squatting continues as a tactic to access land for many poor Mexicans. In order to highlight the housing need in the 1940s, an air force squadron parachuted onto land and established the Escuadr\u00f3n 201 district. Squatters then became known as \"paracaidistas\" (parachutists). In the 1970s, squatted informal settlements were known as \"colonias paracaidistas\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In Nicaragua, squatting occurred after 1972 Nicaragua earthquake. Squatters in Nicaragua were dominated by earthquake victims."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Australia",
        "text": "In 2003, a legal squat was organised for ten people who moved onto the site of an old incinerator at Green Square."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Argentina",
        "text": "Squatting in Argentina\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Guyana",
        "text": "Squatting in Guyana is the occupation of unused land or derelict buildings without the permission of the owner. Squatting has been used as a means to find housing by people displaced by conflict in the 1960s and by internal migrants from the 1980s onwards. In 2015, there were estimated to be over 100,000) squatters across the country. The government announced the National Squatter Regularisation Commission (NSRC) and the State Land Resettlement Commission in 2020, in the following year it allied with UN-HABITAT to create the Guyana Strategy for Informal Settlements Upgrading and Prevention (GSISUP) which aims to regularize all informal settlements by 2030."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Kenya",
        "text": "In recent years, community groups including indigenous peoples and squatters have challenged agricultural companies such as Del Monte Kenya and Kakuzi Limited over land they regard as belonging to them following the foundation of the National Land Commission in 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Antigua and Barbuda",
        "text": "Squatting in the island country of Antigua and Barbuda in the West Indies is the occupation of unused land or derelict buildings without the permission of the owner. Historically, native Barbudans were seen as squatters and after Hurricane Irma in 2017, Prime Minister Gaston Browne offered people he termed squatters the chance to buy their land."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined, exception for Section 9, that the Governor-General proclaims areas to be under the control of the act and their date in the \"Government Gazette\".\n;Section 11.2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Antigua and Barbuda",
        "text": "Squatting in Antigua and Barbuda\n--History.\n--Land ownership.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Martial law in the Philippines",
        "text": "\"Hamletting\" or the herding of rural residents into a special camp by military or state authorities was also common. Residents were uprooted from their homes and relocated in special grouping centers supposedly to keep them from the NPA. However, many farmers and residents who were forced to leave their homes claim that the true intent was to displace them from their land so that corporations or government officials may gain access and use of said lands. Although the government denied authorizing the hamletting through the issuance of the so-called Enrile Memorandum in March 1982, incidents of hamletting tripled by 1984. People who were displaced lost access to their livelihood and properties, and had no access to adequate housing, safe drinking water and sanitation in their places of relocation. The Integrated bar of the Philippines opposed hamletting because it constituted restriction on the freedom of movement and was a violation of the liberty of abode and freedom to travel. It also mean deprivation of property without due process as the hamletting was implemented by force and often with threat of bodily harm to the residents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Cambodia",
        "text": "officially squatters are referred to by different names, such as the \"urban poor\" or \"temporary residents\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the powers of the Magistrate to issue orders to remove persons or persons from land, buildings, native location, village or area, remove them to another area more suitable and ensure the destruction and removal of any illegal buildings or structures. All were subject to an affidavit presented to the Magistrate by the landowner or lawful occupier of the land or buildings which was illegally occupied and that said persons or person had refused to remove themselves. Or similarly, an affidavit issued by a government department, local authority and police. Before the illegal occupier could be issued with an order for removal, the affidavit would be posted on the building or land giving the former, three days notice in the official two languages and native language of the former, that an application was to be heard before the Magistrate and their rights to be present and represented at the hearing.\n;Section 5.2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "The majority of squatting is residential in nature. As a phenomenon it tends to occur when a poor and homeless population makes use of derelict property or land through urban homesteading. According to a 2003 estimate by the United Nations in the UN-Habitat report, there were about one billion people in squatter settlements and slums. According to an academic, Kesia Reeve, \"squatting is largely absent from policy and academic debate and is rarely conceptualised, as a problem, as a symptom, or as a social or housing movement.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada\u2013Philippines waste dispute",
        "text": "In 2016, a Philippine court ruled that the garbage should return to Canada. That same year, Canadian environmental laws were changed to require companies such as Chronic Plastics to retrieve their trash. At the 2017 summit for the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau explained that Canadian laws and regulations had prohibited his nation from accepting the garbage, but that workarounds were in place, though the two nations had not yet settled on financial responsibilities. , storing the Canadian waste had cost approximately 36 million Philippine pesos ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Sri Lanka",
        "text": "After the Indian Ocean earthquake in 2004, many people were displaced and some started squatting. During the Sri Lankan Civil War (1983\u20132009) 289,915 people were displaced in the Vanni region. The government then announced the Prescription (Special Provisions) Act, which aimed to help people who had been displaced to reclaim their property. The act ensured that the previous doctrine of adverse possession after 10 years was no longer valid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dasmari\u00f1as Bagong Bayan",
        "text": "People living here came from former squatters along creeks, esteros, riverbanks and railway tracks of Paco, Pandacan, Santa Ana and the fringes of Fort Bonifacio in Makati (now part of Taguig). Some were squatters in private and government land in Tondo, Para\u00f1aque, and Quezon City. The families of Eduardo Coronel, Virgilio Argulla Sr., Rogelio Tomas, Ruben Alvarez, Manuel Rabang, Aurora Dela Cruz, and Diosdado Alto were the first ones to live here. Each families were given 90-200 square meters which they loan from the National Housing Authority (NHA)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Cambodia",
        "text": "Squatting in Cambodia is the occupation of derelict buildings or unused land without the permission of the owner. Following the Khmer Rouge and the Pol Pot regime, the new democratic government introduced land reform. In the capital Phnom Penh, where in 2003 an estimated 25 per cent of the population was squatting, there are informal settlements and occupied buildings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Brazil",
        "text": "Squatting in Brazil is the occupation of unused or derelict buildings or land without the permission of the owner. After attempting to eradicate slums in the 1960s and 1970s, local governments transitioned to a policy of toleration. Cities such as Recife, Rio de Janeiro and S\u00e3o Paulo have large informal settlements known as favelas. A more recent phenomenon is the occupation of buildings in city centres by organised groups. In rural areas across the country, the Landless Workers' Movement (MST) arranges large land occupations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Spain",
        "text": "As of 2017, it took on average eight months for owners to regain properties from squatters. A company called Desokupa (\"De-Squat\") became notorious for evicting squatters without a legal process, for example La Yaya social centre in Arg\u00fcelles, Madrid. \"El Mundo\" stated in 2018 that there had been over 12,000 reported squats in that year, up from 7,739 in 2013. Barcelona had the most reported squats, with 17,465 reported between 2013 and 2018. During the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain, around 600 Roma people squatted properties on the Costa del Sol which had been impounded as part of Operation Malaya."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Informal settlements in Kiribati are known as squatter settlements, as in Fiji and Samoa. Unlike most Pacific Island countries, it is possible to sell or buy customary land in Kiribati. Zoning laws are not implemented by the government and not widely recognised by local people. On the island of Kiritimati, squatters live in both villages and on old Burns Philp copra plantations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatters' Action for Secure Homes",
        "text": "The Ministry of Justice organised a consultation called \"Options for dealing with squatting\" and SQUASH encouraged squatters and supporters of squatting to respond. In total there were 2,217 responses of which 2,126 were against criminalisation. Of these, 1,990 came via SQUASH. There were 91 responses in favour of criminalisation. The Ministry of Justice announced it would take a \"qualitative rather than a quantitative\" approach to the responses and in October 2011 recommended the criminalisation of squatting in residential buildings."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is squatting legal?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A squatter occupys an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential, that the squatter does not own, rent or otherwise have lawful permission to use and it's long history is broken down by country. What specific country would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about squatting in Iceland."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Reykjav\u00edk, the capital of Iceland, there is a small tradition of squatting with incidents occurring from 1919-2011. When the Reykjav\u00edkur Akadem\u00edan (the Reykjav\u00edk Academy) was evicted at short notice from Hringbraut 121 in November 2011, it was occupied in protest."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about squatting in Canada?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Canada under the land title system squatting has been abolished, while under the registry squatting rights have been preserved."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How do the Philippines deal with squatting?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Urban Development and Housing Act of 1992, also known as the Lina Law after its proponent Joey Lina, criminalized squatting in the Philippines, yet discouraged evictions except in certain cases, such as when the occupation was carried out by \"professional squatters and squatting syndicates\".",
      "Philippine law distinguishes between squatters who squat because of poverty and those who squat in hopes of getting a payment to leave the property."
    ],
    "topic": "Squatting",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Squatting in the Philippines:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Squatting in the Philippines",
          "Legal"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Urban Development and Housing Act of 1992 (RA 7279), also known as the Lina Law after its proponent Joey Lina, criminalized squatting yet discouraged evictions except in certain cases, such as when the occupation was carried out by \"professional squatters and squatting syndicates\". The Marcos decree which had previously outlawed squatting was annulled by the Anti-Squatting Law Repeal Act of 1997 (RA 8368)."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Squatting:26",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Squatting",
          "Asia",
          "Philippines"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the early 1980s, the squatter population grew and the government of Ferdinand Marcos made attempts to relocate squatters to low-cost housing projects. The sites were not prepared well, and moved people far away from their employment and social networks. Projects included the former Smokey Mountain landfill at Tondo, Taguig (BLISS Housing Project), and Rodriguez, Rizal. Philippine law distinguishes between squatters who squat because of poverty and those who squat in hopes of getting a payment to leave the property. In 1982, Imelda Marcos referred to the latter group as \"professional squatters [...] plain land-grabbers taking advantage of the compassionate society\". Philippines-based media and journalists refer to squatters as \"informal settlers\". The Community Mortgage Program was set up in 1992, aiming to help low-income families transition from squatting to affordable housing. By 2001, around 106,000 families had found secure housing in over 800 separate communities."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "The Urban Development and Housing Act of 1992 (RA 7279), also known as the Lina Law after its proponent Joey Lina, criminalized squatting yet discouraged evictions except in certain cases, such as when the occupation was carried out by \"professional squatters and squatting syndicates\". The Marcos decree which had previously outlawed squatting was annulled by the Anti-Squatting Law Repeal Act of 1997 (RA 8368)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "President Ferdinand Marcos announced martial law in December 1972 and by 1975 he had introduced a decree criminalizing squatting in an attempt to stop the expansion of informal settlements. The dictatorship often forcibly relocated squatters to sites 30 or 40 km outside cities. First Lady Imelda Marcos wanted to beautify Manila and therefore evicted thousands of squatters when the city hosted the 1974 Miss Universe Pageant and the 1976 meeting of the IMF and World Bank. She commented in 1982 that \"professional squatters [were] plain land-grabbers taking advantage of the compassionate society\". The government attempted to resettle the squatters elsewhere, only for the squatters to return to their homes which were near where they worked, so the Zonal Improvement Program (ZIP) was started in the late 1970s. Slums were then upgraded in situ: The occupations were regularized and supplied with sanitation and electricity. There were squatters at the U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay and the Clark Air Base in the 1980s. In this time, the government began to forcibly resettle squatters again, moving them to places such as Bagong Silang in Caloocan and Payatas in Quezon City. Resistance to evictions fed into the opposition to the Marcos dictatorship and resulted in the 1986 People Power Revolution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "Squatting in the Philippines\n--Overview.\n--History.\n--Legal.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "Squatting in the Philippines occurs when people build makeshift houses called \"barong-barong\"; urban areas such as Metro Manila and Metro Davao have large informal settlements. The Philippine Statistics Authority has defined a squatter, or alternatively \"informal dwellers\", as \"One who settles on the land of another without title or right or without the owner's consent whether in urban or rural areas\". Squatting is criminalized by the Urban Development and Housing Act of 1992 (RA 7279), also known as the Lina Law. There have been various attempts to regularize squatter settlements, such as the Zonal Improvement Program and the Community Mortgage Program. In 2018, the Philippine Statistics Authority estimated that out of the country's population of about 106 million, 4.5 million were homeless."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "In the United States, squatting is illegal and squatters can be evicted for trespassing. Real estate managers recommend that vacant properties be protected by erecting \"no trespassing\" signs, regular checks, tenant screening, and quickly finding new tenants. In Miami, municipal ordinance requires that property owner exercise all legal means to remove squatters and police are empowered to take actions to remove squatters from private property and then bill the owner or lessee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "This situation has so far received the approval of Italian courts, which have been reluctant to defend the owners' rights. In contrast with the dominant jurisprudence, new case-law (from the Rome Tribunal and the Supreme Court of Cassation) instructs the government to pay damages in case of squatting if the institutions have failed to prevent it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In the early 1980s, the squatter population grew and the government of Ferdinand Marcos made attempts to relocate squatters to low-cost housing projects. The sites were not prepared well, and moved people far away from their employment and social networks. Projects included the former Smokey Mountain landfill at Tondo, Taguig (BLISS Housing Project), and Rodriguez, Rizal. Philippine law distinguishes between squatters who squat because of poverty and those who squat in hopes of getting a payment to leave the property. In 1982, Imelda Marcos referred to the latter group as \"professional squatters [...] plain land-grabbers taking advantage of the compassionate society\". Philippines-based media and journalists refer to squatters as \"informal settlers\". The Community Mortgage Program was set up in 1992, aiming to help low-income families transition from squatting to affordable housing. By 2001, around 106,000 families had found secure housing in over 800 separate communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Malaysia",
        "text": "Order 89 of the Rules of Court 2012 allows owners to claim possession of property occupied by squatters, to be implemented by a writ of possession. When this law applies has been challenged by cases such as the Court of Appeal case of \"Tekad Urus Sdn v Penduduk-penduduk yang Menduduki Kawasan yang dipanggil Desa Perwira\" (2004, 2 CLJ 516)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "Squatting is illegal and squatters can be evicted for trespassing. Some community organizations have used squatting as a tactic to house homeless people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "In common law, through the legally recognized concept of adverse possession, a squatter can become a bona fide owner of property without compensation to the former owner. Implementation and specific requirements vary across locality. The typical requirements are that the occupation must be actual, continuous, exclusive, hostile and public."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "Squatting in the United States is the unauthorized use of real estate. Historically, squatting occurred during the California Gold Rush and when colonial European settlers established land rights. There was squatting during the Great Depression in Hoovervilles and also during World War II. Shanty towns returned to the US after the Great Recession of 2007 to 2009 and in the 2010s, there have been increasing numbers of people squatting foreclosed homes using fraudulent documents. In some cases, a squatter may be able to obtain ownership of property through adverse possession."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "Squatters build makeshift houses called \"barong-barong\" on unused land. The occupations increased after World War II as people moved from rural to urban areas. In Davao City, there was a scramble for land previously owned by Japanese people and these occupations were legalized in the 1950s by the government. By 1968, there were an estimated 75,000 squatters living in informal settlements and inner-city slums. At the Port of Manila, land was reclaimed in the 1950s in Tondo and quickly occupied by squatters. By 1968, there were over 20,000 households in the informal settlement. Elsewhere in Manila, parks and military land were occupied. The Zone One Tondo Organization (ZOTO) was set up in 1970 to represent squatter interests in Tondo and campaign for land rights. It inspired other groups and the Ugnayan ng Maralitang Tagalunsod (UMT) was founded in 1976 to campaign for squatters on a national scale. The first mass eviction on record in Manila was in 1951 and the largest took place in late 1963 and early 1964 when 90,000 people were displaced. By 1978, there were estimated to be two million squatters in Manila, occupying 415 different locations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Metro Manila",
        "text": "During the time of President Ferdinand Marcos, the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank supported the programs for the \"development of relocation\" and \"on-site development.\" Carmona and Dasmari\u00f1as in Cavite and San Pedro in Laguna opened as relocation sites. Along with the establishment of the National Housing Authority (Philippines), Presidential Decree 772 made squatting a crime, making the Philippines one of only two countries (the other is South Africa) where squatting is a crime. The government formulated the National Shelter Program which became the over-all framework for dealing with housing needs of all income classes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Metro Manila",
        "text": "From 1960 to 1992, the government transferred some 328,000 families to resettlement sites 25\u201340\u00a0km from Metro Manila. According to the Asian Coalition on Housing Rights, during Corazon C. Aquino's time, the government would bring some 100,000 persons to relocation sites yearly. During the said period, Sapang Palay and Carmona had a 60% abandonment rate. Congress enacted RA 7279 or the Urban Development and Housing Act (UDHA) in 1992. The law gave a new name for the squatters: informal settlers. Essentially, UDHA gives protection for big private ownership of land in the urban areas, ensuring that these are protected from illegal occupants. The law also widened the scope of private sector participation in the National Shelter Program (NSP)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "Squatting in the United States\n--History.\n--Shanty towns.\n--Housing justice.\n--New York City.\n--Prevention.\n--Adverse possession.\n--Foreclosures.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rape laws in the United States",
        "text": "Federal law applies in Federal areas and in cases of displacement between States:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of law articles",
        "text": "Squatting\u00a0\u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Malaysia",
        "text": "Federal Territories Minister Khalid Abdul Samad declared in 2019 that the government intended to house squatters in affordable housing. During the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia, people from Palau squatted at Kg Sembulan Tengah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Preemption Act of 1841",
        "text": "The Preemption Act of 1841 permitted \"squatters\" who were living on federal government-owned land to purchase up to for $1.25 per acre ($3.09 per hectare) before the land would be offered for sale to the general public. To qualify under the law, the \"squatter\" had to be the following:\n* a \"head of household\";\n* a single man over 21 or a widow;\n* a citizen of the United States (or an immigrant intending to become naturalized); and\n* a resident of the claimed land for a minimum of 14 months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "The Philippine Statistics Authority has defined a squatter as \"One who settles on the land of another without title or right or without the owner's consent whether in urban or rural areas\". Local media and journalists refer to squatters as \"informal settlers.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined, exception for Section 9, that the Governor-General proclaims areas to be under the control of the act and their date in the \"Government Gazette\".\n;Section 11.2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "\"The Pueblo Chieftain\", a local newspaper in Colorado, suggested that indicators of squatting might include people carrying in jugs of water or living by candlelight. A captain with the Pueblo Fire Department said squats present difficulties for fire fighting. In Colorado, in order for police to act, the homeowner is expected to be willing to press charges and report to the police within a reasonable time frame. In 2018, district representatives sought to amend the law so that the police could immediately remove squatters. \"The Bulletin\", a local newspaper in Bend, Oregon, reported that second homes and vacation rentals can become a target of squatters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that the regulations be published in the Government Gazette in both official languages and furthermore published at the camp in the language of the occupiers.\n;Section 6.4"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Malaysia",
        "text": "The National Land Code 1965 (Section 425) defined squatting as occupation of land without permission from the appropriate authorities. The Essential (Clearance of Squatters) Regulations 1969 stated that any construction on land without permission from the appropriate authorities can be considered squatting. In 1974, this was adapted to also cover land. An important case was \"Sidek bin Haji Mohamad & 461 Ors v The Government of Malaysia\" (1982, 1 MLJ 313), which confirmed squatters have no right in law. Occupation of state-owned land is a crime punishable by a fine of up to RM10,000 or 1 year in prison, or both. Adverse possession is not recognised in Malaysia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the Governor-General's right to remove the proclamation of areas or parts of areas through the \"Government Gazette\".\n;Section 12"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Australia",
        "text": "In more recent times, there have been squats in the major cities such as Canberra, Melbourne and Sydney. It would be possible in theory for squatters to be charged with criminal trespass under the \"Inclosed Lands Protection Act\", but squatters are simply evicted when they are discovered. As in England and Wales and also the United States, adverse possession exists in Australian law, although it is rarely used by squatters. This means that if a squatter lives uninterruptedly in a property for over 12 years (15 in South Australia and Victoria) and against the wishes of the owner, the ownership of the property can be claimed by the squatter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the courts right to pass civil judgement to claim funds or fees obtained during the illegal squatting if not seized at the time of conviction.\n;Section 5.1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In the history of the United States, squatting occurred during the California Gold Rush and World War II. Hoovervilles were homeless camps built across the country during the Great Depression in the 1930s. They were named after Herbert Hoover, who was president of the country at the time. In the late 2000s, shanty towns again sprang up across the US. During the Great Recession (2007\u20132009) there were increasing numbers of people squatting foreclosed homes. There were also reports of people resquatting their own foreclosed homes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatters in Indonesia live on both privately owned and government-owned land. For example, the former in Surabaya has been squatted since 2000s after being used as a prison for over 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Campus of University of the Philippines Los Ba\u00f1os",
        "text": "In 2008 Representative Del De Guzman of the 2nd district of Marikina filed HB 1143, which, if passed into law, would have transferred of the MFR to the jurisdiction of the Boy Scouts of the Philippines. The bill was strongly opposed by UPLB, citing possible mismanagement and deforestation of the site if placed under the BSP, among other reasons. The bill has been pending in the House Committee on Natural Resources since August 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that if the emergency camp became a native township under \"Natives (Urban Areas) Consolidation Act 25, 1945\", the local authority might be exempt from Section 18.1 of the said Act.\n;Section 6.5"
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the name of the Act."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatting\n--Overview.\n--Africa.\n----Liberia.\n----South Africa.\n----Sudan.\n----Zimbabwe.\n--Asia.\n----Hong Kong and Chinese mainland.\n----India.\n----Philippines.\n----Turkey.\n--Europe, Central and Eastern.\n--Europe, Western.\n----Germany.\n----Iceland.\n----Ireland.\n----Italy.\n----Netherlands.\n----Spain.\n----United Kingdom.\n------England.\n------Northern Ireland.\n------Scotland.\n------Wales.\n--North America.\n----Canada.\n----United States.\n--Latin America and the Caribbean.\n----Bolivia.\n----Brazil.\n----Colombia.\n----Haiti.\n----Nicaragua.\n--Oceania.\n----Australia.\n----Cook Islands.\n----East Timor.\n----Kiribati.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "In New York City, the Urban Homesteading Assistance Board (UHAB) was at the forefront of a homesteading movement in the 1970s and 1980s. Despite squatting being illegal, artists began to occupy buildings, and European squatters coming to New York brought ideas for cooperative living, such as bars, support between squats, and tool exchange. In the 1990s, there were between 500 and 1,000 squatters occupying 32 buildings on Manhattan's Lower East Side. The buildings had been abandoned as a result of speculation by owners or police raids as part of a crackdown on drug use. As the area became gentrified, the squats were evicted, Dos Blockos being one. Three buildings on 13th Street were evicted without notification following a prolonged legal battle in which the squatters argued through their lawyer Stanley Cohen that they were entitled to ownership of the buildings through adverse possession since they had lived there since 1983. In 1995, a preliminary injunction was granted against the eviction plans, but this was overturned by state appellate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that the person convicted in Section 2 could be issued with a court order to evict them from land, buildings, native location, village or area. Further defined that the person convicted could be issued with further court orders in order to evict and transfer the person or persons from an area to another area even outside the courts jurisdiction and ensure the destruction and removal of any buildings or structures on said land, buildings, native location, village or area.\n;Section 3.2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Mexico",
        "text": "Squatting in Mexico\n--History.\n--Legal.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatters in Malaysia live on both privately owned and government-owned land. Some squatters have lived on land owned by national electricity company Tenaga Nasional for over five decades."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "During and after the California Gold Rush (1848\u20131855) migrant workers squatted land. Under the California Land Act of 1851, squatters made 813 claims as the population in California increased from 15,000 in 1848 to 265,000 in 1852. The Squatters' riot of 1850 was a conflict between squatters and the government of Sacramento, California. Squatting occurred during World War II when Japanese-Americans were sent to Manzanar concentration camp. Buildings which had been left abandoned around the Little Tokyo area in Los Angeles were occupied by African American migrant workers moving to California to work in the armaments factories. In the 1970s and 1980s, gold mining again became a problem in places such as Idaho. In 1975, over 2,000 illegal operations were reported in California and the Forest Service took action on what it called \"occupancy trespass\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "The following is a brief description of the sections of the Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act:\n;Section 1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951\n--Content of the Act.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012",
        "text": "Rules regarding squatting commercial properties remained as layout in Section 6 of the Criminal Law Act 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that no person, except authorised by law, could enter or remain in or on land or buildings without the permission of the owner or lawful occupier. Nor could one, except by lawful reason, enter or remain in a native location, village or area except by the permission of the local authority or person in legal control of the area.\n;Section 2.1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that contrary to other laws, the Magistrates courts would have jurisdiction over the Act.\n;Section 9"
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the Governor-General's right to remove the proclamation of an emergency camp through the \"Government Gazette\".\n;Section 7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Peru",
        "text": "Squatting in Peru follows the trajectory of other Latin American cities, in that factors such as internal migration to urban areas, lack of affordable housing and ineffective governance have resulted in large informal settlements. Peruvian law states that squatters on publicly owned land cannot be evicted if they have stayed there for over 24 hours. Instead they can apply for legal title to the courts and if the land has not been developed over the previous decade, they are likely to win the case. In the countryside, many haciendas (large farms) were squatted in the 1950s by mestizo peasants and most occupations were tolerated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Malaysia",
        "text": "Squatting in Malaysia is the occupation of unused or derelict buildings or land without the permission of the owner. Squatting began after World War II and is governed by various laws. Recently the government has announced its intention to house squatters in affordable housing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Sri Lanka",
        "text": "The Government of Sri Lanka owns 80 per cent of the country's land and the rest is privately owned. Land is presumed to be owned by the state unless proven otherwise, under the State Lands Encroachments Ordinance. The government created state-sponsored land settlement schemes (SLSS) to house the population, mandated by the 1840 Crown Land (Encroachment) Ordinance (revised in 1949) and the 1935 Land Development Ordinance. As an unintended side-effect of these provisions, squatting occurs in SLSS zones because it is hard to transfer ownership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Usufruct",
        "text": "Philippine law relating to usufruct is set forth primarily in Title VI of the Philippine Civil Code."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slums in Metro Manila",
        "text": "In 1975, Ferdinand Marcos signed a presidential decree that made squatting on private and government-owned land illegal. Thus, resident of slums are also referred to as \"informal settlers\" and usually do not hold legal claim over the land they are living on. There are certain cases where the right of eminent domain has been pursued, although legal judgements rarely benefit those living in the slums. Some have argued that while technically illegal, the forced demolitions of homes is a waste of housing property since residents have made significant investments in their homes\u2014some worth more than several thousands of pesos each."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "Since the Great Recession (2007\u20132009) and the subprime mortgage crisis, the United States housing bubble collapsed and banks have foreclosed on many homeowners unable to pay their mortgages. Sovereign citizens in Georgia have squatted million dollar homes in Dekalb and Rockdale counties using fake deeds. According to a Florida based lawyer \"We haven't seen this kind of level of squatters since the Great Depression\". In the San Francisco Bay Area, local NBC News reported that people were even squatting on their own foreclosed properties. Michael Feroli (chief economist at JPMorgan Chase) has commented on the boon to the economy of \"squatter rent\" or the extra income made available for spending by people not fulfilling their mortgage repayments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "The most difficult part of claiming adverse possession for squatters is normally the requirement of continuous possession."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adverse possession",
        "text": "One of the reason why so few supported the criminalization of squatting was because the law prior to LASPO already protected residential property by making squatting in residential area a civil offense and establishing fast track applications to allow title holders to remove squatters within hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "More recently governments have switched from a policy of eradication to one of giving squatters title to their lands, as part of various programs to move people out of slums and to alleviate poverty. Inspired by the World Bank and the thinking of economists such as Hernando de Soto, the programs aim to provide better housing and to promote entrepreneurship, for the former squatters can use their houses as collateral to secure business loans. Former squatters found that it was hard to maintain the property title over time after deaths or divorces and that banks changed their loan requirements so as to exclude them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Federal tribunals in the United States",
        "text": "Pursuant to Congress' authority under Article IV, \u00a73, of the Constitution to \"make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States\"; Congress may create territorial courts and vest them with subject-matter jurisdiction over causes arising under both federal law and local law. But \"the Supreme Court long ago determined that in the 'unincorporated' territories, such as American Samoa, the guarantees of the Constitution apply only insofar as its 'fundamental limitations in favor of personal rights' express 'principles which are the basis of all free government which cannot be with impunity transcended'.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Landbouwbelang (squat)",
        "text": "Even despite the Dutch squatting ban in 2009, getting the squatters removed requires an eviction court order. In order to have that granted, the owner of the building needs to present a development plan for the squatted building. According to the communication of the City of Maastricht there are currently none."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of law articles",
        "text": "Squatter\u00a0\u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Honduras",
        "text": "Until the 1980s, there was little large-scale agriculture and most land was used by subsistence farmers or small coffee producers. In 1980, an estimated 75% of farmers did not own the land they were farming. Decree number 78 or the \"Coffee Enterprise Protection Law\", was introduced in 1981 as part of a plan by the government to regularize land titles which had limited success."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the penalties for the collection of fees or charges or exercising authority regarding the organizing of illegal squatting. Fine would not be more than \u00a3100, or up to twelve months imprisonment, or both. Included is the ability of the court to seize funds obtained during the illegal squatting.\n;Section 4.2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "Out of the country's population of about 106 million, an estimated 4.5 million were homeless according to the Philippine Statistics Authority; of these 3 million were in the capital Manila. Causes of homelessness include poverty and destruction of homes due to natural calamities and climate change."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the penalties for contravening Section 1 as a fine up to \u00a325, or up to three months imprisonment, or both.\n;Section 2.2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Kenneth Clarke then announced an amendment to the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Bill which would criminalise squatting in residential buildings. In 1991, Clarke stated \"There are no valid arguments in defence of squatting. It represents the seizure of another's property without consent.\" John McDonnell commented that \"by trying to sneak this amendment through the back door the government are attempting to bypass democracy.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Martial law in the Philippines",
        "text": "\"Hamletting\" or the herding of rural residents into a special camp by military or state authorities was also common. Residents were uprooted from their homes and relocated in special grouping centers supposedly to keep them from the NPA. However, many farmers and residents who were forced to leave their homes claim that the true intent was to displace them from their land so that corporations or government officials may gain access and use of said lands. Although the government denied authorizing the hamletting through the issuance of the so-called Enrile Memorandum in March 1982, incidents of hamletting tripled by 1984. People who were displaced lost access to their livelihood and properties, and had no access to adequate housing, safe drinking water and sanitation in their places of relocation. The Integrated bar of the Philippines opposed hamletting because it constituted restriction on the freedom of movement and was a violation of the liberty of abode and freedom to travel. It also mean deprivation of property without due process as the hamletting was implemented by force and often with threat of bodily harm to the residents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criminal Law Act 1977",
        "text": "Section 6 is referred to in printed legal warnings, which are commonly displayed near the entrances to squatted buildings. Squatters are not protected by the Protection from Eviction Act 1977, which makes it a crime to evict tenants without following the legal process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "After World War II many people were left homeless in the Philippines and they built makeshift houses called \"barong-barong\" on abandoned private land. The first mass eviction on record in Manila was 1951 and the largest was in late 1963 and early 1964 when 90,000 people were displaced. By 1978, there were estimated to be two million squatters in Manila, occupying 415 different locations."
      },
      {
        "title": "International child abduction in the United States",
        "text": "The Constitution and federal law are the supreme law of the land, thus preempting conflicting state and territorial laws in the fifty U.S. states and in the territories. However, the scope of federal preemption is limited, because the scope of federal power is itself rather limited. In the unique dual-sovereign system of American federalism. Most U.S. law (especially the actual \"living law\" of contract, tort, criminal, and family law experienced by the majority of citizens on a day-to-day basis) consists primarily of state law, which can and does vary greatly from one state to the next."
      },
      {
        "title": "Law of Puerto Rico",
        "text": "As Puerto Rico is under United States sovereignty, U.S. federal law applies in the territory, and cases of a federal nature are heard in the United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Usucaption",
        "text": "A squatter who fences in the property, or who locks it up, or who refurbishes it, or who has the keys to the property delivered unto him, are all signs of legal conveyance and is assumed to be the rightful owner, even in the absence of a legal deed. After three years of occupancy the squatter cannot be evicted from the property, unless the original owner can show proof or bring witnesses who testify to the effect that the property is still vested in his name, and that no transaction, conveyance or sale was made between him and the squatter, even though he held it for three years or more, in which case the squatter is forcibly evicted from the property and the court replevins the estate to its rightful owner. The application of this law is similar to what was found in ancient Roman law, under \"rei vindicatio\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that after being convicted in Section 2.1, continuing to re-offend, the fine will be up to \u00a325, and up to seven days imprisonment per each day of the offence, or both.\n;Section 3.1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "In 1981, ACORN and the Inner-City Organizing Network moved hundreds of people into vacant buildings in Philadelphia. The Squatter actions created such an upheaval that the Federal government got involved, offering housing to the squatters in the 67 federally owned buildings if they agreed to leave. Between June 15 and August 2, 1985, ACORN supported homeless people to take over 25 city-owned buildings in the East New York neighborhood of Brooklyn. During the incident, 11 people were arrested. The City responded by granting the former squatters 58 city owned buildings, money for technical and architectural aid, and $2.7 million in rehabilitation loans. In order to preserve democratic decision making and affordability to the buildings the squatters organized themselves into collective members of a Mutual Housing Association. In a mutual housing association, neighborhood residents form a collective, contributing some money and a lot of sweat equity to rehabilitate buildings for their own use in return for public support and limited ownership. The collective \u2013 in this case the \"Mutual Housing Association of New York\" \u2013 retains title to the land. If owners choose to sell, the association has the right to repurchase for a price reflecting only individual investment, not the market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "More recently, in 2002 the UHAB liaised with the city to legitimize the efforts of squatters in 11 buildings in the Lower East Side. In this project, UHAB bought the buildings for $1 each and agreed to assist the squatters to undertake essential renovation work to bring the buildings up to code, after which their apartments could be bought for $250 each. UHAB would also train them in running low-income limited-equity housing cooperatives. After prices peaked from the housing boom, several of the squatters told the press that they wanted out of the contract so they could be allowed to sell their units at market rate prices. No such arrangements were made, but some squatters attempted to challenge the contract, arguing that adverse possession protected their ownership claim. The first project to successfully renovate was Umbrella House. Others are Bullet Space, which hosts an art gallery, and self-managed social center ABC No Rio, which was founded in 1980. In 2012, the Museum of Reclaimed Urban Space opened at a fourth project, C-Squat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the right to charge fees and levies for accommodation and services, establish different provisions for different classes of people and setting the penalties for contravening the regulations as a \u00a310 fine or two months imprisonment, or both and for subsequent convictions, \u00a325 fine or three months imprisonment, or both.\n;Section 6.3"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In industrialized countries, there are often residential squats and also political squatting movements, which can be anarchist, autonomist or socialist in nature, for example in the self-managed social centres of Italy or squats in the United States. Oppositional movements from the 1960s and 1970s created freespaces in Denmark or squatting village in the Netherlands, and in England and Wales, there were estimated to be 50,000 squatters in the late 1970s. Each local situation determines the context: in Athens, Greece, there are refugee squats; Germany has social centres; in Spain there are many squats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "The Community Mortgage Program was set up in 1992, aiming to help low-income families transition from squatting to affordable housing. By 2001, around 106,000 families had found secure housing in over 800 separate communities. In 1993, slums in Metro Manila were estimated to contain 2.39 million people, or 30.5 per cent of the area's total population and 706,185 people had been assisted by the ZIP. Impoverished squatters lived on landfill sites such as Smokey Mountain and Payatas dumpsite, working as scavengers."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States v. Students Challenging Regulatory Agency Procedures",
        "text": "Under Article III, Section 2 of the Constitution, the federal courts' jurisdiction is limited to \"cases...or controversies\". Historically the court has determined that various requirements must be met to comply with the Article III jurisdictional threshold, without which federal courts cannot consider the case and the wrongdoing alleged by the plaintiff goes forward. Those requirements include, among others, \"standing to sue\". The Constitution does not identify what requirements must be met to ensure standing; the Supreme Court has developed the requirements over time through its case law. Just prior to SCRAP's decision to sue the United States and the ICC, the Supreme Court had, in \"Sierra Club v. Morton\", denied standing to the Sierra Club in its environmental challenge to Disney\u2019s effort (with the support of the Interior and Agriculture Departments) to build a hotel and ski resort in California. SCRAP\u2019s claims of wrongdoing and harm to its members were not directed against a single project but against concrete but less discernible harm throughout the nation, including in the Washington, D.C. area where they lived and attended law school."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States v. Wong Kim Ark",
        "text": "Federal appellate courts have repeatedly rejected attempts to cite the \"Wong Kim Ark\" opinion's use of the phrase \"citizenship by birth within the territory\" in support of claims that persons born in the Philippines during the period of its history when it was a United States possession were born in the U.S. (and thus entitled to U.S. citizenship via the Citizenship Clause)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Upskirt",
        "text": "Additionally, many state laws address the issue as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Fong",
        "text": "Similar laws have been enacted in the states of Hawaii, Washington, Oregon, and Illinois, and in Venezuela, Guam, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Mexico",
        "text": "Squatting in Mexico has occurred on the periphery of Mexico City from the 19th century onwards. As of 2017, an estimated 25 per cent of Mexico's urban population lived in informal settlements. In Mexico City, there are self-managed social centres. The CORETT (Commission for the Regularization of Land Holdings) program aims to help squatters to register their land plots"
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that the obstruction of the police and authorized persons was prohibited in terms of Sections 3 and 5 and were, subject to a conviction, of a fine of \u00a3100, one year in jail or both.\n;Section 8"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Malaysia",
        "text": "Squatting in Malaysia\n--History.\n--Legality.\n--Recent events.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the powers of the Local Authority, under the directions of the Minister of Justice or Native Affairs, to establish an emergency camp for displaced persons and issue regulations, approved by the Governor-General, to administer, maintain and provide health and sanitation to the camp.\n;Section 6.2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Under Section 144 of the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012, squatting in residential property became a criminal offence on 1 September 2012. Squatting in non-residential property may be a civil or a criminal matter, depending upon the circumstances, and repossession by the owners, occupiers or intended occupiers may require legal process or police action."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch squatting ban",
        "text": "On 28 October 2011, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands decided that the legally forced end of squatting can only occur after an intervention of a judge. The Dutch government assessed the effectiveness of the new law in 2015, releasing a report giving statistics on arrests and convictions between October 2010 and December 2014. During this time period, 529 people have been arrested for the act of occupying derelict buildings in 213 separate incidents. Of the 529 arrests, 210 were found guilty. Of those convicted, 39 people were imprisoned for the new offence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Chile",
        "text": "In the mid-1990s, the ruling Concertaci\u00f3n coalition introduced Chile Barrio, a plan to house all squatters by 2002. The program was then extended to 2007, by which time it had placed 85.5% of the squatters identified in 1996 into subsidized housing. However, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development (MINVU) had profiled over 20,000 new squatters and therefore a new program called L\u00ednea de Atenci\u00f3n a Campamentos (LAC or Focus on Settlements) was set up."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the power of Magistrates or Native Commissioners to decide, where the person or persons have been removed to a new area, to move them on to another area more suitable for accommodation or employment.\n;Section 6.1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Mexico",
        "text": "The CORETT (Commission for the Regularization of Land Holdings) program aims to help squatters to register their land plots and has given titles to 2.5 million homes since its formation in 1993. CORETT runs the Programa de Apoyo de los Avecindados en Condiciones de Pobreza Patrimonial para Regularizar Asentimientos Humanos Irregulares (PASPRAH, Program to Support Regularization for Residents in Informal Settlements Who Lack Title and Live in Conditions of Material Poverty) which offers financial support of up to 10,000 pesos to help families register their land."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Taiwan",
        "text": "From the 1950s onwards, many immigrants from China squatted on public land in Taiwan, in informal settlements. The government began to rehouse the squatters from the 1970s onwards, demolishing 900 settlements by 1984. In 2006, it mandated the removal of squatters under the Principles for the Disposal of Occupied National Public Use Real-Estate Managed by Administrative Authorities, with no provision for alternative housing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Joseph Estrada",
        "text": "(Waiving of jurisdiction in the U.S. is complicated by United States being a confederation of states in which each individual state has its own judicial system, and the U.S. Federal Government not being in a position to simply order a State to waive jurisdiction)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the power of Magistrates or Native Commissioners to decide, where the person or persons have been removed to a new area, to move them on to another area more suitable for accommodation or employment.\n;Section 4.1"
      },
      {
        "title": "C-Squat",
        "text": "After extensive negotiations beginning under Giuliani's administration, New York City granted provisional ownership of C-Squat and 11 other Lower East Side squats to the Urban Homesteading Assistance Board (UHAB) in 2002. The not-for-profit oversaw the squat's renovation and conversion into resident-owned cooperative housing. One squat's residents elected not to participate in the UHAB-managed legalization process and are suing for ownership under adverse possession."
      },
      {
        "title": "University of the Philippines Los Ba\u00f1os College of Forestry and Natural Resources",
        "text": "The MFR serves as an outdoor laboratory to students, primarily of the College of Forestry and Natural Resources. \u20b15\u00a0million (US$156,000) was designated for its conservation and development in 2011. The MFR was created in 1910 under the Bureau of Forestry. Jurisdiction over the MFR was transferred to the UP in 1960. NAPOCOR acquired complete jurisdiction of the MFR, however, in 1987 as part of the Philippines' energy development program under President Corazon Aquino. The MFR was returned to UPLB three years later by effect of RA 6967. In 2008 representative Del De Guzman of the 2nd district of Makati filed HB 1143 which, if passed into law, would have transferred jurisdiction of the MFR to the Boy Scouts of the Philippines. The bill was strongly opposed by the UPLB, citing possible mismanagement and deforestation of the site if placed under the BSP among others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Land reform in the Philippines",
        "text": "Further the U.S. Federal Government faced the problem of much of the private land being owned by the Roman Catholic Church and controlled by Spanish clerics. The American government\u2014officially secular, hostile to continued Spanish control of much of the land of the now-American colony, and long hostile to Catholics\u2014negotiated a settlement with the Church handing over its land."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extradition law in the United States",
        "text": "To clarify the above point, if a person in the United States crosses the borders of the United States to go to another country, then that person has crossed a federal border, and federal law would apply in addition to state law. Crossing state lines (within the U.S.) in committing a crime could also create federal jurisdiction. In addition, travel by airplane in the United States subjects one to federal law, as all airports are subject to not only state jurisdiction but also federal jurisdiction under the Air Commerce Act and other acts."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States admiralty law",
        "text": "Admiralty law in the United States is a matter of federal law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Brazil",
        "text": "The Brazilian Constituent Assembly of 1988 enshrined the right to housing in the constitution. It is possible to claim adverse possession after five years, under the principle of usucapi\u00e3o. In the case of the Mau\u00e1 building in S\u00e3o Paulo, the squatters requested adverse possession in 2012 but the owner had made a claim for possession four days before the five year limit, despite the building having been derelict for two decades. By 2015, the city council had decided to buy the building and convert it to social housing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatters union",
        "text": "In more recent times squatters have formed unions to represent their interests. Examples include Homes not Jails in San Francisco. In New York City, residents in eleven squatted buildings successfully legalised with the assistance of the Urban Homesteading Assistance Board. These buildings included C-Squat and Umbrella House."
      },
      {
        "title": "Begging",
        "text": "There is no nationwide ban but it is illegal in several federal states."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Thailand",
        "text": "Squatting in Thailand was traditionally permissible under customary law and adverse possession can occur after ten years of continuous occupation. As of 2015, the capital Bangkok had over 2 million squatters, out of a population of around 10 million. A survey of slums across the country noted in 2000 that most were rented not squatted; Khlong Toei District in Bangkok contains both squatters and tenants. There are also squatters in rural areas. The 1975 Agricultural Land Reform Act aimed to redistribute land to poor people (including squatters) under the Sor Por Kor program and as of 2019, 36 million rai (or 5.8 million hectares) of land had been assigned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Subic rape case",
        "text": "The custody of any United States personnel over whom the Philippines is to exercise jurisdiction shall immediately reside with United States military authorities, if they so request, from the commission of the offense until completion of \"all\" judicial proceedings.(emphasis added)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Nigeria",
        "text": "In the late 1960s and early 1970s, there was less squatting in West Africa than in other areas of Africa and also Latin America, because cheaply rented property was available and traditional"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is squatting legal?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A squatter occupys an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential, that the squatter does not own, rent or otherwise have lawful permission to use and it's long history is broken down by country. What specific country would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about squatting in Iceland."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Reykjav\u00edk, the capital of Iceland, there is a small tradition of squatting with incidents occurring from 1919-2011. When the Reykjav\u00edkur Akadem\u00edan (the Reykjav\u00edk Academy) was evicted at short notice from Hringbraut 121 in November 2011, it was occupied in protest."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about squatting in Canada?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Canada under the land title system squatting has been abolished, while under the registry squatting rights have been preserved."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How do the Philippines deal with squatting?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Urban Development and Housing Act of 1992, also known as the Lina Law after its proponent Joey Lina, criminalized squatting in the Philippines, yet discouraged evictions except in certain cases, such as when the occupation was carried out by \"professional squatters and squatting syndicates\"."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is there a federal law in the United States about squatting or is it just up to the States?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I was unable to find any federal law on squatting, but it is illegal in the United States and there are municipal ordinances against it in Miami.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I did not find any federal laws but squatting is illegal and squatters can be evicted for trespassing. Some community organizations have used squatting as a tactic to house homeless people."
    ],
    "topic": "Squatting",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Squatting in the United States:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Squatting in the United States",
          "Prevention"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the United States, squatting is illegal and squatters can be evicted for trespassing. Real estate managers recommend that vacant properties be protected by erecting \"no trespassing\" signs, regular checks, tenant screening, and quickly finding new tenants. In Miami, municipal ordinance requires that property owner exercise all legal means to remove squatters and police are empowered to take actions to remove squatters from private property and then bill the owner or lessee."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Squatting in the United States:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Squatting in the United States"
        ],
        "ctx": "Squatting is illegal and squatters can be evicted for trespassing. Some community organizations have used squatting as a tactic to house homeless people."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "In the United States, squatting is illegal and squatters can be evicted for trespassing. Real estate managers recommend that vacant properties be protected by erecting \"no trespassing\" signs, regular checks, tenant screening, and quickly finding new tenants. In Miami, municipal ordinance requires that property owner exercise all legal means to remove squatters and police are empowered to take actions to remove squatters from private property and then bill the owner or lessee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "Squatting is illegal and squatters can be evicted for trespassing. Some community organizations have used squatting as a tactic to house homeless people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "Squatting in the United States is the unauthorized use of real estate. Historically, squatting occurred during the California Gold Rush and when colonial European settlers established land rights. There was squatting during the Great Depression in Hoovervilles and also during World War II. Shanty towns returned to the US after the Great Recession of 2007 to 2009 and in the 2010s, there have been increasing numbers of people squatting foreclosed homes using fraudulent documents. In some cases, a squatter may be able to obtain ownership of property through adverse possession."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "In common law, through the legally recognized concept of adverse possession, a squatter can become a bona fide owner of property without compensation to the former owner. Implementation and specific requirements vary across locality. The typical requirements are that the occupation must be actual, continuous, exclusive, hostile and public."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "\"The Pueblo Chieftain\", a local newspaper in Colorado, suggested that indicators of squatting might include people carrying in jugs of water or living by candlelight. A captain with the Pueblo Fire Department said squats present difficulties for fire fighting. In Colorado, in order for police to act, the homeowner is expected to be willing to press charges and report to the police within a reasonable time frame. In 2018, district representatives sought to amend the law so that the police could immediately remove squatters. \"The Bulletin\", a local newspaper in Bend, Oregon, reported that second homes and vacation rentals can become a target of squatters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "In New York City, the Urban Homesteading Assistance Board (UHAB) was at the forefront of a homesteading movement in the 1970s and 1980s. Despite squatting being illegal, artists began to occupy buildings, and European squatters coming to New York brought ideas for cooperative living, such as bars, support between squats, and tool exchange. In the 1990s, there were between 500 and 1,000 squatters occupying 32 buildings on Manhattan's Lower East Side. The buildings had been abandoned as a result of speculation by owners or police raids as part of a crackdown on drug use. As the area became gentrified, the squats were evicted, Dos Blockos being one. Three buildings on 13th Street were evicted without notification following a prolonged legal battle in which the squatters argued through their lawyer Stanley Cohen that they were entitled to ownership of the buildings through adverse possession since they had lived there since 1983. In 1995, a preliminary injunction was granted against the eviction plans, but this was overturned by state appellate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "Since the Great Recession (2007\u20132009) and the subprime mortgage crisis, the United States housing bubble collapsed and banks have foreclosed on many homeowners unable to pay their mortgages. Sovereign citizens in Georgia have squatted million dollar homes in Dekalb and Rockdale counties using fake deeds. According to a Florida based lawyer \"We haven't seen this kind of level of squatters since the Great Depression\". In the San Francisco Bay Area, local NBC News reported that people were even squatting on their own foreclosed properties. Michael Feroli (chief economist at JPMorgan Chase) has commented on the boon to the economy of \"squatter rent\" or the extra income made available for spending by people not fulfilling their mortgage repayments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Peru",
        "text": "Squatting in Peru follows the trajectory of other Latin American cities, in that factors such as internal migration to urban areas, lack of affordable housing and ineffective governance have resulted in large informal settlements. Peruvian law states that squatters on publicly owned land cannot be evicted if they have stayed there for over 24 hours. Instead they can apply for legal title to the courts and if the land has not been developed over the previous decade, they are likely to win the case. In the countryside, many haciendas (large farms) were squatted in the 1950s by mestizo peasants and most occupations were tolerated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "This situation has so far received the approval of Italian courts, which have been reluctant to defend the owners' rights. In contrast with the dominant jurisprudence, new case-law (from the Rome Tribunal and the Supreme Court of Cassation) instructs the government to pay damages in case of squatting if the institutions have failed to prevent it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "Squatting in the United States\n--History.\n--Shanty towns.\n--Housing justice.\n--New York City.\n--Prevention.\n--Adverse possession.\n--Foreclosures.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "The most difficult part of claiming adverse possession for squatters is normally the requirement of continuous possession."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Australia",
        "text": "In more recent times, there have been squats in the major cities such as Canberra, Melbourne and Sydney. It would be possible in theory for squatters to be charged with criminal trespass under the \"Inclosed Lands Protection Act\", but squatters are simply evicted when they are discovered. As in England and Wales and also the United States, adverse possession exists in Australian law, although it is rarely used by squatters. This means that if a squatter lives uninterruptedly in a property for over 12 years (15 in South Australia and Victoria) and against the wishes of the owner, the ownership of the property can be claimed by the squatter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In the history of the United States, squatting occurred during the California Gold Rush and World War II. Hoovervilles were homeless camps built across the country during the Great Depression in the 1930s. They were named after Herbert Hoover, who was president of the country at the time. In the late 2000s, shanty towns again sprang up across the US. During the Great Recession (2007\u20132009) there were increasing numbers of people squatting foreclosed homes. There were also reports of people resquatting their own foreclosed homes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of law articles",
        "text": "Squatting\u00a0\u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "Homeless people squatting in underground spaces in New York City such as Freedom Tunnel have come to be known as Mole People which was the subject of a documentary film \"Dark Days\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adverse possession",
        "text": "\"Squatting\" became a criminal offense in England/Wales under Section 144 of the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012 (LASPO). The enforcement of LASPO was controversial, as 96% of those who responded did not wish to see any changes in the law regarding squatting. Nevertheless, the provision was introduced to the bill and at a late stage in the process. LASPO has not had an significant impact on the legal framework of adverse possession, but it is expected to have a larger impact on squatting and against those most vulnerable (e.g., the unhoused)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Midwestern United States",
        "text": "When the American Revolution concluded and the formation of the United States of America began, the American government sought to evict these illegal settlers from areas that were now federally owned public lands. In 1785, soldiers led by General Josiah Harmar were sent into the Ohio country to destroy the crops and burn down the homes of any squatters they found living there. Eventually, after the formation of the Constitutional United States, the president became authorized to use military force to attack squatters and drive them off the land through the 1810s. Squatters began to petition Congress to stop attacking them and to recognize them as actual settlers using a variety of different arguments over the first half of the nineteenth century with varying degrees of success."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ubica",
        "text": "Nine of the squatters were later sentenced to one month in jail and 120 hours of community service. They also had to pay to the city and the police 14,000 euros."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the penalties for the collection of fees or charges or exercising authority regarding the organizing of illegal squatting. Fine would not be more than \u00a3100, or up to twelve months imprisonment, or both. Included is the ability of the court to seize funds obtained during the illegal squatting.\n;Section 4.2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Usucaption",
        "text": "A squatter who fences in the property, or who locks it up, or who refurbishes it, or who has the keys to the property delivered unto him, are all signs of legal conveyance and is assumed to be the rightful owner, even in the absence of a legal deed. After three years of occupancy the squatter cannot be evicted from the property, unless the original owner can show proof or bring witnesses who testify to the effect that the property is still vested in his name, and that no transaction, conveyance or sale was made between him and the squatter, even though he held it for three years or more, in which case the squatter is forcibly evicted from the property and the court replevins the estate to its rightful owner. The application of this law is similar to what was found in ancient Roman law, under \"rei vindicatio\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that if the emergency camp became a native township under \"Natives (Urban Areas) Consolidation Act 25, 1945\", the local authority might be exempt from Section 18.1 of the said Act.\n;Section 6.5"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Mexico",
        "text": "Squatting in Mexico\n--History.\n--Legal.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "The majority of squatting is residential in nature. As a phenomenon it tends to occur when a poor and homeless population makes use of derelict property or land through urban homesteading. According to a 2003 estimate by the United Nations in the UN-Habitat report, there were about one billion people in squatter settlements and slums. According to an academic, Kesia Reeve, \"squatting is largely absent from policy and academic debate and is rarely conceptualised, as a problem, as a symptom, or as a social or housing movement.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatting is the action of occupying an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential, that the squatter does not own, rent or otherwise have lawful permission to use. The United Nations estimated in 2003 that there were one billion slum residents and squatters globally. Squatting occurs worldwide and tends to occur when people who are poor and homeless find empty buildings or land to occupy for housing. It has a long history, broken down by country below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "The Urban Development and Housing Act of 1992 (RA 7279), also known as the Lina Law after its proponent Joey Lina, criminalized squatting yet discouraged evictions except in certain cases, such as when the occupation was carried out by \"professional squatters and squatting syndicates\". The Marcos decree which had previously outlawed squatting was annulled by the Anti-Squatting Law Repeal Act of 1997 (RA 8368)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Umoja Village",
        "text": "Police, City of Miami and Miami-Dade County officials were unable to evict the residents or organizers due to the landmark 1996 Pottinger Settlement. After years of arresting homeless people, the city of Miami was sued by the Miami ACLU; they eventually settled. In the settlement, the city agreed that homeless people could not be arrested if they met the following criteria:\n#The individual is homeless;\n#the individual is situated on public land;\n#there are no beds available at homeless shelters in the city; and\n#the individual is engaged in \"life sustaining conduct,\" such as eating, sleeping, bathing, \"responding to calls of nature,\" congregating and building \"temporary structures\" to protect oneself from the elements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Brazil",
        "text": "The Brazilian Constituent Assembly of 1988 enshrined the right to housing in the constitution. It is possible to claim adverse possession after five years, under the principle of usucapi\u00e3o. In the case of the Mau\u00e1 building in S\u00e3o Paulo, the squatters requested adverse possession in 2012 but the owner had made a claim for possession four days before the five year limit, despite the building having been derelict for two decades. By 2015, the city council had decided to buy the building and convert it to social housing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the penalties for contravening Section 1 as a fine up to \u00a325, or up to three months imprisonment, or both.\n;Section 2.2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Spain",
        "text": "Parts of the slum are notorious for drug-dealing. Since it is deemed public land, the squatters are unable to gain possession by usucapi\u00f3n (adverse possession)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "The change in legislation has been referred to by Mike Weatherley as \"Weatherley's Law\" and came into force on 1 September 2012, making squatting in a residential building a criminal offence subject to arrest, fine and imprisonment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Netherlands",
        "text": "In 1987, the law was changed so that an owner could take anonymous squatters to court, rather than being required to know their names. A law was passed in 1994 which made it illegal to squat a building which had been empty for less than one year. After this, it became conventional for squatters to call the police after occupying a building and if the police were satisfied that the building had been empty for more than a year and that the squatters were living there (as evidenced by having a chair, a table and a bed) then the owner would need to make a court case to regain possession. Thus, squatting became a tactic to provide housing and also to fight speculation, conserve monumental buildings, provide groups with spaces and so on. An example of conservational squatting is Huize Ivicke in Wassenaar, a building which the owner refuses to repair. The villa was placed on a list of the most endangered monuments in Europe and it was squatted in 2018 by people wanting to prevent further dilapidation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "More recently, in 2002 the UHAB liaised with the city to legitimize the efforts of squatters in 11 buildings in the Lower East Side. In this project, UHAB bought the buildings for $1 each and agreed to assist the squatters to undertake essential renovation work to bring the buildings up to code, after which their apartments could be bought for $250 each. UHAB would also train them in running low-income limited-equity housing cooperatives. After prices peaked from the housing boom, several of the squatters told the press that they wanted out of the contract so they could be allowed to sell their units at market rate prices. No such arrangements were made, but some squatters attempted to challenge the contract, arguing that adverse possession protected their ownership claim. The first project to successfully renovate was Umbrella House. Others are Bullet Space, which hosts an art gallery, and self-managed social center ABC No Rio, which was founded in 1980. In 2012, the Museum of Reclaimed Urban Space opened at a fourth project, C-Squat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "On 1 June 2010, squatting in the Netherlands became illegal and punishable when a decree was sent out that the squatting ban would be enforced from 1 October. Following legal challenges, on October 28, 2011, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands decided that the eviction of a squat can only occur after an intervention of a judge. The Dutch government assessed the effectiveness of the new law in 2015, releasing a report giving statistics on arrests and convictions between October 2010 and December 2014. During this time period, 529 people have been arrested for the act of occupying derelict buildings in 213 separate incidents. Of the 529 arrests, 210 were found guilty. Of those convicted, 39 people were imprisoned for the new offence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adverse possession",
        "text": "One of the reason why so few supported the criminalization of squatting was because the law prior to LASPO already protected residential property by making squatting in residential area a civil offense and establishing fast track applications to allow title holders to remove squatters within hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "The Colombian Constitution of 1991 states that housing is a universal human right. In 2010, Colombia was the country with the second most internally displaced people in the world, at an estimated 4 million. This was the result of an extended civil conflict between rebels, paramilitaries, cocaine traders and the state, which left 40% of rural land without legal title. In the capital Bogot\u00e1, squatting has traditionally not been the main technique for land acquisition; people tend to purchase land legally and then subdivide or develop it illegally, creating \"pirate neighbourhoods\". In 1970, 45.9% of Bogot\u00e1's population lived in these pirate neighbourhoods, as compared to 1.1% who were squatting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homelessness in the United States by state",
        "text": "Various cities in Florida have laws against aggressive panhandling and general panhandling that could result in fines or demands to leave, as well as sleeping on benches or parks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that the person convicted in Section 2 could be issued with a court order to evict them from land, buildings, native location, village or area. Further defined that the person convicted could be issued with further court orders in order to evict and transfer the person or persons from an area to another area even outside the courts jurisdiction and ensure the destruction and removal of any buildings or structures on said land, buildings, native location, village or area.\n;Section 3.2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatting\n--Overview.\n--Africa.\n----Liberia.\n----South Africa.\n----Sudan.\n----Zimbabwe.\n--Asia.\n----Hong Kong and Chinese mainland.\n----India.\n----Philippines.\n----Turkey.\n--Europe, Central and Eastern.\n--Europe, Western.\n----Germany.\n----Iceland.\n----Ireland.\n----Italy.\n----Netherlands.\n----Spain.\n----United Kingdom.\n------England.\n------Northern Ireland.\n------Scotland.\n------Wales.\n--North America.\n----Canada.\n----United States.\n--Latin America and the Caribbean.\n----Bolivia.\n----Brazil.\n----Colombia.\n----Haiti.\n----Nicaragua.\n--Oceania.\n----Australia.\n----Cook Islands.\n----East Timor.\n----Kiribati.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that the obstruction of the police and authorized persons was prohibited in terms of Sections 3 and 5 and were, subject to a conviction, of a fine of \u00a3100, one year in jail or both.\n;Section 8"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "More recently governments have switched from a policy of eradication to one of giving squatters title to their lands, as part of various programs to move people out of slums and to alleviate poverty. Inspired by the World Bank and the thinking of economists such as Hernando de Soto, the programs aim to provide better housing and to promote entrepreneurship, for the former squatters can use their houses as collateral to secure business loans. Former squatters found that it was hard to maintain the property title over time after deaths or divorces and that banks changed their loan requirements so as to exclude them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "During and after the California Gold Rush (1848\u20131855) migrant workers squatted land. Under the California Land Act of 1851, squatters made 813 claims as the population in California increased from 15,000 in 1848 to 265,000 in 1852. The Squatters' riot of 1850 was a conflict between squatters and the government of Sacramento, California. Squatting occurred during World War II when Japanese-Americans were sent to Manzanar concentration camp. Buildings which had been left abandoned around the Little Tokyo area in Los Angeles were occupied by African American migrant workers moving to California to work in the armaments factories. In the 1970s and 1980s, gold mining again became a problem in places such as Idaho. In 1975, over 2,000 illegal operations were reported in California and the Forest Service took action on what it called \"occupancy trespass\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Preemption Act of 1841",
        "text": "The Preemption Act of 1841 permitted \"squatters\" who were living on federal government-owned land to purchase up to for $1.25 per acre ($3.09 per hectare) before the land would be offered for sale to the general public. To qualify under the law, the \"squatter\" had to be the following:\n* a \"head of household\";\n* a single man over 21 or a widow;\n* a citizen of the United States (or an immigrant intending to become naturalized); and\n* a resident of the claimed land for a minimum of 14 months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Honduras",
        "text": "Squatting in Honduras is the occupation of unused land or derelict buildings without the permission of the owner. As the population of Honduras grew from the 1960s onwards, peasants occupied land. The Government of Honduras responded by giving peasants title to land and deporting Salvadoran migrants. The measures had limited success and in the 2010s, squatters continued to self-organise land invasions. The indigenous Miskito people are affected by squatters who practice illegal logging and drugs trafficking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Under Section 144 of the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012, squatting in residential property became a criminal offence on 1 September 2012. Squatting in non-residential property may be a civil or a criminal matter, depending upon the circumstances, and repossession by the owners, occupiers or intended occupiers may require legal process or police action."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In industrialized countries, there are often residential squats and also political squatting movements, which can be anarchist, autonomist or socialist in nature, for example in the self-managed social centres of Italy or squats in the United States. Oppositional movements from the 1960s and 1970s created freespaces in Denmark or squatting village in the Netherlands, and in England and Wales, there were estimated to be 50,000 squatters in the late 1970s. Each local situation determines the context: in Athens, Greece, there are refugee squats; Germany has social centres; in Spain there are many squats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the courts right to pass civil judgement to claim funds or fees obtained during the illegal squatting if not seized at the time of conviction.\n;Section 5.1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "In 1981, ACORN and the Inner-City Organizing Network moved hundreds of people into vacant buildings in Philadelphia. The Squatter actions created such an upheaval that the Federal government got involved, offering housing to the squatters in the 67 federally owned buildings if they agreed to leave. Between June 15 and August 2, 1985, ACORN supported homeless people to take over 25 city-owned buildings in the East New York neighborhood of Brooklyn. During the incident, 11 people were arrested. The City responded by granting the former squatters 58 city owned buildings, money for technical and architectural aid, and $2.7 million in rehabilitation loans. In order to preserve democratic decision making and affordability to the buildings the squatters organized themselves into collective members of a Mutual Housing Association. In a mutual housing association, neighborhood residents form a collective, contributing some money and a lot of sweat equity to rehabilitate buildings for their own use in return for public support and limited ownership. The collective \u2013 in this case the \"Mutual Housing Association of New York\" \u2013 retains title to the land. If owners choose to sell, the association has the right to repurchase for a price reflecting only individual investment, not the market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Anarchist author Colin Ward asserts: \"Squatting is the oldest mode of tenure in the world, and we are all descended from squatters. This is as true of the Queen [of the United Kingdom] with her as it is of the 54 percent of householders in Britain who are owner-occupiers. They are all the ultimate recipients of stolen land, for to regard our planet as a commodity offends every conceivable principle of natural rights.\" Others have a different view; UK police official Sue Williams, for example, has stated that \"Squatting is linked to anti-social behaviour and can cause a great deal of nuisance and distress to local residents. In some cases there may also be criminal activities involved.\" The public attitude toward squatting varies, depending on legal aspects, socioeconomic conditions, and the type of housing occupied by squatters. In particular, while squatting of municipal buildings may be treated leniently, squatting of private property can often lead to strongly negative reactions on the part of the general public and the authorities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Midwestern United States",
        "text": "Illegal settlers, called squatters, had been encroaching on the lands now the Midwest for years before the founding of the United States of America, pushing further and further down the Ohio River during the 1760s and 1770s and inciting conflict and competition with the Native Americans whose lands they intruded on every step of the way. These squatters were characterized by British General, Thomas Gage, as \"too Numerous, too Lawless, and Licentious ever to be restrained,\" and regarded them as \"almost out of Reach of Law and government; Neither the Endeavors of Government, or Fear of Indians has kept them properly within Bounds.\" The British had a long-standing goal of establishing an Native American buffer state in the American Midwest to resist American westward expansion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that after being convicted in Section 2.1, continuing to re-offend, the fine will be up to \u00a325, and up to seven days imprisonment per each day of the offence, or both.\n;Section 3.1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the right to charge fees and levies for accommodation and services, establish different provisions for different classes of people and setting the penalties for contravening the regulations as a \u00a310 fine or two months imprisonment, or both and for subsequent convictions, \u00a325 fine or three months imprisonment, or both.\n;Section 6.3"
      },
      {
        "title": "LogMeIn Hamachi",
        "text": "and such \"squatting\" is against the established practice of the Internet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the power of Magistrates or Native Commissioners to decide, where the person or persons have been removed to a new area, to move them on to another area more suitable for accommodation or employment.\n;Section 6.1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Brazil",
        "text": "Squatting in Brazil is the occupation of unused or derelict buildings or land without the permission of the owner. After attempting to eradicate slums in the 1960s and 1970s, local governments transitioned to a policy of toleration. Cities such as Recife, Rio de Janeiro and S\u00e3o Paulo have large informal settlements known as favelas. A more recent phenomenon is the occupation of buildings in city centres by organised groups. In rural areas across the country, the Landless Workers' Movement (MST) arranges large land occupations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Mexico",
        "text": "Squatting in Mexico has occurred on the periphery of Mexico City from the 19th century onwards. As of 2017, an estimated 25 per cent of Mexico's urban population lived in informal settlements. In Mexico City, there are self-managed social centres. The CORETT (Commission for the Regularization of Land Holdings) program aims to help squatters to register their land plots"
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that no person, except authorised by law, could enter or remain in or on land or buildings without the permission of the owner or lawful occupier. Nor could one, except by lawful reason, enter or remain in a native location, village or area except by the permission of the local authority or person in legal control of the area.\n;Section 2.1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch squatting ban",
        "text": "On 28 October 2011, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands decided that the legally forced end of squatting can only occur after an intervention of a judge. The Dutch government assessed the effectiveness of the new law in 2015, releasing a report giving statistics on arrests and convictions between October 2010 and December 2014. During this time period, 529 people have been arrested for the act of occupying derelict buildings in 213 separate incidents. Of the 529 arrests, 210 were found guilty. Of those convicted, 39 people were imprisoned for the new offence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012",
        "text": "Rules regarding squatting commercial properties remained as layout in Section 6 of the Criminal Law Act 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "In 1988, Operation Homestead (OH) in Seattle began occupying buildings and negotiating their sale to nonprofit low-income housing organizations. By 1993, it had successfully reclaimed 300 units. In May 1991 Operation Homestead occupied Arion Court, a vacant apartment building, to draw attention to vacant housing the city was letting deteriorate despite a large need for affordable housing. As a result of the protest the building was renovated and turned into 37 low-income housing units. Arion Court became the first self-managed permanent housing project for previously homeless people in Washington State. Residents decide the rules and how to enforce them. In 1992 OH occupied the Pacific Hotel, prompting the house to be turned over to a nonprofit for low-income housing. It functioned as an emergency shelter until it was renovated and converted into 113 affordable housing units. OH also did occupations of the McKay Apartments and the Gatewood Hotel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the power of Magistrates or Native Commissioners to decide, where the person or persons have been removed to a new area, to move them on to another area more suitable for accommodation or employment.\n;Section 4.1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ubica",
        "text": "The squatters had thrown paintbombs at the neighbouring city hall and set fire to tyres in the Ganzenmarkt. They had then locked themselves in the Ubica buildings. After the eviction, the city declared the buildings unliveable and closed them. Ten squatters were arrested."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "Squatting in the Philippines\n--Overview.\n--History.\n--Legal.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Croatia",
        "text": "In the 1960s, 39.5 per cent of all private housing in Zagreb was squatted, 49.3 per cent in Split and 66.8 per cent in Osijek. Squatting is criminalized by Articles 20-27 of the Croatian Ownership and other Proprietary Rights Act, and has become a form of subcultural activism in cities such as Zagreb from the 1990s onwards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the Philippines",
        "text": "President Ferdinand Marcos announced martial law in December 1972 and by 1975 he had introduced a decree criminalizing squatting in an attempt to stop the expansion of informal settlements. The dictatorship often forcibly relocated squatters to sites 30 or 40 km outside cities. First Lady Imelda Marcos wanted to beautify Manila and therefore evicted thousands of squatters when the city hosted the 1974 Miss Universe Pageant and the 1976 meeting of the IMF and World Bank. She commented in 1982 that \"professional squatters [were] plain land-grabbers taking advantage of the compassionate society\". The government attempted to resettle the squatters elsewhere, only for the squatters to return to their homes which were near where they worked, so the Zonal Improvement Program (ZIP) was started in the late 1970s. Slums were then upgraded in situ: The occupations were regularized and supplied with sanitation and electricity. There were squatters at the U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay and the Clark Air Base in the 1980s. In this time, the government began to forcibly resettle squatters again, moving them to places such as Bagong Silang in Caloocan and Payatas in Quezon City. Resistance to evictions fed into the opposition to the Marcos dictatorship and resulted in the 1986 People Power Revolution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Ireland",
        "text": "Illegal evictions also occur, such as a 2015 case in which three men were convicted of false imprisonment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "People who squatted in buildings would often put up a \"Section 6\" legal notice on the front door. The notice stated there were people living in the property who claimed they had a legal right to be there. It warned anyone \u2014 even the actual owner of the property \u2014 who tried to enter the building without lawful permission that they would be committing an offence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Mexico",
        "text": "As of 2017, an estimated 25 per cent of Mexico's urban population lived in informal settlements, in areas such as hillsides or the beds of lakes. Squatting occurs in cities such as Puebla, Playa del Carmen and Tijuana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In many of the world's poorer countries, there are extensive slums or shanty towns, typically built on the edges of major cities and consisting almost entirely of self-constructed housing built without the landowner's permission. While these settlements may in time become upgraded, they often start off as squats with minimal basic infrastructure. Thus, there is no legal link to sewerage, electricity or water. Such settlements also exist in industrialized countries, such as for example Ca\u00f1ada Real on the outskirts of Madrid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Kenneth Clarke then announced an amendment to the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Bill which would criminalise squatting in residential buildings. In 1991, Clarke stated \"There are no valid arguments in defence of squatting. It represents the seizure of another's property without consent.\" John McDonnell commented that \"by trying to sneak this amendment through the back door the government are attempting to bypass democracy.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Convention on Cultural Property Implementation Act",
        "text": "In 2010, United States Customs and Border Protection (CBP) seized Pre-Columbian and Colonial textiles, metals, lithics, and perishable remains from Peru at Miami International Airport. Claimant moved to dismiss for lack of subject matter jurisdiction, failure to state a claim, and denial of due process of law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the Governor-General's right to remove the proclamation of areas or parts of areas through the \"Government Gazette\".\n;Section 12"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch squatting ban",
        "text": "Squatting became a criminal offence at midnight on 1 October 2010, passing from the civil courts to the criminal courts. In Amsterdam, squatters had previously occupied the former headquarters of the Dutch fire brigade in protest. In a press release, the squatters announced on 30 September that they would be handing the building at 99 Weesperzijde over to tenants arranged by the landlord. On the last weekend in September, squatters had camped out on the Dam Square overnight as a protest."
      },
      {
        "title": "C-Squat",
        "text": "After extensive negotiations beginning under Giuliani's administration, New York City granted provisional ownership of C-Squat and 11 other Lower East Side squats to the Urban Homesteading Assistance Board (UHAB) in 2002. The not-for-profit oversaw the squat's renovation and conversion into resident-owned cooperative housing. One squat's residents elected not to participate in the UHAB-managed legalization process and are suing for ownership under adverse possession."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "In Latin American and Caribbean countries, informal settlements result from internal migration to urban areas, lack of affordable housing and ineffective governance. During the 1950s and 1960s, many Latin American cities demolished squatter settlements and would quickly evict land invasions. In Chile, the government of Eduardo Frei Montalva (1964\u20131970) began to permit shanty towns and the government of Salvador Allende (1970\u20131973) encouraged them, but under the military junta from 1973 onwards squatters were again quickly evicted. Likewise in Argentina, under the military dictatorship there was a zero tolerance policy. Nevertheless, forced by hunger and unemployment to take action, 20,000 squatters occupied 211 hectares of disused privately owned land on the periphery of Buenos Aires in 1981, forming six new settlements. They collectively resisted the eviction attempts and by 1984 had outlasted the dictatorship. The election of a democratic government led to the local councils becoming more open to negotiation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch squatting ban",
        "text": "The Dutch squatting ban refers to the law (Dutch: \"Wet Kraken en Leegstand\") introduced on 1 October 2010, under which squatting in the Netherlands became de jure illegal. Criminalization had first been proposed in the 1970s, but was opposed by the Council of Churches. In 2006, a new plan was proposed and backed by parties including VVD and PVV. When the new law was introduced, squatters occupied the former head office of the fire brigade and there were riots in Amsterdam and Nijmegen. In 2011, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands ruled that the legally forced end of squatting can only occur after an intervention of a judge. Between October 2010 and December 2014, 529 people were arrested for the act of occupying derelict buildings, in 213 separate incidents as a result of which 39 people were jailed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "The following is a brief description of the sections of the Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act:\n;Section 1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sherwood Syndrome",
        "text": "legislation that both criminalizes illegal squatting but promoting at the same time cheap social housing. Meanwhile, the police would arrest those whom who Piqu\u00e9 described as \"unbeatable\" or \"leaders\" who would later on be prosecuted according to law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Antigua and Barbuda",
        "text": "In the capital St. John's, squatting is widespread due to the lack of affordable land or housing. Adverse possession can be achieved by continuously occupying privately owned land for fifteen years. As on other Caribbean islands, squatted informal settlements and slums have substandard living conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "In September 2012, the law was changed making trespass in a residential building with the intention of permanently residing a criminal offence. Although a Section 6 warning still applies for non-residential buildings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Younger squatters set up self-managed social centres which hosted events and campaigns. The 1995 Criminal Code among other things criminalised squatting, but failed to stop it. Social centres exist in cities across the country, for example Can Masdeu and Can Vies in Barcelona and Eskalera Karakola and La Ingobernable in Madrid. In the Basque Country the centres are known as . A well-known example was Kukutza in Bilbao."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of law articles",
        "text": "Squatter\u00a0\u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "The Dublin Housing Action Committee (DHAC) was active between 1968 and 1971, occupying buildings to protest the housing crisis. The Prohibition of Forcible Entry and Occupation Act of 1971 criminalized squatting. Squatters can gain title to land and property by adverse possession as governed by the 1957 Statute of Limitations Act. From the 1990s onwards, there have been occasional political squats such as Disco Disco, Magpie and Grangegorman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Landbouwbelang (squat)",
        "text": "Even despite the Dutch squatting ban in 2009, getting the squatters removed requires an eviction court order. In order to have that granted, the owner of the building needs to present a development plan for the squatted building. According to the communication of the City of Maastricht there are currently none."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criminal Law Act 1977",
        "text": "Section 6 is referred to in printed legal warnings, which are commonly displayed near the entrances to squatted buildings. Squatters are not protected by the Protection from Eviction Act 1977, which makes it a crime to evict tenants without following the legal process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Umbrella House",
        "text": "Squatters were evicted during a 1995 police raid. Umbrella House residents took their case to court, where a judge ruled in their favor under the law of adverse possession and they were allowed to return to their homes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "Hoovervilles were shanty towns built by homeless people across the US during the Great Depression in the 1930s. They were named after Herbert Hoover, who was president of the country at the time. During the Great Recession (2007\u20132009) shanty towns again appeared across the US, for example Dignity Village in Portland, Oregon, Umoja Village in Miami and Nickelsville in Seattle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Malaysia",
        "text": "The National Land Code 1965 (Section 425) defined squatting as occupation of land without permission from the appropriate authorities. The Essential (Clearance of Squatters) Regulations 1969 stated that any construction on land without permission from the appropriate authorities can be considered squatting. In 1974, this was adapted to also cover land. An important case was \"Sidek bin Haji Mohamad & 461 Ors v The Government of Malaysia\" (1982, 1 MLJ 313), which confirmed squatters have no right in law. Occupation of state-owned land is a crime punishable by a fine of up to RM10,000 or 1 year in prison, or both. Adverse possession is not recognised in Malaysia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that the regulations be published in the Government Gazette in both official languages and furthermore published at the camp in the language of the occupiers.\n;Section 6.4"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bundle of rights",
        "text": "Squatting presents a non-economic way for people to transfer parts of the bundle of rights. Depending on the applicable laws, a squatter can acquire property rights by simply occupying vacant land for an extended period of time. Areas with high concentrations of squatters are sometimes thought of as \"informal settlements.\" Squatters face great instability due to their lack of title and governmental efforts at \"blight removal\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined, exception for Section 9, that the Governor-General proclaims areas to be under the control of the act and their date in the \"Government Gazette\".\n;Section 11.2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the powers of the Local Authority, under the directions of the Minister of Justice or Native Affairs, to establish an emergency camp for displaced persons and issue regulations, approved by the Governor-General, to administer, maintain and provide health and sanitation to the camp.\n;Section 6.2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in the United States",
        "text": "As the United States was slowly settled by European colonialists, land ownership was chaotically established. The Homestead Acts legally recognized the concept of the homestead principle and distinguished it from squatting, since the law gave homesteaders a legal way to occupy \"unclaimed\" lands. The Homestead Act of 1862 was signed by Abraham Lincoln on May 20, 1862, and was enacted to foster the reallocation of \"unsettled\" land in the West. The law applied to US citizens and prospective citizens that had never borne arms against the US government. It required a five-year commitment, during which time the land owner had to build a twelve-by-fourteen foot dwelling, and develop or work the plot of land allocated. After five years of positively contributing to the homestead, the applicant could file a request for the deed to the property, which entailed sending paperwork to the General Land Office in Washington, D.C. and, from there, \"valid claims were granted patent free and clear\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homelessness in Florida",
        "text": "The state of Florida deals with panhandling and begging in a variety of ways, like the rest of the United States. There are overlapping laws from the state, counties, and municipalities. State laws in Florida, according to Legal Beagle, relate primarily to the ban on impeding traffic and roads whereas city ordinances increasingly focus on banning specific areas of the city and certain behaviours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
        "text": "Criminal law refers to an \"occupier\" or \"trespasser\", and the Civil Procedure Rules part 55 refer to possession claims against \"trespassers\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting in Malaysia",
        "text": "Order 89 of the Rules of Court 2012 allows owners to claim possession of property occupied by squatters, to be implemented by a writ of possession. When this law applies has been challenged by cases such as the Court of Appeal case of \"Tekad Urus Sdn v Penduduk-penduduk yang Menduduki Kawasan yang dipanggil Desa Perwira\" (2004, 2 CLJ 516)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined the Governor-General's right to remove the proclamation of an emergency camp through the \"Government Gazette\".\n;Section 7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Adverse possession, also known as squatter's rights, is a method of acquiring title to property through possession for a statutory period under certain conditions. Countries where this principle exists include England and the United States, based on common law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act, 1951",
        "text": "Defined that contrary to other laws, the Magistrates courts would have jurisdiction over the Act.\n;Section 9"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatters' Action for Secure Homes",
        "text": "Squatting in residential buildings was criminalised in England and Wales by the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012. When the first jail sentences were handed down, SQUASH stated they were \"deeply disproportionate and unjust.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatting",
        "text": "Squatters in Indonesia live on both privately owned and government-owned land. For example, the former in Surabaya has been squatted since 2000s after being used as a prison for over 100 years."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is squatting legal?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A squatter occupys an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential, that the squatter does not own, rent or otherwise have lawful permission to use and it's long history is broken down by country. What specific country would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about squatting in Iceland."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Reykjav\u00edk, the capital of Iceland, there is a small tradition of squatting with incidents occurring from 1919-2011. When the Reykjav\u00edkur Akadem\u00edan (the Reykjav\u00edk Academy) was evicted at short notice from Hringbraut 121 in November 2011, it was occupied in protest."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about squatting in Canada?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Canada under the land title system squatting has been abolished, while under the registry squatting rights have been preserved."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How do the Philippines deal with squatting?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Urban Development and Housing Act of 1992, also known as the Lina Law after its proponent Joey Lina, criminalized squatting in the Philippines, yet discouraged evictions except in certain cases, such as when the occupation was carried out by \"professional squatters and squatting syndicates\"."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is there a federal law in the United States about squatting or is it just up to the States?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I was unable to find any federal law on squatting, but it is illegal in the United States and there are municipal ordinances against it in Miami."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the legal consequences of squatting in the United States?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In the United States, squatting is illegal and squatters can be evicted for trespassing. However, in common law, through the legally recognized concept of adverse possession, a squatter can become a bona fide owner of property without compensation to the former owner, but implementation and specific requirements vary across locality."
    ],
    "topic": "Squatting",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Squatting in the United States:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Squatting in the United States",
          "Prevention"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the United States, squatting is illegal and squatters can be evicted for trespassing. Real estate managers recommend that vacant properties be protected by erecting \"no trespassing\" signs, regular checks, tenant screening, and quickly finding new tenants. In Miami, municipal ordinance requires that property owner exercise all legal means to remove squatters and police are empowered to take actions to remove squatters from private property and then bill the owner or lessee."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Squatting in the United States:15",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Squatting in the United States",
          "Adverse possession"
        ],
        "ctx": "In common law, through the legally recognized concept of adverse possession, a squatter can become a bona fide owner of property without compensation to the former owner. Implementation and specific requirements vary across locality. The typical requirements are that the occupation must be actual, continuous, exclusive, hostile and public."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Storing water and food was critical for survival, and particularly, being able to store enough food for use from one harvest to the next. To protect grain from damp and vermin, underground granaries were used for the bulk storage of grain. Families also stored grain, wine and oil in large pottery jars in their houses. When well protected, wheat, barley, legumes and nuts could be kept for long periods. Rainwater from roofs and courtyards was collected in cisterns to supplement natural sources like springs and wells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fermentation, oil extraction and drying were all ways of converting food into products that could be stored. Feeding crops to animals was also a means of \"storage on the hoof\" with the animals converting the fodder into meat or milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Most food was eaten fresh and in season. Fruits and vegetables had to be eaten as they ripened and before they spoiled. People had to contend with periodic episodes of hunger and famine; producing enough food required hard and well-timed labor, and the climatic conditions resulted in unpredictable harvests and the need to store as much food as possible. Thus, grapes were made into raisins and wine; olives were made into oil; figs, beans, and lentils were dried; and grains were stored for use throughout the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Archaeological remains include the items used for the production of food, such as wine or olive presses, stone and metal implements used in the preparation of food, and amphorae, jars, storerooms and grain pits used for storage. Animal bones provide evidence of meat consumption, the types of animals eaten, and whether they were kept for milk production or other uses, while paleobotanical remains, such as seeds or other carbonized or desiccated plant remains provide information about plant foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Food was cooked in pots made of clay and placed on earthenware stands built in a horseshoe shape, so that the fire could be lit through the opening, under the pot, or pots were suspended above the fire from tripods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Small bowls were used for both eating and drinking. Small jugs contained condiments like olive oil, vinegar, and sweeteners. Wide-mouthed pitchers held water and milk, while spouted decanters with narrow, ridged necks with built-in strainers held wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Stews made of lentils or beans were common and they were cooked with onion, garlic, and leeks for flavor. Fresh legumes were also roasted, or dried and stored for extended periods. They were then cooked in a soup or a stew. The Bible mentions roasted legumes (), and relates how Jacob prepared bread and a pottage of lentils for Esau ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "After the grape harvest in mid-summer, most grapes were taken to wine presses to extract their juice for winemaking. Once fermented, wine was transferred to wineskins or large amphorae for storage. Israelite amphorae were typically tall with large handles and little decoration, and the handles were often inscribed with the name of the city in which the wine had been produced, the winemaker\u2019s stamp, and sometimes the year and the vintage. Amphorae made long-term storage possible, especially in caves or cool cellars. Glass bottles were introduced only in the 1st century AD by the Romans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fresh milk could not be stored for long without spoiling. Typically, thick sour milk called \"laban\" was drunk because the Israelites stored the milk in skin containers, in which it curdled quickly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Cooked food included soups and stews that were a mixture of meat and vegetables. Beans and lentils were likely to have been cooked several times a week. However, vegetables, such as melons, garlic, leek and onions were also eaten uncooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Wild herbs were collected and eaten uncooked or cooked. These are known to have included garden rocket and mallow, and both leaf chicory and endive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Milk had to be processed to preserve it. This was done by first churning it, using a goatskin or clay container to separate the butterfat from the whey. The butterfat was processed by boiling and then cooling it to make clarified butter, which could then be stored for a long time. Clarified butter was used principally for cooking and frying. Butter churns have been excavated at Beersheba, dating from the 4th century BC, and other ancient Israelite sites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Grapes are another of the biblical Seven Species and were used mainly for the production of wine, although they were also eaten fresh and dried. Grapes were dried in the sun to produce raisins, which could then be stored for a long time. Raisins were also pressed into clusters and dried as cakes, which kept the interior raisins softer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The ancient Israelites built terraces of leveled areas in the hill country for planting a variety of crops, including grains, vegetables, and fruit trees. All the trees, with the exception of the olive, produced fruit that could be eaten fresh or juiced while in season. Fruit was also processed for later use in a variety of ways: fruit with high sugar content was fermented to make alcoholic beverages; grapes were most commonly used for this. Fruit was also boiled down into thick, sweet syrup, referred to in the Bible as \"dvash\" (honey). Grapes, figs, dates, and apricots were also dried and preserved individually, put on a string, or pressed into cakes. Since dried fruit is an efficient source of energy, such were prepared as provisions for journeys and long marches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables are not found often in the archaeological record, and it is difficult to determine the role that they played, because plant foods were often eaten raw or were simply boiled, without requiring special equipment for preparation, and thus barely leaving any trace other than the type of food itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Ancient Israelite cuisine refers to the culinary practices of the Israelites during a period of over a millennium. It took root in its known form with the beginning of the Israelite presence in the Land of Israel during the Late Bronze Age and is generally considered to have been maintained up until the mass expulsion of Jews from Roman Judea in the 2nd century CE. Dietary staples among the Israelites were bread, wine, and olive oil; also included were legumes, fruits and vegetables, dairy products, fish, and meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Ancient Israelite cuisine\n--Sources.\n--History.\n----Pre-Israelite.\n----Israelite period.\n----Post-Second Temple era.\n--Characteristics.\n--Foods.\n----Grains and bread.\n------Barley.\n------Wheat.\n------Preparation of grains.\n------Bread making.\n----Legumes.\n----Vegetables.\n----Fruit.\n------Olives and olive oil.\n------Grapes.\n------Figs.\n------Dates.\n------Pomegranates.\n------Other fruits and nuts.\n----Wine and other drinks.\n------Wine.\n------Beer.\n----Meat.\n----Poultry and eggs.\n----Fish.\n----Dairy foods.\n----Honey.\n----Seasonings.\n--Storage and preparation of food.\n--Meals.\n----Daily meals.\n----Festive meals and feasts.\n----Hospitality.\n----Sacrificial meals.\n--Forbidden foods.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "After the division of the Israelite kingdom, Jerusalem and a number of other cities expanded, supported by the surrounding villages and farms. These were called \u201cdaughters of\u201d the major towns in the Hebrew Bible (for example, and ). Large food storage facilities and granaries were built, such as the city of Hazor. During the later Iron Age (Iron Age II) period, roughly the same period as the Israelite and Judean monarchies, olive oil and wine were produced on a large scale for commerce and export, as well as for local consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fruit was an important source of food for the Israelites, particularly grapes, olives, and figs. Grapes were grown mostly for wine, although some were eaten fresh at harvest time, or dried as raisins for storage, while olives were grown exclusively for their oil, until the Roman period. Other fruits that were eaten were the date, pomegranate, and sycamore fig."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Meat was prepared in several different ways. The most common was to cook it with water as a broth or a stew (for example, ). Meat stewed with onions, garlic, and leeks and flavored with cumin and coriander is described on ancient Babylonian cuneiform tablets, and it is most likely that it was prepared similarly in ancient Israel. Stewed meat was considered to be a dish worthy of serving to honored guests (). A less common way to prepare meat was to roast it over an open fire, but this was done particularly for the meat of the Passover lamb. For long-term storage, meat was smoked, dried, or salted, according to indications in texts and ethnographic studies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "During the Pottery Neolithic period (6000-4300 BCE), the development of pottery enabled people to produce portable containers for the transportation and storage of food, and an economy based on agriculture and herding developed. Archaeological evidence indicates that figs, lentils and broad beans were being cultivated from Neolithic times. During the Chalcolithic period (4300-3300 BCE), large pottery containers, indicative of settled peoples, appear in the archaeological record. Date palm cultivation began in the Jordan River Valley, and the earliest date pits have been discovered at Ein Gedi by the Dead Sea. In the Golan, olives trees were grown and olive oil was produced there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Porridge and gruel were made from ground grain, water, salt, and butter. This mixture also formed the basis for cakes, to which oil, called \"shemen\", and fruits were sometimes added before baking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "In addition to requiring that certain foods be eaten for sacred purposes, the Israelite diet was shaped by religious practices which prohibited the consumption of certain foods, both in terms of the animals permissible for eating, and the manner of their preparation. The cuisine of the Israelites thus differed from that of their neighbors in significant ways. For example, ancient Mesopotamian recipes describe foods cooked with animal blood and milk added to meat stews; this would have been avoided by the ancient Israelites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Information about the food of the ancient Israelites is based on written sources, archaeological records and comparative evidence from the wider region of the ancient Levant. The primary written source for the period is the Hebrew Bible, the largest collection of written documents surviving from ancient Israel. Other texts, such as the Dead Sea Scrolls, apocryphal works, the New Testament, the \"Mishnah\" and the Talmud also provide information. Epigraphic sources include \"ostraca\" from Samaria and Arad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fishermen supplied fish to inland communities, as remains of fish, including bones and scales, have been discovered at many inland sites. To preserve them for transport, the fish were first smoked or dried and salted. Merchants also imported fish, sometimes from as far as from Egypt, where pickled roe was an export article. Remains of Nile Perch from Egypt have been found, and these must have been smoked or dried before being imported through the trade network that connected ancient Near Eastern societies. Merchants shipped fish to Jerusalem, and there was evidently a significant trade in fish; one of the gates of Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate, named for a fish market nearby (, , , , )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Israelite cuisine was adherent to the dietary restrictions and guidelines of Yahwism and its later-developed forms: Judaism and Samaritanism. There was a considerable continuity in the main components of the diet over time, despite the introduction of new foodstuffs at various stages. The food of ancient Israel was similar to that of other Mediterranean cuisines of the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The cuisine maintained many consistent traits based on the main products available from the early Israelite period until the Roman period, even though new foods became available during this extended time. For example, rice was introduced during the Persian era; during the Hellenistic period, as trade with the Nabateans increased, more spices became available, at least for those who could afford them, and more Mediterranean fish were imported into the cities; and during the Roman period, sugar cane was introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Once separated from the stalks, the grain was used in a number of ways: Most simply, unripe kernels of grain were eaten fresh, particularly in the spring, before ripe grain was available, and both unripe and ripe grain was roasted over fire for immediate use. Ripe grains of wheat were also parboiled and dried, like modern bulgur, and then prepared as porridge. Whole or cracked grain was also used in stews and to make gruel. Most frequently, grains were ground into flour to prepare bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "There were also baked goods, all made of wheat flour and baked in an oven, which were not burned on the altar. These were the twelve unleavened and specially shaped showbreads, eaten by the priests after they had been displayed; two loaves of leavened bread prepared for the festival of Shavuot and eaten by the priests; thanksgiving breads, which included leavened bread, unleavened bread, unleavened wafers and scalded loaves, with one of each kind given to the priests and the remainder eaten by the owner and guests; and the unleavened loaves and wafers accompanying the Nazirite\u2019s sacrificial ram, one of each kind given to the priests and the remainder eaten by the Nazirite and guests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Food was also flavored by plants, most native to the region and either cultivated, or gathered in the wild, although a few spices were imported. Garlic, onions, and possibly fenugreek were used to season cooked foods, as well as being eaten as vegetables. Herbs and spices included capers, coriander, cumin, black cumin, dill, dwarf chicory, hyssop, marjoram, mint, black mustard, reichardia, saffron, and thyme. Some seasonings were imported, such as myrrh, galbanum, saffron, and cinnamon, but their high cost limited their widespread use. Spices for special feasts were imported by the wealthy and royalty from Arabia and India and were highly valued. These included various types of pepper, and ginger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The symbolic food of the ancient Israelites continued to be important among Jews after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE (AD) and the beginning of the Jewish Diaspora. Bread, wine, and olive oil were seen as direct links to the three main crops of ancient Israel\u2014wheat, grapes, and olives. In the Bible, this trio is described as representing the divine response to human needs () and particularly the need for the seasonal rains vital for the successful cultivation of these three crops. (). The significance of wine, bread and oil is indicated by their incorporation into Jewish religious ritual, with the blessings over wine and bread for Shabbat and holiday meals and at religious ceremonies such as weddings, and the lighting of Shabbat and festival lights with olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Archaeological evidence from an Iron-Age market excavated at Ashkelon shows that game was also sold to those who could not hunt or trap them themselves. However, meat from wild animals was more common at times of economic distress and in the northern areas, where forests and open land provided a habitat for more wild animals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Figs and grapes were the fruits most commonly eaten, while dates, pomegranates, and other fruits and nuts were eaten more occasionally. Wine was the most popular beverage and sometimes other fermented beverages were produced. Meat, usually goat and mutton, was eaten rarely by most Israelites and was reserved for special occasions such as celebrations, festival meals, or sacrificial feasts. The wealthy ate meat more frequently. Olives were used primarily for their oil, which was used raw and to cook meat and stews. Game, birds, eggs, and fish were also eaten, depending on availability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fresh, ripe dates were available from mid to late summer. Some were sun-dried and pressed into blocks to dry completely and then used throughout the year, especially as food for travelers. Dates were also fermented into one of the \"strong drinks\" referred to in the Bible as \"shechar\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Certain parts of the animal, such as the breast and the right thigh, were considered to be the best portions and were reserved for the most honored participants in the meal. Guests were always served before family members. The host would also sit with the guests to encourage them to eat and see to all their needs, as related in the story of Abraham, who waited on his visitors while they ate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The daily diet of the ordinary ancient Israelite was mainly one of bread, cooked grains, and legumes. Bread was eaten with every meal. Vegetables played a smaller, but significant role in the diet. Legumes and vegetables were typically eaten in stews. The Israelites drank goat and sheep\u2019s milk when it was available in the spring and summer, and ate butter and cheese. Honey, both from bees and date honey, was also eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "In contrast to the simplicity of the daily fare of ordinary people, the cuisine of the royal courts of the ancient Near East was sophisticated, and it is assumed that the dishes served at the table of King Solomon and other Israelite kings were also elaborate. King David had officials who were in charge of wine cellars, olive stores, cattle, olive and fig trees () and the royal kitchen was a complex organization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "It is unclear to what extent fish played a role in the cuisine, but it is apparent that fish became steadily more available during the Israelite and Judean monarchies. Fish products were salted and dried and sent great distances. However, even in the later Persian, Greek, and Roman periods, the cost of preserving and transporting fish must have meant that only wealthier inhabitants of the highland towns and cities could afford it, or those who lived close to the sources, where it was less expensive. In the Galilee, small-scale fishing was a fundamental component of the agrarian economy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Festive meals were held to mark significant occasions, entertain important guests, or as sacrificial or ritual meals. The meal was prepared by both men and women. Meat was always served at these meals and many people participated so that there would be no leftovers that would go to waste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelite presence emerged during the Early Iron Age (1200-1000 BCE), at first in the central hill country, Transjordan and the northern Negev, and later in the Galilee, while the Philistines and other Sea Peoples arrived at roughly the same time and settled in the coastal regions. Pastoralism and animal husbandry remained important, and walled open spaces in villages that probably served as paddocks have been discovered. The construction of terraces in the hills, and of additional plastered cisterns for water storage, enabled more cultivation than before. Storage pits and silos were dug into the ground to hold grain. Under the united Israelite monarchy, central store cities were built, and greater areas of the northern Negev came under cultivation. The Gezer agricultural calendar, detailing the crops that were raised, dates from this period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables that were commonly eaten included leeks, garlic, onions, black radishes, net or muskmelons (sometimes misidentified as the cucumber) and watermelons. Other vegetables played a minor role in the diet of the ancient Israelites. Field greens and root plants were generally not cultivated and were gathered seasonally when they grew in the wild. Leafy plants included dandelion greens and the young leaves of the orach plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The ancient Israelites depended on bread, wine and oil as the basic dietary staples and this trio is often mentioned in the Bible (for example, and ) and in other texts, such as the Samaria and Arad ostraca. Written and archaeological evidence indicate that the diet also included other products from plants, trees and animals. Seven basic agricultural products, called the Seven Species, are listed in the Bible: wheat, barley, figs, grapes, olives, pomegranates, and dates (). The Bible also often describes the land of Israel as a land \"flowing with milk and honey\" (for example, )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "The food of the ancient Israelites was based on several products that still play important roles in modern Israeli cuisine. These were known as the seven species: olives, figs, dates, pomegranates, wheat, barley and grapes. The diet, based on locally grown produce, was enhanced by imported spices, readily available due to the country's position at the crossroads of east\u2013west trade routes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites ate a variety of fresh and saltwater fish, according to both archaeological and textual evidence. Remains of freshwater fish from the Yarkon and Jordan rivers and the Sea of Galilee have been found in excavations, and include St. Peter\u2019s fish and mouthbreeders. Saltwater fish discovered in excavations include sea bream, grouper, meager, and gray mullet. Most of these come from the Mediterranean Sea, but in the later Iron Age period, some are from the Red Sea. Although the Torah prohibits the consumption of fish without fins or scales, archeological evidence indicates that many Israelites flouted or were unaware of these restrictions and ate non-kosher seafood, mostly catfish but also shark, eel, and ray, and that religious restrictions on seafood began to be observed more strictly starting in the first century CE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Old Yishuv",
        "text": "Even until the end of the 19th century, both Ashkenazim and Sephardim in Jerusalem stored large quantities of foodstuffs for the winter. In Sephardi households, these included rice, flour, lentils, beans, olives and cheese. Ashkenazim stored wine, spirits, olives, sesame oil and wheat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Meals eaten by the Israelites fell into two categories: daily meals, and festive or ritual meals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "A variety of breads were produced. Probably most common were unleavened flat loaves called \"ugah\" or \"kikkar\". Another type was a thin wafer, known as a \"rakik\". A thicker loaf, known as \"hallah\", was made with the best-quality flour, usually for ritual purposes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites usually ate meat from domesticated goats and sheep. Goat\u2019s meat was the most common. Fat-tailed sheep were the predominant variety of sheep in ancient Israel, but, as sheep were valued more than goats, they were eaten less often. The fat of the tail was considered a delicacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Wild species of barley and emmer wheat were domesticated and cultivated in the Jordan River Valley as early as the 9th millennium BCE. Archaeologists have found the carbonized seeds of two kinds of primitive wheat, einkorn and emmer, and two-row barley, in the earliest levels of digs at Jericho, one of the first cities in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Lentils were the most important of the legumes and were used to make pottages and soups, as well as fried lentil cakes called \"ashishim\", such as those that King David is described as distributing to the people when the Ark of the Covenant was brought to Jerusalem. According to Tova Dickstein, a researcher at Neot Kedumim in Israel, \"ashishim\" were honey-dipped pancakes made from crushed red lentils and sesame seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "A series of developments in technology for threshing, milling, and baking improved both the quantity and the quality of the grain and the means for preparation that were available from the beginning of the Iron Age until the end of the Second Temple period. In the early Iron Age, grain was threshed to remove it from the stalks by beating it with sticks or by oxen treading on it. This usually broke most of the grain kernels, which limited their storage time because broken kernels spoil more quickly than unbroken ones. The development of the threshing-board, which was pulled over the stalks by oxen, left most of the grain kernels intact and enhanced their storage time. Numerous threshing floors and threshing boards have been discovered at archaeological sites of ancient Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites ate domesticated birds such as pigeons, turtledoves, ducks, and geese, and wild birds such as quail, and partridge. Remains from archaeological excavations at the Ophel in Jerusalem and other Iron-Age sites show that domestic birds were available, but consumption was small. The inclusion of pigeons and turtledoves in the Biblical sacrifice lists implies that they were raised domestically, and the remains of dovecotes discovered from the Greek and Roman periods confirm this. Biblical references and archaeological evidence also demonstrate that wild birds were hunted and eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Ritual feasts and banquets in ancient Israel, and the ancient Near East in general, were important for building social relationships and demonstrating status, transacting business and concluding agreements, enlisting divine help, or showing thanks, devotion or propitiation to a deity, and for conveying social instruction. These meals were imbued with significance by the occasion and were a time for entertainment and enjoyment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "At archaeological excavations at Mount Ebal in Samaria, from the period immediately after the Israelite conquest, animal bones discovered were only from animals considered permissible, such as cattle, sheep, goats, and deer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Leeks, onions, and garlic were eaten cooked in stews, and uncooked with bread, and their popularity may be indicated by the observation in the Bible that they are among the foods that the Israelites yearned for after leaving Egypt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The sycamore fig, carob, mulberry, and possibly the apple were also eaten. Usually, these fruits were not cultivated but were picked in the wild when they were in season. The sycamore fig (\"Ficus sycamorus\") was very common in the warmer parts of Israel and was grown primarily for its wood, but it provided a steady supply of small figs, eaten mainly by the poor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites usually drank water drawn from wells, cisterns, or rivers. They also drank milk (for example, as mentioned in the Bible in ), often in the form of sour milk, thin yogurt, or whey, when it was available in the spring and summer. They drank fresh juices from fruits in season as well. The most strongly preferred beverage was wine, although some beer may have also been produced, and wine was an important part of the diet and a source of calories, sugar, and iron. Making wine was also a practical way to preserve fruit juices for long-term storage. Usually, wine was made from grapes for everyday use, as well as for rituals, such as sacrificial libations. Less often, wine was made from pomegranates and dates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Festive meals were held only from time to time, but they are the ones recorded by biblical and extra-biblical sources. Many biblical stories are set within the context of a meal, such as the accounts of the food Abraham prepares for his visitors (), the stew which Jacob prepares for his father, Isaac, and the Passover meal ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Pomegranates were usually eaten fresh, although occasionally they were used to make juice or wine, or sun-dried for use when the fresh fruit was out of season. They probably played a minor part in Israelite cuisine but were symbolically important as adornments on the hem of the robe of the high priest and the Temple pillars and embossed on coinage; they are also listed in the Bible as one of the Seven Species of the Land of Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "After grain, legumes such as lentils, broad or fava beans, chickpeas, and peas were the main element in the diet and were the main source of protein, since meat was rarely eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "The daily diet of the ordinary ancient Israelite was mainly one of bread, cooked grains and legumes. Bread was eaten with every meal. The bread eaten until the end of the Israelite monarchy was mostly made from barley flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "Adding spices like \"za'atar\", dried oregano or sumac and herbs like thyme, mint or scallions is common when preserving the \"labneh\" balls. It is especially common to eat them during breakfast because meat is usually not eaten in the morning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables were perhaps a more important food at the extremes in society: the wealthy who could afford to dedicate land and resources to grow them, and the poor who depended on gathering them in the wild to supplement their meager supplies. More people may have gathered wild plants during famine conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Using both written and archaeological data, some comparisons can be drawn between the food of ancient Israel and its neighbors. Although there is much information about the foods of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, the inferences that can be made are limited due to differences in topography and climate; Israelite agriculture also depended on rainfall rather than the river-based irrigation of these two civilizations, resulting in the preference for different crops. Ugarit and Phoenicia were closer neighbors of ancient Israel, and shared a topography and climate similar to that of ancient Israel. Thus, conclusions about the food and drink in ancient Israel have been made with some confidence from this evidence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites cultivated both wheat and barley; these two grains are mentioned first in the biblical list of the Seven Species of the land of Israel and their importance as food is also seen in the celebration of the barley harvest at the festival of Shavuot and of the wheat harvest at the festival of Sukkot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Bible provides names of plants and animals that were used for food, such as the lists of permitted and forbidden animals (for example, and ), and the lists of foods brought to the king\u2019s table (for example, ) or the foods that the Israelites are said to have longed for after leaving Egypt (). These lists indicate the potential foods that were available, but not necessarily how regularly the food was eaten or how significant it was in the cuisine, which needs to be derived from other sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Olives were harvested in the late summer and were processed for oil by crushing them, pressing the mash, and separating the oil from the flesh. In the early Iron Age period, this was done by treading the olives in basins cut into rock, or with a mortar or stone on a flat slab. In the later Iron Age period, the introduction of the beam press made large scale processing possible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Israel",
        "text": "Information about the food of the ancient Israelites is based on written sources, archaeological records, and comparative evidence from the wider region of the ancient Levant. Written sources are primarily the Hebrew Bible and other texts, such as the Dead Sea Scrolls, Apocryphal works, the New Testament, and Rabbinical literature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Significant milestones in the availability and development food production characteristic of Israelite cuisine occurred well before the Israelite period. On the other hand, vestiges of the cuisine and the practices associated with it continue to resonate in later Jewish cuisine and traditions that developed in Israel and Babylonia during the Talmudic period (200 CE-500 CE), and may still be discerned in the various culinary styles that have developed among Jewish communities since then."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The insides of amphorae were often coated with a preservative resin, such as from the \"terebinth\", and this imparted a pine flavor and aroma to the wine. Before the jars were sealed with pitch, they were filled completely and often topped with a thin layer of olive oil to prevent spoilage due to exposure to air."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The practice of hospitality was a fundamental custom of Israelite society and serving food was integral to the hosting of guests. Additionally, in ancient Israel, the belief that God had delivered Israel from slavery resulted in the social imperative and religious commandment to look after guests and strangers as an act of recognition and gratitude."
      },
      {
        "title": "What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat?",
        "text": "What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat?\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Regular meals too, developed as expressions of common identity, social unity and communal celebration. By the Roman period, Jewish communities came together at banquets for both food and company and the weekly Sabbath meal was an occasion for families to gather and enjoy both food and company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The fig tree (\"ficus carica\") grew well in the hill country and produced two crops a season. Early-ripening figs were regarded as delicacy because of their sweetness and were eaten fresh. Figs ripening in the later harvest were often dried and strung into a chain, or pressed into hard round or square-shaped cakes called \"develah\" and stored as a major source of winter food. The blocks of dried fig were sliced and eaten like bread. The \"Mishna\" mentions figs as one of the components of the prescribed \"wife\u2019s food basket\" and they are estimated to have constituted 16% of the overall calories of the basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Feasts and banquets were important social and political tools throughout Israel\u2019s history, especially in the early years of the Israelite monarchy, when an invitation to the king\u2019s table was important for creating and maintaining political support and was also an important marker of social status and influence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites believed that since an animal\u2019s blood represented its life, its blood should not be consumed (). The blood of a slaughtered animal was thus drained before the meat was used and the blood itself was not used as a cooking liquid or drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Geese, originally domesticated in ancient Egypt, were raised in ancient Israel. They are most likely the \"fattened fowl\" on King Solomon\u2019s table (). Goose breeding is also discussed in the Mishna. Like other animals, birds were fattened for consumption on special occasions, and for the wealthy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Mediterranean climate and soil of the mountainous areas of the area are well suited to viticulture, and both archaeological evidence and written records indicate the significant cultivation of grapes in ancient Israel and the popularity of wine-drinking. The production capacity apparent from archaeological remains and the frequent biblical references to wine suggest that it was the principal alcoholic beverage of the ancient Israelites. Based on the remains of wine production facilities and storage rooms, it has been estimated that on average, people could have consumed one liter of wine per person per day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Once prepared, the dough could be baked in various ways: Originally, the dough was placed directly on the heated stones of a cooking fire or in a griddle or pan made of clay or iron (). In the time of the First Temple, two types of oven were used for baking bread: the jar-oven, and the pit-oven. The jar-oven was a large pottery container, narrowing into an opening toward the top; fuel was burned on the inside to heat it and the dough was pressed against the outside to bake. The pit-oven was a clay-lined excavation in the ground in which the fuel was burned and then pushed aside before the loaves were baked on the heated surface. People also began placing a convex dome, initially earthenware and later metal, over the pit-oven and cooking the flatbreads on the dome instead of on the ash-covered surface; this type of oven is probably what was meant by the biblical \"machabat\", often translated as \"griddle\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The second meal was the main meal of the day and was eaten in the evening. In addition to bread, it typically included soup or a stew of vegetables or legumes, served in a common pot into which everyone dipped their bread. Also served from time to time were cheese and fruits such as fresh figs and melon when in season, as well as dried fruits. Water, wine, and milk could also accompany the meal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The date palm required a hot and dry climate and mostly grew and produced fruit in the Jordan Rift Valley from Jericho to the Sea of Galilee. In these arid areas, the date was sometimes the only plant-food available and was a primary component of the diet, but it was less important elsewhere."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "For most people, meat was eaten only a few times a year when animals were slaughtered for the major festivals, or at tribal meetings, celebrations such as weddings, and for the visits of important guests (). Only at the king's table was meat served daily, according to the Bible. Although most meat was obtained from domesticated animals, meat from hunted animals was also sometimes available, as the story of Isaac and Esau (), certain Biblical lists (for example, ), and archaeological evidence indicate. The remains of gazelle, red deer, and fallow deer are the most commonly found in the archaeological record."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Chickpea cultivation dates back to the Bronze Age (3300 \u2013 1200 BCE) and grapes and olives became important crops in the hill country. Wine and oil were traded for wheat with the cities on the coastal plain, and for meat and skins with semi-nomadic herders. Wine and carobs were also exported to Egypt during this period. At Arad in the northern Negev, the remains of wheat, barley and legumes have been found, along with stone-lined storage pits for grain from this period. Pottery was imported from Cyprus and Mycenae in Greece for the first time, probably for use as good-quality tableware. After the Bronze Age collapse of urban culture, there was an increase in herding and the disappearance of smaller agricultural communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Only animals specifically slaughtered for food or for use in the sacrificial service could be eaten. Detailed lists of which animals, birds, and fish could be eaten and which were prohibited appear in the Bible ( and ), and animal bones found in the archaeological record tend to support this, with some exceptions. For the Israelites, food was one way for self-definition. While it is impossible to know to what extent dietary laws were observed, self-definition is most likely the basis for certain biblical lists of different kinds of animals permitted or forbidden for consumption. The taboo against eating certain animals, particularly the pig, may have developed from the early Iron Age."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Grain products constituted the majority of the food consumed by the ancient Israelites. The staple food was bread, and it was such a vital part of each meal that the Hebrew word for bread, \"lehem\", also referred to food in general. The supreme importance of bread to the ancient Israelites is also demonstrated by how Biblical Hebrew has at least a dozen words for bread, and bread features in numerous Hebrew proverbs (for example, , ). Bread was eaten at just about every meal and is estimated to have provided from 50 to 70 percent of an ordinary person\u2019s daily calories. The bread eaten until the end of the Israelite monarchy was mainly made from barley flour; during the Second Temple period, bread from wheat flour become predominant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The most common and important seasoning was salt (), demonstrated by how it is referenced throughout the Bible, and by how its use was mandated with most sacrifices (). Salt was obtained from the Mediterranean or the Dead Sea. It was produced by evaporating seawater from both natural and artificially created drying pans along the Mediterranean coast. It was also obtained by mining salt deposits, such as at Sodom near the Dead Sea. Salt had to be transported to other locations, so most communities had to purchase it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Meals at which important guests were present were viewed as special occasions, and as such, meat was served. The order in which the guests were served indicated the recognition of the social status of the guest. The choice of meat and dishes indicated the importance of the occasion. The Bible illustrates this in relating how Samuel hosted Saul, who, seated at the head of the hall is served first with a portion of meat that has been especially reserved for him ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Dates were eaten fresh or dried, but were mostly boiled into thick, long-lasting syrup called \"date honey\" (\"dvash temarim\") for use as a sweetener. This syrup was prepared by soaking the dates in water for some time until they disintegrated and then boiling the resulting liquid down into thick syrup. The honey in the Biblical reference of \"a land flowing with milk and honey\" is probably date honey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Beef and venison were eaten primarily by the elites, and fattened calves provided veal for the wealthy (for example, as mentioned in the Bible, )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "An Israelite meal is illustrated by the biblical description of the rations that Abigail brought to David\u2019s group: bread loaves, wine, butchered sheep, parched grain, raisins, and fig cakes ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The olive tree was well suited to the climate and soil of the Israelite highlands, and a significant part of the hill country was allocated to the cultivation of olive trees, which were one of ancient Israel\u2019s most important natural resources. Olive oil was more versatile and longer-lasting than the oil from other plants, such as sesame, and was also considered to be the best-tasting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "People had to contend with periodic episodes of hunger and famine. Producing enough food required hard and well-timed labor and the climatic conditions resulted in unpredictable harvests and the need to store as much food as possible. Thus, grapes were made into raisins and wine, olives were made into oil, figs, beans and lentils were dried and grains were stored for use throughout the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Daily meals were prepared by women. Two daily meals were usually eaten by the family, either in the home or in the field. The first meal was eaten in the late morning, as a break in the workday, and could include roasted grain, olives, figs or some other fruit, bread dipped in olive oil or vinegar, or bread eaten with garlic, onions, or black radishes for flavor, and water or wine. A description in the Book of Ruth provides an example of this kind of meal: the harvest workers eat bread dipped in vinegar and parched or roasted grain (). Agricultural workers, who comprised the largest part of the population, also ate a light meal in the early morning before leaving for their work in the fields ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food storage container",
        "text": "In early civilizations cereal grains such as maize, wheat, barley etc. were stored in large airy buildings, often raised up from the ground to reduce infestation by pests and vermin. Ancient Egyptian and early Hebrew writings include reference to such buildings and their successors can still be seen in use in less developed countries and regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "The symbolic food of the ancient Israelites continued to be important among Jews after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and the beginning of the Jewish diaspora."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Israel",
        "text": "Most food was eaten fresh and in season. Fruits and vegetables had to be eaten as they ripened, and before they spoiled. People had to contend with periodic episodes of hunger and famine; producing enough food required hard and well-timed labor, and the climatic conditions resulted in unpredictable harvests, and the need to store as much food as possible. Thus, grapes were made into raisins and wine; olives were made into oil; figs, beans, and lentils were dried; and grains were stored for use throughout the year. The diet was essentially vegetarian. A typical daily meal is illustrated by the biblical description of the rations that Abigail brought to David's group: bread, wine, roasted grain, raisins, and fig cakes ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Bread was the main source of nourishment in biblical times, and making bread was a daily activity:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "In the story of Abraham hosting the three visitors, Abraham offers cakes, a well prepared young calf, curds, and milk. This meal has similar elements to an earlier meal described in the story of Sinuhe, an Egyptian nobleman who lived for a time in Canaan around 1900 BCE, at which bread, wine, cooked meat, roast fowl, and dairy products were served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "As fresh milk tended to spoil quickly, the Israelites stored milk in skin containers that caused it to curdle quickly and drank it as thick sour milk which they called \"laban.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "There are no biblical lists containing forbidden plants, so it can be assumed that any plant or fruit was permissible as food, with their use limited only by taste, or toxicity (for example, ) and the fulfillment of religious requirements such as the tithes."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How was food stored in ancient Israel?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Amphorae, jars, storerooms, grain pits, large food storage facilities, and granaries were used. Meat was also smoked and salted, and fruit and meat were also dried."
    ],
    "topic": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Ancient Israelite cuisine:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
          "Sources"
        ],
        "ctx": "Archaeological remains include the items used for the production of food, such as wine or olive presses, stone and metal implements used in the preparation of food, and amphorae, jars, storerooms and grain pits used for storage. Animal bones provide evidence of meat consumption, the types of animals eaten, and whether they were kept for milk production or other uses, while paleobotanical remains, such as seeds or other carbonized or desiccated plant remains provide information about plant foods."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ancient Israelite cuisine:89",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
          "Foods",
          "Meat"
        ],
        "ctx": "Meat was prepared in several different ways. The most common was to cook it with water as a broth or a stew (for example, ). Meat stewed with onions, garlic, and leeks and flavored with cumin and coriander is described on ancient Babylonian cuneiform tablets, and it is most likely that it was prepared similarly in ancient Israel. Stewed meat was considered to be a dish worthy of serving to honored guests (). A less common way to prepare meat was to roast it over an open fire, but this was done particularly for the meat of the Passover lamb. For long-term storage, meat was smoked, dried, or salted, according to indications in texts and ethnographic studies."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ancient Israelite cuisine:12",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
          "History",
          "Israelite period"
        ],
        "ctx": "After the division of the Israelite kingdom, Jerusalem and a number of other cities expanded, supported by the surrounding villages and farms. These were called \u201cdaughters of\u201d the major towns in the Hebrew Bible (for example, and ). Large food storage facilities and granaries were built, such as the city of Hazor. During the later Iron Age (Iron Age II) period, roughly the same period as the Israelite and Judean monarchies, olive oil and wine were produced on a large scale for commerce and export, as well as for local consumption."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ancient Israelite cuisine:53",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
          "Foods",
          "Fruit"
        ],
        "ctx": "Fruit was an important source of food for the Israelites, particularly grapes, olives, and figs. Grapes were grown mostly for wine, although some were eaten fresh at harvest time, or dried as raisins for storage, while olives were grown exclusively for their oil, until the Roman period. Other fruits that were eaten were the date, pomegranate, and sycamore fig."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Most food was eaten fresh and in season. Fruits and vegetables had to be eaten as they ripened and before they spoiled. People had to contend with periodic episodes of hunger and famine; producing enough food required hard and well-timed labor, and the climatic conditions resulted in unpredictable harvests and the need to store as much food as possible. Thus, grapes were made into raisins and wine; olives were made into oil; figs, beans, and lentils were dried; and grains were stored for use throughout the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Food was cooked in pots made of clay and placed on earthenware stands built in a horseshoe shape, so that the fire could be lit through the opening, under the pot, or pots were suspended above the fire from tripods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Storing water and food was critical for survival, and particularly, being able to store enough food for use from one harvest to the next. To protect grain from damp and vermin, underground granaries were used for the bulk storage of grain. Families also stored grain, wine and oil in large pottery jars in their houses. When well protected, wheat, barley, legumes and nuts could be kept for long periods. Rainwater from roofs and courtyards was collected in cisterns to supplement natural sources like springs and wells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Cooked food included soups and stews that were a mixture of meat and vegetables. Beans and lentils were likely to have been cooked several times a week. However, vegetables, such as melons, garlic, leek and onions were also eaten uncooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Stews made of lentils or beans were common and they were cooked with onion, garlic, and leeks for flavor. Fresh legumes were also roasted, or dried and stored for extended periods. They were then cooked in a soup or a stew. The Bible mentions roasted legumes (), and relates how Jacob prepared bread and a pottage of lentils for Esau ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Meat was prepared in several different ways. The most common was to cook it with water as a broth or a stew (for example, ). Meat stewed with onions, garlic, and leeks and flavored with cumin and coriander is described on ancient Babylonian cuneiform tablets, and it is most likely that it was prepared similarly in ancient Israel. Stewed meat was considered to be a dish worthy of serving to honored guests (). A less common way to prepare meat was to roast it over an open fire, but this was done particularly for the meat of the Passover lamb. For long-term storage, meat was smoked, dried, or salted, according to indications in texts and ethnographic studies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The ancient Israelites built terraces of leveled areas in the hill country for planting a variety of crops, including grains, vegetables, and fruit trees. All the trees, with the exception of the olive, produced fruit that could be eaten fresh or juiced while in season. Fruit was also processed for later use in a variety of ways: fruit with high sugar content was fermented to make alcoholic beverages; grapes were most commonly used for this. Fruit was also boiled down into thick, sweet syrup, referred to in the Bible as \"dvash\" (honey). Grapes, figs, dates, and apricots were also dried and preserved individually, put on a string, or pressed into cakes. Since dried fruit is an efficient source of energy, such were prepared as provisions for journeys and long marches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Archaeological remains include the items used for the production of food, such as wine or olive presses, stone and metal implements used in the preparation of food, and amphorae, jars, storerooms and grain pits used for storage. Animal bones provide evidence of meat consumption, the types of animals eaten, and whether they were kept for milk production or other uses, while paleobotanical remains, such as seeds or other carbonized or desiccated plant remains provide information about plant foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Figs and grapes were the fruits most commonly eaten, while dates, pomegranates, and other fruits and nuts were eaten more occasionally. Wine was the most popular beverage and sometimes other fermented beverages were produced. Meat, usually goat and mutton, was eaten rarely by most Israelites and was reserved for special occasions such as celebrations, festival meals, or sacrificial feasts. The wealthy ate meat more frequently. Olives were used primarily for their oil, which was used raw and to cook meat and stews. Game, birds, eggs, and fish were also eaten, depending on availability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Once separated from the stalks, the grain was used in a number of ways: Most simply, unripe kernels of grain were eaten fresh, particularly in the spring, before ripe grain was available, and both unripe and ripe grain was roasted over fire for immediate use. Ripe grains of wheat were also parboiled and dried, like modern bulgur, and then prepared as porridge. Whole or cracked grain was also used in stews and to make gruel. Most frequently, grains were ground into flour to prepare bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The daily diet of the ordinary ancient Israelite was mainly one of bread, cooked grains, and legumes. Bread was eaten with every meal. Vegetables played a smaller, but significant role in the diet. Legumes and vegetables were typically eaten in stews. The Israelites drank goat and sheep\u2019s milk when it was available in the spring and summer, and ate butter and cheese. Honey, both from bees and date honey, was also eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Food was also flavored by plants, most native to the region and either cultivated, or gathered in the wild, although a few spices were imported. Garlic, onions, and possibly fenugreek were used to season cooked foods, as well as being eaten as vegetables. Herbs and spices included capers, coriander, cumin, black cumin, dill, dwarf chicory, hyssop, marjoram, mint, black mustard, reichardia, saffron, and thyme. Some seasonings were imported, such as myrrh, galbanum, saffron, and cinnamon, but their high cost limited their widespread use. Spices for special feasts were imported by the wealthy and royalty from Arabia and India and were highly valued. These included various types of pepper, and ginger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Small bowls were used for both eating and drinking. Small jugs contained condiments like olive oil, vinegar, and sweeteners. Wide-mouthed pitchers held water and milk, while spouted decanters with narrow, ridged necks with built-in strainers held wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Ancient Israelite cuisine refers to the culinary practices of the Israelites during a period of over a millennium. It took root in its known form with the beginning of the Israelite presence in the Land of Israel during the Late Bronze Age and is generally considered to have been maintained up until the mass expulsion of Jews from Roman Judea in the 2nd century CE. Dietary staples among the Israelites were bread, wine, and olive oil; also included were legumes, fruits and vegetables, dairy products, fish, and meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fermentation, oil extraction and drying were all ways of converting food into products that could be stored. Feeding crops to animals was also a means of \"storage on the hoof\" with the animals converting the fodder into meat or milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Ancient Israelite cuisine\n--Sources.\n--History.\n----Pre-Israelite.\n----Israelite period.\n----Post-Second Temple era.\n--Characteristics.\n--Foods.\n----Grains and bread.\n------Barley.\n------Wheat.\n------Preparation of grains.\n------Bread making.\n----Legumes.\n----Vegetables.\n----Fruit.\n------Olives and olive oil.\n------Grapes.\n------Figs.\n------Dates.\n------Pomegranates.\n------Other fruits and nuts.\n----Wine and other drinks.\n------Wine.\n------Beer.\n----Meat.\n----Poultry and eggs.\n----Fish.\n----Dairy foods.\n----Honey.\n----Seasonings.\n--Storage and preparation of food.\n--Meals.\n----Daily meals.\n----Festive meals and feasts.\n----Hospitality.\n----Sacrificial meals.\n--Forbidden foods.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "In contrast to the simplicity of the daily fare of ordinary people, the cuisine of the royal courts of the ancient Near East was sophisticated, and it is assumed that the dishes served at the table of King Solomon and other Israelite kings were also elaborate. King David had officials who were in charge of wine cellars, olive stores, cattle, olive and fig trees () and the royal kitchen was a complex organization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Porridge and gruel were made from ground grain, water, salt, and butter. This mixture also formed the basis for cakes, to which oil, called \"shemen\", and fruits were sometimes added before baking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "In addition to requiring that certain foods be eaten for sacred purposes, the Israelite diet was shaped by religious practices which prohibited the consumption of certain foods, both in terms of the animals permissible for eating, and the manner of their preparation. The cuisine of the Israelites thus differed from that of their neighbors in significant ways. For example, ancient Mesopotamian recipes describe foods cooked with animal blood and milk added to meat stews; this would have been avoided by the ancient Israelites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "The food of the ancient Israelites was based on several products that still play important roles in modern Israeli cuisine. These were known as the seven species: olives, figs, dates, pomegranates, wheat, barley and grapes. The diet, based on locally grown produce, was enhanced by imported spices, readily available due to the country's position at the crossroads of east\u2013west trade routes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fruit was an important source of food for the Israelites, particularly grapes, olives, and figs. Grapes were grown mostly for wine, although some were eaten fresh at harvest time, or dried as raisins for storage, while olives were grown exclusively for their oil, until the Roman period. Other fruits that were eaten were the date, pomegranate, and sycamore fig."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "After the division of the Israelite kingdom, Jerusalem and a number of other cities expanded, supported by the surrounding villages and farms. These were called \u201cdaughters of\u201d the major towns in the Hebrew Bible (for example, and ). Large food storage facilities and granaries were built, such as the city of Hazor. During the later Iron Age (Iron Age II) period, roughly the same period as the Israelite and Judean monarchies, olive oil and wine were produced on a large scale for commerce and export, as well as for local consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Daily meals were prepared by women. Two daily meals were usually eaten by the family, either in the home or in the field. The first meal was eaten in the late morning, as a break in the workday, and could include roasted grain, olives, figs or some other fruit, bread dipped in olive oil or vinegar, or bread eaten with garlic, onions, or black radishes for flavor, and water or wine. A description in the Book of Ruth provides an example of this kind of meal: the harvest workers eat bread dipped in vinegar and parched or roasted grain (). Agricultural workers, who comprised the largest part of the population, also ate a light meal in the early morning before leaving for their work in the fields ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelite presence emerged during the Early Iron Age (1200-1000 BCE), at first in the central hill country, Transjordan and the northern Negev, and later in the Galilee, while the Philistines and other Sea Peoples arrived at roughly the same time and settled in the coastal regions. Pastoralism and animal husbandry remained important, and walled open spaces in villages that probably served as paddocks have been discovered. The construction of terraces in the hills, and of additional plastered cisterns for water storage, enabled more cultivation than before. Storage pits and silos were dug into the ground to hold grain. Under the united Israelite monarchy, central store cities were built, and greater areas of the northern Negev came under cultivation. The Gezer agricultural calendar, detailing the crops that were raised, dates from this period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Wild herbs were collected and eaten uncooked or cooked. These are known to have included garden rocket and mallow, and both leaf chicory and endive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fishermen supplied fish to inland communities, as remains of fish, including bones and scales, have been discovered at many inland sites. To preserve them for transport, the fish were first smoked or dried and salted. Merchants also imported fish, sometimes from as far as from Egypt, where pickled roe was an export article. Remains of Nile Perch from Egypt have been found, and these must have been smoked or dried before being imported through the trade network that connected ancient Near Eastern societies. Merchants shipped fish to Jerusalem, and there was evidently a significant trade in fish; one of the gates of Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate, named for a fish market nearby (, , , , )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Israelite cuisine was adherent to the dietary restrictions and guidelines of Yahwism and its later-developed forms: Judaism and Samaritanism. There was a considerable continuity in the main components of the diet over time, despite the introduction of new foodstuffs at various stages. The food of ancient Israel was similar to that of other Mediterranean cuisines of the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Olives were harvested in the late summer and were processed for oil by crushing them, pressing the mash, and separating the oil from the flesh. In the early Iron Age period, this was done by treading the olives in basins cut into rock, or with a mortar or stone on a flat slab. In the later Iron Age period, the introduction of the beam press made large scale processing possible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The symbolic food of the ancient Israelites continued to be important among Jews after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE (AD) and the beginning of the Jewish Diaspora. Bread, wine, and olive oil were seen as direct links to the three main crops of ancient Israel\u2014wheat, grapes, and olives. In the Bible, this trio is described as representing the divine response to human needs () and particularly the need for the seasonal rains vital for the successful cultivation of these three crops. (). The significance of wine, bread and oil is indicated by their incorporation into Jewish religious ritual, with the blessings over wine and bread for Shabbat and holiday meals and at religious ceremonies such as weddings, and the lighting of Shabbat and festival lights with olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "There were also baked goods, all made of wheat flour and baked in an oven, which were not burned on the altar. These were the twelve unleavened and specially shaped showbreads, eaten by the priests after they had been displayed; two loaves of leavened bread prepared for the festival of Shavuot and eaten by the priests; thanksgiving breads, which included leavened bread, unleavened bread, unleavened wafers and scalded loaves, with one of each kind given to the priests and the remainder eaten by the owner and guests; and the unleavened loaves and wafers accompanying the Nazirite\u2019s sacrificial ram, one of each kind given to the priests and the remainder eaten by the Nazirite and guests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "The daily diet of the ordinary ancient Israelite was mainly one of bread, cooked grains and legumes. Bread was eaten with every meal. The bread eaten until the end of the Israelite monarchy was mostly made from barley flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The ancient Israelites depended on bread, wine and oil as the basic dietary staples and this trio is often mentioned in the Bible (for example, and ) and in other texts, such as the Samaria and Arad ostraca. Written and archaeological evidence indicate that the diet also included other products from plants, trees and animals. Seven basic agricultural products, called the Seven Species, are listed in the Bible: wheat, barley, figs, grapes, olives, pomegranates, and dates (). The Bible also often describes the land of Israel as a land \"flowing with milk and honey\" (for example, )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites usually ate meat from domesticated goats and sheep. Goat\u2019s meat was the most common. Fat-tailed sheep were the predominant variety of sheep in ancient Israel, but, as sheep were valued more than goats, they were eaten less often. The fat of the tail was considered a delicacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables that were commonly eaten included leeks, garlic, onions, black radishes, net or muskmelons (sometimes misidentified as the cucumber) and watermelons. Other vegetables played a minor role in the diet of the ancient Israelites. Field greens and root plants were generally not cultivated and were gathered seasonally when they grew in the wild. Leafy plants included dandelion greens and the young leaves of the orach plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Israel",
        "text": "Most food was eaten fresh and in season. Fruits and vegetables had to be eaten as they ripened, and before they spoiled. People had to contend with periodic episodes of hunger and famine; producing enough food required hard and well-timed labor, and the climatic conditions resulted in unpredictable harvests, and the need to store as much food as possible. Thus, grapes were made into raisins and wine; olives were made into oil; figs, beans, and lentils were dried; and grains were stored for use throughout the year. The diet was essentially vegetarian. A typical daily meal is illustrated by the biblical description of the rations that Abigail brought to David's group: bread, wine, roasted grain, raisins, and fig cakes ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The second meal was the main meal of the day and was eaten in the evening. In addition to bread, it typically included soup or a stew of vegetables or legumes, served in a common pot into which everyone dipped their bread. Also served from time to time were cheese and fruits such as fresh figs and melon when in season, as well as dried fruits. Water, wine, and milk could also accompany the meal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Using both written and archaeological data, some comparisons can be drawn between the food of ancient Israel and its neighbors. Although there is much information about the foods of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, the inferences that can be made are limited due to differences in topography and climate; Israelite agriculture also depended on rainfall rather than the river-based irrigation of these two civilizations, resulting in the preference for different crops. Ugarit and Phoenicia were closer neighbors of ancient Israel, and shared a topography and climate similar to that of ancient Israel. Thus, conclusions about the food and drink in ancient Israel have been made with some confidence from this evidence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "For most people, meat was eaten only a few times a year when animals were slaughtered for the major festivals, or at tribal meetings, celebrations such as weddings, and for the visits of important guests (). Only at the king's table was meat served daily, according to the Bible. Although most meat was obtained from domesticated animals, meat from hunted animals was also sometimes available, as the story of Isaac and Esau (), certain Biblical lists (for example, ), and archaeological evidence indicate. The remains of gazelle, red deer, and fallow deer are the most commonly found in the archaeological record."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The most common and important seasoning was salt (), demonstrated by how it is referenced throughout the Bible, and by how its use was mandated with most sacrifices (). Salt was obtained from the Mediterranean or the Dead Sea. It was produced by evaporating seawater from both natural and artificially created drying pans along the Mediterranean coast. It was also obtained by mining salt deposits, such as at Sodom near the Dead Sea. Salt had to be transported to other locations, so most communities had to purchase it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "In the story of Abraham hosting the three visitors, Abraham offers cakes, a well prepared young calf, curds, and milk. This meal has similar elements to an earlier meal described in the story of Sinuhe, an Egyptian nobleman who lived for a time in Canaan around 1900 BCE, at which bread, wine, cooked meat, roast fowl, and dairy products were served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Grapes are another of the biblical Seven Species and were used mainly for the production of wine, although they were also eaten fresh and dried. Grapes were dried in the sun to produce raisins, which could then be stored for a long time. Raisins were also pressed into clusters and dried as cakes, which kept the interior raisins softer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Israel",
        "text": "The daily diet of the ordinary ancient Israelite was mainly one of bread, cooked grains, and legumes. Bread was eaten with every meal. Vegetables played a smaller, but significant role in the diet. The Israelites drank goat and sheep's milk when it was available in the spring and summer, and ate butter and cheese. Figs and grapes were the fruits most commonly eaten, while dates, pomegranates, and other fruits and nuts were eaten more occasionally. Wine was the most popular beverage, and sometimes other fermented beverages were produced. Olives were used, primarily for their oil. Meat, usually goat and mutton, was eaten rarely; it was reserved for special occasions, such as celebrations, festival meals, or sacrificial feasts. Game, birds, eggs, and fish were also eaten, depending on availability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Certain parts of the animal, such as the breast and the right thigh, were considered to be the best portions and were reserved for the most honored participants in the meal. Guests were always served before family members. The host would also sit with the guests to encourage them to eat and see to all their needs, as related in the story of Abraham, who waited on his visitors while they ate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Archaeological evidence from an Iron-Age market excavated at Ashkelon shows that game was also sold to those who could not hunt or trap them themselves. However, meat from wild animals was more common at times of economic distress and in the northern areas, where forests and open land provided a habitat for more wild animals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "A variety of breads were produced. Probably most common were unleavened flat loaves called \"ugah\" or \"kikkar\". Another type was a thin wafer, known as a \"rakik\". A thicker loaf, known as \"hallah\", was made with the best-quality flour, usually for ritual purposes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "After the grape harvest in mid-summer, most grapes were taken to wine presses to extract their juice for winemaking. Once fermented, wine was transferred to wineskins or large amphorae for storage. Israelite amphorae were typically tall with large handles and little decoration, and the handles were often inscribed with the name of the city in which the wine had been produced, the winemaker\u2019s stamp, and sometimes the year and the vintage. Amphorae made long-term storage possible, especially in caves or cool cellars. Glass bottles were introduced only in the 1st century AD by the Romans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The sycamore fig, carob, mulberry, and possibly the apple were also eaten. Usually, these fruits were not cultivated but were picked in the wild when they were in season. The sycamore fig (\"Ficus sycamorus\") was very common in the warmer parts of Israel and was grown primarily for its wood, but it provided a steady supply of small figs, eaten mainly by the poor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables are not found often in the archaeological record, and it is difficult to determine the role that they played, because plant foods were often eaten raw or were simply boiled, without requiring special equipment for preparation, and thus barely leaving any trace other than the type of food itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The insides of amphorae were often coated with a preservative resin, such as from the \"terebinth\", and this imparted a pine flavor and aroma to the wine. Before the jars were sealed with pitch, they were filled completely and often topped with a thin layer of olive oil to prevent spoilage due to exposure to air."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "After grain, legumes such as lentils, broad or fava beans, chickpeas, and peas were the main element in the diet and were the main source of protein, since meat was rarely eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Wild species of barley and emmer wheat were domesticated and cultivated in the Jordan River Valley as early as the 9th millennium BCE. Archaeologists have found the carbonized seeds of two kinds of primitive wheat, einkorn and emmer, and two-row barley, in the earliest levels of digs at Jericho, one of the first cities in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Information about the food of the ancient Israelites is based on written sources, archaeological records and comparative evidence from the wider region of the ancient Levant. The primary written source for the period is the Hebrew Bible, the largest collection of written documents surviving from ancient Israel. Other texts, such as the Dead Sea Scrolls, apocryphal works, the New Testament, the \"Mishnah\" and the Talmud also provide information. Epigraphic sources include \"ostraca\" from Samaria and Arad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "An Israelite meal is illustrated by the biblical description of the rations that Abigail brought to David\u2019s group: bread loaves, wine, butchered sheep, parched grain, raisins, and fig cakes ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The cuisine maintained many consistent traits based on the main products available from the early Israelite period until the Roman period, even though new foods became available during this extended time. For example, rice was introduced during the Persian era; during the Hellenistic period, as trade with the Nabateans increased, more spices became available, at least for those who could afford them, and more Mediterranean fish were imported into the cities; and during the Roman period, sugar cane was introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "During the Pottery Neolithic period (6000-4300 BCE), the development of pottery enabled people to produce portable containers for the transportation and storage of food, and an economy based on agriculture and herding developed. Archaeological evidence indicates that figs, lentils and broad beans were being cultivated from Neolithic times. During the Chalcolithic period (4300-3300 BCE), large pottery containers, indicative of settled peoples, appear in the archaeological record. Date palm cultivation began in the Jordan River Valley, and the earliest date pits have been discovered at Ein Gedi by the Dead Sea. In the Golan, olives trees were grown and olive oil was produced there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites usually drank water drawn from wells, cisterns, or rivers. They also drank milk (for example, as mentioned in the Bible in ), often in the form of sour milk, thin yogurt, or whey, when it was available in the spring and summer. They drank fresh juices from fruits in season as well. The most strongly preferred beverage was wine, although some beer may have also been produced, and wine was an important part of the diet and a source of calories, sugar, and iron. Making wine was also a practical way to preserve fruit juices for long-term storage. Usually, wine was made from grapes for everyday use, as well as for rituals, such as sacrificial libations. Less often, wine was made from pomegranates and dates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Chickpea cultivation dates back to the Bronze Age (3300 \u2013 1200 BCE) and grapes and olives became important crops in the hill country. Wine and oil were traded for wheat with the cities on the coastal plain, and for meat and skins with semi-nomadic herders. Wine and carobs were also exported to Egypt during this period. At Arad in the northern Negev, the remains of wheat, barley and legumes have been found, along with stone-lined storage pits for grain from this period. Pottery was imported from Cyprus and Mycenae in Greece for the first time, probably for use as good-quality tableware. After the Bronze Age collapse of urban culture, there was an increase in herding and the disappearance of smaller agricultural communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites cultivated both wheat and barley; these two grains are mentioned first in the biblical list of the Seven Species of the land of Israel and their importance as food is also seen in the celebration of the barley harvest at the festival of Shavuot and of the wheat harvest at the festival of Sukkot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Milk had to be processed to preserve it. This was done by first churning it, using a goatskin or clay container to separate the butterfat from the whey. The butterfat was processed by boiling and then cooling it to make clarified butter, which could then be stored for a long time. Clarified butter was used principally for cooking and frying. Butter churns have been excavated at Beersheba, dating from the 4th century BC, and other ancient Israelite sites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Ritual feasts and banquets in ancient Israel, and the ancient Near East in general, were important for building social relationships and demonstrating status, transacting business and concluding agreements, enlisting divine help, or showing thanks, devotion or propitiation to a deity, and for conveying social instruction. These meals were imbued with significance by the occasion and were a time for entertainment and enjoyment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The date palm required a hot and dry climate and mostly grew and produced fruit in the Jordan Rift Valley from Jericho to the Sea of Galilee. In these arid areas, the date was sometimes the only plant-food available and was a primary component of the diet, but it was less important elsewhere."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Once prepared, the dough could be baked in various ways: Originally, the dough was placed directly on the heated stones of a cooking fire or in a griddle or pan made of clay or iron (). In the time of the First Temple, two types of oven were used for baking bread: the jar-oven, and the pit-oven. The jar-oven was a large pottery container, narrowing into an opening toward the top; fuel was burned on the inside to heat it and the dough was pressed against the outside to bake. The pit-oven was a clay-lined excavation in the ground in which the fuel was burned and then pushed aside before the loaves were baked on the heated surface. People also began placing a convex dome, initially earthenware and later metal, over the pit-oven and cooking the flatbreads on the dome instead of on the ash-covered surface; this type of oven is probably what was meant by the biblical \"machabat\", often translated as \"griddle\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fresh, ripe dates were available from mid to late summer. Some were sun-dried and pressed into blocks to dry completely and then used throughout the year, especially as food for travelers. Dates were also fermented into one of the \"strong drinks\" referred to in the Bible as \"shechar\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Meals at which important guests were present were viewed as special occasions, and as such, meat was served. The order in which the guests were served indicated the recognition of the social status of the guest. The choice of meat and dishes indicated the importance of the occasion. The Bible illustrates this in relating how Samuel hosted Saul, who, seated at the head of the hall is served first with a portion of meat that has been especially reserved for him ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables were perhaps a more important food at the extremes in society: the wealthy who could afford to dedicate land and resources to grow them, and the poor who depended on gathering them in the wild to supplement their meager supplies. More people may have gathered wild plants during famine conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Lentils were the most important of the legumes and were used to make pottages and soups, as well as fried lentil cakes called \"ashishim\", such as those that King David is described as distributing to the people when the Ark of the Covenant was brought to Jerusalem. According to Tova Dickstein, a researcher at Neot Kedumim in Israel, \"ashishim\" were honey-dipped pancakes made from crushed red lentils and sesame seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Beef and venison were eaten primarily by the elites, and fattened calves provided veal for the wealthy (for example, as mentioned in the Bible, )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites ate domesticated birds such as pigeons, turtledoves, ducks, and geese, and wild birds such as quail, and partridge. Remains from archaeological excavations at the Ophel in Jerusalem and other Iron-Age sites show that domestic birds were available, but consumption was small. The inclusion of pigeons and turtledoves in the Biblical sacrifice lists implies that they were raised domestically, and the remains of dovecotes discovered from the Greek and Roman periods confirm this. Biblical references and archaeological evidence also demonstrate that wild birds were hunted and eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Leeks, onions, and garlic were eaten cooked in stews, and uncooked with bread, and their popularity may be indicated by the observation in the Bible that they are among the foods that the Israelites yearned for after leaving Egypt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Mediterranean climate and soil of the mountainous areas of the area are well suited to viticulture, and both archaeological evidence and written records indicate the significant cultivation of grapes in ancient Israel and the popularity of wine-drinking. The production capacity apparent from archaeological remains and the frequent biblical references to wine suggest that it was the principal alcoholic beverage of the ancient Israelites. Based on the remains of wine production facilities and storage rooms, it has been estimated that on average, people could have consumed one liter of wine per person per day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Festive meals were held to mark significant occasions, entertain important guests, or as sacrificial or ritual meals. The meal was prepared by both men and women. Meat was always served at these meals and many people participated so that there would be no leftovers that would go to waste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Pomegranates were usually eaten fresh, although occasionally they were used to make juice or wine, or sun-dried for use when the fresh fruit was out of season. They probably played a minor part in Israelite cuisine but were symbolically important as adornments on the hem of the robe of the high priest and the Temple pillars and embossed on coinage; they are also listed in the Bible as one of the Seven Species of the Land of Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Bread-making began with the milling of the grain. It was a difficult and time-consuming task performed by women. Each household stored its own grain, and it is estimated that it required at least three hours of daily effort to produce enough flour to make sufficient bread for a family of five. The earliest milling was performed with a pestle and mortar, or a stone quern consisting of a large lower stone that held the grain and a smooth upper stone that was moved back and forth over the grains (). This often left small pieces of grit in the flour. The use of the millstone became more widespread during the Iron Age, resulting in greater speed and increased production of flour. Smaller versions for household use, the rotary or beehive quern, appeared during the early Persian period. After the grain was milled into flour, it was mixed with water and kneaded in a large trough. For dough made with wheat flour, starter, called \"seor\", was added. The starter was prepared by reserving a small portion of dough from a previous batch to absorb the yeasts in the air and thus help leaven the new dough. \"Seor\" thus gave the bread a sourdough flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The olive tree was well suited to the climate and soil of the Israelite highlands, and a significant part of the hill country was allocated to the cultivation of olive trees, which were one of ancient Israel\u2019s most important natural resources. Olive oil was more versatile and longer-lasting than the oil from other plants, such as sesame, and was also considered to be the best-tasting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites ate a variety of fresh and saltwater fish, according to both archaeological and textual evidence. Remains of freshwater fish from the Yarkon and Jordan rivers and the Sea of Galilee have been found in excavations, and include St. Peter\u2019s fish and mouthbreeders. Saltwater fish discovered in excavations include sea bream, grouper, meager, and gray mullet. Most of these come from the Mediterranean Sea, but in the later Iron Age period, some are from the Red Sea. Although the Torah prohibits the consumption of fish without fins or scales, archeological evidence indicates that many Israelites flouted or were unaware of these restrictions and ate non-kosher seafood, mostly catfish but also shark, eel, and ray, and that religious restrictions on seafood began to be observed more strictly starting in the first century CE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Grain products constituted the majority of the food consumed by the ancient Israelites. The staple food was bread, and it was such a vital part of each meal that the Hebrew word for bread, \"lehem\", also referred to food in general. The supreme importance of bread to the ancient Israelites is also demonstrated by how Biblical Hebrew has at least a dozen words for bread, and bread features in numerous Hebrew proverbs (for example, , ). Bread was eaten at just about every meal and is estimated to have provided from 50 to 70 percent of an ordinary person\u2019s daily calories. The bread eaten until the end of the Israelite monarchy was mainly made from barley flour; during the Second Temple period, bread from wheat flour become predominant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Significant milestones in the availability and development food production characteristic of Israelite cuisine occurred well before the Israelite period. On the other hand, vestiges of the cuisine and the practices associated with it continue to resonate in later Jewish cuisine and traditions that developed in Israel and Babylonia during the Talmudic period (200 CE-500 CE), and may still be discerned in the various culinary styles that have developed among Jewish communities since then."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Persians introduced a clay oven called a \"tanur\" (similar to the Indian \"tandoor\"), which had an opening at the bottom for the fire, and through which the bread was placed to be baked on the inner wall of the upper chamber from the heat of the oven and ashes after the flames had died down. This continued to be the way in which Yemenite Jews baked bread until modern times. The remains of clay ovens and fragments of bread trays have been found in several archaeological excavations. All these methods produced only thin loaves, and the custom was thus to break bread rather than cut it. The bread was soft and pliable and used for dipping and sopping up gravies and juices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Meals eaten by the Israelites fell into two categories: daily meals, and festive or ritual meals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "At archaeological excavations at Mount Ebal in Samaria, from the period immediately after the Israelite conquest, animal bones discovered were only from animals considered permissible, such as cattle, sheep, goats, and deer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "During the Second Temple period (516 BCE\u201370 CE), Hellenistic and Roman culture heavily influenced cuisine, particularly of the priests and aristocracy of Jerusalem. Elaborate meals were served that included piquant entr\u00e9es and alcoholic drinks, fish, beef, meat, pickled and fresh vegetables, olives, and tart or sweet fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Israel",
        "text": "Information about the food of the ancient Israelites is based on written sources, archaeological records, and comparative evidence from the wider region of the ancient Levant. Written sources are primarily the Hebrew Bible and other texts, such as the Dead Sea Scrolls, Apocryphal works, the New Testament, and Rabbinical literature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "It is unclear to what extent fish played a role in the cuisine, but it is apparent that fish became steadily more available during the Israelite and Judean monarchies. Fish products were salted and dried and sent great distances. However, even in the later Persian, Greek, and Roman periods, the cost of preserving and transporting fish must have meant that only wealthier inhabitants of the highland towns and cities could afford it, or those who lived close to the sources, where it was less expensive. In the Galilee, small-scale fishing was a fundamental component of the agrarian economy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The practice of hospitality was a fundamental custom of Israelite society and serving food was integral to the hosting of guests. Additionally, in ancient Israel, the belief that God had delivered Israel from slavery resulted in the social imperative and religious commandment to look after guests and strangers as an act of recognition and gratitude."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Figs were an important source of food. Figs were cultivated throughout the land of Israel, and fresh or dried figs were part of the daily diet. A common way of preparing dried figs was to chop them and press them into a cake."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The fig tree (\"ficus carica\") grew well in the hill country and produced two crops a season. Early-ripening figs were regarded as delicacy because of their sweetness and were eaten fresh. Figs ripening in the later harvest were often dried and strung into a chain, or pressed into hard round or square-shaped cakes called \"develah\" and stored as a major source of winter food. The blocks of dried fig were sliced and eaten like bread. The \"Mishna\" mentions figs as one of the components of the prescribed \"wife\u2019s food basket\" and they are estimated to have constituted 16% of the overall calories of the basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Feasts and banquets were important social and political tools throughout Israel\u2019s history, especially in the early years of the Israelite monarchy, when an invitation to the king\u2019s table was important for creating and maintaining political support and was also an important marker of social status and influence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Bread was primarily made from barley flour during the Iron Age (, ), as barley was more widely and easily grown, and was thus more available, cheaper, and could be made into bread without a leavening agent even though wheat flour was regarded as superior. It was presumably made from dough that was a simple mixture of barley flour and water, divided into small pieces, formed by hand into round shapes, then baked. However, barley declined as the staple from the biblical period to a poverty food by the end of the Second Temple period, and by the Talmudic era, it was regarded mostly as animal fodder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Perhaps the oldest and most important feast celebrated by the Jews is the Passover. The original feast, with its origins in the story of the Exodus, consisted of a sacrificial lamb, bitter herbs and unleavened bread eaten by each family at home. Under the Israelite monarchy, and with the establishment of the Temple in Jerusalem, the sacrifice and celebration of Passover became centralized as one of the three pilgrimage festivals. Families who were able to travel to Jerusalem ate the Passover meal together in Jerusalem. Those who could not make the pilgrimage celebrated the holiday by holding a special meal and observing the Feast of Unleavened Bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Goats, and, to a lesser extent, sheep, provided milk for part of the year, and milk and dairy products were a significant source of food. Dairy products are mentioned in the Bible (for example, , , and , and a repeated description of the Land of Israel in the Bible is \"a land flowing with milk and honey\" (for example, , , and ))."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "During the Greek period, the style of winemaking changed. Ripe grapes were first dried to concentrate the sugars, and these then produced a much sweeter and higher alcohol content wine that needed to be diluted with water to be drinkable. Before this, watered-down wine was disparaged, but by the time of the Talmud, wine that did not require dilution with water was considered unfit for consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Regular meals too, developed as expressions of common identity, social unity and communal celebration. By the Roman period, Jewish communities came together at banquets for both food and company and the weekly Sabbath meal was an occasion for families to gather and enjoy both food and company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Dates were eaten fresh or dried, but were mostly boiled into thick, long-lasting syrup called \"date honey\" (\"dvash temarim\") for use as a sweetener. This syrup was prepared by soaking the dates in water for some time until they disintegrated and then boiling the resulting liquid down into thick syrup. The honey in the Biblical reference of \"a land flowing with milk and honey\" is probably date honey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Sacrificial meals were eaten when a portion of a sacrifice was reserved for the priest (\"kohen\") or the ordinary Israelite who brought the offering was permitted to eat a portion with his family at a festive meal. The offerings considered \"most holy\" were eaten by the males of the priests in the court of the Temple sanctuary (). The meal was considered to be a part of the priest\u2019s duties. Other offerings could be eaten by the priests with their families in any ritually clean place (). The ordinary Israelite had to eat his share within a fixed time, with his family, guests, and any Levites and strangers that he invited."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Geese, originally domesticated in ancient Egypt, were raised in ancient Israel. They are most likely the \"fattened fowl\" on King Solomon\u2019s table (). Goose breeding is also discussed in the Mishna. Like other animals, birds were fattened for consumption on special occasions, and for the wealthy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Another seasoning was vinegar, which was produced by extra fermentation of new wine. It was used for seasoning foods, pickling vegetables, and medicinal purposes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Barley (\"hordeum vulgare\") was the most important grain during the biblical period, and this was recognized ritually on the second day of Passover in the Omer offering, consisting of barley flour from the newly ripened crop. Furthermore, its significance to Israelite society, not only as a source of food, is illustrated by the biblical method for measuring a field by the amount of barley (rather than of wheat) with which it could be sown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Gourds and melons were eaten raw or flavored with vinegar. Black radishes were also eaten raw when in season during the autumn and winter. The Talmud mentions the use of radish seeds to produce oil and considered eating radishes to have health benefits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Although olives were used to produce oil from the Bronze Age, it was only by the Roman period that the techniques were introduced to cure olives in lye and then brine to remove their natural bitterness and make them edible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Bible provides names of plants and animals that were used for food, such as the lists of permitted and forbidden animals (for example, and ), and the lists of foods brought to the king\u2019s table (for example, ) or the foods that the Israelites are said to have longed for after leaving Egypt (). These lists indicate the potential foods that were available, but not necessarily how regularly the food was eaten or how significant it was in the cuisine, which needs to be derived from other sources."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How was food stored in ancient Israel?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Amphorae, jars, storerooms, grain pits, large food storage facilities, and granaries were used. Meat was also smoked and salted, and fruit and meat were also dried."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Then how was food prepared in ancient Israel?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The food was prepared under the dietary restrictions and guidelines of Yahwism.",
      "Amongst some of their food, would you like to know more about the preparation of grains, bread, legumes, or vegetables?"
    ],
    "topic": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Ancient Israelite cuisine:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ancient Israelite cuisine"
        ],
        "ctx": "Israelite cuisine was adherent to the dietary restrictions and guidelines of Yahwism and its later-developed forms: Judaism and Samaritanism. There was a considerable continuity in the main components of the diet over time, despite the introduction of new foodstuffs at various stages. The food of ancient Israel was similar to that of other Mediterranean cuisines of the time."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ancient Israelite cuisine:29",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
          "Foods",
          "Grains and bread",
          "Preparation of grains"
        ],
        "ctx": "A series of developments in technology for threshing, milling, and baking improved both the quantity and the quality of the grain and the means for preparation that were available from the beginning of the Iron Age until the end of the Second Temple period. In the early Iron Age, grain was threshed to remove it from the stalks by beating it with sticks or by oxen treading on it. This usually broke most of the grain kernels, which limited their storage time because broken kernels spoil more quickly than unbroken ones. The development of the threshing-board, which was pulled over the stalks by oxen, left most of the grain kernels intact and enhanced their storage time. Numerous threshing floors and threshing boards have been discovered at archaeological sites of ancient Israel."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ancient Israelite cuisine:32",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
          "Foods",
          "Grains and bread",
          "Bread making"
        ],
        "ctx": "Bread-making began with the milling of the grain. It was a difficult and time-consuming task performed by women. Each household stored its own grain, and it is estimated that it required at least three hours of daily effort to produce enough flour to make sufficient bread for a family of five. The earliest milling was performed with a pestle and mortar, or a stone quern consisting of a large lower stone that held the grain and a smooth upper stone that was moved back and forth over the grains (). This often left small pieces of grit in the flour. The use of the millstone became more widespread during the Iron Age, resulting in greater speed and increased production of flour. Smaller versions for household use, the rotary or beehive quern, appeared during the early Persian period. After the grain was milled into flour, it was mixed with water and kneaded in a large trough. For dough made with wheat flour, starter, called \"seor\", was added. The starter was prepared by reserving a small portion of dough from a previous batch to absorb the yeasts in the air and thus help leaven the new dough. \"Seor\" thus gave the bread a sourdough flavor."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ancient Israelite cuisine:10",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
          "History",
          "Pre-Israelite"
        ],
        "ctx": "Chickpea cultivation dates back to the Bronze Age (3300 \u2013 1200 BCE) and grapes and olives became important crops in the hill country. Wine and oil were traded for wheat with the cities on the coastal plain, and for meat and skins with semi-nomadic herders. Wine and carobs were also exported to Egypt during this period. At Arad in the northern Negev, the remains of wheat, barley and legumes have been found, along with stone-lined storage pits for grain from this period. Pottery was imported from Cyprus and Mycenae in Greece for the first time, probably for use as good-quality tableware. After the Bronze Age collapse of urban culture, there was an increase in herding and the disappearance of smaller agricultural communities."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ancient Israelite cuisine:16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
          "Characteristics"
        ],
        "ctx": "The daily diet of the ordinary ancient Israelite was mainly one of bread, cooked grains, and legumes. Bread was eaten with every meal. Vegetables played a smaller, but significant role in the diet. Legumes and vegetables were typically eaten in stews. The Israelites drank goat and sheep\u2019s milk when it was available in the spring and summer, and ate butter and cheese. Honey, both from bees and date honey, was also eaten."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Israelite cuisine was adherent to the dietary restrictions and guidelines of Yahwism and its later-developed forms: Judaism and Samaritanism. There was a considerable continuity in the main components of the diet over time, despite the introduction of new foodstuffs at various stages. The food of ancient Israel was similar to that of other Mediterranean cuisines of the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Food was cooked in pots made of clay and placed on earthenware stands built in a horseshoe shape, so that the fire could be lit through the opening, under the pot, or pots were suspended above the fire from tripods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Most food was eaten fresh and in season. Fruits and vegetables had to be eaten as they ripened and before they spoiled. People had to contend with periodic episodes of hunger and famine; producing enough food required hard and well-timed labor, and the climatic conditions resulted in unpredictable harvests and the need to store as much food as possible. Thus, grapes were made into raisins and wine; olives were made into oil; figs, beans, and lentils were dried; and grains were stored for use throughout the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "In addition to requiring that certain foods be eaten for sacred purposes, the Israelite diet was shaped by religious practices which prohibited the consumption of certain foods, both in terms of the animals permissible for eating, and the manner of their preparation. The cuisine of the Israelites thus differed from that of their neighbors in significant ways. For example, ancient Mesopotamian recipes describe foods cooked with animal blood and milk added to meat stews; this would have been avoided by the ancient Israelites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Ancient Israelite cuisine refers to the culinary practices of the Israelites during a period of over a millennium. It took root in its known form with the beginning of the Israelite presence in the Land of Israel during the Late Bronze Age and is generally considered to have been maintained up until the mass expulsion of Jews from Roman Judea in the 2nd century CE. Dietary staples among the Israelites were bread, wine, and olive oil; also included were legumes, fruits and vegetables, dairy products, fish, and meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Cooked food included soups and stews that were a mixture of meat and vegetables. Beans and lentils were likely to have been cooked several times a week. However, vegetables, such as melons, garlic, leek and onions were also eaten uncooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Ancient Israelite cuisine\n--Sources.\n--History.\n----Pre-Israelite.\n----Israelite period.\n----Post-Second Temple era.\n--Characteristics.\n--Foods.\n----Grains and bread.\n------Barley.\n------Wheat.\n------Preparation of grains.\n------Bread making.\n----Legumes.\n----Vegetables.\n----Fruit.\n------Olives and olive oil.\n------Grapes.\n------Figs.\n------Dates.\n------Pomegranates.\n------Other fruits and nuts.\n----Wine and other drinks.\n------Wine.\n------Beer.\n----Meat.\n----Poultry and eggs.\n----Fish.\n----Dairy foods.\n----Honey.\n----Seasonings.\n--Storage and preparation of food.\n--Meals.\n----Daily meals.\n----Festive meals and feasts.\n----Hospitality.\n----Sacrificial meals.\n--Forbidden foods.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Stews made of lentils or beans were common and they were cooked with onion, garlic, and leeks for flavor. Fresh legumes were also roasted, or dried and stored for extended periods. They were then cooked in a soup or a stew. The Bible mentions roasted legumes (), and relates how Jacob prepared bread and a pottage of lentils for Esau ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "There are no biblical lists containing forbidden plants, so it can be assumed that any plant or fruit was permissible as food, with their use limited only by taste, or toxicity (for example, ) and the fulfillment of religious requirements such as the tithes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Certain parts of the animal, such as the breast and the right thigh, were considered to be the best portions and were reserved for the most honored participants in the meal. Guests were always served before family members. The host would also sit with the guests to encourage them to eat and see to all their needs, as related in the story of Abraham, who waited on his visitors while they ate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Meals at which important guests were present were viewed as special occasions, and as such, meat was served. The order in which the guests were served indicated the recognition of the social status of the guest. The choice of meat and dishes indicated the importance of the occasion. The Bible illustrates this in relating how Samuel hosted Saul, who, seated at the head of the hall is served first with a portion of meat that has been especially reserved for him ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The ancient Israelites built terraces of leveled areas in the hill country for planting a variety of crops, including grains, vegetables, and fruit trees. All the trees, with the exception of the olive, produced fruit that could be eaten fresh or juiced while in season. Fruit was also processed for later use in a variety of ways: fruit with high sugar content was fermented to make alcoholic beverages; grapes were most commonly used for this. Fruit was also boiled down into thick, sweet syrup, referred to in the Bible as \"dvash\" (honey). Grapes, figs, dates, and apricots were also dried and preserved individually, put on a string, or pressed into cakes. Since dried fruit is an efficient source of energy, such were prepared as provisions for journeys and long marches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Wild herbs were collected and eaten uncooked or cooked. These are known to have included garden rocket and mallow, and both leaf chicory and endive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Small bowls were used for both eating and drinking. Small jugs contained condiments like olive oil, vinegar, and sweeteners. Wide-mouthed pitchers held water and milk, while spouted decanters with narrow, ridged necks with built-in strainers held wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "In contrast to the simplicity of the daily fare of ordinary people, the cuisine of the royal courts of the ancient Near East was sophisticated, and it is assumed that the dishes served at the table of King Solomon and other Israelite kings were also elaborate. King David had officials who were in charge of wine cellars, olive stores, cattle, olive and fig trees () and the royal kitchen was a complex organization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Food was also flavored by plants, most native to the region and either cultivated, or gathered in the wild, although a few spices were imported. Garlic, onions, and possibly fenugreek were used to season cooked foods, as well as being eaten as vegetables. Herbs and spices included capers, coriander, cumin, black cumin, dill, dwarf chicory, hyssop, marjoram, mint, black mustard, reichardia, saffron, and thyme. Some seasonings were imported, such as myrrh, galbanum, saffron, and cinnamon, but their high cost limited their widespread use. Spices for special feasts were imported by the wealthy and royalty from Arabia and India and were highly valued. These included various types of pepper, and ginger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Archaeological remains include the items used for the production of food, such as wine or olive presses, stone and metal implements used in the preparation of food, and amphorae, jars, storerooms and grain pits used for storage. Animal bones provide evidence of meat consumption, the types of animals eaten, and whether they were kept for milk production or other uses, while paleobotanical remains, such as seeds or other carbonized or desiccated plant remains provide information about plant foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "The daily diet of the ordinary ancient Israelite was mainly one of bread, cooked grains and legumes. Bread was eaten with every meal. The bread eaten until the end of the Israelite monarchy was mostly made from barley flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fermentation, oil extraction and drying were all ways of converting food into products that could be stored. Feeding crops to animals was also a means of \"storage on the hoof\" with the animals converting the fodder into meat or milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The cuisine maintained many consistent traits based on the main products available from the early Israelite period until the Roman period, even though new foods became available during this extended time. For example, rice was introduced during the Persian era; during the Hellenistic period, as trade with the Nabateans increased, more spices became available, at least for those who could afford them, and more Mediterranean fish were imported into the cities; and during the Roman period, sugar cane was introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The ancient Israelites depended on bread, wine and oil as the basic dietary staples and this trio is often mentioned in the Bible (for example, and ) and in other texts, such as the Samaria and Arad ostraca. Written and archaeological evidence indicate that the diet also included other products from plants, trees and animals. Seven basic agricultural products, called the Seven Species, are listed in the Bible: wheat, barley, figs, grapes, olives, pomegranates, and dates (). The Bible also often describes the land of Israel as a land \"flowing with milk and honey\" (for example, )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Storing water and food was critical for survival, and particularly, being able to store enough food for use from one harvest to the next. To protect grain from damp and vermin, underground granaries were used for the bulk storage of grain. Families also stored grain, wine and oil in large pottery jars in their houses. When well protected, wheat, barley, legumes and nuts could be kept for long periods. Rainwater from roofs and courtyards was collected in cisterns to supplement natural sources like springs and wells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Porridge and gruel were made from ground grain, water, salt, and butter. This mixture also formed the basis for cakes, to which oil, called \"shemen\", and fruits were sometimes added before baking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "The food of the ancient Israelites was based on several products that still play important roles in modern Israeli cuisine. These were known as the seven species: olives, figs, dates, pomegranates, wheat, barley and grapes. The diet, based on locally grown produce, was enhanced by imported spices, readily available due to the country's position at the crossroads of east\u2013west trade routes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Significant milestones in the availability and development food production characteristic of Israelite cuisine occurred well before the Israelite period. On the other hand, vestiges of the cuisine and the practices associated with it continue to resonate in later Jewish cuisine and traditions that developed in Israel and Babylonia during the Talmudic period (200 CE-500 CE), and may still be discerned in the various culinary styles that have developed among Jewish communities since then."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The symbolic food of the ancient Israelites continued to be important among Jews after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE (AD) and the beginning of the Jewish Diaspora. Bread, wine, and olive oil were seen as direct links to the three main crops of ancient Israel\u2014wheat, grapes, and olives. In the Bible, this trio is described as representing the divine response to human needs () and particularly the need for the seasonal rains vital for the successful cultivation of these three crops. (). The significance of wine, bread and oil is indicated by their incorporation into Jewish religious ritual, with the blessings over wine and bread for Shabbat and holiday meals and at religious ceremonies such as weddings, and the lighting of Shabbat and festival lights with olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables were perhaps a more important food at the extremes in society: the wealthy who could afford to dedicate land and resources to grow them, and the poor who depended on gathering them in the wild to supplement their meager supplies. More people may have gathered wild plants during famine conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "After grain, legumes such as lentils, broad or fava beans, chickpeas, and peas were the main element in the diet and were the main source of protein, since meat was rarely eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Meat was prepared in several different ways. The most common was to cook it with water as a broth or a stew (for example, ). Meat stewed with onions, garlic, and leeks and flavored with cumin and coriander is described on ancient Babylonian cuneiform tablets, and it is most likely that it was prepared similarly in ancient Israel. Stewed meat was considered to be a dish worthy of serving to honored guests (). A less common way to prepare meat was to roast it over an open fire, but this was done particularly for the meat of the Passover lamb. For long-term storage, meat was smoked, dried, or salted, according to indications in texts and ethnographic studies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Meals eaten by the Israelites fell into two categories: daily meals, and festive or ritual meals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "After the division of the Israelite kingdom, Jerusalem and a number of other cities expanded, supported by the surrounding villages and farms. These were called \u201cdaughters of\u201d the major towns in the Hebrew Bible (for example, and ). Large food storage facilities and granaries were built, such as the city of Hazor. During the later Iron Age (Iron Age II) period, roughly the same period as the Israelite and Judean monarchies, olive oil and wine were produced on a large scale for commerce and export, as well as for local consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Ritual feasts and banquets in ancient Israel, and the ancient Near East in general, were important for building social relationships and demonstrating status, transacting business and concluding agreements, enlisting divine help, or showing thanks, devotion or propitiation to a deity, and for conveying social instruction. These meals were imbued with significance by the occasion and were a time for entertainment and enjoyment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The practice of hospitality was a fundamental custom of Israelite society and serving food was integral to the hosting of guests. Additionally, in ancient Israel, the belief that God had delivered Israel from slavery resulted in the social imperative and religious commandment to look after guests and strangers as an act of recognition and gratitude."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "There were also baked goods, all made of wheat flour and baked in an oven, which were not burned on the altar. These were the twelve unleavened and specially shaped showbreads, eaten by the priests after they had been displayed; two loaves of leavened bread prepared for the festival of Shavuot and eaten by the priests; thanksgiving breads, which included leavened bread, unleavened bread, unleavened wafers and scalded loaves, with one of each kind given to the priests and the remainder eaten by the owner and guests; and the unleavened loaves and wafers accompanying the Nazirite\u2019s sacrificial ram, one of each kind given to the priests and the remainder eaten by the Nazirite and guests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Only animals specifically slaughtered for food or for use in the sacrificial service could be eaten. Detailed lists of which animals, birds, and fish could be eaten and which were prohibited appear in the Bible ( and ), and animal bones found in the archaeological record tend to support this, with some exceptions. For the Israelites, food was one way for self-definition. While it is impossible to know to what extent dietary laws were observed, self-definition is most likely the basis for certain biblical lists of different kinds of animals permitted or forbidden for consumption. The taboo against eating certain animals, particularly the pig, may have developed from the early Iron Age."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables are not found often in the archaeological record, and it is difficult to determine the role that they played, because plant foods were often eaten raw or were simply boiled, without requiring special equipment for preparation, and thus barely leaving any trace other than the type of food itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "At archaeological excavations at Mount Ebal in Samaria, from the period immediately after the Israelite conquest, animal bones discovered were only from animals considered permissible, such as cattle, sheep, goats, and deer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Archaeological evidence from an Iron-Age market excavated at Ashkelon shows that game was also sold to those who could not hunt or trap them themselves. However, meat from wild animals was more common at times of economic distress and in the northern areas, where forests and open land provided a habitat for more wild animals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "An Israelite meal is illustrated by the biblical description of the rations that Abigail brought to David\u2019s group: bread loaves, wine, butchered sheep, parched grain, raisins, and fig cakes ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Using both written and archaeological data, some comparisons can be drawn between the food of ancient Israel and its neighbors. Although there is much information about the foods of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, the inferences that can be made are limited due to differences in topography and climate; Israelite agriculture also depended on rainfall rather than the river-based irrigation of these two civilizations, resulting in the preference for different crops. Ugarit and Phoenicia were closer neighbors of ancient Israel, and shared a topography and climate similar to that of ancient Israel. Thus, conclusions about the food and drink in ancient Israel have been made with some confidence from this evidence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Bible provides names of plants and animals that were used for food, such as the lists of permitted and forbidden animals (for example, and ), and the lists of foods brought to the king\u2019s table (for example, ) or the foods that the Israelites are said to have longed for after leaving Egypt (). These lists indicate the potential foods that were available, but not necessarily how regularly the food was eaten or how significant it was in the cuisine, which needs to be derived from other sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Information about the food of the ancient Israelites is based on written sources, archaeological records and comparative evidence from the wider region of the ancient Levant. The primary written source for the period is the Hebrew Bible, the largest collection of written documents surviving from ancient Israel. Other texts, such as the Dead Sea Scrolls, apocryphal works, the New Testament, the \"Mishnah\" and the Talmud also provide information. Epigraphic sources include \"ostraca\" from Samaria and Arad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Feasts and banquets were important social and political tools throughout Israel\u2019s history, especially in the early years of the Israelite monarchy, when an invitation to the king\u2019s table was important for creating and maintaining political support and was also an important marker of social status and influence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites usually ate meat from domesticated goats and sheep. Goat\u2019s meat was the most common. Fat-tailed sheep were the predominant variety of sheep in ancient Israel, but, as sheep were valued more than goats, they were eaten less often. The fat of the tail was considered a delicacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Figs and grapes were the fruits most commonly eaten, while dates, pomegranates, and other fruits and nuts were eaten more occasionally. Wine was the most popular beverage and sometimes other fermented beverages were produced. Meat, usually goat and mutton, was eaten rarely by most Israelites and was reserved for special occasions such as celebrations, festival meals, or sacrificial feasts. The wealthy ate meat more frequently. Olives were used primarily for their oil, which was used raw and to cook meat and stews. Game, birds, eggs, and fish were also eaten, depending on availability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Regular meals too, developed as expressions of common identity, social unity and communal celebration. By the Roman period, Jewish communities came together at banquets for both food and company and the weekly Sabbath meal was an occasion for families to gather and enjoy both food and company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "A variety of breads were produced. Probably most common were unleavened flat loaves called \"ugah\" or \"kikkar\". Another type was a thin wafer, known as a \"rakik\". A thicker loaf, known as \"hallah\", was made with the best-quality flour, usually for ritual purposes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Persians introduced a clay oven called a \"tanur\" (similar to the Indian \"tandoor\"), which had an opening at the bottom for the fire, and through which the bread was placed to be baked on the inner wall of the upper chamber from the heat of the oven and ashes after the flames had died down. This continued to be the way in which Yemenite Jews baked bread until modern times. The remains of clay ovens and fragments of bread trays have been found in several archaeological excavations. All these methods produced only thin loaves, and the custom was thus to break bread rather than cut it. The bread was soft and pliable and used for dipping and sopping up gravies and juices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Festive meals were held to mark significant occasions, entertain important guests, or as sacrificial or ritual meals. The meal was prepared by both men and women. Meat was always served at these meals and many people participated so that there would be no leftovers that would go to waste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Daily meals were prepared by women. Two daily meals were usually eaten by the family, either in the home or in the field. The first meal was eaten in the late morning, as a break in the workday, and could include roasted grain, olives, figs or some other fruit, bread dipped in olive oil or vinegar, or bread eaten with garlic, onions, or black radishes for flavor, and water or wine. A description in the Book of Ruth provides an example of this kind of meal: the harvest workers eat bread dipped in vinegar and parched or roasted grain (). Agricultural workers, who comprised the largest part of the population, also ate a light meal in the early morning before leaving for their work in the fields ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "In the story of Abraham hosting the three visitors, Abraham offers cakes, a well prepared young calf, curds, and milk. This meal has similar elements to an earlier meal described in the story of Sinuhe, an Egyptian nobleman who lived for a time in Canaan around 1900 BCE, at which bread, wine, cooked meat, roast fowl, and dairy products were served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The daily diet of the ordinary ancient Israelite was mainly one of bread, cooked grains, and legumes. Bread was eaten with every meal. Vegetables played a smaller, but significant role in the diet. Legumes and vegetables were typically eaten in stews. The Israelites drank goat and sheep\u2019s milk when it was available in the spring and summer, and ate butter and cheese. Honey, both from bees and date honey, was also eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Lentils were the most important of the legumes and were used to make pottages and soups, as well as fried lentil cakes called \"ashishim\", such as those that King David is described as distributing to the people when the Ark of the Covenant was brought to Jerusalem. According to Tova Dickstein, a researcher at Neot Kedumim in Israel, \"ashishim\" were honey-dipped pancakes made from crushed red lentils and sesame seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The olive tree was well suited to the climate and soil of the Israelite highlands, and a significant part of the hill country was allocated to the cultivation of olive trees, which were one of ancient Israel\u2019s most important natural resources. Olive oil was more versatile and longer-lasting than the oil from other plants, such as sesame, and was also considered to be the best-tasting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites ate a variety of fresh and saltwater fish, according to both archaeological and textual evidence. Remains of freshwater fish from the Yarkon and Jordan rivers and the Sea of Galilee have been found in excavations, and include St. Peter\u2019s fish and mouthbreeders. Saltwater fish discovered in excavations include sea bream, grouper, meager, and gray mullet. Most of these come from the Mediterranean Sea, but in the later Iron Age period, some are from the Red Sea. Although the Torah prohibits the consumption of fish without fins or scales, archeological evidence indicates that many Israelites flouted or were unaware of these restrictions and ate non-kosher seafood, mostly catfish but also shark, eel, and ray, and that religious restrictions on seafood began to be observed more strictly starting in the first century CE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fruit was an important source of food for the Israelites, particularly grapes, olives, and figs. Grapes were grown mostly for wine, although some were eaten fresh at harvest time, or dried as raisins for storage, while olives were grown exclusively for their oil, until the Roman period. Other fruits that were eaten were the date, pomegranate, and sycamore fig."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites cultivated both wheat and barley; these two grains are mentioned first in the biblical list of the Seven Species of the land of Israel and their importance as food is also seen in the celebration of the barley harvest at the festival of Shavuot and of the wheat harvest at the festival of Sukkot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Israel",
        "text": "Information about the food of the ancient Israelites is based on written sources, archaeological records, and comparative evidence from the wider region of the ancient Levant. Written sources are primarily the Hebrew Bible and other texts, such as the Dead Sea Scrolls, Apocryphal works, the New Testament, and Rabbinical literature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The second meal was the main meal of the day and was eaten in the evening. In addition to bread, it typically included soup or a stew of vegetables or legumes, served in a common pot into which everyone dipped their bread. Also served from time to time were cheese and fruits such as fresh figs and melon when in season, as well as dried fruits. Water, wine, and milk could also accompany the meal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables that were commonly eaten included leeks, garlic, onions, black radishes, net or muskmelons (sometimes misidentified as the cucumber) and watermelons. Other vegetables played a minor role in the diet of the ancient Israelites. Field greens and root plants were generally not cultivated and were gathered seasonally when they grew in the wild. Leafy plants included dandelion greens and the young leaves of the orach plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Olives were harvested in the late summer and were processed for oil by crushing them, pressing the mash, and separating the oil from the flesh. In the early Iron Age period, this was done by treading the olives in basins cut into rock, or with a mortar or stone on a flat slab. In the later Iron Age period, the introduction of the beam press made large scale processing possible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fishermen supplied fish to inland communities, as remains of fish, including bones and scales, have been discovered at many inland sites. To preserve them for transport, the fish were first smoked or dried and salted. Merchants also imported fish, sometimes from as far as from Egypt, where pickled roe was an export article. Remains of Nile Perch from Egypt have been found, and these must have been smoked or dried before being imported through the trade network that connected ancient Near Eastern societies. Merchants shipped fish to Jerusalem, and there was evidently a significant trade in fish; one of the gates of Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate, named for a fish market nearby (, , , , )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Once separated from the stalks, the grain was used in a number of ways: Most simply, unripe kernels of grain were eaten fresh, particularly in the spring, before ripe grain was available, and both unripe and ripe grain was roasted over fire for immediate use. Ripe grains of wheat were also parboiled and dried, like modern bulgur, and then prepared as porridge. Whole or cracked grain was also used in stews and to make gruel. Most frequently, grains were ground into flour to prepare bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fresh, ripe dates were available from mid to late summer. Some were sun-dried and pressed into blocks to dry completely and then used throughout the year, especially as food for travelers. Dates were also fermented into one of the \"strong drinks\" referred to in the Bible as \"shechar\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Grapes are another of the biblical Seven Species and were used mainly for the production of wine, although they were also eaten fresh and dried. Grapes were dried in the sun to produce raisins, which could then be stored for a long time. Raisins were also pressed into clusters and dried as cakes, which kept the interior raisins softer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Bread was primarily made from barley flour during the Iron Age (, ), as barley was more widely and easily grown, and was thus more available, cheaper, and could be made into bread without a leavening agent even though wheat flour was regarded as superior. It was presumably made from dough that was a simple mixture of barley flour and water, divided into small pieces, formed by hand into round shapes, then baked. However, barley declined as the staple from the biblical period to a poverty food by the end of the Second Temple period, and by the Talmudic era, it was regarded mostly as animal fodder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Festive meals were held only from time to time, but they are the ones recorded by biblical and extra-biblical sources. Many biblical stories are set within the context of a meal, such as the accounts of the food Abraham prepares for his visitors (), the stew which Jacob prepares for his father, Isaac, and the Passover meal ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Leeks, onions, and garlic were eaten cooked in stews, and uncooked with bread, and their popularity may be indicated by the observation in the Bible that they are among the foods that the Israelites yearned for after leaving Egypt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "During the Second Temple period (516 BCE\u201370 CE), Hellenistic and Roman culture heavily influenced cuisine, particularly of the priests and aristocracy of Jerusalem. Elaborate meals were served that included piquant entr\u00e9es and alcoholic drinks, fish, beef, meat, pickled and fresh vegetables, olives, and tart or sweet fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelite presence emerged during the Early Iron Age (1200-1000 BCE), at first in the central hill country, Transjordan and the northern Negev, and later in the Galilee, while the Philistines and other Sea Peoples arrived at roughly the same time and settled in the coastal regions. Pastoralism and animal husbandry remained important, and walled open spaces in villages that probably served as paddocks have been discovered. The construction of terraces in the hills, and of additional plastered cisterns for water storage, enabled more cultivation than before. Storage pits and silos were dug into the ground to hold grain. Under the united Israelite monarchy, central store cities were built, and greater areas of the northern Negev came under cultivation. The Gezer agricultural calendar, detailing the crops that were raised, dates from this period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "During the Pottery Neolithic period (6000-4300 BCE), the development of pottery enabled people to produce portable containers for the transportation and storage of food, and an economy based on agriculture and herding developed. Archaeological evidence indicates that figs, lentils and broad beans were being cultivated from Neolithic times. During the Chalcolithic period (4300-3300 BCE), large pottery containers, indicative of settled peoples, appear in the archaeological record. Date palm cultivation began in the Jordan River Valley, and the earliest date pits have been discovered at Ein Gedi by the Dead Sea. In the Golan, olives trees were grown and olive oil was produced there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "During the Greek period, the style of winemaking changed. Ripe grapes were first dried to concentrate the sugars, and these then produced a much sweeter and higher alcohol content wine that needed to be diluted with water to be drinkable. Before this, watered-down wine was disparaged, but by the time of the Talmud, wine that did not require dilution with water was considered unfit for consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Beef and venison were eaten primarily by the elites, and fattened calves provided veal for the wealthy (for example, as mentioned in the Bible, )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Sacrificial meals were eaten when a portion of a sacrifice was reserved for the priest (\"kohen\") or the ordinary Israelite who brought the offering was permitted to eat a portion with his family at a festive meal. The offerings considered \"most holy\" were eaten by the males of the priests in the court of the Temple sanctuary (). The meal was considered to be a part of the priest\u2019s duties. Other offerings could be eaten by the priests with their families in any ritually clean place (). The ordinary Israelite had to eat his share within a fixed time, with his family, guests, and any Levites and strangers that he invited."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Grain products constituted the majority of the food consumed by the ancient Israelites. The staple food was bread, and it was such a vital part of each meal that the Hebrew word for bread, \"lehem\", also referred to food in general. The supreme importance of bread to the ancient Israelites is also demonstrated by how Biblical Hebrew has at least a dozen words for bread, and bread features in numerous Hebrew proverbs (for example, , ). Bread was eaten at just about every meal and is estimated to have provided from 50 to 70 percent of an ordinary person\u2019s daily calories. The bread eaten until the end of the Israelite monarchy was mainly made from barley flour; during the Second Temple period, bread from wheat flour become predominant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Perhaps the oldest and most important feast celebrated by the Jews is the Passover. The original feast, with its origins in the story of the Exodus, consisted of a sacrificial lamb, bitter herbs and unleavened bread eaten by each family at home. Under the Israelite monarchy, and with the establishment of the Temple in Jerusalem, the sacrifice and celebration of Passover became centralized as one of the three pilgrimage festivals. Families who were able to travel to Jerusalem ate the Passover meal together in Jerusalem. Those who could not make the pilgrimage celebrated the holiday by holding a special meal and observing the Feast of Unleavened Bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The date palm required a hot and dry climate and mostly grew and produced fruit in the Jordan Rift Valley from Jericho to the Sea of Galilee. In these arid areas, the date was sometimes the only plant-food available and was a primary component of the diet, but it was less important elsewhere."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The most common and important seasoning was salt (), demonstrated by how it is referenced throughout the Bible, and by how its use was mandated with most sacrifices (). Salt was obtained from the Mediterranean or the Dead Sea. It was produced by evaporating seawater from both natural and artificially created drying pans along the Mediterranean coast. It was also obtained by mining salt deposits, such as at Sodom near the Dead Sea. Salt had to be transported to other locations, so most communities had to purchase it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Wild species of barley and emmer wheat were domesticated and cultivated in the Jordan River Valley as early as the 9th millennium BCE. Archaeologists have found the carbonized seeds of two kinds of primitive wheat, einkorn and emmer, and two-row barley, in the earliest levels of digs at Jericho, one of the first cities in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Bread was the main source of nourishment in biblical times, and making bread was a daily activity:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Once prepared, the dough could be baked in various ways: Originally, the dough was placed directly on the heated stones of a cooking fire or in a griddle or pan made of clay or iron (). In the time of the First Temple, two types of oven were used for baking bread: the jar-oven, and the pit-oven. The jar-oven was a large pottery container, narrowing into an opening toward the top; fuel was burned on the inside to heat it and the dough was pressed against the outside to bake. The pit-oven was a clay-lined excavation in the ground in which the fuel was burned and then pushed aside before the loaves were baked on the heated surface. People also began placing a convex dome, initially earthenware and later metal, over the pit-oven and cooking the flatbreads on the dome instead of on the ash-covered surface; this type of oven is probably what was meant by the biblical \"machabat\", often translated as \"griddle\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Goats, and, to a lesser extent, sheep, provided milk for part of the year, and milk and dairy products were a significant source of food. Dairy products are mentioned in the Bible (for example, , , and , and a repeated description of the Land of Israel in the Bible is \"a land flowing with milk and honey\" (for example, , , and ))."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "For most people, meat was eaten only a few times a year when animals were slaughtered for the major festivals, or at tribal meetings, celebrations such as weddings, and for the visits of important guests (). Only at the king's table was meat served daily, according to the Bible. Although most meat was obtained from domesticated animals, meat from hunted animals was also sometimes available, as the story of Isaac and Esau (), certain Biblical lists (for example, ), and archaeological evidence indicate. The remains of gazelle, red deer, and fallow deer are the most commonly found in the archaeological record."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Mediterranean climate and soil of the mountainous areas of the area are well suited to viticulture, and both archaeological evidence and written records indicate the significant cultivation of grapes in ancient Israel and the popularity of wine-drinking. The production capacity apparent from archaeological remains and the frequent biblical references to wine suggest that it was the principal alcoholic beverage of the ancient Israelites. Based on the remains of wine production facilities and storage rooms, it has been estimated that on average, people could have consumed one liter of wine per person per day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites believed that since an animal\u2019s blood represented its life, its blood should not be consumed (). The blood of a slaughtered animal was thus drained before the meat was used and the blood itself was not used as a cooking liquid or drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites ate domesticated birds such as pigeons, turtledoves, ducks, and geese, and wild birds such as quail, and partridge. Remains from archaeological excavations at the Ophel in Jerusalem and other Iron-Age sites show that domestic birds were available, but consumption was small. The inclusion of pigeons and turtledoves in the Biblical sacrifice lists implies that they were raised domestically, and the remains of dovecotes discovered from the Greek and Roman periods confirm this. Biblical references and archaeological evidence also demonstrate that wild birds were hunted and eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The sycamore fig, carob, mulberry, and possibly the apple were also eaten. Usually, these fruits were not cultivated but were picked in the wild when they were in season. The sycamore fig (\"Ficus sycamorus\") was very common in the warmer parts of Israel and was grown primarily for its wood, but it provided a steady supply of small figs, eaten mainly by the poor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "In addition, some taboos did not relate to the source of the food but to the way in which they were prepared, as in the prohibition against boiling a young goat in its mother\u2019s milk (and mentioned in the Bible in three separate instances: , , ). Milk and its by-products served as offerings in Near-Eastern pagan worship to gods and kings. Milk was used in connection with the phenomenon of reproduction, and a goat kid would be cooked in its mother's milk. Thus, the Israelite practice was to avoid an act similar to that carried out by the Canaanites as part of their cult worship ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The consumption of olive oil varied with social class: it was less available to the poor, but it may have become more available later in the Israelite period as the means of production improved and became more widespread. By early Roman times, the \"Mishna\" indicates that it was one of the four essential foods that a husband had to provide his wife, and it has been calculated that at a minimum, this represented about 11 percent of the overall calories supplied by the \"food basket\" described at that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables also are not mentioned often in the written record, and when the Bible does mention them, the attitude is mixed: sometimes they are regarded as a delicacy, but more often, they were held in low esteem (for example, (, )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Pomegranates were usually eaten fresh, although occasionally they were used to make juice or wine, or sun-dried for use when the fresh fruit was out of season. They probably played a minor part in Israelite cuisine but were symbolically important as adornments on the hem of the robe of the high priest and the Temple pillars and embossed on coinage; they are also listed in the Bible as one of the Seven Species of the Land of Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Meal offerings called \"mincha\" all consisted primarily of flour and were either completely or partially burned on the altar. Those not entirely burned on the altar were eaten by the priests. Some \"mincha\" offerings were fried or baked before being offered. Types of \"mincha\" included fine flour (\"solet\") mixed with oil and of which a portion was given to the kohen; flour mixed with oil and fried on a griddle or on a pan; bread called \"challot\" mixed with oil and baked in an oven; and wafers (\"rekikim\") smeared with oil baked in an oven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "As Israeli agriculture developed and new kinds of fruits and vegetables appeared on the market, cooks and chefs began to experiment and devise new dishes with them. They also began using \"biblical\" ingredients such as honey, figs, and pomegranates, and indigenous foods such as prickly pears (\"tzabar\") and chickpeas. Since the late 1970s, there has been an increased interest in international cuisine, cooking with wine and herbs, and vegetarianism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "Israel's culinary traditions comprise foods and cooking methods that span 3000 years of history. Over that time, these traditions have been shaped by influences from Asia, Africa and Europe, and religious and ethnic influences have resulted in a culinary melting pot. Biblical and archaeological records provide insight into the culinary life of the region as far back as 1000 years BCE, in the days of the kings of ancient Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Other foods dating to the ancient Israelites include \"pastels\", or Shabbat meat pies, and charoset, a sweet fruit and nut paste eaten at the Passover Seder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "One of the distinguishing features of the meals of the wealthier social class, as illustrated in the stories of Abraham and Sinuhe, was the more frequent consumption of meat. A description of the provisions for Solomon's kitchen also illustrates this: \"Solomon's daily provisions consisted of 30 kor of fine flour and 60 kor of flour, 10 fat oxen, 20 pasture-fed oxen, and 100 sheep and goats, in addition to deer and gazelles, roebucks and fattened geese\" (). This account describes the provisions that were possible to obtain for those with the resources to purchase them and indicates they were sufficient to provide sumptuous meals for thousands of people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Milk had to be processed to preserve it. This was done by first churning it, using a goatskin or clay container to separate the butterfat from the whey. The butterfat was processed by boiling and then cooling it to make clarified butter, which could then be stored for a long time. Clarified butter was used principally for cooking and frying. Butter churns have been excavated at Beersheba, dating from the 4th century BC, and other ancient Israelite sites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "It is unclear to what extent fish played a role in the cuisine, but it is apparent that fish became steadily more available during the Israelite and Judean monarchies. Fish products were salted and dried and sent great distances. However, even in the later Persian, Greek, and Roman periods, the cost of preserving and transporting fish must have meant that only wealthier inhabitants of the highland towns and cities could afford it, or those who lived close to the sources, where it was less expensive. In the Galilee, small-scale fishing was a fundamental component of the agrarian economy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Figs were an important source of food. Figs were cultivated throughout the land of Israel, and fresh or dried figs were part of the daily diet. A common way of preparing dried figs was to chop them and press them into a cake."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "The symbolic food of the ancient Israelites continued to be important among Jews after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and the beginning of the Jewish diaspora."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How was food stored in ancient Israel?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Amphorae, jars, storerooms, grain pits, large food storage facilities, and granaries were used. Meat was also smoked and salted, and fruit and meat were also dried."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Then how was food prepared in ancient Israel?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The food was prepared under the dietary restrictions and guidelines of Yahwism."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What do those restrictions and guidelines consist of?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "The practices of Yahwism included festivals, sacrifices, vow-making, private rituals, and the adjudication of legal disputes, but I don't have any information on what dietary  restrictions and guidelines Yahwism had."
    ],
    "topic": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Yahwism:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Yahwism"
        ],
        "ctx": "The practices of Yahwism included festivals, sacrifices, vow-making, private rituals, and the adjudication of legal disputes. Contrary to the picture presented in the Hebrew Bible, the Temple in Jerusalem was not the sole, or even central, temple of Yahweh, but the king was the head of the national religion and thus the viceroy on Earth of the national god, a role reflected each year when he presided over a ceremony at which Yahweh was enthroned in the Holy Temple in Jerusalem."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Israelite cuisine was adherent to the dietary restrictions and guidelines of Yahwism and its later-developed forms: Judaism and Samaritanism. There was a considerable continuity in the main components of the diet over time, despite the introduction of new foodstuffs at various stages. The food of ancient Israel was similar to that of other Mediterranean cuisines of the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Ancient Israelite cuisine refers to the culinary practices of the Israelites during a period of over a millennium. It took root in its known form with the beginning of the Israelite presence in the Land of Israel during the Late Bronze Age and is generally considered to have been maintained up until the mass expulsion of Jews from Roman Judea in the 2nd century CE. Dietary staples among the Israelites were bread, wine, and olive oil; also included were legumes, fruits and vegetables, dairy products, fish, and meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Stews made of lentils or beans were common and they were cooked with onion, garlic, and leeks for flavor. Fresh legumes were also roasted, or dried and stored for extended periods. They were then cooked in a soup or a stew. The Bible mentions roasted legumes (), and relates how Jacob prepared bread and a pottage of lentils for Esau ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites usually ate meat from domesticated goats and sheep. Goat\u2019s meat was the most common. Fat-tailed sheep were the predominant variety of sheep in ancient Israel, but, as sheep were valued more than goats, they were eaten less often. The fat of the tail was considered a delicacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Cooked food included soups and stews that were a mixture of meat and vegetables. Beans and lentils were likely to have been cooked several times a week. However, vegetables, such as melons, garlic, leek and onions were also eaten uncooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Wild herbs were collected and eaten uncooked or cooked. These are known to have included garden rocket and mallow, and both leaf chicory and endive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Food was cooked in pots made of clay and placed on earthenware stands built in a horseshoe shape, so that the fire could be lit through the opening, under the pot, or pots were suspended above the fire from tripods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Food was also flavored by plants, most native to the region and either cultivated, or gathered in the wild, although a few spices were imported. Garlic, onions, and possibly fenugreek were used to season cooked foods, as well as being eaten as vegetables. Herbs and spices included capers, coriander, cumin, black cumin, dill, dwarf chicory, hyssop, marjoram, mint, black mustard, reichardia, saffron, and thyme. Some seasonings were imported, such as myrrh, galbanum, saffron, and cinnamon, but their high cost limited their widespread use. Spices for special feasts were imported by the wealthy and royalty from Arabia and India and were highly valued. These included various types of pepper, and ginger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Small bowls were used for both eating and drinking. Small jugs contained condiments like olive oil, vinegar, and sweeteners. Wide-mouthed pitchers held water and milk, while spouted decanters with narrow, ridged necks with built-in strainers held wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Figs and grapes were the fruits most commonly eaten, while dates, pomegranates, and other fruits and nuts were eaten more occasionally. Wine was the most popular beverage and sometimes other fermented beverages were produced. Meat, usually goat and mutton, was eaten rarely by most Israelites and was reserved for special occasions such as celebrations, festival meals, or sacrificial feasts. The wealthy ate meat more frequently. Olives were used primarily for their oil, which was used raw and to cook meat and stews. Game, birds, eggs, and fish were also eaten, depending on availability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Ancient Israelite cuisine\n--Sources.\n--History.\n----Pre-Israelite.\n----Israelite period.\n----Post-Second Temple era.\n--Characteristics.\n--Foods.\n----Grains and bread.\n------Barley.\n------Wheat.\n------Preparation of grains.\n------Bread making.\n----Legumes.\n----Vegetables.\n----Fruit.\n------Olives and olive oil.\n------Grapes.\n------Figs.\n------Dates.\n------Pomegranates.\n------Other fruits and nuts.\n----Wine and other drinks.\n------Wine.\n------Beer.\n----Meat.\n----Poultry and eggs.\n----Fish.\n----Dairy foods.\n----Honey.\n----Seasonings.\n--Storage and preparation of food.\n--Meals.\n----Daily meals.\n----Festive meals and feasts.\n----Hospitality.\n----Sacrificial meals.\n--Forbidden foods.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Leeks, onions, and garlic were eaten cooked in stews, and uncooked with bread, and their popularity may be indicated by the observation in the Bible that they are among the foods that the Israelites yearned for after leaving Egypt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "After grain, legumes such as lentils, broad or fava beans, chickpeas, and peas were the main element in the diet and were the main source of protein, since meat was rarely eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Most food was eaten fresh and in season. Fruits and vegetables had to be eaten as they ripened and before they spoiled. People had to contend with periodic episodes of hunger and famine; producing enough food required hard and well-timed labor, and the climatic conditions resulted in unpredictable harvests and the need to store as much food as possible. Thus, grapes were made into raisins and wine; olives were made into oil; figs, beans, and lentils were dried; and grains were stored for use throughout the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Lentils were the most important of the legumes and were used to make pottages and soups, as well as fried lentil cakes called \"ashishim\", such as those that King David is described as distributing to the people when the Ark of the Covenant was brought to Jerusalem. According to Tova Dickstein, a researcher at Neot Kedumim in Israel, \"ashishim\" were honey-dipped pancakes made from crushed red lentils and sesame seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables that were commonly eaten included leeks, garlic, onions, black radishes, net or muskmelons (sometimes misidentified as the cucumber) and watermelons. Other vegetables played a minor role in the diet of the ancient Israelites. Field greens and root plants were generally not cultivated and were gathered seasonally when they grew in the wild. Leafy plants included dandelion greens and the young leaves of the orach plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "At archaeological excavations at Mount Ebal in Samaria, from the period immediately after the Israelite conquest, animal bones discovered were only from animals considered permissible, such as cattle, sheep, goats, and deer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The symbolic food of the ancient Israelites continued to be important among Jews after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE (AD) and the beginning of the Jewish Diaspora. Bread, wine, and olive oil were seen as direct links to the three main crops of ancient Israel\u2014wheat, grapes, and olives. In the Bible, this trio is described as representing the divine response to human needs () and particularly the need for the seasonal rains vital for the successful cultivation of these three crops. (). The significance of wine, bread and oil is indicated by their incorporation into Jewish religious ritual, with the blessings over wine and bread for Shabbat and holiday meals and at religious ceremonies such as weddings, and the lighting of Shabbat and festival lights with olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "In addition to requiring that certain foods be eaten for sacred purposes, the Israelite diet was shaped by religious practices which prohibited the consumption of certain foods, both in terms of the animals permissible for eating, and the manner of their preparation. The cuisine of the Israelites thus differed from that of their neighbors in significant ways. For example, ancient Mesopotamian recipes describe foods cooked with animal blood and milk added to meat stews; this would have been avoided by the ancient Israelites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "The food of the ancient Israelites was based on several products that still play important roles in modern Israeli cuisine. These were known as the seven species: olives, figs, dates, pomegranates, wheat, barley and grapes. The diet, based on locally grown produce, was enhanced by imported spices, readily available due to the country's position at the crossroads of east\u2013west trade routes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Certain parts of the animal, such as the breast and the right thigh, were considered to be the best portions and were reserved for the most honored participants in the meal. Guests were always served before family members. The host would also sit with the guests to encourage them to eat and see to all their needs, as related in the story of Abraham, who waited on his visitors while they ate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Archaeological evidence from an Iron-Age market excavated at Ashkelon shows that game was also sold to those who could not hunt or trap them themselves. However, meat from wild animals was more common at times of economic distress and in the northern areas, where forests and open land provided a habitat for more wild animals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Perhaps the oldest and most important feast celebrated by the Jews is the Passover. The original feast, with its origins in the story of the Exodus, consisted of a sacrificial lamb, bitter herbs and unleavened bread eaten by each family at home. Under the Israelite monarchy, and with the establishment of the Temple in Jerusalem, the sacrifice and celebration of Passover became centralized as one of the three pilgrimage festivals. Families who were able to travel to Jerusalem ate the Passover meal together in Jerusalem. Those who could not make the pilgrimage celebrated the holiday by holding a special meal and observing the Feast of Unleavened Bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites ate a variety of fresh and saltwater fish, according to both archaeological and textual evidence. Remains of freshwater fish from the Yarkon and Jordan rivers and the Sea of Galilee have been found in excavations, and include St. Peter\u2019s fish and mouthbreeders. Saltwater fish discovered in excavations include sea bream, grouper, meager, and gray mullet. Most of these come from the Mediterranean Sea, but in the later Iron Age period, some are from the Red Sea. Although the Torah prohibits the consumption of fish without fins or scales, archeological evidence indicates that many Israelites flouted or were unaware of these restrictions and ate non-kosher seafood, mostly catfish but also shark, eel, and ray, and that religious restrictions on seafood began to be observed more strictly starting in the first century CE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The cuisine maintained many consistent traits based on the main products available from the early Israelite period until the Roman period, even though new foods became available during this extended time. For example, rice was introduced during the Persian era; during the Hellenistic period, as trade with the Nabateans increased, more spices became available, at least for those who could afford them, and more Mediterranean fish were imported into the cities; and during the Roman period, sugar cane was introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "The Old Yishuv was the Jewish community that lived in Ottoman Syria prior to the Zionist Aliyah from the diaspora that began in 1881. The cooking style of the community was Sephardi cuisine, which developed among the Jews of Spain before their expulsion in 1492, and in the areas to which they migrated thereafter, particularly the Balkans and Ottoman Empire. Sephardim and Ashkenazim also established communities in the Old Yishuv. Particularly in Jerusalem, they continued to develop their culinary style, influenced by Ottoman cuisine, creating a style that became known as Jerusalem Sephardi cuisine. This cuisine included pies like \"sambousak\", pastels and \"burekas\", vegetable gratins and stuffed vegetables, and rice and bulgur pilafs, which are now considered to be Jerusalem classics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "During the Second Temple period (516 BCE\u201370 CE), Hellenistic and Roman culture heavily influenced cuisine, particularly of the priests and aristocracy of Jerusalem. Elaborate meals were served that included piquant entr\u00e9es and alcoholic drinks, fish, beef, meat, pickled and fresh vegetables, olives, and tart or sweet fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "The daily diet of the ordinary ancient Israelite was mainly one of bread, cooked grains and legumes. Bread was eaten with every meal. The bread eaten until the end of the Israelite monarchy was mostly made from barley flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Wild lettuce, known as \"chazeret\", was a leafy herb with prickly, red tinged leaves that became bitter as they matured. It was cultivated from around 800 BC. Sweeter head-lettuce was only developed and introduced by the Romans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "After the division of the Israelite kingdom, Jerusalem and a number of other cities expanded, supported by the surrounding villages and farms. These were called \u201cdaughters of\u201d the major towns in the Hebrew Bible (for example, and ). Large food storage facilities and granaries were built, such as the city of Hazor. During the later Iron Age (Iron Age II) period, roughly the same period as the Israelite and Judean monarchies, olive oil and wine were produced on a large scale for commerce and export, as well as for local consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "In contrast to the simplicity of the daily fare of ordinary people, the cuisine of the royal courts of the ancient Near East was sophisticated, and it is assumed that the dishes served at the table of King Solomon and other Israelite kings were also elaborate. King David had officials who were in charge of wine cellars, olive stores, cattle, olive and fig trees () and the royal kitchen was a complex organization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Porridge and gruel were made from ground grain, water, salt, and butter. This mixture also formed the basis for cakes, to which oil, called \"shemen\", and fruits were sometimes added before baking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The daily diet of the ordinary ancient Israelite was mainly one of bread, cooked grains, and legumes. Bread was eaten with every meal. Vegetables played a smaller, but significant role in the diet. Legumes and vegetables were typically eaten in stews. The Israelites drank goat and sheep\u2019s milk when it was available in the spring and summer, and ate butter and cheese. Honey, both from bees and date honey, was also eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "There were also baked goods, all made of wheat flour and baked in an oven, which were not burned on the altar. These were the twelve unleavened and specially shaped showbreads, eaten by the priests after they had been displayed; two loaves of leavened bread prepared for the festival of Shavuot and eaten by the priests; thanksgiving breads, which included leavened bread, unleavened bread, unleavened wafers and scalded loaves, with one of each kind given to the priests and the remainder eaten by the owner and guests; and the unleavened loaves and wafers accompanying the Nazirite\u2019s sacrificial ram, one of each kind given to the priests and the remainder eaten by the Nazirite and guests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The ancient Israelites depended on bread, wine and oil as the basic dietary staples and this trio is often mentioned in the Bible (for example, and ) and in other texts, such as the Samaria and Arad ostraca. Written and archaeological evidence indicate that the diet also included other products from plants, trees and animals. Seven basic agricultural products, called the Seven Species, are listed in the Bible: wheat, barley, figs, grapes, olives, pomegranates, and dates (). The Bible also often describes the land of Israel as a land \"flowing with milk and honey\" (for example, )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Other native trees producing fruits included the carob, which was probably popular due to its sweet taste, and the black mulberry. The \"tapuah\", which means \"apple\" in modern Hebrew, is mentioned in the Bible, but it is not clear if this referred to another fruit, such as the apricot or quince."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "In the story of Abraham hosting the three visitors, Abraham offers cakes, a well prepared young calf, curds, and milk. This meal has similar elements to an earlier meal described in the story of Sinuhe, an Egyptian nobleman who lived for a time in Canaan around 1900 BCE, at which bread, wine, cooked meat, roast fowl, and dairy products were served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Other foods dating to the ancient Israelites include \"pastels\", or Shabbat meat pies, and charoset, a sweet fruit and nut paste eaten at the Passover Seder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables were perhaps a more important food at the extremes in society: the wealthy who could afford to dedicate land and resources to grow them, and the poor who depended on gathering them in the wild to supplement their meager supplies. More people may have gathered wild plants during famine conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Meal offerings called \"mincha\" all consisted primarily of flour and were either completely or partially burned on the altar. Those not entirely burned on the altar were eaten by the priests. Some \"mincha\" offerings were fried or baked before being offered. Types of \"mincha\" included fine flour (\"solet\") mixed with oil and of which a portion was given to the kohen; flour mixed with oil and fried on a griddle or on a pan; bread called \"challot\" mixed with oil and baked in an oven; and wafers (\"rekikim\") smeared with oil baked in an oven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "A variety of breads were produced. Probably most common were unleavened flat loaves called \"ugah\" or \"kikkar\". Another type was a thin wafer, known as a \"rakik\". A thicker loaf, known as \"hallah\", was made with the best-quality flour, usually for ritual purposes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Significant milestones in the availability and development food production characteristic of Israelite cuisine occurred well before the Israelite period. On the other hand, vestiges of the cuisine and the practices associated with it continue to resonate in later Jewish cuisine and traditions that developed in Israel and Babylonia during the Talmudic period (200 CE-500 CE), and may still be discerned in the various culinary styles that have developed among Jewish communities since then."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites cultivated both wheat and barley; these two grains are mentioned first in the biblical list of the Seven Species of the land of Israel and their importance as food is also seen in the celebration of the barley harvest at the festival of Shavuot and of the wheat harvest at the festival of Sukkot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Archaeological remains include the items used for the production of food, such as wine or olive presses, stone and metal implements used in the preparation of food, and amphorae, jars, storerooms and grain pits used for storage. Animal bones provide evidence of meat consumption, the types of animals eaten, and whether they were kept for milk production or other uses, while paleobotanical remains, such as seeds or other carbonized or desiccated plant remains provide information about plant foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Beef and venison were eaten primarily by the elites, and fattened calves provided veal for the wealthy (for example, as mentioned in the Bible, )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The ancient Israelites built terraces of leveled areas in the hill country for planting a variety of crops, including grains, vegetables, and fruit trees. All the trees, with the exception of the olive, produced fruit that could be eaten fresh or juiced while in season. Fruit was also processed for later use in a variety of ways: fruit with high sugar content was fermented to make alcoholic beverages; grapes were most commonly used for this. Fruit was also boiled down into thick, sweet syrup, referred to in the Bible as \"dvash\" (honey). Grapes, figs, dates, and apricots were also dried and preserved individually, put on a string, or pressed into cakes. Since dried fruit is an efficient source of energy, such were prepared as provisions for journeys and long marches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The second meal was the main meal of the day and was eaten in the evening. In addition to bread, it typically included soup or a stew of vegetables or legumes, served in a common pot into which everyone dipped their bread. Also served from time to time were cheese and fruits such as fresh figs and melon when in season, as well as dried fruits. Water, wine, and milk could also accompany the meal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fermentation, oil extraction and drying were all ways of converting food into products that could be stored. Feeding crops to animals was also a means of \"storage on the hoof\" with the animals converting the fodder into meat or milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Ritual feasts and banquets in ancient Israel, and the ancient Near East in general, were important for building social relationships and demonstrating status, transacting business and concluding agreements, enlisting divine help, or showing thanks, devotion or propitiation to a deity, and for conveying social instruction. These meals were imbued with significance by the occasion and were a time for entertainment and enjoyment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "There are no biblical lists containing forbidden plants, so it can be assumed that any plant or fruit was permissible as food, with their use limited only by taste, or toxicity (for example, ) and the fulfillment of religious requirements such as the tithes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The sycamore fig, carob, mulberry, and possibly the apple were also eaten. Usually, these fruits were not cultivated but were picked in the wild when they were in season. The sycamore fig (\"Ficus sycamorus\") was very common in the warmer parts of Israel and was grown primarily for its wood, but it provided a steady supply of small figs, eaten mainly by the poor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Meals at which important guests were present were viewed as special occasions, and as such, meat was served. The order in which the guests were served indicated the recognition of the social status of the guest. The choice of meat and dishes indicated the importance of the occasion. The Bible illustrates this in relating how Samuel hosted Saul, who, seated at the head of the hall is served first with a portion of meat that has been especially reserved for him ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Wild species of barley and emmer wheat were domesticated and cultivated in the Jordan River Valley as early as the 9th millennium BCE. Archaeologists have found the carbonized seeds of two kinds of primitive wheat, einkorn and emmer, and two-row barley, in the earliest levels of digs at Jericho, one of the first cities in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Grapes are another of the biblical Seven Species and were used mainly for the production of wine, although they were also eaten fresh and dried. Grapes were dried in the sun to produce raisins, which could then be stored for a long time. Raisins were also pressed into clusters and dried as cakes, which kept the interior raisins softer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fresh, ripe dates were available from mid to late summer. Some were sun-dried and pressed into blocks to dry completely and then used throughout the year, especially as food for travelers. Dates were also fermented into one of the \"strong drinks\" referred to in the Bible as \"shechar\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "An Israelite meal is illustrated by the biblical description of the rations that Abigail brought to David\u2019s group: bread loaves, wine, butchered sheep, parched grain, raisins, and fig cakes ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The olive tree was well suited to the climate and soil of the Israelite highlands, and a significant part of the hill country was allocated to the cultivation of olive trees, which were one of ancient Israel\u2019s most important natural resources. Olive oil was more versatile and longer-lasting than the oil from other plants, such as sesame, and was also considered to be the best-tasting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fruit was an important source of food for the Israelites, particularly grapes, olives, and figs. Grapes were grown mostly for wine, although some were eaten fresh at harvest time, or dried as raisins for storage, while olives were grown exclusively for their oil, until the Roman period. Other fruits that were eaten were the date, pomegranate, and sycamore fig."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Bread was primarily made from barley flour during the Iron Age (, ), as barley was more widely and easily grown, and was thus more available, cheaper, and could be made into bread without a leavening agent even though wheat flour was regarded as superior. It was presumably made from dough that was a simple mixture of barley flour and water, divided into small pieces, formed by hand into round shapes, then baked. However, barley declined as the staple from the biblical period to a poverty food by the end of the Second Temple period, and by the Talmudic era, it was regarded mostly as animal fodder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Information about the food of the ancient Israelites is based on written sources, archaeological records and comparative evidence from the wider region of the ancient Levant. The primary written source for the period is the Hebrew Bible, the largest collection of written documents surviving from ancient Israel. Other texts, such as the Dead Sea Scrolls, apocryphal works, the New Testament, the \"Mishnah\" and the Talmud also provide information. Epigraphic sources include \"ostraca\" from Samaria and Arad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The consumption of olive oil varied with social class: it was less available to the poor, but it may have become more available later in the Israelite period as the means of production improved and became more widespread. By early Roman times, the \"Mishna\" indicates that it was one of the four essential foods that a husband had to provide his wife, and it has been calculated that at a minimum, this represented about 11 percent of the overall calories supplied by the \"food basket\" described at that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Broad beans, chickpeas, and lentils are the only legumes mentioned in the Bible but lentils, broad beans, chickpeas, fenugreek, field peas and bitter vetch have been found at Iron Age Israelite sites. By the Roman period, legumes are mentioned frequently in other texts. They are cited as one of the elements of the \u201cwife\u2019s food basket\u201d in the \"Mishna\" (Ketubot 5:8), by which it is estimated that legumes supplied 17% of daily calories at that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "During the Pottery Neolithic period (6000-4300 BCE), the development of pottery enabled people to produce portable containers for the transportation and storage of food, and an economy based on agriculture and herding developed. Archaeological evidence indicates that figs, lentils and broad beans were being cultivated from Neolithic times. During the Chalcolithic period (4300-3300 BCE), large pottery containers, indicative of settled peoples, appear in the archaeological record. Date palm cultivation began in the Jordan River Valley, and the earliest date pits have been discovered at Ein Gedi by the Dead Sea. In the Golan, olives trees were grown and olive oil was produced there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables are not found often in the archaeological record, and it is difficult to determine the role that they played, because plant foods were often eaten raw or were simply boiled, without requiring special equipment for preparation, and thus barely leaving any trace other than the type of food itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Modern Jewish cooking originated in the various communities of the Jewish diaspora, and modern Jewish cuisine bears little resemblance to what the ancient Israelites ate. However, a few dishes that originated in ancient Israel survive to the present day. Notably among them is cholent, or \"hamin\", a stew traditionally eaten on Shabbat that is simmered for 12 hours in a way that conforms with Shabbat restrictions. It dates to at least the Second Temple period. Various diaspora communities created their own variations of the dish based on their local climate and available ingredients, which are eaten today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Feasts and banquets were important social and political tools throughout Israel\u2019s history, especially in the early years of the Israelite monarchy, when an invitation to the king\u2019s table was important for creating and maintaining political support and was also an important marker of social status and influence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "Sephardic dishes, with Balkan and Turkish influences incorporated in Israeli cuisine include \"burekas\", yogurt and \"taramosalata\". Yemenite Jewish foods include \"jachnun\", \"malawach\", \"skhug\" and \"kubane\". Iraqi dishes popular in Israel include \"amba\", various types of \"kubba\", stuffed vegetables (), kebab, \"sambusac\", \"sabich\" and pickled vegetables (\"hamutzim\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "For most people, meat was eaten only a few times a year when animals were slaughtered for the major festivals, or at tribal meetings, celebrations such as weddings, and for the visits of important guests (). Only at the king's table was meat served daily, according to the Bible. Although most meat was obtained from domesticated animals, meat from hunted animals was also sometimes available, as the story of Isaac and Esau (), certain Biblical lists (for example, ), and archaeological evidence indicate. The remains of gazelle, red deer, and fallow deer are the most commonly found in the archaeological record."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Mediterranean climate and soil of the mountainous areas of the area are well suited to viticulture, and both archaeological evidence and written records indicate the significant cultivation of grapes in ancient Israel and the popularity of wine-drinking. The production capacity apparent from archaeological remains and the frequent biblical references to wine suggest that it was the principal alcoholic beverage of the ancient Israelites. Based on the remains of wine production facilities and storage rooms, it has been estimated that on average, people could have consumed one liter of wine per person per day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites ate domesticated birds such as pigeons, turtledoves, ducks, and geese, and wild birds such as quail, and partridge. Remains from archaeological excavations at the Ophel in Jerusalem and other Iron-Age sites show that domestic birds were available, but consumption was small. The inclusion of pigeons and turtledoves in the Biblical sacrifice lists implies that they were raised domestically, and the remains of dovecotes discovered from the Greek and Roman periods confirm this. Biblical references and archaeological evidence also demonstrate that wild birds were hunted and eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Grain products constituted the majority of the food consumed by the ancient Israelites. The staple food was bread, and it was such a vital part of each meal that the Hebrew word for bread, \"lehem\", also referred to food in general. The supreme importance of bread to the ancient Israelites is also demonstrated by how Biblical Hebrew has at least a dozen words for bread, and bread features in numerous Hebrew proverbs (for example, , ). Bread was eaten at just about every meal and is estimated to have provided from 50 to 70 percent of an ordinary person\u2019s daily calories. The bread eaten until the end of the Israelite monarchy was mainly made from barley flour; during the Second Temple period, bread from wheat flour become predominant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fishermen supplied fish to inland communities, as remains of fish, including bones and scales, have been discovered at many inland sites. To preserve them for transport, the fish were first smoked or dried and salted. Merchants also imported fish, sometimes from as far as from Egypt, where pickled roe was an export article. Remains of Nile Perch from Egypt have been found, and these must have been smoked or dried before being imported through the trade network that connected ancient Near Eastern societies. Merchants shipped fish to Jerusalem, and there was evidently a significant trade in fish; one of the gates of Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate, named for a fish market nearby (, , , , )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Meals eaten by the Israelites fell into two categories: daily meals, and festive or ritual meals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Meat was prepared in several different ways. The most common was to cook it with water as a broth or a stew (for example, ). Meat stewed with onions, garlic, and leeks and flavored with cumin and coriander is described on ancient Babylonian cuneiform tablets, and it is most likely that it was prepared similarly in ancient Israel. Stewed meat was considered to be a dish worthy of serving to honored guests (). A less common way to prepare meat was to roast it over an open fire, but this was done particularly for the meat of the Passover lamb. For long-term storage, meat was smoked, dried, or salted, according to indications in texts and ethnographic studies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Regular meals too, developed as expressions of common identity, social unity and communal celebration. By the Roman period, Jewish communities came together at banquets for both food and company and the weekly Sabbath meal was an occasion for families to gather and enjoy both food and company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Festive meals were held to mark significant occasions, entertain important guests, or as sacrificial or ritual meals. The meal was prepared by both men and women. Meat was always served at these meals and many people participated so that there would be no leftovers that would go to waste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Archaeological remains at Masada and other sites indicate that the most common olive cultivar was the indigenous Nabali, followed by the Souri. In Roman times, other olive cultivars were imported from Syria and Egypt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Chickpea cultivation dates back to the Bronze Age (3300 \u2013 1200 BCE) and grapes and olives became important crops in the hill country. Wine and oil were traded for wheat with the cities on the coastal plain, and for meat and skins with semi-nomadic herders. Wine and carobs were also exported to Egypt during this period. At Arad in the northern Negev, the remains of wheat, barley and legumes have been found, along with stone-lined storage pits for grain from this period. Pottery was imported from Cyprus and Mycenae in Greece for the first time, probably for use as good-quality tableware. After the Bronze Age collapse of urban culture, there was an increase in herding and the disappearance of smaller agricultural communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Persians introduced a clay oven called a \"tanur\" (similar to the Indian \"tandoor\"), which had an opening at the bottom for the fire, and through which the bread was placed to be baked on the inner wall of the upper chamber from the heat of the oven and ashes after the flames had died down. This continued to be the way in which Yemenite Jews baked bread until modern times. The remains of clay ovens and fragments of bread trays have been found in several archaeological excavations. All these methods produced only thin loaves, and the custom was thus to break bread rather than cut it. The bread was soft and pliable and used for dipping and sopping up gravies and juices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Bible provides names of plants and animals that were used for food, such as the lists of permitted and forbidden animals (for example, and ), and the lists of foods brought to the king\u2019s table (for example, ) or the foods that the Israelites are said to have longed for after leaving Egypt (). These lists indicate the potential foods that were available, but not necessarily how regularly the food was eaten or how significant it was in the cuisine, which needs to be derived from other sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "Israeli cuisine\n--History.\n----Origins.\n----Old Yishuv.\n----Jewish immigration.\n----Early years of the State.\n----Impact of immigration.\n----Modern trends.\n--Characteristics.\n--Foods.\n----Salads and appetizers.\n----Soups and dumplings.\n----Grains and pasta.\n----Fish.\n----Poultry and meat.\n----Dairy products.\n----Egg dishes.\n----Fruit.\n----Baked dishes, cookies, pastries, \"rugelach\".\n----Breads and sandwiches.\n----Confections, sweets and snack foods.\n----Sauces, spices and condiments.\n----Drinks.\n----Wine.\n----Non-kosher foods.\n--Eating out.\n----Street foods.\n----Places to eat.\n--Holiday cuisine.\n----Sabbath.\n----Rosh Hashanah.\n----Hanukkah.\n----Tu BiShvat.\n----Purim.\n----Passover.\n----Shavuot.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Only animals specifically slaughtered for food or for use in the sacrificial service could be eaten. Detailed lists of which animals, birds, and fish could be eaten and which were prohibited appear in the Bible ( and ), and animal bones found in the archaeological record tend to support this, with some exceptions. For the Israelites, food was one way for self-definition. While it is impossible to know to what extent dietary laws were observed, self-definition is most likely the basis for certain biblical lists of different kinds of animals permitted or forbidden for consumption. The taboo against eating certain animals, particularly the pig, may have developed from the early Iron Age."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "Beginning with the First Aliyah in 1881, Jews began immigrating to the area from Yemen and Eastern Europe in larger numbers, particularly from Poland and Russia. These Zionist pioneers were motivated both ideologically and by the Mediterranean climate to reject the Ashkenazi cooking styles they had grown up with, and adapt by using local produce, especially vegetables such as zucchini, peppers, eggplant, artichoke and chickpeas. The first Hebrew cookbook, written by Erna Meyer, and published in the early 1930s by the Palestine Federation of the Women's International Zionist Organization, exhorted cooks to use Mediterranean herbs and Middle-Eastern spices and local vegetables in their cooking. The bread, olives, cheese and raw vegetables they adopted became the basis for the \"kibbutz\" breakfast, which in more abundant forms is served in Israeli hotels, and in various forms in most Israeli homes today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Pomegranates were usually eaten fresh, although occasionally they were used to make juice or wine, or sun-dried for use when the fresh fruit was out of season. They probably played a minor part in Israelite cuisine but were symbolically important as adornments on the hem of the robe of the high priest and the Temple pillars and embossed on coinage; they are also listed in the Bible as one of the Seven Species of the Land of Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites usually drank water drawn from wells, cisterns, or rivers. They also drank milk (for example, as mentioned in the Bible in ), often in the form of sour milk, thin yogurt, or whey, when it was available in the spring and summer. They drank fresh juices from fruits in season as well. The most strongly preferred beverage was wine, although some beer may have also been produced, and wine was an important part of the diet and a source of calories, sugar, and iron. Making wine was also a practical way to preserve fruit juices for long-term storage. Usually, wine was made from grapes for everyday use, as well as for rituals, such as sacrificial libations. Less often, wine was made from pomegranates and dates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Daily meals were prepared by women. Two daily meals were usually eaten by the family, either in the home or in the field. The first meal was eaten in the late morning, as a break in the workday, and could include roasted grain, olives, figs or some other fruit, bread dipped in olive oil or vinegar, or bread eaten with garlic, onions, or black radishes for flavor, and water or wine. A description in the Book of Ruth provides an example of this kind of meal: the harvest workers eat bread dipped in vinegar and parched or roasted grain (). Agricultural workers, who comprised the largest part of the population, also ate a light meal in the early morning before leaving for their work in the fields ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The most common and important seasoning was salt (), demonstrated by how it is referenced throughout the Bible, and by how its use was mandated with most sacrifices (). Salt was obtained from the Mediterranean or the Dead Sea. It was produced by evaporating seawater from both natural and artificially created drying pans along the Mediterranean coast. It was also obtained by mining salt deposits, such as at Sodom near the Dead Sea. Salt had to be transported to other locations, so most communities had to purchase it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The practice of hospitality was a fundamental custom of Israelite society and serving food was integral to the hosting of guests. Additionally, in ancient Israel, the belief that God had delivered Israel from slavery resulted in the social imperative and religious commandment to look after guests and strangers as an act of recognition and gratitude."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "One of the distinguishing features of the meals of the wealthier social class, as illustrated in the stories of Abraham and Sinuhe, was the more frequent consumption of meat. A description of the provisions for Solomon's kitchen also illustrates this: \"Solomon's daily provisions consisted of 30 kor of fine flour and 60 kor of flour, 10 fat oxen, 20 pasture-fed oxen, and 100 sheep and goats, in addition to deer and gazelles, roebucks and fattened geese\" (). This account describes the provisions that were possible to obtain for those with the resources to purchase them and indicates they were sufficient to provide sumptuous meals for thousands of people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Gourds and melons were eaten raw or flavored with vinegar. Black radishes were also eaten raw when in season during the autumn and winter. The Talmud mentions the use of radish seeds to produce oil and considered eating radishes to have health benefits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Meat, usually goat and mutton, was eaten rarely by most Israelites and reserved for special occasions, such as celebrations, festival meals, or sacrificial feasts. The wealthy ate meat more frequently and had beef, venison, and veal available to them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "Israeli cuisine has adopted, and continues to adapt, elements of various styles of Arab cuisine and diaspora Jewish cuisine, particularly the Mizrahi, Sephardic and Ashkenazi styles of cooking. It incorporates many foods traditionally included in other Middle Eastern and Mediterranean cuisines, so that spices like \"za'atar\" and foods such as \"falafel\", \"hummus\", \"msabbha\", \"shakshouka\" and \"couscous\" are now widely popular in Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "The symbolic food of the ancient Israelites continued to be important among Jews after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and the beginning of the Jewish diaspora."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Barley (\"hordeum vulgare\") was the most important grain during the biblical period, and this was recognized ritually on the second day of Passover in the Omer offering, consisting of barley flour from the newly ripened crop. Furthermore, its significance to Israelite society, not only as a source of food, is illustrated by the biblical method for measuring a field by the amount of barley (rather than of wheat) with which it could be sown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The insides of amphorae were often coated with a preservative resin, such as from the \"terebinth\", and this imparted a pine flavor and aroma to the wine. Before the jars were sealed with pitch, they were filled completely and often topped with a thin layer of olive oil to prevent spoilage due to exposure to air."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Goats, and, to a lesser extent, sheep, provided milk for part of the year, and milk and dairy products were a significant source of food. Dairy products are mentioned in the Bible (for example, , , and , and a repeated description of the Land of Israel in the Bible is \"a land flowing with milk and honey\" (for example, , , and ))."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "During the Greek period, the style of winemaking changed. Ripe grapes were first dried to concentrate the sugars, and these then produced a much sweeter and higher alcohol content wine that needed to be diluted with water to be drinkable. Before this, watered-down wine was disparaged, but by the time of the Talmud, wine that did not require dilution with water was considered unfit for consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Almonds, walnuts, and pistachios were eaten and are mentioned in the Bible. Almonds were widespread in the region from prehistoric times, and the Bible mentions almonds (\"shaked\") and pistachios (\"botnim\") as among the \"choice fruits of the land\" sent by Jacob as a gift to the ruler of Egypt (). Almonds and pistachios were probably eaten primarily by the wealthy. The walnut reached Israel from Mesopotamia by at least 2000 BCE and is mentioned once in the Bible (). Walnuts became common during the Second Temple period and so widespread that the word for walnut, \"egoz\", became the generic Hebrew word for nut at that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Israel",
        "text": "The daily diet of the ordinary ancient Israelite was mainly one of bread, cooked grains, and legumes. Bread was eaten with every meal. Vegetables played a smaller, but significant role in the diet. The Israelites drank goat and sheep's milk when it was available in the spring and summer, and ate butter and cheese. Figs and grapes were the fruits most commonly eaten, while dates, pomegranates, and other fruits and nuts were eaten more occasionally. Wine was the most popular beverage, and sometimes other fermented beverages were produced. Olives were used, primarily for their oil. Meat, usually goat and mutton, was eaten rarely; it was reserved for special occasions, such as celebrations, festival meals, or sacrificial feasts. Game, birds, eggs, and fish were also eaten, depending on availability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Bread, wine and olive oil were seen as direct links to the three main crops of ancient Israel\u2014wheat, grapes and olives. In the Bible, this trio is described as representing the divine response to human needs () and, particularly, the need for the seasonal rains vital for the successful cultivation of these three crops. ()."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How was food stored in ancient Israel?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Amphorae, jars, storerooms, grain pits, large food storage facilities, and granaries were used. Meat was also smoked and salted, and fruit and meat were also dried."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Then how was food prepared in ancient Israel?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The food was prepared under the dietary restrictions and guidelines of Yahwism."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What do those restrictions and guidelines consist of?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The practices of Yahwism included festivals, sacrifices, vow-making, private rituals, and the adjudication of legal disputes, but I don't have any information on what dietary  restrictions and guidelines Yahwism had."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were some popular dishes from the Ancient Israelite cuisine?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "Dietary staples among the the Ancient Israelite cuisine were bread, wine, and olive oil; also included were legumes, fruits and vegetables, dairy products, fish, and meat.",
      "Would you like to know about Pre-Israelite, Israelite period, or Post-Second Temple era?"
    ],
    "topic": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Ancient Israelite cuisine:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ancient Israelite cuisine"
        ],
        "ctx": "Ancient Israelite cuisine refers to the culinary practices of the Israelites during a period of over a millennium. It took root in its known form with the beginning of the Israelite presence in the Land of Israel during the Late Bronze Age and is generally considered to have been maintained up until the mass expulsion of Jews from Roman Judea in the 2nd century CE. Dietary staples among the Israelites were bread, wine, and olive oil; also included were legumes, fruits and vegetables, dairy products, fish, and meat."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ancient Israelite cuisine:0",
        "passage_titles": [],
        "ctx": "Ancient Israelite cuisine\n--Sources.\n--History.\n----Pre-Israelite.\n----Israelite period.\n----Post-Second Temple era.\n--Characteristics.\n--Foods.\n----Grains and bread.\n------Barley.\n------Wheat.\n------Preparation of grains.\n------Bread making.\n----Legumes.\n----Vegetables.\n----Fruit.\n------Olives and olive oil.\n------Grapes.\n------Figs.\n------Dates.\n------Pomegranates.\n------Other fruits and nuts.\n----Wine and other drinks.\n------Wine.\n------Beer.\n----Meat.\n----Poultry and eggs.\n----Fish.\n----Dairy foods.\n----Honey.\n----Seasonings.\n--Storage and preparation of food.\n--Meals.\n----Daily meals.\n----Festive meals and feasts.\n----Hospitality.\n----Sacrificial meals.\n--Forbidden foods.\n"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ancient Israelite cuisine:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
          "History",
          "Israelite period"
        ],
        "ctx": "The cuisine maintained many consistent traits based on the main products available from the early Israelite period until the Roman period, even though new foods became available during this extended time. For example, rice was introduced during the Persian era; during the Hellenistic period, as trade with the Nabateans increased, more spices became available, at least for those who could afford them, and more Mediterranean fish were imported into the cities; and during the Roman period, sugar cane was introduced."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Ancient Israelite cuisine:0",
        "passage_titles": [],
        "ctx": "Ancient Israelite cuisine\n--Sources.\n--History.\n----Pre-Israelite.\n----Israelite period.\n----Post-Second Temple era.\n--Characteristics.\n--Foods.\n----Grains and bread.\n------Barley.\n------Wheat.\n------Preparation of grains.\n------Bread making.\n----Legumes.\n----Vegetables.\n----Fruit.\n------Olives and olive oil.\n------Grapes.\n------Figs.\n------Dates.\n------Pomegranates.\n------Other fruits and nuts.\n----Wine and other drinks.\n------Wine.\n------Beer.\n----Meat.\n----Poultry and eggs.\n----Fish.\n----Dairy foods.\n----Honey.\n----Seasonings.\n--Storage and preparation of food.\n--Meals.\n----Daily meals.\n----Festive meals and feasts.\n----Hospitality.\n----Sacrificial meals.\n--Forbidden foods.\n"
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Festive meals were held to mark significant occasions, entertain important guests, or as sacrificial or ritual meals. The meal was prepared by both men and women. Meat was always served at these meals and many people participated so that there would be no leftovers that would go to waste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "There were also baked goods, all made of wheat flour and baked in an oven, which were not burned on the altar. These were the twelve unleavened and specially shaped showbreads, eaten by the priests after they had been displayed; two loaves of leavened bread prepared for the festival of Shavuot and eaten by the priests; thanksgiving breads, which included leavened bread, unleavened bread, unleavened wafers and scalded loaves, with one of each kind given to the priests and the remainder eaten by the owner and guests; and the unleavened loaves and wafers accompanying the Nazirite\u2019s sacrificial ram, one of each kind given to the priests and the remainder eaten by the Nazirite and guests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "In the story of Abraham hosting the three visitors, Abraham offers cakes, a well prepared young calf, curds, and milk. This meal has similar elements to an earlier meal described in the story of Sinuhe, an Egyptian nobleman who lived for a time in Canaan around 1900 BCE, at which bread, wine, cooked meat, roast fowl, and dairy products were served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Stews made of lentils or beans were common and they were cooked with onion, garlic, and leeks for flavor. Fresh legumes were also roasted, or dried and stored for extended periods. They were then cooked in a soup or a stew. The Bible mentions roasted legumes (), and relates how Jacob prepared bread and a pottage of lentils for Esau ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Perhaps the oldest and most important feast celebrated by the Jews is the Passover. The original feast, with its origins in the story of the Exodus, consisted of a sacrificial lamb, bitter herbs and unleavened bread eaten by each family at home. Under the Israelite monarchy, and with the establishment of the Temple in Jerusalem, the sacrifice and celebration of Passover became centralized as one of the three pilgrimage festivals. Families who were able to travel to Jerusalem ate the Passover meal together in Jerusalem. Those who could not make the pilgrimage celebrated the holiday by holding a special meal and observing the Feast of Unleavened Bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The symbolic food of the ancient Israelites continued to be important among Jews after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE (AD) and the beginning of the Jewish Diaspora. Bread, wine, and olive oil were seen as direct links to the three main crops of ancient Israel\u2014wheat, grapes, and olives. In the Bible, this trio is described as representing the divine response to human needs () and particularly the need for the seasonal rains vital for the successful cultivation of these three crops. (). The significance of wine, bread and oil is indicated by their incorporation into Jewish religious ritual, with the blessings over wine and bread for Shabbat and holiday meals and at religious ceremonies such as weddings, and the lighting of Shabbat and festival lights with olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Cooked food included soups and stews that were a mixture of meat and vegetables. Beans and lentils were likely to have been cooked several times a week. However, vegetables, such as melons, garlic, leek and onions were also eaten uncooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Figs and grapes were the fruits most commonly eaten, while dates, pomegranates, and other fruits and nuts were eaten more occasionally. Wine was the most popular beverage and sometimes other fermented beverages were produced. Meat, usually goat and mutton, was eaten rarely by most Israelites and was reserved for special occasions such as celebrations, festival meals, or sacrificial feasts. The wealthy ate meat more frequently. Olives were used primarily for their oil, which was used raw and to cook meat and stews. Game, birds, eggs, and fish were also eaten, depending on availability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Most food was eaten fresh and in season. Fruits and vegetables had to be eaten as they ripened and before they spoiled. People had to contend with periodic episodes of hunger and famine; producing enough food required hard and well-timed labor, and the climatic conditions resulted in unpredictable harvests and the need to store as much food as possible. Thus, grapes were made into raisins and wine; olives were made into oil; figs, beans, and lentils were dried; and grains were stored for use throughout the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Certain parts of the animal, such as the breast and the right thigh, were considered to be the best portions and were reserved for the most honored participants in the meal. Guests were always served before family members. The host would also sit with the guests to encourage them to eat and see to all their needs, as related in the story of Abraham, who waited on his visitors while they ate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The second meal was the main meal of the day and was eaten in the evening. In addition to bread, it typically included soup or a stew of vegetables or legumes, served in a common pot into which everyone dipped their bread. Also served from time to time were cheese and fruits such as fresh figs and melon when in season, as well as dried fruits. Water, wine, and milk could also accompany the meal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Lentils were the most important of the legumes and were used to make pottages and soups, as well as fried lentil cakes called \"ashishim\", such as those that King David is described as distributing to the people when the Ark of the Covenant was brought to Jerusalem. According to Tova Dickstein, a researcher at Neot Kedumim in Israel, \"ashishim\" were honey-dipped pancakes made from crushed red lentils and sesame seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Ancient Israelite cuisine refers to the culinary practices of the Israelites during a period of over a millennium. It took root in its known form with the beginning of the Israelite presence in the Land of Israel during the Late Bronze Age and is generally considered to have been maintained up until the mass expulsion of Jews from Roman Judea in the 2nd century CE. Dietary staples among the Israelites were bread, wine, and olive oil; also included were legumes, fruits and vegetables, dairy products, fish, and meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The daily diet of the ordinary ancient Israelite was mainly one of bread, cooked grains, and legumes. Bread was eaten with every meal. Vegetables played a smaller, but significant role in the diet. Legumes and vegetables were typically eaten in stews. The Israelites drank goat and sheep\u2019s milk when it was available in the spring and summer, and ate butter and cheese. Honey, both from bees and date honey, was also eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Meals at which important guests were present were viewed as special occasions, and as such, meat was served. The order in which the guests were served indicated the recognition of the social status of the guest. The choice of meat and dishes indicated the importance of the occasion. The Bible illustrates this in relating how Samuel hosted Saul, who, seated at the head of the hall is served first with a portion of meat that has been especially reserved for him ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Small bowls were used for both eating and drinking. Small jugs contained condiments like olive oil, vinegar, and sweeteners. Wide-mouthed pitchers held water and milk, while spouted decanters with narrow, ridged necks with built-in strainers held wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Food was cooked in pots made of clay and placed on earthenware stands built in a horseshoe shape, so that the fire could be lit through the opening, under the pot, or pots were suspended above the fire from tripods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites cultivated both wheat and barley; these two grains are mentioned first in the biblical list of the Seven Species of the land of Israel and their importance as food is also seen in the celebration of the barley harvest at the festival of Shavuot and of the wheat harvest at the festival of Sukkot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Ancient Israelite cuisine\n--Sources.\n--History.\n----Pre-Israelite.\n----Israelite period.\n----Post-Second Temple era.\n--Characteristics.\n--Foods.\n----Grains and bread.\n------Barley.\n------Wheat.\n------Preparation of grains.\n------Bread making.\n----Legumes.\n----Vegetables.\n----Fruit.\n------Olives and olive oil.\n------Grapes.\n------Figs.\n------Dates.\n------Pomegranates.\n------Other fruits and nuts.\n----Wine and other drinks.\n------Wine.\n------Beer.\n----Meat.\n----Poultry and eggs.\n----Fish.\n----Dairy foods.\n----Honey.\n----Seasonings.\n--Storage and preparation of food.\n--Meals.\n----Daily meals.\n----Festive meals and feasts.\n----Hospitality.\n----Sacrificial meals.\n--Forbidden foods.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Israel",
        "text": "The daily diet of the ordinary ancient Israelite was mainly one of bread, cooked grains, and legumes. Bread was eaten with every meal. Vegetables played a smaller, but significant role in the diet. The Israelites drank goat and sheep's milk when it was available in the spring and summer, and ate butter and cheese. Figs and grapes were the fruits most commonly eaten, while dates, pomegranates, and other fruits and nuts were eaten more occasionally. Wine was the most popular beverage, and sometimes other fermented beverages were produced. Olives were used, primarily for their oil. Meat, usually goat and mutton, was eaten rarely; it was reserved for special occasions, such as celebrations, festival meals, or sacrificial feasts. Game, birds, eggs, and fish were also eaten, depending on availability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Ritual feasts and banquets in ancient Israel, and the ancient Near East in general, were important for building social relationships and demonstrating status, transacting business and concluding agreements, enlisting divine help, or showing thanks, devotion or propitiation to a deity, and for conveying social instruction. These meals were imbued with significance by the occasion and were a time for entertainment and enjoyment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "During the Second Temple period (516 BCE\u201370 CE), Hellenistic and Roman culture heavily influenced cuisine, particularly of the priests and aristocracy of Jerusalem. Elaborate meals were served that included piquant entr\u00e9es and alcoholic drinks, fish, beef, meat, pickled and fresh vegetables, olives, and tart or sweet fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fresh, ripe dates were available from mid to late summer. Some were sun-dried and pressed into blocks to dry completely and then used throughout the year, especially as food for travelers. Dates were also fermented into one of the \"strong drinks\" referred to in the Bible as \"shechar\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables that were commonly eaten included leeks, garlic, onions, black radishes, net or muskmelons (sometimes misidentified as the cucumber) and watermelons. Other vegetables played a minor role in the diet of the ancient Israelites. Field greens and root plants were generally not cultivated and were gathered seasonally when they grew in the wild. Leafy plants included dandelion greens and the young leaves of the orach plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "In contrast to the simplicity of the daily fare of ordinary people, the cuisine of the royal courts of the ancient Near East was sophisticated, and it is assumed that the dishes served at the table of King Solomon and other Israelite kings were also elaborate. King David had officials who were in charge of wine cellars, olive stores, cattle, olive and fig trees () and the royal kitchen was a complex organization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "For most people, meat was eaten only a few times a year when animals were slaughtered for the major festivals, or at tribal meetings, celebrations such as weddings, and for the visits of important guests (). Only at the king's table was meat served daily, according to the Bible. Although most meat was obtained from domesticated animals, meat from hunted animals was also sometimes available, as the story of Isaac and Esau (), certain Biblical lists (for example, ), and archaeological evidence indicate. The remains of gazelle, red deer, and fallow deer are the most commonly found in the archaeological record."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "The food of the ancient Israelites was based on several products that still play important roles in modern Israeli cuisine. These were known as the seven species: olives, figs, dates, pomegranates, wheat, barley and grapes. The diet, based on locally grown produce, was enhanced by imported spices, readily available due to the country's position at the crossroads of east\u2013west trade routes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fruit was an important source of food for the Israelites, particularly grapes, olives, and figs. Grapes were grown mostly for wine, although some were eaten fresh at harvest time, or dried as raisins for storage, while olives were grown exclusively for their oil, until the Roman period. Other fruits that were eaten were the date, pomegranate, and sycamore fig."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Food was also flavored by plants, most native to the region and either cultivated, or gathered in the wild, although a few spices were imported. Garlic, onions, and possibly fenugreek were used to season cooked foods, as well as being eaten as vegetables. Herbs and spices included capers, coriander, cumin, black cumin, dill, dwarf chicory, hyssop, marjoram, mint, black mustard, reichardia, saffron, and thyme. Some seasonings were imported, such as myrrh, galbanum, saffron, and cinnamon, but their high cost limited their widespread use. Spices for special feasts were imported by the wealthy and royalty from Arabia and India and were highly valued. These included various types of pepper, and ginger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Sacrificial meals were eaten when a portion of a sacrifice was reserved for the priest (\"kohen\") or the ordinary Israelite who brought the offering was permitted to eat a portion with his family at a festive meal. The offerings considered \"most holy\" were eaten by the males of the priests in the court of the Temple sanctuary (). The meal was considered to be a part of the priest\u2019s duties. Other offerings could be eaten by the priests with their families in any ritually clean place (). The ordinary Israelite had to eat his share within a fixed time, with his family, guests, and any Levites and strangers that he invited."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Daily meals were prepared by women. Two daily meals were usually eaten by the family, either in the home or in the field. The first meal was eaten in the late morning, as a break in the workday, and could include roasted grain, olives, figs or some other fruit, bread dipped in olive oil or vinegar, or bread eaten with garlic, onions, or black radishes for flavor, and water or wine. A description in the Book of Ruth provides an example of this kind of meal: the harvest workers eat bread dipped in vinegar and parched or roasted grain (). Agricultural workers, who comprised the largest part of the population, also ate a light meal in the early morning before leaving for their work in the fields ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Archaeological evidence from an Iron-Age market excavated at Ashkelon shows that game was also sold to those who could not hunt or trap them themselves. However, meat from wild animals was more common at times of economic distress and in the northern areas, where forests and open land provided a habitat for more wild animals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Depending on the type of sacrifice, the animals that were brought as sacrifices could be a lamb, kid, goat, ram, calf, bull or cow; bird offerings were doves and turtledoves (pigeons). Of these, the guilt offering (\"asham\") () and the communal peace offering (\"shalmei tzibur\") () were eaten only by the male priests (\"kohanim\"). Other offerings, such as the Firstborn offering (), could be eaten by the priests and other members of their households, while for the personal peace offering (\"shalmei yachid\") () and Thanksgiving offering (), the breast and thigh meat were eaten by the priests and other members of their households and the remainder by ordinary Israelites. The Tithe offering () could be eaten by anyone and the Passover offering () was eaten by all who had purchased a share in the sacrifice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites usually ate meat from domesticated goats and sheep. Goat\u2019s meat was the most common. Fat-tailed sheep were the predominant variety of sheep in ancient Israel, but, as sheep were valued more than goats, they were eaten less often. The fat of the tail was considered a delicacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Wild herbs were collected and eaten uncooked or cooked. These are known to have included garden rocket and mallow, and both leaf chicory and endive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "The daily diet of the ordinary ancient Israelite was mainly one of bread, cooked grains and legumes. Bread was eaten with every meal. The bread eaten until the end of the Israelite monarchy was mostly made from barley flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "After grain, legumes such as lentils, broad or fava beans, chickpeas, and peas were the main element in the diet and were the main source of protein, since meat was rarely eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Leeks, onions, and garlic were eaten cooked in stews, and uncooked with bread, and their popularity may be indicated by the observation in the Bible that they are among the foods that the Israelites yearned for after leaving Egypt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Festive meals were held only from time to time, but they are the ones recorded by biblical and extra-biblical sources. Many biblical stories are set within the context of a meal, such as the accounts of the food Abraham prepares for his visitors (), the stew which Jacob prepares for his father, Isaac, and the Passover meal ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The ancient Israelites built terraces of leveled areas in the hill country for planting a variety of crops, including grains, vegetables, and fruit trees. All the trees, with the exception of the olive, produced fruit that could be eaten fresh or juiced while in season. Fruit was also processed for later use in a variety of ways: fruit with high sugar content was fermented to make alcoholic beverages; grapes were most commonly used for this. Fruit was also boiled down into thick, sweet syrup, referred to in the Bible as \"dvash\" (honey). Grapes, figs, dates, and apricots were also dried and preserved individually, put on a string, or pressed into cakes. Since dried fruit is an efficient source of energy, such were prepared as provisions for journeys and long marches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Meal offerings called \"mincha\" all consisted primarily of flour and were either completely or partially burned on the altar. Those not entirely burned on the altar were eaten by the priests. Some \"mincha\" offerings were fried or baked before being offered. Types of \"mincha\" included fine flour (\"solet\") mixed with oil and of which a portion was given to the kohen; flour mixed with oil and fried on a griddle or on a pan; bread called \"challot\" mixed with oil and baked in an oven; and wafers (\"rekikim\") smeared with oil baked in an oven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables were perhaps a more important food at the extremes in society: the wealthy who could afford to dedicate land and resources to grow them, and the poor who depended on gathering them in the wild to supplement their meager supplies. More people may have gathered wild plants during famine conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The practice of hospitality was a fundamental custom of Israelite society and serving food was integral to the hosting of guests. Additionally, in ancient Israel, the belief that God had delivered Israel from slavery resulted in the social imperative and religious commandment to look after guests and strangers as an act of recognition and gratitude."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "After the division of the Israelite kingdom, Jerusalem and a number of other cities expanded, supported by the surrounding villages and farms. These were called \u201cdaughters of\u201d the major towns in the Hebrew Bible (for example, and ). Large food storage facilities and granaries were built, such as the city of Hazor. During the later Iron Age (Iron Age II) period, roughly the same period as the Israelite and Judean monarchies, olive oil and wine were produced on a large scale for commerce and export, as well as for local consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The sycamore fig, carob, mulberry, and possibly the apple were also eaten. Usually, these fruits were not cultivated but were picked in the wild when they were in season. The sycamore fig (\"Ficus sycamorus\") was very common in the warmer parts of Israel and was grown primarily for its wood, but it provided a steady supply of small figs, eaten mainly by the poor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "During the Pottery Neolithic period (6000-4300 BCE), the development of pottery enabled people to produce portable containers for the transportation and storage of food, and an economy based on agriculture and herding developed. Archaeological evidence indicates that figs, lentils and broad beans were being cultivated from Neolithic times. During the Chalcolithic period (4300-3300 BCE), large pottery containers, indicative of settled peoples, appear in the archaeological record. Date palm cultivation began in the Jordan River Valley, and the earliest date pits have been discovered at Ein Gedi by the Dead Sea. In the Golan, olives trees were grown and olive oil was produced there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "A \"meze\" of fresh and cooked vegetable salads, pickled cucumbers and other vegetables, \"hummus\", \"ful\", \"tahini\" and \"amba\" dips, \"labneh\" cheese with olive oil, and \"ikra\" is served at festive meals and in restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Regular meals too, developed as expressions of common identity, social unity and communal celebration. By the Roman period, Jewish communities came together at banquets for both food and company and the weekly Sabbath meal was an occasion for families to gather and enjoy both food and company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Other foods dating to the ancient Israelites include \"pastels\", or Shabbat meat pies, and charoset, a sweet fruit and nut paste eaten at the Passover Seder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Archaeological remains include the items used for the production of food, such as wine or olive presses, stone and metal implements used in the preparation of food, and amphorae, jars, storerooms and grain pits used for storage. Animal bones provide evidence of meat consumption, the types of animals eaten, and whether they were kept for milk production or other uses, while paleobotanical remains, such as seeds or other carbonized or desiccated plant remains provide information about plant foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Meals eaten by the Israelites fell into two categories: daily meals, and festive or ritual meals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fishermen supplied fish to inland communities, as remains of fish, including bones and scales, have been discovered at many inland sites. To preserve them for transport, the fish were first smoked or dried and salted. Merchants also imported fish, sometimes from as far as from Egypt, where pickled roe was an export article. Remains of Nile Perch from Egypt have been found, and these must have been smoked or dried before being imported through the trade network that connected ancient Near Eastern societies. Merchants shipped fish to Jerusalem, and there was evidently a significant trade in fish; one of the gates of Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate, named for a fish market nearby (, , , , )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Pomegranates were usually eaten fresh, although occasionally they were used to make juice or wine, or sun-dried for use when the fresh fruit was out of season. They probably played a minor part in Israelite cuisine but were symbolically important as adornments on the hem of the robe of the high priest and the Temple pillars and embossed on coinage; they are also listed in the Bible as one of the Seven Species of the Land of Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Whole extended families or clans also participated in a sacrifice that was offered on occasions such as the New Moon, and it is referred to as both the \"sacrifice of days\" and a kinship sacrifice. In the early Israelite period, before the centralization of sacrificial offerings as an exclusive part of the Temple services, these sacrifices were offered at various locations. David is described as leaving Saul\u2019s table to participate with his family in Bethlehem () and Elkanah goes to Shiloh to participate with his household in the annual sacrifice ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The importance of hospitality to the Israelites can be inferred from the texts of the Bible, in numerous instances, including the stories of Abraham hosting the messengers, Gideon\u2019s call to leadership (), the hospitality of the woman from Zarephath towards the Prophet Elijah () and the Shunammite woman towards Elisha (), David\u2019s hosting of Mephiboshet, son of Jonathan () and Hezekiah\u2019s invitation to the people of the northern kingdom of Israel to celebrate the Passover in Jerusalem ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Beef and venison were eaten primarily by the elites, and fattened calves provided veal for the wealthy (for example, as mentioned in the Bible, )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Feasts and banquets were important social and political tools throughout Israel\u2019s history, especially in the early years of the Israelite monarchy, when an invitation to the king\u2019s table was important for creating and maintaining political support and was also an important marker of social status and influence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "An Israelite meal is illustrated by the biblical description of the rations that Abigail brought to David\u2019s group: bread loaves, wine, butchered sheep, parched grain, raisins, and fig cakes ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites ate domesticated birds such as pigeons, turtledoves, ducks, and geese, and wild birds such as quail, and partridge. Remains from archaeological excavations at the Ophel in Jerusalem and other Iron-Age sites show that domestic birds were available, but consumption was small. The inclusion of pigeons and turtledoves in the Biblical sacrifice lists implies that they were raised domestically, and the remains of dovecotes discovered from the Greek and Roman periods confirm this. Biblical references and archaeological evidence also demonstrate that wild birds were hunted and eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The date palm required a hot and dry climate and mostly grew and produced fruit in the Jordan Rift Valley from Jericho to the Sea of Galilee. In these arid areas, the date was sometimes the only plant-food available and was a primary component of the diet, but it was less important elsewhere."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Broad beans, chickpeas, and lentils are the only legumes mentioned in the Bible but lentils, broad beans, chickpeas, fenugreek, field peas and bitter vetch have been found at Iron Age Israelite sites. By the Roman period, legumes are mentioned frequently in other texts. They are cited as one of the elements of the \u201cwife\u2019s food basket\u201d in the \"Mishna\" (Ketubot 5:8), by which it is estimated that legumes supplied 17% of daily calories at that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables are not found often in the archaeological record, and it is difficult to determine the role that they played, because plant foods were often eaten raw or were simply boiled, without requiring special equipment for preparation, and thus barely leaving any trace other than the type of food itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The ancient Israelites depended on bread, wine and oil as the basic dietary staples and this trio is often mentioned in the Bible (for example, and ) and in other texts, such as the Samaria and Arad ostraca. Written and archaeological evidence indicate that the diet also included other products from plants, trees and animals. Seven basic agricultural products, called the Seven Species, are listed in the Bible: wheat, barley, figs, grapes, olives, pomegranates, and dates (). The Bible also often describes the land of Israel as a land \"flowing with milk and honey\" (for example, )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Israelite cuisine was adherent to the dietary restrictions and guidelines of Yahwism and its later-developed forms: Judaism and Samaritanism. There was a considerable continuity in the main components of the diet over time, despite the introduction of new foodstuffs at various stages. The food of ancient Israel was similar to that of other Mediterranean cuisines of the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites usually drank water drawn from wells, cisterns, or rivers. They also drank milk (for example, as mentioned in the Bible in ), often in the form of sour milk, thin yogurt, or whey, when it was available in the spring and summer. They drank fresh juices from fruits in season as well. The most strongly preferred beverage was wine, although some beer may have also been produced, and wine was an important part of the diet and a source of calories, sugar, and iron. Making wine was also a practical way to preserve fruit juices for long-term storage. Usually, wine was made from grapes for everyday use, as well as for rituals, such as sacrificial libations. Less often, wine was made from pomegranates and dates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Chickpea cultivation dates back to the Bronze Age (3300 \u2013 1200 BCE) and grapes and olives became important crops in the hill country. Wine and oil were traded for wheat with the cities on the coastal plain, and for meat and skins with semi-nomadic herders. Wine and carobs were also exported to Egypt during this period. At Arad in the northern Negev, the remains of wheat, barley and legumes have been found, along with stone-lined storage pits for grain from this period. Pottery was imported from Cyprus and Mycenae in Greece for the first time, probably for use as good-quality tableware. After the Bronze Age collapse of urban culture, there was an increase in herding and the disappearance of smaller agricultural communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "At archaeological excavations at Mount Ebal in Samaria, from the period immediately after the Israelite conquest, animal bones discovered were only from animals considered permissible, such as cattle, sheep, goats, and deer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "In addition to requiring that certain foods be eaten for sacred purposes, the Israelite diet was shaped by religious practices which prohibited the consumption of certain foods, both in terms of the animals permissible for eating, and the manner of their preparation. The cuisine of the Israelites thus differed from that of their neighbors in significant ways. For example, ancient Mesopotamian recipes describe foods cooked with animal blood and milk added to meat stews; this would have been avoided by the ancient Israelites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fermentation, oil extraction and drying were all ways of converting food into products that could be stored. Feeding crops to animals was also a means of \"storage on the hoof\" with the animals converting the fodder into meat or milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Meat, usually goat and mutton, was eaten rarely by most Israelites and reserved for special occasions, such as celebrations, festival meals, or sacrificial feasts. The wealthy ate meat more frequently and had beef, venison, and veal available to them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelite presence emerged during the Early Iron Age (1200-1000 BCE), at first in the central hill country, Transjordan and the northern Negev, and later in the Galilee, while the Philistines and other Sea Peoples arrived at roughly the same time and settled in the coastal regions. Pastoralism and animal husbandry remained important, and walled open spaces in villages that probably served as paddocks have been discovered. The construction of terraces in the hills, and of additional plastered cisterns for water storage, enabled more cultivation than before. Storage pits and silos were dug into the ground to hold grain. Under the united Israelite monarchy, central store cities were built, and greater areas of the northern Negev came under cultivation. The Gezer agricultural calendar, detailing the crops that were raised, dates from this period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Meat was prepared in several different ways. The most common was to cook it with water as a broth or a stew (for example, ). Meat stewed with onions, garlic, and leeks and flavored with cumin and coriander is described on ancient Babylonian cuneiform tablets, and it is most likely that it was prepared similarly in ancient Israel. Stewed meat was considered to be a dish worthy of serving to honored guests (). A less common way to prepare meat was to roast it over an open fire, but this was done particularly for the meat of the Passover lamb. For long-term storage, meat was smoked, dried, or salted, according to indications in texts and ethnographic studies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Persians introduced a clay oven called a \"tanur\" (similar to the Indian \"tandoor\"), which had an opening at the bottom for the fire, and through which the bread was placed to be baked on the inner wall of the upper chamber from the heat of the oven and ashes after the flames had died down. This continued to be the way in which Yemenite Jews baked bread until modern times. The remains of clay ovens and fragments of bread trays have been found in several archaeological excavations. All these methods produced only thin loaves, and the custom was thus to break bread rather than cut it. The bread was soft and pliable and used for dipping and sopping up gravies and juices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Barley (\"hordeum vulgare\") was the most important grain during the biblical period, and this was recognized ritually on the second day of Passover in the Omer offering, consisting of barley flour from the newly ripened crop. Furthermore, its significance to Israelite society, not only as a source of food, is illustrated by the biblical method for measuring a field by the amount of barley (rather than of wheat) with which it could be sown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "It is unclear to what extent fish played a role in the cuisine, but it is apparent that fish became steadily more available during the Israelite and Judean monarchies. Fish products were salted and dried and sent great distances. However, even in the later Persian, Greek, and Roman periods, the cost of preserving and transporting fish must have meant that only wealthier inhabitants of the highland towns and cities could afford it, or those who lived close to the sources, where it was less expensive. In the Galilee, small-scale fishing was a fundamental component of the agrarian economy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "A variety of breads were produced. Probably most common were unleavened flat loaves called \"ugah\" or \"kikkar\". Another type was a thin wafer, known as a \"rakik\". A thicker loaf, known as \"hallah\", was made with the best-quality flour, usually for ritual purposes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Olives were harvested in the late summer and were processed for oil by crushing them, pressing the mash, and separating the oil from the flesh. In the early Iron Age period, this was done by treading the olives in basins cut into rock, or with a mortar or stone on a flat slab. In the later Iron Age period, the introduction of the beam press made large scale processing possible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites ate a variety of fresh and saltwater fish, according to both archaeological and textual evidence. Remains of freshwater fish from the Yarkon and Jordan rivers and the Sea of Galilee have been found in excavations, and include St. Peter\u2019s fish and mouthbreeders. Saltwater fish discovered in excavations include sea bream, grouper, meager, and gray mullet. Most of these come from the Mediterranean Sea, but in the later Iron Age period, some are from the Red Sea. Although the Torah prohibits the consumption of fish without fins or scales, archeological evidence indicates that many Israelites flouted or were unaware of these restrictions and ate non-kosher seafood, mostly catfish but also shark, eel, and ray, and that religious restrictions on seafood began to be observed more strictly starting in the first century CE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Grain products constituted the majority of the food consumed by the ancient Israelites. The staple food was bread, and it was such a vital part of each meal that the Hebrew word for bread, \"lehem\", also referred to food in general. The supreme importance of bread to the ancient Israelites is also demonstrated by how Biblical Hebrew has at least a dozen words for bread, and bread features in numerous Hebrew proverbs (for example, , ). Bread was eaten at just about every meal and is estimated to have provided from 50 to 70 percent of an ordinary person\u2019s daily calories. The bread eaten until the end of the Israelite monarchy was mainly made from barley flour; during the Second Temple period, bread from wheat flour become predominant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Gourds and melons were eaten raw or flavored with vinegar. Black radishes were also eaten raw when in season during the autumn and winter. The Talmud mentions the use of radish seeds to produce oil and considered eating radishes to have health benefits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Grapes are another of the biblical Seven Species and were used mainly for the production of wine, although they were also eaten fresh and dried. Grapes were dried in the sun to produce raisins, which could then be stored for a long time. Raisins were also pressed into clusters and dried as cakes, which kept the interior raisins softer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Wild species of barley and emmer wheat were domesticated and cultivated in the Jordan River Valley as early as the 9th millennium BCE. Archaeologists have found the carbonized seeds of two kinds of primitive wheat, einkorn and emmer, and two-row barley, in the earliest levels of digs at Jericho, one of the first cities in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Porridge and gruel were made from ground grain, water, salt, and butter. This mixture also formed the basis for cakes, to which oil, called \"shemen\", and fruits were sometimes added before baking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Mediterranean climate and soil of the mountainous areas of the area are well suited to viticulture, and both archaeological evidence and written records indicate the significant cultivation of grapes in ancient Israel and the popularity of wine-drinking. The production capacity apparent from archaeological remains and the frequent biblical references to wine suggest that it was the principal alcoholic beverage of the ancient Israelites. Based on the remains of wine production facilities and storage rooms, it has been estimated that on average, people could have consumed one liter of wine per person per day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The cuisine maintained many consistent traits based on the main products available from the early Israelite period until the Roman period, even though new foods became available during this extended time. For example, rice was introduced during the Persian era; during the Hellenistic period, as trade with the Nabateans increased, more spices became available, at least for those who could afford them, and more Mediterranean fish were imported into the cities; and during the Roman period, sugar cane was introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The olive tree was well suited to the climate and soil of the Israelite highlands, and a significant part of the hill country was allocated to the cultivation of olive trees, which were one of ancient Israel\u2019s most important natural resources. Olive oil was more versatile and longer-lasting than the oil from other plants, such as sesame, and was also considered to be the best-tasting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Mushrooms, especially of the \"Boletus\" type, were gathered in many areas, particularly when plentiful after a major rainfall. The Talmud mentions mushrooms in connection with their exemption from tithes and as a dessert at the Passover seder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Goats, and, to a lesser extent, sheep, provided milk for part of the year, and milk and dairy products were a significant source of food. Dairy products are mentioned in the Bible (for example, , , and , and a repeated description of the Land of Israel in the Bible is \"a land flowing with milk and honey\" (for example, , , and ))."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites drank goat and sheep's milk when it was available in the spring and summer and ate butter and cheese. They also ate honey, both from bees and date honey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Another example of a lavish meal celebrating an important occasion is the inauguration of the Temple by Solomon (, ). Similar meals are described regarding Hezekiah's temple consecration () and Passover celebration ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The most common and important seasoning was salt (), demonstrated by how it is referenced throughout the Bible, and by how its use was mandated with most sacrifices (). Salt was obtained from the Mediterranean or the Dead Sea. It was produced by evaporating seawater from both natural and artificially created drying pans along the Mediterranean coast. It was also obtained by mining salt deposits, such as at Sodom near the Dead Sea. Salt had to be transported to other locations, so most communities had to purchase it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Once separated from the stalks, the grain was used in a number of ways: Most simply, unripe kernels of grain were eaten fresh, particularly in the spring, before ripe grain was available, and both unripe and ripe grain was roasted over fire for immediate use. Ripe grains of wheat were also parboiled and dried, like modern bulgur, and then prepared as porridge. Whole or cracked grain was also used in stews and to make gruel. Most frequently, grains were ground into flour to prepare bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Bread, wine and olive oil were seen as direct links to the three main crops of ancient Israel\u2014wheat, grapes and olives. In the Bible, this trio is described as representing the divine response to human needs () and, particularly, the need for the seasonal rains vital for the successful cultivation of these three crops. ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seven Species",
        "text": "The ancient Israelites cultivated both wheat and barley. These two grains are mentioned first in the biblical list of the Seven Species of the land of Israel and their importance as food in ancient Israelite cuisine is also seen in the celebration of the barley harvest at the festival of Shavuot and of the wheat harvest at the festival of Sukkot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "Jewish holy days (\"chaggim\"), celebrate landmark events in Jewish history, such as the Exodus from Egypt and the giving of the Torah, and sometimes mark the change of seasons and transitions in the agricultural cycle. The three major festivals, Sukkot, Passover and Shavuot, are called \"regalim\" (derived from the Hebrew word \"regel\", or foot). On the three regalim, it was customary for the Israelites to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem to offer sacrifices in the Temple.\n*Passover (\"Pesach\") is a week-long holiday beginning on the evening of the 14th day of Nisan (the first month in the Hebrew calendar), that commemorates the Exodus from Egypt. Outside Israel, Passover is celebrated for eight days. In ancient times, it coincided with the barley harvest. It is the only holiday that centers on home-service, the Seder. Leavened products (chametz) are removed from the house prior to the holiday and are not consumed throughout the week. Homes are thoroughly cleaned to ensure no bread or bread by-products remain, and a symbolic burning of the last vestiges of chametz is conducted on the morning of the Seder. Matzo is eaten instead of bread.\n* Shavuot (\"Pentecost\" or \"Feast of Weeks\") celebrates the revelation of the Torah to the Israelites on Mount Sinai. Also known as the Festival of Bikurim, or first fruits, it coincided in biblical times with the wheat harvest. Shavuot customs include all-night study marathons known as Tikkun Leil Shavuot, eating dairy foods (cheesecake and blintzes are special favorites), reading the Book of Ruth, decorating homes and synagogues with greenery, and wearing white clothing, symbolizing purity.\n*Sukkot (\"Tabernacles\" or \"The Festival of Booths\") commemorates the Israelites' forty years of wandering through the desert on their way to the Promised Land. It is celebrated through the construction of temporary booths called \"sukkot\" (sing. \"sukkah\") that represent the temporary shelters of the Israelites during their wandering. It coincides with the fruit harvest and marks the end of the agricultural cycle. Jews around the world eat in \"sukkot\" for seven days and nights. Sukkot concludes with Shemini Atzeret, where Jews begin to pray for rain and Simchat Torah, \"Rejoicing of the Torah\", a holiday which marks reaching the end of the Torah reading cycle and beginning all over again. The occasion is celebrated with singing and dancing with the Torah scrolls. Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah are technically considered to be a separate holiday and not a part of Sukkot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The fig tree (\"ficus carica\") grew well in the hill country and produced two crops a season. Early-ripening figs were regarded as delicacy because of their sweetness and were eaten fresh. Figs ripening in the later harvest were often dried and strung into a chain, or pressed into hard round or square-shaped cakes called \"develah\" and stored as a major source of winter food. The blocks of dried fig were sliced and eaten like bread. The \"Mishna\" mentions figs as one of the components of the prescribed \"wife\u2019s food basket\" and they are estimated to have constituted 16% of the overall calories of the basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Rice was introduced during the early Second Temple period through contact with the Persians. By the Roman period, rice had become an important export, and the Jerusalem Talmud states about rice that \u201cthere is none like it outside Israel,\u201d and that notable rabbis served rice at the Passover seder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Israel",
        "text": "Most food was eaten fresh and in season. Fruits and vegetables had to be eaten as they ripened, and before they spoiled. People had to contend with periodic episodes of hunger and famine; producing enough food required hard and well-timed labor, and the climatic conditions resulted in unpredictable harvests, and the need to store as much food as possible. Thus, grapes were made into raisins and wine; olives were made into oil; figs, beans, and lentils were dried; and grains were stored for use throughout the year. The diet was essentially vegetarian. A typical daily meal is illustrated by the biblical description of the rations that Abigail brought to David's group: bread, wine, roasted grain, raisins, and fig cakes ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The kings of Israel are recorded as having displayed an extraordinary measure of royal hospitality, like other kings of the ancient Near East who held elaborate banquets. Solomon\u2019s royal table is described as providing such a variety of foods that the Queen of Sheba is said to have been amazed that the reports of Solomon\u2019s wealth did not exceed what she had seen (). Royal entertainment in Israel included music (), large numbers of guests (), and presumably many servers and cupbearers, though these are not expressly mentioned in the Bible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Many kinds of fruit were eaten. There was a custom to eat apples during Shavuot, while specific fruit and herbs were eaten on holidays and special occasions such as Rosh Hashana. Children received nuts and roasted ears of grain especially on the evening of Passover. Olives were so common that they were used as a measure (\"zayit\")."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How was food stored in ancient Israel?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Amphorae, jars, storerooms, grain pits, large food storage facilities, and granaries were used. Meat was also smoked and salted, and fruit and meat were also dried."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Then how was food prepared in ancient Israel?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The food was prepared under the dietary restrictions and guidelines of Yahwism."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What do those restrictions and guidelines consist of?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The practices of Yahwism included festivals, sacrifices, vow-making, private rituals, and the adjudication of legal disputes, but I don't have any information on what dietary  restrictions and guidelines Yahwism had."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were some popular dishes from the Ancient Israelite cuisine?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Dietary staples among the the Ancient Israelite cuisine were bread, wine, and olive oil; also included were legumes, fruits and vegetables, dairy products, fish, and meat."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What food was served at the festivals?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Festive meals were held to mark significant occasions, entertain important guests, or as sacrificial or ritual meals. The meal was prepared by both men and women. Meat was always served at these meals and many people participated so that there would be no leftovers that would go to waste."
    ],
    "topic": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Ancient Israelite cuisine:116",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
          "Meals",
          "Festive meals and feasts"
        ],
        "ctx": "Festive meals were held to mark significant occasions, entertain important guests, or as sacrificial or ritual meals. The meal was prepared by both men and women. Meat was always served at these meals and many people participated so that there would be no leftovers that would go to waste."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites usually ate meat from domesticated goats and sheep. Goat\u2019s meat was the most common. Fat-tailed sheep were the predominant variety of sheep in ancient Israel, but, as sheep were valued more than goats, they were eaten less often. The fat of the tail was considered a delicacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Ancient Israelite cuisine refers to the culinary practices of the Israelites during a period of over a millennium. It took root in its known form with the beginning of the Israelite presence in the Land of Israel during the Late Bronze Age and is generally considered to have been maintained up until the mass expulsion of Jews from Roman Judea in the 2nd century CE. Dietary staples among the Israelites were bread, wine, and olive oil; also included were legumes, fruits and vegetables, dairy products, fish, and meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The daily diet of the ordinary ancient Israelite was mainly one of bread, cooked grains, and legumes. Bread was eaten with every meal. Vegetables played a smaller, but significant role in the diet. Legumes and vegetables were typically eaten in stews. The Israelites drank goat and sheep\u2019s milk when it was available in the spring and summer, and ate butter and cheese. Honey, both from bees and date honey, was also eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Most food was eaten fresh and in season. Fruits and vegetables had to be eaten as they ripened and before they spoiled. People had to contend with periodic episodes of hunger and famine; producing enough food required hard and well-timed labor, and the climatic conditions resulted in unpredictable harvests and the need to store as much food as possible. Thus, grapes were made into raisins and wine; olives were made into oil; figs, beans, and lentils were dried; and grains were stored for use throughout the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Figs and grapes were the fruits most commonly eaten, while dates, pomegranates, and other fruits and nuts were eaten more occasionally. Wine was the most popular beverage and sometimes other fermented beverages were produced. Meat, usually goat and mutton, was eaten rarely by most Israelites and was reserved for special occasions such as celebrations, festival meals, or sacrificial feasts. The wealthy ate meat more frequently. Olives were used primarily for their oil, which was used raw and to cook meat and stews. Game, birds, eggs, and fish were also eaten, depending on availability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Archaeological evidence from an Iron-Age market excavated at Ashkelon shows that game was also sold to those who could not hunt or trap them themselves. However, meat from wild animals was more common at times of economic distress and in the northern areas, where forests and open land provided a habitat for more wild animals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "The daily diet of the ordinary ancient Israelite was mainly one of bread, cooked grains and legumes. Bread was eaten with every meal. The bread eaten until the end of the Israelite monarchy was mostly made from barley flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Cooked food included soups and stews that were a mixture of meat and vegetables. Beans and lentils were likely to have been cooked several times a week. However, vegetables, such as melons, garlic, leek and onions were also eaten uncooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Stews made of lentils or beans were common and they were cooked with onion, garlic, and leeks for flavor. Fresh legumes were also roasted, or dried and stored for extended periods. They were then cooked in a soup or a stew. The Bible mentions roasted legumes (), and relates how Jacob prepared bread and a pottage of lentils for Esau ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Food was cooked in pots made of clay and placed on earthenware stands built in a horseshoe shape, so that the fire could be lit through the opening, under the pot, or pots were suspended above the fire from tripods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "For most people, meat was eaten only a few times a year when animals were slaughtered for the major festivals, or at tribal meetings, celebrations such as weddings, and for the visits of important guests (). Only at the king's table was meat served daily, according to the Bible. Although most meat was obtained from domesticated animals, meat from hunted animals was also sometimes available, as the story of Isaac and Esau (), certain Biblical lists (for example, ), and archaeological evidence indicate. The remains of gazelle, red deer, and fallow deer are the most commonly found in the archaeological record."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Archaeological remains include the items used for the production of food, such as wine or olive presses, stone and metal implements used in the preparation of food, and amphorae, jars, storerooms and grain pits used for storage. Animal bones provide evidence of meat consumption, the types of animals eaten, and whether they were kept for milk production or other uses, while paleobotanical remains, such as seeds or other carbonized or desiccated plant remains provide information about plant foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables were perhaps a more important food at the extremes in society: the wealthy who could afford to dedicate land and resources to grow them, and the poor who depended on gathering them in the wild to supplement their meager supplies. More people may have gathered wild plants during famine conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites ate domesticated birds such as pigeons, turtledoves, ducks, and geese, and wild birds such as quail, and partridge. Remains from archaeological excavations at the Ophel in Jerusalem and other Iron-Age sites show that domestic birds were available, but consumption was small. The inclusion of pigeons and turtledoves in the Biblical sacrifice lists implies that they were raised domestically, and the remains of dovecotes discovered from the Greek and Roman periods confirm this. Biblical references and archaeological evidence also demonstrate that wild birds were hunted and eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Festive meals were held to mark significant occasions, entertain important guests, or as sacrificial or ritual meals. The meal was prepared by both men and women. Meat was always served at these meals and many people participated so that there would be no leftovers that would go to waste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "At archaeological excavations at Mount Ebal in Samaria, from the period immediately after the Israelite conquest, animal bones discovered were only from animals considered permissible, such as cattle, sheep, goats, and deer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Israel",
        "text": "The daily diet of the ordinary ancient Israelite was mainly one of bread, cooked grains, and legumes. Bread was eaten with every meal. Vegetables played a smaller, but significant role in the diet. The Israelites drank goat and sheep's milk when it was available in the spring and summer, and ate butter and cheese. Figs and grapes were the fruits most commonly eaten, while dates, pomegranates, and other fruits and nuts were eaten more occasionally. Wine was the most popular beverage, and sometimes other fermented beverages were produced. Olives were used, primarily for their oil. Meat, usually goat and mutton, was eaten rarely; it was reserved for special occasions, such as celebrations, festival meals, or sacrificial feasts. Game, birds, eggs, and fish were also eaten, depending on availability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Information about the food of the ancient Israelites is based on written sources, archaeological records and comparative evidence from the wider region of the ancient Levant. The primary written source for the period is the Hebrew Bible, the largest collection of written documents surviving from ancient Israel. Other texts, such as the Dead Sea Scrolls, apocryphal works, the New Testament, the \"Mishnah\" and the Talmud also provide information. Epigraphic sources include \"ostraca\" from Samaria and Arad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "After grain, legumes such as lentils, broad or fava beans, chickpeas, and peas were the main element in the diet and were the main source of protein, since meat was rarely eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The symbolic food of the ancient Israelites continued to be important among Jews after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE (AD) and the beginning of the Jewish Diaspora. Bread, wine, and olive oil were seen as direct links to the three main crops of ancient Israel\u2014wheat, grapes, and olives. In the Bible, this trio is described as representing the divine response to human needs () and particularly the need for the seasonal rains vital for the successful cultivation of these three crops. (). The significance of wine, bread and oil is indicated by their incorporation into Jewish religious ritual, with the blessings over wine and bread for Shabbat and holiday meals and at religious ceremonies such as weddings, and the lighting of Shabbat and festival lights with olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Wild species of barley and emmer wheat were domesticated and cultivated in the Jordan River Valley as early as the 9th millennium BCE. Archaeologists have found the carbonized seeds of two kinds of primitive wheat, einkorn and emmer, and two-row barley, in the earliest levels of digs at Jericho, one of the first cities in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat?",
        "text": "What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat?\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "After the division of the Israelite kingdom, Jerusalem and a number of other cities expanded, supported by the surrounding villages and farms. These were called \u201cdaughters of\u201d the major towns in the Hebrew Bible (for example, and ). Large food storage facilities and granaries were built, such as the city of Hazor. During the later Iron Age (Iron Age II) period, roughly the same period as the Israelite and Judean monarchies, olive oil and wine were produced on a large scale for commerce and export, as well as for local consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Israelite cuisine was adherent to the dietary restrictions and guidelines of Yahwism and its later-developed forms: Judaism and Samaritanism. There was a considerable continuity in the main components of the diet over time, despite the introduction of new foodstuffs at various stages. The food of ancient Israel was similar to that of other Mediterranean cuisines of the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Daily meals were prepared by women. Two daily meals were usually eaten by the family, either in the home or in the field. The first meal was eaten in the late morning, as a break in the workday, and could include roasted grain, olives, figs or some other fruit, bread dipped in olive oil or vinegar, or bread eaten with garlic, onions, or black radishes for flavor, and water or wine. A description in the Book of Ruth provides an example of this kind of meal: the harvest workers eat bread dipped in vinegar and parched or roasted grain (). Agricultural workers, who comprised the largest part of the population, also ate a light meal in the early morning before leaving for their work in the fields ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "In addition to requiring that certain foods be eaten for sacred purposes, the Israelite diet was shaped by religious practices which prohibited the consumption of certain foods, both in terms of the animals permissible for eating, and the manner of their preparation. The cuisine of the Israelites thus differed from that of their neighbors in significant ways. For example, ancient Mesopotamian recipes describe foods cooked with animal blood and milk added to meat stews; this would have been avoided by the ancient Israelites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Small bowls were used for both eating and drinking. Small jugs contained condiments like olive oil, vinegar, and sweeteners. Wide-mouthed pitchers held water and milk, while spouted decanters with narrow, ridged necks with built-in strainers held wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Leeks, onions, and garlic were eaten cooked in stews, and uncooked with bread, and their popularity may be indicated by the observation in the Bible that they are among the foods that the Israelites yearned for after leaving Egypt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "In the story of Abraham hosting the three visitors, Abraham offers cakes, a well prepared young calf, curds, and milk. This meal has similar elements to an earlier meal described in the story of Sinuhe, an Egyptian nobleman who lived for a time in Canaan around 1900 BCE, at which bread, wine, cooked meat, roast fowl, and dairy products were served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The ancient Israelites depended on bread, wine and oil as the basic dietary staples and this trio is often mentioned in the Bible (for example, and ) and in other texts, such as the Samaria and Arad ostraca. Written and archaeological evidence indicate that the diet also included other products from plants, trees and animals. Seven basic agricultural products, called the Seven Species, are listed in the Bible: wheat, barley, figs, grapes, olives, pomegranates, and dates (). The Bible also often describes the land of Israel as a land \"flowing with milk and honey\" (for example, )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites ate a variety of fresh and saltwater fish, according to both archaeological and textual evidence. Remains of freshwater fish from the Yarkon and Jordan rivers and the Sea of Galilee have been found in excavations, and include St. Peter\u2019s fish and mouthbreeders. Saltwater fish discovered in excavations include sea bream, grouper, meager, and gray mullet. Most of these come from the Mediterranean Sea, but in the later Iron Age period, some are from the Red Sea. Although the Torah prohibits the consumption of fish without fins or scales, archeological evidence indicates that many Israelites flouted or were unaware of these restrictions and ate non-kosher seafood, mostly catfish but also shark, eel, and ray, and that religious restrictions on seafood began to be observed more strictly starting in the first century CE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "In contrast to the simplicity of the daily fare of ordinary people, the cuisine of the royal courts of the ancient Near East was sophisticated, and it is assumed that the dishes served at the table of King Solomon and other Israelite kings were also elaborate. King David had officials who were in charge of wine cellars, olive stores, cattle, olive and fig trees () and the royal kitchen was a complex organization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables that were commonly eaten included leeks, garlic, onions, black radishes, net or muskmelons (sometimes misidentified as the cucumber) and watermelons. Other vegetables played a minor role in the diet of the ancient Israelites. Field greens and root plants were generally not cultivated and were gathered seasonally when they grew in the wild. Leafy plants included dandelion greens and the young leaves of the orach plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Ritual feasts and banquets in ancient Israel, and the ancient Near East in general, were important for building social relationships and demonstrating status, transacting business and concluding agreements, enlisting divine help, or showing thanks, devotion or propitiation to a deity, and for conveying social instruction. These meals were imbued with significance by the occasion and were a time for entertainment and enjoyment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelite presence emerged during the Early Iron Age (1200-1000 BCE), at first in the central hill country, Transjordan and the northern Negev, and later in the Galilee, while the Philistines and other Sea Peoples arrived at roughly the same time and settled in the coastal regions. Pastoralism and animal husbandry remained important, and walled open spaces in villages that probably served as paddocks have been discovered. The construction of terraces in the hills, and of additional plastered cisterns for water storage, enabled more cultivation than before. Storage pits and silos were dug into the ground to hold grain. Under the united Israelite monarchy, central store cities were built, and greater areas of the northern Negev came under cultivation. The Gezer agricultural calendar, detailing the crops that were raised, dates from this period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Beef and venison were eaten primarily by the elites, and fattened calves provided veal for the wealthy (for example, as mentioned in the Bible, )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Ancient Israelite cuisine\n--Sources.\n--History.\n----Pre-Israelite.\n----Israelite period.\n----Post-Second Temple era.\n--Characteristics.\n--Foods.\n----Grains and bread.\n------Barley.\n------Wheat.\n------Preparation of grains.\n------Bread making.\n----Legumes.\n----Vegetables.\n----Fruit.\n------Olives and olive oil.\n------Grapes.\n------Figs.\n------Dates.\n------Pomegranates.\n------Other fruits and nuts.\n----Wine and other drinks.\n------Wine.\n------Beer.\n----Meat.\n----Poultry and eggs.\n----Fish.\n----Dairy foods.\n----Honey.\n----Seasonings.\n--Storage and preparation of food.\n--Meals.\n----Daily meals.\n----Festive meals and feasts.\n----Hospitality.\n----Sacrificial meals.\n--Forbidden foods.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "The food of the ancient Israelites was based on several products that still play important roles in modern Israeli cuisine. These were known as the seven species: olives, figs, dates, pomegranates, wheat, barley and grapes. The diet, based on locally grown produce, was enhanced by imported spices, readily available due to the country's position at the crossroads of east\u2013west trade routes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Meals eaten by the Israelites fell into two categories: daily meals, and festive or ritual meals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Perhaps the oldest and most important feast celebrated by the Jews is the Passover. The original feast, with its origins in the story of the Exodus, consisted of a sacrificial lamb, bitter herbs and unleavened bread eaten by each family at home. Under the Israelite monarchy, and with the establishment of the Temple in Jerusalem, the sacrifice and celebration of Passover became centralized as one of the three pilgrimage festivals. Families who were able to travel to Jerusalem ate the Passover meal together in Jerusalem. Those who could not make the pilgrimage celebrated the holiday by holding a special meal and observing the Feast of Unleavened Bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The ancient Israelites built terraces of leveled areas in the hill country for planting a variety of crops, including grains, vegetables, and fruit trees. All the trees, with the exception of the olive, produced fruit that could be eaten fresh or juiced while in season. Fruit was also processed for later use in a variety of ways: fruit with high sugar content was fermented to make alcoholic beverages; grapes were most commonly used for this. Fruit was also boiled down into thick, sweet syrup, referred to in the Bible as \"dvash\" (honey). Grapes, figs, dates, and apricots were also dried and preserved individually, put on a string, or pressed into cakes. Since dried fruit is an efficient source of energy, such were prepared as provisions for journeys and long marches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites cultivated both wheat and barley; these two grains are mentioned first in the biblical list of the Seven Species of the land of Israel and their importance as food is also seen in the celebration of the barley harvest at the festival of Shavuot and of the wheat harvest at the festival of Sukkot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fruit was an important source of food for the Israelites, particularly grapes, olives, and figs. Grapes were grown mostly for wine, although some were eaten fresh at harvest time, or dried as raisins for storage, while olives were grown exclusively for their oil, until the Roman period. Other fruits that were eaten were the date, pomegranate, and sycamore fig."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Food was also flavored by plants, most native to the region and either cultivated, or gathered in the wild, although a few spices were imported. Garlic, onions, and possibly fenugreek were used to season cooked foods, as well as being eaten as vegetables. Herbs and spices included capers, coriander, cumin, black cumin, dill, dwarf chicory, hyssop, marjoram, mint, black mustard, reichardia, saffron, and thyme. Some seasonings were imported, such as myrrh, galbanum, saffron, and cinnamon, but their high cost limited their widespread use. Spices for special feasts were imported by the wealthy and royalty from Arabia and India and were highly valued. These included various types of pepper, and ginger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Israel",
        "text": "Information about the food of the ancient Israelites is based on written sources, archaeological records, and comparative evidence from the wider region of the ancient Levant. Written sources are primarily the Hebrew Bible and other texts, such as the Dead Sea Scrolls, Apocryphal works, the New Testament, and Rabbinical literature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Pomegranates were usually eaten fresh, although occasionally they were used to make juice or wine, or sun-dried for use when the fresh fruit was out of season. They probably played a minor part in Israelite cuisine but were symbolically important as adornments on the hem of the robe of the high priest and the Temple pillars and embossed on coinage; they are also listed in the Bible as one of the Seven Species of the Land of Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Storing water and food was critical for survival, and particularly, being able to store enough food for use from one harvest to the next. To protect grain from damp and vermin, underground granaries were used for the bulk storage of grain. Families also stored grain, wine and oil in large pottery jars in their houses. When well protected, wheat, barley, legumes and nuts could be kept for long periods. Rainwater from roofs and courtyards was collected in cisterns to supplement natural sources like springs and wells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Using both written and archaeological data, some comparisons can be drawn between the food of ancient Israel and its neighbors. Although there is much information about the foods of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, the inferences that can be made are limited due to differences in topography and climate; Israelite agriculture also depended on rainfall rather than the river-based irrigation of these two civilizations, resulting in the preference for different crops. Ugarit and Phoenicia were closer neighbors of ancient Israel, and shared a topography and climate similar to that of ancient Israel. Thus, conclusions about the food and drink in ancient Israel have been made with some confidence from this evidence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Wild herbs were collected and eaten uncooked or cooked. These are known to have included garden rocket and mallow, and both leaf chicory and endive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fishermen supplied fish to inland communities, as remains of fish, including bones and scales, have been discovered at many inland sites. To preserve them for transport, the fish were first smoked or dried and salted. Merchants also imported fish, sometimes from as far as from Egypt, where pickled roe was an export article. Remains of Nile Perch from Egypt have been found, and these must have been smoked or dried before being imported through the trade network that connected ancient Near Eastern societies. Merchants shipped fish to Jerusalem, and there was evidently a significant trade in fish; one of the gates of Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate, named for a fish market nearby (, , , , )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Certain parts of the animal, such as the breast and the right thigh, were considered to be the best portions and were reserved for the most honored participants in the meal. Guests were always served before family members. The host would also sit with the guests to encourage them to eat and see to all their needs, as related in the story of Abraham, who waited on his visitors while they ate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Mediterranean climate and soil of the mountainous areas of the area are well suited to viticulture, and both archaeological evidence and written records indicate the significant cultivation of grapes in ancient Israel and the popularity of wine-drinking. The production capacity apparent from archaeological remains and the frequent biblical references to wine suggest that it was the principal alcoholic beverage of the ancient Israelites. Based on the remains of wine production facilities and storage rooms, it has been estimated that on average, people could have consumed one liter of wine per person per day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables are not found often in the archaeological record, and it is difficult to determine the role that they played, because plant foods were often eaten raw or were simply boiled, without requiring special equipment for preparation, and thus barely leaving any trace other than the type of food itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Sacrificial meals were eaten when a portion of a sacrifice was reserved for the priest (\"kohen\") or the ordinary Israelite who brought the offering was permitted to eat a portion with his family at a festive meal. The offerings considered \"most holy\" were eaten by the males of the priests in the court of the Temple sanctuary (). The meal was considered to be a part of the priest\u2019s duties. Other offerings could be eaten by the priests with their families in any ritually clean place (). The ordinary Israelite had to eat his share within a fixed time, with his family, guests, and any Levites and strangers that he invited."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "There were also baked goods, all made of wheat flour and baked in an oven, which were not burned on the altar. These were the twelve unleavened and specially shaped showbreads, eaten by the priests after they had been displayed; two loaves of leavened bread prepared for the festival of Shavuot and eaten by the priests; thanksgiving breads, which included leavened bread, unleavened bread, unleavened wafers and scalded loaves, with one of each kind given to the priests and the remainder eaten by the owner and guests; and the unleavened loaves and wafers accompanying the Nazirite\u2019s sacrificial ram, one of each kind given to the priests and the remainder eaten by the Nazirite and guests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Geese, originally domesticated in ancient Egypt, were raised in ancient Israel. They are most likely the \"fattened fowl\" on King Solomon\u2019s table (). Goose breeding is also discussed in the Mishna. Like other animals, birds were fattened for consumption on special occasions, and for the wealthy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The second meal was the main meal of the day and was eaten in the evening. In addition to bread, it typically included soup or a stew of vegetables or legumes, served in a common pot into which everyone dipped their bread. Also served from time to time were cheese and fruits such as fresh figs and melon when in season, as well as dried fruits. Water, wine, and milk could also accompany the meal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "During the Pottery Neolithic period (6000-4300 BCE), the development of pottery enabled people to produce portable containers for the transportation and storage of food, and an economy based on agriculture and herding developed. Archaeological evidence indicates that figs, lentils and broad beans were being cultivated from Neolithic times. During the Chalcolithic period (4300-3300 BCE), large pottery containers, indicative of settled peoples, appear in the archaeological record. Date palm cultivation began in the Jordan River Valley, and the earliest date pits have been discovered at Ein Gedi by the Dead Sea. In the Golan, olives trees were grown and olive oil was produced there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Regular meals too, developed as expressions of common identity, social unity and communal celebration. By the Roman period, Jewish communities came together at banquets for both food and company and the weekly Sabbath meal was an occasion for families to gather and enjoy both food and company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The cuisine maintained many consistent traits based on the main products available from the early Israelite period until the Roman period, even though new foods became available during this extended time. For example, rice was introduced during the Persian era; during the Hellenistic period, as trade with the Nabateans increased, more spices became available, at least for those who could afford them, and more Mediterranean fish were imported into the cities; and during the Roman period, sugar cane was introduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Chickpea cultivation dates back to the Bronze Age (3300 \u2013 1200 BCE) and grapes and olives became important crops in the hill country. Wine and oil were traded for wheat with the cities on the coastal plain, and for meat and skins with semi-nomadic herders. Wine and carobs were also exported to Egypt during this period. At Arad in the northern Negev, the remains of wheat, barley and legumes have been found, along with stone-lined storage pits for grain from this period. Pottery was imported from Cyprus and Mycenae in Greece for the first time, probably for use as good-quality tableware. After the Bronze Age collapse of urban culture, there was an increase in herding and the disappearance of smaller agricultural communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Archaeological evidence from various sites shows that the consumption of pork, while limited, was higher in the early Iron Age but had mostly disappeared during the later Iron Age. Sites in the highlands and the coastal plains show low levels of pig utilization in the early Iron Age, but on the coastal plain, excavations such as Ekron show a higher consumption of pig; this is usually associated with the arrival of the Philistines. However, even at Philistine sites, pig remains were a small proportion of the bones discovered, and these decline after the initial period of settlement. This may have been due to unsuitable environmental factors for raising pigs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "An Israelite meal is illustrated by the biblical description of the rations that Abigail brought to David\u2019s group: bread loaves, wine, butchered sheep, parched grain, raisins, and fig cakes ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Goats, and, to a lesser extent, sheep, provided milk for part of the year, and milk and dairy products were a significant source of food. Dairy products are mentioned in the Bible (for example, , , and , and a repeated description of the Land of Israel in the Bible is \"a land flowing with milk and honey\" (for example, , , and ))."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The practice of hospitality was a fundamental custom of Israelite society and serving food was integral to the hosting of guests. Additionally, in ancient Israel, the belief that God had delivered Israel from slavery resulted in the social imperative and religious commandment to look after guests and strangers as an act of recognition and gratitude."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites usually drank water drawn from wells, cisterns, or rivers. They also drank milk (for example, as mentioned in the Bible in ), often in the form of sour milk, thin yogurt, or whey, when it was available in the spring and summer. They drank fresh juices from fruits in season as well. The most strongly preferred beverage was wine, although some beer may have also been produced, and wine was an important part of the diet and a source of calories, sugar, and iron. Making wine was also a practical way to preserve fruit juices for long-term storage. Usually, wine was made from grapes for everyday use, as well as for rituals, such as sacrificial libations. Less often, wine was made from pomegranates and dates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Festive meals were held only from time to time, but they are the ones recorded by biblical and extra-biblical sources. Many biblical stories are set within the context of a meal, such as the accounts of the food Abraham prepares for his visitors (), the stew which Jacob prepares for his father, Isaac, and the Passover meal ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Grain products constituted the majority of the food consumed by the ancient Israelites. The staple food was bread, and it was such a vital part of each meal that the Hebrew word for bread, \"lehem\", also referred to food in general. The supreme importance of bread to the ancient Israelites is also demonstrated by how Biblical Hebrew has at least a dozen words for bread, and bread features in numerous Hebrew proverbs (for example, , ). Bread was eaten at just about every meal and is estimated to have provided from 50 to 70 percent of an ordinary person\u2019s daily calories. The bread eaten until the end of the Israelite monarchy was mainly made from barley flour; during the Second Temple period, bread from wheat flour become predominant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Grapes are another of the biblical Seven Species and were used mainly for the production of wine, although they were also eaten fresh and dried. Grapes were dried in the sun to produce raisins, which could then be stored for a long time. Raisins were also pressed into clusters and dried as cakes, which kept the interior raisins softer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Lentils were the most important of the legumes and were used to make pottages and soups, as well as fried lentil cakes called \"ashishim\", such as those that King David is described as distributing to the people when the Ark of the Covenant was brought to Jerusalem. According to Tova Dickstein, a researcher at Neot Kedumim in Israel, \"ashishim\" were honey-dipped pancakes made from crushed red lentils and sesame seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The date palm required a hot and dry climate and mostly grew and produced fruit in the Jordan Rift Valley from Jericho to the Sea of Galilee. In these arid areas, the date was sometimes the only plant-food available and was a primary component of the diet, but it was less important elsewhere."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The sycamore fig, carob, mulberry, and possibly the apple were also eaten. Usually, these fruits were not cultivated but were picked in the wild when they were in season. The sycamore fig (\"Ficus sycamorus\") was very common in the warmer parts of Israel and was grown primarily for its wood, but it provided a steady supply of small figs, eaten mainly by the poor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Bread was the main source of nourishment in biblical times, and making bread was a daily activity:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites drank goat and sheep's milk when it was available in the spring and summer and ate butter and cheese. They also ate honey, both from bees and date honey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Israelites believed that since an animal\u2019s blood represented its life, its blood should not be consumed (). The blood of a slaughtered animal was thus drained before the meat was used and the blood itself was not used as a cooking liquid or drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "A variety of breads were produced. Probably most common were unleavened flat loaves called \"ugah\" or \"kikkar\". Another type was a thin wafer, known as a \"rakik\". A thicker loaf, known as \"hallah\", was made with the best-quality flour, usually for ritual purposes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Meat, usually goat and mutton, was eaten rarely by most Israelites and reserved for special occasions, such as celebrations, festival meals, or sacrificial feasts. The wealthy ate meat more frequently and had beef, venison, and veal available to them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Significant milestones in the availability and development food production characteristic of Israelite cuisine occurred well before the Israelite period. On the other hand, vestiges of the cuisine and the practices associated with it continue to resonate in later Jewish cuisine and traditions that developed in Israel and Babylonia during the Talmudic period (200 CE-500 CE), and may still be discerned in the various culinary styles that have developed among Jewish communities since then."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fresh, ripe dates were available from mid to late summer. Some were sun-dried and pressed into blocks to dry completely and then used throughout the year, especially as food for travelers. Dates were also fermented into one of the \"strong drinks\" referred to in the Bible as \"shechar\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Meals at which important guests were present were viewed as special occasions, and as such, meat was served. The order in which the guests were served indicated the recognition of the social status of the guest. The choice of meat and dishes indicated the importance of the occasion. The Bible illustrates this in relating how Samuel hosted Saul, who, seated at the head of the hall is served first with a portion of meat that has been especially reserved for him ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Other foods dating to the ancient Israelites include \"pastels\", or Shabbat meat pies, and charoset, a sweet fruit and nut paste eaten at the Passover Seder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Meat was prepared in several different ways. The most common was to cook it with water as a broth or a stew (for example, ). Meat stewed with onions, garlic, and leeks and flavored with cumin and coriander is described on ancient Babylonian cuneiform tablets, and it is most likely that it was prepared similarly in ancient Israel. Stewed meat was considered to be a dish worthy of serving to honored guests (). A less common way to prepare meat was to roast it over an open fire, but this was done particularly for the meat of the Passover lamb. For long-term storage, meat was smoked, dried, or salted, according to indications in texts and ethnographic studies."
      },
      {
        "title": "What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat?",
        "text": "Nathan MacDonald argues that the diet of the Israelites was very high in bread and grains and often contained little meat or vegetables, leading many to become deficient in vitamins and minerals. He also notes that they endured frequent famines. He criticizes the Bible Diet and maintains that the bible is best used to provide religious and moral, rather than nutritional, instruction. He argues that while people who attempt to determine an ideal diet based on the bible may offer sound nutritional advice, they frequently use flawed hermeneutics to arrive at their conclusions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Bread was primarily made from barley flour during the Iron Age (, ), as barley was more widely and easily grown, and was thus more available, cheaper, and could be made into bread without a leavening agent even though wheat flour was regarded as superior. It was presumably made from dough that was a simple mixture of barley flour and water, divided into small pieces, formed by hand into round shapes, then baked. However, barley declined as the staple from the biblical period to a poverty food by the end of the Second Temple period, and by the Talmudic era, it was regarded mostly as animal fodder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "During the Second Temple period (516 BCE\u201370 CE), Hellenistic and Roman culture heavily influenced cuisine, particularly of the priests and aristocracy of Jerusalem. Elaborate meals were served that included piquant entr\u00e9es and alcoholic drinks, fish, beef, meat, pickled and fresh vegetables, olives, and tart or sweet fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "One of the distinguishing features of the meals of the wealthier social class, as illustrated in the stories of Abraham and Sinuhe, was the more frequent consumption of meat. A description of the provisions for Solomon's kitchen also illustrates this: \"Solomon's daily provisions consisted of 30 kor of fine flour and 60 kor of flour, 10 fat oxen, 20 pasture-fed oxen, and 100 sheep and goats, in addition to deer and gazelles, roebucks and fattened geese\" (). This account describes the provisions that were possible to obtain for those with the resources to purchase them and indicates they were sufficient to provide sumptuous meals for thousands of people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Feasts and banquets were important social and political tools throughout Israel\u2019s history, especially in the early years of the Israelite monarchy, when an invitation to the king\u2019s table was important for creating and maintaining political support and was also an important marker of social status and influence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Only animals specifically slaughtered for food or for use in the sacrificial service could be eaten. Detailed lists of which animals, birds, and fish could be eaten and which were prohibited appear in the Bible ( and ), and animal bones found in the archaeological record tend to support this, with some exceptions. For the Israelites, food was one way for self-definition. While it is impossible to know to what extent dietary laws were observed, self-definition is most likely the basis for certain biblical lists of different kinds of animals permitted or forbidden for consumption. The taboo against eating certain animals, particularly the pig, may have developed from the early Iron Age."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Broad beans, chickpeas, and lentils are the only legumes mentioned in the Bible but lentils, broad beans, chickpeas, fenugreek, field peas and bitter vetch have been found at Iron Age Israelite sites. By the Roman period, legumes are mentioned frequently in other texts. They are cited as one of the elements of the \u201cwife\u2019s food basket\u201d in the \"Mishna\" (Ketubot 5:8), by which it is estimated that legumes supplied 17% of daily calories at that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Once separated from the stalks, the grain was used in a number of ways: Most simply, unripe kernels of grain were eaten fresh, particularly in the spring, before ripe grain was available, and both unripe and ripe grain was roasted over fire for immediate use. Ripe grains of wheat were also parboiled and dried, like modern bulgur, and then prepared as porridge. Whole or cracked grain was also used in stews and to make gruel. Most frequently, grains were ground into flour to prepare bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "The symbolic food of the ancient Israelites continued to be important among Jews after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and the beginning of the Jewish diaspora."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The Bible provides names of plants and animals that were used for food, such as the lists of permitted and forbidden animals (for example, and ), and the lists of foods brought to the king\u2019s table (for example, ) or the foods that the Israelites are said to have longed for after leaving Egypt (). These lists indicate the potential foods that were available, but not necessarily how regularly the food was eaten or how significant it was in the cuisine, which needs to be derived from other sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Gourds and melons were eaten raw or flavored with vinegar. Black radishes were also eaten raw when in season during the autumn and winter. The Talmud mentions the use of radish seeds to produce oil and considered eating radishes to have health benefits."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel",
        "text": "The Israelites were a confederation of Iron Age Semitic-speaking tribes of the ancient Near East, who inhabited a part of Canaan during the tribal and monarchic periods. According to the religious narrative of the Hebrew Bible, the Israelites' origin is traced back to the biblical patriarchs and matriarchs Abraham and his wife Sarah, through their son Isaac and his wife Rebecca, and their son Jacob who was later called Israel, whence they derive their name, with his wives Leah and Rachel and the handmaids Zilpa and Bilhah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Porridge and gruel were made from ground grain, water, salt, and butter. This mixture also formed the basis for cakes, to which oil, called \"shemen\", and fruits were sometimes added before baking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "Fermentation, oil extraction and drying were all ways of converting food into products that could be stored. Feeding crops to animals was also a means of \"storage on the hoof\" with the animals converting the fodder into meat or milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The importance of hospitality to the Israelites can be inferred from the texts of the Bible, in numerous instances, including the stories of Abraham hosting the messengers, Gideon\u2019s call to leadership (), the hospitality of the woman from Zarephath towards the Prophet Elijah () and the Shunammite woman towards Elisha (), David\u2019s hosting of Mephiboshet, son of Jonathan () and Hezekiah\u2019s invitation to the people of the northern kingdom of Israel to celebrate the Passover in Jerusalem ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The olive tree was well suited to the climate and soil of the Israelite highlands, and a significant part of the hill country was allocated to the cultivation of olive trees, which were one of ancient Israel\u2019s most important natural resources. Olive oil was more versatile and longer-lasting than the oil from other plants, such as sesame, and was also considered to be the best-tasting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
        "text": "The production of bread and beer were closely linked, since barley was the same key ingredient used for both, and most of the tools used in beer production, such as mortars, querns and winnowing baskets were also the same as for bread making. Archaeological evidence specific to beer making is thus uncommon, and earlier indications were that the ancient Israelites did not often drink beer. More recently, Iron-Age sites in Israel have produced remains such as beer jugs, bottles, strainers and stoppers, all of which provide evidence that the Israelites drank beer. Nonetheless, the widespread cultivation of grapes, used primarily for winemaking, indicates that wine drinking was probably far more common than beer drinking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israelites",
        "text": "The Israelites (; , ) were a confederation of Semitic-speaking tribes in the ancient Near East who, during the Iron Age, inhabited a part of Canaan."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How was food stored in ancient Israel?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Amphorae, jars, storerooms, grain pits, large food storage facilities, and granaries were used. Meat was also smoked and salted, and fruit and meat were also dried."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Then how was food prepared in ancient Israel?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The food was prepared under the dietary restrictions and guidelines of Yahwism."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What do those restrictions and guidelines consist of?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The practices of Yahwism included festivals, sacrifices, vow-making, private rituals, and the adjudication of legal disputes, but I don't have any information on what dietary  restrictions and guidelines Yahwism had."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were some popular dishes from the Ancient Israelite cuisine?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Dietary staples among the the Ancient Israelite cuisine were bread, wine, and olive oil; also included were legumes, fruits and vegetables, dairy products, fish, and meat."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What food was served at the festivals?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Festive meals were held to mark significant occasions, entertain important guests, or as sacrificial or ritual meals. The meal was prepared by both men and women. Meat was always served at these meals and many people participated so that there would be no leftovers that would go to waste."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where did the Israelites live?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Israelites were a confederation of Semitic-speaking tribes in the ancient Near East who, during the Iron Age, inhabited a part of Canaan.",
      "Israelis are the citizens and nationals of the State of Israel."
    ],
    "topic": "Ancient Israelite cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Israelites:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Israelites"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Israelites (; , ) were a confederation of Semitic-speaking tribes in the ancient Near East who, during the Iron Age, inhabited a part of Canaan."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Israelis:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Israelis"
        ],
        "ctx": "Israelis (, ) are the citizens and nationals of the State of Israel. Notably multicultural and populated by people of different ethnic backgrounds, Israel's populace is composed primarily of Jews and Arabs, who respectively account for 75 percent and 20 percent of the national population, followed by other minorities who account for 5 percent of the country's population."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The current Guinness World Record for \"greatest absolute distance flown in a wing suit\" is 32.094\u00a0km (19.94\u00a0mi) set by Kyle Lobpries (USA) in Davis, CA 30 May 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A wingsuit was first used in the US in 1930 by a 19-year-old American, Rex G Finney of Los Angeles, California. The goal was to increase horizontal movement and maneuverability during a parachute jump. These early wingsuits used materials such as canvas, wood, silk, steel, and whalebone. They were not very reliable, although some \"birdmen\", such as Clem Sohn and Leo Valentin, claimed to have glided for miles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "In the mid-1990s, the modern wingsuit was developed by Patrick de Gayardon of France, adapted from the model used by John Carta. In 1997, the Bulgarian Sammy Popov designed and built a wingsuit that had a larger wing between the legs and longer wings on the arms. He tested his prototype in a vertical wind tunnel in Las Vegas at Flyaway Las Vegas. Popov's wingsuit first flew in October 1998, but never went into commercial production. In 1998, Chuck \"Da Kine\" Priest' built a version that incorporated hard ribs inside the wing airfoils. Although these more rigid wings were better able to keep their shape in flight, this made the wingsuit heavier and more difficult to fly. Raggs' design also never went into commercial production. Flying together for the first time, Popov and Raggs showcased their designs side by side at the World Free-fall Convention at Quincy, Illinois, in August 1999. Both designs performed well. At the same event, jumpers performed formation wingsuit skydives with de Gayardon's, Popov's, and Raggs' suits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "An early attempt at wingsuit flying was made on 4 February 1912 by a 33-year-old tailor, Franz Reichelt, who jumped from the Eiffel Tower to test his invention of a combination of parachute and wing, which was similar to modern wingsuits. He misled the guards by saying that the experiment was going to be conducted with a dummy. He hesitated quite a long time before he jumped, and died when he hit the ground head first, opening a measurable hole in the frozen ground."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuits are sometimes referred to as \"birdman suits\" (after the brand name of the makers of the first commercial wingsuit), \"squirrel suits\" (from their resemblance to flying squirrels' wing membrane), and \"bat suits\" (due to their resemblance to bat wings or perhaps the comicbook superhero's battle costume)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Modern wingsuits use a combination of materials in order to create an airfoil shape. The main surface is typically made from ripstop nylon, with various materials used to reinforce the leading edge, and reduce drag.\n* The tri-wing wingsuit has three individual ram-air wings attached under the arms and between the legs.\n* The mono-wing wingsuit design incorporates the whole suit into one large wing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The air foil shape is formed by pressure inside the wing and the construction of the suit. Internal ribs help form the shape. Having a smooth leading edge is especially important as it is the source of most lift and most drag. Reducing inlet drag while maintaining high internal suit pressure is also important in modern wingsuit design. The number of air inlets and their positions vary on different suit designs. Suits which are focused on freestyle flight often have inlets on the back surface of the suit to maintain internal pressure when pilots are \"back flying\" in a face up orientation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 23 May 2012, British stuntman Gary Connery safely landed a wingsuit without deploying his parachute, landing on a crushable \"runway\" (landing zone) built with thousands of cardboard boxes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gary Connery",
        "text": "Three seconds into his record-setting flight, his wingsuit inflated, its airflow dynamics enabled controlled gliding, and his speed reached about . At approximately over the landing strip, he changed the configuration of his wingsuit so as to decrease the gliding and vertical (falling) components of his velocity to and respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuit flying (or wingsuiting) is the sport of skydiving using a webbing-sleeved jumpsuit called a wingsuit to add wetted area to the diver's body and generate increased lift, which allows extended air time by gliding flight rather than just free falling. The modern wingsuit, first developed in the late 1990s, uses a pair of fabric membranes stretched flat between the arms and flanks/thighs to imitate an airfoil, and often also between the legs to function as a tail and allow some aerial steering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Batsuit",
        "text": "The suit again has an external 'memory cloth' cape, but, now has the ability to fold into a backpack shape as demonstrated during the base-jump in Hong Kong. It is unclear in the film if once deployed, as a glider, it can return to this backpack shape automatically. According to costume designer Linda Hemming this backpack idea was developed, at the request of Christopher Nolan, as a fall back if the cape were to get caught up in the rear wheel of the Batpod in motion. However, the concept was not used in the Batpod sequences after the film crew realized they had failed to account for the motion of the Batpod blowing the cape behind the rider, keeping it free from the rear wheel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Christian Stadler from Germany invented the \"VegaV3 wingsuit system\" that uses an electronic adjustable hydrogen peroxide rocket. The rocket provides 1000\u00a0Newtons (100\u00a0kgf) of thrust and produces no flames or poisonous fumes. His first successful powered wingsuit jump was in 2007, when he reached horizontal speeds of over 255\u00a0km/h (160\u00a0mph)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vincent Reffet",
        "text": "He was also a pilot of the jet-powered wingsuit developed by Jetman Dubai. Some sources describe him as having been a \"prot\u00e9g\u00e9 of well-known jet daredevil Yves Rossy\" who also used a \"four-engine, carbon-Kevlar wing strapped to their backs\". According to CNN, the \"wingsuit is powered by four mini jet engines.. [and] allows pilots to control rotations around the yaw axis at zero speeds. Pilots can hover, stop, turn and maneuver, even performing rolls and loops\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "As suit technology and pilot skill have improved, wingsuit BASE jumpers have learned to control their flight so that they can fly just meters away from terrain. \u201cProximity flying\u201d is the practice of flying a wingsuit close to the faces and ridges of mountains. Flying near terrain gives a greater sense of speed due to having a close visual reference. Loic Jean-Albert of France is one of the first proximity flyers, and his pioneering flying brought many BASE jumpers into the sport. In November 2012, Alexander Polli became the first wingsuit BASE jumper to successfully strike a wingsuit target. Alexander Polli died August 22, 2016 in a wingsuit accident, after crashing into a tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A wingsuit BASE jump begins by jumping from a cliff. Within seconds, air inflates the suit into a semi-rigid airfoil shape. By holding a proper body position, the wingsuit flier is able to glide forward at a ratio of 3:1, meaning that they are moving forward three feet for every foot of descent (or 3 meters for every meter of descent)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A 2010 redesign tested in a wind tunnel by the 8th Conference of the International Sports Engineering Association (ISEA) found that adding material to the wingsuit between the head/helmet area and connecting it to the wrist, thus increasing upper wings' size, would \"...lower lift-to-drag ratio in most testing scenarios. The decrease in lift-to-drag ratio was due to the combination of an increased lift and a higher increased drag.\" Other innovations in the late 2000s and early 2010's helped increase the glide ratio further."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "As of 2010, there have been experimental powered wingsuits, often using small jet engines strapped to the feet or a wingpack setup to allow for even greater horizontal speeds and even vertical ascent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yves Rossy",
        "text": "Rossy developed and built a wingsuit system comprising a backpack equipped with semi-rigid aeroplane-type carbon-fiber wings\u2014with a span of about \u2014powered by four Jetcat P400 jet engines, modified from large kerosene-fueled model aircraft engines. This has led to him being referred to in the press by various monikers, such as \"The Airman\", \"Rocketman\", \"Fusionman\", and\u2014most commonly\u2014\"Jetman\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Another variation on which studies are being focused is the wingpack, which consists of a strap-on rigid wing made of carbon fibre."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 25 October 2009, in Lahti, Finland, Visa Parviainen jumped from a hot air balloon in a wingsuit with two small turbojet engines attached to his feet. The engines provided approximately 160\u00a0N (16\u00a0kgf, 35\u00a0lbf) of thrust each and ran on JET A-1 fuel. Parviainen achieved approximately 30\u00a0seconds of horizontal flight with no noticeable loss of altitude. Parviainen continued jumping from hot air balloons and helicopters, including one for the \"Stunt Junkies\" program on Discovery Channel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Batsuit",
        "text": "As different artists have taken over the responsibility of drawing the costume, the details of the suit have changed considerably. The original incarnation of the cape was a wing-like structure that may have been inspired by drawings by Leonardo da Vinci. This eventually evolved into a more cape-like design of varying length with scalloped edges to resemble the wings of a bat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 22 May 2017, British wingsuit pilot Fraser Corsan set world records for the fastest speed reached in a wingsuit of .\n;Greatest average horizontal speed:"
      },
      {
        "title": "VKK flight suit",
        "text": "In 1957, as Soviet fighter aircraft advanced, a new suit was developed to handle the demands of mach 2 flight, most notably Su-9 and MiG-21. Complex by the standards of 1957, it is a simple design that often required an assistant in order for the pilot to wear the suit. The pilot would open the large zip on the front before the pilot entered it, zipping it closed. It had a simple hose setup that was 'H' shaped, with hoses travelling up each leg, joining at the shoulders, and travelling down the arms. Unlike the following VKK suits, it had only a single air inlet on the abdomen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuit flying\n--History.\n----Commercial era.\n--Technique.\n----Launch.\n----Glide.\n----Flare.\n----Deployment.\n----Record-keeping.\n--Suit design.\n--Wingsuit BASE.\n--Further technical developments.\n----Jet-powered wingsuits.\n----Wingpack.\n--Training.\n--Records.\n----Wingsuit formation records.\n----Wingsuit BASE jump records.\n----Wingsuit flight records.\n--Safety.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Beginner wingsuits have less surface area and lower internal pressure. This makes them easier to control and less likely to go unstable in flight. Less fabric material makes it easier to deploy the pilot chute at the end of the flight. With experience, pilots can choose to upgrade to more advanced suits that have more surface area and increased glide performance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flight suit",
        "text": "As aviation developed in unheated open cockpits, the need for warm clothing quickly became apparent, as did the need for multiple pockets with closures of buttons, snaps, or zippers to prevent loss of articles during maneuvers. Various types of flight jackets and pants coverings were developed and, during World War I, leather two-piece outfits were common among pilots to ward off the chill caused by propwash and the cold of low-oxygen high-altitude flying. Leather quickly became the preferred material due to its durability and the protection it offered against flying debris such as insect strikes during climb-outs and landings, and oil thrown off by the simple rotary and inline motors of the time. Australian aviator Frederick Sidney Cotton's experience with high level and low-temperature flying led Cotton in 1917 to develop the revolutionary new \"Sidcot\" suit, a flying suit which solved the problem pilots had in keeping warm in the cockpit. This flying suit, with improvements, was widely used by the RAF until the 1950s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The glide ratios of older wingsuits made in the 1990s through the early 2010s were closer to 2:1.It was possible for expert flyers to achieve a 3:1 ratio but this was very difficult. However, advancements in modern wingsuits allow flyers to achieve a 3:1 ratio much more easily, allowing for higher speeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marc Hauser (skydiver)",
        "text": "As skydiving suit he was wearing a thermal protection jumpsuit without wings (no wingsuit)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Batwings, a precursor to wingsuits, were showcased in the 1969 film, \"The Gypsy Moths\", starring Burt Lancaster and Gene Hackman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A wingsuit modifies the body area exposed to wind to increase the desired amount of lift and drag generated by the body. With training, wingsuit pilots can achieve sustained glide ratio of 3:1 or more. This means that for every meter dropped, three meters are gained moving forward. By adjusting body configuration, fliers can alter both their forward speed and fall rate. The pilot manipulates these flight characteristics by changing the shape of the torso, de-arching and rolling the shoulders and moving hips and knees, and by changing the angle of attack in which the wingsuit flies in the relative wind, and by the amount of tension applied to the fabric wings of the suit. The absence of a vertical stabilizing surface results in little damping around the yaw axis, so poor flying technique can result in a spin that requires active effort on the part of the skydiver to stop."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jet aircraft",
        "text": "Jet-powered wingsuits exist - powered by model aircraft jet engines - but of short duration and needing to be launched at height."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A wingsuit pilot enters free fall wearing both a wingsuit and parachute equipment. The details of a wingsuit launch depend on whether it is a skydive from an aircraft, or a BASE jump from a fixed object."
      },
      {
        "title": "VKK flight suit",
        "text": "Pre 1955."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flight suit",
        "text": "Where bomber pilots could wear their service uniforms as flight gear, fighter pilots needed a uniform that functioned in the tight confines of the typical fighter plane cockpit. The AN-S-31 flight suit was developed for the US Army Air Corps and featured two button-down breast pockets and two button-down shin pockets that could be accessed from the sitting position. The US Navy used a slightly different model that featured slanted pockets with zippers. The material used was either wool or tight-weave cotton for wind resistance and fire protection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wiley Post",
        "text": "The body of the suit had three layers: long underwear, an inner black rubber air pressure bladder, and an outer layer made of rubberized parachute fabric. The outer layer was glued to a frame with arm and leg joints that allowed him to operate the flight controls and to walk to and from the aircraft. Attached to the frame were pigskin gloves, rubber boots, and an aluminum-and-plastic diver's helmet. The helmet had a removable faceplate that could be sealed at a height of , and could accommodate earphones and a throat microphone. The helmet was cylinder-shaped with a circular window. In the first flight using the suit on September 5, 1934, Post reached an altitude of above Chicago. Eventually flying as high as , Post discovered the jet stream and made the first major practical advances in pressurized flight. As of 2011 the suit is currently being restored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gary Connery",
        "text": "Landing in a wingsuit without using a parachute had been one of Jeb Corliss's main objectives since 2010. Corliss and other top-level wingsuit jumpers had tried for years to design wingsuits similar to the one which Connery helped design and subsequently used for his record-setting leap."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "F\u00e9d\u00e9ration A\u00e9ronautique Internationale (FAI), the world governing airsports body, established judging criteria for official world record wingsuit formations in February 2015. The rules are available on the FAI website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "As compared to skydiving from an airplane, BASE jumping involves jumping from a \"fixed object\" such as a cliff. BASE jumping in its modern form has existed since at least 1978, but it was not until 1997 that Patrick de Gayardon made some of the first-ever wingsuit BASE jumps combining the two disciplines. Compared to normal BASE jumping, wingsuit BASE jumping allows pilots to fly far away from the cliffs they jumped from, and drastically increase their freefall time before deploying a parachute. Since 2003, many BASE jumpers have started using wingsuits, giving birth to wingsuit BASE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atle V\u00e5rvik",
        "text": "In 1994, V\u00e5rvik launched the special and aerodynamic speedskating suit the \u201cDonald Duck suit\u201d."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The biggest wingsuit BASE jump as measured from exit to landing was performed on 11 August 2013 by Patrick Kerber with a height of off the Jungfrau in Switzerland.\n;Fastest:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Shin Ito",
        "text": "and \"Fastest speed reached in a wingsuit of , achieved on 28 May 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Exiting an aircraft in a wingsuit requires skills that differ depending on the location and size of the door. These techniques include the orientation relative to the aircraft and the airflow while exiting. It is also important that wingsuit pilots spread their legs and arms at the proper time to avoid hitting the tail or becoming unstable. The wingsuit immediately starts to fly upon exiting the aircraft in the relative wind generated by the forward speed of the aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glenn Singleman",
        "text": "Singleman and his wife, Heather Swan, and Vicente Cajiga made the first and only wingsuit flight across Sydney Harbour exiting at 13,500\u00a0ft above Rose Bay and landing at Barangaroo. The jump took three years to organize and required approval from 9 government departments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 23 May 2006, the Australian couple Heather Swan and Glenn Singleman jumped from off Meru Peak in India, setting a world record for highest wingsuit BASE jump."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The current world record for greatest average horizontal speed within the performance competition rules, i.e. within of vertical distance, was set by Travis Mickle (USA) with a speed of 325.4\u00a0km/hr (202.19\u00a0mph) 6 November 2017.\n;Longest time:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The current world record for longest horizontal distance covered within the performance competition rules, i.e. within of vertical distance, was set on 27 May 2017 by U.S. wingsuit pilot Alexey Galda with a distance of 5.137\u00a0km (3.19\u00a0mi)\n;Landing:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wings (1990 TV series)",
        "text": "Also in his office he has a poster of a woman wearing a thong bikini riding on a unicycle. He comments, \"If that was Paris and she was holding a loaf of bread, they'd call it art.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Wilbur R. Franks",
        "text": "In 1940, the anti gravity suit was developed under the name \"Franks Flying Suit\" by Wilbur R. Franks and his colleagues at the Banting and Best Medical Research Institute at the University of Toronto. The suit was made with rubber and water-filled pads. It counteracted the effects of high G forces on aircraft pilots, which otherwise would cause them to black out. These suits were used during World War II and all G-Suits worn by air force pilots as well as astronauts and cosmonauts around the world are based on his original designs. When testing his first prototype, Franks stated:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Franz Reichelt",
        "text": "From July 1910, Reichelt began to develop a \"parachute-suit\": a suit that was not much more bulky than one normally worn by an aviator, but with the addition of a few rods, a silk canopy and a small amount of rubber that allowed it to fold out to become what Reichelt hoped would be a practical and efficient parachute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parachuting",
        "text": "'Wingsuit flying' or 'wingsuiting' is the sport of flying through the air using a wingsuit, which adds surface area to the human body to enable a significant increase in lift. The common type of wingsuit creates an extra surface area with fabric between the legs and under the arms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shin Ito",
        "text": "\"Greatest absolute distance flown in a wingsuit\" 28.707\u00a0km (17.83 miles) above California, USA on 26 May 2012,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mercury spacesuit",
        "text": "The suit was designed by Russell Colley (who designed and built the high-altitude pressure suit worn by aviator Wiley Post) as a means of providing an Earth-like atmosphere in the unpressurized high-altitude fighter jets developed by the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Navy after the Korean War. The Mark IV suit was first introduced in the late 1950s. Prior to the development of the Mark IV suit, the Navy developed different types of the Mark-series full-pressure suits, but all the suits before the Mark IV had problems with both mobility and weight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uniforms of the Luftwaffe (1935\u20131945)",
        "text": "The flying suit typically consisted of a beige jumpsuit, leather flying helmet and thick fur-lined boots. Black leather jackets were also worn by fighter pilots."
      },
      {
        "title": "G-suit",
        "text": "During World War II the German Henschel Hs 132 (never flew) and the US Northrop XP-79 (crashed on first powered flight) jets both had prone positions to minimize blood pooling in the legs. After 1945 the British experimented with prone flying positions in a highly modified Gloster Meteor F8 jet fighter and the Reid and Sigrist R.S.3 \"Bobsleigh\" a piston engined trainer. However, other difficulties associated with prone piloting and the development of practical g-suits for normal seating positions terminated these experiments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Custer Channel Wing",
        "text": "In 1978 Custer filed an $80 million suit against the designers of the A-10 for using his idea of induced lift from the proximity of the engines to the wings. The suit was dismissed."
      },
      {
        "title": "VKK flight suit",
        "text": "Replaced the VKK-1 in 1955."
      },
      {
        "title": "Batsuit",
        "text": "In the story arc (1993\u20131994), the character Jean-Paul Valley redesigned the Batsuit during his tenure as Batman. Rather than appearing as a new costume, Jean-Paul developed it over time. Valley created an armored suit that contained more gadgets, including a shuriken launcher, flamethrower and other, more lethal weapons. This version of the suit did away with the traditional cape and cowl, and essentially an amalgam of Bruce Wayne's costume and Valley's Azrael armor. It featured armored and bladed wings and was highly bulletproof, capable of sustaining direct machine gun barrages as well as enduring the explosions from grenades and high intensity fire. The suit also featured an underwater rebreather. A circular ammo feeder affixed to the back of the suit provided Valley with continuous bat-shaped shuriken. It was then made to be more high tech, with the eyes appearing more as goggles, different color scheme, and more armor. After being caught in an explosion during his fight with the former Batman at the time, Bruce Wayne, the main color scheme turns into red-and-gold; the same colors of Azrael's armor. While the suit bears immense power, it also slows its user's speed and limits movement capacity."
      },
      {
        "title": "1870s in Western fashion",
        "text": "The points of high upstanding shirt collars were increasingly pressed into \"wings\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flight suit",
        "text": "In the 1950s and 1960s, even more specialized suits needed to be developed for high-altitude surveillance (such as with the U-2 and SR-71 aircraft) and space flight. These would include full pressurization, and would be the precursor to today's space suits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flight suit",
        "text": "By the time World War II started in earnest, electrically heated suits were introduced by Lion Apparel in conjunction with General Electric for patrol and bomber crews who routinely operated at high altitudes above , where air temperatures could get so cold that flesh could freeze instantly to any metal it touched. As enclosed and pressurized cabins came into operation, the necessity of bulky leather and shearling jackets and pants began to fade. For example, pilots, navigators, and bombardiers of a B-17 operating in Europe in 1944 comfortably wore their officer's uniforms under an A-2 flight jacket, due to the enclosed and heated cabin; but the waist gunners needed electrically heated suits, as they fired their guns through open window gunports. When the B-29 Superfortress was introduced in the fight against Japan, along with remote-controlled coordinated gun turrets, the fully pressurized crew cabin made bulky flight gear obsolete."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The current world record for longest time in flight within the performance competition rules, i.e. within of vertical distance, was set on 28 Aug 2018 by Chris Geiler (USA) with a time of 100.2\u00a0sec (1.67\u00a0min)\n;Highest altitude:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 20 and 21 April 2012, Colombian skydiver Jhonathan Florez set Guinness World Records in wingsuit flying. The jumps took place in La Guajira in Colombia. The longest (duration) wingsuit flight was 9\u00a0minutes, 6\u00a0seconds"
      },
      {
        "title": "G-suit",
        "text": "The first g-suits were developed by a team led by Wilbur R. Franks at the University of Toronto's Banting and Best Medical Institute in 1941. The suits were manufactured by the Dunlop company and first used operationally in 1942 by the Fleet Air Arm (FAA) during Operation Torch. These devices used water filled bladders around the legs and two\" 'Mk.' \"versions (or Marks) were developed:\n* Franks Mark I suits were used by RAF Hurricane and Spitfire pilots;\n* Franks Mark II suits were used by the United States Army Air Forces and Royal Canadian Air Force pilots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flying wing",
        "text": "Following the arrival of supersonic aircraft during the 1950s, military interest in the flying wing was quickly curtailed, as the concept of adopting a thick wing that accommodated the crew and equipment directly conflicted with the optimal thin wing for supersonic flight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow",
        "text": "Avro submitted their modified C105 design in May 1953, essentially a two-man version of the C104/2. A change to a \"shoulder-mounted\" wing allowed rapid access to the aircraft's internals, weapons bay, and engines. The new design also allowed the wing to be built as a single structure sitting on the upper fuselage, simplifying construction and improving strength. The wing design and positioning required a long main landing gear that still had to fit within the thin delta wing, presenting an engineering challenge. Five different wing sizes were outlined in the report, ranging between ; the sized version was eventually selected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Delta wing",
        "text": "During and after WWII, Francis and Gertrude Rogallo developed the idea of a flexible wing which could be collapsed for storage. Francis saw an application in spacecraft recovery and NASA became interested. In 1961 Ryan flew the XV-8, an experimental \"flying Jeep\" or \"fleep\". The flexible wing chosen for it was a delta and in use it billowed out into a double-cone profile which gave it aerodynamic stability. Although tested but ultimately never used for spacecraft recovery, this design soon became popular for hang gliders and ultra-light aircraft and has become known as the Rogallo wing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inflatable armbands",
        "text": "In October 1931, a design for water wings appeared in the magazine \"Modern Mechanix\". They were made of rubber, consisted of two parts, were worn on the upper arms, and inflated through a valve. They were first demonstrated in public on the beaches of Los Angeles, California, USA."
      },
      {
        "title": "2012 in aviation",
        "text": "22 September\n*A diamond formation involving 100 jumpers over Perris, California, sets a global record for the largest formation wingsuit jump. However, the record is set prior to the February 2015 establishment of judging criteria for official world record wingsuit formations by the F\u00e9d\u00e9ration A\u00e9ronautique Internationale, and therefore will be retired, with records thereafter being recognized under the new criteria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flight suit",
        "text": "Also, with the coming of jet flight came the development of the G-suit, a special kind of flight suit (worn alone or in combination with a traditional flight suit) that protected the wearer from the physical stress of acceleration by compressing the body to keep blood from pooling in the legs. As the pilot executed high-G combat maneuvers, his blood would literally be pulled from his head and shift downwards into his lower body, starving the brain of oxygen and causing a blackout. The G-suit was designed to allow some retention of blood in the pilot's head, allowing him to execute high-G turns for sustained periods of time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Delta wing",
        "text": "Triangular stabilizing fins for rockets were described as early as 1529-1556 by the Austrian military engineer Conrad Haas and in the 17th century by the Polish-Lithuanian military engineer Kazimierz Siemienowicz. However, a true lifting wing in delta form did not appear until 1867, when it was patented by J.W. Butler and E. Edwards in a design for a low-aspect-ratio, dart-shaped rocket-propelled aeroplane. This innovation was soon followed by several other proposals, such as a biplane version by Butler and Edwards, and a jet-propelled version by the Russian Nicholas de Telescheff."
      },
      {
        "title": "2012 in aviation",
        "text": "23 May\n*Using a wingsuit in a jump over Ridge Wood, Buckinghamshire, England, British stuntman Gary Connery becomes the first person in history to jump from a great height and land safely without deploying a parachute. Jumping from an altitude of 2,400 feet (732 meters), he reduces his speed from 50 miles per hour (80\u00a0km/h) to 15 miles per hour (24\u00a0km/hr) by flaring his wingsuit about 200 feet (61 meters) from his landing zone, a 350-foot-by-45-foot (107-meter-by-13.7-meter) crushable \"runway\" up to 12 feet (3.7 meters) deep constructed with 18,600 cardboard boxes at Temple Island Meadows. His wingsuit begins to fly about three seconds after he begins his jump, and he travels nearly one mile (1.6\u00a0km) and reaches a maximum speed of over 80 miles per hour (129\u00a0km/hr) during his flight."
      },
      {
        "title": "EFF Prometheus",
        "text": "Design work on the Prometheus 19 began in about 1971 and construction was started in 1975, leading to a first flight on 22 June 1978. Its wing had a single aluminium spar and was skinned with plywood infilled with glass fibre/foam sandwich. It was fitted with flaperons for lateral control and lift generation, combined with DFS-type airbrakes operating only from the upper wing surface."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuits can perform a flare in which airspeed is exchanged for additional lift. By first diving to build up speed, modern wingsuits can flare enough to gain altitude, but only for a short period of time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Batsuit",
        "text": "Batman's usage of the cape as a mode of transportation differed over the years. A hang-glider version of this concept was presented in \"Batman Returns\", in which a harness folds out of the cape to make it a rigid wing-like structure, then folds back when the wearer rolls forward on the ground after landing. In the show \"Justice League\" Batman ejected from the Batplane with his cape acting as a parachute using a harness. In the 2005 film \"Batman Begins\", the cape was also used as a sort of wingsuit; when an electric current was applied to the cape, the shape-memory fibers (much like Shape memory polymer) aligned into a semi-rigid form resembling a bat's wings, allowing Batman to glide over the streets and rooftops of Gotham. After Dick Grayson took over the identity of Batman, he and Damian Wayne, the new Robin and Bruce Wayne's biological son, developed a \"para-cape\" for their costumes which gives them an ability to glide. However, at the beginning, Grayson finds that the new cape has too much weight. The also gave Batman the same gliding ability as in \"Batman Begins\", while the 2022 film \"The Batman\" showed a version of the cape that\u2014with the pull of a wire trigger\u2014could turn into an actual wingsuit."
      },
      {
        "title": "VKK flight suit",
        "text": "The 1970s saw the replacement of VKK-4 with the VKK-6. Major differences were replacements of just one zipper on one shoulder, abdominal bladder system as opposed to a hose, and changes to the chest size for enhanced comfort and ease of entry. Additionally, more zips and lace were added for a better fit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abner Jenkins",
        "text": "As the Beetle, he designed and wore a suit of full body powered armor that granted him superhuman strength and durability and artificial winged flight. The suit's gloves contained pneumatic suction-grippers, enabling him to cling to walls or lift things with his fingertips. The suit could also create an electrostatic energy discharge referred to as the \"electro-bite\". On the back of the suit are a set of ultra-tough mylar wings powered by super efficient micro-motors which enable him to fly. Antennae built into the suit's helmet allowed reception and ultra-efficient conversion of microwaves, providing the suit with a constantly replenishing power supply. A mini-computer built into the chest-plate feeds data to heads-up displays in the helmet, providing him with constantly updated tactical analysis of his opponent's movements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flight suit",
        "text": "With the era of jet flight and improved focus on safety; however, fully fire-retardant materials were required. It was also simpler to make a one-piece suit when it would potentially have to fit over existing clothing or various types of under-garments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mechanical counterpressure suit",
        "text": "Late in 1959 Mauch Laboratories was granted a contract by the US Air Force to develop a working model, as part of the Air Force's secret X-20 Dynasoar efforts. The program ran until 1962, during which time NASA had joined the effort. The suit was built with a layer of foam sandwiched between two layers of fabric, the inner against the wearer's skin (or undergarments) to provide mechanical support, and the outer providing containment. A separate, and bulky, helmet provided pressure and breathing gases. Like the undergarments that Mauch was developing for Mercury, thermal control was provided by direct sweat transpiration through the fabric. The resulting suit was about as bulky as the original Mercury design, excluding the large helmet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Insect flight",
        "text": "In 1990, J. W. H. Trueman proposed that the wing was adapted from endites and exites, appendages on the respective inner and outer aspects of the primitive arthropod limb, also called the pleural hypothesis. This was based on a study by Goldschmidt in 1945 on \"Drosophila melanogaster\", in which a variation called \"pod\" (for podomeres, limb segments) displayed a mutation that transformed normal wings. The result was interpreted as a triple-jointed leg arrangement with some additional appendages but lacking the tarsus, where the wing's costal surface would normally be. This mutation was reinterpreted as strong evidence for a dorsal exite and endite fusion, rather than a leg, with the appendages fitting in much better with this hypothesis. The innervation, articulation and musculature required for the evolution of wings are already present in the limb segments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clem Sohn",
        "text": "He made the wings from zephyr cloth mounted on steel tubes, forming a large web under each arm which was clasped to his hips. A feature of the wings was a device to prevent them from opening out too far and ripping his arms from their sockets. A loose cloth formed another web between his legs, which acted like a bird's tail. His large goggles gave him an appearance which led to his becoming known as \"The Batman\" or \"The Batwing Jumper\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hornet (comics)",
        "text": "Eddie McDonough's Hornet costume had a jet-powered wing harness that enabled Eddie to fly at high speeds. Micro-servos in the armored suit enhanced his strength to superhuman levels. His gauntlets contained wrist blasters that could fire darts filled with a fast-acting sedative, or powerful laser-beams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Eagle (character)",
        "text": "Blue Eagle wears a specially designed flying suit of synthetic stretch fabric equipped with artificial wings on his back enabling natural winged flight, that was designed by his father James Dore Sr. (the original American Eagle) and his mother Adrian Dore. These wings had a \"anti-gravity effect\" that allowed Dore to fly."
      },
      {
        "title": "G-suit",
        "text": "With the development of higher speed monoplane fighters in the late 1930s, acceleration forces during combat became more severe. As early as 1940 some aircraft had foot-rests above the rudder pedals so that the pilot's feet and legs could be raised during combat in an attempt to minimize the negative effects of high speed turns. Large rudder deflections were often not necessary during such manoeuvres, but being able to cut inside the opponent's turning radius was."
      },
      {
        "title": "BFGoodrich",
        "text": "In 1934, BFGoodrich produced a prototype for a pressure suit to be worn by airplane pilot Wiley Post at high altitudes. This first prototype was made mostly of rubber, with the exception being the metal helmet and waist strap. The prototype suit was pressurized in an initial test, but it did not hold pressure as it was expected to. With improvements to the concept, a second prototype was made, using the same helmet, which successfully maintained pressurization. The second suit was successful, at least in holding pressure. The suit had shrunk around Post's body and was removed by cutting the suit apart. One year later, in 1935, another prototype was produced and is said to be the first practical pressure suit in the United States. Piloting his plane, the \u201cWinnie Mae\u201d, Post was able to fly to an altitude of approximately 50,000 feet, where he discovered the jet stream, paving the way for modern flight procedures. From this point forward, the suit created by BFGoodrich served as pattern for modern pressurized space suits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Falcon (comics)",
        "text": "Wilson's original Falcon wing harness featured detachable jet-powered glider wings made of lightweight titanium ribbing and Mylar. The wings were covered with wafer-thin solar power receptors that convert sunlight into electricity to power miniature high-speed electric turbine fans in his uniform and boots. The wings detached and reattached to his uniform cybernetically. The harness was destroyed in \"Captain America and the Falcon\" #2 (2004). The uniform was made of synthetic stretch fabric lined with a steel-alloy mesh."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trapezoidal wing",
        "text": "Lockheed continued to use the basic design on many of its aircraft proposals in the 1950s, including the Lockheed CL-400 Suntan and early versions of their supersonic transport designs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ryan XV-8",
        "text": "The Fleep began as the Flex-Wing. The Flex-Wing had four-wheel landing gear, a smaller nose section behind which the pilot sat, and a single vertical tail/rudder, whereas the Fleep had tricycle landing gear, a larger nose section and a V tail/rudder. The wing was a fabric delta-shaped Rogallo wing with a fold-able frame; the wing was attached to a pod-like cockpit on a four-wheeled cargo platform. It was tested with two tail configurations\u00a0\u2014 vertical fin and V-tail. The aircraft wing could be folded into a relatively small package for transport."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nieuport Madon",
        "text": "The tapered shoulder mounted wing was supported by lift struts attached to the landing gear, which featured an additional constant chord lifting area between the wheels. A section of wing root was cut away to improve downward visibility. The fuselage and wing were fabric covered. It was armed with two synchronized Vickers machine guns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A detailed study on wingsuit deaths completed primarily by the University of Colorado found that out of 180 studied fatalities, 97% launched from cliffs and another 1% from buildings. The vast-majority of these deaths were related to the use of the wingsuit, not to do with external sources. This makes aircraft descending a much less-deadly form of wingsuit flying, though deemed less extreme by fans of the sport."
      },
      {
        "title": "James DeLaurier",
        "text": "The team then went on to design and build an engine-powered human-carrying ornithopter, called \"The Great Flapper\", which took off from the ground and sustained flight on 8 July 2006. The thrust from the flapping wings was boosted by a model-aircraft jet engine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dry suit",
        "text": "In 1946 Jacques Cousteau developed a constant volume drysuit which was inflated by blowing air under the mask skirt into the hood of the suit. Valves in the hood, wrists, and ankles, allowed venting in most positions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Prior to this, the largest wingsuit formation recognized as meeting the criteria for a national record consisted of 68\u00a0wingsuit pilots, which set a U.S. national record at Lake Elsinore, California, on 12 November 2009. The largest global record was a diamond formation involving 100 wingsuit pilots at Perris, California, on 22 September 2012. These records have since been retired as they do not meet the current rules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Avim\u00e9ta 92",
        "text": "Its high, rectangular plan wing had constant thickness and was mounted without dihedral. It was built around two spars and its riveted skin, made of Schneider-Creusot's patented aluminium-iron alloy Alf\u00e9rium, was corrugated in the line of flight for stiffness. Narrow chord ailerons filled the whole trailing edge. The wing was braced on each side with parallel pairs of streamlined struts from the lower fuselage to the wing spars at about mid-span."
      },
      {
        "title": "Falcon (comics)",
        "text": "After the original flying harness's destruction in a 2004 storyline, the Black Panther supplied Falcon with a new costume and wings. An emitter array on Falcon's back creates holographic \"hard light\" wings with a maximum wingspan of up to . Controlled by a cybernetic link, the wings can be instantly reconfigured into \"dozens of different cruise configurations\". A \"magnetic drive\", in turn, provides the thrust needed to get Falcon airborne. The emitter also possesses GPS jamming devices that prevent satellite tracking, while the hard-light wings interfere with infra-red tracking. A vibranium microwave was added to the costume itself, making Falcon resistant to small arms fire. The entire system is controlled mentally through cybernetic circuitry in the Falcon's mask. The costume has in the past featured a hidden \"talon\", a cybernetically controlled grappling line built into the gauntlets of his costume which he uses to entangle opponents, hook objects or for swinging and climbing when his wings are detached. The costume's visors come equipped with various capabilities, including infrared lenses, giving him the ability to see objects by their infrared signature at night, magnification capabilities, and remote imaging sensors that allow a full 360 degree of vision when activated. The cowl also has a wideband receiver and transmitter with an unspecified range. The suit was originally built by the Black Panther, with costume modifications by Desmond Burrell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cruciform wing",
        "text": "Shortly after World War Two, the French company Matra began studies of a variable-geometry aircraft in which two sets of wings were provided, one for low-speed takeoff and landing, and the other for high-speed flight. Long-span wings for low speed flight were set at right angles to short-span wings for high-speed flight. One set lay horizontal for use as the lifting wings, while the other was set vertical. The supporting fuselage section could be rotated 90\u00b0 to swap them over, and the unused set of wings could be folded backwards and partially or wholly retracted into the fuselage. It was patented by Matra's chief designer, Robert Roger, in 1946."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pressure suit",
        "text": "In 1934, aviator Wiley Post, working with Russell S. Colley of the B.F. Goodrich Company, produced the world's first practical pressure suit. The suit's body had three layers: long underwear, a rubber air pressure bladder, and an outer suit of rubberized parachute fabric which was attached to a frame with arm and leg joints that allowed Post to operate aircraft controls and to walk to and from the aircraft. Attached to the frame were pigskin gloves, rubber boots, and an aluminum and plastic helmet with a removable faceplate that could accommodate earphones and a throat microphone. In the first flight using the suit on September 5, 1934, Post reached an altitude of 40,000 feet above Chicago, and in later flights reached 50,000 feet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Exiting from a BASE jumping site, such as a cliff, requires a different technique. In these situations, a vertical drop using the forces of gravity generates the airspeed that wingsuits need to generate lift. This is also the case when exiting from a helicopter, a paraglider, or a hot air balloon. Unlike when exiting an airplane, it takes time to build up airspeed to inflate the wingsuit and provide aerodynamic control. So exiting the cliff in a proper orientation is critical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flying wing",
        "text": "In the United States, from the 1930s Jack Northrop and Cheston L. Eshelman independently worked on their own designs. The Northrop N-1M, a scale prototype for a long-range bomber, first flew in 1940. The Eshelman FW-5, which was commonly referred to as \"The Wing\", was an experimental cabin monoplane. Other 1930s examples of true flying wings include Frenchman Charles Fauvel's AV3 glider of 1933 and the American Freel Flying Wing glider flown in 1937. featuring a self-stabilizing airfoil on a straight wing."
      },
      {
        "title": "JPM 01 M\u00e9doc",
        "text": "Almost thirty years after its introduction the aircraft was redesigned and lightened, gaining slotted flaps to reduce stall speed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fixed-wing aircraft",
        "text": "The flying wing configuration was studied extensively in the 1930s and 1940s, notably by Jack Northrop and Cheston L. Eshelman in the United States, and Alexander Lippisch and the Horten brothers in Germany."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What year was the wing suit developed?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The first wingsuit was made in 1912 by Franz Reichelt, the modern wingsuit was first developed in the mid-1990's by Patrick de Gayardon. The first wingsuit to be made commercially available to all skydivers was created in 1999 by Jari Kuosma and Robert Pecnik.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I couldn't find an exact date, but I did find that a wingsuit was first used in the US in 1930 by a 19-year-old American, Rex G Finney of Los Angeles, California."
    ],
    "topic": "Wingsuit flying",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Wingsuit flying:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wingsuit flying",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "An early attempt at wingsuit flying was made on 4 February 1912 by a 33-year-old tailor, Franz Reichelt, who jumped from the Eiffel Tower to test his invention of a combination of parachute and wing, which was similar to modern wingsuits. He misled the guards by saying that the experiment was going to be conducted with a dummy. He hesitated quite a long time before he jumped, and died when he hit the ground head first, opening a measurable hole in the frozen ground."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Wingsuit flying:7",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wingsuit flying",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the mid-1990s, the modern wingsuit was developed by Patrick de Gayardon of France, adapted from the model used by John Carta. In 1997, the Bulgarian Sammy Popov designed and built a wingsuit that had a larger wing between the legs and longer wings on the arms. He tested his prototype in a vertical wind tunnel in Las Vegas at Flyaway Las Vegas. Popov's wingsuit first flew in October 1998, but never went into commercial production. In 1998, Chuck \"Da Kine\" Priest' built a version that incorporated hard ribs inside the wing airfoils. Although these more rigid wings were better able to keep their shape in flight, this made the wingsuit heavier and more difficult to fly. Raggs' design also never went into commercial production. Flying together for the first time, Popov and Raggs showcased their designs side by side at the World Free-fall Convention at Quincy, Illinois, in August 1999. Both designs performed well. At the same event, jumpers performed formation wingsuit skydives with de Gayardon's, Popov's, and Raggs' suits."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Wingsuit flying:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wingsuit flying",
          "History",
          "Commercial era"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 1999, Jari Kuosma of Finland and Robert Pe\u010dnik of Croatia teamed up to create a wingsuit that was safe and accessible to all skydivers. Kuosma established Bird-Man International Ltd. the same year. BirdMan's \"Classic\", designed by Pe\u010dnik, was the first wingsuit offered to the general skydiving public. BirdMan was the first manufacturer to develop an instructor program. Created by Kuosma, the instructor program's aim was to remove the stigma that wingsuits were dangerous and to provide wingsuit beginners (generally, skydivers with a minimum of 200\u00a0jumps) with a way to safely enjoy what was once considered the most dangerous feat in the skydiving world. With the help of Birdman instructors Scott Campos, Chuck Blue, and Kim Griffin, a standardized program of instruction was developed that prepared instructors. Wingsuit manufacturers Squirrel Wingsuits, TonySuits Wingsuits, Phoenix-Fly, Fly Your Body, and Nitro Rigging have also instituted coach training programs."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Wingsuit flying:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wingsuit flying",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "A wingsuit was first used in the US in 1930 by a 19-year-old American, Rex G Finney of Los Angeles, California. The goal was to increase horizontal movement and maneuverability during a parachute jump. These early wingsuits used materials such as canvas, wood, silk, steel, and whalebone. They were not very reliable, although some \"birdmen\", such as Clem Sohn and Leo Valentin, claimed to have glided for miles."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A wingsuit was first used in the US in 1930 by a 19-year-old American, Rex G Finney of Los Angeles, California. The goal was to increase horizontal movement and maneuverability during a parachute jump. These early wingsuits used materials such as canvas, wood, silk, steel, and whalebone. They were not very reliable, although some \"birdmen\", such as Clem Sohn and Leo Valentin, claimed to have glided for miles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "As compared to skydiving from an airplane, BASE jumping involves jumping from a \"fixed object\" such as a cliff. BASE jumping in its modern form has existed since at least 1978, but it was not until 1997 that Patrick de Gayardon made some of the first-ever wingsuit BASE jumps combining the two disciplines. Compared to normal BASE jumping, wingsuit BASE jumping allows pilots to fly far away from the cliffs they jumped from, and drastically increase their freefall time before deploying a parachute. Since 2003, many BASE jumpers have started using wingsuits, giving birth to wingsuit BASE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Modern wingsuits use a combination of materials in order to create an airfoil shape. The main surface is typically made from ripstop nylon, with various materials used to reinforce the leading edge, and reduce drag.\n* The tri-wing wingsuit has three individual ram-air wings attached under the arms and between the legs.\n* The mono-wing wingsuit design incorporates the whole suit into one large wing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "An early attempt at wingsuit flying was made on 4 February 1912 by a 33-year-old tailor, Franz Reichelt, who jumped from the Eiffel Tower to test his invention of a combination of parachute and wing, which was similar to modern wingsuits. He misled the guards by saying that the experiment was going to be conducted with a dummy. He hesitated quite a long time before he jumped, and died when he hit the ground head first, opening a measurable hole in the frozen ground."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "As suit technology and pilot skill have improved, wingsuit BASE jumpers have learned to control their flight so that they can fly just meters away from terrain. \u201cProximity flying\u201d is the practice of flying a wingsuit close to the faces and ridges of mountains. Flying near terrain gives a greater sense of speed due to having a close visual reference. Loic Jean-Albert of France is one of the first proximity flyers, and his pioneering flying brought many BASE jumpers into the sport. In November 2012, Alexander Polli became the first wingsuit BASE jumper to successfully strike a wingsuit target. Alexander Polli died August 22, 2016 in a wingsuit accident, after crashing into a tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Like all skydiving disciplines, a wingsuit flight almost always ends by deploying a parachute, and so a wingsuit can be flown from any point that provides sufficient altitude for flight and parachute deployment \u2013 a drop aircraft, or BASE-jump exit point such as a tall cliff or mountain top. The wingsuit flier wears parachuting equipment specially designed for skydiving or BASE jumping. While the parachute flight is normal, the canopy pilot must unzip arm wings (after deployment) to be able to reach the steering parachute toggles and control the descent path."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Exiting from a BASE jumping site, such as a cliff, requires a different technique. In these situations, a vertical drop using the forces of gravity generates the airspeed that wingsuits need to generate lift. This is also the case when exiting from a helicopter, a paraglider, or a hot air balloon. Unlike when exiting an airplane, it takes time to build up airspeed to inflate the wingsuit and provide aerodynamic control. So exiting the cliff in a proper orientation is critical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 23 May 2012, British stuntman Gary Connery safely landed a wingsuit without deploying his parachute, landing on a crushable \"runway\" (landing zone) built with thousands of cardboard boxes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "In the mid-1990s, the modern wingsuit was developed by Patrick de Gayardon of France, adapted from the model used by John Carta. In 1997, the Bulgarian Sammy Popov designed and built a wingsuit that had a larger wing between the legs and longer wings on the arms. He tested his prototype in a vertical wind tunnel in Las Vegas at Flyaway Las Vegas. Popov's wingsuit first flew in October 1998, but never went into commercial production. In 1998, Chuck \"Da Kine\" Priest' built a version that incorporated hard ribs inside the wing airfoils. Although these more rigid wings were better able to keep their shape in flight, this made the wingsuit heavier and more difficult to fly. Raggs' design also never went into commercial production. Flying together for the first time, Popov and Raggs showcased their designs side by side at the World Free-fall Convention at Quincy, Illinois, in August 1999. Both designs performed well. At the same event, jumpers performed formation wingsuit skydives with de Gayardon's, Popov's, and Raggs' suits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Military aircraft",
        "text": "Many civil aircraft, both fixed wing and rotary wing, have been produced in separate models for military use, such as the civilian Douglas DC-3 airliner, which became the military C-47 Skytrain, and British \"Dakota\" transport planes, and decades later, the USAF's AC-47 aerial gunships. Even the fabric-covered two-seat Piper J3 Cub had a military version. Gliders and balloons have also been used as military aircraft; for example, balloons were used for observation during the American Civil War and during World War I, and military gliders were used during World War II to deliver ground troops in airborne assaults."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "As of 2010, there have been experimental powered wingsuits, often using small jet engines strapped to the feet or a wingpack setup to allow for even greater horizontal speeds and even vertical ascent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A wingsuit pilot enters free fall wearing both a wingsuit and parachute equipment. The details of a wingsuit launch depend on whether it is a skydive from an aircraft, or a BASE jump from a fixed object."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The current Guinness World Record for \"greatest absolute distance flown in a wing suit\" is 32.094\u00a0km (19.94\u00a0mi) set by Kyle Lobpries (USA) in Davis, CA 30 May 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A wingsuit BASE jump begins by jumping from a cliff. Within seconds, air inflates the suit into a semi-rigid airfoil shape. By holding a proper body position, the wingsuit flier is able to glide forward at a ratio of 3:1, meaning that they are moving forward three feet for every foot of descent (or 3 meters for every meter of descent)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Some concerns regarding the nature of wingsuit flying exist due to injuries and death. The French government banned wingsuit flying multiple times following the deaths of French pilots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vincent Reffet",
        "text": "He was also a pilot of the jet-powered wingsuit developed by Jetman Dubai. Some sources describe him as having been a \"prot\u00e9g\u00e9 of well-known jet daredevil Yves Rossy\" who also used a \"four-engine, carbon-Kevlar wing strapped to their backs\". According to CNN, the \"wingsuit is powered by four mini jet engines.. [and] allows pilots to control rotations around the yaw axis at zero speeds. Pilots can hover, stop, turn and maneuver, even performing rolls and loops\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gary Connery",
        "text": "Landing in a wingsuit without using a parachute had been one of Jeb Corliss's main objectives since 2010. Corliss and other top-level wingsuit jumpers had tried for years to design wingsuits similar to the one which Connery helped design and subsequently used for his record-setting leap."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuit flying (or wingsuiting) is the sport of skydiving using a webbing-sleeved jumpsuit called a wingsuit to add wetted area to the diver's body and generate increased lift, which allows extended air time by gliding flight rather than just free falling. The modern wingsuit, first developed in the late 1990s, uses a pair of fabric membranes stretched flat between the arms and flanks/thighs to imitate an airfoil, and often also between the legs to function as a tail and allow some aerial steering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuits are sometimes referred to as \"birdman suits\" (after the brand name of the makers of the first commercial wingsuit), \"squirrel suits\" (from their resemblance to flying squirrels' wing membrane), and \"bat suits\" (due to their resemblance to bat wings or perhaps the comicbook superhero's battle costume)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 25 October 2009, in Lahti, Finland, Visa Parviainen jumped from a hot air balloon in a wingsuit with two small turbojet engines attached to his feet. The engines provided approximately 160\u00a0N (16\u00a0kgf, 35\u00a0lbf) of thrust each and ran on JET A-1 fuel. Parviainen achieved approximately 30\u00a0seconds of horizontal flight with no noticeable loss of altitude. Parviainen continued jumping from hot air balloons and helicopters, including one for the \"Stunt Junkies\" program on Discovery Channel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A detailed study on wingsuit deaths completed primarily by the University of Colorado found that out of 180 studied fatalities, 97% launched from cliffs and another 1% from buildings. The vast-majority of these deaths were related to the use of the wingsuit, not to do with external sources. This makes aircraft descending a much less-deadly form of wingsuit flying, though deemed less extreme by fans of the sport."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Matt Gerdes, wingsuit tester at the Squirrel wingsuit company claims that wingsuit fatalities are on the rise because the experience of becoming a wingsuit pilot is becoming less personal as many for-profit BASE jumping instructors are allowing some students to skip steps and start testing out wingsuits after fewer and fewer regular parachute jumps. With little oversight from the government, \"...instruction in some courses turns out poorly-prepared jumpers who unwittingly skip steps on their way to flying high-performance wingsuits.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Prop and Wings",
        "text": "The prop and wings were also widely used by the French Aeronautique Militaire. Adopted in 1912 for aviation officers and non-commissioned officers to be worn on an armband, it was often attached, instead, directly on the arm of their tunic or blouse. As worn by officers, it was embroidered in gold or silver wire and adorned with sequins on a black or light blue background. Aviation NCO's would have a rendering in red and white or gold silk. Initially worn by both flying and non flying aviation personnel, its wear was limited, in 1915, to flying personnel only."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Christian Stadler from Germany invented the \"VegaV3 wingsuit system\" that uses an electronic adjustable hydrogen peroxide rocket. The rocket provides 1000\u00a0Newtons (100\u00a0kgf) of thrust and produces no flames or poisonous fumes. His first successful powered wingsuit jump was in 2007, when he reached horizontal speeds of over 255\u00a0km/h (160\u00a0mph)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian Defence Force Parachuting School",
        "text": "The Boeing CH-47 Chinook helicopter was used for training from 1973 to 1986 and the Bell UH-1 Iroquois helicopter was used from 1974 to 1990 for freefall only training."
      },
      {
        "title": "Delta wing",
        "text": "During and after WWII, Francis and Gertrude Rogallo developed the idea of a flexible wing which could be collapsed for storage. Francis saw an application in spacecraft recovery and NASA became interested. In 1961 Ryan flew the XV-8, an experimental \"flying Jeep\" or \"fleep\". The flexible wing chosen for it was a delta and in use it billowed out into a double-cone profile which gave it aerodynamic stability. Although tested but ultimately never used for spacecraft recovery, this design soon became popular for hang gliders and ultra-light aircraft and has become known as the Rogallo wing."
      },
      {
        "title": "2012 in aviation",
        "text": "23 May\n*Using a wingsuit in a jump over Ridge Wood, Buckinghamshire, England, British stuntman Gary Connery becomes the first person in history to jump from a great height and land safely without deploying a parachute. Jumping from an altitude of 2,400 feet (732 meters), he reduces his speed from 50 miles per hour (80\u00a0km/h) to 15 miles per hour (24\u00a0km/hr) by flaring his wingsuit about 200 feet (61 meters) from his landing zone, a 350-foot-by-45-foot (107-meter-by-13.7-meter) crushable \"runway\" up to 12 feet (3.7 meters) deep constructed with 18,600 cardboard boxes at Temple Island Meadows. His wingsuit begins to fly about three seconds after he begins his jump, and he travels nearly one mile (1.6\u00a0km) and reaches a maximum speed of over 80 miles per hour (129\u00a0km/hr) during his flight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "At a planned altitude above the ground in which a skydiver or BASE jumper typically deploys the parachute, wingsuit fliers will also deploy their parachutes. Before deployment, pilots adjust their flight configuration by flaring to reduce their air speed. The pilot then reaches back and throws a pilot chute to initiate the parachute deployment sequence. The parachute is flown to a controlled landing at the desired landing spot using typical skydiving or BASE jumping techniques."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuit flying\n--History.\n----Commercial era.\n--Technique.\n----Launch.\n----Glide.\n----Flare.\n----Deployment.\n----Record-keeping.\n--Suit design.\n--Wingsuit BASE.\n--Further technical developments.\n----Jet-powered wingsuits.\n----Wingpack.\n--Training.\n--Records.\n----Wingsuit formation records.\n----Wingsuit BASE jump records.\n----Wingsuit flight records.\n--Safety.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Baynes Bat",
        "text": "In the late 1930s, armies were looking for a way to airlift heavy military units. There were then no cargo aircraft big enough to lift a tank, and even if such a large aircraft had been created it would have needed many special facilities. A solution which was explored during the Second World War was to tow tanks as gliders, and for this wings had to be added. Most designs were based on straight wings with extended empennage and stabilizers. The design of L.E. Baynes AFRAeS in 1941 was for a 100\u00a0ft wingspan \"Carrier Wing Glider\" consisting chiefly of a swept wing with vertical stabilizers on the wingtips."
      },
      {
        "title": "Military tactics",
        "text": "Parachute and glider operations and rotary-wing aircraft have provided significant mobility to ground forces but the reduced mobility, protection and firepower of troops delivered by air once landed has limited the tactical utility of such vertical envelopment or air assault operations. This was demonstrated during Operation Market Garden in September 1944, and during the Vietnam War, in the latter case despite the additional firepower provided by helicopter gunships and the ability quickly to remove casualties, provided by aeromedical evacuation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The biggest wingsuit BASE jump as measured from exit to landing was performed on 11 August 2013 by Patrick Kerber with a height of off the Jungfrau in Switzerland.\n;Fastest:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chindits",
        "text": "Wingate trained this force as long-range penetration units that were to be supplied by stores parachuted or dropped from transport aircraft and were to use close air support as a substitute for heavy artillery. They would penetrate the jungle on foot, essentially relying on surprise through mobility to target enemy lines of communication (a tactic that the Japanese had previously used in 1942 to great effect against British forces in Singapore and Burma)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soldado de cuera",
        "text": "The (flying companies) raised in 1767 were used as a mobile reserve, but had the same equipment as the normal companies. The (light troops) raised in 1778, did not use the leather armor, the shield or the lance, but were otherwise equipped like normal except their hats were white. The normal strength of the light troops were 19 per company. In Santa Fe they were commanded by a second ensign with 450 pesos annually in pay, and a second sergeant with 320 pesos; light dragoon privates received 216 pesos annually."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuit BASE jumping carries additional risk beyond a wingsuit skydive. Jumping from a fixed object means starting with low airspeed which requires different flying positions and skills. During the flight, hazards exist such as trees, rocks and the ground which must be avoided. While skydivers typically carry two parachutes, a main and a reserve, wingsuit BASE jumpers typically only carry one BASE-specific parachute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jet aircraft",
        "text": "Jet-powered wingsuits exist - powered by model aircraft jet engines - but of short duration and needing to be launched at height."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fixed-wing aircraft",
        "text": "Military gliders were developed and used in several campaigns, but they did not become widely used due to the high casualty rate often encountered. The Focke-Achgelis Fa 330 \"Bachstelze\" (Wagtail) rotor kite of 1942 was notable for its use by German submarines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parachuting",
        "text": "'Wingsuit flying' or 'wingsuiting' is the sport of flying through the air using a wingsuit, which adds surface area to the human body to enable a significant increase in lift. The common type of wingsuit creates an extra surface area with fabric between the legs and under the arms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Wynnyk",
        "text": "He was a qualified Paratrooper and as such wore the Canadian Forces Jump Wings with Red Maple Leaf<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A wingsuit modifies the body area exposed to wind to increase the desired amount of lift and drag generated by the body. With training, wingsuit pilots can achieve sustained glide ratio of 3:1 or more. This means that for every meter dropped, three meters are gained moving forward. By adjusting body configuration, fliers can alter both their forward speed and fall rate. The pilot manipulates these flight characteristics by changing the shape of the torso, de-arching and rolling the shoulders and moving hips and knees, and by changing the angle of attack in which the wingsuit flies in the relative wind, and by the amount of tension applied to the fabric wings of the suit. The absence of a vertical stabilizing surface results in little damping around the yaw axis, so poor flying technique can result in a spin that requires active effort on the part of the skydiver to stop."
      },
      {
        "title": "2012 in aviation",
        "text": "22 September\n*A diamond formation involving 100 jumpers over Perris, California, sets a global record for the largest formation wingsuit jump. However, the record is set prior to the February 2015 establishment of judging criteria for official world record wingsuit formations by the F\u00e9d\u00e9ration A\u00e9ronautique Internationale, and therefore will be retired, with records thereafter being recognized under the new criteria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flying wing",
        "text": "Since the end of the Cold War, numerous unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) featuring the flying wing have been produced. Nations have typically used such platforms for aerial reconnaissance; such UAVs include the Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel, the Northrop Grumman Tern, and the Nanning Huishi Flying wing. Civilian companies have also experimented with UAVs, such as the Facebook Aquila, as atmospheric satellites. Various prototype unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs) have been produced, including the Dassault nEUROn, the Sukhoi S-70 Okhotnik-B, and the BAE Systems Taranis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Beginner wingsuits have less surface area and lower internal pressure. This makes them easier to control and less likely to go unstable in flight. Less fabric material makes it easier to deploy the pilot chute at the end of the flight. With experience, pilots can choose to upgrade to more advanced suits that have more surface area and increased glide performance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Structure of the Belgian Armed Forces",
        "text": "The 2nd Tactical Wing is one of two Air Component fighter wings and operates F-16AM Falcon fighters, which will be replaced by F-35A Lightning II from 2023.\n* 2nd Tactical Wing, at Florennes Air Base\n** Flying Group\n*** 1st Squadron (Close air support and reconnaissance), with F-16AM Falcon\n*** 350th Squadron (Air superiority), with F-16AM Falcon\n** Maintenance Group\n** Defense and Support Group"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A 2010 redesign tested in a wind tunnel by the 8th Conference of the International Sports Engineering Association (ISEA) found that adding material to the wingsuit between the head/helmet area and connecting it to the wrist, thus increasing upper wings' size, would \"...lower lift-to-drag ratio in most testing scenarios. The decrease in lift-to-drag ratio was due to the combination of an increased lift and a higher increased drag.\" Other innovations in the late 2000s and early 2010's helped increase the glide ratio further."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flight suit",
        "text": "Where bomber pilots could wear their service uniforms as flight gear, fighter pilots needed a uniform that functioned in the tight confines of the typical fighter plane cockpit. The AN-S-31 flight suit was developed for the US Army Air Corps and featured two button-down breast pockets and two button-down shin pockets that could be accessed from the sitting position. The US Navy used a slightly different model that featured slanted pockets with zippers. The material used was either wool or tight-weave cotton for wind resistance and fire protection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuits can perform a flare in which airspeed is exchanged for additional lift. By first diving to build up speed, modern wingsuits can flare enough to gain altitude, but only for a short period of time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bazooka",
        "text": "Following Operation Overlord in 1944, the military version of the slow-flying Piper J-3 Cub high-wing civilian monoplane, the L-4 Grasshopper, began to be used in a light anti-armor role by a few U.S. Army artillery spotter units over France; these aircraft were field-outfitted with either two or four bazookas attached to the lift struts, against German armored fighting vehicles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pace-Finletter MOU 1952",
        "text": "\"...that established a fixed wing weight limit (for the Army) of five thousand pounds empty, but weight restrictions on helicopters were eliminated ...\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Milton Rubenfeld",
        "text": "Of course there was no time to consider trifles, such as the fact that [the Avia S-199's] had never taken off, or even been tested in flight, their parts had not been checked, no one knew whether their systems functioned or if their machine-guns fired. No one was sure that their bombs \"would\" drop\u2014or that their wings \"wouldn't\". These questions had to be shoved aside... We swung out to sea ... and swooped towards the Egyptian column. The sight took my breath away... [Not much] stood between it and Tel Aviv... I must confess I had a profound sense of fulfilling a great mission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Swiss Air Force",
        "text": "With the threat of WW2 and the possible need for the army and civilian population to retreat into the mountains (Reduit) as proposed by General Guisan, it was clear that the army air force needed the ability to attack enemy ground forces in the mountains. To practice this Axalp was selected. After WW2 Ground attack by jet aircraft was practiced at Axalp, including strafing and bombing exercises."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Flying a wingsuit can add considerable complexity to a skydive. So, according to the Skydivers' Information Manual, the United States Parachute Association requires that any jumper have a minimum of 200\u00a0freefall skydives before completing a wingsuit first jump course and making a wingsuit jump. Requirements in other nations are similar. Wingsuit manufacturers offer training courses and certify instructors, and also impose the minimum jump numbers required before purchasing a wingsuit. Wingsuit pilots start on smaller wingsuits with less surface area. With practice, pilots can learn to fly larger suits with more surface area, which allow for increased glide and airtime. Within the sport of wingsuit flying, there are many sub-disciplines that participants may pursue, including: acrobatic flying, performance flying, and wingsuit BASE jumping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Johnnie Johnson (RAF officer)",
        "text": "In \"rhubarb\" operations over France, Johnson's wing commander, Patrick Jameson, insisted that the line-astern formation be used which caused Johnson to question why tactics such as the finger-four had not been universally adopted. Johnson criticised the lack of tactical consistency and when his squadron flew top cover, he often changed to the finger-four as soon as they reached the French coast, hoping his wing leader would not notice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian Defence Force Parachuting School",
        "text": "In 1951, the school used the Douglas C-47 Dakota aircraft for training. The Lockheed C-130 Hercules entered service in 1962 followed by the de Havilland Canada DHC-4 Caribou in 1964 with the Dakota retired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Batsuit",
        "text": "The suit again has an external 'memory cloth' cape, but, now has the ability to fold into a backpack shape as demonstrated during the base-jump in Hong Kong. It is unclear in the film if once deployed, as a glider, it can return to this backpack shape automatically. According to costume designer Linda Hemming this backpack idea was developed, at the request of Christopher Nolan, as a fall back if the cape were to get caught up in the rear wheel of the Batpod in motion. However, the concept was not used in the Batpod sequences after the film crew realized they had failed to account for the motion of the Batpod blowing the cape behind the rider, keeping it free from the rear wheel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Another variation on which studies are being focused is the wingpack, which consists of a strap-on rigid wing made of carbon fibre."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uniforms of the Canadian Armed Forces",
        "text": "Canadian Armed Forces aircrew wear green flying suits as operational dress. The two-piece flying suit (originally worn only by tactical helicopter crews) and the one-piece coverall flying suit are worn interchangeably by most CF aircrew. Prior to the mid-2000s, the one-piece flying suit was blue and worn by all fixed-wing aircrew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parachutist Badge (United Kingdom)",
        "text": "SAS pattern parachute wings, designed by Lieutenant Jock Lewes and based on the stylised sacred Ibis wings of Isis of Egyptian iconography depicted in the d\u00e9cor of Shepheard's Hotel in Cairo, are worn on the right shoulder. During the second world war, after a qualifying number of active service \"jumps\", they were worn on the left breast above medal ribbons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aeros Combat",
        "text": "The wing is also used on the Aeros ANT nanotrike, as well as the Flylight Libelle and Flylight Motorfloater, British ultralight trikes, in its Combat T configuration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uniforms of the Luftwaffe (1935\u20131945)",
        "text": "The flying suit typically consisted of a beige jumpsuit, leather flying helmet and thick fur-lined boots. Black leather jackets were also worn by fighter pilots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marc Hauser (skydiver)",
        "text": "As skydiving suit he was wearing a thermal protection jumpsuit without wings (no wingsuit)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The air foil shape is formed by pressure inside the wing and the construction of the suit. Internal ribs help form the shape. Having a smooth leading edge is especially important as it is the source of most lift and most drag. Reducing inlet drag while maintaining high internal suit pressure is also important in modern wingsuit design. The number of air inlets and their positions vary on different suit designs. Suits which are focused on freestyle flight often have inlets on the back surface of the suit to maintain internal pressure when pilots are \"back flying\" in a face up orientation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lufttransport Staffel 7",
        "text": "In 1967 a first tranche of 12 Pilatus PC-6 Porters was procured. This version of the PC-6 H2M was still equipped with a piston engine. With the procurement from 1978 a second tranche of 6 new turbo-porters were bought and the piston engine-porter converted to PC-6 with turbo engine. At this times Dornier DO-27 were also used for Lufttransport Staffel 7. In earlier years, the \"Light Transport Squadron 7\" operated the Porter not only for dropping off the parachute reconnaissance troops, for fighting against forest fires, the aircraft could be converted with a water tank. But this was abandoned when the Alouette III and the Bambibucket made it possible to discard larger quantities more precisely. Even training sessions as spray aircraft with chemical substances for the AC exercise of troops could be carried out. However, this is no longer practiced today. Ever since, the Lufttransport Staffel 7 has also carried out its flight operations from temporary airfields. Its home base has been the Milit\u00e4rflugplatz Emmen since the year 2000, before was the military airfield St. Stephan the home base, but this is no more a military airbase."
      },
      {
        "title": "142nd Fighter Wing",
        "text": "After the inactivation of Aerospace Defense Command in 1979 and the reassignment to Tactical Air Command (ADTAC), the 123rd began receiving F-4C Phantom II aircraft used in the interceptor mission beginning in 1981. Success came again at William Tell 1984 when the unit placed first in the F-4 category flying the McDonnell-Douglas F-4C Phantom II and beat many of its F-15 Eagle and F-106 Delta Dart rivals in the overall competition. Majors Ron Moore and Bill Dejager were the overall F-4 \"Top Guns\" of the competition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nieuport Madon",
        "text": "The tapered shoulder mounted wing was supported by lift struts attached to the landing gear, which featured an additional constant chord lifting area between the wheels. A section of wing root was cut away to improve downward visibility. The fuselage and wing were fabric covered. It was armed with two synchronized Vickers machine guns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Exiting an aircraft in a wingsuit requires skills that differ depending on the location and size of the door. These techniques include the orientation relative to the aircraft and the airflow while exiting. It is also important that wingsuit pilots spread their legs and arms at the proper time to avoid hitting the tail or becoming unstable. The wingsuit immediately starts to fly upon exiting the aircraft in the relative wind generated by the forward speed of the aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubertec Thermik",
        "text": "An alternative version that fits a paraglider wing is also available, flying as a powered parachute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian Air Force (1920\u20131924)",
        "text": "While there appears to be two die sets of the most common version of these wings, an uncommon and distinct variety has drooped wings relative to the central portion. Some versions are marked with the name of the manufacturer, \"CaronBros\" on one wing tip of the back copper plate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flight suit",
        "text": "A flight suit is a full-body garment, worn while flying aircraft such as military airplanes, gliders and helicopters. These suits are generally made to keep the wearer warm, as well as being practical (plenty of pockets), and durable (including fire retardant). Its appearance is usually similar to a jumpsuit. A military flight suit may also show rank insignia. It is sometimes used as a combat uniform in close quarters battle or visit, board, search, and seizure situations, for its practicality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wet wing",
        "text": "The use of wet wings has become common among civilian designs, from large transport aircraft, such as airliners, to small general aviation aircraft. Several military aircraft, such as airlifters and aerial refueling tankers, have incorporated the technique as well. A number of strike aircraft, such as the Grumman A-6 Intruder, have also been furnished with wet wings. While it is technically feasible, studies have found it generally impractical to convert aircraft between wet wing and non-wet wing fuel storage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flying wing",
        "text": "Following the arrival of supersonic aircraft during the 1950s, military interest in the flying wing was quickly curtailed, as the concept of adopting a thick wing that accommodated the crew and equipment directly conflicted with the optimal thin wing for supersonic flight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jojo Wings",
        "text": "In 1994 the company also expended into constructing parachutes for civil and later military use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Potez 650",
        "text": "The French military high-command did not have grandiose plans for paratroopers, which did not fit well with its essentially defensive doctrine of the pre-World War II era. Because of this, only two paratrooper companies were formed, and never reached full theoretical strength, and only 15 Potez 650s were manufactured. They were not sufficient in numbers even for such a small number of men, so the big Farman 224 airliner which had just been refused by Air France was pressed into military service."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flying wedge",
        "text": "The wedge is still used in modern armies, especially by tanks and other armored units. An example of this is the \"Panzerkeil\" or \"armored wedge\" used by the Germans in World War II."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gary Connery",
        "text": "On 23 May 2012 Connery made his wingsuit jump from a helicopter flying at a height of over Ridge Wood in Buckinghamshire near his hometown of Henley-on-Thames, Oxfordshire. Coming back from California (Perris Valley) in 2003, where he did his first wingsuit flight, he said: \"that could be landed!\" and he went for a week to do wingsuit flight training at Empuriabrava on the coast of Spain, the largest dropzone in Europe. Before the final attempt, he had made two test flights landing with a parachute. He had also trained for weeks in Italy and Switzerland in preparation for the jump. He had to obtain permission from the Civil Aviation Authority for the dive. The flight was filmed by Mark Sutton."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Despite training and regulation, wingsuit BASE jumping remains a dangerous pastime, and fatalities occur regularly. A 2012 University of Colorado study found that in wingsuit BASE jumping, there was approximately one severe injury for every 500\u00a0jumps undertaken."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "F\u00e9d\u00e9ration A\u00e9ronautique Internationale (FAI), the world governing airsports body, established judging criteria for official world record wingsuit formations in February 2015. The rules are available on the FAI website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vincent Reffet",
        "text": "Vincent Reffet was a professional parachutist. He completed 17,000 parachute jumps and 1400 BASE jumps. He began wingsuit flying in 2002. He was a parachute instructor, \"Jetman\" pilot, licensed private pilot, wind tunnel instructor (totaling 1000 hours), and pioneer and instructor in speed riding. According to \"The Guardian\", in 2014, Reffet \"BASE jumped off the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, the world\u2019s tallest building at 828 metres (2,716ft), setting a world record\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinkel He 111",
        "text": "The initial reports from the test pilot, Gerhard Nitschke, were favourable. The He 111's flight performance and handling were impressive although it dropped its wing in the stall. As a result, the passenger variants had their wings reduced from 25\u00a0m (82\u00a0ft) to 23\u00a0m (75\u00a0ft). The military aircraft \u2013 V1, V3 and V5 \u2013 spanned just 22.6\u00a0m (74.1\u00a0ft)."
      },
      {
        "title": "76th Flying Training Wing (U.S. Army Air Forces)",
        "text": "The schools of the wing flew primarily B-17D/E/F Flying Fortresses. Some B-17Gs were flown after June 1944 when Second Air Force B-17 training ended. Some B-24D Liberators were also used"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caudron Type C",
        "text": "Two Type Cs were built and delivered to the military in November 1911. In July 1912 they were modified into sesquiplanes to ease their accommodation in field tents. The Type C appeared in the Caudron catalogue of 1912 in that form, with the upper wing overhang supported by parallel, outward leaning struts from the bases of the outer interplane struts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ch\u014djin Sentai Jetman",
        "text": "Based at the , a high-tech base provided by the Sky Force, the Jetmen are formed by five people who gain superhuman strength through exposure to Birdonic Waves: one intentionally and the other four accidentally. Each Jetman is equipped with a wingsuit uniform known as the that allows them to glide in the air, the right-handed Wing Gauntlet, a combat sword known as the Bringer Sword, and a handgun known as the Bird Blaster."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The current world record for longest horizontal distance covered within the performance competition rules, i.e. within of vertical distance, was set on 27 May 2017 by U.S. wingsuit pilot Alexey Galda with a distance of 5.137\u00a0km (3.19\u00a0mi)\n;Landing:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kopassus",
        "text": "The Kopassus (RPKAD) military freefall wing insignia, designed by HH.Djajadiningrat and first issued in 1962 depicts a free fall paratrooper hanging under a circle consisting of small parachutes. Stated by the first free fall instructors of the Yugoslavia: Mladen Milicetic, Stoyan Jovic and Dobel Stanej in Bandung during the first free fall graduation ceremony of Kopassus (RPKAD) on 26 October 1962."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wing (military unit)",
        "text": "In most Commonwealth air forces, as well as some others, a wing is usually made up of three or four squadrons. In these air forces a wing is inferior to a group. Originally all wings were usually commanded by a wing commander (equivalent to a lieutenant colonel). From World War II onwards, operational flying wings have usually been commanded by group captains (equivalent to colonels), whereas ground-based wings have continued to be commanded by wing commanders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fighter aircraft",
        "text": "Allied and\u00a0\u2013 before 1918\u00a0\u2013 German pilots of World War I were not equipped with parachutes, so in-flight fires or structural failures were often fatal. Parachutes were well-developed by 1918 having previously been used by balloonists, and were adopted by the German flying services during the course of that year. The well known and feared Manfred von Richthofen, the \"Red Baron\", was wearing one when he was killed, but the allied command continued to oppose their use on various grounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ryan XV-8",
        "text": "The XV-8 Flexible Wing Aerial Utility Vehicle (nicknamed Fleep, short for \"Flying Jeep\") was an improved version of the Flex-Wing. Both aircraft were built by Ryan Aeronautical Company in collaboration with NASA for the United States Air Force and the United States Army and tested in 1961 as a STOL patrol, reconnaissance and light utility aircraft to transport people or freight when a more specialized aircraft is not required or available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wing (military unit)",
        "text": "A wing may also be used for non-flying units, such as the infantry forces of the RAF Regiment, (in which a wing equates to a battalion). Additionally, RAF stations are administratively divided into wings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Avions Fairey",
        "text": "Avions Fairey received further orders for Fireflies followed by Fairey Foxes which would be the main aircraft of the Belgian Air Force; being used as a fighter, bomber and training aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parachutist badge",
        "text": "If awarded, Army parachutists who meet the qualifications and jump with a foreign service may also wear one set of foreign wings on their Class A uniform. According to AFI36-2903, page 139 (edition of 2 August 2006), Air Force personnel may wear foreign-awarded jump wings while stationed in the awarding country or attending an official or social function hosted by the awarding government, and if the recipient has already been awarded US jump wings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The longest verified wingsuit BASE jump is by the American Dean Potter on 2 November 2011. Potter jumped from the Eiger mountain and spent 3\u00a0minutes and 20\u00a0seconds in flight, descending of altitude.\n;Biggest:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Two World Records have been set since the rules update. A 42-person formation over Moorsele, Belgium, set an FAI record on 18 June 2015. This was broken on 17 October 2015, when 61\u00a0wingsuit pilots set the current FAI world record over Perris Valley Airport near Perris, California."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gary Connery",
        "text": "Three seconds into his record-setting flight, his wingsuit inflated, its airflow dynamics enabled controlled gliding, and his speed reached about . At approximately over the landing strip, he changed the configuration of his wingsuit so as to decrease the gliding and vertical (falling) components of his velocity to and respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Republic of Fiji Military Forces",
        "text": "The Air Wing of the Republic of Fiji Military Forces, founded in 1987, had a base at the airport in Nausori, but was abolished in 1997. Yehonatan Shim\u02bbon Fren\u1e33el writes that the \"Air Wing was formed after the 1987 coup, when the French provided two helicopters as part of its military aid package.\" Frenkel goes on to say that the air wing was disbanded after both helicopters crashed and after subsequent revelations of huge debts incurred as a result of the aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Flying School RAAF",
        "text": "Since 1962, CFS has been responsible for three aerobatic display teams. The first, \"The Red Sales\", flew De Havilland Vampire jet aircraft. A second team, \"The Telstars\", was formed in 1963, also flying Vampires. The Telstars disbanded in 1968, just after taking delivery of new Macchi MB326H jets, when the RAAF curtailed display flying. The Roulettes formed in 1970, flying the Macchi, and continued to operate the type until 1990, when the team finished converting to the PC-9. As well as the Roulettes, CFS is responsible for the display work of the Air Force Balloons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red Arrows",
        "text": "In 1960, the Tigers (No. 74 Squadron) were re-equipped with the supersonic English Electric Lightning and performed wing-overs and rolls with nine aircraft in tight formation. They sometimes gave co-ordinated displays with the Blue Diamonds. Yet another aerobatics team was formed in 1960 by No. 56 Squadron, the Firebirds, with nine red and silver Lightnings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frecce Tricolori",
        "text": "After the inevitable parenthesis of the 1939-1945 period the acrobatic patrol was dissolved and reformed after the war, even if not officially classified as an acrobatic patrol. It was in fact the 51st Fighter Wing, equipped with US P-51D Mustang and British Spitfire Mk.IX aircraft, the first to perform with three Spitfires at Padua Airport in September 1947. The enthusiasm of these pilots was soon followed by some of their colleagues of the 5th Wing, which formed another aerobatic team based on Spitfire aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hanriot H.43",
        "text": "From 1927 to 1933, the Army would purchase nearly 150 examples for a variety of support roles including training, liaison, observation, and as an air ambulance. At the Fall of France in 1940, 75 of these aircraft remained in service."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "This record was broken on 5 May 2013, by the Russian Valery Rozov, who jumped from on Mount Everest's North Col."
      },
      {
        "title": "Armed helicopter",
        "text": "Likely the first organized usage of a helicopter as a tactical bomber, the United States Army employed the UH-1 Iroquois, CH-47 Chinook, and CH-54 Tarhe helicopters. The US Army had already conducted tests using the OH-13 Sioux fitted with small napalm tanks."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What year was the wing suit developed?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The first wingsuit was made in 1912 by Franz Reichelt, the modern wingsuit was first developed in the mid-1990's by Patrick de Gayardon. The first wingsuit to be made commercially available to all skydivers was created in 1999 by Jari Kuosma and Robert Pecnik."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Have wingsuits been used by any military forces?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I did not find the answer, but I did find concerns regarding the nature of wingsuit flying exist due to injuries and death and the French government banned wingsuit flying multiple times following the deaths of French pilots."
    ],
    "topic": "Wingsuit flying",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Wingsuit flying:53",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wingsuit flying",
          "Safety"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some concerns regarding the nature of wingsuit flying exist due to injuries and death. The French government banned wingsuit flying multiple times following the deaths of French pilots."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Some concerns regarding the nature of wingsuit flying exist due to injuries and death. The French government banned wingsuit flying multiple times following the deaths of French pilots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kippah",
        "text": "The French government banned the wearing of \"kippot\", \"hijabs\", and large crosses in public primary and secondary schools in France in March 2004."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henri Alleg",
        "text": "As rumors of torture proliferated and public discussion turned increasingly critical, the French government officially banned \"La Question\" in hopes of combating France's increasingly tense political atmosphere. Acting on a warrant from the military tribunal which recently began legal action in connection with \"attempted demoralization of the Army with intent to harm the defense of the nation\", French authorities seized the 7,000 remaining copies at the \u00c9ditions de Minuit publishing house on 27 March 1958; however, they could do nothing about the more than 60,000 copies that had already been sold. \"La Question\" continued to sell, clandestinely or otherwise, over 162,000 copies in France alone by the close of 1958."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regulation of unmanned aerial vehicles",
        "text": "Overflights of nuclear power plants are illegal in France, with a punishment of a year in prison and a fine of \u20ac75,000 if an aircraft comes within 5\u00a0km horizontally or 1\u00a0km vertically of a plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A detailed study on wingsuit deaths completed primarily by the University of Colorado found that out of 180 studied fatalities, 97% launched from cliffs and another 1% from buildings. The vast-majority of these deaths were related to the use of the wingsuit, not to do with external sources. This makes aircraft descending a much less-deadly form of wingsuit flying, though deemed less extreme by fans of the sport."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Le Brix",
        "text": "The crash of \"Trait d'Union II\" and death of Le Brix prompted the French government to refuse clearance to any French aviator who wished to attempt to set a nonstop long-distance record with a flight that took him or her beyond the borders of Metropolitan France. Until it lifted the ban in 1933, French aviators were forced to attempt to set such records only on closed-circuit courses within Metropolitan France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "An early attempt at wingsuit flying was made on 4 February 1912 by a 33-year-old tailor, Franz Reichelt, who jumped from the Eiffel Tower to test his invention of a combination of parachute and wing, which was similar to modern wingsuits. He misled the guards by saying that the experiment was going to be conducted with a dummy. He hesitated quite a long time before he jumped, and died when he hit the ground head first, opening a measurable hole in the frozen ground."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mignet HM.14",
        "text": "By March 1936, Algerian and Swiss authorities had banned the flying of HM.14s, and the French Air Ministry stepped up its actions from cautionary notices to flight testing by the Arm\u00e9e de l'air, that resulted in an inconclusive published report. In June 1936, the French Minister for Air stopped all Flea flights in France, pending full-size wind tunnel tests at Chalais-Meudon. In July 1936, the published report described how pitch-up control could be lost in a shallow nose-down attitude, because the pivoting front wing reduced the separation from the rear wing (the \"slot effect\"), so that the aircraft could not be recovered from a dive into the ground. The effect was worsened if the centre of gravity had not been correctly calculated and adjusted. Mignet responded with several design changes, such as pivoting rear wing, different aerofoil contours on both wings, elimination of the overlap between the wings, and an adjustable fore-and-aft wing pivot location relative to the fuselage. In late 1936, those features, together with rigid wing control struts (\"push-rods\"), were embodied in an updated edition of his book \"Le Sport de l'Air\". In August 1936, the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) at Farnborough started full-size wind tunnel tests using HM.14 G-AEFV. In October 1936, the report was published, confirming the French test findings. The Air Ministry then stopped renewing the Authorisation to Fly documents of all HM.14-related aircraft that had not received approved modifications. After World War II, no HM.14s were granted UK Authorisations to Fly, although several further examples were built."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of fatalities due to wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Fatalities from wingsuit flying have occurred almost from the inception of the sport. Below are listed the most notable ones, including when wingsuit practice was not the first cause of death."
      },
      {
        "title": "La Question",
        "text": "The French government officially banned \"La Question\" to deal with the increasingly tense political atmosphere. Acting on a warrant from the military tribunal which began legal action against what it claimed was \"attempted demoralization of the Army with intent to harm the defense of the nation\", French authorities seized the 7,000 remaining copies at the \u00c8ditions de minuit publishing house on 27 March 1958; however, the 60,000 copies that had already been sold continued to circulate, and due to defiant publishers continuing the work throughout the Algerian war, there were more than 162,000 copies in France by the close of 1958."
      },
      {
        "title": "Five Hours from Paris",
        "text": "French newspapers condemned the banning, with \"Le Monde\" stating it represented censorship and that it was a sign of a dangerous trend. The newspaper continued \u201cIt is counterproductive. It helps to weaken Israeli voices and eyes who are the most uncompromising about their government. If there is one country in which artists explore with talent and lucidity their state, their society, their leaders and their politics, it is Israel.\u201d Ronit Elkabetz, a veteran actress in French and Israeli cinema also condemned the ban during an interview with the French media."
      },
      {
        "title": "Germanwings Flight 9525",
        "text": "French Minister of the Interior Bernard Cazeneuve announced that due to the \"violence of the impact\", \"little hope\" existed that any survivors would be found. Then-Prime Minister Manuel Valls dispatched Cazeneuve to the scene and set up a ministerial task force to coordinate the response to the incident."
      },
      {
        "title": "Niq\u0101b",
        "text": "The niqab is controversial in the Western world. In France specifically, although the niqab is not individually targeted, it falls within the scope of legislation which bans the wearing of any religious items (Christian, Jewish, Muslim, or other) in state schools (universities are not affected), and another ban on face coverings (which also includes carnival masks and motorbike helmets when not on a motorbike)."
      },
      {
        "title": "French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools",
        "text": "On 11 September 1995, three families appealed before the \"Conseil\" rulings of lower administrative courts, which had upheld decisions by high schools to exclude their daughters because they wore the veil; and the Minister of Education appealed rulings of lower courts that had declared illegal three exclusion decisions. The actual legal reasons differed slightly; however, in every case, on 27 November 1996, the \"Conseil\" ruled that the children had been inappropriately expelled, considering that the headscarf worn by the student, while it expressed the student's religious beliefs, did not have a protest or ostentatious character, nor did wearing it constitute in any case an act of pressure or proselytism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anne-Marie Imbrecq",
        "text": "In 1932, Imbrecq was called to court in Paris for an investigation into the death of parachutist Marcel Gayet who died after a failed parachute jump from the Eiffel Tower (a practice that had been completely prohibited since 1912). In spite of the ban on launches, Imbrecq herself had successfully jumped after him. The trial finished without any consequences for the young woman."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of fatalities due to wingsuit flying",
        "text": "List of fatalities due to wingsuit flying\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Graham Gilmour",
        "text": "Gilmour marked the ban by placing a black cr\u00eape bound mourning wreath above his hangar. The suspension prevented Gilmour from taking part in competitions which were under the control of the Aero Club, but did not prevent him from flying: he is reported as having flown a Martin Handasyde on 23 July."
      },
      {
        "title": "SS L'Atlantique",
        "text": "In 1935 the French government responded with new regulations. The use of wood was banned at vulnerable points such as stairs and lift shafts. Carpets and fabric wall-hangings had to be treated with fire retardants. Crews must be trained to fight fires, and any ship of more than 15,000 tons must carry three professional firemen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Air France Flight 152",
        "text": "As a consequence of the accident, it was made obligatory to carry liferafts on all flights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yellow vests protests",
        "text": "Earlier in the week, France's highest court denied a request to ban police from using \"flash balls\" or \"defensive ball launchers\", known as LBDs, that shoot rubber projectiles, which have been blamed for a number of serious injuries. French Interior Minister Christophe Castaner admitted in media interviews that the weapon could cause injuries and had been used more than 9,000 times since yellow vests demonstrations began. The day before the Act XII protests, the government warned the public that police would not hesitate to use the weapons to combat violence by demonstrators, since they had been authorized by the court. On Saturday, thousands in Paris participated in a \"march of the injured\" calling for the weapon to be banned. Injured protesters marched at the front, some wearing eye patches with a target sign on them. Jerome Rodrigues, a well-known participant in the movement who lost an eye in the previous week's demonstrations, was received warmly with applause by the crowds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yellow vests protests",
        "text": "Overall, at least 220 people were arrested in the country, including 142 in Paris. A motorist was killed on 21 December when his car hit a truck that was stopped at a blockade in Perpignan, the tenth fatality overall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jacques Thibaud",
        "text": "On 1 September 1953, Thibaud and 41 others died in the crash of Air France Flight 178. The aircraft, registration F-BAZZ, was on final approach to Nice when it struck Mt Cemet in the French Alps. His 1720 Stradivarius violin was destroyed in the crash. The accident investigation established \"controlled flight into terrain (CFIT)\" as the cause."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sans-culottes",
        "text": "Three months later, on 4 December the departmental \"arm\u00e9es revolutionnaires\" (except in Paris) were banned on proposal of Tallien. The sections lost all rights to control their delegates and officials."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dwarf-tossing",
        "text": "Nevertheless, dwarf-tossing is not prohibited outright in France. The \"Conseil d'\u00c9tat\" decided that a public authority could use gross infringement on human dignity as a motive of public order to cancel a spectacle, and that dwarf-tossing constituted such a gross infringement. However, it is up to individual authorities to make specific decisions regarding prohibition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marguerite Monnot",
        "text": "During Piaf's tour of the stalags in Germany during the war, one of the famous Monnot-Asso songs, \"Le fanion de la L\u00e9gion\", was banned because it had created such patriotic fervor in Parisian audiences. Meanwhile, Monnot remained in Paris, making occasional trips home to Decize to see her mother (her father had died in 1939) and bring provisions from the countryside back to Paris."
      },
      {
        "title": "49th Wing",
        "text": "The stay of the 49th in France was short, as in 1957, the French Government decreed that all nuclear weapons and delivery aircraft had to be removed from French soil by July 1958. As a result, the F-100s of the 49th TFW had to be removed from France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Underground media in German-occupied France",
        "text": "The (\"Little Wings\") appeared in the Forbidden Zone in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais department in northern France. In the Occupied and Free zones, it becamee known as ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Patrouille de France",
        "text": "Each aircraft is painted blue-white-red, with the gun placement replaced with a smoke generator. Search lights are installed on the aircraft nose, and the viewfinder has been removed to improve visibility.\n*1935 - Death of Chief Warrant Officer () Carlier following an accident.\n*1967 - At the egress of the final usual burst (), the Fouga Magister of Captain Didier Duthoit, commandant in second of the PAF, crashed in the proximity of a grandstand. The pilot was killed.\n*1980 - Two Fougas collided while executing a synchronized maneuver. The two pilots were killed.\n*1981 - An Alpha Jet piloted by the commandant crashed in the north of Aix-en-Provence. The pilot did not eject and was killed.\n* 1982 - An Athos 8 crashed during a rehearsal at Salon-de-Provence Air Base. The pilot was killed.\n* 1983 - Two aircraft collided in mid-air while conducting a maneuver over Niort. The aircraft were part of two groups of four aircraft each, practising a 4 vs 4 crossover. Of the two pilots, one, Lieutenant Vuillamy, was killed, while the other survived.\n* 1987 - The two solos collided during a meeting at Annemasse. Neither pilot was injured.\n* 1991 - The two solos collided. One pilot was killed, while the other ejected and sustained injuries.\n* 1992 - The second solo crashed during a training flight at Salon-de-Provence Air Base. The pilot narrowly avoided a highway, activated the ejection seat too late and was killed.\n* 1993 - During a training flight, one of the Alpha Jet solos crashed near Cameri Air Base in Italy. The two pilots ejected and sustained injuries.\n* 2002 - While returning to Salon-de-Provence Air Base after a training mission, an Alpha Jet crashed on a turn before landing. The pilot, Captain Daniel Marchand, attempted to eject too late, and was killed.\n* 2010 - While conducting a solo maneuver during a training mission, one of the solo Alpha Jets crashed near the Orange Plan de Dieu Airport () near Orange, Vaucluse. The pilot, Captain Sylvain Courtot, ejected 10 meters from the ground and landed meters from the crashed aircraft. He suffered from fractures and retook flights in 2011. The \"replacement\" 2009 made his come back in the Patrouille to perform the 2010 season.\n*2019 - On 25 July, an Alpha Jet overran the runway at Perpignan Airport. The pilot ejected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Air France Flight 358",
        "text": "Most of the injuries occurred to passengers and crew located in the flight deck and forward cabin. Of the twelve occupants who sustained major injuries, nine suffered the injuries from the impact and three from the evacuation. According to passenger reports, the leap from the aircraft to the ground caused numerous injuries, including broken legs, and ruptured vertebrae. The captain sustained back and head injuries during the impact of the crash when his seat was wrenched out of place by the force of the impact, causing him to hit his head against the overhead controls. Minor injuries included twisted ankles, sore necks, bruises and effects from smoke inhalation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean Navarre",
        "text": "After the end of hostilities, a victory parade was planned on the Champs \u00c9lys\u00e9es on 14 July 1919. However, the high command ordered airmen to participate on foot rather than flying their aircraft. The headstrong 'heroes of the air' took this as an insult. At a meeting in the 'Fouquet' bar on the Champs \u00c9lys\u00e9es, they decided to respond to this affront by selecting one of their number to fly through the Arc de Triomphe. Navarre, as the first among the aces, was considered the ideal choice despite his injuries. Tragically, however, while practicing for this stunt, Navarre crashed his aircraft and died at Villacoublay aerodrome on 10 July. He was only 23 years old. Fellow pilot Charles Godefroy would eventually perform the historic flight through the Arc de Triomphe a few weeks later on 7 August 1919."
      },
      {
        "title": "Le Travail-Le Droit du Peuple",
        "text": "Both \"Le Travail\" and \"Le Droit du Peuple\" were banned on 5 July 1940."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic scarf controversy in France",
        "text": "Between 1994 and 2003, around 100 female students were suspended or expelled from middle and high schools for wearing the scarf in class. In nearly half of these cases, their exclusions were annulled by the French courts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morane-Saulnier MS.147",
        "text": "The various subtypes saw service with the \"A\u00e9ronavale\", \"A\u00e9ropostale\", and a number of foreign air arms. They were largely withdrawn from French military service by 1935."
      },
      {
        "title": "School uniforms by country",
        "text": "The wearing of any religious symbols, such as a hijab or turban, has been banned in French schools since 2004."
      },
      {
        "title": "French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools",
        "text": "On 10 March 1995, the \"Conseil\" upheld the expelling of three students from a highschool, on the basis that the three students gravely perturbed classes, infringing on school rules and the alleged prohibition of proselytism. One factor was the insistence of the students on wearing the scarf during sports classes, which was deemed inappropriate attire for such an activity. It also upheld some stipulations of the school regulations which restricted the wearing of signs of a religious, philosophical or political character, with the same legal analysis as the 1989 one cited above."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Islamophobic incidents",
        "text": "In 2010 France banned face coverings including women wearing the niqab. The French Collective against Islamophobia reported \"an explosion\" in the number of physical attacks on women wearing the niqab. Kenza Drider, a protester against the law, said: \"I'm insulted about three to four times a day. Most say, 'Go home'; some say, 'We'll kill you.' One said: 'We'll do to you what we did to the Jews.'... I feel that I now know what Jewish women went through before the Nazi roundups in France. When they went out in the street they were identified, singled out, they were vilified. Now that's happening to us.\" After the Charlie Hebdo shooting in January 2015, there were reports of attacks on mosques and Muslim citizens throughout the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dieudonn\u00e9 M'bala M'bala",
        "text": "\"Consequently, the interior minister has decided to thoroughly examine all legal options that would allow a ban on Dieudonn\u00e9\u2019s public gatherings, which no longer belong to the artistic domain, but rather amount to a public safety risk.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Hate speech laws in France",
        "text": "In 1998, a Christian organization asked to ban caricatures published by the satirical magazine \"La Grosse Bertha\". One of its covers represented the Christ dying with the inscription: \"I suck \"(in French, \"je su\u00e7e\", which pronounces similarly to \"Jesus\") \"was his name by Robert Obscene and Alain Porno from the Acad\u00e9bite\" (a play on the words Academy and penis), on inside page a cartoon with the Christ saying \"Why have you forsaken Me Jerk?\" and the apostles at the foot of the cross carrying banners: \"pension forced to 33 years\", \"Job insecurity\", in back page, a drawing titled \"miscellaneous news item\" illustrated with a disemboweled slept naked woman a crucifix crashed in the vagina and on another cover under the title: \"the Pope at the transvestites\", a drawing representing Pope John-Paul II sodomized by a transvestite who exclaims: \"welcome to Brazil\". The courts of first instance and appeal decided that they didn't constituted an incitement to hatred towards the Catholics. The Supreme Court of Appeal held that the first court of appeal had made a procedural error, and referred the matter back to another court which confirmed the absence of conviction decided by the lower courts and considered that mockery of the Catholic religion, the faiths, the symbols and the rites of the religious practice had not caused any state of mind for incitement to discrimination, hatred or violence and was no justification to restrict the liberty of the press."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alain Devaquet",
        "text": "The reaction against the proposals was strong, with mass protests by students and some strikes in support of their opposition. With the mobilisation of students also closely linked to other proposals aimed at tightening immigration laws, things came to a head with the death of Malik Oussekine, a student protester who died in police custody on 6 December 1986 and whose death prompted mass outpouring of anger. The law was withdrawn two days later and Devaquet was forced to resign, although the incident proved a strong blow to the government and enhanced the profile of Fran\u00e7ois Mitterrand due to his opposition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Air France Flight 296Q",
        "text": "In 1996, Captain Asseline, First Officer Mazi\u00e8res, two Air France officials and the president of the flying club sponsoring the air show were all charged with involuntary manslaughter. In 1997, all five were found guilty. Asseline was initially sentenced to six months in prison along with twelve months of probation. Mazi\u00e8res was given a twelve month suspended sentence. The others were sentenced to probation. Asseline walked free from the court and said he would appeal to France's highest court, the \"Court of Cassation\" (). According to French law, Asseline was required to submit himself to the prison system before his case could be taken up by the \"Court of Cassation\". In 1998, Asseline's appeal was rejected and his sentence was increased to ten months of imprisonment along with ten months of probation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Killing of C\u00e9dric Chouviat",
        "text": "The death of Chouviat was specifically referenced by French Interior Minister Christophe Castaner when he announced a ban on the use of chokeholds during police arrests in early June 2020, but after a string of protests from French police the ban was removed weeks later."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mark Sutton",
        "text": "In August 2013, Mark Sutton and 20 other top wingsuiters were invited to a three-day event in Chamonix, France known as \"Helibase 74\", which was organised by Epic TV, a web TV channel specialising in extreme sports. In exchange for video footage of their flights, the website provided accommodations and helicopter access. On 14 August 2013, Sutton jumped alongside Tony Uragallo (both equipped with multiple video cameras) in a short \"warm-up\" flight near Les Grandes Otanes scheduled to last about a minute. However, tragedy struck only 20 seconds into the flight; as he jumped from the helicopter at , travelling at speeds of up to , Sutton veered off-course and crashed into a mountain ridge. A rescue helicopter arrived soon after Sutton hit the ground, but he was pronounced dead at the scene\u2014Sutton's impact was so severe that a DNA test was required to identify his body, and a spokesperson stated that he had no chance of surviving the impact. While Sutton was equipped with a parachute during the flight for landing, it was left unused. As part of the investigation, the video footage from Uragallo's cameras were handed over to a Swiss police unit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alexis Vastine",
        "text": "On 9 March 2015, as part of a group of French sports stars participating in a reality TV show called \"Dropped\", Vastine was one of 10 people who died when helicopters collided in mid-air during filming in northwestern Argentina. His 21-year-old sister C\u00e9lie, also an amateur boxer, had been killed in a car accident in France just two months before."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic scarf controversy in France",
        "text": "In 2013, 86% of respondents in a poll for i-T\u00e9l\u00e9 were in favour of a ban for headscarfs and other religious and political symbols in both public and private institutions for children. The poll was made after the Court of Cassation ruled that a private cr\u00e8che did not have the right to fire a woman who wore an Islamic headscarf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Byam Crump",
        "text": "He said that it would help any military plans against the French if these practices were stopped."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic scarf controversy in France",
        "text": "The \"Conseil d'\u00c9tat\" affirmed on 5 December 2007 that the ban also apply to clothing elements that demonstrate a religious affiliation only because of the behaviour of the student. Wearing either a Sikh subturban or a bandana were then denied by the supreme court."
      },
      {
        "title": "Suzanne Bernard",
        "text": "Bernard was killed at \u00c9tampes in an accident during her test for her pilot licence. The aircraft she was flying, a Caudron biplane, was caught in a wind and capsized, falling to the ground. Bernard was crushed beneath it. The previous year, another French woman, Deniz Moore, aged 35, had also died while flying. The deaths caused a great deal of mourning and reflection in aviation circles, and there was criticism of parents who permitted their daughters to engage in such dangerous activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Air France Flight 8969",
        "text": "As a result of the damage to the aircraft, the A300 was written off. Several hours after the incident ended, the Armed Islamic Group, which had claimed responsibility for the event, killed four Roman Catholic priests in retaliation in Tizi-Ouzou, Algeria. Three of the priests were French, while one was Belgian."
      },
      {
        "title": "2013 Trappes riots",
        "text": "France officially banned face covering in public places in April 2011. Although disputed by French Muslims, the law remains in effect. On 18 July a 21-year-old Muslim convert was asked by the police to remove her face-covering veil. Her husband tried to choke the officer and was detained. The female was released on 20 July awaiting a court hearing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Air France Flight 5672",
        "text": "At 21:51:22, Flight 5672 touched down on a grass field near the airport at a low speed. The Bombardier CRJ-100 then skidded and slammed into a wooded embankment. It then struck trees, causing the tip of the left wing to detach. Fire immediately broke out on the left wing. It then hit a concrete wall, causing the right wing and one of the aircraft doors to detach. The aircraft finally stopped after it hit a pole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quenelle (gesture)",
        "text": "As Dieudonn\u00e9 continued to sprinkle usage of the quenelle on his website and in Internet postings, such as in his 2013 New Year's Eve video, the government took note. On 6 January 2014, Valls declared that performances considered anti-Semitic may be banned by local officials, and sent a three-page circular entitled \"The Struggle Against Racism and Antisemitism \u2013 demonstrations and public reaction \u2013 performances by Mr. M'Bala M'Bala\" to all prefects of Police in France. With respect to freedom of speech in France and banning scheduled performances ahead of time, Valls wrote: \"The struggle against racism and antisemitism is an essential concern of government, and demands vigorous action\". He took note of the liberty of expression in France, but goes on to say that in exceptional circumstances, the police are invested with the power to prohibit an event if its intent is to prevent \"a grave disturbance of public order\" and cited the 1933 law supporting this. In addition, Valls specifically made reference to the quenelle, linking the quenelle gesture and quenelle trademark to Dieudonn\u00e9's racist and antisemitic attitudes in his Internet publications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ortolan bunting",
        "text": "Ortolan hunting was banned in France in 1999, but the law was poorly enforced and it is thought that up to 50,000 ortolans were illegally killed each year during the autumn migration: mostly birds from breeding grounds in Finland and the Baltic area. According to France's League for the Protection of Birds, France's ortolan population fell 30% between 1997 and 2007. In 2007, the French government vowed to strictly enforce some existing rules about banning the practice, with the maximum fine set at \u20ac6,000 (\u00a34,800 or $6,728). Killing and cooking ortolans is banned across the EU. In 2007, the pressure from France's League for Protection of Birds and from the European Union resulted in the French government promising to enforce the EU directive protecting the ortolan. After several years of active citizen watch revealing little if any change in the field situation, the local representative of the government repeated this statement in 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "FTP-MOI",
        "text": "All but two were shot immediately on 21 February at Mont-Val\u00e9rien. The execution of Olga Bancic was suspended for further enquiry and because French law prohibited executing women by firing squad. In a new sentence passed on her birthday of 10 May 1944 at Stuttgart, she was condemned to death. She was beheaded shortly after the sentencing. One accused, Migratulski, was transferred to French jurisdiction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Despite training and regulation, wingsuit BASE jumping remains a dangerous pastime, and fatalities occur regularly. A 2012 University of Colorado study found that in wingsuit BASE jumping, there was approximately one severe injury for every 500\u00a0jumps undertaken."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islam in France",
        "text": "In December 2003, President Chirac decided that the law should prohibit the wearing of visible religious signs in schools, according to \"la\u00efcit\u00e9\" requirements. The law was approved by parliament in March 2004. Items prohibited by this law include Muslim hijabs, Jewish yarmulkes or large Christian crosses. It is still permissible to wear discreet symbols of faith such as small crosses, Stars of David or Fatima's hands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morane-Saulnier M.S.225",
        "text": "The M.S.225s of the \"Arm\u00e9e de l'Air\" served in the \"7e Escadre de Chasse\" (7th Fighter Wing) at Dijon, and in two \"escadrilles\" of the \"42e Escadre\" (42nd Wing), based at Rheims. They were withdrawn from front-line service between 1936 and 1937. The aircraft also flew with the \"A\u00e9ronavale l'Escadrille 3C1\", established in Marignane, this formation later transferring to the Air Force at the beginning of 1936, where it became \"Le Groupe de Chasse II/8\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caudron C.714",
        "text": "On 25 May, only a week after it was introduced, French Minister of War Guy La Chambre ordered all C.714s to be withdrawn from active service. However, since the French authorities had no other aircraft to offer, the Polish pilots ignored the order and continued to fly the Caudrons. Despite flying a fighter hopelessly outdated compared to the Messerschmitt Bf 109E, the Polish pilots scored 12 confirmed and three unconfirmed victories in three battles between 8 June and 11 June, losing nine in the air and nine more on the ground. Among the aircraft shot down were four Dornier Do 17 bombers, and also three Messerschmitt Bf 109 and five Messerschmitt Bf 110 fighters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quenelle (gesture)",
        "text": "In a statement on 27 December 2013, France's Interior Minister Manuel Valls said he would consider \"all legal means\" to ban Dieudonn\u00e9's \"public meetings\", given that he \"addresses in an obvious and insufferable manner the memory of victims of the Shoah\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ernest Maunoury",
        "text": "He lost a wing while flying over Cazaux on 21 September 1921. The subsequent impact was fatal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Said Boualam",
        "text": "In 1960 he was responsible for the creation of the \"Front Alg\u00e9rie Fran\u00e7aise\", which was banned by the French government after less than a year. After the group was disbanded he retired to France in 1962. He died on 8 February 1982 at Mas-Thibert, about from Arles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bullfighting",
        "text": "In 1951, bullfighting in France was legalised by \u00a77 of Article 521-1 of the French penal code in areas where there was an 'unbroken local tradition'. This exemption applies to N\u00eemes, Arles, Al\u00e8s, Bayonne, Carcassonne, and Fr\u00e9jus, amongst others. In 2011, the French Ministry of Culture added corrida to the list of 'intangible heritage' of France, but after much controversy silently removed it from its website again. Animal rights activists launched a lawsuit to make sure it was completely removed from the heritage list and thus not given extra legal protection; the Administrative Appeals Court of Paris ruled in their favour in June 2015. In a separate case, the Constitutional Council ruled on 21 September 2012 that bullfighting did not violate the French Constitution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 25 October 2009, in Lahti, Finland, Visa Parviainen jumped from a hot air balloon in a wingsuit with two small turbojet engines attached to his feet. The engines provided approximately 160\u00a0N (16\u00a0kgf, 35\u00a0lbf) of thrust each and ran on JET A-1 fuel. Parviainen achieved approximately 30\u00a0seconds of horizontal flight with no noticeable loss of altitude. Parviainen continued jumping from hot air balloons and helicopters, including one for the \"Stunt Junkies\" program on Discovery Channel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of religion in France",
        "text": "On 14 September 2010, an act of parliament was passed resulting in the ban on the wearing of face-covering headgear, including masks, helmets, balaclava, niq\u0101bs and other veils covering the face in public places, except under specified circumstances. The ban also applies to the burqa, a full-body covering, if it covers the face."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Escadres of the French Air and Space Force",
        "text": "Between 1993-1995, under the \u00ab Arm\u00e9es 2000 \u00bb reorganisation, the Escadre (wing) level of command was withdrawn from use. In 2014 it was reintroduced, with additions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maurice Vinot",
        "text": "While undergoing flight training at the Tours aviation school (now, the Tours Aerodrome), Vinot became the first casualty of the air base when his Caudron G.3 crashed on 23 June 1916 near Pontlevoy. A contemporary witness stated the plane was at 30 meters altitude when it suddenly crashed into the ground. Vinot was killed instantly and another airman, Mousson, was severely injured. Vinot was 27 years-old. A \"street\", the second on the left after passing the portal of the military aviation school in Tours, later bore the name rue Vinot in his honour."
      },
      {
        "title": "French ban on face covering",
        "text": "As of 2011, five months after the law came into effect, the police had noted 100 incidents of women being stopped under the law. None of them led to a punishment, though \"fewer than 10\" were going through the courts. Some police have wrongly given on-the-spot fines, which were later annulled. reported an increase in the number of physical attacks on women wearing the niqab. Hind Ahmas, a protester against the law, was twice arrested for wearing a niqab."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean-Luc Delarue",
        "text": "On the 13 February 2007, on an Air France flight from Paris to Johannesburg, and under the influence of alcohol and medication, Delarue had to be handcuffed by the flight crew after he allegedly \"insulted, bit, and slapped a steward, and even touched an air hostess's breasts.\" Three days after the incident, on the 16 February, three members of the flight crew made formal complaints about Delarue's aggressive and insulting behaviour to the authorities at Roissy Airport. As a consequence, the courts sentenced Delarue, on the 28 March 2007, to attendance at a three-day citizenship course at his own expense."
      },
      {
        "title": "Assassination of Juv\u00e9nal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira",
        "text": "A surface-to-air missile struck one of the wings of the Dassault Falcon, then a second missile hit its tail. The plane erupted into flames in mid-air before crashing into the garden of the presidential palace, exploding on impact. The plane carried three French crew and nine passengers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bicycle safety wing",
        "text": "French law allows for bicycle safety wings up to 40 centimetres."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of religion in France",
        "text": "In 2004, France passed a law banning the use of \"conspicuous\" religious symbols in public schools, including the hijab."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zentai",
        "text": "Since \"zentai\" cover one's face, a fine of up to \u20ac150 may be issued to those who wear them publicly in France. Furthermore, some sports leagues, such as Major League Baseball, ban the use of the costume hoods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Les Colquhoun",
        "text": "In May 1950 Colquhoun was flying an Attacker to test the effectiveness of the air brakes. On the third of two dives the outer portion of the starboard wing folded up and the ailerons became locked. Colquhoun decided not to eject and managed to do a high-speed landing at Chilbolton, he used all but the last 100 yards (90m) of the runway and burst a tyre. He had saved the aircraft so the cause could be discovered and was awarded the George Medal for his efforts."
      },
      {
        "title": "S.A.S. v. France",
        "text": "A hearing before the Grand Chamber took place on 27 November 2013, with representatives from the French government, the applicant and one representative from the Belgian government. Belgium passed a similar ban as France in July 2011. The Belgian Court of Cassation ruled in December 2012 that the ban did not violate human rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hijab by country",
        "text": "In 2004, the French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools banned most religious signs, including the hijab, from public primary and secondary schools in France. The proposed ban was extremely controversial, with both sides of the political spectrum being split on the issue, some people arguing that the law goes against religious freedom and is racist because it affects mostly Muslim women and Jewish men."
      },
      {
        "title": "S.A.S. v. France",
        "text": "The Court put some weight on the fact that the ban targeted all kinds of face covering, and not uniquely targeted face covering for religious reasons, and likewise to the fact that the penalties was among the very mildest possible (small fine or mandatory citizenship course)."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c9ric Zemmour",
        "text": "On 25 September 2020, the Paris court sentenced Zemmour to a fine of 10,000 euros for \"insult and incitement to hatred\", because of the comments he had made in September 2019 during a speech to the against Muslims and immigration, at the opening of the right-wing convention organised by relatives of Marion Mar\u00e9chal. In its judgment, the court said that, \"by distinguishing among the French all the Muslims opposed to the 'ethnic French' and by designating them, as well as the Muslim immigrants living in France, not only as criminals perpetrators of the terrorist attacks of 2015 but like former colonized people who became colonizers\", the remarks made \"constitute an exhortation, sometimes implicit and sometimes explicit, to discrimination and hatred towards the Muslim community and its religion\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian Piquemal",
        "text": "At 75, he was struck off the generals of the 2nd section for breach of the duty of reserve and loyalty after participating in a far-right political demonstration in 2016 around the Calais Jungle (the statute of soldiers in France provides that they are subject to a strict obligation of reserve)."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c9ric Zemmour",
        "text": "On 30 October 2014, he told the Italian newspaper \"Corriere della Sera\": \"Muslims have their civil code, it is the Koran. They live among themselves, in the outskirts. The French were forced to leave\". The journalist then asks him: \"But don't you think that it is unrealistic to think that we take millions of people, we put them on planes to get rid of them?\" Zemmour replied, \"I know, it's unrealistic, but the story is surprising. Who would have said in 1940 that a million pieds-noirs, twenty years later, would have left Algeria to return to France? Or that after the war five or six million Germans would have abandoned central and eastern Europe where they had lived for centuries?\" On 17 December 2015, Zemmour was sentenced at first instance to a fine of \u20ac3,000, for inciting hatred against Muslims. The conviction was confirmed by the Paris Court of Appeal on 17 November. In January 2018, the Cour de Cassation overturned the conviction. Zemmour was released on 29 November 2018, by the Paris Court of Appeal, the judges considering that \"it is not proven that Eric Zemmour, prosecuted as an interviewee, knew that this newspaper was published in France\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gaston J\u00e8ze",
        "text": "wing nationalist organizations in France and abroad. Notably, on March 5, 1936, the French nationalist groups organised their biggest demonstration to date, demanding his resignation. That caused J\u00e8ze to hide throughout his stay in The Hague to avoid being the target of an assassination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maurice Amiot",
        "text": "During his second tourm he received three citations, including one at army level. On 2 April 1961, he took part in an operation in the Aur\u00e8s Mountains at the head of his section of the 2nd Company, 14e Parachute \"Chasseur\" Regiment (14e RCP) and was killed in action. Posthumously he was made Knight of the \"L\u00e9gion d\u2019honneur\" and became the patron of the 95th class of non-commissioned officers of the Saint Maixent School. (now the National Active Non-Commissioned Officers School (France) or \u00c9cole Nationale des Sous-Officiers d\u2019Actives (ENSOA))"
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic scarf controversy in France",
        "text": "The position of the French government is that secularism in schools is incompatible with wearing ostentatious religious articles, whatever they be. However, in December 2003, President Chirac extended this policy for all public secondary education establishments, risking fanning the tensions between communities within the multicultural French society. France is home to both the largest Jewish and Muslim minorities in Western Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic scarf controversy in France",
        "text": "In 2004, a year after the law was voted in, one organization opposed to it, called the \"Committee of the 15th of March and Liberty\", published a report on the law's effects. The report cites the files of 806 students affected by the law. Of the 806 students, 533 have accepted the law and no longer wear their veils in class. The report also gives an assessment of students who have left the French school system because of this issue. Among them, 67 have pursued their studies abroad. Another 73 of those 806 suspended or expelled from schools over the veil have chosen to take government-run correspondence courses in order to finish their studies. The number of those who have chosen to study via other, non-government forms of correspondence schools is unknown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Olivier Cyran",
        "text": "In a 2013 open letter addressed to Charb and Fabrice Nicolino, he declared : 'you've made [France] a nastier place to live in. A country which now forbids a woman to work in a cr\u00e8che on the basis that the piece of cloth she wears will traumatise the kids. Or a tertiary student, wearing a bandanna judged to be too wide, is excluded from her college with the blessings of a UMP mayor, the socialist Minister of Education, and the rabid press'."
      },
      {
        "title": "The French Connection (aerobatics)",
        "text": "They operated an aerobatics school at Sky Acres Airport, NY, Dutchess County Airport, NY, then at Flagler County Airport, FL. They regularly performed at airshows around the U.S. and Canada until their death in a training accident on May 27, 2000. Their favorite and signature 'French Connection' aerobatic routine was unique: Montaine and Daniel would fly their CAP-10 planes in an extremely tight canopy-to-canopy formation, literally inches apart, through various hair-raising aerobatic maneuvers. Daniel and Montaine loved to teach and they devoted much of their careers to aerobatic instruction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gheorghe B\u0103nciulescu",
        "text": "For the first time in world practice, Gheorghe B\u0103nciulescu flew a plane with his legs amputated. This happened in July 1927, and in October the same year, Louis Barthou, the French President, gave him the Order of the Legion of Honour in the rank of Chevalier (Knight). In the spring of 1928 was held the first air meeting at Baneasa airfield, where thousands of people, including his wife, followed his aerial acrobatics. On that occasion his wife found out that her husband was flying again, despite the fact that he promised not to do so."
      },
      {
        "title": "Air Tropiques",
        "text": "The airline was on the List of air carriers banned in the European Union."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islam in France",
        "text": "The issue of Muslim hijabs has sparked controversy after several girls refused to uncover their heads in class, as early as 1989. In October 1989, three Muslim schoolgirls wearing the Islamic headscarf were expelled from the \"coll\u00e8ge Gabriel-Havez\" in Creil (north of Paris). In November, the First Conseil d'\u00c9tat ruling affirmed that the wearing of the Islamic headscarf, as a symbol of freedom of religious expression, in public schools was not incompatible with the French school system and the system of \"la\u00efcit\u00e9\". In December, a first ministerial circular (\"circulaire Jospin\") was published, stating teachers had to decide on a case-by-case basis whether to ban the wearing of Islamic headscarf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Le D\u00e9serteur",
        "text": "The resulting version, in spite of its pacifist leaning, was banned from 1954 to 1962 from public broadcast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dewoitine D.332",
        "text": "On January 15, 1934, while flying from Lyon, France, to Paris-Le Bourget Airport outside Paris \u2013 the final leg of a flight that began on 5 January in Saigon, French Indochina, with stops at Karachi, British India; Baghdad, Iraq; Marseilles, France; and Lyons \u2013 the prototype \"Emeraude\", operating for Air France and registered as F-AMMY, crashed in a snowstorm at Corbigny, France, killing all ten people on board including the director of Air France, Maurice Nogu\u00e8s, and the governor-general of the colony of French Indochina, Pierre Pasquier. The crash probably occurred due to icing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Fran\u00e7ois",
        "text": "Betimes, Alachlor was prohibited by the French government in November 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cirque du Soleil",
        "text": "On 29 June 2013, 31-year-old performer Sarah \"Sasoun\" Guyard-Guillot, of France, died in an ambulance en route to hospital as the result of blunt force trauma she had sustained from a fall during a performance of \"K\u00e0\" in Las Vegas, Nevada. She'd been with the company since 2006. It was originally thought that Guyard-Guillot's safety harness had failed her and that was what resulted in her fall but, in actuality, a cable responsible for keeping her in the air had been cut after accidentally being knocked loose by movement during the performance. Reports as to how far Guyard-Guillot fell differ from source to source, with some saying she fell as little as 50 feet and others as much as 94 feet. The show resumed 17 days after the death without the final aerial battle scene. The company was fined as a result."
      },
      {
        "title": "Top Floor, Left Wing",
        "text": "Three men in a banlieue are mistaken for terrorists and get targeted by a French SWAT team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legrand-Simon LS.60",
        "text": "The sole LS.60, \"F-PJSA\" (previously \"F-BJSA\" and \"F-WJSA\") was flying in France as recently as 2006 and remained on the French register in 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "L'\u0152uvre Fran\u00e7aise",
        "text": "\"Le Soleil\" banned from publicity and sales to minors in 1990 following the Gayssot Act that outlawed Holocaust denial, the movement launched in early 1994 a new organ named \"Jeune Nation\"\u2014in reference to an older group Sidos had founded nearly forty-five years earlier, and dissolved by decree in 1958."
      },
      {
        "title": "Escadron de Chasse 2/30 Normandie-Niemen",
        "text": "The squadron became the focus of Soviet propaganda, so much so that \"Generalfeldmarschall\" Wilhelm Keitel decreed that any French pilots were to be shot on sight and if captured would be executed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Air France Flight 5672",
        "text": "The captain was the only fatality. Nine others were injured."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic scarf controversy in France",
        "text": "The opening of the 2005 school year passed largely without incident, and opposition to the law seems to have given way to broader public opinion. However, the actual number of those who no longer attend French junior high and high schools over their veils is unknown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andr\u00e9-Jacques Garnerin",
        "text": "Garnerin went on to stage regular tests and demonstrations at Parc Monceau, Paris, on 22 October 1797, which became a cause c\u00e9l\u00e8bre when he announced in 1798 that his next flight would include a woman as a passenger. Although the public and press were in favour, he was forced to appear in front of officials of the Central Bureau of Police to justify his project. They were concerned about the effect that reduced air pressure might have on the organs of the delicate female body and loss of consciousness, plus the moral implications of flying in such close proximity. Unsatisfied with Garnerin's responses, the police issued an injunction against him, forbidding the ascent on the grounds that the young woman was committing herself to the venture without any idea of the possible outcome. After further consultation with both the Minister of the Interior and the Minister of the Police the injunction was overturned on the grounds that \"there was no more scandal in seeing two people of different gender ascend in a balloon than it is to see them jump into a carriage.\" They also agreed that the decision of the woman showed proof of her confidence in the experiment and a degree of personal intrepidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Air France Flight 4590",
        "text": "The fuel tank built inside the left wing was full, with almost no ullage. When the tyre fragments struck the wing, the tank ruptured, thereby releasing large quantities of fuel. Tyre fragments severed wiring in the landing gear bay, preventing retraction of the landing gear. Fuel from the ruptured tank ignited, causing a loss of thrust in engines 1 and 2. Lack of thrust, high drag from the extended landing gear, and fire damage to the flight controls made it impossible to control the aircraft, which crashed into a hotel in nearby Gonesse two minutes after takeoff. All 109 people on board were killed, alongside four in the hotel. Six other people in the hotel were critically injured."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Founding Myths of Modern Israel",
        "text": "French courts banned further publication of Garaudy's book and on February 27, 1998 fined him 240,000 French Francs (about $40,000) and sentenced him to a suspended jail sentence of several years. The decision of the court provoked a debate about freedom of speech in France and Europe and some claimed the verdict was a political one. Garaudy appealed this decision to the European Court of Human Rights, but his appeal was rejected as inadmissible."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What year was the wing suit developed?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The first wingsuit was made in 1912 by Franz Reichelt, the modern wingsuit was first developed in the mid-1990's by Patrick de Gayardon. The first wingsuit to be made commercially available to all skydivers was created in 1999 by Jari Kuosma and Robert Pecnik."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Have wingsuits been used by any military forces?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find the answer, but I did find concerns regarding the nature of wingsuit flying exist due to injuries and death and the French government banned wingsuit flying multiple times following the deaths of French pilots."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me more about the injuries and deaths that lead to the wingsuits being banned in France?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "Despite training and regulation, wingsuit BASE jumping remains a dangerous pastime, and fatalities occur regularly. A 2012 University of Colorado study found that in wingsuit BASE jumping, there was approximately one severe injury for every 500 jumps undertaken."
    ],
    "topic": "Wingsuit flying",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Wingsuit flying:50",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wingsuit flying",
          "Safety"
        ],
        "ctx": "Despite training and regulation, wingsuit BASE jumping remains a dangerous pastime, and fatalities occur regularly. A 2012 University of Colorado study found that in wingsuit BASE jumping, there was approximately one severe injury for every 500\u00a0jumps undertaken."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "As suit technology and pilot skill have improved, wingsuit BASE jumpers have learned to control their flight so that they can fly just meters away from terrain. \u201cProximity flying\u201d is the practice of flying a wingsuit close to the faces and ridges of mountains. Flying near terrain gives a greater sense of speed due to having a close visual reference. Loic Jean-Albert of France is one of the first proximity flyers, and his pioneering flying brought many BASE jumpers into the sport. In November 2012, Alexander Polli became the first wingsuit BASE jumper to successfully strike a wingsuit target. Alexander Polli died August 22, 2016 in a wingsuit accident, after crashing into a tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A wingsuit BASE jump begins by jumping from a cliff. Within seconds, air inflates the suit into a semi-rigid airfoil shape. By holding a proper body position, the wingsuit flier is able to glide forward at a ratio of 3:1, meaning that they are moving forward three feet for every foot of descent (or 3 meters for every meter of descent)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "As compared to skydiving from an airplane, BASE jumping involves jumping from a \"fixed object\" such as a cliff. BASE jumping in its modern form has existed since at least 1978, but it was not until 1997 that Patrick de Gayardon made some of the first-ever wingsuit BASE jumps combining the two disciplines. Compared to normal BASE jumping, wingsuit BASE jumping allows pilots to fly far away from the cliffs they jumped from, and drastically increase their freefall time before deploying a parachute. Since 2003, many BASE jumpers have started using wingsuits, giving birth to wingsuit BASE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A wingsuit was first used in the US in 1930 by a 19-year-old American, Rex G Finney of Los Angeles, California. The goal was to increase horizontal movement and maneuverability during a parachute jump. These early wingsuits used materials such as canvas, wood, silk, steel, and whalebone. They were not very reliable, although some \"birdmen\", such as Clem Sohn and Leo Valentin, claimed to have glided for miles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "An early attempt at wingsuit flying was made on 4 February 1912 by a 33-year-old tailor, Franz Reichelt, who jumped from the Eiffel Tower to test his invention of a combination of parachute and wing, which was similar to modern wingsuits. He misled the guards by saying that the experiment was going to be conducted with a dummy. He hesitated quite a long time before he jumped, and died when he hit the ground head first, opening a measurable hole in the frozen ground."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuit flying (or wingsuiting) is the sport of skydiving using a webbing-sleeved jumpsuit called a wingsuit to add wetted area to the diver's body and generate increased lift, which allows extended air time by gliding flight rather than just free falling. The modern wingsuit, first developed in the late 1990s, uses a pair of fabric membranes stretched flat between the arms and flanks/thighs to imitate an airfoil, and often also between the legs to function as a tail and allow some aerial steering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 25 October 2009, in Lahti, Finland, Visa Parviainen jumped from a hot air balloon in a wingsuit with two small turbojet engines attached to his feet. The engines provided approximately 160\u00a0N (16\u00a0kgf, 35\u00a0lbf) of thrust each and ran on JET A-1 fuel. Parviainen achieved approximately 30\u00a0seconds of horizontal flight with no noticeable loss of altitude. Parviainen continued jumping from hot air balloons and helicopters, including one for the \"Stunt Junkies\" program on Discovery Channel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Despite training and regulation, wingsuit BASE jumping remains a dangerous pastime, and fatalities occur regularly. A 2012 University of Colorado study found that in wingsuit BASE jumping, there was approximately one severe injury for every 500\u00a0jumps undertaken."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 23 May 2012, British stuntman Gary Connery safely landed a wingsuit without deploying his parachute, landing on a crushable \"runway\" (landing zone) built with thousands of cardboard boxes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The current Guinness World Record for \"greatest absolute distance flown in a wing suit\" is 32.094\u00a0km (19.94\u00a0mi) set by Kyle Lobpries (USA) in Davis, CA 30 May 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuits are sometimes referred to as \"birdman suits\" (after the brand name of the makers of the first commercial wingsuit), \"squirrel suits\" (from their resemblance to flying squirrels' wing membrane), and \"bat suits\" (due to their resemblance to bat wings or perhaps the comicbook superhero's battle costume)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A detailed study on wingsuit deaths completed primarily by the University of Colorado found that out of 180 studied fatalities, 97% launched from cliffs and another 1% from buildings. The vast-majority of these deaths were related to the use of the wingsuit, not to do with external sources. This makes aircraft descending a much less-deadly form of wingsuit flying, though deemed less extreme by fans of the sport."
      },
      {
        "title": "2012 in aviation",
        "text": "23 May\n*Using a wingsuit in a jump over Ridge Wood, Buckinghamshire, England, British stuntman Gary Connery becomes the first person in history to jump from a great height and land safely without deploying a parachute. Jumping from an altitude of 2,400 feet (732 meters), he reduces his speed from 50 miles per hour (80\u00a0km/h) to 15 miles per hour (24\u00a0km/hr) by flaring his wingsuit about 200 feet (61 meters) from his landing zone, a 350-foot-by-45-foot (107-meter-by-13.7-meter) crushable \"runway\" up to 12 feet (3.7 meters) deep constructed with 18,600 cardboard boxes at Temple Island Meadows. His wingsuit begins to fly about three seconds after he begins his jump, and he travels nearly one mile (1.6\u00a0km) and reaches a maximum speed of over 80 miles per hour (129\u00a0km/hr) during his flight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Matt Gerdes, wingsuit tester at the Squirrel wingsuit company claims that wingsuit fatalities are on the rise because the experience of becoming a wingsuit pilot is becoming less personal as many for-profit BASE jumping instructors are allowing some students to skip steps and start testing out wingsuits after fewer and fewer regular parachute jumps. With little oversight from the government, \"...instruction in some courses turns out poorly-prepared jumpers who unwittingly skip steps on their way to flying high-performance wingsuits.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The biggest wingsuit BASE jump as measured from exit to landing was performed on 11 August 2013 by Patrick Kerber with a height of off the Jungfrau in Switzerland.\n;Fastest:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Parachuting",
        "text": "'Wingsuit flying' or 'wingsuiting' is the sport of flying through the air using a wingsuit, which adds surface area to the human body to enable a significant increase in lift. The common type of wingsuit creates an extra surface area with fabric between the legs and under the arms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Exiting from a BASE jumping site, such as a cliff, requires a different technique. In these situations, a vertical drop using the forces of gravity generates the airspeed that wingsuits need to generate lift. This is also the case when exiting from a helicopter, a paraglider, or a hot air balloon. Unlike when exiting an airplane, it takes time to build up airspeed to inflate the wingsuit and provide aerodynamic control. So exiting the cliff in a proper orientation is critical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 23 May 2006, the Australian couple Heather Swan and Glenn Singleman jumped from off Meru Peak in India, setting a world record for highest wingsuit BASE jump."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Some concerns regarding the nature of wingsuit flying exist due to injuries and death. The French government banned wingsuit flying multiple times following the deaths of French pilots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "In the mid-1990s, the modern wingsuit was developed by Patrick de Gayardon of France, adapted from the model used by John Carta. In 1997, the Bulgarian Sammy Popov designed and built a wingsuit that had a larger wing between the legs and longer wings on the arms. He tested his prototype in a vertical wind tunnel in Las Vegas at Flyaway Las Vegas. Popov's wingsuit first flew in October 1998, but never went into commercial production. In 1998, Chuck \"Da Kine\" Priest' built a version that incorporated hard ribs inside the wing airfoils. Although these more rigid wings were better able to keep their shape in flight, this made the wingsuit heavier and more difficult to fly. Raggs' design also never went into commercial production. Flying together for the first time, Popov and Raggs showcased their designs side by side at the World Free-fall Convention at Quincy, Illinois, in August 1999. Both designs performed well. At the same event, jumpers performed formation wingsuit skydives with de Gayardon's, Popov's, and Raggs' suits."
      },
      {
        "title": "BASE jumping",
        "text": "A popular form of BASE jumping is wingsuit BASE jumping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Modern wingsuits use a combination of materials in order to create an airfoil shape. The main surface is typically made from ripstop nylon, with various materials used to reinforce the leading edge, and reduce drag.\n* The tri-wing wingsuit has three individual ram-air wings attached under the arms and between the legs.\n* The mono-wing wingsuit design incorporates the whole suit into one large wing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gary Connery",
        "text": "Three seconds into his record-setting flight, his wingsuit inflated, its airflow dynamics enabled controlled gliding, and his speed reached about . At approximately over the landing strip, he changed the configuration of his wingsuit so as to decrease the gliding and vertical (falling) components of his velocity to and respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "BASE jumping",
        "text": "When jumping from high mountains, BASE jumpers will often use special clothing to improve control and flight characteristics in the air. Wingsuit flying has become a popular form of BASE jumping in recent years, that allows jumpers to glide over long horizontal distances. Tracking suits inflate like wingsuits to give additional lift to jumpers, but maintain separation of arms and legs to allow for greater mobility and safety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A 2010 redesign tested in a wind tunnel by the 8th Conference of the International Sports Engineering Association (ISEA) found that adding material to the wingsuit between the head/helmet area and connecting it to the wrist, thus increasing upper wings' size, would \"...lower lift-to-drag ratio in most testing scenarios. The decrease in lift-to-drag ratio was due to the combination of an increased lift and a higher increased drag.\" Other innovations in the late 2000s and early 2010's helped increase the glide ratio further."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A wingsuit pilot enters free fall wearing both a wingsuit and parachute equipment. The details of a wingsuit launch depend on whether it is a skydive from an aircraft, or a BASE jump from a fixed object."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Exiting an aircraft in a wingsuit requires skills that differ depending on the location and size of the door. These techniques include the orientation relative to the aircraft and the airflow while exiting. It is also important that wingsuit pilots spread their legs and arms at the proper time to avoid hitting the tail or becoming unstable. The wingsuit immediately starts to fly upon exiting the aircraft in the relative wind generated by the forward speed of the aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Christian Stadler from Germany invented the \"VegaV3 wingsuit system\" that uses an electronic adjustable hydrogen peroxide rocket. The rocket provides 1000\u00a0Newtons (100\u00a0kgf) of thrust and produces no flames or poisonous fumes. His first successful powered wingsuit jump was in 2007, when he reached horizontal speeds of over 255\u00a0km/h (160\u00a0mph)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A wingsuit modifies the body area exposed to wind to increase the desired amount of lift and drag generated by the body. With training, wingsuit pilots can achieve sustained glide ratio of 3:1 or more. This means that for every meter dropped, three meters are gained moving forward. By adjusting body configuration, fliers can alter both their forward speed and fall rate. The pilot manipulates these flight characteristics by changing the shape of the torso, de-arching and rolling the shoulders and moving hips and knees, and by changing the angle of attack in which the wingsuit flies in the relative wind, and by the amount of tension applied to the fabric wings of the suit. The absence of a vertical stabilizing surface results in little damping around the yaw axis, so poor flying technique can result in a spin that requires active effort on the part of the skydiver to stop."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of fatalities due to wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Fatalities from wingsuit flying have occurred almost from the inception of the sport. Below are listed the most notable ones, including when wingsuit practice was not the first cause of death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gary Connery",
        "text": "Landing in a wingsuit without using a parachute had been one of Jeb Corliss's main objectives since 2010. Corliss and other top-level wingsuit jumpers had tried for years to design wingsuits similar to the one which Connery helped design and subsequently used for his record-setting leap."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glenn Singleman",
        "text": "Singleman and his wife, Heather Swan, and Vicente Cajiga made the first and only wingsuit flight across Sydney Harbour exiting at 13,500\u00a0ft above Rose Bay and landing at Barangaroo. The jump took three years to organize and required approval from 9 government departments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Beginner wingsuits have less surface area and lower internal pressure. This makes them easier to control and less likely to go unstable in flight. Less fabric material makes it easier to deploy the pilot chute at the end of the flight. With experience, pilots can choose to upgrade to more advanced suits that have more surface area and increased glide performance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The longest verified wingsuit BASE jump is by the American Dean Potter on 2 November 2011. Potter jumped from the Eiger mountain and spent 3\u00a0minutes and 20\u00a0seconds in flight, descending of altitude.\n;Biggest:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Flying a wingsuit can add considerable complexity to a skydive. So, according to the Skydivers' Information Manual, the United States Parachute Association requires that any jumper have a minimum of 200\u00a0freefall skydives before completing a wingsuit first jump course and making a wingsuit jump. Requirements in other nations are similar. Wingsuit manufacturers offer training courses and certify instructors, and also impose the minimum jump numbers required before purchasing a wingsuit. Wingsuit pilots start on smaller wingsuits with less surface area. With practice, pilots can learn to fly larger suits with more surface area, which allow for increased glide and airtime. Within the sport of wingsuit flying, there are many sub-disciplines that participants may pursue, including: acrobatic flying, performance flying, and wingsuit BASE jumping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The air foil shape is formed by pressure inside the wing and the construction of the suit. Internal ribs help form the shape. Having a smooth leading edge is especially important as it is the source of most lift and most drag. Reducing inlet drag while maintaining high internal suit pressure is also important in modern wingsuit design. The number of air inlets and their positions vary on different suit designs. Suits which are focused on freestyle flight often have inlets on the back surface of the suit to maintain internal pressure when pilots are \"back flying\" in a face up orientation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "As of 2010, there have been experimental powered wingsuits, often using small jet engines strapped to the feet or a wingpack setup to allow for even greater horizontal speeds and even vertical ascent."
      },
      {
        "title": "2012 in aviation",
        "text": "22 September\n*A diamond formation involving 100 jumpers over Perris, California, sets a global record for the largest formation wingsuit jump. However, the record is set prior to the February 2015 establishment of judging criteria for official world record wingsuit formations by the F\u00e9d\u00e9ration A\u00e9ronautique Internationale, and therefore will be retired, with records thereafter being recognized under the new criteria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flight suit",
        "text": "As aviation developed in unheated open cockpits, the need for warm clothing quickly became apparent, as did the need for multiple pockets with closures of buttons, snaps, or zippers to prevent loss of articles during maneuvers. Various types of flight jackets and pants coverings were developed and, during World War I, leather two-piece outfits were common among pilots to ward off the chill caused by propwash and the cold of low-oxygen high-altitude flying. Leather quickly became the preferred material due to its durability and the protection it offered against flying debris such as insect strikes during climb-outs and landings, and oil thrown off by the simple rotary and inline motors of the time. Australian aviator Frederick Sidney Cotton's experience with high level and low-temperature flying led Cotton in 1917 to develop the revolutionary new \"Sidcot\" suit, a flying suit which solved the problem pilots had in keeping warm in the cockpit. This flying suit, with improvements, was widely used by the RAF until the 1950s."
      },
      {
        "title": "BASE jumping",
        "text": "On May 23, 2006, Australians Glenn Singleman and Heather Swan made a BASE jump from an altitude of off Mount Meru in Northern India. They jumped in wingsuits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gary Connery",
        "text": "On 23 May 2012 Connery made his wingsuit jump from a helicopter flying at a height of over Ridge Wood in Buckinghamshire near his hometown of Henley-on-Thames, Oxfordshire. Coming back from California (Perris Valley) in 2003, where he did his first wingsuit flight, he said: \"that could be landed!\" and he went for a week to do wingsuit flight training at Empuriabrava on the coast of Spain, the largest dropzone in Europe. Before the final attempt, he had made two test flights landing with a parachute. He had also trained for weeks in Italy and Switzerland in preparation for the jump. He had to obtain permission from the Civil Aviation Authority for the dive. The flight was filmed by Mark Sutton."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuit BASE jumping is an unregulated sport. But to perform the activity safely requires jumpers to be an experienced skydiver, wingsuit pilot, and BASE jumper. It takes hundreds of practice jumps to achieve skill in each of these disciplines before considering wingsuit BASE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Like all skydiving disciplines, a wingsuit flight almost always ends by deploying a parachute, and so a wingsuit can be flown from any point that provides sufficient altitude for flight and parachute deployment \u2013 a drop aircraft, or BASE-jump exit point such as a tall cliff or mountain top. The wingsuit flier wears parachuting equipment specially designed for skydiving or BASE jumping. While the parachute flight is normal, the canopy pilot must unzip arm wings (after deployment) to be able to reach the steering parachute toggles and control the descent path."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuit flying\n--History.\n----Commercial era.\n--Technique.\n----Launch.\n----Glide.\n----Flare.\n----Deployment.\n----Record-keeping.\n--Suit design.\n--Wingsuit BASE.\n--Further technical developments.\n----Jet-powered wingsuits.\n----Wingpack.\n--Training.\n--Records.\n----Wingsuit formation records.\n----Wingsuit BASE jump records.\n----Wingsuit flight records.\n--Safety.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuits can perform a flare in which airspeed is exchanged for additional lift. By first diving to build up speed, modern wingsuits can flare enough to gain altitude, but only for a short period of time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 20 and 21 April 2012, Colombian skydiver Jhonathan Florez set Guinness World Records in wingsuit flying. The jumps took place in La Guajira in Colombia. The longest (duration) wingsuit flight was 9\u00a0minutes, 6\u00a0seconds"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The glide ratios of older wingsuits made in the 1990s through the early 2010s were closer to 2:1.It was possible for expert flyers to achieve a 3:1 ratio but this was very difficult. However, advancements in modern wingsuits allow flyers to achieve a 3:1 ratio much more easily, allowing for higher speeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuit BASE jumping carries additional risk beyond a wingsuit skydive. Jumping from a fixed object means starting with low airspeed which requires different flying positions and skills. During the flight, hazards exist such as trees, rocks and the ground which must be avoided. While skydivers typically carry two parachutes, a main and a reserve, wingsuit BASE jumpers typically only carry one BASE-specific parachute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lo\u00efc Jean-Albert",
        "text": "Lo\u00efc Jean-Albert (b. 8 February 1978 in Toulon, but grew up on R\u00e9union), known as the Flying Dude from a popular YouTube video, Loic is an expert parachutist and wingsuit pilot. He was among the first ever practitioners of the sport of wingsuit BASE jumping. He was also among a group reported in 2007 to be developing and testing a wingsuit for landing without a parachute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rex Pemberton",
        "text": "As a keen skydiver, Rex soon transitioned to wingsuit flying then progressing to wingsuit base jumping and proximity flying. Rex rose to the top of the wingsuit world and now competes at the world championships, with third place being his best result."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "This record was broken on 5 May 2013, by the Russian Valery Rozov, who jumped from on Mount Everest's North Col."
      },
      {
        "title": "Batsuit",
        "text": "The suit again has an external 'memory cloth' cape, but, now has the ability to fold into a backpack shape as demonstrated during the base-jump in Hong Kong. It is unclear in the film if once deployed, as a glider, it can return to this backpack shape automatically. According to costume designer Linda Hemming this backpack idea was developed, at the request of Christopher Nolan, as a fall back if the cape were to get caught up in the rear wheel of the Batpod in motion. However, the concept was not used in the Batpod sequences after the film crew realized they had failed to account for the motion of the Batpod blowing the cape behind the rider, keeping it free from the rear wheel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "At a planned altitude above the ground in which a skydiver or BASE jumper typically deploys the parachute, wingsuit fliers will also deploy their parachutes. Before deployment, pilots adjust their flight configuration by flaring to reduce their air speed. The pilot then reaches back and throws a pilot chute to initiate the parachute deployment sequence. The parachute is flown to a controlled landing at the desired landing spot using typical skydiving or BASE jumping techniques."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flight jacket",
        "text": "In the 1970s and 1990s, flight jackets became popular with scooterboys and skinheads. In the 1980s, a baseball style bomber jacket became popular. In 1993, a uniform flight jacket was worn as the \"national costume\" of the United States for the APEC meeting held in Seattle, Washington. In the early 2000s, the bomber jacket was popular casual wear in hip-hop fashion. The jacket has also caught on with several police departments across the United States for its sturdy design and heavy insulation. Flight jacket has had a resurgence in popularity during the 2010s in street fashion, and is a notable staple of celebrities such as Kanye West."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vincent Reffet",
        "text": "Vincent Reffet was a professional parachutist. He completed 17,000 parachute jumps and 1400 BASE jumps. He began wingsuit flying in 2002. He was a parachute instructor, \"Jetman\" pilot, licensed private pilot, wind tunnel instructor (totaling 1000 hours), and pioneer and instructor in speed riding. According to \"The Guardian\", in 2014, Reffet \"BASE jumped off the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, the world\u2019s tallest building at 828 metres (2,716ft), setting a world record\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Two World Records have been set since the rules update. A 42-person formation over Moorsele, Belgium, set an FAI record on 18 June 2015. This was broken on 17 October 2015, when 61\u00a0wingsuit pilots set the current FAI world record over Perris Valley Airport near Perris, California."
      },
      {
        "title": "Patrick de Gayardon",
        "text": "De Gayardon was famous for pushing the boundaries of skydiving. He was one of the first people to develop the unique style of skysurfing, in which skydivers use a snowboard to make aerobatic maneuvers. He also made many famous stunts with his development of a ram-air wingsuit, starting modern-day wingsuiting. In 1998 Patrick fell to his death in Hawaii during a skydive with Adrian Nicholas using the wingsuit while testing a modification to his parachute container; his death is attributed to a rigging error he made while making the modification."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 22 May 2017, British wingsuit pilot Fraser Corsan set world records for the fastest speed reached in a wingsuit of .\n;Greatest average horizontal speed:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The highest altitude wingsuit jump is , and was achieved by James Petrolia above Davis, California, USA, on 11 November 2015.\n;Farthest:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gary Connery",
        "text": "Gary Connery\n--Eiffel Tower.\n--Nelson's Column.\n--World's first wingsuit landing without a parachute.\n----Flight.\n----Landing.\n----Reaction.\n--Queen's stunt double.\n--Films.\n--Family life.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Luke Aikins",
        "text": "On July 30, 2016, Aikins jumped from an aircraft without any parachute or wingsuit at an altitude of above Simi Valley, California, watched by a live audience. After about two minutes of free fall he successfully landed in a net just outside of Simi Valley, California. Aikins reached a terminal velocity of during the fall. The net was made from Spectra, a high-density polyethylene cord. It had four compressed air cylinders designed to gently slow him down after impact. The first skydiver to intentionally jump and land without using a parachute was Gary Connery in 2012 who wore a wingsuit to aid his landing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marc Hauser (skydiver)",
        "text": "As skydiving suit he was wearing a thermal protection jumpsuit without wings (no wingsuit)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "F\u00e9d\u00e9ration A\u00e9ronautique Internationale (FAI), the world governing airsports body, established judging criteria for official world record wingsuit formations in February 2015. The rules are available on the FAI website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glenn Singleman",
        "text": "Singleman set an unofficial world record for the highest wingsuit jump (37,650\u00a0ft) from a hot air balloon over the Australian outback. The jump was featured on 60 Minutes and was an 11-page feature article in Australian Geographic Magazine. The expedition was led by Singleman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vincent Reffet",
        "text": "He was also a pilot of the jet-powered wingsuit developed by Jetman Dubai. Some sources describe him as having been a \"prot\u00e9g\u00e9 of well-known jet daredevil Yves Rossy\" who also used a \"four-engine, carbon-Kevlar wing strapped to their backs\". According to CNN, the \"wingsuit is powered by four mini jet engines.. [and] allows pilots to control rotations around the yaw axis at zero speeds. Pilots can hover, stop, turn and maneuver, even performing rolls and loops\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tianmen Mountain",
        "text": "The World Wingsuit League held the first and second World Wingsuit Championships in Tianmen. On October 8, 2013, during a training jump for the second world championships, Viktor Kov\u00e1ts plunged to his death when he was unable to open his parachute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Another variation on which studies are being focused is the wingpack, which consists of a strap-on rigid wing made of carbon fibre."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shivling (mountain)",
        "text": "On 25 May 2012, Valery Rozov made the first BASE jump from the summit of Shivling at an altitude of wearing a wingsuit."
      },
      {
        "title": "G-suit",
        "text": "During World War II the German Henschel Hs 132 (never flew) and the US Northrop XP-79 (crashed on first powered flight) jets both had prone positions to minimize blood pooling in the legs. After 1945 the British experimented with prone flying positions in a highly modified Gloster Meteor F8 jet fighter and the Reid and Sigrist R.S.3 \"Bobsleigh\" a piston engined trainer. However, other difficulties associated with prone piloting and the development of practical g-suits for normal seating positions terminated these experiments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The current world record for greatest average horizontal speed within the performance competition rules, i.e. within of vertical distance, was set by Travis Mickle (USA) with a speed of 325.4\u00a0km/hr (202.19\u00a0mph) 6 November 2017.\n;Longest time:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jet pack",
        "text": "On 25 October 2005 in Lahti, Finland, Visa Parviainen jumped from a hot air balloon in a wingsuit with two small turbojet jet engines attached to his feet. Each turbojet provided approximately of thrust and ran on kerosene (Jet A-1) fuel. Parviainen apparently achieved approximately 30 seconds of horizontal flight with no noticeable loss of altitude."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ski flying",
        "text": "To further aid athletes in gliding as aerodynamically as possible, they wear a one-piece fabric bodysuit more similar to a wingsuit than a ski suit. It is composed of five layers and is both loose-fitting and porous enough to allow up to of air to enter and to pass through. This generates yet more lift, but the amount of slack is stringently regulated by the FIS so as to not allow for excessive bagginess and thereby reducing its wingsuit-, sail- or parachute-like properties. In the early 2000s, bodysuits had reached exceptionally baggy proportions, resulting in humorous comparisons to flying squirrels. A ban on these baggy suits came into effect soon after, and today the level of slack for bodysuits is measured by FIS scrutineers at \"equipment control\", led by Sepp Gratzer, before and after each jump. If the level is exceeded, that athlete is disqualified due to an \"equipment violation\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of fatalities due to wingsuit flying",
        "text": "List of fatalities due to wingsuit flying\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Glenn Singleman",
        "text": "he led the BASEClimb High Performance Wingsuit Team in a flight across the Grand Canyon, from the North Rim to the South Rim - a world first. The team, which included Singleman's wife, Heather Swan, Roger Hugelshofer, Vicente Cajiga and Paul Tozer flew 11.6 kilometres, exiting a Cessna Grand Supervan flown by Ray Ferrell at 28,000\u00a0ft. They landed on Hualapai Indian Nation land."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flight suit",
        "text": "A flight suit is a full-body garment, worn while flying aircraft such as military airplanes, gliders and helicopters. These suits are generally made to keep the wearer warm, as well as being practical (plenty of pockets), and durable (including fire retardant). Its appearance is usually similar to a jumpsuit. A military flight suit may also show rank insignia. It is sometimes used as a combat uniform in close quarters battle or visit, board, search, and seizure situations, for its practicality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "In 1999, Jari Kuosma of Finland and Robert Pe\u010dnik of Croatia teamed up to create a wingsuit that was safe and accessible to all skydivers. Kuosma established Bird-Man International Ltd. the same year. BirdMan's \"Classic\", designed by Pe\u010dnik, was the first wingsuit offered to the general skydiving public. BirdMan was the first manufacturer to develop an instructor program. Created by Kuosma, the instructor program's aim was to remove the stigma that wingsuits were dangerous and to provide wingsuit beginners (generally, skydivers with a minimum of 200\u00a0jumps) with a way to safely enjoy what was once considered the most dangerous feat in the skydiving world. With the help of Birdman instructors Scott Campos, Chuck Blue, and Kim Griffin, a standardized program of instruction was developed that prepared instructors. Wingsuit manufacturers Squirrel Wingsuits, TonySuits Wingsuits, Phoenix-Fly, Fly Your Body, and Nitro Rigging have also instituted coach training programs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Rozov broke his own record by jumping from on Cho Oyu in 2016.\n;Longest:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The current world record for longest horizontal distance covered within the performance competition rules, i.e. within of vertical distance, was set on 27 May 2017 by U.S. wingsuit pilot Alexey Galda with a distance of 5.137\u00a0km (3.19\u00a0mi)\n;Landing:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jet aircraft",
        "text": "Jet-powered wingsuits exist - powered by model aircraft jet engines - but of short duration and needing to be launched at height."
      },
      {
        "title": "Matthias Giraud",
        "text": "First person to ski BASE jump off the Matterhorn, Switzerland - First Wingsuit flight from the State of Washington, USA to the State of Oregon, USA\n* 2010:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sheepskin boots",
        "text": "Aviators need warm clothing if their aircraft are unpressurised and the heating is inadequate. Sheepskin jackets, helmets and boots were commonly used for this purpose in the 20th century. During World War I, Major Lanoe Hawker designed thigh-length sheepskin flying boots which were made for him by Harrods. These became popular in the Royal Flying Corps where they were known as \"fug boots\". These were superseded by the 1930 and 1936 Pattern boot followed by the introduction of the Sidcot suit and more ordinary knee-length fleece-lined boots were then used. Arctic pilots needed especially warm wear and continued to use heavy suspender boots of sheepskin in place of trousers. Both clothing and boots were electrically heated as the technology for this became available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wing walking",
        "text": "Among the many aerialists to become popular were Tiny Broderick, Gladys Ingle, Eddie Angel, Virginia Angel, Mayme Carson, Clyde Pangborn, Lillian Boyer, Jack Shack, Al Wilson, Fronty Nichols, Spider Matlock, Gladys Roy, Ivan Unger, Jessie Woods, Bonnie Rowe, Charles Lindbergh, and Mabel Cody (niece of Buffalo Bill Cody, no relation to S.F. Cody)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jokke Sommer",
        "text": "Back in Norway, Sommer started BASE jumping in 2008. He uploaded his first video to YouTube called \"Wingsuit Base in Romsdalen, Norway\" where he jumps from huge cliffs in Norway. This video was seen by over 17,000 people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "BASE jumpers also use landmarks, along with recorded video of their flight, to determine their performance relative to previous flights and the flights of other BASE jumpers at the same site."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Prior to this, the largest wingsuit formation recognized as meeting the criteria for a national record consisted of 68\u00a0wingsuit pilots, which set a U.S. national record at Lake Elsinore, California, on 12 November 2009. The largest global record was a diamond formation involving 100 wingsuit pilots at Perris, California, on 22 September 2012. These records have since been retired as they do not meet the current rules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Batwings, a precursor to wingsuits, were showcased in the 1969 film, \"The Gypsy Moths\", starring Burt Lancaster and Gene Hackman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uniforms of the Luftwaffe (1935\u20131945)",
        "text": "The flying suit typically consisted of a beige jumpsuit, leather flying helmet and thick fur-lined boots. Black leather jackets were also worn by fighter pilots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flight suit",
        "text": "By the time World War II started in earnest, electrically heated suits were introduced by Lion Apparel in conjunction with General Electric for patrol and bomber crews who routinely operated at high altitudes above , where air temperatures could get so cold that flesh could freeze instantly to any metal it touched. As enclosed and pressurized cabins came into operation, the necessity of bulky leather and shearling jackets and pants began to fade. For example, pilots, navigators, and bombardiers of a B-17 operating in Europe in 1944 comfortably wore their officer's uniforms under an A-2 flight jacket, due to the enclosed and heated cabin; but the waist gunners needed electrically heated suits, as they fired their guns through open window gunports. When the B-29 Superfortress was introduced in the fight against Japan, along with remote-controlled coordinated gun turrets, the fully pressurized crew cabin made bulky flight gear obsolete."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuit pilots often use tools including portable GPS receivers to record their flight path. This data can be analyzed later to evaluate flight performance in terms of fall rate, speed, and glide ratio. When jumping for the first time at a new location, BASE jumpers will often evaluate terrain using maps and laser range finders. By comparing a known terrain profile with previously recorded flight data, jumpers can objectively evaluate whether a particular jump is possible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A typical skydiver's terminal velocity in belly to earth orientation ranges from 180 to 225\u00a0km/h (110 to 140\u00a0mph). A wingsuit can reduce these speeds dramatically. A vertical instantaneous velocity of 40\u00a0km/h (25\u00a0mph) has been recorded. However the speed at which the body advances forward through the air is still much higher (up to 100\u00a0km/h [62\u00a0mph])."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The current world record for longest time in flight within the performance competition rules, i.e. within of vertical distance, was set on 28 Aug 2018 by Chris Geiler (USA) with a time of 100.2\u00a0sec (1.67\u00a0min)\n;Highest altitude:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mark Sutton",
        "text": "In August 2013, Mark Sutton and 20 other top wingsuiters were invited to a three-day event in Chamonix, France known as \"Helibase 74\", which was organised by Epic TV, a web TV channel specialising in extreme sports. In exchange for video footage of their flights, the website provided accommodations and helicopter access. On 14 August 2013, Sutton jumped alongside Tony Uragallo (both equipped with multiple video cameras) in a short \"warm-up\" flight near Les Grandes Otanes scheduled to last about a minute. However, tragedy struck only 20 seconds into the flight; as he jumped from the helicopter at , travelling at speeds of up to , Sutton veered off-course and crashed into a mountain ridge. A rescue helicopter arrived soon after Sutton hit the ground, but he was pronounced dead at the scene\u2014Sutton's impact was so severe that a DNA test was required to identify his body, and a spokesperson stated that he had no chance of surviving the impact. While Sutton was equipped with a parachute during the flight for landing, it was left unused. As part of the investigation, the video footage from Uragallo's cameras were handed over to a Swiss police unit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The current U.S. national record includes 43\u00a0wingsuit pilots. It was set on 5 October 2018 in Rosharon, Texas at Skydive Spaceland-Houston.\n;Highest altitude:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dwain Weston",
        "text": "On 5 October 2003, at the end of the inaugural Go Fast Games, Weston was killed while attempting to fly over the Royal Gorge Bridge near Ca\u00f1on City, Colorado. Weston was wearing a wingsuit, a skydiving suit with fabric extended below the arms to the body and between the legs to catch air allowing for horizontal travel when skydiving. Weston was to go over the bridge while fellow skydiver Jeb Corliss was to go under it. Just prior to the jump, Weston said to Corliss, \"Just remember: whatever happens, \"happens\".\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Roland "Slim" Simpson",
        "text": "On 5 October 2004 during Chinese National Day Holiday, a multi-national group of BASE jumpers who were invited by the Shanghai Sports Bureau leapt from the top of the tower. The next day, Roland Simpson leapt from the Jin Mao Building, the tallest skyscraper in China at the time, in a wingsuit. After a good jump and flight, his parachute opened with multiple line twists making it difficult to steer and he crashed onto an adjacent building. He went into a coma. He was then returned to Australia, where he died from his injuries in Canberra Hospital at 2:30pm AEST on 22 October 2004. He is number 85 on the BASE Fatality List."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Gorge Bridge",
        "text": "On October 5, 2003, while performing a proximity demonstration, wingsuiter Dwain Weston was killed attempting to fly over the bridge. Weston was wearing a wingsuit, a skydiving suit with fabric extended below the arms to the body and between the legs to catch air, allowing for horizontal travel when skydiving. He was to go over the bridge while fellow skydiver Jeb Corliss was to go under it. Misjudging his distance from the bridge, Weston struck a railing while traveling an estimated 120\u00a0mph, severing his leg at the hip. He fell onto a ledge in the gorge under a parachute that had opened on impact, though it is assumed he had already died."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parachuting",
        "text": "The jumps were made in a \"rocking-chair\" position, descending on his back, rather than the usual arch familiar to skydivers, because he was wearing a 60-pound (27\u00a0kg) \"kit\" on his behind and his pressure suit naturally formed that shape when inflated, a shape appropriate for sitting in an airplane cockpit. For the series of jumps, Kittinger was decorated with an oak leaf cluster to his Distinguished Flying Cross and awarded the Harmon Trophy by President Dwight Eisenhower."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter Siebold",
        "text": "Siebold's flight suit was saturated with blood from bleeding in his right arm. He did not feel any lower body injuries. As Siebold removed his parachute harness a \u201cclunking noise\u201d was felt in his chest and Siebold became concerned about a potential spinal fracture. Upon arrival at the ER his flight suit was cut away."
      },
      {
        "title": "1870s in Western fashion",
        "text": "The points of high upstanding shirt collars were increasingly pressed into \"wings\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wiley Post",
        "text": "The body of the suit had three layers: long underwear, an inner black rubber air pressure bladder, and an outer layer made of rubberized parachute fabric. The outer layer was glued to a frame with arm and leg joints that allowed him to operate the flight controls and to walk to and from the aircraft. Attached to the frame were pigskin gloves, rubber boots, and an aluminum-and-plastic diver's helmet. The helmet had a removable faceplate that could be sealed at a height of , and could accommodate earphones and a throat microphone. The helmet was cylinder-shaped with a circular window. In the first flight using the suit on September 5, 1934, Post reached an altitude of above Chicago. Eventually flying as high as , Post discovered the jet stream and made the first major practical advances in pressurized flight. As of 2011 the suit is currently being restored."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What year was the wing suit developed?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The first wingsuit was made in 1912 by Franz Reichelt, the modern wingsuit was first developed in the mid-1990's by Patrick de Gayardon. The first wingsuit to be made commercially available to all skydivers was created in 1999 by Jari Kuosma and Robert Pecnik."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Have wingsuits been used by any military forces?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find the answer, but I did find concerns regarding the nature of wingsuit flying exist due to injuries and death and the French government banned wingsuit flying multiple times following the deaths of French pilots."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me more about the injuries and deaths that lead to the wingsuits being banned in France?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Despite training and regulation, wingsuit BASE jumping remains a dangerous pastime, and fatalities occur regularly. A 2012 University of Colorado study found that in wingsuit BASE jumping, there was approximately one severe injury for every 500 jumps undertaken."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did wing suit flying first become popular?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I did not find the answer, but I did find that  Created by Kuosma, the instructor program's aim was to remove the stigma that wingsuits were dangerous and to provide wingsuit beginners (generally, skydivers with a minimum of 200 jumps) with a way to safely enjoy what was once considered the most dangerous feat in the skydiving world.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I don't have any information on when the wingsuit flying became popular, but it entered the commercial era in 1999, when Jari Kuosma of Finland and Robert Pe\u010dnik of Croatia teamed up to create a wingsuit that was safe and accessible to all skydivers."
    ],
    "topic": "Wingsuit flying",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Wingsuit flying:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wingsuit flying",
          "History",
          "Commercial era"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 1999, Jari Kuosma of Finland and Robert Pe\u010dnik of Croatia teamed up to create a wingsuit that was safe and accessible to all skydivers. Kuosma established Bird-Man International Ltd. the same year. BirdMan's \"Classic\", designed by Pe\u010dnik, was the first wingsuit offered to the general skydiving public. BirdMan was the first manufacturer to develop an instructor program. Created by Kuosma, the instructor program's aim was to remove the stigma that wingsuits were dangerous and to provide wingsuit beginners (generally, skydivers with a minimum of 200\u00a0jumps) with a way to safely enjoy what was once considered the most dangerous feat in the skydiving world. With the help of Birdman instructors Scott Campos, Chuck Blue, and Kim Griffin, a standardized program of instruction was developed that prepared instructors. Wingsuit manufacturers Squirrel Wingsuits, TonySuits Wingsuits, Phoenix-Fly, Fly Your Body, and Nitro Rigging have also instituted coach training programs."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Wingsuit flying:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wingsuit flying",
          "History",
          "Commercial era"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 1999, Jari Kuosma of Finland and Robert Pe\u010dnik of Croatia teamed up to create a wingsuit that was safe and accessible to all skydivers. Kuosma established Bird-Man International Ltd. the same year. BirdMan's \"Classic\", designed by Pe\u010dnik, was the first wingsuit offered to the general skydiving public. BirdMan was the first manufacturer to develop an instructor program. Created by Kuosma, the instructor program's aim was to remove the stigma that wingsuits were dangerous and to provide wingsuit beginners (generally, skydivers with a minimum of 200\u00a0jumps) with a way to safely enjoy what was once considered the most dangerous feat in the skydiving world. With the help of Birdman instructors Scott Campos, Chuck Blue, and Kim Griffin, a standardized program of instruction was developed that prepared instructors. Wingsuit manufacturers Squirrel Wingsuits, TonySuits Wingsuits, Phoenix-Fly, Fly Your Body, and Nitro Rigging have also instituted coach training programs."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "As of 2010, there have been experimental powered wingsuits, often using small jet engines strapped to the feet or a wingpack setup to allow for even greater horizontal speeds and even vertical ascent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jet aircraft",
        "text": "Jet-powered wingsuits exist - powered by model aircraft jet engines - but of short duration and needing to be launched at height."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vincent Reffet",
        "text": "He was also a pilot of the jet-powered wingsuit developed by Jetman Dubai. Some sources describe him as having been a \"prot\u00e9g\u00e9 of well-known jet daredevil Yves Rossy\" who also used a \"four-engine, carbon-Kevlar wing strapped to their backs\". According to CNN, the \"wingsuit is powered by four mini jet engines.. [and] allows pilots to control rotations around the yaw axis at zero speeds. Pilots can hover, stop, turn and maneuver, even performing rolls and loops\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Christian Stadler from Germany invented the \"VegaV3 wingsuit system\" that uses an electronic adjustable hydrogen peroxide rocket. The rocket provides 1000\u00a0Newtons (100\u00a0kgf) of thrust and produces no flames or poisonous fumes. His first successful powered wingsuit jump was in 2007, when he reached horizontal speeds of over 255\u00a0km/h (160\u00a0mph)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 25 October 2009, in Lahti, Finland, Visa Parviainen jumped from a hot air balloon in a wingsuit with two small turbojet engines attached to his feet. The engines provided approximately 160\u00a0N (16\u00a0kgf, 35\u00a0lbf) of thrust each and ran on JET A-1 fuel. Parviainen achieved approximately 30\u00a0seconds of horizontal flight with no noticeable loss of altitude. Parviainen continued jumping from hot air balloons and helicopters, including one for the \"Stunt Junkies\" program on Discovery Channel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yves Rossy",
        "text": "Rossy developed and built a wingsuit system comprising a backpack equipped with semi-rigid aeroplane-type carbon-fiber wings\u2014with a span of about \u2014powered by four Jetcat P400 jet engines, modified from large kerosene-fueled model aircraft engines. This has led to him being referred to in the press by various monikers, such as \"The Airman\", \"Rocketman\", \"Fusionman\", and\u2014most commonly\u2014\"Jetman\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jet pack",
        "text": "On 25 October 2005 in Lahti, Finland, Visa Parviainen jumped from a hot air balloon in a wingsuit with two small turbojet jet engines attached to his feet. Each turbojet provided approximately of thrust and ran on kerosene (Jet A-1) fuel. Parviainen apparently achieved approximately 30 seconds of horizontal flight with no noticeable loss of altitude."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The current Guinness World Record for \"greatest absolute distance flown in a wing suit\" is 32.094\u00a0km (19.94\u00a0mi) set by Kyle Lobpries (USA) in Davis, CA 30 May 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuit flying (or wingsuiting) is the sport of skydiving using a webbing-sleeved jumpsuit called a wingsuit to add wetted area to the diver's body and generate increased lift, which allows extended air time by gliding flight rather than just free falling. The modern wingsuit, first developed in the late 1990s, uses a pair of fabric membranes stretched flat between the arms and flanks/thighs to imitate an airfoil, and often also between the legs to function as a tail and allow some aerial steering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A wingsuit modifies the body area exposed to wind to increase the desired amount of lift and drag generated by the body. With training, wingsuit pilots can achieve sustained glide ratio of 3:1 or more. This means that for every meter dropped, three meters are gained moving forward. By adjusting body configuration, fliers can alter both their forward speed and fall rate. The pilot manipulates these flight characteristics by changing the shape of the torso, de-arching and rolling the shoulders and moving hips and knees, and by changing the angle of attack in which the wingsuit flies in the relative wind, and by the amount of tension applied to the fabric wings of the suit. The absence of a vertical stabilizing surface results in little damping around the yaw axis, so poor flying technique can result in a spin that requires active effort on the part of the skydiver to stop."
      },
      {
        "title": "Powered skydiving",
        "text": "Powered skydiving is an activity where a skydiver jumps from some height (usually an airplane) wearing propulsion and small wings to fly their bodies. Efforts have been made by wingsuit flyers to sustain altitude, but the most successful was Yves Rossy who jumped out of an airplane wearing airplane-type rigid wings with four small jet motors attached to them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Modern wingsuits use a combination of materials in order to create an airfoil shape. The main surface is typically made from ripstop nylon, with various materials used to reinforce the leading edge, and reduce drag.\n* The tri-wing wingsuit has three individual ram-air wings attached under the arms and between the legs.\n* The mono-wing wingsuit design incorporates the whole suit into one large wing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A wingsuit BASE jump begins by jumping from a cliff. Within seconds, air inflates the suit into a semi-rigid airfoil shape. By holding a proper body position, the wingsuit flier is able to glide forward at a ratio of 3:1, meaning that they are moving forward three feet for every foot of descent (or 3 meters for every meter of descent)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jet pack",
        "text": "Rossy claims to be \"the first person to gain altitude and maintain a stable horizontal flight thanks to aerodynamic carbon foldable wings\", which are folded by hinges at their midpoint. After being lifted to altitude by a plane, he ignites the engines just before he exits the plane with the wings folded. The wings unfold while in free-fall, and he then can fly horizontally for several minutes, landing with the help of a parachute. He achieves true controlled flight using his body and a hand throttle to maneuver; jet wingsuits use small turbojets, but differ from other aircraft in that the fuselage and flight control surfaces consist of a human."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "As suit technology and pilot skill have improved, wingsuit BASE jumpers have learned to control their flight so that they can fly just meters away from terrain. \u201cProximity flying\u201d is the practice of flying a wingsuit close to the faces and ridges of mountains. Flying near terrain gives a greater sense of speed due to having a close visual reference. Loic Jean-Albert of France is one of the first proximity flyers, and his pioneering flying brought many BASE jumpers into the sport. In November 2012, Alexander Polli became the first wingsuit BASE jumper to successfully strike a wingsuit target. Alexander Polli died August 22, 2016 in a wingsuit accident, after crashing into a tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A wingsuit pilot enters free fall wearing both a wingsuit and parachute equipment. The details of a wingsuit launch depend on whether it is a skydive from an aircraft, or a BASE jump from a fixed object."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vincent Reffet",
        "text": "In February 2020, Reffet took off from the ground in Dubai, instead of from a helicopter or from a very tall building, as for previous flights; this was the first time that a ground ascent was achieved. The capability was made possible with a new \"computerized stabilization system that allowed for hovering flight\". The wingsuit was said to be able to reach an altitude of 6,000 feet and Reffet's top speed was estimated at 150 miles per hour. In order to land safely, he used a parachute. Prior to his death, Reffet made this statement to the news media about the benefits of the jetpack: \"... when I am skydiving, I have like this feeling of freedom like I can pretty much go where I want, but always going down. [But] with this machine I can fly like a bird\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "An early attempt at wingsuit flying was made on 4 February 1912 by a 33-year-old tailor, Franz Reichelt, who jumped from the Eiffel Tower to test his invention of a combination of parachute and wing, which was similar to modern wingsuits. He misled the guards by saying that the experiment was going to be conducted with a dummy. He hesitated quite a long time before he jumped, and died when he hit the ground head first, opening a measurable hole in the frozen ground."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Exiting from a BASE jumping site, such as a cliff, requires a different technique. In these situations, a vertical drop using the forces of gravity generates the airspeed that wingsuits need to generate lift. This is also the case when exiting from a helicopter, a paraglider, or a hot air balloon. Unlike when exiting an airplane, it takes time to build up airspeed to inflate the wingsuit and provide aerodynamic control. So exiting the cliff in a proper orientation is critical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuits can perform a flare in which airspeed is exchanged for additional lift. By first diving to build up speed, modern wingsuits can flare enough to gain altitude, but only for a short period of time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A wingsuit was first used in the US in 1930 by a 19-year-old American, Rex G Finney of Los Angeles, California. The goal was to increase horizontal movement and maneuverability during a parachute jump. These early wingsuits used materials such as canvas, wood, silk, steel, and whalebone. They were not very reliable, although some \"birdmen\", such as Clem Sohn and Leo Valentin, claimed to have glided for miles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parachuting",
        "text": "'Wingsuit flying' or 'wingsuiting' is the sport of flying through the air using a wingsuit, which adds surface area to the human body to enable a significant increase in lift. The common type of wingsuit creates an extra surface area with fabric between the legs and under the arms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The air foil shape is formed by pressure inside the wing and the construction of the suit. Internal ribs help form the shape. Having a smooth leading edge is especially important as it is the source of most lift and most drag. Reducing inlet drag while maintaining high internal suit pressure is also important in modern wingsuit design. The number of air inlets and their positions vary on different suit designs. Suits which are focused on freestyle flight often have inlets on the back surface of the suit to maintain internal pressure when pilots are \"back flying\" in a face up orientation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "In the mid-1990s, the modern wingsuit was developed by Patrick de Gayardon of France, adapted from the model used by John Carta. In 1997, the Bulgarian Sammy Popov designed and built a wingsuit that had a larger wing between the legs and longer wings on the arms. He tested his prototype in a vertical wind tunnel in Las Vegas at Flyaway Las Vegas. Popov's wingsuit first flew in October 1998, but never went into commercial production. In 1998, Chuck \"Da Kine\" Priest' built a version that incorporated hard ribs inside the wing airfoils. Although these more rigid wings were better able to keep their shape in flight, this made the wingsuit heavier and more difficult to fly. Raggs' design also never went into commercial production. Flying together for the first time, Popov and Raggs showcased their designs side by side at the World Free-fall Convention at Quincy, Illinois, in August 1999. Both designs performed well. At the same event, jumpers performed formation wingsuit skydives with de Gayardon's, Popov's, and Raggs' suits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gary Connery",
        "text": "Three seconds into his record-setting flight, his wingsuit inflated, its airflow dynamics enabled controlled gliding, and his speed reached about . At approximately over the landing strip, he changed the configuration of his wingsuit so as to decrease the gliding and vertical (falling) components of his velocity to and respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shin Ito",
        "text": "\"Greatest absolute distance flown in a wingsuit\" 28.707\u00a0km (17.83 miles) above California, USA on 26 May 2012,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Exiting an aircraft in a wingsuit requires skills that differ depending on the location and size of the door. These techniques include the orientation relative to the aircraft and the airflow while exiting. It is also important that wingsuit pilots spread their legs and arms at the proper time to avoid hitting the tail or becoming unstable. The wingsuit immediately starts to fly upon exiting the aircraft in the relative wind generated by the forward speed of the aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A detailed study on wingsuit deaths completed primarily by the University of Colorado found that out of 180 studied fatalities, 97% launched from cliffs and another 1% from buildings. The vast-majority of these deaths were related to the use of the wingsuit, not to do with external sources. This makes aircraft descending a much less-deadly form of wingsuit flying, though deemed less extreme by fans of the sport."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 23 May 2012, British stuntman Gary Connery safely landed a wingsuit without deploying his parachute, landing on a crushable \"runway\" (landing zone) built with thousands of cardboard boxes."
      },
      {
        "title": "2012 in aviation",
        "text": "23 May\n*Using a wingsuit in a jump over Ridge Wood, Buckinghamshire, England, British stuntman Gary Connery becomes the first person in history to jump from a great height and land safely without deploying a parachute. Jumping from an altitude of 2,400 feet (732 meters), he reduces his speed from 50 miles per hour (80\u00a0km/h) to 15 miles per hour (24\u00a0km/hr) by flaring his wingsuit about 200 feet (61 meters) from his landing zone, a 350-foot-by-45-foot (107-meter-by-13.7-meter) crushable \"runway\" up to 12 feet (3.7 meters) deep constructed with 18,600 cardboard boxes at Temple Island Meadows. His wingsuit begins to fly about three seconds after he begins his jump, and he travels nearly one mile (1.6\u00a0km) and reaches a maximum speed of over 80 miles per hour (129\u00a0km/hr) during his flight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "As compared to skydiving from an airplane, BASE jumping involves jumping from a \"fixed object\" such as a cliff. BASE jumping in its modern form has existed since at least 1978, but it was not until 1997 that Patrick de Gayardon made some of the first-ever wingsuit BASE jumps combining the two disciplines. Compared to normal BASE jumping, wingsuit BASE jumping allows pilots to fly far away from the cliffs they jumped from, and drastically increase their freefall time before deploying a parachute. Since 2003, many BASE jumpers have started using wingsuits, giving birth to wingsuit BASE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Like all skydiving disciplines, a wingsuit flight almost always ends by deploying a parachute, and so a wingsuit can be flown from any point that provides sufficient altitude for flight and parachute deployment \u2013 a drop aircraft, or BASE-jump exit point such as a tall cliff or mountain top. The wingsuit flier wears parachuting equipment specially designed for skydiving or BASE jumping. While the parachute flight is normal, the canopy pilot must unzip arm wings (after deployment) to be able to reach the steering parachute toggles and control the descent path."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marc Hauser (skydiver)",
        "text": "As skydiving suit he was wearing a thermal protection jumpsuit without wings (no wingsuit)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Beginner wingsuits have less surface area and lower internal pressure. This makes them easier to control and less likely to go unstable in flight. Less fabric material makes it easier to deploy the pilot chute at the end of the flight. With experience, pilots can choose to upgrade to more advanced suits that have more surface area and increased glide performance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The biggest wingsuit BASE jump as measured from exit to landing was performed on 11 August 2013 by Patrick Kerber with a height of off the Jungfrau in Switzerland.\n;Fastest:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuits are sometimes referred to as \"birdman suits\" (after the brand name of the makers of the first commercial wingsuit), \"squirrel suits\" (from their resemblance to flying squirrels' wing membrane), and \"bat suits\" (due to their resemblance to bat wings or perhaps the comicbook superhero's battle costume)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ch\u014djin Sentai Jetman",
        "text": "Based at the , a high-tech base provided by the Sky Force, the Jetmen are formed by five people who gain superhuman strength through exposure to Birdonic Waves: one intentionally and the other four accidentally. Each Jetman is equipped with a wingsuit uniform known as the that allows them to glide in the air, the right-handed Wing Gauntlet, a combat sword known as the Bringer Sword, and a handgun known as the Bird Blaster."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Another variation on which studies are being focused is the wingpack, which consists of a strap-on rigid wing made of carbon fibre."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "In 1999, Jari Kuosma of Finland and Robert Pe\u010dnik of Croatia teamed up to create a wingsuit that was safe and accessible to all skydivers. Kuosma established Bird-Man International Ltd. the same year. BirdMan's \"Classic\", designed by Pe\u010dnik, was the first wingsuit offered to the general skydiving public. BirdMan was the first manufacturer to develop an instructor program. Created by Kuosma, the instructor program's aim was to remove the stigma that wingsuits were dangerous and to provide wingsuit beginners (generally, skydivers with a minimum of 200\u00a0jumps) with a way to safely enjoy what was once considered the most dangerous feat in the skydiving world. With the help of Birdman instructors Scott Campos, Chuck Blue, and Kim Griffin, a standardized program of instruction was developed that prepared instructors. Wingsuit manufacturers Squirrel Wingsuits, TonySuits Wingsuits, Phoenix-Fly, Fly Your Body, and Nitro Rigging have also instituted coach training programs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The longest verified wingsuit BASE jump is by the American Dean Potter on 2 November 2011. Potter jumped from the Eiger mountain and spent 3\u00a0minutes and 20\u00a0seconds in flight, descending of altitude.\n;Biggest:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gary Connery",
        "text": "Landing in a wingsuit without using a parachute had been one of Jeb Corliss's main objectives since 2010. Corliss and other top-level wingsuit jumpers had tried for years to design wingsuits similar to the one which Connery helped design and subsequently used for his record-setting leap."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuit BASE jumping carries additional risk beyond a wingsuit skydive. Jumping from a fixed object means starting with low airspeed which requires different flying positions and skills. During the flight, hazards exist such as trees, rocks and the ground which must be avoided. While skydivers typically carry two parachutes, a main and a reserve, wingsuit BASE jumpers typically only carry one BASE-specific parachute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jet pack",
        "text": "It has been claimed that the military was impressed and asked for prototypes for the powered wings, but that Rossy kindly refused the request stating that the device was only intended for aviation enthusiasts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuit flying\n--History.\n----Commercial era.\n--Technique.\n----Launch.\n----Glide.\n----Flare.\n----Deployment.\n----Record-keeping.\n--Suit design.\n--Wingsuit BASE.\n--Further technical developments.\n----Jet-powered wingsuits.\n----Wingpack.\n--Training.\n--Records.\n----Wingsuit formation records.\n----Wingsuit BASE jump records.\n----Wingsuit flight records.\n--Safety.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The highest altitude wingsuit jump is , and was achieved by James Petrolia above Davis, California, USA, on 11 November 2015.\n;Farthest:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The glide ratios of older wingsuits made in the 1990s through the early 2010s were closer to 2:1.It was possible for expert flyers to achieve a 3:1 ratio but this was very difficult. However, advancements in modern wingsuits allow flyers to achieve a 3:1 ratio much more easily, allowing for higher speeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 22 May 2017, British wingsuit pilot Fraser Corsan set world records for the fastest speed reached in a wingsuit of .\n;Greatest average horizontal speed:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A 2010 redesign tested in a wind tunnel by the 8th Conference of the International Sports Engineering Association (ISEA) found that adding material to the wingsuit between the head/helmet area and connecting it to the wrist, thus increasing upper wings' size, would \"...lower lift-to-drag ratio in most testing scenarios. The decrease in lift-to-drag ratio was due to the combination of an increased lift and a higher increased drag.\" Other innovations in the late 2000s and early 2010's helped increase the glide ratio further."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Flying a wingsuit can add considerable complexity to a skydive. So, according to the Skydivers' Information Manual, the United States Parachute Association requires that any jumper have a minimum of 200\u00a0freefall skydives before completing a wingsuit first jump course and making a wingsuit jump. Requirements in other nations are similar. Wingsuit manufacturers offer training courses and certify instructors, and also impose the minimum jump numbers required before purchasing a wingsuit. Wingsuit pilots start on smaller wingsuits with less surface area. With practice, pilots can learn to fly larger suits with more surface area, which allow for increased glide and airtime. Within the sport of wingsuit flying, there are many sub-disciplines that participants may pursue, including: acrobatic flying, performance flying, and wingsuit BASE jumping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shin Ito",
        "text": "and \"Fastest speed reached in a wingsuit of , achieved on 28 May 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "This record was broken on 5 May 2013, by the Russian Valery Rozov, who jumped from on Mount Everest's North Col."
      },
      {
        "title": "2012 in aviation",
        "text": "22 September\n*A diamond formation involving 100 jumpers over Perris, California, sets a global record for the largest formation wingsuit jump. However, the record is set prior to the February 2015 establishment of judging criteria for official world record wingsuit formations by the F\u00e9d\u00e9ration A\u00e9ronautique Internationale, and therefore will be retired, with records thereafter being recognized under the new criteria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuit BASE jumping is an unregulated sport. But to perform the activity safely requires jumpers to be an experienced skydiver, wingsuit pilot, and BASE jumper. It takes hundreds of practice jumps to achieve skill in each of these disciplines before considering wingsuit BASE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 20 and 21 April 2012, Colombian skydiver Jhonathan Florez set Guinness World Records in wingsuit flying. The jumps took place in La Guajira in Colombia. The longest (duration) wingsuit flight was 9\u00a0minutes, 6\u00a0seconds"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jari Kuosma",
        "text": "Jari Kuosma (born 3 March 1969 in Helsinki) is the original developer of modern and commercial wingsuit (as a product), wingsuit flying (as a sport) and owner of BirdMan Inc. Kuosma has over 5000 jumps. He has worked as an Accelerated Free Fall (AFF) Instructor in USA, Sweden and Venezuela. He introduced the first wingsuit training program for skydivers in 1999. A wingsuit instructor program followed the year after."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Matt Gerdes, wingsuit tester at the Squirrel wingsuit company claims that wingsuit fatalities are on the rise because the experience of becoming a wingsuit pilot is becoming less personal as many for-profit BASE jumping instructors are allowing some students to skip steps and start testing out wingsuits after fewer and fewer regular parachute jumps. With little oversight from the government, \"...instruction in some courses turns out poorly-prepared jumpers who unwittingly skip steps on their way to flying high-performance wingsuits.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Luke Aikins",
        "text": "On July 30, 2016, Aikins jumped from an aircraft without any parachute or wingsuit at an altitude of above Simi Valley, California, watched by a live audience. After about two minutes of free fall he successfully landed in a net just outside of Simi Valley, California. Aikins reached a terminal velocity of during the fall. The net was made from Spectra, a high-density polyethylene cord. It had four compressed air cylinders designed to gently slow him down after impact. The first skydiver to intentionally jump and land without using a parachute was Gary Connery in 2012 who wore a wingsuit to aid his landing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glenn Singleman",
        "text": "Singleman and his wife, Heather Swan, and Vicente Cajiga made the first and only wingsuit flight across Sydney Harbour exiting at 13,500\u00a0ft above Rose Bay and landing at Barangaroo. The jump took three years to organize and required approval from 9 government departments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ramjet (Image Comics)",
        "text": "Gage Reinhart has the superhuman power of flight. Whereas his sister Olivia wore a wingsuit-type outfit to aid her maneuverability, Gage's natural aptitude at maneuvering makes this unnecessary. However, his ability to effect sudden stops and land properly is far inferior to hers, and thus he wears an armored suit that not only protects him from impact, but enables him to act as a human battering ram, from which his current codename is derived. Maddie Warner's ally, Tank, who built the armor, indicated to Reinhart that it could allow him to smash right through a building. He can reach hypersonic speeds when flying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vincent Reffet",
        "text": "Vincent Reffet was a professional parachutist. He completed 17,000 parachute jumps and 1400 BASE jumps. He began wingsuit flying in 2002. He was a parachute instructor, \"Jetman\" pilot, licensed private pilot, wind tunnel instructor (totaling 1000 hours), and pioneer and instructor in speed riding. According to \"The Guardian\", in 2014, Reffet \"BASE jumped off the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, the world\u2019s tallest building at 828 metres (2,716ft), setting a world record\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 23 May 2006, the Australian couple Heather Swan and Glenn Singleman jumped from off Meru Peak in India, setting a world record for highest wingsuit BASE jump."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jet pack",
        "text": "Jet pack\n--Overview.\n--Liquid-fuelled rocket pack.\n----Andreyev: oxygen-and-methane, with wings.\n--Hydrogen peroxide-powered rocket packs.\n----Justin Capr\u0103's flying backpack.\n----Jump Belt.\n----Aeropack.\n----U.S. Army interest.\n----Bell Textron Rocket Belt.\n----RB-2000 Rocket Belt.\n----Bell Pogo.\n----Powerhouse Productions Rocketbelt.\n----Jetpack International.\n----Current technology.\n--Turbojet packs.\n----Bell Jet Flying Belt: wingless.\n----Visa Parviainen's jet-assisted wingsuit.\n----Yves Rossy's jet wingpack.\n----Troy Hartman: jet pack and parafoil.\n----Fritz Unger: jet pack with rigid wings.\n----JetPack Aviation: wingless jet pack.\n----Flyboard Air.\n----Daedalus Flight Pack.\n--Government.\n----Space.\n--Hydrojet packs.\n----JetLev.\n----Flyboard.\n----Firefighters.\n--Home-made versions.\n--In fiction.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "At a planned altitude above the ground in which a skydiver or BASE jumper typically deploys the parachute, wingsuit fliers will also deploy their parachutes. Before deployment, pilots adjust their flight configuration by flaring to reduce their air speed. The pilot then reaches back and throws a pilot chute to initiate the parachute deployment sequence. The parachute is flown to a controlled landing at the desired landing spot using typical skydiving or BASE jumping techniques."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hubertec Thermik",
        "text": "An alternative version that fits a paraglider wing is also available, flying as a powered parachute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fieseler Fi 166",
        "text": "Design one involved a straight-winged jet fighter powered by two Jumo 004 jet engines. It would be launched upright by liquid-fuel rockets. After attaining an altitude of 3660 meters, the rocket would burn out, disconnect and return to earth via parachute for re-use. The fighter would then engage Allied bombers before landing as a conventional airplane."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beep Prepared",
        "text": "4.) Hoping to have a better advantage in the air, Wile E. equips himself with a rocket-powered flying suit. An explosion follows, coating the coyote in ash and leaving behind nothing but the framework of the device. And since the wings were made of cloth, the fabric was also destroyed in the blast. With no support left whatsoever (not even slots in the wings), gravity takes over as the Coyote leaves a trail of soot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cessna Citation I",
        "text": "The straight wing jet is powered by JT15D turbofans.<section end=summary/>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Flight envelope",
        "text": "For the same conditions a fighter aircraft might require considerably more power due to their wings being designed for high speed, high agility, or both. It could require to achieve similar performance. However modern jet engines can provide considerable power with the equivalent of not being atypical. With this amount of extra power the aircraft can achieve very high maximum rate of climb, even climb straight up, make powerful continual maneuvers, or fly at very high speeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Some concerns regarding the nature of wingsuit flying exist due to injuries and death. The French government banned wingsuit flying multiple times following the deaths of French pilots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A typical skydiver's terminal velocity in belly to earth orientation ranges from 180 to 225\u00a0km/h (110 to 140\u00a0mph). A wingsuit can reduce these speeds dramatically. A vertical instantaneous velocity of 40\u00a0km/h (25\u00a0mph) has been recorded. However the speed at which the body advances forward through the air is still much higher (up to 100\u00a0km/h [62\u00a0mph])."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jet pack",
        "text": "Swiss ex-military and commercial pilot Yves Rossy developed and built a winged pack with rigid aeroplane-type carbon-fiber wings spanning about and four small kerosene-burning Jetcat P400 jet engines underneath; these engines are large versions of a type designed for model aeroplanes. He wears a heat-resistant suit similar to that of a firefighter or racing driver to protect him from the hot jet exhaust. Similarly, to further protect the wearer, the engines are modified by adding a carbon fiber heat shield extending the jet nozzle around the exhaust tail."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hornet (comics)",
        "text": "Eddie McDonough's Hornet costume had a jet-powered wing harness that enabled Eddie to fly at high speeds. Micro-servos in the armored suit enhanced his strength to superhuman levels. His gauntlets contained wrist blasters that could fire darts filled with a fast-acting sedative, or powerful laser-beams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glenn Singleman",
        "text": "he led the BASEClimb High Performance Wingsuit Team in a flight across the Grand Canyon, from the North Rim to the South Rim - a world first. The team, which included Singleman's wife, Heather Swan, Roger Hugelshofer, Vicente Cajiga and Paul Tozer flew 11.6 kilometres, exiting a Cessna Grand Supervan flown by Ray Ferrell at 28,000\u00a0ft. They landed on Hualapai Indian Nation land."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jari Kuosma",
        "text": "Kuosma began skydiving in 1990. He took part in the breaking of the Finnish record for free-falling formation in 1993, and introduced a Russian low-altitude jumping technique into Finland. He was introduced to wingsuits in 1997, based on those used by Patrick de Gayardon. With Robert Pecnik, he began selling wingsuits in 1999, after making them in Slovenia."
      },
      {
        "title": "2012 in aviation",
        "text": "26 May\n* Japanese wingsuit pilot Shin Ito achieves two new world wingsuit flight records, greatest horizontal distance flown in a wingsuit by flying 26.9 kilometers (16.7 miles) and greatest absolute distance flown in a wingsuit by flying 28.707 kilometers (17.827 miles). Both flights take place above Yolo County, California.\n* During the month, the World Birdstrike Association (WBA) officially is formed as the successor to the International Bird Strike Committee. Headquartered in the Netherlands, the WBA coordinates information about bird strikes among countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shin Ito",
        "text": "(born December 1964 in Tokyo, Japan) is a Japanese wingsuit pilot and skydiver who in 2012 held the world records for \"Greatest horizontal distance flown in a wingsuit\" 26.9\u00a0km (16.71 miles),"
      },
      {
        "title": "Powered parachute",
        "text": "The possibilities of Jalbert's design quickly became apparent: because the parafoil formed a wing shape upon inflation, increased glide ratios were possible and the distance traveled could likely be extended, assuming the person or payload suspended under the chute had some thrust added. With even more power, the angle of attack could be shifted, and the wing could fly level or even climb."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The current world record for greatest average horizontal speed within the performance competition rules, i.e. within of vertical distance, was set by Travis Mickle (USA) with a speed of 325.4\u00a0km/hr (202.19\u00a0mph) 6 November 2017.\n;Longest time:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Trapezoidal wing",
        "text": "Early examples provided a solution to the problem of supersonic flight when engine power was limited. They were made so thin that they had to be machined from a thick, solid sheet of metal. Even with this low-drag wing the Douglas X-3 Stiletto was too underpowered to reach its design flight speed of Mach 2, but the design of its simple hexagonal-airfoil wing was developed for various other X-planes and for Lockheed's widely produced F-104 Starfighter Mach 2.2 high-altitude interceptor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daedalus Flight Pack",
        "text": "The Daedalus Flight Pack is a jet suit capable of achieving flying ability, hovering and powered jumps. It was invented by British inventor, Richard Browning, an athlete and Royal Marine Reservist. The Daedalus is different from other manned portable flight packs in that it uses additional jets attached to the hands. These enable it to be directed by moving the arms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glenn Singleman",
        "text": "Singleman set an unofficial world record for the highest wingsuit jump (37,650\u00a0ft) from a hot air balloon over the Australian outback. The jump was featured on 60 Minutes and was an 11-page feature article in Australian Geographic Magazine. The expedition was led by Singleman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ball-Bartoe Jetwing",
        "text": "The Jetwing was a small, mid-wing design powered by a turbofan and fitted with tail-wheel undercarriage. The upper surface of the swept wings incorporated a slot along 70% span, through which air from the engine's fan stage could be discharged. Mounted above this slot was a small secondary airfoil called an \"augmentor\", intended to direct the discharged airflow over the wing. With this arrangement, it was found that the aircraft remained controllable at airspeeds as low as ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Despite training and regulation, wingsuit BASE jumping remains a dangerous pastime, and fatalities occur regularly. A 2012 University of Colorado study found that in wingsuit BASE jumping, there was approximately one severe injury for every 500\u00a0jumps undertaken."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of fatalities due to wingsuit flying",
        "text": "List of fatalities due to wingsuit flying\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Delta wing",
        "text": "During and after WWII, Francis and Gertrude Rogallo developed the idea of a flexible wing which could be collapsed for storage. Francis saw an application in spacecraft recovery and NASA became interested. In 1961 Ryan flew the XV-8, an experimental \"flying Jeep\" or \"fleep\". The flexible wing chosen for it was a delta and in use it billowed out into a double-cone profile which gave it aerodynamic stability. Although tested but ultimately never used for spacecraft recovery, this design soon became popular for hang gliders and ultra-light aircraft and has become known as the Rogallo wing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Rozov broke his own record by jumping from on Cho Oyu in 2016.\n;Longest:"
      },
      {
        "title": "G-suit",
        "text": "During World War II the German Henschel Hs 132 (never flew) and the US Northrop XP-79 (crashed on first powered flight) jets both had prone positions to minimize blood pooling in the legs. After 1945 the British experimented with prone flying positions in a highly modified Gloster Meteor F8 jet fighter and the Reid and Sigrist R.S.3 \"Bobsleigh\" a piston engined trainer. However, other difficulties associated with prone piloting and the development of practical g-suits for normal seating positions terminated these experiments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franky Zapata",
        "text": "The JetPack is powered by water pumped from a personal watercraft (under remote control) via a tube connected to two nozzles on the flyer. The system allows the user to fly in a seated, secured position and is less dependent on the rider\u2019s balance and dexterity to fly. The JetPack is so stable that, once in the air, a user can even let go of the controls and stay flying in a hovering position."
      },
      {
        "title": "If You Had Wings",
        "text": "Bermuda, Puerto Rico, the Bahamas (where a tropically attired traffic cop blew a whistle to direct a flock of flamingos in one direction, pedestrians and vehicles in the other), Jamaica (where the ride's only 35mm projector showed a pod of bathing-suit-clad young people clambering up the rocks at Dunn's River Falls), Trinidad, and New Orleans (where shadows of blowing jazzmen flickered on the wall), all of which Eastern Air Lines offered as destinations at the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hitachi Hatsukaze",
        "text": "The \"Hatsukaze Model 12\" was the power section linked to a compressor to create a primitive jet engine called a motorjet; the resulting Ishikawajima Tsu-11 was intended to power Yokosuka MXY7 Ohka Model 22 flying bombs. The standard Hatsukaze Model 11 engine was modified at a Navy arsenal by replacing the propeller drive shaft and engine front crankcase cover with a step-up gearbox. The gearbox increased engine output shaft RPM at a 1:3 ratio. At engine speed of 3,000\u00a0rpm, the compressor section was operating at 9,000\u00a0rpm. The compressed air was then ducted into a combustion chamber where a liquid fuel was sprayed and burnt. The heated compressed air then exits through the tailpipe providing static thrust of . It is likely that about 1/3 of the total thrust was contributed by adding the combustion chamber aft of the compressor."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of fatalities due to wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Fatalities from wingsuit flying have occurred almost from the inception of the sport. Below are listed the most notable ones, including when wingsuit practice was not the first cause of death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jet pack",
        "text": "In 1960, the Bell Rocketbelt was presented to the public. The jet of gas was provided by a hydrogen peroxide-powered rocket, but the jet could also be powered by a turbojet engine, a ducted fan, or other kinds of rockets powered by solid fuel, liquid fuel or compressed gas (usually nitrogen)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Falcon (comics)",
        "text": "Wilson's original Falcon wing harness featured detachable jet-powered glider wings made of lightweight titanium ribbing and Mylar. The wings were covered with wafer-thin solar power receptors that convert sunlight into electricity to power miniature high-speed electric turbine fans in his uniform and boots. The wings detached and reattached to his uniform cybernetically. The harness was destroyed in \"Captain America and the Falcon\" #2 (2004). The uniform was made of synthetic stretch fabric lined with a steel-alloy mesh."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jet pack",
        "text": "This is a true jet pack: a backpack that provides jet-powered flight. Most of the volume is the fuel tank, with twin turbine jet engines gimbal-mounted on each side. The control system is identical to the Bell Rocket Belt: tilting the handgrips vectors the thrust \u2013 left-right & forward-back \u2013 by moving the engines; twisting left hand moves two nozzle skirts for yaw; twisting the right hand counterclockwise increases throttle. Jetpack Aviation was started by Australian businessman David Mayman with the technical knowhow coming from Nelson Tyler, prolific inventor of helicopter-mounted camera stabilizers and one of the engineers that worked on the Bell Rocketbelt that was used in the 1984 Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Winged Reusable Sounding rocket",
        "text": "The team then launched WIRES 14 (50\u00a0kg and 1.5 m length) in order to establish the efficacy of the body structure and new recovery system. WIRES 14 is a winged rocket propelled by a novel hybrid rocket engine called CAMUI (CAscaded MUltistage Impinging-jet) being developed by Hokkaido University."
      },
      {
        "title": "PowerSwim",
        "text": "The PowerSwim is a diver powered propulsion comprising two pairs of high aspect ratio hydrofoils in a device somewhat like two pairs of long thin airplane wings, one pair at each end of an axis. The axis is fastened to a scuba diver's shins by straps round the legs. The longer pair of wings (about wide or a bit less) is at the hips and the shorter pair is at the ankles. The wings rotate to a limited angle on axles near their front edges, and thus on upstroke and downstroke they propel water backwards. It is claimed that the length of the front wing lets it operate outside the cone of wake that starts at the diver's shoulders. It is claimed to let a scuba diver or swim much faster (250%) than with swimfins for the same amount of bodily effort, if used correctly, and being not motorized, it makes no motor noise to be heard by hostile hydrophones, but noise would occur if the front wings are allowed to hit the diver's hips at end of upstroke. It works somewhat like a penguin's or turtle's front flippers. Its estimated cost is less than $500. The diver uses it by moving his legs up and down together, letting the knees bend and straighten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The current world record for longest horizontal distance covered within the performance competition rules, i.e. within of vertical distance, was set on 27 May 2017 by U.S. wingsuit pilot Alexey Galda with a distance of 5.137\u00a0km (3.19\u00a0mi)\n;Landing:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Batsuit",
        "text": "One notable modification was made to the utility belt; an air-powered charge-firing rifle, which allows Batman to fire timed explosive charges from considerable distances and can be folded into two halves into a box-like shape to fit into his utility belt's compartment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Batsuit",
        "text": "The suit again has an external 'memory cloth' cape, but, now has the ability to fold into a backpack shape as demonstrated during the base-jump in Hong Kong. It is unclear in the film if once deployed, as a glider, it can return to this backpack shape automatically. According to costume designer Linda Hemming this backpack idea was developed, at the request of Christopher Nolan, as a fall back if the cape were to get caught up in the rear wheel of the Batpod in motion. However, the concept was not used in the Batpod sequences after the film crew realized they had failed to account for the motion of the Batpod blowing the cape behind the rider, keeping it free from the rear wheel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "F\u00e9d\u00e9ration A\u00e9ronautique Internationale (FAI), the world governing airsports body, established judging criteria for official world record wingsuit formations in February 2015. The rules are available on the FAI website."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What year was the wing suit developed?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The first wingsuit was made in 1912 by Franz Reichelt, the modern wingsuit was first developed in the mid-1990's by Patrick de Gayardon. The first wingsuit to be made commercially available to all skydivers was created in 1999 by Jari Kuosma and Robert Pecnik."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Have wingsuits been used by any military forces?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find the answer, but I did find concerns regarding the nature of wingsuit flying exist due to injuries and death and the French government banned wingsuit flying multiple times following the deaths of French pilots."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me more about the injuries and deaths that lead to the wingsuits being banned in France?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Despite training and regulation, wingsuit BASE jumping remains a dangerous pastime, and fatalities occur regularly. A 2012 University of Colorado study found that in wingsuit BASE jumping, there was approximately one severe injury for every 500 jumps undertaken."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did wing suit flying first become popular?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find the answer, but I did find that  Created by Kuosma, the instructor program's aim was to remove the stigma that wingsuits were dangerous and to provide wingsuit beginners (generally, skydivers with a minimum of 200 jumps) with a way to safely enjoy what was once considered the most dangerous feat in the skydiving world."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is there such a thing as a jet-powered wingsuit?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Yes, there have been experimental powered wingsuits, often using small jet engines strapped to the feet or a wingpack setup to allow for even greater horizontal speeds and even vertical ascent. On 25 October 2009, in Lahti, Finland, Visa Parviainen jumped from a hot air balloon in a wingsuit with two small turbojet engines attached to his feet; Christian Stadler from Germany invented the \"VegaV3 wingsuit system\" that uses an electronic adjustable hydrogen peroxide rocket."
    ],
    "topic": "Wingsuit flying",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Wingsuit flying:28",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wingsuit flying",
          "Further technical developments",
          "Jet-powered wingsuits"
        ],
        "ctx": "As of 2010, there have been experimental powered wingsuits, often using small jet engines strapped to the feet or a wingpack setup to allow for even greater horizontal speeds and even vertical ascent."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Wingsuit flying:29",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wingsuit flying",
          "Further technical developments",
          "Jet-powered wingsuits"
        ],
        "ctx": "On 25 October 2009, in Lahti, Finland, Visa Parviainen jumped from a hot air balloon in a wingsuit with two small turbojet engines attached to his feet. The engines provided approximately 160\u00a0N (16\u00a0kgf, 35\u00a0lbf) of thrust each and ran on JET A-1 fuel. Parviainen achieved approximately 30\u00a0seconds of horizontal flight with no noticeable loss of altitude. Parviainen continued jumping from hot air balloons and helicopters, including one for the \"Stunt Junkies\" program on Discovery Channel."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Wingsuit flying:30",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wingsuit flying",
          "Further technical developments",
          "Jet-powered wingsuits"
        ],
        "ctx": "Christian Stadler from Germany invented the \"VegaV3 wingsuit system\" that uses an electronic adjustable hydrogen peroxide rocket. The rocket provides 1000\u00a0Newtons (100\u00a0kgf) of thrust and produces no flames or poisonous fumes. His first successful powered wingsuit jump was in 2007, when he reached horizontal speeds of over 255\u00a0km/h (160\u00a0mph)."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 25 October 2009, in Lahti, Finland, Visa Parviainen jumped from a hot air balloon in a wingsuit with two small turbojet engines attached to his feet. The engines provided approximately 160\u00a0N (16\u00a0kgf, 35\u00a0lbf) of thrust each and ran on JET A-1 fuel. Parviainen achieved approximately 30\u00a0seconds of horizontal flight with no noticeable loss of altitude. Parviainen continued jumping from hot air balloons and helicopters, including one for the \"Stunt Junkies\" program on Discovery Channel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jet pack",
        "text": "On 25 October 2005 in Lahti, Finland, Visa Parviainen jumped from a hot air balloon in a wingsuit with two small turbojet jet engines attached to his feet. Each turbojet provided approximately of thrust and ran on kerosene (Jet A-1) fuel. Parviainen apparently achieved approximately 30 seconds of horizontal flight with no noticeable loss of altitude."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Christian Stadler from Germany invented the \"VegaV3 wingsuit system\" that uses an electronic adjustable hydrogen peroxide rocket. The rocket provides 1000\u00a0Newtons (100\u00a0kgf) of thrust and produces no flames or poisonous fumes. His first successful powered wingsuit jump was in 2007, when he reached horizontal speeds of over 255\u00a0km/h (160\u00a0mph)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A detailed study on wingsuit deaths completed primarily by the University of Colorado found that out of 180 studied fatalities, 97% launched from cliffs and another 1% from buildings. The vast-majority of these deaths were related to the use of the wingsuit, not to do with external sources. This makes aircraft descending a much less-deadly form of wingsuit flying, though deemed less extreme by fans of the sport."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of fatalities due to wingsuit flying",
        "text": "List of fatalities due to wingsuit flying\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of fatalities due to wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Fatalities from wingsuit flying have occurred almost from the inception of the sport. Below are listed the most notable ones, including when wingsuit practice was not the first cause of death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Despite training and regulation, wingsuit BASE jumping remains a dangerous pastime, and fatalities occur regularly. A 2012 University of Colorado study found that in wingsuit BASE jumping, there was approximately one severe injury for every 500\u00a0jumps undertaken."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 23 May 2012, British stuntman Gary Connery safely landed a wingsuit without deploying his parachute, landing on a crushable \"runway\" (landing zone) built with thousands of cardboard boxes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "An early attempt at wingsuit flying was made on 4 February 1912 by a 33-year-old tailor, Franz Reichelt, who jumped from the Eiffel Tower to test his invention of a combination of parachute and wing, which was similar to modern wingsuits. He misled the guards by saying that the experiment was going to be conducted with a dummy. He hesitated quite a long time before he jumped, and died when he hit the ground head first, opening a measurable hole in the frozen ground."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vincent Reffet",
        "text": "He was also a pilot of the jet-powered wingsuit developed by Jetman Dubai. Some sources describe him as having been a \"prot\u00e9g\u00e9 of well-known jet daredevil Yves Rossy\" who also used a \"four-engine, carbon-Kevlar wing strapped to their backs\". According to CNN, the \"wingsuit is powered by four mini jet engines.. [and] allows pilots to control rotations around the yaw axis at zero speeds. Pilots can hover, stop, turn and maneuver, even performing rolls and loops\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mark Sutton",
        "text": "In August 2013, Mark Sutton and 20 other top wingsuiters were invited to a three-day event in Chamonix, France known as \"Helibase 74\", which was organised by Epic TV, a web TV channel specialising in extreme sports. In exchange for video footage of their flights, the website provided accommodations and helicopter access. On 14 August 2013, Sutton jumped alongside Tony Uragallo (both equipped with multiple video cameras) in a short \"warm-up\" flight near Les Grandes Otanes scheduled to last about a minute. However, tragedy struck only 20 seconds into the flight; as he jumped from the helicopter at , travelling at speeds of up to , Sutton veered off-course and crashed into a mountain ridge. A rescue helicopter arrived soon after Sutton hit the ground, but he was pronounced dead at the scene\u2014Sutton's impact was so severe that a DNA test was required to identify his body, and a spokesperson stated that he had no chance of surviving the impact. While Sutton was equipped with a parachute during the flight for landing, it was left unused. As part of the investigation, the video footage from Uragallo's cameras were handed over to a Swiss police unit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "As suit technology and pilot skill have improved, wingsuit BASE jumpers have learned to control their flight so that they can fly just meters away from terrain. \u201cProximity flying\u201d is the practice of flying a wingsuit close to the faces and ridges of mountains. Flying near terrain gives a greater sense of speed due to having a close visual reference. Loic Jean-Albert of France is one of the first proximity flyers, and his pioneering flying brought many BASE jumpers into the sport. In November 2012, Alexander Polli became the first wingsuit BASE jumper to successfully strike a wingsuit target. Alexander Polli died August 22, 2016 in a wingsuit accident, after crashing into a tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Innaarsuit Heliport",
        "text": "In 1993 a Bell 212 helicopter operated by Gr\u00f8nlandsfly, crashed near Innarsuit. Four killed (both pilots and two passengers) of seven on board."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Some concerns regarding the nature of wingsuit flying exist due to injuries and death. The French government banned wingsuit flying multiple times following the deaths of French pilots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Helikopter Service Flight 451",
        "text": "Following their investigation of the accident, the Norwegian Accident Investigation Board (AIBN) concluded that the cause of the accident was multiple fatigue cracks in the splined sleeve between the high-speed bendix shaft and the right-hand engine, which had caused damage to the engine overspeed protection system. The splined sleeve disintegrated, severing the high-speed shaft, which led to an overspeed of the right-hand power turbine which in turn burst, destroying the left-hand engine as well as to cutting control rods which made the helicopter uncontrollable."
      },
      {
        "title": "DFS 346",
        "text": "The pilot seat structure and safety-belt proved to be very unreliable, because at the end of a rough braking course Ziese was thrown forward and struck the canopy with his head, losing consciousness. Luckily, he wasn't seriously injured, and after treatment in hospital he was able to return to flying. Accident investigation research team came to the conclusion that the crash was a result of pilot error, who failed to fully release the landing skid. This accident showed that the aircraft handling was still very unpredictable, as a result, all rocket-powered flights were postponed until pilots were able to effectively control the aircraft in unpowered descent, requiring further glide flights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prue 160",
        "text": "While owned by Jenista the aircraft was destroyed in an accident on 11 June 1994 at the Jean Airport in Jean, Nevada. The National Transportation Safety Board determined that the pilot did not properly connect the aileron control linkage when the aircraft was assembled for flight and then did not detect the fault during the preflight inspection. The pilot become aware of the problem on take-off on aerotow. The pilot released from the tow plane at about , the right wing collided with the ground and the glider crashed resulting in minor injury to the pilot. The aircraft was not repaired and was removed from the Federal Aviation Administration registry on 29 April 1995."
      },
      {
        "title": "Accidents and incidents involving the JAS 39 Gripen",
        "text": "On 31 May 2010, a Gripen from Norrbotten Wing (F 21) came loose and sped away during a static engine test. The aircraft gained considerable speed before rolling off the hard surface and onto nearby soft terrain, where it then flipped over. The technician in the aircraft, lieutenant Sandra Halvarsson, escaped with minor injuries. There is unconfirmed information that the engine was accidentally started with full throttle. As the accident did not involve a plane flying or preparing to fly, it is not considered to be a crash."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "As of 2010, there have been experimental powered wingsuits, often using small jet engines strapped to the feet or a wingpack setup to allow for even greater horizontal speeds and even vertical ascent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingate, County Durham",
        "text": "On 7 January 1971, the Avro Vulcan bomber XM610 crashed near to the school after suffering an engine fire due to metal fatigue in the number 1 engine. The pilot remained in the burning aircraft before he ejected to direct the aircraft to crash into the sea; however. the aircraft later spiralled down into the village and crashed, leaving a large crater. There were no fatalities in the accident. The pilot was awarded a medal for steering the bomber away from Wingate Junior School."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Matt Gerdes, wingsuit tester at the Squirrel wingsuit company claims that wingsuit fatalities are on the rise because the experience of becoming a wingsuit pilot is becoming less personal as many for-profit BASE jumping instructors are allowing some students to skip steps and start testing out wingsuits after fewer and fewer regular parachute jumps. With little oversight from the government, \"...instruction in some courses turns out poorly-prepared jumpers who unwittingly skip steps on their way to flying high-performance wingsuits.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "2012 in aviation",
        "text": "22 September\n*A diamond formation involving 100 jumpers over Perris, California, sets a global record for the largest formation wingsuit jump. However, the record is set prior to the February 2015 establishment of judging criteria for official world record wingsuit formations by the F\u00e9d\u00e9ration A\u00e9ronautique Internationale, and therefore will be retired, with records thereafter being recognized under the new criteria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dean Potter",
        "text": "On May 16, 2015, Potter and Graham Hunt died attempting a proximity wingsuit flight from Taft Point above Yosemite Valley. The route they were attempting, which they had flown before, required them to clear a small notch in a rocky ridge line. Hunt hit a side wall during the flight while Potter cleared the notch before crashing. Both died on impact. Neither of them had deployed their parachutes. Potter's and Graham's deaths brought the total number of BASE jumping death in U.S. national parks in 2015 to five."
      },
      {
        "title": "CHI KC 518 Adventourer",
        "text": "At about 9:30am on 8 November 2014, while on a test flight Pilot Peter Maloney and his co-pilot, Norbert Idelon were uninjured after a heavy landing near Silverdale, Auckland due to suspected mechanical problems."
      },
      {
        "title": "AerCaribe",
        "text": "On 14th October 2020, an AerCaribe Colombia An-32 veered off the runway in Iquitos, ripping off the wings and landing gear, starting a fire. All the crew members survived, but the aircraft was destroyed by fire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mark Sutton",
        "text": "An Epic TV spokesperson considered Sutton's death to be an accident, noting that two successful flights with other wingsuiters were held prior, and that they had planned to be \"conservative\" that day due to the large number of flights planned. The remaining participants in the event elected to continue on in honour of Sutton."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Exiting an aircraft in a wingsuit requires skills that differ depending on the location and size of the door. These techniques include the orientation relative to the aircraft and the airflow while exiting. It is also important that wingsuit pilots spread their legs and arms at the proper time to avoid hitting the tail or becoming unstable. The wingsuit immediately starts to fly upon exiting the aircraft in the relative wind generated by the forward speed of the aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bede BD-5",
        "text": "Many of these aircraft have since been involved in crashes. The loss of the \"Bud Light Jet\" was caused by an incorrectly specified fuel flow sending unit which burst in mid-flight and caused fuel to be sprayed directly into the engine compartment. The fuel ignited when it came in contact with the hot components of the engine, forcing the pilot to trade speed for altitude, climb, and bail out. The aircraft then went into a flat spin and pancaked into the ground, but was sufficiently intact to allow the cause of the fire to be determined relatively quickly. On June 16, 2006, while practicing for an air show at Carp Airport in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, Scott Manning fatally crashed in his \"Stinger Jet,\" one of the last BD-5Js to remain on the airshow circuit. The Transportation Safety Board of Canada report assigned probable cause of the wreck to the incorrect installation of the right wing, which caused the flap on that wing to suddenly retract in flight and create a \"split flap\" condition. The aircraft rolled to the right and Manning was unable to recover in time. On May 1, 2013, Guido Gehrmann was killed while attempting an emergency landing in his BD-5J which he flew as part of Red Bull's Flying Bulls team."
      },
      {
        "title": "2012 in aviation",
        "text": "23 May\n*Using a wingsuit in a jump over Ridge Wood, Buckinghamshire, England, British stuntman Gary Connery becomes the first person in history to jump from a great height and land safely without deploying a parachute. Jumping from an altitude of 2,400 feet (732 meters), he reduces his speed from 50 miles per hour (80\u00a0km/h) to 15 miles per hour (24\u00a0km/hr) by flaring his wingsuit about 200 feet (61 meters) from his landing zone, a 350-foot-by-45-foot (107-meter-by-13.7-meter) crushable \"runway\" up to 12 feet (3.7 meters) deep constructed with 18,600 cardboard boxes at Temple Island Meadows. His wingsuit begins to fly about three seconds after he begins his jump, and he travels nearly one mile (1.6\u00a0km) and reaches a maximum speed of over 80 miles per hour (129\u00a0km/hr) during his flight."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft (1950\u20131954)",
        "text": "23 May\n:While flying Supermarine Attacker F.1, \"WA469\", to test airbrakes, Supermarine pilot Leslie R. Colquhoun makes a high-speed run over South Marston airfield, experiences a sudden nose-down pitch as the starboard wingtip folds upwards. Using only the rudder \u2013 the ailerons had jammed \u2013 he makes a wide circuit and touches down at ~, coming to a stop just short of the end of the runway with a burst tyre. He receives the George Medal for saving the aircraft under daunting circumstances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "This record was broken on 5 May 2013, by the Russian Valery Rozov, who jumped from on Mount Everest's North Col."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Two World Records have been set since the rules update. A 42-person formation over Moorsele, Belgium, set an FAI record on 18 June 2015. This was broken on 17 October 2015, when 61\u00a0wingsuit pilots set the current FAI world record over Perris Valley Airport near Perris, California."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 22 May 2017, British wingsuit pilot Fraser Corsan set world records for the fastest speed reached in a wingsuit of .\n;Greatest average horizontal speed:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Joann Osterud",
        "text": "According to the NTSB accident report, Osterud had personally chosen the location for the poles and ribbon, which was just to the south of the runway over old asphalt and concrete. This meant that her path was free of any obstacles and would parallel the runway. She planned to cut the ribbon while flying inverted on her third pass, and then land. She ended up flying at dusk, and then had to fly directly into the setting sun before turning around for her last pass, which was the one that was upside down. \"I remember the turn-around at the west end, rolling inverted [and] establishing my sight picture for the run-in. However, the next few seconds are a total blank in my memory. I can remember the sound of the impact, but my recollection of a visual picture resumes only with the sparks created by the inverted slide.\" Osterud crashed into the runway while upside down on the third pass, totaling the plane, but was able to walk away from the crash unhurt. She apparently went back to the grandstand covered in soot, dirt and mud in her hair and apologized to the crowd for crashing. Her insurance covered the remaining debt on the plane, but did not leave enough for her to buy another plane. This crash ended her stunt career. The NTSB inspector found no mechanical or engine problems with the plane and cited \u201cthe pilot's failure to maintain adequate vertical clearance from the runway, while flying inverted\u201d as well as \u201cthe light conditions at dusk, and the pilot's lack of visual ques [sic] due to the light conditions\u201d as factors relating to the accident."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eagle Helicycle",
        "text": "The NTSB report on the fatal accident indicates extensive damage to the helicopter due to impact with a body of water. An examination of the anti-torque pedal assembly by the NTSB Materials Laboratory revealed that the fracture surface patterns found on it were consistent with a bending overstress separation. It could not be determined whether the overstress condition was the result of a precrash or postcrash event. According to the probable cause report, N3275Q suffered \"inflight collision with terrain/water\", and \"reason for occurrence undetermined - Pilot In Command\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ansett-ANA Flight 325",
        "text": "\"The cause of the accident was the failure in flight of the starboard outer wing in upward bending due to tensile overloading of the lower spar boom at station 323, probably induced by a combination of manoeuvre and gust loading when the speed of the aircraft was in excess of 260 knots. The circumstances and available evidence carry a strong implication that the in-flight structural failure was preceded by a loss of control with a consequential increase in speed to at least 260 knots. The most probable explanation for the loss of control is that the aircraft entered an area of unexpected turbulence of such severity as to deprive the pilots of full recovery.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sud Aviation Caravelle",
        "text": "For 45 years of commercial exploitation, 67 Caravelles have been withdrawn from service as a result of destruction or for irreparable damage. None of these accidents and incidents are attributed to a design defect, only a few technical failures, human errors, or sabotage. The total loss of life in accidents in the Caravelle is more than 1,300. The accident rate per million flights is estimated at more than 5.5, compared with less than 1 for the most recent airliners."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter Siebold",
        "text": "Siebold's flight suit was saturated with blood from bleeding in his right arm. He did not feel any lower body injuries. As Siebold removed his parachute harness a \u201cclunking noise\u201d was felt in his chest and Siebold became concerned about a potential spinal fracture. Upon arrival at the ER his flight suit was cut away."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frecce Tricolori",
        "text": "Below is a list of the accidents that occurred to the pilots of the \"Frecce Tricolori\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Accidents and incidents involving the JAS 39 Gripen",
        "text": "On 14 January 2017, a Gripen crashed during an air show for the Children's Day in Hat Yai, Songkhla province, Thailand. Sqn Ldr Dilokrit Pattavee was killed when the aircraft crashed on a runway at Wing 56 during the air show at around 9.20 am. About an hour later, Thai media reported an airport fire engine overturned while rushing to put out the fire. Hat Yai International Airport had to close to clear the runway. The investigation did not find any problems with the aircraft, and the cause of the crash is suspected to be pilot spatial disorientation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Exiting from a BASE jumping site, such as a cliff, requires a different technique. In these situations, a vertical drop using the forces of gravity generates the airspeed that wingsuits need to generate lift. This is also the case when exiting from a helicopter, a paraglider, or a hot air balloon. Unlike when exiting an airplane, it takes time to build up airspeed to inflate the wingsuit and provide aerodynamic control. So exiting the cliff in a proper orientation is critical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Point Break (2015 film)",
        "text": "The wingsuit flying sequence which is notably the most dangerous stunt in the film was filmed in Walenstadt, Switzerland and required five stuntmen (including the cameraman) flying in formation, while all weaved through narrow mountain passes, one of which is called \"The Crack\", all at a speed of over . The production canceled planned flights on a number of days because of poor weather conditions, eventually completing it only after two weeks in August 2014. Core brought in Jeb Corliss, a professional sky diver, to help coordinate the scene and handpick wingsuit athletes to perform the stunt. Corliss and his team picked the best wingsuit pilots in the world, who have all made over 17,000 sky dives and have had 20 years of experience, including one thousand BASE jumps and thousands of wingsuit jumps each, to perform the jump. Corliss himself was going to be one of the fliers, but was not able to be, because he was recovering from a knee surgery after he tore his anterior cruciate ligament prior to the filming, while testing a suit. The five fliers includes two times World Wingsuit League champion and four times Guinness World Records holder Jhonathan Florez (cameraman, who died in July 2015), Red Bull Air Force former manager Jon DeVore (portrayed Utah), who previously worked on the wingsuit sequence for \"\", and served as the aerial coordinator, Mike Swanson (Bodhi), Julian Boulle (Grommet), Noah Bahnson (Roach), and James Boole. DeVore knew that the sequence was going to be difficult to enact, especially in supertight, choreographed formations. Corliss himself was familiar with the place since he made a jump in 2011 from a peak just outside the Swiss town. A video of the jump titled \"Grinding the Crack\" uploaded to YouTube has been watched over 30 million times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot air ballooning",
        "text": "Of the 11 accidents involving fatalities recorded by the NTSB between 1997 and 2007, 4 involved contact with power lines, 3 involved falling after hanging onto the outside of a rising balloon, 3 involved striking an object on landing (boulder, wall, or tree), and 1 involved an equipment failure (an eyebolt)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yves Rossy",
        "text": "Rossy developed and built a wingsuit system comprising a backpack equipped with semi-rigid aeroplane-type carbon-fiber wings\u2014with a span of about \u2014powered by four Jetcat P400 jet engines, modified from large kerosene-fueled model aircraft engines. This has led to him being referred to in the press by various monikers, such as \"The Airman\", \"Rocketman\", \"Fusionman\", and\u2014most commonly\u2014\"Jetman\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "2005 Loganair Islander accident",
        "text": "The paramedic's body was found strapped in to his seat with a severe, possibly fatal, head injury from an impact against the back of the pilot's seat in front of him. Despite the death of both occupants of the aircraft, the UK's Air Accidents Investigation Branch, or AAIB, considered the impact survivable by the pilot. Had the paramedic been wearing a shoulder harness, the AAIB concluded it was likely that the paramedic would have survived the impact with the water with little or no injury, though it is possible he might then have succumbed to the cold water. The pilot, whose uninjured body was found nine months after the accident, and who had been wearing a shoulder harness, most likely survived the accident and escaped the aircraft, only to die of hypothermia in the cold water. As a result of this accident, regulations were enacted in 2015 by the European Union (EU) that require all aircraft of similar size that are used to transport passengers to be equipped with a shoulder harness, or \"upper torso restraint system\" (UTR system), for each passenger seat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marc Hauser (skydiver)",
        "text": "As skydiving suit he was wearing a thermal protection jumpsuit without wings (no wingsuit)."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft (1950\u20131954)",
        "text": "26 August\n:Handley Page HP.88, \"VX330\", a two-fifths scale flying testbed for the Handley Page HP.80 Victor bomber to prove crescent wing design, breaks up in flight when the rear fuselage separates during a manoeuvre. During a high-speed, low-level pass over Stansted's main runway, it suffered a failure of its slab-type tailplane's servo-control system, producing severe oscillations that subjected the airframe to excessive G-forces, causing the ship to break up, killing pilot D. J. P. Broomfield."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft (1950\u20131954)",
        "text": "30 June\n:Royal Canadian Navy Lt. Mervin C. \u201cButch\u201d Hare of the 803 Naval Fighter Squadron departs from Montreal, Quebec, in Hawker Sea Fury FB.11, \"TF997\", but fails to arrive at home base of HMCS \"Shearwater\", Dartmouth, Nova Scotia. Despite a massive international air search, nothing is found. In February 1968, two foresters discovered the wreckage in a remote area of Maine. The Sea Fury had struck a tree on top of the ridge with its port wing root and struck the ground within about 150 feet. The force of the impact dug a 15 foot diameter crater and the aircraft broke up and scattered, within a 50 yard radius. There had been several small fires. Lt. Hare's parachute harness pieces were later found near the crater, ending an initial speculation that he had bailed out and perished elsewhere in the Maine woods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Accidents and incidents involving the JAS 39 Gripen",
        "text": "On 19 May 2015, a two-seater JAS 39 D number 42 from the Hungarian Air Force overran the runway at \u010c\u00e1slav Air Base, Czech Republic. Both crewmen (Bg.Gen Ugrik and Maj. Grof) ejected safely with no injuries. The aircraft was heavily damaged with the nose section separated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "The biggest wingsuit BASE jump as measured from exit to landing was performed on 11 August 2013 by Patrick Kerber with a height of off the Jungfrau in Switzerland.\n;Fastest:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A 2010 redesign tested in a wind tunnel by the 8th Conference of the International Sports Engineering Association (ISEA) found that adding material to the wingsuit between the head/helmet area and connecting it to the wrist, thus increasing upper wings' size, would \"...lower lift-to-drag ratio in most testing scenarios. The decrease in lift-to-drag ratio was due to the combination of an increased lift and a higher increased drag.\" Other innovations in the late 2000s and early 2010's helped increase the glide ratio further."
      },
      {
        "title": "Air France Flight 358",
        "text": "Most of the injuries occurred to passengers and crew located in the flight deck and forward cabin. Of the twelve occupants who sustained major injuries, nine suffered the injuries from the impact and three from the evacuation. According to passenger reports, the leap from the aircraft to the ground caused numerous injuries, including broken legs, and ruptured vertebrae. The captain sustained back and head injuries during the impact of the crash when his seat was wrenched out of place by the force of the impact, causing him to hit his head against the overhead controls. Minor injuries included twisted ankles, sore necks, bruises and effects from smoke inhalation."
      },
      {
        "title": "2013 Eberswalde-Finow Zlin crash",
        "text": "The investigation further found that:\n* the aerobatics display was performed without permission from the responsible authority\n* exemption for aerobatics below had not been granted\n* the inverted low pass was conducted at a height of and some in front of the spectators\n* the right wing tank was undamaged and contained a low amount of fuel. The left wing tank and both tip tanks were destroyed\n* the collector tank was undamaged and empty\n* only cylinder one's fuel injector line contained fuel, and only a small amount. The other five fuel injector lines were dry\n* the aircraft had been supplied with motor fuel and not Avgas as required\n* the engine was deemed in good technical condition\n* the aircraft was not certified for aerobatics as wing tip tanks were installed\n* the pilot did not wear a parachute - instead, the seat had been filled with foam\n* control input by the pilot resulted in the aircraft veering off to the right in a nose-down attitude of 5-20 degrees during the unsuccessful recovery"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ansett-ANA Flight 325",
        "text": "Engineers assisting the accident investigation calculated that for the wing spar to fail in the way it did in VH-TVC would require the aircraft to be flying faster than its maximum speed of and, while being subjected to a severe recovery manoeuvre by the crew, to encounter a very strong gust, possibly as much as . At the time of the accident investigation, gusts up to had been measured inside thunderstorms by suitably equipped research aircraft. Investigators were aware of the crash of Capital Airlines Flight 75, a Vickers Viscount that crashed in Maryland, USA in May 1959 after encountering extreme turbulence associated with thunderstorms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Accidents and incidents involving the JAS 39 Gripen",
        "text": "The ejection seat handle\u00a0\u2013 placed between the pilot's thighs\u00a0\u2013 had been activated by the motions of the pilot's flight suit. Repeated jerks on the handle, resulting from the G-suit inflating and deflating during the flight, had ultimately exerted enough force on it to cause the ejection. Moments before the ejection, the pilot had taken the aircraft into a tight turn, thus causing the G-suit to activate."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft (1950\u20131954)",
        "text": "10 November\n:A USAF Boeing B-50 Superfortress of the 43d Bomb Wing on a routine weapons ferrying flight between Goose Bay, Labrador and its home base at Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona, loses two of four engines. To maintain altitude it jettisons empty Mark 4 nuclear bomb casing just before 1600\u00a0hrs. at above the St. Lawrence River near the town of St. Alexandre-de-Kamouraska, about northeast of Quebec, Canada. HE in the casing observed detonating upon impact in the middle of the twelve-mile (19\u00a0km)-wide river, blast felt for . Official Air Force explanation at the time is that the Superfortress released three conventional 500-pound HE bombs."
      },
      {
        "title": "AerCaribe",
        "text": "On 14th October 2020, one of the An-32s crashed while landing in Iquitos. The aircraft was destroyed, but the crew survived."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dorado Wings",
        "text": "Dorado Wings\n--Incidents and accidents.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "A wingsuit pilot enters free fall wearing both a wingsuit and parachute equipment. The details of a wingsuit launch depend on whether it is a skydive from an aircraft, or a BASE jump from a fixed object."
      },
      {
        "title": "ExcelAire",
        "text": "On February 2nd, 2022, a Pilatus PC-12 registration N357JK operated by ExcelAire collided with and damaged the nose and right wing of a parked British Aerospace 125, registration N207K. The accident is under investigation by the FAA"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 23 May 2006, the Australian couple Heather Swan and Glenn Singleman jumped from off Meru Peak in India, setting a world record for highest wingsuit BASE jump."
      },
      {
        "title": "2015 Fox Glacier helicopter crash",
        "text": "On 19 April 1998 ZK-HKU had been involved in an emergency landing at Rotorua. It had suffered an engine failure. According to the air accident report the pilot made an autorotational landing onto uneven terrain. No one was injured but during the heavy landing its skid landing gear, tail boom and main rotor blades were damaged."
      },
      {
        "title": "Point Break (2015 film)",
        "text": "However, performing such a sequence proved to be very dangerous. If one person crashes with the other, it could lead to the disproportion of the flight pattern and subsequently could result in death. Due to this, safety became a top priority for Core. Prior to shooting, the stuntmen went to the location, and to other locations which were similar, to start training in groups. In order to get comfortable with the wingtip-to-wingtip flights necessary to pull the scene off, the wingsuiters initially jumped from planes, racking up more than 500 jumps over the course of the year leading up to filming. They would fly in tight formations over and over again, simply as a way of getting accustomed to the idea of having someone nearby at all times. The production team also went to Switzerland 12 days prior to shooting to practice. During the shoot, there were ground-based cameras with long lenses, and a helicopter with a gyro-stabilized camera as well. Since Core needed a series of shots to create the sequence, from point of view shots to profile shots of the wingsuiters cruising past the mountain to close-ups \u2013 unlike filming GoPro cameras \u2013 one of the wingsuiters needed to wear a cinema-quality camera on his head, rather than a GoPro. The task went to Florez and Boole, who had never done camera work before. The Red camera used in the flights weighed 15 pounds (6,8\u00a0kg), enough to significantly alter the way pilots normally flew. The wingsuiters made over 60 jumps in the course of two weeks to get all the shots. Corliss called it the most dangerous stunt that has ever been filmed for a movie."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aeroflot Flight 3630",
        "text": "The aircraft created a deep cone-shaped crater at impact, destroying much of the airframe. The flight data recorder was damaged beyond recovery of any data but the Air Accident Investigation Commission were able to determine that the engines were set to idle power, the flaps, spoilers and landing gear were all in the retracted position and that rudder trim was full right with the left aileron trim full up."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "Wingsuit BASE jumping carries additional risk beyond a wingsuit skydive. Jumping from a fixed object means starting with low airspeed which requires different flying positions and skills. During the flight, hazards exist such as trees, rocks and the ground which must be avoided. While skydivers typically carry two parachutes, a main and a reserve, wingsuit BASE jumpers typically only carry one BASE-specific parachute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gary Connery",
        "text": "Landing in a wingsuit without using a parachute had been one of Jeb Corliss's main objectives since 2010. Corliss and other top-level wingsuit jumpers had tried for years to design wingsuits similar to the one which Connery helped design and subsequently used for his record-setting leap."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fokker Dr.I",
        "text": "On 29 October 1917, \"Leutnant der Reserve\" Heinrich Gontermann, \"Staffelf\u00fchrer\" of \"Jasta\" 15, was performing aerobatics when his triplane broke up. Gontermann was killed in the ensuing crash landing. \"Leutnant der Reserve\" G\u00fcnther Pastor of \"Jasta\" 11 was killed two days later when his triplane broke up in level flight. Inspection of the wrecked aircraft showed that the wings had been poorly constructed. Examination of other high-time triplanes confirmed these findings. On 2 November, \"Idflieg\" grounded all remaining triplanes pending an inquiry. \"Idflieg\" convened a \"Sturzkommission\" (crash commission) which concluded that poor construction and lack of waterproofing had allowed moisture to damage the wing structure. This caused the wing ribs to disintegrate and the ailerons to break away in flight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qantas Flight 30",
        "text": "The cause of the accident was an exploding oxygen tank in the cargo area, according to a preliminary finding by the ATSB:After clearing the baggage and cargo from the forward aircraft hold, it was evident that one passenger oxygen cylinder (number-4 from a bank of seven cylinders along the right side of the cargo hold) had sustained a sudden failure and forceful discharge of its pressurised contents into the aircraft hold, rupturing the fuselage in the vicinity of the wing-fuselage leading edge fairing. The cylinder had been propelled upward by the force of the discharge, puncturing the cabin floor and entering the cabin adjacent to the second main cabin door. The cylinder had subsequently impacted the door frame, door handle and overhead panelling, before falling to the cabin floor and exiting the aircraft through the ruptured fuselage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aeroflot Flight 068",
        "text": "Most of the right wing was torn from the aircraft and remained in the home. Simultaneously the left wing struck another home, tearing off half the wing and causing the home's complete destruction. The aircraft continued on, striking more trees, and came to a halt 350 meters from the pond and 1,220 meters from the initial contact with the ice. There was no fire and the fuselage broke into three main pieces, remaining close together at the crash site."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qantas Flight 32",
        "text": "Shrapnel from the engine punctured part of the wing and damaged the fuel system, causing leaks and a fuel-tank fire, disabled one hydraulic system and the antilock braking system, caused the number-one and number-four engines to go into a \"degraded\" mode, and damaged landing flaps and the controls for the outer left number-one engine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inex-Adria Aviopromet Flight 1308",
        "text": "Surprised by the alert, JP 1308's crew failed to execute evasive manoeuvres for the next 9 seconds. At 07:53:17, Capt. Kunovic ordered, \"POWER!\" Three seconds later, at 07:53:20, the aircraft's left wing struck a barren surface near the top of Mont San-Pietro at 4464 ft. With 8.5 meters of the left wing sheared off, the aircraft rolled upside down, entered into an uncontrolled dive and violently crashed into the gorge on the other side of the mountain eight seconds later, killing everyone on board. The time of the accident was 7:53\u00a0a.m. local time (07:53 UTC)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ansett-ANA Flight 325",
        "text": "Approximately 9 minutes after takeoff the outer section of the right wing had been torn away and the aircraft had crashed into Botany Bay. The rain, thunder and lightning associated with the thunderstorm over Botany Bay had been so intense that no-one saw the aircraft or observed anything crash into the water. Accident Investigator Frank Yeend wrote \"The weather was so bad that this aircraft crashed in the middle of a major city without anybody having seen it or heard anything that would give cause to alarm.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Wingsuit flying",
        "text": "On 20 and 21 April 2012, Colombian skydiver Jhonathan Florez set Guinness World Records in wingsuit flying. The jumps took place in La Guajira in Colombia. The longest (duration) wingsuit flight was 9\u00a0minutes, 6\u00a0seconds"
      },
      {
        "title": "Red Arrows",
        "text": "\"Data from:\" Ejection History - Red Arrows\n;: Gnat XR573 hit trees while joining formation during a practice at RAF Kemble. Flt Lt Jerry Bowler (no ejection) was killed.\n;: Two Gnats crashed, XR995 at Kemble, on fire and XR992 in a field near Chelworth. The pilots both ejected safely although a fire warning from air traffic was intended for XR995.\n;: Gnats XR986 and XR545, collided during the cross-over manoeuvre over the runway at Kemble, with four fatalities.\n;13 December 1971: Gnat XR567 crashed on approach to RAF Upper Heyford. Flt Lt Clem Longdon and Flt Lt Richard \"Dick\" Michael Storr (no ejection) were killed.\n;16 February 1976:Gnat XP531 struck a cable and made emergency landing at RAF Kemble; damaged beyond repair. Both crew ejected safely.\n;?? June 1976: Gnat XR987 - Flight instrument technician in the rear seat ejected during check flight to investigate uncommanded control movements. Pilot Flt Lt Dudley Carvell - Cpl Ginger Whelan ejected through the canopy from the back seat when he thought control of aircraft had been lost. \"No-one was hurt and we had the aircraft flying again the next week\"\n;24 June 1976:Gnat RED 1 XS111 - Wheel brake failure during landing at RAF Kemble; Sqn Ldr Richard \"Dickie\" Duckett was unhurt.\n;3 March 1978:Gnat XR981 RED 4 Struck ground whilst practising Vic rollback aerobatics at RAF Kemble. Pilot Flt Lt Stephen Edward Noble and Wg. Cdr. Dennis George Hazell AFC died; XR981 happened during pre-season practice, specifically while the team were practicing roll-backs at low altitude. The aircraft ended up inverted and neither occupant left the aircraft. One seat fired, but I can't remember which, but couldn't go anywhere. Steve Noble survived initially but died later that day. Quote:\"3 Mar 1978, in the footnote you are not sure which ejection seat fired. It was the rear seat (Wg Cdr Hazell). The aircraft had hit the ground and then bounced back into the air, one wing then dug in and the aircraft cartwheeled eventually ending up upside down. During this time it was still travelling at some speed and as the rear seat was a little higher and the canopy was broken, it made contact with the ground pulling the top handle of the seat and setting off the ejection sequence, but as you say the seat could not go anywhere and so the seat rails came out through the bottom of the floor. Sadly I witnessed this crash from start to finish, with many others, as it was a families day for the Red Arrows and many people were there to watch the practice\".\n;22 May 1979:Gnat XP539 had a fuel blockage that caused engine problems and aircraft was abandoned at RAF Leeming, Yorks. Wg Cdr Ernie Jones ejected OK (XP539 actually belonged to the Red Arrows, but was a reserve ship not fitted with smoke. It was flown by Wg Cdr Ernie Jones, who was the only person on board, and was visiting Training Command HQ. The accident was due to asymmetric fuelling of the aircraft \u2013 when one side ran out of fuel the flow proportioner, which equalised usage from both sides, cut the fuel flow off from the other side, causing embarrassment).\n;: Hawk XX262 hit a yacht mast at an air show in Brighton, Sussex. The pilot, Sqn Ldr Steve Johnson, ejected safely.\n;: A Hawk hit the ground at RAF Akrotiri, Cyprus, while practising a loop. The pilot, Flt Lt Chris Hirst, suffered serious injuries when the impact with the ground forced the ejection seat through the canopy and deployed the drogue chute, dragging him out.\n;:Hawk T1 XX257 crashed into the sea 3 miles off Sidmouth, Devon after the engine suffered a failure of a rotor blade in the low pressure compressor. Pilot, Flt Lt P.D. Lees was rescued by a Sidmouth independent inshore rescue boat.\n;: A Hawk rammed into the back of another on a runway.\n;:Hawk XX297 flown by Flt Lt Dan Findlay flew into the jet wash of the leading aircraft during a practice display at RAF Scampton and was unable to relight the Hawk's engine. The pilot ejected safely after unsuccessfully attempting an emergency landing back at RAF Scampton.\n;: Hawks XX241 & XX259 collided during a winter training practice with one aircraft crashing into a house in the village of Welton, Lincolnshire. The aircraft of Flt Lt Spike Newbery struck the aircraft of new Team Leader Sqn Ldr Tim Miller from behind, knocking off the tail. Both pilots ejected successfully. Flt Lt Newbery suffered a broken leg and had to leave the team.\n;:Hawk XX304 crashed whilst attempting to take off, and the fuel tanks exploded. The pilot Sqn Ldr Pete J. Collins (Red Arrows' deputy leader) ejected safely.\n;:Hawk XX243 crashed practising a \"roll back\" at RAF Scampton. The pilot Flt Lt Neil Duncan MacLachlan was killed.\n;: Flt Lt R. Edwards landed short of the runway after a practice run at the Red Arrows then home base, RAF Cranwell, and ejected safely at low altitude.\n;: A Hawk overshot the runway while landing at Jersey Airport in advance of an air display. The pilot ran the jet into a gravel pile and little damage was sustained.\n;: The wingtip of a Hawk hit the tail of another during a practice flight near RAF Scampton.\n;: Two Hawks were involved in a mid-air collision. The synchro pair were practising one of their manoeuvres when the two aircraft collided. Red 7 (Flt Lt David Montenegro) landed his plane safely, but Red 6 (Flt Lt Mike Ling) ejected and suffered a dislocated shoulder. The incident took place during pre-season training in Crete. Due to his injuries, Flt Lt Ling was unable to participate in the forthcoming display season and was replaced by 2008's Red 6, Flt Lt Paul O'Grady.\n;:A Hawk aircraft crashed into a field near Throop Mill, one mile from Bournemouth Airport following a display at the Bournemouth Air Festival. Flt Lt Jon Egging, pilot of Red 4 (XX179), died in the accident. The investigation into the incident determined that Flt Lt Egging was incapacitated due to the effects of g-LOC until very shortly before impact. His widow Emma Egging was made an OBE in the 2021 Birthday Honours.\n;: Pilot Flt Lt Sean Cunningham was ejected from his aircraft while it was on the ground at RAF Scampton and subsequently died from his injuries. He was shot into the air and received fatal injuries when his parachute failed to open. The UK Health and Safety Executive announced in 2016 that it would be prosecuting the ejection seat manufacturer Martin-Baker for breach of Health and Safety law. The company has since pleaded guilty to breaching Section 3(1) of the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974.\n;20 March 2018: A Hawk crashed at RAF Valley. Two people, the pilot and an engineer, were on board at the time. The pilot of Red 3, Flt Lt David Stark, was hospitalised with non-life-threatening injuries whilst the engineer, Cpl Jonathan Bayliss, was killed. According to the coroner the crash could have been avoided. Flt Lt Stark was unable to resume his place in the 2018 display team and was replaced by Sqn Ldr Mike Ling, outgoing Red 10."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of aviation accidents and incidents involving CFIT",
        "text": "The crash occurred while the entire cockpit crew was preoccupied with a burnt-out landing gear indicator light. They failed to notice that the autopilot had inadvertently been disconnected, and as a result, the aircraft gradually lost altitude and crashed. This was the first fatal crash of a wide-body aircraft. It was also the first hull loss and first fatal crash of a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dorado Wings",
        "text": "In 1981, a Dorado Wings airplane suffered an accident on a non revenue flight after takeoff at San Juan airport. There were no major injuries or fatalities, though the aircraft was totaled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vincent Reffet",
        "text": "Vincent Reffet was a professional parachutist. He completed 17,000 parachute jumps and 1400 BASE jumps. He began wingsuit flying in 2002. He was a parachute instructor, \"Jetman\" pilot, licensed private pilot, wind tunnel instructor (totaling 1000 hours), and pioneer and instructor in speed riding. According to \"The Guardian\", in 2014, Reffet \"BASE jumped off the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, the world\u2019s tallest building at 828 metres (2,716ft), setting a world record\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Accidents and incidents involving the JAS 39 Gripen",
        "text": "On 20 September 1999, a JAS 39A Gripen (serial no 39-156) from Skaraborg Wing (F 7) crashed into Lake V\u00e4nern during a dogfight exercise. During a steep (\u221270\u00b0) dive the airplane passed through the wake vortex of the other aircraft. The pilot (Captain Rickard Mattsson) felt a disturbance in the air, and then noticed that the plane no longer responded to his commands, followed by a highest-severity alert from the ground-collision warning system which indicates that a turn to avoid a crash would require more than 10 \"g\". The pilot ejected from the aircraft, which continued the dive and crashed while the pilot landed safely by parachute in the lake. His colleague observed him getting into the inflatable life raft, and he was picked up by a rescue helicopter 27 minutes later."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aeroflot Flight 15",
        "text": "The investigation hypothesized that an emergency onboard caused the crew to descend, and in doing so control of the aircraft was lost when engine number three did not perform as expected. Examination of the left wing showed evidence of a fuel leak, which was presumed to have caused an onboard fire; that part of the wing was not equipped with fire detection or fire extinguishing systems. However, the commission responsible for the investigation later rejected the claim of an in-flight fire in the left wing caused by a leak, stating that the exact cause of the emergency is unknown."
      },
      {
        "title": "De Havilland DH 108",
        "text": "The coroner's report confirmed that the pilot died from a broken neck. The failure of the left wing as the plane dived occurred just above the garage at Brickhill. This failure was presumed to be the source of a \"bang\" described by witnesses at Brickhill. Swishing sounds which were reported came from the aircraft spinning at a high rate due to it having only one wing. It came down in the woods, after glancing off an oak tree: traces of the impact were still visible 50 years later. The airframe and right wing were dismantled by the military, and removed very quickly. The left wing was also recovered from the fields just north of Brickhill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Accidents and incidents involving the JAS 39 Gripen",
        "text": "On 19 April 2007, a JAS 39C Gripen (serial no 39-259) from Norrbotten Wing (F 21) crashed at the Vidsel airfield in northern Sweden. The pilot, Capt. Stefan Kaarle, was involuntarily ejected out of the aircraft in mid-air while approaching the airstrip in order to land. He landed safely by parachute. All C/D Gripens were temporarily grounded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flamingo Air",
        "text": "The operation has had several minor incidents or accidents none of which has resulted in injury to date:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Saab 32 Lansen",
        "text": "Accidents destroyed a third of all Lansens during 25 years of service, killing 100 crew along with 7 civilians in Vikbo. The accidents were due to a combination of technical faults, the aircraft not being ready for service, and training deficiencies in regards to flying at night and in adverse weather. In the 1960 Vikbo crash, pilot Uno Magnusson's A 32A suffered an engine outage, and ejected before crashing into a farmhouse, killing all seven civilian occupants. The crash was due to a known fault which occurred when a drop tank was fitted; the fighter variant J32 B had been forbidden from using the drop tank. Replacement parts to correct the fault were available at the base but had not yet been fitted. The crash's causes were suppressed from the public by the Flygvapnet press office; as the victims were civilians, they were not included in official accident statistics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zonal safety analysis",
        "text": "On August 12, 1985, Japan Air Lines Flight 123, a Boeing 747-SR100, experienced cabin decompression 12 minutes after takeoff from Haneda Airport in Tokyo, Japan, at 24,000 feet. The decompression was caused by failure of a previously repaired aft pressure bulkhead. Cabin air rushed into the unpressurized fuselage cavity, overpressurizing the area and causing failure of the auxiliary power unit (APU) firewall and the supporting structure for the vertical fin. The vertical fin separated from the airplane. Hydraulic components located in the aft body were also severed, leading to a rapid depletion of all four hydraulic systems. The loss of the vertical fin, coupled with the loss of all four hydraulic systems, left the airplane extremely difficult, if not impossible, to control in all three axes. Lack of independence of four hydraulic systems from a single failure event was a zonal hazard. The aircraft struck a mountain at forty-six minutes after takeoff with 520 fatalities and 4 survivors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Gorge Bridge",
        "text": "On October 5, 2003, while performing a proximity demonstration, wingsuiter Dwain Weston was killed attempting to fly over the bridge. Weston was wearing a wingsuit, a skydiving suit with fabric extended below the arms to the body and between the legs to catch air, allowing for horizontal travel when skydiving. He was to go over the bridge while fellow skydiver Jeb Corliss was to go under it. Misjudging his distance from the bridge, Weston struck a railing while traveling an estimated 120\u00a0mph, severing his leg at the hip. He fell onto a ledge in the gorge under a parachute that had opened on impact, though it is assumed he had already died."
      },
      {
        "title": "Horten H.II",
        "text": "That example was destroyed in a fatal accident in March 1939. Witnesses described how the canopy detached during a high-speed dive in aerobatics practice, hitting pilot Kurt Hiekmann."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fairey Gannet",
        "text": "A brief report in \"Cockpit\", Q4 1973, concerning the accident:\n*Fleet Air Arm\n**724 Squadron RAN\n**725 Squadron RAN\n**816 Squadron RAN\n**817 Squadron RAN\n;\n*Marineflieger\n**\"Marinefliegergeschwader\" 2 (1958\u201363)\n**\"Marinefliegergeschwader\" 3 (1963\u201366)\n;\n*Indonesian Navy Naval Aviation\n*Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm\n**700 Naval Air Squadron\n**703 Naval Air Squadron\n**703X Flight\n**719 Naval Air Squadron\n**724 Naval Air Squadron\n**725 Naval Air Squadron\n**737 Naval Air Squadron\n**744 Naval Air Squadron\n**796 Naval Air Squadron\n**810 Naval Air Squadron\n**812 Naval Air Squadron\n**814 Naval Air Squadron\n**815 Naval Air Squadron\n**816 Naval Air Squadron\n**817 Naval Air Squadron\n**820 Naval Air Squadron\n**824 Naval Air Squadron\n**825 Naval Air Squadron\n**826 Naval Air Squadron\n**831 Naval Air Squadron\n**847 Naval Air Squadron\n**849 Naval Air Squadron\n**1840 Naval Air Squadron Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve"
      },
      {
        "title": "Nigeria Airways Flight 2120",
        "text": "Due to common jet aircraft design, the accident became inevitable the moment the landing gear was retracted, mere seconds after takeoff and long before an emergency became apparent. When this occurred, \"burning rubber was brought into close proximity with hydraulic and electrical system components,\" causing the failure of both hydraulic and pressurisation systems that led to structural damage and loss of control of the aircraft. The Transportation Safety Board later concluded, \"had the crew left the landing gear extended, the accident might have been averted.\" Fuel, \"probably introduced as a result of 'burn through' of the centre fuel tank\", intensified the fire, which eventually consumed the cabin floor. People began falling out of the aircraft when their seat harnesses burned through. \"Despite the considerable destruction to the airframe, the aircraft appeared to have been controllable until just before the crash.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikorsky S-61",
        "text": "1970s\n*On 25 October 1973, a Greenlandair S-61N, OY-HAI \"Akigssek\" (\"Grouse\") crashed about 40\u00a0km south of Nuuk, resulting in the loss of 15 lives. It was en route to Paamiut from Nuuk. The same aircraft had an emergency landing on the Kangerlussuaq fjord two years earlier, due to flameout on both engines because of ice in the intake.\n* On 10 May 1974 KLM Helikopters S-61N PH-NZC crashed en route to an oil rig in the North Sea. None of the two crew and four passengers survived. The probable cause was a failure in one of five rotor blades due to metal fatigue. The resulting imbalance caused the motor mounts to fail and caused a fire. The uncontrollable aircraft landed hard in the water, capsized and sank. Investigation indicated that the metal fatigue crack must have spread rapidly in less than four hours. The rotor blades are pressurized with nitrogen gas at to indicate the onset of a metal fatigue failure, yet no pressure loss was indicated during the preflight inspection. As a result of the accident it was recommended to shorten inspection intervals The aircraft was recovered from the North Sea floor. It was rebuilt and currently flies as registration N87580 in the USA.\n* On 16 May 1977, New York Airways' commercial S-61-L, N619PA, suffered a static rollover onto its starboard side at the heliport on top of the Pan Am Building while boarding passengers. The accident killed four boarding passengers and one woman on the street. 17 additional passengers and the three flight crew members were uninjured. The landing gear collapse was a result of metal fatigue in the helicopter's main landing gear shock-absorbing strut assembly, which caused the helicopter to tip over without warning. The accident resulted in the permanent closure of the Pan Am Building heliport. As the heliport was closed, the wreckage was removed by disassembling it and taking the assemblies down to street level using the building's freight elevators. The airframe was taken to Cape Town, South Africa, where it was rebuilt, certified and returned to service as the first S61 used in the Ship-Service Role off the shores of the Western Cape by the company \"Court Helicopter\" which was later amalgamated with CHC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas Harris (aviator)",
        "text": "According to a less plausible theory of the cause of the crash, the release valve got stuck in the open position, thus releasing the hydrogen. In an attempt to prevent the balloon falling, Harris threw out all the ballast and even the woman's clothes. In the end, he jumped to his death, making the balloon light enough to save his companion's life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Accidents and incidents involving the JAS 39 Gripen",
        "text": "On 6 August 2009, a Gripen from F 17 Kallinge belly-landed and skidded off the runway, after the pilot forgot to extend the landing gear before landing. A minor fire broke out, but it was soon put out by the airbase fire brigade. The pilot escaped unharmed and could walk away from the aircraft. According to the SHK report, a contributory cause was high mental workload because the pilot had recently transitioned to flying JAS 39C, which uses international units (feet, knots) instead of metric units (meters, km/h). The ground proximity warning system activated 8 seconds before touchdown, but the pilot disregarded it because it was known to sometimes give false alarms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wet wing",
        "text": "Notable accidents in which the wet wing design and its drawbacks were causative include Chalk's Ocean Airways Flight 101 and the 1961 Goldsboro B-52 crash. Multiple aircraft have also sustained considerable structural damage due to improper wet wing maintenance. Multiple instances of manufacturing-related debris, posing a threat to aircraft safety, have been discovered on both civilian and military aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bridge Day",
        "text": "There have been three deaths and a wingsuit accident during Bridge Day involving BASE jumpers:\n*In 1983, Michael Glenn Williams from Birmingham, Alabama, drowned when his gear was caught in the current after he made a successful jump. The one rescue boat that was in the river at the time was busy with other jumpers, and could not make it to him. In later years, more than one rescue boat was always used, and parachutists were not allowed to jump until it was confirmed that one of the rescue boats was available.\n*In 1987, Steven Gyrsting of Paoli, Pennsylvania, jumped using gear that was not BASE-specific gear and was killed after he was unable to open his reserve chute in time when his main chute failed to deploy.\n*During the 2006 festival, Brian Lee Schubert died when he failed to deploy his parachute in time. In 1966, he had been one of the first to BASE jump from El Capitan in Yosemite National Park.\n*In 2011, Christopher Brewer of Pensacola, Florida, jumped wearing a wingsuit and survived after failing to open his parachute in time. He was fully conscious and paralyzed after landing in the New River, 876 feet below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Patrick de Gayardon",
        "text": "De Gayardon was famous for pushing the boundaries of skydiving. He was one of the first people to develop the unique style of skysurfing, in which skydivers use a snowboard to make aerobatic maneuvers. He also made many famous stunts with his development of a ram-air wingsuit, starting modern-day wingsuiting. In 1998 Patrick fell to his death in Hawaii during a skydive with Adrian Nicholas using the wingsuit while testing a modification to his parachute container; his death is attributed to a rigging error he made while making the modification."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 182",
        "text": "The two photographs of Flight 182 taken by Hans Wendt revealed that the left wing flaps were extended as the crew tried hopelessly to steer the crippled aircraft and that the right wing had a large piece missing where the Cessna had struck. Although it was obvious that the flaps were damaged or destroyed by the collision, NTSB investigators could not determine the condition of the hydraulic system in the wing and whether the plumbing inside it had actually been ruptured or merely flattened. Since the right wing was extremely fragmented, examination of debris provided no useful information. The crew may have tried to guide the 727 away from impacting a residential area and onto Route 805 where damage would be lessened, but could not do so, and the final conclusion of the NTSB was that even if the hydraulic lines in the right wing were undamaged, the missing flaps and spreading fire would have adversely affected the plane's aerodynamic profile and in all likelihood, Flight 182 was completely uncontrollable after the collision."
      },
      {
        "title": "1953 Nutts Corner BEA Vickers Viking accident",
        "text": "G-AJDL left Northolt at 07:27, 25 minutes late. Two hours later it was on approach to Nutts Corner. When the aircraft was out from the runway threshold it was above the glideslope. The aircraft then rapidly lost height and hit the pole supporting an approach light a short distance from the aerodrome. Following the initial impact the aircraft hit further poles; it then hit a mobile standard beam approach van before striking a brick building housing equipment operating the instrument landing system about from the runway. This impact caused the aircraft to break up. There was a slight fire after the accident."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aeroflot Flight 141",
        "text": "In connection with the complete destruction of the plane in a collision with the ground and the subsequent fire, a commission from the Ministry of Transport of Czechoslovakia came to the conclusion that it could not accurately determine the cause of the disaster. There is only a possibility that during the landing approach the Tu-154 encountered an unexpected turbulence and got under the influence of wind shear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Matt Hall (pilot)",
        "text": "In June 2010 while qualifying for first session in Windsor, Ontario for the Red Bull Air Race his plane touched the water of the Detroit River due to aerodynamic wing stall but he recovered and landed safely. The plane received \"superficial damage\", mainly to the right aileron."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aero India",
        "text": "During the show, a HAL HJT-36 skidded off the runway when a tyre burst after the pilot aborted take-off as the aircraft's canopy inadvertently opened up. Fortunately, there was no fatality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ansett-ANA Flight 325",
        "text": "It soon became clear that the spar in the right wing had broken and the outer section of the wing had been torn away by the airstream. The lower boom (or lower flange) in the wing spar had failed in upward bending at station 323 due to extreme overload. The wing had been overloaded while the aircraft was flying at very high speed, probably in excess of the maximum safe speed of indicated airspeed. As an immediate consequence of the aircraft's gyrations during failure of the right wing, the right tailplane had also been subjected to excessive forces and had separated from the fuselage."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What year was the wing suit developed?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The first wingsuit was made in 1912 by Franz Reichelt, the modern wingsuit was first developed in the mid-1990's by Patrick de Gayardon. The first wingsuit to be made commercially available to all skydivers was created in 1999 by Jari Kuosma and Robert Pecnik."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Have wingsuits been used by any military forces?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find the answer, but I did find concerns regarding the nature of wingsuit flying exist due to injuries and death and the French government banned wingsuit flying multiple times following the deaths of French pilots."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me more about the injuries and deaths that lead to the wingsuits being banned in France?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Despite training and regulation, wingsuit BASE jumping remains a dangerous pastime, and fatalities occur regularly. A 2012 University of Colorado study found that in wingsuit BASE jumping, there was approximately one severe injury for every 500 jumps undertaken."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did wing suit flying first become popular?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find the answer, but I did find that  Created by Kuosma, the instructor program's aim was to remove the stigma that wingsuits were dangerous and to provide wingsuit beginners (generally, skydivers with a minimum of 200 jumps) with a way to safely enjoy what was once considered the most dangerous feat in the skydiving world."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is there such a thing as a jet-powered wingsuit?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes, there have been experimental powered wingsuits, often using small jet engines strapped to the feet or a wingpack setup to allow for even greater horizontal speeds and even vertical ascent. On 25 October 2009, in Lahti, Finland, Visa Parviainen jumped from a hot air balloon in a wingsuit with two small turbojet engines attached to his feet; Christian Stadler from Germany invented the \"VegaV3 wingsuit system\" that uses an electronic adjustable hydrogen peroxide rocket."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Have there ever been any accidents associated with the wingsuit?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Yes, despite training and regulation, wingsuit BASE jumping remains a dangerous pastime, and fatalities occur regularly;  there are approximately one severe injury for every 500 jumps undertaken. A detailed study on wingsuit deaths completed primarily by the University of Colorado found that out of 180 studied fatalities, 97% launched from cliffs and another 1% from buildings; Matt Gerdes, wingsuit tester at the Squirrel wingsuit company claims that wingsuit fatalities are on the rise because the experience of becoming a wingsuit pilot is becoming less personal as many for-profit BASE jumping instructors are allowing some students to skip steps and start testing out wingsuits after fewer and fewer regular parachute jumps."
    ],
    "topic": "Wingsuit flying",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Wingsuit flying:50",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wingsuit flying",
          "Safety"
        ],
        "ctx": "Despite training and regulation, wingsuit BASE jumping remains a dangerous pastime, and fatalities occur regularly. A 2012 University of Colorado study found that in wingsuit BASE jumping, there was approximately one severe injury for every 500\u00a0jumps undertaken."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Wingsuit flying:51",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wingsuit flying",
          "Safety"
        ],
        "ctx": "A detailed study on wingsuit deaths completed primarily by the University of Colorado found that out of 180 studied fatalities, 97% launched from cliffs and another 1% from buildings. The vast-majority of these deaths were related to the use of the wingsuit, not to do with external sources. This makes aircraft descending a much less-deadly form of wingsuit flying, though deemed less extreme by fans of the sport."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Wingsuit flying:52",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Wingsuit flying",
          "Safety"
        ],
        "ctx": "Matt Gerdes, wingsuit tester at the Squirrel wingsuit company claims that wingsuit fatalities are on the rise because the experience of becoming a wingsuit pilot is becoming less personal as many for-profit BASE jumping instructors are allowing some students to skip steps and start testing out wingsuits after fewer and fewer regular parachute jumps. With little oversight from the government, \"...instruction in some courses turns out poorly-prepared jumpers who unwittingly skip steps on their way to flying high-performance wingsuits.\""
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Burger King (Alberta)",
        "text": "The restaurant was inspired by a visit Jarvis paid to Great Falls, Montana in 1953, when he stayed next to a Dairy Queen drive-in. After the chain turned down his request for a franchise, he and Rae formed their own \"Dairy Drive-In\" at 8705 118 Avenue. Two years later, when their lease expired, they hauled the building to a site at 112 Avenue, where it would become the first Burger King. It opened one year before the first outlet of what would become its main rival, A&W."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Burger King",
        "text": "The predecessor to what is now the international fast food restaurant chain Burger King was founded in on July 23, 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, as Insta-Burger King. Inspired by the McDonald brothers' original store location in San Bernardino, California, the founders and owners, Keith J. Cramer and his step father Matthew Burns, began searching for a concept. After purchasing the rights to two pieces of equipment called \"Insta\" machines, the two opened their first stores around a cooking device known as the Insta-Broiler. The Insta-Broiler oven proved so successful at cooking burgers, they required all of their franchises to carry the device. After the original company began to falter in 1959, it was purchased by its Miami, Florida, franchisees James McLamore and David R. Edgerton. The two initiated a corporate restructuring of the chain; the first step being to rename the company Burger King. The duo ran the company as an independent entity for eight years, eventually expanding to over 250 locations in the United States, when they sold it to the Pillsbury Company in 1967."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "The predecessor to Burger King was founded in 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, as Insta-Burger King. After visiting the McDonald brothers' original store location in San Bernardino, California, the founders and owners (Keith J. Kramer and his wife's uncle Matthew Burns), who had purchased the rights to two pieces of equipment called \"Insta-machines\", opened their first restaurants. Their production model was based on one of the machines they had acquired, an oven called the \"Insta-Broiler\". This strategy proved to be so successful that they later required all of their franchises to use the device. After the company faltered in 1959, it was purchased by its Miami, Florida, franchisees, James McLamore and David R. Edgerton. They initiated a corporate restructuring of the chain, first renaming the company Burger King. They ran the company as an independent entity for eight years (eventually expanding to over 250 locations in the United States), before selling it to the Pillsbury Company in 1967."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Burger King",
        "text": "Burger King was founded in 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, as Insta-Burger King by Keith J. Kramer and his wife's uncle, Matthew Burns. Their first stores were centred around a piece of equipment known as the Insta-Broiler, which was very effective at cooking burgers. It proved so successful that, as they grew through franchising, they required all of their franchises to carry the device."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "Included in the new line was the Sirloin Steak Sandwich, a single oblong patty made of chopped steak served on a sub-style, sesame seed roll. It, along with the Original Chicken Sandwich, was one of the first attempts by a major fast food chain to target a specific demographic, in this case adults aged between 18 and 34 years, members of which were presumably willing to spend more on a higher quality product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "In March 2012, Burger King became the first major burger chain to add a burger based on lamb when it introduced its Lamb Flatbread burger to its menu in the United Kingdom and Ireland."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Burger King",
        "text": "McLamore and Edgerton acquired a license to operate an Insta-Burger King franchise and opened their first location on 4 December 1954 at 3090 NW 36th Street in Miami. By 1959, the pair had stores at several locations within the Miami-Dade area, and operations were growing at a fast rate. However, the partners discovered that the insta-broiler units' heating elements were prone to degradation from the drippings of the beef patties. The pair eventually created a mechanized gas grill that avoided the problems by cooking the meat patties a different way inside the unit. The new cooking appliance, which they called a flame broiler, moved the patties over the flame vertically on a chain link conveyor over the heating elements, a design that imparted grill lines on the patties similar to those made on a charcoal grill. The new unit worked so well that they made the decision to replace all of their Insta-Broilers with the newly designed unit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "The company known today as Burger King itself began as a franchise; the predecessor of the modern company was founded in 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, as Insta-Burger King. The original founders and owners, Kieth J. Kramer and Matthew Burns, opened their first stores around a piece of equipment known as the Insta-Broiler. The Insta-Broiler oven proved so successful at cooking burgers, Kramer and Burns required all of their franchises to carry the device. The rights to open stores in Miami, Florida, belonged to two businessmen named James McLamore and David R. Edgerton and their company: South Florida Restaurants, Inc. Due to operational issues with the Insta-Broiler, in 1954 McLamore and Edgarton made the decision to replace the Insta-Broiler with a mechanized gas grill they called a flame broiler. Even though the company had rapidly expanded throughout the state until its operations totaled more than 40 locations in 1955, the original Insta-Burger King ran into financial difficulties and the pair of McLamore and Edgarton purchased the national rights to the chain and rechristened the company as Burger King of Miami."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King (Alberta)",
        "text": "and James Duncan Rae (3 September 1923 - 17 December 2014) in 1956. Among the first American-style fast food restaurants in Edmonton, it was not related to the worldwide Burger King chain. Company headquarters were in offices above one of the restaurants, at 9501 111 Avenue. Its signature items included a mushroom burger and a \"Canadian Burger\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "When the predecessor of Burger King first opened in Jacksonville in 1953, its menu consisted predominantly of basic hamburgers, French fries, soft drinks, milkshakes, and desserts. After being acquired by its Miami, Florida, franchisees and renamed to its current moniker in 1954, BK began expanding the breadth of its menu by adding the Whopper sandwich in 1957. This quarter-pound () hamburger was created by Burger King's new owners James McLamore and David Edgerton as a way to differentiate BK from other burger outlets at the time. Since its inception, the Whopper has become synonymous with Burger King and has become the focus of much of its advertising. The company even named its new kiosk-style restaurants Whopper Bars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "With the introduction of the company's new broilers in the United States and Canada in 2009 and 2010, Burger King introduced the third generation of its premium burger sandwich that it called the Steakhouse XT burger, with the XT standing for eXtra Thick. This new sandwich supplanted the previous versions of premium sandwiches as the chains most expensive burger-based sandwich. Unlike the preceding two sandwiches, this version was not made from Angus beef, but was intended to draw upon its ingredients and size as it defining characteristic. A higher-end version of the Steakhouse XT was first introduced in 2009 at the company's new BK Whopper Bar restaurant concept located at Universal Studios Orlando priced at US$5.29. The regular versions were introduced in January 2010 once the company had finished deploying its new broilers in all of its North American restaurants. The new sandwich came in two permanent varieties and a LTO variant, all of which featured a new round, , thick patty and was priced at $3.99 to $4.49 depending on the variant. At its BK Whopper Bar restaurants, the company added several other varieties beyond the initial one introduced in 2009 that were all exclusive to the high-end concept. The product was the first national product tailored to the new flexible broilers, units that were designed to cook multiple types of products that have different cooking requirements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "At roughly the same time as Kroc was conceiving what eventually became McDonald's Corporation, two Miami, Florida businessmen, James McLamore and David Edgerton, opened a franchise of the predecessor to what is now the international fast food restaurant chain Burger King. McLamore had visited the original McDonald's hamburger stand belonging to the McDonald brothers; sensing potential in their innovative assembly line-based production system, he decided he wanted to open a similar operation of his own. The two partners eventually decided to invest their money in Jacksonville, Florida-based Insta-Burger King. Originally opened in 1953, the founders and owners of the chain, Kieth G. Kramer and his wife's uncle Matthew Burns, opened their first stores around a piece of equipment known as the Insta-Broiler. The Insta-Broiler oven proved so successful at cooking burgers, they required all of their franchises to carry the device. By 1959 McLamore and Edgarton were operating several locations within the Miami-Dade area and were growing at a fast clip. Despite the success of their operation, the partners discovered that the design of the insta-broiler made the unit's heating elements prone to degradation from the drippings of the beef patties. The pair eventually created a mechanized gas grill that avoided the problems by changing the way the meat patties were cooked in the unit. After the original company began to falter in 1959, it was purchased by McLamore and Edgerton who renamed the company Burger King."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The King's Collection was first introduced in 2010 in response to a new line of Angus-based sandwiches from McDonald's New Zealand. The new sandwich line was part of a co-branded partnership with AngusPure, an Australian brand of grass-fed, organic beef, and condiment supplier Heinz."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "After World War II, a number of hamburger restaurants known as InstaBurger King (later [[Burger King]]) began emerging, the first of which was opened on December 4, 1954, in a suburb of Miami, Florida. It was established by [[James McLamore]] and [[David Edgerton]], both of whom were students at the [[Cornell University School of Hotel Administration]]. McLamore had visited the original McDonald's in San Bernardino, California, when it was still owned by the McDonald brothers, and saw the potential that existed for the [[mass production]] of hamburgers. He was so inspired by this visit that he decided to create a similar burger chain himself. By 1959, Burger King already had five restaurants in [[Miami metropolitan area|metropolitan Miami]], and its early success prompted McLamore and Edgerton to expand throughout the United States by using a [[franchising|franchise system]] that allowed them to grow the business at a relatively low cost. They formed Burger King Corporation as a parent company to the franchises they were selling throughout the United States. The Burger King Corporation was acquired by the [[Pillsbury Company]] in 1967, and during the 1970s, it began to expand outside the United States, principally in South America and Europe. [[Burger King]]'s core product has long been the [[Whopper]], which was created in 1957 by founder James McLamore and initially sold for 37 cents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King (Mattoon, Illinois)",
        "text": "Burger King is a restaurant founded by the Hoots family and operated by Burger King LLC of Illinois in Mattoon, Illinois, United States; it is not related to the fast food chain Burger King. The restaurant's founders claim it is the \"original\" Burger King and predates the fast food chain. A 1968 court case between this restaurant and the larger Burger King chain is a notable case in United States trademark law regarding the Lanham Act."
      },
      {
        "title": "Druther's",
        "text": "Druther's traces its history back to 1956, when Harold and Helen Kite opened the first Burger Queen restaurant in Winter Haven, Florida. In 1961, business partners George Clark and Jim Gannon bought franchise rights and permission to expand the chain to Kentucky."
      },
      {
        "title": "What-A-Burger",
        "text": "As noted above, the first What-a-Burger is still in operation at 6117 Jefferson Ave. in Newport News, Virginia just west of its original location."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King products",
        "text": "When the predecessor of international fast food restaurant chain Burger King (BK) first opened in 1953, its menu predominantly consisted of hamburgers, French fries, soft drinks, milkshakes, and desserts. After being acquired by its Miami, Florida franchisees and renamed in 1954, BK began expanding its menu by adding the Whopper. The company did not add another permanent hamburger to its menu until the introduction of the Big King sandwich in 1996 in response to McDonald's Big Mac sandwich. The company began experimenting with premium hamburgers, made from higher quality ingredients, in 1978 with the introduction of its Specialty Sandwich product line. The products were some of the first designed by a fast food restaurant chain that were intended to capture the adult market, members of which would be willing to spend more on a higher-quality product. However, it was not until 2002 when the company began to work on a premium burger in earnest. On the value side, Burger King first started offering sliders to its menu in the mid-1980s and offered them off and on for the next twenty years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "First Team"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "North America is the company's home territory and home to its first non-American stores; it opened its first international restaurant in Windsor, Ontario, Canada in 1969."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "As the success of the barbell strategy became evident to the general market place, other chains such as McDonald's and Carl's Jr./Hardee's began to experiment with the concept. Introduced in 2001, Carl's Jr./Hardee's sells its Six-Dollar Burger, a line of sandwiches that is also made from Angus beef."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red Robin",
        "text": "In 1969, local Seattle restaurant entrepreneur Gerry Kingen bought the restaurant and expanded it. The business dropped the \"Sam's\" and became Red Robin. The first restaurant was 1,200 sq ft (110 m2). It was a favored hangout for University of Washington students. Kingen continued to operate the location as a tavern for a few years, but later added hamburgers to the menu, eventually giving fans 28 different burgers to choose from, and sales increased."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The chain's first major attempt was part of their Specialty Sandwich line that was introduced in 1979 was the Sirloin Steak Sandwich. After the failure of the Specialty Sandwich line, Burger King went on to introduce several other premium burgers made from a variety of meats. One major example introduced in 2002 was the BK Back Porch Griller sandwich line. The sandwich, introduced in May 2002 was a pronounced failure, and pulled in September of that year. The next product Burger King introduced was its Angus Steakburger which it began selling in 2004; it too had lack-luster sales due in part to the patty being pre-cooked. The sandwich was later reformulated as the Steakhouse Burger which used a thinner, flatter, fresh cooked patty. The Steakhouse Burger sandwich was eventually replaced with the Steakhouse XT/Angus XT burger, which used a new, thicker round patty among several other changes. This newer sandwich was made possible with the introduction of the company's new broiler systems which allowed varying cooking times and temperatures which in turn gave the company the ability to utilize fresh cooked, thicker patties in its sandwiches. Only variations of the sandwich that explicitly state \"Angus\" in the title are manufactured from meat from Angus cattle. In 2011, the company discontinued selling the product in the North American market, replacing it with the Chef's Choice Burger. The Chef's Choice Burger was removed in 2012. 2014 saw the introduction of the newest attempt at introducing a premium burger to the company's portfolio with the introduction of the A.1. Ultimate Cheeseburger in North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Burger King",
        "text": "While the Jacksonville chain kept expanding, two friends named James McLamore and David R. Edgerton, both alumni of the Cornell University School of Hotel Administration, were seeking an opportunity to open their own business. McLamore had visited the original hamburger stand belonging to Dick and Mac McDonald in San Bernardino, California, and sensing potential in their innovative assembly line-based production system, decided to open a similar operation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King products",
        "text": "The predecessor to Burger King, Insta-Burger King, began deploying the original broiling device in 1952 when its owners, Matthew Burns and Kieth Kramer, acquired the rights to George Read's Inst-Shake and Insta-Broiler machines. The Insta-Broiler cooked the burgers in a wire basket between two broilers, allowing the burgers to be cooked on both sides simultaneously. The machine was capable of cooking over 400 patties per hour, which allowed the company to grow rapidly. When McLamore and Edgarton opened their first Insta-Burger King location in Miami, they revamped the unit into what they called a \"flame broiler\" \u2013 the forerunner of the modern unit used by Burger King today. After the acquisition of Insta-Burger King in 1954, the pair contracted the construction of the newly designed flame broilers to the SaniServ company of Indianapolis, Indiana, for the initial run of broilers. Eventually, the company moved the manufacturing contract for the broiler units to Nieco Automatic Broilers of Windsor, California, who manufactured all subsequent units until the start of the 2000s."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Burger King",
        "text": "Besides the creation of the company's signature piece of equipment, the flame broiler, the company added two more features during this period that have since become closely associated with the chain. The first to be created was its mascot, the Burger King in 1955. The character would become a staple of its advertising over the next 60 years. The second creation was the company's signature sandwich, the Whopper. It was created in 1957 by James McLamore and originally sold for 37 cents. McLamore created the burger after he noticed that a rival restaurant was having success selling a larger burger. Believing that the success of the rival product was its size, he devised the Whopper. The name was chosen because he felt that it conveyed \"imagery of something big\". Finally, the company made its first forays into advertising in the new medium of television with commercials for the chain in 1958."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nordic Service Partners",
        "text": "NSP's Burger King restaurant on Gustav Adolfs torg in Malm\u00f6 opened in 1976 as the first \"BK\" in Sweden and the Nordic countries. The company also runs Denmark's first BK which opened in 1977 on Vesterbrogade in Copenhagen, as the country's first American-style fast food restaurant."
      },
      {
        "title": "James McLamore",
        "text": "Edgerton originally opened Insta Burger King in Miami, Florida on March 1, 1954. Three months later, on June 1, he met McLamore and they formed the Burger King Corporation. The corporation opened Burger King stores and went on to introduce the Whopper burger in 1957, when it also dropped \"Insta\" from the name. At this same time, Edgerton, frustrated with the issue-prone Insta machines, created the flame broiler that would provide the signature for Burger King."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jumbo King",
        "text": "An earlier franchisee of Burger King, the Guptas, on their visit to London, realised that fast food could also work in India. Vada pav was their first idea, as the food had to be portable. In 2001, the Guptas opened their first restaurant at Malad, with an initial investment of , which they borrowed from his family. The outlet was initially named Chaat Factory (Snack Factory), and vada pav was sold at 5, despite street vendors selling the same product for 2. The name was later changed to Jumbo King. Gupta faced opposition from his family, who thought he was wasting his MBA by selling vada pavs."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "The first Burger King in Asia opened in Granville Road, Hong Kong on 7 August 1979, as the 2500th Burger King globally. In 1982, franchisees opened stores in several East Asian countries, including Japan, Taiwan, Singapore and South Korea. Due to high competition, it withdrew from the Japanese market in 2001. However, Burger King reentered the Japanese market by opening the first store in Shinjuku, Tokyo in November 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mattoon, Illinois",
        "text": "The Burger King \u2014 unrelated to the Florida-based fast food chain Burger King \u2014 is a Mattoon restaurant whose owners claim it is the \"original\" Burger King. In 1968, they sued the national chain Burger King, producing a well-known case in United States trademark law. The federal 7th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that federal trademark registration has priority over state law, giving the national Burger King chain rights to the name beyond a 20-mile radius around the original Burger King. Today, the closest Burger King franchise location is 25 miles away in Tuscola, Illinois."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King products",
        "text": "When the predecessor to the modern Burger King, Insta-Burger King, opened in 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, the company's menu consisted predominantly of hamburgers, French fries, soft drinks, and desserts. Insta-Burger King was acquired in 1954 by two of its franchisees, James McLamore and David Edgerton, who renamed it Burger King. Under its new ownership, the company continued to develop its core menu, cooking techniques, and equipment. In 1957 McLamore and Edgerton created BK's signature item, the Whopper, as a way to differentiate BK from other burger outlets at the time. The Whopper is a hamburger with lettuce, tomato, mayonnaise, pickle, and ketchup, that was priced at 29\u00a2. The sandwich was designed to give the customer a larger product with better value than competitors, who were selling burgers with an average price of 15\u00a2. As Burger King's flagship product, the Whopper has been expanded beyond the original sandwich into a line of sandwiches all made with the same ingredients. The Whopper sandwich has undergone several modifications in its recipe over the years, with a change from a plain bun to a sesame seed roll in the early 1970s and a change in patty size in the mid-1980s being two of the most notable. Since its inception, the Whopper has become synonymous with Burger King and become the focus of much of its advertising. The company has even named its kiosk-style restaurants \"Whopper Bars\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cary, Illinois",
        "text": "In the summer of 2016, Burger King opened its first ever drive-thru only restaurant in Cary."
      },
      {
        "title": "In-N-Out Burger",
        "text": "In-N-Out Burger's first location was opened in the Los Angeles suburb of Baldwin Park, California, in 1948 by the Snyders at the southwest corner of what is now the intersection of Interstate 10 and Francisquito Avenue. The restaurant was the first drive-thru hamburger stand in California, allowing drivers to place orders via a two-way speaker system. This was a new and unique idea, since in post-World War II California, carhops were used to take orders and serve food."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Edgerton",
        "text": "He returned to Florida to become manager of Howard Johnson's Restaurants, which had locations in Miami and Orlando. At the time, he became interested in opening a Dairy Queen, with a burger section, when he met business partner and fellow restaurateur and Cornell University alumnus James McLamore. Together, they developed Insta-Burger King, the forerunner of the concept of the Burger King model of fast service, limited menu and low prices. Customers came into the restaurant to pay for orders in advance, as opposed to the traditional method of carhops attending customers directly and bringing their orders to their vehicles. The corporation opened Burger King stores and went on to introduce the Whopper burger in 1957, when it also dropped \"Insta\" from the name. At this same time, Edgerton, frustrated with the issue-prone Insta machines, created the flame broiler, which would provide the signature flavor for Burger King."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King (Mattoon, Illinois)",
        "text": "The Hoots family learned of the Burger King in Florida and that company's plans for Illinois. The Hootses and their lawyer thought their state trademark, which was in use before the Florida chain moved into the state, gave them exclusive rights to the \"Burger King\" name all over the state. However, the Florida chain opened its first Illinois restaurant in Skokie (a Chicago suburb) in 1961; by 1967, the chain had 50 restaurants in Illinois, and the Hootses felt they needed to take action."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Hana first began operating Burger King restaurants in the region after its parent company Olayan completed its franchise agreement in 1991. Its first location opened in Riyadh in December 1992, and expanded across the Middle East opening stores in the neighboring countries of Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, and Lebanon in 2001. By 2007, the company had grown to over 180 locations in a half dozen countries, all located in Southwest Asia, when it signed an additional franchise agreement to open locations in North Africa, with the first location in Cairo, Egypt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The $190 burger was a sandwich that featured Wagyu beef and was sold in June 2008 at one location in East London. The idea was to promote the company's commitment to food quality. The promotion was also a fund raiser as all proceeds were donated to a local British children's charity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The Angus burger was first introduced into the North American market in 2004. The burger featured a seasoned, patty that was intended to have a \"steak flavor\". The sandwich was introduced at the height of the low-carbohydrate diet craze that was popular in the United States at the time, a trend that Burger King hoped to capitalize on. The chain also hoped to stave off competition from up-and-coming fast casual restaurant chains such as Panera Bread and Chipotle by adding a higher quality product. At the time of the introduction, the sandwich's price point was $3.29 \u2013 one of the highest-cost sandwiches the chain had introduced to that point. The sandwich was introduced in two varieties, but was supplemented with a two LTO varieties, one of which was a product tie-in with NBC's \"The Apprentice\" in 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Burger King's growth into the Caribbean began in 1963 when the company opened its first location in Puerto Rico. These locations were the first restaurants the company opened outside the continental United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The Sirloin Steak sandwich was introduced in 1979 as part of a menu expansion that in turn was part of a corporate restructuring effort for Burger King. During the mid-1970s, Burger King was having issues with its operations, franchises and image. In 1978, Donald N. Smith was hired from McDonald's to help restructure the corporate operations of Burger King to better compete against his former company as well as the then up-and-coming chain, Wendy's. As part of an operational overhaul he dubbed \"Operation Phoenix\", Smith reorganized the corporate operations of Burger King. He also initiated a development plan for a new product line that would become known as the Specialty Sandwich line. Development began that same year, and while the company found that the new product lines would add an approximate eight second delay to the production time of orders and would cost about $39 million in lost productivity, the product was introduced in 1979. Despite these possible sales losses and time issues, the new products were successful and the company's sales increased by 15 percent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "The first Burger King television commercial was broadcast on Miami's VHF station."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King (Alberta)",
        "text": "Burger King was a fast food restaurant chain in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Also known as Burger King Drive-Inn, it was founded by former Imperial Oil executives William R. Jarvis (1926-21 July 2014)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The Angus Steakhouse Burger was introduced in April 2008 as the replacement to the Angus Burger. The new burger featured a large, square shaped Angus beef patty with two permanent variants of the sandwich with an LTO version later that year. The burger was thinner than the Angus Burger because many of the Burger King locations still used an older model broiler to cook their burgers. The older model relied solely on a single chain with uniform cooking speed and temperature which restricted the thickness of meat patties. As a result, thicker patties such as the one utilized with the previous iteration of the sandwich needed to be precooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Burger King was first founded in Jacksonville, Florida In 1953 as Insta-Burger King. Shortly after the acquisition of the chain by Pillsbury in 1969, Burger King opened its first Canadian restaurant in Windsor, Ontario, in 1969. Other international locations followed soon after: Oceania in 1971 with its Australian franchise Hungry Jack's, and Europe in 1975 with a restaurant in Madrid, Spain. Beginning in 1982, BK and its franchisees began operating stores in several East Asian countries, including Japan, Taiwan, Singapore and South Korea. Due to high competition, all of the Japanese locations were closed in 2001; however, BK reentered the Japanese market in June 2007. BK's Central and South American operations began in Mexico in the late 1970s, and by the early 1980s it was operating locations in Caracas, Venezuela, Santiago, Chile and Buenos Aires, Argentina."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The chain also introduced several LTO versions of the sandwich that featured ingredients such as cheese and jalape\u00f1os mixed into the patty; these newer style sandwiches were simply called the Stuffed Steakhouse Burgers. These burgers arrived at a $3.99 price point, and were deemed as a questionable introduction in the midst of hard economic times and extensive value-oriented promotions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Today, the b\u00f8fsandwich, fl\u00e6skestegssandwich, and their many variations co-exist with the more typical hamburger, with the opening of the first Burger King restaurant in 1977 popularizing the original dish in Denmark. Many local, high-end burger restaurants dot the major cities, including Popl, an offshoot of Noma."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The Back Porch Grillers were introduced in 2002 as part of a plan to increase the company's sales ahead of the upcoming sale of Burger King from then owner Diageo to a group of investors led by Texas Pacific Group (TPG). In its press release announcing the product, Burger King stated the intent of the burgers was to evoke the taste of a grilled burger that one would cook at home. At the time of launch there were two flavors of the sandwich, the Homestyle and the Smokehouse Cheddar, both served on a \"bakery-style\" bun. A third type, the Black Stack BBQ Griller, was introduced as a product tie-in with \"Men in Black II\" two weeks later. Initial testing of the sandwich led to favorable scoring in customer surveys and a roughly 15% increase in sales without compromising the sales of other products such as the Whopper. Due to the favorable results in testing, the company pushed up the introduction of the sandwich nationally. However, the product was statemented into two variants due to the company's introduction of its new broiler line; these new broilers were designed to allow a greater flexibility of products with different cooking times and heat settings which allowed the company to sell thicker burgers that required more cooking times. At the time of the sandwiches' introduction, the new broiler units had only been introduced to about one tenth of its North American stores. In these stores the sandwich was made with a single, thicker patty; in those locations with the older units, the company used a pair of thinner patties in a double burger sandwich. The use of the thinner patties resulted in numerous customer complaints that the sandwich was dry and not as tasteful as the thicker patty version."
      },
      {
        "title": "Minor Food Group",
        "text": "Minor food founded Burger King restaurants in Thailand. It was the first burger franchises with signature menu of The Whopper. To satisfy different groups of customers, it offered International variations by putting exotic ingredients according to the locations. In Thailand, the franchises offer Thai Spiced Chicken with Sticky Rice and other seasonal menu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "Most historians agree that the American company White Castle was the first fast food outlet, starting in Wichita, Kansas in 1916 with food stands and founding in 1921, selling hamburgers for five cents apiece from its inception and spawning numerous competitors and emulators. What is certain, however, is that White Castle made the first significant effort to standardize the food production in, look of, and operation of fast food hamburger restaurants. William Ingram's and Walter Anderson's White Castle System created the first fast food supply chain to provide meat, buns, paper goods, and other supplies to their restaurants, pioneered the concept of the multi-state hamburger restaurant chain, standardized the look and construction of the restaurants themselves, and even developed a construction division that manufactured and built the chain's prefabricated restaurant buildings. The McDonald's Speedee Service System and, much later, Ray Kroc's McDonald's outlets and Hamburger University all built on principles, systems and practices that White Castle had already established between 1923 and 1932."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Burger King began its expansion in Europe in 1975 with its first location in Madrid, Spain. In 1976, they opened on the Kurf\u00fcrstendamm in former West Berlin, the first German Burger King branch opened its doors. Four years later in Darmstadt, Hesse, the first franchise, was opened by former football player Lothar Skala. In 1990, the first time a Burger King outlet in the \"neue Bundesl\u00e4nder\" (former \"L\u00e4nder\" of the GDR, which were incorporated after German reunification in the Federal Republic of Germany) opened in Dresden, then still in mobile form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Whopper",
        "text": "The Whopper Jr. was created, by accident, in 1963 by Luis Arenas-P\u00e9rez (a.k.a. Luis Arenas), the only Latino in the Burger King Hall of Fame and president and CEO of Burger King in Puerto Rico. Upon the opening of the first Burger King restaurant in Carolina, Puerto Rico, the molds for the (standard) Whopper buns had not yet arrived to Puerto Rico from the United States mainland and thus there were no buns to make and sell the company's flagship Whopper offering. Arenas opted for honoring the advertised opening date but using the much smaller regular hamburger buns locally available. The result was such a success that Burger King adopted it worldwide and called it the Whopper Jr."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Castle (restaurant)",
        "text": "White Castle is an American regional hamburger restaurant chain with 377 locations across 13 states, with its greatest presence in the Midwest and New York metropolitan area. It has been generally credited as the world's first fast-food hamburger chain, founded on September 13, 1921. It is known for its small, square hamburgers referred to as \"sliders\". The burgers were initially priced at five cents until 1929 and remained at 10 cents until 1949. In the 1940s, White Castle periodically ran promotional ads in local newspapers which contained coupons offering five burgers for ten cents, takeout only."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "In February 2021, Burger King began testing a customer loyalty rewards program called \"Royal Perks\" in Los Angeles, Miami, New York City, New Jersey and Long Island."
      },
      {
        "title": "What-A-Burger",
        "text": "What-A-Burger is the trading name used by a small group of restaurants which were established by entrepreneur brothers Jack Branch and Paul E. Branch Jr. and members of the Branch family beginning in 1957 though the first What-A-Burger was opened in 1950. With the first location at a busy traffic circle near Newport News, Virginia, in the former Warwick County, they soon established additional locations in the cities of Richmond, Colonial Heights, and Petersburg, Virginia, each along busy through-traffic highway corridors. Another location was opened by a member of the Branch family in the 1950s in Greenville, South Carolina."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Cathedral Prep 88, Chester 84 (OT)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Nichols 68, Cathedral Prep 57"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King products",
        "text": "The chain's first major attempt was part of their Specialty Sandwich line that was introduced in 1979 was the Sirloin Steak Sandwich. After the failure of the Specialty Sandwich line, Burger King went on to introduce several other premium burgers made from a variety of meats. One major example introduced in 2002 was the BK Back Porch Griller sandwich line. The sandwich, introduced in May 2002 was a pronounced failure, and pulled in September of that year. The next product Burger King introduced was its Angus Steakburger which it began selling in 2004; it too had lack-luster sales due in part to the patty being par cooked. The sandwich was later reformulated as the Steakhouse Burger which used a thinner, flatter, fresh cooked patty. The Steakhouse Burger sandwich was eventually replaced with the Steakhouse XT/Angus XT burger, which used a new, thicker round patty among several other changes. This newer sandwich was made possible with the introduction of the company's new broiler systems which allowed varying cooking times and temperatures which in turn gave the company the ability to utilize fresh cooked, thicker patties in its sandwiches. Only variations of the sandwich that explicitly state \"Angus\" in the title are manufactured from meat from Angus cattle. In 2011, the company discontinued selling the product in the North American market, replacing it with the Chef's Choice burger. The Chef's Choice Burger was removed in 2012. 2014 saw the introduction of the newest attempt at introducing a premium burger to the company's portfolio with the introduction of the A.1. Ultimate Cheeseburger in North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In 1982, Burger King's television advertising campaign featured Sarah Michelle Gellar, then aged 4. In the advertisements, Gellar said that McDonald's burgers were 20% smaller than Burger King's. It was arguably the first attack on a food chain by a competitor. The campaign was controversial because prior to it, fast food advertisements only made vague allusions to the competition and never mentioned the name. McDonald's sued and the suit was settled the following year on undisclosed terms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Value menu",
        "text": "Burger King added a value menu in 1998 with items priced at 99\u00a2 (USD), . In 2002 and 2006, BK revamped its value menu, adding and removing products at 99\u00a2, and later increasing some prices to $1.39. Many of these items have since been discontinued, modified or relegated to a regional menu option. The Burger King Whopper was the very first 99 cent burger and it revolutionized the 99 cent menu in the fast food industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Champions: McQuaid Jesuit, Rochester, NY"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger Street",
        "text": "Burger Street was started by Bill Waugh, creator of the Taco Bueno, Casa Bonita, and Crystal's Pizza restaurant chains. The first restaurant, built in Lewisville, Texas, opened in 1985. Most locations are a small building with drive-up windows on both sides."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Champions: St. John's College, Washington, DC"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "1985"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Burger King",
        "text": "Even though the original Insta-Burger King had rapidly expanded throughout the state and its operations totaled more than 40 locations by 1955, the group ran into financial difficulties. McLamore and Edgarton purchased the national rights to the chain in 1959 and rechristened the company as Burger King of Miami. The company eventually became known as Burger King Corporation and began selling territorial licenses to private franchisees across the US by 1959."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King products",
        "text": "In 1992, during its time under the ownership of Britain-based Grand Metropolitan, Burger King experimented with table service. After 4\u00a0pm, customers would place their order at the counter, and their order would be brought to them at their table. Customers were given complimentary popcorn to eat while waiting for their meal. To coincide with the offering, a series of meals called the Dinner baskets were introduced. The dinner baskets included the Whopper Dinner Basket, Steak Sandwich Dinner Basket, Fried Chicken Dinner Basket, and Shrimp Dinner Basket. In the New England region of the United States, BK sold a Fried clam Basket. The dinner came with two sides, including a choice of a side salad, cole slaw, French fries, or baked potato. Lasting approximately a year, the sit-down restaurant concept was abandoned in 1994 in favor of the original quick-service formula."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Neumann-Goretti 80, St. Edward 60"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "New owners 3G Capital response to this was to in turn revamp Burger King's menu, stores and image. Besides the Chef's Choice Burger, the company introduced products that emulated McDonald's such as oatmeal, ice cream and smoothies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "1983"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Burger King",
        "text": "Some key dates include:\n* 1953: Insta-Burger King is founded in Jacksonville, FL, by Kieth Kramer and Matthew Burns.\n* 1954: James McLamore and David Edgerton purchase Insta-Burger King and rename it Burger King.\n* 1955: The Burger King character is created.\n* 1957: The Whopper is launched.\n* 1958: BK releases its first TV advertisement.\n* 1959: Burger King establishes its franchising system.\n* 1967: Burger King ceases to be an independent entity when the Pillsbury Company purchases it for US$18 million ($128.3 million adjusted for inflation, 2014).\n* 1977: Donald N. Smith is brought in from rival McDonald's to help restructure the company and its franchising system.\n* 1980: Smith leaves the company for PepsiCo.\n* 1981: Norman E. Brinker is made head of Pillsbury's restaurant division, including Burger King.\n* 1982: Burger King produces one of the first attack advertisements when it airs several commercials disparaging its competitor's fried burgers.\n* 1984: Brinker leaves the company when he purchases Chili's.\n* 1989: Pillsbury is purchased by British liquor company Grand Metropolitan for $5.7 billion (bn)/\u00a33.6\u00a0bn.\n* 1996: Company co-founder James McLamore dies.\n* 1997: A $22\u00a0bn/\u00a313.9\u00a0bn merger between Grand Metropolitan and Guinness results in the formation of a new parent company, Diageo.\n* 2000: Diageo investigates a possible IPO or sale of the company.\n* 2001: A North American franchise group seeks to purchase the company.\n* 2002: Capital investment firm Texas Pacific Group purchases Burger King from Diageo in a deal initially worth $2.2\u00a0bn/\u00a31.4\u00a0bn.\n** The deal between TPG and Diageo nearly fails, but eventually goes through at $1.6\u00a0bn/\u00a31\u00a0bn.\n* 2006: Burger King is listed on the NYSE with the stock symbol BKC when the chain goes public in an IPO.\n* 2009: Company opens its 12,000th store, located in Beijing.\n* 2010: Brazil-based 3G Capital acquires Burger King in a deal worth $3.26\u00a0bn/BRL$5.6\u00a0bn.\n* 2011: Burger King begins a yearlong revamp of its menu and advertising programs.\n* 2012: Burger King is taken public once again on the NYSE with the symbol BKW.\n* 2014: Burger King merges with Canadian donut/coffee chain Tim Hortons in a deal worth $18 bn/CAD$19.6 bn.\n*2019: Burger King plans to close up to 250 low-volume locations per year, with closures coming into effect in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "What-A-Burger",
        "text": "The first Virginia store opened in 1957 by entrepreneur Jack Branch near Newport News, Virginia. Branch's first location predated the first Texas Whataburger restaurant slightly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Cathedral Prep 82, Connecticut St. Joseph 65"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Angus Burger",
        "text": "#Redirect Burger King premium burgers"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "Burger King premium burgers\n--History.\n----North America.\n------Sirloin Steak sandwich.\n------Back Porch Grillers.\n------The Angus Burger.\n------Steakhouse Burger.\n------Steakhouse XT.\n------Chef's Choice Burger.\n------A1 Ultimate Bacon Cheeseburger.\n----Europe.\n------The Aberdeen Angus burger.\n------The $190 Burger.\n------The Lamb Flatbread burger.\n----New Zealand.\n------Crown Jewels.\n--------Product variants.\n------King's Collection.\n----Asia.\n----Competitive products.\n--Advertising.\n----North America.\n----Europe.\n----New Zealand.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "1988"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "1993"
      },
      {
        "title": "Harry Snyder",
        "text": "His wife and he opened the first IN-N-OUT Burger on October 22, 1948, in the Los Angeles suburb of Baldwin Park, California. In-N-Out is described as California's first drive-through. By the mid-1950s, the chain had expanded to six stores in the Los Angeles area. By the time of Snyder's death in 1976 from lung cancer, the company had expanded to 18 stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food",
        "text": "As automobiles became popular and more affordable following World War I, drive-in restaurants were introduced. The American company White Castle, founded by Billy Ingram and Walter Anderson in Wichita, Kansas in 1921, is generally credited with opening the second fast food outlet and first hamburger chain, selling hamburgers for five cents each. Walter Anderson had built the first White Castle restaurant in Wichita in 1916, introducing the limited menu, high-volume, low-cost, high-speed hamburger restaurant. Among its innovations, the company allowed customers to see the food being prepared. White Castle was successful from its inception and spawned numerous competitors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "1984"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Rufus King 67, Mount Vernon 57"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Christ the King 64, VA Benedictine 52"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "In Hong Kong, Burger King sold the Angus XT Black Truffle burger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "1986"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "The Army and Air Force Exchange Service (AAFES) is a specialty retailer that operates military retail stores on US Army and Air Force bases and installations across the world. Burger King was the first restaurant chain to be opened on US military facilities with a location at the US Naval base at Pearl Harbor, however naval facilities are covered by the Navy Exchange Service Command (NEXCOM). The AAFES opened its first Burger King franchise 1984 at the American military facilities in Ansbach, Germany. The location was the first restaurant opened under a five-year agreement, with a fifteen-year extension, in which the AAFES agreed it would open 185 locations globally. Since that time the AAFES has opened nearly 200 locations in all theaters of operations of the two services. Almost all of the AAFES-operated Burger King restaurants are found on army posts and air force bases; however some locations, such as the one located at the Baghdad International Airport, are within territories under US military jurisdiction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "1992"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Cathedral Prep 63, Admiral King 44"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Cathedral Prep 53, Middletown 44"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "\"The first Classic runs as a tip-off tournament as Cathedral Prep stuns Philadelphia Roman Catholic in overtime on opening night. <br>The host Ramblers would go on to lose to New York powerhouse Bishop Loughlin, 70-63. Prep would go on to the state finals.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "1989"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "The success of the White Castle chain was rooted largely in the power of propaganda, something that was both an original innovation and necessary to change the public's negative perception of the hamburger. In 1931, it became the first restaurant to [[newspaper advertisement|advertise in newspapers]], using its old \"buy 'em by the sack\" slogan. White Castle also pioneered the concept of [[take-out]] service, and the restaurant is further known for being the first to market square burgers, called \"[[slider (sandwich)|sliders]]\", which were sold for five cents into the 1940s. White Castle was founded in March 1921 in Wichita, Kansas, by Billy Ingram and his business partner, the cook Walter Anderson, and they opened a second restaurant in [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]] in 1924. In 1932, White Castle created its first subsidiary: Paperlynen Company, which provided the [[carton]]s and [[wrapping paper]] that the food was served in, as well as the hats worn by the kitchen staff. It acquired [[porcelain]] companies in a similar fashion, placing them in charge of building small White Castle restaurants using white porcelain facades."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Burger King (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Cathedral Prep 68, Baltimore Dunbar 62"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "1987"
      },
      {
        "title": "MrBeast Burger",
        "text": "The first MrBeast Burger location officially opened on November 10, 2020, in Wilson, North Carolina. This location, which was a temporarily-redecorated Burger Boy restaurant, was the only physical location of the store. As part of a YouTube video, Donaldson advertised free food and gave away money, technology, and even a new car to patrons who lined up in the building's drive-through. The event attracted thousands of customers, with the line reaching as far as 20 miles at times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "1990"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger Chef",
        "text": "In 1954, Frank and Donald Thomas patented the flame broiler in their parent company General Equipment Corporation and started their restaurant in Indianapolis, Indiana. In 1957, they opened their first Burger Chef."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King legal issues",
        "text": "In 1961, with its first location in Skokie, Illinois, Burger King Corporation and its franchises began opening stores and by 1967 had over 20 locations spread throughout the state. The Hootses, claiming that their trademark gave them exclusive rights to the name in Illinois sued BK in the state, and later federal, courts under the case \"Burger King of Florida, Inc. v. Hoots\" 403 F.2d 904 (7th Cir. 1968). The decision issued by United States District Court for the Central District of Illinois, and upheld by the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, stated that the BK federal trademark, applied for in 1961 and granted in 1963, took precedence over the Hootses' older, state trademark; The Court granted the Hootses exclusive rights to the Burger King trademark within a circular area defined with a 20-mile (32\u00a0km) radius centered on their original location."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Westchester 93, Washington Dunbar 51"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The burger came at a point in the industry where fast casual restaurants were beginning to take a bite out of the industry as a whole. Burger King, and other chains, at first had not taken chains such as Five Guys and Smashburger as serious competition. Additionally, convenience stores such as 7-11 were also expanding their in-store foods with cheaper hot foods that challenged the lower end of the market. These two market trends had the effect of shaving sales from both ends of the menu, challenging the concept of the barbell strategy. As the chains tried to fight the encroachment of the competition from outside fast food industry, McDonald's and Wendy's chose to focus on their menus while Burger King focused its advertising on younger-skewing \"superfan\". The result was that the other two chains' sales grew by 26% and 9% percent respectively, while Burger King's remained flat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Jamesville-Dewitt 74, Cathedral Prep 61"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where was the first Burger King restaurant?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The company was founded in 1953 as Insta-Burger King in Jacksonville, Florida and was later renamed \"Burger King\".",
      "The predecessor to what is now the international fast food restaurant chain Burger King was founded in on July 23, 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, as Insta-Burger King."
    ],
    "topic": "Burger King premium burgers",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Burger King:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Burger King"
        ],
        "ctx": "Burger King (BK) is an American multinational chain of hamburger fast food restaurants. Headquartered in Miami-Dade County, Florida, the company was founded in 1953 as Insta-Burger King, a Jacksonville, Florida\u2013based restaurant chain. After Insta-Burger King ran into financial difficulties in 1954, its two Miami-based franchisees David Edgerton and James McLamore purchased the company and renamed it \"Burger King\". Over the next half-century, the company changed hands four times, with its third set of owners, a partnership of TPG Capital, Bain Capital, and Goldman Sachs Capital Partners, taking it public in 2002. In late 2010, 3G Capital of Brazil acquired a majority stake in the company, in a deal valued at US$3.26 billion. The new owners promptly initiated a restructuring of the company to reverse its fortunes. 3G, along with partner Berkshire Hathaway, eventually merged the company with the Canadian-based doughnut chain Tim Hortons, under the auspices of a new Canadian-based parent company named Restaurant Brands International."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "History of Burger King:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "History of Burger King"
        ],
        "ctx": "The predecessor to what is now the international fast food restaurant chain Burger King was founded in on July 23, 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, as Insta-Burger King. Inspired by the McDonald brothers' original store location in San Bernardino, California, the founders and owners, Keith J. Cramer and his step father Matthew Burns, began searching for a concept. After purchasing the rights to two pieces of equipment called \"Insta\" machines, the two opened their first stores around a cooking device known as the Insta-Broiler. The Insta-Broiler oven proved so successful at cooking burgers, they required all of their franchises to carry the device. After the original company began to falter in 1959, it was purchased by its Miami, Florida, franchisees James McLamore and David R. Edgerton. The two initiated a corporate restructuring of the chain; the first step being to rename the company Burger King. The duo ran the company as an independent entity for eight years, eventually expanding to over 250 locations in the United States, when they sold it to the Pillsbury Company in 1967."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Burger King:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Burger King"
        ],
        "ctx": "Burger King (BK) is an American multinational chain of hamburger fast food restaurants. Headquartered in Miami-Dade County, Florida, the company was founded in 1953 as Insta-Burger King, a Jacksonville, Florida\u2013based restaurant chain. After Insta-Burger King ran into financial difficulties in 1954, its two Miami-based franchisees David Edgerton and James McLamore purchased the company and renamed it \"Burger King\". Over the next half-century, the company changed hands four times, with its third set of owners, a partnership of TPG Capital, Bain Capital, and Goldman Sachs Capital Partners, taking it public in 2002. In late 2010, 3G Capital of Brazil acquired a majority stake in the company, in a deal valued at US$3.26 billion. The new owners promptly initiated a restructuring of the company to reverse its fortunes. 3G, along with partner Berkshire Hathaway, eventually merged the company with the Canadian-based doughnut chain Tim Hortons, under the auspices of a new Canadian-based parent company named Restaurant Brands International."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Burger King franchises:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Burger King franchises",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "The company known today as Burger King itself began as a franchise; the predecessor of the modern company was founded in 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, as Insta-Burger King. The original founders and owners, Kieth J. Kramer and Matthew Burns, opened their first stores around a piece of equipment known as the Insta-Broiler. The Insta-Broiler oven proved so successful at cooking burgers, Kramer and Burns required all of their franchises to carry the device. The rights to open stores in Miami, Florida, belonged to two businessmen named James McLamore and David R. Edgerton and their company: South Florida Restaurants, Inc. Due to operational issues with the Insta-Broiler, in 1954 McLamore and Edgarton made the decision to replace the Insta-Broiler with a mechanized gas grill they called a flame broiler. Even though the company had rapidly expanded throughout the state until its operations totaled more than 40 locations in 1955, the original Insta-Burger King ran into financial difficulties and the pair of McLamore and Edgarton purchased the national rights to the chain and rechristened the company as Burger King of Miami."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "In New Zealand, the fast food market began in the 1970s with KFC (opened 1971), Pizza Hut (1974), and McDonald's (1976), and all three remain popular today. Burger King and Domino's entered the market later in the 1990s. Australian pizza chains Eagle Boys and Pizza Haven also entered the market in the 1990s, but their New Zealand operations were later sold to Pizza Hut and Domino's."
      },
      {
        "title": "McDonald's New Zealand",
        "text": "The second New Zealand restaurant opened in the old Auckland Savings Bank Building on Queen Street, Auckland in July 1977. Restaurants in New Lynn and Lower Hutt opened in 1978, being the first with drive-throughs. By the end of the decade, restaurants had also opened in Takapuna, Henderson, and Courtenay Place (central Wellington)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "Within two months of their introduction, sales at New Zealand restaurants increase by approximately 10%, and drew the attention of Burger King Holdings. BKH observed the sales trends and market acceptance of the products for several months after the introduction for the possible purpose of extending the concept in other markets. While the concept was tailored for the New Zealand market, TPF executives stated that it would be easy to adapt the concept to other regions. Some restaurant industry observers agreed with the TPF assessment of the products and separately stated other sauces and ingredients could be used to crate variations in the US and other markets. Eventually, the sandwiches were discontinued, with the Sweet Ride and Mango Jammin burgers the first to be removed from the menu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "A few fast food chains have been founded in New Zealand, including Burger Fuel (founded 1995), Georgie Pie (founded 1977, but closed 1998 after falling into financial trouble and being bought out by McDonald's) and Hell Pizza (founded 1996)."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Burger King was first founded in Jacksonville, Florida In 1953 as Insta-Burger King. Shortly after the acquisition of the chain by Pillsbury in 1969, Burger King opened its first Canadian restaurant in Windsor, Ontario, in 1969. Other international locations followed soon after: Oceania in 1971 with its Australian franchise Hungry Jack's, and Europe in 1975 with a restaurant in Madrid, Spain. Beginning in 1982, BK and its franchisees began operating stores in several East Asian countries, including Japan, Taiwan, Singapore and South Korea. Due to high competition, all of the Japanese locations were closed in 2001; however, BK reentered the Japanese market in June 2007. BK's Central and South American operations began in Mexico in the late 1970s, and by the early 1980s it was operating locations in Caracas, Venezuela, Santiago, Chile and Buenos Aires, Argentina."
      },
      {
        "title": "McDonald's New Zealand",
        "text": "Expansion in the first ten years was initially limited to the North Island. The first South Island restaurants opened on 3 November 1987 at Merivale and Linwood in Christchurch. Problems finding franchisees meant the opening of the third restaurant at Riccarton was delayed until later, while the franchisees of the Whangarei restaurant transferred south to the Merivale restaurant on the possibility of a second restaurant in the future. Both restaurants almost broke worldwide opening day records, just losing the title due to a poor exchange rate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Restaurant Brands",
        "text": "Pizza Hut entered the New Zealand market in September 1974, with the opening of its first restaurant in New Lynn, Auckland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungry Jack's",
        "text": "Under the aegis of this claim, Burger King Corporation in partnership with Shell Australia, began to open its own stores in 1997 beginning in Sydney and throughout the Australian regions of New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory, Victoria and Tasmania. In addition, Burger King sought to limit HJ's ability to open new locations in the country, whether they were corporate locations or third-party licensees."
      },
      {
        "title": "McDonald's New Zealand",
        "text": "McDonald's celebrated 40 years in New Zealand on 7 June 2016; the Queen Street Auckland restaurant marked the anniversary with 1970s retro service and items on the original menu sold at their 1976 prices. At that date, McDonald's had 166 restaurants operating in New Zealand; a 167th restaurant at Silverstream, Upper Hutt was closed awaiting rebuilding after it caught fire in February 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "When Burger King moved to expand its operations into Australia, it found that its business name was already trademarked by a takeaway food shop in Adelaide. The Canadian-Australian franchisee, Jack Cowin, selected the \"Hungry Jack\" brand name, one of then Burger King's owner Pillsbury's U.S. pancake mixture products, and slightly changed the name to a possessive form by adding an apostrophe and \"s\" to form the new name \"Hungry Jack's\". In 1996, shortly after the Australian trademark on the Burger King name lapsed, Burger King began to open its own Australian stores in 1997. As a result of Burger King's actions, Hungry Jack's owner Jack Cowin and his company Competitive Foods Australia, began legal proceedings in 2001 against the Burger King Corporation. Hungry Jack's won the case, and Burger King eventually left the country. Hungry Jack's took ownership of the former Burger King locations and subsequently renamed the remaining Burger King locations as Hungry Jack's. As of June 2019, Burger King had 83 stores operating in New Zealand. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Burger King went into receivership in April 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of McDonald's",
        "text": "There was some skepticism about the company's phenomenal growth internationally. When Wally and Hugh Morris approached the corporation in 1974 to bring McDonald's into New Zealand, they were firmly shunned by Kroc who, citing a visit to the country, stated, \"There aren't any people... I never met a more dead-than-alive hole in my life.\" Persistence by the brothers eventually led to their request being granted in May 1975. They managed to negotiate a deal with the corporation by selling New Zealand cheese to the US to offset the high costs of importing plant equipment. The first New Zealand restaurant opened in June 1976 at Porirua, near Wellington, to much more success than the corporation predicted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiwiburger",
        "text": "The Kiwiburger was the idea of franchisee Bryan Old, who came up with the burger as a nostalgic take on the typical New Zealand hamburger prior to the introduction of McDonald's to the New Zealand market in 1976. Trialled initially in Old's five Hamilton restaurants, it was added to the national menu in 1991."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Burger King",
        "text": "McLamore and Edgerton acquired a license to operate an Insta-Burger King franchise and opened their first location on 4 December 1954 at 3090 NW 36th Street in Miami. By 1959, the pair had stores at several locations within the Miami-Dade area, and operations were growing at a fast rate. However, the partners discovered that the insta-broiler units' heating elements were prone to degradation from the drippings of the beef patties. The pair eventually created a mechanized gas grill that avoided the problems by cooking the meat patties a different way inside the unit. The new cooking appliance, which they called a flame broiler, moved the patties over the flame vertically on a chain link conveyor over the heating elements, a design that imparted grill lines on the patties similar to those made on a charcoal grill. The new unit worked so well that they made the decision to replace all of their Insta-Broilers with the newly designed unit."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Burger King",
        "text": "The predecessor to what is now the international fast food restaurant chain Burger King was founded in on July 23, 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, as Insta-Burger King. Inspired by the McDonald brothers' original store location in San Bernardino, California, the founders and owners, Keith J. Cramer and his step father Matthew Burns, began searching for a concept. After purchasing the rights to two pieces of equipment called \"Insta\" machines, the two opened their first stores around a cooking device known as the Insta-Broiler. The Insta-Broiler oven proved so successful at cooking burgers, they required all of their franchises to carry the device. After the original company began to falter in 1959, it was purchased by its Miami, Florida, franchisees James McLamore and David R. Edgerton. The two initiated a corporate restructuring of the chain; the first step being to rename the company Burger King. The duo ran the company as an independent entity for eight years, eventually expanding to over 250 locations in the United States, when they sold it to the Pillsbury Company in 1967."
      },
      {
        "title": "Restaurant Brands",
        "text": "Taco Bell opened its first New Zealand store, in New Lynn, Auckland on 12 November 2019, with a second store opening on Shortland Street in Auckland CBD on June 16 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Porirua",
        "text": "On 7 June 1976, New Zealand's first McDonald's restaurant opened in Porirua, on the corner of Cobham Court and Hagley Street. The original restaurant closed on 24 April 2009, and the store relocated to Kenepuru Drive."
      },
      {
        "title": "McDonald's New Zealand",
        "text": "The first McDonald's restaurant in New Zealand opened on Cobham Court in central Porirua on Monday 7 June 1976, however it was not officially opened until the following Saturday. The original menu featured the Big Mac (75 cents), Quarter Pounder (65c), Quarter Pounder with Cheese (75c), Filet-O-Fish (65c), cheeseburger (40c) and hamburger (30c)."
      },
      {
        "title": "McDonald's New Zealand",
        "text": "The 50th New Zealand McDonald's restaurant opened in 1991 at Chartwell Square Mall, Hamilton. The 100th restaurant opened five years later at the Auckland University of Technology. Breakfast meals were introduced in the same year, first at the Auckland Queen Street restaurant before expanding nationally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "The predecessor to Burger King was founded in 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, as Insta-Burger King. After visiting the McDonald brothers' original store location in San Bernardino, California, the founders and owners (Keith J. Kramer and his wife's uncle Matthew Burns), who had purchased the rights to two pieces of equipment called \"Insta-machines\", opened their first restaurants. Their production model was based on one of the machines they had acquired, an oven called the \"Insta-Broiler\". This strategy proved to be so successful that they later required all of their franchises to use the device. After the company faltered in 1959, it was purchased by its Miami, Florida, franchisees, James McLamore and David R. Edgerton. They initiated a corporate restructuring of the chain, first renaming the company Burger King. They ran the company as an independent entity for eight years (eventually expanding to over 250 locations in the United States), before selling it to the Pillsbury Company in 1967."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The King's Collection was first introduced in 2010 in response to a new line of Angus-based sandwiches from McDonald's New Zealand. The new sandwich line was part of a co-branded partnership with AngusPure, an Australian brand of grass-fed, organic beef, and condiment supplier Heinz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "The company known today as Burger King itself began as a franchise; the predecessor of the modern company was founded in 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, as Insta-Burger King. The original founders and owners, Kieth J. Kramer and Matthew Burns, opened their first stores around a piece of equipment known as the Insta-Broiler. The Insta-Broiler oven proved so successful at cooking burgers, Kramer and Burns required all of their franchises to carry the device. The rights to open stores in Miami, Florida, belonged to two businessmen named James McLamore and David R. Edgerton and their company: South Florida Restaurants, Inc. Due to operational issues with the Insta-Broiler, in 1954 McLamore and Edgarton made the decision to replace the Insta-Broiler with a mechanized gas grill they called a flame broiler. Even though the company had rapidly expanded throughout the state until its operations totaled more than 40 locations in 1955, the original Insta-Burger King ran into financial difficulties and the pair of McLamore and Edgarton purchased the national rights to the chain and rechristened the company as Burger King of Miami."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The Angus Steakhouse Burger was introduced in April 2008 as the replacement to the Angus Burger. The new burger featured a large, square shaped Angus beef patty with two permanent variants of the sandwich with an LTO version later that year. The burger was thinner than the Angus Burger because many of the Burger King locations still used an older model broiler to cook their burgers. The older model relied solely on a single chain with uniform cooking speed and temperature which restricted the thickness of meat patties. As a result, thicker patties such as the one utilized with the previous iteration of the sandwich needed to be precooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carlton Hotel, Christchurch",
        "text": "The Carlton Hotel was the first place in New Zealand to serve beer on tap in 1939\u20131940, and it had the country's first beer garden in 1947. It opened New Zealand's first drive through bottle store in 1954. Burger King opened a fast food restaurant in September 1999 and took up much of the ground floor of the building."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Corporation v Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd",
        "text": "One of these four agreements was the Development Agreement, clause 2.1 of which required Hungry Jack's to open four new stores each year in Western Australia, South Australia and Queensland either directly or through third-party franchisees. Additionally, clause 4.1 made the opening of any new restaurants subject to Burger King's operational and financial approval."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "The first Burger King in Asia opened in Granville Road, Hong Kong on 7 August 1979, as the 2500th Burger King globally. In 1982, franchisees opened stores in several East Asian countries, including Japan, Taiwan, Singapore and South Korea. Due to high competition, it withdrew from the Japanese market in 2001. However, Burger King reentered the Japanese market by opening the first store in Shinjuku, Tokyo in November 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "While BK began its foray into locations outside of the continental United States in 1963 with a store in San Juan, Puerto Rico, it did not have an international presence until several years later. Shortly after the acquisition of the chain by Pillsbury, it opened its first Canadian restaurant in Windsor, Ontario in 1969. Other international locations followed soon after, including Australia in 1971, with a restaurant in the Perth suburb of Innaloo, and Europe in 1975, with a restaurant in Madrid. Beginning in 1982, BK and its franchisees began operating stores in several East Asian countries, including Japan, Taiwan, Singapore and South Korea. Due to high competition, all of the Japanese locations were closed in 2001; however, BK reentered the Japanese market in June 2007. BK's Central and South American operations began in Mexico in the late 1970s and by the early 1980s in Caracas, Venezuela, Santiago, Chile, and Buenos Aires, Argentina. While Burger King lags behind McDonald's in international locations by over 12,000 stores, as of 2008 it had managed to become the largest chain in several countries including Mexico and Spain. The company divides its international operations into three segments; the Middle East, Europe and Africa division (EMEA), Asia-Pacific (APAC) and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). In each of these regions, Burger King has established several subsidiaries to develop strategic partnerships and alliances to expand into new territories. In its EMEA group, Burger King's Switzerland-based subsidiary Burger King Europe GmbH is responsible for the licensing and development of BK franchises in those regions. In APAC region, the Singapore-based BK AsiaPac, Pte. Ltd. business unit handles franchising for East Asia, the Asian subcontinent and all Oceanic territories. The LAC region includes Mexico, Central and South America and the Caribbean Islands and has no centralized operations group."
      },
      {
        "title": "McDonald's New Zealand",
        "text": "Once the Porirua restaurant was open, there were additional problems with the supply chain, with frequent industrial unrest often shutting down suppliers without warning for weeks on end. An industrial dispute shut down the bun supplier in mid-1976, resulting in McDonald's staff having to drive all over Wellington to find substitute buns, and then cutting the sesame seed buns for the Big Mac using two bandsaws placed side-by-side. Beef patties were initially supplied from the Gear Meat Company in Petone, although supply was haphazard until a purpose-built meat forming machine was acquired in 1977. Like many other companies at the time, Gear Meat was plagued by industrial unrest and closed down without warning in 1982, leaving McDonald's to import beef patties from Australia. The affiliate acquired Gear Meat's patty-forming machine and moved it to Auckland to secure production. By coincidence, part of Gear Meat's former site now contains a McDonald's restaurant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "With the introduction of the company's new broilers in the United States and Canada in 2009 and 2010, Burger King introduced the third generation of its premium burger sandwich that it called the Steakhouse XT burger, with the XT standing for eXtra Thick. This new sandwich supplanted the previous versions of premium sandwiches as the chains most expensive burger-based sandwich. Unlike the preceding two sandwiches, this version was not made from Angus beef, but was intended to draw upon its ingredients and size as it defining characteristic. A higher-end version of the Steakhouse XT was first introduced in 2009 at the company's new BK Whopper Bar restaurant concept located at Universal Studios Orlando priced at US$5.29. The regular versions were introduced in January 2010 once the company had finished deploying its new broilers in all of its North American restaurants. The new sandwich came in two permanent varieties and a LTO variant, all of which featured a new round, , thick patty and was priced at $3.99 to $4.49 depending on the variant. At its BK Whopper Bar restaurants, the company added several other varieties beyond the initial one introduced in 2009 that were all exclusive to the high-end concept. The product was the first national product tailored to the new flexible broilers, units that were designed to cook multiple types of products that have different cooking requirements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Competitive Foods Australia",
        "text": "When Burger King decided to expand its operations into Australia, it found that its business name was already trademarked by a man running a small takeaway food shop in Adelaide. Thus, Burger King was forced to change the name when it decided to open stores in the country \u2013 the only time this has happened in its corporate history. Burger King provided the Australian franchisee, Jack Cowin, with a list of possible alternative names that the Australian Burger King restaurants could be branded as. The names were derived from pre-existing trademarks already registered by Burger King and its then corporate parent Pillsbury. Cowin selected the \"Hungry Jack\" brand name, one of Pillsbury's US pancake mixture products, and slightly changing the name to a possessive form by adding an apostrophe 's' thus forming the new name \"Hungry Jack's\". Accordingly, the first Australian franchise of the Burger King Corporation, established in Perth in 1971, was branded as Hungry Jack's."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "When the predecessor of Burger King first opened in Jacksonville in 1953, its menu consisted predominantly of basic hamburgers, French fries, soft drinks, milkshakes, and desserts. After being acquired by its Miami, Florida, franchisees and renamed to its current moniker in 1954, BK began expanding the breadth of its menu by adding the Whopper sandwich in 1957. This quarter-pound () hamburger was created by Burger King's new owners James McLamore and David Edgerton as a way to differentiate BK from other burger outlets at the time. Since its inception, the Whopper has become synonymous with Burger King and has become the focus of much of its advertising. The company even named its new kiosk-style restaurants Whopper Bars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King (Alberta)",
        "text": "The restaurant was inspired by a visit Jarvis paid to Great Falls, Montana in 1953, when he stayed next to a Dairy Queen drive-in. After the chain turned down his request for a franchise, he and Rae formed their own \"Dairy Drive-In\" at 8705 118 Avenue. Two years later, when their lease expired, they hauled the building to a site at 112 Avenue, where it would become the first Burger King. It opened one year before the first outlet of what would become its main rival, A&W."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Burger King",
        "text": "Burger King was founded in 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, as Insta-Burger King by Keith J. Kramer and his wife's uncle, Matthew Burns. Their first stores were centred around a piece of equipment known as the Insta-Broiler, which was very effective at cooking burgers. It proved so successful that, as they grew through franchising, they required all of their franchises to carry the device."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Shortly after the acquisition of the chain by Pillsbury in 1969, Burger King opened its first Canadian restaurant in Windsor, Ontario, in 1969. Other international locations followed soon after: Oceania in 1971 with its Australian franchise Hungry Jack's, and Europe in 1975 with a restaurant in Madrid, Spain. Beginning in 1982, BK and its franchisees began operating stores in several East Asian countries, including Japan, Taiwan, Singapore and South Korea. Due to high competition, all of the Japanese locations were closed in 2001; however, BK reentered the Japanese market in June 2007. BK's Central and South American operations began in Mexico in the late 1970s, and by the early 1980s it was operating locations in Caracas, Venezuela; Santiago, Chile; and Buenos Aires, Argentina. While Burger King lags behind McDonald's in international locations by over 12,000 stores, by 2008 it had managed to become the largest chain in several countries, including Mexico and Spain. The company divides its international operations into three segments: The Middle East, Europe and Africa division (EMEA), Asia-Pacific (APAC) and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). In each of these regions, Burger King has established several subsidiaries to develop strategic partnerships and alliances to expand into new territories. In its EMEA group, Burger King's Switzerland-based subsidiary Burger King Europe GmbH is responsible for the licensing and development of BK franchises in those regions. In the APAC region, the Singapore-based BK AsiaPac, Pte. Ltd. business unit handles franchising for East Asia, the Asian subcontinent and all Oceanic territories. The LAC region includes Mexico, Central and South America and the Caribbean Islands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "Internationally, the chain has introduced several lines of premium sandwiches. In New Zealand, the chain first introduced the BK Crown Jewels line which was based upon the Whopper, TenderGrill, and TenderCrisp sandwiches. The line was eventually replaced with the BK King's Collection menu of Angus-based sandwiches. It also sold Angus-burgers in Australia, the United Kingdom, and Ireland. In East Asia, the chains sells the Angus XT sandwich which is a variant of the Steakhouse XT. In Great Britain, the chain has also introduced a burger based on lamb and another based on Wagyu beef, while back in the United States it sold a turkey burger sandwich \u2013 all of which were limited time offerings (LTOs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The BK Crown Jewels line was developed by the Burger King franchisee in New Zealand, Tasman Pacific Foods, abbreviated TPF. The sandwiches were introduced in the summer of 2005 as part of Burger King's global program to introduce more adult oriented fare to its menu. The products themselves were variations on the existing Whopper, TenderCrisp and TenderGrill sandwiches and featured more exotic ingredients such as mango lime salsa, avocado and garlic aioli."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Lynn",
        "text": "In September 1974, New Zealand's first Pizza Hut restaurant opened in New Lynn. It became the final eat-in Pizza Hut to be demolished in 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "In 1990, Hungry Jack's renewed its franchise agreement with then BK parent Burger King Corporation, which allowed Hungry Jack's to license third party franchisee. One of the terms and conditions of the renewed agreement required Hungry Jack's to open a minimum number of new locations each year for the duration of the contract. Shortly after the Australian trademark on the Burger King name lapsed in 1996, Burger King requested that Cowin rebrand the Hungry Jack's locations to Burger King, which Cowin declined. Burger King Corporation accused Hungry Jack's of violating the conditions of the renewed franchise agreement by failing to expand the chain at the rate defined and sought to terminate the agreement. Under the aegis of this claim, Burger King Corporation, in partnership with Royal Dutch Shell's Australian division Shell Company of Australia Ltd., began to open its own stores in 1997 beginning in Sydney and extending throughout the regions of New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory and Victoria. In addition, BK sought to limit HJ's ability to open new locations in the country, whether they were corporate locations or third-party licensees."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "North America is the company's home territory and home to its first non-American stores; it opened its first international restaurant in Windsor, Ontario, Canada in 1969."
      },
      {
        "title": "McDonald's New Zealand",
        "text": "In 2018, the Hastings restaurant became the first in the country to offer a menu written in te reo M\u0101ori."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The Sirloin Steak sandwich was introduced in 1979 as part of a menu expansion that in turn was part of a corporate restructuring effort for Burger King. During the mid-1970s, Burger King was having issues with its operations, franchises and image. In 1978, Donald N. Smith was hired from McDonald's to help restructure the corporate operations of Burger King to better compete against his former company as well as the then up-and-coming chain, Wendy's. As part of an operational overhaul he dubbed \"Operation Phoenix\", Smith reorganized the corporate operations of Burger King. He also initiated a development plan for a new product line that would become known as the Specialty Sandwich line. Development began that same year, and while the company found that the new product lines would add an approximate eight second delay to the production time of orders and would cost about $39 million in lost productivity, the product was introduced in 1979. Despite these possible sales losses and time issues, the new products were successful and the company's sales increased by 15 percent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King legal issues",
        "text": "When Burger King moved to expand its operations into Australia in the early 1970s, its business name was already trademarked by a takeaway food shop in Adelaide. As a result, Burger King provided the Australian franchisee, Jack Cowin, with a list of possible alternative names derived from pre-existing trademarks already registered by Burger King and its then corporate parent Pillsbury that could be used to name the Australian restaurants. Cowin selected the \"Hungry Jack\" brand name, one of Pillsbury's US pancake mixture products, and slightly changed the name to the possessive form, \"Hungry Jack's\". The first Australian franchise of Burger King Corporation was established in Perth in 1971, under the auspices of Cowin's new company Hungry Jack's Pty, Limited."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King legal issues",
        "text": "In 1990, Hungry Jack's renewed its franchise agreement with then BK parent Burger King Corporation, which allowed Hungry Jack's to license third party franchisee. One of the terms and conditions of the renewed agreement required Hungry Jack's to open a minimum number of new locations each year for the duration of the contract. Shortly after the Australian trademark on the Burger King name lapsed in 1996, Burger King requested that Cowin rebrand the Hungry Jack's locations to Burger King, which Cowin declined. Burger King Corporation accused Hungry Jack's of violating the conditions of the renewed franchise agreement by failing to expand the chain at the rate defined and sought to terminate the agreement. Under the aegis of this claim, Burger King Corporation, in partnership with Royal Dutch Shell's Australian division Shell Company of Australia Ltd., began to open its own stores in 1997 beginning in Sydney and extending throughout the regions of New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory and Victoria. In addition, BK sought to limit HJ's ability to open new locations in the country, whether they were corporate locations or third-party licensees."
      },
      {
        "title": "McDonald's New Zealand",
        "text": "Problems were encountered opening the restaurant due to strict import laws at the time, which limited importing of overseas products that could be produced in New Zealand. The kitchen for the Porirua restaurant was imported on the condition that it was to allow local companies to reproduce it, and it was to be sent back after 12 months. However, the kitchen had been cemented into the floor and removing parts of it while still maintaining the restaurant operation meant it was impossible. The New Zealand affiliate eventually negotiated with the Corporation to import more kitchens in exchange for a large surplus of cheese the New Zealand Dairy Board (now Fonterra) had."
      },
      {
        "title": "McDonald's New Zealand",
        "text": "McDonald's New Zealand\n--History.\n----1970s.\n----1980s.\n----1990s.\n----2000s.\n----2010s.\n------Create your taste.\n------All Day Breakfast.\n------40th Anniversary.\n--------Shooting at Upper Hutt store.\n------Te Reo M\u0101ori.\n------Happy Meal Reader's Program (2019).\n--Delivery.\n--Products.\n--Franchisees and employment relations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "Included in the new line was the Sirloin Steak Sandwich, a single oblong patty made of chopped steak served on a sub-style, sesame seed roll. It, along with the Original Chicken Sandwich, was one of the first attempts by a major fast food chain to target a specific demographic, in this case adults aged between 18 and 34 years, members of which were presumably willing to spend more on a higher quality product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hugh Morris (businessman)",
        "text": "Morris established the first McDonald's in New Zealand in 1976 with business partners Lionel Whitehead, Gary Lloydd, Ray Stonelake, and his brother, Wally Morris. The first McDonald's restaurant opened in Porirua on 7 June 1976. Morris emphasised employee training and franchising, and headed the McDonald's New Zealand company for more than 20 years, until his retirement in the mid-1990s."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "During 2012, the African market saw a new agreement with Grand Parade Investments of South Africa to enter then Africa's largest economy, with restaurants opening in 2013. The company began its move into Sub-Saharan Africa in May 2013 when Burger King opened its first outlets in South Africa. The company sold franchise rights to local gaming and slots machine operator Grand Parade Investments Ltd. The South African operation sold over double its initial forecasts in its opening weeks with sales of $474,838 at just one of its outlets in Cape Town in its first seven weeks. In a deal with local petrochemical company Sasol, outlets were opened at filling stations across the country starting in 2014. In April 2014 it was announced that due to high demand, the number of new outlets being opened in 2014 would be increased from 12 to 14 across the country. As of December 2015 there are 51 Burger King restaurants in South Africa. 10 restaurant are set to open in Mauritius by 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "The company began its move into Sub-Saharan Africa in May 2013 when Burger King opened its first outlet in Cape Town South Africa. The company sold franchise rights to local gaming and slots machine operator Grand Parade Investments Ltd. The South African operation sold over double its initial forecasts in its opening weeks with sales of $474,838 at just one of its outlets in Cape Town in its first seven weeks. In a deal with local petrochemical company Sasol outlets will be opened at filling stations across the country from 2014. In April 2014 it was announced that due to high demand the number of new outlets being opened in 2014 would be increased from 12 to 14 across the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bank of New Zealand Te Aro branch building",
        "text": "The building, classified as a \"Category I\" (\"places of 'special or outstanding historical or cultural heritage significance or value'\") historic place by the New Zealand Historic Places Trust, housed a Burger King restaurant until April 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "McDonald's New Zealand",
        "text": "McDonald's Restaurants (New Zealand) Limited (also using the trading name \"Macca's\") is the New Zealand subsidiary of the international fast food restaurant chain McDonald's. Its first location opened in 1976. McDonald's New Zealand currently has over 160 restaurants operating nationwide, serving an estimated one million people each week. McDonald's Restaurants NZ earned revenues of over $250 million in the 2018 financial year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Competitive Foods Australia",
        "text": "After Burger King Corporation lost the case, it decided to terminate its business in the country and sold its operations and assets to its New Zealand franchise group, Trans-Pacific Foods (TPF). The terms of the sale had TPF assume oversight of the Burger King franchises in the region as the Burger King brand's master franchisee. TPF administered the chain's 81 locations until September 2003 when the new management team of Burger King Corporation reached an agreement with Hungry Jack's Pty to re-brand the existing Burger King locations to Hungry Jack's and make Hungry Jack's the sole master franchisee of both brands. An additional part of the agreement required Burger King Corporation to provide administrative and advertising support as to ensure a common marketing scheme for the company and its products. TPF transferred its control of the Burger King franchises to Hungry Jack's, which subsequently renamed the majority of the remaining Burger King locations as Hungry Jack's. While Hungry Jack's is now the exclusive master franchisee for Burger King in Australia and has the right to allow new Burger King locations in the country, no new locations have opened and only a small handful of Burger King restaurants remain in New South Wales."
      },
      {
        "title": "McDonald's New Zealand",
        "text": "In 1990, McDonald's purchased a former car yard site for its Taupo restaurant, which opened in November that year. The site came with a decommissioned Douglas DC-3 aircraft, complete with intact cockpit. The plane has become a tourist landmark, and now contains a seating area for diners."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "At roughly the same time as Kroc was conceiving what eventually became McDonald's Corporation, two Miami, Florida businessmen, James McLamore and David Edgerton, opened a franchise of the predecessor to what is now the international fast food restaurant chain Burger King. McLamore had visited the original McDonald's hamburger stand belonging to the McDonald brothers; sensing potential in their innovative assembly line-based production system, he decided he wanted to open a similar operation of his own. The two partners eventually decided to invest their money in Jacksonville, Florida-based Insta-Burger King. Originally opened in 1953, the founders and owners of the chain, Kieth G. Kramer and his wife's uncle Matthew Burns, opened their first stores around a piece of equipment known as the Insta-Broiler. The Insta-Broiler oven proved so successful at cooking burgers, they required all of their franchises to carry the device. By 1959 McLamore and Edgarton were operating several locations within the Miami-Dade area and were growing at a fast clip. Despite the success of their operation, the partners discovered that the design of the insta-broiler made the unit's heating elements prone to degradation from the drippings of the beef patties. The pair eventually created a mechanized gas grill that avoided the problems by changing the way the meat patties were cooked in the unit. After the original company began to falter in 1959, it was purchased by McLamore and Edgerton who renamed the company Burger King."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "Australia's fast food market began in 1968, with the opening of several American franchises including McDonald's and KFC. Pizza Hut was introduced in April 1970, and Burger King followed. However, the Burger King market found that this name was already a registered trademark to a takeaway food shop in Adelaide. Thus, the Burger King Australian market was forced to pick another name, selecting the Hungry Jack's brand name. Prior to this, the Australian fast food market consisted primarily of privately owned take-away shops."
      },
      {
        "title": "McDonald's New Zealand",
        "text": "In 2009, the original Porirua McDonald's restaurant in Cobham Court closed, replaced by a new restaurant with drive-through a short distance away in Kenepuru Drive."
      },
      {
        "title": "James McLamore",
        "text": "Edgerton originally opened Insta Burger King in Miami, Florida on March 1, 1954. Three months later, on June 1, he met McLamore and they formed the Burger King Corporation. The corporation opened Burger King stores and went on to introduce the Whopper burger in 1957, when it also dropped \"Insta\" from the name. At this same time, Edgerton, frustrated with the issue-prone Insta machines, created the flame broiler that would provide the signature for Burger King."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "Burger King (BK) is an American multinational chain of hamburger fast food restaurants. Headquartered in Miami-Dade County, Florida, the company was founded in 1953 as Insta-Burger King, a Jacksonville, Florida\u2013based restaurant chain. After Insta-Burger King ran into financial difficulties in 1954, its two Miami-based franchisees David Edgerton and James McLamore purchased the company and renamed it \"Burger King\". Over the next half-century, the company changed hands four times, with its third set of owners, a partnership of TPG Capital, Bain Capital, and Goldman Sachs Capital Partners, taking it public in 2002. In late 2010, 3G Capital of Brazil acquired a majority stake in the company, in a deal valued at US$3.26 billion. The new owners promptly initiated a restructuring of the company to reverse its fortunes. 3G, along with partner Berkshire Hathaway, eventually merged the company with the Canadian-based doughnut chain Tim Hortons, under the auspices of a new Canadian-based parent company named Restaurant Brands International."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King (Alberta)",
        "text": "In the mid-1960s, the US Burger King chain planned to expand to Canada, where Jarvis and Rae had copyrighted the name. In 1965-66, they reached an agreement that granted their rival the rights to the \"Burger King\" name for all of Canada except Alberta north of the 52nd parallel, passing through Innisfail, which was reserved in perpetuity for the local chain. The US chain entered the Canadian market in 1969 with a store in Windsor, Ontario."
      },
      {
        "title": "Social Burgerjoint",
        "text": "The chain opened a new restaurant in Hamina in April 2019 and another one in Porvoo in May in the same year. The chain opened its seventh restaurant in Oulu in December 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "The United Kingdom's joining of the European Economic Community (EEC) (now the European Union) in 1973 sounded the death knell of New Zealand's identity as an agricultural producer for the British Isles, and the formal cultural ties, including cuisine, with the United Kingdom started to become diluted. During this period, certain non-British or Irish European dishes, such as beef bourguignon, had shed the 'ethnic' connotation and entered the mainstream New Zealand cooking. The 1970s also saw major changes in take-away food with the arrival of the first American fast-food chains: Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) in 1971, Pizza Hut in 1974, and McDonald's in 1976."
      },
      {
        "title": "McDonald's New Zealand",
        "text": "McDonald's purchased the fast-food chain Georgie Pie from Progressive Enterprises in 1996. The Georgie Pie chain closed in 1998, with half of the 32 restaurants converting to McDonald's and the remainder sold off. In 1998, New Zealand's first McCaf\u00e9 opened in the Queen Street restaurant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungry Jack's",
        "text": "Cowin selected the \"Hungry Jack\" brand name, one of Pillsbury's U.S. pancake mixture products, and slightly changed the name to a possessive form by adding an apostrophe and \"s\" to form the new name \"Hungry Jack's\". The first Australian franchise of Burger King Corporation was established in Innaloo, Perth, on 18 April 1971, under the auspices of Cowin's new company Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd."
      },
      {
        "title": "Restaurant Brands",
        "text": "It was reported on 18 April 2018 that Restaurant Brands had acquired the New Zealand franchise rights for the Taco Bell fast food brand, and is planning to open their first store in New Zealand in the \"not too distant future.\" Chief Executive Russel Creedy reported that the company, based on sales at its Taco Bell stores in Australia and Hawaii, would open a store soon. Creedy stated, in December 2017, that a trial store could be operational by the New Year. Radio New Zealand reported that the first store could be open by 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "It also reentered the Hong Kong market in December 2007. This time its Hong Kong operation is wholly owned by North Asia Strategic, who obtained the exclusive right to operate from BK AsiaPac Pte Limited. The first store was opened on 29 December 2007 in the Sun Arcade, Canton Road, Tsim Sha Tsui, Kowloon. As of 2008, 15 stores were in operation, including five in Hong Kong Island (Central, Wanchai, Causeway Bay and Fortress Hill), five in Kowloon (Tsim Sha Tsui, Hung Hom, Mongkok, Wong Tai Sin and Tsz Wan Shan) and five in the New Territories. However, due to fierce competition, legal problems, and rising rents, the number of stores was reduced to two in late 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Oak, New Zealand",
        "text": "Royal Oak became the site of New Zealand's first Kentucky Fried Chicken restaurant in 1971."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Australia is the only country in which Burger King does not operate under its own name. When the company set about establishing operations there in 1971, it found that its business name was already trademarked by a takeaway food shop in Adelaide. As a result, Burger King provided the Australian master franchisee, Jack Cowin, with a list of possible alternative names derived from pre-existing trademarks already registered by Burger King and its then corporate parent Pillsbury, that could be used to name the Australian restaurants. Cowin selected the \"Hungry Jack\" brand name, one of Pillsbury's US pancake mixture products, and slightly changed the name to a possessive form by adding an apostrophe \"s\" forming the new name Hungry Jack's."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jonah Lomu",
        "text": "In 1996, McDonald's New Zealand named a burger after Lomu, temporarily rebranding the McFeast burger line (called \"Mega Feast\" in New Zealand) as the \"Jonah Burger\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "BurgerFuel",
        "text": "In 1995, the first BurgerFuel opened in Ponsonby, Auckland by Chris Mason. In 2007, BurgerFuel Worldwide publicly floated on the NZX. The company directors were hoping to generate $15 million from the IPO; however, they ultimately raised slightly over a third of that. By 2015, the company had over 70 stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Operations of KFC",
        "text": "The first KFC opened in New Zealand in 1971 at Royal Oak, a suburb of Auckland. By 1980, there were 37 outlets. In 1989, PepsiCo acquired the 50 percent stake in KFC New Zealand that it did not already own from the local Goodman Fielder conglomerate. In 1991, New Zealand turnover topped 100 million NZD for the first time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Restaurant Brands",
        "text": "KFC entered the New Zealand market in August 1971, with the opening of its first restaurant in Royal Oak, Auckland. Restaurant Brands acquired the brand in 1989 after being publicly floated by PepsiCo. KFC is Restaurant Brands largest revenue earner; in the 2017/18 financial year, KFC contributed $320 million of Restaurant Brand's $421 million sales income."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Edgerton",
        "text": "He returned to Florida to become manager of Howard Johnson's Restaurants, which had locations in Miami and Orlando. At the time, he became interested in opening a Dairy Queen, with a burger section, when he met business partner and fellow restaurateur and Cornell University alumnus James McLamore. Together, they developed Insta-Burger King, the forerunner of the concept of the Burger King model of fast service, limited menu and low prices. Customers came into the restaurant to pay for orders in advance, as opposed to the traditional method of carhops attending customers directly and bringing their orders to their vehicles. The corporation opened Burger King stores and went on to introduce the Whopper burger in 1957, when it also dropped \"Insta\" from the name. At this same time, Edgerton, frustrated with the issue-prone Insta machines, created the flame broiler, which would provide the signature flavor for Burger King."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "Like its menu, the equipment the company cooks its hamburgers with has also evolved as the company expanded. The burgers have always been broiled mechanically; the original unit, called an Insta-Broiler, was one of two pieces of equipment the founders of Insta-Burger King purchased before opening their new restaurant. The Insta-Broiler worked by cooking 12 burger patties in a wire basket, allowing the patties to be cooked from both sides simultaneously. When McLamore and Edgerton took over the company, besides dropping the \"Insta-\" prefix, they switched to an improved unit which they called a \"Flame Broiler\". Designed by the two and featuring stationary burners that cooked the meat on a moving chain, the unit broke down less often while maintaining a similar cooking rate. The company would stay with that format for the next 40 years until Burger King began developing a variable speed broiler that could handle multiple items with different cooking rates and times. These new units began testing in 1999 and eventually evolved into the two models the company deployed system-wide in 2008\u20132009. Accompanying these new broilers was new food-holding equipment, accompanied with a computer-based product monitoring system for its cooked products. The monitoring system allows for more concise tracking of product quality while giving the company and its franchisees a method to streamline costs by more precisely projecting sales and product usage."
      },
      {
        "title": "McDonald's New Zealand",
        "text": "In 2014 McDonald's introduced 'Create Your Taste' to New Zealand. The customer creates a gourmet burger from scratch on the touch-screen \"kiosk\" and the burger, fries and drink are delivered to them at their table. A related competition invited customers to submit their burger creations to the McDonald's website and relied on users to vote for their favourite design. The competition was pulled in July 2016 after website users created burgers with offensive names."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meat pie (Australia and New Zealand)",
        "text": "In 1977, during the time that American fast food restaurants moved into New Zealand, Progressive Enterprises created Georgie Pie, a fast food restaurant with a menu based on meat pies. The pies were batch made and frozen at Progressive's Mangere plant. The first Georgie Pie restaurant opened in Kelston, Auckland, and at its peak in the mid-1990s had become a chain of 32 restaurants across New Zealand. However, after a major expansion, Georgie Pie became uneconomic to run and was eventually sold to McDonald's New Zealand in 1996. The last restaurant at Mission Bay, Auckland, closed in 1998. In June 2013, McDonald's started a trial relaunch of Georgie Pie, selling one flavour of pie (Steak Mince 'n' Cheese) through eleven of its restaurants in Auckland and Hamilton."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "In March 2012, Burger King became the first major burger chain to add a burger based on lamb when it introduced its Lamb Flatbread burger to its menu in the United Kingdom and Ireland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Big-box store",
        "text": "The big-box phenomenon hit New Zealand in the late 1980s, with the introduction of Kmart Australia and later the \"Warehouse\" superstore, a local company. Mitre 10 New Zealand opened their first Mega in 2004 at Hastings, New Zealand six months before the Australian Mega store; it opened to great success with 20 more stores opening within two years. Australian-owned Bunnings Warehouse opened its first store in New Zealand in 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nordic Service Partners",
        "text": "NSP's Burger King restaurant on Gustav Adolfs torg in Malm\u00f6 opened in 1976 as the first \"BK\" in Sweden and the Nordic countries. The company also runs Denmark's first BK which opened in 1977 on Vesterbrogade in Copenhagen, as the country's first American-style fast food restaurant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In 1983, Burger King introduced advertising to emphasize value or its opening hours. The company encouraged its stores to keep their drive-through outlets open after midnight; most QSR locations closed between 10:00 pm and 11:00 pm. In mid-2007, it again began advertising late opening times in response to the late-night hours of Wendy's and McDonald's."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Burger King's growth into the Caribbean began in 1963 when the company opened its first location in Puerto Rico. These locations were the first restaurants the company opened outside the continental United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger Bhatnagar",
        "text": "In 1993, Bhatnagar was involved in setting up Burger King in New Zealand, but sold his 50 percent interest two years later. He retired from active involvement in business in 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Burger King",
        "text": "Further modernization plans were introduced in 2009 with the company's \"20/20\" store designs and its \"BK Whopper Bar\" concept. The 20/20 concept, officially unveiled in Amsterdam on 10 October, featured a radical new design that featured bright colors, corrugated metal accents and plain brick walls that are designed to compete with chains in the fast casual restaurant market segment. A new system of in-store advertising was also introduced as part of the new format, static menu boards are to be replaced with high definition video displays. With the introduction of the 20/20 format, all future Burger King locations will be constructed using the design framework. Additionally, any future restaurant renovations must also conform to the new standard. The primary drawback of the design is its costs to the individual owners of BK restaurants; franchises must pay between to renovate their buildings to Burger King specs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King legal issues",
        "text": "After Burger King Corporation lost the case, it decided to terminate its operations in the country, and in July 2002, the company transferred its assets to its New Zealand franchise group, Trans-Pacific Foods (TPF). The terms of the sale had TPF assume oversight of the Burger King franchises in the region as the Burger King brand's master franchisee. Trans-Pacific Foods administered the chain's 81 locations until September 2003 when the new management team of Burger King Corporation reached an agreement with Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd to re-brand the existing Burger King locations to Hungry Jack's and make HJP the sole master franchisee of both brands. An additional part of the agreement required Burger King Corporation to provide administrative and advertising support as to insure a common marketing scheme for the company and its products. Trans-Pacific Foods transferred its control of the Burger King franchises to Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd, which subsequently renamed the remaining Burger King locations as \"Hungry Jack's\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the hamburger",
        "text": "After World War II, a number of hamburger restaurants known as InstaBurger King (later [[Burger King]]) began emerging, the first of which was opened on December 4, 1954, in a suburb of Miami, Florida. It was established by [[James McLamore]] and [[David Edgerton]], both of whom were students at the [[Cornell University School of Hotel Administration]]. McLamore had visited the original McDonald's in San Bernardino, California, when it was still owned by the McDonald brothers, and saw the potential that existed for the [[mass production]] of hamburgers. He was so inspired by this visit that he decided to create a similar burger chain himself. By 1959, Burger King already had five restaurants in [[Miami metropolitan area|metropolitan Miami]], and its early success prompted McLamore and Edgerton to expand throughout the United States by using a [[franchising|franchise system]] that allowed them to grow the business at a relatively low cost. They formed Burger King Corporation as a parent company to the franchises they were selling throughout the United States. The Burger King Corporation was acquired by the [[Pillsbury Company]] in 1967, and during the 1970s, it began to expand outside the United States, principally in South America and Europe. [[Burger King]]'s core product has long been the [[Whopper]], which was created in 1957 by founder James McLamore and initially sold for 37 cents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King products",
        "text": "When the predecessor of international fast food restaurant chain Burger King (BK) first opened in 1953, its menu predominantly consisted of hamburgers, French fries, soft drinks, milkshakes, and desserts. After being acquired by its Miami, Florida franchisees and renamed in 1954, BK began expanding its menu by adding the Whopper sandwich in 1957, and has since added non-beef items such as chicken, fish, and vegetarian offerings, including salads and meatless sandwiches. Other additions include a breakfast menu and beverages such as Icees, juices, and bottled waters. As the company expanded both inside and outside the United States, it introduced localized versions of its products that conform to regional tastes and cultural or religious beliefs. To generate additional sales, BK occasionally introduces limited-time offers of special versions of its products, or brings out completely new products intended for either long- or short-term sales. Not all of these products and services have been successful; in 1992, Burger King introduced limited table service featuring special dinner platters, but this concept failed to generate interest and was discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "After Burger King Corporation lost the case, it decided to terminate its operations in the country, and in July 2002, the company transferred its assets to its New Zealand franchise group, Trans-Pacific Foods (TPF). The terms of the sale had TPF assume oversight of the Burger King franchises in the region as the Burger King brand's master franchisee. Trans-Pacific Foods administered the chain's 81 locations until September 2003 when the new management team of Burger King Corporation reached an agreement with Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd to re-brand the existing Burger King locations to Hungry Jack's and make HJP the sole master franchisee of both brands. An additional part of the agreement required Burger King Corporation to provide administrative and advertising support as to insure a common marketing scheme for the company and its products. Trans-Pacific Foods transferred its control of the Burger King franchises to Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd, which subsequently renamed the remaining Burger King locations as \"Hungry Jack's\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jumbo King",
        "text": "It repositioned itself as an Indian burger brand in 2015. Jumbo King launched a range of burgers, such as corn and spinach, crispy veggie and mac and cheese.\n* 2001: First outlet of the chain at Malad in Mumbai was opened on 23 August 2001.\n* 2003: Second outlet in Kandivali, Malad.\n* 2007: Received Award for New Concept Franchising and Award as Innovative Franchisee model.\n* Two outlets were opened in Ahmedabad on 17 August 2007.\n* 2011: First outlet in Bangalore at Koramangala.\n* 2014: First outlet in Hyderabad at Narayanguda."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "In December 2013, Burger King returned to Finland, after three decades of absence. The first restaurant, located on Mannerheimintie in central Helsinki, instantly proved so popular that on every day since its opening, people queued in front of the restaurant to get in, sometimes for over half an hour. The only exception so far has been Christmas time, when the restaurant was closed. According to Mikko Molberg, the leader of the Finnish Burger King franchise, the restaurant has attracted over 2000 customers on every single day, which has surprised the restaurant employees and the franchise owners. The long queues have been extensively covered and ridiculed in social media, comparing them to people queuing in front of a McDonald's restaurant in Moscow, Russia in the early 1990s, and contrasting them with the nearly nonexistent queues at Burger King restaurants in Stockholm, Sweden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Georgie Pie",
        "text": "Georgie Pie was the brainchild of Tom Ah Chee, who opened New Zealand's first supermarket (Foodtown Otahuhu, 1958). Ah Chee had made an unsuccessful bid for the New Zealand rights to McDonald's before deciding to establish his own fast food restaurant chain. The first restaurant was opened in Kelston, Auckland in 1977. In 1994, plans were announced to open 25 new outlets per year, with a goal of 114 operating restaurants by the end of 1998. The chain came to prominence in the early 1990s with its $1, $2, $3, and $4 \"Funtastic Value\" menu. At its peak, the chain employed about 1,300 people. Georgie Pie was able to automate the food production process far more than chains which sold labour-intensive items such as burgers. Timing was a more difficult detail, for Georgie Pie, as it took 22 minutes to bake a pie versus a few minutes for typical fast food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King products",
        "text": "When the predecessor to the modern Burger King, Insta-Burger King, opened in 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, the company's menu consisted predominantly of hamburgers, French fries, soft drinks, and desserts. Insta-Burger King was acquired in 1954 by two of its franchisees, James McLamore and David Edgerton, who renamed it Burger King. Under its new ownership, the company continued to develop its core menu, cooking techniques, and equipment. In 1957 McLamore and Edgerton created BK's signature item, the Whopper, as a way to differentiate BK from other burger outlets at the time. The Whopper is a hamburger with lettuce, tomato, mayonnaise, pickle, and ketchup, that was priced at 29\u00a2. The sandwich was designed to give the customer a larger product with better value than competitors, who were selling burgers with an average price of 15\u00a2. As Burger King's flagship product, the Whopper has been expanded beyond the original sandwich into a line of sandwiches all made with the same ingredients. The Whopper sandwich has undergone several modifications in its recipe over the years, with a change from a plain bun to a sesame seed roll in the early 1970s and a change in patty size in the mid-1980s being two of the most notable. Since its inception, the Whopper has become synonymous with Burger King and become the focus of much of its advertising. The company has even named its kiosk-style restaurants \"Whopper Bars\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Israel",
        "text": "In July 2013 it was announced that Burger King was attempting to return to the Israeli market, three years after the dissolution of its franchise in the country. The company's desire to re-enter Israel stemmed from recent ownership changes in the parent company. In late 2010, the chain was acquired by Brazilian private equity fund 3G Capital for US$4 billion. The new ownership enacted an aggressive strategy of entering markets Burger King was currently not operating in, in a bid to chip away at the market share of its competitors. Discussions for a new franchise owner included Yair Hasson, Burger King's former franchisee in Israel. If the negotiations had proved successful, twelve new Burger King restaurants were expected to open within the first year it reentered the Israeli market, with fifteen more set to open in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King products",
        "text": "Internationally, the chain has introduced several lines of premium sandwiches. In New Zealand, the chain first introduced the BK Crown Jewels line which was based upon the Whopper, TenderGrill, and TenderCrisp sandwiches. The line was eventually replaced with the BK King's Collection menu of Angus-based sandwiches. It also sold Angus-burgers in Australia, Great Britain and Ireland. In East Asia, the chains sells the Angus XT sandwich which is a variant of the Steakhouse XT. In Great Britain, the chain has also introduced a burger based on lamb and another based on Wagyu beef, while back in the United States it sold a turkey burger sandwich \u2013 all of which were limited time offerings (LTOs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King products",
        "text": "When the predecessor of international fast food restaurant chain Burger King (BK) first opened in 1953, its menu predominantly consisted of hamburgers, French fries, soft drinks, milkshakes, and desserts. After being acquired by its Miami, Florida franchisees and renamed in 1954, BK began expanding its menu by adding the Whopper. The company did not add another permanent hamburger to its menu until the introduction of the Big King sandwich in 1996 in response to McDonald's Big Mac sandwich. The company began experimenting with premium hamburgers, made from higher quality ingredients, in 1978 with the introduction of its Specialty Sandwich product line. The products were some of the first designed by a fast food restaurant chain that were intended to capture the adult market, members of which would be willing to spend more on a higher-quality product. However, it was not until 2002 when the company began to work on a premium burger in earnest. On the value side, Burger King first started offering sliders to its menu in the mid-1980s and offered them off and on for the next twenty years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gourmet Burger Kitchen",
        "text": "The company was started in London by New Zealanders Adam Wills, Greg Driscoll, Brandon Allen and Ugandan Kalimali Moses, in 2001. Chef Peter Gordon, a New Zealand-born, London-based chef, oversaw the menu development and the first restaurant opened in 2001, bringing the concept of 'gourmet burgers' to London. GBK is known for its \"large\" burgers, fresh produce and casual service style. The initial success of the Battersea restaurant led to further openings across London."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "In December 2013, Burger King returned to Finland after three decades of absence. The first restaurant, located on Mannerheimintie in central Helsinki, instantly proved so popular that for every day since its opening, people have had to queue in front of the restaurant to get in, sometimes for over half an hour. The only exception so far has been Christmas time, when the restaurant was closed. According to Mikko Molberg, the leader of the Finnish Burger King franchise, the restaurant has attracted over 2000 customers on every single day, which has surprised the restaurant employees and the franchise owners. The long queues have been extensively covered and ridiculed in social media, comparing them to people queuing in front of a McDonald's restaurant in Moscow, Russia in the early 1990s, and contrasting them with the nearly nonexistent queues to Burger King restaurants in Stockholm, Sweden."
      },
      {
        "title": "BurgerFuel",
        "text": "On 4 November 2014, BurgerFuel Worldwide passed NZ$200m (US$156m) market capitalization on the New Zealand Exchange for the first time and closed at NZ$226m (US$176m) which is a new record for BurgerFuel Worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jumbo King",
        "text": "An earlier franchisee of Burger King, the Guptas, on their visit to London, realised that fast food could also work in India. Vada pav was their first idea, as the food had to be portable. In 2001, the Guptas opened their first restaurant at Malad, with an initial investment of , which they borrowed from his family. The outlet was initially named Chaat Factory (Snack Factory), and vada pav was sold at 5, despite street vendors selling the same product for 2. The name was later changed to Jumbo King. Gupta faced opposition from his family, who thought he was wasting his MBA by selling vada pavs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Competitive Foods Australia",
        "text": "In 1991, Hungry Jack's Pty Limited renewed its franchise agreement with Burger King Corporation which allowed Hungry Jack's to license third party franchisee. However, one of the conditions of the agreement was that Hungry Jack's had to open a certain number of stores each year for the term of the contract. In 1996, shortly after the Australian trademark on the Burger King name lapsed, Burger King Corporation made a claim that Hungry Jack's had violated the conditions of the renewed franchise agreement by failing to the expand the chain at the rate defined in the contract and sought to terminate the agreement. Under the aegis of this claim, Burger King Corporation in partnership with Royal Dutch Shell's Australian division Shell Company of Australia Ltd, began to open its own stores in 1997 beginning in Sydney and throughout the Australian regions of New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory and Victoria. Additionally, Burger King Corporation sought to limit Hungry Jack's ability to open new locations in the country, whether they were corporate locations or third-party licensees."
      },
      {
        "title": "BurgerFuel",
        "text": "It is also looking to expand into Qatar, Libya, Lebanon, and China and include drive thrus. Expansion has begun in the South Island of New Zealand with the opening of a franchise in Christchurch. With the investment by US based Franchise Brands they are looking to enter into the US market with plans to open up to 1000 restaurants there. On 20 October 2014, BurgerFuel announced that they would be adding 5 more Australian stores by 31 March 2015 in Sydney, Brisbane and Gold Coast. By the end of 2018 no stores remained open in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Further expansion moves were also made in other global markets during 2012. The African market saw a new agreement with JSE-Listed Grand Parade Investments of South Africa to enter Africa's largest economy, with restaurants opening in 2013. In Europe, Burger King returned to the French market in 2012 with an agreement with multinational operator Autogrill, a move that has met with some excitement in the country. The chain left the country in 1997, closing its 22 franchised and 17 corporate locations after a poorly executed entry into the market that left it unable to compete against McDonald's and local chain Quick. The partnership with Autogrill is a move to consolidate Burger King's presence in travel plazas along major highways in France, Italy, Poland and other European nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "This is a list of countries with Burger King franchises. Burger King (BK) itself began as a franchise of its progenitor company, Insta-Burger King. It grew in the United States using a combination of corporate locations and franchising, before divesting itself of its corporate holdings in 2013. It began its international expansion in 1969 with a location in Canada, followed by Australia in 1971, and Europe in 1975. Latin America and South America became part of its market later in that decade, Asia followed in the 1980s, and Northern Africa and the Middle East followed shortly thereafter. Sub-Saharan Africa and the former nations of the Iron Curtain came much later, beginning in the late 1990s and continuing into the 2010s."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where was the first Burger King restaurant?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The predecessor to what is now the international fast food restaurant chain Burger King was founded in on July 23, 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, as Insta-Burger King."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did Burger King open up restaurants in New Zealand?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "Burger King transferred its assets to its New Zealand franchise group in July 2002 but I couldn't find when the first Burger King restaurants in New Zealand opened.",
      "While I could not find when they were first established in New Zealand, the company has over 83 stores within the country."
    ],
    "topic": "Burger King premium burgers",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Burger King franchises:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Burger King franchises",
          "Relations",
          "International relations",
          "Australia"
        ],
        "ctx": "After Burger King Corporation lost the case, it decided to terminate its operations in the country, and in July 2002, the company transferred its assets to its New Zealand franchise group, Trans-Pacific Foods (TPF). The terms of the sale had TPF assume oversight of the Burger King franchises in the region as the Burger King brand's master franchisee. Trans-Pacific Foods administered the chain's 81 locations until September 2003 when the new management team of Burger King Corporation reached an agreement with Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd to re-brand the existing Burger King locations to Hungry Jack's and make HJP the sole master franchisee of both brands. An additional part of the agreement required Burger King Corporation to provide administrative and advertising support as to insure a common marketing scheme for the company and its products. Trans-Pacific Foods transferred its control of the Burger King franchises to Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd, which subsequently renamed the remaining Burger King locations as \"Hungry Jack's\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "List of countries with Burger King franchises:20",
        "passage_titles": [
          "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
          "Oceania"
        ],
        "ctx": "When Burger King moved to expand its operations into Australia, it found that its business name was already trademarked by a takeaway food shop in Adelaide. The Canadian-Australian franchisee, Jack Cowin, selected the \"Hungry Jack\" brand name, one of then Burger King's owner Pillsbury's U.S. pancake mixture products, and slightly changed the name to a possessive form by adding an apostrophe and \"s\" to form the new name \"Hungry Jack's\". In 1996, shortly after the Australian trademark on the Burger King name lapsed, Burger King began to open its own Australian stores in 1997. As a result of Burger King's actions, Hungry Jack's owner Jack Cowin and his company Competitive Foods Australia, began legal proceedings in 2001 against the Burger King Corporation. Hungry Jack's won the case, and Burger King eventually left the country. Hungry Jack's took ownership of the former Burger King locations and subsequently renamed the remaining Burger King locations as Hungry Jack's. As of June 2019, Burger King had 83 stores operating in New Zealand. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Burger King went into receivership in April 2020."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "Within two months of their introduction, sales at New Zealand restaurants increase by approximately 10%, and drew the attention of Burger King Holdings. BKH observed the sales trends and market acceptance of the products for several months after the introduction for the possible purpose of extending the concept in other markets. While the concept was tailored for the New Zealand market, TPF executives stated that it would be easy to adapt the concept to other regions. Some restaurant industry observers agreed with the TPF assessment of the products and separately stated other sauces and ingredients could be used to crate variations in the US and other markets. Eventually, the sandwiches were discontinued, with the Sweet Ride and Mango Jammin burgers the first to be removed from the menu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "Another way that the company moved in order to update its message was by dropping long time agency of record, Crispin Porter + Bogusky (CP+B). CP+B had been one of the major players in the superfan demographic targeting with its Burger King character-based commercials for several years. Beginning in 2012 chain moved its advertising program to the advertising firm of McGarryBowen to promote the sandwich through a new food-centric campaign. The advertising program and naming of the product is designed to add to the cache of the product by associating with the terminology with higher quality products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In 1983, Burger King introduced advertising to emphasize value or its opening hours. The company encouraged its stores to keep their drive-through outlets open after midnight; most QSR locations closed between 10:00 pm and 11:00 pm. In mid-2007, it again began advertising late opening times in response to the late-night hours of Wendy's and McDonald's."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "Burger King advertising\n--History.\n----1958.\n------1960s\u20131970s.\n------1980s\u20131990s.\n------2000s\u20132010s.\n------2020s.\n----Argentina.\n------The King.\n------The Subservient Chicken.\n--Logos.\n----Evolution of the Burger King logo.\n----International variations.\n--Children's advertising.\n----Children's logos.\n----The \"Marvellous Magical Burger King\".\n----The Burger King kingdom.\n----Kids Club.\n----Honbatz.\n----Restrictions on children's advertising.\n--Non-product-oriented advertising.\n--Promotional partners.\n----Blitz Games.\n----Celebrity spokespeople.\n----Media tie-ins.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The Angus burger adverts featured a man (played by Richard Bennett) asking for an Angus Burger in a 'FastBurger' restaurant \u2013 a parody of McDonald's \u2013 and the counter staff laughing, presumably because they didn't think you could buy one in a fast food restaurant. The news of the order reaches the FastBurger headquarters and everyone associated with the fictional chain is laughing. The chairman is by now laughing after being told about the order on the phone, and says \"An Angus Burger, is he crazy?!\" An assistant gives him the \"Evening Standard\" paper and the front-page story reads 'Burger King Debuts The Angus\". Then the camera pulls back through the office to reveal a real Angus Burger and the announcer says \"The Angus Burger, only at Burger King\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The King's Collection was first introduced in 2010 in response to a new line of Angus-based sandwiches from McDonald's New Zealand. The new sandwich line was part of a co-branded partnership with AngusPure, an Australian brand of grass-fed, organic beef, and condiment supplier Heinz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The Angus Steakhouse Burger was introduced in April 2008 as the replacement to the Angus Burger. The new burger featured a large, square shaped Angus beef patty with two permanent variants of the sandwich with an LTO version later that year. The burger was thinner than the Angus Burger because many of the Burger King locations still used an older model broiler to cook their burgers. The older model relied solely on a single chain with uniform cooking speed and temperature which restricted the thickness of meat patties. As a result, thicker patties such as the one utilized with the previous iteration of the sandwich needed to be precooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "Included in the new line was the Sirloin Steak Sandwich, a single oblong patty made of chopped steak served on a sub-style, sesame seed roll. It, along with the Original Chicken Sandwich, was one of the first attempts by a major fast food chain to target a specific demographic, in this case adults aged between 18 and 34 years, members of which were presumably willing to spend more on a higher quality product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "The 1970s were the \"Golden Age\" of the company's advertising, but beginning in the early 1980s Burger King advertising began losing focus. A series of less successful advertising campaigns created by a procession of advertising agencies continued for the next two decades. In 2003, Burger King hired the Miami-based advertising agency Crispin Porter + Bogusky (CP+B), which completely reorganized its advertising with a series of new campaigns centered on a redesigned Burger King character nicknamed \"The King\", accompanied by a new online presence. While highly successful, some of CP+B's commercials were derided for perceived sexism or cultural insensitivity. Burger King's new owner, 3G Capital, later terminated the relationship with CP+B in 2011 and moved its advertising to McGarryBowen, to begin a new product-oriented campaign with expanded demographic targeting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The advertising program for the Crown Jewels sandwiches featured the slogan \"Flash, but not too flash\" which was an inference stating while they cost more than the standard burger offerings at BK, they were not as much as one would expect to pay at a higher end outlet. The products were introduced in a series of three pairs of commercials in both 15 and 30 second formats. The commercials featured animals such as snails or frogs that are used as exotic cuisine in various regions of the world. As the narrator announces BK is looking for new and more complex ingredients for their new line of sandwiches, the animals are shown reacting in a fearful way believing they are the new ingredients. At the end, the narrator declares one of the new flavors and the animal is relieved to find out they are not food, then they are promptly dispatched by the new food item (e.g. the frog is hit with a mango)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "Introduced in 1976, the Burger King Kingdom was Burger King's answer to McDonaldland, the setting for characters created in the commercials made by Burger King's rival McDonald's during the mid-1970s. By 1989, the \"Burger King Kingdom\" characters were phased out in favor of the BK Kids Club Gang. Starting in 2003, the Burger King began to be reused in Burger King ads, albeit as a man in a mask and King costume, rather than a full live-action portrayal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Big King",
        "text": "The Double Supreme was promoted in a series of advertisements created by the New York firm of Ammirati Puris Lintas (APL). The first ad compared the Double Supreme cheeseburger to the Big Mac, with one 30-second television spot touting the Burger King product contained 75% more beef than the McDonald's one and asked the viewer if Big Mac lovers were \"ready for a new relationship?\" A second advertisement featured actors playing McDonald's employees going to Burger King to get the new sandwich because they had realized that they preferred the Burger King product over the sandwich they normally sold. The attack ads were the result of the comparatively strong sales year for Burger King in 1996 coupled with domestic sales problems for McDonald's, leaving BK acting in a \"cocky\" manner towards its main rival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "CP+B reinstated the Burger King character used in the 1970s and 1980s for the Burger King Kingdom advertising campaign. The character was redesigned as a caricature of the original, now simply called \"the Burger King\" or just \"the King\". The new incarnation replaced the singing and dancing \"Magical Burger King\" with a miming actor who wore an oversized, grinning plastic mask resembling the original actor who played King. Employing the practice of viral marketing, CP+B's advertisements generated significant word of mouth and a new use of what has become known as the \"Creepy King\" persona, an appellation that CP+B used in later advertisements. In April 2009, a CP+B advertisement for Burger King's \"Texican burger\" was removed from television because it caused an international uproar over insults to Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In the early 1990s, Burger King advertised its new dinner offering \u2013 dinner baskets and table service \u2013 with the \"BK Tee Vee\" (or \"BKTV\") campaign, which used the taglines \"BK Tee Vee... I Love this Place!\" and \"Your Way Right Away!\", and featured Dan Cortese as \"Dan: The Whopper Man.\" Burger King's lack of a successful advertising campaign continued during the 1980s and 1990s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "As the success of the barbell strategy became evident to the general market place, other chains such as McDonald's and Carl's Jr./Hardee's began to experiment with the concept. Introduced in 2001, Carl's Jr./Hardee's sells its Six-Dollar Burger, a line of sandwiches that is also made from Angus beef."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "In 2007, Burger King introduced a television advertising campaign in which a Burger King restaurant in Las Vegas, Nevada told customers that the company had stopped selling the Whopper sandwich. The ads showed the startled reactions of customers that Burger King would discontinue selling its most popular sandwich. A second round of related commercials showed actual customers who had ordered a Whopper instead being provided with a Big Mac from McDonald's or a hamburger from Wendy's. After the customers complained to the Burger King restaurant manager, the King would emerge from the kitchen with a Whopper on a silver platter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In 2003, Burger King hired the Miami-based advertising agency Crispin Porter + Bogusky (CP+B), which revived the Burger King character used during Burger King's 1970s and 1980s Burger King Kingdom advertising campaign as a caricature now simply called \"the King\". CP+B also created a series of viral web-based advertisements to complement its television and print promotional campaigns on various social networks and various Burger King corporate pages. These viral campaigns, other new campaigns and a series of new product introductions, drew both positive and negative attention to Burger King and helped TPG and its partners earn approximately US$367\u00a0million in dividends. After the late-2000s recession, Burger King's owner, TPG Capital, divested itself of the chain in 2010; the new owner, 3G Capital, ended its relationship with CP+B and hired McGarryBowen to begin a new campaign targeted on a broader demographic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The BK Crown Jewels line was developed by the Burger King franchisee in New Zealand, Tasman Pacific Foods, abbreviated TPF. The sandwiches were introduced in the summer of 2005 as part of Burger King's global program to introduce more adult oriented fare to its menu. The products themselves were variations on the existing Whopper, TenderCrisp and TenderGrill sandwiches and featured more exotic ingredients such as mango lime salsa, avocado and garlic aioli."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "New owners 3G Capital response to this was to in turn revamp Burger King's menu, stores and image. Besides the Chef's Choice Burger, the company introduced products that emulated McDonald's such as oatmeal, ice cream and smoothies."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "After Miami-based advertising firm Crispin Porter + Bogusky (CP+B) took over advertising of Burger King on January 27, 2003, they began using a new caricatured iteration of the Burger King character who was simply called \"the King\". During production, an employee at CP+B found a 1970s'-era oversized Burger King head for sale on eBay which was originally used as inspiration for brainstorming; it was eventually decided to restore the head and use it in a campaign. The King appeared in commercials for Burger King starting in 2004. In this incarnation, the King is an unnamed actor who wears an oversized grinning mask that resembles the 1970s version of the King and who often appears in various unexpected places such as in bed with people or behind doors and walls, only to offer them Burger King food. Employing the advertising technique called viral marketing, CP+B's ads generated significant word of mouth for its new use of what various trade publications and Internet articles labeled \"the Creepy King\" persona, an appellation that BK has come to favor and CP+B uses in its ads."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "When Miami-based advertising agency Crispin Porter + Bogusky took over advertising of Burger King in 2003, they created a caricatured rendition of the Burger King character from the Burger King Kingdom advertising campaign now simply called \"the King\". During the use of CP+B's new version of the King, ads generated significant word of mouth for its new use of what various trade publications and Internet articles labeled \"the Creepy King\" persona, an appellation that BK came to favor and CP+B used in its ads. However, this iteration of the King failed to provide a consistent message regarding the company and its products, prompting the company to terminate its relationship with CP+B upon the takeover of Burger King by 3G Capital in 2010 and announced the following year that the character would be retired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "Internationally, the chain has introduced several lines of premium sandwiches. In New Zealand, the chain first introduced the BK Crown Jewels line which was based upon the Whopper, TenderGrill, and TenderCrisp sandwiches. The line was eventually replaced with the BK King's Collection menu of Angus-based sandwiches. It also sold Angus-burgers in Australia, the United Kingdom, and Ireland. In East Asia, the chains sells the Angus XT sandwich which is a variant of the Steakhouse XT. In Great Britain, the chain has also introduced a burger based on lamb and another based on Wagyu beef, while back in the United States it sold a turkey burger sandwich \u2013 all of which were limited time offerings (LTOs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "After purchasing the company in 2010, 3G Capital ended Burger King's relationship with CP+B and engaged the services of McGarryBowen. In August 2011, McGarryBowen produced its first Burger King campaign, which was for the California Whopper sandwich. The advertisements were the first in a campaign that de-emphasized the King and focused on ingredients and preparation methods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The product was introduced at a point of massive change for the company; besides the new broiler system that was being introduced, the company was also adding an entirely new product holding system designed to improve the quality of its products. Burger King was also tinkering with its menu in regards to other products, adding the Griller and a new veggie burger sandwich along with changes to its grilled chicken offerings, onion rings and milkshakes. The company had high hopes for the product at the time of introduction; same store sales for the company had been falling for at least five years resulting in lagging market share and decreased customer counts. The failure of the product left a hole in the company's menu, leaving it without the premium product side of its barbell strategy at a point where parent Diageo was trying to build up the chain's value to maximize the profit in the upcoming sales to the Texas Pacific Group. This failure was part of a series of events that deteriorated the chain's financial performance and eventually forced Diageo to drop its selling price for the chain from to ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "The first Burger King logo used text and was introduced on 28 July 1953. The first graphical representation of the Burger King character occurred in the 1960s and is sometimes called the \"Sitting King\" logo, as the Burger King character is shown sitting atop a burger holding a beverage. Several versions were produced; the King is shown either sitting atop a hamburger or on an inverted trapezoid with the company name along the top and its motto \"Home of the Whopper\" below it. Some signs omitted the King and only had the trapezoid. This logo was used in various forms until 30 April 1969 when the Burger King \"bun halves\" logo made its debut on 1 May 1969, and has continued in use until the present. The logo resembles a hamburger; with two orange semi-circular \"buns\" surrounding the name. On 30 April 1994, BK updated the logo with a graphical tightening, replacing the \"bulging\" font with a smoother font with rounded edges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The burger came at a point in the industry where fast casual restaurants were beginning to take a bite out of the industry as a whole. Burger King, and other chains, at first had not taken chains such as Five Guys and Smashburger as serious competition. Additionally, convenience stores such as 7-11 were also expanding their in-store foods with cheaper hot foods that challenged the lower end of the market. These two market trends had the effect of shaving sales from both ends of the menu, challenging the concept of the barbell strategy. As the chains tried to fight the encroachment of the competition from outside fast food industry, McDonald's and Wendy's chose to focus on their menus while Burger King focused its advertising on younger-skewing \"superfan\". The result was that the other two chains' sales grew by 26% and 9% percent respectively, while Burger King's remained flat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "In Hong Kong, Burger King sold the Angus XT Black Truffle burger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "With the late-2000s recession hitting the 18\u201335 demographic targeted by the CP+B created ads particularly hard, the company saw its market share decline and the company move into the red. After the completion of the sale of the company in late 2010, the new ownership group terminated Burger King's seven-year relationship with CP+B and hired rival firm McGarryBowen to create a new campaign with an expanded market reach. As part of the new campaign, McGarryBowen terminated the use of The Burger King in the company's advertising program in favor of a new program that focused on the food and ingredients in its new advertising campaigns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In 1982, Burger King's television advertising campaign featured Sarah Michelle Gellar, then aged 4. In the advertisements, Gellar said that McDonald's burgers were 20% smaller than Burger King's. It was arguably the first attack on a food chain by a competitor. The campaign was controversial because prior to it, fast food advertisements only made vague allusions to the competition and never mentioned the name. McDonald's sued and the suit was settled the following year on undisclosed terms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "Burger King successfully partnered with George Lucas's Lucasfilm to promote the 1977 movie \"Star Wars\", one of the first product tie-ins in the fast food industry. The company's most successful tie-ins were those between the 1990s and early 2000s, with successful campaigns involving Disney's animated films, including \"Beauty & the Beast\" and \"Toy Story\", and the Pok\u00e9mon franchise in 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "The Burger King\n--History.\n----1960s\u20131980s.\n----2004\u20132011.\n----2015\u2013present.\n--Advertising campaigns.\n----Crispin Porter + Bogusky.\n----NFL commercials.\n----Video games.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "Although the advertisements were mainly shown in North America, advertisements featuring the King surfaced on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom as well as in Germany in early January 2006. The King appeared not to catch on with the UK market and was seemingly retired there after only two brief commercials (featuring him at an ATM and as a pole dancer). However, he returned in summer 2006 as part of Burger King's \"Superman Returns\" campaign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "Burger King's first major tie-in, and one of the first for the QSR industry, was the 1977 film \"Star Wars\" in which BK sold a set of glasses featuring the main characters from the film. From that point on, competition between the major QSR chains became an important part of advertising in the fast food industry; McDonald's partnered with Disney in the 1980s and early 1990s. In 1991 Burger King signed a ten-film contract with Disney, a venture that was very successful. Burger King promoted films such as \"Beauty and the Beast\" (1991), \"Aladdin\" (1992), \"The Lion King\" (1994), \"Pocahontas\" (1995), \"Toy Story\" (1995) and \"The Hunchback of Notre Dame\" (1996). These cross promotions were rivaled only by McDonald's/Ty Beanie Babies cross-promotion in 1999\u20132000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "Burger King premium burgers\n--History.\n----North America.\n------Sirloin Steak sandwich.\n------Back Porch Grillers.\n------The Angus Burger.\n------Steakhouse Burger.\n------Steakhouse XT.\n------Chef's Choice Burger.\n------A1 Ultimate Bacon Cheeseburger.\n----Europe.\n------The Aberdeen Angus burger.\n------The $190 Burger.\n------The Lamb Flatbread burger.\n----New Zealand.\n------Crown Jewels.\n--------Product variants.\n------King's Collection.\n----Asia.\n----Competitive products.\n--Advertising.\n----North America.\n----Europe.\n----New Zealand.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "On 6 January 2021, Burger King unveiled its newest logo, a variation on the classic 1969-1994 logo."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "In 2010, a second attempt was made to launch the King in the UK, with a series of TV and newspaper commercials, starting a few days before his launch, with sneak peeks accompanied by the tag \"He's Coming\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Specialty Sandwiches",
        "text": "A 2009 advertising campaign in Singapore for the company's new BK Super Seven Incher cheeseburger, caused a notable controversy over the content of the ad. Originally and erroneously attributed to Burger King's advertising firm at the time, Crispin Porter + Bogusky, which had generated controversy with some misogynistic and culturally insensitive American and European advertisements, it was later revealed that a local, unnamed Singaporean firm was responsible for the campaign. The print version of the advertisement (\"pictured\") made an overt association with the sandwich and oral sex using imagery and less-than subtle innuendo in the printed description in the advertisement. Critics across the globe complained that the ad was \"disgusting\", and went \"too far\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "In March 2012, Burger King became the first major burger chain to add a burger based on lamb when it introduced its Lamb Flatbread burger to its menu in the United Kingdom and Ireland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In 2021, a new campaign serving as a response to the various \"flavour conspiracys\" regarding their burgers was launched with the slogan \"It's not a secret, it's real fire\" (stated in the accompanying advert as \"No secrets, it's just fire\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The Sirloin Steak sandwich was introduced in 1979 as part of a menu expansion that in turn was part of a corporate restructuring effort for Burger King. During the mid-1970s, Burger King was having issues with its operations, franchises and image. In 1978, Donald N. Smith was hired from McDonald's to help restructure the corporate operations of Burger King to better compete against his former company as well as the then up-and-coming chain, Wendy's. As part of an operational overhaul he dubbed \"Operation Phoenix\", Smith reorganized the corporate operations of Burger King. He also initiated a development plan for a new product line that would become known as the Specialty Sandwich line. Development began that same year, and while the company found that the new product lines would add an approximate eight second delay to the production time of orders and would cost about $39 million in lost productivity, the product was introduced in 1979. Despite these possible sales losses and time issues, the new products were successful and the company's sales increased by 15 percent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "By October 2008, Burger King announced it had shown revenue growth in the United States despite the ongoing fiscal slowdown related to the financial crisis of 2007\u201308. According to the company, same store growth in the U.S. grew approximately 3.6% in part to sales of the Steakhouse Burger. Despite the profit, the company missed Wall Street's estimates by a penny per share which resulted in a 37\u00a2 drop in the chain's share prices."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King products",
        "text": "The company used its advertising firm of McGarryBowen and a food-centric campaign to introduce the products. The ads feature the tag line of \"More beef, more value\", with the television commercials utilizing images of the ingredients of the sandwiches as they are being prepared."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "With the introduction of the company's new broilers in the United States and Canada in 2009 and 2010, Burger King introduced the third generation of its premium burger sandwich that it called the Steakhouse XT burger, with the XT standing for eXtra Thick. This new sandwich supplanted the previous versions of premium sandwiches as the chains most expensive burger-based sandwich. Unlike the preceding two sandwiches, this version was not made from Angus beef, but was intended to draw upon its ingredients and size as it defining characteristic. A higher-end version of the Steakhouse XT was first introduced in 2009 at the company's new BK Whopper Bar restaurant concept located at Universal Studios Orlando priced at US$5.29. The regular versions were introduced in January 2010 once the company had finished deploying its new broilers in all of its North American restaurants. The new sandwich came in two permanent varieties and a LTO variant, all of which featured a new round, , thick patty and was priced at $3.99 to $4.49 depending on the variant. At its BK Whopper Bar restaurants, the company added several other varieties beyond the initial one introduced in 2009 that were all exclusive to the high-end concept. The product was the first national product tailored to the new flexible broilers, units that were designed to cook multiple types of products that have different cooking requirements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The $190 burger was a sandwich that featured Wagyu beef and was sold in June 2008 at one location in East London. The idea was to promote the company's commitment to food quality. The promotion was also a fund raiser as all proceeds were donated to a local British children's charity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Specialty Sandwiches",
        "text": "The meatloaf sandwich was part of the company's new BK Dinner Baskets product line and serving concept. To promote the product line and concept, Burger King commissioned New York based agency D'Arcy Masius Benton & Bowles to create a series of \"BK Teevee\" ads featuring MTV VJ Dan Cortese. The tag line developed for the promotion was \"BK, I love this place\". The advertising program was designed as part of a back to basics plan by Burger King after a series of disappointing advertising schemes including the failure of its 1980s \"Where's Herb?\" campaign. The Dinner Baskets were one of two main parts of the plan, as was a newly introduced value menu in response to similar offerings at McDonald's, Taco Bell and Wendy's."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Angus Burger",
        "text": "#Redirect Burger King premium burgers"
      },
      {
        "title": "Big King",
        "text": "Advertising for the Big King was spearheaded by a national television program from APL that debuted on September 1, 1997. The television ads were part of a US$30 million program to promote the sandwich. It was introduced with a promotional price of 99\u00a2 for the first two weeks of sales, which helped drive sales for the product. The advertisements featured the company's new \"Get Your Burger's Worth\" tagline and they attacked the Big Mac with the claim \"Get ready for a new taste that beats the Big Mac.\" Additional ads continued the attacks, stating \"just like a Big Mac, except it's got 75% more beef. And it's flame-broiled.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "Pillsbury's Executive Vice President of Restaurant Operations Norman E. Brinker was tasked with turning the brand around, and strengthening its position against its main rival McDonald's. One of his initiatives was a new advertising campaign featuring a series of attack ads against its major competitors. This campaign started a competitive period between Burger King, McDonald's, and top burger chains known as the Burger wars. Brinker left Burger King in 1984, to take over Dallas-based gourmet burger chain Chili's."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King sliders",
        "text": "During the periods these products were sold, they were often the center of product advertising for the company. Additionally, as a major products in the company's portfolio, Burger King had registered many global trademarks to protect its investment in the products, most of which have since lapsed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "When Crispin Porter + Bogusky took over the advertising account of Burger King in 2003, They began devising a caricatured variation of the Burger King character from the Burger King Kingdom advertising campaign, now simply called \"The King\". During the use of CP+B's new version of the King, ads generated significant word of mouth for its new use of what various trade publications and Internet articles labeled \"the Creepy King\" persona, an appellation that BK came to favor and CP+B's used in its ads. The farcical nature of the program led to the King becoming an internet meme frequently portrayed as a fiend with monstrous intents, in addition to starring in three video games published by Burger King in late 2006. However, the use of the king failed to provide a consistent message regarding the company and its products. Upon the take over of Burger King by 3G Capital in 2010, the company terminated its relationship with CP+B and in August 2011 Burger King announced that character would be retired as the primary mascot for the brand."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Burger King",
        "text": "Besides the creation of the company's signature piece of equipment, the flame broiler, the company added two more features during this period that have since become closely associated with the chain. The first to be created was its mascot, the Burger King in 1955. The character would become a staple of its advertising over the next 60 years. The second creation was the company's signature sandwich, the Whopper. It was created in 1957 by James McLamore and originally sold for 37 cents. McLamore created the burger after he noticed that a rival restaurant was having success selling a larger burger. Believing that the success of the rival product was its size, he devised the Whopper. The name was chosen because he felt that it conveyed \"imagery of something big\". Finally, the company made its first forays into advertising in the new medium of television with commercials for the chain in 1958."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "Burger King created a separate logo for its children's products with the introduction of its Burger King Kid's Club in 1990. The original logo, an inverted triangle with blue text, was used in television and print advertising, signage, toy and meal packaging. Burger King changed this logo several times and introduced several local versions in its international market. In 1992, the company replaced the original logo with one similar to its corporate \"bun halves\" logo, the original Burger King text logo on a single line with the text \"Kids Club\" text under it on two lines. The most current logo in North America is for its \"Club BK\" program which it introduced in July 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "The Subservient Chicken was an advertising program starring a costume chicken character to promote Burger King's TenderCrisp chicken sandwich and their \"Have it Your Way\" campaign. Created for the Miami-based advertising firm Crispin Porter + Bogusky (CP+B) by The Barbarian Group, the program featured a viral marketing website and multiple television ads.\n;General market:\n* 1958\u201368 \u2013 Hume, Smith and Mickelberry\n* 1968\u201376 \u2013 BBDO\n* 1976\u201387 \u2013 J. Walter Thompson\n* 1987\u201389 \u2013 N.W. Ayer<ref name=\"CT Ayer/BK\"></ref>\n* 1988 \u2013 Einsom-Freeman and August, Bishop and Meier\n* 1989\u201394 \u2013 D'Arcy Masius Benton & Bowles (DMB&B), Saatchi & Saatchi\n* 1994\u20132001 \u2013 Lowe, Lintas & Partners \u2013 General Market and Kids Club\n* 2001\u20132002 \u2013 McCann-Erickson\n* 2002\u20132003 \u2013 AMOEBA, Inc.\n* September 2002 \u2013 Deutsch, Inc. for introduction of BK 99\u00a2 Value Menu.\n* 2003\u20132004 \u2013 Young & Rubicam, Inc.\n* 2004\u20132011 \u2013 Crispin Porter & Bogusky<ref name=\"WSJ CP+B/BK\"></ref>\n* 2011 \u2013 McGarryBowen\n;African American market:\n* 1983\u2013present \u2013 UniWorld Group, Inc.\n;Hispanic market:\n* 1989\u20132009 \u2013 Bromley Communications\n* 2009\u2013present \u2013 LatinWorks\n;Internet:\n* 2001 \u2013 June 2008 \u2013 VML, Inc.\n* July 2008 \u2013 2011 \u2013 Crispin Porter + Bogusky\n;Children's:\n* 1989\u20131994: Saatchi & Saatchi Advertising\n* 1994\u20132001: Lowe, Lintas & Partners\n* 2001\u20132010: Campbell Mithun\n* Present: Pitch, Inc."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "In a 2007 commercial to promote the restaurant chain's new Western Whopper sandwich, the King is shown in full royal attire against an obviously fake backdrop of a Southwestern desert, doing a jig-like dance to banjo music. His head is slightly modified so that he wears a handlebar mustache in the style of the Old West, and is juxtaposed with shots of Burger King customers who, upon consuming a Western Whopper, acquire similar mustaches regardless of age or gender."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "The \"blue crescent\" logo was designed by the New York-based Sterling Brands and made its official debut on July 1, 1999. Sterling Group changed the color of the restaurant's name from red to burgundy, tilted the bun halves and the font on an axis, used a smaller bun motif and wrapped the burger with a blue crescent, which gave it a more circular appearance. Most restaurants did not acquire new signs, menus, and drive-thru ordering speakers until 2001. All secondary signage was updated with the new logo and all sign posts were repainted to match the blue coloring of the new crescent, replacing the original black."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "Five years later, the company brought back the King in May 2015 with a paid appearance as a member of Floyd Mayweather, Jr.'s entourage before the Mayweather vs. Pacquiao fight. The next was an appearance in the grandstands at the 2015 Belmont Stakes, with the character standing behind Bob Baffert, the horse trainer of American Pharoah. The King returned in 2017 and onward in commercials promoting the new \"Mac and Cheetos\" and flame-grilled Whoppers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In the UK, Burger King uses paper crowns to advertise its restaurants. Though the regular crown is gold and similar to that of what the King wears, there have been some variants. Variants include, a Halloween skeleton variant, a Christmas hat variant, a mini version, and hats to advertise the Whopper, Chicken fries and the 2019 Melting down promotion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungry Jack's",
        "text": "Under the aegis of this claim, Burger King Corporation in partnership with Shell Australia, began to open its own stores in 1997 beginning in Sydney and throughout the Australian regions of New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory, Victoria and Tasmania. In addition, Burger King sought to limit HJ's ability to open new locations in the country, whether they were corporate locations or third-party licensees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King legal issues",
        "text": "In response to the 2006 introduction of the BK XXL product line in Spain, the Spanish Health Ministry publicly claimed that the company had violated a voluntary agreement between the company and the Spanish Federation of Hoteliers and Restaurateurs, a group to which Burger King belongs, that called on its members to refrain from advertising large portions of food. The Minister of Health, Elena Salgado, claimed that the new promotion and the new sandwiches, averaging over 970 calories each, violated the accord. The head of Spain's food regulatory body, Felix Lobo, stated a legal case could be made against Burger King for \"illegally failing to comply with a contract\". In a response to the Government's allegations, the European offices of Burger King released this statement: \"In this campaign, we are simply promoting a line of burgers that has formed part of our menu in recent years. Our philosophy can be summed up with the motto 'As you like it,' in which our customers' taste trumps all.\" The company also explained that it had always worked \"to reduce the risk of illness provoked by an inadequate diet and to promote a balanced\u00a0... diet.\" A spokesperson for the company stated that customers have the choice of salads versus a Whopper, that they have the option to modify their sandwiches as they please, and that the company was going to continue to advertising the products."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "In August 2006, a commercial debuted showing the King holding a press conference with his \"agent\", Drew Rosenhaus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "On 12 September 2007, Burger King announced that it was joining the Council of Better Business Bureaus Children's Food and Beverage Advertising Initiative. The program, a voluntary self-regulation program designed to adjust advertising messages aimed at children so that they encourage healthy eating habits and lifestyles. As part of this new initiative, Burger King stated that it would restrict its advertising aimed at children under 12 that uses third-party licensed characters to Kids Meals that meet its nutrition guidelines, refrain from advertising in elementary schools and refrain from product placement in media primarily aimed at children under 12, promote Kids Meals that meet its nutrition guidelines and promote healthy lifestyles and healthy dietary choices in its advertising. Several groups, including the CSPI, lauded the move as guarded good news."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "In addition, CP+B added a viral marketing web page The Angus Diet. Designed to work with the larger Angus campaign, this site featured the such things as the Angus diet testimonials, a faux diet book and Angus interventions. The \"interventions\" could be sent to people via e-mail by filling out several fields on the page. As CP+B stated: \"They were a way of getting people to spread the idea of the basis of the Angus Diet \u2013 just enjoy life. Do whatever you want. Eat whatever you want as long as it makes you happy.\"\n* The Western Barbecue Angus \u2013 In a cross promotion with the 2005 season of the Apprentice, the two teams, Magna and Net Worth, competed in a contest to design a sandwich for BK to sell. The winning product was the Net Worth team and their \"Western Angus Steak Burger\". As a promotional stunt, the new sandwich was introduced as a nationwide, limited time offering the day after the episode aired.\n* Steakhouse (1st campaign) \u2013 The first line of advertisements for the Steakhouse Burger tagged the sandwich as \"the burger you just can't wait for.\" The commercials often featured people in a rush to get to Burger King and purchase a Steakhouse Burger, risking the safety of other people and property around them in the process.\n* Steakhouse Burger (2nd campaign) \u2013 The second line of advertisements for the Steakhouse Burger tagged the sandwich as \"so special, people might think you think you're special.\" The commercials imply that the Steakhouse Burger is a burger that people have to \"earn the right\" to eat. They usually feature two characters each enjoying the burger. They are then approached by a third character, who asks what the other two characters did to earn the sandwich. The first character boasts of an extraordinary feat, while the second character says he was \"just hungry\" or \"just wanted one.\" The third character then berates the second character, calling him arrogant for eating a sandwich that he \"did not deserve.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "This campaign paralleled McDonald's McDonaldland children's commercials, which featured \"Ronald McDonald\", \"The Hamburglar\", and \"Mayor McCheese\", along with other characters and mascots. The ads featuring the Burger King Kingdom were phased out by the late 1980s in favour of the BK Kids Club."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In 2017, Burger King briefly ran an ad to intentionally activate Google Home smart speakers. The end of the commercial featured an employee saying \"OK Google, what is the Whopper burger,\" which would trigger the device to read the first sentence of the Wikipedia entry for the Whopper. Shortly before the ad's release, the entry for Whopper had been edited to include lines such as \"America's favourite burger\" and \"100% beef with no preservatives\". Although the ad worked for a while, after a few hours the commercial no longer triggered a search by the device, which was viewed by both \"The New York Times\" and \"The Verge\" to be a deliberate change made by Google. According to the BBC, the voice-over for the commercial was re-recorded with a different intonation in order to bypass the block. During the hours that the ad was active, many attempts were made to vandalize the Wikipedia page in question to alter Google Home's description."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The Angus burger was one of the company's important product lines, targeting a group of consumers the chain identified as the \"Superfan\"; a demographic of individuals that composed 20 percent of the chain's customers, but 50 percent of the sales volume. One of the issues related to the sandwich's failure was the fact that the patty it was using was precooked; the sandwich lacked the taste of a burger that was cooked from raw. While the burger was presented as a premium product, the meat texture was found not to be much different from that of the Whopper \u2013 a less-expensive sandwich that many customers preferred. Beginning in January 2008, Burger King began to phase out the Angus burger in the US with the intention of replacing the sandwich with a newer Angus-based product in the second quarter of 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Specialty Sandwiches",
        "text": "The veal Parmesan sandwich was introduced in a series of commercials from JWT centered around the new corporate ad slogan, \"Aren't you hungry - for Burger King now?\" targeting the 19- to 49-year-old male demographic. The campaign was part of a back-to-basics program designed to put the company on a more competitive footing with main rival McDonald's, who was outspending Burger King's advertising budget by a factor of three. With the new program, the company hoped to establish itself as the higher quality alternative to McDonald's."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The chain's first major attempt was part of their Specialty Sandwich line that was introduced in 1979 was the Sirloin Steak Sandwich. After the failure of the Specialty Sandwich line, Burger King went on to introduce several other premium burgers made from a variety of meats. One major example introduced in 2002 was the BK Back Porch Griller sandwich line. The sandwich, introduced in May 2002 was a pronounced failure, and pulled in September of that year. The next product Burger King introduced was its Angus Steakburger which it began selling in 2004; it too had lack-luster sales due in part to the patty being pre-cooked. The sandwich was later reformulated as the Steakhouse Burger which used a thinner, flatter, fresh cooked patty. The Steakhouse Burger sandwich was eventually replaced with the Steakhouse XT/Angus XT burger, which used a new, thicker round patty among several other changes. This newer sandwich was made possible with the introduction of the company's new broiler systems which allowed varying cooking times and temperatures which in turn gave the company the ability to utilize fresh cooked, thicker patties in its sandwiches. Only variations of the sandwich that explicitly state \"Angus\" in the title are manufactured from meat from Angus cattle. In 2011, the company discontinued selling the product in the North American market, replacing it with the Chef's Choice Burger. The Chef's Choice Burger was removed in 2012. 2014 saw the introduction of the newest attempt at introducing a premium burger to the company's portfolio with the introduction of the A.1. Ultimate Cheeseburger in North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King products",
        "text": "In 2004, the company committed itself to a redesign of its entire packaging line that tied the packaging into its irreverent advertising campaign created by Crispin, Porter + Bogusky. Each product's packaging included a tongue-in-cheek commentary about the product itself. Alex Bogusky, partner and executive creative director of CP+B, stated that BK decided \"to create a dialogue with the consumer\" by utilizing the large areas of white space found on its packaging at the time. All of its sandwich wrappers, cartons, tray liners, bags, breakfast platters, chili cups, condiments, and regional product packaging received what was described as \"quirky ad copy\" specifically targeting the 18\u201334-year-old male demographic segment. Besides the humorous commentary, the company also created sniglet-type names for things that would appear in its products, such as a \"ringer\" \u2013 a single onion ring that had been accidentally included in an order of fries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "In the United States, McDonald's introduced its own Angus Third Pounder sandwich in 2009. They were removed from the menu in 2013 and replaced with new variations on its Quarter Pounder sandwich.\n* Dr. Angus \u2013 Dr. Angus was a CP+B creation launched in 2004 to promote the new Angus line of Sandwiches. Played by comedian Harry Enfield, the character is a smarmy self-help \"doctor\" with gleaming white teeth and a starched toupee who encourages eaters to \"sit down\" and enjoy the BK's large Angus burgers. In 2006, the character was again used to advertise BK's new Cheesy Bacon Angus and TenderCrisp sandwiches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The Back Porch Grillers were introduced in 2002 as part of a plan to increase the company's sales ahead of the upcoming sale of Burger King from then owner Diageo to a group of investors led by Texas Pacific Group (TPG). In its press release announcing the product, Burger King stated the intent of the burgers was to evoke the taste of a grilled burger that one would cook at home. At the time of launch there were two flavors of the sandwich, the Homestyle and the Smokehouse Cheddar, both served on a \"bakery-style\" bun. A third type, the Black Stack BBQ Griller, was introduced as a product tie-in with \"Men in Black II\" two weeks later. Initial testing of the sandwich led to favorable scoring in customer surveys and a roughly 15% increase in sales without compromising the sales of other products such as the Whopper. Due to the favorable results in testing, the company pushed up the introduction of the sandwich nationally. However, the product was statemented into two variants due to the company's introduction of its new broiler line; these new broilers were designed to allow a greater flexibility of products with different cooking times and heat settings which allowed the company to sell thicker burgers that required more cooking times. At the time of the sandwiches' introduction, the new broiler units had only been introduced to about one tenth of its North American stores. In these stores the sandwich was made with a single, thicker patty; in those locations with the older units, the company used a pair of thinner patties in a double burger sandwich. The use of the thinner patties resulted in numerous customer complaints that the sandwich was dry and not as tasteful as the thicker patty version."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger wars",
        "text": "In a 2007 advertising campaign, Jack in the Box aired a series of television ads in the United States that disparaged several rivals' Angus-beef burgers in which it was alleged that they equated Angus beef with an anus. Rival chain operator CKE claimed the ads were misleading because they confuse consumers by comparing sirloin, a cut of meat found on all cattle, with Angus, which is a breed of cattle. CKE, operator of the Carl's Jr. and Hardees chains, had been noted for running controversial ads and claimed that there was no comparison between the ads they were running and those of Jack In the Box because their ads did not insinuate their products came from an undesirable part of cows."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King products",
        "text": "The chain also moved its advertising account from McGarryBowen to new agency of record Mother in February. The agency, who had already been working with the chain for several months as a secondary ad firm, introduced a new \"people-centric\" advertising program for the new sandwich line-up."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King products",
        "text": "Returning to the practice of targeting the adult demographic as it had in 1978, BK introduced several new products to its menu in 2003. The new products included new or revamped chicken sandwiches, a new salad line, and its BK Joe brand of coffee. The first of these items was the TenderCrisp chicken sandwich, an entirely new sandwich which featured a fried whole-muscle chicken breast on a corn-dusted roll. The sandwich was part of then-CEO Greg Brenneman's plans to bolster the company's revived \"Have it your way\" advertising program, which was designed to draw younger people to its stores. Some items, including the Enormous Omelet Sandwich line and the BK Stacker line, brought negative attention due to the large portion size, amounts of unhealthy fats, and the presence of trans-fats. At the time, many of the products featured higher-quality ingredients like whole chicken breast, Angus beef, Cheddar cheese, and pepper jack cheese. Not all the products new products introduced under Blum's tenure met corporate sales expectations, the Baguette Chicken sandwiches being an example. Others products, such as Burger King's line of \"indulgent\" burgers originally called the Angus Burger, have undergone multiple reformulations. The Angus Steak burger was originally based around a frozen patty; despite high expectations from the company, the sandwich fared poorly. After a reformulating program, it was relaunched in 2008 as the Angus Steakhouse burger. With the introduction of a new multifunction broiler capable of cooking a more diverse set of products, Burger King replaced the Angus Steakhouse burger with the Steakhouse XT burger in 2009. In 2011, the company discontinued selling the product in the North American market, replacing it with the Chef's Choice Burger. The Chef's Choice Burger was removed in 2012. 2014 saw the introduction of the newest attempt at introducing a premium burger to the company's portfolio with the introduction of the A.1. Ultimate Cheeseburger in North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The Steakhouse line was discontinued in 2012, approximately fourteen months after the company was sold to Brazil-based 3G Capital."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King grilled chicken sandwiches",
        "text": "The 2012 campaign from Clemenger BBDO for the TenderGrill for the Australian Burger King franchise, Hungry Jack's, featured a goth girl, complete with facial piercings and tattoos that loses her piercings and tattoos as she eats the sandwich. By the time she has finished her meal, her clothing and style had completely changed\u00a0\u2013 much to her and her friends horror. At the end of the commercial, the announcer states the tag line \"There is nothing naughty about the new Hungry Jack's TenderGrill\u00a0... Hungry Jack's makes it better.\" The Australian Advertising Standards Bureau received several complaints from the public claiming the commercial demeaned alternative lifestyles, was discriminatory and insulting to non-conformists. The Advertising Standards Board determined that the advertisement did not breach any pertinent anti-discrimination codes, and dismissed the complaint.\n* List of Burger King products\n* Original Chicken Sandwich"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King products",
        "text": "The advertising campaign was produced by Crispin, Porter + Boguski and featured flying pigs convincing customers that a fast food restaurant could in fact produce good barbecue ribs at a reasonable price."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "Burger King was a pioneer in the advertising practice known as the \"product tie-in\", with a successful partnership with George Lucas' Lucasfilm, Ltd., to promote the 1977 film \"Star Wars\" in which BK sold a set of beverage glasses featuring the main characters from the movie. This promotion was one of the first in the fast food industry and set the pattern that continues to the present. BK's early success in the field was overshadowed by a 1982 deal between McDonald's and the Walt Disney Company to promote Disney's animated films beginning in the mid-1980s and running through the early 1990s. In 1994, Disney switched from McDonald's to Burger King, signing a 10-movie promotional contract which would include such top 10 films as \"Aladdin\" (1992), \"Beauty and the Beast\" (1991), \"The Lion King\" (1994), and \"Toy Story\" (1995). A partnership in association with the Pok\u00e9mon franchise at the height of its popularity in 1999 was tremendously successful for the company, with many locations rapidly selling out of the toys and the replacements."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "When Burger King moved to expand its operations into Australia, it found that its business name was already trademarked by a takeaway food shop in Adelaide. The Canadian-Australian franchisee, Jack Cowin, selected the \"Hungry Jack\" brand name, one of then Burger King's owner Pillsbury's U.S. pancake mixture products, and slightly changed the name to a possessive form by adding an apostrophe and \"s\" to form the new name \"Hungry Jack's\". In 1996, shortly after the Australian trademark on the Burger King name lapsed, Burger King began to open its own Australian stores in 1997. As a result of Burger King's actions, Hungry Jack's owner Jack Cowin and his company Competitive Foods Australia, began legal proceedings in 2001 against the Burger King Corporation. Hungry Jack's won the case, and Burger King eventually left the country. Hungry Jack's took ownership of the former Burger King locations and subsequently renamed the remaining Burger King locations as Hungry Jack's. As of June 2019, Burger King had 83 stores operating in New Zealand. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Burger King went into receivership in April 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King products",
        "text": "Internationally, the chain has introduced several lines of premium sandwiches. In New Zealand, the chain first introduced the BK Crown Jewels line which was based upon the Whopper, TenderGrill, and TenderCrisp sandwiches. The line was eventually replaced with the BK King's Collection menu of Angus-based sandwiches. It also sold Angus-burgers in Australia, Great Britain and Ireland. In East Asia, the chains sells the Angus XT sandwich which is a variant of the Steakhouse XT. In Great Britain, the chain has also introduced a burger based on lamb and another based on Wagyu beef, while back in the United States it sold a turkey burger sandwich \u2013 all of which were limited time offerings (LTOs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "To promote continuing interest in these products, Burger King occasionally released limited-time only (LTO) variants on its premium burgers that have different ingredients from the standard sandwich recipes. Being one of the company's major business strategies, these sandwiches have sometimes been the center of product advertising for the company."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King products",
        "text": "As one of the company's major offerings, the chicken fries are sometimes the center of product advertising for the company. The original advertisements were created by the firm of Crispin, Porter + Bogusky and were the subject of both criticism and legal action by the extreme metal band Slipknot over claims of intellectual property rights, while later advertising programs started the company on new direction of digital-based, multi-media advertising. With the product's North American reintroduction in 2014 and 2015, Burger King utilized a heavy social media campaign to help entice fans of the product back into restaurants. The company has also relied heavily on product tie-ins with the NFL, NCAA and NASCAR to promote the product across different demographic groups. Even though the product been a prominent part of the menu for the better part of a decade, Burger King has released very few limited-time (LTO) variants of the product \u2013 its first one being released in the summer of 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "Burger King's first successful cross-promotional campaign was in 1977. It offered several collectible items, such as posters, glasses and sticker sets that featured scenes and characters from \"Star Wars\". The promotional glasses have become collectors' items. The \"Star Wars\" tie-in continued with the remainder of the first \"Star Wars\" trilogy and the DVD release of both trilogies. During the 1984 television premiere of \"Star Wars\", Burger King commercials were featured prominently."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "Starting in the 1970s and running into the 1980s, Burger King's \"Kids' Club\" program gave children coupons for selected products each month, a small toy, and a surprise on the child's birthday. Burger King has been known for its paper crowns, which are sometimes redesigned to match any promotions the restaurant may be running. The original \"Kids' Club\" advertising featured a small, animated King character named The Burger King, who would travel on a modified chopper with a throne as the seat, visit a Burger King store and present the children with small gifts. The tag line was \"Burger King: Where kids are King!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "Shortly after the acquisition of Burger King by TPG Capital in 2002, its new CEO Bradley (Brad) Blum set about reversing the fortunes of the company's advertising programs. The company reinstated its famous \"Have it your way\" motto and engaged Miami-based advertising agency Crispin Porter + Bogusky (CP+B), which was known for having a hip, subversive tack when creating campaigns for its clients. CP+B updated Burger King's image and changed its marketing strategy. The cups, bags and the company logo were redesigned with the intent to give BK an appealing, culturally aware and modern image. Humorous statements, claims and product descriptions were printed on bags, product packaging and on in-store promotional materials, including a Burger King \"Bill of Rights\", using the slogan \"Have it Your Way\". CP+B created an advertising campaign that focused on television spots, print, web and product tie-ins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "Pillsbury acquired the Burger King business in 1967, and a year later, BBDO was signed on as the company's advertising agency. The relationship continued until July 1976. Since 1974, Burger King ran a series of much-lampooned but successful television commercials in which employees sing: \"Hold the pickles, hold the lettuce. Special orders don't upset us. All we ask is that you let us serve it your way!\" This advertising strategy aimed to contrast Burger King's flexibility with McDonald's famous rigidity. This theme has been reiterated in subsequent advertising campaigns. BBDO were believed to have been dropped because of their inability to originate a successful new campaign following their \"Have It Your Way\" campaign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In February 2020, to highlight the company's commitment to no artificial preservatives in their famous Whopper, Burger King ran an ad with a time-lapse of a decaying burger on Twitter. The company explained that it has removed artificial preservatives from the Whopper in a number of European countries \u2013 including France, Sweden and Spain \u2013 and about 400 of its 7,346 U.S. restaurants. It plans to remove preservatives from Whoppers served in all of its restaurants in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King products",
        "text": "As the signature product of the company, it is often at the center of advertising promotions, product tie-ins, and even corporate practical jokes and hoaxes such as its 1998 April Fool's Day prank where Burger King took out a full page advertisement in several national publications, such as \"USA Today\", promoting a new version of the sandwich called the \"Left-Handed Whopper\". The advertisement claimed that the condiments were all rotated 180\u00b0 to accommodate southpaws. Some of the early twenty-first century advertising programs, particularly in Europe, have drawn criticism for cultural insensitivity or misogyny. One such example was The Texican Whopper, an LTO version of the Whopper sold in Europe and was advertised with an ad that featured a pair of actors dressed as a cowboy and a lucha libre wrestler. The problem arose when the Mexican Ambassador to Spain complained that the commercial featured demeaning stereotypes of Mexicans. Additionally, the print version of the advertisement featured the wrestler wearing a cape that appeared to be a Mexican flag, a violation of Mexican laws governing the usage of its national banner."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Specialty Sandwiches",
        "text": "Burger King introduced the Specialty Sandwich line under its \"Burger King and I\" promotional campaign developed by the J. Walter Thompson (JWT) agency. The advertisements featured customers and employees praising the new sandwiches accompanied with a brief description of the products being sold. Actor Stuart Pankin played a doorman in one commercial in the series. Another one of the promotions used was a scratch card game called \"What's my Specialty?\" where the customer would receive a card with their purchase in which they would have to match famous people to said person's profession. The commercial explained that if you expected to lose, you would be disappointed, as all cards were winners. Prizes included fries, sodas and sandwiches."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King marketing campaigns",
        "text": "Crispin Porter + Borguski created a series of web-based advertisements to complement the various television and print promotional campaigns on sites such as Myspace and various BK corporate pages. These viral campaigns coupled several other new advertisement campaigns drew considerable positive and negative attention to BK.\n*; The Subservient Chicken\n:This ad program was used in 2004 to introduce the TenderCrisp sandwich. The first appearance of the Subservient Chicken character was in a commercial called \"the Subservient Chicken Vest\". The commercial was the first in a series of ads for the sandwich utilizing a line of viral marketing promotions by Crispin Porter + Bogusky for Burger King. In the ad, a man is sitting in his living room directing a person in a chicken suit to behave in any way he wants. The tag line was \"Chicken the way you like it.\" After the success of the Subservient Chicken, Burger King used the character in several subsequent advertising campaigns. Other versions of the character appeared for various other promotions of new and limited time versions of the product.\n*; Coq Roq\n:In the summer of 2005, Burger King introduced BK Chicken Fries to its menu. The advertising campaign featured a faux metal band named Coq Roq in a commercial called \"Bob Your Head\", members of whom wore chicken masks parodying the style of masks of nu metal band Slipknot. The website included music videos, downloadable cellular ringtones, and a store selling band merchandise. In addition, there is a MySpace page for the \"band\" that features bios, pictures, and their songs. While successful, the campaign drew scorn for sexual double entendres and a lawsuit from Slipknot in regards to the promotion alleged copying of Slipknot's \"look and feel\".\n*; Chick Flix\n:Chickflix.com, a play on the term \"chick flicks\", was another interactive website campaign based on BK's Chicken Fries. At the website, users could not only play ads created by Burger King, but also create their own.\n*; Sith Sense\n:Sithsense.com was an interactive website that tied in with the \"\" advertising program. The site featured an interactive video of Darth Vader utilizing a 20 Questions-style answering program which operated in way similar to the Subservient Chicken website.\n*; Dr. Angus\n:Dr. Angus was a CP+B creation launched in 2004 to promote the new Angus line of Sandwiches. Played by British comedian Harry Enfield, he is a smarmy self-help \"doctor\" with gleaming white teeth and a starched toupee who encourages eaters to \"sit down\" and enjoy the BK's large Angus burgers. In 2006, the character was again used to advertise BK's new Cheesy Bacon Angus and TenderCrisp sandwiches.\n:In addition, CP+B added a viral marketing web page called The Angus Diet. Designed to work with the larger Angus campaign, this site featured the such things as the Angus diet testimonials, a faux diet book and Angus interventions. The \"interventions\" could be sent to people via email by filling out several fields on the page. As CP+B stated: \"They were a way of getting people to spread the idea of the basis of the Angus Diet \u2013 just enjoy life. Do whatever you want. Eat whatever you want as long as it makes you happy.\"\n*; Manthem\n:In May 2006, in promotion of the Texas Double Whopper, Burger King released a campaign called the \"Manthem\" which parodies Helen Reddy's \"I Am Woman\". It depicts a man and his girlfriend at a fancy restaurant. Disappointed by the meager portions he is served, the man bursts into song, expressing his desire for a Texas Double Whopper, in place of what he deems \"chick food.\" As he walks out of the restaurant, he is joined by a chorus of men who rebel by not only eating Texas Double Whoppers, but also go commando, lift a minivan over the side of an overpass, and unfurl a banner which says \"Eat This Meat.\" This has been the source of some controversy, as the commercial has been described as demeaning to male vegetarians/vegans, as well as misogynistic toward women. This ad was reused in January 2007 when the sandwich was reintroduced and in Germany for a sandwich in the company's BK XXL line, and in January 2008 in Great Britain for the Double Whopper.\n*; Ugoff\n:Ugoff was a character in a 2004 ad campaign for Burger King directed by Roman Coppola. He was used to promote the new \"Fire-Grilled Salads\" and the paper \"Salad Pouch\" which was used to keep the chicken and shrimp warm for the salad entr\u00e9es. Ugoff was designed a stereotypical male fashion designer with an indeterminate middle-European accent and haughty personality.\n*; Earl, Employee of the Month\n:In Summer 2006, Burger King launched a commercial stating that its broilers, named 'Earl' on the commercials, won the most valuable employee award. With the Earl logo stamped on the side of the broiler on the commercial, it seems that this name was made up and that their broilers are actually made by Nieco and not named Earl.\n*;Fries King\n:On October 2, 2013, Burger King announced on Twitter that it was changing its name to Fries King. The name change was a publicity stunt held in conjunction with the introduction of the new Satisfries. The chain also rebranded one of its locations with the new Fries King logo, signage and packaging."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "In a 2008 commercial, which takes place in the future, a retro-futuristic robot version of the Burger King delivers a new breakfast wrap to a person who is waking up. The purpose of the advertisement was to market Burger King's new Cheesy Bacon BK Wrapper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The Aberdeen Angus burger was introduced by Burger King in 2006 when it added the European version of its Angus sandwich to the menu in the United Kingdom and Ireland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In September 2006, Burger King reintroduced an updated version of its 1970's animated king design. This was printed on cups, bags and in non-tie-in children's advertising. The redesigned king was portrayed as a sarcastic character who sometimes gets into trouble for his mischief-making adventures.\n;Crowns"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "In 1990, Hungry Jack's renewed its franchise agreement with then BK parent Burger King Corporation, which allowed Hungry Jack's to license third party franchisee. One of the terms and conditions of the renewed agreement required Hungry Jack's to open a minimum number of new locations each year for the duration of the contract. Shortly after the Australian trademark on the Burger King name lapsed in 1996, Burger King requested that Cowin rebrand the Hungry Jack's locations to Burger King, which Cowin declined. Burger King Corporation accused Hungry Jack's of violating the conditions of the renewed franchise agreement by failing to expand the chain at the rate defined and sought to terminate the agreement. Under the aegis of this claim, Burger King Corporation, in partnership with Royal Dutch Shell's Australian division Shell Company of Australia Ltd., began to open its own stores in 1997 beginning in Sydney and extending throughout the regions of New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory and Victoria. In addition, BK sought to limit HJ's ability to open new locations in the country, whether they were corporate locations or third-party licensees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In September 2002, Burger King introduced its 99\u00a2 Value Menu in response to Wendy's 99\u00a2 Value Menu. The advertisements featured the comedian Adam Carolla as the voice of BK's drive thru. The menu was later renamed the \"BK Value Menu\" with prices starting at US$1."
      },
      {
        "title": "Competitive Foods Australia",
        "text": "When Burger King decided to expand its operations into Australia, it found that its business name was already trademarked by a man running a small takeaway food shop in Adelaide. Thus, Burger King was forced to change the name when it decided to open stores in the country \u2013 the only time this has happened in its corporate history. Burger King provided the Australian franchisee, Jack Cowin, with a list of possible alternative names that the Australian Burger King restaurants could be branded as. The names were derived from pre-existing trademarks already registered by Burger King and its then corporate parent Pillsbury. Cowin selected the \"Hungry Jack\" brand name, one of Pillsbury's US pancake mixture products, and slightly changing the name to a possessive form by adding an apostrophe 's' thus forming the new name \"Hungry Jack's\". Accordingly, the first Australian franchise of the Burger King Corporation, established in Perth in 1971, was branded as Hungry Jack's."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "The Burger King is a character created as the advertising mascot for the company that has been used in numerous television commercials and advertising programs. The character has undergone several iterations over the course of its company's history. The first iteration of the King was part of a Burger King sign at the first store in Miami, Florida in 1955. Later signs had the King shown sitting on a \"burger throne\" as well as atop the BK sign while holding a beverage. In the early 1970s Burger King started using a small, animated version of the King called Kurger Bing in its children's advertising where the animated Burger King was voiced by Allen Swift. By the late 70s, the original animated King was replaced by the \"Marvelous Magical Burger King\", a red-bearded, Tudor-era king who ruled the Burger King Kingdom and performed magic tricks that were mostly sleight-of-hand, but sometimes relied on camera tricks or involved his \"Magic Ring\" which could summon copious amounts of food. The children's ads featuring the King were phased out by the late 1980s in favor of the BK Kids Club Gang and other later programs."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King marketing campaigns",
        "text": "The following movies and shows were promoted in store as Kids' Meals or other promotional products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King legal issues",
        "text": "In 1990, Hungry Jack's renewed its franchise agreement with then BK parent Burger King Corporation, which allowed Hungry Jack's to license third party franchisee. One of the terms and conditions of the renewed agreement required Hungry Jack's to open a minimum number of new locations each year for the duration of the contract. Shortly after the Australian trademark on the Burger King name lapsed in 1996, Burger King requested that Cowin rebrand the Hungry Jack's locations to Burger King, which Cowin declined. Burger King Corporation accused Hungry Jack's of violating the conditions of the renewed franchise agreement by failing to expand the chain at the rate defined and sought to terminate the agreement. Under the aegis of this claim, Burger King Corporation, in partnership with Royal Dutch Shell's Australian division Shell Company of Australia Ltd., began to open its own stores in 1997 beginning in Sydney and extending throughout the regions of New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory and Victoria. In addition, BK sought to limit HJ's ability to open new locations in the country, whether they were corporate locations or third-party licensees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Competitive Foods Australia",
        "text": "After Burger King Corporation lost the case, it decided to terminate its business in the country and sold its operations and assets to its New Zealand franchise group, Trans-Pacific Foods (TPF). The terms of the sale had TPF assume oversight of the Burger King franchises in the region as the Burger King brand's master franchisee. TPF administered the chain's 81 locations until September 2003 when the new management team of Burger King Corporation reached an agreement with Hungry Jack's Pty to re-brand the existing Burger King locations to Hungry Jack's and make Hungry Jack's the sole master franchisee of both brands. An additional part of the agreement required Burger King Corporation to provide administrative and advertising support as to ensure a common marketing scheme for the company and its products. TPF transferred its control of the Burger King franchises to Hungry Jack's, which subsequently renamed the majority of the remaining Burger King locations as Hungry Jack's. While Hungry Jack's is now the exclusive master franchisee for Burger King in Australia and has the right to allow new Burger King locations in the country, no new locations have opened and only a small handful of Burger King restaurants remain in New South Wales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "The logo of Australian franchisee, Hungry Jack's, is based on the Burger King \"bun halves\" design, and currently uses a variation of the second generation \"bun halves\" logo from 1994. When the company opened its first Russian store in Moscow, a version of the logo with Cyrillic lettering, styled \"\", was used. In Arabic-speaking countries, the logo is reversed and uses characters from the Arabic alphabet (), but is otherwise identical to the \"blue crescent\" English logo. In Israel, a Hebrew logo has been used for a while in 2002, and has been replaced with the English version since. The logo is reversed (like the Arabic version) and uses characters from the Hebrew alphabet (), but is otherwise identical to the English logo."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where was the first Burger King restaurant?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The predecessor to what is now the international fast food restaurant chain Burger King was founded in on July 23, 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, as Insta-Burger King."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did Burger King open up restaurants in New Zealand?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Burger King transferred its assets to its New Zealand franchise group in July 2002 but I couldn't find when the first Burger King restaurants in New Zealand opened."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did they do any advertising in New Zealand prior to opening there?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "Burger King's agreement with Hungry Jack's meant that Burger King would provide advertising support but I couldn't find out on things like how it would help advertise.",
      "Burger King Corporation reached an agreement with Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd to re-brand the existing Burger King locations to Hungry Jack's and an additional part of the agreement required Burger King Corporation to provide administrative and advertising support as to insure a common marketing scheme for the company and its products."
    ],
    "topic": "Burger King premium burgers",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Burger King franchises:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Burger King franchises",
          "Relations",
          "International relations",
          "Australia"
        ],
        "ctx": "After Burger King Corporation lost the case, it decided to terminate its operations in the country, and in July 2002, the company transferred its assets to its New Zealand franchise group, Trans-Pacific Foods (TPF). The terms of the sale had TPF assume oversight of the Burger King franchises in the region as the Burger King brand's master franchisee. Trans-Pacific Foods administered the chain's 81 locations until September 2003 when the new management team of Burger King Corporation reached an agreement with Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd to re-brand the existing Burger King locations to Hungry Jack's and make HJP the sole master franchisee of both brands. An additional part of the agreement required Burger King Corporation to provide administrative and advertising support as to insure a common marketing scheme for the company and its products. Trans-Pacific Foods transferred its control of the Burger King franchises to Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd, which subsequently renamed the remaining Burger King locations as \"Hungry Jack's\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Burger King franchises:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Burger King franchises",
          "Relations",
          "International relations",
          "Australia"
        ],
        "ctx": "After Burger King Corporation lost the case, it decided to terminate its operations in the country, and in July 2002, the company transferred its assets to its New Zealand franchise group, Trans-Pacific Foods (TPF). The terms of the sale had TPF assume oversight of the Burger King franchises in the region as the Burger King brand's master franchisee. Trans-Pacific Foods administered the chain's 81 locations until September 2003 when the new management team of Burger King Corporation reached an agreement with Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd to re-brand the existing Burger King locations to Hungry Jack's and make HJP the sole master franchisee of both brands. An additional part of the agreement required Burger King Corporation to provide administrative and advertising support as to insure a common marketing scheme for the company and its products. Trans-Pacific Foods transferred its control of the Burger King franchises to Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd, which subsequently renamed the remaining Burger King locations as \"Hungry Jack's\"."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "As of 2014, Burger King operates in almost every country in the Western Hemisphere, and most of Europe and East Asia. It has embarked on a plan to base a good portion of its future growth in the BRIC Nations of Brazil, Russia, India, and China, with plans to open more than 3000 locations in three of those four countries. Burger King also has a longstanding presence at U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force installations worldwide, dating back to the 1980s under a contract with Army and Air Force Exchange Service. Today, while other chains such as Taco Bell, Popeyes, and Subway have a presence on military bases, virtually every major Army and Air Force installation hosts a BK restaurant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "At the end of its 2013 fiscal year, Burger King was the second largest chain of hamburger fast food restaurants in terms of global locations, behind industry bellwether McDonald's, which had 32,400 locations. At the end of 2014, Burger King ranked fourth among US food chains in terms of US sales, behind McDonald's, Starbucks, and Subway. Burger King now has over 12,000 stores worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Shortly after the acquisition of the chain by Pillsbury in 1969, Burger King opened its first Canadian restaurant in Windsor, Ontario, in 1969. Other international locations followed soon after: Oceania in 1971 with its Australian franchise Hungry Jack's, and Europe in 1975 with a restaurant in Madrid, Spain. Beginning in 1982, BK and its franchisees began operating stores in several East Asian countries, including Japan, Taiwan, Singapore and South Korea. Due to high competition, all of the Japanese locations were closed in 2001; however, BK reentered the Japanese market in June 2007. BK's Central and South American operations began in Mexico in the late 1970s, and by the early 1980s it was operating locations in Caracas, Venezuela; Santiago, Chile; and Buenos Aires, Argentina. While Burger King lags behind McDonald's in international locations by over 12,000 stores, by 2008 it had managed to become the largest chain in several countries, including Mexico and Spain. The company divides its international operations into three segments: The Middle East, Europe and Africa division (EMEA), Asia-Pacific (APAC) and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). In each of these regions, Burger King has established several subsidiaries to develop strategic partnerships and alliances to expand into new territories. In its EMEA group, Burger King's Switzerland-based subsidiary Burger King Europe GmbH is responsible for the licensing and development of BK franchises in those regions. In the APAC region, the Singapore-based BK AsiaPac, Pte. Ltd. business unit handles franchising for East Asia, the Asian subcontinent and all Oceanic territories. The LAC region includes Mexico, Central and South America and the Caribbean Islands."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "List of countries with Burger King franchises\n--History.\n--Africa.\n--Asia.\n--Europe.\n--North America.\n--Oceania.\n--International subsidiaries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "North America is the company's home territory and home to its first non-American stores; it opened its first international restaurant in Windsor, Ontario, Canada in 1969."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "While Burger King still utilizes a version of its revamped franchising system in the United States, outside of North America its international locations licenses are still sold on a regional basis with franchises owning exclusive development rights for a region or country. These regional franchises are known as master franchises, and are responsible for opening new restaurants, licensing new third party operators, and performing standards oversight of all restaurant locations in these countries; one of the larger examples of a master franchise is Hungry Jack's, which oversees over 300 restaurants in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "While BK began its foray into locations outside of the continental United States in 1963 with a store in San Juan, Puerto Rico, it did not have an international presence until several years later. Shortly after the acquisition of the chain by Pillsbury, it opened its first Canadian restaurant in Windsor, Ontario in 1969. Other international locations followed soon after, including Australia in 1971, with a restaurant in the Perth suburb of Innaloo, and Europe in 1975, with a restaurant in Madrid. Beginning in 1982, BK and its franchisees began operating stores in several East Asian countries, including Japan, Taiwan, Singapore and South Korea. Due to high competition, all of the Japanese locations were closed in 2001; however, BK reentered the Japanese market in June 2007. BK's Central and South American operations began in Mexico in the late 1970s and by the early 1980s in Caracas, Venezuela, Santiago, Chile, and Buenos Aires, Argentina. While Burger King lags behind McDonald's in international locations by over 12,000 stores, as of 2008 it had managed to become the largest chain in several countries including Mexico and Spain. The company divides its international operations into three segments; the Middle East, Europe and Africa division (EMEA), Asia-Pacific (APAC) and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). In each of these regions, Burger King has established several subsidiaries to develop strategic partnerships and alliances to expand into new territories. In its EMEA group, Burger King's Switzerland-based subsidiary Burger King Europe GmbH is responsible for the licensing and development of BK franchises in those regions. In APAC region, the Singapore-based BK AsiaPac, Pte. Ltd. business unit handles franchising for East Asia, the Asian subcontinent and all Oceanic territories. The LAC region includes Mexico, Central and South America and the Caribbean Islands and has no centralized operations group."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Burger King was first founded in Jacksonville, Florida In 1953 as Insta-Burger King. Shortly after the acquisition of the chain by Pillsbury in 1969, Burger King opened its first Canadian restaurant in Windsor, Ontario, in 1969. Other international locations followed soon after: Oceania in 1971 with its Australian franchise Hungry Jack's, and Europe in 1975 with a restaurant in Madrid, Spain. Beginning in 1982, BK and its franchisees began operating stores in several East Asian countries, including Japan, Taiwan, Singapore and South Korea. Due to high competition, all of the Japanese locations were closed in 2001; however, BK reentered the Japanese market in June 2007. BK's Central and South American operations began in Mexico in the late 1970s, and by the early 1980s it was operating locations in Caracas, Venezuela, Santiago, Chile and Buenos Aires, Argentina."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Burger King has approximately 20 foreign subsidiaries to oversee operations in the markets it does business in."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "The first Burger King in Asia opened in Granville Road, Hong Kong on 7 August 1979, as the 2500th Burger King globally. In 1982, franchisees opened stores in several East Asian countries, including Japan, Taiwan, Singapore and South Korea. Due to high competition, it withdrew from the Japanese market in 2001. However, Burger King reentered the Japanese market by opening the first store in Shinjuku, Tokyo in November 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "As of December 31, 2018, Burger King reported it had 17,796 outlets in 100 countries. Of these, nearly half are located in the United States, and 99.7% are privately owned and operated, with its new owners moving to an almost entirely franchised model in 2013. Burger King has historically used several variations of franchising to expand its operations. The manner in which the company licenses its franchisees varies depending on the region, with some regional franchises, known as master franchises, responsible for selling franchise sub-licenses on the company's behalf. Burger King's relationship with its franchises has not always been harmonious. Occasional spats between the two have caused numerous issues, and in several instances, the company's and its licensees' relations have degenerated into precedent-setting court cases. Burger King's Australian franchise Hungry Jack's is the only franchise to operate under a different name, due to a trademark dispute and a series of legal cases between the two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Further expansion moves were also made in other global markets during 2012. The African market saw a new agreement with JSE-Listed Grand Parade Investments of South Africa to enter Africa's largest economy, with restaurants opening in 2013. In Europe, Burger King returned to the French market in 2012 with an agreement with multinational operator Autogrill, a move that has met with some excitement in the country. The chain left the country in 1997, closing its 22 franchised and 17 corporate locations after a poorly executed entry into the market that left it unable to compete against McDonald's and local chain Quick. The partnership with Autogrill is a move to consolidate Burger King's presence in travel plazas along major highways in France, Italy, Poland and other European nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "The majority of the locations of international fast-food restaurant chain Burger King are privately owned franchises. While the majority of franchisees are smaller operations, several have grown into major corporations in their own right. At the end of the company's fiscal year in 2015, Burger King reported it had more than 15,000 outlets in 84 countries; of these, approximately 50% are in the United States and 99.9% are privately owned and operated. The company locations employ more than 37,000 people who serve approximately 11.4\u00a0million customers daily."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Hungry Jack's currently owns, operates or sub-licenses all of the Hungry Jack's restaurants in Australia. As the master franchise for the continent, the company is responsible for licensing new operators, opening its own stores and performing standards oversight of franchised locations in Australia. At the end of Burger King's 2012 fiscal year, Hungry Jack's is the largest Asian/Pacific franchisee of the chain with 347 restaurants either directly owned by parent company Hungry Jack's Pty or through third party licensees."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "When Burger King moved to expand its operations into Australia, it found that its business name was already trademarked by a takeaway food shop in Adelaide. The Canadian-Australian franchisee, Jack Cowin, selected the \"Hungry Jack\" brand name, one of then Burger King's owner Pillsbury's U.S. pancake mixture products, and slightly changed the name to a possessive form by adding an apostrophe and \"s\" to form the new name \"Hungry Jack's\". In 1996, shortly after the Australian trademark on the Burger King name lapsed, Burger King began to open its own Australian stores in 1997. As a result of Burger King's actions, Hungry Jack's owner Jack Cowin and his company Competitive Foods Australia, began legal proceedings in 2001 against the Burger King Corporation. Hungry Jack's won the case, and Burger King eventually left the country. Hungry Jack's took ownership of the former Burger King locations and subsequently renamed the remaining Burger King locations as Hungry Jack's. As of June 2019, Burger King had 83 stores operating in New Zealand. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Burger King went into receivership in April 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "This is a list of countries with Burger King franchises. Burger King (BK) itself began as a franchise of its progenitor company, Insta-Burger King. It grew in the United States using a combination of corporate locations and franchising, before divesting itself of its corporate holdings in 2013. It began its international expansion in 1969 with a location in Canada, followed by Australia in 1971, and Europe in 1975. Latin America and South America became part of its market later in that decade, Asia followed in the 1980s, and Northern Africa and the Middle East followed shortly thereafter. Sub-Saharan Africa and the former nations of the Iron Curtain came much later, beginning in the late 1990s and continuing into the 2010s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungry Jack's",
        "text": "Under the aegis of this claim, Burger King Corporation in partnership with Shell Australia, began to open its own stores in 1997 beginning in Sydney and throughout the Australian regions of New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory, Victoria and Tasmania. In addition, Burger King sought to limit HJ's ability to open new locations in the country, whether they were corporate locations or third-party licensees."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "While Burger King lags behind McDonald's in international locations by over 12,000 stores, by 2008 it had managed to become the largest chain in several countries, including Mexico and Spain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Burger King franchises\n--History.\n----International.\n--Relations.\n----United States.\n------Advertising revenues.\n------Hours of operation.\n------Value menu pricing.\n----International relations.\n------Australia.\n------Israel & Palestinian Territories.\n--Franchisees of note.\n----Australia.\n----Brazil.\n----China.\n----Multinational.\n------Central and South America.\n------Central and Eastern Europe.\n------The Middle East.\n------North America.\n----Russia.\n----United States.\n------Army and Air Force Exchange Service.\n------Carrols Corporation.\n------GPS Hospitality.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Through 2012, Burger King lagged significantly behind McDonald's (1400 locations in China) and Yum! Brands (4500 KFC and Pizza Hut locations in China) in the Chinese market, operating less than 100 stores in the country. Previous owners TPG Capital had intended to open hundreds of new locations in the country by this point but had not been able to carry through with their plans. On the other side of Aisia, The Kurdo\u011flu family, along with its partners the \u00dcr\u00fcnd\u00fcl family, operated a major franchisee of Burger King In Turkey through its TAB Gida operation. TAB Gida is Turkey's largest multi-brand restaurant operator and one of the largest Burger King franchisees in Europe with 450 locations in that country. The previous year, the Cartesian Capital Group had taken a minority stake in TAB Gida, giving the firm access to additional capital for growth in Turkish market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "Burger King premium burgers\n--History.\n----North America.\n------Sirloin Steak sandwich.\n------Back Porch Grillers.\n------The Angus Burger.\n------Steakhouse Burger.\n------Steakhouse XT.\n------Chef's Choice Burger.\n------A1 Ultimate Bacon Cheeseburger.\n----Europe.\n------The Aberdeen Angus burger.\n------The $190 Burger.\n------The Lamb Flatbread burger.\n----New Zealand.\n------Crown Jewels.\n--------Product variants.\n------King's Collection.\n----Asia.\n----Competitive products.\n--Advertising.\n----North America.\n----Europe.\n----New Zealand.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "During 2012, the African market saw a new agreement with Grand Parade Investments of South Africa to enter then Africa's largest economy, with restaurants opening in 2013. The company began its move into Sub-Saharan Africa in May 2013 when Burger King opened its first outlets in South Africa. The company sold franchise rights to local gaming and slots machine operator Grand Parade Investments Ltd. The South African operation sold over double its initial forecasts in its opening weeks with sales of $474,838 at just one of its outlets in Cape Town in its first seven weeks. In a deal with local petrochemical company Sasol, outlets were opened at filling stations across the country starting in 2014. In April 2014 it was announced that due to high demand, the number of new outlets being opened in 2014 would be increased from 12 to 14 across the country. As of December 2015 there are 51 Burger King restaurants in South Africa. 10 restaurant are set to open in Mauritius by 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Burger King (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Burger King is a major international fast food restaurant chain and corporation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food",
        "text": "There are numerous other fast food restaurants located all over the world. Burger King has more than 11,100 restaurants in more than 65 countries. KFC is located in 25 countries. Subway is one of the fastest growing franchises in the world with approximately 39,129 restaurants in 90 countries as of May 2009, the first non-US location opening in December 1984 in Bahrain. Wienerwald has spread from Germany into Asia and Africa. Pizza Hut is located in 97 countries, with 100 locations in China. Taco Bell has 278 restaurants located in 14 countries besides the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "After the expiration of the trademark in the late 1990s, Burger King unsuccessfully tried to introduce the brand to the continent. After losing a lawsuit filed against it by Hungry Jack's ownership, the company ceded the territory to its franchisee. Hungry Jack's is now the only Burger King brand in Australia; Cowin's company Hungry Jack's PTY is the master franchise and thus is now responsible for overseeing the operations in Australia, with Burger King only providing administrative and advertising support to ensure a common marketing scheme for the company and its products."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "The company divides its international operations into three segments: The Middle East, Europe and Africa division (EMEA), Asia-Pacific (APAC) and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). In each of these regions, Burger King has established several subsidiaries to develop strategic partnerships and alliances to expand into new territories. In its EMEA group, Burger King's Switzerland-based subsidiary Burger King Europe GmbH is responsible for the licensing and development of BK franchises in those regions. In the APAC region, the Singapore-based BK AsiaPac, Pte. Ltd. business unit handles franchising for East Asia, the Asian subcontinent and all Oceanic territories. The LAC region includes Mexico, Central and South America and the Caribbean Islands."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "In December 2012, Burger King returned to the French market, with an agreement with multinational operator Autogrill, a move that has met with some excitement in the country. In July 1997, it was announced the chain would be leaving the country, closing its 22 franchised and 17 corporate locations, after a poorly executed entry into the market that left it unable to compete against McDonald's and local chain Quick. The partnership with Autogrill is a move to consolidate Burger King's presence in travel plazas along major highways in France, Italy, Poland and other European nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "AmRest Holdings (WSE: EAT) is an international fast-food and casual dining restaurant operator. The company is primarily based in Wroc\u0142aw and operates in Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, Russia, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Croatia, Spain, France and the United States. In 2007, AmRest received its license to operate Burger Kings in Poland through BK's Burger King Europe GmbH holding unit. The new license was part of Burger King's plan to expand its presence in existing European markets while opening new ones. AmRest expected to open several new locations in Poland over a five-year period. By February 2012, the company was considering using its foothold in India through its La Tagliatella Italian food chain to bring the Burger King brand to that country. At the time, BK had failed to establish itself with in India at least twice. As of December 2012, AmRest operates 37 Burger King locations in three countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "In April 2012, the Kurdo\u011flus and Cartesian utilized the additional capital to enter into a joint franchise agreement with Burger King to open 1000+ new locations in China over a five- to seven-year period. This agreement is the largest single franchise agreement in the history of Burger King and will make the new Chinese venture the largest BK franchise in the world. The agreement gives the new franchise group control of the existing 63 locations in the country. The expansion has both pluses and minuses for Burger King, as a minor player in the market it yet to truly establish a brand identity as McDonald's and Yum! This position could allow Burger King to position itself as a more upscale competitor akin to Starbucks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Competitive Foods Australia",
        "text": "After Burger King Corporation lost the case, it decided to terminate its business in the country and sold its operations and assets to its New Zealand franchise group, Trans-Pacific Foods (TPF). The terms of the sale had TPF assume oversight of the Burger King franchises in the region as the Burger King brand's master franchisee. TPF administered the chain's 81 locations until September 2003 when the new management team of Burger King Corporation reached an agreement with Hungry Jack's Pty to re-brand the existing Burger King locations to Hungry Jack's and make Hungry Jack's the sole master franchisee of both brands. An additional part of the agreement required Burger King Corporation to provide administrative and advertising support as to ensure a common marketing scheme for the company and its products. TPF transferred its control of the Burger King franchises to Hungry Jack's, which subsequently renamed the majority of the remaining Burger King locations as Hungry Jack's. While Hungry Jack's is now the exclusive master franchisee for Burger King in Australia and has the right to allow new Burger King locations in the country, no new locations have opened and only a small handful of Burger King restaurants remain in New South Wales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "Australia is the only country in which Burger King does not operate under its own name. When the company set about establishing operations down under in 1971, it found that its business name was already trademarked by a takeaway food shop in Adelaide. As a result, Burger King provided the Australian franchisee, Jack Cowin, with a list of possible alternative names derived from pre-existing trademarks already registered by Burger King and its then corporate parent Pillsbury, that could be used to name the Australian restaurants. Cowin selected the \"Hungry Jack\" brand name, one of Pillsbury's US pancake mixture products, and slightly changed the name to a possessive form by adding an apostrophe \"s\" forming the new name Hungry Jack's. After the expiration of the trademark in the late 1990s, Burger King unsuccessfully tried to introduce the brand to the continent. After losing a lawsuit filed against it by Hungry Jack's ownership, the company ceded the territory to its franchisee. Hungry Jack's is now the only Burger King brand in Australia; Cowin's company Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd. is the master franchise and thus is now responsible for oversight of the operations that country with Burger King only providing administrative and advertising support to ensure a common marketing scheme for the company and its products."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Burger King's growth into the Caribbean began in 1963 when the company opened its first location in Puerto Rico. These locations were the first restaurants the company opened outside the continental United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "It also reentered the Hong Kong market in December 2007. This time its Hong Kong operation is wholly owned by North Asia Strategic, who obtained the exclusive right to operate from BK AsiaPac Pte Limited. The first store was opened on 29 December 2007 in the Sun Arcade, Canton Road, Tsim Sha Tsui, Kowloon. As of 2008, 15 stores were in operation, including five in Hong Kong Island (Central, Wanchai, Causeway Bay and Fortress Hill), five in Kowloon (Tsim Sha Tsui, Hung Hom, Mongkok, Wong Tai Sin and Tsz Wan Shan) and five in the New Territories. However, due to fierce competition, legal problems, and rising rents, the number of stores was reduced to two in late 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "The company operates approximately 40 subsidiaries globally that oversee franchise operations, acquisitions and financial obligations such as pensions. One example of a subsidiary is Burger King Brands, Inc. which is responsible for the management of Burger King's intellectual properties. A wholly owned subsidiary established in 1990, Burger King Brands owns and manages all trademarks, copyrights and domain names used by the restaurants in the United States and Canada. It is also responsible for providing marketing and related services to the parent company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Druther's",
        "text": "In June 1981, Burger Queen Enterprises Inc. announced that it was changing its name to Druther's International Inc. and changing the names of it restaurants from Burger Queen to Druther's Restaurant. Despite the change in names, management and the menu remained the same. At the time of the announcement, the company operated 171 company-owned and franchised locations in seven states within the United States and also had international franchised in England, Canada, the Republic of China, and the United Arab Emirates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "After Burger King Corporation lost the case, it decided to terminate its operations in the country, and in July 2002, the company transferred its assets to its New Zealand franchise group, Trans-Pacific Foods (TPF). The terms of the sale had TPF assume oversight of the Burger King franchises in the region as the Burger King brand's master franchisee. Trans-Pacific Foods administered the chain's 81 locations until September 2003 when the new management team of Burger King Corporation reached an agreement with Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd to re-brand the existing Burger King locations to Hungry Jack's and make HJP the sole master franchisee of both brands. An additional part of the agreement required Burger King Corporation to provide administrative and advertising support as to insure a common marketing scheme for the company and its products. Trans-Pacific Foods transferred its control of the Burger King franchises to Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd, which subsequently renamed the remaining Burger King locations as \"Hungry Jack's\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Carrols Corporation is the largest global franchisee of Burger King as of January 2013. Its parent company is Carrols Restaurant Group, at publicly traded corporation (). It has held this position since 2002 with the bankruptcy of Chicago-based AmeriKing Inc, which had 367 US locations at its peak."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Hana first began operating Burger King restaurants in the region after its parent company Olayan completed its franchise agreement in 1991. Its first location opened in Riyadh in December 1992, and expanded across the Middle East opening stores in the neighboring countries of Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, and Lebanon in 2001. By 2007, the company had grown to over 180 locations in a half dozen countries, all located in Southwest Asia, when it signed an additional franchise agreement to open locations in North Africa, with the first location in Cairo, Egypt."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "In 2020, the first 3 Burger King restaurants opened in Estonia. These were opened during the COVID-19 pandemic, and therefore had to be opened by Tallink by the popular videoconferencing software program Zoom. In December 2020, Burger King restaurants were opened in Latvia and Lithuania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Australia is the only country in which Burger King does not operate under its own name. When the company set about establishing operations there in 1971, it found that its business name was already trademarked by a takeaway food shop in Adelaide. As a result, Burger King provided the Australian master franchisee, Jack Cowin, with a list of possible alternative names derived from pre-existing trademarks already registered by Burger King and its then corporate parent Pillsbury, that could be used to name the Australian restaurants. Cowin selected the \"Hungry Jack\" brand name, one of Pillsbury's US pancake mixture products, and slightly changed the name to a possessive form by adding an apostrophe \"s\" forming the new name Hungry Jack's."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "While Burger King has had operations in Central and South America for several years, they were under the auspices of different companies. In December 2012, Burger King entered into a new agreement with Beboca Ltd., a franchisee in Panama and Costa Rica. The new agreement establishes a new entity, BK Centro America (BKCA), that will be the new master franchise for Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Panama; BKCA will responsible for overseeing the development of Burger King franchisees in these countries. Additionally, BKCA will provide logistics support, advertising and purchasing assistance not only in those countries, but others in Burger King's Latin American and Caribbean development area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "Burger King\n--History.\n--Structure and operations.\n--Franchises.\n--International operations.\n--Controversies and legal cases.\n--Charitable contributions and services.\n--Products.\n----Equipment.\n--Advertising.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "2012 saw a major international expansion initiative. The primary thrust was aimed at the BRIC nations, with several new master franchise agreements in those countries that will eventually create upwards of 2500 new stores by 2020. One of these deals also creates the single largest international franchise agreement in the company history, a deal to open over 1000 stores in China with a new \"super\"-franchise headed by the Kurdoglu family of Turkey. An updated agreement with its Russian franchisee will see a major expansion into Siberia. This move puts Burger King in a superior position to its chief rival McDonald's, as it currently doesn't operate any locations east of the Ural Mountains."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "Burger King (BK) is an American multinational chain of hamburger fast food restaurants. Headquartered in Miami-Dade County, Florida, the company was founded in 1953 as Insta-Burger King, a Jacksonville, Florida\u2013based restaurant chain. After Insta-Burger King ran into financial difficulties in 1954, its two Miami-based franchisees David Edgerton and James McLamore purchased the company and renamed it \"Burger King\". Over the next half-century, the company changed hands four times, with its third set of owners, a partnership of TPG Capital, Bain Capital, and Goldman Sachs Capital Partners, taking it public in 2002. In late 2010, 3G Capital of Brazil acquired a majority stake in the company, in a deal valued at US$3.26 billion. The new owners promptly initiated a restructuring of the company to reverse its fortunes. 3G, along with partner Berkshire Hathaway, eventually merged the company with the Canadian-based doughnut chain Tim Hortons, under the auspices of a new Canadian-based parent company named Restaurant Brands International."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Since its purchase in 2011, Burger King has seen a 14% sales increase in its Latin American and Caribbean operations. The continued expansion in these market could provide a significant portions of Burger King's growth during the decade of the 2010s. In the Mexican market, Burger King sold 97 corporate-owned locations to its largest franchisee in that country. The deal means multi-chain operator Alsea S.A.B. de C.V will eventually operate approximately half of Mexico's 400+ Burger King locations while receiving exclusive expansion rights in Mexico for a twenty-year period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "Over a 10-year period starting in 2008, Burger King predicted 80 percent of its market share would be driven by foreign expansion, particularly in the Asia-Pacific and Indian subcontinent regional markets. While the TPG-led group continued BK's international expansion by announcing plans to open new franchise locations in Eastern Europe, Africa and the Middle East, and Brazil, the company plan is focusing on the three largest markets \u2013 India, China, and Japan. The company plans to add over 250 stores in these Asian territories, as well as other places such as Macau, by the end of 2012. Its expansion into the Indian market has the company at a competitive disadvantage with other fast food restaurants such as KFC because of the aversion of the country's large Hindu majority to beef. BK hopes to use their non-beef products, such as their TenderCrisp and TenderGrill chicken sandwiches, as well as other products like mutton sandwiches and veggie sandwiches, to help them overcome this hurdle to expand in that country. 3G has reported that it will continue with the plans to grow globally, even ramping up the planned expansion to help increase their return on investment. It is expected that 3G Brazilian-based management connections in the region may help Burger King expand in Brazil and Latin America, where it has been having problems finding acceptable franchisees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King legal issues",
        "text": "After Burger King Corporation lost the case, it decided to terminate its operations in the country, and in July 2002, the company transferred its assets to its New Zealand franchise group, Trans-Pacific Foods (TPF). The terms of the sale had TPF assume oversight of the Burger King franchises in the region as the Burger King brand's master franchisee. Trans-Pacific Foods administered the chain's 81 locations until September 2003 when the new management team of Burger King Corporation reached an agreement with Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd to re-brand the existing Burger King locations to Hungry Jack's and make HJP the sole master franchisee of both brands. An additional part of the agreement required Burger King Corporation to provide administrative and advertising support as to insure a common marketing scheme for the company and its products. Trans-Pacific Foods transferred its control of the Burger King franchises to Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd, which subsequently renamed the remaining Burger King locations as \"Hungry Jack's\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "In November 2013, Groupe Bertrand, who owns several restaurant franchises, acquired the Burger King master franchise Autogrill, becoming one of their franchisees. In September 2015, Groupe Bertrand announced being in talks with Quick's owner, investment fund Qualium, to take over all the franchise and convert all Quick restaurants in France into Burger Kings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "GPS Hospitality, one of the \"largest franchisee\" of Burger King, is Headquartered in Atlanta Georgia with revenue around $650 million. GPS Hospitality is a franchisee with upwards to 400 Burger Kings and plans to add 15 more in the Southeastern United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Corporation v Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd",
        "text": "Hungry Jack's became the Australian franchisee of Burger King in 1971, and by 1996 it was the largest franchisee outside the United States, operating 150 restaurants directly and a further 18 through third-party franchisees. From the 1980s onwards, Burger King had increased its interest in the operations of Hungry Jack's, leading to a number of disputes which prompted alterations to the franchise agreements in 1986, 1989, and again late in 1990 with the completion of four new agreements relating to different aspects of Hungry Jack's activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Brown",
        "text": "Brown has stated he owns fourteen Burger King restaurants. In 2012, he launched a streetwear clothing line called \"Black Pyramid\", in collaboration with the founders of the \"Pink + Dolphin\" clothing line. In 2016 the clothing label was set for larger release, partnering with streetwear clothing lines such as \"Snipes\" for a worldwide distribution, also being distributed through its own \"Black Pyramid\" boutiques."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Israel",
        "text": "Burger King Israel (Hebrew: \u05d1\u05e8\u05d2\u05e8 \u05e7\u05d9\u05e0\u05d2) is the Israeli franchise of international fast food chain Burger King. Burger King first entered the Israeli market in 1993. It eventually closed in 2010, after the franchise owner Orgad Holdings purchased local chain Burgeranch and converted all Burger King locations in the country into Burgeranch locations. In July 2013, it was announced that Burger King was attempting to re-enter Israel. Initial discussions with its original Israeli franchise owner Yair Hasson were unsuccessful, and it finally secured re-entrance to the country by entering into a deal with a French company. The first restaurant, under the new franchise group opened in February 2016, at Rabin Square in Tel Aviv. As of 2020, there are 10 branches in the country, including 8 in Tel Aviv and its suburbs, 1 in Be'er Sheva, and 1 in Eilat located in Ramon Airport. Out of all these locations, 8 are Kosher branches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "A trademark dispute involving the owners of an unrelated restaurant also named Burger King in Mattoon, Illinois, led to a federal lawsuit. As a result, the larger Burger King chain was ordered not to build any franchises within a 20-mile radius of the Mattoon Burger King. An existing trademark held by a shop of the same name in South Australia forced the company to change its name in Australia to \"Hungry Jack's\", while another state trademark in Texas forced the company to abandon its signature product, the Whopper, in several counties around San Antonio. The company was only able to enter northern Alberta, in Canada, in 1995, after it paid the founders of another chain named Burger King."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Various fast food outlets and restaurants such as Burger King, Carl's Jr., Hardee's, IHOP, Steak 'n Shake, Mr. Steak, and Freddy's market steak burgers. Some restaurants offer high-end burgers prepared from aged beef. Additionally, many restaurants have used the term \"steak burger\" at various times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungry Jack's",
        "text": "An additional part of the agreement required Burger King Corporation to provide administrative and advertising support as to ensure a common marketing scheme for the company and its products. Trans-Pacific Foods transferred its control of the Burger King franchises to Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd., which subsequently renamed the remaining Burger King locations as \"Hungry Jack's,\" joining the other 210 outlets at the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Master franchise: Hana International"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Burger King",
        "text": "The predecessor to what is now the international fast food restaurant chain Burger King was founded in on July 23, 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, as Insta-Burger King. Inspired by the McDonald brothers' original store location in San Bernardino, California, the founders and owners, Keith J. Cramer and his step father Matthew Burns, began searching for a concept. After purchasing the rights to two pieces of equipment called \"Insta\" machines, the two opened their first stores around a cooking device known as the Insta-Broiler. The Insta-Broiler oven proved so successful at cooking burgers, they required all of their franchises to carry the device. After the original company began to falter in 1959, it was purchased by its Miami, Florida, franchisees James McLamore and David R. Edgerton. The two initiated a corporate restructuring of the chain; the first step being to rename the company Burger King. The duo ran the company as an independent entity for eight years, eventually expanding to over 250 locations in the United States, when they sold it to the Pillsbury Company in 1967."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Corporation v Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd",
        "text": "One of these four agreements was the Development Agreement, clause 2.1 of which required Hungry Jack's to open four new stores each year in Western Australia, South Australia and Queensland either directly or through third-party franchisees. Additionally, clause 4.1 made the opening of any new restaurants subject to Burger King's operational and financial approval."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Elsewhere in Central America, Burger King entered in a deal with another of its franchises, the Beboca Group of Panama, to create a new corporate entity to handle expansion and logistics in the LAC region, which until this time had no centralized operations group. The deal follows a unification of the company's web presence in Latin America and the Caribbean, as well as aligning all of its various web initiatives including mobile services, Facebook presence and guest relation tools. The Latin American moves are part of a corporate plan to take advantage of the growing middle class in these regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Burger King",
        "text": "In 2011 they partnered with British venture capital firm Justice Holdings to take the company public again. They also initiated a massive expansion of operations via franchising in the BRIC nations and Africa with more than 2500 new planned locations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger Chef",
        "text": "By 1969, international expansion was underway with General Foods building ten Burger Chef outlets in Australia. The expansion ended in 1975 with a US$1.3 million loss (equivalent to $\u00a0million in ). It was stated that Australians disliked the limited burger based menu as compared to a Milk Bar. The chain had two mascots: Burger Chef (voiced by Paul Winchell) and Jeff (the chef's juvenile sidekick)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "2012 saw a major international expansion initiative. The primary thrust was aimed at the BRIC nations with several new master franchise agreements in those countries that will eventually create upwards of 2500 new stores by the 2020. One of these deals also creates the single largest international franchise agreement in the company history, a deal to open over 1000 stores in China with a new \"super\"-franchise headed by the Kurdoglu family of Turkey. An updated agreement with its Russian franchisee will see a major expansion into Siberia. This move puts Burger King in a superior position to chief rival McDonald's as it currently doesn't operate any locations east of the Ural Mountains."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carrols Restaurant Group",
        "text": "Carrols Restaurant Group is an American franchisee company and is the largest Burger King franchisee in the world; Carrols owns and operates over 1,000+ Burger Kings, and 55 Popeyes restaurants. The company has operated Burger Kings since 1976 in locations across 23 U.S. states."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "In 2011, the majority of Burger King restaurants, approximately 90%, were privately held franchises. In North America, Burger King Corporation is responsible for licensing operators and administering of stores. Internationally, the company often pairs with other parties to operate locations or it will outright sell the operational and administrative rights to a franchisee which is given the designation of master franchise for the territory. The master franchise will then be expected to sub-license new stores, provide training support, and ensure operational standards are maintained. In exchange for the oversight responsibilities, the master franchise will receive administrative and advertising support from Burger King Corporation to ensure a common marketing scheme. The 3G Capital ownership group announced in April 2011 that it would begin divesting itself of many corporate owned locations with the intent to increase the number of privately held restaurants to 95%. As of 2016, the percentage of privately owned Burger King establishments grew to 99.5%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "In 1990, Hungry Jack's renewed its franchise agreement with then BK parent Burger King Corporation, which allowed Hungry Jack's to license third party franchisee. One of the terms and conditions of the renewed agreement required Hungry Jack's to open a minimum number of new locations each year for the duration of the contract. Shortly after the Australian trademark on the Burger King name lapsed in 1996, Burger King requested that Cowin rebrand the Hungry Jack's locations to Burger King, which Cowin declined. Burger King Corporation accused Hungry Jack's of violating the conditions of the renewed franchise agreement by failing to expand the chain at the rate defined and sought to terminate the agreement. Under the aegis of this claim, Burger King Corporation, in partnership with Royal Dutch Shell's Australian division Shell Company of Australia Ltd., began to open its own stores in 1997 beginning in Sydney and extending throughout the regions of New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory and Victoria. In addition, BK sought to limit HJ's ability to open new locations in the country, whether they were corporate locations or third-party licensees."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "In December 2013, Burger King returned to Finland, after three decades of absence. The first restaurant, located on Mannerheimintie in central Helsinki, instantly proved so popular that on every day since its opening, people queued in front of the restaurant to get in, sometimes for over half an hour. The only exception so far has been Christmas time, when the restaurant was closed. According to Mikko Molberg, the leader of the Finnish Burger King franchise, the restaurant has attracted over 2000 customers on every single day, which has surprised the restaurant employees and the franchise owners. The long queues have been extensively covered and ridiculed in social media, comparing them to people queuing in front of a McDonald's restaurant in Moscow, Russia in the early 1990s, and contrasting them with the nearly nonexistent queues at Burger King restaurants in Stockholm, Sweden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Burger King may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "(lit. Hamburger King)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "Internationally, the chain has introduced several lines of premium sandwiches. In New Zealand, the chain first introduced the BK Crown Jewels line which was based upon the Whopper, TenderGrill, and TenderCrisp sandwiches. The line was eventually replaced with the BK King's Collection menu of Angus-based sandwiches. It also sold Angus-burgers in Australia, the United Kingdom, and Ireland. In East Asia, the chains sells the Angus XT sandwich which is a variant of the Steakhouse XT. In Great Britain, the chain has also introduced a burger based on lamb and another based on Wagyu beef, while back in the United States it sold a turkey burger sandwich \u2013 all of which were limited time offerings (LTOs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "The company known today as Burger King itself began as a franchise; the predecessor of the modern company was founded in 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, as Insta-Burger King. The original founders and owners, Kieth J. Kramer and Matthew Burns, opened their first stores around a piece of equipment known as the Insta-Broiler. The Insta-Broiler oven proved so successful at cooking burgers, Kramer and Burns required all of their franchises to carry the device. The rights to open stores in Miami, Florida, belonged to two businessmen named James McLamore and David R. Edgerton and their company: South Florida Restaurants, Inc. Due to operational issues with the Insta-Broiler, in 1954 McLamore and Edgarton made the decision to replace the Insta-Broiler with a mechanized gas grill they called a flame broiler. Even though the company had rapidly expanded throughout the state until its operations totaled more than 40 locations in 1955, the original Insta-Burger King ran into financial difficulties and the pair of McLamore and Edgarton purchased the national rights to the chain and rechristened the company as Burger King of Miami."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungry Jack's",
        "text": "When Burger King moved to expand its operations into Australia, it found that its business name was already trademarked by a takeaway food shop in Adelaide, South Australia. As a result, Burger King provided the Australian franchisee, Jack Cowin, with a list of possible alternative names derived from pre-existing trademarks already registered by Burger King and its then corporate parent Pillsbury that could be used to name the Australian restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Burger King began its expansion in Europe in 1975 with its first location in Madrid, Spain. In 1976, they opened on the Kurf\u00fcrstendamm in former West Berlin, the first German Burger King branch opened its doors. Four years later in Darmstadt, Hesse, the first franchise, was opened by former football player Lothar Skala. In 1990, the first time a Burger King outlet in the \"neue Bundesl\u00e4nder\" (former \"L\u00e4nder\" of the GDR, which were incorporated after German reunification in the Federal Republic of Germany) opened in Dresden, then still in mobile form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Master franchise: Beboca Ltd."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Burger King entered the Brazilian market in 2004, eventually operating and franchising 108 locations in the country by 2011. In June of that year, Burger King entered into a new master franchise agreement with Brazilian venture capital firm Vinci Partners. The agreement calls for a tenfold increase in locations in the country by 2016. Burger King and Vinci are expected to invest about $570 million () to expand operations in the country during the five-year period. The expansion deal is an attempt to catch up to American chains that have already established a presence in Brazil as well as the rest of Latin America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food in China",
        "text": "Burger King, also known as \u6c49\u5821\u738b(H\u00e0nb\u01ceow\u00e1ng) opened their first chain in Shanghai on June 27, 2005. The Chinese counterpart offered the standard Burger King menu with the Whopper, as well as special offerings to appeal to Chinese tastes such as the Spicy Mala Burger. Burger King in China as of 2012 is backed by TAB Food Investments also known as TFI. TFI currently runs over 1,200 Burger Kings in China making it the largest franchisee owner globally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "The logo of Australian franchisee, Hungry Jack's, is based on the Burger King \"bun halves\" design, and currently uses a variation of the second generation \"bun halves\" logo from 1994. When the company opened its first Russian store in Moscow, a version of the logo with Cyrillic lettering, styled \"\", was used. In Arabic-speaking countries, the logo is reversed and uses characters from the Arabic alphabet (), but is otherwise identical to the \"blue crescent\" English logo. In Israel, a Hebrew logo has been used for a while in 2002, and has been replaced with the English version since. The logo is reversed (like the Arabic version) and uses characters from the Hebrew alphabet (), but is otherwise identical to the English logo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Master franchise: Hungry Jack's Pty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "When the predecessor of Burger King first opened in Jacksonville in 1953, its menu consisted predominantly of basic hamburgers, French fries, soft drinks, milkshakes, and desserts. After being acquired by its Miami, Florida, franchisees and renamed to its current moniker in 1954, BK began expanding the breadth of its menu by adding the Whopper sandwich in 1957. This quarter-pound () hamburger was created by Burger King's new owners James McLamore and David Edgerton as a way to differentiate BK from other burger outlets at the time. Since its inception, the Whopper has become synonymous with Burger King and has become the focus of much of its advertising. The company even named its new kiosk-style restaurants Whopper Bars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "New owners 3G Capital response to this was to in turn revamp Burger King's menu, stores and image. Besides the Chef's Choice Burger, the company introduced products that emulated McDonald's such as oatmeal, ice cream and smoothies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "The company began its move into Sub-Saharan Africa in May 2013 when Burger King opened its first outlet in Cape Town South Africa. The company sold franchise rights to local gaming and slots machine operator Grand Parade Investments Ltd. The South African operation sold over double its initial forecasts in its opening weeks with sales of $474,838 at just one of its outlets in Cape Town in its first seven weeks. In a deal with local petrochemical company Sasol outlets will be opened at filling stations across the country from 2014. In April 2014 it was announced that due to high demand the number of new outlets being opened in 2014 would be increased from 12 to 14 across the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "On April 9, 2019, \"Nations Restaurant News\" reported that Burger King filed a lawsuit on Fritz Management LLC to remove Burger King trademarks from 37 units in South Texas after unsanitary conditions were found at a restaurant in Harlingen Texas. In May 2019, the lawsuit was settled with the franchisee, Fritz Management (a subsidiary of Sun Holdings Inc), keeping the trademarks on all 37 units."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "The Army and Air Force Exchange Service (AAFES) is a specialty retailer that operates military retail stores on US Army and Air Force bases and installations across the world. Burger King was the first restaurant chain to be opened on US military facilities with a location at the US Naval base at Pearl Harbor, however naval facilities are covered by the Navy Exchange Service Command (NEXCOM). The AAFES opened its first Burger King franchise 1984 at the American military facilities in Ansbach, Germany. The location was the first restaurant opened under a five-year agreement, with a fifteen-year extension, in which the AAFES agreed it would open 185 locations globally. Since that time the AAFES has opened nearly 200 locations in all theaters of operations of the two services. Almost all of the AAFES-operated Burger King restaurants are found on army posts and air force bases; however some locations, such as the one located at the Baghdad International Airport, are within territories under US military jurisdiction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "In 2019, Burger King reported that it planned to close up to 250 low-volume locations per year, with closures coming into effect in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hungry Jack's",
        "text": "After Burger King Corporation lost the case, it decided to terminate its operations in the country and in July 2002 the company transferred its assets to its New Zealand franchise group, Trans-Pacific Foods (TPF). The terms of the sale had TPF assume oversight of the Burger King franchises in the region as the Burger King brand's master franchisee. Trans-Pacific Foods administered the chain's 81 locations until September 2003 when the new management team of Burger King Corporation reached an agreement with Hungry Jack's Pty Ltd. to rebrand the existing Burger King locations to Hungry Jack's and make Hungry Jack's Pty the sole master franchisee of both brands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "The predecessor to Burger King was founded in 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, as Insta-Burger King. After visiting the McDonald brothers' original store location in San Bernardino, California, the founders and owners (Keith J. Kramer and his wife's uncle Matthew Burns), who had purchased the rights to two pieces of equipment called \"Insta-machines\", opened their first restaurants. Their production model was based on one of the machines they had acquired, an oven called the \"Insta-Broiler\". This strategy proved to be so successful that they later required all of their franchises to use the device. After the company faltered in 1959, it was purchased by its Miami, Florida, franchisees, James McLamore and David R. Edgerton. They initiated a corporate restructuring of the chain, first renaming the company Burger King. They ran the company as an independent entity for eight years (eventually expanding to over 250 locations in the United States), before selling it to the Pillsbury Company in 1967."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King legal issues",
        "text": "In 1990, Hungry Jack's renewed its franchise agreement with then BK parent Burger King Corporation, which allowed Hungry Jack's to license third party franchisee. One of the terms and conditions of the renewed agreement required Hungry Jack's to open a minimum number of new locations each year for the duration of the contract. Shortly after the Australian trademark on the Burger King name lapsed in 1996, Burger King requested that Cowin rebrand the Hungry Jack's locations to Burger King, which Cowin declined. Burger King Corporation accused Hungry Jack's of violating the conditions of the renewed franchise agreement by failing to expand the chain at the rate defined and sought to terminate the agreement. Under the aegis of this claim, Burger King Corporation, in partnership with Royal Dutch Shell's Australian division Shell Company of Australia Ltd., began to open its own stores in 1997 beginning in Sydney and extending throughout the regions of New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory and Victoria. In addition, BK sought to limit HJ's ability to open new locations in the country, whether they were corporate locations or third-party licensees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ribs & Burgers",
        "text": "As of 2018, Ribs & Burgers has 17 restaurants around Australia - nine in New South Wales, four in Victoria, two in Queensland and two in Western Australia. They also have a restaurant in Teddington, UK, and one in Pretoria, South Africa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Israel",
        "text": "The owner of Burgeanch, Yossi Hoshinski, died of a heart attack in early 2008; shortly thereafter, Burgeranch entered bankruptcy. Orgad Holdings bought Burgeranch from bankruptcy for over NIS 100 million. In 2010, it was announced that Orgad Holdings would be re-branding its Burger King locations as Burgeranch. At the time the two chains were merged there were 55 Burgeranch locations and 52 Burger King locations, creating 107 locations in the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Restaurant Brands International",
        "text": "3G Capital (which held a 71% majority stake in Burger King) holds a 32% stake in Restaurant Brands International. Berkshire Hathaway, which partially funded the merger, held a 4.8% stake in the mid to late 2010s. Previous Tim Hortons shareholders hold a sizeable share of the combined company. Until early 2019, Daniel Schwartz served as CEO of the company, with previous Tim Hortons CEO Marc Caira being vice-chairman and director. In January 2019, Jose Cil was named the CEO of Restaurant Brands International, and Schwartz was named the executive chairman of the company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King (Alberta)",
        "text": "Several Burger King restaurants became Burger Barons."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Burger King",
        "text": "Since its founding, Burger King has had more than twenty CEOs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Since its purchase in 2011, Burger King has seen 14% sales increase in its Latin American and Caribbean operations. The continued expansion in these market could provide a significant portions of Burger King's growth during the decade of the 2010s. In the Mexican market, Burger King sold 97 corporate-owned locations to its largest franchisee in that country. The deal means multi-chain operator Alsea S.A.B. de C.V will eventually operate approximately half of Mexico's 400+ Burger King locations while receiving exclusive expansion rights in Mexico for a twenty-year period. Elsewhere in Central America, Burger King entered in a deal with another of its franchises, the Beboca Group of Panama, to create a new corporate entity to handle expansion and logistics in the LAC region which until this time had no centralized operations group. The deal follows a unification of the company's web presence in Latin America and the Caribbean, as well as aligning all of its various web initiatives including mobile services, Facebook presence and guest relation tools. The Latin American moves are part of a corporate plan to take advantage of the growing middle class in these regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Master franchise: Vinci Partners"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Hana currently owns and operates or sub-licenses over 200 restaurants on the Arabian peninsula, Jordan, Lebanon and Egypt. To accommodate the tenets of the majority Islamic population's faith in its markets, all of the locations operated and overseen by Hana feature halal meats and do not feature pork based products. Additionally, hamburgers are marketed as \"beefburgers\" in some countries, avoiding the term \"ham\" and its association with pork."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with McDonald's restaurants",
        "text": "The list of countries follows the company's own calculation, and contains several non-sovereign territories."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with McDonald's restaurants",
        "text": "List of countries with McDonald's restaurants\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Restaurant Brands",
        "text": "Restaurant Brands\n--History.\n--Brands.\n----Current.\n------KFC.\n------Pizza Hut.\n------Carl's Jr..\n------Taco Bell.\n----Former.\n------Starbucks.\n--Expansion.\n----Australia.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Restaurant Brands",
        "text": "In 2011, Restaurant Brands acquired the New Zealand franchise for Carl's Jr. The brand commenced rolling out stores in late 2012 and now has nearly 20 stores in operation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "Burger King's menu has expanded from a basic offering of burgers, French fries, sodas, and milkshakes to a larger and more diverse set of products. In 1957, the \"Whopper\" became the first major addition to the menu, and it has become Burger King's signature product since. Conversely, Burger King has introduced many products which failed to catch hold in the marketplace. Some of these failures in the United States have seen success in foreign markets, where Burger King has also tailored its menu for regional tastes. From 2002 to 2010, Burger King aggressively targeted the 18\u201334 male demographic with larger products that often carried correspondingly large amounts of unhealthy fats and trans-fats. This tactic would eventually damage the company's financial underpinnings, and cast a negative pall on its earnings. Beginning in 2011, the company began to move away from its previous male-oriented menu and introduce new menu items, product reformulations and packaging, as part of its current owner 3G Capital's restructuring plans of the company."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where was the first Burger King restaurant?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The predecessor to what is now the international fast food restaurant chain Burger King was founded in on July 23, 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, as Insta-Burger King."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did Burger King open up restaurants in New Zealand?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Burger King transferred its assets to its New Zealand franchise group in July 2002 but I couldn't find when the first Burger King restaurants in New Zealand opened."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did they do any advertising in New Zealand prior to opening there?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Burger King's agreement with Hungry Jack's meant that Burger King would provide advertising support but I couldn't find out on things like how it would help advertise."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many continents have Burger King restaurants?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "It is on North America, South America, Oceania (Australia), Europe, Asia, and Africa."
    ],
    "topic": "Burger King premium burgers",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "List of countries with Burger King franchises:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "List of countries with Burger King franchises"
        ],
        "ctx": "This is a list of countries with Burger King franchises. Burger King (BK) itself began as a franchise of its progenitor company, Insta-Burger King. It grew in the United States using a combination of corporate locations and franchising, before divesting itself of its corporate holdings in 2013. It began its international expansion in 1969 with a location in Canada, followed by Australia in 1971, and Europe in 1975. Latin America and South America became part of its market later in that decade, Asia followed in the 1980s, and Northern Africa and the Middle East followed shortly thereafter. Sub-Saharan Africa and the former nations of the Iron Curtain came much later, beginning in the late 1990s and continuing into the 2010s."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "Another way that the company moved in order to update its message was by dropping long time agency of record, Crispin Porter + Bogusky (CP+B). CP+B had been one of the major players in the superfan demographic targeting with its Burger King character-based commercials for several years. Beginning in 2012 chain moved its advertising program to the advertising firm of McGarryBowen to promote the sandwich through a new food-centric campaign. The advertising program and naming of the product is designed to add to the cache of the product by associating with the terminology with higher quality products."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "Although the advertisements were mainly shown in North America, advertisements featuring the King surfaced on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom as well as in Germany in early January 2006. The King appeared not to catch on with the UK market and was seemingly retired there after only two brief commercials (featuring him at an ATM and as a pole dancer). However, he returned in summer 2006 as part of Burger King's \"Superman Returns\" campaign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In the UK, Burger King uses paper crowns to advertise its restaurants. Though the regular crown is gold and similar to that of what the King wears, there have been some variants. Variants include, a Halloween skeleton variant, a Christmas hat variant, a mini version, and hats to advertise the Whopper, Chicken fries and the 2019 Melting down promotion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "Burger King advertising\n--History.\n----1958.\n------1960s\u20131970s.\n------1980s\u20131990s.\n------2000s\u20132010s.\n------2020s.\n----Argentina.\n------The King.\n------The Subservient Chicken.\n--Logos.\n----Evolution of the Burger King logo.\n----International variations.\n--Children's advertising.\n----Children's logos.\n----The \"Marvellous Magical Burger King\".\n----The Burger King kingdom.\n----Kids Club.\n----Honbatz.\n----Restrictions on children's advertising.\n--Non-product-oriented advertising.\n--Promotional partners.\n----Blitz Games.\n----Celebrity spokespeople.\n----Media tie-ins.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "In a 2007 commercial to promote the restaurant chain's new Western Whopper sandwich, the King is shown in full royal attire against an obviously fake backdrop of a Southwestern desert, doing a jig-like dance to banjo music. His head is slightly modified so that he wears a handlebar mustache in the style of the Old West, and is juxtaposed with shots of Burger King customers who, upon consuming a Western Whopper, acquire similar mustaches regardless of age or gender."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The advertising program for the Crown Jewels sandwiches featured the slogan \"Flash, but not too flash\" which was an inference stating while they cost more than the standard burger offerings at BK, they were not as much as one would expect to pay at a higher end outlet. The products were introduced in a series of three pairs of commercials in both 15 and 30 second formats. The commercials featured animals such as snails or frogs that are used as exotic cuisine in various regions of the world. As the narrator announces BK is looking for new and more complex ingredients for their new line of sandwiches, the animals are shown reacting in a fearful way believing they are the new ingredients. At the end, the narrator declares one of the new flavors and the animal is relieved to find out they are not food, then they are promptly dispatched by the new food item (e.g. the frog is hit with a mango)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food advertising",
        "text": "Other chains, such as Carl's Jr. and Burger King (see Burger King advertising), have directed advertising towards a different demographic \u2013 young teenage and college-age men \u2013 with trendy, often sexualized, imagery and messages that target men's supposed desire for large, meat-filled burgers and rich, satisfying food. For example, in 2005, Carl's Jr. debuted a controversial ad featuring a bikini-clad Paris Hilton writhing sensuously on an expensive Bentley luxury car while enjoying a large burger. While the ad provoked outrage from a number of groups, Carl's Jr. sales grew substantially."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The Angus burger adverts featured a man (played by Richard Bennett) asking for an Angus Burger in a 'FastBurger' restaurant \u2013 a parody of McDonald's \u2013 and the counter staff laughing, presumably because they didn't think you could buy one in a fast food restaurant. The news of the order reaches the FastBurger headquarters and everyone associated with the fictional chain is laughing. The chairman is by now laughing after being told about the order on the phone, and says \"An Angus Burger, is he crazy?!\" An assistant gives him the \"Evening Standard\" paper and the front-page story reads 'Burger King Debuts The Angus\". Then the camera pulls back through the office to reveal a real Angus Burger and the announcer says \"The Angus Burger, only at Burger King\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King sliders",
        "text": "During the periods these products were sold, they were often the center of product advertising for the company. Additionally, as a major products in the company's portfolio, Burger King had registered many global trademarks to protect its investment in the products, most of which have since lapsed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Burger King franchises\n--History.\n----International.\n--Relations.\n----United States.\n------Advertising revenues.\n------Hours of operation.\n------Value menu pricing.\n----International relations.\n------Australia.\n------Israel & Palestinian Territories.\n--Franchisees of note.\n----Australia.\n----Brazil.\n----China.\n----Multinational.\n------Central and South America.\n------Central and Eastern Europe.\n------The Middle East.\n------North America.\n----Russia.\n----United States.\n------Army and Air Force Exchange Service.\n------Carrols Corporation.\n------GPS Hospitality.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "The Burger King\n--History.\n----1960s\u20131980s.\n----2004\u20132011.\n----2015\u2013present.\n--Advertising campaigns.\n----Crispin Porter + Bogusky.\n----NFL commercials.\n----Video games.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "Burger King premium burgers\n--History.\n----North America.\n------Sirloin Steak sandwich.\n------Back Porch Grillers.\n------The Angus Burger.\n------Steakhouse Burger.\n------Steakhouse XT.\n------Chef's Choice Burger.\n------A1 Ultimate Bacon Cheeseburger.\n----Europe.\n------The Aberdeen Angus burger.\n------The $190 Burger.\n------The Lamb Flatbread burger.\n----New Zealand.\n------Crown Jewels.\n--------Product variants.\n------King's Collection.\n----Asia.\n----Competitive products.\n--Advertising.\n----North America.\n----Europe.\n----New Zealand.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "Introduced in 1976, the Burger King Kingdom was Burger King's answer to McDonaldland, the setting for characters created in the commercials made by Burger King's rival McDonald's during the mid-1970s. By 1989, the \"Burger King Kingdom\" characters were phased out in favor of the BK Kids Club Gang. Starting in 2003, the Burger King began to be reused in Burger King ads, albeit as a man in a mask and King costume, rather than a full live-action portrayal."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "After Miami-based advertising firm Crispin Porter + Bogusky (CP+B) took over advertising of Burger King on January 27, 2003, they began using a new caricatured iteration of the Burger King character who was simply called \"the King\". During production, an employee at CP+B found a 1970s'-era oversized Burger King head for sale on eBay which was originally used as inspiration for brainstorming; it was eventually decided to restore the head and use it in a campaign. The King appeared in commercials for Burger King starting in 2004. In this incarnation, the King is an unnamed actor who wears an oversized grinning mask that resembles the 1970s version of the King and who often appears in various unexpected places such as in bed with people or behind doors and walls, only to offer them Burger King food. Employing the advertising technique called viral marketing, CP+B's ads generated significant word of mouth for its new use of what various trade publications and Internet articles labeled \"the Creepy King\" persona, an appellation that BK has come to favor and CP+B uses in its ads."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In 1983, Burger King introduced advertising to emphasize value or its opening hours. The company encouraged its stores to keep their drive-through outlets open after midnight; most QSR locations closed between 10:00 pm and 11:00 pm. In mid-2007, it again began advertising late opening times in response to the late-night hours of Wendy's and McDonald's."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The burger came at a point in the industry where fast casual restaurants were beginning to take a bite out of the industry as a whole. Burger King, and other chains, at first had not taken chains such as Five Guys and Smashburger as serious competition. Additionally, convenience stores such as 7-11 were also expanding their in-store foods with cheaper hot foods that challenged the lower end of the market. These two market trends had the effect of shaving sales from both ends of the menu, challenging the concept of the barbell strategy. As the chains tried to fight the encroachment of the competition from outside fast food industry, McDonald's and Wendy's chose to focus on their menus while Burger King focused its advertising on younger-skewing \"superfan\". The result was that the other two chains' sales grew by 26% and 9% percent respectively, while Burger King's remained flat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King products",
        "text": "In 2004, the company committed itself to a redesign of its entire packaging line that tied the packaging into its irreverent advertising campaign created by Crispin, Porter + Bogusky. Each product's packaging included a tongue-in-cheek commentary about the product itself. Alex Bogusky, partner and executive creative director of CP+B, stated that BK decided \"to create a dialogue with the consumer\" by utilizing the large areas of white space found on its packaging at the time. All of its sandwich wrappers, cartons, tray liners, bags, breakfast platters, chili cups, condiments, and regional product packaging received what was described as \"quirky ad copy\" specifically targeting the 18\u201334-year-old male demographic segment. Besides the humorous commentary, the company also created sniglet-type names for things that would appear in its products, such as a \"ringer\" \u2013 a single onion ring that had been accidentally included in an order of fries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "To promote continuing interest in these products, Burger King occasionally released limited-time only (LTO) variants on its premium burgers that have different ingredients from the standard sandwich recipes. Being one of the company's major business strategies, these sandwiches have sometimes been the center of product advertising for the company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In 2003, Burger King hired the Miami-based advertising agency Crispin Porter + Bogusky (CP+B), which revived the Burger King character used during Burger King's 1970s and 1980s Burger King Kingdom advertising campaign as a caricature now simply called \"the King\". CP+B also created a series of viral web-based advertisements to complement its television and print promotional campaigns on various social networks and various Burger King corporate pages. These viral campaigns, other new campaigns and a series of new product introductions, drew both positive and negative attention to Burger King and helped TPG and its partners earn approximately US$367\u00a0million in dividends. After the late-2000s recession, Burger King's owner, TPG Capital, divested itself of the chain in 2010; the new owner, 3G Capital, ended its relationship with CP+B and hired McGarryBowen to begin a new campaign targeted on a broader demographic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "While Burger King still utilizes a version of its revamped franchising system in the United States, outside of North America its international locations licenses are still sold on a regional basis with franchises owning exclusive development rights for a region or country. These regional franchises are known as master franchises, and are responsible for opening new restaurants, licensing new third party operators, and performing standards oversight of all restaurant locations in these countries; one of the larger examples of a master franchise is Hungry Jack's, which oversees over 300 restaurants in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King products",
        "text": "The company used its advertising firm of McGarryBowen and a food-centric campaign to introduce the products. The ads feature the tag line of \"More beef, more value\", with the television commercials utilizing images of the ingredients of the sandwiches as they are being prepared."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "CP+B reinstated the Burger King character used in the 1970s and 1980s for the Burger King Kingdom advertising campaign. The character was redesigned as a caricature of the original, now simply called \"the Burger King\" or just \"the King\". The new incarnation replaced the singing and dancing \"Magical Burger King\" with a miming actor who wore an oversized, grinning plastic mask resembling the original actor who played King. Employing the practice of viral marketing, CP+B's advertisements generated significant word of mouth and a new use of what has become known as the \"Creepy King\" persona, an appellation that CP+B used in later advertisements. In April 2009, a CP+B advertisement for Burger King's \"Texican burger\" was removed from television because it caused an international uproar over insults to Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King products",
        "text": "Burger King products\n--History.\n----Sandwiches and entr\u00e9es.\n----Ancillaries.\n----Breakfast.\n--Regionalization.\n--Preparation methods.\n----Broiling.\n----Kitchen equipment.\n----Sandwich preparation.\n--Demographic targeting.\n----Value.\n----Children.\n----Adult.\n----The \"Superfan\".\n--Nutrition.\n--Products.\n----Packaging.\n----Reformulations.\n----Limited time offers.\n----Trends.\n----Licensed products.\n----Failed products.\n--Suppliers and purchasing.\n----Purchasing guidelines for meat.\n------2001 Guidelines.\n------2008 Guidelines.\n------2012 Guidelines.\n----Food.\n------Condiments.\n------Proteins.\n------Sides and desserts.\n----Beverages.\n------Soft drinks.\n------Coffee.\n------Alcoholic drinks.\n----Distributors.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "Burger King created a separate logo for its children's products with the introduction of its Burger King Kid's Club in 1990. The original logo, an inverted triangle with blue text, was used in television and print advertising, signage, toy and meal packaging. Burger King changed this logo several times and introduced several local versions in its international market. In 1992, the company replaced the original logo with one similar to its corporate \"bun halves\" logo, the original Burger King text logo on a single line with the text \"Kids Club\" text under it on two lines. The most current logo in North America is for its \"Club BK\" program which it introduced in July 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King products",
        "text": "As the signature product of the company, it is often at the center of advertising promotions, product tie-ins, and even corporate practical jokes and hoaxes such as its 1998 April Fool's Day prank where Burger King took out a full page advertisement in several national publications, such as \"USA Today\", promoting a new version of the sandwich called the \"Left-Handed Whopper\". The advertisement claimed that the condiments were all rotated 180\u00b0 to accommodate southpaws. Some of the early twenty-first century advertising programs, particularly in Europe, have drawn criticism for cultural insensitivity or misogyny. One such example was The Texican Whopper, an LTO version of the Whopper sold in Europe and was advertised with an ad that featured a pair of actors dressed as a cowboy and a lucha libre wrestler. The problem arose when the Mexican Ambassador to Spain complained that the commercial featured demeaning stereotypes of Mexicans. Additionally, the print version of the advertisement featured the wrestler wearing a cape that appeared to be a Mexican flag, a violation of Mexican laws governing the usage of its national banner."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "When Miami-based advertising agency Crispin Porter + Bogusky took over advertising of Burger King in 2003, they created a caricatured rendition of the Burger King character from the Burger King Kingdom advertising campaign now simply called \"the King\". During the use of CP+B's new version of the King, ads generated significant word of mouth for its new use of what various trade publications and Internet articles labeled \"the Creepy King\" persona, an appellation that BK came to favor and CP+B used in its ads. However, this iteration of the King failed to provide a consistent message regarding the company and its products, prompting the company to terminate its relationship with CP+B upon the takeover of Burger King by 3G Capital in 2010 and announced the following year that the character would be retired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "The 1970s were the \"Golden Age\" of the company's advertising, but beginning in the early 1980s Burger King advertising began losing focus. A series of less successful advertising campaigns created by a procession of advertising agencies continued for the next two decades. In 2003, Burger King hired the Miami-based advertising agency Crispin Porter + Bogusky (CP+B), which completely reorganized its advertising with a series of new campaigns centered on a redesigned Burger King character nicknamed \"The King\", accompanied by a new online presence. While highly successful, some of CP+B's commercials were derided for perceived sexism or cultural insensitivity. Burger King's new owner, 3G Capital, later terminated the relationship with CP+B in 2011 and moved its advertising to McGarryBowen, to begin a new product-oriented campaign with expanded demographic targeting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Big King",
        "text": "While Burger King's advertising programs were highly focused on its new product, most of the company's sales gains were the result of aggressive price cutting by Burger King, specifically pricing its signature Whopper sandwich at 99\u00a2, according to analysts at Salomon Brothers. The price-cutting promotions by Burger King, and number-three chain Wendy's, forced McDonald's into its own price-cutting program. According to Salomon, the burger segment's price wars would have a detrimental effect on the profits of segment leaders, allowing other smaller chains such as Sonic Drive-In, Jack in the Box and Carl's Jr to position themselves as attractive alternatives to the big three chains."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King products",
        "text": "As one of the company's major offerings, the chicken fries are sometimes the center of product advertising for the company. The original advertisements were created by the firm of Crispin, Porter + Bogusky and were the subject of both criticism and legal action by the extreme metal band Slipknot over claims of intellectual property rights, while later advertising programs started the company on new direction of digital-based, multi-media advertising. With the product's North American reintroduction in 2014 and 2015, Burger King utilized a heavy social media campaign to help entice fans of the product back into restaurants. The company has also relied heavily on product tie-ins with the NFL, NCAA and NASCAR to promote the product across different demographic groups. Even though the product been a prominent part of the menu for the better part of a decade, Burger King has released very few limited-time (LTO) variants of the product \u2013 its first one being released in the summer of 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "The Subservient Chicken was an advertising program starring a costume chicken character to promote Burger King's TenderCrisp chicken sandwich and their \"Have it Your Way\" campaign. Created for the Miami-based advertising firm Crispin Porter + Bogusky (CP+B) by The Barbarian Group, the program featured a viral marketing website and multiple television ads.\n;General market:\n* 1958\u201368 \u2013 Hume, Smith and Mickelberry\n* 1968\u201376 \u2013 BBDO\n* 1976\u201387 \u2013 J. Walter Thompson\n* 1987\u201389 \u2013 N.W. Ayer<ref name=\"CT Ayer/BK\"></ref>\n* 1988 \u2013 Einsom-Freeman and August, Bishop and Meier\n* 1989\u201394 \u2013 D'Arcy Masius Benton & Bowles (DMB&B), Saatchi & Saatchi\n* 1994\u20132001 \u2013 Lowe, Lintas & Partners \u2013 General Market and Kids Club\n* 2001\u20132002 \u2013 McCann-Erickson\n* 2002\u20132003 \u2013 AMOEBA, Inc.\n* September 2002 \u2013 Deutsch, Inc. for introduction of BK 99\u00a2 Value Menu.\n* 2003\u20132004 \u2013 Young & Rubicam, Inc.\n* 2004\u20132011 \u2013 Crispin Porter & Bogusky<ref name=\"WSJ CP+B/BK\"></ref>\n* 2011 \u2013 McGarryBowen\n;African American market:\n* 1983\u2013present \u2013 UniWorld Group, Inc.\n;Hispanic market:\n* 1989\u20132009 \u2013 Bromley Communications\n* 2009\u2013present \u2013 LatinWorks\n;Internet:\n* 2001 \u2013 June 2008 \u2013 VML, Inc.\n* July 2008 \u2013 2011 \u2013 Crispin Porter + Bogusky\n;Children's:\n* 1989\u20131994: Saatchi & Saatchi Advertising\n* 1994\u20132001: Lowe, Lintas & Partners\n* 2001\u20132010: Campbell Mithun\n* Present: Pitch, Inc."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "List of countries with Burger King franchises\n--History.\n--Africa.\n--Asia.\n--Europe.\n--North America.\n--Oceania.\n--International subsidiaries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "As the success of the barbell strategy became evident to the general market place, other chains such as McDonald's and Carl's Jr./Hardee's began to experiment with the concept. Introduced in 2001, Carl's Jr./Hardee's sells its Six-Dollar Burger, a line of sandwiches that is also made from Angus beef."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "With the late-2000s recession hitting the 18\u201335 demographic targeted by the CP+B created ads particularly hard, the company saw its market share decline and the company move into the red. After the completion of the sale of the company in late 2010, the new ownership group terminated Burger King's seven-year relationship with CP+B and hired rival firm McGarryBowen to create a new campaign with an expanded market reach. As part of the new campaign, McGarryBowen terminated the use of The Burger King in the company's advertising program in favor of a new program that focused on the food and ingredients in its new advertising campaigns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Big King",
        "text": "The Double Supreme was promoted in a series of advertisements created by the New York firm of Ammirati Puris Lintas (APL). The first ad compared the Double Supreme cheeseburger to the Big Mac, with one 30-second television spot touting the Burger King product contained 75% more beef than the McDonald's one and asked the viewer if Big Mac lovers were \"ready for a new relationship?\" A second advertisement featured actors playing McDonald's employees going to Burger King to get the new sandwich because they had realized that they preferred the Burger King product over the sandwich they normally sold. The attack ads were the result of the comparatively strong sales year for Burger King in 1996 coupled with domestic sales problems for McDonald's, leaving BK acting in a \"cocky\" manner towards its main rival."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "In 2007, Burger King introduced a television advertising campaign in which a Burger King restaurant in Las Vegas, Nevada told customers that the company had stopped selling the Whopper sandwich. The ads showed the startled reactions of customers that Burger King would discontinue selling its most popular sandwich. A second round of related commercials showed actual customers who had ordered a Whopper instead being provided with a Big Mac from McDonald's or a hamburger from Wendy's. After the customers complained to the Burger King restaurant manager, the King would emerge from the kitchen with a Whopper on a silver platter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "A similar issue again arose in 2009 when Burger King diverted several million dollars of advertising rebates paid to its American franchises by Coca-Cola Corporation and Dr. Pepper Snapple Group to its own coffers. The company intended to utilize these funds to increase its advertising presence in the United States at a time when corporate advertising costs were falling, which would allow an increased media presence of approximately 25% from the previous year (2008). The NFA contended that Burger King Corporation improperly redirected 40% of restaurant operating funds (ROF) paid by the two beverage suppliers to franchises since 1990 into the corporate advertising budget. These funds were often used by the franchises to pay for beverage support systems such as filtration units and local marketing, and diversion of the funds would cost franchises at least $65 million (USD) between 2010\u20132012. These funds often helped the franchises' bottom lines, as they were often used to offset other costs imposed on the franchises by Burger King, such as the $1 (USD) Double Cheeseburger."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "North America is the company's home territory and home to its first non-American stores; it opened its first international restaurant in Windsor, Ontario, Canada in 1969."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger wars",
        "text": "In a 2007 advertising campaign, Jack in the Box aired a series of television ads in the United States that disparaged several rivals' Angus-beef burgers in which it was alleged that they equated Angus beef with an anus. Rival chain operator CKE claimed the ads were misleading because they confuse consumers by comparing sirloin, a cut of meat found on all cattle, with Angus, which is a breed of cattle. CKE, operator of the Carl's Jr. and Hardees chains, had been noted for running controversial ads and claimed that there was no comparison between the ads they were running and those of Jack In the Box because their ads did not insinuate their products came from an undesirable part of cows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In the early 1990s, Burger King advertised its new dinner offering \u2013 dinner baskets and table service \u2013 with the \"BK Tee Vee\" (or \"BKTV\") campaign, which used the taglines \"BK Tee Vee... I Love this Place!\" and \"Your Way Right Away!\", and featured Dan Cortese as \"Dan: The Whopper Man.\" Burger King's lack of a successful advertising campaign continued during the 1980s and 1990s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Burger King (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "Within two months of their introduction, sales at New Zealand restaurants increase by approximately 10%, and drew the attention of Burger King Holdings. BKH observed the sales trends and market acceptance of the products for several months after the introduction for the possible purpose of extending the concept in other markets. While the concept was tailored for the New Zealand market, TPF executives stated that it would be easy to adapt the concept to other regions. Some restaurant industry observers agreed with the TPF assessment of the products and separately stated other sauces and ingredients could be used to crate variations in the US and other markets. Eventually, the sandwiches were discontinued, with the Sweet Ride and Mango Jammin burgers the first to be removed from the menu."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Angus Burger",
        "text": "#Redirect Burger King premium burgers"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King marketing campaigns",
        "text": "List of Burger King marketing campaigns\n--Slogans.\n--Jingles.\n----The Burger King jingle.\n--Promotions.\n----CP+B.\n----Mother.\n----Free Burger Survey.\n--Media tie-ins.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In 2021, a new campaign serving as a response to the various \"flavour conspiracys\" regarding their burgers was launched with the slogan \"It's not a secret, it's real fire\" (stated in the accompanying advert as \"No secrets, it's just fire\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "When Crispin Porter + Bogusky took over the advertising account of Burger King in 2003, They began devising a caricatured variation of the Burger King character from the Burger King Kingdom advertising campaign, now simply called \"The King\". During the use of CP+B's new version of the King, ads generated significant word of mouth for its new use of what various trade publications and Internet articles labeled \"the Creepy King\" persona, an appellation that BK came to favor and CP+B's used in its ads. The farcical nature of the program led to the King becoming an internet meme frequently portrayed as a fiend with monstrous intents, in addition to starring in three video games published by Burger King in late 2006. However, the use of the king failed to provide a consistent message regarding the company and its products. Upon the take over of Burger King by 3G Capital in 2010, the company terminated its relationship with CP+B and in August 2011 Burger King announced that character would be retired as the primary mascot for the brand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "In addition, CP+B added a viral marketing web page The Angus Diet. Designed to work with the larger Angus campaign, this site featured the such things as the Angus diet testimonials, a faux diet book and Angus interventions. The \"interventions\" could be sent to people via e-mail by filling out several fields on the page. As CP+B stated: \"They were a way of getting people to spread the idea of the basis of the Angus Diet \u2013 just enjoy life. Do whatever you want. Eat whatever you want as long as it makes you happy.\"\n* The Western Barbecue Angus \u2013 In a cross promotion with the 2005 season of the Apprentice, the two teams, Magna and Net Worth, competed in a contest to design a sandwich for BK to sell. The winning product was the Net Worth team and their \"Western Angus Steak Burger\". As a promotional stunt, the new sandwich was introduced as a nationwide, limited time offering the day after the episode aired.\n* Steakhouse (1st campaign) \u2013 The first line of advertisements for the Steakhouse Burger tagged the sandwich as \"the burger you just can't wait for.\" The commercials often featured people in a rush to get to Burger King and purchase a Steakhouse Burger, risking the safety of other people and property around them in the process.\n* Steakhouse Burger (2nd campaign) \u2013 The second line of advertisements for the Steakhouse Burger tagged the sandwich as \"so special, people might think you think you're special.\" The commercials imply that the Steakhouse Burger is a burger that people have to \"earn the right\" to eat. They usually feature two characters each enjoying the burger. They are then approached by a third character, who asks what the other two characters did to earn the sandwich. The first character boasts of an extraordinary feat, while the second character says he was \"just hungry\" or \"just wanted one.\" The third character then berates the second character, calling him arrogant for eating a sandwich that he \"did not deserve.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In 2017, Burger King briefly ran an ad to intentionally activate Google Home smart speakers. The end of the commercial featured an employee saying \"OK Google, what is the Whopper burger,\" which would trigger the device to read the first sentence of the Wikipedia entry for the Whopper. Shortly before the ad's release, the entry for Whopper had been edited to include lines such as \"America's favourite burger\" and \"100% beef with no preservatives\". Although the ad worked for a while, after a few hours the commercial no longer triggered a search by the device, which was viewed by both \"The New York Times\" and \"The Verge\" to be a deliberate change made by Google. According to the BBC, the voice-over for the commercial was re-recorded with a different intonation in order to bypass the block. During the hours that the ad was active, many attempts were made to vandalize the Wikipedia page in question to alter Google Home's description."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "This campaign paralleled McDonald's McDonaldland children's commercials, which featured \"Ronald McDonald\", \"The Hamburglar\", and \"Mayor McCheese\", along with other characters and mascots. The ads featuring the Burger King Kingdom were phased out by the late 1980s in favour of the BK Kids Club."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In 2017, to promote its flame-grilled burgers, Burger King offered a lifetime supply of free Whoppers to people with the last name \"Parrilla.\" Parrilla translates as 'grill' and the company decided to connect with those who have been teased by their name, use their stories in an advertisement, and offer them the free burgers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "By October 2008, Burger King announced it had shown revenue growth in the United States despite the ongoing fiscal slowdown related to the financial crisis of 2007\u201308. According to the company, same store growth in the U.S. grew approximately 3.6% in part to sales of the Steakhouse Burger. Despite the profit, the company missed Wall Street's estimates by a penny per share which resulted in a 37\u00a2 drop in the chain's share prices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "King Games is a series of three advertisement-based video games (advergames) sold at Burger King. The games were sold as part of a promotion during the holiday season from late November until 24 December 2006. All three games were developed by the Blitz Arcade Division of Blitz Games, and were published by Burger King."
      },
      {
        "title": "Whopper",
        "text": "Burger King sells several variants that are either seasonal or tailored to local tastes or customs. To promote the product, the restaurant occasionally releases limited-time variants. It is often at the center of advertising promotions, product tie-ins, and corporate practical jokes and hoaxes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Specialty Sandwiches",
        "text": "A 2009 advertising campaign in Singapore for the company's new BK Super Seven Incher cheeseburger, caused a notable controversy over the content of the ad. Originally and erroneously attributed to Burger King's advertising firm at the time, Crispin Porter + Bogusky, which had generated controversy with some misogynistic and culturally insensitive American and European advertisements, it was later revealed that a local, unnamed Singaporean firm was responsible for the campaign. The print version of the advertisement (\"pictured\") made an overt association with the sandwich and oral sex using imagery and less-than subtle innuendo in the printed description in the advertisement. Critics across the globe complained that the ad was \"disgusting\", and went \"too far\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comparative advertising",
        "text": "In the 1980s, during what has been referred to as the cola wars, soft-drink manufacturer Pepsi ran a series of advertisements where people, caught on hidden camera, in a blind taste test, chose Pepsi over rival Coca-Cola. Recently, Verizon and AT&T filed lawsuits against each other due to comparative ads which tried to represent superiority over each other. Similarly, McDonald's and Burger King have done similar evidence between the two burger chains, in which Burger King \"flame-broils\" burgers compared to McDonald's which \"fries\" their burgers, an evidence known as the burger wars. Wendy's tried to further follow suit with their famous \"Where's the beef?\" campaign in 1984, in which three elderly ladies poke fun of a huge bun sandwiched with a small burger patty, in which one (played by Clara Peller) asks the famous question. The campaign faced reality that its Wendy's Single had more beef than the Burger King Whopper or McDonald's Big Mac."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "Burger King\n--History.\n--Structure and operations.\n--Franchises.\n--International operations.\n--Controversies and legal cases.\n--Charitable contributions and services.\n--Products.\n----Equipment.\n--Advertising.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "Shortly after the acquisition of Burger King by TPG Capital in 2002, its new CEO Bradley (Brad) Blum set about reversing the fortunes of the company's advertising programs. The company reinstated its famous \"Have it your way\" motto and engaged Miami-based advertising agency Crispin Porter + Bogusky (CP+B), which was known for having a hip, subversive tack when creating campaigns for its clients. CP+B updated Burger King's image and changed its marketing strategy. The cups, bags and the company logo were redesigned with the intent to give BK an appealing, culturally aware and modern image. Humorous statements, claims and product descriptions were printed on bags, product packaging and on in-store promotional materials, including a Burger King \"Bill of Rights\", using the slogan \"Have it Your Way\". CP+B created an advertising campaign that focused on television spots, print, web and product tie-ins."
      },
      {
        "title": "BK Chicken Fries",
        "text": "As one of the company's major offerings, the chicken fries are sometimes the center of product advertising for the company. The original advertisements were created by the firm of Crispin, Porter + Bogusky and were the subject of both criticism and legal action by the nu metal band Slipknot over claims of intellectual property rights, while later advertising programs started the company on a new direction of digital-based, multi-media advertising. With the product's North American reintroduction in 2014 and 2015, Burger King utilized a heavy social media campaign to help entice fans of the product back into restaurants. The company has also relied heavily on product tie-ins with the NFL, NCAA and NASCAR to promote the product across different demographic groups. Even though the product has been a prominent part of the menu for the better part of a decade, Burger King has released very few LTO variants of the product, with the first one being released in the summer of 2015. Despite being a major product line in the company's portfolio, Burger King has registered very few, if any, global trademarks to protect its investment in the product."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King products",
        "text": "The advertising campaign was produced by Crispin, Porter + Boguski and featured flying pigs convincing customers that a fast food restaurant could in fact produce good barbecue ribs at a reasonable price."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "Shortly after the acquisition of Burger King by TPG Capital, L.P. in 2002, its new CEO Brad Blum set about turning around the fortunes of the company by initiating an overhaul of its flailing advertising programs. One of the first moves by the company was to reinstate its famous \"Have it your way\" slogan as the corporate motto. BK handed the effort off to its new advertising agency, Miami-based Crispin Porter + Bogusky (abbreviated as CP+B). CP+B was known for having a hip, subversive tack when creating campaigns for its clients, exactly what BK was looking for. One of CP+B strategies was to revive the Burger King character used during BK's 1970s/1980s Burger King Kingdom children's advertising campaign as a caricatured variation, now simply called \"the King\". The farcical nature of \"the Burger King\" centered advertisements inspired an internet meme where the King is edited into unusual situations that are either comical or menacing, many times followed with the phrase \"Where is your God now?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger wars",
        "text": "The Burger wars are a series of off-and-on comparative advertising campaigns consisting of mutually-targeted advertisements that highlight the intense competition between hamburger fast food chains McDonald's, Burger King and others in the United States. The term first came into use during the late 1970s due to an attempt by Burger King to generate increased market and mind-share by attacking the size of bigger rival McDonald's hamburgers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "New owners 3G Capital response to this was to in turn revamp Burger King's menu, stores and image. Besides the Chef's Choice Burger, the company introduced products that emulated McDonald's such as oatmeal, ice cream and smoothies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "While BK began its foray into locations outside of the continental United States in 1963 with a store in San Juan, Puerto Rico, it did not have an international presence until several years later. Shortly after the acquisition of the chain by Pillsbury, it opened its first Canadian restaurant in Windsor, Ontario in 1969. Other international locations followed soon after, including Australia in 1971, with a restaurant in the Perth suburb of Innaloo, and Europe in 1975, with a restaurant in Madrid. Beginning in 1982, BK and its franchisees began operating stores in several East Asian countries, including Japan, Taiwan, Singapore and South Korea. Due to high competition, all of the Japanese locations were closed in 2001; however, BK reentered the Japanese market in June 2007. BK's Central and South American operations began in Mexico in the late 1970s and by the early 1980s in Caracas, Venezuela, Santiago, Chile, and Buenos Aires, Argentina. While Burger King lags behind McDonald's in international locations by over 12,000 stores, as of 2008 it had managed to become the largest chain in several countries including Mexico and Spain. The company divides its international operations into three segments; the Middle East, Europe and Africa division (EMEA), Asia-Pacific (APAC) and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). In each of these regions, Burger King has established several subsidiaries to develop strategic partnerships and alliances to expand into new territories. In its EMEA group, Burger King's Switzerland-based subsidiary Burger King Europe GmbH is responsible for the licensing and development of BK franchises in those regions. In APAC region, the Singapore-based BK AsiaPac, Pte. Ltd. business unit handles franchising for East Asia, the Asian subcontinent and all Oceanic territories. The LAC region includes Mexico, Central and South America and the Caribbean Islands and has no centralized operations group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "On 12 September 2007, Burger King announced that it was joining the Council of Better Business Bureaus Children's Food and Beverage Advertising Initiative. The program, a voluntary self-regulation program designed to adjust advertising messages aimed at children so that they encourage healthy eating habits and lifestyles. As part of this new initiative, Burger King stated that it would restrict its advertising aimed at children under 12 that uses third-party licensed characters to Kids Meals that meet its nutrition guidelines, refrain from advertising in elementary schools and refrain from product placement in media primarily aimed at children under 12, promote Kids Meals that meet its nutrition guidelines and promote healthy lifestyles and healthy dietary choices in its advertising. Several groups, including the CSPI, lauded the move as guarded good news."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "The Burger King is a character created as the advertising mascot for the company that has been used in numerous television commercials and advertising programs. The character has undergone several iterations over the course of its company's history. The first iteration of the King was part of a Burger King sign at the first store in Miami, Florida in 1955. Later signs had the King shown sitting on a \"burger throne\" as well as atop the BK sign while holding a beverage. In the early 1970s Burger King started using a small, animated version of the King called Kurger Bing in its children's advertising where the animated Burger King was voiced by Allen Swift. By the late 70s, the original animated King was replaced by the \"Marvelous Magical Burger King\", a red-bearded, Tudor-era king who ruled the Burger King Kingdom and performed magic tricks that were mostly sleight-of-hand, but sometimes relied on camera tricks or involved his \"Magic Ring\" which could summon copious amounts of food. The children's ads featuring the King were phased out by the late 1980s in favor of the BK Kids Club Gang and other later programs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "After purchasing the company in 2010, 3G Capital ended Burger King's relationship with CP+B and engaged the services of McGarryBowen. In August 2011, McGarryBowen produced its first Burger King campaign, which was for the California Whopper sandwich. The advertisements were the first in a campaign that de-emphasized the King and focused on ingredients and preparation methods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "The first Burger King logo used text and was introduced on 28 July 1953. The first graphical representation of the Burger King character occurred in the 1960s and is sometimes called the \"Sitting King\" logo, as the Burger King character is shown sitting atop a burger holding a beverage. Several versions were produced; the King is shown either sitting atop a hamburger or on an inverted trapezoid with the company name along the top and its motto \"Home of the Whopper\" below it. Some signs omitted the King and only had the trapezoid. This logo was used in various forms until 30 April 1969 when the Burger King \"bun halves\" logo made its debut on 1 May 1969, and has continued in use until the present. The logo resembles a hamburger; with two orange semi-circular \"buns\" surrounding the name. On 30 April 1994, BK updated the logo with a graphical tightening, replacing the \"bulging\" font with a smoother font with rounded edges."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King marketing campaigns",
        "text": "Burger King supports its advertising and change efforts with the opportunity for customers to fill out a My BK Experience survey every time after they eat at Burger King, keep their receipt, and go online to complete the survey. Customers receive a free survey code they can exchange for their choice of a Whopper or Chicken Sandwich, and Burger King receives invaluable feedback they use to continually improve upon their service, customer experience, and to get advertising ideas and inspiration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King products",
        "text": "One particular market target that was of importance to the company was identified as the \"Superfan\". The superfan was a demographic group that included individuals that are 18 to 49 years old, primarily male, who would visit a fast-food restaurant five times a month and eat fast food 16 times a month. Burger King and their competitors hope to attract this group because of the large sums of money that they represent; an increase in sales to this group could drive an increase in global sales. While superfans accounted for less than 20 percent of Burger King's customer base, they accounted for nearly 50 percent of the company's business. By focusing on this demographic group, the company could increase sales more readily; it was easier to generate more repeat visits by this demographic than it was to coax new customers to switch from other chains. The company has used advertising featuring its mascot, the Burger King, in tandem with new product rollouts such as its BK Wrapper product to help generate an increased number of visits by this client segment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "The \"blue crescent\" logo was designed by the New York-based Sterling Brands and made its official debut on July 1, 1999. Sterling Group changed the color of the restaurant's name from red to burgundy, tilted the bun halves and the font on an axis, used a smaller bun motif and wrapped the burger with a blue crescent, which gave it a more circular appearance. Most restaurants did not acquire new signs, menus, and drive-thru ordering speakers until 2001. All secondary signage was updated with the new logo and all sign posts were repainted to match the blue coloring of the new crescent, replacing the original black."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "Pillsbury's Executive Vice President of Restaurant Operations Norman E. Brinker was tasked with turning the brand around, and strengthening its position against its main rival McDonald's. One of his initiatives was a new advertising campaign featuring a series of attack ads against its major competitors. This campaign started a competitive period between Burger King, McDonald's, and top burger chains known as the Burger wars. Brinker left Burger King in 1984, to take over Dallas-based gourmet burger chain Chili's."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King products",
        "text": "During 1997, BK revamped its French fries in North America. The improved fries were coated with a layer of potato-based starch, giving the fries a crisp shell that maintained its texture longer. The company introduced them in a series of advertisements that claimed the new fries tasted better than McDonald's fries in consumer taste comparisons. Other ads featured Mr. Potato Head in a series of demographically targeted commercials. The fries were in research and development for over two years and already had been available in several markets when the advertising campaign began. In Europe, BK also sells potato wedges, a type of French fry that is thick-cut and wedge-shaped. In 1991, the company introduced Twister fries, spiral-cut fries with a spicy coating, as part of a promotional push. Part of the product's appeal was they were served in a paper drink cup as opposed to the normal fry carton. The product was designed as a short-term promotion that would be periodically reintroduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In 1982, Burger King's television advertising campaign featured Sarah Michelle Gellar, then aged 4. In the advertisements, Gellar said that McDonald's burgers were 20% smaller than Burger King's. It was arguably the first attack on a food chain by a competitor. The campaign was controversial because prior to it, fast food advertisements only made vague allusions to the competition and never mentioned the name. McDonald's sued and the suit was settled the following year on undisclosed terms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "The logo of Australian franchisee, Hungry Jack's, is based on the Burger King \"bun halves\" design, and currently uses a variation of the second generation \"bun halves\" logo from 1994. When the company opened its first Russian store in Moscow, a version of the logo with Cyrillic lettering, styled \"\", was used. In Arabic-speaking countries, the logo is reversed and uses characters from the Arabic alphabet (), but is otherwise identical to the \"blue crescent\" English logo. In Israel, a Hebrew logo has been used for a while in 2002, and has been replaced with the English version since. The logo is reversed (like the Arabic version) and uses characters from the Hebrew alphabet (), but is otherwise identical to the English logo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Shortly after the acquisition of the chain by Pillsbury in 1969, Burger King opened its first Canadian restaurant in Windsor, Ontario, in 1969. Other international locations followed soon after: Oceania in 1971 with its Australian franchise Hungry Jack's, and Europe in 1975 with a restaurant in Madrid, Spain. Beginning in 1982, BK and its franchisees began operating stores in several East Asian countries, including Japan, Taiwan, Singapore and South Korea. Due to high competition, all of the Japanese locations were closed in 2001; however, BK reentered the Japanese market in June 2007. BK's Central and South American operations began in Mexico in the late 1970s, and by the early 1980s it was operating locations in Caracas, Venezuela; Santiago, Chile; and Buenos Aires, Argentina. While Burger King lags behind McDonald's in international locations by over 12,000 stores, by 2008 it had managed to become the largest chain in several countries, including Mexico and Spain. The company divides its international operations into three segments: The Middle East, Europe and Africa division (EMEA), Asia-Pacific (APAC) and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). In each of these regions, Burger King has established several subsidiaries to develop strategic partnerships and alliances to expand into new territories. In its EMEA group, Burger King's Switzerland-based subsidiary Burger King Europe GmbH is responsible for the licensing and development of BK franchises in those regions. In the APAC region, the Singapore-based BK AsiaPac, Pte. Ltd. business unit handles franchising for East Asia, the Asian subcontinent and all Oceanic territories. The LAC region includes Mexico, Central and South America and the Caribbean Islands."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "In August 2006, a commercial debuted showing the King holding a press conference with his \"agent\", Drew Rosenhaus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The sandwich came at a time when there was a great deal of animosity between the chain and its franchises over its Buck Double promotion, which was driving average checks and profits. The Buck Double had been running for since October 2010 to the introduction of the XT, eventually had taken upwards 10% of all sales in the restaurants \u2013 cannibalizing sales from other higher priced items. Combined with the ongoing economic downturn at the time, the value- oriented promotion had sent overall profits for the chain down by as much as 3.3%. The introduction was seen as a way to help stop the sales slide and prop up the chain's flagging sales. By mid-2011, the financial crisis was also still lingering and many chains, Burger King included, had moved to a discounting as a way to attract customers who were unwilling to spend money during tough economic times. The discounting fit into the barbell strategy as these deals would often encourage people to purchase more food, often at higher price points."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In February 2020, to highlight the company's commitment to no artificial preservatives in their famous Whopper, Burger King ran an ad with a time-lapse of a decaying burger on Twitter. The company explained that it has removed artificial preservatives from the Whopper in a number of European countries \u2013 including France, Sweden and Spain \u2013 and about 400 of its 7,346 U.S. restaurants. It plans to remove preservatives from Whoppers served in all of its restaurants in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King marketing campaigns",
        "text": "This is a partial history of BK advertising slogans:\n*\"Have it your way\" (1974\u2013present)\n**\"Your Way Right Away\" (1991\u20131992)\n**\"If you ask us, it just tastes better\" (March\u2013August 1998)\n**\"When you have it your way, it just tastes better\" (August 1998 \u2013 1999)\n**\"Burger King, where you're the boss!\"\n**\"Be Your Way\" (2014\u20132015)\n**\"Your Way\" (2015\u2013present)\n*The Whopper is BKs signature product, and it has produced several ad campaigns promoting it:\n**\"Home of the Whopper\"Many Burger King locations built in the 1960s and 1970s still have this slogan as part of their signage.\n**\"It takes two hands to handle a Whopper\"\n**\"In the land of burgers, Whopper is king\" (March 2000\u2013August 2003)\n**\"Eat Like a Man, Man\" (2006\u20132008) Used globally; and in the US to promote the Texas Double Whopper\n**\"The Whopper says:\" (2001)\n**\"The one and only Whopper\" (1978)\n*As part of its campaign to differentiate itself by its cooking method, 'Flame Broiling', BK has emphasized it in several slogans:\n**\"Fuel Your Fire\"\n**\"Feel the Fire\"\n**\"The Fire's Ready\" (2003)\n**\"Earl: Employee of the Month\" (\"Earl\" is the nickname of its broiling unit, an automated gas grill.)\n**\"We do it like you'd do it!\" (A Weber grill morphs into the BK logo.)\n**\"It's not a secret, it's real fire\" (2021)\n*\"Wake up with the King\" (breakfast slogan, 2004\u2013Present)\n*\"Stack it high, tough guy\" (promoting BK Stackers; 2005, 2007)\n*\"@ BK You Got It!\" (2002)\n*\"The taste that beat McDonald's fries\" (1997; to promote BK's new French fries at the time)\n*\"Get Your Burger's Worth\" (June 1994\u2013February 1998)\n*\"Where value is King\" (1994; in commemoration to the upcoming film \"The Lion King\")\n*\"BK Tee Vee: I love this place!\" (ads featured Dan Cortese, 1992\u201393)\n*\"Sometimes, you gotta break the rules\" (1989\u20131991)\n*\"We do it like you do it\" (1988\u20131989)\n*\"The Best Food for Fast Times\" (1987\u201388)\n*\"At Burger King, you not only get change, you get change\" (99\u00a2 daily specials, 1989)\n*\"King Me!\" (Triple Jump Checkers game, 1988)\n*\"We know how burgers should be\" (1986)\n*\"This is a Burger King town\" (1986, used with the previous slogan)\n*\"Where's Herb?\" (1986)\n*\"Mo Beef, Betta Taste\" (In an ad featuring Mr. T, for 1/3\u00a0lb Whopper, 1985)\n*\"Aren't your doubly hungry for Burger King now?\" (In an ad promoting the Bacon Double Cheeseburger, 1982)\n*\"Aren't your thirsty for Burger King now?\" (In an ad promoting a Coca-Cola deal, 1982)\n*\"Aren't You Hungry?\", \"Aren't you hungry for Burger King now?\" (1981\u20131986)\n*\"Who has the best darn burgers?\" (1978)\n*\"The Burger King and I\" (Pun on The King and I, 1978)\n*\"We're America's Burger King\" (1975)\n*\"Bigger, Better, Burger King!.\"\n*\"Eat like a king. Not a clown.\" (2006) (In reference to Ronald McDonald of McDonald's.)\n*\"You're no clown with the Crown.\" (2006)\n*\"Got the Urge?/Got the Urge? Get to Burger King!\" (2000\u2013March 2001)\n*\"BK4U\" (commercials featuring Ice-T, 2000\u20132001)\n*\"Quality Just Tastes Better!\"\n*\"Taste Is King\" (2012\u20132014)\n*\"Have a Pepsi at Burger King now.\" (1983; was used to promote BK's switch to Pepsi as part of the Cola Wars)\n*\"Give your hunger a Texas Double Whopper\"\n*\"Eat Like Andy\" (2019; Super Bowl LIII)\n*\"Imagination is King\"\n*\"Burger King Kids Club, Where it's cool to be a kid!\"\n*\"Great food, cool stuff, kids only\" (Burger King Kids Club) (1995\u201397)\n*\"Just for fun, and just for you!\" (Burger King Kids Club) (1989)\n*\"Its always something special when you're with Burger King\" (1980)\n*\"Magic makes it special when you're with Burger King\" (1979)\n*\"Burger King: Where kids are king\" (1970\u20131975)\n*\"Taste Rules!\" (Burger King Kids Club) (1990's & 2000s)\n*\"Burger King Kids Club, It's a cool place\" (1992)\n*\"Burger King Kids Club, I Love This Place!\" (1994)\n*\"Burger King Kids Club, Where Kids Rule!\"\n*\"The Burger King Kids Club! It's just for fun, and just for you!\" (1980s)\n*\"Home of the real, Big Kids Meal!\" (2000s)\n*\"You're gonna love us!\" (1990)\n*\"Les burgers, c'est notre affaire\" (1986)\n*\"Au rhythms et au gout d'aujourd'hui\" (\"The rhythms and taste of today\") (1987)\n*\"Laissez-vous f\u00eater!\" (\"Let's celebrate!\") (1989)\n*\"Mets-en que c'est bon!\" (\"Make it good!\") (1990\u20131992)\n*\"Laissez-vous captiver par le go\u00fbt!\" (\"Let yourself be captivated by the taste!\") (1991)\n*\"Je pr\u00e9f\u00e8re Burger King\" (\"I prefer Burger King\") (1993\u20131996)\n*\"Le Restaurant du Whopper\" (1994)\n*\"Je pr\u00e9f\u00e8re le gout de Burger King\" (\"I prefer the taste of Burger King\") (1999\u20132000)\n*\"As\u00ed lo quiero\" (1992\u20131995)\n*\"Simplemente sabe mejor\" (Simply tastes better) (1999)\n*\"A la parrilla sabe mejor\" (2005\u2013 )\n*\"A tu manera\" (Current)\n*\"Got the Hungry's\"\n*\"The Burgers are Better at Hungry Jack's\"\n*\"Aren't You Hungry?, Aren't you hungry for Hungry Jack's...now?\"\n*\"We're all about fresh at Hungry Jack's\"\n*\"Love it at Hungry Jack's\"\n*\"Home of The Whopper\"\n*\"Oh Yeah!\"\n*\"Tastier burgers and more funner!\"\n*\"Gotta get back to Jack's\"\n*\"There's 'OK', And there's BK!!\" (2002)\n*\"The original flame-grilled taste\" (1988)\n*\"It's Flaming Tasty\" (1990)\n*\"No sun, no fun\" (1995)\n*\"It's Not A Secret, It's Real Fire\"/\"No Secrets, It's Just Fire\" (2021)\n*\"Burger King \u2013 It just tastes better\" (2000\u2013present)\n*Have it your way\n*Have it our way (November 2021\u2013\n*\"Der K\u00f6nig der Hamburger\" (1980)\n*\"Weil's besser schmeckt\" (\"Because it tastes better\") (1999\u20132001)\n*\u201dGeschmack ist king\u201d (2010)\n*\"Grillat \u00c4R Godast\" (1998)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "On 6 January 2021, Burger King unveiled its newest logo, a variation on the classic 1969-1994 logo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Specialty Sandwiches",
        "text": "The veal Parmesan sandwich was introduced in a series of commercials from JWT centered around the new corporate ad slogan, \"Aren't you hungry - for Burger King now?\" targeting the 19- to 49-year-old male demographic. The campaign was part of a back-to-basics program designed to put the company on a more competitive footing with main rival McDonald's, who was outspending Burger King's advertising budget by a factor of three. With the new program, the company hoped to establish itself as the higher quality alternative to McDonald's."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In the late 1990s, a new female character was added to the group:\n* Jazz, an Asian girl who loves music and wears a beret."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King marketing campaigns",
        "text": "This is a list of the various advertising programs fast food restaurant chain Burger King has employed over the course of its history. It includes promotional slogans, jingles and media tie-ins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The Angus burger was one of the company's important product lines, targeting a group of consumers the chain identified as the \"Superfan\"; a demographic of individuals that composed 20 percent of the chain's customers, but 50 percent of the sales volume. One of the issues related to the sandwich's failure was the fact that the patty it was using was precooked; the sandwich lacked the taste of a burger that was cooked from raw. While the burger was presented as a premium product, the meat texture was found not to be much different from that of the Whopper \u2013 a less-expensive sandwich that many customers preferred. Beginning in January 2008, Burger King began to phase out the Angus burger in the US with the intention of replacing the sandwich with a newer Angus-based product in the second quarter of 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In September 2006, Burger King reintroduced an updated version of its 1970's animated king design. This was printed on cups, bags and in non-tie-in children's advertising. The redesigned king was portrayed as a sarcastic character who sometimes gets into trouble for his mischief-making adventures.\n;Crowns"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In 1976, the original animated Burger King (portrayed by Dick Gjonola) - A bearded king that ruled the \"Burger King Kingdom\". The King was replaced by the \"Marvellous Magical Burger King,\" a red-bearded, Tudor-era king, played by Fred Barton, who ruled the Burger King Kingdom and performed magic tricks that were mostly sleight-of-hand, but sometimes relied on camera tricks or involved his \"Magic Ring\" which could summon copious amounts of food. Other Burger King Kingdom characters included:\n* The Burger Thing (voiced by Frank Welker) - A large hamburger puppet designed to look like a 3-D painting.\n* Sir Shake-A-Lot (played by Bob Lydiard) - A knight that wears armour made of BK Cups and has a craving for milkshakes. Sir Shake-a-lot always shivers because he drinks milkshakes so much he is always cold. Sir Shake-A-Lot's voice can be heard in the 2006 Burger King video game \"Sneak King\" commenting, \"The King! He's so sneaky!\"\n* The Wizard of Fries (voiced by Tress MacNeille) - A robot powered by the French fries in its glass dome head. It can \"multi-fry\" where it takes a single French fry and duplicates it endlessly.\n* The Duke of Doubt (portrayed by James Harder) - A duke who is the Burger King's nemesis who constantly doubted the King's magic, and who constantly tried to prove that the King's magic was not real; he always failed, and each commercial that featured him ended with the tag-line, \"No doubt about it, Duke.\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King products",
        "text": "Currently the company utilizes independent distributors such as Maines Paper and Food Service and Sysco for supplying North American stores with food and paper products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "Since it was founded in 1954, international fast food chain Burger King has employed many advertising programs. During the 1970s, its advertisements included a memorable jingle, the inspiration for its current mascot the Burger King and several well-known and parodied slogans, such as \"Have it your way\" and \"It takes two hands to handle a Whopper\". From the early 1980s until approximately 2002, Burger King engaged a series of advertising agencies that produced many unsuccessful slogans and programs, including its least successful campaign, \"Where's Herb?\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Burger King may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "As far back as the 1970s, international fast food restaurant chain Burger King has attempted to introduce a premium line of burgers. These sandwiches are part of a system which eventually became known as the barbell strategy; a plan designed to expand Burger King's menu with both more sophisticated, adult-oriented fare along with products that are more value-oriented. This program is intended to bring in a larger, more affluent adult audience who will be willing to spend more on the better quality products on one side while maintaining a lower cost value menu dedicated to a more cost-conscious audience on the other. The hope is that the customers would be drawn in initially for the lower prices of the value-menu and upgrade to the more expensive products, upping overall sales."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "The character has appeared in the tie-in promotion of the film \"\", commercials for a cross-promotions with the NFL and DirecTV's NFL Sunday Ticket sports subscription package."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Burger King is a major international fast food restaurant chain and corporation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "Burger King successfully partnered with George Lucas's Lucasfilm to promote the 1977 movie \"Star Wars\", one of the first product tie-ins in the fast food industry. The company's most successful tie-ins were those between the 1990s and early 2000s, with successful campaigns involving Disney's animated films, including \"Beauty & the Beast\" and \"Toy Story\", and the Pok\u00e9mon franchise in 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "Starting in the 1970s and running into the 1980s, Burger King's \"Kids' Club\" program gave children coupons for selected products each month, a small toy, and a surprise on the child's birthday. Burger King has been known for its paper crowns, which are sometimes redesigned to match any promotions the restaurant may be running. The original \"Kids' Club\" advertising featured a small, animated King character named The Burger King, who would travel on a modified chopper with a throne as the seat, visit a Burger King store and present the children with small gifts. The tag line was \"Burger King: Where kids are King!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "This is a list of countries with Burger King franchises. Burger King (BK) itself began as a franchise of its progenitor company, Insta-Burger King. It grew in the United States using a combination of corporate locations and franchising, before divesting itself of its corporate holdings in 2013. It began its international expansion in 1969 with a location in Canada, followed by Australia in 1971, and Europe in 1975. Latin America and South America became part of its market later in that decade, Asia followed in the 1980s, and Northern Africa and the Middle East followed shortly thereafter. Sub-Saharan Africa and the former nations of the Iron Curtain came much later, beginning in the late 1990s and continuing into the 2010s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Specialty Sandwiches",
        "text": "Burger King introduced the Specialty Sandwich line under its \"Burger King and I\" promotional campaign developed by the J. Walter Thompson (JWT) agency. The advertisements featured customers and employees praising the new sandwiches accompanied with a brief description of the products being sold. Actor Stuart Pankin played a doorman in one commercial in the series. Another one of the promotions used was a scratch card game called \"What's my Specialty?\" where the customer would receive a card with their purchase in which they would have to match famous people to said person's profession. The commercial explained that if you expected to lose, you would be disappointed, as all cards were winners. Prizes included fries, sodas and sandwiches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Titles by State"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "The company divides its international operations into three segments: The Middle East, Europe and Africa division (EMEA), Asia-Pacific (APAC) and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). In each of these regions, Burger King has established several subsidiaries to develop strategic partnerships and alliances to expand into new territories. In its EMEA group, Burger King's Switzerland-based subsidiary Burger King Europe GmbH is responsible for the licensing and development of BK franchises in those regions. In the APAC region, the Singapore-based BK AsiaPac, Pte. Ltd. business unit handles franchising for East Asia, the Asian subcontinent and all Oceanic territories. The LAC region includes Mexico, Central and South America and the Caribbean Islands."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King products",
        "text": "The company sells slightly different versions of breakfast sandwich between international markets, using local breakfast traditions and tastes to cater to those regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Big King",
        "text": "Burger King accredited the reintroduction of the Big King as helping the company regain a limited domestic same-store comparable sales rise of 0.1% in 2014 over a 0.9% loss the previous fiscal year. At the same time the company's total sales were up 2%, with adjusted earnings per share increasing 19.7% to $0.20 per share. This contrasted with main competitor McDonald's only reporting a 3% increase in global system-wide sales, a 0.5% rise in same-store sales, and a 1.7% decrease in same-store sales in the U.S. and Canada which the competitor attributed to \"challenging industry dynamics and severe winter weather.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "In a 2008 commercial, which takes place in the future, a retro-futuristic robot version of the Burger King delivers a new breakfast wrap to a person who is waking up. The purpose of the advertisement was to market Burger King's new Cheesy Bacon BK Wrapper."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where was the first Burger King restaurant?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The predecessor to what is now the international fast food restaurant chain Burger King was founded in on July 23, 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, as Insta-Burger King."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did Burger King open up restaurants in New Zealand?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Burger King transferred its assets to its New Zealand franchise group in July 2002 but I couldn't find when the first Burger King restaurants in New Zealand opened."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did they do any advertising in New Zealand prior to opening there?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Burger King's agreement with Hungry Jack's meant that Burger King would provide advertising support but I couldn't find out on things like how it would help advertise."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many continents have Burger King restaurants?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It is on North America, South America, Oceania (Australia), Europe, Asia, and Africa."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How does their advertising differ between North America and other regions?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information.",
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
    ],
    "topic": "Burger King premium burgers",
    "ground_truth_ctx": []
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "At the end of its 2013 fiscal year, Burger King was the second largest chain of hamburger fast food restaurants in terms of global locations, behind industry bellwether McDonald's, which had 32,400 locations. At the end of 2014, Burger King ranked fourth among US food chains in terms of US sales, behind McDonald's, Starbucks, and Subway. Burger King now has over 12,000 stores worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "North America is the company's home territory and home to its first non-American stores; it opened its first international restaurant in Windsor, Ontario, Canada in 1969."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "Another way that the company moved in order to update its message was by dropping long time agency of record, Crispin Porter + Bogusky (CP+B). CP+B had been one of the major players in the superfan demographic targeting with its Burger King character-based commercials for several years. Beginning in 2012 chain moved its advertising program to the advertising firm of McGarryBowen to promote the sandwich through a new food-centric campaign. The advertising program and naming of the product is designed to add to the cache of the product by associating with the terminology with higher quality products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Burger King franchises\n--History.\n----International.\n--Relations.\n----United States.\n------Advertising revenues.\n------Hours of operation.\n------Value menu pricing.\n----International relations.\n------Australia.\n------Israel & Palestinian Territories.\n--Franchisees of note.\n----Australia.\n----Brazil.\n----China.\n----Multinational.\n------Central and South America.\n------Central and Eastern Europe.\n------The Middle East.\n------North America.\n----Russia.\n----United States.\n------Army and Air Force Exchange Service.\n------Carrols Corporation.\n------GPS Hospitality.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Burger King (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "While Burger King still utilizes a version of its revamped franchising system in the United States, outside of North America its international locations licenses are still sold on a regional basis with franchises owning exclusive development rights for a region or country. These regional franchises are known as master franchises, and are responsible for opening new restaurants, licensing new third party operators, and performing standards oversight of all restaurant locations in these countries; one of the larger examples of a master franchise is Hungry Jack's, which oversees over 300 restaurants in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "Burger King premium burgers\n--History.\n----North America.\n------Sirloin Steak sandwich.\n------Back Porch Grillers.\n------The Angus Burger.\n------Steakhouse Burger.\n------Steakhouse XT.\n------Chef's Choice Burger.\n------A1 Ultimate Bacon Cheeseburger.\n----Europe.\n------The Aberdeen Angus burger.\n------The $190 Burger.\n------The Lamb Flatbread burger.\n----New Zealand.\n------Crown Jewels.\n--------Product variants.\n------King's Collection.\n----Asia.\n----Competitive products.\n--Advertising.\n----North America.\n----Europe.\n----New Zealand.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "Although the advertisements were mainly shown in North America, advertisements featuring the King surfaced on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom as well as in Germany in early January 2006. The King appeared not to catch on with the UK market and was seemingly retired there after only two brief commercials (featuring him at an ATM and as a pole dancer). However, he returned in summer 2006 as part of Burger King's \"Superman Returns\" campaign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In the UK, Burger King uses paper crowns to advertise its restaurants. Though the regular crown is gold and similar to that of what the King wears, there have been some variants. Variants include, a Halloween skeleton variant, a Christmas hat variant, a mini version, and hats to advertise the Whopper, Chicken fries and the 2019 Melting down promotion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "The majority of the locations of international fast-food restaurant chain Burger King are privately owned franchises. While the majority of franchisees are smaller operations, several have grown into major corporations in their own right. At the end of the company's fiscal year in 2015, Burger King reported it had more than 15,000 outlets in 84 countries; of these, approximately 50% are in the United States and 99.9% are privately owned and operated. The company locations employ more than 37,000 people who serve approximately 11.4\u00a0million customers daily."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Burger King is a major international fast food restaurant chain and corporation."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Burger King has approximately 20 foreign subsidiaries to oversee operations in the markets it does business in."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In February 2020, to highlight the company's commitment to no artificial preservatives in their famous Whopper, Burger King ran an ad with a time-lapse of a decaying burger on Twitter. The company explained that it has removed artificial preservatives from the Whopper in a number of European countries \u2013 including France, Sweden and Spain \u2013 and about 400 of its 7,346 U.S. restaurants. It plans to remove preservatives from Whoppers served in all of its restaurants in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "The Burger King\n--History.\n----1960s\u20131980s.\n----2004\u20132011.\n----2015\u2013present.\n--Advertising campaigns.\n----Crispin Porter + Bogusky.\n----NFL commercials.\n----Video games.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "Burger King advertising\n--History.\n----1958.\n------1960s\u20131970s.\n------1980s\u20131990s.\n------2000s\u20132010s.\n------2020s.\n----Argentina.\n------The King.\n------The Subservient Chicken.\n--Logos.\n----Evolution of the Burger King logo.\n----International variations.\n--Children's advertising.\n----Children's logos.\n----The \"Marvellous Magical Burger King\".\n----The Burger King kingdom.\n----Kids Club.\n----Honbatz.\n----Restrictions on children's advertising.\n--Non-product-oriented advertising.\n--Promotional partners.\n----Blitz Games.\n----Celebrity spokespeople.\n----Media tie-ins.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "By October 2008, Burger King announced it had shown revenue growth in the United States despite the ongoing fiscal slowdown related to the financial crisis of 2007\u201308. According to the company, same store growth in the U.S. grew approximately 3.6% in part to sales of the Steakhouse Burger. Despite the profit, the company missed Wall Street's estimates by a penny per share which resulted in a 37\u00a2 drop in the chain's share prices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In 1983, Burger King introduced advertising to emphasize value or its opening hours. The company encouraged its stores to keep their drive-through outlets open after midnight; most QSR locations closed between 10:00 pm and 11:00 pm. In mid-2007, it again began advertising late opening times in response to the late-night hours of Wendy's and McDonald's."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "Burger King\n--History.\n--Structure and operations.\n--Franchises.\n--International operations.\n--Controversies and legal cases.\n--Charitable contributions and services.\n--Products.\n----Equipment.\n--Advertising.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food advertising",
        "text": "Other chains, such as Carl's Jr. and Burger King (see Burger King advertising), have directed advertising towards a different demographic \u2013 young teenage and college-age men \u2013 with trendy, often sexualized, imagery and messages that target men's supposed desire for large, meat-filled burgers and rich, satisfying food. For example, in 2005, Carl's Jr. debuted a controversial ad featuring a bikini-clad Paris Hilton writhing sensuously on an expensive Bentley luxury car while enjoying a large burger. While the ad provoked outrage from a number of groups, Carl's Jr. sales grew substantially."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "As the success of the barbell strategy became evident to the general market place, other chains such as McDonald's and Carl's Jr./Hardee's began to experiment with the concept. Introduced in 2001, Carl's Jr./Hardee's sells its Six-Dollar Burger, a line of sandwiches that is also made from Angus beef."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The burger came at a point in the industry where fast casual restaurants were beginning to take a bite out of the industry as a whole. Burger King, and other chains, at first had not taken chains such as Five Guys and Smashburger as serious competition. Additionally, convenience stores such as 7-11 were also expanding their in-store foods with cheaper hot foods that challenged the lower end of the market. These two market trends had the effect of shaving sales from both ends of the menu, challenging the concept of the barbell strategy. As the chains tried to fight the encroachment of the competition from outside fast food industry, McDonald's and Wendy's chose to focus on their menus while Burger King focused its advertising on younger-skewing \"superfan\". The result was that the other two chains' sales grew by 26% and 9% percent respectively, while Burger King's remained flat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Burger King may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "While BK began its foray into locations outside of the continental United States in 1963 with a store in San Juan, Puerto Rico, it did not have an international presence until several years later. Shortly after the acquisition of the chain by Pillsbury, it opened its first Canadian restaurant in Windsor, Ontario in 1969. Other international locations followed soon after, including Australia in 1971, with a restaurant in the Perth suburb of Innaloo, and Europe in 1975, with a restaurant in Madrid. Beginning in 1982, BK and its franchisees began operating stores in several East Asian countries, including Japan, Taiwan, Singapore and South Korea. Due to high competition, all of the Japanese locations were closed in 2001; however, BK reentered the Japanese market in June 2007. BK's Central and South American operations began in Mexico in the late 1970s and by the early 1980s in Caracas, Venezuela, Santiago, Chile, and Buenos Aires, Argentina. While Burger King lags behind McDonald's in international locations by over 12,000 stores, as of 2008 it had managed to become the largest chain in several countries including Mexico and Spain. The company divides its international operations into three segments; the Middle East, Europe and Africa division (EMEA), Asia-Pacific (APAC) and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). In each of these regions, Burger King has established several subsidiaries to develop strategic partnerships and alliances to expand into new territories. In its EMEA group, Burger King's Switzerland-based subsidiary Burger King Europe GmbH is responsible for the licensing and development of BK franchises in those regions. In APAC region, the Singapore-based BK AsiaPac, Pte. Ltd. business unit handles franchising for East Asia, the Asian subcontinent and all Oceanic territories. The LAC region includes Mexico, Central and South America and the Caribbean Islands and has no centralized operations group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Titles by State"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King (Alberta)",
        "text": "In August 1995, when two non-KFC Burger King restaurants were still in operation, they sold the naming rights for northern Alberta for $1 million to the US company. It immediately announced its intention to enter the market, the last region of North America where it had been unable to operate, other than Mattoon, Illinois, where another restaurant uses the name."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "In a 2007 commercial to promote the restaurant chain's new Western Whopper sandwich, the King is shown in full royal attire against an obviously fake backdrop of a Southwestern desert, doing a jig-like dance to banjo music. His head is slightly modified so that he wears a handlebar mustache in the style of the Old West, and is juxtaposed with shots of Burger King customers who, upon consuming a Western Whopper, acquire similar mustaches regardless of age or gender."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "New owners 3G Capital response to this was to in turn revamp Burger King's menu, stores and image. Besides the Chef's Choice Burger, the company introduced products that emulated McDonald's such as oatmeal, ice cream and smoothies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "(lit. Hamburger King)"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "In 2007, Burger King introduced a television advertising campaign in which a Burger King restaurant in Las Vegas, Nevada told customers that the company had stopped selling the Whopper sandwich. The ads showed the startled reactions of customers that Burger King would discontinue selling its most popular sandwich. A second round of related commercials showed actual customers who had ordered a Whopper instead being provided with a Big Mac from McDonald's or a hamburger from Wendy's. After the customers complained to the Burger King restaurant manager, the King would emerge from the kitchen with a Whopper on a silver platter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "As of December 31, 2018, Burger King reported it had 17,796 outlets in 100 countries. Of these, nearly half are located in the United States, and 99.7% are privately owned and operated, with its new owners moving to an almost entirely franchised model in 2013. Burger King has historically used several variations of franchising to expand its operations. The manner in which the company licenses its franchisees varies depending on the region, with some regional franchises, known as master franchises, responsible for selling franchise sub-licenses on the company's behalf. Burger King's relationship with its franchises has not always been harmonious. Occasional spats between the two have caused numerous issues, and in several instances, the company's and its licensees' relations have degenerated into precedent-setting court cases. Burger King's Australian franchise Hungry Jack's is the only franchise to operate under a different name, due to a trademark dispute and a series of legal cases between the two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Whopper",
        "text": "Burger King sells several variants that are either seasonal or tailored to local tastes or customs. To promote the product, the restaurant occasionally releases limited-time variants. It is often at the center of advertising promotions, product tie-ins, and corporate practical jokes and hoaxes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "To promote continuing interest in these products, Burger King occasionally released limited-time only (LTO) variants on its premium burgers that have different ingredients from the standard sandwich recipes. Being one of the company's major business strategies, these sandwiches have sometimes been the center of product advertising for the company."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "List of countries with Burger King franchises\n--History.\n--Africa.\n--Asia.\n--Europe.\n--North America.\n--Oceania.\n--International subsidiaries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "Introduced in 1976, the Burger King Kingdom was Burger King's answer to McDonaldland, the setting for characters created in the commercials made by Burger King's rival McDonald's during the mid-1970s. By 1989, the \"Burger King Kingdom\" characters were phased out in favor of the BK Kids Club Gang. Starting in 2003, the Burger King began to be reused in Burger King ads, albeit as a man in a mask and King costume, rather than a full live-action portrayal."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "As of 2014, Burger King operates in almost every country in the Western Hemisphere, and most of Europe and East Asia. It has embarked on a plan to base a good portion of its future growth in the BRIC Nations of Brazil, Russia, India, and China, with plans to open more than 3000 locations in three of those four countries. Burger King also has a longstanding presence at U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force installations worldwide, dating back to the 1980s under a contract with Army and Air Force Exchange Service. Today, while other chains such as Taco Bell, Popeyes, and Subway have a presence on military bases, virtually every major Army and Air Force installation hosts a BK restaurant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "In 2011, the majority of Burger King restaurants, approximately 90%, were privately held franchises. In North America, Burger King Corporation is responsible for licensing operators and administering of stores. Internationally, the company often pairs with other parties to operate locations or it will outright sell the operational and administrative rights to a franchisee which is given the designation of master franchise for the territory. The master franchise will then be expected to sub-license new stores, provide training support, and ensure operational standards are maintained. In exchange for the oversight responsibilities, the master franchise will receive administrative and advertising support from Burger King Corporation to ensure a common marketing scheme. The 3G Capital ownership group announced in April 2011 that it would begin divesting itself of many corporate owned locations with the intent to increase the number of privately held restaurants to 95%. As of 2016, the percentage of privately owned Burger King establishments grew to 99.5%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Christ the King 64, VA Benedictine 52"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "When Miami-based advertising agency Crispin Porter + Bogusky took over advertising of Burger King in 2003, they created a caricatured rendition of the Burger King character from the Burger King Kingdom advertising campaign now simply called \"the King\". During the use of CP+B's new version of the King, ads generated significant word of mouth for its new use of what various trade publications and Internet articles labeled \"the Creepy King\" persona, an appellation that BK came to favor and CP+B used in its ads. However, this iteration of the King failed to provide a consistent message regarding the company and its products, prompting the company to terminate its relationship with CP+B upon the takeover of Burger King by 3G Capital in 2010 and announced the following year that the character would be retired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburger",
        "text": "Various fast food outlets and restaurants such as Burger King, Carl's Jr., Hardee's, IHOP, Steak 'n Shake, Mr. Steak, and Freddy's market steak burgers. Some restaurants offer high-end burgers prepared from aged beef. Additionally, many restaurants have used the term \"steak burger\" at various times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Toronto St. Michael's 61, Cathedral Prep 58"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King products",
        "text": "To generate additional sales, BK will occasionally introduce limited time offers (LTO) that are versions of its core products or new products intended for either long- or short-term sales. Many of these LTO products focus on core menu products such as the Whopper, which has featured variations such as the Texas Double Whopper with added jalape\u00f1os, bacon, and pepperjack cheese. Other LTOs include all-new sandwiches like the Chick'n Crisp sandwich (now a permanent item in many regions) and test products such as the company's Great American Burger, which was an attempt at a premium sandwich in 2003. It was made with a Whopper patty and several new ingredients, including a bakery-style bun; peppered bacon; whole-leaf, as opposed to shredded, lettuce; seasoned mustard; and a special sauce. The burger was served with American cheese, mayonnaise, tomato, and onions. A similar burger was tested in Wisconsin in 1999. That Great American burger featured a single burger patty and different toppings. It was designed to be cooked on a forerunner of the current batch broiler."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "While Burger King lags behind McDonald's in international locations by over 12,000 stores, by 2008 it had managed to become the largest chain in several countries, including Mexico and Spain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "The Subservient Chicken was an advertising program starring a costume chicken character to promote Burger King's TenderCrisp chicken sandwich and their \"Have it Your Way\" campaign. Created for the Miami-based advertising firm Crispin Porter + Bogusky (CP+B) by The Barbarian Group, the program featured a viral marketing website and multiple television ads.\n;General market:\n* 1958\u201368 \u2013 Hume, Smith and Mickelberry\n* 1968\u201376 \u2013 BBDO\n* 1976\u201387 \u2013 J. Walter Thompson\n* 1987\u201389 \u2013 N.W. Ayer<ref name=\"CT Ayer/BK\"></ref>\n* 1988 \u2013 Einsom-Freeman and August, Bishop and Meier\n* 1989\u201394 \u2013 D'Arcy Masius Benton & Bowles (DMB&B), Saatchi & Saatchi\n* 1994\u20132001 \u2013 Lowe, Lintas & Partners \u2013 General Market and Kids Club\n* 2001\u20132002 \u2013 McCann-Erickson\n* 2002\u20132003 \u2013 AMOEBA, Inc.\n* September 2002 \u2013 Deutsch, Inc. for introduction of BK 99\u00a2 Value Menu.\n* 2003\u20132004 \u2013 Young & Rubicam, Inc.\n* 2004\u20132011 \u2013 Crispin Porter & Bogusky<ref name=\"WSJ CP+B/BK\"></ref>\n* 2011 \u2013 McGarryBowen\n;African American market:\n* 1983\u2013present \u2013 UniWorld Group, Inc.\n;Hispanic market:\n* 1989\u20132009 \u2013 Bromley Communications\n* 2009\u2013present \u2013 LatinWorks\n;Internet:\n* 2001 \u2013 June 2008 \u2013 VML, Inc.\n* July 2008 \u2013 2011 \u2013 Crispin Porter + Bogusky\n;Children's:\n* 1989\u20131994: Saatchi & Saatchi Advertising\n* 1994\u20132001: Lowe, Lintas & Partners\n* 2001\u20132010: Campbell Mithun\n* Present: Pitch, Inc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King (Alberta)",
        "text": "Several Burger King restaurants became Burger Barons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Cathedral Prep 63, Admiral King 44"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "GPS Hospitality, one of the \"largest franchisee\" of Burger King, is Headquartered in Atlanta Georgia with revenue around $650 million. GPS Hospitality is a franchisee with upwards to 400 Burger Kings and plans to add 15 more in the Southeastern United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "In 2019, Burger King reported that it planned to close up to 250 low-volume locations per year, with closures coming into effect in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Schools from all over America have competed in the Burger King Classic. Over 33 years, 56 different schools have participated:"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King products",
        "text": "As the signature product of the company, it is often at the center of advertising promotions, product tie-ins, and even corporate practical jokes and hoaxes such as its 1998 April Fool's Day prank where Burger King took out a full page advertisement in several national publications, such as \"USA Today\", promoting a new version of the sandwich called the \"Left-Handed Whopper\". The advertisement claimed that the condiments were all rotated 180\u00b0 to accommodate southpaws. Some of the early twenty-first century advertising programs, particularly in Europe, have drawn criticism for cultural insensitivity or misogyny. One such example was The Texican Whopper, an LTO version of the Whopper sold in Europe and was advertised with an ad that featured a pair of actors dressed as a cowboy and a lucha libre wrestler. The problem arose when the Mexican Ambassador to Spain complained that the commercial featured demeaning stereotypes of Mexicans. Additionally, the print version of the advertisement featured the wrestler wearing a cape that appeared to be a Mexican flag, a violation of Mexican laws governing the usage of its national banner."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "After Miami-based advertising firm Crispin Porter + Bogusky (CP+B) took over advertising of Burger King on January 27, 2003, they began using a new caricatured iteration of the Burger King character who was simply called \"the King\". During production, an employee at CP+B found a 1970s'-era oversized Burger King head for sale on eBay which was originally used as inspiration for brainstorming; it was eventually decided to restore the head and use it in a campaign. The King appeared in commercials for Burger King starting in 2004. In this incarnation, the King is an unnamed actor who wears an oversized grinning mask that resembles the 1970s version of the King and who often appears in various unexpected places such as in bed with people or behind doors and walls, only to offer them Burger King food. Employing the advertising technique called viral marketing, CP+B's ads generated significant word of mouth for its new use of what various trade publications and Internet articles labeled \"the Creepy King\" persona, an appellation that BK has come to favor and CP+B uses in its ads."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The Angus burger adverts featured a man (played by Richard Bennett) asking for an Angus Burger in a 'FastBurger' restaurant \u2013 a parody of McDonald's \u2013 and the counter staff laughing, presumably because they didn't think you could buy one in a fast food restaurant. The news of the order reaches the FastBurger headquarters and everyone associated with the fictional chain is laughing. The chairman is by now laughing after being told about the order on the phone, and says \"An Angus Burger, is he crazy?!\" An assistant gives him the \"Evening Standard\" paper and the front-page story reads 'Burger King Debuts The Angus\". Then the camera pulls back through the office to reveal a real Angus Burger and the announcer says \"The Angus Burger, only at Burger King\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In 2003, Burger King hired the Miami-based advertising agency Crispin Porter + Bogusky (CP+B), which revived the Burger King character used during Burger King's 1970s and 1980s Burger King Kingdom advertising campaign as a caricature now simply called \"the King\". CP+B also created a series of viral web-based advertisements to complement its television and print promotional campaigns on various social networks and various Burger King corporate pages. These viral campaigns, other new campaigns and a series of new product introductions, drew both positive and negative attention to Burger King and helped TPG and its partners earn approximately US$367\u00a0million in dividends. After the late-2000s recession, Burger King's owner, TPG Capital, divested itself of the chain in 2010; the new owner, 3G Capital, ended its relationship with CP+B and hired McGarryBowen to begin a new campaign targeted on a broader demographic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Nichols 68, Cathedral Prep 57"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Chester 69, Cathedral Prep 62"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "The advertising program for the Crown Jewels sandwiches featured the slogan \"Flash, but not too flash\" which was an inference stating while they cost more than the standard burger offerings at BK, they were not as much as one would expect to pay at a higher end outlet. The products were introduced in a series of three pairs of commercials in both 15 and 30 second formats. The commercials featured animals such as snails or frogs that are used as exotic cuisine in various regions of the world. As the narrator announces BK is looking for new and more complex ingredients for their new line of sandwiches, the animals are shown reacting in a fearful way believing they are the new ingredients. At the end, the narrator declares one of the new flavors and the animal is relieved to find out they are not food, then they are promptly dispatched by the new food item (e.g. the frog is hit with a mango)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "Burger King created a separate logo for its children's products with the introduction of its Burger King Kid's Club in 1990. The original logo, an inverted triangle with blue text, was used in television and print advertising, signage, toy and meal packaging. Burger King changed this logo several times and introduced several local versions in its international market. In 1992, the company replaced the original logo with one similar to its corporate \"bun halves\" logo, the original Burger King text logo on a single line with the text \"Kids Club\" text under it on two lines. The most current logo in North America is for its \"Club BK\" program which it introduced in July 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "A similar issue again arose in 2009 when Burger King diverted several million dollars of advertising rebates paid to its American franchises by Coca-Cola Corporation and Dr. Pepper Snapple Group to its own coffers. The company intended to utilize these funds to increase its advertising presence in the United States at a time when corporate advertising costs were falling, which would allow an increased media presence of approximately 25% from the previous year (2008). The NFA contended that Burger King Corporation improperly redirected 40% of restaurant operating funds (ROF) paid by the two beverage suppliers to franchises since 1990 into the corporate advertising budget. These funds were often used by the franchises to pay for beverage support systems such as filtration units and local marketing, and diversion of the funds would cost franchises at least $65 million (USD) between 2010\u20132012. These funds often helped the franchises' bottom lines, as they were often used to offset other costs imposed on the franchises by Burger King, such as the $1 (USD) Double Cheeseburger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "Pillsbury's Executive Vice President of Restaurant Operations Norman E. Brinker was tasked with turning the brand around, and strengthening its position against its main rival McDonald's. One of his initiatives was a new advertising campaign featuring a series of attack ads against its major competitors. This campaign started a competitive period between Burger King, McDonald's, and top burger chains known as the Burger wars. Brinker left Burger King in 1984, to take over Dallas-based gourmet burger chain Chili's."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King marketing campaigns",
        "text": "This is a list of the various advertising programs fast food restaurant chain Burger King has employed over the course of its history. It includes promotional slogans, jingles and media tie-ins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Cathedral Prep 88, Chester 84 (OT)"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King marketing campaigns",
        "text": "List of Burger King marketing campaigns\n--Slogans.\n--Jingles.\n----The Burger King jingle.\n--Promotions.\n----CP+B.\n----Mother.\n----Free Burger Survey.\n--Media tie-ins.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King products",
        "text": "In 2004, the company committed itself to a redesign of its entire packaging line that tied the packaging into its irreverent advertising campaign created by Crispin, Porter + Bogusky. Each product's packaging included a tongue-in-cheek commentary about the product itself. Alex Bogusky, partner and executive creative director of CP+B, stated that BK decided \"to create a dialogue with the consumer\" by utilizing the large areas of white space found on its packaging at the time. All of its sandwich wrappers, cartons, tray liners, bags, breakfast platters, chili cups, condiments, and regional product packaging received what was described as \"quirky ad copy\" specifically targeting the 18\u201334-year-old male demographic segment. Besides the humorous commentary, the company also created sniglet-type names for things that would appear in its products, such as a \"ringer\" \u2013 a single onion ring that had been accidentally included in an order of fries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Shortly after the acquisition of the chain by Pillsbury in 1969, Burger King opened its first Canadian restaurant in Windsor, Ontario, in 1969. Other international locations followed soon after: Oceania in 1971 with its Australian franchise Hungry Jack's, and Europe in 1975 with a restaurant in Madrid, Spain. Beginning in 1982, BK and its franchisees began operating stores in several East Asian countries, including Japan, Taiwan, Singapore and South Korea. Due to high competition, all of the Japanese locations were closed in 2001; however, BK reentered the Japanese market in June 2007. BK's Central and South American operations began in Mexico in the late 1970s, and by the early 1980s it was operating locations in Caracas, Venezuela; Santiago, Chile; and Buenos Aires, Argentina. While Burger King lags behind McDonald's in international locations by over 12,000 stores, by 2008 it had managed to become the largest chain in several countries, including Mexico and Spain. The company divides its international operations into three segments: The Middle East, Europe and Africa division (EMEA), Asia-Pacific (APAC) and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). In each of these regions, Burger King has established several subsidiaries to develop strategic partnerships and alliances to expand into new territories. In its EMEA group, Burger King's Switzerland-based subsidiary Burger King Europe GmbH is responsible for the licensing and development of BK franchises in those regions. In the APAC region, the Singapore-based BK AsiaPac, Pte. Ltd. business unit handles franchising for East Asia, the Asian subcontinent and all Oceanic territories. The LAC region includes Mexico, Central and South America and the Caribbean Islands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast food restaurant",
        "text": "International brands dominant in North America include McDonald's, Burger King and Wendy's, the number three burger chain in the USA; Dunkin' Donuts, a New England-based chain; automobile oriented Sonic Drive-In's from Oklahoma City; Starbucks, Seattle-born coffee-based fast food beverage corporation; KFC and Taco Bell, which are both part of the largest restaurant conglomerate in the world, Yum! Brands; and Domino's Pizza, a pizza chain known for popularizing home delivery of fast food."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Angus Burger",
        "text": "#Redirect Burger King premium burgers"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King sliders",
        "text": "During the periods these products were sold, they were often the center of product advertising for the company. Additionally, as a major products in the company's portfolio, Burger King had registered many global trademarks to protect its investment in the products, most of which have since lapsed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "St. Edward 68, Westchester 65"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Westchester 93, Washington Dunbar 51"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King products",
        "text": "The company used its advertising firm of McGarryBowen and a food-centric campaign to introduce the products. The ads feature the tag line of \"More beef, more value\", with the television commercials utilizing images of the ingredients of the sandwiches as they are being prepared."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "King Games is a series of three advertisement-based video games (advergames) sold at Burger King. The games were sold as part of a promotion during the holiday season from late November until 24 December 2006. All three games were developed by the Blitz Arcade Division of Blitz Games, and were published by Burger King."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Titles by District"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King (Alberta)",
        "text": "In the mid-1960s, the US Burger King chain planned to expand to Canada, where Jarvis and Rae had copyrighted the name. In 1965-66, they reached an agreement that granted their rival the rights to the \"Burger King\" name for all of Canada except Alberta north of the 52nd parallel, passing through Innisfail, which was reserved in perpetuity for the local chain. The US chain entered the Canadian market in 1969 with a store in Windsor, Ontario."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King products",
        "text": "As one of the company's major offerings, the chicken fries are sometimes the center of product advertising for the company. The original advertisements were created by the firm of Crispin, Porter + Bogusky and were the subject of both criticism and legal action by the extreme metal band Slipknot over claims of intellectual property rights, while later advertising programs started the company on new direction of digital-based, multi-media advertising. With the product's North American reintroduction in 2014 and 2015, Burger King utilized a heavy social media campaign to help entice fans of the product back into restaurants. The company has also relied heavily on product tie-ins with the NFL, NCAA and NASCAR to promote the product across different demographic groups. Even though the product been a prominent part of the menu for the better part of a decade, Burger King has released very few limited-time (LTO) variants of the product \u2013 its first one being released in the summer of 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "CP+B reinstated the Burger King character used in the 1970s and 1980s for the Burger King Kingdom advertising campaign. The character was redesigned as a caricature of the original, now simply called \"the Burger King\" or just \"the King\". The new incarnation replaced the singing and dancing \"Magical Burger King\" with a miming actor who wore an oversized, grinning plastic mask resembling the original actor who played King. Employing the practice of viral marketing, CP+B's advertisements generated significant word of mouth and a new use of what has become known as the \"Creepy King\" persona, an appellation that CP+B used in later advertisements. In April 2009, a CP+B advertisement for Burger King's \"Texican burger\" was removed from television because it caused an international uproar over insults to Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "The 1970s were the \"Golden Age\" of the company's advertising, but beginning in the early 1980s Burger King advertising began losing focus. A series of less successful advertising campaigns created by a procession of advertising agencies continued for the next two decades. In 2003, Burger King hired the Miami-based advertising agency Crispin Porter + Bogusky (CP+B), which completely reorganized its advertising with a series of new campaigns centered on a redesigned Burger King character nicknamed \"The King\", accompanied by a new online presence. While highly successful, some of CP+B's commercials were derided for perceived sexism or cultural insensitivity. Burger King's new owner, 3G Capital, later terminated the relationship with CP+B in 2011 and moved its advertising to McGarryBowen, to begin a new product-oriented campaign with expanded demographic targeting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Master franchise: Hana International"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Canisius 62, Cathedral Prep 58"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Chester 54, Cathedral Prep 48"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Burger King products",
        "text": "The advertising campaign was produced by Crispin, Porter + Boguski and featured flying pigs convincing customers that a fast food restaurant could in fact produce good barbecue ribs at a reasonable price."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries with Burger King franchises",
        "text": "Burger King was first founded in Jacksonville, Florida In 1953 as Insta-Burger King. Shortly after the acquisition of the chain by Pillsbury in 1969, Burger King opened its first Canadian restaurant in Windsor, Ontario, in 1969. Other international locations followed soon after: Oceania in 1971 with its Australian franchise Hungry Jack's, and Europe in 1975 with a restaurant in Madrid, Spain. Beginning in 1982, BK and its franchisees began operating stores in several East Asian countries, including Japan, Taiwan, Singapore and South Korea. Due to high competition, all of the Japanese locations were closed in 2001; however, BK reentered the Japanese market in June 2007. BK's Central and South American operations began in Mexico in the late 1970s, and by the early 1980s it was operating locations in Caracas, Venezuela, Santiago, Chile and Buenos Aires, Argentina."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "On April 9, 2019, \"Nations Restaurant News\" reported that Burger King filed a lawsuit on Fritz Management LLC to remove Burger King trademarks from 37 units in South Texas after unsanitary conditions were found at a restaurant in Harlingen Texas. In May 2019, the lawsuit was settled with the franchisee, Fritz Management (a subsidiary of Sun Holdings Inc), keeping the trademarks on all 37 units."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King premium burgers",
        "text": "With the introduction of the company's new broilers in the United States and Canada in 2009 and 2010, Burger King introduced the third generation of its premium burger sandwich that it called the Steakhouse XT burger, with the XT standing for eXtra Thick. This new sandwich supplanted the previous versions of premium sandwiches as the chains most expensive burger-based sandwich. Unlike the preceding two sandwiches, this version was not made from Angus beef, but was intended to draw upon its ingredients and size as it defining characteristic. A higher-end version of the Steakhouse XT was first introduced in 2009 at the company's new BK Whopper Bar restaurant concept located at Universal Studios Orlando priced at US$5.29. The regular versions were introduced in January 2010 once the company had finished deploying its new broilers in all of its North American restaurants. The new sandwich came in two permanent varieties and a LTO variant, all of which featured a new round, , thick patty and was priced at $3.99 to $4.49 depending on the variant. At its BK Whopper Bar restaurants, the company added several other varieties beyond the initial one introduced in 2009 that were all exclusive to the high-end concept. The product was the first national product tailored to the new flexible broilers, units that were designed to cook multiple types of products that have different cooking requirements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King products",
        "text": "Currently the company utilizes independent distributors such as Maines Paper and Food Service and Sysco for supplying North American stores with food and paper products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "McQuaid Jesuit 78, Cathedral Prep 50"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King",
        "text": "A trademark dispute involving the owners of an unrelated restaurant also named Burger King in Mattoon, Illinois, led to a federal lawsuit. As a result, the larger Burger King chain was ordered not to build any franchises within a 20-mile radius of the Mattoon Burger King. An existing trademark held by a shop of the same name in South Australia forced the company to change its name in Australia to \"Hungry Jack's\", while another state trademark in Texas forced the company to abandon its signature product, the Whopper, in several counties around San Antonio. The company was only able to enter northern Alberta, in Canada, in 1995, after it paid the founders of another chain named Burger King."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King advertising",
        "text": "In the early 1990s, Burger King advertised its new dinner offering \u2013 dinner baskets and table service \u2013 with the \"BK Tee Vee\" (or \"BKTV\") campaign, which used the taglines \"BK Tee Vee... I Love this Place!\" and \"Your Way Right Away!\", and featured Dan Cortese as \"Dan: The Whopper Man.\" Burger King's lack of a successful advertising campaign continued during the 1980s and 1990s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Big Smoke Burger",
        "text": "In 2013, the company began to expand its reach into the Middle East and the United States. As of October 2017, 19 locations were in operation worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Burger King",
        "text": "Five years later, the company brought back the King in May 2015 with a paid appearance as a member of Floyd Mayweather, Jr.'s entourage before the Mayweather vs. Pacquiao fight. The next was an appearance in the grandstands at the 2015 Belmont Stakes, with the character standing behind Bob Baffert, the horse trainer of American Pharoah. The King returned in 2017 and onward in commercials promoting the new \"Mac and Cheetos\" and flame-grilled Whoppers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Big King",
        "text": "While Burger King's advertising programs were highly focused on its new product, most of the company's sales gains were the result of aggressive price cutting by Burger King, specifically pricing its signature Whopper sandwich at 99\u00a2, according to analysts at Salomon Brothers. The price-cutting promotions by Burger King, and number-three chain Wendy's, forced McDonald's into its own price-cutting program. According to Salomon, the burger segment's price wars would have a detrimental effect on the profits of segment leaders, allowing other smaller chains such as Sonic Drive-In, Jack in the Box and Carl's Jr to position themselves as attractive alternatives to the big three chains."
      },
      {
        "title": "Big King",
        "text": "The name \"Big King\" was originally a registered trademark of Burger King Brands, Inc., and displayed with the \"circle-R\" (\u00ae) symbol in its home market; however, the federal trademark registration was cancelled in 2005 due to failure to file the required 5-year declaration of use. It was reassigned in 2014 to a California-based ice cream manufacturer.[Notes 1] As of February 2015, the name is displayed with the lesser raised \"TM\" symbol. In most other markets in which the sandwich is sold, it is designated as a registered mark.[Notes 2] The names \"King Supreme\" and \"Double Supreme\" were formerly registered trademarks in the US,[Notes 3][Notes 4] while the King Supreme is still registered in Canada in both English and French spellings.[Notes 5][Notes 6]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Cathedral Prep 59, Chester 52"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King products",
        "text": "The licensing deals have proven successful. Broad Street has expanded the product line to seventeen countries across the globe while increasing selection to more than a half dozen products designed to mimic the flavors of some of Burger King's core menu products. The success of the product line and licensing deals garnered the companies an award for \"Brand Extension of the Year\" from \"License! Global\" magazine, and earned them a nomination for \"Best Corporate License of the Year\" from the Licensing Industry Merchandisers Association."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King franchises",
        "text": "The Army and Air Force Exchange Service (AAFES) is a specialty retailer that operates military retail stores on US Army and Air Force bases and installations across the world. Burger King was the first restaurant chain to be opened on US military facilities with a location at the US Naval base at Pearl Harbor, however naval facilities are covered by the Navy Exchange Service Command (NEXCOM). The AAFES opened its first Burger King franchise 1984 at the American military facilities in Ansbach, Germany. The location was the first restaurant opened under a five-year agreement, with a fifteen-year extension, in which the AAFES agreed it would open 185 locations globally. Since that time the AAFES has opened nearly 200 locations in all theaters of operations of the two services. Almost all of the AAFES-operated Burger King restaurants are found on army posts and air force bases; however some locations, such as the one located at the Baghdad International Airport, are within territories under US military jurisdiction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "Charlotte Christian 68, Cathedral Prep 57 (OT)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Big King",
        "text": "The Double Supreme was promoted in a series of advertisements created by the New York firm of Ammirati Puris Lintas (APL). The first ad compared the Double Supreme cheeseburger to the Big Mac, with one 30-second television spot touting the Burger King product contained 75% more beef than the McDonald's one and asked the viewer if Big Mac lovers were \"ready for a new relationship?\" A second advertisement featured actors playing McDonald's employees going to Burger King to get the new sandwich because they had realized that they preferred the Burger King product over the sandwich they normally sold. The attack ads were the result of the comparatively strong sales year for Burger King in 1996 coupled with domestic sales problems for McDonald's, leaving BK acting in a \"cocky\" manner towards its main rival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lists of restaurants",
        "text": "Lists of restaurants\n--Lists of restaurants.\n----By country.\n------United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "50/50 burger",
        "text": "As of April 2018, there are nine Slater's 50/50 restaurants, seven are located in Southern California, one in Dallas and one in Las Vegas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King breakfast sandwiches",
        "text": "Burger King breakfast sandwiches\n--United States.\n----Croissan'wich.\n----Supreme Breakfast Sandwich.\n----BK Breakfast Muffin.\n----Burgers for Breakfast.\n--Advertising.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King Classic",
        "text": "20-20 Games"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where was the first Burger King restaurant?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The predecessor to what is now the international fast food restaurant chain Burger King was founded in on July 23, 1953 in Jacksonville, Florida, as Insta-Burger King."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did Burger King open up restaurants in New Zealand?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Burger King transferred its assets to its New Zealand franchise group in July 2002 but I couldn't find when the first Burger King restaurants in New Zealand opened."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did they do any advertising in New Zealand prior to opening there?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Burger King's agreement with Hungry Jack's meant that Burger King would provide advertising support but I couldn't find out on things like how it would help advertise."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many continents have Burger King restaurants?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It is on North America, South America, Oceania (Australia), Europe, Asia, and Africa."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How does their advertising differ between North America and other regions?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many Burger King restaurants are there in North America?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I don't; have a franchise total for North America but at the end of the company's fiscal year in 2015, Burger King reported it had more than 15,000 outlets in 84 countries; of these, approximately 50% are in the United States and 99.9% are privately owned and operated. Heartland Food Corporation (Heartland) came into existence when Miami-based franchisee Al Cabrera purchased a large chunk of stores, 130 locations primarily in the Chicago and the upper mid-west, from the failed franchise AmeriKing for a bargain basement price of $16 million, or approximately 88% of their original value in December 2003; 2012 saw another major expansion for Heartland when it purchased 121 more stores from Burger King Corporation in March."
    ],
    "topic": "Burger King premium burgers",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Burger King franchises:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Burger King franchises"
        ],
        "ctx": "The majority of the locations of international fast-food restaurant chain Burger King are privately owned franchises. While the majority of franchisees are smaller operations, several have grown into major corporations in their own right. At the end of the company's fiscal year in 2015, Burger King reported it had more than 15,000 outlets in 84 countries; of these, approximately 50% are in the United States and 99.9% are privately owned and operated. The company locations employ more than 37,000 people who serve approximately 11.4\u00a0million customers daily."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Burger King franchises:56",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Burger King franchises",
          "Franchisees of note",
          "Multinational",
          "North America"
        ],
        "ctx": "Heartland Food Corporation (Heartland) came into existence when Miami-based franchisee Al Cabrera purchased a large chunk of stores, 130 locations primarily in the Chicago and the upper mid-west, from the failed franchise AmeriKing for a bargain basement price of $16\u00a0million, or approximately 88% of their original value in December 2003. Taking these stores, he and his partners created a new company called Core Value Partners to renovate and update the locations which had deteriorated during Ameriking's decline. During this time, the company was renamed Heartland Food Corp. and it purchased 120 additional stores from other financially distressed owners and completely revamped them as well. The resulting purchases made Mr. Cabrerra Burger King's largest minority franchisee and Heartland one of BKC's top franchisee groups at the time. By 2006, the company was valued at over $150\u00a0million, and was sold to New York-based GSO Capital Partners."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Burger King franchises:57",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Burger King franchises",
          "Franchisees of note",
          "Multinational",
          "North America"
        ],
        "ctx": "2012 saw another major expansion for Heartland when it purchased 121 more stores from Burger King Corporation in March. 40 of the locations, in the Minneapolis, Minnesota, area, belonged to Duke & King - another bankrupt 93 store franchise group that was at one time Burger King's second largest North American franchisee. That sale, valued at $7.4 million (), added 40 locations to Heartland's portfolio. The deal, part of Burger Kings sell off of corporate owned stores, included a stipulation that the Heartland update 275 of its locations to current appearance standards. The remolding provision helped generate a 15% sales increase in those locations for Heartland. As of January 2013, Heartland is the second largest franchises of Burger King in North America. The Downers Grove, Illinois-based company owns and operates over 425 restaurants in The United States and Canada."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "His only child and son, Devin Booker, played for the University of Kentucky Wildcats basketball team during their nearly undefeated 2014\u201315 NCAA season and currently plays for the Phoenix Suns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Devin Armani Booker (born October 30, 1996) is an American professional basketball player for the Phoenix Suns of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He is the son of former basketball player Melvin Booker. After playing college basketball for one season with the Kentucky Wildcats, Booker was selected by the Phoenix Suns in the first round of the 2015 NBA draft with the 13th overall pick. On March 24, 2017, he became the youngest player to score over 60 points in a game, finishing with 70 against the Boston Celtics. In March 2019, at 22 years old, Booker became the youngest player in NBA history with consecutive 50-point games. Booker is a three-time NBA All-Star and helped the Suns reach the NBA Finals in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Booker is the son of Veronica Guti\u00e9rrez, a cosmetologist, and Melvin Booker, who was named the 1994 Big Eight Player of the Year while a point guard at Missouri. His parents met while his father was playing basketball for the Continental Basketball Association's Grand Rapids Hoops in Guti\u00e9rrez's hometown of Grand Rapids, Michigan. Booker was born and raised in Grand Rapids, living with his mother, who is reportedly of Mexican and Puerto Rican descent. while his African-American father pursued a professional basketball career internationally. He visited his father regularly during the summer. At age 12 while visiting him in Milan, he played one-on-one with Danilo Gallinari. Booker was taught by his father that having basketball IQ was just as important as natural athleticism. During his time in middle school, Booker became friends with future fellow NBA players D'Angelo Russell and Tyler Ulis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Booker's maternal grandfather is from Mexico. Devin is the only child of his father, Melvin Booker, a former professional basketball player. In 2020, Booker was named a global ambassador to the Special Olympics for his support for his younger half-sister who has microdeletion syndrome, a genetic chromosomal disorder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Booker's brother, Trevor, also played college basketball at Clemson and played a professionally in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Booker's cousin, Jordan Hill, is a former NBA player as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Due to his mother's ethnic background, Booker drew interest from the Mexican and U.S. national teams. He played on the 2016 USA Select Team that trained against the 2016 U.S. Olympic team. In February 2020, he was named a finalist to play on the 2020 United States men's Olympic basketball team. However, the 2020 Summer Olympics were postponed into 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Booker has three younger brothers; Devin, Darrion, and Jared. Devin also played college basketball for Clemson University and now plays professionally in Europe. Darrion played college basketball for the University of West Alabama, and Jared competes with the Union County High School basketball team. Booker is also the cousin of NBA player Jordan Hill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "While playing for the Grand Rapids Mackers in the 1995\u20131996 CBA season, Booker met Veronica Guti\u00e9rrez. The two became close and had a son, Devin Booker, born on October 30, 1996. The two never married and Guti\u00e9rrez would take care of their son Devin while his father played pro basketball in Europe and Asia. During the summers, Booker would bring his son to his games which helped to drive Devin's interest in basketball. After Melvin Booker retired from pro basketball in 2008, he returned to his hometown of Moss Point, Mississippi and brought his son with him so he could help train him to become a successful basketball player. Booker was hired as an assistant coach for basketball at his alma mater, Moss Point High School, in 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Devin Booker (born February 28, 1991) is an American professional basketball player for Fenerbah\u00e7e of the Turkish Basketball Super League (BSL) and EuroLeague."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On June 25, 2015, Booker was selected with the thirteenth overall pick by the Phoenix Suns in the 2015 NBA draft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On July 13, Booker signed his rookie scale contract with the Suns, and in seven subsequent Summer League games, he averaged 15.3 points, 4.9 rebounds and 1.7 assists per game. He went on to make his NBA debut two days before his 19th birthday, in the Suns' season opener against the Dallas Mavericks. In 21 minutes of action against the Mavericks, he scored 14 points on 6-of-7 shooting in a 111\u201395 loss."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "During the offseason, Booker trained with head coach Earl Watson and former NBA player Baron Davis at UCLA, was invited to be on the select team that practices against Team USA in preparation for the Summer Olympics, and played two games for the Suns during the Las Vegas Summer League. With teammate Eric Bledsoe returning from injury in 2016\u201317, Booker was retained as the starting shooting guard while Brandon Knight was moved to the bench. Booker scored a career-highs of 38 points and 39 points on November 4 and 6."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On April 9, 2015, Booker declared for the NBA draft, forgoing his final three years of college eligibility. He was joined by fellow Kentucky teammates Andrew Harrison, Aaron Harrison, Dakari Johnson, Willie Cauley-Stein, Trey Lyles and Karl-Anthony Towns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "After high school, Booker played college basketball at Clemson University, with the Clemson Tigers, from 2009 to 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "2013\u201314 Kentucky Wildcats men's basketball team",
        "text": "Devin Booker was the third commitment in the class when he verbally committed on October 31, 2013. He was ranked as the No. 18 overall by ESPN and No. 29 overall by Scout and Rivals. As a junior, he was named by Gatorade as the top basketball player in Mississippi. He is the son of the former Missouri and All-American great Melvin Booker. He chose Kentucky over his Dad's alma mater and Michigan."
      },
      {
        "title": "2014\u201315 Kentucky Wildcats men's basketball team",
        "text": "Devin Booker was the third commitment in the class when he verbally committed on October 31, 2013. He was ranked as the No. 18 overall by ESPN and No. 29 overall by Scout and Rivals. As a junior, he was named by Gatorade as the top basketball player in Mississippi. He is the son of the former Missouri and All-American great Melvin Booker. He chose Kentucky over his Dad's alma mater and Michigan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Booker played high school basketball at Union County High School, in Union, South Carolina."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "On June 16, 2021, he has signed a 2-year deal with Fenerbah\u00e7e of the Turkish Basketball Super League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On September 10, he was ruled out for six weeks after undergoing surgery to repair the fifth metacarpophalangeal joint in his right hand after he jammed it in practice on March 14, 2018. He recovered in time for the Suns' season opener on October 17, scoring 35 points in a 121\u2013100 victory over the Dallas Mavericks. Throughout the beginning of the season, he had multiple 30+ point games despite missing a six-game stretch when he strained his hamstring. On January 24, Booker became the fifth youngest player in NBA history to reach 5,000 career points, behind LeBron James, Kevin Durant, Carmelo Anthony, and Dwight Howard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On March 2, in a 124\u2013116 loss to the Oklahoma City Thunder, Booker scored 39 points and at 21 years, 123 days old, he became the third-youngest player in NBA history to reach 4,000 career points, again behind LeBron James and Kevin Durant. Booker missed the Suns' final 12 games of the season with a right hand sprain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Cannady",
        "text": "Cannady's father, Tony, played college basketball for Bethel College."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On February 25, he scored 20 points to help the Suns break a franchise-record 17-game losing streak with a 124\u2013121 win over the Miami Heat. On March 25, he scored 59 points in a 125\u201392 loss to the Utah Jazz. On March 27, he scored 50 points in a 124\u2013121 loss to the Wizards, becoming the youngest player in NBA history with consecutive 50-point games. He also became first player in franchise history to reach 50 in back-to-back games. On April 3, in a 118\u201397 loss to the Jazz, Booker sprained his left ankle, ruling him out for the last three games of the season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Booker was born on November 25, 1987, in Newberry, South Carolina, to Gerald and Tracey, both accomplished athletes. He was brought up in a rural Whitmire neighborhood and grew up eating as many as 20 bowls of cereal each week, sharing the love with his brothers. Booker began playing the game of basketball after his mother tried to get her sons into it by showing them her clippings as a high school player. His brother, Devin, said, \"She got us into it when we were younger, and we have been ever since.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Booker began his pro career in France, during the 2013\u201314 LNB Pro A season, with SLUC Nancy. Later that same year, he moved to the French 2nd Division club JL Bourg. He was named the Finals MVP of the 2013\u201314 LNB Pro B season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "Booker attended Price High School. As a junior, he averaged 13 points, 7 rebounds and 5 assists to lead Price to the Division IV championship. He was ranked 30th in the nation at his position by ESPN. Booker committed to the Colorado Buffaloes to play for Tad Boyle on October 29, 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Razor Shines",
        "text": "His son, Devin, played baseball for the Cowboys at Oklahoma State and was drafted by the Dodgers in the 38th round of the 2011 MLB Draft. In 2012, Devin played for his dad with the Great Lakes Loons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "In 2015, he joined the French 1st Division club \u00c9lan Chalon, where he also played in the FIBA Europe Cup, where Chalon finished in third place. In the 2015\u201316 LNB Pro A season, Booker was named the league's Most Valuable Player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "On July 16, 2019, Russian club Khimki announced that they had signed with Booker to a one-year deal. On July 5, 2020, Booker officially renewed his contract with the Russian club Khimki with an option for an additional year, which also competes in the EuroLeague."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "In 2016, Booker agreed to join the New York Knicks for the NBA Summer League. On July 17, 2016, he signed with Bayern Munich of the BBL in Germany. On July 12, 2017, Booker re-signed with Bayern for the 2017\u201318 season. He averaged 12.4 points and 5 rebounds per game on the season. Booker re-signed with the team on July 17, 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)\n--High school career.\n--College career.\n--Professional career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Devin Booker was unable to play due to knee injury.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Devin Booker was unable to play due to knee injury.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On December 6, he was ruled out for up to three weeks after sustaining a left adductor strain the previous night against the Toronto Raptors. On December 26, in a 99\u201397 win over the Memphis Grizzlies, Booker scored 32 points in his return. Booker then missed four games in early February with a left hip contusion. On February 17, Booker won the Three-Point Contest over Klay Thompson and Tobias Harris in the final round after setting a new record with 28 points."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "After playing for the freshman, junior varsity and varsity basketball teams during his freshman year at Grandville High School in Michigan, Booker moved to Mississippi to live with his father after the latter's retirement from professional basketball. He enrolled at Moss Point High School, where his father was hired as an assistant coach, in August 2011. In his team's fifth game of the season\u2014a 52\u201332 loss to Gulfport High School\u2014Booker scored more points than the rest of his teammates combined (15). In December, he hit a buzzer beater from just beyond half court to beat Harrison Central High School, improving Moss Point's record to 4\u20136 on the year. By early January, \"Press-Register\" sportswriter Creg Stephenson opined, \"Sophomore guard Devin Booker has developed into one of the top players on the coast in his first season with the [Moss Point] Tigers' varsity, averaging 22.7 points per game.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "Melvin Jermaine Booker (born August 20, 1972) is an American former professional basketball player. A , point guard, he played for the University of Missouri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Booker",
        "text": "Booker's half Icelandic son, Frank Aron Booker, played for the Oklahoma Sooners in the Big 12 Conference from 2013 to 2015. He transferred from the Florida Atlantic Owls before the 2015\u201316 season. Prior to his senior year, Frank Aron. transferred to South Carolina for the 2017\u201318 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In the summer following his sophomore year, Booker played in the Nike Elite Youth Basketball League and participated in the Elite 100 Camp, the LeBron James King's Academy Camp, and the Kevin Durant Nike Skills Camp. These commitments caused him to miss the inaugural South Mississippi All-Star Basketball Showcase in May."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greg Booker",
        "text": "Booker's widow, Kristi, is the daughter of long-time major league manager Jack McKeon. His son Zach Booker was a catcher in the minor leagues from 2007 until 2011. His son Avery is the head baseball coach for Greensboro College in Greensboro, NC"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Devin Booker\n--Early life.\n--High school career.\n----Sophomore year.\n----Junior year.\n----Senior year.\n--College career.\n--Professional career.\n----Phoenix Suns (2015\u2013present).\n------2015\u201316 season: All-Rookie honors.\n------2016\u201317 season: Improving as a sophomore.\n------2017\u201318 season: Injuries.\n------2018\u201319 season: Franchise player.\n------2019\u201320 season: First All-Star season.\n------2020\u201321 season: First playoff appearance and NBA Finals.\n------2021\u201322 season: Franchise record in wins.\n--National team career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "Askia Toussaint Booker (born August 31, 1993) is an American professional basketball player for the Shenzhen Aviators of the Chinese Basketball Association. He played college basketball for the Colorado Buffaloes as a point guard. In his senior year in 2014\u201315, he earned second-team all-conference honors in the Pac-12."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devontae Booker",
        "text": "Devontae Booker (born May 27, 1992) is an American football running back who is a free agent. He played college football at the University of Utah. He was drafted by the Denver Broncos in the fourth round of the 2016 NFL Draft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tre Harbison",
        "text": "His uncle Charlie Harbison, half-brother Devin Baldwin, and father James each played football at Gardner\u2013Webb University."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Vassell",
        "text": "Vassell's father, Andrew Vassell, played college basketball at Stony Brook."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Near the beginning of October, his high school coach said Booker would announce his college choice on October 31 after taking official visits to Michigan and Missouri; he also stated that Booker was no longer considering Florida. Booker stated that ESPN had offered him the chance to make his announcement on live television, but he declined, saying he didn't want the pressure of such an event and that he wanted to keep the date flexible to allow his family from Michigan to attend. At an October 31 ceremony at his high school gymnasium, Booker announced he had chosen Kentucky, citing the program's history and his affinity for coach John Calipari as primary factors in his decision. He, Tyler Ulis, Karl-Anthony Towns and Trey Lyles all signed National Letters of Intent to play for Kentucky on November 13, the first day of the official signing period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Trevor Booker\n--Early life.\n--High school career.\n--College career.\n----Freshman.\n----Sophomore and Junior.\n----Senior.\n--Professional career.\n----Washington Wizards (2010\u20132014).\n----Utah Jazz (2014\u20132016).\n----Brooklyn Nets (2016\u20132017).\n----Philadelphia 76ers (2017\u20132018).\n----Indiana Pacers (2018).\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "With most of Moss Point's experienced players graduating, Booker switched to point guard for his junior year. In an early December game, Booker outscored the entire Ocean Springs High School team 40\u201339 through three quarters en route to a 48-point finish as Moss Point won 100\u201355. He followed up this performance with a 30-point outing, including 7 three-pointers, in a win over 54\u201337 win over Laurel High School in the second annual Melvin Booker Shootout, named in honor of his father. The following week, Booker left a game against Harrison Central High School in the third quarter with a sprained MCL; he had scored just 9 points, but grabbed 7 rebounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "He played in the NBA for the Houston Rockets during the 1995\u201396 season; and the Denver Nuggets and Golden State Warriors, during the 1996\u201397 season, for 32 games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In the Laurel MLK Shootout, Booker scored 54 points against Northeast Jones High School, falling nine shy of Litterial Green's Moss Point record for most points in a game, set in 1988. He followed up that performance with 32 points, including a game-winning three-pointer, against Murrah High School and was named ESPNHS.com's Southeast Player of the Week. At that time, his father told reporters that Booker was drawing interest from Mississippi State, Ole Miss, Florida, Alabama, Georgetown, Michigan and Missouri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On November 6, 2017, Booker scored 18 points in a 98\u201392 loss to the Brooklyn Nets to reach 3,000 career points and the fourth-youngest player in NBA history to score 3,000 points, behind LeBron James, Kevin Durant, and Carmelo Anthony. On November 13, a 36-point game and 26th 30-point in his career tied Steve Nash for 15th most in franchise history. Over the Suns' first 17 games of the season, Booker had seven 30-point games. On December 4, Booker scored a season-high 46 points in a 115\u2013101 win over the Philadelphia 76ers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devontae Booker",
        "text": "In Week 10 against his former team, the Denver Broncos, Booker rushed for 81 yards and two touchdowns during the 37\u201312 win."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marty Booker",
        "text": "Marty Montez Booker was born July 31, 1976 to Vera and Calvin Booker of Jonesboro, La. Booker attended Jonesboro-Hodge High School in Jonesboro, Louisiana. He was a two-sport standout in both football and track. In football, he was a quarterback and passed for and 48 combined touchdowns as a senior, at a college meet, he was told that he was super athletic, and quarterback wasn't the right spot for him, he chose WR. Following his senior season, he finished as the runner-up for the national Gatorade High School Player of the Year award. In track, he was ranked second in the state high jump finals as a senior. Booker also was a standout basketball player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "In July 2016, Booker joined the Phoenix Suns for the 2016 NBA Summer League. On October 31, 2016, he was re-acquired by the now Northern Arizona Suns. In the team's season opener on November 12, 2016, Booker scored 15 points in a 122\u2013106 win over the Iowa Energy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devontae Booker",
        "text": "Devontae Booker\n--Early years.\n--College career.\n----American River College.\n----Utah.\n--Professional career.\n----Denver Broncos.\n------2016 season.\n------2017 season.\n------2018 season.\n------2019 season.\n----Las Vegas Raiders.\n----New York Giants.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On May 23, Booker would make his NBA playoff debut, posting 34 points, 7 rebounds and 8 assists in a 99\u201390 victory in Game 1 of the First Round over the defending champion Los Angeles Lakers. On June 3, Booker recorded a playoff career-high 47 points, along with 11 rebounds to lead the Suns to a 113\u2013100 series-clinching victory over the Lakers in Game 6 to advance to the Conference Semifinals against the Denver Nuggets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devontae Booker",
        "text": "Booker attended and played high school football for Grant Union High School in Sacramento, California, where he rushed for 2,884 yards and 45 touchdowns as a senior. He helped Grant High to the 2008 CIF State Open Division state title as a junior, leading the team in rushing yards (1,850) and touchdowns (36). Booker was named to the Sacramento Bee's all-metro teams in 2008 and 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "By the end of Moss Point's season, Booker held scholarship offers from Duke, North Carolina, Florida, Michigan, Michigan State, Missouri, and Mississippi State. Rivals.com ranked him a four-star prospect and the 30th best player overall in the class of 2014; ESPN tabbed him as the 18th best player overall. Recruiting analyst Evan Daniels called Booker \"one of the best shooters\" in the country. In April, Booker began playing for the Alabama Challenge on the Nike Elite Youth Basketball League circuit. After watching Booker play for the first time in the league's opening weekend, Kentucky coach John Calipari offered Booker a scholarship. At the South Mississippi All-Star event in May, Booker scored 23 points to lead his East team over the West team 101\u201370 in the underclassman game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "On December 28, 2017, Booker was traded alongside a fourth round draft pick to the Delaware 87ers for Jerrelle Benimon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tarean Folston",
        "text": "His father, James, was a second round draft pick by the Oakland Raiders in the 1994 NFL Draft and played eight seasons in the NFL. His younger brother, James Folston Jr., is a senior defensive end for the Pittsburgh Panthers. His sister, Jatana, is a Class of 2019 High School track and field athlete that recently signed an athletic scholarship with the University of Southern California USC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Aron Booker",
        "text": "Booker was born in Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland, to Frank Booker, an American professional basketball player who was drafted by the New Jersey Nets in 1987, and Icelander \u00de\u00f3runn J\u00f3nsd\u00f3ttir. He grew up in Iceland until the age of 11 when he moved to his father in Augusta, Georgia to attend school. At Westside High School in Augusta, Booker averaged 27.9 points and 4.1 assists per game as a senior."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "After going undrafted in the 2015 NBA draft, Booker joined the Philadelphia 76ers for the 2015 NBA Summer League. On August 13, 2015, he signed with Arkadikos for the 2015\u201316 Greek Basket League season. However, he was released by Arkadikos in mid-October after appearing in just two games. On October 31, 2015, he was selected by the Maine Red Claws with the 10th overall pick in the 2015 NBA Development League Draft, only to be traded to the Bakersfield Jam in a three-team draft night deal. In 47 games for the Jam in 2015\u201316, he averaged 12.8 points, 3.1 rebounds and 3.5 assists per game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devontae Booker",
        "text": "After the departure of C. J. Anderson, Booker competed for the starting running back gig with third-round rookie Royce Freeman. Booker was named the second running back behind Freeman at the end of the 2018 preseason. He rushed for 183 yards and one rushing touchdown in the 2018 season while appearing in all 16 games with no starts. In addition, he had 38 receptions for 275 receiving yards."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Blackmon Jr.",
        "text": "Blackmon's father, James Blackmon Sr., was drafted into the NBA after an outstanding career at Kentucky. . He now coaches at Marion. His father is of African-American descent, while his mother Sailaja is of Indian descent. Blackmon has two brothers: Vijay, who was a walk-on for the Indiana Hoosiers men's basketball basketball team, and now is a member of the Lindenwood University men's basketball team, and Jalen, who plays for Grand Canyon University."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "On August 4, 2011, Booker signed with Bnei Hasharon of Israel for the duration of the NBA lockout. In October 2011, he returned to the United States due to a bruised right quadriceps. In December 2011, following the conclusion of the lockout, Booker returned to the Washington Wizards before appearing in a game for Bnei Hasharon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "During the 2021\u201322 NBA season, on November 29, 2021, Booker was named the Player of the Week in the Western Conference for his performance during Week 6 of the season, which helped the Suns achieve a franchise-record 18-game winning streak. He received the honor again on January 17, 2022 for his efforts during Week 13. Booker was named an All-Star along with teammate for the third year in a row alongside teammate Chris Paul when reserves were announced on February 10. That night, he was selected for Team Durant as part of the All-Star Draft. On March 24, 2022, Booker scored a season-high 49 points in a 140\u2013130 road victory over the Denver Nuggets, becoming the fourth-youngest player in NBA history to score 11,000 points. He finished the week averaging 37.3 points and 6.3 assists per game and was named the Week 23 Western Conference Player of the Week. Booker and the Suns finished the regular season with the league's best overall record at 64\u201318."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "During the summer of 2013, Booker participated in the Kevin Durant Skills Academy, the LeBron James Skills Academy, the CP3 Elite Guard Camp, and the National Basketball Players Association (NBPA) Top 100 camp. His fellow participants in the NBPA camp voted him to the camp's 10-man all-star team. Booker also participated against international competition at the Nike Global Challenge. At the Under Armour Elite 24 showcase, he won the three-point shooting contest. In August 2013, Booker narrowed his list of potential college choices to Florida, Missouri, Michigan, Michigan State, and Kentucky. He took an official visit to the University of Kentucky on the weekend of September 9 to watch an alumni exhibition game; fellow 2014 prospects Jahlil Okafor and Tyler Ulis also attended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devontae Booker",
        "text": "On March 19, 2021, Booker signed a two-year contract with the New York Giants. He scored his first rushing touchdown as a New York Giant against the Dallas Cowboys in a 44-20 loss in week 5. He was released on March 3, 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jackson Vroman",
        "text": "His father, Brett had a 12-year basketball career and played for the Utah Jazz during the 1980\u201381 NBA season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Alford (American football)",
        "text": "His brother, Fred Booker, played in the NFL for the New Orleans Saints in the 2005 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devontae Booker",
        "text": "Booker was drafted by the Denver Broncos in the fourth round with the 136th overall pick in the 2016 NFL Draft. He was the seventh running back to be selected that year. Booker opened training camp competing for a roster spot as a reserve player behind veteran starter C. J. Anderson. At the conclusion of the preseason, he was named the season as the No. 2 running back behind Anderson. On his first NFL carry against the Carolina Panthers, Booker fumbled the ball and was recovered by former Grant High School teammate Shaq Thompson. Booker re-entered the game, and finished with three carries for eight yards. Booker had his first career touchdown against the Houston Texans on October 24 after Anderson left the game with an injury. After Anderson was lost for the season, Booker became the starting running back the following week against the Chargers. He was the starter for the Broncos the next five games until the Broncos claimed Justin Forsett off waivers, who started the final three games. Booker finished his rookie year playing in all 16 games with six starts, rushing 174 times for 612 yards and four touchdowns along with 31 receptions for 265 yards and one touchdown. Booker became the 13th rookie in team history and first since Knowshon Moreno in 2009 to lead the team in rushing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marty Booker",
        "text": "In 2000, Booker started seven of the 15 games in which he played, finishing third on the team with 47 receptions for and a pair of scores . He was inactive for a September 17 game against the New York Giants with a shoulder injury. He had five catches for against the Detroit Lions on September 24 - a game which began his streak of 82 straight games with a reception."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Moore",
        "text": "Moore is the brother of Mookie Moore, a former National Football League player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devontae Booker",
        "text": "On May 11, 2020, Booker signed a one-year, veteran's minimum deal with the Las Vegas Raiders. He was placed on the reserve/COVID-19 list by the team on July 30, 2020, and activated from the list five days later. He scored his first rushing touchdown as a Raider against the Los Angeles Chargers in a 31\u201326 victory in Week 9."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brett Vroman",
        "text": "He is the father of the late Jackson Vroman, who was selected by the Chicago Bulls in the 2004 NBA draft and played with the Phoenix Suns and the New Orleans Hornets / New Orleans/Oklahoma City Hornets from 2004 to 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brevin Jordan",
        "text": "His father, Darrell, played college football for the Northern Arizona Lumberjacks and was drafted in the ninth round of the 1990 NFL Draft by the Atlanta Falcons. However, he would tear his rotator cuff in the preseason and would never make an NFL game appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On January 2, 2016, Booker scored a then season-high 21 points in a 142\u2013119 loss to the Sacramento Kings. On January 19, he scored 32 points in a 97\u201394 loss to the Indiana Pacers, setting a Suns' rookie record with six three-pointers. Booker became the third-youngest player in NBA history at 19 years, 81 days old to record a 30-point game, behind LeBron James and Kevin Durant, as well as the youngest Suns player to score 30 or more points in a game. Booker participated for Team USA in the 2016 Rising Stars Challenge. He also competed in the NBA All-Star Weekend's Three-Point Contest, becoming the youngest contestant to ever participate in the event and only the fourth rookie to compete in the 30-year-old contest, joining Stephen Curry (2010), Kyle Korver (2004) and Dennis Scott (1991). He made it to the final round of the event, where he finished third behind the \"Splash Brothers\" \u2013 Stephen Curry and Klay Thompson (winner)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "As a sophomore, Booker was one of two players to start all 33 games, along with Spencer Dinwiddie. He averaged 12.4 points, 2.2 assists, and 1.2 steals per game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marty Booker",
        "text": "Marty Montez Booker (born July 31, 1976) is a former American football wide receiver who played for eleven seasons in the National Football League (NFL). After playing college football for Louisiana-Monroe, he was drafted by the Chicago Bears in the third round of the 1999 NFL Draft. During his first tenure with the Bears, he earned a Pro Bowl selection in 2002. He also played for the Miami Dolphins from 2004 to 2007, Bears in 2008, and Atlanta Falcons in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Devin Booker was selected as Damian Lillard's replacement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Aron Booker",
        "text": "On 29 August 2019, Booker signed with \u00darvalsdeild karla club Valur, the same team his father played for from 1991 to 1994 and led to the \u00darvalsdeild Finals in 1992. After a rough debut where he scored 7 points on a dismissal 2 of 14 shooting in a narrow win against Fj\u00f6lnir, Booker bounced back in his second game, scoring a team high 25 points and connecting on six of his three point shots in a victory against \u00de\u00f3r \u00deorl\u00e1ksh\u00f6fn. Booker averaged 15.3 points, 3.7 rebounds, 2.3 assists and 1.6 steals per game in 2019-20."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Aromashodu",
        "text": "Devin Aromashodu\n--Early years.\n----College career.\n--Professional career.\n----Miami.\n----Indianapolis Colts.\n----Washington Redskins.\n----Chicago Bears.\n----Minnesota Vikings.\n----Chicago Bears (second stint).\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Booker Russell",
        "text": "Booker Taylor Russell (February 28, 1956 \u2013 March 9, 2000) was an American football running back in the National Football League who played for the Oakland Raiders, San Diego Chargers, and Philadelphia Eagles. He played college football for the Texas State Bobcats. He also played in the USFL for the Philadelphia Stars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On July 7, 2018, Booker signed a five-year, $158 million maximum contract extension with the Suns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerai Grant",
        "text": "Grant is the son of Harvey and Beverly Grant, and has three brothers: Jerami, Jerian and Jaelin. Harvey played college basketball at Clemson and Oklahoma, and was the 12th overall pick in the 1988 NBA draft, going on to play for 11 years in the NBA with Washington (Bullets and Wizards), Portland and Philadelphia. Grant's uncle, Horace (twin brother of Harvey), played college basketball at Clemson and was a four-time NBA champion with Chicago and Los Angeles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dante Booker",
        "text": "Dante Booker (born October 9, 1977) is a former professional American football player. Booker grew up in Akron, Ohio, where he was a three-time all-city selection in High School basketball. Booker played college football at Montgomery Junior College prior to transferring to Auburn University, where he majored in sociology. Upon graduation, Booker pursued a career in professional football."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Booker",
        "text": "Booker was drafted by the Atlanta Falcons with the 11th pick of the 1st round of the 1997 NFL Draft. Booker played 3 seasons with the Falcons, including as a starter in Super Bowl XXXIII, which the Falcons lost to the Broncos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On January 12, 2017, he scored 28 fourth-quarter points, in another 39-point night, to set the Suns franchise record for most points in a quarter, previously held by Stephon Marbury's 26 points in 2002. He had a second straight 39-point effort in a two days later to become the youngest player in NBA history to record consecutive games of 39 or more points in the regular season. He was named to the U.S. Team for the 2017 Rising Stars Challenge, and was invited to take part in the 2017 Taco Bell Skills Challenge. On February 4, at 20 years, 97 days old, Booker became the youngest player to score at least 20 points in 16 consecutive games. His 16-game streak is the second-longest by any first-year or second-year player since Vince Carter had a 23-game run as a second-year player during the 1999\u20132000 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Devin Booker was selected as Anthony Davis's replacement.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "On December 7, 2017, Booker was traded to the Philadelphia 76ers in exchange for Jahlil Okafor, Nik Stauskas and a 2019 second-round pick. On February 28, 2018, he was waived by the 76ers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Trevor Fitzgerald Booker (born November 25, 1987) is an American former professional basketball player who played eight seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA). He was drafted 23rd overall by the Minnesota Timberwolves in the 2010 NBA draft, but was immediately traded to the Washington Wizards. Booker primarily played the power forward position."
      },
      {
        "title": "Butch Booker",
        "text": "He played collegiately for the Cheyney University of Pennsylvania. He was drafted by both the New York Knicks (5th round) and the Seattle SuperSonics (4th round) in the 1968 and 1969 editions of the NBA draft, respectively, but never played for either team."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Mike Conley was selected as Devin Booker\u2019s replacement.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevin Parks",
        "text": "He is the son of Inesha Parks and Tyrone Wray. His uncle, Patrick Tate, played football at North Carolina."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Thomas (basketball)",
        "text": "Thomas is the younger brother of WNBA player and former Maryland All-American Alyssa Thomas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On March 3, Booker scored a then career-high 34 points in a loss to the Miami Heat, On March 10, Booker recorded a career-high 35 points in a loss to the Denver Nuggets. Throughout the month of March, Booker led all rookies in points (22.4) and assists (4.9) per game. On April 9, with 16 points scored in a 121\u2013100 win over the New Orleans Pelicans, Booker reached 1,014 for the season, making him the fourth-youngest player to reach 1,000 career points, following only LeBron James, Kevin Durant, and Kobe Bryant, as well as the third-youngest during their rookie season. Booker finished fourth in the 2016 NBA Rookie of the Year Award voting and earned NBA All-Rookie First Team honors. He became the first Suns player to be named as a member of the All-Rookie Team since Amar'e Stoudemire in 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "Braxton Key",
        "text": "Key is the nephew of NBA player Ralph Sampson, who starred at the University of Virginia. Key's father Eric Key played at Radford. Key played three seasons for Christ Presbyterian Academy. He transferred to Oak Hill Academy, where he led the team to a 45\u20131 record and national championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On November 23, 2019, Booker almost put up a triple-double with 35 points, a career-high 12 rebounds, and 9 assists in a 100\u201398 win over the Minnesota Timberwolves. From December 27, 2019 until January 7, 2020, Booker scored over 30 points in seven straight games, including a 40-point performance in a loss against the Memphis Grizzlies on January 5. This streak broke a franchise record for most consecutive 30+ point games in a row, beating a record previously set by Charlie Scott twice and Charles Barkley once. In addition, his streak from December 28 until January 7 made him the only player since the 1983\u201384 NBA season to record six straight performances of 30+ points and 6+ assists with 47% shooting efficiency. On January 28, Booker became the fourth-youngest player to reach 7,000 career points, behind only LeBron James, Kevin Durant, and Carmelo Anthony. Booker was named an All-Star on February 13, 2020 as an injury replacement after Damian Lillard suffered an groin strain injury a day earlier. He also replaced Lillard in the Three Point Contest, an event he had previously won, and finished as the runner-up behind Buddy Hield."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "Source: \"basketball-stats.de\" (Date: 27. March 2022)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tyson Etienne",
        "text": "His father, Max Etienne, played college basketball for Maryland. His mother, Anita Gibson, is an Emmy-nominated make-up artist. Etienne is a nephew of former NBA player Marcus Camby and actor Omari Hardwick. He is a cousin of NBA player DeAndre Jordan. Etienne's childhood friend Armoni Sexton was shot and killed in 2015, and Etienne plays basketball to honor him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "Despite those accomplishments, Booker was not selected in the 1994 NBA draft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "Booker was a standout high school player in Moss Point, Mississippi. He averaged 28 points per game in his senior year and was named the player of the year in his class. Despite that, none of the major four-year schools from the region recruited him. Booker signed with Missouri, a school whose attention he caught during a prior recruitment run through the area. Missouri assistant coaches noticed him while they were scouting fellow Mississippi standouts Litterial Green and Chris Jackson."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What team did Devin Armani Booker's father Melvin Booker play for?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Melvin Booker played in high school, university, as well as in NBA for multiple teams in different seasons. Which of these teams would you like to know more about?",
      "Do you wish to know about which school he played for, or the NBA teams he played on?"
    ],
    "topic": "Devin Booker",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Melvin Booker:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Melvin Booker"
        ],
        "ctx": "Melvin Jermaine Booker (born August 20, 1972) is an American former professional basketball player. A , point guard, he played for the University of Missouri."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Melvin Booker:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Melvin Booker",
          "Amateur career"
        ],
        "ctx": "Booker was a standout high school player in Moss Point, Mississippi. He averaged 28 points per game in his senior year and was named the player of the year in his class. Despite that, none of the major four-year schools from the region recruited him. Booker signed with Missouri, a school whose attention he caught during a prior recruitment run through the area. Missouri assistant coaches noticed him while they were scouting fellow Mississippi standouts Litterial Green and Chris Jackson."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Melvin Booker:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Melvin Booker",
          "Amateur career"
        ],
        "ctx": "Booker was the 1994 Big Eight Player of the Year, when he led Missouri to an undefeated conference record of 14\u20130 and an Elite Eight berth. He was also an all Big Eight selection in 1993 and 1994 and was a 1994 first-team All-American as a senior, when he averaged 18.1 points and 4.5 assists per game. In 1999, Booker was elected to the intercollegiate athletics Hall of Fame at the University of Missouri."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Melvin Booker:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Melvin Booker",
          "Amateur career"
        ],
        "ctx": "Booker was a standout high school player in Moss Point, Mississippi. He averaged 28 points per game in his senior year and was named the player of the year in his class. Despite that, none of the major four-year schools from the region recruited him. Booker signed with Missouri, a school whose attention he caught during a prior recruitment run through the area. Missouri assistant coaches noticed him while they were scouting fellow Mississippi standouts Litterial Green and Chris Jackson."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Melvin Booker:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Melvin Booker",
          "Professional career"
        ],
        "ctx": "He played in the NBA for the Houston Rockets during the 1995\u201396 season; and the Denver Nuggets and Golden State Warriors, during the 1996\u201397 season, for 32 games."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "His only child and son, Devin Booker, played for the University of Kentucky Wildcats basketball team during their nearly undefeated 2014\u201315 NCAA season and currently plays for the Phoenix Suns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Booker's brother, Trevor, also played college basketball at Clemson and played a professionally in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Booker's cousin, Jordan Hill, is a former NBA player as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Devin Armani Booker (born October 30, 1996) is an American professional basketball player for the Phoenix Suns of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He is the son of former basketball player Melvin Booker. After playing college basketball for one season with the Kentucky Wildcats, Booker was selected by the Phoenix Suns in the first round of the 2015 NBA draft with the 13th overall pick. On March 24, 2017, he became the youngest player to score over 60 points in a game, finishing with 70 against the Boston Celtics. In March 2019, at 22 years old, Booker became the youngest player in NBA history with consecutive 50-point games. Booker is a three-time NBA All-Star and helped the Suns reach the NBA Finals in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "After high school, Booker played college basketball at Clemson University, with the Clemson Tigers, from 2009 to 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Booker is the son of Veronica Guti\u00e9rrez, a cosmetologist, and Melvin Booker, who was named the 1994 Big Eight Player of the Year while a point guard at Missouri. His parents met while his father was playing basketball for the Continental Basketball Association's Grand Rapids Hoops in Guti\u00e9rrez's hometown of Grand Rapids, Michigan. Booker was born and raised in Grand Rapids, living with his mother, who is reportedly of Mexican and Puerto Rican descent. while his African-American father pursued a professional basketball career internationally. He visited his father regularly during the summer. At age 12 while visiting him in Milan, he played one-on-one with Danilo Gallinari. Booker was taught by his father that having basketball IQ was just as important as natural athleticism. During his time in middle school, Booker became friends with future fellow NBA players D'Angelo Russell and Tyler Ulis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)\n--High school career.\n--College career.\n--Professional career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Booker has three younger brothers; Devin, Darrion, and Jared. Devin also played college basketball for Clemson University and now plays professionally in Europe. Darrion played college basketball for the University of West Alabama, and Jared competes with the Union County High School basketball team. Booker is also the cousin of NBA player Jordan Hill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "During the offseason, Booker trained with head coach Earl Watson and former NBA player Baron Davis at UCLA, was invited to be on the select team that practices against Team USA in preparation for the Summer Olympics, and played two games for the Suns during the Las Vegas Summer League. With teammate Eric Bledsoe returning from injury in 2016\u201317, Booker was retained as the starting shooting guard while Brandon Knight was moved to the bench. Booker scored a career-highs of 38 points and 39 points on November 4 and 6."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Booker played high school basketball at Union County High School, in Union, South Carolina."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Due to his mother's ethnic background, Booker drew interest from the Mexican and U.S. national teams. He played on the 2016 USA Select Team that trained against the 2016 U.S. Olympic team. In February 2020, he was named a finalist to play on the 2020 United States men's Olympic basketball team. However, the 2020 Summer Olympics were postponed into 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On April 9, 2015, Booker declared for the NBA draft, forgoing his final three years of college eligibility. He was joined by fellow Kentucky teammates Andrew Harrison, Aaron Harrison, Dakari Johnson, Willie Cauley-Stein, Trey Lyles and Karl-Anthony Towns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Devin Booker (born February 28, 1991) is an American professional basketball player for Fenerbah\u00e7e of the Turkish Basketball Super League (BSL) and EuroLeague."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "During the summer of 2013, Booker participated in the Kevin Durant Skills Academy, the LeBron James Skills Academy, the CP3 Elite Guard Camp, and the National Basketball Players Association (NBPA) Top 100 camp. His fellow participants in the NBPA camp voted him to the camp's 10-man all-star team. Booker also participated against international competition at the Nike Global Challenge. At the Under Armour Elite 24 showcase, he won the three-point shooting contest. In August 2013, Booker narrowed his list of potential college choices to Florida, Missouri, Michigan, Michigan State, and Kentucky. He took an official visit to the University of Kentucky on the weekend of September 9 to watch an alumni exhibition game; fellow 2014 prospects Jahlil Okafor and Tyler Ulis also attended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In the summer following his sophomore year, Booker played in the Nike Elite Youth Basketball League and participated in the Elite 100 Camp, the LeBron James King's Academy Camp, and the Kevin Durant Nike Skills Camp. These commitments caused him to miss the inaugural South Mississippi All-Star Basketball Showcase in May."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "While playing for the Grand Rapids Mackers in the 1995\u20131996 CBA season, Booker met Veronica Guti\u00e9rrez. The two became close and had a son, Devin Booker, born on October 30, 1996. The two never married and Guti\u00e9rrez would take care of their son Devin while his father played pro basketball in Europe and Asia. During the summers, Booker would bring his son to his games which helped to drive Devin's interest in basketball. After Melvin Booker retired from pro basketball in 2008, he returned to his hometown of Moss Point, Mississippi and brought his son with him so he could help train him to become a successful basketball player. Booker was hired as an assistant coach for basketball at his alma mater, Moss Point High School, in 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "2013\u201314 Kentucky Wildcats men's basketball team",
        "text": "Devin Booker was the third commitment in the class when he verbally committed on October 31, 2013. He was ranked as the No. 18 overall by ESPN and No. 29 overall by Scout and Rivals. As a junior, he was named by Gatorade as the top basketball player in Mississippi. He is the son of the former Missouri and All-American great Melvin Booker. He chose Kentucky over his Dad's alma mater and Michigan."
      },
      {
        "title": "2014\u201315 Kentucky Wildcats men's basketball team",
        "text": "Devin Booker was the third commitment in the class when he verbally committed on October 31, 2013. He was ranked as the No. 18 overall by ESPN and No. 29 overall by Scout and Rivals. As a junior, he was named by Gatorade as the top basketball player in Mississippi. He is the son of the former Missouri and All-American great Melvin Booker. He chose Kentucky over his Dad's alma mater and Michigan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Booker began his pro career in France, during the 2013\u201314 LNB Pro A season, with SLUC Nancy. Later that same year, he moved to the French 2nd Division club JL Bourg. He was named the Finals MVP of the 2013\u201314 LNB Pro B season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Trevor Booker\n--Early life.\n--High school career.\n--College career.\n----Freshman.\n----Sophomore and Junior.\n----Senior.\n--Professional career.\n----Washington Wizards (2010\u20132014).\n----Utah Jazz (2014\u20132016).\n----Brooklyn Nets (2016\u20132017).\n----Philadelphia 76ers (2017\u20132018).\n----Indiana Pacers (2018).\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "Melvin Jermaine Booker (born August 20, 1972) is an American former professional basketball player. A , point guard, he played for the University of Missouri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "After playing for the freshman, junior varsity and varsity basketball teams during his freshman year at Grandville High School in Michigan, Booker moved to Mississippi to live with his father after the latter's retirement from professional basketball. He enrolled at Moss Point High School, where his father was hired as an assistant coach, in August 2011. In his team's fifth game of the season\u2014a 52\u201332 loss to Gulfport High School\u2014Booker scored more points than the rest of his teammates combined (15). In December, he hit a buzzer beater from just beyond half court to beat Harrison Central High School, improving Moss Point's record to 4\u20136 on the year. By early January, \"Press-Register\" sportswriter Creg Stephenson opined, \"Sophomore guard Devin Booker has developed into one of the top players on the coast in his first season with the [Moss Point] Tigers' varsity, averaging 22.7 points per game.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On March 2, in a 124\u2013116 loss to the Oklahoma City Thunder, Booker scored 39 points and at 21 years, 123 days old, he became the third-youngest player in NBA history to reach 4,000 career points, again behind LeBron James and Kevin Durant. Booker missed the Suns' final 12 games of the season with a right hand sprain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "Askia Toussaint Booker (born August 31, 1993) is an American professional basketball player for the Shenzhen Aviators of the Chinese Basketball Association. He played college basketball for the Colorado Buffaloes as a point guard. In his senior year in 2014\u201315, he earned second-team all-conference honors in the Pac-12."
      },
      {
        "title": "Butch Booker",
        "text": "He played collegiately for the Cheyney University of Pennsylvania. He was drafted by both the New York Knicks (5th round) and the Seattle SuperSonics (4th round) in the 1968 and 1969 editions of the NBA draft, respectively, but never played for either team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Booker was born on November 25, 1987, in Newberry, South Carolina, to Gerald and Tracey, both accomplished athletes. He was brought up in a rural Whitmire neighborhood and grew up eating as many as 20 bowls of cereal each week, sharing the love with his brothers. Booker began playing the game of basketball after his mother tried to get her sons into it by showing them her clippings as a high school player. His brother, Devin, said, \"She got us into it when we were younger, and we have been ever since.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Booker's maternal grandfather is from Mexico. Devin is the only child of his father, Melvin Booker, a former professional basketball player. In 2020, Booker was named a global ambassador to the Special Olympics for his support for his younger half-sister who has microdeletion syndrome, a genetic chromosomal disorder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "In 2015, he joined the French 1st Division club \u00c9lan Chalon, where he also played in the FIBA Europe Cup, where Chalon finished in third place. In the 2015\u201316 LNB Pro A season, Booker was named the league's Most Valuable Player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "On June 16, 2021, he has signed a 2-year deal with Fenerbah\u00e7e of the Turkish Basketball Super League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On July 13, Booker signed his rookie scale contract with the Suns, and in seven subsequent Summer League games, he averaged 15.3 points, 4.9 rebounds and 1.7 assists per game. He went on to make his NBA debut two days before his 19th birthday, in the Suns' season opener against the Dallas Mavericks. In 21 minutes of action against the Mavericks, he scored 14 points on 6-of-7 shooting in a 111\u201395 loss."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Gray",
        "text": "Devin Antoine Gray (May 31, 1972 \u2013 August 17, 2013) was an American professional basketball player. He played parts of three seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA) for the Sacramento Kings, San Antonio Spurs and Houston Rockets and played in Spain's first division. He played college basketball at Clemson University."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Cannady",
        "text": "Cannady's father, Tony, played college basketball for Bethel College."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "He played in the NBA for the Houston Rockets during the 1995\u201396 season; and the Denver Nuggets and Golden State Warriors, during the 1996\u201397 season, for 32 games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "Booker attended Price High School. As a junior, he averaged 13 points, 7 rebounds and 5 assists to lead Price to the Division IV championship. He was ranked 30th in the nation at his position by ESPN. Booker committed to the Colorado Buffaloes to play for Tad Boyle on October 29, 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On June 25, 2015, Booker was selected with the thirteenth overall pick by the Phoenix Suns in the 2015 NBA draft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Near the beginning of October, his high school coach said Booker would announce his college choice on October 31 after taking official visits to Michigan and Missouri; he also stated that Booker was no longer considering Florida. Booker stated that ESPN had offered him the chance to make his announcement on live television, but he declined, saying he didn't want the pressure of such an event and that he wanted to keep the date flexible to allow his family from Michigan to attend. At an October 31 ceremony at his high school gymnasium, Booker announced he had chosen Kentucky, citing the program's history and his affinity for coach John Calipari as primary factors in his decision. He, Tyler Ulis, Karl-Anthony Towns and Trey Lyles all signed National Letters of Intent to play for Kentucky on November 13, the first day of the official signing period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Devin Booker\n--Early life.\n--High school career.\n----Sophomore year.\n----Junior year.\n----Senior year.\n--College career.\n--Professional career.\n----Phoenix Suns (2015\u2013present).\n------2015\u201316 season: All-Rookie honors.\n------2016\u201317 season: Improving as a sophomore.\n------2017\u201318 season: Injuries.\n------2018\u201319 season: Franchise player.\n------2019\u201320 season: First All-Star season.\n------2020\u201321 season: First playoff appearance and NBA Finals.\n------2021\u201322 season: Franchise record in wins.\n--National team career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "As a sophomore, Booker was one of two players to start all 33 games, along with Spencer Dinwiddie. He averaged 12.4 points, 2.2 assists, and 1.2 steals per game."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Devin Booker was unable to play due to knee injury.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Devin Booker was unable to play due to knee injury.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On September 10, he was ruled out for six weeks after undergoing surgery to repair the fifth metacarpophalangeal joint in his right hand after he jammed it in practice on March 14, 2018. He recovered in time for the Suns' season opener on October 17, scoring 35 points in a 121\u2013100 victory over the Dallas Mavericks. Throughout the beginning of the season, he had multiple 30+ point games despite missing a six-game stretch when he strained his hamstring. On January 24, Booker became the fifth youngest player in NBA history to reach 5,000 career points, behind LeBron James, Kevin Durant, Carmelo Anthony, and Dwight Howard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Booker (basketball)",
        "text": "Booker attended Tyler Junior College in his freshman year, where he averaged 10.0 points and 10.0 rebounds per game. Improving in his sophomore season, he averaged 19.0 points and 11.0 rebounds per game, was and named All-Conference and Second Team All-American."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Booker attended Union High School in Union, South Carolina, and played basketball under head coach Joe Pitt. In his senior year in 2005\u201306, Booker was named Gatorade Player of the Year for South Carolina, after averaging 21.9 points, 16.4 rebounds, and 3.5 assists per game. He was also named AAA State Player of the Year and was a first-time All-State selection. Booker left the Union high school team as its all-time leader in rebounds and blocked shots. Later on, Booker played Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) basketball with the South Carolina Celtics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On December 6, he was ruled out for up to three weeks after sustaining a left adductor strain the previous night against the Toronto Raptors. On December 26, in a 99\u201397 win over the Memphis Grizzlies, Booker scored 32 points in his return. Booker then missed four games in early February with a left hip contusion. On February 17, Booker won the Three-Point Contest over Klay Thompson and Tobias Harris in the final round after setting a new record with 28 points."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Durrant",
        "text": "Devin George Durrant (born October 20, 1960) is an American retired professional basketball player. From 1984 to 1985 he played with the Indiana Pacers and with the Phoenix Suns. He later played in European basketball leagues until 1988. In a \"Deseret News\" poll in the year 2000, he was voted one of the top 10 college basketball players in the state of Utah over the previous 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Robinson",
        "text": "He was recruited by Billy Donovan and chose the University of Florida over Connecticut, Indiana, Notre Dame and Oklahoma State. Despite being disappointed as Donovan left the Gators for the NBA prior to his sophomore year, Robinson stayed at Florida."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Booker (basketball)",
        "text": "Booker transferred for his junior season to play for Gene Keady at Purdue University, where he was named an All-Big Ten honorable mention by conference coaches, and was named to the All-Junior College Transfer Team. He led the Boilermakers in rebounding, averaging 5.7 per game. He also played in all 30 games, with 24 starts, and ranked third on the team in scoring, at 9.4 points per game. He led the squad in blocked shots, and shot 45.2 percent from the field, fourth-best on the team. He played 807 minutes, second-most on the team. He also set Purdue's record for blocks in a season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In 38 games for Kentucky in 2014\u201315, Booker averaged 10.0 points, 2.0 rebounds and 1.1 assists in 21.5 minutes per game. He subsequently earned SEC Sixth Man of the Year honors and was named to the SEC All-Freshman Team and the All-SEC Second Team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dante Booker",
        "text": "Dante Booker (born October 9, 1977) is a former professional American football player. Booker grew up in Akron, Ohio, where he was a three-time all-city selection in High School basketball. Booker played college football at Montgomery Junior College prior to transferring to Auburn University, where he majored in sociology. Upon graduation, Booker pursued a career in professional football."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Booker",
        "text": "Booker played college basketball at Bowling Green State University from 1983 to 1987."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Booker",
        "text": "Frank Booker\n--College.\n--Career.\n----NBA.\n----Iceland.\n------\u00cdR.\n------Valur.\n------Grindav\u00edk.\n--Coaching career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Smith (basketball)",
        "text": "After playing high school basketball, Smith played college basketball at Coffeyville Community College, with the Coffeyville Red Ravens (NJCAA), in the 2001\u201302 season. He then played at the University of Virginia, with the Virginia Cavaliers (NCAA Division I), from 2002 to 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Davis (basketball, born 1995)",
        "text": "Devin Davis (basketball, born 1995)\n--High school career.\n--College career.\n--Professional career.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "In 2016, Booker agreed to join the New York Knicks for the NBA Summer League. On July 17, 2016, he signed with Bayern Munich of the BBL in Germany. On July 12, 2017, Booker re-signed with Bayern for the 2017\u201318 season. He averaged 12.4 points and 5 rebounds per game on the season. Booker re-signed with the team on July 17, 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On February 25, he scored 20 points to help the Suns break a franchise-record 17-game losing streak with a 124\u2013121 win over the Miami Heat. On March 25, he scored 59 points in a 125\u201392 loss to the Utah Jazz. On March 27, he scored 50 points in a 124\u2013121 loss to the Wizards, becoming the youngest player in NBA history with consecutive 50-point games. He also became first player in franchise history to reach 50 in back-to-back games. On April 3, in a 118\u201397 loss to the Jazz, Booker sprained his left ankle, ruling him out for the last three games of the season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenny Booker",
        "text": "After college, Booker was selected in the 14th round of the 1971 NBA draft by the Phoenix Suns, as well as in the eighth round of the American Basketball Association draft by the Indiana Pacers. He tried out with Phoenix, surviving multiple cuts before being released in September 1971. In October, Booker was appointed as the head coach of Verbum Dei High School's basketball team, who were the defending CIF Southern Section 4-A Division champions. He coached the school for one season before quitting, leading them to a Del Rey League championship in 1972 as well as their second-straight CIF 4-A title; it was also the school's fourth-straight CIF championship at any level. In 1975 he went to Italy, and played professionally for two years in Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Booker (basketball)",
        "text": "Chris Booker (basketball)\n--High school career.\n--College career.\n----Junior college.\n----Purdue.\n--Professional career.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On May 23, Booker would make his NBA playoff debut, posting 34 points, 7 rebounds and 8 assists in a 99\u201390 victory in Game 1 of the First Round over the defending champion Los Angeles Lakers. On June 3, Booker recorded a playoff career-high 47 points, along with 11 rebounds to lead the Suns to a 113\u2013100 series-clinching victory over the Lakers in Game 6 to advance to the Conference Semifinals against the Denver Nuggets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenny Booker",
        "text": "Kenneth Arnold Booker (born November 20, 1948) is an American former professional basketball player. He played college basketball for the UCLA Bruins from 1969 to 1971, winning a national championship in each of his two seasons of play. He played two seasons professionally in Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devontae Booker",
        "text": "Booker attended American River College from 2011 to 2013. In 2011, he had 793 rushing yards and 12 touchdowns and in 2012, he had 1,472 yards and 15 touchdowns. He was originally expected to transfer to the University of Utah prior to the 2013 season, but was unable due to academic reasons. He stayed at American River College and did not play football in 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "Source: \"basketball-stats.de\" (Date: 27. March 2022)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Vassell",
        "text": "Vassell's father, Andrew Vassell, played college basketball at Stony Brook."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Harris",
        "text": "Devin Harris\n--Early life.\n--College career.\n--NBA career.\n----Draft day.\n----Dallas Mavericks (2004\u20132008).\n----New Jersey Nets (2008\u20132011).\n----Utah Jazz (2011\u20132012).\n----Atlanta Hawks (2012\u20132013).\n----Return to Dallas (2013\u20132018).\n----Denver Nuggets (2018).\n----Third stint with Dallas (2018\u20132019).\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "On July 16, 2019, Russian club Khimki announced that they had signed with Booker to a one-year deal. On July 5, 2020, Booker officially renewed his contract with the Russian club Khimki with an option for an additional year, which also competes in the EuroLeague."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "By the end of Moss Point's season, Booker held scholarship offers from Duke, North Carolina, Florida, Michigan, Michigan State, Missouri, and Mississippi State. Rivals.com ranked him a four-star prospect and the 30th best player overall in the class of 2014; ESPN tabbed him as the 18th best player overall. Recruiting analyst Evan Daniels called Booker \"one of the best shooters\" in the country. In April, Booker began playing for the Alabama Challenge on the Nike Elite Youth Basketball League circuit. After watching Booker play for the first time in the league's opening weekend, Kentucky coach John Calipari offered Booker a scholarship. At the South Mississippi All-Star event in May, Booker scored 23 points to lead his East team over the West team 101\u201370 in the underclassman game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Gibson (basketball)",
        "text": "Devin Gibson (basketball)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Smith (basketball)",
        "text": "Devin Smith (basketball)\n--High school.\n--College career.\n--Professional career.\n----Early years.\n----Benetton Treviso.\n----Maccabi Tel Aviv.\n--Coaching career.\n--Personal.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devontae Booker",
        "text": "Booker attended and played high school football for Grant Union High School in Sacramento, California, where he rushed for 2,884 yards and 45 touchdowns as a senior. He helped Grant High to the 2008 CIF State Open Division state title as a junior, leading the team in rushing yards (1,850) and touchdowns (36). Booker was named to the Sacramento Bee's all-metro teams in 2008 and 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Sweetney",
        "text": "Devin Sweetney\n--Early life and career.\n--College career.\n--Professional career.\n--The Basketball Tournament (TBT).\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "With most of Moss Point's experienced players graduating, Booker switched to point guard for his junior year. In an early December game, Booker outscored the entire Ocean Springs High School team 40\u201339 through three quarters en route to a 48-point finish as Moss Point won 100\u201355. He followed up this performance with a 30-point outing, including 7 three-pointers, in a win over 54\u201337 win over Laurel High School in the second annual Melvin Booker Shootout, named in honor of his father. The following week, Booker left a game against Harrison Central High School in the third quarter with a sprained MCL; he had scored just 9 points, but grabbed 7 rebounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Smith (basketball)",
        "text": "Smith attended William Penn High School, in New Castle, Delaware, Delaware, where he played high school basketball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Aron Booker",
        "text": "Booker was born in Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland, to Frank Booker, an American professional basketball player who was drafted by the New Jersey Nets in 1987, and Icelander \u00de\u00f3runn J\u00f3nsd\u00f3ttir. He grew up in Iceland until the age of 11 when he moved to his father in Augusta, Georgia to attend school. At Westside High School in Augusta, Booker averaged 27.9 points and 4.1 assists per game as a senior."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Davis (basketball, born 1974)",
        "text": "Personal Life"
      },
      {
        "title": "Anton Watson",
        "text": "Watson's father, Deon Sr., played college basketball at Idaho (1990\u201394), holds the Vandal record for career rebounds (877), and played professionally in Europe and South America. Older brother Deon Jr. played college football at their father's alma mater (2013\u201316) as a tight end and wide receiver, and sister Haile played volleyball at Eastern Washington (2015) and Fresno State (2016\u201318)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Davis (basketball, born 1974)",
        "text": "Devin Davis (basketball, born 1974)\n--Career.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Trevor Fitzgerald Booker (born November 25, 1987) is an American former professional basketball player who played eight seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA). He was drafted 23rd overall by the Minnesota Timberwolves in the 2010 NBA draft, but was immediately traded to the Washington Wizards. Booker primarily played the power forward position."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barrett Jones",
        "text": "His father Rex attended the University of Alabama and played for the Alabama Crimson Tide men's basketball team from 1982 to 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "Razor Shines",
        "text": "His son, Devin, played baseball for the Cowboys at Oklahoma State and was drafted by the Dodgers in the 38th round of the 2011 MLB Draft. In 2012, Devin played for his dad with the Great Lakes Loons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Davis (basketball, born 1995)",
        "text": "Davis attended Warren Central High School in Indianapolis, Indiana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenny Booker",
        "text": "After helping his high school team win two championships, Booker went to junior college at Long Beach City College. He was an all-conference player for the Vikings, and was later inducted into their Hall of Champions. He transferred to the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), where he was a defensive specialist. Booker was a key reserve player in his first year of play. He moved to the guard position and became a starter as a senior, when he won his second national title with the Bruins, part of a run of seven consecutive championships by UCLA coach John Wooden. After college, Booker had a brief stint playing professionally, and also coached for a year in high school. He later became a realtor, and has also been a high school basketball official for over 30 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Aron Booker",
        "text": "Booker attended the University of Oklahoma from 2013 to 2015, where he backed up Buddy Hield. On 22 May 2015, he scored 12 points in Oklahoma's victory against Dayton in the second round of the 2015 NCAA Tournament. He transferred to Florida Atlantic in 2015 and redshirted his first year while undergoing a back surgery to repair a herniated disc. In 2016\u20132017, Booker averaged 5.7 points and 16.7 minutes per game for the Owls. Prior to his senior year, Booker transferred to South Carolina for the 2017\u201318 season. In 33 games for the Gamecocks, Booker averaged 12.7 points while shooting 40,9% from the three point range."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Harris",
        "text": "Devin Lamar Harris (born February 27, 1983) is an American former professional basketball player. Harris attended the University of Wisconsin\u2013Madison. Harris was selected with the fifth pick in the 2004 NBA draft by the Washington Wizards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On November 6, 2017, Booker scored 18 points in a 98\u201392 loss to the Brooklyn Nets to reach 3,000 career points and the fourth-youngest player in NBA history to score 3,000 points, behind LeBron James, Kevin Durant, and Carmelo Anthony. On November 13, a 36-point game and 26th 30-point in his career tied Steve Nash for 15th most in franchise history. Over the Suns' first 17 games of the season, Booker had seven 30-point games. On December 4, Booker scored a season-high 46 points in a 115\u2013101 win over the Philadelphia 76ers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Brown",
        "text": "Devin Brown\n--Early life.\n--College career.\n--Professional career.\n----Early years.\n----Denver Nuggets (2002\u20132003).\n----San Antonio Spurs (2003\u20132005).\n----Utah Jazz (2005\u20132006).\n----Golden State Warriors (2006).\n----New Orleans Hornets (2006\u20132007).\n----Cleveland Cavaliers (2007\u20132008).\n----Return to New Orleans Hornets (2008\u20132010).\n----Chicago Bulls (2010).\n----Asseco Prokom (2011).\n--Honors, rankings and milestones.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Marvin Booker",
        "text": "Booker played college football at Rutgers. As a true freshman Booker contributed on special teams for 11 out of 13 games. Booker suffered multiple injuries in his college career but found ways to be a solid contributor throughout his college career. During Booker's pro day he weighed in at 6'2/244 and recorded a 4.69 40 yrd-dash, 10' 5\" Broad Jump, 34\" Vertical, 36 reps of 225lbs, and a 4.19 Short Shuttle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Vassell",
        "text": "Devin Anthony Vassell (born August 23, 2000) is an American professional basketball player for the San Antonio Spurs of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the Florida State Seminoles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "After going undrafted in the 2015 NBA draft, Booker joined the Philadelphia 76ers for the 2015 NBA Summer League. On August 13, 2015, he signed with Arkadikos for the 2015\u201316 Greek Basket League season. However, he was released by Arkadikos in mid-October after appearing in just two games. On October 31, 2015, he was selected by the Maine Red Claws with the 10th overall pick in the 2015 NBA Development League Draft, only to be traded to the Bakersfield Jam in a three-team draft night deal. In 47 games for the Jam in 2015\u201316, he averaged 12.8 points, 3.1 rebounds and 3.5 assists per game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Booker Woodfox",
        "text": "Booker Woodfox (born September 6, 1986) is an American former professional basketball player. He was an All-American player at Creighton University."
      },
      {
        "title": "Datone Jones",
        "text": "Jones played basketball in middle school and high school as a point guard. During his freshman year in 2004, he dreamed of being a basketball standout. On the weekends, he played with the likes of James Harden and DeMar DeRozan. He quit basketball his junior year to focus on football, but he lettered all four years in track and field."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerai Grant",
        "text": "Grant is the son of Harvey and Beverly Grant, and has three brothers: Jerami, Jerian and Jaelin. Harvey played college basketball at Clemson and Oklahoma, and was the 12th overall pick in the 1988 NBA draft, going on to play for 11 years in the NBA with Washington (Bullets and Wizards), Portland and Philadelphia. Grant's uncle, Horace (twin brother of Harvey), played college basketball at Clemson and was a four-time NBA champion with Chicago and Los Angeles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Semaj Booker",
        "text": "Throughout his high school tenure, he would go to four different campuses in Washington, at least one per each year of a regular high school tenure. In his sophomore season, he played for Lincoln High School in Tacoma. As a junior, he transferred to Curtis Senior High School in University Place, Washington. He also worked part-time as a referee at the time. He received a letter of interest from San Diego State University while at Curtis. Before his 18th birthday at the end of his junior year, he was involved with a serious fight that led to his suspension from school, and he attended summer school at Oakland Alternative High School in Tacoma. In his senior year, Booker transferred to Clover Park High School in Lakewood, Washington. During what would be his last year of high school, Booker would average 13.6 points, 7.3 rebounds, 2.0 steals, 1.6 assists, and 1.5 blocks per game in 20 games played. He gained interest from both Tacoma Community College and Evergreen State College, but Booker veered away from those places, eventually stopping himself from going to classes at Clover Park altogether at one point. He projected to go to a preparatory school in Illinois to finish high school properly, but couldn't in part because of the birth of his son, Mathayus King Blue-Booker, on December 22, 2016, and partially because of an arrest he had in February 2017, which would lead to a court case on July that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jackson Vroman",
        "text": "His father, Brett had a 12-year basketball career and played for the Utah Jazz during the 1980\u201381 NBA season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenny Booker",
        "text": "Booker grew up in Long Beach, California, and went to high school at Long Beach Polytechnic, where he won two California Interscholastic Federation (CIF) basketball championships. He was named to All-Southern California Board of Basketball all-star team as a center in 1966."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tre Harbison",
        "text": "His uncle Charlie Harbison, half-brother Devin Baldwin, and father James each played football at Gardner\u2013Webb University."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Davis (basketball, born 1974)",
        "text": "A product of Miami Senior High School in Florida, Davis was an instant fan favorite as a Redskins freshman, As a senior in 1996\u201397, Davis steered Miami to a Mid-American Conference (MAC) championship, earning MVP honors in the tournament, according to Ultimate Sports Basketball Yearbook, Davis plays much bigger than his size but what makes him stand out is his devilish hair, he wears dreadlocks, short braids that stick out of his head like squirmy worms, In four years playing for the Miami University, Davis hit at a 15.4 clip, He joined Chicago Bulls guard Ron Harper and former NBA center Wayne Embry as the only Redskins varsity players to finish their careers with at least 1,000 points and 1,000 rebounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Booker",
        "text": "Michael Booker\n--Early years.\n--College Years (1994-1996).\n--NFL Career and later years.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On January 2, 2016, Booker scored a then season-high 21 points in a 142\u2013119 loss to the Sacramento Kings. On January 19, he scored 32 points in a 97\u201394 loss to the Indiana Pacers, setting a Suns' rookie record with six three-pointers. Booker became the third-youngest player in NBA history at 19 years, 81 days old to record a 30-point game, behind LeBron James and Kevin Durant, as well as the youngest Suns player to score 30 or more points in a game. Booker participated for Team USA in the 2016 Rising Stars Challenge. He also competed in the NBA All-Star Weekend's Three-Point Contest, becoming the youngest contestant to ever participate in the event and only the fourth rookie to compete in the 30-year-old contest, joining Stephen Curry (2010), Kyle Korver (2004) and Dennis Scott (1991). He made it to the final round of the event, where he finished third behind the \"Splash Brothers\" \u2013 Stephen Curry and Klay Thompson (winner)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Thomas (basketball)",
        "text": "Devin Thomas (basketball)\n--High school career.\n--College career.\n--Professional career.\n----2016\u201317 season.\n----2017\u201318 season.\n----2018\u201319 season.\n----2019\u201320 season.\n----2020\u201321 season.\n----2021\u201322 season.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Duane James",
        "text": "He played at Miami Dade Junior College. He completed his last two years of college at Binghamton University (NCAA), averaging 7.6 points and 4.7 rebounds in 20.7 minutes per game during his senior year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marques Haynes",
        "text": "As a child, Haynes learned to dribble a basketball in the dirt yard of his home. A native of Sand Springs, Oklahoma, he attended Booker T. Washington High School and received a $25 church scholarship to play basketball for Langston University, where he attended from 1942 to 1946. During his time with the Langston Lions, the team racked up a winning record of 112\u20133, including a 59-game winning streak."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Entering college, Booker was listed as a three-star recruit by Rivals.com and 247Sports.com. He was ranked the 29th best power forward by Rivals and 27th by 247Sports in the Class of 2006. Booker was also given a 0.8778 composite rating at 247Sports.com. He committed to play for the Clemson Tigers men's basketball team on May 13, 2005, officially visited Clemson on September 16, 2005, signed the National Letter of Intent with Clemson on February 1, 2006, and enrolled on May 30, 2006. Booker also considered Auburn, Florida State, Georgia Tech, James Madison, Pittsburgh, Purdue, South Carolina, Tennessee, William & Mary, and Wofford as possible destinations. He received offers from Wofford, William & Mary, and South Carolina."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What team did Devin Armani Booker's father Melvin Booker play for?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Melvin Booker played in high school, university, as well as in NBA for multiple teams in different seasons. Which of these teams would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know more about his time playing basketball in university."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Booker was the 1994 Big Eight Player of the Year, when he led Missouri to an undefeated conference record of 14\u20130 and an Elite Eight berth. In 1999, Booker was elected to the intercollegiate athletics Hall of Fame at the University of Missouri.",
      "Booker was the 1994 Big Eight Player of the Year, when he led Missouri to an undefeated conference record of 14\u20130 and was elected to the intercollegiate athletics Hall of Fame at the University of Missouri."
    ],
    "topic": "Devin Booker",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Melvin Booker:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Melvin Booker",
          "Amateur career"
        ],
        "ctx": "Booker was the 1994 Big Eight Player of the Year, when he led Missouri to an undefeated conference record of 14\u20130 and an Elite Eight berth. He was also an all Big Eight selection in 1993 and 1994 and was a 1994 first-team All-American as a senior, when he averaged 18.1 points and 4.5 assists per game. In 1999, Booker was elected to the intercollegiate athletics Hall of Fame at the University of Missouri."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Melvin Booker:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Melvin Booker",
          "Amateur career"
        ],
        "ctx": "Booker was the 1994 Big Eight Player of the Year, when he led Missouri to an undefeated conference record of 14\u20130 and an Elite Eight berth. He was also an all Big Eight selection in 1993 and 1994 and was a 1994 first-team All-American as a senior, when he averaged 18.1 points and 4.5 assists per game. In 1999, Booker was elected to the intercollegiate athletics Hall of Fame at the University of Missouri."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On April 9, 2015, Booker declared for the NBA draft, forgoing his final three years of college eligibility. He was joined by fellow Kentucky teammates Andrew Harrison, Aaron Harrison, Dakari Johnson, Willie Cauley-Stein, Trey Lyles and Karl-Anthony Towns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "During the offseason, Booker trained with head coach Earl Watson and former NBA player Baron Davis at UCLA, was invited to be on the select team that practices against Team USA in preparation for the Summer Olympics, and played two games for the Suns during the Las Vegas Summer League. With teammate Eric Bledsoe returning from injury in 2016\u201317, Booker was retained as the starting shooting guard while Brandon Knight was moved to the bench. Booker scored a career-highs of 38 points and 39 points on November 4 and 6."
      },
      {
        "title": "Butch Booker",
        "text": "He played collegiately for the Cheyney University of Pennsylvania. He was drafted by both the New York Knicks (5th round) and the Seattle SuperSonics (4th round) in the 1968 and 1969 editions of the NBA draft, respectively, but never played for either team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "After high school, Booker played college basketball at Clemson University, with the Clemson Tigers, from 2009 to 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Booker's brother, Trevor, also played college basketball at Clemson and played a professionally in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Booker's cousin, Jordan Hill, is a former NBA player as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "He played in the NBA for the Houston Rockets during the 1995\u201396 season; and the Denver Nuggets and Golden State Warriors, during the 1996\u201397 season, for 32 games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Devin Booker (born February 28, 1991) is an American professional basketball player for Fenerbah\u00e7e of the Turkish Basketball Super League (BSL) and EuroLeague."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Due to his mother's ethnic background, Booker drew interest from the Mexican and U.S. national teams. He played on the 2016 USA Select Team that trained against the 2016 U.S. Olympic team. In February 2020, he was named a finalist to play on the 2020 United States men's Olympic basketball team. However, the 2020 Summer Olympics were postponed into 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Devin Armani Booker (born October 30, 1996) is an American professional basketball player for the Phoenix Suns of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He is the son of former basketball player Melvin Booker. After playing college basketball for one season with the Kentucky Wildcats, Booker was selected by the Phoenix Suns in the first round of the 2015 NBA draft with the 13th overall pick. On March 24, 2017, he became the youngest player to score over 60 points in a game, finishing with 70 against the Boston Celtics. In March 2019, at 22 years old, Booker became the youngest player in NBA history with consecutive 50-point games. Booker is a three-time NBA All-Star and helped the Suns reach the NBA Finals in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On December 6, he was ruled out for up to three weeks after sustaining a left adductor strain the previous night against the Toronto Raptors. On December 26, in a 99\u201397 win over the Memphis Grizzlies, Booker scored 32 points in his return. Booker then missed four games in early February with a left hip contusion. On February 17, Booker won the Three-Point Contest over Klay Thompson and Tobias Harris in the final round after setting a new record with 28 points."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Devin Booker was unable to play due to knee injury.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Devin Booker was unable to play due to knee injury.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "After going undrafted in the 2015 NBA draft, Booker joined the Philadelphia 76ers for the 2015 NBA Summer League. On August 13, 2015, he signed with Arkadikos for the 2015\u201316 Greek Basket League season. However, he was released by Arkadikos in mid-October after appearing in just two games. On October 31, 2015, he was selected by the Maine Red Claws with the 10th overall pick in the 2015 NBA Development League Draft, only to be traded to the Bakersfield Jam in a three-team draft night deal. In 47 games for the Jam in 2015\u201316, he averaged 12.8 points, 3.1 rebounds and 3.5 assists per game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Booker began his pro career in France, during the 2013\u201314 LNB Pro A season, with SLUC Nancy. Later that same year, he moved to the French 2nd Division club JL Bourg. He was named the Finals MVP of the 2013\u201314 LNB Pro B season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On May 23, Booker would make his NBA playoff debut, posting 34 points, 7 rebounds and 8 assists in a 99\u201390 victory in Game 1 of the First Round over the defending champion Los Angeles Lakers. On June 3, Booker recorded a playoff career-high 47 points, along with 11 rebounds to lead the Suns to a 113\u2013100 series-clinching victory over the Lakers in Game 6 to advance to the Conference Semifinals against the Denver Nuggets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)\n--High school career.\n--College career.\n--Professional career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "In 2016, Booker agreed to join the New York Knicks for the NBA Summer League. On July 17, 2016, he signed with Bayern Munich of the BBL in Germany. On July 12, 2017, Booker re-signed with Bayern for the 2017\u201318 season. He averaged 12.4 points and 5 rebounds per game on the season. Booker re-signed with the team on July 17, 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "In 2015, he joined the French 1st Division club \u00c9lan Chalon, where he also played in the FIBA Europe Cup, where Chalon finished in third place. In the 2015\u201316 LNB Pro A season, Booker was named the league's Most Valuable Player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On June 25, 2015, Booker was selected with the thirteenth overall pick by the Phoenix Suns in the 2015 NBA draft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In the summer following his sophomore year, Booker played in the Nike Elite Youth Basketball League and participated in the Elite 100 Camp, the LeBron James King's Academy Camp, and the Kevin Durant Nike Skills Camp. These commitments caused him to miss the inaugural South Mississippi All-Star Basketball Showcase in May."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "His only child and son, Devin Booker, played for the University of Kentucky Wildcats basketball team during their nearly undefeated 2014\u201315 NCAA season and currently plays for the Phoenix Suns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On March 2, in a 124\u2013116 loss to the Oklahoma City Thunder, Booker scored 39 points and at 21 years, 123 days old, he became the third-youngest player in NBA history to reach 4,000 career points, again behind LeBron James and Kevin Durant. Booker missed the Suns' final 12 games of the season with a right hand sprain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On July 13, Booker signed his rookie scale contract with the Suns, and in seven subsequent Summer League games, he averaged 15.3 points, 4.9 rebounds and 1.7 assists per game. He went on to make his NBA debut two days before his 19th birthday, in the Suns' season opener against the Dallas Mavericks. In 21 minutes of action against the Mavericks, he scored 14 points on 6-of-7 shooting in a 111\u201395 loss."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Booker",
        "text": "On June 22, 1987, Booker was selected by the New Jersey Nets with the second pick in round 7 of the 1987 NBA Draft. He had short pre-season stints with the Nets, Miami Heat and Cleveland Cavaliers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "During the summer of 2013, Booker participated in the Kevin Durant Skills Academy, the LeBron James Skills Academy, the CP3 Elite Guard Camp, and the National Basketball Players Association (NBPA) Top 100 camp. His fellow participants in the NBPA camp voted him to the camp's 10-man all-star team. Booker also participated against international competition at the Nike Global Challenge. At the Under Armour Elite 24 showcase, he won the three-point shooting contest. In August 2013, Booker narrowed his list of potential college choices to Florida, Missouri, Michigan, Michigan State, and Kentucky. He took an official visit to the University of Kentucky on the weekend of September 9 to watch an alumni exhibition game; fellow 2014 prospects Jahlil Okafor and Tyler Ulis also attended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "On June 16, 2021, he has signed a 2-year deal with Fenerbah\u00e7e of the Turkish Basketball Super League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Booker played high school basketball at Union County High School, in Union, South Carolina."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenny Booker",
        "text": "After college, Booker was selected in the 14th round of the 1971 NBA draft by the Phoenix Suns, as well as in the eighth round of the American Basketball Association draft by the Indiana Pacers. He tried out with Phoenix, surviving multiple cuts before being released in September 1971. In October, Booker was appointed as the head coach of Verbum Dei High School's basketball team, who were the defending CIF Southern Section 4-A Division champions. He coached the school for one season before quitting, leading them to a Del Rey League championship in 1972 as well as their second-straight CIF 4-A title; it was also the school's fourth-straight CIF championship at any level. In 1975 he went to Italy, and played professionally for two years in Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "Melvin Jermaine Booker (born August 20, 1972) is an American former professional basketball player. A , point guard, he played for the University of Missouri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Booker is the son of Veronica Guti\u00e9rrez, a cosmetologist, and Melvin Booker, who was named the 1994 Big Eight Player of the Year while a point guard at Missouri. His parents met while his father was playing basketball for the Continental Basketball Association's Grand Rapids Hoops in Guti\u00e9rrez's hometown of Grand Rapids, Michigan. Booker was born and raised in Grand Rapids, living with his mother, who is reportedly of Mexican and Puerto Rican descent. while his African-American father pursued a professional basketball career internationally. He visited his father regularly during the summer. At age 12 while visiting him in Milan, he played one-on-one with Danilo Gallinari. Booker was taught by his father that having basketball IQ was just as important as natural athleticism. During his time in middle school, Booker became friends with future fellow NBA players D'Angelo Russell and Tyler Ulis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Trevor Fitzgerald Booker (born November 25, 1987) is an American former professional basketball player who played eight seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA). He was drafted 23rd overall by the Minnesota Timberwolves in the 2010 NBA draft, but was immediately traded to the Washington Wizards. Booker primarily played the power forward position."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Booker has three younger brothers; Devin, Darrion, and Jared. Devin also played college basketball for Clemson University and now plays professionally in Europe. Darrion played college basketball for the University of West Alabama, and Jared competes with the Union County High School basketball team. Booker is also the cousin of NBA player Jordan Hill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On February 25, he scored 20 points to help the Suns break a franchise-record 17-game losing streak with a 124\u2013121 win over the Miami Heat. On March 25, he scored 59 points in a 125\u201392 loss to the Utah Jazz. On March 27, he scored 50 points in a 124\u2013121 loss to the Wizards, becoming the youngest player in NBA history with consecutive 50-point games. He also became first player in franchise history to reach 50 in back-to-back games. On April 3, in a 118\u201397 loss to the Jazz, Booker sprained his left ankle, ruling him out for the last three games of the season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "Askia Toussaint Booker (born August 31, 1993) is an American professional basketball player for the Shenzhen Aviators of the Chinese Basketball Association. He played college basketball for the Colorado Buffaloes as a point guard. In his senior year in 2014\u201315, he earned second-team all-conference honors in the Pac-12."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In 38 games for Kentucky in 2014\u201315, Booker averaged 10.0 points, 2.0 rebounds and 1.1 assists in 21.5 minutes per game. He subsequently earned SEC Sixth Man of the Year honors and was named to the SEC All-Freshman Team and the All-SEC Second Team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Durrant",
        "text": "Devin George Durrant (born October 20, 1960) is an American retired professional basketball player. From 1984 to 1985 he played with the Indiana Pacers and with the Phoenix Suns. He later played in European basketball leagues until 1988. In a \"Deseret News\" poll in the year 2000, he was voted one of the top 10 college basketball players in the state of Utah over the previous 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In Game 1 of the Conference Finals, Booker recorded his first career triple-double with 40 points, 13 rebounds, and 11 assists, in a 120\u2013114 win over the Los Angeles Clippers. In Game 6 of the Conference Finals, Booker dropped 22 points in a 130\u2013103 victory over the Clippers, to lead the Suns to the NBA Finals for the first time since 1993."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Booker",
        "text": "Booker played college basketball at Bowling Green State University from 1983 to 1987."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "On July 16, 2019, Russian club Khimki announced that they had signed with Booker to a one-year deal. On July 5, 2020, Booker officially renewed his contract with the Russian club Khimki with an option for an additional year, which also competes in the EuroLeague."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "Booker was the 1994 Big Eight Player of the Year, when he led Missouri to an undefeated conference record of 14\u20130 and an Elite Eight berth. He was also an all Big Eight selection in 1993 and 1994 and was a 1994 first-team All-American as a senior, when he averaged 18.1 points and 4.5 assists per game. In 1999, Booker was elected to the intercollegiate athletics Hall of Fame at the University of Missouri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "Despite those accomplishments, Booker was not selected in the 1994 NBA draft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On September 10, he was ruled out for six weeks after undergoing surgery to repair the fifth metacarpophalangeal joint in his right hand after he jammed it in practice on March 14, 2018. He recovered in time for the Suns' season opener on October 17, scoring 35 points in a 121\u2013100 victory over the Dallas Mavericks. Throughout the beginning of the season, he had multiple 30+ point games despite missing a six-game stretch when he strained his hamstring. On January 24, Booker became the fifth youngest player in NBA history to reach 5,000 career points, behind LeBron James, Kevin Durant, Carmelo Anthony, and Dwight Howard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Butch Booker",
        "text": "He played for the Miami Floridians (1969\u201370) in the ABA for 12 games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Robinson",
        "text": "He was recruited by Billy Donovan and chose the University of Florida over Connecticut, Indiana, Notre Dame and Oklahoma State. Despite being disappointed as Donovan left the Gators for the NBA prior to his sophomore year, Robinson stayed at Florida."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "On August 4, 2011, Booker signed with Bnei Hasharon of Israel for the duration of the NBA lockout. In October 2011, he returned to the United States due to a bruised right quadriceps. In December 2011, following the conclusion of the lockout, Booker returned to the Washington Wizards before appearing in a game for Bnei Hasharon."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Mike Conley was selected as Devin Booker\u2019s replacement.\n* Note: \"The final round was decided by votes from the judges.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Gray",
        "text": "Devin Antoine Gray (May 31, 1972 \u2013 August 17, 2013) was an American professional basketball player. He played parts of three seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA) for the Sacramento Kings, San Antonio Spurs and Houston Rockets and played in Spain's first division. He played college basketball at Clemson University."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On March 24 against the Boston Celtics, Booker became the sixth player in NBA history to score 70 points in a game, joining Wilt Chamberlain, David Robinson, David Thompson, Elgin Baylor and Kobe Bryant. It was the 11th 70-point game in NBA history. Booker also added eight rebounds and six assists in 45 minutes. Booker, at age 20, became the youngest player to score 70 (and 60) points in a game. He had the highest-scoring game in the NBA since Bryant scored 81 in January 2006. The Suns' previous scoring record was held by Tom Chambers with 60 points on March 24, 1990. Booker ended the season averaging 22.1 points per game, a near 9-point increment from his 13.8 points in 2015\u201316."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On November 6, 2017, Booker scored 18 points in a 98\u201392 loss to the Brooklyn Nets to reach 3,000 career points and the fourth-youngest player in NBA history to score 3,000 points, behind LeBron James, Kevin Durant, and Carmelo Anthony. On November 13, a 36-point game and 26th 30-point in his career tied Steve Nash for 15th most in franchise history. Over the Suns' first 17 games of the season, Booker had seven 30-point games. On December 4, Booker scored a season-high 46 points in a 115\u2013101 win over the Philadelphia 76ers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Trevor Booker\n--Early life.\n--High school career.\n--College career.\n----Freshman.\n----Sophomore and Junior.\n----Senior.\n--Professional career.\n----Washington Wizards (2010\u20132014).\n----Utah Jazz (2014\u20132016).\n----Brooklyn Nets (2016\u20132017).\n----Philadelphia 76ers (2017\u20132018).\n----Indiana Pacers (2018).\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "Source: \"basketball-stats.de\" (Date: 27. March 2022)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "During the 2021\u201322 NBA season, on November 29, 2021, Booker was named the Player of the Week in the Western Conference for his performance during Week 6 of the season, which helped the Suns achieve a franchise-record 18-game winning streak. He received the honor again on January 17, 2022 for his efforts during Week 13. Booker was named an All-Star along with teammate for the third year in a row alongside teammate Chris Paul when reserves were announced on February 10. That night, he was selected for Team Durant as part of the All-Star Draft. On March 24, 2022, Booker scored a season-high 49 points in a 140\u2013130 road victory over the Denver Nuggets, becoming the fourth-youngest player in NBA history to score 11,000 points. He finished the week averaging 37.3 points and 6.3 assists per game and was named the Week 23 Western Conference Player of the Week. Booker and the Suns finished the regular season with the league's best overall record at 64\u201318."
      },
      {
        "title": "2013\u201314 Kentucky Wildcats men's basketball team",
        "text": "Devin Booker was the third commitment in the class when he verbally committed on October 31, 2013. He was ranked as the No. 18 overall by ESPN and No. 29 overall by Scout and Rivals. As a junior, he was named by Gatorade as the top basketball player in Mississippi. He is the son of the former Missouri and All-American great Melvin Booker. He chose Kentucky over his Dad's alma mater and Michigan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Booker Woodfox",
        "text": "Woodfox went undrafted in the 2009 NBA draft. On November 5, 2009, he was selected by the Fort Wayne Mad Ants in the fourth round of the 2009 NBA D-League draft. However, he was later waived by the Mad Ants on November 18, 2009. On January 4, 2010, he was acquired by the Erie BayHawks, but was waived by the team a week later before appearing in a game for them. In February 2010, he signed with Sagesse of Lebanon for the rest of the 2009\u201310 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "2014\u201315 Kentucky Wildcats men's basketball team",
        "text": "Devin Booker was the third commitment in the class when he verbally committed on October 31, 2013. He was ranked as the No. 18 overall by ESPN and No. 29 overall by Scout and Rivals. As a junior, he was named by Gatorade as the top basketball player in Mississippi. He is the son of the former Missouri and All-American great Melvin Booker. He chose Kentucky over his Dad's alma mater and Michigan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "Booker attended Price High School. As a junior, he averaged 13 points, 7 rebounds and 5 assists to lead Price to the Division IV championship. He was ranked 30th in the nation at his position by ESPN. Booker committed to the Colorado Buffaloes to play for Tad Boyle on October 29, 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tyrone Brazelton",
        "text": "Brazelton went undrafted at the 2008 NBA Draft. He then played with the Utah Jazz's NBA Summer League team, appearing in two games and averaging 12 points, 3 rebounds and 2 assists per game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Booker (basketball)",
        "text": "Booker transferred for his junior season to play for Gene Keady at Purdue University, where he was named an All-Big Ten honorable mention by conference coaches, and was named to the All-Junior College Transfer Team. He led the Boilermakers in rebounding, averaging 5.7 per game. He also played in all 30 games, with 24 starts, and ranked third on the team in scoring, at 9.4 points per game. He led the squad in blocked shots, and shot 45.2 percent from the field, fourth-best on the team. He played 807 minutes, second-most on the team. He also set Purdue's record for blocks in a season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Devin Booker\n--Early life.\n--High school career.\n----Sophomore year.\n----Junior year.\n----Senior year.\n--College career.\n--Professional career.\n----Phoenix Suns (2015\u2013present).\n------2015\u201316 season: All-Rookie honors.\n------2016\u201317 season: Improving as a sophomore.\n------2017\u201318 season: Injuries.\n------2018\u201319 season: Franchise player.\n------2019\u201320 season: First All-Star season.\n------2020\u201321 season: First playoff appearance and NBA Finals.\n------2021\u201322 season: Franchise record in wins.\n--National team career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenny Booker",
        "text": "Kenneth Arnold Booker (born November 20, 1948) is an American former professional basketball player. He played college basketball for the UCLA Bruins from 1969 to 1971, winning a national championship in each of his two seasons of play. He played two seasons professionally in Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Devin Booker was selected as Damian Lillard's replacement."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Mike Conley was selected as Devin Booker\u2019s replacement.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Durrant",
        "text": "In 1984, Durrant was named District 7 Player of the Year and a consensus All-American. That same year he was selected as a GTE/CoSida Academic All-American for the second time and awarded an NCAA postgraduate scholarship. Durrant was chosen by the Indiana Pacers as the 25th pick in the NBA Draft. He played a season with the Pacers and part of a second season with the Phoenix Suns. He also played professionally in Spain and France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "In July 2016, Booker joined the Phoenix Suns for the 2016 NBA Summer League. On October 31, 2016, he was re-acquired by the now Northern Arizona Suns. In the team's season opener on November 12, 2016, Booker scored 15 points in a 122\u2013106 win over the Iowa Energy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Darron Brittman",
        "text": "With the NBA out of the picture, Brittman spent very short stints in the Continental Basketball Association\u00a0(CBA) and World Basketball League, but neither panned out and he returned to Chicago to try to live a post-basketball life, which he admitted he found difficult to do."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Booker (basketball)",
        "text": "Christopher Monroe Booker (born October 24, 1981) is an American former professional basketball player. He played as a 6'10\" (2.08 m) tall power forward-center."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "After a standout 15-point, 6-rebound, 7-assist game against Boston University, Booker posted a then-season-high 18 points in a November 23 win against Montana State. He led the team in scoring, shooting 6-of-8 from the field with 3 three-pointers. In Kentucky's next game against Texas-Arlington, Booker set a new season high with a team-high 19 points on 7-of-8 shooting, including five made three-pointers, in a 92\u201344 win."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenny Booker",
        "text": "Booker grew up in Long Beach, California, and went to high school at Long Beach Polytechnic, where he won two California Interscholastic Federation (CIF) basketball championships. He was named to All-Southern California Board of Basketball all-star team as a center in 1966."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In Game 4 against the Denver Nuggets in the Conference Semifinals, Booker dropped 34 points and 11 rebounds in a 125\u2013118 victory, leading the Suns to a 4\u20130 series sweep over the Nuggets for their first Western Conference Finals appearance since 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Booker",
        "text": "Frank Booker\n--College.\n--Career.\n----NBA.\n----Iceland.\n------\u00cdR.\n------Valur.\n------Grindav\u00edk.\n--Coaching career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Booker (basketball)",
        "text": "In August 2010, he signed with the Slovenian team BC Krka. With Krka he won the 2010\u201311 FIBA EuroChallenge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In Game 1 of the 2021 NBA Finals against the Milwaukee Bucks, Booker put up 27 points in a 118\u2013105 win. In Game 2 of the 2021 NBA Finals, Booker put up 31 points, shooting 7-for-12 from three-point range, in a 118\u2013108 win, as Phoenix took a 2\u20130 series lead. On July 14, Booker broke Rick Barry\u2019s 54 year old record of most points in first NBA playoff appearance with 601. Despite the success, the Suns would lose to the Bucks in six games. Booker in his first career playoffs averaged 27.3 points, 5.6 rebounds, and 4.5 assists, with 45/32/91% shooting, and back-to-back 40-point games in the Finals becoming the third player in NBA history to have back-to-back 40 point games in the Finals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In Kentucky's first exhibition game against the University of Pikeville on November 2, 2014, Booker was the team's second leading scorer with 16 points on 6-of-9 shooting, including two three-pointers; he also had three assists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Booker (basketball)",
        "text": "Booker attended Tyler Junior College in his freshman year, where he averaged 10.0 points and 10.0 rebounds per game. Improving in his sophomore season, he averaged 19.0 points and 11.0 rebounds per game, was and named All-Conference and Second Team All-American."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvin Duncan (basketball)",
        "text": "After the close of his college career, Duncan was drafted by the Cleveland Cavaliers in the second round of the 1985 NBA draft (30th pick overall). He did not play in the NBA, but did play in the Continental Basketball Association (CBA) for the Cedar Rapids Silver Bullets and Tri-City Chinook."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On January 2, 2016, Booker scored a then season-high 21 points in a 142\u2013119 loss to the Sacramento Kings. On January 19, he scored 32 points in a 97\u201394 loss to the Indiana Pacers, setting a Suns' rookie record with six three-pointers. Booker became the third-youngest player in NBA history at 19 years, 81 days old to record a 30-point game, behind LeBron James and Kevin Durant, as well as the youngest Suns player to score 30 or more points in a game. Booker participated for Team USA in the 2016 Rising Stars Challenge. He also competed in the NBA All-Star Weekend's Three-Point Contest, becoming the youngest contestant to ever participate in the event and only the fourth rookie to compete in the 30-year-old contest, joining Stephen Curry (2010), Kyle Korver (2004) and Dennis Scott (1991). He made it to the final round of the event, where he finished third behind the \"Splash Brothers\" \u2013 Stephen Curry and Klay Thompson (winner)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Booker was selected by the Minnesota Timberwolves with the 23rd overall pick in the 2010 NBA draft. His rights were later traded to the Washington Wizards on draft night."
      },
      {
        "title": "DeAndre Haynes",
        "text": "After graduation, Haynes was not selected in the 2006 NBA draft. He instead signed in Belgium and played for the next six seasons in Belgium, Hungary, Germany and Finland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Smith (basketball)",
        "text": "After playing high school basketball, Smith played college basketball at Coffeyville Community College, with the Coffeyville Red Ravens (NJCAA), in the 2001\u201302 season. He then played at the University of Virginia, with the Virginia Cavaliers (NCAA Division I), from 2002 to 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Brown",
        "text": "Brown was not selected in the 2002 NBA Draft. He was, however, the 6th overall pick in the CBA Draft by the Sioux Falls Skyforce and the 18th overall pick in the USBL Draft by the Kansas Cagerz. He was also drafted 2nd overall by Fayetteville Patriots in 2002 National Basketball Development League Draft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Brown",
        "text": "Devin Brown\n--Early life.\n--College career.\n--Professional career.\n----Early years.\n----Denver Nuggets (2002\u20132003).\n----San Antonio Spurs (2003\u20132005).\n----Utah Jazz (2005\u20132006).\n----Golden State Warriors (2006).\n----New Orleans Hornets (2006\u20132007).\n----Cleveland Cavaliers (2007\u20132008).\n----Return to New Orleans Hornets (2008\u20132010).\n----Chicago Bulls (2010).\n----Asseco Prokom (2011).\n--Honors, rankings and milestones.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mark Macon",
        "text": "A 6'4\" (1.93 m), 185\u00a0lb (84\u00a0kg) guard, Macon played collegiately at Temple University, alongside future NBA players Aaron McKie and Eddie Jones, and was selected by the Denver Nuggets in the first round (eighth overall) of the 1991 NBA draft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim Barnett (basketball)",
        "text": "Barnett's NBA career began when the Boston Celtics selected him with the eighth pick overall in the 1966 NBA draft. He later played for the Warriors for three seasons (1971\u201374) and five other teams during his 11-year career, including the San Diego Rockets, the Portland Trail Blazers, the New Orleans Jazz, New York Knicks, and the Philadelphia 76ers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Desi Barmore",
        "text": "He attended and played basketball for Southeast Missouri State, the University of Alabama, playing for the Alabama Crimson Tide, and Fresno State ('83), playing for the Fresno State Bulldogs. Barmore was selected by the New York Knicks in the seventh round (151st pick overall) of the 1983 NBA Draft."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Devin Booker was selected as Anthony Davis's replacement.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Steven Hunter",
        "text": "Hunter played basketball at Proviso East High School, which has produced other NBA players such as Sherell Ford, Michael Finley, Jim Brewer, Doc Rivers, Dee Brown, Donnie Boyce, Reggie Jordan, Shannon Brown, Sterling Brown, and Jevon Carter. Hunter then played two years at DePaul University in Chicago, before declaring himself eligible for the 2001 NBA draft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Damon Jones",
        "text": "A combo guard, he played college basketball for three years with the University of Houston Cougars before declaring early for the 1997 NBA Draft, but he went undrafted. After his playing career ended, Jones joined the Cavaliers coaching staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim McDaniels",
        "text": "For the next four years, McDaniels bounced from team to team, playing for the Los Angeles Lakers and Buffalo Braves of the NBA, the Kentucky Colonels of the ABA, and Snaidero Udine of Italy. He finally decided to retire from basketball in 1978."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Harris",
        "text": "Devin Lamar Harris (born February 27, 1983) is an American former professional basketball player. Harris attended the University of Wisconsin\u2013Madison. Harris was selected with the fifth pick in the 2004 NBA draft by the Washington Wizards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Booker (basketball)",
        "text": "For the 2012\u201313 season he signed with the Greek team Panionios."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "By the end of Moss Point's season, Booker held scholarship offers from Duke, North Carolina, Florida, Michigan, Michigan State, Missouri, and Mississippi State. Rivals.com ranked him a four-star prospect and the 30th best player overall in the class of 2014; ESPN tabbed him as the 18th best player overall. Recruiting analyst Evan Daniels called Booker \"one of the best shooters\" in the country. In April, Booker began playing for the Alabama Challenge on the Nike Elite Youth Basketball League circuit. After watching Booker play for the first time in the league's opening weekend, Kentucky coach John Calipari offered Booker a scholarship. At the South Mississippi All-Star event in May, Booker scored 23 points to lead his East team over the West team 101\u201370 in the underclassman game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dontae' Jones",
        "text": "After his NBA season, Jones played for the Memphis Houn'Dawgs in the American Basketball Association (ABA), and in Greece, Turkey, Italy, Korea and China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tyrone Corbin",
        "text": "Corbin played in the NBA at small forward from 1985 to 2000. His first two seasons were with the San Antonio Spurs, as he was their selection in the second round (35th pick overall) of the 1985 NBA Draft. After signing with the Cleveland Cavaliers in January 1987, he was part of the trade by the Cavs which sent Kevin Johnson, Mark West, 1988 first-round and second-round draft picks and a 1989 second-round draft pick to the Phoenix Suns for Larry Nance, Mike Sanders and a 1988 first-round draft choice in February 1988."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Harris",
        "text": "Devin Harris\n--Early life.\n--College career.\n--NBA career.\n----Draft day.\n----Dallas Mavericks (2004\u20132008).\n----New Jersey Nets (2008\u20132011).\n----Utah Jazz (2011\u20132012).\n----Atlanta Hawks (2012\u20132013).\n----Return to Dallas (2013\u20132018).\n----Denver Nuggets (2018).\n----Third stint with Dallas (2018\u20132019).\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Booker Woodfox",
        "text": "Booker Woodfox (born September 6, 1986) is an American former professional basketball player. He was an All-American player at Creighton University."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Williams (basketball)",
        "text": "On March 29, 2016, Williams declared for the NBA draft, forgoing his final year of college eligibility. He subsequently signed with an agent in April but was not invited to the NBA combine. He later admitted he \"received some bad advice\" regarding the draft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On January 22, 2021, Booker reached 8,000 points scored in a 130\u2013126 overtime loss to the Denver Nuggets, straining his left hamstring during that overtime. He returned to action on February 1, reaching 700 career three-point shots, including a game-winning 3-pointer with 1.5 seconds left in the game, to win 109\u2013108 over the Dallas Mavericks. Two days later, Booker passed Dan Majerle for 10th place in the Suns all-time scoring list in a 123\u2013101 loss to the New Orleans Pelicans. On February 8, 2021, Booker scored a season-high 36 points in a 119\u2013113 win over the Cleveland Cavaliers. He later matched his season-high for points on February 13 in a 120\u2013111 win over the Philadelphia 76ers. Booker was then named the Western Conference Player of the Week for the first time in his career on February 15 for the week of February 8\u201314, 2021, becoming the first Suns player to get the award since Goran Dragi\u0107 in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthony Roberson",
        "text": "Roberson accepted an athletic scholarship to attend the University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida, where he played for coach Billy Donovan's Florida Gators men's basketball team from 2003 to 2005. He chose to forgo his final year of NCAA eligibility and left school after his third college season to enter the NBA Draft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Latrell Sprewell",
        "text": "Sprewell played competitively with the Three Rivers Community College Raiders Basketball Team in Poplar Bluff, Missouri, from 1988 to 1990, and from 1990 to 1992 with the University of Alabama, where he was a teammate of future NBA players Robert Horry, Jason Caffey, and James Robinson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "After playing for the freshman, junior varsity and varsity basketball teams during his freshman year at Grandville High School in Michigan, Booker moved to Mississippi to live with his father after the latter's retirement from professional basketball. He enrolled at Moss Point High School, where his father was hired as an assistant coach, in August 2011. In his team's fifth game of the season\u2014a 52\u201332 loss to Gulfport High School\u2014Booker scored more points than the rest of his teammates combined (15). In December, he hit a buzzer beater from just beyond half court to beat Harrison Central High School, improving Moss Point's record to 4\u20136 on the year. By early January, \"Press-Register\" sportswriter Creg Stephenson opined, \"Sophomore guard Devin Booker has developed into one of the top players on the coast in his first season with the [Moss Point] Tigers' varsity, averaging 22.7 points per game.\""
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What team did Devin Armani Booker's father Melvin Booker play for?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Melvin Booker played in high school, university, as well as in NBA for multiple teams in different seasons. Which of these teams would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know more about his time playing basketball in university."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Booker was the 1994 Big Eight Player of the Year, when he led Missouri to an undefeated conference record of 14\u20130 and an Elite Eight berth. In 1999, Booker was elected to the intercollegiate athletics Hall of Fame at the University of Missouri."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which teams did he play for in the NBA?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "He played in the NBA for the Houston Rockets during the 1995\u201396 season; and the Denver Nuggets and Golden State Warriors, during the 1996\u201397 season, for 32 games."
    ],
    "topic": "Devin Booker",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Melvin Booker:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Melvin Booker",
          "Professional career"
        ],
        "ctx": "He played in the NBA for the Houston Rockets during the 1995\u201396 season; and the Denver Nuggets and Golden State Warriors, during the 1996\u201397 season, for 32 games."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Mike Conley was selected as Devin Booker\u2019s replacement.\n* Note: \"The final round was decided by votes from the judges.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In Game 1 of the 2021 NBA Finals against the Milwaukee Bucks, Booker put up 27 points in a 118\u2013105 win. In Game 2 of the 2021 NBA Finals, Booker put up 31 points, shooting 7-for-12 from three-point range, in a 118\u2013108 win, as Phoenix took a 2\u20130 series lead. On July 14, Booker broke Rick Barry\u2019s 54 year old record of most points in first NBA playoff appearance with 601. Despite the success, the Suns would lose to the Bucks in six games. Booker in his first career playoffs averaged 27.3 points, 5.6 rebounds, and 4.5 assists, with 45/32/91% shooting, and back-to-back 40-point games in the Finals becoming the third player in NBA history to have back-to-back 40 point games in the Finals."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Devin Booker was unable to play due to knee injury.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Devin Booker was unable to play due to knee injury.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Mike Conley was selected as Devin Booker\u2019s replacement.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA Finals",
        "text": "Booker scored 31 points and Paul had 23 as the Suns won 118\u2013108 to take a 2\u20130 series lead. Phoenix made 20 of its 40 three-pointers, including seven makes from Booker. Bridges added 27 points and seven rebounds for the Suns, and Paul also had eight assists. Antetokounmpo had 42 points and 12 rebounds for Milwaukee. Phoenix was up 65\u201350 towards the start of the third period, but Antetokounmpo scored 20 points in the quarter, including a stretch of 13 consecutive points for the Bucks, to keep his team in the game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On April 9, 2015, Booker declared for the NBA draft, forgoing his final three years of college eligibility. He was joined by fellow Kentucky teammates Andrew Harrison, Aaron Harrison, Dakari Johnson, Willie Cauley-Stein, Trey Lyles and Karl-Anthony Towns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Due to his mother's ethnic background, Booker drew interest from the Mexican and U.S. national teams. He played on the 2016 USA Select Team that trained against the 2016 U.S. Olympic team. In February 2020, he was named a finalist to play on the 2020 United States men's Olympic basketball team. However, the 2020 Summer Olympics were postponed into 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Devin Booker was selected as Anthony Davis's replacement.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Devin Booker was selected as Damian Lillard's replacement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "During the offseason, Booker trained with head coach Earl Watson and former NBA player Baron Davis at UCLA, was invited to be on the select team that practices against Team USA in preparation for the Summer Olympics, and played two games for the Suns during the Las Vegas Summer League. With teammate Eric Bledsoe returning from injury in 2016\u201317, Booker was retained as the starting shooting guard while Brandon Knight was moved to the bench. Booker scored a career-highs of 38 points and 39 points on November 4 and 6."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In Game 4 against the Denver Nuggets in the Conference Semifinals, Booker dropped 34 points and 11 rebounds in a 125\u2013118 victory, leading the Suns to a 4\u20130 series sweep over the Nuggets for their first Western Conference Finals appearance since 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On May 23, Booker would make his NBA playoff debut, posting 34 points, 7 rebounds and 8 assists in a 99\u201390 victory in Game 1 of the First Round over the defending champion Los Angeles Lakers. On June 3, Booker recorded a playoff career-high 47 points, along with 11 rebounds to lead the Suns to a 113\u2013100 series-clinching victory over the Lakers in Game 6 to advance to the Conference Semifinals against the Denver Nuggets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Devin Armani Booker (born October 30, 1996) is an American professional basketball player for the Phoenix Suns of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He is the son of former basketball player Melvin Booker. After playing college basketball for one season with the Kentucky Wildcats, Booker was selected by the Phoenix Suns in the first round of the 2015 NBA draft with the 13th overall pick. On March 24, 2017, he became the youngest player to score over 60 points in a game, finishing with 70 against the Boston Celtics. In March 2019, at 22 years old, Booker became the youngest player in NBA history with consecutive 50-point games. Booker is a three-time NBA All-Star and helped the Suns reach the NBA Finals in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "During the 2021\u201322 NBA season, on November 29, 2021, Booker was named the Player of the Week in the Western Conference for his performance during Week 6 of the season, which helped the Suns achieve a franchise-record 18-game winning streak. He received the honor again on January 17, 2022 for his efforts during Week 13. Booker was named an All-Star along with teammate for the third year in a row alongside teammate Chris Paul when reserves were announced on February 10. That night, he was selected for Team Durant as part of the All-Star Draft. On March 24, 2022, Booker scored a season-high 49 points in a 140\u2013130 road victory over the Denver Nuggets, becoming the fourth-youngest player in NBA history to score 11,000 points. He finished the week averaging 37.3 points and 6.3 assists per game and was named the Week 23 Western Conference Player of the Week. Booker and the Suns finished the regular season with the league's best overall record at 64\u201318."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In Game 1 of the Conference Finals, Booker recorded his first career triple-double with 40 points, 13 rebounds, and 11 assists, in a 120\u2013114 win over the Los Angeles Clippers. In Game 6 of the Conference Finals, Booker dropped 22 points in a 130\u2013103 victory over the Clippers, to lead the Suns to the NBA Finals for the first time since 1993."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA Finals",
        "text": "Chris Paul scored 32 points and had nine assists and Devin Booker added 27 points to lead Phoenix to a 118\u2013105 win over Milwaukee. After he opened the third quarter with a jump shot for the first double-digit lead of the game, Paul later scored eight straight points for the Suns and scored 16 overall in the quarter. Phoenix led 88\u201368 with 2:20 remaining in the quarter after Paul passed to Deandre Ayton, who was fouled and made two free throws. In his return from his knee injury, Bucks star Giannis Antetokounmpo returned and had 20 points, 17 rebounds in limited minutes due to foul trouble, and made a chase-down block of a layup attempt by Mikal Bridges that was reminiscent of \"The Block\" by LeBron James on Andre Iguodala in Game 7 of the 2016 Finals. Antetokounmpo's availability was not confirmed until almost an hour before tip-off, and he played with few signs of injury."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA Finals",
        "text": "Antetokounmpo had 41 points, 13 rebounds and six assists, and Milwaukee won 120\u2013100 at home to cut Phoenix's series lead to 2\u20131. He received more support from his teammates in Game 3. Holiday scored 21 points and was 5 of 10 on 3-pointers, and Middleton scored 18. The Suns got 19 points and nine assists from Paul, but his fellow guard Booker was limited to 10 points on 3-of-14 shooting, as the Bucks sent multiple defenders at him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On January 22, 2021, Booker reached 8,000 points scored in a 130\u2013126 overtime loss to the Denver Nuggets, straining his left hamstring during that overtime. He returned to action on February 1, reaching 700 career three-point shots, including a game-winning 3-pointer with 1.5 seconds left in the game, to win 109\u2013108 over the Dallas Mavericks. Two days later, Booker passed Dan Majerle for 10th place in the Suns all-time scoring list in a 123\u2013101 loss to the New Orleans Pelicans. On February 8, 2021, Booker scored a season-high 36 points in a 119\u2013113 win over the Cleveland Cavaliers. He later matched his season-high for points on February 13 in a 120\u2013111 win over the Philadelphia 76ers. Booker was then named the Western Conference Player of the Week for the first time in his career on February 15 for the week of February 8\u201314, 2021, becoming the first Suns player to get the award since Goran Dragi\u0107 in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On December 6, he was ruled out for up to three weeks after sustaining a left adductor strain the previous night against the Toronto Raptors. On December 26, in a 99\u201397 win over the Memphis Grizzlies, Booker scored 32 points in his return. Booker then missed four games in early February with a left hip contusion. On February 17, Booker won the Three-Point Contest over Klay Thompson and Tobias Harris in the final round after setting a new record with 28 points."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA Finals",
        "text": "Middleton scored 40 points, including 10 straight for Milwaukee in the closing moments, and the Bucks won 109\u2013103 to tie the series 2\u20132. Booker rebounded from his Game 3 struggles to score a game-high 42 points, but his playing time was restricted late by foul trouble. The Suns led for 37:55 of the first 44 minutes of the game. With 3:42 left in the fourth and the Suns up by three Jrue Holiday attempted a layup and received a great deal of contact from Devin Booker with no call (the play was determined to be a foul by the NBA in the Last 3:30 Report after the game). If Devin Booker had received the foul, it would have been his sixth, resulting in him being ejected and hugely affecting the game. This sparked a lot of controversy online, with the decision to not call the foul being criticised by fans and sports media. They were up two with minutes remaining when Middleton scored the next eight points in the contest. He made consecutive midrange jump shots to place Milwaukee up for good at 101\u201399 with 1:28 in the game. Jumping off the left leg that he hyperextended two weeks earlier, Antetokounmpo blocked a potential game-tying alley-oop by Ayton with 1:14 left, prompting fans and media to debate the play's standing among the greatest blocks of all-time. After Paul lost his balance of his own accord and turned over the ball, Holiday picked up the loose ball and Middleton made a fast-break layup and with 27.2 seconds left for a four-point lead. He capped off his run with four free throws to bring the score to 107\u2013101. The Bucks outscored the Suns 33\u201321 in the fourth quarter. Antetokounmpo finished with 26 points along with 14 rebounds and eight assists."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA Finals",
        "text": "Middleton scored 17 and reserve Bobby Portis added 16 for the Bucks. Holiday had 12 points, 11 assists and nine rebounds. His defense helped limit Booker to 19 points on just 8-for-22 shooting, missing all seven of his 3-point attempts. Milwaukee became the fifth team to come back from a 2\u20130 deficit in the Finals, and the first to do so by winning the next four games since Miami defeated Dallas in 2006. They also became the second team in NBA history to come back from down 2\u20130 twice in the same playoffs after the 2020\u201321 Los Angeles Clippers also did so in consecutive rounds. The Suns have won two games in each of their three Finals appearances. Paul became the first player in NBA playoff history to lose four series in which his team led 2\u20130."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On March 2, in a 124\u2013116 loss to the Oklahoma City Thunder, Booker scored 39 points and at 21 years, 123 days old, he became the third-youngest player in NBA history to reach 4,000 career points, again behind LeBron James and Kevin Durant. Booker missed the Suns' final 12 games of the season with a right hand sprain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On January 2, 2016, Booker scored a then season-high 21 points in a 142\u2013119 loss to the Sacramento Kings. On January 19, he scored 32 points in a 97\u201394 loss to the Indiana Pacers, setting a Suns' rookie record with six three-pointers. Booker became the third-youngest player in NBA history at 19 years, 81 days old to record a 30-point game, behind LeBron James and Kevin Durant, as well as the youngest Suns player to score 30 or more points in a game. Booker participated for Team USA in the 2016 Rising Stars Challenge. He also competed in the NBA All-Star Weekend's Three-Point Contest, becoming the youngest contestant to ever participate in the event and only the fourth rookie to compete in the 30-year-old contest, joining Stephen Curry (2010), Kyle Korver (2004) and Dennis Scott (1991). He made it to the final round of the event, where he finished third behind the \"Splash Brothers\" \u2013 Stephen Curry and Klay Thompson (winner)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On June 25, 2015, Booker was selected with the thirteenth overall pick by the Phoenix Suns in the 2015 NBA draft."
      },
      {
        "title": "2019 NBA Finals",
        "text": "Durant left the arena on crutches and in a walking boot. \"I don't believe there's anybody to blame [for Durant's injury], but I understand in this world, and if you have to, you can blame me,\" said Bob Myers, the Warriors' president of basketball operations. Durant underwent surgery to repair the tendon and was at risk of missing all of the following season. Originally expected to become a free agent after the 2018\u201319 season, he had a $31.5 million option to remain with Golden State for another season, but it was ultimately his last appearance with the Warriors, after a sign-and-trade to the Nets the following month."
      },
      {
        "title": "P. J. Tucker",
        "text": "On July 20, 2021, Tucker and the Bucks defeated the Phoenix Suns in game 6 of the 2021 NBA Finals. This marks his first NBA Championship and the first championship since 1971 for the Milwaukee Bucks. In the series, Tucker averaged 31.3 minutes, 4.0 points, 3.8 rebounds, 1.2 assists, 1.0 steals, while primarily switching between guarding Devin Booker and Jae Crowder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On September 10, he was ruled out for six weeks after undergoing surgery to repair the fifth metacarpophalangeal joint in his right hand after he jammed it in practice on March 14, 2018. He recovered in time for the Suns' season opener on October 17, scoring 35 points in a 121\u2013100 victory over the Dallas Mavericks. Throughout the beginning of the season, he had multiple 30+ point games despite missing a six-game stretch when he strained his hamstring. On January 24, Booker became the fifth youngest player in NBA history to reach 5,000 career points, behind LeBron James, Kevin Durant, Carmelo Anthony, and Dwight Howard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phoenix Suns",
        "text": "On February 13, 2020, NBA Commissioner Adam Silver announced that Devin Booker had been named as a reserve in the 2020 NBA All-Star Game, marking the first time since Steve Nash in 2012 that a Phoenix Suns player had been selected to the game. This later selection came as a result of an injury to Portland's Damian Lillard, who was unable to participate. Following the suspension of the 2019\u201320 NBA season, the Suns were one of the 22 teams invited to the NBA Bubble to participate in the final 8 games of the regular season. They went undefeated in the bubble, finishing 8\u20130, but failed to qualify for the playoffs for the 10th consecutive season. They finished the season with a record of 34\u201339."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On November 6, 2017, Booker scored 18 points in a 98\u201392 loss to the Brooklyn Nets to reach 3,000 career points and the fourth-youngest player in NBA history to score 3,000 points, behind LeBron James, Kevin Durant, and Carmelo Anthony. On November 13, a 36-point game and 26th 30-point in his career tied Steve Nash for 15th most in franchise history. Over the Suns' first 17 games of the season, Booker had seven 30-point games. On December 4, Booker scored a season-high 46 points in a 115\u2013101 win over the Philadelphia 76ers."
      },
      {
        "title": "2016 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Teammates Stephen Curry and Klay Thompson of the Golden State Warriors, known as the Splash Brothers, were the favorites to win the contest. The betting site, Bovada, listed the defending-champion Curry as the favorite to win with 10\u201311 odds, while Thompson was second at 9\u20132. Contestant Devin Booker would be the youngest participant to ever compete in the Three-Point contest at 19 years old. Chris Bosh was announced as a first-time participant for the event, but he would be replaced by CJ McCollum due to an injury before the event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On November 23, 2019, Booker almost put up a triple-double with 35 points, a career-high 12 rebounds, and 9 assists in a 100\u201398 win over the Minnesota Timberwolves. From December 27, 2019 until January 7, 2020, Booker scored over 30 points in seven straight games, including a 40-point performance in a loss against the Memphis Grizzlies on January 5. This streak broke a franchise record for most consecutive 30+ point games in a row, beating a record previously set by Charlie Scott twice and Charles Barkley once. In addition, his streak from December 28 until January 7 made him the only player since the 1983\u201384 NBA season to record six straight performances of 30+ points and 6+ assists with 47% shooting efficiency. On January 28, Booker became the fourth-youngest player to reach 7,000 career points, behind only LeBron James, Kevin Durant, and Carmelo Anthony. Booker was named an All-Star on February 13, 2020 as an injury replacement after Damian Lillard suffered an groin strain injury a day earlier. He also replaced Lillard in the Three Point Contest, an event he had previously won, and finished as the runner-up behind Buddy Hield."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "On June 16, 2021, he has signed a 2-year deal with Fenerbah\u00e7e of the Turkish Basketball Super League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Conley Jr.",
        "text": "In his 14th NBA season, Conley was named an All-Star for the first time in his career as it was announced that he would be a reserve for the 2021 NBA All-Star Game, replacing the injured Devin Booker. His 14-year wait is the longest ever for a first time All-Star. He recorded three points, one rebound, and two assists in 12 minutes in the game. Conley was also announced as Booker's replacement in the Three-Point Contest, where he competed against teammate Donovan Mitchell. Conley lost in the final round to Stephen Curry, 28\u201327."
      },
      {
        "title": "2019 NBA Finals",
        "text": "Curry finished the game with 23 points after missing his first six shots of the game. Cousins, who was moved into the starting lineup, had 11 points, 10 rebounds and six assists, and Draymond Green had 17 points, 10 rebounds and nine assists to fall one assist short of his fourth straight triple-double. Warriors backup center Kevon Looney missed the second half with a chest contusion. Leonard led the Raptors with 34 points and 14 rebounds, and Fred VanVleet added 17 points. Game 1 star Siakam scored just 12 points on 5-for-18 shooting. Toronto was held to 37.2 percent shooting for the game."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NBA Finals",
        "text": "Davis had 19 points and 15 rebounds. Adebayo led Miami with 25 points and 10 rebounds. Butler was held to only 12 points, but added eight assists and seven rebounds. Dragi\u0107, who returned from his Game 1 injury, had five points off the bench on 2-of-8 shooting along with five rebounds in 19 minutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Booker began his pro career in France, during the 2013\u201314 LNB Pro A season, with SLUC Nancy. Later that same year, he moved to the French 2nd Division club JL Bourg. He was named the Finals MVP of the 2013\u201314 LNB Pro B season."
      },
      {
        "title": "2019 NBA Finals",
        "text": "Curry scored 31 points and Thompson had 26 to help the Warriors stave off elimination with a 106\u2013105 win at Toronto. They combined for three straight 3-pointers after the Raptors led by six points with minutes left in the game. Durant returned after missing the previous nine games with his right calf injury, and scored 11 points in the first quarter. However, he was lost for the game two minutes into the second quarter when he tried to drive by Ibaka and suffered a ruptured Achilles tendon, falling and grabbing his lower right calf. He limped off the court and was helped to the locker room. Leonard scored 10 straight points in the fourth quarter to erase Golden State's 14-point lead. Lowry's potential championship-winning, 3-point shot at the buzzer fell short after it was partially blocked by Draymond Green."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NBA Finals",
        "text": "James ended the series averaging 29.8 points, 11.8 rebounds and 8.5 assists per game. He and Davis became the first teammates in NBA history to both average 25 points and shoot 50% from the field in the same postseason. Butler became only the second player in a Finals series to lead his team outright in points, rebounds, assists, steals and blocks, joining James in 2016 with the Cavaliers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "In 2016, Booker agreed to join the New York Knicks for the NBA Summer League. On July 17, 2016, he signed with Bayern Munich of the BBL in Germany. On July 12, 2017, Booker re-signed with Bayern for the 2017\u201318 season. He averaged 12.4 points and 5 rebounds per game on the season. Booker re-signed with the team on July 17, 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Devin Booker\n--Early life.\n--High school career.\n----Sophomore year.\n----Junior year.\n----Senior year.\n--College career.\n--Professional career.\n----Phoenix Suns (2015\u2013present).\n------2015\u201316 season: All-Rookie honors.\n------2016\u201317 season: Improving as a sophomore.\n------2017\u201318 season: Injuries.\n------2018\u201319 season: Franchise player.\n------2019\u201320 season: First All-Star season.\n------2020\u201321 season: First playoff appearance and NBA Finals.\n------2021\u201322 season: Franchise record in wins.\n--National team career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NBA Finals",
        "text": "Miami's Jimmy Butler twisted his left ankle before the end of the first half, but he remained in the game and finished with 23 points. Heat guard Goran Dragi\u0107 did not play in the second half due to a foot injury. Miami center Bam Adebayo also did not finish the game after exiting in the third quarter with a shoulder injury. Dwight Howard remained as the Lakers' starting center after he moved into the starting lineup for the last few games of the conference finals against Denver."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quinn Cook",
        "text": "The Warriors made it to the 2019 NBA Finals, but were defeated in 6 games by the Toronto Raptors. On June 28, 2019, the Warriors extended Cook with a qualifying offer, making him a restricted free agent, but rescinded the qualifying offer on July 3."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "He played in the NBA for the Houston Rockets during the 1995\u201396 season; and the Denver Nuggets and Golden State Warriors, during the 1996\u201397 season, for 32 games."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 United States men's Olympic basketball team",
        "text": "Durant scored a game-high 23 points, and the United States overcame another slow start for a 97\u201378 victory against Australia. The Americans trailed the Boomers by 15 midway through the second quarter, before a 48\u201314 run put them ahead 74\u201355 after three quarters. After Team USA missed their first 10 three-pointers of the game, Booker hit their first late in the second period with 3:22 left. He scored 11 points in the third and finished with 20 points and three 3-pointers. Patty Mills led the Australians with 15 points, but he shot just 5 of 14."
      },
      {
        "title": "Golden State Warriors",
        "text": "In the 2020 NBA Draft lottery, the Warriors landed the 2nd Overall Pick to the draft on which they drafted Memphis center James Wiseman. They also drafted Nico Mannion with the 48th Overall Pick. Just as the 2020\u201321 NBA season was about to begin, guard Klay Thompson was reported to miss the incoming season due to a Achilles tendon injury making the second season he missed in his career. At the beginning of the season against the Nets, Curry would drop 20 points to a 99-125 loss to the Nets. They would start the first 20 games of the season 11-9 and would go on to finish the regular season with a 39-33 record, qualifying for the new NBA Play-in-Tournament against the seventh seeded Los Angeles Lakers. Curry would go on to win his second Scoring Champion Title for the season after dropping 32.0 points per game and was in the NBA Most Valuable Player conversation alongside Philadelphia's Joel Embiid and Nuggets' Nikola Joki\u0107, who would go on to win the award. The Warriors would however be eliminated from the playoffs after losing two play-in tournaments to the Los Angeles Lakers who would become the seventh seed, and the Memphis Grizzlies, originally the ninth seed, who would go on to face the Jazz after winning the play-in against the Warriors. This was the second consecutive year that the Warriors would miss the playoffs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On July 13, Booker signed his rookie scale contract with the Suns, and in seven subsequent Summer League games, he averaged 15.3 points, 4.9 rebounds and 1.7 assists per game. He went on to make his NBA debut two days before his 19th birthday, in the Suns' season opener against the Dallas Mavericks. In 21 minutes of action against the Mavericks, he scored 14 points on 6-of-7 shooting in a 111\u201395 loss."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On February 25, he scored 20 points to help the Suns break a franchise-record 17-game losing streak with a 124\u2013121 win over the Miami Heat. On March 25, he scored 59 points in a 125\u201392 loss to the Utah Jazz. On March 27, he scored 50 points in a 124\u2013121 loss to the Wizards, becoming the youngest player in NBA history with consecutive 50-point games. He also became first player in franchise history to reach 50 in back-to-back games. On April 3, in a 118\u201397 loss to the Jazz, Booker sprained his left ankle, ruling him out for the last three games of the season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "On July 16, 2019, Russian club Khimki announced that they had signed with Booker to a one-year deal. On July 5, 2020, Booker officially renewed his contract with the Russian club Khimki with an option for an additional year, which also competes in the EuroLeague."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Aron Booker",
        "text": "After sitting out the first half of the 2021\u20132022 season due to injury, Booker signed with Brei\u00f0ablik in January 2022. He appeared in 10 games for Brei\u00f0ablik, averaging 6.1 points and 2.6 rebounds per game."
      },
      {
        "title": "2018 NBA Finals",
        "text": "This was the Golden State Warriors' fourth consecutive trip to the NBA Finals. During the 2017\u201318 offseason, the Warriors re-signed their core players, including point guard Stephen Curry to a five-year contract worth $201\u00a0million, and Kevin Durant to a two-year, $53\u00a0million contract. Golden State also re-signed Andre Iguodala, Shaun Livingston, Zaza Pachulia, and David West. A major free agent acquired during the offseason was guard Nick Young."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA Finals",
        "text": "Milwaukee pulled to within seven points midway through the fourth quarter, but Paul passed to Booker for a 3-pointer and then stole the ball from the Bucks' Khris Middleton and hit a jumper to extend the lead to 106\u201394. Ayton finished the game with 22 points and 19 rebounds for Phoenix. Middleton scored 29 on 26 shots for the Bucks, but did not attempt a free throw. Teammate Jrue Holiday shot just 4 for 14. Milwaukee center Brook Lopez was targeted on switches by the Suns, and he was on the bench for most of the second half while Antetokounmpo played center."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Devin Booker (born February 28, 1991) is an American professional basketball player for Fenerbah\u00e7e of the Turkish Basketball Super League (BSL) and EuroLeague."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "In July 2016, Booker joined the Phoenix Suns for the 2016 NBA Summer League. On October 31, 2016, he was re-acquired by the now Northern Arizona Suns. In the team's season opener on November 12, 2016, Booker scored 15 points in a 122\u2013106 win over the Iowa Energy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "During the summer of 2013, Booker participated in the Kevin Durant Skills Academy, the LeBron James Skills Academy, the CP3 Elite Guard Camp, and the National Basketball Players Association (NBPA) Top 100 camp. His fellow participants in the NBPA camp voted him to the camp's 10-man all-star team. Booker also participated against international competition at the Nike Global Challenge. At the Under Armour Elite 24 showcase, he won the three-point shooting contest. In August 2013, Booker narrowed his list of potential college choices to Florida, Missouri, Michigan, Michigan State, and Kentucky. He took an official visit to the University of Kentucky on the weekend of September 9 to watch an alumni exhibition game; fellow 2014 prospects Jahlil Okafor and Tyler Ulis also attended."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA Finals",
        "text": "The Bucks outscored the Suns 20\u20130 in the key in the opening period, but Phoenix made eight 3-pointers and trailed just 29\u201326. With less than five minutes remaining in the first half, the game was tied at 41 before Phoenix ended with a 15\u20134 run. On their last possession, the Suns made 10 passes, with every team member touching the ball, culminating in Bridges passing the ball to Ayton, who laid it in while being fouled. Phoenix weathered Antetokounmpo's 20-point quarter in the third, when he joined Michael Jordan, Isiah Thomas, and Joe Dumars as the other players to score at least 20 in a quarter during a finals game. Milwaukee cut the lead to six in the fourth quarter, but a 3-pointer by Paul and a basket by Bridges expanded the lead back to double figures, and Booker made three of his 3-point shots to fend off the Bucks."
      },
      {
        "title": "2018 NBA Finals",
        "text": "Andre Iguodala of the Warriors, who missed the previous six games, including the first two games of the NBA Finals, due to a left leg injury, returned in Game 3. He injured his right leg early in the game, not returning until after halftime. The Cavaliers started the game with a 14\u20134 advantage and led for the entire first half, at one point leading by 13. The Warriors trimmed Cleveland's lead to six by halftime. The Cavaliers enjoyed strong contributions from Rodney Hood, who scored 15 points, Smith, who scored 13 points, and Kevin Love, who had 20 points and 13 rebounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "2019 NBA Finals",
        "text": "Leonard had 23 points, eight rebounds and five assists in his first NBA Finals game since he was named the Finals MVP in 2014. Gasol added 20 for the Raptors. Curry scored 34 and Thompson had 21 for Golden State, which had won Game 1 of the Finals in each of the last four years. Draymond Green had a triple-double with 10 points, 10 rebounds, and 10 assists. Cousins returned from a quadriceps injury to come off the bench in his first NBA Finals game. After missing Game 4 of the Western Conference Finals with a left calf injury, Iguodala left near the end of this game after limping and favoring his right leg. Durant, the MVP of the last two NBA Finals, traveled with the team to Toronto, but remained sidelined."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Quin Snyder, coach of the Utah Jazz, qualified as the head coach of Team LeBron on February 15. Doc Rivers, coach of the Philadelphia 76ers, also qualified as the head coach of Team Durant on February 19, after their win over the Bulls."
      },
      {
        "title": "2019 NBA Finals",
        "text": "Lowry and Siakam led Toronto with 26 points each. Lowry scored 11 of his points in the first two-plus minutes of the contest. Van Vleet finished with 22 points, including 12 in the final period, and made five of the team's 13 three-pointers. Siakam added 10 rebounds. Curry had 21 points for Golden State, but he was hounded by the Raptors in the fourth quarter without Durant or Thompson available. Draymond Green had a triple-double with 11 points, 19 rebounds and 13 assists, but committed eight turnovers. Iguodala had 22 points despite shooting only 1 of 5 on free throws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On February 24, for the second year in a row, Booker was named an All-Star as an injury replacement, this time to Anthony Davis. He and Chris Paul became the first Suns duo since Steve Nash and Amar'e Stoudemire in 2010 to be named All-Stars. The duo would also help Phoenix clinch their first playoff berth since 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA Finals",
        "text": "Milwaukee became the first team in the series to win on the road. Antetokounmpo, Holiday and Middleton combined for 88 points, becoming the fifth trio to each score 25 points on 50% shooting in a single Finals game, and the first to accomplish the feat since the Lakers' Abdul-Jabbar (36 points), James Worthy (33), and Magic Johnson (26) in 1985. Phoenix lost three straight games for only the second time in the season, the first occurring six months earlier. Paul ended the game with 21 points, 11 assists and one turnover, while Ayton finished with 20 points and 10 rebounds. Booker became the first player in the Finals to score at least 40 in consecutive games and lose both. Antetokounmpo and him were the first pair of players to score 40+ twice in the same Finals. Bucks' role player Thanasis Antetokounmpo, the older brother of Giannis, and assistant coach Josh Oppenheimer were away from the team due to COVID-19 health and safety protocols. The NBA also replaced referee Sean Wright after he entered health and safety protocols."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordan Poole",
        "text": "Starting shooting guard Klay Thompson would miss the entire season for the 2020\u201321 Warriors. On March 4, 2021, Poole set a then career-high 26 points in a 120\u201398 loss to the Phoenix Suns. On May 14, 2021, Poole posted a career-high 38 points in a 125\u2013122 win over the New Orleans Pelicans. The Warriors used several shooting guards during the season and closed the 2020\u201321 NBA season with Kent Bazemore, Mychal Mulder, Damion Lee, and Kelly Oubre Jr. all in the picture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "After going undrafted in the 2015 NBA draft, Booker joined the Philadelphia 76ers for the 2015 NBA Summer League. On August 13, 2015, he signed with Arkadikos for the 2015\u201316 Greek Basket League season. However, he was released by Arkadikos in mid-October after appearing in just two games. On October 31, 2015, he was selected by the Maine Red Claws with the 10th overall pick in the 2015 NBA Development League Draft, only to be traded to the Bakersfield Jam in a three-team draft night deal. In 47 games for the Jam in 2015\u201316, he averaged 12.8 points, 3.1 rebounds and 3.5 assists per game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In the summer following his sophomore year, Booker played in the Nike Elite Youth Basketball League and participated in the Elite 100 Camp, the LeBron James King's Academy Camp, and the Kevin Durant Nike Skills Camp. These commitments caused him to miss the inaugural South Mississippi All-Star Basketball Showcase in May."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In the 2020 NBA Bubble, Booker helped the Suns reached an 8\u20130 record as of August 11, 2020, holding an 8-game winning streak for the first time since the 2009\u201310 season. On August 4, Booker hit a fade-away game-winning jumper at the buzzer over Paul George and Kawhi Leonard to lift the Suns to a 117\u2013115 win over the Los Angeles Clippers and bring their record there to 3\u20130 at the time. On August 11, he scored 35 points, breaking a franchise record set by Walter Davis for the most games of 30+ points scored with the team, as well as get 9 rebounds and 7 assists in a 130\u2013117 win over the Philadelphia 76ers. During his time in the NBA Bubble, Booker was named a nominee for the Seeding Games MVP award (earned for the best overall performance in the NBA's resumed regular season games), as well as earned a spot for one of the All-Seeding Games Teams, averaging 31 points per game during these games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Butch Booker",
        "text": "He played collegiately for the Cheyney University of Pennsylvania. He was drafted by both the New York Knicks (5th round) and the Seattle SuperSonics (4th round) in the 1968 and 1969 editions of the NBA draft, respectively, but never played for either team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On March 24 against the Boston Celtics, Booker became the sixth player in NBA history to score 70 points in a game, joining Wilt Chamberlain, David Robinson, David Thompson, Elgin Baylor and Kobe Bryant. It was the 11th 70-point game in NBA history. Booker also added eight rebounds and six assists in 45 minutes. Booker, at age 20, became the youngest player to score 70 (and 60) points in a game. He had the highest-scoring game in the NBA since Bryant scored 81 in January 2006. The Suns' previous scoring record was held by Tom Chambers with 60 points on March 24, 1990. Booker ended the season averaging 22.1 points per game, a near 9-point increment from his 13.8 points in 2015\u201316."
      },
      {
        "title": "2018 NBA Finals",
        "text": "Prior to the 2017\u201318 season, All-Star point guard Kyrie Irving requested to be traded away from the Cavaliers. Although James was against the idea of trading him away, the Cavaliers agreed to Irving's request, trading him to the Boston Celtics in exchange for point guard Isaiah Thomas, small forward Jae Crowder, center Ante \u017di\u017ei\u0107, the first round pick from the Brooklyn Nets in the 2018 NBA Draft and the Miami Heat's 2020 second round pick. Miami's second round pick was added as compensation after Isaiah Thomas failed his physical. Other major changes included shooting guard Dwyane Wade signing with the Cavaliers, thus reuniting with James from their time together on the Big Three-era Miami Heat, and the signing of point guard Derrick Rose to a one-year contract."
      },
      {
        "title": "2018 NBA Finals",
        "text": "With Golden State leading 102\u201377 with 4:03 remaining, James came out of the game, receiving a standing ovation. Curry scored 37 points and made seven three-pointers, while Durant recorded a triple-double with 20 points, 12 rebounds and 10 assists. The Warriors won 108\u201385 to sweep the series. Durant was named Finals MVP for the second straight year. He received seven of the 11 votes, with Curry receiving the other four."
      },
      {
        "title": "2019 NBA Finals",
        "text": "In the playoffs, Golden State defeated the Clippers in six games in the first round, despite blowing leads at home in Games 2 and 5. Cousins tore his left quadriceps in Game 2, and was initially thought to be out for the remainder of the postseason. With an increased urgency and in a sign of respect towards their opponent, Kerr opened the following round against the Houston Rockets by moving Andre Iguodala from the bench and starting the Hamptons Five for the first time in the season. With the Splash Brothers\u2014Warriors guards Stephen Curry and Klay Thompson\u2014struggling with their shooting, Durant had been the team's best player in the playoffs, averaging a team-leading 35.4 points entering Game 5. However, Durant left the game late in the third quarter after suffering a strained right calf; he was later ruled out indefinitely. Led by Curry and Thompson, Golden State pulled out Game 5 without Durant, and won the series in six games. In the Western Conference Finals, Golden State swept the Portland Trail Blazers 4\u20130, with three of the wins including comebacks of 15 points or more. After starting nine consecutive games, Iguodala missed the deciding Game 4 with a sore left calf injury from Game 3. Curry averaged a series career-high 36.5 points, the highest average by a player in a four-game sweep in NBA history. This was Golden State's fifth consecutive trip to the NBA Finals, and they were aiming to be the first since the Shaq and Kobe-led Los Angeles Lakers to win 3-peat titles, and now they were the second team to not earn a 3-peat, joining the Miami Heat who lost their quest in 2014 to the San Antonio Spurs who ended their seven-year title drought. They were the second team in NBA history to achieve this feat, joining the Boston Celtics, who played in ten straight Finals (1957\u20131966)."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA Finals",
        "text": "With Milwaukee leading by one with about 16 seconds remaining in the game, Holiday stole the ball from Phoenix's Booker and passed to Antetokounmpo for an alley-oop and a free throw (fouled by Paul on the finish) to secure the game for a 123\u2013119 Bucks' win and a 3\u20132 series lead. Milwaukee recovered from an early 16-point deficit to outscore Phoenix 87\u201357 from the start of the second quarter to around the nine-minute mark of the fourth quarter. The Suns were down 10 with minutes left in the game before a basket by Paul cut it to 120\u2013119 with 56 seconds to play. Holiday had 27 points, 13 assists and three steals. Antetokounmpo had 32 points, nine rebounds and six assists, and Middleton finished with 29 points. Booker had a game-high 40 points, his second-straight contest with at least 40."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kevin Durant",
        "text": "After missing nine games with the strained right calf, Durant returned to action in Game 5 of the 2019 NBA Finals against Toronto, and scored 11 points in the first quarter. However, he was lost for the game two minutes into the second quarter when he tried to drive by former teammate Serge Ibaka and suffered an Achilles tendon injury, falling and grabbing his lower right calf. He limped off the court and was helped to the locker room. The Warriors won the game to cut the Raptors' series lead to 3\u20132. The Warriors went on to lose the NBA Finals in Game 6, ending their quest for a three-peat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Booker",
        "text": "On June 22, 1987, Booker was selected by the New Jersey Nets with the second pick in round 7 of the 1987 NBA Draft. He had short pre-season stints with the Nets, Miami Heat and Cleveland Cavaliers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "On July 8, 2016, Booker signed with the Brooklyn Nets. On December 14, 2016, he grabbed a season-high 18 rebounds in a 107\u201397 win over the Los Angeles Lakers. On April 1, 2017, he scored a season-high 23 points in a 121\u2013111 win over the Orlando Magic."
      },
      {
        "title": "2017 NBA Finals",
        "text": "Kevin Durant, who was defeated in the 2012 NBA Finals when his Oklahoma City Thunder were finished off 4-1 by LeBron James' Miami Heat, returned the favor by scoring a team high 39 points in the 4-1 series defeat of James' Cavaliers while being honored as the 2017 Finals MVP. Stephen Curry added 34 points, 10 assists and six rebounds alongside Draymond Green's 12 big rebounds. Andre Iguodala, the 2015 Finals MVP, showed up big off the bench with 20 points. LeBron James finished with 41 points, 13 rebounds and eight assists and became the first player in NBA history to average a triple-double in the NBA Finals, a feat made all the more impressive with his excellent shooting percentages of 56% from the field and 38% from behind the arc over the 5-game series, with the only blemishes being his poor free-throw shooting and turnover count. Kyrie Irving was the Cavaliers second leading scorer with 26 points on 9 of 22 from the field. However, it was the final game of Irving's career with the Cavaliers before he was traded to the Boston Celtics in the off-season. J. R. Smith scored his 2017 postseason-best 25 points while going 7 of 8 from beyond the arc."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Basketball Players Association",
        "text": "During the 2020 NBA Finals, NBPA President Chris Paul announced that over 90% of NBA players had registered to vote for the 2020 presidential election. He also stated that 15 teams in the league were 100% registered to vote. By contrast, the league only had 20% of players registered to vote in the 2016 presidential election. The players took multiple actions in the NBA Bubble: writing phrases or names on the back of their jerseys to support the Black Lives Matter movement, boycotting games in response to the shooting of Jacob Blake, and taking a knee during the national anthem to protest against racial inequality and police brutality.\n* Larry Fleisher (1970\u20131988)\n* Charles Grantham (1988\u20131995)\n* Simon Gourdine (1995\u20131996)\n* Alex English (1996, interim)\n* Billy Hunter (1996\u20132013)\n* Michele Roberts (2014\u20132021)\n* Tamika Tremaglio (2021-present)\n* Bob Cousy (1954\u20131958)\n* Tom Heinsohn (1958\u20131965)\n* Oscar Robertson (1965\u20131974)\n* Paul Silas (1974\u20131980)\n* Bob Lanier (1980\u20131985)\n* Junior Bridgeman (1985 \u2013 February 1988)\n* Alex English (February 1988 \u2013 October 5, 1988)\n* Isiah Thomas (October 5, 1988 \u2013 February 13, 1994)\n* Buck Williams (February 13, 1994 \u2013 September 15, 1997)\n* Patrick Ewing (September 15, 1997 \u2013 July 10, 2001)\n* Michael Curry (July 10, 2001 \u2013 June 28, 2005)\n* Antonio Davis (June 28, 2005 \u2013 November 19, 2006)\n* Derek Fisher (November 19, 2006 \u2013 August 21, 2013)\n* Chris Paul (August 21, 2013 \u2013 August 7, 2021)\n* CJ McCollum (August 7, 2021 \u2013 present)\n;Past\n* Roger Mason Jr. (August 21, 2013 \u2013 June 23, 2017)\n* Steve Blake (August 21, 2013 \u2013 June 23, 2017)\n* Kyle Korver (February 12, 2016 \u2013 June 23, 2017)\n* Carmelo Anthony (June 23, 2017 \u2013 February 18, 2019)\n* Stephen Curry (June 23, 2017 \u2013 February 18, 2019)\n* Pau Gasol (June 23, 2017 \u2013 February 17, 2020)\n* LeBron James (June 23, 2017 \u2013 February 2, 2020)\n* CJ McCollum (February 18, 2018 \u2013 August 7, 2021)\n;Current\n* Andre Iguodala (June 23, 2017 \u2013 present)\n* Garrett Temple (June 23, 2017 \u2013 present)\n* Bismack Biyombo (February 18, 2019 \u2013 present)\n* Jaylen Brown (February 18, 2019 \u2013 present)\n* Malcolm Brogdon (February 18, 2019 \u2013 present)\n* Kyrie Irving (February 17, 2020 \u2013 present)\n* Grant Williams (August 7, 2021 \u2013 present)"
      },
      {
        "title": "1998 NBA Finals",
        "text": "Antoine Carr and Chris Morris became free agents after the Finals, signed with other teams, and retired by 2000. Jeff Hornacek retired in 2000 after two more seasons with Utah. After five more seasons with the Jazz, Karl Malone spent his final season of his career with the Los Angeles Lakers, and the Lakers lost the 2004 NBA Finals to the Detroit Pistons."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NBA Finals",
        "text": "Caldwell-Pope contributed 15 points and Green scored 10 for the Lakers. Butler ended with 22 points, nine assists and 10 rebounds for the Heat. He made his first five shots for 11 points in the first quarter but did not make another field goal until the fourth quarter while being guarded by Davis and James. Herro had 21 points, Duncan Robinson scored 17 and Adebayo added 15 for the Heat after missing two games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Trevor Fitzgerald Booker (born November 25, 1987) is an American former professional basketball player who played eight seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA). He was drafted 23rd overall by the Minnesota Timberwolves in the 2010 NBA draft, but was immediately traded to the Washington Wizards. Booker primarily played the power forward position."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "On April 14, 2020, Booker announced his retirement from his basketball career at age 32."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shaun Livingston",
        "text": "In 2019, he played in his fifth straight NBA Finals, where the Warriors lost to the Toronto Raptors in six games. On July 10, 2019, Livingston was waived by the Warriors. He went unsigned during free agency."
      },
      {
        "title": "2018 NBA Finals",
        "text": "On February 8, 2018 \u2013 just before the NBA trade deadline \u2013 the Cavaliers radically changed their roster in a little more than an hour, acquiring George Hill, Rodney Hood, Jordan Clarkson, and Larry Nance Jr. in exchange for Thomas, Rose, Crowder, Wade, Channing Frye, Iman Shumpert, and their own 2018 first-round pick. Multiple writers argued at the time that the trades made the Cavaliers significantly better."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "In 2015, he joined the French 1st Division club \u00c9lan Chalon, where he also played in the FIBA Europe Cup, where Chalon finished in third place. In the 2015\u201316 LNB Pro A season, Booker was named the league's Most Valuable Player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Booker's brother, Trevor, also played college basketball at Clemson and played a professionally in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Booker's cousin, Jordan Hill, is a former NBA player as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "After high school, Booker played college basketball at Clemson University, with the Clemson Tigers, from 2009 to 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On July 7, 2018, Booker signed a five-year, $158 million maximum contract extension with the Suns."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Domantas Sabonis was selected as Kevin Durant's replacement.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordan Poole",
        "text": "Poole beat out Otto Porter Jr. and Lee for the 2021\u201322 Warriors' starting shooting guard spot, while Thompson continued to recover. On November 21, 2021, Poole scored 33 points on a career-high 8 three-pointers made in a 119\u2013104 win over the Toronto Raptors. On April 16, 2022, in Game 1 of the first round of the playoffs, he started and scored 30 points in a 123\u2013107 win over the Denver Nuggets. The game was Poole's first career postseason appearance. Two days later, in Game 2, he posted 29 points and eight assists in a 126\u2013106 win."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On January 12, 2017, he scored 28 fourth-quarter points, in another 39-point night, to set the Suns franchise record for most points in a quarter, previously held by Stephon Marbury's 26 points in 2002. He had a second straight 39-point effort in a two days later to become the youngest player in NBA history to record consecutive games of 39 or more points in the regular season. He was named to the U.S. Team for the 2017 Rising Stars Challenge, and was invited to take part in the 2017 Taco Bell Skills Challenge. On February 4, at 20 years, 97 days old, Booker became the youngest player to score at least 20 points in 16 consecutive games. His 16-game streak is the second-longest by any first-year or second-year player since Vince Carter had a 23-game run as a second-year player during the 1999\u20132000 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Harris",
        "text": "Devin Harris\n--Early life.\n--College career.\n--NBA career.\n----Draft day.\n----Dallas Mavericks (2004\u20132008).\n----New Jersey Nets (2008\u20132011).\n----Utah Jazz (2011\u20132012).\n----Atlanta Hawks (2012\u20132013).\n----Return to Dallas (2013\u20132018).\n----Denver Nuggets (2018).\n----Third stint with Dallas (2018\u20132019).\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "On August 4, 2011, Booker signed with Bnei Hasharon of Israel for the duration of the NBA lockout. In October 2011, he returned to the United States due to a bruised right quadriceps. In December 2011, following the conclusion of the lockout, Booker returned to the Washington Wizards before appearing in a game for Bnei Hasharon."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 United States men's Olympic basketball team",
        "text": "After the final exhibition game against Spain, LaVine was placed into health and safety protocols, and did not travel with the rest of the team to Tokyo on July 19. He was later cleared and joined the team on July 22. The NBA Finals concluded in six games on July 20, with Milwaukee winning over Phoenix. Holiday and Middleton attended the Bucks' championship parade on July 22. They flew the next day to Seattle, where they took a private plane with Booker and arrived in Tokyo on July 24 before 11:00\u00a0pm JST (UTC+9), less than 24 hours before Team USA's opening game against France. The Americans lost to the French, but recovered to finish 2\u20131 in group play to advance to the knockout round."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rodney Hood",
        "text": "The Cavaliers made it to the 2018 NBA Finals, but would lose 4\u20130 to the Golden State Warriors."
      },
      {
        "title": "2019 NBA Finals",
        "text": "Leonard scored 30 points and the Raptors shot 52.4 percent and made 17 three-pointers to win 123\u2013109 on the road over the short-handed Warriors. Curry scored a playoff career-high 47 points, shooting 14 for 31 including 6 of 14 on 3-pointers, while his teammates totaled 62 points on 36.7 percent shooting. Golden State played without injured starters Thompson and Durant, and backup big man Looney. Toronto's Kyle Lowry had 23 points and five 3-pointers, and Danny Green added 18 points on 6 made 3s, as all five of their starters scored in double figures. VanVleet contributed 11 points off the bench."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "Source: \"basketball-stats.de\" (Date: 27. March 2022)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phil Handy",
        "text": "Handy went to 6 consecutive NBA finals, 4 with the Cleveland Cavaliers (2015\u20132018), 1 with the Toronto Raptors (2019) and 1 with the Los Angeles Lakers (2020)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Booker started working out with the minor league PrimeTime Players of the East Coast Basketball League and The Tournament fame. He made his ECBL debut on March 6, 2021, scoring 36 points and 18 rebounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "2017 NBA Finals",
        "text": "For the Warriors, Durant scored 33 points with 13 rebounds, while Curry had 32 points to go along with 10 rebounds and 11 assists. With his eighth triple-double of the Finals, James moved into a tie with Magic Johnson for the most Finals triple-doubles in the league. Game 2 was the first postseason game since 1970 where two opposing players each had a triple-double. Golden State took a 2\u20130 series lead heading into Cleveland for Game 3."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derrick Jones Jr.",
        "text": "Jones won the Slam Dunk Contest over Aaron Gordon during the 2020 NBA All-Star Weekend. They both had perfect scores in their first two dunks in the second round, forcing an overtime round. After they both earned perfect scores on their initial dunks, Jones won by scoring a 48 after taking off just past the free throw line to complete a windmill dunk; Gordon received a 47 after dunking over Tacko Fall. The Heat reached the 2020 NBA Finals, but lost in 6 games to the Los Angeles Lakers."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What team did Devin Armani Booker's father Melvin Booker play for?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Melvin Booker played in high school, university, as well as in NBA for multiple teams in different seasons. Which of these teams would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know more about his time playing basketball in university."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Booker was the 1994 Big Eight Player of the Year, when he led Missouri to an undefeated conference record of 14\u20130 and an Elite Eight berth. In 1999, Booker was elected to the intercollegiate athletics Hall of Fame at the University of Missouri."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which teams did he play for in the NBA?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "He played in the NBA for the Houston Rockets during the 1995\u201396 season; and the Denver Nuggets and Golden State Warriors, during the 1996\u201397 season, for 32 games."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has Booker been working since the NBA Finals in 2021?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Booker was hired as an assistant coach for basketball at his alma mater, Moss Point High School, in 2011."
    ],
    "topic": "Devin Booker",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Melvin Booker:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Melvin Booker",
          "Personal life"
        ],
        "ctx": "While playing for the Grand Rapids Mackers in the 1995\u20131996 CBA season, Booker met Veronica Guti\u00e9rrez. The two became close and had a son, Devin Booker, born on October 30, 1996. The two never married and Guti\u00e9rrez would take care of their son Devin while his father played pro basketball in Europe and Asia. During the summers, Booker would bring his son to his games which helped to drive Devin's interest in basketball. After Melvin Booker retired from pro basketball in 2008, he returned to his hometown of Moss Point, Mississippi and brought his son with him so he could help train him to become a successful basketball player. Booker was hired as an assistant coach for basketball at his alma mater, Moss Point High School, in 2011."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "With most of Moss Point's experienced players graduating, Booker switched to point guard for his junior year. In an early December game, Booker outscored the entire Ocean Springs High School team 40\u201339 through three quarters en route to a 48-point finish as Moss Point won 100\u201355. He followed up this performance with a 30-point outing, including 7 three-pointers, in a win over 54\u201337 win over Laurel High School in the second annual Melvin Booker Shootout, named in honor of his father. The following week, Booker left a game against Harrison Central High School in the third quarter with a sprained MCL; he had scored just 9 points, but grabbed 7 rebounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "During the offseason, Booker trained with head coach Earl Watson and former NBA player Baron Davis at UCLA, was invited to be on the select team that practices against Team USA in preparation for the Summer Olympics, and played two games for the Suns during the Las Vegas Summer League. With teammate Eric Bledsoe returning from injury in 2016\u201317, Booker was retained as the starting shooting guard while Brandon Knight was moved to the bench. Booker scored a career-highs of 38 points and 39 points on November 4 and 6."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On March 2, in a 124\u2013116 loss to the Oklahoma City Thunder, Booker scored 39 points and at 21 years, 123 days old, he became the third-youngest player in NBA history to reach 4,000 career points, again behind LeBron James and Kevin Durant. Booker missed the Suns' final 12 games of the season with a right hand sprain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Devin Armani Booker (born October 30, 1996) is an American professional basketball player for the Phoenix Suns of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He is the son of former basketball player Melvin Booker. After playing college basketball for one season with the Kentucky Wildcats, Booker was selected by the Phoenix Suns in the first round of the 2015 NBA draft with the 13th overall pick. On March 24, 2017, he became the youngest player to score over 60 points in a game, finishing with 70 against the Boston Celtics. In March 2019, at 22 years old, Booker became the youngest player in NBA history with consecutive 50-point games. Booker is a three-time NBA All-Star and helped the Suns reach the NBA Finals in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "By the end of Moss Point's season, Booker held scholarship offers from Duke, North Carolina, Florida, Michigan, Michigan State, Missouri, and Mississippi State. Rivals.com ranked him a four-star prospect and the 30th best player overall in the class of 2014; ESPN tabbed him as the 18th best player overall. Recruiting analyst Evan Daniels called Booker \"one of the best shooters\" in the country. In April, Booker began playing for the Alabama Challenge on the Nike Elite Youth Basketball League circuit. After watching Booker play for the first time in the league's opening weekend, Kentucky coach John Calipari offered Booker a scholarship. At the South Mississippi All-Star event in May, Booker scored 23 points to lead his East team over the West team 101\u201370 in the underclassman game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "After playing for the freshman, junior varsity and varsity basketball teams during his freshman year at Grandville High School in Michigan, Booker moved to Mississippi to live with his father after the latter's retirement from professional basketball. He enrolled at Moss Point High School, where his father was hired as an assistant coach, in August 2011. In his team's fifth game of the season\u2014a 52\u201332 loss to Gulfport High School\u2014Booker scored more points than the rest of his teammates combined (15). In December, he hit a buzzer beater from just beyond half court to beat Harrison Central High School, improving Moss Point's record to 4\u20136 on the year. By early January, \"Press-Register\" sportswriter Creg Stephenson opined, \"Sophomore guard Devin Booker has developed into one of the top players on the coast in his first season with the [Moss Point] Tigers' varsity, averaging 22.7 points per game.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On July 13, Booker signed his rookie scale contract with the Suns, and in seven subsequent Summer League games, he averaged 15.3 points, 4.9 rebounds and 1.7 assists per game. He went on to make his NBA debut two days before his 19th birthday, in the Suns' season opener against the Dallas Mavericks. In 21 minutes of action against the Mavericks, he scored 14 points on 6-of-7 shooting in a 111\u201395 loss."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On April 9, 2015, Booker declared for the NBA draft, forgoing his final three years of college eligibility. He was joined by fellow Kentucky teammates Andrew Harrison, Aaron Harrison, Dakari Johnson, Willie Cauley-Stein, Trey Lyles and Karl-Anthony Towns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)\n--High school career.\n--College career.\n--Professional career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On September 10, he was ruled out for six weeks after undergoing surgery to repair the fifth metacarpophalangeal joint in his right hand after he jammed it in practice on March 14, 2018. He recovered in time for the Suns' season opener on October 17, scoring 35 points in a 121\u2013100 victory over the Dallas Mavericks. Throughout the beginning of the season, he had multiple 30+ point games despite missing a six-game stretch when he strained his hamstring. On January 24, Booker became the fifth youngest player in NBA history to reach 5,000 career points, behind LeBron James, Kevin Durant, Carmelo Anthony, and Dwight Howard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "After high school, Booker played college basketball at Clemson University, with the Clemson Tigers, from 2009 to 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On December 6, he was ruled out for up to three weeks after sustaining a left adductor strain the previous night against the Toronto Raptors. On December 26, in a 99\u201397 win over the Memphis Grizzlies, Booker scored 32 points in his return. Booker then missed four games in early February with a left hip contusion. On February 17, Booker won the Three-Point Contest over Klay Thompson and Tobias Harris in the final round after setting a new record with 28 points."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On November 6, 2017, Booker scored 18 points in a 98\u201392 loss to the Brooklyn Nets to reach 3,000 career points and the fourth-youngest player in NBA history to score 3,000 points, behind LeBron James, Kevin Durant, and Carmelo Anthony. On November 13, a 36-point game and 26th 30-point in his career tied Steve Nash for 15th most in franchise history. Over the Suns' first 17 games of the season, Booker had seven 30-point games. On December 4, Booker scored a season-high 46 points in a 115\u2013101 win over the Philadelphia 76ers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Booker's injury proved minor, and did not hamper him in Moss Point's next game, where he scored 26 points in a 52\u201348 loss to Davidson High School in the Jackie Laird Christmas Classic at Biloxi High School. On the second day of the Classic, Booker scored a season-high 49 points in an 80\u201365 win over Brewbaker Technology Magnet High School, a performance that added Duke to the list of schools recruiting him. In early January, Moss Point went 1\u20132 in the Poplar Bluff showdown in Poplar Bluff, Missouri, defeating Memphis' Kirby High School but losing to Maplewood Richmond Heights High School and host Poplar Bluff High School. University of Missouri fans attended \"en masse\" to cheer for Booker, who averaged 30.2 points over Moss Point's three games, hoping to entice him to play for the Tigers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Booker's brother, Trevor, also played college basketball at Clemson and played a professionally in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Booker's cousin, Jordan Hill, is a former NBA player as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "During the summer of 2013, Booker participated in the Kevin Durant Skills Academy, the LeBron James Skills Academy, the CP3 Elite Guard Camp, and the National Basketball Players Association (NBPA) Top 100 camp. His fellow participants in the NBPA camp voted him to the camp's 10-man all-star team. Booker also participated against international competition at the Nike Global Challenge. At the Under Armour Elite 24 showcase, he won the three-point shooting contest. In August 2013, Booker narrowed his list of potential college choices to Florida, Missouri, Michigan, Michigan State, and Kentucky. He took an official visit to the University of Kentucky on the weekend of September 9 to watch an alumni exhibition game; fellow 2014 prospects Jahlil Okafor and Tyler Ulis also attended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In the summer following his sophomore year, Booker played in the Nike Elite Youth Basketball League and participated in the Elite 100 Camp, the LeBron James King's Academy Camp, and the Kevin Durant Nike Skills Camp. These commitments caused him to miss the inaugural South Mississippi All-Star Basketball Showcase in May."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenny Booker",
        "text": "After college, Booker was selected in the 14th round of the 1971 NBA draft by the Phoenix Suns, as well as in the eighth round of the American Basketball Association draft by the Indiana Pacers. He tried out with Phoenix, surviving multiple cuts before being released in September 1971. In October, Booker was appointed as the head coach of Verbum Dei High School's basketball team, who were the defending CIF Southern Section 4-A Division champions. He coached the school for one season before quitting, leading them to a Del Rey League championship in 1972 as well as their second-straight CIF 4-A title; it was also the school's fourth-straight CIF championship at any level. In 1975 he went to Italy, and played professionally for two years in Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hassan Booker",
        "text": "After graduating in 1998, Booker served in the United States Navy as a surface warfare officer and lieutenant. In summer 2003 he returned to the Naval Academy to teach advanced navigation in the professional development department. During the 2003\u201304 and 2004\u201305 school years he served as an assistant coach to Navy's women's basketball team. In 2005, Booker was recruited by Tulsa men's basketball head coach Doug Wojcik to be an assistant. Wojcik was an assistant coach for Navy and had recruited Booker to play for them. Booker spent two seasons at Tulsa before leaving basketball to pursue a career in business."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "In 2016, Booker agreed to join the New York Knicks for the NBA Summer League. On July 17, 2016, he signed with Bayern Munich of the BBL in Germany. On July 12, 2017, Booker re-signed with Bayern for the 2017\u201318 season. He averaged 12.4 points and 5 rebounds per game on the season. Booker re-signed with the team on July 17, 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Booker played high school basketball at Union County High School, in Union, South Carolina."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "Source: \"basketball-stats.de\" (Date: 27. March 2022)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Booker (basketball)",
        "text": "As a four-year Letterman at Diamond Hill-Jarvis High School in Fort Worth, Texas, Booker averaged 24.0 points and 12.0 rebounds per game as a senior. He was named Fort Worth Player of the Year during his senior season. He earned First-Team All-District honors as a senior, and was also named District Player of the Year and Most Valuable Player in the Fort Worth district."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Booker is the son of Veronica Guti\u00e9rrez, a cosmetologist, and Melvin Booker, who was named the 1994 Big Eight Player of the Year while a point guard at Missouri. His parents met while his father was playing basketball for the Continental Basketball Association's Grand Rapids Hoops in Guti\u00e9rrez's hometown of Grand Rapids, Michigan. Booker was born and raised in Grand Rapids, living with his mother, who is reportedly of Mexican and Puerto Rican descent. while his African-American father pursued a professional basketball career internationally. He visited his father regularly during the summer. At age 12 while visiting him in Milan, he played one-on-one with Danilo Gallinari. Booker was taught by his father that having basketball IQ was just as important as natural athleticism. During his time in middle school, Booker became friends with future fellow NBA players D'Angelo Russell and Tyler Ulis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Booker (basketball)",
        "text": "Booker attended Tyler Junior College in his freshman year, where he averaged 10.0 points and 10.0 rebounds per game. Improving in his sophomore season, he averaged 19.0 points and 11.0 rebounds per game, was and named All-Conference and Second Team All-American."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In 38 games for Kentucky in 2014\u201315, Booker averaged 10.0 points, 2.0 rebounds and 1.1 assists in 21.5 minutes per game. He subsequently earned SEC Sixth Man of the Year honors and was named to the SEC All-Freshman Team and the All-SEC Second Team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "Booker attended Price High School. As a junior, he averaged 13 points, 7 rebounds and 5 assists to lead Price to the Division IV championship. He was ranked 30th in the nation at his position by ESPN. Booker committed to the Colorado Buffaloes to play for Tad Boyle on October 29, 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "Booker was a standout high school player in Moss Point, Mississippi. He averaged 28 points per game in his senior year and was named the player of the year in his class. Despite that, none of the major four-year schools from the region recruited him. Booker signed with Missouri, a school whose attention he caught during a prior recruitment run through the area. Missouri assistant coaches noticed him while they were scouting fellow Mississippi standouts Litterial Green and Chris Jackson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On February 25, he scored 20 points to help the Suns break a franchise-record 17-game losing streak with a 124\u2013121 win over the Miami Heat. On March 25, he scored 59 points in a 125\u201392 loss to the Utah Jazz. On March 27, he scored 50 points in a 124\u2013121 loss to the Wizards, becoming the youngest player in NBA history with consecutive 50-point games. He also became first player in franchise history to reach 50 in back-to-back games. On April 3, in a 118\u201397 loss to the Jazz, Booker sprained his left ankle, ruling him out for the last three games of the season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Trevor Booker\n--Early life.\n--High school career.\n--College career.\n----Freshman.\n----Sophomore and Junior.\n----Senior.\n--Professional career.\n----Washington Wizards (2010\u20132014).\n----Utah Jazz (2014\u20132016).\n----Brooklyn Nets (2016\u20132017).\n----Philadelphia 76ers (2017\u20132018).\n----Indiana Pacers (2018).\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Booker's 38-point performance in a January 31 win against Pass Christian High School made him Moss Point's all-time career scoring leader with 2,263 points, surpassing the 2006 mark of 2,251 set by David Booker (no relation). Moss Point won Mississippi's Region 8-4A regular season and tournament championships before ending their season with a 61\u201356 loss to McComb High School in the Class 4A South State Finals. Booker scored 42 points in the loss, including 26 in the fourth quarter. He averaged 30.9 points per game in his senior season and finished his three-year career at Moss Point with 2,518 points. After the season, he was named to the USA Today All-USA third team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "As a freshman, Booker helped lead Colorado to the NCAA Tournament for the first time since the 2002\u201303 season. He averaged 9.1 points, 2.7 rebounds, and 1.4 assists in 21.5 minutes per game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "While playing for the Grand Rapids Mackers in the 1995\u20131996 CBA season, Booker met Veronica Guti\u00e9rrez. The two became close and had a son, Devin Booker, born on October 30, 1996. The two never married and Guti\u00e9rrez would take care of their son Devin while his father played pro basketball in Europe and Asia. During the summers, Booker would bring his son to his games which helped to drive Devin's interest in basketball. After Melvin Booker retired from pro basketball in 2008, he returned to his hometown of Moss Point, Mississippi and brought his son with him so he could help train him to become a successful basketball player. Booker was hired as an assistant coach for basketball at his alma mater, Moss Point High School, in 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On March 24 against the Boston Celtics, Booker became the sixth player in NBA history to score 70 points in a game, joining Wilt Chamberlain, David Robinson, David Thompson, Elgin Baylor and Kobe Bryant. It was the 11th 70-point game in NBA history. Booker also added eight rebounds and six assists in 45 minutes. Booker, at age 20, became the youngest player to score 70 (and 60) points in a game. He had the highest-scoring game in the NBA since Bryant scored 81 in January 2006. The Suns' previous scoring record was held by Tom Chambers with 60 points on March 24, 1990. Booker ended the season averaging 22.1 points per game, a near 9-point increment from his 13.8 points in 2015\u201316."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Aron Booker",
        "text": "Booker attended the University of Oklahoma from 2013 to 2015, where he backed up Buddy Hield. On 22 May 2015, he scored 12 points in Oklahoma's victory against Dayton in the second round of the 2015 NCAA Tournament. He transferred to Florida Atlantic in 2015 and redshirted his first year while undergoing a back surgery to repair a herniated disc. In 2016\u20132017, Booker averaged 5.7 points and 16.7 minutes per game for the Owls. Prior to his senior year, Booker transferred to South Carolina for the 2017\u201318 season. In 33 games for the Gamecocks, Booker averaged 12.7 points while shooting 40,9% from the three point range."
      },
      {
        "title": "Semaj Booker",
        "text": "Throughout his high school tenure, he would go to four different campuses in Washington, at least one per each year of a regular high school tenure. In his sophomore season, he played for Lincoln High School in Tacoma. As a junior, he transferred to Curtis Senior High School in University Place, Washington. He also worked part-time as a referee at the time. He received a letter of interest from San Diego State University while at Curtis. Before his 18th birthday at the end of his junior year, he was involved with a serious fight that led to his suspension from school, and he attended summer school at Oakland Alternative High School in Tacoma. In his senior year, Booker transferred to Clover Park High School in Lakewood, Washington. During what would be his last year of high school, Booker would average 13.6 points, 7.3 rebounds, 2.0 steals, 1.6 assists, and 1.5 blocks per game in 20 games played. He gained interest from both Tacoma Community College and Evergreen State College, but Booker veered away from those places, eventually stopping himself from going to classes at Clover Park altogether at one point. He projected to go to a preparatory school in Illinois to finish high school properly, but couldn't in part because of the birth of his son, Mathayus King Blue-Booker, on December 22, 2016, and partially because of an arrest he had in February 2017, which would lead to a court case on July that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Booker attended Union High School in Union, South Carolina, and played basketball under head coach Joe Pitt. In his senior year in 2005\u201306, Booker was named Gatorade Player of the Year for South Carolina, after averaging 21.9 points, 16.4 rebounds, and 3.5 assists per game. He was also named AAA State Player of the Year and was a first-time All-State selection. Booker left the Union high school team as its all-time leader in rebounds and blocked shots. Later on, Booker played Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) basketball with the South Carolina Celtics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devontae Booker",
        "text": "Booker attended American River College from 2011 to 2013. In 2011, he had 793 rushing yards and 12 touchdowns and in 2012, he had 1,472 yards and 15 touchdowns. He was originally expected to transfer to the University of Utah prior to the 2013 season, but was unable due to academic reasons. He stayed at American River College and did not play football in 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On January 12, 2017, he scored 28 fourth-quarter points, in another 39-point night, to set the Suns franchise record for most points in a quarter, previously held by Stephon Marbury's 26 points in 2002. He had a second straight 39-point effort in a two days later to become the youngest player in NBA history to record consecutive games of 39 or more points in the regular season. He was named to the U.S. Team for the 2017 Rising Stars Challenge, and was invited to take part in the 2017 Taco Bell Skills Challenge. On February 4, at 20 years, 97 days old, Booker became the youngest player to score at least 20 points in 16 consecutive games. His 16-game streak is the second-longest by any first-year or second-year player since Vince Carter had a 23-game run as a second-year player during the 1999\u20132000 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On May 23, Booker would make his NBA playoff debut, posting 34 points, 7 rebounds and 8 assists in a 99\u201390 victory in Game 1 of the First Round over the defending champion Los Angeles Lakers. On June 3, Booker recorded a playoff career-high 47 points, along with 11 rebounds to lead the Suns to a 113\u2013100 series-clinching victory over the Lakers in Game 6 to advance to the Conference Semifinals against the Denver Nuggets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "Askia Toussaint Booker (born August 31, 1993) is an American professional basketball player for the Shenzhen Aviators of the Chinese Basketball Association. He played college basketball for the Colorado Buffaloes as a point guard. In his senior year in 2014\u201315, he earned second-team all-conference honors in the Pac-12."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenny Booker",
        "text": "Booker grew up in Long Beach, California, and went to high school at Long Beach Polytechnic, where he won two California Interscholastic Federation (CIF) basketball championships. He was named to All-Southern California Board of Basketball all-star team as a center in 1966."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On January 22, 2021, Booker reached 8,000 points scored in a 130\u2013126 overtime loss to the Denver Nuggets, straining his left hamstring during that overtime. He returned to action on February 1, reaching 700 career three-point shots, including a game-winning 3-pointer with 1.5 seconds left in the game, to win 109\u2013108 over the Dallas Mavericks. Two days later, Booker passed Dan Majerle for 10th place in the Suns all-time scoring list in a 123\u2013101 loss to the New Orleans Pelicans. On February 8, 2021, Booker scored a season-high 36 points in a 119\u2013113 win over the Cleveland Cavaliers. He later matched his season-high for points on February 13 in a 120\u2013111 win over the Philadelphia 76ers. Booker was then named the Western Conference Player of the Week for the first time in his career on February 15 for the week of February 8\u201314, 2021, becoming the first Suns player to get the award since Goran Dragi\u0107 in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In the Laurel MLK Shootout, Booker scored 54 points against Northeast Jones High School, falling nine shy of Litterial Green's Moss Point record for most points in a game, set in 1988. He followed up that performance with 32 points, including a game-winning three-pointer, against Murrah High School and was named ESPNHS.com's Southeast Player of the Week. At that time, his father told reporters that Booker was drawing interest from Mississippi State, Ole Miss, Florida, Alabama, Georgetown, Michigan and Missouri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "During the 2021\u201322 NBA season, on November 29, 2021, Booker was named the Player of the Week in the Western Conference for his performance during Week 6 of the season, which helped the Suns achieve a franchise-record 18-game winning streak. He received the honor again on January 17, 2022 for his efforts during Week 13. Booker was named an All-Star along with teammate for the third year in a row alongside teammate Chris Paul when reserves were announced on February 10. That night, he was selected for Team Durant as part of the All-Star Draft. On March 24, 2022, Booker scored a season-high 49 points in a 140\u2013130 road victory over the Denver Nuggets, becoming the fourth-youngest player in NBA history to score 11,000 points. He finished the week averaging 37.3 points and 6.3 assists per game and was named the Week 23 Western Conference Player of the Week. Booker and the Suns finished the regular season with the league's best overall record at 64\u201318."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Devin Booker was unable to play due to knee injury.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Devin Booker was unable to play due to knee injury.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenny Booker",
        "text": "After helping his high school team win two championships, Booker went to junior college at Long Beach City College. He was an all-conference player for the Vikings, and was later inducted into their Hall of Champions. He transferred to the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), where he was a defensive specialist. Booker was a key reserve player in his first year of play. He moved to the guard position and became a starter as a senior, when he won his second national title with the Bruins, part of a run of seven consecutive championships by UCLA coach John Wooden. After college, Booker had a brief stint playing professionally, and also coached for a year in high school. He later became a realtor, and has also been a high school basketball official for over 30 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "As a sophomore, Booker was one of two players to start all 33 games, along with Spencer Dinwiddie. He averaged 12.4 points, 2.2 assists, and 1.2 steals per game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "On June 16, 2021, he has signed a 2-year deal with Fenerbah\u00e7e of the Turkish Basketball Super League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On June 25, 2015, Booker was selected with the thirteenth overall pick by the Phoenix Suns in the 2015 NBA draft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Devin Booker (born February 28, 1991) is an American professional basketball player for Fenerbah\u00e7e of the Turkish Basketball Super League (BSL) and EuroLeague."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Near the beginning of October, his high school coach said Booker would announce his college choice on October 31 after taking official visits to Michigan and Missouri; he also stated that Booker was no longer considering Florida. Booker stated that ESPN had offered him the chance to make his announcement on live television, but he declined, saying he didn't want the pressure of such an event and that he wanted to keep the date flexible to allow his family from Michigan to attend. At an October 31 ceremony at his high school gymnasium, Booker announced he had chosen Kentucky, citing the program's history and his affinity for coach John Calipari as primary factors in his decision. He, Tyler Ulis, Karl-Anthony Towns and Trey Lyles all signed National Letters of Intent to play for Kentucky on November 13, the first day of the official signing period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "After going undrafted in the 2015 NBA draft, Booker joined the Philadelphia 76ers for the 2015 NBA Summer League. On August 13, 2015, he signed with Arkadikos for the 2015\u201316 Greek Basket League season. However, he was released by Arkadikos in mid-October after appearing in just two games. On October 31, 2015, he was selected by the Maine Red Claws with the 10th overall pick in the 2015 NBA Development League Draft, only to be traded to the Bakersfield Jam in a three-team draft night deal. In 47 games for the Jam in 2015\u201316, he averaged 12.8 points, 3.1 rebounds and 3.5 assists per game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In December, Booker's Moss Point team traveled to the Marshall County Hoop Fest in Marshall County, Kentucky, to play Louisville's Ballard High School, the top-rated high school team in the state. Booker led his team in points (40), rebounds (9), and assists (2) while shooting 50% from the field and 20-for-24 from the free throw line, but his team lost the game. Two games later, he scored a season-high 45 points in a 78\u201367 loss to Alabama's McGill-Toolen Catholic High School in the Melvin Booker Shootout. Although Moss Point lost all three games they played in the late-December HighSchoolOT.com Invitational, Booker's 111 total points over those three games fell just four short of Donald Williams' 1991 record for the event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Due to his mother's ethnic background, Booker drew interest from the Mexican and U.S. national teams. He played on the 2016 USA Select Team that trained against the 2016 U.S. Olympic team. In February 2020, he was named a finalist to play on the 2020 United States men's Olympic basketball team. However, the 2020 Summer Olympics were postponed into 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Booker began his pro career in France, during the 2013\u201314 LNB Pro A season, with SLUC Nancy. Later that same year, he moved to the French 2nd Division club JL Bourg. He was named the Finals MVP of the 2013\u201314 LNB Pro B season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "After a standout 15-point, 6-rebound, 7-assist game against Boston University, Booker posted a then-season-high 18 points in a November 23 win against Montana State. He led the team in scoring, shooting 6-of-8 from the field with 3 three-pointers. In Kentucky's next game against Texas-Arlington, Booker set a new season high with a team-high 19 points on 7-of-8 shooting, including five made three-pointers, in a 92\u201344 win."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Booker scored a game-high 32 points in a 58\u201356 loss to Gulfport High School, the top-ranked team in Mississippi, in Moss Point's final game before divisional play, dropping the team's record to 6\u201311. Moss Point went 3\u20133 in Division 7-5A, finishing the divisional season with a 51\u201340 victory over Gautier High School. Booker, who struggled with his outside shot due to a wrap on his injured right wrist, hit all 17 of his free throws en route to a game-high 30 points in the win. Moss Point closed out the regular season with a 67\u201365 loss to Division 5-6A champion Hattiesburg High School, despite 43 points from Booker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Butch Booker",
        "text": "He played collegiately for the Cheyney University of Pennsylvania. He was drafted by both the New York Knicks (5th round) and the Seattle SuperSonics (4th round) in the 1968 and 1969 editions of the NBA draft, respectively, but never played for either team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "On July 21, 2014, Booker signed with the Utah Jazz to a reported two-year, $10 million contract. On April 11, 2015, Booker scored a career-high 36 points in a win over the Portland Trail Blazers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Booker (basketball)",
        "text": "Booker transferred for his junior season to play for Gene Keady at Purdue University, where he was named an All-Big Ten honorable mention by conference coaches, and was named to the All-Junior College Transfer Team. He led the Boilermakers in rebounding, averaging 5.7 per game. He also played in all 30 games, with 24 starts, and ranked third on the team in scoring, at 9.4 points per game. He led the squad in blocked shots, and shot 45.2 percent from the field, fourth-best on the team. He played 807 minutes, second-most on the team. He also set Purdue's record for blocks in a season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "In July 2016, Booker joined the Phoenix Suns for the 2016 NBA Summer League. On October 31, 2016, he was re-acquired by the now Northern Arizona Suns. In the team's season opener on November 12, 2016, Booker scored 15 points in a 122\u2013106 win over the Iowa Energy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Buddy Booker",
        "text": "Booker was born in Lynchburg, Virginia and earned most of his prep accolades as a William Campbell High School basketball player in Naruna, Virginia. He broke the Virginia state scoring record with 719 points during the 1960 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On July 7, 2018, Booker signed a five-year, $158 million maximum contract extension with the Suns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Trevor Fitzgerald Booker (born November 25, 1987) is an American former professional basketball player who played eight seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA). He was drafted 23rd overall by the Minnesota Timberwolves in the 2010 NBA draft, but was immediately traded to the Washington Wizards. Booker primarily played the power forward position."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On January 2, 2016, Booker scored a then season-high 21 points in a 142\u2013119 loss to the Sacramento Kings. On January 19, he scored 32 points in a 97\u201394 loss to the Indiana Pacers, setting a Suns' rookie record with six three-pointers. Booker became the third-youngest player in NBA history at 19 years, 81 days old to record a 30-point game, behind LeBron James and Kevin Durant, as well as the youngest Suns player to score 30 or more points in a game. Booker participated for Team USA in the 2016 Rising Stars Challenge. He also competed in the NBA All-Star Weekend's Three-Point Contest, becoming the youngest contestant to ever participate in the event and only the fourth rookie to compete in the 30-year-old contest, joining Stephen Curry (2010), Kyle Korver (2004) and Dennis Scott (1991). He made it to the final round of the event, where he finished third behind the \"Splash Brothers\" \u2013 Stephen Curry and Klay Thompson (winner)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "On July 16, 2019, Russian club Khimki announced that they had signed with Booker to a one-year deal. On July 5, 2020, Booker officially renewed his contract with the Russian club Khimki with an option for an additional year, which also competes in the EuroLeague."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Booker",
        "text": "Booker played college basketball at Bowling Green State University from 1983 to 1987."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On November 23, 2019, Booker almost put up a triple-double with 35 points, a career-high 12 rebounds, and 9 assists in a 100\u201398 win over the Minnesota Timberwolves. From December 27, 2019 until January 7, 2020, Booker scored over 30 points in seven straight games, including a 40-point performance in a loss against the Memphis Grizzlies on January 5. This streak broke a franchise record for most consecutive 30+ point games in a row, beating a record previously set by Charlie Scott twice and Charles Barkley once. In addition, his streak from December 28 until January 7 made him the only player since the 1983\u201384 NBA season to record six straight performances of 30+ points and 6+ assists with 47% shooting efficiency. On January 28, Booker became the fourth-youngest player to reach 7,000 career points, behind only LeBron James, Kevin Durant, and Carmelo Anthony. Booker was named an All-Star on February 13, 2020 as an injury replacement after Damian Lillard suffered an groin strain injury a day earlier. He also replaced Lillard in the Three Point Contest, an event he had previously won, and finished as the runner-up behind Buddy Hield."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Booker (basketball)",
        "text": "Christopher Monroe Booker (born October 24, 1981) is an American former professional basketball player. He played as a 6'10\" (2.08 m) tall power forward-center."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "On July 8, 2016, Booker signed with the Brooklyn Nets. On December 14, 2016, he grabbed a season-high 18 rebounds in a 107\u201397 win over the Los Angeles Lakers. On April 1, 2017, he scored a season-high 23 points in a 121\u2013111 win over the Orlando Magic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Booker has three younger brothers; Devin, Darrion, and Jared. Devin also played college basketball for Clemson University and now plays professionally in Europe. Darrion played college basketball for the University of West Alabama, and Jared competes with the Union County High School basketball team. Booker is also the cousin of NBA player Jordan Hill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "On October 31, 2006, Booker made his collegiate debut with Clemson, recording six points, seven rebounds, three blocks, and three steals as starting power forward in an exhibition game against Lithuania Academy. He was allowed 18 minutes on the court, and along with Sam Perry, led the team in rebounds. Booker made his first regular season appearance with the Tigers on November 10, 2006, in the first round of the Cox Communications Classic against Arkansas State. After starting as center, he became the first true freshman to start in that position for Clemson since Tom Wideman in 1995\u201396. He finished the game with 6 points, a team-high 7 rebounds, and 1 block in 19 minutes of playing time. On November 12, 2006, Booker grabbed a career-best 9 rebounds vs Old Dominion for the Cox Communications Classic title. He also contributed 10 points. On November 17, 2006, Booker scored a career-high 15 points in 20 minutes against Appalachian State. Booker recorded 11 rebounds on November 24 of the same year in a win over Charleston Southern. It was his first collegiate game with 10+ boards. On December 31, 2006, he recorded his first career double-double, with 15 points and 12 rebounds on Georgia State. James Mays, one of his teammates, when asked about Booker's accomplishments, said, \"What didn't he do?\" Booker helped Clemson reach 14\u20130, their best start in 20 years. On January 6, 2007, Booker had Georgia Tech freshman Zach Peacock ejected from the game after he hit him with an elbow. On March 19, 2007, Booker scored a career-high 21 points against Ole Miss. By the end of his freshman season, Booker averaged 10.4 points, a team-high 6.7 rebounds, and 2.2 blocks. He ranked fourth nationally among freshmen in shots blocked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devontae Booker",
        "text": "Booker attended and played high school football for Grant Union High School in Sacramento, California, where he rushed for 2,884 yards and 45 touchdowns as a senior. He helped Grant High to the 2008 CIF State Open Division state title as a junior, leading the team in rushing yards (1,850) and touchdowns (36). Booker was named to the Sacramento Bee's all-metro teams in 2008 and 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Devin Booker\n--Early life.\n--High school career.\n----Sophomore year.\n----Junior year.\n----Senior year.\n--College career.\n--Professional career.\n----Phoenix Suns (2015\u2013present).\n------2015\u201316 season: All-Rookie honors.\n------2016\u201317 season: Improving as a sophomore.\n------2017\u201318 season: Injuries.\n------2018\u201319 season: Franchise player.\n------2019\u201320 season: First All-Star season.\n------2020\u201321 season: First playoff appearance and NBA Finals.\n------2021\u201322 season: Franchise record in wins.\n--National team career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In Game 1 of the 2021 NBA Finals against the Milwaukee Bucks, Booker put up 27 points in a 118\u2013105 win. In Game 2 of the 2021 NBA Finals, Booker put up 31 points, shooting 7-for-12 from three-point range, in a 118\u2013108 win, as Phoenix took a 2\u20130 series lead. On July 14, Booker broke Rick Barry\u2019s 54 year old record of most points in first NBA playoff appearance with 601. Despite the success, the Suns would lose to the Bucks in six games. Booker in his first career playoffs averaged 27.3 points, 5.6 rebounds, and 4.5 assists, with 45/32/91% shooting, and back-to-back 40-point games in the Finals becoming the third player in NBA history to have back-to-back 40 point games in the Finals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Booker (basketball)",
        "text": "Chris Booker (basketball)\n--High school career.\n--College career.\n----Junior college.\n----Purdue.\n--Professional career.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "The following week, Moss Point faced a rematch with Gautier in the first round of the Division 7-5A tournament with a spot in the state tournament on the line. Moss Point fell 54\u201351 in double overtime, ending the team's season at 12\u201316. Booker scored 35 points in the loss, including 17 free throws. For the year, he averaged 29.7 points, eight rebounds and four assists per game while carrying a 3.81 grade point average. He was named to the Division 7-5A All-Division team and was the division's MVP. In March, he was named the Mississippi Gatorade Player of the Year for 2013, and in April, he became the second player ever to win the \"Sun Herald\" Player of the Year Award in consecutive seasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "Melvin Jermaine Booker (born August 20, 1972) is an American former professional basketball player. A , point guard, he played for the University of Missouri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Booker",
        "text": "Frank Booker\n--College.\n--Career.\n----NBA.\n----Iceland.\n------\u00cdR.\n------Valur.\n------Grindav\u00edk.\n--Coaching career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Mike Conley was selected as Devin Booker\u2019s replacement.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In Game 1 of the Conference Finals, Booker recorded his first career triple-double with 40 points, 13 rebounds, and 11 assists, in a 120\u2013114 win over the Los Angeles Clippers. In Game 6 of the Conference Finals, Booker dropped 22 points in a 130\u2013103 victory over the Clippers, to lead the Suns to the NBA Finals for the first time since 1993."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA All-Star Game",
        "text": "Mike Conley was selected as Devin Booker\u2019s replacement.\n* Note: \"The final round was decided by votes from the judges.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NBA Finals",
        "text": "Middleton scored 40 points, including 10 straight for Milwaukee in the closing moments, and the Bucks won 109\u2013103 to tie the series 2\u20132. Booker rebounded from his Game 3 struggles to score a game-high 42 points, but his playing time was restricted late by foul trouble. The Suns led for 37:55 of the first 44 minutes of the game. With 3:42 left in the fourth and the Suns up by three Jrue Holiday attempted a layup and received a great deal of contact from Devin Booker with no call (the play was determined to be a foul by the NBA in the Last 3:30 Report after the game). If Devin Booker had received the foul, it would have been his sixth, resulting in him being ejected and hugely affecting the game. This sparked a lot of controversy online, with the decision to not call the foul being criticised by fans and sports media. They were up two with minutes remaining when Middleton scored the next eight points in the contest. He made consecutive midrange jump shots to place Milwaukee up for good at 101\u201399 with 1:28 in the game. Jumping off the left leg that he hyperextended two weeks earlier, Antetokounmpo blocked a potential game-tying alley-oop by Ayton with 1:14 left, prompting fans and media to debate the play's standing among the greatest blocks of all-time. After Paul lost his balance of his own accord and turned over the ball, Holiday picked up the loose ball and Middleton made a fast-break layup and with 27.2 seconds left for a four-point lead. He capped off his run with four free throws to bring the score to 107\u2013101. The Bucks outscored the Suns 33\u201321 in the fourth quarter. Antetokounmpo finished with 26 points along with 14 rebounds and eight assists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "On April 14, 2020, Booker announced his retirement from his basketball career at age 32."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shawn Long",
        "text": "Long attended Morgan City High School under Jeremy Whittington. As a senior, he averaged 21.4 points, 15.2 rebounds and 9.1 blocks, helping team to a 26\u20135 record. He was named district MVP, earned first team all-district honors for two straight year and was the district defensive player of the year as a senior."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marty Booker",
        "text": "Marty Montez Booker was born July 31, 1976 to Vera and Calvin Booker of Jonesboro, La. Booker attended Jonesboro-Hodge High School in Jonesboro, Louisiana. He was a two-sport standout in both football and track. In football, he was a quarterback and passed for and 48 combined touchdowns as a senior, at a college meet, he was told that he was super athletic, and quarterback wasn't the right spot for him, he chose WR. Following his senior season, he finished as the runner-up for the national Gatorade High School Player of the Year award. In track, he was ranked second in the state high jump finals as a senior. Booker also was a standout basketball player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Booker",
        "text": "On June 22, 1987, Booker was selected by the New Jersey Nets with the second pick in round 7 of the 1987 NBA Draft. He had short pre-season stints with the Nets, Miami Heat and Cleveland Cavaliers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On March 3, Booker scored a then career-high 34 points in a loss to the Miami Heat, On March 10, Booker recorded a career-high 35 points in a loss to the Denver Nuggets. Throughout the month of March, Booker led all rookies in points (22.4) and assists (4.9) per game. On April 9, with 16 points scored in a 121\u2013100 win over the New Orleans Pelicans, Booker reached 1,014 for the season, making him the fourth-youngest player to reach 1,000 career points, following only LeBron James, Kevin Durant, and Kobe Bryant, as well as the third-youngest during their rookie season. Booker finished fourth in the 2016 NBA Rookie of the Year Award voting and earned NBA All-Rookie First Team honors. He became the first Suns player to be named as a member of the All-Rookie Team since Amar'e Stoudemire in 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Aron Booker",
        "text": "Booker was born in Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland, to Frank Booker, an American professional basketball player who was drafted by the New Jersey Nets in 1987, and Icelander \u00de\u00f3runn J\u00f3nsd\u00f3ttir. He grew up in Iceland until the age of 11 when he moved to his father in Augusta, Georgia to attend school. At Westside High School in Augusta, Booker averaged 27.9 points and 4.1 assists per game as a senior."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devontae Booker",
        "text": "On March 19, 2021, Booker signed a two-year contract with the New York Giants. He scored his first rushing touchdown as a New York Giant against the Dallas Cowboys in a 44-20 loss in week 5. He was released on March 3, 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "On August 4, 2011, Booker signed with Bnei Hasharon of Israel for the duration of the NBA lockout. In October 2011, he returned to the United States due to a bruised right quadriceps. In December 2011, following the conclusion of the lockout, Booker returned to the Washington Wizards before appearing in a game for Bnei Hasharon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dante Booker",
        "text": "Dante Booker (born October 9, 1977) is a former professional American football player. Booker grew up in Akron, Ohio, where he was a three-time all-city selection in High School basketball. Booker played college football at Montgomery Junior College prior to transferring to Auburn University, where he majored in sociology. Upon graduation, Booker pursued a career in professional football."
      },
      {
        "title": "2013\u201314 Kentucky Wildcats men's basketball team",
        "text": "Devin Booker was the third commitment in the class when he verbally committed on October 31, 2013. He was ranked as the No. 18 overall by ESPN and No. 29 overall by Scout and Rivals. As a junior, he was named by Gatorade as the top basketball player in Mississippi. He is the son of the former Missouri and All-American great Melvin Booker. He chose Kentucky over his Dad's alma mater and Michigan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "His only child and son, Devin Booker, played for the University of Kentucky Wildcats basketball team during their nearly undefeated 2014\u201315 NCAA season and currently plays for the Phoenix Suns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenny Booker",
        "text": "Kenneth Arnold Booker (born November 20, 1948) is an American former professional basketball player. He played college basketball for the UCLA Bruins from 1969 to 1971, winning a national championship in each of his two seasons of play. He played two seasons professionally in Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Booker",
        "text": "Michael Booker\n--Early years.\n--College Years (1994-1996).\n--NFL Career and later years.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Simeon Booker",
        "text": "Booker graduated from high school in Youngstown and then enrolled at Youngstown College, but transferred to Virginia Union University in Richmond, Virginia, when he learned that Black students were denied activity cards at the YMCA-sponsored school. He earned money during college by providing publicity for Virginia Union's sports teams. He graduated from Virginia Union with a degree in English in 1942."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Booker started working out with the minor league PrimeTime Players of the East Coast Basketball League and The Tournament fame. He made his ECBL debut on March 6, 2021, scoring 36 points and 18 rebounds."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What team did Devin Armani Booker's father Melvin Booker play for?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Melvin Booker played in high school, university, as well as in NBA for multiple teams in different seasons. Which of these teams would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know more about his time playing basketball in university."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Booker was the 1994 Big Eight Player of the Year, when he led Missouri to an undefeated conference record of 14\u20130 and an Elite Eight berth. In 1999, Booker was elected to the intercollegiate athletics Hall of Fame at the University of Missouri."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which teams did he play for in the NBA?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "He played in the NBA for the Houston Rockets during the 1995\u201396 season; and the Denver Nuggets and Golden State Warriors, during the 1996\u201397 season, for 32 games."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has Booker been working since the NBA Finals in 2021?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Booker was hired as an assistant coach for basketball at his alma mater, Moss Point High School, in 2011."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How long did Booker work at Moss Point High School?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I didn't find the answer, but I found that Booker was hired as an assistant coach for basketball at his alma mater, Moss Point High School, in 2011."
    ],
    "topic": "Devin Booker",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Melvin Booker:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Melvin Booker",
          "Personal life"
        ],
        "ctx": "While playing for the Grand Rapids Mackers in the 1995\u20131996 CBA season, Booker met Veronica Guti\u00e9rrez. The two became close and had a son, Devin Booker, born on October 30, 1996. The two never married and Guti\u00e9rrez would take care of their son Devin while his father played pro basketball in Europe and Asia. During the summers, Booker would bring his son to his games which helped to drive Devin's interest in basketball. After Melvin Booker retired from pro basketball in 2008, he returned to his hometown of Moss Point, Mississippi and brought his son with him so he could help train him to become a successful basketball player. Booker was hired as an assistant coach for basketball at his alma mater, Moss Point High School, in 2011."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "His only child and son, Devin Booker, played for the University of Kentucky Wildcats basketball team during their nearly undefeated 2014\u201315 NCAA season and currently plays for the Phoenix Suns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "While playing for the Grand Rapids Mackers in the 1995\u20131996 CBA season, Booker met Veronica Guti\u00e9rrez. The two became close and had a son, Devin Booker, born on October 30, 1996. The two never married and Guti\u00e9rrez would take care of their son Devin while his father played pro basketball in Europe and Asia. During the summers, Booker would bring his son to his games which helped to drive Devin's interest in basketball. After Melvin Booker retired from pro basketball in 2008, he returned to his hometown of Moss Point, Mississippi and brought his son with him so he could help train him to become a successful basketball player. Booker was hired as an assistant coach for basketball at his alma mater, Moss Point High School, in 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "With most of Moss Point's experienced players graduating, Booker switched to point guard for his junior year. In an early December game, Booker outscored the entire Ocean Springs High School team 40\u201339 through three quarters en route to a 48-point finish as Moss Point won 100\u201355. He followed up this performance with a 30-point outing, including 7 three-pointers, in a win over 54\u201337 win over Laurel High School in the second annual Melvin Booker Shootout, named in honor of his father. The following week, Booker left a game against Harrison Central High School in the third quarter with a sprained MCL; he had scored just 9 points, but grabbed 7 rebounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Booker is the son of Veronica Guti\u00e9rrez, a cosmetologist, and Melvin Booker, who was named the 1994 Big Eight Player of the Year while a point guard at Missouri. His parents met while his father was playing basketball for the Continental Basketball Association's Grand Rapids Hoops in Guti\u00e9rrez's hometown of Grand Rapids, Michigan. Booker was born and raised in Grand Rapids, living with his mother, who is reportedly of Mexican and Puerto Rican descent. while his African-American father pursued a professional basketball career internationally. He visited his father regularly during the summer. At age 12 while visiting him in Milan, he played one-on-one with Danilo Gallinari. Booker was taught by his father that having basketball IQ was just as important as natural athleticism. During his time in middle school, Booker became friends with future fellow NBA players D'Angelo Russell and Tyler Ulis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Devin Armani Booker (born October 30, 1996) is an American professional basketball player for the Phoenix Suns of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He is the son of former basketball player Melvin Booker. After playing college basketball for one season with the Kentucky Wildcats, Booker was selected by the Phoenix Suns in the first round of the 2015 NBA draft with the 13th overall pick. On March 24, 2017, he became the youngest player to score over 60 points in a game, finishing with 70 against the Boston Celtics. In March 2019, at 22 years old, Booker became the youngest player in NBA history with consecutive 50-point games. Booker is a three-time NBA All-Star and helped the Suns reach the NBA Finals in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "After playing for the freshman, junior varsity and varsity basketball teams during his freshman year at Grandville High School in Michigan, Booker moved to Mississippi to live with his father after the latter's retirement from professional basketball. He enrolled at Moss Point High School, where his father was hired as an assistant coach, in August 2011. In his team's fifth game of the season\u2014a 52\u201332 loss to Gulfport High School\u2014Booker scored more points than the rest of his teammates combined (15). In December, he hit a buzzer beater from just beyond half court to beat Harrison Central High School, improving Moss Point's record to 4\u20136 on the year. By early January, \"Press-Register\" sportswriter Creg Stephenson opined, \"Sophomore guard Devin Booker has developed into one of the top players on the coast in his first season with the [Moss Point] Tigers' varsity, averaging 22.7 points per game.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Booker's brother, Trevor, also played college basketball at Clemson and played a professionally in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Booker's cousin, Jordan Hill, is a former NBA player as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Booker has three younger brothers; Devin, Darrion, and Jared. Devin also played college basketball for Clemson University and now plays professionally in Europe. Darrion played college basketball for the University of West Alabama, and Jared competes with the Union County High School basketball team. Booker is also the cousin of NBA player Jordan Hill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "Booker was a standout high school player in Moss Point, Mississippi. He averaged 28 points per game in his senior year and was named the player of the year in his class. Despite that, none of the major four-year schools from the region recruited him. Booker signed with Missouri, a school whose attention he caught during a prior recruitment run through the area. Missouri assistant coaches noticed him while they were scouting fellow Mississippi standouts Litterial Green and Chris Jackson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Booker played high school basketball at Union County High School, in Union, South Carolina."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Booker's maternal grandfather is from Mexico. Devin is the only child of his father, Melvin Booker, a former professional basketball player. In 2020, Booker was named a global ambassador to the Special Olympics for his support for his younger half-sister who has microdeletion syndrome, a genetic chromosomal disorder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In the Laurel MLK Shootout, Booker scored 54 points against Northeast Jones High School, falling nine shy of Litterial Green's Moss Point record for most points in a game, set in 1988. He followed up that performance with 32 points, including a game-winning three-pointer, against Murrah High School and was named ESPNHS.com's Southeast Player of the Week. At that time, his father told reporters that Booker was drawing interest from Mississippi State, Ole Miss, Florida, Alabama, Georgetown, Michigan and Missouri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "Melvin Jermaine Booker (born August 20, 1972) is an American former professional basketball player. A , point guard, he played for the University of Missouri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On March 2, in a 124\u2013116 loss to the Oklahoma City Thunder, Booker scored 39 points and at 21 years, 123 days old, he became the third-youngest player in NBA history to reach 4,000 career points, again behind LeBron James and Kevin Durant. Booker missed the Suns' final 12 games of the season with a right hand sprain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In December, Booker's Moss Point team traveled to the Marshall County Hoop Fest in Marshall County, Kentucky, to play Louisville's Ballard High School, the top-rated high school team in the state. Booker led his team in points (40), rebounds (9), and assists (2) while shooting 50% from the field and 20-for-24 from the free throw line, but his team lost the game. Two games later, he scored a season-high 45 points in a 78\u201367 loss to Alabama's McGill-Toolen Catholic High School in the Melvin Booker Shootout. Although Moss Point lost all three games they played in the late-December HighSchoolOT.com Invitational, Booker's 111 total points over those three games fell just four short of Donald Williams' 1991 record for the event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)\n--High school career.\n--College career.\n--Professional career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "2013\u201314 Kentucky Wildcats men's basketball team",
        "text": "Devin Booker was the third commitment in the class when he verbally committed on October 31, 2013. He was ranked as the No. 18 overall by ESPN and No. 29 overall by Scout and Rivals. As a junior, he was named by Gatorade as the top basketball player in Mississippi. He is the son of the former Missouri and All-American great Melvin Booker. He chose Kentucky over his Dad's alma mater and Michigan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Booker scored a game-high 32 points in a 58\u201356 loss to Gulfport High School, the top-ranked team in Mississippi, in Moss Point's final game before divisional play, dropping the team's record to 6\u201311. Moss Point went 3\u20133 in Division 7-5A, finishing the divisional season with a 51\u201340 victory over Gautier High School. Booker, who struggled with his outside shot due to a wrap on his injured right wrist, hit all 17 of his free throws en route to a game-high 30 points in the win. Moss Point closed out the regular season with a 67\u201365 loss to Division 5-6A champion Hattiesburg High School, despite 43 points from Booker."
      },
      {
        "title": "2014\u201315 Kentucky Wildcats men's basketball team",
        "text": "Devin Booker was the third commitment in the class when he verbally committed on October 31, 2013. He was ranked as the No. 18 overall by ESPN and No. 29 overall by Scout and Rivals. As a junior, he was named by Gatorade as the top basketball player in Mississippi. He is the son of the former Missouri and All-American great Melvin Booker. He chose Kentucky over his Dad's alma mater and Michigan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "After high school, Booker played college basketball at Clemson University, with the Clemson Tigers, from 2009 to 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On December 6, he was ruled out for up to three weeks after sustaining a left adductor strain the previous night against the Toronto Raptors. On December 26, in a 99\u201397 win over the Memphis Grizzlies, Booker scored 32 points in his return. Booker then missed four games in early February with a left hip contusion. On February 17, Booker won the Three-Point Contest over Klay Thompson and Tobias Harris in the final round after setting a new record with 28 points."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "Booker was the 1994 Big Eight Player of the Year, when he led Missouri to an undefeated conference record of 14\u20130 and an Elite Eight berth. He was also an all Big Eight selection in 1993 and 1994 and was a 1994 first-team All-American as a senior, when he averaged 18.1 points and 4.5 assists per game. In 1999, Booker was elected to the intercollegiate athletics Hall of Fame at the University of Missouri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On February 25, he scored 20 points to help the Suns break a franchise-record 17-game losing streak with a 124\u2013121 win over the Miami Heat. On March 25, he scored 59 points in a 125\u201392 loss to the Utah Jazz. On March 27, he scored 50 points in a 124\u2013121 loss to the Wizards, becoming the youngest player in NBA history with consecutive 50-point games. He also became first player in franchise history to reach 50 in back-to-back games. On April 3, in a 118\u201397 loss to the Jazz, Booker sprained his left ankle, ruling him out for the last three games of the season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Booker's 38-point performance in a January 31 win against Pass Christian High School made him Moss Point's all-time career scoring leader with 2,263 points, surpassing the 2006 mark of 2,251 set by David Booker (no relation). Moss Point won Mississippi's Region 8-4A regular season and tournament championships before ending their season with a 61\u201356 loss to McComb High School in the Class 4A South State Finals. Booker scored 42 points in the loss, including 26 in the fourth quarter. He averaged 30.9 points per game in his senior season and finished his three-year career at Moss Point with 2,518 points. After the season, he was named to the USA Today All-USA third team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "By the end of Moss Point's season, Booker held scholarship offers from Duke, North Carolina, Florida, Michigan, Michigan State, Missouri, and Mississippi State. Rivals.com ranked him a four-star prospect and the 30th best player overall in the class of 2014; ESPN tabbed him as the 18th best player overall. Recruiting analyst Evan Daniels called Booker \"one of the best shooters\" in the country. In April, Booker began playing for the Alabama Challenge on the Nike Elite Youth Basketball League circuit. After watching Booker play for the first time in the league's opening weekend, Kentucky coach John Calipari offered Booker a scholarship. At the South Mississippi All-Star event in May, Booker scored 23 points to lead his East team over the West team 101\u201370 in the underclassman game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On November 6, 2017, Booker scored 18 points in a 98\u201392 loss to the Brooklyn Nets to reach 3,000 career points and the fourth-youngest player in NBA history to score 3,000 points, behind LeBron James, Kevin Durant, and Carmelo Anthony. On November 13, a 36-point game and 26th 30-point in his career tied Steve Nash for 15th most in franchise history. Over the Suns' first 17 games of the season, Booker had seven 30-point games. On December 4, Booker scored a season-high 46 points in a 115\u2013101 win over the Philadelphia 76ers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On July 13, Booker signed his rookie scale contract with the Suns, and in seven subsequent Summer League games, he averaged 15.3 points, 4.9 rebounds and 1.7 assists per game. He went on to make his NBA debut two days before his 19th birthday, in the Suns' season opener against the Dallas Mavericks. In 21 minutes of action against the Mavericks, he scored 14 points on 6-of-7 shooting in a 111\u201395 loss."
      },
      {
        "title": "Buddy Booker",
        "text": "Booker was born in Lynchburg, Virginia and earned most of his prep accolades as a William Campbell High School basketball player in Naruna, Virginia. He broke the Virginia state scoring record with 719 points during the 1960 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On January 2, 2016, Booker scored a then season-high 21 points in a 142\u2013119 loss to the Sacramento Kings. On January 19, he scored 32 points in a 97\u201394 loss to the Indiana Pacers, setting a Suns' rookie record with six three-pointers. Booker became the third-youngest player in NBA history at 19 years, 81 days old to record a 30-point game, behind LeBron James and Kevin Durant, as well as the youngest Suns player to score 30 or more points in a game. Booker participated for Team USA in the 2016 Rising Stars Challenge. He also competed in the NBA All-Star Weekend's Three-Point Contest, becoming the youngest contestant to ever participate in the event and only the fourth rookie to compete in the 30-year-old contest, joining Stephen Curry (2010), Kyle Korver (2004) and Dennis Scott (1991). He made it to the final round of the event, where he finished third behind the \"Splash Brothers\" \u2013 Stephen Curry and Klay Thompson (winner)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On September 10, he was ruled out for six weeks after undergoing surgery to repair the fifth metacarpophalangeal joint in his right hand after he jammed it in practice on March 14, 2018. He recovered in time for the Suns' season opener on October 17, scoring 35 points in a 121\u2013100 victory over the Dallas Mavericks. Throughout the beginning of the season, he had multiple 30+ point games despite missing a six-game stretch when he strained his hamstring. On January 24, Booker became the fifth youngest player in NBA history to reach 5,000 career points, behind LeBron James, Kevin Durant, Carmelo Anthony, and Dwight Howard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On May 23, Booker would make his NBA playoff debut, posting 34 points, 7 rebounds and 8 assists in a 99\u201390 victory in Game 1 of the First Round over the defending champion Los Angeles Lakers. On June 3, Booker recorded a playoff career-high 47 points, along with 11 rebounds to lead the Suns to a 113\u2013100 series-clinching victory over the Lakers in Game 6 to advance to the Conference Semifinals against the Denver Nuggets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devontae Booker",
        "text": "Booker attended and played high school football for Grant Union High School in Sacramento, California, where he rushed for 2,884 yards and 45 touchdowns as a senior. He helped Grant High to the 2008 CIF State Open Division state title as a junior, leading the team in rushing yards (1,850) and touchdowns (36). Booker was named to the Sacramento Bee's all-metro teams in 2008 and 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Booker's injury proved minor, and did not hamper him in Moss Point's next game, where he scored 26 points in a 52\u201348 loss to Davidson High School in the Jackie Laird Christmas Classic at Biloxi High School. On the second day of the Classic, Booker scored a season-high 49 points in an 80\u201365 win over Brewbaker Technology Magnet High School, a performance that added Duke to the list of schools recruiting him. In early January, Moss Point went 1\u20132 in the Poplar Bluff showdown in Poplar Bluff, Missouri, defeating Memphis' Kirby High School but losing to Maplewood Richmond Heights High School and host Poplar Bluff High School. University of Missouri fans attended \"en masse\" to cheer for Booker, who averaged 30.2 points over Moss Point's three games, hoping to entice him to play for the Tigers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On January 12, 2017, he scored 28 fourth-quarter points, in another 39-point night, to set the Suns franchise record for most points in a quarter, previously held by Stephon Marbury's 26 points in 2002. He had a second straight 39-point effort in a two days later to become the youngest player in NBA history to record consecutive games of 39 or more points in the regular season. He was named to the U.S. Team for the 2017 Rising Stars Challenge, and was invited to take part in the 2017 Taco Bell Skills Challenge. On February 4, at 20 years, 97 days old, Booker became the youngest player to score at least 20 points in 16 consecutive games. His 16-game streak is the second-longest by any first-year or second-year player since Vince Carter had a 23-game run as a second-year player during the 1999\u20132000 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Booker was born on November 25, 1987, in Newberry, South Carolina, to Gerald and Tracey, both accomplished athletes. He was brought up in a rural Whitmire neighborhood and grew up eating as many as 20 bowls of cereal each week, sharing the love with his brothers. Booker began playing the game of basketball after his mother tried to get her sons into it by showing them her clippings as a high school player. His brother, Devin, said, \"She got us into it when we were younger, and we have been ever since.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Devin Booker (born February 28, 1991) is an American professional basketball player for Fenerbah\u00e7e of the Turkish Basketball Super League (BSL) and EuroLeague."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "Booker attended Price High School. As a junior, he averaged 13 points, 7 rebounds and 5 assists to lead Price to the Division IV championship. He was ranked 30th in the nation at his position by ESPN. Booker committed to the Colorado Buffaloes to play for Tad Boyle on October 29, 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Booker was limited to just 14 points, with no field goals made in the second half, in a 57\u201355 win over Gautier High School in the opening round of the Division 7-5A tournament. In the championship game against Pascagoula High School, Booker was held to single-digit scoring (8) for only the second time in the season as Moss Point lost 48\u201332, setting up an away game with defending state champion Wayne County High School in the first round of the South State playoffs. Wayne County focused their defense on Booker, holding him to a single, first-quarter free throw, en route to a 57\u201337 victory that ended Moss Point's season. For the year, Booker averaged 22.8 points per game and was named the South Mississippi Player of the Year by the \"Sun Herald\", becoming just the second sophomore to be awarded the honor. In the announcement, the paper reported that Booker held scholarship offers from Ole Miss, Alabama, Georgetown, Michigan and South Alabama."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "The following week, Moss Point faced a rematch with Gautier in the first round of the Division 7-5A tournament with a spot in the state tournament on the line. Moss Point fell 54\u201351 in double overtime, ending the team's season at 12\u201316. Booker scored 35 points in the loss, including 17 free throws. For the year, he averaged 29.7 points, eight rebounds and four assists per game while carrying a 3.81 grade point average. He was named to the Division 7-5A All-Division team and was the division's MVP. In March, he was named the Mississippi Gatorade Player of the Year for 2013, and in April, he became the second player ever to win the \"Sun Herald\" Player of the Year Award in consecutive seasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Cannady",
        "text": "Cannady's father, Tony, played college basketball for Bethel College."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "During the offseason, Booker trained with head coach Earl Watson and former NBA player Baron Davis at UCLA, was invited to be on the select team that practices against Team USA in preparation for the Summer Olympics, and played two games for the Suns during the Las Vegas Summer League. With teammate Eric Bledsoe returning from injury in 2016\u201317, Booker was retained as the starting shooting guard while Brandon Knight was moved to the bench. Booker scored a career-highs of 38 points and 39 points on November 4 and 6."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anton Watson",
        "text": "Watson's father, Deon Sr., played college basketball at Idaho (1990\u201394), holds the Vandal record for career rebounds (877), and played professionally in Europe and South America. Older brother Deon Jr. played college football at their father's alma mater (2013\u201316) as a tight end and wide receiver, and sister Haile played volleyball at Eastern Washington (2015) and Fresno State (2016\u201318)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On March 24 against the Boston Celtics, Booker became the sixth player in NBA history to score 70 points in a game, joining Wilt Chamberlain, David Robinson, David Thompson, Elgin Baylor and Kobe Bryant. It was the 11th 70-point game in NBA history. Booker also added eight rebounds and six assists in 45 minutes. Booker, at age 20, became the youngest player to score 70 (and 60) points in a game. He had the highest-scoring game in the NBA since Bryant scored 81 in January 2006. The Suns' previous scoring record was held by Tom Chambers with 60 points on March 24, 1990. Booker ended the season averaging 22.1 points per game, a near 9-point increment from his 13.8 points in 2015\u201316."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marvin Booker",
        "text": "Booker played college football at Rutgers. As a true freshman Booker contributed on special teams for 11 out of 13 games. Booker suffered multiple injuries in his college career but found ways to be a solid contributor throughout his college career. During Booker's pro day he weighed in at 6'2/244 and recorded a 4.69 40 yrd-dash, 10' 5\" Broad Jump, 34\" Vertical, 36 reps of 225lbs, and a 4.19 Short Shuttle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In the summer following his sophomore year, Booker played in the Nike Elite Youth Basketball League and participated in the Elite 100 Camp, the LeBron James King's Academy Camp, and the Kevin Durant Nike Skills Camp. These commitments caused him to miss the inaugural South Mississippi All-Star Basketball Showcase in May."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Booker",
        "text": "Booker's half Icelandic son, Frank Aron Booker, played for the Oklahoma Sooners in the Big 12 Conference from 2013 to 2015. He transferred from the Florida Atlantic Owls before the 2015\u201316 season. Prior to his senior year, Frank Aron. transferred to South Carolina for the 2017\u201318 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In Game 1 of the Conference Finals, Booker recorded his first career triple-double with 40 points, 13 rebounds, and 11 assists, in a 120\u2013114 win over the Los Angeles Clippers. In Game 6 of the Conference Finals, Booker dropped 22 points in a 130\u2013103 victory over the Clippers, to lead the Suns to the NBA Finals for the first time since 1993."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marty Booker",
        "text": "Marty Montez Booker was born July 31, 1976 to Vera and Calvin Booker of Jonesboro, La. Booker attended Jonesboro-Hodge High School in Jonesboro, Louisiana. He was a two-sport standout in both football and track. In football, he was a quarterback and passed for and 48 combined touchdowns as a senior, at a college meet, he was told that he was super athletic, and quarterback wasn't the right spot for him, he chose WR. Following his senior season, he finished as the runner-up for the national Gatorade High School Player of the Year award. In track, he was ranked second in the state high jump finals as a senior. Booker also was a standout basketball player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On April 9, 2015, Booker declared for the NBA draft, forgoing his final three years of college eligibility. He was joined by fellow Kentucky teammates Andrew Harrison, Aaron Harrison, Dakari Johnson, Willie Cauley-Stein, Trey Lyles and Karl-Anthony Towns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "He played in the NBA for the Houston Rockets during the 1995\u201396 season; and the Denver Nuggets and Golden State Warriors, during the 1996\u201397 season, for 32 games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muruga Booker",
        "text": "Booker was born in Detroit, Michigan, on December 27, 1942, at Highland Park General Hospital, and is of Serbian descent. His father, Melvin Bookvich, was a shoemaker who played accordion. He is married to Patti, aka Shakti, and they have a daughter named Rani, and a son named Aaron from a previous marriage. He previously lived in Detroit, New York City and Oakland, California. Since 1985, Booker and his family have lived in Ann Arbor, Michigan, where he has his own recording studio called \"Sage Ct. Studio\", as well as an Eastern Orthodox Church where he is the priest, Saint Gregory Palamas Celtic Orthodox Church."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "In 38 games for Kentucky in 2014\u201315, Booker averaged 10.0 points, 2.0 rebounds and 1.1 assists in 21.5 minutes per game. He subsequently earned SEC Sixth Man of the Year honors and was named to the SEC All-Freshman Team and the All-SEC Second Team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "On June 16, 2021, he has signed a 2-year deal with Fenerbah\u00e7e of the Turkish Basketball Super League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Booker (basketball)",
        "text": "Booker transferred for his junior season to play for Gene Keady at Purdue University, where he was named an All-Big Ten honorable mention by conference coaches, and was named to the All-Junior College Transfer Team. He led the Boilermakers in rebounding, averaging 5.7 per game. He also played in all 30 games, with 24 starts, and ranked third on the team in scoring, at 9.4 points per game. He led the squad in blocked shots, and shot 45.2 percent from the field, fourth-best on the team. He played 807 minutes, second-most on the team. He also set Purdue's record for blocks in a season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devontae Booker",
        "text": "Booker attended American River College from 2011 to 2013. In 2011, he had 793 rushing yards and 12 touchdowns and in 2012, he had 1,472 yards and 15 touchdowns. He was originally expected to transfer to the University of Utah prior to the 2013 season, but was unable due to academic reasons. He stayed at American River College and did not play football in 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Razor Shines",
        "text": "His son, Devin, played baseball for the Cowboys at Oklahoma State and was drafted by the Dodgers in the 38th round of the 2011 MLB Draft. In 2012, Devin played for his dad with the Great Lakes Loons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "During the 2021\u201322 NBA season, on November 29, 2021, Booker was named the Player of the Week in the Western Conference for his performance during Week 6 of the season, which helped the Suns achieve a franchise-record 18-game winning streak. He received the honor again on January 17, 2022 for his efforts during Week 13. Booker was named an All-Star along with teammate for the third year in a row alongside teammate Chris Paul when reserves were announced on February 10. That night, he was selected for Team Durant as part of the All-Star Draft. On March 24, 2022, Booker scored a season-high 49 points in a 140\u2013130 road victory over the Denver Nuggets, becoming the fourth-youngest player in NBA history to score 11,000 points. He finished the week averaging 37.3 points and 6.3 assists per game and was named the Week 23 Western Conference Player of the Week. Booker and the Suns finished the regular season with the league's best overall record at 64\u201318."
      },
      {
        "title": "Semaj Booker",
        "text": "Throughout his high school tenure, he would go to four different campuses in Washington, at least one per each year of a regular high school tenure. In his sophomore season, he played for Lincoln High School in Tacoma. As a junior, he transferred to Curtis Senior High School in University Place, Washington. He also worked part-time as a referee at the time. He received a letter of interest from San Diego State University while at Curtis. Before his 18th birthday at the end of his junior year, he was involved with a serious fight that led to his suspension from school, and he attended summer school at Oakland Alternative High School in Tacoma. In his senior year, Booker transferred to Clover Park High School in Lakewood, Washington. During what would be his last year of high school, Booker would average 13.6 points, 7.3 rebounds, 2.0 steals, 1.6 assists, and 1.5 blocks per game in 20 games played. He gained interest from both Tacoma Community College and Evergreen State College, but Booker veered away from those places, eventually stopping himself from going to classes at Clover Park altogether at one point. He projected to go to a preparatory school in Illinois to finish high school properly, but couldn't in part because of the birth of his son, Mathayus King Blue-Booker, on December 22, 2016, and partially because of an arrest he had in February 2017, which would lead to a court case on July that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Davis (basketball, born 1995)",
        "text": "Davis attended Warren Central High School in Indianapolis, Indiana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "Booker began his pro career in France, during the 2013\u201314 LNB Pro A season, with SLUC Nancy. Later that same year, he moved to the French 2nd Division club JL Bourg. He was named the Finals MVP of the 2013\u201314 LNB Pro B season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "In 2016, Booker agreed to join the New York Knicks for the NBA Summer League. On July 17, 2016, he signed with Bayern Munich of the BBL in Germany. On July 12, 2017, Booker re-signed with Bayern for the 2017\u201318 season. He averaged 12.4 points and 5 rebounds per game on the season. Booker re-signed with the team on July 17, 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Booker T (wrestler)",
        "text": "Booker has a son, from a previous relationship with a high school girlfriend, named Brandon (born in 1982), with whom he has a strained relationship due to his time spent on the road. Booker married his girlfriend of five years, Sharmell Sullivan, in February 2005. The couple welcomed their twins, a boy named Kendrick and a girl named Kennedy, in 2010. Booker and his brother Lash opened a wrestling school in Houston in 2005. Booker T is also a fan of Formula One, and was in attendance at the 2012 U.S Grand Prix as a guest of Lewis Hamilton."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marquis Johnson",
        "text": "Johnson played for Booker High School in Sarasota, Florida, leading his team to a 13-2 record as a senior, had five interceptions, 15 pass breakups and 39 solo tackles. He also returned punts, averaging 37.6 yards per return. He was named All-State as a cornerback and punt returner. As a junior, he registered 50 tackles and 11 pass break-ups. He was a three-sport star, playing on a state-champion basketball team in addition to competing in the triple jump in the Florida state track & field championships."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Booker",
        "text": "Despite those accomplishments, Booker was not selected in the 1994 NBA draft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Booker",
        "text": "Booker attended Union High School in Union, South Carolina, and played basketball under head coach Joe Pitt. In his senior year in 2005\u201306, Booker was named Gatorade Player of the Year for South Carolina, after averaging 21.9 points, 16.4 rebounds, and 3.5 assists per game. He was also named AAA State Player of the Year and was a first-time All-State selection. Booker left the Union high school team as its all-time leader in rebounds and blocked shots. Later on, Booker played Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) basketball with the South Carolina Celtics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "During the summer of 2013, Booker participated in the Kevin Durant Skills Academy, the LeBron James Skills Academy, the CP3 Elite Guard Camp, and the National Basketball Players Association (NBPA) Top 100 camp. His fellow participants in the NBPA camp voted him to the camp's 10-man all-star team. Booker also participated against international competition at the Nike Global Challenge. At the Under Armour Elite 24 showcase, he won the three-point shooting contest. In August 2013, Booker narrowed his list of potential college choices to Florida, Missouri, Michigan, Michigan State, and Kentucky. He took an official visit to the University of Kentucky on the weekend of September 9 to watch an alumni exhibition game; fellow 2014 prospects Jahlil Okafor and Tyler Ulis also attended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marvin Booker",
        "text": "Booker grew up in Piscataway, New Jersey and played under coach Dan Higgins Jr. at Piscataway Township High School, where he graduated in 2008 and would play alongside Dwayne Gratz, J.D. Griggs, Anthony Davis as well as many other future NFL talents. A three-year letter-man, Booker would go on to lead the Chiefs to an 11\u20131 record, ultimately losing in the North Jersey Section 2 Group IV Final against rival Hunterdon Central. Making the transition from DE to LB in his last year at Piscataway High School, Booker tallied 128 tackles, 20 tackles for loss and 6 sacks. During his senior season, Booker signed an LOI (Letter of Intent) to attend nearby Rutgers University to join former PHS teammate Anthony Davis under coach Greg Schiano."
      },
      {
        "title": "Booker Woodfox",
        "text": "Woodfox, a 6'1\" guard from Lewisville High School in Lewisville, Texas, played two seasons for San Jacinto Junior College. He then moved to Creighton. As a junior, he averaged 9.6 points, 2.2 rebounds, and 1.3 assists per game off the bench to earn Missouri Valley Conference sixth man of the year honors. As a senior in 2008\u201309, Woodfox raised his scoring to 15.8 points per game and led the MVC in three-point field goal shooting percentage. At the conclusion of the season, he was named MVC Player of the Year; he was also named an honorable mention All-American by the Associated Press."
      },
      {
        "title": "C. J. Reed",
        "text": "Reed, a 6'3\" guard from Daytona Beach, Florida is the son of former Bethune-Cookman coach Clifford Reed. In 2008, after a standout career at Atlantic High School, Reed went to play for his father at BCU. Reed was an immediate impact player for the Wildcats, averaging 15 points per game in 2008\u201309 and earning Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference freshman of the year honors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Duane James",
        "text": "He played at Miami Dade Junior College. He completed his last two years of college at Binghamton University (NCAA), averaging 7.6 points and 4.7 rebounds in 20.7 minutes per game during his senior year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dale Moss",
        "text": "Moss grew up in Brandon, South Dakota, with four sisters. He is the son of Delores and Dale Sr, an interracial couple. The nephew of 1972 Heisman Trophy winner Johnny Rodgers, Moss played basketball, football, and track and field at Brandon Valley High School."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On June 25, 2015, Booker was selected with the thirteenth overall pick by the Phoenix Suns in the 2015 NBA draft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Currie",
        "text": "His uncle is jazz musician Ahmad Jamal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On November 23, 2019, Booker almost put up a triple-double with 35 points, a career-high 12 rebounds, and 9 assists in a 100\u201398 win over the Minnesota Timberwolves. From December 27, 2019 until January 7, 2020, Booker scored over 30 points in seven straight games, including a 40-point performance in a loss against the Memphis Grizzlies on January 5. This streak broke a franchise record for most consecutive 30+ point games in a row, beating a record previously set by Charlie Scott twice and Charles Barkley once. In addition, his streak from December 28 until January 7 made him the only player since the 1983\u201384 NBA season to record six straight performances of 30+ points and 6+ assists with 47% shooting efficiency. On January 28, Booker became the fourth-youngest player to reach 7,000 career points, behind only LeBron James, Kevin Durant, and Carmelo Anthony. Booker was named an All-Star on February 13, 2020 as an injury replacement after Damian Lillard suffered an groin strain injury a day earlier. He also replaced Lillard in the Three Point Contest, an event he had previously won, and finished as the runner-up behind Buddy Hield."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Booker (basketball)",
        "text": "Booker attended Tyler Junior College in his freshman year, where he averaged 10.0 points and 10.0 rebounds per game. Improving in his sophomore season, he averaged 19.0 points and 11.0 rebounds per game, was and named All-Conference and Second Team All-American."
      },
      {
        "title": "Booker T (wrestler)",
        "text": "Huffman was born the youngest of eight children, in Plain Dealing, Louisiana, though his birthplace is often misidentified as Houston, Texas. By the time Booker was 13, both of his parents had died and he lived with his 16-year-old sister. He would move in with his older brother Lash \"Stevie Ray\" Huffman at age 17. In high school, Huffman was a drum major. He also played football and basketball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Davis (basketball, born 1974)",
        "text": "A product of Miami Senior High School in Florida, Davis was an instant fan favorite as a Redskins freshman, As a senior in 1996\u201397, Davis steered Miami to a Mid-American Conference (MAC) championship, earning MVP honors in the tournament, according to Ultimate Sports Basketball Yearbook, Davis plays much bigger than his size but what makes him stand out is his devilish hair, he wears dreadlocks, short braids that stick out of his head like squirmy worms, In four years playing for the Miami University, Davis hit at a 15.4 clip, He joined Chicago Bulls guard Ron Harper and former NBA center Wayne Embry as the only Redskins varsity players to finish their careers with at least 1,000 points and 1,000 rebounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Darren Studstill",
        "text": "Studstill's son Devin, was a safety at the University of Notre Dame. In 2019, he transferred to the University of South Florida as a graduate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Askia Booker",
        "text": "Askia Toussaint Booker (born August 31, 1993) is an American professional basketball player for the Shenzhen Aviators of the Chinese Basketball Association. He played college basketball for the Colorado Buffaloes as a point guard. In his senior year in 2014\u201315, he earned second-team all-conference honors in the Pac-12."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Due to his mother's ethnic background, Booker drew interest from the Mexican and U.S. national teams. He played on the 2016 USA Select Team that trained against the 2016 U.S. Olympic team. In February 2020, he was named a finalist to play on the 2020 United States men's Olympic basketball team. However, the 2020 Summer Olympics were postponed into 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Noah Dahlman",
        "text": "Dahlman is the grandson of Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame coach John Kundla. His brother Isaiah played collegiately for Michigan State."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Booker (basketball)",
        "text": "As a four-year Letterman at Diamond Hill-Jarvis High School in Fort Worth, Texas, Booker averaged 24.0 points and 12.0 rebounds per game as a senior. He was named Fort Worth Player of the Year during his senior season. He earned First-Team All-District honors as a senior, and was also named District Player of the Year and Most Valuable Player in the Fort Worth district."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker (basketball, born 1991)",
        "text": "In 2015, he joined the French 1st Division club \u00c9lan Chalon, where he also played in the FIBA Europe Cup, where Chalon finished in third place. In the 2015\u201316 LNB Pro A season, Booker was named the league's Most Valuable Player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Booker Moore",
        "text": "Moore set six high school records in football while attending Flint Southwestern Academy in Flint, Michigan. As a member of the Penn State Nittany Lions, Moore rushed for 2,072 yards and 20 touchdowns from 1977\u201380, and played for a national championship in the 1979 Sugar Bowl versus Alabama."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melvin Tuten",
        "text": "He attended Woodrow Wilson High School in Washington D.C. where he lettered in football and basketball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rashaan Melvin",
        "text": "During training camp, Melvin competed for a roster spot as a backup cornerback against Tramain Jacobs, Anthony Levine, Chris Greenwood, Tray Walker, and Cassius Vaughn. Head coach John Harbaugh named Melvin the fourth cornerback on the depth chart to start the season, behind Jimmy Smith, Lardarius Webb, and Kyle Arrington."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Gibson (basketball)",
        "text": "Devin Gibson (basketball)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Braydon Hobbs",
        "text": "Hobbs attended New Albany High School in New Albany, Indiana where he played for coach Jim Shannon and became New Albany's all-time assists leader. As a senior in 2007\u201308, he averaged 16 points, 5.2 rebounds and 6.4 assists per game, and became the first Bulldog to record a triple-double. He has earned Associated Press second-team All-State honors and was named the New Albany Tribune's Player of the Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On January 22, 2021, Booker reached 8,000 points scored in a 130\u2013126 overtime loss to the Denver Nuggets, straining his left hamstring during that overtime. He returned to action on February 1, reaching 700 career three-point shots, including a game-winning 3-pointer with 1.5 seconds left in the game, to win 109\u2013108 over the Dallas Mavericks. Two days later, Booker passed Dan Majerle for 10th place in the Suns all-time scoring list in a 123\u2013101 loss to the New Orleans Pelicans. On February 8, 2021, Booker scored a season-high 36 points in a 119\u2013113 win over the Cleveland Cavaliers. He later matched his season-high for points on February 13 in a 120\u2013111 win over the Philadelphia 76ers. Booker was then named the Western Conference Player of the Week for the first time in his career on February 15 for the week of February 8\u201314, 2021, becoming the first Suns player to get the award since Goran Dragi\u0107 in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "On March 3, Booker scored a then career-high 34 points in a loss to the Miami Heat, On March 10, Booker recorded a career-high 35 points in a loss to the Denver Nuggets. Throughout the month of March, Booker led all rookies in points (22.4) and assists (4.9) per game. On April 9, with 16 points scored in a 121\u2013100 win over the New Orleans Pelicans, Booker reached 1,014 for the season, making him the fourth-youngest player to reach 1,000 career points, following only LeBron James, Kevin Durant, and Kobe Bryant, as well as the third-youngest during their rookie season. Booker finished fourth in the 2016 NBA Rookie of the Year Award voting and earned NBA All-Rookie First Team honors. He became the first Suns player to be named as a member of the All-Rookie Team since Amar'e Stoudemire in 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Aron Booker",
        "text": "Booker was born in Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland, to Frank Booker, an American professional basketball player who was drafted by the New Jersey Nets in 1987, and Icelander \u00de\u00f3runn J\u00f3nsd\u00f3ttir. He grew up in Iceland until the age of 11 when he moved to his father in Augusta, Georgia to attend school. At Westside High School in Augusta, Booker averaged 27.9 points and 4.1 assists per game as a senior."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Britton",
        "text": "Devin\u2019s parents are Scott and Cindy Britton. He is the youngest of three children. He has two older sisters, Tara Chez (33) and Katie (29)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tyrone Corbin",
        "text": "Corbin has two children, Tyjha, and Tyrell with his wife, high school sweetheart, Dante. Tyrell was one of the top basketball prospects from Utah, playing point guard for West High. He was named Utah's Mr. Basketball in the year 2011. He went on to play for the UC Davis Aggies men's basketball team, a Division I school competing in the Big West Conference and coached by Jim Les, his father's Atlanta Hawks teammate from the 1994\u201395 NBA season. Tyrell currently plays for the Northern Arizona Suns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Vassell",
        "text": "Vassell's father, Andrew Vassell, played college basketball at Stony Brook."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Britton",
        "text": "As a junior Britton compiled a singles win\u2013loss record of 54\u201336 (and 92-29 in doubles), reaching as high as No. 13 in the junior world combined rankings in July 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rashaan Melvin",
        "text": "Melvin started 27-of-41 games played at Northern Illinois, totaling 172 tackles (117 solo), six interceptions, 3.5 tackles for loss, one forced fumble and 35 passes defensed. His 35 passes defensed ranked second in school history. He saw action in two games as a walk-on freshman in 2009 and was later awarded a scholarship during the spring of 2010. He saw action in all 14 games (two starts) as a sophomore in 2010, compiling 39 tackles (24 solo), 1.0 tackle for loss, four passes defensed and two interceptions. He started all 13 games as a junior in 2011, recording 78 tackles (54 solo), 1.0 tackle for loss, nine passes defensed and three interceptions. He started all 12 games as a senior, recording 55 tackles (39 solo), 1.5 tackles for loss, 17 passes defensed, one interception and one forced fumble. He led the Mid American Conference and set the single-season school record with 17 passes defensed."
      },
      {
        "title": "B. J. Stith",
        "text": "Stith is the son of Old Dominion assistant coach and former NBA player Bryant Stith. He played alongside his brother Brandan Stith at Brunswick High School and helped the team to three state titles. In his senior season, Stith transferred to Oak Hill Academy. He was ranked No. 65 in the class of 2014 by rivals.com, and No. 99 by ESPN."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tre Harbison",
        "text": "His uncle Charlie Harbison, half-brother Devin Baldwin, and father James each played football at Gardner\u2013Webb University."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenny Booker",
        "text": "After college, Booker was selected in the 14th round of the 1971 NBA draft by the Phoenix Suns, as well as in the eighth round of the American Basketball Association draft by the Indiana Pacers. He tried out with Phoenix, surviving multiple cuts before being released in September 1971. In October, Booker was appointed as the head coach of Verbum Dei High School's basketball team, who were the defending CIF Southern Section 4-A Division champions. He coached the school for one season before quitting, leading them to a Del Rey League championship in 1972 as well as their second-straight CIF 4-A title; it was also the school's fourth-straight CIF championship at any level. In 1975 he went to Italy, and played professionally for two years in Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devin Booker",
        "text": "Devin Booker\n--Early life.\n--High school career.\n----Sophomore year.\n----Junior year.\n----Senior year.\n--College career.\n--Professional career.\n----Phoenix Suns (2015\u2013present).\n------2015\u201316 season: All-Rookie honors.\n------2016\u201317 season: Improving as a sophomore.\n------2017\u201318 season: Injuries.\n------2018\u201319 season: Franchise player.\n------2019\u201320 season: First All-Star season.\n------2020\u201321 season: First playoff appearance and NBA Finals.\n------2021\u201322 season: Franchise record in wins.\n--National team career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What team did Devin Armani Booker's father Melvin Booker play for?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Melvin Booker played in high school, university, as well as in NBA for multiple teams in different seasons. Which of these teams would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know more about his time playing basketball in university."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Booker was the 1994 Big Eight Player of the Year, when he led Missouri to an undefeated conference record of 14\u20130 and an Elite Eight berth. In 1999, Booker was elected to the intercollegiate athletics Hall of Fame at the University of Missouri."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which teams did he play for in the NBA?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "He played in the NBA for the Houston Rockets during the 1995\u201396 season; and the Denver Nuggets and Golden State Warriors, during the 1996\u201397 season, for 32 games."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has Booker been working since the NBA Finals in 2021?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Booker was hired as an assistant coach for basketball at his alma mater, Moss Point High School, in 2011."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How long did Booker work at Moss Point High School?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I didn't find the answer, but I found that Booker was hired as an assistant coach for basketball at his alma mater, Moss Point High School, in 2011."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What type of records does Melvin's son Devin hold?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Booker was the third-youngest player in NBA history to record a 30-point game, as well as the youngest Suns player to score 30 or more points in a game. He also won the Three-Point Contest, setting a new record with 28 points."
    ],
    "topic": "Devin Booker",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Devin Booker:23",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Devin Booker",
          "Professional career",
          "Phoenix Suns (2015\u2013present)",
          "2015\u201316 season: All-Rookie honors"
        ],
        "ctx": "On January 2, 2016, Booker scored a then season-high 21 points in a 142\u2013119 loss to the Sacramento Kings. On January 19, he scored 32 points in a 97\u201394 loss to the Indiana Pacers, setting a Suns' rookie record with six three-pointers. Booker became the third-youngest player in NBA history at 19 years, 81 days old to record a 30-point game, behind LeBron James and Kevin Durant, as well as the youngest Suns player to score 30 or more points in a game. Booker participated for Team USA in the 2016 Rising Stars Challenge. He also competed in the NBA All-Star Weekend's Three-Point Contest, becoming the youngest contestant to ever participate in the event and only the fourth rookie to compete in the 30-year-old contest, joining Stephen Curry (2010), Kyle Korver (2004) and Dennis Scott (1991). He made it to the final round of the event, where he finished third behind the \"Splash Brothers\" \u2013 Stephen Curry and Klay Thompson (winner)."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Devin Booker:29",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Devin Booker",
          "Professional career",
          "Phoenix Suns (2015\u2013present)",
          "2017\u201318 season: Injuries"
        ],
        "ctx": "On December 6, he was ruled out for up to three weeks after sustaining a left adductor strain the previous night against the Toronto Raptors. On December 26, in a 99\u201397 win over the Memphis Grizzlies, Booker scored 32 points in his return. Booker then missed four games in early February with a left hip contusion. On February 17, Booker won the Three-Point Contest over Klay Thompson and Tobias Harris in the final round after setting a new record with 28 points."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Arabs",
        "text": "Arabic cuisine is the cuisine of the Arab people. The cuisines are often centuries old and reflect the culture of great trading in spices, herbs, and foods. The three main regions, also known as the Maghreb, the Mashriq, and the Khaleej have many similarities, but also many unique traditions. These kitchens have been influenced by the climate, cultivating possibilities, as well as trading possibilities. The kitchens of the Maghreb and Levant are relatively young kitchens which were developed over the past centuries. The kitchen from the Khaleej region is a very old kitchen. The kitchens can be divided into the urban and rural kitchens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Arab cuisine () is the cuisine of the Arabs, defined as the various regional cuisines spanning the Arab world, from the Maghreb to the Fertile Crescent and the Arabian Peninsula. These cuisines are centuries old and reflect the culture of trading in Baharat (spices), herbs, and foods. The regions have many similarities, but also unique traditions. They have also been influenced by climate, cultivation, and mutual commerce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arabs",
        "text": "Arab cuisine mostly follows one of three culinary traditions \u2013 from the Maghreb, the Levant or Eastern Arabia. In the Maghreb countries (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya) traditional main meals are tajines or dishes using couscous. In the Levant (Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria) main meals usually start with mezze \u2013 small dishes of dips and other items which are eaten with bread. This is typically followed by skewers of grilled lamb or chicken. Gulf cuisine, tends to be more highly spiced with more use of rice. Sometimes a lamb is roasted and served whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern Arabian cuisine",
        "text": "This multicultural inclusion in part, became possible, after advent of Islam, and with the growth of Arabian influence after invasion of Persia, Balkans, and North Africa, making it possible for merchants of different nations to travel long distances coming into contact and being influenced by or influencing local cuisines they encountered. The exchange of customs and food was bidirectional, with Arabs also exporting their dietary preferences such as dates, figs, and lamb to the areas they traveled to or conquered including the Persian empire and the Turkish population of Balkan. This interchange of goods and ways of life, was significant in forming the current modern Arab diet. Arabs later on transferred these newly gained cuisines on their conquests to Africa, and as far as North Africa, West Africa, and South of Spain. In fact, certain Spanish desserts such as polvorones, tocino de cielo (custard and caramel) and yemas de San Leandro (marzipan based) are heavily influenced by the Moors. Though these influences were not carried out by the original Arabs of the Arabian sub-continent, their west ward expansion into Egypt, and Morocco led to dissemination of Chinese, Indian, Arabian, and Persian cuisines and eventually their vicarious adoption by the North Africans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Eastern Arabian cuisine today is the result of a combination of diverse influences, incorporating Levantine and Yemeni cuisines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern Arabian cuisine",
        "text": "In addition to Arab cuisine, the following cuisines have influenced, or have been influenced by the Eastern Arabian cuisine, either due to trade (mostly maritime from the far east), or as a result of ancient contact:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables are often eaten raw or pickled, as well as cooked. While the cuisine does not boast a multitude of sauces, it focuses on herbs, spices, and the freshness of ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab culture",
        "text": "Originally, the Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula relied heavily on a diet of dates, wheat, barley, rice and meat, with little variety, with a heavy emphasis on yoghurt products, such as leben (\u0644\u0628\u0646) (yoghurt without butterfat). Arabian cuisine today is the result of a combination of richly diverse cuisines, spanning the Arab world and incorporating Levantine, Egyptian, and others. It has also been influenced to a degree by the cuisines of India, Turkey, Berber, and others. In an average Arab household in Eastern Arabia, a visitor might expect a dinner consisting of a very large platter, shared commonly, with a vast mountain of rice, incorporating lamb or chicken, or both, as separate dishes, with various stewed vegetables, heavily spiced, sometimes with a tomato sauce. Most likely, there would be several other items on the side, less hearty. Tea would certainly accompany the meal, as it is almost constantly consumed. Coffee would be included as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The Bedouins of the Arabian Peninsula, Middle East and North Africa rely on a diet of dates, dried fruit, nuts, wheat, barley, rice, and meat. The meat comes from large animals such as cows, sheep, and lambs. They also eat dairy products: milk, cheese, yoghurt, and buttermilk (\"labneh\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "There are many regional differences in the Arab cuisine. For instance, \"mujadara\" in Syria and Lebanon is different from in Jordan and Palestine. Some dishes, such as \"mansaf\" (the national dish of Jordan), are native to certain countries and rarely, if ever, make an appearance in other countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Essential to any cooking in the Arab world is the concept of hospitality and generosity. Meals are generally large family affairs, with much sharing and a great deal of warmth over the dinner table. Formal dinners and celebrations generally involve large quantities of lamb, and every occasion entails large quantities of Arabic coffee or Arabic tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Which the cook delicately fashioned, a gorgeous dish with flavor and perfume."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Soups and stews are often prepared and served with rice and vegetables. Biryani, although influenced by Indian cuisine, is milder with a different mixture of spices, and a wider variety of vegetables, including potatoes, peas, carrots, and onions. Dolma is also one of the most popular dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Arab cuisine\n--Medieval cuisine.\n----Breads.\n----Sauces.\n----Sweets.\n----Vegetables.\n--Diet and foods.\n--Structure of meals.\n----Year round.\n------Breakfast.\n------Lunch.\n------Dinner.\n----Ramadan.\n------Iftar.\n------Suhur.\n----Sweets.\n--Arab hospitality.\n----Khaleej.\n------Coffee ceremony.\n------Guests dinner.\n----Maghreb.\n------Tea/coffee ceremony.\n------Dinner guests.\n----Levantine.\n------Coffee/tea ceremony.\n------Dinner guests.\n----Regional differences.\n--Regional Arab cuisines.\n----Arabian Peninsula.\n----Mashriq.\n----Bedouin cuisine.\n----Levant.\n----Iraq/Mesopotamia.\n----Egypt.\n----Africa.\n------Sudan.\n------Maghreb.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian cuisine",
        "text": "Modern Syrian-Palestinian dishes have been generally influenced by the rule of three major Islamic groups: the Arabs, the Persian-influenced Arabs (Iraqis) and the Turks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine",
        "text": "Some factors that have an influence on a region's cuisine include the area's climate, the trade among different countries, religious or sumptuary laws and culinary culture exchange. For example, a tropical diet may be based more on fruits and vegetables, while a polar diet might rely more on meat and fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "It also includes copious amounts of garlic and olive oil, often seasoned with lemon juice\u2014almost no meal goes by without including these ingredients. Most often foods are either grilled, baked, fried, or saut\u00e9ed in olive oil; butter and cream are rarely used, other than in a few desserts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "Middle Eastern cuisine\n--Geography.\n--History and influences.\n--Elements.\n----Grains.\n----Flavorings.\n----Religious influence.\n----Vegetables.\n----Dishes.\n--Beverages.\n--Dining etiquette.\n----Arab countries.\n------Ramadan.\n----Turkey.\n----Iran.\n--Globalization.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The vegetables and meat are usually cooked together in a sauce (often tomato, although others are also popular) to make , which is served with rice. Most households add bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Arab cuisine uses specific and unique foods and spices. Some of those foods are:\n* Meat\u2014lamb and chicken are the most used, followed by beef and goat. Other poultry is used in some regions, and fish is used in coastal areas including the Mediterranean Sea, Atlantic Ocean and the Red Sea.\n:Pork Some Christian Arabs eat pork.\n* Dairy products\u2014widely used, especially yogurt, buttermilk and white cheese. Butter and cream are also used extensively.\n* Herbs and spices\u2014amounts and types used generally varies from region to region.\n:Herbs and spices include: sesame, saffron, black pepper, allspice, turmeric, garlic, cumin, cinnamon, parsley, coriander and sumac.\n:Spice mixtures include \"baharat\",\" ras el hanout\", \"za'atar\", and \"harissa\".\n* Beverages\u2014hot beverages are served more often than cold, coffee being at the top of the list in Middle-Eastern countries and tea at top in Maghreb countries.\n:In Jordan, Palestine, Egypt, some parts of Syria, Morocco, and Algeria, tea is much more prevalent as a beverage. Other Arabic drinks include Andalucian \"horchata\" and Maghrebi avocado smoothie.\n* Grains\u2014rice is the staple and is used for most dishes; wheat is the main source for bread. Bulgur and semolina are also used extensively.\n:According to historic recipes known from Arabic cookbooks, grains were primarily used to make porridge and pasta type dishes in Arab cuisine until the 12th century. Two types of pasta were known: \"itriya\", a short dry noodle of Greek origin similar to \"orzo\", and , a hand-cut fresh noodle of Persian origin.\n:By the 13th century, the Turkic style and noodles had entered the cuisine.\n* Legumes\u2014lentils are widely used in all colours, as well as fava beans, peanuts, chickpeas (garbanzo beans), scarlet runner beans, green peas, lupini beans, white beans, and brown beans.\n* Vegetables\u2014popular vegetables in Arab cuisine include carrots, eggplant (aubergine), zucchini (courgette), artichokes, okra, onions, and olives. Potatoes are also eaten as vegetables in Arab culture.\n* Fruits\u2014pomegranate, dates, figs, oranges, citruses, watermelons, cantaloupe, honeydew melon, grapes, peaches, and nectarines are favored in Arab cuisine.\n* Nuts\u2014almonds, pine nuts, pistachios, and walnuts are often included in dishes or eaten as snacks.\n* Greens\u2014parsley, coriander and mint are popular as seasonings in many dishes, while spinach and \"mulukhiyah\" (leaves from the plant of the \"Corchorus\" genus) are used in cooked dishes.\n* Dressings and sauces\u2014the most popular dressings include various combinations of olive oil, lemon juice, parsley, or garlic, as well as \"tahini\" (sesame paste). \"Labaneh\" (strained yogurt) is often seasoned with mint, onion, or garlic, and served as a sauce with various dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In Palestine and Jordan, the population has a cooking style of their own, involved in roasting various meats, baking flatbreads, and cooking thick yogurt-like pastes from goat's milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Many Arabic food words are borrowed from Aramaic, the language spoken by the Christian Nabataean inhabitants of Iraq and Syria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Dishes include olive oil, \"za'atar\", and garlic, and common dishes include a wide array of \"mezze\" or bread dips, stuffings, and side dishes such as hummus, falafel, \"ful\", \"tabouleh\", \"labaneh\", and baba ghanoush."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The spices emitting fragrance like wine mingled with sweet breeze."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jeddah",
        "text": "Jeddah's multi-ethnic citizenry has influenced Jeddah's traditional cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab Indonesian cuisine",
        "text": "Arab Indonesian cuisine (Indonesian: Masakan Arab-Indonesia) is characterized by the mixture of Middle Eastern cuisine with local Indonesian-style. Arab Indonesians brought their legacy of Arab cuisine\u2014originally from Hadhramaut, Hejaz and Egypt\u2014and modified some of the dishes with the addition of Indonesian ingredients. The Arabs arrived in the Nusantara archipelago to trading and spread Islam. In Java, since the 18th century AD, most of Arab traders settled on the north coast and diffuse with indigenous, thus affecting the local cuisine culture, especially in the use of mutton meat and ghee in cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Algerian cuisine",
        "text": "The cuisine of Algeria is influenced by Algeria's interactions and exchanges with other cultures and nations over the centuries. It is characterized by a wealth derived from both land and sea products. Conquests or demographic movement towards the Algerian territory were two of the main factors of exchanges between the different peoples and cultures (Berbers, Arabs, Turks, Andalusians, French and Spaniards). This cuisine is a Mediterranean and North African cuisine with Berber roots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Levant, a guest will find a table with different kinds of \"mezzes\", nuts, dips and oils. include hummus, baba ghanoush, falafel, \"kibbeh\", \"kafta\", smoked vegetables and \"tabouli\" salads. The nuts can differ from almonds to walnuts, with different spice coatings. The dips and oils include hummus and olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "These main dishes are accompanied by smaller \"mezze\"-like plates with salads, sauces and dips. Breads such as and \"khobz\" are used to eat the stews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "Other influences on the cuisine are the availability of foods common to the Mediterranean region, especially certain kinds of fruits and vegetables, dairy products and fish; the tradition of keeping kosher; and food customs and traditions specific to Shabbat and different Jewish holidays, such as challah, \"jachnun\", \"malawach\", gefilte fish, \"hamin\", \"me'orav yerushalmi\" and \"sufganiyot\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "Religion has impacted the cuisine by making lamb the primary meat since both Jews and Muslims do not eat pork."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Khaleej al-Arab region, a guest should expect a dinner consisting of a very large platter, shared commonly, with a large amount of spiced rice, with spicy lamb, chicken, or both, as separate dishes, with various stewed vegetables, heavily spiced, sometimes with a tomato-based sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "<poem>The concept of is so subtle that none other than the smart can fathom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "During the 20th century, carbonated soda and fruit-based drinks have also become very popular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "There are two basic structures for meals in the Arab World, one regular schedule during most of the year and a second one that is unique to the month of Ramadan in which observant Muslims fast during the day."
      },
      {
        "title": "South Sudanese cuisine",
        "text": "South Sudanese cuisine was influenced by Arab cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern Arabian cuisine",
        "text": "There are many regional differences in Arab cuisine. For instance mujadara in Syria or Lebanon is different from mujadara in Jordan or Palestine. Some dishes such as mensaf (the national dish of Jordan) are native to certain countries and rarely if ever make an appearance in other countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinians",
        "text": "Palestine's history of rule by many different empires is reflected in Palestinian cuisine, which has benefited from various cultural contributions and exchanges. Generally speaking, modern Syrian-Palestinian dishes have been influenced by the rule of three major Islamic groups: the Arabs, the Persian-influenced Arabs and the Turks. The Arabs who conquered Syria and Palestine had simple culinary traditions primarily based on the use of rice, lamb and yogurt, as well as dates. The already simple cuisine did not advance for centuries due to Islam's strict rules of parsimony and restraint, until the rise of the Abbasids, who established Baghdad as their capital. Baghdad was historically located on Persian soil and henceforth, Persian culture was integrated into Arab culture during the 9th\u201311th centuries and spread throughout central areas of the empire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "is a leg of lamb or large pieces of mutton, on top of a \"markook\" bread that has been topped with yellow rice. A type of thick dried yogurt made from goat's milk, called \"jameed\", is poured on top of the lamb and rice to give it its distinct flavor and taste. The dish is garnished with cooked pine nuts and almonds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the vessel harmoniously combined, here together and there disperse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Rice, potatoes, scrambled eggs, and vegetables are common additions to . It is eaten with flat bread known as \"mulawah\", which serves as a utensil to scoop up the food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables include leeks, endive, melilot, fenugreek, onions, purslane, Jew's mallow and radish. Boiled asparagus is served with olive oil and \"murri\". The cooking water may be sweetened with honey and seasoned with cilantro, rue, anise and black pepper, and used as a beverage either by itself with honey, or added to wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab Mexicans",
        "text": "Immigration of Arabs in Mexico has influenced Mexican culture, in particular food, where they have introduced Kibbeh, Tabbouleh and even created recipes such as \"Tacos \u00c1rabes\". By 1765, dates, which originated from the Middle East, were introduced into Mexico by the Spaniards. The fusion between Arab and Mexican food has highly influenced Yucatecan cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "However, cheese, butter, and other dairy products are less common, especially in the cities and other urban areas. As with other Arab cuisines, the most widespread beverages are tea and coffee; tea is usually flavored with cardamom, clove, or mint, and coffee with cardamom. , \"Naqe'e Al Zabib\", and are the most widespread cold beverages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "This is followed by a soup or anything they would like, the most popular being lentil soup, but a wide variety of soups such as chicken, oats, \"freeka\" (a soup made from whole wheat and chicken broth), potato, , and others are also offered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "To Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi are credited two recipes, one prepared by adding rue, caraway, thyme, \"asafetida\" and cassia to the mustard sauce, and another made by mashing vinegar-soaked raisins with garlic, walnut, mustard, vinegar, and seasonings like \"asafetida\" and anise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arabs",
        "text": "One will find the following items in most dishes; cinnamon, fish (in coastal areas), garlic, lamb (or veal), mild to hot sauces, mint, onion, rice, saffron, sesame, yogurt, spices due to heavy trading between the two regions. Tea, thyme (or oregano), turmeric, a variety of fruits (primarily citrus) and vegetables such as cucumbers, eggplants, lettuce, tomato, green pepper, green beans, zucchini and parsley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "The region was also influenced by dumplings from Mongol invaders; turmeric and other spices from India; cloves, peppercorns and allspice from the Spice Islands; okra from Africa, and tomatoes from the New World."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Jiggling with murri and olive oil, ebbing and flowing with sheen.</poem>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The third course is the main dish, usually eaten after an interval, when Maghreb prayer is conducted. The main dish is mostly similar to what is served in lunch year-round, except that cold drinks are served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine",
        "text": "Cuisine\n--Etymology.\n--Factors that affect a cuisine.\n--History.\n--Evolution of cuisine.\n--Global cuisine.\n--Regional cuisines.\n----African cuisine.\n----Asian cuisines.\n----European cuisine.\n----Oceanian cuisine.\n----Cuisines of the Americas.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "All radiating with luster like carnelian shimmering on pearls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Palestine",
        "text": "Palestine's history of rule by many different empires is reflected in Palestinian cuisine, which has benefited from various cultural contributions and exchanges. Generally speaking, modern Palestinian dishes have been influenced by the rule of three major Islamic groups: the Arabs, the Persian-influenced Arabs, and the Turks. The original Bedouin Arabs in Syria and Palestine had simple culinary traditions primarily based on the use of rice, lamb and yogurt, as well as dates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern Arabian cuisine",
        "text": "Originally, the inhabitants of the Eastern Arabia relied heavily on a diet of dates, wheat, barley, rice and meat, with little variety, and with a heavy emphasis on yogurt products, such as \"leben\" (\u0644\u0628\u0646) (yogurt without butterfat). Globalization and contact with ancient civilizations such as the Romans, Persians, and later on with the Ottomans brought the Arabs in close contact with dishes of several other cultures, as well as introducing several new ingredients in their diet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Maghreb cuisine is the cooking of the Maghreb region, the northwesternmost part of the Arab world along the Mediterranean Sea, consisting of the countries of Algeria, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia. In Maghrebi cuisine, the most common staple foods are wheat (for \"khobz\" bread and couscous), fish, seafood, goat, lamb, beef, dates, almonds, olives and various vegetables and fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Maghreb region, a guest may find a table with different kinds of stews, called or \"tajines\". Dishes such as \"couscous\" and other semolina-based foods are also to be found."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The platter usually consists of a portion of meat, poultry or fish, a portion of rice, lentils, bread and a portion of cooked vegetables, in addition to the fresh ones with the and salad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Some vegetables are consumed raw, but the following are usually boiled: asparagus, cauliflower, white soy beans, leeks, orach, a variety of mushroom known as , chard, cabbage, carrot, turnip, fresh fennel and eggplant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab Indonesians",
        "text": "The influence of Hadhrami immigrants in the Indonesian cuisine can be seen in the presence of Yemeni cuisine in Indonesia, such as Nasi kebuli, Mandi rice, \"Ka'ak\" cookie, Murtabak, or lamb Maraq (lamb soup or stew)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Demographics of Mexico",
        "text": "Immigration of Arabs in Mexico has influenced Mexican culture, in particular food, where they have introduced Kibbeh, Tabbouleh and even created recipes such as \"Tacos \u00c1rabes\". By 1765, Dates, which originated from the Middle East, were introduced into Mexico by the Spaniards. The fusion between Arab and Mexican food has highly influenced the Yucatecan cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Different types of bread are served with toppings specific to the region. Tea would certainly accompany the meal, as it is almost constantly consumed. Coffee would also be served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Levantine cuisine is the traditional cuisine of the Fertile Crescent. Although now divided into Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, Egypt, and Palestine, the region has historically been more united, and shares many culinary traditions. Although very similar, there is some variation within the Levantine area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "From the seventh Abbasid caliph Al-Ma'mun's recipe collection comes a made with whey, walnut, garlic, olive oil and murri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mexicans",
        "text": "Immigration of Arabs in Mexico has influenced Mexican culture, in particular food, where they have introduced Kibbeh, Tabbouleh and even created recipes such as \"Tacos \u00c1rabes\". By 1765, Dates, which originated from the Middle East, were introduced into Mexico by the Spaniards. The fusion between Arab and Mexican food has highly influenced the Yucatecan cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Bedouins also use many different dried beans including white beans, lentils, and chickpeas. Vegetables that are commonly used are those that could be dried, such as pumpkins, but also vegetables that are more heat-resistant, such as aubergines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kabsa\" () or () is a traditional mixed rice dish in many Arab states of the Persian Gulf, originating from Saudi Arabia. It is made of rice (typically \"basmati\"), meat, vegetables, and a mixture of spices. Spices used in are generally black pepper, cloves, cardamom, saffron, cinnamon, dried lime (also known as black lime), bay leaves and nutmeg. The meats used are usually chicken, goat, lamb, camel, beef, fish or shrimp. is popular in countries around the Persian Gulf and the Khuzestan Province of Iran."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern Arabian cuisine",
        "text": "As with most Asian cultures, the culinary heritage can find its root in either Persian, Indian, or Chinese cuisines. In fact the food structure of Persian-Arabian civilization began with cooking techniques innovated in ancient Persia and carried forward by Persians during the Sassanid Dynasty. With subsequent development and growth of the Ottomans (Turkish empire), Arab culture came in contact with the Ottoman empire; Turkish contributions to the Arabian culture included \"kebabs\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Qatar",
        "text": "Qatari cuisine reflects traditional Arab and Levantine cuisine. It is also heavily influenced by Iranian and Indian cuisine. Seafood and dates are staple food items."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In an average Arab Levantine household, a visitor might expect a table full of \"mezzes\", breads topped with spices including \"za'atar\" and nuts. In the Levant, Arabic coffee is a much-loved beverage, but Arabic tea is also much enjoyed in Jordan and Palestine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Filipino cuisine",
        "text": "The Arab influence on Filipino cuisine is relatively minor. Historically, Arabs influence arrived via India to Indonesia and the Philippines. In the earlier days, Arabs traded with Indians, who in turn traded with Southeast Asia. In the later era, with advancement of sea navigation, Arabs also started to trade directly with the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Obesity in the Middle East and North Africa",
        "text": "Other common factors, besides a sedentary lifestyle and unhealthy food choices, across the Arab world include urbanization, technology, and a cultural appreciation of female plumpness and the practice of \"leblouh\" (\"fattening\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thalassery cuisine",
        "text": "Influences of Arabian and Moghul cultures are evident, especially in the dishes of the Muslim community, though they have also become popular generally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Dinner is traditionally the lightest meal, although in modern times, dinner has become more important with regards to entertaining guests due to the hours of the workday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Menorca",
        "text": "Mediterranean crops had a strong influence, encouraging the use of olive oil, wine, legumes and foods pickled in salt. The substratum of Arab culture is also important, as well as additions from French and English cuisine, owing to their respective periods of control over the island in the eighteenth century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine",
        "text": "Religious food laws can also exercise a strong influence on cuisine, such as Hinduism in Indian cuisine, Sikhism in Punjabi cuisine, Buddhism in East Asian cuisine, Islam in Middle Eastern cuisine, and Judaism in Jewish cuisine and Israeli cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "African cuisine",
        "text": "From the 7th century onwards, the Arabs introduced a variety of spices, like saffron, nutmeg, cinnamon, ginger and cloves, which contributed and influenced the culinary culture of North Africa. The Ottoman Turks brought sweet pastries and other bakery products, and from the New World, North Africa got potatoes, tomatoes, zucchini and chili peppers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aromanians",
        "text": "Aromanian cuisine is strongly influenced by Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian cuisine",
        "text": "The cuisine is a diffusion of the cultures of civilizations that settled in the region of Palestine, particularly during and after the Islamic era beginning with the Arab Ummayad conquest, then the eventual Persian-influenced Abbasids and ending with the strong influences of Turkish cuisine, resulting from the coming of the Ottoman Turks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Khaleej al-Arab region, a visitor is greeted by a great table of dried fruits, fresh fruits, nuts and cakes with syrup. Dried fruits include figs, dates, apricots and plums. Fresh fruits include citruses, melons and pomegranate. Arabic coffee is most favored, but Arabic tea is also a great refresher. Spices are often added to the coffee and other drinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "bread was made in two varieties, (soft, thin flatbreads) and (dry, thin bread flavored with tamarisk seeds)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern Arabian cuisine",
        "text": "Eastern Arabian cuisine\n--History.\n--Ingredients.\n--Culture.\n--Influences.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The cuisine of Yemen is in some ways distinct from other Arab cuisines. As in most Arab countries, chicken, goat, and lamb are eaten more often than beef, and fish is eaten mostly in coastal areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "rounds glowing with lovely whiteness, more playful than gorgeous singing girls,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Or make it with vinegar, , and coriander. But with it will be even better."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Eastern Arabia",
        "text": "Due to the seafaring nature of the Arabs along the eastern Arabian coast, seafood forms the major part of the cuisine of the region. Camel meat and milk also forms a basic staple for all the population, most prominently for bedouins who used to usually breed and sell camels to the rest of the population. Dates are usually consumed as snacks in between meals or offered to guests alongside Arabic coffee in the majlis. Other basic meals are rice and meat, chicken, and strained yogurt. Seafood diet is various with multiple ways to prepare fish for consumption. Squids, oysters, crabs, as well as shrimps all form basic staple food for the coastal Arabs. Harees is also a popular dish in the majority of eastern Arabian households."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "\"Mansaf\" is a traditional meal, and the national dish of Jordan, having roots in the Bedouin population of the country. It is mostly cooked on special occasions such as Ramadan, Eid ul-Fitr, a birth, or a large dinner gathering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Syrian Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Syrian Jewish cuisine\n--History and influences.\n--Elements.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian cuisine",
        "text": "The Arabs that conquered Syria and Palestine initially had simple culinary traditions primarily based on the use of rice, lamb, yogurt and dates. This cuisine did not advance for centuries until the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate, that established Baghdad as its capital and integrated elements of Persian cuisine into the existing Arab cuisine. The Jerusalemite geographer al-Muqaddasi said this of Palestine's foods:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "There are similar recipes meant for poultry dishes prepared with seasonings like ginger, pomegranate, spikenard, and cloves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Levantine cuisine also incorporates wines made in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Palestine and the Levantine equivalent of the Greek ouzo, known as \"arak.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Saudi Arabia",
        "text": "Saudi Arabian cuisine is similar to that of the surrounding countries in the Arabian Peninsula and the wider Arab world, and has influenced and been influenced by Turkish, Indian, Persian, and African food. Islamic dietary laws are enforced: pork is not allowed and other animals are slaughtered in accordance with halal. Kebabs and falafel are popular, as is \"sh\u0101warm\u0101\" (shawarma), a marinated grilled meat dish of lamb, mutton, or chicken. As in other Arab countries of the Arabian Peninsula, \"machb\u016bs\" (kabsa), a rice dish with lamb, chicken, fish or shrimp, is among the national dishes as well as the dish mandi. Flat, unleavened taboon bread is a staple of virtually every meal, as are dates, fresh fruit, yoghurt, and hummus. Coffee, served in the Arabic style, is the traditional beverage but tea and various fruit juices are popular as well. Arabic coffee is a traditional beverage in Arabian cuisine. The earliest substantiated evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree is from the 15th century, in the Sufi monasteries of Arabia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seafood dishes",
        "text": "There have been many significant improvements during the last century in food preservation, storage, shipping and production. Today, most countries, cities and regions have access to their traditional cuisines and many other global cuisines, and new cuisines continue to evolve. Cuisine can be stated as the foods and methods of food preparation traditional to a region or population. The major factors shaping a cuisine are climate, which in large measure determines the native raw materials that are available, economic conditions, which affect trade and can affect food distribution, imports and exports, and religious or sumptuary laws, under which certain foods are required or proscribed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Caf\u00e9s often serve croissants for breakfast. Breakfast is often a quick meal, consisting of bread and dairy products, with tea and sometimes jam. The most common breakfast items are \"labneh\" and cream (, made of cow's milk)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign language influences in English",
        "text": "Trade items such as \"borax\", \"coffee\", \"cotton\", \"hashish\", \"henna\", \"mohair\", \"muslin\", \"saffron\"; Islamic religious terms such as \"jihad\", \"Assassin\", \"hadith\", and \"sharia\"; scientific vocabulary borrowed into Latin in the 12th and 13th centuries (\"alcohol\", \"alkali\", \"algebra\", \"azimuth\", \"zenith, cipher\", \"nadir\"); plants or plant products originating in tropical Asia and introduced to medieval Europe through Arabic intermediation (\"camphor\", \"jasmine\", \"lacquer\", \"lemon\", \"orange\", \"sugar\"); Middle Eastern cuisine words (\"couscous\", \"falafel\", \"hummus\", \"kebab\", \"tahini\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Breakfast consists of baked beans, bread, nuts, dried fruits, milk, yoghurt, and cheese with tea or coffee. Snacks also include nuts and dried fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moroccan cuisine",
        "text": "Moroccan cuisine is influenced by Morocco's interactions and exchanges with other cultures and nations over the centuries. Moroccan cuisine is usually a mix of Amazigh, Southern Saharan, Arab, Andalusian, and Mediterranean cuisines, with slight European (French and Spanish) and sub-Saharan influences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arto Der Haroutunian",
        "text": "Over the following years the brothers opened four more restaurants, two hotels and a night club. After thirteen years of producing mainly Middle Eastern food it was a natural progression that he should then begin to write cookery books as they combined his love of food with his great interest in the history and culture of the region. It was his belief that the rich culinary tradition of the Middle East is the main source of many of our western cuisines and his books were intended as an introduction to that tradition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pastirma",
        "text": "Ottoman cuisine was not only the product of Muslim citizens of the Ottoman Empire; it was also influenced by Ottoman Christian and Jewish citizens. Today, it includes the cuisines of Armenia, Egypt, Turkey and the Levant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hazaras",
        "text": "The Hazara cuisine is strongly influenced by Central Asian, South Asian and Persian cuisines. However, there are special foods, cooking methods and different cooking styles that are specific to them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Migrants' food consumption",
        "text": "The traditional food approach is also influenced by ritual and cultural habits. Maintaining the home eating and cultural food habits represent a strategy to recreate the \u201chome\u201d and the practical and metaphorical rituals for remembrance the imaginary unity which migrants tend to miss. The traditional food is the recreation of the abstract meaning of home through concrete activities, such as cooking the typical Sunday meals, which can alleviate the sense of isolation caused by the displacement. Also social habits and religion can be considered a support for the maintenance of food traditions. For example, according to Arab cultures hospitality represents strong tradition combined with food. Indeed, it is common and quite diary for Arab families to prepare extra food at meal times to cover the eventuality of unexpected visitors and welcome them offering traditional foods."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Arab cuisine is influenced by what 3 factors?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "They have been influenced by climate, cultivation, and mutual commerce."
    ],
    "topic": "Arab cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Arab cuisine:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Arab cuisine"
        ],
        "ctx": "Arab cuisine () is the cuisine of the Arabs, defined as the various regional cuisines spanning the Arab world, from the Maghreb to the Fertile Crescent and the Arabian Peninsula. These cuisines are centuries old and reflect the culture of trading in Baharat (spices), herbs, and foods. The regions have many similarities, but also unique traditions. They have also been influenced by climate, cultivation, and mutual commerce."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Arab cuisine () is the cuisine of the Arabs, defined as the various regional cuisines spanning the Arab world, from the Maghreb to the Fertile Crescent and the Arabian Peninsula. These cuisines are centuries old and reflect the culture of trading in Baharat (spices), herbs, and foods. The regions have many similarities, but also unique traditions. They have also been influenced by climate, cultivation, and mutual commerce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arabs",
        "text": "Arabic cuisine is the cuisine of the Arab people. The cuisines are often centuries old and reflect the culture of great trading in spices, herbs, and foods. The three main regions, also known as the Maghreb, the Mashriq, and the Khaleej have many similarities, but also many unique traditions. These kitchens have been influenced by the climate, cultivating possibilities, as well as trading possibilities. The kitchens of the Maghreb and Levant are relatively young kitchens which were developed over the past centuries. The kitchen from the Khaleej region is a very old kitchen. The kitchens can be divided into the urban and rural kitchens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine",
        "text": "Some factors that have an influence on a region's cuisine include the area's climate, the trade among different countries, religious or sumptuary laws and culinary culture exchange. For example, a tropical diet may be based more on fruits and vegetables, while a polar diet might rely more on meat and fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine",
        "text": "The area's climate, in large measure, determines the native foods that are available. In addition, climate influences food preservation. For example, foods preserved for winter consumption by smoking, curing, and pickling have remained significant in world cuisines for their altered gustatory properties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern Arabian cuisine",
        "text": "This multicultural inclusion in part, became possible, after advent of Islam, and with the growth of Arabian influence after invasion of Persia, Balkans, and North Africa, making it possible for merchants of different nations to travel long distances coming into contact and being influenced by or influencing local cuisines they encountered. The exchange of customs and food was bidirectional, with Arabs also exporting their dietary preferences such as dates, figs, and lamb to the areas they traveled to or conquered including the Persian empire and the Turkish population of Balkan. This interchange of goods and ways of life, was significant in forming the current modern Arab diet. Arabs later on transferred these newly gained cuisines on their conquests to Africa, and as far as North Africa, West Africa, and South of Spain. In fact, certain Spanish desserts such as polvorones, tocino de cielo (custard and caramel) and yemas de San Leandro (marzipan based) are heavily influenced by the Moors. Though these influences were not carried out by the original Arabs of the Arabian sub-continent, their west ward expansion into Egypt, and Morocco led to dissemination of Chinese, Indian, Arabian, and Persian cuisines and eventually their vicarious adoption by the North Africans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arabs",
        "text": "Arab cuisine mostly follows one of three culinary traditions \u2013 from the Maghreb, the Levant or Eastern Arabia. In the Maghreb countries (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya) traditional main meals are tajines or dishes using couscous. In the Levant (Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria) main meals usually start with mezze \u2013 small dishes of dips and other items which are eaten with bread. This is typically followed by skewers of grilled lamb or chicken. Gulf cuisine, tends to be more highly spiced with more use of rice. Sometimes a lamb is roasted and served whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Soups and stews are often prepared and served with rice and vegetables. Biryani, although influenced by Indian cuisine, is milder with a different mixture of spices, and a wider variety of vegetables, including potatoes, peas, carrots, and onions. Dolma is also one of the most popular dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The spices emitting fragrance like wine mingled with sweet breeze."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables are often eaten raw or pickled, as well as cooked. While the cuisine does not boast a multitude of sauces, it focuses on herbs, spices, and the freshness of ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "Middle Eastern cuisine\n--Geography.\n--History and influences.\n--Elements.\n----Grains.\n----Flavorings.\n----Religious influence.\n----Vegetables.\n----Dishes.\n--Beverages.\n--Dining etiquette.\n----Arab countries.\n------Ramadan.\n----Turkey.\n----Iran.\n--Globalization.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Arab cuisine\n--Medieval cuisine.\n----Breads.\n----Sauces.\n----Sweets.\n----Vegetables.\n--Diet and foods.\n--Structure of meals.\n----Year round.\n------Breakfast.\n------Lunch.\n------Dinner.\n----Ramadan.\n------Iftar.\n------Suhur.\n----Sweets.\n--Arab hospitality.\n----Khaleej.\n------Coffee ceremony.\n------Guests dinner.\n----Maghreb.\n------Tea/coffee ceremony.\n------Dinner guests.\n----Levantine.\n------Coffee/tea ceremony.\n------Dinner guests.\n----Regional differences.\n--Regional Arab cuisines.\n----Arabian Peninsula.\n----Mashriq.\n----Bedouin cuisine.\n----Levant.\n----Iraq/Mesopotamia.\n----Egypt.\n----Africa.\n------Sudan.\n------Maghreb.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The vegetables and meat are usually cooked together in a sauce (often tomato, although others are also popular) to make , which is served with rice. Most households add bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Eastern Arabian cuisine today is the result of a combination of diverse influences, incorporating Levantine and Yemeni cuisines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "There are many regional differences in the Arab cuisine. For instance, \"mujadara\" in Syria and Lebanon is different from in Jordan and Palestine. Some dishes, such as \"mansaf\" (the national dish of Jordan), are native to certain countries and rarely, if ever, make an appearance in other countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern Arabian cuisine",
        "text": "In addition to Arab cuisine, the following cuisines have influenced, or have been influenced by the Eastern Arabian cuisine, either due to trade (mostly maritime from the far east), or as a result of ancient contact:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arabs",
        "text": "One will find the following items in most dishes; cinnamon, fish (in coastal areas), garlic, lamb (or veal), mild to hot sauces, mint, onion, rice, saffron, sesame, yogurt, spices due to heavy trading between the two regions. Tea, thyme (or oregano), turmeric, a variety of fruits (primarily citrus) and vegetables such as cucumbers, eggplants, lettuce, tomato, green pepper, green beans, zucchini and parsley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In Palestine and Jordan, the population has a cooking style of their own, involved in roasting various meats, baking flatbreads, and cooking thick yogurt-like pastes from goat's milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Arab cuisine uses specific and unique foods and spices. Some of those foods are:\n* Meat\u2014lamb and chicken are the most used, followed by beef and goat. Other poultry is used in some regions, and fish is used in coastal areas including the Mediterranean Sea, Atlantic Ocean and the Red Sea.\n:Pork Some Christian Arabs eat pork.\n* Dairy products\u2014widely used, especially yogurt, buttermilk and white cheese. Butter and cream are also used extensively.\n* Herbs and spices\u2014amounts and types used generally varies from region to region.\n:Herbs and spices include: sesame, saffron, black pepper, allspice, turmeric, garlic, cumin, cinnamon, parsley, coriander and sumac.\n:Spice mixtures include \"baharat\",\" ras el hanout\", \"za'atar\", and \"harissa\".\n* Beverages\u2014hot beverages are served more often than cold, coffee being at the top of the list in Middle-Eastern countries and tea at top in Maghreb countries.\n:In Jordan, Palestine, Egypt, some parts of Syria, Morocco, and Algeria, tea is much more prevalent as a beverage. Other Arabic drinks include Andalucian \"horchata\" and Maghrebi avocado smoothie.\n* Grains\u2014rice is the staple and is used for most dishes; wheat is the main source for bread. Bulgur and semolina are also used extensively.\n:According to historic recipes known from Arabic cookbooks, grains were primarily used to make porridge and pasta type dishes in Arab cuisine until the 12th century. Two types of pasta were known: \"itriya\", a short dry noodle of Greek origin similar to \"orzo\", and , a hand-cut fresh noodle of Persian origin.\n:By the 13th century, the Turkic style and noodles had entered the cuisine.\n* Legumes\u2014lentils are widely used in all colours, as well as fava beans, peanuts, chickpeas (garbanzo beans), scarlet runner beans, green peas, lupini beans, white beans, and brown beans.\n* Vegetables\u2014popular vegetables in Arab cuisine include carrots, eggplant (aubergine), zucchini (courgette), artichokes, okra, onions, and olives. Potatoes are also eaten as vegetables in Arab culture.\n* Fruits\u2014pomegranate, dates, figs, oranges, citruses, watermelons, cantaloupe, honeydew melon, grapes, peaches, and nectarines are favored in Arab cuisine.\n* Nuts\u2014almonds, pine nuts, pistachios, and walnuts are often included in dishes or eaten as snacks.\n* Greens\u2014parsley, coriander and mint are popular as seasonings in many dishes, while spinach and \"mulukhiyah\" (leaves from the plant of the \"Corchorus\" genus) are used in cooked dishes.\n* Dressings and sauces\u2014the most popular dressings include various combinations of olive oil, lemon juice, parsley, or garlic, as well as \"tahini\" (sesame paste). \"Labaneh\" (strained yogurt) is often seasoned with mint, onion, or garlic, and served as a sauce with various dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Maghreb region, a guest may find a table with different kinds of stews, called or \"tajines\". Dishes such as \"couscous\" and other semolina-based foods are also to be found."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "Religion has impacted the cuisine by making lamb the primary meat since both Jews and Muslims do not eat pork."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab culture",
        "text": "Originally, the Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula relied heavily on a diet of dates, wheat, barley, rice and meat, with little variety, with a heavy emphasis on yoghurt products, such as leben (\u0644\u0628\u0646) (yoghurt without butterfat). Arabian cuisine today is the result of a combination of richly diverse cuisines, spanning the Arab world and incorporating Levantine, Egyptian, and others. It has also been influenced to a degree by the cuisines of India, Turkey, Berber, and others. In an average Arab household in Eastern Arabia, a visitor might expect a dinner consisting of a very large platter, shared commonly, with a vast mountain of rice, incorporating lamb or chicken, or both, as separate dishes, with various stewed vegetables, heavily spiced, sometimes with a tomato sauce. Most likely, there would be several other items on the side, less hearty. Tea would certainly accompany the meal, as it is almost constantly consumed. Coffee would be included as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The Bedouins of the Arabian Peninsula, Middle East and North Africa rely on a diet of dates, dried fruit, nuts, wheat, barley, rice, and meat. The meat comes from large animals such as cows, sheep, and lambs. They also eat dairy products: milk, cheese, yoghurt, and buttermilk (\"labneh\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Dishes include olive oil, \"za'atar\", and garlic, and common dishes include a wide array of \"mezze\" or bread dips, stuffings, and side dishes such as hummus, falafel, \"ful\", \"tabouleh\", \"labaneh\", and baba ghanoush."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mediterranean cuisine",
        "text": "David's introduction to her 1950 book characterises the cooking of the Mediterranean countries as \"conditioned naturally by variations in climate and soil and the relative industry or indolence of the inhabitants.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Which the cook delicately fashioned, a gorgeous dish with flavor and perfume."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Maghreb cuisine is the cooking of the Maghreb region, the northwesternmost part of the Arab world along the Mediterranean Sea, consisting of the countries of Algeria, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia. In Maghrebi cuisine, the most common staple foods are wheat (for \"khobz\" bread and couscous), fish, seafood, goat, lamb, beef, dates, almonds, olives and various vegetables and fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "The subtropical climate near the Sea of Galilee and in the Jordan River Valley is suitable for mangoes, kiwis and bananas, while the temperate climate of the mountains of the Galilee and the Golan is suitable for grapes, apples and cherries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Essential to any cooking in the Arab world is the concept of hospitality and generosity. Meals are generally large family affairs, with much sharing and a great deal of warmth over the dinner table. Formal dinners and celebrations generally involve large quantities of lamb, and every occasion entails large quantities of Arabic coffee or Arabic tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "It also includes copious amounts of garlic and olive oil, often seasoned with lemon juice\u2014almost no meal goes by without including these ingredients. Most often foods are either grilled, baked, fried, or saut\u00e9ed in olive oil; butter and cream are rarely used, other than in a few desserts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Levant, a guest will find a table with different kinds of \"mezzes\", nuts, dips and oils. include hummus, baba ghanoush, falafel, \"kibbeh\", \"kafta\", smoked vegetables and \"tabouli\" salads. The nuts can differ from almonds to walnuts, with different spice coatings. The dips and oils include hummus and olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "These main dishes are accompanied by smaller \"mezze\"-like plates with salads, sauces and dips. Breads such as and \"khobz\" are used to eat the stews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "However, cheese, butter, and other dairy products are less common, especially in the cities and other urban areas. As with other Arab cuisines, the most widespread beverages are tea and coffee; tea is usually flavored with cardamom, clove, or mint, and coffee with cardamom. , \"Naqe'e Al Zabib\", and are the most widespread cold beverages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Khaleej al-Arab region, a guest should expect a dinner consisting of a very large platter, shared commonly, with a large amount of spiced rice, with spicy lamb, chicken, or both, as separate dishes, with various stewed vegetables, heavily spiced, sometimes with a tomato-based sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Bedouins also use many different dried beans including white beans, lentils, and chickpeas. Vegetables that are commonly used are those that could be dried, such as pumpkins, but also vegetables that are more heat-resistant, such as aubergines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seafood dishes",
        "text": "There have been many significant improvements during the last century in food preservation, storage, shipping and production. Today, most countries, cities and regions have access to their traditional cuisines and many other global cuisines, and new cuisines continue to evolve. Cuisine can be stated as the foods and methods of food preparation traditional to a region or population. The major factors shaping a cuisine are climate, which in large measure determines the native raw materials that are available, economic conditions, which affect trade and can affect food distribution, imports and exports, and religious or sumptuary laws, under which certain foods are required or proscribed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables include leeks, endive, melilot, fenugreek, onions, purslane, Jew's mallow and radish. Boiled asparagus is served with olive oil and \"murri\". The cooking water may be sweetened with honey and seasoned with cilantro, rue, anise and black pepper, and used as a beverage either by itself with honey, or added to wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Many Arabic food words are borrowed from Aramaic, the language spoken by the Christian Nabataean inhabitants of Iraq and Syria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "During the 20th century, carbonated soda and fruit-based drinks have also become very popular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "To Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi are credited two recipes, one prepared by adding rue, caraway, thyme, \"asafetida\" and cassia to the mustard sauce, and another made by mashing vinegar-soaked raisins with garlic, walnut, mustard, vinegar, and seasonings like \"asafetida\" and anise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "<poem>The concept of is so subtle that none other than the smart can fathom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "The region was also influenced by dumplings from Mongol invaders; turmeric and other spices from India; cloves, peppercorns and allspice from the Spice Islands; okra from Africa, and tomatoes from the New World."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eid cuisine",
        "text": "Depending on the locality, the types and forms of the cuisine vary but are always sweet dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "is a leg of lamb or large pieces of mutton, on top of a \"markook\" bread that has been topped with yellow rice. A type of thick dried yogurt made from goat's milk, called \"jameed\", is poured on top of the lamb and rice to give it its distinct flavor and taste. The dish is garnished with cooked pine nuts and almonds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern Arabian cuisine",
        "text": "There are many regional differences in Arab cuisine. For instance mujadara in Syria or Lebanon is different from mujadara in Jordan or Palestine. Some dishes such as mensaf (the national dish of Jordan) are native to certain countries and rarely if ever make an appearance in other countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "Other influences on the cuisine are the availability of foods common to the Mediterranean region, especially certain kinds of fruits and vegetables, dairy products and fish; the tradition of keeping kosher; and food customs and traditions specific to Shabbat and different Jewish holidays, such as challah, \"jachnun\", \"malawach\", gefilte fish, \"hamin\", \"me'orav yerushalmi\" and \"sufganiyot\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Menorca",
        "text": "Mediterranean crops had a strong influence, encouraging the use of olive oil, wine, legumes and foods pickled in salt. The substratum of Arab culture is also important, as well as additions from French and English cuisine, owing to their respective periods of control over the island in the eighteenth century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kabsa\" () or () is a traditional mixed rice dish in many Arab states of the Persian Gulf, originating from Saudi Arabia. It is made of rice (typically \"basmati\"), meat, vegetables, and a mixture of spices. Spices used in are generally black pepper, cloves, cardamom, saffron, cinnamon, dried lime (also known as black lime), bay leaves and nutmeg. The meats used are usually chicken, goat, lamb, camel, beef, fish or shrimp. is popular in countries around the Persian Gulf and the Khuzestan Province of Iran."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Khaleej al-Arab region, a visitor is greeted by a great table of dried fruits, fresh fruits, nuts and cakes with syrup. Dried fruits include figs, dates, apricots and plums. Fresh fruits include citruses, melons and pomegranate. Arabic coffee is most favored, but Arabic tea is also a great refresher. Spices are often added to the coffee and other drinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine",
        "text": "Cuisine\n--Etymology.\n--Factors that affect a cuisine.\n--History.\n--Evolution of cuisine.\n--Global cuisine.\n--Regional cuisines.\n----African cuisine.\n----Asian cuisines.\n----European cuisine.\n----Oceanian cuisine.\n----Cuisines of the Americas.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "Roman influence on the entire Mediterranean region was so considerable that to this day, the basic food in most of the region is still wheat bread, olives, olive oil, wine, cheese, and the occasional piece of meat or fish. The territories from the Atlantic to the Italian Peninsula, and especially the Catalan and Occitan-speaking areas were closely interrelated culturally and politically. The Muslim conquest of Sicily and southern Spain was highly influential on the cuisine by introducing new plants like lemons, pomegranates, eggplants and spices such as saffron. The coloring of food and many other cooking techniques were passed on by the Arab invaders to their European possessions and were gradually spread to regions further north."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Levantine cuisine is the traditional cuisine of the Fertile Crescent. Although now divided into Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, Egypt, and Palestine, the region has historically been more united, and shares many culinary traditions. Although very similar, there is some variation within the Levantine area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Jiggling with murri and olive oil, ebbing and flowing with sheen.</poem>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "All radiating with luster like carnelian shimmering on pearls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the vessel harmoniously combined, here together and there disperse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian cuisine",
        "text": "Modern Syrian-Palestinian dishes have been generally influenced by the rule of three major Islamic groups: the Arabs, the Persian-influenced Arabs (Iraqis) and the Turks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "The hearty cuisine of Ashkenazi Jews was based on centuries of living in the cold climate of Central and Eastern Europe, whereas the lighter, \"sunnier\" cuisine of Sephardi Jews was affected by life in the Mediterranean region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bareq",
        "text": "Bareq\n--History.\n----Modern.\n--Geography.\n--Ethnography.\n--Agriculture.\n--Education.\n--Climate.\n--Cuisine.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arto Der Haroutunian",
        "text": "Over the following years the brothers opened four more restaurants, two hotels and a night club. After thirteen years of producing mainly Middle Eastern food it was a natural progression that he should then begin to write cookery books as they combined his love of food with his great interest in the history and culture of the region. It was his belief that the rich culinary tradition of the Middle East is the main source of many of our western cuisines and his books were intended as an introduction to that tradition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In an average Arab Levantine household, a visitor might expect a table full of \"mezzes\", breads topped with spices including \"za'atar\" and nuts. In the Levant, Arabic coffee is a much-loved beverage, but Arabic tea is also much enjoyed in Jordan and Palestine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mediterranean cuisine",
        "text": "The historical connections of the region, as well as the impact of the Mediterranean Sea on the region's climate and economy, mean that these cuisines share dishes beyond the core trio of oil, bread, and wine, such as roast lamb or mutton, meat stews with vegetables and tomato (for example, Spanish andrajos), vegetable stews (Proven\u00e7al ratatouille, Spanish pisto, Italian ciambotta), and the salted cured fish roe, bottarga, found across the region. Spirits based on anise are drunk in many countries around the Mediterranean."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "There are similar recipes meant for poultry dishes prepared with seasonings like ginger, pomegranate, spikenard, and cloves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The platter usually consists of a portion of meat, poultry or fish, a portion of rice, lentils, bread and a portion of cooked vegetables, in addition to the fresh ones with the and salad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "This is followed by a soup or anything they would like, the most popular being lentil soup, but a wide variety of soups such as chicken, oats, \"freeka\" (a soup made from whole wheat and chicken broth), potato, , and others are also offered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Different types of bread are served with toppings specific to the region. Tea would certainly accompany the meal, as it is almost constantly consumed. Coffee would also be served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maghrebi cuisine",
        "text": "The use of legumes, nuts, fruits and spices is very prominent. Salt-preserved lemons (\"l'hamd mrakad\") and so-called \"oil-cured\" olives are distinctive elements of the cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "There are two basic structures for meals in the Arab World, one regular schedule during most of the year and a second one that is unique to the month of Ramadan in which observant Muslims fast during the day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Some vegetable dishes are served cold. One example of such a dish is eggplant with fried onion, fresh herbs and olive oil dressed with fermented sauces, vinegar and caraway. There are several cold eggplant dishes that are similar, some made with smoked eggplant, adding nuts like ground walnuts or almonds, and sometimes different seasonings like saffron, cassia, and \"galangal\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The third course is the main dish, usually eaten after an interval, when Maghreb prayer is conducted. The main dish is mostly similar to what is served in lunch year-round, except that cold drinks are served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chefchaouen",
        "text": "Despite the significant rainfall, agricultural activity is limited due to the rugged and steep topography, the scarcity of arable land, the low mechanization level, and the lack of irrigation infrastructure. These factors have contributed to the emergence of traditional agriculture largely dependent on climatic hazards. Forests have been harvested for wood and pulp products and to clear land for agriculture. Villagers from rural areas form an important workforce in the agricultural field."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab Indonesian cuisine",
        "text": "Arab Indonesian cuisine (Indonesian: Masakan Arab-Indonesia) is characterized by the mixture of Middle Eastern cuisine with local Indonesian-style. Arab Indonesians brought their legacy of Arab cuisine\u2014originally from Hadhramaut, Hejaz and Egypt\u2014and modified some of the dishes with the addition of Indonesian ingredients. The Arabs arrived in the Nusantara archipelago to trading and spread Islam. In Java, since the 18th century AD, most of Arab traders settled on the north coast and diffuse with indigenous, thus affecting the local cuisine culture, especially in the use of mutton meat and ghee in cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Or make it with vinegar, , and coriander. But with it will be even better."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jeddah",
        "text": "Jeddah's multi-ethnic citizenry has influenced Jeddah's traditional cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Some vegetables are consumed raw, but the following are usually boiled: asparagus, cauliflower, white soy beans, leeks, orach, a variety of mushroom known as , chard, cabbage, carrot, turnip, fresh fennel and eggplant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian cuisine",
        "text": "The cuisine is a diffusion of the cultures of civilizations that settled in the region of Palestine, particularly during and after the Islamic era beginning with the Arab Ummayad conquest, then the eventual Persian-influenced Abbasids and ending with the strong influences of Turkish cuisine, resulting from the coming of the Ottoman Turks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chefchaouen",
        "text": "The province of Chefchaouen has a Mediterranean climate characterized by rainy and cool winters from October to April, and dry and hot summers from May to September. The average annual rainfall is around , variable with altitude and proximity to the coast. (Rainfall could reach 1,400\u20132,000\u00a0mm per year, with snowfall over the mountains peaks.) Likewise, the temperature remains influenced by the Mediterranean Sea, altitude and winds, with the mean annual temperature around ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The cuisine of Yemen is in some ways distinct from other Arab cuisines. As in most Arab countries, chicken, goat, and lamb are eaten more often than beef, and fish is eaten mostly in coastal areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "African cuisine",
        "text": "From the 7th century onwards, the Arabs introduced a variety of spices, like saffron, nutmeg, cinnamon, ginger and cloves, which contributed and influenced the culinary culture of North Africa. The Ottoman Turks brought sweet pastries and other bakery products, and from the New World, North Africa got potatoes, tomatoes, zucchini and chili peppers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Rice, potatoes, scrambled eggs, and vegetables are common additions to . It is eaten with flat bread known as \"mulawah\", which serves as a utensil to scoop up the food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine",
        "text": "Religious food laws can also exercise a strong influence on cuisine, such as Hinduism in Indian cuisine, Sikhism in Punjabi cuisine, Buddhism in East Asian cuisine, Islam in Middle Eastern cuisine, and Judaism in Jewish cuisine and Israeli cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "In some Arab countries, especially in the Persian Gulf region, it is common for diners to take their food from a communal plate in the center of the table. They traditionally do not use forks or spoons; instead they scoop up the food with pita or a thumb and two fingers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Syrian food can be either extremely vegetarian or a meat lover's paradise. Lemon, oregano, \"za'atar\", paprika, and various other Mediterranean spices and herbs are used in Syrian cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine in the early modern world",
        "text": "The geographic region largely determined the type and amount of food that would be available naturally and through trade. Diets also varied depending on climate as each climate created different environments for specific plants and animals to live in, both of which work together to produce diets for that region. One notable difference would be that tropical regions having more natural vegetation incorporated into that region's diet while arctic regions depend on the fishing industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Dinner is traditionally the lightest meal, although in modern times, dinner has become more important with regards to entertaining guests due to the hours of the workday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western culture",
        "text": "Western foodways were, until recently, considered to have their roots in the cuisines of Classical Rome and Greece, but the influence of Arab and Near Eastern cuisine on the West has become a topic of research in recent decades. The Crusaders, known mostly for fighting over holy land, settled in the Levant and acclimated to the local culture and cuisine. Fulcher of Chartres said \"For we who were occidentals have now become orientals.\" These cultural experiences, carried back to France by notables like Eleanor of Aquitaine influenced Western European foodways. Many Oriental ingredients were relatively new to the Western lands. Sugar, almonds, pistachios, rosewater, and dried citrus fruits were all novelties to the Crusaders who encountered them in Saracen lands. Pepper, ginger and cinnamon were the most widely used spices of the European courts and noble households. By the end of the middle ages cloves, nutmeg, mastic, galingale and other imported spices had become part of the Western cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mediterranean cuisine",
        "text": "She defines this region as coextensive with the range of the olive tree: \"those blessed lands of sun and sea and olive trees\". The olive's natural distribution is limited by frost and by availability of water. It is therefore constrained to a more or less narrow zone around the Mediterranean Sea, except in the Maghreb and in Spain, where it is distributed more widely, and on the islands of the Mediterranean, where it is widespread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Al-Andalus",
        "text": "Arabic influence still lingers on in Spanish cuisine through these fruits, vegetables, spices and cooking and agricultural techniques. One of the largest palm groves in the world, called the Palmeral of Elche, was established by the Arabs between the 7th-10th centuries to facilitate fruit (including pomegranate and date crops) and vegetable growth underneath the cool shade of palm trees and irrigation channels, and is cited by UNESCO as an example of the transfer of agricultural practices from one continent (North Africa) to another (Iberian Peninsula of Europe)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Unlike most Western recipes, cinnamon is used in meat dishes, as well as in sweets such as baklava. Dishes such as \"tajine\" and couscous can differ from Morocco to Libya, each having their own unique preparation. Other dishes, such as the Andalucian-Moorish \"bastilla\" and \"albondigas\" have different traditional spice mixes and fillings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nutrition in classical antiquity",
        "text": "Cities depended on trade with agricultural farmers and neighboring cities for food supply due to the lack of land cultivation area. Food supply was altered by numerous events such as climate, location, and distribution. Weather drastically affected the amount of produce harvested during a growing season. Climate often fluctuated in the Mediterranean region with varying temperatures and volumes of precipitation; these two factors also affected the quality of soil available to farmers. Soil composition mainly depended on location, but the climate affected the moisture retained within the soil. If the growing season was not prosperous then cities would have to resort to trade as a means for food supply. This often made food distribution difficult due to political disagreements and issues with transportation. To combat hunger due to inadequate food supply people would eat twigs, roots of plants, bark from trees, and each other as a last resort. Food shortages were frequent but did not last long enough to generate famine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine",
        "text": "The trade among different countries also largely affects a region's cuisine. Dating back to the ancient spice trade, seasonings such as cinnamon, cassia, cardamom, ginger, and turmeric were important items of commerce in the earliest evolution of trade, and India was a global market for this. Cinnamon and cassia found their way to the Middle East at least 4,000 years ago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aromanians",
        "text": "Aromanian cuisine is strongly influenced by Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thalassery cuisine",
        "text": "Influences of Arabian and Moghul cultures are evident, especially in the dishes of the Muslim community, though they have also become popular generally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab Indonesians",
        "text": "The influence of Hadhrami immigrants in the Indonesian cuisine can be seen in the presence of Yemeni cuisine in Indonesia, such as Nasi kebuli, Mandi rice, \"Ka'ak\" cookie, Murtabak, or lamb Maraq (lamb soup or stew)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chefchaouen",
        "text": "Chefchaouen\n--Etymology.\n--History.\n--Geography.\n----Location.\n----Climate.\n----Environment.\n------Mountains.\n------Forests.\n------Water resources.\n--Demographics.\n--Culture.\n----Traditions.\n--Economic activities.\n----Agriculture and sea fishing.\n----Industry and commerce.\n----Tourism.\n----Handicraft sector.\n--Landmarks.\n----Medina.\n----Religious sites.\n----Natural areas.\n--International relations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian cuisine",
        "text": "The Indian culinary scene in the Middle East has been influenced greatly by the large Indian diaspora in these countries. Centuries of trade relations and cultural exchange resulted in a significant influence on each region's cuisines. The use of the \"tandoor\", which originated in northwestern India, is an example."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mediterranean cuisine",
        "text": "Mediterranean cuisine\n--Geography.\n--Key ingredients.\n----Olive.\n----Wheat.\n----Grape.\n--History.\n----Concept.\n----Origins.\n--Cooking.\n----Maghrebi.\n----Egyptian.\n----Levantine.\n----Ottoman.\n----Greek.\n----Balkan coast.\n----Italian.\n----Coastal French.\n----Coastal Spanish.\n----Portuguese: partly Mediterranean.\n--Anise spirits.\n--Mediterranean diet and cuisine.\n--A changing cuisine.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maghrebi cuisine",
        "text": "Maghreb cuisine is the cooking of the Maghreb region, the northwesternmost part of Africa along the Mediterranean Sea, consisting of the countries of Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia. The region has a high degree of geographic, political, social, economic and cultural diversity which influences its cuisine and culinary style."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kouloughlis",
        "text": "Ottoman rule left a profound influence on the cuisine of North Africa, the Middle East, and the Balkans. Hence, even today, many dishes produced in different countries throughout these regions are derived from the same name, usually a variation of a Turkish word (such as baklava and dolma)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Maghreb region, a visitor will find a table full of bread-like snacks, including \"m\u2019semen\", \"baghrir\", and other stuffed breads. These are served with honey, rosewater or olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maghrebi cuisine",
        "text": "Because the region is predominantly Muslim, \"halal\" meats are usually eaten. Most dishes are spiced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mediterranean cuisine",
        "text": "Essid acknowledges that \"geographical differences and the vicissitudes of history\" have affected the food of different Mediterranean lands, but nonetheless asserts that:"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Arab cuisine is influenced by what 3 factors?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They have been influenced by climate, cultivation, and mutual commerce."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me how climate influences the cuisine?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I did not find the answer, but I did find that an area's climate, in large measure, determines the native foods that are available and also influences food preservation."
    ],
    "topic": "Arab cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Cuisine:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cuisine",
          "Factors that affect a cuisine"
        ],
        "ctx": "The area's climate, in large measure, determines the native foods that are available. In addition, climate influences food preservation. For example, foods preserved for winter consumption by smoking, curing, and pickling have remained significant in world cuisines for their altered gustatory properties."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Bedouins also use many different dried beans including white beans, lentils, and chickpeas. Vegetables that are commonly used are those that could be dried, such as pumpkins, but also vegetables that are more heat-resistant, such as aubergines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The Bedouins of the Arabian Peninsula, Middle East and North Africa rely on a diet of dates, dried fruit, nuts, wheat, barley, rice, and meat. The meat comes from large animals such as cows, sheep, and lambs. They also eat dairy products: milk, cheese, yoghurt, and buttermilk (\"labneh\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Al Nassma Chocolate",
        "text": "Arab cuisine traditionally includes camel milk in various forms, and was a staple of the diet of Bedouins until mid-20th century. The company uses mild cocoa beans roasted in a manner that doesn\u2019t overpower the slight saltiness of camel milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bedouin",
        "text": "Livestock and herding, principally of goats, sheep and dromedary camels comprised the traditional livelihoods of Bedouins. These were used for meat, dairy products, and wool. Most of the staple foods that made up the Bedouins' diet were dairy products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Arab cuisine\n--Medieval cuisine.\n----Breads.\n----Sauces.\n----Sweets.\n----Vegetables.\n--Diet and foods.\n--Structure of meals.\n----Year round.\n------Breakfast.\n------Lunch.\n------Dinner.\n----Ramadan.\n------Iftar.\n------Suhur.\n----Sweets.\n--Arab hospitality.\n----Khaleej.\n------Coffee ceremony.\n------Guests dinner.\n----Maghreb.\n------Tea/coffee ceremony.\n------Dinner guests.\n----Levantine.\n------Coffee/tea ceremony.\n------Dinner guests.\n----Regional differences.\n--Regional Arab cuisines.\n----Arabian Peninsula.\n----Mashriq.\n----Bedouin cuisine.\n----Levant.\n----Iraq/Mesopotamia.\n----Egypt.\n----Africa.\n------Sudan.\n------Maghreb.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arabs",
        "text": "Arab cuisine mostly follows one of three culinary traditions \u2013 from the Maghreb, the Levant or Eastern Arabia. In the Maghreb countries (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya) traditional main meals are tajines or dishes using couscous. In the Levant (Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria) main meals usually start with mezze \u2013 small dishes of dips and other items which are eaten with bread. This is typically followed by skewers of grilled lamb or chicken. Gulf cuisine, tends to be more highly spiced with more use of rice. Sometimes a lamb is roasted and served whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Khaleej al-Arab region, a guest should expect a dinner consisting of a very large platter, shared commonly, with a large amount of spiced rice, with spicy lamb, chicken, or both, as separate dishes, with various stewed vegetables, heavily spiced, sometimes with a tomato-based sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Arab cuisine () is the cuisine of the Arabs, defined as the various regional cuisines spanning the Arab world, from the Maghreb to the Fertile Crescent and the Arabian Peninsula. These cuisines are centuries old and reflect the culture of trading in Baharat (spices), herbs, and foods. The regions have many similarities, but also unique traditions. They have also been influenced by climate, cultivation, and mutual commerce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Maghreb region, a guest may find a table with different kinds of stews, called or \"tajines\". Dishes such as \"couscous\" and other semolina-based foods are also to be found."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mansaf",
        "text": "The original pastoralist Bedouin mansaf underwent significant changes in the 20th century. The dish is said to originally have been made with simply meat (camel or lamb), meat broth or ghee (clarified butter) and bread. Following the popularization of rice in northern Jordan in the 1920s, rice gradually was introduced into the dish, at first mixed with bulgur, and later on its own, until the dish reached its modern incarnation of being based on white rice. Similarly, the jameed sauce is a recent development, as the Bedouins did not historically feature jameed in their cooked dishes until their modern sedentarization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Levant, a guest will find a table with different kinds of \"mezzes\", nuts, dips and oils. include hummus, baba ghanoush, falafel, \"kibbeh\", \"kafta\", smoked vegetables and \"tabouli\" salads. The nuts can differ from almonds to walnuts, with different spice coatings. The dips and oils include hummus and olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Levantine cuisine is the traditional cuisine of the Fertile Crescent. Although now divided into Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, Egypt, and Palestine, the region has historically been more united, and shares many culinary traditions. Although very similar, there is some variation within the Levantine area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strained yogurt",
        "text": "Bedouin also produce a dry, hard labneh (\"labaneh malboudeh\", similar to Central Asian qurut) that can be stored. Strained labneh is pressed in cheese cloth between two heavy stones and later sun dried. This dry labneh is often eaten with khubz (Arabic bread), in which both khubz and labneh are mixed with water, animal fat, and salt, and rolled into balls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Dishes include olive oil, \"za'atar\", and garlic, and common dishes include a wide array of \"mezze\" or bread dips, stuffings, and side dishes such as hummus, falafel, \"ful\", \"tabouleh\", \"labaneh\", and baba ghanoush."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arabs",
        "text": "Arabic cuisine is the cuisine of the Arab people. The cuisines are often centuries old and reflect the culture of great trading in spices, herbs, and foods. The three main regions, also known as the Maghreb, the Mashriq, and the Khaleej have many similarities, but also many unique traditions. These kitchens have been influenced by the climate, cultivating possibilities, as well as trading possibilities. The kitchens of the Maghreb and Levant are relatively young kitchens which were developed over the past centuries. The kitchen from the Khaleej region is a very old kitchen. The kitchens can be divided into the urban and rural kitchens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In Palestine and Jordan, the population has a cooking style of their own, involved in roasting various meats, baking flatbreads, and cooking thick yogurt-like pastes from goat's milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bedouin",
        "text": "The Bedouin, Beduin or Bedu (; , singular ) are nomadic Arab tribes who have historically inhabited the desert regions in the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, the Levant, and Mesopotamia. However, the Arabian Peninsula is the historic and original homeland of the Bedouin Arabs. The English word \"bedouin\" comes from the Arabic \"badaw\u012b\", which means \"desert dweller\", and is traditionally contrasted with \"\u1e25\u0101\u1e0dir\", the term for sedentary people. Bedouin territory stretches from the vast deserts of North Africa to the rocky sands of the Middle East. They are traditionally divided into tribes, or clans (known in Arabic as \"\u02bfa\u0161\u0101\u02beir\"; ), and historically share a common culture of herding camels and goats. The vast majority of Bedouins adhere to Islam, although there are some fewer numbers of Christian Bedouins present in the Fertile Crescent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Eastern Arabia",
        "text": "Due to the seafaring nature of the Arabs along the eastern Arabian coast, seafood forms the major part of the cuisine of the region. Camel meat and milk also forms a basic staple for all the population, most prominently for bedouins who used to usually breed and sell camels to the rest of the population. Dates are usually consumed as snacks in between meals or offered to guests alongside Arabic coffee in the majlis. Other basic meals are rice and meat, chicken, and strained yogurt. Seafood diet is various with multiple ways to prepare fish for consumption. Squids, oysters, crabs, as well as shrimps all form basic staple food for the coastal Arabs. Harees is also a popular dish in the majority of eastern Arabian households."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "\"Mansaf\" is a traditional meal, and the national dish of Jordan, having roots in the Bedouin population of the country. It is mostly cooked on special occasions such as Ramadan, Eid ul-Fitr, a birth, or a large dinner gathering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab culture",
        "text": "Originally, the Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula relied heavily on a diet of dates, wheat, barley, rice and meat, with little variety, with a heavy emphasis on yoghurt products, such as leben (\u0644\u0628\u0646) (yoghurt without butterfat). Arabian cuisine today is the result of a combination of richly diverse cuisines, spanning the Arab world and incorporating Levantine, Egyptian, and others. It has also been influenced to a degree by the cuisines of India, Turkey, Berber, and others. In an average Arab household in Eastern Arabia, a visitor might expect a dinner consisting of a very large platter, shared commonly, with a vast mountain of rice, incorporating lamb or chicken, or both, as separate dishes, with various stewed vegetables, heavily spiced, sometimes with a tomato sauce. Most likely, there would be several other items on the side, less hearty. Tea would certainly accompany the meal, as it is almost constantly consumed. Coffee would be included as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In an average Arab Levantine household, a visitor might expect a table full of \"mezzes\", breads topped with spices including \"za'atar\" and nuts. In the Levant, Arabic coffee is a much-loved beverage, but Arabic tea is also much enjoyed in Jordan and Palestine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "It also includes copious amounts of garlic and olive oil, often seasoned with lemon juice\u2014almost no meal goes by without including these ingredients. Most often foods are either grilled, baked, fried, or saut\u00e9ed in olive oil; butter and cream are rarely used, other than in a few desserts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bedouin",
        "text": "Bedouin\n--Society.\n--Traditions.\n----Herding.\n----Oral poetry.\n----Raiding or \"ghazw\".\n--History.\n----Early history.\n----Ottoman period.\n----In the 20th century.\n--In different countries.\n----Arabian Peninsula.\n------Saudi Arabia.\n----Levant.\n------Syria.\n------Israel.\n------Jordan.\n----North Africa.\n------Maghreb.\n------Egypt.\n--Tribes and populations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "These main dishes are accompanied by smaller \"mezze\"-like plates with salads, sauces and dips. Breads such as and \"khobz\" are used to eat the stews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian cuisine",
        "text": "Among Bedouins and most other Arabs throughout the region of Palestine, bitter coffee, known as \"qahwah sadah\" (\"plain coffee\"), was a symbol of hospitality. Pouring the drink was ceremonial; it would involve the host or his eldest son moving clockwise among guests, judged by age and status, pouring coffee into tiny cups from a brass pot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bedouin",
        "text": "Some Bedouin societies live in arid regions. In areas where rainfall is very unpredictable, a camp will be moved irregularly, depending on the availability of green pasture. Where winter rainfall is more predictable in regions further south, some Bedouin people plant grain along their migration routes. This proves a resource for the livestock throughout the winter. In regions such as western Africa, where there is more predictable rainfall, the Bedouin practice transhumance. They plant crops near permanent homes in the valleys where there is more rain and move their livestock to the highland pastures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The vegetables and meat are usually cooked together in a sauce (often tomato, although others are also popular) to make , which is served with rice. Most households add bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Caf\u00e9s often serve croissants for breakfast. Breakfast is often a quick meal, consisting of bread and dairy products, with tea and sometimes jam. The most common breakfast items are \"labneh\" and cream (, made of cow's milk)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bedouin",
        "text": "While many Bedouins have abandoned their nomadic and tribal traditions for a modern urban lifestyle, many retain traditional Bedouin culture such as the traditional \"\u02bfa\u0161\u0101\u02beir\" clan structure, traditional music, poetry, dances (such as \"saas\"), and many other cultural practices and concepts. Urbanized Bedouins often organise cultural festivals, usually held several times a year, in which they gather with other Bedouins to partake in and learn about various Bedouin traditions\u2014from poetry recitation and traditional sword dances to playing traditional instruments and even classes teaching traditional tent knitting. Traditions like camel riding and camping in the deserts are still popular leisure activities for urban Bedouins who live in close proximity to deserts or other wilderness areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Arab cuisine uses specific and unique foods and spices. Some of those foods are:\n* Meat\u2014lamb and chicken are the most used, followed by beef and goat. Other poultry is used in some regions, and fish is used in coastal areas including the Mediterranean Sea, Atlantic Ocean and the Red Sea.\n:Pork Some Christian Arabs eat pork.\n* Dairy products\u2014widely used, especially yogurt, buttermilk and white cheese. Butter and cream are also used extensively.\n* Herbs and spices\u2014amounts and types used generally varies from region to region.\n:Herbs and spices include: sesame, saffron, black pepper, allspice, turmeric, garlic, cumin, cinnamon, parsley, coriander and sumac.\n:Spice mixtures include \"baharat\",\" ras el hanout\", \"za'atar\", and \"harissa\".\n* Beverages\u2014hot beverages are served more often than cold, coffee being at the top of the list in Middle-Eastern countries and tea at top in Maghreb countries.\n:In Jordan, Palestine, Egypt, some parts of Syria, Morocco, and Algeria, tea is much more prevalent as a beverage. Other Arabic drinks include Andalucian \"horchata\" and Maghrebi avocado smoothie.\n* Grains\u2014rice is the staple and is used for most dishes; wheat is the main source for bread. Bulgur and semolina are also used extensively.\n:According to historic recipes known from Arabic cookbooks, grains were primarily used to make porridge and pasta type dishes in Arab cuisine until the 12th century. Two types of pasta were known: \"itriya\", a short dry noodle of Greek origin similar to \"orzo\", and , a hand-cut fresh noodle of Persian origin.\n:By the 13th century, the Turkic style and noodles had entered the cuisine.\n* Legumes\u2014lentils are widely used in all colours, as well as fava beans, peanuts, chickpeas (garbanzo beans), scarlet runner beans, green peas, lupini beans, white beans, and brown beans.\n* Vegetables\u2014popular vegetables in Arab cuisine include carrots, eggplant (aubergine), zucchini (courgette), artichokes, okra, onions, and olives. Potatoes are also eaten as vegetables in Arab culture.\n* Fruits\u2014pomegranate, dates, figs, oranges, citruses, watermelons, cantaloupe, honeydew melon, grapes, peaches, and nectarines are favored in Arab cuisine.\n* Nuts\u2014almonds, pine nuts, pistachios, and walnuts are often included in dishes or eaten as snacks.\n* Greens\u2014parsley, coriander and mint are popular as seasonings in many dishes, while spinach and \"mulukhiyah\" (leaves from the plant of the \"Corchorus\" genus) are used in cooked dishes.\n* Dressings and sauces\u2014the most popular dressings include various combinations of olive oil, lemon juice, parsley, or garlic, as well as \"tahini\" (sesame paste). \"Labaneh\" (strained yogurt) is often seasoned with mint, onion, or garlic, and served as a sauce with various dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables are often eaten raw or pickled, as well as cooked. While the cuisine does not boast a multitude of sauces, it focuses on herbs, spices, and the freshness of ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "is a leg of lamb or large pieces of mutton, on top of a \"markook\" bread that has been topped with yellow rice. A type of thick dried yogurt made from goat's milk, called \"jameed\", is poured on top of the lamb and rice to give it its distinct flavor and taste. The dish is garnished with cooked pine nuts and almonds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Soups and stews are often prepared and served with rice and vegetables. Biryani, although influenced by Indian cuisine, is milder with a different mixture of spices, and a wider variety of vegetables, including potatoes, peas, carrots, and onions. Dolma is also one of the most popular dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Maghreb cuisine is the cooking of the Maghreb region, the northwesternmost part of the Arab world along the Mediterranean Sea, consisting of the countries of Algeria, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia. In Maghrebi cuisine, the most common staple foods are wheat (for \"khobz\" bread and couscous), fish, seafood, goat, lamb, beef, dates, almonds, olives and various vegetables and fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables include leeks, endive, melilot, fenugreek, onions, purslane, Jew's mallow and radish. Boiled asparagus is served with olive oil and \"murri\". The cooking water may be sweetened with honey and seasoned with cilantro, rue, anise and black pepper, and used as a beverage either by itself with honey, or added to wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Unrecognized Bedouin villages in Israel",
        "text": "The keeping and feeding livestock bring steady amounts of vegetation food that grow wild and bring about consolidation of invading flora species. The Bedouins keep livestock in herds greater than the carrying capacity of the land, which leads to serious overgrazing, and to the creation of vast areas of empty of any plants. The cumulative effect creates huge areas where there is no vegetation at all (not natural and not agricultural) and no animals. In fact, the result is an ongoing and total destruction of habitat. Species unique to the region as \"Pterocles\", houbara bustard, leopard fringe-fingered lizard and irises, disappeared from large surfaces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Khaleej al-Arab region, a visitor is greeted by a great table of dried fruits, fresh fruits, nuts and cakes with syrup. Dried fruits include figs, dates, apricots and plums. Fresh fruits include citruses, melons and pomegranate. Arabic coffee is most favored, but Arabic tea is also a great refresher. Spices are often added to the coffee and other drinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Eastern Arabian cuisine today is the result of a combination of diverse influences, incorporating Levantine and Yemeni cuisines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The spices emitting fragrance like wine mingled with sweet breeze."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bareq",
        "text": "Bareq\n--History.\n----Modern.\n--Geography.\n--Ethnography.\n--Agriculture.\n--Education.\n--Climate.\n--Cuisine.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "There are many regional differences in the Arab cuisine. For instance, \"mujadara\" in Syria and Lebanon is different from in Jordan and Palestine. Some dishes, such as \"mansaf\" (the national dish of Jordan), are native to certain countries and rarely, if ever, make an appearance in other countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "However, cheese, butter, and other dairy products are less common, especially in the cities and other urban areas. As with other Arab cuisines, the most widespread beverages are tea and coffee; tea is usually flavored with cardamom, clove, or mint, and coffee with cardamom. , \"Naqe'e Al Zabib\", and are the most widespread cold beverages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Negev Bedouin",
        "text": "The Bedouin consider themselves Arabs with their origin being modern Saudi Arabia. The Bedouins are seen as Arab culture's purest representatives, \"ideal\" Arabs, but they are distinct from other Arabs because of their extensive kinship networks, which provide them with community support and the basic necessities for survival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Breakfast consists of baked beans, bread, nuts, dried fruits, milk, yoghurt, and cheese with tea or coffee. Snacks also include nuts and dried fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Negev Bedouin",
        "text": "Before 1948 the relationships between Negev Bedouin and the farmers to the north was marked by intrinsic cultural differences as well as common language and some common traditions. Whereas the Bedouin referred to themselves as \"arab\" instead of \"bed\u00fb\" (Bedouin), farmers in the area \"fellah\u00een\" (farmers) used the term \"Bed\u00fb,\" meaning \"inhabitants of the desert\" (B\u00e2diya), more often."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bedouin Arabic",
        "text": "Bedouin Arabic\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Which the cook delicately fashioned, a gorgeous dish with flavor and perfume."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Levantine cuisine also incorporates wines made in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Palestine and the Levantine equivalent of the Greek ouzo, known as \"arak.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Arabs",
        "text": "One will find the following items in most dishes; cinnamon, fish (in coastal areas), garlic, lamb (or veal), mild to hot sauces, mint, onion, rice, saffron, sesame, yogurt, spices due to heavy trading between the two regions. Tea, thyme (or oregano), turmeric, a variety of fruits (primarily citrus) and vegetables such as cucumbers, eggplants, lettuce, tomato, green pepper, green beans, zucchini and parsley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Essential to any cooking in the Arab world is the concept of hospitality and generosity. Meals are generally large family affairs, with much sharing and a great deal of warmth over the dinner table. Formal dinners and celebrations generally involve large quantities of lamb, and every occasion entails large quantities of Arabic coffee or Arabic tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bedouin",
        "text": "Historically, the Bedouin engaged in nomadic herding, agriculture and sometimes fishing in the Syrian steppe since 6000 BCE. By about 850 BCE, a complex network of settlements and camps was established. The earliest Arab tribes emerged from Bedouins. A major source of income for these people was the taxation of caravans, and tributes collected from non-Bedouin settlements. They also earned income by transporting goods and people in caravans pulled by domesticated camels across the desert. Scarcity of water and of permanent pastoral land required them to move constantly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Architecture of Jordan",
        "text": "The traditional house of the population who lived in the desert known as the Bedouin people was a tent. The tents come in variable sizes and depending on the size of the family, were divided into several rooms. The Bedouin people primarily raised livestock and focused on agricultural activities. The tent rooms, whilst they may have a variety of uses such as housing livestock, didn\u2019t have a fixed use. They were made from easily accessible materials, the exterior was animal-fibre cloth which was supported by wooden poles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bedouin",
        "text": "At the end of the 19th century Sultan Abd\u00fclhamid II settled Muslim populations (Circassians) from the Balkan and Caucasus among areas predominantly populated by the nomads in the regions of modern Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel, and also created several permanent Bedouin settlements, although the majority of them did not remain. The settlement of non Arabs in the traditionally Bedouin areas was a big cause of discontent. This became even severe because every Arab tribe, including the settled ones, have ancestry as a Bedouin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern Arabian cuisine",
        "text": "This multicultural inclusion in part, became possible, after advent of Islam, and with the growth of Arabian influence after invasion of Persia, Balkans, and North Africa, making it possible for merchants of different nations to travel long distances coming into contact and being influenced by or influencing local cuisines they encountered. The exchange of customs and food was bidirectional, with Arabs also exporting their dietary preferences such as dates, figs, and lamb to the areas they traveled to or conquered including the Persian empire and the Turkish population of Balkan. This interchange of goods and ways of life, was significant in forming the current modern Arab diet. Arabs later on transferred these newly gained cuisines on their conquests to Africa, and as far as North Africa, West Africa, and South of Spain. In fact, certain Spanish desserts such as polvorones, tocino de cielo (custard and caramel) and yemas de San Leandro (marzipan based) are heavily influenced by the Moors. Though these influences were not carried out by the original Arabs of the Arabian sub-continent, their west ward expansion into Egypt, and Morocco led to dissemination of Chinese, Indian, Arabian, and Persian cuisines and eventually their vicarious adoption by the North Africans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Many Arabic food words are borrowed from Aramaic, the language spoken by the Christian Nabataean inhabitants of Iraq and Syria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bedouin",
        "text": "Camels, in particular, had numerous cultural and functional uses. Having been regarded as a \"gift from God\", they were the main food source and method of transportation for many Bedouins. In addition to their extraordinary milking potentials under harsh desert conditions, their meat was occasionally consumed by Bedouins. As a cultural tradition, camel races were organized during celebratory occasions, such as weddings or religious festivals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Berber cuisine",
        "text": "Berber cuisine\n--Foods and dishes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Negev Bedouin",
        "text": "The Bedouin women of the Negev were once renowned for their skills in making black, goat-hair matted tent flaps for constructing tents (known locally as \"bayt al-shar\"), but this practice is now nearly lost and found almost exclusively among Bedouins in Jordan. Still, the Bedouins of the Negev have maintained and passed down certain skill crafts, such as basketry and weaving rope with a plant fiber known to them as \"mitn\u0101n\", or what is called in English \"shaggy sparrow-wort\" (\"Thymelaea hirsuta\"), and dyeing wool with a yellow dye extracted from the stalks and roots of the Desert broomrape (\"Cistanche tubulosa\"), a plant known locally by the name \"dhun\u016bn\" and \"hal\u016bq\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian cuisine",
        "text": "The Arabs that conquered Syria and Palestine initially had simple culinary traditions primarily based on the use of rice, lamb, yogurt and dates. This cuisine did not advance for centuries until the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate, that established Baghdad as its capital and integrated elements of Persian cuisine into the existing Arab cuisine. The Jerusalemite geographer al-Muqaddasi said this of Palestine's foods:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern Arabian cuisine",
        "text": "There are many regional differences in Arab cuisine. For instance mujadara in Syria or Lebanon is different from mujadara in Jordan or Palestine. Some dishes such as mensaf (the national dish of Jordan) are native to certain countries and rarely if ever make an appearance in other countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Libya",
        "text": "Libyan cuisine is a mixture of the different Italian, Bedouin and traditional Arab culinary influences. Pasta is the staple food in the Western side of Libya, whereas rice is generally the staple food in the east."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern Arabian cuisine",
        "text": "Originally, the inhabitants of the Eastern Arabia relied heavily on a diet of dates, wheat, barley, rice and meat, with little variety, and with a heavy emphasis on yogurt products, such as \"leben\" (\u0644\u0628\u0646) (yogurt without butterfat). Globalization and contact with ancient civilizations such as the Romans, Persians, and later on with the Ottomans brought the Arabs in close contact with dishes of several other cultures, as well as introducing several new ingredients in their diet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The platter usually consists of a portion of meat, poultry or fish, a portion of rice, lentils, bread and a portion of cooked vegetables, in addition to the fresh ones with the and salad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bedouin",
        "text": "Although the Arabian desert was the homeland of the Bedouin, some groups have migrated to the north. It was one of the first lands inhabited by the Bedouin outside the Arabian desert. Today there are over a million Bedouin living in Syria, making a living herding sheep and goats. The largest Bedouin clan in Syria is called Ruwallah who are part of the 'Anizzah' tribe. Another famous branch of the Anizzah tribe is the two distinct groups of Hasana and S'baa who largely arrived from the Arabian peninsula in the 18th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Levantine cuisine is also famous for its wide range of cheeses, including \"shanklish\", \"halloumi\", and ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Druze",
        "text": "Druze cuisine is similar to other Levantine cuisines and is rich in grains, meat, potato, cheese, bread, whole grains, fruits, vegetables, fresh fish and tomatoes. Perhaps the most distinctive aspect of Druze and Levantine cuisine is \"meze\" including \"tabbouleh\", \"hummus\" and \"baba ghanoush\", \"kibbeh nayyeh\" is also a popular mezze among Druzes. Other famous foods among Druzes include falafel, sfiha, shawarma, dolma, kibbeh, kusa mahshi, shishbarak, muhammara, and mujaddara. Druze pita is a Druze-styled pita filled with labneh (thick yoghurt) and topped with olive oil and za\u2019atar, and a very popular bread in Israel. Al-Meleh a popular dish among Druze in Hauran region (As-Suwayda Governorate), cooked in a pressure cooker and served on huge special plates at weddings, holidays, and other special occasions. And consists of bulgur wheat immersed in ghee with lamb and yogurt, and served hot with fried kibbeh and vegetables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mulukhiyah",
        "text": "Bedouins have an old tradition of cooking a different version of the dish. A whole chicken is cut open, the intestines removed, and the innards stuffed with herbs, spices and raw rice then sewn shut with thick thread. The chicken is then boiled to create the broth for the molokhia soup which, after preparation, is served as five separate components: The molokhia soup, Arabic flat bread, the chicken (stuffed with flavored rice), additional plain rice, and a small bowl with a mixture of lemon juice and sliced chilli. The soup is mixed with rice and lemon juice according to taste, while the chicken is eaten on a separate plate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arto Der Haroutunian",
        "text": "Over the following years the brothers opened four more restaurants, two hotels and a night club. After thirteen years of producing mainly Middle Eastern food it was a natural progression that he should then begin to write cookery books as they combined his love of food with his great interest in the history and culture of the region. It was his belief that the rich culinary tradition of the Middle East is the main source of many of our western cuisines and his books were intended as an introduction to that tradition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wadi Feiran",
        "text": "The Bedouins, nomadic people who lived in goat tents but now live in stone huts, traditionally offer their hospitality to guests at Wadi Feiran and the Feiran Oasis, near Mount Sinai. The Bedouins are generally honored to offer hospitality to travelers. They may offer tea, coffee and, as recently as 2003, may have felt obligated to slaughter an animal for their guest(s). Werner Braun, a journalistic photographer, photographed the Bedouins at Wadi Ferian."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Maghreb region, a visitor will find a table full of bread-like snacks, including \"m\u2019semen\", \"baghrir\", and other stuffed breads. These are served with honey, rosewater or olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Some vegetables are consumed raw, but the following are usually boiled: asparagus, cauliflower, white soy beans, leeks, orach, a variety of mushroom known as , chard, cabbage, carrot, turnip, fresh fennel and eggplant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bedouin Arabic",
        "text": "Bedouin Arabic may refer to several dialects of the Arabic language:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Jiggling with murri and olive oil, ebbing and flowing with sheen.</poem>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Music of Syria",
        "text": "Bedouin is a name given to the nomadic tribes that lived in the Levant which have played an important role in shaping the music present in the countries of the Levant. The Bedouin influence can be seen in the ideologies, customs, and musical genres. One such impact of Bedouin culture is in the music genres of rural Syria and Lebanon. Within the encounters of the Bedouin and surroundings regions, there was cultural exchange throughout the many years of these practices. The music genres reflecting the ideologies are as follows.\n* Ideologies that were adopted from the Bedouin culture into the musical genres were hospitality, chivalry, bravery, and militancy. These types of ideologies were sung in a song form or genre called shruqi.\n* Ideologies like love, heartache, and sentiment, were sung in a genre called ataba.\n* Nadb is funeral music that honours the departed and war chants are sung when applicable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "All radiating with luster like carnelian shimmering on pearls."
      },
      {
        "title": "T\u00e9touan",
        "text": "Amazigh and Arab cuisine are present in staples of Moroccan cuisine such as cuscus and \"rafissa\" or \"thrid\", respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "is a famous Syrian soup, alongside many soups made of lentils. Lebanese food also has a wide range of dips including hummus, \"baba ganoush\", and \"labneh\", and offers many raw-meat dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "The Qur'an forbids alcohol consumption, which is why non-Islamic countries produce & export alcohol. Prime example would be wine made in Lebanon, in vineyards such as Ch\u00e2teau Ksara, Chateau Kefraya and Chateau Masaya which have gained international recognition. Ch\u00e2teau Ksara is also known for its \"arak ksarak\". Al-Maza is Lebanon's primary brewery, and once it was the Middle East's only beer producer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bedouin",
        "text": "The Arabian Peninsula is the original home of the Bedouin. From there, they started to spread out to surrounding deserts, forced out by the lack of water and food. According to tradition, the Saudi Bedouin are descendants of two groups. One group, the Yemenis, settled in the Southwestern Arabia, in the mountains of Yemen, and claim they descend from a semi-legendary ancestral figure, Qahtan (or Joktan). The second group, the Qaysis, settled in North-Central Arabia and claimed they were descendants of the Biblical Ishmael."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mediterranean cuisine",
        "text": "Levantine cuisine is the cooking of the Levant (including the Middle Eastern Mediterranean coast, east of Egypt). Among the most distinctive foods of this cuisine are traditional small meze dishes such as tabbouleh, hummus, and baba ghanoush. Tabbouleh is a dish of bulgur cracked wheat with tomatoes, parsley, mint and onion, dressed with olive oil and lemon juice. Baba ghanoush, sometimes called \"poor man's caviar\", is a puree of aubergine with olive oil, often mixed with chopped onion, tomato, cumin, garlic, lemon juice, and parsley. The dish is popular across the whole of the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oultrejordain",
        "text": "While under Crusader control, the Bedouin nomads were generally left to themselves, although the king collected taxes on caravans passing through. The land was relatively good for agriculture, and wheat, pomegranates and olives were grown there. Salt was also collected from the Dead Sea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dahab",
        "text": "Local Bedouin children, sometimes encouraged by their families, come to beach cafes and restaurants to sell items such as woven bracelets to tourists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pseudophilotes sinaicus",
        "text": "Bedouins came to St Katherine 1500 years ago. Now there are about 4500 Bedouins living around the town. Most families keep a small herd of goats and sheep. These herds are valuable resources for their livelihood because goats and sheep provide them with meat and milk, as well as wool, hair and skin. Herds are always in need of fodder. Because of the arid climate of St Katherine and the high price of fodder, grazing is the only choice. In the past, the Bedouins had developed a system for rotating grazing pressure in order to protect plants. This system is called \"helf\", and is an agreement between themselves on banning grazing in certain wadis for specified periods of time. Today, this system has fallen into disuse, threatening many plant species. There is also a change in the lifestyle of St Katherine Bedouin since their population multiplied. Their lifestyle has switched from pastoral semi-nomadism to one that is largely sedentary, and this change has altered the pattern of grazing pressure. It has been demonstrated by Mike James and Martin Hoyle that the overall pattern of grazing pressure is affected by two main factors: altitude, and distance from villages. Usually the higher wadis and the ones far from villages get less grazing. Grazing pressure adversely affects the health of plants. Sinai thyme is a preferred plant to herds because it does not secrete toxic substances like some other plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian cuisine",
        "text": "Modern Syrian-Palestinian dishes have been generally influenced by the rule of three major Islamic groups: the Arabs, the Persian-influenced Arabs (Iraqis) and the Turks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional Council of Unrecognized Villages",
        "text": "Negev Bedouins were originally a nomadic society engaged in herding, agriculture and sometimes fishing. Traditional Bedouin lifestyle began to change after the French invasion of Egypt in 1798. At the end of the 19th century, following the need to establish law and order in the Negev, the Ottoman Empire started forcing sedentarization of the Bedouins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "To Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi are credited two recipes, one prepared by adding rue, caraway, thyme, \"asafetida\" and cassia to the mustard sauce, and another made by mashing vinegar-soaked raisins with garlic, walnut, mustard, vinegar, and seasonings like \"asafetida\" and anise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kabsa\" () or () is a traditional mixed rice dish in many Arab states of the Persian Gulf, originating from Saudi Arabia. It is made of rice (typically \"basmati\"), meat, vegetables, and a mixture of spices. Spices used in are generally black pepper, cloves, cardamom, saffron, cinnamon, dried lime (also known as black lime), bay leaves and nutmeg. The meats used are usually chicken, goat, lamb, camel, beef, fish or shrimp. is popular in countries around the Persian Gulf and the Khuzestan Province of Iran."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "This is followed by a soup or anything they would like, the most popular being lentil soup, but a wide variety of soups such as chicken, oats, \"freeka\" (a soup made from whole wheat and chicken broth), potato, , and others are also offered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Rice, potatoes, scrambled eggs, and vegetables are common additions to . It is eaten with flat bread known as \"mulawah\", which serves as a utensil to scoop up the food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "Middle Eastern cuisine\n--Geography.\n--History and influences.\n--Elements.\n----Grains.\n----Flavorings.\n----Religious influence.\n----Vegetables.\n----Dishes.\n--Beverages.\n--Dining etiquette.\n----Arab countries.\n------Ramadan.\n----Turkey.\n----Iran.\n--Globalization.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Demographics of Libya",
        "text": "Libyan cuisine is heavily influenced by Mediterranean, Arabic and North African (Berber cuisine) traditions. Notable dishes include Shorba Arabiya, or Arabian soup, which is a thick, highly spiced soup. Like other Maghrebi countries, couscous and tajine are traditional of Libya. Bazeen is a traditional Libyan food, made from a mix of barley flour and a small amount of plain flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Syrian cheeses",
        "text": "While the product originated with Bedouins, using goat or sheep milk, current practice is to use cow's milk. \"Jibneh Arabieh\" is used for cooking, or simply as a table cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Palestine",
        "text": "Palestine's history of rule by many different empires is reflected in Palestinian cuisine, which has benefited from various cultural contributions and exchanges. Generally speaking, modern Palestinian dishes have been influenced by the rule of three major Islamic groups: the Arabs, the Persian-influenced Arabs, and the Turks. The original Bedouin Arabs in Syria and Palestine had simple culinary traditions primarily based on the use of rice, lamb and yogurt, as well as dates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bedouin",
        "text": "In Morocco, Bedouin Arabic dialects are spoken in plains and in recently founded cities such as Casablanca. Thus, the city Arabic dialect shares with the Bedouin dialects \"gal\" 'to say' (qala); they also represent the bulk of modern urban dialects (Koin\u00e9s), such as those of Oran and Algiers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mediterranean cuisine",
        "text": "Ful medames, originally from Egypt and still a national dish there, consists of fava beans with oil and cumin; it is popular throughout the Levant. The dish may be ancient: dried beans of Neolithic age have been found near Nazareth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pekmez",
        "text": "In Arab cuisine, \"dibs\" or \"dibis\" (in some regions called \"robb\" or \"rubb\") is made from pomegranates, grapes, , or dates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emirati cuisine",
        "text": "Breakfast in the UAE usually features breads like \"raqaq\", \"khameer\", and \"chebab\", served with cheese, date syrup, or eggs. These were made over a curved hot plate, resembling a stone, which would have been used by the Bedouins. \"Balaleat\" is another dish, but its advent began with the traders, who introduced pasta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "rounds glowing with lovely whiteness, more playful than gorgeous singing girls,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Agriculture in Saudi Arabia",
        "text": "Traditionally, the Bedouin were not self-sufficient but needed some food and materials from agricultural settlements. The near constant movement required to feed their animals limited other activities, such as weaving. The settled farmers and traders needed the nomads to tend camels. Nomads would graze and breed animals belonging to sedentary farmers in return for portions of the farmers' produce. Bedouin groups contracted to provide protection to the agricultural and market areas they frequented in return for such provisions as dates, cloth, and equipment. Bedouin further supplemented their income by taxing caravans for passage and protection through their territory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hauran",
        "text": "The Bedouin used the Hauran for access to water, to graze their camels and sheep and to stock up on supplies for the winter. They traded their livestock and meats for grains from the plainsmen, and wares from other Syrian merchants. The Hajj caravan was a major source of income for the Bedouin, who supplied the pilgrims with protection, logistical support, meat and transportation. Bedouin depredations against the locals included the imposition of the \"khuwwa\" (tribute), ostensibly in return for protection. The Bedouin also launched occasional raids and their flocks often grazed on the plainsmen's fields."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Arab cuisine is influenced by what 3 factors?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They have been influenced by climate, cultivation, and mutual commerce."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me how climate influences the cuisine?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find the answer, but I did find that an area's climate, in large measure, determines the native foods that are available and also influences food preservation."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about Bedouin cuisine?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Bedouins of the Arabian Peninsula, Middle East and North Africa rely on a diet of dates, dried fruit, nuts, wheat, barley, rice, and meat.  Bedouins also use many different dried beans including white beans, lentils, and chickpeas, and they drink a lot of fresh verbena tea, Arabic tea, Maghrebi mint tea, or Arabic coffee."
    ],
    "topic": "Arab cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Arab cuisine:70",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Arab cuisine",
          "Regional Arab cuisines",
          "Bedouin cuisine"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Bedouins of the Arabian Peninsula, Middle East and North Africa rely on a diet of dates, dried fruit, nuts, wheat, barley, rice, and meat. The meat comes from large animals such as cows, sheep, and lambs. They also eat dairy products: milk, cheese, yoghurt, and buttermilk (\"labneh\")."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Arab cuisine:71",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Arab cuisine",
          "Regional Arab cuisines",
          "Bedouin cuisine"
        ],
        "ctx": "Bedouins also use many different dried beans including white beans, lentils, and chickpeas. Vegetables that are commonly used are those that could be dried, such as pumpkins, but also vegetables that are more heat-resistant, such as aubergines."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Arab cuisine:72",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Arab cuisine",
          "Regional Arab cuisines",
          "Bedouin cuisine"
        ],
        "ctx": "They drink a lot of fresh verbena tea, Arabic tea, Maghrebi mint tea, or Arabic coffee. A daily break to freshen up with drinks is a much-loved tradition."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The Bedouins of the Arabian Peninsula, Middle East and North Africa rely on a diet of dates, dried fruit, nuts, wheat, barley, rice, and meat. The meat comes from large animals such as cows, sheep, and lambs. They also eat dairy products: milk, cheese, yoghurt, and buttermilk (\"labneh\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "There are two basic structures for meals in the Arab World, one regular schedule during most of the year and a second one that is unique to the month of Ramadan in which observant Muslims fast during the day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Bedouins also use many different dried beans including white beans, lentils, and chickpeas. Vegetables that are commonly used are those that could be dried, such as pumpkins, but also vegetables that are more heat-resistant, such as aubergines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arabs",
        "text": "Arab cuisine mostly follows one of three culinary traditions \u2013 from the Maghreb, the Levant or Eastern Arabia. In the Maghreb countries (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya) traditional main meals are tajines or dishes using couscous. In the Levant (Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria) main meals usually start with mezze \u2013 small dishes of dips and other items which are eaten with bread. This is typically followed by skewers of grilled lamb or chicken. Gulf cuisine, tends to be more highly spiced with more use of rice. Sometimes a lamb is roasted and served whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Arab cuisine\n--Medieval cuisine.\n----Breads.\n----Sauces.\n----Sweets.\n----Vegetables.\n--Diet and foods.\n--Structure of meals.\n----Year round.\n------Breakfast.\n------Lunch.\n------Dinner.\n----Ramadan.\n------Iftar.\n------Suhur.\n----Sweets.\n--Arab hospitality.\n----Khaleej.\n------Coffee ceremony.\n------Guests dinner.\n----Maghreb.\n------Tea/coffee ceremony.\n------Dinner guests.\n----Levantine.\n------Coffee/tea ceremony.\n------Dinner guests.\n----Regional differences.\n--Regional Arab cuisines.\n----Arabian Peninsula.\n----Mashriq.\n----Bedouin cuisine.\n----Levant.\n----Iraq/Mesopotamia.\n----Egypt.\n----Africa.\n------Sudan.\n------Maghreb.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Khaleej al-Arab region, a guest should expect a dinner consisting of a very large platter, shared commonly, with a large amount of spiced rice, with spicy lamb, chicken, or both, as separate dishes, with various stewed vegetables, heavily spiced, sometimes with a tomato-based sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Breakfast consists of baked beans, bread, nuts, dried fruits, milk, yoghurt, and cheese with tea or coffee. Snacks also include nuts and dried fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "It also includes copious amounts of garlic and olive oil, often seasoned with lemon juice\u2014almost no meal goes by without including these ingredients. Most often foods are either grilled, baked, fried, or saut\u00e9ed in olive oil; butter and cream are rarely used, other than in a few desserts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The vegetables and meat are usually cooked together in a sauce (often tomato, although others are also popular) to make , which is served with rice. Most households add bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "These main dishes are accompanied by smaller \"mezze\"-like plates with salads, sauces and dips. Breads such as and \"khobz\" are used to eat the stews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Essential to any cooking in the Arab world is the concept of hospitality and generosity. Meals are generally large family affairs, with much sharing and a great deal of warmth over the dinner table. Formal dinners and celebrations generally involve large quantities of lamb, and every occasion entails large quantities of Arabic coffee or Arabic tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Levant, a guest will find a table with different kinds of \"mezzes\", nuts, dips and oils. include hummus, baba ghanoush, falafel, \"kibbeh\", \"kafta\", smoked vegetables and \"tabouli\" salads. The nuts can differ from almonds to walnuts, with different spice coatings. The dips and oils include hummus and olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Dishes include olive oil, \"za'atar\", and garlic, and common dishes include a wide array of \"mezze\" or bread dips, stuffings, and side dishes such as hummus, falafel, \"ful\", \"tabouleh\", \"labaneh\", and baba ghanoush."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Khaleej al-Arab region, a visitor is greeted by a great table of dried fruits, fresh fruits, nuts and cakes with syrup. Dried fruits include figs, dates, apricots and plums. Fresh fruits include citruses, melons and pomegranate. Arabic coffee is most favored, but Arabic tea is also a great refresher. Spices are often added to the coffee and other drinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables are often eaten raw or pickled, as well as cooked. While the cuisine does not boast a multitude of sauces, it focuses on herbs, spices, and the freshness of ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables include leeks, endive, melilot, fenugreek, onions, purslane, Jew's mallow and radish. Boiled asparagus is served with olive oil and \"murri\". The cooking water may be sweetened with honey and seasoned with cilantro, rue, anise and black pepper, and used as a beverage either by itself with honey, or added to wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The platter usually consists of a portion of meat, poultry or fish, a portion of rice, lentils, bread and a portion of cooked vegetables, in addition to the fresh ones with the and salad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Soups and stews are often prepared and served with rice and vegetables. Biryani, although influenced by Indian cuisine, is milder with a different mixture of spices, and a wider variety of vegetables, including potatoes, peas, carrots, and onions. Dolma is also one of the most popular dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arabs",
        "text": "Arabic cuisine is the cuisine of the Arab people. The cuisines are often centuries old and reflect the culture of great trading in spices, herbs, and foods. The three main regions, also known as the Maghreb, the Mashriq, and the Khaleej have many similarities, but also many unique traditions. These kitchens have been influenced by the climate, cultivating possibilities, as well as trading possibilities. The kitchens of the Maghreb and Levant are relatively young kitchens which were developed over the past centuries. The kitchen from the Khaleej region is a very old kitchen. The kitchens can be divided into the urban and rural kitchens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "In some Arab countries, especially in the Persian Gulf region, it is common for diners to take their food from a communal plate in the center of the table. They traditionally do not use forks or spoons; instead they scoop up the food with pita or a thumb and two fingers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Maghreb region, a guest may find a table with different kinds of stews, called or \"tajines\". Dishes such as \"couscous\" and other semolina-based foods are also to be found."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the vessel harmoniously combined, here together and there disperse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Rice, potatoes, scrambled eggs, and vegetables are common additions to . It is eaten with flat bread known as \"mulawah\", which serves as a utensil to scoop up the food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab culture",
        "text": "Originally, the Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula relied heavily on a diet of dates, wheat, barley, rice and meat, with little variety, with a heavy emphasis on yoghurt products, such as leben (\u0644\u0628\u0646) (yoghurt without butterfat). Arabian cuisine today is the result of a combination of richly diverse cuisines, spanning the Arab world and incorporating Levantine, Egyptian, and others. It has also been influenced to a degree by the cuisines of India, Turkey, Berber, and others. In an average Arab household in Eastern Arabia, a visitor might expect a dinner consisting of a very large platter, shared commonly, with a vast mountain of rice, incorporating lamb or chicken, or both, as separate dishes, with various stewed vegetables, heavily spiced, sometimes with a tomato sauce. Most likely, there would be several other items on the side, less hearty. Tea would certainly accompany the meal, as it is almost constantly consumed. Coffee would be included as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Eastern Arabia",
        "text": "Due to the seafaring nature of the Arabs along the eastern Arabian coast, seafood forms the major part of the cuisine of the region. Camel meat and milk also forms a basic staple for all the population, most prominently for bedouins who used to usually breed and sell camels to the rest of the population. Dates are usually consumed as snacks in between meals or offered to guests alongside Arabic coffee in the majlis. Other basic meals are rice and meat, chicken, and strained yogurt. Seafood diet is various with multiple ways to prepare fish for consumption. Squids, oysters, crabs, as well as shrimps all form basic staple food for the coastal Arabs. Harees is also a popular dish in the majority of eastern Arabian households."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In Palestine and Jordan, the population has a cooking style of their own, involved in roasting various meats, baking flatbreads, and cooking thick yogurt-like pastes from goat's milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In an average Arab Levantine household, a visitor might expect a table full of \"mezzes\", breads topped with spices including \"za'atar\" and nuts. In the Levant, Arabic coffee is a much-loved beverage, but Arabic tea is also much enjoyed in Jordan and Palestine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Maghreb cuisine is the cooking of the Maghreb region, the northwesternmost part of the Arab world along the Mediterranean Sea, consisting of the countries of Algeria, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia. In Maghrebi cuisine, the most common staple foods are wheat (for \"khobz\" bread and couscous), fish, seafood, goat, lamb, beef, dates, almonds, olives and various vegetables and fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The third course is the main dish, usually eaten after an interval, when Maghreb prayer is conducted. The main dish is mostly similar to what is served in lunch year-round, except that cold drinks are served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Maghreb region, a visitor will find a table full of bread-like snacks, including \"m\u2019semen\", \"baghrir\", and other stuffed breads. These are served with honey, rosewater or olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Arab cuisine uses specific and unique foods and spices. Some of those foods are:\n* Meat\u2014lamb and chicken are the most used, followed by beef and goat. Other poultry is used in some regions, and fish is used in coastal areas including the Mediterranean Sea, Atlantic Ocean and the Red Sea.\n:Pork Some Christian Arabs eat pork.\n* Dairy products\u2014widely used, especially yogurt, buttermilk and white cheese. Butter and cream are also used extensively.\n* Herbs and spices\u2014amounts and types used generally varies from region to region.\n:Herbs and spices include: sesame, saffron, black pepper, allspice, turmeric, garlic, cumin, cinnamon, parsley, coriander and sumac.\n:Spice mixtures include \"baharat\",\" ras el hanout\", \"za'atar\", and \"harissa\".\n* Beverages\u2014hot beverages are served more often than cold, coffee being at the top of the list in Middle-Eastern countries and tea at top in Maghreb countries.\n:In Jordan, Palestine, Egypt, some parts of Syria, Morocco, and Algeria, tea is much more prevalent as a beverage. Other Arabic drinks include Andalucian \"horchata\" and Maghrebi avocado smoothie.\n* Grains\u2014rice is the staple and is used for most dishes; wheat is the main source for bread. Bulgur and semolina are also used extensively.\n:According to historic recipes known from Arabic cookbooks, grains were primarily used to make porridge and pasta type dishes in Arab cuisine until the 12th century. Two types of pasta were known: \"itriya\", a short dry noodle of Greek origin similar to \"orzo\", and , a hand-cut fresh noodle of Persian origin.\n:By the 13th century, the Turkic style and noodles had entered the cuisine.\n* Legumes\u2014lentils are widely used in all colours, as well as fava beans, peanuts, chickpeas (garbanzo beans), scarlet runner beans, green peas, lupini beans, white beans, and brown beans.\n* Vegetables\u2014popular vegetables in Arab cuisine include carrots, eggplant (aubergine), zucchini (courgette), artichokes, okra, onions, and olives. Potatoes are also eaten as vegetables in Arab culture.\n* Fruits\u2014pomegranate, dates, figs, oranges, citruses, watermelons, cantaloupe, honeydew melon, grapes, peaches, and nectarines are favored in Arab cuisine.\n* Nuts\u2014almonds, pine nuts, pistachios, and walnuts are often included in dishes or eaten as snacks.\n* Greens\u2014parsley, coriander and mint are popular as seasonings in many dishes, while spinach and \"mulukhiyah\" (leaves from the plant of the \"Corchorus\" genus) are used in cooked dishes.\n* Dressings and sauces\u2014the most popular dressings include various combinations of olive oil, lemon juice, parsley, or garlic, as well as \"tahini\" (sesame paste). \"Labaneh\" (strained yogurt) is often seasoned with mint, onion, or garlic, and served as a sauce with various dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Jiggling with murri and olive oil, ebbing and flowing with sheen.</poem>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Arab cuisine () is the cuisine of the Arabs, defined as the various regional cuisines spanning the Arab world, from the Maghreb to the Fertile Crescent and the Arabian Peninsula. These cuisines are centuries old and reflect the culture of trading in Baharat (spices), herbs, and foods. The regions have many similarities, but also unique traditions. They have also been influenced by climate, cultivation, and mutual commerce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "This is followed by a soup or anything they would like, the most popular being lentil soup, but a wide variety of soups such as chicken, oats, \"freeka\" (a soup made from whole wheat and chicken broth), potato, , and others are also offered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Different types of bread are served with toppings specific to the region. Tea would certainly accompany the meal, as it is almost constantly consumed. Coffee would also be served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "To Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi are credited two recipes, one prepared by adding rue, caraway, thyme, \"asafetida\" and cassia to the mustard sauce, and another made by mashing vinegar-soaked raisins with garlic, walnut, mustard, vinegar, and seasonings like \"asafetida\" and anise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian cuisine",
        "text": "As in most Arab cultures, meals are a time to spend with family and could last 1\u20132 hours depending on the specific time of the day. Unlike other cultures, lunch is the primary course and breakfast and dinner are lighter in contents.\n*Asha\u2014supper, usually eaten anytime from 8\u201310 pm. \"'Asha\" is simpler than \"gheda\" and some foods consumed include \"fatayer\", \"hummus bi tahini\", a variety of salads and a Levantine-style omelette called \"ijee\".\n*Asrooneh\u2014from \"'Aasr\" (\"afternoon\"), a term for the consumption of a variety of fruits and legumes after \"ghada\".\n*Fatur/Iftur\u2014breakfast, usually consisting of fried eggs, olives, \"labaneh\", olive oil, \"za'atar\", and/or jams. \"Hummus bi tahini\" is also eaten primarily during this time the day.\n*Ghada\u2014lunch, usually late in the afternoon. Lunch is the heaviest meal of the day and main ingredients may include rice, lamb, chicken, cooked vegetables and forms of \"mahashi\".\n*Hilew\u2014sometimes after or just before \"'asha\" as well as when hosting guests come various sweets. \"Baklawa\" is common and is usually purchased from pastry shops instead of made at home like \"muhallabiyeh\".\n*Shay wa Kahwah\u2014tea and coffee are served in throughout the day, before, after and between \"fatur\", \"ghada\" and \"'asha\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "They look like crystal trays, and were they indeed so, they would have served us as plates.</poem>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern Arabian cuisine",
        "text": "Essential to any cooking in eastern Arabia is the concept of hospitality. Meals are sometimes family affairs, with much sharing and a great deal of warmth over the dinner table. Formal dinners and celebrations generally entail large quantities of food, and every occasion entails large quantities of coffee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "is a leg of lamb or large pieces of mutton, on top of a \"markook\" bread that has been topped with yellow rice. A type of thick dried yogurt made from goat's milk, called \"jameed\", is poured on top of the lamb and rice to give it its distinct flavor and taste. The dish is garnished with cooked pine nuts and almonds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Lunch is considered the main meal of the day, and is traditionally eaten between 1:30 pm and 2:30 pm. It is the meal for which the family comes together. Rarely do meals have different courses; however, salads and \"mezze\" are served as side dishes to the main meal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Caf\u00e9s often serve croissants for breakfast. Breakfast is often a quick meal, consisting of bread and dairy products, with tea and sometimes jam. The most common breakfast items are \"labneh\" and cream (, made of cow's milk)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of the United Arab Emirates",
        "text": "One of the best national dishes is stuffed camel cooked slowly over a pit of burning charcoal. Harees is also a national specialty; it is a porridge-like dish often served in Ramadan or during large celebrations like weddings. It is made with wheat, meat (or chicken) and salted water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "In traditional Iranian restaurants, a large, low table lined with Persian rugs and with cushions around the sides is the setting for a meal. Diners sit cross-legged in a circle and food is served in the center (eaten with cutlery on separate plates). Tea is served in \"kamar baareek\" (\"narrow-waist\") glasses with sugar and Persian sweets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "Beans and pulses are crucial to the regional diet, second only to cereals. Fava beans are eaten both green and dried. Dried fava beans are boiled into \"ful medames\", one of the most popular Egyptian domestic and street foods. As for mashed fava beans, they are dressed with oil, lemon, and chili. Similar dishes are found throughout the region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Dinner is traditionally the lightest meal, although in modern times, dinner has become more important with regards to entertaining guests due to the hours of the workday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "There are also many different cookies and cakes included accompanied by plates with different kinds of nuts. Mint tea is often served with it in a traditional Maghrebian teapot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of cuisines",
        "text": "Meal structure varies by culture. Here are some examples:\n* Meal structure in Arab cuisine \u2013 includes breakfast, lunch, and dinner (including dessert). However, during Ramadan (9th month), fasting is paramount, and lasts from dawn to sunset. Each day during Ramadan, before dawn, many Muslims observe a pre-fast meal called the suhoor. After stopping a short time before dawn, Muslims begin the first prayer of the day, Fajr. At sunset, families hasten for the fast-breaking meal known as iftar.\n* Meal structure in Bolivian cuisine \u2013 lunch \"(almuerzo)\" is the most important meal of the Bolivian day. Bolivians observe an afternoon tea time (\"t\u00e9\") similar to those in England. Dinner (\"la cena\") is a lighter, much more informal affair than lunch.\n* Meal structure in Danish cuisine \u2013 usually consists of a cold breakfast with coffee or tea, a cold lunch at work and a hot dinner at home with the family. Some also have a snack in the middle of the afternoon or in the late evening.\n* Meal structure in Dutch cuisine \u2013 the Dutch eat at breakfast and lunch (which differ little from each other), tea time, and dinner (including dessert)\n* Meal structure in English cuisine \u2013 Breakfast is traditional throughout England. Lower-middle-class and working-class people, especially from the North of England, the English Midlands, and Scotland, traditionally call their midday meal \"dinner\" and their evening meal (served around 6\u00a0pm) \"tea\", whereas the upper social classes call the midday meal lunch (or \"luncheon\"), and the evening meal (served after 7\u00a0pm) dinner (if formal) or supper (often eaten later in the evening), with \"afternoon tea\" as a light meal typically eaten between 4 pm and 6 pm.\n* Meal structure in French cuisine \u2013 breakfast \"(le petit d\u00e9jeuner)\", lunch \"(le d\u00e9jeuner)\", dinner (le d\u00eener) and dessert. Beverages that precede a meal are called \"ap\u00e9ritifs\" (literally: that opens the appetite), and can be served with amuse-bouches (literally: mouth amuser). Those that end it are called \"digestifs\".\n* Meal structure in German cuisine \u2013 traditionally, the day starts with breakfast \"(fr\u00fchst\u00fcck)\", lunch \"(mittagessen)\" is the main meal, followed by a smaller dinner (\"abendessen\" or \"abendbrot\") with dessert.\n* Meal structure in Iranian cuisine \u2013 breakfast is called \"sobh\u0101neh.\" Lunch and dinner \"(naahaar va shaam)\" are not distinguished in Persian. You can usually find tea brewing throughout the day in most Iranian homes.\n* Meal structure in Italian cuisine \u2013 breakfast (colazione), lunch \"(pranzo)\", mid-afternoon snack \"(merenda)\", and dinner \"(cena)\"\n* Meal structure in Moroccan cuisine"
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "Tea is usually served in curved glasses which are held by the lip to which water may be added. A cup of tea may be refilled if it is less than half full. An honored guest is expected to make a toast, usually soon after the host does or at the end of the meal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Al Nassma Chocolate",
        "text": "Arab cuisine traditionally includes camel milk in various forms, and was a staple of the diet of Bedouins until mid-20th century. The company uses mild cocoa beans roasted in a manner that doesn\u2019t overpower the slight saltiness of camel milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "They drink a lot of fresh verbena tea, Arabic tea, Maghrebi mint tea, or Arabic coffee. A daily break to freshen up with drinks is a much-loved tradition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "Thyme and thyme blends (\"za'atar\") are common among Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine and Israel, in addition to a mixture of dried thyme and sumac (crushed sour berries) which is prevalent at breakfast with oil and bread. Sumac is also sprinkled over grilled meat and garlic is frequently used in many dishes and salads."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Which the cook delicately fashioned, a gorgeous dish with flavor and perfume."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Syria",
        "text": "The main dishes that form Syrian cuisine are kibbeh, hummus, tabbouleh, fattoush, labneh, shawarma, mujaddara, shanklish, past\u0131rma, sujuk and baklava. Baklava is made of filo pastry filled with chopped nuts and soaked in honey. Syrians often serve selections of appetizers, known as meze, before the main course. za'atar, minced beef, and cheese manakish are popular hors d'\u0153uvres. The Arabic flatbread khubz is always eaten together with meze."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kabsa\" () or () is a traditional mixed rice dish in many Arab states of the Persian Gulf, originating from Saudi Arabia. It is made of rice (typically \"basmati\"), meat, vegetables, and a mixture of spices. Spices used in are generally black pepper, cloves, cardamom, saffron, cinnamon, dried lime (also known as black lime), bay leaves and nutmeg. The meats used are usually chicken, goat, lamb, camel, beef, fish or shrimp. is popular in countries around the Persian Gulf and the Khuzestan Province of Iran."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Eastern Arabian cuisine today is the result of a combination of diverse influences, incorporating Levantine and Yemeni cuisines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern Arabian cuisine",
        "text": "Originally, the inhabitants of the Eastern Arabia relied heavily on a diet of dates, wheat, barley, rice and meat, with little variety, and with a heavy emphasis on yogurt products, such as \"leben\" (\u0644\u0628\u0646) (yogurt without butterfat). Globalization and contact with ancient civilizations such as the Romans, Persians, and later on with the Ottomans brought the Arabs in close contact with dishes of several other cultures, as well as introducing several new ingredients in their diet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "\"Mansaf\" is a traditional meal, and the national dish of Jordan, having roots in the Bedouin population of the country. It is mostly cooked on special occasions such as Ramadan, Eid ul-Fitr, a birth, or a large dinner gathering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Some vegetables are consumed raw, but the following are usually boiled: asparagus, cauliflower, white soy beans, leeks, orach, a variety of mushroom known as , chard, cabbage, carrot, turnip, fresh fennel and eggplant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Syria",
        "text": "The main dishes that form Syrian cuisine are kibbeh, hummus, tabbouleh, fattoush, labneh, shawarma, mujaddara, shanklish, past\u0131rma, sujuk and baklava. Baklava is made of filo pastry filled with chopped nuts and soaked in honey. Syrians often serve selections of appetizers, known as meze, before the main course. Za'atar, minced beef, and cheese manakish are popular hors d'\u0153uvres. The Arabic flatbread khubz is always eaten together with meze."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Unlike most Western recipes, cinnamon is used in meat dishes, as well as in sweets such as baklava. Dishes such as \"tajine\" and couscous can differ from Morocco to Libya, each having their own unique preparation. Other dishes, such as the Andalucian-Moorish \"bastilla\" and \"albondigas\" have different traditional spice mixes and fillings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Levantine cuisine is the traditional cuisine of the Fertile Crescent. Although now divided into Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, Egypt, and Palestine, the region has historically been more united, and shares many culinary traditions. Although very similar, there is some variation within the Levantine area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Common breads in the Maghreb are \"khobz\" and . Traditional dishes such as and \"tajines\" (stews) are also regularly prepared."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qamar al-Din\", a thick, sweet apricot beverage, is drunk by Muslims during Ramadan. Apricots are boiled with sugar and water until they are thick, and sun-dried on wooden planks. The dried fruit is then mixed with water and sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maghrebi cuisine",
        "text": "The use of legumes, nuts, fruits and spices is very prominent. Salt-preserved lemons (\"l'hamd mrakad\") and so-called \"oil-cured\" olives are distinctive elements of the cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ramadan",
        "text": "In the Middle East, \"iftar\" consists of water, juices, dates, salads and appetizers; one or more main dishes; and rich desserts, with dessert considered the most important aspect of the meal. Typical main dishes include lamb stewed with wheat berries, lamb kebabs with grilled vegetables, and roasted chicken served with chickpea-studded rice pilaf. Desserts may include \"luqaimat\", baklava or \"kunafeh\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Drinks are not necessarily served with the food; however, there is a very wide variety of drinks such as \"shineena\" (or ), , \"Naqe'e Al Zabib\", , , and fruit juice, as well as other traditional Arabic drinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "Squash, tomato, eggplant, and okra are distinctive elements of the region's cuisine. Eggplant is often sliced, fried and dressed with yogurt and garlic. \"Baba ghanoush\" is eggplant roasted over an open fire, mashed and dressed with \"tahini\" (sesame paste), lemon juice, garlic, and cumin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arabs",
        "text": "One will find the following items in most dishes; cinnamon, fish (in coastal areas), garlic, lamb (or veal), mild to hot sauces, mint, onion, rice, saffron, sesame, yogurt, spices due to heavy trading between the two regions. Tea, thyme (or oregano), turmeric, a variety of fruits (primarily citrus) and vegetables such as cucumbers, eggplants, lettuce, tomato, green pepper, green beans, zucchini and parsley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The cuisine of Yemen is in some ways distinct from other Arab cuisines. As in most Arab countries, chicken, goat, and lamb are eaten more often than beef, and fish is eaten mostly in coastal areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern Arabian cuisine",
        "text": "There are many regional differences in Arab cuisine. For instance mujadara in Syria or Lebanon is different from mujadara in Jordan or Palestine. Some dishes such as mensaf (the national dish of Jordan) are native to certain countries and rarely if ever make an appearance in other countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables and pulses are staple foods, and are boiled, stewed, grilled, stuffed, and cooked with meat and rice. Leaf vegetables include many varieties of cabbage, spinach, and chard. Root vegetables, such as onions, garlic, carrots, turnips, and beets, are also popular in the region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "From the seventh Abbasid caliph Al-Ma'mun's recipe collection comes a made with whey, walnut, garlic, olive oil and murri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "Middle Eastern cuisine or West Asian cuisine includes Arab, Armenian, Assyrian, Azerbaijani, Cypriot, Egyptian, Georgian, Iranian, Iraqi, Israeli, Kurdish, Lebanese, Palestinian and Turkish cuisines. Common ingredients include olives and olive oil, pitas, honey, sesame seeds, dates, sumac, chickpeas, mint, rice and parsley, and popular dishes include \"kebabs\", \"dolmas\", \"falafel\", \"baklava\", yogurt, \"doner kebab\", \"shawarma\" and \"mulukhiyah\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "The other major Muslim feast is the four-day Eid al-Adha, the Feast of the Sacrifice, which occurs during Dhu al-Hijjah (the pilgrimage month). An animal (usually a sheep or goat) is slaughtered in every household that can afford it, great banquets are prepared, and food is given to the poor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abu Hassan (restaurant)",
        "text": "The restaurant's menu is very limited. The restaurant serves only four basic courses - hummus, masabacha, brown beans and labane - and dishes that combine them. The famous dish of the restaurant is the triangle (in Arabic: Mutha'alat, in Hebrew: Meshulash), a triangular dish that includes hummus, brown beans and masabacha. With the dishes, pitas, fresh onions, and saucers of hot sauce with lemon salt are served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "However, cheese, butter, and other dairy products are less common, especially in the cities and other urban areas. As with other Arab cuisines, the most widespread beverages are tea and coffee; tea is usually flavored with cardamom, clove, or mint, and coffee with cardamom. , \"Naqe'e Al Zabib\", and are the most widespread cold beverages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "rounds glowing with lovely whiteness, more playful than gorgeous singing girls,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Many Arabic food words are borrowed from Aramaic, the language spoken by the Christian Nabataean inhabitants of Iraq and Syria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "Cafes and pastry shops are open at night, and the streets have a carnival atmosphere. Many Muslims, following Muhammad's reported example, break their fast with a date followed by a variety of dishes. Sweet pastries and puddings are always present on Ramadan nights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian cuisine",
        "text": "The meal is served on a large \"sidr\", similar to \"mansaf\", decorated with chopped parsley and pine nuts or chopped almonds. Another variant of this is \"zarb\" which has bread dough instead of rice, although this is due to the Jordanian influence in the region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "\"Musakhan\" is a common main dish, famous in northern Jordan, the city of Jerusalem, and northern West Bank. The main component is \"taboon\" bread, which is topped with pieces of cooked sweet onions, sumac, saffron, and allspice. For large dinners, it can be topped by one or two roasted chickens on a single large bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "There are similar recipes meant for poultry dishes prepared with seasonings like ginger, pomegranate, spikenard, and cloves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "There are many regional differences in the Arab cuisine. For instance, \"mujadara\" in Syria and Lebanon is different from in Jordan and Palestine. Some dishes, such as \"mansaf\" (the national dish of Jordan), are native to certain countries and rarely, if ever, make an appearance in other countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emirati cuisine",
        "text": "The cuisine which originated in the area that is now the United Arab Emirates and was previously the Trucial States is formed by a similar Arabic and Middle Eastern cuisine which is consumed in the wider Arabian Peninsula. The food is a mixture of a bedouin diet, consisting of meat and camel milk, a fishermen's diet, consisting mainly of fish common in the Persian gulf, and a farmer's diet, consisting mainly of dates. A blend of these diets as well as a mixture of spices such as cinnamon, saffron, and turmeric formed the basis of the common dishes consumed in the Trucial states region and the current traditional Emirati cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emirati cuisine",
        "text": "Breakfast in the UAE usually features breads like \"raqaq\", \"khameer\", and \"chebab\", served with cheese, date syrup, or eggs. These were made over a curved hot plate, resembling a stone, which would have been used by the Bedouins. \"Balaleat\" is another dish, but its advent began with the traders, who introduced pasta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Iftar (also called ), or fast-breaking, is the meal taken at dusk when the fast is over. The meal consists of three courses: first, diners eat a date due to Islamic tradition."
      },
      {
        "title": "A\u00e7orda",
        "text": "The primitive Arab A\u00e7orda, \"thar\u00eed\", can be traced as far as the 5th century in the Pre-Islamic Arabia. It is one of the most characteristic dishes of the Arab cuisine and its creation is attributed to H\u0101shim ibn \u2018Abd Man\u0101f. This a\u00e7orda would most resemble a meat and pumpkin stew, to which breadcrumbs were added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mediterranean cuisine",
        "text": "Levantine cuisine is the cooking of the Levant (including the Middle Eastern Mediterranean coast, east of Egypt). Among the most distinctive foods of this cuisine are traditional small meze dishes such as tabbouleh, hummus, and baba ghanoush. Tabbouleh is a dish of bulgur cracked wheat with tomatoes, parsley, mint and onion, dressed with olive oil and lemon juice. Baba ghanoush, sometimes called \"poor man's caviar\", is a puree of aubergine with olive oil, often mixed with chopped onion, tomato, cumin, garlic, lemon juice, and parsley. The dish is popular across the whole of the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "Guests may be required to remove their shoes. It is customary to say \"Afiyet olsun\" (\"May what you eat bring well-being\") before or after eating, and to say \"Elinize sa\u011flik\" (\"Bless your hand\", a compliment for the manual, i.e. \"hand\" labour involved in cooking) to whomever prepared the meal after a meal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "On top are pearls and silver decked with gems,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Iraqi cuisine uses more spices than most Arab cuisines. Iraq's main food crops include wheat, barley, rice, vegetables, and dates. Vegetables include eggplant, okra, potatoes, and tomatoes. Pulses such as chickpeas and lentils are also quite common. Common meats in Iraqi cuisine are lamb and beef; fish and poultry are also used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In addition to the two meals eaten during Ramadan (one for dinner and one for Suhur before dawn), sweets are consumed much more than usual during the month of Ramadan; sweets and fresh fruits are served between these two meals. Although most sweets are made all year-round such as \"kanafeh\", baklava, and \"basbousa\", some are made especially for Ramadan, such as \"qatayef\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "Forks, spoons and knives are used. Sometimes, the knife is held in the right hand and the fork in the left, presenting the British-style. Smoking may acceptable between courses of a dinner."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian cuisine",
        "text": "The Arabs that conquered Syria and Palestine initially had simple culinary traditions primarily based on the use of rice, lamb, yogurt and dates. This cuisine did not advance for centuries until the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate, that established Baghdad as its capital and integrated elements of Persian cuisine into the existing Arab cuisine. The Jerusalemite geographer al-Muqaddasi said this of Palestine's foods:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "All radiating with luster like carnelian shimmering on pearls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Numerous recipes for sauces () have survived from historic Arabic cookbooks. The 10th-century written by Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq gives several recipes to be served with roasted fish, attributed to the various sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern Arabian cuisine",
        "text": "Eastern Arabian cuisine, also called Khaleeji cuisine (), is the traditional Arabic cuisine variant that is shared by the population in Eastern Arabia and areas around the Persian Gulf. Seafood is a very significant part of the diet of the inhabitants of the coastal region of Eastern Arabia. Fish is very popular. The cuisine of eastern Arabia is different from the cuisine of the Arabs of Hejaz, Yemen, Najd, Oman, and other parts of Arabia. Harees is also a very popular dish in the region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "bread was made in two varieties, (soft, thin flatbreads) and (dry, thin bread flavored with tamarisk seeds)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The spices emitting fragrance like wine mingled with sweet breeze."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Arab cuisine is influenced by what 3 factors?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They have been influenced by climate, cultivation, and mutual commerce."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me how climate influences the cuisine?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find the answer, but I did find that an area's climate, in large measure, determines the native foods that are available and also influences food preservation."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about Bedouin cuisine?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Bedouins of the Arabian Peninsula, Middle East and North Africa rely on a diet of dates, dried fruit, nuts, wheat, barley, rice, and meat.  Bedouins also use many different dried beans including white beans, lentils, and chickpeas, and they drink a lot of fresh verbena tea, Arabic tea, Maghrebi mint tea, or Arabic coffee."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me how the meals in Arab cuisine are structured?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Do you wish to know the regular schedule during most of the year or the one that is unique to the month of Ramadan?",
      "There are two basic structures for meals in the Arab World, one regular schedule during most of the year and a second one that is unique to the month of Ramadan in which observant Muslims fast during the day. Which one would you like to know more about?"
    ],
    "topic": "Arab cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Arab cuisine:32",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Arab cuisine",
          "Structure of meals"
        ],
        "ctx": "There are two basic structures for meals in the Arab World, one regular schedule during most of the year and a second one that is unique to the month of Ramadan in which observant Muslims fast during the day."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Arab cuisine:32",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Arab cuisine",
          "Structure of meals"
        ],
        "ctx": "There are two basic structures for meals in the Arab World, one regular schedule during most of the year and a second one that is unique to the month of Ramadan in which observant Muslims fast during the day."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "There are two basic structures for meals in the Arab World, one regular schedule during most of the year and a second one that is unique to the month of Ramadan in which observant Muslims fast during the day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In addition to the two meals eaten during Ramadan (one for dinner and one for Suhur before dawn), sweets are consumed much more than usual during the month of Ramadan; sweets and fresh fruits are served between these two meals. Although most sweets are made all year-round such as \"kanafeh\", baklava, and \"basbousa\", some are made especially for Ramadan, such as \"qatayef\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Arab cuisine\n--Medieval cuisine.\n----Breads.\n----Sauces.\n----Sweets.\n----Vegetables.\n--Diet and foods.\n--Structure of meals.\n----Year round.\n------Breakfast.\n------Lunch.\n------Dinner.\n----Ramadan.\n------Iftar.\n------Suhur.\n----Sweets.\n--Arab hospitality.\n----Khaleej.\n------Coffee ceremony.\n------Guests dinner.\n----Maghreb.\n------Tea/coffee ceremony.\n------Dinner guests.\n----Levantine.\n------Coffee/tea ceremony.\n------Dinner guests.\n----Regional differences.\n--Regional Arab cuisines.\n----Arabian Peninsula.\n----Mashriq.\n----Bedouin cuisine.\n----Levant.\n----Iraq/Mesopotamia.\n----Egypt.\n----Africa.\n------Sudan.\n------Maghreb.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "Cafes and pastry shops are open at night, and the streets have a carnival atmosphere. Many Muslims, following Muhammad's reported example, break their fast with a date followed by a variety of dishes. Sweet pastries and puddings are always present on Ramadan nights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The vegetables and meat are usually cooked together in a sauce (often tomato, although others are also popular) to make , which is served with rice. Most households add bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "They look like crystal trays, and were they indeed so, they would have served us as plates.</poem>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "These main dishes are accompanied by smaller \"mezze\"-like plates with salads, sauces and dips. Breads such as and \"khobz\" are used to eat the stews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The platter usually consists of a portion of meat, poultry or fish, a portion of rice, lentils, bread and a portion of cooked vegetables, in addition to the fresh ones with the and salad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arabs",
        "text": "Arab cuisine mostly follows one of three culinary traditions \u2013 from the Maghreb, the Levant or Eastern Arabia. In the Maghreb countries (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya) traditional main meals are tajines or dishes using couscous. In the Levant (Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria) main meals usually start with mezze \u2013 small dishes of dips and other items which are eaten with bread. This is typically followed by skewers of grilled lamb or chicken. Gulf cuisine, tends to be more highly spiced with more use of rice. Sometimes a lamb is roasted and served whole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Khaleej al-Arab region, a guest should expect a dinner consisting of a very large platter, shared commonly, with a large amount of spiced rice, with spicy lamb, chicken, or both, as separate dishes, with various stewed vegetables, heavily spiced, sometimes with a tomato-based sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ramadan",
        "text": "In the Middle East, \"iftar\" consists of water, juices, dates, salads and appetizers; one or more main dishes; and rich desserts, with dessert considered the most important aspect of the meal. Typical main dishes include lamb stewed with wheat berries, lamb kebabs with grilled vegetables, and roasted chicken served with chickpea-studded rice pilaf. Desserts may include \"luqaimat\", baklava or \"kunafeh\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Iftar (also called ), or fast-breaking, is the meal taken at dusk when the fast is over. The meal consists of three courses: first, diners eat a date due to Islamic tradition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Essential to any cooking in the Arab world is the concept of hospitality and generosity. Meals are generally large family affairs, with much sharing and a great deal of warmth over the dinner table. Formal dinners and celebrations generally involve large quantities of lamb, and every occasion entails large quantities of Arabic coffee or Arabic tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The third course is the main dish, usually eaten after an interval, when Maghreb prayer is conducted. The main dish is mostly similar to what is served in lunch year-round, except that cold drinks are served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "During Ramadan, food consumption increases dramatically in Muslim communities. Breaking the daily sunrise-to-sunset fast is a banquet with family and friends whereas public banquets are held by charities and other associations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qamar al-Din\", a thick, sweet apricot beverage, is drunk by Muslims during Ramadan. Apricots are boiled with sugar and water until they are thick, and sun-dried on wooden planks. The dried fruit is then mixed with water and sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Dishes include olive oil, \"za'atar\", and garlic, and common dishes include a wide array of \"mezze\" or bread dips, stuffings, and side dishes such as hummus, falafel, \"ful\", \"tabouleh\", \"labaneh\", and baba ghanoush."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Rice, potatoes, scrambled eggs, and vegetables are common additions to . It is eaten with flat bread known as \"mulawah\", which serves as a utensil to scoop up the food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables are often eaten raw or pickled, as well as cooked. While the cuisine does not boast a multitude of sauces, it focuses on herbs, spices, and the freshness of ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "It also includes copious amounts of garlic and olive oil, often seasoned with lemon juice\u2014almost no meal goes by without including these ingredients. Most often foods are either grilled, baked, fried, or saut\u00e9ed in olive oil; butter and cream are rarely used, other than in a few desserts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "The end of Ramadan is marked by Eid al-Fitr, featuring a great quantity and variety of sweets and pastries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "In some Arab countries, especially in the Persian Gulf region, it is common for diners to take their food from a communal plate in the center of the table. They traditionally do not use forks or spoons; instead they scoop up the food with pita or a thumb and two fingers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "This is followed by a soup or anything they would like, the most popular being lentil soup, but a wide variety of soups such as chicken, oats, \"freeka\" (a soup made from whole wheat and chicken broth), potato, , and others are also offered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Soups and stews are often prepared and served with rice and vegetables. Biryani, although influenced by Indian cuisine, is milder with a different mixture of spices, and a wider variety of vegetables, including potatoes, peas, carrots, and onions. Dolma is also one of the most popular dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Vegetables include leeks, endive, melilot, fenugreek, onions, purslane, Jew's mallow and radish. Boiled asparagus is served with olive oil and \"murri\". The cooking water may be sweetened with honey and seasoned with cilantro, rue, anise and black pepper, and used as a beverage either by itself with honey, or added to wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the vessel harmoniously combined, here together and there disperse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "is a leg of lamb or large pieces of mutton, on top of a \"markook\" bread that has been topped with yellow rice. A type of thick dried yogurt made from goat's milk, called \"jameed\", is poured on top of the lamb and rice to give it its distinct flavor and taste. The dish is garnished with cooked pine nuts and almonds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Maghreb region, a guest may find a table with different kinds of stews, called or \"tajines\". Dishes such as \"couscous\" and other semolina-based foods are also to be found."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "\"Mansaf\" is a traditional meal, and the national dish of Jordan, having roots in the Bedouin population of the country. It is mostly cooked on special occasions such as Ramadan, Eid ul-Fitr, a birth, or a large dinner gathering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egyptian cuisine",
        "text": "Although Ramadan is a month of fasting for Muslims in Egypt, it is usually a time when Egyptians pay a lot of attention to food variety and richness, since breaking the fast is a family affair, often with entire extended families meeting at the table just after sunset. There are several desserts served almost exclusively during Ramadan, such as \"kunafa\" () and \"qatayef\" (). In this month, many Egyptians prepare a special table for the poor or passers-by, usually in a tent in the street, called \"Ma'edet Rahman\" (, ), which literally translates to \"Table of the Merciful\", referring to one of the 99 names of God in Islam. These may be fairly simple or quite lavish, depending on the wealth and ostentation of the provider."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Which the cook delicately fashioned, a gorgeous dish with flavor and perfume."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arabs",
        "text": "Arabic cuisine is the cuisine of the Arab people. The cuisines are often centuries old and reflect the culture of great trading in spices, herbs, and foods. The three main regions, also known as the Maghreb, the Mashriq, and the Khaleej have many similarities, but also many unique traditions. These kitchens have been influenced by the climate, cultivating possibilities, as well as trading possibilities. The kitchens of the Maghreb and Levant are relatively young kitchens which were developed over the past centuries. The kitchen from the Khaleej region is a very old kitchen. The kitchens can be divided into the urban and rural kitchens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Maghreb region, a visitor will find a table full of bread-like snacks, including \"m\u2019semen\", \"baghrir\", and other stuffed breads. These are served with honey, rosewater or olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Jiggling with murri and olive oil, ebbing and flowing with sheen.</poem>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Dinner is traditionally the lightest meal, although in modern times, dinner has become more important with regards to entertaining guests due to the hours of the workday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Lunch is considered the main meal of the day, and is traditionally eaten between 1:30 pm and 2:30 pm. It is the meal for which the family comes together. Rarely do meals have different courses; however, salads and \"mezze\" are served as side dishes to the main meal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "\"Suhur\" is the meal eaten just before dawn, when fasting must begin. It is eaten to help the person make it through the day with enough energy until dusk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Different types of bread are served with toppings specific to the region. Tea would certainly accompany the meal, as it is almost constantly consumed. Coffee would also be served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of the United Arab Emirates",
        "text": "One of the best national dishes is stuffed camel cooked slowly over a pit of burning charcoal. Harees is also a national specialty; it is a porridge-like dish often served in Ramadan or during large celebrations like weddings. It is made with wheat, meat (or chicken) and salted water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saudi Arabian cuisine",
        "text": "According to the Saudi Arabian cultural mission, \"guests are served hot coffee and dates as a symbol of generosity and hospitality. The same practice is carried out in the month of Ramadan. Muslims in Saudi Arabia break their fast with dates, water and Arabian coffee. The caffeine in the coffee and the carbohydrates and iron in dates nourishes the fasting person with a lot of energy. This helps them perform the Tarawih held in the evenings during Ramadan.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Caf\u00e9s often serve croissants for breakfast. Breakfast is often a quick meal, consisting of bread and dairy products, with tea and sometimes jam. The most common breakfast items are \"labneh\" and cream (, made of cow's milk)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "There are many regional differences in the Arab cuisine. For instance, \"mujadara\" in Syria and Lebanon is different from in Jordan and Palestine. Some dishes, such as \"mansaf\" (the national dish of Jordan), are native to certain countries and rarely, if ever, make an appearance in other countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Levant, a guest will find a table with different kinds of \"mezzes\", nuts, dips and oils. include hummus, baba ghanoush, falafel, \"kibbeh\", \"kafta\", smoked vegetables and \"tabouli\" salads. The nuts can differ from almonds to walnuts, with different spice coatings. The dips and oils include hummus and olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Arab cuisine () is the cuisine of the Arabs, defined as the various regional cuisines spanning the Arab world, from the Maghreb to the Fertile Crescent and the Arabian Peninsula. These cuisines are centuries old and reflect the culture of trading in Baharat (spices), herbs, and foods. The regions have many similarities, but also unique traditions. They have also been influenced by climate, cultivation, and mutual commerce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In Palestine and Jordan, the population has a cooking style of their own, involved in roasting various meats, baking flatbreads, and cooking thick yogurt-like pastes from goat's milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ramadan",
        "text": "Over time, the practice of \"iftar\" has evolved into banquets that may accommodate hundreds or even thousands of diners. The Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque in Abu Dhabi, the largest mosque in the UAE, feeds up to thirty thousand people every night. Some twelve thousand people attend \"iftar\" at the Imam Reza shrine in Mashhad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "\"Musakhan\" is a common main dish, famous in northern Jordan, the city of Jerusalem, and northern West Bank. The main component is \"taboon\" bread, which is topped with pieces of cooked sweet onions, sumac, saffron, and allspice. For large dinners, it can be topped by one or two roasted chickens on a single large bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Souk El Fekka",
        "text": "It is possible to buy ingredients for the preparation of cakes present at every celebrations, such as birth, circumcision, marriage or Eid al-Fitr, which marks the end of the month of Ramadan. Almonds, as well as walnuts, pistachios and raisins are available in baskets, whereas bottles of almond or pistachio syrups, called rouzata from the Spanish word \"orchata\", are aligned on the shelves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "rounds glowing with lovely whiteness, more playful than gorgeous singing girls,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian cuisine",
        "text": "In the past, during the fasting month of Ramadan, the \"musaher\" of a town would yell and beat his drum to wake up the town's residents for \"suhoor\" (\"dawn\"), usually very early in the morning, from 4\u20136 am. The meals eaten during this time are light and foods include \"labaneh\", cheese, bread and fried or boiled eggs along with various liquids to drink. The \"muezzin\"'s call to dawn prayers signaled the beginning of \"sawm\", or fasting."
      },
      {
        "title": "A\u00e7orda",
        "text": "The primitive Arab A\u00e7orda, \"thar\u00eed\", can be traced as far as the 5th century in the Pre-Islamic Arabia. It is one of the most characteristic dishes of the Arab cuisine and its creation is attributed to H\u0101shim ibn \u2018Abd Man\u0101f. This a\u00e7orda would most resemble a meat and pumpkin stew, to which breadcrumbs were added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In the Khaleej al-Arab region, a visitor is greeted by a great table of dried fruits, fresh fruits, nuts and cakes with syrup. Dried fruits include figs, dates, apricots and plums. Fresh fruits include citruses, melons and pomegranate. Arabic coffee is most favored, but Arabic tea is also a great refresher. Spices are often added to the coffee and other drinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egyptian cuisine",
        "text": "Licorice teas and carob juice drinks are traditionally enjoyed during the Islamic month of Ramadan, as is \"amar al-din\", a thick drink made by reconstituting sheets of dried apricot with water. The sheets themselves are often consumed as candy. \"Sobia\" () is another beverage traditionally served during Ramadan. It is a sweet coconut milk drink, usually sold by street vendors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "<poem>\"In the farthest end of Karkh of Baghdad, a baker I saw offering bread, splendidly marvelous."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eid cuisine",
        "text": "Depending on the locality, the types and forms of the cuisine vary but are always sweet dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The spices emitting fragrance like wine mingled with sweet breeze."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "To Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi are credited two recipes, one prepared by adding rue, caraway, thyme, \"asafetida\" and cassia to the mustard sauce, and another made by mashing vinegar-soaked raisins with garlic, walnut, mustard, vinegar, and seasonings like \"asafetida\" and anise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qatayef",
        "text": "Qatayef or katayef or qata'if (, ) is an Arab dessert commonly served during the month of Ramadan, a sort of sweet dumpling filled with cream or nuts. It can be described as a folded pancake, similar to a Scottish crumpet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In an average Arab Levantine household, a visitor might expect a table full of \"mezzes\", breads topped with spices including \"za'atar\" and nuts. In the Levant, Arabic coffee is a much-loved beverage, but Arabic tea is also much enjoyed in Jordan and Palestine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "Middle Eastern cuisine\n--Geography.\n--History and influences.\n--Elements.\n----Grains.\n----Flavorings.\n----Religious influence.\n----Vegetables.\n----Dishes.\n--Beverages.\n--Dining etiquette.\n----Arab countries.\n------Ramadan.\n----Turkey.\n----Iran.\n--Globalization.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Many Arabic food words are borrowed from Aramaic, the language spoken by the Christian Nabataean inhabitants of Iraq and Syria."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Breakfast consists of baked beans, bread, nuts, dried fruits, milk, yoghurt, and cheese with tea or coffee. Snacks also include nuts and dried fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab television drama",
        "text": "During the evenings of the month of Ramadan, after the Iftar meal is eaten to break the day's fast, families across much of the Arab world watch these special dramas on television. Arab satellite channels broadcast the programs each night, drawing families who have gathered to break their fast. Most musalselat are bundled into about 30 episodes, or about one episode for each night of Ramadan. These television series are an integral part of the Ramadan tradition, the same way the hakawati, the storyteller who recounted tales and myths, was part of Ramadan nights in the past."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Bedouins also use many different dried beans including white beans, lentils, and chickpeas. Vegetables that are commonly used are those that could be dried, such as pumpkins, but also vegetables that are more heat-resistant, such as aubergines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Common breads in the Maghreb are \"khobz\" and . Traditional dishes such as and \"tajines\" (stews) are also regularly prepared."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Arab cuisine uses specific and unique foods and spices. Some of those foods are:\n* Meat\u2014lamb and chicken are the most used, followed by beef and goat. Other poultry is used in some regions, and fish is used in coastal areas including the Mediterranean Sea, Atlantic Ocean and the Red Sea.\n:Pork Some Christian Arabs eat pork.\n* Dairy products\u2014widely used, especially yogurt, buttermilk and white cheese. Butter and cream are also used extensively.\n* Herbs and spices\u2014amounts and types used generally varies from region to region.\n:Herbs and spices include: sesame, saffron, black pepper, allspice, turmeric, garlic, cumin, cinnamon, parsley, coriander and sumac.\n:Spice mixtures include \"baharat\",\" ras el hanout\", \"za'atar\", and \"harissa\".\n* Beverages\u2014hot beverages are served more often than cold, coffee being at the top of the list in Middle-Eastern countries and tea at top in Maghreb countries.\n:In Jordan, Palestine, Egypt, some parts of Syria, Morocco, and Algeria, tea is much more prevalent as a beverage. Other Arabic drinks include Andalucian \"horchata\" and Maghrebi avocado smoothie.\n* Grains\u2014rice is the staple and is used for most dishes; wheat is the main source for bread. Bulgur and semolina are also used extensively.\n:According to historic recipes known from Arabic cookbooks, grains were primarily used to make porridge and pasta type dishes in Arab cuisine until the 12th century. Two types of pasta were known: \"itriya\", a short dry noodle of Greek origin similar to \"orzo\", and , a hand-cut fresh noodle of Persian origin.\n:By the 13th century, the Turkic style and noodles had entered the cuisine.\n* Legumes\u2014lentils are widely used in all colours, as well as fava beans, peanuts, chickpeas (garbanzo beans), scarlet runner beans, green peas, lupini beans, white beans, and brown beans.\n* Vegetables\u2014popular vegetables in Arab cuisine include carrots, eggplant (aubergine), zucchini (courgette), artichokes, okra, onions, and olives. Potatoes are also eaten as vegetables in Arab culture.\n* Fruits\u2014pomegranate, dates, figs, oranges, citruses, watermelons, cantaloupe, honeydew melon, grapes, peaches, and nectarines are favored in Arab cuisine.\n* Nuts\u2014almonds, pine nuts, pistachios, and walnuts are often included in dishes or eaten as snacks.\n* Greens\u2014parsley, coriander and mint are popular as seasonings in many dishes, while spinach and \"mulukhiyah\" (leaves from the plant of the \"Corchorus\" genus) are used in cooked dishes.\n* Dressings and sauces\u2014the most popular dressings include various combinations of olive oil, lemon juice, parsley, or garlic, as well as \"tahini\" (sesame paste). \"Labaneh\" (strained yogurt) is often seasoned with mint, onion, or garlic, and served as a sauce with various dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "<poem>The concept of is so subtle that none other than the smart can fathom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The Bedouins of the Arabian Peninsula, Middle East and North Africa rely on a diet of dates, dried fruit, nuts, wheat, barley, rice, and meat. The meat comes from large animals such as cows, sheep, and lambs. They also eat dairy products: milk, cheese, yoghurt, and buttermilk (\"labneh\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harees",
        "text": "Harees is a popular dish in Arab cuisine, from the Levant to the Persian Gulf. It is often served during Ramadan, festivals such as Eid ul-Fitr, and at weddings. In Lebanon, it is often cooked on religious occasions in a communal pot, such as in Ashura. Harise is also a common dish in Syrian cuisine and Iraqi cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kabsa\" () or () is a traditional mixed rice dish in many Arab states of the Persian Gulf, originating from Saudi Arabia. It is made of rice (typically \"basmati\"), meat, vegetables, and a mixture of spices. Spices used in are generally black pepper, cloves, cardamom, saffron, cinnamon, dried lime (also known as black lime), bay leaves and nutmeg. The meats used are usually chicken, goat, lamb, camel, beef, fish or shrimp. is popular in countries around the Persian Gulf and the Khuzestan Province of Iran."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamil Muslim",
        "text": "Cuisine is a tell-tale syncretic mixture of Tamil and other Asian recipes. Biriyani is the favourite dish in banquets while mild Malay-style congee is the favourite during the fasting month of Ramadan. There are many regional improvisations. For instance, , a semolina ghee cake with soft centre and hard crust at the top, is popular in the deltaic households."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern Arabian cuisine",
        "text": "There are many regional differences in Arab cuisine. For instance mujadara in Syria or Lebanon is different from mujadara in Jordan or Palestine. Some dishes such as mensaf (the national dish of Jordan) are native to certain countries and rarely if ever make an appearance in other countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "There are also many different cookies and cakes included accompanied by plates with different kinds of nuts. Mint tea is often served with it in a traditional Maghrebian teapot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abu Hassan (restaurant)",
        "text": "The restaurant's menu is very limited. The restaurant serves only four basic courses - hummus, masabacha, brown beans and labane - and dishes that combine them. The famous dish of the restaurant is the triangle (in Arabic: Mutha'alat, in Hebrew: Meshulash), a triangular dish that includes hummus, brown beans and masabacha. With the dishes, pitas, fresh onions, and saucers of hot sauce with lemon salt are served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Maghreb cuisine is the cooking of the Maghreb region, the northwesternmost part of the Arab world along the Mediterranean Sea, consisting of the countries of Algeria, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia. In Maghrebi cuisine, the most common staple foods are wheat (for \"khobz\" bread and couscous), fish, seafood, goat, lamb, beef, dates, almonds, olives and various vegetables and fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mosque",
        "text": "Islam's holiest month, \"Rama\u1e0d\u0101n\", is observed through many events. As Muslims must fast during the day during Ramadan, mosques will host \"If\u1e6d\u0101r\" dinners after sunset and the fourth required prayer of the day, that is \"Maghrib\". Food is provided, at least in part, by members of the community, thereby creating daily potluck dinners. Because of the community contribution necessary to serve \"iftar\" dinners, mosques with smaller congregations may not be able to host the \"iftar\" dinners daily. Some mosques will also hold \"Su\u1e25\u016br\" meals before dawn to congregants attending the first required prayer of the day, \"Fajr\". As with iftar dinners, congregants usually provide the food for suhoor, although able mosques may provide food instead. Mosques will often invite poorer members of the Muslim community to share in beginning and breaking the fasts, as providing charity during Ramadan is regarded in Islam as especially honorable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qamar deen\" is traditionally served to break the Ramadan fast (as is water), an iced drink made from a sheet of dried apricots soaked in water, then mixed with lemon juice or syrup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "All radiating with luster like carnelian shimmering on pearls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abu Hassan (restaurant)",
        "text": "The restaurant does not offer the guests a written menu for viewing around the table, but presents the various dishes and their prices on the wall of the restaurant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mesfouf",
        "text": "This food is quite popular in the Maghreb. It is conventional to consume the \"mesfouf\" during the holy month of Ramadan. It is served at traditional celebrations or family meals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "A dish for fried carrots with fresh herbs, dressing and spices was described by the poet Kushajim:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Drinks are not necessarily served with the food; however, there is a very wide variety of drinks such as \"shineena\" (or ), , \"Naqe'e Al Zabib\", , , and fruit juice, as well as other traditional Arabic drinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ramadan",
        "text": "Social gatherings, many times in buffet style, are frequent at \"iftar\". Traditional dishes are often highlighted, including traditional desserts, particularly those made only during Ramadan. Water is usually the beverage of choice, but juice and milk are also often available, as are soft drinks and caffeinated beverages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "The other major Muslim feast is the four-day Eid al-Adha, the Feast of the Sacrifice, which occurs during Dhu al-Hijjah (the pilgrimage month). An animal (usually a sheep or goat) is slaughtered in every household that can afford it, great banquets are prepared, and food is given to the poor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of cuisines",
        "text": "Meal structure varies by culture. Here are some examples:\n* Meal structure in Arab cuisine \u2013 includes breakfast, lunch, and dinner (including dessert). However, during Ramadan (9th month), fasting is paramount, and lasts from dawn to sunset. Each day during Ramadan, before dawn, many Muslims observe a pre-fast meal called the suhoor. After stopping a short time before dawn, Muslims begin the first prayer of the day, Fajr. At sunset, families hasten for the fast-breaking meal known as iftar.\n* Meal structure in Bolivian cuisine \u2013 lunch \"(almuerzo)\" is the most important meal of the Bolivian day. Bolivians observe an afternoon tea time (\"t\u00e9\") similar to those in England. Dinner (\"la cena\") is a lighter, much more informal affair than lunch.\n* Meal structure in Danish cuisine \u2013 usually consists of a cold breakfast with coffee or tea, a cold lunch at work and a hot dinner at home with the family. Some also have a snack in the middle of the afternoon or in the late evening.\n* Meal structure in Dutch cuisine \u2013 the Dutch eat at breakfast and lunch (which differ little from each other), tea time, and dinner (including dessert)\n* Meal structure in English cuisine \u2013 Breakfast is traditional throughout England. Lower-middle-class and working-class people, especially from the North of England, the English Midlands, and Scotland, traditionally call their midday meal \"dinner\" and their evening meal (served around 6\u00a0pm) \"tea\", whereas the upper social classes call the midday meal lunch (or \"luncheon\"), and the evening meal (served after 7\u00a0pm) dinner (if formal) or supper (often eaten later in the evening), with \"afternoon tea\" as a light meal typically eaten between 4 pm and 6 pm.\n* Meal structure in French cuisine \u2013 breakfast \"(le petit d\u00e9jeuner)\", lunch \"(le d\u00e9jeuner)\", dinner (le d\u00eener) and dessert. Beverages that precede a meal are called \"ap\u00e9ritifs\" (literally: that opens the appetite), and can be served with amuse-bouches (literally: mouth amuser). Those that end it are called \"digestifs\".\n* Meal structure in German cuisine \u2013 traditionally, the day starts with breakfast \"(fr\u00fchst\u00fcck)\", lunch \"(mittagessen)\" is the main meal, followed by a smaller dinner (\"abendessen\" or \"abendbrot\") with dessert.\n* Meal structure in Iranian cuisine \u2013 breakfast is called \"sobh\u0101neh.\" Lunch and dinner \"(naahaar va shaam)\" are not distinguished in Persian. You can usually find tea brewing throughout the day in most Iranian homes.\n* Meal structure in Italian cuisine \u2013 breakfast (colazione), lunch \"(pranzo)\", mid-afternoon snack \"(merenda)\", and dinner \"(cena)\"\n* Meal structure in Moroccan cuisine"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Some vegetables are consumed raw, but the following are usually boiled: asparagus, cauliflower, white soy beans, leeks, orach, a variety of mushroom known as , chard, cabbage, carrot, turnip, fresh fennel and eggplant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ottoman cuisine",
        "text": "Starch was used to make the dessert \"g\u00fclla\u00e7\" during the month of Ramadan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "<poem>Dinars of carnelian and gold in a vessel so delicate, it may almost melt and flow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The scattered rue is flowers of turquoise gems, vibrantly green,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Quzi",
        "text": "There are many variations to this technique such as in Saudi Arabia and Yemen, where it is called \"madfoon\", cooked by being wrapped in aluminium foil and kept on an open heat source. In Oman and UAE it is called \"shuwaa\" and is traditionally eaten on festive occasions, prepared by wrapping the marinated meat in date palm leaves and placing the wrapped meat in a submerged oven. In Jordan, and Syria it is known as \"zarb\"; the meat is portioned into smaller pieces and kept along with vegetables and bread dough so that the flavors are enhanced. Another variant is called \"haneeth\" where it is cooked inside a hot \"tabun\"; this variation can be found in most Middle Eastern countries as well as the Horn of Africa and North Africa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iftar",
        "text": "As Ramadan is also the month of almsgiving, many people organise iftar dinners for the poor, students, guests, and foreigners. People can find Turkish food available in most mosques."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Jordan",
        "text": "Although simple fresh fruits are often served towards the end of a Jordanian meal, there is also dessert, such as baklava, hareeseh, knafeh, halva and qatayef which is a dessert made specially for Ramadan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The cuisine of Yemen is in some ways distinct from other Arab cuisines. As in most Arab countries, chicken, goat, and lamb are eaten more often than beef, and fish is eaten mostly in coastal areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "There are similar recipes meant for poultry dishes prepared with seasonings like ginger, pomegranate, spikenard, and cloves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ramadan",
        "text": "Each day, before dawn, Muslims observe a pre-fast meal called the \"suhoor\". After stopping a short time before dawn, Muslims begin the first prayer of the day, \"Fajr\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordanian cuisine",
        "text": "Popular desserts include as \"baklava\", \"knafeh\", \"halva\" and \"qatayef\" (a dish made specially for Ramadan), in addition to seasonal fruits such as watermelons, figs and cactus pear which are served in summer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "\"Maqluba\" is another popular meal in Jordan and central Palestine. \"Mujaddara\", another food of the West Bank, as well as in the Levant in general, consists of cooked green lentils, with bulghur sauteed in olive oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eid cuisine",
        "text": "Eid cuisine\n--Eid-ul-Fitr cuisines.\n--Eid-ul-Adha cuisines.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashmiri cuisine",
        "text": "While on fast, Muslims avoid consuming food during the day, while at dusk, they indulge in extra-special, bountiful meals prepared during the day. The menu for Ramadan month includes \"khajur ka laddoo\" (date balls), \"babribyol\" (basil seeds), \"kulfi\", \"phirin\", \"seemni\", fruit chaat, fruit custard, \"kateer\" (a drink loaded with health benefits) and \"noon chai\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Although each region has their own variation, \"saltah\" () is considered the national dish of Yemen. The base is a brown meat is called (), a dollop of fenugreek froth, and \"sahawiq\" () or (a mixture of chili peppers, tomatoes, garlic, and herbs ground into a salsa.)"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Arab cuisine is influenced by what 3 factors?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They have been influenced by climate, cultivation, and mutual commerce."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me how climate influences the cuisine?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find the answer, but I did find that an area's climate, in large measure, determines the native foods that are available and also influences food preservation."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about Bedouin cuisine?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Bedouins of the Arabian Peninsula, Middle East and North Africa rely on a diet of dates, dried fruit, nuts, wheat, barley, rice, and meat.  Bedouins also use many different dried beans including white beans, lentils, and chickpeas, and they drink a lot of fresh verbena tea, Arabic tea, Maghrebi mint tea, or Arabic coffee."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me how the meals in Arab cuisine are structured?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are two basic structures for meals in the Arab World, one regular schedule during most of the year and a second one that is unique to the month of Ramadan in which observant Muslims fast during the day. Which one would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to hear about the unique structure used during Ramadan."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "It is structured in two meals, Iftar (also called Futuur), or fast-breaking, is the meal taken at dusk when the fast is over. The meal consists of three courses: first, diners eat a date due to Islamic tradition, and Suhur is the meal eaten just before dawn, when fasting must begin. It is eaten to help the person make it through the day with enough energy until dusk.",
      "Iftar is the meal taken at dusk when the fast is over, it consists of three courses. Suhur is eaten before dawn, and sweets and fresh fruits are served between these two meals."
    ],
    "topic": "Arab cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Arab cuisine:40",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Arab cuisine",
          "Structure of meals",
          "Ramadan",
          "Iftar"
        ],
        "ctx": "Iftar (also called ), or fast-breaking, is the meal taken at dusk when the fast is over. The meal consists of three courses: first, diners eat a date due to Islamic tradition."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Arab cuisine:43",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Arab cuisine",
          "Structure of meals",
          "Ramadan",
          "Suhur"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"Suhur\" is the meal eaten just before dawn, when fasting must begin. It is eaten to help the person make it through the day with enough energy until dusk."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Arab cuisine:40",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Arab cuisine",
          "Structure of meals",
          "Ramadan",
          "Iftar"
        ],
        "ctx": "Iftar (also called ), or fast-breaking, is the meal taken at dusk when the fast is over. The meal consists of three courses: first, diners eat a date due to Islamic tradition."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Arab cuisine:44",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Arab cuisine",
          "Structure of meals",
          "Sweets"
        ],
        "ctx": "In addition to the two meals eaten during Ramadan (one for dinner and one for Suhur before dawn), sweets are consumed much more than usual during the month of Ramadan; sweets and fresh fruits are served between these two meals. Although most sweets are made all year-round such as \"kanafeh\", baklava, and \"basbousa\", some are made especially for Ramadan, such as \"qatayef\"."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "There are two basic structures for meals in the Arab World, one regular schedule during most of the year and a second one that is unique to the month of Ramadan in which observant Muslims fast during the day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "In addition to the two meals eaten during Ramadan (one for dinner and one for Suhur before dawn), sweets are consumed much more than usual during the month of Ramadan; sweets and fresh fruits are served between these two meals. Although most sweets are made all year-round such as \"kanafeh\", baklava, and \"basbousa\", some are made especially for Ramadan, such as \"qatayef\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ramadan",
        "text": "At sunset, families break the fast with the \"iftar\", traditionally opening the meal by eating dates to commemorate Muhammad's practice of breaking the fast with three dates. They then adjourn for \"Maghrib\", the fourth of the five required daily prayers, after which the main meal is served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Academic year",
        "text": "There are Ramadan Feast (3 days) and Sacrifice Feast (4 days) holidays, but exact dates of these holidays change every year because Ramadan & Sacrifice Feasts are calculated according to Muslim calendar, resulting these feasts to be celebrated earlier by 10 or 11 days each year. If these feasts are at the middle of the week, then the break becomes a full week break with the Arafah (the day before the feast) day also included in the break."
      },
      {
        "title": "Imsakiah",
        "text": "Imsakiah () is a schedule that includes all prayer times, \"Iftar\" and \"Suhur\", and the number of fasting hours during the day and consider as one of Ramadan appearances in all countries of the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mosque",
        "text": "Islam's holiest month, \"Rama\u1e0d\u0101n\", is observed through many events. As Muslims must fast during the day during Ramadan, mosques will host \"If\u1e6d\u0101r\" dinners after sunset and the fourth required prayer of the day, that is \"Maghrib\". Food is provided, at least in part, by members of the community, thereby creating daily potluck dinners. Because of the community contribution necessary to serve \"iftar\" dinners, mosques with smaller congregations may not be able to host the \"iftar\" dinners daily. Some mosques will also hold \"Su\u1e25\u016br\" meals before dawn to congregants attending the first required prayer of the day, \"Fajr\". As with iftar dinners, congregants usually provide the food for suhoor, although able mosques may provide food instead. Mosques will often invite poorer members of the Muslim community to share in beginning and breaking the fasts, as providing charity during Ramadan is regarded in Islam as especially honorable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ramadan",
        "text": "Fasting from dawn to sunset is \"fard\" (obligatory) for all adult Muslims who are not acutely or chronically ill, travelling, elderly, breastfeeding, diabetic, or menstruating. The predawn meal is referred to as \"suhur\", and the nightly feast that breaks the fast is called \"iftar\". Although \"fatwas\" have been issued declaring that Muslims who live in regions with a midnight sun or polar night should follow the timetable of Mecca, it is common practice to follow the timetable of the closest country in which night can be distinguished from day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ramadan",
        "text": "The common practice is to fast from dawn to sunset. The pre-dawn meal before the fast is called the \"suhur\", while the meal at sunset that breaks the fast is called \"iftar\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "The third course is the main dish, usually eaten after an interval, when Maghreb prayer is conducted. The main dish is mostly similar to what is served in lunch year-round, except that cold drinks are served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Iftar (also called ), or fast-breaking, is the meal taken at dusk when the fast is over. The meal consists of three courses: first, diners eat a date due to Islamic tradition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ramadan",
        "text": "Social gatherings, many times in buffet style, are frequent at \"iftar\". Traditional dishes are often highlighted, including traditional desserts, particularly those made only during Ramadan. Water is usually the beverage of choice, but juice and milk are also often available, as are soft drinks and caffeinated beverages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Midnight Sun Mosque",
        "text": "The resulting schedule has taken some getting used to. Under the midnight sun, it is still broad daylight when the \"iftar\" meal that ends the daily fast is prepared and served. \"You're supposed to break your fast when it's dusk, and we eat when the sun is out. It's not usual to have \"iftar\" when the sun is up\", one member told \"The Guardian\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ramadan",
        "text": "In the Middle East, \"iftar\" consists of water, juices, dates, salads and appetizers; one or more main dishes; and rich desserts, with dessert considered the most important aspect of the meal. Typical main dishes include lamb stewed with wheat berries, lamb kebabs with grilled vegetables, and roasted chicken served with chickpea-studded rice pilaf. Desserts may include \"luqaimat\", baklava or \"kunafeh\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ramadan",
        "text": "Each day, before dawn, Muslims observe a pre-fast meal called the \"suhoor\". After stopping a short time before dawn, Muslims begin the first prayer of the day, \"Fajr\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iftar",
        "text": "Iftar (), also known as (from , , 'breakfast'), is the evening meal with which Muslims end their daily Ramadan fast at sunset. They break their fast at the time of the call to prayer (adhan) for the evening prayer. This is their second meal of the day; the daily fast during Ramadan begins immediately after the pre-dawn meal of and continues during the daylight hours, ending with sunset with the evening meal of iftar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "Cafes and pastry shops are open at night, and the streets have a carnival atmosphere. Many Muslims, following Muhammad's reported example, break their fast with a date followed by a variety of dishes. Sweet pastries and puddings are always present on Ramadan nights."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "On the final day of Muharram, Sizdah Bedar, or Day 13 Outing, no food is served in homes as the holiday is celebrated by families leaving their homes to spend the day away to prevent bad luck from entering their home due to 13 being an unlucky number."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iftar",
        "text": "In India, Muslims break their fasts with family and friends, and many Mosques arrange free 'iftar.' Preparations for iftar commence hours before, in homes and at roadside stalls. Iftar begins by eating dates or drinking water, but this is only the opening of a rich meal. The spread of 'iftar' can be grand, with both vegetarian to non-vegetarian dishes and a variety of juices and sherbets. Iftar usually is a heavy meal and is followed by a second, lighter dinner eaten before the night (isha) prayers and the taraweeh prayers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "\"Suhur\" is the meal eaten just before dawn, when fasting must begin. It is eaten to help the person make it through the day with enough energy until dusk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ramadan",
        "text": "Over time, the practice of \"iftar\" has evolved into banquets that may accommodate hundreds or even thousands of diners. The Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque in Abu Dhabi, the largest mosque in the UAE, feeds up to thirty thousand people every night. Some twelve thousand people attend \"iftar\" at the Imam Reza shrine in Mashhad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "During Ramadan, food consumption increases dramatically in Muslim communities. Breaking the daily sunrise-to-sunset fast is a banquet with family and friends whereas public banquets are held by charities and other associations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fasting during Ramadan",
        "text": "Many mosques will provide iftar (literally: breakfast) meals after sundown for the community to come and end their day's fasting as a whole. It is also common for such meals to take place at Muslim soup kitchens. The fast is broken with a date (when possible) following the tradition of Prophet Muhammad, or with water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prime time",
        "text": "In Ramadan, the broadcasters also air special Religious and Cooking shows starting from 14:00 to 20:00 affecting the primetime hours. Besides, After blameways, Late Night Talkshows are also aired from 01:00 to 04:00 with Ramadan being exception. Religious shows are also broadcast simultaneously from 01:00 along with Talk shows and News Analysis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Lunch is considered the main meal of the day, and is traditionally eaten between 1:30 pm and 2:30 pm. It is the meal for which the family comes together. Rarely do meals have different courses; however, salads and \"mezze\" are served as side dishes to the main meal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iftar",
        "text": "As Ramadan is also the month of almsgiving, many people organise iftar dinners for the poor, students, guests, and foreigners. People can find Turkish food available in most mosques."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dawoodi Bohra",
        "text": "During Ramadan, the 9th month of the Islamic calendar, the Dawoodi Bohras observe mandatory fast from dusk to dawn. The Bohras congregate in their local mosques for daily prayers, but particularly for the evening prayers, and break the day-long fast and have the \"iftaar\" () meal together. Like in the rest of Islamic world, Ramadan is a month of heightened devotional activity for the Bohras, which ends with Eid al-Fitr."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Saudi Arabia",
        "text": "Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, is a holy month for all Muslims. In Saudi Arabia, this month is especially important and different as the lifestyle of the people gets more spiritual. During the month, Muslims fast from dawn to dusk. Thus, in Saudi Arabia, the working hours are reduced as most of the employees go two hours later than usual. Moreover, friends and families gather by sunset to enjoy breaking their fast together. By night and particularly after the obligatory Isha\u2019 prayer, people stay in mosques to pray the voluntary prayer of Taraweeh. Before the dawn prayer, Fajr, families wake up to eat Suhur, their last meal before they start fasting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab television drama",
        "text": "During the evenings of the month of Ramadan, after the Iftar meal is eaten to break the day's fast, families across much of the Arab world watch these special dramas on television. Arab satellite channels broadcast the programs each night, drawing families who have gathered to break their fast. Most musalselat are bundled into about 30 episodes, or about one episode for each night of Ramadan. These television series are an integral part of the Ramadan tradition, the same way the hakawati, the storyteller who recounted tales and myths, was part of Ramadan nights in the past."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "The end of Ramadan is marked by Eid al-Fitr, featuring a great quantity and variety of sweets and pastries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fest\u00e1l",
        "text": "This festival is held every-other year and may move dates based upon Ramadan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chefchaouen",
        "text": "Chefchaouen's residents have a commitment to religious and social rituals. The devout perform prayer together in the mosque or in the \"zaouia\" (i.e. agglomeration of marabous). They also like to visit their families and friends on religious and social occasions. Some of the major religious and social occasions include:\n*Sha\u2019banah takes place on the 15th of Shaa\u2019ban (i.e. the 8th month of Hijri calendar). It is commonly known as the Day of Nusskhah, in which the tomb of Moulay Abd Salam Ben Mshish is visited, of particular observance by the students of \"msids\" (Quran schools).\n*The night of Al-Qad is observed on the 26th of Ramadan, when the people encourage 7\u201310 year-old girls to fast. Families usually celebrate at home, but often parade following the afternoon prayer with the girls wearing wedding clothes.\n*Ashura is celebrated on the 10th of Muharram (observed by Jewish residents as Yom Kippur). Preparations begin after Eid Al-Adha, when part of the Eid meat is dried as \"qaddid\", and on Ashura is eaten with couscous by families, along with dried fruit (almonds, walnuts, raisins, and pistachios), dates and various traditional sweets. Children receive great attention and often gifted traditional and modern items, including toys.\n*Mawlid Nabaoui (Muhammad's birthday) is celebrated on the 12th of Rabii\u2019 Al-Awwal. It is designated as Eid and involves reading of the Quran and Muhammad's biography in the mosques or at people\u2019s homes. This night is also celebrated in the mausoleum of Ali Ben Rashid and the 13 \"zaouias\" throughout the city. Couscous is served to the poor and to prisoners. During this celebration, mass circumcision of children is carried out following the afternoon prayer, and gifts are distributed to their families.\n*Hakouzah Day is celebrated on 1\u00a0January of the agricultural solar calendar. It is observed by preparing and eating various traditional foods, in appreciaiton of the past harvest's bounty and the hope that the New Year will be better. Some researchers believe that the word \"Hakouzah\" is a distortion from the Moroccan dialect \"Agouza\" (meaning 'old women'), and that it refers to the night of the old calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muwaqqit",
        "text": "From the nineteenth century, various religious agencies or scientific agencies approved by religious authorities began to produce annual prayer timetables. The times of prayer are included in calendars, annual almanacs, and newspapers. During the sacred month of Ramadan, tables called \"imsakiyya\", containing times of prayer as well as that of the \"imsak\" (time to stop eating for the fast) for the whole month, are printed and distributed. In the past few decades, some mosques have installed electronic clocks capable of calculating local prayer times and sounding reminders accordingly. Today a muazzin in a mosque can broadcast the call to prayer by consulting a table or a clock without requiring the specialised skill of a \"muwaqqit\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "The other major Muslim feast is the four-day Eid al-Adha, the Feast of the Sacrifice, which occurs during Dhu al-Hijjah (the pilgrimage month). An animal (usually a sheep or goat) is slaughtered in every household that can afford it, great banquets are prepared, and food is given to the poor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukhrid",
        "text": "According to the Islamic tradition, there are two festivals celebrated by Muslims every year - Eid-ul-Fitr just after Ramzan and Eid-ul-Zuha in the month of Haj. Although the traditionally famous festival, Jashne Eid Miladun Nabi juloos prayer celebrated by Muslims every year in this area."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "Islamic New Year is the first day of Muharram. On the first nine days a sherbet is eaten \"to commemorate the intense thirst which Hussein suffered\" during the battle of Kerbala. The tenth day is Ashura, a day of fasting. It does not occur on the same day of the Gregorian calendar every year. The 2021 date was in August and the 2022 date is predicted to be in July."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saudi Arabian cuisine",
        "text": "According to the Saudi Arabian cultural mission, \"guests are served hot coffee and dates as a symbol of generosity and hospitality. The same practice is carried out in the month of Ramadan. Muslims in Saudi Arabia break their fast with dates, water and Arabian coffee. The caffeine in the coffee and the carbohydrates and iron in dates nourishes the fasting person with a lot of energy. This helps them perform the Tarawih held in the evenings during Ramadan.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ramadan Rush",
        "text": "As Ramadan dates change each year, the term 'Ramadan Rush' is also associated with the term 'Supercar Season' which occurs in July and August as wealthy Middle Eastern nationalities arrive in the UK to escape the heat of the Gulf States, taking their supercars with them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Suhur",
        "text": "Sah\u016br or Suh\u016br (; ), also called Sahari, Sahr\u012b or Sehri (Persian/Urdu: \u0633\u062d\u0631\u06cc, Bangla: \u09b8\u09c7\u09b9\u09b0\u09c0) is the meal consumed early in the morning by Muslims before fasting (sawm), before dawn during or outside the Islamic month of Ramadan. The meal is eaten before fajr prayer. Sahur corresponds to iftar- the evening meal during Ramadan, replacing the traditional three meals a day (breakfast, lunch and dinner), although in some places dinner is also consumed after iftar later during the night."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lebaran",
        "text": "Families usually will have special Lebaran meal served during breakfast, brunch or lunch; special dishes will be served such as ketupat, opor ayam, rendang, sambal goreng ati, sayur lodeh and lemang (a type of glutinous rice cake cooked in bamboo). Various types of snacks; roasted peanuts, kue, cookies, dodol and imported dates sweet delicacies are also served during this day, together with fruit syrup beverages. The lively or alternatively very emotional devotional music blended with Quranic verses associated with Ramadan and Eid \u2013 known as \"Kaisidah\" or more correctly, Qasida \u2013 can be heard throughout the country. These are commonly performed by famous musicians, some of whom may be international stars, and televised nationwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "P. Kalifulla",
        "text": "\"On the 26th fast of every Ramzan, he used to serve food to thousands of people from 7 p.m. to 11 p.m. Around 350 measures of rice used to be cooked for this annual event. My mother stayed out of the public eye, but she was the one who took charge of the home,\" says Kutbuddin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian cuisine",
        "text": "In the past, during the fasting month of Ramadan, the \"musaher\" of a town would yell and beat his drum to wake up the town's residents for \"suhoor\" (\"dawn\"), usually very early in the morning, from 4\u20136 am. The meals eaten during this time are light and foods include \"labaneh\", cheese, bread and fried or boiled eggs along with various liquids to drink. The \"muezzin\"'s call to dawn prayers signaled the beginning of \"sawm\", or fasting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic dietary laws",
        "text": "Ramadan, the ninth month on the Muslim calendar, is considered the holy month of fasting. Ramadan begins and ends with the appearance of the new moon. During the month of Ramadan, God delivered the Quran to the prophet Muhammad as guidance for the people. During Ramadan, Muslims take time for introspection, prayer, and reading of the Quran. For those who observe Ramadan with fasting, prayer, and faithful intention; God forgives their past sins. During this period, Muslims focus on self restraint or \"sawm\" (Arabic: to refrain) which is one of the five pillars of Islam. Ramadan emphasizes \"sawm\", when worshippers have to abstain from food, drink, sexual activity, and immoral behavior between dawn and dusk. After dusk, Muslims break their fast during a meal called \"iftar\" with family and friends. \"Sawm\" can be negated by breaking fast, however, the lost can be made up with one extra day of fasting. The end of the Ramadan fast is the celebration of Eid-al-Fitr (Feast of Fast-Breaking), one of the two major religious holidays on the Muslim calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic holidays",
        "text": "Both Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha follow a period of 10 holy days or nights: the last 10 nights of Ramadan (Eid al-Fitr), and the first 10 days of Dhu al-Hijjah (Eid al-Adha). The Night of Power, one of the last 10 nights of Ramadan, is the holiest night of the year. Conversely, the Day of Arafah, the day before Eid al-Adha, is the holiest day of the Islamic year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prime time",
        "text": "Like another Islam by country, there is also a 'midnight prime time' during suhur time in a month of Ramadan. It takes place from 02:00 (or 02:30 in some channels) and ends at the Fajr prayer call, varies between 04:30 and 05:00. The time slot is usually filled with entertainment and religious programming."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iftar",
        "text": "After iftar, Muslims rush to the mosques to offer Tarawih (an 8 or 20 rakat Muslim prayer during the month of Ramadan). Various television channels also stop their normal telecast and broadcast special Ramadan transmissions, especially at the time of Sehar and Iftar. The whole month of Ramadan is marked in Pakistan as a festive season when people make donations to the poor and give charity. Some organizations and companies also offer free iftar meals to the common people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dar Al-Hijrah",
        "text": "During the Islamic month of Ramadan, Dar Al-Hijrah serves everyone who wants to come eat, whether Muslim or non-Muslim; over 800 free meals every night. Also during Ramadan, it sponsors interfaith and civic iftar dinners with different faith groups to promote mutual understanding. It also distributes tens of thousands of dollars in zakat every Ramadan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ramadan (calendar month)",
        "text": "The Islamic calendar is a lunar one: months begin when the first crescent of a new moon is sighted. Consequently, the Islamic year is 10 to 11 days shorter than the solar year and contains no intercalation, Ramadan migrates throughout the seasons. The Islamic day starts after sunset. The estimated start and end dates for Ramadan, based on the Umm al-Qura calendar of Saudi Arabia, are:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Darul Uloom Al-Madania",
        "text": "Adhering to the tenets of Islam, the mosque has 5 daily prayers and a weekly Jum'ah prayer. Every day there are 2-3 halaqas, where readings from various Islamic textbooks occur. During Ramadan, the mosque also hosts daily Iftar and Suhoor meals for those that are fasting. It also opens its left wing to travelers for itikaf. There is no appointed Imam of the masjid, instead, various resident scholars and teachers lead the prayers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Murarpalayam",
        "text": "All Islamic holidays follow the lunar calendar, and thus move each year relative to the solar calendar. The Islamic calendar has 12 months and 354 days on a regular year, and 355 days on a leap year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leap year",
        "text": "The Solar Hijri calendar is the modern Iranian calendar that is also used in Afghanistan. It is an observational calendar that starts on the spring equinox and adds a single intercalated day to the last month (Esfand) once every four or five years; the first leap year occurs as the fifth year of the typical 33-year cycle and the remaining leap years occur every four years through the remainder of the 33-year cycle. This system has less periodic deviation or jitter from its mean year than the Gregorian calendar and operates on the simple rule that the vernal equinox always falls in the 24-hour period ending at noon on New Year's Day. The 33-year period is not completely regular; every so often the 33-year cycle will be broken by a cycle of 29 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iftar",
        "text": "In Turkey and Northern Cyprus, the month of Ramadan is celebrated with great joy, and iftar dinners play a big part in this. In larger cities like Istanbul all of the restaurants offer special deals and set menus for iftar. Most of the set menus start with a soup or an appetiser platter called \"iftariye\". It consists of dates, olives, cheese, past\u0131rma, sujuk, Ramazan pidesi (a special bread only baked during Ramadan), and various pastries called \"b\u00f6rek\". The main course consists of various Turkish foods, especially the Ottoman Palace Traditional Foods. A dessert called \"g\u00fclla\u00e7\" is served in most places. Most of the fine-dining restaurants offer live musical performances of Ottoman classical music, Turkish music and Sufi music."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashmiri cuisine",
        "text": "While on fast, Muslims avoid consuming food during the day, while at dusk, they indulge in extra-special, bountiful meals prepared during the day. The menu for Ramadan month includes \"khajur ka laddoo\" (date balls), \"babribyol\" (basil seeds), \"kulfi\", \"phirin\", \"seemni\", fruit chaat, fruit custard, \"kateer\" (a drink loaded with health benefits) and \"noon chai\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "East Syriac Rite",
        "text": "The year is divided into periods of about seven weeks each, called Shawu'i; these are Advent (called Subara, \"Annunciation\"), Ephiphany, Lent, Easter, the Apostles, Summer, \"Elias and the Cross\", \"Moses\", and the \"Dedication\" (Qudash idta). \"Moses\" and the \"Dedication\" have only four weeks each. The Sundays are generally named after the Shawu'a in which they occur, \"Fourth Sunday of Epiphany\", \"Second Sunday of the Annunciation \", etc., though sometimes the name changes in the middle of a Shawu'a. Most of the \"Memorials\" (dukhrani), or saints' days, which have special lections, occur on the Fridays between Christmas and Lent, and are therefore movable feasts, such as Christmas, Ephiphany, the Assumption, and about thirty smaller days without proper lections are on fixed days. There are four shorter fasting periods besides the Great Fast (Lent); these are:\n*the Fast of Mar Zaya, the three days after the second Sunday of the Nativity;\n*the Fast of the Virgins, after the first Sunday of the Epiphany;\n*the Rogation of the Ninevites, seventy days before Easter;\n*the Fast of Mart Mariam (Our Lady), from the first to the fourteenth of August."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islam in the Arctic",
        "text": "The Islamic calendar is lunar, and the Islamic year is around 10 or 11 days shorter than the common solar year. Thus Ramadan falls earlier in each solar year than it did in the previous year, and moves steadily forwards through each year until it returns to approximately the original solar year date every 33-34 years. During the years in which Ramadan falls at the time of the midnight sun, or when it falls in periods of no daylight, Muslims living in the arctic regions must have some means of determining the proper fasting period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Midnight Sun Mosque",
        "text": "Religious observances at the mosque, held per Sunni tradition although they are open to all Muslims, have made some adjustments to the Arctic. In some years Ramadan, with its daily fasts required during the day for a full month, falls during either midnight sun or polar night. Since it is impossible to fast between sunrise and sunset, worshippers use the corresponding times on that day in Mecca, but at their local time. During midnight sun this means that the traditional evening \"iftar\" meal is consumed while the sun is still out. Biryani served is made from reindeer meat instead of beef."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haggadah",
        "text": "Why is this night different from all other nights?\n# Why is it that on all other nights during the year we eat either leavened bread or matza, but on this night we eat only matza?\n# Why is it that on all other nights we eat all kinds of vegetables, but on this night we eat bitter herbs?\n# Why is it that on all other nights we do not dip [our food] even once, but on this night we dip them twice?\n# Why is it that on all other nights we dine either sitting upright or reclining, but on this night we all recline?"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Arab cuisine\n--Medieval cuisine.\n----Breads.\n----Sauces.\n----Sweets.\n----Vegetables.\n--Diet and foods.\n--Structure of meals.\n----Year round.\n------Breakfast.\n------Lunch.\n------Dinner.\n----Ramadan.\n------Iftar.\n------Suhur.\n----Sweets.\n--Arab hospitality.\n----Khaleej.\n------Coffee ceremony.\n------Guests dinner.\n----Maghreb.\n------Tea/coffee ceremony.\n------Dinner guests.\n----Levantine.\n------Coffee/tea ceremony.\n------Dinner guests.\n----Regional differences.\n--Regional Arab cuisines.\n----Arabian Peninsula.\n----Mashriq.\n----Bedouin cuisine.\n----Levant.\n----Iraq/Mesopotamia.\n----Egypt.\n----Africa.\n------Sudan.\n------Maghreb.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Daylight saving time in Egypt",
        "text": "The lunar calendar used by Islam is about eleven days shorter than the solar year, so its months shift every year relative to the seasons. To avoid having longer days during the holy month of fasting, Ramadan, exceptions have been made to the DST schedule when the two overlap. Starting in 2006, the end of summer time has taken place on the Thursday before the start of Ramadan. This continued until 2010, when Ramadan was completely inside \"summer\". Since then, summer time has effectively been split into two periods: one before Ramadan, and one after."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iftar",
        "text": "In Iran, neighbourhood iftar feasts are not customary; the (larger and more festive) meal is usually shared among family. A small selection of foods is prepared to break the fast and is summarily followed by a proper Persian meal. Most common iftar items are: Chai (tea) with zulbia and bamiyeh and other sweets, dates, halva, Fereni, Ash Reshteh, Halim, Shami Lapeh, \"Noon\" (bread usually lavash or barbari) and \"paneer\" with greens and fresh herbs. One of the biggest iftar meals in the world takes place in Imam Reza shrine in Mashhad city every year, with some 12 thousand people attending every night."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jumada al-awwal",
        "text": "The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar, and months begin when the first crescent of a new moon is sighted. Since the Islamic lunar calendar year is 11 to 12 days shorter than the solar year, Jumada al-Awwal migrates backwards throughout the seasons, during a cycle of about 33 solar years. The estimated start and end dates for Jumada al-Awwal are as follows (based on the Umm Al-Qura calendar of Saudi Arabia):"
      },
      {
        "title": "Eid al-Fitr",
        "text": "In Sudan, where 97% of the population is Muslim, preparations for Eid begin the last few days of Ramadan. For days, \"ka'ak\" (sugar powdered cookies), \"bettifour\" (dry baked goods including dainty biscuits, baked meringues and macaroons\u2014whose name are derived from the French \"petit four\"), and popcorn are baked in large batches to serve to guests and to give to family and friends; dressy Eid clothes are either shopped for or sewn; girls and women decorate their hands and feet with henna; and parts of the house may even be painted. The night before Eid, the whole household partakes in cleaning the house and yard and setting out the finest bedsheets, table cloths, and decorations. On the day of Eid, men and boys (and occasionally women and girls) will attend the Eid prayer. For the next 3 days, families will then visit each other, extended family, neighbors, and close friends. In these short visits, the baked goods, chocolates, and sweets are served, and often large lunches are prepared for the visiting well-wishers. Children are given gifts, either in the form of toys or money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Topics in Sharia law",
        "text": "During the Islamic month of Ramadan, Muslims abstain from food and drinks between dawn and sunset. Exceptions to this obligation are made for children who are pre-pubescent, the infirm, travelers, and pregnant or menstruating women. During Ramadan, the daylight hours will often begin and end with a large meal. After dinner, many Muslims participate in special communal prayers held during Ramadan. The end of Ramadan fasting is celebrated with special prayers, gatherings of family and friends, and specially prepared meals. Muslims may also fast on other special days of the year, and to make up for missed days of fasting. Classic Islamic law details the exact definition of the fast, the times of fasting, how a fast may be broken, who must fast, and permitted exceptions to the fast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egyptian cuisine",
        "text": "Although Ramadan is a month of fasting for Muslims in Egypt, it is usually a time when Egyptians pay a lot of attention to food variety and richness, since breaking the fast is a family affair, often with entire extended families meeting at the table just after sunset. There are several desserts served almost exclusively during Ramadan, such as \"kunafa\" () and \"qatayef\" (). In this month, many Egyptians prepare a special table for the poor or passers-by, usually in a tent in the street, called \"Ma'edet Rahman\" (, ), which literally translates to \"Table of the Merciful\", referring to one of the 99 names of God in Islam. These may be fairly simple or quite lavish, depending on the wealth and ostentation of the provider."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ramadan",
        "text": "Some countries impose modified work schedules. In the UAE, employees may work no more than six hours per day and thirty-six hours per week. Qatar, Oman, Bahrain and Kuwait have similar laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bandar Torkaman",
        "text": "During the Ramadan mourning season the residents rejoice, feast, and spray rose water and perfume in the mosques. On the first day of Ramazan they cook special oily bread and distribute them in the mosques and to neighbors. Also on the night of Ghadr, the young ones receive presents from their elders, mostly in the form of cash. Then they go to the market and buy sweetmeats and candy and hold a feast in their homes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hyderabadi Muslims",
        "text": "The dishes are tied to events, such as Hyderabadi Haleem, made almost exclusively during the month of Ramadan, and Sheer Khorma which is especially made on the day of Eid-ul-Fitr. Talawa Gosht is prepared on Fridays."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lalpet",
        "text": "All Islamic holidays follow the lunar calendar, and thus move each year relative to the solar calendar. The Islamic calendar has 12 months and 354 days on a regular year, and 355 days on a leap year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern cuisine",
        "text": "\"Qamar al-Din\", a thick, sweet apricot beverage, is drunk by Muslims during Ramadan. Apricots are boiled with sugar and water until they are thick, and sun-dried on wooden planks. The dried fruit is then mixed with water and sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hajj",
        "text": "The date of Hajj is determined by the Islamic calendar (known as Hijri calendar or AH), which is based on the lunar year. Every year, the events of Hajj take place in a ten-day period, starting on 1 and ending on 10 Dhu al-Hijjah, the twelfth and last month of the Islamic calendar. Among these ten days, the 9th Dhul-Hijjah is known as Day of Arafah, and this day is called the day of Hajj. Because the Islamic calendar is lunar and the Islamic year is about eleven days shorter than the Gregorian year, the Gregorian date for Hajj changes from year to year. Thus, each year in the Gregorian calendar, the pilgrimage starts eleven days (sometimes ten days) earlier. This makes it possible for the Hajj season to fall twice in one Gregorian year, and it does so every 33 years. The last time this phenomenon occurred was 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic holidays",
        "text": "Eid al-Fitr is celebrated at the end of Ramadan (a month of fasting during daylight hours), and Muslims may perform acts of zakat (charity) on the occasion, which begins after the new moon is sighted for the beginning of the month of Shawwal. Celebration begins with prayers on the morning of 1 Shawwal, followed by breakfast, and often celebratory meals throughout the day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gojra",
        "text": "Being a Muslim majority city, religious observances include Ramadan(Ramzan) and Muharram. The festivals of Chaand Raat, Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha are celebrated and are national holidays. The celebration of the Prophet Muhammad birthday is observed in the city which is often referred to as \"Eid Mil\u0101d-un-Nab\u012b\". There are darbar and shrines which attract devotees during the annual Urs. There are Christian churches in the city where Easter and Christmas services take place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Academic term",
        "text": "Usually there are exams at the end of each semester. Students get a number of breaks throughout the year: National Day on 18 November, New Higri year break, Prophet Mohammed birthday break, Eid Al-Fitr break and Eid Al-Adha break. As most of these breaks depend on the Higri year which is 10 days shorter than the Solar year, there is a gradual change on the date of these events in relation to the school year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Murarpalayam",
        "text": "There are two main holidays in Islam: Eid Al-Fitr, Ramadan and Eid Al-Adha. Eid Al-Fitr is celebrated at the end of Ramadan (a month of fasting), and Muslims usually give zakat (charity) on the occasion. Eid Al-Adha is celebrated at the end of Hajj (annual pilgrimage to Mecca), which is one of the five pillars, and Muslims usually sacrifice an animal and distribute its meat among family, friends and the poor."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "New Year's Day is celebrated on the first day of Muharram on the Islamic calendar and first day of Farvardin on the Persian calendar. Shi'ite Muslims celebrate the first ten days of Muharram, and the entire country celebrates the Persian New Year as No Ruz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fasting",
        "text": "Fasting is obligatory for every Muslim one month in the year, during Ramadan. Each day, the fast begins at dawn and ends at sunset. During this time Muslims are asked to remember those who are less fortunate than themselves as well as bringing them closer to God. Non obligatory fasts are two days a week as well as the middle of the month, as recommended by the Prophet Muhammad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sauma",
        "text": "On some days of the Mandaean calendar, Mandaeans perform light fasting. Unlike the Islamic tradition of sawm during Ramadan, Mandaeans do not completely forego food and water for long periods of time. Instead, Mandaeans typically perform light fasting, such as abstaining from meat during certain \"mba\u1e6d\u1e6dal\" (ominous) days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bilibil people",
        "text": "Most of the cooking and eating is done outside. Yams and taro are the staple diet and these are grown in large gardens behind the village. The men do the initial preparation of a new garden, but the women do most of the gardening. The yams are ready for harvest in June, and the harvest is celebrated with yam feasts. June is also the traditional new year as marked by the appearance of the Pleiades."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iftar",
        "text": "Most of the Ramadan celebration practices in Turkey have their roots in the traditions of the former Ottoman Empire. At the minarets of mosques, lights called \"kandil\" are switched on from sunset to dawn. As soon as the sun sets, a traditional \"Ramadan Cannon\" is fired from the highest hill in every city as a signal to start eating the iftar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rajab",
        "text": "The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar, and months begin when the first crescent of a new moon is sighted. Since the lunar year is 11 to 12 days shorter than the solar year, Rajab migrates throughout the seasons. The estimated start and end dates for Rajab, based on the Umm al-Qura calendar of Saudi Arabia, are:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iran",
        "text": "Yald\u0101, another nationally celebrated ancient tradition, commemorates the ancient goddess Mithra and marks the longest night of the year on the eve of the winter solstice (; usually falling on 20 or 21 December), during which families gather together to recite poetry and eat fruits\u2014particularly the red fruits watermelon and pomegranate, as well as mixed nuts. In some regions of the provinces of Mazanderan and Markazi, there is also the midsummer festival of Tirg\u0101n, which is observed on Tir 13 (2 or 3July) as a celebration of water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic calendar",
        "text": "Important dates in the Islamic (Hijri) year are:\n* 1 Muharram: Sunni Islamic New Year.\n* 10 Muharram: Day of Ashura. For both Shias and Sunnis, the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad, and his followers. For Sunnis, the crossing of the Red Sea by Moses occurred on this day.\n* 12 Rabi al-Awwal: Mawlid or Birth of the Prophet for Sunnis.\n* 17 Rabi al-Awwal: Mawlid for Shias.\n* 27 Rajab: Isra and Mi'raj for the majority of Muslims.\n* 15 Sha'ban: Mid-Sha'ban, or Night of Forgiveness. For Shiites, also the birthday of Muhammad al-Mahdi, the Twelfth Imam.\n* 1 Ramadan: Shia Islamic New Year. The first day of fasting.\n* 27 Ramadan: Nuzul al-Qur'an. The most probable day Muhammad received the first verses of the Quran. (17 Ramadan in Indonesia and Malaysia)\n* Last third of Ramadan which includes Laylat al-Qadr.\n* 1 Shawwal: Eid ul-Fitr.\n* 8\u201313 Dhu al-Hijjah: The Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca.\n* 9 Dhu al-Hijjah: Day of Arafa.\n* 10 Dhu al-Hijjah: Eid al-Adha."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic New Year",
        "text": "The Islamic New Year (, '), also called the Hijri New Year or Arabic New Year, is the day that marks the beginning of a new lunar Hijri year, and is the day on which the year count is incremented. The first day of the Islamic year is observed by most Muslims on the first day of the month of Muharram. The epoch (reference date) of the Islamic era was set as the year of the emigration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina, known as the Hijrah, which equates to 622 CE in the Gregorian calendar. All religious duties, such as prayer, fasting in the month of Ramadan, and pilgrimage, and the dates of significant events, such as celebration of holy nights and festivals, are calculated according to the Islamic calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saitavde",
        "text": "As the population is predominantly Muslim, the two main festivals celebrated here are Eid al Fitr and Eid al Adha."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yazidi New Year",
        "text": "The rest of the day is spent visiting neighbours, giving and receiving gifts, feasting and playing \"hekkane\". Travelling is refrained from because this day is believed to be the most unlucky day of the year; this belief is also linked with Chaharshanbe Suri by Iranians. In Lalish, a basin with the water from the Zemzem spring is prepared and the head clergy, including Baba Sheikh, Baba Chawish, and the Peshimam, gather in the inner courtyard where the Sheikhan Sancak is brought in, unveiled and dismantled to be ritually washed with the sacred water by each of the clerics. The \"sancak\" is thus ready to be paraded around in the vicinity for the Taw\u00fbsgeran festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Iran",
        "text": "The Persian year begins in the vernal equinox: if the astronomical vernal equinox comes before noon, then the present day is the first day of the Persian year. If the equinox falls after noon, then the next day is the official first day of the Persian year. The Persian Calendar, which is the official calendar of Iran, is a solar calendar with a starting point that is the same as the Islamic calendar. According to the Iran Labor Code, Friday is the weekly day of rest. Government official working hours are from Saturday to Wednesday (from 8 am to 4 pm)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Syed Ahmad Sultan",
        "text": "A common ritual which is traditionally observed is to offer a \"raut\", (a huge loaf prepared from 18 kilograms of wheat flour sweetened with jaggery weighing half that quantity) once a year on a Friday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Academic year",
        "text": "Other Islamic occasions are celebrated by a holiday or a small break like the Eid break."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian cuisine",
        "text": "As in most Arab cultures, meals are a time to spend with family and could last 1\u20132 hours depending on the specific time of the day. Unlike other cultures, lunch is the primary course and breakfast and dinner are lighter in contents.\n*Asha\u2014supper, usually eaten anytime from 8\u201310 pm. \"'Asha\" is simpler than \"gheda\" and some foods consumed include \"fatayer\", \"hummus bi tahini\", a variety of salads and a Levantine-style omelette called \"ijee\".\n*Asrooneh\u2014from \"'Aasr\" (\"afternoon\"), a term for the consumption of a variety of fruits and legumes after \"ghada\".\n*Fatur/Iftur\u2014breakfast, usually consisting of fried eggs, olives, \"labaneh\", olive oil, \"za'atar\", and/or jams. \"Hummus bi tahini\" is also eaten primarily during this time the day.\n*Ghada\u2014lunch, usually late in the afternoon. Lunch is the heaviest meal of the day and main ingredients may include rice, lamb, chicken, cooked vegetables and forms of \"mahashi\".\n*Hilew\u2014sometimes after or just before \"'asha\" as well as when hosting guests come various sweets. \"Baklawa\" is common and is usually purchased from pastry shops instead of made at home like \"muhallabiyeh\".\n*Shay wa Kahwah\u2014tea and coffee are served in throughout the day, before, after and between \"fatur\", \"ghada\" and \"'asha\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Midnight Sun Mosque",
        "text": "During Ramadan, the food bank is supplied with \"qurbani\", the lamb, goat and beef meats that prosperous Muslims are required to donate to the needy for Eid al-Adha. Local hunters have offered surplus food, but most local game meat is not \"halal\". The mosque accepts reindeer or moose, but only if the animal has been killed according to \"dhabihah\" requirements: by facing it toward Mecca, cutting its jugular vein and saying \"In the name of Allah\". Inuvialuit hunters prefer to follow their own sacrificial traditions, so the mosque receives little of this meat. Fishermen, in contrast, offer large quantities of surplus trout and pike in summer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ma'amoul",
        "text": "While ma'amoul are consumed all-year long, they are most associated with Eid Al-Fitr or iftar as meals in celebration for the ending of Ramadan's fasting. For Christian Arabs as well, ma'amoul is also part of the Easter celebrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iftar",
        "text": "In Russia, Ramadan is observed mostly in Muslim-majority states: (Dagestan, Chechnya, Ingushetia, Adygea, Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachay-Cherkessia, Tatarstan and Bashkortostan). In cities outside of Muslim majority republics with a significant Muslim presence, it has become a tradition to open Ramadan Tent, a public iftar event organised by Russia's Mufti Council and Religious Administration of Muslims. In Dagestan, Muslims gather in Makhachkala Central Juma Mosque to break their fast and pray taraweeh prayers. Dates and fruits are preferred to break the fast, followed by soup, bread, and different local delicacies such as be\u015fbarmaq, kurze and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Pakistan",
        "text": "Ramadan, the holiest month of the Islamic calendar, is a month of fasting from dawn to sunset. It is widely observed by Pakistan's Muslim majority. Muslims during this month will fast, attend mosques with increased frequency, and offer \"Namaz-traveeh\" every day with Isha prayer and recite Qur'an. Special foods are cooked in greater quantities, parties are held, and special accommodation is made by workplaces and educational institutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Upper Reka",
        "text": "As for Islamic religious celebrations, around the time of \"Diten e Vers\" (Summer Day) a similar Spring celebration \"Sultan Nevrus\" (\"Sultan Nevruz\") or Nowruz is held to mark the coming flowering of nature and end of the yearly hibernation of animals, a process seen as an awakening by God of life. A sweet called is consumed and also distributed throughout the village to the less well off. A silver ring would also be hung to a tree to gain God's adoration if it bent and at the following dawn taken back. Of the night, the elderly maintained the primacy of prayer to God and that dead souls returned home. Upper Reka Muslims also observe Ramadan and the two \"Bayrams\" (Eid al-Fitr, and Eid al-Adha). During Ramadan, mosque visits occurred and would be distributed to the needy and for others to take home and consume. In the evening prayers would be said and before dawn two wandering Roma with drum and flute would wake villagers to consume a Ramadan breakfast meal called \"syfyr\" or suhur, so as to be ready for the day. Daily fasting occurred, with only infants being fed. After sunset, those Roma with drums would herald the end of the daily fast and a large Ramadan dinner meal called \"iftar\" would be eaten, followed by prayers. On the 15th day of Ramadan is exchanged amongst villagers, given out to the poor and eaten at home, otherwise the day is not usually celebrated. On the eve of Bayram or \"verxhilia Bejrami\" (i.e., Bajram vigil), people would bathe and be given new clothes, shoes and so on. The imam frowned upon the term or vigil describing Bayram eve. On the day one would use the expression \"arife\" for a person and wish best wishes. Children would play in the village centre and adults prepared bread, other food and a pastry known as \"kole\u00e7\". An act of \"fitr\" or charity would also be done such as giving money to the poor or to the imam and the bigger festival of Ramadan was considered not complete without this act."
      },
      {
        "title": "23 Ramadan",
        "text": "In the conventional Lunar Hijri calendar, this day is the 259th day of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saudi Arabia",
        "text": "Until 2016, the kingdom only used the lunar Islamic calendar, not the international Gregorian calendar, but in 2016 the kingdom announced its switch to the Gregorian calendar for civil purposes. Daily life is influenced by Islamic observance. Some businesses decide to close three or four times a day for 30 to 45 minutes during business hours while employees and customers are sent off to pray. The weekend is Friday-Saturday, not Saturday-Sunday because Friday is the holiest day for Muslims. For many years only two religious holidays were publicly recognized \u2013 \"\u02bf\u012ad al-Fi\u1e6dr\" and \"\u02bf\u012ad al-A\u1e0d\u1e25\u0101\". (\"\u02bf\u012ad al-Fi\u1e6dr\" is \"the biggest\" holiday, a three-day period of \"feasting, gift-giving and general letting go\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Year",
        "text": "A modern adaptation of the historical Jalali calendar, known as the Solar Hijri calendar (1925), is a purely solar calendar with an irregular pattern of leap days based on observation (or astronomical computation), aiming to place new year (Nowruz) on the day of vernal equinox (for the time zone of Tehran), as opposed to using an algorithmic system of leap years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wezeea",
        "text": "They are organized on several occasions and Mawsims, especially in the Ashura celebration, the season of Ramadan, the anniversary of the Mawlid, and the beginning of the plowing season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oman",
        "text": "Omani cuisine is diverse and has been influenced by many cultures. Omanis usually eat their main daily meal at midday, while the evening meal is lighter. During Ramadan, dinner is served after the Taraweeh prayers, sometimes as late as 11\u00a0pm. However, these dinner timings differ according to each family; for instance, some families would choose to eat right after maghrib prayers and have dessert after taraweeh."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moveable feast",
        "text": "Since Islamic feasts (Eid al-Adha and Eid al-Fitr) are lunar month based, they take place in different solar calendar dates and can occur at any time of the year, relative to the Roman civil calendar which is solar.\u00a0 Unlike the lunisolar Hebrew, Chinese, and Babylonian calendars, which intercalate a leap month every 2 or 3\u00a0years to fix the month of spring, Islamic months can occur at any time of the year, and thus are referred to as \"strictly lunar\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Twelver Shi'ism",
        "text": "Twelvers celebrate the following annual holidays:\n* Eid ul-Fitr (\u0639\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0637\u0631), which marks the end of fasting during the month of Ramadan and falls on the first day of Shawwal.\n* Eid al-Adha, which marks the end of the Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca, starts on the 10th day of Dhu al-Hijjah."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Arab cuisine is influenced by what 3 factors?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They have been influenced by climate, cultivation, and mutual commerce."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me how climate influences the cuisine?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find the answer, but I did find that an area's climate, in large measure, determines the native foods that are available and also influences food preservation."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about Bedouin cuisine?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Bedouins of the Arabian Peninsula, Middle East and North Africa rely on a diet of dates, dried fruit, nuts, wheat, barley, rice, and meat.  Bedouins also use many different dried beans including white beans, lentils, and chickpeas, and they drink a lot of fresh verbena tea, Arabic tea, Maghrebi mint tea, or Arabic coffee."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me how the meals in Arab cuisine are structured?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are two basic structures for meals in the Arab World, one regular schedule during most of the year and a second one that is unique to the month of Ramadan in which observant Muslims fast during the day. Which one would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to hear about the unique structure used during Ramadan."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Iftar is the meal taken at dusk when the fast is over, it consists of three courses. Suhur is eaten before dawn, and sweets and fresh fruits are served between these two meals."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me more about the regular schedule that happens during most of the year?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Caf\u00e9s often serve croissants for breakfast; Lunch is considered the main meal of the day, and is traditionally eaten between 1:30 pm and 2:30 pm; Dinner is traditionally the lightest meal, although in modern times, dinner has become more important with regards to entertaining guests due to the hours of the workday.",
      "Regular schedule meals during most of the year in the Arab world are breakfast, lunch and dinner."
    ],
    "topic": "Arab cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Arab cuisine:33",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Arab cuisine",
          "Structure of meals",
          "Year round",
          "Breakfast"
        ],
        "ctx": "Caf\u00e9s often serve croissants for breakfast. Breakfast is often a quick meal, consisting of bread and dairy products, with tea and sometimes jam. The most common breakfast items are \"labneh\" and cream (, made of cow's milk)."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Arab cuisine:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Arab cuisine",
          "Structure of meals",
          "Year round",
          "Lunch"
        ],
        "ctx": "Lunch is considered the main meal of the day, and is traditionally eaten between 1:30 pm and 2:30 pm. It is the meal for which the family comes together. Rarely do meals have different courses; however, salads and \"mezze\" are served as side dishes to the main meal."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Arab cuisine:39",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Arab cuisine",
          "Structure of meals",
          "Year round",
          "Dinner"
        ],
        "ctx": "Dinner is traditionally the lightest meal, although in modern times, dinner has become more important with regards to entertaining guests due to the hours of the workday."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Arab cuisine:33",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Arab cuisine",
          "Structure of meals",
          "Year round",
          "Breakfast"
        ],
        "ctx": "Caf\u00e9s often serve croissants for breakfast. Breakfast is often a quick meal, consisting of bread and dairy products, with tea and sometimes jam. The most common breakfast items are \"labneh\" and cream (, made of cow's milk)."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Arab cuisine:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Arab cuisine",
          "Structure of meals",
          "Year round",
          "Lunch"
        ],
        "ctx": "Lunch is considered the main meal of the day, and is traditionally eaten between 1:30 pm and 2:30 pm. It is the meal for which the family comes together. Rarely do meals have different courses; however, salads and \"mezze\" are served as side dishes to the main meal."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Arab cuisine:39",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Arab cuisine",
          "Structure of meals",
          "Year round",
          "Dinner"
        ],
        "ctx": "Dinner is traditionally the lightest meal, although in modern times, dinner has become more important with regards to entertaining guests due to the hours of the workday."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "History of unmanned aerial vehicles",
        "text": "The true inventor of a radio-controlled aircraft that could fly out of sight was Edward M. Sorensen as evidenced by his US patents. His invention was the first to be able to know from a ground terminal what the airplane was doing, such as climbing, altitude, banking, direction, rpm and other instrumentation. Without these patents the early radio-controlled aircraft could only operate within visual sight of the ground pilot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "In 1917, Archibald Low as head of the secret RFC experimental works at Feltham, was the first person to use radio control successfully on an aircraft, an \"Aerial Target\". It was \"piloted\" from the ground by future world aerial speed record holder Henry Segrave. Low's systems encoded the command transmissions as a countermeasure to prevent enemy intervention. By 1918 the secret D.C.B. Section of the Royal Navy's Signals School, Portsmouth under the command of Eric Robinson V.C. used a variant of the Aerial Target\u2019s radio control system to control from \u2018mother\u2019 aircraft different types of naval vessels including a submarine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled model",
        "text": "Radio control has been around since Nikola Tesla demonstrated a remote control boat in 1898. World War II saw increased development in radio control technology. The Luftwaffe used controllable winged bombs for targeting Allied ships. During the 1930s the Good brothers Bill and Walt pioneered vacuum tube based control units for R/C hobby use. Their \"Guff\" radio controlled plane is on display at the National Aerospace museum. Ed Lorenze published a design in Model Airplane News that was built by many hobbyists. Later, after WW2, in the late 1940s to mid 1950 many other R/C designs emerged and some were sold commercially, Berkeley's Super Aerotrol, was one such example."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "During World War I American inventor John Hays Hammond, Jr. developed many techniques used in subsequent radio control including developing remote controlled torpedoes, ships, anti-jamming systems and even a system allowing his remote-controlled ship targeting an enemy ship's searchlights. In 1922 he installed radio control gear on the obsolete US Navy battleship USS \"Iowa\" so it could be used as a target ship (sunk in gunnery exercise in March 1923)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radioplane Company",
        "text": "Denny approached (or was approached by) Nelson Paul Whittier, grandson of California Quaker pioneer, John Greenleaf Whittier. The two formed Reginald Denny Industries in 1935 to develop a new radio controlled model, and were joined by electronics engineer Kenneth Case. For the next three years they attempted to produce a design known as the Radioplane One, or RP-1, essentially a greatly enlarged model airplane, complete with a fuselage area that included the step where a windscreen was in a real aircraft. The control system was based on a telephone dial: dial 4 for elevator down, and then 2 to stop the motion. Due to the latencies in the system, the aircraft were found to be almost uncontrollable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Remote control",
        "text": "Archibald Low was known as the \"father of radio guidance systems\" for his pioneering work on guided rockets and planes during the First World War. In 1917, he demonstrated a remote-controlled aircraft to the Royal Flying Corps and in the same year built the first wire-guided rocket. As head of the secret RFC experimental works at Feltham, A. M. Low was the first person to use radio control successfully on an aircraft, an \"Aerial Target\". It was \"piloted\" from the ground by future world aerial speed record holder Henry Segrave. Low's systems encoded the command transmissions as a countermeasure to prevent enemy intervention. By 1918 the secret D.C.B. Section of the Royal Navy's Signals School, Portsmouth under the command of Eric Robinson V.C. used a variant of the Aerial Target\u2019s radio control system to control from \u2018mother\u2019 aircraft different types of naval vessels including a submarine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "In 1904, \"Bat\", a Windermere steam launch, was controlled using experimental radio control by its inventor, [Jack Kitchen]. In 1909 the French inventor Gabet demonstrated what he called his \"Torpille Radio-Automatique\"\", a radio-controlled torpedo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane",
        "text": "Before World War I, the possibility of using radio to control aircraft intrigued many inventors. One of these, Elmer Sperry, succeeded in arousing the US Navy's interest. Sperry had been perfecting gyroscopes for naval use since 1896 and established the Sperry Gyroscope Company in 1910. In 1911, airplanes had only been flying for eight years, and yet Sperry became intrigued with the concept of applying radio control to them. He realized that for radio control to be effective, automatic stabilization would be essential, so he decided to adapt his naval gyro-stabilizers (which he had developed for destroyers)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Unmanned aerial vehicle",
        "text": "The Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo introduced a radio-based control-system called the \"Telekino\" at the Paris Academy of Science in 1903 with the intention of testing an airship of his own design without risking human lives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robot",
        "text": "In 1903, the Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo demonstrated a radio control system called \"Telekino\", which he wanted to use to control an airship of his own design. Unlike the previous systems, which carried out actions of the 'on/off' type, Torres device was able to memorize the signals received to execute the operations on its own and could carry out to 19 different orders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robot",
        "text": "Archibald Low, known as the \"father of radio guidance systems\" for his pioneering work on guided rockets and planes during the First World War. In 1917, he demonstrated a remote controlled aircraft to the Royal Flying Corps and in the same year built the first wire-guided rocket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sergey Oulianine",
        "text": "In 1904 Oulianine started research in remote control of aircraft, ships and land vehicles (in 1910 he patented a technology of remote control and in October 1915 a radio-controlled boat of his construction sailed from Kronstadt to Peterhof)."
      },
      {
        "title": "C. E. Bowden",
        "text": "Following the Second World War, he pioneered radio-controlled flight and also made significant innovations with radio-controlled boats and the design of both model and full-size yachts. He wrote prolifically on these subjects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled model",
        "text": "In the late 1950s, RC hobbyists had mastered tricks to manage proportional control of the flight control surfaces, for example by rapidly switching on and off reed systems, a technique called \"skillful blipping\" or more humorously \"nervous proportional\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kurt Schreckling",
        "text": "His design was constructed using hand tools, and has a wooden compressor and a bent metal gas turbine. It was fitted into a radio-controlled aircraft that flew successfully. He won various prizes and wrote books about this field of research."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "Getting rid of the wires via using a new wireless technology, radio, appeared in the late 1890s. In 1897 British engineer Ernest Wilson and C. J. Evans patented a radio controlled torpedo or demonstrated remote radio control boats on the Thames river (accounts of what they did vary). At an 1898 exhibition at Madison Square Garden, Nikola Tesla demonstrated a small unmanned boat that used a coherer based radio control. With an eye towards selling the idea to the US government as a torpedo, Tesla's 1898 patent included a clockwork frequency changer so an enemy couldn't take control of the device."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "The idea of controlling unmanned vehicles (for the most part in an attempt to improve the accuracy of torpedoes for military purposes) predates the invention of radio. The latter half of the 1800s saw development of many such devices, connected to an operator by wires, including the first practical application invented by German engineer Werner von Siemens in 1870."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1890\u20131945)",
        "text": "1924 Radio altimeter\n* A radio altimeter measures altitude above the terrain presently beneath an aircraft or spacecraft. This type of altimeter provides the distance between the plane and the ground directly below it, as opposed to a barometric altimeter which provides the distance above a pre-determined datum, usually sea level. In 1924, American engineer Lloyd Espenschied invented the radio altimeter. However, it took 14 years before Bell Labs was able to put Espenschied's device in a form that was adaptable for aircraft use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aircraft Radio Corporation",
        "text": "Pioneer aviator Jimmy Doolittle kept his plane at the ARC hangar, and teamed with ARC to accomplish the world's first \"blind\" landing \u2013 landing an airplane solely by reference to instruments, the first milestone in developing today's all-weather instrument flight. ARC developed the radio-beam and onboard radio receiver navigation equipment essential to the flight, the first radio instrument landing system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "The earliest examples of electronically guided model aircraft were hydrogen-filled model airships of the late 19th century. They were flown as a music hall act around theater auditoriums using a basic form of spark-emitted radio signal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane",
        "text": "The autopilot equipment was already designed, but the radio control system hadn't been fully developed, so while the hangars were being built at Copiague, Sperry turned his attention to this aspect, purchasing rights to a number of patented radio-related inventions. Ultimately, though, the radio control systems were not used on the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane. Later, in 1922, the system was installed on several Verville-designed planes along with gear for the Army Air Services engineering division. These aircraft successfully hit their targets from ranges of 30, 60 and ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "In 1903, the Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo introduced a radio based control system called the \"\"Telekino\" at the Paris Academy of Science. In the same year, he obtained a patent in France, Spain, Great Britain, and the United States. It was intended as a way of testing a dirigible of his own design without risking human lives. To avoid the expense of conceivably crashing his airship prototype he built his demonstration device into a boat. Unlike the previous systems, which carried out actions of the 'on/off' type, Torres device was able to memorize the signals received to execute the operations on its own and could carry out to 19 different orders. In 1906, in the presence of an audience which included the King of Spain, Torres demonstrated the invention in the Port of Bilbao, guiding a boat from the shore with people on board. Later, he would try to apply the Telekino to projectiles and torpedoes but had to abandon the project for lack of financing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Otto C. Koppen",
        "text": "Koppen developed a simplified autopilot that could be affordable enough to be used by general aviation aircraft. The bang-bang, or discontinuous, control device featured an innovative use of a tilted gyroscope that sensed roll and yaw, to provide input to the autopilot. After his formal NACA report was published, his ability to file for a patent was nullified."
      },
      {
        "title": "Air-to-ground communication",
        "text": "In 1912 the Royal Flying Corps had begun experimenting with \"wireless telegraphy\" in aircraft. Lieutenant B.T James was a leading pioneer of wireless (radio) in aircraft. In the spring 1913, he had begun to experiment with radios in a B.E.2a. James brought the science of wireless in aircraft to a high state of efficiency before he was shot down and killed by anti-aircraft fire on 13 July 1915."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radioplane OQ-2",
        "text": "The OQ-2 was originally a small radio controlled aircraft model designed by Walter Righter. The design, along with its engine design, was purchased by actor Reginald Denny, who had demonstrated another model to the US Army in 1940. Calling the new design the RP-2, he demonstrated several updated versions to the Army as the RP-2, RP-3 and RP-4 in 1939."
      },
      {
        "title": "Remote control",
        "text": "Wired and wireless remote control was developed in the latter half of the 19th century to meet the need to control unmanned vehicles (for the most part military torpedoes). These included a wired version by German engineer Werner von Siemens in 1870, and radio controled ones by British engineer Ernest Wilson and C. J. Evans (1897) and a prototype that inventor Nikola Tesla demonstrated in New York in 1898. In 1903 Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo demonstrated a radio controlled boat using a system called \"Telekino\", which he hoped to use to control a dirigible airship of his own design. The first remote-controlled model airplane flew in 1932, and the use of remote control technology for military purposes was worked on intensively during the Second World War, one result of this being the German Wasserfall missile."
      },
      {
        "title": "Forward air control",
        "text": "As close air support began during World War I, there were pioneer attempts to direct the trench strafing by the ground troops marking their positions by laying out signal panels on the ground, firing flares, or lighting smoke signals. Aircrews had difficulty communicating with the ground troops; they would drop messages or use messenger pigeons. Benno Fiala von Fernbrugg, an Austro-Hungarian pilot, pioneered the use of radio for fire control; at the Battle of Gorlice he used a radio transmitter in his airplane to send changes via morse code to an artillery battery on the ground. Colonel Billy Mitchell also equipped his Spad XVI command airplane with a radio, and the Germans experimented with radios in their Junkers J.I all-metal-structure, armored-fuselage sesquiplanes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled model",
        "text": "With the electronics revolution, single-signal channel circuit design became redundant and instead, radios provided coded signal streams which a servomechanism could interpret. Each of these streams replaced two of the original 'channels', and, confusingly, the signal streams began to be called 'channels'. So an old on/off 6-channel transmitter which could drive the rudder, elevator and throttle of an aircraft was replaced with a new proportional 3-channel transmitter doing the same job. Controlling all the primary controls of a powered aircraft (rudder, elevator, ailerons and throttle) was known as 'full-house' control. A glider could be 'full-house' with only three channels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radar",
        "text": "In 1935, Watson-Watt was asked to judge recent reports of a German radio-based death ray and turned the request over to Wilkins. Wilkins returned a set of calculations demonstrating the system was basically impossible. When Watson-Watt then asked what such a system might do, Wilkins recalled the earlier report about aircraft causing radio interference. This revelation led to the Daventry Experiment of 26 February 1935, using a powerful BBC shortwave transmitter as the source and their GPO receiver setup in a field while a bomber flew around the site. When the plane was clearly detected, Hugh Dowding, the Air Member for Supply and Research was very impressed with their system's potential and funds were immediately provided for further operational development. Watson-Watt's team patented the device in GB593017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Watson-Watt",
        "text": "On 12 February 1935, Watson-Watt sent the secret memo of the proposed system to the Air Ministry, \"Detection and location of aircraft by radio methods\". Although not as exciting as a death-ray, the concept clearly had potential, but the Air Ministry, before giving funding, asked for a demonstration proving that radio waves could be reflected by an aircraft. This was ready by 26 February and consisted of two receiving antennae located about away from one of the BBC's shortwave broadcast stations at Daventry. The two antennae were phased such that signals travelling directly from the station cancelled themselves out, but signals arriving from other angles were admitted, thereby deflecting the trace on a CRT indicator (passive radar). Such was the secrecy of this test that only three people witnessed it: Watson-Watt, his colleague Arnold Wilkins, and a single member of the committee, A. P. Rowe. The demonstration was a success: on several occasions, the receiver showed a clear return signal from a Handley Page Heyford bomber flown around the site. Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin was kept quietly informed of radar progress. On 2 April 1935, Watson-Watt received a patent on a radio device for detecting and locating an aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aircraft Radio Corporation",
        "text": "By 1933, ARC-designed radios were being installed in the 1st fighter (aircraft) squadrons of the U.S. Army Air Corps and U.S. Navy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Otto C. Koppen",
        "text": "Other pioneers of aircraft stability and control"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aviation communication",
        "text": "Nonetheless, wireless communication systems in aircraft remained experimental and would take years to successfully develop a practical prototype. The early radios were heavy in weight and were unreliable; additionally, ground forces rarely used radio because signals were easily intercepted and targeted by opposing forces. At the beginning of World War I, aircraft were not typically equipped with wireless equipment. Instead, soldiers used large panel cut outs to distinguish friendly forces. These cut outs could also be used as a directional device to help pilots navigate back to friendly and familiar airfields."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward George Bowen",
        "text": "A Committee for the Scientific Study of Air Defence had been established under the chairmanship of Henry Tizard. Before the first meeting of that committee in early 1935, the Government asked Watson-Watt whether an intense beam of radio waves, a \"death ray\", could bring down an aircraft. Watson-Watt reported that a \"death ray\" was impracticable, but suggested that radio waves might be used to detect, rather than destroy, enemy aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "During World War II, the U.S. Army and Navy used radio controlled planes called Radioplanes as artillery target drones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ross Gunn",
        "text": "From 1927 to 1947, Gunn worked at the Naval Research Laboratory. He was the author of over 28 papers, and received 45 patents. He designed radio devices for controlling aircraft, which were used in the development of the first drones. He was one of the first to appreciate the possibility of using nuclear power for submarine propulsion. During World War II he was involved in the development of thermal diffusion technology for isotope separation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aircraft Radio Corporation",
        "text": "The system they developed led to the creation of their \"Model B\"\u2014an early radio navigation system for the airlines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Watson-Watt",
        "text": "In 1935 Watt was asked to comment on reports of a German death ray based on radio. Watt and his assistant Arnold Frederic Wilkins quickly determined it was not possible, but Wilkins suggested using radio signals to locate aircraft at long distances. This led to a February 1935 demonstration where signals from a BBC short-wave transmitter were bounced off a Handley Page Heyford aircraft. Watt led the development of a practical version of this device, which entered service in 1938 under the code name Chain Home. This system provided the vital advance information that helped the Royal Air Force win the Battle of Britain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Assen Jordanoff",
        "text": "Aside from his many patents on plane design, Jordanoff also introduced the so-called \"Jordaphone\" from his Electronics company, a wireless telephone, with an answering function and amplifier and intercom functions. It was the first of its kind, and preceded the modern inventions of the answering machine and tape recorder by 5 to 30 years. Another invention was the \"Frozen Gasoline System\" for airplanes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corradino D'Ascanio",
        "text": "After a brief pilot training course in Corsica on a Farman MF.7, he returned to engineering, designing a patented forward-facing monitoring device to improve maintenance monitoring within flight squadrons (estimated to have saved fifty lives), and took part in the trials of the first radio equipment installed in Italian aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burgess Model I",
        "text": "When he resumed flying activity in the fall of 1914, Dargue began testing a small radio transmitter-receiver built by a local unit, and was damaged again in October experimenting with antenna location. Ultimately a wire antenna was paid out behind the aircraft in flight from a reel. Further problems of engine noise, ignition interference, burnout of the signal detector by proximity of the transmitter, and loss of calibration from engine vibration were all overcome. On December 1, 1914, Dargue and 1st Lt. Joseph O. Mauborgne, the Signal Corps officer in charge of the Fort Mills radio station, began a series seven test flights of the radio. During the third, on December 11, the first two-way telegraphy communication with the ground was performed, at a range of for communication with the ground and for the return signal to the airplane, flying at an altitude of , the first radio signal received by an airplane. On the last flight, December 16, using a switch designed to alternate between receiving and transmitting modes, Mauborgne conducted the first airborne \"conversation\" with the ground."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "US frequency chart available at ,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Avionics",
        "text": "Radio communication was first used in aircraft just prior to World War I. The first airborne radios were in zeppelins, but the military sparked development of light radio sets that could be carried by heavier-than-air craft, so that aerial reconnaissance biplanes could report their observations immediately in case they were shot down. The first experimental radio transmission from an airplane was conducted by the US Navy in August 1910. The first aircraft radios transmitted by radiotelegraphy, so they required two-seat aircraft with a second crewman to tap on a telegraph key to spell out messages by Morse code. During World War I, AM voice two way radio sets were made possible in 1917 by the development of the triode vacuum tube, which were simple enough that the pilot in a single seat aircraft could use it while flying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Curtiss JN Jenny",
        "text": "In a series of tests conducted at the US Army's Langley Field in Hampton, Virginia, in July and August 1917, the world's first \"plane-to-plane\" and \"ground-to-plane, and vice versa\" communications by radiotelephony (as opposed to radiotelegraphy which had been developed earlier) were made to and from modified US Army JN-4s by Western Electric Company (Bell Labs) design engineers Lewis M. Clement and Raymond Heising, the developers of the experimental wind generator-powered airborne wireless voice transmitter and receiver equipment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radioplane Company",
        "text": "In 1936 Denny met General W.S. Thiele at Fort MacArthur in Los Angeles, who complained that it cost $300 to have an aircraft tow a target for gunnery practice. He also noted that the target flew in a straight line, which made it unrealistic. Denny suggested that a radio controlled model might be a more cost-effective solution. In an effort to interest the US Army in the design, they had demonstrated the RP-1 at Dale Dry Lake on 21 February 1938, but the radio failed and it crashed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eric Clutton",
        "text": "In the United States, he built a business out of designing model aircraft for radio control, and a line of diesel engines to power them under the name \"Doctor Diesel\", continuing his line of experimental model designs since his childhood in the UK [needs citation from AeroModeller.]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane",
        "text": "During the early post-war years, the Navy sponsored similar projects. For the first program, Witteman-Lewis aircraft and Norden-designed gyrostabilizers were used, but the results were no better than those achieved by the Sperrys. In 1921, the program was reoriented to focus on the radio control aspect. The control equipment was developed at the radio laboratory at NAS Anacostia (later the Naval Research Laboratory). In 1923, tests began, and were relatively successful, but interest waned and the project lapsed in 1925. Over a decade was to pass before the Navy seriously undertook the development of target drones and pilotless aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "William F. Milliken Jr.",
        "text": "As head of Flight Research at Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory (CAL) he initiated a program for measuring aircraft dynamics in flight using automatic control techniques, accomplishing the first frequency response measurements. Also, as co-inventor of the variable stability aircraft (circa 1948) he was involved in pioneering stability augmentation and modern electrohydraulic flight control systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Benjamin Miessner",
        "text": "In June 1916 he married Eleanor M. Schulz in Buffalo, NY. They had two daughters, Jane and Mary. That same year he returned to the Navy as an Expert Radio Aid for Aviation where he developed radio systems for airplanes and published his book \"\u201cRadiodynamics, the wireless control of torpedoes and other mechanisms\u201d\". During World War I, he was stationed in Pensacola, Florida where he was in charge of the radio laboratory of the Navy Aeronautic Station."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kinjiro Okabe",
        "text": "Okabe developed an experimental apparatus using a VHF transmitter and receiver with Yagi-Uda antennas separated some distance. In 1936, he successfully detected a passing aircraft by the Doppler-interference method; this was the first recorded demonstration in Japan of aircraft detection by radio. With this success, Okabe's research interest switched from magnetrons to VHF equipment for target detection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Full-scale aircraft designs from every era of aviation, from the \"Pioneer Era\" and World War I's start, through to the 21st century, have been modeled as radio-control scale model aircraft. Builders of RC Scale aircraft can enjoy the challenge of creating a controllable, miniature aircraft that merely \"looks\" like the full scale original in the air with no \"fine details\", such as a detailed cockpit, or seriously replicate many operable features of a selected full scale aircraft design, even down to having operable cable-connected flight control surfaces, illuminated navigation lighting on the aircraft's exterior, realistically retracting landing gear, etc. if the full-sized aircraft possessed such features as part of its design."
      },
      {
        "title": "Low-frequency radio range",
        "text": "On September 24, 1929, then-Lieutenant (later General) James H. \"Jimmy\" Doolittle, U.S. Army, demonstrated the first \"blind\" flight, performed exclusively by reference to instruments and without outside visibility, and proved that instrument flying was feasible. Doolittle used newly developed gyroscopic instruments\u2014attitude indicator and gyrocompass\u2014to help him maintain his aircraft's attitude and heading, and a specially designed directional radio system to navigate to and from the airport. Doolittle's experimental equipment was purpose-built for his demonstration flights; for instrument flying to become practical, the technology had to be reliable, mass-produced and widely deployed, both on the ground and in the aircraft fleet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Invention of radio",
        "text": "In 1898 Nikola Tesla developed a radio/coherer based remote-controlled boat, with a form of secure communication between transmitter and receiver, which he demonstrated in 1898. Tesla called his invention a \"teleautomaton\" and he hoped to sell it as a guided naval torpedo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prandtl-D",
        "text": "Initially, each aircraft was radio operated with a hobby-grade controller and launched with a bungee cord system. Later flight tests switched from a bungee launch method to a towed launch system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Morris Page",
        "text": "Following an observation by Lawrence A. Hyland in 1930 of radio interference caused by a passing aircraft, Taylor and Leo C. Young began an internally funded, low-level project to develop a radio-detection apparatus based on continuous wave (CW) Doppler interference. Unsuccessful with the CW approach, in 1934 Young suggested using a pulsed transmitter, similar to one that the NRL had built in 1925 for the Carnegie Institution of Washington in measuring the altitude of the ionosphere. Taylor assigned Page to design an apparatus for testing this suggestion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "Crystal-controlled superheterodyne receivers with better selectivity and stability made control equipment more capable and at lower cost. Multi-channel developments were of particular use to aircraft, which really needed a minimum of three control dimensions (yaw, pitch and motor speed), as opposed to boats, which required only two or one."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of unmanned aerial vehicles",
        "text": "The first pilotless aircraft were built during World War I. From a suggestion that A. M. Low\u2019s expertise in early television and radio technology be used to develop a remotely controlled pilotless aircraft to attack the Zeppelins a remarkable succession of British drone weapons in 1917 and 1918 evolved. Designers from Sopwith Aviation and its contractor Rushton Proctor, de Havilland and the Royal Aircraft Factory all became involved. They were all designed to use Low's radio control system developed at the Royal Flying Corps secret Experimental Works at Feltham. Of these Low confirmed that Geoffrey de Havilland\u2019s monoplane was the one that flew under control on 21 March 1917. Low is known as '\"father of radio guidance systems\" and in 1976 Low was inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame. Alternatively John Taylor suggested Low was the \u2018Father of the Remotely Piloted Vehicle\u2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lawrence H. Johnston",
        "text": "Johnston intended to study for his doctorate under Alvarez, but instead followed him east to the MIT Radiation Laboratory near Boston in February 1941. Alvarez and Johnston worked together on ground-controlled approach radar. This allowed aircraft to be guided to a safe landing in adverse weather conditions, based on radar images, and would later prove crucial during the Berlin Airlift. They were awarded US Patents 2,555,101 and 2,585,855 for it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russell and Sigurd Varian",
        "text": "Sigurd was interested in all-weather navigation systems, and suggested to Russell that together they could create a radio-based technology using microwaves that could detect airplanes at night or in clouds. Russell agreed, and they both quit their jobs, set up their own lab at Halcyon, and began developing plans for a device that could precisely determine the location and direction of an airplane. They initially attempted to create a radio compass, but could not develop a successful design, partly as a consequence of their isolation. They ultimately sought assistance from Russell's college roommate, William Webster Hansen, who was by then a professor at Stanford. With Hansen's help, they came to the attention of the head of the Stanford physics department, David Webster, who hired them in 1936 to work at the university in exchange for lab space, $100 a year for supplies, and an agreement that Stanford University would have half of the royalties for any patents they obtained."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Randall (physicist)",
        "text": "When the war began in 1939, Oliphant was approached by the Admiralty about the possibility of building a radio source that operated at microwave frequencies. Such a system would allow a radar using it to see small objects like the periscopes of submerged U-boats. The Air Ministry radar researchers at Bawdsey Manor had also expressed an interest in a 10\u00a0cm system, as this would greatly reduce the size of the transmission antennas, making them much easier to fit in the nose of aircraft, as opposed to being mounted on the wings and fuselage as in their current systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger W. Riehl",
        "text": "In 1960 he worked at the Dayton Aviation Radio Equipment (DARE Electronics, Inc.) as an engineer working on 2-way FM radio development. While at DARE he flew worldwide as a flight crew member testing navigation equipment for Air Force and Naval applications. He also obtained the FCC Second Class Technical license in 1960. He started a company called Riehl Engineering in 1960 working out of a room in his home. It was here that he first started working on his idea to design a digital solar-powered wristwatch device. He also designed and marketed a transistor ignition system called Spitfire This device claimed to keep an automobile engine in proper timing (up to ten times longer), and to increase horsepower by 20%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lawrence J. Fogel",
        "text": "During 1948-1949, shortly after completing his bachelor's degree in electrical engineering from New York University, Lawrence Fogel worked at Watson Laboratories (USAF) computing radiation patterns for VHF and UHF radio direction finders for use in ground-to-air operations. He designed feedback amplifier filters to improve the signal-to-noise ratio for these radio systems. At Eglin Air Force Base, he controlled the final flight test program for the Diversity Antenna Array. Between 1950 and 1953, Fogel worked for Coles Signal Laboratory (U.S. Army Signal Corps) as an engineer in charge of the installation of electronic communication and navigation equipment in Army aircraft and helicopters. He completed his master's degree in electrical engineering at this same time from Rutgers University. During his time with Stavid Engineering, Inc. (New Jersey) between 1953 and 1956, he directed field operations of the Regulus Missile guidance system for submarines and also assisted with the design of flight instrumentation, communications, and electronics for aircraft and helicopters. As a part of this research, he formulated a solution for a mathematical model of the human operator as part of an aircraft flight control system that included such qualities as anticipation, development of a computer facility incorporating such a mode for use in the design of more effective human-machine relations. His efforts also led to five patents between 1958 and 1961 regarding active noise cancellation to reduce noise in helicopter cockpit environments for improved communication. These were the first patents in noise-cancelling headphone systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aviation communication",
        "text": "In 1911, wireless telegraphy was put into operational use in the Italo-Turkish War. In 1912, the Royal Flying Corps had begun experimenting with \"wireless telegraphy\" in aircraft. Lieutenant B.T James was a leading pioneer of wireless radio in aircraft. In the spring of 1913, James had begun to experiment with radios in a B.E.2A. James managed to successfully increase the efficiency of wireless radio before he was shot down and killed by anti-aircraft fire on July 13, 1915."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vickers Wild Goose",
        "text": "By 1949 he was ready to build a large-scale radio-controlled flying model."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harry Grindell Matthews",
        "text": "In 1911 Matthews said he had invented an Aerophone device, a radiotelephone, and transmitted messages between a ground station and an aeroplane from a distance of two miles. His experiments attracted government attention and on 4 July 1912 he visited Buckingham Palace. However, when the British Admiralty requested a demonstration of the Aerophone, Matthews demanded that no experts be present at the scene. When four of the observers dismantled part of the apparatus before the demonstration began and took notes, Matthews cancelled the demonstration and drove observers away."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Hays Hammond Jr.",
        "text": "John Hays Hammond Jr. (April 13, 1888 \u2013 February 12, 1965) was an American inventor known as \"The Father of Radio Control\". Hammond's pioneering developments in electronic remote control are the foundation for all modern radio remote control devices, including modern missile guidance systems, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), and the unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAVs). Of Hammond's many individual inventions, the inventions which have seen the most significant application are the variable pitch or controlled pitch propellers and single dial radio tuning. He was the son of mining engineer John Hays Hammond, Sr."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "A radio-controlled aircraft (often called RC aircraft or RC plane) is a small flying machine that is controlled remotely by an operator on the ground using a hand-held radio transmitter. The transmitter communicates with a receiver within the craft that sends signals to servomechanisms (servos) which move the control surfaces based on the position of joysticks on the transmitter. The control surfaces, in turn, affect the orientation of the plane."
      },
      {
        "title": "Airplane",
        "text": "In the 1890s, Lawrence Hargrave conducted research on wing structures and developed a box kite that lifted the weight of a man. His box kite designs were widely adopted. Although he also developed a type of rotary aircraft engine, he did not create and fly a powered fixed-wing aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yokomo",
        "text": ", as a child, was interested in building model warships and aircraft but became interested in radio-control models when he witnessed people playing with radio-controlled aircraft across the Arakawa River, thus he used monthly tuition money intended for cram school to buy himself an aircraft to participate in the hobby."
      },
      {
        "title": "Avionics",
        "text": "Aircraft have means of automatically controlling flight. Autopilot was first invented by Lawrence Sperry during World War\u00a0I to fly bomber planes steady enough to hit accurate targets from 25,000 feet. When it was first adopted by the U.S.\u00a0military, a Honeywell engineer sat in the back seat with bolt cutters to disconnect the autopilot in case of emergency. Nowadays most commercial planes are equipped with aircraft flight control systems in order to reduce pilot error and workload at landing or takeoff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lucien Rouzet",
        "text": "In the military field, General Ferri\u00e9 had a major communication network built, but the transmitting stations were too heavy to be carried aboard aeroplanes. Therefore, engineers tried to minimise the weight-to-power ratio, and short-distance connections between planes and the ground became possible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camille Gutton",
        "text": "He developed the first radio link between an aeroplane and the ground, and developed a highly sensitive electrometer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aircraft Radio Corporation",
        "text": "By 1934, the company had its own airfield and airplane (a Berliner parasol monoplane, for experimentation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "Radio control\n--History.\n--Second World War.\n--Radio-controlled models.\n--Modern military and aerospace applications.\n--Industrial radio remote control.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "AMES Type 7",
        "text": "In 1935, the newly formed Tizard Committee contacted well-known radio expert Robert Watson-Watt to pass comment on claims of a German death ray device based on radio waves. For help, Watt turned to his assistant Arnold Wilkins, who performed a number of back of the envelope calculations that demonstrated the idea was infeasible. When Watt asked him what use radio might be in an air war, Wilkins recalled reading a technical manual a few years earlier that mentioned the effect of aircraft on shortwave signals. The two prepared a memo stating that the death ray was highly improbable, but they should consider developing an aircraft detection system. Hugh Dowding, at that time the Air Member for Supply and Organisation in charge of research and development, was intensely interested and demanded a practical demonstration. Watt and Wilkins quickly arranged one in the Daventry Experiment. When he saw the signals, Watt claims to have exclaimed \"Britain has become an island again!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Reginald Denny (actor)",
        "text": "He designed his \"Dennyplane\" with its signature model engine \"Dennymite,\" developed by engineer Walter Righter, in addition to the \"Denny Jr.\" which child actors would enter in model plane competitions at Mines Field, which later became Los Angeles International Airport. In 1935, Denny began developing his remote controlled \"radioplane\" for military use. In 1939, he and his partners won the first military United States Army Air Corps contract for their radio-controlled target drone, the Radioplane OQ-2. In July 1940, they formed the Radioplane Company and manufactured nearly fifteen thousand drones for the US Army during the Second World War. The company was purchased by Northrop in 1952."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chain Home",
        "text": "The letter was discussed at the first official meeting of the Tizard Committee on 28 January 1935. The utility of the concept was evident to all attending, but the question remained whether it was actually possible. Albert Rowe and Wimperis both checked the maths and it appeared to be correct. They immediately wrote back asking for a more detailed consideration. Watt and Wilkins followed up with a 14 February secret memo entitled \"Detection and Location of Aircraft by Radio Means\". In the new memo, Watson-Watt and Wilkins first considered various natural emanations from the aircraft \u2013 light, heat and radio waves from the engine ignition system \u2013 and demonstrated that these were too easy for the enemy to mask to a level that would be undetectable at reasonable ranges. They concluded that radio waves from their own transmitter would be needed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Aircraft Establishment",
        "text": "In 1930 the RAE developed the Robot Air Pilot, an autopilot that used a gyro and flight controls that functioned by compressed air."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aircraft Radio Corporation",
        "text": "An engagement with Laurence and David Rockefeller. to work on a secret military radar system, led to the Rockefeller family buying controlling interest in ARC, and their tampering with its independent status. and Litton Industries got involved. Stock values fluctuated, burning some."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aircraft Radio Corporation",
        "text": "In the 1940s, ARC radios were everywhere in U.S. military aircraft. Lewis Hull served as ARC President."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hugh Dowding",
        "text": "In July 1936 Dowding was appointed commanding officer of the newly created RAF Fighter Command, and was perhaps the one important person in Britain, and perhaps the world, who did not agree with British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin's 1932 declaration that \"The bomber will always get through\". He conceived and oversaw the development of the \"Dowding system\". This consisted of an integrated air defence system which included (i) radar (whose potential Dowding was among the first to appreciate), (ii) human observers (including the Royal Observer Corps), who filled crucial gaps in what radar was capable of detecting at the time (the early radar systems, for example, did not provide accurate information on the altitude of incoming German aircraft), (iii) raid plotting, and (iv) radio control of aircraft. The whole network was linked in many cases by dedicated telephone cables buried sufficiently deeply to provide protection against bombing. The network had its centre at RAF Bentley Priory, a converted country house on the outskirts of London. The system as a whole later became known as Ground-controlled interception (GCI)."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Robert Mills",
        "text": "Mills published \"Radio Techniques for Automatic Systems in the Air\" in the Journal of Navigation in 1960"
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aerobatics",
        "text": "In both cases, the aircraft has changed course 180 degrees and exchanges speed with altitude."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aviation communication",
        "text": "It was not until 1930 that airborne radios were reliable enough and had enough power to make them effective; and it was this year that the International Commission for Aerial Navigation agreed that all aircraft carrying 10 or more passengers should carry wireless equipment. Prior to this, only military aircraft designated for scout missions required radios. The operating distance of radios increased much slower than the distance planes were able to travel. After an original two mile range for the two-way radio systems tested by 1917 had extended to ranges of an average of 20 miles, which remained a practical limit for medium sized aircraft. In terms of air traffic control, this resulted in a plane's messages having to bounce from airfield to airfield in order to get to its intended recipient. As the speed of planes increased, this resulted in a plane reaching its destination before the message announcing its departure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aviation communication",
        "text": "In 1917, AT&T invented the first American air-to-ground radio transmitter. They tested this device at Langley Field in Virginia and found it was a viable technology. In May 1917, General George Squier of the U.S. Army Signal Corps contacted AT&T to develop an air-to-ground radio with a range of 2,000 yards. By July 4 of that same year, AT&T technicians achieved two-way communication between pilots and ground personnel. This allowed ground personnel to communicate directly with pilots using their voices instead of Morse code. Though few of these devices saw service in the war, they proved this was a viable and valuable technology worthy of refinement and advancement."
      },
      {
        "title": "C. Lorenz AG",
        "text": "After Held's death, the controlling stock became available and was eventually bought in 1930 by \"Standard Elektrizit\u00e4tsgesellschaft\", a subsidiary of the American corporation International Telephone and Telegraph (ITT); Lorenz as a firm, however, continued to operate independently. In 1932, development of a new type of radio navigation system \u2013 soon known worldwide as the Lorenz beam \u2013 gave a major extension of their aircraft radio business. Lorenz patented the ferrite antenna in 1935, and thereafter it was used in most home receivers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aviation communication",
        "text": "Following World War I new technology was developed to increase the range and performance of the radios being used to communicate with planes in the air. In December 1919 a year after the end of World War I, Hugh Trenchard, 1st Viscount Trenchard, a senior officer in the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) later Royal Air Force (RAF), produced a report on the permanent organisation and operations of the RAF in peacetime in which he argued that if the air force officer was not to be a chauffeur, and nothing more, then navigation, meteorology, photography and wireless were necessities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Singsamut School",
        "text": "- Science won the silver medal on small plane control by the radio project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "The United Kingdom's World War One development of their radio-controlled 1917 'Aerial Target' (AT) and 1918 'Distant Control Boat' (DCB) using Low's control systems led eventually to their 1930s fleet of \"Queen Bee\". This was a remotely controlled unmanned version of the de Havilland \"Tiger Moth\" aircraft for Navy fleet gunnery firing practice. The \"Queen Bee\" was superseded by the similarly named \"Queen Wasp\", a purpose-built, target aircraft of higher performance."
      },
      {
        "title": "T. Norris & Son",
        "text": "The quest for full vertical and lateral control of the plane iron had been raging for many years. Leonard Bailey in Connecticut devised a system in 1867 that was to be adopted by Stanley. Charles Nurse in London invented a plane-iron regulator (patented 1889), a device that the firm of Norris & Son experimented with on its planes before Thomas James Norris created and patented an adjustment mechanism of his own.\n* First patent"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fred T. Jane",
        "text": "In 1909, he created \"All the World's Aircraft\". Jane's firm is now Jane's Information Group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kehl-Strasbourg radio control link",
        "text": "In case of a heavy jamming attack against the radio control, the Germans used a wired remote control system. It could easily be swapped in place against the radio system. In the plane radio transmitter S203 was swapped against the audio amplifier S207. In the weapon, VHF receiver E230 was replaced by audio receiver E237. Both plane and bomb were equipped with a dual wire reel each, giving a maximum distance of 12\u00a0km. Wire remote control system was developed by Sta\u00dffurter Rundfunk GmbH"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of unmanned aerial vehicles",
        "text": "After World War I, three Standard E-1s were converted to drones. The Larynx was an early cruise missile in the form of a small monoplane aircraft that could be launched from a warship and flown under autopilot; the Royal Navy tested it between 1927 and 1929. The early successes of pilotless aircraft led to the development of radio controlled pilotless target-aircraft in Britain and the US in the 1930s. In 1931 the British developed the Fairey Queen radio-controlled target from the Fairey IIIF floatplane, building a small batch of three, and in 1935 followed up this experiment by producing larger numbers of another RC target, the \"DH.82B Queen Bee\", derived from the de Havilland Tiger Moth biplane trainer. The name of \"Queen Bee\" allegedly led to the use of the term \"drone\" for pilotless aircraft, particularly when they are radio-controlled. During this period, the U.S. Navy, continuing work that reached back to 1917, also experimented with radio-controlled aircraft. In 1936 the head of US Navy research group used the term \"DRONE\" to designate radio-controlled aerial targets. From 1929 Hungarian scientist K\u00e1lm\u00e1n Tihanyi worked on television guidance for defense applications, building prototypes of a camera for remotely-guided aircraft in London for the British Air Ministry, and later adapting it for the Italian Navy. In 1929, Tihanyi invented the first infrared-sensitive (night-vision) electronic television-camera for anti-aircraft defense in Britain. The solutions of the technology that Tihanyi depicted in his 1929 patent became so influential that American UAV-producing companies still used many of its solutions even half a century later, until the mid-1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward George Bowen",
        "text": "Installing radar in an aircraft was difficult because of the size and weight of the equipment and the aerial. Furthermore, the equipment had to operate in a vibrating and cold environment. Over the next few years Bowen and his group solved most of these problems. For example, he solved the problem of the power supply in aircraft by using an engine-driven alternator, and he encouraged Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) to produce the first radio-frequency cables with solid polythene insulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natesan Srinivasan",
        "text": "After completing his studies in the United States, he returned to an independent India and joined Hindustan Aircraft Limited, where he worked in the design department until 1954. In 1953, his expertise was sought in investigating the crash of a British Overseas Aircraft Corporation Comet aircraft, which had crashed in a severe thundersquall six minutes after taking off from Calcutta-Dum Dum airport (now Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport). In his report, he suggested that the elevator control system in the Comet operated with booster power with no feedback arrangement for pilot feel, and this may have contributed to the pilot over-controlling the aircraft. From this inquiry, two significant design changes resulted: all Comets were equipped with weather radar, and the \"Q feel\" system was introduced, which ensured that control column forces (invariably called stick forces) would be proportional to control loads. This artificial feel was the first of its kind to be introduced in any aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles Harvard Gibbs-Smith",
        "text": "Gibbs-Smith investigated the disputed subject of inventor Cl\u00e9ment Ader's 1897 aeronautical experiments. Gibbs-Smith's 1968 book on Ader thoroughly described the documented evidence that Ader did not make a controlled flight in 1897, and only claimed to have done so in 1906, after others had already flown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Cockburn (physicist)",
        "text": "In 1937 Cockburn took up a research post at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough, a part of the Air Ministry. Here he worked on the ground-to-air VHF communication system that was used to good effect by RAF Fighter Command during the Battle of Britain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Various countries have regulations and restrictions on model aircraft operations, even for non-commercial purposes, typically imposed by the national civil aviation authority."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henri G. Busignies",
        "text": "In 1928 Busignies joined ITT Corporation's Paris Laboratories, where he developed radio direction finders, airplane radio navigation devices, and early radar systems. In 1936 his equipment automatically guided an airplane from Paris to R\u00e9union island off the coast of Madagascar, in the first practical demonstration of an aircraft guidance system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radar in World War II",
        "text": "Research leading to RDF technology in the United Kingdom was begun by Sir Henry Tizard's Aeronautical Research Committee in early 1935, responding to the urgent need to counter German bomber attacks. Robert A. Watson-Watt at the Radio Research Station, Slough, was asked to investigate a radio-based \"death ray\". In response, Watson-Watt and his scientific assistant, Arnold F. Wilkins, replied that it might be more practical to use radio to detect and track enemy aircraft. On 26 February 1935, a preliminary test, commonly called the Daventry Experiment, showed that radio signals reflected from an aircraft could be detected. Research funds were quickly allocated, and a development project was started in great secrecy on the Orford Ness Peninsula in Suffolk. E. G. Bowen was responsible for developing the pulsed transmitter. On 17 June 1935, the research apparatus successfully detected an aircraft at a distance of 17 miles. In August, A. P. Rowe, representing the Tizard Committee, suggested the technology be code-named RDF, meaning Range and Direction Finding."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who invented the radio-controlled aircraft?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I was unable to find the inventor of radio-controlled aircraft, but I did find that Edward Sorensen was the first to invent radio-controlled aircraft that could fly out of sight. Previously, radio-controlled aircraft could only be operated within visual sight of the ground pilot.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I did not find the inventor, but I did find the earliest examples were hydrogen-filled model airships that were flown as a music hall act around theater auditoriums using a basic form of spark-emitted radio signal in the late 19th century."
    ],
    "topic": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "History of unmanned aerial vehicles:12",
        "passage_titles": [
          "History of unmanned aerial vehicles",
          "World War II",
          "Reginald Denny and the Radioplane"
        ],
        "ctx": "The true inventor of a radio-controlled aircraft that could fly out of sight was Edward M. Sorensen as evidenced by his US patents. His invention was the first to be able to know from a ground terminal what the airplane was doing, such as climbing, altitude, banking, direction, rpm and other instrumentation. Without these patents the early radio-controlled aircraft could only operate within visual sight of the ground pilot."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Radio-controlled aircraft:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Radio-controlled aircraft",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "The earliest examples of electronically guided model aircraft were hydrogen-filled model airships of the late 19th century. They were flown as a music hall act around theater auditoriums using a basic form of spark-emitted radio signal."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "History of unmanned aerial vehicles",
        "text": "The true inventor of a radio-controlled aircraft that could fly out of sight was Edward M. Sorensen as evidenced by his US patents. His invention was the first to be able to know from a ground terminal what the airplane was doing, such as climbing, altitude, banking, direction, rpm and other instrumentation. Without these patents the early radio-controlled aircraft could only operate within visual sight of the ground pilot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "In 1917, Archibald Low as head of the secret RFC experimental works at Feltham, was the first person to use radio control successfully on an aircraft, an \"Aerial Target\". It was \"piloted\" from the ground by future world aerial speed record holder Henry Segrave. Low's systems encoded the command transmissions as a countermeasure to prevent enemy intervention. By 1918 the secret D.C.B. Section of the Royal Navy's Signals School, Portsmouth under the command of Eric Robinson V.C. used a variant of the Aerial Target\u2019s radio control system to control from \u2018mother\u2019 aircraft different types of naval vessels including a submarine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled model",
        "text": "Radio control has been around since Nikola Tesla demonstrated a remote control boat in 1898. World War II saw increased development in radio control technology. The Luftwaffe used controllable winged bombs for targeting Allied ships. During the 1930s the Good brothers Bill and Walt pioneered vacuum tube based control units for R/C hobby use. Their \"Guff\" radio controlled plane is on display at the National Aerospace museum. Ed Lorenze published a design in Model Airplane News that was built by many hobbyists. Later, after WW2, in the late 1940s to mid 1950 many other R/C designs emerged and some were sold commercially, Berkeley's Super Aerotrol, was one such example."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "A radio-controlled aircraft (often called RC aircraft or RC plane) is a small flying machine that is controlled remotely by an operator on the ground using a hand-held radio transmitter. The transmitter communicates with a receiver within the craft that sends signals to servomechanisms (servos) which move the control surfaces based on the position of joysticks on the transmitter. The control surfaces, in turn, affect the orientation of the plane."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled model",
        "text": "In the late 1950s, RC hobbyists had mastered tricks to manage proportional control of the flight control surfaces, for example by rapidly switching on and off reed systems, a technique called \"skillful blipping\" or more humorously \"nervous proportional\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "US frequency chart available at ,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Canadian frequency chart available at"
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "The transmitter radio broadcasts using AM or FM using PPM or PCM. Each aircraft needs a way to determine which transmitter to receive communications from, so a specific channel within the frequency band is used for each aircraft (except for 2.4\u00a0GHz band, and amateur radio-only 70\u00a0cm systems; which use spread spectrum modulation, described below)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled model",
        "text": "With the electronics revolution, single-signal channel circuit design became redundant and instead, radios provided coded signal streams which a servomechanism could interpret. Each of these streams replaced two of the original 'channels', and, confusingly, the signal streams began to be called 'channels'. So an old on/off 6-channel transmitter which could drive the rudder, elevator and throttle of an aircraft was replaced with a new proportional 3-channel transmitter doing the same job. Controlling all the primary controls of a powered aircraft (rudder, elevator, ailerons and throttle) was known as 'full-house' control. A glider could be 'full-house' with only three channels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Y-Control for fighters",
        "text": "The system worked by using sites known as Y-Stations. Each station had 5 radio operation systems. Each consisted of an omnidirectional transmitter an omnidirectional receiver and a direction finder. This allowed each site to control 5 fighters. The transmitter would send out a signal which was picked up by the FuG16ZY in the fighter (known as the Y Fighter), this repeated the signal back on a frequency 1.9\u00a0MHz lower than the transmitted frequency. Using the direction finder (DF) the angle was measured. Range was calculated by a timing system connected to both the transmitter and the omnidirectional receiver. Height could not be measured. However voice could be transposed onto the ranging signal allowing the ground controller to talk and listen to the pilot of the plane he was controlling, hence the pilot could report altitude when requested to do so. Controlling a single fighter was of not much use in practice so the Luftwaffe developed group control, where a Y-Fighter was part of a group of fighters intercepting an allied bomber stream, The Y-Fighter was painted a distinctive colour and the rest of the flight simple followed him. The flight leader could also listen into the ground controller channel and hear what the ground controller was saying while also being able to talk to the flight. The Y-Fighter was never the group controller. the system was susceptible to jamming on the FuG16ZY wavelength but was at least partially usable for the rest of the war. Controllable range was approx 250\u00a0km depending on aircraft height. One source mentions that relay stations could be used to extend the radio range. The relay station would consist of a single transmitter/receiver/DF finder system without the rest of the communication and guidance systems of the main Y site. The radio system used was a modified FuG16 radio. The Y-Site also contained other systems such as radio communications for talking to area control."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "The earliest examples of electronically guided model aircraft were hydrogen-filled model airships of the late 19th century. They were flown as a music hall act around theater auditoriums using a basic form of spark-emitted radio signal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kurt Schreckling",
        "text": "His design was constructed using hand tools, and has a wooden compressor and a bent metal gas turbine. It was fitted into a radio-controlled aircraft that flew successfully. He won various prizes and wrote books about this field of research."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Full-scale aircraft designs from every era of aviation, from the \"Pioneer Era\" and World War I's start, through to the 21st century, have been modeled as radio-control scale model aircraft. Builders of RC Scale aircraft can enjoy the challenge of creating a controllable, miniature aircraft that merely \"looks\" like the full scale original in the air with no \"fine details\", such as a detailed cockpit, or seriously replicate many operable features of a selected full scale aircraft design, even down to having operable cable-connected flight control surfaces, illuminated navigation lighting on the aircraft's exterior, realistically retracting landing gear, etc. if the full-sized aircraft possessed such features as part of its design."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radioplane Company",
        "text": "Denny approached (or was approached by) Nelson Paul Whittier, grandson of California Quaker pioneer, John Greenleaf Whittier. The two formed Reginald Denny Industries in 1935 to develop a new radio controlled model, and were joined by electronics engineer Kenneth Case. For the next three years they attempted to produce a design known as the Radioplane One, or RP-1, essentially a greatly enlarged model airplane, complete with a fuselage area that included the step where a windscreen was in a real aircraft. The control system was based on a telephone dial: dial 4 for elevator down, and then 2 to stop the motion. Due to the latencies in the system, the aircraft were found to be almost uncontrollable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane",
        "text": "The autopilot equipment was already designed, but the radio control system hadn't been fully developed, so while the hangars were being built at Copiague, Sperry turned his attention to this aspect, purchasing rights to a number of patented radio-related inventions. Ultimately, though, the radio control systems were not used on the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane. Later, in 1922, the system was installed on several Verville-designed planes along with gear for the Army Air Services engineering division. These aircraft successfully hit their targets from ranges of 30, 60 and ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aerobatics",
        "text": "In both cases, the aircraft has changed course 180 degrees and exchanges speed with altitude."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "New Zealand reserved frequency bands\n*35\u00a0MHz: aircraft only\n*40\u00a0MHz: aircraft only\n*27\u00a0MHz: general use\n*29\u00a0MHz: general use\n*36\u00a0MHz: general use\n*72\u00a0MHz: general use (US 72\u00a0MHz \"even-numbered\" channels 12 through 56, at 40\u00a0kHz spacing)\n*2.400-2.4835\u00a0GHz: 13-cm UHF band"
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Amateur radio license reserved frequency bands\n*50 and 53\u00a0MHz in the US and Canada (American amateurs allowed up to one watt [30 dBm] of output power)\n*433\u2013434\u00a0MHz Formerly used low-UHF band in Germany until the end of 2008, but is still permitted in Switzerland; and is also usable within both the US and Canada, most often implemented nowadays in North America with spread spectrum RF hardware (as on 2.4\u00a0GHz)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Many radio-controlled aircraft, especially the toy class models, are designed to be flown with no movable control surfaces at all. Some model planes are designed this way because it is often cheaper and lighter to control the speed of a motor than it is to provide a moving control surface. Instead, \"rudder\" control (control over sideslip angle) is provided by differing thrust on two motors, one on each wing. Total power is controlled by increasing or decreasing the power on each motor equally. Usually, the planes only have only these two control channels (total throttle and differential throttle) with no elevator control. Turning a model with differential thrust is \"equivalent\" to and just as effective as turning a model with rudder. Lack of elevator control is sometimes problematic if the phugoid oscillation isn't well-damped leading to unmanageable \"porpoising\". See \"Toy class RC\" section."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prandtl-D",
        "text": "Initially, each aircraft was radio operated with a hobby-grade controller and launched with a bungee cord system. Later flight tests switched from a bungee launch method to a towed launch system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "In 1904, \"Bat\", a Windermere steam launch, was controlled using experimental radio control by its inventor, [Jack Kitchen]. In 1909 the French inventor Gabet demonstrated what he called his \"Torpille Radio-Automatique\"\", a radio-controlled torpedo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aerobatics",
        "text": "Radio-controlled aerobatics is the practice of flying radio-controlled aircraft in maneuvers involving aircraft attitudes that are not used in normal flight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aviation communication",
        "text": "Nonetheless, wireless communication systems in aircraft remained experimental and would take years to successfully develop a practical prototype. The early radios were heavy in weight and were unreliable; additionally, ground forces rarely used radio because signals were easily intercepted and targeted by opposing forces. At the beginning of World War I, aircraft were not typically equipped with wireless equipment. Instead, soldiers used large panel cut outs to distinguish friendly forces. These cut outs could also be used as a directional device to help pilots navigate back to friendly and familiar airfields."
      },
      {
        "title": "Remote control",
        "text": "Archibald Low was known as the \"father of radio guidance systems\" for his pioneering work on guided rockets and planes during the First World War. In 1917, he demonstrated a remote-controlled aircraft to the Royal Flying Corps and in the same year built the first wire-guided rocket. As head of the secret RFC experimental works at Feltham, A. M. Low was the first person to use radio control successfully on an aircraft, an \"Aerial Target\". It was \"piloted\" from the ground by future world aerial speed record holder Henry Segrave. Low's systems encoded the command transmissions as a countermeasure to prevent enemy intervention. By 1918 the secret D.C.B. Section of the Royal Navy's Signals School, Portsmouth under the command of Eric Robinson V.C. used a variant of the Aerial Target\u2019s radio control system to control from \u2018mother\u2019 aircraft different types of naval vessels including a submarine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Sports planes are planes capable of performing aerobatic maneuvers involving aircraft attitudes that are not used in normal flight. Typical aerobatic maneuvers include inside loop, outside loop, Immelmann turn, inverted flight, stall turn, slow roll and Cuban 8."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Various countries have regulations and restrictions on model aircraft operations, even for non-commercial purposes, typically imposed by the national civil aviation authority."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aerobatics",
        "text": "Therefore, if the aircraft starts in a normal, upright flight position, then an outside loop will be performed by inputting down elevator and progressing down below the original line of flight before executing a circular path to return to the original position. This is sometimes referred to as a 'bunt'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Many countries reserve specific frequency bands (ranges) for radio-control use. Due to the longer range and potentially worse consequences of radio interference, model aircraft have exclusive use of their own frequency allocation in some countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "There are many types of radio-controlled aircraft. For beginning hobbyists, there are park flyers and trainers. For more experienced pilots there are glow plug engine, electric powered and sailplane aircraft. For expert flyers, jets, pylon racers, helicopters, autogyros, 3D aircraft, and other high-end competition aircraft provide adequate challenge. Some models are made to look and operate like a bird instead. Replicating historic and little known types and makes of full-size aircraft as \"flying scale\" models, which are also possible with control line and free flight types of model aircraft, actually reach their maximum realism and behavior when built for radio-control flying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kehl-Strasbourg radio control link",
        "text": "In case of a heavy jamming attack against the radio control, the Germans used a wired remote control system. It could easily be swapped in place against the radio system. In the plane radio transmitter S203 was swapped against the audio amplifier S207. In the weapon, VHF receiver E230 was replaced by audio receiver E237. Both plane and bomb were equipped with a dual wire reel each, giving a maximum distance of 12\u00a0km. Wire remote control system was developed by Sta\u00dffurter Rundfunk GmbH"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane",
        "text": "Before World War I, the possibility of using radio to control aircraft intrigued many inventors. One of these, Elmer Sperry, succeeded in arousing the US Navy's interest. Sperry had been perfecting gyroscopes for naval use since 1896 and established the Sperry Gyroscope Company in 1910. In 1911, airplanes had only been flying for eight years, and yet Sperry became intrigued with the concept of applying radio control to them. He realized that for radio control to be effective, automatic stabilization would be essential, so he decided to adapt his naval gyro-stabilizers (which he had developed for destroyers)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "European reserved VHF & UHF frequency bands\n*35\u00a0MHz: aircraft only.\n*40\u00a0MHz: surface vehicles or aircraft.\n*27\u00a0MHz: general use, toys, citizens band radio.\n*2.4\u00a0GHz 13-cm UHF band spread spectrum: surface vehicles, boats and aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled model",
        "text": "Radio-controlled aircraft (also called RC aircraft) are small aircraft that can be controlled remotely. There are many different types, ranging from small park flyers to large jets and mid-sized aerobatic models."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burgess Model I",
        "text": "When he resumed flying activity in the fall of 1914, Dargue began testing a small radio transmitter-receiver built by a local unit, and was damaged again in October experimenting with antenna location. Ultimately a wire antenna was paid out behind the aircraft in flight from a reel. Further problems of engine noise, ignition interference, burnout of the signal detector by proximity of the transmitter, and loss of calibration from engine vibration were all overcome. On December 1, 1914, Dargue and 1st Lt. Joseph O. Mauborgne, the Signal Corps officer in charge of the Fort Mills radio station, began a series seven test flights of the radio. During the third, on December 11, the first two-way telegraphy communication with the ground was performed, at a range of for communication with the ground and for the return signal to the airplane, flying at an altitude of , the first radio signal received by an airplane. On the last flight, December 16, using a switch designed to alternate between receiving and transmitting modes, Mauborgne conducted the first airborne \"conversation\" with the ground."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Several materials are commonly used for construction of the airframe of model radio-controlled aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "During World War I American inventor John Hays Hammond, Jr. developed many techniques used in subsequent radio control including developing remote controlled torpedoes, ships, anti-jamming systems and even a system allowing his remote-controlled ship targeting an enemy ship's searchlights. In 1922 he installed radio control gear on the obsolete US Navy battleship USS \"Iowa\" so it could be used as a target ship (sunk in gunnery exercise in March 1923)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aerobatics",
        "text": "An aircraft is in inverted flight when it has rotated 180 degrees about its longitudinal axis, so that its cockpit and tail fin are pointing at the ground."
      },
      {
        "title": "Y-Control for fighters",
        "text": "By late 1943 the Luftwaffe was facing multiple problems in navigation and control of its assets in the European airspace. Allied jamming of existing VHF voice radio links and MF navigation beacons was becoming extremely effective, At the same time training of pilots was being curtailed by the lack of fuel. This resulted in fighter formations being unable to find the allied bombers and frequently getting lost. Work was then carried out with regards to solving these issues. Part of the research resulted in the radio systems such a Hermine and Bernhard. However a simpler system that could be rolled out faster and was usable by minimum hour pilots in single seat fighters was also developed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robot",
        "text": "In 1903, the Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo demonstrated a radio control system called \"Telekino\", which he wanted to use to control an airship of his own design. Unlike the previous systems, which carried out actions of the 'on/off' type, Torres device was able to memorize the signals received to execute the operations on its own and could carry out to 19 different orders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "The earliest model radio-controlled aircraft were constructed of wood covered with paper. Later, plastic film such as Monokote came to be widely used as a covering material. Wood has relatively low cost, high specific Young's modulus (stiffness per unit weight), good workability and strength, and can be assembled with adhesives of various types. Light-weight strong varieties such as balsa wood are preferred; basswood, pine and spruce are also used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Detailed information, including cautions for transmitting on some of the 'general use' frequencies, can be found on the NZMAA website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "The United Kingdom's World War One development of their radio-controlled 1917 'Aerial Target' (AT) and 1918 'Distant Control Boat' (DCB) using Low's control systems led eventually to their 1930s fleet of \"Queen Bee\". This was a remotely controlled unmanned version of the de Havilland \"Tiger Moth\" aircraft for Navy fleet gunnery firing practice. The \"Queen Bee\" was superseded by the similarly named \"Queen Wasp\", a purpose-built, target aircraft of higher performance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled glider",
        "text": "\"Note\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Radio-controlled aircraft\n--History.\n--Types.\n----Radio-control scale aircraft modeling.\n----Sailplanes and gliders.\n----Jets.\n----Sports planes.\n----3D planes.\n----Pylon racers.\n----Park flyers and micro planes.\n----Helicopters.\n----Flying bird models, or ornithopters.\n----Toy-class RC.\n--Video piloting (first-person view or FPV).\n--Types of kits and construction.\n----Ready-to-Fly (RTF).\n----Almost Ready-to-Fly (ARF).\n----Bind-N-Fly (BNF).\n----Plug-N-Play (PNP).\n----Wood Kit.\n----From plans or scratch.\n--Airframe materials.\n--Plane characteristics.\n----Number of channels.\n------Basic flight controls.\n------Extra flight control functionality.\n----Turning.\n----V-tail systems.\n--Powerplants.\n--Transmitting and Receiving Frequencies.\n----Frequency.\n------Reserved frequencies.\n----Channels and frequency control.\n--Military usage.\n--Regulations on use.\n----United States.\n------Federal Aviation Administration.\n------Federal Communications Commission.\n------National Park Service.\n------State and Local Governments.\n------Academy of Model Aeronautics.\n----Australia.\n----India.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Luftwaffe radio equipment of World War II",
        "text": "Hermine: This system was a VHF radio beacon. Originally developed in 1942 due to problems the design was suspended. When in 1944 the existing radio navigation systems were either being jammed or under physical attack the design was revisited. It consisted of a rotating radio beacon transmitting at 30 -33\u00a0MHz. The signal consisted of a tone and a robot voice using FM. The robot voice was encoded onto an optical disk. The voice spoke a number between 1 and 35, corresponding to 10 degrees of angle from the beacon. The pilot listened to the signal, when the tone disappeared the next number corresponded to the angle from the beacon. It was expected that this would give an angular resolution of about 5 degrees but when tested it was found that some pilots could estimate to within 3 degrees. The receiver was a modified EBL 3 which had had its bandwidth increased and fitted with an FM interface board. This board also connected to the pilots audio via the Fug16 to send the audio information to the pilot. In single-seater aircraft the radio fit was numbered FuG 125. The beacon identifier was transmitted instead of the number 0. This allowed a pilot to select a particular beacon. Between 10 -20 beacons were commissioned by May 1945. 30 channels were available with 2 more being reserved for airfield ILS. Beacons were usually placed 20\u00a0km from a runway, The pilot would over fly the beacon and then circle until he acquired the ILS landing beam on the FuBL 2 equipment. Ground units were BS 15 navigation radio beacons constructed from rebuilt FuG 15 sets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "During World War II, the U.S. Army and Navy used radio controlled planes called Radioplanes as artillery target drones."
      },
      {
        "title": "British European Airways Flight 530",
        "text": "The radio range system had recently been calibrated twice and the commission found nothing wrong with the navigational aids. On the other hand, the aircraft's equipment had been turned to compass instead of antenna. This would have made the beam north of the cone of silence twenty degrees wide instead of four. Although not decisive, it was cited as giving the pilot a disadvantage in navigation. The aircraft's radio range equipment also lacked a marker beacon receiver, due to lack of sufficient parts. This forced the pilots to manually calculate the distance to the beacon. The crew carried out the procedural turn in the right area, but should, according to their route instruction book, have been at no lower an altitude than , thus the aircraft was too low, caused by the let-down being started too early."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "When an airplane is in a small to moderate bank (roll angle) a small amount of 'back pressure' is required to maintain height. This is required because the lift vector, which would be pointing vertically upwards in level flight, is now angled inwards so some of the lift is turning the aircraft. A higher overall amount of lift is required so that the vertical component remains sufficient for a level turn."
      },
      {
        "title": "First-person view (radio control)",
        "text": "First-person view (radio control)\n--Airborne FPV.\n----Equipment.\n----Aircraft types.\n------Fixed wing.\n------Multi-rotor.\n----Radio frequencies.\n--Regulations and safety.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n------Federal Aviation Administration.\n------Federal Communications Commission.\n------National Park Service.\n------State and Local Governments.\n------Academy of Model Aeronautics.\n----Canada.\n----Australia.\n--FPV ground vehicles.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Forward air control",
        "text": "As close air support began during World War I, there were pioneer attempts to direct the trench strafing by the ground troops marking their positions by laying out signal panels on the ground, firing flares, or lighting smoke signals. Aircrews had difficulty communicating with the ground troops; they would drop messages or use messenger pigeons. Benno Fiala von Fernbrugg, an Austro-Hungarian pilot, pioneered the use of radio for fire control; at the Battle of Gorlice he used a radio transmitter in his airplane to send changes via morse code to an artillery battery on the ground. Colonel Billy Mitchell also equipped his Spad XVI command airplane with a radio, and the Germans experimented with radios in their Junkers J.I all-metal-structure, armored-fuselage sesquiplanes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "Radio control\n--History.\n--Second World War.\n--Radio-controlled models.\n--Modern military and aerospace applications.\n--Industrial radio remote control.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane",
        "text": "During the early post-war years, the Navy sponsored similar projects. For the first program, Witteman-Lewis aircraft and Norden-designed gyrostabilizers were used, but the results were no better than those achieved by the Sperrys. In 1921, the program was reoriented to focus on the radio control aspect. The control equipment was developed at the radio laboratory at NAS Anacostia (later the Naval Research Laboratory). In 1923, tests began, and were relatively successful, but interest waned and the project lapsed in 1925. Over a decade was to pass before the Navy seriously undertook the development of target drones and pilotless aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aviation communication",
        "text": "It was not until 1930 that airborne radios were reliable enough and had enough power to make them effective; and it was this year that the International Commission for Aerial Navigation agreed that all aircraft carrying 10 or more passengers should carry wireless equipment. Prior to this, only military aircraft designated for scout missions required radios. The operating distance of radios increased much slower than the distance planes were able to travel. After an original two mile range for the two-way radio systems tested by 1917 had extended to ranges of an average of 20 miles, which remained a practical limit for medium sized aircraft. In terms of air traffic control, this resulted in a plane's messages having to bounce from airfield to airfield in order to get to its intended recipient. As the speed of planes increased, this resulted in a plane reaching its destination before the message announcing its departure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Question Mark (aircraft)",
        "text": "Because of weight considerations and the unreliability of radios, none was installed in the \"Question Mark\". All communications between the aircraft or between \"Question Mark\" and the ground had to be accomplished using flags, flares, flashlights, weighted message bags, notes tied to the supply lines, or messages written in chalk on the fuselages of PW-9D fighters, painted black and nicknamed \"blackboard planes\". (One such message written on the side of a 95th Pursuit Squadron is externally linked below.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Flying models have to be designed according to the same principles as full-sized aircraft, and therefore their construction can be very different from most static models. RC planes often borrow construction techniques from vintage full-sized aircraft (although they rarely use metal structures)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "United Kingdom reserved frequency bands\n*458.5\u2013459.5\u00a0MHz: low-UHF band for surface vehicles or aircraft. (Non-Ham-frequencies 70-cm amateur band in the UK covers 430-440\u00a0MHz)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Within the 35\u00a0MHz range, there are designated A and B bands. Some European countries allow use only in the A band, whereas others allow use in both bands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kinjiro Okabe",
        "text": "Okabe developed an experimental apparatus using a VHF transmitter and receiver with Yagi-Uda antennas separated some distance. In 1936, he successfully detected a passing aircraft by the Doppler-interference method; this was the first recorded demonstration in Japan of aircraft detection by radio. With this success, Okabe's research interest switched from magnetrons to VHF equipment for target detection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward George Bowen",
        "text": "Installing radar in an aircraft was difficult because of the size and weight of the equipment and the aerial. Furthermore, the equipment had to operate in a vibrating and cold environment. Over the next few years Bowen and his group solved most of these problems. For example, he solved the problem of the power supply in aircraft by using an engine-driven alternator, and he encouraged Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) to produce the first radio-frequency cables with solid polythene insulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Remote control",
        "text": "Wired and wireless remote control was developed in the latter half of the 19th century to meet the need to control unmanned vehicles (for the most part military torpedoes). These included a wired version by German engineer Werner von Siemens in 1870, and radio controled ones by British engineer Ernest Wilson and C. J. Evans (1897) and a prototype that inventor Nikola Tesla demonstrated in New York in 1898. In 1903 Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo demonstrated a radio controlled boat using a system called \"Telekino\", which he hoped to use to control a dirigible airship of his own design. The first remote-controlled model airplane flew in 1932, and the use of remote control technology for military purposes was worked on intensively during the Second World War, one result of this being the German Wasserfall missile."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Singapore reserved frequency bands\n*72\u00a0MHz: aircraft only\n*2.4\u00a0GHz: 13-cm UHF band aircraft only"
      },
      {
        "title": "Unmanned aerial vehicle",
        "text": "The Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo introduced a radio-based control-system called the \"Telekino\" at the Paris Academy of Science in 1903 with the intention of testing an airship of his own design without risking human lives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Watson-Watt",
        "text": "On 12 February 1935, Watson-Watt sent the secret memo of the proposed system to the Air Ministry, \"Detection and location of aircraft by radio methods\". Although not as exciting as a death-ray, the concept clearly had potential, but the Air Ministry, before giving funding, asked for a demonstration proving that radio waves could be reflected by an aircraft. This was ready by 26 February and consisted of two receiving antennae located about away from one of the BBC's shortwave broadcast stations at Daventry. The two antennae were phased such that signals travelling directly from the station cancelled themselves out, but signals arriving from other angles were admitted, thereby deflecting the trace on a CRT indicator (passive radar). Such was the secrecy of this test that only three people witnessed it: Watson-Watt, his colleague Arnold Wilkins, and a single member of the committee, A. P. Rowe. The demonstration was a success: on several occasions, the receiver showed a clear return signal from a Handley Page Heyford bomber flown around the site. Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin was kept quietly informed of radar progress. On 2 April 1935, Watson-Watt received a patent on a radio device for detecting and locating an aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Bind-N-Fly (BNF) aircraft are similar to Ready to fly aircraft, except they do not come with a transmitter. Because they do not come with a transmitter, they must be bound to one instead. This is desirable for flyers that already own a transmitter. Like RTF aircraft, Bind-N-Fly models require minimal assembly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radar",
        "text": "In 1935, Watson-Watt was asked to judge recent reports of a German radio-based death ray and turned the request over to Wilkins. Wilkins returned a set of calculations demonstrating the system was basically impossible. When Watson-Watt then asked what such a system might do, Wilkins recalled the earlier report about aircraft causing radio interference. This revelation led to the Daventry Experiment of 26 February 1935, using a powerful BBC shortwave transmitter as the source and their GPO receiver setup in a field while a bomber flew around the site. When the plane was clearly detected, Hugh Dowding, the Air Member for Supply and Research was very impressed with their system's potential and funds were immediately provided for further operational development. Watson-Watt's team patented the device in GB593017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vickers Wild Goose",
        "text": "By 1949 he was ready to build a large-scale radio-controlled flying model."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Three channels (controlling rudder or (rarely) ailerons, along with the elevator and throttle) are common on trainer aircraft. Four channel aircraft, as mentioned above, have controls for elevator, rudder, throttle, and ailerons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "A three channel RC plane will typically have an elevator and a throttle control, and either an aileron or rudder control but not both."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Some .049 glow models use two controls: elevator and rudder with no throttle control. The plane is flown until it runs out of fuel then lands in the fashion of a glider."
      },
      {
        "title": "British Aerospace Nimrod AEW3",
        "text": "To fulfill the planned requirements for a new AEW aircraft, the government had a number of factors to consider:\n*The Frequency Modulated Interrupted Continuous Wave (FMICW) radar initially proposed for the P.139 and intended for the RAF's new aircraft would not operate effectively near propellors, meaning a jet aircraft would be needed.\n*The size of antennas needed for the required scanning range, together with the fairly large mission crew, meant that a large aircraft was required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward George Bowen",
        "text": "A Committee for the Scientific Study of Air Defence had been established under the chairmanship of Henry Tizard. Before the first meeting of that committee in early 1935, the Government asked Watson-Watt whether an intense beam of radio waves, a \"death ray\", could bring down an aircraft. Watson-Watt reported that a \"death ray\" was impracticable, but suggested that radio waves might be used to detect, rather than destroy, enemy aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radioplane OQ-2",
        "text": "The OQ-2 was originally a small radio controlled aircraft model designed by Walter Righter. The design, along with its engine design, was purchased by actor Reginald Denny, who had demonstrated another model to the US Army in 1940. Calling the new design the RP-2, he demonstrated several updated versions to the Army as the RP-2, RP-3 and RP-4 in 1939."
      },
      {
        "title": "Avionics",
        "text": "Radio communication was first used in aircraft just prior to World War I. The first airborne radios were in zeppelins, but the military sparked development of light radio sets that could be carried by heavier-than-air craft, so that aerial reconnaissance biplanes could report their observations immediately in case they were shot down. The first experimental radio transmission from an airplane was conducted by the US Navy in August 1910. The first aircraft radios transmitted by radiotelegraphy, so they required two-seat aircraft with a second crewman to tap on a telegraph key to spell out messages by Morse code. During World War I, AM voice two way radio sets were made possible in 1917 by the development of the triode vacuum tube, which were simple enough that the pilot in a single seat aircraft could use it while flying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "There are certain conditions for using the frequency band in which the aircraft will operate. You require to be eligible for that grade. For instance, the only requirement in that is your name will be scripted. If you have to make your own aircraft, then license is required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electro-hydraulic actuator",
        "text": "Aircraft were originally controlled by small aerodynamic surfaces operated by cables, attached to levers that magnified the pilot's input, using mechanical advantage. As aircraft grew in size and performance, the aerodynamic forces on these surfaces grew to the point where it was no longer possible for the pilot to manually control them across a wide range of speeds - controls with enough advantage to control the aircraft at high speed left the aircraft with significant overcontrol at lower speeds when the aerodynamic forces were reduced. Numerous aircraft in the early stages of World War II suffered from these problems, notably the Mitsubishi Zero and P-38 Lightning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "Radio control systems of this era were generally electromechanical in nature, using small metal \"fingers\" or \"reeds\" with different resonant frequencies each of which would operate one of a number of different relays when a particular frequency was received. The relays would in turn then activate various actuators acting on the control surfaces of the missile. The controller's radio transmitter would transmit the different frequencies in response to the movements of a control stick; these were typically on/off signals. The radio gear used to control the rudder function on the American-developed Azon guided ordnance, however, was a fully proportional control, with the \"ailerons\", solely under the control of an on-board gyroscope, serving merely to keep the ordnance from rolling."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Cunningham (RAF officer)",
        "text": "Cunningham was allowed back onto operations. He was given command of No. 85 Squadron RAF, equipped with the de Havilland Mosquito NF.II based at Hunsdon. He selected Jimmy Rawnsley as his operator. The radar set displayed the entire picture. A small cathode-ray tube set on the left side of the instrument panel gave Cunningham a composite image. The duo decided Rawnsley should control the interception in the initial stages until they reached a point where the enemy could take evasive action. Then Cunningham would take over while Rawnsley would call out the ranges and free the pilot from looking at his ray-tube."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled model",
        "text": "Radio-controlled model\n--History.\n--Design.\n--Mass production.\n----Hobby grade RC.\n--Types.\n----Aircraft.\n----Tanks.\n----Cars.\n----Logistic.\n----Helicopters.\n----Boats.\n----Submarines.\n----Combat robotics.\n--Power.\n----Internal combustion.\n----Electrical.\n--Controlling methods.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Luftwaffe radio equipment of World War II",
        "text": "Knickebein: Development started on this system in 1934 based on work done by Lorenz. The initial work was to develop their ILS system but further work investigated how far a beam of this frequency could be used to guide an aircraft. It was found that by using a combination of a large antenna, a powerful transmitter and maximum elevation of the antenna that ranger far in excess of those expected could be achieved. (probably being caused by ducting, a little understood propagation mode at the time). With an antenna at 1000m above sea level and an aircraft flying at 3000m ranges of 400\u00a0km could be achieved. Aircraft equipment was the EBL3 receiver. Frequency range 30 - 34\u00a0MHz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled glider",
        "text": "More ambitious modellers are experimenting with more recent jet fighters such as the F-16, F-15, MiG-29 and Su-27."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "A Plug-N-Play (PNP) electric RC airplane has the motor, ESC and servos installed but is missing the transmitter, receiver, and motor battery pack (& charger). In other words, the airplane comes 99% assembled just like an RTF one does, but you need to supply your own transmitter, receiver, and battery pack. Plug-N-Play radio control planes are the perfect answer for aeromodellers who want to buy and fly more than one RTF RC plane, but don't want to have a separate transmitter for each one."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "All this results in an extreme racing class, where R&D, trial and error, science, and piloting skills meet to create a very fast and exciting sport."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward George Bowen",
        "text": "The first detection of an aircraft was made on 17 June 1935 at a range of 17 miles. By early 1936 after many improvements, aircraft were being detected at ranges of up to 100 miles. This caused work to be started on a chain of radar stations (Chain Home or CH), initially just covering the approaches to London. The team at Orfordness was enlarged as a result, and in March 1936 a new headquarters was acquired at Bawdsey Manor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aerobatics",
        "text": "When in inverted flight, elevator and rudder inputs are reversed while aileron and throttle input remains the same."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harold E. Comstock",
        "text": "Because of the need to manufacture combat aircraft quickly and the close proximity to the Republic Aviation factory, active duty pilots were used for some of the test flights of the new P-47. On 13 November 1942, Lieutenants Comstock and Dyar were ordered to test a new type of radio antenna on the P-47C. Lt. Comstock climbed to an indicated altitude of 49,600 feet (15,118 meters) while trying to reach 50,000 feet. Due to poor response from the controls, he decided to let the aircraft fall off rather than risk a spin. He started to dive straight down and after passing below 40,000 feet he found that his controls had frozen. Comstock then felt a bump and was unable to move the controls as the aircraft continued to dive. Even with maximum exertion, he was unable to move the control stick so he started to roll the trim tab back and after passing below 30,000 feet, the aircraft started to pull out of the dive and he recovered between 20,000 and 25,000 feet. Lt. Dyar started his dive and encountered the same conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled model",
        "text": "The first general use of radio control systems in models started in the late 1940s with single-channel self-built equipment; commercial equipment came soon thereafter. Initially remote control systems used escapement, (often rubber driven) mechanical actuation in the model. Commercial sets often used ground standing transmitters, long whip antennas with separate ground poles and single vacuum tube receivers. The first kits had dual tubes for more selectivity. Such early systems were invariably super regenerative circuits, which meant that two controllers used in close proximity would interfere with one another. The requirement for heavy batteries to drive tubes also meant that model boat systems were more successful than model aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "China reserved frequency bands\n*1.4\u00a0GHz: general use\n*2.4\u00a0GHz: 13-cm UHF band general use\n*5.8\u00a0GHz: general use\n*433\u00a0MHz: for amateur radio licensees only"
      },
      {
        "title": "Post-war aviation",
        "text": "New radio location systems provided navigation information which could be used to control an autopilot pre-set to fly a specific course rather than to simply maintain the present altitude and heading. Radio communications became more sophisticated, in large part to cope with increasing use as the skies became increasingly crowded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lucien Rouzet",
        "text": "In the military field, General Ferri\u00e9 had a major communication network built, but the transmitting stations were too heavy to be carried aboard aeroplanes. Therefore, engineers tried to minimise the weight-to-power ratio, and short-distance connections between planes and the ground became possible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "In the United States, radio-controlled model aircraft and unmanned aircraft generally may be subject to regulation by the following entities:"
      },
      {
        "title": "US signals intelligence in the Cold War",
        "text": "While there were remote-controlled aircraft in World War II, the technology of the time was inadequate for reliable operation as demonstrated by Operation Aphrodite. This began to change in 1948, when Ryan won the U.S. Air Force competition for the Q-2 jet-propelled aerial target. Known as the Q-2A Firebee, the jet-propelled target drone ground-launched by rocket and recovered by parachute was also bought by the Navy and Army."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radioplane OQ-2",
        "text": "This article contains material that originally came from the web article \"Unmanned Aerial Vehicles\" by Greg Goebel, which exists in the Public Domain."
      },
      {
        "title": "William F. Milliken Jr.",
        "text": "As head of Flight Research at Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory (CAL) he initiated a program for measuring aircraft dynamics in flight using automatic control techniques, accomplishing the first frequency response measurements. Also, as co-inventor of the variable stability aircraft (circa 1948) he was involved in pioneering stability augmentation and modern electrohydraulic flight control systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Halberstadt D.II",
        "text": "In late 1916, the Halberstadt D.II was the first known aeroplane for an official trial, with a special unit named the \"FT-Versuchsabteilung\" (Radio Telegraphy Experimental Detachment), with the \"FT\" possibly meaning \"Funk-Telegraphie\", of air communications using radio communications (via Morse Code) in directing fighter aircraft. \"IdFlieg\" sanctioned the test, which resulted in the creation of a radio-telegraphy transceiver for the flight leader's aircraft, weighing 25\u201330\u00a0kg (55\u201360\u00a0lb) along with the battery, aircraft engine-driven generator and aerials. Receiving gear for the other aircraft in a combat formation was similarly devised, with the radio receiver weighing 12.5\u201315\u00a0kg (27.5\u201333\u00a0lb). By early 1917, the \"FT-Versuchsabteilung\" was making combat trials with the radio gear with Halberstadt D.III and D.V aircraft and by late September 1917 with the famous \"Jagdgeschwader\" I unit commanded by Manfred von Richthofen, especially \"Jasta\" 4. Later trials using the more advanced Albatros D.III and Albatros D.Va fighters used the gear for the first attempts at an air-based version of ground-controlled interception of Allied bomber aircraft, using visual ground spotters as the ground component by the home defence \"Kampfeinsitzerstaffel\" units."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honeywell Aerospace",
        "text": "During World War II, the invention of the Norden bombsight allowed bomber planes to hit precision targets from high altitudes, but at 25,000 feet a single degree of oscillation in the plane's flight course threw a bomb 400 feet off its target. The Flight Control Equipment system commonly known as \"auto-pilot\" was initially invented by Sperry (now part of Honeywell Aerospace) so World War II bomber planes could fly steady enough to hit precise targets from high altitudes. The first Honeywell C-1 autopilot installation was on a B-17 in 1942."
      },
      {
        "title": "British unmanned aerial vehicles of World War I",
        "text": "The Royal Navy also continued to develop their remote radio control assets. The pre-dreadnought battleship HMS \"Agamemnon\" was converted into a remote control target ship in 1920."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled model",
        "text": "The aircraft use many different methods of propulsion, ranging from brushed or brushless electric motors, to internal combustion engines, to the most expensive gas turbines. The fastest aircraft, dynamic slope soarers, can reach speeds of over by dynamic soaring, repeatedly circling through the gradient of wind speeds over a ridge or slope. Newer jets can achieve above in a short distance."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Randall (physicist)",
        "text": "When the war began in 1939, Oliphant was approached by the Admiralty about the possibility of building a radio source that operated at microwave frequencies. Such a system would allow a radar using it to see small objects like the periscopes of submerged U-boats. The Air Ministry radar researchers at Bawdsey Manor had also expressed an interest in a 10\u00a0cm system, as this would greatly reduce the size of the transmission antennas, making them much easier to fit in the nose of aircraft, as opposed to being mounted on the wings and fuselage as in their current systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of radio-controlled model aircraft kit manufacturers",
        "text": "List of radio-controlled model aircraft kit manufacturers\n--Historical RC plane manufacturers.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reginald Victor Jones",
        "text": "At Jones's urging, Winston Churchill ordered up an RAF search aircraft on the night of 21 June 1940, and the aircraft found the \"Knickebein\" radio signals in the frequency range which Jones had predicted. With this knowledge, the British were able to build jammers whose effect was to \"bend\" the \"Knickebein\" beams so that German bombers spent months scattering their bomb loads over the British countryside."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who invented the radio-controlled aircraft?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I was unable to find the inventor of radio-controlled aircraft, but I did find that Edward Sorensen was the first to invent radio-controlled aircraft that could fly out of sight. Previously, radio-controlled aircraft could only be operated within visual sight of the ground pilot."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the radio controlled aircraft that Edward Sorensen invented."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Edward M. Sorensen's invention was the first to be able to know from a ground terminal what the airplane was doing, such as climbing, altitude, banking, direction, rpm and other instrumentation. Without these patents the early radio-controlled aircraft could only operate within visual sight of the ground pilot.",
      "His invention was the first to be able to know from a ground terminal what the airplane was doing, such as climbing, altitude, banking, direction, rpm and other instrumentation and without these patents the early radio-controlled aircraft could only operate within visual sight of the ground pilot."
    ],
    "topic": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "History of unmanned aerial vehicles:12",
        "passage_titles": [
          "History of unmanned aerial vehicles",
          "World War II",
          "Reginald Denny and the Radioplane"
        ],
        "ctx": "The true inventor of a radio-controlled aircraft that could fly out of sight was Edward M. Sorensen as evidenced by his US patents. His invention was the first to be able to know from a ground terminal what the airplane was doing, such as climbing, altitude, banking, direction, rpm and other instrumentation. Without these patents the early radio-controlled aircraft could only operate within visual sight of the ground pilot."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "History of unmanned aerial vehicles:12",
        "passage_titles": [
          "History of unmanned aerial vehicles",
          "World War II",
          "Reginald Denny and the Radioplane"
        ],
        "ctx": "The true inventor of a radio-controlled aircraft that could fly out of sight was Edward M. Sorensen as evidenced by his US patents. His invention was the first to be able to know from a ground terminal what the airplane was doing, such as climbing, altitude, banking, direction, rpm and other instrumentation. Without these patents the early radio-controlled aircraft could only operate within visual sight of the ground pilot."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "History of unmanned aerial vehicles",
        "text": "The true inventor of a radio-controlled aircraft that could fly out of sight was Edward M. Sorensen as evidenced by his US patents. His invention was the first to be able to know from a ground terminal what the airplane was doing, such as climbing, altitude, banking, direction, rpm and other instrumentation. Without these patents the early radio-controlled aircraft could only operate within visual sight of the ground pilot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled model",
        "text": "Radio control has been around since Nikola Tesla demonstrated a remote control boat in 1898. World War II saw increased development in radio control technology. The Luftwaffe used controllable winged bombs for targeting Allied ships. During the 1930s the Good brothers Bill and Walt pioneered vacuum tube based control units for R/C hobby use. Their \"Guff\" radio controlled plane is on display at the National Aerospace museum. Ed Lorenze published a design in Model Airplane News that was built by many hobbyists. Later, after WW2, in the late 1940s to mid 1950 many other R/C designs emerged and some were sold commercially, Berkeley's Super Aerotrol, was one such example."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "In 1917, Archibald Low as head of the secret RFC experimental works at Feltham, was the first person to use radio control successfully on an aircraft, an \"Aerial Target\". It was \"piloted\" from the ground by future world aerial speed record holder Henry Segrave. Low's systems encoded the command transmissions as a countermeasure to prevent enemy intervention. By 1918 the secret D.C.B. Section of the Royal Navy's Signals School, Portsmouth under the command of Eric Robinson V.C. used a variant of the Aerial Target\u2019s radio control system to control from \u2018mother\u2019 aircraft different types of naval vessels including a submarine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Assen Jordanoff",
        "text": "Aside from his many patents on plane design, Jordanoff also introduced the so-called \"Jordaphone\" from his Electronics company, a wireless telephone, with an answering function and amplifier and intercom functions. It was the first of its kind, and preceded the modern inventions of the answering machine and tape recorder by 5 to 30 years. Another invention was the \"Frozen Gasoline System\" for airplanes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radioplane Company",
        "text": "Denny approached (or was approached by) Nelson Paul Whittier, grandson of California Quaker pioneer, John Greenleaf Whittier. The two formed Reginald Denny Industries in 1935 to develop a new radio controlled model, and were joined by electronics engineer Kenneth Case. For the next three years they attempted to produce a design known as the Radioplane One, or RP-1, essentially a greatly enlarged model airplane, complete with a fuselage area that included the step where a windscreen was in a real aircraft. The control system was based on a telephone dial: dial 4 for elevator down, and then 2 to stop the motion. Due to the latencies in the system, the aircraft were found to be almost uncontrollable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane",
        "text": "The autopilot equipment was already designed, but the radio control system hadn't been fully developed, so while the hangars were being built at Copiague, Sperry turned his attention to this aspect, purchasing rights to a number of patented radio-related inventions. Ultimately, though, the radio control systems were not used on the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane. Later, in 1922, the system was installed on several Verville-designed planes along with gear for the Army Air Services engineering division. These aircraft successfully hit their targets from ranges of 30, 60 and ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kurt Schreckling",
        "text": "His design was constructed using hand tools, and has a wooden compressor and a bent metal gas turbine. It was fitted into a radio-controlled aircraft that flew successfully. He won various prizes and wrote books about this field of research."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harry Grindell Matthews",
        "text": "In 1911 Matthews said he had invented an Aerophone device, a radiotelephone, and transmitted messages between a ground station and an aeroplane from a distance of two miles. His experiments attracted government attention and on 4 July 1912 he visited Buckingham Palace. However, when the British Admiralty requested a demonstration of the Aerophone, Matthews demanded that no experts be present at the scene. When four of the observers dismantled part of the apparatus before the demonstration began and took notes, Matthews cancelled the demonstration and drove observers away."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane",
        "text": "Before World War I, the possibility of using radio to control aircraft intrigued many inventors. One of these, Elmer Sperry, succeeded in arousing the US Navy's interest. Sperry had been perfecting gyroscopes for naval use since 1896 and established the Sperry Gyroscope Company in 1910. In 1911, airplanes had only been flying for eight years, and yet Sperry became intrigued with the concept of applying radio control to them. He realized that for radio control to be effective, automatic stabilization would be essential, so he decided to adapt his naval gyro-stabilizers (which he had developed for destroyers)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robot",
        "text": "In 1903, the Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo demonstrated a radio control system called \"Telekino\", which he wanted to use to control an airship of his own design. Unlike the previous systems, which carried out actions of the 'on/off' type, Torres device was able to memorize the signals received to execute the operations on its own and could carry out to 19 different orders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "In 1904, \"Bat\", a Windermere steam launch, was controlled using experimental radio control by its inventor, [Jack Kitchen]. In 1909 the French inventor Gabet demonstrated what he called his \"Torpille Radio-Automatique\"\", a radio-controlled torpedo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radar",
        "text": "In 1935, Watson-Watt was asked to judge recent reports of a German radio-based death ray and turned the request over to Wilkins. Wilkins returned a set of calculations demonstrating the system was basically impossible. When Watson-Watt then asked what such a system might do, Wilkins recalled the earlier report about aircraft causing radio interference. This revelation led to the Daventry Experiment of 26 February 1935, using a powerful BBC shortwave transmitter as the source and their GPO receiver setup in a field while a bomber flew around the site. When the plane was clearly detected, Hugh Dowding, the Air Member for Supply and Research was very impressed with their system's potential and funds were immediately provided for further operational development. Watson-Watt's team patented the device in GB593017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burgess Model I",
        "text": "When he resumed flying activity in the fall of 1914, Dargue began testing a small radio transmitter-receiver built by a local unit, and was damaged again in October experimenting with antenna location. Ultimately a wire antenna was paid out behind the aircraft in flight from a reel. Further problems of engine noise, ignition interference, burnout of the signal detector by proximity of the transmitter, and loss of calibration from engine vibration were all overcome. On December 1, 1914, Dargue and 1st Lt. Joseph O. Mauborgne, the Signal Corps officer in charge of the Fort Mills radio station, began a series seven test flights of the radio. During the third, on December 11, the first two-way telegraphy communication with the ground was performed, at a range of for communication with the ground and for the return signal to the airplane, flying at an altitude of , the first radio signal received by an airplane. On the last flight, December 16, using a switch designed to alternate between receiving and transmitting modes, Mauborgne conducted the first airborne \"conversation\" with the ground."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1890\u20131945)",
        "text": "1924 Radio altimeter\n* A radio altimeter measures altitude above the terrain presently beneath an aircraft or spacecraft. This type of altimeter provides the distance between the plane and the ground directly below it, as opposed to a barometric altimeter which provides the distance above a pre-determined datum, usually sea level. In 1924, American engineer Lloyd Espenschied invented the radio altimeter. However, it took 14 years before Bell Labs was able to put Espenschied's device in a form that was adaptable for aircraft use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lawrence J. Fogel",
        "text": "During 1948-1949, shortly after completing his bachelor's degree in electrical engineering from New York University, Lawrence Fogel worked at Watson Laboratories (USAF) computing radiation patterns for VHF and UHF radio direction finders for use in ground-to-air operations. He designed feedback amplifier filters to improve the signal-to-noise ratio for these radio systems. At Eglin Air Force Base, he controlled the final flight test program for the Diversity Antenna Array. Between 1950 and 1953, Fogel worked for Coles Signal Laboratory (U.S. Army Signal Corps) as an engineer in charge of the installation of electronic communication and navigation equipment in Army aircraft and helicopters. He completed his master's degree in electrical engineering at this same time from Rutgers University. During his time with Stavid Engineering, Inc. (New Jersey) between 1953 and 1956, he directed field operations of the Regulus Missile guidance system for submarines and also assisted with the design of flight instrumentation, communications, and electronics for aircraft and helicopters. As a part of this research, he formulated a solution for a mathematical model of the human operator as part of an aircraft flight control system that included such qualities as anticipation, development of a computer facility incorporating such a mode for use in the design of more effective human-machine relations. His efforts also led to five patents between 1958 and 1961 regarding active noise cancellation to reduce noise in helicopter cockpit environments for improved communication. These were the first patents in noise-cancelling headphone systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russell and Sigurd Varian",
        "text": "Sigurd was interested in all-weather navigation systems, and suggested to Russell that together they could create a radio-based technology using microwaves that could detect airplanes at night or in clouds. Russell agreed, and they both quit their jobs, set up their own lab at Halcyon, and began developing plans for a device that could precisely determine the location and direction of an airplane. They initially attempted to create a radio compass, but could not develop a successful design, partly as a consequence of their isolation. They ultimately sought assistance from Russell's college roommate, William Webster Hansen, who was by then a professor at Stanford. With Hansen's help, they came to the attention of the head of the Stanford physics department, David Webster, who hired them in 1936 to work at the university in exchange for lab space, $100 a year for supplies, and an agreement that Stanford University would have half of the royalties for any patents they obtained."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger W. Riehl",
        "text": "In 1960 he worked at the Dayton Aviation Radio Equipment (DARE Electronics, Inc.) as an engineer working on 2-way FM radio development. While at DARE he flew worldwide as a flight crew member testing navigation equipment for Air Force and Naval applications. He also obtained the FCC Second Class Technical license in 1960. He started a company called Riehl Engineering in 1960 working out of a room in his home. It was here that he first started working on his idea to design a digital solar-powered wristwatch device. He also designed and marketed a transistor ignition system called Spitfire This device claimed to keep an automobile engine in proper timing (up to ten times longer), and to increase horsepower by 20%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "In 1903, the Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo introduced a radio based control system called the \"\"Telekino\" at the Paris Academy of Science. In the same year, he obtained a patent in France, Spain, Great Britain, and the United States. It was intended as a way of testing a dirigible of his own design without risking human lives. To avoid the expense of conceivably crashing his airship prototype he built his demonstration device into a boat. Unlike the previous systems, which carried out actions of the 'on/off' type, Torres device was able to memorize the signals received to execute the operations on its own and could carry out to 19 different orders. In 1906, in the presence of an audience which included the King of Spain, Torres demonstrated the invention in the Port of Bilbao, guiding a boat from the shore with people on board. Later, he would try to apply the Telekino to projectiles and torpedoes but had to abandon the project for lack of financing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Invention of radio",
        "text": "In 1879 the experimenter and inventor David Edward Hughes, working in London, discovered that a bad contact in a Bell telephone he was using in his experiments seemed to be sparking when he worked on a nearby induction balance (an early form of metal detector). He developed an improved detector to pick up this unknown \"extra current\" based on his new microphone design (similar to later detectors known as coherers or crystal detectors) and developed a way to interrupt his induction balance to produce a series of sparks. By trial and error experiments he eventually found he could pick up these \"aerial waves\" as he carried his telephone device down the street out to a range of ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward George Bowen",
        "text": "Installing radar in an aircraft was difficult because of the size and weight of the equipment and the aerial. Furthermore, the equipment had to operate in a vibrating and cold environment. Over the next few years Bowen and his group solved most of these problems. For example, he solved the problem of the power supply in aircraft by using an engine-driven alternator, and he encouraged Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) to produce the first radio-frequency cables with solid polythene insulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "Getting rid of the wires via using a new wireless technology, radio, appeared in the late 1890s. In 1897 British engineer Ernest Wilson and C. J. Evans patented a radio controlled torpedo or demonstrated remote radio control boats on the Thames river (accounts of what they did vary). At an 1898 exhibition at Madison Square Garden, Nikola Tesla demonstrated a small unmanned boat that used a coherer based radio control. With an eye towards selling the idea to the US government as a torpedo, Tesla's 1898 patent included a clockwork frequency changer so an enemy couldn't take control of the device."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled model",
        "text": "In the late 1950s, RC hobbyists had mastered tricks to manage proportional control of the flight control surfaces, for example by rapidly switching on and off reed systems, a technique called \"skillful blipping\" or more humorously \"nervous proportional\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "During World War I American inventor John Hays Hammond, Jr. developed many techniques used in subsequent radio control including developing remote controlled torpedoes, ships, anti-jamming systems and even a system allowing his remote-controlled ship targeting an enemy ship's searchlights. In 1922 he installed radio control gear on the obsolete US Navy battleship USS \"Iowa\" so it could be used as a target ship (sunk in gunnery exercise in March 1923)."
      },
      {
        "title": "AN/FPS-23",
        "text": "Development of another solution began at the MIT-backed Lincoln Laboratory. Although similar to the MCL in layout, it worked along different principles. Instead of the signal being scattered along the line between the two stations, the antennas were aimed about 15 degrees \"forward\" of the line between the two stations. When an aircraft entered this area, it would scatter back to the receiver as before, but in this case the aircraft's motion would shift the frequency of the signal. This effect had first been noticed in television signals when aircraft flew overhead, which is where it gained the name \"flutter\" for the way the image shifted back and forth on the screen."
      },
      {
        "title": "AMES Type 7",
        "text": "In 1935, the newly formed Tizard Committee contacted well-known radio expert Robert Watson-Watt to pass comment on claims of a German death ray device based on radio waves. For help, Watt turned to his assistant Arnold Wilkins, who performed a number of back of the envelope calculations that demonstrated the idea was infeasible. When Watt asked him what use radio might be in an air war, Wilkins recalled reading a technical manual a few years earlier that mentioned the effect of aircraft on shortwave signals. The two prepared a memo stating that the death ray was highly improbable, but they should consider developing an aircraft detection system. Hugh Dowding, at that time the Air Member for Supply and Organisation in charge of research and development, was intensely interested and demanded a practical demonstration. Watt and Wilkins quickly arranged one in the Daventry Experiment. When he saw the signals, Watt claims to have exclaimed \"Britain has become an island again!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Remote control",
        "text": "Archibald Low was known as the \"father of radio guidance systems\" for his pioneering work on guided rockets and planes during the First World War. In 1917, he demonstrated a remote-controlled aircraft to the Royal Flying Corps and in the same year built the first wire-guided rocket. As head of the secret RFC experimental works at Feltham, A. M. Low was the first person to use radio control successfully on an aircraft, an \"Aerial Target\". It was \"piloted\" from the ground by future world aerial speed record holder Henry Segrave. Low's systems encoded the command transmissions as a countermeasure to prevent enemy intervention. By 1918 the secret D.C.B. Section of the Royal Navy's Signals School, Portsmouth under the command of Eric Robinson V.C. used a variant of the Aerial Target\u2019s radio control system to control from \u2018mother\u2019 aircraft different types of naval vessels including a submarine."
      },
      {
        "title": "C. E. Bowden",
        "text": "Following the Second World War, he pioneered radio-controlled flight and also made significant innovations with radio-controlled boats and the design of both model and full-size yachts. He wrote prolifically on these subjects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Watson-Watt",
        "text": "On 12 February 1935, Watson-Watt sent the secret memo of the proposed system to the Air Ministry, \"Detection and location of aircraft by radio methods\". Although not as exciting as a death-ray, the concept clearly had potential, but the Air Ministry, before giving funding, asked for a demonstration proving that radio waves could be reflected by an aircraft. This was ready by 26 February and consisted of two receiving antennae located about away from one of the BBC's shortwave broadcast stations at Daventry. The two antennae were phased such that signals travelling directly from the station cancelled themselves out, but signals arriving from other angles were admitted, thereby deflecting the trace on a CRT indicator (passive radar). Such was the secrecy of this test that only three people witnessed it: Watson-Watt, his colleague Arnold Wilkins, and a single member of the committee, A. P. Rowe. The demonstration was a success: on several occasions, the receiver showed a clear return signal from a Handley Page Heyford bomber flown around the site. Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin was kept quietly informed of radar progress. On 2 April 1935, Watson-Watt received a patent on a radio device for detecting and locating an aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kinjiro Okabe",
        "text": "Okabe developed an experimental apparatus using a VHF transmitter and receiver with Yagi-Uda antennas separated some distance. In 1936, he successfully detected a passing aircraft by the Doppler-interference method; this was the first recorded demonstration in Japan of aircraft detection by radio. With this success, Okabe's research interest switched from magnetrons to VHF equipment for target detection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hans Amtmann",
        "text": "In October 1946 Amtmann left his teaching job, having been recruited under the American Operation Paperclip to work in the US. Vogt would also be recruited, but Pohlmann would stay behind and later help to resurrect the Hamburger Flugzeugbau. Amtmann was sent to Wright Field, where he resumed work on a prone pilot bed, working for the biomedical facility under H. T. E. \"Ed\" Hertzberg. Amtmann developed a patent control system for the pilot and the bed was test flown in a Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bomber and later in a Lockheed F-80E Shooting Star jet fighter. During this work he also developed a protective shield for the pilot's helmet during emergency ejection which was widely adopted. Another invention was a flying fuel tank system in which the fuel tank glider was attached to the wing tips in parasite configuration. By a coincidence his erstwhile Chief, Richard Vogt, was also at Wright Field and came up with the same idea, beating Amtmann to the patent office."
      },
      {
        "title": "T. Norris & Son",
        "text": "The quest for full vertical and lateral control of the plane iron had been raging for many years. Leonard Bailey in Connecticut devised a system in 1867 that was to be adopted by Stanley. Charles Nurse in London invented a plane-iron regulator (patented 1889), a device that the firm of Norris & Son experimented with on its planes before Thomas James Norris created and patented an adjustment mechanism of his own.\n* First patent"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lucien Rouzet",
        "text": "In the military field, General Ferri\u00e9 had a major communication network built, but the transmitting stations were too heavy to be carried aboard aeroplanes. Therefore, engineers tried to minimise the weight-to-power ratio, and short-distance connections between planes and the ground became possible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aeronautics",
        "text": "Another significant invention was the tension-spoked wheel, which he devised in order to create a light, strong wheel for aircraft undercarriage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jonathan Edward Caldwell",
        "text": "Caldwell then turned to an even more bizarre aircraft design, an ornithopter. The wings were equipped with flexible fabric valves which were supposed to open on the upstroke and close on the downstroke, allowing it to generate lift with no forward motion and thus provide VTOL service, like the cyclogyro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean Piccard",
        "text": "Piccard with his wife co-invented the plastic balloon and he designed and on 24 June 1936 flew a cellophane balloon built by his students. The balloon was unmanned, 25 feet (7.6 meters) wide, and made of tapered 33-foot (10-meter) gores and one-inch (2.54-cm) 3M Scotch transparent tape. Jean Barnhill, Harold Larson and Lloyd Schumacher cut the gores that fit together like an \"orange peel.\" Harold Hatlestad built the radio equipment and Robert Silliman built the telemeter that sent temperature and pressure data back. Robert Hatch and Silliman maintained radio contact from a station on the roof of the university armory until the radio's battery froze from insufficient insulation. The balloon floated at 50,000 feet, and in ten hours traveled over 600 miles to near Huntsville, Arkansas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane",
        "text": "During the early post-war years, the Navy sponsored similar projects. For the first program, Witteman-Lewis aircraft and Norden-designed gyrostabilizers were used, but the results were no better than those achieved by the Sperrys. In 1921, the program was reoriented to focus on the radio control aspect. The control equipment was developed at the radio laboratory at NAS Anacostia (later the Naval Research Laboratory). In 1923, tests began, and were relatively successful, but interest waned and the project lapsed in 1925. Over a decade was to pass before the Navy seriously undertook the development of target drones and pilotless aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled model",
        "text": "With the electronics revolution, single-signal channel circuit design became redundant and instead, radios provided coded signal streams which a servomechanism could interpret. Each of these streams replaced two of the original 'channels', and, confusingly, the signal streams began to be called 'channels'. So an old on/off 6-channel transmitter which could drive the rudder, elevator and throttle of an aircraft was replaced with a new proportional 3-channel transmitter doing the same job. Controlling all the primary controls of a powered aircraft (rudder, elevator, ailerons and throttle) was known as 'full-house' control. A glider could be 'full-house' with only three channels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Matthew Piers Watt Boulton",
        "text": "However other researchers have on occasion drawn attention to the Boulton's achievements, pointed to in 1911 in Britain's leading aviation magazine, \"Flight\" (\"Two Interesting Patents\"), and later by aviation historian C. H. Gibbs-Smith (\"The First Aileron\"). Boulton's flight control device, first described in his 1868 patent, \"Aerial Locomotion, &c\", was publicly praised by the pioneering U.S. aeronautical engineer Charles Manly. While addressing the Society of Automotive Engineers in 1916, Manly referred directly to Boulton's invention, telling his audience:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aviation communication",
        "text": "Nonetheless, wireless communication systems in aircraft remained experimental and would take years to successfully develop a practical prototype. The early radios were heavy in weight and were unreliable; additionally, ground forces rarely used radio because signals were easily intercepted and targeted by opposing forces. At the beginning of World War I, aircraft were not typically equipped with wireless equipment. Instead, soldiers used large panel cut outs to distinguish friendly forces. These cut outs could also be used as a directional device to help pilots navigate back to friendly and familiar airfields."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Pelly-Fry",
        "text": "Pelly-Fry's proximity to a working airfield soon had him thinking of flight again, and he resumed his hobby of 50 years earlier, model aeroplanes. He first designed and built a 10 foot wingspan sailplane. As opposed to his creations from the late 1920s, his new model aircraft was radio-controlled and had working flaps and leading edge slots. Built by Pelly-Fry, it was flown by expert modelers comfortable with radio-control, and flew beautifully. Next Pelly fitted a small engine and demonstrated the craft's ability to stay aloft at extremely slow speeds. He then designed and constructed a miniature air speed indicator and fit it into the nose of the airplane. The unit confirmed that with flaps and leading edge slots deployed the aircraft could stay aloft at the airspeed of a brisk walk. With this technical success in hand, Pelly-Fry set about creating model aircraft that depicted those he had flown, starting with the plane he flew with 88 Squadron, a 1/10 scale Boston bomber with markings 111A RH-A and painted in the livery of the day. Next up he created a 1/10 scale version of Wellesley AO-A, flown by Pelly-Fry in 223 Squadron. His last completed project was of a 1/8 scale model of the de Haviland DH104 Devon he had flown as Air attach\u00e9 in Tehran. In addition to building and flying model aircraft, he wrote articles for \"Model Aviation Magazine\" and \"Model Engineer\". He served as a council member for the Society of Model Aeronautical Engineers. His insights were included in the first Model Aeroplane Manual."
      },
      {
        "title": "Unmanned aerial vehicle",
        "text": "The Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo introduced a radio-based control-system called the \"Telekino\" at the Paris Academy of Science in 1903 with the intention of testing an airship of his own design without risking human lives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Remote control",
        "text": "Wired and wireless remote control was developed in the latter half of the 19th century to meet the need to control unmanned vehicles (for the most part military torpedoes). These included a wired version by German engineer Werner von Siemens in 1870, and radio controled ones by British engineer Ernest Wilson and C. J. Evans (1897) and a prototype that inventor Nikola Tesla demonstrated in New York in 1898. In 1903 Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo demonstrated a radio controlled boat using a system called \"Telekino\", which he hoped to use to control a dirigible airship of his own design. The first remote-controlled model airplane flew in 1932, and the use of remote control technology for military purposes was worked on intensively during the Second World War, one result of this being the German Wasserfall missile."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aircraft Radio Corporation",
        "text": "Pioneer aviator Jimmy Doolittle kept his plane at the ARC hangar, and teamed with ARC to accomplish the world's first \"blind\" landing \u2013 landing an airplane solely by reference to instruments, the first milestone in developing today's all-weather instrument flight. ARC developed the radio-beam and onboard radio receiver navigation equipment essential to the flight, the first radio instrument landing system."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Randall (physicist)",
        "text": "When the war began in 1939, Oliphant was approached by the Admiralty about the possibility of building a radio source that operated at microwave frequencies. Such a system would allow a radar using it to see small objects like the periscopes of submerged U-boats. The Air Ministry radar researchers at Bawdsey Manor had also expressed an interest in a 10\u00a0cm system, as this would greatly reduce the size of the transmission antennas, making them much easier to fit in the nose of aircraft, as opposed to being mounted on the wings and fuselage as in their current systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ross Gunn",
        "text": "From 1927 to 1947, Gunn worked at the Naval Research Laboratory. He was the author of over 28 papers, and received 45 patents. He designed radio devices for controlling aircraft, which were used in the development of the first drones. He was one of the first to appreciate the possibility of using nuclear power for submarine propulsion. During World War II he was involved in the development of thermal diffusion technology for isotope separation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eric Clutton",
        "text": "In the United States, he built a business out of designing model aircraft for radio control, and a line of diesel engines to power them under the name \"Doctor Diesel\", continuing his line of experimental model designs since his childhood in the UK [needs citation from AeroModeller.]"
      },
      {
        "title": "C. Donald Bateman",
        "text": "This paragraph is the abstract of the invention from its patent. It describes using a radar altimeter system to keep track of the aircraft\u2019s height above ground. The system will sound an alarm if aircraft\u2019s altitude is unsafe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honeywell Aerospace",
        "text": "During World War II, the invention of the Norden bombsight allowed bomber planes to hit precision targets from high altitudes, but at 25,000 feet a single degree of oscillation in the plane's flight course threw a bomb 400 feet off its target. The Flight Control Equipment system commonly known as \"auto-pilot\" was initially invented by Sperry (now part of Honeywell Aerospace) so World War II bomber planes could fly steady enough to hit precise targets from high altitudes. The first Honeywell C-1 autopilot installation was on a B-17 in 1942."
      },
      {
        "title": "Curtiss JN Jenny",
        "text": "In a series of tests conducted at the US Army's Langley Field in Hampton, Virginia, in July and August 1917, the world's first \"plane-to-plane\" and \"ground-to-plane, and vice versa\" communications by radiotelephony (as opposed to radiotelegraphy which had been developed earlier) were made to and from modified US Army JN-4s by Western Electric Company (Bell Labs) design engineers Lewis M. Clement and Raymond Heising, the developers of the experimental wind generator-powered airborne wireless voice transmitter and receiver equipment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hugh Longbourne Callendar",
        "text": "He was also a member of the Air Inventions Committee (AIC), alongside his son Guy Stewart. Here they performed experiments on equipment and aircraft engines using radiography, locating defects and fractures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harlan D. Fowler",
        "text": "Despite having hearing difficulties and used a hearing aid, he continually lobbied the NACA with multiple ideas to improve aircraft. NACA engineer Ken Mort would help Fowler build models and test many of his aeronautical concepts. Ahead of his time, Fowler developed his flap designed when airplanes were still covered with fabric. Harlan Fowler retired in 1975 and died on April 27, 1982. His original research papers including technical reports, blueprints, original data, drawings, photographs, models of the Fowler flap, and air cargo container models are archived at San Jose State University. San Jose State University's \"Harlan D. Fowler Memorial Scholarship\" is named in his honor. He holds at least four patents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Matthew Piers Watt Boulton",
        "text": "Boulton's Letter's Patent specifications were sealed on 4 August 1868 and the complete patent was backdated to its application date of 5 February 1868. His British patent, the 392nd one completed in 1868, was issued more than 35 years before ailerons were 'reinvented' in France, and ailerons were later repatented in the United States by Glenn Curtiss of the Aerial Experiment Association in about 1911. Boulton's 1868 patent became forgotten and lost from sight until the same time, a few years before they came into general use in 1915. Aviation historian C. H. Gibbs-Smith acknowledged Boulton's priority of invention, stating that if the 1868 patent had been revealed at the time of the Wright brothers' legal filings, they might not have been able to claim the priority of invention for the lateral control of flying machines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward George Bowen",
        "text": "Bowen, at his own request, was moved on to investigating whether radar could be installed in an aircraft. However, Bowen was able to save the day when a demonstration of the new transmitter at Bawdsey Manor failed. Before a disgruntled Sir Hugh Dowding returned to London, Bowen gave him an impromptu demonstration of an experimental radar, built as part of his airborne radar programme, which was detecting the aircraft at ranges of up to 50 miles. After working through the night, Bowen resurrected the old transmitter at Orford Ness for the following day's demonstration, allowing the Government and RAF to continue with the extension of the chain of coastal stations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harry Grindell Matthews",
        "text": "In 1914, after the outbreak of the First World War, the British government announced an award of \u00a325,000 to anyone who could create a weapon against zeppelins or remotely control unmanned vehicles. Matthews claimed that he had created a remote control system that used selenium cells. He successfully demonstrated it with a remotely controlled boat to representatives of the Admiralty at Richmond Park's Penn Pond. He received his \u00a325,000 but the admiralty never used the invention."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harry Aubrey Toulmin Sr.",
        "text": "On deciphering the patent legalese, it becomes apparent that Toulmin did not patent the airplane. Rather, Toulmin patented airplane (flying-machine) wing edges (lateral marginal portions) that normally are flat but may move up and down in a direction that is different from the airplane's line of flight and may be moved to different angles. Although the patent particularly addressed a solid wing with a portion of the wing (the marginal portions) being flexed (warped) to provide lift, the patent claim was not so limiting. In particular, Toulmin's genius as a patent attorney predicated and helped the Wright Brothers patent slats, the spoiler, the aileron, the flaps, the elevator, and the Rudder for an airplane (see picture above). Without these, an airplane cannot be controlled any more than a car can be controlled without movable wheels. Without a license to the Wright brothers' patent, it was not legally possible to build or fly a controllable airplane in the early 20th century. Unsurprisingly, the verbal and legal attacks by competitors on the Wright Brothers began almost immediately."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lewis H. Nash",
        "text": "During World War I, he and his son, Harold, were working on an aeroplane engine which received favorable comment from the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and engineers such as Elmer Sperry, the inventor of the gyroscopic compass and stabilizing devices. The war ended before the engine was fully developed, and the idea was dropped."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edwin Albert Link",
        "text": "As a young man, Edwin Link used apparatus from his father's automatic piano and organ factory (of the Link Piano and Organ Company) to produce an advertising airplane. A punched roll and pneumatic system from a player piano controlled sequential lights on the lower surfaces of the wings to spell out messages like \"ENDICOTT-JOHNSON SHOES\". To attract more attention, he added a set of small but loud organ pipes, also controlled by the roll."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lawrence H. Johnston",
        "text": "Johnston intended to study for his doctorate under Alvarez, but instead followed him east to the MIT Radiation Laboratory near Boston in February 1941. Alvarez and Johnston worked together on ground-controlled approach radar. This allowed aircraft to be guided to a safe landing in adverse weather conditions, based on radar images, and would later prove crucial during the Berlin Airlift. They were awarded US Patents 2,555,101 and 2,585,855 for it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Invention of radio",
        "text": "In a paper written by Fessenden in 1902, it was asserted that important advances had been made, one of which was overcoming largely the loss of energy experienced in other systems. In an interview with a \"New York Journal\" correspondent, Fessenden stated that in his early apparatus he did not use an air transformer at the sending end, nor a concentric cylinder for emitters and antennae, and had used capacity, but arranged in a manner entirely different from that in other systems, and that he \"did not\" employ a coherer or any form of imperfect contact. Fessenden asserted that he had paid particular attention to selective and multiplex systems, and was well satisfied with the results in that direction. On August 12, 1902, 13 patents were issued to Fessenden, covering various methods, devices, and systems for signaling without wires. These patents involved many new principles, the \"chef-d'oeuvre\" of which was a method for distributing capacity and inductance instead of localizing these coefficients of the oscillator as in previous systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward J. Fraughton",
        "text": "Following a mid-air collision over the Salt Lake Valley in 1987 that destroyed two airplanes and claimed ten lives, Fraughton, a pilot, invented and patented a new technology for tracking aircraft. This technology, now most popularly known as ADS-B, uses GPS satellite tracking to find and report aircraft positions. Fraughton's U.S. patent, (number 5,153,836) and foreign patents were issued in 1992. Subsequently, he served on several committees associated with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), most notably the original ADS committee and Special Committee 186 of the Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics. ADS-B has recently been announced as the FAA's system of choice to upgrade and replace the outdated radar based air traffic control technology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aileron",
        "text": "Boulton's description of his lateral flight control system was \"the first record we have of appreciation of the necessity for active lateral control as distinguished from [passive lateral stability]... With this invention of Boulton's we have the birth of the present-day three torque method of airborne control\" as was praised by Charles Manly. This was also endorsed by C.H. Gibbs-Smith. Boulton's British patent, No. 392 of 1868, issued about 35 years before ailerons were \"reinvented\" in France, became forgotten and lost from sight until after the flight control device was in general use. Gibbs-Smith stated on several occasions that if the Boulton patent had been revealed at the time of the Wright brothers' legal filings, they might not have been able to claim priority of invention for the lateral control of flying machines. The fact that the Wright brothers were able to gain a patent in 1906 did not invalidate Boulton's lost and forgotten invention."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reginald Victor Jones",
        "text": "As early as 1937, Jones had suggested that a piece of metal foil falling through the air might create radar echoes. He, together with Joan Curran, was later instrumental in the deployment of \"Window\": strips of metal foil, cut to a length appropriate to the radar's wavelength, and dropped in bundles from aircraft, which then appeared on enemy radar screens as \"false bombers\". This technology is now known as chaff and contrary to the popular belief, was also known to the Germans at the time. Both parties were reluctant to use it out of fear that their enemy would do the same. This delayed its deployment for almost two years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elmer Ambrose Sperry",
        "text": "In 1913, working with his son Lawrence Burst Sperry, Sperry created a gyro that could control the elevators and ailerons of an aircraft through a series of servos. Sperry successfully implemented his gyrostablizer technology, formerly thought to be only applicable to large ships, because of their high weight, into aircraft. In June 1914, Sperry and his son won the Aero Club of France's competition to build a safer aircraft, demonstrating the stabilizer with his son doing a \"no-hands\" flight past the judges. He also was awarded a Franklin Institute Medal in the same year. This gyrostabilization system, while never implemented on a massive scale, laid the foundation for his son's autopilot system."
      },
      {
        "title": "William F. Milliken Jr.",
        "text": "As head of Flight Research at Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory (CAL) he initiated a program for measuring aircraft dynamics in flight using automatic control techniques, accomplishing the first frequency response measurements. Also, as co-inventor of the variable stability aircraft (circa 1948) he was involved in pioneering stability augmentation and modern electrohydraulic flight control systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Y-Control for fighters",
        "text": "The system worked by using sites known as Y-Stations. Each station had 5 radio operation systems. Each consisted of an omnidirectional transmitter an omnidirectional receiver and a direction finder. This allowed each site to control 5 fighters. The transmitter would send out a signal which was picked up by the FuG16ZY in the fighter (known as the Y Fighter), this repeated the signal back on a frequency 1.9\u00a0MHz lower than the transmitted frequency. Using the direction finder (DF) the angle was measured. Range was calculated by a timing system connected to both the transmitter and the omnidirectional receiver. Height could not be measured. However voice could be transposed onto the ranging signal allowing the ground controller to talk and listen to the pilot of the plane he was controlling, hence the pilot could report altitude when requested to do so. Controlling a single fighter was of not much use in practice so the Luftwaffe developed group control, where a Y-Fighter was part of a group of fighters intercepting an allied bomber stream, The Y-Fighter was painted a distinctive colour and the rest of the flight simple followed him. The flight leader could also listen into the ground controller channel and hear what the ground controller was saying while also being able to talk to the flight. The Y-Fighter was never the group controller. the system was susceptible to jamming on the FuG16ZY wavelength but was at least partially usable for the rest of the war. Controllable range was approx 250\u00a0km depending on aircraft height. One source mentions that relay stations could be used to extend the radio range. The relay station would consist of a single transmitter/receiver/DF finder system without the rest of the communication and guidance systems of the main Y site. The radio system used was a modified FuG16 radio. The Y-Site also contained other systems such as radio communications for talking to area control."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wilhelm Runge",
        "text": "At Telefunken's development laboratory, Runge experimented with high-frequency transmitters and had the tube department working on cm-wavelength devices. In the summer of 1935, Runge, now Director of Telefunken's Radio Research Laboratory, initiated an internally funded project in radio-based detection technology. A-50\u00a0cm (600-MHz) receiver and 0.5-W transmitter were built, both using Barkhausen-Kurz tubes. With the antennas placed flat on the ground some distance apart, he arranged for an aircraft to fly overhead and found that the receiver gave a strong Doppler-beat interference signal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebecca/Eureka transponding radar",
        "text": "As the SOE had their own aircraft, and there was no need to make the system work with an existing production radar design, the solution was relatively simple. Instead of the transponder replying on the same frequency, and thus being lost in the ground reflections, it would receive the signal from the radar and then re-broadcast it on a second frequency. In the aircraft, the receiver would be tuned not to the radar's broadcasts, but the transponder's. This way the ground reflection would simply be ignored, although at the cost of requiring the transponder to have two separate antenna systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sergey Oulianine",
        "text": "In 1904 Oulianine started research in remote control of aircraft, ships and land vehicles (in 1910 he patented a technology of remote control and in October 1915 a radio-controlled boat of his construction sailed from Kronstadt to Peterhof)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebecca/Eureka transponding radar",
        "text": "Prototype sets became available in late 1940, with the first production examples arriving in January 1941. During a test flight in February, the aircraft was flying at when Hanbury Brown's oxygen supply failed and he passed out. The test pilot, Peter Chamberlain, realized what had happened and quickly landed the plane. Brown awoke in an ambulance. This accident, along with the many previous flights at high altitude, aggravated an ear injury he had received at RAF Martlesham Heath in 1939, and during the spring he was hospitalized for a mastoidectomy operation in Brighton. The operation was successful, but a post-operation infection caused him to go deaf in both ears and several follow-up visits were required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geoffrey Pyke",
        "text": "Pyke then wrote on grand strategy and worked on a number of ideas for practical inventions. Inspired by the sight of barrage balloons, he conceived the idea of using them to mount microphones allowing the location of aircraft to be ascertained by triangulation. Pyke was unaware that the development of radar provided a much better means of achieving this effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward George Bowen",
        "text": "After a successful demonstration in February 1935 of the reflection of radio waves by an aircraft, the development of radar went ahead, and a team of five people including Bowen was set up at Orfordness under the cover of doing ionospheric research. Bowen's job was to assemble a transmitter, managing quickly to raise the pulse-power to over 100 kilowatts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Loraine",
        "text": "In 1909 Loraine took up the new technology of aviation, learning first to fly at the Bleriot school at Pau, France. He then switched to the easier to fly Farman biplane, on which he achieved great fame. In September 1910 he made what is credited as being the first aeroplane flight from England to Ireland, although he actually came down in the sea about 200\u00a0feet (60\u00a0metres) from the shore. The same month he piloted one of the two Bristol Boxkites which took part in the British Army manoeuvres on Salisbury Plain, during which he sent the first radio signals to be sent from an aeroplane in Britain. His diary is cited by the Oxford English Dictionary as the first written example of the word \"joystick\" to describe aircraft stick controls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles Husband",
        "text": "Other innovative projects Husband & Co. undertook under Husband's leadership included designing a facility for testing jet engines at altitude in 1946. In the 1950s, Husband assisted the radiologist Frank Ellis in designing one of the earliest telecobalt radiotherapy units, for radiation treatment of cancer, which was installed at the Churchill Hospital in Oxford. Like the radio telescopes, the engineering problem involved moving a heavy weight, in this case the lead-shielded source, in three dimensions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Morris Page",
        "text": "Following an observation by Lawrence A. Hyland in 1930 of radio interference caused by a passing aircraft, Taylor and Leo C. Young began an internally funded, low-level project to develop a radio-detection apparatus based on continuous wave (CW) Doppler interference. Unsuccessful with the CW approach, in 1934 Young suggested using a pulsed transmitter, similar to one that the NRL had built in 1925 for the Carnegie Institution of Washington in measuring the altitude of the ionosphere. Taylor assigned Page to design an apparatus for testing this suggestion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane",
        "text": "Elmer Sperry and Hewitt served together on the Naval Consulting Board, where they both were members of the Committee on Aeronautics and Aeronautical Motors. Because of these connections, they were able to arrange for a representative of the Navy's Bureau of Ordnance, Lt. T. S. Wilkinson, to examine the control equipment they assembled. The system consisted of a gyroscopic stabilizer, a directive gyroscope, an aneroid barometer to regulate height, servo-motors for control of rudders and ailerons, and a device for distance gearing. These all could be installed in an airplane which could be catapulted or flown from the water, and would climb to a predetermined altitude, fly a pre-set course, and after traveling a pre-set distance, drop its bombs or dive to the ground. Wilkinson reported that the weapon did not possess a degree of accuracy sufficient to hit a ship, but, because of its range of , it might be of interest to the Army."
      },
      {
        "title": "Air-to-ground communication",
        "text": "In 1912 the Royal Flying Corps had begun experimenting with \"wireless telegraphy\" in aircraft. Lieutenant B.T James was a leading pioneer of wireless (radio) in aircraft. In the spring 1913, he had begun to experiment with radios in a B.E.2a. James brought the science of wireless in aircraft to a high state of efficiency before he was shot down and killed by anti-aircraft fire on 13 July 1915."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wright brothers",
        "text": "Attempting to circumvent the patent, Glenn Curtiss and other early aviators devised ailerons to emulate lateral control described in the patent and demonstrated by the Wrights in their public flights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harry Hinde",
        "text": "Hinde was an active inventor and aircraft designer during his life and received several patents. Primarily, he concentrated his efforts on inventing monoplane models of airplanes in the early 1900s. Hinde was a member of the Aero Club of California in the early 1900s. He invented a \"heavier than air\" machine for which he received several patents. Experts of the day claimed that the invention revolutionized aerial navigation. According to one source, Harry Hinde spent over 17 years studying aeronautics."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Robert Mills",
        "text": "Mills published \"Radio Techniques for Automatic Systems in the Air\" in the Journal of Navigation in 1960"
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward George Bowen",
        "text": "A Committee for the Scientific Study of Air Defence had been established under the chairmanship of Henry Tizard. Before the first meeting of that committee in early 1935, the Government asked Watson-Watt whether an intense beam of radio waves, a \"death ray\", could bring down an aircraft. Watson-Watt reported that a \"death ray\" was impracticable, but suggested that radio waves might be used to detect, rather than destroy, enemy aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anton Flettner",
        "text": "From 1914 to 1918 Anton Flettner worked at the German Ministry for War in the development of remote controls for air, water, and land vehicles. While employed under the aegis of Graf Zeppelin, Flettner also developed pilotless aircraft projects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Benjamin Miessner",
        "text": "In June 1916 he married Eleanor M. Schulz in Buffalo, NY. They had two daughters, Jane and Mary. That same year he returned to the Navy as an Expert Radio Aid for Aviation where he developed radio systems for airplanes and published his book \"\u201cRadiodynamics, the wireless control of torpedoes and other mechanisms\u201d\". During World War I, he was stationed in Pensacola, Florida where he was in charge of the radio laboratory of the Navy Aeronautic Station."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siegfried Knemeyer",
        "text": "By 1936 Knemeyer's invention of the \"Dreieckrechner\" hand-held flight computing device, similar to American Lt. Philip Dalton's contemporaneous E6B invention, was starting to become commonplace in both military Luftwaffe aviation and German civil pilots' use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harry Diamond (engineer)",
        "text": "He joined the National Bureau of Standards in 1927. Diamond headed up the research and development work of the Commerce Department\u2019s newly organized Bureau of Air Commerce. Within two years he developed radio beacon system that permitted the first \"blind\" aircraft landing. Diamond and his team made the first visual-type radiobeacon system that enabled a pilot to keep on course and to know his approximate position at all times while in flight. Direction service could be given to any number of planes flying the course, and each airplane only had to carry a receiving set, with no other special equipment whatsoever. The pilot would obtain the necessary information pertaining to amplitude of course deviations hands-free and without requiring earphones. This was accomplished by the development of vibrating-reed indicators alerting the pilot to an off-course condition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Matthew Piers Watt Boulton",
        "text": "Gibbs-Smith later wrote in his 1960 opus, \"The Aeroplane: An Historical Survey of its Origins and Development\", that \"Boulton invented a method of control identical with the modern aileron control system in 1868. Had it not been overlooked, the history of the practical aeroplane would have been radically different, since it was the problem of achieving lateral stability and control that plagued the Wrights, Langley, Curtiss, and the whole \"European School\" 30\u201340 years later\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Matthew Piers Watt Boulton",
        "text": "In 1868, long before the advent of powered aircraft flight \u2014 and within a decade of the birth of both Orville and Wilbur Wright \u2014 Boulton patented the first aileron. The aileron system he created was to be actuated by either a hand-operated control (not illustrated on the patent's drawings) or by an automatic pendulum control device (depicted on the patent's drawing sheet), with the intended function of a single-axis autopilot. Boulton's inspiration for a lateral flight control device has been attributed to French Count Ferdinand Charles Honore Phillipe d'Esterno, whose detailed analysis of flapping and soaring bird flight, \"Du Vol des Oiseaux\" (On the flight of birds) was published as a pamphlet in 1864. Although Boulton's prescient aileron control system was fully functional, he, as did almost everyone of his era, lacked a detailed understanding of aerodynamics, and an airplane he designed never achieved flight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Brooke-Popham",
        "text": "In 1915, the capabilities of radio were still very limited. Observers in aircraft could not easily communicate with men on the ground. Men on the ground could not easily reply. In 1915, a technique was developed whereby troops on the ground could send messages to aviators by laying strips of white cloth on the ground. These strips are referred to as \"Popham strips\" in a novel set in the period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "The earliest examples of electronically guided model aircraft were hydrogen-filled model airships of the late 19th century. They were flown as a music hall act around theater auditoriums using a basic form of spark-emitted radio signal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Flying Doctor Service",
        "text": "Along with motorised flight, another new technology was being developed that could replace the complicated means of communication by telegraph. Together with Alfred Traeger, Flynn began experiments with radio in the mid-1920s to enable remote outposts to contact a centralised medical base. The pedal radio was the first result of this collaboration. These were distributed gradually to stations, missions and other human residences around Cloncurry, the base site for a 50-watt transmitter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Matthew Piers Watt Boulton",
        "text": "In an apparent oversight by the U.S. Patent Office, the Wright brothers, on their second attempt, obtained a patent in 1906, not for the invention of an airplane (which had already existed for a number of decades in the form of gliders) but for the invention of a system of aerodynamic control that manipulated a flying machine's surfaces, including lateral flight control. They did so despite rudders, elevators and ailerons having been invented long before their efforts began, and then aggressively sued other aircraft builders worldwide for failure to pay them licensing royalties on the basis of the lateral flight control described in their expansive 1906 patent. Irrespective of such controversies it was Boulton, indisputably, who was the first to patent ailerons in 1868. The ailerons used by Esnault-Pelterie in 1904 followed Boulton's concept, although it is unknown whether he had studied the 1868 work, or if he had reinvented them independently."
      },
      {
        "title": "Avionics",
        "text": "Radio communication was first used in aircraft just prior to World War I. The first airborne radios were in zeppelins, but the military sparked development of light radio sets that could be carried by heavier-than-air craft, so that aerial reconnaissance biplanes could report their observations immediately in case they were shot down. The first experimental radio transmission from an airplane was conducted by the US Navy in August 1910. The first aircraft radios transmitted by radiotelegraphy, so they required two-seat aircraft with a second crewman to tap on a telegraph key to spell out messages by Morse code. During World War I, AM voice two way radio sets were made possible in 1917 by the development of the triode vacuum tube, which were simple enough that the pilot in a single seat aircraft could use it while flying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aviation communication",
        "text": "In 1917, AT&T invented the first American air-to-ground radio transmitter. They tested this device at Langley Field in Virginia and found it was a viable technology. In May 1917, General George Squier of the U.S. Army Signal Corps contacted AT&T to develop an air-to-ground radio with a range of 2,000 yards. By July 4 of that same year, AT&T technicians achieved two-way communication between pilots and ground personnel. This allowed ground personnel to communicate directly with pilots using their voices instead of Morse code. Though few of these devices saw service in the war, they proved this was a viable and valuable technology worthy of refinement and advancement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Invention of radio",
        "text": "At this time His Majesty King Edward VII, then Prince of Wales, had the misfortune to injure his knee, and was confined on board the royal yacht Osltorm in Cowes Bay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early flying machines",
        "text": "Eventually some investigators began to discover and define some of the basics of scientific aircraft design. Powered designs were either still driven by man-power or used a metal spring. In his 1250 book \"De mirabili potestate artis et naturae\" (Secrets of Art and Nature), the Englishman Roger Bacon predicted future designs for a balloon filled with an unspecified aether as well as a man-powered ornithopter, claiming to know someone who had invented the latter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bede BD-5",
        "text": "In the meantime, Bede came up with another novel solution to the problems of converting pilots to the new aircraft. They took an engine-less example and bolted it to the front of a pickup truck on a trapeze, attaching the pilot's throttle control to the truck's. Pilots could test fly the aircraft without danger \u2013 if a problem developed the driver of the truck simply hit the brakes. It was named the \"Truck-a-Plane\" and Jim Bede was awarded a US patent for the design."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u0218tefan Protopopescu",
        "text": "In the summer of 1912, while flying on a Farman, Protopopescu took part in experiments related to the use of wireless telegraphy for the navy and aviation, considered by some to be among the first in the world. The \"Gazeta ilustrat\u0103\" of 1912 wrote: \"A problem that foreign countries were unable to solve was solved in Romania, thanks to the efforts of Captain Zaharia of the Navy and G. Rotlender; it is the use of Marconi's great invention, wireless telegraphy, via the aeroplane. The experiments made the other day at Constan\u021ba have been entirely successful. It was possible to transmit communications easily and accurately from the aeroplane over a distance of 30 kilometres. Knowing that the aeroplane was piloted by \u0218tefan Protopopescu, it goes without saying that the flying machine behaved wonderfully in the atmosphere during the experiments.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Reade",
        "text": "His inventions included airships of the dirigible-balloon and helicopter type, submersibles, steam-driven and electrical land vehicles, and steam- and electric-powered robots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward Whitehead Reid",
        "text": "Often being alone at the airport, Whitehead Reid developed an unusual way of getting his aircraft out of the hangar by himself. He would chock the wheels, start the engine and set it to idle, then, removing the chocks, would lift the tail and guide it out under its own power."
      },
      {
        "title": "William S. Halstead",
        "text": "Two more forerunners among his inventions were a portable shortwave radio system for forest rangers and a cable system that allowed motorists at Los Angeles International Airport to get traffic and flight information on their car radios."
      },
      {
        "title": "Noyes Brothers",
        "text": "Edward was the author of a number of patents: for a device for perforating leather in the shape of letters in 1894, an improved wire rope in 1895, an improved airbrake controller in 1899, improved airbrake compressor and eggframes for incubators in 1900."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who invented the radio-controlled aircraft?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I was unable to find the inventor of radio-controlled aircraft, but I did find that Edward Sorensen was the first to invent radio-controlled aircraft that could fly out of sight. Previously, radio-controlled aircraft could only be operated within visual sight of the ground pilot."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the radio controlled aircraft that Edward Sorensen invented."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "His invention was the first to be able to know from a ground terminal what the airplane was doing, such as climbing, altitude, banking, direction, rpm and other instrumentation and without these patents the early radio-controlled aircraft could only operate within visual sight of the ground pilot."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did Edward Sorensen create any other inventions?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
    ],
    "topic": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
    "ground_truth_ctx": []
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "History of unmanned aerial vehicles",
        "text": "The true inventor of a radio-controlled aircraft that could fly out of sight was Edward M. Sorensen as evidenced by his US patents. His invention was the first to be able to know from a ground terminal what the airplane was doing, such as climbing, altitude, banking, direction, rpm and other instrumentation. Without these patents the early radio-controlled aircraft could only operate within visual sight of the ground pilot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled model",
        "text": "Radio control has been around since Nikola Tesla demonstrated a remote control boat in 1898. World War II saw increased development in radio control technology. The Luftwaffe used controllable winged bombs for targeting Allied ships. During the 1930s the Good brothers Bill and Walt pioneered vacuum tube based control units for R/C hobby use. Their \"Guff\" radio controlled plane is on display at the National Aerospace museum. Ed Lorenze published a design in Model Airplane News that was built by many hobbyists. Later, after WW2, in the late 1940s to mid 1950 many other R/C designs emerged and some were sold commercially, Berkeley's Super Aerotrol, was one such example."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kurt Schreckling",
        "text": "His design was constructed using hand tools, and has a wooden compressor and a bent metal gas turbine. It was fitted into a radio-controlled aircraft that flew successfully. He won various prizes and wrote books about this field of research."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "In 1917, Archibald Low as head of the secret RFC experimental works at Feltham, was the first person to use radio control successfully on an aircraft, an \"Aerial Target\". It was \"piloted\" from the ground by future world aerial speed record holder Henry Segrave. Low's systems encoded the command transmissions as a countermeasure to prevent enemy intervention. By 1918 the secret D.C.B. Section of the Royal Navy's Signals School, Portsmouth under the command of Eric Robinson V.C. used a variant of the Aerial Target\u2019s radio control system to control from \u2018mother\u2019 aircraft different types of naval vessels including a submarine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "During World War I American inventor John Hays Hammond, Jr. developed many techniques used in subsequent radio control including developing remote controlled torpedoes, ships, anti-jamming systems and even a system allowing his remote-controlled ship targeting an enemy ship's searchlights. In 1922 he installed radio control gear on the obsolete US Navy battleship USS \"Iowa\" so it could be used as a target ship (sunk in gunnery exercise in March 1923)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robot",
        "text": "In 1903, the Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo demonstrated a radio control system called \"Telekino\", which he wanted to use to control an airship of his own design. Unlike the previous systems, which carried out actions of the 'on/off' type, Torres device was able to memorize the signals received to execute the operations on its own and could carry out to 19 different orders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "In 1904, \"Bat\", a Windermere steam launch, was controlled using experimental radio control by its inventor, [Jack Kitchen]. In 1909 the French inventor Gabet demonstrated what he called his \"Torpille Radio-Automatique\"\", a radio-controlled torpedo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "The earliest examples of electronically guided model aircraft were hydrogen-filled model airships of the late 19th century. They were flown as a music hall act around theater auditoriums using a basic form of spark-emitted radio signal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane",
        "text": "The autopilot equipment was already designed, but the radio control system hadn't been fully developed, so while the hangars were being built at Copiague, Sperry turned his attention to this aspect, purchasing rights to a number of patented radio-related inventions. Ultimately, though, the radio control systems were not used on the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane. Later, in 1922, the system was installed on several Verville-designed planes along with gear for the Army Air Services engineering division. These aircraft successfully hit their targets from ranges of 30, 60 and ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radioplane Company",
        "text": "Denny approached (or was approached by) Nelson Paul Whittier, grandson of California Quaker pioneer, John Greenleaf Whittier. The two formed Reginald Denny Industries in 1935 to develop a new radio controlled model, and were joined by electronics engineer Kenneth Case. For the next three years they attempted to produce a design known as the Radioplane One, or RP-1, essentially a greatly enlarged model airplane, complete with a fuselage area that included the step where a windscreen was in a real aircraft. The control system was based on a telephone dial: dial 4 for elevator down, and then 2 to stop the motion. Due to the latencies in the system, the aircraft were found to be almost uncontrollable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane",
        "text": "Before World War I, the possibility of using radio to control aircraft intrigued many inventors. One of these, Elmer Sperry, succeeded in arousing the US Navy's interest. Sperry had been perfecting gyroscopes for naval use since 1896 and established the Sperry Gyroscope Company in 1910. In 1911, airplanes had only been flying for eight years, and yet Sperry became intrigued with the concept of applying radio control to them. He realized that for radio control to be effective, automatic stabilization would be essential, so he decided to adapt his naval gyro-stabilizers (which he had developed for destroyers)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aviation communication",
        "text": "Nonetheless, wireless communication systems in aircraft remained experimental and would take years to successfully develop a practical prototype. The early radios were heavy in weight and were unreliable; additionally, ground forces rarely used radio because signals were easily intercepted and targeted by opposing forces. At the beginning of World War I, aircraft were not typically equipped with wireless equipment. Instead, soldiers used large panel cut outs to distinguish friendly forces. These cut outs could also be used as a directional device to help pilots navigate back to friendly and familiar airfields."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled model",
        "text": "In the late 1950s, RC hobbyists had mastered tricks to manage proportional control of the flight control surfaces, for example by rapidly switching on and off reed systems, a technique called \"skillful blipping\" or more humorously \"nervous proportional\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward George Bowen",
        "text": "Installing radar in an aircraft was difficult because of the size and weight of the equipment and the aerial. Furthermore, the equipment had to operate in a vibrating and cold environment. Over the next few years Bowen and his group solved most of these problems. For example, he solved the problem of the power supply in aircraft by using an engine-driven alternator, and he encouraged Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) to produce the first radio-frequency cables with solid polythene insulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eric Clutton",
        "text": "In the United States, he built a business out of designing model aircraft for radio control, and a line of diesel engines to power them under the name \"Doctor Diesel\", continuing his line of experimental model designs since his childhood in the UK [needs citation from AeroModeller.]"
      },
      {
        "title": "C. E. Bowden",
        "text": "Following the Second World War, he pioneered radio-controlled flight and also made significant innovations with radio-controlled boats and the design of both model and full-size yachts. He wrote prolifically on these subjects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lucien Rouzet",
        "text": "In the military field, General Ferri\u00e9 had a major communication network built, but the transmitting stations were too heavy to be carried aboard aeroplanes. Therefore, engineers tried to minimise the weight-to-power ratio, and short-distance connections between planes and the ground became possible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Remote control",
        "text": "Wired and wireless remote control was developed in the latter half of the 19th century to meet the need to control unmanned vehicles (for the most part military torpedoes). These included a wired version by German engineer Werner von Siemens in 1870, and radio controled ones by British engineer Ernest Wilson and C. J. Evans (1897) and a prototype that inventor Nikola Tesla demonstrated in New York in 1898. In 1903 Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo demonstrated a radio controlled boat using a system called \"Telekino\", which he hoped to use to control a dirigible airship of his own design. The first remote-controlled model airplane flew in 1932, and the use of remote control technology for military purposes was worked on intensively during the Second World War, one result of this being the German Wasserfall missile."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "The transmitter radio broadcasts using AM or FM using PPM or PCM. Each aircraft needs a way to determine which transmitter to receive communications from, so a specific channel within the frequency band is used for each aircraft (except for 2.4\u00a0GHz band, and amateur radio-only 70\u00a0cm systems; which use spread spectrum modulation, described below)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prandtl-D",
        "text": "Initially, each aircraft was radio operated with a hobby-grade controller and launched with a bungee cord system. Later flight tests switched from a bungee launch method to a towed launch system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Assen Jordanoff",
        "text": "Aside from his many patents on plane design, Jordanoff also introduced the so-called \"Jordaphone\" from his Electronics company, a wireless telephone, with an answering function and amplifier and intercom functions. It was the first of its kind, and preceded the modern inventions of the answering machine and tape recorder by 5 to 30 years. Another invention was the \"Frozen Gasoline System\" for airplanes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Unmanned aerial vehicle",
        "text": "The Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo introduced a radio-based control-system called the \"Telekino\" at the Paris Academy of Science in 1903 with the intention of testing an airship of his own design without risking human lives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane",
        "text": "During the early post-war years, the Navy sponsored similar projects. For the first program, Witteman-Lewis aircraft and Norden-designed gyrostabilizers were used, but the results were no better than those achieved by the Sperrys. In 1921, the program was reoriented to focus on the radio control aspect. The control equipment was developed at the radio laboratory at NAS Anacostia (later the Naval Research Laboratory). In 1923, tests began, and were relatively successful, but interest waned and the project lapsed in 1925. Over a decade was to pass before the Navy seriously undertook the development of target drones and pilotless aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "Getting rid of the wires via using a new wireless technology, radio, appeared in the late 1890s. In 1897 British engineer Ernest Wilson and C. J. Evans patented a radio controlled torpedo or demonstrated remote radio control boats on the Thames river (accounts of what they did vary). At an 1898 exhibition at Madison Square Garden, Nikola Tesla demonstrated a small unmanned boat that used a coherer based radio control. With an eye towards selling the idea to the US government as a torpedo, Tesla's 1898 patent included a clockwork frequency changer so an enemy couldn't take control of the device."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled model",
        "text": "With the electronics revolution, single-signal channel circuit design became redundant and instead, radios provided coded signal streams which a servomechanism could interpret. Each of these streams replaced two of the original 'channels', and, confusingly, the signal streams began to be called 'channels'. So an old on/off 6-channel transmitter which could drive the rudder, elevator and throttle of an aircraft was replaced with a new proportional 3-channel transmitter doing the same job. Controlling all the primary controls of a powered aircraft (rudder, elevator, ailerons and throttle) was known as 'full-house' control. A glider could be 'full-house' with only three channels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward George Bowen",
        "text": "A Committee for the Scientific Study of Air Defence had been established under the chairmanship of Henry Tizard. Before the first meeting of that committee in early 1935, the Government asked Watson-Watt whether an intense beam of radio waves, a \"death ray\", could bring down an aircraft. Watson-Watt reported that a \"death ray\" was impracticable, but suggested that radio waves might be used to detect, rather than destroy, enemy aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burgess Model I",
        "text": "When he resumed flying activity in the fall of 1914, Dargue began testing a small radio transmitter-receiver built by a local unit, and was damaged again in October experimenting with antenna location. Ultimately a wire antenna was paid out behind the aircraft in flight from a reel. Further problems of engine noise, ignition interference, burnout of the signal detector by proximity of the transmitter, and loss of calibration from engine vibration were all overcome. On December 1, 1914, Dargue and 1st Lt. Joseph O. Mauborgne, the Signal Corps officer in charge of the Fort Mills radio station, began a series seven test flights of the radio. During the third, on December 11, the first two-way telegraphy communication with the ground was performed, at a range of for communication with the ground and for the return signal to the airplane, flying at an altitude of , the first radio signal received by an airplane. On the last flight, December 16, using a switch designed to alternate between receiving and transmitting modes, Mauborgne conducted the first airborne \"conversation\" with the ground."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Robert Mills",
        "text": "Mills published \"Radio Techniques for Automatic Systems in the Air\" in the Journal of Navigation in 1960"
      },
      {
        "title": "Remote control",
        "text": "Archibald Low was known as the \"father of radio guidance systems\" for his pioneering work on guided rockets and planes during the First World War. In 1917, he demonstrated a remote-controlled aircraft to the Royal Flying Corps and in the same year built the first wire-guided rocket. As head of the secret RFC experimental works at Feltham, A. M. Low was the first person to use radio control successfully on an aircraft, an \"Aerial Target\". It was \"piloted\" from the ground by future world aerial speed record holder Henry Segrave. Low's systems encoded the command transmissions as a countermeasure to prevent enemy intervention. By 1918 the secret D.C.B. Section of the Royal Navy's Signals School, Portsmouth under the command of Eric Robinson V.C. used a variant of the Aerial Target\u2019s radio control system to control from \u2018mother\u2019 aircraft different types of naval vessels including a submarine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "In 1903, the Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo introduced a radio based control system called the \"\"Telekino\" at the Paris Academy of Science. In the same year, he obtained a patent in France, Spain, Great Britain, and the United States. It was intended as a way of testing a dirigible of his own design without risking human lives. To avoid the expense of conceivably crashing his airship prototype he built his demonstration device into a boat. Unlike the previous systems, which carried out actions of the 'on/off' type, Torres device was able to memorize the signals received to execute the operations on its own and could carry out to 19 different orders. In 1906, in the presence of an audience which included the King of Spain, Torres demonstrated the invention in the Port of Bilbao, guiding a boat from the shore with people on board. Later, he would try to apply the Telekino to projectiles and torpedoes but had to abandon the project for lack of financing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rasmus S\u00f8rnes",
        "text": "During World War II, S\u00f8rnes built another radio transmitter for the purpose of clandestine communication, based on his earlier device. The radio he built during the war, was later described as \"a masterpiece of technical elegance and intelligent camouflage\" by historians. The radio itself is on display in the Norwegian Museum of Science and Technology () in Oslo. In 1945, the exhibition \"The illicit Norway\" displayed S\u00f8rnes' radio as an example of an ingenious solution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sergey Oulianine",
        "text": "In 1904 Oulianine started research in remote control of aircraft, ships and land vehicles (in 1910 he patented a technology of remote control and in October 1915 a radio-controlled boat of his construction sailed from Kronstadt to Peterhof)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "During World War II, the U.S. Army and Navy used radio controlled planes called Radioplanes as artillery target drones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "US frequency chart available at ,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "The idea of controlling unmanned vehicles (for the most part in an attempt to improve the accuracy of torpedoes for military purposes) predates the invention of radio. The latter half of the 1800s saw development of many such devices, connected to an operator by wires, including the first practical application invented by German engineer Werner von Siemens in 1870."
      },
      {
        "title": "Benjamin Miessner",
        "text": "In June 1916 he married Eleanor M. Schulz in Buffalo, NY. They had two daughters, Jane and Mary. That same year he returned to the Navy as an Expert Radio Aid for Aviation where he developed radio systems for airplanes and published his book \"\u201cRadiodynamics, the wireless control of torpedoes and other mechanisms\u201d\". During World War I, he was stationed in Pensacola, Florida where he was in charge of the radio laboratory of the Navy Aeronautic Station."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled model",
        "text": "The first general use of radio control systems in models started in the late 1940s with single-channel self-built equipment; commercial equipment came soon thereafter. Initially remote control systems used escapement, (often rubber driven) mechanical actuation in the model. Commercial sets often used ground standing transmitters, long whip antennas with separate ground poles and single vacuum tube receivers. The first kits had dual tubes for more selectivity. Such early systems were invariably super regenerative circuits, which meant that two controllers used in close proximity would interfere with one another. The requirement for heavy batteries to drive tubes also meant that model boat systems were more successful than model aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "A radio-controlled aircraft (often called RC aircraft or RC plane) is a small flying machine that is controlled remotely by an operator on the ground using a hand-held radio transmitter. The transmitter communicates with a receiver within the craft that sends signals to servomechanisms (servos) which move the control surfaces based on the position of joysticks on the transmitter. The control surfaces, in turn, affect the orientation of the plane."
      },
      {
        "title": "Y-Control for fighters",
        "text": "The system worked by using sites known as Y-Stations. Each station had 5 radio operation systems. Each consisted of an omnidirectional transmitter an omnidirectional receiver and a direction finder. This allowed each site to control 5 fighters. The transmitter would send out a signal which was picked up by the FuG16ZY in the fighter (known as the Y Fighter), this repeated the signal back on a frequency 1.9\u00a0MHz lower than the transmitted frequency. Using the direction finder (DF) the angle was measured. Range was calculated by a timing system connected to both the transmitter and the omnidirectional receiver. Height could not be measured. However voice could be transposed onto the ranging signal allowing the ground controller to talk and listen to the pilot of the plane he was controlling, hence the pilot could report altitude when requested to do so. Controlling a single fighter was of not much use in practice so the Luftwaffe developed group control, where a Y-Fighter was part of a group of fighters intercepting an allied bomber stream, The Y-Fighter was painted a distinctive colour and the rest of the flight simple followed him. The flight leader could also listen into the ground controller channel and hear what the ground controller was saying while also being able to talk to the flight. The Y-Fighter was never the group controller. the system was susceptible to jamming on the FuG16ZY wavelength but was at least partially usable for the rest of the war. Controllable range was approx 250\u00a0km depending on aircraft height. One source mentions that relay stations could be used to extend the radio range. The relay station would consist of a single transmitter/receiver/DF finder system without the rest of the communication and guidance systems of the main Y site. The radio system used was a modified FuG16 radio. The Y-Site also contained other systems such as radio communications for talking to area control."
      },
      {
        "title": "Avionics",
        "text": "Radio communication was first used in aircraft just prior to World War I. The first airborne radios were in zeppelins, but the military sparked development of light radio sets that could be carried by heavier-than-air craft, so that aerial reconnaissance biplanes could report their observations immediately in case they were shot down. The first experimental radio transmission from an airplane was conducted by the US Navy in August 1910. The first aircraft radios transmitted by radiotelegraphy, so they required two-seat aircraft with a second crewman to tap on a telegraph key to spell out messages by Morse code. During World War I, AM voice two way radio sets were made possible in 1917 by the development of the triode vacuum tube, which were simple enough that the pilot in a single seat aircraft could use it while flying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ross Gunn",
        "text": "From 1927 to 1947, Gunn worked at the Naval Research Laboratory. He was the author of over 28 papers, and received 45 patents. He designed radio devices for controlling aircraft, which were used in the development of the first drones. He was one of the first to appreciate the possibility of using nuclear power for submarine propulsion. During World War II he was involved in the development of thermal diffusion technology for isotope separation."
      },
      {
        "title": "William F. Milliken Jr.",
        "text": "As head of Flight Research at Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory (CAL) he initiated a program for measuring aircraft dynamics in flight using automatic control techniques, accomplishing the first frequency response measurements. Also, as co-inventor of the variable stability aircraft (circa 1948) he was involved in pioneering stability augmentation and modern electrohydraulic flight control systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hendrik Wade Bode",
        "text": "With the inexorable onset of World War II, Bode turned his sights on the military applications of his Control Systems research, a change of direction that would last in varying degree to the end of his career. He came to the service of his country by working on the \"Director Project\" at Bell Labs (funded by National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) Section D-2), developing automatic anti-aircraft control systems, whereby radar information was used to provide data about the location of the enemy aircraft, which was then fed back to the anti-aircraft artillery servomechanisms enabling automatic, radar-augmented enemy aircraft ballistic tracking, in other words, automatic shooting down of enemy aircraft with the help of radar. The servomotors used were both electrically and hydraulically powered, the latter being used mainly for positioning the heavy anti-aircraft guns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Several materials are commonly used for construction of the airframe of model radio-controlled aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Brooke-Popham",
        "text": "In 1915, the capabilities of radio were still very limited. Observers in aircraft could not easily communicate with men on the ground. Men on the ground could not easily reply. In 1915, a technique was developed whereby troops on the ground could send messages to aviators by laying strips of white cloth on the ground. These strips are referred to as \"Popham strips\" in a novel set in the period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Josephus Daniels",
        "text": "Daniels believed in government ownership of armor-plate factories, and of telephones and telegraphs. At the end of the First World War, he made a serious attempt to have the Navy permanently control all radio transmitters in the United States. If he had succeeded amateur radio would have ended, and it is likely that radio broadcasting would have been substantially delayed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Full-scale aircraft designs from every era of aviation, from the \"Pioneer Era\" and World War I's start, through to the 21st century, have been modeled as radio-control scale model aircraft. Builders of RC Scale aircraft can enjoy the challenge of creating a controllable, miniature aircraft that merely \"looks\" like the full scale original in the air with no \"fine details\", such as a detailed cockpit, or seriously replicate many operable features of a selected full scale aircraft design, even down to having operable cable-connected flight control surfaces, illuminated navigation lighting on the aircraft's exterior, realistically retracting landing gear, etc. if the full-sized aircraft possessed such features as part of its design."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victor Roffey",
        "text": "In a newspaper interview in January 1931, Roffey said he had no immediate plans to put his aircraft to any particular use."
      },
      {
        "title": "British unmanned aerial vehicles of World War I",
        "text": "The Royal Navy also continued to develop their remote radio control assets. The pre-dreadnought battleship HMS \"Agamemnon\" was converted into a remote control target ship in 1920."
      },
      {
        "title": "RAE Larynx",
        "text": "It used autopilot principles developed by Professor Archibald Low and already used in the Ruston Proctor AT, a radio controlled biplane that was intended to be used against German Zeppelin bombers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vickers Wild Goose",
        "text": "By 1949 he was ready to build a large-scale radio-controlled flying model."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "Radio control systems of this era were generally electromechanical in nature, using small metal \"fingers\" or \"reeds\" with different resonant frequencies each of which would operate one of a number of different relays when a particular frequency was received. The relays would in turn then activate various actuators acting on the control surfaces of the missile. The controller's radio transmitter would transmit the different frequencies in response to the movements of a control stick; these were typically on/off signals. The radio gear used to control the rudder function on the American-developed Azon guided ordnance, however, was a fully proportional control, with the \"ailerons\", solely under the control of an on-board gyroscope, serving merely to keep the ordnance from rolling."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Randall (physicist)",
        "text": "When the war began in 1939, Oliphant was approached by the Admiralty about the possibility of building a radio source that operated at microwave frequencies. Such a system would allow a radar using it to see small objects like the periscopes of submerged U-boats. The Air Ministry radar researchers at Bawdsey Manor had also expressed an interest in a 10\u00a0cm system, as this would greatly reduce the size of the transmission antennas, making them much easier to fit in the nose of aircraft, as opposed to being mounted on the wings and fuselage as in their current systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1890\u20131945)",
        "text": "1924 Radio altimeter\n* A radio altimeter measures altitude above the terrain presently beneath an aircraft or spacecraft. This type of altimeter provides the distance between the plane and the ground directly below it, as opposed to a barometric altimeter which provides the distance above a pre-determined datum, usually sea level. In 1924, American engineer Lloyd Espenschied invented the radio altimeter. However, it took 14 years before Bell Labs was able to put Espenschied's device in a form that was adaptable for aircraft use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "Radio control\n--History.\n--Second World War.\n--Radio-controlled models.\n--Modern military and aerospace applications.\n--Industrial radio remote control.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kinjiro Okabe",
        "text": "Okabe developed an experimental apparatus using a VHF transmitter and receiver with Yagi-Uda antennas separated some distance. In 1936, he successfully detected a passing aircraft by the Doppler-interference method; this was the first recorded demonstration in Japan of aircraft detection by radio. With this success, Okabe's research interest switched from magnetrons to VHF equipment for target detection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kehl-Strasbourg radio control link",
        "text": "In case of a heavy jamming attack against the radio control, the Germans used a wired remote control system. It could easily be swapped in place against the radio system. In the plane radio transmitter S203 was swapped against the audio amplifier S207. In the weapon, VHF receiver E230 was replaced by audio receiver E237. Both plane and bomb were equipped with a dual wire reel each, giving a maximum distance of 12\u00a0km. Wire remote control system was developed by Sta\u00dffurter Rundfunk GmbH"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wilhelm Runge",
        "text": "At Telefunken's development laboratory, Runge experimented with high-frequency transmitters and had the tube department working on cm-wavelength devices. In the summer of 1935, Runge, now Director of Telefunken's Radio Research Laboratory, initiated an internally funded project in radio-based detection technology. A-50\u00a0cm (600-MHz) receiver and 0.5-W transmitter were built, both using Barkhausen-Kurz tubes. With the antennas placed flat on the ground some distance apart, he arranged for an aircraft to fly overhead and found that the receiver gave a strong Doppler-beat interference signal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled model",
        "text": "The aircraft use many different methods of propulsion, ranging from brushed or brushless electric motors, to internal combustion engines, to the most expensive gas turbines. The fastest aircraft, dynamic slope soarers, can reach speeds of over by dynamic soaring, repeatedly circling through the gradient of wind speeds over a ridge or slope. Newer jets can achieve above in a short distance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russell and Sigurd Varian",
        "text": "Sigurd was interested in all-weather navigation systems, and suggested to Russell that together they could create a radio-based technology using microwaves that could detect airplanes at night or in clouds. Russell agreed, and they both quit their jobs, set up their own lab at Halcyon, and began developing plans for a device that could precisely determine the location and direction of an airplane. They initially attempted to create a radio compass, but could not develop a successful design, partly as a consequence of their isolation. They ultimately sought assistance from Russell's college roommate, William Webster Hansen, who was by then a professor at Stanford. With Hansen's help, they came to the attention of the head of the Stanford physics department, David Webster, who hired them in 1936 to work at the university in exchange for lab space, $100 a year for supplies, and an agreement that Stanford University would have half of the royalties for any patents they obtained."
      },
      {
        "title": "C. Lorenz AG",
        "text": "After Held's death, the controlling stock became available and was eventually bought in 1930 by \"Standard Elektrizit\u00e4tsgesellschaft\", a subsidiary of the American corporation International Telephone and Telegraph (ITT); Lorenz as a firm, however, continued to operate independently. In 1932, development of a new type of radio navigation system \u2013 soon known worldwide as the Lorenz beam \u2013 gave a major extension of their aircraft radio business. Lorenz patented the ferrite antenna in 1935, and thereafter it was used in most home receivers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "Crystal-controlled superheterodyne receivers with better selectivity and stability made control equipment more capable and at lower cost. Multi-channel developments were of particular use to aircraft, which really needed a minimum of three control dimensions (yaw, pitch and motor speed), as opposed to boats, which required only two or one."
      },
      {
        "title": "Forward air control",
        "text": "As close air support began during World War I, there were pioneer attempts to direct the trench strafing by the ground troops marking their positions by laying out signal panels on the ground, firing flares, or lighting smoke signals. Aircrews had difficulty communicating with the ground troops; they would drop messages or use messenger pigeons. Benno Fiala von Fernbrugg, an Austro-Hungarian pilot, pioneered the use of radio for fire control; at the Battle of Gorlice he used a radio transmitter in his airplane to send changes via morse code to an artillery battery on the ground. Colonel Billy Mitchell also equipped his Spad XVI command airplane with a radio, and the Germans experimented with radios in their Junkers J.I all-metal-structure, armored-fuselage sesquiplanes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stearman-Hammond Y-1",
        "text": "Two Y-1S, serial numbers 0908 and 0909,were used for radio controlled development trials by the United States Navy as the JH-1. A successful unmanned radio-controlled flight was made with a JH-1 drone on 23 December 1937 at the Coast Guard Air Station, Cape May, N.J. Take-off and landing was controlled via a land based radio set; for flight maneuvers, control was shifted to an airborne TG-2. KLM purchased a Y-1 (\"PH-APY\") for use in training their pilots in tricycle undercarriage. The Royal Air Force also evaluated a former KLM Y-1S in the 1940s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lawrence J. Fogel",
        "text": "During 1948-1949, shortly after completing his bachelor's degree in electrical engineering from New York University, Lawrence Fogel worked at Watson Laboratories (USAF) computing radiation patterns for VHF and UHF radio direction finders for use in ground-to-air operations. He designed feedback amplifier filters to improve the signal-to-noise ratio for these radio systems. At Eglin Air Force Base, he controlled the final flight test program for the Diversity Antenna Array. Between 1950 and 1953, Fogel worked for Coles Signal Laboratory (U.S. Army Signal Corps) as an engineer in charge of the installation of electronic communication and navigation equipment in Army aircraft and helicopters. He completed his master's degree in electrical engineering at this same time from Rutgers University. During his time with Stavid Engineering, Inc. (New Jersey) between 1953 and 1956, he directed field operations of the Regulus Missile guidance system for submarines and also assisted with the design of flight instrumentation, communications, and electronics for aircraft and helicopters. As a part of this research, he formulated a solution for a mathematical model of the human operator as part of an aircraft flight control system that included such qualities as anticipation, development of a computer facility incorporating such a mode for use in the design of more effective human-machine relations. His efforts also led to five patents between 1958 and 1961 regarding active noise cancellation to reduce noise in helicopter cockpit environments for improved communication. These were the first patents in noise-cancelling headphone systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "The earliest model radio-controlled aircraft were constructed of wood covered with paper. Later, plastic film such as Monokote came to be widely used as a covering material. Wood has relatively low cost, high specific Young's modulus (stiffness per unit weight), good workability and strength, and can be assembled with adhesives of various types. Light-weight strong varieties such as balsa wood are preferred; basswood, pine and spruce are also used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Operation Orator",
        "text": "Websites\n* {{cite web |ref={{harvid|AWM|nd}}\n* {{cite web |ref={{harvid|CWGC|2018}}\n* {{cite web |ref={{harvid|Hermansson|2016}}\n* {{cite web |ref={{harvid|RAF Museum|2016}}\n* {{cite web |first=Kjell |last=Sorenson |year=2011 |work=flyvrak\u00a9 World War II Aircraft Wreck Sites in Norway & Other Countries |title=Handley Page HP52 Hampden Tsatsa, Sarek Sweden |url=https://ktsorens.tihlde.org/flyvrak/tsatsa.html |access-date=16 April 2018}}"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electro-hydraulic actuator",
        "text": "Aircraft were originally controlled by small aerodynamic surfaces operated by cables, attached to levers that magnified the pilot's input, using mechanical advantage. As aircraft grew in size and performance, the aerodynamic forces on these surfaces grew to the point where it was no longer possible for the pilot to manually control them across a wide range of speeds - controls with enough advantage to control the aircraft at high speed left the aircraft with significant overcontrol at lower speeds when the aerodynamic forces were reduced. Numerous aircraft in the early stages of World War II suffered from these problems, notably the Mitsubishi Zero and P-38 Lightning."
      },
      {
        "title": "AMES Type 7",
        "text": "In 1935, the newly formed Tizard Committee contacted well-known radio expert Robert Watson-Watt to pass comment on claims of a German death ray device based on radio waves. For help, Watt turned to his assistant Arnold Wilkins, who performed a number of back of the envelope calculations that demonstrated the idea was infeasible. When Watt asked him what use radio might be in an air war, Wilkins recalled reading a technical manual a few years earlier that mentioned the effect of aircraft on shortwave signals. The two prepared a memo stating that the death ray was highly improbable, but they should consider developing an aircraft detection system. Hugh Dowding, at that time the Air Member for Supply and Organisation in charge of research and development, was intensely interested and demanded a practical demonstration. Watt and Wilkins quickly arranged one in the Daventry Experiment. When he saw the signals, Watt claims to have exclaimed \"Britain has become an island again!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean Piccard",
        "text": "Piccard with his wife co-invented the plastic balloon and he designed and on 24 June 1936 flew a cellophane balloon built by his students. The balloon was unmanned, 25 feet (7.6 meters) wide, and made of tapered 33-foot (10-meter) gores and one-inch (2.54-cm) 3M Scotch transparent tape. Jean Barnhill, Harold Larson and Lloyd Schumacher cut the gores that fit together like an \"orange peel.\" Harold Hatlestad built the radio equipment and Robert Silliman built the telemeter that sent temperature and pressure data back. Robert Hatch and Silliman maintained radio contact from a station on the roof of the university armory until the radio's battery froze from insufficient insulation. The balloon floated at 50,000 feet, and in ten hours traveled over 600 miles to near Huntsville, Arkansas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Focke-Wulf Fw 190",
        "text": "Most aircraft of the era used cables and pulleys to operate their controls. The cables tended to stretch, resulting in the sensations of \"give\" and \"play\" that made the controls less crisp and responsive, and required constant maintenance to correct. For the new design, the team replaced the cables with rigid pushrods and bearings to eliminate this problem. Another innovation was making the controls as light as possible. The maximum resistance of the ailerons was limited to , as the average man's wrist could not exert a greater force. The empennage (tail assembly) featured relatively small and well-balanced horizontal and vertical surfaces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harry Grindell Matthews",
        "text": "In 1911 Matthews said he had invented an Aerophone device, a radiotelephone, and transmitted messages between a ground station and an aeroplane from a distance of two miles. His experiments attracted government attention and on 4 July 1912 he visited Buckingham Palace. However, when the British Admiralty requested a demonstration of the Aerophone, Matthews demanded that no experts be present at the scene. When four of the observers dismantled part of the apparatus before the demonstration began and took notes, Matthews cancelled the demonstration and drove observers away."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Amateur radio license reserved frequency bands\n*50 and 53\u00a0MHz in the US and Canada (American amateurs allowed up to one watt [30 dBm] of output power)\n*433\u2013434\u00a0MHz Formerly used low-UHF band in Germany until the end of 2008, but is still permitted in Switzerland; and is also usable within both the US and Canada, most often implemented nowadays in North America with spread spectrum RF hardware (as on 2.4\u00a0GHz)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger W. Riehl",
        "text": "In 1960 he worked at the Dayton Aviation Radio Equipment (DARE Electronics, Inc.) as an engineer working on 2-way FM radio development. While at DARE he flew worldwide as a flight crew member testing navigation equipment for Air Force and Naval applications. He also obtained the FCC Second Class Technical license in 1960. He started a company called Riehl Engineering in 1960 working out of a room in his home. It was here that he first started working on his idea to design a digital solar-powered wristwatch device. He also designed and marketed a transistor ignition system called Spitfire This device claimed to keep an automobile engine in proper timing (up to ten times longer), and to increase horsepower by 20%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harald T. Friis",
        "text": "During the early 1930s Friis helped design the radio receiver used by Karl Jansky for radio astronomy, and with Edmond Bruce invented the rhombic antenna widely used for shortwave communications. In 1938 Friis became the director of the Holmdel Radio Laboratory developing microwave systems, where he and Alfred C. Beck designed the horn reflector antenna, which was widely used in AT&T's national microwave relay network in the 1960s. During World War\u00a0II, Friis invented a \"rocking horse\" mechanical scanner for radar used to locate enemy mortars. He also authorized research into the first germanium diodes (Teal, 1942)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oslo Report",
        "text": "Here, Mayer briefly described another remote-controlled system, this time for an aircraft instead of for a rocket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Curtiss JN Jenny",
        "text": "In a series of tests conducted at the US Army's Langley Field in Hampton, Virginia, in July and August 1917, the world's first \"plane-to-plane\" and \"ground-to-plane, and vice versa\" communications by radiotelephony (as opposed to radiotelegraphy which had been developed earlier) were made to and from modified US Army JN-4s by Western Electric Company (Bell Labs) design engineers Lewis M. Clement and Raymond Heising, the developers of the experimental wind generator-powered airborne wireless voice transmitter and receiver equipment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Wasson Sorensen",
        "text": "Royal Wasson Sorensen (April 25, 1882 \u2013 October 27, 1965) was the inventor of the vacuum switch, professor of electrical engineering and head of the electrical engineering department at California Institute of Technology, and was also noted for his work in high voltage transmissions and air pollution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Many countries reserve specific frequency bands (ranges) for radio-control use. Due to the longer range and potentially worse consequences of radio interference, model aircraft have exclusive use of their own frequency allocation in some countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward Whitehead Reid",
        "text": "The doctor used his aircraft for his own pleasure, but was happy to give joy rides, often supporting local charities in the process. He also used them for visiting patients who had a handy nearby field, for occasional aerobatic displays, and for visiting air meetings and races."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio control",
        "text": "The United Kingdom's World War One development of their radio-controlled 1917 'Aerial Target' (AT) and 1918 'Distant Control Boat' (DCB) using Low's control systems led eventually to their 1930s fleet of \"Queen Bee\". This was a remotely controlled unmanned version of the de Havilland \"Tiger Moth\" aircraft for Navy fleet gunnery firing practice. The \"Queen Bee\" was superseded by the similarly named \"Queen Wasp\", a purpose-built, target aircraft of higher performance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alfred Lee Loomis",
        "text": "In the late 1930s, Loomis's scientific team turned their attention to radio detection studies, building a crude microwave radar which they deployed in the back of a van. They drove it to a golf course and aimed it at the neighboring highway in order to track automobiles, then took it to the local airport, where they tracked small aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Canadian frequency chart available at"
      },
      {
        "title": "Radar",
        "text": "In 1935, Watson-Watt was asked to judge recent reports of a German radio-based death ray and turned the request over to Wilkins. Wilkins returned a set of calculations demonstrating the system was basically impossible. When Watson-Watt then asked what such a system might do, Wilkins recalled the earlier report about aircraft causing radio interference. This revelation led to the Daventry Experiment of 26 February 1935, using a powerful BBC shortwave transmitter as the source and their GPO receiver setup in a field while a bomber flew around the site. When the plane was clearly detected, Hugh Dowding, the Air Member for Supply and Research was very impressed with their system's potential and funds were immediately provided for further operational development. Watson-Watt's team patented the device in GB593017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harry Grindell Matthews",
        "text": "In 1914, after the outbreak of the First World War, the British government announced an award of \u00a325,000 to anyone who could create a weapon against zeppelins or remotely control unmanned vehicles. Matthews claimed that he had created a remote control system that used selenium cells. He successfully demonstrated it with a remotely controlled boat to representatives of the Admiralty at Richmond Park's Penn Pond. He received his \u00a325,000 but the admiralty never used the invention."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cole Palen",
        "text": "Palen collected aircraft spanning the period of the birth of aviation up to the start of World War II. He restored them and flew them regularly, and where surviving examples of early original aircraft did not exist, accurate reproductions powered by authentic, vintage-era engines were built. A sizable collection of veteran and vintage vehicles was also collected, nearly all in working order."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flambards (TV series)",
        "text": "For the aerial scenes radio controlled model period aircraft were used, the shots framed so that the small size of the aircraft was concealed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edwin Albert Link",
        "text": "As a young man, Edwin Link used apparatus from his father's automatic piano and organ factory (of the Link Piano and Organ Company) to produce an advertising airplane. A punched roll and pneumatic system from a player piano controlled sequential lights on the lower surfaces of the wings to spell out messages like \"ENDICOTT-JOHNSON SHOES\". To attract more attention, he added a set of small but loud organ pipes, also controlled by the roll."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward George Bowen",
        "text": "After a successful demonstration in February 1935 of the reflection of radio waves by an aircraft, the development of radar went ahead, and a team of five people including Bowen was set up at Orfordness under the cover of doing ionospheric research. Bowen's job was to assemble a transmitter, managing quickly to raise the pulse-power to over 100 kilowatts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hugh Longbourne Callendar",
        "text": "He was also a member of the Air Inventions Committee (AIC), alongside his son Guy Stewart. Here they performed experiments on equipment and aircraft engines using radiography, locating defects and fractures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camille Gutton",
        "text": "Next, from 1915 to 1919 as a member of the military radiotelegraphy team he applied his scientific knowledge to study of the properties of triodes, to improve the use of radio for communications, particularly in aviation, and to carry out advances that led to the growth broadcasting after the war."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yokomo",
        "text": ", as a child, was interested in building model warships and aircraft but became interested in radio-control models when he witnessed people playing with radio-controlled aircraft across the Arakawa River, thus he used monthly tuition money intended for cram school to buy himself an aircraft to participate in the hobby."
      },
      {
        "title": "LVG C.VI",
        "text": "Aircraft were equipped with a radio (morse;send only); transmissions were by means of an antenna which could be lowered below the aircraft when needed. The crew had parachutes and heated flying suits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled model",
        "text": "Radio-controlled model\n--History.\n--Design.\n--Mass production.\n----Hobby grade RC.\n--Types.\n----Aircraft.\n----Tanks.\n----Cars.\n----Logistic.\n----Helicopters.\n----Boats.\n----Submarines.\n----Combat robotics.\n--Power.\n----Internal combustion.\n----Electrical.\n--Controlling methods.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "RAF Harrington",
        "text": "Drops were also made using radio-navigation equipment. Supplies were also released in containers designed to be dropped from the existing equipment in the bomb bay. Pilots often flew several miles farther into enemy territory after completing the drop to disguise the actual drop zone in case enemy observers were tracking the plane's movement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lou Ottens",
        "text": "Ottens showed an interest in technology and tinkering from an early age. While in his teens, during the German occupation of the Netherlands in World War II, he constructed a radio that he would use to secretly listen to \"Radio Oranje\" broadcasts. In order to avoid Nazi jammers, Ottens constructed the radio with a primitive directional antenna. After the war, Ottens began attending the Delft University of Technology, where he studied mechanical engineering. While attending university, Ottens worked part time as a drafting technician for an X-ray technology factory. He graduated in 1952."
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal Flying Doctor Service",
        "text": "Along with motorised flight, another new technology was being developed that could replace the complicated means of communication by telegraph. Together with Alfred Traeger, Flynn began experiments with radio in the mid-1920s to enable remote outposts to contact a centralised medical base. The pedal radio was the first result of this collaboration. These were distributed gradually to stations, missions and other human residences around Cloncurry, the base site for a 50-watt transmitter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harlan D. Fowler",
        "text": "Despite having hearing difficulties and used a hearing aid, he continually lobbied the NACA with multiple ideas to improve aircraft. NACA engineer Ken Mort would help Fowler build models and test many of his aeronautical concepts. Ahead of his time, Fowler developed his flap designed when airplanes were still covered with fabric. Harlan Fowler retired in 1975 and died on April 27, 1982. His original research papers including technical reports, blueprints, original data, drawings, photographs, models of the Fowler flap, and air cargo container models are archived at San Jose State University. San Jose State University's \"Harlan D. Fowler Memorial Scholarship\" is named in his honor. He holds at least four patents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebecca/Eureka transponding radar",
        "text": "Pringle then arranged for Brown and himself to meet with the Commander in Chief (C-in-C) for Army Co-operation, Sir Arthur Barratt. In a long conversation, the two outlined the possibilities of radar for bombing, navigation and return-to-base roles, all of which proved to be interesting to Barratt. Barratt then stated that any system they did adopt would have to fit in single seat aircraft like the Tomahawk, which eliminated most of these possibilities. Both Pringle and Brown then focused on the use of a transponder system combined with existing radars to allow accurate bombing or delivery of supplies or troops by parachute, a role that would almost always be carried out by twin-engine aircraft or larger. If this broadcast on the 200\u00a0MHz frequency then being used by many British radars, any aircraft with AI or Air-to-Surface Vessel radar could pick it up."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-frequency identification",
        "text": "Similar technology, such as the Identification friend or foe transponder, was routinely used by the Allies and Germany in World War II to identify aircraft as friendly or hostile. Transponders are still used by most powered aircraft. An early work exploring RFID is the landmark 1948 paper by Harry Stockman, who predicted that \"Considerable research and development work has to be done before the remaining basic problems in reflected-power communication are solved, and before the field of useful applications is explored.\""
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who invented the radio-controlled aircraft?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I was unable to find the inventor of radio-controlled aircraft, but I did find that Edward Sorensen was the first to invent radio-controlled aircraft that could fly out of sight. Previously, radio-controlled aircraft could only be operated within visual sight of the ground pilot."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the radio controlled aircraft that Edward Sorensen invented."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "His invention was the first to be able to know from a ground terminal what the airplane was doing, such as climbing, altitude, banking, direction, rpm and other instrumentation and without these patents the early radio-controlled aircraft could only operate within visual sight of the ground pilot."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did Edward Sorensen create any other inventions?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are radio-controlled aircrafts used for?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Radio-controlled aircraft are used by hobbyists, scientists, government, and military organizations. They can be used, among other things, for experiments, gathering weather readings, aerodynamic modeling and testing, and as artillery target drones.",
      "They have many uses, some of which are commercial or hobby related. They can also be used by scientists, the government, and the military as in the cases of conducting experiments, gathering weather readings, conducting aerodynamic modeling and testing, public service duties (firefighting, disaster recovery, etc.) or in the service of a nation's military."
    ],
    "topic": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Radio-controlled aircraft:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Radio-controlled aircraft"
        ],
        "ctx": "Scientific, government and military organizations are also using RC aircraft for experiments, gathering weather readings, aerodynamic modeling and testing. Distinct from recreational civilian aeromodeling activities, Unmanned aerial vehicle (drones) or spy planes add video or autonomous capabilities, are used for public service (firefighting, disaster recovery, etc.) or commercial purposes, and if in the service of a nation's military, may be armed."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Radio-controlled aircraft:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Radio-controlled aircraft"
        ],
        "ctx": "Flying RC aircraft as a hobby grew substantially from the 2000s with improvements in the cost, weight, performance and capabilities of motors, batteries and electronics. A wide variety of models and styles is available."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Radio-controlled aircraft:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Radio-controlled aircraft",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "During World War II, the U.S. Army and Navy used radio controlled planes called Radioplanes as artillery target drones."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Radio-controlled aircraft:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Radio-controlled aircraft"
        ],
        "ctx": "Flying RC aircraft as a hobby grew substantially from the 2000s with improvements in the cost, weight, performance and capabilities of motors, batteries and electronics. A wide variety of models and styles is available."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Radio-controlled aircraft:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Radio-controlled aircraft"
        ],
        "ctx": "Scientific, government and military organizations are also using RC aircraft for experiments, gathering weather readings, aerodynamic modeling and testing. Distinct from recreational civilian aeromodeling activities, Unmanned aerial vehicle (drones) or spy planes add video or autonomous capabilities, are used for public service (firefighting, disaster recovery, etc.) or commercial purposes, and if in the service of a nation's military, may be armed."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Regulation of unmanned aerial vehicles",
        "text": "Permission from WPC is required for importing any radio controlled equipments in India, including drones/UAV. Drones imported into India, without prior permission from WPC and DGCA, will be confiscated by Customs at point of entry. Drones above 2\u00a0kg also requires Air Defense clearance(Flight permit); and drone pilot who is least 18 years old, and has completed the 'drone pilot training'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mobile phones on aircraft",
        "text": "On 19 January 2018, the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) permitted the use of mobile phones and internet access through Wi-Fi on-board all flights operating in Indian airspace. However, passengers are only permitted to make mobile phone calls when the aircraft is at an altitude of over . TRAI stated that the height restriction was to ensure \"compatibility with terrestrial mobile networks\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citizens band radio in India",
        "text": "After the aforesaid legislation, an amendment to the Use of low power equipment in the Citizen band 26.957 \u2013 27.283\u00a0MHz (Exemption from Licensing Requirement) Rules, 2005 (hereafter referred to as the \"Rules, 2005\" for brevity) was made vide Notification No G.S.R. 35(E) dated 10 January 2007 (published in \"Gazette of India\" \"Extraordinary\" dated 22 January 2007). By the Amendment, amongst other changes, Rule 4 was amended to include an opportunity of the user of the unlicensed equipment to relocate equipment, reduce its power, use special antennae, or discontinue use of such unlicensed radio equipment as exempted under the Rules, 2005. The Amendment also provided for a reasonable opportunity to be given to such user to explain the circumstances of usage which caused harmful interference with use of licensed equipment by a licensed user. The aforesaid amended Rules, 2005 are governing the licensing of CB radio equipment and its usage in India now.(No Reference regarding this anyone viewing please add)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Telegraph Act, 1885",
        "text": "Import and operation of radio scanners or radio communications receivers capable of listening to HF VHF UHF and satellite aircraft or maritime radio frequencies is tolerated if user has an appropriate amateur/maritime/aircraft radio licence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Telegraph Act, 1885",
        "text": "Use of any category of radio equipment for plane-spotting requires permission from Wireless Planning & Coordination (WPC) wing of the DoT."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur radio in India",
        "text": "In India, amateur radio is governed by the Indian Wireless Telegraphs (Amateur Service) Rules, 1978, the Indian Wireless Telegraph Rules, the Indian Telegraph Act, 1885 and the Information Technology Act, 2000. The WPC is also responsible for coordinating with the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Intelligence Bureau in running background checks before issuing amateur radio licences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aircraft Act",
        "text": "The Aircraft Act governs aviation in India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Telegraph Act, 1885",
        "text": "The ownership and operation of satellite communications systems and amateur radio equipment is strictly regulated in India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Various countries have regulations and restrictions on model aircraft operations, even for non-commercial purposes, typically imposed by the national civil aviation authority."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Telegraph Act, 1885",
        "text": "Amateur radio equipment can only be imported and operated in India with approval from Wireless Planning and Coordination Wing (WPC) of the DoT. Indian amateur radio licence and VU- call-sign is mandatory for operating any category of amateur radio equipment within Indian territory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur radio in India",
        "text": "Amateur radio operators from United States of America do not have automatic reciprocity in India. The use of US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) call-signs is prohibited under Indian law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wireless Planning & Coordination Wing",
        "text": "Permission from WPC is required for importing any radio equipments in India, including walkie-talkie, RC cars/boats, drones/UAV, ZigBee, Bluetooth devices, etc. Imports of radio equipments into India, without prior permission from WPC, will be confiscated by Customs at point of entry. Individual WPC permission is not required for phones, computers, and routers. The certification process includes the application, evaluation and testing of the product before the WPC certificate and ETA (Equipment Type Approval) certification number is issued. There is currently no factory inspection needed and the tests can also be conducted by an accredited testing facility outside of India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Media of India",
        "text": "On 16 November 2006, the Government of India released the community radio policy which allowed agricultural centres, educational institutions and civil society organisations to apply for a community-based FM broadcasting licence. Community radio is allowed 100 watt effective radiated power (ERP) with a maximum tower height of 30 Metres. The licence is valid for five years and one organisation can only get one licence, which is non-transferable and to be used for community development purposes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aircraft Act",
        "text": "The Aircraft Act, 1934 is an Act of Parliament in India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Telegraph Act, 1885",
        "text": "Passengers importing satellite telephone as baggage shall be required to declare the same to the Customs on arrival at immigration and customs checkpoints. Circular No.37 / 2010-Customs states that \"satellite phone declared to Customs shall be allowed clearance subject to production of permission for use from DoT, Government of India.\" (...) \"Satellite phones imported for use in India without a valid permission of DoT may be detained and appropriate action in accordance with the law may be initiated.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Citizens band radio in India",
        "text": "Citizens band radio in India\n--Legislation guiding usage of CB radio equipment.\n--Regulation in India.\n--CB band plan.\n--Popular use.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Air gun laws",
        "text": "The manufacturing, usage, and selling of air weapons (air rifles and air guns) in India are covered under the Arms Rule 2016, enforced through a gazette notification on July 15. Before the rule got enacted, India lacked any regulatory framework on the production and distribution of air guns. Earlier, even toy shops could sell air weapons. Schedule I, Category III, Clause f of Arms Rule, 2016 classified air weapons into two categories.\u00a0 Weapons having muzzle energy exceeding 20 joules or bore exceeding 4.5\u00a0mm (0.177-inch) belongs to category III(f)(i). Holders of weapons in this category require special licenses for possession and usage. Category III(f)(ii) weapons have a muzzle energy under 20 joules and bore below 4.5\u00a0mm. There is no license requirement for category III(f)(ii) weapons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "The frequencies are permitted under legislation, provided equipment meets the appropriate standards, bears the New Zealand supplier's Supplier Code Number and has the correct compliance documentation (Radio Spectrum Management information available on the RSM website)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citizens band radio in India",
        "text": "The establishment of, maintenance of, working with, possession of or dealing with in wireless equipment operating in citizens band was exempted from licensing under the Indian Telegraph Act, 1933 and the Indian Wireless Telegraphy Act, 1933, by Notification No G.S.R. 533(E) dated 12 August 2005 (published in the \"Gazette of India Extraordinary\" dated 12 August 2005)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "In the United States, radio-controlled model aircraft and unmanned aircraft generally may be subject to regulation by the following entities:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation",
        "text": "\"Article 30\": The aircraft of a state flying in or over the territory of another state shall only carry radios licensed and used in accordance with the regulations of the state in which the aircraft is registered. The radios may only be used by members of the flight crew suitably licensed by the state in which the aircraft is registered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur radio in India",
        "text": "Knowledge of the Indian Wireless Telegraph Rules and the Indian Wireless Telegraphs (Amateur Service) Rules are essential and always tested. The syllabus also includes international radio regulations related to the operation of amateur stations with emphasis on provisions of radio regulation nomenclature of the frequency and wavelength, frequency allocation to amateur radio service, measures to prevent harmful interference, standard frequency and time signals services across the world, identification of stations, distress and urgency transmissions, amateur stations, phonetic alphabets, and figure code are the other topics included in the portion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur radio in India",
        "text": "Amendment in Amateur Radio rule 2010 by WPC (actually based on 2009)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur radio licence categories in India",
        "text": "In a 2005 notification, the WPC proposed an amendment to the 1978 Amateur Service Rules in the rationalization of the licence categories to only two: the Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station Licence (General) and the Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station Licence (Restricted)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Wireless Telegraph (Amateur Service) Rules, 1978",
        "text": "The Indian Wireless Telegraphs (Amateur Service) Rules, 1978 is an act that governs amateur radio services in India. The Act covers the syllabus, rules and regulations and contains the various forms necessary to obtain a licence and handling equipment. The act is a sub part of Indian Wireless Telegraph Rules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil aviation in India",
        "text": "The ministry also controls aviation related autonomous organisations like the Airports Authority of India (AAI), Bureau of Civil Aviation Security (BCAS), Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi and Public Sector Undertakings including Air India, Pawan Hans Helicopters Limited and Hindustan Aeronautics Limited."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Fly List (India)",
        "text": "Offences are categorised into three levels punishable by lengthier bans. Inappropriate physical gestures, verbal harassment and unruly inebriation are Level 1 offences and are punishable with ban of up to 3 months. Physically abusive behaviour, including inappropriate touching, are Level 2 offences punishable by ban of up to 6 months. Any action that threatens the life of a passenger or attempts to damage to aircraft systems is a Level 3 offence and is punishable with a mandatory minimum ban of at least 2 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "DRDO AEW&CS",
        "text": "The first fully modified aircraft for India's Airborne Early Warning and Control System landed on Indian soil at Centre for Airborne Systems (CABS) Bangalore, a DRDO laboratory at 22:10 hours at HAL airport, Wednesday night at 22 August 2012. The acceptance of the aircraft was completed over a period of 15 days at Embraer Facilities in Brazil, by a joint team from CABS, Centre for Military Airworthiness and Certification (CEMILAC), Directorate General of Aeronautical Quality Assurance (DGAQA) and Indian Air Force (IAF)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Wireless Telegraph Rules",
        "text": "The Indian Wireless Telegraph Rules governs the use of wireless devices in India. The act was first drafted in 1949, and then in 1973. It also incorporates clauses from the Indian Telegraph Act, 1885."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur radio in India",
        "text": "The Indian Wireless Telegraph (Amateur Service) Rules, 2009 lists two licence categories:\n# Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station Licence (General)\n# Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station Licence (Restricted)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Telegraph Act, 1885",
        "text": "Signal acquisition of any category within the radio spectrum outside of public licence-free broadcast frequencies needs approval from Wireless Planning & Coordination (WPC) wing of the DoT. Reception of radio traffic from Government or law-enforcement and defence organisations is strictly forbidden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur radio in India",
        "text": "The Wireless and Planning and Coordination Wing (WPC)\u2014a division of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology\u2014regulates amateur radio in India. The WPC assigns call signs, issues amateur radio licences, conducts exams, allots frequency spectrum, and monitors the radio waves. Popular amateur radio events include daily ham nets, the annual Hamfest India, and regular DX contests."
      },
      {
        "title": "ETOPS",
        "text": "Government-owned aircraft (including military) do not have to adhere to ETOPS regulations."
      },
      {
        "title": "False flag",
        "text": "In December 1922 \u2013 February 1923, Rules concerning the Control of Wireless Telegraphy in Time of War and Air Warfare, drafted by a commission of jurists at the Hague, regulates:\n: Art. 3. A military aircraft must carry an exterior mark indicating its nationality and its military character.\n: Art. 19. The use of false exterior marks is forbidden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Transportes A\u00e9reos da \u00cdndia Portuguesa",
        "text": "The airports in the smaller enclaves of Daman and Diu had to be strategically oriented so as to respect Indian airspace and avoid any confrontations with the Indian authorities on take-off and landing. In 1957, the Indian government placed anti-aircraft guns just outside the air corridors and threatened to shoot down any planes violating the Indian airspace. The manoeuvres had to be precise and the pilots had to adhere to very strict routes. The margins of tolerance could not be exceeded by a mile. Such were the risks that the civilian aircraft had to face with respect to Daman and Diu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Telegraph Act, 1885",
        "text": "Amateur radio operators from United States of America do not have automatic reciprocity in India. Use of a FCC call-sign is prohibited by law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Directorate General of Civil Aviation (India)",
        "text": "Endeavour to promote safe and efficient Air Transportation through regulation and proactive safety oversight system.\n#Registration of civil aircraft\n#Certification of airports\n#Licensing to pilots, aircraft maintenance engineers, air traffic controllers and flight engineers, and conducting examinations and checks for that purpose\n#Carrying out amendments to the Aircraft Act, the Aircraft Rules and the Civil Aviation Requirements for complying with the amendments to ICAO Annexes, and initiating proposals for amendment to any other Act or for passing a new Act in order to give effect to an international Convention or amendment to an existing convention.\n#Formulation of standards of airworthiness for civil aircraft registered in India and grant of certificates of airworthiness to such aircraft\n#Conducting investigation into incidents and serious incidents involving aircraft up to 2250\u00a0kg AUW and taking accident prevention measures, including formulation of implementation of Safety Aviation Management Programmes\n#Checks on the proficiency of flight crew and other operational personnel such as flight dispatchers and cabin crew\n#Coordination of ICAO matters with all agencies, sending replies to State letters, and taking all necessary action arising out of the Universal Safety Oversight Audit Programme (USOAP) of ICAO.\n#Granting Air Operator's Certificates to Indian carriers and regulation of air transport services operating to/from/within/over India by Indian and foreign operators, including clearance of scheduled and non-scheduled flights of such operators\n#Approval of institutes engaged in flying training including simulator training, AME training, air traffic services training or any other training related with aviation, with a view to ensuring a high quality of training\n#Approval to aircraft maintenance, repair, design and manufacturing organizations and their continued oversight\n#A nodal agency for implementing Annex 9 provisions in India and for coordinating matters relating to facilitation at Indian airports, including holding meetings of the National Facilitation Committee DGCA Organisation Manual\n#Rendering advice to the Government on matters relating to air transport including bilateral air services agreements, on ICAO matters and generally on all technical matters relating to civil aviation, and to act as an overall regulatory and developmental body for civil aviation in the country\n#Keeping a check on aircraft noise and engine emissions in accordance with ICAO Annex 16 and collaborating with the environmental authorities in this matter, if required\n#Regulation and oversight of matters related to Air Navigation Services. Coordination at national level for flexi-use of air space by civil and military air traffic agencies and interaction with ICAO for provision of more air routes for civil use through Indian airspace\n#Promoting indigenous design and manufacture of aircraft and aircraft components by acting as a catalytic agent\n#Approving training programmes of operators for carriage of dangerous goods, issuing authorizations for carriage of dangerous goods, etc.\n#Safety Oversight of all entities approved/ certified/ licensed under the Aircraft Rules 1937."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau (India)",
        "text": "The agency was established by Order No. AV-15029/002/2008-CG dated May 26, 2011. The Aircraft (Investigation of Accidents and Incidents) Rules, 2012 came into effect on 5 July 2012. It provides for setting up of an Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of amateur radio frequency bands in India",
        "text": "A Restricted Grade licence holder was previously authorized the use of radio telephony emission on frequency bands below 30\u00a0MHz on submission of proof that 100 contacts have been made with other amateur operators using CW (Morse code). This has now since changed with restricted license holders being allowed phone (SSB) bands with the only restriction being the PEP(peak envelope power) limited to 50\u00a0W. Now Morse Code is not necessary for this exam"
      },
      {
        "title": "No Fly List (India)",
        "text": "A passenger on the list is prohibited from flying on any aircraft operated by the airline that placed them on the list for the duration of their ban. Other airlines may choose to deny service to the passenger but are not compelled to do so. A banned passenger has the right to appeal their ban within 60 days of committee decision. Appeals are reviewed by a panel set up by the Ministry of Civil Aviation. If the panel upholds the decision, the passenger may seek further redress through the High Court."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur radio licence categories in India",
        "text": "The 1978 regulations established five categories of Amateur radio licence in India. The regulations were revised in 2009 and now only two categories are issued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur radio licence categories in India",
        "text": "The Indian Wireless Telegraphs (Amateur Service) Rules, 1978 listed five licence categories:\n# Advanced Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station License\n# Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station License, Grade\u2013I\n# Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station License, Grade\u2013II\n# Restricted Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station License\n# Short Wave Listener's Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station License"
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian MRO Industry",
        "text": "The other key challenge which is faced by the industry is non availability of spare parts in the region which leads to frequent grounding of aircraft for lack of spares. This is driven by a lack of OEM support for the Indian market (which is gradually changing with growth in the market) and the custom duty regime which discourages MROs from stocking parts on behalf of customers. If an NSOP holder imports parts for his aircraft, it is exempt from duty, whereas, if an MRO were to provide him this facility, the customer will be liable to pay customs duty as well as service tax. On the suggestions and white paper published by Ravi Menon, founding family member of Air Works, custom tariff has been amended to exempt custom duty on the Aircraft spare parts imported by Indian MROs for use on aircraft maintained by them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Air HQ Communication Squadron, Indian Air Force",
        "text": "The Ministry of Defence regulates the special flights and stipulates as per relevant orders that, with the exception of the President, Vice President and Prime Minister, certain 'other entitled persons' (OEP) can also avail special flights. This includes and is limited to: Minister of Defence, Minister of Home Affairs, Minister of State in the Ministry of Defence, Chiefs of the three Defence Services, Defence Secretary, other Cabinet Ministers, Senior Service and Civilian Officers who are connected with Defence Organisation and Cabinet Secretary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur radio licence categories in India",
        "text": "The Indian Wireless Telegraph (Amateur Service) Rules, 2009 lists two licence categories:\n# Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station Licence, General\n# Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station Licence, Restricted"
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur radio in India",
        "text": "Indian amateur radio licences always bear mention of location of transmitting equipment. Portable and mobile amateur radio stations require explicit permission from WPC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil aviation in India",
        "text": "Civil aviation in India\n--History of civil aviation.\n--Aviation economy.\n----Market size.\n----Future.\n------UDAN-RCS scheme.\n------FDI.\n------MRO.\n------Vision 2040.\n--Management.\n----Regulations.\n----National Civil Aviation Policy 2016.\n----Partnerships.\n----Security.\n----Social and environmental responsibility.\n----Drones.\n--Organizations.\n----Ministry of Civil Aviation.\n----DGCA.\n----Airports Authority of India.\n--Infrastructure.\n----Civil Aviation Parks.\n----Airports.\n----Heliports.\n----Airlines.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil aviation in India",
        "text": "The industry is governed by the provisions of Aircraft Act. According to the '5/20 rule,\u2019 all airlines in India need five years of domestic flying experience and at least 20 aircraft in its fleet in order to fly abroad. The proposal to review or scrap the 5/20 rule had come up during the tenure of former aviation minister Ajit Singh and around the same time when Tata Group evinced interest in investing in airline sector."
      },
      {
        "title": "1996 Charkhi Dadri mid-air collision",
        "text": "The Directorate General of Civil Aviation subsequently made it mandatory for all aircraft flying in and out of India to be equipped with an airborne collision avoidance system. This set a worldwide precedent for mandatory use of Traffic Collision Avoidance System."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aviation in India",
        "text": "The President of India serves as the ex-officio commander-in-chief of the Indian Armed Forces, with the Ministry of Defence responsible for policy. The air arms of the armed forces are the Indian Air Force (IAF), commanded by the Chief of Air Staff, and the Indian Naval Air Arm, Army Aviation Corps, and Indian Coast Guard aviation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "In Australia the operation of model aircraft is subject to laws and regulations regarding radio spectrum use which is enforced by the ACMA (Australian Communications and Media Authority) and the use of airspace as enforced by CASA (Civil Aviation Safety Authority)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "China reserved frequency bands\n*1.4\u00a0GHz: general use\n*2.4\u00a0GHz: 13-cm UHF band general use\n*5.8\u00a0GHz: general use\n*433\u00a0MHz: for amateur radio licensees only"
      },
      {
        "title": "Military Law Literature in India",
        "text": "Official publications mainly take the form of the Army Act, 1950; \"Army Rules 1954\"; and \"Regulations for the Army, 1987\" (in short \"RA\"). The 1958 Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act and the Armed Forces Tribunal Act, 2007, and are also relevant legislation. Another significant but obscure provision is \"Notes to Indian Military and Air Force Law\", commonly referred as \"NMAFL\". For reasons not known, \"RA\" and \"NMAFL\" continue to be inaccessible to scholars and the public."
      },
      {
        "title": "Transport in India",
        "text": "Directorate General of Civil Aviation is the national regulatory body for the aviation industry. It is controlled by the Ministry of Civil Aviation. The ministry also controls aviation related autonomous organisations like the Airports Authority of India (AAI), Bureau of Civil Aviation Security (BCAS), Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi and Public Sector Undertakings including Air India, Pawan Hans Helicopters Limited and Hindustan Aeronautics Limited."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regulation of unmanned aerial vehicles",
        "text": "All type of drones, except toy drones that are under 250 grams, have to be registered with the Civil Aviation Authority. The regulations cover nearly all forms of drone use from commercial and recreational to scientific. Drone users who failed to register their drones by 9 January 2018 could face up to five years in jail or a 100,000 baht (US$3100) fine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur radio in India",
        "text": "The exam consists of two parts:\n# Part I \u2013 Written Test\n## Section I: Radio Theory and Practice\n## Section 2 : Regulations\n# Part II \u2013 Morse (Not required for Restricted Grade)\n## Section 1 : Morse Receiving and Sending : (Speed: 8 words per minute)\n## Section 2 : Morse Receiving and Sending : (Speed: 8 words per minute)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil aviation in India",
        "text": "The Ministry of Civil Aviation (MoCA) of Government of India is the nodal Ministry responsible for the formulation of national policies and programmes for development and regulation of civilian aviation, and for devising and implementing schemes for the orderly growth and expansion of civilian air transport. Its functions extend to overseeing airport facilities, air traffic services and carriage of passengers and goods by air. The Ministry also administers implementation of the 1934 Aircraft Act and is administratively responsible for the Commission of Railways Safety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bharat stage emission standards",
        "text": "In India, the rules and regulations related to driving licenses, registration of motor vehicles, control of traffic, construction and maintenance of motor vehicles, etc. are governed by the Motor Vehicles Act 1988 (MVA) and the Central Motor Vehicles rules 1989 (CMVR). The Ministry of Shipping, Road Transport & Highways (MoSRT&H) acts as a nodal agency for formulation and implementation of various provisions of the Motor Vehicle Act and CMVR."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Institute of Aeronautics",
        "text": "IIA training standards are equivalent to International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO type-II).\n# Aeroplane and Power Plant - Light Aircraft, Heavy Aircraft, Piston Engine and Jet Engine.\n# Helicopter and Power Plant - Piston Engine, Jet Engine and Rotary Wing Aircraft.\n# Avionics - Electrical System, Instrument System and Radio Navigation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur radio in India",
        "text": "Amateur radio in India\n--History.\n--Licence.\n----Examination.\n------Radio theory and practice.\n------Regulations.\n------Morse.\n----Reciprocal licensing and operational restrictions.\n--Call-signs.\n--Allotted spectrum.\n--Awareness drives.\n--Activities and events.\n--References.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil aviation in India",
        "text": "The Government of India released the National Civil Aviation Policy on 15 June 2016. The NCAP 2016 covers the broad policy areas, such as Regional connectivity, Safety, Air Transport Operations, 5/20 Requirement for International Operations, Bilateral traffic rights, Fiscal Support, Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul, Air-cargo, Aeronautical 'Make in India'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian MRCA competition",
        "text": "The Indian government is to buy the first 18 aircraft directly from the manufacturer. The remaining fighters will be built under licence with a transfer of technology (ToT) by HAL."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian MRCA competition",
        "text": "The Government of India has sanctioned approximately , with reports that another US$2 billion might be added to this. This is indicative of the high importance of the order to the respective vendors. The total value of purchasing the aircraft is expected to be US$20 billion, with options for purchasing more aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "GPS-aided GEO augmented navigation",
        "text": "All aircraft being registered in India after 1 July 2021 are mandated to be outfitted with GAGAN equipment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur radio in India",
        "text": "Partly due to low awareness among the general population and prohibitive equipment costs, the number of licensed amateur radio operators did not increase significantly over the next two decades, numbering fewer than a thousand by 1970. CW (Morse code) and AM were the predominant modes at that time. The electronic equipment was mostly valve-based, obtained from Indian army surpluses. During the mid-1960s, the modes of operation saw a change from Amplitude Modulation to Single Side Band (SSB) as the preferred communication mode. By 1980, the number of amateur radio operators had risen to 1,500. In 1984, then Indian Prime Minister, Rajiv Gandhi, waived the import duty for wireless equipment. After this, the number of operators rose steadily, and by 2000 there were 10,000 licensed ham operators. As of 2007, there are more than 17,000 licensed users in India."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of amateur radio frequency bands in India",
        "text": "The Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station Licence, Restricted licence requires the same scores as the old term Grade II.The minimum age is 12 years. The licence allows the user to make radiotelegraphy (Morse code) and radiotelephony transmission in 12 frequency bands. The maximum power allowed is 100\u00a0W."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aircraft design process",
        "text": "The International Civil Aviation Organization sets international standards and recommended practices on which national authorities should base their regulations. The national regulatory authorities set standards for airworthiness, issue certificates to manufacturers and operators and the standards of personnel training. Every country has its own regulatory body such as the Federal Aviation Administration in USA, DGCA (Directorate General of Civil Aviation) in India, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Air India One",
        "text": "The aircraft are fitted with encrypted satellite communication facilities and advanced navigation aids, an advanced missile warning system, a missile deflecting shield and electronic countermeasures so as to provide protection from any ground-based or airborne threats and flares and glares for misleading the missile. They are capable of long-range travel removing the need for air-to-air refueling (which is a feature on the VC-25As though they have not been used at all in their service) . The 777-300ER's onboard electronics include about 238 miles of wiring (twice the amount found in a normal 777). The heavy shielding is crucial to protect the wiring and crucial electronics from the electromagnetic pulse associated with a nuclear blast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Armed Forces",
        "text": "India also has bomber aircraft such as the Tupolev Tu-142 as well as fighter jets like the"
      },
      {
        "title": "Avro 642 Eighteen",
        "text": "The four-engined second aircraft Registered \"VT-AFM\" was handed over on 12 December 1934 and named the \"Star of India\". By arrangement with the Indian Government the aircraft was operated and maintained by Indian National Airways when not required by the Viceroy. The aircraft was taken over by the Royal Air Force as \"L9166\" in 1937 for use by AHQ India and was dismantled at Delhi in 1940. It has been said that the performance of the four-engined plane was poor, even dangerous, due to the reduced wing area caused by the extra \"power-eggs\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flight test",
        "text": "After the flight testing, the aircraft has to be certified according to their regulations like FAA's FAR, EASA's Certification Specifications (CS) and India's Air Staff Compliance and Requirements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aircraft registration",
        "text": "The impact of decolonisation and independence on aircraft registration schemes has varied from place to place. Most countries, upon independence, have had a new allocation granted \u2013 in most cases this is from the new country's new ITU allocation, but neither is it uncommon for the new country to be allocated a subset of their former colonial power's allocation. For example, after partition in 1947, India retained the VT designation it had received as part of the British Empire's Vx series allocation, while Pakistan adopted the AP designation from the newly allocated ITU callsigns APA-ASZ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aero India",
        "text": "The Indian Air Force brought out some of the vintage aircraft from its stable and flew them. The defence ministry also facilitated interaction between the overseas original equipment manufacturers and Indian business houses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Airlines of New South Wales Pty Ltd v New South Wales (No 2)",
        "text": "In October 1964 the \"Air Navigation Regulations\" (Cth), were amended to make them apply to intrastate air navigation by the enactment of regulation 6(1)(f). Regulation 198 prohibited the use of an aircraft in regular public transport operations except pursuant to a licence issued by the Director-General of Civil Aviation, who, according to regulation 199(4), will have regard to the \"safety, regularity and efficiency of air navigation and to no other matters\". Regulation 200B stated that \"an airline licence authorizes the conduct of operations in accordance with the provisions of the licence\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules",
        "text": "The Indian Air Force purchased six C-130J-30s in early 2008 at a cost of up to US$1.059\u00a0billion for its special operations forces in a package deal with the US government under its Foreign Military Sales (FMS) program. India has options to buy six more aircraft. The Indian government decided not to sign the Communications Interoperability and Security Memorandum of Agreement (CISMOA), which resulted in the exclusion of high precision GPS and other sensitive equipment. However the IAF added similar equipment produced indigenously to the aircraft after delivery. In October 2011, India announced its intent to exercise the option for the six additional aircraft, following the C-130J's favorable performance in the 2011 Sikkim earthquake relief operations. In July 2012, the U.S. accepted India's request for the six more C-130Js through the FMS program. On 20 December 2013, India's CCS approved the order for 6 more aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Special Protection Group",
        "text": "This vehicle is used to counter guided attacks, such as IEDs, Rocket Propelled Grenades, and Anti-Tank Guided Missiles. The antennas mounted on the roof are used in barrage jamming applications and for scouting purposes, the primary method used to counter IED threats. The antenna configuration can be changed according to threat level, for instance, taller antennas are used to increase the jamming protection distance, or change jamming frequency ranges. There are two dome-shaped EW Sensors. The EW sensors are millimetre-wave radars used to detect the launch of an RPG (Rocket Propelled Grenades) or laser range finder illumination and launch of an Anti-Tank Guided Missile (ATGM).\n*Air India One: Air India One, also referred to as AI1, is the call sign of any aircraft carrying the President of India, Vice President of India or the Prime Minister of India. These flights are operated as VIP flights by the Indian Air Force (IAF). Previously, one of two modified Boeing 747-400 passenger aircraft, used otherwise for normal service, would be utilized for the Prime Minister's overseas travel. However, in 2020, these were replaced with two customized Boeing 777-300ER aircraft with distinct national markings \u2013 built in the United States along the lines of Air Force One. Additionally, for domestic flights, the IAF currently owns four 14-seater Embraer-135 aircraft and three customized 46-seater Boeing Business Jet (BBJ) 737s that have a VIP cabin. PM Narendra Modi once used an Indian Air Force Lockheed C-130J during his visit to Sri Lanka.\n* Mi-17 helicopters: The Defence Ministry has approved the \"conversion\" of six new Mi-17 V5s to replace the old Mi-8 helicopters with IAF's elite Communications Squadron to ferry the President and Prime Minister. Mi-17 V5s have advanced avionics, on-board navigation systems and night-vision devices. The SPG wanted the helicopters to have \"high tail booms\" to allow cars to come right next to the rear exit staircase without \"exposing\" passengers to a threat from anyone in the vicinity, additional transit range, better crashworthiness and armour protection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Air HQ Communication Squadron, Indian Air Force",
        "text": "The B777-300ER's onboard electronics include about 238 miles of wiring (twice the amount found in a normal 777). Heavy shielding is tough enough to protect the wiring and crucial electronics from the electromagnetic pulse associated with a nuclear blast. The aircraft are fitted with encrypted satellite communication facilities and advanced navigation aids, an advanced missile warning system, a missile deflecting shield and electronic countermeasures so as to provide protection from any ground-based or airborne threats."
      },
      {
        "title": "PMR446",
        "text": "Type approved PMR446 radios with power up to 500\u00a0mW can be used without any licence in India and Vietnam. The devices may not be base stations or repeaters, and must use integrated antennas only."
      },
      {
        "title": "Defence industry of India",
        "text": "In 2011, successfully tested India's 1st indigenous civilian aircraft, NAL NM5 made in association with National Aerospace Laboratories and Mahindra Aerospace)\n*Raphe Mphibr Pvt Ltd\n* Data Patterns (India) Ltd\n* ISRO, for aerospace manufacturer"
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Wireless Telegraph Rules",
        "text": "Indian Wireless Telegraph Rules\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Call signs in India",
        "text": "Amateur radio or ham radio is practised by more than 16,000 licensed users. The first amateur radio operator was licensed in 1921, and by the mid-1930s, there were around 20 amateur radio operators in India. Amateur radio operators have played an important part in the Indian independence movement with the establishment of pro-independence radio stations in the 1940s, which were illegal. The Wireless and Planning and Coordination Wing (WPC), a division of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology, regulates amateur radio in India. The WPC assigns call signs, issues amateur radio licences, conducts exams, allots frequency spectrum, and monitors the radio waves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flag code of India",
        "text": "The privilege of flying the national flag on vehicles is restricted to the President, Vice-President, Governors and Lieutenant governors of the Indian states and union territories, Heads of Indian missions/ posts abroad in the countries to which they are accredited, Prime Minister and other Cabinet Ministers; Ministers of State and Deputy Ministers of the Union; Chief Minister and other Cabinet Ministers of a State or Union Territory; Ministers of State and Deputy Ministers of a State or Union Territory; Speaker of the Lok Sabha; Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha; Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha; Chairmen of Legislative Councils in States; Speakers of Legislative Assemblies in States and Union Territories; Chief Justice of India; Judges of Supreme Court; Chief Justice of High Courts; Judges of High Courts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ministry of Civil Aviation (India)",
        "text": "The Ministry of Civil Aviation in India is the nodal ministry responsible for the formulation of national policies and programmes for development and regulation of civil aviation. It devises and implements schemes for the orderly growth and expansion of civil air transport in the country. Its functions also extend to overseeing airport facilities, air traffic services and carriage of passengers and goods by air. The ministry also administers implementation of the Aircraft Act, 1934, Aircraft Rules, 1937 and is administratively responsible for the Commission of Railway Safety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Telecommunications in India",
        "text": "Today, television is the most penetrative media in India with industry estimates indicating that there are over 554 million TV consumers, 462 million with satellite connections, compared to other forms of mass media such as radio or internet. Government of India has used the popularity of TV and radio among rural people for the implementation of many social-programmes including that of mass-education. On 16 November 2006, the Government of India released the community radio policy which allowed agricultural centres, educational institutions and civil society organisations to apply for community based FM broadcasting licence. Community Radio is allowed 100 watts of Effective Radiated Power (ERP) with a maximum tower height of 30 metres. The licence is valid for five years and one organisation can only get one licence, which is non-transferable and to be used for community development purposes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "There are certain conditions for using the frequency band in which the aircraft will operate. You require to be eligible for that grade. For instance, the only requirement in that is your name will be scripted. If you have to make your own aircraft, then license is required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aero India",
        "text": "There is a requirement of one million skilled workers in the Aerospace industry in India in the next 10 years. The aim is to make the ensure that 70 percent of the defence equipment are made within the country in the next five years from the current 40 percent. This can create large number of jobs. Prime Minister Modi said that \"A strong Indian defence industry will not only make India more secure. It will also make India more prosperous\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dinshaw Eduljee",
        "text": "From the records maintained by Hansard of a debate in the British House of Commons on 3 April 1933, it would appear that the Hon. Rhys Davies took exception to his treatment as well as a memorandum that stated \"The Government of India have decided that steps shall be taken at once to commence the formation of an Indian Air Force.\" Mr. Davies wondered if the Indian Government could take such as unilateral step."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Air Force",
        "text": "The IAF's mission is defined by the Armed Forces Act of 1947, the Constitution of India, and the Air Force Act of 1950. It decrees that in the aerial battlespace:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ministry of Civil Aviation (India)",
        "text": "The ministry has under its ownership the following central government establishments:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian MRO Industry",
        "text": "Private operators and NSOP (non-scheduled operators permit) holders are required by DGCA (Directorate General of Civil Aviation) to set up a CAR 145 approved maintenance shop or work with a DGCA approved third-party MRO. Most private operators and NSOP holders prefer the outsourced model for line maintenance (on-tarmac checks) and use OEM/DGCA approved facilities for engine, heavy maintenance and modifications on their aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Radio Regulatory Service",
        "text": "The Indian Radio Regulatory Service (IRRS) is one of the cadre of central government recruit-engineers of the Wireless Planning & Coordination Wing (WPC) and Wireless Monitoring Organisation (WMO), composed of a cadre of central government recruit engineers group 'A' and group 'B' officers of the WPC and WMO. There are a total of 22 Wireless Monitoring Stations, 5 International Monitoring Stations and 1 International Satellite Monitoring Earth Station in India, The functions of the service are the allocation of spectrum licenses, ensuring an interference free spectrum to wireless users, conducting GMDSS and RTR (Aero) examination, SACFA clearances to Telecom service Providers, ensuring adherence to international standards and cooperation with the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). The Government of India established the service by a gazette notification on 16 July 2013. The Wireless Adviser to the Government of India is the highest officer in the service's hierarchy and reports to the Member (Technology) of Telecom Commission of India under the Department of Telecommunications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signals intelligence by alliances, nations and industries",
        "text": "India implements AWACS and SIGINT using the Israeli Aircraft Industries Phalcon, which is installed in Russian Ilyushin Il-76 aircraft, the same aircraft used for Russia's own A-50 AWACS. India also uses homegrown AWACS, the DRDO Airborne Early Warning and Control System (AEW&CS) which uses Embraer ERJ-145 aircraft as platform."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Licensed amateur radio operators in the United States are expressly allowed to use amateur radio frequencies for telecommand of model aircraft, per FCC Part 97's rule 97.215. However, the Federal Communications Commission prohibits using amateur radio frequencies for commercial activity (generally any form of economic gain or for-profit activity, Part 97's rule 97.113). The FCC has not yet addressed the issue of creating designated command and control frequencies for commercial unmanned aircraft, and many civilian unmanned aircraft continue to use amateur radio frequencies, even when used for commercial purposes. Though it has not so far pursued any enforcement actions related to use of amateur radio frequencies for commercial unmanned aircraft (with the FCC, as early as 1997, commencing the authorization of specific \"industrial/business\" frequency bands, potentially usable for such needs), the FCC has the authority to levy civil forfeitures and fines into the tens of thousands of dollars for violations of its regulations. There is no similar \"displayed registration code\" requirement as yet from the FCC, to that of the FAA as mentioned above (the FAA's \"pilot registration code\" must be on the model already), for FCC-licensed amateur radio operators flying RC aircraft under part 97.215. Since mid-July 2000, FCC Amateur Radio Service licensees have already been assigned a ten-digit \"FCC registration number\" or \"FRN\" directly linked to their callsign which could additionally be placed on their models along with any already-assigned FAA registration code, if desired. The July 2000 announcement of the \"FRN\" code system was partly worded: ...\"The use of the registration number is voluntary, although the Commission will consider making it mandatory in the future.\", leaving its use open for any future FCC-administered Amateur Radio Service needs in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prohibited airspace",
        "text": "According to Air Navigation (Air Defence) Regulation 1 (2007), airspace over the territory and territorial waters of Sri Lanka (except Ruhuna Open Skies Area) are declared an air defence identification zone (ADIZ) with prohibited areas and restricted areas within it. No aircraft may operate in prohibited or restricted areas without valid air defence clearance (ADC) from the Sri Lanka Air Force (SLAF)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian MRCA competition",
        "text": "Initial reactions within the IAF were enthusiastic, although there were apprehensions of support issues in case of future sanctions. The US stated that there would have been some restrictions and pre-conditions for the purchase of the aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aviation in India",
        "text": "The Ministry of Civil Aviation is responsible for civilian aviation, through regulatory oversight by the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA). National Civil Aviation Policy 2016 sets broad goals for safety and operations. The UDAN (regional connectivity scheme) is a plan to develop a sustainable air network in over 400 tier-2 cities across India, with an estimated expenditure of per airstrip."
      },
      {
        "title": "Federal Aviation Regulations",
        "text": "Section 91.185 of the Federal Aviation Restrictions deals with loss of radio communications while in flight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Directorate General of Civil Aviation (India)",
        "text": "These are classified and divided into the following:\n# Administration Directorate\n# Aerodrome Standards Directorate (AD)\n# Air Safety Directorate (DAS)\n# Air Transport Directorate (AT)\n# Airworthiness Directorate (DAW) (which is also responsible for registering drones in India)\n# Flight Standards Directorate (FSD)\n# Information & Regulation Directorate (DRI)\n# Aircraft Engineering Directorate (AED)\n# Directorate Of Flying Training (DFT)\n# Medical Section\n# Directorate of Training & Licensing (DTL)\n# Directorate of Airspace and Air Navigation Services Standards (ANSS)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur radio in India",
        "text": "The following frequency bands are permitted by the WPC for use by amateur radio operators in India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Air defense identification zone",
        "text": "India established ADIZs in the mid-twentieth century. Among other rules, notifications are required 10 minutes prior to entry. In case of delay, 45 or more minutes and a new Air Defence Clearance (ADC) numbers are required."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who invented the radio-controlled aircraft?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I was unable to find the inventor of radio-controlled aircraft, but I did find that Edward Sorensen was the first to invent radio-controlled aircraft that could fly out of sight. Previously, radio-controlled aircraft could only be operated within visual sight of the ground pilot."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the radio controlled aircraft that Edward Sorensen invented."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "His invention was the first to be able to know from a ground terminal what the airplane was doing, such as climbing, altitude, banking, direction, rpm and other instrumentation and without these patents the early radio-controlled aircraft could only operate within visual sight of the ground pilot."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did Edward Sorensen create any other inventions?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are radio-controlled aircrafts used for?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They have many uses, some of which are commercial or hobby related. They can also be used by scientists, the government, and the military as in the cases of conducting experiments, gathering weather readings, conducting aerodynamic modeling and testing, public service duties (firefighting, disaster recovery, etc.) or in the service of a nation's military."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about the regulations on their use in India?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Certain conditions exist for using the frequency band that the aircraft will operate, such as being eligible for that grade. Your name will be scripted for instance and if you have to make your own aircraft, then a license is needed.",
      "In India, there are certain conditions for using the frequency band in which the aircraft will operate, and you are required to be eligible for that grade. For instance, the only requirement is that your name will be scripted, however, making your own aircraft requires a license."
    ],
    "topic": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Radio-controlled aircraft:116",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Radio-controlled aircraft",
          "Regulations on use",
          "India"
        ],
        "ctx": "There are certain conditions for using the frequency band in which the aircraft will operate. You require to be eligible for that grade. For instance, the only requirement in that is your name will be scripted. If you have to make your own aircraft, then license is required."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Radio-controlled aircraft:116",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Radio-controlled aircraft",
          "Regulations on use",
          "India"
        ],
        "ctx": "There are certain conditions for using the frequency band in which the aircraft will operate. You require to be eligible for that grade. For instance, the only requirement in that is your name will be scripted. If you have to make your own aircraft, then license is required."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "There are certain conditions for using the frequency band in which the aircraft will operate. You require to be eligible for that grade. For instance, the only requirement in that is your name will be scripted. If you have to make your own aircraft, then license is required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Various countries have regulations and restrictions on model aircraft operations, even for non-commercial purposes, typically imposed by the national civil aviation authority."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "The frequencies are permitted under legislation, provided equipment meets the appropriate standards, bears the New Zealand supplier's Supplier Code Number and has the correct compliance documentation (Radio Spectrum Management information available on the RSM website)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation",
        "text": "\"Article 30\": The aircraft of a state flying in or over the territory of another state shall only carry radios licensed and used in accordance with the regulations of the state in which the aircraft is registered. The radios may only be used by members of the flight crew suitably licensed by the state in which the aircraft is registered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Airband",
        "text": "It is illegal in most countries to transmit on the airband frequencies without a suitable license, although an individual license may not be required, for instance in the US where aircraft stations are \"licensed by rule\". Many countries' regulations also restrict communications in the airband. For instance, in Canada, airband communications are limited to those required for \"the safety and navigation of an aircraft; the general operation of the aircraft; and the exchange of messages on behalf of the public. In addition, a person may operate radio apparatus only to transmit a non-superfluous signal or a signal containing non-profane or non-obscene radiocommunications.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "In the United States, radio-controlled model aircraft and unmanned aircraft generally may be subject to regulation by the following entities:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Amateur radio license reserved frequency bands\n*50 and 53\u00a0MHz in the US and Canada (American amateurs allowed up to one watt [30 dBm] of output power)\n*433\u2013434\u00a0MHz Formerly used low-UHF band in Germany until the end of 2008, but is still permitted in Switzerland; and is also usable within both the US and Canada, most often implemented nowadays in North America with spread spectrum RF hardware (as on 2.4\u00a0GHz)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Licensed amateur radio operators in the United States are expressly allowed to use amateur radio frequencies for telecommand of model aircraft, per FCC Part 97's rule 97.215. However, the Federal Communications Commission prohibits using amateur radio frequencies for commercial activity (generally any form of economic gain or for-profit activity, Part 97's rule 97.113). The FCC has not yet addressed the issue of creating designated command and control frequencies for commercial unmanned aircraft, and many civilian unmanned aircraft continue to use amateur radio frequencies, even when used for commercial purposes. Though it has not so far pursued any enforcement actions related to use of amateur radio frequencies for commercial unmanned aircraft (with the FCC, as early as 1997, commencing the authorization of specific \"industrial/business\" frequency bands, potentially usable for such needs), the FCC has the authority to levy civil forfeitures and fines into the tens of thousands of dollars for violations of its regulations. There is no similar \"displayed registration code\" requirement as yet from the FCC, to that of the FAA as mentioned above (the FAA's \"pilot registration code\" must be on the model already), for FCC-licensed amateur radio operators flying RC aircraft under part 97.215. Since mid-July 2000, FCC Amateur Radio Service licensees have already been assigned a ten-digit \"FCC registration number\" or \"FRN\" directly linked to their callsign which could additionally be placed on their models along with any already-assigned FAA registration code, if desired. The July 2000 announcement of the \"FRN\" code system was partly worded: ...\"The use of the registration number is voluntary, although the Commission will consider making it mandatory in the future.\", leaving its use open for any future FCC-administered Amateur Radio Service needs in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "China reserved frequency bands\n*1.4\u00a0GHz: general use\n*2.4\u00a0GHz: 13-cm UHF band general use\n*5.8\u00a0GHz: general use\n*433\u00a0MHz: for amateur radio licensees only"
      },
      {
        "title": "Regulation of unmanned aerial vehicles",
        "text": "Permission from WPC is required for importing any radio controlled equipments in India, including drones/UAV. Drones imported into India, without prior permission from WPC and DGCA, will be confiscated by Customs at point of entry. Drones above 2\u00a0kg also requires Air Defense clearance(Flight permit); and drone pilot who is least 18 years old, and has completed the 'drone pilot training'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Within the 35\u00a0MHz range, there are designated A and B bands. Some European countries allow use only in the A band, whereas others allow use in both bands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Many countries reserve specific frequency bands (ranges) for radio-control use. Due to the longer range and potentially worse consequences of radio interference, model aircraft have exclusive use of their own frequency allocation in some countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "In Australia the operation of model aircraft is subject to laws and regulations regarding radio spectrum use which is enforced by the ACMA (Australian Communications and Media Authority) and the use of airspace as enforced by CASA (Civil Aviation Safety Authority)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mobile phones on aircraft",
        "text": "On 19 January 2018, the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) permitted the use of mobile phones and internet access through Wi-Fi on-board all flights operating in Indian airspace. However, passengers are only permitted to make mobile phone calls when the aircraft is at an altitude of over . TRAI stated that the height restriction was to ensure \"compatibility with terrestrial mobile networks\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "First-person view (radio control)",
        "text": "There are additional legal implications related to the use of radio frequencies for command and control of FPV aircraft. Licensed amateur radio operators are expressly allowed to use amateur radio frequencies for telecommand of model aircraft. However, the Federal Communications Commission prohibits using amateur radio frequencies for commercial activity (generally any form of economic gain or for-profit activity). The FCC has not yet addressed the issue of creating designated command and control frequencies for commercial unmanned aircraft, and most civilian unmanned aircraft continue to use amateur radio frequencies, even when used for commercial purposes. Though it has not so far pursued any enforcement actions related to use of amateur radio frequencies for commercial unmanned aircraft, the FCC has the authority to levy civil forfeitures and fines into the tens of thousands of dollars for violations of its regulations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Telegraph Act, 1885",
        "text": "Use of any category of radio equipment for plane-spotting requires permission from Wireless Planning & Coordination (WPC) wing of the DoT."
      },
      {
        "title": "Citizens band radio in India",
        "text": "After the aforesaid legislation, an amendment to the Use of low power equipment in the Citizen band 26.957 \u2013 27.283\u00a0MHz (Exemption from Licensing Requirement) Rules, 2005 (hereafter referred to as the \"Rules, 2005\" for brevity) was made vide Notification No G.S.R. 35(E) dated 10 January 2007 (published in \"Gazette of India\" \"Extraordinary\" dated 22 January 2007). By the Amendment, amongst other changes, Rule 4 was amended to include an opportunity of the user of the unlicensed equipment to relocate equipment, reduce its power, use special antennae, or discontinue use of such unlicensed radio equipment as exempted under the Rules, 2005. The Amendment also provided for a reasonable opportunity to be given to such user to explain the circumstances of usage which caused harmful interference with use of licensed equipment by a licensed user. The aforesaid amended Rules, 2005 are governing the licensing of CB radio equipment and its usage in India now.(No Reference regarding this anyone viewing please add)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Telegraph Act, 1885",
        "text": "Import and operation of radio scanners or radio communications receivers capable of listening to HF VHF UHF and satellite aircraft or maritime radio frequencies is tolerated if user has an appropriate amateur/maritime/aircraft radio licence."
      },
      {
        "title": "First-person view (radio control)",
        "text": "In Australia the operation of FPV aircraft is subject to laws and regulations regarding radio spectrum use which is enforced by the ACMA (Australian Communications and Media Authority) and the use of airspace as enforced by CASA (Civil Aviation Safety Authority)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled model",
        "text": "However, moving the receiver component between aircraft and surface vehicles is illegal in most countries as radio frequency laws allocate separate bands for air and surface models. This is done for safety reasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "False flag",
        "text": "In December 1922 \u2013 February 1923, Rules concerning the Control of Wireless Telegraphy in Time of War and Air Warfare, drafted by a commission of jurists at the Hague, regulates:\n: Art. 3. A military aircraft must carry an exterior mark indicating its nationality and its military character.\n: Art. 19. The use of false exterior marks is forbidden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mobile phones on aircraft",
        "text": "The U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) currently prohibits the use of mobile phones aboard \"any\" aircraft in flight. The reason given is that cell phone systems depend on frequency reuse, which allows for a dramatic increase in the number of customers that can be served within a geographic area on a limited amount of radio spectrum, and operating a phone at an altitude may violate the fundamental assumptions that allow channel reuse to work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "USA and Canada reserved UHF frequency bands\n*2.400-2.485\u00a0GHz: 13-cm UHF Spread Spectrum band for general use (amateur radio license holders have 2.39-2.45\u00a0GHz licensed for their general use in the USA) and using both frequency-hopping spread spectrum and direct-sequence spread spectrum RF technology to maximize the number of available frequencies on this band, especially at organized events in North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Federal Aviation Regulations",
        "text": "If a loss of radio communications were to be encountered during VFR conditions, or if VFR conditions are encountered after loss of communication with the ground and other aircraft, the pilot of the aircraft shall continue the flight under VFR and land as soon as practicable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mobile phones on aircraft",
        "text": "In the U.S., Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations prohibit the use of mobile phones aboard aircraft in flight if they have been deemed to cause interference with the aircraft systems. Paragraph (b)(5) of 14 CFR 91.21 leaves it up to the airlines to determine if devices can be used in flight, allowing use of \"Any other portable electronic device that the operator of the aircraft has determined will not cause interference with the navigation or communication system of the aircraft on which it is to be used.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Mobile phones on aircraft",
        "text": "In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) restricts cell phone usage on aircraft in order to prevent disruption to cellular towers on the ground. As mentioned above, the FAA allows the in-flight use of wireless devices but only after the airline has determined that the device will not interfere with aircraft communication or navigation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regulation of UAVs in the United States",
        "text": "Well before any FAA concerns ever existed for UAS aircraft, at the very start of the 21st century the Federal Communications Commission had already started \"registration\" of many of its radio services' licensees in the United States, by assigning each licensee a unique ten-digit numerical \"FRN\" (FCC Registration Number) registration code as shown on their paper licenses, as part of the then-new \"CORES\" (COmmission REgistration System) organization system for FCC licensee records - this was also done for all United States-licensed amateur radio operators, who have regulation 97.215 in the FCC Part 97 Amateur Radio Service rules that allows use of any Ham-legal frequency solely for recreational operation of model aircraft and surface models, with up to one watt of RF output. No requirement of any sort has yet been issued by the FCC for the \"FRN\" number's display on Ham-licensed, amateur radio frequency-operated radio control model aircraft, nor on any other variety of remotely-guided model craft operated on Ham bands, such as surface-operated models of any sort; with the FCC reserving any use or display of such \"FRN\" numbers for future needs, beyond their existing assignment to radio service licensees and display on their licenses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "European reserved VHF & UHF frequency bands\n*35\u00a0MHz: aircraft only.\n*40\u00a0MHz: surface vehicles or aircraft.\n*27\u00a0MHz: general use, toys, citizens band radio.\n*2.4\u00a0GHz 13-cm UHF band spread spectrum: surface vehicles, boats and aircraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "New Zealand reserved frequency bands\n*35\u00a0MHz: aircraft only\n*40\u00a0MHz: aircraft only\n*27\u00a0MHz: general use\n*29\u00a0MHz: general use\n*36\u00a0MHz: general use\n*72\u00a0MHz: general use (US 72\u00a0MHz \"even-numbered\" channels 12 through 56, at 40\u00a0kHz spacing)\n*2.400-2.4835\u00a0GHz: 13-cm UHF band"
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Detailed information, including cautions for transmitting on some of the 'general use' frequencies, can be found on the NZMAA website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-frequency identification",
        "text": "As of 31 October 2014, regulations are in place in 78 countries representing approximately 96.5% of the world's GDP, and work on regulations was in progress in three countries representing approximately 1% of the world's GDP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Singapore reserved frequency bands\n*72\u00a0MHz: aircraft only\n*2.4\u00a0GHz: 13-cm UHF band aircraft only"
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Radio-controlled aircraft\n--History.\n--Types.\n----Radio-control scale aircraft modeling.\n----Sailplanes and gliders.\n----Jets.\n----Sports planes.\n----3D planes.\n----Pylon racers.\n----Park flyers and micro planes.\n----Helicopters.\n----Flying bird models, or ornithopters.\n----Toy-class RC.\n--Video piloting (first-person view or FPV).\n--Types of kits and construction.\n----Ready-to-Fly (RTF).\n----Almost Ready-to-Fly (ARF).\n----Bind-N-Fly (BNF).\n----Plug-N-Play (PNP).\n----Wood Kit.\n----From plans or scratch.\n--Airframe materials.\n--Plane characteristics.\n----Number of channels.\n------Basic flight controls.\n------Extra flight control functionality.\n----Turning.\n----V-tail systems.\n--Powerplants.\n--Transmitting and Receiving Frequencies.\n----Frequency.\n------Reserved frequencies.\n----Channels and frequency control.\n--Military usage.\n--Regulations on use.\n----United States.\n------Federal Aviation Administration.\n------Federal Communications Commission.\n------National Park Service.\n------State and Local Governments.\n------Academy of Model Aeronautics.\n----Australia.\n----India.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Control zone",
        "text": "In the USA the term control zone is no longer used and has been replaced by airspace class D. Typically it extends 5 miles in diameter with a height of 2500\u00a0ft AGL (above ground level) around small commercial airports. Aircraft are required to establish radio contact with the control tower before entering and to maintain in contact while in class D airspace. This implies that an aircraft must be equipped with at least a portable radio to fly in Class D airspace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Under a 2014 edict from the National Park Service, model aircraft and other unmanned aircraft operations are prohibited on all land administered by the National Park Service, with some exceptions for preexisting model aircraft fields that were established prior to the adoption of this rule. Because the National Park Service does not have jurisdiction over airspace, which is exclusively governed by the FAA, this rule only applies to unmanned aircraft flown from National Park Service land. It does not apply to overflight of National Park Service land by unmanned aircraft operated elsewhere."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mobile phones on aircraft",
        "text": "The FAA in 14 C.F.R \u00a7 91.21 prohibits the use of portable electronic devices, including mobile phones, for all commercial flights and for those private flights being made under instrument flight rules (IFR). It does allow that the airline (or, for privately operated aircraft, the pilot) can make an exception to this rule if the operator deems that device safe. This effectively gives the airline, or the private pilot, the final word as to what devices may safely be used aboard an aircraft as far as the FAA is concerned although the FCC restriction still applies. (Note that for aircraft operated by an airline the pilot is not considered the \"operator\" and cannot legally allow exceptions to the airline's restrictions although the pilot may dictate \"additional\" restrictions.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Newer Transmitters use spread spectrum technology in the 2.4\u00a0GHz, upper-UHF frequency band for communication. Spread spectrum technology allows many pilots to transmit in the same band (2.4\u00a0GHz) in proximity to each other with little fear of conflicts. Receivers in this band are virtually immune to most sources of electrical interference. Amateur radio licensees in the United States also have general use of an overlapping band in this same area, which exists from 2.39 to 2.45\u00a0GHz, with newer aftermarket transmitter RF module/receiver combinations on the 70\u00a0cm band also offering user-programmable, spread-spectrum versatility of varying degrees for Ham RC modelers in both the US and Canada, only as secondary users without \"exclusive\" use provisions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mobile phones on aircraft",
        "text": "To prevent disruption to the cellular phone network from the effects of fast-moving cell phones at altitude (see Technical discussion, below), the FCC has banned the use of mobile phones on all aircraft in flight. The FCC did, however, allocate spectra in the 450\u00a0MHz and 800\u00a0MHz frequency bands for use by equipment designed and tested for air-ground radiotelephone service. These systems use far more widely separated ground stations than standard cellular systems. In the 450\u00a0MHz band co-channel assignments are at least 497 miles apart and in the 800\u00a0MHz band only specific sites were authorized by the FCC. The 450\u00a0MHz service is limited to \"general aviation\" users, usually corporate jets, while the 800\u00a0MHz spectrum can be used by airliners as well as for general aviation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "The transmitter radio broadcasts using AM or FM using PPM or PCM. Each aircraft needs a way to determine which transmitter to receive communications from, so a specific channel within the frequency band is used for each aircraft (except for 2.4\u00a0GHz band, and amateur radio-only 70\u00a0cm systems; which use spread spectrum modulation, described below)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "In June 2014 the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) issued a notice of interpretation regarding the Special Rule for Model Aircraft in Section 336 of the FAA Modernization and Reform Act passed by Congress in February 2012, which exempted model aircraft meeting certain criteria from future FAA rulemaking. In this document, the FAA stated its position that, \"Model aircraft that do not meet these statutory requirements are nonetheless unmanned aircraft, and as such, are subject to all existing FAA regulations, as well as future rulemaking action, and the FAA intends to apply its regulations to such unmanned aircraft.\" The notice of interpretation further stated that even model aircraft that do qualify for the Sec. 336 exemption are legally considered aircraft, and the FAA has authority to pursue enforcement actions against model aircraft operators who do not comply with certain provisions of Part 91 of the Federal Aviation Regulations, including the prohibition against careless and reckless operation of an aircraft in 14 CFR 91.13 and 14 CFR 91.113, which requires that \"vigilance shall be maintained by each person operating an aircraft so as to see and avoid other aircraft.\" Because the FAA has not yet sought to enforce this regulation against unmanned aircraft operators, whether it applies to model aircraft and what actions are necessary for compliance are currently unknown. FAA pilot registration for both camera-bearing \"small unmanned aircraft system\" (sUAS) multirotor \"drones\" and recreationally-flown traditional radio-controlled aircraft was reinstated by the FAA as part of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2018, requiring RC aeromodelers to register with the FAA for a $5.00 fee for a three-year registration period: the modeler is assigned a ten-character alphanumeric personal FAA registration code to be placed on their models' exterior surfaces no later than February 25, 2019 as part of the registration requirements, to be placed on the model on any \"exterior-viewable\" part of the model that requires nothing to be opened the modeler's registration code is personal for their use, and any number of model aircraft that they own and operate can bear the same registration code."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wireless Planning & Coordination Wing",
        "text": "Permission from WPC is required for importing any radio equipments in India, including walkie-talkie, RC cars/boats, drones/UAV, ZigBee, Bluetooth devices, etc. Imports of radio equipments into India, without prior permission from WPC, will be confiscated by Customs at point of entry. Individual WPC permission is not required for phones, computers, and routers. The certification process includes the application, evaluation and testing of the product before the WPC certificate and ETA (Equipment Type Approval) certification number is issued. There is currently no factory inspection needed and the tests can also be conducted by an accredited testing facility outside of India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Unmanned aircraft in Singapore",
        "text": "Users with UAs that contain short range devices that conform to the approved operating radio frequencies and corresponding power limits will be exempted from Info-communications Media Development Authority's (IMDA) licensing requirements. For UAs with radio frequencies or power limits that are not in the IMDA's guidelines, equipment dealers have to apply for the relevant license and register their equipment with the IMDA. Under the Telecommunications (Dealers) Regulations, an equipment dealer may only sell IMDA-registered telecommunication equipment for use in Singapore."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "There are a wide variety of state and local laws and ordinances affecting model aircraft. Many state and local governments restrict or prohibit model aircraft from being flown at local parks. Some state laws purport to restrict or prohibit aerial photography using unmanned aircraft, though such laws would likely be found invalid if challenged in court due to federal preemption, as the FAA has exclusive regulatory jurisdiction over all aircraft and airspace from the surface up. Any laws restricting aerial photography of areas where no reasonable expectation of privacy exists would also likely be vulnerable to challenges under the First Amendment to the United States Constitution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Australian reserved frequency bands\n*36\u00a0MHz: aircraft and water-craft (odd channels for aircraft only)\n*29\u00a0MHz: general use\n*27\u00a0MHz: light electric aircraft, general use\n*2.400-2.485\u00a0GHz: 13-cm UHF band Spread Spectrum band for general use (ACMA references available at )"
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "United Kingdom reserved frequency bands\n*458.5\u2013459.5\u00a0MHz: low-UHF band for surface vehicles or aircraft. (Non-Ham-frequencies 70-cm amateur band in the UK covers 430-440\u00a0MHz)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Radiotelephony procedure",
        "text": "Refinements and localization of these procedures can be done by each member country of ICAO.\n* United States\n** FAA Pilot Controller Glossary\n* United Kingdom\n** Civil Aviation Authority's Radiotelephony manual"
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebuilt aircraft",
        "text": "Most nations' aviation regulations require amateur-built aircraft to be physically marked as such (for example in the U.K. \"Occupant Warning \u2013 This aircraft ... is amateur built.\" must be displayed), and extra flight testing is usually required before passengers (who are not pilots themselves) can be carried."
      },
      {
        "title": "Federal Aviation Regulations",
        "text": "Section 91.185 of the Federal Aviation Restrictions deals with loss of radio communications while in flight."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of amateur radio frequency bands in India",
        "text": "A Restricted Grade licence holder was previously authorized the use of radio telephony emission on frequency bands below 30\u00a0MHz on submission of proof that 100 contacts have been made with other amateur operators using CW (Morse code). This has now since changed with restricted license holders being allowed phone (SSB) bands with the only restriction being the PEP(peak envelope power) limited to 50\u00a0W. Now Morse Code is not necessary for this exam"
      },
      {
        "title": "VFR over-the-top",
        "text": "The US rules require the aircraft to be fitted with the instruments required for IFR flight, and student pilots and sport pilots must maintain visual reference with the surface. Other operations (such as commercial, turbine powered, and fractional ownership) include special limitations. (Note that 14 CFR 91.507 applies only to fractional operations; see 91.501.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aeronautical mobile service",
        "text": "However, military usage, in bands where there is civil usage, will be in accordance with the ITU Radio Regulations. In NATO countries military utilizations will be in accordance with the NATO Joint Civil/Military Frequency Agreement (NJFA)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aeronautical mobile (OR) service",
        "text": "However, military usage, in bands where there is civil usage, will be in accordance with the ITU Radio Regulations. In NATO countries military utilizations will be in accordance with the NATO Joint Civil/Military Frequency Agreement (NJFA)."
      },
      {
        "title": "CB radio in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "The big problem for the UK was that the 27\u00a0MHz band was already licensed legally to radio control model aircraft users. They were paying for a licence to use the band, and interference resulted in loss of control of the aircraft. Many expensive models were written off, and the safety implications were obvious, but there was no practical way to police a separation, and the government did not rate the protection of model flying as an important issue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regulation of unmanned aerial vehicles",
        "text": "In 2014, the government regulated UAVs. Machines under 25\u00a0kg do not require any operating licence, and have a maximum flight altitude of 120 meters within visual line of sight. Machines up to 260\u00a0kg must be registered, require an operator permit, and may have above 120 meters with permission from air traffic control. Machines above 260\u00a0kg are classified as aircraft, and require a full pilot licence."
      },
      {
        "title": "PMR446",
        "text": "Type approved PMR446 radios with power up to 500\u00a0mW can be used without any licence in India and Vietnam. The devices may not be base stations or repeaters, and must use integrated antennas only."
      },
      {
        "title": "Airlines of New South Wales Pty Ltd v New South Wales (No 2)",
        "text": "In October 1964 the \"Air Navigation Regulations\" (Cth), were amended to make them apply to intrastate air navigation by the enactment of regulation 6(1)(f). Regulation 198 prohibited the use of an aircraft in regular public transport operations except pursuant to a licence issued by the Director-General of Civil Aviation, who, according to regulation 199(4), will have regard to the \"safety, regularity and efficiency of air navigation and to no other matters\". Regulation 200B stated that \"an airline licence authorizes the conduct of operations in accordance with the provisions of the licence\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "USA and Canada reserved VHF frequency bands\n*72\u00a0MHz: aircraft only (France also uses US/Canada channels 21 through 35).\n*75\u00a0MHz: surface vehicles.\n*53\u00a0MHz: all vehicles, only for older equipment on 100\u00a0kHz spacing, with the operator holding a valid amateur radio (FCC in the USA) license. The 53\u00a0MHz band began to become vulnerable to amateur radio repeater stations operating on the 53\u00a0MHz area of the 6-meter band during the early 1980s. The 53\u00a0MHz bands can still be used with relative safety for ground-based (cars, boats/ships) powered modeling activities.\n*50.8 to 51\u00a0MHz: on the 6-meter band for all vehicles at 20\u00a0kHz spacing, with the operator holding a valid amateur radio (FCC in the USA) license. Added in the 1980s as the amateur radio repeater interference problem on the earlier 53\u00a0MHz bands in the United States began to manifest itself.\n*27\u00a0MHz: first band opened for RC use in the United States and shared with CB radio users: as with 53\u00a0MHz for Hams, nowadays preferable for use on ground-based RC models only \u2014 also used for older RC toys before 1991."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Telegraph Act, 1885",
        "text": "Amateur radio equipment can only be imported and operated in India with approval from Wireless Planning and Coordination Wing (WPC) of the DoT. Indian amateur radio licence and VU- call-sign is mandatory for operating any category of amateur radio equipment within Indian territory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "All unmanned aeronautical activities in Australia are ruled by CASR (Civil Aviation Safety Regulations) Part 101 which includes sections for UAV's and model aircraft among other operations. It is currently under review and new regulations specifically relating to UAV's and model aircraft are anticipated.\n* Any commercial use (i.e. any form of payment or benefit) of an unmanned aircraft results in the operations falling under the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Operations Section, CASR 101-1. This section requires formal licensing, training and documentation procedures to be approved and followed. These requirements will typically require an outlay in the order of thousands of dollars which places commercial operations beyond the reach of most hobbyists. This is one area currently under review by CASA with initial reports indicating a potential option of simpler registration for light-weight UAV's without requiring formal certification.\n* Non-commercial use is governed by section 101-3 which includes requirements that:\n** No commercial benefit is to be obtained from operating the model to be flown only for sport or recreational purposes\n** Maximum weight of 150\u00a0kg (models over 25\u00a0kg must be operated within a club setting under additional conditions)\n** Models under 100 grams are exempt from regulation\n** Only to be flown in daylight unless under written procedures of an authorised organisation (such as the MAAA)\n** The model must remain within continuous direct sight of the operator\n** When within 3 nautical miles of an aerodrome or when within controlled airspace, flight is limited to 400\u00a0ft above ground level"
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "US frequency chart available at ,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Regulation of unmanned aerial vehicles",
        "text": "Any person in charge of a small unmanned aircraft with a mass of 20 kilograms or less may fly the aircraft without approval from the Department of Civil Aviation Malaysia as long as \u201che is satisfied that the flight can safely be made\u201d."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regulation of unmanned aerial vehicles",
        "text": "Any person who intends to operate a UA/drones in the following airspace is required to obtain special permission from the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism.\n*(A) All airspace above or around airports, heliports and aerodromes. (airspace above the OLS, obstacle limitation surfaces.)\n*(B) All airspace 150 meters above ground/water surface.\n*(C) All airspace above Densely Inhabited Districts (DID), which are defined and published by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. (i.e. urban area and suburb, so only rural area is allowed)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citizens band radio in India",
        "text": "Citizens band radio in India\n--Legislation guiding usage of CB radio equipment.\n--Regulation in India.\n--CB band plan.\n--Popular use.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "In-flight entertainment",
        "text": "There are two major sections of the FAA's airworthiness regulations that regulate flight entertainment systems and their safety in transport category aircraft: 14 CFR 25.1301 which approves the electronic equipment for installation and use, by assuring that the system in question is properly labeled, and that its design is appropriate to its intended function. 14 CFR 25.1309 states that the electrical equipment must not alter the safety or functionality of the aircraft upon the result of a failure. One way for the intended IFE system to meet this regulatory requirement is for it to be independent from the aircraft's main power source and processor. By separating the power supplies and data links from that of the aircraft's performance processor, in the event of a failure the system is self-contained, and can not alter the functionality of the aircraft. Upon a showing of compliance to all of the applicable U.S. regulations the in-flight entertainment system is capable of being approved in the United States. Certain U.S. design approvals for IFE may be directly accepted in other countries, or may be capable of being validated, under existing bilateral airworthiness safety agreements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "The legal status of radio-controlled model aircraft under federal aviation law is currently unclear. In March 2014 in the case \"Huerta v. Pirker\", an administrative law judge with the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) dismissed an FAA enforcement action against a model aircraft operator under 14 CFR 91.13 (prohibiting careless and reckless operation of an aircraft), ruling that model aircraft are not legally classified as \"aircraft\" and that they are not subject to any current Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs). This decision was appealed to the full NTSB. In November 2014 the NTSB issued a ruling reversing the administrative law judge's decision and holding that model aircraft are legally considered \"aircraft\" at least for the purposes of 14 CFR 91.13, and remanded the case to the administrative judge to determine whether Pirker's actions constituted reckless operation. It remains unclear what other provisions of the Federal Aviation Regulations are applicable to model aircraft, but it is likely that every regulation applicable to \"aircraft\" generally would potentially apply under this standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "In the U.S.A. the FAA restricts flying of such aircraft to approved AMA Academy of Model Aeronautics sites, where only certified turbine pilots may fly. Also, the AMA requires model aviation enthusiasts who wish to operate miniature gas turbine powered RC model aircraft, to be certified in the operation of the type of gas turbine engine, and all aspects of safety in operating such a turbine-powered model aircraft, that they need to know in flying their model. Some military bases allow such high tech aircraft to fly within limited airspace such as Kaneohe Marine base in Hawaii, and Whidbey Island NAS in Washington State."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aircraft registration",
        "text": "Some countries will permit an aircraft that will not be flown into the airspace of another country to display the registration with the country prefix omitted - for example, gliders registered in Australia commonly display only the three-letter unique mark, without the \"VH-\" national prefix."
      },
      {
        "title": "Master minimum equipment list",
        "text": "Under the provisions of Article 41 of the ANO 2009 no aircraft registered in the United Kingdom may commence a flight if any of the equipment required by or under the Order is not carried or is not in a fit condition for use, unless a Permission to do so has been issued by the CAA. Similarly, EU-OPS 1.030/JAR-OPS 3.030 states that an operator shall establish for each aeroplane, an MEL approved by the CAA that will be based upon the relevant MMEL accepted by the CAA. In addition, an operator shall not operate an aeroplane other than in accordance with the MEL unless permitted by the CAA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Telegraph Act, 1885",
        "text": "Signal acquisition of any category within the radio spectrum outside of public licence-free broadcast frequencies needs approval from Wireless Planning & Coordination (WPC) wing of the DoT. Reception of radio traffic from Government or law-enforcement and defence organisations is strictly forbidden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pilot certification in the United States",
        "text": "Pilots do not need FCC licenses to use the radio within the United States (pilot certificates double as FCC radio licenses); however, other countries may require that a pilot have an FCC Restricted Radiotelephone Operator Permit (RR), and the aircraft radio station be licensed."
      },
      {
        "title": "ETOPS",
        "text": "Government-owned aircraft (including military) do not have to adhere to ETOPS regulations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "The Academy of Model Aeronautics' (AMA) Safety Code governs model aircraft operations at all model aircraft clubs and flying fields affiliated with the organization, which includes the majority of designated model aircraft flying fields in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antenna structure registration in the United States",
        "text": "U.S. Antenna Structure Registration rules are contained in Part 17 of Federal Communications Commission Rules (47 C.F.R. 17). The purpose of these rules is to regulate via the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the FCC antenna structures in the US that are taller than 60.96 meters (200\u00a0feet) above ground level or that may interfere with the flight path of a nearby airport."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur radio in India",
        "text": "Amateur radio operators from United States of America do not have automatic reciprocity in India. The use of US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) call-signs is prohibited under Indian law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "Canadian frequency chart available at"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mobile phones on aircraft",
        "text": "Since these regulations were originally imposed by various international aviation agencies, ultra-low-power devices, such as picocells, have been developed. Reasons for this include improved security, reduction of interference, and to allow safe in-flight use of mobile phones. Many airline companies have now added such equipment to their aircraft. More are expected to do so in the coming years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mobile phones on aircraft",
        "text": "A 2000 study by the British Civil Aviation Authority found that a mobile phone, when used near the cockpit or other avionics equipment location, will exceed safety levels for older equipment (compliant with 1984 standards). Such equipment is still in use, even in new aircraft. Therefore, the report concludes, the current policy, which restricts the use of mobile phones on all aircraft while the engines are running, should remain in force."
      },
      {
        "title": "SAFA programme",
        "text": "In each Participating State, aircraft of operators under the safety oversight of another Member State or of a third country can be subject to a ramp inspection, chiefly concerned with the aircraft documents and manuals, flight crew licenses, the apparent condition of the aircraft and the presence and condition of mandatory cabin safety equipment. The applicable requirements for these inspections are:\n# The ICAO international standards for aircraft used by third country operators;\n# The relevant EU requirements for aircraft used by operators under the regulatory oversight of another Member State;\n# Manufacturers\u2019 standards when checking the technical condition of the aircraft; and\n# Published national standards (e.g. Aeronautical Information Publications (AIPs)) that are declared applicable to all operators flying to that State."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aeronautical radionavigation service",
        "text": "The allocation of radio frequencies is provided according to \"Article 5\" of the ITU Radio Regulations (edition 2012)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio scanner",
        "text": "Until 2016, the \"Telekommunikationsgesetz\" only prohibited the act of listening to other classes of transmissions. This was broadened as a response to a decision of the Cologne Administrative Court, which in 2008 questioned whether the mere reception and decoding of aircraft transponder signals to display aircraft movements on a screen could be considered listening, as it lacks an acoustic element. This updated wording was carried over to the \"TTDSG\" in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled helicopter",
        "text": "US Federal Aviation Administration regulations from 2006 grounding all commercial RC model and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) flights have been upgraded to require formal FAA certification before being permitted to fly at any altitude in the United States. All commercial owners must register with FAA, as well as pass a knowledge test. Non-commercial operators must register only if the models they fly weigh more than 0.55 pounds (250g)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pre-flight safety demonstration",
        "text": "Electronic device policies were also updated to include that cellular phones and other radio-based electronics are not permitted to be used at any time while other devices may be used in-flight but must be shut off for take-off and landing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inerting system",
        "text": "The FAA issued the final rule on 21 July 2008. The rule amends regulations applicable to the design of new airplanes (14CFR\u00a725.981), and introduces new regulations for continued safety (14CFR\u00a726.31\u201339), Operating Requirements for Domestic Operations (14CFR\u00a7121.1117) and Operating Requirements for Foreign Air Carriers (14CFR\u00a7129.117). The regulations apply to airplanes certificated after 1 January 1958 of passenger capacity of 30 or more or payload capacity of greater than 7500 pounds. The regulations are performance based and do not require the implementation of a particular method."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "In the United States, the Academy of Model Aeronautics' (AMA) Safety Code (which governs flying at AMA affiliated fields) allows FPV flight under the parameters of AMA Document #550, which requires that FPV aircraft be kept within visual line of sight with a spotter maintaining unaided visual contact with the model at all times. Similarly, in the United Kingdom, the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) Air Navigation Order 2009 under General Exemption E 4185 requires small unmanned aircraft (SUA) be kept within visual line of sight with a competent observer maintaining direct unaided visual contact with the model at all times for the purpose of collision avoidance. Because these restrictions prohibit flying beyond the visual range of the pilot (an ability which many view as the most attractive aspect of FPV), most hobbyists that fly FPV do so outside of regular RC clubs and flying fields."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regulation of unmanned aerial vehicles",
        "text": "Airspace restrictions also apply above and adjacent to:\n* Nuclear plants\n* Prisons\n* Police stations\n* Crime scenes\n* Court of law\n* National key points"
      },
      {
        "title": "Citizens band radio in India",
        "text": "The establishment of, maintenance of, working with, possession of or dealing with in wireless equipment operating in citizens band was exempted from licensing under the Indian Telegraph Act, 1933 and the Indian Wireless Telegraphy Act, 1933, by Notification No G.S.R. 533(E) dated 12 August 2005 (published in the \"Gazette of India Extraordinary\" dated 12 August 2005)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aerial base station",
        "text": "Wireless communication regulations are being continuously developed by different organizations, such as the Electronic Communications Committee (ECC) in Europe and the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States. The aim is to control the operations of ABS considering various factors such as ABS type and identification, frequency spectrum for data sharing and sensors control, altitude that depends on the presence of line of sight with the pilot, speed and weight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regulation of unmanned aerial vehicles",
        "text": "UA/drones will be radio-controlled, so one should follow the Japan Radio Act exactly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
        "text": "It is common to leave landing gear off smaller planes (roughly 36\" or smaller) in order to save on weight, drag and construction costs. The planes can then be launched by hand-launching, as with smaller free-flight models, and can then land in soft grass. Flute board or Coroplast can be used in place of balsa wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "First-person view (radio control)",
        "text": "In the United States, FPV operations and unmanned aircraft generally may be subject to regulation by the following entities:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aircraft registration",
        "text": "Aircraft registration\n--Legal provisions.\n--Choice of aircraft registry.\n--International standards.\n--Country-specific usage.\n----United States.\n--Decolonisation and independence.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aircraft earth station",
        "text": "In accordance with \"ITU Radio Regulations\" (article 1) this type of \"radio station\" might be classified as follows:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mobile phones on aircraft",
        "text": "Mobile phones on aircraft\n--The debate on safety.\n----Electromagnetic interference.\n--The debate on other issues.\n----Social resistance to mobile phone use on flights.\n----Competition for airlines' in-flight phone service.\n--Current status.\n----In flight technology.\n----Status of specific regions and individual airlines.\n----Regulations and practice in the United States.\n----Regulatory status in Europe.\n----Regulatory status in India.\n----Future technologies.\n--Technical discussion.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aeronautical mobile (OR) service",
        "text": "The allocation of radio frequencies is provided according to \"Article 5\" of the ITU Radio Regulations (edition 2012)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Light Aircraft Association",
        "text": "The regime for approving amateur-built aircraft in the United Kingdom differs from that in many other countries, of which the United States is the prime example. Instead of the FAA's Experimental airworthiness category, under which an amateur may design, build and operate (and is ultimately responsible for) an aircraft 'for experimental purposes', the UK CAA is required to investigate any such aircraft's 'fitness to fly' and to issue a 'Permit to Fly' when satisfied. The LAA is approved by the CAA to make recommendations for and to revalidate such Permits. Aircraft on a LAA Permit may not be operated commercially and are at present limited to Day / VFR operation. There are also nominal limits on the number of seats (four) and on maximum take-off weight (2500\u00a0lbs), power (260HP) and stalling speed (70\u00a0mph). The Permit is valid only in UK airspace unless by agreement with another State, which is normally obtainable for countries in the European Union and many outside it. The Permit has to be renewed annually after the aircraft has been inspected by an inspector appointed by the LAA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aviation regulations",
        "text": "Most country's administrations have regulatory authorities devoted to producing and publishing regulations for aeronautical operations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mobile phones on aircraft",
        "text": "On 18 October 2007 the Office of Communications published proposals for the technical and authorisational approach that would be adopted to allow this for European GSM users on the 1800\u00a0MHz band on UK registered aircraft. and on 26 March 2008 Ofcom approved the use of mobile phone-supporting picocells aboard aircraft in the United Kingdom. Airline companies will have to first equip the aircraft with picocells and apply for licences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hang gliding",
        "text": "As aircraft operating in airspace occupied by other aircraft, hang glider pilots may also use the appropriate type of radio (i.e. the aircraft transceiver into Aero Mobile Service VHF band). It can, of course, be fitted with a PTT switch to a finger and speakers inside the helmet. The use of aircraft transceivers is subject to regulations specific to the use in the air such as frequencies restrictions, but has several advantages over FM (i.e. frequency modulated) radios used in other services. First is the great range it has (without repeaters) because of its amplitude modulation (i.e. AM). Second is the ability to contact, inform and be informed directly by other aircraft pilots of their intentions thereby improving collision avoidance and increasing safety. Third is to allow greater liberty regarding distance flights in regulated airspaces, in which the aircraft radio is normally a legal requirement. Fourth is the universal emergency frequency monitored by all other users and satellites and used in case of emergency or impending emergency."
      },
      {
        "title": "First-person view (radio control)",
        "text": "First-person view (radio control)\n--Airborne FPV.\n----Equipment.\n----Aircraft types.\n------Fixed wing.\n------Multi-rotor.\n----Radio frequencies.\n--Regulations and safety.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n------Federal Aviation Administration.\n------Federal Communications Commission.\n------National Park Service.\n------State and Local Governments.\n------Academy of Model Aeronautics.\n----Canada.\n----Australia.\n--FPV ground vehicles.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Airband",
        "text": "Aircraft communications radio operations worldwide use amplitude modulation, predominantly A3E double sideband with full carrier on VHF and UHF, and J3E single sideband with suppressed carrier on HF. Besides being simple, power-efficient and compatible with legacy equipment, AM and SSB permit stronger stations to override weaker or interfering stations. Additionally, this method does not suffer from the capture effect found in FM. Even if a pilot is transmitting, a control tower can \"talk over\" that transmission and other aircraft will hear a somewhat garbled mixture of both transmissions, rather than just one or the other. Even if both transmissions are received with identical signal strength, a heterodyne will be heard where no such indication of blockage would be evident in an FM system."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who invented the radio-controlled aircraft?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I was unable to find the inventor of radio-controlled aircraft, but I did find that Edward Sorensen was the first to invent radio-controlled aircraft that could fly out of sight. Previously, radio-controlled aircraft could only be operated within visual sight of the ground pilot."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the radio controlled aircraft that Edward Sorensen invented."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "His invention was the first to be able to know from a ground terminal what the airplane was doing, such as climbing, altitude, banking, direction, rpm and other instrumentation and without these patents the early radio-controlled aircraft could only operate within visual sight of the ground pilot."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did Edward Sorensen create any other inventions?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are radio-controlled aircrafts used for?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They have many uses, some of which are commercial or hobby related. They can also be used by scientists, the government, and the military as in the cases of conducting experiments, gathering weather readings, conducting aerodynamic modeling and testing, public service duties (firefighting, disaster recovery, etc.) or in the service of a nation's military."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about the regulations on their use in India?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Certain conditions exist for using the frequency band that the aircraft will operate, such as being eligible for that grade. Your name will be scripted for instance and if you have to make your own aircraft, then a license is needed."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there regulations on their usage anywhere else in the world?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Would you like to know of regulations in the US or Australia?",
      "Yes, both the USA and Australia also have regulations for radio-controlled aircraft. Do you want to know more about one of them?"
    ],
    "topic": "Radio-controlled aircraft",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Radio-controlled aircraft:107",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Radio-controlled aircraft",
          "Regulations on use",
          "United States"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the United States, radio-controlled model aircraft and unmanned aircraft generally may be subject to regulation by the following entities:"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Radio-controlled aircraft:114",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Radio-controlled aircraft",
          "Regulations on use",
          "Australia"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Australia the operation of model aircraft is subject to laws and regulations regarding radio spectrum use which is enforced by the ACMA (Australian Communications and Media Authority) and the use of airspace as enforced by CASA (Civil Aviation Safety Authority)."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Radio-controlled aircraft:86",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Radio-controlled aircraft",
          "Transmitting and Receiving Frequencies",
          "Frequency",
          "Reserved frequencies"
        ],
        "ctx": "USA and Canada reserved VHF frequency bands\n*72\u00a0MHz: aircraft only (France also uses US/Canada channels 21 through 35).\n*75\u00a0MHz: surface vehicles.\n*53\u00a0MHz: all vehicles, only for older equipment on 100\u00a0kHz spacing, with the operator holding a valid amateur radio (FCC in the USA) license. The 53\u00a0MHz band began to become vulnerable to amateur radio repeater stations operating on the 53\u00a0MHz area of the 6-meter band during the early 1980s. The 53\u00a0MHz bands can still be used with relative safety for ground-based (cars, boats/ships) powered modeling activities.\n*50.8 to 51\u00a0MHz: on the 6-meter band for all vehicles at 20\u00a0kHz spacing, with the operator holding a valid amateur radio (FCC in the USA) license. Added in the 1980s as the amateur radio repeater interference problem on the earlier 53\u00a0MHz bands in the United States began to manifest itself.\n*27\u00a0MHz: first band opened for RC use in the United States and shared with CB radio users: as with 53\u00a0MHz for Hams, nowadays preferable for use on ground-based RC models only \u2014 also used for older RC toys before 1991."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Radio-controlled aircraft:114",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Radio-controlled aircraft",
          "Regulations on use",
          "Australia"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Australia the operation of model aircraft is subject to laws and regulations regarding radio spectrum use which is enforced by the ACMA (Australian Communications and Media Authority) and the use of airspace as enforced by CASA (Civil Aviation Safety Authority)."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Earlier in the day of Krasinski's announcement, Universal Pictures had postponed the action film \"F9\" from late May 2021 to June 25, 2021. In the move-up process, Paramount postponed another of its films, \"Infinite\", from the May 28 release date. \"Deadline Hollywood\" reported that Paramount was encouraged to release \"A Quiet Place Part II\" earlier due to theaters reopening in New York City starting the weekend of March 5, 2021 and with plans for theaters in Los Angeles to also reopen in the near future."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Originally set for May 15, 2020 and March 20, 2020, as the pandemic case numbers had begun to rise in mid March, Paramount postponed it to , 2020. Without a streaming service from 2020 to early 2021, Paramount auctioned off multiple upcoming feature films but decided to keep \"A Quiet Place Part II\". The studio eventually changed the date to , 2021, then September 17, 2021, before moving it to May 28, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Before \"A Quiet Place Part II\" was postponed from late March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, \"Boxoffice Pro\" predicted the film would gross on its opening weekend, based on the first film's opening weekend () and the continued involvement of Emily Blunt and John Krasinski; but noted that the film would face competition from other titles such as \"Mulan\". In February, early industry tracking had the film debuting to around $55\u201360 million. \"Deadline Hollywood\"s Anthony D'Alessandro wrote, \"\"A Quiet Place Part II\" is currently strong with females under 25, African Americans and Hispanic demos, but overall I hear it's strong with all quads.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "As a result of Paramount shortening the theatrical run from 90 days to 45, John Krasinski, Emily Blunt, and producers including Michael Bay whose compensation depends on box-office receipts, requested for the studio to compensate them for the shorter run."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "A sequel to \"A Quiet Place\", titled \"A Quiet Place Part II\", was written and directed by Krasinski and stars Blunt, Simmonds, Jupe, Cillian Murphy, and Djimon Hounsou. Production took place in Western New York from June 2019 to September 2019. Paramount Pictures planned to release \"A Quiet Place Part II\" in theaters on March 20, 2020, however the film was rescheduled to September 4, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It was delayed to April 2021 from July 2020, delayed again from September 2020 to January 2021, before being moved to May 28, 2021. The film would also be made available on Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical release."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In July 2020, Paramount changed the film's release date from , 2020 to , 2021. At the time of the announcement, movie theaters in the United States and Canada had been closed for nearly four months, and the pandemic was continuing to spread across the United States. The second postponement followed other studios' decisions at the time to indefinitely delay the Warner Bros. film \"Tenet\" and the Disney film \"Mulan\". \"Variety\" reported, \"While those films had been long positioned to help revive moviegoing, sources say that Paramount did not want \"A Quiet Place Part 2\" to stay on Labor Day weekend and have the pressure of being the first new movie out of the gate during the pandemic.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "A Quiet Place Part II\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n----Development and casting.\n----Filming.\n----Cinematography.\n----Sound design.\n--Marketing.\n--Release.\n----Postponement.\n----Streaming service.\n----Move-up.\n----Theatrical release.\n--Reception.\n----Box office.\n----Critical response.\n--Home media.\n--Future.\n----Spin-off film.\n----Sequel.\n----Video game.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In January 2021, Paramount postponed the film's release from , 2021 to , 2021. At the time of postponement, COVID-19 infections had surged in the United States in recent months. \"Variety\" wrote of the circumstances in the United States and Canada, \"Around 65% of movie theaters remain closed, and cinemas that have stayed open have struggled to sell tickets.\" The postponement followed other studios' postponing of their films \"No Time to Die\", ', \"Morbius\", \"Cinderella\", and \"The King's Man\". On the September 2021 date at the time, \"A Quiet Place Part II\" would have been scheduled to open against \"Death on the Nile\", ', and \"The Man from Toronto\", all three of which later had their own dates shifted."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "A Quiet Place Part II is a 2020 American post-apocalyptic horror film and the sequel to 2018's \"A Quiet Place\", following the family from the first film as they continue to navigate and survive in a post-apocalyptic world inhabited by blind aliens with an acute sense of hearing. The film was written, produced and directed by John Krasinski for Paramount Pictures. Emily Blunt, Millicent Simmonds and Noah Jupe reprise their roles from the first film, while Cillian Murphy and Djimon Hounsou join the cast; Krasinski returns from the first film in a new flashback sequence."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\" had its world premiere at the Lincoln Center in New York City on , 2020. Paramount Pictures released the film in theaters on , 2021 after a year's worth of delays due to the COVID-19 pandemic. \"The New York Times\" described it as \"one of the first major films to receive an exclusive theatrical release from a Hollywood studio in the not-quite-post-coronavirus era.\" The studio released the film on Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical release."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunday Night Productions",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "For its theatrical release on May 28, 2021, \"A Quiet Place Part II\" was released in in the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Following the postponement of \"A Quiet Place Part II\" and other films during the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, teleconferencing became popular, and Paramount's marketing team started providing virtual backgrounds of \"A Quiet Place Part II\" and other films to be available on Zoom Video Communications."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The studio initially planned to release the film in theaters globally starting on , 2020, before it delayed the film due to the pandemic. Paramount had already spent around 60% of its budget for global prints and advertising, and \"Deadline Hollywood\" wrote that the film's delay was \"truly a shocker\" because the P&A expenses seemed to indicate that rescheduling was not an option. The studio films slated for the previous weekend, March 13, were the last to be released before mass theater closures. Director John Krasinski said he wanted moviegoers to see the film together and that with the pandemic, it was not the right time to provide that experience. CNBC wrote that in particular, the film and \"In the Heights\" were considered films best experienced with a crowd."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "A spin-off is set for release in 2023, while a sequel, \"Part III\", is in the works and scheduled to be released in 2025."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film is scheduled to be released on September 22, 2023."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "For the sequel's sound design, supervising sound editors Erik Aadahl and Ethan Van der Ryn and re-recording mixer Brandon Proctor returned for the film. Krasinski instructed them to try to \"follow the rules\" set up in the first film and said of the experience, \"What we found was by doing that, and not trying to be cool, we ended up uncovering way more stuff than we ever would've been able to [otherwise].\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place (disambiguation)",
        "text": "A Quiet Place is a 2018 film.\n*A Quiet Place Part II is its 2021 sequel."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "For the film's eventual May 2021 release date, Paramount released a final trailer several weeks in advance. \"The A.V. Club\"s William Hughes wrote that the new trailer was a retread of previous trailers with the most noteworthy element being its message that the film was the \"experience that theaters are made for\", encouraging increasingly-vaccinated moviegoers during the pandemic to go to movie theaters."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film is released digitally and on Movies Anywhere on July 13, 2021, while 4K Ultra HD, Blu-ray, and DVD on July 27, 2021. It was also released on Paramount+ on July 13, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "With their home destroyed, the family searches for other survivors. Entering a fenced-off area, Evelyn accidentally sets off a sound alarm, alerting the creatures. As they flee, Marcus steps into a bear trap, attracting a creature with his screams. Regan and Evelyn kill it, free Marcus, then run into an abandoned steel foundry. An old friend, Emmett, appears and takes them to his soundproof underground hideout. Emmett, who recently lost his family and developed a cynical outlook on life, refuses to help further and says they cannot stay."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "A sequel, \"A Quiet Place Part II\", was released on May 28, 2021, with Krasinski returning to the director's chair and the main cast also returning with the addition of Cillian Murphy."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "When Paramount Pictures planned to commercially release \"A Quiet Place Part II\" in March 2020, the studio released a 30-second teaser trailer before select theatrical screenings of \"Black Christmas\", which was released on December 13, 2019. Less than a week later, the teaser trailer became available online. A full trailer was released on January 1, 2020. During pre-game coverage before the Super Bowl on February 2, 2020, Paramount released a 30-second TV spot, which revealed that Krasinski had reprised his role in a newly filmed flashback sequence."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film was initially to be released in the United Kingdom and Australia on , 2020, and in the United States and Canada, including Dolby Cinema and IMAX, on , 2020. Paramount initially stated on March 6 that it would not reschedule the film in response to the pandemic, but on March 12, the studio pulled the film from release worldwide with the intent of scheduling it later in the year. In April 2020, it announced the release date of , 2020. The September release date would have been the start of the US holiday Labor Day Weekend. \"Deadline Hollywood\" wrote at the time that the weekend is \"summer [box office's] finale\", and \"typically the deadest period ever for moviegoing\", but that the studio anticipated pent-up demand after pandemic fears subside."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In June 2019, production began on the sequel. Filming officially commenced on . There were 47 days of filming throughout Western New York, including Akron, Olcott, Dunkirk, Lackawanna, and Buffalo. Other locations included Erie County and the city of North Tonawanda, and Barcelona Harbor in the town of Westfield in Chautauqua County. Filming also took place on a giant sound stage at Buffalo FilmWorks in South Buffalo. One of the last filming locations, the northbound South Grand Island Bridge, was shut down for 13 hours for filming."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\" was produced under Paramount Pictures with a budget of . It was written and directed by John Krasinski, who also produced the film alongside Michael Bay, Andrew Form, and Brad Fuller."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Emmett and Regan arrive at a marina to board a boat to the island. They are attacked by feral humans, and Emmett deliberately creates noise and attracts creatures that slaughter the attackers. When one creature drowns, he realizes that the creatures cannot swim. The two row to the island where a small colony of survivors is living normally. The colony leader reveals that when the government discovered the creatures were unable to swim, the U.S. National Guard attempted to move as many people as possible to the islands. However, the chaos from boarding created noise that attracted the creatures, leaving only two boats that made it to the island."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In October 2021, it was announced that a video game set within the same continuity as the film series is in development. The game will reportedly include an untold original story. The developers stated: \"The \"A Quiet Place\" video game will let fans experience the tension of the films with a level of immersion they\u2019ve never felt before.\" The project which will be published by Saber Interactive, is being created in collaboration by iLLOGIKA, EP1T0ME Studios Inc., and Paramount Pictures."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film was also released in 12 other markets on its opening weekend, including China as a last-minute addition."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Over a year later, the creatures have killed much of the Earth's population. Regan discovers that high-frequency audio feedback makes the creatures vulnerable, and she devises a makeshift method of transmitting the noise from her cochlear implant through a portable microphone."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "On March 4, 2021, director John Krasinski announced that the release date would be moved earlier from September 17, 2021, to May 28, 2021, which is the start of the Memorial Day holiday weekend in the United States. \"Boxoffice Pro\" wrote, \"This marks the first time post-pandemic that a theatrically exclusive major studio tentpole has moved a planned release \"up\" by this many months rather than \"back\".\" The publication also wrote that the film would be \"the first live-action tentpole exclusively in theaters\" since \"Tenet\" was released in August 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In addition to Western New York, filming took place in the Hudson Valley, specifically the towns of Dover, Pawling, and New Paltz. In New Paltz, the Wallkill Valley Rail Trail was revisited to film on a bridge that featured in the first film. The production invested over $10 million in Upstate New York, created 400 hires, and involved 300 background actors. By late September, production was finished."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In May 2021, Blunt revealed that Krasinski had plans for a third film. Acknowledging that he had wanted to see how the second installment was received before moving forward on the next film, she stated it is intended to be a trilogy. In July 2021, Blunt confirmed that Krasinski is working on a third installment, separate from the spin-off film, with intentions to once again serve as director. In February 2022, \"A Quiet Place Part III\" was officially announced with a scheduled release date in 2025."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Evelyn leaves Marcus and her newborn baby at the foundry to fetch medical supplies in town. Marcus discovers the corpse of Emmett's wife. Startled, he alerts a creature and accidentally locks himself and the baby inside an air-tight compartment."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "A Quiet Place\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n----Development and writing.\n----Filming.\n----Sound and music.\n----Use of sign language.\n----Creature design.\n--Marketing.\n--Release.\n----Premiere.\n----Box office forecast.\n----Theatrical run.\n--Reception.\n----Critical response.\n--Commentary and themes.\n----Parenthood.\n----Other themes.\n--Home media.\n--Sequel.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In November 2020, Paramount Pictures hired Jeff Nichols to write and direct a spin-off based on an original idea from John Krasinski, who will produce. However, Nichols exited the project by October 2021. In January 2022, Michael Sarnoski joined production to replace Nichols as the writer and director."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Paramount Pictures began the development of a sequel in April 2018, following the box-office success of the first film. By the following August, Krasinski was working on the screenplay, and in February 2019, he was confirmed as returning to direct. Production took place in Western New York from June to September 2019. Krasinski was credited with writing the sequel, based on characters created by Bryan Woods and Scott Beck. The sequel was produced on a budget of around , over three times the original's ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction",
        "text": "In the 2018 horror film \"A Quiet Place\" and the 2021 sequel \"A Quiet Place Part II\", society has collapsed in the wake of lethal attacks by (apparently) extraterrestrial creatures who, having no eyesight, hunt humans and other creatures with their highly sensitive hearing; the scattered survivors live most of their lives in near-silence as a result."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film had its world premiere in New York City on March 8, 2020, and after over a year of postponements due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was theatrically released in the United States on , 2021. It became available to stream on Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical debut. The film set several box office records, including the biggest opening weekend of the COVID-19 pandemic, and grossed $297.4million worldwide. It received positive reviews from critics, who praised the story and the addition of Murphy's character Emmett."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In early March, Paramount initiated \"survival room\" experiences in New York and Los Angeles in which groups of visitors could try to overcome \"physical and mental obstacles\" without making too much noise. The setups cost less than a million dollars for Paramount. A marketing executive anticipated between seven thousand and eight thousand people to go through the experience and for fans and social media influencers to engage in experiential marketing. Emily Blunt appeared on \"Jimmy Kimmel Live!\" on March 10 to promote the film. She appeared in a parody commercial advertising \"A Quiet Plane\", starring as a stewardess that enforces silence as a top priority to a plane's passengers. Before the film's postponement (see below), Paramount planned to host a double-feature event on March 18, 2020, that would have screened the first and second films and given collector's prints to attendees."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "During a little league game, the Abbott family \u2013 wife Evelyn, husband Lee, deaf daughter Regan, and sons Marcus and Beau \u2013 and other spectators witness a strange asteroid-like object hurtle towards the Earth. Hostile extraterrestrial creatures attack and begin slaughtering people. The blind creatures possess armored skin, have extraordinary speed and strength, and track victims with hypersensitive hearing, attacking anything that makes a noise."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\" grossed $160.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $137.3 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $297.4 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cillian Murphy",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\", released May 28, 2021, stars Murphy as Emmett, a hardened survivor and old family friend of the Abbotts. Murphy's character reluctantly takes in the Abbotts following the events of the first film."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "When Evelyn returns to the foundry, she frees the children before they suffocate. The three hide inside the bunker as the alien prowls the foundry. At the island, a creature aboard a boat drifts to the island and attacks the colonists. It kills the colony leader while Emmett and Regan run into the radio station. Regan transmits the high frequency through the room's speakers, incapacitating the creature, and impales its exposed head with a rod, killing it."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In an interview with \"Headliner Magazine\", Ethan Van der Ryn and Erik Aadahl shared how sound (and silence) was a central character in the film: \"We started hearing stories after the first film that people were afraid to eat their popcorn in the theatre! That was thrilling for us to hear because it's like, \u2018Okay, this experiment that we tried actually works\u2019! We were able to literally make the audience hold their breath.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Bay",
        "text": "In 2021, it was reported that Bay requested financial compensation from film studio Paramount Pictures for indirectly limiting his income as a result of Paramount cutting the theatrical-only run of \"A Quiet Place Part II\" from 90 days to 45 days due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Bay and other producers as well as actors for the film, as is typically the case, receive payment in part based on box-office performance, and a reduction in the theatrical run's exclusivity would affect the pay they receive."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "A Quiet Place is a 2018 American post-apocalyptic horror film directed by John Krasinski and written by Bryan Woods, Scott Beck and Krasinski, from a story conceived by Woods and Beck. The plot revolves around a father (Krasinski) and a mother (Emily Blunt) who struggle to survive and raise their children (Millicent Simmonds and Noah Jupe) in a post-apocalyptic world inhabited by blind monsters with an acute sense of hearing."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Marcus hears the song \"Beyond the Sea\" playing on the radio, which Emmett says has aired continuously for four months. Regan determines it is a hint that survivors are on a nearby island. She theorizes that if she can reach the island's radio tower, the hearing aid's high-frequency noise can be broadcast so other survivors can weaponize the signal. She secretly ventures out alone to find the island. Emmett finds Regan and saves her from a creature. Regan persuades Emmett to help complete her mission."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Krasinski",
        "text": "Krasinski directed and wrote the sequel \"A Quiet Place Part II\", in which he also had a supporting role. Initially scheduled for March 20, 2020, it was delayed due to COVID-19 (theatres began to shut down the week of March 16). It was eventually released on May 28, 2021, to positive reviews, becoming a box office success, and the first film of the pandemic era to cross $100m at the domestic box office. In May 2021, Krasinski's production company, Sunday Night Productions, signed a first-look deal with Paramount Pictures."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The sequel's cinematography also evolved from its predecessor in following more action. Morgan described director Krasinski's intent, \"John wanted to always keep the camera moving and create long 'oners' to play with rhythm and tension and to show how normal life can suddenly become very different and dangerous\u2014all in the same shot.\" Morgan used an array of tracking vehicles, on which there were different camera mounts including jibs, cranes, and Steadicam vests, with the vehicles often going full speed."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In February 2021, Paramount announced that \"A Quiet Place Part II\" would become available on its streaming service Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical release. \"Deadline Hollywood\" reported that it was \"a clear sign that Paramount is committed to theatrical, but still open to the future of streaming.\" Before the COVID-19 pandemic, movie theater operators sought for films to be theatrically released for 90 days before being released on home media. As a result of the pandemic, Warner Bros. opted to release their 2021 slate of films on HBO Max the same day as in theaters, and Universal Pictures made its films available via video-on-demand 17 days after their theatrical releases. \"Variety\" reported, \"Paramount's strategy may be received the most favorably among film exhibitors\", with \"A Quiet Place Part II\" among Paramount's tentpole films having the 45-day frame and its other titles having a 30-day frame. \"Boxoffice Pro\" reported that the original film grossed 94% of its total of $188 million in the United States and Canada by its 45th day, which indicated that Paramount's \"decision works more in favor of exhibitors than against.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place\" was released on Digital HD on June 26, 2018, and on Ultra HD Blu-ray, Blu-ray and DVD on July 10, 2018. Paramount Pictures released a 4K, Steelbook+Blu-Ray+Digital version of the film on February 25, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Three months after \"A Quiet Place\"s release, Krasinski decided to brainstorm ideas for a sequel. According to Krasinski, Paramount rejected pitches from other writers and directors that were considered too franchise-oriented. He said, \"I had this small idea, which was to make Millie [Simmonds] the lead of the movie... her character opens the door to all the themes I was dealing with in the first movie.\" The studio invited him to write a script based on his idea. By August 2018, Krasinski was writing the film. He wrote a draft in three and a half weeks. In the following February, he was confirmed to direct the sequel, and actors Emily Blunt, Millicent Simmonds, and Noah Jupe were set to reprise their roles. In March, Cillian Murphy joined the cast. In the following June, Brian Tyree Henry was also added, but later left the film due to scheduling problems. He was replaced by Djimon Hounsou in August."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cinesound Productions",
        "text": "The movie was then pushed back to enable filming of \"Cinesound Varieties\". Shooting was meant to start after that but it was winter and experience of \"Squatter's Daughter\" showed this cost time so the film was postponed again. Another reason is that Cinesound had trouble with the censor on \"The Silence of Dean Maitland\" and were worried about censor trouble on \"Robbery\"; Hall said he would not make the film until the censor had passed the script."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place (disambiguation)",
        "text": "A Quiet Place (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\" received mostly positive reviews from film critics. \"Screen Rant\" wrote that critics liked the film and praised its \"two-pronged story\" and the introduction of Cillian Murphy's character. Meanwhile, \"The Independent\" wrote that critics were divided. The film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes assessed reviews and determined of them to be positive, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads, \"A nerve-wracking continuation of its predecessor, \"A Quiet Place Part II\" expands the terrifying world of the franchise without losing track of its heart.\" According to review aggregator Metacritic, the film received \"generally favorable reviews\", with a weighted score of 71 out of 100 based on 57 critics. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"A\u2212\" on an A+ to F scale, an improvement from the first film's B+ score. PostTrak reported 83% of audience members gave it a positive score, with 63% saying they would definitely recommend it."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "Supervising sound editors Erik Aadahl and Ethan Van der Ryn worked on \"A Quiet Place\". For scenes from the perspective of the deaf daughter, sound was removed to put greater focus on the visual. They also advised on organizing shots to reflect the creatures' perspective, like showing them noticing a sound, then showing what was causing the sound. Composer Marco Beltrami provided the sound editors music to work with in a way that would not interfere with the sound design throughout the film."
      },
      {
        "title": "South Grand Island Bridge",
        "text": "In August 2019, the bridges were closed to the public to be used as a filming site for A Quiet Place Part II."
      },
      {
        "title": "Millicent Simmonds",
        "text": "Simmonds also reprised her role in the sequel film \"A Quiet Place Part II\", which filmed in the middle of 2019. John Krasinski, who also directed the sequel, said, \"I had this small idea, which was to make Millie [Simmonds] the lead of the movie... her character opens the door to all the themes I was dealing with in the first movie.\" The film had its world premiere in March 2020, but due to the COVID-19 pandemic, its commercial release was postponed to May 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "During filming, the crew avoided making noise so diegetic synchronized sounds (e.g., the sound of rolling dice on a game board) could be recorded; the sounds were amplified in post-production. A traditional musical score was also added, which Krasinski justified in wanting audiences to remain familiar with watching a mainstream film, and not feel like part of a \"silence experiment.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place\" is a production of Platinum Dunes produced on a budget of $17 million. Krasinski wrote the screenplay with Scott Beck and Bryan Woods. Beck and Woods grew up together in Iowa and had watched numerous silent films in college, and they began working on the story that led to the film. They used their experience growing up close to farmland as the setting, including a grain silo as a place considered dangerous in their upbringing."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place\" was first commercially released in theaters in the first week of April 2018 in multiple territories, including North America. The film grossed $188 million in the United States and Canada, and $152 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $341 million. \"Deadline Hollywood\" estimates the net profit of the film to be $93 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "\"Bloody Disgusting\" rated the film 3.5/5 and called it \"a satisfying, worthwhile sequel\". \"The A.V. Club\" gave it a B- and remarked that it was \"a part two in the classic, traditional sense, echoing without quite amplifying the pleasures of its predecessor.\" io9 declared that the film was \"a quintessential great sequel.\" Nick Allen of RogerEbert.com gave the film three out of four stars, criticizing Krasinski for not taking risks but praising its \"incredibly robust and kinetic\" action scenes."
      },
      {
        "title": "In a Quiet Room II",
        "text": "In a Quiet Room II\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place (opera)",
        "text": "Old Sam remembers..."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place (opera)",
        "text": "At lunchtime, Young Sam and Dinah have a chance meeting on the street, in the rain. They both pretend to have lunch dates elsewhere, then wonder to themselves why they lied. What has happened, they ask themselves, to dull their love? Can't they find their way back to the garden where they began?"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place (opera)",
        "text": "A Quiet Place (opera)\n--Performance history.\n----Revisions.\n----Later performances.\n--Roles.\n--Synopsis.\n----Prologue.\n----Act 1.\n----Act 2.\n------Scene 1.\n------Scene 2.\n------Scene 3.\n------Scene 4.\n----Act 3.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Polly Morgan was the cinematographer for \"A Quiet Place Part II\", replacing Charlotte Bruus Christensen from the first film. Morgan continued the first film's use of 35 mm film and described its effect, \"Although \"A Quiet Place 2\" is a horror, it looks pretty and engaging, with a nostalgic look that you would find hard to achieve digitally.\" The film's \"extensive dark situations\" (night scenes and stage work that comprised 75% of screen time) were shot with Kodak Vision3 500T 5219 film stock, while Vision3 250D 5207 was used mainly for day exteriors. Morgan filmed with Panavision Panaflex Millennium XL2 cameras and T-Series anamorphic lenses, which had been adjusted to match the C-Series lenses Christensen used on the first film. One of Morgan's most challenging situations was lighting and shooting the furnace setting."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place (disambiguation)",
        "text": "A Quiet Place may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Peter Bradshaw of \"The Guardian\" gave the film 4 stars out of 5, stating, \"This sequel from writer-director John Krasinski may not quite have all its focus and intimate horror, while the borrowings from \"Alien\", \"Jurassic Park\" and \"Jaws\" are admittedly more obvious this time around. But it\u2019s a really effective and engrossing followup, with an absolutely sensational \"prelude\" sequence at the top of the movie, a barnstorming shocker equal to anything in \"AQP1\".\" He also praised the performances of Millicent Simmonds and Cillian Murphy, stating that \"Simmonds is an excellent performer: bold, confident and forthright, holding her own opposite the alpha-emoting presence of Murphy.\" Jeannette Catsoulis of \"The New York Times\" gave the film a positive review, stating, \"...while this new installment is, like its predecessor, wonderfully acted and intuitively directed (by John Krasinski, who is solely responsible for the story this time around), it has also largely replaced the hushed horror of the original with full-on action. Faster, coarser and far noisier, \"Part II\" sacrifices emotional depth for thriller setups that do less to advance the plot than grow the younger characters\", and, \"Though in many respects an exemplary piece of filmmaking, \"Part II\" remains hobbled by a script that resolves two separate crises while leaving the movie itself in limbo.\" Justin Chang of \"NPR\" said that \"\"A Quiet Place Part II\" [is] an unexpectedly resonant film for the present moment as this country slowly emerges from a crisis that\u2014while surely less terrifying than an alien apocalypse\u2014has revealed humanity at its best and its worst\", and praised Krasinski's direction, saying, \"Not being able to fall back on verbal exposition has forced Krasinski to become a ruthlessly efficient visual storyteller. It's often said that Alfred Hitchcock's movies are so sharply directed, you could turn the sound off and still follow the action\u2014a truth that applies to these movies as well.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "On March 12, 2020, it was announced that the global release of \"A Quiet Place Part II\" would be delayed, based on widespread advice and policies against large gatherings and it was first rescheduled to September 4, 2020, in time for the Labor Day weekend, then to its new date of April 23, 2021 due to the continuous virus surging in the United States. On the same day, the release of Indian film \"Sooryavanshi,\" which was initially scheduled to release on March 24, was postponed indefinitely, and the release of \"F9\" was pushed to April 2, 2021. \"Mulan\"'s March 12 London premiere went ahead without a red carpet, and on March 13, it was announced that the film was removed from the release calendar, but had been rescheduled for July 24, 2020, taking the release date of another Disney film \"Jungle Cruise\" and was further delayed by four weeks to August 21, 2020. With no further rescheduling options, \"Mulan\" was removed from the release calendar again."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place (opera)",
        "text": "The scene opens as the jazz trio reprises its paean to the American suburban dream."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place in the Country",
        "text": "A Quiet Place in the Country\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n--Release.\n--Critical response.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "When the family goes into town for supplies, Beau finds a toy space shuttle, which Lee makes him leave alone because it would make too much noise. As they are getting ready to leave, Regan secretly gives him back the toy, but without its batteries. When they leave, Beau secretly takes back these batteries. While walking back home, Beau triggers the toy rocket, which starts making noise. The noise alerts a nearby creature who promptly jumps out of the forest and kills him."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place (opera)",
        "text": "In that distantly remembered afternoon, rather than going to Junior's school play, Young Sam has competed for a handball trophy and won. As he showers he proclaims that there are some men, like himself, who are just born winners and some men \"who will never, ever win\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Paramount produced the first film, \"A Quiet Place\", on a budget of . The studio released the film in the United States and Canada in April 2018, where it grossed on opening weekend, well above a mid-$20 million forecast. Later in April, Paramount Chair and CEO Jim Gianopulos announced that a sequel was in development. The first film totaled $188 million in the US and Canada and $340.9 million worldwide. John Krasinski, who co-wrote, directed and starred in the first film, said he considered it \"as a one-off\". Uncertain of finding similar success in a sequel, he initially told Paramount to seek another writer and director. The first film's screenwriters Scott Beck and Bryan Woods did not return for the sequel. Woods said they were not interested in a franchise approach, and that they would rather try \"to create original ideas\" and use their writing credits \"as an opportunity to push several projects.\" Beck said, \"Instead of focusing on sequels per se, it's about investing back into the ecosystem of original ideas in a massive marketplace.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place (opera)",
        "text": "A Quiet Place is a 1983 American opera with music by Leonard Bernstein and a libretto by Stephen Wadsworth. It is a sequel to Bernstein's 1951 opera \"Trouble in Tahiti\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place (opera)",
        "text": "In its three-act form, act 2 largely consisted of \"Trouble in Tahiti\" in flashback. This form appeared in 1984, with John Mauceri conducting in Milan and Washington. It was refined in 1986 for Vienna, where a recording was made and the composer himself conducted."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place (opera)",
        "text": "Dede is up early the next morning, weeding in her mother's once-splendid, now overgrown garden. She senses Dinah's unseen presence and speaks to her, remembering when they were close. Junior, in high spirits, appears with breakfast. Brother and sister play games remembered from childhood and reenact their parents' quarrelsome breakfasts. Fran\u00e7ois joins them in the midst of a tag game, and in another trio of remembrance \u2013 for which time stands still \u2013 they relive the first meeting of Dede and Fran\u00e7ois some 10 years before."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "\"Variety\"s Owen Gleiberman said, \"\"A Quiet Place\" is a tautly original genre-bending exercise, technically sleek and accomplished, with some vivid, scary moments, though it's a little too in love with the stoned logic of its own premise.\" Michael Phillips of the \"Chicago Tribune\" gave the film 2.5 out of 4 and said, \"My favorite moment, an encounter between Regan and one of the monsters in a cornfield, plays with sound and image and tension, creatively. Other bits are more shameless...I don't know if I'd call \"A Quiet Place\" enjoyable; it's more grueling than cathartic.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Re'eh",
        "text": "In referring to \"the place God chooses, to put his name for His dwelling place,\" and 11 never mention the name of the place. According to the Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary, the place was \"successively Mizpeh, Shiloh, and especially Jerusalem.\" This commentary suggests that this studied silence was maintained partly to prevent the Canaanites within whose territories it lay to concentrate their forces to frustrate all hopes of obtaining it, and partly to prevent the desire of possessing a place of such importance from becoming a cause of strife or rivalry amongst the Hebrew tribes."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place (opera)",
        "text": "In his office Young Sam clinches a deal, making a business loan with his customary \u00e9lan. The jazz trio extols his business acumen and big heart. On her psychiatrist's couch Dinah relates a dream; as she struggled to find her way out of a dying garden, a voice beckoned to her, promising that love would lead her to \"a quiet place\". Young Sam summons his (unseen) secretary to his office, pointedly asks if he has ever made any passes at her, and takes her quiet demurrals as acquiescence to his version of what happened."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place (opera)",
        "text": "(Incorporating \"Trouble in Tahiti)\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Bryan Woods",
        "text": "In 2016, Woods and Beck sold their original screenplay for \"A Quiet Place\" to Paramount Pictures. The film, executive produced by Woods, Beck, Michael Bay and Platinum Dunes, stars Emily Blunt and John Krasinski, the latter of who also directed and co-wrote the script. Paramount subsequently signed Woods and Beck to a blind script deal for a second project they will write and direct. \"A Quiet Place\" was released in April 2018 to critical acclaim with a Rotten Tomatoes approval rating of 95%. It became a major box office hit, grossing over $330 million worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Silence (2019 film)",
        "text": "\"The Guardian\"s Charles Bramesco called \"The Silence\" \"a shoddy remix\" of \"A Quiet Place\" and said, \"\"The Silence\" exists for the sole purpose of being digitally sorted into a list of recommendations For Viewers Who Liked \"Bird Box\", though that classification would be more accurately clocked as For Viewers Who Liked \"A Quiet Place\"... the demographic they're really after would be something closer to Viewers Who Have Trouble Telling Similar Things Apart.\" \"Decider\"s Anna Menta compared the films, \"\"The Silence\" is much darker and gorier than \"A Quiet Place\",\" and found \"The Silence\" to look low-budget in production values. Menta said \"The Silence\" was started before the invasion while \"A Quiet Place\" was set fully after the invasion. She noted the criticism of \"The Silence\" for having a hearing actor as a deaf character and highlighted its additional elements, a teen romance and a religious cult."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place (opera)",
        "text": "At home later that evening, Sam is alone in the master bedroom. Reading Dinah's old diaries makes him angry, but he also feels love for Dinah and realizes that he misses her. The diary evokes a memory of 30 years ago..."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place\" had its world premiere at the South by Southwest film festival as the opening-night film on March 9, 2018. It was selected from 2,458 submissions, and earned \"raves\" from critics, according to \"IndieWire\". Following its premiere, the film experienced social media growth to under views across multiple platforms, outpacing \"Get Out\" (2017), which had views."
      },
      {
        "title": "Infinite (film)",
        "text": "\"Infinite\" was originally scheduled for a theatrical release on August 7, 2020, but was delayed to May 28, 2021, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It was delayed again to September 24, 2021, when \"A Quiet Place Part II\" was moved to the May slot. On May 6, 2021, Paramount cancelled \"Infinite\"s theatrical release, and instead digitally released it via Paramount+ on June 10, 2021. In countries where Paramount+ isn't available as a streaming service, the film was released through ViacomCBS-owned SVOD services Paramount Play and Paramount+ on August 23, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "In the film, creatures are blind and communicate through clicking sounds. Aadahl and Van der Ryn said they were inspired by animal echolocation, such as that employed by bats. The sound of feedback, normally avoided by sound editors, was woven into the story at a loudness level that would not bother audiences too much."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "Sightless aliens with sharp hearing take over the planet and kill most of the human population. The Abbott family: mother Evelyn, father Lee, daughter Regan (who is deaf), and sons Marcus and Beau, lives on an isolated farm in the middle of the forest. They must take special precautions in order to avoid making noise, such as making sand paths through the forest to avoid stepping on crunching leaves, and using American Sign Language when communicating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scott Beck",
        "text": "In 2016, Beck and Woods sold their original screenplay for \"A Quiet Place\" to Paramount Pictures. The film, executive produced by Beck, Woods, Michael Bay and Platinum Dunes, stars Emily Blunt and John Krasinski, the latter of who also directed and co-wrote the script. Paramount subsequently signed Beck and Woods to a blind script deal for a second project they will write and direct. \"A Quiet Place\" was released in April 2018 to critical acclaim with a Rotten Tomatoes approval rating of 95%. It became a major box office hit, grossing over $330 million worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dead Silence",
        "text": "Tentative plans for a sequel were abandoned."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Place Where the Sun Is Silent",
        "text": "Production"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place (opera)",
        "text": "The scene opens with a scat singing jazz trio which advertises the charms of ideal family life in \"Suburbia, U.S.A.\" of the 1950s. Various prosperous American suburbs are mentioned by name, including Wellesley Hills, Shaker Heights, Highland Park, and Beverly Hills."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "Producers Andrew Form and Bradley Fuller said that they initially planned not to provide on-screen subtitles for sign-language dialogue while providing only \"context clues,\" but they realized that subtitles were necessary for the scene in which the deaf daughter and her hearing father argue about the modified hearing aid. They subsequently added subtitles for all sign-language dialogue in the film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beyond the Sea (song)",
        "text": "In the 2020 horror film \"A Quiet Place Part II\", the song is played on loop over the radio as a signal to guide survivors to an island."
      },
      {
        "title": "Millicent Simmonds",
        "text": "With deaf characters historically played by hearing actors, or sign language obscured by the editing process, Simmonds considers her films \"Wonderstruck\", \"A Quiet Place\", and \"A Quiet Place Part II\" as \"a corrective\" to that history."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place in the Country",
        "text": "On 9 August 2011, MGM Home Entertainment released \"A Quiet Place in the Country\" on DVD as part of their Limited Edition Collection. Scream Factory released the film on Blu-ray on 26 September 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place (opera)",
        "text": "A chorus sings scattered musical phrases such as \"My Heart Shall Be Thy Garden\", \"Cakes and Friends We Choose With Care\", and \"Lost Time is Never Found\". Some of these themes are repeated throughout the opera. Meanwhile, voices are heard in reaction to a car accident. The victim is Dinah, a wife and mother of two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Back to the Future Part III",
        "text": "Although the schedule for most of the personnel involved was grueling, the actors found the remote location for \"Part III\" relaxing, compared to shooting its predecessor."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why was A Quiet Place Part II postponed?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The film had its world premiere in New York City on March 8, 2020, and after over a year of postponements due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was theatrically released in the United States on May 28, 2021.",
      "The studio initially planned to release the film in theaters globally starting on March 18, 2020, in the United Kingdom and Australia on March 19, 2020, and in the United States and Canada on March 20, 2020 before it delayed the film due to the pandemic. In July 2020, Paramount changed the film's release date from September 4, 2020 to April 23, 2021."
    ],
    "topic": "A Quiet Place Part II",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "A Quiet Place Part II:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "A Quiet Place Part II"
        ],
        "ctx": "The film had its world premiere in New York City on March 8, 2020, and after over a year of postponements due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was theatrically released in the United States on , 2021. It became available to stream on Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical debut. The film set several box office records, including the biggest opening weekend of the COVID-19 pandemic, and grossed $297.4million worldwide. It received positive reviews from critics, who praised the story and the addition of Murphy's character Emmett."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "A Quiet Place Part II:28",
        "passage_titles": [
          "A Quiet Place Part II",
          "Release",
          "Postponement"
        ],
        "ctx": "The studio initially planned to release the film in theaters globally starting on , 2020, before it delayed the film due to the pandemic. Paramount had already spent around 60% of its budget for global prints and advertising, and \"Deadline Hollywood\" wrote that the film's delay was \"truly a shocker\" because the P&A expenses seemed to indicate that rescheduling was not an option. The studio films slated for the previous weekend, March 13, were the last to be released before mass theater closures. Director John Krasinski said he wanted moviegoers to see the film together and that with the pandemic, it was not the right time to provide that experience. CNBC wrote that in particular, the film and \"In the Heights\" were considered films best experienced with a crowd."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "A Quiet Place Part II:29",
        "passage_titles": [
          "A Quiet Place Part II",
          "Release",
          "Postponement"
        ],
        "ctx": "The film was initially to be released in the United Kingdom and Australia on , 2020, and in the United States and Canada, including Dolby Cinema and IMAX, on , 2020. Paramount initially stated on March 6 that it would not reschedule the film in response to the pandemic, but on March 12, the studio pulled the film from release worldwide with the intent of scheduling it later in the year. In April 2020, it announced the release date of , 2020. The September release date would have been the start of the US holiday Labor Day Weekend. \"Deadline Hollywood\" wrote at the time that the weekend is \"summer [box office's] finale\", and \"typically the deadest period ever for moviegoing\", but that the studio anticipated pent-up demand after pandemic fears subside."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "A Quiet Place Part II:30",
        "passage_titles": [
          "A Quiet Place Part II",
          "Release",
          "Postponement"
        ],
        "ctx": "In July 2020, Paramount changed the film's release date from , 2020 to , 2021. At the time of the announcement, movie theaters in the United States and Canada had been closed for nearly four months, and the pandemic was continuing to spread across the United States. The second postponement followed other studios' decisions at the time to indefinitely delay the Warner Bros. film \"Tenet\" and the Disney film \"Mulan\". \"Variety\" reported, \"While those films had been long positioned to help revive moviegoing, sources say that Paramount did not want \"A Quiet Place Part 2\" to stay on Labor Day weekend and have the pressure of being the first new movie out of the gate during the pandemic.\""
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In July 2020, Paramount changed the film's release date from , 2020 to , 2021. At the time of the announcement, movie theaters in the United States and Canada had been closed for nearly four months, and the pandemic was continuing to spread across the United States. The second postponement followed other studios' decisions at the time to indefinitely delay the Warner Bros. film \"Tenet\" and the Disney film \"Mulan\". \"Variety\" reported, \"While those films had been long positioned to help revive moviegoing, sources say that Paramount did not want \"A Quiet Place Part 2\" to stay on Labor Day weekend and have the pressure of being the first new movie out of the gate during the pandemic.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The studio initially planned to release the film in theaters globally starting on , 2020, before it delayed the film due to the pandemic. Paramount had already spent around 60% of its budget for global prints and advertising, and \"Deadline Hollywood\" wrote that the film's delay was \"truly a shocker\" because the P&A expenses seemed to indicate that rescheduling was not an option. The studio films slated for the previous weekend, March 13, were the last to be released before mass theater closures. Director John Krasinski said he wanted moviegoers to see the film together and that with the pandemic, it was not the right time to provide that experience. CNBC wrote that in particular, the film and \"In the Heights\" were considered films best experienced with a crowd."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Originally set for May 15, 2020 and March 20, 2020, as the pandemic case numbers had begun to rise in mid March, Paramount postponed it to , 2020. Without a streaming service from 2020 to early 2021, Paramount auctioned off multiple upcoming feature films but decided to keep \"A Quiet Place Part II\". The studio eventually changed the date to , 2021, then September 17, 2021, before moving it to May 28, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film was initially to be released in the United Kingdom and Australia on , 2020, and in the United States and Canada, including Dolby Cinema and IMAX, on , 2020. Paramount initially stated on March 6 that it would not reschedule the film in response to the pandemic, but on March 12, the studio pulled the film from release worldwide with the intent of scheduling it later in the year. In April 2020, it announced the release date of , 2020. The September release date would have been the start of the US holiday Labor Day Weekend. \"Deadline Hollywood\" wrote at the time that the weekend is \"summer [box office's] finale\", and \"typically the deadest period ever for moviegoing\", but that the studio anticipated pent-up demand after pandemic fears subside."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In February 2021, Paramount announced that \"A Quiet Place Part II\" would become available on its streaming service Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical release. \"Deadline Hollywood\" reported that it was \"a clear sign that Paramount is committed to theatrical, but still open to the future of streaming.\" Before the COVID-19 pandemic, movie theater operators sought for films to be theatrically released for 90 days before being released on home media. As a result of the pandemic, Warner Bros. opted to release their 2021 slate of films on HBO Max the same day as in theaters, and Universal Pictures made its films available via video-on-demand 17 days after their theatrical releases. \"Variety\" reported, \"Paramount's strategy may be received the most favorably among film exhibitors\", with \"A Quiet Place Part II\" among Paramount's tentpole films having the 45-day frame and its other titles having a 30-day frame. \"Boxoffice Pro\" reported that the original film grossed 94% of its total of $188 million in the United States and Canada by its 45th day, which indicated that Paramount's \"decision works more in favor of exhibitors than against.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In January 2021, Paramount postponed the film's release from , 2021 to , 2021. At the time of postponement, COVID-19 infections had surged in the United States in recent months. \"Variety\" wrote of the circumstances in the United States and Canada, \"Around 65% of movie theaters remain closed, and cinemas that have stayed open have struggled to sell tickets.\" The postponement followed other studios' postponing of their films \"No Time to Die\", ', \"Morbius\", \"Cinderella\", and \"The King's Man\". On the September 2021 date at the time, \"A Quiet Place Part II\" would have been scheduled to open against \"Death on the Nile\", ', and \"The Man from Toronto\", all three of which later had their own dates shifted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "On March 12, 2020, it was announced that the global release of \"A Quiet Place Part II\" would be delayed, based on widespread advice and policies against large gatherings and it was first rescheduled to September 4, 2020, in time for the Labor Day weekend, then to its new date of April 23, 2021 due to the continuous virus surging in the United States. On the same day, the release of Indian film \"Sooryavanshi,\" which was initially scheduled to release on March 24, was postponed indefinitely, and the release of \"F9\" was pushed to April 2, 2021. \"Mulan\"'s March 12 London premiere went ahead without a red carpet, and on March 13, it was announced that the film was removed from the release calendar, but had been rescheduled for July 24, 2020, taking the release date of another Disney film \"Jungle Cruise\" and was further delayed by four weeks to August 21, 2020. With no further rescheduling options, \"Mulan\" was removed from the release calendar again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "Other major films have postponed releases in certain countries. The Pixar film \"Onward\", released on the opening March weekend, was not opened in the areas most affected by the coronavirus outbreak; while cinemas were closed in China, it also chose not to open in South Korea, Italy or Japan. Other March 2020 releases \"A Quiet Place Part II\" and \"Mulan\" postponed their releases in affected areas, too. This prompted worry that, should March film openings underperform, blockbusters set for release in May (specifically Disney/Marvel's \"Black Widow\" and Universal's \"F9\") would move their dates later in the calendar. \"Mulan\" not opening in China, where it aimed to make most of its money, was particularly concerning, especially with the possibility that pirate copies will appear and prevent Chinese moviegoers from going to see it in cinemas when it is released. Comparatively, \"A Quiet Place Part II\" had not anticipated a large Chinese draw, as the box office for the first film in the country was only 10% of its total."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Krasinski",
        "text": "Krasinski directed and wrote the sequel \"A Quiet Place Part II\", in which he also had a supporting role. Initially scheduled for March 20, 2020, it was delayed due to COVID-19 (theatres began to shut down the week of March 16). It was eventually released on May 28, 2021, to positive reviews, becoming a box office success, and the first film of the pandemic era to cross $100m at the domestic box office. In May 2021, Krasinski's production company, Sunday Night Productions, signed a first-look deal with Paramount Pictures."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Before \"A Quiet Place Part II\" was postponed from late March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, \"Boxoffice Pro\" predicted the film would gross on its opening weekend, based on the first film's opening weekend () and the continued involvement of Emily Blunt and John Krasinski; but noted that the film would face competition from other titles such as \"Mulan\". In February, early industry tracking had the film debuting to around $55\u201360 million. \"Deadline Hollywood\"s Anthony D'Alessandro wrote, \"\"A Quiet Place Part II\" is currently strong with females under 25, African Americans and Hispanic demos, but overall I hear it's strong with all quads.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "For the film's eventual May 2021 release date, Paramount released a final trailer several weeks in advance. \"The A.V. Club\"s William Hughes wrote that the new trailer was a retread of previous trailers with the most noteworthy element being its message that the film was the \"experience that theaters are made for\", encouraging increasingly-vaccinated moviegoers during the pandemic to go to movie theaters."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "On March 4, 2021, director John Krasinski announced that the release date would be moved earlier from September 17, 2021, to May 28, 2021, which is the start of the Memorial Day holiday weekend in the United States. \"Boxoffice Pro\" wrote, \"This marks the first time post-pandemic that a theatrically exclusive major studio tentpole has moved a planned release \"up\" by this many months rather than \"back\".\" The publication also wrote that the film would be \"the first live-action tentpole exclusively in theaters\" since \"Tenet\" was released in August 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\" had its world premiere at the Lincoln Center in New York City on , 2020. Paramount Pictures released the film in theaters on , 2021 after a year's worth of delays due to the COVID-19 pandemic. \"The New York Times\" described it as \"one of the first major films to receive an exclusive theatrical release from a Hollywood studio in the not-quite-post-coronavirus era.\" The studio released the film on Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical release."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Following the postponement of \"A Quiet Place Part II\" and other films during the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, teleconferencing became popular, and Paramount's marketing team started providing virtual backgrounds of \"A Quiet Place Part II\" and other films to be available on Zoom Video Communications."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "A sequel to \"A Quiet Place\", titled \"A Quiet Place Part II\", was written and directed by Krasinski and stars Blunt, Simmonds, Jupe, Cillian Murphy, and Djimon Hounsou. Production took place in Western New York from June 2019 to September 2019. Paramount Pictures planned to release \"A Quiet Place Part II\" in theaters on March 20, 2020, however the film was rescheduled to September 4, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It was delayed to April 2021 from July 2020, delayed again from September 2020 to January 2021, before being moved to May 28, 2021. The film would also be made available on Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical release."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Earlier in the day of Krasinski's announcement, Universal Pictures had postponed the action film \"F9\" from late May 2021 to June 25, 2021. In the move-up process, Paramount postponed another of its films, \"Infinite\", from the May 28 release date. \"Deadline Hollywood\" reported that Paramount was encouraged to release \"A Quiet Place Part II\" earlier due to theaters reopening in New York City starting the weekend of March 5, 2021 and with plans for theaters in Los Angeles to also reopen in the near future."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film had its world premiere in New York City on March 8, 2020, and after over a year of postponements due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was theatrically released in the United States on , 2021. It became available to stream on Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical debut. The film set several box office records, including the biggest opening weekend of the COVID-19 pandemic, and grossed $297.4million worldwide. It received positive reviews from critics, who praised the story and the addition of Murphy's character Emmett."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "The sequel \"\" was initially scheduled to be released in the United Kingdom and the US in late March and early April respectively, but due to uncertainty over the outbreak, the film was postponed to early August before being postponed once again to December 11, 2020, and January 15, 2021, respectively. Sony Pictures, the film's production company, said that the changes internationally were because of coronavirus fears, with the US release moved in sync over worries of pirate copies and because the rival children's film DreamWorks/Universal's \"Trolls World Tour\" had moved its release date earlier, to the same weekend on which \"Peter Rabbit 2: The Runaway\" was initially planned to be released. \"Trolls World Tour\"'s forward rescheduling takes it to what would have been \"No Time to Die\"'s weekend (both are distributed by Universal), and leaves it as the biggest film in April."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major film studios",
        "text": "The studios were affected by the COVID-19 pandemic with some cinema chains closing, precipitating box office flops (like Disney's \"Onward\" or Sony's \"Bloodshot\"). Several films were delayed (Universal and MGM's \"No Time to Die\" or Paramount's \"A Quiet Place Part II\" and even Disney's \"Black Widow\" and \"Mulan\") and others were launched to the digital market (like Universal's \"The Invisible Man\" and \"Trolls World Tour\" and Warner's \"Birds of Prey\", \"Scoob\" and \"Wonder Woman 1984\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dump months",
        "text": "The pattern of January as the slow month of the movie release calendar continued for almost three decades. As the 2020 winter dump months were ending, the COVID-19 pandemic struck the world, and many exhibitors were forced to close, either by law or lack of demand, as patrons limited their activities outside of their homes to control the disease's spread. Studios and distributors reacted by postponing the release of highly anticipated tentpole films like \"A Quiet Place Part II\" and the James Bond film \"No Time to Die\" until such time as they could be screened in theaters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Bay",
        "text": "In 2021, it was reported that Bay requested financial compensation from film studio Paramount Pictures for indirectly limiting his income as a result of Paramount cutting the theatrical-only run of \"A Quiet Place Part II\" from 90 days to 45 days due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Bay and other producers as well as actors for the film, as is typically the case, receive payment in part based on box-office performance, and a reduction in the theatrical run's exclusivity would affect the pay they receive."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 in film",
        "text": "The year was greatly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, with numerous films originally scheduled for theatrical release were postponed or released on video on demand or streaming services. However, it is to be kept in mind that several film companies stopped reporting box-office numbers during this time due to the pandemic, and several films were still in theatres where guidelines enabled them so. As a result, numbers will grow if they are re-released in the future to compensate for the impact this pandemic has had on consumers and film-watchers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Search Out",
        "text": "The film was postponed by a week (being released on April 15, 2020 instead of April 9) due to the COVID-19 pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of American films of 2020",
        "text": "Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, numerous notable films that were originally scheduled for release from mid-March to December were postponed to release in mid through late 2020, in 2021 and in 2022, or were released on video on demand or on streaming services throughout 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "Warner Bros. followed Disney by announcing the postponement of the rest of their upcoming slate on March 24. \"Tenet\" was pushed from July 17, 2020, to July 31, 2020, then August 12, 2020 before it was held up indefinitely. \"Wonder Woman 1984\" was pushed to August 14, 2020, then to October 2, 2020, and then again to December 25, 2020, with \"Scoob!\", \"In the Heights\", and \"Malignant\" being delayed indefinitely. This resulted in \"Scoob!\" not having a theatrical release in North America and that film went straight to video on demand, while \"In the Heights\" moved to its new release date of June 18, 2021. Prior to this, on March 19, Universal and Illumination announced that \"\" had been pulled from its intended release date of July 3, 2020, not only due to the pandemic but also due to the temporary closing of its French Illumination Mac Guff animation studio in response to the pandemic, which would leave the film's animation to be unfinished on its original date. On April 1, 2020, the film was rescheduled for July 2, 2021 taking the planned release date of \"Sing 2\", a year after its original date."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Japanese films of 2021",
        "text": "Below is a list of films delayed or postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on The Walt Disney Company",
        "text": "On July 23, 2020, it was reported that the next three \"Star Wars\" films have been delayed by a year each to December 2023, December 2025, and December 2027 respectively as a result of the pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "For its 2021 theatrical release, \"Boxoffice Pro\" forecast that the film would gross between $30 million and $50 million on its opening weekend in the United States and Canada, with a total gross between $75 million and $125 million. \"IndieWire\" wrote, \"It has a core male audience that skews younger with minority moviegoers, along with strong interest and critical support\", and predicted between $40 to $50 million. According to Fandango, US advance ticket sales were double the sales from the planned March 2020 release and also more than the sales for the first film in 2018. The film made $19.3 million on its first day, including $4.8 million from Thursday night previews, topping the $4.3 million preview figure of the first film; both grosses were the highest of the pandemic. It went on to debut to $48.3 million in its three-day opening weekend and a total of $58.5 million over the four day Memorial Day frame, topping the box office and marking the biggest opening weekend since \"Sonic the Hedgehog\" in February 2020. In its sophomore weekend the film grossed $19.5 million, finishing second, behind \"\". The film crossed the $100 million domestic mark on June 11, becoming the first film of the pandemic era to do so. In its third weekend the film regained the top spot, upsetting newcomer \"In the Heights\" with $12 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of horror films",
        "text": "The COVID-19 pandemic that began in 2020 disrupted the film industry, leading to the release of several horror films being postponed, such as \"A Quiet Place Part II\" (2020) and \"Candyman\" (2021), while other films like \"Censor\" (2021) had production halted. During lockdowns, streaming for films featuring fictional apocalypse increased. Found footage horror found itself imposed into films set on desktops in Zoom meetings with \"Host\" (2020), a film shot and set during the quarantine period of 2020, to what Newman described as further enhancing the \"this really happened\" aspect of the genre."
      },
      {
        "title": "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in July 2020",
        "text": "The Walt Disney Company postponed the debuts of several films due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The release of the live-action version of Mulan was postponed indefinitely, and the releases of Avatar 2 and a new Star Wars film were postponed to December 2022 and December 2023 respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Japanese films of 2020",
        "text": "Below is a list of films delayed or postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "As a result of Paramount shortening the theatrical run from 90 days to 45, John Krasinski, Emily Blunt, and producers including Michael Bay whose compensation depends on box-office receipts, requested for the studio to compensate them for the shorter run."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beasts Clawing at Straws",
        "text": "Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the film was postponed by a week (being released on February 19, 2020 instead of February 12), but the delay had little impact as the situation did not improve by then."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "Despite the United States' progress on vaccination, spread of Delta variant intensified across the country in July 2021. As children younger than 12 could not be vaccinated for COVID-19, a number of studios announced plans to delay films targeting families or pursue hybrid premium video on-demand (PVOD)/streaming releases; on July 31, Paramount Pictures cancelled the release of \"Clifford the Big Red Dog\" initially scheduled for September, and later rescheduled it for a simultaneous release in theaters and on Paramount+ for November of that year, while United Artists Releasing's \"The Addams Family 2\" was also shifted to a hybrid release. On August 12, Sony Pictures also delayed the release of ' by three weeks to October 15, citing Delta variant. On September 1, 2021, Paramount announced that the releases of \"Jackass Forever\", ' and \"\" would be delayed to February 2022, May 2022, and September 2022, respectively, amid surging cases of Delta variant. On September 6, 2021, however, Sony decided to move up the release date of \"Venom: Let There be Carnage\" to October 1, 2021, following the box office success of \"Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "I'm Not a Terrorist",
        "text": "Due to the COVID-19 pandemic the premiere date was postponed three times. The first film released in theaters after the restrictions due to the pandemic in Uzbekistan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "The International Indian Film Academy Awards, planned to take place on March 27, was canceled, while the Italian Academy's David di Donatello ceremony has been postponed from April 3 to May 8. The American Film Institute's lifetime achievement ceremony to honor Julie Andrews was pushed back from April to the summer. The 2020 Platino Awards were also postponed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic",
        "text": "The pandemic has impacted the film industry. Across the world and to varying degrees, cinemas have been closed, festivals have been cancelled or postponed, and film releases have been moved to future dates. As cinemas closed, the global box office dropped by billions of dollars, while streaming became more popular and the stock of Netflix rose; the stock of film exhibitors dropped dramatically. Almost all blockbusters to be released after the March opening weekend were postponed or cancelled around the world, with film productions also halted. Massive losses in the industry have been predicted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the arts and cultural heritage",
        "text": "The production and release schedule of many films was suspended or delayed, with some awards ceremonies and festivals being cancelled entirely. March 2020 estimates were of approximately $5b losses for the industry, while April estimates were global losses of 40% (compared to 2019) of $20b. Examples of adaptations included: early home media release (\"Frozen II\"); theatrical releases being cancelled entirely (\"Lost in Russia\"); and online premieres (\"Enter the Fat Dragon\"). Film director Taika Waititi also hosted a screening-party via his own Instagram account. Many film productions were suspended, including \"Avatar 2,\" \"The Matrix Resurrections,\" and a film adaptation of \"The Heptameron\" in production in Florence, Italy, based on the 14th-century \"Decameron\" by Giovanni Boccaccio, set during the Black Death in Florence. The traditional cinema release schedule\u2014whereby movie theatres enjoy a two-to-three-month period of exclusivity before a home video release\u2014was also interrupted by the closure of theatres. Innovations because of this included \"high-priced rentals\", with \"The Invisible Man\", \"The Hunt\", and \"Emma\" were almost immediately released on to digital streaming services, where viewers could rent\u2014not buy\u2014the film for $20. The financial success for Universal Studios for \"Trolls World Tour\" through this distribution method (where the total digital rental revenue was lower than a traditional theatrical release, but the proportion of the profit retained by the studio was higher as the theatres were not receiving a percentage of Box office revenue) led to speculation this would permanently change the business model for film distribution. By September when some new big-budget Hollywood films began to shown in cinemas (notably \"Tenet\"), their initial lacklustre box-office performance drove movie studios to further delay other releases (including \"Wonder Woman 1984, Black Widow\" and \"No Time To Die\")\u2014leaving a void in late 2020 of major film releases for cinemas to screen, even though they were permitted to reopen. Consequently, a cinema re-release of the 1993 film \"Hocus Pocus\" in October\",\" to coincide with Halloween, was briefly the box office number-one film in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of American films of 2022",
        "text": "The 2022 release schedule includes numerous notable films that were originally scheduled for release in 2020 and 2021 but were postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "In September 2020, Sony Pictures Entertainment Chairman Tony Vinciquerra stated that the company will not release any big budget films to theatres until the pandemic is over. On October 2, \"No Time to Die\" was delayed once more to April 2, 2021, due to a requirement for the film to have \"a worldwide theatrical audience\". This came amid continued closures of cinemas in the key U.S. markets of Los Angeles and New York City, as well the reinstatement of restrictions in the United Kingdom due to a second wave. As Universal Pictures held the international distribution rights to \"No Time to Die\", its film \"F9\" was delayed to May 28, 2021 (Memorial Day weekend) as to not cannibalize \"it\". \"No Time to Die\" has since been postponed again to September 30 in the UK and October 8 in the U.S. In March 2021, \"F9\" was postponed once again to June 25."
      },
      {
        "title": "Filminute",
        "text": "Due to the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic, Filminute 2020 was postponed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "At the start of March, the \"James Bond\" film \"No Time to Die\", which was scheduled to premiere in March 2020 and to wide release in April 2020, was postponed to November and then subsequently to April 2021. \"No Time to Die\" was the first film to change its planned release outside of China because of the early outbreak of COVID-19, and has opened discussions of dramatic implications on the film economy: many other productions had avoided scheduling releases at the same time as the 25th \"Bond\" film, and its new November date is in the busy holiday release period, leading to low box office intake in March/April and uncertain intake in November. However, the postponement could reportedly generate more publicity for the film, and is also taking the familiar November release slot of the past two \"Bond\" films. It has also been suggested that other high-profile films will follow and postpone releases, creating a similar effect. Several other films soon followed in postponing their releases worldwide: the heavily promoted Polish slasher film \"W lesie dzi\u015b nie za\u015bnie nikt\" (\"Nobody Sleeps in the Woods Tonight\") was postponed from March 13 to some point in the future when the situation had settled, and the political documentary \"Slay the Dragon\" had its theatrical release moved from March 13 to April 3."
      },
      {
        "title": "COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia",
        "text": "Several local films, such as \"Tersanjung The Movie\", \"Generasi 90-an: Melankolia\", and \"KKN di Desa Penari\" have been delayed, also because of the pandemic; the latter has been postponed for the second time due to the Omicron variant."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film",
        "text": "The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in closures of film theatres around the world in response to regional and national lockdowns. Many films slated to release in the early 2020s faced delays in development, production, and distribution, with others being released on streaming services with little or no theatrical window."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of American films of 2021",
        "text": "The 2021 release schedule includes numerous notable films that were originally scheduled for release in 2020 but were postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "Many festivals and events have been cancelled or postponed. Postponements include the Thessaloniki Documentary Festival, set to begin on March 5 and rescheduled for June 2020; the Beijing International Film Festival, planned for April 2020 and postponed indefinitely; the Prague International Film Festival, moved from late March to sometime later in 2020; the Bentonville Film Festival, set for April 29 \u2013 May 2 and moved to August; the Istanbul International Film Festival, set for April 10\u201321 and postponed to a later date in 2020; and the Tribeca Film Festival. The Cinequest Film & Creativity Festival, a two-week festival in March, experienced low attendance during its first week and postponed its second week to August 2020. The 20th Beverly Hills Film Festival scheduled for April 1\u201315 is postponed indefinitely. The 38th Fajr International Film Festival, scheduled for April 16\u201324 in Tehran, has been postponed, with plans to organize the event in late spring. The 2020 Metro Manila Summer Film Festival, originally scheduled for April 11\u201321, was also postponed after the decision to place Metro Manila (the epicenter of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines) under community quarantine was announced, however, it was later cancelled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Simultaneous release",
        "text": "The 2020 onset of the COVID-19 pandemic led to the mandated closure of cinemas worldwide in order to prevent large public gatherings. On March 16, DreamWorks Animation announced that its film \"Trolls World Tour\" would be given a simultaneous release as a digital rental on April 10, as part of a larger announcement that parent company Universal Pictures would also offer early rentals for several recent films still in theaters (including \"Emma\", \"The Hunt\", and \"The Invisible Man\"). As promotional campaigns and tie-ins for the film (including corporate synergy across the properties of Universal parent company NBCUniversal) were already in progress, it would have been difficult to cleanly postpone its release. The film itself had already been moved up to an Easter weekend release, replacing the James Bond film \"No Time to Die\" (which was deferred to November 2020 due to the pandemic, but ultimately delayed to October 2021) on Universal's schedule."
      },
      {
        "title": "COVID-19 pandemic in popular culture",
        "text": "Some movies, such as the James Bond entry \"No Time to Die\", have been postponed for over a year due to the pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "On June 15, it was announced that the Academy Awards would be pushed back by two months from February 28 to April 25, so that the cutoff for eligibility could likewise be extended from December 31, 2020, to February 28. The Academy Governors Awards and Scientific and Technical Awards were postponed indefinitely. The British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) subsequently announced that it would follow suit and postpone the 74th British Academy Film Awards to April. On June 22, the Golden Globe Awards were also delayed from early-January to February 28, 2021 (filling the Academy Awards' former date). The Screen Actors Guild Awards were also postponed from January 24 to March 14."
      },
      {
        "title": "83 (film)",
        "text": "However, in November 2020, Reliance Entertainment announced that the release had been postponed to the first quarter of 2021 (January\u2013March), due to the worst occupancy report of audience towards theatres due to continuity of the pandemic. Also, the lack of time to plan a promotional campaign and shutting down of international markets were attributed as the factors for the delay. In mid-February 2021, following the government's permission to have a 100% seating occupancy in theatres, the producers planned for theatrical release on 4 June 2021. But, in late-May 2021, the film was postponed indefinitely, due to the closure of theatres in Maharashtra in concern over the Delta variant of COVID-19. In September 2021, after the Maharashtra government permitted to resume theatrical-based operations by 22 October 2021, the film was planned for a release on 24 December 2021, which coincided with Christmas Eve. Its release semi-clashed with that of the Hollywood film \"The Matrix Resurrections\" (2021), which released across the world, two days earlier."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "On 4 March 2020, MGM and Eon Productions announced that after \"thorough evaluation of the global theatrical marketplace\" they had postponed the release until 12 November 2020 in the UK and 25 November 2020 in the US. \"No Time to Die\" was the first major film affected by the pandemic. According to \"Deadline Hollywood\", MGM and Universal needed to assure a strong performance across all international markets. It was hoped that the rescheduling to November would ensure all cinemas, particularly those in China, South Korea, Japan, Italy, and France that were closed due to the pandemic, would be open and operational."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "In the early stages of the pandemic, an estimated 70,000 cinemas in China closed, and countries including Australia and the UK closed cinemas to minimise the spread of the virus. \"Variety\" said the studio had already spent $66\u00a0million on promoting the film, while \"The Hollywood Reporter\" wrote that the delay cost MGM $30\u201350\u00a0million in wasted marketing costs, estimating that the global box office losses could have exceeded $300\u00a0million had the film stayed in its April 2020 slot. In October 2020, \"No Time to Die\" was delayed again to 2 April 2021. The decision to delay the release was made when it became apparent that theatrical markets, especially in the US, would not see full demand. After the delay was announced, the British chain Cineworld, the world's second-largest cinema chain, closed its cinemas indefinitely. Chief executive Mooky Greidinger said the delay of \"No Time to Die\" was the \"last straw\" for Cineworld following a string of other film delays and cancellations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "Pixar's \"Luca\" went directly to Disney+ in the U.S. and Canada on June 18, 2021, along with a simultaneous limited run at the El Capitan Theatre. The 2021 films ' and \"Halloween Kills\", both distributed by Universal Pictures, received similtaneous releases in theaters and on Peacock. During the summer of that year, Paramount Pictures announced that it would release ' on Paramount+ on the same day as its theatrical release. The studio also decided to cancel the theatrical release of \"Rumble\" and instead released it on the streaming service on December 15, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Children of the Sea (film)",
        "text": "Following an awards-qualifying run in 2019, a US theatrical release was planned for April 2020, but was postponed due to the closure of theaters during the COVID-19 pandemic. The theatrical release was rescheduled for August, but was ultimately canceled due to the pandemic. The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc on September 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020",
        "text": "The three-day International Indian Film Academy Awards (IIFA) (dubbed Bollywood's Oscars), supposed to be held from 27 to 29 March, were delayed due to fears of the coronavirus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "The COVID-19 pandemic has had a substantial impact on the film industry in 2020, 2021 and further into 2022, mirroring its impacts across all arts sectors. Across the world and to varying degrees, cinemas and movie theaters have been closed, festivals have been cancelled or postponed, and film releases have been moved to future dates or delayed indefinitely. Due to cinemas and movie theaters closing, the global box office has dropped by billions of dollars, streaming has seen a significant increase in popularity and the stock of film exhibitors has also dropped dramatically. Many blockbusters originally scheduled to be released since mid-March 2020 have been postponed or canceled around the world, with film productions also halted. This, in turn, created openings for independent cinema productions to receive wider exposure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Old Monk (film)",
        "text": "Movie release postponed several times due covid-19 pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "With the delay of the 2021 Grammy Awards to March 14 citing the current surge of COVID-19 cases in California, on January 13, 2021, the SAG Awards were delayed once again to April 4. SAG-AFTRA criticized The Recording Academy for not respecting the scheduling of other award presentations."
      },
      {
        "title": "COVID-19 pandemic in popular culture",
        "text": "Due to movie theaters shutting down, some movies originally intended for theatrical release have instead premiered on streaming services. Disney's \"Mulan\" premiered on Disney+ in September 2020, and Warner Brothers' film \"Wonder Woman 1984\" was released on December 25 on HBO Max."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Projector",
        "text": "During the COVID-19 Pandemic, they paused operations from May 31 to June 13 2021 across all theaters, due to tough business conditions caused by new COVID-19 containment measures in Singapore."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "In March 2021, it was announced that Warner Bros. would discontinue same-day releases in 2022, as part of an agreement the studio reached with Cineworld (which operates Regal Cinemas), and would instead use a 45-day exclusive release window for theaters. The studio made a similar deal with AMC Theaters in August 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "On October 3, after \"No Time to Die\" was delayed until April 2021, it was reported that Cineworld was considering suspending the operations of all of its cinemas in the UK and Ireland, and most US Regal Cinemas indefinitely, citing the lack of tentpole releases as impacting its business. The company confirmed the move on October 5, with CEO Mooky Greidinger stating that it was too expensive to continue operating its cinemas without a consistent lineup of new releases (having initially planned to hold out until \"No Time to Die\" was released), and argued that the continued closure of cinemas in the state of New York has made studios reluctant to release films due to the underperformance of \"Tenet\". The closures excluded seven Regal locations in California that had recently been allowed to reopen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "The 2019 sequel \"Frozen II\" was originally planned to be released on Disney+ on June 26, 2020, before it was moved up to March 15. Disney CEO Bob Chapek explained that this was because of the film's \"powerful themes of perseverance and the importance of family, messages that are incredibly relevant\". On March 16, 2020, Universal announced that \"The Invisible Man\", \"The Hunt\", and \"Emma\" \u2013 all films in theaters at the time \u2013 would be available through premium video on demand as early as March 20 at a suggested price of each. After suffering poor box office since its release at the start of March, \"Onward\" was made available to purchase digitally on March 21, and was added to Disney+ on April 3. Paramount announced on March 20, \"Sonic the Hedgehog\" is also planning to have an early release to video on demand, on March 31. On March 16, Warner Bros. announced that \"Birds of Prey\" would be released early to video on demand on March 24. Three days later, the studio then announced that \"The Way Back\" would also be available on video on demand the same date as \"Birds of Prey\". On April 3, Disney announced that \"Artemis Fowl\", a film adaptation of the 2001 novel of the same name, would be released straight to Disney+ on June 12, skipping a theatrical release entirely."
      },
      {
        "title": "Unhinged (2020 film)",
        "text": "\"Unhinged\" was originally scheduled to be released on August 28, 2020, before being pushed back to September 4. In May 2020, its release was moved up to July 1, 2020, in order to \"likely be the first to test the waters as theaters try to rebound\" from the COVID-19 pandemic. The date was later pushed back to July 10, then July 31, and, on July 23, the film was again delayed, this time to August 21, 2020. The film began a premium video on demand release on October 20, 61 days after opening in theaters. Normally if distributors put a film on VOD before the 75-day window, theaters will stop showing it; however, given the pandemic, exhibitors feel it \"remains a welcome addition to a limited release schedule\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "Several Chinese and Hong Kong films have stopped production, including \"Blossoms\", the upcoming film directed by Wong Kar-wai, which was scheduled to shoot in Shanghai; Jia Zhangke's next film, which was planning to begin filming in China in April, but has been put on hold until at least next spring, with Zhangke saying he might even rewrite the script; and \"Polar Rescue\", a Donnie Yen film, which shut down production until the end of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Numbers (website)",
        "text": "On March 21, 2020, the Numbers released a statement that because of movie theater closures due to the COVID-19 pandemic, \"We don\u2019t expect much box office reporting in the short term\" and did not report the usual daily box office estimates due to lack of box office data from film studios."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mail (film)",
        "text": "The film was filmed in 2020, but was delayed to release due to the COVID-19 pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of films impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic",
        "text": "This article lists films which have had their theatrical releases cancelled, resulting in an alternative method of release, as well as films with delayed releases due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The article also lists productions which have been directly affected by the pandemic, resulting in their suspension, delay or cancellation."
      },
      {
        "title": "JoBlo.com",
        "text": "However, the 2021 awards which would have honored films released in 2020 were cancelled due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the film industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "09 (film)",
        "text": "The release of the film was delayed due to COVID-19 pandemic in Kurdistan. The film premiered on March 4, 2021 in Talari Hunar, Slemani. The Ministry of Interior of Kurdistan released an announcement of closing the film theaters due to COVID-19 pandemic. Soran Naqishbandy, the distributor of the film, said that the film got permission to release on March 4, 2021 in Sulaymaniyah, Kirkuk, and Garmiyan and will be released on March 10, 2021 in Erbil and Duhok."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free Guy",
        "text": "The film was initially scheduled to be released on July 3, 2020, but it was delayed because of the COVID-19 pandemic. It was then moved to December 11, 2020. In November 2020, the studio removed the film, along with \"Death on the Nile\", from its upcoming release schedule until further notice. The next month, the film was rescheduled to May 21, 2021. In March, Ryan Reynolds announced that the film was delayed to its August date."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "The Academy Awards and Golden Globe Awards modified their eligibility criteria for their 2021 editions, as they usually require that a film be screened theatrically for a minimum length of time. The Hollywood Foreign Press Association mentioned that films released via non-theatrical means (such as digital) would be eligible if they were scheduled to have a \"bona fide theatrical release\" in Los Angeles after March 15 (with a cutoff date to be determined). The Best Foreign Language Film award would similarly offer eligibility for films originally scheduled for a theatrical release in their country of origin between March 15 and a date to be determined. The 93rd Academy Awards would also allow films released via password-protected or transactional video on demand to be eligible if they were originally scheduled to have a theatrical release. Once cinemas have sufficiently resumed operations, the requirement that a film be screened for at least a week would be reinstated. In addition to Los Angeles, eligible screenings would also be allowed to take place in one of five other major U.S. cities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Infinite (film)",
        "text": "\"Infinite\" was originally scheduled for a theatrical release on August 7, 2020, but was delayed to May 28, 2021, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It was delayed again to September 24, 2021, when \"A Quiet Place Part II\" was moved to the May slot. On May 6, 2021, Paramount cancelled \"Infinite\"s theatrical release, and instead digitally released it via Paramount+ on June 10, 2021. In countries where Paramount+ isn't available as a streaming service, the film was released through ViacomCBS-owned SVOD services Paramount Play and Paramount+ on August 23, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palace Theatre (Canton, Ohio)",
        "text": "Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, at least 56 events were cancelled in 2020. Some silent films were streamed online to over 14,000 people. The films were screened in an empty theater outside of the technical director and organist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Naaradan",
        "text": "The film was originally scheduled to be released in April 2021, but was postponed due to the second wave of COVID-19 pandemic in India. The film was later scheduled to release on 27 January 2022, but then postponed due to spreading of Omicron."
      },
      {
        "title": "Valimai",
        "text": "In an interview with \"Ananda Vikatan\", Vinoth stated that he had partially re-written the script before the resumption of the film's shooting, being halted due to the COVID-19 pandemic. He stated that some of the actors were hesitant to shoot during the pandemic and the location owners denied permission to shoot on the sets that were constructed in the pre-pandemic times. As a result, he had to re-write the story and change the location and setting, due to practical difficulties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Archive (film)",
        "text": "The film was originally set to premiere at South by Southwest in March 2020 but was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It instead received a digital release with limited screenings in theatres around the United States on 10 July 2020.\n*Contains spoilers"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ishk Par Zor Nahi",
        "text": "The pandemic's second wave delayed the shoot in mid-April 2021. The cast and crew relocated to Daman and Diu. They came back and resumed shooting in Mumbai in the start of July 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Case Closed films",
        "text": "The twenty-fourth film, , was supposed to be released to Japanese theaters on April 17, 2020, but was postponed to April 16, 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The movie revolves around the Akai family as they and Conan investigate incidents that occur in Japan during the World Sports Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black Widow (2021 film)",
        "text": "The film was originally scheduled for release on May 1, 2020. In early March 2020, after the COVID-19 pandemic had caused the closure of theaters in many countries, the release date for the film \"No Time to Die\" was shifted from April 2020 to November 2020. Commentators began speculating about the potential for other major films like \"Black Widow\" to be postponed as well. \"Deadline Hollywood\" reported on rumors in the film distribution industry suggesting that \"Black Widow\" would take the November release date of Marvel's \"Eternals\", with the latter being delayed until 2021, but Disney said that it still intended to release \"Black Widow\" in May 2020. After a trailer was released for the film a week later, Scott Mendelson at \"Forbes\" highlighted how the trailer's existence and use of the May 2020 release date confirmed that the film was not being delayed. He said this was \"the logical choice at this juncture\", feeling it was the ideal release date for the film and there was no evidence that the pandemic would affect its performance in the U.S. A week later, theaters across the U.S. were closed due to the pandemic and gatherings larger than 50 people were discouraged by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC); Disney removed the film from its May release date. Adam B. Vary and Matt Donnelly at \"Variety\" questioned whether the MCU could be impacted more by the delay than other franchises due to its interconnected nature, though a Marvel Studios source told them that changing the film's release date would not affect the MCU timeline. The pair speculated that this was due to the film being a prequel set earlier in the timeline than other Phase Four films. In April, Disney changed its entire Phase Four release slate due to the pandemic, giving \"Eternals\" November 6, 2020, release date to \"Black Widow\" and shifting all of its other Phase Four films back in the release schedule to accommodate this."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "Percentage box office losses (outside of mainland China) for January to March 3, 2020, are 70\u201375% in Italy, 60% in South Korea, 35% in Hong Kong, the Philippines, and Singapore, and 30% in Taiwan. The Los Angeles box office, a key movie market and local economic backbone, was projected to fall by 20% in April 2020 compared to its 2019 figures, based on the state of emergency declared in the county at the start of March 2020. Despite the state of emergency, as single screens within movie theatres do not hold more than 1,000 people, they were granted an exemption from the ban on mass public gatherings in California. A National Association of Theatre Owners representative for California and Nevada announced that theatres would stay open; historically, movie theatres have remained open during other similar emergencies. However, a survey of Americans over the opening March weekend showed support for closing movie theaters. On March 15, \"Deadline\" reported that over 100 movie theaters in the US had closed, some due to local rulings and others because of an inability to keep them open with no demand; on March 17, with national restrictions to social gatherings, cinemas across the United States closed. However, drive-in theaters, where customers stay in their own cars, were not closed, and quickly grew in popularity again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "Film productions in the key outbreak zones (predominantly China, South Korea, and Italy) have changed their schedules, changed location, or have shut down completely. Sony Pictures closed its offices in London, Paris, and Poland after an employee was thought to have been exposed to the virus. The Writers Guild of America and SAG-AFTRA have canceled all in-person meetings. The Hengdian World Studios in Dongyang, China, has closed indefinitely. The Philippine movie studios Star Cinema, Regal Entertainment, and Cinema One Originals also suspended shooting of their films, effective March 15, the same day as a quarantine in Metro Manila and Cainta, Rizal was enacted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020",
        "text": "Jon Landau, the co-producer of the \"Avatar\" film sequels, announced that film production at the New Zealand\u2013based Stone Street Studios had been suspended in response to the coronavirus outbreak. However, filming will continue in Los Angeles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "Canceled events include the Swiss International Film Festival and Forum on Human Rights, planned for early March; the Red Sea International Film Festival, which was to be held for the first time in March 2020; the March 2020 South by Southwest (SXSW), which would have included film screenings; the 2020 ; Nickelodeon's 2020 Slimefest festival; Qumra, the Doha Film Institute's international directors' conference; Hong Kong Filmart, a large film market event; the National Association of Theatre Owners' CinemaCon 2020; and Lille's Series Mania television festival. The 22nd edition of Ebertfest and the 44th edition of the Cleveland International Film Festival are cancelled. New Jersey's global film festival, Garden State Film Festival, scheduled for March 25\u201329, cancelled their in-person Asbury Park-based festival, however will be proceeding with the original schedule in a real-time live-streaming online format. The 55th Karlovy Vary International Film Festival was canceled and postponed to 2021; its organizers later announced plans to hold an unofficial \"54 \u00bd\" edition in November, but it was cancelled due to the reinstatement of restrictions in the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "The Tribeca Film Institute, a fundraising and educational non-profit, suspended operations on September 1, 2020, due to \"uncertainties surrounding our new reality.\" The Tribeca Film Festival which operates under the same parent company will continue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "With both Los Angeles and New York City having allowed cinemas to reopen by March 2021, it was expected that film distributors would be more confident in releasing higher-profile films. During that month, Disney announced that \"Black Widow\" would open in theaters on July 9, 2021 and would also be available on Disney+ the same day with Premier Access, following the same release strategy that was used for one of the company's other films, \"Raya and the Last Dragon\". Two more of Disney's films, \"Cruella\" and \"Jungle Cruise\", were also given this hybrid release."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pawankhind",
        "text": "Pawankhind was originally scheduled to release on 10 June 2021, but was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The second release date 31 December 2021, but the release was again delayed due to the increasing number of COVID-19 cases, fuelled by the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant. The film was released on 18 February 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film distribution",
        "text": "During the COVID-19 pandemic, all the major studios broke the theatrical window due to widespread theatre closings and made several films available on home media shortly after their theatrical debuts, such as Universal releasing \"The Invisible Man\" for rental 21 days after theatrical release, Sony and Columbia Pictures releasing \"Bloodshot\" for purchase 12 days after theatrical release, Warner Bros. releasing \"The Way Back\" 18 days after theatrical release, and Disney releasing \"Onward\" for purchase 15 days after theatrical release and streaming on Disney+ 29 days after theatrical release. \"Sonic the Hedgehog\", \"I Still Believe\", and \"The Invisible Man\" also became available for in-home on-demand viewing after a theatrical run shorter than usual in the wake of widespread theatre closures. As a result of the controversy surrounding the shrinking and even elimination of the theatrical window, in April 2020 AMC Theatres stated it would no longer screen films made by Universal Pictures after \"Trolls World Tour\" was made available for video on demand purchases simultaneous to its theatrical release."
      },
      {
        "title": "The List (2021 film)",
        "text": "The film is set to release when cinemas reopen after the COVID-19 pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meppadiyan",
        "text": "The release of the film was postponed several times due to COVID-19 pandemic in India. The film had a theatrical release on 14 January 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rang De",
        "text": "After the shooting of the film was halted due to the COVID-19 pandemic in India in March 2020. The shooting of the film resumed in September 2020 with the safety guidelines instructed by the government to control COVID-19 pandemic. The post-lockdown schedule of the film was wrapped on 7 October 2020, with the foreign schedule for song shoot was supposed to take place in Italy on 25 October. In December 2020, the makers shot few portions at the Dubai Miracle Garden, which was completed within the first week. With few patch work scenes, the team wrapped the shooting in mid-January 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "The 2020 Cannes Film Festival sent out invitations on March 6, despite France implementing limits on public gatherings beyond its scheduled dates; the Cannes Television Festivals Canneseries and MIPTV chose not to run, however, with Canneseries rescheduling for October and MIPTV canceling its event. On March 19, the Festival de Cannes announced that it cannot be held on the scheduled dates, from May 12\u201323. Several options are considered in order to preserve its running, the main one being a simple postponement, in Cannes, until the end of June-beginning of July 2020. Cannes' main venue has been converted into a temporary homeless shelter."
      },
      {
        "title": "ByTowne Cinema",
        "text": "The ongoing public health restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic saw the cinema face a series of temporary closures and reductions of available seating over the course of 2020. These challenges, alongside a decline in viewership during the pandemic, is slated to force the cinema's closure at the end of 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nina (2021 film)",
        "text": "The film was scheduled for theatrical release in late 2020, but was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indoo Ki Jawani",
        "text": "Principal photography of the film began in October 2019. It was initially set for cinema release in June 2020. But the release was postponed due to COVID-19 pandemic. It finally opened theatrically on 11 December 2020, but amid the 50% occupancy guideline that was announced keeping in mind the pandemic's continuity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the performing arts",
        "text": "In February 2021, the planned narrative film adaptation of the musical \"Come from Away\" was cancelled in favor of recording the Broadway production with its cast reprising their roles. It was filmed that May with no audience and was released on September 10, 2021, a day before the 20th anniversary of the 9/11 terrorist attacks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Senti Virus",
        "text": "\"Senti Virus\" was pulled from cinema halls after three weeks of screening due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Nepal. \"The Rising Nepal\" described the film as \"probably the biggest victim of COVID-19\". Sitaram Kattel said that the COVID-19 pandemic had shattered his plans, saying, \"I am now in tension; my plans have been ruined [...] When my film failed to survive even three weeks in local theatres, and all doors to release it abroad have been shut down, I have come to Chitwan to cope with the tension\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anek",
        "text": "Initially slated for a release on 17 September 2021, it was postponed due to closure of theatres because of the pandemic.The film is now scheduled to release on 27 May 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mary Pickford Theater",
        "text": "In 2020, showings were postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer",
        "text": "MGM was the first studio to delay the film \"No Time to Die\" due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This was followed by an April 2020 layoff of 7% of employees."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why was A Quiet Place Part II postponed?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The studio initially planned to release the film in theaters globally starting on March 18, 2020, in the United Kingdom and Australia on March 19, 2020, and in the United States and Canada on March 20, 2020 before it delayed the film due to the pandemic. In July 2020, Paramount changed the film's release date from September 4, 2020 to April 23, 2021."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Were there other anticipated movies that got delayed by the pandemic?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Yes, there are many, would you like to know more about some of them such as the James Bond film No Time to Die, a polish slasher film W lesie dzi\u015b nie za\u015bnie nikt, postponed films in certain countries like Pixar's Onward, the movie Mulan, or Disney films such as Antlers and The New Mutants?"
    ],
    "topic": "A Quiet Place Part II",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema:30",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
          "Scheduling",
          "Films",
          "Theatrical releases"
        ],
        "ctx": "At the start of March, the \"James Bond\" film \"No Time to Die\", which was scheduled to premiere in March 2020 and to wide release in April 2020, was postponed to November and then subsequently to April 2021. \"No Time to Die\" was the first film to change its planned release outside of China because of the early outbreak of COVID-19, and has opened discussions of dramatic implications on the film economy: many other productions had avoided scheduling releases at the same time as the 25th \"Bond\" film, and its new November date is in the busy holiday release period, leading to low box office intake in March/April and uncertain intake in November. However, the postponement could reportedly generate more publicity for the film, and is also taking the familiar November release slot of the past two \"Bond\" films. It has also been suggested that other high-profile films will follow and postpone releases, creating a similar effect. Several other films soon followed in postponing their releases worldwide: the heavily promoted Polish slasher film \"W lesie dzi\u015b nie za\u015bnie nikt\" (\"Nobody Sleeps in the Woods Tonight\") was postponed from March 13 to some point in the future when the situation had settled, and the political documentary \"Slay the Dragon\" had its theatrical release moved from March 13 to April 3."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema:32",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
          "Scheduling",
          "Films",
          "Theatrical releases"
        ],
        "ctx": "Other major films have postponed releases in certain countries. The Pixar film \"Onward\", released on the opening March weekend, was not opened in the areas most affected by the coronavirus outbreak; while cinemas were closed in China, it also chose not to open in South Korea, Italy or Japan. Other March 2020 releases \"A Quiet Place Part II\" and \"Mulan\" postponed their releases in affected areas, too. This prompted worry that, should March film openings underperform, blockbusters set for release in May (specifically Disney/Marvel's \"Black Widow\" and Universal's \"F9\") would move their dates later in the calendar. \"Mulan\" not opening in China, where it aimed to make most of its money, was particularly concerning, especially with the possibility that pirate copies will appear and prevent Chinese moviegoers from going to see it in cinemas when it is released. Comparatively, \"A Quiet Place Part II\" had not anticipated a large Chinese draw, as the box office for the first film in the country was only 10% of its total."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
          "Scheduling",
          "Films",
          "Theatrical releases"
        ],
        "ctx": "Disney also postponed the releases of \"Antlers\" and \"The New Mutants\", but not \"Black Widow\". This is speculated to be because the other films are standalone, while moving \"Black Widow\" \u2013 the first film of the \u2013 would affect the development and distribution of the future Marvel Cinematic Universe and the Marvel Disney+ works, with Disney holding off on an early postponement announcement until March 17, when they postponed \"Black Widow\" and their other May releases, \"The Personal History of David Copperfield\" and \"The Woman in the Window\". Though it had earlier been speculated that \"Black Widow\" would be able to take Marvel's November release date planned for \"Eternals\", it was not initially given a new date. On April 3, 2020, \"Black Widow\" was rescheduled to November 6, 2020, taking the release date of the aforementioned \"Eternals\". Three months later, on July 25, 2020, Disney announced that \"Antlers\" would get its new release date of February 19, 2021, nearly a year later after its original release. In August 2020, Disney announced that it cancelled the theatrical release of \"Mulan\" (live-action remake) in North America and would premiere the film on Disney+ with Premier Access instead. It went on to have a theatrical release in select countries, including China. On September 23, Disney postponed \"Black Widow\" to May 7, 2021, \"Death on the Nile\" to December 18, 2020, and \"West Side Story\" to December 10, 2021. As a result, \"Eternals\" was also delayed to November 5, 2021, in order to maintain the MCU continuity."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In July 2020, Paramount changed the film's release date from , 2020 to , 2021. At the time of the announcement, movie theaters in the United States and Canada had been closed for nearly four months, and the pandemic was continuing to spread across the United States. The second postponement followed other studios' decisions at the time to indefinitely delay the Warner Bros. film \"Tenet\" and the Disney film \"Mulan\". \"Variety\" reported, \"While those films had been long positioned to help revive moviegoing, sources say that Paramount did not want \"A Quiet Place Part 2\" to stay on Labor Day weekend and have the pressure of being the first new movie out of the gate during the pandemic.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In January 2021, Paramount postponed the film's release from , 2021 to , 2021. At the time of postponement, COVID-19 infections had surged in the United States in recent months. \"Variety\" wrote of the circumstances in the United States and Canada, \"Around 65% of movie theaters remain closed, and cinemas that have stayed open have struggled to sell tickets.\" The postponement followed other studios' postponing of their films \"No Time to Die\", ', \"Morbius\", \"Cinderella\", and \"The King's Man\". On the September 2021 date at the time, \"A Quiet Place Part II\" would have been scheduled to open against \"Death on the Nile\", ', and \"The Man from Toronto\", all three of which later had their own dates shifted."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film was initially to be released in the United Kingdom and Australia on , 2020, and in the United States and Canada, including Dolby Cinema and IMAX, on , 2020. Paramount initially stated on March 6 that it would not reschedule the film in response to the pandemic, but on March 12, the studio pulled the film from release worldwide with the intent of scheduling it later in the year. In April 2020, it announced the release date of , 2020. The September release date would have been the start of the US holiday Labor Day Weekend. \"Deadline Hollywood\" wrote at the time that the weekend is \"summer [box office's] finale\", and \"typically the deadest period ever for moviegoing\", but that the studio anticipated pent-up demand after pandemic fears subside."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The studio initially planned to release the film in theaters globally starting on , 2020, before it delayed the film due to the pandemic. Paramount had already spent around 60% of its budget for global prints and advertising, and \"Deadline Hollywood\" wrote that the film's delay was \"truly a shocker\" because the P&A expenses seemed to indicate that rescheduling was not an option. The studio films slated for the previous weekend, March 13, were the last to be released before mass theater closures. Director John Krasinski said he wanted moviegoers to see the film together and that with the pandemic, it was not the right time to provide that experience. CNBC wrote that in particular, the film and \"In the Heights\" were considered films best experienced with a crowd."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "A sequel to \"A Quiet Place\", titled \"A Quiet Place Part II\", was written and directed by Krasinski and stars Blunt, Simmonds, Jupe, Cillian Murphy, and Djimon Hounsou. Production took place in Western New York from June 2019 to September 2019. Paramount Pictures planned to release \"A Quiet Place Part II\" in theaters on March 20, 2020, however the film was rescheduled to September 4, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It was delayed to April 2021 from July 2020, delayed again from September 2020 to January 2021, before being moved to May 28, 2021. The film would also be made available on Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical release."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Before \"A Quiet Place Part II\" was postponed from late March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, \"Boxoffice Pro\" predicted the film would gross on its opening weekend, based on the first film's opening weekend () and the continued involvement of Emily Blunt and John Krasinski; but noted that the film would face competition from other titles such as \"Mulan\". In February, early industry tracking had the film debuting to around $55\u201360 million. \"Deadline Hollywood\"s Anthony D'Alessandro wrote, \"\"A Quiet Place Part II\" is currently strong with females under 25, African Americans and Hispanic demos, but overall I hear it's strong with all quads.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Dump months",
        "text": "The pattern of January as the slow month of the movie release calendar continued for almost three decades. As the 2020 winter dump months were ending, the COVID-19 pandemic struck the world, and many exhibitors were forced to close, either by law or lack of demand, as patrons limited their activities outside of their homes to control the disease's spread. Studios and distributors reacted by postponing the release of highly anticipated tentpole films like \"A Quiet Place Part II\" and the James Bond film \"No Time to Die\" until such time as they could be screened in theaters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "On March 12, 2020, it was announced that the global release of \"A Quiet Place Part II\" would be delayed, based on widespread advice and policies against large gatherings and it was first rescheduled to September 4, 2020, in time for the Labor Day weekend, then to its new date of April 23, 2021 due to the continuous virus surging in the United States. On the same day, the release of Indian film \"Sooryavanshi,\" which was initially scheduled to release on March 24, was postponed indefinitely, and the release of \"F9\" was pushed to April 2, 2021. \"Mulan\"'s March 12 London premiere went ahead without a red carpet, and on March 13, it was announced that the film was removed from the release calendar, but had been rescheduled for July 24, 2020, taking the release date of another Disney film \"Jungle Cruise\" and was further delayed by four weeks to August 21, 2020. With no further rescheduling options, \"Mulan\" was removed from the release calendar again."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Earlier in the day of Krasinski's announcement, Universal Pictures had postponed the action film \"F9\" from late May 2021 to June 25, 2021. In the move-up process, Paramount postponed another of its films, \"Infinite\", from the May 28 release date. \"Deadline Hollywood\" reported that Paramount was encouraged to release \"A Quiet Place Part II\" earlier due to theaters reopening in New York City starting the weekend of March 5, 2021 and with plans for theaters in Los Angeles to also reopen in the near future."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\" had its world premiere at the Lincoln Center in New York City on , 2020. Paramount Pictures released the film in theaters on , 2021 after a year's worth of delays due to the COVID-19 pandemic. \"The New York Times\" described it as \"one of the first major films to receive an exclusive theatrical release from a Hollywood studio in the not-quite-post-coronavirus era.\" The studio released the film on Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical release."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "On March 4, 2021, director John Krasinski announced that the release date would be moved earlier from September 17, 2021, to May 28, 2021, which is the start of the Memorial Day holiday weekend in the United States. \"Boxoffice Pro\" wrote, \"This marks the first time post-pandemic that a theatrically exclusive major studio tentpole has moved a planned release \"up\" by this many months rather than \"back\".\" The publication also wrote that the film would be \"the first live-action tentpole exclusively in theaters\" since \"Tenet\" was released in August 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "A Quiet Place Part II is a 2020 American post-apocalyptic horror film and the sequel to 2018's \"A Quiet Place\", following the family from the first film as they continue to navigate and survive in a post-apocalyptic world inhabited by blind aliens with an acute sense of hearing. The film was written, produced and directed by John Krasinski for Paramount Pictures. Emily Blunt, Millicent Simmonds and Noah Jupe reprise their roles from the first film, while Cillian Murphy and Djimon Hounsou join the cast; Krasinski returns from the first film in a new flashback sequence."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "Universal Pictures Home Entertainment (through Warner Bros. Home Entertainment) released \"No Time to Die\" on DVD, Blu-ray and 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray in the UK on 20 December 2021 and in the US on 21 December 2021. It was available from digital download services on 9 November 2021 in the US. The 31-day theatrical release window of the film is considered a relatively quick turnaround for a film of this size. One factor has been that \"Bond\" films attract an older audience and that demographic has been hesitant to return to cinemas during the pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major film studios",
        "text": "The studios were affected by the COVID-19 pandemic with some cinema chains closing, precipitating box office flops (like Disney's \"Onward\" or Sony's \"Bloodshot\"). Several films were delayed (Universal and MGM's \"No Time to Die\" or Paramount's \"A Quiet Place Part II\" and even Disney's \"Black Widow\" and \"Mulan\") and others were launched to the digital market (like Universal's \"The Invisible Man\" and \"Trolls World Tour\" and Warner's \"Birds of Prey\", \"Scoob\" and \"Wonder Woman 1984\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Originally set for May 15, 2020 and March 20, 2020, as the pandemic case numbers had begun to rise in mid March, Paramount postponed it to , 2020. Without a streaming service from 2020 to early 2021, Paramount auctioned off multiple upcoming feature films but decided to keep \"A Quiet Place Part II\". The studio eventually changed the date to , 2021, then September 17, 2021, before moving it to May 28, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "In the early stages of the pandemic, an estimated 70,000 cinemas in China closed, and countries including Australia and the UK closed cinemas to minimise the spread of the virus. \"Variety\" said the studio had already spent $66\u00a0million on promoting the film, while \"The Hollywood Reporter\" wrote that the delay cost MGM $30\u201350\u00a0million in wasted marketing costs, estimating that the global box office losses could have exceeded $300\u00a0million had the film stayed in its April 2020 slot. In October 2020, \"No Time to Die\" was delayed again to 2 April 2021. The decision to delay the release was made when it became apparent that theatrical markets, especially in the US, would not see full demand. After the delay was announced, the British chain Cineworld, the world's second-largest cinema chain, closed its cinemas indefinitely. Chief executive Mooky Greidinger said the delay of \"No Time to Die\" was the \"last straw\" for Cineworld following a string of other film delays and cancellations."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "For the film's eventual May 2021 release date, Paramount released a final trailer several weeks in advance. \"The A.V. Club\"s William Hughes wrote that the new trailer was a retread of previous trailers with the most noteworthy element being its message that the film was the \"experience that theaters are made for\", encouraging increasingly-vaccinated moviegoers during the pandemic to go to movie theaters."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "\"No Time to Die\" was originally scheduled for release in November 2019, but was postponed to February 2020 and then to April 2020 after Boyle's departure. The premiere in China and a countrywide publicity tour, planned for April 2020, were cancelled due to the early outbreak of COVID-19 in the country. By March 2020, the global spread of the virus and the declaration of a pandemic by the World Health Organization prompted a joint open letter from two \"Bond\" fan sites addressed to the producers. The letter asked that the release be delayed to minimise the risk of spreading the disease and to ensure the film's commercial success."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction",
        "text": "In the 2018 horror film \"A Quiet Place\" and the 2021 sequel \"A Quiet Place Part II\", society has collapsed in the wake of lethal attacks by (apparently) extraterrestrial creatures who, having no eyesight, hunt humans and other creatures with their highly sensitive hearing; the scattered survivors live most of their lives in near-silence as a result."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Following the postponement of \"A Quiet Place Part II\" and other films during the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, teleconferencing became popular, and Paramount's marketing team started providing virtual backgrounds of \"A Quiet Place Part II\" and other films to be available on Zoom Video Communications."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In February 2021, Paramount announced that \"A Quiet Place Part II\" would become available on its streaming service Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical release. \"Deadline Hollywood\" reported that it was \"a clear sign that Paramount is committed to theatrical, but still open to the future of streaming.\" Before the COVID-19 pandemic, movie theater operators sought for films to be theatrically released for 90 days before being released on home media. As a result of the pandemic, Warner Bros. opted to release their 2021 slate of films on HBO Max the same day as in theaters, and Universal Pictures made its films available via video-on-demand 17 days after their theatrical releases. \"Variety\" reported, \"Paramount's strategy may be received the most favorably among film exhibitors\", with \"A Quiet Place Part II\" among Paramount's tentpole films having the 45-day frame and its other titles having a 30-day frame. \"Boxoffice Pro\" reported that the original film grossed 94% of its total of $188 million in the United States and Canada by its 45th day, which indicated that Paramount's \"decision works more in favor of exhibitors than against.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "On 4 March 2020, MGM and Eon Productions announced that after \"thorough evaluation of the global theatrical marketplace\" they had postponed the release until 12 November 2020 in the UK and 25 November 2020 in the US. \"No Time to Die\" was the first major film affected by the pandemic. According to \"Deadline Hollywood\", MGM and Universal needed to assure a strong performance across all international markets. It was hoped that the rescheduling to November would ensure all cinemas, particularly those in China, South Korea, Japan, Italy, and France that were closed due to the pandemic, would be open and operational."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "Other major films have postponed releases in certain countries. The Pixar film \"Onward\", released on the opening March weekend, was not opened in the areas most affected by the coronavirus outbreak; while cinemas were closed in China, it also chose not to open in South Korea, Italy or Japan. Other March 2020 releases \"A Quiet Place Part II\" and \"Mulan\" postponed their releases in affected areas, too. This prompted worry that, should March film openings underperform, blockbusters set for release in May (specifically Disney/Marvel's \"Black Widow\" and Universal's \"F9\") would move their dates later in the calendar. \"Mulan\" not opening in China, where it aimed to make most of its money, was particularly concerning, especially with the possibility that pirate copies will appear and prevent Chinese moviegoers from going to see it in cinemas when it is released. Comparatively, \"A Quiet Place Part II\" had not anticipated a large Chinese draw, as the box office for the first film in the country was only 10% of its total."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (disambiguation)",
        "text": "No Time to Die is a 2021 spy film and the 25th film in the \"James Bond\" series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "At the start of March, the \"James Bond\" film \"No Time to Die\", which was scheduled to premiere in March 2020 and to wide release in April 2020, was postponed to November and then subsequently to April 2021. \"No Time to Die\" was the first film to change its planned release outside of China because of the early outbreak of COVID-19, and has opened discussions of dramatic implications on the film economy: many other productions had avoided scheduling releases at the same time as the 25th \"Bond\" film, and its new November date is in the busy holiday release period, leading to low box office intake in March/April and uncertain intake in November. However, the postponement could reportedly generate more publicity for the film, and is also taking the familiar November release slot of the past two \"Bond\" films. It has also been suggested that other high-profile films will follow and postpone releases, creating a similar effect. Several other films soon followed in postponing their releases worldwide: the heavily promoted Polish slasher film \"W lesie dzi\u015b nie za\u015bnie nikt\" (\"Nobody Sleeps in the Woods Tonight\") was postponed from March 13 to some point in the future when the situation had settled, and the political documentary \"Slay the Dragon\" had its theatrical release moved from March 13 to April 3."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aviemore",
        "text": "During the summer of 2019, filming for the 25th James Bond film, \"No Time to Die\", took place in the town and in the surrounding areas of Cairngorms National Park. Temporary accommodations were constructed in a car park in the town for the production crew of around 300. Some scenes were also being shot at the Ardverikie House Estate, just outside the park, roughly southwest of the town."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "\"No Time to Die\"s opening weekend set a $119.1\u00a0million box office from 54 countries, including the United Kingdom, Brazil, Germany, Italy, Japan, Mexico and Spain, besting its $90\u00a0million projections. It was the first film since the COVID-19 pandemic that crossed $100\u00a0million in an overseas debut without the China market. \"The Hollywood Reporter\" stated the premiere was the biggest in the United Kingdom since the pandemic began."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film is scheduled to be released on September 22, 2023."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film had its world premiere in New York City on March 8, 2020, and after over a year of postponements due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was theatrically released in the United States on , 2021. It became available to stream on Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical debut. The film set several box office records, including the biggest opening weekend of the COVID-19 pandemic, and grossed $297.4million worldwide. It received positive reviews from critics, who praised the story and the addition of Murphy's character Emmett."
      },
      {
        "title": "COVID-19 pandemic in popular culture",
        "text": "Some movies, such as the James Bond entry \"No Time to Die\", have been postponed for over a year due to the pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "Production then moved to the UK. Scenes featuring Craig, Fiennes, Harris and Kinnear were filmed around London, including Whitehall, Senate House and Hammersmith. In July 2019, filming took place in the town of Aviemore and in the surrounding Cairngorms National Park area. Some scenes were also shot at the Ardverikie House Estate and on the banks of Loch Laggan, just outside the park. The forest scene was filmed in Buttersteep Forest in Windsor Great Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "In September 2020, Sony Pictures Entertainment Chairman Tony Vinciquerra stated that the company will not release any big budget films to theatres until the pandemic is over. On October 2, \"No Time to Die\" was delayed once more to April 2, 2021, due to a requirement for the film to have \"a worldwide theatrical audience\". This came amid continued closures of cinemas in the key U.S. markets of Los Angeles and New York City, as well the reinstatement of restrictions in the United Kingdom due to a second wave. As Universal Pictures held the international distribution rights to \"No Time to Die\", its film \"F9\" was delayed to May 28, 2021 (Memorial Day weekend) as to not cannibalize \"it\". \"No Time to Die\" has since been postponed again to September 30 in the UK and October 8 in the U.S. In March 2021, \"F9\" was postponed once again to June 25."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "A sequel, \"A Quiet Place Part II\", was released on May 28, 2021, with Krasinski returning to the director's chair and the main cast also returning with the addition of Cillian Murphy."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Peter Bradshaw of \"The Guardian\" gave the film 4 stars out of 5, stating, \"This sequel from writer-director John Krasinski may not quite have all its focus and intimate horror, while the borrowings from \"Alien\", \"Jurassic Park\" and \"Jaws\" are admittedly more obvious this time around. But it\u2019s a really effective and engrossing followup, with an absolutely sensational \"prelude\" sequence at the top of the movie, a barnstorming shocker equal to anything in \"AQP1\".\" He also praised the performances of Millicent Simmonds and Cillian Murphy, stating that \"Simmonds is an excellent performer: bold, confident and forthright, holding her own opposite the alpha-emoting presence of Murphy.\" Jeannette Catsoulis of \"The New York Times\" gave the film a positive review, stating, \"...while this new installment is, like its predecessor, wonderfully acted and intuitively directed (by John Krasinski, who is solely responsible for the story this time around), it has also largely replaced the hushed horror of the original with full-on action. Faster, coarser and far noisier, \"Part II\" sacrifices emotional depth for thriller setups that do less to advance the plot than grow the younger characters\", and, \"Though in many respects an exemplary piece of filmmaking, \"Part II\" remains hobbled by a script that resolves two separate crises while leaving the movie itself in limbo.\" Justin Chang of \"NPR\" said that \"\"A Quiet Place Part II\" [is] an unexpectedly resonant film for the present moment as this country slowly emerges from a crisis that\u2014while surely less terrifying than an alien apocalypse\u2014has revealed humanity at its best and its worst\", and praised Krasinski's direction, saying, \"Not being able to fall back on verbal exposition has forced Krasinski to become a ruthlessly efficient visual storyteller. It's often said that Alfred Hitchcock's movies are so sharply directed, you could turn the sound off and still follow the action\u2014a truth that applies to these movies as well.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "No Time to Die is a 2021 spy film and the twenty-fifth in the \"James Bond\" series produced by Eon Productions, starring Daniel Craig in his fifth and final portrayal of fictional British MI6 agent, James Bond. It was directed by Cary Joji Fukunaga from a screenplay by Neal Purvis, Robert Wade, Fukunaga and Phoebe Waller-Bridge. L\u00e9a Seydoux, Ben Whishaw, Naomie Harris, Jeffrey Wright, Christoph Waltz, Rory Kinnear and Ralph Fiennes reprise their roles from previous films, with Rami Malek, Lashana Lynch, Billy Magnussen, Ana de Armas, David Dencik and Dali Benssalah also starring. In \"No Time To Die\", Bond has left active service with MI6 and is recruited by the CIA to find a kidnapped scientist, which leads to a showdown with a powerful adversary."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place (disambiguation)",
        "text": "A Quiet Place is a 2018 film.\n*A Quiet Place Part II is its 2021 sequel."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Little Peace and Quiet",
        "text": "Lead actress Melinda Dillon's shouting \"Shut up!\" an extra two times as the nuclear missiles approach was unscripted. In the final scene, the two films playing in the theater when Penny stops time are \"Dr. Strangelove\" and \"Fail Safe.\" Both 1964 films depict nuclear warfare."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "As a result of Paramount shortening the theatrical run from 90 days to 45, John Krasinski, Emily Blunt, and producers including Michael Bay whose compensation depends on box-office receipts, requested for the studio to compensate them for the shorter run."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "\"No Time to Die\" had its world premiere at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 28 September 2021, and was released in cinemas on 30 September 2021 in the UK and on 8 October 2021 in the US in 2D, RealD 3D, 4DX, ScreenX, Dolby Cinema and IMAX. The film also opened the same week in September in South Korea and the following week in October in Brazil, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands and Russia. China and Australia would see the release later in October and November 2021. The film had the highest box office opening weekend takings in the UK for any \"Bond\" feature."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "For its theatrical release on May 28, 2021, \"A Quiet Place Part II\" was released in in the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "\"Bloody Disgusting\" rated the film 3.5/5 and called it \"a satisfying, worthwhile sequel\". \"The A.V. Club\" gave it a B- and remarked that it was \"a part two in the classic, traditional sense, echoing without quite amplifying the pleasures of its predecessor.\" io9 declared that the film was \"a quintessential great sequel.\" Nick Allen of RogerEbert.com gave the film three out of four stars, criticizing Krasinski for not taking risks but praising its \"incredibly robust and kinetic\" action scenes."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film is released digitally and on Movies Anywhere on July 13, 2021, while 4K Ultra HD, Blu-ray, and DVD on July 27, 2021. It was also released on Paramount+ on July 13, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Krasinski",
        "text": "Krasinski directed and wrote the sequel \"A Quiet Place Part II\", in which he also had a supporting role. Initially scheduled for March 20, 2020, it was delayed due to COVID-19 (theatres began to shut down the week of March 16). It was eventually released on May 28, 2021, to positive reviews, becoming a box office success, and the first film of the pandemic era to cross $100m at the domestic box office. In May 2021, Krasinski's production company, Sunday Night Productions, signed a first-look deal with Paramount Pictures."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "For the sequel's sound design, supervising sound editors Erik Aadahl and Ethan Van der Ryn and re-recording mixer Brandon Proctor returned for the film. Krasinski instructed them to try to \"follow the rules\" set up in the first film and said of the experience, \"What we found was by doing that, and not trying to be cool, we ended up uncovering way more stuff than we ever would've been able to [otherwise].\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "On October 3, after \"No Time to Die\" was delayed until April 2021, it was reported that Cineworld was considering suspending the operations of all of its cinemas in the UK and Ireland, and most US Regal Cinemas indefinitely, citing the lack of tentpole releases as impacting its business. The company confirmed the move on October 5, with CEO Mooky Greidinger stating that it was too expensive to continue operating its cinemas without a consistent lineup of new releases (having initially planned to hold out until \"No Time to Die\" was released), and argued that the continued closure of cinemas in the state of New York has made studios reluctant to release films due to the underperformance of \"Tenet\". The closures excluded seven Regal locations in California that had recently been allowed to reopen."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "With Craig's departure, Broccoli said that \"No Time to Die\" would \"tie up loose narrative threads\" from Craig's previous \"Bond\" films and \"come to an emotionally satisfying conclusion\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "A Quiet Place Part II\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n----Development and casting.\n----Filming.\n----Cinematography.\n----Sound design.\n--Marketing.\n--Release.\n----Postponement.\n----Streaming service.\n----Move-up.\n----Theatrical release.\n--Reception.\n----Box office.\n----Critical response.\n--Home media.\n--Future.\n----Spin-off film.\n----Sequel.\n----Video game.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "In January 2021, the film was rescheduled to 8 October 2021. In February 2021, an earlier release date of 30 September 2021 was announced for the UK. In August 2021, it was announced that the world premiere would be held at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 28 September 2021; whilst the release date in Australia was delayed from 30 September to 11 November 2021, in response to their national lockdowns. It was also screened at the Zurich Film Festival on the same day as the world premiere and the first \"Bond\" film to be in the official selection at a festival. The release in China was on 29 October 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "The sequel \"\" was initially scheduled to be released in the United Kingdom and the US in late March and early April respectively, but due to uncertainty over the outbreak, the film was postponed to early August before being postponed once again to December 11, 2020, and January 15, 2021, respectively. Sony Pictures, the film's production company, said that the changes internationally were because of coronavirus fears, with the US release moved in sync over worries of pirate copies and because the rival children's film DreamWorks/Universal's \"Trolls World Tour\" had moved its release date earlier, to the same weekend on which \"Peter Rabbit 2: The Runaway\" was initially planned to be released. \"Trolls World Tour\"'s forward rescheduling takes it to what would have been \"No Time to Die\"'s weekend (both are distributed by Universal), and leaves it as the biggest film in April."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (2006 film)",
        "text": "No Time to Die (2006 film)\n--Premise.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "During filming, the crew avoided making noise so diegetic synchronized sounds (e.g., the sound of rolling dice on a game board) could be recorded; the sounds were amplified in post-production. A traditional musical score was also added, which Krasinski justified in wanting audiences to remain familiar with watching a mainstream film, and not feel like part of a \"silence experiment.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer",
        "text": "MGM was the first studio to delay the film \"No Time to Die\" due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This was followed by an April 2020 layoff of 7% of employees."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "No Time to Die\n--Plot.\n--Cast.\n--Production.\n----Development.\n----Casting.\n----Filming.\n----Post-production.\n----Music.\n--Release.\n----Distribution rights.\n----Theatrical release and postponements.\n----Home media.\n--Reception.\n----Box office.\n----Critical response.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "During the weekend of 19\u201321 November, \"No Time to Die\" overtook \"F9\" to become the highest-grossing non-Chinese film of 2021, reaching a global cume of around $734 million as it grossed an estimated $2.6 million in the United States and Canada, as well as $13.4 million from 72 countries outside the two territories. It overtook \"Spectre\" the following weekend to become the third-highest-grossing film in the United Kingdom as well as the second-highest-grossing \"Bond\" film in the market with a gross of $129.9 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of British films of 2020",
        "text": "Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, many British films were delayed from release and premiere including \"No Time to Die\", \"Stardust\", \"Blithe Spirit\", \"A Boy Called Christmas\" and \"Everybody's Talking About Jamie\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "With their home destroyed, the family searches for other survivors. Entering a fenced-off area, Evelyn accidentally sets off a sound alarm, alerting the creatures. As they flee, Marcus steps into a bear trap, attracting a creature with his screams. Regan and Evelyn kill it, free Marcus, then run into an abandoned steel foundry. An old friend, Emmett, appears and takes them to his soundproof underground hideout. Emmett, who recently lost his family and developed a cynical outlook on life, refuses to help further and says they cannot stay."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "No Time to Die (1958 film)\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n--Reception.\n--Legacy.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Bay",
        "text": "In 2021, it was reported that Bay requested financial compensation from film studio Paramount Pictures for indirectly limiting his income as a result of Paramount cutting the theatrical-only run of \"A Quiet Place Part II\" from 90 days to 45 days due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Bay and other producers as well as actors for the film, as is typically the case, receive payment in part based on box-office performance, and a reduction in the theatrical run's exclusivity would affect the pay they receive."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "\"No Time to Die\" premiered globally at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 28 September 2021, and was released in cinemas on 30 September 2021 in the UK and on 8 October 2021 in the US after being delayed by Boyle's departure and, later, by the COVID-19 pandemic. The film received positive reviews and has grossed over $774 million worldwide, making it the fourth-highest-grossing film of 2021, earning several other box-office record achievements, including becoming the third-highest-grossing film of all time in the UK. The film garnered several awards and nominations, including five nominations at the 75th British Academy Film Awards, winning one for Best Editing, and three nominations at the 94th Academy Awards, winning one for Best Original Song."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cineworld",
        "text": "The release of \"No Time to Die\" in October 2021 took Cineworld revenues in UK and Ireland to 127% of 2019 levels. In December, Cineworld's global revenue reached 88% of 2019 levels; Cineworld credited this to the success of \"\", the only film to have made more than $1.5 billion globally since the pandemic began."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Kill (film)",
        "text": "No Time to Kill (film)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In October 2021, it was announced that a video game set within the same continuity as the film series is in development. The game will reportedly include an untold original story. The developers stated: \"The \"A Quiet Place\" video game will let fans experience the tension of the films with a level of immersion they\u2019ve never felt before.\" The project which will be published by Saber Interactive, is being created in collaboration by iLLOGIKA, EP1T0ME Studios Inc., and Paramount Pictures."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "In Italian Libya during the North African campaign of the Second World War, a Royal Armoured Corps squadron of British tanks is destroyed in battle by German Afrika Korps panzers. A tank commanded by American Sgt. David Thatcher (Victor Mature) is hit and he and driver Trooper \"Tiger\" Noakes (Anthony Newley) bail out. The squadron's attached reconnaissance vehicle, commanded by Sgt. Kendall (Leo Genn), becomes stuck in the sand and the crew bail out too. The three survivors are quickly captured and transported to an Italian POW camp run by German Army Captain Ritter (Alfred Burke)."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film was also released in 12 other markets on its opening weekend, including China as a last-minute addition."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "When Paramount Pictures planned to commercially release \"A Quiet Place Part II\" in March 2020, the studio released a 30-second teaser trailer before select theatrical screenings of \"Black Christmas\", which was released on December 13, 2019. Less than a week later, the teaser trailer became available online. A full trailer was released on January 1, 2020. During pre-game coverage before the Super Bowl on February 2, 2020, Paramount released a 30-second TV spot, which revealed that Krasinski had reprised his role in a newly filmed flashback sequence."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "No Time to Die is a 1958 British war film about an American sergeant in the British Army during the Second World War. In the US, the film was renamed Tank Force!."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Little Peace and Quiet",
        "text": "No visual effects were used for the time stops; the actors and numerous extras, even the dog, all had to hold themselves perfectly still during these sequences. In the cases of characters who were frozen in off-balance positions (e.g. running or lunging), concealed armatures were used to support their weight. The mid-pour orange juice and mid-spill milk were both plastic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vesper Lynd",
        "text": "At the beginning of the 2021 film \"No Time To Die\", Bond and Madeleine Swann (L\u00e9a Seydoux) are in Matera, Italy. While in a hotel discussing each other's secrets, Swann suggests Bond should visit Vesper's grave. When Bond does so, he says \"I miss you\" and burns a note saying, \"forgive me\". Bond notices a card placed by the side of the grave with the SPECTRE symbol. As he picks it up, a bomb intended to kill him detonates. Bond leaves Madeleine at a train station after being attacked by SPECTRE as he believes Madeleine has betrayed him to the organisation. Later, Bond visits Blofeld in prison. Blofeld explains to Bond that he ordered his organisation to follow Bond and Madeleine to Matera knowing that Madeleine would take Bond to Vesper's grave to seek solace, providing an ideal moment to kill Bond."
      },
      {
        "title": "Simultaneous release",
        "text": "The 2020 onset of the COVID-19 pandemic led to the mandated closure of cinemas worldwide in order to prevent large public gatherings. On March 16, DreamWorks Animation announced that its film \"Trolls World Tour\" would be given a simultaneous release as a digital rental on April 10, as part of a larger announcement that parent company Universal Pictures would also offer early rentals for several recent films still in theaters (including \"Emma\", \"The Hunt\", and \"The Invisible Man\"). As promotional campaigns and tie-ins for the film (including corporate synergy across the properties of Universal parent company NBCUniversal) were already in progress, it would have been difficult to cleanly postpone its release. The film itself had already been moved up to an Easter weekend release, replacing the James Bond film \"No Time to Die\" (which was deferred to November 2020 due to the pandemic, but ultimately delayed to October 2021) on Universal's schedule."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In May 2021, Blunt revealed that Krasinski had plans for a third film. Acknowledging that he had wanted to see how the second installment was received before moving forward on the next film, she stated it is intended to be a trilogy. In July 2021, Blunt confirmed that Krasinski is working on a third installment, separate from the spin-off film, with intentions to once again serve as director. In February 2022, \"A Quiet Place Part III\" was officially announced with a scheduled release date in 2025."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\" received mostly positive reviews from film critics. \"Screen Rant\" wrote that critics liked the film and praised its \"two-pronged story\" and the introduction of Cillian Murphy's character. Meanwhile, \"The Independent\" wrote that critics were divided. The film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes assessed reviews and determined of them to be positive, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads, \"A nerve-wracking continuation of its predecessor, \"A Quiet Place Part II\" expands the terrifying world of the franchise without losing track of its heart.\" According to review aggregator Metacritic, the film received \"generally favorable reviews\", with a weighted score of 71 out of 100 based on 57 critics. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"A\u2212\" on an A+ to F scale, an improvement from the first film's B+ score. PostTrak reported 83% of audience members gave it a positive score, with 63% saying they would definitely recommend it."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Time to Live and the Time to Die",
        "text": "This film is the second part of Hou's coming-of-age trilogy, preceded by \"A Summer at Grandpa's\" (1984) and followed by \"Daughter of the Nile\" (1987)."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": ", \"No Time to Die\" has grossed $160.9\u00a0million in the United States and Canada and $613.3\u00a0million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $774.2\u00a0million. It was the fourth-highest-grossing film of 2021. Because of the combined production and promotional costs of at least $350\u00a0million, it was estimated that the film would need to gross at least $800\u00a0million worldwide in order to break even."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "The film has received praise and five-star reviews from many film critics. Peter Bradshaw of \"The Guardian\" called it \"an epic barnstormer\" delivered \"with terrific panache\" and with \"pathos, action, drama, camp comedy, heartbreak, macabre horror, and outrageously silly old-fashioned action\". Robbie Collin of \"The Daily Telegraph\" described it as \"extravagantly satisfying\", \"often very funny\" with gadgets \"both improbable and outrageous\", and that it has been filmed with \"gorgeous\" cinematography, starting with \"a sensationally thrilling and sinister prologue\" and ending with a \"moving conclusion\". Kevin Maher of \"The Times\" said: \"It's better than good. It's magnificent\"; he later named the film one of the best films of 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In an interview with \"Headliner Magazine\", Ethan Van der Ryn and Erik Aadahl shared how sound (and silence) was a central character in the film: \"We started hearing stories after the first film that people were afraid to eat their popcorn in the theatre! That was thrilling for us to hear because it's like, \u2018Okay, this experiment that we tried actually works\u2019! We were able to literally make the audience hold their breath.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Rewind (2013 film)",
        "text": "The film opens with an apparent terrorist attack involving a nuclear device which destroys New York City, killing nine million people. The perpetrator, Benjamin Rourke, a Nobel Prize-winning physicist, had become embittered by the death of his wife. Having learned of a potential time travel experiment in progress, he engineered the bomb plot to force the US Government to send agents back to prevent the disaster from happening. He had also arranged matters that the only way to do this was to have them prevent his wife's death. The story describes the process of the team, CIA agents Sean Knox and Danny Gates, and scientist Lyndsay Bryce, arriving at this conclusion and their efforts without doing too much damage to the time-line."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (2006 film)",
        "text": "No Time To Die is a 2006 Ghanaian comic and romantic movie produced by Wolfgang Panzer, a German, writer and director and co-produced by King Ampaw, an award winning Ghanaian director and actor. The movie was directed by King Ampaw. The music was composed by Ben Michael Mankhamba a Malawian guitarist, singer, songwriter, composer. The costumes were designed by Lisa Meier. It was produced in 2006 in Ghana and Germany. It is an English speaking movie which last for 95minutes. It was selected in December 2016 at the African Diaspora International Film Festival (ADIFF) in New York."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "Visual effects for the film were created by Industrial Light & Magic (ILM), Framestore, DNEG, and Cinesite. Charlie Noble was the visual effects supervisor."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "Writing for \"Rolling Stone\", Peter Travers gave the film 3.5 out of 4, praising the movie's exploration of themes about parenthood, and saying \"This new horror classic will fry your nerves to a frazzle.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "The film entered production under the working title of \"Bond 25\". The title \"No Time to Die\" was announced on 20 August 2019. Broccoli said, \"We were struggling to find a title. We wanted a title that wouldn't give away anything but would be understandable, and after you see the movie, have a deeper resonance, because that's often what Fleming titles are all about\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cillian Murphy",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\", released May 28, 2021, stars Murphy as Emmett, a hardened survivor and old family friend of the Abbotts. Murphy's character reluctantly takes in the Abbotts following the events of the first film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emily Blunt",
        "text": "Blunt reprised her role in the horror sequel \"A Quiet Place Part II\" (2021), which was released after a year-long delay due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It became one of the first major Hollywood films to be released theatrically since the beginning of the pandemic. Peter Bradshaw bemoaned that the \"excellent\" Blunt did not have more screen time. As with the first film, it also emerged as a commercial success. Later that year, Blunt starred in the adventure film \"Jungle Cruise\", based on the eponymous amusement ride. It was released simultaneously in theatres and digitally on Disney+ Premier Access. Jeannette Catsoulis of \"The New York Times\" disliked the picture and opined that \"not even Emily Blunt, doing her best Katharine Hepburn impression, can keep this leaky boat ride afloat\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daniel Craig",
        "text": "In 2019, Craig starred in Rian Johnson's black comedy murder-mystery \"Knives Out\" as Benoit Blanc, a detective investigating the sudden death of a family patriarch. The film premiered at the 2019 Toronto International Film Festival to critical acclaim, and was theatrically released that November. In 2020, it was announced the Craig had signed on to reprise the character in an upcoming sequel. His fifth Bond film \"No Time to Die\" was to be directed by Danny Boyle and released in November 2019, but its release date was delayed after Boyle left the project. It was ultimately directed by Cary Joji Fukunaga and was released in cinemas from 30 September 2021 in the UK and in the US on 8 October 2021 having been delayed several times due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In appearances on \"The Late Show with Stephen Colbert\" and \"The Graham Norton Show\", Craig confirmed that \"No Time to Die\" would be his last James Bond film. Two days before the film's release in the US, Craig was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame which is located at 7007 Hollywood Boulevard (a reference to Bond's code number \"007\"), and next to the star of fellow Bond actor Roger Moore."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "The 25th James Bond film, 2021's \"No Time to Die\", shares a title with this film, which was directed by Terence Young, produced by Albert R. \"Cubby\" Broccoli, and written by Richard Maibaum, the original director, producer and writer of the \"James Bond\" films."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "A spin-off is set for release in 2023, while a sequel, \"Part III\", is in the works and scheduled to be released in 2025."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of horror films",
        "text": "The COVID-19 pandemic that began in 2020 disrupted the film industry, leading to the release of several horror films being postponed, such as \"A Quiet Place Part II\" (2020) and \"Candyman\" (2021), while other films like \"Censor\" (2021) had production halted. During lockdowns, streaming for films featuring fictional apocalypse increased. Found footage horror found itself imposed into films set on desktops in Zoom meetings with \"Host\" (2020), a film shot and set during the quarantine period of 2020, to what Newman described as further enhancing the \"this really happened\" aspect of the genre."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "In the United States and Canada, \"No Time to Die\" was projected to gross $65\u201385\u00a0million in its opening weekend. The film made $23.3\u00a0million on its first day, including $6.3\u00a0million from Thursday night previews (which included $1\u00a0million from Wednesday previews), the best total of the franchise. It went on to debut to $55.2\u00a0million, topping the box office and marking the fourth-best opening weekend of the franchise. \"No Time to Die\" earned an additional $6.9\u00a0million on Columbus Day, bringing its four-day total to over $60\u00a0million. \"Deadline Hollywood\" attributed the slight underperformance to the film's 163-minute runtime limiting the number of showtimes. \"TheWrap\" said that the opening was good news for cinemas, even if the studio did not break even during the film's theatrical run, and that it was an encouraging sign for upcoming adult-oriented pictures. The film fell 56% in its second weekend to $24.3\u00a0million, finishing second behind newcomer \"Halloween Kills\". \"No Time to Die\" was re-released in IMAX for the weekend ending on 23 January 2022 as part of the 60th anniversary of the \"Bond\" film series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black Widow (2021 film)",
        "text": "The film was originally scheduled for release on May 1, 2020. In early March 2020, after the COVID-19 pandemic had caused the closure of theaters in many countries, the release date for the film \"No Time to Die\" was shifted from April 2020 to November 2020. Commentators began speculating about the potential for other major films like \"Black Widow\" to be postponed as well. \"Deadline Hollywood\" reported on rumors in the film distribution industry suggesting that \"Black Widow\" would take the November release date of Marvel's \"Eternals\", with the latter being delayed until 2021, but Disney said that it still intended to release \"Black Widow\" in May 2020. After a trailer was released for the film a week later, Scott Mendelson at \"Forbes\" highlighted how the trailer's existence and use of the May 2020 release date confirmed that the film was not being delayed. He said this was \"the logical choice at this juncture\", feeling it was the ideal release date for the film and there was no evidence that the pandemic would affect its performance in the U.S. A week later, theaters across the U.S. were closed due to the pandemic and gatherings larger than 50 people were discouraged by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC); Disney removed the film from its May release date. Adam B. Vary and Matt Donnelly at \"Variety\" questioned whether the MCU could be impacted more by the delay than other franchises due to its interconnected nature, though a Marvel Studios source told them that changing the film's release date would not affect the MCU timeline. The pair speculated that this was due to the film being a prequel set earlier in the timeline than other Phase Four films. In April, Disney changed its entire Phase Four release slate due to the pandemic, giving \"Eternals\" November 6, 2020, release date to \"Black Widow\" and shifting all of its other Phase Four films back in the release schedule to accommodate this."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "For its 2021 theatrical release, \"Boxoffice Pro\" forecast that the film would gross between $30 million and $50 million on its opening weekend in the United States and Canada, with a total gross between $75 million and $125 million. \"IndieWire\" wrote, \"It has a core male audience that skews younger with minority moviegoers, along with strong interest and critical support\", and predicted between $40 to $50 million. According to Fandango, US advance ticket sales were double the sales from the planned March 2020 release and also more than the sales for the first film in 2018. The film made $19.3 million on its first day, including $4.8 million from Thursday night previews, topping the $4.3 million preview figure of the first film; both grosses were the highest of the pandemic. It went on to debut to $48.3 million in its three-day opening weekend and a total of $58.5 million over the four day Memorial Day frame, topping the box office and marking the biggest opening weekend since \"Sonic the Hedgehog\" in February 2020. In its sophomore weekend the film grossed $19.5 million, finishing second, behind \"\". The film crossed the $100 million domestic mark on June 11, becoming the first film of the pandemic era to do so. In its third weekend the film regained the top spot, upsetting newcomer \"In the Heights\" with $12 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Time to Kill (1989 film)",
        "text": "Later his unit kills people in retribution of attacks of insurgents in the same area where all that happened and he recognizes the young man from the constructions site and some of the civilians he observed among the dead. He also meets Elias, wearing his pants, which he seems to have forgotten at the site and Johannes, Elias' father."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Giovanni Battista, Matera",
        "text": "Filming took place in Piazza San Giovanni Battista for the James Bond film \"No Time to Die\" (the DB5 doughnut sequence); for this, a dummy bell tower was constructed, while the church exterior was covered in false walls to protect the stonework and to hide \"numerous squibs\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place to Kill",
        "text": "The \"Monthly Film Bulletin\" described the film as \"both sluggish and scrappy, with Lenzi bravely throwing up a screen of object-fixated camerawork and fidgety focusing, but not receiving much help from his players.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "Matthew Monagle of \"Film School Rejects\" said \"A Quiet Place\" seemed to be \"the early frontrunner for the sparsely intellectual horror movie of the year\", like previous films \"The Babadook\" (2014) and \"The Witch\" (2015). Monagle said Krasinski, who had directed two previous films, was \"making an unusual pivot into a genre typically reserved for newcomers\", and considered it to be part of a movement toward horror films layered \"in storytelling, [with] character beats not typically found in a horror movie\". Tatiana Tenreyro, writing for \"Bustle\", said while \"A Quiet Place\" was not a silent film, \"It is the first of its kind within the modern horror genre for how little spoken dialogue it actually has.\" She said the rare moments of spoken dialogue \"give depth to this horror movie, showing how the narrative defies the genre's traditional films even further\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Over a year later, the creatures have killed much of the Earth's population. Regan discovers that high-frequency audio feedback makes the creatures vulnerable, and she devises a makeshift method of transmitting the noise from her cochlear implant through a portable microphone."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "A Quiet Place is a 2018 American post-apocalyptic horror film directed by John Krasinski and written by Bryan Woods, Scott Beck and Krasinski, from a story conceived by Woods and Beck. The plot revolves around a father (Krasinski) and a mother (Emily Blunt) who struggle to survive and raise their children (Millicent Simmonds and Noah Jupe) in a post-apocalyptic world inhabited by blind monsters with an acute sense of hearing."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "A Quiet Place\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n----Development and writing.\n----Filming.\n----Sound and music.\n----Use of sign language.\n----Creature design.\n--Marketing.\n--Release.\n----Premiere.\n----Box office forecast.\n----Theatrical run.\n--Reception.\n----Critical response.\n--Commentary and themes.\n----Parenthood.\n----Other themes.\n--Home media.\n--Sequel.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "The song \"Dans la ville endormie\" by French singer Dalida is heard briefly in the opening scene. Louis Armstrong's version of \"We Have All the Time in the World\" is a recurring theme included three times within the score and originally appeared in \"On Her Majesty's Secret Service\", recalling both love and loss experienced by Bond following a similar poignancy in this film. The track is played in full during the closing credits."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "\"No Time to Die\" became the highest-grossing film of 2021 in Europe, the Middle East and Africa, surpassing \"F9\" on 17 October. In China, the film opened to a $28.2 million weekend, displacing \"The Battle at Lake Changjin\" from the top rank on the country's box office, despite 13% of cinemas being closed due to China's policies against local COVID-19 outbreaks. It remained atop the box office charts during its second weekend despite a drop of 59%, earning $11.4 million for a cumulative total of $49.2 million according to Artisan Gateway. It became the highest-grossing non-Chinese film of 2021 outside the United States and Canada on 14 November, earning an estimated $24 million for a cume of $558.2 million, which included $126 million in the United Kingdom, $70 million in Germany and $57.9 million in China. It also opened to an $8.2 million weekend in Australia, which was the biggest opening for any film since December 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Once Upon a Time (The Prisoner)",
        "text": "Number Two recovers and joyfully offers Number Six a tour of the Embryo Room. They end at the door timer, finding only five minutes remain before the room unlocks. Number Two becomes scared and pleads with Number Six to tell him why he resigned. Number Six remains quiet as Number Two goes to the kitchen area and pours them both a glass of wine. Number Six suddenly closes the door to the caged area, locking a panicked Number Two inside. The Butler takes the key from Number Two. Number Two paces the caged area while a voice screams \"Die, Six, die!\", until the timer runs out. Number Two falls over, apparently dead. The door to the Embryo room opens where the Supervisor (Peter Swanwick) waits. He tells Number Six they will need the body and then asks Number Six what he wants. Number Six only replies \"Number One\", and the Supervisor offers to take him there. He, Number Six, and the Butler depart the room.\n* Number Two: Leo McKern\n* Supervisor: Peter Swanwick\n* Umbrella man: John Cazabon\n* Number Eighty-Six: John Maxim (scene deleted)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Beyond the Sea (song)",
        "text": "In the 2020 horror film \"A Quiet Place Part II\", the song is played on loop over the radio as a signal to guide survivors to an island."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why was A Quiet Place Part II postponed?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The studio initially planned to release the film in theaters globally starting on March 18, 2020, in the United Kingdom and Australia on March 19, 2020, and in the United States and Canada on March 20, 2020 before it delayed the film due to the pandemic. In July 2020, Paramount changed the film's release date from September 4, 2020 to April 23, 2021."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Were there other anticipated movies that got delayed by the pandemic?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes, there are many, would you like to know more about some of them such as the James Bond film No Time to Die, a polish slasher film W lesie dzi\u015b nie za\u015bnie nikt, postponed films in certain countries like Pixar's Onward, the movie Mulan, or Disney films such as Antlers and The New Mutants?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about No Time to Die!"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Originally, the film was supposed to release in November 2019 but was postponed to February 2020 then April 2020 after Boyle's departure. With the COVID-19 outbreak, the April release was canceled and postponed to November 2020 release but shifted again to April 2021 because of closed theater markets, especially the US and finally the premiere was to held in 28 September 2021.",
      "No Time to Die is a 2021 spy film and the twenty-fifth in the James Bond series produced by Eon Productions, starring Daniel Craig in his fifth and final portrayal of fictional British MI6 agent, James Bond."
    ],
    "topic": "A Quiet Place Part II",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "No Time to Die:39",
        "passage_titles": [
          "No Time to Die",
          "Release",
          "Theatrical release and postponements"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"No Time to Die\" was originally scheduled for release in November 2019, but was postponed to February 2020 and then to April 2020 after Boyle's departure. The premiere in China and a countrywide publicity tour, planned for April 2020, were cancelled due to the early outbreak of COVID-19 in the country. By March 2020, the global spread of the virus and the declaration of a pandemic by the World Health Organization prompted a joint open letter from two \"Bond\" fan sites addressed to the producers. The letter asked that the release be delayed to minimise the risk of spreading the disease and to ensure the film's commercial success."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "No Time to Die:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "No Time to Die"
        ],
        "ctx": "No Time to Die is a 2021 spy film and the twenty-fifth in the \"James Bond\" series produced by Eon Productions, starring Daniel Craig in his fifth and final portrayal of fictional British MI6 agent, James Bond. It was directed by Cary Joji Fukunaga from a screenplay by Neal Purvis, Robert Wade, Fukunaga and Phoebe Waller-Bridge. L\u00e9a Seydoux, Ben Whishaw, Naomie Harris, Jeffrey Wright, Christoph Waltz, Rory Kinnear and Ralph Fiennes reprise their roles from previous films, with Rami Malek, Lashana Lynch, Billy Magnussen, Ana de Armas, David Dencik and Dali Benssalah also starring. In \"No Time To Die\", Bond has left active service with MI6 and is recruited by the CIA to find a kidnapped scientist, which leads to a showdown with a powerful adversary."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "\"No Time to Die\" was originally scheduled for release in November 2019, but was postponed to February 2020 and then to April 2020 after Boyle's departure. The premiere in China and a countrywide publicity tour, planned for April 2020, were cancelled due to the early outbreak of COVID-19 in the country. By March 2020, the global spread of the virus and the declaration of a pandemic by the World Health Organization prompted a joint open letter from two \"Bond\" fan sites addressed to the producers. The letter asked that the release be delayed to minimise the risk of spreading the disease and to ensure the film's commercial success."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In January 2021, Paramount postponed the film's release from , 2021 to , 2021. At the time of postponement, COVID-19 infections had surged in the United States in recent months. \"Variety\" wrote of the circumstances in the United States and Canada, \"Around 65% of movie theaters remain closed, and cinemas that have stayed open have struggled to sell tickets.\" The postponement followed other studios' postponing of their films \"No Time to Die\", ', \"Morbius\", \"Cinderella\", and \"The King's Man\". On the September 2021 date at the time, \"A Quiet Place Part II\" would have been scheduled to open against \"Death on the Nile\", ', and \"The Man from Toronto\", all three of which later had their own dates shifted."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "\"No Time to Die\" premiered globally at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 28 September 2021, and was released in cinemas on 30 September 2021 in the UK and on 8 October 2021 in the US after being delayed by Boyle's departure and, later, by the COVID-19 pandemic. The film received positive reviews and has grossed over $774 million worldwide, making it the fourth-highest-grossing film of 2021, earning several other box-office record achievements, including becoming the third-highest-grossing film of all time in the UK. The film garnered several awards and nominations, including five nominations at the 75th British Academy Film Awards, winning one for Best Editing, and three nominations at the 94th Academy Awards, winning one for Best Original Song."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "\"No Time to Die\" had its world premiere at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 28 September 2021, and was released in cinemas on 30 September 2021 in the UK and on 8 October 2021 in the US in 2D, RealD 3D, 4DX, ScreenX, Dolby Cinema and IMAX. The film also opened the same week in September in South Korea and the following week in October in Brazil, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands and Russia. China and Australia would see the release later in October and November 2021. The film had the highest box office opening weekend takings in the UK for any \"Bond\" feature."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "\"No Time to Die\"s opening weekend set a $119.1\u00a0million box office from 54 countries, including the United Kingdom, Brazil, Germany, Italy, Japan, Mexico and Spain, besting its $90\u00a0million projections. It was the first film since the COVID-19 pandemic that crossed $100\u00a0million in an overseas debut without the China market. \"The Hollywood Reporter\" stated the premiere was the biggest in the United Kingdom since the pandemic began."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "Production was scheduled to begin on 3 December 2018 at Pinewood Studios, but filming was delayed until April 2019 after Boyle's departure. The film is the first in the series to have sequences shot with 65mm IMAX film cameras. Fukunaga and Sandgren pushed for using film over digital to enhance the look of the film. The budget was reported to be between $250\u00a0million and $301\u00a0million."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "No Time to Die\n--Plot.\n--Cast.\n--Production.\n----Development.\n----Casting.\n----Filming.\n----Post-production.\n----Music.\n--Release.\n----Distribution rights.\n----Theatrical release and postponements.\n----Home media.\n--Reception.\n----Box office.\n----Critical response.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "On 4 March 2020, MGM and Eon Productions announced that after \"thorough evaluation of the global theatrical marketplace\" they had postponed the release until 12 November 2020 in the UK and 25 November 2020 in the US. \"No Time to Die\" was the first major film affected by the pandemic. According to \"Deadline Hollywood\", MGM and Universal needed to assure a strong performance across all international markets. It was hoped that the rescheduling to November would ensure all cinemas, particularly those in China, South Korea, Japan, Italy, and France that were closed due to the pandemic, would be open and operational."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "In January 2021, the film was rescheduled to 8 October 2021. In February 2021, an earlier release date of 30 September 2021 was announced for the UK. In August 2021, it was announced that the world premiere would be held at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 28 September 2021; whilst the release date in Australia was delayed from 30 September to 11 November 2021, in response to their national lockdowns. It was also screened at the Zurich Film Festival on the same day as the world premiere and the first \"Bond\" film to be in the official selection at a festival. The release in China was on 29 October 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "Production then moved to the UK. Scenes featuring Craig, Fiennes, Harris and Kinnear were filmed around London, including Whitehall, Senate House and Hammersmith. In July 2019, filming took place in the town of Aviemore and in the surrounding Cairngorms National Park area. Some scenes were also shot at the Ardverikie House Estate and on the banks of Loch Laggan, just outside the park. The forest scene was filmed in Buttersteep Forest in Windsor Great Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "\"No Time to Die\" featured authentic war time Cromwell tanks as well as post-war Centurions and Charioteers as both British and German tanks. In the opening battle Leo Genn commands an AEC Armoured Car and wears the beret of the Cherry Pickers."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\" had its world premiere at the Lincoln Center in New York City on , 2020. Paramount Pictures released the film in theaters on , 2021 after a year's worth of delays due to the COVID-19 pandemic. \"The New York Times\" described it as \"one of the first major films to receive an exclusive theatrical release from a Hollywood studio in the not-quite-post-coronavirus era.\" The studio released the film on Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical release."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "In February 2018, Danny Boyle was established as a frontrunner for the directing position. Boyle's original pitch to Broccoli and Wilson saw John Hodge writing a screenplay based on Boyle's idea with Purvis and Wade's version scrapped. Hodge's draft was greenlit, and Boyle was confirmed to direct with a production start date of December 2018. However, Boyle and Hodge left in August 2018 due to creative differences. During Boyle's time as director, a leaked casting sheet described the male leading role as a \"cold and charismatic Russian\" and the female leading role as a \"witty and skillful survivor\". Production also sought male supporting roles of M\u0101ori descent with \"advanced combat skills\". It was reported at the time that Boyle's exit was due to the casting of Tomasz Kot as the lead villain; however, Boyle later confirmed the dispute was over the script."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "In September 2020, Sony Pictures Entertainment Chairman Tony Vinciquerra stated that the company will not release any big budget films to theatres until the pandemic is over. On October 2, \"No Time to Die\" was delayed once more to April 2, 2021, due to a requirement for the film to have \"a worldwide theatrical audience\". This came amid continued closures of cinemas in the key U.S. markets of Los Angeles and New York City, as well the reinstatement of restrictions in the United Kingdom due to a second wave. As Universal Pictures held the international distribution rights to \"No Time to Die\", its film \"F9\" was delayed to May 28, 2021 (Memorial Day weekend) as to not cannibalize \"it\". \"No Time to Die\" has since been postponed again to September 30 in the UK and October 8 in the U.S. In March 2021, \"F9\" was postponed once again to June 25."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film was initially to be released in the United Kingdom and Australia on , 2020, and in the United States and Canada, including Dolby Cinema and IMAX, on , 2020. Paramount initially stated on March 6 that it would not reschedule the film in response to the pandemic, but on March 12, the studio pulled the film from release worldwide with the intent of scheduling it later in the year. In April 2020, it announced the release date of , 2020. The September release date would have been the start of the US holiday Labor Day Weekend. \"Deadline Hollywood\" wrote at the time that the weekend is \"summer [box office's] finale\", and \"typically the deadest period ever for moviegoing\", but that the studio anticipated pent-up demand after pandemic fears subside."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neal Purvis and Robert Wade",
        "text": "On 10 March 2017 it was reported that they were approached to write the script for \"No Time to Die\". In July 2017, it was initially reported they would write the script, but in May 2018, EON announced that director Danny Boyle was instead working with his regular collaborator John Hodge on a new script. In September 2018, following Boyle's departure from the project, Purvis and Wade were re-hired to write a new script."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Before \"A Quiet Place Part II\" was postponed from late March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, \"Boxoffice Pro\" predicted the film would gross on its opening weekend, based on the first film's opening weekend () and the continued involvement of Emily Blunt and John Krasinski; but noted that the film would face competition from other titles such as \"Mulan\". In February, early industry tracking had the film debuting to around $55\u201360 million. \"Deadline Hollywood\"s Anthony D'Alessandro wrote, \"\"A Quiet Place Part II\" is currently strong with females under 25, African Americans and Hispanic demos, but overall I hear it's strong with all quads.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film had its world premiere in New York City on March 8, 2020, and after over a year of postponements due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was theatrically released in the United States on , 2021. It became available to stream on Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical debut. The film set several box office records, including the biggest opening weekend of the COVID-19 pandemic, and grossed $297.4million worldwide. It received positive reviews from critics, who praised the story and the addition of Murphy's character Emmett."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "Universal Pictures Home Entertainment (through Warner Bros. Home Entertainment) released \"No Time to Die\" on DVD, Blu-ray and 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray in the UK on 20 December 2021 and in the US on 21 December 2021. It was available from digital download services on 9 November 2021 in the US. The 31-day theatrical release window of the film is considered a relatively quick turnaround for a film of this size. One factor has been that \"Bond\" films attract an older audience and that demographic has been hesitant to return to cinemas during the pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of UK top-ten singles in 2020",
        "text": "The only song from a film which entered the top 10 this year was \"No Time to Die\" (from \"No Time to Die\"). The film was initially scheduled to be released in November 2019, but, due to the departure of Danny Boyle as director and because of the COVID-19 pandemic, its release date was delayed several times. The film was eventually released in the UK on 30 September 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "The film entered production under the working title of \"Bond 25\". The title \"No Time to Die\" was announced on 20 August 2019. Broccoli said, \"We were struggling to find a title. We wanted a title that wouldn't give away anything but would be understandable, and after you see the movie, have a deeper resonance, because that's often what Fleming titles are all about\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Earlier in the day of Krasinski's announcement, Universal Pictures had postponed the action film \"F9\" from late May 2021 to June 25, 2021. In the move-up process, Paramount postponed another of its films, \"Infinite\", from the May 28 release date. \"Deadline Hollywood\" reported that Paramount was encouraged to release \"A Quiet Place Part II\" earlier due to theaters reopening in New York City starting the weekend of March 5, 2021 and with plans for theaters in Los Angeles to also reopen in the near future."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "No Time to Die (1958 film)\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n--Reception.\n--Legacy.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "Alan Ladd was mentioned as a possibility as star. In April 1957 Terence Young arrived in Hollywood to find two American leading men for the film. Van Johnson, who had just made a film with Young, was a leading contender. Jeff Chandler turned down the role (and fee of $200,000)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ardverikie House",
        "text": "During summer 2019, filming of \"No Time to Die\" was taking place in the town of Aviemore and the surrounding Cairngorms National Park with some scenes shot at the Ardverikie Estate."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (2006 film)",
        "text": "No Time to Die (2006 film)\n--Premise.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "In the United States and Canada, \"No Time to Die\" was projected to gross $65\u201385\u00a0million in its opening weekend. The film made $23.3\u00a0million on its first day, including $6.3\u00a0million from Thursday night previews (which included $1\u00a0million from Wednesday previews), the best total of the franchise. It went on to debut to $55.2\u00a0million, topping the box office and marking the fourth-best opening weekend of the franchise. \"No Time to Die\" earned an additional $6.9\u00a0million on Columbus Day, bringing its four-day total to over $60\u00a0million. \"Deadline Hollywood\" attributed the slight underperformance to the film's 163-minute runtime limiting the number of showtimes. \"TheWrap\" said that the opening was good news for cinemas, even if the studio did not break even during the film's theatrical run, and that it was an encouraging sign for upcoming adult-oriented pictures. The film fell 56% in its second weekend to $24.3\u00a0million, finishing second behind newcomer \"Halloween Kills\". \"No Time to Die\" was re-released in IMAX for the weekend ending on 23 January 2022 as part of the 60th anniversary of the \"Bond\" film series."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "\"Kinematograph Weekly\" listed it as being \"in the money\" at the British box office in 1958. When the film was initially released in the United States, it was 20 minutes shorter than the version released in the United Kingdom."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "A sequel to \"A Quiet Place\", titled \"A Quiet Place Part II\", was written and directed by Krasinski and stars Blunt, Simmonds, Jupe, Cillian Murphy, and Djimon Hounsou. Production took place in Western New York from June 2019 to September 2019. Paramount Pictures planned to release \"A Quiet Place Part II\" in theaters on March 20, 2020, however the film was rescheduled to September 4, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It was delayed to April 2021 from July 2020, delayed again from September 2020 to January 2021, before being moved to May 28, 2021. The film would also be made available on Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical release."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "\"No Time to Die\" was the top-ranking film on Vudu and Google Play for two weeks and iTunes for five weeks. In the UK, it was the highest-selling digital title of 2021, with more than 430,000 units sold."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In July 2020, Paramount changed the film's release date from , 2020 to , 2021. At the time of the announcement, movie theaters in the United States and Canada had been closed for nearly four months, and the pandemic was continuing to spread across the United States. The second postponement followed other studios' decisions at the time to indefinitely delay the Warner Bros. film \"Tenet\" and the Disney film \"Mulan\". \"Variety\" reported, \"While those films had been long positioned to help revive moviegoing, sources say that Paramount did not want \"A Quiet Place Part 2\" to stay on Labor Day weekend and have the pressure of being the first new movie out of the gate during the pandemic.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "The sequel \"\" was initially scheduled to be released in the United Kingdom and the US in late March and early April respectively, but due to uncertainty over the outbreak, the film was postponed to early August before being postponed once again to December 11, 2020, and January 15, 2021, respectively. Sony Pictures, the film's production company, said that the changes internationally were because of coronavirus fears, with the US release moved in sync over worries of pirate copies and because the rival children's film DreamWorks/Universal's \"Trolls World Tour\" had moved its release date earlier, to the same weekend on which \"Peter Rabbit 2: The Runaway\" was initially planned to be released. \"Trolls World Tour\"'s forward rescheduling takes it to what would have been \"No Time to Die\"'s weekend (both are distributed by Universal), and leaves it as the biggest film in April."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "Ana de Armas, Dali Benssalah, David Dencik, Lashana Lynch, Billy Magnussen and Rami Malek were announced as cast members in a live stream, at Ian Fleming's Goldeneye estate in Jamaica. The event was on 25 April 2019 and marked the official start of production. Malek was further announced as playing Safin, the film's villain. Malek revealed in an interview that Safin would not be connected to any religion or ideology."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "In the early stages of the pandemic, an estimated 70,000 cinemas in China closed, and countries including Australia and the UK closed cinemas to minimise the spread of the virus. \"Variety\" said the studio had already spent $66\u00a0million on promoting the film, while \"The Hollywood Reporter\" wrote that the delay cost MGM $30\u201350\u00a0million in wasted marketing costs, estimating that the global box office losses could have exceeded $300\u00a0million had the film stayed in its April 2020 slot. In October 2020, \"No Time to Die\" was delayed again to 2 April 2021. The decision to delay the release was made when it became apparent that theatrical markets, especially in the US, would not see full demand. After the delay was announced, the British chain Cineworld, the world's second-largest cinema chain, closed its cinemas indefinitely. Chief executive Mooky Greidinger said the delay of \"No Time to Die\" was the \"last straw\" for Cineworld following a string of other film delays and cancellations."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "For its theatrical release on May 28, 2021, \"A Quiet Place Part II\" was released in in the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "With Craig's departure, Broccoli said that \"No Time to Die\" would \"tie up loose narrative threads\" from Craig's previous \"Bond\" films and \"come to an emotionally satisfying conclusion\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (disambiguation)",
        "text": "No Time to Die is a 2021 spy film and the 25th film in the \"James Bond\" series."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The studio initially planned to release the film in theaters globally starting on , 2020, before it delayed the film due to the pandemic. Paramount had already spent around 60% of its budget for global prints and advertising, and \"Deadline Hollywood\" wrote that the film's delay was \"truly a shocker\" because the P&A expenses seemed to indicate that rescheduling was not an option. The studio films slated for the previous weekend, March 13, were the last to be released before mass theater closures. Director John Krasinski said he wanted moviegoers to see the film together and that with the pandemic, it was not the right time to provide that experience. CNBC wrote that in particular, the film and \"In the Heights\" were considered films best experienced with a crowd."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "\"No Time to Die\" became the highest-grossing film of 2021 in Europe, the Middle East and Africa, surpassing \"F9\" on 17 October. In China, the film opened to a $28.2 million weekend, displacing \"The Battle at Lake Changjin\" from the top rank on the country's box office, despite 13% of cinemas being closed due to China's policies against local COVID-19 outbreaks. It remained atop the box office charts during its second weekend despite a drop of 59%, earning $11.4 million for a cumulative total of $49.2 million according to Artisan Gateway. It became the highest-grossing non-Chinese film of 2021 outside the United States and Canada on 14 November, earning an estimated $24 million for a cume of $558.2 million, which included $126 million in the United Kingdom, $70 million in Germany and $57.9 million in China. It also opened to an $8.2 million weekend in Australia, which was the biggest opening for any film since December 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Loch Laggan",
        "text": "During summer 2019, filming for \"No Time to Die\" was taking place in and near the Cairngorms National Park. Some scenes were also being shot at the Ardverikie House Estate and on the banks of Loch Laggan."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": ", \"No Time to Die\" has grossed $160.9\u00a0million in the United States and Canada and $613.3\u00a0million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $774.2\u00a0million. It was the fourth-highest-grossing film of 2021. Because of the combined production and promotional costs of at least $350\u00a0million, it was estimated that the film would need to gross at least $800\u00a0million worldwide in order to break even."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "During the weekend of 19\u201321 November, \"No Time to Die\" overtook \"F9\" to become the highest-grossing non-Chinese film of 2021, reaching a global cume of around $734 million as it grossed an estimated $2.6 million in the United States and Canada, as well as $13.4 million from 72 countries outside the two territories. It overtook \"Spectre\" the following weekend to become the third-highest-grossing film in the United Kingdom as well as the second-highest-grossing \"Bond\" film in the market with a gross of $129.9 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cairngorms National Park",
        "text": "During summer 2019, filming of \"No Time to Die\" was taking place in the town of Aviemore and in the surrounding park area. Some scenes were also being shot at the Ardverikie House Estate just outside the park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "On October 3, after \"No Time to Die\" was delayed until April 2021, it was reported that Cineworld was considering suspending the operations of all of its cinemas in the UK and Ireland, and most US Regal Cinemas indefinitely, citing the lack of tentpole releases as impacting its business. The company confirmed the move on October 5, with CEO Mooky Greidinger stating that it was too expensive to continue operating its cinemas without a consistent lineup of new releases (having initially planned to hold out until \"No Time to Die\" was released), and argued that the continued closure of cinemas in the state of New York has made studios reluctant to release films due to the underperformance of \"Tenet\". The closures excluded seven Regal locations in California that had recently been allowed to reopen."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "In July 2019, Dan Romer was announced as composer for the film's score, having previously worked with Fukunaga on \"Beasts of No Nation\" and \"Maniac\". Romer left the film due to creative differences in November 2019. Hans Zimmer replaced Romer by January 2020. It is the first time in the Bond series history that a composer has been replaced during post-production, and the second major personnel change for the film after Boyle's departure. Steve Mazzaro produced the score, while Johnny Marr played guitar. The \"No Time to Die\" score album was set to be released through Decca Records in March 2020 but was delayed to 1 October 2021 to coincide with the release of the film."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "Principal photography wrapped up on 25 October 2019 at Pinewood Studios with the filming of a chase sequence set in Havana, Cuba. Production had intended to shoot the sequence earlier, but was forced to reschedule when Craig injured his ankle in Jamaica. Further pick-up shots at Pinewood were confirmed by Fukunaga on 20 December 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Originally set for May 15, 2020 and March 20, 2020, as the pandemic case numbers had begun to rise in mid March, Paramount postponed it to , 2020. Without a streaming service from 2020 to early 2021, Paramount auctioned off multiple upcoming feature films but decided to keep \"A Quiet Place Part II\". The studio eventually changed the date to , 2021, then September 17, 2021, before moving it to May 28, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "No Time to Die is a 1958 British war film about an American sergeant in the British Army during the Second World War. In the US, the film was renamed Tank Force!."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "As a result of Paramount shortening the theatrical run from 90 days to 45, John Krasinski, Emily Blunt, and producers including Michael Bay whose compensation depends on box-office receipts, requested for the studio to compensate them for the shorter run."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "In September, Mature left England for six weeks of location filming in the Libyan Desert, near Tripoli. The Queens Bays Tank Regiment assisted in production of the film."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "In August 1957 Victor Mature signed a two-picture contract with Warwick, \"No Time to Die\" and \"The Man Inside\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "The film was initially based on a 1954 novel of the same name by Ronald Kemp, but later received a different script unrelated to the novel with the exception of the title and the setting. Warwick Productions bought the film rights in 1955 and tried to get Montgomery Clift to star. Sy Bartlett was assigned to write the script."
      },
      {
        "title": "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer",
        "text": "MGM was the first studio to delay the film \"No Time to Die\" due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This was followed by an April 2020 layoff of 7% of employees."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "Following Boyle's departure, the release date became contingent on whether the studio could find a replacement within sixty days. Cary Joji Fukunaga was announced as the new director in September 2018. Fukunaga became the first American to direct an Eon Productions Bond film and the first director to receive a writing credit for any version. Fukunaga had been considered for \"Spectre\" before Mendes was hired, and afterwards had expressed an interest to Broccoli and Wilson about directing a future Bond film. Linus Sandgren was hired as cinematographer in December 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "In the UK, it ranked atop the Official Film Chart for three weeks. The film was the highest-selling title on disc in the country during 2021 with 1.15 million units being sold, including 717,500 DVD and Blu-ray units being sold within two weeks. It was also the highest-selling Blu-ray title of 2021 with 237,000 units sold, in addition to becoming the highest-selling title on 4K Blu-ray in the first week of release and selling the highest number of discs for any title in first week of release since 2017 with 621,000 Blu-ray and DVDs being sold. In addition, it sold a combined 780,000 units across digital platforms and retail in the final week of 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "28 Weeks Later",
        "text": "In January 2011, Danny Boyle said, \"There is a good idea for it, and once I've got [my stage production of] \"Frankenstein\" open, I'll begin to think about it a bit more.\" On 13 April 2013, Boyle stated: \"[I]t's 40/60 whether [a sequel] happens or not. But we did have an idea of where to set it and what it might be about.\" When asked to share that idea, Boyle laughed and said, \"No, because they'll end up in \"The Walking Dead\".\""
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "In late August 2019, the second unit moved to southern Italy where they began to shoot a chase sequence involving an Aston Martin DB5 through the streets of Matera (including a doughnut in Piazza San Giovanni Battista). In early September 2019, the main production unit, Craig and L\u00e9a Seydoux arrived to film scenes inside several production-built sets, as well as further sequences in Maratea and Gravina in Puglia. Scenes were shot in the town of Sapri in southern Italy throughout September. Locations included the town's \"midnight canal\" and railway station. The city is referred to as \"Civita Lucana\" in the film. In late September 2019, scenes were filmed in the Faroe Islands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cineworld",
        "text": "The release of \"No Time to Die\" in October 2021 took Cineworld revenues in UK and Ireland to 127% of 2019 levels. In December, Cineworld's global revenue reached 88% of 2019 levels; Cineworld credited this to the success of \"\", the only film to have made more than $1.5 billion globally since the pandemic began."
      },
      {
        "title": "N. F. Simpson",
        "text": "\"If So, Then Yes\" premiered at the Jermyn Street Theatre, London, running from 7 September to 2 October 2010. Simpson died at the Royal Cornwall Hospital in Truro on 27 August 2011, having lived in Townsend, Polruan since 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "Visual effects for the film were created by Industrial Light & Magic (ILM), Framestore, DNEG, and Cinesite. Charlie Noble was the visual effects supervisor."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "In March 1957 Merle Miller was hired to rewrite the script. Then Richard Maibaum did a draft. The script eventually became about five Allied soldiers, two Englishmen, a Pole, an American and an Australian, who escape an Italian POW camp in the Second World War."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "A sequel, \"A Quiet Place Part II\", was released on May 28, 2021, with Krasinski returning to the director's chair and the main cast also returning with the addition of Cillian Murphy."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Resting Place",
        "text": "Apart from stars Michael Gough and Noel Purcell, Rotha drew the cast from Irish theatres including the Abbey Theatre and Irish radio. It is regarded by some critics as part of an Abbey school of filmmaking that aimed to mimic the realism of contemporary mainland-European film."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Coffin for the Corpse",
        "text": "The 1942 movie \"The Man Who Wouldn't Die\", starring Lloyd Nolan, was based on \"No Coffin for the Corpse\", but the Merlini character was replaced by Michael Shayne, a popular fictional private eye at the time, created by the writer Brett Halliday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daniel Craig",
        "text": "In 2019, Craig starred in Rian Johnson's black comedy murder-mystery \"Knives Out\" as Benoit Blanc, a detective investigating the sudden death of a family patriarch. The film premiered at the 2019 Toronto International Film Festival to critical acclaim, and was theatrically released that November. In 2020, it was announced the Craig had signed on to reprise the character in an upcoming sequel. His fifth Bond film \"No Time to Die\" was to be directed by Danny Boyle and released in November 2019, but its release date was delayed after Boyle left the project. It was ultimately directed by Cary Joji Fukunaga and was released in cinemas from 30 September 2021 in the UK and in the US on 8 October 2021 having been delayed several times due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In appearances on \"The Late Show with Stephen Colbert\" and \"The Graham Norton Show\", Craig confirmed that \"No Time to Die\" would be his last James Bond film. Two days before the film's release in the US, Craig was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame which is located at 7007 Hollywood Boulevard (a reference to Bond's code number \"007\"), and next to the star of fellow Bond actor Roger Moore."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "Development began in 2016. It is the first \"Bond\" film to be distributed by Universal Pictures, which acquired the international distribution rights following the expiration of Sony Pictures' contract after the release of \"Spectre\" in 2015. United Artists Releasing holds the rights for North America, as well as worldwide digital and television rights; Universal also holds the worldwide rights for physical home media. Danny Boyle was originally attached to direct and co-write the screenplay with John Hodge. Both left in August 2018 due to creative differences, and Fukunaga was announced as Boyle's replacement a month later. Most of the cast had signed by April 2019. Principal photography took place from April to October 2019. Billie Eilish performed the theme song."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "On March 4, 2021, director John Krasinski announced that the release date would be moved earlier from September 17, 2021, to May 28, 2021, which is the start of the Memorial Day holiday weekend in the United States. \"Boxoffice Pro\" wrote, \"This marks the first time post-pandemic that a theatrically exclusive major studio tentpole has moved a planned release \"up\" by this many months rather than \"back\".\" The publication also wrote that the film would be \"the first live-action tentpole exclusively in theaters\" since \"Tenet\" was released in August 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "The film has received praise and five-star reviews from many film critics. Peter Bradshaw of \"The Guardian\" called it \"an epic barnstormer\" delivered \"with terrific panache\" and with \"pathos, action, drama, camp comedy, heartbreak, macabre horror, and outrageously silly old-fashioned action\". Robbie Collin of \"The Daily Telegraph\" described it as \"extravagantly satisfying\", \"often very funny\" with gadgets \"both improbable and outrageous\", and that it has been filmed with \"gorgeous\" cinematography, starting with \"a sensationally thrilling and sinister prologue\" and ending with a \"moving conclusion\". Kevin Maher of \"The Times\" said: \"It's better than good. It's magnificent\"; he later named the film one of the best films of 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lamb (2021 film)",
        "text": "In the United States and Canada, \"Lamb\" was released alongside \"No Time to Die\" and was debuted to $1 million from 583 theaters, finishing seventh and marking the best-ever opening weekend for an Icelandic film in the U.S."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "The song \"Dans la ville endormie\" by French singer Dalida is heard briefly in the opening scene. Louis Armstrong's version of \"We Have All the Time in the World\" is a recurring theme included three times within the score and originally appeared in \"On Her Majesty's Secret Service\", recalling both love and loss experienced by Bond following a similar poignancy in this film. The track is played in full during the closing credits."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Time for Dying",
        "text": "The film was shown throughout Texas, but following legal problems after Murphy's death in 1971, the film only had limited showings and did not screen in New York until 1982."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dump months",
        "text": "The pattern of January as the slow month of the movie release calendar continued for almost three decades. As the 2020 winter dump months were ending, the COVID-19 pandemic struck the world, and many exhibitors were forced to close, either by law or lack of demand, as patrons limited their activities outside of their homes to control the disease's spread. Studios and distributors reacted by postponing the release of highly anticipated tentpole films like \"A Quiet Place Part II\" and the James Bond film \"No Time to Die\" until such time as they could be screened in theaters."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "For the film's eventual May 2021 release date, Paramount released a final trailer several weeks in advance. \"The A.V. Club\"s William Hughes wrote that the new trailer was a retread of previous trailers with the most noteworthy element being its message that the film was the \"experience that theaters are made for\", encouraging increasingly-vaccinated moviegoers during the pandemic to go to movie theaters."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film is scheduled to be released on September 22, 2023."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of British films of 2020",
        "text": "Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, many British films were delayed from release and premiere including \"No Time to Die\", \"Stardust\", \"Blithe Spirit\", \"A Boy Called Christmas\" and \"Everybody's Talking About Jamie\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who Knows Where the Time Goes?",
        "text": "The Fairport Convention version was used as the closing music for the 2017 final episode of the Netflix series \"Grace and Frankie\", in the BBC's \"Inspector George Gently\" episode \"The Lost Child\" set in 1968, in the second series of the successful British dark comedy-drama series \"The End of the F***ing World\", and in the \"One Giant Leap\" episode of the NBC family drama \"This Is Us\". It is also played once at the end of the 2009 film \"Don't Worry About Me\" and twice in the 2012 Irish film \"Silence\". In the 2011 Broadway production of \"Jerusalem\" by Jez Butterworth, the live recording from BBC Radio \"Sounds of the Seventies\", recorded on 11 September 1973, is played in its entirety towards the end of the final act."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema",
        "text": "On March 12, 2020, it was announced that the global release of \"A Quiet Place Part II\" would be delayed, based on widespread advice and policies against large gatherings and it was first rescheduled to September 4, 2020, in time for the Labor Day weekend, then to its new date of April 23, 2021 due to the continuous virus surging in the United States. On the same day, the release of Indian film \"Sooryavanshi,\" which was initially scheduled to release on March 24, was postponed indefinitely, and the release of \"F9\" was pushed to April 2, 2021. \"Mulan\"'s March 12 London premiere went ahead without a red carpet, and on March 13, it was announced that the film was removed from the release calendar, but had been rescheduled for July 24, 2020, taking the release date of another Disney film \"Jungle Cruise\" and was further delayed by four weeks to August 21, 2020. With no further rescheduling options, \"Mulan\" was removed from the release calendar again."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "When Paramount Pictures planned to commercially release \"A Quiet Place Part II\" in March 2020, the studio released a 30-second teaser trailer before select theatrical screenings of \"Black Christmas\", which was released on December 13, 2019. Less than a week later, the teaser trailer became available online. A full trailer was released on January 1, 2020. During pre-game coverage before the Super Bowl on February 2, 2020, Paramount released a 30-second TV spot, which revealed that Krasinski had reprised his role in a newly filmed flashback sequence."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Time to Love and a Time to Die",
        "text": "The \"Los Angeles Times\" said the film wasn't as good as \"All Quiet on the Western Front\" but was \"vivid, sometimes brutally shocking and, less often, emotionally moving.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "In Italian Libya during the North African campaign of the Second World War, a Royal Armoured Corps squadron of British tanks is destroyed in battle by German Afrika Korps panzers. A tank commanded by American Sgt. David Thatcher (Victor Mature) is hit and he and driver Trooper \"Tiger\" Noakes (Anthony Newley) bail out. The squadron's attached reconnaissance vehicle, commanded by Sgt. Kendall (Leo Genn), becomes stuck in the sand and the crew bail out too. The three survivors are quickly captured and transported to an Italian POW camp run by German Army Captain Ritter (Alfred Burke)."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film is released digitally and on Movies Anywhere on July 13, 2021, while 4K Ultra HD, Blu-ray, and DVD on July 27, 2021. It was also released on Paramount+ on July 13, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Simultaneous release",
        "text": "The 2020 onset of the COVID-19 pandemic led to the mandated closure of cinemas worldwide in order to prevent large public gatherings. On March 16, DreamWorks Animation announced that its film \"Trolls World Tour\" would be given a simultaneous release as a digital rental on April 10, as part of a larger announcement that parent company Universal Pictures would also offer early rentals for several recent films still in theaters (including \"Emma\", \"The Hunt\", and \"The Invisible Man\"). As promotional campaigns and tie-ins for the film (including corporate synergy across the properties of Universal parent company NBCUniversal) were already in progress, it would have been difficult to cleanly postpone its release. The film itself had already been moved up to an Easter weekend release, replacing the James Bond film \"No Time to Die\" (which was deferred to November 2020 due to the pandemic, but ultimately delayed to October 2021) on Universal's schedule."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Giovanni Battista, Matera",
        "text": "Filming took place in Piazza San Giovanni Battista for the James Bond film \"No Time to Die\" (the DB5 doughnut sequence); for this, a dummy bell tower was constructed, while the church exterior was covered in false walls to protect the stonework and to hide \"numerous squibs\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time at All (Playhouse 90)",
        "text": "Television critic Bill Fiset wrote that the story \"was remarkably without any continuity, motivation, emotion or even common sense\" and \"fell with an awful thud.\" As for the overall production, Fiset opined that it \"had all the merits of a Class D British movie.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Death Drop",
        "text": "On 22 February 2021 it was announced that theatres would be able to reopen from 17 May, and on 11 March it was announced that \"Death Drop\" would reopen from 19 May with a new cast being announced on 25 March. Performances between 30 June and 4 July were cancelled due to self-isolation from several of the cast and crew. On 7 July there was a BSL signed performance including Maria Hurtz. It was announced that Courtney Act would re-join the cast as Shazza for the performances on 10 and 11 July. The show then closed on 11 July."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "Unbeknownst to the Axis prison guards, Thatcher had previously tried to assassinate Joseph Goebbels in revenge for the killing of his Jewish wife and tries to escape at every turn before the Nazis discover his secret. The British commander Sgt. Kendall arranges an escape of Thatcher, Noakes, Bartlett (Sean Kelly), and a Polish prisoner (Bonar Colleano) in an ambulance before the \"Schutzstaffel\" can detain Thatcher, and the Pole kills the German mole Johnson (Kenneth Fortescue). They escape through the Libyan Desert in sandstorms, briefly taking shelter at the nightclub of Thatcher's friend Carola (Luciana Paluzzi) in Italian-occupied Benghazi before she is accidentally shot by the Italian officer Alberto (Robert Rietti)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dead to Me (TV series)",
        "text": "On April 1, 2019, it was announced that the series was set to be released on May 3, 2019. On June 3, 2019, the series was renewed for a second season, set to be released in 2020. On April 10, 2020, Netflix announced that the second season would be released on May 8, 2020. On July 6, 2020, Netflix renewed the series for a third and final season. Filming for the third and final season began on May 7, 2021. However, production has been paused since mid-August due to Applegate\u2019s health. On December 21, 2021, it was reported that there were positive COVID-19 cases on the set, but filming was not impacted or shut down. There were three weeks of filming left to conclude in early 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Kill (film)",
        "text": "No Time to Kill (film)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (song)",
        "text": "According to Sheldon Pearce of \"Pitchfork\", the lyrics reflect the \"betrayal hinted at in the film's trailer and embody the tension of espionage\". In the chorus of the song, Eilish sings about a lover's betrayal, more specifically, Bond's belief that Madeleine betrayed him: \"Was I stupid to love you?/ Was I reckless to help?/Was it obvious to everybody else/That I'd fallen for a lie?/You were never on my side/Fool me once, fool me twice/Are you death or paradise?/Now you'll never see me cry/There's just no time to die.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Aviemore",
        "text": "During the summer of 2019, filming for the 25th James Bond film, \"No Time to Die\", took place in the town and in the surrounding areas of Cairngorms National Park. Temporary accommodations were constructed in a car park in the town for the production crew of around 300. Some scenes were also being shot at the Ardverikie House Estate, just outside the park, roughly southwest of the town."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Resting Place",
        "text": "No Resting Place was a 1951 British motion picture directed by Paul Rotha, produced by Colin Lesslie Productions, and starring Michael Gough, based on Ian Niall's 1948 novel. It is noteworthy for its early use of location shooting and for bringing the acting style of Dublin's Abbey Theatre to the screen, as well as being the fiction feature debut of director Paul Rotha and cinematographer Wolfgang Suschitzky."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "It was the last in a seven-picture commitment between Warwick and Columbia."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "The 25th James Bond film, 2021's \"No Time to Die\", shares a title with this film, which was directed by Terence Young, produced by Albert R. \"Cubby\" Broccoli, and written by Richard Maibaum, the original director, producer and writer of the \"James Bond\" films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rahsaan Noor",
        "text": "In September 2019, Prothom Alo and The Business Standard reported that Noor was set to work on a Sufi action thriller titled, Die Before Death. However, it was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As of December 2021, there is no update on the status of the production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nobody Dies Here",
        "text": "Nobody Dies Here\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n--Distribution.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In February 2021, Paramount announced that \"A Quiet Place Part II\" would become available on its streaming service Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical release. \"Deadline Hollywood\" reported that it was \"a clear sign that Paramount is committed to theatrical, but still open to the future of streaming.\" Before the COVID-19 pandemic, movie theater operators sought for films to be theatrically released for 90 days before being released on home media. As a result of the pandemic, Warner Bros. opted to release their 2021 slate of films on HBO Max the same day as in theaters, and Universal Pictures made its films available via video-on-demand 17 days after their theatrical releases. \"Variety\" reported, \"Paramount's strategy may be received the most favorably among film exhibitors\", with \"A Quiet Place Part II\" among Paramount's tentpole films having the 45-day frame and its other titles having a 30-day frame. \"Boxoffice Pro\" reported that the original film grossed 94% of its total of $188 million in the United States and Canada by its 45th day, which indicated that Paramount's \"decision works more in favor of exhibitors than against.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film was also released in 12 other markets on its opening weekend, including China as a last-minute addition."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "The Ministry of Defence confirmed that filming took place around the Royal Navy destroyer HMS \"Dragon\" and a Royal Air Force C-17 aircraft (at RAF Brize Norton). No weapons were fired. The British Army's Household Cavalry unit was also filmed. Filming of an action sequence with a seaplane took place at CMA CGM\u2019s Kingston Container Terminal in Jamaica."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cillian Murphy",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\", released May 28, 2021, stars Murphy as Emmett, a hardened survivor and old family friend of the Abbotts. Murphy's character reluctantly takes in the Abbotts following the events of the first film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death of England",
        "text": "Despite initially being announced to run until 28 November 2020, the production was forced to close on 4 November 2020 (the production's press night) due to the Government advice of Coronavirus lockdown measures."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why was A Quiet Place Part II postponed?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The studio initially planned to release the film in theaters globally starting on March 18, 2020, in the United Kingdom and Australia on March 19, 2020, and in the United States and Canada on March 20, 2020 before it delayed the film due to the pandemic. In July 2020, Paramount changed the film's release date from September 4, 2020 to April 23, 2021."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Were there other anticipated movies that got delayed by the pandemic?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes, there are many, would you like to know more about some of them such as the James Bond film No Time to Die, a polish slasher film W lesie dzi\u015b nie za\u015bnie nikt, postponed films in certain countries like Pixar's Onward, the movie Mulan, or Disney films such as Antlers and The New Mutants?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about No Time to Die!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Originally, the film was supposed to release in November 2019 but was postponed to February 2020 then April 2020 after Boyle's departure. With the COVID-19 outbreak, the April release was canceled and postponed to November 2020 release but shifted again to April 2021 because of closed theater markets, especially the US and finally the premiere was to held in 28 September 2021."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did No Time to Die premiere only in theaters?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "No Time to Die had its world premiere at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 28 September 2021, and was released in cinemas on 30 September 2021 in the UK and on 8 October 2021 in the US in 2D, RealD 3D, 4DX, ScreenX, Dolby Cinema and IMAX."
    ],
    "topic": "A Quiet Place Part II",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "No Time to Die:38",
        "passage_titles": [
          "No Time to Die",
          "Release",
          "Theatrical release and postponements"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"No Time to Die\" had its world premiere at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 28 September 2021, and was released in cinemas on 30 September 2021 in the UK and on 8 October 2021 in the US in 2D, RealD 3D, 4DX, ScreenX, Dolby Cinema and IMAX. The film also opened the same week in September in South Korea and the following week in October in Brazil, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands and Russia. China and Australia would see the release later in October and November 2021. The film had the highest box office opening weekend takings in the UK for any \"Bond\" feature."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "\"No Time to Die\" had its world premiere at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 28 September 2021, and was released in cinemas on 30 September 2021 in the UK and on 8 October 2021 in the US in 2D, RealD 3D, 4DX, ScreenX, Dolby Cinema and IMAX. The film also opened the same week in September in South Korea and the following week in October in Brazil, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands and Russia. China and Australia would see the release later in October and November 2021. The film had the highest box office opening weekend takings in the UK for any \"Bond\" feature."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In January 2021, Paramount postponed the film's release from , 2021 to , 2021. At the time of postponement, COVID-19 infections had surged in the United States in recent months. \"Variety\" wrote of the circumstances in the United States and Canada, \"Around 65% of movie theaters remain closed, and cinemas that have stayed open have struggled to sell tickets.\" The postponement followed other studios' postponing of their films \"No Time to Die\", ', \"Morbius\", \"Cinderella\", and \"The King's Man\". On the September 2021 date at the time, \"A Quiet Place Part II\" would have been scheduled to open against \"Death on the Nile\", ', and \"The Man from Toronto\", all three of which later had their own dates shifted."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "Production then moved to the UK. Scenes featuring Craig, Fiennes, Harris and Kinnear were filmed around London, including Whitehall, Senate House and Hammersmith. In July 2019, filming took place in the town of Aviemore and in the surrounding Cairngorms National Park area. Some scenes were also shot at the Ardverikie House Estate and on the banks of Loch Laggan, just outside the park. The forest scene was filmed in Buttersteep Forest in Windsor Great Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\" had its world premiere at the Lincoln Center in New York City on , 2020. Paramount Pictures released the film in theaters on , 2021 after a year's worth of delays due to the COVID-19 pandemic. \"The New York Times\" described it as \"one of the first major films to receive an exclusive theatrical release from a Hollywood studio in the not-quite-post-coronavirus era.\" The studio released the film on Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical release."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "Production was scheduled to begin on 3 December 2018 at Pinewood Studios, but filming was delayed until April 2019 after Boyle's departure. The film is the first in the series to have sequences shot with 65mm IMAX film cameras. Fukunaga and Sandgren pushed for using film over digital to enhance the look of the film. The budget was reported to be between $250\u00a0million and $301\u00a0million."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film was initially to be released in the United Kingdom and Australia on , 2020, and in the United States and Canada, including Dolby Cinema and IMAX, on , 2020. Paramount initially stated on March 6 that it would not reschedule the film in response to the pandemic, but on March 12, the studio pulled the film from release worldwide with the intent of scheduling it later in the year. In April 2020, it announced the release date of , 2020. The September release date would have been the start of the US holiday Labor Day Weekend. \"Deadline Hollywood\" wrote at the time that the weekend is \"summer [box office's] finale\", and \"typically the deadest period ever for moviegoing\", but that the studio anticipated pent-up demand after pandemic fears subside."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "On March 4, 2021, director John Krasinski announced that the release date would be moved earlier from September 17, 2021, to May 28, 2021, which is the start of the Memorial Day holiday weekend in the United States. \"Boxoffice Pro\" wrote, \"This marks the first time post-pandemic that a theatrically exclusive major studio tentpole has moved a planned release \"up\" by this many months rather than \"back\".\" The publication also wrote that the film would be \"the first live-action tentpole exclusively in theaters\" since \"Tenet\" was released in August 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "In January 2021, the film was rescheduled to 8 October 2021. In February 2021, an earlier release date of 30 September 2021 was announced for the UK. In August 2021, it was announced that the world premiere would be held at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 28 September 2021; whilst the release date in Australia was delayed from 30 September to 11 November 2021, in response to their national lockdowns. It was also screened at the Zurich Film Festival on the same day as the world premiere and the first \"Bond\" film to be in the official selection at a festival. The release in China was on 29 October 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "\"No Time to Die\" premiered globally at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 28 September 2021, and was released in cinemas on 30 September 2021 in the UK and on 8 October 2021 in the US after being delayed by Boyle's departure and, later, by the COVID-19 pandemic. The film received positive reviews and has grossed over $774 million worldwide, making it the fourth-highest-grossing film of 2021, earning several other box-office record achievements, including becoming the third-highest-grossing film of all time in the UK. The film garnered several awards and nominations, including five nominations at the 75th British Academy Film Awards, winning one for Best Editing, and three nominations at the 94th Academy Awards, winning one for Best Original Song."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "For its theatrical release on May 28, 2021, \"A Quiet Place Part II\" was released in in the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In July 2020, Paramount changed the film's release date from , 2020 to , 2021. At the time of the announcement, movie theaters in the United States and Canada had been closed for nearly four months, and the pandemic was continuing to spread across the United States. The second postponement followed other studios' decisions at the time to indefinitely delay the Warner Bros. film \"Tenet\" and the Disney film \"Mulan\". \"Variety\" reported, \"While those films had been long positioned to help revive moviegoing, sources say that Paramount did not want \"A Quiet Place Part 2\" to stay on Labor Day weekend and have the pressure of being the first new movie out of the gate during the pandemic.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "In September, Mature left England for six weeks of location filming in the Libyan Desert, near Tripoli. The Queens Bays Tank Regiment assisted in production of the film."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Originally set for May 15, 2020 and March 20, 2020, as the pandemic case numbers had begun to rise in mid March, Paramount postponed it to , 2020. Without a streaming service from 2020 to early 2021, Paramount auctioned off multiple upcoming feature films but decided to keep \"A Quiet Place Part II\". The studio eventually changed the date to , 2021, then September 17, 2021, before moving it to May 28, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "\"No Time to Die\" was originally scheduled for release in November 2019, but was postponed to February 2020 and then to April 2020 after Boyle's departure. The premiere in China and a countrywide publicity tour, planned for April 2020, were cancelled due to the early outbreak of COVID-19 in the country. By March 2020, the global spread of the virus and the declaration of a pandemic by the World Health Organization prompted a joint open letter from two \"Bond\" fan sites addressed to the producers. The letter asked that the release be delayed to minimise the risk of spreading the disease and to ensure the film's commercial success."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "\"No Time to Die\"s opening weekend set a $119.1\u00a0million box office from 54 countries, including the United Kingdom, Brazil, Germany, Italy, Japan, Mexico and Spain, besting its $90\u00a0million projections. It was the first film since the COVID-19 pandemic that crossed $100\u00a0million in an overseas debut without the China market. \"The Hollywood Reporter\" stated the premiere was the biggest in the United Kingdom since the pandemic began."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In June 2019, production began on the sequel. Filming officially commenced on . There were 47 days of filming throughout Western New York, including Akron, Olcott, Dunkirk, Lackawanna, and Buffalo. Other locations included Erie County and the city of North Tonawanda, and Barcelona Harbor in the town of Westfield in Chautauqua County. Filming also took place on a giant sound stage at Buffalo FilmWorks in South Buffalo. One of the last filming locations, the northbound South Grand Island Bridge, was shut down for 13 hours for filming."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "Principal photography wrapped up on 25 October 2019 at Pinewood Studios with the filming of a chase sequence set in Havana, Cuba. Production had intended to shoot the sequence earlier, but was forced to reschedule when Craig injured his ankle in Jamaica. Further pick-up shots at Pinewood were confirmed by Fukunaga on 20 December 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In addition to Western New York, filming took place in the Hudson Valley, specifically the towns of Dover, Pawling, and New Paltz. In New Paltz, the Wallkill Valley Rail Trail was revisited to film on a bridge that featured in the first film. The production invested over $10 million in Upstate New York, created 400 hires, and involved 300 background actors. By late September, production was finished."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film is scheduled to be released on September 22, 2023."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "\"No Time to Die\" featured authentic war time Cromwell tanks as well as post-war Centurions and Charioteers as both British and German tanks. In the opening battle Leo Genn commands an AEC Armoured Car and wears the beret of the Cherry Pickers."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "\"Kinematograph Weekly\" listed it as being \"in the money\" at the British box office in 1958. When the film was initially released in the United States, it was 20 minutes shorter than the version released in the United Kingdom."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "No Time to Die (1958 film)\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n--Reception.\n--Legacy.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The studio initially planned to release the film in theaters globally starting on , 2020, before it delayed the film due to the pandemic. Paramount had already spent around 60% of its budget for global prints and advertising, and \"Deadline Hollywood\" wrote that the film's delay was \"truly a shocker\" because the P&A expenses seemed to indicate that rescheduling was not an option. The studio films slated for the previous weekend, March 13, were the last to be released before mass theater closures. Director John Krasinski said he wanted moviegoers to see the film together and that with the pandemic, it was not the right time to provide that experience. CNBC wrote that in particular, the film and \"In the Heights\" were considered films best experienced with a crowd."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film is released digitally and on Movies Anywhere on July 13, 2021, while 4K Ultra HD, Blu-ray, and DVD on July 27, 2021. It was also released on Paramount+ on July 13, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "For the sequel's sound design, supervising sound editors Erik Aadahl and Ethan Van der Ryn and re-recording mixer Brandon Proctor returned for the film. Krasinski instructed them to try to \"follow the rules\" set up in the first film and said of the experience, \"What we found was by doing that, and not trying to be cool, we ended up uncovering way more stuff than we ever would've been able to [otherwise].\""
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "In late August 2019, the second unit moved to southern Italy where they began to shoot a chase sequence involving an Aston Martin DB5 through the streets of Matera (including a doughnut in Piazza San Giovanni Battista). In early September 2019, the main production unit, Craig and L\u00e9a Seydoux arrived to film scenes inside several production-built sets, as well as further sequences in Maratea and Gravina in Puglia. Scenes were shot in the town of Sapri in southern Italy throughout September. Locations included the town's \"midnight canal\" and railway station. The city is referred to as \"Civita Lucana\" in the film. In late September 2019, scenes were filmed in the Faroe Islands."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "Alan Ladd was mentioned as a possibility as star. In April 1957 Terence Young arrived in Hollywood to find two American leading men for the film. Van Johnson, who had just made a film with Young, was a leading contender. Jeff Chandler turned down the role (and fee of $200,000)."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "On 4 March 2020, MGM and Eon Productions announced that after \"thorough evaluation of the global theatrical marketplace\" they had postponed the release until 12 November 2020 in the UK and 25 November 2020 in the US. \"No Time to Die\" was the first major film affected by the pandemic. According to \"Deadline Hollywood\", MGM and Universal needed to assure a strong performance across all international markets. It was hoped that the rescheduling to November would ensure all cinemas, particularly those in China, South Korea, Japan, Italy, and France that were closed due to the pandemic, would be open and operational."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "The Ministry of Defence confirmed that filming took place around the Royal Navy destroyer HMS \"Dragon\" and a Royal Air Force C-17 aircraft (at RAF Brize Norton). No weapons were fired. The British Army's Household Cavalry unit was also filmed. Filming of an action sequence with a seaplane took place at CMA CGM\u2019s Kingston Container Terminal in Jamaica."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (2006 film)",
        "text": "No Time to Die (2006 film)\n--Premise.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Time for Dying",
        "text": "A rough cut of the film premiered at the National Film Theatre in London on May 27, 1969. The finished version of the film premiered in Dallas, Texas on September 15, 1969."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "A sequel to \"A Quiet Place\", titled \"A Quiet Place Part II\", was written and directed by Krasinski and stars Blunt, Simmonds, Jupe, Cillian Murphy, and Djimon Hounsou. Production took place in Western New York from June 2019 to September 2019. Paramount Pictures planned to release \"A Quiet Place Part II\" in theaters on March 20, 2020, however the film was rescheduled to September 4, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It was delayed to April 2021 from July 2020, delayed again from September 2020 to January 2021, before being moved to May 28, 2021. The film would also be made available on Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical release."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Before \"A Quiet Place Part II\" was postponed from late March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, \"Boxoffice Pro\" predicted the film would gross on its opening weekend, based on the first film's opening weekend () and the continued involvement of Emily Blunt and John Krasinski; but noted that the film would face competition from other titles such as \"Mulan\". In February, early industry tracking had the film debuting to around $55\u201360 million. \"Deadline Hollywood\"s Anthony D'Alessandro wrote, \"\"A Quiet Place Part II\" is currently strong with females under 25, African Americans and Hispanic demos, but overall I hear it's strong with all quads.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "The film was initially based on a 1954 novel of the same name by Ronald Kemp, but later received a different script unrelated to the novel with the exception of the title and the setting. Warwick Productions bought the film rights in 1955 and tried to get Montgomery Clift to star. Sy Bartlett was assigned to write the script."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "As a result of Paramount shortening the theatrical run from 90 days to 45, John Krasinski, Emily Blunt, and producers including Michael Bay whose compensation depends on box-office receipts, requested for the studio to compensate them for the shorter run."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "No Time to Die\n--Plot.\n--Cast.\n--Production.\n----Development.\n----Casting.\n----Filming.\n----Post-production.\n----Music.\n--Release.\n----Distribution rights.\n----Theatrical release and postponements.\n----Home media.\n--Reception.\n----Box office.\n----Critical response.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "In March 1957 Merle Miller was hired to rewrite the script. Then Richard Maibaum did a draft. The script eventually became about five Allied soldiers, two Englishmen, a Pole, an American and an Australian, who escape an Italian POW camp in the Second World War."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "Visual effects for the film were created by Industrial Light & Magic (ILM), Framestore, DNEG, and Cinesite. Charlie Noble was the visual effects supervisor."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "For the film's eventual May 2021 release date, Paramount released a final trailer several weeks in advance. \"The A.V. Club\"s William Hughes wrote that the new trailer was a retread of previous trailers with the most noteworthy element being its message that the film was the \"experience that theaters are made for\", encouraging increasingly-vaccinated moviegoers during the pandemic to go to movie theaters."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Quiet American (1958 film)",
        "text": "\"The Quiet American\" began filming in Saigon on January 28, 1957, then moved to Rome, where shooting finished in late April 1957. It was the first time a feature film was shot in Vietnam. The crew had some difficulty filming there \u2014 they had to avoid shooting at noon because of the harsh shadows, they had trouble receiving permission to shoot inside a Buddhist temple because of the moon's phase, and they inadvertently helped a political protest take place that would otherwise have been shut down by the police, because the authorities assumed it had been staged for the film. Audie Murphy fell ill with appendicitis during a weekend shopping trip to Hong Kong and had to undergo an operation."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Earlier in the day of Krasinski's announcement, Universal Pictures had postponed the action film \"F9\" from late May 2021 to June 25, 2021. In the move-up process, Paramount postponed another of its films, \"Infinite\", from the May 28 release date. \"Deadline Hollywood\" reported that Paramount was encouraged to release \"A Quiet Place Part II\" earlier due to theaters reopening in New York City starting the weekend of March 5, 2021 and with plans for theaters in Los Angeles to also reopen in the near future."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In early March, Paramount initiated \"survival room\" experiences in New York and Los Angeles in which groups of visitors could try to overcome \"physical and mental obstacles\" without making too much noise. The setups cost less than a million dollars for Paramount. A marketing executive anticipated between seven thousand and eight thousand people to go through the experience and for fans and social media influencers to engage in experiential marketing. Emily Blunt appeared on \"Jimmy Kimmel Live!\" on March 10 to promote the film. She appeared in a parody commercial advertising \"A Quiet Plane\", starring as a stewardess that enforces silence as a top priority to a plane's passengers. Before the film's postponement (see below), Paramount planned to host a double-feature event on March 18, 2020, that would have screened the first and second films and given collector's prints to attendees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Live Free or Die Hard",
        "text": "Filming for \"Live Free or Die Hard\" started in downtown Baltimore, Maryland on September 23, 2006. Eight different sets were built on a large soundstage for filming many scenes throughout the film. When recording the sound for the semi trailer used in one of the film's final scenes, 18 microphones were used to record the engine, tires, and damage to the vehicle. Post-production for the film only took 16 weeks, when it was more common for similar films to use 26 weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In an interview with \"Headliner Magazine\", Ethan Van der Ryn and Erik Aadahl shared how sound (and silence) was a central character in the film: \"We started hearing stories after the first film that people were afraid to eat their popcorn in the theatre! That was thrilling for us to hear because it's like, \u2018Okay, this experiment that we tried actually works\u2019! We were able to literally make the audience hold their breath.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "In August 1957 Victor Mature signed a two-picture contract with Warwick, \"No Time to Die\" and \"The Man Inside\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "No Time to Die is a 1958 British war film about an American sergeant in the British Army during the Second World War. In the US, the film was renamed Tank Force!."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film was also released in 12 other markets on its opening weekend, including China as a last-minute addition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ardverikie House",
        "text": "During summer 2019, filming of \"No Time to Die\" was taking place in the town of Aviemore and the surrounding Cairngorms National Park with some scenes shot at the Ardverikie Estate."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "A Quiet Place Part II\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n----Development and casting.\n----Filming.\n----Cinematography.\n----Sound design.\n--Marketing.\n--Release.\n----Postponement.\n----Streaming service.\n----Move-up.\n----Theatrical release.\n--Reception.\n----Box office.\n----Critical response.\n--Home media.\n--Future.\n----Spin-off film.\n----Sequel.\n----Video game.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Following the postponement of \"A Quiet Place Part II\" and other films during the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, teleconferencing became popular, and Paramount's marketing team started providing virtual backgrounds of \"A Quiet Place Part II\" and other films to be available on Zoom Video Communications."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "A Quiet Place Part II is a 2020 American post-apocalyptic horror film and the sequel to 2018's \"A Quiet Place\", following the family from the first film as they continue to navigate and survive in a post-apocalyptic world inhabited by blind aliens with an acute sense of hearing. The film was written, produced and directed by John Krasinski for Paramount Pictures. Emily Blunt, Millicent Simmonds and Noah Jupe reprise their roles from the first film, while Cillian Murphy and Djimon Hounsou join the cast; Krasinski returns from the first film in a new flashback sequence."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "It was the last in a seven-picture commitment between Warwick and Columbia."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Lonely Place to Die",
        "text": "The film had its UK premiere on 29 August 2011, where it was the closing film of Frightfest. It was released in UK cinemas shortly thereafter on 7 September. It was released in North America in November 2011, following a screening at the Toronto After Dark Film Festival on 24 October 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Time to Die (1982 film)",
        "text": "A Time to Die (1982 film)\n--Premise.\n--Production.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cairngorms National Park",
        "text": "During summer 2019, filming of \"No Time to Die\" was taking place in the town of Aviemore and in the surrounding park area. Some scenes were also being shot at the Ardverikie House Estate just outside the park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Time to Die (1985 film)",
        "text": "Time to Die (1985 film)\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "Filming locations included Italy, Jamaica, Norway, the Faroe Islands and London, in addition to Pinewood Studios. In March 2019, production started in Nittedal, Norway, with the second unit capturing scenes on a frozen lake. On 28 April 2019, principal photography officially began in Jamaica, including Port Antonio. In May 2019, Craig sustained an ankle injury while filming in Jamaica and subsequently underwent minor surgery. In June 2019, production was further interrupted when a controlled explosion damaged the 007 Stage at Pinewood Studios and left a crew member with minor injuries. Also in June 2019, production went back to Norway to shoot a driving sequence along the Atlantic Ocean Road featuring an Aston Martin V8 Vantage. Aston Martin also confirmed that the DB5, DBS Superleggera, and Valhalla models would feature in the film."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Paramount Pictures began the development of a sequel in April 2018, following the box-office success of the first film. By the following August, Krasinski was working on the screenplay, and in February 2019, he was confirmed as returning to direct. Production took place in Western New York from June to September 2019. Krasinski was credited with writing the sequel, based on characters created by Bryan Woods and Scott Beck. The sequel was produced on a budget of around , over three times the original's ."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film had its world premiere in New York City on March 8, 2020, and after over a year of postponements due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was theatrically released in the United States on , 2021. It became available to stream on Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical debut. The film set several box office records, including the biggest opening weekend of the COVID-19 pandemic, and grossed $297.4million worldwide. It received positive reviews from critics, who praised the story and the addition of Murphy's character Emmett."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "Universal Pictures Home Entertainment (through Warner Bros. Home Entertainment) released \"No Time to Die\" on DVD, Blu-ray and 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray in the UK on 20 December 2021 and in the US on 21 December 2021. It was available from digital download services on 9 November 2021 in the US. The 31-day theatrical release window of the film is considered a relatively quick turnaround for a film of this size. One factor has been that \"Bond\" films attract an older audience and that demographic has been hesitant to return to cinemas during the pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Day to Die",
        "text": "Principal photography for \"A Day to Die\" began in Jackson, Mississippi in March 2021, as the first feature to be shot in the city in 2021. Filming concluded after six weeks in April, with the final scenes being shot in Hawkins Field Airport. In May 2021, Vertical Entertainment acquired distribution rights to the film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Loch Laggan",
        "text": "During summer 2019, filming for \"No Time to Die\" was taking place in and near the Cairngorms National Park. Some scenes were also being shot at the Ardverikie House Estate and on the banks of Loch Laggan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second to Die",
        "text": "The film was shot in Los Angeles, California."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunday Night Productions",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "When Paramount Pictures planned to commercially release \"A Quiet Place Part II\" in March 2020, the studio released a 30-second teaser trailer before select theatrical screenings of \"Black Christmas\", which was released on December 13, 2019. Less than a week later, the teaser trailer became available online. A full trailer was released on January 1, 2020. During pre-game coverage before the Super Bowl on February 2, 2020, Paramount released a 30-second TV spot, which revealed that Krasinski had reprised his role in a newly filmed flashback sequence."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "In the United States and Canada, \"No Time to Die\" was projected to gross $65\u201385\u00a0million in its opening weekend. The film made $23.3\u00a0million on its first day, including $6.3\u00a0million from Thursday night previews (which included $1\u00a0million from Wednesday previews), the best total of the franchise. It went on to debut to $55.2\u00a0million, topping the box office and marking the fourth-best opening weekend of the franchise. \"No Time to Die\" earned an additional $6.9\u00a0million on Columbus Day, bringing its four-day total to over $60\u00a0million. \"Deadline Hollywood\" attributed the slight underperformance to the film's 163-minute runtime limiting the number of showtimes. \"TheWrap\" said that the opening was good news for cinemas, even if the studio did not break even during the film's theatrical run, and that it was an encouraging sign for upcoming adult-oriented pictures. The film fell 56% in its second weekend to $24.3\u00a0million, finishing second behind newcomer \"Halloween Kills\". \"No Time to Die\" was re-released in IMAX for the weekend ending on 23 January 2022 as part of the 60th anniversary of the \"Bond\" film series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Born to Kill (1947 film)",
        "text": "Regular news notices document that filming of the production began on May 6, 1946, with exterior scenes being shot first on location at El Segundo Beach, situated about 25 miles southwest of Hollywood. Additional location work was done in San Francisco as filming continued into the latter half of June. As early as July, it was reported that the film was ready to be scheduled for release. Those notices proved to be premature, for problems evidently arose generating a satisfactory final cut of the film. These persisted into October 1946, when RKO announced that scheduled November 7 previews of \"Deadlier Than the Male\" at a national trade show and at exchange centers were being postponed. In updating the status of the film, the Hollywood news journal \"Box Office Digest\" revealed that the picture was still being edited in October and was on a list of productions identified to be on RKO's \"Back Log In Cutting Room\". A general release date of November 10, 1946 published earlier for the film was postponed as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Breathing",
        "text": "The film began shooting on May 19, 2013. One of the locations was Davao in the Philippines, where the overseas field training scenes were shot, as well as the movie poster."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place\" was first commercially released in theaters in the first week of April 2018 in multiple territories, including North America. The film grossed $188 million in the United States and Canada, and $152 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $341 million. \"Deadline Hollywood\" estimates the net profit of the film to be $93 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Time to Die (1982 film)",
        "text": "\"A Time to Die\" was based on \"Six Graves to Munich\" by Mario Puzo."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Room to Die For",
        "text": "Filming took place inside an old country house in suburban Oxfordshire England which was a converted Christian church, other locations included a specially design basement in the back garden of the property"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "A sequel, \"A Quiet Place Part II\", was released on May 28, 2021, with Krasinski returning to the director's chair and the main cast also returning with the addition of Cillian Murphy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer",
        "text": "MGM was the first studio to delay the film \"No Time to Die\" due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This was followed by an April 2020 layoff of 7% of employees."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place (disambiguation)",
        "text": "A Quiet Place is a 2018 film.\n*A Quiet Place Part II is its 2021 sequel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Right to Die (film)",
        "text": "Filming took place in May\u2013June 1987."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aviemore",
        "text": "During the summer of 2019, filming for the 25th James Bond film, \"No Time to Die\", took place in the town and in the surrounding areas of Cairngorms National Park. Temporary accommodations were constructed in a car park in the town for the production crew of around 300. Some scenes were also being shot at the Ardverikie House Estate, just outside the park, roughly southwest of the town."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Little Peace and Quiet",
        "text": "No visual effects were used for the time stops; the actors and numerous extras, even the dog, all had to hold themselves perfectly still during these sequences. In the cases of characters who were frozen in off-balance positions (e.g. running or lunging), concealed armatures were used to support their weight. The mid-pour orange juice and mid-spill milk were both plastic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hear No Evil (1993 film)",
        "text": "Principal photography began on May 4, 1992. Filming took place in and around Portland, Oregon where the film is set. Other locations in Portland including the Hawthorne Bridge, Mount Tabor Park, the Union Station, the Willamette River and at the Timberline Lodge at Mount Hood, Oregon where the final climax of the film is shot. Production officially wrapped on June 26, 1992."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Polly Morgan was the cinematographer for \"A Quiet Place Part II\", replacing Charlotte Bruus Christensen from the first film. Morgan continued the first film's use of 35 mm film and described its effect, \"Although \"A Quiet Place 2\" is a horror, it looks pretty and engaging, with a nostalgic look that you would find hard to achieve digitally.\" The film's \"extensive dark situations\" (night scenes and stage work that comprised 75% of screen time) were shot with Kodak Vision3 500T 5219 film stock, while Vision3 250D 5207 was used mainly for day exteriors. Morgan filmed with Panavision Panaflex Millennium XL2 cameras and T-Series anamorphic lenses, which had been adjusted to match the C-Series lenses Christensen used on the first film. One of Morgan's most challenging situations was lighting and shooting the furnace setting."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "During the weekend of 19\u201321 November, \"No Time to Die\" overtook \"F9\" to become the highest-grossing non-Chinese film of 2021, reaching a global cume of around $734 million as it grossed an estimated $2.6 million in the United States and Canada, as well as $13.4 million from 72 countries outside the two territories. It overtook \"Spectre\" the following weekend to become the third-highest-grossing film in the United Kingdom as well as the second-highest-grossing \"Bond\" film in the market with a gross of $129.9 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Lonely Place to Die",
        "text": "In April 2011, the film had its world premiere at the ActionFest film festival in Asheville, North Carolina USA, where it was awarded 'Best Film' and 'Best Director'."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Time to Love and a Time to Die",
        "text": "The \"Los Angeles Times\" said the film wasn't as good as \"All Quiet on the Western Front\" but was \"vivid, sometimes brutally shocking and, less often, emotionally moving.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Time for Dying",
        "text": "The film was shown throughout Texas, but following legal problems after Murphy's death in 1971, the film only had limited showings and did not screen in New York until 1982."
      },
      {
        "title": "Two Minutes Silence",
        "text": "Filming took place in a studio in Centennial Park, Sydney in late 1932. It was logistically difficult because of the difficulty sourcing sound recording equipment and two of the cast, Leo Franklyn and Frank Leighton, had to juggle shooting with their theatre commitments for J.\u00a0C. Williamson Ltd. In addition, Campbell Copelin was still recovering from his plane crash the previous year. Ethel Gabriel reprised her role from the play version."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Giovanni Battista, Matera",
        "text": "Filming took place in Piazza San Giovanni Battista for the James Bond film \"No Time to Die\" (the DB5 doughnut sequence); for this, a dummy bell tower was constructed, while the church exterior was covered in false walls to protect the stonework and to hide \"numerous squibs\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dying to Live (2018 film)",
        "text": "Time critical shoots occurred in late 2016 and filming was completed in December 2017. Editing was completed in March 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Good Day to Die Hard",
        "text": "\"A Good Day to Die Hard\" premiered in London on January 31, 2013, coinciding with the unveiling of a \"Die Hard\" mural at the Fox Lot, and was released the United States on February 13, 2013. It is the first and so far only \"Die Hard\" film to use Dolby Atmos Surround Mixing and the first to also be released in IMAX theaters. \"A Good Day to Die Hard\" was a box office success but received overwhelmingly negative reviews for its implausible action sequences, cinematography, weak plot, clich\u00e9d screenplay, running time, and lack of characterization, although the special effects were praised. It is the first film produced by TSG Entertainment, since distributor 20th Century Fox's departure from Dune Entertainment upon the completion of their distribution contract at the end of 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Two Minutes Silence",
        "text": "The film had trouble getting distribution but was eventually picked up by Universal, who arranged for it to be re-cut. The world premiere took place in Canberra in 1933, in front of Governor General Sir Isaac Isaacs and various parliamentarians. Initial critical reception was generally positive, \"The Canberra Times\" praising it as \"a welcome... in the subjects adopted by Australian film producers. and it received a minor release in Sydney the following year."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "In Italian Libya during the North African campaign of the Second World War, a Royal Armoured Corps squadron of British tanks is destroyed in battle by German Afrika Korps panzers. A tank commanded by American Sgt. David Thatcher (Victor Mature) is hit and he and driver Trooper \"Tiger\" Noakes (Anthony Newley) bail out. The squadron's attached reconnaissance vehicle, commanded by Sgt. Kendall (Leo Genn), becomes stuck in the sand and the crew bail out too. The three survivors are quickly captured and transported to an Italian POW camp run by German Army Captain Ritter (Alfred Burke)."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "\"No Time to Die\" became the highest-grossing film of 2021 in Europe, the Middle East and Africa, surpassing \"F9\" on 17 October. In China, the film opened to a $28.2 million weekend, displacing \"The Battle at Lake Changjin\" from the top rank on the country's box office, despite 13% of cinemas being closed due to China's policies against local COVID-19 outbreaks. It remained atop the box office charts during its second weekend despite a drop of 59%, earning $11.4 million for a cumulative total of $49.2 million according to Artisan Gateway. It became the highest-grossing non-Chinese film of 2021 outside the United States and Canada on 14 November, earning an estimated $24 million for a cume of $558.2 million, which included $126 million in the United Kingdom, $70 million in Germany and $57.9 million in China. It also opened to an $8.2 million weekend in Australia, which was the biggest opening for any film since December 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "In the early stages of the pandemic, an estimated 70,000 cinemas in China closed, and countries including Australia and the UK closed cinemas to minimise the spread of the virus. \"Variety\" said the studio had already spent $66\u00a0million on promoting the film, while \"The Hollywood Reporter\" wrote that the delay cost MGM $30\u201350\u00a0million in wasted marketing costs, estimating that the global box office losses could have exceeded $300\u00a0million had the film stayed in its April 2020 slot. In October 2020, \"No Time to Die\" was delayed again to 2 April 2021. The decision to delay the release was made when it became apparent that theatrical markets, especially in the US, would not see full demand. After the delay was announced, the British chain Cineworld, the world's second-largest cinema chain, closed its cinemas indefinitely. Chief executive Mooky Greidinger said the delay of \"No Time to Die\" was the \"last straw\" for Cineworld following a string of other film delays and cancellations."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "During filming, the crew avoided making noise so diegetic synchronized sounds (e.g., the sound of rolling dice on a game board) could be recorded; the sounds were amplified in post-production. A traditional musical score was also added, which Krasinski justified in wanting audiences to remain familiar with watching a mainstream film, and not feel like part of a \"silence experiment.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Room No.7",
        "text": "First script reading took place on December 22, 2016. Filming began on January 2, 2017 and ended on February 23."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dump months",
        "text": "The pattern of January as the slow month of the movie release calendar continued for almost three decades. As the 2020 winter dump months were ending, the COVID-19 pandemic struck the world, and many exhibitors were forced to close, either by law or lack of demand, as patrons limited their activities outside of their homes to control the disease's spread. Studios and distributors reacted by postponing the release of highly anticipated tentpole films like \"A Quiet Place Part II\" and the James Bond film \"No Time to Die\" until such time as they could be screened in theaters."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Lonely Place to Die",
        "text": "Shooting began on 13 May 2010 in Scotland under the working title \"The Grave at Angel's Peak\". Julian Gilbey shot the film from the screenplay \"The Long Weekend\" by Will Gilbey. The film is produced by Carnaby International, the studio behind \"Doghouse\". Franka Potente was originally cast for the role as Alison and was later replaced by Melissa George."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Time to Die (1982 film)",
        "text": "The film marked the final feature film appearance of Sir Rex Harrison. After the filming Harrison retired from film and returned to the stage for remainder of his life."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Lonely Place to Die",
        "text": "After the Cannes film market in May 2011, Kaleidoscope Entertainment picked up the UK rights to release the film."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Resting Place",
        "text": "No Resting Place was a 1951 British motion picture directed by Paul Rotha, produced by Colin Lesslie Productions, and starring Michael Gough, based on Ian Niall's 1948 novel. It is noteworthy for its early use of location shooting and for bringing the acting style of Dublin's Abbey Theatre to the screen, as well as being the fiction feature debut of director Paul Rotha and cinematographer Wolfgang Suschitzky."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (disambiguation)",
        "text": "No Time to Die is a 2021 spy film and the 25th film in the \"James Bond\" series."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time for Love (1943 film)",
        "text": "Principal photography lasted from June 8 to July 24, 1942. Charles Wall and Edward Sanell from the New York Tunnel Authority served as technical advisors for the film. The New York Tunnel Authority also provided Paramount blueprints for the Brooklyn\u2013Battery Tunnel. The film was shot at Paramount Studios at 5555 Melrose Avenue in Hollywood, California. The 25-foot long tunnel set was constructed on Paramount's largest stage, and was filled with mud for the climactic scene. To avoid using real mud, set designers experimented with several combinations of material, eventually using adobe and water. A cement mixer was installed on the set to produce the correct consistency. Leisen later recalled, \"I never asked the actors to do anything I wouldn't do, so on our first day in the tunnel, I dove right into the mud, head first. I came up and said, 'All right, let's go.'\" After Colbert's first take in the mud, she emerged without any mud on her face. \"I said, 'Come here, honey,' and took a handful of the mud and slapped it on her face. She went right back in and did it again.\""
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why was A Quiet Place Part II postponed?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The studio initially planned to release the film in theaters globally starting on March 18, 2020, in the United Kingdom and Australia on March 19, 2020, and in the United States and Canada on March 20, 2020 before it delayed the film due to the pandemic. In July 2020, Paramount changed the film's release date from September 4, 2020 to April 23, 2021."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Were there other anticipated movies that got delayed by the pandemic?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes, there are many, would you like to know more about some of them such as the James Bond film No Time to Die, a polish slasher film W lesie dzi\u015b nie za\u015bnie nikt, postponed films in certain countries like Pixar's Onward, the movie Mulan, or Disney films such as Antlers and The New Mutants?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about No Time to Die!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Originally, the film was supposed to release in November 2019 but was postponed to February 2020 then April 2020 after Boyle's departure. With the COVID-19 outbreak, the April release was canceled and postponed to November 2020 release but shifted again to April 2021 because of closed theater markets, especially the US and finally the premiere was to held in 28 September 2021."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did No Time to Die premiere only in theaters?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "No Time to Die had its world premiere at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 28 September 2021, and was released in cinemas on 30 September 2021 in the UK and on 8 October 2021 in the US in 2D, RealD 3D, 4DX, ScreenX, Dolby Cinema and IMAX."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did No Time to Die first start filming?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Production was scheduled to begin on 3 December 2018 at Pinewood Studios, but filming was delayed until April 2019 after Boyle's departure.",
      "Production was scheduled to begin on 3 December 2018 at Pinewood Studios, but filming was delayed until April 2019 after Boyle's departure."
    ],
    "topic": "A Quiet Place Part II",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "No Time to Die:26",
        "passage_titles": [
          "No Time to Die",
          "Production",
          "Filming"
        ],
        "ctx": "Production was scheduled to begin on 3 December 2018 at Pinewood Studios, but filming was delayed until April 2019 after Boyle's departure. The film is the first in the series to have sequences shot with 65mm IMAX film cameras. Fukunaga and Sandgren pushed for using film over digital to enhance the look of the film. The budget was reported to be between $250\u00a0million and $301\u00a0million."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "No Time to Die:26",
        "passage_titles": [
          "No Time to Die",
          "Production",
          "Filming"
        ],
        "ctx": "Production was scheduled to begin on 3 December 2018 at Pinewood Studios, but filming was delayed until April 2019 after Boyle's departure. The film is the first in the series to have sequences shot with 65mm IMAX film cameras. Fukunaga and Sandgren pushed for using film over digital to enhance the look of the film. The budget was reported to be between $250\u00a0million and $301\u00a0million."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "As a result of Paramount shortening the theatrical run from 90 days to 45, John Krasinski, Emily Blunt, and producers including Michael Bay whose compensation depends on box-office receipts, requested for the studio to compensate them for the shorter run."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "For the sequel's sound design, supervising sound editors Erik Aadahl and Ethan Van der Ryn and re-recording mixer Brandon Proctor returned for the film. Krasinski instructed them to try to \"follow the rules\" set up in the first film and said of the experience, \"What we found was by doing that, and not trying to be cool, we ended up uncovering way more stuff than we ever would've been able to [otherwise].\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film was initially to be released in the United Kingdom and Australia on , 2020, and in the United States and Canada, including Dolby Cinema and IMAX, on , 2020. Paramount initially stated on March 6 that it would not reschedule the film in response to the pandemic, but on March 12, the studio pulled the film from release worldwide with the intent of scheduling it later in the year. In April 2020, it announced the release date of , 2020. The September release date would have been the start of the US holiday Labor Day Weekend. \"Deadline Hollywood\" wrote at the time that the weekend is \"summer [box office's] finale\", and \"typically the deadest period ever for moviegoing\", but that the studio anticipated pent-up demand after pandemic fears subside."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In January 2021, Paramount postponed the film's release from , 2021 to , 2021. At the time of postponement, COVID-19 infections had surged in the United States in recent months. \"Variety\" wrote of the circumstances in the United States and Canada, \"Around 65% of movie theaters remain closed, and cinemas that have stayed open have struggled to sell tickets.\" The postponement followed other studios' postponing of their films \"No Time to Die\", ', \"Morbius\", \"Cinderella\", and \"The King's Man\". On the September 2021 date at the time, \"A Quiet Place Part II\" would have been scheduled to open against \"Death on the Nile\", ', and \"The Man from Toronto\", all three of which later had their own dates shifted."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Before \"A Quiet Place Part II\" was postponed from late March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, \"Boxoffice Pro\" predicted the film would gross on its opening weekend, based on the first film's opening weekend () and the continued involvement of Emily Blunt and John Krasinski; but noted that the film would face competition from other titles such as \"Mulan\". In February, early industry tracking had the film debuting to around $55\u201360 million. \"Deadline Hollywood\"s Anthony D'Alessandro wrote, \"\"A Quiet Place Part II\" is currently strong with females under 25, African Americans and Hispanic demos, but overall I hear it's strong with all quads.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In July 2020, Paramount changed the film's release date from , 2020 to , 2021. At the time of the announcement, movie theaters in the United States and Canada had been closed for nearly four months, and the pandemic was continuing to spread across the United States. The second postponement followed other studios' decisions at the time to indefinitely delay the Warner Bros. film \"Tenet\" and the Disney film \"Mulan\". \"Variety\" reported, \"While those films had been long positioned to help revive moviegoing, sources say that Paramount did not want \"A Quiet Place Part 2\" to stay on Labor Day weekend and have the pressure of being the first new movie out of the gate during the pandemic.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "Production was scheduled to begin on 3 December 2018 at Pinewood Studios, but filming was delayed until April 2019 after Boyle's departure. The film is the first in the series to have sequences shot with 65mm IMAX film cameras. Fukunaga and Sandgren pushed for using film over digital to enhance the look of the film. The budget was reported to be between $250\u00a0million and $301\u00a0million."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Originally set for May 15, 2020 and March 20, 2020, as the pandemic case numbers had begun to rise in mid March, Paramount postponed it to , 2020. Without a streaming service from 2020 to early 2021, Paramount auctioned off multiple upcoming feature films but decided to keep \"A Quiet Place Part II\". The studio eventually changed the date to , 2021, then September 17, 2021, before moving it to May 28, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In an interview with \"Headliner Magazine\", Ethan Van der Ryn and Erik Aadahl shared how sound (and silence) was a central character in the film: \"We started hearing stories after the first film that people were afraid to eat their popcorn in the theatre! That was thrilling for us to hear because it's like, \u2018Okay, this experiment that we tried actually works\u2019! We were able to literally make the audience hold their breath.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "A Quiet Place Part II\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n----Development and casting.\n----Filming.\n----Cinematography.\n----Sound design.\n--Marketing.\n--Release.\n----Postponement.\n----Streaming service.\n----Move-up.\n----Theatrical release.\n--Reception.\n----Box office.\n----Critical response.\n--Home media.\n--Future.\n----Spin-off film.\n----Sequel.\n----Video game.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\" had its world premiere at the Lincoln Center in New York City on , 2020. Paramount Pictures released the film in theaters on , 2021 after a year's worth of delays due to the COVID-19 pandemic. \"The New York Times\" described it as \"one of the first major films to receive an exclusive theatrical release from a Hollywood studio in the not-quite-post-coronavirus era.\" The studio released the film on Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical release."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Earlier in the day of Krasinski's announcement, Universal Pictures had postponed the action film \"F9\" from late May 2021 to June 25, 2021. In the move-up process, Paramount postponed another of its films, \"Infinite\", from the May 28 release date. \"Deadline Hollywood\" reported that Paramount was encouraged to release \"A Quiet Place Part II\" earlier due to theaters reopening in New York City starting the weekend of March 5, 2021 and with plans for theaters in Los Angeles to also reopen in the near future."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "When Paramount Pictures planned to commercially release \"A Quiet Place Part II\" in March 2020, the studio released a 30-second teaser trailer before select theatrical screenings of \"Black Christmas\", which was released on December 13, 2019. Less than a week later, the teaser trailer became available online. A full trailer was released on January 1, 2020. During pre-game coverage before the Super Bowl on February 2, 2020, Paramount released a 30-second TV spot, which revealed that Krasinski had reprised his role in a newly filmed flashback sequence."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "A sequel to \"A Quiet Place\", titled \"A Quiet Place Part II\", was written and directed by Krasinski and stars Blunt, Simmonds, Jupe, Cillian Murphy, and Djimon Hounsou. Production took place in Western New York from June 2019 to September 2019. Paramount Pictures planned to release \"A Quiet Place Part II\" in theaters on March 20, 2020, however the film was rescheduled to September 4, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It was delayed to April 2021 from July 2020, delayed again from September 2020 to January 2021, before being moved to May 28, 2021. The film would also be made available on Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical release."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "For its theatrical release on May 28, 2021, \"A Quiet Place Part II\" was released in in the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The studio initially planned to release the film in theaters globally starting on , 2020, before it delayed the film due to the pandemic. Paramount had already spent around 60% of its budget for global prints and advertising, and \"Deadline Hollywood\" wrote that the film's delay was \"truly a shocker\" because the P&A expenses seemed to indicate that rescheduling was not an option. The studio films slated for the previous weekend, March 13, were the last to be released before mass theater closures. Director John Krasinski said he wanted moviegoers to see the film together and that with the pandemic, it was not the right time to provide that experience. CNBC wrote that in particular, the film and \"In the Heights\" were considered films best experienced with a crowd."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "On March 4, 2021, director John Krasinski announced that the release date would be moved earlier from September 17, 2021, to May 28, 2021, which is the start of the Memorial Day holiday weekend in the United States. \"Boxoffice Pro\" wrote, \"This marks the first time post-pandemic that a theatrically exclusive major studio tentpole has moved a planned release \"up\" by this many months rather than \"back\".\" The publication also wrote that the film would be \"the first live-action tentpole exclusively in theaters\" since \"Tenet\" was released in August 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "A Quiet Place Part II is a 2020 American post-apocalyptic horror film and the sequel to 2018's \"A Quiet Place\", following the family from the first film as they continue to navigate and survive in a post-apocalyptic world inhabited by blind aliens with an acute sense of hearing. The film was written, produced and directed by John Krasinski for Paramount Pictures. Emily Blunt, Millicent Simmonds and Noah Jupe reprise their roles from the first film, while Cillian Murphy and Djimon Hounsou join the cast; Krasinski returns from the first film in a new flashback sequence."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "A sequel, \"A Quiet Place Part II\", was released on May 28, 2021, with Krasinski returning to the director's chair and the main cast also returning with the addition of Cillian Murphy."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film is released digitally and on Movies Anywhere on July 13, 2021, while 4K Ultra HD, Blu-ray, and DVD on July 27, 2021. It was also released on Paramount+ on July 13, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film was also released in 12 other markets on its opening weekend, including China as a last-minute addition."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Paramount Pictures began the development of a sequel in April 2018, following the box-office success of the first film. By the following August, Krasinski was working on the screenplay, and in February 2019, he was confirmed as returning to direct. Production took place in Western New York from June to September 2019. Krasinski was credited with writing the sequel, based on characters created by Bryan Woods and Scott Beck. The sequel was produced on a budget of around , over three times the original's ."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "A Quiet Place\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n----Development and writing.\n----Filming.\n----Sound and music.\n----Use of sign language.\n----Creature design.\n--Marketing.\n--Release.\n----Premiere.\n----Box office forecast.\n----Theatrical run.\n--Reception.\n----Critical response.\n--Commentary and themes.\n----Parenthood.\n----Other themes.\n--Home media.\n--Sequel.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "\"Bloody Disgusting\" rated the film 3.5/5 and called it \"a satisfying, worthwhile sequel\". \"The A.V. Club\" gave it a B- and remarked that it was \"a part two in the classic, traditional sense, echoing without quite amplifying the pleasures of its predecessor.\" io9 declared that the film was \"a quintessential great sequel.\" Nick Allen of RogerEbert.com gave the film three out of four stars, criticizing Krasinski for not taking risks but praising its \"incredibly robust and kinetic\" action scenes."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "For the film's eventual May 2021 release date, Paramount released a final trailer several weeks in advance. \"The A.V. Club\"s William Hughes wrote that the new trailer was a retread of previous trailers with the most noteworthy element being its message that the film was the \"experience that theaters are made for\", encouraging increasingly-vaccinated moviegoers during the pandemic to go to movie theaters."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In early March, Paramount initiated \"survival room\" experiences in New York and Los Angeles in which groups of visitors could try to overcome \"physical and mental obstacles\" without making too much noise. The setups cost less than a million dollars for Paramount. A marketing executive anticipated between seven thousand and eight thousand people to go through the experience and for fans and social media influencers to engage in experiential marketing. Emily Blunt appeared on \"Jimmy Kimmel Live!\" on March 10 to promote the film. She appeared in a parody commercial advertising \"A Quiet Plane\", starring as a stewardess that enforces silence as a top priority to a plane's passengers. Before the film's postponement (see below), Paramount planned to host a double-feature event on March 18, 2020, that would have screened the first and second films and given collector's prints to attendees."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In addition to Western New York, filming took place in the Hudson Valley, specifically the towns of Dover, Pawling, and New Paltz. In New Paltz, the Wallkill Valley Rail Trail was revisited to film on a bridge that featured in the first film. The production invested over $10 million in Upstate New York, created 400 hires, and involved 300 background actors. By late September, production was finished."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film had its world premiere in New York City on March 8, 2020, and after over a year of postponements due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was theatrically released in the United States on , 2021. It became available to stream on Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical debut. The film set several box office records, including the biggest opening weekend of the COVID-19 pandemic, and grossed $297.4million worldwide. It received positive reviews from critics, who praised the story and the addition of Murphy's character Emmett."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\" was produced under Paramount Pictures with a budget of . It was written and directed by John Krasinski, who also produced the film alongside Michael Bay, Andrew Form, and Brad Fuller."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunday Night Productions",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\" received mostly positive reviews from film critics. \"Screen Rant\" wrote that critics liked the film and praised its \"two-pronged story\" and the introduction of Cillian Murphy's character. Meanwhile, \"The Independent\" wrote that critics were divided. The film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes assessed reviews and determined of them to be positive, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads, \"A nerve-wracking continuation of its predecessor, \"A Quiet Place Part II\" expands the terrifying world of the franchise without losing track of its heart.\" According to review aggregator Metacritic, the film received \"generally favorable reviews\", with a weighted score of 71 out of 100 based on 57 critics. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"A\u2212\" on an A+ to F scale, an improvement from the first film's B+ score. PostTrak reported 83% of audience members gave it a positive score, with 63% saying they would definitely recommend it."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "During filming, the crew avoided making noise so diegetic synchronized sounds (e.g., the sound of rolling dice on a game board) could be recorded; the sounds were amplified in post-production. A traditional musical score was also added, which Krasinski justified in wanting audiences to remain familiar with watching a mainstream film, and not feel like part of a \"silence experiment.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The film is scheduled to be released on September 22, 2023."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In February 2021, Paramount announced that \"A Quiet Place Part II\" would become available on its streaming service Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical release. \"Deadline Hollywood\" reported that it was \"a clear sign that Paramount is committed to theatrical, but still open to the future of streaming.\" Before the COVID-19 pandemic, movie theater operators sought for films to be theatrically released for 90 days before being released on home media. As a result of the pandemic, Warner Bros. opted to release their 2021 slate of films on HBO Max the same day as in theaters, and Universal Pictures made its films available via video-on-demand 17 days after their theatrical releases. \"Variety\" reported, \"Paramount's strategy may be received the most favorably among film exhibitors\", with \"A Quiet Place Part II\" among Paramount's tentpole films having the 45-day frame and its other titles having a 30-day frame. \"Boxoffice Pro\" reported that the original film grossed 94% of its total of $188 million in the United States and Canada by its 45th day, which indicated that Paramount's \"decision works more in favor of exhibitors than against.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "\"No Time to Die\" was originally scheduled for release in November 2019, but was postponed to February 2020 and then to April 2020 after Boyle's departure. The premiere in China and a countrywide publicity tour, planned for April 2020, were cancelled due to the early outbreak of COVID-19 in the country. By March 2020, the global spread of the virus and the declaration of a pandemic by the World Health Organization prompted a joint open letter from two \"Bond\" fan sites addressed to the producers. The letter asked that the release be delayed to minimise the risk of spreading the disease and to ensure the film's commercial success."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Bay",
        "text": "In 2021, it was reported that Bay requested financial compensation from film studio Paramount Pictures for indirectly limiting his income as a result of Paramount cutting the theatrical-only run of \"A Quiet Place Part II\" from 90 days to 45 days due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Bay and other producers as well as actors for the film, as is typically the case, receive payment in part based on box-office performance, and a reduction in the theatrical run's exclusivity would affect the pay they receive."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Little Peace and Quiet",
        "text": "No visual effects were used for the time stops; the actors and numerous extras, even the dog, all had to hold themselves perfectly still during these sequences. In the cases of characters who were frozen in off-balance positions (e.g. running or lunging), concealed armatures were used to support their weight. The mid-pour orange juice and mid-spill milk were both plastic."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Wrong Box",
        "text": "Pinewood Studios, Iver, Buckinghamshire, was the main production base for the studio sets and many exteriors, with the Victorian London crescent exteriors being shot on Bath's historic Royal Crescent, complete with TV aerials on the roofs. The funeral coach and horse chase was filmed in St James's Square, Bath, and on Englefield Green, Surrey, and surrounding lanes."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\" grossed $160.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $137.3 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $297.4 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In June 2019, production began on the sequel. Filming officially commenced on . There were 47 days of filming throughout Western New York, including Akron, Olcott, Dunkirk, Lackawanna, and Buffalo. Other locations included Erie County and the city of North Tonawanda, and Barcelona Harbor in the town of Westfield in Chautauqua County. Filming also took place on a giant sound stage at Buffalo FilmWorks in South Buffalo. One of the last filming locations, the northbound South Grand Island Bridge, was shut down for 13 hours for filming."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place\" was first commercially released in theaters in the first week of April 2018 in multiple territories, including North America. The film grossed $188 million in the United States and Canada, and $152 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $341 million. \"Deadline Hollywood\" estimates the net profit of the film to be $93 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In November 2020, Paramount Pictures hired Jeff Nichols to write and direct a spin-off based on an original idea from John Krasinski, who will produce. However, Nichols exited the project by October 2021. In January 2022, Michael Sarnoski joined production to replace Nichols as the writer and director."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "\"No Time to Die\" premiered globally at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 28 September 2021, and was released in cinemas on 30 September 2021 in the UK and on 8 October 2021 in the US after being delayed by Boyle's departure and, later, by the COVID-19 pandemic. The film received positive reviews and has grossed over $774 million worldwide, making it the fourth-highest-grossing film of 2021, earning several other box-office record achievements, including becoming the third-highest-grossing film of all time in the UK. The film garnered several awards and nominations, including five nominations at the 75th British Academy Film Awards, winning one for Best Editing, and three nominations at the 94th Academy Awards, winning one for Best Original Song."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Following the postponement of \"A Quiet Place Part II\" and other films during the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, teleconferencing became popular, and Paramount's marketing team started providing virtual backgrounds of \"A Quiet Place Part II\" and other films to be available on Zoom Video Communications."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "Production then moved to the UK. Scenes featuring Craig, Fiennes, Harris and Kinnear were filmed around London, including Whitehall, Senate House and Hammersmith. In July 2019, filming took place in the town of Aviemore and in the surrounding Cairngorms National Park area. Some scenes were also shot at the Ardverikie House Estate and on the banks of Loch Laggan, just outside the park. The forest scene was filmed in Buttersteep Forest in Windsor Great Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Krasinski",
        "text": "Krasinski directed and wrote the sequel \"A Quiet Place Part II\", in which he also had a supporting role. Initially scheduled for March 20, 2020, it was delayed due to COVID-19 (theatres began to shut down the week of March 16). It was eventually released on May 28, 2021, to positive reviews, becoming a box office success, and the first film of the pandemic era to cross $100m at the domestic box office. In May 2021, Krasinski's production company, Sunday Night Productions, signed a first-look deal with Paramount Pictures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cillian Murphy",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\", released May 28, 2021, stars Murphy as Emmett, a hardened survivor and old family friend of the Abbotts. Murphy's character reluctantly takes in the Abbotts following the events of the first film."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "The sequel's cinematography also evolved from its predecessor in following more action. Morgan described director Krasinski's intent, \"John wanted to always keep the camera moving and create long 'oners' to play with rhythm and tension and to show how normal life can suddenly become very different and dangerous\u2014all in the same shot.\" Morgan used an array of tracking vehicles, on which there were different camera mounts including jibs, cranes, and Steadicam vests, with the vehicles often going full speed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Office Space",
        "text": "The studio also had a man live in a Plexiglas cube above Times Square for five days. Livingston, when he visited the cube for press events, found that most reporters preferred to talk to the man in the cube and not him. He was not surprised, as tracking for the movie was not good and \"there was a foregone conclusion that it wasn't going to open well.\" Producer Michael Rotenberg elaborated that \"[i]t took a few research screenings to realize that audiences often have issues with satire.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "None but the Lonely Heart (film)",
        "text": "According to \"The Hollywood Reporter\", the East End London road set in this film was the largest and most complete external set constructed inside a sound stage at that time. The set measured 800 feet long and extended the length of two sound stages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copernicus Center (Chicago, Illinois)",
        "text": "Because of the new sound films (nicknamed \"talkies\"), plans to include a stage for vaudeville and stage shows were abandoned. Instead, a small \"sound stage\" was built to the back of the proscenium opening to house the screen and \"newfangled\" speakers. If the \"talkies\" were just a fad, the sound stage could easily be replaced with a full stage house with the usual complement of dressing rooms, proper rooms, fly space for the scenery and the like. The talking pictures soon became the norm, and, in 1932, all motion picture studios stopped making silent pictures, thus sounding the death knell for vaudeville and stage shows."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place (disambiguation)",
        "text": "A Quiet Place is a 2018 film.\n*A Quiet Place Part II is its 2021 sequel."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Place of One's Own",
        "text": "According to \"Kinematograph Weekly\" the film performed well at the British box office in 1945."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islington Studios",
        "text": "Following the war, Islington were re-opened. In 1946 Betty Box was placed in charge of the studios when her brother Sydney Box was appointed by Rank to run Gainsborough Pictures. Over the next three years the studio turned out a large number of thrillers and comedies. In 1949 both Islington and Shepherd's Bush were closed when Rank concentrated production at Pinewood Studios. Today a block of flats stand where the studio used to be. The block's courtyard features a large sculpture of Alfred Hitchcock's head, by sculptor Anthony Donaldson."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "\"A Quiet Place\" was released on Digital HD on June 26, 2018, and on Ultra HD Blu-ray, Blu-ray and DVD on July 10, 2018. Paramount Pictures released a 4K, Steelbook+Blu-Ray+Digital version of the film on February 25, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Peter Bradshaw of \"The Guardian\" gave the film 4 stars out of 5, stating, \"This sequel from writer-director John Krasinski may not quite have all its focus and intimate horror, while the borrowings from \"Alien\", \"Jurassic Park\" and \"Jaws\" are admittedly more obvious this time around. But it\u2019s a really effective and engrossing followup, with an absolutely sensational \"prelude\" sequence at the top of the movie, a barnstorming shocker equal to anything in \"AQP1\".\" He also praised the performances of Millicent Simmonds and Cillian Murphy, stating that \"Simmonds is an excellent performer: bold, confident and forthright, holding her own opposite the alpha-emoting presence of Murphy.\" Jeannette Catsoulis of \"The New York Times\" gave the film a positive review, stating, \"...while this new installment is, like its predecessor, wonderfully acted and intuitively directed (by John Krasinski, who is solely responsible for the story this time around), it has also largely replaced the hushed horror of the original with full-on action. Faster, coarser and far noisier, \"Part II\" sacrifices emotional depth for thriller setups that do less to advance the plot than grow the younger characters\", and, \"Though in many respects an exemplary piece of filmmaking, \"Part II\" remains hobbled by a script that resolves two separate crises while leaving the movie itself in limbo.\" Justin Chang of \"NPR\" said that \"\"A Quiet Place Part II\" [is] an unexpectedly resonant film for the present moment as this country slowly emerges from a crisis that\u2014while surely less terrifying than an alien apocalypse\u2014has revealed humanity at its best and its worst\", and praised Krasinski's direction, saying, \"Not being able to fall back on verbal exposition has forced Krasinski to become a ruthlessly efficient visual storyteller. It's often said that Alfred Hitchcock's movies are so sharply directed, you could turn the sound off and still follow the action\u2014a truth that applies to these movies as well.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Polly Morgan was the cinematographer for \"A Quiet Place Part II\", replacing Charlotte Bruus Christensen from the first film. Morgan continued the first film's use of 35 mm film and described its effect, \"Although \"A Quiet Place 2\" is a horror, it looks pretty and engaging, with a nostalgic look that you would find hard to achieve digitally.\" The film's \"extensive dark situations\" (night scenes and stage work that comprised 75% of screen time) were shot with Kodak Vision3 500T 5219 film stock, while Vision3 250D 5207 was used mainly for day exteriors. Morgan filmed with Panavision Panaflex Millennium XL2 cameras and T-Series anamorphic lenses, which had been adjusted to match the C-Series lenses Christensen used on the first film. One of Morgan's most challenging situations was lighting and shooting the furnace setting."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "Supervising sound editors Erik Aadahl and Ethan Van der Ryn worked on \"A Quiet Place\". For scenes from the perspective of the deaf daughter, sound was removed to put greater focus on the visual. They also advised on organizing shots to reflect the creatures' perspective, like showing them noticing a sound, then showing what was causing the sound. Composer Marco Beltrami provided the sound editors music to work with in a way that would not interfere with the sound design throughout the film."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Three months after \"A Quiet Place\"s release, Krasinski decided to brainstorm ideas for a sequel. According to Krasinski, Paramount rejected pitches from other writers and directors that were considered too franchise-oriented. He said, \"I had this small idea, which was to make Millie [Simmonds] the lead of the movie... her character opens the door to all the themes I was dealing with in the first movie.\" The studio invited him to write a script based on his idea. By August 2018, Krasinski was writing the film. He wrote a draft in three and a half weeks. In the following February, he was confirmed to direct the sequel, and actors Emily Blunt, Millicent Simmonds, and Noah Jupe were set to reprise their roles. In March, Cillian Murphy joined the cast. In the following June, Brian Tyree Henry was also added, but later left the film due to scheduling problems. He was replaced by Djimon Hounsou in August."
      },
      {
        "title": "Confidential Assignment",
        "text": "\"Confidential Assignment\" opened in second place at the box office on January 18. It rose to first place in its second week selling an accumulative 4 million tickets by January 30 and surpassed the 5 million mark two days later."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "Principal photography wrapped up on 25 October 2019 at Pinewood Studios with the filming of a chase sequence set in Havana, Cuba. Production had intended to shoot the sequence earlier, but was forced to reschedule when Craig injured his ankle in Jamaica. Further pick-up shots at Pinewood were confirmed by Fukunaga on 20 December 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "In May 2021, Blunt revealed that Krasinski had plans for a third film. Acknowledging that he had wanted to see how the second installment was received before moving forward on the next film, she stated it is intended to be a trilogy. In July 2021, Blunt confirmed that Krasinski is working on a third installment, separate from the spin-off film, with intentions to once again serve as director. In February 2022, \"A Quiet Place Part III\" was officially announced with a scheduled release date in 2025."
      },
      {
        "title": "Betty Box",
        "text": "When the Gainsborough studios were closed by Rank in 1949, Box moved to Pinewood Studios, where she collaborated with director Ralph Thomas on some 30-odd films. They began by making thrillers such as \"Venetian Bird\" (1952) but then concentrated on comedy."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "No Time to Die\n--Plot.\n--Cast.\n--Production.\n----Development.\n----Casting.\n----Filming.\n----Post-production.\n----Music.\n--Release.\n----Distribution rights.\n----Theatrical release and postponements.\n----Home media.\n--Reception.\n----Box office.\n----Critical response.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Quiet Man",
        "text": "The film employed many actors from the Irish theatre, including Barry Fitzgerald's brother, Arthur Shields, as well as extras from the Irish countryside, and it is one of the few Hollywood movies in which the Irish language can be heard. Filming commenced on June 7, 1951. All of the outdoor scenes were shot on location in Ireland in County Mayo and County Galway. The inside scenes were filmed toward the end of July at the Republic Studios in Hollywood. Vawn Corrigan reports that Ford made considerable efforts to get the costumes correct for the period with \u00d3\u2019Maille \u2013 The Original House of Style in Galway tasked with sourcing the costumes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Former Trinity Methodist Church, Dunedin",
        "text": "A man who ran the box office claimed to have had two \"disconcerting\" experiences. The first experience involved a \"young boy sitting in the corner\". He initially \"thought nothing of it\" but the \"realisation struck\" him that the theatre was closed. He \"turned back around, but he'd disappeared.\" The second experience involved a girl he claims he noticed when he \"looked up to the back corner of the audience seating, near where the soundman usually sits\" after he heard \"a strange noise in the theatre\" on one occasion."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "For its 2021 theatrical release, \"Boxoffice Pro\" forecast that the film would gross between $30 million and $50 million on its opening weekend in the United States and Canada, with a total gross between $75 million and $125 million. \"IndieWire\" wrote, \"It has a core male audience that skews younger with minority moviegoers, along with strong interest and critical support\", and predicted between $40 to $50 million. According to Fandango, US advance ticket sales were double the sales from the planned March 2020 release and also more than the sales for the first film in 2018. The film made $19.3 million on its first day, including $4.8 million from Thursday night previews, topping the $4.3 million preview figure of the first film; both grosses were the highest of the pandemic. It went on to debut to $48.3 million in its three-day opening weekend and a total of $58.5 million over the four day Memorial Day frame, topping the box office and marking the biggest opening weekend since \"Sonic the Hedgehog\" in February 2020. In its sophomore weekend the film grossed $19.5 million, finishing second, behind \"\". The film crossed the $100 million domestic mark on June 11, becoming the first film of the pandemic era to do so. In its third weekend the film regained the top spot, upsetting newcomer \"In the Heights\" with $12 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinewood Studios",
        "text": "As stated earlier, Pinewood is situated on the old estate of Heatherden Hall which still stands today. The mansion, its gardens and other parts of the studios have been used in various productions over the years. \"Peeping Tom\" (1960) shows people driving out through the main gate and has various shots in the studios (showing things behind the camera), offices and corridors. \"Return to the Edge of the World\" (1978) includes shots of director Michael Powell driving into the studio. The iconic main gate (now no longer used due to the construction of a purpose-built security entrance further along the road) also features in \"My Week with Marilyn\" (2011) when Eddie Redmayne greets Judi Dench. This film also contains many shots of the dressing-room corridors in the main make-up block. Heatherden Hall (converted to production offices) has appeared in several films: it was made to look fire-damaged and derelict for the children's film \"The Amazing Mr Blunden\" (1972) and also appeared as the Indian residence of Governor Sir Sidney Ruff-Diamond in \"Carry on up the Khyber\" (1969)."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Secret Place (film)",
        "text": "Filming took place at Pinewood Studios, starting in June 1956."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bryan Woods",
        "text": "In 2016, Woods and Beck sold their original screenplay for \"A Quiet Place\" to Paramount Pictures. The film, executive produced by Woods, Beck, Michael Bay and Platinum Dunes, stars Emily Blunt and John Krasinski, the latter of who also directed and co-wrote the script. Paramount subsequently signed Woods and Beck to a blind script deal for a second project they will write and direct. \"A Quiet Place\" was released in April 2018 to critical acclaim with a Rotten Tomatoes approval rating of 95%. It became a major box office hit, grossing over $330 million worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "With their home destroyed, the family searches for other survivors. Entering a fenced-off area, Evelyn accidentally sets off a sound alarm, alerting the creatures. As they flee, Marcus steps into a bear trap, attracting a creature with his screams. Regan and Evelyn kill it, free Marcus, then run into an abandoned steel foundry. An old friend, Emmett, appears and takes them to his soundproof underground hideout. Emmett, who recently lost his family and developed a cynical outlook on life, refuses to help further and says they cannot stay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Two Minutes Silence",
        "text": "Filming took place in a studio in Centennial Park, Sydney in late 1932. It was logistically difficult because of the difficulty sourcing sound recording equipment and two of the cast, Leo Franklyn and Frank Leighton, had to juggle shooting with their theatre commitments for J.\u00a0C. Williamson Ltd. In addition, Campbell Copelin was still recovering from his plane crash the previous year. Ethel Gabriel reprised her role from the play version."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coronet Theatre, London",
        "text": "In 1931, the cinema became part of Gaumont British, and it was at this time that the theatre boxes were removed. In 1950, it was renamed the Gaumont and the upper tier was closed for seating, and capacity was therefore reduced to 196 in the dress circle and 319 in the stalls, a total of 515."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wessex Sound Studios",
        "text": "From 1946 to 1949 the hall was the home of the Rank Organisation's 'Company of Youth' - more popularly known as the 'Rank Charm School' - where future stars of British films, such as Diana Dors, Christopher Lee, Barbara Murray and Pete Murray, were tutored and paid about \u00a310/week. Rank had a film studio in the former Highbury Athenaeum building up the road at 96a Highbury Park where supporting features (B-movies) were made. That too was closed in 1949."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place Part II",
        "text": "Paramount produced the first film, \"A Quiet Place\", on a budget of . The studio released the film in the United States and Canada in April 2018, where it grossed on opening weekend, well above a mid-$20 million forecast. Later in April, Paramount Chair and CEO Jim Gianopulos announced that a sequel was in development. The first film totaled $188 million in the US and Canada and $340.9 million worldwide. John Krasinski, who co-wrote, directed and starred in the first film, said he considered it \"as a one-off\". Uncertain of finding similar success in a sequel, he initially told Paramount to seek another writer and director. The first film's screenwriters Scott Beck and Bryan Woods did not return for the sequel. Woods said they were not interested in a franchise approach, and that they would rather try \"to create original ideas\" and use their writing credits \"as an opportunity to push several projects.\" Beck said, \"Instead of focusing on sequels per se, it's about investing back into the ecosystem of original ideas in a massive marketplace.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Silence (2019 film)",
        "text": "\"The Guardian\"s Charles Bramesco called \"The Silence\" \"a shoddy remix\" of \"A Quiet Place\" and said, \"\"The Silence\" exists for the sole purpose of being digitally sorted into a list of recommendations For Viewers Who Liked \"Bird Box\", though that classification would be more accurately clocked as For Viewers Who Liked \"A Quiet Place\"... the demographic they're really after would be something closer to Viewers Who Have Trouble Telling Similar Things Apart.\" \"Decider\"s Anna Menta compared the films, \"\"The Silence\" is much darker and gorier than \"A Quiet Place\",\" and found \"The Silence\" to look low-budget in production values. Menta said \"The Silence\" was started before the invasion while \"A Quiet Place\" was set fully after the invasion. She noted the criticism of \"The Silence\" for having a hearing actor as a deaf character and highlighted its additional elements, a teen romance and a religious cult."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "In February 2018, Danny Boyle was established as a frontrunner for the directing position. Boyle's original pitch to Broccoli and Wilson saw John Hodge writing a screenplay based on Boyle's idea with Purvis and Wade's version scrapped. Hodge's draft was greenlit, and Boyle was confirmed to direct with a production start date of December 2018. However, Boyle and Hodge left in August 2018 due to creative differences. During Boyle's time as director, a leaked casting sheet described the male leading role as a \"cold and charismatic Russian\" and the female leading role as a \"witty and skillful survivor\". Production also sought male supporting roles of M\u0101ori descent with \"advanced combat skills\". It was reported at the time that Boyle's exit was due to the casting of Tomasz Kot as the lead villain; however, Boyle later confirmed the dispute was over the script."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irving Thalberg",
        "text": "His funeral took place two days later, and when the services began the other studios throughout Hollywood observed five minutes of silence. Producer Sam Goldwyn \"wept uncontrollably for two days\" and was unable to regain his composure enough to attend. The MGM studio closed for that day."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die",
        "text": "\"No Time to Die\" had its world premiere at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 28 September 2021, and was released in cinemas on 30 September 2021 in the UK and on 8 October 2021 in the US in 2D, RealD 3D, 4DX, ScreenX, Dolby Cinema and IMAX. The film also opened the same week in September in South Korea and the following week in October in Brazil, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands and Russia. China and Australia would see the release later in October and November 2021. The film had the highest box office opening weekend takings in the UK for any \"Bond\" feature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinewood Studios",
        "text": "Pinewood Studios paid tribute to Richard Attenborough's body of work by naming a purpose-built film and television stage after him. The Richard Attenborough Stage has an area of . In his absence because of illness, Lord Puttnam and Pinewood chairman Lord Grade officially unveiled the stage on 23 April 2012. Opposite it, is a post-production block named in honour of Stanley Kubrick."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Quiet Room (1996 film)",
        "text": "The Quiet Room (1996 film)\n--Plot.\n--Box office.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, and an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads: \"\"A Quiet Place\" artfully plays on elemental fears with a ruthlessly intelligent creature feature that's as original as it is scary \u2013 and establishes director John Krasinski as a rising talent.\" On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 82 out of 100, based on 55 critics, indicating \"universal acclaim\". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"B+\" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an 81% overall positive score and a 63% \"definite recommend\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elstree Studios",
        "text": "Film production continued until 1936 when fire destroyed the three stages. British and Dominions made a substantial investment in Pinewood Studios at Iver Heath, Buckinghamshire, and moved production there. The support buildings in Borehamwood that remained after the fire were sold off to various companies including Frank Landsdown Ltd, which opened a film vault service. The Rank Organisation bought the music stage for the production of documentary films. It later became the headquarters of the film and sound-effect libraries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shallow Grave (1994 film)",
        "text": "Boyle claimed that Christopher Eccleston was so afraid of getting locked in a real-life mortuary for a scene, he had to ask a crew member to stand in the shadows and comfort the nervous actor."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet Place",
        "text": "The film made $32.9 million in its second weekend, dropping 34% (better than the 50+% that horror films normally see) and finishing second at the box office, behind newcomer \"Rampage\" ($35.7 million). The hold represented the second-best-ever second weekend for a scary movie behind \"It\". The film regained the top spot the following week, grossing $20.9 million (a 36% drop), but dropped back down to second place the following weekend behind newcomer \"\" with $10.7 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Planter's Wife (1952 film)",
        "text": "The film was the sixth most popular movie of the year at the British box office in 1952, after \"The Greatest Show on Earth\", \"Where No Vultures Fly\", \"Son of Paleface\", \"Ivanhoe\" and \"Mandy\". It was followed by \"The Quiet Man\", \"The World in His Arms\", \"Angels One Five\" (also with Hawkins), \"Reluctant Heroes\", \"The African Queen\" and \"The Sound Barrier\". Despite Colbert's presence, the film only took \u00a332,000 in the United States. However it was a success in other international markets."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Time to Die (1958 film)",
        "text": "\"Kinematograph Weekly\" listed it as being \"in the money\" at the British box office in 1958. When the film was initially released in the United States, it was 20 minutes shorter than the version released in the United Kingdom."
      },
      {
        "title": "1940s in film",
        "text": "Cinemas were located in the city and the expansion of suburban housing in the post-War period meant declining revenues at the box office. The availability of television in homes was another factor that gave families in the suburbs an alternative to traveling to the theaters located in city centers. Between 1948 and 1952 average weekly attendance declined from 90 million to 51 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dump months",
        "text": "The pattern of January as the slow month of the movie release calendar continued for almost three decades. As the 2020 winter dump months were ending, the COVID-19 pandemic struck the world, and many exhibitors were forced to close, either by law or lack of demand, as patrons limited their activities outside of their homes to control the disease's spread. Studios and distributors reacted by postponing the release of highly anticipated tentpole films like \"A Quiet Place Part II\" and the James Bond film \"No Time to Die\" until such time as they could be screened in theaters."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Quiet End",
        "text": "Presented by Buddy Dalton at the Offstage Theatre, the London production premiered on February 4, 1986. Direction by Noel Greig, scenery and costumes by Caroline Burgess, lighting by Bob Lyons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction",
        "text": "In the 2018 horror film \"A Quiet Place\" and the 2021 sequel \"A Quiet Place Part II\", society has collapsed in the wake of lethal attacks by (apparently) extraterrestrial creatures who, having no eyesight, hunt humans and other creatures with their highly sensitive hearing; the scattered survivors live most of their lives in near-silence as a result."
      },
      {
        "title": "Production of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows",
        "text": "Filming at Pinewood Studios was concluded on . However, Leavesden Studios was still occupied for further filming. Both Part 1 and Part 2 were filmed over a year and a half period throughout the UK, finishing on 12 June 2010. Even though the shooting schedule was set at 250 days, the filming took 478 days to complete. Radcliffe, Grint, and Watson all openly wept on the last day, which seemed to end their ten years of work on the films. However, reshoots were confirmed to begin in the winter of 2010 for the film's final scene, \"19 Years Later\", which originally took place in London at King's Cross station. The filming was completed in December 2010, marking the franchise's official closure of ten years of filming."
      },
      {
        "title": "Office Space",
        "text": "Other cast members found the film had reached people when strangers began associating them with their characters. Cole said that a year after release, on the service jobs he works when not acting, people began shouting dialogue from the movie at him. Aniston says that even today, when she is eating \"at a certain type of restaurant\", people will ask if she likes their flair."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinewood Studios",
        "text": "The 1960s were buoyant years for Pinewood, which was no longer solely dependent on the Rank Organisation to fill its stages. \"Renters\" (producers hiring the sound stages for a film-by-film agreement) were using half of the stages as Pinewood turned into a four walls facility. The James Bond franchise began at Pinewood with the Terence Young directed \"Dr. No\" (1962), and has continued to be based at the studios since then."
      },
      {
        "title": "1963 UK & Ireland Greyhound Racing Year",
        "text": "Alfred Critchley died on 9 February. Clapton hosted Pinewood Studios as they shot scenes for a new film starring Rita Tushingham and Mike Sarne called A Place to Go."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coronet Theatre, London",
        "text": "In 1923, it became a cinema full-time, and capacity was reduced from 1,143 to 1,010 seats, but it retained, as it still does, its original theatre interior, consisting of stalls and two upper tiers (a dress circle and a gallery). However, the boxes at each side of the auditorium, next to the stage, were removed in 1931. The stage was blocked off, and the cinema screen is placed within the proscenium arch. The projection equipment was housed in the former dress circle bar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kew Bridge Studios",
        "text": "The studios were hit by the rapid fall in the number of films being released due to the Slump of 1924 and by competition from better-equipped studios. After the studios closed down they were converted into the celebrated Q Theatre which occupied the site until the 1950s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim Henson Company Lot",
        "text": "The studios saw a number of changes over the next 20 years. The two open-air stages were converted to closed soundstages in the mid-1930s, before the filming of \"Modern Times\", and a smaller stage was also built over the site of the studio swimming pool at that time. Stage 2 had previously been seriously damaged by a fire during production of \"The Circus\" in 1927. Also, the expansion of La Brea Avenue in 1928\u201329 forced the physical movement of the buildings adjacent to the street back from their original locations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Somerville Theatre",
        "text": "Movie attendance, however, had dropped considerably, and a plan had to be devised to keep the theater competitive. The remainder of the Hobbs Building, with the exception of a few storefronts and the theater, had been abandoned since the early 80s, and this space proved to be the answer."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Great Movie Ride",
        "text": "For the grand finale, when both the #1A and #2B ride vehicles are in use, they both enter a dark theatre where they line up side by side and come to a stop in front of a large movie screen. There, Osborne or the tour guide concludes the tour with a three-minute film montage of classic film moments. At the conclusion of the film, as guests applaud the tour guide declaring the tour a success, both ride vehicles exit the theater lined up single-file again and return to the 1930s soundstage where the ride concluded."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why was A Quiet Place Part II postponed?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The studio initially planned to release the film in theaters globally starting on March 18, 2020, in the United Kingdom and Australia on March 19, 2020, and in the United States and Canada on March 20, 2020 before it delayed the film due to the pandemic. In July 2020, Paramount changed the film's release date from September 4, 2020 to April 23, 2021."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Were there other anticipated movies that got delayed by the pandemic?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes, there are many, would you like to know more about some of them such as the James Bond film No Time to Die, a polish slasher film W lesie dzi\u015b nie za\u015bnie nikt, postponed films in certain countries like Pixar's Onward, the movie Mulan, or Disney films such as Antlers and The New Mutants?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about No Time to Die!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Originally, the film was supposed to release in November 2019 but was postponed to February 2020 then April 2020 after Boyle's departure. With the COVID-19 outbreak, the April release was canceled and postponed to November 2020 release but shifted again to April 2021 because of closed theater markets, especially the US and finally the premiere was to held in 28 September 2021."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did No Time to Die premiere only in theaters?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "No Time to Die had its world premiere at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 28 September 2021, and was released in cinemas on 30 September 2021 in the UK and on 8 October 2021 in the US in 2D, RealD 3D, 4DX, ScreenX, Dolby Cinema and IMAX."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did No Time to Die first start filming?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Production was scheduled to begin on 3 December 2018 at Pinewood Studios, but filming was delayed until April 2019 after Boyle's departure."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did A Quiet Place Part II do at the box office?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The film set several box office records, including the biggest opening weekend of the COVID-19 pandemic with a debut to $48.3 million in its three-day opening weekend and a total of $58.5 million over the four day Memorial Day frame, topping the box office and marking the biggest opening weekend since Sonic the Hedgehog in February 2020; in its sophomore weekend the film grossed $19.5 million, finishing second, behind The Conjuring: The Devil Made Me Do It; the film crossed the $100 million domestic mark on June 11, becoming the first film of the pandemic era to do so; in its third weekend the film regained the top spot, upsetting newcomer In the Heights with $12 million. The film grossed $160.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $137.3 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $297.4 million.",
      "A Quiet Place Part II grossed $160.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $137.3 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $297.4 million."
    ],
    "topic": "A Quiet Place Part II",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "A Quiet Place Part II:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "A Quiet Place Part II"
        ],
        "ctx": "The film had its world premiere in New York City on March 8, 2020, and after over a year of postponements due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was theatrically released in the United States on , 2021. It became available to stream on Paramount+ 45 days after its theatrical debut. The film set several box office records, including the biggest opening weekend of the COVID-19 pandemic, and grossed $297.4million worldwide. It received positive reviews from critics, who praised the story and the addition of Murphy's character Emmett."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "A Quiet Place Part II:38",
        "passage_titles": [
          "A Quiet Place Part II",
          "Reception",
          "Box office"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\" grossed $160.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $137.3 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $297.4 million."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "A Quiet Place Part II:40",
        "passage_titles": [
          "A Quiet Place Part II",
          "Reception",
          "Box office"
        ],
        "ctx": "For its 2021 theatrical release, \"Boxoffice Pro\" forecast that the film would gross between $30 million and $50 million on its opening weekend in the United States and Canada, with a total gross between $75 million and $125 million. \"IndieWire\" wrote, \"It has a core male audience that skews younger with minority moviegoers, along with strong interest and critical support\", and predicted between $40 to $50 million. According to Fandango, US advance ticket sales were double the sales from the planned March 2020 release and also more than the sales for the first film in 2018. The film made $19.3 million on its first day, including $4.8 million from Thursday night previews, topping the $4.3 million preview figure of the first film; both grosses were the highest of the pandemic. It went on to debut to $48.3 million in its three-day opening weekend and a total of $58.5 million over the four day Memorial Day frame, topping the box office and marking the biggest opening weekend since \"Sonic the Hedgehog\" in February 2020. In its sophomore weekend the film grossed $19.5 million, finishing second, behind \"\". The film crossed the $100 million domestic mark on June 11, becoming the first film of the pandemic era to do so. In its third weekend the film regained the top spot, upsetting newcomer \"In the Heights\" with $12 million."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "A Quiet Place Part II:38",
        "passage_titles": [
          "A Quiet Place Part II",
          "Reception",
          "Box office"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"A Quiet Place Part II\" grossed $160.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $137.3 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $297.4 million."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Kosher foods are those foods that conform to the Jewish dietary regulations of \"kashrut\" (dietary law), the Jewish dietary law is primarily derived from Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14:1-21. Foods that may be consumed according to \"halakha\" (Jewish law) are termed \"kosher\" () in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term \"kash\u00e9r\" (), meaning \"fit\" (in this context, fit for consumption). Foods that are not in accordance with Jewish law are called \"treif\" (; , derived from \"tr\u0101f\u00e1h\") meaning \"torn.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism and Mormonism",
        "text": "The laws of \"kashrut\" (\"keeping kosher\") are the Jewish dietary laws. Food in accord with \"halakha\" (Jewish law) is termed kosher, and food not in accord with Jewish law is termed \"treifah\" or \"treif\". Kosher laws address which kinds of animals can be eaten and requires separation of milk and meat (disputed), that vegetables be thoroughly inspected for insects, that animals be ritually slaughtered by certified persons, and that many food products be produced under rabbinical supervision. Produce of the Land of Israel has further restrictions."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Kosher food is food that conforms to \"kashrut\", i.e. Jewish dietary laws. Under these rules, some foods \u2013 for example, pork and shellfish \u2013 are forbidden. Any meat must come from an animal that was slaughtered using a process known as \"shechita\". Jewish dietary law also prohibits the eating of meat and milk at the same meal. For this purpose, \"meat\" means the flesh of mammals and birds, and \"milk\" includes dairy products such as cheese and butter. Thus a kosher delicatessen selling corned beef sandwiches would not have any cheese, and a kosher bakery selling bagels and cream cheese would not have any meat. Many foods are classified as pareve (sometimes spelled \"parve\") \u2013 neither meat nor milk, and therefore acceptable at any meal. Pareve foods include fish, eggs, honey, and any edible plant. Kosher commercial establishments must be closed from Friday evening to Saturday evening, during the Jewish sabbath."
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil laws regarding kashrut",
        "text": "Civil laws regarding \"kashrut\" (Jewish religious standards, mainly concerning food) are found in several countries. Advertising standards laws in many jurisdictions prohibit the use of the phrase \"kosher\" in a product's labelling, unless it can be shown that the product conforms to Jewish dietary laws; however, the legal qualifications for \"conforming\" to Jewish dietary laws are often defined differently in different jurisdictions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bishul Yisrael",
        "text": "The law applies only to foods which, according to the Talmud, are \"fit for a king's table\" and are not generally eaten raw. Foods which would not be served at a state dinner are exempt from \"bishul akum\", and are kosher even if cooked totally by non-Jews, provided that all the other requirements of kosher food are met. Maimonides explains that this prohibition was originally decreed in order to avoid a Jew being invited over by a non-Jew for a meal (which may lead to intermarriage), and people do not invite each other for dinner over food which is not \"fit for a King's table\" (Maimonides, Ma'akhalot Asurot 17:15)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "The Jewish dietary laws are known as \"kashrut\". Food prepared in accordance with them is termed kosher, and food that is not kosher is also known as \"treifah\" or \"treif\". People who observe these laws are colloquially said to be \"keeping kosher\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Advertising standards laws in many jurisdictions prohibit the use of the phrase \"kosher\" in a product's labeling unless the producer can show that the product conforms to Jewish dietary laws; however, different jurisdictions often define the legal qualifications for conforming to Jewish dietary laws differently. For example, in some places the law may require that a rabbi certify the \"kashrut\" nature, in others the rules of \"kosher\" are fully defined in law, and in others still it is sufficient that the manufacturer only believes that the product complies with Jewish dietary regulations. In several cases, laws restricting the use of the term \"kosher\" have later been determined to be illegal religious interference."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Leviticus prohibits the eating of certain types of fat (\"chelev\") from sacrificial land animals (cattle, sheep, and goats), since the fat is the portion of the meat exclusively allocated to God (by burning it on the altar)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "One of the few dietary laws appearing in Exodus prohibits eating the meat from animals that have been \"torn by beasts\"; a related law appears in Deuteronomy, prohibiting the consumption of anything that has died from natural causes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher restaurant",
        "text": "In some U.S. states and other jurisdictions, laws have been passed that mandate establishments that claim to be kosher to actually comply with Jewish dietary laws. These jurisdictions sometimes employ rabbis to aid in enforcing these laws. Some of these laws, including one in New York State, have been overturned by courts on constitutional grounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "To comply with this Talmudic injunction against eating diseased animals, Orthodox Jews usually require that the corpses of freshly slaughtered animals be thoroughly inspected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meat",
        "text": "Jewish dietary rules (\"Kashrut\") allow certain (\"kosher\") meat and forbid other (\"treif\"). The rules include prohibitions on the consumption of unclean animals (such as pork, shellfish including mollusca and crustacea, and most insects), and mixtures of meat and milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk and meat in Jewish law",
        "text": "Food in the \"parve\" category includes fish, fruit, vegetables, salt, etc.; among the Karaites and Ethiopian Jews it also includes poultry. The \"Talmud\" states that the Biblical prohibition applies only to meat and milk of domesticated kosher mammals; that is, cattle, goats, and sheep. It adds that according to the view of Rabbi Akiva, the Rabbis instituted a protective decree extending the law to the meat and milk of wild kosher mammals, such as deer, as well as the meat of kosher poultry, such as chickens. The \"Shulchan Aruch\" follows this approach."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Kosher is food that may be consumed according to the \"Kashrut\", or Jewish dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "The laws of keeping kosher (\"kashrut\") have influenced Jewish cooking by prescribing what foods are permitted and how food must be prepared. The word kosher is usually translated as \"proper\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Kashrut (also kashruth or kashrus, ) is a set of dietary laws dealing with the foods that Jews are permitted to eat and how those foods must be prepared according to Jewish law. Food that may be consumed is deemed kosher ( in English, ), from the Ashkenazic pronunciation (KUHsher) of Hebrew \"kash\u00e9r\" (), meaning \"fit\" (in this context: \"fit for consumption\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic\u2013Jewish relations",
        "text": "Under the strict dietary laws, lawful food is called \"Kosher\" in Judaism and \"Halal\" in Islam. Both religions prohibit the consumption of pork. Halal restrictions are similar to a subset of the Kashrut dietary laws, so all kosher foods are considered halal, while not all halal foods are Kosher. Halal laws, for instance, do not prohibit the mixing of milk and meat or the consumption of shellfish, each of which are prohibited by the kosher laws, with the exception that in the Shia Islam belief shellfish, mussels, and similar sea foods and fish without scales are not considered halal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil laws regarding kashrut",
        "text": "See also, \"The Constitutional Complexity of Kosher Food Laws\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Biblically prohibited foods include:\n* Non-kosher animals\u2014any mammals without certain identifying characteristics (cloven hooves and rumination); any birds of prey; any fish without fins or scales (thus excluding catfish, for instance).\n:All invertebrates are non-kosher apart from certain types of locust, on which most communities lack a clear tradition. No reptiles or amphibians are kosher.\n* Carrion (\"nevelah\")\u2014meat from a kosher animal that has not been slaughtered according to the laws of \"shechita\". This prohibition includes animals that have been slaughtered by non-Jews.\n* Injured (\"terefah\")\u2014an animal with a significant defect or injury, such as a fractured bone or particular types of lung adhesions.\n* Blood (\"dam\")\u2014the blood of kosher mammals and fowl is removed through salting, with special procedures for the liver, which is very rich in blood.\n* Particular fats (\"chelev\")\u2014particular parts of the abdominal fat of cattle, goats and sheep must be removed by a process called \"nikkur\".\n* The twisted nerve (\"gid hanasheh\")\u2014the sciatic nerve, as according to Genesis 32:32 the patriarch Jacob's was damaged when he fought with an angel, so may not be eaten and is removed by \"nikkur\".\n* A limb of a living animal (\"ever min ha-chai\")\u2014according to Jewish law, God forbade Noah and his descendants to consume flesh torn from a live animal. Hence, Jewish law considers this prohibition applicable even to non-Jews, and therefore, a Jew may not give or sell such meat to a non-Jew.\n* Untithed food (\"tevel\")\u2014produce of the Land of Israel requires the removal of certain tithes, which in ancient times were given to the \"kohanim\" (priests), Levites and the poor (\"terumah\", \"maaser rishon\" and \"maasar ani\" respectively) or taken to the Old City of Jerusalem to be eaten there (\"maaser sheni\").\n* Fruit during the first three years (\"orlah\")\u2014according to Leviticus 19:23, fruit from a tree in the first three years after planting may not be consumed (both in the Land of Israel and the diaspora). This applies also to the fruit of the vine\u2014grapes, and wine produced from them.\n* New grain (\"chadash\")\u2014the Bible prohibits newly grown grain (planted after Passover the previous year) until the second day of Passover; there is debate as to whether this law applies to grain grown outside the Land of Israel.\n* Wine of libation (\"yayin nesekh\")\u2014wine that may have been dedicated to idolatrous practices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher restaurant",
        "text": "A kosher restaurant serves food that complies with Jewish dietary laws (\"kashrut\"). These businesses operate under rabbinical supervision, which requires that the laws of \"kashrut\", as well as certain other Jewish laws, must be observed. Among those laws, the meat and dairy cannot be mixed, and grape products made by non-Jews cannot be consumed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hashgacha Pratit (organization)",
        "text": "The decision came that the authority to grant kosher certificates still belongs to the Rabbinate, but establishments have the right to present their standards of kashrut. The Supreme Court ruled that the \u201cLaw Against Kashrut Fraud\u201d is to ensure kosher food being presented properly. The president of the Supreme Court, Miriam Naor, stated"
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil laws regarding kashrut",
        "text": "The legal rulings include:\n*The ordinance of Baltimore City which created a kosher law being found to be unconstitutional\n*New Jersey's kosher laws being found to violate the establishment clauses of both the New Jersey state constitution and the First Amendment. The opinion was affirmed by the New Jersey Supreme Court in which it found that the State's use of \"Orthodox Jewish law\" as a basis for the definition of kosher was an adoption of substantive religious standards which violated the State and Federal constitutions. The State's response was to create a new law which avoids any definition of a what is or is not \"kosher\". Instead, businesses which claim to be kosher must provide details about what they mean by \"kosher\", and the State will check to ensure that this standard is adhered to. For example, kosher restaurants must display a poster (provided by the Kosher Food Enforcement Bureau) on which they display the name of their rabbinic certifier, how often he inspects the establishment, whether or not he requires all ingredients to be kosher-supervised, and so on. In this manner, government enforcement becomes a consumer-protection issue, and avoids the problems of advancing any particular religious view.\n*The United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit finding that the challenged provisions of New York's Kosher Fraud law \"on their face violate the Establishment Clause because they excessively entangle the State of New York with religion and impermissibly advance Orthodox Judaism\".The Supreme Court refused to hear the case, and denied certiorari. The statute has since been revised and a new statute, \"The McKinney's Agriculture and Markets Law Sec. 201-a\", has since been passed.Under the new law, the state merely maintains a database of certification organizations and products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "In addition to meat, products of forbidden species and from unhealthy animals were banned by the Talmudic writers. This included eggs (including fish roe) and milk, as well as derived products such as cheese and jelly, but did not include materials merely \"manufactured\" or \"gathered\" by animals, such as honey (although, in the case of honey from animals other than bees, there was a difference of opinion among the ancient writers)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "A later \"responsum\" of Conservative Judaism was issued by Rabbi Dorff, who argued, based on precedents in 15th- to 19th-century \"responsa\", that many foods, such as wheat and oil products, which had once been forbidden when produced by non-Jews, were eventually declared kosher. On this basis he concluded wine and grape products produced by non-Jews would be permissible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "According to the Shulchan Aruch, a rabbinic decree (called \"gevinat akum\") prohibits all cheese made by non-Jews without Jewish supervision, even if its ingredients are all kosher, because very frequently the rennet in cheese is not kosher. Rabbeinu Tam and some of the geonim suggested that this decree does not apply in a location where cheese is commonly made with only kosher ingredients, a position that was practiced in communities in Narbonne and Italy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "To comply with this prohibition, a number of preparation techniques became practiced within traditional Judaism. The main technique, known as \"meli\u1e25ah\", involves the meat being soaked in water for about half an hour, which opens pores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The laws of \"kashrut\" can be broken for \"pikuach nefesh\" (preservation of human life). For example, a patient is allowed to eat non-kosher food if it is essential for recovery, or where the person would otherwise starve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Talmud, and later Jewish authorities, also prohibit the consumption of meat from animals who were slaughtered despite being in the process of dying from disease. This not based on concern for the health of the eater, instead being an extension of the rules banning the meat from animals torn by beasts, and animals that die from natural causes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Although the details of the laws of \"kashrut\" are numerous and complex, they rest on a few basic principles:\n* Only certain types of mammals, birds and fish meeting specific criteria are kosher; the consumption of the flesh of any animals that do not meet these criteria, such as pork, frogs, and shellfish, is forbidden.\n* Kosher mammals and birds must be slaughtered according to a process known as \"shechita\"; blood may never be consumed and must be removed from meat by a process of salting and soaking in water for the meat to be permissible for use.\n* Meat and meat derivatives may never be mixed with milk and milk derivatives: separate equipment for the storage and preparation of meat-based and dairy-based foods must be used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Classical rabbis prohibited any item of food that had been consecrated to an idol or had been used in the service of an idol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher restaurant",
        "text": "The more recent trend for these laws is simply to allow the establishment to disclose its own \"kashrut\" standards, with the governmental authority then scrutinizing whether the establishment in fact lives by the \"kashrut\" standards it discloses. This approach appears to overcome the Establishment Clause issue successfully."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Consequently, Orthodox Jews generally rule that wine, certain cooked foods, and sometimes dairy products, should be prepared only by Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg",
        "text": "According to the Kashrut, that is the set of Jewish dietary laws, kosher food may be consumed according to \"halakha\" (Jewish law). Kosher meat and milk (or derivatives) cannot be mixed () or stored together. Eggs are considered \"pareve\" (neither meat nor dairy) despite being an animal product and can be mixed with either milk or kosher meat. Mayonnaise, for instance, is usually marked \"pareve\" despite by definition containing egg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "Kosher animals are animals that comply with the regulations of \"kashrut\" and are considered kosher foods. These dietary laws ultimately derive from various passages in the Torah with various modifications, additions and clarifications added to these rules by \"halakha\". Various other animal-related rules are contained in the 613 commandments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "To help prevent accidental violation of these rules, the modern standard Orthodox practice is to classify food into either being \"fleishig\" (meat), \"milchig\" (dairy), or neither; this third category is more usually referred to as \"pareve\" (also spelled \"parve\" and \"parev\") meaning \"neutral\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "One of the main biblical food laws forbids consuming blood on account of \"the life [being] in the blood\". This ban and reason are listed in the Noahide Laws and twice in Book of Leviticus as well as in Deuteronomy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher certification agency",
        "text": "According to halakha (Jewish law), the following requires kosher supervision:\n* Foods \u2013 including meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, fruits and vegetables, grains, beverages, and food additives\n* Utensils\n* Production process\n* Food-service venues \u2013 such as restaurants, nursing homes, university dining rooms, hospitals, stadiums, convention halls. Even though the hot dogs sold in a certain venue are certified kosher, a \"mashgiach\" must be present to ensure that non-kosher food items do not come in contact with them, and that non-kosher foods are not sold or distributed in kosher wrappers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Kashrut\n--Explanations.\n----Philosophical.\n----Medical.\n--Rules.\n----Prohibited foods.\n----Permitted and forbidden animals.\n----Separation of meat and milk.\n----Kosher slaughter.\n------Preparation of meats.\n----Kosher utensils.\n----Passover laws.\n----Produce of the Land of Israel.\n----Vegetables.\n----Pareve foods.\n----Cannabis.\n----Tobacco.\n----Genetically modified foods.\n--Supervision and marketing.\n----\"Hashgacha\".\n----Product labeling standards.\n----History of kosher supervision and marketing.\n----Legal usage.\n----Costs.\n--Society and culture.\n----Adherence.\n----Linguistics.\n--Other uses.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Killing of animals",
        "text": "\"Kashrut\" (also \"kashruth\" or \"kashrus\", ) is the set of Jewish religious dietary laws. Food that may be consumed according to \"halakha\" (Jewish law) is termed kosher in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term \"kash\u00e9r\" (), meaning \"fit\" (in this context, fit for consumption). \"Shechita\" is the process of slaughtering prescribed by Jewish dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil laws regarding kashrut",
        "text": "For example, in some places the law may require that a rabbi certify the \"kashrut\" nature, in others the rules of kosher are fully defined in law, and in others still it is sufficient that the manufacturer only believes that the product complies with Jewish dietary regulations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "As the biblical prohibition uses the word \"gedi\" (\"kid\") and not the phrase \"gedi izim\" (\"goat-kid\") used elsewhere in the Torah, the rabbis concluded that the flesh of all domestic mammals (\"behemoth\") is included in the prohibition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Although plants and minerals are nearly always kosher, vegetarian restaurants and producers of vegetarian foods are required to obtain a \"hechsher\", certifying that a rabbinical organization has approved their products as being kosher, because the \"hechsher\" usually certifies that certain vegetables have been checked for insect infestation and steps have been taken to ensure that cooked food meets the requirements of \"bishul Yisrael\". Vegetables such as spinach and cauliflower must be checked for insect infestation. The proper procedure for inspecting and cleaning varies by species, growing conditions, and views of individual rabbis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prison food",
        "text": "Jewish prisoners may be issued kosher rations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher style",
        "text": "Jews who adhere strictly to the laws of kashrut will not eat at kosher-style establishments. Furthermore, the fact that such establishments appear to be kosher can be deceptive to Jews who are visiting an unfamiliar city and looking for kosher food. Some of these establishments are also open on the Jewish sabbath for business when this is forbidden by \"halakha\". Others may choose to eat at but not consume meat or cheese at such restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "However, by adhering to the principle that the majority case overrules the exception, Jewish tradition continues to regard such milk as kosher, since statistically it is true that most animals producing such milk are kosher; the same principle is not applied to the possibility of consuming meat from an animal that has not been checked for disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Jewish law generally requires that bread be kept \"parve\" (i.e., not kneaded with meat or dairy products nor made on meat or dairy equipment)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Torah permits only those fish which have both fins and scales to be eaten. However, monkfish is not considered kosher, and other seafood considered non-kosher includes shellfish like clams, oysters, crabs and shrimp. There is also a risk of products like seaweed and kelp being contaminated by microscopic, non-kosher crustaceans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Three times the Torah specifically forbids \"seething\" a young goat \"in its mother's milk\". The Talmud interprets this as a general prohibition against cooking meat and dairy products together, and against eating or deriving any benefit from such a mixture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Rabbinically prohibited foods include:\n* Non-Jewish milk (\"chalav akum\")\u2014milk that may have an admixture of milk from non-kosher animals (see below for current views on this prohibition).\n* Non-Jewish cheese (\"gevinat akum\")\u2014cheese that may have been produced with non-kosher rennet.\n* Non-Jewish wine (\"stam yeinam\")\u2014wine that while not produced for idolatrous purposes may otherwise have been poured for such a purpose or alternatively when consumed will lead to intermarriage.\n* Food cooked by a non-Jew (\"bishul akum\")\u2014this law was enacted for concerns of intermarriage.\n* Non-Jewish bread (\"pat akum\")\u2014this law was enacted for concerns of intermarriage.\n* Health risk (\"sakanah\")\u2014certain foods and mixtures are considered a health risk, such as mixtures of fish and meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food and drink prohibitions",
        "text": "Kashrut, the Jewish food regulations, classify all permissible foods into three categories: meat products, dairy products, and others, which are considered to be neither (including not just vegetable products, but also fish and eggs). A meal or dish may not contain both meat and dairy products. As well, meat and fish may not be cooked together, nor fish and milk, although fish cooked with other dairy products is permitted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Kosher foods\n--Permitted and forbidden animals.\n--Animal products.\n----Dairy products.\n------Human breast milk.\n----Cheese.\n----Eggs.\n------Blood found in eggs.\n----Gelatin.\n--Ritual slaughter.\n----Forbidden parts of a slaughtered animal.\n------Foreleg, cheeks and maw.\n------Blood.\n--Food preparation by non-Jews.\n--Milk and meat.\n--Safety concerns.\n----\"Pikuach nefesh\".\n----Tainted food.\n----Fish and meat.\n--Kosherfest.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher style",
        "text": "Kosher style refers to foods commonly associated with Jewish cuisine but which may or may not actually be kosher. It is a stylistic designation rather than one based on the laws of kashrut. Generally, kosher-style food does not include meat from forbidden animals, such as pigs and shellfish, and does not contain both meat and milk in the same dish however is such dish includes meat, it may not be kosher slaughtered. In some U.S. states, the use of this term in advertising is illegal as a misleading term under consumer protection laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of law articles",
        "text": "Kosher law\u00a0\u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Torah forbids two types of (creeping things):\n* Earth crawlers, e.g. mouse, lizard\n* Flying creeping things, with four exceptions: Two types of locust, the cricket, and the grasshopper (translations of the species names vary)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Torah permits eating only those land animals that chew their cud and have cloven hooves. Four animals, the hare, hyrax, camel, and pig, are specifically identified as being forbidden because they possess only one of the above characteristics: the hare, hyrax and camel are hindgut fermenters and chew their cud but do not have cloven hooves, while the pig has a cloven hoof but does not chew its cud."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Flesh of fish and bugs is not included, and therefore is considered \"pareve\". By rabbinic decree, the flesh of birds and wild mammals (\"chayot\"), such as deer, is considered as \"meat\", rather than \"pareve\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "Many of the laws apply to animal-based foods. For example, in order to be considered kosher, mammals must have split hooves and chew their cud. The pig is arguably the most well-known example of a non-kosher animal. Although it has split hooves, it does not chew its cud. For seafood to be kosher, the animal must have fins and scales. Certain types of seafood, such as shellfish, crustaceans, and eels, are therefore considered non-kosher. Concerning birds, a list of non-kosher species is given in the Torah. The exact translations of many of the species have not survived, and some non-kosher birds' identities are no longer certain. However, traditions exist about the \"kashrut\" status of a few birds. For example, both chickens and turkeys are permitted in most communities. Other types of animals, such as amphibians, reptiles, and most insects, are prohibited altogether."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher certification agency",
        "text": "A food-service venue must comply with additional halakhic requirements, such as respecting the laws of Shabbat, Yom Tov, Passover, and certain Jewish fast days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hechsher",
        "text": "The dietary laws of kashrut specify food items that may be eaten and others that are prohibited as set out in the commandments of the Torah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Furthermore, the actual foreleg, cheeks and maw of all kosher-slaughtered beef are forbidden to a non-\"kohen\" unless the \"kohen\" permits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "According to the rabbinical writers, eggs from ritually pure animals would always be prolate (\"pointy\") at one end and oblate (\"rounded\") at the other, helping to reduce uncertainty about whether consumption was permitted or not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil laws regarding kashrut",
        "text": "Historically, the statutes of some states in the United States attempted to define the term \"kosher\", and make it a felony to sell a product which was called kosher if, in general, it was not processed in accordance with the Jewish religion. However, challenges were made to such laws on the basis that they appear to be establishment of a religious practice by the states in question, which would constitute a violation of the constitutional rule that there should be no law respecting an establishment of religion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "By rabbinic law and custom, not only are meat and milk not cooked together, but they are not eaten even separately within a single meal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Every food that is considered kosher is also categorized as follows:\n* \"Meat\" products (also called \"b'sari\" or \"fleishig\") are those that contain kosher meat, such as beef, lamb or venison, kosher poultry such as chicken, goose, duck or turkey, or derivatives of meat, such as animal gelatin; non-animal products that were processed on equipment used for meat or meat-derived products must also be considered as meat (\"b'chezkat basar\")\n* \"Dairy\" products (also called c\"halavi\" or \"milchig\") contain milk or any derivatives such as butter or cheese; non-dairy products that were processed on equipment used for milk or milk-derived products must also be considered as milk (\"b'chezkat chalav\")\n* \"Pareve\" products contain neither meat, nor milk nor their respective derivatives, and include foods such as fish, eggs, grains, fruit and produce; they remain \"pareve\" if they are not mixed with or processed using equipment that is used for any meat or dairy products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Compromises in countries with animal-cruelty laws that prohibit such practices involve stunning the animal to lessen the suffering that occurs while the animal bleeds to death. However, the use of electric shocks to daze the animal is often not accepted by some markets as producing meat that is kosher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Biblically prohibited mixtures include:\n* Mixtures of meat and milk (\"basar be-chalav\")\u2014this law derives from the broad interpretation of the commandment not to \"cook a kid in its mother's milk\"; other non-kosher foods are permitted for non-dietary use (e.g. to be sold to non-Jews), but Jews are forbidden to benefit from mixtures of meat and milk in any way.\n* Different species of plants grown together (\"kilayim\")\u2014in the Land of Israel different species of plants are to be grown separately and not in close proximity according to Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:9\u201311.\n:A specific subdivision of this law is \"kil'ei ha-kerem\", the prohibition of planting any grain or vegetable near a grapevine; this law applies to Jews throughout the world, and a Jew may not derive benefit from such produce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Talmud adds to the biblical regulations a prohibition against consuming poisoned animals. Similarly, Yoreh De'ah prohibits the drinking of water, if the water had been left uncovered overnight in an area where there might be snakes, on the basis that a snake might have left its venom in the water. In a place where there aren't usually snakes, this prohibition does not apply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism is more lenient; in the 1960s, Rabbi Silverman issued a \"responsum\", officially approved by the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, in which he argued that wine manufactured by an automated process was not \"manufactured by gentiles\", and therefore would be kosher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bishul Yisrael",
        "text": "The prohibition applies only if the food is prepared \"exclusively\" by non-Jews. A small amount of Jewish participation can suffice to keep the food kosher. Different rabbis have different views on the absolute minimum: Sephardi poskim state that the minimum participation is to light the fire and place the pot on it to cook, while Ashkenazim are satisfied with merely lighting the fire, or even making a slight adjustment to a fire which was already lit by a non-Jew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Strict followers of the dietary laws of Islam and Judaism must avoid cheeses made with rennet from animals not slaughtered in a manner adhering to halal or kosher laws. Both faiths allow cheese made with vegetable-based rennet or with rennet made from animals that were processed in a halal or kosher manner. Many less orthodox Jews also believe that rennet undergoes enough processing to change its nature entirely and do not consider it to ever violate kosher law. (See \"Cheese and kashrut\".) As cheese is a dairy food, under kosher rules it cannot be eaten in the same meal with any meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "About a sixth of American Jews or 0.3% of the American population fully keep kosher, and many more of them do not strictly follow all of the rules but still abstain from some prohibited foods (especially pork). The Seventh-day Adventist Church, a Christian denomination, preaches a health message which expects adherence to the kosher dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Traditional Jewish thought has expressed the view that all meat must come from animals that have been slaughtered according to Jewish law. These guidelines require the animal be killed by a single cut across the throat to a precise depth, severing both carotid arteries, both jugular veins, both vagus nerves, the trachea and the esophagus, no higher than the epiglottis and no lower than where cilia begin inside the trachea, causing the animal to bleed to death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food and drink prohibitions",
        "text": "Islamic, Judaic law (including Noahide Law), and some laws of some Christians forbid any portion that is cut from a live animal (Genesis 9:4, as interpreted in the Talmud, Sanhedrin 59a). Judaism restricts this prohibition to land animals and birds; fish do not require kosher slaughter, but must first be killed before being eaten. However in the case of a \"ben pekuah\" where a live offspring is removed from the mother's womb, these restrictions do not apply."
      },
      {
        "title": "New York State Department of Agriculture and Markets",
        "text": "While the department \"maintains an online registry of food represented as kosher\" it does not define what is kosher. Consumers are provided, per the Kosher Law Protection Act of 2004, with \"information identifying the person or organization certifying that food as kosher,\" and as of 2005 may also search online."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Producers of foods and food additives can contact Jewish religious authorities to have their products certified as \"kosher\": this involves a visit to the manufacturing facilities by an individual rabbi or a committee from a rabbinic organization, who will inspect the production methods and contents and, if everything is sufficiently \"kosher\" a certificate would be issued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "The laws of \"kashrut\" can be classified according to the origin of the prohibition (Biblical or rabbinical) and whether the prohibition concerns the food itself or a mixture of foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food and drink prohibitions",
        "text": "In Judaism and Samaritism, certain locusts are allowed as food (Leviticus 11:22). Otherwise, insects are not considered kosher foods. Kashrut also requires that practitioners check other foods carefully for insects. In Islam, locusts are considered lawful food and do not require ritual slaughtering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Some have claimed that the Book of Ezekiel implies that the rules about animals that die of natural causes, or are \"torn by beasts\", were adhered to only by the priests, and were intended only for them; the implication that they did not apply to, and were not upheld by, ordinary Israelites was noticed by the classical rabbis, who declared \"the prophet Elijah shall some day explain this problematic passage\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tav HaYosher",
        "text": "Traditional kosher certification agencies such as the Orthodox Union and Star-K offer kosher certification (known in Hebrew as a Hechsher), which confirms that the food meets the standards of kosher dietary law and can be eaten by those Jews who observe the laws of Kashrut. Many non-Jews purchase kosher food, believing that the kosher certification implies that the food was produced to meet a higher ethical standard all around, not just in terms of Jewish law (Halacha) and Kashrut. Many kosher consumers were shocked to discover that Agriprocessors, a kosher slaughterhouse and meat processor in Postville, Iowa, had been raided by Federal authorities on May 12, 2009, where U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement had discovered breaches ranging from fraud to defiance of child labor laws to immigration violations."
      },
      {
        "title": "60 (number)",
        "text": "In the laws of kashrut of Judaism, 60 is the proportion (60:1) of kosher to non-kosher ingredients that can render an admixture kosher post-facto."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk and meat in Jewish law",
        "text": "These restrictions remove certain dishes from Jewish cuisine, and induce alterations in others."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Kosher-style food is food that is made in the style of kosher food but that does not necessarily conform to Jewish dietary laws. For example, a kosher-style hot dog is an all-beef hot dog that is mildly spiced with garlic and other flavorings, and a kosher-style pickle is a sour pickle aged in brine with garlic and dill. The term \"kosher-style\" may also refer to American Jewish cuisine in general."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk and meat in Jewish law",
        "text": "In light of these issues, kashrut-observant Jews can take the precaution of maintaining two distinct sets of crockery and cutlery; one set (known in Yiddish as \"milchig\" and in Hebrew as \"halavi\") is for food containing dairy produce, while the other (known in Yiddish as \"fleishig\"/\"fleishedik\" and in Hebrew as \"basari\") is for food containing meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Secularism in Israel",
        "text": "Also, all food at army bases and in cafeterias of government/state buildings has to be kosher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine",
        "text": "Certain foods and food preparations are required or proscribed by the religiousness or sumptuary laws, such as Islamic dietary laws and Jewish dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Only meat from particular species is permissible. Mammals that \"both\" chew their cud (ruminate) and have cloven hooves can be kosher. Animals with one characteristic but not the other (the camel, the hyrax, and the hare because they have no cloven hooves, and the pig because it does not ruminate) are specifically excluded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Messianic Judaism",
        "text": "The observance of the dietary laws is a subject of continued debate among Messianic Jews. Some Messianic believers keep kosher purely for the purposes of evangelism to Jewish people. Most avoid pork and shellfish, but there is disagreement on more strict adherence to kosher dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Rabbi Hershel Schachter argued that with modern dairy-farm equipment, milk from the minority of non-kosher cows is invariably mixed with that of the majority of kosher cows, thus invalidating the permissibility of consuming milk from a large dairy operation. Many leading rabbis, however, rule milk permissible, as do major \"kashrut\" authorities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher style",
        "text": "Kosher style\n--Kashrut law.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Comparison of Islamic and Jewish dietary laws",
        "text": "As a rule of thumb, most kosher foods not containing alcohol are also halal. However, there are some exceptions, and this article lists the similarities and differences between the two laws.\n*Swine is prohibited by both sets of beliefs. Animals with fangs (i.e. cats, dogs, lions, bears) are also prohibited by both sets of beliefs, as well as amphibians and reptiles.\n*Almost all animals permitted in kashrut are also halal, such as bovines.\n*To be kosher, aquatic animals must have scales and fins. Most Sunni schools of thought adhere to the interpretation that all creatures from the ocean or the sea or lake are considered halal (except Hanafi school that require it to be fish). Twelver Shia Muslims however consider that only sea creatures that have scales are halal, but make an exception with some crustaceans; shrimp and prawns, but not lobsters. This is similar to the Jewish law with the exception of fins.\n*Gelatin, according to one of the two Islamic viewpoints, it is only permissible if it comes from a permissible animal, but according to another Islamic viewpoint, gelatin is halal, whatever its source, due to a chemical transformation, as for Judaism usually kosher gelatin comes from the bones of kosher fish, or is a vegan substitute, such as agar. Judaism finds that only gelatin made from kosher animals or kosher fish are in essence \"kosher gelatins.\"\n* Almost all insects are prohibited by both sets of law, although of the Maliki school of Sunni Islam permits eating insects, with the condition of it being dead by any means. The few kosher insects are specific types of locusts and grasshoppers (see kosher locust) which are not eaten today in most Jewish communities and it is unknown which species is permitted (the exception being the Yemenite Jews, who claim to have preserved this knowledge); however all types of locusts are considered halal in sharia.\n* For a substance to be halal, it must not contain alcohol of any kind. However, there is a difference drawn between the addition of alcohol to foods, which is absolutely forbidden, and the small quantities that naturally become present \u2013 such as orange juice. Except for grape wine and grape juice (which must be manufactured under Jewish supervision), kashrut allows the consumption of any sort of alcohol (besides Mezcal made with a worm/larva) as long as it has kosher ingredients (excluding any unsupervised grape extracts).\n* The list of animals forbidden by kashrut is more restrictive, as kashrut requires that to be kosher, mammals must chew cud and must have cloven hooves. Thus some animals such as camels and rabbits are halal, but not kosher.\n* Kashrut requires strict separation of dairy and meat products, even when they are kosher.\n* According to Jewish dietary laws, cooking equipment cannot come into contact with both meat and dairy. Both the kitchen utensils and eating utensils used must be designated to either one or the other.\n* Wine was very important in early Judaism. The Jewish Talmud stated that wine is an alternative to other medicines. Wine is permitted by all Jews as long as it is kosher. In order for wine to be kosher, it has to be made with all kosher ingredients and the entirety of the process from the picking of the grapes to the process of bottling the wine has to be supervised or created by other Jews. It is also a part of the Shabbat dinner and many other rituals. Especially the Passover Seder, where part of the ritual for Jewish tradition is for each person to drink four cups of wine. Grape juice is also an acceptable substitute for its alcoholic counterpart. Wine is also recommended to drink during the Jewish holiday of Purim. Meanwhile, in Islam alcohol is considered morally and socially unacceptable and is not used in any religious processes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Some Jews refer to these prohibited foods as \"akum\", an acronym of \"Ovde Kokhavim U Mazzaloth\" (), meaning \"worshippers of stars and planets (or Zodiac)\". \"Akum\" is thus a reference to activities that these Jews view as idolatry, and in many significant works of post-classical Jewish literature, such as the \"Shulchan Aruch\", it has been applied to Christians in particular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Fish (and kosher locusts, for those who follow the traditions permitting them) must be killed before being eaten, but no particular method has been specified in Jewish law. Legal aspects of ritual slaughter are governed not only by Jewish law but civil law as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher restaurant",
        "text": "Most kosher Subways had failed by 2011, and some of these locations must modify their typical menus in order to comply with Jewish dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abrahamic religions",
        "text": "Judaism and Islam have strict dietary laws, with permitted food known as kosher in Judaism, and halal in Islam. These two religions prohibit the consumption of pork; Islam prohibits the consumption of alcoholic beverages of any kind. Halal restrictions can be seen as a modification of the kashrut dietary laws, so many kosher foods are considered halal; especially in the case of meat, which Islam prescribes must be slaughtered in the name of God. Hence, in many places, Muslims used to consume kosher food. However, some foods not considered kosher are considered halal in Islam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Fish must have fins and scales to be kosher. Shellfish and other non-fish water fauna are not kosher. (See kosher species of fish.) Insects are not kosher, except for certain species of kosher locust. Any animal that eats other animals, whether they kill their food or eat carrion, is generally not kosher, as well as any animal that has been partially eaten by other animals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher style",
        "text": "Almost always, when a restaurant calls itself kosher style, the food is not actually kosher according to traditional \"halakhic\" (Jewish law) standards. The Reuben sandwich, which contains meat and cheese, is not kosher, nor is the Monte Cristo sandwich, made with ham and cheese. Dairy-based desserts such as cheesecake may be offered as complements to a meat dish. However, since fish is pareve (neither meat nor dairy), lox on a bagel spread with cream cheese may be kosher if the lox meets the requirements of kashrut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish and democratic state",
        "text": "The boundaries of the definition of \"a Jewish and democratic state\" are subject to public discourse in Israel, in context of the relation between state and government. Already in 1994, the question whether Israeli Government (i.e. the Cabinet) is permitted to limit the import of Non-Kosher meat, despite the Basic Law: Freedom of Occupation arose. Initially, the Israeli High Court of Justice ruled that the government is not permitted to limit such import of non-Kosher meat. However, after the Knesset passed some amendments to the basic laws, the limit was included."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Many of the certification symbols are accompanied by additional letters or words to indicate the category of the product, according to Jewish law; the categorization may conflict with legal classifications, especially in the case of food that Jewish law regards as \"dairy\", but legal classification does not.\n* D\u2014Dairy\n* DE\u2014Dairy equipment\n* M\u2014Meat, including poultry\n*\"Pareve\"\u2014Food that is neither meat nor dairy\n* Fish\n* P\u2014Passover-related (\"P\" is not used for \"Pareve\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher Today",
        "text": "Kosher Today is a periodical focused on \"foods that are prepared according to kashrut, the dietary regulations of Judaism.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Many Jews partially observe \"kashrut,\" by abstaining from pork or shellfish or by not drinking milk with meat dishes. Some keep kosher at home but eat in non-kosher restaurants. In 2012, one analysis of the specialty food market in North America estimated that only 15% of kosher consumers were Jewish. Kosher meat is regularly consumed by Muslims when \"halal\" is not available. Muslims, Hindus, and people with allergies to dairy foods often consider the \"kosher-pareve\" designation as an assurance that a food contains no animal-derived ingredients, including milk and all of its derivatives. However, since \"kosher-pareve\" foods may contain honey, eggs, or fish, vegans cannot rely on the certification."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Kosher foods conforms to what law?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Kosher foods conform to Jewish dietary law.",
      "Kosher foods  conform to the Jewish dietary regulations of kashrut (dietary law)."
    ],
    "topic": "Kosher foods",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Kosher foods:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Kosher foods"
        ],
        "ctx": "Kosher foods are those foods that conform to the Jewish dietary regulations of \"kashrut\" (dietary law), the Jewish dietary law is primarily derived from Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14:1-21. Foods that may be consumed according to \"halakha\" (Jewish law) are termed \"kosher\" () in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term \"kash\u00e9r\" (), meaning \"fit\" (in this context, fit for consumption). Foods that are not in accordance with Jewish law are called \"treif\" (; , derived from \"tr\u0101f\u00e1h\") meaning \"torn.\""
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Kosher foods:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Kosher foods"
        ],
        "ctx": "Kosher foods are those foods that conform to the Jewish dietary regulations of \"kashrut\" (dietary law), the Jewish dietary law is primarily derived from Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14:1-21. Foods that may be consumed according to \"halakha\" (Jewish law) are termed \"kosher\" () in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term \"kash\u00e9r\" (), meaning \"fit\" (in this context, fit for consumption). Foods that are not in accordance with Jewish law are called \"treif\" (; , derived from \"tr\u0101f\u00e1h\") meaning \"torn.\""
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "American Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Kosher food is food that conforms to \"kashrut\", i.e. Jewish dietary laws. Under these rules, some foods \u2013 for example, pork and shellfish \u2013 are forbidden. Any meat must come from an animal that was slaughtered using a process known as \"shechita\". Jewish dietary law also prohibits the eating of meat and milk at the same meal. For this purpose, \"meat\" means the flesh of mammals and birds, and \"milk\" includes dairy products such as cheese and butter. Thus a kosher delicatessen selling corned beef sandwiches would not have any cheese, and a kosher bakery selling bagels and cream cheese would not have any meat. Many foods are classified as pareve (sometimes spelled \"parve\") \u2013 neither meat nor milk, and therefore acceptable at any meal. Pareve foods include fish, eggs, honey, and any edible plant. Kosher commercial establishments must be closed from Friday evening to Saturday evening, during the Jewish sabbath."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meat",
        "text": "Jewish dietary rules (\"Kashrut\") allow certain (\"kosher\") meat and forbid other (\"treif\"). The rules include prohibitions on the consumption of unclean animals (such as pork, shellfish including mollusca and crustacea, and most insects), and mixtures of meat and milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "The Jewish dietary laws are known as \"kashrut\". Food prepared in accordance with them is termed kosher, and food that is not kosher is also known as \"treifah\" or \"treif\". People who observe these laws are colloquially said to be \"keeping kosher\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism and Mormonism",
        "text": "The laws of \"kashrut\" (\"keeping kosher\") are the Jewish dietary laws. Food in accord with \"halakha\" (Jewish law) is termed kosher, and food not in accord with Jewish law is termed \"treifah\" or \"treif\". Kosher laws address which kinds of animals can be eaten and requires separation of milk and meat (disputed), that vegetables be thoroughly inspected for insects, that animals be ritually slaughtered by certified persons, and that many food products be produced under rabbinical supervision. Produce of the Land of Israel has further restrictions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Kosher foods are those foods that conform to the Jewish dietary regulations of \"kashrut\" (dietary law), the Jewish dietary law is primarily derived from Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14:1-21. Foods that may be consumed according to \"halakha\" (Jewish law) are termed \"kosher\" () in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term \"kash\u00e9r\" (), meaning \"fit\" (in this context, fit for consumption). Foods that are not in accordance with Jewish law are called \"treif\" (; , derived from \"tr\u0101f\u00e1h\") meaning \"torn.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Bishul Yisrael",
        "text": "The prohibition applies only if the food is prepared \"exclusively\" by non-Jews. A small amount of Jewish participation can suffice to keep the food kosher. Different rabbis have different views on the absolute minimum: Sephardi poskim state that the minimum participation is to light the fire and place the pot on it to cook, while Ashkenazim are satisfied with merely lighting the fire, or even making a slight adjustment to a fire which was already lit by a non-Jew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher style",
        "text": "Jews who adhere strictly to the laws of kashrut will not eat at kosher-style establishments. Furthermore, the fact that such establishments appear to be kosher can be deceptive to Jews who are visiting an unfamiliar city and looking for kosher food. Some of these establishments are also open on the Jewish sabbath for business when this is forbidden by \"halakha\". Others may choose to eat at but not consume meat or cheese at such restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil laws regarding kashrut",
        "text": "Civil laws regarding \"kashrut\" (Jewish religious standards, mainly concerning food) are found in several countries. Advertising standards laws in many jurisdictions prohibit the use of the phrase \"kosher\" in a product's labelling, unless it can be shown that the product conforms to Jewish dietary laws; however, the legal qualifications for \"conforming\" to Jewish dietary laws are often defined differently in different jurisdictions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Consequently, Orthodox Jews generally rule that wine, certain cooked foods, and sometimes dairy products, should be prepared only by Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Advertising standards laws in many jurisdictions prohibit the use of the phrase \"kosher\" in a product's labeling unless the producer can show that the product conforms to Jewish dietary laws; however, different jurisdictions often define the legal qualifications for conforming to Jewish dietary laws differently. For example, in some places the law may require that a rabbi certify the \"kashrut\" nature, in others the rules of \"kosher\" are fully defined in law, and in others still it is sufficient that the manufacturer only believes that the product complies with Jewish dietary regulations. In several cases, laws restricting the use of the term \"kosher\" have later been determined to be illegal religious interference."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher style",
        "text": "Jews who do not keep kosher but wish to restrict themselves to eating \"traditional style\" foods, usually not eating forbidden animals or mixing milk and meat, may consider themselves to keep \"kosher style\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bishul Yisrael",
        "text": "The law applies only to foods which, according to the Talmud, are \"fit for a king's table\" and are not generally eaten raw. Foods which would not be served at a state dinner are exempt from \"bishul akum\", and are kosher even if cooked totally by non-Jews, provided that all the other requirements of kosher food are met. Maimonides explains that this prohibition was originally decreed in order to avoid a Jew being invited over by a non-Jew for a meal (which may lead to intermarriage), and people do not invite each other for dinner over food which is not \"fit for a King's table\" (Maimonides, Ma'akhalot Asurot 17:15)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Messianic Judaism",
        "text": "The observance of the dietary laws is a subject of continued debate among Messianic Jews. Some Messianic believers keep kosher purely for the purposes of evangelism to Jewish people. Most avoid pork and shellfish, but there is disagreement on more strict adherence to kosher dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Biblically prohibited foods include:\n* Non-kosher animals\u2014any mammals without certain identifying characteristics (cloven hooves and rumination); any birds of prey; any fish without fins or scales (thus excluding catfish, for instance).\n:All invertebrates are non-kosher apart from certain types of locust, on which most communities lack a clear tradition. No reptiles or amphibians are kosher.\n* Carrion (\"nevelah\")\u2014meat from a kosher animal that has not been slaughtered according to the laws of \"shechita\". This prohibition includes animals that have been slaughtered by non-Jews.\n* Injured (\"terefah\")\u2014an animal with a significant defect or injury, such as a fractured bone or particular types of lung adhesions.\n* Blood (\"dam\")\u2014the blood of kosher mammals and fowl is removed through salting, with special procedures for the liver, which is very rich in blood.\n* Particular fats (\"chelev\")\u2014particular parts of the abdominal fat of cattle, goats and sheep must be removed by a process called \"nikkur\".\n* The twisted nerve (\"gid hanasheh\")\u2014the sciatic nerve, as according to Genesis 32:32 the patriarch Jacob's was damaged when he fought with an angel, so may not be eaten and is removed by \"nikkur\".\n* A limb of a living animal (\"ever min ha-chai\")\u2014according to Jewish law, God forbade Noah and his descendants to consume flesh torn from a live animal. Hence, Jewish law considers this prohibition applicable even to non-Jews, and therefore, a Jew may not give or sell such meat to a non-Jew.\n* Untithed food (\"tevel\")\u2014produce of the Land of Israel requires the removal of certain tithes, which in ancient times were given to the \"kohanim\" (priests), Levites and the poor (\"terumah\", \"maaser rishon\" and \"maasar ani\" respectively) or taken to the Old City of Jerusalem to be eaten there (\"maaser sheni\").\n* Fruit during the first three years (\"orlah\")\u2014according to Leviticus 19:23, fruit from a tree in the first three years after planting may not be consumed (both in the Land of Israel and the diaspora). This applies also to the fruit of the vine\u2014grapes, and wine produced from them.\n* New grain (\"chadash\")\u2014the Bible prohibits newly grown grain (planted after Passover the previous year) until the second day of Passover; there is debate as to whether this law applies to grain grown outside the Land of Israel.\n* Wine of libation (\"yayin nesekh\")\u2014wine that may have been dedicated to idolatrous practices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic\u2013Jewish relations",
        "text": "Under the strict dietary laws, lawful food is called \"Kosher\" in Judaism and \"Halal\" in Islam. Both religions prohibit the consumption of pork. Halal restrictions are similar to a subset of the Kashrut dietary laws, so all kosher foods are considered halal, while not all halal foods are Kosher. Halal laws, for instance, do not prohibit the mixing of milk and meat or the consumption of shellfish, each of which are prohibited by the kosher laws, with the exception that in the Shia Islam belief shellfish, mussels, and similar sea foods and fish without scales are not considered halal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Kashrut (also kashruth or kashrus, ) is a set of dietary laws dealing with the foods that Jews are permitted to eat and how those foods must be prepared according to Jewish law. Food that may be consumed is deemed kosher ( in English, ), from the Ashkenazic pronunciation (KUHsher) of Hebrew \"kash\u00e9r\" (), meaning \"fit\" (in this context: \"fit for consumption\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "About a sixth of American Jews or 0.3% of the American population fully keep kosher, and many more of them do not strictly follow all of the rules but still abstain from some prohibited foods (especially pork). The Seventh-day Adventist Church, a Christian denomination, preaches a health message which expects adherence to the kosher dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "A later \"responsum\" of Conservative Judaism was issued by Rabbi Dorff, who argued, based on precedents in 15th- to 19th-century \"responsa\", that many foods, such as wheat and oil products, which had once been forbidden when produced by non-Jews, were eventually declared kosher. On this basis he concluded wine and grape products produced by non-Jews would be permissible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher restaurant",
        "text": "A kosher restaurant serves food that complies with Jewish dietary laws (\"kashrut\"). These businesses operate under rabbinical supervision, which requires that the laws of \"kashrut\", as well as certain other Jewish laws, must be observed. Among those laws, the meat and dairy cannot be mixed, and grape products made by non-Jews cannot be consumed."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "American Jewish cuisine may or may not be kosher. For example, some delicatessens follow Jewish dietary law in the preparation and serving of food, while others do not. Followers of Orthodox Judaism, the most traditional form of Judaism, generally eat only kosher food. Some other more-observant Jews also eat kosher food most or all of the time. However, the majority of American Jews are less observant of traditional rules, and eat non-kosher food. According to a 2012 study by the Pew Research Center, 22 percent of American Jews keep kosher in their homes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "The laws of keeping kosher (\"kashrut\") have influenced Jewish cooking by prescribing what foods are permitted and how food must be prepared. The word kosher is usually translated as \"proper\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Leviticus prohibits the eating of certain types of fat (\"chelev\") from sacrificial land animals (cattle, sheep, and goats), since the fat is the portion of the meat exclusively allocated to God (by burning it on the altar)."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Jews",
        "text": "About one-sixth of American Jews maintain kosher dietary standards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "Although many, if not most, Jews in Israel do not keep kosher, the tradition of \"kashrut\" strongly influences the availability of certain foods and their preparation in homes, public institutions and many restaurants, including the separation of milk and meat and avoiding the use of non-kosher foods, especially pork and shellfish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Talmud, and later Jewish authorities, also prohibit the consumption of meat from animals who were slaughtered despite being in the process of dying from disease. This not based on concern for the health of the eater, instead being an extension of the rules banning the meat from animals torn by beasts, and animals that die from natural causes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "To comply with this Talmudic injunction against eating diseased animals, Orthodox Jews usually require that the corpses of freshly slaughtered animals be thoroughly inspected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "A 2008 survey reported that about half of Israeli Jews do not always observe \"kashrut\". Israel's anomalous equanimity toward its religious dietary restrictions may be reflected by the fact that some of the Hebrew cookbooks of Yisrael Aharoni are published in two versions: kosher and non-kosher editions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Kosher is food that may be consumed according to the \"Kashrut\", or Jewish dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Jewish law generally requires that bread be kept \"parve\" (i.e., not kneaded with meat or dairy products nor made on meat or dairy equipment)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Torah forbids two types of (creeping things):\n* Earth crawlers, e.g. mouse, lizard\n* Flying creeping things, with four exceptions: Two types of locust, the cricket, and the grasshopper (translations of the species names vary)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food and drink prohibitions",
        "text": "Kashrut, the Jewish food regulations, classify all permissible foods into three categories: meat products, dairy products, and others, which are considered to be neither (including not just vegetable products, but also fish and eggs). A meal or dish may not contain both meat and dairy products. As well, meat and fish may not be cooked together, nor fish and milk, although fish cooked with other dairy products is permitted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher restaurant",
        "text": "Such locations must be closed during Shabbat and Jewish holidays if under Jewish ownership. Also, dairy and meat must be kept separate. In most cases, a kosher establishment is limited to serving exclusively either dairy (\"milchig\") or meat (\"fleishig\") foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Classical rabbis prohibited any item of food that had been consecrated to an idol or had been used in the service of an idol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Certain foods must be prepared in whole or in part by Jews. This includes grape wine, certain cooked foods (\"bishul akum\"), cheese (\"g'vinat akum\"), and according to some also butter (\"chem'at akum\"), dairy products (Hebrew: \u05d7\u05dc\u05d1 \u05d9\u05e9\u05e8\u05d0\u05dc chalav Yisrael \"milk of Israel\"), and bread (Pas Yisroel)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "One of the few dietary laws appearing in Exodus prohibits eating the meat from animals that have been \"torn by beasts\"; a related law appears in Deuteronomy, prohibiting the consumption of anything that has died from natural causes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hechsher",
        "text": "The dietary laws of kashrut specify food items that may be eaten and others that are prohibited as set out in the commandments of the Torah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk and meat in Jewish law",
        "text": "Food in the \"parve\" category includes fish, fruit, vegetables, salt, etc.; among the Karaites and Ethiopian Jews it also includes poultry. The \"Talmud\" states that the Biblical prohibition applies only to meat and milk of domesticated kosher mammals; that is, cattle, goats, and sheep. It adds that according to the view of Rabbi Akiva, the Rabbis instituted a protective decree extending the law to the meat and milk of wild kosher mammals, such as deer, as well as the meat of kosher poultry, such as chickens. The \"Shulchan Aruch\" follows this approach."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism is more lenient; in the 1960s, Rabbi Silverman issued a \"responsum\", officially approved by the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, in which he argued that wine manufactured by an automated process was not \"manufactured by gentiles\", and therefore would be kosher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roe",
        "text": "For most Orthodox Jewish consumers who keep kosher, roe or caviar must be processed under kosher supervision as well. The only exception to this rule is red roe, thanks to a widely accepted responsa by the Bais Yosef."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prison food",
        "text": "Jewish prisoners may be issued kosher rations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "According to the Shulchan Aruch, a rabbinic decree (called \"gevinat akum\") prohibits all cheese made by non-Jews without Jewish supervision, even if its ingredients are all kosher, because very frequently the rennet in cheese is not kosher. Rabbeinu Tam and some of the geonim suggested that this decree does not apply in a location where cheese is commonly made with only kosher ingredients, a position that was practiced in communities in Narbonne and Italy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hechsher",
        "text": "Observant Jews will generally only eat permitted foods. To assist Jewish consumers, rabbinic authorities produce and regulate their own \"hechsherim\". It is usually Orthodox rabbis who assume the jobs of \"mashgichim\" (singular: \"mashgiach\", \"supervisor\"). This means that they will \"supervise\" the products and processes that manufacture kosher food to ensure compliance with the required standards. The \"mashgiach\" will allow the manufacturer to apply a \"hechsher\" to the packaging of the product only if it is found to contain only kosher ingredients and produced following \"halakha\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg",
        "text": "According to the Kashrut, that is the set of Jewish dietary laws, kosher food may be consumed according to \"halakha\" (Jewish law). Kosher meat and milk (or derivatives) cannot be mixed () or stored together. Eggs are considered \"pareve\" (neither meat nor dairy) despite being an animal product and can be mixed with either milk or kosher meat. Mayonnaise, for instance, is usually marked \"pareve\" despite by definition containing egg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher restaurant",
        "text": "In some U.S. states and other jurisdictions, laws have been passed that mandate establishments that claim to be kosher to actually comply with Jewish dietary laws. These jurisdictions sometimes employ rabbis to aid in enforcing these laws. Some of these laws, including one in New York State, have been overturned by courts on constitutional grounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "To comply with this prohibition, a number of preparation techniques became practiced within traditional Judaism. The main technique, known as \"meli\u1e25ah\", involves the meat being soaked in water for about half an hour, which opens pores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Although the details of the laws of \"kashrut\" are numerous and complex, they rest on a few basic principles:\n* Only certain types of mammals, birds and fish meeting specific criteria are kosher; the consumption of the flesh of any animals that do not meet these criteria, such as pork, frogs, and shellfish, is forbidden.\n* Kosher mammals and birds must be slaughtered according to a process known as \"shechita\"; blood may never be consumed and must be removed from meat by a process of salting and soaking in water for the meat to be permissible for use.\n* Meat and meat derivatives may never be mixed with milk and milk derivatives: separate equipment for the storage and preparation of meat-based and dairy-based foods must be used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Many Jews partially observe \"kashrut,\" by abstaining from pork or shellfish or by not drinking milk with meat dishes. Some keep kosher at home but eat in non-kosher restaurants. In 2012, one analysis of the specialty food market in North America estimated that only 15% of kosher consumers were Jewish. Kosher meat is regularly consumed by Muslims when \"halal\" is not available. Muslims, Hindus, and people with allergies to dairy foods often consider the \"kosher-pareve\" designation as an assurance that a food contains no animal-derived ingredients, including milk and all of its derivatives. However, since \"kosher-pareve\" foods may contain honey, eggs, or fish, vegans cannot rely on the certification."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abrahamic religions",
        "text": "Judaism and Islam have strict dietary laws, with permitted food known as kosher in Judaism, and halal in Islam. These two religions prohibit the consumption of pork; Islam prohibits the consumption of alcoholic beverages of any kind. Halal restrictions can be seen as a modification of the kashrut dietary laws, so many kosher foods are considered halal; especially in the case of meat, which Islam prescribes must be slaughtered in the name of God. Hence, in many places, Muslims used to consume kosher food. However, some foods not considered kosher are considered halal in Islam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish and democratic state",
        "text": "The boundaries of the definition of \"a Jewish and democratic state\" are subject to public discourse in Israel, in context of the relation between state and government. Already in 1994, the question whether Israeli Government (i.e. the Cabinet) is permitted to limit the import of Non-Kosher meat, despite the Basic Law: Freedom of Occupation arose. Initially, the Israeli High Court of Justice ruled that the government is not permitted to limit such import of non-Kosher meat. However, after the Knesset passed some amendments to the basic laws, the limit was included."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Certain foods, notably pork, shellfish and almost all insects are forbidden; meat and dairy may not be combined and meat must be ritually slaughtered and salted to remove all traces of blood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "However, by adhering to the principle that the majority case overrules the exception, Jewish tradition continues to regard such milk as kosher, since statistically it is true that most animals producing such milk are kosher; the same principle is not applied to the possibility of consuming meat from an animal that has not been checked for disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Observant Jews will eat only meat or poultry that is certified kosher. The meat must have been slaughtered by a \"shochet\" (ritual slaughterer) in accordance with Jewish law and is entirely drained of blood. Before it is cooked, it is soaked in water for half an hour, then placed on a perforated board, sprinkled with coarse salt (which draws out the blood) and left to sit for one hour. At the end of this time, the salt is washed off and the meat is ready for cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian dietary laws",
        "text": "The Council of Jerusalem instructed gentile Christians not to consume blood, food offered to idols, or the meat of strangled animals, since \"the Law of Moses has been preached in every city from the earliest times and is read in the synagogues on every Sabbath.\" In Judaism, Jews are forbidden from consuming (amongst other things) any carnivores and omnivores, herbivores that are not ruminants, any ruminants that do not have split hooves, shellfish (including shrimps and lobsters), unscaled and finless fish, blood, food offered to idols, or the meat of living or strangled animals. The Seven Laws of Noah, which Jews believe gentiles must follow, also forbid consuming the meat of living animals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Some Jews refer to these prohibited foods as \"akum\", an acronym of \"Ovde Kokhavim U Mazzaloth\" (), meaning \"worshippers of stars and planets (or Zodiac)\". \"Akum\" is thus a reference to activities that these Jews view as idolatry, and in many significant works of post-classical Jewish literature, such as the \"Shulchan Aruch\", it has been applied to Christians in particular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil laws regarding kashrut",
        "text": "For example, in some places the law may require that a rabbi certify the \"kashrut\" nature, in others the rules of kosher are fully defined in law, and in others still it is sufficient that the manufacturer only believes that the product complies with Jewish dietary regulations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pescetarianism",
        "text": "Pescetarianism (provided the fish is ruled kosher) conforms to Jewish dietary laws. Fish (and all other animal seafood) must have fins and scales to be considered kosher. Aquatic mammals such as dolphins and whales are not kosher, nor are cartilaginous fish such as sharks and rays, since they all have dermal denticles and not bony-fish scales. The lack of fins and scales also makes crustaceans (shrimp, crab, lobster, etc.) and molluscs (oyster, clam, conch, octopus, squid, etc.) non-kosher. Roe, such as caviar, is considered kosher if it comes from a kosher fish. A pescetarian diet simplifies adherence to the Judaic separation of meat and dairy products, as kosher fish is \"pareve\"\u2014neither \"milk\" nor \"meat\". In 2015, members of the Liberal Judaism synagogue in Manchester founded The Pescetarian Society, citing pescetarianism as originally a Jewish diet, and pescetarianism as a form of vegetarianism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "In addition to meat, products of forbidden species and from unhealthy animals were banned by the Talmudic writers. This included eggs (including fish roe) and milk, as well as derived products such as cheese and jelly, but did not include materials merely \"manufactured\" or \"gathered\" by animals, such as honey (although, in the case of honey from animals other than bees, there was a difference of opinion among the ancient writers)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk and meat in Jewish law",
        "text": "These restrictions remove certain dishes from Jewish cuisine, and induce alterations in others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Although plants and minerals are nearly always kosher, vegetarian restaurants and producers of vegetarian foods are required to obtain a \"hechsher\", certifying that a rabbinical organization has approved their products as being kosher, because the \"hechsher\" usually certifies that certain vegetables have been checked for insect infestation and steps have been taken to ensure that cooked food meets the requirements of \"bishul Yisrael\". Vegetables such as spinach and cauliflower must be checked for insect infestation. The proper procedure for inspecting and cleaning varies by species, growing conditions, and views of individual rabbis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "Many of the laws apply to animal-based foods. For example, in order to be considered kosher, mammals must have split hooves and chew their cud. The pig is arguably the most well-known example of a non-kosher animal. Although it has split hooves, it does not chew its cud. For seafood to be kosher, the animal must have fins and scales. Certain types of seafood, such as shellfish, crustaceans, and eels, are therefore considered non-kosher. Concerning birds, a list of non-kosher species is given in the Torah. The exact translations of many of the species have not survived, and some non-kosher birds' identities are no longer certain. However, traditions exist about the \"kashrut\" status of a few birds. For example, both chickens and turkeys are permitted in most communities. Other types of animals, such as amphibians, reptiles, and most insects, are prohibited altogether."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity and Judaism",
        "text": "Orthodox Jews, unlike most Christians, still practice a restrictive diet that has many rules. Most Christians believe that the kosher food laws have been superseded, for example citing what Jesus taught in Mark 7: what you eat doesn't make you unclean but what comes out of a man's heart makes him unclean\u2014although Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy have their own set of dietary observances. Eastern Orthodoxy, in particular has very elaborate and strict rules of fasting, and continues to observe the Council of Jerusalem's apostolic decree of Act 15."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Rabbinically prohibited foods include:\n* Non-Jewish milk (\"chalav akum\")\u2014milk that may have an admixture of milk from non-kosher animals (see below for current views on this prohibition).\n* Non-Jewish cheese (\"gevinat akum\")\u2014cheese that may have been produced with non-kosher rennet.\n* Non-Jewish wine (\"stam yeinam\")\u2014wine that while not produced for idolatrous purposes may otherwise have been poured for such a purpose or alternatively when consumed will lead to intermarriage.\n* Food cooked by a non-Jew (\"bishul akum\")\u2014this law was enacted for concerns of intermarriage.\n* Non-Jewish bread (\"pat akum\")\u2014this law was enacted for concerns of intermarriage.\n* Health risk (\"sakanah\")\u2014certain foods and mixtures are considered a health risk, such as mixtures of fish and meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish vegetarianism",
        "text": "According to some interpretations of Jewish law, it is not acceptable for an individual to become a vegetarian if they do so because they believe in animal rights. This is based on the Torah, which not only is replete with instances of eating meat, but also includes several commandments that specifically call for meat to be eaten, such as eating of the Passover sacrifice and other animal sacrifices. However, vegetarianism is allowed for pragmatic reasons (if kosher meat is expensive or hard to come by in their area), health concerns, or for reasons of personal taste (if someone finds meat unpalatable). The halakha encourages the eating of meat at the Sabbath and Festival meals; thus some Orthodox Jews who are otherwise vegetarian will nevertheless consume meat at these meals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comparison of Islamic and Jewish dietary laws",
        "text": "As a rule of thumb, most kosher foods not containing alcohol are also halal. However, there are some exceptions, and this article lists the similarities and differences between the two laws.\n*Swine is prohibited by both sets of beliefs. Animals with fangs (i.e. cats, dogs, lions, bears) are also prohibited by both sets of beliefs, as well as amphibians and reptiles.\n*Almost all animals permitted in kashrut are also halal, such as bovines.\n*To be kosher, aquatic animals must have scales and fins. Most Sunni schools of thought adhere to the interpretation that all creatures from the ocean or the sea or lake are considered halal (except Hanafi school that require it to be fish). Twelver Shia Muslims however consider that only sea creatures that have scales are halal, but make an exception with some crustaceans; shrimp and prawns, but not lobsters. This is similar to the Jewish law with the exception of fins.\n*Gelatin, according to one of the two Islamic viewpoints, it is only permissible if it comes from a permissible animal, but according to another Islamic viewpoint, gelatin is halal, whatever its source, due to a chemical transformation, as for Judaism usually kosher gelatin comes from the bones of kosher fish, or is a vegan substitute, such as agar. Judaism finds that only gelatin made from kosher animals or kosher fish are in essence \"kosher gelatins.\"\n* Almost all insects are prohibited by both sets of law, although of the Maliki school of Sunni Islam permits eating insects, with the condition of it being dead by any means. The few kosher insects are specific types of locusts and grasshoppers (see kosher locust) which are not eaten today in most Jewish communities and it is unknown which species is permitted (the exception being the Yemenite Jews, who claim to have preserved this knowledge); however all types of locusts are considered halal in sharia.\n* For a substance to be halal, it must not contain alcohol of any kind. However, there is a difference drawn between the addition of alcohol to foods, which is absolutely forbidden, and the small quantities that naturally become present \u2013 such as orange juice. Except for grape wine and grape juice (which must be manufactured under Jewish supervision), kashrut allows the consumption of any sort of alcohol (besides Mezcal made with a worm/larva) as long as it has kosher ingredients (excluding any unsupervised grape extracts).\n* The list of animals forbidden by kashrut is more restrictive, as kashrut requires that to be kosher, mammals must chew cud and must have cloven hooves. Thus some animals such as camels and rabbits are halal, but not kosher.\n* Kashrut requires strict separation of dairy and meat products, even when they are kosher.\n* According to Jewish dietary laws, cooking equipment cannot come into contact with both meat and dairy. Both the kitchen utensils and eating utensils used must be designated to either one or the other.\n* Wine was very important in early Judaism. The Jewish Talmud stated that wine is an alternative to other medicines. Wine is permitted by all Jews as long as it is kosher. In order for wine to be kosher, it has to be made with all kosher ingredients and the entirety of the process from the picking of the grapes to the process of bottling the wine has to be supervised or created by other Jews. It is also a part of the Shabbat dinner and many other rituals. Especially the Passover Seder, where part of the ritual for Jewish tradition is for each person to drink four cups of wine. Grape juice is also an acceptable substitute for its alcoholic counterpart. Wine is also recommended to drink during the Jewish holiday of Purim. Meanwhile, in Islam alcohol is considered morally and socially unacceptable and is not used in any religious processes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food and drink prohibitions",
        "text": "Vegetables like broccoli and cauliflower, while not taboo, may be avoided by observant Jews and other religions due to the possibility of insects or worms hiding within the numerous crevices. Likewise, fruits such as blackberries and raspberries are recommended by kashrut agencies to be avoided as they cannot be cleaned thoroughly enough without destroying the fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food and drink prohibitions",
        "text": "Islamic, Judaic law (including Noahide Law), and some laws of some Christians forbid any portion that is cut from a live animal (Genesis 9:4, as interpreted in the Talmud, Sanhedrin 59a). Judaism restricts this prohibition to land animals and birds; fish do not require kosher slaughter, but must first be killed before being eaten. However in the case of a \"ben pekuah\" where a live offspring is removed from the mother's womb, these restrictions do not apply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Talmud and Yoreh De'ah suggest that eating meat and fish together may cause \"tzaraath\". Strictly Orthodox Jews thus avoid combining the two, while Conservative Jews may or may not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "To help prevent accidental violation of these rules, the modern standard Orthodox practice is to classify food into either being \"fleishig\" (meat), \"milchig\" (dairy), or neither; this third category is more usually referred to as \"pareve\" (also spelled \"parve\" and \"parev\") meaning \"neutral\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ethics of eating meat",
        "text": "Islamic Law and Judaism have dietary guidelines called Halal and Kashrut, respectively. In Judaism, meat that may be consumed according to \"halakha\" (Jewish law) is termed \"kosher\"; meat that is not compliant with Jewish law is called \"treif\". Causing unnecessary pain to animals is prohibited by the principle of tza'ar ba'alei chayim. While it is neither required nor prohibited for Jews to eat meat, a number of medieval scholars of Judaism, such as Joseph Albo and Isaac Arama, regard vegetarianism as a moral ideal. Similarly, Islamic dietary laws permit the consumption of certain animals at the condition that their meat is not obtained through prohibited methods of slaughtering (ex: strangling, beaten to death, etc.), along with adherence to other restrictions. Meat obtained through prohibited methods of slaughtering is considered haram."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "The Torah does not give specific reasons for most of the laws of \"kashrut\". However, a number of explanations have been offered, including maintaining ritual purity, teaching impulse control, encouraging obedience to God, improving health, reducing cruelty to animals and preserving the distinctness of the Jewish community. The various categories of dietary laws may have developed for different reasons, and some may exist for multiple reasons. For example, people are forbidden from consuming the blood of birds and mammals because, according to the Torah, this is where animal souls are contained. In contrast, the Torah forbids Israelites from eating non-kosher species because \"they are unclean\". The Kabbalah describes sparks of holiness that are released by the act of eating kosher foods, but are too tightly bound in non-kosher foods to be released by eating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Secularism in Israel",
        "text": "Also, all food at army bases and in cafeterias of government/state buildings has to be kosher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Observant Jews often keep separate sets of meat and dairy utensils for Passover use only. In addition, some groups follow various eating restrictions on Passover that go beyond the rules of \"kashrut\", such as not eating \"kitniyot\", \"gebrochts\" or garlic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "According to the rabbinical writers, eggs from ritually pure animals would always be prolate (\"pointy\") at one end and oblate (\"rounded\") at the other, helping to reduce uncertainty about whether consumption was permitted or not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Strict followers of the dietary laws of Islam and Judaism must avoid cheeses made with rennet from animals not slaughtered in a manner adhering to halal or kosher laws. Both faiths allow cheese made with vegetable-based rennet or with rennet made from animals that were processed in a halal or kosher manner. Many less orthodox Jews also believe that rennet undergoes enough processing to change its nature entirely and do not consider it to ever violate kosher law. (See \"Cheese and kashrut\".) As cheese is a dairy food, under kosher rules it cannot be eaten in the same meal with any meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "Foods variously prohibited in Jewish dietary laws (\"kashrut\") and in Muslim dietary laws (\"halal\") may also be included in pluralistic Israel's diverse cuisine. Although partly legally restricted, pork and shellfish are available at many non-kosher restaurants (only around a third of Israeli restaurants have a kosher license) and some stores all over the country which are widely spread, including by the Maadaney Mizra, Tiv Ta'am and Maadanei Mania supermarket chains."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Though the combination of dairy and fish is generally acceptable, fish is the only parve food that the Talmud places restrictions on when it is being baked/eaten alongside meat. Talmudic reasoning for not eating meat and fish together originates from health and sanitary concerns rather than holy obligations. Unlike with milk and meat, it is Kosher to eat fish and meat at the same meal as long as; they\u2019re baked separately, they\u2019re served on separate plates as separate courses, the same utensils aren\u2019t shared, and between courses the mouth is thoroughly cleansed with a beverage & the palate is neutralized with a different food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "One of the main biblical food laws forbids consuming blood on account of \"the life [being] in the blood\". This ban and reason are listed in the Noahide Laws and twice in Book of Leviticus as well as in Deuteronomy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Traditional Jewish thought has expressed the view that all meat must come from animals that have been slaughtered according to Jewish law. These guidelines require the animal be killed by a single cut across the throat to a precise depth, severing both carotid arteries, both jugular veins, both vagus nerves, the trachea and the esophagus, no higher than the epiglottis and no lower than where cilia begin inside the trachea, causing the animal to bleed to death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chadash",
        "text": "In addition a novel lenient approach was presented by Rabbi Yoel Sirkis who felt it is permissible if the grain originally belonged to a non-Jew. Additionally, the manner in which various foods have historically been available has meant that Jewish populations would need to risk starvation to pursue stringent compliance with this aspect of kashrut. All these factors led to a situation in which observation of the \"Yashan\" regulation was relatively limited until very recently (at least in the Ashkenazic community)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Kashrut\n--Explanations.\n----Philosophical.\n----Medical.\n--Rules.\n----Prohibited foods.\n----Permitted and forbidden animals.\n----Separation of meat and milk.\n----Kosher slaughter.\n------Preparation of meats.\n----Kosher utensils.\n----Passover laws.\n----Produce of the Land of Israel.\n----Vegetables.\n----Pareve foods.\n----Cannabis.\n----Tobacco.\n----Genetically modified foods.\n--Supervision and marketing.\n----\"Hashgacha\".\n----Product labeling standards.\n----History of kosher supervision and marketing.\n----Legal usage.\n----Costs.\n--Society and culture.\n----Adherence.\n----Linguistics.\n--Other uses.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Today, kosher meats purchased from a butcher or supermarket are usually already \"koshered\" as described above and no additional soaking or salting is required."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Kosher-style food is food that is made in the style of kosher food but that does not necessarily conform to Jewish dietary laws. For example, a kosher-style hot dog is an all-beef hot dog that is mildly spiced with garlic and other flavorings, and a kosher-style pickle is a sour pickle aged in brine with garlic and dill. The term \"kosher-style\" may also refer to American Jewish cuisine in general."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "As the biblical prohibition uses the word \"gedi\" (\"kid\") and not the phrase \"gedi izim\" (\"goat-kid\") used elsewhere in the Torah, the rabbis concluded that the flesh of all domestic mammals (\"behemoth\") is included in the prohibition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pas Yisroel",
        "text": "The observant Jew must, at minimum, ignite the flame used to prepare, cook, or bake the grain product. This requirement is considered restricted to the five species of grain - wheat, barley, oats, spelt, and rye. It also defines the fact that Hafrashat Hallah has been taken from the dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Torah permits eating only those land animals that chew their cud and have cloven hooves. Four animals, the hare, hyrax, camel, and pig, are specifically identified as being forbidden because they possess only one of the above characteristics: the hare, hyrax and camel are hindgut fermenters and chew their cud but do not have cloven hooves, while the pig has a cloven hoof but does not chew its cud."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Torah permits only those fish which have both fins and scales to be eaten. However, monkfish is not considered kosher, and other seafood considered non-kosher includes shellfish like clams, oysters, crabs and shrimp. There is also a risk of products like seaweed and kelp being contaminated by microscopic, non-kosher crustaceans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish vegetarianism",
        "text": "Vegetarianism was not traditionally a component of mainstream pre-modern Judaism, though the laws of kashrut limit consumption of certain animals or their products, with precise requirements for how animals are to be sacrificed and slaughtered (\"shechita\"). According to Rabbis Shlomo Ephraim Luntschitz and Abraham Isaac Kook the complexity of these laws was intended to discourage the consumption of meat. \"Kashrut\" may also be designed to discourage killing living beings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Three times the Torah specifically forbids \"seething\" a young goat \"in its mother's milk\". The Talmud interprets this as a general prohibition against cooking meat and dairy products together, and against eating or deriving any benefit from such a mixture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher certification agency",
        "text": "According to halakha (Jewish law), the following requires kosher supervision:\n* Foods \u2013 including meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, fruits and vegetables, grains, beverages, and food additives\n* Utensils\n* Production process\n* Food-service venues \u2013 such as restaurants, nursing homes, university dining rooms, hospitals, stadiums, convention halls. Even though the hot dogs sold in a certain venue are certified kosher, a \"mashgiach\" must be present to ensure that non-kosher food items do not come in contact with them, and that non-kosher foods are not sold or distributed in kosher wrappers."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Talmudic principles",
        "text": "This principle also applies in ritual law. For example: Food known to be kosher maintains its status until there is evidence to the contrary. Also, one who engages in acts done only by Kohanim is assumed to be a kohen himself, until proven otherwise (see Presumption of priestly descent)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher certification agency",
        "text": "A food-service venue must comply with additional halakhic requirements, such as respecting the laws of Shabbat, Yom Tov, Passover, and certain Jewish fast days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ten Days of Repentance",
        "text": "During these days some are stricter and eat only baked goods produced with a Jew involved in the baking process known as Pat Yisrael even though during the year they eat any kosher baked goods known as \"pat paltar\". If while traveling it is not possible to obtain Pat Yisrael, then being stricter is not a requirement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher restaurant",
        "text": "Most kosher Subways had failed by 2011, and some of these locations must modify their typical menus in order to comply with Jewish dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Flesh of fish and bugs is not included, and therefore is considered \"pareve\". By rabbinic decree, the flesh of birds and wild mammals (\"chayot\"), such as deer, is considered as \"meat\", rather than \"pareve\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hashgacha Pratit (organization)",
        "text": "Many Jews who observe kashrut only eat in restaurants which have a certificate on the wall declaring that the establishment\u2019s food is kosher and supervised by a mashgiach. In Israel, the Chief Rabbinate has the exclusive authority to grant a certification that an establishment is kosher. In 2015, 79% of Israeli Jews said they were in favor of ending the Rabbinate\u2019s monopoly over kashrut certification."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiryas Tosh",
        "text": "In order to protect the community from what he perceived as the moral decay of the outside community, Rebbe Lowy put together a set of by-laws \"to govern the behavior of all the residents\" of Kiryas Tosh. To live in this community, residents need to abide by these by-laws.\n# No book, newspaper, or magazine is permitted in the buildings of the community, unless their content is in conformity to strictly Orthodox Judaism.\n# All male members of the community must attend religious services, three times per day, at the synagogue.\n# No radio, television, record, or cassette is allowed in the buildings of the community.\n# No members of the community may attend the cinema or be present at any theatrical performance, under the penalty of immediate expulsion.\n# All women residing in the community must dress in accordance with the religious laws of modesty, as follows:\n## All dresses must be at least four inches below the knees; no trousers or panty-hose may be worn by women and girls 3 years of age or older.\n## Married women's hair must be completely covered in public, by a scarf, a snood, or a wig.\n# It is forbidden for unrelated men and women to walk together in the street.\n# Men and women must be separated by a wall (at least 7 feet high), when attending any gathering of a religious or social nature.\n# All food consumed in the buildings of the community must conform to the dietary laws of the Code of Laws, and be approved by the chief rabbi or his second in command.\n# No car may be driven by an unmarried man.\n# The members must submit any inter-personal conflict to the arbitration of a rabbinical court.\n# The Sabbath must be observed in strict conformity to Jewish law.\n# Male members of the community must study the Torah and other religious texts for at least two hours a day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Biblically prohibited mixtures include:\n* Mixtures of meat and milk (\"basar be-chalav\")\u2014this law derives from the broad interpretation of the commandment not to \"cook a kid in its mother's milk\"; other non-kosher foods are permitted for non-dietary use (e.g. to be sold to non-Jews), but Jews are forbidden to benefit from mixtures of meat and milk in any way.\n* Different species of plants grown together (\"kilayim\")\u2014in the Land of Israel different species of plants are to be grown separately and not in close proximity according to Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:9\u201311.\n:A specific subdivision of this law is \"kil'ei ha-kerem\", the prohibition of planting any grain or vegetable near a grapevine; this law applies to Jews throughout the world, and a Jew may not derive benefit from such produce."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "During the annual eight-day Passover holiday, Jews who are more traditionally observant do not eat chametz (leavened bread). During Passover some American Jews eat matzo and other foods that conform to this restriction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Killing of animals",
        "text": "\"Kashrut\" (also \"kashruth\" or \"kashrus\", ) is the set of Jewish religious dietary laws. Food that may be consumed according to \"halakha\" (Jewish law) is termed kosher in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term \"kash\u00e9r\" (), meaning \"fit\" (in this context, fit for consumption). \"Shechita\" is the process of slaughtering prescribed by Jewish dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asa Keisar",
        "text": "Based on Biblical, Talmudic and halachic (Jewish law) sources, Keisar's stance is that veganism is a Torah ideal, and Jews should therefore follow a vegan diet. He argues that although eating meat is permitted, not everything permitted in the Torah should necessarily be done, and the Torah permits eating meat only as a concession, in the same way the Torah permits such antiquated deeds as owning slaves or having relations with a woman outside of marriage during a time of war. Keisar encourages Israelis to consume a plant-based diet due to the animal welfare issues surrounding slaughterhouses, chicken coops, egg farms and dairy farms. He states that contemporary factory farm animal abuses violate Jewish law. He uses classical Jewish sources to show that the Torah's prohibitions of cruelty to animals apply to today's factory farms, and that consumption of these animals or their products are in violation of Jewish law."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Kosher foods conforms to what law?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Kosher foods conform to Jewish dietary law."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are all the dietary restrictions Jewish people must adhere to in order to be kosher?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "To mention a few, the dietary restrictions involve permitted and forbidden animals, various animal products, how the slaughter is done, and foods prepared by non-Jews. Which of these would you like to know more about?"
    ],
    "topic": "Kosher foods",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Kosher foods:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Kosher foods",
          "Permitted and forbidden animals"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Torah permits eating only those land animals that chew their cud and have cloven hooves. Four animals, the hare, hyrax, camel, and pig, are specifically identified as being forbidden because they possess only one of the above characteristics: the hare, hyrax and camel are hindgut fermenters and chew their cud but do not have cloven hooves, while the pig has a cloven hoof but does not chew its cud."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Kosher foods:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Kosher foods",
          "Animal products"
        ],
        "ctx": "In addition to meat, products of forbidden species and from unhealthy animals were banned by the Talmudic writers. This included eggs (including fish roe) and milk, as well as derived products such as cheese and jelly, but did not include materials merely \"manufactured\" or \"gathered\" by animals, such as honey (although, in the case of honey from animals other than bees, there was a difference of opinion among the ancient writers)."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Kosher foods:29",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Kosher foods",
          "Ritual slaughter"
        ],
        "ctx": "One of the few dietary laws appearing in Exodus prohibits eating the meat from animals that have been \"torn by beasts\"; a related law appears in Deuteronomy, prohibiting the consumption of anything that has died from natural causes."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Kosher foods:50",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Kosher foods",
          "Food preparation by non-Jews"
        ],
        "ctx": "Classical rabbis prohibited any item of food that had been consecrated to an idol or had been used in the service of an idol."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Meat",
        "text": "Jewish dietary rules (\"Kashrut\") allow certain (\"kosher\") meat and forbid other (\"treif\"). The rules include prohibitions on the consumption of unclean animals (such as pork, shellfish including mollusca and crustacea, and most insects), and mixtures of meat and milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Biblically prohibited foods include:\n* Non-kosher animals\u2014any mammals without certain identifying characteristics (cloven hooves and rumination); any birds of prey; any fish without fins or scales (thus excluding catfish, for instance).\n:All invertebrates are non-kosher apart from certain types of locust, on which most communities lack a clear tradition. No reptiles or amphibians are kosher.\n* Carrion (\"nevelah\")\u2014meat from a kosher animal that has not been slaughtered according to the laws of \"shechita\". This prohibition includes animals that have been slaughtered by non-Jews.\n* Injured (\"terefah\")\u2014an animal with a significant defect or injury, such as a fractured bone or particular types of lung adhesions.\n* Blood (\"dam\")\u2014the blood of kosher mammals and fowl is removed through salting, with special procedures for the liver, which is very rich in blood.\n* Particular fats (\"chelev\")\u2014particular parts of the abdominal fat of cattle, goats and sheep must be removed by a process called \"nikkur\".\n* The twisted nerve (\"gid hanasheh\")\u2014the sciatic nerve, as according to Genesis 32:32 the patriarch Jacob's was damaged when he fought with an angel, so may not be eaten and is removed by \"nikkur\".\n* A limb of a living animal (\"ever min ha-chai\")\u2014according to Jewish law, God forbade Noah and his descendants to consume flesh torn from a live animal. Hence, Jewish law considers this prohibition applicable even to non-Jews, and therefore, a Jew may not give or sell such meat to a non-Jew.\n* Untithed food (\"tevel\")\u2014produce of the Land of Israel requires the removal of certain tithes, which in ancient times were given to the \"kohanim\" (priests), Levites and the poor (\"terumah\", \"maaser rishon\" and \"maasar ani\" respectively) or taken to the Old City of Jerusalem to be eaten there (\"maaser sheni\").\n* Fruit during the first three years (\"orlah\")\u2014according to Leviticus 19:23, fruit from a tree in the first three years after planting may not be consumed (both in the Land of Israel and the diaspora). This applies also to the fruit of the vine\u2014grapes, and wine produced from them.\n* New grain (\"chadash\")\u2014the Bible prohibits newly grown grain (planted after Passover the previous year) until the second day of Passover; there is debate as to whether this law applies to grain grown outside the Land of Israel.\n* Wine of libation (\"yayin nesekh\")\u2014wine that may have been dedicated to idolatrous practices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Talmud, and later Jewish authorities, also prohibit the consumption of meat from animals who were slaughtered despite being in the process of dying from disease. This not based on concern for the health of the eater, instead being an extension of the rules banning the meat from animals torn by beasts, and animals that die from natural causes."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Kosher food is food that conforms to \"kashrut\", i.e. Jewish dietary laws. Under these rules, some foods \u2013 for example, pork and shellfish \u2013 are forbidden. Any meat must come from an animal that was slaughtered using a process known as \"shechita\". Jewish dietary law also prohibits the eating of meat and milk at the same meal. For this purpose, \"meat\" means the flesh of mammals and birds, and \"milk\" includes dairy products such as cheese and butter. Thus a kosher delicatessen selling corned beef sandwiches would not have any cheese, and a kosher bakery selling bagels and cream cheese would not have any meat. Many foods are classified as pareve (sometimes spelled \"parve\") \u2013 neither meat nor milk, and therefore acceptable at any meal. Pareve foods include fish, eggs, honey, and any edible plant. Kosher commercial establishments must be closed from Friday evening to Saturday evening, during the Jewish sabbath."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism and Mormonism",
        "text": "The laws of \"kashrut\" (\"keeping kosher\") are the Jewish dietary laws. Food in accord with \"halakha\" (Jewish law) is termed kosher, and food not in accord with Jewish law is termed \"treifah\" or \"treif\". Kosher laws address which kinds of animals can be eaten and requires separation of milk and meat (disputed), that vegetables be thoroughly inspected for insects, that animals be ritually slaughtered by certified persons, and that many food products be produced under rabbinical supervision. Produce of the Land of Israel has further restrictions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Kosher foods\n--Permitted and forbidden animals.\n--Animal products.\n----Dairy products.\n------Human breast milk.\n----Cheese.\n----Eggs.\n------Blood found in eggs.\n----Gelatin.\n--Ritual slaughter.\n----Forbidden parts of a slaughtered animal.\n------Foreleg, cheeks and maw.\n------Blood.\n--Food preparation by non-Jews.\n--Milk and meat.\n--Safety concerns.\n----\"Pikuach nefesh\".\n----Tainted food.\n----Fish and meat.\n--Kosherfest.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "In addition to meat, products of forbidden species and from unhealthy animals were banned by the Talmudic writers. This included eggs (including fish roe) and milk, as well as derived products such as cheese and jelly, but did not include materials merely \"manufactured\" or \"gathered\" by animals, such as honey (although, in the case of honey from animals other than bees, there was a difference of opinion among the ancient writers)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "In addition to the requirement that the species be considered kosher, meat and poultry (but not fish) must come from a healthy animal slaughtered in a process known as \"shechitah\". Without the proper slaughtering practices even an otherwise kosher animal will be rendered \"treif\". The slaughtering process is intended to be quick and relatively painless to the animal. Forbidden parts of animals include the blood, some fats, and the area in and around the sciatic nerve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Traditional Jewish thought has expressed the view that all meat must come from animals that have been slaughtered according to Jewish law. These guidelines require the animal be killed by a single cut across the throat to a precise depth, severing both carotid arteries, both jugular veins, both vagus nerves, the trachea and the esophagus, no higher than the epiglottis and no lower than where cilia begin inside the trachea, causing the animal to bleed to death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Torah permits eating only those land animals that chew their cud and have cloven hooves. Four animals, the hare, hyrax, camel, and pig, are specifically identified as being forbidden because they possess only one of the above characteristics: the hare, hyrax and camel are hindgut fermenters and chew their cud but do not have cloven hooves, while the pig has a cloven hoof but does not chew its cud."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Leviticus prohibits the eating of certain types of fat (\"chelev\") from sacrificial land animals (cattle, sheep, and goats), since the fat is the portion of the meat exclusively allocated to God (by burning it on the altar)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Kosher foods are those foods that conform to the Jewish dietary regulations of \"kashrut\" (dietary law), the Jewish dietary law is primarily derived from Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14:1-21. Foods that may be consumed according to \"halakha\" (Jewish law) are termed \"kosher\" () in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term \"kash\u00e9r\" (), meaning \"fit\" (in this context, fit for consumption). Foods that are not in accordance with Jewish law are called \"treif\" (; , derived from \"tr\u0101f\u00e1h\") meaning \"torn.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Torah forbids two types of (creeping things):\n* Earth crawlers, e.g. mouse, lizard\n* Flying creeping things, with four exceptions: Two types of locust, the cricket, and the grasshopper (translations of the species names vary)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "One of the few dietary laws appearing in Exodus prohibits eating the meat from animals that have been \"torn by beasts\"; a related law appears in Deuteronomy, prohibiting the consumption of anything that has died from natural causes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food and drink prohibitions",
        "text": "Islamic, Judaic law (including Noahide Law), and some laws of some Christians forbid any portion that is cut from a live animal (Genesis 9:4, as interpreted in the Talmud, Sanhedrin 59a). Judaism restricts this prohibition to land animals and birds; fish do not require kosher slaughter, but must first be killed before being eaten. However in the case of a \"ben pekuah\" where a live offspring is removed from the mother's womb, these restrictions do not apply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "To comply with this Talmudic injunction against eating diseased animals, Orthodox Jews usually require that the corpses of freshly slaughtered animals be thoroughly inspected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "The Jewish dietary laws are known as \"kashrut\". Food prepared in accordance with them is termed kosher, and food that is not kosher is also known as \"treifah\" or \"treif\". People who observe these laws are colloquially said to be \"keeping kosher\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "The academic perception is that natural repugnance from \"weird-looking\" fish is a significant factor in the origin of the restrictions. Vedic India (and presumably the Persians also) exhibit such repugnance, generally allowing fish, but forbidding \"weird looking\" fish and exclusively carnivorous fish; in Egypt, another significant and influential culture near to the Israelites, the priests avoided all fish completely."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher style",
        "text": "Jews who do not keep kosher but wish to restrict themselves to eating \"traditional style\" foods, usually not eating forbidden animals or mixing milk and meat, may consider themselves to keep \"kosher style\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "Many of the laws apply to animal-based foods. For example, in order to be considered kosher, mammals must have split hooves and chew their cud. The pig is arguably the most well-known example of a non-kosher animal. Although it has split hooves, it does not chew its cud. For seafood to be kosher, the animal must have fins and scales. Certain types of seafood, such as shellfish, crustaceans, and eels, are therefore considered non-kosher. Concerning birds, a list of non-kosher species is given in the Torah. The exact translations of many of the species have not survived, and some non-kosher birds' identities are no longer certain. However, traditions exist about the \"kashrut\" status of a few birds. For example, both chickens and turkeys are permitted in most communities. Other types of animals, such as amphibians, reptiles, and most insects, are prohibited altogether."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "As the biblical prohibition uses the word \"gedi\" (\"kid\") and not the phrase \"gedi izim\" (\"goat-kid\") used elsewhere in the Torah, the rabbis concluded that the flesh of all domestic mammals (\"behemoth\") is included in the prohibition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Only meat from particular species is permissible. Mammals that \"both\" chew their cud (ruminate) and have cloven hooves can be kosher. Animals with one characteristic but not the other (the camel, the hyrax, and the hare because they have no cloven hooves, and the pig because it does not ruminate) are specifically excluded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk and meat in Jewish law",
        "text": "Food in the \"parve\" category includes fish, fruit, vegetables, salt, etc.; among the Karaites and Ethiopian Jews it also includes poultry. The \"Talmud\" states that the Biblical prohibition applies only to meat and milk of domesticated kosher mammals; that is, cattle, goats, and sheep. It adds that according to the view of Rabbi Akiva, the Rabbis instituted a protective decree extending the law to the meat and milk of wild kosher mammals, such as deer, as well as the meat of kosher poultry, such as chickens. The \"Shulchan Aruch\" follows this approach."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ethics of eating meat",
        "text": "Islamic Law and Judaism have dietary guidelines called Halal and Kashrut, respectively. In Judaism, meat that may be consumed according to \"halakha\" (Jewish law) is termed \"kosher\"; meat that is not compliant with Jewish law is called \"treif\". Causing unnecessary pain to animals is prohibited by the principle of tza'ar ba'alei chayim. While it is neither required nor prohibited for Jews to eat meat, a number of medieval scholars of Judaism, such as Joseph Albo and Isaac Arama, regard vegetarianism as a moral ideal. Similarly, Islamic dietary laws permit the consumption of certain animals at the condition that their meat is not obtained through prohibited methods of slaughtering (ex: strangling, beaten to death, etc.), along with adherence to other restrictions. Meat obtained through prohibited methods of slaughtering is considered haram."
      },
      {
        "title": "Killing of animals",
        "text": "\"Kashrut\" (also \"kashruth\" or \"kashrus\", ) is the set of Jewish religious dietary laws. Food that may be consumed according to \"halakha\" (Jewish law) is termed kosher in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term \"kash\u00e9r\" (), meaning \"fit\" (in this context, fit for consumption). \"Shechita\" is the process of slaughtering prescribed by Jewish dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Talmud adds to the biblical regulations a prohibition against consuming poisoned animals. Similarly, Yoreh De'ah prohibits the drinking of water, if the water had been left uncovered overnight in an area where there might be snakes, on the basis that a snake might have left its venom in the water. In a place where there aren't usually snakes, this prohibition does not apply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anan ben David",
        "text": "In addition, he maintained that as long as Israel is in exile the flesh of animals, with the exception of the deer, the pigeon and the turtle-dove, is forbidden from being eaten (although permitted animals may be eaten with dairy). Within Judaism, restrictions on consuming meat and poultry that extend beyond the Rabbinic concept of kashrut are not unique to Ananism\u2014the Talmud relates that after the destruction of the Second Temple certain ascetics (perushim) such as Abu Isa sought to prohibit meat and wine because they had been employed in the Temple ritual, and that Rabbi Joshua ben Hananiah repressed the movement. In modern times, Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, the first Ashkenazic chief rabbi of the British Mandate for Palestine, argued that vegetarianism is supported in the Tanakh as a Jewish ideal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "Due to the difficulty of identification, religious authorities have restricted consumption to specific birds for which Jews have passed down a tradition of permissibility from generation to generation. Birds for which there has been a tradition of their being kosher include:\n* Chicken\n* Chukar partridge\n* Common pheasant\n* Common quail\n* Grey partridge\n* House sparrow\n* Rock partridge\n* Japanese quail\n* Rock dove\n* Turtle dove"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "In addition to meeting the restrictions as defined by the Torah, there is also the issue of \"masorah\" (tradition). In general, animals are eaten only if there is a \"masorah\" that has been passed down from generations ago that clearly indicates that these animals are acceptable. For instance, there was considerable debate as to the kosher status of zebu and bison among the rabbinical authorities when they first became known and available for consumption; the Orthodox Union permits bison, as can be attested to by the menus of some of the more upscale kosher restaurants in New York City."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Observant Jews will eat only meat or poultry that is certified kosher. The meat must have been slaughtered by a \"shochet\" (ritual slaughterer) in accordance with Jewish law and is entirely drained of blood. Before it is cooked, it is soaked in water for half an hour, then placed on a perforated board, sprinkled with coarse salt (which draws out the blood) and left to sit for one hour. At the end of this time, the salt is washed off and the meat is ready for cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Although the details of the laws of \"kashrut\" are numerous and complex, they rest on a few basic principles:\n* Only certain types of mammals, birds and fish meeting specific criteria are kosher; the consumption of the flesh of any animals that do not meet these criteria, such as pork, frogs, and shellfish, is forbidden.\n* Kosher mammals and birds must be slaughtered according to a process known as \"shechita\"; blood may never be consumed and must be removed from meat by a process of salting and soaking in water for the meat to be permissible for use.\n* Meat and meat derivatives may never be mixed with milk and milk derivatives: separate equipment for the storage and preparation of meat-based and dairy-based foods must be used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "Other creatures living in the sea and rivers that would be prohibited by the rules include the cetaceans (dolphin, whale, etc.), crocodilians (alligator, crocodile etc.), sea turtles, sea snakes, and all amphibians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Certain foods, notably pork, shellfish and almost all insects are forbidden; meat and dairy may not be combined and meat must be ritually slaughtered and salted to remove all traces of blood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prison food",
        "text": "Jewish prisoners may be issued kosher rations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic\u2013Jewish relations",
        "text": "Under the strict dietary laws, lawful food is called \"Kosher\" in Judaism and \"Halal\" in Islam. Both religions prohibit the consumption of pork. Halal restrictions are similar to a subset of the Kashrut dietary laws, so all kosher foods are considered halal, while not all halal foods are Kosher. Halal laws, for instance, do not prohibit the mixing of milk and meat or the consumption of shellfish, each of which are prohibited by the kosher laws, with the exception that in the Shia Islam belief shellfish, mussels, and similar sea foods and fish without scales are not considered halal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Furthermore, the actual foreleg, cheeks and maw of all kosher-slaughtered beef are forbidden to a non-\"kohen\" unless the \"kohen\" permits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Torah lists winged creatures that may not be consumed, mainly birds of prey, fish-eating water-birds, and bats. Certain domesticated fowl can be eaten, such as chicken, geese, quail, dove, and turkey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Although plants and minerals are nearly always kosher, vegetarian restaurants and producers of vegetarian foods are required to obtain a \"hechsher\", certifying that a rabbinical organization has approved their products as being kosher, because the \"hechsher\" usually certifies that certain vegetables have been checked for insect infestation and steps have been taken to ensure that cooked food meets the requirements of \"bishul Yisrael\". Vegetables such as spinach and cauliflower must be checked for insect infestation. The proper procedure for inspecting and cleaning varies by species, growing conditions, and views of individual rabbis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Some Jews refer to these prohibited foods as \"akum\", an acronym of \"Ovde Kokhavim U Mazzaloth\" (), meaning \"worshippers of stars and planets (or Zodiac)\". \"Akum\" is thus a reference to activities that these Jews view as idolatry, and in many significant works of post-classical Jewish literature, such as the \"Shulchan Aruch\", it has been applied to Christians in particular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comparison of Islamic and Jewish dietary laws",
        "text": "As a rule of thumb, most kosher foods not containing alcohol are also halal. However, there are some exceptions, and this article lists the similarities and differences between the two laws.\n*Swine is prohibited by both sets of beliefs. Animals with fangs (i.e. cats, dogs, lions, bears) are also prohibited by both sets of beliefs, as well as amphibians and reptiles.\n*Almost all animals permitted in kashrut are also halal, such as bovines.\n*To be kosher, aquatic animals must have scales and fins. Most Sunni schools of thought adhere to the interpretation that all creatures from the ocean or the sea or lake are considered halal (except Hanafi school that require it to be fish). Twelver Shia Muslims however consider that only sea creatures that have scales are halal, but make an exception with some crustaceans; shrimp and prawns, but not lobsters. This is similar to the Jewish law with the exception of fins.\n*Gelatin, according to one of the two Islamic viewpoints, it is only permissible if it comes from a permissible animal, but according to another Islamic viewpoint, gelatin is halal, whatever its source, due to a chemical transformation, as for Judaism usually kosher gelatin comes from the bones of kosher fish, or is a vegan substitute, such as agar. Judaism finds that only gelatin made from kosher animals or kosher fish are in essence \"kosher gelatins.\"\n* Almost all insects are prohibited by both sets of law, although of the Maliki school of Sunni Islam permits eating insects, with the condition of it being dead by any means. The few kosher insects are specific types of locusts and grasshoppers (see kosher locust) which are not eaten today in most Jewish communities and it is unknown which species is permitted (the exception being the Yemenite Jews, who claim to have preserved this knowledge); however all types of locusts are considered halal in sharia.\n* For a substance to be halal, it must not contain alcohol of any kind. However, there is a difference drawn between the addition of alcohol to foods, which is absolutely forbidden, and the small quantities that naturally become present \u2013 such as orange juice. Except for grape wine and grape juice (which must be manufactured under Jewish supervision), kashrut allows the consumption of any sort of alcohol (besides Mezcal made with a worm/larva) as long as it has kosher ingredients (excluding any unsupervised grape extracts).\n* The list of animals forbidden by kashrut is more restrictive, as kashrut requires that to be kosher, mammals must chew cud and must have cloven hooves. Thus some animals such as camels and rabbits are halal, but not kosher.\n* Kashrut requires strict separation of dairy and meat products, even when they are kosher.\n* According to Jewish dietary laws, cooking equipment cannot come into contact with both meat and dairy. Both the kitchen utensils and eating utensils used must be designated to either one or the other.\n* Wine was very important in early Judaism. The Jewish Talmud stated that wine is an alternative to other medicines. Wine is permitted by all Jews as long as it is kosher. In order for wine to be kosher, it has to be made with all kosher ingredients and the entirety of the process from the picking of the grapes to the process of bottling the wine has to be supervised or created by other Jews. It is also a part of the Shabbat dinner and many other rituals. Especially the Passover Seder, where part of the ritual for Jewish tradition is for each person to drink four cups of wine. Grape juice is also an acceptable substitute for its alcoholic counterpart. Wine is also recommended to drink during the Jewish holiday of Purim. Meanwhile, in Islam alcohol is considered morally and socially unacceptable and is not used in any religious processes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Flesh of fish and bugs is not included, and therefore is considered \"pareve\". By rabbinic decree, the flesh of birds and wild mammals (\"chayot\"), such as deer, is considered as \"meat\", rather than \"pareve\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food and drink prohibitions",
        "text": "Bears are not considered kosher animals in Judaism. All predatory terrestrial animals are forbidden in Islam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Classical rabbis prohibited any item of food that had been consecrated to an idol or had been used in the service of an idol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "As forbidden fats, tendons, blood vessels and the \"gid hanasheh\" (sciatic nerve) must be removed, more difficult in the rear-quarters, often only cuts of meat from the forequarters are available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "According to the rabbinical writers, eggs from ritually pure animals would always be prolate (\"pointy\") at one end and oblate (\"rounded\") at the other, helping to reduce uncertainty about whether consumption was permitted or not."
      },
      {
        "title": "1902 Kosher Meat Boycott",
        "text": "In general, kosher meat tends to be pricier than non-kosher meat due to the various restrictions and requirements that come with it. Adhering to the strict dietary laws of kashrut is a significant part of Orthodox Jewish life. The laws of kashrut can be found throughout the Torah, Mishnah, Talmud and various halachic works. The main criteria for a mammal to be kosher is that the animal must have split hooves and chew its cud. Additionally, a certified butcher known as a shochet must slaughter the animal in accordance with Jewish law in a process known as shechita. After the shechita, the animal must be checked for any life-threatening wounds which could render the animal not kosher even after being properly slaughtered. Finally many parts of the animal have to be removed such as certain fats and all the blood. The meat is then salted in order to remove any remaining blood. This lengthy process and the many steps involved are what make kosher meat more expensive than non-kosher meat. In 1902 the kosher meat was recorded to be 5-6 cents more expensive per pound than non-kosher meat, even before the price increased."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food and drink prohibitions",
        "text": "Vegetables like broccoli and cauliflower, while not taboo, may be avoided by observant Jews and other religions due to the possibility of insects or worms hiding within the numerous crevices. Likewise, fruits such as blackberries and raspberries are recommended by kashrut agencies to be avoided as they cannot be cleaned thoroughly enough without destroying the fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian dietary laws",
        "text": "The Council of Jerusalem instructed gentile Christians not to consume blood, food offered to idols, or the meat of strangled animals, since \"the Law of Moses has been preached in every city from the earliest times and is read in the synagogues on every Sabbath.\" In Judaism, Jews are forbidden from consuming (amongst other things) any carnivores and omnivores, herbivores that are not ruminants, any ruminants that do not have split hooves, shellfish (including shrimps and lobsters), unscaled and finless fish, blood, food offered to idols, or the meat of living or strangled animals. The Seven Laws of Noah, which Jews believe gentiles must follow, also forbid consuming the meat of living animals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "Kosher animals are animals that comply with the regulations of \"kashrut\" and are considered kosher foods. These dietary laws ultimately derive from various passages in the Torah with various modifications, additions and clarifications added to these rules by \"halakha\". Various other animal-related rules are contained in the 613 commandments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "A later \"responsum\" of Conservative Judaism was issued by Rabbi Dorff, who argued, based on precedents in 15th- to 19th-century \"responsa\", that many foods, such as wheat and oil products, which had once been forbidden when produced by non-Jews, were eventually declared kosher. On this basis he concluded wine and grape products produced by non-Jews would be permissible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gid hanasheh",
        "text": "Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook explained that the prohibition of eating \"gid ha-nasheh\" demonstrates that, while we may need to slaughter animals for our physical needs, we do not seek to subjugate others, whether man or beast. For this reason, we make great efforts to avoid eating the sciatic nerve - a nerve that allows the body to stand upright."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "Although it does regard all birds of prey as being forbidden, the Talmud is uncertain of there being a general rule, and instead gives detailed descriptions of the features that distinguish a bird as being ritually clean."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher style",
        "text": "Jews who adhere strictly to the laws of kashrut will not eat at kosher-style establishments. Furthermore, the fact that such establishments appear to be kosher can be deceptive to Jews who are visiting an unfamiliar city and looking for kosher food. Some of these establishments are also open on the Jewish sabbath for business when this is forbidden by \"halakha\". Others may choose to eat at but not consume meat or cheese at such restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Kashrut\n--Explanations.\n----Philosophical.\n----Medical.\n--Rules.\n----Prohibited foods.\n----Permitted and forbidden animals.\n----Separation of meat and milk.\n----Kosher slaughter.\n------Preparation of meats.\n----Kosher utensils.\n----Passover laws.\n----Produce of the Land of Israel.\n----Vegetables.\n----Pareve foods.\n----Cannabis.\n----Tobacco.\n----Genetically modified foods.\n--Supervision and marketing.\n----\"Hashgacha\".\n----Product labeling standards.\n----History of kosher supervision and marketing.\n----Legal usage.\n----Costs.\n--Society and culture.\n----Adherence.\n----Linguistics.\n--Other uses.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Unclean animal",
        "text": "In Judaism, the concept of \"impure animals\", plays a prominent role in the Kashrut, the part of Jewish law that specifies which foods are allowed (\"kosher\") or forbidden to Jews. These laws are based upon the Books of Leviticus and Deuteronomy of the Torah and in the extensive body of rabbinical commentaries (the Talmud)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The gift of the foreleg, cheeks and maw of a kosher-slaughtered animal to a \"kohen\" is a positive commandment in the Hebrew Bible. Some rabbinic opinions maintain that consumption of the animal is forbidden before these gifts are given, though the accepted \"halacha\" is to permit this."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Consequently, Orthodox Jews generally rule that wine, certain cooked foods, and sometimes dairy products, should be prepared only by Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish vegetarianism",
        "text": "Vegetarianism was not traditionally a component of mainstream pre-modern Judaism, though the laws of kashrut limit consumption of certain animals or their products, with precise requirements for how animals are to be sacrificed and slaughtered (\"shechita\"). According to Rabbis Shlomo Ephraim Luntschitz and Abraham Isaac Kook the complexity of these laws was intended to discourage the consumption of meat. \"Kashrut\" may also be designed to discourage killing living beings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bishul Yisrael",
        "text": "The prohibition applies only if the food is prepared \"exclusively\" by non-Jews. A small amount of Jewish participation can suffice to keep the food kosher. Different rabbis have different views on the absolute minimum: Sephardi poskim state that the minimum participation is to light the fire and place the pot on it to cook, while Ashkenazim are satisfied with merely lighting the fire, or even making a slight adjustment to a fire which was already lit by a non-Jew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Three times the Torah specifically forbids \"seething\" a young goat \"in its mother's milk\". The Talmud interprets this as a general prohibition against cooking meat and dairy products together, and against eating or deriving any benefit from such a mixture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food and drink prohibitions",
        "text": "Kashrut, the Jewish food regulations, classify all permissible foods into three categories: meat products, dairy products, and others, which are considered to be neither (including not just vegetable products, but also fish and eggs). A meal or dish may not contain both meat and dairy products. As well, meat and fish may not be cooked together, nor fish and milk, although fish cooked with other dairy products is permitted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Unclean animal",
        "text": "By these requirements, any land-dwelling animal that is kosher can only possibly be a mammal, but even then, permitted are only those mammals that are placentals and strictly herbivorous (not omnivores nor carnivores) that both ruminate and also have cloven hooves, such as bovines (cattle/cows, bison, buffalos, yak, etc.), sheep, goats, deer, antelope, and technically, also giraffes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "To comply with this prohibition, a number of preparation techniques became practiced within traditional Judaism. The main technique, known as \"meli\u1e25ah\", involves the meat being soaked in water for about half an hour, which opens pores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "specifies that whatever \"goes on its belly, and whatever goes on all fours, or whatever has many feet, any swarming thing that swarms on the ground, you shall not eat, for they are detestable.\" (Hebrew: ). Before stating this, it singles out eight particular \"creeping things\" as specifically being ritually unclean in ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chelev",
        "text": "The prohibition on \"chelev\" is only regarding those animal types which were used as a \"korban\": cattle, lamb and goat, which are the only kosher domestic livestock. Fats from avians and deer may be eaten, and different types of bovinae are in state of doubt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Many Jews partially observe \"kashrut,\" by abstaining from pork or shellfish or by not drinking milk with meat dishes. Some keep kosher at home but eat in non-kosher restaurants. In 2012, one analysis of the specialty food market in North America estimated that only 15% of kosher consumers were Jewish. Kosher meat is regularly consumed by Muslims when \"halal\" is not available. Muslims, Hindus, and people with allergies to dairy foods often consider the \"kosher-pareve\" designation as an assurance that a food contains no animal-derived ingredients, including milk and all of its derivatives. However, since \"kosher-pareve\" foods may contain honey, eggs, or fish, vegans cannot rely on the certification."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Some have claimed that the Book of Ezekiel implies that the rules about animals that die of natural causes, or are \"torn by beasts\", were adhered to only by the priests, and were intended only for them; the implication that they did not apply to, and were not upheld by, ordinary Israelites was noticed by the classical rabbis, who declared \"the prophet Elijah shall some day explain this problematic passage\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "The Talmud argues that clean birds would have craws, an easily separated 'double-skin', and would eat food by placing it on the ground (rather than holding it on the ground) and tearing it with their bills before eating it; however, the Talmud also argues that only the birds in the biblical list are actually forbidden\u2014these distinguishing features were only for cases when there was any uncertainty in the bird's identity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Biblically prohibited mixtures include:\n* Mixtures of meat and milk (\"basar be-chalav\")\u2014this law derives from the broad interpretation of the commandment not to \"cook a kid in its mother's milk\"; other non-kosher foods are permitted for non-dietary use (e.g. to be sold to non-Jews), but Jews are forbidden to benefit from mixtures of meat and milk in any way.\n* Different species of plants grown together (\"kilayim\")\u2014in the Land of Israel different species of plants are to be grown separately and not in close proximity according to Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:9\u201311.\n:A specific subdivision of this law is \"kil'ei ha-kerem\", the prohibition of planting any grain or vegetable near a grapevine; this law applies to Jews throughout the world, and a Jew may not derive benefit from such produce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Today, kosher meats purchased from a butcher or supermarket are usually already \"koshered\" as described above and no additional soaking or salting is required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bishul Yisrael",
        "text": "The law applies only to foods which, according to the Talmud, are \"fit for a king's table\" and are not generally eaten raw. Foods which would not be served at a state dinner are exempt from \"bishul akum\", and are kosher even if cooked totally by non-Jews, provided that all the other requirements of kosher food are met. Maimonides explains that this prohibition was originally decreed in order to avoid a Jew being invited over by a non-Jew for a meal (which may lead to intermarriage), and people do not invite each other for dinner over food which is not \"fit for a King's table\" (Maimonides, Ma'akhalot Asurot 17:15)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Non-kosher birds are listed outright but the exact \"zoological\" references are disputed and some references refer to families of birds (24 are mentioned). The Mishnah refers to four signs provided by the sages. First, a \"dores\" (predatory bird) is not kosher. Additionally, kosher birds possess three physical characteristics: an extra toe in the back (which does not join the other toes in supporting the leg), a \"zefek\" (crop), and a \"korkoban\" (gizzard) with a peelable lumen. However, individual Jews are barred from merely applying these regulations alone; an established tradition (\"masorah\") is necessary to allow birds to be consumed, even if it can be substantiated that they meet all four criteria. The only exception to this is the turkey. There was a time when certain authorities considered the signs sufficient, so Jews started eating this bird without a \"masorah\" because it possesses all the signs (\"simanim\") in Hebrew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dhabihah",
        "text": "To be kosher, fit for consumption by those of the Jewish faith, meat must be slaughtered by a Jewish shohet who holds a license from a rabbi and has been examined on the laws of shechitah. This alone means that halal meat is forbidden to those of the Jewish faith. The requirements for the shape of the knife are more severe, the knife must be free from a single nick and the method of cutting is exactly defined. In addition, there is an inspection of the lungs (bedikah) that mammals must pass, which Muslims do not have."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food and drink prohibitions",
        "text": "In Judaism and Samaritism, certain locusts are allowed as food (Leviticus 11:22). Otherwise, insects are not considered kosher foods. Kashrut also requires that practitioners check other foods carefully for insects. In Islam, locusts are considered lawful food and do not require ritual slaughtering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beta Israel",
        "text": "Beta Israel kashrut law is based mainly on the books of Leviticus, Deuteronomy, and Jubilees. Permitted and forbidden animals and their signs appear in Leviticus 11:3\u20138 and Deuteronomy 14:4\u20138. Forbidden birds are listed in Leviticus 11:13\u201323 and Deuteronomy 14:12\u201320. Signs of permitted fish are written on Leviticus 11:9\u201312 and Deuteronomy 14:9\u201310. Insects and larvae are forbidden according to Leviticus 11:41\u201342. Gid hanasheh is forbidden per Genesis 32:33. Mixtures of milk and meat are not prepared or eaten, but are not banned either: Haymanot interpreted the verses Exodus 23:19, Exodus 34:26, and Deuteronomy 14:21 \"shalt not seethe a kid in its mother's milk\" literally, as in Karaite Judaism; whereas, under Rabbinic Judaism, mixing dairy products with meat is banned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "However, by adhering to the principle that the majority case overrules the exception, Jewish tradition continues to regard such milk as kosher, since statistically it is true that most animals producing such milk are kosher; the same principle is not applied to the possibility of consuming meat from an animal that has not been checked for disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "One of the main biblical food laws forbids consuming blood on account of \"the life [being] in the blood\". This ban and reason are listed in the Noahide Laws and twice in Book of Leviticus as well as in Deuteronomy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dog meat",
        "text": "According to kashrut, Jewish dietary law, it is forbidden to consume the flesh of terrestrial mammals that do not chew their cud and have cloven hooves, which includes dogs. In Islamic dietary laws, the consumption of the flesh of a dog, or any carnivorous animal, or any animal bearing fangs, claws, fingers or reptilian scales, is prohibited."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Rabbinically prohibited foods include:\n* Non-Jewish milk (\"chalav akum\")\u2014milk that may have an admixture of milk from non-kosher animals (see below for current views on this prohibition).\n* Non-Jewish cheese (\"gevinat akum\")\u2014cheese that may have been produced with non-kosher rennet.\n* Non-Jewish wine (\"stam yeinam\")\u2014wine that while not produced for idolatrous purposes may otherwise have been poured for such a purpose or alternatively when consumed will lead to intermarriage.\n* Food cooked by a non-Jew (\"bishul akum\")\u2014this law was enacted for concerns of intermarriage.\n* Non-Jewish bread (\"pat akum\")\u2014this law was enacted for concerns of intermarriage.\n* Health risk (\"sakanah\")\u2014certain foods and mixtures are considered a health risk, such as mixtures of fish and meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cat meat",
        "text": "Jewish Kashrut laws forbid consuming cat meat as it is a predator. As well as not being a predator, a mammal must both chew cud and have cloven hooves in order to be considered kosher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "The Torah does not give specific reasons for most of the laws of \"kashrut\". However, a number of explanations have been offered, including maintaining ritual purity, teaching impulse control, encouraging obedience to God, improving health, reducing cruelty to animals and preserving the distinctness of the Jewish community. The various categories of dietary laws may have developed for different reasons, and some may exist for multiple reasons. For example, people are forbidden from consuming the blood of birds and mammals because, according to the Torah, this is where animal souls are contained. In contrast, the Torah forbids Israelites from eating non-kosher species because \"they are unclean\". The Kabbalah describes sparks of holiness that are released by the act of eating kosher foods, but are too tightly bound in non-kosher foods to be released by eating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food and drink prohibitions",
        "text": "Elephant meat is also not considered kosher by Jewish dietary laws because elephants do not have cloven hooves and they are not ruminants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Kashrut (also kashruth or kashrus, ) is a set of dietary laws dealing with the foods that Jews are permitted to eat and how those foods must be prepared according to Jewish law. Food that may be consumed is deemed kosher ( in English, ), from the Ashkenazic pronunciation (KUHsher) of Hebrew \"kash\u00e9r\" (), meaning \"fit\" (in this context: \"fit for consumption\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk and meat in Jewish law",
        "text": "Consumption of non-kosher animals (e.g., pigs, camels, and turtles) is prohibited in general, and questions about the status of mixtures involving their meat and milk would be somewhat academic. Nevertheless, the lack of a classical decision about milk and meat of non-kosher animals gave rise to argument in the late Middle Ages. Some, such as Yoel Sirkis and Joshua Falk, argued that mixing milk and meat from non-kosher animals should be prohibited, but others, like Shabbatai ben Meir and David HaLevi Segal, argued that, excluding the general ban on non-kosher animals, such mixtures should not be prohibited."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Talmud and Yoreh De'ah suggest that eating meat and fish together may cause \"tzaraath\". Strictly Orthodox Jews thus avoid combining the two, while Conservative Jews may or may not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Kosher is food that may be consumed according to the \"Kashrut\", or Jewish dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "About a sixth of American Jews or 0.3% of the American population fully keep kosher, and many more of them do not strictly follow all of the rules but still abstain from some prohibited foods (especially pork). The Seventh-day Adventist Church, a Christian denomination, preaches a health message which expects adherence to the kosher dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg",
        "text": "According to the Kashrut, that is the set of Jewish dietary laws, kosher food may be consumed according to \"halakha\" (Jewish law). Kosher meat and milk (or derivatives) cannot be mixed () or stored together. Eggs are considered \"pareve\" (neither meat nor dairy) despite being an animal product and can be mixed with either milk or kosher meat. Mayonnaise, for instance, is usually marked \"pareve\" despite by definition containing egg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "Although many, if not most, Jews in Israel do not keep kosher, the tradition of \"kashrut\" strongly influences the availability of certain foods and their preparation in homes, public institutions and many restaurants, including the separation of milk and meat and avoiding the use of non-kosher foods, especially pork and shellfish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultured meat",
        "text": "Jewish rabbinical authorities disagree whether cultured meat is kosher, meaning acceptable under Jewish law and practice. One factor is the nature of the animal from which the cells are sourced, whether it is a kosher or non-kosher species and whether, if the cells were taken from a dead animal, slaughter in accordance with religious practice had taken place prior to the extraction of cells. Most authorities agree that if the original cells were taken from a religiously slaughtered animal then the meat cultured from it will be kosher. Depending on the nature of the cells, it may be determined to be kosher even when taken from a live animal, and some have argued that it would be kosher even if coming from non-kosher animals such as pigs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher style",
        "text": "Kosher style refers to foods commonly associated with Jewish cuisine but which may or may not actually be kosher. It is a stylistic designation rather than one based on the laws of kashrut. Generally, kosher-style food does not include meat from forbidden animals, such as pigs and shellfish, and does not contain both meat and milk in the same dish however is such dish includes meat, it may not be kosher slaughtered. In some U.S. states, the use of this term in advertising is illegal as a misleading term under consumer protection laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chelev",
        "text": "Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook suggested that the prohibition of \"chelev\" reminds us that we may only take the lives of domesticated animals for our essential needs. \"We are permitted to slaughter these animals for their meat, to give us energy and strength, but \u2026 we should not kill them merely for the pleasure of eating their fatty meat, so pleasurable to the palate of the gastronome.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ethiopian Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Permitted and forbidden animals and their signs appear on Leviticus 11:3\u20138 and Deuteronomy 14:4\u20138. Forbidden birds are listed on Leviticus 11:13\u201323 and Deuteronomy 14:12\u201320. Signs of permitted fish are written on Leviticus 11:9\u201312 and Deuteronomy 14:9\u201310. Insects and larvae are forbidden according to Leviticus 11:41\u201342. Birds of prey are forbidden according to Leviticus 11:13\u201319."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish vegetarianism",
        "text": "According to some interpretations of Jewish law, it is not acceptable for an individual to become a vegetarian if they do so because they believe in animal rights. This is based on the Torah, which not only is replete with instances of eating meat, but also includes several commandments that specifically call for meat to be eaten, such as eating of the Passover sacrifice and other animal sacrifices. However, vegetarianism is allowed for pragmatic reasons (if kosher meat is expensive or hard to come by in their area), health concerns, or for reasons of personal taste (if someone finds meat unpalatable). The halakha encourages the eating of meat at the Sabbath and Festival meals; thus some Orthodox Jews who are otherwise vegetarian will nevertheless consume meat at these meals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Unclean animal",
        "text": "Any product of an impure or improperly slaughtered animal is also non-kosher. Animal gelatin, for example, has been avoided, although recently kosher gelatin (from cows or from fish prepared according to kosher regulations) has become available. (The status of shellac is controversial.) The prohibitions also extend to certain parts of pure animals, such as blood, certain fat tissues, and the sciatic nerves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abrahamic religions",
        "text": "Judaism and Islam have strict dietary laws, with permitted food known as kosher in Judaism, and halal in Islam. These two religions prohibit the consumption of pork; Islam prohibits the consumption of alcoholic beverages of any kind. Halal restrictions can be seen as a modification of the kashrut dietary laws, so many kosher foods are considered halal; especially in the case of meat, which Islam prescribes must be slaughtered in the name of God. Hence, in many places, Muslims used to consume kosher food. However, some foods not considered kosher are considered halal in Islam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher restaurant",
        "text": "A kosher restaurant serves food that complies with Jewish dietary laws (\"kashrut\"). These businesses operate under rabbinical supervision, which requires that the laws of \"kashrut\", as well as certain other Jewish laws, must be observed. Among those laws, the meat and dairy cannot be mixed, and grape products made by non-Jews cannot be consumed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "The turkey does not have a tradition, but because so many Orthodox Jews have come to eat it and it possesses the (signs) required to render it a kosher bird, an exception is made, but with all other birds a is required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "According to the Shulchan Aruch, a rabbinic decree (called \"gevinat akum\") prohibits all cheese made by non-Jews without Jewish supervision, even if its ingredients are all kosher, because very frequently the rennet in cheese is not kosher. Rabbeinu Tam and some of the geonim suggested that this decree does not apply in a location where cheese is commonly made with only kosher ingredients, a position that was practiced in communities in Narbonne and Italy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "A 2008 survey reported that about half of Israeli Jews do not always observe \"kashrut\". Israel's anomalous equanimity toward its religious dietary restrictions may be reflected by the fact that some of the Hebrew cookbooks of Yisrael Aharoni are published in two versions: kosher and non-kosher editions."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Kosher foods conforms to what law?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Kosher foods conform to Jewish dietary law."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are all the dietary restrictions Jewish people must adhere to in order to be kosher?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "To mention a few, the dietary restrictions involve permitted and forbidden animals, various animal products, how the slaughter is done, and foods prepared by non-Jews. Which of these would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know more about permitted and forbidden animals."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Some specifically identified forbidden animals include the hare, hyrax, camel, and the pig. Winged creatures include birds of prey, fish-eating water-birds, and bats, for fish monkfish is not considered kosher, as well as shellfish such as clams, oyster, crabs, and shrimp."
    ],
    "topic": "Kosher foods",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Kosher foods:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Kosher foods",
          "Permitted and forbidden animals"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Torah permits eating only those land animals that chew their cud and have cloven hooves. Four animals, the hare, hyrax, camel, and pig, are specifically identified as being forbidden because they possess only one of the above characteristics: the hare, hyrax and camel are hindgut fermenters and chew their cud but do not have cloven hooves, while the pig has a cloven hoof but does not chew its cud."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Kosher foods:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Kosher foods",
          "Permitted and forbidden animals"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Torah lists winged creatures that may not be consumed, mainly birds of prey, fish-eating water-birds, and bats. Certain domesticated fowl can be eaten, such as chicken, geese, quail, dove, and turkey."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Kosher foods:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Kosher foods",
          "Permitted and forbidden animals"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Torah permits only those fish which have both fins and scales to be eaten. However, monkfish is not considered kosher, and other seafood considered non-kosher includes shellfish like clams, oysters, crabs and shrimp. There is also a risk of products like seaweed and kelp being contaminated by microscopic, non-kosher crustaceans."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Kosher foods are those foods that conform to the Jewish dietary regulations of \"kashrut\" (dietary law), the Jewish dietary law is primarily derived from Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14:1-21. Foods that may be consumed according to \"halakha\" (Jewish law) are termed \"kosher\" () in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term \"kash\u00e9r\" (), meaning \"fit\" (in this context, fit for consumption). Foods that are not in accordance with Jewish law are called \"treif\" (; , derived from \"tr\u0101f\u00e1h\") meaning \"torn.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "American Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Kosher food is food that conforms to \"kashrut\", i.e. Jewish dietary laws. Under these rules, some foods \u2013 for example, pork and shellfish \u2013 are forbidden. Any meat must come from an animal that was slaughtered using a process known as \"shechita\". Jewish dietary law also prohibits the eating of meat and milk at the same meal. For this purpose, \"meat\" means the flesh of mammals and birds, and \"milk\" includes dairy products such as cheese and butter. Thus a kosher delicatessen selling corned beef sandwiches would not have any cheese, and a kosher bakery selling bagels and cream cheese would not have any meat. Many foods are classified as pareve (sometimes spelled \"parve\") \u2013 neither meat nor milk, and therefore acceptable at any meal. Pareve foods include fish, eggs, honey, and any edible plant. Kosher commercial establishments must be closed from Friday evening to Saturday evening, during the Jewish sabbath."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Kosher is food that may be consumed according to the \"Kashrut\", or Jewish dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Biblically prohibited foods include:\n* Non-kosher animals\u2014any mammals without certain identifying characteristics (cloven hooves and rumination); any birds of prey; any fish without fins or scales (thus excluding catfish, for instance).\n:All invertebrates are non-kosher apart from certain types of locust, on which most communities lack a clear tradition. No reptiles or amphibians are kosher.\n* Carrion (\"nevelah\")\u2014meat from a kosher animal that has not been slaughtered according to the laws of \"shechita\". This prohibition includes animals that have been slaughtered by non-Jews.\n* Injured (\"terefah\")\u2014an animal with a significant defect or injury, such as a fractured bone or particular types of lung adhesions.\n* Blood (\"dam\")\u2014the blood of kosher mammals and fowl is removed through salting, with special procedures for the liver, which is very rich in blood.\n* Particular fats (\"chelev\")\u2014particular parts of the abdominal fat of cattle, goats and sheep must be removed by a process called \"nikkur\".\n* The twisted nerve (\"gid hanasheh\")\u2014the sciatic nerve, as according to Genesis 32:32 the patriarch Jacob's was damaged when he fought with an angel, so may not be eaten and is removed by \"nikkur\".\n* A limb of a living animal (\"ever min ha-chai\")\u2014according to Jewish law, God forbade Noah and his descendants to consume flesh torn from a live animal. Hence, Jewish law considers this prohibition applicable even to non-Jews, and therefore, a Jew may not give or sell such meat to a non-Jew.\n* Untithed food (\"tevel\")\u2014produce of the Land of Israel requires the removal of certain tithes, which in ancient times were given to the \"kohanim\" (priests), Levites and the poor (\"terumah\", \"maaser rishon\" and \"maasar ani\" respectively) or taken to the Old City of Jerusalem to be eaten there (\"maaser sheni\").\n* Fruit during the first three years (\"orlah\")\u2014according to Leviticus 19:23, fruit from a tree in the first three years after planting may not be consumed (both in the Land of Israel and the diaspora). This applies also to the fruit of the vine\u2014grapes, and wine produced from them.\n* New grain (\"chadash\")\u2014the Bible prohibits newly grown grain (planted after Passover the previous year) until the second day of Passover; there is debate as to whether this law applies to grain grown outside the Land of Israel.\n* Wine of libation (\"yayin nesekh\")\u2014wine that may have been dedicated to idolatrous practices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher style",
        "text": "Kosher style refers to foods commonly associated with Jewish cuisine but which may or may not actually be kosher. It is a stylistic designation rather than one based on the laws of kashrut. Generally, kosher-style food does not include meat from forbidden animals, such as pigs and shellfish, and does not contain both meat and milk in the same dish however is such dish includes meat, it may not be kosher slaughtered. In some U.S. states, the use of this term in advertising is illegal as a misleading term under consumer protection laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Fish must have fins and scales to be kosher. Shellfish and other non-fish water fauna are not kosher. (See kosher species of fish.) Insects are not kosher, except for certain species of kosher locust. Any animal that eats other animals, whether they kill their food or eat carrion, is generally not kosher, as well as any animal that has been partially eaten by other animals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Flesh of fish and bugs is not included, and therefore is considered \"pareve\". By rabbinic decree, the flesh of birds and wild mammals (\"chayot\"), such as deer, is considered as \"meat\", rather than \"pareve\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Torah permits only those fish which have both fins and scales to be eaten. However, monkfish is not considered kosher, and other seafood considered non-kosher includes shellfish like clams, oysters, crabs and shrimp. There is also a risk of products like seaweed and kelp being contaminated by microscopic, non-kosher crustaceans."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Kosher-style food is food that is made in the style of kosher food but that does not necessarily conform to Jewish dietary laws. For example, a kosher-style hot dog is an all-beef hot dog that is mildly spiced with garlic and other flavorings, and a kosher-style pickle is a sour pickle aged in brine with garlic and dill. The term \"kosher-style\" may also refer to American Jewish cuisine in general."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism and Mormonism",
        "text": "The laws of \"kashrut\" (\"keeping kosher\") are the Jewish dietary laws. Food in accord with \"halakha\" (Jewish law) is termed kosher, and food not in accord with Jewish law is termed \"treifah\" or \"treif\". Kosher laws address which kinds of animals can be eaten and requires separation of milk and meat (disputed), that vegetables be thoroughly inspected for insects, that animals be ritually slaughtered by certified persons, and that many food products be produced under rabbinical supervision. Produce of the Land of Israel has further restrictions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "specifies that whatever \"goes on its belly, and whatever goes on all fours, or whatever has many feet, any swarming thing that swarms on the ground, you shall not eat, for they are detestable.\" (Hebrew: ). Before stating this, it singles out eight particular \"creeping things\" as specifically being ritually unclean in ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "As a general principle, scavenging birds such as vultures and birds of prey such as hawks and eagles (which opportunistically eat carrion) are unclean."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Kosher (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Kosher foods\n--Permitted and forbidden animals.\n--Animal products.\n----Dairy products.\n------Human breast milk.\n----Cheese.\n----Eggs.\n------Blood found in eggs.\n----Gelatin.\n--Ritual slaughter.\n----Forbidden parts of a slaughtered animal.\n------Foreleg, cheeks and maw.\n------Blood.\n--Food preparation by non-Jews.\n--Milk and meat.\n--Safety concerns.\n----\"Pikuach nefesh\".\n----Tainted food.\n----Fish and meat.\n--Kosherfest.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Torah permits eating only those land animals that chew their cud and have cloven hooves. Four animals, the hare, hyrax, camel, and pig, are specifically identified as being forbidden because they possess only one of the above characteristics: the hare, hyrax and camel are hindgut fermenters and chew their cud but do not have cloven hooves, while the pig has a cloven hoof but does not chew its cud."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Kosher may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Some Jews refer to these prohibited foods as \"akum\", an acronym of \"Ovde Kokhavim U Mazzaloth\" (), meaning \"worshippers of stars and planets (or Zodiac)\". \"Akum\" is thus a reference to activities that these Jews view as idolatry, and in many significant works of post-classical Jewish literature, such as the \"Shulchan Aruch\", it has been applied to Christians in particular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Killing of animals",
        "text": "\"Kashrut\" (also \"kashruth\" or \"kashrus\", ) is the set of Jewish religious dietary laws. Food that may be consumed according to \"halakha\" (Jewish law) is termed kosher in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term \"kash\u00e9r\" (), meaning \"fit\" (in this context, fit for consumption). \"Shechita\" is the process of slaughtering prescribed by Jewish dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Although plants and minerals are nearly always kosher, vegetarian restaurants and producers of vegetarian foods are required to obtain a \"hechsher\", certifying that a rabbinical organization has approved their products as being kosher, because the \"hechsher\" usually certifies that certain vegetables have been checked for insect infestation and steps have been taken to ensure that cooked food meets the requirements of \"bishul Yisrael\". Vegetables such as spinach and cauliflower must be checked for insect infestation. The proper procedure for inspecting and cleaning varies by species, growing conditions, and views of individual rabbis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Torah forbids two types of (creeping things):\n* Earth crawlers, e.g. mouse, lizard\n* Flying creeping things, with four exceptions: Two types of locust, the cricket, and the grasshopper (translations of the species names vary)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "The Jewish dietary laws are known as \"kashrut\". Food prepared in accordance with them is termed kosher, and food that is not kosher is also known as \"treifah\" or \"treif\". People who observe these laws are colloquially said to be \"keeping kosher\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "As the biblical prohibition uses the word \"gedi\" (\"kid\") and not the phrase \"gedi izim\" (\"goat-kid\") used elsewhere in the Torah, the rabbis concluded that the flesh of all domestic mammals (\"behemoth\") is included in the prohibition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Many Jews partially observe \"kashrut,\" by abstaining from pork or shellfish or by not drinking milk with meat dishes. Some keep kosher at home but eat in non-kosher restaurants. In 2012, one analysis of the specialty food market in North America estimated that only 15% of kosher consumers were Jewish. Kosher meat is regularly consumed by Muslims when \"halal\" is not available. Muslims, Hindus, and people with allergies to dairy foods often consider the \"kosher-pareve\" designation as an assurance that a food contains no animal-derived ingredients, including milk and all of its derivatives. However, since \"kosher-pareve\" foods may contain honey, eggs, or fish, vegans cannot rely on the certification."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The gift of the foreleg, cheeks and maw of a kosher-slaughtered animal to a \"kohen\" is a positive commandment in the Hebrew Bible. Some rabbinic opinions maintain that consumption of the animal is forbidden before these gifts are given, though the accepted \"halacha\" is to permit this."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Although the term \"kosher\" relates mainly to food, it sometimes occurs in other contexts. Some Orthodox retailers sell kosher cell-phones - stripped-down devices with limited features."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "The word \"kosher\" can form part of some common product names. Sometimes it is used as an abbreviation of \"koshering\", meaning the process for making something \"kosher\"; for example, \"kosher salt\" is a form of salt with irregularly shaped crystals, making it particularly suitable for preparing meat according to the rules of \"kashrut\", because the increased surface area of the crystals absorbs blood more effectively. At other times \"kosher\" can occur as a synonym for \"Jewish tradition\"; for example, a \"kosher dill\" pickle is simply a pickle made in the traditional manner of Jewish New York City pickle-makers, using a generous addition of garlic to the brine, and is not necessarily compliant with the traditional Jewish food laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "In addition to meat, products of forbidden species and from unhealthy animals were banned by the Talmudic writers. This included eggs (including fish roe) and milk, as well as derived products such as cheese and jelly, but did not include materials merely \"manufactured\" or \"gathered\" by animals, such as honey (although, in the case of honey from animals other than bees, there was a difference of opinion among the ancient writers)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Only meat from particular species is permissible. Mammals that \"both\" chew their cud (ruminate) and have cloven hooves can be kosher. Animals with one characteristic but not the other (the camel, the hyrax, and the hare because they have no cloven hooves, and the pig because it does not ruminate) are specifically excluded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Leviticus prohibits the eating of certain types of fat (\"chelev\") from sacrificial land animals (cattle, sheep, and goats), since the fat is the portion of the meat exclusively allocated to God (by burning it on the altar)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Torah lists winged creatures that may not be consumed, mainly birds of prey, fish-eating water-birds, and bats. Certain domesticated fowl can be eaten, such as chicken, geese, quail, dove, and turkey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "One of the few dietary laws appearing in Exodus prohibits eating the meat from animals that have been \"torn by beasts\"; a related law appears in Deuteronomy, prohibiting the consumption of anything that has died from natural causes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher style",
        "text": "Almost always, when a restaurant calls itself kosher style, the food is not actually kosher according to traditional \"halakhic\" (Jewish law) standards. The Reuben sandwich, which contains meat and cheese, is not kosher, nor is the Monte Cristo sandwich, made with ham and cheese. Dairy-based desserts such as cheesecake may be offered as complements to a meat dish. However, since fish is pareve (neither meat nor dairy), lox on a bagel spread with cream cheese may be kosher if the lox meets the requirements of kashrut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "Many of the laws apply to animal-based foods. For example, in order to be considered kosher, mammals must have split hooves and chew their cud. The pig is arguably the most well-known example of a non-kosher animal. Although it has split hooves, it does not chew its cud. For seafood to be kosher, the animal must have fins and scales. Certain types of seafood, such as shellfish, crustaceans, and eels, are therefore considered non-kosher. Concerning birds, a list of non-kosher species is given in the Torah. The exact translations of many of the species have not survived, and some non-kosher birds' identities are no longer certain. However, traditions exist about the \"kashrut\" status of a few birds. For example, both chickens and turkeys are permitted in most communities. Other types of animals, such as amphibians, reptiles, and most insects, are prohibited altogether."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Today, kosher meats purchased from a butcher or supermarket are usually already \"koshered\" as described above and no additional soaking or salting is required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meat",
        "text": "Jewish dietary rules (\"Kashrut\") allow certain (\"kosher\") meat and forbid other (\"treif\"). The rules include prohibitions on the consumption of unclean animals (such as pork, shellfish including mollusca and crustacea, and most insects), and mixtures of meat and milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Talmud and Yoreh De'ah suggest that eating meat and fish together may cause \"tzaraath\". Strictly Orthodox Jews thus avoid combining the two, while Conservative Jews may or may not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "The laws of keeping kosher (\"kashrut\") have influenced Jewish cooking by prescribing what foods are permitted and how food must be prepared. The word kosher is usually translated as \"proper\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Every food that is considered kosher is also categorized as follows:\n* \"Meat\" products (also called \"b'sari\" or \"fleishig\") are those that contain kosher meat, such as beef, lamb or venison, kosher poultry such as chicken, goose, duck or turkey, or derivatives of meat, such as animal gelatin; non-animal products that were processed on equipment used for meat or meat-derived products must also be considered as meat (\"b'chezkat basar\")\n* \"Dairy\" products (also called c\"halavi\" or \"milchig\") contain milk or any derivatives such as butter or cheese; non-dairy products that were processed on equipment used for milk or milk-derived products must also be considered as milk (\"b'chezkat chalav\")\n* \"Pareve\" products contain neither meat, nor milk nor their respective derivatives, and include foods such as fish, eggs, grains, fruit and produce; they remain \"pareve\" if they are not mixed with or processed using equipment that is used for any meat or dairy products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "Kosher animals are animals that comply with the regulations of \"kashrut\" and are considered kosher foods. These dietary laws ultimately derive from various passages in the Torah with various modifications, additions and clarifications added to these rules by \"halakha\". Various other animal-related rules are contained in the 613 commandments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher style",
        "text": "Some dining establishments, notably delicatessens, serve kosher-style food. This usually means that they serve traditional Ashkenazic Jewish foods, such as bagels with lox, knishes, blintzes, matzo ball soup, and cold cut sandwiches, especially pastrami, corned beef, brisket and beef tongue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Traditional Jewish thought has expressed the view that all meat must come from animals that have been slaughtered according to Jewish law. These guidelines require the animal be killed by a single cut across the throat to a precise depth, severing both carotid arteries, both jugular veins, both vagus nerves, the trachea and the esophagus, no higher than the epiglottis and no lower than where cilia begin inside the trachea, causing the animal to bleed to death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "An additional complexity arises from the fact that the has not yet been identified, and classical Greek literature merely identifies a number of species that are not the , including the peacock, grouse, and robin, and implies that the is the cousin of the kingfisher. From these meager clarifications, the can only be identified as anything from the lilac-breasted roller, Indian roller, or northern carmine bee-eater, to the flamingo. A likely candidate is the purple swamphen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Products labeled kosher-style are non-kosher products that have characteristics of kosher foods, such as all-beef hot dogs, or are flavored or prepared in a manner consistent with Ashkenazi practices, like dill pickles. The designation usually refers to delicatessen items."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism is more lenient; in the 1960s, Rabbi Silverman issued a \"responsum\", officially approved by the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, in which he argued that wine manufactured by an automated process was not \"manufactured by gentiles\", and therefore would be kosher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "A later \"responsum\" of Conservative Judaism was issued by Rabbi Dorff, who argued, based on precedents in 15th- to 19th-century \"responsa\", that many foods, such as wheat and oil products, which had once been forbidden when produced by non-Jews, were eventually declared kosher. On this basis he concluded wine and grape products produced by non-Jews would be permissible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "Due to the difficulty of identification, religious authorities have restricted consumption to specific birds for which Jews have passed down a tradition of permissibility from generation to generation. Birds for which there has been a tradition of their being kosher include:\n* Chicken\n* Chukar partridge\n* Common pheasant\n* Common quail\n* Grey partridge\n* House sparrow\n* Rock partridge\n* Japanese quail\n* Rock dove\n* Turtle dove"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "In Ancient Hebrew the word \"kosher\" () means \"be advantageous\", \"proper\", \"suitable\", or \"succeed\", according to the Brown\u2013Driver\u2013Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon. In Modern Hebrew it generally refers to \"kashrut\" but it can also sometimes mean \"proper\". For example, the Babylonian Talmud uses \"kosher\" in the sense of \"virtuous\" when referring to Darius I as a \"kosher king\"; Darius, a Persian king (reigned 522\u2013486 BCE), fostered the building of the Second Temple. In colloquial English, \"kosher\" often means \"legitimate\", \"acceptable\", \"permissible\", \"genuine\", or \"authentic\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The classic rabbinical writers imply that milk from an animal whose meat is kosher is also kosher. As animals are considered non-kosher if they are discovered to have been diseased after being slaughtered, this could make their milk retroactively non-kosher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "According to the rabbinical writers, eggs from ritually pure animals would always be prolate (\"pointy\") at one end and oblate (\"rounded\") at the other, helping to reduce uncertainty about whether consumption was permitted or not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "Although many, if not most, Jews in Israel do not keep kosher, the tradition of \"kashrut\" strongly influences the availability of certain foods and their preparation in homes, public institutions and many restaurants, including the separation of milk and meat and avoiding the use of non-kosher foods, especially pork and shellfish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "The Septuagint versions of the lists are more helpful, as in almost all cases the bird is clearly identifiable:\n* \u2014eagle\n* \u2014ossifrage\n* \u2014sea eagle\n* \u2014vulture\n* \u2014kite\n* \u2014raven\n* \u2014ostrich\n* \u2014owl\n* \u2014gull\n* \u2014hawk\n* \u2014night raven\n* \u2014cormorant\n* \u2014swamphen\n* \u2014swan\n* Ibis\n* Pelican\n* \u2014plover\n* \u2014heron\n* \u2014hoopoe\n* \u2014bat\n* \u2014guineafowl"
      },
      {
        "title": "Crayfish",
        "text": "Like all crustaceans, crayfish are not kosher because they are aquatic animals that do not have both fins and scales. They are therefore not eaten by observant Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "About a sixth of American Jews or 0.3% of the American population fully keep kosher, and many more of them do not strictly follow all of the rules but still abstain from some prohibited foods (especially pork). The Seventh-day Adventist Church, a Christian denomination, preaches a health message which expects adherence to the kosher dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Talmud, and later Jewish authorities, also prohibit the consumption of meat from animals who were slaughtered despite being in the process of dying from disease. This not based on concern for the health of the eater, instead being an extension of the rules banning the meat from animals torn by beasts, and animals that die from natural causes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Furthermore, the actual foreleg, cheeks and maw of all kosher-slaughtered beef are forbidden to a non-\"kohen\" unless the \"kohen\" permits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pescetarianism",
        "text": "Pescetarianism (provided the fish is ruled kosher) conforms to Jewish dietary laws. Fish (and all other animal seafood) must have fins and scales to be considered kosher. Aquatic mammals such as dolphins and whales are not kosher, nor are cartilaginous fish such as sharks and rays, since they all have dermal denticles and not bony-fish scales. The lack of fins and scales also makes crustaceans (shrimp, crab, lobster, etc.) and molluscs (oyster, clam, conch, octopus, squid, etc.) non-kosher. Roe, such as caviar, is considered kosher if it comes from a kosher fish. A pescetarian diet simplifies adherence to the Judaic separation of meat and dairy products, as kosher fish is \"pareve\"\u2014neither \"milk\" nor \"meat\". In 2015, members of the Liberal Judaism synagogue in Manchester founded The Pescetarian Society, citing pescetarianism as originally a Jewish diet, and pescetarianism as a form of vegetarianism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Kashrut (also kashruth or kashrus, ) is a set of dietary laws dealing with the foods that Jews are permitted to eat and how those foods must be prepared according to Jewish law. Food that may be consumed is deemed kosher ( in English, ), from the Ashkenazic pronunciation (KUHsher) of Hebrew \"kash\u00e9r\" (), meaning \"fit\" (in this context: \"fit for consumption\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher restaurant",
        "text": "Because many foods (excluding among others pork or shellfish) can be kosher as long as food is prepared heeding Jewish laws, there are \"kosher steakhouses, kosher pizzerias, kosher fish joints, kosher Indian restaurants, kosher Thai places,\" and other sorts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher style",
        "text": "Jews who do not keep kosher but wish to restrict themselves to eating \"traditional style\" foods, usually not eating forbidden animals or mixing milk and meat, may consider themselves to keep \"kosher style\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Non-kosher birds are listed outright but the exact \"zoological\" references are disputed and some references refer to families of birds (24 are mentioned). The Mishnah refers to four signs provided by the sages. First, a \"dores\" (predatory bird) is not kosher. Additionally, kosher birds possess three physical characteristics: an extra toe in the back (which does not join the other toes in supporting the leg), a \"zefek\" (crop), and a \"korkoban\" (gizzard) with a peelable lumen. However, individual Jews are barred from merely applying these regulations alone; an established tradition (\"masorah\") is necessary to allow birds to be consumed, even if it can be substantiated that they meet all four criteria. The only exception to this is the turkey. There was a time when certain authorities considered the signs sufficient, so Jews started eating this bird without a \"masorah\" because it possesses all the signs (\"simanim\") in Hebrew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "To avoid tearing, and to ensure the cut is thorough, such slaughter is usually performed by a trained individual, with a large, razor-sharp knife, which is checked before each slaughter to ensure that it has no irregularities (such as nicks and dents); if irregularities are discovered, or the cut is too shallow, the meat is deemed non-kosher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "As forbidden fats, tendons, blood vessels and the \"gid hanasheh\" (sciatic nerve) must be removed, more difficult in the rear-quarters, often only cuts of meat from the forequarters are available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "Variations arise when translations follow other ancient versions of the Bible, rather than the Septuagint, where they differ. Rather than vulture (), the Vulgate has , meaning \"red kite\", which historically has been called the \"glede\", on account of its gliding flight; similarly, the Syriac Peshitta has \"owl\" rather than \"ibis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The prohibition against drinking non-Jewish wine, traditionally called \"yayin nesekh\" (literally meaning \"wine for offering [to a deity]\"), is not absolute. Cooked wine (Hebrew: , \"yayin mevushal\"), meaning wine that has been heated, is regarded as drinkable on the basis that heated wine was not historically used as a religious libation; thus kosher wine will often be prepared by Jews and then pasteurised, after which it can be handled by a non-Jew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "The academic perception is that natural repugnance from \"weird-looking\" fish is a significant factor in the origin of the restrictions. Vedic India (and presumably the Persians also) exhibit such repugnance, generally allowing fish, but forbidding \"weird looking\" fish and exclusively carnivorous fish; in Egypt, another significant and influential culture near to the Israelites, the priests avoided all fish completely."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Producers of foods and food additives can contact Jewish religious authorities to have their products certified as \"kosher\": this involves a visit to the manufacturing facilities by an individual rabbi or a committee from a rabbinic organization, who will inspect the production methods and contents and, if everything is sufficiently \"kosher\" a certificate would be issued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nikkur",
        "text": "Nikkur () is the process of making an animal kosher by removing \"chelev\" (forbidden fats) and the \"gid hanasheh\" (sciatic nerve)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "Songbirds, which are consumed as delicacies in many societies, may be kosher in theory, but are not eaten in kosher homes as there is no tradition of them being eaten as such. Pigeons and doves are known to be kosher based on their permissible status as sacrificial offerings in the Temple of Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreleg, cheeks and maw",
        "text": "In terms of \"Kosher\" (in this instance adopting the literal meaning as \"in line\" with the general and particular laws of the Torah) the Talmud and Rabbinic sages discuss various viewpoints as to whether the meat from an animal whose gifts have not been given may be eaten in part or if at all. The popular Rabbinic concern is that of \"Gezel\" (theft)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher restaurant",
        "text": "A kosher restaurant serves food that complies with Jewish dietary laws (\"kashrut\"). These businesses operate under rabbinical supervision, which requires that the laws of \"kashrut\", as well as certain other Jewish laws, must be observed. Among those laws, the meat and dairy cannot be mixed, and grape products made by non-Jews cannot be consumed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "In addition to the requirement that the species be considered kosher, meat and poultry (but not fish) must come from a healthy animal slaughtered in a process known as \"shechitah\". Without the proper slaughtering practices even an otherwise kosher animal will be rendered \"treif\". The slaughtering process is intended to be quick and relatively painless to the animal. Forbidden parts of animals include the blood, some fats, and the area in and around the sciatic nerve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel",
        "text": "Roughly half of the Israeli-Jewish population attests to keeping kosher at home. Kosher restaurants, though rare in the 1960s, make up around a quarter of the total , perhaps reflecting the largely secular values of those who dine out. Hotel restaurants are much more likely to serve kosher food. The non-kosher retail market was traditionally sparse, but grew rapidly and considerably following the influx of immigrants from the post-Soviet states during the 1990s. Together with non-kosher fish, rabbits and ostriches, pork\u2014often called \"white meat\" in Israel\u2014is produced and consumed, though it is forbidden by both Judaism and Islam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher certification agency",
        "text": "According to halakha (Jewish law), the following requires kosher supervision:\n* Foods \u2013 including meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, fruits and vegetables, grains, beverages, and food additives\n* Utensils\n* Production process\n* Food-service venues \u2013 such as restaurants, nursing homes, university dining rooms, hospitals, stadiums, convention halls. Even though the hot dogs sold in a certain venue are certified kosher, a \"mashgiach\" must be present to ensure that non-kosher food items do not come in contact with them, and that non-kosher foods are not sold or distributed in kosher wrappers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher restaurant",
        "text": "Pork and shellfish cannot be served, and animals must be slaughtered by a certified \"shochet\", frequently a rabbi. In most cases, the location is limited to serving exclusively either dairy or meat foods. But some types of establishments, such as delicatessens, frequently serve both, kept in separate areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "Most of the remaining animals on the list are either birds of prey or birds living on water, and the majority of the latter in the list also eat fish or other seafood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camel",
        "text": "According to Jewish tradition, camel meat and milk are not kosher. Camels possess only one of the two kosher criteria; although they chew their cud, they do not possess cloven hooves: \"But these you shall not eat among those that bring up the cud and those that have a cloven hoof: the camel, because it brings up its cud, but does not have a [completely] cloven hoof; it is unclean for you.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "The Talmud also offers signs for determining whether a bird is kosher or not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "These rules restrict permissible seafood to stereotypical fish, prohibiting the unusual forms such as the eel, lamprey, hagfish, and lancelet. In addition, they exclude non-fish marine creatures, such as crustaceans (lobster, crab, prawn, shrimp, barnacle, etc.), molluscs (squid, octopus, oyster, periwinkle, etc.), sea cucumbers, and jellyfish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Talmud adds to the biblical regulations a prohibition against consuming poisoned animals. Similarly, Yoreh De'ah prohibits the drinking of water, if the water had been left uncovered overnight in an area where there might be snakes, on the basis that a snake might have left its venom in the water. In a place where there aren't usually snakes, this prohibition does not apply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher restaurant",
        "text": "A kosher restaurant is an establishment that serves food that complies with Jewish dietary laws (\"kashrut\"). These businesses, which also include diners, caf\u00e9s, pizzerias, fast food, and cafeterias, and are frequently in listings together with kosher bakeries, butchers, caterers, and other similar places, differ from kosher-style businesses in that they operate under rabbinical supervision, which requires that the laws of \"kashrut\", as well as certain other Jewish laws, must be observed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crayfish as food",
        "text": "Like all crustaceans, crawfish are not kosher because they are aquatic animals that have neither fins nor scales. They are therefore not eaten by observant Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Terefah",
        "text": "Terefah (, lit. \"torn by a beast of prey\"; plural treifot) refers to either:\n* A member of a kosher species of mammal or bird, disqualified from being considered kosher, due to pre-existing mortal injuries or physical defects.\n* A specific list of mortal injuries or physical defects that disqualify a member of a kosher species of mammal or bird from being kosher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic\u2013Jewish relations",
        "text": "Under the strict dietary laws, lawful food is called \"Kosher\" in Judaism and \"Halal\" in Islam. Both religions prohibit the consumption of pork. Halal restrictions are similar to a subset of the Kashrut dietary laws, so all kosher foods are considered halal, while not all halal foods are Kosher. Halal laws, for instance, do not prohibit the mixing of milk and meat or the consumption of shellfish, each of which are prohibited by the kosher laws, with the exception that in the Shia Islam belief shellfish, mussels, and similar sea foods and fish without scales are not considered halal."
      },
      {
        "title": "1902 Kosher Meat Boycott",
        "text": "In general, kosher meat tends to be pricier than non-kosher meat due to the various restrictions and requirements that come with it. Adhering to the strict dietary laws of kashrut is a significant part of Orthodox Jewish life. The laws of kashrut can be found throughout the Torah, Mishnah, Talmud and various halachic works. The main criteria for a mammal to be kosher is that the animal must have split hooves and chew its cud. Additionally, a certified butcher known as a shochet must slaughter the animal in accordance with Jewish law in a process known as shechita. After the shechita, the animal must be checked for any life-threatening wounds which could render the animal not kosher even after being properly slaughtered. Finally many parts of the animal have to be removed such as certain fats and all the blood. The meat is then salted in order to remove any remaining blood. This lengthy process and the many steps involved are what make kosher meat more expensive than non-kosher meat. In 1902 the kosher meat was recorded to be 5-6 cents more expensive per pound than non-kosher meat, even before the price increased."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "Unlike with land creatures and fish, the Torah does not give signs for determining kosher birds, and instead gives a list of non-kosher birds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "To comply with this prohibition, a number of preparation techniques became practiced within traditional Judaism. The main technique, known as \"meli\u1e25ah\", involves the meat being soaked in water for about half an hour, which opens pores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "Crows and members of the crow family such as jackdaws, magpies and ravens are not kosher. Storks, kingfishers, penguins and other fish-eating birds are not kosher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Observant Jews will eat only meat or poultry that is certified kosher. The meat must have been slaughtered by a \"shochet\" (ritual slaughterer) in accordance with Jewish law and is entirely drained of blood. Before it is cooked, it is soaked in water for half an hour, then placed on a perforated board, sprinkled with coarse salt (which draws out the blood) and left to sit for one hour. At the end of this time, the salt is washed off and the meat is ready for cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher airline meal",
        "text": "\"Kosher\" is one of several options for special meals offered to air travelers. Similarly styled meals that are packaged in double wrapping with verifiable kashrut certification are offered in a variety of other settings, such as cruise ships, hospitals, or catered events. The double wrapping allows for the meals to be heated in a non-kosher oven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher style",
        "text": "Jews who adhere strictly to the laws of kashrut will not eat at kosher-style establishments. Furthermore, the fact that such establishments appear to be kosher can be deceptive to Jews who are visiting an unfamiliar city and looking for kosher food. Some of these establishments are also open on the Jewish sabbath for business when this is forbidden by \"halakha\". Others may choose to eat at but not consume meat or cheese at such restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Unclean animal",
        "text": "By default, therefore, not only are most land-dwelling mammals not kosher, but all land-dwelling non-mammals are also not kosher, including reptiles, amphibians, molluscs (including snails), etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Classical rabbis prohibited any item of food that had been consecrated to an idol or had been used in the service of an idol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Unclean animal",
        "text": "Any product of an impure or improperly slaughtered animal is also non-kosher. Animal gelatin, for example, has been avoided, although recently kosher gelatin (from cows or from fish prepared according to kosher regulations) has become available. (The status of shellac is controversial.) The prohibitions also extend to certain parts of pure animals, such as blood, certain fat tissues, and the sciatic nerves."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of halal and kosher fish",
        "text": "Thus, a grass carp, mirror carp, and salmon are kosher, whereas a shark, whose scales are microscopic, a sturgeon, whose scutes can not be easily removed without cutting them out of the body, and a swordfish, which loses all of its scales as an adult, are all not kosher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "The Talmud argues that clean birds would have craws, an easily separated 'double-skin', and would eat food by placing it on the ground (rather than holding it on the ground) and tearing it with their bills before eating it; however, the Talmud also argues that only the birds in the biblical list are actually forbidden\u2014these distinguishing features were only for cases when there was any uncertainty in the bird's identity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prison food",
        "text": "Jewish prisoners may be issued kosher rations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Unclean animal",
        "text": "While there is nothing specifically mentioned in Jewish \"halakha\" requiring kosher fish having an endoskeleton (\"inner skeleton\") and gills (as opposed to lungs), every true fish that has both scales and fins by default also possesses an endoskeleton and gills."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "Other variations arise from attempting to base translations primarily on the Masoretic Text; these translations generally interpret some of the more ambiguous birds as being various different kinds of vulture and owl. All of these variations mean that most translations arrive at a list of 20 birds from among the following:\n* Bat\n* Black kite\n* Black vulture\n* Cormorant\n* Cuckoo\n* Desert owl\n* Eagle\n* Eagle owl\n* Egyptian vulture\n* Falcon\n* Flamingo\n* Glede\n* Great owl\n* Gull\n* Hawk\n* Heron\n* Hoopoe\n* Ibis\n* Indian roller\n* Kingfisher\n* Kite\n* Lapwing\n* Lilac-breasted roller\n* Little owl\n* Nighthawk\n* Night raven\n* Northern carmine bee-eater\n* Osprey\n* Ossifrage\n* Ostrich\n* Owl\n* Peacock\n* Pelican\n* Plover\n* Porphyrion (untranslated)\n* Raven\n* Red Kite\n* Screech owl\n* Sea eagle\n* Sparrow\n* Stork\n* Swan\n* Vulture\n* White owl"
      },
      {
        "title": "American Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "American Jewish cuisine may or may not be kosher. For example, some delicatessens follow Jewish dietary law in the preparation and serving of food, while others do not. Followers of Orthodox Judaism, the most traditional form of Judaism, generally eat only kosher food. Some other more-observant Jews also eat kosher food most or all of the time. However, the majority of American Jews are less observant of traditional rules, and eat non-kosher food. According to a 2012 study by the Pew Research Center, 22 percent of American Jews keep kosher in their homes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "Traditionally \"fins\" has been interpreted as referring to translucent fins. The Mishnah claims that all fish with scales will also have fins, but that the reverse is not always true. For the latter case, the Talmud argues that ritually clean fish have a distinct spinal column and flattish face, while ritually unclean fish don't have spinal columns and have pointy heads, which would define the shark and sturgeon (and related fish) as ritually unclean."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Kosher foods conforms to what law?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Kosher foods conform to Jewish dietary law."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are all the dietary restrictions Jewish people must adhere to in order to be kosher?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "To mention a few, the dietary restrictions involve permitted and forbidden animals, various animal products, how the slaughter is done, and foods prepared by non-Jews. Which of these would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know more about permitted and forbidden animals."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Some specifically identified forbidden animals include the hare, hyrax, camel, and the pig. Winged creatures include birds of prey, fish-eating water-birds, and bats, for fish monkfish is not considered kosher, as well as shellfish such as clams, oyster, crabs, and shrimp."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What exactly does kosher mean?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Kosher foods are those foods that conform to the Jewish dietary regulations of kashrut (dietary law), the Jewish dietary law is primarily derived from Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14:1-21.",
      "Kosher foods are those foods that conform to the Jewish dietary regulations of kashrut (dietary law), the Jewish dietary law is primarily derived from Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14:1-21."
    ],
    "topic": "Kosher foods",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Kosher foods:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Kosher foods"
        ],
        "ctx": "Kosher foods are those foods that conform to the Jewish dietary regulations of \"kashrut\" (dietary law), the Jewish dietary law is primarily derived from Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14:1-21. Foods that may be consumed according to \"halakha\" (Jewish law) are termed \"kosher\" () in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term \"kash\u00e9r\" (), meaning \"fit\" (in this context, fit for consumption). Foods that are not in accordance with Jewish law are called \"treif\" (; , derived from \"tr\u0101f\u00e1h\") meaning \"torn.\""
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Kosher foods:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Kosher foods"
        ],
        "ctx": "Kosher foods are those foods that conform to the Jewish dietary regulations of \"kashrut\" (dietary law), the Jewish dietary law is primarily derived from Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14:1-21. Foods that may be consumed according to \"halakha\" (Jewish law) are termed \"kosher\" () in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term \"kash\u00e9r\" (), meaning \"fit\" (in this context, fit for consumption). Foods that are not in accordance with Jewish law are called \"treif\" (; , derived from \"tr\u0101f\u00e1h\") meaning \"torn.\""
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Gelatin",
        "text": "Islamic halal and Jewish kosher customs generally require gelatin from sources other than pigs, such as cattle (that have been slaughtered according to the religious regulations) or fish (that Jews are allowed to consume)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Due to the ambiguity over the source of individual items derived from gelatin, many Orthodox rabbis regard it as generally being non-kosher. However, Conservative rabbis and several prominent Orthodox rabbis, including Chaim Ozer Grodzinski and Ovadia Yosef\u2014the former Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israel\u2014argue that gelatin has undergone such total chemical change and processing that it should not count as meat, and therefore would be kosher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gelatin",
        "text": "It has similarly been argued that gelatin in medicine is permissible in Judaism, as it is not used as food. According to \"The Jewish Dietary Laws\", the book of kosher guidelines published by the Rabbinical Assembly, the organization of Conservative Jewish rabbis, all gelatin is kosher and pareve because the chemical transformation undergone in the manufacturing process renders it a different physical and chemical substance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Technically, gelatin is produced by separating the three strands in each collagen fiber's triple helix by boiling collagen in water. Rabbi Dr. David Sheinkopf, author of \"Gelatin in Jewish Law\" (Bloch 1982) and \"Issues in Jewish Dietary Laws\" (Ktav 1998), has published in-depth studies of the kosher uses of gelatin, as well as carmine and \"kitniyot\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Gelatin is hydrolysed collagen, the main protein in animal connective tissue, and therefore could potentially come from a non-kosher source, such as pig skin. Gelatin has historically been a prominent source of glue, finding uses from musical instruments to embroidery, one of the main historic emulsions used in cosmetics and in photographic film, the main coating given to medical capsule pills, and a form of food including jelly, trifle, and marshmallows; the status of gelatin in \"kashrut\" is consequently fairly controversial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Today manufacturers are producing gelatin from the skins of kosher fish, circumventing many of these problems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "One of the main methods of avoiding non-kosher gelatin is to substitute gelatin-like materials in its place; substances with a similar chemical behaviour include food starch from tapioca, chemically modified pectins, and carrageenan combined with certain vegetable gums\u2014guar gum, locust bean gum, xanthan gum, gum acacia, agar, and others. Although gelatin is used for several purposes by a wide variety of manufacturers, it has started to be replaced with these substitutes in a number of products, due to the use of gelatin also being a significant concern to vegans and vegetarians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Kosher foods are those foods that conform to the Jewish dietary regulations of \"kashrut\" (dietary law), the Jewish dietary law is primarily derived from Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14:1-21. Foods that may be consumed according to \"halakha\" (Jewish law) are termed \"kosher\" () in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term \"kash\u00e9r\" (), meaning \"fit\" (in this context, fit for consumption). Foods that are not in accordance with Jewish law are called \"treif\" (; , derived from \"tr\u0101f\u00e1h\") meaning \"torn.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism is more lenient; in the 1960s, Rabbi Silverman issued a \"responsum\", officially approved by the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, in which he argued that wine manufactured by an automated process was not \"manufactured by gentiles\", and therefore would be kosher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "According to the rabbinical writers, eggs from ritually pure animals would always be prolate (\"pointy\") at one end and oblate (\"rounded\") at the other, helping to reduce uncertainty about whether consumption was permitted or not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Some processes convert a meat- or dairy-derived product into a \"pareve\" one. For example, rennet is sometimes made from stomach linings, yet is acceptable for making kosher cheese. Gelatins derived from kosher animal sources (which were ritually slaughtered) are also \"pareve\". Other gelatin-like products from non-animal sources such as agar agar and carrageenan are \"pareve\" by nature. Fish gelatin, like all kosher fish products, is \"pareve\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meat",
        "text": "Jewish dietary rules (\"Kashrut\") allow certain (\"kosher\") meat and forbid other (\"treif\"). The rules include prohibitions on the consumption of unclean animals (such as pork, shellfish including mollusca and crustacea, and most insects), and mixtures of meat and milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism and Mormonism",
        "text": "The laws of \"kashrut\" (\"keeping kosher\") are the Jewish dietary laws. Food in accord with \"halakha\" (Jewish law) is termed kosher, and food not in accord with Jewish law is termed \"treifah\" or \"treif\". Kosher laws address which kinds of animals can be eaten and requires separation of milk and meat (disputed), that vegetables be thoroughly inspected for insects, that animals be ritually slaughtered by certified persons, and that many food products be produced under rabbinical supervision. Produce of the Land of Israel has further restrictions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative halakha",
        "text": "The Conservative movement's understanding of kashrut is generally the same as that within Orthodox Judaism. However, on issues where leniency is possible, its Committee on Jewish Law and Standards consistently allows the lenient views as an acceptable option. For instance, it is permissible to view all gelatin as kosher, milk does not have to be cholov yisrael, and red meat does not have to be glatt."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Kosher food is food that conforms to \"kashrut\", i.e. Jewish dietary laws. Under these rules, some foods \u2013 for example, pork and shellfish \u2013 are forbidden. Any meat must come from an animal that was slaughtered using a process known as \"shechita\". Jewish dietary law also prohibits the eating of meat and milk at the same meal. For this purpose, \"meat\" means the flesh of mammals and birds, and \"milk\" includes dairy products such as cheese and butter. Thus a kosher delicatessen selling corned beef sandwiches would not have any cheese, and a kosher bakery selling bagels and cream cheese would not have any meat. Many foods are classified as pareve (sometimes spelled \"parve\") \u2013 neither meat nor milk, and therefore acceptable at any meal. Pareve foods include fish, eggs, honey, and any edible plant. Kosher commercial establishments must be closed from Friday evening to Saturday evening, during the Jewish sabbath."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "The Jewish dietary laws are known as \"kashrut\". Food prepared in accordance with them is termed kosher, and food that is not kosher is also known as \"treifah\" or \"treif\". People who observe these laws are colloquially said to be \"keeping kosher\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Biblically prohibited foods include:\n* Non-kosher animals\u2014any mammals without certain identifying characteristics (cloven hooves and rumination); any birds of prey; any fish without fins or scales (thus excluding catfish, for instance).\n:All invertebrates are non-kosher apart from certain types of locust, on which most communities lack a clear tradition. No reptiles or amphibians are kosher.\n* Carrion (\"nevelah\")\u2014meat from a kosher animal that has not been slaughtered according to the laws of \"shechita\". This prohibition includes animals that have been slaughtered by non-Jews.\n* Injured (\"terefah\")\u2014an animal with a significant defect or injury, such as a fractured bone or particular types of lung adhesions.\n* Blood (\"dam\")\u2014the blood of kosher mammals and fowl is removed through salting, with special procedures for the liver, which is very rich in blood.\n* Particular fats (\"chelev\")\u2014particular parts of the abdominal fat of cattle, goats and sheep must be removed by a process called \"nikkur\".\n* The twisted nerve (\"gid hanasheh\")\u2014the sciatic nerve, as according to Genesis 32:32 the patriarch Jacob's was damaged when he fought with an angel, so may not be eaten and is removed by \"nikkur\".\n* A limb of a living animal (\"ever min ha-chai\")\u2014according to Jewish law, God forbade Noah and his descendants to consume flesh torn from a live animal. Hence, Jewish law considers this prohibition applicable even to non-Jews, and therefore, a Jew may not give or sell such meat to a non-Jew.\n* Untithed food (\"tevel\")\u2014produce of the Land of Israel requires the removal of certain tithes, which in ancient times were given to the \"kohanim\" (priests), Levites and the poor (\"terumah\", \"maaser rishon\" and \"maasar ani\" respectively) or taken to the Old City of Jerusalem to be eaten there (\"maaser sheni\").\n* Fruit during the first three years (\"orlah\")\u2014according to Leviticus 19:23, fruit from a tree in the first three years after planting may not be consumed (both in the Land of Israel and the diaspora). This applies also to the fruit of the vine\u2014grapes, and wine produced from them.\n* New grain (\"chadash\")\u2014the Bible prohibits newly grown grain (planted after Passover the previous year) until the second day of Passover; there is debate as to whether this law applies to grain grown outside the Land of Israel.\n* Wine of libation (\"yayin nesekh\")\u2014wine that may have been dedicated to idolatrous practices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "A later \"responsum\" of Conservative Judaism was issued by Rabbi Dorff, who argued, based on precedents in 15th- to 19th-century \"responsa\", that many foods, such as wheat and oil products, which had once been forbidden when produced by non-Jews, were eventually declared kosher. On this basis he concluded wine and grape products produced by non-Jews would be permissible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Messianic Judaism",
        "text": "The observance of the dietary laws is a subject of continued debate among Messianic Jews. Some Messianic believers keep kosher purely for the purposes of evangelism to Jewish people. Most avoid pork and shellfish, but there is disagreement on more strict adherence to kosher dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "Although many, if not most, Jews in Israel do not keep kosher, the tradition of \"kashrut\" strongly influences the availability of certain foods and their preparation in homes, public institutions and many restaurants, including the separation of milk and meat and avoiding the use of non-kosher foods, especially pork and shellfish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Leviticus prohibits the eating of certain types of fat (\"chelev\") from sacrificial land animals (cattle, sheep, and goats), since the fat is the portion of the meat exclusively allocated to God (by burning it on the altar)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gid hanasheh",
        "text": "Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook explained that the prohibition of eating \"gid ha-nasheh\" demonstrates that, while we may need to slaughter animals for our physical needs, we do not seek to subjugate others, whether man or beast. For this reason, we make great efforts to avoid eating the sciatic nerve - a nerve that allows the body to stand upright."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Talmud and Yoreh De'ah suggest that eating meat and fish together may cause \"tzaraath\". Strictly Orthodox Jews thus avoid combining the two, while Conservative Jews may or may not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Unclean animal",
        "text": "Any product of an impure or improperly slaughtered animal is also non-kosher. Animal gelatin, for example, has been avoided, although recently kosher gelatin (from cows or from fish prepared according to kosher regulations) has become available. (The status of shellac is controversial.) The prohibitions also extend to certain parts of pure animals, such as blood, certain fat tissues, and the sciatic nerves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg",
        "text": "According to the Kashrut, that is the set of Jewish dietary laws, kosher food may be consumed according to \"halakha\" (Jewish law). Kosher meat and milk (or derivatives) cannot be mixed () or stored together. Eggs are considered \"pareve\" (neither meat nor dairy) despite being an animal product and can be mixed with either milk or kosher meat. Mayonnaise, for instance, is usually marked \"pareve\" despite by definition containing egg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher style",
        "text": "Jews who do not keep kosher but wish to restrict themselves to eating \"traditional style\" foods, usually not eating forbidden animals or mixing milk and meat, may consider themselves to keep \"kosher style\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "About a sixth of American Jews or 0.3% of the American population fully keep kosher, and many more of them do not strictly follow all of the rules but still abstain from some prohibited foods (especially pork). The Seventh-day Adventist Church, a Christian denomination, preaches a health message which expects adherence to the kosher dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "The laws of keeping kosher (\"kashrut\") have influenced Jewish cooking by prescribing what foods are permitted and how food must be prepared. The word kosher is usually translated as \"proper\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gelatin",
        "text": "The consumption of gelatin from particular animals may be forbidden by religious rules or cultural taboos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "There are 70 different traditional checks for irregularities and growths; for example, there are checks to ensure that the lungs have absolutely no scars, which might have been caused by an inflammation. If these checks are passed, the meat is then termed \"glatt\" (), the Yiddish word meaning 'smooth'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Three times the Torah specifically forbids \"seething\" a young goat \"in its mother's milk\". The Talmud interprets this as a general prohibition against cooking meat and dairy products together, and against eating or deriving any benefit from such a mixture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comparison of Islamic and Jewish dietary laws",
        "text": "As a rule of thumb, most kosher foods not containing alcohol are also halal. However, there are some exceptions, and this article lists the similarities and differences between the two laws.\n*Swine is prohibited by both sets of beliefs. Animals with fangs (i.e. cats, dogs, lions, bears) are also prohibited by both sets of beliefs, as well as amphibians and reptiles.\n*Almost all animals permitted in kashrut are also halal, such as bovines.\n*To be kosher, aquatic animals must have scales and fins. Most Sunni schools of thought adhere to the interpretation that all creatures from the ocean or the sea or lake are considered halal (except Hanafi school that require it to be fish). Twelver Shia Muslims however consider that only sea creatures that have scales are halal, but make an exception with some crustaceans; shrimp and prawns, but not lobsters. This is similar to the Jewish law with the exception of fins.\n*Gelatin, according to one of the two Islamic viewpoints, it is only permissible if it comes from a permissible animal, but according to another Islamic viewpoint, gelatin is halal, whatever its source, due to a chemical transformation, as for Judaism usually kosher gelatin comes from the bones of kosher fish, or is a vegan substitute, such as agar. Judaism finds that only gelatin made from kosher animals or kosher fish are in essence \"kosher gelatins.\"\n* Almost all insects are prohibited by both sets of law, although of the Maliki school of Sunni Islam permits eating insects, with the condition of it being dead by any means. The few kosher insects are specific types of locusts and grasshoppers (see kosher locust) which are not eaten today in most Jewish communities and it is unknown which species is permitted (the exception being the Yemenite Jews, who claim to have preserved this knowledge); however all types of locusts are considered halal in sharia.\n* For a substance to be halal, it must not contain alcohol of any kind. However, there is a difference drawn between the addition of alcohol to foods, which is absolutely forbidden, and the small quantities that naturally become present \u2013 such as orange juice. Except for grape wine and grape juice (which must be manufactured under Jewish supervision), kashrut allows the consumption of any sort of alcohol (besides Mezcal made with a worm/larva) as long as it has kosher ingredients (excluding any unsupervised grape extracts).\n* The list of animals forbidden by kashrut is more restrictive, as kashrut requires that to be kosher, mammals must chew cud and must have cloven hooves. Thus some animals such as camels and rabbits are halal, but not kosher.\n* Kashrut requires strict separation of dairy and meat products, even when they are kosher.\n* According to Jewish dietary laws, cooking equipment cannot come into contact with both meat and dairy. Both the kitchen utensils and eating utensils used must be designated to either one or the other.\n* Wine was very important in early Judaism. The Jewish Talmud stated that wine is an alternative to other medicines. Wine is permitted by all Jews as long as it is kosher. In order for wine to be kosher, it has to be made with all kosher ingredients and the entirety of the process from the picking of the grapes to the process of bottling the wine has to be supervised or created by other Jews. It is also a part of the Shabbat dinner and many other rituals. Especially the Passover Seder, where part of the ritual for Jewish tradition is for each person to drink four cups of wine. Grape juice is also an acceptable substitute for its alcoholic counterpart. Wine is also recommended to drink during the Jewish holiday of Purim. Meanwhile, in Islam alcohol is considered morally and socially unacceptable and is not used in any religious processes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaccine hesitancy",
        "text": "Although gelatin can be derived from many animals, Jewish and Islamic scholars have determined that since the gelatin is cooked and not consumed as food, vaccinations containing gelatin are acceptable. However, in 2015 and again in 2020, the possible use of porcine-based gelatin in vaccines raised religious concerns among Muslims and Orthodox Jews about the halal or kosher status of several vaccinations against COVID-19. The Muslim Council of Britain argued against the use of intranasal influenza vaccine in 2019 due to the presence of gelatin in the vaccine and consider such vaccines to be non-halal (unclean)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "In addition to meat, products of forbidden species and from unhealthy animals were banned by the Talmudic writers. This included eggs (including fish roe) and milk, as well as derived products such as cheese and jelly, but did not include materials merely \"manufactured\" or \"gathered\" by animals, such as honey (although, in the case of honey from animals other than bees, there was a difference of opinion among the ancient writers)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "According to the Shulchan Aruch, a rabbinic decree (called \"gevinat akum\") prohibits all cheese made by non-Jews without Jewish supervision, even if its ingredients are all kosher, because very frequently the rennet in cheese is not kosher. Rabbeinu Tam and some of the geonim suggested that this decree does not apply in a location where cheese is commonly made with only kosher ingredients, a position that was practiced in communities in Narbonne and Italy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "As the biblical prohibition uses the word \"gedi\" (\"kid\") and not the phrase \"gedi izim\" (\"goat-kid\") used elsewhere in the Torah, the rabbis concluded that the flesh of all domestic mammals (\"behemoth\") is included in the prohibition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Traditional Jewish thought has expressed the view that all meat must come from animals that have been slaughtered according to Jewish law. These guidelines require the animal be killed by a single cut across the throat to a precise depth, severing both carotid arteries, both jugular veins, both vagus nerves, the trachea and the esophagus, no higher than the epiglottis and no lower than where cilia begin inside the trachea, causing the animal to bleed to death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "As a general rule, however, both types reflect the food of the local non-Jewish population that each group lived amongst. The need to preserve \"kashrut\" does lead to a few significant changes (most notably, the use of olive oil instead of animal fat is often considered to be a legacy of Jewish residency in an area, due to the fact that olive oil may be eaten with milk, unlike animal fat)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Talmud, and later Jewish authorities, also prohibit the consumption of meat from animals who were slaughtered despite being in the process of dying from disease. This not based on concern for the health of the eater, instead being an extension of the rules banning the meat from animals torn by beasts, and animals that die from natural causes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Consequently, Orthodox Jews generally rule that wine, certain cooked foods, and sometimes dairy products, should be prepared only by Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Kosher foods\n--Permitted and forbidden animals.\n--Animal products.\n----Dairy products.\n------Human breast milk.\n----Cheese.\n----Eggs.\n------Blood found in eggs.\n----Gelatin.\n--Ritual slaughter.\n----Forbidden parts of a slaughtered animal.\n------Foreleg, cheeks and maw.\n------Blood.\n--Food preparation by non-Jews.\n--Milk and meat.\n--Safety concerns.\n----\"Pikuach nefesh\".\n----Tainted food.\n----Fish and meat.\n--Kosherfest.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "American Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "American Jewish cuisine may or may not be kosher. For example, some delicatessens follow Jewish dietary law in the preparation and serving of food, while others do not. Followers of Orthodox Judaism, the most traditional form of Judaism, generally eat only kosher food. Some other more-observant Jews also eat kosher food most or all of the time. However, the majority of American Jews are less observant of traditional rules, and eat non-kosher food. According to a 2012 study by the Pew Research Center, 22 percent of American Jews keep kosher in their homes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Kosher is food that may be consumed according to the \"Kashrut\", or Jewish dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Killing of animals",
        "text": "\"Kashrut\" (also \"kashruth\" or \"kashrus\", ) is the set of Jewish religious dietary laws. Food that may be consumed according to \"halakha\" (Jewish law) is termed kosher in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term \"kash\u00e9r\" (), meaning \"fit\" (in this context, fit for consumption). \"Shechita\" is the process of slaughtering prescribed by Jewish dietary laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foie gras",
        "text": "The Judaic dietary law, Kashrut, forbade lard as a cooking medium, and butter, too, was proscribed as an alternative since Kashrut also prohibited mixing meat and dairy products. Jewish cuisine used olive oil in the Mediterranean, and sesame oil in Babylonia, but neither cooking medium was readily available in Western and Central Europe, so poultry fat (known in Yiddish as \"schmaltz\"), which could be abundantly produced by overfeeding geese, was substituted in their stead. The delicate taste of the goose's liver was soon appreciated; Hans Wilhelm Kirchhof of Kassel wrote in 1562 that the Jews raise fat geese and particularly love their livers. Some Rabbis were concerned that eating forcibly overfed geese violated Jewish food restrictions. Some rabbis contended that it is not a forbidden food (treyf) as none of its limbs are damaged and the geese did not feel any pain in their throats from the process. This matter remained a debated topic in Jewish dietary law until the Jewish taste for goose liver declined in the 19th century. Another kashrut matter, still a problem today, is that even properly slaughtered and inspected meat must be drained of blood before being considered fit to eat. Usually, salting achieves that; however, as liver is regarded as \"(almost) wholly blood\", broiling is the only way of kashering. Properly broiling a foie gras while preserving its delicate taste is difficult, and therefore rarely practised. Even so, there are restaurants in Israel that offer grilled goose foie gras. Foie gras also bears resemblance to the Jewish food staple, chopped liver."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prison food",
        "text": "Jewish prisoners may be issued kosher rations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "One of the few dietary laws appearing in Exodus prohibits eating the meat from animals that have been \"torn by beasts\"; a related law appears in Deuteronomy, prohibiting the consumption of anything that has died from natural causes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shechita",
        "text": "If, in addition, there were two or fewer adhesions, and they were small and easily removable, then these adhesions are considered a lesser type of adhesion, and the animal is considered \"glatt\". Ashkenazi custom permits eating non-\"glatt kosher\" meat, but it is often considered praiseworthy to only eat \"glatt kosher\" meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Jews",
        "text": "About one-sixth of American Jews maintain kosher dietary standards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "However, by adhering to the principle that the majority case overrules the exception, Jewish tradition continues to regard such milk as kosher, since statistically it is true that most animals producing such milk are kosher; the same principle is not applied to the possibility of consuming meat from an animal that has not been checked for disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "However, among the classical rabbis, there were a number who refused to treat Christians as idolaters, and consequently regarded food that had been manufactured by them as being kosher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli cuisine",
        "text": "A 2008 survey reported that about half of Israeli Jews do not always observe \"kashrut\". Israel's anomalous equanimity toward its religious dietary restrictions may be reflected by the fact that some of the Hebrew cookbooks of Yisrael Aharoni are published in two versions: kosher and non-kosher editions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Kashrut (also kashruth or kashrus, ) is a set of dietary laws dealing with the foods that Jews are permitted to eat and how those foods must be prepared according to Jewish law. Food that may be consumed is deemed kosher ( in English, ), from the Ashkenazic pronunciation (KUHsher) of Hebrew \"kash\u00e9r\" (), meaning \"fit\" (in this context: \"fit for consumption\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Some Jews refer to these prohibited foods as \"akum\", an acronym of \"Ovde Kokhavim U Mazzaloth\" (), meaning \"worshippers of stars and planets (or Zodiac)\". \"Akum\" is thus a reference to activities that these Jews view as idolatry, and in many significant works of post-classical Jewish literature, such as the \"Shulchan Aruch\", it has been applied to Christians in particular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shechita",
        "text": "Ashkenazic Jews rule that if the adhesion can be removed (there are various methods of removing the adhesion, and not all of them are acceptable even according to the Ashkenazic custom) and the lungs are still airtight (a process that is tested by filling the lungs with air and then submerging them in water and looking for escaping air), then the animal is still kosher but not \"glatt\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ashkenazi Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "In Europe, jellies and preserves made from fruit juice were used as pastry filling or served with tea. Among the poor, jelly was reserved for invalids, hence the practice of reciting the Yiddish saying \"Alevay zol men dos nit darfn\" (May we not have occasion to use it) before storing it away."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shechita",
        "text": "\"Glatt\" () and \"halak\" () both mean \"smooth\". In the context of kosher meat, they refer to the \"smoothness\" (lack of blemish) in the internal organs of the animal. In the case of an adhesion on cattle's lungs specifically, there is debate between Ashkenazic customs and Sephardic customs. While there are certain areas of the lung where an adhesion is allowed, the debate revolves around adhesions which do not occur in these areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pescetarianism",
        "text": "Pescetarianism (provided the fish is ruled kosher) conforms to Jewish dietary laws. Fish (and all other animal seafood) must have fins and scales to be considered kosher. Aquatic mammals such as dolphins and whales are not kosher, nor are cartilaginous fish such as sharks and rays, since they all have dermal denticles and not bony-fish scales. The lack of fins and scales also makes crustaceans (shrimp, crab, lobster, etc.) and molluscs (oyster, clam, conch, octopus, squid, etc.) non-kosher. Roe, such as caviar, is considered kosher if it comes from a kosher fish. A pescetarian diet simplifies adherence to the Judaic separation of meat and dairy products, as kosher fish is \"pareve\"\u2014neither \"milk\" nor \"meat\". In 2015, members of the Liberal Judaism synagogue in Manchester founded The Pescetarian Society, citing pescetarianism as originally a Jewish diet, and pescetarianism as a form of vegetarianism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "To comply with this prohibition, a number of preparation techniques became practiced within traditional Judaism. The main technique, known as \"meli\u1e25ah\", involves the meat being soaked in water for about half an hour, which opens pores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Some have claimed that the Book of Ezekiel implies that the rules about animals that die of natural causes, or are \"torn by beasts\", were adhered to only by the priests, and were intended only for them; the implication that they did not apply to, and were not upheld by, ordinary Israelites was noticed by the classical rabbis, who declared \"the prophet Elijah shall some day explain this problematic passage\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camel",
        "text": "According to Jewish tradition, camel meat and milk are not kosher. Camels possess only one of the two kosher criteria; although they chew their cud, they do not possess cloven hooves: \"But these you shall not eat among those that bring up the cud and those that have a cloven hoof: the camel, because it brings up its cud, but does not have a [completely] cloven hoof; it is unclean for you.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "\"Kugel\" is another Shabbat favorite, particularly \"lokshen kugel,\" a sweet baked noodle pudding, often with raisins and spices. Non-sweet kugels may be made of potatoes, carrots or a combination of vegetables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Despite religious prohibitions, some foods not generally considered kosher have made their way into traditional Jewish cuisine; sturgeon, which was consumed by European Jews at least as far back as the 19th century, is one example."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "The word \"kosher\" can form part of some common product names. Sometimes it is used as an abbreviation of \"koshering\", meaning the process for making something \"kosher\"; for example, \"kosher salt\" is a form of salt with irregularly shaped crystals, making it particularly suitable for preparing meat according to the rules of \"kashrut\", because the increased surface area of the crystals absorbs blood more effectively. At other times \"kosher\" can occur as a synonym for \"Jewish tradition\"; for example, a \"kosher dill\" pickle is simply a pickle made in the traditional manner of Jewish New York City pickle-makers, using a generous addition of garlic to the brine, and is not necessarily compliant with the traditional Jewish food laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Kosher-style food is food that is made in the style of kosher food but that does not necessarily conform to Jewish dietary laws. For example, a kosher-style hot dog is an all-beef hot dog that is mildly spiced with garlic and other flavorings, and a kosher-style pickle is a sour pickle aged in brine with garlic and dill. The term \"kosher-style\" may also refer to American Jewish cuisine in general."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher style",
        "text": "Jews who adhere strictly to the laws of kashrut will not eat at kosher-style establishments. Furthermore, the fact that such establishments appear to be kosher can be deceptive to Jews who are visiting an unfamiliar city and looking for kosher food. Some of these establishments are also open on the Jewish sabbath for business when this is forbidden by \"halakha\". Others may choose to eat at but not consume meat or cheese at such restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil laws regarding kashrut",
        "text": "Civil laws regarding \"kashrut\" (Jewish religious standards, mainly concerning food) are found in several countries. Advertising standards laws in many jurisdictions prohibit the use of the phrase \"kosher\" in a product's labelling, unless it can be shown that the product conforms to Jewish dietary laws; however, the legal qualifications for \"conforming\" to Jewish dietary laws are often defined differently in different jurisdictions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "Today, kosher meats purchased from a butcher or supermarket are usually already \"koshered\" as described above and no additional soaking or salting is required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Certain foods must be prepared in whole or in part by Jews. This includes grape wine, certain cooked foods (\"bishul akum\"), cheese (\"g'vinat akum\"), and according to some also butter (\"chem'at akum\"), dairy products (Hebrew: \u05d7\u05dc\u05d1 \u05d9\u05e9\u05e8\u05d0\u05dc chalav Yisrael \"milk of Israel\"), and bread (Pas Yisroel)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese",
        "text": "Strict followers of the dietary laws of Islam and Judaism must avoid cheeses made with rennet from animals not slaughtered in a manner adhering to halal or kosher laws. Both faiths allow cheese made with vegetable-based rennet or with rennet made from animals that were processed in a halal or kosher manner. Many less orthodox Jews also believe that rennet undergoes enough processing to change its nature entirely and do not consider it to ever violate kosher law. (See \"Cheese and kashrut\".) As cheese is a dairy food, under kosher rules it cannot be eaten in the same meal with any meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Classical rabbis prohibited any item of food that had been consecrated to an idol or had been used in the service of an idol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher style",
        "text": "Kosher style refers to foods commonly associated with Jewish cuisine but which may or may not actually be kosher. It is a stylistic designation rather than one based on the laws of kashrut. Generally, kosher-style food does not include meat from forbidden animals, such as pigs and shellfish, and does not contain both meat and milk in the same dish however is such dish includes meat, it may not be kosher slaughtered. In some U.S. states, the use of this term in advertising is illegal as a misleading term under consumer protection laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Flesh of fish and bugs is not included, and therefore is considered \"pareve\". By rabbinic decree, the flesh of birds and wild mammals (\"chayot\"), such as deer, is considered as \"meat\", rather than \"pareve\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic\u2013Jewish relations",
        "text": "Under the strict dietary laws, lawful food is called \"Kosher\" in Judaism and \"Halal\" in Islam. Both religions prohibit the consumption of pork. Halal restrictions are similar to a subset of the Kashrut dietary laws, so all kosher foods are considered halal, while not all halal foods are Kosher. Halal laws, for instance, do not prohibit the mixing of milk and meat or the consumption of shellfish, each of which are prohibited by the kosher laws, with the exception that in the Shia Islam belief shellfish, mussels, and similar sea foods and fish without scales are not considered halal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Advertising standards laws in many jurisdictions prohibit the use of the phrase \"kosher\" in a product's labeling unless the producer can show that the product conforms to Jewish dietary laws; however, different jurisdictions often define the legal qualifications for conforming to Jewish dietary laws differently. For example, in some places the law may require that a rabbi certify the \"kashrut\" nature, in others the rules of \"kosher\" are fully defined in law, and in others still it is sufficient that the manufacturer only believes that the product complies with Jewish dietary regulations. In several cases, laws restricting the use of the term \"kosher\" have later been determined to be illegal religious interference."
      },
      {
        "title": "Triangle K",
        "text": "Triangle K has long been a source of controversy within the Orthodox community. While many Orthodox Jews eat only glatt kosher, Triangle K continues to certify foods which are not \"glatt\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher locust",
        "text": "The author of the \"Aruch HaShulchan\" points out that locusts were not considered a delicacy\u2014rather they were food for the poor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Rabbinically prohibited foods include:\n* Non-Jewish milk (\"chalav akum\")\u2014milk that may have an admixture of milk from non-kosher animals (see below for current views on this prohibition).\n* Non-Jewish cheese (\"gevinat akum\")\u2014cheese that may have been produced with non-kosher rennet.\n* Non-Jewish wine (\"stam yeinam\")\u2014wine that while not produced for idolatrous purposes may otherwise have been poured for such a purpose or alternatively when consumed will lead to intermarriage.\n* Food cooked by a non-Jew (\"bishul akum\")\u2014this law was enacted for concerns of intermarriage.\n* Non-Jewish bread (\"pat akum\")\u2014this law was enacted for concerns of intermarriage.\n* Health risk (\"sakanah\")\u2014certain foods and mixtures are considered a health risk, such as mixtures of fish and meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreleg, cheeks and maw",
        "text": "In terms of \"Kosher\" (in this instance adopting the literal meaning as \"in line\" with the general and particular laws of the Torah) the Talmud and Rabbinic sages discuss various viewpoints as to whether the meat from an animal whose gifts have not been given may be eaten in part or if at all. The popular Rabbinic concern is that of \"Gezel\" (theft)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mars (chocolate bar)",
        "text": "The rabbinical authorities declared that the products remained kosher for Jewish consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Because the rennet could be derived from animals, it could potentially be non-kosher. Only rennet made recombinantly, or from the stomachs of kosher animals, if they have been slaughtered according to the laws of \"kashrut\", is kosher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Torah permits eating only those land animals that chew their cud and have cloven hooves. Four animals, the hare, hyrax, camel, and pig, are specifically identified as being forbidden because they possess only one of the above characteristics: the hare, hyrax and camel are hindgut fermenters and chew their cud but do not have cloven hooves, while the pig has a cloven hoof but does not chew its cud."
      },
      {
        "title": "Challah cover",
        "text": "Rabbi Yisroel looked at the baker incredulously. \"Why do your ears not hear what your mouth is saying?\" he asked. \"Do you think that our Jewish tradition does not understand that a piece of dough has no feelings and would never become embarrassed? Understand that our laws are trying to sensitize us to the feelings of human beings, our friends, our neighbors, and especially our wives!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "The Torah forbids two types of (creeping things):\n* Earth crawlers, e.g. mouse, lizard\n* Flying creeping things, with four exceptions: Two types of locust, the cricket, and the grasshopper (translations of the species names vary)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Kashrut\n--Explanations.\n----Philosophical.\n----Medical.\n--Rules.\n----Prohibited foods.\n----Permitted and forbidden animals.\n----Separation of meat and milk.\n----Kosher slaughter.\n------Preparation of meats.\n----Kosher utensils.\n----Passover laws.\n----Produce of the Land of Israel.\n----Vegetables.\n----Pareve foods.\n----Cannabis.\n----Tobacco.\n----Genetically modified foods.\n--Supervision and marketing.\n----\"Hashgacha\".\n----Product labeling standards.\n----History of kosher supervision and marketing.\n----Legal usage.\n----Costs.\n--Society and culture.\n----Adherence.\n----Linguistics.\n--Other uses.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Candy",
        "text": "Most candy contains no meat or other animal parts, and many contain no milk or other animal products. Some candy, including marshmallows and gummi bears, contains gelatin derived from animal collagen, a protein found in skin and bones, and is thus avoided by vegans and some vegetarians. \"Kosher gelatin\" is also unsuitable for vegetarians and vegans, as it is derived from fish bones. Other substances, such as agar, pectin, starch and gum arabic may also be used as setting and gelling agents, and can be used in place of gelatin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pork",
        "text": "As indicated by the Torah verses, pork is non-kosher because Jews may not consume an animal that possesses one trait but not the other of cloven hooves and regurgitating cud. Hogs, which are not ruminants, do not chew cud as cattle and sheep do. Practicing Jews suffice on the biblical explanation of the swine as 'unclean'. Maimonides shared this view in classifying the swine as an unclean creature in both its habit and diet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher animals",
        "text": "specifies that whatever \"goes on its belly, and whatever goes on all fours, or whatever has many feet, any swarming thing that swarms on the ground, you shall not eat, for they are detestable.\" (Hebrew: ). Before stating this, it singles out eight particular \"creeping things\" as specifically being ritually unclean in ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anan ben David",
        "text": "In addition, he maintained that as long as Israel is in exile the flesh of animals, with the exception of the deer, the pigeon and the turtle-dove, is forbidden from being eaten (although permitted animals may be eaten with dairy). Within Judaism, restrictions on consuming meat and poultry that extend beyond the Rabbinic concept of kashrut are not unique to Ananism\u2014the Talmud relates that after the destruction of the Second Temple certain ascetics (perushim) such as Abu Isa sought to prohibit meat and wine because they had been employed in the Temple ritual, and that Rabbi Joshua ben Hananiah repressed the movement. In modern times, Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, the first Ashkenazic chief rabbi of the British Mandate for Palestine, argued that vegetarianism is supported in the Tanakh as a Jewish ideal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Biblically prohibited mixtures include:\n* Mixtures of meat and milk (\"basar be-chalav\")\u2014this law derives from the broad interpretation of the commandment not to \"cook a kid in its mother's milk\"; other non-kosher foods are permitted for non-dietary use (e.g. to be sold to non-Jews), but Jews are forbidden to benefit from mixtures of meat and milk in any way.\n* Different species of plants grown together (\"kilayim\")\u2014in the Land of Israel different species of plants are to be grown separately and not in close proximity according to Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:9\u201311.\n:A specific subdivision of this law is \"kil'ei ha-kerem\", the prohibition of planting any grain or vegetable near a grapevine; this law applies to Jews throughout the world, and a Jew may not derive benefit from such produce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashrut",
        "text": "Producers of foods and food additives can contact Jewish religious authorities to have their products certified as \"kosher\": this involves a visit to the manufacturing facilities by an individual rabbi or a committee from a rabbinic organization, who will inspect the production methods and contents and, if everything is sufficiently \"kosher\" a certificate would be issued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crayfish",
        "text": "Like all crustaceans, crayfish are not kosher because they are aquatic animals that do not have both fins and scales. They are therefore not eaten by observant Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "Many contemporary Orthodox authorities do not follow this ruling, and hold that cheese requires formal \"kashrut\" certification to be kosher; some even argue this is necessary for cheese made with non-animal rennet. However, some such as Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik ate generic cheeses without certification. Isaac Klein's \"tshuva\" authorized the use of cheese made from non-kosher rennet, and this is widely practised by observant Conservative Jews and Conservative institutions."
      },
      {
        "title": "La Ghriba",
        "text": "But they retain individualizing brands of orthodoxy when it comes to their respective religions. Even though both communities share a love for couscous, vegetable dumplings and potato soup, because many of Jerba's Jews keep strictly kosher, they rarely share meals with Muslim neighbors.\n*The Jewish Channel's article\n*Djerba\n*Islam and other religions\n*Projects working for peace among Arabs and Israelis"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher style",
        "text": "Some dining establishments, notably delicatessens, serve kosher-style food. This usually means that they serve traditional Ashkenazic Jewish foods, such as bagels with lox, knishes, blintzes, matzo ball soup, and cold cut sandwiches, especially pastrami, corned beef, brisket and beef tongue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sturgeon",
        "text": "The Jewish law of kashrut, which only permits the consumption of fish with scales, forbids sturgeon, as they have ganoid scales instead of the permitted ctenoid and cycloid scales. While all Orthodox groups forbid the consumption of sturgeon, some conservative groups do allow it. The theological debate over its kosher status can be traced back to such 19th-century reformers as Aron Chorin, though its consumption was already common in European Jewish communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish cuisine",
        "text": "In Europe, jellies and preserves made from fruit juice were used as pastry filling or served with tea. Among the poor, jelly was reserved for invalids, hence the practice of reciting the Yiddish saying (May we not have occasion to use it) before storing it away."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chalav Yisrael",
        "text": "According to Jewish law (halacha), milk is only considered kosher if it derives from a kosher species of animal (such as cows and sheep), while milk from a non-kosher species (such as horses and camels) is non-kosher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultured meat",
        "text": "Jewish rabbinical authorities disagree whether cultured meat is kosher, meaning acceptable under Jewish law and practice. One factor is the nature of the animal from which the cells are sourced, whether it is a kosher or non-kosher species and whether, if the cells were taken from a dead animal, slaughter in accordance with religious practice had taken place prior to the extraction of cells. Most authorities agree that if the original cells were taken from a religiously slaughtered animal then the meat cultured from it will be kosher. Depending on the nature of the cells, it may be determined to be kosher even when taken from a live animal, and some have argued that it would be kosher even if coming from non-kosher animals such as pigs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chadash",
        "text": "In addition a novel lenient approach was presented by Rabbi Yoel Sirkis who felt it is permissible if the grain originally belonged to a non-Jew. Additionally, the manner in which various foods have historically been available has meant that Jewish populations would need to risk starvation to pursue stringent compliance with this aspect of kashrut. All these factors led to a situation in which observation of the \"Yashan\" regulation was relatively limited until very recently (at least in the Ashkenazic community)."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Kosher foods conforms to what law?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Kosher foods conform to Jewish dietary law."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are all the dietary restrictions Jewish people must adhere to in order to be kosher?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "To mention a few, the dietary restrictions involve permitted and forbidden animals, various animal products, how the slaughter is done, and foods prepared by non-Jews. Which of these would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know more about permitted and forbidden animals."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Some specifically identified forbidden animals include the hare, hyrax, camel, and the pig. Winged creatures include birds of prey, fish-eating water-birds, and bats, for fish monkfish is not considered kosher, as well as shellfish such as clams, oyster, crabs, and shrimp."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What exactly does kosher mean?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Kosher foods are those foods that conform to the Jewish dietary regulations of kashrut (dietary law), the Jewish dietary law is primarily derived from Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14:1-21."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are Jewish attitudes towards gelatin?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Due to the ambiguity over the source of individual items derived from gelatin, many Orthodox rabbis regard it as generally being non-kosher. However, Conservative rabbis and several prominent Orthodox rabbis, including Chaim Ozer Grodzinski and Ovadia Yosef\u2014the former Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israel\u2014argue that gelatin has undergone such total chemical change and processing that it should not count as meat, and therefore would be kosher.",
      "Due to the ambiguity over the source of individual items derived from gelatin, many Orthodox rabbis regard it as generally being non-kosher. However, Conservative rabbis[30] and several prominent Orthodox rabbis, including Chaim Ozer Grodzinski and Ovadia Yosef\u2014the former Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israel\u2014argue that gelatin has undergone such total chemical change and processing that it should not count as meat, and therefore would be kosher."
    ],
    "topic": "Kosher foods",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Kosher foods:25",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Kosher foods",
          "Animal products",
          "Gelatin"
        ],
        "ctx": "Due to the ambiguity over the source of individual items derived from gelatin, many Orthodox rabbis regard it as generally being non-kosher. However, Conservative rabbis and several prominent Orthodox rabbis, including Chaim Ozer Grodzinski and Ovadia Yosef\u2014the former Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israel\u2014argue that gelatin has undergone such total chemical change and processing that it should not count as meat, and therefore would be kosher."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Kosher foods:25",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Kosher foods",
          "Animal products",
          "Gelatin"
        ],
        "ctx": "Due to the ambiguity over the source of individual items derived from gelatin, many Orthodox rabbis regard it as generally being non-kosher. However, Conservative rabbis and several prominent Orthodox rabbis, including Chaim Ozer Grodzinski and Ovadia Yosef\u2014the former Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israel\u2014argue that gelatin has undergone such total chemical change and processing that it should not count as meat, and therefore would be kosher."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "The Jewish name has historically varied, encompassing throughout the centuries several different traditions. This article looks at the onomastics practices of the Jewish people, that is, the history of the origin and forms of proper names."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Some traditional surnames relate to Jewish history or roles within the religion, such as Cohen (\"priest\"), Levi, Shulman (\"synagogue-man\"), Sofer (\"scribe\"), or Kantor (\"cantor\"), while many others relate to a secular occupation or place names. The majority of Jewish surnames used today developed in the past three hundred years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Jews have historically used Hebrew patronymic names. In the Jewish patronymic system the first name is followed by either ben- or bat- (\"son of\" and \"daughter of\", respectively), and then the father's name. (Bar-, \"son of\" in Aramaic, is also seen.) Permanent family surnames exist today but only gained popularity among Sephardic Jews in Iberia as early as the 10th or 11th century and did not spread widely to the Ashkenazic Jews of Germany or Eastern Europe until the late 18th and mid 19th century, where the adoption of German surnames was imposed in exchange for Jewish emancipation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Although Ashkenazi Jews now use European or modern-Hebrew surnames for everyday life, the Hebrew patronymic form is still used in Jewish religious and cultural life, and is common in Israel. It is used in synagogue and in documents in Jewish law such as the ketubah (marriage contract). Many Sephardic Jews used the Arabic \"ibn\" instead of \"bat\" or \"ben\" when it was the norm. The Spanish family Ibn Ezra is one example."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Personal peculiarities also gave rise to a Jew's name in the Arab world, as Abyad referred to fair skin, Afia possessor of strength, health or well-being, Tawil to a tall person."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brit shalom (naming ceremony)",
        "text": "Although one does not need to be circumcised to be Jewish, Orthodox Jews consider an intended failure to follow this commandment as bringing forth the penalty of \"kareth\", or being \"cut off\" from the community and from Hashem, as well as being indicative of a conscious decision to cut oneself off from one's people. However, even in the most Orthodox groups, Jewish identity is defined by matrilineal descent; a child born to a Jewish mother is recognized as Jewish, regardless of the status of the genitals. In Progressive Judaism, intact boys are usually accepted for religious training and bar mitzvah if they are sons of a Jewish mother and have been raised with a Jewish identity. Movements that do not see Jewish law as binding, such as Reform Judaism and Humanistic Judaism, may allow this ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Apart from these tendencies, the general trend of nomenclature among Jews in the Middle Ages was to adopt that of the countries in which they lived, the given names being often identical with those of the surrounding peoples, and other means of identification being derived mainly from localities or offices. Certain peculiarities of various countries may be taken separately."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Historically, Jews used Hebrew patronymic names. In the Jewish patronymic system the first name is followed by either \"ben-\" or \"bat-\" (\"son of\" and \"daughter of,\" respectively), and then the father's name. (\"Bar-\", \"son of\" in Aramaic, is also seen.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "On the other hand, the use of surnames became common very early among the Arabic-speaking Jews, who carried the custom into the Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain and Portugal). Among Sephardi Jews are found such names as Abeldano, corresponding to \"Ibn el-Danan\"; Abencabre, corresponding to \"Ibn Zabara\"; Tongay is another Sephardi Jewish last name is derived from the root word Torah () in Hebrew; Avinbruch or Auerbach corresponding to \"Ibn Baruch\"; and Beizaee, corresponding to \"Iza\" (Hebrew root for \"God is perfection\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish genealogy",
        "text": "Some Jewish families have preserved traditions relating to their tribal affiliation, based on partial genealogical records passed down generation after generation. In Yemen, for example, some Jews trace their lineage to Judah, others to Benjamin, while yet others to Levi and Reuben. Some Ashkenazi Jews have \"Levi\" and/or \"Cohen\" as surnames, probably because their ancestors were levites/cohanim. Of particular interest is one distinguished Jewish family of Yemen who traced their lineage to Bonai, one of the sons of Peretz, the son of Judah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Jews have some of the largest varieties of surnames among any ethnic group, owing to the geographically diverse Jewish diaspora, as well as cultural assimilation and the recent trend toward Hebraization of surnames."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Surnames were not unknown among the Jews of the Middle Ages, and as Jews began to mingle more with their fellow citizens, the practice of using or adopting civic surnames in addition to the \"sacred\" name, used only in religious connections, grew commensurately. Among the Sephardim, this practice was common long before the exile from Spain, and probably became still more common as a result of the example of the \"conversos\", who upon adopting Christianity accepted in most cases the family names of their godfathers. Among the Ashkenazim, whose isolation from the mainstream majority population in the lands where they lived was more complete, the use of surnames only started to become common in most places in the eighteenth century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "An exception was members of the Cohanim (priestly caste) and Levites (descendants of Levi) who performed certain religious duties, who had always appended the surnames Cohen and Levi respectively (modern spelling in English may vary), which were usually preceded by \"ha-\" meaning \"the\" in Hebrew. These names are seen in many various forms today, all coming from this root. For example, the name Levine in English-speaking countries, the name L\u00f6w in Germanic countries and the names Levi, L\u00e9vai, or L\u00e9vay in Hungary, Europe, or America. Although Ashkenazi Jews now use European or modern-Hebrew surnames for everyday life, the Hebrew patronymic form (ben or bas/bat with the father's name) is still used in Jewish religious and cultural life. It is used in the synagogue and in documents in Jewish law, such as the ketubah (marriage contract)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Surnames were derived from a variety of sources, such as the personal names of ancestors, place names, and occupations. In the 18th century, a custom developed amongst the Eastern European Jews of the Austro-Hungarian and Russian Empires where surnames began being passed from mother to son as opposed from father to son, but the trend seems to have died out by the early 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Jewish surname\n--History.\n--Sephardic and Mizrahi Jewish Communities.\n--Ashkenazi Jewish Communities.\n--Medieval France.\n--Israel.\n--Iran.\n--Toponyms.\n--Occupational names and nicknames.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Jewish surnames are family names used by Jews and those of Jewish origin. Jewish surnames are thought to be of comparatively recent origin; the first known Jewish family names date to the Middle Ages, in the 10th and 11th centuries CE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "The custom of calling one of the sons, generally the eldest, after the paternal (sometimes the maternal) grandfather, of which only nine instances are known during the Talmudic period, became more popular, especially in European states. Maimonides' grandfather was \"Joseph ben Isaac ben Joseph ben Obadiah ben Solomon ben Obadiah\", for instance, and certain families seem to have similarly confined themselves to a few chosen names. Thus, in the Kalonymus family there occurs \"Meshullam b. Moses b. Ithiel b. Moses b. Kalonymus b. Meshullam b. Kalonymus b. Moses b. Kalonymus b. Jekuthiel b. Moses b. Meshullam b. Ithiel b. Meshullam\"\u2014only five names among fourteen persons throughout three centuries. As a consequence certain names became characteristic of certain districts: \"Japheth\" and \"Caleb\" in Greece, and hence among the Karaites; \"Kalonymus\" in south Italy; \"Sheshet\" and \"Joab\" in Rome; \"Sinai\" and \"Pesa\u1e25\" in Germany. Some of the older names were revived\u2014\"Me\u00efr\", for example, of which only two previous instances before, had been known, the tanna Me\u00efr and the Me\u00efr mentioned by Josephus. \"Samson\" was never used by Jews before the 11th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Many immigrants to modern Israel change their names to Hebrew names, to erase remnants of exiled life still surviving in family names from other languages. This phenomenon is especially common among Ashkenazic Jewish immigrants to Israel, because most of their surnames were taken recently, and many were imposed by authorities in Europe as a replacement for the traditional Hebrew patronymic form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Many modern Jewish surnames are toponyms, names derived from place names. There are general names like Deutsch, Frank, Franco, Frankel, and more localized ones from almost every European country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "It was during the Middle Ages that the somewhat curious custom arose of combining the abbreviation of a title with the initials of a name to form a single personal name. This almost invariably implies frequency of mention, and, therefore, celebrity. The best-known examples are those of RaSHI and RaMBaM, who are hardly ever quoted in rabbinical texts except by these names; but there exists a large number of similar contractions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Many recent immigrants to Israel have changed their names to Hebrew ones, in a process called hebraization, to erase remnants of Diaspora history still present in family names from other languages. This is especially common among Ashkenazi Jews, because most of their European names do not go back far in history; surnames were imposed by the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires in the 18th century (explaining why many Ashkenazi Jews have German or European-sounding names). The newly assumed Hebrew names were sometimes based on phonetic similarity with their former European surname, for example, Golda Meyersohn became Golda Meir."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Jewish Princedom in Feudal France",
        "text": "A key part of the analysis consisted of correlating Jewish naming conventions from different cultural backgrounds. It is well known that the exilarchs of Baghdad frequently had at least two names \u2013 a familiar Persian or Aramaic name and a formal Hebrew-biblical name. The geographical and cultural mobility of Jews in post-Exilic period led to such widespread practice of combining traditional Jewish names with \"kinnui'im\" (secular nicknames). Zuckerman argues that as result, a Jew who received a traditional Hebrew name at birth can have further Arabic or Aramaic name equivalents if he lives in that cultural area, only to add a Latin, Greek or Frank name if moving to Europe later on. Against this practice it is for example argued that Makhir of Narbonne, the most multicultural personality of the dynasty, had Hebrew, Aramaic and Frank names even combined with a further nickname based on Gesta. A similar approach is applied if relevant for those who Zuckerman considers to be his later descendants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Even in the East there are names of these last two classes, Behar (from Bejar), Barron (from BarOn), Galante, Veneziani, though there are a few Arabic names like Alfandari and \u1e24aggis; Greek, as Galipapa and Pappo; and a few Turkish, as Jamila, Gungur, Bilbil, and Sabad. Going still farther east, the curious custom which prevails among the Bene Israel may be mentioned of changing Biblical names to similar Hindu names with the addition of \"-jee\", thus Benjamin into Benmajee, Abraham into Abrajee, David into Dawoodjee, Jacob into Akkoobjee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Personal name",
        "text": "In Judaism, someone's name is considered intimately connected with their fate, and adding a name (e.g. on the sickbed) may avert a particular danger. Among Ashkenazi Jews it is also considered bad luck to take the name of a living ancestor, as the Angel of Death may mistake the younger person for their namesake (although there is no such custom among Sephardi Jews). Jews may also have a Jewish name for intra-community use and use a different name when engaging with the Gentile world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Akin to this is the use of the Arabic Ibn which is relaten to Hebraic \"ben\" like in \"benjamin\" or ben yamin, (meaning son of, also spelled Aben, Aven, Avin) to form a family name amongst Mizrahim who lived in the Eastern part of the Arab world. Among the best known of this formation are Ibn Aknin, Ibn Danan (hence Abendana), Ibn Latif, Ibn Migas, Ibn Verga. Those Jews who lived in the North Africa countries (especially Morocco) chose the use of the word O or sometimes spelled \"U\" (belonging to), which created the names Ou'Hanna, (son of Hanna, also spelled Bohana, Abuhana, Abuhenna), O'Hayon (son of Life), O'Knine (son of Yacob, also spelled Waknin, Ouaknin)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Among the Mizrahim (Arabic-speaking Jews living in Western Asia and North Africa) it was quite common to replace their Hebrew names with relevant Arabic ones, whenever they bore a religious note and were deemed sacred to both Jews and Muslims, so Abraham turned into Ibrahim, Aharon into Haroun, David into Daoud, Moshe into Moussa, and Shlomo into Soliman or Salman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebraization of surnames",
        "text": "There is also a trend of reverting to ancestral, non-Hebrew names to return to one's roots and preserve traditions unique to each ethnic group. There are people who re-adopt the name their family previously abandoned for the sake of \"Israeliness\", such as Israeli writer Yitzhak Orpaz who restored his family's original family name of \"Averbuch\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Jews have historically used Hebrew patronymic names. While permanent family surnames started appearing among Sephardic Jews in Iberia and elsewhere as early as the 10th or 11th century, they did not spread widely to the Ashkenazic Jews of Germany or Eastern Europe until later. However, Non-Ashkenazi Jews who had immigrated to what was considered Ashkenaz (such as Sephardic Jews who fled the Inquisition) would often keep their surnames and/or Ashkenazize them (e.g., \"Melamad\" was kept; \"Leoni\" would be Ashkenazized to \"Leib\"), and some of the already-settled Jews in communities in large cities (such as Prague or Frankfurt am Main) began to adopt various surnames."
      },
      {
        "title": "Necronym",
        "text": "In Ashkenazi Jewish culture, it is a custom to name a child after a beloved relative who died as a way of honoring the deceased. Often the child will share the same Hebrew name as the namesake but not the given name in the vernacular language (e.g. English)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Among the names in the Talmud there is a considerable proportion of Greek ones. A large number also are Aramaic, ending in \"-a\" or \"-ai\": Abba, Huna, and Papa are instances of the former. Even Bible names were transformed in this direction\u2014\u2014\u1e24anina instead of Hananiah, Abuya instead of Abijah; while others were shortened, as Lazar (for Eleazar). Many Biblical names received renewed popularity owing to the distinction of their bearers, as those of Gamaliel, Hillel, and Ulla. The tendency toward double names existed here, as Sarah Miriam, Johanan Joseph, and Mahaliel Judah. Converts to Judaism, like Aquila, Monabaz, and Helena, retained their pagan names (as was the custom also in the early Christian Church). There was some objection to foreign names among the Jews of this period, yet legend declares that the high priest Simon promised Alexander the Great that all the children of priestly families born in the year following his visit to Jerusalem would be named Alexander, after him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "There are other occupational names that are more distinctively related to Jewish culture and religious roles: Parnass, Gabbay, Singer, Cantor, Voorsanger, Chazan, Cantarini, from the synagogue officials who were so called; Shochet, Schaechter, Schechter, from the ritual slaughterer (also Schub or Shub: Hebrew acronym for \"shochet u-bodek\", ritual slaughterer and kosher meat inspector); Shadkun, a marriage-broker; Rabe, Rabinowitz, Rabinovich, Rabinowicz, and Rabbinovitz, rabbis (occasionally Anglicized to Robinson or Robbins); Benmohel (one variant of which is Mahler), son of one who performed circumcision, the sacred rite of Abraham. A number of Arabic names are of similar origin: Al-Fakhkhar, a potter; Mocatta, a mason or possibly a soldier (\"Al-Mu\u1e33atil\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "Life-cycle events, or rites of passage, occur throughout a Jew's life that serves to strengthen Jewish identity and bind him/her to the entire community.\n* Brit milah\u00a0\u2013 Welcoming male babies into the covenant through the rite of circumcision on their eighth day of life. The baby boy is also given his Hebrew name in the ceremony. A naming ceremony intended as a parallel ritual for girls, named \"zeved habat\" or brit bat, enjoys limited popularity.\n* Bar mitzvah and Bat mitzvah\u00a0\u2013 This passage from childhood to adulthood takes place when a female Jew is twelve and a male Jew is thirteen years old among Orthodox and some Conservative congregations. In the Reform movement, both girls and boys have their bat/bar mitzvah at age thirteen. This is often commemorated by having the new adults, male only in the Orthodox tradition, lead the congregation in prayer and publicly read a \"portion\" of the Torah.\n* Marriage\u00a0\u2013 Marriage is an extremely important lifecycle event. A wedding takes place under a \"chuppah\", or wedding canopy, which symbolizes a happy house. At the end of the ceremony, the groom breaks a glass with his foot, symbolizing the continuous mourning for the destruction of the Temple, and the scattering of the Jewish people.\n* Death and Mourning\u00a0\u2013 Judaism has a multi-staged mourning practice. The first stage is called the shiva (literally \"seven\", observed for one week) during which it is traditional to sit at home and be comforted by friends and family, the second is the \"shloshim\" (observed for one month) and for those who have lost one of their parents, there is a third stage, \"avelut yud bet chodesh\", which is observed for eleven months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "It is probable that, as in other ancient societies, a name carried spiritual significance. A large majority of the 2,800 personal names found in the Hebrew Bible (shared among about 15,000 persons) convey a specific meaning. The meanings of the remainder have been obscured either through textual corruption or insufficient current understanding of comparative philology. In addition, a considerable number of these names are probably eponyms. There is little doubt that this applies to the names of the Israelite clans, each of which was assumed to be descended from the descendants of Jacob, described in Numbers 26."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "It appears to have been the custom in early Biblical times to confer a name immediately upon birth, but in later periods a name was given to a boy at circumcision (compare Luke 1:59 to 2:21). Before the Babylonian exile, it was not common practice to name children after their relatives, even in the royal family\u2014none of the twenty-one kings of Judah was named after a predecessor, or after David, the founder of the dynasty. On the other hand, a son of Jonathan and of King Saul were each named Meribaal (II Samuel 21:7 and following). Instead of repeating the exact name of an ancestor, however, it was customary to make use of one of the elements of the family name. Thus, Ahitub has two sons, Ahijah and Ahimelech. Three of Saul's family members have the element \"ba'al\" (in the altered form \"bosheth\") in their names. As a consequence of this avoidance of repetition, a single name was as a rule sufficient to identify a person. It became traditional to identify a son by his father's name and a chosen name, like Jaazaniah ben Shaphan (Ezekiel 8:11) only in later years of Hebrew history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jews",
        "text": "Jews (, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites and Hebrews of historical Israel and Judah. Jewish ethnicity, nationhood, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the ethnic religion of the Jewish people, although its observance varies from strict to none."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sfeka d'yoma",
        "text": "Nevertheless, Jewish communities outside the Land of Israel continue to celebrate two days for certain Jewish holidays because that is the \"minhag\" (custom) that the Jewish sages established during an era when it was needed. This is referred to as \"minhag avoteinu b'yadenu\" (, lit. \"the custom of our forefathers is in our hands\") \u2013 meaning that Jews have traditionally accepted and practiced what their ancestors have handed down to them, according to the long-standing classical view that established customs may not be changed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "The most striking tendency of the post-Talmudic period is the general choice of local names by the Jews for their civic relations. This led to the adoption of two names, one for civic purposes, known as the \"kinnuy\" (probably from the Arabic \"kunyah\"), the other (\"shem ha-\u1e33odesh\") for use in the synagogue and in all Hebrew documents. The latter, the \"sacred\" name, was as far as possible associated with the former, and was often a translation of a civic one, e.g., \"Asael\" for \"Diofatto\", \"Manoah\" for \"Tranquillo\", \"\u1e24ayyim\" for \"Vita\"; at times the civic name was merely a contraction of the sacred one, e.g., \"Leser\" for \"Eliezer\", \"Sender\" for \"Alexander\". In other cases mere similarity in sound was sufficient to determine the sacred name, as \"Mann\" for \"Menahem\", \"Kalman\" for \"Kalonymus\", and the like. Especially noteworthy was the use made of Jacob's blessing to transfer a personal name from the civic to the sacred sphere. Judah being compared to a lion's whelp in Jacob's blessing, \"Judah\" became \"Leo\", or \"L\u00f6we\", in lay relationship, and \"Ephraim\" became \"Fischlin\". Later on these name-equations became so usual that they formed doublets, which were almost invariably found together, as \"Dov B\u00e4r\", \"Naphtali Hirsch\", \"Solomon Zalman\", \"Judah\" or \"Aryeh L\u00f6b\", \"Binyamin Wolf\", and these again gave currency to similar correlative names, as \"Uri Phoebus\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "It was already noticed in Talmudic times that the use of family names had died out. The name of Rabbi Meir was said to be derived from an experience at school which was regarded as being of good omen. It is recommended not to name a child after enemies of the Jews, like Sisera and Pharaoh, but to use the names of the Patriarchs (i.e. Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sephardi Jews",
        "text": "A notable exception to the distinct Ashkenazi and Sephardi naming traditions is found among Dutch Jews, where Ashkenazim have for centuries followed the tradition otherwise attributed to Sephardim. See Chuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "\"Who is a Jew?\" ( ) is a basic question about Jewish identity and considerations of Jewish self-identification. The question pertains to ideas about Jewish personhood, which have cultural, ethnic, religious, political, genealogical, and personal dimensions. Orthodox Judaism and Conservative Judaism follow Jewish law (Halakha), deeming people to be Jewish if their mothers are Jewish or if they underwent a halakhic conversion. Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism accept both matrilineal and patrilineal descent as well as conversion. Karaite Judaism predominantly follows patrilineal descent as well as conversion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haftarah",
        "text": "The selection from \"Nevi'im\" [the Prophets] read as the \"haftarah\" is not always the same in all Jewish communities. When customs differ, this list indicates them as follows: \"A\"=Ashkenazic custom (\"AF\"=Frankfurt am Main; \"AH\"=Chabad; \"AP\"= Poland; APZ = Posen;); \"I\"=Italian custom; \"S\"=Sephardic and Mizrahi custom (\"SM\"=Maghreb [North Africa]; \"SZ\"= Mizrahi [Middle and Far East]); \"Y\"=Yemenite custom; \"R\"=Romaniote (Byzantine, eastern Roman empire, extinct) custom; and \"K\"=Karaite custom. In some instances \"Isr.Wikip\" = the Israeli version of Wikipedia (in Hebrew) of this article had different readings in its list. In several instances, authorities did not agree on the readings of various communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Namesake",
        "text": "Among Ashkenazi Jews, it is customary to name a child after a dead relative, such as the child's grandparent, but never after a living person. Sephardic Jews traditionally are encouraged to name their children after relatives, living or dead. Greek families traditionally name a child after its paternal grandparents and the second child of the same sex is named after its maternal grandparents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "In medieval France the use of Biblical names appears to have been more extended, judging by the elaborate lists at the end of Gross's \"Gallia Judaica\". True surnames occurred, especially in the south, like Farissol, Bonet, Barron, Lafitte; but as a rule local designations were popular, such as \"Samson of Sens\", etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Other surnames came from the man's trade such as Metzger (butcher) or Becker (baker), and a few derived from personal attributes, such as Jaffe (beautiful), or special events in the family history. The majority of Middle Age surname adoption came from place names (for example Shapiro, from Shpira, Speyer, a Rhenanian city known for its famous Jewish community in the 11th century), often a town name, typically the birthplace of the founder of a rabbinical or other dynasty. These names would permutate to various forms as families moved, such as the original Welsch becoming Wallach, Wlock, or Block. Since these surnames did not have the official status that modern ones do, often the old surname would be dropped and a new one adopted after the family moved their household."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebrew name",
        "text": "A common Jewish practice worldwide is to give a Hebrew name to a child that is used in religious contexts throughout that person's lifetime."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jews",
        "text": "Judaism shares some of the characteristics of a nation, an ethnicity, a religion, and a culture, making the definition of who is a Jew vary slightly depending on whether a religious or national approach to identity is used. Generally, in modern secular usage Jews include three groups: people who were born to a Jewish family regardless of whether or not they follow the religion, those who have some Jewish ancestral background or lineage (sometimes including those who do not have strictly matrilineal descent), and people without any Jewish ancestral background or lineage who have formally converted to Judaism and therefore are followers of the religion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish peoplehood",
        "text": "The concept of a distinctive Jewish people has been part of Jewish culture since the development of the Hebrew Bible. Throughout the Torah, Prophets and Writings, Jews are variously referred to as a congregation, a nation, children of Israel or even a kingdom, (Eda, Uma, Am, Bnei Israel, Mamlakha respectively) all implying a connection among people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Masortim",
        "text": "Masortim (, lit. \"traditional [people]\", also known as Shomrei Masoret, , \"upholders of tradition\") is an Israeli Hebrew term of self-definition, describing Jews who perceive and define themselves as neither strictly religious (\"dati\") nor secular (\"hiloni\"). Their affinity is mainly to mohels and rabbis of Orthodox Judaism (for their brit milah, bar mitzvah, and weddings), as is the affinity of the vast majority of the Jewish population in Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish culture",
        "text": "Defining secular culture among those who practice traditional Judaism is difficult, because the entire culture is, by definition, entwined with religious traditions: the idea of separate ethnic and religious identity is foreign to the Hebrew tradition of an \" 'am yisrael\". (This is particularly true for Orthodox Judaism.) Gary Tobin, head of the Institute for Jewish and Community Research, said of traditional Jewish culture:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sephardic law and customs",
        "text": "Given names\n*Sephardim often name their children after living grandparents, which is a great respect. On the other hand, Ashkenazim never name their children after a living person.\n* Abudirham, David, \"Sefer Abudirham\"\n* Caro, Joseph, \"Shul\u1e25an Aruch\" (innumerable editions)\n* \u1e24ayim, Joseph, \"Ben Ish \u1e24ai\", tr. Hiley (4 vols.): Jerusalem 1993\n* Sofer, \u1e24ayim, \"Kaf ha-\u1e24ayim\"\n* Raka\u1e25, Yaakob, \"Shul\u1e25an Le\u1e25em ha-Panim\" (6 vols., ed. Levi Nahum), Jerusalem\n* Jacobson, B. S., \"Netiv Binah\": Tel Aviv 1968\n* Dayan Toledano, Pinchas, \"Fountain of Blessings, a Code of Jewish Law, mekor bracha\": London 1989, Jerusalem 2009 (edited and expanded to 4 volumes).\n* Toledano, E., and Choueka, S., \"Gateway to Halachah\" (2 vols.): Lakewood and New York 1988\u20139.\n* Yitzhak, Hertzel Hillel, \"Tzel HeHarim: Tzitzit\": New York, Feldheim Publishers 2006.\n* HaLevi, \u1e24ayim David, \"Mekor \u1e24ayim haShalem\", a comprehensive code of Jewish law\n** \"Kitzur Shul\u1e25an Arukh Mekor \u1e24ayim\", a digest of the above code\n* Yosef, Ovadia, \"\u1e24azon Obadiah\", \"Yabbia Omer\" and \"Ye\u1e25avveh Da'at\", responsa\n* Yosef, Yitz\u1e25ak, \"Yalkut Yosef\", codifying rulings of Ovadia Yosef\n* Yosef, David, \"Torat Ha-Mo'adim\" (rules about the Jewish holidays)\n* Yosef, David, \"Halachah Berurah\", another codification of Rabbi Ovadia Yosef's rulings\n* Vital, \u1e24ayim, \"Sha'ar ha-Kavvanot\" (vol. 8 of the 15 volume collected writings)\n* anon., \"\u1e24emdat Yamim\"\n* Algazi, Yisrael, \"Shalme Tsibbur\" and \"Shalme \u1e24agigah\"\n* Mueller, J., \"\u1e24illuf Minhagim she-bein Benei Bavel u-Venei Eretz Yisrael\": 1878\n* Lewin, B. M., \"Otzar \u1e24illuf Minhagim: Thesaurus of Halachic Differences between the Palestinian and Babylonian Schools\": Jerusalem 1942\n* Gaguine, Shem Tob, \"Keter Shem Tob\", 7 vols. (Spanish and Portuguese and comparative): vols. 1-2, vol. 3, vol. 6, vol. 7\n* Ben Ya'akov, Abraham, \"Minhage Yahadut Bavel ba-dorot ha-a\u1e25aronim\" (Iraq)\n* Ades, Abraham, \"Derech Ere\"ts\": Bene Berak 1990 (Aleppo)\n* Ben Shimon, Refael Aharon, \"Nehar Mitzrayim\" (Egypt): vol. 1, vol. 2\n* Hacohen, Mosheh, \"Berit Kehunah\", 1941 (Jerba)\n* Messas, Yosef, \"Mayim \u1e24ayim\" (Morocco)\n* Toledano, Shelomo, \"Divre Shalom ve-Emet: Pisqe \u1e24achme Marocco\" (Morocco)\n* Bitton, Eliyahu, \"Netivot ha-Ma'arav\" (Morocco)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish humor",
        "text": "A number of traditions in Jewish humor date back to stories and anecdotes from the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish Christian",
        "text": "Today, certain families are associated with descent from the early Jewish Christians of Antioch, Damascus, Judea, and Galilee. Some of those families carry surnames such as Youhanna (John), Hanania (Ananias), Sahyoun (Zion), Eliyya/Elias (Elijah), Chamoun/Shamoun (Simeon/Simon), Semaan/Simaan (Simeon/Simon), Menassa (Manasseh), Salamoun/Suleiman (Solomon), Youwakim (Joachim), Zakariya (Zacharias) and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish mythology",
        "text": "A remarkable custom mentioned in the Talmud is that of planting trees when children are born and intertwining them to form the huppah when they marry. Yet this idea may be originally Iranian and is also found in India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "It was somewhat rare for the same name to be used by both sexes. In Biblical times this occurs with regard to the names \"Abigail\", \"Abijah\", \"Athaliah\", \"Chushan\", \"Ephah\", \"Micha\", \"Nahash\", \"Shelomith\", \"Zibiah\"; in Talmudic times, with regard to \"Ibu\", \"Johanan\", \"Nehorai\", \"Pasi\", \"Shalom\"; the only later instances that may be cited are \"Jeroham\", \"Mazal-\u1e6cob\", \"Ne\u1e25amah\", \"Menu\u1e25ah\", \"Sim\u1e25ah\", \"Tamar\", \"Bongodas\", and \"Bien-li-Viengue\". To wear a man's name seemed as objectionable as wearing men's clothes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebraization of surnames",
        "text": "Others kept their name for several reasons. Sometimes, the reason it was kept was because of its religious nature. For examples, names connected with the kohen (priesthood) such as Cohen, Kohn, Kaplan, Sacerdoti, Katz, Azoulai, etc. Other times it indicated Levite descent such as Levi, Levy, Weil (anagram), and Segal (Hebrew acronym). Other times it was synagogue or Jewish community functions such as Gabbai, Chazan, or Rabin. Sometimes the surname was already Hebrew (Sarfati)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Many Jews adopted these professions as their surnames, such as Abrishami (silk maker), Almasi (diamond maker), Boloorian (crystal maker), Dehghan (wealthy farmer), Fallah (farmer), Zarrinkoob, Javaherian, Gohari (gold seller), Noghrehforosh (silversmith), Mesforosh (coppersmith), Sarraf, Sarrafan, Sarraf Nezhad, Banki (money changer), Zargar, Zarshenas (goldsmith), Hakakian or Hakkakian (connected with raw material, finished product or implements associated with that trade) for example Roya Hakakian. Jews in Iran also employed the son of or daughter of patronymics, using Persian suffixes such as \"-pour\" (son of), \"-zadeh\" (born of), \"-nezhad\" (from the race of) and \"-ian\" (from the group of). Some examples of these names include Davoud pour (son of David), Davoud nezhad (from the seed of David), Davoud zadeh (born of David), Rabbi pour (son of a rabbi), Rabbi zadeh (born of a rabbi), Yaghoub pour (son of Jacob) and Jafar nezhad (from the race of Japhet). Levite and Kohanim surnames became Lavi, Lavaee, Lavi Zadeh, Lavaeeian, Kohan, Kohan pour (son of a Kohen), etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish studies",
        "text": "The Jewish tradition generally places a high value on learning and study, especially of religious texts. Torah study (study of the Torah and more broadly of the entire Hebrew Bible as well as Rabbinic literature such as the Talmud and Midrash) is considered a religious obligation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebraization of surnames",
        "text": "After the Israeli Declaration of Independence, there was still the attitude that the hebraization of family names should continue, in order to get rid of names with a diaspora sound. Hebraization of names became a typical part of the integration process for new immigrants among Ashkenazi Jews. It also occurred among Sephardi and Mizrahi Jewish immigrants from Arab and Muslim lands, though it was less common among them than among Ashkenazi Jews; Sephardi and Mizrahi children were typically given new Hebrew names in school, often without permission from their parents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish genealogy",
        "text": "Jewish genealogy is the study of Jewish families and the tracing of their lineages and history. The Pentateuchal equivalent for \"genealogies\" is \"toledot\" (generations). In later Hebrew, as in Aramaic, the term and its derivatives \"yi\u1e25us\" and \"yu\u1e25asin\" recur with the implication of legitimacy or nobility of birth. In Modern Hebrew, genealogy is generally referred to as \"\u05e9\u05d5\u05e8\u05e9\u05d9\u05dd\"/\"shorashim\", the Hebrew word for roots, or borrowing from the English, \"\u05d2\u05e0\u05d0\u05dc\u05d5\u05d2\u05d9\"/\"genealogi\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebraization of surnames",
        "text": "The Hebraization of surnames (also Hebraicization) (, \"Ivrut\", \"Hebraization\") is the act of adopting a Hebrew surname in exchange for a diaspora name. For many diaspora Jews who migrated to Israel, taking a Hebrew surname was a way to erase remnants of their diaspora experience and to assimilate into a new shared Jewish identity with Mizrahi Jews and Palestinian Jews (Jewish residents of Ottoman Syria and Mandatory Palestine) and later as Israeli Jews (Jewish citizens of the independent State of Israel)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebraization of surnames",
        "text": "Other \"Diaspora\" Jewish names are Hebrew to begin with (such as Ashkenazi and Yerushalmi), corruptions of Hebrew words (such as Heifetz, from Chafetz), Hebrew acronyms (such as Shalit, from \"\"Sheyihye le'orekh yamim tovim\"), or of Aramaic origin (such as Kahane, or Raban)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebraization of surnames",
        "text": "This phenomenon was especially common among Ashkenazi Jews, because many such families only acquired permanent surnames (rather than patronyms) when surnames were made compulsory by the November 12, 1787 decree by the Habsburg emperor Joseph II. Sephardi Jews from the Iberian peninsula often had hereditary family names since well before the expulsion from Spain (e.g., Cordovero, Abrabanel, Shaltiel, de Leon, Alcalai, Toledano, Lopez, etc.)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "At the end of the 18th century after the Partition of Poland and later after the Congress of Vienna the Russian Empire acquired a large number of Jews who did not use surnames. They, too, were required to adopt surnames during the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Sephardic Jews in the Ottoman Empire were often known by multiple forms of their names, such as those in Ladino, Turkish, French, Hebrew, Arabic, and/or other European languages. Many were given names from the Bible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Land of Israel",
        "text": "Jewish religious tradition does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities. Nonetheless, during two millennia of exile and with a continuous yet small Jewish presence in the land, a strong sense of bondedness exists throughout this tradition, expressed in terms of people-hood; from the very beginning, this concept was identified with that ancestral biblical land or, to use the traditional religious and modern Hebrew term, \"Eretz Yisrael\". Religiously and culturally the area was seen broadly as a land of destiny, and always with hope for some form of redemption and return. It was later seen as a national home and refuge, intimately related to that traditional sense of people-hood, and meant to show continuity that this land was always seen as central to Jewish life, in theory if not in practice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "Judaism\n--Etymology.\n--History.\n----Origins.\n----Antiquity.\n--Defining characteristics and principles of faith.\n----Core tenets.\n--Religious texts.\n----Legal literature.\n----Jewish philosophy.\n----Rabbinic hermeneutics.\n--Jewish identity.\n----Distinction between Jews as a people and Judaism.\n----Who is a Jew?\n----Jewish demographics.\n--Jewish religious movements.\n----Rabbinic Judaism.\n------Sephardi and Mizrahi Judaism.\n------Jewish movements in Israel.\n----Karaites and Samaritans.\n----Haymanot (Ethiopian Judaism).\n----Secular Judaism.\n----Noahide (\"B'nei Noah\" movement).\n--Jewish observances.\n----Jewish ethics.\n----Prayers.\n----Religious clothing.\n----Jewish holidays.\n------Shabbat.\n------Three pilgrimage festivals.\n------High Holy Days.\n------Purim.\n------Hanukkah.\n------Fast days.\n------Israeli holidays.\n----Torah readings.\n----Synagogues and religious buildings.\n----Dietary laws: \"kashrut\".\n----Laws of ritual purity.\n------Family purity.\n----Life-cycle events.\n--Community leadership.\n----Classical priesthood.\n----Prayer leaders.\n----Historical Jewish groupings (to 1700).\n----Persecutions.\n----Hasidism.\n----The Enlightenment and new religious movements.\n----Spectrum of observance.\n--Judaism and other religions.\n----Christianity and Judaism.\n----Islam and Judaism.\n----Syncretic movements incorporating Judaism.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Another frequent source for Jewish and German-Jewish surnames is the names of trades and occupations; such names as Kaufmann and Marchant (\"merchant\") became prominent. Others of the same kind are: Banks, Brauer, Breyer, and Brower (\"brewer\"); Spielmann (\"musician\"); Gerber (\"tanner\"); Steinschneider (\"stonecutter\"); Graveur (\"engraver\"); Shoemark or Schumacher (\"shoemaker\"); Schuster (\"cobbler\"); Schneider, Schneiders, and Snyders (\"tailor\"; in Hebrew , Chait/Khait (and at times Hyatt)); Wechsler (\"money-changer\"). Related, and likewise generically German, names are derived metonymically for a common object or tool of a profession: e.g., Hammer for a blacksmith, Feder (\"quill\") for a scribe, and Lein (\"linen\") for a dealer in cloth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jews",
        "text": "Genetic studies on Jews show that most Jews worldwide bear a common genetic heritage which originates in the Middle East, and that they share certain genetic traits with other Gentile peoples of the Fertile Crescent. The genetic composition of different Jewish groups shows that Jews share a common gene pool dating back four millennia, as a marker of their common ancestral origin. Despite their long-term separation, Jewish communities maintained their unique commonalities, propensities, and sensibilities in culture, tradition, and language."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "As had been the case within the Ashkenazi (Central and East European Jewish) cultural environment, Mizrahim bore names that related to their trades and occupations, such as Albaz (also Elbaz, Elvas meaning falconer), Aboutboul (Abitbol, Abiteboul, Abutbul, Botbol all meaning drummer, drum maker, or seller), Hayek and Khayat (which both mean tailor), Hakim (physician, or sage), Naggar (carpenter), Sabbagh (dyer of cloth), Sabban (soap maker), Sannoua (labourer), Sarrouf or \"assaraf\" (money changer), Shenhav (also Chenhav, Shenhavy, Chenhavy) all referring to ivory and mean ivory craftsman or trader. Yemenite Jewish names were often adopted by place names such as Tzanani (from Sana'a), Taeizi (from Taiz), Harazi (from Jabal Haraz), and Damari (from Dhamar). Other family names indicate pre-Islamic Jewish origin such as Kahalani (Kahlan) and Chorath (Bnei Chorath). Additionally, some Yemenite Jewish was related to their occupation such as Tabib/Taviv (doctor) and Qafih (poet)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yichus",
        "text": "For various reasons, surnames/family names were changed, and sometimes reverted. Thus, Jewish family names have not always been a reliable indicator of ancestry. For example: certain family names, such as Cohen, are not as strongly indicative of being a Kohen as Katz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish culture",
        "text": "Jewish culture is the culture of the Jewish people, from its formation in ancient times until the current age. Judaism itself is not a faith-based religion, but an orthoprax and ethnoreligion, pertaining to deed, practice, and identity. Jewish culture covers many aspects, including religion and worldviews, literature, media, and cinema, art and architecture, cuisine and traditional dress, attitudes to gender, marriage, and family, social customs and lifestyles, music and dance. Some elements of Jewish culture come from within Judaism, others from the interaction of Jews with host populations, and others still from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community. Before the 18th century, religion dominated virtually all aspects of Jewish life, and infused culture. Since the advent of secularization, wholly secular Jewish culture emerged likewise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Surnames derived from the name of the matriarch of the family were adopted by some households. For example, the surname Rivkes is derived from the female name Rivkeh, the Yiddish form of Rebecca, so the surname literally means \"Rivka's\". The Slavic language-influenced counterpart is Rivkin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pizmonim",
        "text": "\"Pizmonim\" are traditionally associated with Sephardi Jews, although they are related to Ashkenazi Jews' \"zemirot\". The best known tradition is associated with Jews descended from Aleppo, though similar traditions exist among Iraqi Jews (where the songs are known as \"shba\u1e25oth\", praises) and in North African countries. Jews of Greek, Turkish and Balkan origin have songs of the same kind in Ladino, associated with the festivals: these are known as \"coplas\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish principles of faith",
        "text": "In addition to the Tanakh, there are two further textual traditions in Judaism: Mishnah (tractates expounding on Jewish law) and the Talmud (commentary of Misneh and Torah). These are both codifications and redactions of the Jewish oral traditions and major works in Rabbinic Judaism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yaakov Elman",
        "text": "Edited:\n* Transmitting Jewish Traditions: Orality, Textuality, and Cultural Diffusion (Studies in Jewish Culture and Society)\n* Dream Interpretation from Classical Jewish Sources\n* Immortality, Resurrection and the Age of the Universe: A Kabbalistic View\n* Why Jews Do What They Do: The History of Jewish Customs Throughout the Cycle of the Jewish Year\n*Hazon Nahum: Studies in Jewish Law, Thought, and History"
      },
      {
        "title": "Names of God in Judaism",
        "text": "In Jewish tradition the sacredness of the divine name or titles must be recognized by the professional \"sofer\" (scribe) who writes Torah scrolls, or tefillin and mezuzah. Before transcribing any of the divine titles or name, they prepare mentally to sanctify them. Once they begin a name, they do not stop until it is finished, and they must not be interrupted while writing it, even to greet a king. If an error is made in writing it may not be erased, but a line must be drawn round it to show that it is canceled, and the whole page must be put in a \"genizah\" (burial place for scripture) and a new page begun."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish genealogy",
        "text": "Since Judaism is not only a religious community but an ethnic group that claims descent from common ancestry, there has been significant interest in tracing Jewish descent. To this day there are Jews who trace their descent from the ancient tribe of priests (kohanim) and levites (leviim) of the Jewish Bible and who still receive special recognition in areas such as the Jewish synagogue service."
      },
      {
        "title": "Masortim",
        "text": "Masortim observe a number of \"minhagim\" and several basic religious commandments that are the most recognizable symbols of the Jewish tradition. In doing so, they seek to express their affinity to the Jewish people and especially their will to continue their families' religious customs and traditions, as they maintain that there is a need to preserve the traditional values and customs, in order to guard the continuity of the existence of the Jewish people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Israel",
        "text": "The Hebraizing of family names was common in the pre-state period, and became more widespread in the 1950s. In the early years of the state, a pamphlet was published on how to choose a Hebrew name. The prime minister, David Ben-Gurion, urged anyone who represented the state in a formal capacity to adopt a Hebrew surname."
      },
      {
        "title": "ANU - Museum of the Jewish People",
        "text": "The Memi De-Shalit Database of Jewish Family Names is a database containing over 20,000 short interpretations of Jewish family names including their linguistic origin, history and derivations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Matronymic",
        "text": "In the 18th century, numerous European nations, such as the Holy Roman Empire, passed laws and issued decrees which mandated that Jews adopt consistent, legal surnames. While this applied to all Jews regardless of gender, for many, their surname came from their mothers, and not their fathers. As a result, a large number of today's surviving Ashkenazi surnames can be traced to a matrilineal ancestor rather than the more globally common trend of surnames being passed between male ancestors and their male descendants. Nevertheless, these surnames weren't matronymic in a strict sense, in actuality these are what is known as a matriname, since these particular cases don't derive family names from a mother's \"fore\"name, instead opting to do so from their surnames. The pattern even precluded instances where a wife would legally adopt the surname of her husband, children would still retain their mother's maiden name as their own surname. The trend was in decline by the early 20th century, however; the 1910 Austro-Hungarian Jewish Census of Tarnopol recorded around 2000 Jewish families, only 13 of which possessing a mark of recte indicating a legal surname adopted from a mother's maiden name."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "In terms of social relations, most secular Jews view their Jewish identity as a matter of culture, heritage, nationality, or ethnicity. Ancestral aspects can be explained by the many Jews who view themselves as atheists and are defined by matrilineal descent or a Cohen (Kohen) or Levi, which is connected by ancestry. The question of \"who is a Jew\" is a question that is under debate. Issues related to ancestral or ethnic Jews are dealt with by the Israeli Chief Rabbinate."
      },
      {
        "title": "My Name Is Asher Lev",
        "text": "This book explores conflicting traditions (in this case the tradition of Judaism and the tradition of art), father versus son, contentedness with one's life versus peace in the family (the Jewish value of \"shalom bayit\"), the traditional Jewish world versus secular America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebrews",
        "text": "In some modern languages, including Armenian, Greek, Italian, Romanian, and many Slavic languages, the name \"Hebrews\" (with linguistic variations) is the standard ethnonym for Jews; but in many other languages in which both terms exist, it is currently considered derogatory to call Jews \"Hebrews\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jew (word)",
        "text": "The name appears in the Bible as a verb in which states:\n:\"Many of the people of the land \"became Yehudim\" (in the generic sense) (, \"mityahadim\") because the fear of the Yehudim fell on them.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ioudaios",
        "text": "In 2006, Amy-Jill Levine took the opposite view in her \"Misunderstood Jew\", writing: \"The translation 'Jew', however, signals a number of aspects of Jesus' behavior and that of other 'Jews', whether Judean, Galilean, or from the Diaspora: circumcision, wearing tzitzit, keeping kosher, calling God 'father', attending synagogue gatherings, reading Torah and Prophets, knowing that they are neither Gentiles nor Samaritans, honoring the Sabbath, and celebrating the Passover. All these, and much more, are markers also of traditional Jews today. Continuity outweighs the discontinuity.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism and Mormonism",
        "text": "In modern Jewish culture, by contrast, it is generally accepted that knowledge of individual tribal affiliation has been lost to antiquity, except in the case of Levites and Cohens, where such knowledge is relevant to religious practice. Some Jewish families, however, hold family traditions of descent from other tribes. The Sephardi Chief Rabbinate of Israel has recognized the Beta Israel of Ethiopia as the Tribe of Dan, and the Bene Menashe of India as the Tribe of Menasseh. The Bene Israel of India and the Lemba people of Africa claim descent from Kohanim\u2014according to a government report, these claims are supported by DNA analysis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jews",
        "text": "The Hebrew Bible, a religious interpretation of the traditions and early history of the Jews, established the first of the Abrahamic religions, which are now practiced by 54\u00a0percent of the world. Judaism guides its adherents in both practice and belief, and has been called not only a religion, but also a \"way of life,\" which has made drawing a clear distinction between Judaism, Jewish culture, and Jewish identity rather difficult. Throughout history, in eras and places as diverse as the ancient Hellenic world, in Europe before and after The Age of Enlightenment (see Haskalah), in Islamic Spain and Portugal, in North Africa and the Middle East, India, China, or the contemporary United States and Israel, cultural phenomena have developed that are in some sense characteristically Jewish without being at all specifically religious. Some factors in this come from within Judaism, others from the interaction of Jews or specific communities of Jews with their surroundings, and still others from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community, as opposed to from the religion itself. This phenomenon has led to considerably different Jewish cultures unique to their own communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Even more frequently were authors known by contracted forms of their names, with the addition of some honorary prefix, as given above. Among contemporary Hebrew writers this practice is still more widely observed, though no honorary title is prefixed. A list is given by Mo\u00efse Schwab in his \"Repertoire\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish identity",
        "text": "Jewish identity can be cultural, religious, or through ancestry. There are religious, cultural, and ancestral components to Jewish identity due to its fundamental non-proselytizing nature, as opposed to Christian or Muslim identity which are both \"universal\" religions in that they ascribe to the notion that their faith is meant to be spread throughout all of humanity, regardless of nationality. However, Jewish identity is firmly intertwined with Jewish ancestry dating back to the historical Kingdom of Israel, which was largely depopulated by the Roman Empire c. first century CE, leading to what is known as today as the Jewish Diaspora."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sephardic Bnei Anusim",
        "text": "The specifics and origin for these practices within families are sometimes no longer known, or were only passed down in portions of the family, and then at times the knowledge of the origin of the customs is vague. In some families Jewish customs and tradition were passed down mainly by the women, but not the Jewish identity of the ancestors (to keep the children protected). Whereas the Jewish identity (knowledge of the Jewishness of ancestors) was passed down along the male line. And in practically all of these families the children were taught a great fear of outsiders to the family. And that no one outside the family could be trusted. This is one of the most common themes of Crypto-Judaism. This has somewhat impaired those helping people with such fears - except when the helpers are also from this same ancestry. Some of these communities in Iberia and throughout Latin America have only recently (late 20 century) begun to acknowledge their family's Jewish practices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Jewish name\n--History.\n----Early Biblical Era.\n------Significance.\n------Compound names.\n----Post-Exilic names.\n----Talmudic period.\n----Post-Talmudic period.\n------\"Kinnuyim\".\n----Titular abbreviations.\n----Mizrahim.\n----Sephardic Jews.\n--Surname.\n--Change of name.\n--Superstitions.\n--Pen-names.\n----Religious authors named by their works.\n----Acronyms used for religious authors.\n----Modern non-religious authors.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebrew name",
        "text": "While, strictly speaking, a \"Hebrew name\" for ritual use is in the Hebrew language, it is not uncommon in some Ashkenazi communities for people to have names of Yiddish origin, or a mixed Hebrew-Yiddish name; for example, the name \"Simhah Bunim\", where \"simhah\" means \"happiness\" in Hebrew, and \"Bunim\" is a Yiddish-language name possibly derived from the French \"bon nom\" (\"good name\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish holidays",
        "text": "Along with dwelling in a \"sukkah,\" the principal ritual unique to this holiday is use of the Four Species: \"lulav\" (palm), \"hadass\" (myrtle), \"aravah\" (willow) and \"etrog\" (citron). On each day of the holiday other than Shabbat, these are waved in association with the recitation of Hallel in the synagogue, then walked in a procession around the synagogue called the \"Hoshanot\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Personal peculiarities may give rise to a name, as Laban (\"white\", or \"blond\"), Gideon (\"maimed\"), or Harim (\"with pierced nose\"). Personality may be referred to, as in the names Job (\"assailant\") and Barak (\"lightning\"). There are no occupational names in the Bible corresponding to Anglo-Saxon names like Smith of England or M\u00fcller of Germany, but names taken from objects are found, especially among females. The name Rebecca (\"Rivka\") seems to be derived from a sheep-rope, Peninnah from pearl, and Keren-happuch from a box of face-paint. Abstract names seem to have been given primarily to women, such as Manoah (\"rest\") and Michal (\"power\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Change of name was not an unusual occurrence in Biblical times, if one may judge by the instances occurring among the Patriarchs, and it seems to have been not altogether unknown in later times. Thus, Moses Benveniste mentions a certain Obadiah who wandered from Germany to Turkey in 1654 and changed his name to Moses because the former name was unusual. Later in the Middle Ages a person who was dangerously sick would change his name in the hope that the Angel of Death, who summons persons by name, would be baffled thereby. This custom, known as \"meshanneh shem,\" is given in the Talmud and is mentioned by Judah \u1e24asid. One of the names thus adopted was the appropriate one of \"\u1e24ayyim\". In order to prevent any misunderstanding at the resurrection the cabalists later recommended persons to learn a psalm the first and last verses of which began and ended with the first and last letters of their names. Particular care is to be taken in the writing of names in legal documents, the slightest error in which invalidates them. Hence there are quite a number of monographs on names, both personal and geographical, the first of which was that written by Sim\u1e25ah Cohen; the best known is that of Samuel ben Phoebus and Ephraim Zalman Margulies entitled \"\u1e6cib Gi\u1e6d\u1e6din.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "A popular form to create a new family name using Jewish patronymics sometimes related to poetic Zionist themes, such as \"ben Ami\" (\"son of my people\"), or \"ben Artzi\" (\"son of my country\"), and sometimes related to the Israeli landscape, such as \"bar Ilan\" (\"son of the trees\"). Others have created Hebrew names based on phonetic similarity with their original family name: \"Golda Meyersohn\" became Golda Meir. Another famous person who used a false patronymic was the first Israeli Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion, whose original family name was Gr\u00fcn (\"green\" in German) but adopted the name \"Ben-Gurion\" (\"son of the lion cub\"), not \"Ben-Avigdor\" (his father's name)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebraization of surnames",
        "text": "All rabbinic authorities encourage hebraizing first names (VaYikra Rabba 32, and Kor'ei Sh'mo, pp.\u00a0173\u2013181), and some actively encourage last names, as well (Rabbi Shlomo Aviner (Resp. She'elat Shlomo VIII, 67\u201368), and even did so themselves: among them: Rabbis Menashe HaKatan (Klein), Maharam Schick, Shlomo Goren (Goronchick), Shaul Yisraeli (Israelite), Moshe Zvi Neria (Menkin), Shlomo Aviner (Langenauer)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jews",
        "text": "Y DNA studies tend to imply a small number of founders in an old population whose members parted and followed different migration paths. In most Jewish populations, these male line ancestors appear to have been mainly Middle Eastern. For example, Ashkenazi Jews share more common paternal lineages with other Jewish and Middle Eastern groups than with non-Jewish populations in areas where Jews lived in Eastern Europe, Germany and the French Rhine Valley. This is consistent with Jewish traditions in placing most Jewish paternal origins in the region of the Middle East."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiddush Hashem",
        "text": "Kiddush HaShem ( \"sanctification of the Name\") is a precept of Judaism. In Rabbinic sources and modern parlance, it refers to private and communal conduct which reflect well, instead of poorly, on the Jewish people."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some traditions of the Jewish people?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Which Jewish denominations' traditions are you interested in learning about? Outside of Israel (where the situation is rather different) the main denominations are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform.",
      "Some traditions are observing the Sabbath, eating kosher, and Torah study. Would you like to know about one of these?"
    ],
    "topic": "Jewish name",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Judaism:53",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Judaism",
          "Jewish religious movements",
          "Rabbinic Judaism"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Jewish Enlightenment of the late 18th century resulted in the division of Ashkenazi (Western) Jewry into religious movements or denominations, especially in North America and Anglophone countries. The main denominations today outside Israel (where the situation is rather different) are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform. The notion \"traditional Judaism\" includes the Orthodox with Conservative or solely the Orthodox Jews.\n*Orthodox Judaism holds that both the Written and Oral Torah were divinely revealed to Moses and that the laws within it are binding and unchanging. Orthodox Jews generally consider commentaries on the \"Shulchan Aruch\" (a condensed codification of \"halakha\" that largely favored Sephardic traditions) to be the definitive codification of \"halakha\". Orthodoxy places a high importance on Maimonides' 13 principles as a definition of Jewish faith."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Orthodox Judaism:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orthodox Judaism"
        ],
        "ctx": "Orthodox Judaism therefore advocates a strict observance of Jewish law, or \"halakha\", which is to be interpreted and determined exclusively according to traditional methods and in adherence to the continuum of received precedent through the ages. It regards the entire \"halakhic\" system as ultimately grounded in immutable revelation, and beyond external influence. Key practices are observing the Sabbath, eating kosher, and Torah study. Key doctrines include a future Messiah who will restore Jewish practice by building the temple in Jerusalem and gather all the Jews to Israel, belief in a future bodily resurrection of the dead, divine reward and punishment for the righteous and the sinners."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "The Jewish name has historically varied, encompassing throughout the centuries several different traditions. This article looks at the onomastics practices of the Jewish people, that is, the history of the origin and forms of proper names."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Some traditional surnames relate to Jewish history or roles within the religion, such as Cohen (\"priest\"), Levi, Shulman (\"synagogue-man\"), Sofer (\"scribe\"), or Kantor (\"cantor\"), while many others relate to a secular occupation or place names. The majority of Jewish surnames used today developed in the past three hundred years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Jews have historically used Hebrew patronymic names. In the Jewish patronymic system the first name is followed by either ben- or bat- (\"son of\" and \"daughter of\", respectively), and then the father's name. (Bar-, \"son of\" in Aramaic, is also seen.) Permanent family surnames exist today but only gained popularity among Sephardic Jews in Iberia as early as the 10th or 11th century and did not spread widely to the Ashkenazic Jews of Germany or Eastern Europe until the late 18th and mid 19th century, where the adoption of German surnames was imposed in exchange for Jewish emancipation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Jewish surname\n--History.\n--Sephardic and Mizrahi Jewish Communities.\n--Ashkenazi Jewish Communities.\n--Medieval France.\n--Israel.\n--Iran.\n--Toponyms.\n--Occupational names and nicknames.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Historically, Jews used Hebrew patronymic names. In the Jewish patronymic system the first name is followed by either \"ben-\" or \"bat-\" (\"son of\" and \"daughter of,\" respectively), and then the father's name. (\"Bar-\", \"son of\" in Aramaic, is also seen.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Brit shalom (naming ceremony)",
        "text": "Although one does not need to be circumcised to be Jewish, Orthodox Jews consider an intended failure to follow this commandment as bringing forth the penalty of \"kareth\", or being \"cut off\" from the community and from Hashem, as well as being indicative of a conscious decision to cut oneself off from one's people. However, even in the most Orthodox groups, Jewish identity is defined by matrilineal descent; a child born to a Jewish mother is recognized as Jewish, regardless of the status of the genitals. In Progressive Judaism, intact boys are usually accepted for religious training and bar mitzvah if they are sons of a Jewish mother and have been raised with a Jewish identity. Movements that do not see Jewish law as binding, such as Reform Judaism and Humanistic Judaism, may allow this ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "On the other hand, the use of surnames became common very early among the Arabic-speaking Jews, who carried the custom into the Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain and Portugal). Among Sephardi Jews are found such names as Abeldano, corresponding to \"Ibn el-Danan\"; Abencabre, corresponding to \"Ibn Zabara\"; Tongay is another Sephardi Jewish last name is derived from the root word Torah () in Hebrew; Avinbruch or Auerbach corresponding to \"Ibn Baruch\"; and Beizaee, corresponding to \"Iza\" (Hebrew root for \"God is perfection\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "An exception was members of the Cohanim (priestly caste) and Levites (descendants of Levi) who performed certain religious duties, who had always appended the surnames Cohen and Levi respectively (modern spelling in English may vary), which were usually preceded by \"ha-\" meaning \"the\" in Hebrew. These names are seen in many various forms today, all coming from this root. For example, the name Levine in English-speaking countries, the name L\u00f6w in Germanic countries and the names Levi, L\u00e9vai, or L\u00e9vay in Hungary, Europe, or America. Although Ashkenazi Jews now use European or modern-Hebrew surnames for everyday life, the Hebrew patronymic form (ben or bas/bat with the father's name) is still used in Jewish religious and cultural life. It is used in the synagogue and in documents in Jewish law, such as the ketubah (marriage contract)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Many immigrants to modern Israel change their names to Hebrew names, to erase remnants of exiled life still surviving in family names from other languages. This phenomenon is especially common among Ashkenazic Jewish immigrants to Israel, because most of their surnames were taken recently, and many were imposed by authorities in Europe as a replacement for the traditional Hebrew patronymic form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Although Ashkenazi Jews now use European or modern-Hebrew surnames for everyday life, the Hebrew patronymic form is still used in Jewish religious and cultural life, and is common in Israel. It is used in synagogue and in documents in Jewish law such as the ketubah (marriage contract). Many Sephardic Jews used the Arabic \"ibn\" instead of \"bat\" or \"ben\" when it was the norm. The Spanish family Ibn Ezra is one example."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Among the names in the Talmud there is a considerable proportion of Greek ones. A large number also are Aramaic, ending in \"-a\" or \"-ai\": Abba, Huna, and Papa are instances of the former. Even Bible names were transformed in this direction\u2014\u2014\u1e24anina instead of Hananiah, Abuya instead of Abijah; while others were shortened, as Lazar (for Eleazar). Many Biblical names received renewed popularity owing to the distinction of their bearers, as those of Gamaliel, Hillel, and Ulla. The tendency toward double names existed here, as Sarah Miriam, Johanan Joseph, and Mahaliel Judah. Converts to Judaism, like Aquila, Monabaz, and Helena, retained their pagan names (as was the custom also in the early Christian Church). There was some objection to foreign names among the Jews of this period, yet legend declares that the high priest Simon promised Alexander the Great that all the children of priestly families born in the year following his visit to Jerusalem would be named Alexander, after him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Many recent immigrants to Israel have changed their names to Hebrew ones, in a process called hebraization, to erase remnants of Diaspora history still present in family names from other languages. This is especially common among Ashkenazi Jews, because most of their European names do not go back far in history; surnames were imposed by the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires in the 18th century (explaining why many Ashkenazi Jews have German or European-sounding names). The newly assumed Hebrew names were sometimes based on phonetic similarity with their former European surname, for example, Golda Meyersohn became Golda Meir."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Jews have some of the largest varieties of surnames among any ethnic group, owing to the geographically diverse Jewish diaspora, as well as cultural assimilation and the recent trend toward Hebraization of surnames."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Many modern Jewish surnames are toponyms, names derived from place names. There are general names like Deutsch, Frank, Franco, Frankel, and more localized ones from almost every European country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Akin to this is the use of the Arabic Ibn which is relaten to Hebraic \"ben\" like in \"benjamin\" or ben yamin, (meaning son of, also spelled Aben, Aven, Avin) to form a family name amongst Mizrahim who lived in the Eastern part of the Arab world. Among the best known of this formation are Ibn Aknin, Ibn Danan (hence Abendana), Ibn Latif, Ibn Migas, Ibn Verga. Those Jews who lived in the North Africa countries (especially Morocco) chose the use of the word O or sometimes spelled \"U\" (belonging to), which created the names Ou'Hanna, (son of Hanna, also spelled Bohana, Abuhana, Abuhenna), O'Hayon (son of Life), O'Knine (son of Yacob, also spelled Waknin, Ouaknin)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "The term \"traditional\" (\"masorti\") is most common as a self-description among Israeli families of \"eastern\" origin (i.e., the Middle East, Central Asia, and North Africa). This term, as commonly used, has nothing to do with the Conservative Judaism, which also names itself \"Masorti\" outside North America. There is a great deal of ambiguity in the ways \"secular\" and \"traditional\" are used in Israel: they often overlap, and they cover an extremely wide range in terms of worldview and practical religious observance. The term \"Orthodox\" is not popular in Israeli discourse, although the percentage of Jews who come under that category is far greater than in the Jewish diaspora. What would be called \"Orthodox\" in the diaspora includes what is commonly called \"dati\" (religious) or \"haredi\" (ultra-Orthodox) in Israel. The former term includes what is called \"Religious Zionism\" or the \"National Religious\" community, as well as what has become known over the past decade or so as \"haredi-leumi\" (nationalist \"haredi\"), or \"Hardal\", which combines a largely \"haredi\" lifestyle with nationalist ideology. (Some people, in Yiddish, also refer to observant Orthodox Jews as \"frum\", as opposed to \"frei\" (more liberal Jews))."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Even in the East there are names of these last two classes, Behar (from Bejar), Barron (from BarOn), Galante, Veneziani, though there are a few Arabic names like Alfandari and \u1e24aggis; Greek, as Galipapa and Pappo; and a few Turkish, as Jamila, Gungur, Bilbil, and Sabad. Going still farther east, the curious custom which prevails among the Bene Israel may be mentioned of changing Biblical names to similar Hindu names with the addition of \"-jee\", thus Benjamin into Benmajee, Abraham into Abrajee, David into Dawoodjee, Jacob into Akkoobjee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "The custom of calling one of the sons, generally the eldest, after the paternal (sometimes the maternal) grandfather, of which only nine instances are known during the Talmudic period, became more popular, especially in European states. Maimonides' grandfather was \"Joseph ben Isaac ben Joseph ben Obadiah ben Solomon ben Obadiah\", for instance, and certain families seem to have similarly confined themselves to a few chosen names. Thus, in the Kalonymus family there occurs \"Meshullam b. Moses b. Ithiel b. Moses b. Kalonymus b. Meshullam b. Kalonymus b. Moses b. Kalonymus b. Jekuthiel b. Moses b. Meshullam b. Ithiel b. Meshullam\"\u2014only five names among fourteen persons throughout three centuries. As a consequence certain names became characteristic of certain districts: \"Japheth\" and \"Caleb\" in Greece, and hence among the Karaites; \"Kalonymus\" in south Italy; \"Sheshet\" and \"Joab\" in Rome; \"Sinai\" and \"Pesa\u1e25\" in Germany. Some of the older names were revived\u2014\"Me\u00efr\", for example, of which only two previous instances before, had been known, the tanna Me\u00efr and the Me\u00efr mentioned by Josephus. \"Samson\" was never used by Jews before the 11th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish Christian",
        "text": "Today, certain families are associated with descent from the early Jewish Christians of Antioch, Damascus, Judea, and Galilee. Some of those families carry surnames such as Youhanna (John), Hanania (Ananias), Sahyoun (Zion), Eliyya/Elias (Elijah), Chamoun/Shamoun (Simeon/Simon), Semaan/Simaan (Simeon/Simon), Menassa (Manasseh), Salamoun/Suleiman (Solomon), Youwakim (Joachim), Zakariya (Zacharias) and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Among the Mizrahim (Arabic-speaking Jews living in Western Asia and North Africa) it was quite common to replace their Hebrew names with relevant Arabic ones, whenever they bore a religious note and were deemed sacred to both Jews and Muslims, so Abraham turned into Ibrahim, Aharon into Haroun, David into Daoud, Moshe into Moussa, and Shlomo into Soliman or Salman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Personal peculiarities also gave rise to a Jew's name in the Arab world, as Abyad referred to fair skin, Afia possessor of strength, health or well-being, Tawil to a tall person."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebraization of surnames",
        "text": "Other \"Diaspora\" Jewish names are Hebrew to begin with (such as Ashkenazi and Yerushalmi), corruptions of Hebrew words (such as Heifetz, from Chafetz), Hebrew acronyms (such as Shalit, from \"\"Sheyihye le'orekh yamim tovim\"), or of Aramaic origin (such as Kahane, or Raban)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "The divergence of views has become an issue because Orthodox and Conservative communities do not recognize a person as Jewish if only their father is Jewish. For the person to be accepted as Jewish by an Orthodox or Conservative community (for example, on an occasion of their bar or bat mitzvah or marriage), they require a formal conversion (in accordance with halakhic standards). Orthodox Judaism has a predominant position in Israel. Although Orthodox and Conservative Judaism do not recognize Jewishness through patrilineal descent, \"it should also be noted, however, that in the case of a child born to a Jewish father but to a non-Jewish mother, most Orthodox rabbis will relax the stringent demands normally made of would-be converts\", and the Rabbinical Assembly of the Conservative movement \"agreed that 'sincere Jews by choice' should be warmly welcomed into the community\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Sephardic Jews in the Ottoman Empire were often known by multiple forms of their names, such as those in Ladino, Turkish, French, Hebrew, Arabic, and/or other European languages. Many were given names from the Bible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodoxy",
        "text": "In some English-speaking countries, Jews who adhere to all the traditions and commandments as legislated in the Talmud are often called Orthodox Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Jewish surnames are family names used by Jews and those of Jewish origin. Jewish surnames are thought to be of comparatively recent origin; the first known Jewish family names date to the Middle Ages, in the 10th and 11th centuries CE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Another large demographic usually considered aligned with Orthodoxy are the Israeli \"Masortim\", or \"traditional\". This moniker originated with Mizrahi immigrants who were both secularized and reverent toward their communal heritage. However, Mizrahi intellectuals, in recent years, developed a more reflective, nuanced understanding of this term, eschewing its shallow image and not necessarily agreeing with the formal deference to Orthodox rabbis. Self-conscious \"Masorti\" identity is still limited to small, elitist circles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "\"Who is a Jew?\" ( ) is a basic question about Jewish identity and considerations of Jewish self-identification. The question pertains to ideas about Jewish personhood, which have cultural, ethnic, religious, political, genealogical, and personal dimensions. Orthodox Judaism and Conservative Judaism follow Jewish law (Halakha), deeming people to be Jewish if their mothers are Jewish or if they underwent a halakhic conversion. Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism accept both matrilineal and patrilineal descent as well as conversion. Karaite Judaism predominantly follows patrilineal descent as well as conversion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "In the adoption of double names during this early period an attempt was made to translate the Hebrew terms into corresponding Greek, as \"Ariston\" for \"Tobi\", \"Boethus\" for \"Ezra\", \"Justus\" for \"Zadok\", \"Philo\" for \"Jedidah\", \"Theodorus\" for \"Nethaneel\", and \"Zosimus\" for \"\u1e24ayyim\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Surnames were not unknown among the Jews of the Middle Ages, and as Jews began to mingle more with their fellow citizens, the practice of using or adopting civic surnames in addition to the \"sacred\" name, used only in religious connections, grew commensurately. Among the Sephardim, this practice was common long before the exile from Spain, and probably became still more common as a result of the example of the \"conversos\", who upon adopting Christianity accepted in most cases the family names of their godfathers. Among the Ashkenazim, whose isolation from the mainstream majority population in the lands where they lived was more complete, the use of surnames only started to become common in most places in the eighteenth century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Surnames were derived from a variety of sources, such as the personal names of ancestors, place names, and occupations. In the 18th century, a custom developed amongst the Eastern European Jews of the Austro-Hungarian and Russian Empires where surnames began being passed from mother to son as opposed from father to son, but the trend seems to have died out by the early 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "There are other occupational names that are more distinctively related to Jewish culture and religious roles: Parnass, Gabbay, Singer, Cantor, Voorsanger, Chazan, Cantarini, from the synagogue officials who were so called; Shochet, Schaechter, Schechter, from the ritual slaughterer (also Schub or Shub: Hebrew acronym for \"shochet u-bodek\", ritual slaughterer and kosher meat inspector); Shadkun, a marriage-broker; Rabe, Rabinowitz, Rabinovich, Rabinowicz, and Rabbinovitz, rabbis (occasionally Anglicized to Robinson or Robbins); Benmohel (one variant of which is Mahler), son of one who performed circumcision, the sacred rite of Abraham. A number of Arabic names are of similar origin: Al-Fakhkhar, a potter; Mocatta, a mason or possibly a soldier (\"Al-Mu\u1e33atil\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modern Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "See also \"Mizrachi\"; \"Bnei Akiva\"; \"National Religious Party\"; \"Hesder\"; \"Mechina\"; \"Gush Emunim\"; \"Torat Eretz Yisrael\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Jewish Princedom in Feudal France",
        "text": "A key part of the analysis consisted of correlating Jewish naming conventions from different cultural backgrounds. It is well known that the exilarchs of Baghdad frequently had at least two names \u2013 a familiar Persian or Aramaic name and a formal Hebrew-biblical name. The geographical and cultural mobility of Jews in post-Exilic period led to such widespread practice of combining traditional Jewish names with \"kinnui'im\" (secular nicknames). Zuckerman argues that as result, a Jew who received a traditional Hebrew name at birth can have further Arabic or Aramaic name equivalents if he lives in that cultural area, only to add a Latin, Greek or Frank name if moving to Europe later on. Against this practice it is for example argued that Makhir of Narbonne, the most multicultural personality of the dynasty, had Hebrew, Aramaic and Frank names even combined with a further nickname based on Gesta. A similar approach is applied if relevant for those who Zuckerman considers to be his later descendants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Apart from these tendencies, the general trend of nomenclature among Jews in the Middle Ages was to adopt that of the countries in which they lived, the given names being often identical with those of the surrounding peoples, and other means of identification being derived mainly from localities or offices. Certain peculiarities of various countries may be taken separately."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Jews have historically used Hebrew patronymic names. While permanent family surnames started appearing among Sephardic Jews in Iberia and elsewhere as early as the 10th or 11th century, they did not spread widely to the Ashkenazic Jews of Germany or Eastern Europe until later. However, Non-Ashkenazi Jews who had immigrated to what was considered Ashkenaz (such as Sephardic Jews who fled the Inquisition) would often keep their surnames and/or Ashkenazize them (e.g., \"Melamad\" was kept; \"Leoni\" would be Ashkenazized to \"Leib\"), and some of the already-settled Jews in communities in large cities (such as Prague or Frankfurt am Main) began to adopt various surnames."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Jewish name\n--History.\n----Early Biblical Era.\n------Significance.\n------Compound names.\n----Post-Exilic names.\n----Talmudic period.\n----Post-Talmudic period.\n------\"Kinnuyim\".\n----Titular abbreviations.\n----Mizrahim.\n----Sephardic Jews.\n--Surname.\n--Change of name.\n--Superstitions.\n--Pen-names.\n----Religious authors named by their works.\n----Acronyms used for religious authors.\n----Modern non-religious authors.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebraization of surnames",
        "text": "This process started with individuals like Eliezer Ben-Yehuda (Perelman) and was adopted by the New Yishuv. Before the founding of the State of Israel, in 1944, the Zionist leadership and the Jewish National Council proclaimed it the \"Year of naturalization and the Hebrew name\". A special committee under the chairmanship of Mordechai Nemzabi, the Jewish Agency advisor on matters of civilian defense, published a booklet which contained guidelines on the creation on new Hebrew surnames.\n;Changing a foreign surname to Hebrew:\n#Change of vocalization: \"Leib\" becomes \"Lev\"\n#Change of consonants: \"Borg\" or \"Brog\" becomes \"Barak\"\n#Shortening by omitting the ending: \"Rosenberg\" becomes \"Rosen\"\n#Shortening a name with a Hebrew meaning, by omitting the foreign suffix: \"Yakobovitch\" (\"Jacobowitz\", \"Jacobowicz\") becomes \"Ya'akovi\"\n#Translating the foreign name into Hebrew according to the meaning: \"Abramovich\" (\"Abramowicz\", \"Abramowitz\") becomes \"Ben Avraham\"\n;First names as surnames:\n#Name of a father or mother who were murdered during the Shoah, thus: \"Bat Miriam\", \"Ben Moshe\", \"Devorin\"\n#Son or daughter who fell in battle: \"Avinoam\"\n#Brother or sister who were killed or fell: \"Achimeir\"\n#Beloved or admired biblical figure: \"Shaul\", \"Davidi\"\n;Change of names by names of places, plants or sites in Eretz Yisrael:\n#Places or sites: \"Hermoni\", \"Eilat\", \"Gilad\"\n#Plants, especially plants of the Land of Israel: \"Eshel\" (\"orchard\", \"garden\"), \"Rotem\" (\"retama\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "It was during the Middle Ages that the somewhat curious custom arose of combining the abbreviation of a title with the initials of a name to form a single personal name. This almost invariably implies frequency of mention, and, therefore, celebrity. The best-known examples are those of RaSHI and RaMBaM, who are hardly ever quoted in rabbinical texts except by these names; but there exists a large number of similar contractions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebrew National",
        "text": "Nonetheless, \"The Jewish Daily Forward\" reported that most Orthodox authorities did not follow this endorsement, and most Orthodox Jews continue not to rely on its kashrut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Many Jews adopted these professions as their surnames, such as Abrishami (silk maker), Almasi (diamond maker), Boloorian (crystal maker), Dehghan (wealthy farmer), Fallah (farmer), Zarrinkoob, Javaherian, Gohari (gold seller), Noghrehforosh (silversmith), Mesforosh (coppersmith), Sarraf, Sarrafan, Sarraf Nezhad, Banki (money changer), Zargar, Zarshenas (goldsmith), Hakakian or Hakkakian (connected with raw material, finished product or implements associated with that trade) for example Roya Hakakian. Jews in Iran also employed the son of or daughter of patronymics, using Persian suffixes such as \"-pour\" (son of), \"-zadeh\" (born of), \"-nezhad\" (from the race of) and \"-ian\" (from the group of). Some examples of these names include Davoud pour (son of David), Davoud nezhad (from the seed of David), Davoud zadeh (born of David), Rabbi pour (son of a rabbi), Rabbi zadeh (born of a rabbi), Yaghoub pour (son of Jacob) and Jafar nezhad (from the race of Japhet). Levite and Kohanim surnames became Lavi, Lavaee, Lavi Zadeh, Lavaeeian, Kohan, Kohan pour (son of a Kohen), etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebraization of surnames",
        "text": "Others kept their name for several reasons. Sometimes, the reason it was kept was because of its religious nature. For examples, names connected with the kohen (priesthood) such as Cohen, Kohn, Kaplan, Sacerdoti, Katz, Azoulai, etc. Other times it indicated Levite descent such as Levi, Levy, Weil (anagram), and Segal (Hebrew acronym). Other times it was synagogue or Jewish community functions such as Gabbai, Chazan, or Rabin. Sometimes the surname was already Hebrew (Sarfati)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of Jewish history\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Modern Orthodox Judaism\u00a0\u00b7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of Jewish history\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Orthodox Judaism\u00a0\u00b7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebraization of surnames",
        "text": "There is also a trend of reverting to ancestral, non-Hebrew names to return to one's roots and preserve traditions unique to each ethnic group. There are people who re-adopt the name their family previously abandoned for the sake of \"Israeliness\", such as Israeli writer Yitzhak Orpaz who restored his family's original family name of \"Averbuch\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "A popular form to create a new family name using Jewish patronymics sometimes related to poetic Zionist themes, such as \"ben Ami\" (\"son of my people\"), or \"ben Artzi\" (\"son of my country\"), and sometimes related to the Israeli landscape, such as \"bar Ilan\" (\"son of the trees\"). Others have created Hebrew names based on phonetic similarity with their original family name: \"Golda Meyersohn\" became Golda Meir. Another famous person who used a false patronymic was the first Israeli Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion, whose original family name was Gr\u00fcn (\"green\" in German) but adopted the name \"Ben-Gurion\" (\"son of the lion cub\"), not \"Ben-Avigdor\" (his father's name)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Other surnames came from the man's trade such as Metzger (butcher) or Becker (baker), and a few derived from personal attributes, such as Jaffe (beautiful), or special events in the family history. The majority of Middle Age surname adoption came from place names (for example Shapiro, from Shpira, Speyer, a Rhenanian city known for its famous Jewish community in the 11th century), often a town name, typically the birthplace of the founder of a rabbinical or other dynasty. These names would permutate to various forms as families moved, such as the original Welsch becoming Wallach, Wlock, or Block. Since these surnames did not have the official status that modern ones do, often the old surname would be dropped and a new one adopted after the family moved their household."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "In medieval France the use of Biblical names appears to have been more extended, judging by the elaborate lists at the end of Gross's \"Gallia Judaica\". True surnames occurred, especially in the south, like Farissol, Bonet, Barron, Lafitte; but as a rule local designations were popular, such as \"Samson of Sens\", etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "It is probable that, as in other ancient societies, a name carried spiritual significance. A large majority of the 2,800 personal names found in the Hebrew Bible (shared among about 15,000 persons) convey a specific meaning. The meanings of the remainder have been obscured either through textual corruption or insufficient current understanding of comparative philology. In addition, a considerable number of these names are probably eponyms. There is little doubt that this applies to the names of the Israelite clans, each of which was assumed to be descended from the descendants of Jacob, described in Numbers 26."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yichus",
        "text": "For various reasons, surnames/family names were changed, and sometimes reverted. Thus, Jewish family names have not always been a reliable indicator of ancestry. For example: certain family names, such as Cohen, are not as strongly indicative of being a Kohen as Katz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Orthodox Judaism\n--Definitions.\n--History.\n----Modernity crisis.\n----Hamburg Temple dispute.\n----\"Wissenschaft des Judentums\".\n----Communal schism.\n----Eastern Europe.\n----United States.\n--Theology.\n----Orthodox attitudes.\n----God.\n----Revelation.\n----Eschatology.\n--Practice.\n----Intensity.\n----Law, custom, and tradition.\n----Rabbinic authority.\n----Daily life.\n--Diversity and demographics.\n----Diversity.\n----Demographics.\n--Groups.\n----Haredim.\n------Hasidic Jews.\n------Litvaks.\n------Sephardic \"Haredim\".\n----Modern Orthodoxy.\n----Religious Zionism.\n----European Centrist Orthodoxy.\n----Israeli Masorti (traditional) Jews.\n--Chief Rabbinate of Israel.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Sephardic surnames, as already mentioned, are almost invariably local, as Almanzi, Castro, Carvajal, Silva, Leon, Navarro, Robles, Sevilla (Spanish), and Almeida, Carvallo, Lisbona, Miranda, Paiva, Pimentel, Porto, Pieba and Verdugo (Portuguese). Many Italian names are also of this class, as Alatino, Di Cori (from Cori), Genovese (from Genoa), Meldola, Montefiore, Mortara, Pisa, Rizzolo, Romanelli (with its variants Romanin, Romain, Romayne, and Romanel), Sonnino, Vitalis (from Jaim or Chaim and its variants Vidal, Vidale and Vidas); Verdugo and its variants Berdugo, Bardogo, Paradiso an anagram for the word diaspora (dispersion)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "The most striking tendency of the post-Talmudic period is the general choice of local names by the Jews for their civic relations. This led to the adoption of two names, one for civic purposes, known as the \"kinnuy\" (probably from the Arabic \"kunyah\"), the other (\"shem ha-\u1e33odesh\") for use in the synagogue and in all Hebrew documents. The latter, the \"sacred\" name, was as far as possible associated with the former, and was often a translation of a civic one, e.g., \"Asael\" for \"Diofatto\", \"Manoah\" for \"Tranquillo\", \"\u1e24ayyim\" for \"Vita\"; at times the civic name was merely a contraction of the sacred one, e.g., \"Leser\" for \"Eliezer\", \"Sender\" for \"Alexander\". In other cases mere similarity in sound was sufficient to determine the sacred name, as \"Mann\" for \"Menahem\", \"Kalman\" for \"Kalonymus\", and the like. Especially noteworthy was the use made of Jacob's blessing to transfer a personal name from the civic to the sacred sphere. Judah being compared to a lion's whelp in Jacob's blessing, \"Judah\" became \"Leo\", or \"L\u00f6we\", in lay relationship, and \"Ephraim\" became \"Fischlin\". Later on these name-equations became so usual that they formed doublets, which were almost invariably found together, as \"Dov B\u00e4r\", \"Naphtali Hirsch\", \"Solomon Zalman\", \"Judah\" or \"Aryeh L\u00f6b\", \"Binyamin Wolf\", and these again gave currency to similar correlative names, as \"Uri Phoebus\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "As had been the case within the Ashkenazi (Central and East European Jewish) cultural environment, Mizrahim bore names that related to their trades and occupations, such as Albaz (also Elbaz, Elvas meaning falconer), Aboutboul (Abitbol, Abiteboul, Abutbul, Botbol all meaning drummer, drum maker, or seller), Hayek and Khayat (which both mean tailor), Hakim (physician, or sage), Naggar (carpenter), Sabbagh (dyer of cloth), Sabban (soap maker), Sannoua (labourer), Sarrouf or \"assaraf\" (money changer), Shenhav (also Chenhav, Shenhavy, Chenhavy) all referring to ivory and mean ivory craftsman or trader. Yemenite Jewish names were often adopted by place names such as Tzanani (from Sana'a), Taeizi (from Taiz), Harazi (from Jabal Haraz), and Damari (from Dhamar). Other family names indicate pre-Islamic Jewish origin such as Kahalani (Kahlan) and Chorath (Bnei Chorath). Additionally, some Yemenite Jewish was related to their occupation such as Tabib/Taviv (doctor) and Qafih (poet)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism, as movements which reject the concept of \"halakha\", often accept a child as Jewish when only the father is Jewish, provided that the child chooses to identify as Jewish. As conversion processes differ, those performed by more liberal denominations are not accepted by more orthodox denominations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "At the end of the 18th century after the Partition of Poland and later after the Congress of Vienna the Russian Empire acquired a large number of Jews who did not use surnames. They, too, were required to adopt surnames during the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebraization of surnames",
        "text": "All rabbinic authorities encourage hebraizing first names (VaYikra Rabba 32, and Kor'ei Sh'mo, pp.\u00a0173\u2013181), and some actively encourage last names, as well (Rabbi Shlomo Aviner (Resp. She'elat Shlomo VIII, 67\u201368), and even did so themselves: among them: Rabbis Menashe HaKatan (Klein), Maharam Schick, Shlomo Goren (Goronchick), Shaul Yisraeli (Israelite), Moshe Zvi Neria (Menkin), Shlomo Aviner (Langenauer)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yibbum",
        "text": "Orthodox Jews in modern times have generally upheld the position of Rabbeinu Tam and perform \"halizah\" rather than \"yibbum\". Yemenite Jews, though orthodox, practised \"yibbum\" until the \"en masse\" Aliyah of Jews to Eretz Israel in the last century. Conservative Judaism formally retains it. Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism have abolished it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sephardic Bnei Anusim",
        "text": "This phenomenon is much the same as is the situation with surnames which are typically considered to be Ashkenazi \"Jewish\" surnames. Most \"Jewish\" surnames among Ashkenazi Jews are not in fact \"Jewish\" per se, but are simply German or Slavic surnames (including so-called \"Jewish\" names like Goldberg) which were adopted by Ashkenazi Jews, some of which became so overwhelmingly carried by Jews that they came to be seen as \"Jewish\", although there are gentile carriers of those same surnames, because it is with those gentile families that the surnames originated to begin with. Only some surnames found among Ashkenazi Jews today are surnames which are exclusively \"Jewish\" surnames being capable of, on their own, indicating Jewish origins of the carrier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "After the Exile to Babylon there appeared a tendency toward the use of foreign names, the literal significance of which was disregarded, and this tendency became more and more prominent as time went on. Biblical names ending in \"-a\" (as in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah) are Aramaic. Shamsherai (I Chronicles 8:26), while Mordecai is probably derived from Marduk, or may be derived from \"pure myrrh\"), as are Belteshazzar (Daniel 10:1), Shenazar (I Chronicles 3:18), and Sheshbazzar (Ezra 1:8) from other deities. There is in this period a tendency also toward descriptive and adjectival names with the definite article prefixed, which easily gave rise to such surnames as Hakkaz, Hakkatan, and Hallosheth (Ezra 2:61; 8:12; Nehemiah 3:12; compare the form \"ha-Kohelet\" (Ecclesiastes 12:8, in the Hebrew). In the Hellenistic period Greek names became quite usual among the Jews, especially those of Alexander, Jason, and Antigonus. Even the name of a god like Apollo occurs (Acts 18:24). Other names are Apollonius, Hyrcanus, Lysimachus, Demetrius, Dosa, Nicanor, Pappus, Patroclus, Philo, Sosa, Symmachus, Tryphon, Zeno. The same occurs among women, as Alexandra and Priscilla. Roman names also occur, as Antonius, Apella, Drusus, Justinus, Justus, Marcus, Rufus, Tiberius, and Titus. It was during this period that the practice arose of giving a son the name of his grandfather, as was done in the high-priestly family, the members of which were named alternately Onias and Simon from 332 to 165 BCE. Similarly, a little later, in the family of the Hillelites, the names Gamaliel and Judah succeed each other with only an occasional occurrence of Simon and Hillel. Toward the end of the period, owing to the intermixture of foreign languages, the use of double names for the same person began to be adopted, as in the instances of Simon Peter, John Mark, Thomas Didymus, Herodes Agrippa, and Salome Alexandra."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish schisms",
        "text": "Some Jews in Western Europe, and many Jews in America, joined the religiously liberal new Reform Judaism movement, which drew inspiration from the writings of modernist thinkers like Moses Mendelson. They coined the name \"Orthodox\" to describe those who opposed the \"Reform\". They were criticized by the Orthodox Judaism rabbis, such as Samson Raphael Hirsch in Germany, and condemned, particularly by those known today as followers of Haredi Judaism, based mainly in Eastern Europe. (Later on, in 1880s America, Conservative Judaism split from the Reform movement.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jew (word)",
        "text": "The Septuagint (reputedly a product of Hellenistic Jewish scholarship) and other Greek documents translated , \"Yehudi\" and the Aramaic \"\" using the Koine Greek term \"Ioudaios\" (; pl. \"Ioudaioi\"), which had lost the 'h' sound. The Latin term, following the Greek version, is \"Iudaeus\", and from these sources the term passed to other European languages. The Old French \"giu\", earlier \"juieu\", had elided (dropped) the letter \"d\" from the Latin \"Iudaeus\". The Middle English word \"Jew\" derives from Old English where the word is attested as early as 1000 in various forms, such as \"Iudeas\", \"Gyu\", \"Giu\", \"Iuu\", \"Iuw\", \"Iew\". The Old English name is derived from Old French. The modern French term is \"Juif/Juive\" (m/f)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish religious movements",
        "text": "Orthodox Jews generally see themselves as practicing normative Judaism, rather than belonging to a particular movement. Within Orthodox Judaism, there is a spectrum of communities and practices, ranging from ultra-Orthodox Haredi Judaism (\"Haredim\") and Jewish fundamentalism to Modern Orthodox Judaism (with Neo-Orthodoxy, Open Orthodoxy, and Religious Zionism). Orthodox Jews who opposed the Haskalah became known as Haredi Jews (\"Haredim\"). Orthodox Jews who were sympathetic to the Haskalah formed what became known as neo-Orthodox or modern Orthodox Jews. The father of neo-Orthodoxy was the influenced German rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, who proclaimed principle Torah im Derech Eretz\u2014the strict observance of the Jewish Law in an active social life\u2014in 1851, he become the rabbi of first Orthodox separatist group from Reform community of Frankfurt am Main. In addition, the \"Centrist\" Orthodoxy was represented by American rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik affiliated with the Orthodox Union."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebrew name",
        "text": "Also, some Jews during Roman times also had Latin names for themselves, such as the Christian evangelist Mark (Latin Marcus). As was the case with contemporary Jewish names of Greek origin, most of these Latin names are generally not associated with Jews today, and today retain a Roman and Christian character."
      },
      {
        "title": "J.D. Lifshitz",
        "text": "He is Orthodox Jewish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "The Jewish Enlightenment of the late 18th century resulted in the division of Ashkenazi (Western) Jewry into religious movements or denominations, especially in North America and Anglophone countries. The main denominations today outside Israel (where the situation is rather different) are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform. The notion \"traditional Judaism\" includes the Orthodox with Conservative or solely the Orthodox Jews.\n*Orthodox Judaism holds that both the Written and Oral Torah were divinely revealed to Moses and that the laws within it are binding and unchanging. Orthodox Jews generally consider commentaries on the \"Shulchan Aruch\" (a condensed codification of \"halakha\" that largely favored Sephardic traditions) to be the definitive codification of \"halakha\". Orthodoxy places a high importance on Maimonides' 13 principles as a definition of Jewish faith."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shorter Jewish Encyclopedia",
        "text": "Although it was originally planned as an abridged translation of the English-language \"Encyclopedia Judaica\", it became clear as the work progressed that readers raised in the Soviet Union would not be familiar with the concepts lying at the foundation of the cultural and historical system known as Jewish civilization. Therefore, these concepts were elaborated on in greater detail in the \"SJE\", and terms were introduced which lacked equivalents in modern Russian. Most personal and geographic names (in Israel) from the Bible are given in the accepted Hebrew form. The conceptual foundation of the \"SJE\" is characterized by a thematic bipolarity: Eretz Israel, and in particular the State of Israel on the one hand, and Russian (i.e., Soviet) Jewry on the other, which nevertheless does not exclude the broad scope of different aspects of the lives and history of Jews in all the other countries of the diaspora."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "Judaism\n--Etymology.\n--History.\n----Origins.\n----Antiquity.\n--Defining characteristics and principles of faith.\n----Core tenets.\n--Religious texts.\n----Legal literature.\n----Jewish philosophy.\n----Rabbinic hermeneutics.\n--Jewish identity.\n----Distinction between Jews as a people and Judaism.\n----Who is a Jew?\n----Jewish demographics.\n--Jewish religious movements.\n----Rabbinic Judaism.\n------Sephardi and Mizrahi Judaism.\n------Jewish movements in Israel.\n----Karaites and Samaritans.\n----Haymanot (Ethiopian Judaism).\n----Secular Judaism.\n----Noahide (\"B'nei Noah\" movement).\n--Jewish observances.\n----Jewish ethics.\n----Prayers.\n----Religious clothing.\n----Jewish holidays.\n------Shabbat.\n------Three pilgrimage festivals.\n------High Holy Days.\n------Purim.\n------Hanukkah.\n------Fast days.\n------Israeli holidays.\n----Torah readings.\n----Synagogues and religious buildings.\n----Dietary laws: \"kashrut\".\n----Laws of ritual purity.\n------Family purity.\n----Life-cycle events.\n--Community leadership.\n----Classical priesthood.\n----Prayer leaders.\n----Historical Jewish groupings (to 1700).\n----Persecutions.\n----Hasidism.\n----The Enlightenment and new religious movements.\n----Spectrum of observance.\n--Judaism and other religions.\n----Christianity and Judaism.\n----Islam and Judaism.\n----Syncretic movements incorporating Judaism.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "In terms of social relations, most secular Jews view their Jewish identity as a matter of culture, heritage, nationality, or ethnicity. Ancestral aspects can be explained by the many Jews who view themselves as atheists and are defined by matrilineal descent or a Cohen (Kohen) or Levi, which is connected by ancestry. The question of \"who is a Jew\" is a question that is under debate. Issues related to ancestral or ethnic Jews are dealt with by the Israeli Chief Rabbinate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "The Orthodox and Conservative branches of Judaism maintain that the halakhic rules (i.e. matrilineal descent) are valid and binding. Reform and Liberal Judaism do not accept the halakhic rules as binding, and most branches accept a child of one Jewish parent, whether father or mother, as Jewish if the parents raise the child as a Jew and foster a Jewish identity in the child, noting that \"in the Bible the line always followed the father, including the cases of Joseph and Moses, who married into non-Israelite priestly families.\" (However, according to the oral tradition of Orthodox Judaism, the spouses of both Joseph and Moses converted to Judaism prior to marrying them.) The Reform movement's standard states that \"for those beyond childhood claiming Jewish identity, other public acts or declarations may be added or substituted after consultation with their rabbi\". Advocates of patrilineal descent point to and . This policy is commonly known as patrilineal descent, though \"bilineal\" would be more accurate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "According to the traditional Rabbinic view, which is maintained by all branches of Orthodox Judaism and Conservative Judaism, and some branches of Reform Judaism, only \"halakha\" can define who is or is not a Jew when a question of Jewish identity, lineage, or parentage arises about any person seeking to define themselves or claim that they are Jewish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "As the Jews spread throughout the lands bordering the Mediterranean, they drew upon other languages for their personal names while still retaining Biblical ones, and they were especially prone to adopt names ending in \"-el\". These new names became exceptionally popular in Italy. To this source must be traced the new name \"\u1e24ushiel\", composed on the same plan as the Biblical ones ending in \"-el\". The kings of the Khazars, so far as their names are known, wavered between pure Biblical names, like Obadiah, and local names, like \"Bulan\". The Karaites in the same neighborhood adopted Tatar names, one of them being known as Toktamish; but elsewhere Karaite names are mostly Arabic and Persian."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Even more frequently were authors known by contracted forms of their names, with the addition of some honorary prefix, as given above. Among contemporary Hebrew writers this practice is still more widely observed, though no honorary title is prefixed. A list is given by Mo\u00efse Schwab in his \"Repertoire\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "Those not born to a Jewish mother may become accepted as Jews by the Orthodox and Conservative communities through a formal process of conversion to Judaism in order to become \"righteous converts\" ('\u2014). In addition, Halakha requires that the new convert commit himself to the observance of its tenets; this is called ' (), \"Acceptance of the Yoke of the Commandments\". \"\" () is used by Reform Judaism in accordance with reform responsa and Halakhah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Surnames derived from the name of the matriarch of the family were adopted by some households. For example, the surname Rivkes is derived from the female name Rivkeh, the Yiddish form of Rebecca, so the surname literally means \"Rivka's\". The Slavic language-influenced counterpart is Rivkin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Hagen corresponds to Hassan or Hazan; and the like. Biblical names often take curious forms in the Iberian records, \"Isaac\" appearing as Acaz, \"Cohen\" as Coffen or , \"Yom-\u1e6cob\" as Bondia, \"\u1e92ema\u1e25\" as Crescas or and Cresquez."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebraization of surnames",
        "text": "The Hebraization of surnames (also Hebraicization) (, \"Ivrut\", \"Hebraization\") is the act of adopting a Hebrew surname in exchange for a diaspora name. For many diaspora Jews who migrated to Israel, taking a Hebrew surname was a way to erase remnants of their diaspora experience and to assimilate into a new shared Jewish identity with Mizrahi Jews and Palestinian Jews (Jewish residents of Ottoman Syria and Mandatory Palestine) and later as Israeli Jews (Jewish citizens of the independent State of Israel)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebrews",
        "text": "In some modern languages, including Armenian, Greek, Italian, Romanian, and many Slavic languages, the name \"Hebrews\" (with linguistic variations) is the standard ethnonym for Jews; but in many other languages in which both terms exist, it is currently considered derogatory to call Jews \"Hebrews\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jews",
        "text": "Jews\n--Name and etymology.\n--Who is a Jew?\n--Origins.\n--History.\n----Babylon and Rome.\n----Diaspora.\n--Culture.\n----Religion.\n----Languages.\n----Leadership.\n----Theories on ancient Jewish national identity.\n--Demographics.\n----Ethnic divisions.\n----Genetic studies.\n----Population centers.\n------Israel.\n------Diaspora (outside Israel).\n----Demographic changes.\n------Assimilation.\n------War and persecution.\n------Migrations.\n------Growth.\n--Contributions.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jews",
        "text": "Jews are often identified as belonging to one of two major groups: the \"Ashkenazim\" and the \"Sephardim\". Ashkenazim, or \"Germanics\" (Ashkenaz meaning \"Germany\" in Hebrew), are so named denoting their German Jewish cultural and geographical origins, while Sephardim, or \"Hispanics\" (Sefarad meaning \"Spain/Hispania\" or \"Iberia\" in Hebrew), are so named denoting their Spanish/Portuguese Jewish cultural and geographic origins. The more common term in Israel for many of those broadly called Sephardim, is \"Mizrahim\" (lit. \"Easterners\", Mizrach being \"East\" in Hebrew), that is, in reference to the diverse collection of Middle Eastern and North African Jews who are often, as a group, referred to collectively as \"Sephardim\" (together with Sephardim proper) for liturgical reasons, although Mizrahi Jewish groups and Sephardi Jews proper are ethnically distinct."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tradition (journal)",
        "text": "[[Category:Modern Orthodox Judaism in the United States]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of Jewish history\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Hebrew name\u00a0\u00b7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "Most Jewish Israelis classify themselves as \"secular\" (\"hiloni\"), \"traditional\" (\"masorti\"), \"religious\" (\"dati\") or \"Haredi\". The term \"secular\" is more popular as a self-description among Israeli families of western (European) origin, whose Jewish identity may be a very powerful force in their lives, but who see it as largely independent of traditional religious belief and practice. This portion of the population largely ignores organized religious life, be it of the official Israeli rabbinate (Orthodox) or of the liberal movements common to diaspora Judaism (Reform, Conservative)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "While adhering to traditional beliefs, the movement is a modern phenomenon. It arose as a result of the breakdown of the autonomous Jewish community since the 18th century, and was much shaped by a conscious struggle against the pressures of secularization and rival alternatives. The strictly observant and theologically aware Orthodox are a definite minority among all Jews, but there are also some semi- and non-practicing individuals who affiliate or identify with Orthodoxy. It is the largest Jewish religious group, estimated to have over 2 million practicing adherents, and at least an equal number of nominal members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jews",
        "text": "The Hebrew word for \"Jew\" is , with the plural . Endonyms in other Jewish languages include the Ladino (plural , ) and the Yiddish (plural )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of Jewish history\u2013related articles",
        "text": "List of biblical names\u00a0\u00b7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sephardic law and customs",
        "text": "Given names\n*Sephardim often name their children after living grandparents, which is a great respect. On the other hand, Ashkenazim never name their children after a living person.\n* Abudirham, David, \"Sefer Abudirham\"\n* Caro, Joseph, \"Shul\u1e25an Aruch\" (innumerable editions)\n* \u1e24ayim, Joseph, \"Ben Ish \u1e24ai\", tr. Hiley (4 vols.): Jerusalem 1993\n* Sofer, \u1e24ayim, \"Kaf ha-\u1e24ayim\"\n* Raka\u1e25, Yaakob, \"Shul\u1e25an Le\u1e25em ha-Panim\" (6 vols., ed. Levi Nahum), Jerusalem\n* Jacobson, B. S., \"Netiv Binah\": Tel Aviv 1968\n* Dayan Toledano, Pinchas, \"Fountain of Blessings, a Code of Jewish Law, mekor bracha\": London 1989, Jerusalem 2009 (edited and expanded to 4 volumes).\n* Toledano, E., and Choueka, S., \"Gateway to Halachah\" (2 vols.): Lakewood and New York 1988\u20139.\n* Yitzhak, Hertzel Hillel, \"Tzel HeHarim: Tzitzit\": New York, Feldheim Publishers 2006.\n* HaLevi, \u1e24ayim David, \"Mekor \u1e24ayim haShalem\", a comprehensive code of Jewish law\n** \"Kitzur Shul\u1e25an Arukh Mekor \u1e24ayim\", a digest of the above code\n* Yosef, Ovadia, \"\u1e24azon Obadiah\", \"Yabbia Omer\" and \"Ye\u1e25avveh Da'at\", responsa\n* Yosef, Yitz\u1e25ak, \"Yalkut Yosef\", codifying rulings of Ovadia Yosef\n* Yosef, David, \"Torat Ha-Mo'adim\" (rules about the Jewish holidays)\n* Yosef, David, \"Halachah Berurah\", another codification of Rabbi Ovadia Yosef's rulings\n* Vital, \u1e24ayim, \"Sha'ar ha-Kavvanot\" (vol. 8 of the 15 volume collected writings)\n* anon., \"\u1e24emdat Yamim\"\n* Algazi, Yisrael, \"Shalme Tsibbur\" and \"Shalme \u1e24agigah\"\n* Mueller, J., \"\u1e24illuf Minhagim she-bein Benei Bavel u-Venei Eretz Yisrael\": 1878\n* Lewin, B. M., \"Otzar \u1e24illuf Minhagim: Thesaurus of Halachic Differences between the Palestinian and Babylonian Schools\": Jerusalem 1942\n* Gaguine, Shem Tob, \"Keter Shem Tob\", 7 vols. (Spanish and Portuguese and comparative): vols. 1-2, vol. 3, vol. 6, vol. 7\n* Ben Ya'akov, Abraham, \"Minhage Yahadut Bavel ba-dorot ha-a\u1e25aronim\" (Iraq)\n* Ades, Abraham, \"Derech Ere\"ts\": Bene Berak 1990 (Aleppo)\n* Ben Shimon, Refael Aharon, \"Nehar Mitzrayim\" (Egypt): vol. 1, vol. 2\n* Hacohen, Mosheh, \"Berit Kehunah\", 1941 (Jerba)\n* Messas, Yosef, \"Mayim \u1e24ayim\" (Morocco)\n* Toledano, Shelomo, \"Divre Shalom ve-Emet: Pisqe \u1e24achme Marocco\" (Morocco)\n* Bitton, Eliyahu, \"Netivot ha-Ma'arav\" (Morocco)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebrew name",
        "text": "Furthermore, some Jews of the time had Greek Gentile names themselves, such as the Christian Luke (Greek \u039b\u03bf\u03c5\u03ba\u1fb6\u03c2 \"Loukas\"). Though used by some Jews at the time, these names are generally not associated with Jews today, and are considered characteristically Greek and largely confined to use by Christians. Hebrew forms of the names exist, but they are extremely rare."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u017belech\u00f3w",
        "text": "Jews used to call it Zshelikhov and it was incorporated as such in the Jewish history after Jewish scholars found a religious meaning to its name. In Hebrew, the name \u05d6\u05dc\u05d9\u05d7\u05d5\u05d1 translates as \u05d6\u05d4 \u05dc\u05d9 \u05d7\u05d5\u05d1, which means \"it is my obligation\" [to be a Jew and engage in \"mitzvot\" and good deeds]."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haftarah",
        "text": "The selection from \"Nevi'im\" [the Prophets] read as the \"haftarah\" is not always the same in all Jewish communities. When customs differ, this list indicates them as follows: \"A\"=Ashkenazic custom (\"AF\"=Frankfurt am Main; \"AH\"=Chabad; \"AP\"= Poland; APZ = Posen;); \"I\"=Italian custom; \"S\"=Sephardic and Mizrahi custom (\"SM\"=Maghreb [North Africa]; \"SZ\"= Mizrahi [Middle and Far East]); \"Y\"=Yemenite custom; \"R\"=Romaniote (Byzantine, eastern Roman empire, extinct) custom; and \"K\"=Karaite custom. In some instances \"Isr.Wikip\" = the Israeli version of Wikipedia (in Hebrew) of this article had different readings in its list. In several instances, authorities did not agree on the readings of various communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebraization of surnames",
        "text": "After the Israeli Declaration of Independence, there was still the attitude that the hebraization of family names should continue, in order to get rid of names with a diaspora sound. Hebraization of names became a typical part of the integration process for new immigrants among Ashkenazi Jews. It also occurred among Sephardi and Mizrahi Jewish immigrants from Arab and Muslim lands, though it was less common among them than among Ashkenazi Jews; Sephardi and Mizrahi children were typically given new Hebrew names in school, often without permission from their parents."
      },
      {
        "title": "My Name Is Asher Lev",
        "text": "This book explores conflicting traditions (in this case the tradition of Judaism and the tradition of art), father versus son, contentedness with one's life versus peace in the family (the Jewish value of \"shalom bayit\"), the traditional Jewish world versus secular America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli Jews",
        "text": "Another characteristic of the Jewish community in Israel is the relatively high dynamism in which the Israeli Jews tend to define their religious status. Among the secular and traditionalist groups some individuals choose to embrace Orthodox Judaism. In 2009 around 200,000 Israeli Jews aged 20 and above defined themselves as \"Baalei teshuva\" (\u05d1\u05e2\u05dc\u05d9 \u05ea\u05e9\u05d5\u05d1\u05d4), Nevertheless, in practice about a quarter of them have a traditionalist lifestyle. Various Orthodox organizations operate in Israel with the aim of getting non-Orthodox Jews embrace Orthodox Judaism. Notable examples are the Chasidic movements Chabad and Breslov which have gained much popularity among the Baalei teshuva, the organizations Arachim and Yad LeAchim who initiate seminars in Judaism, and the organization Aish HaTorah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebraization of surnames",
        "text": "Very few Hebrew surnames existed before Hebraization, such as \"Cohen\" (priest), \"Moss\" (Moses) and \"Levi\" (Levite). Several Hebrew surnames, such as \"Katz\", \"Bogoraz\", \"Ohl\" and \"Pak\" are in fact Hebrew acronyms, even though they sound and are often perceived as being of non-Jewish origin (in these cases, from German, Russian, Polish and Korean, respectively)."
      },
      {
        "title": "She'ar Yashuv Cohen",
        "text": "[[Category:Israeli Orthodox Jews]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "A popular form to create a new family name is the false patronymic, using the prefix \"ben\" or \"bar\" followed by words who are not the name of a parent. Examples include patriotic themes, such as ben Ami (\"son of my people\"), or ben Artzi (\"son of my country\"), and terms related to the Israeli landscape, such as bar Ilan (\"son of the trees\", also similar phonetically to the bearer's original family name Berlin). Another famous person who used a false patronymic is the first Israeli Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion. His former family name was Gr\u00fcn, and he adopted the name \"Ben-Gurion\" (\"son of Gurion\"), not \"Ben-Avigdor\" (his father's name). Gurion was a Jewish leader in the period of the First Jewish\u2013Roman War."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sephardi Jews",
        "text": "A notable exception to the distinct Ashkenazi and Sephardi naming traditions is found among Dutch Jews, where Ashkenazim have for centuries followed the tradition otherwise attributed to Sephardim. See Chuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beta Israel",
        "text": "The name \"Ayhud\" ('Jews'), is rarely used in the community, as the Christians had used it as a derogatory term. The community has begun to use it only since strengthening ties with other Jewish communities in the 20th century. The term \"Ibrawi\" \"Hebrew\" was used to refer to the \"chawa\" ('free man') in the community, in contrast to \"barya\" ('slave'). The term \"Oritawi\" \"Torah-true\" was used to refer to the community members; since the 19th century, it has been used in opposition to the term \"Falash Mura\" (converts)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish surname",
        "text": "Another frequent source for Jewish and German-Jewish surnames is the names of trades and occupations; such names as Kaufmann and Marchant (\"merchant\") became prominent. Others of the same kind are: Banks, Brauer, Breyer, and Brower (\"brewer\"); Spielmann (\"musician\"); Gerber (\"tanner\"); Steinschneider (\"stonecutter\"); Graveur (\"engraver\"); Shoemark or Schumacher (\"shoemaker\"); Schuster (\"cobbler\"); Schneider, Schneiders, and Snyders (\"tailor\"; in Hebrew , Chait/Khait (and at times Hyatt)); Wechsler (\"money-changer\"). Related, and likewise generically German, names are derived metonymically for a common object or tool of a profession: e.g., Hammer for a blacksmith, Feder (\"quill\") for a scribe, and Lein (\"linen\") for a dealer in cloth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish question (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Jewish question (disambiguation)\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some traditions of the Jewish people?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Which Jewish denominations' traditions are you interested in learning about? Outside of Israel (where the situation is rather different) the main denominations are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about the traditions of Orthodox Jews."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Orthodox Judaism advocates a strict observance of Jewish law. Key practices include observing the sabbath, eating kosher, and Torah study.",
      "Orthodox Judaism emphasizes practicing rules of kashrut, Shabbat, family purity, and tefilah (daily prayer). Orthodox men and women dress modestly, Orthodox men and women do not engage in physical contact with those of the opposite sex outside of their spouse, or immediate family members, doorposts have a mezuzah and separate sinks for meat and dairy have become increasingly common."
    ],
    "topic": "Jewish name",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Orthodox Judaism:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orthodox Judaism"
        ],
        "ctx": "Orthodox Judaism therefore advocates a strict observance of Jewish law, or \"halakha\", which is to be interpreted and determined exclusively according to traditional methods and in adherence to the continuum of received precedent through the ages. It regards the entire \"halakhic\" system as ultimately grounded in immutable revelation, and beyond external influence. Key practices are observing the Sabbath, eating kosher, and Torah study. Key doctrines include a future Messiah who will restore Jewish practice by building the temple in Jerusalem and gather all the Jews to Israel, belief in a future bodily resurrection of the dead, divine reward and punishment for the righteous and the sinners."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Orthodox Judaism:67",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orthodox Judaism",
          "Practice",
          "Daily life"
        ],
        "ctx": "Orthodox Judaism emphasizes practicing rules of kashrut, Shabbat, family purity, and tefilah (daily prayer)."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Orthodox Judaism:68",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orthodox Judaism",
          "Practice",
          "Daily life"
        ],
        "ctx": "Many Orthodox Jews can be identified by their manner of dress and family lifestyle. Orthodox men and women dress modestly by keeping most of their skin covered. Married women cover their hair, with either scarves (tichel), snoods, hats, berets, or wigs."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Orthodox Judaism:70",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orthodox Judaism",
          "Practice",
          "Daily life"
        ],
        "ctx": "Orthodox Jews also follow the laws of negiah, which means touch. Orthodox men and women do not engage in physical contact with those of the opposite sex outside of their spouse, or immediate family members (such as parents, grandparents, siblings, children, and grandchildren). \"Kol Isha\" is the prohibition of a woman's (singing) voice to a man (except as per negiah)."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Orthodox Judaism:71",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orthodox Judaism",
          "Practice",
          "Daily life"
        ],
        "ctx": "Doorposts have a \"mezuzah\"; separate sinks for meat and dairy have become increasingly common."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "The approach to prayer varies among the Jewish denominations. Differences can include the texts of prayers, the frequency of prayer, the number of prayers recited at various religious events, the use of musical instruments and choral music, and whether prayers are recited in the traditional liturgical languages or the vernacular. In general, Orthodox and Conservative congregations adhere most closely to tradition, and Reform and Reconstructionist synagogues are more likely to incorporate translations and contemporary writings in their services. Also, in most Conservative synagogues, and all Reform and Reconstructionist congregations, women participate in prayer services on an equal basis with men, including roles traditionally filled only by men, such as reading from the Torah. In addition, many Reform temples use musical accompaniment such as organs and mixed choirs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish schisms",
        "text": "Some Jews in Western Europe, and many Jews in America, joined the religiously liberal new Reform Judaism movement, which drew inspiration from the writings of modernist thinkers like Moses Mendelson. They coined the name \"Orthodox\" to describe those who opposed the \"Reform\". They were criticized by the Orthodox Judaism rabbis, such as Samson Raphael Hirsch in Germany, and condemned, particularly by those known today as followers of Haredi Judaism, based mainly in Eastern Europe. (Later on, in 1880s America, Conservative Judaism split from the Reform movement.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Orthodox Judaism is not a centralized denomination. Relations between its different subgroups are sometimes strained, and the exact limits of Orthodoxy are subject to intense debate. Very roughly, it may be divided between ultra-Orthodox or \"Haredi\" Judaism, which is more conservative and reclusive, and Modern Orthodox Judaism, which is relatively open to outer society. Each of those is itself formed of independent communities. Together, they are almost uniformly exclusionist, regarding Orthodoxy not as a variety of Judaism, but as Judaism itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jacob Immanuel Schochet",
        "text": "In his book \"Who is a Jew\" Schochet, an Orthodox Jew, asserted: \"There can be peaceful co-existence on the communal level, and even cooperation in matters of common concerns; but there is no common ground on the religious-doctrinal level. 'Reform' and 'Conservative' can live with 'orthodox' standards and recognize the titular status of 'orthodox' rabbis. After all, 'orthodox' rabbis are ordained on the basis of their proficiency in knowledge and adjudication of Jewish law (\"Shulchan Aruch\"). This will not work in reverse, however, because the requirements for conservative and reform ordination are altogether different.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "Orthodoxy is often divided into Haredi Judaism and Modern Orthodox Judaism. Haredi is less accommodating to modernity and has less interest in non-Jewish disciplines, and it may be distinguished from Modern Orthodox Judaism in practice by its styles of dress and more stringent practices. Subsets of Haredi Judaism include Hasidic Judaism, which is rooted in the Kabbalah and distinguished by reliance on a Rebbe or religious teacher; their opponents Misnagdim (Lithuanian); and Sephardic Haredi Judaism, which emerged among Sephardic and Mizrahi (Asian and North African) Jews in Israel. \"Centrist\" Orthodoxy (Joseph B. Soloveitchik) is sometimes also distinguished.\n* Conservative Judaism is characterized by a commitment to traditional \"halakha\" and customs, including observance of Shabbat and kashrut, a deliberately non-fundamentalist teaching of Jewish principles of faith, a positive attitude toward modern culture, and an acceptance of both traditional rabbinic and modern scholarship when considering Jewish religious texts. Conservative Judaism teaches that \"halakha\" is not static, but has always developed in response to changing conditions. It holds that the Torah is a divine document written by prophets inspired by God and reflecting his will, but rejects the Orthodox position that it was dictated by God to Moses. Conservative Judaism holds that the Oral Law is divine and normative, but holds that both the Written and Oral Law may be interpreted by the rabbis to reflect modern sensibilities and suit modern conditions.\n*Reform Judaism, called Liberal or Progressive Judaism in many countries, defines Judaism in relatively universalist terms, rejects most of the ritual and ceremonial laws of the Torah while observing moral laws, and emphasizes the ethical call of the Prophets. Reform Judaism has developed an egalitarian prayer service in the vernacular (along with Hebrew in many cases) and emphasizes personal connection to Jewish tradition.\n* Reconstructionist Judaism, like Reform Judaism, does not hold that \"halakha\", as such, requires observance, but unlike Reform, Reconstructionist thought emphasizes the role of the community in deciding what observances to follow.\n* Jewish Renewal is a recent North American movement which focuses on spirituality and social justice but does not address issues of \"halakha\". Men and women participate equally in prayer.\n* Humanistic Judaism is a small non-theistic movement centered in North America and Israel that emphasizes Jewish culture and history as the sources of Jewish identity.\n* Subbotniks (Sabbatarians) are a movement of Jews of Russian ethnic origin in the 18th\u201320th centuries, the majority of whom belonged to Rabbinic and Karaite Judaism. Many settled in the Holy Land as part of the Zionist First Aliyah in order to escape oppression in the Russian Empire and later mostly intermarried with other Jews, their descendants included Alexander Za\u00efd, Major-General Alik Ron, and the mother of Ariel Sharon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodoxy",
        "text": "Orthodox Judaism is not a centralized denomination. Relations between its different subgroups are sometimes strained and the exact limits of Orthodoxy are subject to intense debate. Very roughly, it may be divided between Haredi Judaism, which is more conservative and reclusive, and Modern Orthodox Judaism, which is relatively open to outer society. Each of those is itself formed of independent streams. They are almost uniformly exclusionist, regarding Orthodoxy as the only authentic form of Judaism and rejecting all non-Orthodox interpretations as illegitimate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oswald Rufeisen",
        "text": "Different branches of Judaism treat Jews who convert to other religions differently. In Orthodox and Conservative Judaism converts are still regarded as Jews, but not in Reform Judaism. On religion-related issues, Israel follows the Orthodox interpretation of Jewish law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Open Orthodoxy",
        "text": "In striving for a more 'liberal' Orthodox Judaism, Weiss was required to clarify the differences between the Orthodox and non-Orthodox movements within Judaism. He states that all Orthodox Judaism, including Open Orthodoxy, fundamentally differs from Conservative Judaism in three areas.\n# Orthodox Jews believe that the Torah was given by God at Mount Sinai in its current form.\n# Orthodoxy believes that \"legal authority is cumulative, and that a contemporary \"posek\" [decider] can only issue judgments based on a full history of Jewish legal precedent\", whereas Conservative Jews believe \"precedent provides illustrations of possible positions rather than binding law. Conservatism, therefore, remains free to select whichever position within the prior history appeals to it\".\n# Orthodoxy is characterized by ritually-observant members who \"meticulously keep Shabbat (the Sabbath), Kashrut (the Dietary Laws), Taharat ha-Mishpaha (the Laws of Family Purity), and pray three times a day\", whereas Conservative Judaism \"is generally not composed of ritually observant Jews. Thus, only in our community if a 'permissive custom' is accepted, can it be meaningful.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish liturgy",
        "text": "Reform Judaism has made greater alterations to the traditional service in accord with its more liberal theology including dropping references to traditional elements of Jewish eschatology such as a personal Messiah, a bodily resurrection of the dead, and others. The Hebrew portion of the service is substantially abbreviated and modernized and modern prayers substituted for traditional ones. In addition, in keeping with their view that the laws of Shabbat (including a traditional prohibition on playing instruments) are inapplicable to modern circumstances, Reform services often play instrumental or recorded music with prayers on the Jewish Sabbath. All Reform synagogues are egalitarian with respect to gender roles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism, as movements which reject the concept of \"halakha\", often accept a child as Jewish when only the father is Jewish, provided that the child chooses to identify as Jewish. As conversion processes differ, those performed by more liberal denominations are not accepted by more orthodox denominations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conversion to Judaism",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism takes a more lenient approach in application of the \"halakhic\" rules than Modern Orthodox Judaism. Its approach to the validity of conversions is based on whether the conversion procedure followed rabbinic norms, rather than the reliability of those performing it or the nature of the obligations the convert undertook. Accordingly, it may accept the validity of some Reform and Reconstructionist conversions, but only if they include immersion in a ritual bath (mikvah), appearance before a rabbinical court (beit din) and, for men, circumcision (\"brit milah\") or a symbolic circumcision for those already circumcised (\"hatafat dam brit\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conversion to Judaism",
        "text": "The requirements for conversions vary somewhat within the different branches of Judaism, so whether or not a conversion is recognized by another denomination is often an issue fraught with religious politics. The Orthodox rejection of non-Orthodox conversions is derived less from qualms with the conversion process itself, since Conservative and even some Reform conversions are very similar to Orthodox conversions with respect to duration and content, but rather from that the Orthodox presumption that convert was not properly instructed in Jewish Law to Orthodox Jewish standards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Another large demographic usually considered aligned with Orthodoxy are the Israeli \"Masortim\", or \"traditional\". This moniker originated with Mizrahi immigrants who were both secularized and reverent toward their communal heritage. However, Mizrahi intellectuals, in recent years, developed a more reflective, nuanced understanding of this term, eschewing its shallow image and not necessarily agreeing with the formal deference to Orthodox rabbis. Self-conscious \"Masorti\" identity is still limited to small, elitist circles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modern Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Note that claims of this nature have been commonplace within Orthodox Judaism since the first \"reforms\" of Samson Raphael Hirsch and Azriel Hildesheimer. Thus, in Europe of the early 19th century, all of Judaism that differed from the strictest forms present at the time was called \"Reform\". Then, as now, Modern Orthodoxy took pains to distance its \"reforms\", which were consistent with the Shulkhan Arukh and poskim, from those of the Reform movement (and the Conservative movement), which were not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in Israel",
        "text": "Tension also exists between the Orthodox establishment and the Conservative and Reform movements. Only Orthodox Judaism is officially recognized in Israel (though conversions conducted by Conservative and Reform clergy outside of Israel may be accepted for the purposes of the Law of Return). As a result, Conservative and Reform synagogues receive minimal government funding and support. Conservative and Reform rabbis cannot officiate at religious ceremonies and any marriages, divorces, and conversions they perform are not considered valid. Conservative and Reform Jews have been prohibited from holding services at the Western Wall on the grounds that they violate Orthodox norms regarding participation of women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Union of Orthodox Rabbis",
        "text": "The group has regularly placed advertisements in Jewish newspapers shortly before the High Holy Days, prohibiting worship at non-Orthodox synagogues. Similarly, the Friday April 4, 1997 edition of \"The Jewish Press\", quoted from \"A Historic Declaration\", issued by the Union of Orthodox Rabbis on March 31, 1997:\n:Reform and Conservative are not Judaism at all. Their adherents are Jews, according to the Jewish Law, but their religion is not Judaism...we appeal to our fellow Jew, members of the Reform and Conservative movements: Having been falsely led by heretical leaders that Reform and Conservative are legitimate branches and denominations of Judaism, we urge you to be guided by this declaration, and withdraw from your affiliation with Reform and Conservative temples and their clergy. Do not hesitate to attend an Orthodox synagogue due to your inadequate observance of Judaism. On the contrary, it is because of that inadequacy that you need to attend an Orthodox synagogue where you will be warmly welcomed..."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conversion to Judaism",
        "text": "In general, branches of Orthodox Judaism consider non-Orthodox conversions either inadequate or of questionable halachic compliance, and such conversions are therefore not accepted by these branches of Judaism. Conversely, both Conservative and Reform Judaism accept the Orthodox conversion process as being valid. Since 2008, Haredi Orthodox religious courts in Israel have been rejecting conversions from a number of Orthodox rabbis, since the Chief Rabbinate do not accept the authority of the presiding rabbis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ethnoreligious group",
        "text": "Since the 19th century, Reform Judaism has differed from Orthodox Judaism on matters of theology and practice; however, toward the end of the 20th century and into the 21st century, the Reform movement has reoriented itself back toward certain traditions and practices it had previously relinquished (for example, wearing the tallit and/or the kippah; the use of Hebrew in the liturgy). In the United States, the increasing rate of mixed marriages has led to attempts to facilitate conversion of the spouse, although conversion to facilitate marriage is strongly discouraged by traditional Jewish law. If the spouse does not convert, the Reform movement will recognize patrilineal descent. Traditional interpretations of Jewish law only recognize descent along the maternal line. Many children of mixed marriages do not identify as Jews and the Reform movement only recognizes children of mixed marriages as Jewish if they \"established through appropriate and timely public and formal acts of identification with the Jewish faith and people.\" In actual practice, most Reform Jews affirm patrilineal descent as a valid means of Jewish identification, particularly if the individual was \"raised Jewish\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish prayer",
        "text": "Reform Judaism has made greater alterations to the traditional service in accord with its more liberal theology including dropping references to traditional elements of Jewish eschatology such as a personal Messiah, a bodily resurrection of the dead, and others. The Hebrew portion of the service is substantially abbreviated and modernized and modern prayers substituted for traditional ones. In addition, in keeping with their view that the laws of Shabbat (including a traditional prohibition on playing instruments) are inapplicable to modern circumstances, Reform services often play instrumental or recorded music with prayers on the Jewish Sabbath. All Reform synagogues are Egalitarian with respect to gender roles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "The Jewish Enlightenment of the late 18th century resulted in the division of Ashkenazi (Western) Jewry into religious movements or denominations, especially in North America and Anglophone countries. The main denominations today outside Israel (where the situation is rather different) are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform. The notion \"traditional Judaism\" includes the Orthodox with Conservative or solely the Orthodox Jews.\n*Orthodox Judaism holds that both the Written and Oral Torah were divinely revealed to Moses and that the laws within it are binding and unchanging. Orthodox Jews generally consider commentaries on the \"Shulchan Aruch\" (a condensed codification of \"halakha\" that largely favored Sephardic traditions) to be the definitive codification of \"halakha\". Orthodoxy places a high importance on Maimonides' 13 principles as a definition of Jewish faith."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "Some branches of Reform, while subscribing to its differentiation between ritual and ethics, chose to maintain a considerable degree of practical observance, especially in areas where a conservative Jewish majority had to be accommodated. Most Liberal communities in Germany maintained dietary standards and the like in the public sphere, both due to the moderation of their congregants and threats of Orthodox secession. A similar pattern characterizes the Movement for Reform Judaism in Britain, which attempted to appeal to newcomers from the United Synagogue, or to the IMPJ in Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "In general, Orthodox Judaism considers individuals born of Jewish mothers to be Jewish, even if they convert to or are raised in another religion. Reform Judaism views Jews who convert to or are raised in another religion as non-Jews. For example \"...anyone who claims that Jesus is their savior is no longer a Jew...\" [Contemporary American Reform Responsa, #68]."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sectarian discrimination",
        "text": "Sectarianism also exists between Orthodox and Reform Jews, with orthodox Jews often characterizing reform Jews as being non-religious, disobeying the Torah, rarely attending shul and adopting semi-Christian styles of worship. Reform Jews, on the other hand, often view the orthodox as being intolerant of them and of other religions, placing legalistic rules such as the observance of the Sabbath above ethical obligations, being cult-like and hostile to change."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish liturgy",
        "text": "Conservative services generally use the same basic format for services as in Orthodox Judaism, with some doctrinal leniencies and some prayers in English. In practice, there is wide variation among Conservative congregations. In traditionalist congregations the liturgy can be almost identical to that of Orthodox Judaism, almost entirely in Hebrew (and Aramaic), with a few minor exceptions, including excision of a study session on Temple sacrifices, and modifications of prayers for the restoration of the sacrificial system. In more liberal Conservative synagogues there are greater changes to the service, with up to a third of the service in English; abbreviation or omission of many of the preparatory prayers; and replacement of some traditional prayers with more contemporary forms. There are some changes for doctrinal reasons, including egalitarian language, fewer references to restoring sacrifices in the Temple in Jerusalem, and an option to eliminate special roles for Kohanim and Levites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "Modern Progressive Jewish denominations have a conversion process based on their principles. In the US, an official Reform resolution in 1893 abolished circumcision as a requirement for converts, and Reform does not require converts to have \"tevilah,\" ritual immersion. A \"prospective convert declares, orally and in writing, in the presence of a rabbi and no less than two lay leaders of the congregation and community, acceptance of the Jewish religion and the intention to live in accordance with its \"mitzvot\"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yibbum",
        "text": "Orthodox Jews in modern times have generally upheld the position of Rabbeinu Tam and perform \"halizah\" rather than \"yibbum\". Yemenite Jews, though orthodox, practised \"yibbum\" until the \"en masse\" Aliyah of Jews to Eretz Israel in the last century. Conservative Judaism formally retains it. Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism have abolished it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heresy",
        "text": "Orthodox Judaism considers views on the part of Jews who depart from traditional Jewish principles of faith heretical. In addition, the more right-wing groups within Orthodox Judaism hold that all Jews who reject the simple meaning of Maimonides's 13 principles of Jewish faith are heretics. As such, most of Orthodox Judaism considers Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism heretical movements, and regards most of Conservative Judaism as heretical. The liberal wing of Modern Orthodoxy is more tolerant of Conservative Judaism, particularly its right wing, as there is some theological and practical overlap between these groups."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haskalah",
        "text": "Another non-Orthodox group was the Conservative Jews, who emphasized the importance of traditions but viewed with a historical perspective. The Orthodox Jews were actively against these reformers because they viewed changing Jewish tradition as an insult to God and believed that fulfillment in life could be found in serving God and keeping his commandments. The effect of Haskalah was that it gave a voice to plurality of views, while the orthodoxy preserved the tradition, even to the point of insisting on dividing between sects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish prayer",
        "text": "Conservative services generally use the same basic format for services as Orthodox Judaism, with some doctrinal leniencies and some prayers in English. In practice, there is wide variation among Conservative congregations. In traditionalist congregations the liturgy can be almost identical to that of Orthodox Judaism, almost entirely in Hebrew (and Aramaic), with a few minor exceptions, including excision of a study session on Temple sacrifices, and modifications of prayers for the restoration of the sacrificial system. In more liberal Conservative synagogues there are greater changes to the service, with up to a third of the service in English; abbreviation or omission of many of the preparatory prayers; and replacement of some traditional prayers with more contemporary forms. There are some changes for doctrinal reasons, including egalitarian language, fewer references to restoring sacrifices in the Temple in Jerusalem, and an option to eliminate special roles for Kohanim and Levites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shabbat",
        "text": "More rabbinically traditional Reform and Reconstructionist Jews believe that these \"halakhoth\" in general may be valid, but that it is up to each individual to decide how and when to apply them. A small fraction of Jews in the Progressive Jewish community accept these laws in much the same way as Orthodox Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Indeed, a broad non-Reform, relatively traditional camp slowly coalesced as the minority within American Jewry; while strict in relation to their progressive opponents, they served a nonobservant public and instituted thorough synagogue reforms \u2013 omission of \"piyyutim\" from the liturgy, English-language sermons and secular education for the clergy were the norm in most, and many Orthodox synagogues in America did not partition men and women. In 1885, the antinomian Pittsburgh Platform moved a broad coalition of conservative religious leaders to found the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. They variously termed their ideology, which was never consistent and mainly motivated by a rejection of Reform, as \"Enlightened Orthodoxy\" or \"Conservative Judaism\". The latter term would only gradually assume a clearly distinct meaning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Relationships between Jewish religious movements",
        "text": "Orthodox Judaism holds that both Conservative and Reform Judaism have made major and unjustifiable breaks with historic Judaism - both by their skepticism of the verbal revelation of the Written and the Oral Torah, and by their rejection of \"halakha\" (Jewish law) as binding (although to varying degrees). It views religious pluralism as a construct of the liberal movements, and does not see their ideology as rooted in historic Jewish norms. While not recognizing Reform and Conservative as valid expressions of Judaism, it recognizes most who are affiliated with these movements as full-fledged Jews, aside from those whose Judaism is of patrilineal descent or who were converted under Conservative or Reform auspices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Relationships between Jewish religious movements",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism holds that Orthodox Judaism is a valid and legitimate form of normative rabbinic Judaism; it respects the validity of its rabbis. Conservative Judaism holds that both Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism have made major and unjustifiable breaks with historic Judaism, both by their rejection of Jewish law and tradition as normative, and by their unilateral acts in creating a separate definition of Jewishness (i.e., the latter movement's acceptance of patrilineal descent as an additional way of defining Jewishness). Despite this disagreement, Conservative Judaism respects the right of Reform and Reconstructionist Jews to interpret Judaism in their own way. Thus, the Conservative movement recognizes the right of Jews to form such denominations, and recognizes their clergy as rabbis, but does not generally accept their decisions as valid. Thus, for example, the Conservative movement typically does not accept Reform converts to Judaism whose conversions did not meet the requirements of Jewish law as being Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "The divergence of views has become an issue because Orthodox and Conservative communities do not recognize a person as Jewish if only their father is Jewish. For the person to be accepted as Jewish by an Orthodox or Conservative community (for example, on an occasion of their bar or bat mitzvah or marriage), they require a formal conversion (in accordance with halakhic standards). Orthodox Judaism has a predominant position in Israel. Although Orthodox and Conservative Judaism do not recognize Jewishness through patrilineal descent, \"it should also be noted, however, that in the case of a child born to a Jewish father but to a non-Jewish mother, most Orthodox rabbis will relax the stringent demands normally made of would-be converts\", and the Rabbinical Assembly of the Conservative movement \"agreed that 'sincere Jews by choice' should be warmly welcomed into the community\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tzniut",
        "text": "\"Mechitzot\" are usually seen in Orthodox synagogues but never in Reform ones. Original German Reform synagogues had balconies, although in modified form. While many Conservative synagogues also had balconies or separate seating for women in the past, most Conservative synagogues have switched to \"family seating\" (i.e., mixed seating of relatives) in the 1960s. Today, the Conservative movement puts a strong emphasis on egalitarianism, so that men and women have equal roles in prayer services. However, non-egalitarian services, separate seating, and the use of a \"mechitza\" are still considered valid options for Conservative congregations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rabbi",
        "text": "These debates cause great problems for recognition of Jewish marriages, conversions, and other life decisions that are touched by Jewish law. Orthodox rabbis do not recognize conversions by non-Orthodox rabbis. Conservative rabbis recognise all conversions done according to Halakha. Finally, the North American Reform and Reconstructionists recognize patrilineality, under certain circumstances, as a valid claim towards Judaism, whereas Conservative and Orthodox maintain the position expressed in the Talmud and Codes that one can be a Jew only through matrilineality (born of a Jewish mother) or through conversion to Judaism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Korban",
        "text": "Orthodox Judaism holds that in the messianic era, most or all of the korbanot will be reinstituted, at least for a time. Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism, hold that no animal sacrifices will be offered in a rebuilt Temple at all, following the position of Tanchuma Emor 14 and Vayikra Rabbah 9:7."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "Secondly, Orthodox Judaism asserts that non-Orthodox rabbis are not qualified to form a \"beit din.\" This has led to non-Orthodox conversions generally being unaccepted in Orthodox communities. Since Orthodox Judaism maintains the traditional standards for conversion \u2013 in which the commitment to observe halakha is required \u2013 non-Orthodox conversions are generally not accepted in Orthodox communities because the non-Orthodox movements perform conversions in which the new convert does not undertake to observe halakha as understood by Orthodox Judaism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modern Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Modern Orthodoxy clearly differs from the approach of Reform Judaism and Humanistic Judaism, which do not consider \"halakha\" to be normative."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "Various regional branches exist, including the Union for Reform Judaism (URJ) in the United States, the Movement for Reform Judaism (MRJ) and Liberal Judaism in the United Kingdom, the Israel Movement for Reform and Progressive Judaism (IMPJ) in Israel and the UJR-AmLat in Latin America; these are united under the banner of the international World Union for Progressive Judaism (WUPJ). Founded in 1926, the WUPJ estimates it represents at least 1.8 million people in 50 countries, just under 1 million of which are registered adult congregants, as well as many unaffiliated individuals who identify with the denomination. This makes it the second-largest Jewish denomination worldwide, after Orthodox Judaism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Union",
        "text": "For many years the OU, along with its related rabbinic arm, the Rabbinical Council of America, worked with the larger Jewish community in the Synagogue Council of America. In this group Orthodox, Conservative and Reform groups worked together on many issues of joint concern. The group became defunct in 1994, mainly over the objections of the Orthodox groups to Reform Judaism's official acceptance of patrilineal descent as an option for defining Jewishness. (See Who is a Jew.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Relationships between Jewish religious movements",
        "text": "Reform Judaism espouses the notion of religious pluralism; it believes that most Jewish denominations (including Orthodoxy and the Conservative movement) are valid expressions of Judaism. Historically, however, the Reform view of Orthodox Judaism had been negative. Early battles between Reform and Orthodox groups in Germany for control of communal leadership were fierce. Reform viewed Orthodoxy as overly focused on tradition and a literal interpretation of scripture that conflicted with modern science. Relations with the Conservative movement are much more cordial (although the two split due to such affairs as the Trefa Banquet), and Conservative and Reform leaders cooperate on many areas of mutual concern."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish religious movements",
        "text": "Orthodox Jews generally see themselves as practicing normative Judaism, rather than belonging to a particular movement. Within Orthodox Judaism, there is a spectrum of communities and practices, ranging from ultra-Orthodox Haredi Judaism (\"Haredim\") and Jewish fundamentalism to Modern Orthodox Judaism (with Neo-Orthodoxy, Open Orthodoxy, and Religious Zionism). Orthodox Jews who opposed the Haskalah became known as Haredi Jews (\"Haredim\"). Orthodox Jews who were sympathetic to the Haskalah formed what became known as neo-Orthodox or modern Orthodox Jews. The father of neo-Orthodoxy was the influenced German rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, who proclaimed principle Torah im Derech Eretz\u2014the strict observance of the Jewish Law in an active social life\u2014in 1851, he become the rabbi of first Orthodox separatist group from Reform community of Frankfurt am Main. In addition, the \"Centrist\" Orthodoxy was represented by American rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik affiliated with the Orthodox Union."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mechitza",
        "text": "During the mid-20th century, a substantial number of synagogues considered themselves Orthodox but did not have mechitzot. However, the Orthodox Union (OU), the main body of Modern Orthodox synagogues in the United States, adopted a policy of not accepting synagogues without mechitzot as new members, and it strongly encouraged existing synagogues to adopt them. Men and women are generally not separated in most Conservative synagogues, but it is a permissible option within Conservative Judaism; some Conservative synagogues, particularly in Canada, have one or have separate seating for men and women without a physical partition. Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism, consistent with their views of traditional religious law not being mandatory in modern times and their more liberal interpretation of gender roles, do not use mechitzot in their synagogues."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Jews",
        "text": "The National Jewish Population Survey of 1990 asked 4.5 million adult Jews to identify their denomination. The national total showed 38% were affiliated with the Reform tradition, 35% were Conservative, 6% were Orthodox, 1% were Reconstructionists, 10% linked themselves to some other tradition, and 10% said they are \"just Jewish.\" In 2013, Pew Research's Jewish population survey found that 35% of American Jews identified as Reform, 18% as Conservative, 10% as Orthodox, 6% who identified with other sects, and 30% did not identify with a denomination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "The Orthodox and Conservative branches of Judaism maintain that the halakhic rules (i.e. matrilineal descent) are valid and binding. Reform and Liberal Judaism do not accept the halakhic rules as binding, and most branches accept a child of one Jewish parent, whether father or mother, as Jewish if the parents raise the child as a Jew and foster a Jewish identity in the child, noting that \"in the Bible the line always followed the father, including the cases of Joseph and Moses, who married into non-Israelite priestly families.\" (However, according to the oral tradition of Orthodox Judaism, the spouses of both Joseph and Moses converted to Judaism prior to marrying them.) The Reform movement's standard states that \"for those beyond childhood claiming Jewish identity, other public acts or declarations may be added or substituted after consultation with their rabbi\". Advocates of patrilineal descent point to and . This policy is commonly known as patrilineal descent, though \"bilineal\" would be more accurate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "However, change loomed on the horizon. From 1881 to 1924, over 2,400,000 immigrants from Eastern Europe drastically altered American Jewry, increasing it tenfold. The 40,000 members of Reform congregations became a small minority overnight. The newcomers arrived from backward regions, where modern education was scarce and civil equality nonexistent, retaining a strong sense of Jewish ethnicity. Even the ideological secularists among them, all the more so the common masses which merely turned lax or nonobservant, had a very traditional understanding of worship and religious conduct. The leading intellectuals of Eastern European Jewish nationalism castigated western Jews in general, and Reform Judaism in particular, not on theological grounds which they as laicists wholly rejected, but for what they claimed to be assimilationist tendencies and the undermining of peoplehood. This sentiment also fueled the often cool manner in which the denomination is perceived in Israeli society, originally established on the basis of these ideologies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "Rabbinical Judaism maintains that a Jew, whether by birth or conversion, is a Jew forever. Thus a Jew who claims to be an atheist or converts to another religion is still considered by traditional Judaism to be Jewish. According to some sources, the Reform movement has maintained that a Jew who has converted to another religion is no longer a Jew, and the Israeli Government has also taken that stance after Supreme Court cases and statutes. However, the Reform movement has indicated that this is not so cut and dried, and different situations call for consideration and differing actions. For example, Jews who have converted under duress may be permitted to return to Judaism \"without any action on their part but their desire to rejoin the Jewish community\" and \"A proselyte who has become an apostate remains, nevertheless, a Jew\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish visibility",
        "text": "Jews of all denominations, including Reform Jews and Conservative Jews, as well as secular Jews who have no religion, can be visibly Jewish. Orthodox Jews are often more visibly Jewish than non-Orthodox Jews because many Orthodox Jews publicly wear religious clothing. The term \"visibly Jewish\" is often used to refer to Orthodox Jews, however, not all Orthodox Jews are visibly Jewish and many non-Orthodox Jews are. On average, American Orthodox Jews report feeling less safe due to antisemitism compared to American non-Orthodox Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "While adhering to traditional beliefs, the movement is a modern phenomenon. It arose as a result of the breakdown of the autonomous Jewish community since the 18th century, and was much shaped by a conscious struggle against the pressures of secularization and rival alternatives. The strictly observant and theologically aware Orthodox are a definite minority among all Jews, but there are also some semi- and non-practicing individuals who affiliate or identify with Orthodoxy. It is the largest Jewish religious group, estimated to have over 2 million practicing adherents, and at least an equal number of nominal members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modern Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Applying the above distinction, in Israel today, Modern Orthodoxy\u2014as distinct from (right-wing) Religious Zionism\u2014is represented by only a select group of institutions: the Religious Kibbutz Movement, Ne'emanei Torah Va'Avodah, the Meimad political party, and the Shalom Hartman Institute, Yeshivat Har Etzion / Migdal Oz and Yeshivat Hamivtar/Ohr Torah Stone Institutions/Midreshet Lindenbaum (some would include Yeshivat Hesder Petach Tikva, Yeshivat Ma'ale Gilboa, and the Tzohar Foundation)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conversion to Judaism",
        "text": "In response to the tremendous variations that exist within the Reform community, the Conservative Jewish movement attempted to set a nuanced approach. The Conservative Committee on Jewish Law and Standards has issued a legal opinion stating that Reform conversions may be accepted as valid only when they include the minimal Conservative halachic requirements of milah and t'vilah, appearance before a Conservative Beth Din, and a course of Conservative study. (\"Proceedings of Committee on Jewish Law and Standards: 1980\u20131985\", pp.\u00a077\u2013101.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jews",
        "text": "Orthodox and Conservative Judaism discourage proselytism to non-Jews, but many Jewish groups have tried to reach out to the assimilated Jewish communities of the Diaspora in order for them to reconnect to their Jewish roots. Additionally, while in principle Reform Judaism favors seeking new members for the faith, this position has not translated into active proselytism, instead taking the form of an effort to reach out to non-Jewish spouses of intermarried couples."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movement for Reform Judaism",
        "text": "The denomination shares the basic tenets of Reform Judaism (alternatively known also as Progressive or Liberal) worldwide: a theistic, personal God; an ongoing revelation, under the influence of which all scripture was written\u00a0\u2013 but not dictated by providence\u00a0\u2013 that enables contemporary Jews to reach new religious insights without necessarily being committed to the conventions of the past; regarding the ethical and moral values of Judaism as its true essence, while ritual and practical observance are means to achieve spiritual elation and not an end to themselves\u00a0\u2013 and therefore, rejecting the binding nature of Jewish law; a belief in the coming of a Messianic era rather than a personal Messiah, and in immortality of the soul only, instead of bodily resurrection. Prayers referring to such concepts were omitted from the liturgy, and traditional practices abolished or altered considerably."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Between the ultra-Orthodox and Conservatives, Modern Orthodoxy in America also coalesced, becoming less a generic term and more a distinct movement. Its leader in the postwar era, Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik, left Agudas Israel to adopt both pro-Zionist positions and a positive, if reserved, attitude toward Western culture. As dean of RIETS and honorary chair of RCA's \"halakha\" committee, Soloveitchik shaped Modern Orthodoxy for decades. While ideological differences with the Conservatives were clear, as the RCA stressed the divinely revealed status of the Torah and a strict observance of \"halakha\", sociological boundaries were less so. Many members of the Modern Orthodox public were barely observant, and a considerable number of communities did not install a gender partition in their synagogues \u2013 physically separate seating became the distinguishing mark of Orthodox/Conservative affiliation in the 1950s, and was strongly promulgated by the RCA \u2013 for many years. As late as 1997, seven OU congregations still lacked a partition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Orthodox Judaism may be categorized according to varying criteria. The most recognizable sub-group is the \"Haredim\" (literally, \"trembling\" or \"fervent\"), also known as \"strictly Orthodox\", and the like. They form the most traditional part of the Orthodox spectrum. \"Haredim\" are characterized by a minimal engagement with modern society and culture if not their wholesale rejection, by avowed precedence given to religious values, and by a high degree of rabbinic authority and involvement in daily life. In spite of many differences, \"Haredi\" rabbis and communities generally recognize each other as such, and therefore accord respect and legitimacy between them. They are organized in large political structures, mainly Agudath Israel of America and the Israeli United Torah Judaism party. Other organized groups include the Anti-Zionist Central Rabbinical Congress and the Edah HaChareidis. Some \"Haredim\" also hold a lukewarm or negative assessment of the more modernist Orthodox. They are easily discerned by their mode of dress, often all black for men and very modest, by religious standards, for women (including hair covering, long skirts, etc.)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "Both Haredi Judaism and Modern Orthodox Judaism accept a similar set of rules regarding Jewish status based on classical rabbinic Judaism, including both matrilineal descent and requirements that conversions be performed by Orthodox rabbis and that converts promise to strictly observe elements of traditional Judaism such as Shabbat and Niddah. However, their application of these rules have been different, and the difference has been increasing in recent years. Modern Orthodox authorities have been more inclined to rule in favor of Jewish status and to accept non-Orthodox Jews' word in doubtful cases involving people claiming to be Jews, while Haredi authorities have in recent years tended to presume non-Jewish status and require more stringent rules and standards of evidence in order for Jewish status to be proven, and have tended to distrust the evidence of Jews who are not personally Orthodox. Haredi rabbis have tended to look at a convert's current personal observance and to regard deficiencies or lack of Orthodoxy in current observance as evidence that the convert never intended to validly convert. In addition, the contemporary situation is further complicated by the fact that some Haredi rabbis no longer regard some Modern Orthodox rabbis as reliable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "Reform Judaism (also known as Liberal Judaism or Progressive Judaism) is a major Jewish denomination that emphasizes the evolving nature of the faith, the superiority of its ethical aspects to its ceremonial ones, and belief in a continuous revelation, which is closely intertwined with human reason and not limited to the theophany at Mount Sinai. A liberal strand of Judaism, it is characterized by lessened stress on ritual and personal observance, regarding Jewish law as non-binding and the individual Jew as autonomous, and great openness to external influences and progressive values."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservadox",
        "text": "Until the 1970s, traditional Conservative and liberal Orthodox synagogues had a substantial area of overlap, with many congregations calling themselves either Orthodox or Conservative having a similar combination of a traditional liturgy in a synagogue with mixed gender seating, together with traditional but lenient or lax personal observance among the membership. \"Orthodox\" and \"Conservative\" congregations could be almost identical in liturgy and practices, with a substantial interdenominational blurring. Changes in both the Conservative and Orthodox movements came to distinguish both more clearly, leaving an increasing gap in between."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "Those not born to a Jewish mother may become accepted as Jews by the Orthodox and Conservative communities through a formal process of conversion to Judaism in order to become \"righteous converts\" ('\u2014). In addition, Halakha requires that the new convert commit himself to the observance of its tenets; this is called ' (), \"Acceptance of the Yoke of the Commandments\". \"\" () is used by Reform Judaism in accordance with reform responsa and Halakhah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "The earliest known mention of the term \"Orthodox Jews\" was made in the \"Berlinische Monatsschrift\" in 1795. The word \"Orthodox\" was borrowed from the general German Enlightenment discourse, and used not to denote a specific religious group, but rather those Jews who opposed Enlightenment. During the early and mid-19th century, with the advent of the progressive movements among German Jews, and especially early Reform Judaism, the title \"Orthodox\" became the epithet of the traditionalists who espoused conservative positions on the issues raised by modernization. They themselves often disliked the alien, Christian name, preferring titles like \"Torah-true\" (\"gesetztreu\"), and often declared they used it only for the sake of convenience. The German Orthodox leader Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch referred to \"the conviction commonly designated as Orthodox Judaism\"; in 1882, when Rabbi Azriel Hildesheimer became convinced that the public understood that his philosophy and Liberal Judaism were radically different, he removed the word \"Orthodox\" from the name of his Hildesheimer Rabbinical Seminary. By the 1920s, the term became common and accepted even in Eastern Europe, and remains as such."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism and Mormonism",
        "text": "Orthodox Judaism accepts only male rabbis. Reform Judaism ordained its first female rabbi in 1972, Reconstructionist Judaism in 1974, and Conservative Judaism in 1985. The Reform and Reconstructionist movements also accept openly gay and lesbian rabbis. Karaite Judaism accepts only male \"\u1e25akhamim\", although they serve a different purpose than rabbis do in Rabbinic Judaism. Conservative Judaism (typically a more conservative branch than the Reform or Reconstructionist movements) moved to allow individual congregations to choose whether or not to accept both gay and lesbian rabbis and same-sex commitment ceremonies in December 2006. There are no restrictions in any branch of Judaism with regard to race or descent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Union for Progressive Judaism",
        "text": "The denomination shares the basic tenets of Reform Judaism (alternatively known also as Progressive or Liberal) worldwide: a theistic, personal God; an ongoing revelation, under the influence of which all scripture was written\u00a0\u2013 but not dictated by providence\u00a0\u2013 that enables contemporary Jews to reach new religious insights without necessarily being committed to the conventions of the past; regarding the ethical and moral values of Judaism as its true essence, while ritual and practical observance are means to achieve spiritual elation and not an end to themselves\u00a0\u2013 and therefore, rejecting the binding nature of Jewish law; a belief in the coming of a Messianic era rather than a personal Messiah, and in immortality of the soul only, instead of bodily resurrection. Prayers referring to such concepts were omitted from the liturgy, and traditional practices abolished or altered considerably."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brit shalom (naming ceremony)",
        "text": "Although one does not need to be circumcised to be Jewish, Orthodox Jews consider an intended failure to follow this commandment as bringing forth the penalty of \"kareth\", or being \"cut off\" from the community and from Hashem, as well as being indicative of a conscious decision to cut oneself off from one's people. However, even in the most Orthodox groups, Jewish identity is defined by matrilineal descent; a child born to a Jewish mother is recognized as Jewish, regardless of the status of the genitals. In Progressive Judaism, intact boys are usually accepted for religious training and bar mitzvah if they are sons of a Jewish mother and have been raised with a Jewish identity. Movements that do not see Jewish law as binding, such as Reform Judaism and Humanistic Judaism, may allow this ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative halakha",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism relies on a somewhat different Jewish legal methodology than is typical of Orthodoxy. The prominent Conservative rabbi Mordecai Waxman has written that \"Reform Judaism has asserted the right of interpretation, but it rejected the authority of legal tradition. Orthodoxy has clung fast to the principle of authority but has rejected the right to significant reinterpretations. The Conservative view is that both are necessary for a living Judaism. Accordingly, Conservative Judaism holds itself bound by the Jewish legal tradition, but asserts the right of its rabbinical body, acting as a whole, to reinterpret and to apply Jewish law.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Religious relations in Israel",
        "text": "Tension also exists between the Orthodox establishment and the Conservative and Reform movements. Only Orthodox Judaism is officially recognized in Israel (though conversions conducted by Conservative and Reform clergy outside of Israel may be accepted for the purposes of the Law of Return). As a result, Conservative and Reform synagogues receive minimal government funding and support. In the past, Conservative and Reform rabbis cannot officiate at religious ceremonies, and any marriages, divorces, and conversions they perform are not considered valid. Conservative and Reform Jews have been prohibited from holding services at the Western Wall on the grounds that they violate Orthodox norms regarding participation of women. Tensions surrounding practices at the Kotel have received international attention and have resulted in the formation of a group, Women of the Wall, dedicated to ensuring that Jewish women are allowed to pray at the Kotel in their fashion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Schism",
        "text": "Throughout Jewish history, Judaism survived many schisms, including the emergence of Christianity. Today, major Jewish denominations are Orthodox Judaism and non-Orthodox: Reform, Conservative and Reconstructionist."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Jews",
        "text": "A follow up survey in 2013 showed that 14% of all Jews were actually affiliated with Reform communities, 11% with Conservative, 10% with orthodox communities and 3% with other communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in Israel",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism are represented among Israeli Jews. According to The Israel Democracy Institute, as of 2013, approximately 8 percent of Israel's Jewish population \"identified\" with Reform and Conservative Judaism, a study by Pew Research Center showed 5% did, while a Midgam survey showed that one third \"especially identified with Progressive Judaism\", almost as many as those who especially identify with Orthodox Judaism. The Chief Rabbinate strongly opposes the Reform and Conservative movements, saying they are \"uprooting Judaism\", that they cause assimilation and that they have \u201cno connection\u201d to authentic Judaism. The chief rabbinate's view does not reflect the majority viewpoint of Israeli Jews, however. A survey of Israeli Jews published in May 2016 showed that 72 percent of respondents said they disagreed with the Haredi assertions that Reform Jews are not really Jewish. The survey also showed that a third of Israeli Jews \"identify\" with progressive (Reform or Conservative) Judaism and almost two thirds agree that Reform Judaism should have equal rights in Israel with Orthodox Judaism. The report was organized by the Israel Movement for Reform and Progressive Judaism ahead of its 52nd biennial conference."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "An important ramification of \"Torah min HaShamayim\" in modern times is the reserved, and often totally rejectionist, attitude of Orthodoxy toward the historical-critical method, particularly higher criticism of the Bible. A refusal by rabbis to significantly employ such tools in determining \"halakhic\" decisions, and insistence on traditional methods and the need for consensus and continuity with past authorities, is a demarcation line separating the most liberal-leaning Orthodox rabbinic circles from the most right-wing non-Orthodox ones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish holidays",
        "text": "However, many, if not most, lay members of Conservative congregations in North America do not consider themselves Sabbath-observant, even by Conservative standards. At the same time, adherents of Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism do not accept \"halacha\", and therefore restrictions on \"melacha,\" as binding at all. Jews fitting any of these descriptions refrain from \"melacha\" in practice only as they personally see fit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modern Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "To the ideological right, the line between Haredi and Modern Orthodox has blurred in recent years; some have referred to this trend as \"haredization\". In addition to increasing stringency in adherence to Halakha, many Modern Orthodox Jews express a growing sense of alienation from the larger, secular culture. (\"Western civilisation has moved from what was once called the Judeo-Christian ethic to a consumer-driven, choice-fixated culture... Such a world is not \"chol\", but \"chiloni\", not secular, but secularist. It is impermeable to the values of \"kedushah\".\" ) Here, \"the balance has tipped heavily in favor of Torah over madda (secular studies) ... [and many] have redefined 'madda' as support for making one's livelihood in the secular world, not culturally or intellectually engaging with it.\" Although defining themselves as \"centrist\", institutions here include the Orthodox Union (Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America), the Rabbinical Council of America, and the Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modern Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "A fourth difference suggested, relates to the acceptability of moderation within Jewish law. Both Modern Orthodoxy and Ultra Orthodoxy regard \"Halakha\" as divine in origin, and as such, no position is assumed without justification in the Shulchan Aruch and in the Acharonim. The movements differ, however, in their approach to strictures (\"chumras\") and leniencies (\"kulas\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "\"New Reform\", both in the United States and in Britain and the rest of the world, is characterized by larger affinity to traditional forms and diminished emphasis on harmonizing them with prevalent beliefs. Concurrently, it is also more inclusive and accommodating, even towards beliefs that are officially rejected by Reform theologians, sometimes allowing alternative differing rites for each congregation to choose from. Thus, prayerbooks from the mid\u201320th century onwards incorporated more Hebrew, and restored such elements as blessing on phylacteries. More profound changes included restoration of the \"Gevorot\" benediction in the 2007 \"Mishkan T'filah\", with the optional \"give life to all/revive the dead\" formula. The CCAR stated this passage did not reflect a belief in Resurrection, but Jewish heritage. On the other extreme, the 1975 \"Gates of Prayer\" substituted \"the Eternal One\" for \"God\" in the English translation (though not in the original), a measure that was condemned by several Reform rabbis as a step toward religious humanism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reuven Rivlin",
        "text": "Although not Orthodox himself, Rivlin has been critical of non-Orthodox movements in Judaism. In 1989, Rivlin referred to Reform Jews as \"idol worshippers\", and refused to call Reform Jewish rabbis by their title. Prior to becoming President, he opposed granting equal status to Reform or Conservative Judaism. In 2014, Rivlin said that if non-Orthodox conversion standards were adopted, Jewish status would be based on \"a civic definition rather than a religious definition\", echoing a Knesset speech he gave in 2006 when he declared: \"I have no doubt, and my positions are known, that the status of Judaism according to halachah (Jewish law) is what has kept us going for 3,800 years.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Asher Lopatin",
        "text": "\"I am a pluralist: We need to learn from all Jews, and connect and relate to all Jews \u2013 Reform, Conservative, Renewal ; I believe it is critical for Judaism that we engage with the greater society as well... While there is a lot to critique in the Orthodox world \u2013 Modern, Centrist and Chareidi \u2013 all of us sometimes take a strident attitude that may not exhibit sufficient respect and love for our fellow Jews and their motivations. All of us can make an effort to try to make our first response be one of embracing all of Orthodoxy \u2013 all Jews of course, and all human beings \u2013 and being open to learning \u2013 sometimes with a critical, but respectful ear \u2013 from our fellow Orthodox Jews.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish principles of faith",
        "text": "Orthodox Jews view the Written and Oral Torah as the same as Moses taught, for all practical purposes. Conservative Jews tend to believe that much of the Oral law is divinely inspired, while Reform and Reconstructionist Jews tend to view all of the Oral law as an entirely human creation. Traditionally, the Reform movement held that Jews were obliged to obey the ethical but not the ritual commandments of Scripture, although today many Reform Jews have adopted many traditional ritual practices. Karaite Jews traditionally consider the Written Torah to be authoritative, viewing the Oral Law as only one possible interpretation of the Written Torah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haggadah",
        "text": "During the era of the Enlightenment the European Jewish community developed into groups that reacted in different ways to modifications of the Haggadah.\n* Orthodox Judaism accepted certain fixed texts as authoritative and normative, and prohibited any changes to the text.\n* Modern Orthodox Judaism and Conservative Judaism allowed for minor additions and deletions to the text, in accord with the same historical-legal parameters as occurred in previous generations. Rabbis within the Conservative Judaism, studying the liturgical history of the Haggadah and Siddur, conclude that there is a traditional dynamic of innovation, within a framework conserving the tradition. While innovations became less common in the last few centuries due to the introduction of the printing press and various social factors, Conservative Jews take pride in their community's resumption of the traditional of liturgical creativity within a halakhic framework.\n* Reform Judaism holds that there are no normative texts, and allowed individuals to create their own haggadahs. Reform Jews take pride in their community's resumption of liturgical creativity outside a halakhic framework; although the significant differences they introduced make their texts incompatible with Jews who wish to follow a seder according to Jewish tradition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modern Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "See also \"Mizrachi\"; \"Bnei Akiva\"; \"National Religious Party\"; \"Hesder\"; \"Mechina\"; \"Gush Emunim\"; \"Torat Eretz Yisrael\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "According to Rabbinic Judaism, a Jew is anyone who was either born of a Jewish mother or who converted to Judaism in accordance with \"halakha\". Reconstructionist Judaism and the larger denominations of worldwide Progressive Judaism (also known as Liberal or Reform Judaism) accept the child as Jewish if one of the parents is Jewish, if the parents raise the child with a Jewish identity, but not the smaller regional branches. All mainstream forms of Judaism today are open to sincere converts, although conversion has traditionally been discouraged since the time of the Talmud. The conversion process is evaluated by an authority, and the convert is examined on his or her sincerity and knowledge. Converts are called \"ben Abraham\" or \"bat Abraham\", (son or daughter of Abraham). Conversions have on occasion been overturned. In 2008, Israel's highest religious court invalidated the conversion of 40,000 Jews, mostly from Russian immigrant families, even though they had been approved by an Orthodox rabbi."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Jews",
        "text": "The survey found that of the 4.3 million strongly connected Jews, 46% belong to a synagogue. Among those households who belong to a synagogue, 38% are members of Reform synagogues, 33% Conservative, 22% Orthodox, 2% Reconstructionist, and 5% other types. Traditionally, Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews do not have different branches (Orthodox, Conservative, Reform, etc.) but usually remain observant and religious. The survey discovered that Jews in the Northeast and Midwest are generally more observant than Jews in the South or West. Reflecting a trend also observed among other religious groups, Jews in the Northwestern United States are typically the least observant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hashkafa",
        "text": "Although Orthodox communities prefer clinging to the \"mesorah\" (or Jewish tradition) more so than other Jewish denominations, they acknowledge that society has changed since the revelation at Mount Sinai. Therefore, \"hashkafa\" is necessary to contextualize religious observance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dana Evan Kaplan",
        "text": "Kaplan acknowledges that there is an inherent difficulty reconciling theory with practice in a liberal religious framework. The book was influenced by a number of sociological studies which suggested that Reform Jews were expressing a greater openness to tradition while at the same time insisting on complete individual religious autonomy. In addition, these same studies indicated that the boundaries of Jewish identity were becoming much more permeable, in large part due to the massive increase in interfaith marriages. At the time, there had been a number of efforts to not only analyze how Reform synagogues function but to develop strategies for transforming how congregational life manifested itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movement for Reform Judaism",
        "text": "Recognition of Jews by patrilineal descent was affirmed in 2015. Reform Judaism currently ordains female and LGBT clergy, conducts LGBT marriages and has egalitarian services, counting women for \"minyan\" and allowing them full participation. Girls have their bat mitzvah at 13, the same age as boys have their bar mitzvah. Reform Judaism is welcoming to non-Jewish spouses; while the Assembly maintains \"clear opposition\" to involvement in interfaith unions, since 2012 it allows rabbis to conduct celebratory events as long as the ceremony does not involve clergy or motifs from other religions, or conversely those of a Jewish wedding, like a ritual canopy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gordon Tucker",
        "text": "An important difference between Conservative and Orthodox Judaism is that Conservative Judaism empowers modern rabbis to issue takkanot (decrees) modifying Biblical prohibitions, when perceived to be necessary. However, such decrees must be rooted in halakhic process and precedent. Conservative Judaism has adopted takkanot only for a few exceptional matters, such as the abolition of the biblical category of mamzer (a child whose mother is married to a someone other than the biological father or is the product of an incestuous relationship). Orthodox Judaism takes a more limited view as to how law can be changed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modern Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Additionally, whereas the Modern Orthodox position is (generally) presented as \"unquestioned allegiance to the primacy of Torah, and that the apprehension of all other intellectual disciplines must be rooted and viewed through the prism of Torah\", \"Haredi\" groups have sometimes compared Modern Orthodoxy with early Reform Judaism in Germany: Modern Orthodox rabbis have been criticised for attempting to modify Jewish law, in adapting Judaism to the needs of the modern world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "While slow, change was by no means absent. In the 1860s and 1870s, anticipating a communal disintegration like the one in the west, moderate \"maskilic\" rabbis like Yitzchak Yaacov Reines and Yechiel Michel Pines called for inclusion of secular studies in the \"heder\"s and \"yeshiva\"s, a careful modernization, and an ecumenical attempt to form a consensus on necessary adaptation of \"halakha\" to novel times. Their initiative was thwarted by a combination of strong anti-traditional invective on behalf of the radical, secularist \"maskilim\" and conservative intransigence from the leading rabbis, especially during the bitter polemic which erupted after Moshe Leib Lilienblum's 1868 call for a reconsideration of Talmudic strictures. Reines, Pines and their associates would gradually form the nucleus of Religious Zionism, while their conservative opponents would eventually adopt the epithet \"Haredim\" (then, and also much later, still a generic term for the observant and the pious)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "The term \"traditional\" (\"masorti\") is most common as a self-description among Israeli families of \"eastern\" origin (i.e., the Middle East, Central Asia, and North Africa). This term, as commonly used, has nothing to do with the Conservative Judaism, which also names itself \"Masorti\" outside North America. There is a great deal of ambiguity in the ways \"secular\" and \"traditional\" are used in Israel: they often overlap, and they cover an extremely wide range in terms of worldview and practical religious observance. The term \"Orthodox\" is not popular in Israeli discourse, although the percentage of Jews who come under that category is far greater than in the Jewish diaspora. What would be called \"Orthodox\" in the diaspora includes what is commonly called \"dati\" (religious) or \"haredi\" (ultra-Orthodox) in Israel. The former term includes what is called \"Religious Zionism\" or the \"National Religious\" community, as well as what has become known over the past decade or so as \"haredi-leumi\" (nationalist \"haredi\"), or \"Hardal\", which combines a largely \"haredi\" lifestyle with nationalist ideology. (Some people, in Yiddish, also refer to observant Orthodox Jews as \"frum\", as opposed to \"frei\" (more liberal Jews))."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodoxy",
        "text": "In some English-speaking countries, Jews who adhere to all the traditions and commandments as legislated in the Talmud are often called Orthodox Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish eschatology",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism varies in its teachings. While it retains traditional references to a personal redeemer and prayers for the restoration of the Davidic line in the liturgy, Conservative Jews are more inclined to accept the idea of a Messianic Era:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Missionary",
        "text": "Members of Reform Judaism began a program to convert to their brand of Judaism the non-Jewish spouses of its intermarried members and non-Jews who have an interest in Reform Judaism. Their rationale is that so many Jews were lost during the Holocaust that newcomers must be sought out and welcomed. This approach has been repudiated by Orthodox and Conservative Judaism as unrealistic and posing a danger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "Within Judaism, there are a variety of religious movements, most of which emerged from Rabbinic Judaism, which holds that God revealed his laws and commandments to Moses on Mount Sinai in the form of both the Written and Oral Torah. Historically, all or part of this assertion was challenged by various groups such as the Sadducees and Hellenistic Judaism during the Second Temple period; the Karaites during the early and later medieval period; and among segments of the modern non-Orthodox denominations. Some modern branches of Judaism such as Humanistic Judaism may be considered secular or nontheistic. Today, the largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism (Haredi Judaism and Modern Orthodox Judaism), Conservative Judaism, and Reform Judaism. Major sources of difference between these groups are their approaches to \"halakha\" (Jewish law), the authority of the rabbinic tradition, and the significance of the State of Israel. Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Torah and \"halakha\" are divine in origin, eternal and unalterable, and that they should be strictly followed. Conservative and Reform Judaism are more liberal, with Conservative Judaism generally promoting a more traditionalist interpretation of Judaism's requirements than Reform Judaism. A typical Reform position is that \"halakha\" should be viewed as a set of general guidelines rather than as a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is required of all Jews. Historically, special courts enforced \"halakha\"; today, these courts still exist but the practice of Judaism is mostly voluntary. Authority on theological and legal matters is not vested in any one person or organization, but in the sacred texts and the rabbis and scholars who interpret them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amidah",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism is divided on the role of the \"Mussaf Amidah\". More traditional Conservative congregations recite a prayer similar to the Mussaf prayer in Orthodox services, except they refer to Temple sacrifices only in the past tense and do not include a prayer for the restoration of the sacrifices. More liberal Conservative congregations omit references to the Temple sacrifices entirely. Reconstructionist and Reform congregations generally do not do the \"Mussaf Amidah\" at all, but if they do, they omit all references to Temple worship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish schisms",
        "text": "Thus a cultural schism was also created between the more Western English- and French-speaking Western European Jews and their more religiously observant Yiddish speaking Eastern European brethren whom they denigratingly labeled \"Ost Yidden\" (\"Eastern Jews\"). These schisms and the debates surrounding them, continue with much ferocity in all Jewish communities today as the Reform and Orthodox movements continue to confront each other over a wide range of religious, social, political and ethnic issues. (Today, the largest Jewish communities are in Israel and in the United States, and the geographical separation has resulted in cultural differences, such as a tendency to identify as hiloni and haredi in Israel, as opposed to, say, Reform and Orthodox in the United States.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish prayer",
        "text": "Despite this, the tradition of most Ashkenazi Orthodox synagogues is to use Hebrew for all except a small number of prayers, including Kaddish and Yekum Purkan in Aramaic, and Gott Fun Avraham, which was written in Yiddish. In other streams of Judaism there is considerable variability: Sephardic communities may use Ladino or Portuguese for many prayers; Conservative synagogues tend to use the local language to a varying degree; and at some Reform synagogues almost the whole service may be in the local language."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish prayer",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism regards the \"halakhic\" system of multiple daily services as mandatory. Since 2002, Jewish women from Conservative congregations have been regarded as having undertaken a communal obligation to pray the same prayers at the same times as men, with traditional communities and individual women permitted to opt out. Reform and Reconstructionist congregations do not regard \"halakha\" as binding and hence regard appropriate prayer times as matters of personal spiritual decision rather than a matter of religious requirement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Torah reading",
        "text": "According to Orthodox Judaism, the first \"oleh\" (person called to read) is a \"kohen \" and the second a \"levi\"; the remaining \"olim\" are \"yisr'elim\" \u2014 Jews who are neither \"kohen \" nor \"levi\". (This assumes that such people are available; there are rules in place for what is done if they are not.) The first two \"aliyot\" are referred to as \"\"Kohen \" and \"Levi\",\" while the rest are known by their number (in Hebrew). This practice is also followed in some but not all Conservative synagogues. Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism have abolished special ritual roles for the descendants of the Biblical priestly and levitical castes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conversion to Judaism",
        "text": "The requirements of Reform Judaism for conversions are different. The denomination states that \"people considering conversion are expected to study Jewish theology, rituals, history, culture and customs, and to begin incorporating Jewish practices into their lives. The length and format of the course of study will vary from rabbi to rabbi and community to community, though most now require a course in basic Judaism and individual study with a rabbi, as well as attendance at services and participation in home practice and synagogue life.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish religious movements",
        "text": "The particular forms which the denominations have taken on have been shaped by immigration of the Ashkenazi Jewish communities, once concentrated in eastern and central Europe, to western and mostly Anglophone countries (in particular, in North America). In the middle of the 20th century, the institutional division of North American Jewry between Reform, Conservative, and Orthodox movements still reflected immigrant origins. Reform Jews at that time were predominantly of German or western European origin, while both Conservative and Orthodox Judaism came primarily from eastern European countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modern Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "As above, Modern Orthodoxy comprises various approaches, ranging from traditionalist to revisionist, and the movement apparently overlaps with Conservative Judaism and with Haredi Judaism at its respective boundaries. At its centre too, the movement appears to share practices and values with Neo Orthodoxy and with Religious Zionism. Therefore, in clarifying what Modern Orthodoxy in fact entails, its positioning must be discussed with reference to these movements.\n:\"See also under Centrist Orthodoxy and Divine Providence for further elaboration of the differences discussed here.\""
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some traditions of the Jewish people?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Which Jewish denominations' traditions are you interested in learning about? Outside of Israel (where the situation is rather different) the main denominations are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about the traditions of Orthodox Jews."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Orthodox Judaism emphasizes practicing rules of kashrut, Shabbat, family purity, and tefilah (daily prayer). Orthodox men and women dress modestly, Orthodox men and women do not engage in physical contact with those of the opposite sex outside of their spouse, or immediate family members, doorposts have a mezuzah and separate sinks for meat and dairy have become increasingly common."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some ways Reform denominations are different than Orthodox, in that case?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In Orthodox Judaism, girls receive bat mitzvahs at age 12, while it is 13 for those who practice Reform Judaism, and they also do not accept religious pluralism, which Reform Judaism does. Reform Judaism also holds the view that rabbinic Jewish law is no longer the standard for modern Jews, and most religious rituals are no longer necessary, which is considered heretical by the Orthodox, who consider religious laws to be binding. Would you like to learn more about Reform or Orthodox Judaism, or their religious laws, known as Halakha?",
      "Its inherent pluralism and great importance placed on individual autonomy impede any simplistic definition of Reform Judaism; its various strands regard Judaism throughout the ages as derived from a process of constant evolution. They warrant and obligate further modification and reject any fixed, permanent set of beliefs, laws or practices."
    ],
    "topic": "Jewish name",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Bar and bat mitzvah:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Bar and bat mitzvah"
        ],
        "ctx": "Jewish boys and Reform Jewish and Conservative girls become bar or bat mitzvahs at age 13, whereas Orthodox girls become bat mitzvahs at age 12. After this point, children are also held responsible for knowing Jewish ritual law, tradition, and ethics, and are able to participate in all areas of Jewish community life to the same extent as adults. In some Jewish communities, men's and women's roles differ in certain respects. For example, in Orthodox Judaism, once a boy turns 13, it is permitted to count him for the purpose of determining whether there is a prayer quorum, and he may lead prayer and other religious services in the family and the community."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Halakha:32",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Halakha",
          "Views today"
        ],
        "ctx": "Reform Judaism holds that modern views of how the Torah and rabbinic law developed imply that the body of rabbinic Jewish law is no longer normative (seen as binding) on Jews today. Those in the \"traditionalist\" wing believe that the \"halakha\" represents a personal starting-point, holding that each Jew is obligated to interpret the Torah, Talmud and other Jewish works for themselves, and this interpretation will create separate commandments for each person. Those in the liberal and classical wings of Reform believe that in this day and era, most Jewish religious rituals are no longer necessary, and many hold that following most Jewish laws is actually counter-productive. They propose that Judaism has entered a phase of ethical monotheism, and that the laws of Judaism are only remnants of an earlier stage of religious evolution, and need not be followed. This is considered wrong, and even heretical, by Orthodox and Conservative Judaism."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Relationships between Jewish religious movements:15",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Relationships between Jewish religious movements",
          "Reform views"
        ],
        "ctx": "Reform Judaism espouses the notion of religious pluralism; it believes that most Jewish denominations (including Orthodoxy and the Conservative movement) are valid expressions of Judaism. Historically, however, the Reform view of Orthodox Judaism had been negative. Early battles between Reform and Orthodox groups in Germany for control of communal leadership were fierce. Reform viewed Orthodoxy as overly focused on tradition and a literal interpretation of scripture that conflicted with modern science. Relations with the Conservative movement are much more cordial (although the two split due to such affairs as the Trefa Banquet), and Conservative and Reform leaders cooperate on many areas of mutual concern."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Relationships between Jewish religious movements:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Relationships between Jewish religious movements",
          "Orthodox Judaism"
        ],
        "ctx": "Orthodox Judaism holds that both Conservative and Reform Judaism have made major and unjustifiable breaks with historic Judaism - both by their skepticism of the verbal revelation of the Written and the Oral Torah, and by their rejection of \"halakha\" (Jewish law) as binding (although to varying degrees). It views religious pluralism as a construct of the liberal movements, and does not see their ideology as rooted in historic Jewish norms. While not recognizing Reform and Conservative as valid expressions of Judaism, it recognizes most who are affiliated with these movements as full-fledged Jews, aside from those whose Judaism is of patrilineal descent or who were converted under Conservative or Reform auspices."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Reform Judaism:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Reform Judaism",
          "Definitions"
        ],
        "ctx": "Its inherent pluralism and great importance placed on individual autonomy impede any simplistic definition of Reform Judaism; its various strands regard Judaism throughout the ages as derived from a process of constant evolution. They warrant and obligate further modification and reject any fixed, permanent set of beliefs, laws or practices. A clear description became particularly challenging since the turn toward a policy favouring inclusiveness (\"Big Tent\" in the United States) over a coherent theology in the 1970s. This largely overlapped with what researchers termed as the transition from \"Classical\" to \"New\" Reform in America, paralleled in the other, smaller branches across the world. The movement ceased stressing principles and core beliefs, focusing more on the personal spiritual experience and communal participation. This shift was not accompanied by a distinct new doctrine or by the abandonment of the former, but rather with ambiguity. The leadership allowed and encouraged a wide variety of positions, from selective adoption of \"halakhic\" observance to elements approaching religious humanism."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Jewish schisms",
        "text": "Some Jews in Western Europe, and many Jews in America, joined the religiously liberal new Reform Judaism movement, which drew inspiration from the writings of modernist thinkers like Moses Mendelson. They coined the name \"Orthodox\" to describe those who opposed the \"Reform\". They were criticized by the Orthodox Judaism rabbis, such as Samson Raphael Hirsch in Germany, and condemned, particularly by those known today as followers of Haredi Judaism, based mainly in Eastern Europe. (Later on, in 1880s America, Conservative Judaism split from the Reform movement.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish religious movements",
        "text": "Reform Judaism, also known as Liberal or Progressive Judaism, originally began in Germany, the Netherlands and the United States circa 1820 as a reaction to modernity, stresses assimilation and integration with society and a personal interpretation of the Torah. The German rabbi and scholar Abraham Geiger with principles of Judaism as religion and not ethnicity, progressive revelation, historical-critical approach, the centrality of the Prophetic books, and superiority of ethical aspects to the ceremonial ones has become the main ideologist of the \"Classical\" Reform."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "In 1840, several British Jews formed the West London Synagogue of British Jews, headed by Reverend David Woolf Marks. While the title \"Reform\" was occasionally applied to them, their approach was described as \"neo-Karaite\", and was utterly opposite to continental developments. Only a century later did they and other synagogues embrace mainland ideas and established the British Movement for Reform Judaism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Menachem Mendel Schneerson",
        "text": "He corresponded with David Ben-Gurion on the issue of Judaism in the State of Israel, asking the Prime Minister to ensure that Israel \"remains Jewish\". He lobbied Israeli politicians to pass legislation in accordance with Jewish law on the question \"Who is a Jew?\" and asked that they add the words \"according to Halakha\" to the declaration so that it state that \"only one who is born of a Jewish mother or converted according to Halakha is Jewish\". This caused a furor in the United States. Some American Jewish philanthropies stopped financially supporting Chabad-Lubavitch since most of their members were connected to Reform and Conservative Judaism."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Woolf Marks",
        "text": "Petuchowski stressed that, while the title \"Reform\" was sometimes conferred on the \"British Jews\" and some contacts between West London and the continental movement in the Hamburg Temple are attested to, they pursued a course which was its polar opposite. The German founding fathers of Reform Judaism regarded the Beatified Sages as innovative progressives who introduced the vernacular Aramaic into prayer, creating a precedent for German, and flexibly adjusted religious law, developing it further. Marks granted the Written Torah alone divine status, and refused to call himself rabbi but insisted on \"reverend\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Markus Nissa Weiss",
        "text": "Markus Nissa Weiss was a Hungarian advocate and author of the Reform Judaism movement that started in the late 18th century, with the advent of Jewish emancipation and acculturation in Central Europe. The easing of traditional patterns and norms from the population around them, led to debates in the European Jewish community regarding how the community itself might embrace the possibilities for change under these new circumstances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism, as movements which reject the concept of \"halakha\", often accept a child as Jewish when only the father is Jewish, provided that the child chooses to identify as Jewish. As conversion processes differ, those performed by more liberal denominations are not accepted by more orthodox denominations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebraization of surnames",
        "text": "This process started with individuals like Eliezer Ben-Yehuda (Perelman) and was adopted by the New Yishuv. Before the founding of the State of Israel, in 1944, the Zionist leadership and the Jewish National Council proclaimed it the \"Year of naturalization and the Hebrew name\". A special committee under the chairmanship of Mordechai Nemzabi, the Jewish Agency advisor on matters of civilian defense, published a booklet which contained guidelines on the creation on new Hebrew surnames.\n;Changing a foreign surname to Hebrew:\n#Change of vocalization: \"Leib\" becomes \"Lev\"\n#Change of consonants: \"Borg\" or \"Brog\" becomes \"Barak\"\n#Shortening by omitting the ending: \"Rosenberg\" becomes \"Rosen\"\n#Shortening a name with a Hebrew meaning, by omitting the foreign suffix: \"Yakobovitch\" (\"Jacobowitz\", \"Jacobowicz\") becomes \"Ya'akovi\"\n#Translating the foreign name into Hebrew according to the meaning: \"Abramovich\" (\"Abramowicz\", \"Abramowitz\") becomes \"Ben Avraham\"\n;First names as surnames:\n#Name of a father or mother who were murdered during the Shoah, thus: \"Bat Miriam\", \"Ben Moshe\", \"Devorin\"\n#Son or daughter who fell in battle: \"Avinoam\"\n#Brother or sister who were killed or fell: \"Achimeir\"\n#Beloved or admired biblical figure: \"Shaul\", \"Davidi\"\n;Change of names by names of places, plants or sites in Eretz Yisrael:\n#Places or sites: \"Hermoni\", \"Eilat\", \"Gilad\"\n#Plants, especially plants of the Land of Israel: \"Eshel\" (\"orchard\", \"garden\"), \"Rotem\" (\"retama\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel Movement for Reform and Progressive Judaism",
        "text": "Some of the earliest Reform rabbis to settle in what would become Israel included Rabbi Judah Leon Magnes, who was the first Chancellor of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and in 1938, became its President. Rabbi Meir Elk, who graduated from the liberal Breslau Rabbinical Seminary in Germany (now in Wroclaw, Poland), founded the Leo Baeck School in Haifa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conversion to Judaism",
        "text": "In the 1980s Modern Orthodox Rabbi Norman Lamm, Rosh Yeshiva of Yeshiva University, along with other American and Israeli Orthodox rabbis, worked with Conservative and Reform rabbis to come up with solution to the \"Who is a Jew?\" issue. In 1989 and 1990 Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir spearheaded an effort to find a way to resolve the impasse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "However, change loomed on the horizon. From 1881 to 1924, over 2,400,000 immigrants from Eastern Europe drastically altered American Jewry, increasing it tenfold. The 40,000 members of Reform congregations became a small minority overnight. The newcomers arrived from backward regions, where modern education was scarce and civil equality nonexistent, retaining a strong sense of Jewish ethnicity. Even the ideological secularists among them, all the more so the common masses which merely turned lax or nonobservant, had a very traditional understanding of worship and religious conduct. The leading intellectuals of Eastern European Jewish nationalism castigated western Jews in general, and Reform Judaism in particular, not on theological grounds which they as laicists wholly rejected, but for what they claimed to be assimilationist tendencies and the undermining of peoplehood. This sentiment also fueled the often cool manner in which the denomination is perceived in Israeli society, originally established on the basis of these ideologies."
      },
      {
        "title": "World Union for Progressive Judaism",
        "text": "Reform Judaism began in Germany, led by Rabbi Abraham Geiger. It stagnated considerably after the 1840s. In 1898, German Liberal rabbis organized the \"Union of Liberal Rabbis in Germany\" under Heinemann Vogelstein. In 1908 the laity formed the \"Union for Liberal Judaism in Germany\". At its height, it had some 10,000 members and half the rabbis in the country. The ULJ was a founding member of the World Union in 1926. After the destruction of the Holocaust, Germany's Jews, mostly refugees of foreign descent, largely favoured Orthodoxy. Liberal Judaism managed to gain inroads slowly, and first prayer groups appeared in 1995. The Union of Progressive Jews was founded in 1997."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "The term \"Reform\" was first applied institutionally \u2013 not generically, as in \"for reform\" \u2013 to the Berlin Reformgemeinde (Reform Congregation), established in 1845. Apart from it, most German communities that were oriented in that direction preferred the more ambiguous \"Liberal\", which was not exclusively associated with Reform Judaism. It was more prevalent as an appellation for the religiously apathetic majority among German Jews, and also to all rabbis who were not clearly Orthodox (including the rival Positive-Historical School). The title \"Reform\" became much more common in the United States, where an independent denomination under this name was fully identified with the religious tendency. However, Isaac Meyer Wise suggested in 1871 that \"Progressive Judaism\" was a better epithet. When the movement was institutionalized in Germany between in 1898 and 1908, its leaders chose \"Liberal\" as self-designation, founding the Vereinigung f\u00fcr das Liberale Judentum. In 1902, Claude Montefiore termed the doctrine espoused by his new Jewish Religious Union as \"Liberal Judaism\", too, though it belonged to the more radical part of the spectrum in relation to the German one."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "Those not born to a Jewish mother may become accepted as Jews by the Orthodox and Conservative communities through a formal process of conversion to Judaism in order to become \"righteous converts\" ('\u2014). In addition, Halakha requires that the new convert commit himself to the observance of its tenets; this is called ' (), \"Acceptance of the Yoke of the Commandments\". \"\" () is used by Reform Judaism in accordance with reform responsa and Halakhah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haredi Judaism",
        "text": "In Germany, the opponents of Reform rallied to Samson Raphael Hirsch, who led a secession from German Jewish communal organizations to form a strictly Orthodox movement, with its own network of synagogues and religious schools. His approach was to accept the tools of modern scholarship and apply them in defence of Orthodox Judaism. In the Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth (including areas traditionally considered Lithuanian), Jews true to traditional values gathered under the banner of \"Agudas Shlumei Emunei Yisroel\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zalman Bernstein",
        "text": "In the 1980s, he became an Orthodox Jew and dropped his English name, Sanford, for his Hebrew one, Zalman. He attended Lincoln Square Synagogue and became an intimate of its rabbi, Shlomo Riskin. In 1989, he made aliyah and moved to Israel. He also founded the Jewish organizations Avi Chai Foundation and Tikvah Fund, and he donated to the Shalem Center."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samson Raphael Hirsch",
        "text": "As for the \"Letters\", its historical background is the enlightenment, and particularly the beginnings of Reform Judaism, and it thus constituted an attempt \"to lead the young generation of Jewry back to the Divine law.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Union of Orthodox Rabbis",
        "text": "In 1945, at Hotel McAlpin in New York City, the Agudath Harabonim \"formally assembled to excommunicate from Judaism what it deemed to be the community's most heretical voice: Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan, the man who eventually would become the founder of Reconstructionist Judaism. Kaplan, a critic of both Orthodox and Reform Judaism, believed that Jewish practice should be reconciled with modern thought, a philosophy reflected in his Sabbath Prayer Book.\". The prayer book was allegedly burned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wolf Gold",
        "text": "He was a pioneer in establishing Orthodox Judaism in the United States. He founded the Williamsburg Talmud Torah, and in 1917 founded Yeshiva Torah Vodaas. He started the Beth Moshe hospital (at 404 Hart Street in Bushwick, Brooklyn in 1920. In 1947 Beth Moses merged with Israel Zion Hospital to become Maimonides Hospital) and an orphanage in Brooklyn and also founded a Hebrew teachers training college in San Francisco."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Jews in Germany",
        "text": "The beginning of the Reform Movement in Judaism was emphasized by David Philipson, who was the rabbi at the largest Reform congregation. The increasing political centralization of the late 18th and early 19th centuries undermined the societal structure that perpetuated traditional Jewish life. Enlightenment ideas began to influence many intellectuals, and the resulting political, economic, and social changes were overpowering. Many Jews felt a tension between Jewish tradition and the way they were now leading their lives-religiously- resulting in less tradition. As the insular religious society that reinforced such observance disintegrated, falling away from vigilant observance without deliberately breaking with Judaism was easy. Some tried to reconcile their religious heritage with their new social surroundings; they reformed traditional Judaism to meet their new needs and to express their spiritual desires. A movement was formed with a set of religious beliefs, and practices that were considered expected and tradition. Reform Judaism was the first modern response to the Jew's emancipation, though reform Judaism differing in all countries caused stresses of autonomy on both the congregation and individual. Some of the reforms were in the practices: circumcisions were abandoned, rabbis wore vests after Protestant ministers, and instrumental accompaniment was used: pipe organs. In addition, the traditional Hebrew prayer book was replaced by German text, and reform synagogues began being called temples which were previously considered the Temple of Jerusalem. Reform communities composed of similar beliefs and Judaism changed at the same pace as the rest of society had. The Jewish people have adapted to religious beliefs and practices to the meet the needs of the Jewish people throughout the generation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abraham Geiger",
        "text": "Reform historian Michael A. Meyer has stated that, if any one person can be called the founder of Reform Judaism, it must be Geiger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reuven Rivlin",
        "text": "Although not Orthodox himself, Rivlin has been critical of non-Orthodox movements in Judaism. In 1989, Rivlin referred to Reform Jews as \"idol worshippers\", and refused to call Reform Jewish rabbis by their title. Prior to becoming President, he opposed granting equal status to Reform or Conservative Judaism. In 2014, Rivlin said that if non-Orthodox conversion standards were adopted, Jewish status would be based on \"a civic definition rather than a religious definition\", echoing a Knesset speech he gave in 2006 when he declared: \"I have no doubt, and my positions are known, that the status of Judaism according to halachah (Jewish law) is what has kept us going for 3,800 years.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel Movement for Reform and Progressive Judaism",
        "text": "An Israeli court ruling in 2016 prohibited discrimination against Reform Jews in using publicly funded mikvehs. The Reform Movement\u2019s Israel Religious Action Center sued the state on behalf of the Reform and Conservative/Masorti movements to allow members to use publicly funded mikvehs. The case, which took ten years to resolve, resulted in the Israeli Supreme Court ruling that public ritual baths must accept all prospective converts to Judaism, including converts to Reform as well as Conservative Judaism. In his 2016 ruling, Supreme Court Justice Elyakim Rubinstein said barring certain converts amounts to discrimination. Until this ruling Orthodox officials barred non-Orthodox converts from using any mikveh, claiming their traditions do not conform to Jewish law and the people they convert are therefore not Jews. Rubinstein noted: \"Once it established public mikvahs and put them at the service of the public \u2014 including for the process of conversion \u2014 the State cannot but be evenhanded in allowing their use,\" Rubinstein said. \"The State of Israel is free to supervise the use of its mikvahs, so long as it does so in an egalitarian manner.\"\n* Kehillat Yozma, a Reform synagogue in Modi'in, is the first non-Orthodox congregation in Israel to receive state funding for its synagogue building.\n* Kinneret Shiryon, a Reform rabbi, is the first female rabbi in Israel.\n* Alona Lisitsa, a Reform rabbi, is the first female rabbi in Israel to join a religious council, joining Mevaseret Zion\u2019s in 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jacob Hoffman (rabbi)",
        "text": "When, some 50\u201360 years earlier, Rabbi Hirsch began rejuvenating Orthodoxy in Germany, he believed that success would only come by starting anew. That meant seceding from the larger Jewish community\u2014which included Reform Jews\u2014and creating a totally independent community. This independent community, Rabbi Hirsch insisted, should represent pure and authentic Orthodoxy and be recognized by the government for doing so. To Rabbi Hirsch, any Orthodox community that belonged to an umbrella organization with heterodox groups had no right to represent authentic Torah Judaism. This caused a rift within German Orthodoxy, for while many within the Orthodox community aligned themselves with Rabbi Hirsch's philosophy, many others did not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of Jewish history\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Reform Judaism\u00a0\u00b7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "While Reform rabbis in 19th-century Germany had to accommodate conservative elements in their communities, at the height of \"Classical Reform\" in the United States, \"halakhic\" considerations could be virtually ignored and Holdheim's approach embraced. In the 1930s and onwards, Rabbi Solomon Freehof and his supporters reintroduced such elements, but they too regarded Jewish Law as too rigid a system. Instead, they recommended that selected features will be readopted and new observances established in a piecemeal fashion, as spontaneous \"minhag\" (custom) emerging by trial and error and becoming widespread if it appealed to the masses. The advocates of this approach also stress that their responsa are of non-binding nature, and their recipients may adapt them as they see fit. Freehof's successors, such as Rabbis Walter Jacob and Moshe Zemer, further elaborated the notion of \"Progressive \"Halakha\"\" along the same lines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel Movement for Reform and Progressive Judaism",
        "text": "Today, there are 40 communities and congregations affiliated with Reform Judaism in Israel. The IMPJ runs about 40 kindergartens, school-run educational programming; \"Noar Telem\", the Reform Movement youth organization, a part of Netzer Olami; and the Youth Adult and Students Forum for 20- to 30-year-olds, as well as four Batei Midrash, Jewish study centers. The first Reform kibbutz, Yahel, was founded in 1976 in Arava, and Lotan was founded in 1983. Har Halutz was established in Galilee in 1985."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "While slow, change was by no means absent. In the 1860s and 1870s, anticipating a communal disintegration like the one in the west, moderate \"maskilic\" rabbis like Yitzchak Yaacov Reines and Yechiel Michel Pines called for inclusion of secular studies in the \"heder\"s and \"yeshiva\"s, a careful modernization, and an ecumenical attempt to form a consensus on necessary adaptation of \"halakha\" to novel times. Their initiative was thwarted by a combination of strong anti-traditional invective on behalf of the radical, secularist \"maskilim\" and conservative intransigence from the leading rabbis, especially during the bitter polemic which erupted after Moshe Leib Lilienblum's 1868 call for a reconsideration of Talmudic strictures. Reines, Pines and their associates would gradually form the nucleus of Religious Zionism, while their conservative opponents would eventually adopt the epithet \"Haredim\" (then, and also much later, still a generic term for the observant and the pious)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "In 1983, the Reform Central Conference of American Rabbis passed the Resolution on Patrilineal Descent, declaring that \"the child of one Jewish parent is under the presumption of Jewish descent. This presumption of the status of the offspring of any mixed marriage is to be established through appropriate and timely public and formal acts of identification with the Jewish faith and people... Depending on circumstances, mitzvot leading toward a positive and exclusive Jewish identity will include entry into the covenant, acquisition of a Hebrew name, Torah study, Bar/Bat Mitzvah, and Kabbalat Torah (Confirmation). For those beyond childhood claiming Jewish identity, other public acts or declarations may be added or substituted after consultation with their rabbi.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Elyakim Rubinstein",
        "text": "Rubinstein gained a reputation for being somewhat of a liberal reformer, going up against the established might of Orthodox Judaism in favor of religious pluralism to represent all factions of Judaism. His most important success in this endeavor came when Reform and Conservative Judaism gained seats on Jerusalem's religious council, previously controlled entirely by the Orthodox. He has proposed opening a section of the Western Wall for non-Orthodox religious services, but this has not yet been implemented."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish religious movements",
        "text": "In response to the challenges of integrating Jewish life with Enlightenment values, German Jews in the early 19th century began to develop the concept of Reform Judaism, adapting Jewish practice to the new conditions of an increasingly urbanized and secular community. Staunch opponents of the Reform movement became known as Orthodox Jews. Later, members of the Reform movement who felt that it was moving away from tradition too quickly formed the Conservative movement. At the same time, the notion \"traditional Judaism\" includes the Orthodox with Conservative or solely the Orthodox Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "\"Who is a Jew?\" ( ) is a basic question about Jewish identity and considerations of Jewish self-identification. The question pertains to ideas about Jewish personhood, which have cultural, ethnic, religious, political, genealogical, and personal dimensions. Orthodox Judaism and Conservative Judaism follow Jewish law (Halakha), deeming people to be Jewish if their mothers are Jewish or if they underwent a halakhic conversion. Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism accept both matrilineal and patrilineal descent as well as conversion. Karaite Judaism predominantly follows patrilineal descent as well as conversion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "The Orthodox and Conservative branches of Judaism maintain that the halakhic rules (i.e. matrilineal descent) are valid and binding. Reform and Liberal Judaism do not accept the halakhic rules as binding, and most branches accept a child of one Jewish parent, whether father or mother, as Jewish if the parents raise the child as a Jew and foster a Jewish identity in the child, noting that \"in the Bible the line always followed the father, including the cases of Joseph and Moses, who married into non-Israelite priestly families.\" (However, according to the oral tradition of Orthodox Judaism, the spouses of both Joseph and Moses converted to Judaism prior to marrying them.) The Reform movement's standard states that \"for those beyond childhood claiming Jewish identity, other public acts or declarations may be added or substituted after consultation with their rabbi\". Advocates of patrilineal descent point to and . This policy is commonly known as patrilineal descent, though \"bilineal\" would be more accurate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "According to Rabbinic Judaism, a Jew is anyone who was either born of a Jewish mother or who converted to Judaism in accordance with \"halakha\". Reconstructionist Judaism and the larger denominations of worldwide Progressive Judaism (also known as Liberal or Reform Judaism) accept the child as Jewish if one of the parents is Jewish, if the parents raise the child with a Jewish identity, but not the smaller regional branches. All mainstream forms of Judaism today are open to sincere converts, although conversion has traditionally been discouraged since the time of the Talmud. The conversion process is evaluated by an authority, and the convert is examined on his or her sincerity and knowledge. Converts are called \"ben Abraham\" or \"bat Abraham\", (son or daughter of Abraham). Conversions have on occasion been overturned. In 2008, Israel's highest religious court invalidated the conversion of 40,000 Jews, mostly from Russian immigrant families, even though they had been approved by an Orthodox rabbi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "Modern Progressive Jewish denominations have a conversion process based on their principles. In the US, an official Reform resolution in 1893 abolished circumcision as a requirement for converts, and Reform does not require converts to have \"tevilah,\" ritual immersion. A \"prospective convert declares, orally and in writing, in the presence of a rabbi and no less than two lay leaders of the congregation and community, acceptance of the Jewish religion and the intention to live in accordance with its \"mitzvot\"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Missionary",
        "text": "Members of Reform Judaism began a program to convert to their brand of Judaism the non-Jewish spouses of its intermarried members and non-Jews who have an interest in Reform Judaism. Their rationale is that so many Jews were lost during the Holocaust that newcomers must be sought out and welcomed. This approach has been repudiated by Orthodox and Conservative Judaism as unrealistic and posing a danger."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Reform Jewish cantorate during the 19th century",
        "text": "[Rather than abandon Judaism altogether it was thought to] reform their Judaism, by which they meant to cut away exotic, Semitic-Oriental parts, and retain only that part of Judaism which was of a general religious and ethical nature. The idea was so to remodel Judaism that it should not be a stumbling block by reason of its Orientalism and medievalism, that it should be as easy to observe as is Christianity, that, furthermore, the modern Jew should not be offended by its strangeness and should be attracted by its European exterior."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romanization of Hebrew",
        "text": "Political activist Ze'ev Jabotinsky, leader of Betar, and Chief Rabbi Kook, also expressed their support for the reform of Hebrew script using Latin letters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "Reform Judaism recognizes a child as being Jewish if either parent is Jewish and the child is being raised Jewish. Voices within the Reform movement say that the law, which changed to matriarchal around 2,000 years ago (originally in the Torah the offspring was determined by patriarchal descent) and was based on the tragic circumstances the Jewish people were facing, was once helpful but is no longer relevant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "In Central Europe, followed by Great Britain and the United States, Reform (or Liberal) Judaism developed, relaxing legal obligations (especially those that limited Jewish relations with non-Jews), emulating Protestant decorum in prayer, and emphasizing the ethical values of Judaism's Prophetic tradition. Modern Orthodox Judaism developed in reaction to Reform Judaism, by leaders who argued that Jews could participate in public life as citizens equal to Christians while maintaining the observance of \"halakha\". Meanwhile, in the United States, wealthy Reform Jews helped European scholars, who were Orthodox in practice but critical (and skeptical) in their study of the Bible and Talmud, to establish a seminary to train rabbis for immigrants from Eastern Europe. These left-wing Orthodox rabbis were joined by right-wing Reform rabbis who felt that \"halakha\" should not be entirely abandoned, to form the Conservative movement. Orthodox Jews who opposed the Haskalah formed Haredi Orthodox Judaism. After massive movements of Jews following The Holocaust and the creation of the state of Israel, these movements have competed for followers from among traditional Jews in or from other countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conversion to Judaism",
        "text": "In 1997 the issue of \"Who is a Jew?\" again arose in the State of Israel, and Orthodox leaders such as Rabbi Norman Lamm publicly backed the Neeman commission, a group of Orthodox, Conservative and Reform rabbis working to develop joint programs for conversion to Judaism. In 1997 Lamm gave a speech at the World Council of Orthodox Leadership, in Glen Springs, N.Y., urging Orthodox Jews to support this effort."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moses Sofer",
        "text": "From the late 18th century onwards, movements which eventually developed into Reform Judaism began to develop. Synagogues subscribing to these new views began to appear in centres such as Berlin and Hamburg. Sofer was profoundly opposed to the reformers, and attacked them in his speeches and writings. For example, in a \"responsum\" of 1816, he forbade the congregation in Vienna to allow a performance in the synagogue of a cantata they had commissioned from the composer Ignaz Moscheles, because it would involve a mixed choir. In the same spirit, he contested the founders of the \"Reformschule\" (Reform synagogue) in Pozsony, which was established in the year 1827."
      },
      {
        "title": "Halakha",
        "text": "Reform Judaism holds that modern views of how the Torah and rabbinic law developed imply that the body of rabbinic Jewish law is no longer normative (seen as binding) on Jews today. Those in the \"traditionalist\" wing believe that the \"halakha\" represents a personal starting-point, holding that each Jew is obligated to interpret the Torah, Talmud and other Jewish works for themselves, and this interpretation will create separate commandments for each person. Those in the liberal and classical wings of Reform believe that in this day and era, most Jewish religious rituals are no longer necessary, and many hold that following most Jewish laws is actually counter-productive. They propose that Judaism has entered a phase of ethical monotheism, and that the laws of Judaism are only remnants of an earlier stage of religious evolution, and need not be followed. This is considered wrong, and even heretical, by Orthodox and Conservative Judaism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebraization of surnames",
        "text": "All rabbinic authorities encourage hebraizing first names (VaYikra Rabba 32, and Kor'ei Sh'mo, pp.\u00a0173\u2013181), and some actively encourage last names, as well (Rabbi Shlomo Aviner (Resp. She'elat Shlomo VIII, 67\u201368), and even did so themselves: among them: Rabbis Menashe HaKatan (Klein), Maharam Schick, Shlomo Goren (Goronchick), Shaul Yisraeli (Israelite), Moshe Zvi Neria (Menkin), Shlomo Aviner (Langenauer)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "Already in 1930, the West London Synagogue affiliated with WUPJ. In the coming decade, waves of refugees from Nazi Germany arrived in Britain, bringing with them both the moderation of German Liberal Judaism (few mingled with the radical JRU) and a cadre of trained rabbis. Only then did British Reform emerge as a movement. 1942 saw the founding of the Associated British Synagogues, which joined the WUPJ in 1945. Preserving the relative traditionalism of Germany, they later adopted the name \"Reform Synagogues of Great Britain\" (since 2005, Movement for Reform Judaism), distinct from the smaller \"Union of Liberal and Progressive Synagogues\", which succeeded the JRU. Tens of thousands of refugees from Germany brought their Liberal Judaism to other lands as well. In 1930, the first Liberal congregation, Temple Beth Israel Melbourne, was founded in Australia. In June 1931, the South African Jewish Religious Union for Liberal Judaism was organised, soon employing HUC-ordained Moses Cyrus Weiler. The Congrega\u00e7\u00e3o Israelita Paulista of S\u00e3o Paulo, first branch in South America, was established in 1936. German refugees also founded a Liberal community named \"Emet ve-Emuna\" in Jerusalem, but it joined the Conservatives by 1949."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "The pressures of the late Vorm\u00e4rz era were intensifying. In 1842, a group of radical laymen determined to achieve full acceptance into society was founded in Frankfurt, the \"Friends of Reform\". They abolished circumcision and declared that the Talmud was no longer binding. In response to pleas from Frankfurt, virtually all rabbis in Germany, even Holdheim, declared circumcision obligatory. Similar groups sprang in Breslau and Berlin. These developments, and the need to bring uniformity to practical reforms implemented piecemeal in the various communities, motivated Geiger and his like-minded supporters into action. Between 1844 and 1846, they convened three rabbinical assemblies, in Braunschweig, Frankfurt am Main and Breslau respectively. Those were intended to implement the proposals of Aaron Chorin and others for a new \"Sanhedrin\", made already in 1826, that could assess and eliminate various ancient decrees and prohibitions. A total of forty-two people attended the three meetings, including moderates and conservatives, all quite young, usually in their thirties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "In 1907, the former Consistorial rabbi Louis-Germain L\u00e9vy, who shared a similar worldview, formed the Union Lib\u00e9rale Isra\u00e9lite de France, a small congregation that numbered barely a hundred families. It eventually evolved into the Liberal Jewish Movement of France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of Judaism",
        "text": "David Einhorn, an American Reform rabbi, calls Reform Judaism a \"liberation\" of Judaism :"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "The massive Orthodox reaction halted the advance of early Reform, confining it to the port city for the next twenty years. As acculturation spread throughout Central Europe, synchronized with the breakdown of traditional society and growing religious laxity, many synagogues introduced aesthetic modifications, such as replacing largely Yiddish Talmudic discources with edifying sermons in the vernacular, and promoting an atmosphere more akin to church services. Yet these changes and others, including the promotion of secular higher education for rabbis, still generated controversy, and remained largely inconsistent and lacking in coherent ideology. One of the first to adopt such modifications was Hamburg's own Orthodox community, under the newly appointed modern Rabbi Isaac Bernays. The less strict but traditional Isaac Noah Mannheimer of the Vienna Stadttempel and Michael Sachs in Prague, set the pace for most of Europe. They significantly altered custom, but wholly avoided dogmatic issues or overt injury to Jewish Law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movement for Reform Judaism",
        "text": "Although the term \"Reform\" was occasionally conferred on the congregation, Todd Endelman stressed that they were \"unique and owed nothing\" to the continental movement. Jakob Josef Petuchowski emphasised that Marks' philosophy was the polar opposite to that espoused by the German founding fathers of Reform Judaism. The latter regarded the Beatified Sages as geniuses and progressives who developed Rabbinic Law further. Marks granted the Written Torah alone divine status, refused to call himself rabbi but insisted on \"reverend\", and even translated the Kaddish into Hebrew, viewing Aramaic prayer as a later rabbinic corruption. In his new prayerbook and Passover Haggadah, he excised or reinstated various elements, always contrary to rabbinic tradition. Petitions for the Return to Zion under the Messiah and reinstitution of sacrifices, rejected by Continental Reform, did not concern the English at all. West London was subject to a harsh denunciation and de facto ex-communication by Chief Rabbi Solomon Hirschell in 1842."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shabbat",
        "text": "More rabbinically traditional Reform and Reconstructionist Jews believe that these \"halakhoth\" in general may be valid, but that it is up to each individual to decide how and when to apply them. A small fraction of Jews in the Progressive Jewish community accept these laws in much the same way as Orthodox Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abraham Geiger",
        "text": "Initially, Reform Judaism grew out of some Jews being uninterested in the \"strict observances required of Orthodoxy\", and an attempt to alter the appearance and ritual of Judaism to mimic German Protestantism. Geiger, however, turned to a more \"coherent ideological framework to justify innovations in the liturgy and religious practice\". Geiger argued that, \"Reform Judaism was not a rejection of earlier Judaism, but a recovery of the Pharisaic halakhic tradition, which is nothing other than the principle of continual further development in accord with the times, the principle of not being slaves to the letter of the Bible, but rather to witness over and over its spirit and its authentic faith-consciousness.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Eri Jabotinsky",
        "text": "A long-term member of Revisionism's Betar youth movement, he became one of its representative leaders in 1936, and joined its worldwide board two years later. With Betar and the party's military wing, Irgun, he helped coordinate illegal Jewish immigration into Palestine; he was arrested by the British authorities in 1940. Upon his release he moved to the United States, where his father died suddenly about the same time. There, together with Hillel Kook's 'Bergson Boys', Aryeh Ben-Eliezer, Shmuel Merlin and Yitzhak Ben-Ami, they founded the Emergency Committee to Save European Jewry, among others. He briefly returned to Palestine, but was again arrested by the British and expelled for illegal activities in 1944."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish feminism",
        "text": "On 18 March 1922, the American rabbi Mordecai M. Kaplan held the first public celebration of a bat mitzvah in the United States, for his daughter Judith, at the Society for the Advancement of Judaism, his synagogue in New York City. Judith Kaplan recited the preliminary blessing, read a portion of that week's Torah portion in Hebrew and English, and then intoned the closing blessing. Kaplan, who at that time claimed to be an Orthodox rabbi, joined Conservative Judaism and then became the founder of Reconstructionist Judaism, and influenced Jews from all branches of non-Orthodox Judaism through his position at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "In Germany, Liberal communities stagnated since mid-century. Full and complete Jewish emancipation granted to all in the German Empire in 1871 largely diffused interest in harmonizing religion with \"Zeitgeist\". Immigration from Eastern Europe also strengthened traditional elements. In 1898, seeking to counter these trends, Rabbi Heinemann Vogelstein established the Union of Liberal Rabbis (Vereinigung der liberalen Rabbiner). It numbered 37 members at first and grew to include 72 by 1914, about half of Germany's Jewish clergy, a proportion maintained until 1933. In 1908, Vogelstein and Rabbi C\u00e4sar Seligmann also founded a congregational arm, the Union for Liberal Judaism in Germany (\"Vereinigung f\u00fcr das Liberale Judentum in Deutschland\"), finally institutionalizing the current that until then was active as a loose tendency. The Union had some 10,000 registered members in the 1920s. In 1912, Seligmann drafted a declaration of principles, \"Guiding Lines towards a Program for Liberal Judaism\" (Richtlinien zu einem Programm f\u00fcr das liberale Judentum). It stressed the importance of individual consciousness and the supremacy of ethical values to ritual practice, declared a belief in a messianic age and was adopted as \"a recommendation\", rather than a binding decision."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daniel Farhi",
        "text": "On 2 June 1977, Rabbi Farhi founded the Liberal Jewish Movement of France with Roger Benarosh and . In 1981, he created the Jewish liberal newspaper \"Tenou'a\". He strongly defended the idea that \"Halakha\" (Jewish law), must continue to be amended to keep up with societal changes so that the return of the Sanhedrin can be appropriately applied to modern times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Park Avenue Synagogue",
        "text": "The congregation was founded in 1882 as the Reform congregation, \"Temple Gates of Hope\", by a group of German Jews. After several mergers, the congregation took the Hebrew name \"Agudat Yesharim\", and later petitioned the state of New York to change the official name of the congregation to \"Park Avenue Synagogue\" in 1923. In 1927, the present Moorish-style building on East 87th Street was constructed. By the 1930s, the congregation changed its affiliation from Reform Judaism to Conservative in order to accommodate the merger of the congregation with several other congregations containing large numbers of Eastern European Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movement for Reform Judaism",
        "text": "Reform liturgy had always contained a high proportion of Hebrew or Aramaic, while the Liberals and American Reform abridged theirs and introduced much English. Since the 1970s, formerly excised blessings (like those on phylacteries) were returned. Reform Judaism in the UK observes dietary laws and the Sabbath to a considerable degree in the public sphere. It has a \"get\"-like divorce document issued by its rabbinic court, and conversion requires circumcision by males and ablution by both sexes. Egalitarianism did not become prevalent in most synagogues until the 2000s, although the first female rabbi, Jackie Tabick, was ordained in 1975. Mixed seating was only accepted just before and during World War II."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abraham Geiger",
        "text": "Abraham Geiger (Hebrew: \"\u02bcAvr\u0101h\u0101m Gayger\"; 24 May 181023 October 1874) was a German rabbi and scholar, considered the founding father of Reform Judaism. Emphasizing Judaism's constant development along history and universalist traits, Geiger sought to re-formulate received forms and design what he regarded as a religion compliant with modern times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish principles of faith",
        "text": "According to the CCAR, personal autonomy still has precedence over these platforms; lay people need not accept all, or even any, of the beliefs stated in these platforms. Central Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR) President Rabbi Simeon J. Maslin wrote a pamphlet about Reform Judaism, entitled \"What We Believe... What We Do...\". It states that, \"If anyone were to attempt to answer these two questions authoritatively for all Reform Jews, that person's answers would have to be false. Why? Because one of the guiding principles of Reform Judaism is the autonomy of the individual. A Reform Jew has the right to decide whether to subscribe to this particular belief or to that particular practice.\" Reform Judaism affirms \"the fundamental principle of Liberalism: that the individual will approach this body of mitzvot and minhagim in the spirit of freedom and choice. Traditionally, Israel started with harut, the commandment engraved upon the Tablets, which then became freedom. The Reform Jew starts with herut, the freedom to decide what will be harut - engraved upon the personal Tablets of his life.\" [Bernard Martin, Ed., Contemporary Reform Jewish Thought, Quadrangle Books 1968.] In addition to those, there were the 42 Affirmations of Liberal Judaism in Britain from 1992, and the older Richtlinien zu einem Programm f\u00fcr das liberale Judentum (1912) in Germany, as well as others, all stressing personal autonomy and ongoing revelation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abraham Rice",
        "text": "In 1849, finding it impossible to resist the demand for reforms at Nidche Israel, he resigned his position, founded his own synagogue which was strictly Orthodox; to support himself he opened a dry goods store, and then a grocery. He also began a minyan likely in his home at this time; this congregation was to evolve into Congregation Shearith Israel and remain Orthodox for its complete history. In 1862, he was asked to return to the rabbinate of Nidche Israel, with the promise that it would remain strictly Orthodox. He died several months later. In 1871, an organ was introduced and the Reform prayer book was adopted, and Nidche Israel became a Reform temple."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rachel Adler",
        "text": "In 1971, while identifying as an Orthodox Jew (though she previously and later identified as Reform Jewish), she published an article entitled \"The Jew Who Wasn't There: Halacha and the Jewish Woman,\" in \"Davka\" magazine; according to historian Paula Hyman, this article was a trailblazer in analyzing the status of Jewish women using feminism."
      },
      {
        "title": "B'nai Jeshurun (Manhattan)",
        "text": "B'nai Jeshurun took a leading role in founding the Board of Directors of American Israelites in 1859. By 1874, there were divisions within the congregation over remaining strictly Orthodox or adopting ideas from the Reform movement, and by 1875, it was in litigation, with the Reform movement ultimately winning in court. The Board of Delegates affiliated with the Reform movement's Union of American Hebrew Congregations in 1878, but in 1884 it left. Two years later, it also supported the founding of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (JTS) in 1886, a school formed to support Orthodoxy in combating the Reform movement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moshe Greenwald",
        "text": "Like his rabbis, Rabbi Greenwald continued his war against the Neo-Reform movement and against any deviation from the tradition of Orthodox Judaism. In his \"responsa\", he refers harshly to changing the place of the cantor from the cantor's lectern to the stage in the middle of the synagogue. He also decrees that his son will be careful to shave his son's hair at the age of three and not before, according to tradition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Avraham Cholodenko",
        "text": "In 1917, at the outset of the Bolshevik Revolution, Cholodenko was elected a member of the first official Zionist committee in Kiev. He purchased a press house and changed its name to Tchiya (revival) as a symbol for the revival of the people of Israel. Cholodenko's press printed the Yiddish newspaper der Telegraph, but given growing Bolshevik censorship, his Zionist activities were forced underground. He started the clandestine synagogue \"Knesset Israel\" and a school which prepared youth for manual labor in Palestine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel Movement for Reform and Progressive Judaism",
        "text": "The first Reform congregation in Israel opened in Jerusalem in 1958, and it was named Congregation \"Har'el\". A conference open to the public who wished to see a Jewish alternative to the Orthodox Movement took place in 1965. This strengthened the relationship between the six existing congregations, and served as the cornerstone for the establishment of the Israel Movement for Progressive Judaism (IMPJ). The IMPJ officially became an organization in Israel in 1971. The Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion, the rabbinical college of Reform Judaism, began its Rabbinical Studies program in Israel in 1974, and in 1980, the first Reform rabbi was ordained by the HUC. The headquarters of the World Union for Progressive Judaism was moved to Jerusalem in 1973."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "With the advent of Jewish emancipation and acculturation in Central Europe during the late 18th century, and the breakdown of traditional patterns and norms, the response Judaism should offer to the changed circumstances became a heated concern. Radical, second-generation Berlin \"maskilim\" (Enlightened), like Lazarus Bendavid and David Friedl\u00e4nder, proposed to reduce it to little above Deism or allow it to dissipate. A more palatable course was the reform of worship in synagogues, making it more attractive to a Jewish public whose aesthetic and moral taste became attuned to that of Christian surroundings. The first considered to have implemented such a course was the Amsterdam Ashkenazi congregation, Adath Jessurun. In 1796, emulating the local Sephardic custom, it omitted the \"Father of Mercy\" prayer, beseeching God to take revenge upon the gentiles. The short-lived Adath Jessurun employed fully traditional argumentation to legitimize its actions, but is often regarded a harbinger by historians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Friedman",
        "text": "She studied at the University of Pennsylvania as an undergraduate, and earned master\u2019s and Ph.D. degrees in Jewish history from Columbia University. She received her Ph.D. in 2002, and her dissertation was entitled \"Solomon B. Freehof, the \u2018Reform Responsa,\u2019 and the Shaping of American Reform Judaism.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Conversion to Judaism",
        "text": "A situation of confusion and instability in Jewish identity in Israel was made worse when Haredi Rabbi Avraham Sherman of Israel's supreme religious court called into question the validity of over 40,000 Jewish conversions when he upheld a ruling by the Ashdod Rabbinical Court to retroactively annul the conversion of a woman who came before them because in their eyes she failed to observe Jewish law (an orthodox lifestyle)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movement for Reform Judaism",
        "text": "Recognition of Jews by patrilineal descent was affirmed in 2015. Reform Judaism currently ordains female and LGBT clergy, conducts LGBT marriages and has egalitarian services, counting women for \"minyan\" and allowing them full participation. Girls have their bat mitzvah at 13, the same age as boys have their bar mitzvah. Reform Judaism is welcoming to non-Jewish spouses; while the Assembly maintains \"clear opposition\" to involvement in interfaith unions, since 2012 it allows rabbis to conduct celebratory events as long as the ceremony does not involve clergy or motifs from other religions, or conversely those of a Jewish wedding, like a ritual canopy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pseudonym",
        "text": "Likewise some Jews adopted Hebrew family names upon immigrating to Israel, dropping surnames that had been in their families for generations. The politician David Ben-Gurion, for example, was born David Gr\u00fcn in Poland. He adopted his Hebrew name in 1910 when he published his first article in a Zionist journal in Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movement for Reform Judaism",
        "text": "In the 1820s and 1830s, a small intellectual current arose in English Jewry, influenced by the Anglican environment which laid great emphasis on the Bible alone and scorned the Jews for valuing the Talmud. Represented by such figures as Isaac D'Israeli, they were sometimes named \"neo-Karaites\", though their actual knowledge of Karaism was scant. This group rejected rabbinic authority and espoused a bibliocentric view."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movement for Reform Judaism",
        "text": "A movement only arose with the arrival of some 40,000 Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany. While worldwide Reform Judaism originated there, the nature of German communities limited what was known as \"Liberal Judaism\" to the status of a tendency within unified congregations which had to accommodate traditionalist members. German Liberals were relatively conservative (for example, maintaining mainly-Hebrew liturgy, head coverings for men and separate seating), and found the British Liberal synagogues far too radical. The moderation of the independent nonconformist ones suited them better, and immigrants overwhelmed West London and the others. They also brought along a cadre of 35 Hochschule-trained rabbis, most prominently Ignaz Maybaum and Werner van der Zyl who were aided by Reinhart in finding new posts at Britain. Harmonising ritual and religious approach to a great measure, they made their loosely related communities quite uniform. One that remained independent and strongly clung to German Liberal worship was Belsize Square Synagogue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samson Raphael Hirsch",
        "text": "In 1851, he accepted a call as rabbi of an Orthodox separatist group in Frankfurt am Main, a part of the Jewish community of which had otherwise largely accepted classical Reform Judaism. This group, known as the \"Israelite Religious Society\" (\"Israelitische Religions-Gesellschaft\", or IRG), became, under his administration, a great congregation, numbering about 500 families. Hirsch remained rabbi of this congregation for the rest of his life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebraization of surnames",
        "text": "There is also a trend of reverting to ancestral, non-Hebrew names to return to one's roots and preserve traditions unique to each ethnic group. There are people who re-adopt the name their family previously abandoned for the sake of \"Israeliness\", such as Israeli writer Yitzhak Orpaz who restored his family's original family name of \"Averbuch\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yeshayahu Leibowitz",
        "text": "He was critical of Reform Judaism, calling it a \"historical distortion of the Jewish religion\", as well as Kabbalah, seeing them as encouraging people to not perform mitzvot for their own sake but ascribing a stated purpose to them. As Reform Judaism teaches the concept of \"ethical monotheism\" and Judaism as having the mission of being a \"light unto the nations\" and Kabbalah seeks universal redemption through the performance of mitzvot. This was in contrast to Leibowitz's idea that mitzvot should be performed solely to serve God and not for any other explicit purpose. He also claimed that placing the State of Israel, Jewish history, and Jewish culture above God was committing Avodah Zara, or idol worship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinchas Kohn",
        "text": "Dr Kohn was instrumental in forming the Union of the Orthodox (Jews). This was renamed to Shlomei Emunei Yisroel (wholly faithful of the Jews) two years later. At the third national congress of the party, in October 1928, the name of the party was changed to Agudat Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shimon Gershon Rosenberg",
        "text": "Rosenberg was born and raised in Jerusalem, to Shalom Zelig and his wife, both Transylvanian Holocaust survivors. He learned in the grade school Neve Etzion in the neighborhood of Bayit Vegan, and continued his studies in the high school and in the Hesder yeshiva Yeshivat Kerem B'Yavneh. In 1973 he began to learn in Mercaz HaRav Kook, as well as with and kabbalists. In the same year he married Miriam Ziv. After his wedding, he began studying in the Kollel of Yeshivat HaKotel. He received his nickname \"Shagar\" in high school when one of his teachers saw the initials of his name on his Tallit bag and began to refer to him humorously as \"Shagar.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Brit shalom (naming ceremony)",
        "text": "Although one does not need to be circumcised to be Jewish, Orthodox Jews consider an intended failure to follow this commandment as bringing forth the penalty of \"kareth\", or being \"cut off\" from the community and from Hashem, as well as being indicative of a conscious decision to cut oneself off from one's people. However, even in the most Orthodox groups, Jewish identity is defined by matrilineal descent; a child born to a Jewish mother is recognized as Jewish, regardless of the status of the genitals. In Progressive Judaism, intact boys are usually accepted for religious training and bar mitzvah if they are sons of a Jewish mother and have been raised with a Jewish identity. Movements that do not see Jewish law as binding, such as Reform Judaism and Humanistic Judaism, may allow this ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "The harsh response from the strictly Orthodox came as no surprise. Moshe Schick declared \"they have blasphemed against the Divinity of the Law, they are no Israelites and equal to Gentiles\". Yet they also managed to antagonize more moderate progressives. Both S. L. Rapoport and Zecharias Frankel strongly condemned Braunschweig. Another discontented party were Christian missionaries, who feared Reform on two accounts: it could stem the massive tide of conversions, and loosen Jewish piety in favor of liberal, semi-secularized religion that they opposed among Christians as well, reducing the possibility they would ever accept new dogma fully."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ole Brunell",
        "text": "Six years later, he, his wife, and four daughters converted to Judaism. The conversion was rejected by the Orthodox Jewish. Eventually the leaders relented and all were converted. Upon conversion, Brunell changed his first name from \u201cOle\u201d to \u201cShlomo ben Avraham\u201d, and his wife changed her name from \u201cRuna\u201d to \u201cRuth\u201d. The family retained the name \u201cBrunell\u201d and moved to Israel, where they currently live."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "Rabbi Mark Washofsky summarizes the 1983 CCAR resolution and subsequent interpretations in Reform responsa literature as follows:\n* \"The resolution is advisory rather than halachic in the traditional sense. It does not establish a new definition of Jewish identity, for its preamble states expressly that it means to be operative only for Reform Jews in North America, not for all Jews everywhere.\"\n* \"Jewish descent may be from either parent...The Reform Movement presumes the child of \"one\" Jewish parent, either mother or father, as Jewish. In fact, the 1983 resolution is in one significant respect more stringent than the traditional definition of Jewish status. The child of a Jewish mother and gentile father, whom halachah regards as clearly Jewish, enjoys but a \"presumption\" of Jewish status that must be \"established\" by \"appropriate and timely public and formal acts of identification.\"\n* \"Biology remains a crucial factor. In the determination of Jewish identity...the child of \"two gentile\" parents is, as before, definitely a non-Jew and must undergo a formal conversion in order to become a Jew.\"\n* \"Both descent and behavior are crucial in determining Jewish status under the resolution. The Jewish status of a child of an intermarriage cannot be determined \"automatically\" either by biology or behavior. Both elements\u2014descent from one Jewish parent \"and\" the performance of mitzvot that lead to a \"positive and exclusive Jewish identity\u2014must be present, and they must be present during childhood.\"\n* \"The resolution applies only to children raised exclusively as Jews...A child raised simultaneously in Judaism and another religious tradition does not develop a \"positive and exclusive\" Jewish identity; therefore the presumption of Jewish status is disproved, and the resolution does not apply to that child. He or she will require conversion prior to celebrating becoming bar or bat mitzvah in the synagogue.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism (magazine)",
        "text": "From time to time its articles have won awards or been listed in RAMBI, the index of articles on Jewish Studies:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Moses Rosen",
        "text": "The Communist party, which meanwhile changed its name to \"Romanian Workers Party\" (Partidul Muncitoresc Rom\u00e2n) imposed on the Jews a new ethnic organization called the Jewish Democratic Committee, somehow an imitation of the former Yevsektsiya from Soviet Russia. Under the supervision of the Jewish Democratic Committee, the rabbis and the communities representatives from all around Romania met in Bucharest on June 16, 1948 and elected by secret vote Dr Moses Rosen as the new Chief Rabbi instead of Alexandru \u015eafran who was accused as a traitor who \"abandoned\" his \"sheep and goats\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ethnoreligious group",
        "text": "Since the 19th century, Reform Judaism has differed from Orthodox Judaism on matters of theology and practice; however, toward the end of the 20th century and into the 21st century, the Reform movement has reoriented itself back toward certain traditions and practices it had previously relinquished (for example, wearing the tallit and/or the kippah; the use of Hebrew in the liturgy). In the United States, the increasing rate of mixed marriages has led to attempts to facilitate conversion of the spouse, although conversion to facilitate marriage is strongly discouraged by traditional Jewish law. If the spouse does not convert, the Reform movement will recognize patrilineal descent. Traditional interpretations of Jewish law only recognize descent along the maternal line. Many children of mixed marriages do not identify as Jews and the Reform movement only recognizes children of mixed marriages as Jewish if they \"established through appropriate and timely public and formal acts of identification with the Jewish faith and people.\" In actual practice, most Reform Jews affirm patrilineal descent as a valid means of Jewish identification, particularly if the individual was \"raised Jewish\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish religious movements",
        "text": "Orthodox Jews generally see themselves as practicing normative Judaism, rather than belonging to a particular movement. Within Orthodox Judaism, there is a spectrum of communities and practices, ranging from ultra-Orthodox Haredi Judaism (\"Haredim\") and Jewish fundamentalism to Modern Orthodox Judaism (with Neo-Orthodoxy, Open Orthodoxy, and Religious Zionism). Orthodox Jews who opposed the Haskalah became known as Haredi Jews (\"Haredim\"). Orthodox Jews who were sympathetic to the Haskalah formed what became known as neo-Orthodox or modern Orthodox Jews. The father of neo-Orthodoxy was the influenced German rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, who proclaimed principle Torah im Derech Eretz\u2014the strict observance of the Jewish Law in an active social life\u2014in 1851, he become the rabbi of first Orthodox separatist group from Reform community of Frankfurt am Main. In addition, the \"Centrist\" Orthodoxy was represented by American rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik affiliated with the Orthodox Union."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative Judaism",
        "text": "Jewish immigration to the United States bred an amalgam of loose communities, lacking strong tradition or stable structures. In this free-spirited environment, a multitude of forces was at work. As early as 1866, Rabbi Jonas Bondi of New York wrote that a Judaism of the \"golden middleway, which was termed Orthodox by the left and heterodox or reformer by the right\" developed in the new country. The rapid ascendancy of Reform Judaism by the 1880s left few who opposed it: merely a handful of congregations and ministers remained outside the Union of American Hebrew Congregations. These included Sabato Morais and Rabbi Henry Pereira Mendes of the elitist Sephardi congregations, along with rabbis Bernard Drachman (ordained at Breslau, though he regarded himself as Orthodox) and Henry Schneeberger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "Two further rabbinical conferences much later, in 1869 and 1871 at Leipzig and Augsburg respectively, were marked with a cautious tone. Their only outcome was the bypassing of the Loosening of the Shoe ceremony via a prenuptial agreement and the establishment of the Hochschule f\u00fcr die Wissenschaft des Judentums, though officially non-denominational, as a rabbinical seminary. While common, noted Michael Meyer, the designation \"Liberal Jew\" was more associated with political persuasion than religious conviction. The general Jewish public in Germany demonstrated little interest, especially after the 1876 law under which communal affiliation and paying parish taxes were no longer mandatory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karol Sidon",
        "text": "To help restore the Jewish Orthodox community Rabbi Sidon invited many young rabbinical families from Israel. He founded the Lauder School (elementary school named Gur Aryeh and a grammar school named Or Chadash), the construction of a mikveh, the establishment of a bet midrash Tiferet Uzi (named after his teacher Uzi Kalchheim), Beit Din or kosher shop and Certificates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yitzchak Shlomo Zilberman",
        "text": "Zilberman was the rabbi who influenced Israeli comedian Uri Zohar to become a \"baal teshuva\" (returnee to Judaism). Zohar would go on to have an enormous impact on a generation of spiritually ambivalent Israeli Jews. Another student, Yitzhak Pindros, is a politician affiliated with the United Torah Judaism party."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kalman Kahana",
        "text": "The Religious Torah Front was reformed before the 1973 elections, with Kahana winning election on its list, but split again during the session. Poalei Agudat Yisrael won only one seat in the 1977 elections, and he entered the Knesset alone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "Rabbinical Judaism maintains that a Jew, whether by birth or conversion, is a Jew forever. Thus a Jew who claims to be an atheist or converts to another religion is still considered by traditional Judaism to be Jewish. According to some sources, the Reform movement has maintained that a Jew who has converted to another religion is no longer a Jew, and the Israeli Government has also taken that stance after Supreme Court cases and statutes. However, the Reform movement has indicated that this is not so cut and dried, and different situations call for consideration and differing actions. For example, Jews who have converted under duress may be permitted to return to Judaism \"without any action on their part but their desire to rejoin the Jewish community\" and \"A proselyte who has become an apostate remains, nevertheless, a Jew\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Interfaith dialogue",
        "text": "Building positive relations between Jews and members of other religious communities has been an integral component of Reform Judaism's \"DNA\" since the movement was founded in Germany during the early 19th century, according to Rabbi A. James Rudin. It began with Israel Jacobson, a layman and pioneer in the development of what emerged as Reform Judaism, who established an innovative religious school in Sessen, Germany in 1801 that initially had 40 Jewish and 20 Christian students. \"Jacobson's innovation of a 'mixed' student body reflected his hopes for a radiant future between Jews and Christians.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Congregation Keneseth Israel (Philadelphia)",
        "text": "At the end of the war, Fineshriber, as a national leader of the reform movement, opposed the creation of a Jewish state in British Palestine, which became Israel in 1948. Fineshriber, a leader among a highly visible minority of Reform Rabbis, resisted the idea of Jews being seen as a nation in need of their own state. He strongly believed that American Jews had to avoid being suspected of having dual loyalties. In essence, he saw himself as an American of the Jewish religion rather than a \"Jewish-American.\" However, when Israel was created in 1948, he modified his anti-Zionist position recognizing the utility of Israel as a haven for Holocaust survivors and other Jewish refugees."
      },
      {
        "title": "B'nai Jeshurun (Manhattan)",
        "text": "When Solomon Schechter used JTS to create a more conservative set of reforms to traditional Judaism, B'nai Jeshurun joined his United Synagogue of America, now the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "Cohon and Freehof rose against the background of the Great Depression, when many congregations teetered on the threshold of collapse. Growing Antisemitism in Europe led German Liberals on similar paths. Rabbis Leo Baeck, Max Dienemann and Seligmann himself turned to stressing Jewish peoplehood and tradition. The Nazis' takeover in 1933 effected a religious revival in communities long plagued by apathy and assimilation. The great changes convinced the CCAR to adopt a new set of principles. On 29 May 1937, in Columbus, Ohio, a \"Declaration of Principles\" (eschewing the more formal, binding \"platform\"), promoted a greater degree of ritual observance, supported Zionism \u2013 considered by the Classicists in the past as, at best, a remedy for the unemancipated Jewish masses in Russia and Romania, while they did not regard the Jews as a nation in the modern sense \u2013 and opened not with theology, but by the statement, \"Judaism is the historical religious experience of the Jewish people\". The Columbus Principles signified the transformation from \"Classical\" to the \"New Reform Judaism\", characterized by a lesser focus on abstract concepts and a more positive attitude to practice and traditional elements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of Judaism",
        "text": "Some Jews find the concept of \"chosenness\" problematic or outdated, and such concerns led to the formation of Reconstructionist Judaism, whose founder, Mordecai Kaplan, rejected the concept of the Jews as the chosen people and decried it as being ethnocentric."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Jews in Iran",
        "text": "The Pahlavi dynasty implemented modernizing reforms, which greatly improved the life of Jews. The influence of the Shi'a clergy was weakened, and the restrictions on Jews and other religious minorities were abolished. Reza Shah prohibited mass conversion of Jews and eliminated the Shi'ite concept of ritual uncleanness of non-Muslims. Modern Hebrew was incorporated into the curriculum of Jewish schools and Jewish newspapers were published. Jews were also allowed to hold government jobs. In 1915 two Jewish brothers, Mordechai and Asher ben Avaraham, opened the first Jewish newspaper called \"Shalom\". These changes moved the balance of power in the Jewish community from elders and Rabbis to the youth. Establishment of Zionist Organization of Persia further accelerated this transfer of power to the young Jews. The Jews of Persia understood that \"Zion\" is the biblical name of Jerusalem and Zionism demonstrates that end of exile and the beginning of redemption. The Persian Zionist Aziz ben Yona Naim wrote in the early 1920s :\"Zionism is nothing but a new name and new institution, for the Zionist idea has been present in Jewish thought for over two thousands years.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "One issue arises because North American Reform and UK Liberal movements have changed some of the halakhic requirements for Jewish identity in two ways:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamichlol",
        "text": "In 2014 the Israeli Hasidic rabbi Yosef Kaminer founded the Institute for Literacy and Proper Knowledge () through which the site would be produced. The site is intended for the \"Haredi\" (Ultra-Orthodox Jews) public who are very conservative and refrain from using Wikipedia's content according to their stringent interpretations of \"halakha\". Hamichlol aspires to be \"the largest Jewish encyclopedia in history, which includes articles on all issues pertaining to the Torah, Jewish values and the history of the Jewish people, but also knowledge pertaining to mankind and from all the secular\" ( [transliteration: \"hulin\"]) \"fields\u2013written in clean language according to the Jewish worldview.\""
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some traditions of the Jewish people?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Which Jewish denominations' traditions are you interested in learning about? Outside of Israel (where the situation is rather different) the main denominations are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about the traditions of Orthodox Jews."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Orthodox Judaism emphasizes practicing rules of kashrut, Shabbat, family purity, and tefilah (daily prayer). Orthodox men and women dress modestly, Orthodox men and women do not engage in physical contact with those of the opposite sex outside of their spouse, or immediate family members, doorposts have a mezuzah and separate sinks for meat and dairy have become increasingly common."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some ways Reform denominations are different than Orthodox, in that case?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Orthodox Judaism, girls receive bat mitzvahs at age 12, while it is 13 for those who practice Reform Judaism, and they also do not accept religious pluralism, which Reform Judaism does. Reform Judaism also holds the view that rabbinic Jewish law is no longer the standard for modern Jews, and most religious rituals are no longer necessary, which is considered heretical by the Orthodox, who consider religious laws to be binding. Would you like to learn more about Reform or Orthodox Judaism, or their religious laws, known as Halakha?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who started Reform Judaism?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Rabbi Abraham Geiger and his associates formulated its early principles in 19th century Germany.",
      "The origins of Reform Judaism lie in 19th-century Germany, where Rabbi Abraham Geiger and his associates formulated its early principles."
    ],
    "topic": "Jewish name",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Reform Judaism:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Reform Judaism"
        ],
        "ctx": "The origins of Reform Judaism lie in 19th-century Germany, where Rabbi Abraham Geiger and his associates formulated its early principles. Since the 1970s, the movement has adopted a policy of inclusiveness and acceptance, inviting as many as possible to partake in its communities, rather than strict theoretical clarity. It is strongly identified with progressive political and social agendas, mainly under the traditional Jewish rubric \"tikkun olam\", or \"repairing of the world\". \"Tikkun olam\" is a central motto of Reform Judaism, and action for its sake is one of the main channels for adherents to express their affiliation. The movement's most significant center today is in North America."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Reform Judaism:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Reform Judaism"
        ],
        "ctx": "The origins of Reform Judaism lie in 19th-century Germany, where Rabbi Abraham Geiger and his associates formulated its early principles. Since the 1970s, the movement has adopted a policy of inclusiveness and acceptance, inviting as many as possible to partake in its communities, rather than strict theoretical clarity. It is strongly identified with progressive political and social agendas, mainly under the traditional Jewish rubric \"tikkun olam\", or \"repairing of the world\". \"Tikkun olam\" is a central motto of Reform Judaism, and action for its sake is one of the main channels for adherents to express their affiliation. The movement's most significant center today is in North America."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Abraham Geiger",
        "text": "Initially, Reform Judaism grew out of some Jews being uninterested in the \"strict observances required of Orthodoxy\", and an attempt to alter the appearance and ritual of Judaism to mimic German Protestantism. Geiger, however, turned to a more \"coherent ideological framework to justify innovations in the liturgy and religious practice\". Geiger argued that, \"Reform Judaism was not a rejection of earlier Judaism, but a recovery of the Pharisaic halakhic tradition, which is nothing other than the principle of continual further development in accord with the times, the principle of not being slaves to the letter of the Bible, but rather to witness over and over its spirit and its authentic faith-consciousness.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Abraham Geiger",
        "text": "Abraham Geiger (Hebrew: \"\u02bcAvr\u0101h\u0101m Gayger\"; 24 May 181023 October 1874) was a German rabbi and scholar, considered the founding father of Reform Judaism. Emphasizing Judaism's constant development along history and universalist traits, Geiger sought to re-formulate received forms and design what he regarded as a religion compliant with modern times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abraham Geiger",
        "text": "Reform historian Michael A. Meyer has stated that, if any one person can be called the founder of Reform Judaism, it must be Geiger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abraham Geiger",
        "text": "In the Germany of the 19th century, Geiger and Samuel Holdheim, along with Israel Jacobson and Leopold Zunz, stood out as the founding fathers of Reform Judaism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish religious movements",
        "text": "Reform Judaism, also known as Liberal or Progressive Judaism, originally began in Germany, the Netherlands and the United States circa 1820 as a reaction to modernity, stresses assimilation and integration with society and a personal interpretation of the Torah. The German rabbi and scholar Abraham Geiger with principles of Judaism as religion and not ethnicity, progressive revelation, historical-critical approach, the centrality of the Prophetic books, and superiority of ethical aspects to the ceremonial ones has become the main ideologist of the \"Classical\" Reform."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abraham Geiger",
        "text": "By that time, Geiger had begun his program of religious reforms, chiefly in the synagogue liturgy. For example, he abolished the prayers of mourning for the Temple, believing that since Jews were German citizens, such prayers would appear to be disloyal to the ruling power and could possibly spark anti-Semitism. Geiger was the driving force in convening several synods of reform-minded Rabbis with the intention of formulating a program of progressive Judaism. However, unlike Samuel Holdheim, he did not want to create a separate community. Rather, his goal was to change Judaism from within."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "With the advent of Jewish emancipation and acculturation in Central Europe during the late 18th century, and the breakdown of traditional patterns and norms, the response Judaism should offer to the changed circumstances became a heated concern. Radical, second-generation Berlin \"maskilim\" (Enlightened), like Lazarus Bendavid and David Friedl\u00e4nder, proposed to reduce it to little above Deism or allow it to dissipate. A more palatable course was the reform of worship in synagogues, making it more attractive to a Jewish public whose aesthetic and moral taste became attuned to that of Christian surroundings. The first considered to have implemented such a course was the Amsterdam Ashkenazi congregation, Adath Jessurun. In 1796, emulating the local Sephardic custom, it omitted the \"Father of Mercy\" prayer, beseeching God to take revenge upon the gentiles. The short-lived Adath Jessurun employed fully traditional argumentation to legitimize its actions, but is often regarded a harbinger by historians."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Reform Jewish cantorate during the 19th century",
        "text": "[Rather than abandon Judaism altogether it was thought to] reform their Judaism, by which they meant to cut away exotic, Semitic-Oriental parts, and retain only that part of Judaism which was of a general religious and ethical nature. The idea was so to remodel Judaism that it should not be a stumbling block by reason of its Orientalism and medievalism, that it should be as easy to observe as is Christianity, that, furthermore, the modern Jew should not be offended by its strangeness and should be attracted by its European exterior."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "The origins of Reform Judaism lie in 19th-century Germany, where Rabbi Abraham Geiger and his associates formulated its early principles. Since the 1970s, the movement has adopted a policy of inclusiveness and acceptance, inviting as many as possible to partake in its communities, rather than strict theoretical clarity. It is strongly identified with progressive political and social agendas, mainly under the traditional Jewish rubric \"tikkun olam\", or \"repairing of the world\". \"Tikkun olam\" is a central motto of Reform Judaism, and action for its sake is one of the main channels for adherents to express their affiliation. The movement's most significant center today is in North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samson Raphael Hirsch",
        "text": "As for the \"Letters\", its historical background is the enlightenment, and particularly the beginnings of Reform Judaism, and it thus constituted an attempt \"to lead the young generation of Jewry back to the Divine law.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Abraham Geiger",
        "text": "Geiger was not only a scholar and researcher commenting on important subjects and characters in Jewish history \u2013 he was also a rabbi responsible for much of the reform doctrine of the mid-19th century. He contributed much of the character to the reform movement that remains today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "The term \"Reform\" was first applied institutionally \u2013 not generically, as in \"for reform\" \u2013 to the Berlin Reformgemeinde (Reform Congregation), established in 1845. Apart from it, most German communities that were oriented in that direction preferred the more ambiguous \"Liberal\", which was not exclusively associated with Reform Judaism. It was more prevalent as an appellation for the religiously apathetic majority among German Jews, and also to all rabbis who were not clearly Orthodox (including the rival Positive-Historical School). The title \"Reform\" became much more common in the United States, where an independent denomination under this name was fully identified with the religious tendency. However, Isaac Meyer Wise suggested in 1871 that \"Progressive Judaism\" was a better epithet. When the movement was institutionalized in Germany between in 1898 and 1908, its leaders chose \"Liberal\" as self-designation, founding the Vereinigung f\u00fcr das Liberale Judentum. In 1902, Claude Montefiore termed the doctrine espoused by his new Jewish Religious Union as \"Liberal Judaism\", too, though it belonged to the more radical part of the spectrum in relation to the German one."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moses Sofer",
        "text": "From the late 18th century onwards, movements which eventually developed into Reform Judaism began to develop. Synagogues subscribing to these new views began to appear in centres such as Berlin and Hamburg. Sofer was profoundly opposed to the reformers, and attacked them in his speeches and writings. For example, in a \"responsum\" of 1816, he forbade the congregation in Vienna to allow a performance in the synagogue of a cantata they had commissioned from the composer Ignaz Moscheles, because it would involve a mixed choir. In the same spirit, he contested the founders of the \"Reformschule\" (Reform synagogue) in Pozsony, which was established in the year 1827."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hochschule f\u00fcr die Wissenschaft des Judentums",
        "text": "Abraham Geiger, who had been active in establishing Reform Judaism, wanted a university for Jewish studies in Berlin. Unable to become part of the University of Berlin, he was involved in 1870 in creating a separate institution. Also involved were David Cassel, Israel Lewy, Moritz Lazarus and Heymann Steinthal, the Jewish \"intellectuals\" and professors at the University of Berlin."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Jews in Germany",
        "text": "The beginning of the Reform Movement in Judaism was emphasized by David Philipson, who was the rabbi at the largest Reform congregation. The increasing political centralization of the late 18th and early 19th centuries undermined the societal structure that perpetuated traditional Jewish life. Enlightenment ideas began to influence many intellectuals, and the resulting political, economic, and social changes were overpowering. Many Jews felt a tension between Jewish tradition and the way they were now leading their lives-religiously- resulting in less tradition. As the insular religious society that reinforced such observance disintegrated, falling away from vigilant observance without deliberately breaking with Judaism was easy. Some tried to reconcile their religious heritage with their new social surroundings; they reformed traditional Judaism to meet their new needs and to express their spiritual desires. A movement was formed with a set of religious beliefs, and practices that were considered expected and tradition. Reform Judaism was the first modern response to the Jew's emancipation, though reform Judaism differing in all countries caused stresses of autonomy on both the congregation and individual. Some of the reforms were in the practices: circumcisions were abandoned, rabbis wore vests after Protestant ministers, and instrumental accompaniment was used: pipe organs. In addition, the traditional Hebrew prayer book was replaced by German text, and reform synagogues began being called temples which were previously considered the Temple of Jerusalem. Reform communities composed of similar beliefs and Judaism changed at the same pace as the rest of society had. The Jewish people have adapted to religious beliefs and practices to the meet the needs of the Jewish people throughout the generation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "Apart from that, the American Reform movement was chiefly a direct German import. In 1842, Har Sinai Congregation was founded by German-Jewish immigrants in Baltimore. Adopting the Hamburg rite, it was the first synagogue established as Reformed on the continent. In the new land, there were neither old state-mandated communal structures, nor strong conservative elements among the newcomers. While the first generation was still somewhat traditional, their Americanized children were keen on a new religious expression. Reform quickly spread even before the Civil War. While fueled by the condition of immigrant communities, in matters of doctrine, wrote Michael Meyer, \"However much a response to its particular social context, the basic principles are those put forth by Geiger and the other German Reformers \u2013 progressive revelation, historical-critical approach, the centrality of the Prophetic literature.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish schisms",
        "text": "Some Jews in Western Europe, and many Jews in America, joined the religiously liberal new Reform Judaism movement, which drew inspiration from the writings of modernist thinkers like Moses Mendelson. They coined the name \"Orthodox\" to describe those who opposed the \"Reform\". They were criticized by the Orthodox Judaism rabbis, such as Samson Raphael Hirsch in Germany, and condemned, particularly by those known today as followers of Haredi Judaism, based mainly in Eastern Europe. (Later on, in 1880s America, Conservative Judaism split from the Reform movement.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "However, change loomed on the horizon. From 1881 to 1924, over 2,400,000 immigrants from Eastern Europe drastically altered American Jewry, increasing it tenfold. The 40,000 members of Reform congregations became a small minority overnight. The newcomers arrived from backward regions, where modern education was scarce and civil equality nonexistent, retaining a strong sense of Jewish ethnicity. Even the ideological secularists among them, all the more so the common masses which merely turned lax or nonobservant, had a very traditional understanding of worship and religious conduct. The leading intellectuals of Eastern European Jewish nationalism castigated western Jews in general, and Reform Judaism in particular, not on theological grounds which they as laicists wholly rejected, but for what they claimed to be assimilationist tendencies and the undermining of peoplehood. This sentiment also fueled the often cool manner in which the denomination is perceived in Israeli society, originally established on the basis of these ideologies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abraham Geiger",
        "text": "Abraham Geiger\n--Biography.\n--Reformer.\n--Criticism.\n--Geiger and Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform Judaism.\n----Geiger's rejection of Orthodox Judaism.\n----Conservative Judaism's rejection of Geiger.\n----A new approach to Reform Judaism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "In the 1820s and 1830s, philosophers like Solomon Steinheim imported German idealism into the Jewish religious discourse, attempting to draw from the means it employed to reconcile Christian faith and modern sensibilities. But it was the new scholarly, critical Science of Judaism (\"Wissenschaft des Judentums\") that became the focus of controversy. Its proponents vacillated whether and to what degree it should be applied against the contemporary plight. Opinions ranged from the strictly Orthodox Azriel Hildesheimer, who subjugated research to the predetermined sanctity of the texts and refused to allow it practical implication over received methods; via the Positive-Historical Zecharias Frankel, who did not deny \"Wissenschaft\" a role, but only in deference to tradition, and opposed analysis of the Pentateuch; and up to Abraham Geiger, who rejected any limitations on objective research or its application. He is considered the founding father of Reform Judaism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "The pressures of the late Vorm\u00e4rz era were intensifying. In 1842, a group of radical laymen determined to achieve full acceptance into society was founded in Frankfurt, the \"Friends of Reform\". They abolished circumcision and declared that the Talmud was no longer binding. In response to pleas from Frankfurt, virtually all rabbis in Germany, even Holdheim, declared circumcision obligatory. Similar groups sprang in Breslau and Berlin. These developments, and the need to bring uniformity to practical reforms implemented piecemeal in the various communities, motivated Geiger and his like-minded supporters into action. Between 1844 and 1846, they convened three rabbinical assemblies, in Braunschweig, Frankfurt am Main and Breslau respectively. Those were intended to implement the proposals of Aaron Chorin and others for a new \"Sanhedrin\", made already in 1826, that could assess and eliminate various ancient decrees and prohibitions. A total of forty-two people attended the three meetings, including moderates and conservatives, all quite young, usually in their thirties."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Woolf Marks",
        "text": "Petuchowski stressed that, while the title \"Reform\" was sometimes conferred on the \"British Jews\" and some contacts between West London and the continental movement in the Hamburg Temple are attested to, they pursued a course which was its polar opposite. The German founding fathers of Reform Judaism regarded the Beatified Sages as innovative progressives who introduced the vernacular Aramaic into prayer, creating a precedent for German, and flexibly adjusted religious law, developing it further. Marks granted the Written Torah alone divine status, and refused to call himself rabbi but insisted on \"reverend\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel Movement for Reform and Progressive Judaism",
        "text": "Some of the earliest Reform rabbis to settle in what would become Israel included Rabbi Judah Leon Magnes, who was the first Chancellor of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and in 1938, became its President. Rabbi Meir Elk, who graduated from the liberal Breslau Rabbinical Seminary in Germany (now in Wroclaw, Poland), founded the Leo Baeck School in Haifa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "While Reform rabbis in 19th-century Germany had to accommodate conservative elements in their communities, at the height of \"Classical Reform\" in the United States, \"halakhic\" considerations could be virtually ignored and Holdheim's approach embraced. In the 1930s and onwards, Rabbi Solomon Freehof and his supporters reintroduced such elements, but they too regarded Jewish Law as too rigid a system. Instead, they recommended that selected features will be readopted and new observances established in a piecemeal fashion, as spontaneous \"minhag\" (custom) emerging by trial and error and becoming widespread if it appealed to the masses. The advocates of this approach also stress that their responsa are of non-binding nature, and their recipients may adapt them as they see fit. Freehof's successors, such as Rabbis Walter Jacob and Moshe Zemer, further elaborated the notion of \"Progressive \"Halakha\"\" along the same lines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "The rabbinate was almost exclusively transplanted \u2013 Rabbis Samuel Hirsch, Samuel Adler, Gustav Gottheil, Kaufmann Kohler, and others all played a role both in Germany and across the ocean \u2013 and led by two individuals: the radical Rabbi David Einhorn, who participated in the 1844\u20131846 conferences and was very much influenced by Holdheim (though utterly rejecting mixed marriage), and the moderate pragmatist Isaac Meyer Wise, who while sharing deeply heterodox views was more an organizer than a thinker. Wise was distinct from the others, arriving early in 1846 and lacking much formal education. He was of little ideological consistency, often willing to compromise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movement for Reform Judaism",
        "text": "In the 1820s and 1830s, a small intellectual current arose in English Jewry, influenced by the Anglican environment which laid great emphasis on the Bible alone and scorned the Jews for valuing the Talmud. Represented by such figures as Isaac D'Israeli, they were sometimes named \"neo-Karaites\", though their actual knowledge of Karaism was scant. This group rejected rabbinic authority and espoused a bibliocentric view."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laura Janner-Klausner",
        "text": "The Assembly of Reform Rabbis created the position to increase the voice of Reform Judaism and represent its constituent communities on a national level, both within the British Jewish community and general public."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abraham Geiger",
        "text": "To Geiger, Judaism was unique and meaningful because of its monotheism and ethics. He began to identify less with the \"rigidity of Talmudic legalism, developed over centuries of ghettoization inflicted by Christian Intolerance ... in medieval Christendom\", that defined and confined the existence of Orthodox Judaism in the 19th century in Germany. He believed that, \"the Torah, as well as the Talmud, should be studied critically and from the point of view of the historian, that of evolution and development\". As Geiger grew into his adolescence and young adulthood, he began to establish a more liberal approach to, and understanding of, Judaism than his traditional Orthodox Jewish background dictated. He thus rejected Orthodox Jewish tradition in favor of a liberal outlook."
      },
      {
        "title": "World Union for Progressive Judaism",
        "text": "Reform Judaism began in Germany, led by Rabbi Abraham Geiger. It stagnated considerably after the 1840s. In 1898, German Liberal rabbis organized the \"Union of Liberal Rabbis in Germany\" under Heinemann Vogelstein. In 1908 the laity formed the \"Union for Liberal Judaism in Germany\". At its height, it had some 10,000 members and half the rabbis in the country. The ULJ was a founding member of the World Union in 1926. After the destruction of the Holocaust, Germany's Jews, mostly refugees of foreign descent, largely favoured Orthodoxy. Liberal Judaism managed to gain inroads slowly, and first prayer groups appeared in 1995. The Union of Progressive Jews was founded in 1997."
      },
      {
        "title": "Interfaith dialogue",
        "text": "Building positive relations between Jews and members of other religious communities has been an integral component of Reform Judaism's \"DNA\" since the movement was founded in Germany during the early 19th century, according to Rabbi A. James Rudin. It began with Israel Jacobson, a layman and pioneer in the development of what emerged as Reform Judaism, who established an innovative religious school in Sessen, Germany in 1801 that initially had 40 Jewish and 20 Christian students. \"Jacobson's innovation of a 'mixed' student body reflected his hopes for a radiant future between Jews and Christians.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "Second only to Geiger, Rabbi Samuel Holdheim distinguished himself as a radical proponent of change. While the former stressed continuity with the past, and described Judaism as an entity that gradually adopted and discarded elements along time, Holdheim accorded present conditions the highest status, sharply dividing the universalist core from all other aspects that could be unremittingly disposed of. Declaring that old laws lost their hold on Jews as it were and the rabbi could only act as a guide for voluntary observance, his principle was that the concept of \"the Law of the Land is the Law\" was total. He declared mixed marriage permissible \u2013 almost the only Reform rabbi to do so in history; his contemporaries and later generations opposed this \u2013 for the Talmudic ban on conducting them on Sabbath, unlike offering sacrifice and other acts, was to him sufficient demonstration that they belonged not to the category of sanctified obligations (\"issurim\") but to the civil ones (\"memonot\"), where the Law of the Land applied. Another measure he offered, rejected almost unanimously by his colleagues in 1846, was the institution of a \"Second Sabbath\" on Sunday, modeled on Second Passover, as most people desecrated the day of rest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Among the Mizrahim (Arabic-speaking Jews living in Western Asia and North Africa) it was quite common to replace their Hebrew names with relevant Arabic ones, whenever they bore a religious note and were deemed sacred to both Jews and Muslims, so Abraham turned into Ibrahim, Aharon into Haroun, David into Daoud, Moshe into Moussa, and Shlomo into Soliman or Salman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "In the late 1830s, modernist pressures in Germany shifted from the secularization debate, progressing even into the \"purely religious\" sphere of theology and liturgy. A new generation of young, modern university-trained rabbis (many German states already required communal rabbis to possess such education) sought to reconcile Judaism with the historical-critical study of scripture and the dominant philosophies of the day, especially Kant and Hegel. Influenced by the critical \"Science of Judaism\" (\"Wissenschaft des Judentums\") pioneered by Leopold Zunz, and often in emulation of the Liberal Protestant milieu, they reexamined and undermined beliefs held as sacred in traditional circles, especially the notion of an unbroken chain from Sinai to the Sages. The more radical among the \"Wissenschaft\" rabbis, unwilling to either limit critical analysis or its practical application, coalesced around Rabbi Abraham Geiger to establish the full-fledged Reform Judaism. Between 1844 and 1846, Geiger organized three rabbinical synods in Braunschweig, Frankfurt and Breslau, to determine how to refashion Judaism in present times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abraham Mendelssohn Bartholdy",
        "text": "Abraham took an uncompromising attitude towards his Jewish origins. He felt that the day of Judaism was over and that it was necessary to take practical steps to assimilate with German society. To this end he and Lea took the (then) daring decision not to have their sons Felix and Paul circumcised after their births in 1809 and 1812 respectively, although this led to arguments with Lea's mother. He further took the advice of Lea's brother Jakob to change his surname. Jakob had adopted the name Bartholdy after a property which he had acquired, and Abraham, too, chose to take this name. As he was to write later to Felix, urging his son to drop the Mendelssohn name and use only Bartholdy because of the fame of Moses Mendelssohn, \"there can no more be a Christian Mendelssohn than a Jewish Confucius.\" Despite this, Felix continued to use both names himself, and his public tended to use only 'Mendelssohn'. Abraham's children were brought up at first without any religious education; they were baptised in 1816, and Abraham and Lea were baptised on 4 October 1822 in Frankfurt am Main in the Calvinist French Reformed Church, that is, well away from their friends and relatives in Berlin. Their son Felix later married the daughter of the former minister of that church."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sons of Zadok",
        "text": "Abraham Geiger (1857), the founder of Reform Judaism, was of the opinion that the Sadducee (\"Tzadoki\" in Mishnaic pronunciation) sect of Judaism drew their name from Zadok the high priest in The First Temple, and that the leaders of the Sadducees were in fact the \"Sons of Zadok\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "In Germany, Liberal communities stagnated since mid-century. Full and complete Jewish emancipation granted to all in the German Empire in 1871 largely diffused interest in harmonizing religion with \"Zeitgeist\". Immigration from Eastern Europe also strengthened traditional elements. In 1898, seeking to counter these trends, Rabbi Heinemann Vogelstein established the Union of Liberal Rabbis (Vereinigung der liberalen Rabbiner). It numbered 37 members at first and grew to include 72 by 1914, about half of Germany's Jewish clergy, a proportion maintained until 1933. In 1908, Vogelstein and Rabbi C\u00e4sar Seligmann also founded a congregational arm, the Union for Liberal Judaism in Germany (\"Vereinigung f\u00fcr das Liberale Judentum in Deutschland\"), finally institutionalizing the current that until then was active as a loose tendency. The Union had some 10,000 registered members in the 1920s. In 1912, Seligmann drafted a declaration of principles, \"Guiding Lines towards a Program for Liberal Judaism\" (Richtlinien zu einem Programm f\u00fcr das liberale Judentum). It stressed the importance of individual consciousness and the supremacy of ethical values to ritual practice, declared a belief in a messianic age and was adopted as \"a recommendation\", rather than a binding decision."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movement for Reform Judaism",
        "text": "Although the term \"Reform\" was occasionally conferred on the congregation, Todd Endelman stressed that they were \"unique and owed nothing\" to the continental movement. Jakob Josef Petuchowski emphasised that Marks' philosophy was the polar opposite to that espoused by the German founding fathers of Reform Judaism. The latter regarded the Beatified Sages as geniuses and progressives who developed Rabbinic Law further. Marks granted the Written Torah alone divine status, refused to call himself rabbi but insisted on \"reverend\", and even translated the Kaddish into Hebrew, viewing Aramaic prayer as a later rabbinic corruption. In his new prayerbook and Passover Haggadah, he excised or reinstated various elements, always contrary to rabbinic tradition. Petitions for the Return to Zion under the Messiah and reinstitution of sacrifices, rejected by Continental Reform, did not concern the English at all. West London was subject to a harsh denunciation and de facto ex-communication by Chief Rabbi Solomon Hirschell in 1842."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "Two further rabbinical conferences much later, in 1869 and 1871 at Leipzig and Augsburg respectively, were marked with a cautious tone. Their only outcome was the bypassing of the Loosening of the Shoe ceremony via a prenuptial agreement and the establishment of the Hochschule f\u00fcr die Wissenschaft des Judentums, though officially non-denominational, as a rabbinical seminary. While common, noted Michael Meyer, the designation \"Liberal Jew\" was more associated with political persuasion than religious conviction. The general Jewish public in Germany demonstrated little interest, especially after the 1876 law under which communal affiliation and paying parish taxes were no longer mandatory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Markus Nissa Weiss",
        "text": "Markus Nissa Weiss was a Hungarian advocate and author of the Reform Judaism movement that started in the late 18th century, with the advent of Jewish emancipation and acculturation in Central Europe. The easing of traditional patterns and norms from the population around them, led to debates in the European Jewish community regarding how the community itself might embrace the possibilities for change under these new circumstances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "An isolated, yet much more radical step in the same direction as Hamburg's, was taken across the ocean in 1824. The younger congregants in the Charleston synagogue \"Beth Elohim\" were disgruntled by present conditions and demanded change. Led by Isaac Harby and other associates, they formed their own prayer group, \"The Reformed Society of Israelites\". Apart from strictly aesthetic matters, like having sermons and synagogue affairs delivered in English, rather than Middle Spanish (as was customary among Western Sephardim), they had almost their entire liturgy solely in the vernacular, in a far greater proportion compared to the Hamburg rite. And chiefly, they felt little attachment to the traditional Messianic doctrine and possessed a clearly heterodox religious understanding. In their new prayerbook, authors Harby, Abram Mo\u00efse and David Nunes Carvalho unequivocally excised pleas for the restoration of the Jerusalem Temple; during his inaugural address on 21 November 1825, Harby stated their native country was their only Zion, not \"some stony desert\", and described the rabbis of old as \"Fabulists and Sophists... Who tortured the plainest precepts of the Law into monstrous and unexpected inferences\". The Society was short-lived, and they merged back into Beth Elohim in 1833. As in Germany, the reformers were laymen, operating in a country with little rabbinic presence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "The declining importance of the theoretical foundation, in favour of pluralism and equivocalness, did draw large crowds of newcomers. It also diversified Reform to a degree that made it hard to formulate a clear definition of it. Early and \"Classical\" Reform were characterized by a move away from traditional forms of Judaism combined with a coherent theology; \"New Reform\" sought, to a certain level, the reincorporation of many formerly discarded elements within the framework established during the \"Classical\" stage, though this very doctrinal basis became increasingly obfuscated. Critics, like Rabbi Dana Evan Kaplan, warned that Reform became more of a \"Jewish activities club\", a means to demonstrate some affinity to one's heritage in which even rabbinical students do not have to believe in any specific theology or engage in any particular practice, rather than a defined belief system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reuel Abraham",
        "text": "In 1965 he immigrated to Israel, buying a farm in Galilee. Schneider changed his name to Reuel Abraham, converted to Judaism, and became a citizen of Israel. He was circumcised in a hospital in Haifa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Congregation Keneseth Israel (Philadelphia)",
        "text": "At the end of the war, Fineshriber, as a national leader of the reform movement, opposed the creation of a Jewish state in British Palestine, which became Israel in 1948. Fineshriber, a leader among a highly visible minority of Reform Rabbis, resisted the idea of Jews being seen as a nation in need of their own state. He strongly believed that American Jews had to avoid being suspected of having dual loyalties. In essence, he saw himself as an American of the Jewish religion rather than a \"Jewish-American.\" However, when Israel was created in 1948, he modified his anti-Zionist position recognizing the utility of Israel as a haven for Holocaust survivors and other Jewish refugees."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Reform Jewish cantorate during the 19th century",
        "text": "We may attribute these events to a new dialectic obtaining between Jews who saw themselves as reformers and the views held at the time by the majority of Jews in the world. Although a modernist tendency was already present within European Jewish thought, the French Revolution and its aftermath gave free rein to those who wished to remake Judaism based on the new relationship Judaism had with Western society."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish principles of faith",
        "text": "According to the CCAR, personal autonomy still has precedence over these platforms; lay people need not accept all, or even any, of the beliefs stated in these platforms. Central Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR) President Rabbi Simeon J. Maslin wrote a pamphlet about Reform Judaism, entitled \"What We Believe... What We Do...\". It states that, \"If anyone were to attempt to answer these two questions authoritatively for all Reform Jews, that person's answers would have to be false. Why? Because one of the guiding principles of Reform Judaism is the autonomy of the individual. A Reform Jew has the right to decide whether to subscribe to this particular belief or to that particular practice.\" Reform Judaism affirms \"the fundamental principle of Liberalism: that the individual will approach this body of mitzvot and minhagim in the spirit of freedom and choice. Traditionally, Israel started with harut, the commandment engraved upon the Tablets, which then became freedom. The Reform Jew starts with herut, the freedom to decide what will be harut - engraved upon the personal Tablets of his life.\" [Bernard Martin, Ed., Contemporary Reform Jewish Thought, Quadrangle Books 1968.] In addition to those, there were the 42 Affirmations of Liberal Judaism in Britain from 1992, and the older Richtlinien zu einem Programm f\u00fcr das liberale Judentum (1912) in Germany, as well as others, all stressing personal autonomy and ongoing revelation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "According to Rabbinic Judaism, a Jew is anyone who was either born of a Jewish mother or who converted to Judaism in accordance with \"halakha\". Reconstructionist Judaism and the larger denominations of worldwide Progressive Judaism (also known as Liberal or Reform Judaism) accept the child as Jewish if one of the parents is Jewish, if the parents raise the child with a Jewish identity, but not the smaller regional branches. All mainstream forms of Judaism today are open to sincere converts, although conversion has traditionally been discouraged since the time of the Talmud. The conversion process is evaluated by an authority, and the convert is examined on his or her sincerity and knowledge. Converts are called \"ben Abraham\" or \"bat Abraham\", (son or daughter of Abraham). Conversions have on occasion been overturned. In 2008, Israel's highest religious court invalidated the conversion of 40,000 Jews, mostly from Russian immigrant families, even though they had been approved by an Orthodox rabbi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of Jewish history\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Reform Judaism\u00a0\u00b7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative Judaism",
        "text": "The rise of modern, centralized states in Europe by the early 19th century heralded the end of Jewish judicial autonomy and social seclusion. Their communal corporate rights were abolished, and the process of emancipation and acculturation that followed quickly transformed the values and norms of the public. Estrangement and apathy toward Judaism were rampant. The process of communal, educational and civil reform could not be restricted from affecting the core tenets of the faith. The new academic, critical study of Judaism (\"Wissenschaft des Judentums\") soon became a source of controversy. Rabbis and scholars argued to what degree, if at all, its findings could be used to determine present conduct. The modernized Orthodox in Germany, like rabbis Isaac Bernays and Azriel Hildesheimer, were content to cautiously study it while stringently adhering to the sanctity of holy texts and refusing to grant \"Wissenschaft\" any say in religious matters. On the other extreme were Rabbi Abraham Geiger, who would emerge as the founding father of Reform Judaism, and his supporters. They opposed any limit on critical research or its practical application, laying more weight on the need for change than on continuity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zecharias Frankel",
        "text": "Frankel held that reason based on scholarship, and not mere desire on the part of the laity, must be the justification for any reforms within Judaism. In this sense Frankel declared himself when the president of the Teplice congregation expressed the hope that the new rabbi would introduce reforms and do away with the \"Missbr\u00e4uche\" (abuses). He stated that he knew of no abuses; and that if there were any, it was not at all the business of the laity to interfere in such matters (Brann, in his \"Jahrbuch,\" 1899, pp.\u00a0109 et seq.)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "In 1885, Reform Judaism in America was confronted by challenges from both flanks. To the left, Felix Adler and his Ethical Movement rejected the need for the Jews to exist as a differentiated group. On the right, the recently arrived Rabbi Alexander Kohut, an adherent of Zecharias Frankel, lambasted it for having abandoned traditional Judaism. Einhorn's son-in-law and chief ideologue, Rabbi Kaufmann Kohler, invited leading rabbis to formulate a response. The eight clauses of the Pittsburgh Platform were proclaimed on 19 November. It added virtually nothing new to the tenets of Reform, but rather elucidated them, declaring unambiguously that: \"Today, we accept as binding only the moral laws, and maintain only such ceremonies as elevate and sanctify our lives.\" The platform was never officially ratified by either the UAHC or HUC, and many of their members even attempted to disassociate from it, fearing that its radical tone would deter potential allies. It indeed motivated a handful of conservatives to cease any cooperation with the movement and withdraw their constituencies from the UAHC. Those joined Kohut and Sabato Morais in establishing the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. It united all non-Reform currents in the country and would gradually develop into the locus of Conservative Judaism."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Jews in Germany",
        "text": "Abraham Geiger and Samuel Holdheim were two founders of the conservative movement in modern Judaism who accepted the modern spirit of liberalism. Samson Raphael Hirsch defended traditional customs, denying the modern \"spirit\". Neither of these beliefs was followed by the faithful Jews. Zecharias Frankel created a moderate reform movement in assurance with German communities. Public worships were reorganized, reduction of medieval additions to the prayer, congregational singing was introduced, and regular sermons required scientifically trained rabbis. Religious schools were enforced by the state due to a want for the addition of religious structure to secular education of Jewish children. Pulpit oratory started to thrive mainly due to German preachers, such as M. Sachs and M. Joel. Synagogal music was accepted with the help of Louis Lewandowski. Part of the evolution of the Jewish community was the cultivation of Jewish literature and associations created with teachers, rabbis, and leaders of congregations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abraham Geiger",
        "text": "Geiger was a more moderate and scholarly reformer, seeking to found this new branch of Judaism on the scientific study of history, without assuming that any Jewish text was divinely written."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "In 1840, several British Jews formed the West London Synagogue of British Jews, headed by Reverend David Woolf Marks. While the title \"Reform\" was occasionally applied to them, their approach was described as \"neo-Karaite\", and was utterly opposite to continental developments. Only a century later did they and other synagogues embrace mainland ideas and established the British Movement for Reform Judaism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "In 1907, the former Consistorial rabbi Louis-Germain L\u00e9vy, who shared a similar worldview, formed the Union Lib\u00e9rale Isra\u00e9lite de France, a small congregation that numbered barely a hundred families. It eventually evolved into the Liberal Jewish Movement of France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "The massive Orthodox reaction halted the advance of early Reform, confining it to the port city for the next twenty years. As acculturation spread throughout Central Europe, synchronized with the breakdown of traditional society and growing religious laxity, many synagogues introduced aesthetic modifications, such as replacing largely Yiddish Talmudic discources with edifying sermons in the vernacular, and promoting an atmosphere more akin to church services. Yet these changes and others, including the promotion of secular higher education for rabbis, still generated controversy, and remained largely inconsistent and lacking in coherent ideology. One of the first to adopt such modifications was Hamburg's own Orthodox community, under the newly appointed modern Rabbi Isaac Bernays. The less strict but traditional Isaac Noah Mannheimer of the Vienna Stadttempel and Michael Sachs in Prague, set the pace for most of Europe. They significantly altered custom, but wholly avoided dogmatic issues or overt injury to Jewish Law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "In 1902, Claude Montefiore and several friends, including Lily Montagu and Israel Abrahams, founded the Jewish Religious Union (JRU) in London. It served as the cornerstone of Liberal Judaism in Britain. Montefiore was greatly influenced by the ideas of early German Reformers. He and his associates were mainly driven by the example and challenge of Unitarianism, which offered upper-class Jews a universal, enlightened belief. Meyer noted that while he had original strains, Montefiore was largely dependent on Geiger and his concepts of progressive revelation, instrumentality of ritual et cetera. His Liberal Judaism was radical and puristic, matching and sometimes exceeding the Berlin and American variants. They sharply abridged liturgy and largely discarded practice. Langton has argued for the distinctly Anglo-Jewish character of the movement, which was dominated by Montefiore's idiosyncratic ideas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roots of Reform Judaism",
        "text": "Roots of Reform Judaism\n--References.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of Judaism",
        "text": "The reform movement grew out of dissatisfaction with several aspects of traditional Judaism or Rabbinic Judaism, as documented in polemics and other 19th- and early-20th-century writings. Louis Jacobs, a prominent Masorti Rabbi, described the polemics between the Orthodox and the Reform movements as follows:"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Reform Jewish cantorate during the 19th century",
        "text": "The modern Reform Cantorate is seen as a result of developments that took place during the 19th century, largely in Europe. The process continued to evolve in America following the emigration of German Reform Jews towards the end of the century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of Judaism",
        "text": "David Einhorn, an American Reform rabbi, calls Reform Judaism a \"liberation\" of Judaism :"
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "Reform Judaism recognizes a child as being Jewish if either parent is Jewish and the child is being raised Jewish. Voices within the Reform movement say that the law, which changed to matriarchal around 2,000 years ago (originally in the Torah the offspring was determined by patriarchal descent) and was based on the tragic circumstances the Jewish people were facing, was once helpful but is no longer relevant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haredi Judaism",
        "text": "In Germany, the opponents of Reform rallied to Samson Raphael Hirsch, who led a secession from German Jewish communal organizations to form a strictly Orthodox movement, with its own network of synagogues and religious schools. His approach was to accept the tools of modern scholarship and apply them in defence of Orthodox Judaism. In the Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth (including areas traditionally considered Lithuanian), Jews true to traditional values gathered under the banner of \"Agudas Shlumei Emunei Yisroel\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Reform Jewish cantorate during the 19th century",
        "text": "Rather than rabbis, the first figures to make and attempt reform were laymen. The first successful reformer of synagogue ritual was Israel Jacobson (1768\u20131822), a wealthy and influential merchant. His goal was to reform ritual as well as religious education of the Jews in Germany. In Seesen (in Lower Saxony) in 1810, he erected the first Reform temple on the grounds of a boys' school. Many innovations were based on the Christian model. The temple had a bell used to announce the time of prayer. For the first time sermons were delivered in German. Jacobson was the first to introduce confirmation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neolog Judaism",
        "text": "In the early 19th century, when the first attempts to reform Judaism under the influence of Enlightenment (\"Haskalah\") were made, they had little impact in the Kingdom of Hungary. Rabbi Aaron Chorin of Arad was an early proponent of religious modification; from the publication of his 1803 book \"Emeq ha-Shave\" and onwards, he dismissed Practical Kabbalah and the Book of Radiance, authored guidelines for modernizing Judaism according to Talmudic principles and sought to remove what he regarded as superstitious or primitive elements, like spitting in the prayer of Aleinu. In 1818, Chorin was one of the few rabbis who backed the Hamburg Temple. He drew the ire of Hungarian Orthodoxy headed by Rabbi Moses Sofer of Pressburg, and, as well, had but meager following in his country. The rural character and social seclusion of the Jews in the kingdom offered little incentive for his endeavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yariv Levin",
        "text": "Despite being affiliated as a Secular Jew himself, Levin criticized Reform Jews, especially those living in the United States, after the Israeli government's decision to expand the egalitarian section of the Western Wall. Levin said that \u201cReform Jews in the United States are a dying world. Assimilation is taking place on a vast scale. They are not even tracking this properly in their communities. It is evidenced by the fact that a man who calls himself a Reform rabbi stands there with a priest and officiates at the wedding of the daughter of Hillary Clinton and no one condemns it, thereby legitimizing it.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Moses Sofer",
        "text": "He was a teacher to thousands, and a powerful opponent of the Reform movement in Judaism, which was attracting many people from the Jewish communities in the Austrian Empire, and beyond. As Rav of the city of Pressburg, he maintained a strong Orthodox Jewish perspective through communal life, first-class education, and uncompromising opposition to Reform and radical change."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "Frankel was convinced to attend the next conference, held in Frankfurt on 15\u201328 July 1845, after many pleas. But he walked out after it passed a resolution that there were subjective, but no objective, arguments for retaining Hebrew in the liturgy. While this was quite a trivial statement, well grounded in canonical sources, Frankel regarded it as a deliberate breach with tradition and irreverence toward the collective Jewish sentiment. The 1840s, commented Meyer, saw the crystallization of Reform, narrowing from \"reformers (in the generic sense)\" who wished to modernize Judaism to some degree or other (including both Frankel and the Neo-Orthodox Samson Raphael Hirsch) \"a broad stream that embraced all opponents of the premodern status quo... to a more clearly marked current which rejected not only the religious mentality of the ghetto, but also the modernist Orthodoxy which altered form but not substance\". After his withdrawal, the conference adopted another key doctrine that Frankel opposed, and officially enshrined the idea of a future Messianic era rather than a personal redeemer. Rabbi David Einhorn elucidated a further notion, that of the Mission to bring ethical monotheism to all people, commenting that, \"Exile was once perceived as a disaster, but it was progress. Israel approached its true destiny, with sanctity replacing blood sacrifice. It was to spread the Word of the Lord to the four corners of the earth.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Movement for Reform Judaism",
        "text": "At the turn of the century, Claude Montefiore emerged as the most important religious philosopher among Anglo-Jewry. Montefiore, whose mother attended West London, studied at the Berlin Hochschule f\u00fcr die Wissenschaft des Judentums and was a disciple of the teachings of German Reformers Abraham Geiger and Samuel Holdheim. His Jewish Religious Union (JRU), the antecedent of British Liberal Judaism, was as purist and radical as American Reform Judaism, if not exceeding it. He too emphasised the ethical aspects as the essence of religion, instituted drastic ritual reforms\u00a0\u2013 over half of the Liberal liturgy was in English, men were bareheaded and sat together with women, the practical observance was not only ignored by the public (as was the case in the United Synagogue, too) but officially discarded. While the three nonconformist synagogues did not emulate the JRU, it did influence them toward greater modifications, albeit yet inconsistent. In 1919, the St. George synagogue, appealing for unaffiliated East End Jews, was opened by Basil Henriques. It was alternatively sponsored by both West London and the Liberals."
      },
      {
        "title": "General Order No. 11 (1862)",
        "text": "On January 6, Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise of Cincinnati, leader of the Reform movement, led a delegation that met with Lincoln to express gratitude for his support. Lincoln said he was surprised that Grant had issued such a command and said, \"to condemn a class is, to say the least, to wrong the good with the bad.\" Lincoln said he drew no distinction between Jew and Gentile and would allow no American to be wronged because of his religious affiliation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Union for Reform Judaism",
        "text": "Reform-like ideas in the United States were first expressed by the Reformed Society of Israelites, founded in Charleston, South Carolina on 21 November 1824. It was led by Isaac Harby, Abraham Moise, and David Nunes Carvalho, who represented the younger, Americanized, and religiously lax generation in the Congregation Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim. Standing in opposition to a more stringent establishment, formed from English-born immigrants, Harby and his followers were mainly concerned with decorum. They demanded English-language sermons, synagogue affairs handled in English rather than Early Modern Spanish (as was prevalent among Western Sephardim), and so forth. However, they also arrived at more principled issues. On their first anniversary, Harby delivered an oratory in which he declared Rabbinic Judaism a demented faith, no longer relevant, and that America was \"the Promised Land of Scripture.\" They fully seceded by their second anniversary, after continued rebuffs on the part of the wardens, forming their own prayer group. The three leaders authored a prayerbook in which they completely excised any mention of the Messiah, restoration of sacrifices, and return to Zion. It was published in 1830. Far more moderate alterations along these lines, in the first liturgy considered Reformed, caused an uproar at Hamburg in 1818."
      },
      {
        "title": "Talmud",
        "text": "The rise of Reform Judaism during the 19th century saw more questioning of the authority of the Talmud. Reform Jews saw the Talmud as a product of late antiquity, having relevance merely as a historical document. For example, the \"Declaration of Principles\" issued by the Association of Friends of Reform Frankfurt in August 1843 states among other things that:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "Some branches of Reform, while subscribing to its differentiation between ritual and ethics, chose to maintain a considerable degree of practical observance, especially in areas where a conservative Jewish majority had to be accommodated. Most Liberal communities in Germany maintained dietary standards and the like in the public sphere, both due to the moderation of their congregants and threats of Orthodox secession. A similar pattern characterizes the Movement for Reform Judaism in Britain, which attempted to appeal to newcomers from the United Synagogue, or to the IMPJ in Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movement for Reform Judaism",
        "text": "A movement only arose with the arrival of some 40,000 Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany. While worldwide Reform Judaism originated there, the nature of German communities limited what was known as \"Liberal Judaism\" to the status of a tendency within unified congregations which had to accommodate traditionalist members. German Liberals were relatively conservative (for example, maintaining mainly-Hebrew liturgy, head coverings for men and separate seating), and found the British Liberal synagogues far too radical. The moderation of the independent nonconformist ones suited them better, and immigrants overwhelmed West London and the others. They also brought along a cadre of 35 Hochschule-trained rabbis, most prominently Ignaz Maybaum and Werner van der Zyl who were aided by Reinhart in finding new posts at Britain. Harmonising ritual and religious approach to a great measure, they made their loosely related communities quite uniform. One that remained independent and strongly clung to German Liberal worship was Belsize Square Synagogue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samuel Hirsch",
        "text": "Having received a call from the Reform Congregation Keneseth Israel, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1866, he resigned his post in Europe and moved to the United States. There he succeeded Dr. David Einhorn. From his arrival onward he became closely identified with, and an open advocate of, radical Reform. In 1869 he was elected president of the rabbinical conference held in Philadelphia, at which the principles of Reform Judaism were formulated. In that year he engaged also in numerous ritual and doctrinal controversies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Missionary",
        "text": "Members of Reform Judaism began a program to convert to their brand of Judaism the non-Jewish spouses of its intermarried members and non-Jews who have an interest in Reform Judaism. Their rationale is that so many Jews were lost during the Holocaust that newcomers must be sought out and welcomed. This approach has been repudiated by Orthodox and Conservative Judaism as unrealistic and posing a danger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abraham Rice",
        "text": "Rice usually delivered his sermons in German, later occasionally in English, and insisted on retaining all the traditional \"piyyutim\" in the prayers. His constant battle against assimilation and lax observance of \"shabbat\" and \"kashrut\" brought him into conflict with many of his congregants. When he decreed that Sabbath-breakers should not be called to the Torah, there was such resistance that he had to back down; but he insisted that while they could be called up, nobody should answer \"amen\" to the blessings they recited. After an 1842 incident in which he objected to Masonic rites held at a Jewish funeral, some members left the congregation and founded the Har Sinai Verein, the first lasting Reform congregation in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beta Israel",
        "text": "In the 1970s and early 1980s, the Beta Israel were required to undergo a modified conversion ceremony involving immersion in a mikveh (ritual bath), a declaration accepting Rabbinic law, and, for men, a \"hatafat dam brit\" (symbolic recircumcision). Avraham Shapira later waived the \"hatafat dam brit\" stipulation, which is only a requirement when the \"halakhic\" doubt is significant. More recently, Shlomo Amar has ruled that descendants of Ethiopian Jews who were forced to convert to Christianity are \"unquestionably Jews in every respect\". With the consent of Ovadia Yosef, Amar ruled that it is forbidden to question the Jewishness of this community, pejoratively called Falash Mura in reference to their having converted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beta Israel",
        "text": "In the same \"responsum\", he concludes that if the Ethiopian Jewish community wished to return to rabbinic Judaism, they would be received and welcomed into the fold, just as the Karaites who returned to the teachings of the Rabbanites in the time of Rabbi Abraham ben Maimonides."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish religious movements",
        "text": "In response to the challenges of integrating Jewish life with Enlightenment values, German Jews in the early 19th century began to develop the concept of Reform Judaism, adapting Jewish practice to the new conditions of an increasingly urbanized and secular community. Staunch opponents of the Reform movement became known as Orthodox Jews. Later, members of the Reform movement who felt that it was moving away from tradition too quickly formed the Conservative movement. At the same time, the notion \"traditional Judaism\" includes the Orthodox with Conservative or solely the Orthodox Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conversion to Judaism",
        "text": "In the 1980s Modern Orthodox Rabbi Norman Lamm, Rosh Yeshiva of Yeshiva University, along with other American and Israeli Orthodox rabbis, worked with Conservative and Reform rabbis to come up with solution to the \"Who is a Jew?\" issue. In 1989 and 1990 Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir spearheaded an effort to find a way to resolve the impasse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jacob Hoffman (rabbi)",
        "text": "When, some 50\u201360 years earlier, Rabbi Hirsch began rejuvenating Orthodoxy in Germany, he believed that success would only come by starting anew. That meant seceding from the larger Jewish community\u2014which included Reform Jews\u2014and creating a totally independent community. This independent community, Rabbi Hirsch insisted, should represent pure and authentic Orthodoxy and be recognized by the government for doing so. To Rabbi Hirsch, any Orthodox community that belonged to an umbrella organization with heterodox groups had no right to represent authentic Torah Judaism. This caused a rift within German Orthodoxy, for while many within the Orthodox community aligned themselves with Rabbi Hirsch's philosophy, many others did not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "On 26 May 1999, after a prolonged debate and six widely different drafts rejected, a \"Statement of Principles for Reform Judaism\" was adopted in Pittsburgh by the Central Conference of American Rabbis. It affirmed the \"reality and oneness of God\", the Torah as \"God's ongoing revelation to our people\", and committed to the \"ongoing study of the whole array of Commandments and to the fulfillment of those that address us as individuals and as a community. Some of these sacred obligations have long been observed by Reform Jews; others, both ancient and modern, demand renewed attention.\" While the wording was carefully crafted in order not to displease the estimated 20%\u201325% of membership that retained Classicist persuasions, it did raise condemnation from many of them. In 2008, the Society for Classical Reform Judaism was founded to mobilize and coordinate those who preferred the old universalist, ethics-based and less-observant religious style, with its unique aesthetic components. SCRJ leader, Rabbi Howard A. Berman, claimed that the neo-traditional approach, adopted by the URJ, alienated more congregants than those it drew in."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "On 3\u20136 November 1869, the two and their followers met in Philadelphia. Described by Meyer as American Reform's \"declaration of independence\", they stated their commitment to the principles already formulated in Germany: priestly privileges, the belief in Resurrection, and a personal Messiah were denied. A practical, far-reaching measure, not instituted in the home country until 1910, was acceptance of civil marriage and divorce. A \"get\" was no longer required. In 1873, Wise founded the Union of American Hebrew Congregations (since 2003, Union for Reform Judaism), the denominational body. In 1875, he established the movement's rabbinical seminary, Hebrew Union College, at Cincinnati, Ohio. He and Einhorn also quarreled in the matter of liturgy, each issuing his own prayerbook, \"Minhag America\" (American Rite) and \"Olat Tamid\" (Regular Burnt Offering) respectively, which they hoped to make standard issue. Eventually, the Union Prayer Book was adopted in 1895. The movement spread rapidly: in 1860, when it began its ascent, there were few Reform synagogues and 200 Orthodox in the United States. By 1880, a mere handful of the existing 275 were not affiliated with it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "Cohon and Freehof rose against the background of the Great Depression, when many congregations teetered on the threshold of collapse. Growing Antisemitism in Europe led German Liberals on similar paths. Rabbis Leo Baeck, Max Dienemann and Seligmann himself turned to stressing Jewish peoplehood and tradition. The Nazis' takeover in 1933 effected a religious revival in communities long plagued by apathy and assimilation. The great changes convinced the CCAR to adopt a new set of principles. On 29 May 1937, in Columbus, Ohio, a \"Declaration of Principles\" (eschewing the more formal, binding \"platform\"), promoted a greater degree of ritual observance, supported Zionism \u2013 considered by the Classicists in the past as, at best, a remedy for the unemancipated Jewish masses in Russia and Romania, while they did not regard the Jews as a nation in the modern sense \u2013 and opened not with theology, but by the statement, \"Judaism is the historical religious experience of the Jewish people\". The Columbus Principles signified the transformation from \"Classical\" to the \"New Reform Judaism\", characterized by a lesser focus on abstract concepts and a more positive attitude to practice and traditional elements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roots of Reform Judaism",
        "text": "2. \u201cReform is Too Frum For Us, Say Members.\u201d The JC, 2009. https://www.thejc.com/news/world/reform-is-too-frum-for-us-say-members-1.13101"
      },
      {
        "title": "Abraham Cronbach",
        "text": "Cronbach first served as rabbi at the reform congregation of Temple Beth El in South Bend, Indiana. In 1911 he spent a year studying at the University of Cambridge in England and the Hochschule fur die Wissenschaft des Judentums in Berlin. In 1915 he received the Doctor of Divinity degree from Hebrew Union College."
      },
      {
        "title": "Menachem Mendel Schneerson",
        "text": "He corresponded with David Ben-Gurion on the issue of Judaism in the State of Israel, asking the Prime Minister to ensure that Israel \"remains Jewish\". He lobbied Israeli politicians to pass legislation in accordance with Jewish law on the question \"Who is a Jew?\" and asked that they add the words \"according to Halakha\" to the declaration so that it state that \"only one who is born of a Jewish mother or converted according to Halakha is Jewish\". This caused a furor in the United States. Some American Jewish philanthropies stopped financially supporting Chabad-Lubavitch since most of their members were connected to Reform and Conservative Judaism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "Akin to this is the use of the Arabic Ibn which is relaten to Hebraic \"ben\" like in \"benjamin\" or ben yamin, (meaning son of, also spelled Aben, Aven, Avin) to form a family name amongst Mizrahim who lived in the Eastern part of the Arab world. Among the best known of this formation are Ibn Aknin, Ibn Danan (hence Abendana), Ibn Latif, Ibn Migas, Ibn Verga. Those Jews who lived in the North Africa countries (especially Morocco) chose the use of the word O or sometimes spelled \"U\" (belonging to), which created the names Ou'Hanna, (son of Hanna, also spelled Bohana, Abuhana, Abuhenna), O'Hayon (son of Life), O'Knine (son of Yacob, also spelled Waknin, Ouaknin)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Berkowitz",
        "text": "After graduation from the Central High School of Pittsburgh in 1872 he attended Cornell University because he wanted to be a lawyer. Berkowitz decided to become a Reform rabbi because he heard a sermon by Isaac Mayer Wise and enrolled at the new Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion founded by him, where he graduated in 1883 in the first class. He also graduated at the University of Cincinnati in the same year. In 1887 he received the D.D. degree from the Hebrew Union College."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Zionism",
        "text": "Union member Isaac Wolfe Bernheim was opposed to political Zionism supported the establishment of the Reform Church of American Israelites made up of \"100 percent Americans\" so that the \"voice of the real American Israel may be heard\". Bernheim and publications like \"The American Hebrew\" suggested replacing the term \"Jewish\" to avoid association with Zionist ideology, which they feared could create doubts about their loyalty to America. These proposals were unpopular and unsuccessful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "During its formative era, Reform was oriented toward lesser ceremonial obligations. In 1846, the Breslau rabbinical conference abolished the second day of festivals; during the same years, the Berlin Reform congregation held prayers without blowing the Ram's Horn, phylacteries, mantles or head covering, and held its Sabbath services on Sunday. In the late 19th and early 20th century, American \"Classical Reform\" often emulated Berlin on a mass scale, with many communities conducting prayers along the same style and having additional services on Sunday. An official rescheduling of Sabbath to Sunday was advocated by Kaufmann Kohler for some time, though he retracted it eventually. Religious divorce was declared redundant and the civil one recognized as sufficient by American Reform in 1869, and in Germany by 1912; the laws concerning dietary and personal purity, the priestly prerogatives, marital ordinances and so forth were dispensed with, and openly revoked by the 1885 Pittsburgh Platform, which declared all ceremonial acts binding only if they served to enhance religious experience. From 1890, converts were no longer obligated to be circumcised. Similar policy was pursued by Claude Montefiore's Jewish Religious Union, established at Britain in 1902. The Vereinigung f\u00fcr das Liberale Judentum in Germany, which was more moderate, declared virtually all personal observance voluntary in its 1912 guidelines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abraham Goldfaden",
        "text": "In Russia, Goldfaden and his troupe drew large audiences and were generally popular with progressive Jewish intellectuals, but slowly ran afoul of both the Czarist government and conservative elements in the Jewish community. Goldfaden was calling for change in the Jewish world:\n: \"Wake up my people\"\n: \"From your sleep, wake up\"\n: \"And believe no more in foolishness.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Adolph Moses Radin",
        "text": "Radin received his Talmudic education in Volozhin and Eiseshok. He then went to Prussia and studied in the University of Berlin, the University of K\u00f6nigsberg (where he edited the \"J\u00fcdische Grenzbote\"), and the University of Greifswald (where he received his Ph.D.). He then worked as a rabbi, first in Prussia at Mewe and Kempen and then in Poland at Kalisz and \u0141\u00f3d\u017a. He immigrated to America in the fall of 1886, and within a month he became rabbi of the Jewish congregation at Elmira, New York and visiting Jewish chaplain of the New York State Reformatory in that city."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marcus Jastrow",
        "text": "He was removed by his congregation in September 1892 in favor of the Reform ordained Dr. Henry Berkowitz. Dr. Jastrow attributed this decision to the growing popularity of radical reforms and the congregation's desire to compete for membership with the more liberal synagogues. In his farewell speech he chastised his congregation insisting that \"he who does not feel himself in unison with the tenets of Israel's religion as they have been transmitted from generation to generation, [is] not justified in occupying a Jewish pulpit established for the proclamation of Jewish doctrines.\" Several efforts were made by him to prevent the introduction of certain reforms, including articles in the public press. In 1894, the Board felt the necessity to write him to ask him to refrain from publishing articles that might create strife in the congregation. He served as rabbi emeritus of the congregation until his death in 1903, on the Jewish festival of Shemini Atzereth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abraham Carel Wertheim",
        "text": "He was involved in a large number of Jewish communal organisations in Amsterdam, including being the president of the Jewish community. While he was not observant himself, he did not advocate reform and considered Orthodoxy the only representative movement within Judaism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reform Judaism",
        "text": "The movement never entirely abandoned \"halakhic\" (traditional jurisprudence) argumentation, both due to the need for precedent to counter external accusations and the continuity of heritage, but had largely made ethical considerations or the spirit of the age the decisive factor in determining its course. The German founding fathers undermined the principles behind the legalistic process, which was based on a belief in an unbroken tradition through the ages merely elaborated and applied to novel circumstances, rather than subject to change. Rabbi Samuel Holdheim advocated a particularly radical stance, arguing that the \"halakhic\" Law of the Land is Law principle must be universally applied and subject virtually everything to current norms and needs, far beyond its weight in conventional Jewish Law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hebraization of surnames",
        "text": "This process started with individuals like Eliezer Ben-Yehuda (Perelman) and was adopted by the New Yishuv. Before the founding of the State of Israel, in 1944, the Zionist leadership and the Jewish National Council proclaimed it the \"Year of naturalization and the Hebrew name\". A special committee under the chairmanship of Mordechai Nemzabi, the Jewish Agency advisor on matters of civilian defense, published a booklet which contained guidelines on the creation on new Hebrew surnames.\n;Changing a foreign surname to Hebrew:\n#Change of vocalization: \"Leib\" becomes \"Lev\"\n#Change of consonants: \"Borg\" or \"Brog\" becomes \"Barak\"\n#Shortening by omitting the ending: \"Rosenberg\" becomes \"Rosen\"\n#Shortening a name with a Hebrew meaning, by omitting the foreign suffix: \"Yakobovitch\" (\"Jacobowitz\", \"Jacobowicz\") becomes \"Ya'akovi\"\n#Translating the foreign name into Hebrew according to the meaning: \"Abramovich\" (\"Abramowicz\", \"Abramowitz\") becomes \"Ben Avraham\"\n;First names as surnames:\n#Name of a father or mother who were murdered during the Shoah, thus: \"Bat Miriam\", \"Ben Moshe\", \"Devorin\"\n#Son or daughter who fell in battle: \"Avinoam\"\n#Brother or sister who were killed or fell: \"Achimeir\"\n#Beloved or admired biblical figure: \"Shaul\", \"Davidi\"\n;Change of names by names of places, plants or sites in Eretz Yisrael:\n#Places or sites: \"Hermoni\", \"Eilat\", \"Gilad\"\n#Plants, especially plants of the Land of Israel: \"Eshel\" (\"orchard\", \"garden\"), \"Rotem\" (\"retama\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Abba Hillel Silver",
        "text": "Born Abraham Silver in Naumiestis, in the Suwa\u0142ki Governorate of Congress Poland, a part of the Russian Empire (present-day Lithuania), son and grandson of Orthodox rabbis, he was brought to the US at the age of nine. A Zionist from his youth, he made his first speech at a Zionist meeting at age fourteen. Educated in the public schools and after-school Jewish schools of New York City's Lower East Side, he left after high school to attend the Hebrew Union College (HUC) and the University of Cincinnati. After graduation as valedictorian of his HUC class and ordination in 1915\u2014and now known as Abba Hillel Silver\u2014he served as rabbi of a small congregation, Leshem Shomayim, now Temple Shalom (Wheeling, West Virginia). In 1917, at age twenty-four, he became rabbi of The Temple - Tifereth Israel in Cleveland, Ohio, one of the nation's largest and best-known Reform congregations, where he served for forty-six years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish name",
        "text": "It was already noticed in Talmudic times that the use of family names had died out. The name of Rabbi Meir was said to be derived from an experience at school which was regarded as being of good omen. It is recommended not to name a child after enemies of the Jews, like Sisera and Pharaoh, but to use the names of the Patriarchs (i.e. Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vayeira",
        "text": "Ravina asked one of the Rabbis who expounded Aggadah before him for the origin of the Rabbinic saying, \"The memory of the righteous shall be for a blessing.\" The Rabbi replied that says, \"The memory of the righteous shall be for a blessing.\" Ravina asked from where in the Torah one might derive that teaching. The Rabbi answered that says, \"Shall I hide from Abraham that which I am doing?\" And right after that mention of Abraham's name, God blessed Abraham in , saying, \"Abraham shall surely become a great and mighty nation.\""
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some traditions of the Jewish people?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Which Jewish denominations' traditions are you interested in learning about? Outside of Israel (where the situation is rather different) the main denominations are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about the traditions of Orthodox Jews."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Orthodox Judaism emphasizes practicing rules of kashrut, Shabbat, family purity, and tefilah (daily prayer). Orthodox men and women dress modestly, Orthodox men and women do not engage in physical contact with those of the opposite sex outside of their spouse, or immediate family members, doorposts have a mezuzah and separate sinks for meat and dairy have become increasingly common."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some ways Reform denominations are different than Orthodox, in that case?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Orthodox Judaism, girls receive bat mitzvahs at age 12, while it is 13 for those who practice Reform Judaism, and they also do not accept religious pluralism, which Reform Judaism does. Reform Judaism also holds the view that rabbinic Jewish law is no longer the standard for modern Jews, and most religious rituals are no longer necessary, which is considered heretical by the Orthodox, who consider religious laws to be binding. Would you like to learn more about Reform or Orthodox Judaism, or their religious laws, known as Halakha?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who started Reform Judaism?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The origins of Reform Judaism lie in 19th-century Germany, where Rabbi Abraham Geiger and his associates formulated its early principles."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What motivated Rabbi Abraham to do that?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I did not find his direct motivation, but I did find that S since the 1970s, the movement has adopted a policy of inclusiveness and acceptance, inviting as many as possible to partake in its communities, rather than strict theoretical clarity."
    ],
    "topic": "Jewish name",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Reform Judaism:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Reform Judaism"
        ],
        "ctx": "The origins of Reform Judaism lie in 19th-century Germany, where Rabbi Abraham Geiger and his associates formulated its early principles. Since the 1970s, the movement has adopted a policy of inclusiveness and acceptance, inviting as many as possible to partake in its communities, rather than strict theoretical clarity. It is strongly identified with progressive political and social agendas, mainly under the traditional Jewish rubric \"tikkun olam\", or \"repairing of the world\". \"Tikkun olam\" is a central motto of Reform Judaism, and action for its sake is one of the main channels for adherents to express their affiliation. The movement's most significant center today is in North America."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Open Orthodoxy",
        "text": "In striving for a more 'liberal' Orthodox Judaism, Weiss was required to clarify the differences between the Orthodox and non-Orthodox movements within Judaism. He states that all Orthodox Judaism, including Open Orthodoxy, fundamentally differs from Conservative Judaism in three areas.\n# Orthodox Jews believe that the Torah was given by God at Mount Sinai in its current form.\n# Orthodoxy believes that \"legal authority is cumulative, and that a contemporary \"posek\" [decider] can only issue judgments based on a full history of Jewish legal precedent\", whereas Conservative Jews believe \"precedent provides illustrations of possible positions rather than binding law. Conservatism, therefore, remains free to select whichever position within the prior history appeals to it\".\n# Orthodoxy is characterized by ritually-observant members who \"meticulously keep Shabbat (the Sabbath), Kashrut (the Dietary Laws), Taharat ha-Mishpaha (the Laws of Family Purity), and pray three times a day\", whereas Conservative Judaism \"is generally not composed of ritually observant Jews. Thus, only in our community if a 'permissive custom' is accepted, can it be meaningful.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Halakha",
        "text": "A key practical difference between Conservative and Orthodox approaches is that Conservative Judaism holds that its rabbinical body's powers are not limited to reconsidering later precedents based on earlier sources, but the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards (CJLS) is empowered to override Biblical and Taanitic prohibitions by \"takkanah\" (decree) when perceived to be inconsistent with modern requirements or views of ethics. The CJLS has used this power on a number of occasions, most famously in the \"driving teshuva\", which says that if someone is unable to walk to any synagogue on the Sabbath, and their commitment to observance is so loose that not attending synagogue may lead them to drop it altogether, their rabbi may give them a dispensation to drive there and back; and more recently in its decision prohibiting the taking of evidence on \"mamzer\" status on the grounds that implementing such a status is immoral. The CJLS has also held that the Talmudic concept of \"Kavod HaBriyot\" permits lifting rabbinic decrees (as distinct from carving narrow exceptions) on grounds of human dignity, and used this principle in a December 2006 opinion lifting all rabbinic prohibitions on homosexual conduct (the opinion held that only male-male anal sex was forbidden by the Bible and that this remained prohibited). Conservative Judaism also made a number of changes to the role of women in Judaism including counting women in a minyan, permitting women to chant from the Torah, and ordaining women as rabbis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Relationships between Jewish religious movements",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism holds that Orthodox Judaism is a valid and legitimate form of normative rabbinic Judaism; it respects the validity of its rabbis. Conservative Judaism holds that both Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism have made major and unjustifiable breaks with historic Judaism, both by their rejection of Jewish law and tradition as normative, and by their unilateral acts in creating a separate definition of Jewishness (i.e., the latter movement's acceptance of patrilineal descent as an additional way of defining Jewishness). Despite this disagreement, Conservative Judaism respects the right of Reform and Reconstructionist Jews to interpret Judaism in their own way. Thus, the Conservative movement recognizes the right of Jews to form such denominations, and recognizes their clergy as rabbis, but does not generally accept their decisions as valid. Thus, for example, the Conservative movement typically does not accept Reform converts to Judaism whose conversions did not meet the requirements of Jewish law as being Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative halakha",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism relies on a somewhat different Jewish legal methodology than is typical of Orthodoxy. The prominent Conservative rabbi Mordecai Waxman has written that \"Reform Judaism has asserted the right of interpretation, but it rejected the authority of legal tradition. Orthodoxy has clung fast to the principle of authority but has rejected the right to significant reinterpretations. The Conservative view is that both are necessary for a living Judaism. Accordingly, Conservative Judaism holds itself bound by the Jewish legal tradition, but asserts the right of its rabbinical body, acting as a whole, to reinterpret and to apply Jewish law.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "The divergence of views has become an issue because Orthodox and Conservative communities do not recognize a person as Jewish if only their father is Jewish. For the person to be accepted as Jewish by an Orthodox or Conservative community (for example, on an occasion of their bar or bat mitzvah or marriage), they require a formal conversion (in accordance with halakhic standards). Orthodox Judaism has a predominant position in Israel. Although Orthodox and Conservative Judaism do not recognize Jewishness through patrilineal descent, \"it should also be noted, however, that in the case of a child born to a Jewish father but to a non-Jewish mother, most Orthodox rabbis will relax the stringent demands normally made of would-be converts\", and the Rabbinical Assembly of the Conservative movement \"agreed that 'sincere Jews by choice' should be warmly welcomed into the community\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative Judaism",
        "text": "The Conservative leadership had limited success in imparting their worldview to the general public. While the rabbinate perceived itself as bearing a unique, original conception of Judaism, the masses lacked much interest, regarding it mainly as a compromise offering a channel for religious identification that was more traditional than Reform Judaism yet less strict than Orthodoxy. Only a low percentage of Conservative congregants actively pursue an observant lifestyle: in the mid-1980s, Charles Liebman and Daniel J. Elazar calculated that barely 3 to 4 per cent held to one quite thoroughly. This gap between principle and the public, more pronounced than in any other Jewish movement, is often credited at explaining the decline of the Conservative movement. While some 41 per cent of American Jews identified with it in the 1970s, it had shrunk to an estimated 18 per cent (and 11 per cent among those under 30) in 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modern Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "In some areas, Modern Orthodoxy's left wing appears to align with more traditional elements of Conservative Judaism, and in fact some on the left of Modern Orthodoxy have allied with the formerly Conservative Union for Traditional Judaism. Nonetheless, the two movements are generally described as distinct. Rabbi Avi Weiss, from the left of Modern Orthodoxy, stresses that Orthodox and Conservative Judaism are \"so very different in ... three fundamental areas: \"Torah mi-Sinai\", rabbinic interpretation, and rabbinic legislation\". Weiss argues as follows:\n* \"Torah mi-Sinai\" (\"Torah From Sinai\"): Modern Orthodoxy, in line with the rest of Orthodoxy, holds that Jewish law is Divine in origin, and as such, no underlying \"principle\" may be compromised in accounting for changing political, social or economic conditions, whereas Conservative Judaism holds that Poskim should make use of literary and historical analysis in deciding Jewish law, and may reverse decisions of the Acharonim that are held to be inapplicable today.\n* Rabbinic interpretation: (Modern) Orthodoxy contends that legal authority is cumulative, and that a contemporary \"posek\" (decisor) can only issue judgments based on a full history of Jewish legal precedent, whereas the implicit argument of the Conservative movement is that precedent provides illustrations of possible positions rather than binding law. Conservatism, therefore, remains free to select whichever position within the prior history appeals to it.\n* Rabbinic legislation: Since the (Modern) Orthodox community is ritually observant, rabbinic law legislated by (today's) Orthodox rabbis can meaningfully become binding if accepted by the community (see minhag). Conservative Judaism, on the other hand, has a largely non-observant laity. Thus, although Conservatism similarly holds that \"no law has authority unless it becomes part of the concern and practice of the community\" communal acceptance of a \"permissive custom\" is not \"meaningful\", and, as a result, related rabbinic legislation cannot assume the status of law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Between the ultra-Orthodox and Conservatives, Modern Orthodoxy in America also coalesced, becoming less a generic term and more a distinct movement. Its leader in the postwar era, Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik, left Agudas Israel to adopt both pro-Zionist positions and a positive, if reserved, attitude toward Western culture. As dean of RIETS and honorary chair of RCA's \"halakha\" committee, Soloveitchik shaped Modern Orthodoxy for decades. While ideological differences with the Conservatives were clear, as the RCA stressed the divinely revealed status of the Torah and a strict observance of \"halakha\", sociological boundaries were less so. Many members of the Modern Orthodox public were barely observant, and a considerable number of communities did not install a gender partition in their synagogues \u2013 physically separate seating became the distinguishing mark of Orthodox/Conservative affiliation in the 1950s, and was strongly promulgated by the RCA \u2013 for many years. As late as 1997, seven OU congregations still lacked a partition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gordon Tucker",
        "text": "An important difference between Conservative and Orthodox Judaism is that Conservative Judaism empowers modern rabbis to issue takkanot (decrees) modifying Biblical prohibitions, when perceived to be necessary. However, such decrees must be rooted in halakhic process and precedent. Conservative Judaism has adopted takkanot only for a few exceptional matters, such as the abolition of the biblical category of mamzer (a child whose mother is married to a someone other than the biological father or is the product of an incestuous relationship). Orthodox Judaism takes a more limited view as to how law can be changed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Indeed, a broad non-Reform, relatively traditional camp slowly coalesced as the minority within American Jewry; while strict in relation to their progressive opponents, they served a nonobservant public and instituted thorough synagogue reforms \u2013 omission of \"piyyutim\" from the liturgy, English-language sermons and secular education for the clergy were the norm in most, and many Orthodox synagogues in America did not partition men and women. In 1885, the antinomian Pittsburgh Platform moved a broad coalition of conservative religious leaders to found the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. They variously termed their ideology, which was never consistent and mainly motivated by a rejection of Reform, as \"Enlightened Orthodoxy\" or \"Conservative Judaism\". The latter term would only gradually assume a clearly distinct meaning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Relationships between Jewish religious movements",
        "text": "The Conservative movement, while respecting the validity of Orthodox rabbis, believes that Orthodoxy has deviated from historical Judaism through an insistence on the halachic principle of binding legal precedent, in particular with respect to relatively recent codifications of Jewish law. A prominent Conservative spokesman has written:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative halakha",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism holds that both the ethical and ritual mitzvot (\"biblical commandments\") are normative. Conservative Jews are obligated to observe ritual laws, including the laws of Shabbat (the Jewish Sabbath), kashrut (dietary rules), daily prayer and Jewish holidays, and life-cycle events, as well as guidelines in such matters as medical and social ethics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Relationships between Jewish religious movements",
        "text": "Orthodox Judaism holds that both Conservative and Reform Judaism have made major and unjustifiable breaks with historic Judaism - both by their skepticism of the verbal revelation of the Written and the Oral Torah, and by their rejection of \"halakha\" (Jewish law) as binding (although to varying degrees). It views religious pluralism as a construct of the liberal movements, and does not see their ideology as rooted in historic Jewish norms. While not recognizing Reform and Conservative as valid expressions of Judaism, it recognizes most who are affiliated with these movements as full-fledged Jews, aside from those whose Judaism is of patrilineal descent or who were converted under Conservative or Reform auspices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of Conservative Judaism",
        "text": "Moreover, Rabbi Avi Weiss, an Open Orthodox rabbi on the left wing of Orthodox Judaism, also characterized the differences between Orthodox and Conservative Judaism in a manner critical of the Conservative approach:\n:Despite variations in style and approach, the system that we hold as holy sets us fundamentally apart from our Conservative co-religionists whose vision of the Jewish legal process is so very different in each of these three fundamental areas of Halakha: \"Torah mi-Sinai\" [\"Torah from Sinai\", the belief that the Torah was given by God to Moses on Mount Sinai], rabbinic interpretation, and rabbinic legislation.\n:The belief in \"Torah mi-Sinai\" is, for all Orthodox Jews, the foundation of faith and at the core of the halakhic process. Conservative Judaism does not subscribe to this teaching. Moreover, in the area of rabbinic law, we Orthodox\u2014Modern and Right alike\u2014contend that legal authority is cumulative, and that a contemporary \"posek\" (legal decisor) can only issue judgments based on a full history of Jewish legal precedent. In contrast, the implicit argument of the Conservative movement is that precedent provides illustrations of possible positions rather than binding law. Conservatism, therefore, remains free to select whichever position within the prior legal history appeals to it. Likewise, we adhere and turn to the wisdom of the most distinguished religio-legal authorities in making Halakhic determinations. Not so the Conservatives. Truth be told, when the Conservative movement faced some of its most controversial \"new \"halakhot\"\", such as the ordination of women, it turned away from its own Talmudic scholars and experts in Halakha, who had almost universally rejected the reasoning on which this new practice was to be based, and who have since virtually all left the faculty of the Jewish Theological Seminary.\n:Finally, in understanding the value of rabbinic law legislated by today's rabbis, it must be appreciated that at this juncture in our people's history in America, the Orthodox community is blessed with large numbers of ritually observant Jews. Across the spectrum of Orthodoxy, myriads of people meticulously keep Shabbat (the Sabbath), Kashrut (the Dietary Laws), \"Taharat ha-mishapahah\" (the Laws of Family Purity) and pray three times a day. Thus, if a \"permissive custom\" is accepted, it can become binding. This is not true of Conservatism's constituency, which is generally not composed of ritually-observant Jews. Thus, only in our community if a \"permissive custom\" is accepted, can it be meaningful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "Orthodoxy is often divided into Haredi Judaism and Modern Orthodox Judaism. Haredi is less accommodating to modernity and has less interest in non-Jewish disciplines, and it may be distinguished from Modern Orthodox Judaism in practice by its styles of dress and more stringent practices. Subsets of Haredi Judaism include Hasidic Judaism, which is rooted in the Kabbalah and distinguished by reliance on a Rebbe or religious teacher; their opponents Misnagdim (Lithuanian); and Sephardic Haredi Judaism, which emerged among Sephardic and Mizrahi (Asian and North African) Jews in Israel. \"Centrist\" Orthodoxy (Joseph B. Soloveitchik) is sometimes also distinguished.\n* Conservative Judaism is characterized by a commitment to traditional \"halakha\" and customs, including observance of Shabbat and kashrut, a deliberately non-fundamentalist teaching of Jewish principles of faith, a positive attitude toward modern culture, and an acceptance of both traditional rabbinic and modern scholarship when considering Jewish religious texts. Conservative Judaism teaches that \"halakha\" is not static, but has always developed in response to changing conditions. It holds that the Torah is a divine document written by prophets inspired by God and reflecting his will, but rejects the Orthodox position that it was dictated by God to Moses. Conservative Judaism holds that the Oral Law is divine and normative, but holds that both the Written and Oral Law may be interpreted by the rabbis to reflect modern sensibilities and suit modern conditions.\n*Reform Judaism, called Liberal or Progressive Judaism in many countries, defines Judaism in relatively universalist terms, rejects most of the ritual and ceremonial laws of the Torah while observing moral laws, and emphasizes the ethical call of the Prophets. Reform Judaism has developed an egalitarian prayer service in the vernacular (along with Hebrew in many cases) and emphasizes personal connection to Jewish tradition.\n* Reconstructionist Judaism, like Reform Judaism, does not hold that \"halakha\", as such, requires observance, but unlike Reform, Reconstructionist thought emphasizes the role of the community in deciding what observances to follow.\n* Jewish Renewal is a recent North American movement which focuses on spirituality and social justice but does not address issues of \"halakha\". Men and women participate equally in prayer.\n* Humanistic Judaism is a small non-theistic movement centered in North America and Israel that emphasizes Jewish culture and history as the sources of Jewish identity.\n* Subbotniks (Sabbatarians) are a movement of Jews of Russian ethnic origin in the 18th\u201320th centuries, the majority of whom belonged to Rabbinic and Karaite Judaism. Many settled in the Holy Land as part of the Zionist First Aliyah in order to escape oppression in the Russian Empire and later mostly intermarried with other Jews, their descendants included Alexander Za\u00efd, Major-General Alik Ron, and the mother of Ariel Sharon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clergy",
        "text": "In Conservative Judaism, both men and women are ordained as rabbis and cantors. Conservative Judaism differs with Orthodoxy in that it sees Jewish Law as binding but also as subject to many interpretations, including more liberal interpretations. Academic requirements for becoming a rabbi are rigorous. First earn a bachelor's degree before entering rabbinical school. Studies are mandated in pastoral care and psychology, the historical development of Judaism and most importantly the academic study of Bible, Talmud and rabbinic literature, philosophy and theology, liturgy, Jewish history, and Hebrew literature of all periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Union of Orthodox Rabbis",
        "text": "The group has regularly placed advertisements in Jewish newspapers shortly before the High Holy Days, prohibiting worship at non-Orthodox synagogues. Similarly, the Friday April 4, 1997 edition of \"The Jewish Press\", quoted from \"A Historic Declaration\", issued by the Union of Orthodox Rabbis on March 31, 1997:\n:Reform and Conservative are not Judaism at all. Their adherents are Jews, according to the Jewish Law, but their religion is not Judaism...we appeal to our fellow Jew, members of the Reform and Conservative movements: Having been falsely led by heretical leaders that Reform and Conservative are legitimate branches and denominations of Judaism, we urge you to be guided by this declaration, and withdraw from your affiliation with Reform and Conservative temples and their clergy. Do not hesitate to attend an Orthodox synagogue due to your inadequate observance of Judaism. On the contrary, it is because of that inadequacy that you need to attend an Orthodox synagogue where you will be warmly welcomed..."
      },
      {
        "title": "Relationships between Jewish religious movements",
        "text": "Reform has asserted the right of interpretation but it rejected the authority of legal tradition. Orthodoxy has clung fast to the principle of authority, but has in our own and recent generations rejected the right to any but minor interpretations. The Conservative view is that both are necessary for a living Judaism. Accordingly, Conservative Judaism holds itself bound by the Jewish legal tradition, but asserts the right of its rabbinical body, acting as a whole, to interpret and to apply Jewish law.\n:\u2014 Mordecai Waxman, \"Tradition and Change: The Development of Conservative Judaism\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "An important ramification of \"Torah min HaShamayim\" in modern times is the reserved, and often totally rejectionist, attitude of Orthodoxy toward the historical-critical method, particularly higher criticism of the Bible. A refusal by rabbis to significantly employ such tools in determining \"halakhic\" decisions, and insistence on traditional methods and the need for consensus and continuity with past authorities, is a demarcation line separating the most liberal-leaning Orthodox rabbinic circles from the most right-wing non-Orthodox ones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Committee on Jewish Law and Standards",
        "text": "A key practical difference between Conservative and Orthodox approaches to halakhah is that Conservative Judaism holds that rabbis in our day and age are empowered to issue \"takkanot\" (decrees) modifying Biblical prohibitions, when perceived to be necessary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "American Jewry of the 19th century, small and lacking traditional institutions or strong rabbinic presence due to its immigrant-based nature, was a hotbed of religious innovation. Voluntary congregations, rather than corporate communities, were the norm; separation of church and state, and dynamic religiosity of the independent Protestant model, shaped synagogue life. In the mid-19th century, Reform Judaism spread rapidly, advocating a formal relinquishment of traditions very few in the secularized, open environment observed anyhow; the United States would be derisively named the \"Treife Medina\", or \"Profane Country\", in Yiddish. Conservative elements, concerned mainly with public standards of observance in critical fields like marriage, rallied around Isaac Leeser. Lacking a rabbinic ordination and little knowledgeable by European standards, Leeser was an ultra-traditionalist in his American milieu. In 1845 he introduced the words \"Orthodox\" and \"Orthodoxy\" into the American Jewish discourse, in the sense of opposing Reform; while admiring Samson Raphael Hirsch, Leeser was an even stauncher proponent of Zecharias Frankel, whom he considered the \"leader of the Orthodox party\" at a time when Positive-Historical and Orthodox positions were barely discernible from each other to most observers (in 1861, Leeser defended Frankel in the polemic instigated by Hirsch)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conversion to Judaism",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism takes a more lenient approach in application of the \"halakhic\" rules than Modern Orthodox Judaism. Its approach to the validity of conversions is based on whether the conversion procedure followed rabbinic norms, rather than the reliability of those performing it or the nature of the obligations the convert undertook. Accordingly, it may accept the validity of some Reform and Reconstructionist conversions, but only if they include immersion in a ritual bath (mikvah), appearance before a rabbinical court (beit din) and, for men, circumcision (\"brit milah\") or a symbolic circumcision for those already circumcised (\"hatafat dam brit\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative Judaism",
        "text": "Jewish immigration to the United States bred an amalgam of loose communities, lacking strong tradition or stable structures. In this free-spirited environment, a multitude of forces was at work. As early as 1866, Rabbi Jonas Bondi of New York wrote that a Judaism of the \"golden middleway, which was termed Orthodox by the left and heterodox or reformer by the right\" developed in the new country. The rapid ascendancy of Reform Judaism by the 1880s left few who opposed it: merely a handful of congregations and ministers remained outside the Union of American Hebrew Congregations. These included Sabato Morais and Rabbi Henry Pereira Mendes of the elitist Sephardi congregations, along with rabbis Bernard Drachman (ordained at Breslau, though he regarded himself as Orthodox) and Henry Schneeberger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative halakha",
        "text": "Conservative halakha\n--Difference in methodology from Orthodoxy.\n--Legal and literary sources.\n--Conservative Jewish observance of halakha.\n--Specific decisions in Jewish law.\n----Homosexuality.\n----Shabbat.\n----The role of women.\n----Kashrut \u2013 keeping kosher.\n----Kohanim.\n------Restrictions on marriage.\n----Giving Kohanim precedence in reading from the Torah.\n----Priestly functions.\n----Mamzerut.\n----Niddah, family purity and family holiness.\n--Debate over halakhic foundations.\n--Differences from Orthodox theology.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "The earliest known mention of the term \"Orthodox Jews\" was made in the \"Berlinische Monatsschrift\" in 1795. The word \"Orthodox\" was borrowed from the general German Enlightenment discourse, and used not to denote a specific religious group, but rather those Jews who opposed Enlightenment. During the early and mid-19th century, with the advent of the progressive movements among German Jews, and especially early Reform Judaism, the title \"Orthodox\" became the epithet of the traditionalists who espoused conservative positions on the issues raised by modernization. They themselves often disliked the alien, Christian name, preferring titles like \"Torah-true\" (\"gesetztreu\"), and often declared they used it only for the sake of convenience. The German Orthodox leader Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch referred to \"the conviction commonly designated as Orthodox Judaism\"; in 1882, when Rabbi Azriel Hildesheimer became convinced that the public understood that his philosophy and Liberal Judaism were radically different, he removed the word \"Orthodox\" from the name of his Hildesheimer Rabbinical Seminary. By the 1920s, the term became common and accepted even in Eastern Europe, and remains as such."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative halakha",
        "text": "A major difference between Conservative and Orthodox methodology is the former's frequent use of \"Takkanot\" (rabbinic decrees), which is far more prevalent than among the latter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative Judaism",
        "text": "The boundaries between Orthodox and Conservative Judaism in America were institutionalized only in the aftermath of World War II. The 1940s saw the younger generation of JTS graduates less patient with the prudence of the CJL and Talmud faculty in face of popular demand. Kaplan's Reconstructionism, while its fully committed partisans were few, had much influence. The majority among recent alumni eschewed the epithet \"Orthodox\" and tended to employ \"Conservative\" exclusively. Succeeding Schechter's direct disciples who headed the RA, JTS and United Synagogue in the interwar period, a new strata of activist leaders was rising. Rabbi Robert Gordis, RA president in 1944\u20131946, represented the junior members in advocating more flexibility; Rabbi Jacob Agus, a RIETS graduate who joined the body only in 1945, clamored that \"we need a law making body, not a law interpreting committee.\" Agus argued that the breach between the Jewish public and tradition was too wide to be bridged conventionally, and that the RA would always remain inferior to the Orthodox as long as it retained its policy of merely adopting lenient precedents in rabbinic literature. He offered to extensively apply the tool of \"takkanah\", rabbinic ordinance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modern Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Nevertheless, the two movements are philosophically distinct on two broad counts.\n* Firstly, (conservative) Religious Zionists differ with Modern Orthodoxy in its approach to secular knowledge. Here, engagement with the secular is permissible, and encouraged, but only insofar as this benefits the State of Israel; secular knowledge (or, at the least, an extensive secular education) is viewed as valuable for practical ends, though not in and of itself. See further under \"Torah Umadda\".\n* Secondly, under Religious Zionism, a \"nationalistic coloration\" is given to traditional religious concepts, whereas, by contrast, Modern Orthodoxy includes \"a greater balance which includes openness to the non-Jewish world\"; thus, under Religious Zionism, the Jewish nation is conceived of as an \"organic unity\", whereas Modern Orthodoxy emphasises the individual."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religious views on truth",
        "text": "In Conservative Judaism, truth is not defined as literally as it is among the Orthodox. While Conservative Judaism acknowledges the truth of the Tanakh, generally, it does not accord that status to every single statement or word contained therein, as do the Orthodox. Moreover, unlike Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism believes that the nature of truth can vary from generation to generation, depending on circumstances. For instance, with respect to \"halakha\", or Jewish law, Conservative Judaism believes that it can be modified or adapted depending on the needs of the people. In Orthodox Judaism, by contrast, the \"halakha\" is fixed (by the sages of the Talmud and later authorities); the present-day task, therefore, is to interpret the \"halakha\", but not to change it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish principles of faith",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism developed in Europe and the United States in the late 1800s, as Jews reacted to the changes brought about by the Jewish Enlightenment and Jewish emancipation. In many ways, it was a reaction to what were seen as the excesses of the Reform movement. For much of the movement's history, Conservative Judaism deliberately avoided publishing systematic explications of theology and belief; this was a conscious attempt to hold together a wide coalition. This concern became a non-issue after the left-wing of the movement seceded in 1968 to form the Reconstructionist movement, and after the right-wing seceded in 1985 to form the Union for Traditional Judaism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism and Mormonism",
        "text": "Orthodox Judaism accepts only male rabbis. Reform Judaism ordained its first female rabbi in 1972, Reconstructionist Judaism in 1974, and Conservative Judaism in 1985. The Reform and Reconstructionist movements also accept openly gay and lesbian rabbis. Karaite Judaism accepts only male \"\u1e25akhamim\", although they serve a different purpose than rabbis do in Rabbinic Judaism. Conservative Judaism (typically a more conservative branch than the Reform or Reconstructionist movements) moved to allow individual congregations to choose whether or not to accept both gay and lesbian rabbis and same-sex commitment ceremonies in December 2006. There are no restrictions in any branch of Judaism with regard to race or descent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "The Jewish Enlightenment of the late 18th century resulted in the division of Ashkenazi (Western) Jewry into religious movements or denominations, especially in North America and Anglophone countries. The main denominations today outside Israel (where the situation is rather different) are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform. The notion \"traditional Judaism\" includes the Orthodox with Conservative or solely the Orthodox Jews.\n*Orthodox Judaism holds that both the Written and Oral Torah were divinely revealed to Moses and that the laws within it are binding and unchanging. Orthodox Jews generally consider commentaries on the \"Shulchan Aruch\" (a condensed codification of \"halakha\" that largely favored Sephardic traditions) to be the definitive codification of \"halakha\". Orthodoxy places a high importance on Maimonides' 13 principles as a definition of Jewish faith."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative Judaism",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism (known as Masorti Judaism outside North America) is a Jewish religious movement that regards the authority of Jewish law and tradition as emanating primarily from the assent of the people and the community through the generations, more than from divine revelation. It therefore views Jewish law, or \"halakha\", as both binding and subject to historical development. The Conservative rabbinate employs modern historical-critical research, rather than only traditional methods and sources, and lends great weight to its constituency when determining its stance on matters of practice. The movement considers its approach as the authentic and most appropriate continuation of \"halakhic\" discourse, maintaining both fealty to received forms and flexibility in their interpretation. It also eschews strict theological definitions, lacking a consensus in matters of faith and allowing great pluralism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "In Central Europe, followed by Great Britain and the United States, Reform (or Liberal) Judaism developed, relaxing legal obligations (especially those that limited Jewish relations with non-Jews), emulating Protestant decorum in prayer, and emphasizing the ethical values of Judaism's Prophetic tradition. Modern Orthodox Judaism developed in reaction to Reform Judaism, by leaders who argued that Jews could participate in public life as citizens equal to Christians while maintaining the observance of \"halakha\". Meanwhile, in the United States, wealthy Reform Jews helped European scholars, who were Orthodox in practice but critical (and skeptical) in their study of the Bible and Talmud, to establish a seminary to train rabbis for immigrants from Eastern Europe. These left-wing Orthodox rabbis were joined by right-wing Reform rabbis who felt that \"halakha\" should not be entirely abandoned, to form the Conservative movement. Orthodox Jews who opposed the Haskalah formed Haredi Orthodox Judaism. After massive movements of Jews following The Holocaust and the creation of the state of Israel, these movements have competed for followers from among traditional Jews in or from other countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Relationships between Jewish religious movements",
        "text": "The Conservative movement, however, has clashed with Orthodoxy over its refusal to recognize the Conservative and Reform movements as legitimate, and in February 1997, Rabbi Ismar Schorsch, the Chancellor of the Jewish Theological Seminary, claimed that Orthodox organizations in Israel politically discriminate against non-Orthodox Jews, and called on Reform and Conservative Jews, as well as the Jewish Federations throughout the United States, to stop funding Orthodox organizations and institutions that disagree with the Conservative view of pluralism. Several weeks later, at the movement's annual Rabbinical Assembly conference in Boston, he called for the disintegration of Israel's chief rabbinate and its network of courts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish religious movements",
        "text": "Orthodox Jews generally see themselves as practicing normative Judaism, rather than belonging to a particular movement. Within Orthodox Judaism, there is a spectrum of communities and practices, ranging from ultra-Orthodox Haredi Judaism (\"Haredim\") and Jewish fundamentalism to Modern Orthodox Judaism (with Neo-Orthodoxy, Open Orthodoxy, and Religious Zionism). Orthodox Jews who opposed the Haskalah became known as Haredi Jews (\"Haredim\"). Orthodox Jews who were sympathetic to the Haskalah formed what became known as neo-Orthodox or modern Orthodox Jews. The father of neo-Orthodoxy was the influenced German rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, who proclaimed principle Torah im Derech Eretz\u2014the strict observance of the Jewish Law in an active social life\u2014in 1851, he become the rabbi of first Orthodox separatist group from Reform community of Frankfurt am Main. In addition, the \"Centrist\" Orthodoxy was represented by American rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik affiliated with the Orthodox Union."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "While slow, change was by no means absent. In the 1860s and 1870s, anticipating a communal disintegration like the one in the west, moderate \"maskilic\" rabbis like Yitzchak Yaacov Reines and Yechiel Michel Pines called for inclusion of secular studies in the \"heder\"s and \"yeshiva\"s, a careful modernization, and an ecumenical attempt to form a consensus on necessary adaptation of \"halakha\" to novel times. Their initiative was thwarted by a combination of strong anti-traditional invective on behalf of the radical, secularist \"maskilim\" and conservative intransigence from the leading rabbis, especially during the bitter polemic which erupted after Moshe Leib Lilienblum's 1868 call for a reconsideration of Talmudic strictures. Reines, Pines and their associates would gradually form the nucleus of Religious Zionism, while their conservative opponents would eventually adopt the epithet \"Haredim\" (then, and also much later, still a generic term for the observant and the pious)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jacob Immanuel Schochet",
        "text": "In his book \"Who is a Jew\" Schochet, an Orthodox Jew, asserted: \"There can be peaceful co-existence on the communal level, and even cooperation in matters of common concerns; but there is no common ground on the religious-doctrinal level. 'Reform' and 'Conservative' can live with 'orthodox' standards and recognize the titular status of 'orthodox' rabbis. After all, 'orthodox' rabbis are ordained on the basis of their proficiency in knowledge and adjudication of Jewish law (\"Shulchan Aruch\"). This will not work in reverse, however, because the requirements for conservative and reform ordination are altogether different.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Heresy",
        "text": "Orthodox Judaism considers views on the part of Jews who depart from traditional Jewish principles of faith heretical. In addition, the more right-wing groups within Orthodox Judaism hold that all Jews who reject the simple meaning of Maimonides's 13 principles of Jewish faith are heretics. As such, most of Orthodox Judaism considers Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism heretical movements, and regards most of Conservative Judaism as heretical. The liberal wing of Modern Orthodoxy is more tolerant of Conservative Judaism, particularly its right wing, as there is some theological and practical overlap between these groups."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haskalah",
        "text": "Another non-Orthodox group was the Conservative Jews, who emphasized the importance of traditions but viewed with a historical perspective. The Orthodox Jews were actively against these reformers because they viewed changing Jewish tradition as an insult to God and believed that fulfillment in life could be found in serving God and keeping his commandments. The effect of Haskalah was that it gave a voice to plurality of views, while the orthodoxy preserved the tradition, even to the point of insisting on dividing between sects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anarchism and Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Rabbi Aharon Shmuel Tamaret (or Tamares) (1869\u20131931), of Milejczyce, Poland, was initially drawn to Zionism, but he soon recoiled from its nationalism. Unlike other Orthodox rabbis of that era his anti-Zionist stance was based not on waiting-for-Mashiach; rather it was couched within a comprehensive pacifist-anarchist ideology/theology grounded in Torah. He saw the condition of Galut (diaspora) as something to be celebrated rather than lamented: it is the Jewish moral ideal, for it refuses to wield power over others. And though Orthodox himself, he criticized what he saw as the growing 'neurotic piety' within Orthodox Judaism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modern Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "In general, Modern Orthodoxy does not, therefore, view the process by which the Conservative movement decides \"halakha\" as legitimate\u2014or with the non-normative weighting assigned to halakha by the Conservative movement. In particular, Modern Orthodoxy disagrees with many of Conservative Judaism's \"halakhic\" rulings, particularly as regards issues of egalitarianism. See further on the Orthodox view and the Conservative view."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative Judaism",
        "text": "Already in a 1955 study, Marshall Sklare defined Conservative Judaism as the quintessential American Jewish movement, but stressed the gap between laity and clergy, noting \"rabbis now recognize that they are not making decisions or writing responsa, but merely taking a poll of their membership.\" Most congregants, commented Edward S. Shapiro, were \"Conservative Jews because their rabbi kept kosher and the Sabbath... Not because of their religious behavior.\" The movement established its presence outside the U.S. and Canada: In 1962, the young Rabbi Marshall Meyer founded the Seminario Rabinico Latinoamericano in Buenos Aires, which would serve as the basis for Conservative expansion in South America. In 1979, four communities formed the Israel Masorti Movement. Rabbi Louis Jacobs, dismissed in 1964 from the British Orthodox rabbinate on the charge of heresy after espousing a non-literal understanding of the Torah, joined with the Conservatives and founded his country's first Masorti community. The new branches were all united within the World Council of Synagogues, later to be named Masorti Olami."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative Judaism",
        "text": "The term \"Conservative Judaism\" was used, still generically and not yet as a specific label, already in the 1887 dedication speech of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America by Rabbi Alexander Kohut. By 1901, the JTS alumni formed the Rabbinical Assembly, of which all ordained Conservative clergy in the world are members. As of 2010, there were 1,648 rabbis in the RA. In 1913, the United Synagogue of America, renamed the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism in 1991, was founded as a congregational arm of the RA. The movement established the World Council of Conservative Synagogues in 1957. Offshoots outside North America mostly adopted the Hebrew name \"Masorti\", traditional', as did the Israeli Masorti Movement, founded in 1979, and the British Assembly of Masorti Synagogues, formed in 1985. The World Council eventually changed its name to \"Masorti Olami\", Masorti International. Besides the RA, the international Cantors Assembly supplies prayer leaders for congregations worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "The Orthodox and Conservative branches of Judaism maintain that the halakhic rules (i.e. matrilineal descent) are valid and binding. Reform and Liberal Judaism do not accept the halakhic rules as binding, and most branches accept a child of one Jewish parent, whether father or mother, as Jewish if the parents raise the child as a Jew and foster a Jewish identity in the child, noting that \"in the Bible the line always followed the father, including the cases of Joseph and Moses, who married into non-Israelite priestly families.\" (However, according to the oral tradition of Orthodox Judaism, the spouses of both Joseph and Moses converted to Judaism prior to marrying them.) The Reform movement's standard states that \"for those beyond childhood claiming Jewish identity, other public acts or declarations may be added or substituted after consultation with their rabbi\". Advocates of patrilineal descent point to and . This policy is commonly known as patrilineal descent, though \"bilineal\" would be more accurate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative Judaism",
        "text": "Schechter arrived in 1902, and at once reorganized the faculty, dismissing both Pereira Mendes and Drachman for lack of academic merit. Under his aegis, the institute began to draw famous scholars, becoming a center of learning on par with HUC. Schechter was both traditional in sentiment and quite unorthodox in conviction. He maintained that theology was of little importance and it was practice that must be preserved. He aspired to solicit unity in American Judaism, denouncing sectarianism and not perceiving himself as leading a new denomination: \"not to create a new party, but to consolidate an old one\". The need to raise funds convinced him that a congregational arm for the Rabbinical Assembly and the JTS was required. On 23 February 1913, he founded the United Synagogue of America (since 1991: United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism), which then consisted of 22 communities. He and Mendes first came to major disagreement; Schechter insisted that any alumnus could be appointed to the USoA's managerial board, and not just to serve as communal rabbi, including several the latter did not consider sufficiently devout, or who tolerated mixed seating in their synagogues (though some of those he still regarded as Orthodox). Mendes, president of the Orthodox Union, therefore refused to join. He began to distinguish between the \"Modern Orthodoxy\" of himself and his peers in the OU, and \"Conservatives\" who tolerated what was beyond the pale for him. However, this first sign of institutionalization and separation was far from conclusive. Mendes himself could not clearly differentiate between the two groups, and many he viewed as Orthodox were members of the USoA. The epithets \"Conservative\" and \"Orthodox\" remained interchangeable for decades to come. JTS graduates served in OU congregations; many students of the Orthodox Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary and members of the OU's Rabbinical Council of America, or RCA, attended it. In 1926, RIETS and the JTS even negotiated a possible merger, though it was never materialized. Upon Schechter's death in 1915, the first generation of his disciples kept his non-sectarian legacy of striving for a united, traditional American Judaism. He was replaced by Cyrus Adler."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Union",
        "text": "For many years the OU, along with its related rabbinic arm, the Rabbinical Council of America, worked with the larger Jewish community in the Synagogue Council of America. In this group Orthodox, Conservative and Reform groups worked together on many issues of joint concern. The group became defunct in 1994, mainly over the objections of the Orthodox groups to Reform Judaism's official acceptance of patrilineal descent as an option for defining Jewishness. (See Who is a Jew.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish schisms",
        "text": "Some Jews in Western Europe, and many Jews in America, joined the religiously liberal new Reform Judaism movement, which drew inspiration from the writings of modernist thinkers like Moses Mendelson. They coined the name \"Orthodox\" to describe those who opposed the \"Reform\". They were criticized by the Orthodox Judaism rabbis, such as Samson Raphael Hirsch in Germany, and condemned, particularly by those known today as followers of Haredi Judaism, based mainly in Eastern Europe. (Later on, in 1880s America, Conservative Judaism split from the Reform movement.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "While adhering to traditional beliefs, the movement is a modern phenomenon. It arose as a result of the breakdown of the autonomous Jewish community since the 18th century, and was much shaped by a conscious struggle against the pressures of secularization and rival alternatives. The strictly observant and theologically aware Orthodox are a definite minority among all Jews, but there are also some semi- and non-practicing individuals who affiliate or identify with Orthodoxy. It is the largest Jewish religious group, estimated to have over 2 million practicing adherents, and at least an equal number of nominal members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish principles of faith",
        "text": "Orthodox Jews view the Written and Oral Torah as the same as Moses taught, for all practical purposes. Conservative Jews tend to believe that much of the Oral law is divinely inspired, while Reform and Reconstructionist Jews tend to view all of the Oral law as an entirely human creation. Traditionally, the Reform movement held that Jews were obliged to obey the ethical but not the ritual commandments of Scripture, although today many Reform Jews have adopted many traditional ritual practices. Karaite Jews traditionally consider the Written Torah to be authoritative, viewing the Oral Law as only one possible interpretation of the Written Torah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modern Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Note though, that in recent years, many Modern Orthodox Jews are described as \"increasingly stringent in their adherence to Jewish law\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative Judaism",
        "text": "They regarded tradition and received mores with reverence, especially the continued adherence to the mechanism of Religious Law (\"Halakha\"), opposing indiscriminate modification, and emphasized they should be changed only with care and caution, and remain observed by the people. Rabbi Louis Ginzberg, summarizing his movement's position, wrote:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "Conservative authorities likewise require that conversions be conducted according to traditional Jewish law. Conducting a conversion absent the traditional requirements of immersion in a ritual bath and circumcision for males is a violation of a Standard of the Rabbinical Assembly and grounds for expulsion. Conservative authorities generally recognize any conversion done in accord with the requirements of Jewish law, even if done outside the Conservative movement. Accordingly, Conservative rabbis may accept the validity of some conversions from other non-Orthodox movements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative halakha",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism views halakha (Jewish law) as normative and binding. The Conservative movement applies Jewish law to the full range of Jewish beliefs and practices, including thrice-daily prayer, Shabbat and holidays, marital relations and family purity, conversion, dietary laws (kashrut), and Jewish medical ethics. Institutionally, the Conservative movement rules on Jewish law both through centralized decisions, primarily by the Rabbinical Assembly and its Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, and through congregational rabbis at the local level. Conservative authorities produced voluminous Responsa literature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modern Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "A fourth difference suggested, relates to the acceptability of moderation within Jewish law. Both Modern Orthodoxy and Ultra Orthodoxy regard \"Halakha\" as divine in origin, and as such, no position is assumed without justification in the Shulchan Aruch and in the Acharonim. The movements differ, however, in their approach to strictures (\"chumras\") and leniencies (\"kulas\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative Judaism",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism in the United States held a relatively strict policy regarding intermarriage. Propositions for acknowledging Jews by patrilineal descent, as in the Reform movement, were overwhelmingly dismissed. Unconverted spouses were largely barred from community membership and participation in rituals; clergy are banned from any involvement in interfaith marriage on pain of dismissal. However, as the rate of such unions rose dramatically, Conservative congregations began describing gentile family members as \"K'rov Yisrael\" (Kin of Israel) and be more open toward them. The Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism stated in 1995: \"we want to encourage the Jewish partner to maintain his/her Jewish identity, and raise their children as Jews.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "Those not born to a Jewish mother may become accepted as Jews by the Orthodox and Conservative communities through a formal process of conversion to Judaism in order to become \"righteous converts\" ('\u2014). In addition, Halakha requires that the new convert commit himself to the observance of its tenets; this is called ' (), \"Acceptance of the Yoke of the Commandments\". \"\" () is used by Reform Judaism in accordance with reform responsa and Halakhah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rabbi",
        "text": "As a general rule within Orthodoxy and among some in the Conservative movement, rabbis are reluctant to accept the authority of other rabbis whose Halakhic standards are not as strict as their own. In some cases, this leads to an outright rejection of even the legitimacy of other rabbis; in others, the more lenient rabbi may be recognized as a spiritual leader of a particular community but may not be accepted as a credible authority on Jewish law.\n*The Orthodox rabbinical establishment rejects the validity of Conservative, Reform and Reconstructionist rabbis on the grounds that their movements' teachings are in violation of traditional Jewish tenets. Some Modern Orthodox rabbis are respectful toward non-Orthodox rabbis and focus on commonalities even as they disagree on interpretation of some areas of Halakha (with Conservative rabbis) or the authority of Halakha (with Reform and Reconstructionist rabbis).\n*Conservative rabbis accept the legitimacy of Orthodox rabbis, though they are often critical of Orthodox positions. Although they would rarely look to Reform or Reconstructionist rabbis for Halakhic decisions, they accept the legitimacy of these rabbis' religious leadership.\n*Reform and Reconstructionist rabbis, on the premise that all the main movements are legitimate expressions of Judaism, will accept the legitimacy of other rabbis' leadership, though will not accept their views on Jewish law, since Reform and Reconstructionists reject Halakha as binding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish religious movements",
        "text": "Conservative or \"Masorti\" Judaism, originated in Germany in the 19th century, but became institutionalized in the United States, where it was to become the largest Jewish movement. After the division between Reform and Orthodox Judaism, the Conservative movement tried to provide Jews seeking liberalization of Orthodox theology and practice with a more traditional and halakhically-based alternative to Reform Judaism. It has spread to Ashkenazi communities in Anglophone countries and Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hashkafa",
        "text": "Because Orthodox Judaism is so deeply entrenched in its tradition, the question of how to incorporate and adapt to modernity, in terms modern of culture and thought, lies at the center of disagreements between Orthodox groups. Modern Orthodox Jews view their interactions with the world around them and the development of society as an integral part of their theology. They do not view modernity as a threat; they embrace it. Modern Orthodox Jews are likely to view themselves as citizens of the modern world. Great Jewish thinkers such as Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch and Rabbi Joseph Soloveitchik sometimes integrated modern thought into their worldview. Hasidism is generally opposed to the idea of integrating modern ideas and culture into their well-established theological thought. Hasidic Jews do not wear modern clothing, while Modern Orthodox Jews find no objection to it, provided that the clothing is modest."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Jews in politics",
        "text": "The divide between right and left correlates to the various religious movements among American Jews. The more socially conservative movements in American Judaism (the Orthodox movement and various haredi sects, though not the Conservative movement) tend to be politically conservative, while the more socially liberal movements (Conservative, Reform, and Reconstructionist) tend to be more politically liberal or left-leaning as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rabbi",
        "text": "These debates cause great problems for recognition of Jewish marriages, conversions, and other life decisions that are touched by Jewish law. Orthodox rabbis do not recognize conversions by non-Orthodox rabbis. Conservative rabbis recognise all conversions done according to Halakha. Finally, the North American Reform and Reconstructionists recognize patrilineality, under certain circumstances, as a valid claim towards Judaism, whereas Conservative and Orthodox maintain the position expressed in the Talmud and Codes that one can be a Jew only through matrilineality (born of a Jewish mother) or through conversion to Judaism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish humor",
        "text": "Or, on differences between Orthodox, Conservative and Reform movements:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Conversion to Judaism",
        "text": "In the 1980s Modern Orthodox Rabbi Norman Lamm, Rosh Yeshiva of Yeshiva University, along with other American and Israeli Orthodox rabbis, worked with Conservative and Reform rabbis to come up with solution to the \"Who is a Jew?\" issue. In 1989 and 1990 Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir spearheaded an effort to find a way to resolve the impasse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Orthodox Judaism is not a centralized denomination. Relations between its different subgroups are sometimes strained, and the exact limits of Orthodoxy are subject to intense debate. Very roughly, it may be divided between ultra-Orthodox or \"Haredi\" Judaism, which is more conservative and reclusive, and Modern Orthodox Judaism, which is relatively open to outer society. Each of those is itself formed of independent communities. Together, they are almost uniformly exclusionist, regarding Orthodoxy not as a variety of Judaism, but as Judaism itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of Conservative Judaism",
        "text": "Criticism of Conservative Judaism is widespread in the Orthodox Jewish community, although the movement also has its critics in Reform Judaism and in other streams of Judaism. While the Conservative movement professes fidelity to Jewish tradition, it considers \"Halakha\" (Jewish religious law) to be a dynamic process that needs reinterpreting in modern times. The criticism by Orthodox Jews and traditionalists within the movement itself revolves around the following:\n* Conservative Judaism, or some of its decisions and positions does not follow halakha, according to many Orthodox Jews, because:\n** The legal analyses of its rabbinate deconstruct or manipulate religious obligations, rather than being faithful to and fostering respect for them;\n** It hoists certain historical or cultural assumptions onto a law, then disavows the assumption, granting itself license to disavow the law itself;\n** It issues \"emergency decrees\" in the absence of legitimate emergencies, rather than following a legitimate, faithful, or reverential approach to halakha;\n** Its decisions consistently lead to more lax, rather than stringent or balanced observance;\n** It generally makes communal decrees through a council of (often lay) leaders, rather than relying exclusively on Talmudic scholars, resulting in decisions reflecting popular opinion rather than scholarship; and\n** Accommodating the values and likeness of the broader society has taken precedence over a dedication to the internal integrity of halakhic sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gordon Tucker",
        "text": "Both Conservative and Orthodox Judaism address most questions of Jewish law through responsa, through a written, rabbinical interpretation of Jewish law, analogous to a court decision. In Orthodox Judaism, responsa are the product of individual rabbis, and their authority derives from the recognition of the author within the larger Orthodox community as a posek or decisor. In Conservative Judaism, both responsa and takkanot are products of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, whose voting members are ordained rabbis within the Conservative movement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of Judaism",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism is criticized by some leaders of Orthodox Judaism for not properly following Halakha (Jewish religious law). It is also criticized by some leaders of Reform Judaism for being at odds with the principles of its young adult members on issues such as intermarriage, patrilineal descent, and the ordination of homosexuals\u2014all issues that Conservative Judaism opposes and Reform Judaism supports. (The Conservative movement has since moved in the direction of allowing for gay rabbis and the \"celebration of same-sex commitment ceremonies\".)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Orthodox Judaism may be categorized according to varying criteria. The most recognizable sub-group is the \"Haredim\" (literally, \"trembling\" or \"fervent\"), also known as \"strictly Orthodox\", and the like. They form the most traditional part of the Orthodox spectrum. \"Haredim\" are characterized by a minimal engagement with modern society and culture if not their wholesale rejection, by avowed precedence given to religious values, and by a high degree of rabbinic authority and involvement in daily life. In spite of many differences, \"Haredi\" rabbis and communities generally recognize each other as such, and therefore accord respect and legitimacy between them. They are organized in large political structures, mainly Agudath Israel of America and the Israeli United Torah Judaism party. Other organized groups include the Anti-Zionist Central Rabbinical Congress and the Edah HaChareidis. Some \"Haredim\" also hold a lukewarm or negative assessment of the more modernist Orthodox. They are easily discerned by their mode of dress, often all black for men and very modest, by religious standards, for women (including hair covering, long skirts, etc.)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ronald Perelman",
        "text": "Judaism has had a strong influence on Perelman's life. He grew up in a Conservative household. The temple he went to growing up was a Reconstructionist temple, and his father donated millions to Conservative causes. He had a religious reawakening at the age of eighteen while on a family trip to Israel. \"I felt not just this enormous pride at being a Jew; I felt this enormous void at not being a \"better\" Jew. So I decided then to begin being a better Jew. As soon as I got married, we kept a kosher house, we became much more observant. We moved to New York shortly thereafter and joined an Orthodox synagogue and the kids grew up with much more Judaism surrounding them than I ever did\". Today, he strictly observes the Jewish Sabbath, spends three hours every Saturday in prayer, keeps a kosher home, and donates millions to Jewish groups and causes, particularly the Chabad-Lubavitch sect. He does not consider himself to be a member of Lubavitch. He supports them because he thinks they are Judaism's best chance for surviving and thriving in modern society."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative halakha",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism believes that its view of Jewish law as evolving and adaptable is indeed consistent with Jewish tradition. (See also the various positions within contemporary Judaism as regards halakha and the Talmud.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "Within Judaism, there are a variety of religious movements, most of which emerged from Rabbinic Judaism, which holds that God revealed his laws and commandments to Moses on Mount Sinai in the form of both the Written and Oral Torah. Historically, all or part of this assertion was challenged by various groups such as the Sadducees and Hellenistic Judaism during the Second Temple period; the Karaites during the early and later medieval period; and among segments of the modern non-Orthodox denominations. Some modern branches of Judaism such as Humanistic Judaism may be considered secular or nontheistic. Today, the largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism (Haredi Judaism and Modern Orthodox Judaism), Conservative Judaism, and Reform Judaism. Major sources of difference between these groups are their approaches to \"halakha\" (Jewish law), the authority of the rabbinic tradition, and the significance of the State of Israel. Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Torah and \"halakha\" are divine in origin, eternal and unalterable, and that they should be strictly followed. Conservative and Reform Judaism are more liberal, with Conservative Judaism generally promoting a more traditionalist interpretation of Judaism's requirements than Reform Judaism. A typical Reform position is that \"halakha\" should be viewed as a set of general guidelines rather than as a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is required of all Jews. Historically, special courts enforced \"halakha\"; today, these courts still exist but the practice of Judaism is mostly voluntary. Authority on theological and legal matters is not vested in any one person or organization, but in the sacred texts and the rabbis and scholars who interpret them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asher Lopatin",
        "text": "\"I am a pluralist: We need to learn from all Jews, and connect and relate to all Jews \u2013 Reform, Conservative, Renewal ; I believe it is critical for Judaism that we engage with the greater society as well... While there is a lot to critique in the Orthodox world \u2013 Modern, Centrist and Chareidi \u2013 all of us sometimes take a strident attitude that may not exhibit sufficient respect and love for our fellow Jews and their motivations. All of us can make an effort to try to make our first response be one of embracing all of Orthodoxy \u2013 all Jews of course, and all human beings \u2013 and being open to learning \u2013 sometimes with a critical, but respectful ear \u2013 from our fellow Orthodox Jews.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "David Luchins",
        "text": "Luchins has argued that Jewish tradition stands in opposition to fundamentalism. For the 2008 book, \"Progressive & Religious: How Christian, Jewish, Muslim, and Buddhist Leaders are Moving Beyond Partisan Politics and Transforming American Public Life\", Luchins was asked how it was possible to be \"an Orthodox liberal\". He answered that an Orthodox social conservative \"would be pretty lonely because you don't have too many sources, because the vast part of our religious tradition talks about ... \"tikkun olam\", helping others; it's the number one priority of faith\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Another large demographic usually considered aligned with Orthodoxy are the Israeli \"Masortim\", or \"traditional\". This moniker originated with Mizrahi immigrants who were both secularized and reverent toward their communal heritage. However, Mizrahi intellectuals, in recent years, developed a more reflective, nuanced understanding of this term, eschewing its shallow image and not necessarily agreeing with the formal deference to Orthodox rabbis. Self-conscious \"Masorti\" identity is still limited to small, elitist circles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative Judaism",
        "text": "While regarding itself as the heir of Rabbi Zecharias Frankel's 19th-century Positive-Historical School in Europe, Conservative Judaism fully institutionalized only in the United States during the mid-20th century. Its largest center today is in North America, where its main congregational arm is the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism, and the New York\u2013based Jewish Theological Seminary of America operates as its largest rabbinic seminary. Globally, affiliated communities are united within the umbrella organization Masorti Olami. Conservative Judaism is the third-largest Jewish religious movement worldwide, estimated to represent close to 1.1 million people, both over 600,000 registered adult congregants and many non-member identifiers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative Judaism",
        "text": "The JTS was a small, fledgling institution with financial difficulties, and was ordaining merely a rabbi per year. But soon after Chancellor Morais' death in 1897, its fortunes turned. Since 1881, a wave of Jewish immigration from Eastern Europe was inundating the country\u2014by 1920, 2.5 million of them had arrived, increasing American Jewry tenfold. They came from regions where civil equality or emancipation were never granted, while acculturation and modernization made little headway. Whether devout or irreligious, they mostly retained strong traditional sentiments in matters of faith, accustomed to old-style rabbinate; the hardline Agudas HaRabbanim, founded by emigrant clergy, opposed secular education or vernacular sermons, and its members spoke almost only Yiddish. The Eastern Europeans were alienated by the local Jews, who were all assimilated in comparison, and especially aghast by the mores of Reform. The need to find a religious framework that would both accommodate and Americanize them motivated Jacob Schiff and other rich philanthropists, all Reform and of German descent, to donate $500,000 to the JTS. The contribution was solicited by Professor Cyrus Adler. It was conditioned on the appointment of Solomon Schechter as Chancellor. In 1901, the Rabbinical Assembly was established as the fraternity of JTS alumni."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative Judaism",
        "text": "Tensions within the JTS and RA grew. The Committee of Jewish Law consisted mainly of scholars who had little field experience, almost solely from the seminary's Talmudic department. They were greatly concerned with \"halakhic\" licitness and indifferent to the pressures exerted on the pulpit rabbis, who had to contend with an Americanized public which cared little for such considerations or for tradition in general. In 1935, the RA almost adopted a groundbreaking motion: Rabbi Louis Epstein offered a solution to the agunah predicament, a clause that would have had husbands appoint wives as their proxies to issue divorce. It was repealed under pressure from the Orthodox Union. As late as 1947, CJL Chair Rabbi Boaz Cohen, himself a historicist who argued that the Law evolved much through time, rebuked pulpit clergy who requested lenient or radical rulings, stating he and his peers were content to \"progress in inches... Free setting up of new premises and the introduction of novel categories of ritual upon the basis of pure reason and thinking would be perilous, if not fatal, to the principles and continuity of Jewish Law.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jews",
        "text": "Orthodox and Conservative Judaism discourage proselytism to non-Jews, but many Jewish groups have tried to reach out to the assimilated Jewish communities of the Diaspora in order for them to reconnect to their Jewish roots. Additionally, while in principle Reform Judaism favors seeking new members for the faith, this position has not translated into active proselytism, instead taking the form of an effort to reach out to non-Jewish spouses of intermarried couples."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative halakha",
        "text": "Conservative Jewish practice, however, is significantly stronger than that found in Reform Judaism, such as following Shabbat, Kashrut, life-cycle events and holiday observances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Torah reading",
        "text": "According to Orthodox Judaism, the first \"oleh\" (person called to read) is a \"kohen \" and the second a \"levi\"; the remaining \"olim\" are \"yisr'elim\" \u2014 Jews who are neither \"kohen \" nor \"levi\". (This assumes that such people are available; there are rules in place for what is done if they are not.) The first two \"aliyot\" are referred to as \"\"Kohen \" and \"Levi\",\" while the rest are known by their number (in Hebrew). This practice is also followed in some but not all Conservative synagogues. Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism have abolished special ritual roles for the descendants of the Biblical priestly and levitical castes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish eschatology",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism varies in its teachings. While it retains traditional references to a personal redeemer and prayers for the restoration of the Davidic line in the liturgy, Conservative Jews are more inclined to accept the idea of a Messianic Era:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Modern Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Note that claims of this nature have been commonplace within Orthodox Judaism since the first \"reforms\" of Samson Raphael Hirsch and Azriel Hildesheimer. Thus, in Europe of the early 19th century, all of Judaism that differed from the strictest forms present at the time was called \"Reform\". Then, as now, Modern Orthodoxy took pains to distance its \"reforms\", which were consistent with the Shulkhan Arukh and poskim, from those of the Reform movement (and the Conservative movement), which were not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oral Torah",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism (also known as \"Masorti\" outside North America) takes an intermediate perspective, claiming that the Oral tradition is entitled to authority, but regarding its rulings as flexible guidelines rather than immutable precepts, that may be viewed through the lens of modernity. Jewish scholar and philosopher Ismar Schorsch has postulated that Conservative Judaism is tied to \"sensing divinity both in the Torah and in the Oral Law,\" but not in a literalist manner. Rabbi Zecharias Frankel, considered intellectual founder of Conservative Judaism, was respected by many Orthodox until writing in 1859 that the Talmudic term \"Law given to Moses at Sinai\" always meant ancient customs accepted as such. His opponents demanded that he issue an unequivocal statement of belief in the total divinity of Oral Law, yet he refrained from doing so. He was consequently ostracized and declared a heretic by several authorities.\n* Aggadah\n* Hadith\n* Law given to Moses at Sinai\n* Oral history\n* Oral law\n* Traditional Jewish chronology\n* Traditional knowledge\n* Uncodified constitution"
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "Secondly, Orthodox Judaism asserts that non-Orthodox rabbis are not qualified to form a \"beit din.\" This has led to non-Orthodox conversions generally being unaccepted in Orthodox communities. Since Orthodox Judaism maintains the traditional standards for conversion \u2013 in which the commitment to observe halakha is required \u2013 non-Orthodox conversions are generally not accepted in Orthodox communities because the non-Orthodox movements perform conversions in which the new convert does not undertake to observe halakha as understood by Orthodox Judaism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Halakha",
        "text": "The view held by Conservative Judaism is that the Torah is not the word of God in a literal sense. However, the Torah is still held as mankind's record of its understanding of God's revelation, and thus still has divine authority. Therefore, \"halakha\" is still seen as binding. Conservative Jews use modern methods of historical study to learn how Jewish law has changed over time, and are, in some cases, willing to change Jewish law in the present."
      },
      {
        "title": "Posek",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism approaches the idea of posek, and Halakha in general, somewhat differently: poskim here apply a relatively lower weighting to precedent, and will thus frequently re-interpret (or even change) a previous ruling through a formal argument; see Conservative Halakha. Although there are some \"poskim\" in the Conservative movement - e.g. Rabbis Louis Ginzberg, David Golinkin, Joel Roth, and Elliot Dorff - the rulings of any one individual rabbi are considered less authoritative than a consensus ruling. Thus, the Conservative movement's Rabbinical Assembly maintains a Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, whose decisions are accepted as authoritative within the American Conservative movement. At the same time, every Conservative rabbi has the right as \"mara d'atra\" to interpret Jewish law for his own community, regardless of the responsa of the Law Committee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tzniut",
        "text": "Conservative Judaism formally encourages modest dress. While day-to-day dress often simply reflects trends in wider society, many Conservative synagogues expect somewhat more modest dress (although not necessarily as stringent as in Orthodox Judaism) for synagogue attendance, and may have specific dress requirements to receive synagogue honors (such as being called for a Torah reading)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "Sephardi and Mizrahi observance of Judaism tends toward the conservative, and prayer rites are reflective of this, with the text of each rite being largely unchanged since their respective inception. Observant Sephardim may follow the teachings of a particular rabbi or school of thought; for example, the Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reuven Rivlin",
        "text": "Although not Orthodox himself, Rivlin has been critical of non-Orthodox movements in Judaism. In 1989, Rivlin referred to Reform Jews as \"idol worshippers\", and refused to call Reform Jewish rabbis by their title. Prior to becoming President, he opposed granting equal status to Reform or Conservative Judaism. In 2014, Rivlin said that if non-Orthodox conversion standards were adopted, Jewish status would be based on \"a civic definition rather than a religious definition\", echoing a Knesset speech he gave in 2006 when he declared: \"I have no doubt, and my positions are known, that the status of Judaism according to halachah (Jewish law) is what has kept us going for 3,800 years.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Conservative Judaism",
        "text": "Fidelity and commitment to \"Halakha\", while subject to criticism as disingenuous both from within and without, were and remain a cornerstone doctrine of Conservative Judaism. The movement views the legalistic system as normative and binding, and believes Jews must practically observe its precepts, like Sabbath, dietary ordinances, ritual purity, daily prayer with phylacteries and the like. Concurrently, examining Jewish history and rabbinic literature through the lens of academic criticism, it maintained that these laws were always subject to considerable evolution, and must continue to do so. \"Emet ve-Emunah\" titled its chapter on the subject with \"The Indispensability of Halakha\", stating that \"\"Halakha\" in its developing form is an indispensable element of a traditional Judaism which is vital and modern.\" Conservative Judaism regards itself as the authentic inheritor of a flexible legalistic tradition, charging the Orthodox with petrifying the process and Reform with abandoning it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modern Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "See for further elaboration of these differences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish principles of faith",
        "text": "While the modernist wing of Orthodox Judaism, led by such rabbis as Samson Raphael Hirsch, was open to the changing times, it rejected any doubt in the traditional theological foundation of Judaism. Historical-critical methods of research and new philosophy led to the formation of various non-Orthodox denominations, as well as Jewish secular movements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Their influence varies considerably: In conservative Orthodox circles, mainly ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) ones, rabbis possess strong authority, and exercise their leadership often. Bodies such as the Council of Torah Sages, Council of Torah Luminaries, the Central Rabbinical Congress, and the Orthodox Council of Jerusalem are all considered, at least in theory, as the supreme arbiters in their respective communities. In the more liberal Orthodox sectors, rabbis are revered and consulted, but rarely exert such direct control."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who is a Jew?",
        "text": "Both Haredi Judaism and Modern Orthodox Judaism accept a similar set of rules regarding Jewish status based on classical rabbinic Judaism, including both matrilineal descent and requirements that conversions be performed by Orthodox rabbis and that converts promise to strictly observe elements of traditional Judaism such as Shabbat and Niddah. However, their application of these rules have been different, and the difference has been increasing in recent years. Modern Orthodox authorities have been more inclined to rule in favor of Jewish status and to accept non-Orthodox Jews' word in doubtful cases involving people claiming to be Jews, while Haredi authorities have in recent years tended to presume non-Jewish status and require more stringent rules and standards of evidence in order for Jewish status to be proven, and have tended to distrust the evidence of Jews who are not personally Orthodox. Haredi rabbis have tended to look at a convert's current personal observance and to regard deficiencies or lack of Orthodoxy in current observance as evidence that the convert never intended to validly convert. In addition, the contemporary situation is further complicated by the fact that some Haredi rabbis no longer regard some Modern Orthodox rabbis as reliable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodoxy",
        "text": "In some English-speaking countries, Jews who adhere to all the traditions and commandments as legislated in the Talmud are often called Orthodox Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Albert L. Lewis",
        "text": "While serving as President of the Rabbinical Assembly from 1988 to 1990, Lewis oversaw a major expansion of RA efforts to train Conservative rabbis to support religious ritual needs, such as the preparation of \"gittin\", religious divorce decrees. Additionally, classes were begun for religiously committed doctors within the movement, training them to perform Brit milah, ritual circumcision, and efforts were initiated to support synagogues considering the addition of a \"mikva\", a ritual bath. These moves were seen as important steps to strengthen the Conservative movement on a national scale, diminishing the community's reliance on Orthodox rabbis, especially at a time, according to Lewis, when the gap between movements was growing, and Orthodox rabbis were becoming more reluctant to support the needs of non-Orthodox Jews. Lewis referred to these initiatives as part of the \"maturing\" of the Conservative movement, and said that, while there were some communities where Modern Orthodox rabbis still offered their \"full cooperation\" in matters of life-cycle rituals, the situation had been exacerbated by the \"Who is a Jew?\" controversy in Israel, where Orthodox rabbis were refusing to accept anyone converted under non-Orthodox auspices as Jewish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "The fierce conflicts in Hungary and Germany, and the emergence of distinctly Orthodox communities and ideologies, were the exception rather than the rule in Central and Western Europe. France, Britain, Bohemia, Austria and other countries saw both a virtual disappearance of observance and a lack of serious interest in bridging Judaism and modernity. The official rabbinate remained technically traditional, at least in the default sense of not introducing ideological change. The organ \u2013 a symbol of Reform in Germany since 1818, so much that Hildesheimer seminarians had to sign a declaration that they will never serve in a synagogue which introduced one \u2013 was accepted (not just for weekday use but also on the Sabbath) with little qualm by the French Consistoire in 1856, as part of a series of synagogue regulations passed by Chief Rabbi Salomon Ulmann. Even Rabbi Solomon Klein of Colmar, the leader of Alsatian conservatives who partook in the castigation of Zecharias Frankel, had the instrument in his community. In England, Rabbi Nathan Marcus Adler's shared a very similar approach: It was vehemently conservative in principle and combated ideological reformers, yet served a nonobservant public \u2013 as Todd Endelman noted, \"While respectful of tradition, most English-born Jews were not orthodox in terms of personal practice. Nonetheless they were content to remain within an orthodox congregational framework\" \u2013 and introduced considerable synagogue reforms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Only in the postwar era, did the vague traditional coalition come to a definite end. During and after the Holocaust, a new wave of strictly observant refugees arrived from Eastern and Central Europe. They often regarded even the UOR as too lenient and Americanized. Typical of these was Rabbi Aaron Kotler, who established Lakewood Yeshiva in New Jersey during 1943. Alarmed by the enticing American environment, Kotler turned his institution into an enclave, around which an entire community slowly evolved. It was very different from his prewar \"yeshiva\" at Kletsk, Poland, the students of which were but a segment of the general Jewish population and mingled with the rest of the population. Lakewood pioneered the homogeneous, voluntary and enclavist model of postwar \"Haredi\" communities, which were independent entities with their own developing subculture. The new arrivals soon dominated the traditionalist wing of American Jewry, forcing the locals to adopt more rigorous positions. Concurrently, the younger generation in the JTS and the Rabbinical Assembly demanded greater clarity, theological unambiguity and \"halakhic\" independence from the Orthodox veto on serious innovations \u2014 in 1935, for example, the RA yielded to such pressures and shelved its proposal for a solution to the agunah predicament. \"Conservative Judaism\", now adopted as an exclusive label by most JTS graduates and RA members, became a truly distinct movement. In 1950, the Conservatives signaled their break with Orthodox \"halakhic\" authorities, with the acceptance of a far-reaching legal decision, which allowed one to drive to the synagogue and to use electricity on Sabbath."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modern Orthodox Judaism",
        "text": "Although there is some question as how precisely to define the distinction between Modern Orthodoxy and Haredi Judaism, there is basic agreement that they may be distinguished on the basis of three major characteristics:\n# Modern Orthodoxy adopts a relatively inclusive stance toward society in general, and the larger Jewish community in particular.\n# Modern Orthodoxy is, in comparison, accommodating, \"if not welcoming\", to modernity, general scholarship, and science.\n# Modern Orthodoxy is almost uniformly receptive toward Israel and Zionism, viewing the State of Israel (in addition to the Land of Israel) as having inherent religious significance."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some traditions of the Jewish people?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Which Jewish denominations' traditions are you interested in learning about? Outside of Israel (where the situation is rather different) the main denominations are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about the traditions of Orthodox Jews."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Orthodox Judaism emphasizes practicing rules of kashrut, Shabbat, family purity, and tefilah (daily prayer). Orthodox men and women dress modestly, Orthodox men and women do not engage in physical contact with those of the opposite sex outside of their spouse, or immediate family members, doorposts have a mezuzah and separate sinks for meat and dairy have become increasingly common."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some ways Reform denominations are different than Orthodox, in that case?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Orthodox Judaism, girls receive bat mitzvahs at age 12, while it is 13 for those who practice Reform Judaism, and they also do not accept religious pluralism, which Reform Judaism does. Reform Judaism also holds the view that rabbinic Jewish law is no longer the standard for modern Jews, and most religious rituals are no longer necessary, which is considered heretical by the Orthodox, who consider religious laws to be binding. Would you like to learn more about Reform or Orthodox Judaism, or their religious laws, known as Halakha?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who started Reform Judaism?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The origins of Reform Judaism lie in 19th-century Germany, where Rabbi Abraham Geiger and his associates formulated its early principles."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What motivated Rabbi Abraham to do that?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find his direct motivation, but I did find that S since the 1970s, the movement has adopted a policy of inclusiveness and acceptance, inviting as many as possible to partake in its communities, rather than strict theoretical clarity."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the difference between Conservative Judaism and Orthodox?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Conservative Judaism holds that Orthodox Judaism is a valid and legitimate form of normative rabbinic Judaism, while Orthodox Judaism holds that both Conservative and Reform Judaism have made major and unjustifiable breaks with historic Judaism ."
    ],
    "topic": "Jewish name",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Relationships between Jewish religious movements:11",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Relationships between Jewish religious movements",
          "Conservative views"
        ],
        "ctx": "Conservative Judaism holds that Orthodox Judaism is a valid and legitimate form of normative rabbinic Judaism; it respects the validity of its rabbis. Conservative Judaism holds that both Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism have made major and unjustifiable breaks with historic Judaism, both by their rejection of Jewish law and tradition as normative, and by their unilateral acts in creating a separate definition of Jewishness (i.e., the latter movement's acceptance of patrilineal descent as an additional way of defining Jewishness). Despite this disagreement, Conservative Judaism respects the right of Reform and Reconstructionist Jews to interpret Judaism in their own way. Thus, the Conservative movement recognizes the right of Jews to form such denominations, and recognizes their clergy as rabbis, but does not generally accept their decisions as valid. Thus, for example, the Conservative movement typically does not accept Reform converts to Judaism whose conversions did not meet the requirements of Jewish law as being Jews."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Relationships between Jewish religious movements:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Relationships between Jewish religious movements",
          "Orthodox Judaism"
        ],
        "ctx": "Orthodox Judaism holds that both Conservative and Reform Judaism have made major and unjustifiable breaks with historic Judaism - both by their skepticism of the verbal revelation of the Written and the Oral Torah, and by their rejection of \"halakha\" (Jewish law) as binding (although to varying degrees). It views religious pluralism as a construct of the liberal movements, and does not see their ideology as rooted in historic Jewish norms. While not recognizing Reform and Conservative as valid expressions of Judaism, it recognizes most who are affiliated with these movements as full-fledged Jews, aside from those whose Judaism is of patrilineal descent or who were converted under Conservative or Reform auspices."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Thompson proceeded to phone Krahulik, as related by Holkins in the corresponding news post."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins created the webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" in 1998 with Mike Krahulik, with Holkins writing and Krahulik illustrating. According to an oral history, the two submitted cartoons to a contest run by a magazine in 1998. The magazine did not accept them but the creators sought other places to publish them, and worked with a site called looneygames.com to create what would become Penny Arcade. The strip initially ran once a week. Around a year later, they created their own website for the strip. In addition to the comic, Holkins wrote accompanying blog posts. Initially, this was partly because the format of their website left blank space. Holkins says that while now the posts are a key part of the site, when they first started he would delete each post to make space for the next one so the early posts are lost. These posts are often computer and video game commentary, but also include personal reflections or rants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins chose not to enter into a legal battle over whether or not the strip was a protected form of parody, and they complied with the cease-and-desist by replacing it with an image directing their audience to send a letter to a lawyer for American Greetings. They later lampooned the incident by portraying an American Greetings employee as a Nazi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "In July 2015, Holkins and Krahulik were recognized as \"Multimedia Empire Builders\" in Ad Week's 10 Visual Artists Changing the Way We See Advertising issue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins created a comic strip which compares the 7th generation consoles that appears in the December 2006 issue of \"Wired\" magazine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Both Krahulik and Holkins make a living from \"Penny Arcade\", placing them in a small group of professional webcomic artists devoted to their creations full-time. Originally, like many webcomics, \"Penny Arcade\" was supported solely by donations. A graph on the main page indicated how much people had donated that month. After hiring Robert Khoo as their business manager, Holkins and Krahulik switched to a different income stream based on advertising and merchandise revenue alone. According to Holkins, the website in 2006 handled more than two million pageviews daily (excluding forum traffic). On November 13, 2005, the website was given a facelift in celebration of their seventh year running and to match the designs of the Child's Play Charity and Penny Arcade Expo websites. Afterwards, the site has been redesigned multiple times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On the same day, Scott Kurtz, creator of the webcomic \"PvP\" and a longtime friend of Krahulik and Holkins, used the image of the letter Thompson sent to the Seattle PD to create a parody letter in which Jack attempts to enlist the aid of the Justice League of America by claiming Gabe and Tycho to be villains of some description."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "\"Penny Arcade\" has been among the most popular and longest running webcomics currently online, listed in 2010 as having 3.5 million readers. Holkins and Krahulik were among the first webcomic creators successful enough to make a living from their work. In addition to the comic, Holkins and Krahulik also created Child's Play, a children's charity; PAX, a gaming convention; Penny Arcade TV, a YouTube channel; Pinny Arcade, a pin exchange; and the episodic video game \"\" with Hothead Games and Zeboyd Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Under the banner of \"Penny Arcade Presents\", Krahulik and Holkins are sometimes commissioned to create promotional artwork/comic strips for new video games, with their signature artistic style and humor. They are usually credited simply as \"Penny Arcade\" rather than by their actual names. Some of these works have been included with the distribution of the game, and others have appeared on pre-launch official websites. An official list can be found on the Penny Arcade website."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of webcomics",
        "text": "\"Penny Arcade\" also proved to be a huge player in fields outside of webcomics in the early 2000s. In 2003, Holkins and Krahulik founded Child's Play, a charity that managed to raise over US$100,000 in its first year, which it used for donating toys for the Seattle Children's Hospital. The charity has become more successful since and now donates toys to hospitals across the country. In 2004, the duo started the Penny Arcade Expo (PAX), a yearly video game convention that debuted with an estimated 3,000 guests and has grown in size since."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins began to record and release audio content on March 20, 2006, titled \"Downloadable Content.\" The podcasts specifically captured the creative process that goes into the creation of a \"Penny Arcade\" comic, usually starting with a perusal of recent gaming news, with conversational tangents and digressions to follow. As well as being a behind-the-scenes look at the creation of \"Penny Arcade\", Krahulik and Holkins discuss possible subjects for the comic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Jerry Holkins (born Parkinson; February 6, 1976) is an American writer. He is the co-creator and writer of the webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" along with its artist Mike Krahulik. Holkins sometimes uses the pseudonym \"Tycho Brahe\", which is also the name of a Penny Arcade character based on Holkins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Although the shows were initially published weekly, Holkins stated in a May 2006 blog post that they have found difficulties when trying to produce the podcasts on a regular basis. The duo planned to keep recording podcasts occasionally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Penny Arcade is a webcomic focused on video games and video game culture, written by Jerry Holkins and illustrated by Mike Krahulik. The comic debuted in 1998 on the website \"loonygames.com\". Since then, Holkins and Krahulik have established their own site, which is typically updated with a new comic strip each Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. The comics are accompanied by regular updates on the site's blog."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Krahulik",
        "text": "Along with Holkins, Krahulik was included on the 2010 \"Time\" 100 for their work on \"Penny Arcade\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "According to Julia Swan of the Museum of History and Innovation, \"Penny Arcade\" was one of the first, if not the first, highly successful webcomics. By 2000, \"Penny Arcade\" was profitable enough that Holkins could quit his day job. As of 2010, the strip was running three times a week and had about 3.5 million readers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins is a co-founder of PAX (originally called the Penny Arcade Expo) a series of gaming festivals that began in 2004 and has been held around the world. He is also a co-founder of Child's Play, a multimillion-dollar charity which organizes toy drives for children's hospitals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Khoo",
        "text": "In 2002 Khoo offered Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik of \"Penny Arcade\" a business plan and two months of work for free, with no strings attached. He has since helped build the \"Penny Arcade\" empire and was featured as being one of the 40 most powerful individuals in the game industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "In response, Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik, the creators of gaming webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" and of the children's charity Child's Play, stepped in to make the $10,000 donation instead, writing in the memo field of their cheque, \"For Jack Thompson, Because Jack Thompson Won't.\" Afterwards, Thompson tried unsuccessfully to get Seattle police and the FBI to investigate Holkins and Krahulik for orchestrating \"criminal harassment\" of him through articles on their site. Other webcomics have regularly incorporated references to Thompson, alluding to this incident as well as others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On October 17, 2005 Krahulik and Holkins donated US$10,000 to the Entertainment Software Association foundation in the name of Jack Thompson, a permanently-disbarred attorney-come-activist against violence in video games. Earlier, Thompson himself had promised to donate $10,000 if a video game was created in which the player kills video game developers (\"A Modest Video Game Proposal\"), but after a mod to the game \"Grand Theft Auto\" was pointed out to already exist, Thompson called his challenge satire (referring to the title of the letter as a reference to \"A Modest Proposal\") and refused to donate the money. He claimed these games were not going to be manufactured, distributed, or sold like retail games, as his Modest Proposal stated, and therefore, the deal went unfulfilled. His refusal was met with disdain, given that multiple games were created or in the process of being created under Thompson's criteria. Krahulik and Holkins donated the money in his place, with a check containing the memo: \"For Jack Thompson, Because Jack Thompson Won't\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "\"Penny Arcade: The Series\" first aired online on February 20, 2010. It is a multi-season documentary series based on the exploits of the Penny Arcade company and its founders Krahulik and Holkins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On March 5, 2009, the Washington State Senate honored Holkins and Krahulik, both originally from Spokane, for the contribution that they had made to the state, the video game industry, and to children's charities from around the world courtesy of their Child's Play initiative. Later in March, \"Penny Arcade\" won the category \"Best Webcomic\" in the fan voted Project Fanboy Awards for 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strip Search (web series)",
        "text": "In interviews, Penny Arcade said that they received over 1,000 applicants, and used a brutal process to cut down to 12 contestants, including assessing whether they felt they would be able to work with the person for a year, and if they would be funny. Krahulik said of filming that \"Jerry [Holkins] was bad cop, and I was the asshole,\u201d and prided himself on how many times he made people cry. Holkins said they had to try hard to create drama, especially in a house filled with aspiring artists who all seemed to get along and understand one another; Krahulik said he look at contestants and think, \u201cwhat\u2019s the meanest thing that I can say.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On December 13, 2006, \"Next Generation Magazine\" rated Krahulik and Holkins among its \"Top 25 People of the Year\". Also appearing on the list were Nintendo of America President Reggie Fils-Aime and former Xbox corporate vice-president Peter Moore. Krahulik made a post about the honor, in which he explained that \"Penny Arcade\" was created only because Next Gen rejected the duo's entry to a comic contest many years before. \"Entertainment Weekly\" listed \"Penny Arcade\" on their \"100 Sites to Bookmark Now,\" calling it \"a hilarious and smart webcomic for gamers.\" MTV Online named Holkins and Krahulik two of the world's most influential gamers, saying \"they have become the closest the medium has to leaders of a gamers' movement.\" Time.com named \"Penny Arcade\" as one of its \"50 Best Websites\" for 2008 \"...for the way it pokes fun at the high-tech industry and the people who love it.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "In 2010, Holkins, Krahulik, and Khoo were awarded the annual \"Ambassador Award\" at GDC's Game Developers Choice Awards for contributions they had made to the industry. The same year, \"Time\" included Holkins and Krahulik in the annual \"Time 100\", the magazine's listing of the world's 100 most influential people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik named his son \"Gabriel\" in honor of the character."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "The strip features Krahulik and Holkins' cartoon alter egos, John \"Gabe\" Gabriel and Tycho Brahe, respectively. While often borrowing from the authors' experiences, Holkins and Krahulik do not treat them as literal avatars or caricatures of themselves. The two characters spend much of their time playing and commenting on computer and video games, which forms the basis of the humor in the strip. Most of the time Gabe serves the purpose of the comic and Tycho the comic foil. The strip can feature in-jokes that are explained in the news posts accompanying each comic, written by the authors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Krahulik",
        "text": "In 2010, Krahulik and Penny Arcade received criticism stemming from several controversial comics and statements with respect to the transgender community and rape, particularly in response to a comic featuring fictional creatures known as \"dickwolves.\" Krahulik and Holkins dismissed these criticisms, later selling \"Team Dickwolves\" T-shirts based on the strip. In June 2013, Krahulik apologized and donated $20,000 to LGBTQ youth suicide prevention group The Trevor Project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins is married to his wife Brenna. They have two daughters, Samantha and Ronia. In a tweet, Holkins said that his surname \"is a combination of Holcomb (hers) and Parkinson (mine).\" Old versions of the Penny Arcade site credit the work to \"Mike Krahulik and Jerry Parkinson\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins is also the basis for one of the two central characters in \"Penny Arcade\", \"Tycho Brahe\". Holkins and Brahe share similar interests and personalities, though their appearances differ; for example, Tycho has mussed hair and sideburns, while Holkins's head is shaven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins received a cease-and-desist letter from American Greetings Corporation over the use of American Greetings' Strawberry Shortcake and Plum Puddin' characters in the April 14, 2003 \"Penny Arcade\" strip entitled \"Tart as a Double Entendre\". The strip was intended as a parody of the works of both American McGee (especially the computer game \"Alice\") and McFarlane Toys. At the time, McFarlane toys and American McGee made separate toy lines, each portraying a dark, frightening interpretation of the characters and situations from \"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz\". Krahulik and Holkins' portrayal of Strawberry Shortcake parodied McFarlane Toys' depiction of Dorothy as bound and blindfolded by a pair of munchkins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Video games and charity",
        "text": "The creators of the \"Penny Arcade\" webcomic, Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik, established the Child's Play charity in 2003 following a string of mass media stories that attempted to portray video games in a negative light. The charity was designed to provide toys and video game systems and games to various children's hospitals in the United States, though both monetary and physical donations. By 2017, Child's Play had raised over through both cash donations and donated items."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "A review of \"Penny Arcade\" in 1Up.com said of Holkins, \"Language itself, whether dirty or clean, is increasingly a focus [of the comic] as Holkins stretches himself to work his favored baroque dialogue and unusual words into the script.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Jerry Holkins\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n----Penny Arcade.\n----Child's Play.\n----PAX gaming conventions.\n----Other work.\n--Writing style.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On May 31, 2006 Krahulik announced a new advertising campaign for the Entertainment Software Rating Board. According to Krahulik, the ESRB \"wanted a campaign that would communicate to gamers why the ESRB is important even if they don't think it directly affects them.\" Among the reasons he listed for \"Penny Arcade\"'s accepting the job was that he and Holkins are both fathers and are concerned about the games their children might play. The ad campaign was rolled out in the summer and fall of 2006 and a second campaign was released in 2012 featuring a mother, a father and a gamer describing the tools employed by the ESRB."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "On October 17, 2005, Mike Krahulik and Jerry Holkins of \"Penny Arcade\" donated the promised $10,000 to charity on Jack Thompson's behalf. Krahulik and Holkins donated the money, under Thompson's name, to the Entertainment Software Association Foundation, the charitable arm of the Entertainment Software Association. Thompson e-mailed both \"Penny Arcade\" and \"Joystiq\", who ran a story about the donation, demanding that the articles be taken down \"or else.\" The check was presented to the ESA Foundation at an ESAF fundraising dinner in San Francisco; in its memo line was written: \"For Jack Thompson Because Jack Thompson Won't\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Khoo",
        "text": "On June 13, 2016, Holkins announced that Khoo had resigned his position at Penny Arcade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins said in his Penny Arcade Podcast that he sings and plays guitar in the band The Fine Print, and that his band once opened for the band Anal Cunt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "In September 2012, Kurtz stopped illustrating the webcomic, due to lack of time, and was replaced by Mary Cagle, a former intern of his, and the creator of the webcomic Kiwi Blitz. Kurtz still continued to collaborate with Krahulik and Holkins in writing the comic. In late August 2013, illustration was taken over by Ty Halley (\"Secret Life of a Journal Writer\") and Monica Ray (\"Phuzzy Comics\"), former contestants of the Penny Arcade series \"Strip Search\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Krahulik",
        "text": "Mike Krahulik credits cartoonist Stephen Silver as a major influence on his drawing style. His style has dramatically changed since he began drawing \"Penny Arcade\" in 1998."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "The Trenches was a comic series by Krahulik and Holkins in collaboration with webcomic \"PvP\"'s creator Scott Kurtz. The comic followed a man named Issac and his life as a game tester. The series was launched on August 9, 2011 and featured new strips every Tuesday and Thursday, usually accompanied by a \"Tale from the Trenches\", which was a short piece submitted by a reader detailing their own experiences in the game industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Krahulik",
        "text": "Michael Krahulik (; born September 25, 1977) is an American artist for the webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" and co-founder with Jerry Holkins of Child's Play, a charity that organizes toy drives for children's hospitals. He goes by the online moniker \"Jonathan Gabriel\" or \"Gabe\". Krahulik does not physically resemble his comic strip counterpart, as the character was not originally meant to represent him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "At PAX Australia in 2016, during a Q&A session, Holkins revealed that changes at Paramount resulted in the movie rights being returned to Penny Arcade and the project canceled. He did note, however, that Whitta's script was complete and the project could move forward with another production company in the future."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "In retaliation, Jack Thompson faxed a letter to Seattle Police Chief Gil Kerlikowske, requesting assistance in halting the activities of Krahulik and Holkins. In his letter, he described how personnel within \"Penny Arcade\" were harassing him: the sale of an \"I Hate Jack Thompson\" shirt and frequent postings on their website where they allegedly admitted to harassment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On August 8, 2005, Krahulik announced that \"Penny Arcade\", in partnership with Sabertooth Games, would be producing a collectible card game based on the \"Penny Arcade\" franchise. The resulting \"Penny Arcade\" \"battle box\" was released in February 2006 as part of the Universal Fighting System."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "An August 11, 2010 comic entitled \"The Sixth Slave\" wherein an NPC pleads with a player to save him from being raped nightly by monsters called \"dickwolves\", drew criticism from many commentators, including from \"The American Prospect\" and \"The Boston Phoenix\". Krahulik and Holkins dismissed these criticisms, later selling \"Team Dickwolves\" T-shirts based on the strip. They later removed the \"Team Dickwolves\" shirt from their store due to complaints that it made potential PAX attendees uncomfortable. After the removal, Krahulik posted online that removing the shirts was only partly caving to pressure but mainly due to people who had personally emailed him and were reasonable with their concerns. Krahulik also stated that anyone still hesitant about going to PAX even after removal of the shirts should not come to PAX. In September 2013, on the last day of PAX, Krahulik told a panel that he thought that \"pulling the dickwolves merchandise was a mistake\", to cheers from the crowd. However, Krahulik later apologized on the \"Penny Arcade\" website, stating that he regretted contributing to the furor that had followed the original comic. Both critics of the comic strip and Krahulik and Holkins, made claims of receiving verbal abuse through social media and death threats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Jerry Holkins' comic alter ego (named after the astronomer Tycho Brahe) is bitter and sarcastic. His eyes are burnt sienna, and he's almost invariably clad in a blue-striped sweater. Tycho enjoys books, role-playing video games, using large and uncommon words in conversation, and deflating Gabe's ego. He is an enthusiastic fan of \"Harry Potter\" and \"Doctor Who\". He also plays \"Dungeons & Dragons\" often (the website's previous banner illustrated him holding a 20-sided die), and adopts a wildly theatrical style when acting as a dungeon master."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins have also released an application for iOS devices called \"The Decide-o-tron\", presented by Eedar and developed by The Binary Mill. The app works as a recommendation engine for video games; users input games they've enjoyed and the app attempts to predict their ratings of titles they haven't yet played. Holkins described it as \"Pandora for games\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On June 15, 2011, a strip entitled \"Reprise\" revisited the issue, due to the release of \"\", another American McGee game. In the strip, Gabe suggests that he and Tycho parody a brand not \"under constant surveillance\", resulting in a spoof of the \"Rainbow Brite\" franchise. Holkins stated in the accompanying news post that \"it seemed like an incredible opportunity to relive the days of yore.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Penny Arcade may also refer to:\n*Penny arcade, a venue for coin-operated devices\n* \"Penny Arcade\", a 1929 play led by American actor and dancer James Cagney.\n*Penny Arcade (performer) (born 1950), stage name of performance artist and playwright Susanna Ventura\n*\"Penny Arcade\", an early video game by Bill Budge, mimicking \"Pong\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On October 18, 2005 it was reported that Jack Thompson had faxed a letter to Seattle Police Chief Gil Kerlikowske claiming that \"Penny Arcade\" \"employs certain personnel who have decided to commence and orchestrate criminal harassment of me by various means\". Holkins defended the site by saying that the \"harassment\" Thompson referred to was simply \"the natural result of a public figure making statements that people disagree with, and letting him know their thoughts on the matter via his publicly available contact information\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "The \"Penny Arcade\" shop had at the time sold an \"I hate Jack Thompson\" T-shirt, claiming that every living creature, including Thompson's own mother, hates Jack Thompson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Thompson claimed the harassment of him is a direct result of Mike Krahulik's posts, which listed links to the Florida Bar Association. Thompson accused \"Penny Arcade\" of soliciting complaints to the Bar against him, even though Krahulik actually posted the opposite, asking fans to cease sending letters to the Bar, as the Bar acknowledged that it is aware of Thompson's actions, thanks to previous letters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "Arcade adopted the name \"Penny Arcade\" after an LSD trip with her mentor Jamie Andrews, who took her into his home when she moved to New York. It was Andrews who introduced Arcade to John Vacarro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Khoo",
        "text": "Robert Khoo\n--Penny Arcade.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Nathan H. Gordon",
        "text": "In 1902 he returned to Denver where he became part owner of a penny arcade, showing slot-machine pictures. In the following year he returned to New England and with his brother Israel Gordon opened a slot-machine picture business at Worcester, Mass., placing machines in stores, penny arcades and elsewhere. Later he established penny arcades in several neighboring cities in Massachusetts and Connecticut. In 1906 he opened at Worcester a \u201cnickelodeon,\u201d the first motion picture theatre in that city. Its success prompted him to extend the scope of his operations gradually until he became the largest operator of motion picture and vaudeville theatres in New England."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Mike Krahulik's comic alter ego is energetic and free-spirited, but has a propensity to become extremely angry. As a contrast to Tycho's expansive vocabulary, Gabe usually speaks using only simple, common words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On March 21, 2007 Thompson filed a countersuit to the lawsuit brought against him by Take Two Interactive claiming that they are at the center of a RICO conspiracy. \"Penny Arcade\" was named as one of the co-conspirators. At Sakura-Con 2007, Krahulik announced that the suit had been dropped."
      },
      {
        "title": "PAX (event)",
        "text": "PAX was originally created in 2004 by Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik, the authors of the \"Penny Arcade\" webcomic, because they wanted to attend a show exclusively for gaming. Defining characteristics of the shows include an opening keynote speech from an industry insider, game-culture inspired concerts, panels on game topics, exhibitor booths from both independent and major game developers and publishers, a LAN party multiplayer, tabletop gaming tournaments, and video game freeplay areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Khoo",
        "text": "Robert Khoo was the President of Operations and Business Development of \"Penny Arcade\" from 2002 until 2016. He was the Business Manager for the company and the Show Director for PAX, the largest consumer gaming show in the United States. Khoo also served as the Managing Director for Child's Play."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "PAX (originally known as Penny Arcade Expo) is a series of gaming culture festivals involving tabletop, arcade, and video gaming. PAX is held annually in Seattle, Boston, Philadelphia, and San Antonio in the United States; and Melbourne in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "Arcade returned to New York City in 1981. She worked with underground theatre artists, including Jack Smith, Charles Ludlam and the \"Angels of Light\". She co-starred with Quentin Crisp in the long-running performance/interview piece, \"The Last Will and Testament of Quentin Crisp\". In the spring of 1982, she improvised her first performance piece in\" Tinsel Town Tirade\" at Theater for The New City, receiving her first writer's credit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Krahulik",
        "text": "In 2005, Krahulik responded to an offer Jack Thompson made (\"A Modest Video Game Proposal\") requesting the creation of an ultra-violent game featuring a protagonist who murders video game developers. In Thompson's proposal, the protagonist would be motivated by the death of his son at the hands of a video-game-inspired teenager. Thompson claimed he would donate $10,000 USD towards a charity of then-current Take-Two Interactive chairman Paul Eibeler's choosing if such a game was made (which it eventually was). Krahulik, in the email, said he and fellow gamers had raised about half a million dollars toward charity. According to Krahulik, \"Jack actually just called and screamed at me for a couple minutes. He said if I email him again I will 'regret it'. What a violent man.\" Krahulik, along with the rest of the \"Penny Arcade\" staff, later opted to \"step in\" for Jack Thompson. Thompson refused to donate $10,000 to charity because he considered the game put forth to meet his challenge subpar. He also claimed that his proposal was satirical and not a serious offer. Penny Arcade donated the money in his stead to the Entertainment Software Association with the note, \"For Jack Thompson, because Jack Thompson won't\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caine's Arcade",
        "text": "Before 2011, Caine had spent weekends with his father George Monroy at the store, during which he had tried selling goods, including yard signs for supporting sports teams and snacks and drinks from vending machines. He found little success; George's store was in an industrial area of East Los Angeles with little foot traffic, and his store was more a physical warehouse for sales made over the Internet. In summer 2011, Caine found many of the discarded boxes from the store and asked for his father's permission to create the arcade in the front, which George supported. Caine built and designed all the games himself, creating a ticket and prize redemption system, originally using some of his old toys such as Hot Wheels cars and then into items bought at dollar stores as prizes. Caine would operate the arcade \"machines\", retrieving balls and dispensing tickets to the player. During a family vacation to Palm Springs, Caine had asked for a t-shirt, with \"Caine's Arcade\" on one side and \"Staff\" on the other to be made for him, despite not knowing what \"staff\" meant at the time but knowing that he had seen that word used in other places."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Penny Arcade has created two Kickstarter projects. The first was the \"Penny Arcade's Paint the Line\" card game which was used as an alternative to pre-ordering it and came with an exclusive comic. The second was entitled \"Penny Arcade Sells Out\" and was intended to replace advertising revenue with crowd funding. The leaderboard ad on the home page of Penny Arcade would be removed if the minimum goal of $250,000 were reached, whereas the entire site would become completely ad-free for a year at $999,999. The reality web series described as \"our version of America's Next Top Webcomic\" titled \"Strip Search\" arose from the $450,000 stretch goal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "Arcade's 2002 performance \"New York Values\", which also toured abroad, addressed the loss of cultural identity in New York during the Giuliani years. The Village Gate marquee in New York is still adorned with her name and the title of her performance piece \"Politics, Sex & Reality\", although the nightclub no longer exists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "In February 1985, Arcade presented her first full-length evening of original improvised work, \"While You Were Out,\" at the Poetry Project, and then presented it at Performance Space 122 in June later that same year. \"While You Were Out\" then moved to University of The Streets in November 1985 and continued to run for an additional four months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "In 2013 Arcade starred along with Mink Stole in a revival of Tennessee Williams one-act play, \"The Mutilated\". The production was directed by Cosmin Chivu with music by Jesse Selengut, and previewed at the eighth annual Provincetown Tennessee Williams Theater Festival in Massachusetts, prior to its six-week run in New York at the New Ohio Theatre in the West Village where it was nominated for a Drama League Award as Best Revival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "Arcade is a co-founder of the Lower East Side Biography Project, a video production and oral history workshop that trains participants in documentary filmmaking and preserves the stories of Lower Manhattan artists and activists. Recently profiled individuals have included Herbert Huncke, Jayne County, and Marty Matz, among others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "\"\" is an episodic video game based on the strip. The first two episodes were developed by Hothead Games, and were built on a version of the Torque Game Engine. The first episode was released worldwide on May 21, 2008, and the second on October 29, 2008. They were self-published via the PlayStation Network and Xbox Live as well as the PlayGreenhouse.com service created by \"Penny Arcade\" to distribute independent games. The game features many elements of the \"Penny Arcade\" universe in a 1920s steampunk setting. In 2010, Krahulik and Holkins announced that the remainder of the series had been cancelled, to allow Hothead to focus on other projects. At PAX Prime 2011, however, it was announced that the series would be revived and developed by Zeboyd Games, with a retro style similar to Zeboyd's past titles. The third episode was released on Steam and on Penny Arcade's web store June 25, 2012. The fourth and final episode was announced in January 2013, and released to Steam and Xbox Live in June 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Don Alias",
        "text": "With Joe Farrell\n* \"Penny Arcade\" (CTI, 1973)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Strawberry Shortcake",
        "text": "In 2003, webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" posted an \"advertisement\" for an imaginary computer game, \"American McGee's Strawberry Shortcake\"\u2014a parody of the actual computer game \"American McGee's Alice\", a twisted and violent take on Lewis Carroll's works. American Greetings took offense to the parody and issued a cease-and-desist letter, to which the authors begrudgingly complied - but not without making their indignation very clear. A follow-up strip cites bad timing as a contributing factor to the lawsuit, Holkins and Krahulik were not aware that American Greetings was about to relaunch the Strawberry Shortcake line at that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tim Hunkin",
        "text": "Hunkin's \"Under the Pier Show\" at Southwold Pier, England, is a penny arcade featuring a number of humorous, coin-operated machines of his creation. Attractions include the \"Autofrisk\" (a device that simulates the experience of being frisked by multiple, inflated rubber gloves), the \"Bathyscape\" (a device that simulates a brief submarine adventure) and a somewhat rude sculptural clock. Hunkin has also opened Novelty Automation, an amusement arcade in Holborn, London, which has a more satirical tone, of which Hunkin has said \"I don\u2019t think political art has an enormous effect, but in the short term it is satisfying to reinforce people\u2019s disrespect of the villains.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Caine's Arcade",
        "text": "Because of the store's location along an industrial street, Caine's arcade had no customers until Nirvan, who needed a new door handle for his '96 Corolla, went to George's shop. While there, he saw the arcade and asked Caine about it. Nirvan was particularly impressed with some of the basic business fundamentals that Caine implemented, such as offering a $2 \"Fun Pass\" that offered 500 plays of the games, compared to the four plays one would receive for one dollar. Nirvan proceeded to buy a fun pass and play the games, unaware that he was Caine's first customer, only learning this after speaking later with George, who had said that even one customer made Caine happy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)",
        "text": "In music:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "The format of the show was mostly \"fly-on-the-wall\" style, in that the hosts rarely acknowledged the existence of the microphone. There was no theme music, intro, or outro. The podcasts were of varying lengths, beginning abruptly and ending with the idea for the current comic. New episodes were released irregularly, with six month gaps not uncommon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (album)",
        "text": "Penny Arcade is a jazz album by Joe Farrell on the CTI Records label. It was recorded at the Van Gelder Studio in October 1973."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foster School of Business",
        "text": "Gaming\n* Robert Khoo, President of Penny Arcade\n* Peter Adkison, game designer and founder of Wizards of the Coast"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arcade game",
        "text": "Penny arcades started to gain a negative reputation as the most popular attraction in them tended to be mutoscopes featuring risqu\u00e9 and softcore pornography while drawing audiences of young men. Further, the birth of the film industry in the 1910s and 1920s drew audiences away from the penny arcade. New interactive coin-operated machines were created to bring back patrons to the penny arcades, creating the first arcade games. Many were based on carnival games of a larger scope, but reduced to something which could be automated. One popular style were pin-based games which were based on the 19th century game of bagatelle. One of the first such pin-based games was \"Baffle Ball\", a precursor to the pinball machine where players were given a limited number of balled to knock down targets with only a plunger. Skee-Ball became popular after being featured at an Atlantic City boardwalk arcade. The popularity of these games was aided by the impact of the Great Depression of the 1930s, as they provided inexpensive entertainment."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Destiny",
        "text": "In late 2003, Howard wrote to the creators of \"Penny Arcade\" over the use of his art by users of the Penny Arcade forum. Howard's letter said that he had already \"shut down six web comics that were using his art\". Mike Krahulik posted about the letter and dispute on the Penny Arcade website, including a link A Modest Destiny; the traffic overload from this temporarily caused a shutdown of Howard's site."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Patrick Hopkins",
        "text": "In 1888, he founded the Started the Arcade Trading Co. in 1888, which later became the Secord and Hopkins Co."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "PAX was originally created in 2004 by Holkins and Krahulik because they wanted to attend a show exclusively for gaming. Defining characteristics of the shows include an opening keynote speech from an industry insider, game-culture inspired concerts, panels on game topics, exhibitor booths from both independent and major game developers and publishers, a LAN party multiplayer, tabletop gaming tournaments, and video game freeplay areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "As a child, Arcade did not plan to become a performance artist. In her working-class Italian-American family, there \"just wasn't a format for that,\" she explained."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marcus Loew",
        "text": "Loew was born in New York City, into a poor Jewish family, who had emigrated to New York City a few years previously from Austria and Germany. He was forced by circumstances to work at a very young age and had little formal education. Nevertheless, beginning with a small investment of money saved from menial jobs, he bought into the penny arcade business. Shortly after, in partnership with Adolph Zukor and others, he founded the successful but short-lived Automatic Vaudeville Company which established a chain of arcades across several cities. After the company dissolved in 1904 Loew converted his share of the business into nickelodeons and over time he turned Loew's Theatres into a leading chain of vaudeville and movie theaters in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "Penny Arcade (born Susana Carmen Ventura, July 15, 1950) is an American performance artist, actress, and playwright based in New York City. She is known for her comedic wit, forthright delivery, and stage presence. Her performances explore topics such as gentrification, humanity, womanhood, LGBT culture, nostalgia, family history, and the life of the outsider. Additionally, Penny Arcade is known for her association with underground arts and culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nickels Arcade",
        "text": "John H. Nickels owned and operated a meat market at this location on State Street. His grandson Tom E. Nickels inherited a portion of the property, and bought other portions of the property from his brothers and sister. Nickels hired local architect Hermann Pipp to design this building. Construction by A.R. Cole & Co. began in 1915. The first tenant, the Farmers and Mechanics bank, moved in that year. The entire building, however, was not completed until 1918, due in part to delays caused by the onset of World War I. Nickels owned the Arcade until his death in 1932, when he passed it on to his children, James and Nora."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins created a fictional fantasy series called \"Epic Legends of the Hierarchs: The Elemenstor Saga\" as a parody of generic fantasy fiction, and created a wiki for others to make up lore and backstory for the series. It rapidly grew in size as \"Penny Arcade\" fans joined in expanding the parody to describe the non-existent books, spinoffs, and life of the author."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "In January 2011 Arcade had an on-stage spat with performance artist Ann Liv Young. In 2012 she took up residence at London's Arcola Theatre for a run of her show \"Bitch! Dyke! Faghag! Whore!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Card Hunter",
        "text": "Jerry Holkins (Tycho) of Penny Arcade selected \"Card Hunter\" as his favourite game of PAX 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Krahulik",
        "text": "Krahulik has done promotional comics for \"Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six\" and many other video games. He also provided the illustrations for the cover of \"Agent to the Stars\" by John Scalzi. In his early career he contributed artwork to the Daily Victim, a regular feature that used to run on GameSpy, totaling more than 300 illustrations. He has also designed and drawn advertisements, promotional artwork, and pre-order bonuses for several video games, including ', ', and others, mostly from Ubisoft. Krahulik and \"Penny Arcade\" writer Jerry Holkins have archived these projects and keep them within their web page."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "In the 1990s, Arcade toured internationally with her most popular show, \"Bitch! Dyke! Faghag! Whore!\", an opinionated commentary on sexuality and censorship that features a chorus of amateur reverse strippers. In 1998 she performed at the first Gay Shame event at DUMBA in Brooklyn; she appears in the documentary film of the event by Scott Berry, entitled \"Gay Shame '98\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Penny Arcade is an American webcomic focused on video games and video game culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jennings & Company",
        "text": "Ode D. Jennings worked for the Mills Novelty Company and ran The Spectatorium, a penny arcade, for that company at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis, Missouri)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strip Search (web series)",
        "text": "The winner of the last challenge each day had to choose two of the artists to go head-to-head and compete to stay in the game. Elimination candidates met the Penny Arcade creators, Mike Krahulik and Jerry Holkins, and after selecting two random concepts then created an original comic strip based on fusing the concepts. The winner goes back to the house to continue competing while the loser is eliminated. Several episodes deviated from this format at Krahulik and Holkins' decision, such as eliminating multiple people and returning a previously eliminated contestants.\n: The artist won the grand prize.\n: The artist won a competitive challenge and nominated two others for elimination.\n: The artist won a social challenge.\n: The artist was explicitly mentioned as finishing well in the challenge.\n: The artist was explicitly mentioned as finishing poorly or losing the challenge.\n: The artist won an elimination challenge.\n: The artist lost an elimination challenge and was eliminated.\n: The artist returned after having been eliminated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins, along with Krahulik and their business manager Robert Khoo, founded the charity Child's Play in 2003. Child's Play is a charitable organization that donates toys and games to children's hospitals worldwide. The charity was founded in part to refute mainstream media's perception of gamers as violent and antisocial. As of 2017, Child's Play had processed $44,538,978 in donations since its inception."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "\"John Gabriel's Greater Internet Fuckwad Theory\" was posted in the \"Penny Arcade\" strip published March 19, 2004. It regards the online disinhibition effect, in which Internet users exhibit unsociable tendencies while interacting with other Internet users. Krahulik and Holkins suggest that, given both anonymity and an audience, an otherwise regular person becomes aggressively antisocial. In 2013, Holkins gave the corollary that \"Normal Person - \"Consequences\" + Audience = Total Fuckwad\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On October 21, 2005 Thompson claimed to have sent a letter to John McKay, U.S. Attorney for the Western District of Washington, in an attempt to get the FBI involved. Thompson re-iterated his claims of \"extortion\" and accused \"Penny Arcade\" of using \"their Internet site and various other means to encourage and solicit criminal harassment\". Penny Arcade denied the charge of \"extortion\", noting that they paid the $10,000 to charity, and asked nothing in return."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny to a Million",
        "text": "Questions were separated into categories. As long as each contestant answered correctly, the next question would be of the same category; lines of questioning began with the easiest questions first, becoming progressively more difficult with each question. After a wrong answer, a new category would be introduced, and the process began again. For musical categories (identifying tunes was a recurring question format), a big band was on hand to perform short snippets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On May 8, 2013 Penny Arcade launched a Kickstarter campaign to fund the continuation of \"Downloadable Content\". The kickstarter was successful, with new Podcasts being added each Wednesday."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did Holkins and Krahulik start Penny Arcade?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The two submitted cartoons to a magazine contest in 1998, but they were rejected. Seeking an alternative publisher, they worked with a site called looneygames.com to create what would become Penny Arcade."
    ],
    "topic": "Penny Arcade",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Jerry Holkins:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Jerry Holkins",
          "Career",
          "Penny Arcade"
        ],
        "ctx": "Holkins created the webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" in 1998 with Mike Krahulik, with Holkins writing and Krahulik illustrating. According to an oral history, the two submitted cartoons to a contest run by a magazine in 1998. The magazine did not accept them but the creators sought other places to publish them, and worked with a site called looneygames.com to create what would become Penny Arcade. The strip initially ran once a week. Around a year later, they created their own website for the strip. In addition to the comic, Holkins wrote accompanying blog posts. Initially, this was partly because the format of their website left blank space. Holkins says that while now the posts are a key part of the site, when they first started he would delete each post to make space for the next one so the early posts are lost. These posts are often computer and video game commentary, but also include personal reflections or rants."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins created the webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" in 1998 with Mike Krahulik, with Holkins writing and Krahulik illustrating. According to an oral history, the two submitted cartoons to a contest run by a magazine in 1998. The magazine did not accept them but the creators sought other places to publish them, and worked with a site called looneygames.com to create what would become Penny Arcade. The strip initially ran once a week. Around a year later, they created their own website for the strip. In addition to the comic, Holkins wrote accompanying blog posts. Initially, this was partly because the format of their website left blank space. Holkins says that while now the posts are a key part of the site, when they first started he would delete each post to make space for the next one so the early posts are lost. These posts are often computer and video game commentary, but also include personal reflections or rants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Penny Arcade is a webcomic focused on video games and video game culture, written by Jerry Holkins and illustrated by Mike Krahulik. The comic debuted in 1998 on the website \"loonygames.com\". Since then, Holkins and Krahulik have established their own site, which is typically updated with a new comic strip each Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. The comics are accompanied by regular updates on the site's blog."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "According to Julia Swan of the Museum of History and Innovation, \"Penny Arcade\" was one of the first, if not the first, highly successful webcomics. By 2000, \"Penny Arcade\" was profitable enough that Holkins could quit his day job. As of 2010, the strip was running three times a week and had about 3.5 million readers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "\"Penny Arcade\" has been among the most popular and longest running webcomics currently online, listed in 2010 as having 3.5 million readers. Holkins and Krahulik were among the first webcomic creators successful enough to make a living from their work. In addition to the comic, Holkins and Krahulik also created Child's Play, a children's charity; PAX, a gaming convention; Penny Arcade TV, a YouTube channel; Pinny Arcade, a pin exchange; and the episodic video game \"\" with Hothead Games and Zeboyd Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Both Krahulik and Holkins make a living from \"Penny Arcade\", placing them in a small group of professional webcomic artists devoted to their creations full-time. Originally, like many webcomics, \"Penny Arcade\" was supported solely by donations. A graph on the main page indicated how much people had donated that month. After hiring Robert Khoo as their business manager, Holkins and Krahulik switched to a different income stream based on advertising and merchandise revenue alone. According to Holkins, the website in 2006 handled more than two million pageviews daily (excluding forum traffic). On November 13, 2005, the website was given a facelift in celebration of their seventh year running and to match the designs of the Child's Play Charity and Penny Arcade Expo websites. Afterwards, the site has been redesigned multiple times."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of webcomics",
        "text": "\"Penny Arcade\" also proved to be a huge player in fields outside of webcomics in the early 2000s. In 2003, Holkins and Krahulik founded Child's Play, a charity that managed to raise over US$100,000 in its first year, which it used for donating toys for the Seattle Children's Hospital. The charity has become more successful since and now donates toys to hospitals across the country. In 2004, the duo started the Penny Arcade Expo (PAX), a yearly video game convention that debuted with an estimated 3,000 guests and has grown in size since."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On the same day, Scott Kurtz, creator of the webcomic \"PvP\" and a longtime friend of Krahulik and Holkins, used the image of the letter Thompson sent to the Seattle PD to create a parody letter in which Jack attempts to enlist the aid of the Justice League of America by claiming Gabe and Tycho to be villains of some description."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On December 13, 2006, \"Next Generation Magazine\" rated Krahulik and Holkins among its \"Top 25 People of the Year\". Also appearing on the list were Nintendo of America President Reggie Fils-Aime and former Xbox corporate vice-president Peter Moore. Krahulik made a post about the honor, in which he explained that \"Penny Arcade\" was created only because Next Gen rejected the duo's entry to a comic contest many years before. \"Entertainment Weekly\" listed \"Penny Arcade\" on their \"100 Sites to Bookmark Now,\" calling it \"a hilarious and smart webcomic for gamers.\" MTV Online named Holkins and Krahulik two of the world's most influential gamers, saying \"they have become the closest the medium has to leaders of a gamers' movement.\" Time.com named \"Penny Arcade\" as one of its \"50 Best Websites\" for 2008 \"...for the way it pokes fun at the high-tech industry and the people who love it.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins began to record and release audio content on March 20, 2006, titled \"Downloadable Content.\" The podcasts specifically captured the creative process that goes into the creation of a \"Penny Arcade\" comic, usually starting with a perusal of recent gaming news, with conversational tangents and digressions to follow. As well as being a behind-the-scenes look at the creation of \"Penny Arcade\", Krahulik and Holkins discuss possible subjects for the comic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins chose not to enter into a legal battle over whether or not the strip was a protected form of parody, and they complied with the cease-and-desist by replacing it with an image directing their audience to send a letter to a lawyer for American Greetings. They later lampooned the incident by portraying an American Greetings employee as a Nazi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins created a comic strip which compares the 7th generation consoles that appears in the December 2006 issue of \"Wired\" magazine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins received a cease-and-desist letter from American Greetings Corporation over the use of American Greetings' Strawberry Shortcake and Plum Puddin' characters in the April 14, 2003 \"Penny Arcade\" strip entitled \"Tart as a Double Entendre\". The strip was intended as a parody of the works of both American McGee (especially the computer game \"Alice\") and McFarlane Toys. At the time, McFarlane toys and American McGee made separate toy lines, each portraying a dark, frightening interpretation of the characters and situations from \"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz\". Krahulik and Holkins' portrayal of Strawberry Shortcake parodied McFarlane Toys' depiction of Dorothy as bound and blindfolded by a pair of munchkins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Thompson proceeded to phone Krahulik, as related by Holkins in the corresponding news post."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins is a co-founder of PAX (originally called the Penny Arcade Expo) a series of gaming festivals that began in 2004 and has been held around the world. He is also a co-founder of Child's Play, a multimillion-dollar charity which organizes toy drives for children's hospitals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Jerry Holkins (born Parkinson; February 6, 1976) is an American writer. He is the co-creator and writer of the webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" along with its artist Mike Krahulik. Holkins sometimes uses the pseudonym \"Tycho Brahe\", which is also the name of a Penny Arcade character based on Holkins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "In response, Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik, the creators of gaming webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" and of the children's charity Child's Play, stepped in to make the $10,000 donation instead, writing in the memo field of their cheque, \"For Jack Thompson, Because Jack Thompson Won't.\" Afterwards, Thompson tried unsuccessfully to get Seattle police and the FBI to investigate Holkins and Krahulik for orchestrating \"criminal harassment\" of him through articles on their site. Other webcomics have regularly incorporated references to Thompson, alluding to this incident as well as others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Khoo",
        "text": "In 2002 Khoo offered Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik of \"Penny Arcade\" a business plan and two months of work for free, with no strings attached. He has since helped build the \"Penny Arcade\" empire and was featured as being one of the 40 most powerful individuals in the game industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Video games and charity",
        "text": "The creators of the \"Penny Arcade\" webcomic, Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik, established the Child's Play charity in 2003 following a string of mass media stories that attempted to portray video games in a negative light. The charity was designed to provide toys and video game systems and games to various children's hospitals in the United States, though both monetary and physical donations. By 2017, Child's Play had raised over through both cash donations and donated items."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Under the banner of \"Penny Arcade Presents\", Krahulik and Holkins are sometimes commissioned to create promotional artwork/comic strips for new video games, with their signature artistic style and humor. They are usually credited simply as \"Penny Arcade\" rather than by their actual names. Some of these works have been included with the distribution of the game, and others have appeared on pre-launch official websites. An official list can be found on the Penny Arcade website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "In 2010, Holkins, Krahulik, and Khoo were awarded the annual \"Ambassador Award\" at GDC's Game Developers Choice Awards for contributions they had made to the industry. The same year, \"Time\" included Holkins and Krahulik in the annual \"Time 100\", the magazine's listing of the world's 100 most influential people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Jerry Holkins\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n----Penny Arcade.\n----Child's Play.\n----PAX gaming conventions.\n----Other work.\n--Writing style.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Strawberry Shortcake",
        "text": "In 2003, webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" posted an \"advertisement\" for an imaginary computer game, \"American McGee's Strawberry Shortcake\"\u2014a parody of the actual computer game \"American McGee's Alice\", a twisted and violent take on Lewis Carroll's works. American Greetings took offense to the parody and issued a cease-and-desist letter, to which the authors begrudgingly complied - but not without making their indignation very clear. A follow-up strip cites bad timing as a contributing factor to the lawsuit, Holkins and Krahulik were not aware that American Greetings was about to relaunch the Strawberry Shortcake line at that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "In July 2015, Holkins and Krahulik were recognized as \"Multimedia Empire Builders\" in Ad Week's 10 Visual Artists Changing the Way We See Advertising issue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On June 15, 2011, a strip entitled \"Reprise\" revisited the issue, due to the release of \"\", another American McGee game. In the strip, Gabe suggests that he and Tycho parody a brand not \"under constant surveillance\", resulting in a spoof of the \"Rainbow Brite\" franchise. Holkins stated in the accompanying news post that \"it seemed like an incredible opportunity to relive the days of yore.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "A review of \"Penny Arcade\" in 1Up.com said of Holkins, \"Language itself, whether dirty or clean, is increasingly a focus [of the comic] as Holkins stretches himself to work his favored baroque dialogue and unusual words into the script.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On March 5, 2009, the Washington State Senate honored Holkins and Krahulik, both originally from Spokane, for the contribution that they had made to the state, the video game industry, and to children's charities from around the world courtesy of their Child's Play initiative. Later in March, \"Penny Arcade\" won the category \"Best Webcomic\" in the fan voted Project Fanboy Awards for 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Khoo",
        "text": "On June 13, 2016, Holkins announced that Khoo had resigned his position at Penny Arcade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Although the shows were initially published weekly, Holkins stated in a May 2006 blog post that they have found difficulties when trying to produce the podcasts on a regular basis. The duo planned to keep recording podcasts occasionally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On October 17, 2005 Krahulik and Holkins donated US$10,000 to the Entertainment Software Association foundation in the name of Jack Thompson, a permanently-disbarred attorney-come-activist against violence in video games. Earlier, Thompson himself had promised to donate $10,000 if a video game was created in which the player kills video game developers (\"A Modest Video Game Proposal\"), but after a mod to the game \"Grand Theft Auto\" was pointed out to already exist, Thompson called his challenge satire (referring to the title of the letter as a reference to \"A Modest Proposal\") and refused to donate the money. He claimed these games were not going to be manufactured, distributed, or sold like retail games, as his Modest Proposal stated, and therefore, the deal went unfulfilled. His refusal was met with disdain, given that multiple games were created or in the process of being created under Thompson's criteria. Krahulik and Holkins donated the money in his place, with a check containing the memo: \"For Jack Thompson, Because Jack Thompson Won't\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins is married to his wife Brenna. They have two daughters, Samantha and Ronia. In a tweet, Holkins said that his surname \"is a combination of Holcomb (hers) and Parkinson (mine).\" Old versions of the Penny Arcade site credit the work to \"Mike Krahulik and Jerry Parkinson\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "In September 2012, Kurtz stopped illustrating the webcomic, due to lack of time, and was replaced by Mary Cagle, a former intern of his, and the creator of the webcomic Kiwi Blitz. Kurtz still continued to collaborate with Krahulik and Holkins in writing the comic. In late August 2013, illustration was taken over by Ty Halley (\"Secret Life of a Journal Writer\") and Monica Ray (\"Phuzzy Comics\"), former contestants of the Penny Arcade series \"Strip Search\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins is also the basis for one of the two central characters in \"Penny Arcade\", \"Tycho Brahe\". Holkins and Brahe share similar interests and personalities, though their appearances differ; for example, Tycho has mussed hair and sideburns, while Holkins's head is shaven."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "On October 17, 2005, Mike Krahulik and Jerry Holkins of \"Penny Arcade\" donated the promised $10,000 to charity on Jack Thompson's behalf. Krahulik and Holkins donated the money, under Thompson's name, to the Entertainment Software Association Foundation, the charitable arm of the Entertainment Software Association. Thompson e-mailed both \"Penny Arcade\" and \"Joystiq\", who ran a story about the donation, demanding that the articles be taken down \"or else.\" The check was presented to the ESA Foundation at an ESAF fundraising dinner in San Francisco; in its memo line was written: \"For Jack Thompson Because Jack Thompson Won't\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arcade game",
        "text": "Penny arcades started to gain a negative reputation as the most popular attraction in them tended to be mutoscopes featuring risqu\u00e9 and softcore pornography while drawing audiences of young men. Further, the birth of the film industry in the 1910s and 1920s drew audiences away from the penny arcade. New interactive coin-operated machines were created to bring back patrons to the penny arcades, creating the first arcade games. Many were based on carnival games of a larger scope, but reduced to something which could be automated. One popular style were pin-based games which were based on the 19th century game of bagatelle. One of the first such pin-based games was \"Baffle Ball\", a precursor to the pinball machine where players were given a limited number of balled to knock down targets with only a plunger. Skee-Ball became popular after being featured at an Atlantic City boardwalk arcade. The popularity of these games was aided by the impact of the Great Depression of the 1930s, as they provided inexpensive entertainment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Jerry Holkins' comic alter ego (named after the astronomer Tycho Brahe) is bitter and sarcastic. His eyes are burnt sienna, and he's almost invariably clad in a blue-striped sweater. Tycho enjoys books, role-playing video games, using large and uncommon words in conversation, and deflating Gabe's ego. He is an enthusiastic fan of \"Harry Potter\" and \"Doctor Who\". He also plays \"Dungeons & Dragons\" often (the website's previous banner illustrated him holding a 20-sided die), and adopts a wildly theatrical style when acting as a dungeon master."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "\"\" is an episodic video game based on the strip. The first two episodes were developed by Hothead Games, and were built on a version of the Torque Game Engine. The first episode was released worldwide on May 21, 2008, and the second on October 29, 2008. They were self-published via the PlayStation Network and Xbox Live as well as the PlayGreenhouse.com service created by \"Penny Arcade\" to distribute independent games. The game features many elements of the \"Penny Arcade\" universe in a 1920s steampunk setting. In 2010, Krahulik and Holkins announced that the remainder of the series had been cancelled, to allow Hothead to focus on other projects. At PAX Prime 2011, however, it was announced that the series would be revived and developed by Zeboyd Games, with a retro style similar to Zeboyd's past titles. The third episode was released on Steam and on Penny Arcade's web store June 25, 2012. The fourth and final episode was announced in January 2013, and released to Steam and Xbox Live in June 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On May 31, 2006 Krahulik announced a new advertising campaign for the Entertainment Software Rating Board. According to Krahulik, the ESRB \"wanted a campaign that would communicate to gamers why the ESRB is important even if they don't think it directly affects them.\" Among the reasons he listed for \"Penny Arcade\"'s accepting the job was that he and Holkins are both fathers and are concerned about the games their children might play. The ad campaign was rolled out in the summer and fall of 2006 and a second campaign was released in 2012 featuring a mother, a father and a gamer describing the tools employed by the ESRB."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marcus Loew",
        "text": "Loew was born in New York City, into a poor Jewish family, who had emigrated to New York City a few years previously from Austria and Germany. He was forced by circumstances to work at a very young age and had little formal education. Nevertheless, beginning with a small investment of money saved from menial jobs, he bought into the penny arcade business. Shortly after, in partnership with Adolph Zukor and others, he founded the successful but short-lived Automatic Vaudeville Company which established a chain of arcades across several cities. After the company dissolved in 1904 Loew converted his share of the business into nickelodeons and over time he turned Loew's Theatres into a leading chain of vaudeville and movie theaters in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "At PAX Australia in 2016, during a Q&A session, Holkins revealed that changes at Paramount resulted in the movie rights being returned to Penny Arcade and the project canceled. He did note, however, that Whitta's script was complete and the project could move forward with another production company in the future."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nathan H. Gordon",
        "text": "In 1902 he returned to Denver where he became part owner of a penny arcade, showing slot-machine pictures. In the following year he returned to New England and with his brother Israel Gordon opened a slot-machine picture business at Worcester, Mass., placing machines in stores, penny arcades and elsewhere. Later he established penny arcades in several neighboring cities in Massachusetts and Connecticut. In 1906 he opened at Worcester a \u201cnickelodeon,\u201d the first motion picture theatre in that city. Its success prompted him to extend the scope of his operations gradually until he became the largest operator of motion picture and vaudeville theatres in New England."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins have also released an application for iOS devices called \"The Decide-o-tron\", presented by Eedar and developed by The Binary Mill. The app works as a recommendation engine for video games; users input games they've enjoyed and the app attempts to predict their ratings of titles they haven't yet played. Holkins described it as \"Pandora for games\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strip Search (web series)",
        "text": "In interviews, Penny Arcade said that they received over 1,000 applicants, and used a brutal process to cut down to 12 contestants, including assessing whether they felt they would be able to work with the person for a year, and if they would be funny. Krahulik said of filming that \"Jerry [Holkins] was bad cop, and I was the asshole,\u201d and prided himself on how many times he made people cry. Holkins said they had to try hard to create drama, especially in a house filled with aspiring artists who all seemed to get along and understand one another; Krahulik said he look at contestants and think, \u201cwhat\u2019s the meanest thing that I can say.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Amusement arcade",
        "text": "Between the 1940s and 1960s, mechanical arcade games evolved into electro-mechanical games (EM games). Popular examples of EM games in the 1960s included shooters such as Sega's \"Periscope\" (1965) and \"Rifleman\" (1967), and racing games such as Kasco's \"Indy 500\" (1968) and Chicago Coin's \"Speedway\" (1969). Penny arcades later led to the creation of video arcades in the 1970s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "An August 11, 2010 comic entitled \"The Sixth Slave\" wherein an NPC pleads with a player to save him from being raped nightly by monsters called \"dickwolves\", drew criticism from many commentators, including from \"The American Prospect\" and \"The Boston Phoenix\". Krahulik and Holkins dismissed these criticisms, later selling \"Team Dickwolves\" T-shirts based on the strip. They later removed the \"Team Dickwolves\" shirt from their store due to complaints that it made potential PAX attendees uncomfortable. After the removal, Krahulik posted online that removing the shirts was only partly caving to pressure but mainly due to people who had personally emailed him and were reasonable with their concerns. Krahulik also stated that anyone still hesitant about going to PAX even after removal of the shirts should not come to PAX. In September 2013, on the last day of PAX, Krahulik told a panel that he thought that \"pulling the dickwolves merchandise was a mistake\", to cheers from the crowd. However, Krahulik later apologized on the \"Penny Arcade\" website, stating that he regretted contributing to the furor that had followed the original comic. Both critics of the comic strip and Krahulik and Holkins, made claims of receiving verbal abuse through social media and death threats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "1UP.com described it as \"the One True Gaming Webcomic.\" \"Penny Arcade\" was used along with \"American Elf\", \"Fetus-X\", and \"Questionable Content\" as an example of comics using the web to create \"an explosion of diverse genres and styles\" in Scott McCloud's 2006 book \"Making Comics\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "\"The Last Christmas\" and \"The Hawk and the Hare\", two stories that were published on the site, were released as motion comics for iOS developed by SRRN Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Penny Arcade is an American webcomic focused on video games and video game culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins created a fictional fantasy series called \"Epic Legends of the Hierarchs: The Elemenstor Saga\" as a parody of generic fantasy fiction, and created a wiki for others to make up lore and backstory for the series. It rapidly grew in size as \"Penny Arcade\" fans joined in expanding the parody to describe the non-existent books, spinoffs, and life of the author."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amusement arcade",
        "text": "Video game arcades began to gain momentum in the late 1970s with games such as \"Space Invaders\" (1978) and \"Galaxian\" (1979) and became widespread in 1980 with \"Pac-Man,\" \"Centipede\" and others. The central processing unit in these games allowed for more complexity than earlier discrete-circuitry games such as Atari's \"Pong\" (1972)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "\"Penny Arcade: The Series\" first aired online on February 20, 2010. It is a multi-season documentary series based on the exploits of the Penny Arcade company and its founders Krahulik and Holkins."
      },
      {
        "title": "TheGlobe.com",
        "text": "During the late 1990s, theGlobe.com expanded into gaming, purchasing \"Computer Games\" magazine, happypuppy.com (a computer gaming site), and Chips and Bits, an online store for computer and console gaming."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On August 8, 2005, Krahulik announced that \"Penny Arcade\", in partnership with Sabertooth Games, would be producing a collectible card game based on the \"Penny Arcade\" franchise. The resulting \"Penny Arcade\" \"battle box\" was released in February 2006 as part of the Universal Fighting System."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of webcomics",
        "text": "The second half of the 1990s saw the introduction of video game webcomics as a genre. Chris Morrison posted the first known video game webcomic, titled \"Polymer City Chronicles\", in 1995. Others followed towards the end of the decade, including Scott Kurtz's \"PvP\" in May 1998, and Jay Resop's sprite comic \"Neglected Mario Characters\" in September 1998. In November 1998, the duo of Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik started \"Penny Arcade\", a comic Nich Maragos from \"1UP.com\" described as the \"most popular, the most lucrative, and the most influential\" video game webcomics, and by Mike Meginnis as \"one of the most commonly emulated comics out there.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Meadows Games",
        "text": "Meadows Games was a developer and manufacturer of coin-operated video games established by Harry Kurek as a subsidiary of his contract manufacturing company, Meadows Manufacturing, in 1974. Kurek established the company because he felt the economy of the United States was headed into a recession and he wanted to enter a business he felt would be \"recession proof.\" The company scored a major hit with its 1974 release Flim-Flam, a cocktail-table ball-and-paddle game that sold over 12,000 units. Subsequent games were not as successful, and Kurek sold the company to Holosonics in 1978. Holosonics closed the company down the next year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Krahulik",
        "text": "In 2010, Krahulik and Penny Arcade received criticism stemming from several controversial comics and statements with respect to the transgender community and rape, particularly in response to a comic featuring fictional creatures known as \"dickwolves.\" Krahulik and Holkins dismissed these criticisms, later selling \"Team Dickwolves\" T-shirts based on the strip. In June 2013, Krahulik apologized and donated $20,000 to LGBTQ youth suicide prevention group The Trevor Project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arcade (comics magazine)",
        "text": "Some years later, in Spring 1975, with the help of Print Mint, they were able to launch the magazine as \"\"Arcade\".\" Soon after, however, co-editor Spiegelman moved back to his original home of New York City, which put most of the editorial work for \"Arcade\" on the shoulders of Griffith and his cartoonist wife, Diane Noomin. This, combined with distribution problems, retailer indifference, and a general failure to find a devoted audience, led to the magazine's 1976 demise."
      },
      {
        "title": "ShowBiz Pizza Place",
        "text": "Atari co-founder Nolan Bushnell, responsible for creating the first widely recognized video game, \"Pong\", headed a project in the mid-1970s for Atari to launch the first arcade-oriented, family restaurant with computer-programmed animatronics. At a time when arcades were popular in bowling alleys and bars, Bushnell sought to expose younger audiences to arcade games. In 1977, Atari opened the first Chuck E. Cheese's Pizza Time Theatre in San Jose, CA. The concept was an immediate success, and after leaving Atari in 1978, Bushnell purchased the Pizza Time restaurant, forming a new company, Pizza Time Theatre Inc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amusement arcade",
        "text": "Amusement arcade\n--History.\n----Penny arcade.\n----1970s and 1980s.\n----1990s.\n----2000s and beyond.\n--Types of games.\n----Video games.\n----Racing games.\n----Other games.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Khoo",
        "text": "Robert Khoo was the President of Operations and Business Development of \"Penny Arcade\" from 2002 until 2016. He was the Business Manager for the company and the Show Director for PAX, the largest consumer gaming show in the United States. Khoo also served as the Managing Director for Child's Play."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "The Trenches was a comic series by Krahulik and Holkins in collaboration with webcomic \"PvP\"'s creator Scott Kurtz. The comic followed a man named Issac and his life as a game tester. The series was launched on August 9, 2011 and featured new strips every Tuesday and Thursday, usually accompanied by a \"Tale from the Trenches\", which was a short piece submitted by a reader detailing their own experiences in the game industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins said in his Penny Arcade Podcast that he sings and plays guitar in the band The Fine Print, and that his band once opened for the band Anal Cunt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "The strip features Krahulik and Holkins' cartoon alter egos, John \"Gabe\" Gabriel and Tycho Brahe, respectively. While often borrowing from the authors' experiences, Holkins and Krahulik do not treat them as literal avatars or caricatures of themselves. The two characters spend much of their time playing and commenting on computer and video games, which forms the basis of the humor in the strip. Most of the time Gabe serves the purpose of the comic and Tycho the comic foil. The strip can feature in-jokes that are explained in the news posts accompanying each comic, written by the authors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Krahulik",
        "text": "Along with Holkins, Krahulik was included on the 2010 \"Time\" 100 for their work on \"Penny Arcade\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Q*bert",
        "text": "\"Q*bert\" became one of the most merchandised arcade games behind \"Pac-Man\", although according to John Sellers it was not nearly as successful as that franchise or \"Donkey Kong\". The character's likeness appears on various items including coloring books, sleeping bags, frisbees, board games, wind-up toys, and stuffed animals. In a flyer distributed in 1983, Gottlieb claimed over 125 licensed products. However, the video game crash of 1983 depressed the market, and the game's popularity began to decline by 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caine's Arcade",
        "text": "Before 2011, Caine had spent weekends with his father George Monroy at the store, during which he had tried selling goods, including yard signs for supporting sports teams and snacks and drinks from vending machines. He found little success; George's store was in an industrial area of East Los Angeles with little foot traffic, and his store was more a physical warehouse for sales made over the Internet. In summer 2011, Caine found many of the discarded boxes from the store and asked for his father's permission to create the arcade in the front, which George supported. Caine built and designed all the games himself, creating a ticket and prize redemption system, originally using some of his old toys such as Hot Wheels cars and then into items bought at dollar stores as prizes. Caine would operate the arcade \"machines\", retrieving balls and dispensing tickets to the player. During a family vacation to Palm Springs, Caine had asked for a t-shirt, with \"Caine's Arcade\" on one side and \"Staff\" on the other to be made for him, despite not knowing what \"staff\" meant at the time but knowing that he had seen that word used in other places."
      },
      {
        "title": "VG Cats",
        "text": "Ramsoomair said that \"VGCats\" was \"basically ... along the lines of Penny Arcade.\" The comic originally focused on 2 gamers; Ramsoomair said by 2006 that within the preceding one to two years he began focusing upon parodies of video games instead of the two gamer format."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Penny Arcade has created two Kickstarter projects. The first was the \"Penny Arcade's Paint the Line\" card game which was used as an alternative to pre-ordering it and came with an exclusive comic. The second was entitled \"Penny Arcade Sells Out\" and was intended to replace advertising revenue with crowd funding. The leaderboard ad on the home page of Penny Arcade would be removed if the minimum goal of $250,000 were reached, whereas the entire site would become completely ad-free for a year at $999,999. The reality web series described as \"our version of America's Next Top Webcomic\" titled \"Strip Search\" arose from the $450,000 stretch goal."
      },
      {
        "title": "PCH Games",
        "text": "In February 2016, PCH revamped the site, removing most of the games and emphasizing the lottery aspects over the games. In March 2016, Candystand.com was discontinued by PCH."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dave Nutting",
        "text": "In 1967 Dave Nutting became involved in the coin-operated games industry through his operation Nutting Industries selling the \"I.Q. Computer\" (1967) which he co-designed with engineer Harold Montgomery. The quiz machine used a film-strip to display various questions and answers which participants would select to accrue score. Through the next few years Nutting would update this technology to create electro-mechanical arcade games like \"Red Baron\" (1970). In 1971 he started a new enterprise, Milwaukee Coin Industries (MCI), continuing the design and manufacturing of arcade amusements as well as opening Red Baron Amusement Centers around the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bill Kunkel (journalist)",
        "text": "Discovering common interests in the then-nascent video game industry, Kunkel, Katz and Worley approached \"Video\" editor, Bruce Apar in 1978 about writing a video game column for his magazine. Apar agreed and \"Arcade Alley\" was launched that Spring, with Katz writing under the pseudonym \"Frank T. Laney II\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "PAX (event)",
        "text": "PAX was originally created in 2004 by Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik, the authors of the \"Penny Arcade\" webcomic, because they wanted to attend a show exclusively for gaming. Defining characteristics of the shows include an opening keynote speech from an industry insider, game-culture inspired concerts, panels on game topics, exhibitor booths from both independent and major game developers and publishers, a LAN party multiplayer, tabletop gaming tournaments, and video game freeplay areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nolan Bushnell",
        "text": "Through 1981 and 1982, Bushnell concentrated on PTT subsidiaries Sente Technologies and Kadabrascope. Sente was a reentry into the coin-operated game business. Arcade cabinets would have a proprietary system and a cartridge slot developed by Data East Corporation, so operators could refresh their games without having to buy whole new cabinets. Kadabrascope was an early attempt at computer assisted animation. In 1983 as the restaurants started to lose money, Sente, though profitable, was sold to Bally for $3.9 million and Kadabrascope was sold to Lucas which became the beginnings of what became Pixar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foster School of Business",
        "text": "Gaming\n* Robert Khoo, President of Penny Arcade\n* Peter Adkison, game designer and founder of Wizards of the Coast"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gottlieb",
        "text": "Gottlieb (formerly D. Gottlieb & Co.) was an American arcade game corporation based in Chicago, Illinois. The main office and plant was located at 1140-50 N. Kostner Avenue until the early 1970s when a new modern plant and office was located at 165 W. Lake Street in Northlake, IL. A subassembly plant was located in Fargo, ND. The company was established by David Gottlieb in 1927, initially producing pinball machines while later expanding into various other games including pitch-and-bats, bowling games, and eventually video arcade games (notably \"Reactor\" and \"Q*bert \"and, leading to the demise of Mylstar, M*A*C*H*3.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "2000s",
        "text": "Arcade video games had declined in popularity so much by the late 1990s, that revenues in the United States dropped to $1.33 billion in 1999, and reached a low of $866 million in 2004. Furthermore, by the early 2000s, networked gaming via computers and then consoles across the Internet had also appeared, replacing the venue of head-to-head competition and social atmosphere once provided solely by arcades."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chuck E. Cheese",
        "text": "Chuck E. Cheese's Pizza Time Theatre was founded by Atari founder Nolan Bushnell, who sought to expand video-game arcades beyond adult locations like pool halls to family friendly venues. His experience in the amusement park industry, and his fondness for Disneyland's Country Bear Jamboree, influenced his concept for Pizza Time Theatre. He has said, \"It was my pet project\u00a0... I chose pizza because of the wait time and the build schedule\u2014very few components, and not too many ways to screw it up.\" When his first animatronic show was being assembled, Bushnell learned the costume he had bought for his main character, a coyote, was actually a rat, prompting him to suggest changing the name from \"Coyote Pizza\" to \"Rick Rat's Pizza\". His marketing team believed this name would not be appealing to customers and proposed \"Chuck E. Cheese\" instead. The company adopted the rat as their mascot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bill Budge",
        "text": "Budge says he became interested in computers while obtaining a PhD at UC Berkeley. He purchased an Apple II and began writing games. He enjoyed it so much that he dropped out of school and became a game programmer. Budge's first game was a \"Pong\" clone, called \"Penny Arcade\", which he wrote using his own custom graphics routines. He traded the completed game to Apple Computer for a Centronics printer. California Pacific published a collection of four of Budge's Apple II games in 1980 as \"Bill Budge's Space Album\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Cryptozoic Entertainment released the licensed deck-building card game \"Penny Arcade The Game: Gamers Vs. Evil\" in 2011, and followed it with the expansion pack \"Penny Arcade The Game: Rumble in R'lyeh\" in 2012. Playdek released a digital conversion of \"Penny Arcade The Game: Gamers Vs. Evil\" for iOS in 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of arcade video games",
        "text": "The history of arcade video games originated in 1971 with the introduction of \"Computer Space\" by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney, the founders of Atari, Inc., who followed on that success the next year with \"Pong\". The industry grew modestly until the release of Taito's \"Space Invaders\" in 1978 and Namco's \"Pac-Man\" in 1980, creating a golden age of arcade video games that lasted through about 1983. At this point, saturation of the market with arcade games led to a rapid decline in both the arcade game market and arcades to support them. The arcade market began recovering in the mid-1980s, with the help of software conversion kits, new genres such as beat 'em ups, and advanced motion simulator cabinets. There was a resurgence in the early 1990s, with the birth of the fighting game genre with Capcom's \"Street Fighter II\" in 1991 and the emergence of 3D graphics, before arcades began declining in the West during the late 1990s. After several traditional companies closed or migrated to other fields (especially in the West), arcades lost much of their relevance in the West, but have continued to remained popular in Eastern and Southeastern Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "UKGameshows.com",
        "text": "From October 1998, game show consultant and puzzle writer David J. Bodycombe co-founded with Dickson a fuller version of the site, using a list compiled by TV fan Jez Rogers as a basis. The site was updated manually using standard FrontPage software."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Some of the strips are drawn from the perspective of fictional characters within a game or movie. Occasionally, Gabe and Tycho are featured as they would be as characters or players in the game themselves, often having some sarcastic remark to make about some feature or bug in the game. At times the comic also depicts meetings between game developers or business people, and features or mocks the reporters of a news article that is commented on in Holkins' newspost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "PvP",
        "text": "Originally, \"PvP\" focused on video gaming and the larger \"nerd culture\" including comics and RPGs. 1UP.com described it as one of the first game-based comics, but not the original, saying, \"neither Scott Kurtz's PvP nor Jerry Holkins and Michael Krahulik's Penny Arcade were the first gaming-themed webcomic on the Internet.\" Over the years, the humor has broadened to include technology jokes, relationship humor, in-jokes about and mocking of the generation gaps between the different characters, with gaming increasingly taking a back seat. Kurtz occasionally comes under fire for his satire. Sometimes Kurtz will speak of his father's open disdain for the strip."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arcade (Marvel Comics)",
        "text": "In another confrontation with Excalibur, Arcade trapped the team in a Murderworld programmed as a Looney Tunes parody, called the Loonies. He was revealed to be the \"Wizard of Oz\" of this world after Excalibur had to go down the yellow brick road."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Penny Arcade may also refer to:\n*Penny arcade, a venue for coin-operated devices\n* \"Penny Arcade\", a 1929 play led by American actor and dancer James Cagney.\n*Penny Arcade (performer) (born 1950), stage name of performance artist and playwright Susanna Ventura\n*\"Penny Arcade\", an early video game by Bill Budge, mimicking \"Pong\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik named his son \"Gabriel\" in honor of the character."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of video games",
        "text": "As patronage of arcades declined, many were forced to close down by the late 1990s and early 2000s. Classic coin-operated games had largely become the province of dedicated hobbyists and as a tertiary attraction for some businesses, such as movie theaters, batting cages, miniature golf courses, and arcades attached to game stores such as F.Y.E. The gap left by the old corner arcades was partly filled by large amusement centers dedicated to providing clean, safe environments and costly game control systems unavailable to home users. These newer arcade games offer driving or other sports games with specialized cockpits integrated into the arcade machine, rhythm games requiring unique controllers like \"Guitar Freaks\" and \"Dance Dance Revolution\", and path-based light gun shooting gallery games like \"Time Crisis\". Arcade establishments expanded out to include other entertainment options, such as food and drink, such as the adult-oriented Dave & Buster's and GameWorks franchises, while Chuck E. Cheese's is a similar type of business for families and young children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bally Manufacturing",
        "text": "In 1990, Bally came under new management as its largest shareholder, Arthur Goldberg, was appointed chairman and began a restructuring process. By 1993, the company had sold off several divisions and used the proceeds to pay down debts, including the slot machine division (which became Bally Gaming International, an independent company); Scientific Games, a maker of lottery equipment; Bally's Reno; and exercise equipment maker Life Fitness. The Aladdin's Castle chain of video arcades was sold that year to Namco and renamed Namco Cybertainment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Educational video game",
        "text": "Educational games became more popular in the early 1980s due to a number of factors. The video game crash of 1983 caused the console market in the United States to collapse, displaced by the growing home computer market. Further, the arcade game market was partially affected by the crash, but also had become stigmatized by a new moral panic around video game arcades due to perceived connections to violence and video game addiction. Computer game developers looked to take advantage of the situation by creating education games for home computer systems which would not only satisfy children's entertainment but would please parents and educators. In September 1983 the \"Boston Phoenix\" reported that \"edutainment\" games were a new focus area for companies after end of growth of the Atari 2600 software market. In 1983, the term \"edutainment\" was used to describe a package of software games for the Oric 1 and Spectrum Microcomputers in the UK. Dubbed \"arcade edutainment\" an advertisement for the package can be found in various issues of \"Your Computer\" magazine from 1983. The software package was available from Telford ITEC a government-sponsored training program. The originator of the name was Chris Harvey who worked at ITEC at the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "In retaliation, Jack Thompson faxed a letter to Seattle Police Chief Gil Kerlikowske, requesting assistance in halting the activities of Krahulik and Holkins. In his letter, he described how personnel within \"Penny Arcade\" were harassing him: the sale of an \"I Hate Jack Thompson\" shirt and frequent postings on their website where they allegedly admitted to harassment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Golden age of arcade video games",
        "text": "Seen as an additional source of revenue, arcade games began popping up outside of dedicated arcades, including bars, restaurants, movie theaters, convenience stores, laundromats, gas stations, supermarkets, airports, even dentist and doctor offices. Showbiz Pizza and Chuck E. Cheese were founded specifically as restaurants focused on featuring the latest arcade titles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Knick Knack",
        "text": "The rest of the team were also fans of \"Tom and Jerry\" cartoons and the work of Chuck Jones and found the idea of cartoonish violence appealing. Animator Flip Phillips and production coordinator Deirdre Warin simultaneously hit on the idea of the snow globe falling into a fishbowl. Craig Good came up with the idea of an \"iris out,\" a shrinking circle at the close, as a reference to \"Looney Tunes\". A skeleton on the shelf in the short was a 3D model from an Ohio State University skeleton data set called George, though the Pixar team stretched George's arms for comic effect. Also distorted were the two female characters\u2014the bikini-attired woman and a mermaid\u2014whose breasts were ultra-exaggerated thanks to a technical director who was a pinup enthusiast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Looney Labs",
        "text": "Andrew and Kristin Looney previously entered game design and manufacturing with Icehouse Games which was started to manufacture IceHouse sets for the formerly fictional \"IceHouse\" game in 1989. In 1996, Looney shut down Icehouse Games, Inc. as the cost to create Icehouse pyramid molds would cost $12,000 and to focus on designing a card game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari Games",
        "text": "When the Atari, Inc. division of Warner Communications lost $500 million in the first three quarters of 1983, its arcade coin-op division was the only one to make money. In 1984, Warner sold Atari's consumer products division to Jack Tramiel; he named this company Atari Corporation. Warner retained the coin-op division and a few other assets and changed the named of Atari, Inc. to Atari Games, Inc. The agreement between Tramiel and Warner Communications was that Atari Games must always include the \"Games\" after \"Atari\" on its logo and that Atari Games could not use the Atari brand at all in the consumer market (computers and home consoles). Atari Games retained most of the same employees and managers that had worked at the old Atari Inc. It was able to carry on with many of its projects from before the transition. Atari Corp., in contrast, froze projects and streamlined staff and operations. In 1985, the controlling interest of Atari Games was sold to Namco, while Warner retained 40% of the company. Namco later lost interest in operating Atari Games and sold 33% of its shares to a group of employees led by then-president Hideyuki Nakajima. As the company was now split between three entities, Warner (40%), Namco (40%), and the employees (20%), and none of them held a controlling share, Atari Games effectively became an independent company. Nakajima had been the president of Atari Games since 1985. Atari Ireland was a subsidiary of Atari Games that manufactured their games for the European market; while under Namco, Atari Ireland also manufactured Sega's \"Hang-On\" (1985) for the European market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Golden age of arcade video games",
        "text": "Arcades catering to video games began to gain momentum in the late 1970s, with \"Space Invaders\" (1978) followed by games such as \"Asteroids\" (1979) and \"Galaxian\" (1979). Arcades became more widespread in 1980 with \"Pac-Man\", \"Missile Command\" and \"Berzerk\", and in 1981 with \"Defender\", \"Donkey Kong\", \"Frogger\" and others. The central processing unit (CPU) microprocessors in these games allowed for more complexity than earlier transistor-transistor logic (TTL) discrete circuitry games such as Atari's \"Pong\" (1972). The arcade boom that began in the late 1970s is credited with establishing the basic techniques of interactive entertainment and for driving down hardware prices to the extent of allowing the personal computer (PC) to become a technological and economic reality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Card Hunter",
        "text": "Jerry Holkins (Tycho) of Penny Arcade selected \"Card Hunter\" as his favourite game of PAX 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Dabney",
        "text": "Dabney and Bushnell jointly created a partnership called Syzygy (named after astronomy term representing an alignment of celestial bodies) in 1971. When they decided to incorporate, they discovered another company had that name and therefore established their corporation under the name Atari, Inc., based on the Go term equivalent to chess's \"check\", as both had been avid fans of the game. Their first product was \"Computer Space\", inspired by having seen \"Spacewar!\" running at various computer laboratories. Dabney created a motion system using a video circuit made up of cheap analog and digital components of a standard television set rather than acquire an expensive computer, while Bushnell designed its cabinet and worked with Nutting Associates to manufacture the game at scale. Bushnell used this to convince Al Alcorn, another Ampex employee, to leave and join Atari to help program more of these games. Under Bushnell's direction, Alcorn used Dabney's video circuit concept to create the programming for Atari's next game, \"Pong\". Dabney constructed the coin slot mechanism portion of the cabinet. Once their one-off version proved successful, they ramped up production for scale, with Dabney overseeing the manufacturing process. \"Pong\" became the first successful arcade game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strawberry Shortcake",
        "text": "Some argue that \"Penny Arcade\"s case was not covered under the fair use doctrine because the use of the characters in this case was for satire; they claim that fair use only protects the unauthorized use of copyrighted characters in parodies of the original material, and that satire and parody are totally different concepts. Others, however, take the view that parody and satire are equally protected by law. \"Penny Arcade\" did not intend to offend American Greetings in the comic, but instead American McGee and McFarlane Toys, who collaborated to create a toy line based on a twisted version of \"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz\". The poster also mocked American McGee's game, \"American McGee's Alice\", a game with a dark and twisted take on Lewis Carroll's books, \"Alice In Wonderland\" and \"Through the Looking Glass\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of arcade video games",
        "text": "In 1969, Nolan Bushnell was invited by a colleague to see \"Spacewar!\" running on Stanford University's PDP-6 computer. Bushnell got the idea of recreating the game on a smaller computer, a Data General Nova, connected to multiple coin-operated terminals. He and fellow Ampex employee Ted Dabney, under the company name Syzygy, worked with Nutting Associates to create \"Computer Space\", the first commercial arcade game, with location tests in August 1971 and production starting in November. More than 1300 units of the game were sold, and while not as large of a hit game as hoped, it proved the potential for the coin-operated computer game. At Stanford University, students Bill Pitts and Hugh Tuck used a PDP-11 mainframe to build two prototypes of \"Galaxy Game\", which they demonstrated at the university starting in November 1971, but were unable to turn into a commercial game."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of video games",
        "text": "Concurrently, Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney had the idea of making a coin-operated cabinet housing a small, low-cost microcomputer to run \"Spacewar!\" By 1971, the two had developed \"Computer Space\" with Nutting Associates, the first recognized arcade video game. Bushnell and Dabney struck out on their own and formed Atari. Bushnell, inspired by the table tennis game on the Odyssey, hired Allan Alcorn to develop an arcade version of the game, this time using discrete transistor\u2013transistor logic (TTL) electronic circuitry. Atari's \"Pong\" was released in late 1972 and is considered the first successful arcade video game. It ignited the growth of the arcade game industry in the United States from both established coin-operated game manufacturers like Williams, Chicago Coin, and the Midway subsidiary of Bally Manufacturing, and new startups such as Ramtek and Allied Leisure. Many of these were \"Pong\" clones using ball-and-paddle controls, and led to saturation of the market in 1974, forcing arcade game makers to try to innovate new games in 1975. Many of the newer companies created in the wake of \"Pong\" failed to innovate on their own and shut down, and by the end of 1975, the arcade market had fallen by about 50% based on new game sale revenues. Further, Magnavox took Atari and several other of these arcade game makers to court over violations of Baer's patents. Bushnell settled the suit for Atari, gaining perpetual rights for the patents for Atari as part of the settlement. Others failed to settle, and Magnavox won around in damages from these patent infringement suits before the patents expired in 1990."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did Holkins and Krahulik start Penny Arcade?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The two submitted cartoons to a magazine contest in 1998, but they were rejected. Seeking an alternative publisher, they worked with a site called looneygames.com to create what would become Penny Arcade."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Do you know what became of looneygames.com?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information.",
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
    ],
    "topic": "Penny Arcade",
    "ground_truth_ctx": []
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins created the webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" in 1998 with Mike Krahulik, with Holkins writing and Krahulik illustrating. According to an oral history, the two submitted cartoons to a contest run by a magazine in 1998. The magazine did not accept them but the creators sought other places to publish them, and worked with a site called looneygames.com to create what would become Penny Arcade. The strip initially ran once a week. Around a year later, they created their own website for the strip. In addition to the comic, Holkins wrote accompanying blog posts. Initially, this was partly because the format of their website left blank space. Holkins says that while now the posts are a key part of the site, when they first started he would delete each post to make space for the next one so the early posts are lost. These posts are often computer and video game commentary, but also include personal reflections or rants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Penny Arcade is a webcomic focused on video games and video game culture, written by Jerry Holkins and illustrated by Mike Krahulik. The comic debuted in 1998 on the website \"loonygames.com\". Since then, Holkins and Krahulik have established their own site, which is typically updated with a new comic strip each Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. The comics are accompanied by regular updates on the site's blog."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins chose not to enter into a legal battle over whether or not the strip was a protected form of parody, and they complied with the cease-and-desist by replacing it with an image directing their audience to send a letter to a lawyer for American Greetings. They later lampooned the incident by portraying an American Greetings employee as a Nazi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "The \"Penny Arcade\" shop had at the time sold an \"I hate Jack Thompson\" T-shirt, claiming that every living creature, including Thompson's own mother, hates Jack Thompson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On June 15, 2011, a strip entitled \"Reprise\" revisited the issue, due to the release of \"\", another American McGee game. In the strip, Gabe suggests that he and Tycho parody a brand not \"under constant surveillance\", resulting in a spoof of the \"Rainbow Brite\" franchise. Holkins stated in the accompanying news post that \"it seemed like an incredible opportunity to relive the days of yore.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Thompson proceeded to phone Krahulik, as related by Holkins in the corresponding news post."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On the same day, Scott Kurtz, creator of the webcomic \"PvP\" and a longtime friend of Krahulik and Holkins, used the image of the letter Thompson sent to the Seattle PD to create a parody letter in which Jack attempts to enlist the aid of the Justice League of America by claiming Gabe and Tycho to be villains of some description."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "According to Julia Swan of the Museum of History and Innovation, \"Penny Arcade\" was one of the first, if not the first, highly successful webcomics. By 2000, \"Penny Arcade\" was profitable enough that Holkins could quit his day job. As of 2010, the strip was running three times a week and had about 3.5 million readers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins created a comic strip which compares the 7th generation consoles that appears in the December 2006 issue of \"Wired\" magazine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Penny Arcade is an American webcomic focused on video games and video game culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strawberry Shortcake",
        "text": "Some argue that \"Penny Arcade\"s case was not covered under the fair use doctrine because the use of the characters in this case was for satire; they claim that fair use only protects the unauthorized use of copyrighted characters in parodies of the original material, and that satire and parody are totally different concepts. Others, however, take the view that parody and satire are equally protected by law. \"Penny Arcade\" did not intend to offend American Greetings in the comic, but instead American McGee and McFarlane Toys, who collaborated to create a toy line based on a twisted version of \"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz\". The poster also mocked American McGee's game, \"American McGee's Alice\", a game with a dark and twisted take on Lewis Carroll's books, \"Alice In Wonderland\" and \"Through the Looking Glass\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arcade game",
        "text": "Penny arcades started to gain a negative reputation as the most popular attraction in them tended to be mutoscopes featuring risqu\u00e9 and softcore pornography while drawing audiences of young men. Further, the birth of the film industry in the 1910s and 1920s drew audiences away from the penny arcade. New interactive coin-operated machines were created to bring back patrons to the penny arcades, creating the first arcade games. Many were based on carnival games of a larger scope, but reduced to something which could be automated. One popular style were pin-based games which were based on the 19th century game of bagatelle. One of the first such pin-based games was \"Baffle Ball\", a precursor to the pinball machine where players were given a limited number of balled to knock down targets with only a plunger. Skee-Ball became popular after being featured at an Atlantic City boardwalk arcade. The popularity of these games was aided by the impact of the Great Depression of the 1930s, as they provided inexpensive entertainment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Penny Arcade\n--Overview.\n--Attributes of the comic strip.\n--Protagonists.\n----Jonathan \"Gabe\" Gabriel.\n----Tycho Brahe.\n--Podcast.\n--Games.\n--\"Penny Arcade: The Series\".\n--Other works.\n----Penny Arcade Presents.\n----Collectible Card Game.\n----ESRB ad campaigns.\n----\"The New Kid\" film.\n----The Trenches.\n----The Decideotron.\n----Kickstarter.\n--\"Penny Arcade\" events.\n--Legal issues and controversy.\n----American Greetings.\n----Jack Thompson.\n----Rape/dickwolves controversy.\n--\"Greater Internet Fuckwad Theory\".\n--Reception.\n--Awards and recognition.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Penny Arcade may also refer to:\n*Penny arcade, a venue for coin-operated devices\n* \"Penny Arcade\", a 1929 play led by American actor and dancer James Cagney.\n*Penny Arcade (performer) (born 1950), stage name of performance artist and playwright Susanna Ventura\n*\"Penny Arcade\", an early video game by Bill Budge, mimicking \"Pong\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Strawberry Shortcake",
        "text": "In 2003, webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" posted an \"advertisement\" for an imaginary computer game, \"American McGee's Strawberry Shortcake\"\u2014a parody of the actual computer game \"American McGee's Alice\", a twisted and violent take on Lewis Carroll's works. American Greetings took offense to the parody and issued a cease-and-desist letter, to which the authors begrudgingly complied - but not without making their indignation very clear. A follow-up strip cites bad timing as a contributing factor to the lawsuit, Holkins and Krahulik were not aware that American Greetings was about to relaunch the Strawberry Shortcake line at that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "\"Penny Arcade\" has been among the most popular and longest running webcomics currently online, listed in 2010 as having 3.5 million readers. Holkins and Krahulik were among the first webcomic creators successful enough to make a living from their work. In addition to the comic, Holkins and Krahulik also created Child's Play, a children's charity; PAX, a gaming convention; Penny Arcade TV, a YouTube channel; Pinny Arcade, a pin exchange; and the episodic video game \"\" with Hothead Games and Zeboyd Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "\"\" is an episodic video game based on the strip. The first two episodes were developed by Hothead Games, and were built on a version of the Torque Game Engine. The first episode was released worldwide on May 21, 2008, and the second on October 29, 2008. They were self-published via the PlayStation Network and Xbox Live as well as the PlayGreenhouse.com service created by \"Penny Arcade\" to distribute independent games. The game features many elements of the \"Penny Arcade\" universe in a 1920s steampunk setting. In 2010, Krahulik and Holkins announced that the remainder of the series had been cancelled, to allow Hothead to focus on other projects. At PAX Prime 2011, however, it was announced that the series would be revived and developed by Zeboyd Games, with a retro style similar to Zeboyd's past titles. The third episode was released on Steam and on Penny Arcade's web store June 25, 2012. The fourth and final episode was announced in January 2013, and released to Steam and Xbox Live in June 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)",
        "text": "In music:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Jerry Holkins\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n----Penny Arcade.\n----Child's Play.\n----PAX gaming conventions.\n----Other work.\n--Writing style.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On March 21, 2007 Thompson filed a countersuit to the lawsuit brought against him by Take Two Interactive claiming that they are at the center of a RICO conspiracy. \"Penny Arcade\" was named as one of the co-conspirators. At Sakura-Con 2007, Krahulik announced that the suit had been dropped."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amusement arcade",
        "text": "Amusement arcade\n--History.\n----Penny arcade.\n----1970s and 1980s.\n----1990s.\n----2000s and beyond.\n--Types of games.\n----Video games.\n----Racing games.\n----Other games.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Some of the strips are drawn from the perspective of fictional characters within a game or movie. Occasionally, Gabe and Tycho are featured as they would be as characters or players in the game themselves, often having some sarcastic remark to make about some feature or bug in the game. At times the comic also depicts meetings between game developers or business people, and features or mocks the reporters of a news article that is commented on in Holkins' newspost."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of webcomics",
        "text": "\"Penny Arcade\" also proved to be a huge player in fields outside of webcomics in the early 2000s. In 2003, Holkins and Krahulik founded Child's Play, a charity that managed to raise over US$100,000 in its first year, which it used for donating toys for the Seattle Children's Hospital. The charity has become more successful since and now donates toys to hospitals across the country. In 2004, the duo started the Penny Arcade Expo (PAX), a yearly video game convention that debuted with an estimated 3,000 guests and has grown in size since."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On December 13, 2006, \"Next Generation Magazine\" rated Krahulik and Holkins among its \"Top 25 People of the Year\". Also appearing on the list were Nintendo of America President Reggie Fils-Aime and former Xbox corporate vice-president Peter Moore. Krahulik made a post about the honor, in which he explained that \"Penny Arcade\" was created only because Next Gen rejected the duo's entry to a comic contest many years before. \"Entertainment Weekly\" listed \"Penny Arcade\" on their \"100 Sites to Bookmark Now,\" calling it \"a hilarious and smart webcomic for gamers.\" MTV Online named Holkins and Krahulik two of the world's most influential gamers, saying \"they have become the closest the medium has to leaders of a gamers' movement.\" Time.com named \"Penny Arcade\" as one of its \"50 Best Websites\" for 2008 \"...for the way it pokes fun at the high-tech industry and the people who love it.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins received a cease-and-desist letter from American Greetings Corporation over the use of American Greetings' Strawberry Shortcake and Plum Puddin' characters in the April 14, 2003 \"Penny Arcade\" strip entitled \"Tart as a Double Entendre\". The strip was intended as a parody of the works of both American McGee (especially the computer game \"Alice\") and McFarlane Toys. At the time, McFarlane toys and American McGee made separate toy lines, each portraying a dark, frightening interpretation of the characters and situations from \"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz\". Krahulik and Holkins' portrayal of Strawberry Shortcake parodied McFarlane Toys' depiction of Dorothy as bound and blindfolded by a pair of munchkins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "1UP.com described it as \"the One True Gaming Webcomic.\" \"Penny Arcade\" was used along with \"American Elf\", \"Fetus-X\", and \"Questionable Content\" as an example of comics using the web to create \"an explosion of diverse genres and styles\" in Scott McCloud's 2006 book \"Making Comics\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tropolis",
        "text": "A 3-part \"Penny Arcade\" strip showed Tycho criticizing Tropolis, saying, \"What kind of fucking supervillain comes up with this shit?!\" after which a fictitious \"Origins\" story for the product was shown, depicting an evil scientist setting out to \"drinkify\" snacks and ending up as a snack himself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "At PAX Australia in 2016, during a Q&A session, Holkins revealed that changes at Paramount resulted in the movie rights being returned to Penny Arcade and the project canceled. He did note, however, that Whitta's script was complete and the project could move forward with another production company in the future."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "A review of \"Penny Arcade\" in 1Up.com said of Holkins, \"Language itself, whether dirty or clean, is increasingly a focus [of the comic] as Holkins stretches himself to work his favored baroque dialogue and unusual words into the script.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Under the banner of \"Penny Arcade Presents\", Krahulik and Holkins are sometimes commissioned to create promotional artwork/comic strips for new video games, with their signature artistic style and humor. They are usually credited simply as \"Penny Arcade\" rather than by their actual names. Some of these works have been included with the distribution of the game, and others have appeared on pre-launch official websites. An official list can be found on the Penny Arcade website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Penny Arcade has created two Kickstarter projects. The first was the \"Penny Arcade's Paint the Line\" card game which was used as an alternative to pre-ordering it and came with an exclusive comic. The second was entitled \"Penny Arcade Sells Out\" and was intended to replace advertising revenue with crowd funding. The leaderboard ad on the home page of Penny Arcade would be removed if the minimum goal of $250,000 were reached, whereas the entire site would become completely ad-free for a year at $999,999. The reality web series described as \"our version of America's Next Top Webcomic\" titled \"Strip Search\" arose from the $450,000 stretch goal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On October 17, 2005 Krahulik and Holkins donated US$10,000 to the Entertainment Software Association foundation in the name of Jack Thompson, a permanently-disbarred attorney-come-activist against violence in video games. Earlier, Thompson himself had promised to donate $10,000 if a video game was created in which the player kills video game developers (\"A Modest Video Game Proposal\"), but after a mod to the game \"Grand Theft Auto\" was pointed out to already exist, Thompson called his challenge satire (referring to the title of the letter as a reference to \"A Modest Proposal\") and refused to donate the money. He claimed these games were not going to be manufactured, distributed, or sold like retail games, as his Modest Proposal stated, and therefore, the deal went unfulfilled. His refusal was met with disdain, given that multiple games were created or in the process of being created under Thompson's criteria. Krahulik and Holkins donated the money in his place, with a check containing the memo: \"For Jack Thompson, Because Jack Thompson Won't\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Jerry Holkins' comic alter ego (named after the astronomer Tycho Brahe) is bitter and sarcastic. His eyes are burnt sienna, and he's almost invariably clad in a blue-striped sweater. Tycho enjoys books, role-playing video games, using large and uncommon words in conversation, and deflating Gabe's ego. He is an enthusiastic fan of \"Harry Potter\" and \"Doctor Who\". He also plays \"Dungeons & Dragons\" often (the website's previous banner illustrated him holding a 20-sided die), and adopts a wildly theatrical style when acting as a dungeon master."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Clay Shirky, an adjunct professor at New York University who studies social and economic effects of Internet technologies, explains: \"There\u2019s a large crowd and you can act out in front of it without paying any personal price to your reputation,\u201d which \"creates conditions most likely to draw out the typical Internet user\u2019s worst impulses.\" In an \"Advocate\" article about online homophobia, this theory was used to account for behavior on online forums where one can remain anonymous in front of an audience: for instance, posting comments on popular YouTube videos.\n* \"Year One: A Penny Arcade Retrospective\" (Limited Edition) \u2014\n* \"Year One: A Penny Arcade Retrospective\" (Soft Cover) \u2014\n* \"Year One: A Penny Arcade Retrospective\" (Hard Cover) \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 1: Attack of the Bacon Robots\" \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade Limited Edition Signed \u2013 Attack Of The Bacon Robots\" \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 2: Epic Legends Of The Magic Sword Kings\" \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 3: The Warsun Prophecies\" \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 4: Birds Are Weird\" \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 5: The Case of the Mummy's Gold\" \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 6: The Halls Below\" (Limited Edition) -\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 6: The Halls Below\" (Soft Cover) \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 7: Be Good, Little Puppy\" \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 8: Magical Kids in Danger\" \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 9: Passion's Howl\" \u2014\n* \"The Splendid Magic of Penny Arcade: The 11.5 Anniversary Edition\" (Hardcover) \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 10: The Fall of Penny Arcade\" \u2014"
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "The format of the show was mostly \"fly-on-the-wall\" style, in that the hosts rarely acknowledged the existence of the microphone. There was no theme music, intro, or outro. The podcasts were of varying lengths, beginning abruptly and ending with the idea for the current comic. New episodes were released irregularly, with six month gaps not uncommon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "In response, Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik, the creators of gaming webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" and of the children's charity Child's Play, stepped in to make the $10,000 donation instead, writing in the memo field of their cheque, \"For Jack Thompson, Because Jack Thompson Won't.\" Afterwards, Thompson tried unsuccessfully to get Seattle police and the FBI to investigate Holkins and Krahulik for orchestrating \"criminal harassment\" of him through articles on their site. Other webcomics have regularly incorporated references to Thompson, alluding to this incident as well as others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Both Krahulik and Holkins make a living from \"Penny Arcade\", placing them in a small group of professional webcomic artists devoted to their creations full-time. Originally, like many webcomics, \"Penny Arcade\" was supported solely by donations. A graph on the main page indicated how much people had donated that month. After hiring Robert Khoo as their business manager, Holkins and Krahulik switched to a different income stream based on advertising and merchandise revenue alone. According to Holkins, the website in 2006 handled more than two million pageviews daily (excluding forum traffic). On November 13, 2005, the website was given a facelift in celebration of their seventh year running and to match the designs of the Child's Play Charity and Penny Arcade Expo websites. Afterwards, the site has been redesigned multiple times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "As a child, Arcade did not plan to become a performance artist. In her working-class Italian-American family, there \"just wasn't a format for that,\" she explained."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "\"The Trenches\" was ultimately abandoned. The last comic was posted January 5, 2016, while the last \"Tales\" is from September 10, 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Video games and charity",
        "text": "The creators of the \"Penny Arcade\" webcomic, Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik, established the Child's Play charity in 2003 following a string of mass media stories that attempted to portray video games in a negative light. The charity was designed to provide toys and video game systems and games to various children's hospitals in the United States, though both monetary and physical donations. By 2017, Child's Play had raised over through both cash donations and donated items."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On October 18, 2005 it was reported that Jack Thompson had faxed a letter to Seattle Police Chief Gil Kerlikowske claiming that \"Penny Arcade\" \"employs certain personnel who have decided to commence and orchestrate criminal harassment of me by various means\". Holkins defended the site by saying that the \"harassment\" Thompson referred to was simply \"the natural result of a public figure making statements that people disagree with, and letting him know their thoughts on the matter via his publicly available contact information\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins began to record and release audio content on March 20, 2006, titled \"Downloadable Content.\" The podcasts specifically captured the creative process that goes into the creation of a \"Penny Arcade\" comic, usually starting with a perusal of recent gaming news, with conversational tangents and digressions to follow. As well as being a behind-the-scenes look at the creation of \"Penny Arcade\", Krahulik and Holkins discuss possible subjects for the comic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On October 21, 2005 Thompson claimed to have sent a letter to John McKay, U.S. Attorney for the Western District of Washington, in an attempt to get the FBI involved. Thompson re-iterated his claims of \"extortion\" and accused \"Penny Arcade\" of using \"their Internet site and various other means to encourage and solicit criminal harassment\". Penny Arcade denied the charge of \"extortion\", noting that they paid the $10,000 to charity, and asked nothing in return."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "An August 11, 2010 comic entitled \"The Sixth Slave\" wherein an NPC pleads with a player to save him from being raped nightly by monsters called \"dickwolves\", drew criticism from many commentators, including from \"The American Prospect\" and \"The Boston Phoenix\". Krahulik and Holkins dismissed these criticisms, later selling \"Team Dickwolves\" T-shirts based on the strip. They later removed the \"Team Dickwolves\" shirt from their store due to complaints that it made potential PAX attendees uncomfortable. After the removal, Krahulik posted online that removing the shirts was only partly caving to pressure but mainly due to people who had personally emailed him and were reasonable with their concerns. Krahulik also stated that anyone still hesitant about going to PAX even after removal of the shirts should not come to PAX. In September 2013, on the last day of PAX, Krahulik told a panel that he thought that \"pulling the dickwolves merchandise was a mistake\", to cheers from the crowd. However, Krahulik later apologized on the \"Penny Arcade\" website, stating that he regretted contributing to the furor that had followed the original comic. Both critics of the comic strip and Krahulik and Holkins, made claims of receiving verbal abuse through social media and death threats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Although the shows were initially published weekly, Holkins stated in a May 2006 blog post that they have found difficulties when trying to produce the podcasts on a regular basis. The duo planned to keep recording podcasts occasionally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins is also the basis for one of the two central characters in \"Penny Arcade\", \"Tycho Brahe\". Holkins and Brahe share similar interests and personalities, though their appearances differ; for example, Tycho has mussed hair and sideburns, while Holkins's head is shaven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "In January 2011 Arcade had an on-stage spat with performance artist Ann Liv Young. In 2012 she took up residence at London's Arcola Theatre for a run of her show \"Bitch! Dyke! Faghag! Whore!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On March 5, 2009, the Washington State Senate honored Holkins and Krahulik, both originally from Spokane, for the contribution that they had made to the state, the video game industry, and to children's charities from around the world courtesy of their Child's Play initiative. Later in March, \"Penny Arcade\" won the category \"Best Webcomic\" in the fan voted Project Fanboy Awards for 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Cryptozoic Entertainment released the licensed deck-building card game \"Penny Arcade The Game: Gamers Vs. Evil\" in 2011, and followed it with the expansion pack \"Penny Arcade The Game: Rumble in R'lyeh\" in 2012. Playdek released a digital conversion of \"Penny Arcade The Game: Gamers Vs. Evil\" for iOS in 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "Arcade's 2002 performance \"New York Values\", which also toured abroad, addressed the loss of cultural identity in New York during the Giuliani years. The Village Gate marquee in New York is still adorned with her name and the title of her performance piece \"Politics, Sex & Reality\", although the nightclub no longer exists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "In July 2015, Holkins and Krahulik were recognized as \"Multimedia Empire Builders\" in Ad Week's 10 Visual Artists Changing the Way We See Advertising issue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "In September 2012, Kurtz stopped illustrating the webcomic, due to lack of time, and was replaced by Mary Cagle, a former intern of his, and the creator of the webcomic Kiwi Blitz. Kurtz still continued to collaborate with Krahulik and Holkins in writing the comic. In late August 2013, illustration was taken over by Ty Halley (\"Secret Life of a Journal Writer\") and Monica Ray (\"Phuzzy Comics\"), former contestants of the Penny Arcade series \"Strip Search\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "Arcade adopted the name \"Penny Arcade\" after an LSD trip with her mentor Jamie Andrews, who took her into his home when she moved to New York. It was Andrews who introduced Arcade to John Vacarro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nathan H. Gordon",
        "text": "In 1902 he returned to Denver where he became part owner of a penny arcade, showing slot-machine pictures. In the following year he returned to New England and with his brother Israel Gordon opened a slot-machine picture business at Worcester, Mass., placing machines in stores, penny arcades and elsewhere. Later he established penny arcades in several neighboring cities in Massachusetts and Connecticut. In 1906 he opened at Worcester a \u201cnickelodeon,\u201d the first motion picture theatre in that city. Its success prompted him to extend the scope of his operations gradually until he became the largest operator of motion picture and vaudeville theatres in New England."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On August 8, 2005, Krahulik announced that \"Penny Arcade\", in partnership with Sabertooth Games, would be producing a collectible card game based on the \"Penny Arcade\" franchise. The resulting \"Penny Arcade\" \"battle box\" was released in February 2006 as part of the Universal Fighting System."
      },
      {
        "title": "VG Cats",
        "text": "Ramsoomair said that \"VGCats\" was \"basically ... along the lines of Penny Arcade.\" The comic originally focused on 2 gamers; Ramsoomair said by 2006 that within the preceding one to two years he began focusing upon parodies of video games instead of the two gamer format."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins is a co-founder of PAX (originally called the Penny Arcade Expo) a series of gaming festivals that began in 2004 and has been held around the world. He is also a co-founder of Child's Play, a multimillion-dollar charity which organizes toy drives for children's hospitals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amusement arcade",
        "text": "Video game arcades began to gain momentum in the late 1970s with games such as \"Space Invaders\" (1978) and \"Galaxian\" (1979) and became widespread in 1980 with \"Pac-Man,\" \"Centipede\" and others. The central processing unit in these games allowed for more complexity than earlier discrete-circuitry games such as Atari's \"Pong\" (1972)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "In the 1990s, Arcade toured internationally with her most popular show, \"Bitch! Dyke! Faghag! Whore!\", an opinionated commentary on sexuality and censorship that features a chorus of amateur reverse strippers. In 1998 she performed at the first Gay Shame event at DUMBA in Brooklyn; she appears in the documentary film of the event by Scott Berry, entitled \"Gay Shame '98\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Jerry Holkins (born Parkinson; February 6, 1976) is an American writer. He is the co-creator and writer of the webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" along with its artist Mike Krahulik. Holkins sometimes uses the pseudonym \"Tycho Brahe\", which is also the name of a Penny Arcade character based on Holkins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "In a 2012 article in the \"Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media\", academics Salter & Blodgett used the Dickwolves incident as a case study into \"hypermasculinity and sexism within the gaming community\", and argued that \"this case highlights how the hypermasculine discourse encourages the overt privileging of masculinity over femininity and discourages women from engaging in gendered discourse within the community.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Amusement arcade",
        "text": "Between the 1940s and 1960s, mechanical arcade games evolved into electro-mechanical games (EM games). Popular examples of EM games in the 1960s included shooters such as Sega's \"Periscope\" (1965) and \"Rifleman\" (1967), and racing games such as Kasco's \"Indy 500\" (1968) and Chicago Coin's \"Speedway\" (1969). Penny arcades later led to the creation of video arcades in the 1970s."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "On October 17, 2005, Mike Krahulik and Jerry Holkins of \"Penny Arcade\" donated the promised $10,000 to charity on Jack Thompson's behalf. Krahulik and Holkins donated the money, under Thompson's name, to the Entertainment Software Association Foundation, the charitable arm of the Entertainment Software Association. Thompson e-mailed both \"Penny Arcade\" and \"Joystiq\", who ran a story about the donation, demanding that the articles be taken down \"or else.\" The check was presented to the ESA Foundation at an ESAF fundraising dinner in San Francisco; in its memo line was written: \"For Jack Thompson Because Jack Thompson Won't\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "Selected works include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "\"The Last Christmas\" and \"The Hawk and the Hare\", two stories that were published on the site, were released as motion comics for iOS developed by SRRN Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marcus Loew",
        "text": "Loew was born in New York City, into a poor Jewish family, who had emigrated to New York City a few years previously from Austria and Germany. He was forced by circumstances to work at a very young age and had little formal education. Nevertheless, beginning with a small investment of money saved from menial jobs, he bought into the penny arcade business. Shortly after, in partnership with Adolph Zukor and others, he founded the successful but short-lived Automatic Vaudeville Company which established a chain of arcades across several cities. After the company dissolved in 1904 Loew converted his share of the business into nickelodeons and over time he turned Loew's Theatres into a leading chain of vaudeville and movie theaters in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On May 31, 2006 Krahulik announced a new advertising campaign for the Entertainment Software Rating Board. According to Krahulik, the ESRB \"wanted a campaign that would communicate to gamers why the ESRB is important even if they don't think it directly affects them.\" Among the reasons he listed for \"Penny Arcade\"'s accepting the job was that he and Holkins are both fathers and are concerned about the games their children might play. The ad campaign was rolled out in the summer and fall of 2006 and a second campaign was released in 2012 featuring a mother, a father and a gamer describing the tools employed by the ESRB."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Khoo",
        "text": "In 2002 Khoo offered Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik of \"Penny Arcade\" a business plan and two months of work for free, with no strings attached. He has since helped build the \"Penny Arcade\" empire and was featured as being one of the 40 most powerful individuals in the game industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Thompson claimed the harassment of him is a direct result of Mike Krahulik's posts, which listed links to the Florida Bar Association. Thompson accused \"Penny Arcade\" of soliciting complaints to the Bar against him, even though Krahulik actually posted the opposite, asking fans to cease sending letters to the Bar, as the Bar acknowledged that it is aware of Thompson's actions, thanks to previous letters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amusement arcade",
        "text": "A penny arcade can be any type of venue for coin-operated devices, usually for entertainment. The term came into use about 1905\u20131910. The name derives from the penny, once a staple coin for the machines. The machines used included:\n* bagatelles, a game with elements of billiards and non-electrical pinball,\n* early forms of non-electrical pinball machines,\n* fortune-telling machinery,\n* slot machines,\n* coin-operated Amberolas\n* peep show machines (in the original, non-pornographic, usage of the term), which allowed the viewer to see various objects and pictures\n* Mutoscopes\n* love tester machines.\n* coin-operated shooter games and gun games"
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "As a (primarily) topical video gaming news comic, there is little plot or general continuity in \"Penny Arcade\" strips. Any story sustained for longer than a single strip is referred to as \"dreaded continuity\", something of a running gag in the newsposts. A character who dies a violent death in one strip will come back in the next, perfectly whole, though occasionally these deaths have an effect on later comics. For example, often, when Gabe kills Tycho or vice versa, the killer takes a certain Pac-Man watch off the dead character, but only if he currently has the watch. Profanity and violence are common in \"Penny Arcade\" and the strip is known for its surrealism; zombies, a talking alcoholic DIVX player called Div, Santa Claus, a robotic juicer called the \"Fruit Fucker 2000\", and Jesus, among others, are known to drop in often and for petty reasons. Other such occurrences are implied, if not shown, such as mentioning Dante from \"Devil May Cry\" living in the building next door. However, the comic does occasionally expand into more serious issues; one even had Krahulik, in the guise of the character Gabe, proposing to his girlfriend of two years, while another had both Gabe and Tycho praising Casey Heynes for standing up to bullying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amusement arcade",
        "text": "Other problems were that many arcades focused on quantity more than quality, and that games showed a rising difficulty curve, making them increasingly inaccessible to casual players and more expensive for the skilled players."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Krahulik",
        "text": "In 2010, Krahulik and Penny Arcade received criticism stemming from several controversial comics and statements with respect to the transgender community and rape, particularly in response to a comic featuring fictional creatures known as \"dickwolves.\" Krahulik and Holkins dismissed these criticisms, later selling \"Team Dickwolves\" T-shirts based on the strip. In June 2013, Krahulik apologized and donated $20,000 to LGBTQ youth suicide prevention group The Trevor Project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins said in his Penny Arcade Podcast that he sings and plays guitar in the band The Fine Print, and that his band once opened for the band Anal Cunt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "In 2010, Holkins, Krahulik, and Khoo were awarded the annual \"Ambassador Award\" at GDC's Game Developers Choice Awards for contributions they had made to the industry. The same year, \"Time\" included Holkins and Krahulik in the annual \"Time 100\", the magazine's listing of the world's 100 most influential people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Proper equilibrium",
        "text": "penny and instead for some reason decides to make a guess. Player 1 prepares for this event by"
      },
      {
        "title": "In the Penny Arcade",
        "text": "After believing a mysterious hush came over the arcade he returns to the front approaching the cowboy once more. He plays with a few of the machines and begins to understand the creatures of the arcade, seeing them in a new light. When he leaves the arcade back into the sunshine under the August sky, he is satisfactory with his visit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On May 8, 2013 Penny Arcade launched a Kickstarter campaign to fund the continuation of \"Downloadable Content\". The kickstarter was successful, with new Podcasts being added each Wednesday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prinny",
        "text": "Prinny appeared in a \"Penny Arcade\" comic strip on September 4, 2006. Prinny also appears as a recurring character in \"Fred Perry's LvlUp!\" comic series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Khoo",
        "text": "On June 13, 2016, Holkins announced that Khoo had resigned his position at Penny Arcade."
      },
      {
        "title": "In the Penny Arcade",
        "text": "In the Penny Arcade\n--Plot summary.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "Of her early social experiences, Arcade described, \"I was perceived to be this girl that everyone had slept with when I was 12 -- no one anyone knew, but they had heard.\" At age 13, she ran away from home and spent 4 weeks homeless in Old Saybrook, Connecticut. During this time, she was brought to juvenile court and sentenced to two years at the Sacred Heart Academy for Wayward Girls, a reform school run by the semi-cloistered Sisters Of The Good Shepherd. It was there that Arcade wrote her first play at age 14. At age 17, Arcade left home and spent the summer of 1967 homeless in Provincetown, Massachusetts, before ultimately moving to New York City."
      },
      {
        "title": "Namco Museum",
        "text": "Arcade Games\n*\"Bosconian\" (1981)\n*\"Cutie Q\" (1979)\n*\"Dig Dug\" (1982)\n*\"Dig Dug II\" (1985)\n*\"Galaga\" (1981)\n*\"Galaxian\" (1979)\n*\"Gaplus\" (1984)\n*\"Grobda\" (1984)\n*\"King & Balloon\" (1980)\n*\"Mappy\" (1983)\n*\"Motos\" (1985)\n*\"New Rally-X\" (1981)\n*\"Pac & Pal\" (1983)\n*\"Pac-Man\" (1980)\n*\"Pac-Mania\" (1987)\n*\"Rally-X\" (1980)\n*\"Super Pac-Man\" (1982)\n*\"Xevious\" (1982)"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of arcade video games",
        "text": "Video games were still considered to be adult entertainment at this point, and treated as with pinball machines as games of skill, \"For Amusement Only\", and placed in locations that children would likely not be at such as bar and lounges. However, the same stigma that pinball machines had seen in the prior decades became to appear for video games. Notably, the release of \"Death Race\" in 1976, which involved driving over gremlins on screen, drew criticism in the United States for being too violent, and created the first major debate on violence and video games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arcade1Up",
        "text": "Arcade1Up\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Khoo",
        "text": "Robert Khoo\n--Penny Arcade.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Queens Arcade",
        "text": "Queens Arcade\n--History.\n--In popular culture.\n--See also.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "1990s",
        "text": "Arcade games rapidly decrease in popularity, mainly due to handheld and home consoles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "In February 1985, Arcade presented her first full-length evening of original improvised work, \"While You Were Out,\" at the Poetry Project, and then presented it at Performance Space 122 in June later that same year. \"While You Were Out\" then moved to University of The Streets in November 1985 and continued to run for an additional four months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Khoo",
        "text": "Robert Khoo was the President of Operations and Business Development of \"Penny Arcade\" from 2002 until 2016. He was the Business Manager for the company and the Show Director for PAX, the largest consumer gaming show in the United States. Khoo also served as the Managing Director for Child's Play."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arcade (comics magazine)",
        "text": "Some years later, in Spring 1975, with the help of Print Mint, they were able to launch the magazine as \"\"Arcade\".\" Soon after, however, co-editor Spiegelman moved back to his original home of New York City, which put most of the editorial work for \"Arcade\" on the shoulders of Griffith and his cartoonist wife, Diane Noomin. This, combined with distribution problems, retailer indifference, and a general failure to find a devoted audience, led to the magazine's 1976 demise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Don Alias",
        "text": "With Joe Farrell\n* \"Penny Arcade\" (CTI, 1973)"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of video games",
        "text": "As patronage of arcades declined, many were forced to close down by the late 1990s and early 2000s. Classic coin-operated games had largely become the province of dedicated hobbyists and as a tertiary attraction for some businesses, such as movie theaters, batting cages, miniature golf courses, and arcades attached to game stores such as F.Y.E. The gap left by the old corner arcades was partly filled by large amusement centers dedicated to providing clean, safe environments and costly game control systems unavailable to home users. These newer arcade games offer driving or other sports games with specialized cockpits integrated into the arcade machine, rhythm games requiring unique controllers like \"Guitar Freaks\" and \"Dance Dance Revolution\", and path-based light gun shooting gallery games like \"Time Crisis\". Arcade establishments expanded out to include other entertainment options, such as food and drink, such as the adult-oriented Dave & Buster's and GameWorks franchises, while Chuck E. Cheese's is a similar type of business for families and young children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "PAX (originally known as Penny Arcade Expo) is a series of gaming culture festivals involving tabletop, arcade, and video gaming. PAX is held annually in Seattle, Boston, Philadelphia, and San Antonio in the United States; and Melbourne in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cleveland Arcade",
        "text": "Cleveland Arcade\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "According to \"GameSpot\", as of 9:55a.m. PDT October 18, 2005, the Seattle Police Department had not received Thompson's fax, which at that point had been sent to \"GameSpot\", \"Penny Arcade\", and other sites. Thompson emailed \"GameSpot\", claiming that he had fixed the URL for \"Penny Arcade\" (which was incorrect in the original fax) and faxed the letter, commenting, \"They have it now.\" Thompson also told \"GameSpot\" that he was not a \"pixelated pi\u00f1ata in a game.\" He ended by saying that the \"moral midgets\" at \"Penny Arcade\" had chosen \"the wrong target\" and \"I've been at this longer than he has.\" These vague threats have been deemed \"nothing to worry about\" by \"Penny Arcade\". The Seattle Police Department confirmed to \"GameSpot\" on October 21 that they had received a complaint from Thompson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "\"Penny Arcade: The Series\" first aired online on February 20, 2010. It is a multi-season documentary series based on the exploits of the Penny Arcade company and its founders Krahulik and Holkins."
      },
      {
        "title": "User Friendly",
        "text": "The webcomic Penny Arcade produced a strip in 1999 just to criticise Frazer, saying \"people will pass up steak once a week for crap every day.\" By contrast, Mashable included it in a 2009 list of the 20 best webcomics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Gabe is a diabetic, though he continues to consume large quantities of sugar products."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did Holkins and Krahulik start Penny Arcade?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The two submitted cartoons to a magazine contest in 1998, but they were rejected. Seeking an alternative publisher, they worked with a site called looneygames.com to create what would become Penny Arcade."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Do you know what became of looneygames.com?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the controversy surrounding Penny Arcade?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Would you like to know more of controversies involving the American Greetings Corporation, Jack Thompson, or a controversial comic involving rape?"
    ],
    "topic": "Penny Arcade",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Penny Arcade:40",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Penny Arcade",
          "Legal issues and controversy",
          "American Greetings"
        ],
        "ctx": "Krahulik and Holkins received a cease-and-desist letter from American Greetings Corporation over the use of American Greetings' Strawberry Shortcake and Plum Puddin' characters in the April 14, 2003 \"Penny Arcade\" strip entitled \"Tart as a Double Entendre\". The strip was intended as a parody of the works of both American McGee (especially the computer game \"Alice\") and McFarlane Toys. At the time, McFarlane toys and American McGee made separate toy lines, each portraying a dark, frightening interpretation of the characters and situations from \"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz\". Krahulik and Holkins' portrayal of Strawberry Shortcake parodied McFarlane Toys' depiction of Dorothy as bound and blindfolded by a pair of munchkins."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Penny Arcade:43",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Penny Arcade",
          "Legal issues and controversy",
          "Jack Thompson"
        ],
        "ctx": "On October 17, 2005 Krahulik and Holkins donated US$10,000 to the Entertainment Software Association foundation in the name of Jack Thompson, a permanently-disbarred attorney-come-activist against violence in video games. Earlier, Thompson himself had promised to donate $10,000 if a video game was created in which the player kills video game developers (\"A Modest Video Game Proposal\"), but after a mod to the game \"Grand Theft Auto\" was pointed out to already exist, Thompson called his challenge satire (referring to the title of the letter as a reference to \"A Modest Proposal\") and refused to donate the money. He claimed these games were not going to be manufactured, distributed, or sold like retail games, as his Modest Proposal stated, and therefore, the deal went unfulfilled. His refusal was met with disdain, given that multiple games were created or in the process of being created under Thompson's criteria. Krahulik and Holkins donated the money in his place, with a check containing the memo: \"For Jack Thompson, Because Jack Thompson Won't\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Penny Arcade:52",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Penny Arcade",
          "Legal issues and controversy",
          "Rape/dickwolves controversy"
        ],
        "ctx": "An August 11, 2010 comic entitled \"The Sixth Slave\" wherein an NPC pleads with a player to save him from being raped nightly by monsters called \"dickwolves\", drew criticism from many commentators, including from \"The American Prospect\" and \"The Boston Phoenix\". Krahulik and Holkins dismissed these criticisms, later selling \"Team Dickwolves\" T-shirts based on the strip. They later removed the \"Team Dickwolves\" shirt from their store due to complaints that it made potential PAX attendees uncomfortable. After the removal, Krahulik posted online that removing the shirts was only partly caving to pressure but mainly due to people who had personally emailed him and were reasonable with their concerns. Krahulik also stated that anyone still hesitant about going to PAX even after removal of the shirts should not come to PAX. In September 2013, on the last day of PAX, Krahulik told a panel that he thought that \"pulling the dickwolves merchandise was a mistake\", to cheers from the crowd. However, Krahulik later apologized on the \"Penny Arcade\" website, stating that he regretted contributing to the furor that had followed the original comic. Both critics of the comic strip and Krahulik and Holkins, made claims of receiving verbal abuse through social media and death threats."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins chose not to enter into a legal battle over whether or not the strip was a protected form of parody, and they complied with the cease-and-desist by replacing it with an image directing their audience to send a letter to a lawyer for American Greetings. They later lampooned the incident by portraying an American Greetings employee as a Nazi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strawberry Shortcake",
        "text": "In 2003, webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" posted an \"advertisement\" for an imaginary computer game, \"American McGee's Strawberry Shortcake\"\u2014a parody of the actual computer game \"American McGee's Alice\", a twisted and violent take on Lewis Carroll's works. American Greetings took offense to the parody and issued a cease-and-desist letter, to which the authors begrudgingly complied - but not without making their indignation very clear. A follow-up strip cites bad timing as a contributing factor to the lawsuit, Holkins and Krahulik were not aware that American Greetings was about to relaunch the Strawberry Shortcake line at that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strawberry Shortcake",
        "text": "Some argue that \"Penny Arcade\"s case was not covered under the fair use doctrine because the use of the characters in this case was for satire; they claim that fair use only protects the unauthorized use of copyrighted characters in parodies of the original material, and that satire and parody are totally different concepts. Others, however, take the view that parody and satire are equally protected by law. \"Penny Arcade\" did not intend to offend American Greetings in the comic, but instead American McGee and McFarlane Toys, who collaborated to create a toy line based on a twisted version of \"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz\". The poster also mocked American McGee's game, \"American McGee's Alice\", a game with a dark and twisted take on Lewis Carroll's books, \"Alice In Wonderland\" and \"Through the Looking Glass\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "The \"Penny Arcade\" shop had at the time sold an \"I hate Jack Thompson\" T-shirt, claiming that every living creature, including Thompson's own mother, hates Jack Thompson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins received a cease-and-desist letter from American Greetings Corporation over the use of American Greetings' Strawberry Shortcake and Plum Puddin' characters in the April 14, 2003 \"Penny Arcade\" strip entitled \"Tart as a Double Entendre\". The strip was intended as a parody of the works of both American McGee (especially the computer game \"Alice\") and McFarlane Toys. At the time, McFarlane toys and American McGee made separate toy lines, each portraying a dark, frightening interpretation of the characters and situations from \"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz\". Krahulik and Holkins' portrayal of Strawberry Shortcake parodied McFarlane Toys' depiction of Dorothy as bound and blindfolded by a pair of munchkins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On the same day, Scott Kurtz, creator of the webcomic \"PvP\" and a longtime friend of Krahulik and Holkins, used the image of the letter Thompson sent to the Seattle PD to create a parody letter in which Jack attempts to enlist the aid of the Justice League of America by claiming Gabe and Tycho to be villains of some description."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On October 21, 2005 Thompson claimed to have sent a letter to John McKay, U.S. Attorney for the Western District of Washington, in an attempt to get the FBI involved. Thompson re-iterated his claims of \"extortion\" and accused \"Penny Arcade\" of using \"their Internet site and various other means to encourage and solicit criminal harassment\". Penny Arcade denied the charge of \"extortion\", noting that they paid the $10,000 to charity, and asked nothing in return."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Penny Arcade\n--Overview.\n--Attributes of the comic strip.\n--Protagonists.\n----Jonathan \"Gabe\" Gabriel.\n----Tycho Brahe.\n--Podcast.\n--Games.\n--\"Penny Arcade: The Series\".\n--Other works.\n----Penny Arcade Presents.\n----Collectible Card Game.\n----ESRB ad campaigns.\n----\"The New Kid\" film.\n----The Trenches.\n----The Decideotron.\n----Kickstarter.\n--\"Penny Arcade\" events.\n--Legal issues and controversy.\n----American Greetings.\n----Jack Thompson.\n----Rape/dickwolves controversy.\n--\"Greater Internet Fuckwad Theory\".\n--Reception.\n--Awards and recognition.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Thompson proceeded to phone Krahulik, as related by Holkins in the corresponding news post."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On October 18, 2005 it was reported that Jack Thompson had faxed a letter to Seattle Police Chief Gil Kerlikowske claiming that \"Penny Arcade\" \"employs certain personnel who have decided to commence and orchestrate criminal harassment of me by various means\". Holkins defended the site by saying that the \"harassment\" Thompson referred to was simply \"the natural result of a public figure making statements that people disagree with, and letting him know their thoughts on the matter via his publicly available contact information\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On June 15, 2011, a strip entitled \"Reprise\" revisited the issue, due to the release of \"\", another American McGee game. In the strip, Gabe suggests that he and Tycho parody a brand not \"under constant surveillance\", resulting in a spoof of the \"Rainbow Brite\" franchise. Holkins stated in the accompanying news post that \"it seemed like an incredible opportunity to relive the days of yore.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Thompson claimed the harassment of him is a direct result of Mike Krahulik's posts, which listed links to the Florida Bar Association. Thompson accused \"Penny Arcade\" of soliciting complaints to the Bar against him, even though Krahulik actually posted the opposite, asking fans to cease sending letters to the Bar, as the Bar acknowledged that it is aware of Thompson's actions, thanks to previous letters."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Greetings",
        "text": "Those Characters From Cleveland was started up by Tom Wilson on behalf of American Greetings in 1980. The first property out of Those Characters was Strawberry Shortcake, which generated in 1981 $500 million in retail sales, followed by the Care Bears with $2 billion in sales over its first two year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On March 21, 2007 Thompson filed a countersuit to the lawsuit brought against him by Take Two Interactive claiming that they are at the center of a RICO conspiracy. \"Penny Arcade\" was named as one of the co-conspirators. At Sakura-Con 2007, Krahulik announced that the suit had been dropped."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "In response, Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik, the creators of gaming webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" and of the children's charity Child's Play, stepped in to make the $10,000 donation instead, writing in the memo field of their cheque, \"For Jack Thompson, Because Jack Thompson Won't.\" Afterwards, Thompson tried unsuccessfully to get Seattle police and the FBI to investigate Holkins and Krahulik for orchestrating \"criminal harassment\" of him through articles on their site. Other webcomics have regularly incorporated references to Thompson, alluding to this incident as well as others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On October 17, 2005 Krahulik and Holkins donated US$10,000 to the Entertainment Software Association foundation in the name of Jack Thompson, a permanently-disbarred attorney-come-activist against violence in video games. Earlier, Thompson himself had promised to donate $10,000 if a video game was created in which the player kills video game developers (\"A Modest Video Game Proposal\"), but after a mod to the game \"Grand Theft Auto\" was pointed out to already exist, Thompson called his challenge satire (referring to the title of the letter as a reference to \"A Modest Proposal\") and refused to donate the money. He claimed these games were not going to be manufactured, distributed, or sold like retail games, as his Modest Proposal stated, and therefore, the deal went unfulfilled. His refusal was met with disdain, given that multiple games were created or in the process of being created under Thompson's criteria. Krahulik and Holkins donated the money in his place, with a check containing the memo: \"For Jack Thompson, Because Jack Thompson Won't\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "In retaliation, Jack Thompson faxed a letter to Seattle Police Chief Gil Kerlikowske, requesting assistance in halting the activities of Krahulik and Holkins. In his letter, he described how personnel within \"Penny Arcade\" were harassing him: the sale of an \"I Hate Jack Thompson\" shirt and frequent postings on their website where they allegedly admitted to harassment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "Arcade's 2002 performance \"New York Values\", which also toured abroad, addressed the loss of cultural identity in New York during the Giuliani years. The Village Gate marquee in New York is still adorned with her name and the title of her performance piece \"Politics, Sex & Reality\", although the nightclub no longer exists."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "On October 21, 2005, Thompson claimed to have sent a letter to John McKay, U.S. Attorney for the Western District of Washington, in an attempt to get the FBI involved. Thompson reiterated his claims of \"extortion\" and accuses \"Penny Arcade\" of using \"their Internet site and various other means to encourage and solicit criminal harassment\". \"Penny Arcade\" denies the charge of \"extortion\", noting that they paid the $10,000 to charity, and are asking nothing in return."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "On October 17, 2005, Mike Krahulik and Jerry Holkins of \"Penny Arcade\" donated the promised $10,000 to charity on Jack Thompson's behalf. Krahulik and Holkins donated the money, under Thompson's name, to the Entertainment Software Association Foundation, the charitable arm of the Entertainment Software Association. Thompson e-mailed both \"Penny Arcade\" and \"Joystiq\", who ran a story about the donation, demanding that the articles be taken down \"or else.\" The check was presented to the ESA Foundation at an ESAF fundraising dinner in San Francisco; in its memo line was written: \"For Jack Thompson Because Jack Thompson Won't\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Chojnacki",
        "text": "Jack Chojnacki (born c. 1941) served as the co-president of Those Characters from Cleveland Inc., a division of U.S. greeting card company American Greetings (AGC), in the 1980s. He assisted in the creation of several AGC franchises, including Strawberry Shortcake and the Care Bears."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Chojnacki",
        "text": "A native of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Chojnacki graduated from the city's Marquette University High School in 1958. During the 1970s, he was among the staff of American Greetings, a card company based in Cleveland, Ohio; he licensed the Holly Hobbie character early in his tenure there. Later that decade, he set up the company's licensing branch Those Characters from Cleveland with another AGC employee, Tim Wilson (the creator of the comic strip \"Ziggy\"). Its first franchise, Strawberry Shortcake, made its public debut in 1980."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "A review of \"Penny Arcade\" in 1Up.com said of Holkins, \"Language itself, whether dirty or clean, is increasingly a focus [of the comic] as Holkins stretches himself to work his favored baroque dialogue and unusual words into the script.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cloudco Entertainment",
        "text": "Those Characters from Cleveland, LLC, officially trading as Cloudco Entertainment and formerly AG Properties and American Greetings Entertainment, is an American company which formerly traded as American Greetings' former character brand division. Properties owned by the company include \"Care Bears\", \"Holly Hobbie\", \"Madballs\", \"Buddy Thunderstruck\", \"Tinpo\", \"The Get Along Gang\" and \"Boy Girl Dog Cat Mouse Cheese\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Greetings",
        "text": "American Greetings's former toy design and licensing division, initially called Those Characters From Cleveland, subsequently renamed AG Properties and American Greetings Entertainment and now separately owned as Cloudco Entertainment. American Greetings also holds an exclusive license for Nickelodeon characters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Under the banner of \"Penny Arcade Presents\", Krahulik and Holkins are sometimes commissioned to create promotional artwork/comic strips for new video games, with their signature artistic style and humor. They are usually credited simply as \"Penny Arcade\" rather than by their actual names. Some of these works have been included with the distribution of the game, and others have appeared on pre-launch official websites. An official list can be found on the Penny Arcade website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Krahulik",
        "text": "In 2010, Krahulik and Penny Arcade received criticism stemming from several controversial comics and statements with respect to the transgender community and rape, particularly in response to a comic featuring fictional creatures known as \"dickwolves.\" Krahulik and Holkins dismissed these criticisms, later selling \"Team Dickwolves\" T-shirts based on the strip. In June 2013, Krahulik apologized and donated $20,000 to LGBTQ youth suicide prevention group The Trevor Project."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "Thompson also contacted the office of Washington State Legislature Representative Mary Lou Dickerson, and her office confirms they asked John McKay to look into the matter. Thompson has not clarified how he is being \"extorted,\" but accuses \"Penny Arcade\"s Mike Krahulik of soliciting Florida Bar complaints against him through Krahulik posting the Florida Bar's link on \"Penny Arcade\"s website. The link, however, is in a post asking fans to stop sending letters to the Bar because the Bar is fully aware of the current situation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "Penny Arcade (born Susana Carmen Ventura, July 15, 1950) is an American performance artist, actress, and playwright based in New York City. She is known for her comedic wit, forthright delivery, and stage presence. Her performances explore topics such as gentrification, humanity, womanhood, LGBT culture, nostalgia, family history, and the life of the outsider. Additionally, Penny Arcade is known for her association with underground arts and culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "The Seattle PD eventually acknowledged receiving a complaint from Thompson, but have commented that they believe the issue to be a civil, rather than criminal, matter. They noted that this was from initial impressions of the letter they received, and their criminal investigations bureau is reviewing the letter to make sure that there were not any criminal matters that they missed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cloudco Entertainment",
        "text": "With Topps' 1985 Garbage Pail Kids trading card series release, Ralph Shaffer, senior vice-president and creative head at From Cleveland, created the Madballs, balls with disfigured faces. AmToy, another American Greetings subsidiary, released them as toys in 1986 and reached the #4 on toy best-seller list by September of that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins created a comic strip which compares the 7th generation consoles that appears in the December 2006 issue of \"Wired\" magazine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shearson/American Express Inc. v. McMahon",
        "text": "The Fifth Circuit came in for some criticism:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Penny Arcade is a webcomic focused on video games and video game culture, written by Jerry Holkins and illustrated by Mike Krahulik. The comic debuted in 1998 on the website \"loonygames.com\". Since then, Holkins and Krahulik have established their own site, which is typically updated with a new comic strip each Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. The comics are accompanied by regular updates on the site's blog."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "According to \"GameSpot\", as of 9:55a.m. PDT October 18, 2005, the Seattle Police Department had not received Thompson's fax, which at that point had been sent to \"GameSpot\", \"Penny Arcade\", and other sites. Thompson emailed \"GameSpot\", claiming that he had fixed the URL for \"Penny Arcade\" (which was incorrect in the original fax) and faxed the letter, commenting, \"They have it now.\" Thompson also told \"GameSpot\" that he was not a \"pixelated pi\u00f1ata in a game.\" He ended by saying that the \"moral midgets\" at \"Penny Arcade\" had chosen \"the wrong target\" and \"I've been at this longer than he has.\" These vague threats have been deemed \"nothing to worry about\" by \"Penny Arcade\". The Seattle Police Department confirmed to \"GameSpot\" on October 21 that they had received a complaint from Thompson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Penny Arcade may also refer to:\n*Penny arcade, a venue for coin-operated devices\n* \"Penny Arcade\", a 1929 play led by American actor and dancer James Cagney.\n*Penny Arcade (performer) (born 1950), stage name of performance artist and playwright Susanna Ventura\n*\"Penny Arcade\", an early video game by Bill Budge, mimicking \"Pong\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "An August 11, 2010 comic entitled \"The Sixth Slave\" wherein an NPC pleads with a player to save him from being raped nightly by monsters called \"dickwolves\", drew criticism from many commentators, including from \"The American Prospect\" and \"The Boston Phoenix\". Krahulik and Holkins dismissed these criticisms, later selling \"Team Dickwolves\" T-shirts based on the strip. They later removed the \"Team Dickwolves\" shirt from their store due to complaints that it made potential PAX attendees uncomfortable. After the removal, Krahulik posted online that removing the shirts was only partly caving to pressure but mainly due to people who had personally emailed him and were reasonable with their concerns. Krahulik also stated that anyone still hesitant about going to PAX even after removal of the shirts should not come to PAX. In September 2013, on the last day of PAX, Krahulik told a panel that he thought that \"pulling the dickwolves merchandise was a mistake\", to cheers from the crowd. However, Krahulik later apologized on the \"Penny Arcade\" website, stating that he regretted contributing to the furor that had followed the original comic. Both critics of the comic strip and Krahulik and Holkins, made claims of receiving verbal abuse through social media and death threats."
      },
      {
        "title": "User Friendly",
        "text": "The webcomic Penny Arcade produced a strip in 1999 just to criticise Frazer, saying \"people will pass up steak once a week for crap every day.\" By contrast, Mashable included it in a 2009 list of the 20 best webcomics."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Greetings",
        "text": "In March 1999, Hallmark started a price war with the introduction of a 99-cent card line forcing American to do the same. In 1999, the implementation of a new inventory system that slow shipments to retailers. However, this reduced sales by $100 million, 1.5% decrease, ending a 93rd consecutive year of increasing revenue."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Greetings",
        "text": "Scheible had been replaced by John Compton as chairman. On March 1, 2019, the retiring CEO Beeder was replaced by Joe Arcuri. Partially owned Schurman Retail Group announced in January 2020 that it would closes all of its stores including its American Greetings locations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "American Greetings",
        "text": "American Greetings Corporation is a privately owned American company and is the world's second largest greeting card producer behind Hallmark Cards. Based in Westlake, Ohio, a suburb of Cleveland, the company sells paper greeting cards, electronic greeting cards, gift packaging, stickers and party products. In addition, the company owns the Carlton Cards, Tender Thoughts, Papyrus, Recycled Paper Greetings and Gibson brands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "Penny Arcade was featured in 1988 \"Vogue Magazine\"'s \"People Are Talking About\" issue, the first mention of performance art in a national fashion magazine. In the late 1980s, she created a character named Margo Howard-Howard, a 50-year-old drag queen with a scandalous past, for her performances. The \"New York Times\" refers to the character as \"patently unbelievable\", but in a later article acknowledges that her monologue was \"based on real Lower East Side residents.\" Howard-Howard received an obituary in \"The Village Voice\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "1UP.com described it as \"the One True Gaming Webcomic.\" \"Penny Arcade\" was used along with \"American Elf\", \"Fetus-X\", and \"Questionable Content\" as an example of comics using the web to create \"an explosion of diverse genres and styles\" in Scott McCloud's 2006 book \"Making Comics\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins created the webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" in 1998 with Mike Krahulik, with Holkins writing and Krahulik illustrating. According to an oral history, the two submitted cartoons to a contest run by a magazine in 1998. The magazine did not accept them but the creators sought other places to publish them, and worked with a site called looneygames.com to create what would become Penny Arcade. The strip initially ran once a week. Around a year later, they created their own website for the strip. In addition to the comic, Holkins wrote accompanying blog posts. Initially, this was partly because the format of their website left blank space. Holkins says that while now the posts are a key part of the site, when they first started he would delete each post to make space for the next one so the early posts are lost. These posts are often computer and video game commentary, but also include personal reflections or rants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cloudco Entertainment",
        "text": "Those Characters From Cleveland was started up by Tom Wilson on behalf of American Greetings in 1981 to handle its licensing business. The first property out of Those Characters was Strawberry Shortcake, which generated in 1981 $500 million in retail sales, followed by the Care Bears with $2 billion in sales over its first two year. The Care Bears were announced in 1982 with M.A.D., Marketing and Design Service of the toy group of General Mills, and launched in Spring 1983 with toys with a syndicated TV special."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strawberry Shortcake",
        "text": "In the late 1970s, further Strawberry Shortcake concept art was drawn by Muriel Fahrion, an illustrator working in American Greetings' Juvenile & Humorous card department. Fahrion then designed a subsequent 32 characters for Those Characters From Cleveland (American Greetings' toy and licensing design division). Later characters that were added to the line were designed by Cindy Mayer Patton and Janet Jones. Artwork for the series was done by a number of different freelancers, though the majority was painted by artist Frances Kariotakis. Lynn Edwards served as the editor of the line, helping to develop the characters and storyline."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Krahulik",
        "text": "In 2005, Krahulik responded to an offer Jack Thompson made (\"A Modest Video Game Proposal\") requesting the creation of an ultra-violent game featuring a protagonist who murders video game developers. In Thompson's proposal, the protagonist would be motivated by the death of his son at the hands of a video-game-inspired teenager. Thompson claimed he would donate $10,000 USD towards a charity of then-current Take-Two Interactive chairman Paul Eibeler's choosing if such a game was made (which it eventually was). Krahulik, in the email, said he and fellow gamers had raised about half a million dollars toward charity. According to Krahulik, \"Jack actually just called and screamed at me for a couple minutes. He said if I email him again I will 'regret it'. What a violent man.\" Krahulik, along with the rest of the \"Penny Arcade\" staff, later opted to \"step in\" for Jack Thompson. Thompson refused to donate $10,000 to charity because he considered the game put forth to meet his challenge subpar. He also claimed that his proposal was satirical and not a serious offer. Penny Arcade donated the money in his stead to the Entertainment Software Association with the note, \"For Jack Thompson, because Jack Thompson won't\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "As a (primarily) topical video gaming news comic, there is little plot or general continuity in \"Penny Arcade\" strips. Any story sustained for longer than a single strip is referred to as \"dreaded continuity\", something of a running gag in the newsposts. A character who dies a violent death in one strip will come back in the next, perfectly whole, though occasionally these deaths have an effect on later comics. For example, often, when Gabe kills Tycho or vice versa, the killer takes a certain Pac-Man watch off the dead character, but only if he currently has the watch. Profanity and violence are common in \"Penny Arcade\" and the strip is known for its surrealism; zombies, a talking alcoholic DIVX player called Div, Santa Claus, a robotic juicer called the \"Fruit Fucker 2000\", and Jesus, among others, are known to drop in often and for petty reasons. Other such occurrences are implied, if not shown, such as mentioning Dante from \"Devil May Cry\" living in the building next door. However, the comic does occasionally expand into more serious issues; one even had Krahulik, in the guise of the character Gabe, proposing to his girlfriend of two years, while another had both Gabe and Tycho praising Casey Heynes for standing up to bullying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clintons",
        "text": "In May 2012, the company's main supplier American Greetings bought \u00a336 million of Clintons debt from its main lending banks, and immediately called in the debt for payment. Clinton Cards was unable to make the payment and entered administration on 9 May, with Peter Saville, Simon Freakley and Anne O\u2019Keefe of Zolfo Cooper LLP, appointed as Joint Administrators of the Company. A week later 350 branches were closed, including all the Birthdays branches, and the remaining 397 stores were purchased in June 2012 by US based American Greetings' subsidiary Lakeshore Lending Limited."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carnac the Magnificent",
        "text": "The act involved a variation of the magician's billet reading trick: divining the answer to a question written on a card sealed inside one of the envelopes, announcing it to the audience, then tearing open the envelope to reveal the question. The comedy came from an unexpected question following a seemingly straightforward answer. The resulting jokes often involved puns or wordplay; for example, \"The La Brea Tar Pits\" was the answer to \"What do you have left after eating the La Brea Tar Peaches?\", and \"9W\" was the answer to \"Mr. Wagner, do you spell your name with a V?\" Jokes would also be topical; for instance, \"Over 105 in Los Angeles\" (presumably referring to the temperature) instead led to \"Under the Reagan plan, how old would you have to be to collect Social Security?\" The longest laugh ever recorded was given to \"Sis Boom Bah,\" which was the answer to \"Describe the sound made when a sheep explodes\" and resulted in both Carson and McMahon breaking character to laugh as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Greetings",
        "text": "American Greetings forced Clinton Cards PLC in May 2012 into administration. In June , American Greetings acquired assets from Clinton Cards together with some of its subsidiaries including UK Greetings. UK Greetings' card brands at the time were Camden Graphics, Hanson White, Forget Me Not and Xpressions. Clinton operated stores under the Clinton and Birthdays brands. American Greetings brought in Dominique Schurman, CEO of Schurman Retail Group, to lead Clinton."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Greetings",
        "text": "The company changed its name to American Greetings Corporation as the company went public in 1952, issuing 200,000 shares. The funds raised were earmarked for acquisitions and expansion. In 1956, American Greetings formed Carlton Cards, Ltd., a Canadian subsidiary. Also that year, the Hi Brows humor studio card line was launched."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "As a child, Arcade did not plan to become a performance artist. In her working-class Italian-American family, there \"just wasn't a format for that,\" she explained."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Greetings",
        "text": "In July 1957, the company moved its headquarters to One American Road, Brooklyn, Ohio. In 1958, American Greetings went public. Jacob Sapirstein became chairman of the board while Irving assumed the company's president post in 1960. In Forest City, North Carolina, the company build a cabinet manufacturing plant in 1960. A Mexican subsidiary in Mexico City was set up in 1969. In 1971, a retail subsidiary was formed called Summit Corporation, later called Carlton Cards Retail, Inc."
      },
      {
        "title": "GameFAQs",
        "text": "The annual Character Battle has been the subject of two webcomics\u2014\"Penny Arcade\" featured the Character Battle in their comic on August 23, 2002, and Creative Uncut's \"Inside the Gamers Studio\" strip mentioned the Character Battle in their ninth comic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Penny Arcade has created two Kickstarter projects. The first was the \"Penny Arcade's Paint the Line\" card game which was used as an alternative to pre-ordering it and came with an exclusive comic. The second was entitled \"Penny Arcade Sells Out\" and was intended to replace advertising revenue with crowd funding. The leaderboard ad on the home page of Penny Arcade would be removed if the minimum goal of $250,000 were reached, whereas the entire site would become completely ad-free for a year at $999,999. The reality web series described as \"our version of America's Next Top Webcomic\" titled \"Strip Search\" arose from the $450,000 stretch goal."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Greetings",
        "text": "Morry Weiss, Irving's son-in-law, and Irving Stone in 1978 were appointed president and chairman & CEO, respectively. Also in 1978, the corporation set up two new subsidiaries Plus Mark, Inc. and A.G. Industries, Inc. Plus Mark was formed to manufacture Christmas gift wrap, boxed cards, and accessories. A.G. Industries was a display fixture manufacturer. American Greeting had seen itself as a mass-marketer and was serving pharmacies, variety stores, discount stores, and supermarkets with low cost cards. While, Hallmark Cards ignore the mass market outlets until 1959 with issuance of its Ambassador card line. The company then used its licensing revenue on national advertising and other efforts to gain market share from 1981 to 1985. While they had a net income increase of 613 percent over ten years, Hallmark still maintained its market share. Gibson Greetings started a price war in 1986 and ended in 1987 which had the three major greeting card companies taking a loss. With a drop in licensing revenue, American took until 1989 to recover."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shearson/American Express Inc. v. McMahon",
        "text": "Investors and their lawyers did not agree. \"The houses basically like the present system because they own the stacked deck\", said Sheldon Elsen, director of the American Bar Association's securities arbitration task force. \"I would rather defend a capitalist before the comrades' court than a client before an arbitration panel of the New York Stock Exchange,\" said a Los Angeles lawyer who had, with his client, walked out of a hearing because of the conflicts of interest they believed panelists had."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Clay Shirky, an adjunct professor at New York University who studies social and economic effects of Internet technologies, explains: \"There\u2019s a large crowd and you can act out in front of it without paying any personal price to your reputation,\u201d which \"creates conditions most likely to draw out the typical Internet user\u2019s worst impulses.\" In an \"Advocate\" article about online homophobia, this theory was used to account for behavior on online forums where one can remain anonymous in front of an audience: for instance, posting comments on popular YouTube videos.\n* \"Year One: A Penny Arcade Retrospective\" (Limited Edition) \u2014\n* \"Year One: A Penny Arcade Retrospective\" (Soft Cover) \u2014\n* \"Year One: A Penny Arcade Retrospective\" (Hard Cover) \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 1: Attack of the Bacon Robots\" \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade Limited Edition Signed \u2013 Attack Of The Bacon Robots\" \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 2: Epic Legends Of The Magic Sword Kings\" \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 3: The Warsun Prophecies\" \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 4: Birds Are Weird\" \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 5: The Case of the Mummy's Gold\" \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 6: The Halls Below\" (Limited Edition) -\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 6: The Halls Below\" (Soft Cover) \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 7: Be Good, Little Puppy\" \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 8: Magical Kids in Danger\" \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 9: Passion's Howl\" \u2014\n* \"The Splendid Magic of Penny Arcade: The 11.5 Anniversary Edition\" (Hardcover) \u2014\n* \"Penny Arcade, Volume 10: The Fall of Penny Arcade\" \u2014"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arcade game",
        "text": "Penny arcades started to gain a negative reputation as the most popular attraction in them tended to be mutoscopes featuring risqu\u00e9 and softcore pornography while drawing audiences of young men. Further, the birth of the film industry in the 1910s and 1920s drew audiences away from the penny arcade. New interactive coin-operated machines were created to bring back patrons to the penny arcades, creating the first arcade games. Many were based on carnival games of a larger scope, but reduced to something which could be automated. One popular style were pin-based games which were based on the 19th century game of bagatelle. One of the first such pin-based games was \"Baffle Ball\", a precursor to the pinball machine where players were given a limited number of balled to knock down targets with only a plunger. Skee-Ball became popular after being featured at an Atlantic City boardwalk arcade. The popularity of these games was aided by the impact of the Great Depression of the 1930s, as they provided inexpensive entertainment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "At PAX Australia in 2016, during a Q&A session, Holkins revealed that changes at Paramount resulted in the movie rights being returned to Penny Arcade and the project canceled. He did note, however, that Whitta's script was complete and the project could move forward with another production company in the future."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Penny Arcade is an American webcomic focused on video games and video game culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "According to Julia Swan of the Museum of History and Innovation, \"Penny Arcade\" was one of the first, if not the first, highly successful webcomics. By 2000, \"Penny Arcade\" was profitable enough that Holkins could quit his day job. As of 2010, the strip was running three times a week and had about 3.5 million readers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cloudco Entertainment",
        "text": "Cloudco Entertainment\n--History.\n----As Those Characters from Cleveland (1980's).\n----As AG Properties (2000's-2015).\n----As American Greetings Entertainment (2015-18).\n----As Cloudco Entertainment (2018-present).\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "American Greetings",
        "text": "American Greetings went private once again in mid-2013, thus removing itself from all the public markets, agreeing to pay $18.20 per share, valuing the company at $878 million. The Weiss family owned Century Intermediate Holding Co. purchased the public shares."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Greetings",
        "text": "In 1990s, American Greetings also pushed more into international markets. Acquisition occurred in 1995 with a purchase of 80% share of S.A. Greetings Corporation in South Africa and in 1996 with the purchase of John Sands, the top greeting card company in both Australia and New Zealand. In 1998, Camden Graphics Group and Hanson White Ltd. were purchased to add to its UK operations. While in 1999, a majority stake in Memory Lane Sdn Bhd, a Malaysian greeting card company, bring American to Asia for the first time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punchbowl News",
        "text": "In February 2021, \"Punchbowl News\" was sued by Punchbowl, Inc., a Massachusetts greeting card company, for trademark infringement\u2014claiming that the \"Punchbowl News\" company name, logo and trademark color unfairly resembled theirs. The suit was dismissed in Virginia for improper venue. Punchbowl, Inc., re-filed in California. \"Punchbowl News\" won on summary judgement and the case was dismissed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Viernes Negro",
        "text": "Controversy occurred when it was revealed that corporations were told of the restrictions in advance and began stockpiling US dollars."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Hatchery (company)",
        "text": "American Greetings thereafter licensed their characters (Care Bears and Strawberry Shortcake) in various filmed projects with Hatchery which would market their products via American Greetings\u2019 six hundred stores and 35,000 greeting card retail locations. The Hatchery has produced two programs that aired on cable channel The Hub, these being \"\" and \"Dan Vs.\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Destiny",
        "text": "In late 2003, Howard wrote to the creators of \"Penny Arcade\" over the use of his art by users of the Penny Arcade forum. Howard's letter said that he had already \"shut down six web comics that were using his art\". Mike Krahulik posted about the letter and dispute on the Penny Arcade website, including a link A Modest Destiny; the traffic overload from this temporarily caused a shutdown of Howard's site."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "The format of the show was mostly \"fly-on-the-wall\" style, in that the hosts rarely acknowledged the existence of the microphone. There was no theme music, intro, or outro. The podcasts were of varying lengths, beginning abruptly and ending with the idea for the current comic. New episodes were released irregularly, with six month gaps not uncommon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muriel Fahrion",
        "text": "In 1977, while Fahrion worked in her department, she was asked to come up with a rag doll character with strawberry and daisy theme in colors of pink and green for a greeting card series. It was then Fahrion created the original graphic and color depiction for Strawberry Shortcake, her cat Custard along with Blueberry Muffin and Huckleberry Pie. The line was determined to be a licensing property after a presentation given to Bernie Loomis of General Mills. Moving to TCFC (Those Characters From Cleveland) in 1978 Fahrion continued on the Shortcake line eventually depicting 32 characters in the line. Her sister, Susan Trentel, also of Cleveland, crafted the first Strawberry Shortcake doll based on the Fahrion's original greeting card design. The line was launched in the winter of 1979 and 1980. This design made a big impact, and in two years, Strawberry Shortcake went from 12 card series to an entire selection of books, clothing, dolls, toy accessories, and home decor. The Shortcake group joined Herself the Elf, Holly Hobbie and Ziggy forming the new toy and licensing division \"Those Characters from Cleveland\" (TCFC), under American Greetings banner but located in separate building. TCFC became a well known think tank for toys and licensing. While there Fahrion also worked on drawings and ideas for numerous licensing items."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Jerry Holkins' comic alter ego (named after the astronomer Tycho Brahe) is bitter and sarcastic. His eyes are burnt sienna, and he's almost invariably clad in a blue-striped sweater. Tycho enjoys books, role-playing video games, using large and uncommon words in conversation, and deflating Gabe's ego. He is an enthusiastic fan of \"Harry Potter\" and \"Doctor Who\". He also plays \"Dungeons & Dragons\" often (the website's previous banner illustrated him holding a 20-sided die), and adopts a wildly theatrical style when acting as a dungeon master."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roth Greeting Cards v. United Card Co.",
        "text": "The court in the case of \"Sid & Marty Krofft Television Productions Inc. v. McDonald's Corp.\" (1977) refined the concept by establishing a two-stage comparison."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "In January 2011 Arcade had an on-stage spat with performance artist Ann Liv Young. In 2012 she took up residence at London's Arcola Theatre for a run of her show \"Bitch! Dyke! Faghag! Whore!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "American Greetings",
        "text": "Holly Hobbie premiered in 1967 as a line of greeting cards by American Greetings. The character's public appeal lead to the formation of Those Characters From Cleveland, Inc. Sale the next year topped $100 million. In 1972, the company introduced Ziggy, created by Tom Wilson, which soon had a newspaper cartoon strip generating additional income. By 1977, Holly Hobbie became one of the top female licensed character in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Greetings",
        "text": "American Greeting made a bid for Gibson Greetings, the number 3 card maker, in March 1996, which was rejected. In 1999, the company agreed to buy rival Gibson Greetings and united the second and third largest U.S. greeting card makers. Through the Gibson purchase, American gained its strong UK unit and a 27% stake in Egreetings Network Inc."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Apparel",
        "text": "In 2007, American Apparel put up two billboards, one in New York and one in Los Angeles, featuring an image of Woody Allen's character dressed as a Rabbi from the movie \"Annie Hall\" and Yiddish text, for a period of one week. According to Charney, the billboards were a satire and allegory alluding to both the scene in the movie and the similar controversy experienced by both individuals. Allen strongly objected to this use of his image and sued the company for $10 million. Allen testified at a December 2008 deposition that he considered the company's advertising to be \"sleazy\" and \"infantile\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Greetings",
        "text": "American Greetings on February 24, 2009 purchased Recycled Paper Greetings. In two cash deals with Schurman Fine Papers on April 17, 2009, the company sells its remaining 341 stores to them and in the second buying Schurman's wholesale division, Papyrus brand cards and paper products, and a 15% equity stake in Schurman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari Corporation",
        "text": "Atari, under Tramiel, had a poor reputation in the marketplace. In 1986 a columnist for Atari magazine \"ANALOG Computing\" warned that company executives seemed to emulate Tramiel's penny-pinching' [and] hard-nosed bargaining, sometimes at the risk of everything else,\" resulting in poor customer service and documentation, and product release dates that were \"perhaps not the entire truth ... Pretty soon, you don't believe anything they say.\" He concluded, \"I think Atari Corp. had better start considering how they're perceived by the non-Atari-using public.\" The company, however, was much more open to the press than its predecessor Atari Inc., which had refused to let \"Antic\" preview forthcoming announcements and even opposed the magazine printing the word \"Atari\" on its issues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banksy",
        "text": "On 4 October 2019, greetings cards distributor Full Colour Black publicly revealed itself as the company involved in the trademark dispute whilst rejecting Banksy's claims as \"entirely untrue\". The company claimed it had contacted Banksy's lawyers several times to offer to pay royalties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Will Smith\u2013Chris Rock slapping incident",
        "text": "The Laugh Factory expressed its support of the First Amendment for comedians in the wake of the incident, and comedy clubs around the United States, including Stand Up NY and Carolines on Broadway, announced that they would be increasing security measures. The president of the Laugh Factory said he has noticed an increase of aggression among patrons since the businesses reopened after the COVID-19 pandemic shutdowns. The owner of the Comedy Cellar, however, expressed doubts that the attack would inspire copycats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)",
        "text": "In music:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ten pennies",
        "text": "Jokers 50 Points"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arcade (comics magazine)",
        "text": "Some years later, in Spring 1975, with the help of Print Mint, they were able to launch the magazine as \"\"Arcade\".\" Soon after, however, co-editor Spiegelman moved back to his original home of New York City, which put most of the editorial work for \"Arcade\" on the shoulders of Griffith and his cartoonist wife, Diane Noomin. This, combined with distribution problems, retailer indifference, and a general failure to find a devoted audience, led to the magazine's 1976 demise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "Susana Ventura was born in New Britain, Connecticut, and grew up in a working class Italian immigrant family. Her father fell ill from a severe beating he endured at Ellis Island in 1946 and in 1953 he was committed to Connecticut Valley Hospital in Middletown, Connecticut, where he died 12 years later of a heart attack at age 50. Arcade and her three siblings were raised by Arcade's mother, who worked as a seamstress in local sweatshops. The family was presided over by her maternal grandparents, both born in the 19th century in a remote Southern Italian village of Picerno, Basilicata."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Arcade (company)",
        "text": "The Arcade (company)\n--History.\n--Culture.\n--Companies.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oatmeal",
        "text": "On November 21, 2012, greeting card maker Oatmeal Studios sued Inman and Recycled Greetings for trademark infringement. Oatmeal Studios holds the trademark for their name and after The Oatmeal worked with another company to make greeting cards based on the comic, Oatmeal Studios considered that this was too similar and likely to cause confusion. On August 28, 2013 a Stipulation of Dismissal with prejudice was filed by Excelsior Printing Company, the litigants in the lawsuit, meaning that the two parties had settled the dispute."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Greetings",
        "text": "American Greetings\n--History.\n----Sapirstein Greeting Card.\n----American Greetings.\n----Private corporation.\n--Gibson Greetings.\n--Units.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Care Bears",
        "text": "In December of 1983, American Greetings and CPG Products lost a lawsuit against Easter Unlimited, importers of a line known as \"Message Bears\". According to New York City judge Leonard B. Sand, those toys lacked the \"heart-shaped 'touch\u00e9 tags'\" used to identify the Care Bears."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chuck E. Cheese",
        "text": "Chuck E. Cheese's Pizza Time Theatre was founded by Atari founder Nolan Bushnell, who sought to expand video-game arcades beyond adult locations like pool halls to family friendly venues. His experience in the amusement park industry, and his fondness for Disneyland's Country Bear Jamboree, influenced his concept for Pizza Time Theatre. He has said, \"It was my pet project\u00a0... I chose pizza because of the wait time and the build schedule\u2014very few components, and not too many ways to screw it up.\" When his first animatronic show was being assembled, Bushnell learned the costume he had bought for his main character, a coyote, was actually a rat, prompting him to suggest changing the name from \"Coyote Pizza\" to \"Rick Rat's Pizza\". His marketing team believed this name would not be appealing to customers and proposed \"Chuck E. Cheese\" instead. The company adopted the rat as their mascot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "In July 2015, Holkins and Krahulik were recognized as \"Multimedia Empire Builders\" in Ad Week's 10 Visual Artists Changing the Way We See Advertising issue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Some of the strips are drawn from the perspective of fictional characters within a game or movie. Occasionally, Gabe and Tycho are featured as they would be as characters or players in the game themselves, often having some sarcastic remark to make about some feature or bug in the game. At times the comic also depicts meetings between game developers or business people, and features or mocks the reporters of a news article that is commented on in Holkins' newspost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Don Alias",
        "text": "With Joe Farrell\n* \"Penny Arcade\" (CTI, 1973)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Roth Greeting Cards v. United Card Co.",
        "text": "The court in \"Hamil America, Inc v. GFI\" (1999) rejected \"the broad proposition that 'in comparing designs for copyright infringement, we are required to dissect them into their separate components, and compare only those elements which are in themselves copyrightable."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Jimmy Fallon games and sketches",
        "text": "Jimmy showcases some interesting electronic greeting cards he's discovered, with the insides being insulting to the receiver."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "Selected works include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "TD Bank, N.A.",
        "text": "In 2016, the bank was sued for allegations that their coin counting machines, \"Penny Arcades,\" were inaccurately counting coins. The lawsuit estimates that 26 cents out of every $100 was not counted, totaling to $9 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "NobleWorks",
        "text": "One popular card showed George W. Bush on his knees at the funeral of Pope John Paul II who is dressed in a crimson grown. Bush, who exudes perplexity, inquires, \"What happened to Santa?\" Another card depicted a wife who is in bed is retrieving an object from her nightstand, saying, \"How dare he falls sound asleep on Valentine's Day. I'll just set his side of the electric blanket on roast!\" The card received a Louie Award which \"The Central New Jersey Home News\" called \"the greeting card industry's equivalent of an Oscar\". NobleWorks had received four Louies by 1992. NobleWorks enlisted seven cartoonists to produce content for it in 1992, including the quadriplegic John Callahan. A Callahan card depicted a scene in the desert of three men who are riding horses and find an unoccupied wheelchair. A man says, \"Don't worry, he won't get far on foot.\" NobleWorks created funny cards for interfaith families including one displaying two highway exits: the first has the label \"Jews Who Buy Christmas Trees\" and the second has the label \"Christians Who Think Hanukkah Is a Major Holiday\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did Holkins and Krahulik start Penny Arcade?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The two submitted cartoons to a magazine contest in 1998, but they were rejected. Seeking an alternative publisher, they worked with a site called looneygames.com to create what would become Penny Arcade."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Do you know what became of looneygames.com?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the controversy surrounding Penny Arcade?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know more of controversies involving the American Greetings Corporation, Jack Thompson, or a controversial comic involving rape?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in the controversies involving the American Greetings Corporation."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Krahulik and Holkins received a cease-and-desist letter from American Greetings Corporation over the use of American Greetings' Strawberry Shortcake and Plum Puddin' characters in the April 14, 2003 Penny Arcade strip entitled \"Tart as a Double Entendre\". The strip was intended as a parody of the works of both American McGee (especially the computer game Alice) and McFarlane Toys.",
      "Krahulik and Holkins received a cease-and-desist letter from American Greetings Corporation over the use of the Strawberry Shortcake and Plum Puddin' characters. They chose not to fight and complied with the cease-and-desist."
    ],
    "topic": "Penny Arcade",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Penny Arcade:40",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Penny Arcade",
          "Legal issues and controversy",
          "American Greetings"
        ],
        "ctx": "Krahulik and Holkins received a cease-and-desist letter from American Greetings Corporation over the use of American Greetings' Strawberry Shortcake and Plum Puddin' characters in the April 14, 2003 \"Penny Arcade\" strip entitled \"Tart as a Double Entendre\". The strip was intended as a parody of the works of both American McGee (especially the computer game \"Alice\") and McFarlane Toys. At the time, McFarlane toys and American McGee made separate toy lines, each portraying a dark, frightening interpretation of the characters and situations from \"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz\". Krahulik and Holkins' portrayal of Strawberry Shortcake parodied McFarlane Toys' depiction of Dorothy as bound and blindfolded by a pair of munchkins."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Penny Arcade:40",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Penny Arcade",
          "Legal issues and controversy",
          "American Greetings"
        ],
        "ctx": "Krahulik and Holkins received a cease-and-desist letter from American Greetings Corporation over the use of American Greetings' Strawberry Shortcake and Plum Puddin' characters in the April 14, 2003 \"Penny Arcade\" strip entitled \"Tart as a Double Entendre\". The strip was intended as a parody of the works of both American McGee (especially the computer game \"Alice\") and McFarlane Toys. At the time, McFarlane toys and American McGee made separate toy lines, each portraying a dark, frightening interpretation of the characters and situations from \"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz\". Krahulik and Holkins' portrayal of Strawberry Shortcake parodied McFarlane Toys' depiction of Dorothy as bound and blindfolded by a pair of munchkins."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Penny Arcade:41",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Penny Arcade",
          "Legal issues and controversy",
          "American Greetings"
        ],
        "ctx": "Krahulik and Holkins chose not to enter into a legal battle over whether or not the strip was a protected form of parody, and they complied with the cease-and-desist by replacing it with an image directing their audience to send a letter to a lawyer for American Greetings. They later lampooned the incident by portraying an American Greetings employee as a Nazi."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins received a cease-and-desist letter from American Greetings Corporation over the use of American Greetings' Strawberry Shortcake and Plum Puddin' characters in the April 14, 2003 \"Penny Arcade\" strip entitled \"Tart as a Double Entendre\". The strip was intended as a parody of the works of both American McGee (especially the computer game \"Alice\") and McFarlane Toys. At the time, McFarlane toys and American McGee made separate toy lines, each portraying a dark, frightening interpretation of the characters and situations from \"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz\". Krahulik and Holkins' portrayal of Strawberry Shortcake parodied McFarlane Toys' depiction of Dorothy as bound and blindfolded by a pair of munchkins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins chose not to enter into a legal battle over whether or not the strip was a protected form of parody, and they complied with the cease-and-desist by replacing it with an image directing their audience to send a letter to a lawyer for American Greetings. They later lampooned the incident by portraying an American Greetings employee as a Nazi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On the same day, Scott Kurtz, creator of the webcomic \"PvP\" and a longtime friend of Krahulik and Holkins, used the image of the letter Thompson sent to the Seattle PD to create a parody letter in which Jack attempts to enlist the aid of the Justice League of America by claiming Gabe and Tycho to be villains of some description."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strawberry Shortcake",
        "text": "In 2003, webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" posted an \"advertisement\" for an imaginary computer game, \"American McGee's Strawberry Shortcake\"\u2014a parody of the actual computer game \"American McGee's Alice\", a twisted and violent take on Lewis Carroll's works. American Greetings took offense to the parody and issued a cease-and-desist letter, to which the authors begrudgingly complied - but not without making their indignation very clear. A follow-up strip cites bad timing as a contributing factor to the lawsuit, Holkins and Krahulik were not aware that American Greetings was about to relaunch the Strawberry Shortcake line at that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "In response, Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik, the creators of gaming webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" and of the children's charity Child's Play, stepped in to make the $10,000 donation instead, writing in the memo field of their cheque, \"For Jack Thompson, Because Jack Thompson Won't.\" Afterwards, Thompson tried unsuccessfully to get Seattle police and the FBI to investigate Holkins and Krahulik for orchestrating \"criminal harassment\" of him through articles on their site. Other webcomics have regularly incorporated references to Thompson, alluding to this incident as well as others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "The \"Penny Arcade\" shop had at the time sold an \"I hate Jack Thompson\" T-shirt, claiming that every living creature, including Thompson's own mother, hates Jack Thompson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strawberry Shortcake",
        "text": "Some argue that \"Penny Arcade\"s case was not covered under the fair use doctrine because the use of the characters in this case was for satire; they claim that fair use only protects the unauthorized use of copyrighted characters in parodies of the original material, and that satire and parody are totally different concepts. Others, however, take the view that parody and satire are equally protected by law. \"Penny Arcade\" did not intend to offend American Greetings in the comic, but instead American McGee and McFarlane Toys, who collaborated to create a toy line based on a twisted version of \"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz\". The poster also mocked American McGee's game, \"American McGee's Alice\", a game with a dark and twisted take on Lewis Carroll's books, \"Alice In Wonderland\" and \"Through the Looking Glass\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On October 17, 2005 Krahulik and Holkins donated US$10,000 to the Entertainment Software Association foundation in the name of Jack Thompson, a permanently-disbarred attorney-come-activist against violence in video games. Earlier, Thompson himself had promised to donate $10,000 if a video game was created in which the player kills video game developers (\"A Modest Video Game Proposal\"), but after a mod to the game \"Grand Theft Auto\" was pointed out to already exist, Thompson called his challenge satire (referring to the title of the letter as a reference to \"A Modest Proposal\") and refused to donate the money. He claimed these games were not going to be manufactured, distributed, or sold like retail games, as his Modest Proposal stated, and therefore, the deal went unfulfilled. His refusal was met with disdain, given that multiple games were created or in the process of being created under Thompson's criteria. Krahulik and Holkins donated the money in his place, with a check containing the memo: \"For Jack Thompson, Because Jack Thompson Won't\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "In retaliation, Jack Thompson faxed a letter to Seattle Police Chief Gil Kerlikowske, requesting assistance in halting the activities of Krahulik and Holkins. In his letter, he described how personnel within \"Penny Arcade\" were harassing him: the sale of an \"I Hate Jack Thompson\" shirt and frequent postings on their website where they allegedly admitted to harassment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On October 18, 2005 it was reported that Jack Thompson had faxed a letter to Seattle Police Chief Gil Kerlikowske claiming that \"Penny Arcade\" \"employs certain personnel who have decided to commence and orchestrate criminal harassment of me by various means\". Holkins defended the site by saying that the \"harassment\" Thompson referred to was simply \"the natural result of a public figure making statements that people disagree with, and letting him know their thoughts on the matter via his publicly available contact information\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On October 21, 2005 Thompson claimed to have sent a letter to John McKay, U.S. Attorney for the Western District of Washington, in an attempt to get the FBI involved. Thompson re-iterated his claims of \"extortion\" and accused \"Penny Arcade\" of using \"their Internet site and various other means to encourage and solicit criminal harassment\". Penny Arcade denied the charge of \"extortion\", noting that they paid the $10,000 to charity, and asked nothing in return."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Thompson claimed the harassment of him is a direct result of Mike Krahulik's posts, which listed links to the Florida Bar Association. Thompson accused \"Penny Arcade\" of soliciting complaints to the Bar against him, even though Krahulik actually posted the opposite, asking fans to cease sending letters to the Bar, as the Bar acknowledged that it is aware of Thompson's actions, thanks to previous letters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On March 21, 2007 Thompson filed a countersuit to the lawsuit brought against him by Take Two Interactive claiming that they are at the center of a RICO conspiracy. \"Penny Arcade\" was named as one of the co-conspirators. At Sakura-Con 2007, Krahulik announced that the suit had been dropped."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "On October 17, 2005, Mike Krahulik and Jerry Holkins of \"Penny Arcade\" donated the promised $10,000 to charity on Jack Thompson's behalf. Krahulik and Holkins donated the money, under Thompson's name, to the Entertainment Software Association Foundation, the charitable arm of the Entertainment Software Association. Thompson e-mailed both \"Penny Arcade\" and \"Joystiq\", who ran a story about the donation, demanding that the articles be taken down \"or else.\" The check was presented to the ESA Foundation at an ESAF fundraising dinner in San Francisco; in its memo line was written: \"For Jack Thompson Because Jack Thompson Won't\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On June 15, 2011, a strip entitled \"Reprise\" revisited the issue, due to the release of \"\", another American McGee game. In the strip, Gabe suggests that he and Tycho parody a brand not \"under constant surveillance\", resulting in a spoof of the \"Rainbow Brite\" franchise. Holkins stated in the accompanying news post that \"it seemed like an incredible opportunity to relive the days of yore.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Thompson proceeded to phone Krahulik, as related by Holkins in the corresponding news post."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Penny Arcade\n--Overview.\n--Attributes of the comic strip.\n--Protagonists.\n----Jonathan \"Gabe\" Gabriel.\n----Tycho Brahe.\n--Podcast.\n--Games.\n--\"Penny Arcade: The Series\".\n--Other works.\n----Penny Arcade Presents.\n----Collectible Card Game.\n----ESRB ad campaigns.\n----\"The New Kid\" film.\n----The Trenches.\n----The Decideotron.\n----Kickstarter.\n--\"Penny Arcade\" events.\n--Legal issues and controversy.\n----American Greetings.\n----Jack Thompson.\n----Rape/dickwolves controversy.\n--\"Greater Internet Fuckwad Theory\".\n--Reception.\n--Awards and recognition.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Krahulik",
        "text": "In 2005, Krahulik responded to an offer Jack Thompson made (\"A Modest Video Game Proposal\") requesting the creation of an ultra-violent game featuring a protagonist who murders video game developers. In Thompson's proposal, the protagonist would be motivated by the death of his son at the hands of a video-game-inspired teenager. Thompson claimed he would donate $10,000 USD towards a charity of then-current Take-Two Interactive chairman Paul Eibeler's choosing if such a game was made (which it eventually was). Krahulik, in the email, said he and fellow gamers had raised about half a million dollars toward charity. According to Krahulik, \"Jack actually just called and screamed at me for a couple minutes. He said if I email him again I will 'regret it'. What a violent man.\" Krahulik, along with the rest of the \"Penny Arcade\" staff, later opted to \"step in\" for Jack Thompson. Thompson refused to donate $10,000 to charity because he considered the game put forth to meet his challenge subpar. He also claimed that his proposal was satirical and not a serious offer. Penny Arcade donated the money in his stead to the Entertainment Software Association with the note, \"For Jack Thompson, because Jack Thompson won't\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "On October 21, 2005, Thompson claimed to have sent a letter to John McKay, U.S. Attorney for the Western District of Washington, in an attempt to get the FBI involved. Thompson reiterated his claims of \"extortion\" and accuses \"Penny Arcade\" of using \"their Internet site and various other means to encourage and solicit criminal harassment\". \"Penny Arcade\" denies the charge of \"extortion\", noting that they paid the $10,000 to charity, and are asking nothing in return."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "Thompson also contacted the office of Washington State Legislature Representative Mary Lou Dickerson, and her office confirms they asked John McKay to look into the matter. Thompson has not clarified how he is being \"extorted,\" but accuses \"Penny Arcade\"s Mike Krahulik of soliciting Florida Bar complaints against him through Krahulik posting the Florida Bar's link on \"Penny Arcade\"s website. The link, however, is in a post asking fans to stop sending letters to the Bar because the Bar is fully aware of the current situation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "In October 2006, Thompson sent a letter to Midway Games, demanding they cease and desist selling the latest game in the \"Mortal Kombat\" series, \"\", claiming that the game was illegally profiting on his likeness, because gamers could use the character creation option to make a character who looked like Thompson. Midway did not respond to his letter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Krahulik",
        "text": "In 2010, Krahulik and Penny Arcade received criticism stemming from several controversial comics and statements with respect to the transgender community and rape, particularly in response to a comic featuring fictional creatures known as \"dickwolves.\" Krahulik and Holkins dismissed these criticisms, later selling \"Team Dickwolves\" T-shirts based on the strip. In June 2013, Krahulik apologized and donated $20,000 to LGBTQ youth suicide prevention group The Trevor Project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "The suits were eradicated when Take-Two petitioned U.S. District Court, SD FL to block the impending lawsuit, on the grounds that video games purchased for private entertainment could not be considered public nuisances. The following day, Thompson wrote on his website \"I have been praying, literally, that Take-Two and its lawyers would do something so stupid, that such a misstep would enable me to destroy Take-Two. The pit Take-Two has dug for itself will be patently clear next week when I strike back.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "According to \"GameSpot\", as of 9:55a.m. PDT October 18, 2005, the Seattle Police Department had not received Thompson's fax, which at that point had been sent to \"GameSpot\", \"Penny Arcade\", and other sites. Thompson emailed \"GameSpot\", claiming that he had fixed the URL for \"Penny Arcade\" (which was incorrect in the original fax) and faxed the letter, commenting, \"They have it now.\" Thompson also told \"GameSpot\" that he was not a \"pixelated pi\u00f1ata in a game.\" He ended by saying that the \"moral midgets\" at \"Penny Arcade\" had chosen \"the wrong target\" and \"I've been at this longer than he has.\" These vague threats have been deemed \"nothing to worry about\" by \"Penny Arcade\". The Seattle Police Department confirmed to \"GameSpot\" on October 21 that they had received a complaint from Thompson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "On March 14, 2007, Take-Two filed a lawsuit seeking to permanently enjoin Thompson from filing any public nuisance action against the company that would block the sales to minors of the unreleased video games \"Grand Theft Auto IV\" and \"Manhunt 2\". The suit alleged that Thompson's lawsuits violated the company's First Amendment rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "The Seattle PD eventually acknowledged receiving a complaint from Thompson, but have commented that they believe the issue to be a civil, rather than criminal, matter. They noted that this was from initial impressions of the letter they received, and their criminal investigations bureau is reviewing the letter to make sure that there were not any criminal matters that they missed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins created the webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" in 1998 with Mike Krahulik, with Holkins writing and Krahulik illustrating. According to an oral history, the two submitted cartoons to a contest run by a magazine in 1998. The magazine did not accept them but the creators sought other places to publish them, and worked with a site called looneygames.com to create what would become Penny Arcade. The strip initially ran once a week. Around a year later, they created their own website for the strip. In addition to the comic, Holkins wrote accompanying blog posts. Initially, this was partly because the format of their website left blank space. Holkins says that while now the posts are a key part of the site, when they first started he would delete each post to make space for the next one so the early posts are lost. These posts are often computer and video game commentary, but also include personal reflections or rants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "Thompson was critical of the judge's decision, telling the judge \"You did not see the game... You don't even know what it was you saw,\" as well as accusing the Take-Two employee who demonstrated the game of avoiding the most violent parts. Blank Rome subsequently filed a motion to have Thompson's behavior declared \"contempt for the court\". Judge Friedman then recused himself from ruling, and instead filed a complaint against Thompson with The Florida Bar, calling Thompson's behavior \"inappropriate by a member of the bar, unprofessional and contemptible\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "As the debate continued, Thompson wrote, \"An industry that says a line cannot be drawn will be drawn and quartered.\" He said of his campaign, \"I won't stop till I get the head of a record company or record chain in jail. Only then will they stop trafficking in obscenity\". Bob Guccione Jr., founder of \"Spin\" magazine, responded by calling Thompson \"a sort of latter-day Don Quixote, as equally at odds with his times as that mythical character was,\" and argued that his campaign was achieving \"two things...: pissing everybody off and compounding his own celebrity\". Thompson responded by noting, \"Law enforcement and I put 2 Live Crew's career back into the toilet where it began.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins is also the basis for one of the two central characters in \"Penny Arcade\", \"Tycho Brahe\". Holkins and Brahe share similar interests and personalities, though their appearances differ; for example, Tycho has mussed hair and sideburns, while Holkins's head is shaven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "In 1990, after his election loss, Thompson began a campaign against the efforts of Switchboard of Miami, a social services group of which Reno was a board member. Thompson charged that the group placed \"homosexual-education tapes\" in public schools. Switchboard responded by getting the Supreme Court of Florida to order that he submit to a psychiatric examination. Thompson did so and passed. Thompson has since stated that he is \"the only officially certified sane lawyer in the entire state of Florida\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins created a comic strip which compares the 7th generation consoles that appears in the December 2006 issue of \"Wired\" magazine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "Responding, Thompson said: \"I have been praying, literally, that Take-Two and its lawyers would do something so stupid, so arrogant, so dumb, even dumber than what they have to date done, that such a misstep would enable me to destroy Take-Two.\" On April 19, 2007, Thompson and Take-Two settled the suit, with Thompson agreeing not to seek any legal restriction on sales of Take-Two's games, threaten to sue the company, or accuse Take-Two of any wrongdoing based on the sale of any of its games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "A review of \"Penny Arcade\" in 1Up.com said of Holkins, \"Language itself, whether dirty or clean, is increasingly a focus [of the comic] as Holkins stretches himself to work his favored baroque dialogue and unusual words into the script.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "Thompson also criticized Bill Gates and Microsoft for contracting with Rockstar Games to release the game on the Xbox. The Xbox version has since been cancelled for undisclosed reasons, but a version was released years later on the Xbox 360. In August 2006, Thompson requested a congressional subpoena for an early copy, threatening to file suit in Miami if he did not gain help from U.S. Rep. Cliff Stearns. Once the game is out, according to Thompson, \"the horse will be out of the barn and it will be too late to do anything about it\". Thompson argued that it violated Florida's public nuisance laws, which prohibit activities that can injure the health of the community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Paar",
        "text": "Reflecting on the controversy, Jonathan Winters, who had been a frequent guest of Paar's, asked Dick Cavett: \"Dick, did you ever think that Jack was maybe deep in the closet?\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Entertainment Software Ass'n v. Foti",
        "text": "On July 17, 2006, Florida attorney and activist, Jack Thompson, who helped Louisiana Representative Roy Burrell author HB1381, filed an amicus curiae brief which Judge Brady denied on July 19, 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scott Johnson (cartoonist)",
        "text": "In 2007, Johnson was targeted with a cease and desist email by disbarred attorney and American activist Jack Thompson for running a photograph parody contest on the Myextralife site."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "The strip features Krahulik and Holkins' cartoon alter egos, John \"Gabe\" Gabriel and Tycho Brahe, respectively. While often borrowing from the authors' experiences, Holkins and Krahulik do not treat them as literal avatars or caricatures of themselves. The two characters spend much of their time playing and commenting on computer and video games, which forms the basis of the humor in the strip. Most of the time Gabe serves the purpose of the comic and Tycho the comic foil. The strip can feature in-jokes that are explained in the news posts accompanying each comic, written by the authors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "Thompson filed a lawsuit on behalf of the parents of three students killed in the Heath High School shooting in 1997. Investigations showed that the perpetrator, 14-year-old Michael Carneal, had regularly played various computer games (including \"Doom\", \"Quake\", \"Castle Wolfenstein\", \"Redneck Rampage\", \"Nightmare Creatures\", \"MechWarrior\", and \"Resident Evil\") and accessed some pornographic websites. Carneal had also owned a videotape of \"The Basketball Diaries\", which includes a high school student dreaming about shooting his teacher and some classmates. The suit sought $33 million in damages, alleging that the producers of the games, the movie, and the operators of the Internet sites were negligent in distributing this material to a minor because it would desensitize him and make him more prone to violence. Additional claims included product liability for making \"defective\" products (the defects alleged were violent features and lack of warnings) and violation of RICO, the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, for distributing this material to minors. Said Thompson, \"We intend to hurt Hollywood. We intend to hurt the video game industry. We intend to hurt the sex porn sites.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Jerry Holkins' comic alter ego (named after the astronomer Tycho Brahe) is bitter and sarcastic. His eyes are burnt sienna, and he's almost invariably clad in a blue-striped sweater. Tycho enjoys books, role-playing video games, using large and uncommon words in conversation, and deflating Gabe's ego. He is an enthusiastic fan of \"Harry Potter\" and \"Doctor Who\". He also plays \"Dungeons & Dragons\" often (the website's previous banner illustrated him holding a 20-sided die), and adopts a wildly theatrical style when acting as a dungeon master."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clyde Jackman",
        "text": "Clyde Jackman\n--Controversy.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (politician)",
        "text": "During the UK miners' strike (1984\u20131985) he argued that some pit closures were due to bad management. In November 1984 he joined MPs from the hard-left Left Campaign Group in a demonstration that forced suspension of the chamber's sitting, over deductions from supplementary benefit for striking miners\u2019 dependants."
      },
      {
        "title": "China Jones",
        "text": "In the 1990s, cable network Nickelodeon removed the ending, which is the laundromat scene when Daffy was held prisoner with his faux Chinese rant. The reason is due to offensive ethnic stereotypes, as that cartoon wasn't shown in the United States nor the United Kingdom, not even DVD or Blu-ray Disc until WarnerMedia Ride restored a streaming print in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Jerry Holkins (born Parkinson; February 6, 1976) is an American writer. He is the co-creator and writer of the webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" along with its artist Mike Krahulik. Holkins sometimes uses the pseudonym \"Tycho Brahe\", which is also the name of a Penny Arcade character based on Holkins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "Prior to Thompson's disbarment, attorney Norm Kent filed a personal lawsuit against him, which eventually resulted in Thompson paying Kent $50,000 for defamation. Thompson reacted to the suit by threatening employees at one of Kent's clients, Beasley Broadcast Group, with lawsuits and depositions unless they got Kent to drop his case."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "An August 11, 2010 comic entitled \"The Sixth Slave\" wherein an NPC pleads with a player to save him from being raped nightly by monsters called \"dickwolves\", drew criticism from many commentators, including from \"The American Prospect\" and \"The Boston Phoenix\". Krahulik and Holkins dismissed these criticisms, later selling \"Team Dickwolves\" T-shirts based on the strip. They later removed the \"Team Dickwolves\" shirt from their store due to complaints that it made potential PAX attendees uncomfortable. After the removal, Krahulik posted online that removing the shirts was only partly caving to pressure but mainly due to people who had personally emailed him and were reasonable with their concerns. Krahulik also stated that anyone still hesitant about going to PAX even after removal of the shirts should not come to PAX. In September 2013, on the last day of PAX, Krahulik told a panel that he thought that \"pulling the dickwolves merchandise was a mistake\", to cheers from the crowd. However, Krahulik later apologized on the \"Penny Arcade\" website, stating that he regretted contributing to the furor that had followed the original comic. Both critics of the comic strip and Krahulik and Holkins, made claims of receiving verbal abuse through social media and death threats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Controversies surrounding Grand Theft Auto IV",
        "text": "Thompson subsequently claimed that he sent the letter to Zelnick's lawyer instead of his mother and formulated it as a parody intended to induce feelings of \"shame\" in Zelnick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Video game censorship",
        "text": "Jack Thompson has criticized \"violent video games\", claiming that playing violent video games leads to teenagers replicating those behaviors in the real world. He often represented victims or parents of victims in cases regarding shootings, usually blaming the actions on the perpetrator having played violent video games. Thompson also supported a campaign that tried to stop the release of \"Bully\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "In 1988, Thompson became involved in a feud with WIOD Radio host Neil Rogers, after Thompson was instrumental in persuading the FCC to fine WIOD $10,000 for airing such parody songs as \"Boys Want Sex in the Morning\" on Rogers' show. Thompson also sued the station for violating a December 1987 agreement to end on-air harassment against him. For the next eight months, Thompson recorded all of Rogers' broadcasts and documented 40,000 mentionings of his name. Thompson claimed that one of the terms of his agreement with the station was that the station would pay him $5,000 each time his name was mentioned, totaling $200 million in the suit."
      },
      {
        "title": "International reactions to the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy",
        "text": "British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw criticized European newspapers for republishing the cartoons: \"There is freedom of speech, we all respect that, ... But there is not any obligation to insult or to be gratuitously inflammatory. I believe that the republication of these cartoons has been unnecessary. It has been insensitive. It has been disrespectful and it has been wrong.\" Straw also praises British newspapers for their \"considerable responsibility and sensitivity\" in not printing the cartoons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Johnny Hart",
        "text": "The lion's share of controversy, however, came from Hart's increasing tendency to incorporate his religious and political themes and ideals into his comic strips, especially \"B.C.\" Some newspapers refused to print strips with overtly religious themes or, as with the \"Los Angeles Times\", moved them to the religious section of the newspaper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Penny Arcade is a webcomic focused on video games and video game culture, written by Jerry Holkins and illustrated by Mike Krahulik. The comic debuted in 1998 on the website \"loonygames.com\". Since then, Holkins and Krahulik have established their own site, which is typically updated with a new comic strip each Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. The comics are accompanied by regular updates on the site's blog."
      },
      {
        "title": "GamePolitics.com",
        "text": "The activities of Jack Thompson, an activist against violence and/or sex in video games, were a common subject of coverage, particularly between 2005 and 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "A Modest Video Game Proposal\n--The \"Modest Proposal\".\n--\"Defamation of Character: A Jack Thompson Murder Simulator\".\n--\"I'm O.K \u2013 A Murder Simulator\".\n--\"Penny Arcade\".\n--\"Joystiq\".\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy",
        "text": "The following incidents are often compared to the cartoon controversy:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "Thompson later drew attention to the game's main character, a 15-year-old male, being able to kiss other boys. Thompson wrote to ESRB president Patricia Vance, \"We just found gay sexual content in \"Bully\" as Jimmy Hopkins makes out with another male student. Good luck with your Teen rating now.\" The ESRB responded by saying they were already aware that the content was in the game when they rated it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy",
        "text": "Christopher Hitchens wrote in \"Slate\" that official reaction in the Westparticularly the United Stateswas too lenient toward the protesters and Muslim community in Denmark, and insufficiently supportive of Denmark and the right to free speech:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Nonviolent video game",
        "text": "In 1997, Christian conservative activist and (now former) attorney Jack Thompson brought suit against Atari, Nintendo, Sega, and Sony Computer Entertainment on behalf of the victims of Heath High School shooting in \"James v. Meow Media\". The suit was dismissed in 2000, absolving the companies of responsibility for the shooter's actions based on a lack of remedy under Kentucky tort law. In 2002, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the dismissal, and in 2003, the U.S. Supreme Court denied certiorari, refusing to review the case because it was not dismissed on 1st Amendment grounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tropolis",
        "text": "A 3-part \"Penny Arcade\" strip showed Tycho criticizing Tropolis, saying, \"What kind of fucking supervillain comes up with this shit?!\" after which a fictitious \"Origins\" story for the product was shown, depicting an evil scientist setting out to \"drinkify\" snacks and ending up as a snack himself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack \u00dc",
        "text": "Jack \u00dc\n--History.\n--Controversy.\n--Releases.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Strip Search (web series)",
        "text": "In interviews, Penny Arcade said that they received over 1,000 applicants, and used a brutal process to cut down to 12 contestants, including assessing whether they felt they would be able to work with the person for a year, and if they would be funny. Krahulik said of filming that \"Jerry [Holkins] was bad cop, and I was the asshole,\u201d and prided himself on how many times he made people cry. Holkins said they had to try hard to create drama, especially in a house filled with aspiring artists who all seemed to get along and understand one another; Krahulik said he look at contestants and think, \u201cwhat\u2019s the meanest thing that I can say.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Barry McGee",
        "text": "McGee was involved in a controversy regarding the Adidas Y1 HUF, a shoe for which he provided the artwork. This gave rise to a protest campaign by some Asian-Americans who claimed that the picture on the shoe's tongue depicts a racist stereotype. McGee responded to the controversy in a March 2006 press release. He stated that the drawing was a portrait of himself as an 8-year-old child."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "For his part, Thompson said he thought the judge was trying to protect Moore's criminal conviction at any cost. He also complained about the judge's ethics, saying a local attorney who claimed to have influence on the judge had assured him the case would be dismissed unless the attorney was on Thompson's team, and also claimed that Rockstar Entertainment and Take Two Interactive posted slanderous comments about him on their website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Conway (politician)",
        "text": "Before issuing the opinion, Conway asked for and received assurance from the Executive Branch Ethics Commission that his father's ownership of racehorses and service on the Kentucky Horse Racing Commission did not present a conflict of interest. On June 15, 2009, just hours before the General Assembly convened in a special session called by Governor Beshear to consider \u2013 among other issues \u2013 enabling legislation for video lottery terminals at state race tracks, Conway issued his opinion that a constitutional amendment would not be required to allow such devices. The enabling legislation passed the House but was voted down in the Senate budget committee during the special session."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy",
        "text": "The government answered with a letter without addressing the request for a meeting:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pat Robertson controversies",
        "text": "Robertson received criticism after stating that \"we've got an arms deal that everybody wanted a piece of ... it'll be a lot of jobs, a lot of money come to our coffers. It's not something you want to blow up willy-nilly\" in the wake of the murder of Jamal Khashoggi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "In July 2009, Entertainment Consumers Association (ECA) president Hal Halpin posted a copy of an email exchange between himself and Thompson, stating, \"I get messages (IMs, emails, FB notes, etc.) from members all the time, asking what the (almost daily) notes are from JT. Since this one's fairly harmless and I've redacted anything personal (not that I don't love getting his threatening cease and desist letters), I thought I'd share it as a pretty typical exchange.\" Halpin and Thompson have been vocal opponents since 1998, when Halpin ran the game retail trade association IEMA. The exchange was sparked by a guest editorial that Halpin entitled, \"Perception is Everything\" for IndustryGamers.com where he called for consumers and the industry to speak out against negative stereotyping of gamers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy",
        "text": "Tim Cavanaugh wrote that the incident revealed the danger of hate speech laws:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Shields",
        "text": "In 1991, Shields incurred controversy for allegedly shouting \"Shut up, Sambo\" to Howard McCurdy, the sole black member of Parliament. Shields denied ever making the comments."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Jimmy Fallon games and sketches",
        "text": "After the election, an \"attack ad\" (\"paid for by cats\") surfaced slamming Gary Frick for his flip-flop in the Cuomo/Paladino race."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Dempsey (wrestler)",
        "text": "Although publicly criticizing the changing business of professional wrestling, stating his personal dislike for \"clowns, gimmicks and showmen\" in a magazine interview with \"The Wrestler\" in March 1963, he would feud with many such wrestlers such as Vic Faulkner, Jon Cortez and \"Mr. TV\" Jackie Pallo as national televised wrestling matches became more frequent during the 1960s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "Rockstar Games co-founder Terry Donovan responded, saying \"I would prefer it if we could simply make great games and not have to deal with misunderstanding and misperception of what we do.\" After receiving no response from Rockstar regarding an advance copy, Thompson filed the public nuisance complaint against Wal-Mart, Take-Two Interactive, and GameStop, demanding that he be allowed to preview the game before its October 17 release date. Take-Two offered to bring in a copy and let both Judge Ronald Friedman and Thompson view the game in the judge's chambers on October 12, 2006. The judge ultimately saw no reason to restrict sales and dismissed the complaint the next day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Vance",
        "text": "Neither Kelle nor Detteras made objection. Pallis protested half-heartedly, then acquiesced, and presently became very cheerful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Opinions on the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy",
        "text": "Mark Stein of the \"Jerusalem Post\" prefers to view the massively disproportionate Muslim response as simply a form of \"arm flexing\" or intimidation by violent Muslim factions."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "A group of modders known as the Fighting Hellfish (the name is taken from an episode of \"The Simpsons\") had released exactly one week prior a mod for the game \"\", called \"Defamation of Character: A Jack Thompson Murder Simulator\". The mod features Jack Thompson himself acting out a remarkably similar scenario, at one point even assassinating Doug Lowenstein. Acting under hypnosis, Thompson moonlights as Banman and takes to the streets in his \"Bannedwagon\" to destroy the entire shipment of Rockstar's \"Bully\" before it reaches distribution. Jack later assassinates Janet Reno after thwarting her coup, which forces him to confront the realization that his time spent researching violent games has turned him into his own \"Manchurian Candidate\". Although the team never asked him to donate the money, Thompson refused to when he discovered that the game existed. Initially he claimed that the game did not meet his criteria but later claimed that his proposal was satire and said that he would not donate the $10,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hal Halpin",
        "text": "While running the IEMA, Halpin was involved in a number of historically important changes including the Hot Coffee scandal, retailers carding for mature-rated games, and the standardization of PC games packaging and related platform identification marks. During that time he also became a favourite target of noted anti-games activist and attorney, Jack Thompson. The two opponents were scheduled to debate publicly at the 2007 Penny Arcade Expo, but the debate was cancelled and replaced in the schedule with keynote speaker, Wil Wheaton."
      },
      {
        "title": "Opinions on the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy",
        "text": "The statement was however somewhat mistranslated and taken from the following context: [page 197]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (actor)",
        "text": "He co-starred with Raquel Welch in \"Trouble in Paradise\" (1989) for US TV then did a mini series in New Zealand, \"The Rainbow Warrior Conspiracy\" (1989)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "In 1999, Thompson represented the parents of Bryce Kilduff, an 11-year-old boy who committed suicide by hanging himself. Police believed that the death was an accident, and that Kilduff was imitating Kenny, a character from the Comedy Central series \"South Park\", which Bryce, according to his parents, had never watched. Thompson called for Comedy Central to stop marketing the show and toys based on the series to children. \"You see, the whole show\u2014thrust of the show is it's\u2014it's cool for kids to act like the characters in \"South Park\".\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "Jack Thompson (activist)\n--Background.\n--\"The Neil Rogers Show\".\n--Janet Reno.\n--Rap music.\n--Video games.\n----Early litigation.\n----\"Grand Theft Auto\".\n------Actions in law.\n--------Ohio.\n--------Tennessee.\n--------Alabama.\n--------Florida.\n--------New Mexico.\n------Take-Two reaction.\n------GameZone emails.\n----\"Bully\".\n----\"Manhunt\".\n----\"Mortal Kombat\".\n----Activism and lobbying.\n----Other public commentary.\n----Relationship with the gaming industry and gamers.\n--\"The Howard Stern Show\".\n--The Florida Bar.\n----Actions against the bar.\n----Filings.\n----Disbarment.\n--Other activities.\n----Facebook lawsuit.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Whitehall",
        "text": "On 30 December 2012, Whitehall appeared on \"The Big Fat Quiz of the Year\", during which he made a joke about Queen Elizabeth II. On the next day, complaints were submitted about the joke to Ofcom. Ensuing media speculation led to the National Television Awards stating publicly that Whitehall would not be forced to resign from presenting the awards a short time later."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Straw",
        "text": "Straw represented the government on a controversial edition of \"Question Time\" on 22 October 2009, against British National Party leader Nick Griffin on his first ever appearance. Griffin's first comment was to attack Straw's father's wartime record, to general disdain. As Griffin claimed that European laws prevented him from explaining his stance on holocaust denial Straw later offered his personal assurance as Secretary of State for Justice, which Griffin declined."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Tizard",
        "text": "Jack was sceptical of genetic explanations of human differences and in the 1970s he got involved in two related controversies on this topic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "In 1992, a complaint from Thompson led Florida Secretary of State Jim Smith to withhold a $25,000 grant to the Miami Film Festival; Thompson claimed that the festival was using state money to show pornographic films. In response, Thompson was named an \"Art Censor of the Year\" by the ACLU. The next month, Thompson faced disbarment over allegations that he lied while making accusations against prominent Dade County lawyer Stuart Z Grossman. Thompson ultimately admitted violating bar rules of professional conduct, including charges that he contacted people represented by an attorney without first contacting their attorneys, and agreed to pay $3,000 in fines and receive a public reprimand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "Thompson's \"high-profile crusades\" have made him an enemy of video game aficionados. On occasion, Thompson has sparred directly with the gaming industry and its fans. In 2005, he wrote an open letter to Entertainment Software Association president Doug Lowenstein, making what he described as \"a modest video game proposal\" (an allusion to the title of Jonathan Swift's satirical essay, \"A Modest Proposal\") to the video game industry: Thompson said he would donate $10,000 to a charity designated by Take-Two CEO Paul Eibeler if any video game company would create a game including the scenario he described in the letter. The scenario called for the main character, whose son was killed by a boy who played violent video games, to murder a number of industry executives (including one modeled on Eibeler) and go on a killing spree at the Electronic Entertainment Expo. Video game fans promptly began working to take Thompson up on his offer, resulting in the game \"I'm O.K \u2013 A Murder Simulator\", among others. Afterwards, he claimed that his proposal was satire, and refused to make the promised donation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy",
        "text": "One of the principal lines of controversy surrounding the cartoons concerned the limits of free speech, how much it should be legally or ethically constrained and whether the cartoons were an appropriate expression for a newspaper to print. The cartoons were first printed in response to the perception of some journalists at the newspaper that self-censorship was becoming a problem; the ensuing reaction did nothing to dispel that idea. Rose said:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "Beginning in 2005, Thompson supported a campaign to discourage Take-Two's subsidiary, Rockstar Games, from releasing a game called \"Bully\", in which, according to Thompson, \"what you are in effect doing is rehearsing your physical revenge and violence against those whom you have been victimized by. And then you, like Klebold and Harris in Columbine, become the ultimate bully.\" According to Thompson, the game \"shows you how to\u2014by bullying\u2014take over your school. You punch people; you hit them with sling shots; you dunk their heads in dirty toilets. There's white-on-black crime in the game. You bludgeon teachers and classmates with bats. It's absolutely nuts.\" Thompson sued Wal-Mart, Best Buy, Target, Circuit City, GameStop, and Toys 'R' Us, seeking an order to bar the game's release. He also participated in a protest at Rockstar's office that also included students from Peaceaholics, a Washington, D.C. mentoring organization. Thompson said he hoped that the pressure would get retailers to refuse to carry the game. In March 2006, the Miami-Dade County Public Schools board unanimously passed a resolution criticizing the game and urging retailers not to sell the game to minors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Chojnacki",
        "text": "A native of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Chojnacki graduated from the city's Marquette University High School in 1958. During the 1970s, he was among the staff of American Greetings, a card company based in Cleveland, Ohio; he licensed the Holly Hobbie character early in his tenure there. Later that decade, he set up the company's licensing branch Those Characters from Cleveland with another AGC employee, Tim Wilson (the creator of the comic strip \"Ziggy\"). Its first franchise, Strawberry Shortcake, made its public debut in 1980."
      },
      {
        "title": "I'm O.K \u2013 A Murder Simulator",
        "text": "This game was created and released in response to \"A Modest Video Game Proposal\" issued in late 2005 by activist attorney Jack Thompson, known for his opposition to sex and violence in entertainment, including computer and video games. This challenge dared computer game producers to release a game following a \"script\" he outlined, in which the grieving father of a child killed by a computer gamer takes vengeance by murdering many people connected with the gaming industry in a brutal manner. Thompson promised to contribute a $10,000 donation to the charity of choice of Paul Eibeler (then-chairman of Take-Two Interactive, one of the game companies most heavily criticized by Thompson) if such a game were released. However, he has since claimed that the proposal was only a joke, and currently, no charity has been designated by Eibeler. The makers of the gaming-related webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" have, however, made a $10,000 donation in Thompson's name to the Entertainment Software Association Foundation, a philanthropic, grant-giving body run by the Entertainment Software Association."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "On March 20, 2008, the Florida Supreme Court imposed sanctions on Thompson, requiring that any of his future filings in the court be signed by a member of The Florida Bar other than himself. The court noted that Thompson had responded to the show cause order with multiple \"rambling, argumentative, and contemptuous\" responses that characterized the show cause order as \"bizarre\" and \"idiotic.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Blankety Blanks (Australian game show)",
        "text": "Many questions were quotations of a fictional character named Cyril, and would begin \"Cyril said...\" with the quotation recited by Kennedy in a stereotypical gay male voice (Cyril was Kennedy's middle name). Another recurring character in the questions was Dumb Dora \u2013 a joke borrowed from \"Match Game\". A recurring comedy skit between Kennedy and Gray involved discussion about a man named \"Dick\", leading to \"Did Dick?\", \"Dick did!\" exchanges between Kennedy and Ugly Dave Gray."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Johnson (boxer)",
        "text": "Racial tension was brewing in the lead up to the fight and in order to prevent any harm from coming to either boxer, guns were prohibited within the arena along with the sale of alcohol and anyone who was under the effects of alcohol. Apples were also banned as well as any weapon whatsoever. Behind the racial attitudes which were being instigated by the media was a major investment in gambling for the fight, with 10\u20137 odds in favor of Jeffries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Opinions on the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy",
        "text": "Daniel Pipes argues that the pattern of events shows Muslim hypocrisy and supremacism:"
      },
      {
        "title": "GameRevolution",
        "text": "GameRevolution\n--Company history.\n----E3.\n----Purchase by CraveOnline.\n--Features.\n----Jack Thompson controversy.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "On February 15, 2008, Jack Thompson claimed that the actions of Steven Kazmierczak, who the previous day killed five people at Northern Illinois University before committing suicide, were influenced by the game \"Counter-Strike\". In a subsequent news release, Thompson claimed that \"We have a nation of Manchurian Candidate video gamers out there who are ready, willing, and able to massacre, and some of them will.\" Thompson also threatened the university with a lawsuit if the school did not provide copies of \"all documents that reveal [Kazmierczak's] play of violent videogames.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Straw",
        "text": "In February 2006, Straw attracted publicity after he condemned the publication of cartoons picturing Mohammed in the Danish newspaper \"Jyllands-Posten\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack'd",
        "text": "Jack'd\n--Controversies.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas Nast",
        "text": "In December 2011, a proposal to include Nast in the New Jersey Hall of Fame in 2012 caused controversy. \"The Wall Street Journal\" reported that because of his stereotypical cartoons of the Irish, a number of objections were raised about Nast's work. For example, \"The Usual Irish Way of Doing Things\" portrays an Irishman as being sub-human, drunk, and violent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism in Rugrats",
        "text": "Though former Nickelodeon president Albie Hecht, a Jew himself, was dumbfounded by the accusation and deemed it absurd, Herb Scannell, president of the company in 1998, responded to the complaints and apologized to ADL. Scannell issued a statement promising that neither the strip nor the character would ever be published again. In the statement, he also noted, \"Unfortunately, the creators of the strip made an error in judgment by referencing the Kaddish. I agree with you that, however well-meaning, the use of the Kaddish in the comic strip was inappropriate.\" Abraham H. Foxman, ADL National Director, responded via a press release in which they thanked Scannell for his speedy response and commended the company in general for understanding the issue at hand; Foxman concluded by saying, \"We appreciate Nickelodeon\u2019s long record of creative and quality programming and understand that it was not their intention to offend.\""
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did Holkins and Krahulik start Penny Arcade?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The two submitted cartoons to a magazine contest in 1998, but they were rejected. Seeking an alternative publisher, they worked with a site called looneygames.com to create what would become Penny Arcade."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Do you know what became of looneygames.com?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the controversy surrounding Penny Arcade?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know more of controversies involving the American Greetings Corporation, Jack Thompson, or a controversial comic involving rape?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in the controversies involving the American Greetings Corporation."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Krahulik and Holkins received a cease-and-desist letter from American Greetings Corporation over the use of American Greetings' Strawberry Shortcake and Plum Puddin' characters in the April 14, 2003 Penny Arcade strip entitled \"Tart as a Double Entendre\". The strip was intended as a parody of the works of both American McGee (especially the computer game Alice) and McFarlane Toys."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the Jack Thompson controversy?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "On October 17, 2005 Krahulik and Holkins donated US$10,000 to the Entertainment Software Association foundation in the name of Jack Thompson, a permanently-disbarred attorney-cum-activist against violence in video games.  On October 18, 2005 it was reported that Jack Thompson had faxed a letter to Seattle Police Chief Gil Kerlikowske claiming that Penny Arcade \"employs certain personnel who have decided to commence and orchestrate criminal harassment of me by various means\".",
      "After a dispute over donation money and video game content, there was back a forth threats and eventually The Penny Arcade shop had at the time sold an \"I hate Jack Thompson\" T-shirt, claiming that every living creature, including Thompson's own mother, hates Jack Thompson."
    ],
    "topic": "Penny Arcade",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Penny Arcade:45",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Penny Arcade",
          "Legal issues and controversy",
          "Jack Thompson"
        ],
        "ctx": "On October 18, 2005 it was reported that Jack Thompson had faxed a letter to Seattle Police Chief Gil Kerlikowske claiming that \"Penny Arcade\" \"employs certain personnel who have decided to commence and orchestrate criminal harassment of me by various means\". Holkins defended the site by saying that the \"harassment\" Thompson referred to was simply \"the natural result of a public figure making statements that people disagree with, and letting him know their thoughts on the matter via his publicly available contact information\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Penny Arcade:43",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Penny Arcade",
          "Legal issues and controversy",
          "Jack Thompson"
        ],
        "ctx": "On October 17, 2005 Krahulik and Holkins donated US$10,000 to the Entertainment Software Association foundation in the name of Jack Thompson, a permanently-disbarred attorney-come-activist against violence in video games. Earlier, Thompson himself had promised to donate $10,000 if a video game was created in which the player kills video game developers (\"A Modest Video Game Proposal\"), but after a mod to the game \"Grand Theft Auto\" was pointed out to already exist, Thompson called his challenge satire (referring to the title of the letter as a reference to \"A Modest Proposal\") and refused to donate the money. He claimed these games were not going to be manufactured, distributed, or sold like retail games, as his Modest Proposal stated, and therefore, the deal went unfulfilled. His refusal was met with disdain, given that multiple games were created or in the process of being created under Thompson's criteria. Krahulik and Holkins donated the money in his place, with a check containing the memo: \"For Jack Thompson, Because Jack Thompson Won't\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Penny Arcade:43",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Penny Arcade",
          "Legal issues and controversy",
          "Jack Thompson"
        ],
        "ctx": "On October 17, 2005 Krahulik and Holkins donated US$10,000 to the Entertainment Software Association foundation in the name of Jack Thompson, a permanently-disbarred attorney-come-activist against violence in video games. Earlier, Thompson himself had promised to donate $10,000 if a video game was created in which the player kills video game developers (\"A Modest Video Game Proposal\"), but after a mod to the game \"Grand Theft Auto\" was pointed out to already exist, Thompson called his challenge satire (referring to the title of the letter as a reference to \"A Modest Proposal\") and refused to donate the money. He claimed these games were not going to be manufactured, distributed, or sold like retail games, as his Modest Proposal stated, and therefore, the deal went unfulfilled. His refusal was met with disdain, given that multiple games were created or in the process of being created under Thompson's criteria. Krahulik and Holkins donated the money in his place, with a check containing the memo: \"For Jack Thompson, Because Jack Thompson Won't\"."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On October 18, 2005 it was reported that Jack Thompson had faxed a letter to Seattle Police Chief Gil Kerlikowske claiming that \"Penny Arcade\" \"employs certain personnel who have decided to commence and orchestrate criminal harassment of me by various means\". Holkins defended the site by saying that the \"harassment\" Thompson referred to was simply \"the natural result of a public figure making statements that people disagree with, and letting him know their thoughts on the matter via his publicly available contact information\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On the same day, Scott Kurtz, creator of the webcomic \"PvP\" and a longtime friend of Krahulik and Holkins, used the image of the letter Thompson sent to the Seattle PD to create a parody letter in which Jack attempts to enlist the aid of the Justice League of America by claiming Gabe and Tycho to be villains of some description."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "In response, Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik, the creators of gaming webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" and of the children's charity Child's Play, stepped in to make the $10,000 donation instead, writing in the memo field of their cheque, \"For Jack Thompson, Because Jack Thompson Won't.\" Afterwards, Thompson tried unsuccessfully to get Seattle police and the FBI to investigate Holkins and Krahulik for orchestrating \"criminal harassment\" of him through articles on their site. Other webcomics have regularly incorporated references to Thompson, alluding to this incident as well as others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On October 21, 2005 Thompson claimed to have sent a letter to John McKay, U.S. Attorney for the Western District of Washington, in an attempt to get the FBI involved. Thompson re-iterated his claims of \"extortion\" and accused \"Penny Arcade\" of using \"their Internet site and various other means to encourage and solicit criminal harassment\". Penny Arcade denied the charge of \"extortion\", noting that they paid the $10,000 to charity, and asked nothing in return."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "In retaliation, Jack Thompson faxed a letter to Seattle Police Chief Gil Kerlikowske, requesting assistance in halting the activities of Krahulik and Holkins. In his letter, he described how personnel within \"Penny Arcade\" were harassing him: the sale of an \"I Hate Jack Thompson\" shirt and frequent postings on their website where they allegedly admitted to harassment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "The \"Penny Arcade\" shop had at the time sold an \"I hate Jack Thompson\" T-shirt, claiming that every living creature, including Thompson's own mother, hates Jack Thompson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "At PAX Australia in 2016, during a Q&A session, Holkins revealed that changes at Paramount resulted in the movie rights being returned to Penny Arcade and the project canceled. He did note, however, that Whitta's script was complete and the project could move forward with another production company in the future."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On October 17, 2005 Krahulik and Holkins donated US$10,000 to the Entertainment Software Association foundation in the name of Jack Thompson, a permanently-disbarred attorney-come-activist against violence in video games. Earlier, Thompson himself had promised to donate $10,000 if a video game was created in which the player kills video game developers (\"A Modest Video Game Proposal\"), but after a mod to the game \"Grand Theft Auto\" was pointed out to already exist, Thompson called his challenge satire (referring to the title of the letter as a reference to \"A Modest Proposal\") and refused to donate the money. He claimed these games were not going to be manufactured, distributed, or sold like retail games, as his Modest Proposal stated, and therefore, the deal went unfulfilled. His refusal was met with disdain, given that multiple games were created or in the process of being created under Thompson's criteria. Krahulik and Holkins donated the money in his place, with a check containing the memo: \"For Jack Thompson, Because Jack Thompson Won't\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Thompson proceeded to phone Krahulik, as related by Holkins in the corresponding news post."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "On October 21, 2005, Thompson claimed to have sent a letter to John McKay, U.S. Attorney for the Western District of Washington, in an attempt to get the FBI involved. Thompson reiterated his claims of \"extortion\" and accuses \"Penny Arcade\" of using \"their Internet site and various other means to encourage and solicit criminal harassment\". \"Penny Arcade\" denies the charge of \"extortion\", noting that they paid the $10,000 to charity, and are asking nothing in return."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On March 21, 2007 Thompson filed a countersuit to the lawsuit brought against him by Take Two Interactive claiming that they are at the center of a RICO conspiracy. \"Penny Arcade\" was named as one of the co-conspirators. At Sakura-Con 2007, Krahulik announced that the suit had been dropped."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins chose not to enter into a legal battle over whether or not the strip was a protected form of parody, and they complied with the cease-and-desist by replacing it with an image directing their audience to send a letter to a lawyer for American Greetings. They later lampooned the incident by portraying an American Greetings employee as a Nazi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Thompson claimed the harassment of him is a direct result of Mike Krahulik's posts, which listed links to the Florida Bar Association. Thompson accused \"Penny Arcade\" of soliciting complaints to the Bar against him, even though Krahulik actually posted the opposite, asking fans to cease sending letters to the Bar, as the Bar acknowledged that it is aware of Thompson's actions, thanks to previous letters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "The Seattle PD eventually acknowledged receiving a complaint from Thompson, but have commented that they believe the issue to be a civil, rather than criminal, matter. They noted that this was from initial impressions of the letter they received, and their criminal investigations bureau is reviewing the letter to make sure that there were not any criminal matters that they missed."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "On October 17, 2005, Mike Krahulik and Jerry Holkins of \"Penny Arcade\" donated the promised $10,000 to charity on Jack Thompson's behalf. Krahulik and Holkins donated the money, under Thompson's name, to the Entertainment Software Association Foundation, the charitable arm of the Entertainment Software Association. Thompson e-mailed both \"Penny Arcade\" and \"Joystiq\", who ran a story about the donation, demanding that the articles be taken down \"or else.\" The check was presented to the ESA Foundation at an ESAF fundraising dinner in San Francisco; in its memo line was written: \"For Jack Thompson Because Jack Thompson Won't\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "Thompson also contacted the office of Washington State Legislature Representative Mary Lou Dickerson, and her office confirms they asked John McKay to look into the matter. Thompson has not clarified how he is being \"extorted,\" but accuses \"Penny Arcade\"s Mike Krahulik of soliciting Florida Bar complaints against him through Krahulik posting the Florida Bar's link on \"Penny Arcade\"s website. The link, however, is in a post asking fans to stop sending letters to the Bar because the Bar is fully aware of the current situation."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "According to \"GameSpot\", as of 9:55a.m. PDT October 18, 2005, the Seattle Police Department had not received Thompson's fax, which at that point had been sent to \"GameSpot\", \"Penny Arcade\", and other sites. Thompson emailed \"GameSpot\", claiming that he had fixed the URL for \"Penny Arcade\" (which was incorrect in the original fax) and faxed the letter, commenting, \"They have it now.\" Thompson also told \"GameSpot\" that he was not a \"pixelated pi\u00f1ata in a game.\" He ended by saying that the \"moral midgets\" at \"Penny Arcade\" had chosen \"the wrong target\" and \"I've been at this longer than he has.\" These vague threats have been deemed \"nothing to worry about\" by \"Penny Arcade\". The Seattle Police Department confirmed to \"GameSpot\" on October 21 that they had received a complaint from Thompson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Smith (film director)",
        "text": "In 1989, New York performance artist Penny Arcade tried to salvage Smith's work from his apartment after his long bout with AIDS and subsequent death. Arcade attempted to preserve the apartment as Smith had transformed it\u00a0\u2013 an elaborate stage set for his never-to-be-filmed epic \"Sinbad in a Rented World\"\u00a0\u2013 as a museum dedicated to Jack Smith and his work. This effort failed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On June 15, 2011, a strip entitled \"Reprise\" revisited the issue, due to the release of \"\", another American McGee game. In the strip, Gabe suggests that he and Tycho parody a brand not \"under constant surveillance\", resulting in a spoof of the \"Rainbow Brite\" franchise. Holkins stated in the accompanying news post that \"it seemed like an incredible opportunity to relive the days of yore.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "In 2013 Arcade starred along with Mink Stole in a revival of Tennessee Williams one-act play, \"The Mutilated\". The production was directed by Cosmin Chivu with music by Jesse Selengut, and previewed at the eighth annual Provincetown Tennessee Williams Theater Festival in Massachusetts, prior to its six-week run in New York at the New Ohio Theatre in the West Village where it was nominated for a Drama League Award as Best Revival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins received a cease-and-desist letter from American Greetings Corporation over the use of American Greetings' Strawberry Shortcake and Plum Puddin' characters in the April 14, 2003 \"Penny Arcade\" strip entitled \"Tart as a Double Entendre\". The strip was intended as a parody of the works of both American McGee (especially the computer game \"Alice\") and McFarlane Toys. At the time, McFarlane toys and American McGee made separate toy lines, each portraying a dark, frightening interpretation of the characters and situations from \"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz\". Krahulik and Holkins' portrayal of Strawberry Shortcake parodied McFarlane Toys' depiction of Dorothy as bound and blindfolded by a pair of munchkins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Krahulik",
        "text": "In 2005, Krahulik responded to an offer Jack Thompson made (\"A Modest Video Game Proposal\") requesting the creation of an ultra-violent game featuring a protagonist who murders video game developers. In Thompson's proposal, the protagonist would be motivated by the death of his son at the hands of a video-game-inspired teenager. Thompson claimed he would donate $10,000 USD towards a charity of then-current Take-Two Interactive chairman Paul Eibeler's choosing if such a game was made (which it eventually was). Krahulik, in the email, said he and fellow gamers had raised about half a million dollars toward charity. According to Krahulik, \"Jack actually just called and screamed at me for a couple minutes. He said if I email him again I will 'regret it'. What a violent man.\" Krahulik, along with the rest of the \"Penny Arcade\" staff, later opted to \"step in\" for Jack Thompson. Thompson refused to donate $10,000 to charity because he considered the game put forth to meet his challenge subpar. He also claimed that his proposal was satirical and not a serious offer. Penny Arcade donated the money in his stead to the Entertainment Software Association with the note, \"For Jack Thompson, because Jack Thompson won't\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins created a comic strip which compares the 7th generation consoles that appears in the December 2006 issue of \"Wired\" magazine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Penny Arcade may also refer to:\n*Penny arcade, a venue for coin-operated devices\n* \"Penny Arcade\", a 1929 play led by American actor and dancer James Cagney.\n*Penny Arcade (performer) (born 1950), stage name of performance artist and playwright Susanna Ventura\n*\"Penny Arcade\", an early video game by Bill Budge, mimicking \"Pong\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Penny Arcade\n--Overview.\n--Attributes of the comic strip.\n--Protagonists.\n----Jonathan \"Gabe\" Gabriel.\n----Tycho Brahe.\n--Podcast.\n--Games.\n--\"Penny Arcade: The Series\".\n--Other works.\n----Penny Arcade Presents.\n----Collectible Card Game.\n----ESRB ad campaigns.\n----\"The New Kid\" film.\n----The Trenches.\n----The Decideotron.\n----Kickstarter.\n--\"Penny Arcade\" events.\n--Legal issues and controversy.\n----American Greetings.\n----Jack Thompson.\n----Rape/dickwolves controversy.\n--\"Greater Internet Fuckwad Theory\".\n--Reception.\n--Awards and recognition.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "A review of \"Penny Arcade\" in 1Up.com said of Holkins, \"Language itself, whether dirty or clean, is increasingly a focus [of the comic] as Holkins stretches himself to work his favored baroque dialogue and unusual words into the script.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On March 5, 2009, the Washington State Senate honored Holkins and Krahulik, both originally from Spokane, for the contribution that they had made to the state, the video game industry, and to children's charities from around the world courtesy of their Child's Play initiative. Later in March, \"Penny Arcade\" won the category \"Best Webcomic\" in the fan voted Project Fanboy Awards for 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Under the banner of \"Penny Arcade Presents\", Krahulik and Holkins are sometimes commissioned to create promotional artwork/comic strips for new video games, with their signature artistic style and humor. They are usually credited simply as \"Penny Arcade\" rather than by their actual names. Some of these works have been included with the distribution of the game, and others have appeared on pre-launch official websites. An official list can be found on the Penny Arcade website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Krahulik",
        "text": "In 2010, Krahulik and Penny Arcade received criticism stemming from several controversial comics and statements with respect to the transgender community and rape, particularly in response to a comic featuring fictional creatures known as \"dickwolves.\" Krahulik and Holkins dismissed these criticisms, later selling \"Team Dickwolves\" T-shirts based on the strip. In June 2013, Krahulik apologized and donated $20,000 to LGBTQ youth suicide prevention group The Trevor Project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "\"Penny Arcade: The Series\" first aired online on February 20, 2010. It is a multi-season documentary series based on the exploits of the Penny Arcade company and its founders Krahulik and Holkins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strawberry Shortcake",
        "text": "Some argue that \"Penny Arcade\"s case was not covered under the fair use doctrine because the use of the characters in this case was for satire; they claim that fair use only protects the unauthorized use of copyrighted characters in parodies of the original material, and that satire and parody are totally different concepts. Others, however, take the view that parody and satire are equally protected by law. \"Penny Arcade\" did not intend to offend American Greetings in the comic, but instead American McGee and McFarlane Toys, who collaborated to create a toy line based on a twisted version of \"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz\". The poster also mocked American McGee's game, \"American McGee's Alice\", a game with a dark and twisted take on Lewis Carroll's books, \"Alice In Wonderland\" and \"Through the Looking Glass\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strip Search (web series)",
        "text": "In interviews, Penny Arcade said that they received over 1,000 applicants, and used a brutal process to cut down to 12 contestants, including assessing whether they felt they would be able to work with the person for a year, and if they would be funny. Krahulik said of filming that \"Jerry [Holkins] was bad cop, and I was the asshole,\u201d and prided himself on how many times he made people cry. Holkins said they had to try hard to create drama, especially in a house filled with aspiring artists who all seemed to get along and understand one another; Krahulik said he look at contestants and think, \u201cwhat\u2019s the meanest thing that I can say.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "\"\" is an episodic video game based on the strip. The first two episodes were developed by Hothead Games, and were built on a version of the Torque Game Engine. The first episode was released worldwide on May 21, 2008, and the second on October 29, 2008. They were self-published via the PlayStation Network and Xbox Live as well as the PlayGreenhouse.com service created by \"Penny Arcade\" to distribute independent games. The game features many elements of the \"Penny Arcade\" universe in a 1920s steampunk setting. In 2010, Krahulik and Holkins announced that the remainder of the series had been cancelled, to allow Hothead to focus on other projects. At PAX Prime 2011, however, it was announced that the series would be revived and developed by Zeboyd Games, with a retro style similar to Zeboyd's past titles. The third episode was released on Steam and on Penny Arcade's web store June 25, 2012. The fourth and final episode was announced in January 2013, and released to Steam and Xbox Live in June 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caine's Arcade",
        "text": "Nirvan is exploring making the short documentary into a feature film after completing other projects related the short film's success and influence; Nirvan has stated that he has received offers from film publishers to create the feature-length film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "On August 8, 2005, Krahulik announced that \"Penny Arcade\", in partnership with Sabertooth Games, would be producing a collectible card game based on the \"Penny Arcade\" franchise. The resulting \"Penny Arcade\" \"battle box\" was released in February 2006 as part of the Universal Fighting System."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "\"The Last Christmas\" and \"The Hawk and the Hare\", two stories that were published on the site, were released as motion comics for iOS developed by SRRN Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caine's Arcade",
        "text": "The film, on its release to YouTube, soon became a viral video. Numerous people donated money towards a college fund Nirvan established for Caine. Subsequently, schools around the world have recreated similar cardboard arcades, and the positive response inspired Nirvan and team to start the Imagination Foundation, a non-profit aimed at fostering creativity and entrepreneurship in more adults across the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Penny Arcade has created two Kickstarter projects. The first was the \"Penny Arcade's Paint the Line\" card game which was used as an alternative to pre-ordering it and came with an exclusive comic. The second was entitled \"Penny Arcade Sells Out\" and was intended to replace advertising revenue with crowd funding. The leaderboard ad on the home page of Penny Arcade would be removed if the minimum goal of $250,000 were reached, whereas the entire site would become completely ad-free for a year at $999,999. The reality web series described as \"our version of America's Next Top Webcomic\" titled \"Strip Search\" arose from the $450,000 stretch goal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "In January 2011 Arcade had an on-stage spat with performance artist Ann Liv Young. In 2012 she took up residence at London's Arcola Theatre for a run of her show \"Bitch! Dyke! Faghag! Whore!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Don Alias",
        "text": "With Joe Farrell\n* \"Penny Arcade\" (CTI, 1973)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "In July 2015, Holkins and Krahulik were recognized as \"Multimedia Empire Builders\" in Ad Week's 10 Visual Artists Changing the Way We See Advertising issue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Penny Arcade is a webcomic focused on video games and video game culture, written by Jerry Holkins and illustrated by Mike Krahulik. The comic debuted in 1998 on the website \"loonygames.com\". Since then, Holkins and Krahulik have established their own site, which is typically updated with a new comic strip each Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. The comics are accompanied by regular updates on the site's blog."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Serenade",
        "text": "The copyright on \"Penny Serenade\" was not renewed when its initial 28-year term expired and it entered the public domain in 1970. Subsequently, the film has seen many releases by budget labels on various home video formats, but all are of very poor quality and most, but not all, are missing a pivotal five-minute scene in which Grant pleads with a judge to be allowed to adopt despite the failure of his newspaper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Announced on June 2, 2011, Paramount Pictures had acquired the rights to produce an animated film, via Paramount Animation to make this, of the one-off strip \"The New Kid\" which was published on October 29, 2010. The strip was one of three mini-strips which featured a cinematic opening to a larger story left unexplored. \"The New Kid\" is about a boy who's moving to a new planet with his family because of his father's career. The script was written by Gary Whitta and would have been produced by Mary Parent and Cale Boyter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik and Holkins began to record and release audio content on March 20, 2006, titled \"Downloadable Content.\" The podcasts specifically captured the creative process that goes into the creation of a \"Penny Arcade\" comic, usually starting with a perusal of recent gaming news, with conversational tangents and digressions to follow. As well as being a behind-the-scenes look at the creation of \"Penny Arcade\", Krahulik and Holkins discuss possible subjects for the comic."
      },
      {
        "title": "2 Player Productions",
        "text": "\"Penny Arcade: The Series\" Is a 27-episodes web show about Penny Arcade and PAX. The first season was aired on GameTrailers and has a positive collective review of 9.1. Subsequent seasons were produced by Vantage Point Production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "An August 11, 2010 comic entitled \"The Sixth Slave\" wherein an NPC pleads with a player to save him from being raped nightly by monsters called \"dickwolves\", drew criticism from many commentators, including from \"The American Prospect\" and \"The Boston Phoenix\". Krahulik and Holkins dismissed these criticisms, later selling \"Team Dickwolves\" T-shirts based on the strip. They later removed the \"Team Dickwolves\" shirt from their store due to complaints that it made potential PAX attendees uncomfortable. After the removal, Krahulik posted online that removing the shirts was only partly caving to pressure but mainly due to people who had personally emailed him and were reasonable with their concerns. Krahulik also stated that anyone still hesitant about going to PAX even after removal of the shirts should not come to PAX. In September 2013, on the last day of PAX, Krahulik told a panel that he thought that \"pulling the dickwolves merchandise was a mistake\", to cheers from the crowd. However, Krahulik later apologized on the \"Penny Arcade\" website, stating that he regretted contributing to the furor that had followed the original comic. Both critics of the comic strip and Krahulik and Holkins, made claims of receiving verbal abuse through social media and death threats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "In the 1990s, Arcade toured internationally with her most popular show, \"Bitch! Dyke! Faghag! Whore!\", an opinionated commentary on sexuality and censorship that features a chorus of amateur reverse strippers. In 1998 she performed at the first Gay Shame event at DUMBA in Brooklyn; she appears in the documentary film of the event by Scott Berry, entitled \"Gay Shame '98\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "\"The Trenches\" was ultimately abandoned. The last comic was posted January 5, 2016, while the last \"Tales\" is from September 10, 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "Arcade is a co-founder of the Lower East Side Biography Project, a video production and oral history workshop that trains participants in documentary filmmaking and preserves the stories of Lower Manhattan artists and activists. Recently profiled individuals have included Herbert Huncke, Jayne County, and Marty Matz, among others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "Arcade returned to New York City in 1981. She worked with underground theatre artists, including Jack Smith, Charles Ludlam and the \"Angels of Light\". She co-starred with Quentin Crisp in the long-running performance/interview piece, \"The Last Will and Testament of Quentin Crisp\". In the spring of 1982, she improvised her first performance piece in\" Tinsel Town Tirade\" at Theater for The New City, receiving her first writer's credit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "Selected works include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Strip Search (web series)",
        "text": "While Penny Arcade referred to the series as \"Season One\", and left filming of that season confident there would be a second season, only one season was ever produced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "\"Penny Arcade\" has been among the most popular and longest running webcomics currently online, listed in 2010 as having 3.5 million readers. Holkins and Krahulik were among the first webcomic creators successful enough to make a living from their work. In addition to the comic, Holkins and Krahulik also created Child's Play, a children's charity; PAX, a gaming convention; Penny Arcade TV, a YouTube channel; Pinny Arcade, a pin exchange; and the episodic video game \"\" with Hothead Games and Zeboyd Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Although the shows were initially published weekly, Holkins stated in a May 2006 blog post that they have found difficulties when trying to produce the podcasts on a regular basis. The duo planned to keep recording podcasts occasionally."
      },
      {
        "title": "I'm O.K \u2013 A Murder Simulator",
        "text": "This game was created and released in response to \"A Modest Video Game Proposal\" issued in late 2005 by activist attorney Jack Thompson, known for his opposition to sex and violence in entertainment, including computer and video games. This challenge dared computer game producers to release a game following a \"script\" he outlined, in which the grieving father of a child killed by a computer gamer takes vengeance by murdering many people connected with the gaming industry in a brutal manner. Thompson promised to contribute a $10,000 donation to the charity of choice of Paul Eibeler (then-chairman of Take-Two Interactive, one of the game companies most heavily criticized by Thompson) if such a game were released. However, he has since claimed that the proposal was only a joke, and currently, no charity has been designated by Eibeler. The makers of the gaming-related webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" have, however, made a $10,000 donation in Thompson's name to the Entertainment Software Association Foundation, a philanthropic, grant-giving body run by the Entertainment Software Association."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "Arcade's 2002 performance \"New York Values\", which also toured abroad, addressed the loss of cultural identity in New York during the Giuliani years. The Village Gate marquee in New York is still adorned with her name and the title of her performance piece \"Politics, Sex & Reality\", although the nightclub no longer exists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Jerry Holkins' comic alter ego (named after the astronomer Tycho Brahe) is bitter and sarcastic. His eyes are burnt sienna, and he's almost invariably clad in a blue-striped sweater. Tycho enjoys books, role-playing video games, using large and uncommon words in conversation, and deflating Gabe's ego. He is an enthusiastic fan of \"Harry Potter\" and \"Doctor Who\". He also plays \"Dungeons & Dragons\" often (the website's previous banner illustrated him holding a 20-sided die), and adopts a wildly theatrical style when acting as a dungeon master."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "Ventura's association with avant-garde performance began at age 17, when she became a member of John Vaccaro's Playhouse of the Ridiculous. In 1968, she appeared in painter Larry Rivers film T.I.T.S. In 1969, she starred in the Jackie Curtis play \"Femme Fatale\" at La MaMa Etc. with Curtis, Mary Woronov, Jayne County and Patti Smith, followed by a small role in the Paul Morrisey / Andy Warhol film, \"Women in Revolt\". In 1970, Arcade was featured in her first interview in \"Rags Magazine\", an alternative fashion magazine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)",
        "text": "In music:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Krahulik",
        "text": "Along with Holkins, Krahulik was included on the 2010 \"Time\" 100 for their work on \"Penny Arcade\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Jerry Holkins (born Parkinson; February 6, 1976) is an American writer. He is the co-creator and writer of the webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" along with its artist Mike Krahulik. Holkins sometimes uses the pseudonym \"Tycho Brahe\", which is also the name of a Penny Arcade character based on Holkins."
      },
      {
        "title": "ElecTRONica",
        "text": "In this replica of the arcade seen in the \"Tron\" films, guests played vintage 1980s video games such as \"Tron\" (based on the original movie), \"Battlezone\", \"Centipede\", \"Frogger\", \"Donkey Kong\", \"Donkey Kong Junior\", \"Donkey Kong 3\", \"Mario Bros.\", \"Popeye\", \"Pac-Man\", \"Ms. Pac-Man\", \"Pole Position\", \"Red Baron\" and \"Zaxxon\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "ElecTRONica",
        "text": "Flynn's Arcade also housed what Disney Imagineer Craig Pierce claimed was the world's only coin-operated version of \"Space Paranoids\", a game that had previously existed in the original \"Tron\" film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins is also the basis for one of the two central characters in \"Penny Arcade\", \"Tycho Brahe\". Holkins and Brahe share similar interests and personalities, though their appearances differ; for example, Tycho has mussed hair and sideburns, while Holkins's head is shaven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Krahulik named his son \"Gabriel\" in honor of the character."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caine's Arcade",
        "text": "Nirvan released the final 11-minute documentary to the video site Vimeo and YouTube on April 9, 2012, and shared links on popular sites including Reddit and Boing Boing. The documentary soon propagated in viral video fashion, with over 1 million views the first day, and more than 5 million views within the first five days. In addition to numerous responses, several emotional video responses were received, as the film \"made grown men cry.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Holkins",
        "text": "Holkins created the webcomic \"Penny Arcade\" in 1998 with Mike Krahulik, with Holkins writing and Krahulik illustrating. According to an oral history, the two submitted cartoons to a contest run by a magazine in 1998. The magazine did not accept them but the creators sought other places to publish them, and worked with a site called looneygames.com to create what would become Penny Arcade. The strip initially ran once a week. Around a year later, they created their own website for the strip. In addition to the comic, Holkins wrote accompanying blog posts. Initially, this was partly because the format of their website left blank space. Holkins says that while now the posts are a key part of the site, when they first started he would delete each post to make space for the next one so the early posts are lost. These posts are often computer and video game commentary, but also include personal reflections or rants."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Modest Video Game Proposal",
        "text": "A Modest Video Game Proposal\n--The \"Modest Proposal\".\n--\"Defamation of Character: A Jack Thompson Murder Simulator\".\n--\"I'm O.K \u2013 A Murder Simulator\".\n--\"Penny Arcade\".\n--\"Joystiq\".\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caine's Arcade",
        "text": "Caine's Arcade is an 11-minute short documentary film by Nirvan Mullick released on April 9, 2012 that featured a cardboard arcade created by then 9-year-old Caine Monroy out of boxes and everyday objects. The boy ran his arcade from his father's auto parts store in East Los Angeles during mid-2011. Nirvan was inspired to make the documentary after unexpectedly coming across the arcade while getting a door-handle for his car. Nirvan became Caine's first customer, purchasing a $2 Fun Pass, and decided to make a film about Caine's Arcade after witnessing the level of commitment, work, and thought Caine had put into the arcade. After learning he had been Caine's first and only customer, Nirvan arranged for a surprise flash mob of customers using social media to come play Caine's Arcade, which was included as part of the movie."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Some of the strips are drawn from the perspective of fictional characters within a game or movie. Occasionally, Gabe and Tycho are featured as they would be as characters or players in the game themselves, often having some sarcastic remark to make about some feature or bug in the game. At times the comic also depicts meetings between game developers or business people, and features or mocks the reporters of a news article that is commented on in Holkins' newspost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "In September 2012, Kurtz stopped illustrating the webcomic, due to lack of time, and was replaced by Mary Cagle, a former intern of his, and the creator of the webcomic Kiwi Blitz. Kurtz still continued to collaborate with Krahulik and Holkins in writing the comic. In late August 2013, illustration was taken over by Ty Halley (\"Secret Life of a Journal Writer\") and Monica Ray (\"Phuzzy Comics\"), former contestants of the Penny Arcade series \"Strip Search\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Gold",
        "text": "Penny Gold is a 1973 British drama film directed by Jack Cardiff and starring James Booth, Francesca Annis, Nicky Henson and Joss Ackland. The screenplay concerns two policemen who investigate a series of murders."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of webcomics",
        "text": "\"Penny Arcade\" also proved to be a huge player in fields outside of webcomics in the early 2000s. In 2003, Holkins and Krahulik founded Child's Play, a charity that managed to raise over US$100,000 in its first year, which it used for donating toys for the Seattle Children's Hospital. The charity has become more successful since and now donates toys to hospitals across the country. In 2004, the duo started the Penny Arcade Expo (PAX), a yearly video game convention that debuted with an estimated 3,000 guests and has grown in size since."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pornographic film actor",
        "text": "Production of risqu\u00e9 films commenced with the start of photography. \"Moving pictures\" that featured nudity were popular in \"penny arcades\" of the early 1900s which had hand-cranked films and stereoscope glasses. These penny arcade attractions featured topless women, full frontal nudity, and even sexual coupling."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Lost Arcade",
        "text": "The film was initially produced via Kickstarter, with funds being raised in response to the news that the Chinatown Fair would be closing and the filmmakers wishing to capture its closing and tell the story of its history. It was originally titled \"ARCADE: The Last Night At Chinatown Fair\". As depicted in the film, the project evolved when Chinatown Fair re-opened in a new form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "Thompson filed a lawsuit on behalf of the parents of three students killed in the Heath High School shooting in 1997. Investigations showed that the perpetrator, 14-year-old Michael Carneal, had regularly played various computer games (including \"Doom\", \"Quake\", \"Castle Wolfenstein\", \"Redneck Rampage\", \"Nightmare Creatures\", \"MechWarrior\", and \"Resident Evil\") and accessed some pornographic websites. Carneal had also owned a videotape of \"The Basketball Diaries\", which includes a high school student dreaming about shooting his teacher and some classmates. The suit sought $33 million in damages, alleging that the producers of the games, the movie, and the operators of the Internet sites were negligent in distributing this material to a minor because it would desensitize him and make him more prone to violence. Additional claims included product liability for making \"defective\" products (the defects alleged were violent features and lack of warnings) and violation of RICO, the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, for distributing this material to minors. Said Thompson, \"We intend to hurt Hollywood. We intend to hurt the video game industry. We intend to hurt the sex porn sites.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Rogue Cop",
        "text": "In a penny arcade, a drug dealer is stabbed to death by a man who claims the territory for himself, and Eddie witnesses the murderer flee. Mob boss Dan Beaumonte gives orders to Kelvaney to buy his brother's silence. Eddie refuses, and Kelvaney is unable to persuade Eddie's sweetheart, nightclub singer Karen Stephenson, to change his mind."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Film Arcade",
        "text": "Founded in 2012 by Miranda Bailey, Jason Beck and Andy Bohn, The Film Arcade recently released Mike Birbiglia\u2019s \"Don\u2019t Think Twice \"starring Keegan-Michael Key and Gillian Jacobs as well as Josh Mond\u2019s \"James White\" starring Christopher Abbott, Cynthia Nixon and Scott \"Kid Cudi\" Mescudi. Previous films include Jim Strouse\u2019s \"People Places Things\" starring Jemaine Clement, Kris Swanberg's \"Unexpected\" starring Cobie Smulders and Anders Holm, \"Song One\" starring Anne Hathaway, \"A.C.O.D.\" starring Adam Scott, Richard Jenkins, Catherine O'Hara, Clark Duke, Jessica Alba, Jane Lynch and Amy Poehler and Jill Soloway\u2019s \"Afternoon Delight\" starring Kathryn Hahn, Juno Temple, Josh Radnor and Jane Lynch. The Film Arcade recently financed and produced Lake Bell\u2019s \"I Do...Until I Don't\" which stars Bell, Ed Helms, Paul Reiser, Mary Steenburgen, Amber Heard, Wyatt Cenac and Dolly Wells. The film will be released in 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caine's Arcade",
        "text": "After playing Caine's Arcade, Nirvan returned a few weeks later to ask Caine's father George Monroy for permission to make a short film about Caine's Arcade to premiere at DIY Days at UCLA at the end of October. Caine's father approved of the idea, and shared that Nirvan had been Caine's first and only customer. After learning this, Nirvan decided to organize a surprise flash mob of customers for Caine as part of the film. The flash mob was set for October 2, 2011, and spread via Facebook and Reddit. On the day of the flash mob, George arranged to take Caine out for pizza in the afternoon, giving the crowd of over one hundred time to gather and construct signs. When Caine returned, the crowd cheered \"we came to play\" - Caine was surprised and elated when he realized the crowd was there for him, saying that at first he thought he was \"dreaming\", but then he realized \"it was real life- they were really playing the games.\" Nirvan worked to prepare a 14-minute rough cut of the documentary, which premiered at UCLA's DIY Days event at the end of October, 2011. Caine was in attendance, and set up his arcade. The film includes an original song 'Caine's Arcade\" by local songwriter Juli Crockett and a song from actor Ryan Gosling's band Dead Man's Bones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny and the Pownall Case",
        "text": "It was the first film made by Highbury Productions, a company that belonged to the Rank Group of companies. Its aim was to make 50 minute \"curtain raisers\" for Rank's features."
      },
      {
        "title": "On the Double (film)",
        "text": "After making \"The Five Pennies\" Danny Kaye, Mel Shalvelson and Jack Rose decided they wanted to make a straight comedy, \"a picture that had no message at all.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (performer)",
        "text": "Penny Arcade (born Susana Carmen Ventura, July 15, 1950) is an American performance artist, actress, and playwright based in New York City. She is known for her comedic wit, forthright delivery, and stage presence. Her performances explore topics such as gentrification, humanity, womanhood, LGBT culture, nostalgia, family history, and the life of the outsider. Additionally, Penny Arcade is known for her association with underground arts and culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meet Mr. Penny",
        "text": "Meet Mr. Penny is a 1938 British comedy film directed by David MacDonald and starring Richard Goolden, Vic Oliver and Fabia Drake. It was made at Welwyn Studios by British National Films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Thompson (activist)",
        "text": "The suits were eradicated when Take-Two petitioned U.S. District Court, SD FL to block the impending lawsuit, on the grounds that video games purchased for private entertainment could not be considered public nuisances. The following day, Thompson wrote on his website \"I have been praying, literally, that Take-Two and its lawyers would do something so stupid, that such a misstep would enable me to destroy Take-Two. The pit Take-Two has dug for itself will be patently clear next week when I strike back.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Strip Search (web series)",
        "text": "In 2012, Penny Arcade launched a Kickstarter campaign with the primary goal of removing ads from their website for a year. The primary goal required $250,000, but there were also stretch goals, including \"a sort of 'America's next top webcomic' show\" if the campaign reached $450,000. The campaign exceeded this goal and Penny Arcade committed to producing the show, later named \"Strip Search\". Penny Arcade commissioned Bionic Trousers Media, the legal entity behind sketch comedy group LoadingReadyRun, to film, host, and edit the show. The show cost around $250,000 to produce, and was released in 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Costume Designers Guild Awards 2010",
        "text": "Made for Television Movie or Miniseries:\n* Winner - Cindy Evans - \"Temple Grandin\"\n** Penny Rose - \"The Pacific\"\n** Rita Ryack - \"You Don't Know Jack\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (album)",
        "text": "Penny Arcade is a jazz album by Joe Farrell on the CTI Records label. It was recorded at the Van Gelder Studio in October 1973."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Film Arcade",
        "text": "The Film Arcade has a home entertainment distribution deal with Universal Pictures and frequently handles theatrical distribution for Paramount and Lionsgate on their \"day and date\" releases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flaming Creatures",
        "text": "It was not until after Smith's death in 1989 that larger institutions started to screen \"Flaming Creatures\". Critic J. Hoberman and performer Penny Arcade saved Smith's belongings and had a restoration of the film made, a project which took five years. The New York Film Festival showed the film in 1991, and the Museum of the Moving Image included it in a 1997 retrospective of Smith's work."
      },
      {
        "title": "One Penny (film)",
        "text": "The film was shot on location around the Washington, D.C., and Baltimore areas and premiered at the DC Independent Film Festival in February 2017.\n* Harrison Samuels - Dylan\n* Carson Grant - Professor\n* Ben Rezendes - Tristan\n* Will Roland - Collin\n* Erin O'Brien - Jordan"
      },
      {
        "title": "Golden age of arcade video games",
        "text": "Arcade games also influenced the film industry; beginning with \"Space Invaders\", arcade games began appearing at many movie theaters, while early films based on video games were also produced, most notably \"Tron\", which grossed over $33\u00a0million in 1982 which began the \"Tron\" franchise which included a video game adaptation that grossed more than the film. Other films based on video games included the 1983 films \"WarGames\" (where Matthew Broderick plays \"Galaga\" at an arcade), \"Nightmares\", and \"Joysticks\", the 1984 films \"The Last Starfighter\", as well as \"Cloak & Dagger\" (in which an Atari 5200 cartridge implausibly containing the eponymous arcade game becomes the film's \"MacGuffin\"). Arcades also appeared in many other films at the time, such as \"Dawn of the Dead\" (where they play \"Gun Fight\" and \"F-1\") in 1978, and \"Midnight Madness\" in 1980, \"Take This Job and Shove It\" and \"Puberty Blues\" in 1981, the 1982 releases \"Rocky III\", \"Fast Times At Ridgemont High\", \"Koyaanisqatsi\" and \"The Toy\", the 1983 releases \"Psycho II\", \"Spring Break\",\"Terms of Endearment\" and \"Never Say Never Again\", the 1984 releases \"Footloose\", \"The Karate Kid\" (where Elisabeth Shue plays \"Pac-Man\"), \"The Terminator\", \"Night of the Comet\" and \"The Adventures of Buckaroo Banzai Across the 8th Dimension\", the 1985 releases \"The Goonies\",\"The Boys Next Door\" and \"Ferris Bueller's Day Off\" as well as the 1986 films \"Something Wild\", \"The Color of Money\" and \"Psycho III\" (where Norman Bates stands next to a \"Berzerk\" cabinet). \"Over the Top\" and \"Can't Buy Me Love\" showcase several arcade game cabinets as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Film Arcade",
        "text": "The Film Arcade\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Khoo",
        "text": "Robert Khoo\n--Penny Arcade.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Nathan H. Gordon",
        "text": "In 1902 he returned to Denver where he became part owner of a penny arcade, showing slot-machine pictures. In the following year he returned to New England and with his brother Israel Gordon opened a slot-machine picture business at Worcester, Mass., placing machines in stores, penny arcades and elsewhere. Later he established penny arcades in several neighboring cities in Massachusetts and Connecticut. In 1906 he opened at Worcester a \u201cnickelodeon,\u201d the first motion picture theatre in that city. Its success prompted him to extend the scope of his operations gradually until he became the largest operator of motion picture and vaudeville theatres in New England."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "Both Krahulik and Holkins make a living from \"Penny Arcade\", placing them in a small group of professional webcomic artists devoted to their creations full-time. Originally, like many webcomics, \"Penny Arcade\" was supported solely by donations. A graph on the main page indicated how much people had donated that month. After hiring Robert Khoo as their business manager, Holkins and Krahulik switched to a different income stream based on advertising and merchandise revenue alone. According to Holkins, the website in 2006 handled more than two million pageviews daily (excluding forum traffic). On November 13, 2005, the website was given a facelift in celebration of their seventh year running and to match the designs of the Child's Play Charity and Penny Arcade Expo websites. Afterwards, the site has been redesigned multiple times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny and the Pownall Case",
        "text": "Christopher Lee called it \"a truly grisly free for all\"... a \"Z feature\". He says the cast were forced to watch the film being previewed and he found the experience extremely embarrassing. It was the first time he died on screen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade",
        "text": "The strip features Krahulik and Holkins' cartoon alter egos, John \"Gabe\" Gabriel and Tycho Brahe, respectively. While often borrowing from the authors' experiences, Holkins and Krahulik do not treat them as literal avatars or caricatures of themselves. The two characters spend much of their time playing and commenting on computer and video games, which forms the basis of the humor in the strip. Most of the time Gabe serves the purpose of the comic and Tycho the comic foil. The strip can feature in-jokes that are explained in the news posts accompanying each comic, written by the authors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Arcade (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Penny Arcade is an American webcomic focused on video games and video game culture."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did Holkins and Krahulik start Penny Arcade?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The two submitted cartoons to a magazine contest in 1998, but they were rejected. Seeking an alternative publisher, they worked with a site called looneygames.com to create what would become Penny Arcade."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Do you know what became of looneygames.com?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the controversy surrounding Penny Arcade?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know more of controversies involving the American Greetings Corporation, Jack Thompson, or a controversial comic involving rape?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in the controversies involving the American Greetings Corporation."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Krahulik and Holkins received a cease-and-desist letter from American Greetings Corporation over the use of American Greetings' Strawberry Shortcake and Plum Puddin' characters in the April 14, 2003 Penny Arcade strip entitled \"Tart as a Double Entendre\". The strip was intended as a parody of the works of both American McGee (especially the computer game Alice) and McFarlane Toys."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the Jack Thompson controversy?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "On October 17, 2005 Krahulik and Holkins donated US$10,000 to the Entertainment Software Association foundation in the name of Jack Thompson, a permanently-disbarred attorney-cum-activist against violence in video games.  On October 18, 2005 it was reported that Jack Thompson had faxed a letter to Seattle Police Chief Gil Kerlikowske claiming that Penny Arcade \"employs certain personnel who have decided to commence and orchestrate criminal harassment of me by various means\"."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Have any films or series been made of Penny Arcade?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I did not find the answer, but I did find that it was announced on June 2, 2011, Paramount Pictures had acquired the rights to produce an animated film, via Paramount Animation to make this, of the one-off strip The New Kid which was published on October 29, 2010, however the rights were returned and the project was cancelled in 2016."
    ],
    "topic": "Penny Arcade",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Penny Arcade:31",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Penny Arcade",
          "Other works",
          "\"The New Kid\" film"
        ],
        "ctx": "Announced on June 2, 2011, Paramount Pictures had acquired the rights to produce an animated film, via Paramount Animation to make this, of the one-off strip \"The New Kid\" which was published on October 29, 2010. The strip was one of three mini-strips which featured a cinematic opening to a larger story left unexplored. \"The New Kid\" is about a boy who's moving to a new planet with his family because of his father's career. The script was written by Gary Whitta and would have been produced by Mary Parent and Cale Boyter."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The baseball pass is a long pass in which the passer throws the ball with one hand, as if it were a baseball or an american football. It is infrequently used, mainly to set up last-second plays off a baseline inbounding situation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Finger-rolls today have many forms, including the Around the World which involves a complete circle around the player before the layup and a variety of faking in the approach to the rim. A classic example is a play by former Kings point guard Jason Williams during his time with Sacramento, in which Williams brings the ball behind his back with his right hand, in a fake of a back pass, and then brings it front again with the same hand for the finish (reminiscent of Bob Cousy who pioneered the move)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The player with the ball shifts their hip and top part of their body almost like a stiff worm, making their opponent think they're heading in one direction, when in reality they are heading in the other direction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The dribble pitch or the handoff, is an offensive play, whereby the ball-handler passes to a player (often a bigger player) and runs by him to collect the ball, whilst the big sets a screen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Basketball moves\n--Dribbling.\n----Crossover.\n------Between the legs.\n------Behind the back.\n----Wraparound.\n----In and out dribble.\n----V dribble.\n----Different heights dribble.\n----Ankle breaker dribble.\n----Hesitation move.\n--After the dribble.\n----Euro step.\n----Jump stop.\n----Pro-Hop.\n----Pro-hop euro step.\n----Power up.\n----Over-the-head.\n--Shots.\n----Layups.\n------Reverse layup.\n------Finger roll.\n------Tear drop.\n------Power layup.\n------Double clutch.\n----Bank shot.\n----Putback and tip-in.\n--Triple threat position and related moves.\n----Pivot.\n----Jab step.\n----Pump fake.\n----Drawing contact.\n----Shuffle.\n--Posting up.\n----Up and under.\n----Hook shot.\n----Drop step.\n----Power move.\n----Spin and drive.\n----Sikma move.\n----Dream shake.\n--Shooting.\n----Pull-up jumper.\n----Turnaround jump shot.\n----Fadeaway.\n----Step-back jump shot.\n--Passes.\n----Bounce pass.\n----Chest pass.\n----Over-the-head pass.\n----Touch pass.\n----Baseball pass.\n----Jump pass.\n----Blind pass.\n----Behind-the-back pass.\n--Two person game.\n----Give and go.\n----Dribble pitch (handoff).\n----Pick and roll.\n----Backdoor.\n----Alley-oop.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Ball is dribbled with same hand in a V motion. Almost looks like a double crossover but ball stays in hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "From the initial position of the pick-and-roll maneuver, the player who receives the ball has many different options as to whether he/she passes it, or fakes and then goes for a jump shot. These variations typically include the pick and pop, where by the roll man instead of heading to the basket trails behind and is wide open for a jumper, hence the 'pop', as well as slipping the screen, whereby the defender of the screener attempts to cheat and get ahead of the screener, at which point the screener does not set a screen, but merely slips by, leaving him open as his defender trails behind."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Basketball moves are generally individual actions used by players in basketball to pass by defenders to gain access to the basket or to get a clean pass to a teammate to score."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The wraparound is similar to a behind-the-back crossover, except instead of the ball being thrown in a sideways direction and bouncing behind the ball handler's back, it is swung further around the back and thrown in a forward direction, bouncing on the side or in front of the ball handler's body. This move is mostly used when a defender lunges toward one side of the ball handler's body for a steal. The ball handler would then simply throw the ball around his body and quickly pass his defender."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The power move is executed by pivoting towards the basket to seal the defender, then using a two handed power dribble followed by a jump stop to get closer to the basket. Immediately after the jump stop the player jumps up for a power shot or jump hook."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A pull-up jumper is an offensive move, where the ball handler in the act of dribbling, 'pulls up' to shoot the basketball. This is especially effective as the defender is not able to react in time to affect or block the shot. This move is widely used by many players in the NBA, including notable stars such as Jerry West, DeMar DeRozan, Russell Westbrook, Stephen Curry, Kevin Durant, and LeBron James."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Named after Hakeem \"The Dream\" Olajuwon, this move is executed when a post player dribbles alongside the baseline and with one hand under the ball fakes a layup, then pivots to the outside for a jump hook. If the defender recovers and jumps at the hook shot, the post player can pump fake the hook and step through for the unguarded layup (similar to the up and under move)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "When a player posts up, in order to shoot he has to turn around to face the basket. This can be done by turning in the air, timing the jump shot when the defender is not likely to jump and challenge the shot. Though a fade-away version of this move was perfected by Larry Bird and Dirk Nowitzki, players such as Michael Jordan, Kobe Bryant, Hakeem Olajuwon, and Kevin Garnett are also well known for it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "This move is similar to the jab step, but smaller. It is when a player uses multiple very little jab steps to throw off a defender and keep him constantly guessing whether you will go to the basket or not. It was used frequently by former San Antonio Spurs forward Tim Duncan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "When the offensive player receives the ball in the low post, the player either fakes in one direction and then spins in the opposite direction, or immediately after catching the ball, the player spins around the defender and goes up for the shot or takes one hard dribble and then takes the shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Also called a \"reverse pivot\", the drop step is a move in which the player posting up takes a back step on the side of a defender behind him and spins to that side to gain leverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The shooter takes a quick jab step away from the basket and takes a normal jump shot. Stephen Curry, James Harden and Luka Doncic are famous for their step-back jumper. The move creates space for the shot, while providing more balance than the fadeaway."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "An in and out dribble is widely used as a counter move to a crossover, whereby the ball handler fakes the crossover and pushes the ball back out on the same hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The over-the-head move is a move in which the player rotates the ball over their head in a circular fashion. This is done as the player is stepping to one side of the defender, while trying to get past him/her at the same time. It is essentially used as a way to prevent the ball from getting stolen. It is typically used when driving to the basket, and on fast breaks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The up and under is a move consisting of two parts: a shot fake (the up) and a step-through (the under). First the player with the ball fakes a shot by thrusting the ball above his head as if to take a shot, then when the defender jumps in an attempt to block the shot, the offensive player steps by him and attempts a clear, unguarded shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The power up is a move in which the player lands on their outside foot then inside foot, and powers up toward the basket. An effective move because of its balance and power resulting from a two-foot gather and take off."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The combination of a euro step and a jump-stop, the pro-hop is a move in which a player picks up their dribble with a synchronized right hand dribble/right foot step, or a synchronized left hand dribble with left foot step. The player then rips the ball to the opposite side of their body while landing on a jump-stop. The pro hop's ability to split defenders, or throw an opposing defender off rhythm through 'change of direction speed' is a move popularized by Shantay Legans, former point guard for University of California at Berkeley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of basketball",
        "text": "Basketball moves \u2013 individual actions used by players in basketball to pass by defenders to gain access to the basket or to get a clean pass to a teammate.\n* Free throw\u00a0\u2013\n* Advance step\u00a0\u2013 A step in which the defender's lead foot steps toward their man and the back foot slides forward.\n* Air ball\u00a0\u2013 An unblocked shot that fails to hit the rim or backboard. Does not reset the shot clock.\n* Air pass\u00a0\u2013 A pass that goes straight through the air to the receiver. See also \"bounce pass\".\n* Alley oop\u00a0\u2013 An offensive play in which a player throws the ball up near the basket to a teammate (or, more rarely, to himself) who jumps, catches the ball in mid air and immediately scores a basket, usually with a slam dunk.\n* Euro step\u00a0\u2013 An offensive move in which a player, after picking up the dribble, takes a step in one direction and the second allowed step in a different direction while driving to the rim.\n* Field goal\u00a0\u2013 A shot made from anywhere on the court, does not include free throws.\n* Over the back\u00a0\u2013 a foul committed by a player who tries to rebound the ball by pushing, moving or climbing on a player's back who is already in position to rebound the ball.\n* Rebound\u00a0\u2013 To obtain the ball after a missed field goal attempt.\n* Banana cut\u00a0\u2013 A wide, curving cut, as opposed to a cut that is a straight line.\n* Basket cut\u00a0\u2013 A cut toward the basket.\n* Blindside screen\u00a0\u2013 A screen set directly behind a defender where the player can't see it.\n* Block\u00a0\u2013 To tip or deflect a shooter's shot, altering its flight so the shot misses.* Block out\u00a0\u2013 To make contact with an opposing player to establish rebounding position between the player and the ball. Also called \"box out.\"\n* Box out\u00a0\u2013 See block out.\n* Bump the cutter\u00a0\u2013 To step in the way of a player who is trying to cut to the ball for a pass.\n* Dingle\u00a0\u2013 A steal that leads quickly to a score.\n* Rip a C\u00a0\u2013 A motion used while chinning the ball to create space during a pivot between an offensive player and a defensive player. Pivot towards the defender and rips the ball in a C-shape away from the pressure to create a passing lane.\n* screen, set a screen\u00a0\u2013 (v) To attempt to prevent a defender from guarding a teammate by standing in the defender's way. The screening player must remain stationary: a moving screen is an offensive foul. (n) The tactic of setting a screen. Also called a \"pick\".\n* Stutter step\u00a0\u2013 a common warm-up drill where you shuffle and scuff your feet in a quick moving motion across a length of flooring. This warm-up is supposed to keep the players alert and help them prepare to defend players in a real game, since the stutter step is a smaller version of shuffling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Named after Jack Sikma, the post player receives the ball with their back to the basket and keeps the ball at forehead level. The post then pivots to face the basket while bringing the ball overhead (almost behind the head) to shoot a jump shot. The ball is released high over the head making it difficult for the defense to block."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Power layup, also called jump stop layup, is a continuous shooting move in which a player stops dribbling and makes a huge leap forward (jump stop), while securing the ball in both hands from the dribbling hand, then making a layup. The move is generally used as a layup because the huge movement coming from the leap provides the momentum for the player to jump forward for a layup. The move is a great way to squeeze the player under the basket for a fast layup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The other layup is the overhand shot, similar to a jump shot but from considerably closer range. Overhand layups almost always involved the use of the backboard. Players like Scottie Pippen and Karl Malone have used this move to great effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A finger roll is performed when a player shoots the ball with one hand during a layup and then lifts his fingers, rolling the ball into the basket. The rotation produced provides the ball with a soft touch, and the ball will roll around the rim and then drop into the basket. Guard George \"The Iceman\" Gervin and center Wilt Chamberlain were known for having some of the best finger rolls in the game. Other notable practitioners have included Michael Jordan, Scottie Pippen, and Jason Kidd."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "This is when an offensive player does a move that makes their defender stumble to the ground. Players' collapsing due to this rarely occurs under normal circumstances. Typically this happens when a defender loses balance, trips over their own feet, or even slips. An offensive player can't consistently control whether the defender falls, but using speed, body momentum, body contact and sharp changes of direction make it much more likely to happen. This move usually embarrasses the defender."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "In a jump stop, the player takes one small step and lands on both feet simultaneously. It can be used after a dribble. A player who receives a pass with a jump stop can pivot after the stop using either foot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The Pro-hop Euro Step combines the pro-hop and Euro step while removing the pro-hop's jump stop. The player picks up their dribble with a synchronized right hand dribble/right foot step, or a left hand dribble with left foot step. Player then rips the ball to opposite side of their body (behind the back if skilled), takes two steps, and finishes with a reverse layup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phutball",
        "text": "The football is moved by a series of jumps over adjacent men."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phutball",
        "text": "The diagram on the right illustrates a jump.\n*Ohs moves the football from K6\u2013G9\u2013G11\u2013J11.\n*The men on J7, H8, G10, and H11 are removed.\n*The jump from K6\u2013G9\u2013J9\u2013G7 would not be legal, as that would jump the man on H8 twice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A layup is a two-point attempt made by leaping from the ground, releasing the ball with one hand up near the basket, and using one hand to tip the ball over the rim and into the basket (lay-in) or banking it off the backboard and into the basket (lay-up). The motion and one-handed reach distinguish it from a jump shot. The layup is considered the most basic shot in basketball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of basketball",
        "text": "Dribble\u00a0\u2013 to bounce the ball continuously. Required in order to take steps with the ball.\n* Wraparound\u00a0\u2013 In the wraparound, the ballhandler dribbles the ball behind his/her back, switching it to his/her other hand. This move can be used when the defender attempts a steal, allowing the ballhandler to begin moving forward as the defense moves in. A streetball move with the same name involves swinging the ball around the opponent's body.\n* Spin move\u00a0\u2013 In a spin move, the ballhandler spins his/her body to change the direction and put his body between the ball and the defender. The spin move can be used while dribbling (when it is also called a reverse pivot) or in a post position, where it is often used many times during a game. The move can also leave the ballhandler somewhat disoriented, or to be surprised by a defender after losing eye contact.\n* Crossover dribble\u00a0\u2013 In a crossover dribble, the ballhandler changes pace to confuse or freeze a defender. It is also used to put the defender off balance to make it easier for the player handling the ball to dribble past the defender. The move is often performed by street players. In the professional league, players like Allen Iverson, Jason Williams, and Tim Hardaway were known to use this move in order to generate an easy layup or jump shot. This move is most effective in open-court situations, where it is easy to shake or \"juke\" the defender with a simple crossover. If done properly, the defender will be caught off guard, being unable to change directions. Sometimes, the defender falls down; this is called an ankle breaker.\n* Behind-the-back dribble\u00a0\u2013 A basic move in which the ballhandler simply bounces the ball behind the back to the opposite hand, but note that the ball is not intended to go around the body as in the basic 'wraparound'. This move is used to avoid an easy strip, to 'stall', or to 'pick'. It can be used to avoid an easy strip as an alternative to bouncing the ball in front of the dribbler for a tricky crossover. To stall means to overlook what can be set up on the court while still maintaining control over the ball. A pick is virtually the same as a stall but a pick is continuous, meaning that the ball is bounced back and forth behind the back; a pick may also be performed between the legs. The best choice of when to use this move would be in the case of a teammate's unavailability, to outrun a defender, or to drive the ball closer to the hoop due to the lack of space between the ballhandler and defender."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aroldis Chapman",
        "text": "\"Sports Illustrated\" writer Joe Posnanski wrote of Chapman, \"There is no violence at all in his motion; he's like the anti-Bob Gibson in that way. Just a slow beginning, a fluid motion, and BLAMMO the ball just fires out like the Batmobile rolling out of the cave.\" A more technical analysis reveals the following:\n# Chapman breaks his hands late, so his arm gets involved late;\n# He shifts his weight before he breaks his hands;\n# Chapman gets low and creates tremendous leg drive;\n# At landing, he quickly braces his front leg and hip;\n# He also powerfully flexes his trunk forward over his landing knee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "This dribble is a especially useful when the offensive player is close to their defender and needs to change dribble hands, but doesn't have space to use a regular crossover."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "This pass is performed best by stepping towards your target with one foot, then throwing the ball out towards their chest with two hands while turning the hands over, ending with the thumbs pointing down. It is best used in an open court and on the perimeter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A jab step, also known as \"side step,\" is performed when a player holds onto the ball before dribbling while his non-pivot leg performs a jabbing forward or side motion. This move is used to test defender's defensive weaknesses and stance. A combination of the pump fake, the drive, the shot and the crossover drive can be performed along with the jab step to lure the opponent out of his defense. Forward Carmelo Anthony is well known for taking the jab step, as was 13-year pro Kiki Vandeweghe. When the player does this, the defender falls off from their defensive stance, creating a space between the player and the defender, allowing them to take a quick mid-range jumper, a three-pointer, or a drive \"to the lane.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Dribbling is bouncing the ball continuously with one hand at a time without holding the ball. Dribbling is necessary in order to take steps while possessing the ball. Once a player picks up their dribble (stops it by holding the ball), they may not dribble again until they pass, shoot, or otherwise lose possession of the ball and the ball touches a different player or the rim or backboard."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Gant",
        "text": "Gant's pitching motion has repeatedly been characterized as \"unique.\" He takes one step forward with his left foot, planting it on the right side of the mound, then moves backward, only to take the same step again before throwing the baseball. The extra movement, which Gant describes as a \"false step,\" does not occur when he pitches from a set position."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "An over-the-head pass is another fundamental passing technique. It is used by snapping the ball over the head, like a soccer throw-in. This pass is especially effective in helping to initiate a fast break. After a defensive rebound, a well-thrown overhead, or outlet, pass can allow a breaking offensive player to quickly score without even dribbling by catching the ball near the basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Game seven",
        "text": "Game seven\n--Examples.\n----Baseball.\n------Chinese Professional Baseball League.\n------Major League Baseball.\n----Basketball.\n------National Basketball Association.\n----Ice hockey.\n------Kontinental Hockey League.\n------Liiga.\n------National Hockey League.\n--Comebacks.\n----Successful.\n----Unsuccessful.\n----Major sports leagues.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Behind-the-back passes are passes dealt to a target behind the passer's back. Usually done to confuse the defender, behind-the-back passes can either be bounced off the floor or passed directly to a teammate's chest. However, most behind-the-back passes are direct. Earl Monroe was famous for this move. Steve Nash used this move often, and Chris Webber is famed for using this move down in the paint."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Generally used by post players (power forwards and centers), Hakeem Olajuwon and Kevin McHale were considered masters of this move."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "An offensive move intended to produce a foul call on the defensive player. A typical strategy is to drive into a defensive player whose feet are not stationary. When the two players make bodily contact, a blocking foul can be called on the defensive player. If the defensive player has a set position (i.e., both feet are stationary and arms are not in a downward motion), the contact can result in a charging foul against the offensive player (this is known as \"taking the charge\" for the fouled defensive player). Another way of drawing contact is to pump fake and then jump towards the defender, make contact and then shoot; this gets you to the foul line. If you make the basket (often made in the paint), you get the basket and one foul shot. Players like DeMar DeRozan, James Harden, Kobe Bryant, Damian Lillard, and Dwyane Wade have mastered the art of drawing contact."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hakeem Olajuwon",
        "text": "Olajuwon has referred to basketball as a science, and described his signature move in vivid detail: \"When the point guard throws me the ball, I jump to get the ball. But this jump is the set-up for the second move, the baseline move. I call it the 'touch landing.' The defender is waiting for me to come down because I jumped but I'm gone before I land. Defenders say 'Wow, he's quick,' but they don't know that where I'm going is predetermined. He's basing it on quickness, but the jump is to set him up. Before I come down, I make my move. When you jump, you turn as you land. Boom! The defender can't react because he's waiting for you to come down to defend you. Now, the first time when you showed that quickness, he has to react to that quickness, so you can fake baseline and go the other way with your jump hook. All this is part of the Dream Shake. The Dream Shake is you dribble and then you jump; now you don't have a pivot foot. When I dribble I move it so when I come here, I jump. By jumping, I don't have a pivot foot now. I dribble so now I can use either foot. I can go this way or this way. So he's frozen, he doesn't know which way I'm going to go. That is the shake. You put him in the mix and you jump stop and now you have choice of pivot foot. He doesn't know where you're gonna turn and when.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "An alley-oop is an offensive play which involves one teammate lofting the ball up near the rim in anticipation of another teammate jumping up to catch and dunk it. Because this move requires both teammates to know what the other is thinking, the alley-oop is a rare and exciting play. The alley-oop first dates back to the mid-1950s when K. C. Jones and Bill Russell teamed up to perform it while they were college teammates. Point guard Chris Paul, and big men Blake Griffin and DeAndre Jordan, were known for their spectacular alley-oops; during their shared time with the Los Angeles Clippers their team earned the name \"Lob City\". Another notable duo known for using this play is LeBron James and Dwyane Wade during their time at the Miami Heat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "\"Give and Go\" is an offensive play that involves passing the ball (give) and then running (go) to an open spot to receive the ball back, usually near the basket, for an easy score. This play can be effective when the defender pays too much attention to the ball instead of the player who moves after passing the ball. This is also known as a \"One-Two\" in street ball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A double clutch is a move associated with a layup or a dunk; it is a change of ball position in mid-air (similar to the \"up and under\" move, but performed while the player is in the air). It is effectively used by many players."
      },
      {
        "title": "Small ball (basketball)",
        "text": "Teams often move a physically dominant player who would typically play the small forward position into the power forward position. Examples of players who have been used in this role include Kevin Durant, Carmelo Anthony, and LeBron James. That individual would play alongside either a traditional power forward (shifted into the center position), or alongside a center."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scrub baseball",
        "text": "In still another variation, a volleyball or similar ball may be used and there will be no pitcher. The \"up\" player sets the ball in motion by holding it in his or her non-dominant hand, and sets it in motion by a hefty strike from the other hand. This often occurs in crowded play areas, such as schoolyards, where the use of bats and baseballs is usually banned for reasons of safety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "In a crossover, the ball handler changes the ball from one hand to the other using a single dribble. The crossover is a fundamental dribbling technique in basketball used to keep the ball in the hand farthest from the defender (preventing a steal) while maintaining a desired speed and orientation on the court. It is very efficient when executing a drive - a player can cross over to get around a defender and drive to the basket. A crossover functions best when the ball handler looks and acts like they are headed in one direction, before crossing over to the other direction. This can often be achieved by a simple head fake, or a step in that intended direction. Some of the players famous for their crossover dribble include Allen Iverson, Tim Hardaway, Jamal Crawford, Stephen Curry, and Kyrie Irving."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variations of baseball",
        "text": "The following games involve the use of either the hands or the legs in order to hit the ball."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of dodgeball variations",
        "text": "If a player hits a basketball hoop's backboard on the other team's side then that team frees all eliminated players."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickoff",
        "text": "When there is a baserunner, the pitcher will pitch from the stretch, one of the pitching positions. For this example we will say the runner is on first base. From the set position a right-handed pitcher can still see the baserunner out of the corner of his eye. A left-handed pitcher has a clear view of the baserunner because of his position on the pitcher's mound. If it is a right-handed pitcher there is only one main method of this pickoff move. This involves a quick shuffle of the pitcher's feet to turn towards first base and throw the ball to the first baseman. The first baseman will then attempt to tag out the runner. The left-handed pitcher, due to their natural stance and the way they are facing, has multiple moves. The two main methods are called the \"snap throw\" and \"spin move\". The snap throw is when the pitcher quickly lifts his back foot behind the pitching rubber and slings the ball to the first baseman. A snap throw can also refer to the catcher throwing the ball to the base following a pitch. The spin move is when the pitcher lifts his leg like he is going to pitch the ball but then rotates his body toward first and throws the ball. The pitcher will try to vary this move by doing this move while looking at the runner or at the batter, which can be deceiving to the baserunner. A former pickoff move in Major League Baseball used mostly by right-handed pitchers was called \"third to first\" and could only be done if there were baserunners on first and third. It was performed by the pitcher faking a pickoff at third, then stopping, spinning and throwing the ball to first base instead. This move was used to try to get the base-runner or the batter to disclose what action they were going to perform on the pitch. Former Kansas City Royals right-hander, Steve Busby, is credited for popularizing the \"third to first\" move, and Jeff Nelson was also known for using it. After the 2012 season, Major League Baseball instituted a rule change defining this move as a balk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Columns (juggling)",
        "text": "The two balls being thrown and caught simultaneously may also be moved, for example crossing them over in the air, so that they do not land in the hand which threw them. The hands holding these balls may also cross or uncross at any time during the pattern."
      },
      {
        "title": "Relocation of professional sports teams",
        "text": "In South Korean major professional sports such as Korea Professional Baseball, Korean Basketball League, V-League, moves were common."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stutter step",
        "text": "In basketball, the stutter step is a common warm-up drill where you shuffle and scuff your feet in a quick moving motion across a length of flooring. This warm-up is supposed to keep the players alert and help them prepare to defend players in a real game, since the stutter step is a littler version of shuffling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Also known as a \"no-look pass\", the blind pass is performed when a player looks in one direction but passes the ball to his target in another direction. Blind passes are risky and infrequently attempted, but when done correctly, they can confuse the defense. The no-look pass has been popularized by players such as Magic Johnson, Isiah Thomas, Stephen Curry, Pete Maravich, Larry Bird, Jason Kidd, Rajon Rondo, Michael Jordan, John Stockton, Ricky Rubio, Jason Williams, and Steve Nash."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crossover dribble",
        "text": "The following are a few types of crossovers:\n* \"Normal crossover\": In a normal crossover, the player quickly changes direction while switching the ball to the opposite hand. This move relies primarily on speed. Basketball analysts have cited Derrick Rose and Russell Westbrook to be perfectionists at this certain crossover. In this crossover there isn't a big fake, instead you simply move one direction, and use the crossover to make an abrupt change of direction.\n* \"Between the legs crossover\": The ball handler dribbles the ball between the legs from one hand to the other.\n* \"In and Out\": This move has the ball handler feint a crossover in one direction then continue towards his original direction. A variation of this move may include the player doing a normal crossover after a hesitation to cause further difficulty for the defensive player.\n* \"Killer crossover (aka Ankle-snatcher, Ankle-breaker, etc)\": In this move the player fakes in one direction, generally with a wide step and a head fake and usually from a standstill. The player then switches the dribble to the other hand between his/her legs and moves in that direction. This is one of the most effective methods of escaping a defender who is guarding closely. It is also popular in streetball because it can cause the defender to lose balance and fall in trying to react too quickly. Tim Hardaway was known for his version of this move calling it the \"UTEP Two-step\". He would go between the legs and fake one direction, then quickly change directions with a crossover.\n* \"Behind the back crossover\": In a behind the back crossover, the player dribbles the ball from one hand to the other behind the back (in contrast to the normal crossover in which the ball is dribbled to the front). Another version of this move is called the \"wraparound,\" in which the player cups the ball in his hand and brings it around his back to the other side of his body in one quick, smooth motion. Jamal Crawford is known for this move.\n* \"Double crossover\": This move can be considered a feigned crossover. The offensive player crosses the ball over (as with a normal or killer crossover) then quickly crosses the ball back to its original position. The double crossover is not aimed at breaking free of the defender so much as causing confusion and breaking the defender's balance. This move can also be replicated going between the legs or behind the back. Allen Iverson popularized this move in the early 2000s.\n* \"Shammgod\": A type of crossover dribble where the offensive player bounces the ball forward to a very risky position on one side of his body, then uses the opposite hand to bring the ball back to the other side of his body. Named after college and NBA player (and current Dallas Mavericks player development coach) God Shammgod. Known users of this move include Chris Paul, Kobe Bryant, Kyrie Irving, and Jamal Crawford in the NBA; and in international basketball, Dejan Bodiroga of Serbia and Terrence Romeo of the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hitting mechanics",
        "text": "From the anatomic position, a common baseball player batting from the right side will exhibit these movements before the pitch. The hitter will start with both knees, ankles, and elbows in flexion and adducted. In addition, the shoulder will be slightly elevated, hand medially rotated, right arm abducted, left arm adducted, fingers full flexed around the bat, and neck externally rotated towards the pitcher. During the pitcher's windup, the hitter will continue to flex his/her left knee and extend their left ankle off the ground while rotating their hips away from the pitcher. After the pitch is thrown, the hitter will then fully extend their elbows, left knee, and left ankle while rotating their hips towards the pitcher. After perceived ball contact, the hips continue to rotate along with continue extension towards hyperextension of the elbow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diamond (game)",
        "text": "Examples of recorded moves:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "As the game has evolved through the years, so has the layup. Several different versions of the layup are used today. Layups can be broadly categorized into two types: the underarm and the overarm. The underarm layup involves using most of the wrist and the fingers to 'lay' the ball into the basket or off the board. The underarm layup is more commonly known as the finger roll. A notable NBA player who uses the underarm finger roll is Dwyane Wade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "\u0160ar\u016bnas Mar\u010diulionis, a Lithuanian, and Manu Gin\u00f3bili, an Argentine who arrived in the NBA from the Italian league, are credited with bringing the move to the NBA. It has since been widely used by many US-born players, such as Dwyane Wade, James Harden, and Russell Westbrook."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The Euro step (sometimes \"Eurostep\") is a move developed in European basketball in which a player, after picking up his dribble, takes a step in one direction bumping into their defender, and then quickly takes a second step in the other direction before they attempt a layup. It is an attempt to evade at least one defender before attacking the basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scrub baseball",
        "text": "As in computer language, the first item - scrub - is counted as 0. When an out is made the batter moves to the highest numbered position (e.g. five = center field); five becomes four, four becomes three, three moves to two, two moves to one, and one takes a turn as batter. However, if a batted ball is caught in the air, the fielder who catches it becomes the batter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Magnus effect",
        "text": "In baseball, this effect is used to generate the downward motion of a curveball, in which the baseball is rotating forward (with 'topspin'). Participants in other sports played with a ball also take advantage of this effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spud (game)",
        "text": "When the ball is thrown skyward, all of the players then dash away until the player whose number is called both (1) gains possession of the ball; and (2) calls out 'Spud!' At that point, all of the players must freeze. If, while they were running, they were unable to stop immediately, those players must retrace their steps and return to the point that they were in contact with when Spud! was called. In no event may any of the players run around corners or hide behind trees. In all instances, they must be in sight of the player who has gained possession of the ball. At this point, the player who has the ball is allowed to take an identified number of giant steps toward one or more of the other players. Smaller, younger, or older players may be given the option of taking more steps. After the steps are taken, the person with the ball will try to hit one of the other players with the ball. The target player may not move his or her feet or duck, but may sway, bend, shimmy, and shift."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A reverse layup is a layup that is finished on the opposite side of the court's split-line than the player began the attack on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "\"Triple threat\" is the position when a player facing a defender receives a pass but has not dribbled yet. The offensive player's feet are slightly wider than shoulder width and slightly on the balls of their feet, their knees flexed, with both hands on the basketball in front of them or almost resting on their thigh, presenting the defender with an opponent able to move in any direction. One foot is held as the pivot and the other slightly ahead. From this, the player can choose from three options: to jump-shoot, to dribble (drive) past the defender or to pass it to a teammate. There are also options to get the defender out of their defensive stance by using jab steps and pump fakes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A touch pass is an advanced passing technique in which a prior pass or a loose ball is immediately redirected to another player by tipping or slapping the ball. This is the quickest pass in basketball and is therefore very effective when executed correctly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A backdoor play is when a player without the ball gets behind the defense and receives a pass for an easy score. This can be executed if the defenders are unaware of the open space behind them. Also, when a defender strongly commits on defense (e.g. tries to steal or deny a pass), they are vulnerable to a backdoor play."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "This is a commonly used variation of the crossover in which the ball-handler bounces the ball off of the floor between his/her legs and catches it with the other hand on the opposite side of his/her body. It is used as a safer way to cross over while directly facing a defender, but requires more slowing of forward momentum than the normal crossover dribble."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bezzerwizzer",
        "text": "For every point scored a team moves forward one square."
      },
      {
        "title": "Front Page Sports Baseball",
        "text": "swingspeedPHpct=30"
      },
      {
        "title": "Swingman",
        "text": "Examples include:\n*NBA players: Tracy McGrady, Paul Pierce, Jimmy Butler, Kobe Bryant, DeMar DeRozan, Paul George, Andre Iguodala, Klay Thompson, Khris Middleton, LeBron James, Danny Green and Evan Turner\n*WNBA players: Seimone Augustus, Maya Moore, Tamika Catchings, and Angel McCoughtry"
      },
      {
        "title": "Diaballik",
        "text": "Opponents take turns and can optionally take three actions during their turn in any order: two moves and one ball throw. A move is to move one player just one horizontal or vertical space."
      },
      {
        "title": "Galilean cannon",
        "text": "It is possible to demonstrate the principle more simply with just two balls, such as a basketball and a tennis ball. If an experimenter balances the tennis ball on top of the basketball and drops the pair to the ground, the tennis ball will rebound to many times the height from which it was released."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ah Chew Goo",
        "text": "In the mid-1940s, Goo coached a local team in a game against the Harlem Globetrotters. Before the game, he asked Abe Saperstein, coach of the Globetrotters, if he could pull two stunts: one where he would replace a basketball with a deflated ball after a timeout so when a player tried to dribble it, it wouldn't bounce, and the other to tie fishing line around a ball so he could pull it back after faking shooting a free throw. Saperstein said no; but the next year when the Globetrotters returned to Hawaii, they used those both tricks as part of their showtime repertoire. \"I originated that, I take credit for that,\" Goo said."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bill Russell",
        "text": "In an autobiographical account, Russell says that while on a California High School All-Stars tour he became obsessed with studying and memorizing other players' moves, e.g. footwork such as which foot they moved first on which play, as preparation for defending against them, which included practicing in front of a mirror at night. Russell described himself as an avid reader of Dell Magazines' 1950s sports publications, which he used to scout opponents' moves for the purpose of defending against them. Frank Robinson, a future member of the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum, was one of Russell's high school basketball teammates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball (1979 video game)",
        "text": "\"Basketball\" supports one and two player modes and uses a trackball to control each player's movement. At the start of each game, the song \"Sweet Georgia Brown\" is played. Players must first gain possession of the ball and move towards their opponent's goal. When in position for a shot, the pushbutton is held until the player's arm is at a suitable height and the button is released. Shots can be blocked by an opponent, and, when dribbling, an opponent can steal the ball. The winner is the player with the highest score when the clock runs out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "To \"post up\" is to establish a position in the low post, the area near the basket below the foul line, usually in order to take advantage of a smaller defender. The offensive player usually faces away from the basket, so that his/her body can protect the ball from being stolen by the defender. From this position, options such as spinning or backing down the defender (to close-in on the basket, for easier scoring opportunities) then become available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cavemen (Misseri Studio)",
        "text": "\"Basketball\": Brown and Red spot a pretty butterfly, until Brown pulls out a basketball hoop, which surprises Red. They wonder if they could throw a basketball, and then Red holds a rock, but it lands on Brown's foot. Then, Brown turns into a basketball, which makes Red laugh. Red turns into a basketball, too. They said they could throw each other into the hoop. Red thinks going in the air is fun."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mamadou N'Diaye (basketball, born 1993)",
        "text": "During the 2016 tournament season, a writer for \"SB Nation\" wrote that \"When Columbia guards find themselves one-on-one with just his frame between them and the rim, they reverse direction and scurry away, like terrified Tokyoites who just heard Godzilla stomping around. One fan screams 'You're not that tall!' at him, which is a lie. Another yells 'You're only the 36th-tallest in the world!,' which upon further research, turns out to be true.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional wrestling throws",
        "text": "This move is performed in the same style as a chokeslam, but instead the wrestler grabs the opponent by their armpit and slams them to the mat, causing them to land on their back. Two examples of this move are the \"Rock Bottom\" as performed by The Rock and the \"Book End\" by Booker-T."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball (1978 video game)",
        "text": "At the start of the game, both players are at the center of the court. A jump ball is thrown between them to begin play. The player in the offensive position (i.e. in possession of the ball) always faces a basket representing the assigned shooting target, and defensive players always face the opponent. Each player can move in eight directions with the joystick; the player with the ball constantly dribbles it. The defensive player may steal the ball when it leaves the opponent's hands (either in mid-dribble or mid-shot)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "This advanced form of crossover involves the ball handler, bouncing the ball off of the floor behind his feet and catching it with the other hand, usually while his/her feet are no more than shoulder-width apart. If there are no defensive players around the ball handler except one directly facing him/her, and that defender does not expect this type of dribble, it can be an even safer way of crossing over compared to a between-the-legs. In all other cases, it is generally a dangerous move that can result in the ball bouncing off of the dribbler's feet or a steal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "An undefended layup is usually a high-percentage shot. The main challenge is getting near the rim and avoiding blocks by taller defenders who usually stand near the basket. Common layup strategies are to create space, releasing the ball from different spots or using an alternate hand. A player tall enough (or with sufficient leaping ability) to reach over the rim might choose to perform a more spectacular and higher percentage slam dunk (dropping or throwing the ball through the basket from above the rim) instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Live ball (baseball)",
        "text": "Live ball (baseball)\n--Definition.\n--Examples.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pitch (baseball)",
        "text": "A pickoff move is the motion the pitcher goes through in making pickoff."
      },
      {
        "title": "OODA loop",
        "text": "Another tactical-level example can be found on the basketball court, where a player takes possession of the ball and must get past an opponent who is taller or faster. A straight dribble or pass is unlikely to succeed. Instead, the player may engage in a rapid and elaborate series of body movements designed to befuddle the opponent and deny him the ability to take advantage of his superior size or speed. At a basic level of play, this may be merely a series of fakes, with the hope that the opponent will make a mistake or an opening will occur, but practice and mental focus may allow one to accelerate tempo, get inside the opponent's OODA loop, and take control of the situation, causing the opponent to move in a particular way and generating an advantage rather than merely reacting to an accident. Taking control of the situation is key. It is not enough to speed through OODA faster, which results in failing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Columns (juggling)",
        "text": "Another common variation is to carry one of the two outside throws up and down rather than throwing it, which may be called the Dummy pattern, or \"fake columns\" (siteswap: (4,2)), which may be interpreted as adding a carry to the \"lone\" hand during the two-in-one. \"Juggle two balls in one hand, but instead of throwing and catching the third ball with the other hand, you simply hold it in that hand, moving the ball up and down.\" The carried ball can then be moved in many different ways to complement the pattern. In a variation called Yo-yo (siteswap: (4,2)), or The String, the ball is carried up and down directly above one of the other balls to give the impression that the balls are connected by an invisible string, like a yo-yo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of basketball",
        "text": "Pass\u00a0\u2013 (v) To throw the ball to a teammate. (n) The act of passing.\n* Assist\u00a0\u2013 A pass to a teammate who scores a basket immediately or after one dribble.\n* Ball fake\u00a0\u2013 A sudden movement by the player with the ball intended to cause the defender to move in one direction, allowing the passer to pass in another direction. Also called \"pass fake.\"\n* Ball reversal\u00a0\u2013 Passing of the ball from one side of the court to the other.\n* Baseball pass\u00a0\u2013 Also called the \"lance pass\", this is a long pass in which the passer throws the ball with one hand, as if it were a baseball or a football. It is infrequently used, mainly to set up last-second plays off a baseline inbounding situation.\n* Behind-the-back\u00a0\u2013 Dealt to a target behind the passer's back. Usually done to confuse the defender, behind the back passes can either be bounced off the floor or passed directly to a teammate's chest. However, most behind-the-back passes are direct. Earl Monroe was famous for this move. Steve Nash uses this move often, and Chris Webber is famed for using this move down in the paint.\n* Blind pass\u00a0\u2013 Also known as a no-look pass, the blind pass is performed when a player looks in one direction but passes the ball to his target in another direction. Blind passes are risky and infrequently attempted, but when done correctly, can confuse the defense. The no-look pass has been popularized by players such as Pete Maravich, Isiah Thomas, Magic Johnson, Larry Bird, Jason Kidd and Steve Nash.\n* Bounce pass\u00a0\u2013 A fundamental passing technique that consists of one player passing the ball to a teammate by bouncing the ball off the floor with great energy. Because the ball will be at ground level as it passes a defender, a successful bounce pass can easily result in a scoring assist because a bounce pass is harder for defenders to intercept. Still, a bounce pass may be intercepted due to its slower speed. Thus, a player must use his best judgment when he decides whether to make such a pass. The move has to be executed perfectly because a bounce pass may be kicked by rapidly shifting players and might be a difficult catch for the intended receiver.\n* Chest pass\u00a0\u2013 This pass is performed best by stepping towards your target with one foot, then throwing the ball out towards their chest with two hands while turning the hands over, ending with the thumbs pointing down. It is best used in the open court and on the perimeter.\n* Dime\u00a0\u2013 See \"drop a dime\".\n* Dish\u00a0\u2013 An assist.\n* Drop a dime\u00a0\u2013 To make an \"assist\"\n* Elbow pass\u00a0\u2013 Introduced with much hype by Jason Williams, the Elbow Pass is one of the most difficult trick passes to execute. The Elbow Pass serves as a devastating complement to the Behind-the-Back pass and can be used with various no-look elements. Most effective on a fast-break, the Elbow Pass entails what appears to the defender to be a simple Behind-the-Back pass, but as the ball crosses the passer's back, the passer hits it with his elbow, redirecting the ball back toward the side it started on and hopefully leaving the defender(s) amazed and out of position. Williams was able to pull off this pass at a full sprint during a Rookie All-Star game, but most players have trouble hitting the ball with their elbow while standing still.\n* Jump pass\u00a0\u2013 A pass performed while the passing player's feet are off the floor. When done intentionally, usually when a teammate gets open during the shot, it can sometimes confuse the defender, causing him to believe that the passer is shooting instead of passing. However, it at times is done as a result of the player having their shooting lane blocked and often leads to the player turning the ball over to the opposing team. This kind of pass is strongly discouraged in all levels of basketball, as it leaves the offensive player very vulnerable to turnovers.\n* Outlet pass\u00a0\u2013 A pass thrown by a rebounder to start a \"fast break\".\n* Overhead pass\u00a0\u2013 another fundamental passing technique, used by snapping the ball over the head, like a soccer throw-in. This pass is especially effective in helping to initiate a fast break. After a defensive rebound, a well-thrown overhead, or outlet, pass can allow a breaking offensive player to quickly score without even dribbling by catching the ball near the basket.\n* Bank shot\u00a0\u2013 A shot that hits the backboard before hitting the rim or going through the net.\n* Board\u00a0\u2013 A shot resulting in a \"rebound\".\n* Brick\u00a0\u2013 A bad shot that bounces off the backboard or rim without a chance of going in.\n* Buzzer beater\u00a0\u2013 A basket in the final seconds of a game (right before the buzzer sounds) that in itself results in a win or overtime.\n* Dunk\u00a0\u2013 (v) To score by putting the ball directly through the basket with one or both hands. (n) A shot made by dunking.\n* Fadeaway\u00a0\u2013 A jump shot taken while jumping backwards, away from the basket.\n* Free throw\u00a0\u2013 An unopposed attempt to score a basket, worth one point, from the free throw line. Generally, two attempts are awarded when the player is fouled in the act of shooting (three attempts are awarded in the case of three-point shot), fouled flagrantly, or when the opposing team fouls while over the foul limit. Depending on the specifics of the foul and the rule set, one or two attempts may be awarded for technical fouls.\n* Hook shot\u00a0\u2013 A shot in which the offensive player arcs the ball over his head using the farthest hand from the basket, while moving perpendicular to the basket.\n* In-n-out\u00a0\u2013 A shot that appears to be going in, but instead goes back out.\n* Jump shot\u00a0\u2013 A shot taken while jumping\n* Lay-in\u00a0\u2013 A close-range shot using one hand to tip the ball over the rim\n* Layup\u00a0\u2013 A close-range shot using one hand to bank the ball off the backboard\n* Points in the paint\u00a0\u2013 Field goals made in the painted area below the free-throw line\n* Prayer\u00a0\u2013 A shot that has very little probability of being made.\n* Set shot\u00a0\u2013 A shot taken without leaving the floor.\n* Slam dunk\u00a0\u2013 A shot performed with the player jumping in air and forces the ball into the rim with one or both hands.\n* Swish\u00a0\u2013 (n) A shot which goes through the net without hitting the backboard or rim. (v) To make a swish.\n* Three-ball\u00a0\u2013 A \"three-point field goal\"\n* Three-point field goal\u00a0\u2013 A shot, worth three points, attempted with both feet behind the three-point line.\n* Three-pointer\u00a0\u2013 A \"three-point field goal\"\n* Toilet bowl\u00a0\u2013 When the ball hits the rim on a certain angle and then circles around it, can go in or out.\n* Trey\u00a0\u2013 A \"three-point field goal\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A pick and roll is an offensive play in which a player stops to screen (block) a defender for the teammate handling the ball and then slips behind the defender to accept a pass as the handler makes a move towards the basket. In the NBA, John Stockton and Karl Malone were a quintessential pick and roll tandem and used this play to great effect in the 1990s. Steve Nash and Amar'e Stoudemire proved to be extremely effective at the pick and roll throughout the 2000s. Kyrie Irving, LeBron James, Blake Griffin, and Chris Paul were considered among the best contemporary pick and roll tandems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthony Vasquez (baseball)",
        "text": "Vasquez throws a fastball around , a changeup at around , and a curveball that sits around ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bulls vs. Blazers and the NBA Playoffs",
        "text": "Each team featured a star player with a signature move known as a \"Marquee Shot\". These shots were difficult to perform, and only occurred when a player would press the \"A\" button under the right circumstances. A list of each player's \"Marquee Shot\" was posted in the instruction manual, and some fan favorites included: Michael Jordan's \"Free-Throw Line\" dunk, Larry Bird's \"Turn-Around\" Fadeaway Jumper, Magic Johnson's \"Fake No-Look Pass\" Lay Up, Tim Hardaway's \"UTEP Two-step\" Killer Crossover, Shawn Kemp's \"Off-the-Glass\" Back-Jam, Larry Nance's \"Around the World\" Slam, Mookie Blaylock's \"Spinning 360\" Layup, Billy Owens' \"Alley Oop Tomahawk\" Jam, and Karl Malone's \"Special Delivery In-Your-Face\" Slam Dunk."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Hammons",
        "text": "Hammons has revisited the association of basketball and young black men in a series of drawings mad by repeatedly bouncing a dirty basketball on huge sheers of clean white paper set on the floor. \"Traveling\" was almost 10-feet tall and the name reference both the basketball term of 'Traveling' and being transported."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glossary of baseball (J)",
        "text": "<onlyinclude>\n:The run the pitcher takes from the mound to first base in order to cover for the first baseman who has just fielded the ball.\n:A home run or to hit a home run. \"Hitting a jack\" or \"Jacking one out of here\".\n:Half-hearted or lazy effort by a player, i.e. \"He jaked that play.\"\n:*To pitch far enough inside that the batter is unable to extend while swinging. \"The pitcher jammed the batter.\" The batter was \"handcuffed\" or \"shackled\" by the pitch.\n:*When runners are in scoring position with less than two outs and good hitters coming up. \"The pitcher is in a jam.\"\n:*The \"bases are jammed\" (or loaded or full) when there are runners on all three.\n:When an outfielder, trying to throw hard, spins or falls down.\n:A batter's legs are \"made out of jelly\" when he departs from a good stance. \"His curve ball... it jelly-legs you.\" - Phillies First Baseman Jim Thome, referring to Barry Zito's curve.\n: To \"pull\" the ball towards left field if you bat right handed or \"pull\" the ball towards right field if you're batting left handed. Opposite of jerk would be push or hitting an \"oppo\", meaning going towards the opposite field.\n:To hit the ball hard, typically used to refer to pulling the ball over the fence for a home run. \"Derrek Lee jerked one of his patented doubles into the left-field corner to lead off the fourth against Minnesota lefty Johan Santana, the reigning Cy Young winner.\"\n:A Punch and Judy hitter who hits with little power.\n:*\"Bases juiced\" means bases loaded.\n:*A player who is said to be juiced is thought to be taking performance-enhancing drugs. \"It is now assumed, of course, that Bonds may well have been juiced on steroids at the time; the previous year he had set the all-time single-season record of 73 home runs, and his musculature was almost freakishly swollen.\"\n:*A baseball that is juiced has been modified in some way that makes it travel farther when hit. \"Spectacular increases in home runs have often raised the question: Has the ball been juiced up to travel farther, in order to increase the number of home runs?\"\n:*A fielder is said to get a good jump on the ball when he anticipates or reacts quickly to a batted ball and is thereby able to make a good play by fielding or catching it. Also see crack of the bat.\n:*A baserunner gets a good jump when he is able to leave the base well before the pitch reaches the plate. \"Upsetting the timing of the baserunner can effectively prevent him from getting a good jump... Base runners often read a pitcher's look and get their jump, or start, based on the pattern the pitcher establishes.\"\n:*To move to another team or league despite existing contractual obligations.\n:The American League, so-called because it is the younger of the two major leagues. The American League was founded in 1901, while the National League \u2013 the Senior Circuit \u2013 was founded in 1876.\n:breaking balls and knuckleballs, pitches that are hard to hit due to movement rather than velocity. \"I couldn't believe he threw me a fastball because he had me down 1-2\", Thames said. \"He's usually a junk pitcher and he tried to sneak a fastball past me, and he left it up.\" See also: Eephus pitch\n:A pitcher who throws predominantly junk, usually due to a weak (or slow) fastball. A junkballer or a junk artist: \"Like all junk artists, Trujillo will have to prove himself at the higher levels before getting a shot at a major league job.\" See also: Eephus pitch"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chick Hearn",
        "text": "The particular phrases that Hearn used during his broadcasts were labeled \"Chickisms\". Many are staples of basketball. When a book of his memoirs was published in 2004, it included an audio CD with the calls as well as a \"Chick Hearn Rap-Around\" rap song created with the samples.\n*20 foot lay-up: A jump shot by Jamaal Wilkes.\n* (He sent that one back) Air-mail Special!: A strongly blocked shot, often sent high into the stands.\n*Bloooows the layup! : Missed a very easy layup.\n*Bloooows a cripple!: Missed an easy shot.\n*Boo-birds: Fans who boo their own team when they play badly.\n* (He did the) bunny hop in the pea patch: He was called for traveling.\n* (You could) call it with Braille: An easy call for an official, e.g. a blatant foul.\n* (He got) caught with his hand in the cookie jar: A reaching foul.\n*(The) charity stripe: The free throw line.\n*(That player is in) civilians: The player is not in uniform.\n* (He's got 'em) covered like the rug on your floor: Really good one-on-one defense.\n*(They) couldn't beat the Sisters of Mercy: The team is getting beat badly.\n*(They) couldn't throw a pea into the ocean: The team's shooting is really awful.\n*(It'll) count if it goes ...: A player that is fouled in the act of shooting, or alternatively gets off a shot just before the buzzer sounded. It go-o-o-oes!: The shot is successful.\n*...decides to join the party: a player coming up the floor late on offense.\n* (That shot) didn't draw iron: A shot which misses the rim, but hits the backboard. Sometimes he would add but it drew a lot of flies.\n*Dime store score: A 10\u20135 score.\n*Dribble-drive: A player drives the basket while dribbling.\n*Finger roll: A shot where the ball rolls off the shooter's fingers.\n*First lead since they got off the bus: First lead of the game.\n*(He) fly-swatted (that one): A shot blocked with force and authority.\n*Football score: A score resembling one often seen in a football game (e.g., 21\u201314).\n* (He threw up a) frozen rope: A shot with a very flat trajectory.\n* (We're) high above the western sideline: Chick's perch at the Forum, from which he called his \"word's eye view\" of the game.\n* Hippity-hops the dribble: A player dribbling the ball does a little hop step.\n*I'll bet you an ice cream: Hearn and Keith Erickson (his one-time color commentator) often bet ice creams on the outcome of a shot or game.\n* (He's got) ice-water in his veins: When a player hits a clutch free throw.\n*(It's) First and ten: Multiple players are sprawled on the floor after a physical play or diving for the ball.\n*(It's) garbage time: The (often sloppily played) final minutes when reserve players get a chance to play in a game that's out of reach (after it is in the refrigerator).\n* (In & out,) heart-brrrreak!: A shot that appears to go in, but rattles off the rim and misses. Sometimes it went in so far you could read the Commissioner's name from below.\n*He has two chances, slim and none, and slim just left the building: The player has no chance of success with this play.\n*If that goes in, I'm walking home: Similar to a prayer, when the opponent shoots a shot that is a prayer, a streak, or some amazing shot. (Usually on the road)\n*Leapin' Lena: A shot made while the player is in the air and off balance.\n*Marge could have made that shot: A missed shot that was so easy, Hearn's wife Marge could have made it. Marge was often referred to when a player messed up something that was easy.\n*Matador Defense: Poor defense that allows their opponent to drive uncontested through the lane to the basket.\n* (There are) lots of referees in the building, only 3 getting paid: The entire crowd acts as though they are the officials by disagreeing with a call.\n* (Like a) motorcycle in a motordrome: Ball spins several times around the inside of the rim, then drops through or goes \"in & out\".\n*Too much mustard on the hot dog: Describing a player attempting an unnecessarily showy, flashy play.\n*The mustard's off the hot dog: A player attempts an unnecessarily showy, flashy play which ends up in a turnover or otherwise unsuccessful, such as a missed dunk.\n*My grandmother could guard him, and she can't go to her left!: Said of a slow, out of shape, or hurt player.\n*Nervous time: When the final moments of a game are pressure-packed.\n*94-by-50 hunk of wood: The basketball court, based on the floor's dimensions. (Attacking 47 feet: The front court.)\n*No harm, no foul (no blood, no ambulance, no stitches): A no-call by an official when varying degrees of contact have occurred. (More adjectives means the non-call was more questionable.)\n*Not Phi Beta Kappa: Not a smart play.\n*...Since Hector was a pup A very long time (e.g., the Lakers haven't had the lead since Hector was a pup.)\n* He's in the Popcorn Machine (with butter and salt all over him): Meaning that a defender got faked into the air (and out of play) by an offensive player's pump fake. (\"Popcorn Machine\" is a reference to an actual popcorn machine in the old Los Angeles Sports Arena, which was near the basket, but far from the court. Thus, if the player went far out of play, he was in the \"popcorn machine.\") When Hearn guest starred as a mouse in the Garfield and Friends episode Basket Brawl, Odie literally runs into a popcorn machine.\n*(He's) on him like a postage stamp: Very tight defense.\n*Picks up the garbage and takes it to the dump: Picks up a loose ball and scores.\n*Pulling a Larson: A particularly inelegant play.\n*Rock the baby: An amazing slam dunk, in a regular season game in 1983, that Julius Erving scored over Michael Cooper.\n*Seventeen five-oh-five, standing at the Forum: When a play drew universal acclaim (17,505 was the seating capacity for the Inglewood Forum)\n*Slam dunk!: Hearn's most famous phrase; a powerful shot where a player forces the ball through the rim with one or both hands.\n*(He was) standing there, combing his hair: When a player uninvolved with the action comes up with the ball and gets an easy shot.\n*(He) takes him to the third floor and leaves him at the mezzanine: A move where an offensive player pump-fakes a defender and draws a foul from the leaping player.\n*Tattoo dribble: A player dribbling the ball while not moving, as though tattooing the floor with the ball, as he waits for the play to develop.\n*This game's in the refrigerator: the door is closed, the lights are out, the eggs are cooling, the butter's getting hard and the Jell-O's jigglin'!: The game's outcome is set; only the final score is in question. Chick's variation on \"the game's on ice.\" (Reportedly, he set a record for the earliest he's ever said this during the February 4, 1987 game against the Sacramento Kings, who were down 40-4 after the first quarter.)\n*Throws up a brick: When a player tosses up a particularly errant shot, particularly one that bounces off the front of the rim.\n*Throws up a prayer (...it's (or isn't) answered!!!): A wild shot that will need a miracle to score (and does or doesn't).\n*Ticky-tack: A foul called when very little contact has been made.\n* (On his) wallet: A player fell on his rear end. When Lynn Shackleford, color man 1970\u201377, who liked to sass his rather straitlaced senior partner, remarked once that a player had landed on his backside, Hearn admonished him in all seriousness, \"That's his \"wallet\".\"\n*Words-eye view: What listeners received while listening to Hearn call the game on the radio.\n*(He's) working on his Wrigleys. A player is chewing gum.\n*(He's) yo-yo-ing up and down: A player dribbles in one place as if he were playing with a yo-yo on a string.\n*(He's dribbling) left to right (or right to left) across your dial: To let people who were listening to radio know which direction the ball was going up the court.\n*(He's) alone, he sets, he fires, he gets!: Player not defended who stops, sets and shoots.\n*Fall Back Baby, she's in there!: Said of a made shot by Laker player Dick Barnett whose nickname was 'Fall Back Baby'.\n* Kareem Abdul-Jabbar: Cap, The Captain, Big Fella\n* Kobe Bryant: The Kid\n* Cedric Ceballos: Garbage Man\n* Michael Cooper: Secretary of Defense\n* Vlade Divac: The Old Serb\n* Derek Fisher: Fish, D-Fish, The Bulldog\n* Rick Fox: Foxy\n* Magic Johnson: The Magic Man, Buck, Mag\n* Eddie Jones: Fast Eddie, Steady Eddie, The Pickpocket, No Sweat Eddie\n* Eddie Jordan: Thief\n* Jim McMillian: Jimmy Mac\n* Norm Nixon: Stormin' Norman\n* Shaquille O'Neal: Big Fella\n* Sam Perkins: Smooth\n* Pat Riley: Riles\n* Kurt Rambis: Clark Kent; Superman: (because of his safety glasses)\n* Byron Scott: Rook\n* Elmore Smith: The Rejector\n* Sedale Threatt: The Thief of Baghdad\n* Nick Van Exel: Nick the Quick, Nick at Nite\n* James Worthy: Big Game James"
      },
      {
        "title": "Agility drill",
        "text": "The ability to change direction while in motion is very important in many sports but especially in team and dual sports. For example, an American football running back must be able to quickly change direction when he sees an opponent preparing to tackle him. A basketball player must be able to quickly change directions when dribbling the ball, attempting to get back on defense, or when trying to beat an opponent to the ball. A tennis player must be able to quickly change directions when moving to a position where the ball is expected to go but instead finds the ball going in a different direction."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of baseball moves?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "There have been many!  Would you like to know about the Boston Braves moving, the St. Louis Browns moving, the Philadelphia Athletics moving, or the Seattle Pilots moving?"
    ],
    "topic": "Basketball moves",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Major League Baseball relocations of 1950s\u20131960s:23",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Major League Baseball relocations of 1950s\u20131960s",
          "Subsequent moves"
        ],
        "ctx": "Aside from the Seattle Pilots moving to Milwaukee after one year (to become the Brewers), the other moves since have involved Washington, D. C. The original Washington Senators moved to the Twin Cities region to become the Minnesota Twins (beginning play as such in 1961), and the expansion Senators that replaced them moved to Arlington, Texas (in the Dallas-Fort Worth region) to become the Texas Rangers (beginning play as such in 1972). The owners of the Giants, White Sox, and Pirates (in the latter's case, as a result of the Pittsburgh drug trials) all threatened to move, though none made good on them; and all three markets to which these teams threatened to move (Toronto, the Tampa Bay Area, and Denver, respectively) would later receive expansion teams of their own."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Major League Baseball relocations of 1950s\u20131960s:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Major League Baseball relocations of 1950s\u20131960s",
          "The moves"
        ],
        "ctx": "The first move was the Boston Braves, who moved (for 1953) to Milwaukee, home of their top farm team, the Milwaukee Brewers. The City of Milwaukee fell in love with the Braves, with fan support of the team high, making the move highly profitable. The Milwaukee Braves would remain popular until the team moved to Atlanta in 1966."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Major League Baseball relocations of 1950s\u20131960s:15",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Major League Baseball relocations of 1950s\u20131960s",
          "The moves"
        ],
        "ctx": "Other owners took notice and began to issue similar threats. The St. Louis Browns moved to Baltimore for 1954, becoming the Baltimore Orioles (this was the era's sole west-to-east move). The Philadelphia Athletics moved to Kansas City for 1955, briefly displacing the Cardinals as the westernmost town in the majors. Save for some controversy with the Athletics, these moves were not controversial, as these were three of the least successful teams in the majors, although the Browns and Braves had both won league championships in the 1940s."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Sports in Seattle",
        "text": "In 1969, the Major League Baseball Seattle Pilots were established, but only played one year in Seattle before moving to Milwaukee. The Pilots' sole season was immortalized in Jim Bouton's book \"Ball Four\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle Pilots",
        "text": "In 1970, in the aftermath of the Pilots' purchase and relocation to Milwaukee, the City of Seattle, King County, and the state of Washington (represented by then-State Attorney General Slade Gorton) sued the American League for breach of contract. Confident that Major League Baseball would return to Seattle within a few years, King County built the multi-purpose Kingdome, which would become home to the NFL's expansion Seattle Seahawks in ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major League Baseball relocations of 1950s\u20131960s",
        "text": "Aside from the Seattle Pilots moving to Milwaukee after one year (to become the Brewers), the other moves since have involved Washington, D. C. The original Washington Senators moved to the Twin Cities region to become the Minnesota Twins (beginning play as such in 1961), and the expansion Senators that replaced them moved to Arlington, Texas (in the Dallas-Fort Worth region) to become the Texas Rangers (beginning play as such in 1972). The owners of the Giants, White Sox, and Pirates (in the latter's case, as a result of the Pittsburgh drug trials) all threatened to move, though none made good on them; and all three markets to which these teams threatened to move (Toronto, the Tampa Bay Area, and Denver, respectively) would later receive expansion teams of their own."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle Pilots",
        "text": "Seattle Pilots\n--Formation.\n--Team issues.\n--Relocation.\n--Bankruptcy.\n--\"Ball Four\".\n--Lawsuit and enfranchisement of the Seattle Mariners.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle Pilots",
        "text": "The Seattle Pilots were an American professional baseball team based in Seattle, Washington during the 1969 Major League Baseball season. During their single-season existence, the Pilots played their home games at Sick's Stadium and were a member of the West Division of Major League Baseball's American League. On April 1, 1970, the franchise moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin and became the Milwaukee Brewers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle Pilots",
        "text": "The \"Pilots\" name originated from team president Dewey Soriano's part-time job as a harbor pilot and the city's association with the aviation industry. The team colors were royal blue and gold (with accessory red in the logo: helm and baseball seams). Seattle had long been a hotbed for minor league baseball and was home to the Seattle Rainiers, a successful team in the Pacific Coast League (PCL). At the time, Seattle was the third-biggest metropolitan area on the West Coast. The Cleveland Indians briefly considered a move to Seattle in 1964 but opted to stay in Ohio. In 1967, Charles Finley looked to move his Kansas City Athletics to Seattle, but ended up moving the Athletics to Oakland, California. There was no real competition from other professional teams at the time. While Seattle had landed the National Basketball Association (NBA)'s SuperSonics in 1967, the NBA was not as popular as baseball was at the time. The NFL would come to the city in 1976 with the addition of the expansion Seahawks, followed by the NHL in 2021 with the addition of the expansion Kraken."
      },
      {
        "title": "1977 Major League Baseball expansion",
        "text": "As a result of the relocation of the Seattle Pilots to Milwaukee, in 1970 the city of Seattle, King County and the state of Washington sued the American League for breach of contract. The 32.5 million dollar lawsuit proceeded until 1976, when at trial the American League offered the city a franchise in exchange for the city, county, and state to drop the suit. On November 2, 1972, King County had broken ground on the Kingdome, which would come to be used by the Seattle Mariners for baseball and by the Seahawks for football."
      },
      {
        "title": "1969 Seattle Pilots season",
        "text": "Fewer than 678,000 fans came to see the Pilots, which ranked 20th of the 24 major league teams \u2014 a major reason why the team was forced into bankruptcy after only one season. Despite the poor conditions at aging Sick's Stadium, the ticket prices were among the highest in the major leagues. The bankruptcy sale of the team was approved by a federal court in Seattle on March 31, and the team moved to Milwaukee at the end of spring training for the 1970 season and became the Milwaukee Brewers. Milwaukee had lost the Braves to Atlanta after the 1965 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "1970 Major League Baseball season",
        "text": "The 1970 Major League Baseball season. The Seattle Pilots relocated to Milwaukee and became the Brewers, thus returning Major League Baseball to Wisconsin for the first time since the relocation of the Milwaukee Braves to Atlanta following the 1965 season. Major League Baseball returned to Seattle in 1977, when the Mariners began play."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marvin Milkes",
        "text": "As spring training drew to a close, Pilots players and management were unsure whether to report to Seattle or Milwaukee to begin the 1970 season. At the bankruptcy hearing, Milkes testified that the Pilots no longer had enough money to pay the coaches, players and office staff. Had Milkes been more than 10 days late in paying the players, they would have all become free agents and left Seattle without a team for the 1970 season. With this in mind, Federal Bankruptcy Referee Sidney C. Volinn declared the Pilots bankrupt on March 31\u2014seven days before Opening Day\u2014clearing the way for them to move to Milwaukee. The team's equipment had been sitting in Provo, Utah with the drivers awaiting word on whether to drive toward Seattle or Milwaukee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle Rainiers",
        "text": "The team's last year was 1968, in which they finished in eighth place overall. Seattle had been granted an expansion team in the American League, the ill-fated Seattle Pilots, which began play in 1969. The Pilots would last but one year in Seattle, before a bankruptcy court sold the team to a group headed by Bud Selig and were moved to Milwaukee in 1970."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joe Cronin",
        "text": "It also endured four franchise shifts: the relocation of the original Senators club (now owned by Cronin's brother-in-law and sister-in-law, Calvin Griffith and Thelma Griffith Haynes) to Minneapolis\u2013Saint Paul, creating the Minnesota Twins (1961); the shift of the Athletics from Kansas City to Oakland (); the transfer of the Pilots after only one season in Seattle to Milwaukee as the Brewers (); and the transplantation of the expansion Senators after 11 seasons in Washington, D.C., to Dallas\u2013Fort Worth as the Texas Rangers (). The Angels also moved from Los Angeles to adjacent Orange County in and adopted a regional identity, in part because of the dominance of the National League Dodgers, who were the Angels' landlords at \"Chavez Ravine\" (Dodger Stadium) from 1962\u20131965. Of the four expansion teams that joined the league beginning in 1961, three abandoned their original host cities within a dozen years (the Pilots after only one season), and only one team\u2014the Royals\u2014remained in its original municipality. Two of the charter members of the old eight-team league, the Chicago White Sox and Cleveland Indians, also suffered significant attendance woes and were targets of relocation efforts by other cities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle Rainiers",
        "text": "After the Pilots left, Seattle was without professional baseball for the first time since 1900. Following a two-year void, a Sacramento man named Art Peterson bought a Class A Northwest League franchise for Seattle, named them the Rainiers and signed a deal to play in Sicks' Stadium (where the team inherited the Pilots' old offices). The Rainiers played five seasons in the NWL between 1972 and 1976 with two winning teams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle Pilots",
        "text": "By the end of the season, the Pilots were gasping. However, Daley refused to put up more financing. It was obvious that they would not survive long enough to move into their new park without new ownership. It was also obvious that the timetable for a new stadium would have to be significantly advanced, as Sicks' Stadium was inadequate even for temporary use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle Pilots",
        "text": "During the offseason, Soriano made contact with car salesman and former Milwaukee Braves minority owner Bud Selig, who was leading the effort to bring major league baseball back to Milwaukee. They met in secret for over a month towards the end of the season, and during Game 1 of the World Series, Soriano agreed to sell the Pilots to Selig for $10.8 million. Selig would then move the team to Milwaukee."
      },
      {
        "title": "1969 Seattle Pilots season",
        "text": "After the Pilots, there would not be another MLB team in Seattle until the birth of the Mariners in 1977.\n* April 1, 1968: Marv Staehle was purchased by the Pilots from the Cleveland Indians.\n* June 7, 1968: Wilbur Howard was selected by the Pilots in the 19th round of the 1968 Major League Baseball draft.\n* October 21, 1968: Jim Bouton was purchased by the Pilots from the New York Yankees.\n* March 31, 1969: Chico Salmon was traded by the Pilots to the Baltimore Orioles for Gene Brabender and Gordy Lund."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emmett Watson",
        "text": "Watson and long-time friend U.S. District Judge Bill Dwyer were leaders in the anti-trust suit against Major League Baseball, when the Seattle Pilots were moved to Milwaukee after a single expansion season in Seattle in 1969. It was the effectiveness of this action that proved to be instrumental in Seattle being awarded the Seattle Mariners in 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kingdome",
        "text": "The Pilots began play as planned in 1969, but Sick's Stadium proved to be a problematic venue for fans, media, and visiting players alike. The Pilots only drew 677,000 fans that season, not nearly enough to break even. It soon became apparent that the Pilots would not survive long enough to move to their new stadium without new ownership. It was also obvious that the timetable for a new stadium would have to be significantly advanced, as Sick's Stadium was completely unsuitable even for temporary use. However, a petition by stadium opponents brought the dome project to a halt. The Pilots' ownership group ran out of money by the end of the season, and with the stadium plans in limbo, the team was forced to declare bankruptcy. Despite efforts by Seattle-area businessmen to buy the team as well as an attempt to keep the team in Seattle through the court system, the Pilots were sold to Milwaukee businessman Bud Selig, who relocated the team to Milwaukee and renamed it the Milwaukee Brewers a week before the start of the 1970 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Seattle Mariners",
        "text": "The Pilots lawsuit continued until 1976. At trial, the American League offered to give Seattle an expansion baseball franchise in return for dropping the suit, and details were ironed out over the next year. To keep the league with an even number of teams, a formal expansion proceeding was held, with a second team, the Blue Jays, being awarded to the city of Toronto (also allowing both leagues to place a team in Canada, the National League's Montreal Expos having been established in 1969). The new Seattle team, to begin play in , was to be owned by entertainer Danny Kaye, along with Stanley Golub, Walter Schoenfeld, Lester Smith, James Stillwell, Jr. and James A. Walsh."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bob Locker",
        "text": "When the Seattle Pilots moved to Milwaukee at the end of spring training, 1970, Locker went with them. He didn't stay there long; after appearing in 28 games for the Brewers, Locker's contract was purchased by the Oakland Athletics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Los Angeles Angels (PCL)",
        "text": "After the 1957 season the Angels and the Stars were relocated when the Dodgers confirmed their long-rumored move to Los Angeles for the 1958 season. The Angels became the Spokane Indians in 1958. The Stars, in a sense, \"returned\" to Salt Lake City (whence the original Stars had moved in 1926), becoming the Salt Lake City Bees once more."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle Pilots",
        "text": "After a winter and spring full of court action, the Pilots reported for spring training under new manager Dave Bristol, unsure of where they would play. The owners had given tentative approval to the Milwaukee group, but the state of Washington got an injunction on March 16 to stop the deal. PNSI immediately filed for bankruptcy \u2014 a move intended to forestall post-sale legal action. At the bankruptcy hearing a week later, Milkes testified there was not enough money to pay the coaches, players, and office staff. Had Milkes been more than 10 days late in paying the players, they would have all become free agents and left Seattle without a team for the season. With this in mind, Federal Bankruptcy Referee Sidney Volinn declared the Pilots bankrupt on April 1\u2014six days before Opening Day\u2014clearing the way for them to move to Milwaukee. The team's equipment had been sitting in Provo, Utah, with the drivers awaiting word on whether to drive toward Seattle or Milwaukee. The move came so late that Selig had to scrap his initial plans to change the team's colors to navy and red in honor of the minor-league Brewers of his youth. Instead, the Brewers were stuck using old Pilots' uniforms, with the team name replaced. One legacy of the Brewers' roots in Seattle is that their colors are still blue and gold, although the shades have been darker since 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle Pilots",
        "text": "A couple of factors were beyond the Pilots' control. They were originally not set to start play until along with the Kansas City Royals. However, the date was moved up to under pressure from Senator Stuart Symington of Missouri. Professional baseball had been played in Kansas City in one form or another from until the A's left for Oakland after the season, and Symington would not accept the prospect of Kansas City having to wait three years for baseball to return. The American League would not allow only one new team to enter the league, as the resulting odd number of teams would unbalance the schedule. That meant that Kansas City and Seattle had to be admitted together."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Seattle Mariners",
        "text": "The Mariners were created as a result of a lawsuit. In 1970, in the aftermath of the Pilots' purchase and relocation to Milwaukee by future Commissioner of Baseball Bud Selig, the City of Seattle, King County, and the state of Washington (represented by then-State Attorney General Slade Gorton) sued the American League for breach of contract. Confident that Major League Baseball would return to Seattle within a few years, King County built the multi-purpose Kingdome, which became home to the NFL's expansion Seattle Seahawks in ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major League Baseball relocations of 1950s\u20131960s",
        "text": "The first move was the Boston Braves, who moved (for 1953) to Milwaukee, home of their top farm team, the Milwaukee Brewers. The City of Milwaukee fell in love with the Braves, with fan support of the team high, making the move highly profitable. The Milwaukee Braves would remain popular until the team moved to Atlanta in 1966."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marvin Milkes",
        "text": "As the Pilots got ready for spring training in 1970, the only credible buyers who appeared on the horizon were bent on moving the Pilots to Milwaukee. This group, headed by Bud Selig, wanted to bring baseball back to a city still smarting over the 1965 move of the Braves to Atlanta. It had tried to lure the Chicago White Sox to Milwaukee, and failed to land a National League expansion franchise in 1969. MLB gave tentative approval for the sale to Selig's group, but the state of Washington got a temporary injunction to stop the sale. In response, the Pilots filed for bankruptcy to forestall any further legal action."
      },
      {
        "title": "Relocation of professional sports teams in Canada and the United States",
        "text": "The following charts list movements of franchises in the modern eras of the major North American sports leagues. It does not include:\n*Moves within a city, which have occurred many times in all major leagues.\n*Short distance moves from one city in a metro area to another city in the same metro area. (For example, San Francisco to Oakland or vice versa.)\n*Short-distance city-suburb moves. (For example, Los Angeles to Anaheim, both of which are in the same urban agglomeration.)\n*Team moves that happened before the organization joined its current league.\n** Note, however, that the NFL considers the American Football League of the 1960s as an integral part of its own history. Therefore, moves of AFL teams during the existence of that league are included.\n*Moves of teams that, as of 2022, no longer exist. There were many such moves in the early years of the NFL in particular.\n*Teams that have threatened to move as leverage for a new stadium or arena in their current market without actually moving, as well as teams that nearly moved for other reasons, not related to team dissatisfaction in a given market. (For example, the Pittsburgh Pirates nearly moving to Denver following the Pittsburgh drug trials in 1985, the Minnesota Timberwolves almost moving to New Orleans in 1994, or the Sacramento Kings almost moving to Anaheim, Seattle, and Virginia Beach from 2011 to 2013.)\n*1902: Original Milwaukee Brewers moved to St. Louis and became the St. Louis Browns.\n*1903: Original Baltimore Orioles moved to New York City and became the Highlanders. The team was renamed the Yankees in 1913. As this situation may also be considered a case of the American League dissolving the Baltimore franchise and issuing a new franchise in New York, Yankees history information usually begins in 1903.\n*1953: Boston Braves moved to Milwaukee. This was the first move in 50 years. During those 50 years, there had also been no expansions or contractions \u2013 Major League Baseball had consisted of the same 16 teams, 8 in each league, playing in the same 10 cities without interruption for half a century.\n*1954: St. Louis Browns moved to Baltimore and became the Orioles.\n*1955: Philadelphia Athletics moved to Kansas City.\n*1958: Brooklyn Dodgers moved to Los Angeles and the New York Giants moved to San Francisco. These were the first major league teams to be based in the U.S. West Coast; the teams moved simultaneously to facilitate travel for other National League (NL) teams. The NL granted New York City a new expansion franchise, the New York Mets, in 1962.\n*1961: Washington Senators moved to the Twin Cities area and became the Minnesota Twins. Not wishing to alienate Washington, D.C., the American League (AL) granted the city a new expansion franchise, also called the .\n*1966: Milwaukee Braves moved to Atlanta.\n*1968: Kansas City Athletics moved to Oakland. Because Charles O. Finley broke a recently signed lease and public bonds were already issued for the building of what is now known as Kauffman Stadium, Major League Baseball was in danger of anti-trust legislation from Stuart Symington, U.S. Senator from Missouri. As a result, the AL granted Kansas City a new expansion franchise, the Kansas City Royals, in 1969.\n*1970: Seattle Pilots moved to Milwaukee and became the Brewers. The AL granted Seattle a new expansion franchise, the Seattle Mariners, in 1977.\n*1972: Washington Senators moved to Arlington and became the Texas Rangers.\n*2005: Montreal Expos moved to Washington, D.C. and became the Washington Nationals. The Expos had split time between Montreal and San Juan, Puerto Rico in 2003 and 2004. This was the first move in 33 years.\n*2020: Toronto Blue Jays temporarily moved to Buffalo, New York, and retained the name. This is due to the COVID-19 pandemic affecting Canada which resulted in the closure of the Canada-United States border, preventing the Blue Jays from playing their home games at the Rogers Centre. It also marked the first time an MLB game was played in Buffalo since the Buffalo Bisons of the Federal League folded in 1915, as well as being the first time no games were played in Canada since 1968.\n*2021: Toronto Blue Jays temporarily moved to Dunedin, Florida from April 8 to May 24, then moved back to Buffalo, New York from June 1 to July 21. On July 30, the team returned to the Rogers Centre full time.\n*1951: Tri-Cities Blackhawks, who played their home games in Moline, Illinois, moved to Milwaukee and became the Hawks.\n*1955: Milwaukee Hawks moved to St. Louis.\n*1957: Fort Wayne Pistons moved to Detroit.\n*1957: Rochester Royals moved to Cincinnati.\n*1960: Minneapolis Lakers moved to Los Angeles.\n*1962: Philadelphia Warriors moved to the San Francisco Bay Area and became the San Francisco Warriors, then the Golden State Warriors in 1971.\n*1963: Chicago Zephyrs moved to Baltimore and became the Baltimore Bullets.\n*1963: Syracuse Nationals moved to Philadelphia and became the 76ers.\n*1968: St. Louis Hawks moved to Atlanta and became the Atlanta Hawks.\n*1971: San Diego Rockets moved to Houston and became the Houston Rockets.\n*1972: Cincinnati Royals moved to a new primary home in Kansas City and a secondary home in Omaha, becoming the Kansas City-Omaha Kings (to avoid confusion with the baseball Royals.) The team ceased playing home games in Omaha in 1975.\n*1973: Baltimore Bullets moved to Landover, Maryland, outside Washington, D.C., and were renamed as the Capital Bullets. The team was renamed the Washington Bullets in ; in conjunction with the opening of their new arena in downtown D.C., the team was renamed the Washington Wizards in .\n*1978: Buffalo Braves moved to San Diego and became the Clippers.\n*1979: New Orleans Jazz moved to Salt Lake City and become the Utah Jazz.\n*1984: San Diego Clippers moved to Los Angeles and became the Los Angeles Clippers.\n*1985: Kansas City Kings moved to Sacramento and became the Sacramento Kings.\n*2001: Vancouver Grizzlies moved to Memphis and became the Memphis Grizzlies.\n*2002: Charlotte Hornets moved to New Orleans. The NBA granted Charlotte a new expansion franchise, known as the Bobcats, in . The Bobcats reclaimed the Hornets name before the start of the .\n** At the same time that the name change to Hornets was announced, it was also revealed that the Hornets, the league, and the franchise now known as the New Orleans Pelicans had reached an agreement that the history of the original Charlotte Hornets would belong exclusively to the current Hornets. As a result, the NBA now considers the Charlotte Hornets to have begun play in the , suspended operations following the , returned as the Bobcats beginning with the , and renamed the Hornets beginning with the 2014\u201315 season, while the New Orleans Pelicans kept their history as the Hornets from moving in .\n*2005: New Orleans Hornets moved temporarily to Oklahoma City following Hurricane Katrina and became the New Orleans/Oklahoma City Hornets.\n*2007: New Orleans/Oklahoma City Hornets returned to New Orleans full-time. The team was renamed as the Pelicans in .\n*2008: Seattle SuperSonics moved to Oklahoma City and became the Thunder.\n*2020: Toronto Raptors moved temporarily to Tampa due to the closure of the Canada-United States border stemming from the COVID-19 situation affecting Canada, preventing the Raptors from playing their home games in the Scotiabank Arena."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Seattle Mariners",
        "text": "Before being awarded a team in Major League Baseball, Seattle had been a staple of the Pacific Coast League dating back to the late 19th century. The first attempt to land a major league team failed when a bid by William Daley to move the Cleveland Indians to Seattle in fell apart. In late 1967, Daley, by then having sold the Indians, led a consortium to win a franchise in the expansion. That team became the Seattle Pilots. The Seattle Pilots, amidst a bevy of financial problems, were sold and relocated to Milwaukee for the 1970 season and became the Milwaukee Brewers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major League Baseball relocations of 1950s\u20131960s",
        "text": "Baseball's expansion mirrored the westward movement of the U.S. population during a flourishing postwar economy that saw the arrival of commercial jet travel. Economic push and pull factors caused many teams to move, and the emergence of cities in the new frontier allowed baseball teams to pop up across the country. The moves of the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants to California in 1958 opened the West Coast to the market of baseball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle Pilots",
        "text": "The Pilots lawsuit continued until 1976. At trial, the American League offered to give Seattle an expansion baseball franchise in return for dropping the suit, and details were ironed out over the next year. To keep the league with an even number of teams, a formal expansion proceeding was held, with a second team, the Blue Jays, being awarded to the city of Toronto (also allowing both leagues to place a team in Canada, the National League's Montreal Expos having been established in 1969). The new Seattle team, to begin play in , would be owned by entertainer Danny Kaye, along with Stanley Golub, Walter Schoenfeld, Lester Smith, James Stillwell, Jr. and James A. Walsh. Seattle's new team would be known as the Mariners, and would initially incorporate the same blue and gold colors used by the Pilots."
      },
      {
        "title": "1969 Seattle Pilots season",
        "text": "The 1969 Seattle Pilots season was the only season of the Seattle Pilots, a Major League Baseball team. As an expansion team in the American League, along with the Kansas City Royals, the Pilots were placed in the newly established West division. They finished last among the six teams with a record of 64\u201398 (), 33 games behind the division champion Minnesota Twins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle",
        "text": "Seattle was awarded a Major League Baseball franchise, the Seattle Pilots, in 1969. The team played at Sick's Stadium in Mount Baker for one season before relocating to Milwaukee and becoming the Milwaukee Brewers. The city, alongside the county and state governments, sued the league and was offered a second expansion team, the Seattle Mariners, as settlement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boise Pilots",
        "text": "The Boise Pilots immediately followed the Boise Senators of the 1928 Utah-Idaho League and were one of the six original teams of the Pioneer League when it was formed in 1939. The team competed through the 1951 season, except for three years during World War II when the league did not operate. Boise's team then became the Yankees, who were affiliated with New York during 1952 and 1953. That affiliation did not continue, and the team operated independently again as the Pilots in 1954. Boise's team then became a Milwaukee affiliate from 1955 through 1963, operating as the Braves. After the Braves' final season of 1963, the ballpark was demolished, and Boise was without a minor league team until the Boise A's of the Northwest League debuted in 1975."
      },
      {
        "title": "Los Angeles Jets",
        "text": "The American Basketball League was formed when Abe Saperstein did not get the Los Angeles National Basketball Association (NBA) franchise he sought. His Harlem Globetrotters had strong NBA ties. When Minneapolis Lakers owner Bob Short was permitted to move the Lakers to Los Angeles, Saperstein reacted by convincing National Alliance of Basketball Leagues (NABL) team owner Paul Cohen (Tuck Tapers) and Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) National Champion Cleveland Pipers owner George Steinbrenner to take the top NABL and AAU teams and players and form a rival league."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sick's Stadium",
        "text": "Under the circumstances, only 678,000 fans came to see the Pilots, 20th out of 24 teams\u2014a major reason why the team was forced into bankruptcy after only one season. Despite the poor stadium conditions, the ticket prices were among the highest in the major leagues. The team was sold out of bankruptcy court to a Milwaukee-based group on March 31, and the team moved at the end of spring training for the 1970 season and became the Milwaukee Brewers (Milwaukee had lost the Braves to Atlanta after the 1965 season)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major League Baseball relocations of 1950s\u20131960s",
        "text": "In MLB, all local TV revenue is assigned to the home team. The league has complex revenue sharing rules, but data shows that media revenue was an economic pull factor for the franchise moves. The yearly gains in media revenue associated with the moves are: Boston to Milwaukee (\u2212$175,000), St. Louis to Baltimore (+$257,000), Philadelphia to Kansas City (\u2212$90,000), Washington to Minnesota (+$400,000), Milwaukee to Atlanta (+$800,000), Kansas City to Oakland (+$800,000), Seattle to Milwaukee (\u2212$150,000), Washington to Texas (no change). Data is unavailable for the moves of the Dodgers and the Giants. Based on this data, TV revenues influenced the franchise move of Washington, Milwaukee, and Kansas City and perhaps St. Louis. TV revenues have played an important role in roughly half of the moves that have taken place. James Quirk argues that under a TV sharing arrangement similar to the National Football League, or even under a split with visiting teams, the TV lure would be much less of an incentive for moves."
      },
      {
        "title": "1977 Major League Baseball expansion",
        "text": "In the 1969 Major League Baseball expansion, Kansas City, Montreal, San Diego, and Seattle were each granted a franchise; the Kansas City Royals and Seattle Pilots were added to the American League, while the Montreal Expos and San Diego Padres joined the National League. The Seattle Pilots only played one season, during which they faced financial difficulties owing to no television coverage, a poorly performing team, a stadium with problems, and the highest ticket and concession prices in the league. Owners of other American League teams wanted Dewey Soriano and William R. Daley to sell the team to a Seattle owner who would improve the team and address issues at Sick's Stadium, particularly uncovered seats with bad views. After several attempts to sell the team to a Seattle owner failed, on April 1, 1970 judge Sidney Volinn declared the team officially bankrupt; it was sold to Bud Selig, who moved the team to Milwaukee and renamed it the Milwaukee Brewers. Selig had negotiated a deal for the purchase with Soriano during Game 1 of the 1969 World Series."
      },
      {
        "title": "1976\u201377 NHL season",
        "text": "Two teams would relocate: The Kansas City Scouts moved to Denver, Colorado, and became the Colorado Rockies and the California Golden Seals moved to Cleveland, Ohio, and became the Cleveland Barons. The last time a relocation had occurred was when the original Ottawa Senators had relocated in 1934 to become the St. Louis Eagles. Instability and the poor performances of the Washington Capitals and the Scouts since the 1974 expansion caused the league to shelve an expansion to Denver and Seattle that had been proposed for this season. Seattle would not have a team until the expansion Seattle Kraken in the 2021\u201322 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "1969 Seattle Pilots season",
        "text": "\"Note: Pos = Position; G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in\""
      },
      {
        "title": "1969 Seattle Pilots season",
        "text": "April 8, Anaheim Stadium, Anaheim, California\n* April 1: Lou Piniella was traded by the Pilots to the Kansas City Royals for Steve Whitaker and John Gelnar.\n* May 27: Jim Pagliaroni was purchased by the Pilots from the Oakland Athletics.\n* June 5: 1969 Major League Baseball draft\n**Gorman Thomas was selected by the Pilots in the first round (21st pick).\n**Bob Coluccio was selected by the Pilots in the 17th round.\n* June 14: Larry Haney was traded by the Pilots to the Oakland Athletics for John Donaldson.\n* August 24: Jim Bouton was traded by the Pilots to the Houston Astros for Dooley Womack and Roric Harrison.\n* September 13: Marv Staehle was purchased from the Pilots by the Montreal Expos."
      },
      {
        "title": "1970 Milwaukee Brewers season",
        "text": "After a winter and spring full of court action, the Pilots reported for spring training under new manager Dave Bristol unsure of where they would play. The owners had given tentative approval to the Milwaukee group, but the state of Washington got an injunction on March 17 to stop the deal. Soriano immediately filed for bankruptcy \u2014 a move intended to forestall any post-sale legal action. At the bankruptcy hearing a week later, general manager Marvin Milkes testified there was not enough money to pay the coaches, players and office staff. Had Milkes been more than 10 days late in paying the players, they would have all become free agents and left Seattle without a team for the 1970 season. With this in mind, Federal Bankruptcy Referee Sidney C. Volinn declared the Pilots bankrupt on March 31 \u2014 seven days before Opening Day \u2014 clearing the way for them to move to Milwaukee. The team's equipment had been sitting in Provo, Utah, with the drivers awaiting word on whether to drive toward Seattle or Milwaukee. MLB returned to Seattle in 1977, when the Mariners began play at the Kingdome."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the National Football League in Los Angeles",
        "text": "In March 1996, Seattle Seahawks owner Ken Behring moved office equipment and some athletic gear to the elementary school in Anaheim that once held Rams practices, hoping to get approval for a permanent move to Southern California. The plan was for the relocated Seahawks to play at the Rose Bowl while an NFL stadium was built in either Anaheim or Los Angeles. The Seahawks planned move was announced at a time when the Cleveland Browns had announced their relocation to Baltimore, and the Houston Oilers relocated to Nashville. The league passed a resolution in the previous year that a return to Los Angeles would be controlled by the league (i.e. the 30 teams collectively). Because of an owners' revolt that resulted in the league fined the Seahawks $50,000 for every day the team was in Anaheim, Behring halted the process and moved the equipment back to Seattle."
      },
      {
        "title": "1969 Chicago White Sox season",
        "text": "The White Sox nearly left Chicago in 1969. White Sox owner Arthur Allyn, Jr. considered overtures from Bud Selig and other Milwaukee interests to move the club to County Stadium. Instead, he sold to his brother, John. The newly established Seattle Pilots would move there a year after their inaugural season.\n* October 15, 1968: Hoyt Wilhelm was drafted from the White Sox by the Kansas City Royals as the 49th pick in the 1968 MLB expansion draft.\n* December 5, 1968: Jack Fisher was traded by the White Sox to the Cincinnati Reds for Don Pavletich and Don Secrist.\n* Luis Aparicio, SS\n* Carlos May, LF\n* Bill Melton, 3B\n* Gail Hopkins, 1B\n* Duane Josephson, C\n* Buddy Bradford, RF\n* Ken Berry, CF\n* Sandy Alomar, 2B\n* Gary Peters, P"
      },
      {
        "title": "1969 Seattle Pilots season",
        "text": "\"Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Chicago White Sox",
        "text": "Several lawsuits against Major League Baseball from Seattle over the move of the Pilots to Milwaukee almost resulted in the White Sox being moved to the Emerald City in . An elaborate scheme for a franchise shuffle soon came to light. The White Sox were to be moved to Seattle, then the Oakland Athletics were to take the White Sox's place in Comiskey Park. Oakland owner Charlie Finley was from nearby La Porte, Indiana. His A's had not drawn well during their Championship years in Oakland, California, and he wanted to bring them to Chicago. However, the shuffle collapsed when owner John Allyn sold the team to the physically rehabilitated Bill Veeck. In , the Seattle Mariners were created, thus restoring the major leagues' presence in the Pacific Northwest."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of professional baseball in Milwaukee",
        "text": "After a winter and spring full of court action, the Pilots reported for spring training under new manager Dave Bristol unsure of where they would play. The owners had given tentative approval to the Milwaukee group, but the state of Washington got an injunction on March 17 to stop the deal. Soriano immediately filed for bankruptcy \u2013 a move intended to forestall any post-sale legal action. At the bankruptcy hearing a week later, Milkes testified there wasn't enough money to pay the coaches, players and office staff. Had Milkes been more than 10 days late in paying the players, they would have all become free agents and left Seattle without a team for the 1970 season. With this in mind, Federal Bankruptcy Referee Sidney C. Volinn declared the Pilots bankrupt on April 1 \u2013 six days before Opening Day \u2013 clearing the way for them to move to Milwaukee. The team's equipment had been sitting in Provo, Utah with the drivers awaiting word on whether to drive toward Seattle or Milwaukee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lloyd Street Grounds",
        "text": "Milwaukee was a successful minor league city for years, before getting another Major League team in 1953, when the NL's Braves moved from Boston. After the Braves left Milwaukee without a team again in 1966, the Milwaukee Brewers were re-incarnated in 1970, when the Pilots moved from Seattle after just one season."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Oakland Athletics",
        "text": "In 1975, fed up with poor attendance in Oakland during the team's championship years, Finley thought of moving yet again. When Seattle filed a lawsuit against Major League Baseball over the move of the Seattle Pilots to Milwaukee, Finley and others came up with an elaborate shuffle which would move the ailing Chicago White Sox to Seattle. Finley then would move the A's to Chicago, closer to his home in LaPorte, Indiana; and take the White Sox' place at Comiskey Park. The scheme fell through when White Sox owner John Allyn sold the team to another colorful owner, Bill Veeck, who was not interested in leaving Chicago."
      },
      {
        "title": "1969 Major League Baseball expansion",
        "text": "By the 1960s, with Seattle's population growing, the city became the largest to host a Pacific Coast League team, the Seattle Rainiers. The league's stature also declined with the move of the Brooklyn Dodgers to Los Angeles and the New York Giants to San Francisco, which caused those cities' PCL teams to relocate to much smaller markets. In 1964, the city purchased Sick's Stadium for $1.1 million. In 1965, the Rainiers were sold to the Los Angeles Angels, who renamed the team the \"Seattle Angels\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle Pilots",
        "text": "Also, the Pilots had to pay the PCL $1 million to compensate for the loss of one of its most successful franchises. After King County voters approved a bond for a domed stadium (what would become the Kingdome) in February 1968 with 62% in favor, the Seattle Pilots were officially born. California Angels executive Marvin Milkes was hired as general manager, and Joe Schultz, a coach with the National League Champion St. Louis Cardinals, became manager."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dewey Soriano",
        "text": "Almost as soon as the season ended, it was apparent that Soriano wouldn't be able to hold out before moving to a new stadium. It was also apparent that the timetable for a new park would have to be significantly advanced, as the Pilots' temporary home, Sick's Stadium, was completely inadequate even for temporary use. Soriano put the Pilots on the market, but no credible offers surfaced from Seattle interests. Out of desperation, Soriano cut a deal to sell the franchise to a Milwaukee-based group led by Bud Selig. However, legal action dragged out throughout the 1969\u20131970 offseason. Ultimately, Soriano took the team into bankruptcy, clearing the way for Selig to take control and move the Pilots to Milwaukee as the Milwaukee Brewers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Riverside Pilots",
        "text": "Upon relocating the franchise held a name the team contest. With over 2,000\u00a0entries, the club selected the name Riverside Pilots. \"It's got both that nautical and aeronautical feel to it,\" said General Manager Jack Patton. The team adopted a color scheme mirroring that of their parent club, the Seattle Mariners."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kingdome",
        "text": "Shortly after the Pilots' departure for Milwaukee, the city of Seattle, King County, and the state of Washington sued the American League, claiming a breach of contract. The league agreed to grant Seattle another franchise in exchange for dropping the lawsuit, and the team that would later be known as the Seattle Mariners was born."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle Cascades",
        "text": "Following the 1978 season, between October 27 and November 9, the New York Apples, Boston Lobsters, Los Angeles Strings, San Diego Friars and Indiana Loves all announced that they were folding, cutting the size of WTT from 10 teams to five. On the following day, the Cascades, Anaheim Oranges and New Orleans Sun Belt Nets announced that they were folding as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of professional baseball in Milwaukee",
        "text": "However, the team's poor play was the least of its troubles. The most obvious problem was Sick's Stadium. The longtime home of the Rainiers, it had been considered one of the best ballparks in minor league baseball. By the 1960s, however, it was considered far behind the times. While a condition of MLB awarding the Pilots to Seattle was that Sick's had to be expanded to 30,000 seats by the start of the 1969 season, only 17,000 seats were ready due to numerous delays. The scoreboard wasn't even ready until the eve of opening day. While it was expanded to 25,000 by June, the added seats had obstructed views. Water pressure was almost nonexistent after the seventh inning, especially with crowds above 10,000. Attendance was so poor (678,000) that the Pilots were almost out of money by the end of the season. The team's new stadium was slated to be built at the Seattle Center, but a petition by stadium opponents ground the project to a halt. By the end of the season, it was obvious that the Pilots would not survive long enough to move to their new stadium without new ownership. It was also obvious that the move would have to happen quickly, as Sick's Stadium was completely inadequate even for temporary use."
      },
      {
        "title": "1969 Major League Baseball expansion",
        "text": "The Seattle Pilots fared worst of the four expansion franchises, playing only in the 1969 season. The team fared poorly on the field, and faced financial difficulties owing to no television coverage, a stadium with problems, and the highest ticket and concession prices in the league. Owners of other American League teams wanted Soriano and Daley to sell the team to a Seattle owner who would improve the team and address issues at Sick's Stadium, particularly uncovered seats with bad views. After several attempts to sell the team to a Seattle owner failed, on April 1, 1970 Judge Sidney Volinn declared the team officially bankrupt; it was sold to Bud Selig, who moved the team to Milwaukee and renamed it the Milwaukee Brewers. Selig had negotiated a deal for the purchase with Soriano during Game 1 of the 1969 World Series. As a result of the relocation, in 1970 the city of Seattle, King County, and the state of Washington sued the American League for breach of contract. The $32.5 million lawsuit was settled in 1976 when the American League offered the city a franchise in exchange for termination of the lawsuit. This led to the establishment of the Seattle Mariners via the 1977 Major League Baseball expansion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of the National Basketball Association",
        "text": "The Seattle SuperSonics move to Oklahoma City to become the Oklahoma City Thunder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle Pilots",
        "text": "Jim Bouton was a Pilots relief pitcher through most of 1969, his contract having been sold to the Seattle Pilots by the New York Yankees in mid-1968. His book \"Ball Four\" is based on a journal that Bouton kept during the season. Bouton spent most of the season with Seattle, although he was traded to the Houston Astros in late August."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Major League Baseball first-round draft picks",
        "text": "Established in 1969 as the Pilots in Seattle, Washington, the team moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin the following season, which brought top-flight baseball back to Wisconsin for the first time since the Braves departed after the 1965 season. The Brewers have been members of the National League since 1998; prior to that, the team played as a member of the American League Central Division."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of defunct and relocated Major League Baseball teams",
        "text": "Outside of the Negro leagues, no major league franchises relocated for several years after 1915, until the Boston Braves moved to Milwaukee following the 1952 season. Several teams relocated over the next twenty years, often moving to the Western or Southern United States. After a period of over thirty years with no relocation, the Montreal Expos became the Washington Nationals in 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle Pilots",
        "text": "However, the team's poor play was the least of its troubles. The most obvious problem was Sicks' Stadium. The longtime home of the Rainiers, it had once been considered one of the best ballparks in minor league baseball. By the 1960s, however, it was considered far behind the times. While a condition of awarding the Pilots to Seattle was that Sicks' had to be expanded to 30,000 seats, only 19,500 seats were ready by Opening Day because of numerous delays. The scoreboard was not even ready until the night before the season opener. By June there were finally 25,000 seats in place. Water pressure was almost nonexistent after the seventh inning, especially with crowds above 8,000. The Pilots had a total attendance of 677,944 people for the season, 20th in the 24-team league, and their average attendance per game, 8,268, was also 20th. Seattle finished above fellow cellar dweller teams like the Cleveland Indians, Chicago White Sox, Philadelphia Phillies, and the expansion San Diego Padres. The other two expansion teams outdrew the Pilots, with the Kansas City Royals having 902,414 attend their games while the Montreal Expos finished 10th in attendance with 1,212,608. The highest attendance for a Pilots home game was 23,657, on August 3 against the New York Yankees. The lowest attendance for a Pilot home game was on April 29, their 17th game, when a reported 1,954 fans showed up to watch them play the California Angels. The Pilots lost several hundred thousand dollars their first and only season. The team's new stadium was slated to be built at the Seattle Center, but a petition by stadium opponents ground the project to a halt. The project was later moved to south of downtown and developed for the Kingdome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle SuperSonics relocation to Oklahoma City",
        "text": "The Seattle SuperSonics relocation to Oklahoma City was a successful effort by the ownership group of the Seattle SuperSonics to relocate the team from Seattle, Washington to Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. The team began play as the Oklahoma City Thunder in the 2008\u201309 NBA season, after becoming the third National Basketball Association (NBA) franchise to relocate in the 2000s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marvin Milkes",
        "text": "Unfortunately for Milkes, the Pilots' tenure in Seattle would be the shortest of any franchise in modern MLB history and \"Ball Four\" would be the team's lasting legacy. The Pilots played in a former minor league facility, Sick's Stadium, that was intended only as a stopgap until a domed stadium could be built. The team was outdrafted by its expansion twin, the Kansas City Royals, and finished last in the American League West Division, winning only 64 games and drawing only 678,000 fans. They were also plagued by an unstable, undercapitalized ownership. Dewey Soriano, the man who had won the franchise, couldn't pay the expansion fee and had to get help from former Cleveland Indians owner William R. Daley, who got almost half the stock in return."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle SuperSonics relocation to Oklahoma City",
        "text": "In 2012, the book \"Big League City: Oklahoma City's Rise to the NBA\" by now mayor David Holt chronicled the story from Oklahoma City's perspective."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major League Baseball relocations of 1950s\u20131960s",
        "text": "There were no more moves until 2005, when MLB moved the Montreal Expos to the American capital and renamed them the Washington Nationals."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of professional baseball in Milwaukee",
        "text": "Much of the story of the Seattle Pilots' only year in existence is told in Jim Bouton's classic baseball book, \"Ball Four\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "1969 Seattle Pilots season",
        "text": "1969 Major League Baseball All-Star Game"
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle SuperSonics relocation to Oklahoma City",
        "text": "Seattle SuperSonics relocation to Oklahoma City\n--Sale of team.\n--Relocation effort.\n----Oklahoma City's preparations.\n----Popular opposition in Seattle.\n--Lawsuits.\n----\"City of Seattle v. Professional Basketball Club LLC\".\n----\"Basketball Club of Seattle LLC v. Professional Basketball Club LLC\".\n--Distribution of assets.\n--Chronicles.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle Pilots",
        "text": "However, the remaining owners of the Pilots turned it down in the face of pressure from Washington's two senators, Warren Magnuson and Henry M. \"Scoop\" Jackson, as well as state attorney general Slade Gorton. Local theater chain owner Fred Danz came forward in October 1969 with a $10 million deal, but it fizzled when the Bank of California called in a $4 million loan it had made to Soriano and Daley to finance the purchase of the franchise. In January 1970, Westin Hotels head Eddie Carlson put together a nonprofit group to buy the team. However, the owners of the other major league teams rejected the idea almost out of hand, since it would have devalued the other clubs' worth. A slightly modified deal came one vote short of approval."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joe Devine Airway Park",
        "text": "The minor leagues briefly returned to Boise in 1975 and 1976 with the Boise A's of the short season Northwest League at Borah Field (today's Bill Wigle Field). The independent Buckskins existed for one unsuccessful season in 1978, and the Hawks arrived after the 1986 season from the Tri-Cities in south central Washington. After two years at Wigle Field, the Hawks moved to the new Memorial Stadium in northwest Boise , at the start of the 1989 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Major League Baseball first-round draft picks",
        "text": "The Seattle Mariners franchise was established in 1977, the successor to the earlier Pilots team that moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of professional baseball in Milwaukee",
        "text": "Frustrated in these efforts, Selig shifted his focus to another American League team, the expansion Seattle Pilots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boise Yankees",
        "text": "The team was previously known as the unaffiliated Boise Pilots from 1939 to 1951 (except for three years during World War II when the league did not operate), while the Yankees' affiliates in the Pioneer League were previously the Twin Falls Cowboys (1946\u201351) and the Idaho Falls Russets (1940\u201341). The Yankees pulled out of the Pioneer League and the western U.S. after the 1953 season. The Boise team's name reverted to Pilots for 1954, then was the Boise Braves (affiliated with the Milwaukee Braves) from 1955 to 1963."
      },
      {
        "title": "Duluth Eskimos",
        "text": "In 1932, a Boston group received the next expansion franchise; strong circumstantial evidence indicates that it was awarded the assets of the failed Tornadoes/Indians organization. This group used it to start the Boston Braves. In 1933, the team was renamed the Redskins, and in 1937 it moved to Washington, D.C. where it still plays as the Washington Commanders. However, due to the two-year period of dormancy, the Washington Commanders and the NFL consider the Boston/Washington franchise as a separate organization dating to 1932, and not as a continuation of the Tornadoes nor the Eskimos/Kelleys."
      },
      {
        "title": "William R. Daley",
        "text": "In , Daley resurfaced when Dewey Soriano asked him to help pay the expansion fee to start the expansion Seattle Pilots. In return for paying most of the fee, Daley bought a 47 percent stake in the new team, becoming the largest shareholder and chairman of the board. He had considered moving the Indians to Seattle in the early 1960s. However, his return to baseball was short-lived; the Pilots went bankrupt after only one season and moved to Milwaukee as the Brewers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major League Baseball relocations of 1950s\u20131960s",
        "text": "The Braves and Athletics did not stay in their locations for very long. The Braves, despite success in Milwaukee, moved to Atlanta for 1966 while the Athletics set up shop in Oakland for 1968. Both markets would eventually get replacement teams in the Milwaukee Brewers and Kansas City Royals, respectively. The Braves would not have consistent success in Atlanta until the 1990s, while the A's were successful during several periods thereafter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Relocation of professional sports teams",
        "text": "Newer sports leagues tend to have more transient franchises than more established, \"major\" leagues, but in the mid-1990s, several NFL and NHL teams moved to other cities, and the threat of a move pushed cities with major-league teams in any sport to build new stadiums and arenas using taxpayer money. The trend continued in the 2000s, when three National Basketball Association (NBA) teams moved in a seven-year span after there were no moves at all in the 16 years before it. Critics referred to the movement of teams to the highest-bidding city as \"franchise free agency.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of professional baseball in Milwaukee",
        "text": "The Pilots were eventually replaced by another expansion team, the Seattle Mariners, who began play in 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marvin Milkes",
        "text": "By the end of the season, the Pilots had almost run out of money. It was obvious that the Pilots would not be able to hold out long enough in Seattle for a new stadium to be built unless new owners were found. It was also obvious that those new owners would have to move fast to build a new stadium, as Sick's Stadium was inadequate even for temporary use. A local group was forced to withdraw when the Bank of California called a $4 million loan as part of debt from the Soriano-Daley group. Another local group put together a nonprofit bid to buy the team, but this bid was rejected out of concerns it would devalue the other clubs. Another, more traditional bid by the same people fronting the nonprofit group fell one vote short of approval. The American League was concerned enough to appoint Roy Hamey as caretaker CEO and tasked him with watching over the foundering franchise."
      },
      {
        "title": "1969 Seattle Pilots season",
        "text": "\"Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; SV = Saves; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts\""
      },
      {
        "title": "1969 Seattle Pilots season",
        "text": "\"Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; SV = Saves; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of the National Basketball Association",
        "text": "The Buffalo Braves relocate to San Diego to become the San Diego Clippers. This results in the Clippers moving to the Pacific Division, the Detroit Pistons moving to the Central, and the Washington Bullets moving to the Atlantic."
      },
      {
        "title": "2011\u201312 Portland Pilots men's basketball team",
        "text": "The Portland Pilots lost Luke Sikma and Jared Stohl because they both graduated from the University of Portland. They were both averaging over 10 points per game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Squatch",
        "text": "Following the SuperSonics' move to Oklahoma City, the character was retired, and remains part of the intellectual property (name, colors, etc.) that the city of Seattle retained as part of the KeyArena lease settlement. The character's performer from 1999 to 2008 (Marc Taylor) remains under contract with the relocated team, currently performing as Rumble the Bison, the Thunder's mascot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle SuperSonics relocation to Oklahoma City",
        "text": "According to the terms detailed in the settlement agreement, items associated with the SuperSonics' history in Seattle, including trophies, banners, and retired jerseys, stayed in the city and were placed in the Museum of History & Industry (MOHAI). Other items such as televisions, radios, headphones, CDs, chairs, and equipment were shipped to Oklahoma City after the Seattle Storm finished the 2008 WNBA season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle SuperSonics relocation to Oklahoma City",
        "text": "In 2006, a group of Seattle residents created Save Our Sonics and Storm (\"SOS\") to rally support for a permanent professional basketball presence in Seattle. The \"and Storm\" portion of the name was dropped when the WNBA Storm was sold to local ownership. On June 16, 2008, the group organized a well-publicized rally, which reportedly drew over 3,000 participants, at the U.S. District Courthouse in Seattle to protest the proposed relocation of the team. The rally was held on the first day of the city of Seattle's lawsuit against the PBC to enforce the remaining two years on the KeyArena lease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vancouver Grizzlies relocation to Memphis",
        "text": "The Grizzlies were the first NBA relocation since the Kansas City Kings relocated to Sacramento, California and became the Sacramento Kings in 1985. It was followed by two others in the same decade. The first was the relocation of the original Charlotte Hornets to New Orleans in 2002, with the team becoming the New Orleans Hornets (now Pelicans). (That relocation is no longer treated by the league as such; after the 2013\u201314 season, the franchise then known as the Charlotte Bobcats reclaimed the Hornets name and also received sole rights to the history of the Hornets in Charlotte.) The second was in 2008, when the Seattle SuperSonics relocated to become the Oklahoma City Thunder. In the NHL, two teams were moved from Canada to the U.S. during the mid-1990s: the Quebec Nordiques became the Colorado Avalanche in 1995, and the Winnipeg Jets became the Phoenix Coyotes in 1996 and were rebranded as the Arizona Coyotes in 2014 (a new Winnipeg Jets team returned to the city by relocation of the Atlanta Thrashers in 2011). In 2005, one of Canada's two Major League Baseball teams (the Montreal Expos) relocated to Washington, D.C. and became the Washington Nationals. The failure of the Vancouver franchise was part of the reason the NBA changed the expansion drafting rules following the return of Charlotte to the league as the Bobcats in 2004. The Bobcats were allowed to pick fourth in their first draft, and were later not restricted from first picks."
      },
      {
        "title": "1969 Seattle Pilots season",
        "text": "The MLB expansion draft for the Pilots and the Kansas City Royals was held on October 15, 1968."
      },
      {
        "title": "1969 Seattle Pilots season",
        "text": "1969 Seattle Pilots season\n--Offseason.\n----Expansion draft.\n----1968 MLB June amateur draft and minor league affiliates.\n--Regular season.\n----The first game.\n--Player stats.\n----Batting.\n------Starters by position.\n------Other batters.\n----Pitching.\n------Starting pitchers.\n------Other pitchers.\n------Relief pitchers.\n--Farm system.\n--Awards and honors.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Los Angeles Angels",
        "text": "For many years, there had been talk of an existing American League team relocating to Los Angeles. In 1940, the St. Louis Browns asked AL owners for permission to move to Los Angeles, but were turned down. They planned another move for the 1942 season, and this time got permission from the league. A schedule was even drawn up including Los Angeles, but the bombing of Pearl Harbor in December 1941 made major-league sports of any sort on the West Coast unviable. In 1953, there was again talk of the Browns moving to L.A. for the 1954 season, but the team was sold and moved to Baltimore instead as the Orioles. There were on-again, off-again discussions between city officials and the Washington Senators regarding a possible move. There were also rumors that the Philadelphia Athletics' move to Kansas City in 1955 was a temporary stop on the way to Los Angeles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Failed relocation of the Sacramento Kings",
        "text": "After the meeting in Dallas, Texas, the NBA owners voted 22-8 to reject the Kings' relocation to Seattle. The vote effectively ended the Hansen group's efforts to buy the Kings and move them."
      },
      {
        "title": "1969 Seattle Pilots season",
        "text": "\"Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts\""
      },
      {
        "title": "National Basketball Association",
        "text": "The NBA Board of Governors approved the request of the Seattle SuperSonics to move to Oklahoma City on April 18, 2008. The team, however, could not move until it had settled a lawsuit filed by the city of Seattle, which was intended to keep the SuperSonics in Seattle for the remaining two seasons of the team's lease at KeyArena. Following a court case, the city of Seattle settled with the ownership group of the SuperSonics on July 2, 2008, allowing the team to move to Oklahoma City immediately in exchange for terminating the final two seasons of the team's lease at KeyArena. The Oklahoma City Thunder began playing in the 2008\u201309 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle SuperSonics",
        "text": "With the meeting of the Board of Governors to vote moved again to mid-May, the groups were asked to make another brief presentation to the full relocation committee on April 29, 2013. The committee voted to recommend rejection of the relocation request to the full board. When the Board of Governors finally convened in Dallas on May 15, 2013, they heard final presentations from both the Seattle and Sacramento groups. The BOG voted 22\u20138 against moving the Kings from Sacramento to Seattle. As the PSA for the sale of the team was, for all intents and purposes, dependent upon relocation, the NBA rejected the sale without vote."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle Mariners",
        "text": "The Mariners were created as a result of a lawsuit. In , in the aftermath of the Seattle Pilots' purchase and relocation to Milwaukee as the Milwaukee Brewers by Bud Selig, the city of Seattle, King County, and the state of Washington (represented by then-state Attorney General and future U.S. Senator Slade Gorton) sued the American League for breach of contract. Confident that Major League Baseball would return to Seattle within a few years, King County built the multi-purpose Kingdome, which would become home to the National Football League's expansion Seattle Seahawks in 1976. The name \"Mariners\" was chosen by club officials in August 1976 from over 600 names submitted by 15,000 entrants in a name-the-team contest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major League Baseball relocations of 1950s\u20131960s",
        "text": "Over the years, though, it became apparent that one team would be more popular than the other in a given market. In cities with multiple teams, owners would be competing with each over the same fan base. The economics of the game began to change with the increase in live media coverage, especially television. The owners had a plan, and that was to have one team in each city, so that owners would not need to fight each other over customers. Boston would lose the Braves. Philadelphia would lose the A's. St. Louis would lose the Browns. New York would lose the Giants and the Dodgers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle Flight",
        "text": "The Seattle Flight are a professional men's basketball based in Lakewood, Washington, approximately forty miles south of Seattle. They are former members of the International Basketball League and began play in the league in 2013 and ended in 2014. The team is backed by former Seattle SuperSonics star Shawn Kemp and his wife Marvena. They play their home games at the Pierce College Fort Steilacoom Health Education Center Gymnasium in Lakewood. The team colors of emerald green and gold are to honor their predecessors from the NBA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Merritt Ranew",
        "text": "Ranew was able to rejoin the Seattle Angels in 1967 and played in 91 Pacific Coast League games. Then, after spending 1968 in the New York Yankees' organization, he returned to Seattle as a member of the Seattle Pilots, the American League expansion team. He appeared in 54 games for the Pilots, starting nine contests at catcher, three in left field, and one at third base, collected 20 hits, and hit .247\u2014coincidentally, his career big-league batting average. It was his last year in the major leagues. He retired in 1971 after 15 seasons in professional baseball."
      },
      {
        "title": "John McHale (baseball)",
        "text": "As the Braves slipped into the middle ranks of the National League, attendance at Milwaukee County Stadium declined precipitously. In , the club was sold to a group of Chicago-based investors. By , the Braves were rumored (correctly) to be moving to Atlanta. In , during their lame-duck season in Milwaukee, McHale was the figurehead for a supremely unpopular ownership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hollywood Stars",
        "text": "The Columbia Broadcasting System, owner of Gilmore Field, announced plans to raze the facility to build a new headquarters\u2014CBS Television City, as it became known\u2014in 1952. In October 1957, the Brooklyn Dodgers confirmed their long-rumored move to Los Angeles for the 1958 season, which forced the Stars and the Angels to relocate. The Angels, who had been purchased by Dodgers owner Walter O'Malley prior to the 1957 season, became the Spokane Indians in 1958."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of baseball moves?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There have been many!  Would you like to know about the Boston Braves moving, the St. Louis Browns moving, the Philadelphia Athletics moving, or the Seattle Pilots moving?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me why the Seattle Pilots moved?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The team needed new ownership, as Daley was not financing them more.  Former Milwaukee Braves minority owner Bud Selig was contacted and Soriano sold the Pilots to him, moving the team to Milwaukee.",
      "Bud Selig, a car salesman and former Milwaukee Braves minority owner, led to effort the bring baseball back to Milwaukee, and agreed to buy the Pilots for $10.8 million."
    ],
    "topic": "Basketball moves",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Seattle Pilots:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Seattle Pilots",
          "Relocation"
        ],
        "ctx": "By the end of the season, the Pilots were gasping. However, Daley refused to put up more financing. It was obvious that they would not survive long enough to move into their new park without new ownership. It was also obvious that the timetable for a new stadium would have to be significantly advanced, as Sicks' Stadium was inadequate even for temporary use."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Seattle Pilots:9",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Seattle Pilots",
          "Relocation"
        ],
        "ctx": "During the offseason, Soriano made contact with car salesman and former Milwaukee Braves minority owner Bud Selig, who was leading the effort to bring major league baseball back to Milwaukee. They met in secret for over a month towards the end of the season, and during Game 1 of the World Series, Soriano agreed to sell the Pilots to Selig for $10.8 million. Selig would then move the team to Milwaukee."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Basketball",
        "text": "Another common shot is called the \"layup\". This shot requires the player to be in motion toward the basket, and to \"lay\" the ball \"up\" and into the basket, typically off the backboard (the backboard-free, underhand version is called a \"finger roll\"). The most crowd-pleasing and typically highest-percentage accuracy shot is the \"slam dunk\", in which the player jumps very high and throws the ball downward, through the basket while touching it."
      },
      {
        "title": "NBA 2K2",
        "text": "Each player's abilities reflect those based on the 2001\u201302 season, so the location of shots is important depending on the athlete. Moves such as crossover dribbles, pump fakes, speed bursts, and both icon and directional passing allow players multiple options to move the ball down the court. While approaching the net, players can press a single button to pass to the man closest to the basket or use their athlete's size advantage to back down a defender. Players can also call for a pick with a press of the button, pass out of a shot, or select one of four in-game offensive plays from a roster of 16."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "This move is similar to the jab step, but smaller. It is when a player uses multiple very little jab steps to throw off a defender and keep him constantly guessing whether you will go to the basket or not. It was used frequently by former San Antonio Spurs forward Tim Duncan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A \"bank shot\" is a shot that relies on the ball bouncing off the backboard and into the basket. It is frequently used for mid-range jump shots from around a 45\u00b0 angle and layups. It is not commonly used for long-range shots or shots from the middle or near the baseline. The purpose of using the backboard is to try to hit the backboard at an angle, thus slowing the speed of the ball and increasing its chances of falling into the hoop. Researchers at North Carolina State University found that bank shots may be 20 percent more effective up to a distance of about 12 feet than direct shots. Another term for a bank shot is \"off the glass.\" Among the NBA players known for using or having used the bank shot often are Sam Jones, Elgin Baylor, George Gervin, Tim Duncan, Dwyane Wade, Dirk Nowitzki, Scottie Pippen, and Kobe Bryant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball",
        "text": "Another shot that is less common than the layup, is the \"circus shot\". The circus shot is a low-percentage shot that is flipped, heaved, scooped, or flung toward the hoop while the shooter is off-balance, airborne, falling down, and/or facing away from the basket. A back-shot is a shot taken when the player is facing away from the basket, and may be shot with the dominant hand, or both; but there is a very low chance that the shot will be successful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "From the initial position of the pick-and-roll maneuver, the player who receives the ball has many different options as to whether he/she passes it, or fakes and then goes for a jump shot. These variations typically include the pick and pop, where by the roll man instead of heading to the basket trails behind and is wide open for a jumper, hence the 'pop', as well as slipping the screen, whereby the defender of the screener attempts to cheat and get ahead of the screener, at which point the screener does not set a screen, but merely slips by, leaving him open as his defender trails behind."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A fadeaway shot is a variation on a set jump shot in which the shooter attempts his shot leaning backward, creating the effect of \"fading away\" from his defender. This makes it more difficult for the defender to contest the shot. The fadeaway usually has less range than a regular jump shot, because the ball has backwards momentum due to its inertia, making it somewhat tougher to project the ball over long distances. Michael Jordan, LeBron James, Reggie Miller, Kobe Bryant, Dwyane Wade, Dirk Nowitzki, Karl Malone, Steve Nash, and DeMar DeRozan are famous for their use of the fadeaway. Wilt Chamberlain was criticized for his frequent use of the fadeaway jumper, since the follow-through usually carries the shooter away from the basket and out of rebounding position."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lonzo Ball",
        "text": "Ball used to have an unorthodox jump shot whereby he moved the ball from his left hip to the left of his forehead. He rotated his right elbow in toward his chest until it reached a 45-degree angle, at which point he shot the ball towards the basket. He preferred to shoot jumpers while moving towards his left. This led to Ball averaging only 31% shooting from three in his two seasons with the Lakers. Heading into the 2020\u201321 NBA season, videos of Ball's new shooting form emerged. He has been shooting into a more conventional form with the ball squared up to his forehead and averaged a career-high 37.5% shooting from three in his first season with the Pelicans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "When a player posts up, in order to shoot he has to turn around to face the basket. This can be done by turning in the air, timing the jump shot when the defender is not likely to jump and challenge the shot. Though a fade-away version of this move was perfected by Larry Bird and Dirk Nowitzki, players such as Michael Jordan, Kobe Bryant, Hakeem Olajuwon, and Kevin Garnett are also well known for it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The other layup is the overhand shot, similar to a jump shot but from considerably closer range. Overhand layups almost always involved the use of the backboard. Players like Scottie Pippen and Karl Malone have used this move to great effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Shot (disambiguation)",
        "text": "The Shot was a basketball play by Michael Jordan during Game 5 of the 1989 NBA Eastern Conference First Round."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variations of basketball",
        "text": "The first player shoots from the shooting line. If the shot is missed, the player must retrieve the rebound, and shoot from the spot that the rebound was retrieved. The other players are not permitted to interfere with either the ball or the player. The player continues to shoot until a basket is made to a maximum of 5 shots. When the first player has made the shot, the next player begins shooting, again from the shooting line. This player must make the basket in the same number, or fewer shots than the preceding shooter. The next player then shoots, again from the shooting line and must make the basket in the same number, or fewer shots than the player that immediately preceded him\\her in shooting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The shooter takes a quick jab step away from the basket and takes a normal jump shot. Stephen Curry, James Harden and Luka Doncic are famous for their step-back jumper. The move creates space for the shot, while providing more balance than the fadeaway."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hank Luisetti",
        "text": "Some have mistakenly said that Luisetti kept both feet planted on the court when taking his shots, but it seems clear that he was a jumper. \"I'd get the ball, take a dribble or two and jump and shoot on the way up. I didn't jump and shoot at the height of my jump, the way they do now. I'd let the ball go right near my face; I'd push and shoot, off my fingertips.\" Furthermore, he shot \"the ball with one hand while he hung in the air, in defiance of basketball style.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Abe Saperstein",
        "text": "After the ABL shut down in 1963, the American Basketball Association made the three-pointer a central part of its image, creating enough competition for the NBA that the two leagues merged in 1976. The NBA adopted the 30-foot shot in 1979. In 1994, it was moved to 22 feet, then changed back three seasons later, where it has stayed ever since."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gary Smith (economist)",
        "text": "Gilovich, Vallone, and Tversky's analysis of basketball data debunked the common perception that players sometimes have \u201chot hands.\u201d In fact, they found that the probability of making a shot was usually somewhat lower after having made shots than after having missed shots. However, data from basketball games have several confounding influences. A player's two successive shots might be taken 30 seconds apart, 5 minutes apart, in different halves of a game, or even in different games. Another problem is that a player who makes several shots may be more willing to take difficult shots than is a player who has been missing shots. In addition, the opposing team may guard a player differently when he is perceived to be hot or cold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Named after Jack Sikma, the post player receives the ball with their back to the basket and keeps the ball at forehead level. The post then pivots to face the basket while bringing the ball overhead (almost behind the head) to shoot a jump shot. The ball is released high over the head making it difficult for the defense to block."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variations of basketball",
        "text": "If the shot is made, then the shooter must retrieve the ball before it bounces twice, they then take another shot, if they make 3 shots in a row, then they are able to eliminate another player by hitting them with the ball. The remaining players are able to run away from the shooter but must stop and remain frozen, when the shooter has retrieved the ball after the 3 shot and yelled \"STOP\". The shooter must then take 7 steps and throw the ball from wherever they have reached. Any player who is touched by the ball is then eliminated. The game is then restarted from the Free Throw line from the next player in line. The game is continued until there is only one player not eliminated. Last player standing is the winner."
      },
      {
        "title": "All-Pro Basketball",
        "text": "The court is displayed in a vertical fashion, from a top-down perspective, revealing only half of the court at a time. If the ball travels past the half-court line, the screen goes black temporarily and changes over to the other half of the court (which looks identical, save for the color of the floorboards). This is done to alert the player that they have travelled to a different side of the court. When a player attempts a slam dunk, gameplay will pause and cut to a detailed animation of the maneuver.\n*\"New York Slicks\" (New York Knickerbockers)\n*\"Chicago Zephyrs\" (Chicago Bulls)\n*\"Boston Redcoats\" (Boston Celtics)\n*\"Los Angeles Breakers\" (Los Angeles Lakers)\n*\"Dallas Stallions\" (Dallas Mavericks)\n*\"Phoenix Wings\" (Phoenix Suns)\n*\"Seattle Sonics\" (Seattle SuperSonics)\n*\"San Francisco Bayriders\" (Golden State Warriors)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "When the offensive player receives the ball in the low post, the player either fakes in one direction and then spins in the opposite direction, or immediately after catching the ball, the player spins around the defender and goes up for the shot or takes one hard dribble and then takes the shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of basketball",
        "text": "National Basketball Association (NBA)\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n* List of Atlanta Hawks seasons\n* List of Boston Celtics seasons\n* List of Brooklyn Nets seasons\n* List of Charlotte Hornets seasons\n* List of Chicago Bulls seasons\n* List of Cleveland Cavaliers seasons\n* List of Dallas Mavericks seasons\n* List of Denver Nuggets seasons\n* List of Detroit Pistons seasons\n* List of Golden State Warriors seasons\n* List of Houston Rockets seasons\n* List of Indiana Pacers seasons\n* List of Los Angeles Clippers seasons\n* List of Los Angeles Lakers seasons\n* List of Memphis Grizzlies seasons\n* List of Miami Heat seasons\n* List of Milwaukee Bucks seasons\n* List of Minnesota Timberwolves seasons\n* List of New Orleans Pelicans seasons\n* List of New York Knicks seasons\n* List of Oklahoma City Thunder seasons\n* List of Orlando Magic seasons\n* List of Philadelphia 76ers seasons\n* List of Phoenix Suns seasons\n* List of Portland Trail Blazers seasons\n* List of Sacramento Kings seasons\n* List of San Antonio Spurs seasons\n* List of Toronto Raptors seasons\n* List of Utah Jazz seasons\n* List of Washington Wizards seasons\n* End of quarter\u00a0\u2013 when a quarter ends\n* Halftime\u00a0\u2013 (1) The end of the first half of play. (2) The interval between the two halves.\n* Pivot\u00a0\u2013 (1) A \"center\" (2) The \"pivot foot\".\n* Pivot foot\u00a0\u2013 The foot that must remain touching the floor to avoid \"traveling\"\n* Run\u00a0\u2013 An interval in which one team heavily outscores the other.\n* Hot hand fallacy\u00a0\u2013 Is the notion that a streak of positive successes are likely to continue, but statistics show that the probability of a streak continuing actually goes down as the length increases.\n* 5 man weave\u00a0\u2013 drill consisting of 5 players spaced evenly along the baseline, with the middle player holding the ball. On the smack of the ball players pass the ball repeatedly to the nearest player, while traveling up the court. They then run behind two players. Upon reaching the end of the court the drill turns into a 3 on 2 drill, with the person who shot the layup and the last passer returning to play defense. The ballhandler amongst the group of the 3 retreats to the other end after attacking the goal. The 2 defenders attack the single defender resulting in a 2 on 1 to the other side. These remaining 3 players then execute a 3-man weave to the far baseline.\n* Three-peat\u00a0\u2013 winning three consecutive championships.\n* ACB\u00a0\u2013 The top professional league in Spain, often regarded as the second-strongest domestic league in the world behind the \"NBA\". Initialism for the Spanish \"Asociaci\u00f3n de Clubes de Baloncesto\" (\"Association of Basketball Clubs\").\n* EuroCup\u00a0\u2013 Europe's second-level transnational club competition, operated by Euroleague Basketball, a joint venture of 11 top European clubs. Analogous to the \"UEFA Europa League\" in association football (soccer).\n* EuroLeague\u00a0\u2013 Europe's top transnational club competition, also operated by Euroleague Basketball. Analogous to the UEFA Champions League in football (soccer).\n* FIBA\u00a0\u2013 The \"International Basketball Federation\", an association of national organizations which governs international competitions.\n** Basketball at the Summer Olympics \u00a0\u2013 Basketball has been an Olympic sport since 1936.\n** FIBA Basketball World Cup and FIBA Women's Basketball World Cup \u00a0\u2013 The world championships for national teams.\n* NBA\u00a0\u2013 The \"National Basketball Association\", the largest professional league in the United States, also with one team in Canada.\n** NBA G League\u00a0\u2013 the minor league for players trying to make it to the NBA\n* NCAA\u00a0\u2013 The \"National Collegiate Athletic Association\", the primary governing body for intercollegiate sports in the United States. Also, national tournaments operated by this body, especially the Division I men's and women's tournaments. An unrelated body with the same name exists in the Philippines.\n* NFHS\u00a0\u2013 The \"National Federation of State High School Associations\", the body that sets rules for high school sports in the U.S., including basketball.\n* ULEB\u00a0\u2013 A cooperative organization of professional basketball leagues in Europe, it operated the EuroLeague and EuroCup before handing responsibility to the Euroleague Company. The name is a French acronym for \"Union of European Leagues of Basketball\".\n* WNBA\u00a0\u2013 The \"Women's National Basketball Association\", the largest professional basketball league for women in the United States.\n* 5\u00d75\u00a0\u2013 A minimum of 5 in all positive stat categories (points, rebounds, assists, steals, and blocks).\n* Double-double\u00a0\u2013 Double-digit figures in two positive statistical categories (example: 12 points, 14 rebounds)\n* One trillion\u00a0\u2013 A box score showing one minute played and zero for all other statistics, resulting in a one followed by twelve zeros\u2014the conventional American rendering of \"One trillion.\"\n* Quadruple-double\u00a0\u2013 Double-digit figures in four positive statistical categories (example: 12 points, 14 rebounds, 10 assists, 10 steals)\n* Triple-double\u00a0\u2013 Double-digit figures in three positive statistical categories (example: 12 points, 14 rebounds, 10 assists)\n* Dr. James Naismith\u00a0\u2013 Inventor of the sport.\n* Danny Biasone\u00a0\u2013 Promoted the shot clock, an innovation widely considered to have saved the NBA in the 1950s. While he did not originate the concept of the shot clock, the 24-second duration used by the NBA and FIBA is his idea.\n* David Stern \u2013 Commissioner of the NBA from 1984 to 2014, credited with shepherding the growth of the NBA during his tenure. Also the main driving force behind the creation of the WNBA.\n* Dick Vitale\u00a0\u2013 Former college and professional coach who achieved fame as a play-by-play announcer for college basketball on ESPN. A fixture with ESPN since the network's creation in 1979, he is most noted for his enthusiastic and often hyperactive announcing style.\n* Kareem Abdul-Jabbar\u00a0\u2013 The all-time career scoring leader in NBA history, winner of six NBA titles (one with the Milwaukee Bucks and five with the Los Angeles Lakers) and a record six NBA MVP awards.\n* Larry Bird\u00a0\u2013 One of the greatest forwards in NBA history, Bird led the Boston Celtics as they battled the Los Angeles Lakers for NBA supremacy through the 1980s. His (friendly) personal rivalry with Magic Johnson (below) was a major force in the NBA's growth in the 1980s and beyond.\n* Wilt Chamberlain\u00a0\u2013 Arguably the most physically dominant player in basketball history, Chamberlain was one of the NBA's leading scorers and rebounders through the 1960s and into the early 1970s.\n* Chuck Cooper, Nathaniel Clifton, Earl Lloyd\u00a0\u2013 The first three African Americans in the NBA. Cooper was the first to be drafted by an NBA team, Clifton the first to sign an NBA contract who appeared in a game, and Lloyd the first to actually play in the league. Clifton and Lloyd are in the Hall of Fame as contributors.\n* Stephen Curry\u00a0\u2013 One of the faces of today's NBA and one of the greatest shooters in NBA history. Named NBA MVP in 2015 and unanimously in 2016.\n* Julius Erving\u00a0\u2013 Commonly known as \"Dr. J\", he revolutionized a new style of basketball that emphasized playing above the rim in the 1970s and 1980s. A star player in both the ABA and NBA, Erving popularized his signature \"slam dunk\", and help spur the NBA's rise in popularity in the modern era.\n* LeBron James\u00a0\u2013 Four-time league MVP, three-time champion, and arguably the current face of the NBA.\n* Magic Johnson\u00a0\u2013 One of the greatest floor leaders in NBA history, Johnson led the Showtime Lakers of the 1980s and played a major role in the NBA's growth since 1980.\n* Michael Jordan\u00a0\u2013 Widely acclaimed as the greatest player in history, the NBA's all-time leader in scoring average was the face of the Chicago Bulls dynasty of the 1990s, and even of the NBA as a whole.\n* George Mikan\u00a0- Regarded as the NBA's first true superstar, Mikan played for the Minneapolis Lakers and directed them to 5 NBA titles in 6 seasons. He is noted as a pioneer of big men in basketball, with his rebounding, shot blocking and ambidextrous hook shot.\n* Dirk Nowitzki\u00a0\u2013 The first European-trained player to be named NBA MVP, Nowitzki was a perennial All-Star for the Dallas Mavericks, and guided them to the NBA Championship in 2011.\n* Shaquille O'Neal\u00a0\u2013 Perhaps the most physically dominant center since Chamberlain, and one of the NBA's biggest stars for much of the 1990s and 2000s.\n* Dra\u017een Petrovi\u0107\u00a0\u2013 The first European-trained player to make a major impact in the NBA. Died in a 1993 automobile accident when on the verge of NBA superstardom.\n* Oscar Robertson\u00a0\u2013 \"The Big O\" is the first of only two players to average a triple-double for an entire campaign in the 1961\u201362 season, and was noted for both his abilities as a playmaker and a scorer. He later helped Kareem Abdul-Jabbar win the NBA Championship for the Milwaukee Bucks in 1971.\n* Bill Russell\u00a0\u2013 The centerpiece of the Boston Celtics dynasty of the 1950s and 1960s, winning 11 NBA titles while establishing himself as one of the greatest rebounders and defenders in history.\n* Jerry West\u00a0\u2013 West was one of the NBA's greatest all-around combo guards, being equally strong on offense and defense. He was also known for making key baskets in late stages of games, earning him the nickname \"Mr. Clutch\". Later nicknamed \"The Logo\", as he was the model for the NBA's current logo.\n* Yao Ming\u00a0\u2013 The face of basketball in China in the 2000s. The first Chinese NBA superstar, and also the first #1 overall NBA draft pick to have been both born and trained outside the U.S.\n* Red Auerbach\u00a0\u2013 Architect of the Boston Celtics from 1950 until his death in 2006, he won nine NBA titles as head coach and seven more as general manager and team president.\n* Geno Auriemma\u00a0\u2013 Current Connecticut Huskies women's coach; winner of 11 NCAA titles, including six unbeaten seasons and separate NCAA Division I-record winning streaks of 70, 90, and 111 games. Also a former head coach of the USA women's national team.\n* Larry Brown\u00a0- Regarded as one of the greatest coaches in basketball history, Brown was a proven winner in both collegiate and professional basketball. He is the only coach to win both an NCAA national championship (with Kansas in 1988) and an NBA championship (In 2004 with the Detroit Pistons).\n* Chuck Daly\u00a0- Daly's coaching career started with a highly successful run in the Ivy League as the head coach of Penn. Daly then guided the Detroit Pistons to back-to-back NBA titles in 1989 & 1990, and also coached the Dream Team to the gold medal at the 1992 Summer Olympics.\n* Red Holzman\u00a0- Holzman is best known for coaching the New York Knicks to two NBA titles in 1970 and 1973. His teams were known for strong teamwork, tough defense, and unselfish play on offense.\n* Phil Jackson\u00a0\u2013 Winner of a record 11 NBA titles as a head coach\u2014six with the Chicago Bulls dynasty of the 1990s, and five with the Los Angeles Lakers in the 21st century.\n* Bob Knight\u00a0\u2013 Highly successful though often controversial, Knight is most famous for his long tenure at Indiana University, where he won three NCAA titles. Retired as the winningest head coach in Division I men's history; since surpassed by his protege Mike Krzyzewski (see below).\n* Mike Krzyzewski\u00a0\u2013 A former player under Knight at Army, \"Coach K\" successfully rebuilt Duke into one of the most powerful NCAA men's programs, with five NCAA titles to his credit. Surpassed Knight as the winningest Division I men's coach in 2011\u201312. Also a former head coach of the USA men's national team, leading the \"Redeem Team\" to Olympic gold in 2008 and repeating in 2012 and 2016.\n* John Kundla\u00a0- Kundla coached the NBA's first great dynasty, the Minneapolis Lakers of the early 1950s. Leading a team starring George Mikan, Kundla guided the Lakers to 5 NBA titles in 6 years.\n* Nancy Lieberman\u00a0\u2013 Though more famous as one of the top women's players in history, she has also made history as the first woman to coach an NBA or NBA Development League team; she made her debut coaching the Texas Legends on November 17, 2010.\n* Gregg Popovich\u00a0- A 3-time winner of the NBA Coach of the Year Award, Popovich has coached the San Antonio Spurs to 5 NBA titles since 1996, and has won more total games (regular-season and playoffs combined) than any other NBA coach. Succeeded Krzyzewski as USA men's national head coach following the 2016 Olympics.\n* Pat Riley\u00a0- Also a 3-time winner of the NBA Coach of the Year Award. Riley first coached the Los Angeles Lakers to 4 NBA titles in the 1980s, forging a dynasty known as \"Showtime.\" He then coached the New York Knicks in the mid-1990s, and finally served twice as coach of the Miami Heat, winning a 5th title in 2006.\n* Adolph Rupp\u00a0\u2013 The main architect of the University of Kentucky's basketball tradition, who won four NCAA titles and retired as the winningest Division I men's coach.\n* Dean Smith\u00a0\u2013 Reestablished the University of North Carolina's basketball tradition, surpassing Rupp as the winningest Division I men's coach in the process. He retired with 2 NCAA titles along the way and recorded 879 career victories.\n* Pat Summitt\u00a0\u2013 Head coach of the Tennessee Lady Volunteers for 38 seasons until retiring in 2012; winner of eight NCAA titles and the first coach (men's or women's) to win 1,000 games in NCAA play.\n* John Wooden\u00a0\u2013 UCLA legend who led the Bruins to seven consecutive NCAA titles and 10 in 12 years, with four unbeaten seasons and a winning streak of 88 games, still a record in Division I men's play.\n* Recreational basketball\u00a0\u2013 where fun, entertainment and camaraderie rule rather than winning a game\n* 3x3\u00a0\u2013 A formalized version of three-on-three halfcourt basketball created by FIBA in 2007, and currently being heavily promoted by the federation. Originally known as FIBA 33.\n* Beach basketball\u00a0\u2013 played on beaches in a circular court with no backboard and no out-of-bounds rule, with the ball movement done via passes or 2\u00bd steps, as dribbling is next to impossible on sand.\n* Streetball\u00a0\u2013 variation typically played on outdoor courts, with rules that vary widely from court to court. In most versions there are no free throws, and carrying, traveling, and double dribbling are allowed.\n* Water basketball\u00a0\u2013 played in a swimming pool with a floating boardless hoop, combining rules from basketball and water polo.\n* Donkey basketball\u00a0\u2013 Played on the backs of donkeys, this version has come under attack from animal rights groups.\n* Horseball\u00a0\u2013 game played on horseback where a ball is handled and points are scored by shooting it through a high net (approximately 1.5m\u00d71.5m). It is a combination of polo, rugby, and basketball.\n* Unicycle basketball\u00a0\u2013 is played using a regulation basketball on a regular basketball court with the same rules, e.g., one must dribble the ball whilst riding.\n* Wheelchair basketball\u00a0\u2013 designed for disabled people in wheelchairs and is considered one of the major disabled sports practiced.\n* Basketball Schools and Academies\u00a0\u2013 where students are trained in developing basketball fundamentals, undergo fitness and endurance exercises and learn various basketball skills. Basketball students learn proper ways of passing, ball handling, dribbling, shooting from various distances, rebounding, offensive moves, defense, layups, screens, basketball rules and basketball ethics. Also popular are the basketball camps organized for various occasions, often to get prepared for basketball events, and basketball clinics for improving skills.\n* Disabled basketball played by various disabled groups, such as:\n** Bankshot basketball\u00a0\u2013\n** Deaf basketball\u00a0\u2013 Basketball played by deaf people. Despite the game's many whistles due to its \"no contact\" nature of play, deaf players have adapted well to reading the flow of the game and can easily tell when a foul is committed. Sign language is also used to communicate referee decisions and communication between players.\n** Wheelchair basketball\u00a0\u2013 based on basketball but designed for disabled people in wheelchairs and considered one of the major disabled sports practiced.\n* College and University basketball\u00a0\u2013 played in educational institutions of higher learning.\n** National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)\u00a0\u2013 Intercollegiate basketball, commonly known as College basketball in the United States although it is also played in most universities in the country.\n* Ethnic and Religion-based basketball\u00a0\u2013 Examples of ethnic basketball include Indo-Pak or Russian or Armenian leagues in the United States or Canada, for example, or Filipino expatriate basketball leagues in the Gulf or the United States. Religion-based basketball includes, most notably, church-related Christian basketball leagues, Jewish, Muslim and Hindu basketball leagues, etc. or denominational leagues like Coptic, Syriac/Assyrian basketball leagues in the United States or Canada.\n* Gay basketball\u00a0\u2013 played in gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender communities in gay basketball leagues. The sport of basketball is a major part of events during the Gay Games, World Outgames and EuroGames.\n* Midnight basketball\u00a0\u2013 a basketball initiative to curb inner-city crime in the United States and elsewhere by keeping urban youth off the streets and engaging them with sports alternatives to drugs and crime.\n* Mini basketball\u00a0\u2013 played by underage children.\n* Maxi Basketball\u00a0\u2013 played by more elderly individuals.\n* Rezball,\u00a0 short for reservation ball, is the avid Native American following of basketball, especially a style of play particular to Native American teams in parts of the Western United States.\n* Prison basketball,\u00a0 practiced in prisons and penitentiary institutions. Active religious basketball missionary groups also play basketball with prisoners. Some prisons have developed their own prison basketball leagues. At times, non-prisoners may play in such leagues, provided all home and away games are played within prison courts. Film director Jason Moriarty has released a documentary relating to the sport, entitled Prison Ball.\n* School or High school basketball\u00a0\u2013 the sport of basketball being one of the most frequently exercised and popular sports in all school systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goriziana",
        "text": "Unlike in many games, shots are always taken in rotation \u2013 the same player or team never shoots twice in a row, even if they have scored. The only exception is if the opponent fouls before shooting, such as by moving one of the balls accidentally. Play continues until one player or team wins by being the first to reach or exceed a specific number of points (usually 200 or 300). This number is agreed upon beforehand by the players."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Finger-rolls today have many forms, including the Around the World which involves a complete circle around the player before the layup and a variety of faking in the approach to the rim. A classic example is a play by former Kings point guard Jason Williams during his time with Sacramento, in which Williams brings the ball behind his back with his right hand, in a fake of a back pass, and then brings it front again with the same hand for the finish (reminiscent of Bob Cousy who pioneered the move)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Ball is dribbled with same hand in a V motion. Almost looks like a double crossover but ball stays in hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hook shot",
        "text": "In basketball, a hook shot is a play in which the offensive player, usually turned perpendicular to the basket, gently throws the ball with a sweeping motion of the arm farther from the basket in an upward arc with a follow-through which ends over his head. Unlike the jump shot, it is shot with only one hand; the other arm is often used to create space between the shooter and the defensive player. The shot is quite difficult to block, but few players have mastered the shot more than a few feet from the basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Space Jam (pinball)",
        "text": "Like the Trivia Game, Video Mode is played on the screen. Players must move the basketball hoop with the flipper buttons to the Looney Tunes character making a throw. From left to right, the order is Daffy Duck, Bugs Bunny, Michael Jordan, Sylvester the Cat, and Lola Bunny. The characters take shots slowly at the beginning but start to increase speed as the game continues. Getting all 16 shots is worth 1,000,000 points. Each missed shot costs 250,000 from the million total. A perfect run also plays an animation on the screen where Michael Jordan says, \"Nuthin' but net!\" The combination of shots is always the same and is as follows:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Isaiah Rider",
        "text": "Rider also became famous for a miraculous shot made in a game on December 22, 1994, against the Sacramento Kings. Losing control of the ball with it nearly going out of bounds, Rider reached out and threw the ball over his shoulder to keep it in play, and the ball went through the hoop as a three-point basket, a play that one announcer exclaimed as the \"Play of the decade.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Darrell Floyd",
        "text": "When Floyd played college basketball the game's rules were different from the present. The three-point shot had yet to be created and implemented, a common foul only allowed for one point on free throws, and the \"one-and-one\" rule meant that the free throw shooter did \"not\" get the ball back if he made his first attempt. Given that Floyd was a small guard, one may reasonably infer that the majority of his shots were from at least a mid-range distance. Additionally, as a 78.3% free throw shooter, his scoring averages would have been higher if players had been rewarded with bonus free throw opportunities as they are under the game's current rules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variations of basketball",
        "text": "Each player has an order for when it is their turn to shoot. The first shooter takes their shot from the foul line. If they miss the ring and backboard or Airball on the shot, then they are eliminated, and this is applied to any shot by any player during the game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A layup is a two-point attempt made by leaping from the ground, releasing the ball with one hand up near the basket, and using one hand to tip the ball over the rim and into the basket (lay-in) or banking it off the backboard and into the basket (lay-up). The motion and one-handed reach distinguish it from a jump shot. The layup is considered the most basic shot in basketball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variations of basketball",
        "text": "Some special techniques used are to start running away from the ring once a shooter has made two shots to ensure that if a 3rd is made, it is more difficult to hit them with the ball. The shooter can negate this by purposefully missing the 3rd shot in the hope the next shooter is too far away to retrieve it. Another technique is to throw the ball very hard at the ring to enable a difficult return for the next shooter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Behind-the-back passes are passes dealt to a target behind the passer's back. Usually done to confuse the defender, behind-the-back passes can either be bounced off the floor or passed directly to a teammate's chest. However, most behind-the-back passes are direct. Earl Monroe was famous for this move. Steve Nash used this move often, and Chris Webber is famed for using this move down in the paint."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hotshot (basketball)",
        "text": "Once the player has chosen his hotspots, he proceeds to his first and takes five shots, keeping track of how many he has missed. On the fifth shot, or \"hotshot\", the player must prepare to make his own rebound as quickly as possible, because he will have to make a number of shots from wherever he recovers the ball. If he recovers the ball outside the three-point line, he may take his shots from wherever the ball passed over the three-point line; if the player made his \"hotshot\", he may take his shots from wherever the ball left the key, if it is outside the key when recovered. If the player hits all five of his hotspot shots, he receives a twenty-point bonus and need not recover his rebound, but may move on to his next hotspot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jump shot (basketball)",
        "text": "Jump shot (basketball)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bogs Adornado",
        "text": "Adornado converted 69 consecutive free throws from October 14, 1986 until August 7, 1987, a record that stood for six years until a new sweet-shooting forward in the mold of Adornado by the name of Allan Caidic broke it with 76 consecutive free shots made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Super Shot",
        "text": "\"Hoop Shot\", a basketball skill-toss electro-mechanical game manufactured by Doyle & Associates, was released for arcades in 1985. It became a hit, inspiring numerous imitators within a year. Arcade basketball games of this type became popular in the late 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1948 Globetrotters\u2013Lakers game",
        "text": "With only a few seconds left, Haynes flipped the ball to Ermer Robinson, who was stationed 30 feet from the basket. Flexing his knees and holding the ball to his chest, Robinson let fly the one-handed shot he had practiced hundreds of times a day on his childhood courts in San Diego. It was the same shot he had already missed three times in a row, and he hadn't sunk any from that far out. But this time the ball went in. Screaming fans poured onto the court. When the Globetrotters reached their locker room, they hoisted Saperstein, who was wearing double-breasted suit and wide tie, onto their shoulders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shot clock",
        "text": "On a held ball (whether decided by a jump ball or a possession arrow), the state of the shot clock depends on which team gets possession of the ball.\n*If the defensive team acquires possession, the shot clock is reset, as it is on any other change of possession.\n*If the offense retains possession, the shot clock is not reset, because there was no change of possession. However, in Euroleague, NBA, and WNBA, the shot clock is topped up to 14 seconds, as described above for a frontcourt inbounds pass."
      },
      {
        "title": "NBA Live 19",
        "text": "- Shot Off Dribble"
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A pull-up jumper is an offensive move, where the ball handler in the act of dribbling, 'pulls up' to shoot the basketball. This is especially effective as the defender is not able to react in time to affect or block the shot. This move is widely used by many players in the NBA, including notable stars such as Jerry West, DeMar DeRozan, Russell Westbrook, Stephen Curry, Kevin Durant, and LeBron James."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bulls vs. Blazers and the NBA Playoffs",
        "text": "Each team featured a star player with a signature move known as a \"Marquee Shot\". These shots were difficult to perform, and only occurred when a player would press the \"A\" button under the right circumstances. A list of each player's \"Marquee Shot\" was posted in the instruction manual, and some fan favorites included: Michael Jordan's \"Free-Throw Line\" dunk, Larry Bird's \"Turn-Around\" Fadeaway Jumper, Magic Johnson's \"Fake No-Look Pass\" Lay Up, Tim Hardaway's \"UTEP Two-step\" Killer Crossover, Shawn Kemp's \"Off-the-Glass\" Back-Jam, Larry Nance's \"Around the World\" Slam, Mookie Blaylock's \"Spinning 360\" Layup, Billy Owens' \"Alley Oop Tomahawk\" Jam, and Karl Malone's \"Special Delivery In-Your-Face\" Slam Dunk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The hook shot is one of the most effective inside moves, but it is also quite difficult to execute. A hook shot begins when the player puts his body between the ball and the opponent. He then releases the ball towards the basket with his outside hand in a \"hook\" motion. The hook shot and variations such as the jump-hook and skyhook are effective because they are very difficult for the defender to block, although it is harder to hit the shot with precision. The advantage the hook shot offers is the space it creates between the offensive player and his defender. This extra space can reduce or eliminate the advantages enjoyed by a taller defender. The hook shot is most often used by post players because it is difficult to make the shot from a distance. Kareem Abdul-Jabbar became the NBA's all-time leading scorer by using his almost indefensible skyhook."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hook shot",
        "text": "The hook shot became a trademark of Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, the National Basketball Association's all-time leading scorer, who was proficient at the shot at a much greater distance from the basket than most players. The greater distance and resulting higher arc on the shot led to the name \"skyhook\", which was coined during Abdul-Jabbar's tenure with the Milwaukee Bucks by the team's radio announcer, Eddie Doucette, who felt that \"that hook was so high that it was coming out of the sky\". The skyhook was rarely blocked, and it was accomplished by only a few players like Wilt Chamberlain and Manute Bol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Named after Hakeem \"The Dream\" Olajuwon, this move is executed when a post player dribbles alongside the baseline and with one hand under the ball fakes a layup, then pivots to the outside for a jump hook. If the defender recovers and jumps at the hook shot, the post player can pump fake the hook and step through for the unguarded layup (similar to the up and under move)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gilbert Arenas",
        "text": "On January 3, 2007, Arenas hit a 32-foot buzzer-beater to win the game against the Milwaukee Bucks, 108\u2013105. Two weeks later on Martin Luther King Jr. Day he hit another buzzer-beating three-pointer to beat the Utah Jazz, 114\u2013111, in a thriller at the Verizon Center. This same scenario has been added as a cut scene in the video game \"NBA Live 2008\". He also hit a game-winning layup as time expired to beat the Seattle SuperSonics on March 21, 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "Free throw",
        "text": "In the NBA, most players make 70\u201380% of their attempts. The league's best shooters (such as Mark Price, Steve Nash, Steve Kerr, Rick Barry, Larry Bird, Ray Allen, Jos\u00e9 Calder\u00f3n, Stephen Curry, Reggie Miller, Kevin Durant, and Dirk Nowitzki) can make roughly 90% of their attempts over a season, while notoriously poor shooters (e.g. Dwight Howard, DeAndre Jordan, Wilt Chamberlain, Andre Drummond, Andris Biedrins, Chris Dudley, Ben Wallace, Shaquille O'Neal, Ben Simmons, and Dennis Rodman) may struggle to make 50% of them. During a foul shot, a player's feet must both be completely behind the foul line."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Selvy",
        "text": "\"It was a fairly tough shot because I was almost on the baseline. But I would trade all my points for that last basket.\"\n:\u2014 Frank Selvy as quoted on NBA.com"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fadeaway",
        "text": "A fadeaway or fall-away in basketball is a jump shot taken while jumping backwards, away from the basket. The goal is to create space between the shooter and the defender, making the shot much harder to block. The shooter must have very good accuracy, much higher than when releasing a regular jump shot, and must use more strength to counteract the backwards momentum in a relatively short amount of time. Because the movement is away from the basket, the shooter also has less chance to grab his own rebound."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Basketball moves\n--Dribbling.\n----Crossover.\n------Between the legs.\n------Behind the back.\n----Wraparound.\n----In and out dribble.\n----V dribble.\n----Different heights dribble.\n----Ankle breaker dribble.\n----Hesitation move.\n--After the dribble.\n----Euro step.\n----Jump stop.\n----Pro-Hop.\n----Pro-hop euro step.\n----Power up.\n----Over-the-head.\n--Shots.\n----Layups.\n------Reverse layup.\n------Finger roll.\n------Tear drop.\n------Power layup.\n------Double clutch.\n----Bank shot.\n----Putback and tip-in.\n--Triple threat position and related moves.\n----Pivot.\n----Jab step.\n----Pump fake.\n----Drawing contact.\n----Shuffle.\n--Posting up.\n----Up and under.\n----Hook shot.\n----Drop step.\n----Power move.\n----Spin and drive.\n----Sikma move.\n----Dream shake.\n--Shooting.\n----Pull-up jumper.\n----Turnaround jump shot.\n----Fadeaway.\n----Step-back jump shot.\n--Passes.\n----Bounce pass.\n----Chest pass.\n----Over-the-head pass.\n----Touch pass.\n----Baseball pass.\n----Jump pass.\n----Blind pass.\n----Behind-the-back pass.\n--Two person game.\n----Give and go.\n----Dribble pitch (handoff).\n----Pick and roll.\n----Backdoor.\n----Alley-oop.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "NBA Live 19",
        "text": "- 3-Pt Shot"
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "An undefended layup is usually a high-percentage shot. The main challenge is getting near the rim and avoiding blocks by taller defenders who usually stand near the basket. Common layup strategies are to create space, releasing the ball from different spots or using an alternate hand. A player tall enough (or with sufficient leaping ability) to reach over the rim might choose to perform a more spectacular and higher percentage slam dunk (dropping or throwing the ball through the basket from above the rim) instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Double Dribble (video game)",
        "text": "Like a real NBA game, the game is divided into four quarters at 12 minutes per quarter. After the end of each quarter there is a challenge stage, which is a three-point shootout. In these stages, the player controls a character from their team attempting five three-point shots at each corner, each wing, and from the top of the key for a total of 25 shots. The player presses and holds the shoot button until the character reaches the top of his jump, and then releases it. Each successful shot adds 1 second to the player's time remaining for a total of 25 seconds, with an additional bonus of 1 minute if all shots succeed. Play then continues until the player runs out of time while having fewer points than the opposing team, or the score is tied."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "In the 1950s, Jim Pollard and Wilt Chamberlain had both dunked from the free throw line\u201415 feet from the basket. Chamberlain was able to dunk from the free-throw line without a running start, beginning his forward movement from within the top half of the free-throw circle. This was the catalyst for the 1956 NCAA rule change which requires that a shooter maintain both feet behind the line during a free-throw attempt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variations of basketball",
        "text": "If they miss the shot but hit either the ring or backboard then the next player in line must retrieve the ball after it has bounced once but before it bounces twice, then take the shot from wherever they retrieved the ball. If the ball bounces twice, the player is eliminated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball (1978 video game)",
        "text": "At the start of the game, both players are at the center of the court. A jump ball is thrown between them to begin play. The player in the offensive position (i.e. in possession of the ball) always faces a basket representing the assigned shooting target, and defensive players always face the opponent. Each player can move in eight directions with the joystick; the player with the ball constantly dribbles it. The defensive player may steal the ball when it leaves the opponent's hands (either in mid-dribble or mid-shot)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Super Shot",
        "text": "A mini-basketball game found in many arcades, Super Shot consists of a basket, that usually moves back and forth, and four to five basketballs to shoot. There are four different modes which affect the rate at which the basket moves. Each shot is worth either two or three points, depending on the distance between the shooter and the basket. There is also a time limit for each game, usually between 40 and 60 seconds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball",
        "text": "The two most common shots that use the above described setup are the \"set shot\" and the \"jump shot\". Both are preceded by a crouching action which preloads the muscles and increases the power of the shot. In a set shot, the shooter straightens up and throws from a standing position with neither foot leaving the floor; this is typically used for free throws. For a jump shot, the throw is taken in mid-air with the ball being released near the top of the jump. This provides much greater power and range, and it also allows the player to elevate over the defender. Failure to release the ball before the feet return to the floor is considered a traveling violation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast break",
        "text": "A fly fast break (also known as a one out fast break, the technical term for the play) is a basketball move in which after a shot is attempted, the player who is guarding the shooter does not box out or rebound but instead runs down the court looking for a pass from a rebounding teammate for a quick score."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sam Cassell",
        "text": "Cassell appeared on TNT's \"NBA Fundamentals\" series, in which basketball players describe certain aspects of the game. He was chosen to illustrate the \"mid-range game\", i.e. shooting from the area around the free throw line, the paint, the wings and the baseline. In this clip, Cassell explains how to post up against opposing guards, shoot pull-up jump shots and hit buzzer beaters. He admires retired NBA players Terrell Brandon and Jeff Hornacek, two prolific mid-range shooters after whom he modeled his game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ambidexterity",
        "text": "In basketball a player may choose to make a pass or shot with the weaker hand. NBA stars Kyrie Irving, Carlos Boozer, David Lee, John Wall, Derrick Rose, Chandler Parsons, Andrew Bogut, John Henson, Michael Beasley, and Jerryd Bayless are ambidextrous players, as was Kobe Bryant. Bogut and Henson are both stronger in the post with their left-handed hook shot than they are with their natural right hands. Brothers Marc and Pau Gasol can make hook shots with either hand while the right hand is dominant for each. Bob Cousy, a Boston Celtics legend was forced to play with left hand in high school when he injured his right hand, thus making him effectively ambidextrous. Mike Conley shoots left-handed, but has preferred to shoot floaters right handed, as he does everything else right-handed off the court. Ben Simmons and Luke Kennard are also natural right-handers shooting left-handed. Tristan Thompson is a natural left-hander, and was a left-handed shooter, but has shot right-handed since the 2013\u20132014 season. He does perform left-handed hook shots more often. Los Angeles Lakers center DeAndre Jordan who is left-handed, shoots with his left hand but has been known to dunk with his right hand, spin clockwise in his 360 dunks, and shoot right handed hook shots more accurately and from further out. Charlotte Hornets small forward Miles Bridges is a left-handed shooter; however, he dunks the ball and blocks shots more frequently with his right hand. Former Los Angeles Lakers center Roy Hibbert shoots his hook shots equally well with either hand. Former Oklahoma City Thunder left-handed point guard Derek Fisher used to dunk with his right hand in his early years. Candace Parker, forward for the Chicago Sky, also has equal dominance with either hand. Los Angeles Lakers superstar Kobe Bryant shot with either hand, although his right hand was dominant: due to an injury to the right hand, he was forced to shoot with his left. Paul George, Tracy McGrady and Vince Carter are all noted to be right-handed, but rotates clockwise for dunks, but Carter is able to also spin anticlockwise, as he did during high school. McGrady also spins anti-clockwise for his baseline dunks. Larry Bird, LeBron James, Paul Millsap, Russell Westbrook, Danny Ainge and Gary Payton shoot right-handed, but do almost everything left-handed off the courts, but Bird once had a game in which he only shot left-handed running hook shots, cross passes and layups. Ronnie Price, however has a tendency to dunk with his left hand, but he is a right-handed shooter. Josh McRoberts is known to be a left handed shooter but does everything with his right hand such as his famous dunks. Ivica Zubac is a right handed shooter, but can shoot hook shots with both hands, and is more accurate with his left handed hooks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milwaukee Bucks",
        "text": "During game four of the 2009\u201310 first-round playoff series between the Milwaukee Bucks and the Atlanta Hawks, Bango successfully performed a back-flip dunk from the top of a 16-foot ladder, a feat similar to the Seattle SuperSonics' mascot Squatch's feat during a March 19, 2008, game between the SuperSonics and the Phoenix Suns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hotshot (basketball)",
        "text": "Switching turns - Sometimes, players shoot from all their hotspots before giving the ball to the next player. Sometimes, players may alternate after every hotspot. This is a personal choice and may be made before the game."
      },
      {
        "title": "NBA Give 'n Go",
        "text": "Similar to \"Run and Gun\", the in-game camera is at one end of the basketball court. Gameplay is fast-paced, much like \"NBA Jam\" and Konami's own \"Run and Gun\". Elements lifted from arcade basketball games included limited fouls (that automatically lead to free throw shots), faster than real time clock, and basketballs rarely travel out of bounds. Free throw shots are simply a manner of trying to get two dots in the center as possible. The shot always goes in as long as \"both\" dots are blue; otherwise the shot always misses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Power layup, also called jump stop layup, is a continuous shooting move in which a player stops dribbling and makes a huge leap forward (jump stop), while securing the ball in both hands from the dribbling hand, then making a layup. The move is generally used as a layup because the huge movement coming from the leap provides the momentum for the player to jump forward for a layup. The move is a great way to squeeze the player under the basket for a fast layup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of basketball",
        "text": "Basketball moves \u2013 individual actions used by players in basketball to pass by defenders to gain access to the basket or to get a clean pass to a teammate.\n* Free throw\u00a0\u2013\n* Advance step\u00a0\u2013 A step in which the defender's lead foot steps toward their man and the back foot slides forward.\n* Air ball\u00a0\u2013 An unblocked shot that fails to hit the rim or backboard. Does not reset the shot clock.\n* Air pass\u00a0\u2013 A pass that goes straight through the air to the receiver. See also \"bounce pass\".\n* Alley oop\u00a0\u2013 An offensive play in which a player throws the ball up near the basket to a teammate (or, more rarely, to himself) who jumps, catches the ball in mid air and immediately scores a basket, usually with a slam dunk.\n* Euro step\u00a0\u2013 An offensive move in which a player, after picking up the dribble, takes a step in one direction and the second allowed step in a different direction while driving to the rim.\n* Field goal\u00a0\u2013 A shot made from anywhere on the court, does not include free throws.\n* Over the back\u00a0\u2013 a foul committed by a player who tries to rebound the ball by pushing, moving or climbing on a player's back who is already in position to rebound the ball.\n* Rebound\u00a0\u2013 To obtain the ball after a missed field goal attempt.\n* Banana cut\u00a0\u2013 A wide, curving cut, as opposed to a cut that is a straight line.\n* Basket cut\u00a0\u2013 A cut toward the basket.\n* Blindside screen\u00a0\u2013 A screen set directly behind a defender where the player can't see it.\n* Block\u00a0\u2013 To tip or deflect a shooter's shot, altering its flight so the shot misses.* Block out\u00a0\u2013 To make contact with an opposing player to establish rebounding position between the player and the ball. Also called \"box out.\"\n* Box out\u00a0\u2013 See block out.\n* Bump the cutter\u00a0\u2013 To step in the way of a player who is trying to cut to the ball for a pass.\n* Dingle\u00a0\u2013 A steal that leads quickly to a score.\n* Rip a C\u00a0\u2013 A motion used while chinning the ball to create space during a pivot between an offensive player and a defensive player. Pivot towards the defender and rips the ball in a C-shape away from the pressure to create a passing lane.\n* screen, set a screen\u00a0\u2013 (v) To attempt to prevent a defender from guarding a teammate by standing in the defender's way. The screening player must remain stationary: a moving screen is an offensive foul. (n) The tactic of setting a screen. Also called a \"pick\".\n* Stutter step\u00a0\u2013 a common warm-up drill where you shuffle and scuff your feet in a quick moving motion across a length of flooring. This warm-up is supposed to keep the players alert and help them prepare to defend players in a real game, since the stutter step is a smaller version of shuffling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The power move is executed by pivoting towards the basket to seal the defender, then using a two handed power dribble followed by a jump stop to get closer to the basket. Immediately after the jump stop the player jumps up for a power shot or jump hook."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The up and under is a move consisting of two parts: a shot fake (the up) and a step-through (the under). First the player with the ball fakes a shot by thrusting the ball above his head as if to take a shot, then when the defender jumps in an attempt to block the shot, the offensive player steps by him and attempts a clear, unguarded shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Raja Bell",
        "text": "Bell finished the 2006\u201307 season with 205 total three-point shots made, tying the Washington Wizards' Gilbert Arenas for the league lead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "In the 2011 NBA contest, Los Angeles Clippers power-forward Blake Griffin completed a self-pass off of the backboard prior to elbow-hanging on the rim. A number of other variants of the elbow hang have been executed, including a lob self-pass, hanging by the arm pit, a windmill, and over a person. Most notable are two variations which as of July 2012, have yet to be duplicated. In 2008, Canadian athlete Justin Darlington introduced an iteration aptly entitled a 'double-elbow hang', in which the player inserts both forearms through the rim and subsequently hangs on both elbows pits. Circa 2009, French athlete Guy Dupuy demonstrated the ability to perform a between-the-legs elbow hang; however, Guy opted not to hang on the rim by his elbow, likely because the downward moment could have resulted in injury."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball (1978 video game)",
        "text": "After either player scores, the shooter is reset to the center of the court and becomes the defensive player (defending the opponent) while the former defender is set under the basket to inbound the ball and take an offensive chance. The player with the highest score after four minutes is the winner."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variations of basketball",
        "text": "In theory, the shooting positions are arbitrary; in practice, they are most commonly ordered along the 3-point line in equal intervals starting from one of the sides of the basket and including the straight-on center shot (e.g., 0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, and 180 degrees along the 3-point line with 90 being the center). This 180-degree semi-circular path is the inspiration for the game's name. Other common positions are around the key or even under the basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "2011\u201312 Portland Pilots men's basketball team",
        "text": "The Portland Pilots lost Luke Sikma and Jared Stohl because they both graduated from the University of Portland. They were both averaging over 10 points per game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "As the game has evolved through the years, so has the layup. Several different versions of the layup are used today. Layups can be broadly categorized into two types: the underarm and the overarm. The underarm layup involves using most of the wrist and the fingers to 'lay' the ball into the basket or off the board. The underarm layup is more commonly known as the finger roll. A notable NBA player who uses the underarm finger roll is Dwyane Wade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The tear drop, also called a runner or a floater, is a high arcing shot over the reach of taller defenders in the lane. The shooter typically begins with a layup drive, stops short of layup range, and attempts to shoot before defenders can recover. By releasing the ball quickly and in a higher arc than a normal layup, the tear drop can be effective for shorter players to avoid blocked shots. It is so-named because the ball drops down from the high point of the arc like a falling tear drop. Gary Payton and John Stockton during their primes, the former in the mid-to-late 90s and the latter in the early-to-mid 90s were considered to have the best tear drops in the game. Chris Paul, Tony Parker, and Stephen Curry frequently use the tear drop with great success. Antawn Jamison had one of the most highly effective tear drop shots in the league despite being a power forward. Trae Young is currently known for the tear drop move."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slap Shot",
        "text": "The Blades in the film were based on the Broome Dusters. One scene in the film was specifically drawn from events that occurred in Binghamton. In the movie the Hanson brothers wear black-rimmed, Coke-bottle eyeglasses, and in one game get into a fight immediately after the opening faceoff; in reality, both Jeff and Steve Carlson did wear that style of glasses, and did indeed get into a long fight right after an opening faceoff. Coach Dick Roberge:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "A slam dunk, also simply dunk, is a type of basketball shot that is performed when a player jumps in the air, controls the ball above the horizontal plane of the rim, and scores by putting the ball directly through the basket with one or two hands. It is considered a type of field goal; if successful, it is worth two points. Such a shot was known as a \"dunk shot\" until the term \"slam dunk\" was coined by former Los Angeles Lakers announcer Chick Hearn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sam Bowie",
        "text": "\"It was not a pretty sight,\" Portland teammate Clyde Drexler recalled. \"He went to make a move, fell, and threw the ball down hard off the court. I remember seeing part of the bone sticking out of his leg and how he was beating the floor over and over with his fist.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Fadeaway",
        "text": "Only a handful of great NBA players have been successful shooting fadeaways. Wilt Chamberlain was a famous pioneer of the fadeaway. Michael Jordan and Kobe Bryant are regarded as the most popular shooters of the fadeaway. Dirk Nowitzki, DeMar DeRozan, and others are also well known for using this move."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A finger roll is performed when a player shoots the ball with one hand during a layup and then lifts his fingers, rolling the ball into the basket. The rotation produced provides the ball with a soft touch, and the ball will roll around the rim and then drop into the basket. Guard George \"The Iceman\" Gervin and center Wilt Chamberlain were known for having some of the best finger rolls in the game. Other notable practitioners have included Michael Jordan, Scottie Pippen, and Jason Kidd."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elan Lee Buller",
        "text": "His second Guinness World record for longest basketball shot was set on September 9, 2014. The shot was measured at and took place in Oak Park, California. This shot broke Harlem Globetrotter Corey \u201cThunder\u201d Law's record of .\n* All-City High School Basketball Player in Los Angeles, California\n* Guinness World Records for longest ground level basketball shot (videos of both shots are in the external links below)\n* Olympic gold medal at the Maccabiah Games (July 2001)\n* Honored for Maccabiah U.S. Gold Medal at the Los Angeles Chapter of ORT (December 9, 2001), Beverly Hilton Hotel, Beverly Hills, California\n* Pepperdine University, Bachelor of Science & Bachelor of Arts (2002)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kirk Goldsberry",
        "text": "In 2019, Goldsberry published \"SprawlBall: A Visual Tour of the New Era of the NBA\", which focuses on the inefficiency of shots in basketball taken between the restricted circle and the three-point line."
      },
      {
        "title": "1979 NBA Finals",
        "text": "The Bullets controlled the game and led by 18 in the fourth, but Seattle mounted a furious comeback to tie it at 97. Larry Wright, who had 26 points off the bench, drove to the basket as time ran down and had his shot blocked by Dennis Johnson, but the referees called a foul on Johnson. Wright went to the line with one second left and hit two of three foul shots (NBA rules at the time awarded an extra free throw attempt when a team was in the penalty foul situation) to win the game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variations of basketball",
        "text": "Making a shot from a position allows a player to advance to the next position. The rules are very flexible but usually a player keeps advancing until a missed shot. The consequences of missing a shot may vary. Sometimes the game is played such that a missed shot requires the player to start over at the first position. Under this rule, the game may also include another rule that allows a player to \"save\" their position, and pass the ball to the next player. It is probably most common, however, to play such that each player continues until a missed shot. At this point a player may save his position or elect to take another \"chance\" shot. If the chance shot is made, the player advances as normal. If it misses, the player's turn ends and they suffer some penalty, perhaps regressing a position or even starting over."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kermit Washington",
        "text": "The events that precipitated the fight have been frequently debated, and variously interpreted. Two months earlier, on opening night of the season, the Lakers played the Milwaukee Bucks. Bucks center Kent Benson elbowed Abdul-Jabbar in the stomach, and Abdul-Jabbar appeared to be in intense pain. Abdul-Jabbar then punched Benson from behind, breaking Benson's jaw and his own hand. Washington got into a brawl with several Buffalo Braves players a few games later. In the December game, at the beginning of the game's second half, Lakers guard Norm Nixon missed a shot. Houston's Kevin Kunnert and Washington both contended for the rebound, which Kunnert eventually got and passed out to teammate John Lucas. Their battle for the rebound was more physical than usual, however. Abdul-Jabbar became involved and wrestled with Kunnert. As a result, Kermit Washington stayed behind in the backcourt in order to watch over and make sure nothing happened. After the two disengaged, Washington grabbed Kunnert's shorts in order to prevent him from getting back over on offense quickly. Kunnert threw an elbow that hit Washington on the upper arm and this move spun him around so that he was facing Washington. What happened next is disputed: Washington, several Lakers, and Rocket forward Robert Reid insisted that Kunnert punched him, Kunnert said Washington swung first after he attempted to free himself from Washington's grasp. The referee who saw the action saw merely a \"scuffle\" between Kunnert and Abdul-Jabbar followed by the one between Kunnert and Washington then Washington's punch. Both Washington and Abdul-Jabbar reject this account."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variations of basketball",
        "text": "When a player reaches 5 points, he\\she is eliminated from the game. When a player is eliminated from the game, the player immediately following that player has up to 5 shots on his\\her turn. The game continues until all but one player has been eliminated. The last player standing is the winner."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Shot",
        "text": "The Shot was a basketball play that occurred during a 1989 playoff game between the Chicago Bulls and Cleveland Cavaliers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). It took place during the deciding Game 5 of the Eastern Conference First Round series on May 7, 1989, at Richfield Coliseum in Richfield Township, Ohio. With the best-of-five series tied at two games apiece and the Cavaliers leading the game by one point with three seconds left, Bulls player Michael Jordan received an inbound pass and made a buzzer-beater shot to give the Bulls a 101\u2013100 win and clinch a series victory. The play capped off a final minute in which there were six lead changes. Jordan finished the game with 44 points. The Shot is considered to be one of his greatest clutch moments, and the game itself is regarded as a classic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Layup",
        "text": "A layup in basketball is a two-point shot attempt made by leaping from below, laying the ball up near the basket, and using one hand to bounce it off the backboard and into the basket. The motion and one-handed reach distinguish it from a jump shot. The layup is considered the most basic shot in basketball. When doing a layup, the player lifts the outside foot, or the foot away from the basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mario Hoops 3-on-3",
        "text": "The player can perform multiple moves, such as stealing the ball and passing, by using gestures on the touchpad. The player shoots by drawing a line forward on the touchscreen. Depending on where the character is and how he/she is moving, the shot will either be a normal shot, a special shot, or a slam dunk; these shots give the team different numbers of points. The basketball court contains multiple coin pads, which give the player coins when dribbled on up to a maximum value; when the player makes a shot, their coins are added to their total point score. Some items appear on the court; when used they grant the player special moves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kevin Harlan",
        "text": "\"[ball bounces four times on the rim, proceeds to go in as buzzer sounds]\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Second Generation (advertisement)",
        "text": "At 0:35, the camera cuts to the aftermath of The Shot. A young man jumps in the air and pumps his fist as another young man in an opposing jersey sinks to the floor. The moment is from the 1989 NBA Playoffs, when Jordan hit a game-winning jump shot over Cleveland Cavaliers guard Craig Ehlo. At 0:38 is Jordan's last shot with the Chicago Bulls, after a crossover dribble past Utah Jazz guard Bryon Russell at the end of Game 6 of the 1998 NBA Finals. These scenes are musically punctuated with a bass drum roll and a cymbal crash. Finally, at 0:44 a young man shrugs after hitting a shot, as Jordan shrugged after scoring six three-point field goals in the first half of Game 1 of the 1992 NBA Finals against the Portland Trail Blazers."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of basketball",
        "text": "The style of basketball has evolved over time as well. Basketball, especially in the 1990s and 2000s, used to give importance to big men. Now, because of teams like the San Antonio Spurs and the Golden State Warriors, ball movement and team play is more common. The pace of play has also increased. In recent years, players such as Stephen Curry have increased the prevalence of the three-point shot in the professional game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adastria Mito Arena",
        "text": "The record for a basketball game is 5,041, set on April 6, 2019, when the Gunma Crane Thunders defeated the Ibaraki Robots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Double Dribble (video game)",
        "text": "When a character on the opposing team takes a shot, and the player controlled character is near to them, pressing the shot button will cause the player character to jump and possibly block the shot. If a shot is missed, moving the player character beneath the shadow of the ball and pressing the shot button executes an attempt to rebound the basketball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian Laettner",
        "text": "In the 1992 East Regional Final, a game many critics rate among the greatest in college basketball history, Laettner hit a game-winning, buzzer-beating turn-around jumper that has since become known as simply The Shot. Over the course of the game, he shot a perfect ten of ten field goals and ten of ten free throws for 31 points. He then finished his college career by leading Duke to its second consecutive national title. The following year ESPN awarded him both \"Outstanding Performance Under Pressure\" and \"College Basketball Play of the Year\" for the Kentucky game, also awarding him \"Outstanding College Basketball Performer of the Year\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of dodgeball variations",
        "text": "If a player hits a basketball hoop's backboard on the other team's side then that team frees all eliminated players."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variations of basketball",
        "text": "This game is played by 2 or more players. The shooting line is typically the top of the key, but can be moved to the foul line for younger players."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Gervin",
        "text": "Gervin's trademark move was the finger roll, which he executed with unusual delicacy, touch, and range. Typically used by others to shoot short layups, Gervin's effectiveness with the shot extended all the way to the free-throw line."
      },
      {
        "title": "Block (basketball)",
        "text": "Nicknames for blocked shots include \"rejections,\" \"stuffs,\" \"bushed\", \"fudged\", or notably \"double-fudged\" (two-handed blocks), \"facials,\" \"swats,\" \"denials,\" and \"packs.\" Blocked shots were first officially recorded in the NBA during the 1973\u201374 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball",
        "text": "Typically, a player faces the basket with both feet facing the basket. A player will rest the ball on the fingertips of the dominant hand (the shooting arm) slightly above the head, with the other hand supporting the side of the ball. The ball is usually shot by jumping (though not always) and extending the shooting arm. The shooting arm, fully extended with the wrist fully bent, is held stationary for a moment following the release of the ball, known as a \"follow-through\". Players often try to put a steady backspin on the ball to absorb its impact with the rim. The ideal trajectory of the shot is somewhat controversial, but generally a proper arc is recommended. Players may shoot directly into the basket or may use the backboard to redirect the ball into the basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variations of basketball",
        "text": "Knockout, sometimes called \"Lightning\", \"Bump\", \"Gotcha\", \"Bumpout\", \"Tornado\", \"Speed\", or \"Killer\" is played by two or more players and requires two basketballs. All players line up behind the selected shooting point, typically the center of the free throw line or the top of the key. The first player in line shoots. If they miss, they rebound the ball and continue shooting until they make a goal. Once the first player throws the ball for his first attempt, the second player may make his first attempt. The goal of the first player is to make a basket before the second player does. If so, the first player recovers the ball and passes it to the next player in line. The goal of the second player is to make a basket before the first player does. If so, the first player is out and play continues as the first player delivers his ball to the next player in line. This pattern follows until all players have been eliminated except one, who is declared the winner. Any new players can typically join the game at the rear of the line until the first player to become out has done so Typically a new game starts with all players wanting at that time to play lining up at the same shooting point."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of baseball moves?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There have been many!  Would you like to know about the Boston Braves moving, the St. Louis Browns moving, the Philadelphia Athletics moving, or the Seattle Pilots moving?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me why the Seattle Pilots moved?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The team needed new ownership, as Daley was not financing them more.  Former Milwaukee Braves minority owner Bud Selig was contacted and Soriano sold the Pilots to him, moving the team to Milwaukee."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What about moves in game play, can you tell me about the different basketball shots?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Would you like to know more of the jump shot, dunk, or the layup?"
    ],
    "topic": "Basketball moves",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Jump shot (basketball):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Jump shot (basketball)"
        ],
        "ctx": "In basketball (and derivatives like netball), a player may attempt to score a basket by leaping straight into the air, the elbow of the shooting hand cocked, ball in hand above the head, and lancing the ball in a high arc towards the basket for a jump shot (colloquially, a jumper). Although early critics thought the leap might lead to indecision in the air, the jump shot replaced the earlier, less quickly released \"set shot\", and eventually transformed the game because it is the easiest shot to make from a distance and more difficult for a defender to block. Variations on the simple jump shot include the \"turnaround jumper\" (facing away from the basket, then jumping and spinning towards it, shooting the ball in mid-air); the \"fadeaway\" (jumping \"away\" from the basket to create space); and the \"leaning jumper\" (jumping towards the basket to move away from a trailing defender). With the \"hook shot,\" a player is turned sideways with the shooting arm away from the basket outstretched so that with a sweep he can launch the ball over his head. Since a defender must leap to block a jumper, the shooter may use a pump fake to get the defender in the air at the wrong time and so have a clear shot. If the shooter leaps into the defender, a foul is called on the defensive player, whereat the shooter is awarded two or three free throws according to the value of a missed attempt, or a single free throw if he scores."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Layup:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Layup"
        ],
        "ctx": "A layup in basketball is a two-point shot attempt made by leaping from below, laying the ball up near the basket, and using one hand to bounce it off the backboard and into the basket. The motion and one-handed reach distinguish it from a jump shot. The layup is considered the most basic shot in basketball. When doing a layup, the player lifts the outside foot, or the foot away from the basket."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Slam dunk:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Slam dunk"
        ],
        "ctx": "A slam dunk, also simply dunk, is a type of basketball shot that is performed when a player jumps in the air, controls the ball above the horizontal plane of the rim, and scores by putting the ball directly through the basket with one or two hands. It is considered a type of field goal; if successful, it is worth two points. Such a shot was known as a \"dunk shot\" until the term \"slam dunk\" was coined by former Los Angeles Lakers announcer Chick Hearn."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Basketball",
        "text": "Another common shot is called the \"layup\". This shot requires the player to be in motion toward the basket, and to \"lay\" the ball \"up\" and into the basket, typically off the backboard (the backboard-free, underhand version is called a \"finger roll\"). The most crowd-pleasing and typically highest-percentage accuracy shot is the \"slam dunk\", in which the player jumps very high and throws the ball downward, through the basket while touching it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "An undefended layup is usually a high-percentage shot. The main challenge is getting near the rim and avoiding blocks by taller defenders who usually stand near the basket. Common layup strategies are to create space, releasing the ball from different spots or using an alternate hand. A player tall enough (or with sufficient leaping ability) to reach over the rim might choose to perform a more spectacular and higher percentage slam dunk (dropping or throwing the ball through the basket from above the rim) instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Power layup, also called jump stop layup, is a continuous shooting move in which a player stops dribbling and makes a huge leap forward (jump stop), while securing the ball in both hands from the dribbling hand, then making a layup. The move is generally used as a layup because the huge movement coming from the leap provides the momentum for the player to jump forward for a layup. The move is a great way to squeeze the player under the basket for a fast layup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A layup is a two-point attempt made by leaping from the ground, releasing the ball with one hand up near the basket, and using one hand to tip the ball over the rim and into the basket (lay-in) or banking it off the backboard and into the basket (lay-up). The motion and one-handed reach distinguish it from a jump shot. The layup is considered the most basic shot in basketball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "From the initial position of the pick-and-roll maneuver, the player who receives the ball has many different options as to whether he/she passes it, or fakes and then goes for a jump shot. These variations typically include the pick and pop, where by the roll man instead of heading to the basket trails behind and is wide open for a jumper, hence the 'pop', as well as slipping the screen, whereby the defender of the screener attempts to cheat and get ahead of the screener, at which point the screener does not set a screen, but merely slips by, leaving him open as his defender trails behind."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Named after Hakeem \"The Dream\" Olajuwon, this move is executed when a post player dribbles alongside the baseline and with one hand under the ball fakes a layup, then pivots to the outside for a jump hook. If the defender recovers and jumps at the hook shot, the post player can pump fake the hook and step through for the unguarded layup (similar to the up and under move)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A double clutch is a move associated with a layup or a dunk; it is a change of ball position in mid-air (similar to the \"up and under\" move, but performed while the player is in the air). It is effectively used by many players."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Basketball moves\n--Dribbling.\n----Crossover.\n------Between the legs.\n------Behind the back.\n----Wraparound.\n----In and out dribble.\n----V dribble.\n----Different heights dribble.\n----Ankle breaker dribble.\n----Hesitation move.\n--After the dribble.\n----Euro step.\n----Jump stop.\n----Pro-Hop.\n----Pro-hop euro step.\n----Power up.\n----Over-the-head.\n--Shots.\n----Layups.\n------Reverse layup.\n------Finger roll.\n------Tear drop.\n------Power layup.\n------Double clutch.\n----Bank shot.\n----Putback and tip-in.\n--Triple threat position and related moves.\n----Pivot.\n----Jab step.\n----Pump fake.\n----Drawing contact.\n----Shuffle.\n--Posting up.\n----Up and under.\n----Hook shot.\n----Drop step.\n----Power move.\n----Spin and drive.\n----Sikma move.\n----Dream shake.\n--Shooting.\n----Pull-up jumper.\n----Turnaround jump shot.\n----Fadeaway.\n----Step-back jump shot.\n--Passes.\n----Bounce pass.\n----Chest pass.\n----Over-the-head pass.\n----Touch pass.\n----Baseball pass.\n----Jump pass.\n----Blind pass.\n----Behind-the-back pass.\n--Two person game.\n----Give and go.\n----Dribble pitch (handoff).\n----Pick and roll.\n----Backdoor.\n----Alley-oop.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The other layup is the overhand shot, similar to a jump shot but from considerably closer range. Overhand layups almost always involved the use of the backboard. Players like Scottie Pippen and Karl Malone have used this move to great effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "At the onset of the jump, the ball is controlled by either one or both hands and once in the air is typically brought to chest level. The player will then quickly thrust the ball downwards and fully extend their arms, bringing the ball below the waist. Finally the ball is brought above the head and dunked with one or both hands; and the double clutch appears as one fluid motion. As a demonstration of athletic prowess, the ball may be held in the below-the-waist position for milliseconds longer, thus showcasing the player's hang time (jumping ability)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "When a player posts up, in order to shoot he has to turn around to face the basket. This can be done by turning in the air, timing the jump shot when the defender is not likely to jump and challenge the shot. Though a fade-away version of this move was perfected by Larry Bird and Dirk Nowitzki, players such as Michael Jordan, Kobe Bryant, Hakeem Olajuwon, and Kevin Garnett are also well known for it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The shooter takes a quick jab step away from the basket and takes a normal jump shot. Stephen Curry, James Harden and Luka Doncic are famous for their step-back jumper. The move creates space for the shot, while providing more balance than the fadeaway."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A pull-up jumper is an offensive move, where the ball handler in the act of dribbling, 'pulls up' to shoot the basketball. This is especially effective as the defender is not able to react in time to affect or block the shot. This move is widely used by many players in the NBA, including notable stars such as Jerry West, DeMar DeRozan, Russell Westbrook, Stephen Curry, Kevin Durant, and LeBron James."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The up and under is a move consisting of two parts: a shot fake (the up) and a step-through (the under). First the player with the ball fakes a shot by thrusting the ball above his head as if to take a shot, then when the defender jumps in an attempt to block the shot, the offensive player steps by him and attempts a clear, unguarded shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Layup",
        "text": "A layup in basketball is a two-point shot attempt made by leaping from below, laying the ball up near the basket, and using one hand to bounce it off the backboard and into the basket. The motion and one-handed reach distinguish it from a jump shot. The layup is considered the most basic shot in basketball. When doing a layup, the player lifts the outside foot, or the foot away from the basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Double Dribble (video game)",
        "text": "If the player controls a character in the lane and moving toward the basket and they hit the shot button, the screen changes to focus on the character attempting a dunk. The player must hold the button down until the character reaches the top of the jump and then release it. If the timing of the button's release is incorrect, the ball bounces high and far off the rim, and the player must rebound the ball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "A slam dunk, also simply dunk, is a type of basketball shot that is performed when a player jumps in the air, controls the ball above the horizontal plane of the rim, and scores by putting the ball directly through the basket with one or two hands. It is considered a type of field goal; if successful, it is worth two points. Such a shot was known as a \"dunk shot\" until the term \"slam dunk\" was coined by former Los Angeles Lakers announcer Chick Hearn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of basketball",
        "text": "Basketball moves \u2013 individual actions used by players in basketball to pass by defenders to gain access to the basket or to get a clean pass to a teammate.\n* Free throw\u00a0\u2013\n* Advance step\u00a0\u2013 A step in which the defender's lead foot steps toward their man and the back foot slides forward.\n* Air ball\u00a0\u2013 An unblocked shot that fails to hit the rim or backboard. Does not reset the shot clock.\n* Air pass\u00a0\u2013 A pass that goes straight through the air to the receiver. See also \"bounce pass\".\n* Alley oop\u00a0\u2013 An offensive play in which a player throws the ball up near the basket to a teammate (or, more rarely, to himself) who jumps, catches the ball in mid air and immediately scores a basket, usually with a slam dunk.\n* Euro step\u00a0\u2013 An offensive move in which a player, after picking up the dribble, takes a step in one direction and the second allowed step in a different direction while driving to the rim.\n* Field goal\u00a0\u2013 A shot made from anywhere on the court, does not include free throws.\n* Over the back\u00a0\u2013 a foul committed by a player who tries to rebound the ball by pushing, moving or climbing on a player's back who is already in position to rebound the ball.\n* Rebound\u00a0\u2013 To obtain the ball after a missed field goal attempt.\n* Banana cut\u00a0\u2013 A wide, curving cut, as opposed to a cut that is a straight line.\n* Basket cut\u00a0\u2013 A cut toward the basket.\n* Blindside screen\u00a0\u2013 A screen set directly behind a defender where the player can't see it.\n* Block\u00a0\u2013 To tip or deflect a shooter's shot, altering its flight so the shot misses.* Block out\u00a0\u2013 To make contact with an opposing player to establish rebounding position between the player and the ball. Also called \"box out.\"\n* Box out\u00a0\u2013 See block out.\n* Bump the cutter\u00a0\u2013 To step in the way of a player who is trying to cut to the ball for a pass.\n* Dingle\u00a0\u2013 A steal that leads quickly to a score.\n* Rip a C\u00a0\u2013 A motion used while chinning the ball to create space during a pivot between an offensive player and a defensive player. Pivot towards the defender and rips the ball in a C-shape away from the pressure to create a passing lane.\n* screen, set a screen\u00a0\u2013 (v) To attempt to prevent a defender from guarding a teammate by standing in the defender's way. The screening player must remain stationary: a moving screen is an offensive foul. (n) The tactic of setting a screen. Also called a \"pick\".\n* Stutter step\u00a0\u2013 a common warm-up drill where you shuffle and scuff your feet in a quick moving motion across a length of flooring. This warm-up is supposed to keep the players alert and help them prepare to defend players in a real game, since the stutter step is a smaller version of shuffling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk (disambiguation)",
        "text": "A slam dunk is a type of basketball shot, in which a player thrusts the ball forcefully down through the basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "Dunk types reflect the various motions performed on the way to the basket. They start with the basic one- or two-hand forward-facing dunk and go on through various levels of athleticism and intricacy. Discrete dunk types can be modified by appending other moves; for example, a player who passes the ball off the backboard, catches it in the air, and executes a \"double-pump dunk\" would be said to have completed a \"self-pass off the backboard, double pump\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Named after Jack Sikma, the post player receives the ball with their back to the basket and keeps the ball at forehead level. The post then pivots to face the basket while bringing the ball overhead (almost behind the head) to shoot a jump shot. The ball is released high over the head making it difficult for the defense to block."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The power move is executed by pivoting towards the basket to seal the defender, then using a two handed power dribble followed by a jump stop to get closer to the basket. Immediately after the jump stop the player jumps up for a power shot or jump hook."
      },
      {
        "title": "NBA 2K2",
        "text": "Each player's abilities reflect those based on the 2001\u201302 season, so the location of shots is important depending on the athlete. Moves such as crossover dribbles, pump fakes, speed bursts, and both icon and directional passing allow players multiple options to move the ball down the court. While approaching the net, players can press a single button to pass to the man closest to the basket or use their athlete's size advantage to back down a defender. Players can also call for a pick with a press of the button, pass out of a shot, or select one of four in-game offensive plays from a roster of 16."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "When the offensive player receives the ball in the low post, the player either fakes in one direction and then spins in the opposite direction, or immediately after catching the ball, the player spins around the defender and goes up for the shot or takes one hard dribble and then takes the shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Ball is dribbled with same hand in a V motion. Almost looks like a double crossover but ball stays in hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Layup",
        "text": "An undefended layup is usually a high percentage shot. The main obstacle is getting near the rim and avoiding blocks by taller defenders who usually stand near the basket. Common layup strategies are to create spaces, release the ball from a different spot, or use alternate hands. A player able to reach over the rim might choose to perform a more spectacular and higher percentage slam dunk (dropping or throwing the ball from above the rim) instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball",
        "text": "Players advance the ball by bouncing it while walking or running (dribbling) or by passing it to a teammate, both of which require considerable skill. On offense, players may use a variety of shotsthe layup, the jump shot, or a dunk; on defense, they may steal the ball from a dribbler, intercept passes, or block shots; either offense or defense may collect a rebound, that is, a missed shot that bounces from rim or backboard. It is a violation to lift or drag one's pivot foot without dribbling the ball, to carry it, or to hold the ball with both hands then resume dribbling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "This move is similar to the jab step, but smaller. It is when a player uses multiple very little jab steps to throw off a defender and keep him constantly guessing whether you will go to the basket or not. It was used frequently by former San Antonio Spurs forward Tim Duncan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball (1978 video game)",
        "text": "At the start of the game, both players are at the center of the court. A jump ball is thrown between them to begin play. The player in the offensive position (i.e. in possession of the ball) always faces a basket representing the assigned shooting target, and defensive players always face the opponent. Each player can move in eight directions with the joystick; the player with the ball constantly dribbles it. The defensive player may steal the ball when it leaves the opponent's hands (either in mid-dribble or mid-shot)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jump shot (basketball)",
        "text": "Jump shot (basketball)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jump shot (basketball)",
        "text": "In basketball (and derivatives like netball), a player may attempt to score a basket by leaping straight into the air, the elbow of the shooting hand cocked, ball in hand above the head, and lancing the ball in a high arc towards the basket for a jump shot (colloquially, a jumper). Although early critics thought the leap might lead to indecision in the air, the jump shot replaced the earlier, less quickly released \"set shot\", and eventually transformed the game because it is the easiest shot to make from a distance and more difficult for a defender to block. Variations on the simple jump shot include the \"turnaround jumper\" (facing away from the basket, then jumping and spinning towards it, shooting the ball in mid-air); the \"fadeaway\" (jumping \"away\" from the basket to create space); and the \"leaning jumper\" (jumping towards the basket to move away from a trailing defender). With the \"hook shot,\" a player is turned sideways with the shooting arm away from the basket outstretched so that with a sweep he can launch the ball over his head. Since a defender must leap to block a jumper, the shooter may use a pump fake to get the defender in the air at the wrong time and so have a clear shot. If the shooter leaps into the defender, a foul is called on the defensive player, whereat the shooter is awarded two or three free throws according to the value of a missed attempt, or a single free throw if he scores."
      },
      {
        "title": "NBA 2K2",
        "text": "Defensive moves include steals, a combination block and jump button, as well as the ability to face up a ball handler, double-team a star player, commit an intentional foul, and call one of seven defensive sets such as Man-to-Man or Half-Court Trap. Before playing a game, adjustments can be made for game speed, quarter length, and difficulty. In-game features include instant replay and a choice of five different camera angles. User statistics as well as season and franchise progress can be saved after each game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "In the 1950s, Jim Pollard and Wilt Chamberlain had both dunked from the free throw line\u201415 feet from the basket. Chamberlain was able to dunk from the free-throw line without a running start, beginning his forward movement from within the top half of the free-throw circle. This was the catalyst for the 1956 NCAA rule change which requires that a shooter maintain both feet behind the line during a free-throw attempt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Also called a \"reverse pivot\", the drop step is a move in which the player posting up takes a back step on the side of a defender behind him and spins to that side to gain leverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "For one-footed jumpers, the ball is generally transferred to the non-dominant hand just before or upon take-off; for two-footers, this transfer is often delayed for milliseconds as both hands control the ball to prevent dropping it. Once airborne, the dunker generally transfers the ball from non-dominant to dominant hand beneath a raised leg. Finally, the ball is brought upwards by the dominant hand and slammed through the rim."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mario Hoops 3-on-3",
        "text": "The player can perform multiple moves, such as stealing the ball and passing, by using gestures on the touchpad. The player shoots by drawing a line forward on the touchscreen. Depending on where the character is and how he/she is moving, the shot will either be a normal shot, a special shot, or a slam dunk; these shots give the team different numbers of points. The basketball court contains multiple coin pads, which give the player coins when dribbled on up to a maximum value; when the player makes a shot, their coins are added to their total point score. Some items appear on the court; when used they grant the player special moves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "Before takeoff, or at the onset of the jump, the ball is brought to the abdomen and then the windmill motion is started by moving the ball below the waist according to the length of the player's fully extended arm. Then following the rotation of the outstretch arm, the ball is moved in a circular motion, typically moving from the front towards the back, and then slammed through the rim. Although, due to momentum, many players are unable to palm the ball through the entire windmill motion, the dunk is often completed with one-hand as centripetal force allows the player to guide the ball with only their dunking hand. In some instances sticky resins or powders may be applied to the palm, these are thought to improve grip and prevent loss of possession. Amongst players, subtle variations in the direction of the windmill depend on bodily orientation at takeoff and also jumping style (one-foot or two-feet) in relation to dominant hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Double Dribble (video game)",
        "text": "When a character on the opposing team takes a shot, and the player controlled character is near to them, pressing the shot button will cause the player character to jump and possibly block the shot. If a shot is missed, moving the player character beneath the shadow of the ball and pressing the shot button executes an attempt to rebound the basketball."
      },
      {
        "title": "NBA Jam (2010 video game)",
        "text": "The game retains its usual exaggerated nature of play - players jump many times their own height, making slam dunks that defy both human capabilities and the laws of physics. There are no fouls, free throws, or violations except defensive goaltending and shot clock violations. This means the player is able to freely shove or elbow his opponent out of the way. Additionally, the game has an \"on fire\" feature, where if one player makes three baskets in a row, he becomes \"on fire\" and has unlimited turbo, no goaltending, and increased shooting ability, until the other team scores (or the player has scored nine consecutive baskets while \"on fire\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "This dribble is a especially useful when the offensive player is close to their defender and needs to change dribble hands, but doesn't have space to use a regular crossover."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Basketball moves are generally individual actions used by players in basketball to pass by defenders to gain access to the basket or to get a clean pass to a teammate to score."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "In a jump stop, the player takes one small step and lands on both feet simultaneously. It can be used after a dribble. A player who receives a pass with a jump stop can pivot after the stop using either foot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of basketball-related articles",
        "text": "Basketball Jump Shooting"
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The dribble pitch or the handoff, is an offensive play, whereby the ball-handler passes to a player (often a bigger player) and runs by him to collect the ball, whilst the big sets a screen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "Because of the possible combinations of starting and finishing hands, and raised-legs, there are many variations on the basic under-the-legs dunk\u2014more so than any other. For example, in a 1997 French Dunk contest, Dali Taamallah leapt with his right leg while controlling the ball with his left hand, and once airborne he transferred the ball from his left hand, underneath his right leg to his right hand before completing the dunk. NBA star Jason Richardson has also pioneered several notable variations of the between-the-legs including a lob-pass to himself and a pass off of the backboard to himself. Independent athlete Shane 'Slam' Wise introduced a cuffed-cradle of the ball prior to initiating the under the leg transfer and finishing with two-hands. While a number of players have finished the dunk using one- or two-hands with their backs to the rim, perhaps the most renowned variant of the dunk is the combination with a 360\u00b0, or simply stated: a 360-between-the-legs. Due to the athleticism and hang-time required, the dunk is a crowd favorite and is heralded by players as the preeminent of all dunks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "This is a dunk where the player takes off from a distance which is significantly further away from the basket than is considered typical. The free-throw line is most commonly constituted as the take-off point, an effect likely attributed to the easily observable span between the line and the basket in the view of the TV audience. In order to achieve the hang-time and altitude necessary, players will generally leap from one foot to maximize the momentum generated from the half-court running start often required to complete the dunk. A cornerstone of dunk contests, dunks from a distance are also performed in games, most often on the fast break."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball",
        "text": "The ball may be advanced toward the basket by being shot, passed between players, thrown, tapped, rolled or dribbled (bouncing the ball while running)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A reverse layup is a layup that is finished on the opposite side of the court's split-line than the player began the attack on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "As the game has evolved through the years, so has the layup. Several different versions of the layup are used today. Layups can be broadly categorized into two types: the underarm and the overarm. The underarm layup involves using most of the wrist and the fingers to 'lay' the ball into the basket or off the board. The underarm layup is more commonly known as the finger roll. A notable NBA player who uses the underarm finger roll is Dwyane Wade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Double Dribble (video game)",
        "text": "Each character moves at slightly different speeds, and is capable of jumping to different heights, and at different speeds. Learning the differences between each character's movement is important to performing jump shots, dunks, and also get good at rebounds, which is important at later stages of the game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Double Dunk",
        "text": "The game offers a number of player-selectable options. Games can be set to last a certain amount of time or until one team scores a certain number of points. Three-point shots can be turned on or off, as can a ten-second shot clock. Players may also choose to include foul detection and/or a three-second lane violation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball",
        "text": "A shot that misses both the rim and the backboard completely is referred to as an \"air ball\". A particularly bad shot, or one that only hits the backboard, is jocularly called a brick. The \"hang time\" is the length of time a player stays in the air after jumping, either to make a slam dunk, layup or jump shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dunk Mania",
        "text": "\"Dunk Mania\" is a basketball game that features motion-capture in a two-on-two slam-dunk contest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Double Dunk",
        "text": "\"Double Dunk\" is a simulation of two-on-two, half-court basketball. Teams have two on-screen characters, a shorter \"outside\" man and a taller \"inside\" man. In a single-player game, the player controls the on-screen character closest to the ball, either the one holding the ball (on offense) or the one guarding the opponent with the ball (on defense). In two-player games, each player may control one of the two teams as in a one-player game, or both players may play on the same team against a computer-controlled opponent. At the start of each possession, both offense and defense select from a number of plays (such as the pick and roll on offense), then attempt to score or regain possession of the ball by intercepting or stealing it from the offense."
      },
      {
        "title": "Space Jam (pinball)",
        "text": "Like the Trivia Game, Video Mode is played on the screen. Players must move the basketball hoop with the flipper buttons to the Looney Tunes character making a throw. From left to right, the order is Daffy Duck, Bugs Bunny, Michael Jordan, Sylvester the Cat, and Lola Bunny. The characters take shots slowly at the beginning but start to increase speed as the game continues. Getting all 16 shots is worth 1,000,000 points. Each missed shot costs 250,000 from the million total. A perfect run also plays an animation on the screen where Michael Jordan says, \"Nuthin' but net!\" The combination of shots is always the same and is as follows:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Layup",
        "text": "The Reverse Layup is a more stylish method of making the ball from close. Generally, you fake the defender into defending a regular layup on the near side and then jump to the far side of the basket before shooting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "Whether the result of a 180\u00b0 spin or body angle at takeoff, the double clutch is generally performed with the player's back toward the rim. While this orientation is rather conducive to the double clutch motion, Spud Webb was known to perform the dunk while facing the basket. Additionally, Kenny \"Sky\" Walker, Tracy McGrady\u2014in the 1989 and 2000 NBA Contests, respectively\u2014and others, have performed 360\u00b0 variation of the double clutch (McGrady completed a lob self-pass before the dunk). Circa 2007, independent slam dunker T-Dub performed the double clutch with a 540\u00b0 spin which he concluded by hanging on the rim."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pick and roll",
        "text": "Variations of the pick and roll are the \"pick and pop\" (or \"pick and fade\"), where the screener moves for an open jump shot instead of rolling to the basket, or the \"pick and slip\", where the screener fakes setting a screen before slipping behind the defender to accept the pass."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variations of basketball",
        "text": "This game is played by 2 or more players. The shooting line is typically the top of the key, but can be moved to the foul line for younger players."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball",
        "text": "Another shot that is less common than the layup, is the \"circus shot\". The circus shot is a low-percentage shot that is flipped, heaved, scooped, or flung toward the hoop while the shooter is off-balance, airborne, falling down, and/or facing away from the basket. A back-shot is a shot taken when the player is facing away from the basket, and may be shot with the dominant hand, or both; but there is a very low chance that the shot will be successful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Time Masters (game show)",
        "text": "Instead of Brain Strain was Slam Dunk. One player would sit out that round. Again with 6 answers to choose from the player was now charged with throwing the basketball through the corresponding hoop number to get the question right. A member from the rival school (but not one of the players) would be brought on and sit in the SLAM DUNK chair and if the player managed to get all 6 answers correct they would be dunked into a vat of water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The wraparound is similar to a behind-the-back crossover, except instead of the ball being thrown in a sideways direction and bouncing behind the ball handler's back, it is swung further around the back and thrown in a forward direction, bouncing on the side or in front of the ball handler's body. This move is mostly used when a defender lunges toward one side of the ball handler's body for a steal. The ball handler would then simply throw the ball around his body and quickly pass his defender."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Finger-rolls today have many forms, including the Around the World which involves a complete circle around the player before the layup and a variety of faking in the approach to the rim. A classic example is a play by former Kings point guard Jason Williams during his time with Sacramento, in which Williams brings the ball behind his back with his right hand, in a fake of a back pass, and then brings it front again with the same hand for the finish (reminiscent of Bob Cousy who pioneered the move)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hakeem Olajuwon",
        "text": "Olajuwon has referred to basketball as a science, and described his signature move in vivid detail: \"When the point guard throws me the ball, I jump to get the ball. But this jump is the set-up for the second move, the baseline move. I call it the 'touch landing.' The defender is waiting for me to come down because I jumped but I'm gone before I land. Defenders say 'Wow, he's quick,' but they don't know that where I'm going is predetermined. He's basing it on quickness, but the jump is to set him up. Before I come down, I make my move. When you jump, you turn as you land. Boom! The defender can't react because he's waiting for you to come down to defend you. Now, the first time when you showed that quickness, he has to react to that quickness, so you can fake baseline and go the other way with your jump hook. All this is part of the Dream Shake. The Dream Shake is you dribble and then you jump; now you don't have a pivot foot. When I dribble I move it so when I come here, I jump. By jumping, I don't have a pivot foot now. I dribble so now I can use either foot. I can go this way or this way. So he's frozen, he doesn't know which way I'm going to go. That is the shake. You put him in the mix and you jump stop and now you have choice of pivot foot. He doesn't know where you're gonna turn and when.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The Pro-hop Euro Step combines the pro-hop and Euro step while removing the pro-hop's jump stop. The player picks up their dribble with a synchronized right hand dribble/right foot step, or a left hand dribble with left foot step. Player then rips the ball to opposite side of their body (behind the back if skilled), takes two steps, and finishes with a reverse layup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The combination of a euro step and a jump-stop, the pro-hop is a move in which a player picks up their dribble with a synchronized right hand dribble/right foot step, or a synchronized left hand dribble with left foot step. The player then rips the ball to the opposite side of their body while landing on a jump-stop. The pro hop's ability to split defenders, or throw an opposing defender off rhythm through 'change of direction speed' is a move popularized by Shantay Legans, former point guard for University of California at Berkeley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A fadeaway shot is a variation on a set jump shot in which the shooter attempts his shot leaning backward, creating the effect of \"fading away\" from his defender. This makes it more difficult for the defender to contest the shot. The fadeaway usually has less range than a regular jump shot, because the ball has backwards momentum due to its inertia, making it somewhat tougher to project the ball over long distances. Michael Jordan, LeBron James, Reggie Miller, Kobe Bryant, Dwyane Wade, Dirk Nowitzki, Karl Malone, Steve Nash, and DeMar DeRozan are famous for their use of the fadeaway. Wilt Chamberlain was criticized for his frequent use of the fadeaway jumper, since the follow-through usually carries the shooter away from the basket and out of rebounding position."
      },
      {
        "title": "Finger roll",
        "text": "The finger roll is a specialized type of basketball layup shot where the ball is rolled off the tips of the player's fingers. The advantage of the finger roll is that the ball can travel high in the air over a defender that might otherwise block a regular jump shot or dunk, while the spin applied by the rolling over the fingers will carry the ball to the basket off the backboard. The shot was pioneered by center Wilt Chamberlain in the 1960s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A jab step, also known as \"side step,\" is performed when a player holds onto the ball before dribbling while his non-pivot leg performs a jabbing forward or side motion. This move is used to test defender's defensive weaknesses and stance. A combination of the pump fake, the drive, the shot and the crossover drive can be performed along with the jab step to lure the opponent out of his defense. Forward Carmelo Anthony is well known for taking the jab step, as was 13-year pro Kiki Vandeweghe. When the player does this, the defender falls off from their defensive stance, creating a space between the player and the defender, allowing them to take a quick mid-range jumper, a three-pointer, or a drive \"to the lane.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Fadeaway",
        "text": "A fadeaway or fall-away in basketball is a jump shot taken while jumping backwards, away from the basket. The goal is to create space between the shooter and the defender, making the shot much harder to block. The shooter must have very good accuracy, much higher than when releasing a regular jump shot, and must use more strength to counteract the backwards momentum in a relatively short amount of time. Because the movement is away from the basket, the shooter also has less chance to grab his own rebound."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Dribbling is bouncing the ball continuously with one hand at a time without holding the ball. Dribbling is necessary in order to take steps while possessing the ball. Once a player picks up their dribble (stops it by holding the ball), they may not dribble again until they pass, shoot, or otherwise lose possession of the ball and the ball touches a different player or the rim or backboard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variations of basketball",
        "text": "The first player shoots from the shooting line. If the shot is missed, the player must retrieve the rebound, and shoot from the spot that the rebound was retrieved. The other players are not permitted to interfere with either the ball or the player. The player continues to shoot until a basket is made to a maximum of 5 shots. When the first player has made the shot, the next player begins shooting, again from the shooting line. This player must make the basket in the same number, or fewer shots than the preceding shooter. The next player then shoots, again from the shooting line and must make the basket in the same number, or fewer shots than the player that immediately preceded him\\her in shooting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A \"bank shot\" is a shot that relies on the ball bouncing off the backboard and into the basket. It is frequently used for mid-range jump shots from around a 45\u00b0 angle and layups. It is not commonly used for long-range shots or shots from the middle or near the baseline. The purpose of using the backboard is to try to hit the backboard at an angle, thus slowing the speed of the ball and increasing its chances of falling into the hoop. Researchers at North Carolina State University found that bank shots may be 20 percent more effective up to a distance of about 12 feet than direct shots. Another term for a bank shot is \"off the glass.\" Among the NBA players known for using or having used the bank shot often are Sam Jones, Elgin Baylor, George Gervin, Tim Duncan, Dwyane Wade, Dirk Nowitzki, Scottie Pippen, and Kobe Bryant."
      },
      {
        "title": "StarDunk",
        "text": "\"StarDunk\" is a basketball game where the objective is to shoot the ball through the hoop. Set in space, it is a massively multiplayer game where the player competes at shooting against other players, in a space backdrop."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "An offensive move intended to produce a foul call on the defensive player. A typical strategy is to drive into a defensive player whose feet are not stationary. When the two players make bodily contact, a blocking foul can be called on the defensive player. If the defensive player has a set position (i.e., both feet are stationary and arms are not in a downward motion), the contact can result in a charging foul against the offensive player (this is known as \"taking the charge\" for the fouled defensive player). Another way of drawing contact is to pump fake and then jump towards the defender, make contact and then shoot; this gets you to the foul line. If you make the basket (often made in the paint), you get the basket and one foul shot. Players like DeMar DeRozan, James Harden, Kobe Bryant, Damian Lillard, and Dwyane Wade have mastered the art of drawing contact."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phutball",
        "text": "The football is moved by a series of jumps over adjacent men."
      },
      {
        "title": "Double Dribble (video game)",
        "text": "Like a real NBA game, the game is divided into four quarters at 12 minutes per quarter. After the end of each quarter there is a challenge stage, which is a three-point shootout. In these stages, the player controls a character from their team attempting five three-point shots at each corner, each wing, and from the top of the key for a total of 25 shots. The player presses and holds the shoot button until the character reaches the top of his jump, and then releases it. Each successful shot adds 1 second to the player's time remaining for a total of 25 seconds, with an additional bonus of 1 minute if all shots succeed. Play then continues until the player runs out of time while having fewer points than the opposing team, or the score is tied."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variations of basketball",
        "text": "This game can be played by as many players as needed. The first shooting line is the foul line."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bulls vs. Blazers and the NBA Playoffs",
        "text": "Each team featured a star player with a signature move known as a \"Marquee Shot\". These shots were difficult to perform, and only occurred when a player would press the \"A\" button under the right circumstances. A list of each player's \"Marquee Shot\" was posted in the instruction manual, and some fan favorites included: Michael Jordan's \"Free-Throw Line\" dunk, Larry Bird's \"Turn-Around\" Fadeaway Jumper, Magic Johnson's \"Fake No-Look Pass\" Lay Up, Tim Hardaway's \"UTEP Two-step\" Killer Crossover, Shawn Kemp's \"Off-the-Glass\" Back-Jam, Larry Nance's \"Around the World\" Slam, Mookie Blaylock's \"Spinning 360\" Layup, Billy Owens' \"Alley Oop Tomahawk\" Jam, and Karl Malone's \"Special Delivery In-Your-Face\" Slam Dunk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variations of basketball",
        "text": "Each player has an order for when it is their turn to shoot. The first shooter takes their shot from the foul line. If they miss the ring and backboard or Airball on the shot, then they are eliminated, and this is applied to any shot by any player during the game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "This is when an offensive player does a move that makes their defender stumble to the ground. Players' collapsing due to this rarely occurs under normal circumstances. Typically this happens when a defender loses balance, trips over their own feet, or even slips. An offensive player can't consistently control whether the defender falls, but using speed, body momentum, body contact and sharp changes of direction make it much more likely to happen. This move usually embarrasses the defender."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "In the 2008 Sprite Rising Star's Slam Dunk Contest Dwight Howard performed the \"Superman\" dunk. He donned a Superman outfit as Orlando Magic guard Jameer Nelson tied a cape around his shoulders. Nelson alley-ooped the basketball as Howard jumped from within the key side of the free throw circle line, caught the ball, and threw it through the rim. This dunk is somewhat controversial, as his hand was not over as well as on a vertical plane to the rim. Some insist that it should in fact be considered a dunk because the ball was thrust downward into the basket, meeting the basic definition of the dunk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Double Dribble (video game)",
        "text": "Several positions on the court were 'hot spots,' high-percentage areas where shots were taken were likely to score points (e.g., \"a fade-away, banked 3-pointer\"). For example: it is easier to hit a 3-pointer on the bottom right-hand side of the screen. A player could start a 3-point jump shot from the top right or left corner of the court inbounds, and continue the jump out of bounds and even slightly behind the hoop and it would go in nearly every time. Another nearly guaranteed shot is taken with the player standing 3-quarters length of the court away from their goal could go for a running 3-point shot, provided that the shot button was pressed within the other team's free-throw shooting circle. In certain circumstances, the display would break away from the full court action and show a close-up of the players either dunking the ball or making a shot. Frequently a player would miss a slam dunk, which is a very high percentage shot. The arcade version was a timed play (much like \"Star Fire\"), where after every minute of play, the game was owed a credit if the score was tied or the computer is ahead. However, if the live player was ahead, a \"free\" minute was earned. Many average players could earn the first free minute, but this became increasingly more difficult to do as making 3-point shots became virtually impossible over the course of gameplay. In short, the game control scheme is simple but it takes practice to get the hang of the timing scheme of the game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Layup",
        "text": "The other layup is the overhand shot, similar to a jump shot but from a considerably close range. Overhand layups nearly always involve the action of the backboard. Players like Scottie Pippen and Karl Malone have used this move to great effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A finger roll is performed when a player shoots the ball with one hand during a layup and then lifts his fingers, rolling the ball into the basket. The rotation produced provides the ball with a soft touch, and the ball will roll around the rim and then drop into the basket. Guard George \"The Iceman\" Gervin and center Wilt Chamberlain were known for having some of the best finger rolls in the game. Other notable practitioners have included Michael Jordan, Scottie Pippen, and Jason Kidd."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variations of basketball",
        "text": "If the shot is made, then the shooter must retrieve the ball before it bounces twice, they then take another shot, if they make 3 shots in a row, then they are able to eliminate another player by hitting them with the ball. The remaining players are able to run away from the shooter but must stop and remain frozen, when the shooter has retrieved the ball after the 3 shot and yelled \"STOP\". The shooter must then take 7 steps and throw the ball from wherever they have reached. Any player who is touched by the ball is then eliminated. The game is then restarted from the Free Throw line from the next player in line. The game is continued until there is only one player not eliminated. Last player standing is the winner."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The Euro step (sometimes \"Eurostep\") is a move developed in European basketball in which a player, after picking up his dribble, takes a step in one direction bumping into their defender, and then quickly takes a second step in the other direction before they attempt a layup. It is an attempt to evade at least one defender before attacking the basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "All-Pro Basketball",
        "text": "The court is displayed in a vertical fashion, from a top-down perspective, revealing only half of the court at a time. If the ball travels past the half-court line, the screen goes black temporarily and changes over to the other half of the court (which looks identical, save for the color of the floorboards). This is done to alert the player that they have travelled to a different side of the court. When a player attempts a slam dunk, gameplay will pause and cut to a detailed animation of the maneuver.\n*\"New York Slicks\" (New York Knickerbockers)\n*\"Chicago Zephyrs\" (Chicago Bulls)\n*\"Boston Redcoats\" (Boston Celtics)\n*\"Los Angeles Breakers\" (Los Angeles Lakers)\n*\"Dallas Stallions\" (Dallas Mavericks)\n*\"Phoenix Wings\" (Phoenix Suns)\n*\"Seattle Sonics\" (Seattle SuperSonics)\n*\"San Francisco Bayriders\" (Golden State Warriors)"
      },
      {
        "title": "NCAA March Madness 2004",
        "text": "The game is the first in the series to feature freestyle moves and separate buttons for dunks and layups and the ability to perform an alley-oop. Also the player can make decisions in mid-air and make adjusted shots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "An in and out dribble is widely used as a counter move to a crossover, whereby the ball handler fakes the crossover and pushes the ball back out on the same hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "The player approaches the basket and leaps as they would for a generic dunk. Instead of simply dunking the ball with one or two hands, the player allows their forearm(s) to pass through the basket, hooking their elbow pit on the rim before hanging for a short period of time. Although the dunk was introduced by Vince Carter in the 2000 NBA Slam Dunk contest, Kobe Bryant was filmed performing the dunk two years earlier in 1998 at an exhibition in the Philippines as well as Roy Hinson who performed the dunk during warm-ups for the 1986 NBA Slam Dunk contest. Colloquially, the dunk has a variety of names including 'honey dip', 'cookie jar', and 'elbow hook'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bonus (basketball)",
        "text": "Only defensive fouls are awarded free throws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball (1979 video game)",
        "text": "\"Basketball\" supports one and two player modes and uses a trackball to control each player's movement. At the start of each game, the song \"Sweet Georgia Brown\" is played. Players must first gain possession of the ball and move towards their opponent's goal. When in position for a shot, the pushbutton is held until the player's arm is at a suitable height and the button is released. Shots can be blocked by an opponent, and, when dribbling, an opponent can steal the ball. The winner is the player with the highest score when the clock runs out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The player with the ball shifts their hip and top part of their body almost like a stiff worm, making their opponent think they're heading in one direction, when in reality they are heading in the other direction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "Slam dunk\n--Introduction.\n--Dunk types.\n----Double Clutch.\n----Tomahawk.\n----Windmill.\n----Between the Legs.\n----Elbow Hang.\n--Dunk modifiers.\n----Alley-oop.\n----Baseline dunk.\n----From a distance.\n------Free throw line.\n------Other.\n--Effectiveness.\n--Notable dunks.\n----In the NBA Slam Dunk Contest.\n----Broken backboards.\n--Dunking in women's play.\n----Women in dunk contests.\n--Use as a phrase.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "NBA Live 19",
        "text": "- Dunk"
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "This pass is performed best by stepping towards your target with one foot, then throwing the ball out towards their chest with two hands while turning the hands over, ending with the thumbs pointing down. It is best used in an open court and on the perimeter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "At least one player has performed a 720 degree dunk (that is, two full turns in the air): Taurian Fontenette also known as \"Air Up There\" during a Streetball game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Basketball (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A jump pass is a pass performed while the passing player's feet are off the floor. When done intentionally, usually when a teammate gets open during the shot, it can sometimes confuse the defender, causing him to believe that the passer is shooting instead of passing. At times, however, it is done as a result of the player having their shooting lane blocked and often leads to the player turning the ball over to the opposing team. This kind of pass is risky to execute, and the chances of perfectly passing the ball to an open teammate are considerably low, as it leaves the offensive player very vulnerable to turnovers."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of baseball moves?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There have been many!  Would you like to know about the Boston Braves moving, the St. Louis Browns moving, the Philadelphia Athletics moving, or the Seattle Pilots moving?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me why the Seattle Pilots moved?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The team needed new ownership, as Daley was not financing them more.  Former Milwaukee Braves minority owner Bud Selig was contacted and Soriano sold the Pilots to him, moving the team to Milwaukee."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What about moves in game play, can you tell me about the different basketball shots?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know more of the jump shot, dunk, or the layup?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Please tell me about the dunk."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "A slam dunk, also simply known as dunk, is a type of basketball shot that is performed when a player jumps in the air, controls the ball above the horizontal plane of the rim, and scores by shoving the ball directly through the basket with one or both hands. It is a type of field goal that is worth two points.",
      "A slam dunk, also simply known as dunk, is a type of basketball shot that is performed when a player jumps in the air, controls the ball above the horizontal plane of the rim, and scores by shoving the ball directly through the basket with one or both hands. It is a type of field goal that is worth two points."
    ],
    "topic": "Basketball moves",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Slam dunk:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Slam dunk"
        ],
        "ctx": "A slam dunk, also simply dunk, is a type of basketball shot that is performed when a player jumps in the air, controls the ball above the horizontal plane of the rim, and scores by putting the ball directly through the basket with one or two hands. It is considered a type of field goal; if successful, it is worth two points. Such a shot was known as a \"dunk shot\" until the term \"slam dunk\" was coined by former Los Angeles Lakers announcer Chick Hearn."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Slam dunk:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Slam dunk"
        ],
        "ctx": "A slam dunk, also simply dunk, is a type of basketball shot that is performed when a player jumps in the air, controls the ball above the horizontal plane of the rim, and scores by putting the ball directly through the basket with one or two hands. It is considered a type of field goal; if successful, it is worth two points. Such a shot was known as a \"dunk shot\" until the term \"slam dunk\" was coined by former Los Angeles Lakers announcer Chick Hearn."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A layup is a two-point attempt made by leaping from the ground, releasing the ball with one hand up near the basket, and using one hand to tip the ball over the rim and into the basket (lay-in) or banking it off the backboard and into the basket (lay-up). The motion and one-handed reach distinguish it from a jump shot. The layup is considered the most basic shot in basketball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "An undefended layup is usually a high-percentage shot. The main challenge is getting near the rim and avoiding blocks by taller defenders who usually stand near the basket. Common layup strategies are to create space, releasing the ball from different spots or using an alternate hand. A player tall enough (or with sufficient leaping ability) to reach over the rim might choose to perform a more spectacular and higher percentage slam dunk (dropping or throwing the ball through the basket from above the rim) instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Layup",
        "text": "A layup in basketball is a two-point shot attempt made by leaping from below, laying the ball up near the basket, and using one hand to bounce it off the backboard and into the basket. The motion and one-handed reach distinguish it from a jump shot. The layup is considered the most basic shot in basketball. When doing a layup, the player lifts the outside foot, or the foot away from the basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Power layup, also called jump stop layup, is a continuous shooting move in which a player stops dribbling and makes a huge leap forward (jump stop), while securing the ball in both hands from the dribbling hand, then making a layup. The move is generally used as a layup because the huge movement coming from the leap provides the momentum for the player to jump forward for a layup. The move is a great way to squeeze the player under the basket for a fast layup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Layup",
        "text": "An undefended layup is usually a high percentage shot. The main obstacle is getting near the rim and avoiding blocks by taller defenders who usually stand near the basket. Common layup strategies are to create spaces, release the ball from a different spot, or use alternate hands. A player able to reach over the rim might choose to perform a more spectacular and higher percentage slam dunk (dropping or throwing the ball from above the rim) instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Layup",
        "text": "The Reverse Layup is a more stylish method of making the ball from close. Generally, you fake the defender into defending a regular layup on the near side and then jump to the far side of the basket before shooting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The other layup is the overhand shot, similar to a jump shot but from considerably closer range. Overhand layups almost always involved the use of the backboard. Players like Scottie Pippen and Karl Malone have used this move to great effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A reverse layup is a layup that is finished on the opposite side of the court's split-line than the player began the attack on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Layup",
        "text": "The other layup is the overhand shot, similar to a jump shot but from a considerably close range. Overhand layups nearly always involve the action of the backboard. Players like Scottie Pippen and Karl Malone have used this move to great effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball",
        "text": "Another common shot is called the \"layup\". This shot requires the player to be in motion toward the basket, and to \"lay\" the ball \"up\" and into the basket, typically off the backboard (the backboard-free, underhand version is called a \"finger roll\"). The most crowd-pleasing and typically highest-percentage accuracy shot is the \"slam dunk\", in which the player jumps very high and throws the ball downward, through the basket while touching it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A double clutch is a move associated with a layup or a dunk; it is a change of ball position in mid-air (similar to the \"up and under\" move, but performed while the player is in the air). It is effectively used by many players."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "As the game has evolved through the years, so has the layup. Several different versions of the layup are used today. Layups can be broadly categorized into two types: the underarm and the overarm. The underarm layup involves using most of the wrist and the fingers to 'lay' the ball into the basket or off the board. The underarm layup is more commonly known as the finger roll. A notable NBA player who uses the underarm finger roll is Dwyane Wade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "In addition, another variation of the lay-up is the wrong-foot layup. Typically, this move can be seen by inexperienced players with poor footwork, however, when done intentionally, a wrong-footed layup can deceive a defender into mistiming his block attempt. In a normal layup, the left foot is used to step off when laying in with the right hand, and vice versa. However, in a wrong-footed layup, the right foot is used to step off when laying in with the right hand. This also helps to shield the defender from reaching across to block the shot; in reaching across however, the defender will likely get called for a defensive foul. Tony Parker of the San Antonio Spurs relies heavily on the wrong footed layup, largely due to his smaller size and deceptive quickness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Layup",
        "text": "It is common for players to create room for a layup by making use of the allotted two steps before the layup attempt. Variations and improvisations exist, yet the most common form is the Euro-Step. So-called as it was introduced to the NBA by European players, it has been adopted mainly by guards and forwards as it relies heavily on agility and footwork to avoid larger defenders, although bigger players such as Joel Embiid have been seen making use of the move. The Euro-Step itself involves picking up one's dribble while dribbling, taking one step in one direction, then quickly taking a step in the other direction to avoid the defender to create room for a layup attempt. To make use of the move efficiently, it is best to dribble in aggressively then take two broad steps in different directions while simultaneously bringing the ball over one's head in the direction one is stepping for maximum evasion and protection while potentially drawing a foul."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Named after Hakeem \"The Dream\" Olajuwon, this move is executed when a post player dribbles alongside the baseline and with one hand under the ball fakes a layup, then pivots to the outside for a jump hook. If the defender recovers and jumps at the hook shot, the post player can pump fake the hook and step through for the unguarded layup (similar to the up and under move)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Layup",
        "text": "As the game has evolved through the years, so has the layup. Several different versions of the layup are around today. Layups can be broadly categorized into two types: the underarm and the overarm. The underarm layup involves using most of the wrist and the fingers to 'lay' the ball into the net or off the board. This layup is more commonly known as the finger roll. Wilt Chamberlain was one of the early practitioners of a showy finger-roll layup. Notable past NBA players who rely heavily on the underarm finger roll are Mike Bibby and Allen Iverson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball",
        "text": "Another shot that is less common than the layup, is the \"circus shot\". The circus shot is a low-percentage shot that is flipped, heaved, scooped, or flung toward the hoop while the shooter is off-balance, airborne, falling down, and/or facing away from the basket. A back-shot is a shot taken when the player is facing away from the basket, and may be shot with the dominant hand, or both; but there is a very low chance that the shot will be successful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Finger roll",
        "text": "The finger roll is a specialized type of basketball layup shot where the ball is rolled off the tips of the player's fingers. The advantage of the finger roll is that the ball can travel high in the air over a defender that might otherwise block a regular jump shot or dunk, while the spin applied by the rolling over the fingers will carry the ball to the basket off the backboard. The shot was pioneered by center Wilt Chamberlain in the 1960s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Layup",
        "text": "Finger rolls today have many forms, including the \"Around the World\" which involves a complete circle around the player before the layup and a variety of faking in the approach to the rim. A classic example is a play by Jason Williams during his time with Sacramento, in which Williams brought the ball behind his back with his right hand, in a fake of a back pass, and then brought it front again with the same hand for the finish (reminiscent of Bob Cousy, who pioneered the move)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Finger roll",
        "text": "Although the finger roll is a very challenging shot it still has a high percentage of making the basket. Once there is opening down the lane for a layup, the finger roll is the most convenient due to distance away from the rim. If there is no defender guarding and trying to block the shot then it is nearly impossible to miss. The layup can help improve one's game because it can make it harder for defenders to defend by not knowing whether the offense is going for a finger roll or another layup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Layup",
        "text": "One notable Reverse Layup was that of Michael Jordan. His Reverse Layup consisted of him staying on the same side of the hoop while doing the Reverse Layup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk (disambiguation)",
        "text": "A slam dunk is a type of basketball shot, in which a player thrusts the ball forcefully down through the basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A finger roll is performed when a player shoots the ball with one hand during a layup and then lifts his fingers, rolling the ball into the basket. The rotation produced provides the ball with a soft touch, and the ball will roll around the rim and then drop into the basket. Guard George \"The Iceman\" Gervin and center Wilt Chamberlain were known for having some of the best finger rolls in the game. Other notable practitioners have included Michael Jordan, Scottie Pippen, and Jason Kidd."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "A slam dunk, also simply dunk, is a type of basketball shot that is performed when a player jumps in the air, controls the ball above the horizontal plane of the rim, and scores by putting the ball directly through the basket with one or two hands. It is considered a type of field goal; if successful, it is worth two points. Such a shot was known as a \"dunk shot\" until the term \"slam dunk\" was coined by former Los Angeles Lakers announcer Chick Hearn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A pull-up jumper is an offensive move, where the ball handler in the act of dribbling, 'pulls up' to shoot the basketball. This is especially effective as the defender is not able to react in time to affect or block the shot. This move is widely used by many players in the NBA, including notable stars such as Jerry West, DeMar DeRozan, Russell Westbrook, Stephen Curry, Kevin Durant, and LeBron James."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The up and under is a move consisting of two parts: a shot fake (the up) and a step-through (the under). First the player with the ball fakes a shot by thrusting the ball above his head as if to take a shot, then when the defender jumps in an attempt to block the shot, the offensive player steps by him and attempts a clear, unguarded shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "At the onset of the jump, the ball is controlled by either one or both hands and once in the air is typically brought to chest level. The player will then quickly thrust the ball downwards and fully extend their arms, bringing the ball below the waist. Finally the ball is brought above the head and dunked with one or both hands; and the double clutch appears as one fluid motion. As a demonstration of athletic prowess, the ball may be held in the below-the-waist position for milliseconds longer, thus showcasing the player's hang time (jumping ability)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Finger-rolls today have many forms, including the Around the World which involves a complete circle around the player before the layup and a variety of faking in the approach to the rim. A classic example is a play by former Kings point guard Jason Williams during his time with Sacramento, in which Williams brings the ball behind his back with his right hand, in a fake of a back pass, and then brings it front again with the same hand for the finish (reminiscent of Bob Cousy who pioneered the move)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The power up is a move in which the player lands on their outside foot then inside foot, and powers up toward the basket. An effective move because of its balance and power resulting from a two-foot gather and take off."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "From the initial position of the pick-and-roll maneuver, the player who receives the ball has many different options as to whether he/she passes it, or fakes and then goes for a jump shot. These variations typically include the pick and pop, where by the roll man instead of heading to the basket trails behind and is wide open for a jumper, hence the 'pop', as well as slipping the screen, whereby the defender of the screener attempts to cheat and get ahead of the screener, at which point the screener does not set a screen, but merely slips by, leaving him open as his defender trails behind."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The Euro step (sometimes \"Eurostep\") is a move developed in European basketball in which a player, after picking up his dribble, takes a step in one direction bumping into their defender, and then quickly takes a second step in the other direction before they attempt a layup. It is an attempt to evade at least one defender before attacking the basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Basketball moves\n--Dribbling.\n----Crossover.\n------Between the legs.\n------Behind the back.\n----Wraparound.\n----In and out dribble.\n----V dribble.\n----Different heights dribble.\n----Ankle breaker dribble.\n----Hesitation move.\n--After the dribble.\n----Euro step.\n----Jump stop.\n----Pro-Hop.\n----Pro-hop euro step.\n----Power up.\n----Over-the-head.\n--Shots.\n----Layups.\n------Reverse layup.\n------Finger roll.\n------Tear drop.\n------Power layup.\n------Double clutch.\n----Bank shot.\n----Putback and tip-in.\n--Triple threat position and related moves.\n----Pivot.\n----Jab step.\n----Pump fake.\n----Drawing contact.\n----Shuffle.\n--Posting up.\n----Up and under.\n----Hook shot.\n----Drop step.\n----Power move.\n----Spin and drive.\n----Sikma move.\n----Dream shake.\n--Shooting.\n----Pull-up jumper.\n----Turnaround jump shot.\n----Fadeaway.\n----Step-back jump shot.\n--Passes.\n----Bounce pass.\n----Chest pass.\n----Over-the-head pass.\n----Touch pass.\n----Baseball pass.\n----Jump pass.\n----Blind pass.\n----Behind-the-back pass.\n--Two person game.\n----Give and go.\n----Dribble pitch (handoff).\n----Pick and roll.\n----Backdoor.\n----Alley-oop.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Also called a \"reverse pivot\", the drop step is a move in which the player posting up takes a back step on the side of a defender behind him and spins to that side to gain leverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "Whether the result of a 180\u00b0 spin or body angle at takeoff, the double clutch is generally performed with the player's back toward the rim. While this orientation is rather conducive to the double clutch motion, Spud Webb was known to perform the dunk while facing the basket. Additionally, Kenny \"Sky\" Walker, Tracy McGrady\u2014in the 1989 and 2000 NBA Contests, respectively\u2014and others, have performed 360\u00b0 variation of the double clutch (McGrady completed a lob self-pass before the dunk). Circa 2007, independent slam dunker T-Dub performed the double clutch with a 540\u00b0 spin which he concluded by hanging on the rim."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "To \"post up\" is to establish a position in the low post, the area near the basket below the foul line, usually in order to take advantage of a smaller defender. The offensive player usually faces away from the basket, so that his/her body can protect the ball from being stolen by the defender. From this position, options such as spinning or backing down the defender (to close-in on the basket, for easier scoring opportunities) then become available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mikan Drill",
        "text": "The drill is practiced as follows: From under the basket, make a layup with the right hand, catch the ball under the net with the left hand and make a layup with the left hand. Catch the ball out of the net with the right hand and lay it in with the right hand. Continue, alternating hands. Eventually the player should learn how to quickly grab the ball and take a shot while taking the permitted two steps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of basketball",
        "text": "Basketball moves \u2013 individual actions used by players in basketball to pass by defenders to gain access to the basket or to get a clean pass to a teammate.\n* Free throw\u00a0\u2013\n* Advance step\u00a0\u2013 A step in which the defender's lead foot steps toward their man and the back foot slides forward.\n* Air ball\u00a0\u2013 An unblocked shot that fails to hit the rim or backboard. Does not reset the shot clock.\n* Air pass\u00a0\u2013 A pass that goes straight through the air to the receiver. See also \"bounce pass\".\n* Alley oop\u00a0\u2013 An offensive play in which a player throws the ball up near the basket to a teammate (or, more rarely, to himself) who jumps, catches the ball in mid air and immediately scores a basket, usually with a slam dunk.\n* Euro step\u00a0\u2013 An offensive move in which a player, after picking up the dribble, takes a step in one direction and the second allowed step in a different direction while driving to the rim.\n* Field goal\u00a0\u2013 A shot made from anywhere on the court, does not include free throws.\n* Over the back\u00a0\u2013 a foul committed by a player who tries to rebound the ball by pushing, moving or climbing on a player's back who is already in position to rebound the ball.\n* Rebound\u00a0\u2013 To obtain the ball after a missed field goal attempt.\n* Banana cut\u00a0\u2013 A wide, curving cut, as opposed to a cut that is a straight line.\n* Basket cut\u00a0\u2013 A cut toward the basket.\n* Blindside screen\u00a0\u2013 A screen set directly behind a defender where the player can't see it.\n* Block\u00a0\u2013 To tip or deflect a shooter's shot, altering its flight so the shot misses.* Block out\u00a0\u2013 To make contact with an opposing player to establish rebounding position between the player and the ball. Also called \"box out.\"\n* Box out\u00a0\u2013 See block out.\n* Bump the cutter\u00a0\u2013 To step in the way of a player who is trying to cut to the ball for a pass.\n* Dingle\u00a0\u2013 A steal that leads quickly to a score.\n* Rip a C\u00a0\u2013 A motion used while chinning the ball to create space during a pivot between an offensive player and a defensive player. Pivot towards the defender and rips the ball in a C-shape away from the pressure to create a passing lane.\n* screen, set a screen\u00a0\u2013 (v) To attempt to prevent a defender from guarding a teammate by standing in the defender's way. The screening player must remain stationary: a moving screen is an offensive foul. (n) The tactic of setting a screen. Also called a \"pick\".\n* Stutter step\u00a0\u2013 a common warm-up drill where you shuffle and scuff your feet in a quick moving motion across a length of flooring. This warm-up is supposed to keep the players alert and help them prepare to defend players in a real game, since the stutter step is a smaller version of shuffling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Footedness",
        "text": "In basketball, a sport composed almost solely of right-handed players, it is common for most athletes to have a dominant left leg which they would use when jumping to complete a right-hand layup. Hence, left-handed basketball players tend to use their right leg more as they finish a left handed layup (although both right- and left-handed players are usually able to use both hands when finishing near the basket)."
      },
      {
        "title": "NBA Live 19",
        "text": "- Driving Layup"
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "When a player posts up, in order to shoot he has to turn around to face the basket. This can be done by turning in the air, timing the jump shot when the defender is not likely to jump and challenge the shot. Though a fade-away version of this move was perfected by Larry Bird and Dirk Nowitzki, players such as Michael Jordan, Kobe Bryant, Hakeem Olajuwon, and Kevin Garnett are also well known for it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A putback describes a situation where a player secures an offensive rebound, then immediately scores a basket. If the player secures the rebound while in the air, for the shot to be considered a putback, the player can land on the ground before shooting, but cannot dribble before taking the shot. If the player does not secure the rebound but instead taps the ball into the basket, it is considered a tip-in. There is a point where the difference between a putback and a tip-in is subjective (e.g., a one-handed rebound in the air followed by a shot before touching the ground). A putback jam is a spectacular alternative to the tip-in, where the ball is slam-dunked off the rebound in the same motion. Bill Russell would use this move during his college days in the mid-1950s Josh Smith and Kenyon Martin are more recent users of the putback jam. It is also a primary source of scoring for All-Star center Dwight Howard, who led the NBA in dunks in the 2008\u201309, 2009\u201310 and 2010\u201311 seasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Julius Erving",
        "text": "One of his most memorable plays occurred during the 1980 NBA Finals, when he executed a seemingly impossible finger-roll behind the backboard. He drove past Lakers forward Mark Landsberger on the right baseline and went in for a layup. Then 7\u20322\u2033 center Kareem Abdul-Jabbar crossed his way, blocking the route to the basket and forcing him outwards. In mid-air, it was apparent that Erving would land behind the backboard. But somehow he managed to reach over and score on a right-handed layup despite the fact that his whole body, including his left shoulder, was already behind the hoop. This move, along with his free-throw line dunk, has become one of the signature events of his career. It was called by \"Sports Illustrated\", \"The, No Way, even for Dr J, Flying Reverse Lay-up\". Dr J called it \"just another move\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball",
        "text": "Players advance the ball by bouncing it while walking or running (dribbling) or by passing it to a teammate, both of which require considerable skill. On offense, players may use a variety of shotsthe layup, the jump shot, or a dunk; on defense, they may steal the ball from a dribbler, intercept passes, or block shots; either offense or defense may collect a rebound, that is, a missed shot that bounces from rim or backboard. It is a violation to lift or drag one's pivot foot without dribbling the ball, to carry it, or to hold the ball with both hands then resume dribbling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "This is a dunk where the player takes off from a distance which is significantly further away from the basket than is considered typical. The free-throw line is most commonly constituted as the take-off point, an effect likely attributed to the easily observable span between the line and the basket in the view of the TV audience. In order to achieve the hang-time and altitude necessary, players will generally leap from one foot to maximize the momentum generated from the half-court running start often required to complete the dunk. A cornerstone of dunk contests, dunks from a distance are also performed in games, most often on the fast break."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The Pro-hop Euro Step combines the pro-hop and Euro step while removing the pro-hop's jump stop. The player picks up their dribble with a synchronized right hand dribble/right foot step, or a left hand dribble with left foot step. Player then rips the ball to opposite side of their body (behind the back if skilled), takes two steps, and finishes with a reverse layup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "An alley-oop is an offensive play which involves one teammate lofting the ball up near the rim in anticipation of another teammate jumping up to catch and dunk it. Because this move requires both teammates to know what the other is thinking, the alley-oop is a rare and exciting play. The alley-oop first dates back to the mid-1950s when K. C. Jones and Bill Russell teamed up to perform it while they were college teammates. Point guard Chris Paul, and big men Blake Griffin and DeAndre Jordan, were known for their spectacular alley-oops; during their shared time with the Los Angeles Clippers their team earned the name \"Lob City\". Another notable duo known for using this play is LeBron James and Dwyane Wade during their time at the Miami Heat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "This move is similar to the jab step, but smaller. It is when a player uses multiple very little jab steps to throw off a defender and keep him constantly guessing whether you will go to the basket or not. It was used frequently by former San Antonio Spurs forward Tim Duncan."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Gervin",
        "text": "Gervin's trademark move was the finger roll, which he executed with unusual delicacy, touch, and range. Typically used by others to shoot short layups, Gervin's effectiveness with the shot extended all the way to the free-throw line."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "Dunk types reflect the various motions performed on the way to the basket. They start with the basic one- or two-hand forward-facing dunk and go on through various levels of athleticism and intricacy. Discrete dunk types can be modified by appending other moves; for example, a player who passes the ball off the backboard, catches it in the air, and executes a \"double-pump dunk\" would be said to have completed a \"self-pass off the backboard, double pump\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "Before takeoff, or at the onset of the jump, the ball is brought to the abdomen and then the windmill motion is started by moving the ball below the waist according to the length of the player's fully extended arm. Then following the rotation of the outstretch arm, the ball is moved in a circular motion, typically moving from the front towards the back, and then slammed through the rim. Although, due to momentum, many players are unable to palm the ball through the entire windmill motion, the dunk is often completed with one-hand as centripetal force allows the player to guide the ball with only their dunking hand. In some instances sticky resins or powders may be applied to the palm, these are thought to improve grip and prevent loss of possession. Amongst players, subtle variations in the direction of the windmill depend on bodily orientation at takeoff and also jumping style (one-foot or two-feet) in relation to dominant hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional wrestling throws",
        "text": "Also can be called a pancake slam, this maneuver involves the attacking wrestler lifting their opponent up in a quick motion while holding a single leg or both legs. Usually, the opponent's upper body and head is lifted above a shoulder of the attacker, while the legs have been caught. The attacker then falls on their back, bringing opponent's legs with them. The opponent lands face-first into the mat, with their upper body damaged. The Single-leg version is more commonly used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "The player approaches the basket and leaps as they would for a generic dunk. Instead of simply dunking the ball with one or two hands, the player allows their forearm(s) to pass through the basket, hooking their elbow pit on the rim before hanging for a short period of time. Although the dunk was introduced by Vince Carter in the 2000 NBA Slam Dunk contest, Kobe Bryant was filmed performing the dunk two years earlier in 1998 at an exhibition in the Philippines as well as Roy Hinson who performed the dunk during warm-ups for the 1986 NBA Slam Dunk contest. Colloquially, the dunk has a variety of names including 'honey dip', 'cookie jar', and 'elbow hook'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "For one-footed jumpers, the ball is generally transferred to the non-dominant hand just before or upon take-off; for two-footers, this transfer is often delayed for milliseconds as both hands control the ball to prevent dropping it. Once airborne, the dunker generally transfers the ball from non-dominant to dominant hand beneath a raised leg. Finally, the ball is brought upwards by the dominant hand and slammed through the rim."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "In the 2008 Sprite Rising Star's Slam Dunk Contest Dwight Howard performed the \"Superman\" dunk. He donned a Superman outfit as Orlando Magic guard Jameer Nelson tied a cape around his shoulders. Nelson alley-ooped the basketball as Howard jumped from within the key side of the free throw circle line, caught the ball, and threw it through the rim. This dunk is somewhat controversial, as his hand was not over as well as on a vertical plane to the rim. Some insist that it should in fact be considered a dunk because the ball was thrust downward into the basket, meeting the basic definition of the dunk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The power move is executed by pivoting towards the basket to seal the defender, then using a two handed power dribble followed by a jump stop to get closer to the basket. Immediately after the jump stop the player jumps up for a power shot or jump hook."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional wrestling throws",
        "text": "As well known as a falling rear mat slam. This move starts with the wrestler standing behind the opponent, and then takes hold of the front of the neck or head, and then falls onto his stomach, driving the opponent's back of the head into the mat first. Another variation of this move sees the wrestler performing a backflip from the top turnbuckle, and as he floats over the opponent, he quickly grabs the opponent's head or neck with both hands and falls on his stomach to complete the rear mat slam."
      },
      {
        "title": "5 man weave",
        "text": "Upon reaching the other end of the court the drill turns into a 3 on 2 drill, with the person who shot the layup and the last passer returning to play defense. The ballhandler amongst the group of the 3 will retreat to the other end after attacking the goal. The 2 defenders attack the single defender resulting in a 2 on 1 to the other side. These remaining 3 players then execute a 3 man weave to the far baseline."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The dribble pitch or the handoff, is an offensive play, whereby the ball-handler passes to a player (often a bigger player) and runs by him to collect the ball, whilst the big sets a screen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Ball is dribbled with same hand in a V motion. Almost looks like a double crossover but ball stays in hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "In the 1950s, Jim Pollard and Wilt Chamberlain had both dunked from the free throw line\u201415 feet from the basket. Chamberlain was able to dunk from the free-throw line without a running start, beginning his forward movement from within the top half of the free-throw circle. This was the catalyst for the 1956 NCAA rule change which requires that a shooter maintain both feet behind the line during a free-throw attempt."
      },
      {
        "title": "NBA Live 2004",
        "text": "The new button layout now allows the player to choose when to shoot and when to dunk/layup. The new system improves on previous frustrations with 3 foot jumpers and losing possessions because of unnecessary dunk attempts. The \"pro hop\" has finally been introduced into the game and with it the ability to split defenders, or throw an opposing defender off rhythm. Not to be outdone, big men were given the ability to \"power dribble,\" which creates space into the lane for an easier basket. Yet, with the newly improved defense and AI, coming by points is that much more difficult. In addition, freestyle dribbling is no longer an end-all to improving the game, and handling stats actually affect the player's ability to freestyle. Along with the game's new freestyle improvements, the game is bound to grab their attention."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional wrestling throws",
        "text": "This slam sees a wrestler first lift their opponent up over their head with arms fully extended, before lowering the arm under the head of the opponent so that the opponent falls to that side, while flipping over and landing on their back. This move is also called the military press slam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kalooki",
        "text": "If the first player laying manages to go out on the same turn that they first lay down cards, this is known as bending the table or down and out, and the other players score double points for that game, known as being doubled up."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional wrestling throws",
        "text": "Also known as the reverse full nelson slam, this variation sees the attacker tuck and slide their arms under the opponent's armpits and then clutch the opponent's lower jaw. Then, the attacker lifts the opponent before falling forward to slam the opponent back-first into the mat. This move is used as a finisher by Luke Gallows, dubbed the \"Gallows Pole\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Give-and-go",
        "text": "A give and go or pass and cut in basketball is when a player passes the ball to a teammate, then cuts to the basket or gets open, and receives the pass. This is an effective way to create space for a possible shot. This technique can also be an alley-oop variant if it involves a slam dunk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "An offensive move intended to produce a foul call on the defensive player. A typical strategy is to drive into a defensive player whose feet are not stationary. When the two players make bodily contact, a blocking foul can be called on the defensive player. If the defensive player has a set position (i.e., both feet are stationary and arms are not in a downward motion), the contact can result in a charging foul against the offensive player (this is known as \"taking the charge\" for the fouled defensive player). Another way of drawing contact is to pump fake and then jump towards the defender, make contact and then shoot; this gets you to the foul line. If you make the basket (often made in the paint), you get the basket and one foul shot. Players like DeMar DeRozan, James Harden, Kobe Bryant, Damian Lillard, and Dwyane Wade have mastered the art of drawing contact."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kalooki",
        "text": "If a player lays incorrectly and is discovered before their discard, they are required to pick up the hand and take a 50 point penalty, unless they are able to rearrange the hand successfully to complete the contract. If an incorrect lay is discovered after the discard it remains and there is no penalty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional wrestling throws",
        "text": "The move is performed with the wrestler's legs scissored around the opponent's head, dragging the opponent into a forced forward somersault as the wrestler falls to the mat. It is often erroneously called the Hurricanrana in American wrestling, but due to the lack of a double leg cradle pinning combination, it is a standard headscissors takedown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "Because of the possible combinations of starting and finishing hands, and raised-legs, there are many variations on the basic under-the-legs dunk\u2014more so than any other. For example, in a 1997 French Dunk contest, Dali Taamallah leapt with his right leg while controlling the ball with his left hand, and once airborne he transferred the ball from his left hand, underneath his right leg to his right hand before completing the dunk. NBA star Jason Richardson has also pioneered several notable variations of the between-the-legs including a lob-pass to himself and a pass off of the backboard to himself. Independent athlete Shane 'Slam' Wise introduced a cuffed-cradle of the ball prior to initiating the under the leg transfer and finishing with two-hands. While a number of players have finished the dunk using one- or two-hands with their backs to the rim, perhaps the most renowned variant of the dunk is the combination with a 360\u00b0, or simply stated: a 360-between-the-legs. Due to the athleticism and hang-time required, the dunk is a crowd favorite and is heralded by players as the preeminent of all dunks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "When the offensive player receives the ball in the low post, the player either fakes in one direction and then spins in the opposite direction, or immediately after catching the ball, the player spins around the defender and goes up for the shot or takes one hard dribble and then takes the shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alley-oop",
        "text": "An alley-oop in basketball is an offensive play in which one player throws the ball near the basket to a teammate who jumps, catches the ball in mid-air and slam dunks it before touching the ground."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The shooter takes a quick jab step away from the basket and takes a normal jump shot. Stephen Curry, James Harden and Luka Doncic are famous for their step-back jumper. The move creates space for the shot, while providing more balance than the fadeaway."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A pick and roll is an offensive play in which a player stops to screen (block) a defender for the teammate handling the ball and then slips behind the defender to accept a pass as the handler makes a move towards the basket. In the NBA, John Stockton and Karl Malone were a quintessential pick and roll tandem and used this play to great effect in the 1990s. Steve Nash and Amar'e Stoudemire proved to be extremely effective at the pick and roll throughout the 2000s. Kyrie Irving, LeBron James, Blake Griffin, and Chris Paul were considered among the best contemporary pick and roll tandems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Suplex",
        "text": "Also known as a fallaway slam, the wrestler lifts the opponent up so the opponent is horizontal across the wrestler's body then falls backward, throwing the opponent over their head down to the mat back-first. This slam can be either bridged into a pin, or the wrestler can float over into another fallaway slam. This move is sometimes used as a continuation move from catching the opponent's high-cross body, to emphasize the wrestler's strength."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of basketball",
        "text": "Dribble\u00a0\u2013 to bounce the ball continuously. Required in order to take steps with the ball.\n* Wraparound\u00a0\u2013 In the wraparound, the ballhandler dribbles the ball behind his/her back, switching it to his/her other hand. This move can be used when the defender attempts a steal, allowing the ballhandler to begin moving forward as the defense moves in. A streetball move with the same name involves swinging the ball around the opponent's body.\n* Spin move\u00a0\u2013 In a spin move, the ballhandler spins his/her body to change the direction and put his body between the ball and the defender. The spin move can be used while dribbling (when it is also called a reverse pivot) or in a post position, where it is often used many times during a game. The move can also leave the ballhandler somewhat disoriented, or to be surprised by a defender after losing eye contact.\n* Crossover dribble\u00a0\u2013 In a crossover dribble, the ballhandler changes pace to confuse or freeze a defender. It is also used to put the defender off balance to make it easier for the player handling the ball to dribble past the defender. The move is often performed by street players. In the professional league, players like Allen Iverson, Jason Williams, and Tim Hardaway were known to use this move in order to generate an easy layup or jump shot. This move is most effective in open-court situations, where it is easy to shake or \"juke\" the defender with a simple crossover. If done properly, the defender will be caught off guard, being unable to change directions. Sometimes, the defender falls down; this is called an ankle breaker.\n* Behind-the-back dribble\u00a0\u2013 A basic move in which the ballhandler simply bounces the ball behind the back to the opposite hand, but note that the ball is not intended to go around the body as in the basic 'wraparound'. This move is used to avoid an easy strip, to 'stall', or to 'pick'. It can be used to avoid an easy strip as an alternative to bouncing the ball in front of the dribbler for a tricky crossover. To stall means to overlook what can be set up on the court while still maintaining control over the ball. A pick is virtually the same as a stall but a pick is continuous, meaning that the ball is bounced back and forth behind the back; a pick may also be performed between the legs. The best choice of when to use this move would be in the case of a teammate's unavailability, to outrun a defender, or to drive the ball closer to the hoop due to the lack of space between the ballhandler and defender."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The combination of a euro step and a jump-stop, the pro-hop is a move in which a player picks up their dribble with a synchronized right hand dribble/right foot step, or a synchronized left hand dribble with left foot step. The player then rips the ball to the opposite side of their body while landing on a jump-stop. The pro hop's ability to split defenders, or throw an opposing defender off rhythm through 'change of direction speed' is a move popularized by Shantay Legans, former point guard for University of California at Berkeley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball",
        "text": "A shot that misses both the rim and the backboard completely is referred to as an \"air ball\". A particularly bad shot, or one that only hits the backboard, is jocularly called a brick. The \"hang time\" is the length of time a player stays in the air after jumping, either to make a slam dunk, layup or jump shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional wrestling throws",
        "text": "This technique gives its name to the schoolboy bump and is performed when the wrestler gets behind their opponent, drops down to their knees, puts their hand through the opponent's legs, hooking the opponent's hips, and pulls backwards. This pulls the opponent backwards, with straightened and trapped legs, forcing the opponent to fall backwards, over the wrestler, flat on the floor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hakeem Olajuwon",
        "text": "Olajuwon has referred to basketball as a science, and described his signature move in vivid detail: \"When the point guard throws me the ball, I jump to get the ball. But this jump is the set-up for the second move, the baseline move. I call it the 'touch landing.' The defender is waiting for me to come down because I jumped but I'm gone before I land. Defenders say 'Wow, he's quick,' but they don't know that where I'm going is predetermined. He's basing it on quickness, but the jump is to set him up. Before I come down, I make my move. When you jump, you turn as you land. Boom! The defender can't react because he's waiting for you to come down to defend you. Now, the first time when you showed that quickness, he has to react to that quickness, so you can fake baseline and go the other way with your jump hook. All this is part of the Dream Shake. The Dream Shake is you dribble and then you jump; now you don't have a pivot foot. When I dribble I move it so when I come here, I jump. By jumping, I don't have a pivot foot now. I dribble so now I can use either foot. I can go this way or this way. So he's frozen, he doesn't know which way I'm going to go. That is the shake. You put him in the mix and you jump stop and now you have choice of pivot foot. He doesn't know where you're gonna turn and when.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Powerslam",
        "text": "This move is also known as a wind-up slam. To perform it, the wrestler faces the opponent and reaches between the opponent's legs with one arm and around the back from the same side with the other arm. The wrestler then lifts the opponent up so they are horizontal across the wrestler's body. Next, the wrestler spins in a circle while swinging the lower half of the opponent's body out and around until one arm is across the opponent's chest and under one or both arms. The wrestler then falls forward, slamming the opponent into the mat back-first. In some variations of the move, the wrestler can hold the opponent up over their shoulder and throw the opponent round from that position, or hang the opponent across both their shoulders and throw out their legs behind them so the opponent swings back round to drop in a position. A sitout variant is used by CaZXL as the \"East River Crossing\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Schafkopf",
        "text": "A slightly stricter form of this rule is that only the player leading may lay, or a second player may only lay if the player before him has done so - \"one after the other\" (\"nacheinander\") as opposed to \"all over the place\" (\"durcheinander\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional wrestling throws",
        "text": "Also known as a tilt slam or a pumphandle falling powerslam, the wrestler stands behind their opponent and bends them forward. One of the opponent's arms is pulled back between their legs and held, while the other arm is hooked. The wrestler then lifts their opponent up until they are parallel with the wrestler's chest, then throws themselves forward, driving the back of the opponent into the ground with the weight of the wrestler atop them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball",
        "text": "Typically, a player faces the basket with both feet facing the basket. A player will rest the ball on the fingertips of the dominant hand (the shooting arm) slightly above the head, with the other hand supporting the side of the ball. The ball is usually shot by jumping (though not always) and extending the shooting arm. The shooting arm, fully extended with the wrist fully bent, is held stationary for a moment following the release of the ball, known as a \"follow-through\". Players often try to put a steady backspin on the ball to absorb its impact with the rim. The ideal trajectory of the shot is somewhat controversial, but generally a proper arc is recommended. Players may shoot directly into the basket or may use the backboard to redirect the ball into the basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stutter step",
        "text": "In basketball, the stutter step is a common warm-up drill where you shuffle and scuff your feet in a quick moving motion across a length of flooring. This warm-up is supposed to keep the players alert and help them prepare to defend players in a real game, since the stutter step is a littler version of shuffling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Named after Jack Sikma, the post player receives the ball with their back to the basket and keeps the ball at forehead level. The post then pivots to face the basket while bringing the ball overhead (almost behind the head) to shoot a jump shot. The ball is released high over the head making it difficult for the defense to block."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wheel offense",
        "text": "During the time the other players are making the play, the fifth player on the other wing, now having received the ball from the player at the top, needs to watch if any good shot opportunity occurs and make appropriate passes. The first cutter will get the ball for an easy layup down the basket, if open. The second cutter will get the ball for a quick catch and shoot at the free throw line, if open. If the first two cuts are unsuccessful, the third cutter will receive the ball and drive down the lane for a layup, if possible. Even if there is no good opportunity during the whole play, the players are now again in the 1-3-1 formation, and are ready to initiate another wave of offense."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "An alley-oop dunk, as it is colloquially known, is performed when a pass is caught in the air and then dunked. The application of an alley-oop to a slam dunk occurs in both games and contests. In games, when only fractions of a second remain on the game or shot clock, an alley-oop may be attempted on in-bound pass because neither clock resumes counting down until an in-bounds player touches the ball. The images to the right depict an interval spanning 1/5 of a second."
      },
      {
        "title": "NCAA March Madness 2004",
        "text": "The game is the first in the series to feature freestyle moves and separate buttons for dunks and layups and the ability to perform an alley-oop. Also the player can make decisions in mid-air and make adjusted shots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grinnell System",
        "text": "The main tenets of the system are:\n#The first possible shot is the best possible shot, where three-point field goal attempts are preferred over shorter shots.\n#Shoot as many three-pointers as possible.\n#In terms of defense, giving up an uncontested layup is better than a shot clock violation.\n#Always double team the person with the ball.\n#Every player but the shooter goes for the offensive rebound.\n#Offensive rebounds should be sent back for another three-point attempt, not a shorter putback for two points."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "Independent 6'2\" North American athlete Eric Bishop introduced a dunk entitled the 'Paint Job'. The title is in reference to the key on a basketball court, often known as 'paint' in common parlance. Approaching along the baseline with a running dribble, Bishop jumped with one-foot at the border of the key, dunked with one-hand while gliding over the key and landed just beyond the border on the side opposite his take-off\u2014a 16-foot flight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam dunk",
        "text": "JaVale McGee currently holds the world record for Most Basketball Dunks in a Single Jump: three. While competing in the 2011 NBA Sprite Slam Dunk Contest, McGee jumped with two balls in his possession and dunked each prior to receiving and slamming an alley-oop pass from then teammate John Wall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Dribbling is bouncing the ball continuously with one hand at a time without holding the ball. Dribbling is necessary in order to take steps while possessing the ball. Once a player picks up their dribble (stops it by holding the ball), they may not dribble again until they pass, shoot, or otherwise lose possession of the ball and the ball touches a different player or the rim or backboard."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Yap",
        "text": "Standing at , Yap plays the shooting guard position, but is also capable of playing small forward. Yap is a player who constantly attacks the basket and is known for his ability to convert difficult layups. He is known for his ability to create shots for himself and is a competent three-point shooter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slam Dunk Contest",
        "text": "Artis Gilmore went first followed by George Gervin, Larry Kenon, David Thompson and finally Erving. George Gervin and David Thompson both missed a dunk during their routines which counted as a zero (scores were not announced to the audience). David Thompson did a 360 degree dunk to finish his routine. All competitors had to perform a dunk from 10 feet, but Julius Erving started marking his steps from the free throw line (15 feet away). He then completed a dunk from the free throw line."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dribble drive motion",
        "text": "Like the Princeton offense, the Dribble Drive offense is a \"four-out\" offense - that is, only one post player (generally the center) plays near the basket, while the other four players play on the perimeter, around the three-point line. Unlike the Princeton offense, which is based on players cutting towards the basket, and other motion offenses which rely on players screening for each other, the Dribble Drive uses a player (usually, but not limited to, the point guard) to dribble-drive towards the basket. The offense is designed in a way that makes it difficult for the defense to help on dribble-penetration without giving up either a layup or an open three-pointer. Depending on how the defense responds, the driving player can either shoot a lay-up, pass to the post player for a shot, or \"kick-out\" pass to one of the perimeter players. If the ball is returned to the perimeter, the player that receives the pass either takes a three-point shot, or dribble-drives to the basket, restarting the process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variations of basketball",
        "text": "Slamball is full-contact basketball, with trampolines. Points are scored by playing the ball through the net, as in basketball, though the point-scoring rules are modified. The main differences from the parent sport is the court; below the padded basketball rim and backboard are four trampolines set into the floor which serve to propel players to great heights for slam dunks. The rules also permit some physical contact between the members of the four-player teams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional wrestling throws",
        "text": "Also known as the S.O.S. or table-top suplex. The wrestler lifts the opponent up so the opponent is horizontal across the wrestler's body then falls backward, throwing the opponent over their head down to the mat back-first. This slam can be either bridged into a pin, or the wrestler can float over into another fallaway slam. This move is sometimes used as a continuation move from catching the opponent's high-cross body, to emphasize the wrestler's strength."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional wrestling throws",
        "text": "This move is actually a counter. Usually, the opponent grabs the attacking wrestler (as if he were performing a sidewalk slam), the attacking counters and swings their body upwards, then scissors their legs around the opponent's head, spins around the opponent's body, and swings their legs downwards, resulting in the headscissors takedown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pick and roll",
        "text": "Variations of the pick and roll are the \"pick and pop\" (or \"pick and fade\"), where the screener moves for an open jump shot instead of rolling to the basket, or the \"pick and slip\", where the screener fakes setting a screen before slipping behind the defender to accept the pass."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chaupar",
        "text": "Once all four of his men have entered into play, any further throws of 11, 25 or 30 points by the player results in the granting of one additional step or point called \u201cpeghedu\u201d. This is a bonus point. This peghedu (single step) may be used to move another man, separate from the man moved for the throw itself. At any point in the game, if a player has no men who can move the amount of a throw, that throw is forfeited."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of baseball moves?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There have been many!  Would you like to know about the Boston Braves moving, the St. Louis Browns moving, the Philadelphia Athletics moving, or the Seattle Pilots moving?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me why the Seattle Pilots moved?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The team needed new ownership, as Daley was not financing them more.  Former Milwaukee Braves minority owner Bud Selig was contacted and Soriano sold the Pilots to him, moving the team to Milwaukee."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What about moves in game play, can you tell me about the different basketball shots?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know more of the jump shot, dunk, or the layup?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Please tell me about the dunk."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A slam dunk, also simply known as dunk, is a type of basketball shot that is performed when a player jumps in the air, controls the ball above the horizontal plane of the rim, and scores by shoving the ball directly through the basket with one or both hands. It is a type of field goal that is worth two points."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I see. How about the layup, what's that?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "A layup in basketball is a two-point shot attempt made by leaping from below, laying the ball up near the basket, and using one hand to bounce it off the backboard and into the basket. The layup is considered the most basic shot in basketball.",
      "A layup in basketball is a two-point shot attempt made by leaping from below, laying the ball up near the basket, and using one hand to bounce it off the backboard and into the basket."
    ],
    "topic": "Basketball moves",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Layup:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Layup"
        ],
        "ctx": "A layup in basketball is a two-point shot attempt made by leaping from below, laying the ball up near the basket, and using one hand to bounce it off the backboard and into the basket. The motion and one-handed reach distinguish it from a jump shot. The layup is considered the most basic shot in basketball. When doing a layup, the player lifts the outside foot, or the foot away from the basket."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Layup:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Layup"
        ],
        "ctx": "A layup in basketball is a two-point shot attempt made by leaping from below, laying the ball up near the basket, and using one hand to bounce it off the backboard and into the basket. The motion and one-handed reach distinguish it from a jump shot. The layup is considered the most basic shot in basketball. When doing a layup, the player lifts the outside foot, or the foot away from the basket."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A \"bank shot\" is a shot that relies on the ball bouncing off the backboard and into the basket. It is frequently used for mid-range jump shots from around a 45\u00b0 angle and layups. It is not commonly used for long-range shots or shots from the middle or near the baseline. The purpose of using the backboard is to try to hit the backboard at an angle, thus slowing the speed of the ball and increasing its chances of falling into the hoop. Researchers at North Carolina State University found that bank shots may be 20 percent more effective up to a distance of about 12 feet than direct shots. Another term for a bank shot is \"off the glass.\" Among the NBA players known for using or having used the bank shot often are Sam Jones, Elgin Baylor, George Gervin, Tim Duncan, Dwyane Wade, Dirk Nowitzki, Scottie Pippen, and Kobe Bryant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A layup is a two-point attempt made by leaping from the ground, releasing the ball with one hand up near the basket, and using one hand to tip the ball over the rim and into the basket (lay-in) or banking it off the backboard and into the basket (lay-up). The motion and one-handed reach distinguish it from a jump shot. The layup is considered the most basic shot in basketball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Layup",
        "text": "A layup in basketball is a two-point shot attempt made by leaping from below, laying the ball up near the basket, and using one hand to bounce it off the backboard and into the basket. The motion and one-handed reach distinguish it from a jump shot. The layup is considered the most basic shot in basketball. When doing a layup, the player lifts the outside foot, or the foot away from the basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball",
        "text": "Another common shot is called the \"layup\". This shot requires the player to be in motion toward the basket, and to \"lay\" the ball \"up\" and into the basket, typically off the backboard (the backboard-free, underhand version is called a \"finger roll\"). The most crowd-pleasing and typically highest-percentage accuracy shot is the \"slam dunk\", in which the player jumps very high and throws the ball downward, through the basket while touching it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Power layup, also called jump stop layup, is a continuous shooting move in which a player stops dribbling and makes a huge leap forward (jump stop), while securing the ball in both hands from the dribbling hand, then making a layup. The move is generally used as a layup because the huge movement coming from the leap provides the momentum for the player to jump forward for a layup. The move is a great way to squeeze the player under the basket for a fast layup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "An undefended layup is usually a high-percentage shot. The main challenge is getting near the rim and avoiding blocks by taller defenders who usually stand near the basket. Common layup strategies are to create space, releasing the ball from different spots or using an alternate hand. A player tall enough (or with sufficient leaping ability) to reach over the rim might choose to perform a more spectacular and higher percentage slam dunk (dropping or throwing the ball through the basket from above the rim) instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Layup",
        "text": "The Reverse Layup is a more stylish method of making the ball from close. Generally, you fake the defender into defending a regular layup on the near side and then jump to the far side of the basket before shooting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bank pool",
        "text": "The key rule is that all shots must be banked ( to , then object ball to one or more on the way to the )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball",
        "text": "Another shot that is less common than the layup, is the \"circus shot\". The circus shot is a low-percentage shot that is flipped, heaved, scooped, or flung toward the hoop while the shooter is off-balance, airborne, falling down, and/or facing away from the basket. A back-shot is a shot taken when the player is facing away from the basket, and may be shot with the dominant hand, or both; but there is a very low chance that the shot will be successful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The other layup is the overhand shot, similar to a jump shot but from considerably closer range. Overhand layups almost always involved the use of the backboard. Players like Scottie Pippen and Karl Malone have used this move to great effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Layup",
        "text": "An undefended layup is usually a high percentage shot. The main obstacle is getting near the rim and avoiding blocks by taller defenders who usually stand near the basket. Common layup strategies are to create spaces, release the ball from a different spot, or use alternate hands. A player able to reach over the rim might choose to perform a more spectacular and higher percentage slam dunk (dropping or throwing the ball from above the rim) instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bank pool",
        "text": "On the break shot, at least four balls must hit the rails else it is an illegal break. Any balls pocketed during the break do not count toward the score and will be spotted after the player's inning ends. Pocketing a ball on the break results in the player continuing to shoot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball",
        "text": "Typically, a player faces the basket with both feet facing the basket. A player will rest the ball on the fingertips of the dominant hand (the shooting arm) slightly above the head, with the other hand supporting the side of the ball. The ball is usually shot by jumping (though not always) and extending the shooting arm. The shooting arm, fully extended with the wrist fully bent, is held stationary for a moment following the release of the ball, known as a \"follow-through\". Players often try to put a steady backspin on the ball to absorb its impact with the rim. The ideal trajectory of the shot is somewhat controversial, but generally a proper arc is recommended. Players may shoot directly into the basket or may use the backboard to redirect the ball into the basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bank pool",
        "text": "On an illegal break, the opponent has the option of requesting a re-rack or accepting the table as-is and may begin shooting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bank shot",
        "text": "Bank shot may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A reverse layup is a layup that is finished on the opposite side of the court's split-line than the player began the attack on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bank shot",
        "text": "Bank shot\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Finger roll",
        "text": "The finger roll is a specialized type of basketball layup shot where the ball is rolled off the tips of the player's fingers. The advantage of the finger roll is that the ball can travel high in the air over a defender that might otherwise block a regular jump shot or dunk, while the spin applied by the rolling over the fingers will carry the ball to the basket off the backboard. The shot was pioneered by center Wilt Chamberlain in the 1960s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Named after Hakeem \"The Dream\" Olajuwon, this move is executed when a post player dribbles alongside the baseline and with one hand under the ball fakes a layup, then pivots to the outside for a jump hook. If the defender recovers and jumps at the hook shot, the post player can pump fake the hook and step through for the unguarded layup (similar to the up and under move)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "As the game has evolved through the years, so has the layup. Several different versions of the layup are used today. Layups can be broadly categorized into two types: the underarm and the overarm. The underarm layup involves using most of the wrist and the fingers to 'lay' the ball into the basket or off the board. The underarm layup is more commonly known as the finger roll. A notable NBA player who uses the underarm finger roll is Dwyane Wade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bank pool",
        "text": "The balls are racked in nine-ball formation (or eight-ball formation if using a full rack), but in no particular order."
      },
      {
        "title": "Layup",
        "text": "The other layup is the overhand shot, similar to a jump shot but from a considerably close range. Overhand layups nearly always involve the action of the backboard. Players like Scottie Pippen and Karl Malone have used this move to great effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Wall (American game show)",
        "text": "A team of two contestants plays each game, attempting to bank as much money as possible by answering questions correctly and landing balls in high-value slots. Green balls dropped on the board will add to the team's bank, while red balls dropped on the board will subtract from it. Throughout the game, the bank has a floor of $0."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The up and under is a move consisting of two parts: a shot fake (the up) and a step-through (the under). First the player with the ball fakes a shot by thrusting the ball above his head as if to take a shot, then when the defender jumps in an attempt to block the shot, the offensive player steps by him and attempts a clear, unguarded shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bank pool",
        "text": "Bank pool is one of the \"cleanest\" (no \"\") pool games \u2014 no (the object ball must be hit directly with the cueball, without hitting the rail first); no (shots must be cue ball to the object ball, then object ball to the called pocket, and the shooter must call both the ball and pocket); and the object ball cannot hit another ball on the way to the pocket (no )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Million Dollar Money Drop",
        "text": "After the timer either runs out or is stopped, the drops for the incorrect answers are opened; any money placed on them falls down a chute and is removed from play by security guards beneath the stage, while any money placed on the correct answer is carried forward to the next question. This process is repeated until at any point where the team ran out of money and loses, or after the final question; if they were correct, they win any remaining money retained for its answer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sam Jones (basketball, born 1933)",
        "text": "Jones\u2019 perfect form when shooting a jump shot, along with his great clutch shooting, led opponents to nickname him \"The Shooter.\" He was particularly adept at shooting the bank shot, in which the shooter bounces the ball off the backboard en route to the basket. Many coaches, including UCLA's great John Wooden, believe that when a shooter is at a 20- to 50-degree angle to the backboard and inside 15 feet, a bank shot is always the preferred shot. At 6-foot-4, Jones was the prototype of the tall guard who could run the floor and bang the boards, and had a rangy offensive game that gave opponents fits. One of the \"Jones Boys\" in Boston, Sam teamed with K. C. Jones in the Celtics' backcourt to create havoc in NBA arenas around the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Wall (American game show)",
        "text": "After the third question in Round 3, the isolated player is sent a contract by the host, and he/she must sign it or tear it up. Signing the contract gives up the team bank in favor of a guaranteed payout, equal to the Free Fall winnings plus an additional $20,000 for every question answered correctly in Rounds 2 and 3. If the isolated player tears up the contract, the team receives their final bank total instead. After the four red balls have dropped in Round 3 and the final bank is calculated (or after the last question if there is less than $6 banked), the isolated player returns to the stage to reveal his/her decision. Only at this point does he/she learn the number of correct answers given, the payout total, and the team's final bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bumper pool",
        "text": "To begin play, both players shoot their marked ball simultaneously, banking the ball off the cushion to their right and attempting to sink their ball in their pocket at the other end of the table. If both players sink their first shot they each select another ball, place it in front of their opponent's pocket and repeat the simultaneous shot. If both players successfully sink all five of their balls in this fashion the game ends in a draw."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bank Panic",
        "text": "Shortly after a robber appears in a doorway, a timer appears above his head and begins to count quickly up to 0:30 and back down to 0:00, leading to a \"FAIR\" kill if he is shot during this period. Higher point values are awarded for shooting when the timer is closer to 0:00, but any shot fired before the timer appears leads to an \"UNFAIR\" kill and a minimum value. At the end of a level, the player earns bonus points for all deposits made and any remaining time, and a further bonus based on the average time of all FAIR kills made during the level."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baccarat",
        "text": "Once play begins, one player is designated as the banker; this player also deals. The other players are \"punters\". The position of banker passes counterclockwise in the course of the game. In each round, the banker wagers the amount he wants to risk. The other players, in order, then declare whether they will \"go bank\", playing against the entire current bank with a matching wager. Only one player may \"go bank\". If no one \"goes bank\", players make their wagers in order. If the total wagers from the players are less than the bank, observing bystanders may also wager up to the amount of the bank. If the total wagers from the players are greater than the bank, the banker may choose to increase the bank to match; if he does not, the excess wagers are removed in reverse play order."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A double clutch is a move associated with a layup or a dunk; it is a change of ball position in mid-air (similar to the \"up and under\" move, but performed while the player is in the air). It is effectively used by many players."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polish Bank",
        "text": "If the amount in the bank after a game is at least three times the original deposit, the banker may hold the bank for one last 'trick round'. After this game, the banker must hand over the bank to his left neighbour. If the bank is not bust after this round, the amount in the bank belongs, naturally, to the banker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Finger roll",
        "text": "Although the finger roll is a very challenging shot it still has a high percentage of making the basket. Once there is opening down the lane for a layup, the finger roll is the most convenient due to distance away from the rim. If there is no defender guarding and trying to block the shot then it is nearly impossible to miss. The layup can help improve one's game because it can make it harder for defenders to defend by not knowing whether the offense is going for a finger roll or another layup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Named after Jack Sikma, the post player receives the ball with their back to the basket and keeps the ball at forehead level. The post then pivots to face the basket while bringing the ball overhead (almost behind the head) to shoot a jump shot. The ball is released high over the head making it difficult for the defense to block."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variations of basketball",
        "text": "The first player shoots from the shooting line. If the shot is missed, the player must retrieve the rebound, and shoot from the spot that the rebound was retrieved. The other players are not permitted to interfere with either the ball or the player. The player continues to shoot until a basket is made to a maximum of 5 shots. When the first player has made the shot, the next player begins shooting, again from the shooting line. This player must make the basket in the same number, or fewer shots than the preceding shooter. The next player then shoots, again from the shooting line and must make the basket in the same number, or fewer shots than the player that immediately preceded him\\her in shooting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pool (cue sports)",
        "text": "Bank pool can be played with a full rack (can be a \"long\" game), but is more typically played with nine balls (frequently called \"nine-ball bank\"). The balls are racked in nine-ball formation, but in no particular order. The object of the game is simple: to be the first player to bank five balls in any order (eight balls when played with a full rack). Penalties and fouls are similar to one pocket in that the player committing the foul must spot a ball for each foul. This must be done before the incoming player shoots."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Wall (British game show)",
        "text": "After the third question, if the banked total is at least \u00a33 (as the least that could be lost from two red balls is \u00a32), two red balls are dropped simultaneously from the same zones that were chosen for the initial two green balls. The maximum possible amount that a team can bank in this round is \u00a3199,998."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bank pool",
        "text": "Bank pool\n--Rules.\n----Aim.\n----Rack.\n----Play.\n----Fouls.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball",
        "text": "A shot that misses both the rim and the backboard completely is referred to as an \"air ball\". A particularly bad shot, or one that only hits the backboard, is jocularly called a brick. The \"hang time\" is the length of time a player stays in the air after jumping, either to make a slam dunk, layup or jump shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Banks (basketball)",
        "text": "George Banks (basketball)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The Pro-hop Euro Step combines the pro-hop and Euro step while removing the pro-hop's jump stop. The player picks up their dribble with a synchronized right hand dribble/right foot step, or a left hand dribble with left foot step. Player then rips the ball to opposite side of their body (behind the back if skilled), takes two steps, and finishes with a reverse layup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The Euro step (sometimes \"Eurostep\") is a move developed in European basketball in which a player, after picking up his dribble, takes a step in one direction bumping into their defender, and then quickly takes a second step in the other direction before they attempt a layup. It is an attempt to evade at least one defender before attacking the basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Wall (British game show)",
        "text": "After the third question in Round 3, the isolated player is sent a contract by the host and must either sign or destroy it. Signing the contract gives up the team bank in favour of a guaranteed payout, equal to the Free Fall winnings plus an additional \u00a32,500 for every question answered correctly in Rounds 2 and 3. If the isolated player destroys the contract, the team receives their final bank total instead. After the three red balls have dropped in Round 3 and the final bank is calculated (or after the last question if there is less than \u00a33 banked), the isolated player returns to the stage to reveal his/her decision. Only at this point does he/she learn the number of correct answers given, the payout total, and the team's final bank. If the isolated player destroys the contract, the team receives their final bank total instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Wall (British game show)",
        "text": "In Free Fall, the team is asked a series of five questions, each with two answer choices. As each question is asked, three balls are simultaneously released from drop zones 1, 4, and 7. The team must select one answer and lock it in before any portion of a ball crosses the threshold of a money slot. If the team's answer is correct, the balls turn green and their values are added to the team's bank. If the team answers incorrectly or fails to lock in an answer, the balls turn red and their values are subtracted from the team's bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bank Panic",
        "text": "The layout of the bank is implicitly a circle with twelve numbered doors and the player in the center. The player can rotate to the left or right and view three doors at a time. The doors will open to reveal a customer (who will drop a bag of money, making a deposit), a robber (who will attempt to shoot the player) or a young boy (who will be holding a stack of three to five hats, which the player can rapidly shoot for a bag of money or bonus time). The level ends when all twelve doors have received one or more deposits. This is indicated by the numbered boxes across the top of the screen, with a red dollar sign showing a door with a completed deposit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of basketball",
        "text": "Basketball moves \u2013 individual actions used by players in basketball to pass by defenders to gain access to the basket or to get a clean pass to a teammate.\n* Free throw\u00a0\u2013\n* Advance step\u00a0\u2013 A step in which the defender's lead foot steps toward their man and the back foot slides forward.\n* Air ball\u00a0\u2013 An unblocked shot that fails to hit the rim or backboard. Does not reset the shot clock.\n* Air pass\u00a0\u2013 A pass that goes straight through the air to the receiver. See also \"bounce pass\".\n* Alley oop\u00a0\u2013 An offensive play in which a player throws the ball up near the basket to a teammate (or, more rarely, to himself) who jumps, catches the ball in mid air and immediately scores a basket, usually with a slam dunk.\n* Euro step\u00a0\u2013 An offensive move in which a player, after picking up the dribble, takes a step in one direction and the second allowed step in a different direction while driving to the rim.\n* Field goal\u00a0\u2013 A shot made from anywhere on the court, does not include free throws.\n* Over the back\u00a0\u2013 a foul committed by a player who tries to rebound the ball by pushing, moving or climbing on a player's back who is already in position to rebound the ball.\n* Rebound\u00a0\u2013 To obtain the ball after a missed field goal attempt.\n* Banana cut\u00a0\u2013 A wide, curving cut, as opposed to a cut that is a straight line.\n* Basket cut\u00a0\u2013 A cut toward the basket.\n* Blindside screen\u00a0\u2013 A screen set directly behind a defender where the player can't see it.\n* Block\u00a0\u2013 To tip or deflect a shooter's shot, altering its flight so the shot misses.* Block out\u00a0\u2013 To make contact with an opposing player to establish rebounding position between the player and the ball. Also called \"box out.\"\n* Box out\u00a0\u2013 See block out.\n* Bump the cutter\u00a0\u2013 To step in the way of a player who is trying to cut to the ball for a pass.\n* Dingle\u00a0\u2013 A steal that leads quickly to a score.\n* Rip a C\u00a0\u2013 A motion used while chinning the ball to create space during a pivot between an offensive player and a defensive player. Pivot towards the defender and rips the ball in a C-shape away from the pressure to create a passing lane.\n* screen, set a screen\u00a0\u2013 (v) To attempt to prevent a defender from guarding a teammate by standing in the defender's way. The screening player must remain stationary: a moving screen is an offensive foul. (n) The tactic of setting a screen. Also called a \"pick\".\n* Stutter step\u00a0\u2013 a common warm-up drill where you shuffle and scuff your feet in a quick moving motion across a length of flooring. This warm-up is supposed to keep the players alert and help them prepare to defend players in a real game, since the stutter step is a smaller version of shuffling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "From the initial position of the pick-and-roll maneuver, the player who receives the ball has many different options as to whether he/she passes it, or fakes and then goes for a jump shot. These variations typically include the pick and pop, where by the roll man instead of heading to the basket trails behind and is wide open for a jumper, hence the 'pop', as well as slipping the screen, whereby the defender of the screener attempts to cheat and get ahead of the screener, at which point the screener does not set a screen, but merely slips by, leaving him open as his defender trails behind."
      },
      {
        "title": "Backboard (basketball)",
        "text": "The top of the hoop is above the ground. Regulation backboards are wide by tall. All basketball rims (hoops) are in diameter. The inner rectangle on the backboard is wide by tall, and helps a shooter determine the proper aim and banking for either a layup or distance shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Wall (American game show)",
        "text": "In Free Fall, the team is asked a series of five questions, each with two answer choices. As each question is asked, three balls are simultaneously released from drop zones 1, 4, and 7. The team must select one answer and lock it in before the first ball crosses the threshold of a money slot. If the team's answer is correct, the balls turn green and their values are added to the team's bank. If the team answers incorrectly or fails to lock in an answer, the balls turn red and their values are subtracted from the team's bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bank pool",
        "text": "The object of the game is to be the first player to five balls in any order (or eight balls, when played with a full rack)."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Wall (British game show)",
        "text": "Starting with Series 4, the team may choose to double the total value of any one question by pressing a gold \"Doubler\" disk while the balls are falling. The maximum possible amount that a team can bank in this round is \u00a337,500 in the first three series; this was later increased to \u00a352,500 for the fourth series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Also called a \"reverse pivot\", the drop step is a move in which the player posting up takes a back step on the side of a defender behind him and spins to that side to gain leverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hook shot",
        "text": "In basketball, a hook shot is a play in which the offensive player, usually turned perpendicular to the basket, gently throws the ball with a sweeping motion of the arm farther from the basket in an upward arc with a follow-through which ends over his head. Unlike the jump shot, it is shot with only one hand; the other arm is often used to create space between the shooter and the defensive player. The shot is quite difficult to block, but few players have mastered the shot more than a few feet from the basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Wall (Australian game show)",
        "text": "After the third question, if the banked total is at least $3 (as the least that could be lost from two red balls is $2), two red balls are dropped simultaneously from the same zones that were chosen for the initial two green balls. The maximum amount that a team can bank in this round is $1,999,998."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bank pool",
        "text": "The shooter \"owes\" the table a ball if they foul \u2014 a previously pocketed ball (if any) must be . Any ball pocketed on a is spotted in addition to the ball owed. If the cue ball is (pocketed or knocked off the table), it is a foul, and the cue ball must be behind the (i.e., in the \"\"). Any balls that were sunk on that shot are spotted. If the shooter has not already legally pocketed a ball at the time of the foul, a ball is \"still owed\", which must be spotted after the in which it was legally pocketed. If the shooter makes a legal bank shot and another ball goes in accidentally, it is not a foul, but that extra ball is spotted after the inning. It is also a foul if the shooter does not hit the \"\" object ball and drive it or the cue ball to a cushion or pocket the object ball (this is different from nine-ball and standardized eight-ball, in which \"any\" ball may contact a rail after the object-ball hit to avoid fouling). In many areas, fouling three times during successive turns means a loss of , but that rule may often be ignored in local amateur play. A stricter variant preferred by some is that even three non-consecutive fouls is a loss of game. Players typically make sure the rules are clear and agreed-upon before play begins, especially when gambling."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Wall (Australian game show)",
        "text": "After the third question in Round 3, the isolated player is sent a contract by the host and must either sign or tear it up. Signing the contract gives up the team bank in favor of a guaranteed payout, equal to the Free Fall winnings plus an additional $20,000 for every question answered correctly in Rounds 2 and 3. If the isolated player destroys the contract, the team receives their final bank total instead. After the four red balls have dropped in Round 3 and the final bank is calculated (or after the last question if there is less than $4 banked), the isolated player returns to the stage to reveal his/her decision. Only at this point does he/she learn the number of correct answers given, the payout total, and the team's final bank. If the isolated player destroys the contract, the team receives their final bank total instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grinnell System",
        "text": "The main tenets of the system are:\n#The first possible shot is the best possible shot, where three-point field goal attempts are preferred over shorter shots.\n#Shoot as many three-pointers as possible.\n#In terms of defense, giving up an uncontested layup is better than a shot clock violation.\n#Always double team the person with the ball.\n#Every player but the shooter goes for the offensive rebound.\n#Offensive rebounds should be sent back for another three-point attempt, not a shorter putback for two points."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Bank Job (game show)",
        "text": "In the first round, cash amounts totaling \u00a3150,000 were placed in the boxes, at least four of which were left empty. The contestants answered toss-up questions on the buzzer for 90 seconds. A miss froze the contestant out of the next question, while a correct answer stopped the clock and allowed them to open one box. The cash it contained (if any) was placed in a briefcase on the contestant's podium, and they then had to decide whether to continue playing, or exit the vault with their case and sit out the rest of the round."
      },
      {
        "title": "Face au Mur",
        "text": "After the third question, if the banked total is at least $3 (as the least that could be lost from two red balls is $2), two red balls are dropped simultaneously from the same zones that were chosen for the initial two green balls. The maximum amount that a team can bank in this round is $399,998."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Basketball moves\n--Dribbling.\n----Crossover.\n------Between the legs.\n------Behind the back.\n----Wraparound.\n----In and out dribble.\n----V dribble.\n----Different heights dribble.\n----Ankle breaker dribble.\n----Hesitation move.\n--After the dribble.\n----Euro step.\n----Jump stop.\n----Pro-Hop.\n----Pro-hop euro step.\n----Power up.\n----Over-the-head.\n--Shots.\n----Layups.\n------Reverse layup.\n------Finger roll.\n------Tear drop.\n------Power layup.\n------Double clutch.\n----Bank shot.\n----Putback and tip-in.\n--Triple threat position and related moves.\n----Pivot.\n----Jab step.\n----Pump fake.\n----Drawing contact.\n----Shuffle.\n--Posting up.\n----Up and under.\n----Hook shot.\n----Drop step.\n----Power move.\n----Spin and drive.\n----Sikma move.\n----Dream shake.\n--Shooting.\n----Pull-up jumper.\n----Turnaround jump shot.\n----Fadeaway.\n----Step-back jump shot.\n--Passes.\n----Bounce pass.\n----Chest pass.\n----Over-the-head pass.\n----Touch pass.\n----Baseball pass.\n----Jump pass.\n----Blind pass.\n----Behind-the-back pass.\n--Two person game.\n----Give and go.\n----Dribble pitch (handoff).\n----Pick and roll.\n----Backdoor.\n----Alley-oop.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "When a player posts up, in order to shoot he has to turn around to face the basket. This can be done by turning in the air, timing the jump shot when the defender is not likely to jump and challenge the shot. Though a fade-away version of this move was perfected by Larry Bird and Dirk Nowitzki, players such as Michael Jordan, Kobe Bryant, Hakeem Olajuwon, and Kevin Garnett are also well known for it."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Wall Philippines",
        "text": "A team of two contestants plays each game, attempting to bank as much money as possible by correctly answering multiple choice questions and landing balls in high-value slots. Balls turn green for correct answers and red for incorrect answers. Green balls dropped on the board will add to the team's bank, while red balls dropped on the board will subtract from it. Throughout the game, the bank has a floor of \u20b10. The game has a potential top prize of \u20b112,374,994."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The shooter takes a quick jab step away from the basket and takes a normal jump shot. Stephen Curry, James Harden and Luka Doncic are famous for their step-back jumper. The move creates space for the shot, while providing more balance than the fadeaway."
      },
      {
        "title": "Face au Mur",
        "text": "In Free Fall, the team is asked a series of five questions, each with two answer choices. As each question is asked, three balls are simultaneously released from drop zones 1, 4, and 7. The team must select one answer and lock it in before any portion of a ball crosses the threshold of a money slot. If the team's answer is correct, the balls turn green and their values are added to the team's bank. If the team answers incorrectly or fails to lock in an answer, the balls turn red and their values are subtracted from the team's bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "A finger roll is performed when a player shoots the ball with one hand during a layup and then lifts his fingers, rolling the ball into the basket. The rotation produced provides the ball with a soft touch, and the ball will roll around the rim and then drop into the basket. Guard George \"The Iceman\" Gervin and center Wilt Chamberlain were known for having some of the best finger rolls in the game. Other notable practitioners have included Michael Jordan, Scottie Pippen, and Jason Kidd."
      },
      {
        "title": "Double Dribble (video game)",
        "text": "When a character on the opposing team takes a shot, and the player controlled character is near to them, pressing the shot button will cause the player character to jump and possibly block the shot. If a shot is missed, moving the player character beneath the shadow of the ball and pressing the shot button executes an attempt to rebound the basketball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variations of basketball",
        "text": "If they miss the shot but hit either the ring or backboard then the next player in line must retrieve the ball after it has bounced once but before it bounces twice, then take the shot from wherever they retrieved the ball. If the ball bounces twice, the player is eliminated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "When the offensive player receives the ball in the low post, the player either fakes in one direction and then spins in the opposite direction, or immediately after catching the ball, the player spins around the defender and goes up for the shot or takes one hard dribble and then takes the shot."
      },
      {
        "title": "VEX Robotics",
        "text": "VEX IQ Challenge Bank Shot is played on a four-foot by eight-foot rectangular field. The object of the game is to attain the highest score by emptying cutouts, scoring balls into the scoring zone and goals, and by parking robots on the ramp. There are a total of 44 balls available as scoring objects in the game. There is one scoring zone, one goal, one ramp, and sixteen cutouts on the field."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Deconstruction of Falling Stars",
        "text": "\"In billiards, we call that a bank shot.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Baccarat",
        "text": "A player going bank may either do so on a single hand, in the ordinary course, or a cheval, i.e. on two hands separately, one-half of the stake being played upon each hand. A player going bank and losing may again go bank, and if he again loses, may go bank a third time, but not further."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "Ball is dribbled with same hand in a V motion. Almost looks like a double crossover but ball stays in hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Double Dribble (video game)",
        "text": "If the player controls a character in the lane and moving toward the basket and they hit the shot button, the screen changes to focus on the character attempting a dunk. The player must hold the button down until the character reaches the top of the jump and then release it. If the timing of the button's release is incorrect, the ball bounces high and far off the rim, and the player must rebound the ball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bowling for Columbine",
        "text": "An early scene depicts a bank in Michigan that gives customers a free hunting rifle when they make a deposit of a certain size into a time deposit account. The film follows Moore as he goes to the bank, makes his deposit, fills out the forms, and awaits the result of a background check before walking out of the bank carrying a brand new Weatherby hunting rifle. Just before leaving the bank, Moore asks: \"Do you think it's a little dangerous handing out guns at a bank?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Wall Philippines",
        "text": "After the third question in Round 3, the host sends the isolated player a contract, and he/she must sign it or tear it up. Signing the contract gives up the team's bank in favor of a guaranteed payout, equal to the Free Fall winnings plus an additional \u20b120,000 for every question answered correctly in Rounds 2 and 3. If the isolated player tears up the contract, the team receives whatever is left on their bank instead. After the four red balls have dropped in Round 3 and the final bank is calculated (or after the last question if there is less than \u20b15 banked), the isolated player returns to the stage to reveal his/her decision. Only at this point does he/she learn the number of correct answers given, the payout total, and the team's final bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bank Shot",
        "text": "Bank Shot\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n--Reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "In addition, another variation of the lay-up is the wrong-foot layup. Typically, this move can be seen by inexperienced players with poor footwork, however, when done intentionally, a wrong-footed layup can deceive a defender into mistiming his block attempt. In a normal layup, the left foot is used to step off when laying in with the right hand, and vice versa. However, in a wrong-footed layup, the right foot is used to step off when laying in with the right hand. This also helps to shield the defender from reaching across to block the shot; in reaching across however, the defender will likely get called for a defensive foul. Tony Parker of the San Antonio Spurs relies heavily on the wrong footed layup, largely due to his smaller size and deceptive quickness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Layup",
        "text": "One notable Reverse Layup was that of Michael Jordan. His Reverse Layup consisted of him staying on the same side of the hoop while doing the Reverse Layup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The power move is executed by pivoting towards the basket to seal the defender, then using a two handed power dribble followed by a jump stop to get closer to the basket. Immediately after the jump stop the player jumps up for a power shot or jump hook."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spin Star",
        "text": "The maximum potential bank total was \u00a3568,500. To achieve this result, the same Daily Player's name and the maximum question value would first have to come up on every name/money reel in Rounds 1 and 2, and they would have to answer every question correctly (at double value). That Daily Player's total (\u00a3189,500) would then have to appear on all three reels in Round 3."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Wall (Australian game show)",
        "text": "In Free Fall, the team is asked a series of five questions, each with two answer choices. As each question is asked, three balls are simultaneously released from drop zones 1, 4, and 7. The team must select one answer and lock it in before the first ball crosses the threshold of a money slot. If the team's answer is correct, the balls turn green and their values are added to the team's bank. If the team answers incorrectly or fails to lock in an answer, the balls turn red and their values are subtracted from the team's bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Wall Philippines",
        "text": "After the third question, if the banked total is at least \u20b13 (as the least that could be lost from two red balls is \u20b12), two red balls are dropped simultaneously from the same zones that were chosen for the initial two green balls. The maximum amount that a team can bank in this round is \u20b11,999,998."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bank of Taiwan (basketball)",
        "text": "Bank of Taiwan (basketball)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Wall Philippines",
        "text": "In Free Fall, the team is asked a series of five questions, each with two answer choices. After each question is asked, three balls are simultaneously released from drop zones 1, 4, and 7. The team must select one answer and lock it in before the first ball crosses the white line just above the bins. If the team's answer is correct, the balls turn green and their values are added to the team's bank. If the team answers incorrectly or fails to lock in an answer, the balls turn red and their values are subtracted from the team's bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Variations of basketball",
        "text": "If the shot is made, then the shooter must retrieve the ball before it bounces twice, they then take another shot, if they make 3 shots in a row, then they are able to eliminate another player by hitting them with the ball. The remaining players are able to run away from the shooter but must stop and remain frozen, when the shooter has retrieved the ball after the 3 shot and yelled \"STOP\". The shooter must then take 7 steps and throw the ball from wherever they have reached. Any player who is touched by the ball is then eliminated. The game is then restarted from the Free Throw line from the next player in line. The game is continued until there is only one player not eliminated. Last player standing is the winner."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freddie Banks",
        "text": "As a Senior in 1986\u20131987 Banks averaged 19.5 points per game, alongside teammates Armen Gilliam and Gerald Paddio in leading the UNLV Runnin' Rebels to a 37\u20132 record and the 1987 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament Final 4. Banks scored 38 points and hit 10 3-point shots in his final game, a 97\u201393 loss to the eventual Champion Indiana Hoosiers in the semi-final game. \u201cHe was the most clutch shooter I ever coached,\u201d UNLV Coach Jerry Tarkanian said."
      },
      {
        "title": "5 Gold Rings",
        "text": "Each completed question increases the team's bank by one level (\u00a31,000, \u00a32,500, \u00a35,000, \u00a310,000, \u00a325,000). One team plays all five rounds before the other takes a turn. The maximum potential bank is \u00a325,000, obtained by completing all five rounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Wall Philippines",
        "text": "The onstage player is offered an opportunity to \"Double Up\" on the second question and \"Triple Up\" on the third. These options allow the onstage player to play two or three balls from the selected drop zone instead of one, respectively. After the third question, if the banked total is at least \u20b11 more than the number of green balls played at the start of the round, an equal number of red balls are played simultaneously from the same zones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hotshot (basketball)",
        "text": "Once the player has chosen his hotspots, he proceeds to his first and takes five shots, keeping track of how many he has missed. On the fifth shot, or \"hotshot\", the player must prepare to make his own rebound as quickly as possible, because he will have to make a number of shots from wherever he recovers the ball. If he recovers the ball outside the three-point line, he may take his shots from wherever the ball passed over the three-point line; if the player made his \"hotshot\", he may take his shots from wherever the ball left the key, if it is outside the key when recovered. If the player hits all five of his hotspot shots, he receives a twenty-point bonus and need not recover his rebound, but may move on to his next hotspot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Press Your Luck",
        "text": "If the champion finishes a round with a bank total above $0, he/she may either stop playing and keep all winnings, or continue to the next round. If the total is $0 at the end of a round, the next one begins automatically. The champion receives all cash and prizes in the bank upon either choosing to stop or completing all five rounds. However, if the bank reaches or exceeds $500,000 at any point, the bonus game ends immediately and enough cash is added to bring the total up to $1 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack-Bot",
        "text": "While the timer is counting down, the player's Casino Run Bank, which begins at 100 million points, adds 4 million points each time the ball hits a switch, rollover, or bumper. Players must remember that the clock is ticking; if time expires, they lose everything in their bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "The power up is a move in which the player lands on their outside foot then inside foot, and powers up toward the basket. An effective move because of its balance and power resulting from a two-foot gather and take off."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bank pool",
        "text": "Bank pool is a pool game that has as its most fundamental requirement that all scoring shots in the game must be made by a called ball off a and into a called pocket. While the game has multiple variations, the predominant version through much of its history was played with a full fifteen-ball , of which the winning player was required to legally pocket eight balls. A shortened version of the game using nine balls of which the players must legally pocket five for the win, often called \"nine-ball banks,\" gained popularity in the 1990s and 2000s and is the subject of international professional competition and televised matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Screen (sports)",
        "text": "After setting the screen, the screener is often open to roll to the basket and receive a pass. This tactic is called pick and roll in basketball. Another basketball tactic, called the pick and pop, is for the ballhandler to drive to the basket while the screener squares for a jumpshot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Double Dribble (video game)",
        "text": "Like a real NBA game, the game is divided into four quarters at 12 minutes per quarter. After the end of each quarter there is a challenge stage, which is a three-point shootout. In these stages, the player controls a character from their team attempting five three-point shots at each corner, each wing, and from the top of the key for a total of 25 shots. The player presses and holds the shoot button until the character reaches the top of his jump, and then releases it. Each successful shot adds 1 second to the player's time remaining for a total of 25 seconds, with an additional bonus of 1 minute if all shots succeed. Play then continues until the player runs out of time while having fewer points than the opposing team, or the score is tied."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bank Panic",
        "text": "Some robbers will wear white boots; these robbers need to be shot twice to be eliminated. At times, a robber may push a customer aside or duck out of view to avoid the player's gunfire, or a door may open to reveal a customer tied up with rope. In the latter case, the player has a short time to fire one shot and free the customer, who will then make three deposits instead of one; if the player waits too long, a robber pushes the customer aside."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball",
        "text": "The ball may be advanced toward the basket by being shot, passed between players, thrown, tapped, rolled or dribbled (bouncing the ball while running)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball moves",
        "text": "This move is similar to the jab step, but smaller. It is when a player uses multiple very little jab steps to throw off a defender and keep him constantly guessing whether you will go to the basket or not. It was used frequently by former San Antonio Spurs forward Tim Duncan."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Bank Job (game show)",
        "text": "Standing in a bank vault with 25 safe deposit boxes, four contestants answered questions to open the boxes and accumulate prize money during three rounds. The winner of the third round advanced to a grand final at the end of the week, in which their entire total was placed in a jackpot that went to the eventual winner. Scores were set to zero at the beginning of each round."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of baseball moves?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There have been many!  Would you like to know about the Boston Braves moving, the St. Louis Browns moving, the Philadelphia Athletics moving, or the Seattle Pilots moving?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me why the Seattle Pilots moved?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The team needed new ownership, as Daley was not financing them more.  Former Milwaukee Braves minority owner Bud Selig was contacted and Soriano sold the Pilots to him, moving the team to Milwaukee."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What about moves in game play, can you tell me about the different basketball shots?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know more of the jump shot, dunk, or the layup?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Please tell me about the dunk."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A slam dunk, also simply known as dunk, is a type of basketball shot that is performed when a player jumps in the air, controls the ball above the horizontal plane of the rim, and scores by shoving the ball directly through the basket with one or both hands. It is a type of field goal that is worth two points."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I see. How about the layup, what's that?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A layup in basketball is a two-point shot attempt made by leaping from below, laying the ball up near the basket, and using one hand to bounce it off the backboard and into the basket."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How does the bank shot work?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "A bank shot is a shot that relies on the ball bouncing off the backboard and into the basket, used commonly for midrange jump shots and layups. Using the backboard slows the ball and increases its chances of falling into the hoop, and it may be 20 percent more effective up to a distance of about 12 feet than direct shots.",
      "A bank shot is a shot that relies on the ball bouncing off the backboard and into the basket. The purpose of using the backboard is to try to hit the backboard at an angle, thus slowing the speed of the ball and increasing its chances of falling into the hoop."
    ],
    "topic": "Basketball moves",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Basketball moves:31",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Basketball moves",
          "Shots",
          "Bank shot"
        ],
        "ctx": "A \"bank shot\" is a shot that relies on the ball bouncing off the backboard and into the basket. It is frequently used for mid-range jump shots from around a 45\u00b0 angle and layups. It is not commonly used for long-range shots or shots from the middle or near the baseline. The purpose of using the backboard is to try to hit the backboard at an angle, thus slowing the speed of the ball and increasing its chances of falling into the hoop. Researchers at North Carolina State University found that bank shots may be 20 percent more effective up to a distance of about 12 feet than direct shots. Another term for a bank shot is \"off the glass.\" Among the NBA players known for using or having used the bank shot often are Sam Jones, Elgin Baylor, George Gervin, Tim Duncan, Dwyane Wade, Dirk Nowitzki, Scottie Pippen, and Kobe Bryant."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Basketball moves:31",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Basketball moves",
          "Shots",
          "Bank shot"
        ],
        "ctx": "A \"bank shot\" is a shot that relies on the ball bouncing off the backboard and into the basket. It is frequently used for mid-range jump shots from around a 45\u00b0 angle and layups. It is not commonly used for long-range shots or shots from the middle or near the baseline. The purpose of using the backboard is to try to hit the backboard at an angle, thus slowing the speed of the ball and increasing its chances of falling into the hoop. Researchers at North Carolina State University found that bank shots may be 20 percent more effective up to a distance of about 12 feet than direct shots. Another term for a bank shot is \"off the glass.\" Among the NBA players known for using or having used the bank shot often are Sam Jones, Elgin Baylor, George Gervin, Tim Duncan, Dwyane Wade, Dirk Nowitzki, Scottie Pippen, and Kobe Bryant."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Flour is grain ground to a powdery consistency. Flour provides the primary structure, starch and protein to the final baked bread. The protein content of the flour is the best indicator of the quality of the bread dough and the finished bread. While bread can be made from all-purpose wheat flour, a specialty bread flour, containing more protein (12\u201314%), is recommended for high-quality bread. If one uses a flour with a lower protein content (9\u201311%) to produce bread, a shorter mixing time is required to develop gluten strength properly. An extended mixing time leads to oxidization of the dough, which gives the finished product a whiter crumb, instead of the cream color preferred by most artisan bakers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains, roots, beans, nuts, or seeds. Flours are used to make many different foods. Cereal flour, particularly wheat flour, is the main ingredient of bread, which is a staple food for many cultures. Corn flour has been important in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times and remains a staple in the Americas. Rye flour is a constituent of bread in central and northern Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Bread flour is typically made from red hard wheat planted in the fall and harvested in the spring (winter wheat). Hard wheat is high in gluten, a protein that makes dough stretchy. Hard wheat is 11.5-13.5% (12-14% from second source) protein. The increased protein binds to the flour to entrap carbon dioxide released by the yeast fermentation process, resulting in a better rise and chewier texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tapalapa bread",
        "text": "The main ingredient is flour and yeast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Professional bread recipes are stated using the baker's percentage notation. The amount of flour is denoted to be 100%, and the other ingredients are expressed as a percentage of that amount by weight. Measurement by weight is more accurate and consistent than measurement by volume, particularly for dry ingredients. The proportion of water to flour is the most important measurement in a bread recipe, as it affects texture and crumb the most. Hard wheat flours absorb about 62% water, while softer wheat flours absorb about 56%. Common table breads made from these doughs result in a finely textured, light bread. Most artisan bread formulas contain anywhere from 60 to 75% water. In yeast breads, the higher water percentages result in more CO2 bubbles and a coarser bread crumb. 500 grams (1 pound) of flour yields a standard loaf of bread or two baguettes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Doughs are usually baked, but in some cuisines breads are steamed (e.g., mantou), fried (e.g., puri), or baked on an unoiled frying pan (e.g., tortillas). It may be leavened or unleavened (e.g. matzo). Salt, fat and leavening agents such as yeast and baking soda are common ingredients, though bread may contain other ingredients, such as milk, egg, sugar, spice, fruit (such as raisins), vegetables (such as onion), nuts (such as walnut) or seeds (such as poppy)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Water, or some other liquid, is used to form the flour into a paste or dough. The weight or ratio of liquid required varies between recipes, but a ratio of three parts liquid to five parts flour is common for yeast breads. Recipes that use steam as the primary leavening method may have a liquid content in excess of one part liquid to one part flour. Instead of water, recipes may use liquids such as milk or other dairy products (including buttermilk or yogurt), fruit juice, or eggs. These contribute additional sweeteners, fats, or leavening components, as well as water."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Weston",
        "text": "very choicest flour with which to make our bread.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Bisciola",
        "text": "The bread requires a natural sourdough to prepare. The flour used is any of rye flour, type 00 wheat flour, or whole-wheat flour. Artisanal versions are made using buckwheat flour. The dough is additionally composed of butter, milk, sugar, and yeast. Ingredients added to the dough mixture include dried figs, honey, raisins, and walnuts. Some versions may substitute one or more of those ingredients with hazelnuts, pine nuts., almonds, or dried apricots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dough",
        "text": "Leavened or fermented doughs, made from cereal grains or ground legumes mixed with water and yeast, are used all over the world to make bread. Salt, oils or other fats, sugar or honey and sometimes milk or eggs are also common ingredients in bread dough. Commercial bread dough may also include dough conditioners, which help make the dough and the final product more consistent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Salt (sodium chloride) is very often added to enhance flavor and restrict yeast activity. It also affects the crumb and the overall texture by stabilizing and strengthening the gluten. Some artisan bakers forego early addition of salt to the dough, whether wholemeal or refined, and wait until after a 20-minute rest to allow the dough to autolyse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baker percentage",
        "text": "Common formulations for bread include 100% flour, 60% water/liquid, 1% yeast, 2% salt and 1% oil, lard or butter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Wheat flour, in addition to its starch, contains three water-soluble protein groups (albumin, globulin, and proteoses) and two water-insoluble protein groups (glutenin and gliadin). When flour is mixed with water, the water-soluble proteins dissolve, leaving the glutenin and gliadin to form the structure of the resulting bread. When relatively dry dough is worked by kneading, or wet dough is allowed to rise for a long time (see no-knead bread), the glutenin forms strands of long, thin, chainlike molecules, while the shorter gliadin forms bridges between the strands of glutenin. The resulting networks of strands produced by these two proteins are known as gluten. Gluten development improves if the dough is allowed to autolyse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Bread is also made from the flour of other wheat species (including spelt, emmer, einkorn and kamut). Non-wheat cereals including rye, barley, maize (corn), oats, sorghum, millet and rice have been used to make bread, but, with the exception of rye, usually in combination with wheat flour as they have less gluten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Gluten-free breads are made using flours from a variety of ingredients such as almonds, rice, sorghum, corn, legumes such as beans, and tubers such as cassava. Since these foods lack gluten, dough made from them may not hold its shape as the loaves rise, and their crumb may be dense with little aeration. Additives such as xanthan gum, guar gum, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), corn starch, or eggs are used to compensate for the lack of gluten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Flour is a common food ingredient made from wheat, rice, or other starchy sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Many breads are made from a \"straight dough\", which means that all of the ingredients are combined in one step, and the dough is baked after the rising time; others are made from a \"pre-ferment\" in which the leavening agent is combined with some of the flour and water a day or so ahead of baking and allowed to ferment overnight. On the day of baking, the rest of the ingredients are added, and the process continues as with straight dough. This produces a more flavorful bread with better texture. Many bakers see the starter method as a compromise between the reliable results of baker's yeast and the flavor and complexity of a longer fermentation. It also allows the baker to use only a minimal amount of baker's yeast, which was scarce and expensive when it first became available. Most yeasted pre-ferments fall into one of three categories: \"poolish\" or \"pouliche\", a loose-textured mixture composed of roughly equal amounts of flour and water (by weight); \"biga\", a stiff mixture with a higher proportion of flour; and \"p\u00e2te ferment\u00e9e\", which is simply a portion of dough reserved from a previous batch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canestru",
        "text": "Its main ingredients are wheat flour, yeast, salt, eggs, shortening (\"sdruttu\"), white wine, pastis or anise seeds. The dough should rest two hours at room temperature before being kneaded. Then it should rise thirty to forty five minutes before being baked golden brown and baked again in a warm oven (150\u00b0 to 220\u00b0)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Bread is the staple food of the Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa, Europe, and in European-derived cultures such as those in the Americas, Australia, and Southern Africa. This is in contrast to parts of South and East Asia, where rice or noodles are the staple. Bread is usually made from a wheat-flour dough that is cultured with yeast, allowed to rise, and finally baked in an oven. The addition of yeast to the bread explains the air pockets commonly found in bread. Owing to its high levels of gluten (which give the dough sponginess and elasticity), common or bread wheat is the most common grain used for the preparation of bread, which makes the largest single contribution to the world's food supply of any food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Millet",
        "text": "It is a common ingredient in seeded bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quick bread",
        "text": "Almost all quick breads have the same basic ingredients: flour, leavening, eggs, fat (butter, margarine, shortening, or oil), and liquid such as milk. Ingredients beyond these basic constituents are added for variations in flavor and texture. The type of bread produced varies based predominantly on the method of mixing, the major flavoring, and the ratio of liquid in the batter. Some batters are thin enough to pour, and others thick enough to mold into lumps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Bread, pasta, crackers, many cakes, and many other foods are made using flour. Wheat flour is also used to make a roux as a base for thickening gravy and sauces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sheikhan",
        "text": "or salt is an essential part of flour prepared for bread. \"Paratha\" is a kind of bread whose flour is prepared with oil or \"Desi gheu\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Bread is used as an ingredient in other culinary preparations, such as the use of breadcrumbs to provide crunchy crusts or thicken sauces; toasted cubes of bread, called croutons, are used as a salad topping; seasoned bread is used as stuffing inside roasted turkey; sweet or savoury bread puddings are made with bread and various liquids; egg and milk-soaked bread is fried as French toast; and bread is used as a binding agent in sausages, meatballs and other ground meat products."
      },
      {
        "title": "White bread",
        "text": "The flour used in white breads is bleached further\u2014by the use of chemicals such as potassium bromate, azodicarbonamide, or chlorine dioxide gas to remove any slight, natural yellow shade and make its baking properties more predictable. This is banned in the EU. Some flour bleaching agents are also banned from use in other countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adobe bread",
        "text": "The basic dough is made with yeast, flour, salt, warm water and a sweetener such as honey or sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of bread",
        "text": "More recently, and especially in smaller retail bakeries, chemical additives are used that both speed up mixing time and reduce necessary fermentation time, so that a batch of bread may be mixed, made up, risen, and baked in fewer than three hours. Dough that does not require fermentation because of chemical additives is called \"quick bread\" by commercial bakers. Common additives include reducing agents such as L-cysteine or sodium metabisulfite, and oxidants such as potassium bromate or ascorbic acid; this last ingredient is added to wholemeal bread to increase the softness of the loaf. Calcium was added to flour in the UK to prevent rickets which had been detected as common in women who joined the World War II effort."
      },
      {
        "title": "Obwarzanek krakowski",
        "text": "The dough for \" is made from wheat flour, up to 30 percent of which may be replaced with rye flour. Other ingredients, per of flour, include:\n* of fat,\n* of sugar,\n* of yeast,\n* of salt,\n* of water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Mixtures of salts are sometimes employed, such as employing potassium chloride to reduce the sodium level, and monosodium glutamate to give flavor (umami)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burebrot",
        "text": "The bread is made by mixing rye and wheat flour, water, salt, yeast and a leavening agent into a dough, which is formed into a round shape. After 70 to 90 minutes, the surface is cut with a knife to create a decorative lozenge pattern and the bread is baked first at a high, then at a moderate temperature until the crust is crunchy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Flour contains a high proportion of starches, which are a subset of complex carbohydrates also known as polysaccharides. The kinds of flour used in cooking include all-purpose flour (known as plain outside North America), self-rising flour, and cake flour including bleached flour. The higher the protein content the harder and stronger the flour, and the more it will produce crusty or chewy breads. The lower the protein the softer the flour, which is better for cakes, cookies, and pie crusts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Whole wheat bread",
        "text": "\"Meal\" in the sense of \"flour\" is derived from Old English \"melu\" and is cognate with modern English \"mill\", and with Dutch \"meel\" (flour), German \"Mehl\" (flour) and Old Norse \"mj\u01ebl\" (flour)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Wheat is the grain most commonly used to make flour. Certain varieties may be referred to as \"clean\" or \"white\". Flours contain differing levels of the protein gluten. \"Strong flour\" or \"hard flour\" has a higher gluten content than \"weak\" or \"soft\" flour. \"Brown\" and wholemeal flours may be made of hard or soft wheat.\n* Atta flour is a whole-grain wheat flour important in Indian and Pakistani cuisine, used for a range of breads such as roti and chapati. It is usually stone-ground to coarse granules, which gives it a texture not easily found in other flatbreads.\n*Common wheat flour (\"T. aestivum\") is the flour most often used for making bread. Durum wheat flour (\"T. durum\") is the second most used.\n* Maida flour is a finely milled wheat flour used to make a wide variety of Indian breads such as paratha and naan. Maida is widely used not only in Indian cuisine but also in Central Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine. Though sometimes referred to as \"all-purpose flour\" by Indian chefs, it more closely resembles cake flour or even pure starch. In India, maida flour is used to make pastries and other bakery items such as bread, biscuits and toast.\n* Noodle flour is a special blend of flour used for the making of Asian-style noodles, made from wheat or rice.\n*Semolina is the coarse, purified wheat middlings of durum wheat used in making pasta, breakfast cereals, puddings, and couscous.\n* Spelt, an ancient grain, is a hexaploid species of wheat. Spelt dough needs less kneading than common wheat or durum wheat dough. Compared to hard-wheat flours, spelt flour has a relatively low (six to nine percent) protein count, just a little higher than pastry flour. That means that plain spelt flour works well in creating dough for soft foods such as cookies or pancakes. Crackers turn out well because they are made from dough that does not need to rise when baked.\n* Rye flour is used to bake the traditional sourdough breads of Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Russia, Czech Republic, Poland and Scandinavia. Most rye breads use a mix of rye and wheat flours because rye does not produce sufficient gluten. Pumpernickel bread is usually made exclusively of rye, and contains a mixture of rye flour and rye meal. Secale flower is used to make bread such as Pr\u0105dnik bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour (usually wheat) and water, usually by baking. Throughout recorded history and around the world, it has been an important part of many cultures' diet. It is one of the oldest human-made foods, having been of significance since the dawn of agriculture, and plays an essential role in both religious rituals and secular culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rupjmaize",
        "text": "The bread is made in a wood fueled hearth furnace from coarse (1740. and 1800. type) rye flour, with the addition of malt and caraway seeds as ingredients, giving the bread its characteristic flavor and aroma."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of bread dishes",
        "text": "This is a list of bread dishes and foods, which use bread as a primary ingredient. Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour and water, usually by baking. Throughout recorded history it has been popular around the world and is one of the oldest artificial foods, having been of importance since the dawn of agriculture.\n* Acquasale\n* Bagel and cream cheese\n* Biscuits and gravy\n* Biskotso\n* Bread and butter pudding\n* Bread dumpling\n* Bread pudding\n* Bread sauce\n* Bruschetta\n* Bunny chow\n* Croquette\n* Crouton\n* Egg in the basket\n* Fairy bread\n* Fit-fit\n* Flummadiddle\n* Fondue\n* French toast\n* Fritter\n* Hushpuppy\n* Khachapuri\n* Kirschenmichel\n* Kubdari\n* Migas\n* Panada\n* Pigs in blankets\n* Pizza bagel\n* Popara\n* Potato filling\n* Sandwich\n* Sandwich loaf\n* Sausage bread\n* Sausage bun\n* Sausage roll\n* Skordalia\n* Sm\u00f6rg\u00e5st\u00e5rta\n* Sooji toast\n* Sop\n* Spoonbread\n* Stuffing\n* Tarte flamb\u00e9e\n* Toast sandwich\n* Torrija\n* Welsh rarebit\n* Cappon magro\n* Dakos\n* Fattoush\n* Panzanella"
      },
      {
        "title": "Nutribun",
        "text": "The 'base' of the bread is made from a blend of white and whole wheat flour mixed with yeast and a non-fat dried milk powder, although banana flour and coconut may also be used. In the Philippines, the bread may be fortified with soy flour as a protein source, or \u2013 as reported in 2019 \u2013 moringa leaf powder, squash, eggs, sugar, and salt may be used as main ingredients, with attention given to flavor and texture to avoid organoleptic problems. The wheat, milk, soy, moringa, and egg ingredients supply micronutrients, such as calcium, iron, and B vitamins. The bun is made with iodized salt as a means of supplying iodine and sodium to the diet. Each bun weighs 80 grams and contains 400 calories."
      },
      {
        "title": "Durum",
        "text": "To produce bread, durum wheat is ground into flour. The flour is mixed with water to produce dough. The quantities mixed vary, depending on the acidity of the mixture. To produce fluffy bread, the dough is mixed with yeast and lukewarm water, heavily kneaded to form a gas-retaining gluten network, and then fermented for hours, producing CO2 bubbles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "The baker's yeast and sourdough methods follow the same pattern. Water is mixed with flour, salt and the leavening agent. Other additions (spices, herbs, fats, seeds, fruit, etc.) are not needed to bake bread, but are often used. The mixed dough is then allowed to rise one or more times (a longer rising time results in more flavor, so bakers often \"punch down\" the dough and let it rise again), loaves are formed, and (after an optional final rising time) the bread is baked in an oven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Bread\n--History.\n--Types.\n--Properties.\n----Physical-chemical composition.\n----Culinary uses.\n----Nutritional significance.\n----Crust.\n--Preparation.\n----Formulation.\n----Flour.\n----Liquids.\n----Fats or shortenings.\n----Bread improvers.\n----Salt.\n--Leavening.\n----Chemicals.\n----Yeast.\n----Sourdough.\n----Steam.\n----Bacteria.\n----Aeration.\n--Culture.\n----Etymology.\n----Cultural significance.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kaak",
        "text": "The dough for the bread is prepared with a mixture of flour, dry yeast, sugar, salt, milk, water and other ingredients based on the variation. The dough is then flattened and rolled over a preheated stone. Sometimes sesame seeds are added as a complement too. The stone is then baked in a tannur until the bread is fully cooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Cornstarch is a principal ingredient used to thicken many puddings or desserts, and is the main ingredient in packaged custard."
      },
      {
        "title": "White bread",
        "text": "White bread typically refers to breads made from wheat flour from which the bran and the germ layers have been removed (and set aside) from the whole wheatberry as part of the flour grinding or milling process, producing a light-colored flour. This milling process can give white flour a longer shelf life by removing the natural oils from the whole grain. Removing the oil allows products made with the flour, like white bread, to be stored for longer periods of time avoiding potential rancidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Proofing (baking technique)",
        "text": "Fermentation typically begins when viable baker's yeast or a starter culture is added to flour and water. Enzymes in the flour and yeast create sugars, which are consumed by the yeast, which in turn produce carbon dioxide and alcohol. Specifically, the grain enzyme diastase begins to convert starch in the grain to maltose. The baker's yeast enzyme maltase converts maltose into glucose, invertase converts any added sucrose to glucose and fructose, and zymase converts glucose and fructose to carbon dioxide gas which makes the dough rise, and alcohol which gives the baked bread flavor. Sourdough starters also produce lactic and acetic acids, further contributing to flavor. When the yeast cells die, they release high quantities of a protease which snip protein strands, and in large dieoffs result in soft, sticky dough, less baked volume and a coarse crumb, but in smaller dieoffs, increase dough extensibility and baked volume."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Flour also can be made from soybeans, arrowroot, taro, cattails, acorns, manioc, quinoa, and other non-cereal foodstuffs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boro\u00f1a",
        "text": "The mixture of wheat flour (spelled flour) and corn (2/3 corn flour and other wheat flour) makes the interior color of cornbread a pale yellow. The dough mass is usually put into a mold. It can be rectangular, though now usually toroidal shape. The traditional recipe includes in the dough some slices of chorizo and various meats including prime rib ('costiella'). The dough goes with the mold in an oven and cooked at relatively low temperatures overnight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Whole-wheat flour",
        "text": "Whole-wheat flour (in the US) or wholemeal flour (in the UK) is a powdery substance, a basic food ingredient, derived by grinding or mashing the whole grain of wheat, also known as the wheatberry. Whole-wheat flour is used in baking of breads and other baked goods, and also typically mixed with lighter \"white\" unbleached or bleached flours (that have been treated with flour bleaching agent(s)) to restore nutrients (especially fiber, protein, and vitamins), texture, and body to the white flours that can be lost in milling and other processing to the finished baked goods or other food(s)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sourdough",
        "text": "Bread made from 100% rye flour, popular in the northern half of Europe, is usually leavened with sourdough. Baker's yeast is not useful as a leavening agent for rye bread, as rye does not contain enough gluten. The structure of rye bread is based primarily on the starch in the flour as well as other carbohydrates known as pentosans; however, rye amylase is active at substantially higher temperatures than wheat amylase, causing the structure of the bread to disintegrate as the starches are broken down during cooking. The lowered pH of a sourdough starter, therefore, inactivates the amylases when heat cannot, allowing the carbohydrates in the bread to gel and set properly. In the southern part of Europe, where panettone is still made with sourdough as leavening, sourdough has become less common in the 20th century; it has been replaced by the faster-growing baker's yeast, sometimes supplemented with longer fermentation rests to allow for some bacterial activity to build flavor. Sourdough fermentation has re-emerged as a major fermentation process in bread production in the past ten years although it is commonly used in conjunction with baker's yeast as leavening agent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian bread",
        "text": "In northern India, a dough of the main ingredient is prepared and flattened by rolling. Most Indian breads, such as roti, kulcha and chapati, are baked on \"tava\", a griddle made from cast iron, steel or aluminum. Others such as puri and bhatura are deep-fried. The dough for these breads is usually made with less water in order to reduce the oil soaked up when frying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dough",
        "text": "Quick breads use leavening agents other than yeast (such as baking powder or baking soda), and include most cookies, cakes, biscuits, and more. These may be based on a batter or a dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "This table is only a rough guideline for converting bread recipes. Since flour types are not standardized in many countries, the numbers may differ between manufacturers. There is no French type corresponding to the lowest ash residue in the table. The closest is French Type 45."
      },
      {
        "title": "No-knead bread",
        "text": "According to one version of the method developed by New York baker Jim Lahey, as described in his book \"My Bread\", one loaf of the bread is made by mixing 400 g (approximately 3 cups) bread flour, 8 g (approximately 1\u00bc teaspoons) salt and 1 g (approximately \u00bc teaspoon) instant yeast with 300 mL (approximately 1 1/3 cups) cool water to produce a 75% hydration dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread in American cuisine",
        "text": "Yeast could be made by boiling flour with sugar and salt. This \"yeast water\" solution could be bottled and used when baker's yeast wasn't available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas Allinson",
        "text": "Allinson's original bread recipe (100% whole grain flour, no fat, less yeast, more water) is still used today, though some lovers of Allinson bread report that it's not as hearty nowadays as it used to be. The advertising slogan for the brand since the 1980s is \"Bread wi' nowt [\"with nothing\"] taken out\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soda bread",
        "text": "Buttermilk or sour milk is traditionally the liquid ingredient due to its reaction with the soda."
      },
      {
        "title": "Secalin",
        "text": "In bread making with rye flour, this protein requires exposure to an acid such as lactic acid to make the bread rise. This is usually achieved with a sourdough ferment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread in American cuisine",
        "text": "Yeast was often used when making bread and could be sweet or sour, but bread could also be made without yeast with just a batter of water and flour in a tin pail set in warm water, about the consistency of a pan cake batter (organic flour and non-chlorinated water in this era allowed development of wild yeast). Once the batter had risen more flour would be added until reaching the consistency of a bread dough, then shaped into loaves and set aside in a bread basket. When the dough had dried out enough that it began to crack, it was ready to bake. Another no-yeast bread could be made with a combination of cream of tartar (acid) and sodium bicarbonate. Baking soda could also be used to \"sweeten\" sour milk for baking soft sour milk bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Twist bread",
        "text": "The dough is an ordinary bread dough, usually with yeast as a leavening agent but baking powder may also be used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shortbread",
        "text": "Other ingredients are often substituted for part of the flour to alter the texture. Rice flour or semolina makes it grittier, and cornflour makes it more tender. Bere or oat flour may be added for flavour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Bread may be leavened by naturally occurring microbes (e.g. sourdough), chemicals (e.g. baking soda), industrially produced yeast, or high-pressure aeration, which creates the gas bubbles that fluff up bread. In many countries, commercial bread often contains additives to improve flavor, texture, color, shelf life, nutrition, and ease of production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bhatura",
        "text": "A typical recipe includes all-purpose flour (\"maida\"), dahi (yogurt), \"ghee\" or oil, and either yeast or baking powder. Once kneaded well, the dough is left to rise, and then small balls of this dough are either hand-rolled or flattened using a rolling pin. The bread pieces are then deep fried until they puff up into a lightly browned, soft, fluffy bread, which is elastic and chewy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ajdovi \u017eganci",
        "text": "In general the main ingredients are:\n* buckwheat flour\n* water\n* salt\n* cracklings\n* oil or grease"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Methods of processing dough into bread include the straight dough process, the sourdough process, the Chorleywood bread process and the sponge and dough process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kleeb lamduan",
        "text": "The original recipe used only flour, sugar, and lard (now vegetable oil can be used instead) before mixing all ingredients and turning it into a dough. Flour was then laid under the sun to make flour fluffy. It is a process of how ancient people made desserts and avoided using baking powder or baking soda."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Bread is one of the oldest prepared foods. Evidence from 30,000 years ago in Europe and Australia revealed starch residue on rocks used for pounding plants. It is possible that during this time, starch extract from the roots of plants, such as cattails and ferns, was spread on a flat rock, placed over a fire and cooked into a primitive form of flatbread. The world's oldest evidence of bread-making has been found in a 14,500-year-old Natufian site in Jordan's northeastern desert. Around 10,000 BC, with the dawn of the Neolithic age and the spread of agriculture, grains became the mainstay of making bread. Yeast spores are ubiquitous, including on the surface of cereal grains, so any dough left to rest leavens naturally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Manitoba flour",
        "text": "The main characteristic of this flour is that it contains a large quantity of insoluble proteins (glutenin and gliadin), which, in contact with a liquid during the kneading phase, produce gluten. It is therefore a flour rich in gluten and poor in starch. Gluten forms a tenacious net, which in leavened doughs retains the gases of leavening, allowing the product to develop considerably during baking; in the case of pasta, on the other hand, it retains the starches, which would make the dough sticky and allow it to be cooked \"al dente\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Halguane",
        "text": "Typical ingredients are flour, eggs, water, and salt, which are combined into a firm dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leavening agent",
        "text": "When a dough or batter is mixed, the starch in the flour and the water in the dough form a matrix (often supported further by proteins like gluten or polysaccharides, such as pentosans or xanthan gum). The starch then gelatinizes and sets, leaving gas bubbles that remain.\n* \"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\" producing carbon dioxide found in:\n** baker's yeast\n** Beer barm (unpasteurised\u2014live yeast)\n** ginger beer\n** kefir\n** sourdough starter\n* \"Clostridium perfringens\" producing hydrogen found in salt-rising bread"
      },
      {
        "title": "Triticeae glutens",
        "text": "When the flour is combined with water and yeast the dough can be risen and subsequently fixed by heat resulting in a hard outer shell with a soft palatable interior. This makes bread amicable for both transport and preserves the bread for several days (in dry conditions). Barley can be sprouted for a short period and roasted, the resulting malt can be ground for food or combined with bread yeast (currently a brewers variety) to produce beer and distilled spirits such as whiskey, vodka and sourdough malts. Adding mild acid to rye flour activates it for bread making (Sourdough breads used in northern Europe)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kneading",
        "text": "In cooking (and more specifically baking), kneading is a process in the making of bread or dough, used to mix the ingredients and add strength to the final product. Its importance lies in the mixing of flour with water; when these two ingredients are combined and kneaded, the gliadin and glutenin proteins in the flour expand and form strands of gluten, which gives bread its texture. (To aid gluten production, many recipes use bread flour, which is higher in protein than all-purpose flour.) The kneading process warms and stretches these gluten strands, eventually creating a springy and elastic dough. If bread dough is not kneaded enough, it will not be able to hold the tiny pockets of gas (carbon dioxide) created by the leavening agent (such as yeast or baking powder), and will collapse, leaving a heavy and dense loaf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aprapransa",
        "text": "The main ingredients are roasted corn flour (Tom brown) and palmnut or palm oil. Other ingredients include beans, vegetables such as tomatoes, onion, pepper, ginger, or garlic. It features seafood such as smoked fish, dried fish, salted fish or crabs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Headword",
        "text": "For example, the headword \"bread\" may contain the following (simplified) definitions:\n:Bread\n:\"(noun)\"\n:* A common food made from the combination of flour, water and yeast\n:* Money \"(slang)\"\n:\"(verb)\"\n:* To coat in breadcrumbs\n:\u2014 to know which side your bread is buttered to know how to act in your own best interests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pelmeni",
        "text": "The dough is made from flour and water, sometimes adding a small portion of eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Flour (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Velhote",
        "text": "The original recipe included flour, sugar, eggs, cinnamon, lemon juice, yeast and saffron, but the way of baking this sweet bread has changed a lot since the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Casatiello",
        "text": "The bread's name derives probably from the Neapolitan word \"caso\" (, \"cheese\", hence \"casatiello\"), an ingredient that is part of its dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soda bread",
        "text": "In Ireland, the flour is typically made from soft wheat, so soda bread is best made with a cake or pastry flour (made from soft wheat), which has lower levels of gluten than a bread flour. In some recipes, the buttermilk is replaced by live yogurt or even stout. Because the leavening action starts immediately (compared to the time taken for yeast bread to rise), bakers recommend the minimum amount of mixing of the ingredients before baking; the dough should not be kneaded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brown bread (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Brown bread is bread made with significant amounts of whole grain flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brown bread",
        "text": "The brown colour of whole grain breads is caused by cerealine, a discovery attributed to Hippolyte M\u00e8ge-Mouri\u00e8s of France. Cerealine, considered by Mouri\u00e8s an active principal or ferment similar in action to diastase, came from the \"cereal\" layer of rectangular cells that millers considered a part of bran: later it was alternatively called the \"aleurone\" layer. In a statement attributed to Mouri\u00e8s, if the cerealine is neutralized, white bread can be made from bran-containing flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Autolysis (biology)",
        "text": "In bread baking, the term (or, more commonly, its French cognate \"autolyse\") is described as a period of rest following initial mixing of flour and water, before other ingredients (such as salt and yeast) are added to the dough. Doing so makes the dough easier to shape and improves structure. The term was coined by French baking professor Raymond Calvel, who recommended the procedure as a means of reducing kneading time, thereby improving the flavor and color of bread. Calvel argues that long kneading times subject dough to atmospheric oxygen, which bleaches the naturally occurring carotenoids in bread flour, robbing the flour of its natural creamy color and flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aerated Bread Company",
        "text": "The stream of pure water charged with carbonic acid gas vesiculates the dough, which has required neither alum, nor blue vitriol [copper sulphate], nor lime-water, to check the irregular fermentation, and neutralise the sourness of mouldy or otherwise damaged or inferior flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soda bread",
        "text": "Soda bread is made with coarse flour (either white or whole meal), or a mix of the two depending on the recipe. High protein flour is not needed for this bread as the texture is described as being \"moist and crumbly\". Other whole grains (such as rolled oats) may be added to create different varieties. This bread does not have to be kneaded and bakers caution that kneading can toughen the dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Gluten flour is refined gluten protein, or a theoretical 100% protein (though practical refining never achieves a full 100%). It is used to strengthen flour as needed. For example, adding approximately one teaspoon per cup of AP flour gives the resulting mix the protein content of bread flour. It is commonly added to whole grain flour recipes to overcome the tendency of greater fiber content to interfere with gluten development, needed to give the bread better rising (gas holding) qualities and chew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dough conditioner",
        "text": "A dough conditioner, flour treatment agent, improving agent or bread improver is any ingredient or chemical added to bread dough to strengthen its texture or otherwise improve it in some way. Dough conditioners may include enzymes, yeast nutrients, mineral salts, oxidants and reductants, bleaching agents and emulsifiers. They are food additives combined with flour to improve baking functionality. Flour treatment agents are used to increase the speed of dough rising and to improve the strength and workability of the dough. While they are an important component of modern factory baking, some small-scale bakers reject them in favour of longer fermentation periods that produce greater depth of flavour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread machine",
        "text": "To create a loaf of bread, ingredients are measured into the bread pan in a specified order (usually liquids first, with solid ingredients layered on top) and the pan is then placed in the breadmaker. The order of ingredients is important because the instant yeast used in breadmakers is activated by contact with water, so the yeast and the water must be kept apart until the program starts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bus factor",
        "text": "For instance, say a team of 30 people produces bread in three necessary steps: mixing ingredients, kneading the dough, and baking. Ten people know how to mix ingredients, all 30 people know how to knead the dough, and 5 people know how to bake. If all 5 people who know how to bake disappear, then the team cannot produce bread, so the team's bus factor is 5."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hofpfisterei",
        "text": "From 1978 the bread contains no additives and the flours are examined for residues in their own laboratory. However, examinations by foodwatch in 2008 showed that some additives had been used and Hofpfisterei has since made some changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Fats, such as butter, vegetable oils, lard, or that contained in eggs, affect the development of gluten in breads by coating and lubricating the individual strands of protein. They also help to hold the structure together. If too much fat is included in a bread dough, the lubrication effect causes the protein structures to divide. A fat content of approximately 3% by weight is the concentration that produces the greatest leavening action. In addition to their effects on leavening, fats also serve to tenderize breads and preserve freshness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sponge and dough",
        "text": "Sponge doughs were used before bread improvers were invented. Texture is partly a byproduct of the chemistry going on in the fermentation, which does several important things such as activate the different enzymes (protease and amylase) needed to leaven bread. Modern grain-harvesting practices have reduced the naturally occurring enzymes that grains had in former times, a result of no-longer-used grain-storage processes, so today small amounts of enzymes are routinely added to flour by manufacturers, often in the form of malted barley or sprouted grain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wheat flour",
        "text": "In terms of the parts of the grain (the grass fruit) used in flour\u2014the endosperm or protein/starchy part, the germ or protein/fat/vitamin-rich part, and the bran or fiber part\u2014there are three general types of flour. White flour is made from the endosperm only. Brown flour includes some of the grain's germ and bran, while whole grain or \"wholemeal flour\" is made from the entire grain, including the bran, endosperm, and germ. Germ flour is made from the endosperm and germ, excluding the bran."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gluten",
        "text": "Generally, bread flours are high in gluten (hard wheat); pastry flours have a lower gluten content. Kneading promotes the formation of gluten strands and cross-links, creating baked products that are chewier (as opposed to more brittle or crumbly). The \"chewiness\" increases as the dough is kneaded for longer times. An increased moisture content in the dough enhances gluten development, and very wet doughs left to rise for a long time require no kneading (see no-knead bread). Shortening inhibits formation of cross-links and is used, along with diminished water and less kneading, when a tender and flaky product, such as a pie crust, is desired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yeast",
        "text": "When yeast is used for making bread, it is mixed with flour, salt, and warm water or milk. The dough is kneaded until it is smooth, and then left to rise, sometimes until it has doubled in size. The dough is then shaped into loaves. Some bread doughs are knocked back after one rising and left to rise again (this is called dough proofing) and then baked. A longer rising time gives a better flavor, but the yeast can fail to raise the bread in the final stages if it is left for too long initially."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Bread is a group of staple foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread in American cuisine",
        "text": "Anadama bread, a yeast bread made with cornmeal and molasses, originates from the North Shore area of Boston; several towns claim credit for the bread's creation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Limpa",
        "text": "The first step for making the bread is to bring molasses, brown sugar, caraway seeds, wort, and water to a gentle boil, then to add shortening or butter and citrus rind. Once this mixture has cooled to a lukewarm temperature it is combined with activated yeast and rye flour. The dough rises and more flour is added to knead the dough in preparation for a second rise, then the tops are brushed with melted butter and the loaves are baked. Some recipes add the molasses mixture to the dry ingredients after the rye flour has been scalded with hot water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dough",
        "text": "Making and shaping dough begins the preparation of a wide variety of foodstuffs, particularly breads and bread-based items, but also including biscuits, cakes, cookies, dumplings, flatbreads, noodles, pasta, pastry, pizza, piecrusts, and similar items. Dough can be made from a wide variety of flour, commonly wheat and rye but also maize, rice, legumes, almonds, and other cereals or crops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cachitos",
        "text": "The ingredients variate according to the state and the bakery they are made from but the most common ingredients are: Wheat flour, butter, eggs, room temperature milk, water, salt, yeast and a pinch of sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Broeder",
        "text": "The dish, which is also described as a \"cooked bread\", is made with buckwheat flour, wheat flour, eggs, salt, and milk, and leavened with yeast. Raisins, currants, and succade are frequent additions. The batter is poured into a cotton bag (frequently a pillow case), whose inside is floured lightly; the bag is closed and then cooked in a pot of boiling water. When done, it is sliced and served with butter and syrup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cacavellu",
        "text": "Its main ingredients are wheat flour, yeast, salt, egg, sugar, shortening (\"sdruttu\"), \"aquavita\", brocciu, grated orange zest and olive oil. After dissolving yeast in some warm water, flour, eggs, \"aquavita\" are mixed into a dough, which is kneaded and left to rest one hour. Then \"brocciu\" is passed through a sieve and mixed with eggs, sugar and grated orange zest. The dough is rolled out as a disk, the brocciu mix is put on its outer part, then a hole is made in the middle and the edges of the dough are raised and pressed together enclosing the mix in it, so that a doughnut results. The cake is put on a plate greased with olive oil and is baked one hour in warm oven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quick bread",
        "text": "Preparing a quick bread generally involves two mixing containers. One contains all dry ingredients (including chemical leavening agents or agent) and one contains all wet ingredients (possibly including liquid ingredients that are slightly acidic in order to initiate the leavening process). In some variations, the dry ingredients are in a bowl and the wet ingredients are heated sauces in a saucepan off-heat and cooled."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the main ingredient in making bread?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour (usually wheat) and water, usually by baking. Sourdough breads are made with a sourdough starter.",
      "The main ingredient in making bread is flour, which has different kinds such as cereal flour, wheat flour, corn flour and rye flour."
    ],
    "topic": "Flour",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Bread:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Bread"
        ],
        "ctx": "Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour (usually wheat) and water, usually by baking. Throughout recorded history and around the world, it has been an important part of many cultures' diet. It is one of the oldest human-made foods, having been of significance since the dawn of agriculture, and plays an essential role in both religious rituals and secular culture."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Bread:37",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Bread",
          "Leavening",
          "Sourdough"
        ],
        "ctx": "Sourdough breads are made with a sourdough starter. The starter cultivates yeast and lactobacilli in a mixture of flour and water, making use of the microorganisms already present on flour; it does not need any added yeast. A starter may be maintained indefinitely by regular additions of flour and water. Some bakers have starters many generations old, which are said to have a special taste or texture. At one time, all yeast-leavened breads were sourdoughs. Recently there has been a revival of sourdough bread in artisan bakeries."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Flour:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Flour"
        ],
        "ctx": "Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains, roots, beans, nuts, or seeds. Flours are used to make many different foods. Cereal flour, particularly wheat flour, is the main ingredient of bread, which is a staple food for many cultures. Corn flour has been important in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times and remains a staple in the Americas. Rye flour is a constituent of bread in central and northern Europe."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Bread flour is typically made from red hard wheat planted in the fall and harvested in the spring (winter wheat). Hard wheat is high in gluten, a protein that makes dough stretchy. Hard wheat is 11.5-13.5% (12-14% from second source) protein. The increased protein binds to the flour to entrap carbon dioxide released by the yeast fermentation process, resulting in a better rise and chewier texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains, roots, beans, nuts, or seeds. Flours are used to make many different foods. Cereal flour, particularly wheat flour, is the main ingredient of bread, which is a staple food for many cultures. Corn flour has been important in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times and remains a staple in the Americas. Rye flour is a constituent of bread in central and northern Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Bread is also made from the flour of other wheat species (including spelt, emmer, einkorn and kamut). Non-wheat cereals including rye, barley, maize (corn), oats, sorghum, millet and rice have been used to make bread, but, with the exception of rye, usually in combination with wheat flour as they have less gluten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shortbread",
        "text": "Other ingredients are often substituted for part of the flour to alter the texture. Rice flour or semolina makes it grittier, and cornflour makes it more tender. Bere or oat flour may be added for flavour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "This table is only a rough guideline for converting bread recipes. Since flour types are not standardized in many countries, the numbers may differ between manufacturers. There is no French type corresponding to the lowest ash residue in the table. The closest is French Type 45."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Professional bread recipes are stated using the baker's percentage notation. The amount of flour is denoted to be 100%, and the other ingredients are expressed as a percentage of that amount by weight. Measurement by weight is more accurate and consistent than measurement by volume, particularly for dry ingredients. The proportion of water to flour is the most important measurement in a bread recipe, as it affects texture and crumb the most. Hard wheat flours absorb about 62% water, while softer wheat flours absorb about 56%. Common table breads made from these doughs result in a finely textured, light bread. Most artisan bread formulas contain anywhere from 60 to 75% water. In yeast breads, the higher water percentages result in more CO2 bubbles and a coarser bread crumb. 500 grams (1 pound) of flour yields a standard loaf of bread or two baguettes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Flour is grain ground to a powdery consistency. Flour provides the primary structure, starch and protein to the final baked bread. The protein content of the flour is the best indicator of the quality of the bread dough and the finished bread. While bread can be made from all-purpose wheat flour, a specialty bread flour, containing more protein (12\u201314%), is recommended for high-quality bread. If one uses a flour with a lower protein content (9\u201311%) to produce bread, a shorter mixing time is required to develop gluten strength properly. An extended mixing time leads to oxidization of the dough, which gives the finished product a whiter crumb, instead of the cream color preferred by most artisan bakers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bisciola",
        "text": "The bread requires a natural sourdough to prepare. The flour used is any of rye flour, type 00 wheat flour, or whole-wheat flour. Artisanal versions are made using buckwheat flour. The dough is additionally composed of butter, milk, sugar, and yeast. Ingredients added to the dough mixture include dried figs, honey, raisins, and walnuts. Some versions may substitute one or more of those ingredients with hazelnuts, pine nuts., almonds, or dried apricots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Wheat flour, in addition to its starch, contains three water-soluble protein groups (albumin, globulin, and proteoses) and two water-insoluble protein groups (glutenin and gliadin). When flour is mixed with water, the water-soluble proteins dissolve, leaving the glutenin and gliadin to form the structure of the resulting bread. When relatively dry dough is worked by kneading, or wet dough is allowed to rise for a long time (see no-knead bread), the glutenin forms strands of long, thin, chainlike molecules, while the shorter gliadin forms bridges between the strands of glutenin. The resulting networks of strands produced by these two proteins are known as gluten. Gluten development improves if the dough is allowed to autolyse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Water, or some other liquid, is used to form the flour into a paste or dough. The weight or ratio of liquid required varies between recipes, but a ratio of three parts liquid to five parts flour is common for yeast breads. Recipes that use steam as the primary leavening method may have a liquid content in excess of one part liquid to one part flour. Instead of water, recipes may use liquids such as milk or other dairy products (including buttermilk or yogurt), fruit juice, or eggs. These contribute additional sweeteners, fats, or leavening components, as well as water."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of bread",
        "text": "More recently, and especially in smaller retail bakeries, chemical additives are used that both speed up mixing time and reduce necessary fermentation time, so that a batch of bread may be mixed, made up, risen, and baked in fewer than three hours. Dough that does not require fermentation because of chemical additives is called \"quick bread\" by commercial bakers. Common additives include reducing agents such as L-cysteine or sodium metabisulfite, and oxidants such as potassium bromate or ascorbic acid; this last ingredient is added to wholemeal bread to increase the softness of the loaf. Calcium was added to flour in the UK to prevent rickets which had been detected as common in women who joined the World War II effort."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "In some markets, the different available flour varieties are labeled according to the ash mass that remains after a sample is incinerated in a laboratory oven (typically at or , see international standards ISO 2171 and ICC 104/1). This is an easily verified indicator for the fraction of the whole grain remains in the flour, because the mineral content of the starchy endosperm is much lower than that of the outer parts of the grain. Flour made from all parts of the grain (extraction rate: 100%) leaves about ash or more per dry flour. Plain white flour with an extraction rate of 50\u201360% leaves about .\n* German flour type numbers () indicate the amount of ash (measured in milligrams) obtained from 100 g of the dry mass of this flour. Standard wheat flours (defined in DIN 10355) range from type 405 for normal white wheat flour for baking, to strong bread flour types 550, 812, and the darker types 1050 and 1600 for wholegrain breads.\n* French flour type numbers () are a factor of 10 smaller than those used in Germany, because they indicate the ash content (in milligrams) per 10 g flour. Type 55 is the standard, hard-wheat white flour for baking, including puff pastries (). Type 45 is often called pastry flour, and is generally from a softer wheat (this corresponds to what older French texts call ). Some recipes use type 45 for croissants, for instance, although many French bakers use type 55 or a combination of types 45 and 55. Types 65, 80, and 110 are strong bread flours of increasing darkness, and type 150 is a wholemeal flour.\n* Czech flour types describes roughness of milling instead of amount of ash, though sometimes a numbering system is used, it is not a rule. Czechs determine following four basic types of mill: extra soft wheat flour (, 00), soft wheat flour (, T650), fine wheat flour (), rough wheat flour () and farina wheat flour ()\n* Argentine flour uses roughness of milling as well, being 0, 00, 000 and 0000, where the number of zeroes indicates its refinement.\n* Polish flour type numbers, as is the case in Germany, indicate the amount of ash in 100 g of the dry mass of the flour. Standard wheat flours (defined by the PKN in PN-A-74022:2003) range from type 450 to 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Wheat is the grain most commonly used to make flour. Certain varieties may be referred to as \"clean\" or \"white\". Flours contain differing levels of the protein gluten. \"Strong flour\" or \"hard flour\" has a higher gluten content than \"weak\" or \"soft\" flour. \"Brown\" and wholemeal flours may be made of hard or soft wheat.\n* Atta flour is a whole-grain wheat flour important in Indian and Pakistani cuisine, used for a range of breads such as roti and chapati. It is usually stone-ground to coarse granules, which gives it a texture not easily found in other flatbreads.\n*Common wheat flour (\"T. aestivum\") is the flour most often used for making bread. Durum wheat flour (\"T. durum\") is the second most used.\n* Maida flour is a finely milled wheat flour used to make a wide variety of Indian breads such as paratha and naan. Maida is widely used not only in Indian cuisine but also in Central Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine. Though sometimes referred to as \"all-purpose flour\" by Indian chefs, it more closely resembles cake flour or even pure starch. In India, maida flour is used to make pastries and other bakery items such as bread, biscuits and toast.\n* Noodle flour is a special blend of flour used for the making of Asian-style noodles, made from wheat or rice.\n*Semolina is the coarse, purified wheat middlings of durum wheat used in making pasta, breakfast cereals, puddings, and couscous.\n* Spelt, an ancient grain, is a hexaploid species of wheat. Spelt dough needs less kneading than common wheat or durum wheat dough. Compared to hard-wheat flours, spelt flour has a relatively low (six to nine percent) protein count, just a little higher than pastry flour. That means that plain spelt flour works well in creating dough for soft foods such as cookies or pancakes. Crackers turn out well because they are made from dough that does not need to rise when baked.\n* Rye flour is used to bake the traditional sourdough breads of Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Russia, Czech Republic, Poland and Scandinavia. Most rye breads use a mix of rye and wheat flours because rye does not produce sufficient gluten. Pumpernickel bread is usually made exclusively of rye, and contains a mixture of rye flour and rye meal. Secale flower is used to make bread such as Pr\u0105dnik bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread in Europe",
        "text": "In Sweden, during the transition to a modern urban and industrialised society in the 19th century, bread types changed when large industrial bakeries introduced new soft bread. From the early 1920s, these were often sweetened. From then on, bread was bought from stores and bakeries, rather than baked at home, as had previously been the case. Regional variation decreased due to the transportation and marketing of bread as a national product. The consumption of bread products of various kinds has increased since the 1990s, and wholegrain bread and wheat bread are the most popular. Many older bread types still exist alongside the newer varieties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Flour contains a high proportion of starches, which are a subset of complex carbohydrates also known as polysaccharides. The kinds of flour used in cooking include all-purpose flour (known as plain outside North America), self-rising flour, and cake flour including bleached flour. The higher the protein content the harder and stronger the flour, and the more it will produce crusty or chewy breads. The lower the protein the softer the flour, which is better for cakes, cookies, and pie crusts."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Weston",
        "text": "very choicest flour with which to make our bread.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Salt (sodium chloride) is very often added to enhance flavor and restrict yeast activity. It also affects the crumb and the overall texture by stabilizing and strengthening the gluten. Some artisan bakers forego early addition of salt to the dough, whether wholemeal or refined, and wait until after a 20-minute rest to allow the dough to autolyse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Gluten-free breads are made using flours from a variety of ingredients such as almonds, rice, sorghum, corn, legumes such as beans, and tubers such as cassava. Since these foods lack gluten, dough made from them may not hold its shape as the loaves rise, and their crumb may be dense with little aeration. Additives such as xanthan gum, guar gum, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), corn starch, or eggs are used to compensate for the lack of gluten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wheat flour",
        "text": "In terms of the parts of the grain (the grass fruit) used in flour\u2014the endosperm or protein/starchy part, the germ or protein/fat/vitamin-rich part, and the bran or fiber part\u2014there are three general types of flour. White flour is made from the endosperm only. Brown flour includes some of the grain's germ and bran, while whole grain or \"wholemeal flour\" is made from the entire grain, including the bran, endosperm, and germ. Germ flour is made from the endosperm and germ, excluding the bran."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "The baker's yeast and sourdough methods follow the same pattern. Water is mixed with flour, salt and the leavening agent. Other additions (spices, herbs, fats, seeds, fruit, etc.) are not needed to bake bread, but are often used. The mixed dough is then allowed to rise one or more times (a longer rising time results in more flavor, so bakers often \"punch down\" the dough and let it rise again), loaves are formed, and (after an optional final rising time) the bread is baked in an oven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Straight dough",
        "text": "Prior to 1920, there were two basic kinds of breads, naturally leavened French bread, and Vienna bread leavened with cereal press yeast, an early form of baker's yeast. After 1920, when mixing machines became popular among bakers, rural bakers began to make more sponge doughs and city bakers more straight doughs, both replacing sourdough. By the 1930s, straight dough had mostly replaced sponge dough, and the terms \"French\" and \"Vienna\" breads were used less often. Bakers who continued using older methods were generally unable in America to compete on a cost basis, and so with \"rare exceptions,\" were limited to local niche markets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stollen",
        "text": "Over the centuries, the bread changed from being a simple, fairly tasteless \"bread\" to a sweeter bread with richer ingredients, such as marzipan, although traditional Stollen is not as sweet, light and airy as the copies made around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Many breads are made from a \"straight dough\", which means that all of the ingredients are combined in one step, and the dough is baked after the rising time; others are made from a \"pre-ferment\" in which the leavening agent is combined with some of the flour and water a day or so ahead of baking and allowed to ferment overnight. On the day of baking, the rest of the ingredients are added, and the process continues as with straight dough. This produces a more flavorful bread with better texture. Many bakers see the starter method as a compromise between the reliable results of baker's yeast and the flavor and complexity of a longer fermentation. It also allows the baker to use only a minimal amount of baker's yeast, which was scarce and expensive when it first became available. Most yeasted pre-ferments fall into one of three categories: \"poolish\" or \"pouliche\", a loose-textured mixture composed of roughly equal amounts of flour and water (by weight); \"biga\", a stiff mixture with a higher proportion of flour; and \"p\u00e2te ferment\u00e9e\", which is simply a portion of dough reserved from a previous batch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Unifine mill",
        "text": "Despite historical consumer preference for refined white flour, whole wheat flour products are ascendant largely due to changing consumer attitudes. The Whole Grains Council industry association reports an approximate doubling of the whole wheat flour production from 2003 to 2007. In another visible example, whole wheat bread has reached approximate parity with white bread as measured by slice volume in the United States; as of 2010, whole wheat bread narrowly surpasses white bread as measured by dollar volume."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Flour\n--Etymology.\n--History.\n----Degermed and heat-processed flour.\n----Production.\n--Modern mills.\n--Composition.\n----Bleached flour.\n------Additives.\n------Frequency of additives.\n----Enriched flour.\n----Cake flour.\n----Pastry flour.\n----Plain or all-purpose flour.\n----Bread flour.\n----Hard flour.\n----Gluten flour.\n----Unbleached flour.\n----Self-raising flour.\n--Types.\n----Gluten-containing flours.\n------Wheat flour.\n----Gluten-free flours.\n------More types.\n----Type numbers.\n--Flammability.\n--Products.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "White bread",
        "text": "The flour used in white breads is bleached further\u2014by the use of chemicals such as potassium bromate, azodicarbonamide, or chlorine dioxide gas to remove any slight, natural yellow shade and make its baking properties more predictable. This is banned in the EU. Some flour bleaching agents are also banned from use in other countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Whole grain",
        "text": "When wheat is milled to make flour, the parts of the grain are usually separated and then are recombined to make specific types of flour, such as whole wheat, whole grain, white cake and pastry flour, and all-purpose white flour. If all parts of the kernel are used in the same relative proportions as they exist in the original kernel, then the flour is considered whole grain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Obwarzanek krakowski",
        "text": "The dough for \" is made from wheat flour, up to 30 percent of which may be replaced with rye flour. Other ingredients, per of flour, include:\n* of fat,\n* of sugar,\n* of yeast,\n* of salt,\n* of water."
      },
      {
        "title": "White bread",
        "text": "But there was a backlash, almost immediately, from this reversal in white flour popularity. The healthism movement considered this strange new trend a threat, helping give rise to whole grain alternatives popular to this day, like graham crackers and corn flakes, which indeed have (in their original whole grain form) more fiber and micronutrients. Bernarr Macfadden claimed that \"white bread was sapping the vitality of the white race, threatening white racial superiority\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Some other chemicals used as flour treatment agents to modify color and baking properties include:\n*Chlorine dioxide (unstable to be transported in the U.S.)\n*Calcium peroxide\n*Azodicarbonamide or azobisformamide (synthetic)\n*Atmospheric oxygen causes natural bleaching."
      },
      {
        "title": "Triticeae glutens",
        "text": "When the flour is combined with water and yeast the dough can be risen and subsequently fixed by heat resulting in a hard outer shell with a soft palatable interior. This makes bread amicable for both transport and preserves the bread for several days (in dry conditions). Barley can be sprouted for a short period and roasted, the resulting malt can be ground for food or combined with bread yeast (currently a brewers variety) to produce beer and distilled spirits such as whiskey, vodka and sourdough malts. Adding mild acid to rye flour activates it for bread making (Sourdough breads used in northern Europe)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dough",
        "text": "Leavened or fermented doughs, made from cereal grains or ground legumes mixed with water and yeast, are used all over the world to make bread. Salt, oils or other fats, sugar or honey and sometimes milk or eggs are also common ingredients in bread dough. Commercial bread dough may also include dough conditioners, which help make the dough and the final product more consistent."
      },
      {
        "title": "No-knead bread",
        "text": "The method uses a long rise instead of kneading to align the dough's gluten molecules with each other so as to produce a strong, elastic network, resulting in long, sticky strands. The automatic alignment is possible because of the wetness of the dough, which makes the molecules more mobile. Wet doughs, which use a water weight of about 75% that of the flour (hydration), require more salt than conventional doughs, about 2% of the flour weight."
      },
      {
        "title": "White bread",
        "text": "White bread typically refers to breads made from wheat flour from which the bran and the germ layers have been removed (and set aside) from the whole wheatberry as part of the flour grinding or milling process, producing a light-colored flour. This milling process can give white flour a longer shelf life by removing the natural oils from the whole grain. Removing the oil allows products made with the flour, like white bread, to be stored for longer periods of time avoiding potential rancidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quick bread",
        "text": "Almost all quick breads have the same basic ingredients: flour, leavening, eggs, fat (butter, margarine, shortening, or oil), and liquid such as milk. Ingredients beyond these basic constituents are added for variations in flavor and texture. The type of bread produced varies based predominantly on the method of mixing, the major flavoring, and the ratio of liquid in the batter. Some batters are thin enough to pour, and others thick enough to mold into lumps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rye bread",
        "text": "There are two common solutions: The traditional manner, developed where obtaining wheat was impractical because of marginal growing conditions or supply difficulties, uses dough acidification to impede the function of rye amylases. Lowering dough pH, however, compromises the use of relatively acid-intolerant \"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\"-based \"baker's yeast\". Instead, the addition of naturally acidic \"Lactobacillus\" \"sourdough\" cultures lowers bread pH, facilitating the growth of an acid-tolerant yeast strain, and helping gelatinize starches in the dough matrix. The byproduct of this approach is lighter bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hofpfisterei",
        "text": "From 1978 the bread contains no additives and the flours are examined for residues in their own laboratory. However, examinations by foodwatch in 2008 showed that some additives had been used and Hofpfisterei has since made some changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Flour is a common food ingredient made from wheat, rice, or other starchy sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burebrot",
        "text": "The bread is made by mixing rye and wheat flour, water, salt, yeast and a leavening agent into a dough, which is formed into a round shape. After 70 to 90 minutes, the surface is cut with a knife to create a decorative lozenge pattern and the bread is baked first at a high, then at a moderate temperature until the crust is crunchy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pacte de Famine",
        "text": "Changes to grain and bread supply had serious implications, and was met with even more disorder than was seen over the change in the guild system. This conflict was known as the Flour War of 1775. Reports from those that controlled the flow of grain stated there were problems with the grain harvest which caused shortages and less grain availability. The price of grain also increased, and became hard for some to afford. News of a grain shortage was met with skepticism and frustration rose from higher prices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Raymond Calvel",
        "text": "Raymond Calvel (1913 \u2013 30 August 2005) was a bread expert and professor of baking at ENSMIC in Paris, France. Calvel has been credited with creating a revival of French-style breadmaking, as well as developing an extensive body of research on improving breadmaking technique, including studies of the differences between European and American wheat flour and the development of the \"autolyse\", a hydration rest early in the mixing and kneading process designed to relax gluten in the dough and simplify the kneading process, thereby rendering the dough more extensible and easier to shape."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brown bread",
        "text": "The brown colour of whole grain breads is caused by cerealine, a discovery attributed to Hippolyte M\u00e8ge-Mouri\u00e8s of France. Cerealine, considered by Mouri\u00e8s an active principal or ferment similar in action to diastase, came from the \"cereal\" layer of rectangular cells that millers considered a part of bran: later it was alternatively called the \"aleurone\" layer. In a statement attributed to Mouri\u00e8s, if the cerealine is neutralized, white bread can be made from bran-containing flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Cereal flour consists either of the endosperm, germ, and bran together (whole-grain flour) or of the endosperm alone (refined flour). \"Meal\" is either differentiable from flour as having slightly coarser particle size (degree of comminution) or is synonymous with flour; the word is used both ways. For example, the word \"cornmeal\" often connotes a grittier texture whereas \"corn flour\" connotes fine powder, although there is no codified dividing line."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sponge and dough",
        "text": "Sponge doughs were used before bread improvers were invented. Texture is partly a byproduct of the chemistry going on in the fermentation, which does several important things such as activate the different enzymes (protease and amylase) needed to leaven bread. Modern grain-harvesting practices have reduced the naturally occurring enzymes that grains had in former times, a result of no-longer-used grain-storage processes, so today small amounts of enzymes are routinely added to flour by manufacturers, often in the form of malted barley or sprouted grain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pastry",
        "text": "Different kinds of pastry doughs are made by utilizing the natural characteristics of wheat flour and certain fats. When wheat flour is mixed with water and kneaded into plain dough, it develops strands of gluten, which are what make bread tough and elastic. In a typical pastry, however, this toughness is unwanted, so fat or oil is added to slow down the development of gluten. Pastry flour can also be used, since it typically has a lower level of protein than all-purpose or bread flours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rye bread",
        "text": "While rye and wheat are genetically similar enough to interbreed (resulting in hybrids known as triticale), their biochemistries differ enough that they affect the breadmaking process. The key issue is differing amylases, the enzyme which breaks starch down into sugar. While wheat amylases are generally not heat-stable and thus do not affect stronger wheat gluten that gives wheat bread its structure, rye amylase remains active at substantially higher temperatures. Since rye gluten (secalin) is not particularly strong, rye dough structure is based on complex polysaccharides, including rye starch and pentosans. As a result, amylases in rye flour can break down dough structure, inhibiting it from rising."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Flour also can be made from soybeans, arrowroot, taro, cattails, acorns, manioc, quinoa, and other non-cereal foodstuffs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sheikhan",
        "text": "or salt is an essential part of flour prepared for bread. \"Paratha\" is a kind of bread whose flour is prepared with oil or \"Desi gheu\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Doughs are usually baked, but in some cuisines breads are steamed (e.g., mantou), fried (e.g., puri), or baked on an unoiled frying pan (e.g., tortillas). It may be leavened or unleavened (e.g. matzo). Salt, fat and leavening agents such as yeast and baking soda are common ingredients, though bread may contain other ingredients, such as milk, egg, sugar, spice, fruit (such as raisins), vegetables (such as onion), nuts (such as walnut) or seeds (such as poppy)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "An important problem of the industrial revolution was the preservation of flour. Transportation distances and a relatively slow distribution system collided with natural shelf life. The reason for the limited shelf life is the fatty acids of the germ, which react from the moment they are exposed to oxygen. This occurs when grain is milled; the fatty acids oxidize and flour starts to become rancid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Whole wheat bread",
        "text": "\"Meal\" in the sense of \"flour\" is derived from Old English \"melu\" and is cognate with modern English \"mill\", and with Dutch \"meel\" (flour), German \"Mehl\" (flour) and Old Norse \"mj\u01ebl\" (flour)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gluten",
        "text": "Generally, bread flours are high in gluten (hard wheat); pastry flours have a lower gluten content. Kneading promotes the formation of gluten strands and cross-links, creating baked products that are chewier (as opposed to more brittle or crumbly). The \"chewiness\" increases as the dough is kneaded for longer times. An increased moisture content in the dough enhances gluten development, and very wet doughs left to rise for a long time require no kneading (see no-knead bread). Shortening inhibits formation of cross-links and is used, along with diminished water and less kneading, when a tender and flaky product, such as a pie crust, is desired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wheat flour",
        "text": "Wheat flour is a powder made from the grinding of wheat used for human consumption. Wheat varieties are called \"soft\" or \"weak\" if gluten content is low, and are called \"hard\" or \"strong\" if they have high gluten content. Hard flour, or \"bread flour\", is high in gluten, with 12% to 14% gluten content, and its dough has elastic toughness that holds its shape well once baked. Soft flour is comparatively low in gluten and thus results in a loaf with a finer, crumbly texture. Soft flour is usually divided into cake flour, which is the lowest in gluten, and pastry flour, which has slightly more gluten than cake flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Flour (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wheat flour",
        "text": "The endosperm portion of the kernel makes up about 80% of the volume and is desirable because the products made from this white flour are often considered to have milder flavor, smoother texture, and, in the case of bread, greater volume. The balance of the kernel is composed of the bran and the germ which tend to be coarser. With the invention of the roller milling system in the late 19th century, the bran and the germ were able to be removed, dramatically improving the appeal of baked products to the public."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Bread\n--History.\n--Types.\n--Properties.\n----Physical-chemical composition.\n----Culinary uses.\n----Nutritional significance.\n----Crust.\n--Preparation.\n----Formulation.\n----Flour.\n----Liquids.\n----Fats or shortenings.\n----Bread improvers.\n----Salt.\n--Leavening.\n----Chemicals.\n----Yeast.\n----Sourdough.\n----Steam.\n----Bacteria.\n----Aeration.\n--Culture.\n----Etymology.\n----Cultural significance.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of bread",
        "text": "A major change in the United Kingdom was the development in 1961 of the Chorleywood bread process. This used the intense mechanical working of dough, and control of gases touching dough, to dramatically reduce the fermentation period and the time taken to produce a loaf at the expense of taste and nutrition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain de campagne",
        "text": "Before the advent of roller milling, virtually all wheat was milled by stone grinding. In order to produce a lighter, less chewy bread, the whole wheat flour was sifted or bolted using mesh or cloth. This resulted in a whiter flour that still retained some of the bran and germ. The addition of rye flour in some recipes probably originates from the presence of rye growing among the wheat. All the grain was harvested together, and as much as 10 percent of it would be rye. Rye flour ferments more quickly than wheat flour, and it imparts a distinctive flavor to traditional pains de campagne."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Bread, pasta, crackers, many cakes, and many other foods are made using flour. Wheat flour is also used to make a roux as a base for thickening gravy and sauces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soda bread",
        "text": "In Ireland, the flour is typically made from soft wheat, so soda bread is best made with a cake or pastry flour (made from soft wheat), which has lower levels of gluten than a bread flour. In some recipes, the buttermilk is replaced by live yogurt or even stout. Because the leavening action starts immediately (compared to the time taken for yeast bread to rise), bakers recommend the minimum amount of mixing of the ingredients before baking; the dough should not be kneaded."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of bread",
        "text": "It was discovered early on that while a bran- and wheatgerm-discarding milling process can help improve white flour's shelf life, it does remove nutrients like some dietary fiber, iron, B vitamins, micronutrients and essential fatty acids. The US government has mandated since 1941 fortification of white flour-based foods with some of the nutrients lost in milling, like thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and iron. This mandate came about in response to the vast nutrient deficiencies seen in US military recruits at the start of World War II."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sourdough",
        "text": "Flour naturally contains a variety of yeasts and bacteria. When wheat flour comes into contact with water, the naturally occurring enzyme amylase breaks down the starch into the sugars glucose and maltose, which sourdough's natural yeast can metabolize. With sufficient time, temperature, and refreshments with new or fresh dough, the mixture develops a stable culture. This culture will cause a dough to rise. The bacteria ferment starches that the yeast cannot metabolise, and the by-products, chiefly maltose, are metabolised by the yeast, which produces carbon dioxide gas, leavening the dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cura Annonae",
        "text": "The conversion of the grain supply for the citizens of the city of Rome to a flour supply carried with it a host of problems. Flour is much more perishable than grain, and its distribution would have to be carried out more often. Little is known about the initial distribution system for the flour produced by the watermills. The Emperor Aurelian (270\u2013275 AD) is usually credited with changing or completing the change of the food distribution system from grain or flour to bread, and adding olive oil, salt, and pork to the products distributed to the populace. These products had been distributed sporadically before Aurelian. Aurelian is also credited with increasing the size of the loaves of bread without increasing the price of a loaf, a measure that was undoubtedly popular with the Romans who were not receiving free bread and other products through the dole. In the 4th century AD, Rome had 290 granaries and warehouses and 254 bakeries which were regulated and monitored by the state and given privileges to ensure their cooperation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Whole-wheat flour",
        "text": "Whole-wheat flour (in the US) or wholemeal flour (in the UK) is a powdery substance, a basic food ingredient, derived by grinding or mashing the whole grain of wheat, also known as the wheatberry. Whole-wheat flour is used in baking of breads and other baked goods, and also typically mixed with lighter \"white\" unbleached or bleached flours (that have been treated with flour bleaching agent(s)) to restore nutrients (especially fiber, protein, and vitamins), texture, and body to the white flours that can be lost in milling and other processing to the finished baked goods or other food(s)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Enriched flour",
        "text": "The conversion of grains to flour involves several steps that vary with the type of grain used. The initial stages of processing remove the bran and the germ of the seed. The bran is the outermost layer of grains that contains fiber (primarily insoluble), some protein, and trace minerals. The germ is the embryo of the seed that contains B vitamins and trace minerals. Because the germ has a fat content of 10%, it may reduce shelf-life. Thus, it is separated to ensure longer shelf life of the flour. In contrast to enriched flour, whole wheat flour contains both the bran and the germ. The remaining and largest portion of the seed is the endosperm. It acts as a nutrient reservoir for the developing embryo. The endosperm contains a large amount of carbohydrates, protein, iron, B vitamins (niacin and riboflavin), and soluble fiber."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Bread may be leavened by naturally occurring microbes (e.g. sourdough), chemicals (e.g. baking soda), industrially produced yeast, or high-pressure aeration, which creates the gas bubbles that fluff up bread. In many countries, commercial bread often contains additives to improve flavor, texture, color, shelf life, nutrition, and ease of production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Bread is the staple food of the Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa, Europe, and in European-derived cultures such as those in the Americas, Australia, and Southern Africa. This is in contrast to parts of South and East Asia, where rice or noodles are the staple. Bread is usually made from a wheat-flour dough that is cultured with yeast, allowed to rise, and finally baked in an oven. The addition of yeast to the bread explains the air pockets commonly found in bread. Owing to its high levels of gluten (which give the dough sponginess and elasticity), common or bread wheat is the most common grain used for the preparation of bread, which makes the largest single contribution to the world's food supply of any food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread in American cuisine",
        "text": "Yeast was often used when making bread and could be sweet or sour, but bread could also be made without yeast with just a batter of water and flour in a tin pail set in warm water, about the consistency of a pan cake batter (organic flour and non-chlorinated water in this era allowed development of wild yeast). Once the batter had risen more flour would be added until reaching the consistency of a bread dough, then shaped into loaves and set aside in a bread basket. When the dough had dried out enough that it began to crack, it was ready to bake. Another no-yeast bread could be made with a combination of cream of tartar (acid) and sodium bicarbonate. Baking soda could also be used to \"sweeten\" sour milk for baking soft sour milk bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boro\u00f1a",
        "text": "The mixture of wheat flour (spelled flour) and corn (2/3 corn flour and other wheat flour) makes the interior color of cornbread a pale yellow. The dough mass is usually put into a mold. It can be rectangular, though now usually toroidal shape. The traditional recipe includes in the dough some slices of chorizo and various meats including prime rib ('costiella'). The dough goes with the mold in an oven and cooked at relatively low temperatures overnight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baking",
        "text": "With the passage of time, breads harden and become stale. This is not primarily due to moisture being lost from the baked products, but more a reorganization of the way in which the water and starch are associated over time. This process is similar to recrystallization and is promoted by storage at cool temperatures, such as in a domestic refrigerator or freezer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Our Daily Bread (2005 film)",
        "text": "Different processes in agriculture and food processing plants are shown in the film. Since scenes are mixed, food transformations are listed below with no particular order.\n*Semen to pigs\n*Pigs to meat\n*Semen to cows\n*Cows to meat\n*Cows to milk\n*Eggs to chickens\n*Chickens to eggs\n*Chickens to meat\n*Fish\n*Crops and field harvests (misc)\n*Tomatoes in rock wool\n*Salads night harvest\n*Peppers\n*Cucumbers\n*Apples\n*Olives harvest\n*Salt from mines"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Starch also affects the viscosity of predough. At room temperature and in a sufficient amount of water, intact starch granules can absorb water up to 50% of their own dry weight, causing them to swell to a limited extent. The slightly swollen granules are found in the spaces between the gluten network, thus contributing to the consistency of the dough. The granules may not be intact, as the process of milling wheat into flour damages some of the starch granules. Given that damaged starch granules have the capacity to absorb around three times as much water as undamaged starch, the use of flour with higher levels of damaged starch requires the addition of more water to achieve optimal dough development and consistency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brown bread",
        "text": "Whole wheat flours that contain raw wheat germ, instead of toasted germ, have higher levels of glutathione, and thus result in lower loaf volumes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Autolysis (biology)",
        "text": "In bread baking, the term (or, more commonly, its French cognate \"autolyse\") is described as a period of rest following initial mixing of flour and water, before other ingredients (such as salt and yeast) are added to the dough. Doing so makes the dough easier to shape and improves structure. The term was coined by French baking professor Raymond Calvel, who recommended the procedure as a means of reducing kneading time, thereby improving the flavor and color of bread. Calvel argues that long kneading times subject dough to atmospheric oxygen, which bleaches the naturally occurring carotenoids in bread flour, robbing the flour of its natural creamy color and flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rye bread",
        "text": "Rye flour is sometimes used in chemically leavened quick bread recipes as well, either batter-type or dough-type (similar to Irish soda bread). In such cases, it can be used in similar applications as whole wheat flour, since an egg matrix often provides the bread structure rather than the grain's gluten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vienna bread",
        "text": "At the Pesth Walzenm\u00fchle, when wheat had been fully transformed to flour, it had passed through 18 to 24 pairs of rollers. This new \"cold milling\" process, particularly well suited for hard wheat, likely resulted in lighter, more airy breads of greater baked volumes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread in culture",
        "text": "Cornbread is made from cornmeal and can differ significantly in taste and texture from region to region. In general, the South prefers white cornmeal with little to no wheat flour or sweeteners added; it is traditionally baked in a cast-iron skillet and ideally has a crunchy outside and moist inside. The North usually prefers yellow cornmeal with sometimes as much as half wheat flour in its composition, as well as sugar, honey, or maple syrup. This results in a bread that is softer and sweeter than its southern counterpart. Wheat flour was not available to the average North American family until the early 1900s when a new breed of wheat termed Marquis was produced. This was a hybrid of Red Fife and Hard red winter wheat. Marquis grew well and soon average Americans were able to have homemade wheat bread on the table. Homemade wheat breads are made in a rectangular tin similar to those in the United Kingdom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Proofing (baking technique)",
        "text": "Fermentation typically begins when viable baker's yeast or a starter culture is added to flour and water. Enzymes in the flour and yeast create sugars, which are consumed by the yeast, which in turn produce carbon dioxide and alcohol. Specifically, the grain enzyme diastase begins to convert starch in the grain to maltose. The baker's yeast enzyme maltase converts maltose into glucose, invertase converts any added sucrose to glucose and fructose, and zymase converts glucose and fructose to carbon dioxide gas which makes the dough rise, and alcohol which gives the baked bread flavor. Sourdough starters also produce lactic and acetic acids, further contributing to flavor. When the yeast cells die, they release high quantities of a protease which snip protein strands, and in large dieoffs result in soft, sticky dough, less baked volume and a coarse crumb, but in smaller dieoffs, increase dough extensibility and baked volume."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sourdough",
        "text": "Bread made from 100% rye flour, popular in the northern half of Europe, is usually leavened with sourdough. Baker's yeast is not useful as a leavening agent for rye bread, as rye does not contain enough gluten. The structure of rye bread is based primarily on the starch in the flour as well as other carbohydrates known as pentosans; however, rye amylase is active at substantially higher temperatures than wheat amylase, causing the structure of the bread to disintegrate as the starches are broken down during cooking. The lowered pH of a sourdough starter, therefore, inactivates the amylases when heat cannot, allowing the carbohydrates in the bread to gel and set properly. In the southern part of Europe, where panettone is still made with sourdough as leavening, sourdough has become less common in the 20th century; it has been replaced by the faster-growing baker's yeast, sometimes supplemented with longer fermentation rests to allow for some bacterial activity to build flavor. Sourdough fermentation has re-emerged as a major fermentation process in bread production in the past ten years although it is commonly used in conjunction with baker's yeast as leavening agent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dough conditioner",
        "text": "A dough conditioner, flour treatment agent, improving agent or bread improver is any ingredient or chemical added to bread dough to strengthen its texture or otherwise improve it in some way. Dough conditioners may include enzymes, yeast nutrients, mineral salts, oxidants and reductants, bleaching agents and emulsifiers. They are food additives combined with flour to improve baking functionality. Flour treatment agents are used to increase the speed of dough rising and to improve the strength and workability of the dough. While they are an important component of modern factory baking, some small-scale bakers reject them in favour of longer fermentation periods that produce greater depth of flavour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Common wheat",
        "text": "Worldwide, bread wheat has proved well adapted to modern industrial baking, and has displaced many of the other wheat, barley, and rye species that were once commonly used for bread making, particularly in Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baker percentage",
        "text": "Common formulations for bread include 100% flour, 60% water/liquid, 1% yeast, 2% salt and 1% oil, lard or butter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dough",
        "text": "Quick breads use leavening agents other than yeast (such as baking powder or baking soda), and include most cookies, cakes, biscuits, and more. These may be based on a batter or a dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Manitoba flour",
        "text": "The main characteristic of this flour is that it contains a large quantity of insoluble proteins (glutenin and gliadin), which, in contact with a liquid during the kneading phase, produce gluten. It is therefore a flour rich in gluten and poor in starch. Gluten forms a tenacious net, which in leavened doughs retains the gases of leavening, allowing the product to develop considerably during baking; in the case of pasta, on the other hand, it retains the starches, which would make the dough sticky and allow it to be cooked \"al dente\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Velhote",
        "text": "The original recipe included flour, sugar, eggs, cinnamon, lemon juice, yeast and saffron, but the way of baking this sweet bread has changed a lot since the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Methods of processing dough into bread include the straight dough process, the sourdough process, the Chorleywood bread process and the sponge and dough process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread culture in Spain",
        "text": "The Spanish conquest of America led to the importation of a new cereal with which flour could be made: corn. Corn has a presence in the bakery of \"Green Spain\" (northern Spain). An example of bread with corn flour is \"borona\", \"brona\" or \"broa\", a typical bread from Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria and the Basque Country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rye bread",
        "text": "It is fairly common to combine rye with other grains and seeds. In southern Germany and Switzerland, for example, it is not uncommon to find a variant of \"Vollkornbrot\" with sunflower seeds instead of the rye seeds, and some traditional recipes also substitute whole wheat grains for the rye grains. In the colonial era in North America, particularly in the United States, it became common to mix rye and cornmeal in what was known as \"rye and Indian\" or, if wheat flour was added, \"thirded\" bread; the resulting bread, though less dense than a whole-rye bread, was still heavier than the more expensive wheat-only breads that later became commonplace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "During the process of making flour, specifically as a result of the bleaching process, nutrients are lost. Some of these nutrients may be replaced during refining \u2013 the result is known as \"enriched\" flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Depending on climate and grain quality, this process takes six to nine months. In the late 19th century, this process was too short for an industrial production and distribution cycle. As vitamins, micronutrients and amino acids were completely or relatively unknown in the late 19th century, removing the germ was an effective solution. Without the germ, flour cannot become rancid. Degermed flour became standard. Degermation started in densely populated areas and took approximately one generation to reach the countryside."
      },
      {
        "title": "The English Bread Book",
        "text": "The following list refers to the 1857 edition.\n:Preface\n:Contents\n:;Part One\n#Bread, its value\n#Adulteration of bread, and its consequences\n#Large institutions established abroad\n#Gluten\n#To remove the taint of must from wheat\n#Different varieties of bread-corn\n:;Part Two\n#Outline of bread making\n#General rules for baking bread\n#Making dough\n#Bread recipes"
      },
      {
        "title": "Durum",
        "text": "To produce bread, durum wheat is ground into flour. The flour is mixed with water to produce dough. The quantities mixed vary, depending on the acidity of the mixture. To produce fluffy bread, the dough is mixed with yeast and lukewarm water, heavily kneaded to form a gas-retaining gluten network, and then fermented for hours, producing CO2 bubbles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "In English-speaking countries, self-raising (or self-rising) flour is commercially available with chemical leavening agents already in the mix. In America, it is also likely to be pre-salted; in Britain this is not the case. The added ingredients are evenly distributed throughout the flour, which aids a consistent rise in baked goods. This flour is generally used for preparing sponge cakes, scones, muffins, etc. It was invented by Henry Jones and patented in 1845. If a recipe calls for self-raising flour, and this is not available, the following substitution is possible:\n*1 cup (125 g) plain flour\n*1 teaspoon (3 g) baking powder\n*(US recipes) a pinch to teaspoon (1 g or less) salt"
      },
      {
        "title": "No-knead bread",
        "text": "According to one version of the method developed by New York baker Jim Lahey, as described in his book \"My Bread\", one loaf of the bread is made by mixing 400 g (approximately 3 cups) bread flour, 8 g (approximately 1\u00bc teaspoons) salt and 1 g (approximately \u00bc teaspoon) instant yeast with 300 mL (approximately 1 1/3 cups) cool water to produce a 75% hydration dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Flour may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bus factor",
        "text": "For instance, say a team of 30 people produces bread in three necessary steps: mixing ingredients, kneading the dough, and baking. Ten people know how to mix ingredients, all 30 people know how to knead the dough, and 5 people know how to bake. If all 5 people who know how to bake disappear, then the team cannot produce bread, so the team's bus factor is 5."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wheat flour",
        "text": "American flours are categorized by gluten/protein content, processing, and use.\n*All-purpose or plain flour is a blended wheat with a protein content lower than bread flour, ranging between 9% and 12%. Depending on brand or the region where it is purchased, it may be composed of all hard or soft wheats, but is usually a blend of the two, and can range from low protein content to moderately high. It is marketed as an inexpensive alternative to bakers' flour which is acceptable for most household baking needs.\n*Bread flour or strong flour is always made from hard wheat, usually hard spring wheat. It has a very high protein content, between 10% and 13%, making it excellent for yeast bread baking. It can be white or whole wheat or in between.\n*Cake flour is a finely milled white flour made from soft wheat. It has very low protein content, between 8% and 10%, making it suitable for soft-textured cakes and cookies. The higher protein content of other flours would make the cakes tough. Related to cake flour are masa harina (from maize), maida flour (from wheat or tapioca), and pure starches.\n*Durum flour is made from Durum wheat and is suited for pasta making, traditional pizza and flatbread for doner kebab.\n*Graham flour is a special type of whole wheat flour. The endosperm is finely ground, as in white flour, while the bran and germ are coarsely ground. Graham flour is uncommon outside of the United States (but see atta flour, a similar product, below). Graham flour is the basis of true graham crackers.\n*Instant flour is pregelatinized (precooked) for easier incorporation in gravies and sauces.\n*Pastry flour or cookie flour or cracker flour has slightly higher protein content than cake flour but lower than all-purpose flour. Its protein content ranges between 9% and 10%. It is available as a white flour, a whole-wheat flour, or a white flour with the germ retained but not the bran. It is suitable for pie pastry and tarts, some cookies, muffins, biscuits and other quick breads. Flour is shaken through a sieve to reduce the amount of lumps for cooking pastry.\n*Whole-wheat flour contains the wheat germ, endosperm and bran\n*White flour or refined flour contains only the endosperm\n* Whole-wheat white flour is white flour that contains the endososperm, bran, and germ\n*Enriched flour is white flour with nutrients added to compensate for the removal of the bran and germ\n*Bleached flour is a white flour treated with flour bleaching agents to whiten it (freshly milled flour is yellowish) and give it more gluten-producing potential. Oxidizing agents are usually employed, most commonly organic peroxides like acetone peroxide or benzoyl peroxide, nitrogen dioxide, or chlorine. A similar effect can be achieved by letting the flour oxidize with oxygen in the air (\"natural aging\") for approximately 10 days; however, this process is more expensive due to the time required. Flour bleached with benzoyl peroxide has been prohibited in the UK since 1997.\n*Bromated flour has a maturing agent added. The agent's role is to help with developing gluten, a role similar to the flour bleaching agents. Bromate is usually used. Other choices are phosphates, ascorbic acid, and malted barley. Bromated flour has been banned in much of the world, as bromate is classified as possibly carcinogenic in humans (Group 2B) by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), but remains available in the United States.\n*Self-rising or self-raising flour is white flour that is sold premixed with chemical leavening agents. It was invented by Henry Jones. Self-rising flour is typically composed of the following ratio:\n**1 cup (100\u00a0g) flour\n**\u00a0teaspoons (3\u00a0g) baking powder\n**a pinch to \u00a0teaspoon (1\u00a0g or less) salt\n*Spelt flour is produced from the type of wheat called spelt. It is less commonly used in modern cooking than other wheat varieties. It is still used for specialty baking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Many varieties of flour packaged specifically for commercial bakeries are still bromated. Retail bleached flour marketed to the home baker is now treated mostly with either peroxidation or chlorine gas. Current information from Pillsbury is that their varieties of bleached flour are treated both with benzoyl peroxide and chlorine gas. Gold Medal states that their bleached flour is treated either with benzoyl peroxide or chlorine gas, but no way exists to tell which process has been used when buying the flour at the grocery store."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour extraction",
        "text": "The general availability of refrigeration and even flour itself, has diminished the significance of the rancidity/shelf life/keeping quality issue of whole grain flour. Higher extraction rates just focus on the elimination of the larger flour particles to increase loaf volume while retaining the majority of the nutritional bran and germ elements along with the endosperm. This is accomplished by direct extraction of the fine whole grain flour output of impact or attrition mills. Millers have been able to match the finer particle size distribution of low extraction roller milled white flour (72% extraction) that eliminated all the bran and germ elements with a higher +88% extraction that retains most of them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dough",
        "text": "Making and shaping dough begins the preparation of a wide variety of foodstuffs, particularly breads and bread-based items, but also including biscuits, cakes, cookies, dumplings, flatbreads, noodles, pasta, pastry, pizza, piecrusts, and similar items. Dough can be made from a wide variety of flour, commonly wheat and rye but also maize, rice, legumes, almonds, and other cereals or crops."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the main ingredient in making bread?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The main ingredient in making bread is flour, which has different kinds such as cereal flour, wheat flour, corn flour and rye flour."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How does the different kinds of flour change the bread?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "There are many differences: Rye bread is typically more dense than bread made from wheat flour, and is higher in fiber and causes slower increases in blood sugar than white bread, while pastry flour produces more flaky crusts, and coconut flour has the highest fiber content of any flour, and few carbohydrates. Is there any particular kind of flour you would like to know more about?"
    ],
    "topic": "Flour",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Rye bread:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Rye bread"
        ],
        "ctx": "Rye bread is a type of bread made with various proportions of flour from rye grain. It can be light or dark in color, depending on the type of flour used and the addition of coloring agents, and is typically denser than bread made from wheat flour. It is higher in fiber than white bread and is darker in color and stronger in flavor."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Rye bread:23",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Rye bread",
          "Health benefits"
        ],
        "ctx": "Rye bread contains a large amount of fiber, a wide variety of bioactive compounds, and a small amount of fat. Compared to some breads such as white bread, rye bread has a lower glycemic index, which means it causes a slower increase in blood sugar than white bread after being eaten."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Flour:25",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Flour",
          "Composition",
          "Pastry flour"
        ],
        "ctx": "Pastry flour has the second-lowest gluten protein content, with 7.5-9.5% (8-9% from second source) protein to hold together with a bit more strength than cakes, but still produce flaky crusts rather than hard or crispy ones."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Flour:33",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Flour",
          "Types",
          "Gluten-free flours"
        ],
        "ctx": "When flours do not contain gluten, they are suitable for people with gluten-related disorders, such as coeliac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity or wheat allergy sufferers, among others. Contamination with gluten-containing cereals can occur during grain harvesting, transporting, milling, storing, processing, handling and/or cooking.\n* Acorn flour is made from ground acorns and can be used as a substitute for wheat flour. It was used by Native Americans. Koreans also use acorn flour to make dotorimuk.\n* Almond flour is made from ground almonds.\n* Amaranth flour is a flour produced from ground amaranth grain. It was commonly used in pre-Columbian meso-American cuisine and was originally cultivated by the Aztecs. It is becoming more and more available in speciality food shops.\n*Apple flour is made from milling apple pomace, the solid remains of juiced apples.\n* Banana flour has been traditionally made of green bananas for thousands of years and is currently popular both as a gluten-free replacement for wheat flour and as a source of resistant starch.\n* Bean flour is a flour produced from pulverized dried or ripe beans. Garbanzo and fava bean flour is a flour mixture with a high nutritional value and strong aftertaste.\n* Brown rice flour is of great importance in Southeast Asian cuisine. Edible rice paper can be made from it.\n* Buckwheat flour is used as an ingredient in many pancakes in the United States. In Japan, it is used to make a popular noodle called soba. In Russia, buckwheat flour is added to the batter for pancakes called \"blinis\" which are frequently eaten with caviar. Buckwheat flour is also used to make cr\u00eapes bretonnes in Brittany. On Hindu fasting days (\"Navaratri\" mainly, also \"Maha Shivaratri\"), people eat food made with buckwheat flour. The preparation varies across India. The most famous dishes are \"kuttu ki puri\" and \"kuttu pakora\". In most northern and western states the usual term is \"kuttu ka atta\".\n* Cassava flour is made from the root of the cassava plant. In a purified form (pure starch), it is called tapioca flour (see in list below).\n* Chestnut flour is popular in Corsica, the P\u00e9rigord, and Lunigiana for breads, cakes and pastas. It is the original ingredient for polenta, still used as such in Corsica and other Mediterranean locations. Chestnut bread keeps fresh for as long as two weeks. In other parts of Italy it is mainly used for desserts.\n* Chickpea flour (also known as gram flour or besan) is of great importance in Indian cuisine, and in Italy, where it is used for the Ligurian farinata.\n* Chu\u00f1o flour is made from dried potatoes in various countries of South America.\n* Coconut flour is made from ground coconut meat and has the highest fiber content of any flour, having a very low concentration of digestible carbohydrates and thus making an excellent choice for those looking to restrict their carbohydrate intake. It also has a high fat content of about 60 percent.\n*Coffee flour is flour usually made with either coffee cherries or coffee beans.\n* Corn (maize) flour is popular in the Southern and Southwestern US, Mexico, Central America, and Punjab regions of India and Pakistan, where it is called \"makai ka atta\". Coarse whole-grain corn flour is usually called cornmeal. Finely ground corn flour that has been treated with food-grade lime is called \"masa harina\" (see \"masa\") and is used to make \"tortillas\" and \"tamales\" in Mexican cooking. Corn flour should never be confused with corn starch, which is known as \"cornflour\" in British English.\n* Cornmeal is very similar to corn flour (see above) except in a coarser grind.\n* Corn starch is starch extracted from endosperm of the corn kernel.\n* Glutinous rice flour or sticky rice flour is used in east and southeast Asian cuisines for making tangyuan, etc.\n* Hemp flour is produced by pressing the oil from the hemp seed and milling the residue. Hemp seed is approximately 30 percent oil and 70 percent residue. Hemp flour does not rise, and is best mixed with other flours. Added to any flour by about 15-20 percent, it gives a spongy nutty texture and flavor with a green hue.\n* Mesquite flour is made from the dried and ground pods of the mesquite tree, which grows throughout North America in arid climates. The flour has a sweet, slightly nutty flavor and can be used in a wide variety of applications.\n* Nut flours are grated from oily nuts\u2014most commonly almonds and hazelnuts\u2014and are used instead of or in addition to wheat flour to produce more dry and flavorful pastries and cakes. Cakes made with nut flours are usually called tortes and most originated in Central Europe, in countries such as Hungary and Austria.\n* Peasemeal or pea flour is a flour produced from roasted and pulverized yellow field peas.\n* Peanut flour made from shelled cooked peanuts is a high-protein alternative to regular flour.\n* Potato starch flour is obtained by grinding the tubers to a pulp and removing the fibre and protein by water-washing. Potato starch (flour) is very white starch powder used as a thickening agent. Standard (native) potato starch needs boiling, to thicken in water, giving a transparent gel. Because the flour is made from neither grains nor legumes, it is used as a substitute for wheat flour in cooking by Jews during Passover, when grains are not eaten.\n* Potato flour, often confused with potato starch, is a peeled, cooked potato powder of mashed, mostly drum-dried and ground potato flakes using the whole potato and thus containing the protein and some of the fibres of the potato. It has an off-white slight yellowish color. These dehydrated, dried, potatoes, also called instant mashed potatoes can also be granules or flakes. Potato flour is cold-water-soluble; however, it is not used often as it tends to be heavy.\n* Rice flour is ground kernels of rice. It is widely used in Western countries especially for people who suffer from gluten-related disorders. Brown rice flour has higher nutritional value than white rice flour.\n* Sorghum flour is made from grinding whole grains of the sorghum plant. It is called \"jowar\" in India.\n* Tapioca flour, produced from the root of the cassava plant, is used to make breads, pancakes, tapioca pudding, a savoury porridge called fufu in Africa, and is used as a starch.\n* Teff flour is made from the grain teff, and is of considerable importance in eastern Africa (particularly around the horn of Africa). Notably, it is the chief ingredient in the bread injera, an important component of Ethiopian cuisine."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Rempeyek",
        "text": "Coconut milk, salt, and spices such as ground candlenut and coriander are often mixed within the flour batter. Some recipes also add a chopped citrus leaf. The spiced batter, mixed or sprinkled with the granule ingredients, is deep fried in hot coconut oil. The flour batter acts as a binding agent for the granules (peanuts, anchovy, shrimp, etc.). It hardens upon frying and turns into a golden brown and crispy cracker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Bread flour is typically made from red hard wheat planted in the fall and harvested in the spring (winter wheat). Hard wheat is high in gluten, a protein that makes dough stretchy. Hard wheat is 11.5-13.5% (12-14% from second source) protein. The increased protein binds to the flour to entrap carbon dioxide released by the yeast fermentation process, resulting in a better rise and chewier texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coconut",
        "text": "Coconut flour has also been developed for use in baking, to combat malnutrition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pan de coco (Honduran cuisine)",
        "text": "Pan de coco, literally \"coconut bread\" in Spanish, is a dense, cake-like bread from the Garifuna people of the Caribbean coast located in Honduras. It's dough features coconut milk as its main ingredient, and typically does not incorporate eggs or milk. Despite its coconut content, the bread is not sweet and is often served with savory foods, like stews and soups. Many variations of Pan de Coco can be found in various other Latin American countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soybean",
        "text": "Soy flour has 50% protein and 5% fiber. It has higher levels of protein, thiamine, riboflavin, phosphorus, calcium, and iron than wheat flour. It does not contain gluten. As a result, yeast-raised breads made with soy flour are dense in texture. Among many uses, soy flour thickens sauces, prevents staling in baked food, and reduces oil absorption during frying. Baking food with soy flour gives it tenderness, moistness, a rich color, and a fine texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains, roots, beans, nuts, or seeds. Flours are used to make many different foods. Cereal flour, particularly wheat flour, is the main ingredient of bread, which is a staple food for many cultures. Corn flour has been important in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times and remains a staple in the Americas. Rye flour is a constituent of bread in central and northern Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana flour",
        "text": "Banana flour is a powder traditionally made of green bananas. Historically, banana flour has been used in Africa and Jamaica as a cheaper alternative to wheat flour. It is now often used as a gluten-free replacement for wheat flours or as a source of resistant starch, which has been promoted by certain dieting trends such as paleo and primal diets and by some recent nutritional research. Banana flour, due to the use of green bananas, has a very mild banana flavor raw, and when cooked, it has an earthy, nonbanana flavor; it also has a texture reminiscent of lighter wheat flours and requires about 25% less volume, making it a good replacement for white and white whole-wheat flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shortbread",
        "text": "Other ingredients are often substituted for part of the flour to alter the texture. Rice flour or semolina makes it grittier, and cornflour makes it more tender. Bere or oat flour may be added for flavour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peanut flour",
        "text": "Defatted peanut flour is very low in fat, saturated fat and cholesterol according to https://nutritiondata.self.com. It is also a good source of dietary fiber, thiamin, folate, potassium and zinc, and a very good source of protein, niacin, magnesium, phosphorus, copper and manganese. Note that as a processed food, the following values vary significantly depending on the exact product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Wheat is the grain most commonly used to make flour. Certain varieties may be referred to as \"clean\" or \"white\". Flours contain differing levels of the protein gluten. \"Strong flour\" or \"hard flour\" has a higher gluten content than \"weak\" or \"soft\" flour. \"Brown\" and wholemeal flours may be made of hard or soft wheat.\n* Atta flour is a whole-grain wheat flour important in Indian and Pakistani cuisine, used for a range of breads such as roti and chapati. It is usually stone-ground to coarse granules, which gives it a texture not easily found in other flatbreads.\n*Common wheat flour (\"T. aestivum\") is the flour most often used for making bread. Durum wheat flour (\"T. durum\") is the second most used.\n* Maida flour is a finely milled wheat flour used to make a wide variety of Indian breads such as paratha and naan. Maida is widely used not only in Indian cuisine but also in Central Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine. Though sometimes referred to as \"all-purpose flour\" by Indian chefs, it more closely resembles cake flour or even pure starch. In India, maida flour is used to make pastries and other bakery items such as bread, biscuits and toast.\n* Noodle flour is a special blend of flour used for the making of Asian-style noodles, made from wheat or rice.\n*Semolina is the coarse, purified wheat middlings of durum wheat used in making pasta, breakfast cereals, puddings, and couscous.\n* Spelt, an ancient grain, is a hexaploid species of wheat. Spelt dough needs less kneading than common wheat or durum wheat dough. Compared to hard-wheat flours, spelt flour has a relatively low (six to nine percent) protein count, just a little higher than pastry flour. That means that plain spelt flour works well in creating dough for soft foods such as cookies or pancakes. Crackers turn out well because they are made from dough that does not need to rise when baked.\n* Rye flour is used to bake the traditional sourdough breads of Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Russia, Czech Republic, Poland and Scandinavia. Most rye breads use a mix of rye and wheat flours because rye does not produce sufficient gluten. Pumpernickel bread is usually made exclusively of rye, and contains a mixture of rye flour and rye meal. Secale flower is used to make bread such as Pr\u0105dnik bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aprapransa",
        "text": "The main ingredients are roasted corn flour (Tom brown) and palmnut or palm oil. Other ingredients include beans, vegetables such as tomatoes, onion, pepper, ginger, or garlic. It features seafood such as smoked fish, dried fish, salted fish or crabs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clorot",
        "text": "\"Gula jawa\" (palm sugar), pandan leaf, salt and water are boiled until done and mixed with coconut milk. This sweet liquid then being poured upon rice flour and sago or tapioca flour, and mixed evenly. The \"janur\" or young coconut leaf rolled to form a long cone, similar to a small trumpet, secured and arranged upright. The thick-liquid sweet dough then filled into this coconut leaf cones until three-quarter full. Then the top section is filled with the mixture of coconut milk, rice flour and salt. These filled cones then being steamed for about 15 minutes until the dough inside the cone are cooked and hardened."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour kurabiye",
        "text": "Flour kurabiye (Turkish: \"Un kurabiyesi\") is a kind of Turkish cookie that is made from butter, sunflower oil (or another mild flavored oil), baking powder, and the namesake ingredient flour. Generally, vanilla powder (commonly used as a substitute for vanilla extract in Turkish baked goods) is also added. Flour kurabiye is a variant of kurabiye."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Flour also can be made from soybeans, arrowroot, taro, cattails, acorns, manioc, quinoa, and other non-cereal foodstuffs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Flour\n--Etymology.\n--History.\n----Degermed and heat-processed flour.\n----Production.\n--Modern mills.\n--Composition.\n----Bleached flour.\n------Additives.\n------Frequency of additives.\n----Enriched flour.\n----Cake flour.\n----Pastry flour.\n----Plain or all-purpose flour.\n----Bread flour.\n----Hard flour.\n----Gluten flour.\n----Unbleached flour.\n----Self-raising flour.\n--Types.\n----Gluten-containing flours.\n------Wheat flour.\n----Gluten-free flours.\n------More types.\n----Type numbers.\n--Flammability.\n--Products.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kokosbrood",
        "text": "Kokosbrood \"[Dutch]\" literally Coconut Bread, is a sandwich topping made of coconut meat which is dried, shredded, and pressed into a loaf mould. Wheat starch and glucose are added to the coconut mix and the loaf. Now sold in pre-sliced packets, traditionally local corner stores would sell slices cut to order from the whole loaf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "When flours do not contain gluten, they are suitable for people with gluten-related disorders, such as coeliac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity or wheat allergy sufferers, among others. Contamination with gluten-containing cereals can occur during grain harvesting, transporting, milling, storing, processing, handling and/or cooking.\n* Acorn flour is made from ground acorns and can be used as a substitute for wheat flour. It was used by Native Americans. Koreans also use acorn flour to make dotorimuk.\n* Almond flour is made from ground almonds.\n* Amaranth flour is a flour produced from ground amaranth grain. It was commonly used in pre-Columbian meso-American cuisine and was originally cultivated by the Aztecs. It is becoming more and more available in speciality food shops.\n*Apple flour is made from milling apple pomace, the solid remains of juiced apples.\n* Banana flour has been traditionally made of green bananas for thousands of years and is currently popular both as a gluten-free replacement for wheat flour and as a source of resistant starch.\n* Bean flour is a flour produced from pulverized dried or ripe beans. Garbanzo and fava bean flour is a flour mixture with a high nutritional value and strong aftertaste.\n* Brown rice flour is of great importance in Southeast Asian cuisine. Edible rice paper can be made from it.\n* Buckwheat flour is used as an ingredient in many pancakes in the United States. In Japan, it is used to make a popular noodle called soba. In Russia, buckwheat flour is added to the batter for pancakes called \"blinis\" which are frequently eaten with caviar. Buckwheat flour is also used to make cr\u00eapes bretonnes in Brittany. On Hindu fasting days (\"Navaratri\" mainly, also \"Maha Shivaratri\"), people eat food made with buckwheat flour. The preparation varies across India. The most famous dishes are \"kuttu ki puri\" and \"kuttu pakora\". In most northern and western states the usual term is \"kuttu ka atta\".\n* Cassava flour is made from the root of the cassava plant. In a purified form (pure starch), it is called tapioca flour (see in list below).\n* Chestnut flour is popular in Corsica, the P\u00e9rigord, and Lunigiana for breads, cakes and pastas. It is the original ingredient for polenta, still used as such in Corsica and other Mediterranean locations. Chestnut bread keeps fresh for as long as two weeks. In other parts of Italy it is mainly used for desserts.\n* Chickpea flour (also known as gram flour or besan) is of great importance in Indian cuisine, and in Italy, where it is used for the Ligurian farinata.\n* Chu\u00f1o flour is made from dried potatoes in various countries of South America.\n* Coconut flour is made from ground coconut meat and has the highest fiber content of any flour, having a very low concentration of digestible carbohydrates and thus making an excellent choice for those looking to restrict their carbohydrate intake. It also has a high fat content of about 60 percent.\n*Coffee flour is flour usually made with either coffee cherries or coffee beans.\n* Corn (maize) flour is popular in the Southern and Southwestern US, Mexico, Central America, and Punjab regions of India and Pakistan, where it is called \"makai ka atta\". Coarse whole-grain corn flour is usually called cornmeal. Finely ground corn flour that has been treated with food-grade lime is called \"masa harina\" (see \"masa\") and is used to make \"tortillas\" and \"tamales\" in Mexican cooking. Corn flour should never be confused with corn starch, which is known as \"cornflour\" in British English.\n* Cornmeal is very similar to corn flour (see above) except in a coarser grind.\n* Corn starch is starch extracted from endosperm of the corn kernel.\n* Glutinous rice flour or sticky rice flour is used in east and southeast Asian cuisines for making tangyuan, etc.\n* Hemp flour is produced by pressing the oil from the hemp seed and milling the residue. Hemp seed is approximately 30 percent oil and 70 percent residue. Hemp flour does not rise, and is best mixed with other flours. Added to any flour by about 15-20 percent, it gives a spongy nutty texture and flavor with a green hue.\n* Mesquite flour is made from the dried and ground pods of the mesquite tree, which grows throughout North America in arid climates. The flour has a sweet, slightly nutty flavor and can be used in a wide variety of applications.\n* Nut flours are grated from oily nuts\u2014most commonly almonds and hazelnuts\u2014and are used instead of or in addition to wheat flour to produce more dry and flavorful pastries and cakes. Cakes made with nut flours are usually called tortes and most originated in Central Europe, in countries such as Hungary and Austria.\n* Peasemeal or pea flour is a flour produced from roasted and pulverized yellow field peas.\n* Peanut flour made from shelled cooked peanuts is a high-protein alternative to regular flour.\n* Potato starch flour is obtained by grinding the tubers to a pulp and removing the fibre and protein by water-washing. Potato starch (flour) is very white starch powder used as a thickening agent. Standard (native) potato starch needs boiling, to thicken in water, giving a transparent gel. Because the flour is made from neither grains nor legumes, it is used as a substitute for wheat flour in cooking by Jews during Passover, when grains are not eaten.\n* Potato flour, often confused with potato starch, is a peeled, cooked potato powder of mashed, mostly drum-dried and ground potato flakes using the whole potato and thus containing the protein and some of the fibres of the potato. It has an off-white slight yellowish color. These dehydrated, dried, potatoes, also called instant mashed potatoes can also be granules or flakes. Potato flour is cold-water-soluble; however, it is not used often as it tends to be heavy.\n* Rice flour is ground kernels of rice. It is widely used in Western countries especially for people who suffer from gluten-related disorders. Brown rice flour has higher nutritional value than white rice flour.\n* Sorghum flour is made from grinding whole grains of the sorghum plant. It is called \"jowar\" in India.\n* Tapioca flour, produced from the root of the cassava plant, is used to make breads, pancakes, tapioca pudding, a savoury porridge called fufu in Africa, and is used as a starch.\n* Teff flour is made from the grain teff, and is of considerable importance in eastern Africa (particularly around the horn of Africa). Notably, it is the chief ingredient in the bread injera, an important component of Ethiopian cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Manitoba flour",
        "text": "The main characteristic of this flour is that it contains a large quantity of insoluble proteins (glutenin and gliadin), which, in contact with a liquid during the kneading phase, produce gluten. It is therefore a flour rich in gluten and poor in starch. Gluten forms a tenacious net, which in leavened doughs retains the gases of leavening, allowing the product to develop considerably during baking; in the case of pasta, on the other hand, it retains the starches, which would make the dough sticky and allow it to be cooked \"al dente\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Flour contains a high proportion of starches, which are a subset of complex carbohydrates also known as polysaccharides. The kinds of flour used in cooking include all-purpose flour (known as plain outside North America), self-rising flour, and cake flour including bleached flour. The higher the protein content the harder and stronger the flour, and the more it will produce crusty or chewy breads. The lower the protein the softer the flour, which is better for cakes, cookies, and pie crusts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wheat flour",
        "text": "Wheat flour is a powder made from the grinding of wheat used for human consumption. Wheat varieties are called \"soft\" or \"weak\" if gluten content is low, and are called \"hard\" or \"strong\" if they have high gluten content. Hard flour, or \"bread flour\", is high in gluten, with 12% to 14% gluten content, and its dough has elastic toughness that holds its shape well once baked. Soft flour is comparatively low in gluten and thus results in a loaf with a finer, crumbly texture. Soft flour is usually divided into cake flour, which is the lowest in gluten, and pastry flour, which has slightly more gluten than cake flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coppia ferrarese",
        "text": "of \"0\" type soft wheat flour, of water, of pure pork lard, of extra virgin olive oil, of \"mother\" natural yeast, salt and malt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Psoralea esculenta",
        "text": "Prairie turnip flour is often used as a \"secret ingredient\" in modern Indian frybread recipes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sora language",
        "text": "b\u0258'nra'j --b\u0258n flour"
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u00e2nta\u0219",
        "text": "Based on the color the flour becomes from the length of frying there will be distinguished between white-, light-, blond- and brown r\u00e1nt\u00e1s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graham flour",
        "text": "Graham flour is a type of coarse-ground flour of whole wheat named after Sylvester Graham. It is similar to conventional whole-wheat flour in that both are made from the whole grain, but graham flour is ground more coarsely. It is not sifted (\"Bolted\") with a flour dresser after milling. A report from 1913 claimed that bread made from graham flour had a protein content of 12.1% \u2013 only slightly less than white wheat flour and essentially the same as whole wheat flour. Other sources dispute this, and claim that whole wheat and Graham flours contain more protein than white flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour corn",
        "text": "Flour corn\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tapalapa bread",
        "text": "The main ingredient is flour and yeast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Flour (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Eleusine coracana",
        "text": "The finger millet or ragi is malted and its grain is ground into flour. The flour is consumed with milk, boiled water, or yogurt. The flour is made into flatbreads, including thin, leavened dosa and thicker, unleavened roti."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sheikhan",
        "text": "or salt is an essential part of flour prepared for bread. \"Paratha\" is a kind of bread whose flour is prepared with oil or \"Desi gheu\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pikit",
        "text": "A major producer of corn with area planted of 5,074 hectares and production of 13,310 tons per year. The municipality is also a major producer of coconut and freshwater fish. Coconut meat or copra is made from mature coconut nuts. It is done by splitting the nut and drying the coconut meat by solar drying or by the use of dryers. Upon reaching a moisture content of about 14 to 16%, it is packed in PE sacks of 50 to 60\u00a0kg in weight. Copra is the major raw material used in production of refined edible cooking oil and other coconut based products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bhatura",
        "text": "A typical recipe includes all-purpose flour (\"maida\"), dahi (yogurt), \"ghee\" or oil, and either yeast or baking powder. Once kneaded well, the dough is left to rise, and then small balls of this dough are either hand-rolled or flattened using a rolling pin. The bread pieces are then deep fried until they puff up into a lightly browned, soft, fluffy bread, which is elastic and chewy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour kurabiye",
        "text": "Flour kurabiye\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Canestru",
        "text": "Its main ingredients are wheat flour, yeast, salt, eggs, shortening (\"sdruttu\"), white wine, pastis or anise seeds. The dough should rest two hours at room temperature before being kneaded. Then it should rise thirty to forty five minutes before being baked golden brown and baked again in a warm oven (150\u00b0 to 220\u00b0)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wheat flour",
        "text": "Wheat flour is available in many varieties; the categorization is regional, and the same name may have several different regional meanings.\n*Whole wheat flour in Canada may have up to 5% of the grain removed; most of the germ is often removed to prevent the flour from going rancid.\n*Whole grain flour contains the whole grain, including bran, germ and endosperm, but not the chaff\n*Sharp flour is produced in Fiji and primarily used in Indian cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana flour",
        "text": "Resistant starch"
      },
      {
        "title": "Uraro",
        "text": "Modern \"urar\u00f3\", however, are usually made from arrowroot flour, sugar, milk, margarine (or butter), and eggs. In some cases, arrowroot flour is even substituted with tapioca flour or rice flour, resulting in poorer quality cookies. \"Urar\u00f3\" can also be modified with other ingredients like coconut cream or maple syrup. Both of these versions usually lack the melt-in-the-mouth quality of traditional \"urar\u00f3\" made with pure arrowroot flour and lard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rice flour",
        "text": "Rice flour can be made from indica, japonica, and wild rice varieties. Usually, rice flour (, , , , , , , , , ) refers to flour made from non-glutinous white rice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "In some markets, the different available flour varieties are labeled according to the ash mass that remains after a sample is incinerated in a laboratory oven (typically at or , see international standards ISO 2171 and ICC 104/1). This is an easily verified indicator for the fraction of the whole grain remains in the flour, because the mineral content of the starchy endosperm is much lower than that of the outer parts of the grain. Flour made from all parts of the grain (extraction rate: 100%) leaves about ash or more per dry flour. Plain white flour with an extraction rate of 50\u201360% leaves about .\n* German flour type numbers () indicate the amount of ash (measured in milligrams) obtained from 100 g of the dry mass of this flour. Standard wheat flours (defined in DIN 10355) range from type 405 for normal white wheat flour for baking, to strong bread flour types 550, 812, and the darker types 1050 and 1600 for wholegrain breads.\n* French flour type numbers () are a factor of 10 smaller than those used in Germany, because they indicate the ash content (in milligrams) per 10 g flour. Type 55 is the standard, hard-wheat white flour for baking, including puff pastries (). Type 45 is often called pastry flour, and is generally from a softer wheat (this corresponds to what older French texts call ). Some recipes use type 45 for croissants, for instance, although many French bakers use type 55 or a combination of types 45 and 55. Types 65, 80, and 110 are strong bread flours of increasing darkness, and type 150 is a wholemeal flour.\n* Czech flour types describes roughness of milling instead of amount of ash, though sometimes a numbering system is used, it is not a rule. Czechs determine following four basic types of mill: extra soft wheat flour (, 00), soft wheat flour (, T650), fine wheat flour (), rough wheat flour () and farina wheat flour ()\n* Argentine flour uses roughness of milling as well, being 0, 00, 000 and 0000, where the number of zeroes indicates its refinement.\n* Polish flour type numbers, as is the case in Germany, indicate the amount of ash in 100 g of the dry mass of the flour. Standard wheat flours (defined by the PKN in PN-A-74022:2003) range from type 450 to 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana flour",
        "text": "Banana flour has been imported or produced by American and Australian firms, International Agriculture Group, and Natural Evolution. These flours are marketed as a gluten-free alternative to wheat-based flours for those suffering from celiac disease and those who choose a gluten-free diet. They are also marketed for clean-label texturizers and as a natural source of resistant starch. Because of the high starch content, banana flour has excellent cooking/baking characteristics that allow it to replace wheat and other flours. However, even in cooked products like pasta, the addition of banana flour increased total resistant starch content in appreciable amounts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trinidad and Tobago cuisine",
        "text": "Coconut bake (coconut bread) is usually served with fried accra (saltfish fritters), buljol, black pudding, butter, cheese paste (a mixture of cheese, butter, mustard, grated onion, mayonnaise and green seasoning) or stewed meat, like chicken."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rice flour",
        "text": "Rice flour may be made from either white rice or brown rice. To make the flour, the husk of rice or paddy is removed and raw rice is obtained, which is then ground to flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Wheat flour, in addition to its starch, contains three water-soluble protein groups (albumin, globulin, and proteoses) and two water-insoluble protein groups (glutenin and gliadin). When flour is mixed with water, the water-soluble proteins dissolve, leaving the glutenin and gliadin to form the structure of the resulting bread. When relatively dry dough is worked by kneading, or wet dough is allowed to rise for a long time (see no-knead bread), the glutenin forms strands of long, thin, chainlike molecules, while the shorter gliadin forms bridges between the strands of glutenin. The resulting networks of strands produced by these two proteins are known as gluten. Gluten development improves if the dough is allowed to autolyse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coconut",
        "text": "Copra is the dried meat of the seed and after processing produces coconut oil and coconut meal. Coconut oil, aside from being used in cooking as an ingredient and for frying, is used in soaps, cosmetics, hair oil, and massage oil. Coconut oil is also a main ingredient in Ayurvedic oils. In Vanuatu, coconut palms for copra production are generally spaced apart, allowing a tree density of ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rice flour",
        "text": "Rice flour (also rice powder) is a form of flour made from finely milled rice. It is distinct from rice starch, which is usually produced by steeping rice in lye. Rice flour is a common substitute for wheat flour. It is also used as a thickening agent in recipes that are refrigerated or frozen since it inhibits liquid separation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gram flour",
        "text": "Gram flour contains a high proportion of carbohydrates, higher fiber relative to other flours, no gluten, and a higher proportion of protein than other flours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Common preservatives in commercial flour include:\n*Calcium propanoate\n*Sodium benzoate\n*Tricalcium phosphate\n*Butylated hydroxyanisole"
      },
      {
        "title": "Guyuria",
        "text": "Some recipes include butter in the dough mixture. This results in a slightly softer cookie. Other guyuria dough recipes include sugar, baking powder, and eggs. Guyuria recipes with baking powder and eggs, however, lead to cookies that are too inflated and soft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wheat flour",
        "text": "Wheat flour\n--Milling.\n--Types.\n----Indian wheat flours.\n----United States.\n--Baking characteristics.\n----W index.\n----Zeleny sedimentation value.\n--National Flour.\n----United Kingdom.\n----Kenya.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mjukkaka",
        "text": "In some recipes rye flour is mixed with wheat or includes just wheat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Flour is a common food ingredient made from wheat, rice, or other starchy sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Professional bread recipes are stated using the baker's percentage notation. The amount of flour is denoted to be 100%, and the other ingredients are expressed as a percentage of that amount by weight. Measurement by weight is more accurate and consistent than measurement by volume, particularly for dry ingredients. The proportion of water to flour is the most important measurement in a bread recipe, as it affects texture and crumb the most. Hard wheat flours absorb about 62% water, while softer wheat flours absorb about 56%. Common table breads made from these doughs result in a finely textured, light bread. Most artisan bread formulas contain anywhere from 60 to 75% water. In yeast breads, the higher water percentages result in more CO2 bubbles and a coarser bread crumb. 500 grams (1 pound) of flour yields a standard loaf of bread or two baguettes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uchu Jacu",
        "text": "Uchu Jacu (or Uchujacu; Quichua for hot flour) is a traditional flour produced from six different grains, originating from the Cayambe region in the northern part of the Ecuadorian province of Pichincha. After the recipe had almost been forgotten during some time, the flour is being produced again today in the mills of the organization UNOPAC. Though the flour is relatively little known, it is still very popular with the members of the various indigenous communities in the area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coconut",
        "text": "Grated coconut that is dehydrated by drying or baking is known as \"desiccated coconut.\" It contains less than 3% of the original moisture content of coconut meat. It is predominantly used in the bakery and confectionary industries (especially in non-coconut-producing countries) because of its longer shelf life compared to freshly grated coconut. Desiccated coconut are used in confections and desserts such as macaroons. Dried coconut is also used as the filling for many chocolate bars. Some dried coconut is purely coconut, but others are manufactured with other ingredients, such as sugar, propylene glycol, salt, and sodium metabisulfite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Some More of Samoa",
        "text": "There are several continuity errors in \"Some More of Samoa\". When Curly runs into the king\u2019s hut he is still covered with the flour sifted on him from when a cook is preparing the Stooges for dinner, but when he goes into the hut and tangles with the idol, the flour is gone. After he grabs the tree and runs off, the flour is back on. In addition, when Curly puts his head in the bag to answer the telephone, he starts whining before Moe actually closes the bag on his neck."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Milling Company of Guyana",
        "text": "The resultant flour material is then transported through a reduction system in which finer particulates are sorted and collected, the coarser particles being reintroduced for further treatment and size reduction. In the final milling process, the flour is treated with a substance that oxidises carotene in the material, thus whitening it. In addition, the treatment process fortifies the flour product with vitamins B1, B2, C, Iron and Niacin and serves as a means of bolstering poor rates of public nutrition. This has been done in response to the phenomena of high rates of iron-deficiency anaemia prevalent in predominately rural and developing economies such as Guyana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coconut doughnut",
        "text": "The coconut doughnut (or coconut donut) is a variety of doughnut in the United States and Canada that is usually covered or topped with shredded or flaked coconut topping. It is often toasted or broiled, and there are variations made with chocolate and, in a 1959 recipe, orange juice in the dough and icing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wheat flour",
        "text": "American flours are categorized by gluten/protein content, processing, and use.\n*All-purpose or plain flour is a blended wheat with a protein content lower than bread flour, ranging between 9% and 12%. Depending on brand or the region where it is purchased, it may be composed of all hard or soft wheats, but is usually a blend of the two, and can range from low protein content to moderately high. It is marketed as an inexpensive alternative to bakers' flour which is acceptable for most household baking needs.\n*Bread flour or strong flour is always made from hard wheat, usually hard spring wheat. It has a very high protein content, between 10% and 13%, making it excellent for yeast bread baking. It can be white or whole wheat or in between.\n*Cake flour is a finely milled white flour made from soft wheat. It has very low protein content, between 8% and 10%, making it suitable for soft-textured cakes and cookies. The higher protein content of other flours would make the cakes tough. Related to cake flour are masa harina (from maize), maida flour (from wheat or tapioca), and pure starches.\n*Durum flour is made from Durum wheat and is suited for pasta making, traditional pizza and flatbread for doner kebab.\n*Graham flour is a special type of whole wheat flour. The endosperm is finely ground, as in white flour, while the bran and germ are coarsely ground. Graham flour is uncommon outside of the United States (but see atta flour, a similar product, below). Graham flour is the basis of true graham crackers.\n*Instant flour is pregelatinized (precooked) for easier incorporation in gravies and sauces.\n*Pastry flour or cookie flour or cracker flour has slightly higher protein content than cake flour but lower than all-purpose flour. Its protein content ranges between 9% and 10%. It is available as a white flour, a whole-wheat flour, or a white flour with the germ retained but not the bran. It is suitable for pie pastry and tarts, some cookies, muffins, biscuits and other quick breads. Flour is shaken through a sieve to reduce the amount of lumps for cooking pastry.\n*Whole-wheat flour contains the wheat germ, endosperm and bran\n*White flour or refined flour contains only the endosperm\n* Whole-wheat white flour is white flour that contains the endososperm, bran, and germ\n*Enriched flour is white flour with nutrients added to compensate for the removal of the bran and germ\n*Bleached flour is a white flour treated with flour bleaching agents to whiten it (freshly milled flour is yellowish) and give it more gluten-producing potential. Oxidizing agents are usually employed, most commonly organic peroxides like acetone peroxide or benzoyl peroxide, nitrogen dioxide, or chlorine. A similar effect can be achieved by letting the flour oxidize with oxygen in the air (\"natural aging\") for approximately 10 days; however, this process is more expensive due to the time required. Flour bleached with benzoyl peroxide has been prohibited in the UK since 1997.\n*Bromated flour has a maturing agent added. The agent's role is to help with developing gluten, a role similar to the flour bleaching agents. Bromate is usually used. Other choices are phosphates, ascorbic acid, and malted barley. Bromated flour has been banned in much of the world, as bromate is classified as possibly carcinogenic in humans (Group 2B) by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), but remains available in the United States.\n*Self-rising or self-raising flour is white flour that is sold premixed with chemical leavening agents. It was invented by Henry Jones. Self-rising flour is typically composed of the following ratio:\n**1 cup (100\u00a0g) flour\n**\u00a0teaspoons (3\u00a0g) baking powder\n**a pinch to \u00a0teaspoon (1\u00a0g or less) salt\n*Spelt flour is produced from the type of wheat called spelt. It is less commonly used in modern cooking than other wheat varieties. It is still used for specialty baking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hard dough bread",
        "text": "Hard dough bread, also called hardo bread, is a Caribbean cuisine bread similar to the Pullman loaf or pain de mie, although hard dough bread tends to be sweeter. The dough consists of flour, water, yeast, salt and sugar. Additional ingredients such as treacle, molasses, and vegetable shortening can be used. It typically has a dense consistency and is typically brushed with sugared water before baking. It is a staple food in Jamaican households."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana flour",
        "text": "Gluten-free alternative"
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Flour may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bisciola",
        "text": "The bread requires a natural sourdough to prepare. The flour used is any of rye flour, type 00 wheat flour, or whole-wheat flour. Artisanal versions are made using buckwheat flour. The dough is additionally composed of butter, milk, sugar, and yeast. Ingredients added to the dough mixture include dried figs, honey, raisins, and walnuts. Some versions may substitute one or more of those ingredients with hazelnuts, pine nuts., almonds, or dried apricots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wheat flour",
        "text": "Indian flours are generally categorized by how much of the grain is stripped away.\n* Wheat powder/flour \u2013 'whole grain' (mixture of germ, endosperm and bran)\n* Atta flour \u2013 mixture of endosperm and bran\n* Maida flour \u2013 endosperm, bleached; a very white flour, similar to the American bleached flour\n* Sooji/rava \u2013 coarse-ground endosperm.\n*Tang flour or wheat starch is a type of wheat flour used primarily in Chinese cuisine for making the outer layer of dumplings and buns. It is also used in Vietnamese cuisine, where it is called \"b\u1ed9t l\u1ecdc trong\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hee pan",
        "text": "The modern-day hee pan is made from flour, glutinous rice flour, pandan leaves, hot water, sugar, instant yeast, red yeast rice powder, corn oil, and banana leaves. The dough is made from glutinous rice flour and flour instead of rice milk because it requires prior preparation. Banana leaves are coated with oil to make the hee pan more fragrant than the traditional recipe, and the red yeast rice powder gives the hee pan its coloring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rice flour",
        "text": "When made with brown rice with only the inedible outer hull removed, it is called brown rice flour (, ). Flour made from black, red, and green rice are each called as black rice flour (), red rice flour (), green rice flour (). In comparison to brown rice flour, white rice flour (, ) can be specified as so."
      },
      {
        "title": "Papadam",
        "text": "Salt and peanut oil are added to make a dough, which can be flavored with seasonings such as chili, cumin, garlic, or black pepper. Sometimes, baking soda or slaked lime or also added. The dough is shaped into a thin, round flatbreads, dried, (traditionally in the sun), and can be cooked by deep frying, roasting over an open flame, toasting, or microwaving, depending on the desired texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Achira (biscuit)",
        "text": "Huila is the biggest producer of achira flour cake in the world; The Achira Biscuits still preserves its traditional recipe and its inevitable cooking in the clay oven. Achira flour, the main ingredient in this preparation, is subtracted from the achira plant, whose origin is South American and has been used by the Chibchas for their food.\n* 1 pound of Achira flour\n* 2 egg yolks\n* 1 pound butter, melted\n* 2 pounds of fresh curd\n# Mix the Achira flour with the well-ground cheese, regular sugar and salt.\n# Form a crown and add the margarine, eggs, part of the milk and colour.\n# Begin to soak until you get a smooth paste. Blend well and let it rest a little.\n# Form bars of the desired thickness and cut the unit, the biscuits are made about five cm long and one and a half cm wide working with your hands.\n# Place it on a greased tray in the oven preheated to 400 \u00b0 for 10 minutes.\n* External appearance: Oval shape, with variable dimensions, between 3 and 8 centimetres long and a diameter between 1 and 2 centimetres.\n* Surface: Sandy.\n* Colour: Golden yellow, without artificial colouring.\n* Aroma: With a mild dairy aroma\n* Texture: Crunchy (light toasted), gritty and melts gently on the palate.\n* Weight: It ranges between 2.6 a. 8 grams according to the portion of dough put on the tray\n* Internal appearance: Sandy compact, if possible without voids between its walls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Priday, Metford and Company Limited",
        "text": "The flour, produced in various grades, used to have names such as Leathertie, Bluetie, Extras, Whites and Imperials. A brown flour is still made under the long-standing name of Hercules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gram flour",
        "text": "Gram flour or besan is a pulse flour made from a type of ground chickpea called the gram chickpea. It is a staple ingredient in the cuisine of the Indian subcontinent, including in Indian, Bangladeshi, Burmese, Nepali, Pakistani, Sri Lankan and Caribbean cuisines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana flour",
        "text": "Historical use"
      },
      {
        "title": "Soy protein",
        "text": "Soy flour is made by grinding soybeans into a fine powder. It comes in three forms: whole or full-fat (contains natural oils); defatted (oils removed) with 50% protein content and with either high water solubility or low water solubility; and lecithinated (lecithin added). A history of soy flour and grits has been published. As soy flour is gluten-free, yeast-raised breads made with soy flour are dense in texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana flour",
        "text": "Banana flour is generally produced with green bananas that are peeled, chopped, dried, and then ground. This process can be completed traditionally by hand, where the bananas are sun dried, dried in an oven, or a residential food dryer, and then either ground in a mortar and pestle or with a mechanical grinder. The green banana process requires 8\u201310\u00a0kg of raw green bananas to produce 1\u00a0kg of banana flour. In recent years, large scale commercial production has begun in Africa and South America using the same basic methodology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coca flour",
        "text": "Coca flour is made from whole ground dried coca leaves harvested from the coca plant, \"Erythroxylum coca\" or \"Erythroxylum novogranatense\". Coca flour is commercially produced and sold in stores in Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia and Peru."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Hard is a general term for flours with high gluten protein content, commonly refers to extra strong flour, with 13.5-16% (or 14-15% from some sources) protein (16% is a theoretically possible protein content). This flour may be used where a recipe adds ingredients that require the dough to be extra strong to hold together in their presence, or when strength is needed for constructions of bread (e.g., some centerpiece displays)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quisp",
        "text": "Main ingredients: Corn flour, sugar, oat flour, brown sugar, coconut oil, salt. Vitamins and other additives: niacinamide, reduced iron, zinc oxide, yellow 5, yellow 6, thiamin mononitrate, pyridoxine hydrochloride, BHT, riboflavin, folic acid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coca flour",
        "text": "Coca flour\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Manjar branco",
        "text": "In order to improve the texture and taste, unsweetened shredded coconut may be added to the mix."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harina P.A.N.",
        "text": "The traditional preparation of arepa flour is very labor-intensive, requiring the pounding of maize in a large mortar. The precooked arepa flour was invented in the 1950s by Dr. Luis Caballero Mej\u00edas, a Venezuelan engineer who used the profits from his patent to finance a Technical Schools system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Gluten-free breads are made using flours from a variety of ingredients such as almonds, rice, sorghum, corn, legumes such as beans, and tubers such as cassava. Since these foods lack gluten, dough made from them may not hold its shape as the loaves rise, and their crumb may be dense with little aeration. Additives such as xanthan gum, guar gum, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), corn starch, or eggs are used to compensate for the lack of gluten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coconut oil",
        "text": "Dry processing requires that the meat be extracted from the shell and dried using fire, sunlight, or kilns to create copra. The copra is pressed or dissolved with solvents, producing the coconut oil and a high-protein, high-fiber mash. The mash is of poor quality for human consumption and is instead fed to ruminants; there is no process to extract protein from the mash."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana flour",
        "text": "Chile has been developing an alternative method of banana flour production using ripe banana waste. Chilean researchers have developed a process that uses over-ripe banana peels to add dietary fiber to the ripe banana fruit, which does not have the resistant starch properties of green bananas. Banana powder is made from dried and ground fully ripened banana puree and thus does not have the fiber of banana peel flour content nor the resistant starch of green banana flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Milling Company of Guyana",
        "text": "Custom made flour produced with the specifications of individual businesses\n* Speciality\u2122 Supreme Flour\n* Speciality\u2122 KFC Breading Flour\n* Speciality\u2122 Pizza Flour"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mohn kichel",
        "text": "A vegan, gluten free variation of mohn kichel exists containing no eggs, which brown rice and tapioca flour substituting the wheat flour and coconut oil being used instead of cooking oil or butter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Obwarzanek krakowski",
        "text": "The dough for \" is made from wheat flour, up to 30 percent of which may be replaced with rye flour. Other ingredients, per of flour, include:\n* of fat,\n* of sugar,\n* of yeast,\n* of salt,\n* of water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Puran poli",
        "text": "The method of preparation varies from place to place. There are many varieties of Obbattu including peanut, sugar, coconut, sesame and groundnut flavours. Sometimes grated coconut is added in Konkan, Maharashtra. Coconut palm jaggery may be used. Similarly, a mix of sugar and jaggery can be used as a sweetening agent. Normally nutmeg is used as a flavouring along the coast which is replaced by cardamom or sometimes both elsewhere. Methods of rolling the stuffed dough also differ. It can be rolled using rice flour which makes the rolling very convenient. In some recipes flour is not used at all; oil or ghee is used to roll it into a flatbread instead. The rolled bread can be roasted with or without any ghee or oil, which sometimes is smeared after its completely cooked. In some places, all-purpose flour dough is used after adding a pinch of turmeric which gives it a traditional yellow color. The dish is produced using a sweet filling inside flour dough. This is then rolled out and cooked on a hot griddle, usually with ghee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maldivians",
        "text": "Made of Patna Rice flour, coconut (grated), Rihaakuru, Rihaakuru Bondi (blended), eggs, onion (sliced thinly), curry leaves (chopped), cherry pepper, juice of two limes, ginger, salt to season and oil by crushing the onion, curry leaves, cherry pepper, ginger with salt. Added and mixed the rice flour and coconut to make sandy texture. Formed a bay in the center of the rice mixture and add in the eggs and Rihaakuru and Rihaakuru Bondi. Mixed/kneaded the dough and divided the dough into 15\u00a0gram balls. Spread each ball to about \u00bc inch thickness. Cut using a round cutter of 3 \u2013 inch diameter and pre-heated oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monoi oil",
        "text": "Placed into special natural fiber bags, the coconut fragments are shipped to the unique oil mill located on the island of Tahiti where they will be thrown into special machines and ground to a fine coco flour. The flour is then heated up to 125 degrees and finally pressed into raw coconut oil. After that step, the oil will undergo more refining to remove all impurities and obtain the highest possible quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pancake",
        "text": "(), () or () are cassava (manioc) starch flour unleavened pancakes. They are slightly thicker than cr\u00eapes and can be eaten plain or with sweet or savoury toppings. Tapioca flour must be moistened and strained through a sieve to become a coarse flour. The heat of an ungreased hot griddle or pan makes the starchy grains fuse into a flatbread which resembles a grainy pancake. Popular toppings include molten butter and dried, shredded coconut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soybean",
        "text": "Soy flour can also be made by roasting the soybean, removing the coat (hull), and grinding into a flour. Soy flour is manufactured with different fat levels. Alternatively, raw soy flour omits the roasting step.\n* Defatted soy flour is obtained from solvent extracted flakes, and contains less than 1% oil.\n* \"Natural or full-fat soy flour is made from unextracted, dehulled beans, and contains about 18% to 20% oil.\" Its high oil content requires the use of a specialized Alpine Fine Impact Mill to grind rather than the usual hammer mill. Full-fat soy flour has a lower protein concentration than defatted flour. Extruded Full-Fat soy flour, ground in an Alpine mill, can replace/extend EGGS in baking and cooking Full-fat soy flour is a component of the famous Cornell bread recipe (think pizza)\n* Low-fat soy flour is made by adding some oil back into defatted soy flour. Fat levels range from 4.5% to 9%.\n* High-fat soy flour can also be produced by adding back soybean oil to defatted flour, usually at the level of 15%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wheat flour",
        "text": "National Flour was also a term for a flour introduced in Kenya by the colonial government which contained 70% wheat flour and 30% maize flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mesquite flour",
        "text": "Mesquite flour is made from the dried and ground pods of the mesquite (some \"Prosopis\" spp.), a tree that grows throughout Mexico and the southwestern US in arid and drought-prone climates. The flour made from the long, beige-colored seedpods has a sweet, slightly nutty flavor and can be used in a wide variety of applications. It has a high-protein, low-glycemic content and can serve as a gluten-free replacement for flours that contain gluten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rice flour",
        "text": "In South India, rice flour is used for dishes like dosa, puttu, golibaje (mangalore bajji) and kori rotti. It is also mixed with wheat, millet, other cereal flours, and sometimes dried fruits or vegetables to make manni, a kind of baby food.. Rice flour is used to make bhakari in the Konkan region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamantash",
        "text": "Sweet hamantashen are typically made with a dough containing butter or, less-commonly a pareve dough containing oil. Depending on the ingredients used in the dough, the consistency of the finished baking powder hamantash can range from dry and crumbly like shortbread, to soft and cakey like a black and white cookie, to firm and crisp like a butter cookie. The dough is generally prepared with flour, eggs, sugar, butter (or margarine or cooking oil), and a flavoring such as vanilla (or sometimes cocoa, grated lemon rind, rose water, or orange blossom water may be used); sometimes milk is used in the dough, and usually a leavener such as baking powder or baking soda is added as well. The dough is then mixed gently so as to incorporate all the ingredients together without making the dough tough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barley flour",
        "text": "Additionally, patent barley flour is a finer barley flour that is ground to a greater degree compared to fine barley flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cricket flour",
        "text": "Cricket flour can be utilized as a complete replacement for flour. The taste is described as very nutty, and foods normally prepared with wheat flour may cook differently."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gram flour",
        "text": "In the form of a paste with water or dahi (yogurt), it is also popular as a facial exfoliant in the Indian Subcontinent. When mixed with an equal volume of water, it can be used as an egg replacement in vegan cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Milling Company of Guyana",
        "text": "Blended Wheat Flour designed for residential and commercial use\n* Thunderbolt\u00ae\u2122 All Purpose Flour\n* Thunderbolt\u00ae\u2122 Bakers Flour 45\u00a0kg\n* Thunderbolt\u00ae\u2122 High Gluten 45\u00a0kg"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chataamari",
        "text": "The rice flour is mixed with water (a little bit thinner than cake paste). The lentil paste is mixed with rice flour if you are looking for different flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Manitoba flour",
        "text": "It is called a \"strong\" flour to distinguish it from other, weaker flours. The flour strength is indicated by the value of the coefficient W measured with a Chopin alveograph: the higher the value, the stronger the flour. A weak flour has a W value lower than 170, while the manitoba has a W value higher than 350."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wheat flour",
        "text": "In terms of the parts of the grain (the grass fruit) used in flour\u2014the endosperm or protein/starchy part, the germ or protein/fat/vitamin-rich part, and the bran or fiber part\u2014there are three general types of flour. White flour is made from the endosperm only. Brown flour includes some of the grain's germ and bran, while whole grain or \"wholemeal flour\" is made from the entire grain, including the bran, endosperm, and germ. Germ flour is made from the endosperm and germ, excluding the bran."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the main ingredient in making bread?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The main ingredient in making bread is flour, which has different kinds such as cereal flour, wheat flour, corn flour and rye flour."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How does the different kinds of flour change the bread?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are many differences: Rye bread is typically more dense than bread made from wheat flour, and is higher in fiber and causes slower increases in blood sugar than white bread, while pastry flour produces more flaky crusts, and coconut flour has the highest fiber content of any flour, and few carbohydrates. Is there any particular kind of flour you would like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me more about coconut flour?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Coconut flour is made from ground coconut meat and has the highest fiber content of any flour, with a very low concentration of digestible carbohydrates, and has a high fat content of about 60 percent."
    ],
    "topic": "Flour",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Flour:33",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Flour",
          "Types",
          "Gluten-free flours"
        ],
        "ctx": "When flours do not contain gluten, they are suitable for people with gluten-related disorders, such as coeliac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity or wheat allergy sufferers, among others. Contamination with gluten-containing cereals can occur during grain harvesting, transporting, milling, storing, processing, handling and/or cooking.\n* Acorn flour is made from ground acorns and can be used as a substitute for wheat flour. It was used by Native Americans. Koreans also use acorn flour to make dotorimuk.\n* Almond flour is made from ground almonds.\n* Amaranth flour is a flour produced from ground amaranth grain. It was commonly used in pre-Columbian meso-American cuisine and was originally cultivated by the Aztecs. It is becoming more and more available in speciality food shops.\n*Apple flour is made from milling apple pomace, the solid remains of juiced apples.\n* Banana flour has been traditionally made of green bananas for thousands of years and is currently popular both as a gluten-free replacement for wheat flour and as a source of resistant starch.\n* Bean flour is a flour produced from pulverized dried or ripe beans. Garbanzo and fava bean flour is a flour mixture with a high nutritional value and strong aftertaste.\n* Brown rice flour is of great importance in Southeast Asian cuisine. Edible rice paper can be made from it.\n* Buckwheat flour is used as an ingredient in many pancakes in the United States. In Japan, it is used to make a popular noodle called soba. In Russia, buckwheat flour is added to the batter for pancakes called \"blinis\" which are frequently eaten with caviar. Buckwheat flour is also used to make cr\u00eapes bretonnes in Brittany. On Hindu fasting days (\"Navaratri\" mainly, also \"Maha Shivaratri\"), people eat food made with buckwheat flour. The preparation varies across India. The most famous dishes are \"kuttu ki puri\" and \"kuttu pakora\". In most northern and western states the usual term is \"kuttu ka atta\".\n* Cassava flour is made from the root of the cassava plant. In a purified form (pure starch), it is called tapioca flour (see in list below).\n* Chestnut flour is popular in Corsica, the P\u00e9rigord, and Lunigiana for breads, cakes and pastas. It is the original ingredient for polenta, still used as such in Corsica and other Mediterranean locations. Chestnut bread keeps fresh for as long as two weeks. In other parts of Italy it is mainly used for desserts.\n* Chickpea flour (also known as gram flour or besan) is of great importance in Indian cuisine, and in Italy, where it is used for the Ligurian farinata.\n* Chu\u00f1o flour is made from dried potatoes in various countries of South America.\n* Coconut flour is made from ground coconut meat and has the highest fiber content of any flour, having a very low concentration of digestible carbohydrates and thus making an excellent choice for those looking to restrict their carbohydrate intake. It also has a high fat content of about 60 percent.\n*Coffee flour is flour usually made with either coffee cherries or coffee beans.\n* Corn (maize) flour is popular in the Southern and Southwestern US, Mexico, Central America, and Punjab regions of India and Pakistan, where it is called \"makai ka atta\". Coarse whole-grain corn flour is usually called cornmeal. Finely ground corn flour that has been treated with food-grade lime is called \"masa harina\" (see \"masa\") and is used to make \"tortillas\" and \"tamales\" in Mexican cooking. Corn flour should never be confused with corn starch, which is known as \"cornflour\" in British English.\n* Cornmeal is very similar to corn flour (see above) except in a coarser grind.\n* Corn starch is starch extracted from endosperm of the corn kernel.\n* Glutinous rice flour or sticky rice flour is used in east and southeast Asian cuisines for making tangyuan, etc.\n* Hemp flour is produced by pressing the oil from the hemp seed and milling the residue. Hemp seed is approximately 30 percent oil and 70 percent residue. Hemp flour does not rise, and is best mixed with other flours. Added to any flour by about 15-20 percent, it gives a spongy nutty texture and flavor with a green hue.\n* Mesquite flour is made from the dried and ground pods of the mesquite tree, which grows throughout North America in arid climates. The flour has a sweet, slightly nutty flavor and can be used in a wide variety of applications.\n* Nut flours are grated from oily nuts\u2014most commonly almonds and hazelnuts\u2014and are used instead of or in addition to wheat flour to produce more dry and flavorful pastries and cakes. Cakes made with nut flours are usually called tortes and most originated in Central Europe, in countries such as Hungary and Austria.\n* Peasemeal or pea flour is a flour produced from roasted and pulverized yellow field peas.\n* Peanut flour made from shelled cooked peanuts is a high-protein alternative to regular flour.\n* Potato starch flour is obtained by grinding the tubers to a pulp and removing the fibre and protein by water-washing. Potato starch (flour) is very white starch powder used as a thickening agent. Standard (native) potato starch needs boiling, to thicken in water, giving a transparent gel. Because the flour is made from neither grains nor legumes, it is used as a substitute for wheat flour in cooking by Jews during Passover, when grains are not eaten.\n* Potato flour, often confused with potato starch, is a peeled, cooked potato powder of mashed, mostly drum-dried and ground potato flakes using the whole potato and thus containing the protein and some of the fibres of the potato. It has an off-white slight yellowish color. These dehydrated, dried, potatoes, also called instant mashed potatoes can also be granules or flakes. Potato flour is cold-water-soluble; however, it is not used often as it tends to be heavy.\n* Rice flour is ground kernels of rice. It is widely used in Western countries especially for people who suffer from gluten-related disorders. Brown rice flour has higher nutritional value than white rice flour.\n* Sorghum flour is made from grinding whole grains of the sorghum plant. It is called \"jowar\" in India.\n* Tapioca flour, produced from the root of the cassava plant, is used to make breads, pancakes, tapioca pudding, a savoury porridge called fufu in Africa, and is used as a starch.\n* Teff flour is made from the grain teff, and is of considerable importance in eastern Africa (particularly around the horn of Africa). Notably, it is the chief ingredient in the bread injera, an important component of Ethiopian cuisine."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Coconut cake",
        "text": "Typically, the cakes used in coconut cake are either white or yellow cakes. While some recipes do not call for coconut flavor in the cake itself, there are others that replace the milk with coconut milk and/or use coconut extract. It is also common to brush the cakes with a simple syrup to make it more moist. Often the cake layers are filled with either a white frosting or coconut pastry cream. Traditionally, the cake is frosted with a 7-minute frosting, but cream cheese icings and buttercreams are not uncommon. Like the cakes, coconut flavor is not always a must in the frosting. One constant characteristic of coconut cake is the use of shredded coconut (often toasted and/or sweetened) to cover the frosting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lampet",
        "text": "This cake is usually shaped like a pyramid and wrapped in banana leaves. The cooking process is not complicated. It starts with rice flour and grated coconut that is not too old. These are mixed together. Following that, grated palm sugar and water is added, turning it into a dough. After flattening the dough it is wrapped in banana leaves and steamed until cooked. The process for making this cake is almost like making an ombusombus cake."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coconut",
        "text": "Coconut flour has also been developed for use in baking, to combat malnutrition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rempeyek",
        "text": "Coconut milk, salt, and spices such as ground candlenut and coriander are often mixed within the flour batter. Some recipes also add a chopped citrus leaf. The spiced batter, mixed or sprinkled with the granule ingredients, is deep fried in hot coconut oil. The flour batter acts as a binding agent for the granules (peanuts, anchovy, shrimp, etc.). It hardens upon frying and turns into a golden brown and crispy cracker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coconut cake",
        "text": "One popular variation of coconut cake is coconut poke cake. While traditional coconut cake is round and multi-layered, coconut poke cake is either a white or yellow cake that is rectangular and single-layered. What makes it a \"poke\" cake are the holes made into the cake to act as pores to absorb a coconut liquid mixture or cream of coconut, such as CoCo Lopez. Afterwards, the cake is frosted with a whipped topping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Traditional Candy and Coconut Wrap",
        "text": "Next, is the wraps. Add water to cake flour, stir it and pour it onto a hot pan, take it up in 10 seconds. Pour black sesame powder and put the coconut candy on the pancake. Wrap it into a roll, then the coconut candy wrap is done."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cake",
        "text": "Special cake flour with a high starch-to-gluten ratio is made from fine-textured, soft, low-protein wheat. It is strongly bleached and compared to all-purpose flour, cake flour tends to result in cakes with a lighter, less dense texture. Therefore, it is frequently specified or preferred in cakes meant to be soft, light, and/or bright white, such as angel food cake. However, if cake flour is called for, a substitute can be made by replacing a small percentage of all-purpose flour with cornstarch or removing two tablespoons from each cup of all-purpose flour. Some recipes explicitly specify or permit all-purpose flour, notably where a firmer or denser cake texture is desired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coconut cake",
        "text": "Coconut cake\n--Varieties.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kue rangi",
        "text": "This cake is made from a mixture of tapioca starch, which is called by Betawi people as sago flour, with grated coconut flesh, salt, mixed with water as a batter and poured upon a special metal mold and baked on a small stove. Compared to similarly shaped coconut kue pancong, kue rangi has a more drier texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kue putu",
        "text": "It consists of rice flour with green pandan leaf colouring, filled with ground palm sugar. This green coconut-rice flour ingredients with palm sugar filling is filled into bamboo tube container. Subsequently, the filled bamboo tubes are steamed upon a steam cooker with small holes opening to blow the hot steam. The cooked tubular cakes then pushed out from the bamboo tube container, and served with grated coconut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coconut cake",
        "text": "Coconut cake is a popular dessert in the Southern region of the United States. It is a cake frosted with a white frosting and covered in coconut flakes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flourless chocolate cake",
        "text": "A traditional baking method for a variety of flourless chocolate cakes involves whipping the whites alone and then whipping the yolks into the sugar to increase the air content. The overall effect of this process is a sturdy, but light cake. The chocolate and butter are melted together in either a microwave or double boiler. Once all the ingredients are combined, the resulting batter contains only the starch naturally present in the chocolate. The use of Dutch cocoa powder instead of simple cocoa powder will allow the cake to have a denser fudge-like consistency that the cake is known for. Flourless chocolate cakes typically use simple ingredients including: chocolate, butter, eggs, sugar, cocoa powder, vanilla, salt, and an optional dusting of powdered sugar, chocolate ganache, or berries. The Torta Caprese includes an additional ingredient of almond meal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coconut cake",
        "text": "Many Southerners also make non-traditional versions of coconut cake. One popular variation is to pair the coconut with other flavors, particularly by filling the cake with a lemon curd to add a tart flavor to a usually very sweet cake. Red velvet cake, another cake popular in the South, will sometimes have shredded coconut cover the cake."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kue pukis",
        "text": "The batter is made from the mixture of wheat flour, water, yeast, eggs, sugar, thick coconut milk, and salt; with vegetable oil, butter or margarine used to grease the cake mold to avoid it being stuck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gawai Dayak",
        "text": "Traditional cake delicacies are prepared from glutinous rice flour mixed with sugar. The cakes include \"sarang semut\" (ant nest cake), \"cuwan\" (molded cake) and \"kuih sepit\" (twisted cake). The cakes can last well whilst kept inside a jar because they are deep-fried until hardened. \"Penganan iri\" (a discus-shaped cake) are made just prior to the festival day because they do not keep well. This is because the cake is lifted from the hot frying oil while not fully hardened. The sugar used can be the brown nipah sugar or cane sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kleeb lamduan",
        "text": "The original recipe used only flour, sugar, and lard (now vegetable oil can be used instead) before mixing all ingredients and turning it into a dough. Flour was then laid under the sun to make flour fluffy. It is a process of how ancient people made desserts and avoided using baking powder or baking soda."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pancake",
        "text": "(), () or () are cassava (manioc) starch flour unleavened pancakes. They are slightly thicker than cr\u00eapes and can be eaten plain or with sweet or savoury toppings. Tapioca flour must be moistened and strained through a sieve to become a coarse flour. The heat of an ungreased hot griddle or pan makes the starchy grains fuse into a flatbread which resembles a grainy pancake. Popular toppings include molten butter and dried, shredded coconut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kue bugis",
        "text": "The cake is made of \"ketan\" (glutinous rice) flour as the skin, filled with grated coconut flesh sweetened with palm sugar. The skin is made of flattened dough made from the mixture of glutinous rice flour, wheat flour, mashed potatoes, \"santan\" (coconut milk), sugar and salt, and colored with \"suji\" or green colored pandan. The sweet filling is made of grated coconut, palm sugar, salt, and pandan leaf for aroma. Traditional kue bugis is wrapped in banana leaf, usually young banana leaf which is thin and green-yellowish in color, the contemporary version however might uses plastic wrapper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Flour contains a high proportion of starches, which are a subset of complex carbohydrates also known as polysaccharides. The kinds of flour used in cooking include all-purpose flour (known as plain outside North America), self-rising flour, and cake flour including bleached flour. The higher the protein content the harder and stronger the flour, and the more it will produce crusty or chewy breads. The lower the protein the softer the flour, which is better for cakes, cookies, and pie crusts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apam balik",
        "text": "The pancake's batter is made from a mixture of flour, eggs, sugar, baking soda, coconut milk and water. The batter is cooked upon a thick round iron frying pan in plenty of palm margarine to avoid it sticking to the pan. Then other ingredients are sprinkled as filling; the most common or traditional is crushed peanut granules with sugar and sweetcorn kernels (available from cans), but modern innovations such as chocolate sprinkles and cheddar cheese are also available. Then, the pancake is folded (hence the name: \"turnover pancake\") and cut into several pieces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copra",
        "text": "Once the oil is extracted, the remaining coconut cake is 18\u201325% protein but contains so much dietary fiber it cannot be eaten in large quantities by humans. Instead, it is normally fed to ruminants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Klappertaart",
        "text": "\"Klappertaart\" is Dutch for \"coconut cake\" or \"coconut tart\" and it's made from flour, sugar, milk, butter, and the flesh and juice of coconuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cookie",
        "text": "A general theory of cookies may be formulated this way. Despite its descent from cakes and other sweetened breads, the cookie in almost all its forms has abandoned water as a medium for cohesion. Water in cakes serves to make the base (in the case of cakes called \"batter\") as thin as possible, which allows the bubbles \u2013 responsible for a cake's fluffiness \u2013 to better form. In the cookie, the agent of cohesion has become some form of oil. Oils, whether they be in the form of butter, vegetable oils, or lard, are much more viscous than water and evaporate freely at a much higher temperature than water. Thus a cake made with butter or eggs instead of water is far denser after removal from the oven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trinidad and Tobago cuisine",
        "text": "Coconut bake (coconut bread) is usually served with fried accra (saltfish fritters), buljol, black pudding, butter, cheese paste (a mixture of cheese, butter, mustard, grated onion, mayonnaise and green seasoning) or stewed meat, like chicken."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carrot cake",
        "text": "Carrot cake is cake that contains carrots mixed into the batter. Most modern carrot cake recipes have a white cream cheese frosting. Sometimes nuts such as walnuts or pecans are added into the cake batter, as well as spices such as cinnamon, ginger and ground mixed spice. Fruit including pineapple, raisins and shredded coconut can also be used to add a natural sweetness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cake",
        "text": "The most commonly used cake ingredients include flour, sugar, eggs, butter or oil or margarine, a liquid, and a leavening agent, such as baking soda or baking powder. Common additional ingredients and flavourings include dried, candied, or fresh fruit, nuts, cocoa, and extracts such as vanilla, with numerous substitutions for the primary ingredients. Cakes can also be filled with fruit preserves, nuts or dessert sauces (like pastry cream), iced with buttercream or other icings, and decorated with marzipan, piped borders, or candied fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana cake",
        "text": "An icing or glaze may be used in the cake's preparation, which can include alcoholic beverages such as bourbon in it. Banana cake can be baked, and also prepared as a steamed cake, for which a food steamer may be used. Banana cake may have a moist texture. It can be prepared as a layer cake, and the cake batter can be used to prepare banana muffins and cupcakes. It can be prepared as a vegetarian dish and as a low-fat dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Htanthi mont",
        "text": "This snack is a steamed rice cake made of pulverised cooked rice or rice flour, coconut milk, baking soda, sugar, and the pulp of slightly fermented toddy palm and coconut fruits, and then garnished with coconut shavings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rice flour",
        "text": "In the Philippines, glutinous rice dough \"galap\u00f3ng\" is the basis for numerous types of native rice cakes and desserts (\"kakanin\"). Depending on the dish, coconut milk (\"gata\"), wood ash lye, and various other ingredients may be added to the \"galap\u00f3ng\". The \"galap\u00f3ng\" can be prepared baked, steamed, boiled, or fried, resulting in dishes like \"puto\" or \"bibingka\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cowhells cake",
        "text": "Original-flavor Cowhells cakes follow the traditional recipe and are made from glutinous rice flour, maltose syrup, dried orange peel, peanut oil and glucose syrup. Coconut-flavored cakes, made from glutinous rice flour, maltose syrup, peanut oil, white sugar and desiccated coconut, are popular with young people. Ginger candy is a popular snack among the Hakka people, and ginger-flavored Cowhells cakes are made from glutinous rice flour, maltose syrup, peanut oil, white sugar and ginger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bhatura",
        "text": "A typical recipe includes all-purpose flour (\"maida\"), dahi (yogurt), \"ghee\" or oil, and either yeast or baking powder. Once kneaded well, the dough is left to rise, and then small balls of this dough are either hand-rolled or flattened using a rolling pin. The bread pieces are then deep fried until they puff up into a lightly browned, soft, fluffy bread, which is elastic and chewy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cassava cake",
        "text": "Cassava cake is made from grated cassava mixed with \"gata\" (coconut milk), condensed milk, and egg whites. Some recipes also add butter (or margarine), vanilla, evaporated milk, and additional sugar. These are poured into a flat-bottomed pan lined with banana leaves or greased. It is baked until it has an even firm consistency and is a light brown color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Angel food cake",
        "text": "The flour plays an important role in the texture, structure, and elasticity of an angel food cake. Minimal folding of the flour allows cell walls to form when it comes in contact with the egg protein foam and sugar mixture. If the batter is over-mixed, the egg white proteins may coagulate causing the bubbles to break during baking, or the cell walls may become too rigid, lacking elasticity. This would reduce the volume and result in a coarse texture. However, if the batter is under-mixed, a weak foam will form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cassava cake",
        "text": "The topping is cooked separately. It is traditionally coconut-based custard, made with the egg yolks mixed with condensed milk, sugar, and \"kakang gata\" (coconut cream). It is poured on top of the cake and baked again for an additional few minutes until the top layer solidifies. The amount varies, with some versions having a very thin custard layer, while in other versions, the custard layer is as thick as the cake. Some modern versions also use milk-based custard toppings when coconut cream isn't available, or don't bake in a top layer at all."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chakuli pitha",
        "text": "Rice flour, black gram are mixed with warm water and salt to create the batter. The batter is covered and left to ferment for several hours. The batter is then poured on a skillet to create round flat cakes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kue",
        "text": "Many of the traditional Indonesian kue, either sweet or savoury, are based on rice flour and coconut. Traditionally, Indonesian sweets uses \"gula aren\" or palm sugar, yet powdered sugar or common sugar are also widely used. Rice flour and tapioca probably the most commonly used flour in Indonesian kue. However, due to foreign influences, wheat flour is commonly used. For creamy flavour and texture, traditional Indonesian cakes uses coconut milk, yet today dairy product such as milk, cream, butter, cheese and margarine are also commonly used. Popular flavouring agents and spices including coconut, peanut, green \"pandan\", ginger, cinnamon, vanilla and chocolate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chataamari",
        "text": "The rice flour is mixed with water (a little bit thinner than cake paste). The lentil paste is mixed with rice flour if you are looking for different flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carrot cake cookie",
        "text": "Typical ingredients include grated carrot, flour, sugar or brown sugar, cooking oil, spices and baking soda. Additional ingredients may include shredded coconut, raisins, molasses and nuts. Many variations exist, such as carrot cake whoopie pies, cookie sandwiches, and those prepared in the style of an energy bar. Cream cheese is sometimes used as a topping or a filling in cookie sandwich varieties. Vegan versions may use vegan cream cheese as a substitute for dairy-based cream cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lane cake",
        "text": "The cake has a reputation as being difficult to make, but modern equipment and ingredients have simplified the process. When the recipe originated, there were no stand or electric hand mixers. Even hand-crank eggbeaters were not widely available. Bakers put in much hard labor beating the egg whites to frothy soft peaks. The cakes had to be watched carefully during baking because the wood-fired ovens had no thermostats. The pecans, raisins, and coconut were chopped by hand or put through a meat grinder. Today we'd use our electric food processor. Today's cakes are probably prettier too, thanks to modern refrigerators. Because the filling can be quickly chilled, it's easier to produce a stiff filling that will hold up the multi-layer cake without the layers sliding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clorot",
        "text": "\"Gula jawa\" (palm sugar), pandan leaf, salt and water are boiled until done and mixed with coconut milk. This sweet liquid then being poured upon rice flour and sago or tapioca flour, and mixed evenly. The \"janur\" or young coconut leaf rolled to form a long cone, similar to a small trumpet, secured and arranged upright. The thick-liquid sweet dough then filled into this coconut leaf cones until three-quarter full. Then the top section is filled with the mixture of coconut milk, rice flour and salt. These filled cones then being steamed for about 15 minutes until the dough inside the cone are cooked and hardened."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rock cake",
        "text": "A typical modern recipe for 12 cakes requires about 200\u00a0g of flour, 100\u00a0g of butter or margarine, 50\u00a0g of sugar, 1 beaten egg, 1 teaspoon of baking powder, 2 tablespoons of milk, 150\u00a0g of dried fruit such as currants, raisins, candied orange peel, etc., and a pinch of nutmeg and mixed spices. Usually, flour and butter are first mixed until the mixture resembles breadcrumbs; then the other ingredients are added to create a stiff dough, which is dropped from a spoon to a baking tray or roughly formed with two forks. The cakes (optionally sprinkled with sugar and cinnamon) are baked for about 15 minutes at 200-220\u00b0C, retaining an uneven form and contour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belizean cuisine",
        "text": "Like coconut pie and tarts, coconut crust (the grated coconut is sweetened with sugar and baked in a flour crust folded over like a patty), tablata, which is the grated coconut meat mixed with thin ginger slices, sugar and water, baked and cut into squares; there is also the version called cut-o-brute, which is made of chunks of coconut instead of the grated pieces; and then there is trifle, made with half green grated coconut, milk, flour, sugar, eggs, lemon essence, margarine and baking powder (similar to coconut cake); coconut fudge; and coconut ice cream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amygdalopita",
        "text": "To make this cake the dry ingredients are slowly folded into creamed butter and sugar, then the eggs are beaten in. The cake is baked in a tray and soaked in simple syrup after its done baking and allowed to cool before it is cut into individual square pieces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rice flour",
        "text": "Rice flour can be used to make confections like rice cakes, macaroons and some types of buns due to the texture and flavor it lends the finished products. It is also used for dusting confections in a manner similar to powdered sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bumpy cake",
        "text": "The cake is typically baked in an 8-inch-square pan lined with parchment. The first step in preparing the batter is to cream butter, sugar and oil, then eggs and egg whites are added. The dry ingredients \u2014 cake flour, cocoa powder, espresso powder, baking powder and salt \u2014 are prepared in a separate bowl and are then gradually added to the creamed mixture, alternating with buttermilk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bibingka",
        "text": "It can also be used as a general term referring to other Filipino baked rice cakes products, for example, those made with cassava flour (\"bibingkang cassava / bibingkang kamoteng kahoy\"), glutinous rice (\"bibingkang malagkit\"), or plain flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cake",
        "text": "A cake can fail to bake properly, which is called \"falling\". In a cake that \"falls\", parts may sink or flatten, because it was baked at a temperature that is too low or too hot, when it has been underbaked and when placed in an oven that is too hot at the beginning of the baking process. The use of excessive amounts of sugar, flour, fat or leavening can also cause a cake to fall. A cake can also fall when subjected to cool air that enters an oven when the oven door is opened during the cooking process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ekmek kaday\u0131f\u0131",
        "text": "Some recipes prepare it as a simple cake made with eggs, flour and sugar. First the eggs and sugar are whisked until the eggs are frothy, then the flour is mixed in. A little baking powder is added as a leavening agent. The cream filling for the cake is made with milk, cornstarch, flour, sugar and powdered Cr\u00e8me Chantilly. When fully baked, the thin cake is cut in half like a layer cake. \"\u015eerbet\" syrup is poured over the bottom layer and a layer of cream is spread between the two cake layers. The top layer is cut into slices and arranged on top of the cream. The remaining \"\u015ferbet\" syrup is poured over the assembled cake, which is garnished with ground pistachio and shredded coconut. The cake is left to set in the fridge for several hours before it is ready to be served.\n*List of Turkish desserts"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maldivians",
        "text": "Made of flour, coconut \u2013 semi-hard (blended to a smooth paste), eggs, coconut cream, jasmine water, coconut palm syrup, cinnamon powder, cardamom powder and oil by mixing all the ingredients apart from the oil together. Cooked over a moderate heat and once the top of the pancake dries up, turned over and cooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana cake",
        "text": "Banana cake is prepared using banana as a primary ingredient and typical cake ingredients such as flour, sugar, eggs, butter, margarine or oil and baking soda. The bananas can be mashed or pur\u00e9ed using a food processor or electric mixer and mixed into the cake batter, and the cake can also be topped or garnished with sliced bananas. Banana cake may be prepared as a use for browned or overly-ripe bananas. Chocolate may be used as an ingredient, which along with the banana is an enjoyable flavor combination for some people. Nuts such as walnuts and macadamias may be used in the batter and to top and garnish the cake."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cookie cake",
        "text": "https://www.juliesamericancookies.com"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chocolate crackles",
        "text": "The recipe is relatively easy requiring only vegetable shortening, icing sugar, cocoa, desiccated coconut and Rice Bubbles (or Coco Pops). The hydrogenated oil is melted and combined with the dry ingredients and portions of the mixture are placed in cupcake pans to set, usually in the refrigerator. Sometimes these are lined with cupcake papers\u00a0\u2013 round sheets of thin, rounded and fluted paper. The hydrogenated oil re-sets to give each cake its form without baking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fa gao",
        "text": "The cake is made of flour (usually rice flour), leavening (traditionally yeast, but can be chemical leavening), sugar or another sweetener; it is then steamed (instead of baked) on high heat until the top splits into a characteristic \"split top\" of four segments, or sometimes 3 sections. The batter is typically left to rest for fermentation prior to being steam-cooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Campanile (cake)",
        "text": "Its main ingredients are wheat flour, yeast, salt, egg, sugar, shortening (\"sdruttu\") or olive oil, \"aquavita\", raisins, boiled eggs and egg yolk. Raisins are soaked in \"aquavita\", then all the ingredients except the boiled eggs and the yolk are kneaded to form a dough. After leaving the dough to rise, this is shaped as a doughnut, and the boiled eggs, bounded with dough ribbons, are sunken in it. The egg yolk is brushed on the dough to make it golden, and the cake is baked in warm oven for 50 m."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cake",
        "text": "Baked flourless cakes include baked cheesecakes and flourless chocolate cakes. Cheesecakes, despite their name, are not cakes at all. Cheesecakes are custard pies, with a filling made mostly of some form of cheese (often cream cheese, mascarpone, ricotta, or the like), and have very little flour added, although a flour-based or graham cracker crust may be used. Cheesecakes are also very old, with evidence of honey-sweetened cakes dating back to ancient Greece."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Cake flour is the lowest in gluten protein content, with 6-7% (5-8% from second source) protein to produce minimal binding so the cake \"crumbles\" easily."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guyuria",
        "text": "Some recipes include butter in the dough mixture. This results in a slightly softer cookie. Other guyuria dough recipes include sugar, baking powder, and eggs. Guyuria recipes with baking powder and eggs, however, lead to cookies that are too inflated and soft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "\"Cake flour\" in particular is nearly always chlorinated. At least one flour labeled \"unbleached cake flour blend\" (marketed by King Arthur Flour) is not bleached, and the protein content is much higher than typical cake flour at about 9.4% protein (cake flour is usually around 6% to 8%). According to King Arthur, this flour is a blend of a more finely milled unbleached wheat flour and cornstarch, which makes a better end result than unbleached wheat flour alone (cornstarch blended with all-purpose flour is commonly substituted for cake flour when the latter is unavailable). The end product, however, is denser than would result from lower-protein, chlorinated cake flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pan de coco (Honduran cuisine)",
        "text": "Pan de coco, literally \"coconut bread\" in Spanish, is a dense, cake-like bread from the Garifuna people of the Caribbean coast located in Honduras. It's dough features coconut milk as its main ingredient, and typically does not incorporate eggs or milk. Despite its coconut content, the bread is not sweet and is often served with savory foods, like stews and soups. Many variations of Pan de Coco can be found in various other Latin American countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Julekake",
        "text": "The cake is made by mixing sugar with lukewarm scalded milk, salt, and cardamom then adding the yeast to the mixture, followed by the oats, butter, and egg. After the flour is folded in with the dried and candied fruits, the bread is kneaded and brushed with butter, then set aside to rise. There are two rises."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cake",
        "text": "Cake is a form of sweet food made from flour, sugar, and other ingredients, that is usually baked. In their oldest forms, cakes were modifications of bread, but cakes now cover a wide range of preparations that can be simple or elaborate, and that share features with other desserts such as pastries, meringues, custards, and pies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ragi flour",
        "text": "Ragi flour\n--Preparation of Ragi flour.\n--Baking.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kutsinta",
        "text": "The cooked cakes are topped with fresh grated meat from mature coconut. It is consumed year-round as a \"merienda\" or snack, and is frequently sold along with \"puto\". Unlike its counterpart, which has a doughy texture, \"kutsina\" has a jelly-like, chewy consistency. It can be also enhanced by adding \"latik\" for a sweeter taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ciba cake",
        "text": "Basic ingredients\n* Water\n* Glutinous rice flour"
      },
      {
        "title": "Spekkoek",
        "text": "Where clove buds or cardamom seeds are difficult to find, bakers can use spekkoek powder as a replacement. Milling and mixing the spices right before baking produces a cake with an excellent aroma. The ground spices must be sieved into the flour at least three times as the spice powder is very fine and tends to clump in the batter. In Indonesia, there are many varieties of \"lapis legit\", including cakes containing almonds, cashew nuts, cheese, prunes or raisins, and even cakes flavoured with chocolate and pandan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flourless chocolate cake",
        "text": "Torta Caprese, originating from the Italian island of Capri, is a traditional flourless chocolate cake popular in that region that includes almond flour. This cake has a number of myths surrounding its origins including a baker forgetting to add the flour and that it's a version of an Austrian cake called the Austrian Sachertorte."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cassava cake",
        "text": "Additional toppings may be added before the second baking, like cheddar cheese, \"macapuno\" strings, or grated coconut, among others. It is further garnished with additional toppings like more grated cheese or \"latik\". They are allowed to cool and served sliced into squares."
      },
      {
        "title": "Torta caprese",
        "text": "With many variations, the core recipe combines softened butter at room temperature with sugar followed by egg yolks. Once combined, the remaining ingredients are added, including finely minced almonds, chocolate (melted using a bain-marie), and whipped egg whites. After baking, the cake has a moist interior with a thin, hard shell \u2014 typically dusted with powdered sugar. It is sometimes made with a small amount of Strega or other liqueur."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bika ambon",
        "text": "The cake is notable for its sponge-like holes, which was formed by yeast in the cake dough that creates bubbles. This holes gives it a unique spongy texture when it is baked. Its close analogue probably is the Malay sponge cake, due to similar spongy holes, but the moists and texture is actually slightly different."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ciambella",
        "text": "Some versions of ciambella can also be made with kamut flour. Butter may be used instead of oil, and mixed berry yogurt (\"yogurt ai frutti di bosco\") can be added to the batter. Common flavorings include lemon, orange, chocolate or cocoa, hazelnuts and vanilla. The finished cake may be decorated with powdered sugar, pine nuts, toasted almond pieces, apricot jelly or pistachios."
      },
      {
        "title": "Happy cake",
        "text": "The happy cake is a dense cake, made from local pineapple, macadamia nuts, and coconut."
      },
      {
        "title": "K\u00fcrt\u0151skal\u00e1cs",
        "text": "Further alternative variants appeared at the beginning of the 21st century. These recipes can be even more flexible. The dough can be made of non\u2013wheat flour. The inner, tubular part can be also given an additional coating, and it can abound in other natural ingredients (e.g. pieces of fruit). Alternative k\u00fcrt\u0151skal\u00e1cs can be prepared gluten free as well. A cake that lacks ingredients of animal origin (milk, butter, eggs) can be labeled as \u2018Vegan\u2019 or \u2018Lent\u2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ragi flour",
        "text": "All purpose flour can be replaced with Ragi flour during baking which carries whole lot of nutritional benefits. Ragi cake and Ragi biscuits can be prepared. Ragi flour based bakery products and instant mixes are in demand now."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana cake",
        "text": "Kue nagasari is a popular Indonesian steamed banana cake that can be prepared using banana, mung bean flour or rice flour, coconut milk and sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peanut flour",
        "text": "Powdered peanut butter can be used in baking, cooking and desserts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bake a Cake",
        "text": "Bake a Cake\n--Plot.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Flourless chocolate cake",
        "text": "The use of alternative sugars would allow this cake to be enjoyed by those on a keto diet as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Press cake",
        "text": "In Nepal the oil cake of the Persian walnut is used for culinary purposes, and it is also applied to the forehead to treat headaches. In some regions it is used as boiler fuel as a means of reducing energy costs, for which it is quite suitable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Press cake",
        "text": "Some foods whose processing creates press cakes are olives for olive oil (\"pomace\"), peanuts for peanut oil, coconut flesh for coconut cream and milk (\"sapal\"), grapes for wine (\"pomace\"), apples for cider (\"pomace\"), and soybeans for soy milk (used to make tofu) (this is called soy pulp) or oil. Other common press cakes come from flax seed (linseed), cottonseed, and sunflower seeds. However, some specific kinds may be toxic, and are rather used as fertilizer, for example cottonseed contains a toxic pigment, gossypol, that must be removed before processing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cimpa",
        "text": "Cimpa are a variety of related cakes cooked by the Karo of North Sumatra, made of rice flour, coconut and palm sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bibikkan",
        "text": "Bibikkan () is a traditional Sri Lankan coconut cake. It is a dark moist cake made of shredded coconut, jaggery (from the sap of the toddy palm) and semolina combined with a mixture of spices. Bibikkan is commonly prepared and consumed in celebration of festive and religious occasions, including Christmas, New Year's Eve, Sinhala and Tamil New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar cake",
        "text": "Sugar cakes are confections made with grated coconut, sugar, and food coloring. Cooking is done in a saucepan on low heat to avoid burning, and moulding is done immediately afterwards on a baking sheet or shallow plate. They are a popular sweet among schoolchildren in Caribbean countries including Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, and Guyana; they were also popular during Elizabethan England due to the simple recipe. Sugar cakes are also known as cocada in Latin American countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belizean cuisine",
        "text": "The cassava root is grated, rinsed well, dried, salted, and pressed to form flat cakes about 4\u00a0inches in diameter and 1/2-inch thick. The cakes are lightly fried, then dipped in coconut milk and fried again. Bammies are usually served as a starchy side dish with breakfast, with fish dishes or alone as a snack. Cassava Pone is a traditional Belizean Kriol and pan-West Indian dessert recipe for a classic cassava flour cake sometimes made with coconuts and raisins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana cake (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Banana cake (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Flour (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pound cake",
        "text": "An early variation on this cake replaced some of the flour with cornmeal made from dried corn (maize), which was then called \"Indian meal\". A recipe for Indian pound cake was first published in 1828 by Eliza Leslie and later included in \"The Indian Meal Book\", which was published in London in 1846, when people in Ireland were looking for alternatives to expensive wheat flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pound cake",
        "text": "Over time the ingredients for pound cake changed. Eliza Leslie, who wrote the 1851 edition of Direction for Cookery, used 10 eggs, beat them as lightly as possible, mixed them with a pound of flour, then added the juice of two lemons or three large oranges. This changed the flavor and texture of the cake. In the 2008 issue of \"Saveur\", James Villas wrote that cake flour would not work in place of all-purpose flour because it lacks the strength to support the heavy batter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana cake (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Banana cake is a cake prepared using bananas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Johnnycake",
        "text": "Both flour and cornmeal johnnycakes are popular beach food in Puerto Rico. They are called \"arepa de coco\". Flour or cornmeal is mixed with coconut milk, few tablespoons of milk, sugar, salt, baking powder, and coconut oil or butter. They are typically small bun size cooked on a flattop grill, fried, or baked. Once done They are cut open and filled with meat, vegetables, or most popular seafood. The dough can be stuffed with sweet coconut, pineapple, guava and cream cheese, fried and dusted with powdered sugar on top."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cake",
        "text": "Cake\n--History.\n----Cake mixes.\n--Varieties.\n----Butter cake.\n----Sponge cake.\n----Chocolate cake.\n----Coffee cake.\n----Flourless cake.\n----Layer cakes.\n----One egg cake.\n--Comparison with bread.\n--Special-purpose cakes.\n--Shapes.\n--Cake flour.\n--Cooking.\n--Cake decorating.\n--Food safety.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ombusombus",
        "text": "Ombusombus cakes made of rice flour were given sugar in the center and wrapped in banana leaves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kube Cake",
        "text": "Ingredients used in preparation include Coconut, Sugar, Water and Lemon Juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Angel food cake",
        "text": "Instead of using pure cake flour, wheat flour or a mixture of wheat flour and raw wheat starch is used. The wheat flour is bleached to remove any brown pigments and produce a bright white color. The pH of the bleached flour is between 3 and 4.5, although the optimal pH of starch gelatinization is between 3.7 and 3.9. Acidifiers are used in order to reach this pH range. The optimal flour protein content is between 3% and 4%, and must be below 4.5%. If a mixture is used, at least 20% by weight should be wheat flour. A small amount of raw wheat starch may be added to the sugar as a grinding aid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sri Lankan cuisine",
        "text": "\"Cakes and pastries:\"\n* Aluwa - Diamond-shaped rice-flour pastries\n* Bibikkan - A rich, cake-like sweet made from grated coconut, coconut treacle, and wheat flour. It is a specialty of coastal areas.\n* Kokis - A savoury crispy biscuit-like dish made from rice flour and coconut milk.\n* Pushnambu / Wandu Appa - A rich, cake-like sweet made from coconut treacle and wheat flour. Cinnamon/cardamom and sweet cumin is often added among the Christian population of Sri Lanka.\n* Seenakku - a glutinous rice cake often served with grated coconut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dessert",
        "text": "Cakes are sweet tender breads made with sugar and delicate flour. Cakes can vary from light, airy sponge cakes to dense cakes with less flour. Common flavorings include dried, candied or fresh fruit, nuts, cocoa or extracts. They may be filled with fruit preserves or dessert sauces (like pastry cream), iced with buttercream or other icings, and decorated with marzipan, piped borders, or candied fruit. Cake is often served as a celebratory dish on ceremonial occasions, for example weddings, anniversaries, and birthdays. Small-sized cakes have become popular, in the form of cupcakes and petits fours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maldivian language",
        "text": "cake (),"
      },
      {
        "title": "Better than sex cake",
        "text": "The cake's moist center is typically created by inserting a fork into the cake several times and filling the holes with a mixture containing sugar and a flavoring or fruit such as pineapple. It is traditionally baked using a 13 by 9 by 2-inch pan and then refrigerated and eaten cold. The basic recipe for the cake has been altered depending on the tastes of the person making the cake and alternates include vanilla, banana, or candy flavors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ube cake",
        "text": "The combination of ube and macapuno (coconut sport) is a traditional one for ube halaya in Filipino cuisine, and it also applies to ube cakes. Ube macapuno cake is basically just ube cake with strips of gelatinous macapuno strips layered on top."
      },
      {
        "title": "An\u00e7\u00e3 (Cantanhede)",
        "text": "It is a simple confection cake, with basic ingredients (eggs, wheat flour, sugar, butter, cinnamon and lemon), it is made through an artisanal manufacturing process - manually kneaded and baked in a wood oven - which reveals its true secret."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shortcrust pastry",
        "text": "Overworking the dough is also a hazard. Overworking elongates the gluten strands, creating a product that is tough, rather than light and crumbly or flaky. Weak protein flour like cake flour is used for pastry making because it does not become overworked and tough as easily as bread flour."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the main ingredient in making bread?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The main ingredient in making bread is flour, which has different kinds such as cereal flour, wheat flour, corn flour and rye flour."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How does the different kinds of flour change the bread?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are many differences: Rye bread is typically more dense than bread made from wheat flour, and is higher in fiber and causes slower increases in blood sugar than white bread, while pastry flour produces more flaky crusts, and coconut flour has the highest fiber content of any flour, and few carbohydrates. Is there any particular kind of flour you would like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me more about coconut flour?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Coconut flour is made from ground coconut meat and has the highest fiber content of any flour, with a very low concentration of digestible carbohydrates, and has a high fat content of about 60 percent."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you use coconut flour to bake cakes too?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "The definition of cake I located specified flour as an ingredient, but it was not stated which type was meant. It was noted that coconut flour has been developed for use in baking to combat malnutrition however."
    ],
    "topic": "Flour",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Coconut:97",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Coconut",
          "Uses",
          "Culinary uses",
          "Coconut flour"
        ],
        "ctx": "Coconut flour has also been developed for use in baking, to combat malnutrition."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Cake:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cake"
        ],
        "ctx": "Cake is a form of sweet food made from flour, sugar, and other ingredients, that is usually baked. In their oldest forms, cakes were modifications of bread, but cakes now cover a wide range of preparations that can be simple or elaborate, and that share features with other desserts such as pastries, meringues, custards, and pies."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Gluten-free breads are made using flours from a variety of ingredients such as almonds, rice, sorghum, corn, legumes such as beans, and tubers such as cassava. Since these foods lack gluten, dough made from them may not hold its shape as the loaves rise, and their crumb may be dense with little aeration. Additives such as xanthan gum, guar gum, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), corn starch, or eggs are used to compensate for the lack of gluten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Cake flour is the lowest in gluten protein content, with 6-7% (5-8% from second source) protein to produce minimal binding so the cake \"crumbles\" easily."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana flour",
        "text": "Gluten-free alternative"
      },
      {
        "title": "Flourless chocolate cake",
        "text": "Flourless chocolate cake is a popular dessert in gluten-free diets. There are several varieties including topping the cake with a chocolate ganache, adding raspberries, or it is frequently served with vanilla ice cream, all of which can be enjoyed by those with gluten-free and celiac-appropriate diets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peanut",
        "text": "Peanut flour is used in gluten-free cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "K\u00fcrt\u0151skal\u00e1cs",
        "text": "Further alternative variants appeared at the beginning of the 21st century. These recipes can be even more flexible. The dough can be made of non\u2013wheat flour. The inner, tubular part can be also given an additional coating, and it can abound in other natural ingredients (e.g. pieces of fruit). Alternative k\u00fcrt\u0151skal\u00e1cs can be prepared gluten free as well. A cake that lacks ingredients of animal origin (milk, butter, eggs) can be labeled as \u2018Vegan\u2019 or \u2018Lent\u2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana flour",
        "text": "Banana flour has been imported or produced by American and Australian firms, International Agriculture Group, and Natural Evolution. These flours are marketed as a gluten-free alternative to wheat-based flours for those suffering from celiac disease and those who choose a gluten-free diet. They are also marketed for clean-label texturizers and as a natural source of resistant starch. Because of the high starch content, banana flour has excellent cooking/baking characteristics that allow it to replace wheat and other flours. However, even in cooked products like pasta, the addition of banana flour increased total resistant starch content in appreciable amounts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Angel food cake",
        "text": "A gluten matrix is formed when the proteins glutenin and gliadin, found in wheat flour, are mixed in the presence of water. When the batter is agitated, these two proteins form cross-links, disulfide bonds, ionic bonds, and hydrogen bonds. The matrix that forms is strong and very flexible. Although no water is added to the batter, the gluten reacts with the water found in egg whites. Since air has already been entrapped in the foam, the flour proteins can only coat the already entrapped air. This helps to strengthen the cell walls and batter during baking or any other handling. This is beneficial because the meringue on its own is weak, cannot expand in heat, and does not have any elasticity normally expected in cakes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Pastry flour has the second-lowest gluten protein content, with 7.5-9.5% (8-9% from second source) protein to hold together with a bit more strength than cakes, but still produce flaky crusts rather than hard or crispy ones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mohn kichel",
        "text": "A vegan, gluten free variation of mohn kichel exists containing no eggs, which brown rice and tapioca flour substituting the wheat flour and coconut oil being used instead of cooking oil or butter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "When flours do not contain gluten, they are suitable for people with gluten-related disorders, such as coeliac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity or wheat allergy sufferers, among others. Contamination with gluten-containing cereals can occur during grain harvesting, transporting, milling, storing, processing, handling and/or cooking.\n* Acorn flour is made from ground acorns and can be used as a substitute for wheat flour. It was used by Native Americans. Koreans also use acorn flour to make dotorimuk.\n* Almond flour is made from ground almonds.\n* Amaranth flour is a flour produced from ground amaranth grain. It was commonly used in pre-Columbian meso-American cuisine and was originally cultivated by the Aztecs. It is becoming more and more available in speciality food shops.\n*Apple flour is made from milling apple pomace, the solid remains of juiced apples.\n* Banana flour has been traditionally made of green bananas for thousands of years and is currently popular both as a gluten-free replacement for wheat flour and as a source of resistant starch.\n* Bean flour is a flour produced from pulverized dried or ripe beans. Garbanzo and fava bean flour is a flour mixture with a high nutritional value and strong aftertaste.\n* Brown rice flour is of great importance in Southeast Asian cuisine. Edible rice paper can be made from it.\n* Buckwheat flour is used as an ingredient in many pancakes in the United States. In Japan, it is used to make a popular noodle called soba. In Russia, buckwheat flour is added to the batter for pancakes called \"blinis\" which are frequently eaten with caviar. Buckwheat flour is also used to make cr\u00eapes bretonnes in Brittany. On Hindu fasting days (\"Navaratri\" mainly, also \"Maha Shivaratri\"), people eat food made with buckwheat flour. The preparation varies across India. The most famous dishes are \"kuttu ki puri\" and \"kuttu pakora\". In most northern and western states the usual term is \"kuttu ka atta\".\n* Cassava flour is made from the root of the cassava plant. In a purified form (pure starch), it is called tapioca flour (see in list below).\n* Chestnut flour is popular in Corsica, the P\u00e9rigord, and Lunigiana for breads, cakes and pastas. It is the original ingredient for polenta, still used as such in Corsica and other Mediterranean locations. Chestnut bread keeps fresh for as long as two weeks. In other parts of Italy it is mainly used for desserts.\n* Chickpea flour (also known as gram flour or besan) is of great importance in Indian cuisine, and in Italy, where it is used for the Ligurian farinata.\n* Chu\u00f1o flour is made from dried potatoes in various countries of South America.\n* Coconut flour is made from ground coconut meat and has the highest fiber content of any flour, having a very low concentration of digestible carbohydrates and thus making an excellent choice for those looking to restrict their carbohydrate intake. It also has a high fat content of about 60 percent.\n*Coffee flour is flour usually made with either coffee cherries or coffee beans.\n* Corn (maize) flour is popular in the Southern and Southwestern US, Mexico, Central America, and Punjab regions of India and Pakistan, where it is called \"makai ka atta\". Coarse whole-grain corn flour is usually called cornmeal. Finely ground corn flour that has been treated with food-grade lime is called \"masa harina\" (see \"masa\") and is used to make \"tortillas\" and \"tamales\" in Mexican cooking. Corn flour should never be confused with corn starch, which is known as \"cornflour\" in British English.\n* Cornmeal is very similar to corn flour (see above) except in a coarser grind.\n* Corn starch is starch extracted from endosperm of the corn kernel.\n* Glutinous rice flour or sticky rice flour is used in east and southeast Asian cuisines for making tangyuan, etc.\n* Hemp flour is produced by pressing the oil from the hemp seed and milling the residue. Hemp seed is approximately 30 percent oil and 70 percent residue. Hemp flour does not rise, and is best mixed with other flours. Added to any flour by about 15-20 percent, it gives a spongy nutty texture and flavor with a green hue.\n* Mesquite flour is made from the dried and ground pods of the mesquite tree, which grows throughout North America in arid climates. The flour has a sweet, slightly nutty flavor and can be used in a wide variety of applications.\n* Nut flours are grated from oily nuts\u2014most commonly almonds and hazelnuts\u2014and are used instead of or in addition to wheat flour to produce more dry and flavorful pastries and cakes. Cakes made with nut flours are usually called tortes and most originated in Central Europe, in countries such as Hungary and Austria.\n* Peasemeal or pea flour is a flour produced from roasted and pulverized yellow field peas.\n* Peanut flour made from shelled cooked peanuts is a high-protein alternative to regular flour.\n* Potato starch flour is obtained by grinding the tubers to a pulp and removing the fibre and protein by water-washing. Potato starch (flour) is very white starch powder used as a thickening agent. Standard (native) potato starch needs boiling, to thicken in water, giving a transparent gel. Because the flour is made from neither grains nor legumes, it is used as a substitute for wheat flour in cooking by Jews during Passover, when grains are not eaten.\n* Potato flour, often confused with potato starch, is a peeled, cooked potato powder of mashed, mostly drum-dried and ground potato flakes using the whole potato and thus containing the protein and some of the fibres of the potato. It has an off-white slight yellowish color. These dehydrated, dried, potatoes, also called instant mashed potatoes can also be granules or flakes. Potato flour is cold-water-soluble; however, it is not used often as it tends to be heavy.\n* Rice flour is ground kernels of rice. It is widely used in Western countries especially for people who suffer from gluten-related disorders. Brown rice flour has higher nutritional value than white rice flour.\n* Sorghum flour is made from grinding whole grains of the sorghum plant. It is called \"jowar\" in India.\n* Tapioca flour, produced from the root of the cassava plant, is used to make breads, pancakes, tapioca pudding, a savoury porridge called fufu in Africa, and is used as a starch.\n* Teff flour is made from the grain teff, and is of considerable importance in eastern Africa (particularly around the horn of Africa). Notably, it is the chief ingredient in the bread injera, an important component of Ethiopian cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gluten-free diet",
        "text": "An unbalanced selection of food and an incorrect choice of gluten-free replacement products may lead to nutritional deficiencies. Replacing flour from wheat or other gluten-containing cereals with gluten-free flours in commercial products may lead to a lower intake of important nutrients, such as iron and B vitamins and a higher intake of sugars and saturated fats. Some gluten-free commercial replacement products are not enriched or fortified as their gluten-containing counterparts, and often have greater lipid / carbohydrate content. Children especially often over-consume these products, such as snacks and biscuits. These nutritional complications can be prevented by a correct dietary education. Pseudocereals (quinoa, amaranth, and buckwheat) and some minor cereals are healthy alternatives to these prepared products and have higher biological and nutritional value. Advances towards higher nutrition-content gluten-free bakery products, improved for example in terms of fiber content and glycemic index, have been made by using not exclusively corn starch or other starches to substitute for flour. In this aim, for example the dietary fibre inulin (which acts as a prebiotic) or quinoa or amaranth wholemeal have been as substitute for part of the flour. Similarly, xanthan gum can be used in up to gram quantities per serving in some gluten-free baked goods and can be fermented by specific microbiomes in the gastrointestinal tract. Such substitution has been found to also yield improved crust and texture of bread. It is recommended that anyone embarking on a gluten-free diet check with a registered dietitian to make sure they are getting the required amount of key nutrients like iron, calcium, fiber, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin and folate. Vitamins often contain gluten as a binding agent. Experts have advised that it is important to always read the content label of any product that is intended to be swallowed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flourless chocolate cake",
        "text": "Flourless chocolate cake\n--Overview.\n--Origin.\n--Special Diets.\n----In Jewish cuisine.\n----In gluten-free diets.\n--Similar cakes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cake",
        "text": "Special cake flour with a high starch-to-gluten ratio is made from fine-textured, soft, low-protein wheat. It is strongly bleached and compared to all-purpose flour, cake flour tends to result in cakes with a lighter, less dense texture. Therefore, it is frequently specified or preferred in cakes meant to be soft, light, and/or bright white, such as angel food cake. However, if cake flour is called for, a substitute can be made by replacing a small percentage of all-purpose flour with cornstarch or removing two tablespoons from each cup of all-purpose flour. Some recipes explicitly specify or permit all-purpose flour, notably where a firmer or denser cake texture is desired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Teff",
        "text": "While teff is gluten free, a method has been developed to process teff into a flour with a wider range of baking applications, such as for bread and pasta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coconut",
        "text": "Coconut flour has also been developed for use in baking, to combat malnutrition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter Reinhart",
        "text": "In 2012, Reinhart collaborated with Denene Wallace, a baker who specializes in high-protein, low-carbohydrate, gluten-free baking on writing \"The Joy of Gluten-Free, Sugar-Free Baking: 80 Low-Carb Recipes That Offer Solutions for Celiac Disease, Diabetes and Weight Loss\". The book includes recipes for gluten-free, sugar-free breads, pizza, focaccia, crackers, breadsticks, pretzels, breakfast breads, cookies, brownies and cakes and pies. Reinhart first got interested in gluten-free baking because of a friend who suffers from Celiac disease (gluten intolerance). When Wallace came up with the idea of using nut and seed flours in place of the standard tapioca-potato-rice flour trilogy that once dominated gluten-free baking, Reinhart was interested."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flourless chocolate cake",
        "text": "Flourless chocolate cake is a dense cake made from an aerated chocolate custard. The first documented form of the cake was seen in Ferrara, Italy, though some forms of the cake have myths surrounding their origins. The dessert contains no gluten which makes it acceptable for those with celiac disease, gluten-free diets, and during religious holidays in which gluten and grains are not permitted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gram flour",
        "text": "Gram flour contains a high proportion of carbohydrates, higher fiber relative to other flours, no gluten, and a higher proportion of protein than other flours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Gluten flour is refined gluten protein, or a theoretical 100% protein (though practical refining never achieves a full 100%). It is used to strengthen flour as needed. For example, adding approximately one teaspoon per cup of AP flour gives the resulting mix the protein content of bread flour. It is commonly added to whole grain flour recipes to overcome the tendency of greater fiber content to interfere with gluten development, needed to give the bread better rising (gas holding) qualities and chew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Manitoba flour",
        "text": "The main characteristic of this flour is that it contains a large quantity of insoluble proteins (glutenin and gliadin), which, in contact with a liquid during the kneading phase, produce gluten. It is therefore a flour rich in gluten and poor in starch. Gluten forms a tenacious net, which in leavened doughs retains the gases of leavening, allowing the product to develop considerably during baking; in the case of pasta, on the other hand, it retains the starches, which would make the dough sticky and allow it to be cooked \"al dente\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Flour\n--Etymology.\n--History.\n----Degermed and heat-processed flour.\n----Production.\n--Modern mills.\n--Composition.\n----Bleached flour.\n------Additives.\n------Frequency of additives.\n----Enriched flour.\n----Cake flour.\n----Pastry flour.\n----Plain or all-purpose flour.\n----Bread flour.\n----Hard flour.\n----Gluten flour.\n----Unbleached flour.\n----Self-raising flour.\n--Types.\n----Gluten-containing flours.\n------Wheat flour.\n----Gluten-free flours.\n------More types.\n----Type numbers.\n--Flammability.\n--Products.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "All-purpose, or \"AP flour\", or plain flour is medium in gluten protein content at 9.5-11.5% (10-12% from second source) protein content. It has adequate protein content for many bread and pizza bases, though bread flour and special 00 grade Italian flour are often preferred for these purposes, respectively, especially by artisan bakers. Some biscuits are also prepared using this type of flour. \"Plain\" refers not only to AP flour's middling gluten content but also to its lack of any added leavening agent (as in self-rising flour)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Almond",
        "text": "Almond flour or ground almond meal combined with sugar or honey as marzipan is often used as a gluten-free alternative to wheat flour in cooking and baking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wheat flour",
        "text": "Wheat flour is a powder made from the grinding of wheat used for human consumption. Wheat varieties are called \"soft\" or \"weak\" if gluten content is low, and are called \"hard\" or \"strong\" if they have high gluten content. Hard flour, or \"bread flour\", is high in gluten, with 12% to 14% gluten content, and its dough has elastic toughness that holds its shape well once baked. Soft flour is comparatively low in gluten and thus results in a loaf with a finer, crumbly texture. Soft flour is usually divided into cake flour, which is the lowest in gluten, and pastry flour, which has slightly more gluten than cake flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gluten",
        "text": "The strength and elasticity of gluten in flour is measured in the baking industry using a farinograph. This gives the baker a measurement of quality for different varieties of flours when developing recipes for various baked goods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gluten-free diet",
        "text": "Gluten proteins have low nutritional and biological value and the grains that contain gluten are not essential in the human diet. However, an unbalanced selection of food and an incorrect choice of gluten-free replacement products may lead to nutritional deficiencies. Replacing flour from wheat or other gluten-containing cereals with gluten-free flours in commercial products may lead to a lower intake of important nutrients, such as iron and B vitamins. Some gluten-free commercial replacement products are not enriched or fortified as their gluten-containing counterparts, and often have greater lipid/carbohydrate content. Children especially often over-consume these products, such as snacks and biscuits. Nutritional complications can be prevented by a correct dietary education."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "The four most common additives used as bleaching/maturing agents in the US are:\n* Potassium bromate, listed as an ingredient, is a maturing agent that strengthens gluten development. It does not bleach.\n* Benzoyl peroxide bleaches, but does not act as a maturing agent. It has no effect on gluten.\n* Ascorbic acid is listed as an ingredient, either as an indication that the flour was matured using ascorbic acid or that a small amount is added as a dough enhancer. It is a maturing agent that strengthens gluten development, but does not bleach.\n* Chlorine gas is used as both a bleaching agent and a maturing agent. It weakens gluten development and oxidizes starches, making it easier for the flour to absorb water and swell, resulting in thicker batters and stiffer doughs. The retarded gluten formation is desirable in cakes, cookies, and biscuits, as it would otherwise make them tougher and bread-like. The modification of starches in the flour allows the use of wetter doughs (making for a moister end product) without destroying the structure necessary for light, fluffy cakes and biscuits. Chlorinated flour allows cakes and other baked goods to set faster and rise better, and the fat to be distributed more evenly, with less vulnerability to collapse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shortcrust pastry",
        "text": "Overworking the dough is also a hazard. Overworking elongates the gluten strands, creating a product that is tough, rather than light and crumbly or flaky. Weak protein flour like cake flour is used for pastry making because it does not become overworked and tough as easily as bread flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gluten",
        "text": "The formation of gluten affects the texture of the baked goods. Gluten's attainable elasticity is proportional to its content of glutenins with low molecular weights, as this portion contains the preponderance of the sulfur atoms responsible for the cross-linking in the gluten network."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Hard is a general term for flours with high gluten protein content, commonly refers to extra strong flour, with 13.5-16% (or 14-15% from some sources) protein (16% is a theoretically possible protein content). This flour may be used where a recipe adds ingredients that require the dough to be extra strong to hold together in their presence, or when strength is needed for constructions of bread (e.g., some centerpiece displays)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana flour",
        "text": "Resistant starch"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gluten",
        "text": "Generally, bread flours are high in gluten (hard wheat); pastry flours have a lower gluten content. Kneading promotes the formation of gluten strands and cross-links, creating baked products that are chewier (as opposed to more brittle or crumbly). The \"chewiness\" increases as the dough is kneaded for longer times. An increased moisture content in the dough enhances gluten development, and very wet doughs left to rise for a long time require no kneading (see no-knead bread). Shortening inhibits formation of cross-links and is used, along with diminished water and less kneading, when a tender and flaky product, such as a pie crust, is desired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pastry",
        "text": "Lard or suet work well because they have a coarse, crystalline structure that is very effective. Using unclarified butter does not work well because of its water content; clarified butter, or ghee, which is virtually water-free, is better, but shortcrust pastry using only butter may develop an inferior texture. If the fat is melted with hot water or if liquid oil is used, the thin oily layer between the grains offers less of an obstacle to gluten formation and the resulting pastry is tougher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana flour",
        "text": "Banana flour is a powder traditionally made of green bananas. Historically, banana flour has been used in Africa and Jamaica as a cheaper alternative to wheat flour. It is now often used as a gluten-free replacement for wheat flours or as a source of resistant starch, which has been promoted by certain dieting trends such as paleo and primal diets and by some recent nutritional research. Banana flour, due to the use of green bananas, has a very mild banana flavor raw, and when cooked, it has an earthy, nonbanana flavor; it also has a texture reminiscent of lighter wheat flours and requires about 25% less volume, making it a good replacement for white and white whole-wheat flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brown bread",
        "text": "Whole wheat flours that contain raw wheat germ, instead of toasted germ, have higher levels of glutathione, and thus result in lower loaf volumes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gluten-related disorders",
        "text": "Gluten proteins have low nutritional value and replacing grains that contain gluten is easy from the nutritional point of view. However, an unbalanced selection of food and an incorrect choice of gluten-free replacement products may lead to nutritional deficiencies. Replacing flour from wheat or other gluten-containing cereals with gluten-free flours in commercial products may lead to a lower intake of important nutrients, such as iron and B vitamins. Some gluten-free commercial replacement products are not enriched or fortified as their gluten-containing counterparts, and often have greater lipid/carbohydrate content. Children especially often over-consume these products, such as snacks and biscuits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gluten",
        "text": "This flour-like powder, when added to ordinary flour dough, may help improve the dough's ability to increase in volume. The resulting mixture also increases the bread's structural stability and chewiness. Gluten-added dough must be worked vigorously to induce it to rise to its full capacity; an automatic bread machine or food processor may be required for high-gluten kneading. Generally, higher gluten levels are associated with higher overall protein content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rice flour",
        "text": "In the Philippines, glutinous rice dough \"galap\u00f3ng\" is the basis for numerous types of native rice cakes and desserts (\"kakanin\"). Depending on the dish, coconut milk (\"gata\"), wood ash lye, and various other ingredients may be added to the \"galap\u00f3ng\". The \"galap\u00f3ng\" can be prepared baked, steamed, boiled, or fried, resulting in dishes like \"puto\" or \"bibingka\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guyuria",
        "text": "Some recipes include butter in the dough mixture. This results in a slightly softer cookie. Other guyuria dough recipes include sugar, baking powder, and eggs. Guyuria recipes with baking powder and eggs, however, lead to cookies that are too inflated and soft."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Milling Company of Guyana",
        "text": "Blended Wheat Flour designed for residential and commercial use\n* Thunderbolt\u00ae\u2122 All Purpose Flour\n* Thunderbolt\u00ae\u2122 Bakers Flour 45\u00a0kg\n* Thunderbolt\u00ae\u2122 High Gluten 45\u00a0kg"
      },
      {
        "title": "Xanthosoma",
        "text": "Flour made from \"Xanthosoma\" species is hypoallergenic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carol Kicinski",
        "text": "Kicinski began developing gluten-free recipes for herself and her family more than 20 years ago when she learned she was gluten sensitive. She now does recipe development for gluten-free companies. Kicinski also developed Carol's Gluten Free All Purpose Flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dough",
        "text": "Pancakes, waffles, some kinds of bar cookies such as brownies, and many cakes and quick breads (including muffins and the like) are often made with a semi-liquid batter of flour and liquid that is poured into the final shape, rather than a solid dough. Unlike bread dough, these batters are not stabilized by the formation of a gluten network."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crumbs Bake Shop",
        "text": "On September 13, 2013, the company announced the planned opening of their first ever gluten-free store in lower Manhattan. Crumbs Gluten Free featured the same cupcakes, cookies, brownies and pastries that the brand is known for in gluten-free versions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Bleached flour is artificially aged using a \"bleaching\" agent, a \"maturing\" agent, or both. A bleaching agent affects the carotenoids responsible for the natural colour of the flour; a \"maturing\" agent also affects gluten development. A maturing agent may either strengthen or weaken gluten development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana flour",
        "text": "Banana flour (green variety) has gained the attention of nutritional researchers and dieters as an excellent and useful source of resistant starch. Resistant starch refers starch that resists digestion - it is not broken down in the small intestine, but reaches the large intestine, where it functions as a fermentable dietary fiber. Banana flour may have a high resistant starch content (>60%) or it may have a low resistant starch content (<10%), depending upon the drying procedures of the specific ingredient. Banana flour is often used raw, for example as an ingredient in smoothies or nutrition bars, because cooking may reduce the resistant starch content."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gluten-free diet",
        "text": "Gluten-free commercial replacement products, such as gluten-free cakes, are more expensive than their gluten-containing counterparts, so their purchase adds a financial burden. They are also typically higher in calories, fat, and sugar, and lower in dietary fibre. In less developed countries, wheat can represent an important source of protein, since it is a substantial part of the diet in the form of bread, noodles, bulgur, couscous, and other products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flourless chocolate cake",
        "text": "A similar cake with little or no flour is known as \"fallen\" or \"molten\" chocolate cake and was popularized by, among others, Jean-Georges Vongerichten's restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Angel food cake",
        "text": "Instead of using pure cake flour, wheat flour or a mixture of wheat flour and raw wheat starch is used. The wheat flour is bleached to remove any brown pigments and produce a bright white color. The pH of the bleached flour is between 3 and 4.5, although the optimal pH of starch gelatinization is between 3.7 and 3.9. Acidifiers are used in order to reach this pH range. The optimal flour protein content is between 3% and 4%, and must be below 4.5%. If a mixture is used, at least 20% by weight should be wheat flour. A small amount of raw wheat starch may be added to the sugar as a grinding aid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baking mix",
        "text": "Ingredients in baking mixes may include flour, bread flour, baking powder, baking soda, yeast, sugar and salt, as well as others depending upon the food type. Gluten-free baking mixes may be prepared using rice flour in place of wheat flour. Dry baking mixes typically require the addition of water or milk, and may also require additional ingredients such as eggs, butter and cooking oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flourless chocolate cake",
        "text": "The use of alternative sugars would allow this cake to be enjoyed by those on a keto diet as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "No-knead bread",
        "text": "The method uses a long rise instead of kneading to align the dough's gluten molecules with each other so as to produce a strong, elastic network, resulting in long, sticky strands. The automatic alignment is possible because of the wetness of the dough, which makes the molecules more mobile. Wet doughs, which use a water weight of about 75% that of the flour (hydration), require more salt than conventional doughs, about 2% of the flour weight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rempeyek",
        "text": "Coconut milk, salt, and spices such as ground candlenut and coriander are often mixed within the flour batter. Some recipes also add a chopped citrus leaf. The spiced batter, mixed or sprinkled with the granule ingredients, is deep fried in hot coconut oil. The flour batter acts as a binding agent for the granules (peanuts, anchovy, shrimp, etc.). It hardens upon frying and turns into a golden brown and crispy cracker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Batter (cooking)",
        "text": "Batters made with wheat flour thicken with every second that passes after mixing because of the development of gluten. Strategies to reduce this effect include the use of ice water when mixing, alcohol (which does not mix with the flour to produce gluten), and making it at the last possible moment before use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "\"Cake flour\" in particular is nearly always chlorinated. At least one flour labeled \"unbleached cake flour blend\" (marketed by King Arthur Flour) is not bleached, and the protein content is much higher than typical cake flour at about 9.4% protein (cake flour is usually around 6% to 8%). According to King Arthur, this flour is a blend of a more finely milled unbleached wheat flour and cornstarch, which makes a better end result than unbleached wheat flour alone (cornstarch blended with all-purpose flour is commonly substituted for cake flour when the latter is unavailable). The end product, however, is denser than would result from lower-protein, chlorinated cake flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wheat flour",
        "text": "American flours are categorized by gluten/protein content, processing, and use.\n*All-purpose or plain flour is a blended wheat with a protein content lower than bread flour, ranging between 9% and 12%. Depending on brand or the region where it is purchased, it may be composed of all hard or soft wheats, but is usually a blend of the two, and can range from low protein content to moderately high. It is marketed as an inexpensive alternative to bakers' flour which is acceptable for most household baking needs.\n*Bread flour or strong flour is always made from hard wheat, usually hard spring wheat. It has a very high protein content, between 10% and 13%, making it excellent for yeast bread baking. It can be white or whole wheat or in between.\n*Cake flour is a finely milled white flour made from soft wheat. It has very low protein content, between 8% and 10%, making it suitable for soft-textured cakes and cookies. The higher protein content of other flours would make the cakes tough. Related to cake flour are masa harina (from maize), maida flour (from wheat or tapioca), and pure starches.\n*Durum flour is made from Durum wheat and is suited for pasta making, traditional pizza and flatbread for doner kebab.\n*Graham flour is a special type of whole wheat flour. The endosperm is finely ground, as in white flour, while the bran and germ are coarsely ground. Graham flour is uncommon outside of the United States (but see atta flour, a similar product, below). Graham flour is the basis of true graham crackers.\n*Instant flour is pregelatinized (precooked) for easier incorporation in gravies and sauces.\n*Pastry flour or cookie flour or cracker flour has slightly higher protein content than cake flour but lower than all-purpose flour. Its protein content ranges between 9% and 10%. It is available as a white flour, a whole-wheat flour, or a white flour with the germ retained but not the bran. It is suitable for pie pastry and tarts, some cookies, muffins, biscuits and other quick breads. Flour is shaken through a sieve to reduce the amount of lumps for cooking pastry.\n*Whole-wheat flour contains the wheat germ, endosperm and bran\n*White flour or refined flour contains only the endosperm\n* Whole-wheat white flour is white flour that contains the endososperm, bran, and germ\n*Enriched flour is white flour with nutrients added to compensate for the removal of the bran and germ\n*Bleached flour is a white flour treated with flour bleaching agents to whiten it (freshly milled flour is yellowish) and give it more gluten-producing potential. Oxidizing agents are usually employed, most commonly organic peroxides like acetone peroxide or benzoyl peroxide, nitrogen dioxide, or chlorine. A similar effect can be achieved by letting the flour oxidize with oxygen in the air (\"natural aging\") for approximately 10 days; however, this process is more expensive due to the time required. Flour bleached with benzoyl peroxide has been prohibited in the UK since 1997.\n*Bromated flour has a maturing agent added. The agent's role is to help with developing gluten, a role similar to the flour bleaching agents. Bromate is usually used. Other choices are phosphates, ascorbic acid, and malted barley. Bromated flour has been banned in much of the world, as bromate is classified as possibly carcinogenic in humans (Group 2B) by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), but remains available in the United States.\n*Self-rising or self-raising flour is white flour that is sold premixed with chemical leavening agents. It was invented by Henry Jones. Self-rising flour is typically composed of the following ratio:\n**1 cup (100\u00a0g) flour\n**\u00a0teaspoons (3\u00a0g) baking powder\n**a pinch to \u00a0teaspoon (1\u00a0g or less) salt\n*Spelt flour is produced from the type of wheat called spelt. It is less commonly used in modern cooking than other wheat varieties. It is still used for specialty baking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gluten-free diet",
        "text": "A gluten-free diet may be based on gluten-free foods, such as meat, fish, eggs, milk and dairy products, legumes, nuts, fruits, vegetables, potatoes, rice, and corn. Gluten-free processed foods may be used. Pseudocereals (quinoa, amaranth, and buckwheat) and some minor cereals are alternative choices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glutenin",
        "text": "Glutenin (a type of glutelin) is a major protein within wheat flour, making up 47% of the total protein content. The glutenins are protein aggregates of high-molecular-mass (HMW) and low-molecular-mass (LMW) subunits with molar masses from about 200,000 to a few million, which are stabilized by intermolecular disulfide bonds, hydrophobic interactions and other forces. Glutenin is responsible for the strength and elasticity of dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Starch also affects the viscosity of predough. At room temperature and in a sufficient amount of water, intact starch granules can absorb water up to 50% of their own dry weight, causing them to swell to a limited extent. The slightly swollen granules are found in the spaces between the gluten network, thus contributing to the consistency of the dough. The granules may not be intact, as the process of milling wheat into flour damages some of the starch granules. Given that damaged starch granules have the capacity to absorb around three times as much water as undamaged starch, the use of flour with higher levels of damaged starch requires the addition of more water to achieve optimal dough development and consistency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baker percentage",
        "text": "Baker's percentages do not accurately reflect the impact of the amount of gluten-forming proteins in the flour on the final product and therefore may need to be adjusted from country to country, or even miller to miller, depending on definitions of terms like \"bread flour\" and actual protein content. Manipulation of known flour-protein levels can be calculated with a Pearson square."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ciba cake",
        "text": "Basic ingredients\n* Water\n* Glutinous rice flour"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gluten",
        "text": "Further refining of the gluten leads to chewier doughs such as those found in pizza and bagels, while less refining yields tender baked goods such as pastry products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wheat allergy",
        "text": "Baker's allergy has a \u03c9-gliadin component and thioredoxin hB component. In addition, a gluten-extrinsic allergen has been identified as aspergillus amylase, added to flour to increase its baking properties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "The CDC has cautioned not to eat raw flour doughs or batters. Raw flour can contain bacteria like \"E. coli\" and needs to be cooked like other foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Flour contains a high proportion of starches, which are a subset of complex carbohydrates also known as polysaccharides. The kinds of flour used in cooking include all-purpose flour (known as plain outside North America), self-rising flour, and cake flour including bleached flour. The higher the protein content the harder and stronger the flour, and the more it will produce crusty or chewy breads. The lower the protein the softer the flour, which is better for cakes, cookies, and pie crusts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soybean",
        "text": "Soy flour has 50% protein and 5% fiber. It has higher levels of protein, thiamine, riboflavin, phosphorus, calcium, and iron than wheat flour. It does not contain gluten. As a result, yeast-raised breads made with soy flour are dense in texture. Among many uses, soy flour thickens sauces, prevents staling in baked food, and reduces oil absorption during frying. Baking food with soy flour gives it tenderness, moistness, a rich color, and a fine texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tempura",
        "text": "Specially formulated tempura flour is available in supermarkets. This is generally light (low-gluten) flour, and occasionally contains leaveners such as baking powder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doughnut",
        "text": "Yeast doughnuts and cake doughnuts contain most of the same ingredients, however, their structural differences arise from the type of flour and leavening agent used. In cake doughnuts, cake flour is used, and the resulting doughnut is denser because cake flour has a relatively low gluten content of about 7 to 8 percent. In yeast doughnuts, a flour with a higher protein content of about 9 to 12 percent is used, resulting in a doughnut that is lighter and more airy. In addition, yeast doughnuts utilize yeast as a leavening agent. Specifically, \"Yeast cells are thoroughly distributed throughout the dough and begin to feed on the sugar that is present ... carbon dioxide gas is generated, which raises the dough, making it light and porous.\" Whereas this process is biological, the leavening process in cake doughnuts is chemical. In cake doughnuts, the most common leavening agent is baking powder. Baking powder is essentially \"baking soda with acid added. This neutralizes the base and produces more CO2 according to the following equation: NaHCO3 + H+ \u2192 Na+ + H2O + CO2.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Wheat flour",
        "text": "In general, a higher W index flour will require a longer rising time for leavened bread products. Higher W index flour better retains the CO2 produced during the fermentation process, because the gluten traps the produced gas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pasta",
        "text": "To address the needs of people affected by gluten-related disorders (such as coeliac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy sufferers), some recipes use rice or maize for making pasta. Grain flours may also be supplemented with cooked potatoes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doughnut",
        "text": "The physical structure of the doughnut is created by the combination of flour, leavening agent, sugar, eggs, salt, water, shortening, milk solids, and additional components. The most important ingredients for creating the dough network are the flour and eggs. The main protein in flour is gluten, which is overall responsible for creating elastic dough because this protein acts as \"coiled springs.\" The gluten network is composed of two separate molecules named glutenin and gliadin. Specifically, \"the backbone of the gluten network likely consists of the largest glutenin molecules, or subunits, aligned and tightly linked to one another. These tightly linked glutenin subunits associate more loosely, along with gliadin, into larger gluten aggregates.\" The gluten strands than tangle and interact with other strands and other molecules, resulting in networks that provide the elasticity of the dough. In mixing, the gluten is developed when the force of the mixer draws the gluten from the wheat endosperm, allowing the gluten matrix to trap the gas cells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gluten-free diet",
        "text": "Any food product that inherently does not contain gluten may use a gluten-free label where any unavoidable presence of gluten in the food bearing the claim in its labelling is below 20 ppm gluten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hypromellose",
        "text": "Agricultural Research Service scientists are investigating using the plant-derived HPMC as a substitute for gluten in making all-oat and other grain breads. Gluten, which is present in wheat, rye, and barley, is absent (or present only in trace quantities) in oat and other grains. Like gluten, HPMC can trap air bubbles formed by the yeast in bread dough, causing the bread to rise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gluten",
        "text": "In industrial production, a slurry of wheat flour is kneaded vigorously by machinery until the gluten agglomerates into a mass. This mass is collected by centrifugation, then transported through several stages integrated in a continuous process. About 65% of the water in the wet gluten is removed by means of a screw press; the remainder is sprayed through an atomizer nozzle into a drying chamber, where it remains at an elevated temperature for a short time to allow the water to evaporate without denaturing the gluten. The process yields a flour-like powder with a 7% moisture content, which is air cooled and pneumatically transported to a receiving vessel. In the final step, the processed gluten is sifted and milled to produce a uniform product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sourdough",
        "text": "In order to produce acetic acid, \"F. sanfrancisensis\" needs maltose and fructose. Wheat dough contains abundant starch and some polyfructosanes, which enzymes degrade to \"maltose, fructose and little glucose.\" The terms \"fructosan, glucofructan, sucrosyl fructan, polyfructan, and polyfructosan\" are all used to describe a class of compounds that are \"structurally and metabolically\" related to sucrose, where \"carbon is stored as sucrose and polymers of fructose (fructans).\" Yeasts have the ability to free fructose from glucofructans which compose about 1\u20132% of the dough. Glucofructans are long strings of fructose molecules attached to a single glucose molecule. Sucrose can be considered the shortest glucofructan, with only a single fructose molecule attached. When \"L. sanfrancisensis\" reduces all available fructose, it stops producing acetic acid and begins producing ethanol. If the fermenting dough gets too warm, the yeasts slow down, producing less fructose. Fructose depletion is more of a concern in doughs with lower enzymatic activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peanut flour",
        "text": "Defatted peanut flour is very low in fat, saturated fat and cholesterol according to https://nutritiondata.self.com. It is also a good source of dietary fiber, thiamin, folate, potassium and zinc, and a very good source of protein, niacin, magnesium, phosphorus, copper and manganese. Note that as a processed food, the following values vary significantly depending on the exact product."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "Gluten free foodstuffs have become part of the dietary trends in New Zealand, with cafes and restaurants increasingly offering gluten free versions of popular foods such as cakes, pizza, and hamburger buns. Some supermarkets, delicatessens and bakeries similarly offer gluten free products and there has been a rise in specialty stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gluten-free diet",
        "text": "When a food producer voluntarily chooses to use a gluten-free claim for a product, the food bearing the claim in its labelling may not contain:\n* an ingredient that is a gluten-containing grain\n* an ingredient that is derived from a gluten-containing grain that has not been processed to remove gluten\n* an ingredient that is derived from a gluten-containing grain, that has been processed to remove gluten but results in the presence of 20 ppm or more gluten in the food. Any food product claiming to be gluten-free and also bearing the term \"wheat\" in its ingredient list or in a separate \"Contains wheat\" statement, must also include the language \"*the wheat has been processed to allow this food to meet the FDA requirements for gluten-free foods,\" in close proximity to the ingredient statement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dough",
        "text": "Doughs with higher fat content contain less water and develop less gluten and are therefore generally less elastic than bread doughs. These doughs are often called \"short\" by bakers. Examples include many cookie and pie crust doughs such as shortcrust pastry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cookie dough",
        "text": "In 2016, General Mills recalled flour and cake mixes because of \"E. coli\" in the raw flour. In 2015, certain Blue Bell Ice Cream products were recalled due to \"Listeria monocytogenes\" found in the facility that produces chocolate chip cookie dough and other cookie dough containing flavors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Klappertaart",
        "text": "\"Klappertaart\" is Dutch for \"coconut cake\" or \"coconut tart\" and it's made from flour, sugar, milk, butter, and the flesh and juice of coconuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gluten",
        "text": "Gluten forms when glutenin molecules cross-link via disulfide bonds to form a submicroscopic network attached to gliadin, which contributes viscosity (thickness) and extensibility to the mix. If this dough is leavened with yeast, fermentation produces carbon dioxide bubbles, which, trapped by the gluten network, cause the dough to rise. Baking coagulates the gluten, which, along with starch, stabilizes the shape of the final product. Gluten content has been implicated as a factor in the staling of bread, possibly because it binds water through hydration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dough conditioner",
        "text": "Less processed dough conditioners include sprouted- or malted-grain flours, soy, milk, wheat germ, eggs, potatoes, gluten, yeast, and extra kneading. Malted, diastatic flours are not typically added by manufacturers to whole-wheat flours. Robertson \"et al\". point out that some of the better information is found in baking books published back when bakers were still kneading by hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gluten",
        "text": "In the European Union, all prepackaged foods and non-prepacked foods from a restaurant, take-out food wrapped just before sale, or unpackaged food served in institutions must be identified if gluten-free. \"Gluten-free\" is defined as 20 parts per million of gluten or less and \"very low gluten\" is 100 parts per million of gluten or less; only foods with cereal ingredients processed to remove gluten can claim \"very low gluten\" on labels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gluten-free diet",
        "text": "The gluten-free diet includes naturally gluten-free food, such as meat, fish, seafood, eggs, milk and dairy products, nuts, legumes, fruit, vegetables, potatoes, pseudocereals (in particular amaranth, buckwheat, chia seed, quinoa), only certain cereal grains (corn, rice, sorghum), minor cereals (including fonio, Job's tears, millet, teff, called \"minor\" cereals as they are \"less common and are only grown in a few small regions of the world\"), some other plant products (arrowroot, mesquite flour, sago, tapioca) and products made from these gluten-free foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crust (baking)",
        "text": "The ratio of ingredients and mixing method determines the texture of the crust. If the flour is not well mixed with the shortening, then water can bind to the available flour causing the gluten protein matrix to become over developed. This would result in a tough crust, as opposed to a flaky crust, which is more desirable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Unbleached flour is simply flour that has not undergone bleaching and therefore does not have the color of \"white\" flour. An example is graham flour, whose namesake, Sylvester Graham, was against using bleaching agents, which he considered unhealthy."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Milling Company of Guyana",
        "text": "Flour specifically for cakes and pastries under the Life\u2122 brand name, made of wheat flour with a low protein content"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rose Levy Beranbaum",
        "text": "She pioneered the \"reverse creaming\" technique of cake-making. In this process, the fat and flour are mixed first before adding the remaining ingredients. By coating the flour in fat, gluten development is inhibited, helping to prevent toughness. This is in contrast to the usual creaming technique, which first mixes fat and sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gluten-free diet",
        "text": "A gluten-free diet (GFD) is a nutritional plan that strictly excludes gluten, which is a mixture of proteins found in wheat (and all of its species and hybrids, such as spelt, kamut, and triticale), as well as barley, rye, and oats. The inclusion of oats in a gluten-free diet remains controversial, and may depend on the oat cultivar and the frequent cross-contamination with other gluten-containing cereals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gram flour",
        "text": "In the form of a paste with water or dahi (yogurt), it is also popular as a facial exfoliant in the Indian Subcontinent. When mixed with an equal volume of water, it can be used as an egg replacement in vegan cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greggs",
        "text": "The first gluten free products were launched with the autumn/winter menu in 2016 and included a range of cakes, brownies and crispy rolls. Their Halloween product line includes fairy buns, cakes, biscuits, lattices and gingerbread kits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rice bread",
        "text": "Rice bread is a type of bread that is made from rice flour rather than wheat flour. Being gluten free, it will not cause adverse reactions for people with gluten intolerance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glutinous rice",
        "text": "Glutinous rice or glutinous rice flour are both used in many Chinese bakery products and in many varieties of dim sum. They produce a flexible, resilient dough, which can take on the flavors of whatever other ingredients are added to it. Cooking usually consists of steaming or boiling, sometimes followed by pan-frying or deep-frying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Flour also can be made from soybeans, arrowroot, taro, cattails, acorns, manioc, quinoa, and other non-cereal foodstuffs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kue putu",
        "text": "It consists of rice flour with green pandan leaf colouring, filled with ground palm sugar. This green coconut-rice flour ingredients with palm sugar filling is filled into bamboo tube container. Subsequently, the filled bamboo tubes are steamed upon a steam cooker with small holes opening to blow the hot steam. The cooked tubular cakes then pushed out from the bamboo tube container, and served with grated coconut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arrowroot",
        "text": "The lack of gluten in arrowroot flour makes it useful as a replacement for wheat flour for those with a gluten intolerance. It is, however, relatively high in carbohydrates and low in protein (approximately 7.7%) and does not provide a complete substitute for wheat flour in bread-making."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cake",
        "text": "The CDC has recommended not to eat raw cake batter because it can contain \"E. coli\". Raw flour can contain bacteria and needs to be cooked like other foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Wheat flour, in addition to its starch, contains three water-soluble protein groups (albumin, globulin, and proteoses) and two water-insoluble protein groups (glutenin and gliadin). When flour is mixed with water, the water-soluble proteins dissolve, leaving the glutenin and gliadin to form the structure of the resulting bread. When relatively dry dough is worked by kneading, or wet dough is allowed to rise for a long time (see no-knead bread), the glutenin forms strands of long, thin, chainlike molecules, while the shorter gliadin forms bridges between the strands of glutenin. The resulting networks of strands produced by these two proteins are known as gluten. Gluten development improves if the dough is allowed to autolyse."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the main ingredient in making bread?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The main ingredient in making bread is flour, which has different kinds such as cereal flour, wheat flour, corn flour and rye flour."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How does the different kinds of flour change the bread?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are many differences: Rye bread is typically more dense than bread made from wheat flour, and is higher in fiber and causes slower increases in blood sugar than white bread, while pastry flour produces more flaky crusts, and coconut flour has the highest fiber content of any flour, and few carbohydrates. Is there any particular kind of flour you would like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me more about coconut flour?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Coconut flour is made from ground coconut meat and has the highest fiber content of any flour, with a very low concentration of digestible carbohydrates, and has a high fat content of about 60 percent."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you use coconut flour to bake cakes too?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The definition of cake I located specified flour as an ingredient, but it was not stated which type was meant. It was noted that coconut flour has been developed for use in baking to combat malnutrition however."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Interesting. Is there such a thing as gluten-free flours?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Yes, there is acorn flour, almond flour, amaranth flour, apple flour, banana flour, bean flour, brown rice flour, buckwheat flour, cassava flour. chestnut flour, chickpea flour, chuno flour, coconut flour, coffee flour, corn flour, cornmeal, corn starch, glutinous rice flour, hemp flour, mesquite flour, nut flours, peasemeal flour, peanut flour, potato starch flour, potato flour, rice flour, sorghum flour, tapioca flour and teff flour."
    ],
    "topic": "Flour",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Flour:33",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Flour",
          "Types",
          "Gluten-free flours"
        ],
        "ctx": "When flours do not contain gluten, they are suitable for people with gluten-related disorders, such as coeliac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity or wheat allergy sufferers, among others. Contamination with gluten-containing cereals can occur during grain harvesting, transporting, milling, storing, processing, handling and/or cooking.\n* Acorn flour is made from ground acorns and can be used as a substitute for wheat flour. It was used by Native Americans. Koreans also use acorn flour to make dotorimuk.\n* Almond flour is made from ground almonds.\n* Amaranth flour is a flour produced from ground amaranth grain. It was commonly used in pre-Columbian meso-American cuisine and was originally cultivated by the Aztecs. It is becoming more and more available in speciality food shops.\n*Apple flour is made from milling apple pomace, the solid remains of juiced apples.\n* Banana flour has been traditionally made of green bananas for thousands of years and is currently popular both as a gluten-free replacement for wheat flour and as a source of resistant starch.\n* Bean flour is a flour produced from pulverized dried or ripe beans. Garbanzo and fava bean flour is a flour mixture with a high nutritional value and strong aftertaste.\n* Brown rice flour is of great importance in Southeast Asian cuisine. Edible rice paper can be made from it.\n* Buckwheat flour is used as an ingredient in many pancakes in the United States. In Japan, it is used to make a popular noodle called soba. In Russia, buckwheat flour is added to the batter for pancakes called \"blinis\" which are frequently eaten with caviar. Buckwheat flour is also used to make cr\u00eapes bretonnes in Brittany. On Hindu fasting days (\"Navaratri\" mainly, also \"Maha Shivaratri\"), people eat food made with buckwheat flour. The preparation varies across India. The most famous dishes are \"kuttu ki puri\" and \"kuttu pakora\". In most northern and western states the usual term is \"kuttu ka atta\".\n* Cassava flour is made from the root of the cassava plant. In a purified form (pure starch), it is called tapioca flour (see in list below).\n* Chestnut flour is popular in Corsica, the P\u00e9rigord, and Lunigiana for breads, cakes and pastas. It is the original ingredient for polenta, still used as such in Corsica and other Mediterranean locations. Chestnut bread keeps fresh for as long as two weeks. In other parts of Italy it is mainly used for desserts.\n* Chickpea flour (also known as gram flour or besan) is of great importance in Indian cuisine, and in Italy, where it is used for the Ligurian farinata.\n* Chu\u00f1o flour is made from dried potatoes in various countries of South America.\n* Coconut flour is made from ground coconut meat and has the highest fiber content of any flour, having a very low concentration of digestible carbohydrates and thus making an excellent choice for those looking to restrict their carbohydrate intake. It also has a high fat content of about 60 percent.\n*Coffee flour is flour usually made with either coffee cherries or coffee beans.\n* Corn (maize) flour is popular in the Southern and Southwestern US, Mexico, Central America, and Punjab regions of India and Pakistan, where it is called \"makai ka atta\". Coarse whole-grain corn flour is usually called cornmeal. Finely ground corn flour that has been treated with food-grade lime is called \"masa harina\" (see \"masa\") and is used to make \"tortillas\" and \"tamales\" in Mexican cooking. Corn flour should never be confused with corn starch, which is known as \"cornflour\" in British English.\n* Cornmeal is very similar to corn flour (see above) except in a coarser grind.\n* Corn starch is starch extracted from endosperm of the corn kernel.\n* Glutinous rice flour or sticky rice flour is used in east and southeast Asian cuisines for making tangyuan, etc.\n* Hemp flour is produced by pressing the oil from the hemp seed and milling the residue. Hemp seed is approximately 30 percent oil and 70 percent residue. Hemp flour does not rise, and is best mixed with other flours. Added to any flour by about 15-20 percent, it gives a spongy nutty texture and flavor with a green hue.\n* Mesquite flour is made from the dried and ground pods of the mesquite tree, which grows throughout North America in arid climates. The flour has a sweet, slightly nutty flavor and can be used in a wide variety of applications.\n* Nut flours are grated from oily nuts\u2014most commonly almonds and hazelnuts\u2014and are used instead of or in addition to wheat flour to produce more dry and flavorful pastries and cakes. Cakes made with nut flours are usually called tortes and most originated in Central Europe, in countries such as Hungary and Austria.\n* Peasemeal or pea flour is a flour produced from roasted and pulverized yellow field peas.\n* Peanut flour made from shelled cooked peanuts is a high-protein alternative to regular flour.\n* Potato starch flour is obtained by grinding the tubers to a pulp and removing the fibre and protein by water-washing. Potato starch (flour) is very white starch powder used as a thickening agent. Standard (native) potato starch needs boiling, to thicken in water, giving a transparent gel. Because the flour is made from neither grains nor legumes, it is used as a substitute for wheat flour in cooking by Jews during Passover, when grains are not eaten.\n* Potato flour, often confused with potato starch, is a peeled, cooked potato powder of mashed, mostly drum-dried and ground potato flakes using the whole potato and thus containing the protein and some of the fibres of the potato. It has an off-white slight yellowish color. These dehydrated, dried, potatoes, also called instant mashed potatoes can also be granules or flakes. Potato flour is cold-water-soluble; however, it is not used often as it tends to be heavy.\n* Rice flour is ground kernels of rice. It is widely used in Western countries especially for people who suffer from gluten-related disorders. Brown rice flour has higher nutritional value than white rice flour.\n* Sorghum flour is made from grinding whole grains of the sorghum plant. It is called \"jowar\" in India.\n* Tapioca flour, produced from the root of the cassava plant, is used to make breads, pancakes, tapioca pudding, a savoury porridge called fufu in Africa, and is used as a starch.\n* Teff flour is made from the grain teff, and is of considerable importance in eastern Africa (particularly around the horn of Africa). Notably, it is the chief ingredient in the bread injera, an important component of Ethiopian cuisine."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Flour sack",
        "text": "Reuel Colt Gridley famously carried a 50-pound bag of flour on his shoulder after losing a political bet in Austin, Nevada. The sack of flour was later auctioned off, then re-donated, then re-auctioned again and again to raise money for the United States Sanitary Commission during the American Civil War. Auctioning this single flour sack eventually raised more than $250,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour riot of 1837",
        "text": "As the crowd scattered, some fell on E. J. Herrick's flour store, but were dissuaded when a representative assured them they had been selling flour at a reasonable rate. They moved on to S.H. Herric & Son and repeated the looting ritual until they were assuaged by the owner, who addressed the crowd, and promised to gift his flour to the poor the next day. The police arrived and made what arrests they could."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lydia Darragh",
        "text": "British Intelligence agents became aware of the \"bag of flour\" trick a bit too late. On December 6, 1777, after the British returned from Whitemarsh, a message was published in the Philadelphia newspaper about \"a poor woman, whom we both know\" traveling to the Frankford Mill:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aunt Jemima",
        "text": "In 1888, \"St. Joseph Gazette\" editor Chris L. Rutt and his friend Charles G. Underwood bought a small flour mill at 214 North 2nd St. in St. Joseph, Missouri. Facing a glutted flour market, Rutt and Underwood's \"Pearl Milling Company\" utilized a pearl milling technique to produce flour, cornmeal, and in 1889\u2014following some experimination\u2014they began selling their excess flour as a pancake mix in paper bags with the generic label \"Self-Rising Pancake Flour\" (later dubbed \"the first ready-mix\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samuel Abbot",
        "text": "The flour of the potato recommended itself to the proprietors of the cotton cloth factories in New England for use as sizing, in preference to starch made from wheat flour. The demand for potato flour became general, and its manufacture a source of profit. The farmers of the neighborhood were also much benefitted in their agriculture by this manufacturer, as it afforded them a home market and ready pay for one of their most abundant and safest crops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Teobaldo Roggeri",
        "text": "On one occasion the owner of the shoe store where he worked asked that he take a sack of wheat to the mill to be ground into flour. He agreed but gave handful after handful to the poor people that he encountered along the path to the point where no more wheat remained. He lacked the courage to face the woman back at the store and refused to go back without something to return so he filled the bag with sand and left it on the woman's doorstep before running off. The woman found flour in the bag though later learned of what had happened. This began the tale of the so-called \"Miracle of the Flour\" and happened not long before his death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles Augustus Wheaton",
        "text": "In 1864 Wheaton sold the flour mill to Captain Jesse Ames and his sons, John and Adelbert. Ames and the Archibalds perfected flour milling processes that produced what was recognized as the best flour in the nation with higher yields at the mills. The Ames Mill was the basis of the Malt-O-Meal company."
      },
      {
        "title": "1951 Pont-Saint-Esprit mass poisoning",
        "text": "During the interrogation, Maillet admitted that he had made a deal with a baker, Guy Bru\u00e8re, who had brought in bags to be milled. Since this was near the end of the season, the bags were filled with leftover grain that sometimes contained a high proportion of rye. The rye was not the only problem with the flour, as the miller also noted the presence of weevils, mites and dust. The baker was concerned that he would lose business should he refuse the grain on the basis of quality. Despite the miller having noticed the low quality of the grains, he agreed to exchange the grain for a lower quantity of flour already milled from grain marked for export. Given that the quantity of lower-quality grain was much lower than that of the grain for export, the miller thought that it would be possible to mix it all without reducing the overall quality of the flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour War",
        "text": "The price of grain and of bread rose suddenly, and became a desperate burden on the poorest populations. There ensued major popular unrest at markets and other flour distribution locations. Rumors spread against the \"power-grabbers\" and \"monopolizers\". This type of popular reaction against the merchants was a constant in times of famine, but it took on an unusual depth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samuel Fox (1781\u20131868)",
        "text": "Nottingham had famines in 1847, 1848 and 1849 and Fox again helped. Fox obtained maize flour which his customers had never seen or used before. Fox sold large quantities of the flour at two pence per pound less than he bought if for."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour sack",
        "text": "According to the Smithsonian, \"With feed sacks and flour bags, farmwomen took thriftiness to new heights of creativity, transforming the humble bags into dresses, underwear, towels, curtains, quilts, and other household necessities.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Verbum dicendi",
        "text": "d. If we ran out of flour or sugar, say, we would gather up a few eggs and take them to Mr. Nichols's general store"
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Archaeological evidence for making flour (wheat seeds crushed between simple millstones) dates to at least 6000 BC. In 2018, archaeologists reported finding evidence of bread making at Shubayqa 1, a Natufian hunter-gatherer site more than 14,000 years old in northwest Jordan. The Romans were the first to grind seeds on cone mills. In 1786, at the beginning of the Industrial Era, the first steam-powered flour mill, Albion Mills, Southwark, was completed in London. In the 1930s, some flour began to be enriched with iron, niacin, thiamine and riboflavin. In the 1940s, mills started to enrich flour and folic acid was added to the list in the 1990s."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Harvey Kellogg",
        "text": "Kellogg also sold yogurt, soy flour, and soy bread.\n*\n*"
      },
      {
        "title": "William Hood Dunwoody",
        "text": "Dunwoody sold American flour to British bakers, creating an export market and environment in which Minneapolis, Minnesota, became for a time the world's center of flour milling. By 1901, he was one of sixteen millionaires in Minneapolis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christopher Ludwick",
        "text": "Ludwick had originally learned the baking trade in his native city of Giessen. In 1777, he was appointed by the Continental Congress to the position of baker general to the American Army. It was stipulated that he should return one pound of bread for every pound of flour delivered to him. But, he immediately replied, \u201cNot so! I must not be enriched by the war. I shall return 135 pounds of bread for every 100 pounds of flour.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Frances Harper",
        "text": "She gave the meat and flour a toss,"
      },
      {
        "title": "William Hood Dunwoody",
        "text": "He agreed with Cadwallader C. Washburn that flour could be sold directly to the United Kingdom and in 1877 Washburn arranged his trip there. Through \"clouds of insults, uncertanties, and rumors,\" \"Dunwoody made his quiet way.\" Eventually in 1878 English bakers realized that American flour made more loaves per barrel than English flour. Dunwoody overcame \"most determined opposition\", successfully arranged for direct export, and set patterns of business that persisted for years. Exports to the United Kingdom and continental Europe increased from a few hundred barrels in 1877 or 1878 to four million barrels in 1895. By 1900 exports peaked at about one third the output of Minneapolis mills."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caspar A. Baaden",
        "text": "He was a flour-dealer on Broome Street in New York City."
      },
      {
        "title": "Otto Frederick Rohwedder",
        "text": "In 1927 Rohwedder successfully designed a machine that not only sliced the bread but wrapped it. He applied for patents to protect his invention and sold the first machine to a friend and baker Frank Bench, who installed it at the Chillicothe Baking Company, in Chillicothe, Missouri, in 1928. The first loaf of sliced bread was sold commercially on July 7, 1928. Sales of the machine to other bakeries increased and sliced bread became available across the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "De Hoop, Ouddorp",
        "text": "There is a store beside the mill where flour products are sold."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Weston",
        "text": "very choicest flour with which to make our bread.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "McCrae Homestead",
        "text": "\"Since the flour sacks are full of holes, I have removed my dresses from the tinned chest and filled it with flour instead.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Unifine mill",
        "text": "Upon discovering that these mills could not be patented, the college opted to register the name \"Unifine\" and authorized Fulton and his \"Fairfield Milling Company Inc.\" to begin distribution of the first commercial flour milled by the machine under the brand name \"Unifine\" in 1962. A second Unifine Mill began operation under the label \"Flour Girls\" in the late 1970s directed and funded by individuals that participated in the research and development of the mills at the college. The flour produced was used by home bakers to make light, whole wheat bread without the dense texture of breads made from traditional whole wheat flours. During that era of simmering consumer interest in the nutritional merits of whole wheat flour, these mills realized modest but ultimately unsustainable success. After roughly twenty years, these companies ceased operations and a new generation of unifine flour mills began producing flour under the \"Azure Standard\" brand. These flours are now marketed throughout the greater Pacific Northwestern section of the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Priday, Metford and Company Limited",
        "text": "The flour was originally distributed in 280\u00a0lb (127\u00a0kg) sacks piled high on horse-drawn drays. Later these were replaced by motor vehicles; a steam-driven \"Sentinel\" and, later, by Dennis lorries, the early models having solid tyres. Railways were also used for flour delivery. The company built up a fleet of flatbed lorries and bulk tankers to adapt to the transition from rail to road transport."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mark Twain in Nevada",
        "text": "The flour sack had originally been part of a bet between Gridley and H.S. Herrick of the town of Austin, Nevada. While Gridley supported the Democratic party, his opponent supported the Republican party. The bet was over whose party's candidate would win the mayoral election. Gridley was running as the Democratic candidate and said that, if he lost, he would carry the sack on his back through town with a brass band playing John Brown's Body behind him, but if Herrick's candidate lost, Herrick would carry the sack with the band playing Dixie. After Gridley lost and held up his part of the bet, Herrick told him he didn't want the flour, and it was decided that it should be auctioned with the funds going to the sanitary commission. The winner of the first series of bids refused to take possession of the sack and instructed that he auction it again, to which he complied with the situation repeating itself into the night. Other communities learning of the event invited Gridley to \"auction\" the sack at their town, which Gridley did, making his own traveling fundraising campaign for the sanitary commission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour sack",
        "text": "By the middle of the 19th century in the US, the economies of shipping commodities such as animal feeds, seeds, sugar and flour became more cost-effective to package and ship in sacks rather than in barrels, which was what had been previously used. By the late 19th century, flour sacks were often printed in various colors and designs, and recycled for clothing and other purposes. Farm women washed the seller's logos off the sacks and upcycled them into clothing and household goods. By 1925 at least one company, Gingham Girl, was packaging in dress-quality fabrics and using their sacks as a selling point. By the 1930s companies regarded the sacks as a crucial part of marketing product. One feed store owner complained about purchase decisions moving from the farmer to the farmwife, saying \"Years ago they used to ask for all sorts of feeds. Now they come over and ask me if I have an egg mash in a flowered percale. It ain\u2019t natural.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Amirah Kassem",
        "text": "Flour Shop opened their Flagship Store in SoHo New York in November 2017 and in Beverly Hills, California in August 2020. Her clients have included Kim Kardashian, Katy Perry and Beyonce, as well as brands likes Vans, Louis Vuitton, and Alice + Olivia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moulton Windmill",
        "text": "On 28 April 2013 the first bag of flour in over 100 years was ground with wind power."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lewis Riggs",
        "text": "Also operated a flour mill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rickrack",
        "text": "In rural America in the 1930s, 40s, and 50s, rickrack was used to decorate flour sack dresses. These dresses were worn as everyday attire, and were constructed from the large cotton bags that flour, chicken feed, and other goods were shipped in. Since the food had to be shipped in fabric bags anyway, the flour mills competed with each other by using attractive, colorful fabrics that the buyer could either resell or upcycle into dresses, aprons, nightgowns, dishtowels, and other clothing and household items. Adding trim like rickrack was a way to reduce the stigma around needing to use whatever fabric was available, rather than buying it from a store."
      },
      {
        "title": "Georgia, Florida, & Alabama Railway Co. v. Blish Milling Co.",
        "text": "'The railway company' (that is, the plaintiff in error) 'retook possession of the car and unloaded it, and in a few days sold, as perishable property, a part of the flour alleged to be damaged, and on December 23, 1910, sold the remainder. On June 3, 1910, after the Grocery Company had turned the flour back to the railway company, B. C. Prince, traffic manager of the Georgia, Florida, & Alabama Railway Company, telegraphed to the Blish Milling Company as follows: 'Flour order notify Draper-Garrett Grocery Company refused account damage. Hold at your risk and expense. Advise disposition.' On the next day the Miling Company replied by telegraphing to Prince, 'Sending our representative there. What is nature of damage?' To this Prince replied: 'Flour transferred in route. Slight damage by water, apparently rough handling. When will your representative reach Bainbridge?' The Blish Milling Company replied that its man would be there that night or the next day. On June 7 (after the Milling Company's representative had reached Bainbridge and conferred with the agents of the railway company and with the Grocery Company) the Milling Company sent a final telegram, saying, 'We will make claim against railroad for entire contents of car at invoice price. Must refuse shipment as we cannot handle.' It appears, from the evidence of Mr. Draper, that the price of flour declined after his order was given and before the flour reached Bainbridge. There [241 U.S. 190, 194] is conflict in the evidence as to a tender of the flour by the railway company to the Milling Company's representative. According to some of the testimony, about 18 barrels of the flour had been sold by the railway company before the alleged tender was made, and therefore it was not within the power of the carrier to tender the shipment in its entirety.' The verdict in favor of the Milling Company was for $1,084.50, from which the court of appeals required a deduction of the amount of the unpaid freight, which was held to have been erroneously included."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour sack",
        "text": "A flour sack, feed sack, or flour bag is a cloth sack, usually made of cheap cotton, used to store flour or animal feed. Flour sacks are often printed with simple designs and trademarks to indicate the millers and companies making or selling the flour. Many regions of the world reuse the sacks to produce clothing and household linens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fannie Patton",
        "text": "On December 30, 1868, J.H. Foster & Co. of Magnolia Mills in Albany, shipped out on \"Fannie Patton\" the largest single lot shipment of flour every sent out from Albany. The shipment consisted of 4,400 sacks of flour, the equivalent of 1,100 barrels. The flour mills were then reported to be running \"night and day.\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour sack",
        "text": "During the Great Depression in the US, many families sewed clothing from discarded flour sacks. Often flour would be purchased according to the patterns printed on the bag. The sacks had so many uses, and the clothing made from them was so common, that flour sacks entered the local folklore. Kendra Brandes found that \"as an element of material culture, the clothing and clothing practices of rural populations reflect the life and times of the era to the same extent as that of the general population. However, it is the activities of these farm wives, clothing their families in feed sacks, that offer a view of life that was unique to rural communities during this time period.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "John Sargent Pillsbury Sr.",
        "text": "John then fought off not only a buyout effort from a New York group to join it with their flour milling trust and then saved it from receivership in 1909. They put together a group that bought Pillsbury-Washburn Flour Co. Ltd., back from British stockholders in 1923 and took great pride in bringing it back under U.S. ownership. During a trip to Sicily, Italy and France, John learned a method for milling semolina flour which is made from durum wheat and used as a principal ingredient for making macaroni."
      },
      {
        "title": "Berman's Bakery",
        "text": "Yehoshua Berman also built the city's first flour mill in 1886, north of Mishkenot Sha'ananim, which operated until the 1948 Arab-Israeli war turned that area into a no man's land. Two huge millstones still stand at the former site, which is at the end of the two rows of artisan's galleries on the Street of the Craftsmen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Flour (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kkulppang",
        "text": "\"Kkulppang\" was first made and sold in 1963 by Jeong Wonseok at a stand in front of his house in Hangnam-dong, Tongyeong. In the early 1960s, when post-war impoverishment was severe, the bread was made with rationed wheat flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Georgia, Florida, & Alabama Railway Co. v. Blish Milling Co.",
        "text": "On May 13, 1910, the Blish Milling Company shipped from Seymour, Indiana, to Bainbridge, Georgia, a carload of flour consigned to its own order, with direction to notify Draper-Garrett Grocery Company at Bainbridge. The bill of lading was issued by the Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern Railroad Company. The shipper's sight draft upon the Draper- Garrett Grocery Company, for $1,109.89, covering the price of the flour, with a carrying charge, was attached to the bill of lading and forwarded to a bank in Bainbridge for collection. The flour was transferred to another car by the Central of Georgia Railway Company, a connecting carrier, and reached Bainbridge on June 2, 1910, over the line of the Georgia, Florida, & Alabama Railway Company, the plaintiff in error, in accordance with routing. The plaintiff in error, without requiring payment of the draft and surrender of the bill [241 U.S. 190, 193] of lading (which were ultimately returned to the Blish Milling Company), delivered the car to the Draper-Garrett Grocery Company immediately on its arrival by placing it on the sidetrack of that company. In the course of unloading, the Grocery Company discovered that some of the flour was wet, and thereupon reloaded the part removed and returned the flour to the plaintiff in error. The subsequent course of events is thus stated by the court of appeals (id. pp.\u00a0144, 145):"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cream of Wheat",
        "text": "After initially being uninterested, Diamond's owners\u2013Emery Mapes, George Bull, and George Clifford\u2013eventually agreed to test the product. They sent 10 cases, in strawboard boxes handmade by Amidon, to their brokers in New York along with a regular shipment of flour. Another employee suggested the name \"Cream of Wheat\" which was hand-lettered on the boxes along with a stock illustration of a black chef holding a saucepan which Mapes, a former printer, had on hand. Just hours after the brokers, Lamont, Corliss & Co., distributed the product to grocers they wired Diamond ordering another 50 cases. The next morning, the brokers sent a second telegram saying, \"FORGET THE FLOUR. SEND US A CAR OF CREAM OF WHEAT.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Northern Belle",
        "text": "On 23 February 1857 3,340 barrels of damaged American flour, part of the cargo, was auctioned off at the New Corn Exchange Coffee House, Mark Lane, London. On 2 March, another 450 barrels of damaged American flour and 20 barrels of damaged linseed cake was auctioned at the coffee house."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "An important problem of the industrial revolution was the preservation of flour. Transportation distances and a relatively slow distribution system collided with natural shelf life. The reason for the limited shelf life is the fatty acids of the germ, which react from the moment they are exposed to oxygen. This occurs when grain is milled; the fatty acids oxidize and flour starts to become rancid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Commission for Relief in Belgium",
        "text": "The CRB shipped 697,116,000 pounds of flour to Belgium and evidence indicates that sugar and grains were also sent. The flour was packaged in cotton flour sacks by American mills. The movement of these bags throughout Belgium was carefully controlled by the CRB since cotton was in great demand for the manufacture of German ammunition and also because the CRB feared that the flour sacks would be taken out of Belgium, refilled with inferior flour, and resold as relief flour. As a result, the empty flour sacks were carefully accounted for and distributed to professional schools, sewing workrooms, convents, and individual artists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour dresser",
        "text": "Separating the bran and other parts of the grain from the desired flour was historically a difficult and time-consuming process to carry out manually. Efforts to automate the process began early on. Edmund Brunt filed a provisional patent on a 'bolting machine' in 1614. John Milne patented a machine in 1765 which used several grades of wire mesh or cloth to separate flour from bran. A machine for manufacturing bolting cloth, used to filter the flour from bran and other parts of the grain, was patented in 1783 by Benjamin Blackmore. And in 1850, James Bell devised a means of separating flour by pushing the feedstock (or 'stock') against a vertical cloth ('bolting sleeve') while Joseph Foot patented a means of making the filter sleeve from silk instead of wool. Development continued into the 19th and 20th centuries, increasing the speed and efficiency of the process through improvements such as the addition of beaters and brushes to force the fine flour through the filters and to continuously clean the filters as they rotated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conagra Brands",
        "text": "After researching new uses for its flour, NCM funded the establishment of the Duncan Hines brand of cake mixes in 1951 as a way to market more flour. This venture was very successful, leading the company to its current place as the third largest flour miller in the U.S. However, this did not lead NCM to consider other food ventures, and instead it sold its Duncan Hines assets to Procter & Gamble in 1956. As American households purchased more and more prepared and instant foods in the 1950s and 1960s, NCM chose not to expand into the businesses that used its flour, instead turning in the opposite direction and focusing more on raw foods like poultry and expanding its livestock feed business."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour riot of 1837",
        "text": "In February of that year, a rumor circulated that there was only three or four weeks supply of flour on hand. This was picked up in newspapers, who added reports that vast supplies were being hoarded by merchants for the purpose of driving up prices yet higher. The reports railed against \"an atrocious and wicked conspiracy by rich speculators,\" a group of \"veritable vermin who prey upon the community\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour riot of 1837",
        "text": "By the time police and militia arrived and dispersed the crowd 500 to 600 barrels of flour and a thousand bushels of wheat had been destroyed. In total, some 40 people were arrested."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shredded wheat",
        "text": "Perky first sold his shredded wheat cereal to vegetarian restaurants in 1892, distributing it from a factory in Niagara Falls, New York. A health-oriented publication, \"The Chicago Vegetarian\", recommended the use of shredded wheat biscuits as soup croutons. At the same time, Perky leased cereal-manufacturing machines to bakers in Denver and Colorado Springs through his Cereal Machine Company and sold wheat processors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Assembly line",
        "text": "The automatic flour mill built by Oliver Evans in 1785 was called the beginning of modern bulk material handling by Roe (1916). Evans's mill used a leather belt bucket elevator, screw conveyors, canvas belt conveyors, and other mechanical devices to completely automate the process of making flour. The innovation spread to other mills and breweries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Many varieties of flour packaged specifically for commercial bakeries are still bromated. Retail bleached flour marketed to the home baker is now treated mostly with either peroxidation or chlorine gas. Current information from Pillsbury is that their varieties of bleached flour are treated both with benzoyl peroxide and chlorine gas. Gold Medal states that their bleached flour is treated either with benzoyl peroxide or chlorine gas, but no way exists to tell which process has been used when buying the flour at the grocery store."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward T. Archibald House",
        "text": "Due to the great care that was taken in its manufacture, flour from the Archibald Mill was recognized as the best in the United States. \"Dundas straight\", as it became known, was sold for $1.00 or more per barrel in New York City and Boston markets than the flours produced in Minneapolis. As a result, Minneapolis millers would come down to Dundas to study the Archibald Mill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepperidge Farm",
        "text": "Margaret Rudkin began baking bread in 1937 for her youngest son Mark who had asthma and was allergic to most commercially processed foods. Her son's doctor recommended it to his other patients and encouraged her to sell her bread to the public. Her first commercial sale was to her local grocer in Fairfield, Conn., Mercurio\u2019s Market. Margaret's husband Henry, a Wall Street broker, began taking loaves of bread with him to New York to be sold in specialty stores. She moved the growing business out of her kitchen and into her garage, then into a factory in 1940. Rationing during World War II forced her to cut back production due to the restricted availability of quality ingredients. In 1947, Margaret opened a modern commercial bakery in Norwalk, Connecticut, and soon after added plants in Illinois and Pennsylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "York Flour Mill",
        "text": "On the first floor, the grain was rolled. On the second floor, the bran was separated from the pollard, and on the third floor, it was dressed. The flour was then returned to the ground floor where it was machine packed into bags and loaded to an immense storage shed served by its own railway siding and loaded for the Fremantle docks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Priday, Metford and Company Limited",
        "text": "1957 Mill modernisation. Flu epidemic caused drop in flour consumption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aprapransa",
        "text": "Roasted corn flour can either be purchased at Ghanaian markets or made from plain corn flour in a pan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rank Hovis McDougall",
        "text": "As he strove for greater productivity he installed equipment that produced 30 sacks of flour an hour, and then 40 sacks an hour. He also set up agencies to distribute his flour in parts of England where it previously had not been sold. In May 1899 the business was incorporated as a private company under the name \"Joseph Rank Limited\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter Reinhart",
        "text": "Reinhart's \"Bread Revolution: World-Class Baking with Sprouted & Whole Grains, Heirloom Flours & Fresh Techniques\" was published in 2014. In the book, he has introduced a new kind of whole wheat flour called sprouted wheat. He first learned about it in 2009 when a local flour miller called to tell him about it and promptly shipped him 25 pounds of the flour to test. Reinhart made multiple breads with the flour and liked the taste. The book features 50 recipes that use sprouted flour, ancient flours like amaranth and quinoa, new alternative flours made from grape skins and seeds, gluten-free breads and a few quick breads. The book also promotes Reinhart's stretch and fold method of bread-making, first introduced in an earlier book, Artisan Breads Everyday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour sack",
        "text": "Several people from rural Virginia spoke about their clothes made from sacks during the depression. \"Back then, feed was sold in sacks. I believe they held almost 100 pounds of seeds. A number of farmers who didn't sew returned the sacks for resale... I actually made hair bows, pants and dresses from the sacks.\" \"Mama always sewed on a Singer treadle sewing machine and made our dresses from flour sacks. She made sure Dad would get two sacks just alike. That was what the pattern took to make the dresses right.\" \"Mama made me pinafores out of flour sacks. Flour sacks were made of cotton with pretty prints.\" \"Dresses made for my sister and me were sometimes made out of cotton feed bags (I guess my brothers were lucky).\" \"My mother made shirts out of feed sacks, which a lot of cow feed, came in.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles E. Saunders",
        "text": "Using a technique he devised himself, Saunders ground his own flour and baked his own bread in small loaves to measure volume."
      },
      {
        "title": "Willem Karel Dicke",
        "text": "Willem Karel Dicke (15 February 1905, Dordrecht \u2013 27 April 1962, De Bilt) was a Dutch paediatrician who was the first to develop the gluten-free diet and to show that in coeliac disease some types of flour cause relapse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Feed sack dress",
        "text": "By the beginning of the 20th century, flour sacks were produced in a variety of fabrics of tighter weave such as percale and sheeting and often printed in various colors and designs, and recycled for clothing and other purposes. Farm women recycled the sacks into clothing, and by 1925 the George P. Plant Milling Company of St. Louis produced Gingham Girl flour packaged in dress-quality red-and-white checked yarn-dyed fabric and used the sacks as a selling point. By the end of the decade Bemis Brothers in Tennessee, Fulton Bag & Cotton Mills in Georgia, and Percy Kent of Buffalo, New York were producing decorative sacks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wonder Bread",
        "text": "Wonder Bakery Exhibit, in The Food Zone, 1939 New York World's Fair by Continental Baking Company had a wheat field, the first, in 68 years, in New York City."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour sack",
        "text": "Because they came along with the purchase of essential flour, flour sacks were universally recycled and used by many cultures as a source of free textiles for clothing and other necessities. For refugees, the free cloth that came with flour helped replace worn-out and inadequate clothing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food packaging",
        "text": "1880s: First cereal packaged in a folding box by Quaker Oats"
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Jones (baker)",
        "text": "Records concerning Jones' patent for self-raising flour are held at Bristol Archives (Ref. 29932) (online catalogue)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Bread flour is typically made from red hard wheat planted in the fall and harvested in the spring (winter wheat). Hard wheat is high in gluten, a protein that makes dough stretchy. Hard wheat is 11.5-13.5% (12-14% from second source) protein. The increased protein binds to the flour to entrap carbon dioxide released by the yeast fermentation process, resulting in a better rise and chewier texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meringandan",
        "text": "Before 1900, the farmers' wives baked their own bread, but early in the century a bakery was established by O. Wuersching, the first baker employed being Walls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Manchet",
        "text": "One of the first recipes printed in English for manchet breads comes from 1588 and the recipe book \"The Good Huswifes Handmaide\" by an unknown author. In it the author explains that the flour must be fine and have been \"boulted\" twice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Depending on climate and grain quality, this process takes six to nine months. In the late 19th century, this process was too short for an industrial production and distribution cycle. As vitamins, micronutrients and amino acids were completely or relatively unknown in the late 19th century, removing the germ was an effective solution. Without the germ, flour cannot become rancid. Degermed flour became standard. Degermation started in densely populated areas and took approximately one generation to reach the countryside."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour",
        "text": "Flour\n--Etymology.\n--History.\n----Degermed and heat-processed flour.\n----Production.\n--Modern mills.\n--Composition.\n----Bleached flour.\n------Additives.\n------Frequency of additives.\n----Enriched flour.\n----Cake flour.\n----Pastry flour.\n----Plain or all-purpose flour.\n----Bread flour.\n----Hard flour.\n----Gluten flour.\n----Unbleached flour.\n----Self-raising flour.\n--Types.\n----Gluten-containing flours.\n------Wheat flour.\n----Gluten-free flours.\n------More types.\n----Type numbers.\n--Flammability.\n--Products.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour corn",
        "text": "Flour corn\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread clip",
        "text": "Paxton was known for repeatedly telling the story about how he came up with the idea of the bread clip. As he told it, he was flying home on an airliner in 1952 and opened a bag of peanuts, whereupon he realized he had no way to reclose it. He rummaged through his wallet and found an expired credit card and hand-carved his first bag clip with a small pen knife. When a fruit packer, Pacific Fruit, wanted to replace rubber bands with a better bag closure for its new plastic bags, Paxton remembered his bag of peanuts. He hand-whittled another clip from a small sheet of Plexiglas. With an order in hand for a million clips, Paxton designed a die-cut machine to produce the clips at high speed. Despite repeated attempts, Paxton never won a United States patent for his clips. He did win numerous patents for the high-speed \"bag closing apparatus\" that made the clips, inserted bread into bags and applied the clips for the finished product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Minneapolis",
        "text": "A single mill at Washburn-Crosby could make flour for 12\u00a0million loaves of bread each day, and by 1900, 14 percent of America's grain was milled in Minneapolis. By 1895, through the efforts of silent partner William Hood Dunwoody, Washburn-Crosby exported four million barrels of flour a year to the United Kingdom. When exports reached their peak in 1900, about one third of all flour milled in Minneapolis was shipped overseas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aerated Bread Company",
        "text": "A.B.C.'s first bakery was in Islington, London. In the late Victorian-era, the Dauglish method was considered the superior system by which to mass-produce bread. In his memoir of the method, Benjamin Ward Richardson, a later director of the company, wrote:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sliced bread",
        "text": "St. Louis baker Gustav Papendick bought Rohwedder's second bread slicer and set out to improve it by devising a way to keep the slices together at least long enough to allow the loaves to be wrapped. After failures trying rubber bands and metal pins, he settled on placing the slices into a cardboard tray. The tray aligned the slices, allowing mechanized wrapping machines to function."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wonder Bread",
        "text": "Continental Baking Company purchased Taggart in 1925. This made Wonder Bread a national brand and added \"It's Slo Baked\" to the logo. In the 1930s, Continental Baking began marketing Wonder Bread in sliced form nationwide, one of the first companies to do so; this was a significant milestone for the industry and for American consumers, who, at first, needed reassurance that \"wonder-cut\" bread would not dry out. The W. E. Long Company of Chicago, which had formed a cooperative of bakeries to market Holsum Bread, had pioneered and promoted the packaging of sliced bread two years prior, in 1928."
      },
      {
        "title": "Benjamin O'Fallon",
        "text": "He established a business selling meat and flour in 1813 with James Kennerly, who was the brother of William Clark's second wife and cousin of his first wife. A year later, O'Fallon supplied Clark's military expedition to Prairie du Chien in present Wisconsin. He built gristmills and sawmills north of St. Louis in 1815, but sold the mills after one year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour riot of 1837",
        "text": "On February 10 a bulletin was posted throughout the city reading:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mormon foodways",
        "text": "Wheat flour was scarce, and many pioneers used corn flour instead, since it was cheaper and easier to grow corn than wheat. Early grist mills, powered by water, provided a spectrum from whole-wheat to white flour (including middle types like Graham flour). Corn was easier to grow on undeveloped land and all social classes ate Hominy. Poor families gleaned wheat from fields."
      },
      {
        "title": "Archibald Mill",
        "text": "The mill used the most current technology available and produced flour of a fine quality. Called EXTRA, the flour was sold for $1 or $2 more per barrel than other local flours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monroe City Mill",
        "text": "Wheat flour was the primary product produced. Wheat was grown in abundance by nearby farmers. The Mill ground flour for local consumption as well as for export to the world. Flour was packed into barrels and hauled to the dock at Harrisonville on the Mississippi River. Barges transported the flour downstream to New Orleans. From there, it was loaded onto packet ships for export to Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aaron Rose (pioneer)",
        "text": "In the early days, Rose stated, that money was more plentiful than provisions. Eggs and apples sold readily at apiece, and flour at a pound. Gold dust was the principal form of exchange."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour (band)",
        "text": "Flour (band)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ind\u00fastrias Reunidas F\u00e1bricas Matarazzo",
        "text": "With the Spanish-American War in 1898, which involved some colonies in Central America, the import of flour was compromised. Matarazzo then began to buy the product from Argentina. Then he decided to produce the flour in Brazil. With the help of credit from the British bank \"The London and Brazilian Bank\" (later Bank of London and South America), he built a modern mill in S\u00e3o Paulo in 1900."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allinson",
        "text": "Allinson\n--History.\n--Production.\n--Allinson Flour.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread bag",
        "text": "Bread bag\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Halle aux bl\u00e9s (Paris)",
        "text": "The grain and flour was then delivered via rail direct from the provinces to the bakers and merchants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jane Manning James",
        "text": "April 25: Jane James, a colored woman, let me have two pounds of flour, it being about half she had."
      },
      {
        "title": "1951 Pont-Saint-Esprit mass poisoning",
        "text": "Both Briand and his assistant agreed that the first batch was constituted of the previous day's flour mixed with flour borrowed from Jaussent. They disagreed on the second and third batches. Whereas Briand stated that the second was made with Jaussent's flour and the third with Fallavet's flour, the assistant stated that both latter batches were made with a mix of the two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flour riot of 1837",
        "text": "The flour riot of 1837 was a food riot that broke out in New York City in February 1837, and lasted less than a day. This violent civil disturbance grew out of a public meeting called by the Locofocos to protest runaway prices, as hungry workers plundered private storerooms filled with sacks of hoarded flour. Commodity prices had skyrocketed over the winter of 1836\u201337, an inflationary boom fueled by foreign investment and two successive years of wheat crop failures. The riot was also a sign of the impending financial crisis known as the Panic of 1837, that hit the American economy the following month."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vienna bread",
        "text": "Eben Norton Horsford wrote, Horsford observed that high-milled flour contained less damaged starch,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Julius Maggi",
        "text": "In the early 1880s, Julius began experimenting to invent a new type of flour. In 1882, he finally began selling flour and founded Maggi. In 1886, he launched \"Maggi\" seasoning."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Weston",
        "text": "Eventually, George became a bread salesman and in 1882 went into business for himself, buying a bread route from Bowen. Two years later, with his business prospering, he bought out the bakery of his former employer. Years later, George Weston recalled those early days: \"I baked 250 loaves the first day. I delivered them \u2014 drove my own waggon \u2014 called on every customer myself.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Chiquinquir\u00e1",
        "text": "Murder charges would later be filed against a Bogot\u00e1 truck driver who had delivered the flour and the owner of the bakery that had baked and sold the bread to local residents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blaa",
        "text": "This theory is disputed because although white flour existed in the 17th\u00a0century, it was not widely used until mass production of the industrial revolution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ward Baking Company Building",
        "text": "According to Ward, \u201cWe invested two million dollars in our New York venture before we turned a wheel or gained the market for a single loaf of bread,\u201d he told \"The Baseball Magazine\". \u201cThe day we started our great plants we loaded a hundred wagons with bread and sent them out, instructing our salesmen to give the bread away as samples. The next day we sent them out again, this time to sell bread. We have been selling bread ever since."
      },
      {
        "title": "1951 Pont-Saint-Esprit mass poisoning",
        "text": "In an interrogation that lasted multiple hours, Maurice Maillet denied mixing rye (which is highly susceptible to ergot) into his flour, opting instead to cut his product with 2% of bean flour. This was unusual, given that owing to a shortage of wheat, ONIC had mandated that rye flour be mixed in. However, in the Vienne department, rye of good quality was often more expensive than wheat, and accordingly, bean flour was authorised by ONIC as a replacement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Newbold Verdon",
        "text": "It was no problem for the bakers to obtain flour as three windmills operated in the village."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sliced bread",
        "text": "W.E. Long, who promoted the Holsum Bread brand, used by various independent bakers around the country, pioneered and promoted the packaging of sliced bread, beginning in 1928. In 1930, Wonder Bread, first sold in 1925, started marketing sliced bread nationwide."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the main ingredient in making bread?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The main ingredient in making bread is flour, which has different kinds such as cereal flour, wheat flour, corn flour and rye flour."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How does the different kinds of flour change the bread?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are many differences: Rye bread is typically more dense than bread made from wheat flour, and is higher in fiber and causes slower increases in blood sugar than white bread, while pastry flour produces more flaky crusts, and coconut flour has the highest fiber content of any flour, and few carbohydrates. Is there any particular kind of flour you would like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me more about coconut flour?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Coconut flour is made from ground coconut meat and has the highest fiber content of any flour, with a very low concentration of digestible carbohydrates, and has a high fat content of about 60 percent."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you use coconut flour to bake cakes too?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The definition of cake I located specified flour as an ingredient, but it was not stated which type was meant. It was noted that coconut flour has been developed for use in baking to combat malnutrition however."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Interesting. Is there such a thing as gluten-free flours?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes, there is acorn flour, almond flour, amaranth flour, apple flour, banana flour, bean flour, brown rice flour, buckwheat flour, cassava flour. chestnut flour, chickpea flour, chuno flour, coconut flour, coffee flour, corn flour, cornmeal, corn starch, glutinous rice flour, hemp flour, mesquite flour, nut flours, peasemeal flour, peanut flour, potato starch flour, potato flour, rice flour, sorghum flour, tapioca flour and teff flour."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who was the first person to sell bagged sliced bread?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I'm not sure who was first to sell bagged slice bread;however, the Chillicothe Baking Company began selling bread sliced by machine in 1928. Also in 1928, W.E. Long pioneered and promoted the packaging of sliced bread, and in 1930, Wonder Bread started marketing sliced bread nationwide.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I couldn't find the first person but inventor of the first bread slicing machine, Otto Frederick Rohwedder had a prototype but lost it in a fire in 1912, but had a fully working one in 1928. The first one to use that machine commercially was Chillicothe  Baking Company who sold their first slices on July 7, 1928."
    ],
    "topic": "Flour",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Sliced bread:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sliced bread",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "Otto Frederick Rohwedder of Davenport, Iowa, United States, invented the first single loaf bread-slicing machine. A prototype he built in 1912 was destroyed in a fire, and it was not until 1928 that Rohwedder had a fully working machine ready. The first commercial use of the machine was by the Chillicothe Baking Company of Chillicothe, Missouri, who sold their first slices on July 7, 1928. Their product, \"Kleen Maid Sliced Bread\", proved to be a success. Battle Creek, Michigan, has a competing claim as the first city to sell bread sliced by Rohwedder's machine; however, historians have produced no documentation backing up Battle Creek's claim. The bread was advertised as \"the greatest forward step in the baking industry since bread was wrapped\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Sliced bread:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sliced bread",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "W.E. Long, who promoted the Holsum Bread brand, used by various independent bakers around the country, pioneered and promoted the packaging of sliced bread, beginning in 1928. In 1930, Wonder Bread, first sold in 1925, started marketing sliced bread nationwide."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Sliced bread:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sliced bread",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "Otto Frederick Rohwedder of Davenport, Iowa, United States, invented the first single loaf bread-slicing machine. A prototype he built in 1912 was destroyed in a fire, and it was not until 1928 that Rohwedder had a fully working machine ready. The first commercial use of the machine was by the Chillicothe Baking Company of Chillicothe, Missouri, who sold their first slices on July 7, 1928. Their product, \"Kleen Maid Sliced Bread\", proved to be a success. Battle Creek, Michigan, has a competing claim as the first city to sell bread sliced by Rohwedder's machine; however, historians have produced no documentation backing up Battle Creek's claim. The bread was advertised as \"the greatest forward step in the baking industry since bread was wrapped\"."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "This ration was issued in the early part of the war to address a problem. Soldiers fighting in the front lines needed to be supplied with their daily rations, but cooked food prepared at field kitchens was sometimes spoiled by gas attacks. The trench ration was the answer. It was a variety of canned meats (salmon, corned beef, sardines, etc.) that were commercially procured and sealed in a large tin box covered in canvas. It was bulky and heavy and the soldiers began to get weary of the limited menu and it was soon replaced by the Reserve Ration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "A field ration (also known as combat ration, ration pack, or food packet) is a type of canned or pre-packaged military ration. They are distinguished from regular garrison rations by virtue of being designed for minimal preparation in the field, using canned, vacuum-sealed, pre-cooked or freeze-dried foods, powdered beverage mixes and concentrated food bars, as well as for long shelf life. Most field rations typically contain meat as one of their main courses. The iron ration is a soldier's dry emergency rations."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "United States military ration refers to various preparations and packages of food provided to feed members of the armed forces. U.S. military rations are often made for quick distribution, preparation, and eating in the field and tend to have long storage times in adverse conditions due to being thickly packaged and/or shelf-stable. The current ration is the Meal, Ready-to-Eat (MRE)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Rations 6 to 19 are packaged in a resealable carry pouch, which is NATO Olive, desert brown or transparent. The meals are packed in retort pouches."
      },
      {
        "title": "B-ration",
        "text": "The B ration (or Type B Ration) was a type of field ration used in the United States military. Field rations such as the A ration, B ration, and emergency rations consisted of food items issued to troops operating in the field. Like the A ration, the B ration required the use of trained cooks and a field kitchen for preparation. However it consisted entirely of semi-perishable foods (i.e. canned and dehydrated food) and so did not require refrigeration equipment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Most armed forces in the world today now field some form of pre-packaged combat ration, often suitably tailored to meet national or regional cuisines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Philippine Army formerly had a combat ration similar to those of the United States Army. Typically, they include a small can of sardines or tuna, instant noodles, crackers, instant coffee, a small packet of peanuts, ginger tea, and a biscuit or cookie. Chocolate manufactured for hot conditions are sometimes issued. Canned rice is also issued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The old model type I combat rations were supplied in cans, with one large can containing the rice portion and 2 or 3 smaller cans containing other portions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Lithuanian field rations are based on the US Army's MRE\u00a0\u2013 they come in 10 menus packed in a dark green plastic bag, and besides the main meal in a retort pouch they also include two small dark chocolate bars, honey or jam, four hard-tack biscuits, a handful of almonds or hazelnuts, instant drink mix, tea or coffee, sugar, an antiseptic wipe, matches, solid fuel tablets, a flat disposable stove, a flameless heater (similar to the US one) and a cable-tie used to seal waste packaging back into the outer bag after use."
      },
      {
        "title": "C-ration",
        "text": "The C-Ration, or Field Ration, Type C, was a prepared and canned wet combat ration intended to be issued to U.S. military land forces when fresh food (A-ration) or packaged unprepared food (B-ration) prepared in mess halls or field kitchens was not possible or not available, and when a survival ration (K-ration or D-ration) was insufficient. Development began in 1938 with the first rations being field-tested in 1940 and wide-scale adoption following soon after. Operational conditions often caused the C-ration to be standardized for field issue regardless of environmental suitability or weight limitations."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "A- and B-rations were only served at bases or established camps in rear areas as they require cooking. C-rations could be eaten hot or cold and required no special preparation or storage, so these could be served almost anywhere."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Danish military developed a modern field ration inspired by Norwegian and American rations. It consist of Drytech freeze-dried main meals and several additional items such as dried fruits and nuts, energy bars, hard biscuits, meat p\u00e2t\u00e9, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Indian Armed Forces have a host of Meals Ready To Eat (MRE) including the One Man Combo Pack Ration, Mini Combo Pack, Survival Ration, a ration for marine commandos and Main Battle Tank (MBT) Rations. The shelf-life of the ration is 12\u00a0months. India has adopted retort processing technology for combat rations."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "After 1918, the army ration system went through several revisions, eventually leading to the:\n* \"A-ration\": Garrison Ration. Fresh, refrigerated, or frozen food prepared in dining halls or field kitchens. The most valued of all rations.\n* \"B-ration\": Field Ration. Canned, packaged, or preserved foods normally prepared in field kitchens without refrigeration.\n* \"C-ration\": Individual Ration. A complete pre-cooked, ready-to-eat canned individual meal.\n* \"K-ration\": Individual Ration. Designed as a short duration individual \"assault\" ration for paratroopers and other specialized light infantry forces. Declared obsolete in 1948.\n* \"D-ration\": Emergency Ration. Bars of concentrated chocolate combined with other ingredients to provide high calorie content (intended as an emergency ration)."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "Currently, the following food is available to troops:\n* A-ration: fresh food prepared on-site (or nearby and transported)\n* B-ration: a unit-sized packaged/preserved ration, most commonly found in tray rations (nicknamed T-rat) heated by immersion.\n* Meal, Ready-to-Eat: the standard individual field ration\n* First Strike Ration: an individual ration designed to be edible while on the move\n* HOOAH! Bar: energy bar (the spiritual successor to the D-ration), found in some menus of MREs"
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The \"Einmannpackung\" ration of the Bundeswehr is supplied in two types, rations 1 to 5 are packaged in a grey cardboard box with the meals packaged in sealed heavy duty foil trays which may be heated by immersing in hot water. The trays are opened using a knife or other sharp implement. Rations 6 to 19 are packaged in a resealable carry pouch, which is NATO Olive, desert brown or transparent. The meals are packed in retort pouches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The UK also fields a larger pack of rations intended to feed ten soldiers for 24 hours from centralised but basic preparation; generally similar in content to the single issue ORP but tending to contain larger quantities of food in cylindrical tin cans to be divided up on preparation, rather than individual retort pouches or packets. Even dry materials like sugar or biscuits are often packed in these cans. They contain ingredients for baking bread and tinned food, including vegetables, corned beef and sausages in lard. Also included are chocolate, pre-cooked chicken or beef in gravy and soya mince. Ten boxed one-man ORPs are supplied in larger boxes identical in shape to the single ten-man pack."
      },
      {
        "title": "LRP ration",
        "text": "After the war, U.S. army logisticians again re-standardized field rations, eliminating all lightweight rations in favor of heavy canned wet rations such as the C ration and the Meal, Combat, Individual ration. The overuse of heavy canned wet rations reached a ludicrous extreme during the early years of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam war, when American soldiers on extended infantry patrol were forced to stack their canned rations in socks to minimize weight and noise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "In 2008, Israel introduced a new field ration to supplement the traditional Manat Krav. Unlike previous rations, the new Battle Ration consists of individual, self-heating, ready-to-eat meals packed inside plastic-aluminum trays. They are designed to be carried and used by infantry troops for up to 24 hours, until regular supply lines can be established. Ten menus are available, including chicken, turkey and kebab; each meal pack is supplemented with dry salami, dried fruit, tuna, halva, sweet roll, and preserved dinner rolls. However, as of 2012, the older rations were still in use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Arctic rations were dehydrated and issued to troops serving in arctic areas where snow could be melted to rehydrate the dehydrated contents."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "United States military ration\n--History.\n----18th and 19th centuries.\n----World War I.\n------\"Iron Ration\" (1907\u20131922).\n------\"Trench Ration\" (1914\u20131918).\n------\"Reserve Ration\" (1917\u20131937).\n----Field Rations during World War II.\n----Post WWII rations.\n--Current.\n--Ration waste disposal.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "The reserve ration was first issued during the latter part of World War I to feed troops who were away from a garrison or field kitchen. It originally consisted of 12 ounces of fresh bacon or one pound of canned meat known as the \"Meat Ration\"\u2014usually, corned beef. Additionally, two 8-ounce cans of hard bread or hardtack biscuits, a packet of 1.16 ounces of pre-ground coffee, a packet of 2.4 ounces of granulated sugar, and a packet of 0.16 ounces of salt were issued. There was also a separate \"tobacco ration\" of 0.4 ounces of tobacco and 10 cigarette rolling papers, later replaced by brand-name machine-rolled cigarettes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The modern Korean army issues 2 types of field rations, Type I and Type II. Type I ration has ready-to-eat foods packed in foil-plastic trilaminate pouches, placed in turn inside a thin cardboard box. Typical contents include: 1 pouch (250\u00a0g) precooked white rice with meat and vegetables, plus a separate seasoning packet; 1 pouch (250\u00a0g) precooked rice with red beans; 1 packet (100\u00a0g) of 6 pork sausages in BBQ; 1 packet (100\u00a0g) kimchi; and 1 packet (50\u00a0g) cooked black beans. The Type II ration is a smaller, lighter, freeze-dried single-meal ration consisting of several small pouches packed inside a larger gray plastic pouch measuring 225\u00a0mm\u00a0x\u00a0200\u00a0mm\u00a0x\u00a090\u00a0mm and weighing 278\u00a0g. Typical contents include: freeze dried rice (various flavors, usually with meat and vegetables included), a pouch of instant soup, flavored sesame oil, seasoning and spice packets, dried chives and chocolate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Field ration\n--Americas.\n----Argentina.\n----Brazil.\n----Canada.\n----Colombia.\n----Mexico.\n----United States.\n--Europe.\n----Czech Republic.\n----Denmark.\n----Finland.\n----France.\n----Germany.\n----Bundeswehr Rations.\n------Individual EPa Rations I-V.\n------Day Rations XV-XIX.\n------Earlier versions of German Rations.\n----Greece.\n----Ireland.\n----Italy.\n----Lithuania.\n----Netherlands.\n----Norway.\n----Poland.\n----Russian Federation.\n----Spain.\n----Sweden.\n----United Kingdom.\n------12 Hour Operational Ration Pack.\n------24 Hour Operational Ration Pack.\n------24 Hour Jungle Ration.\n------Cold Climate Ration.\n------10 Man Operational Ration Pack.\n------Emergency Flying Rations (EFR) Mark 4.\n--------Emergency Flying Rations (EFR) Mark 9.\n--------Costs of rations.\n------Earlier Versions of British Field Rations.\n--------1940s.\n--------1970s.\n--------1980s.\n--------Arctic Rations.\n--------1990s.\n----Ukraine.\n----Portugal.\n--Middle East.\n----Israel.\n----Saudi Arabia.\n----United Arab Emirates.\n--Oceania.\n----Australia.\n----New Zealand.\n------Operational Ration Pack 1 Man-24 Hours.\n--Asia.\n----Brunei.\n----India.\n----Indonesia.\n----Japan.\n------Type I Combat Ration (Old model).\n------Type I Combat Ration (New model).\n------Type II Combat Ration (Improved version).\n----Malaysia.\n----People's Republic of China.\n----Philippines.\n----Singapore.\n----Sri Lanka.\n----South Korea.\n----Taiwan.\n----Vietnam.\n--United Nations.\n--NATO Standard.\n----Shelf life.\n----Nutritional content.\n----Menu Fatigue.\n----Serving Temperature.\n----Accessories.\n----Food Packaging.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The ROC Armed Forces issues two types of field rations. One of them is called \"field combat ration pack\" (\u91ce\u6230\u53e3\u7ce7), which contains crackers, bakkwa, dry mango, nuts, chocolate paste, candy and energy drink. The other one is \"field combat retort pouch\" (\u91ce\u6230\u52a0\u71b1\u5f0f\u9910\u76d2), which has 13 types of flavor in total."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "The first attempt to make an individual ration for issue to soldiers in the field was the \"iron ration\", first introduced in 1907. It consisted of three three-ounce cakes (made from a concoction of beef bouillon powder and parched and cooked wheat), three one-ounce bars of sweetened chocolate, and packets of salt and pepper that was issued in a sealed tin packet that weighed one pound. It was designed for emergency use when the troops were unable to be supplied with food. It was later discontinued by the adoption of the \"Reserve Ration\", but experience with the Iron Ration went into the development of the emergency D-ration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "NATO defines a \"General Purpose Individual Operational Ration\" as \"A self-contained combat ration that provides adequate food for 24 hours for one person to maintain health, physical performance, and cognitive function under routine training or operational conditions. This ration is shelf stable and may require water to rehydrate some of the contents. The contents may be eaten hot or cold. General purpose individual operational rations are intended to be used during standard military operations in very broad but typically moderate operational conditions.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "In World War I three types of rations came into usage by the American forces: \"the Reserve ration\", \"the Trench ration\", and \"the Emergency ration\" (also known as the \"Iron ration\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Like other German rations, is packed in a resealable carry pouch with the meals in retort pouches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Israeli \"battle ration\" (Manat Krav) is designed to be shared by four soldiers. It contains: 1 can of rice filled vine leaves, 8 small cans of tuna, canned olives, a can of sweet corn, a can of pickled cucumbers, 1 can of halva spread and 1 chocolate spread, a can of peanuts, fruit flavored drink powder, and bread or matzoh crackers. There is also an \"ambush pack\" of candy and high-energy protein bars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "In 2016, it was announced that the Armed Forces of the Philippines will get new \"Ready-to-Eat\" rations. They are packed in green plastic retort pouches and considered fit to eat for Muslim service members (halal). For example, Menu #2 has four packs of cooked rice, one tuna rice with sisig, one pack of chicken sausage with sauce, one pack of chicken lechon paksiw, one pack of powdered milk, one pack of 3-in-1 coffee, one pack of plain crackers, a spork and wet tissues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Italy uses the \"Razione Viveri Speciali da Combattimento\", consisting of a heavy duty brownish-green plastic bag with three thin white cardboard cartons inside (one for breakfast, one for lunch and one for dinner), each containing meal items plus accessories."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "To avoid menu fatigue resulting from lack of variety in the ration, all 24-hour operational rations should, at a minimum, include:\n# Main courses (breakfast, lunch, dinner, or unspecified) generally intended to be eaten heated\n# Snacks, savoury and sweet (bars, chocolates, caramels, dried meat, nuts, crackers, cookie etc.)\n# Beverages, hot and cold (coffee, tea, hot chocolate, sports drinks, etc.)\n# Spreads (cheese, jam, peanut butter, etc.) and breads."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "A-rations and B-rations are still used today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Such meals also prove invaluable for disaster or wartime relief, where large stocks of these can be ferried and distributed easily, and provide basic nutritional support to victims before kitchens can be set up to produce fresh food. Rations intended for emergency or disaster relief are often referred to as survival rations."
      },
      {
        "title": "C-ration",
        "text": "Instead, the C-Ration, still designated as a packaged ration intended for infrequent or short-term use, went through a series of largely unsuccessful minor revisions. This decision resulted in limiting troops in the field to a single class of packaged ration that despite meal variances was neither suited to varied field environments nor for long-term use. Troops continued to complain of the monotony of a single class of field ration with one or more unpalatable menu items, especially where A and B rations were not available for extended periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Canada provides each soldier with a complete pre-cooked meal known as the IMP (Individual Meal Pack), packaged inside a heavy-duty folding paper bag. There are 5 breakfast menus, 6 lunch menus, and 6 supper menus. Canadian rations provide generous portions and contain a large number of commercially available items. Like the US ration, the main meal is precooked and ready-to-eat, packed in heavy-duty plastic-foil retort pouches boxed with cardboard. Typically, the ration contains a meal item (beans and wiener sausages, scalloped potatoes with ham, smoked salmon fillet, macaroni and cheese, cheese omelette with mushrooms, shepherd's pie, etc.), wet-packed (sliced or mashed) fruit in a boxed retort pouch, and depending on the meal a combination of instant soup or cereal, fruit drink crystals, jam or cheese spread, peanut butter, honey, crackers, bread (bun) compressed into a retort pouch, coffee and tea, sugar, commercially available chocolate bars and hard candy, a long plastic spoon, paper towels and wet wipes. Canada also makes limited use of a Light Meal Pack containing dried meat or cheese, dried fruit, a granola bar, a breakfast cereal square, a chocolate bar, hard candy, hot cocoa mix, tea, and two pouches of instant fruit drink. Canadian ration packs also contain a book of cardboard matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "When (during peacetime) conscript soldiers are not provided with meals cooked either in garrisons or attached field kitchens, they are provided with rations (colloquially known as sissi rations) packed in a clear plastic bag. Several different menus exist, however all include foil packed crispbread, coffee and tea, sugar, chocolate, small tins of beef or pork, chewing gum, dry porridge, energy drink powder etc. Soups and porridges that are meant to be mixed with water and cooked are usually prepared in Trangia-type portable stoves that are shared by the pair in a fire and maneuver team, or in individual mess kits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Patrol Ration One Man is a complete 24-hour ration pack that contains freeze dried main meals, meaning that the total weight of each pack is reduced, however a correspondingly higher quantity of water must be carried in order to reconstitute the main meal. Otherwise, it is similar to the Combat Ration One Man. It is packed in tough clear polyethylene bags and is available in five menu choices."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "During the American Civil War, both armies struggled to keep their soldiers adequately fed. Difficulties with food logistics led to a multitude of rations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel Defense Forces",
        "text": "Field rations, called \"manot krav\", usually consist of canned tuna, sardines, beans, stuffed vine leaves, maize and fruit cocktail and bars of halva. Packets of fruit flavored drink powder are also provided along with condiments like ketchup, mustard, chocolate spread and jam. Around 2010, the IDF announced that certain freeze dried MREs served in water activated disposable heaters like goulash, turkey schwarma and meatballs would be introduced as field rations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The 12 hour operational ration pack (ORP) is designed for patrolling for durations of 4\u201312 hours and for is suitable for remote guard posts, drivers and as a supplement to normal rations for where daily calorie expenditure is likely to exceed 6000 kcal (25,120 kJ), for instance, troops undergoing arduous duties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Garrison ration",
        "text": "A garrison ration is the quantity and type of food served to a soldier when they are stationed somewhere. It is generally not the same as the rations fed to troops in combat or transit, which are usually termed \"combat rations\", \"field rations\", \"marching rations\" or some other task-specific term. This term is mostly used with respect to historic militaries. Modern thinking about nutrition and military logistical support is generally very different today, although people may still speak of \"garrison rations\" in relatively underdeveloped countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Patrol Ration Pac (PRP) is a shelf-stable product that provides an efficient, flexible and nutritionally robust feeding method. The PRP is designed to cover activities when you have access to other food sources during the day and is ideal to replace a single meal or provide snack options. The PRP provides approximately one-third of the energy and nutrient requirements of most military personnel during moderate, prolonged-intensity physical activity, in a temperate environment. Therefore, it is desirable that all of the food in the pack is eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meal, Ready-to-Eat",
        "text": "The first U.S. soldier ration established by a Congressional Resolution, during the Revolutionary War, consisted of enough food to feed a man for one day, mostly beef, peas, and rice. During the Civil War, the U.S. military moved toward canned goods. Later, self-contained kits were issued as a whole ration and contained canned meat, bread, coffee, sugar and salt. During the First World War, canned meats were replaced with lightweight preserved meats (salted or dried) to save weight and allow more rations to be carried by soldiers carrying their supplies on foot. At the beginning of World War II, a number of new field rations were introduced, including the Mountain ration and the Jungle ration. However, cost-cutting measures by Quartermaster Command officials during the latter part of World War II and the Korean War again saw the predominance of heavy canned C rations issued to troops, regardless of operating environment or mission. During WWII, over 100 million cans of Spam were sent to the Pacific. The use of canned wet rations continued through the Vietnam War, with the improved MCI field ration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The 24 hour GS (General Service) ration pack was supplied with the contents in cans or packets.\n*Biscuits AB stands for \"Biscuits-Alternative Bread\", these were called more colourful names by members of the British Army due to the fact they caused constipation."
      },
      {
        "title": "K-ration",
        "text": "The actual prototype of the K-ration was a pocket ration for paratroopers developed by the Subsistence Research Laboratory (SRL) at the request of the U.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) early in the war. Two original samples (one version used pemmican biscuits, a peanut bar, raisins, and bouillon paste; the other used pemmican biscuits, a small D ration bar, canned processed meat, and lemon beverage powder) evolved into the one-package breakfast-dinner-supper combination later adopted as standard. The Quartermaster Command's Subsistence Branch altered some components and renamed the ration the Field Ration, Type K, or \"K-ration\"; the final version totaled . The first procurement of K-rations was made in May 1942. Some believed the K-ration was named after Dr. Keys or was short for \"Commando\" (as elite troops were the first to receive it). However, the letter \"K\" was selected because it was phonetically distinct from other letter-name rations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli Ground Forces",
        "text": "Field rations, called \"manot krav\", usually consist of canned tuna, sardines, beans, stuffed vine leaves, maize and fruit cocktail and bars of halva. Packets of fruit flavored drink powder are also provided along with condiments like ketchup, mustard, chocolate spread and jam. Around 2010, the IDF announced that certain freeze dried MREs served in water activated disposable heaters like goulash, turkey schwarma and meatballs would be introduced as field rations."
      },
      {
        "title": "A-ration",
        "text": "'A' rations today may include the Unitized Group Ration A (UGR-A), a hybrid meal kit designed to feed a group of 50 persons for one meal. The UGR-A has several different varieties, including a tray-based heat and serve (T-rat) form, heated by hot water immersion when a field kitchen is not available, or the express form, with a self-heating module and disposable accessories. The UGR-A is used to sustain military personnel during worldwide operations that allow organized food service facilities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "In 1943, The 24 Hour Ration was devised as a direct replacement to the 48 Hour Mess tin ration. It contained only dried goods (no tins), to save weight and tinplate, which was the criticism of the earlier mess tin ration. It was first issued to troops on D-Day to provide interim food prior to supply lines being established which would permit 14 Man Composition Rations being brought ashore."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corned beef",
        "text": "Canned corned beef has long been one of the standard meals included in military field ration packs globally, due to its simplicity and instant preparation. One example is the American Meal, Ready-to-Eat (MRE) pack. Astronaut John Young sneaked a contraband corned beef sandwich on board Gemini 3, hiding it in a pocket of his spacesuit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Saudi Arabia uses a combat meal that is packed inside a brown plastic bag about the size and shape of a US MRE pouch. It contains a small can of tuna, a small can of sardines or salmon or beef, a small can of cheese or thickened cream, an envelope of instant noodle soup, hard crackers and dry toast (like Zwieback), a small bag of raisins or dried fruit, a small package of dates, a small bag of nuts, plus instant coffee, tea bags, sugar packets, matches, and a bag of spiced dried chickpea powder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Traditionally hexamine has been the preferred solid fuel for cooking and heating the rations. An alternative is gelatinised ethanol. Most current field rations utilise self-heating packs instead of fuel tablets, which are more practical and produces no visible flame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Australia currently supplies three different types of military ration packs\u00a0\u2013 Combat Ration One Man, Combat Ration Five Man and Patrol Ration One Man."
      },
      {
        "title": "K-ration",
        "text": "The K-ration originally came packed in an unbleached tan-colored rectangular cardstock box with black lettering. The outer box was printed on its top in bold capital sans serif block letter type with the text: \"US ARMY FIELD RATION K\", with the meal unit type (BREAKFAST, DINNER, or SUPPER UNIT) printed underneath it and a capital letter on each end (B, D, or S). While it was intended that the three meals be eaten in their named order, they were not always consumed in this manner. The inner box had the meal unit type printed across its top and a capital letter on each end (B, D, or S)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Raci\u00f3n de Combate (Individual) was introduced in 2003, consisting of a gray plastic-foil laminate pouch containing a mix of canned and dehydrated foods, plus minimal supplements, for 1 soldier for 1 day. All products in the RC are domestically produced, commercially available items. Each ration contains: canned meat, small can of meat spread, crackers, instant soup, cereal bar with fruit, a chocolate bar with nuts or caramels, instant coffee, orange juice powder, sugar, salt, a heating kit with disposable stove and alcohol-based fuel tablets, disposable butane lighter, resealable plastic bag, cooked rice and a pack of paper tissues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The 24 hour GS (General Service) ration pack was supplied with the contents in cans or packets."
      },
      {
        "title": "LRP ration",
        "text": "The Food Packet, Long Range Patrol or \"LRP ration\" (pronounced \"lurp\") was a U.S. Army freeze-dried dehydrated field ration. It was developed in 1964 during the Vietnam War (1955\u201375) for use by Special Operations troops; small, heavily armed long-range reconnaissance teams that patrolled deep in enemy-held territory, where bulky canned MCI rations (formerly known as C-Ration's) proved too heavy for extended missions on foot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meal, Ready-to-Eat",
        "text": "After repeated experiences with providing prepared rations to soldiers dating from before World War II, Pentagon officials ultimately realized that simply providing a nutritionally balanced meal in the field was not adequate. Service members in various geographic regions and combat situations often required different subsets of ingredients for food to be considered palatable over long periods. Moreover, catering to individual tastes and preferences would encourage service members to actually consume the whole ration and its nutrition. Most importantly, the use of specialized forces in extreme environments and the necessity of carrying increasingly heavy field loads while on foot during extended missions required significantly lighter alternatives to standard canned wet rations."
      },
      {
        "title": "C-ration",
        "text": "The Reserve Ration was issued during the later part of World War I to feed troops who were away from a garrison or field kitchen. It originally consisted of of bacon or of meat (usually canned corned beef), two cans of hard bread or hardtack biscuits, a packet of of pre-ground coffee, a packet of of granulated sugar, and a packet of of salt. There was also a separate \"tobacco ration\" of of tobacco and 10 cigarette rolling papers, later replaced by brand-name machine-rolled cigarettes."
      },
      {
        "title": "C-ration",
        "text": "The first U.S attempt to make an individual ration for issue to soldiers in the field was the \"iron ration\", introduced in 1907. It contained three 3-ounce cakes (made from a concoction of beef bouillon powder and parched and cooked wheat), three 1-ounce bars of sweetened chocolate and packets of salt and pepper. The ration was issued in a sealed tin packet that weighed one pound, to be carried in an infantryman's top tunic pocket, and was designed for emergency use when the troops were unable to be supplied with food. It was later discontinued by the adoption of the \"Reserve Ration\", but findings from the development and use of the Iron Ration went into the development of the emergency D-ration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meal, Combat, Individual ration",
        "text": "Though it had been given a new name, the MCI was in essence still the canned C ration of prior years. Selecting the MCI ration for all field issue resulted in limiting troops in the field to a single class of heavy wet packaged ration that despite meal variances, was simply not suitable for extended consumption. As they had in World War II and Korea, soldiers and Marines regularly complained of the monotony of a single class of field ration, especially where field mess A and B rations were not available for extended periods of time. Despite the inclusion of additional menu items, the MCI was still designed only for \"infrequent use\" (unlike later individual rations, which would be required to pass a new field test of seven consecutive days of consumption as the sole diet without complaints of monotony)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The current Polish combat ration (Zestaw \u017bywno\u015bciowy Indywidualnej Racji Suchej) is packed in a green plastic-foil bag containing: 2 small cans of meat or meat spread or cheese, 2 packages of hard crackers, a tube of sweetened condensed milk, 2 packets of instant coffee, a packet of instant tea, 3 sugar packets, an individually wrapped Vitamin C fortified boiled sweets, a stick of chewing gum, safety matches, a menu and instruction sheet, a plastic bag, and 2 paper towels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI) has introduced the \"Ransum TNI\" (\"TNI ration\", from Dutch \"rantsoen\") in the mid-1970s in order to standardize nutrition for soldiers in field. There are three types of ration and each daily ration consist of three menus (breakfast, lunch, and dinner), a pack of supplementary drinks, providing approximately in total. Primary menus are often fried rice, often with regional variants such as Javanese or Balinese fried rice. The supplementary drinks are instant coffee, powdered fruit juice or vitamin supply, tea bags and powdered milk. All rations should be heated for 10\u201315 minutes over fire with the included stove and solid fuel tablets (for canned meals), or by submerging in boiling water (for meals packed in retort pouches). Virtually all products are made in Indonesia and manufactured according to Indonesian military standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "K-ration",
        "text": "In 1941, Ancel Keys, a University of Minnesota physiologist, was assigned by the U.S. War Department to design a non-perishable, ready-to-eat meal that could fit in a soldier's pocket as a short-duration, individual ration. Keys went to a local supermarket to choose foods that would be inexpensive, but still be enough to provide energy. He purchased hard biscuits, dry sausages, hard candy, and chocolate bars. He then tested his , meals on six soldiers in a nearby army base. The meals only gained \"palatable\" and \"better than nothing\" ratings from the soldiers, but were successful in relieving hunger and providing sufficient energy. The new rations were initially intended as individual rations suitable for short durations only, to be used for a maximum of fifteen meals before supplementation or replacement with 'A-ration' or 'B-ration' field rations. They were soon called the \"paratrooper ration\", since paratroopers were the first to be issued the ration on an experimental basis."
      },
      {
        "title": "K-ration",
        "text": "The U.S. Army M-1943 field uniform had simplified, but large, pockets that were designed to hold a K-ration box."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Miscellaneous bag contains a small bag of hard candy, 4 packets of sugar, 4 tea bags, 2 small envelopes of milk powder, and 3 foil envelopes of instant orange juice powder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Also included are: a can of fruit, a package of ramen noodles, 2 flameless chemical ration heaters, a menu/instruction sheet, 1 pack dried hummus powder, and a book of matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "The composition of these rations are predetermined in a way to make sure that soldiers are properly fed and equipped with the necessary nutrients in order to maximize energy levels. There are certain levels of nutrients that are recommended by the Military Nutrition Research Committee. As a baseline, it is recommended that there be at least 2,400 kcal in each ration, in which those rations are constructed of different levels of numerous vitamins and nutrients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "In the Vietnam War, the Vietcong army often brought dried cooked vegetable, bags of pork floss, some contained nutrition tabs, some ginger candy as their ration food. In modern Vietnam, the field ration is very popular with soldiers, sailors and travellers. Some popular field rations in Vietnam today are: the Army Field Ration BB107, the Paratrooper Dry Provision (for pilots) and the Chinese 3 star field ration that is contained in an iron box, easy to carry."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "Some of these specialized rations were discontinued during the war due to cost concerns, forcing commanders to adopt standardized rations in their place. The K- and D-rations were declared obsolete after World War II but canned wet rations in the form of the C-ration (later the MCI) continued until 1983, when they were replaced by the Meal, Ready-to-Eat (MRE)."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "A-rations were generally whatever meat and produce could be obtained locally, so there could be great variety from one theatre of operations to the next. B-rations were generally used when there was inadequate refrigeration for perishable A-rations. The composition of the D-ration did not change much throughout the war but the C-ration developed many variations."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "After the war, there were attempts to improve the ration based on input from the field. In 1922, the \"Meat Ration\" was revised, consisting of one pound of meat (usually a combination of dried beef and canned corned beef). This was supplemented by hard chocolate, 14 ounces of hard bread or hardtack biscuits, coffee, and sugar. In 1925, the \"Meat Ration\" was changed, removing the dried beef in favor of canned pork and beans, and reducing the bread component. The corned beef allowance was also reduced in size (older rations continued to be issued, however). In 1936, menu planners attempted to introduce more variety by developing an alternate \"Meat Ration\" consisting of an \"A\"-menu (canned corned beef) and a \"B\"-menu (canned pork & beans). The A & B Reserve or combat ration was canceled after being superseded in 1938 by the Field Ration, Type C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Japan Self-Defense Forces utilize two types of combat rations, Type I combat ration (\u6226\u95d8\u7ce7\u98df I\u578b) and Type II combat ration (\u6226\u95d8\u7ce7\u98df II\u578b). The older Type I ration consists almost entirely of canned foods weighing a total of 780\u00a0g per meal; a normal three-day ration has up to 36 cans weighing more than 7\u00a0kilograms. Eight menus are available, based around a 400\u00a0g can of rice and 2\u20133 smaller supplemental cans. Typical contents include: rice (white rice, sekihan (rice with red beans), mixed rice with vegetables, or rice with mushrooms), a main meal can (chicken and vegetables, beef with vegetables, fish and vegetables, or hamburger patties), pickled vegetables (Takuan(yellow radish) or red cabbage) and sometimes a supplemental can (tuna in soy or beef in soy). In the latest type I combat rations, cans have been replaced by retort pouches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Chinese People's Liberation Army has introduced a new set of rations in 2018 consisting of pre-packaged single-person meals sealed in hard plastic retort pouches. The Chinese military rations are of two types: Instant Meal Individual (three-item menu) and Self-Heating Individual (twelve-item menu) (Type 13 and 09). A typical Chinese breakfast ration contains roughly and includes a compressed food packet, an energy bar, an egg roll with pork, pickled mustard tuber, and a powdered beverage pack. Each Self-Heating package comes with an insulated flameless heater that is activated by water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "NATO bases the nutritional content requirement on a reference soldier weighing , who on normal operations would have an energy expenditure of approximately 3,600 kcal per day. For combat operations, i.e., missions involving sustained, dismounted light-infantry or Special Forces operations energy expenditure is estimated to be 4,900 kcal per day, however this is seen to be a worst-case scenario. Operational individual rations are designed to be used for a period of 30 days after which supplements of fresh food be given and medical screening for nutritional deficiencies be increased."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The new model type I combat ration is supplied in olive drab retort pouches and overwrapped in an olive drab bag."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Spanish Army issues an individual meal pack, available in 5 different menus, comprising a small cardboard box overwrapped with drab green polyethylene. Inside are 3 canned meals, plus accessories. Typical contents (Menu B) include: stewed steak, pickled mackerel, liver p\u00e2t\u00e9 with red peppers, an envelope of instant soup, a can of fruit, 2 salt tablets, 2 water purification tablets, a large multivitamin tablet, 10 sheets of general purpose paper, a book of matches, a folding can opener, a small folding ration heater and 2 fuel tablets, and an instruction sheet in three languages (Spanish, English and French). Crackers or bread are issued separately."
      },
      {
        "title": "K-ration",
        "text": "By war's end, millions of K-rations had been produced, but the army had lost interest in them. Postwar Army supply plans for field rations relied solely on heavier canned wet rations, initially the C-ration, later by similar canned rations such as the MCI, primarily to save additional cost of procurement and storage. In 1948, after introduction of improvements in the C-ration, the K-ration was declared obsolete; production contracts had long since terminated. Most existing K-ration stocks were declared surplus, and distributed to civilian feeding programs overseas."
      },
      {
        "title": "5-in-1 ration",
        "text": "The 5-in-1 was developed in 1942 by the Subsistence Research Laboratory (SRL) of the U.S. Army's Quartermaster Corps to fulfill a need for a pre-packaged field ration for use by small motorized combat groups. The 5-in-1 allowed small groups of soldiers or large groups divided into multiple units to cook meals without the need of complex kitchen utensils or cooking skill. Another objective was to furnish sufficient food to take care of five men for one day. The U.S. Quartermaster Corps' Subsistence Branch originally planned for the rations to be used by troops without immediate kitchen facilities, such as trains without kitchen cars, motorized infantry, armored vehicle crews, or gun crews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Uniquely, India also developed an operational ration pack specifically for Main Battle Tank (MBT) and other Armored vehicle crews. Designed to sustain four soldiers for 72\u00a0h in closed-in battle conditions, the MBT ration is based on instant/ready to eat foods and ration/survival bars. First and second day ration packs weigh 2\u00a0kg each and provide per soldier, while the third day ration pack weighs 1.5\u00a0kg and supplies ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The ration is packed inside a heavy-duty (.25\u00a0mm thick) matte green or olive drab polyethylene bag measuring 300\u00a0mm wide by 400\u00a0mm long. It is printed with the logo of the Brazilian Army, \"Ra\u00e7\u00e3o de Combate R2 (24 Horas)\" and Menu information. Inside are 5 thinner (.10\u00a0mm) semi-transparent plastic bags, one for each meal and one for the accessories. Each bag is printed with meal information and contents."
      },
      {
        "title": "LRP ration",
        "text": "While the MRE was lighter than the canned MCI and had more dietary energy than the LRP ration, it had certain problems. US Special Operations forces found it too bulky, and troops on maneuvers found some menu items were unsuited for easy digestion in cold-weather / high-altitude or high-temperature / high-humidity environments. While unofficial practice was to strip out items deemed \"unnecessary\", this also reduced the ration's dietary energy content. Faced with these problems, this forced the adoption of a specialized ration for light troops or commando units on extended field operations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The UAE utilizes a European-style combat ration pack containing food and accessories for one soldier for 24 hours. Packed in the UAE utilizing imported components, the ration box measures 245\u00a0mm \u00d7 195\u00a0mm \u00d7 115\u00a0mm and weighs 2.0\u00a0kg. Inside are 4 resealable (ziplock type) plastic bags, labeled in both Arabic & English, containing Breakfast, Lunch, Dinner, and Miscellaneous."
      },
      {
        "title": "A-ration",
        "text": "'A' ration meals may be served in dining facilities (\"DFAC\"), prepared in the field by the use of field kitchens, or prepared at a fixed facility and transported to field locations in containers."
      },
      {
        "title": "10-in-1 food parcel",
        "text": "\"A small-group field ration [shall be] composed of components of the standard field ration type B (modified to reduce bulk and weight) packed in basic packages of five complete rations each. . . . The inner and outer packages are to be proof against water, vapor, moisture, and chemical agents. They are to be of such shape and dimensions as to be suitable for either animal-pack or man-carry, and sufficiently sturdy as to material and construction to withstand normal handling and transportation in motor vehicles, on pack animals or by individual portage.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The 21-meal, 7-day menu cycle shall offer sufficient variety to at least allow a soldier to have two different meals each day for a period of 7 days, without repetition, although a breakfast meal and a variety of small snack and beverage items may be repeated. It is recommended that coffee and/or tea be provided for each meal."
      },
      {
        "title": "A-ration",
        "text": "A-ration is a term used in the United States armed forces for a meal provided to troops prepared using fresh, refrigerated, or frozen foods. The use of fresh, refrigerated or frozen foods distinguish 'A' rations from 'B' rations, which use canned or preserved ingredients to enable them to be served without adequate refrigeration or freezer facilities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Dinner has a retort pouch of pasta rigatoni, an envelope instant soup, and a third accessory pack."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Some rations include a separate bag intended for collection and disposal of packing materials or packaging waste generated from consuming/using the ration components. However, if no separate refuse bag is provided with the ration, some portion of the ration packaging shall be usable or easily adaptable as a means to collect miscellaneous packaging waste that is generated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Meal C (dinner):"
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Many different recipes and different ways of serving the rations have developed in Israel. With the can of tuna, for example, traditionally cooked using toilet paper soaked in oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "During peacekeeping operations in Lebanon, UN peacekeepers were reported to make use of a ration packaged similar to that of the U.S MRE designated the \u201cIndividual Food Ration\u201d (French: Ration Alimentaire Individuelle). These rations are meant to be consumed over a period of 24 hours, and are notoriously difficult to acquire by civilians. There are 12 available menus in the form of 3 \u201cWestern\u201d (Pasta with Beef and Chickpea Stew, Vegetables with Beef and Tomato and Cheese Pasta, Chilli Con Carne and Baked Beans), 3 Halal, 3 Kosher, 3 Vegetarian. Each ration also comes with both sweet and salty biscuits and an accessory pack containing fruit muesli, fruit jelly, fruit jam, dark chocolate, cheese spread, chewing gum, eight pouches of sugar, salt, pepper, ketchup and Mexican sauce. Another accessory pack with instant coffee, tea, an instant fruit drink and a hyperprotein drink is also included."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Wehrmacht in the field were provided rations from field kitchens based on the garrison ration. However additional classes of ration were available. The march ration was a cold food ration issued for not more than three or four consecutive days to units in transit either on carrier or by foot. It consisted of approximately 700 grams of bread, 200 grams of cold meat or cheese, 60 grams of bread spreads, 9 grams of coffee (or 4 grams of tea), 10 grams of sugar, and six cigarettes. Thus it had a total weight of about 980 grams. An iron ration consisted of 250 grams of biscuits, 200 grams of cold meat, 150 of preserved vegetables, 25 of coffee, and 25 of salt. Total weight was 650 grams without packing and 825 grams with packing. An iron half-ration was composed of 250 grams of biscuits and 200 grams of preserved meat; thus its total weight was 450 grams without packing and 535 grams with packing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "New Zealand issues an Operational Ration Pack designed to provide one soldier with three complete meals. Based around two ready-to-eat retort pouches (e.g. Lamb Casserole, Chicken Curry), the ORP comes in 4 menus. Also included are: Anzac biscuits, chocolate bars, URC fruit grains, muesli bars, instant soup powder, instant noodles, muesli cereal, a tube of condensed milk, hard crackers, tinned cheese, cocoa powder, instant coffee, tea bags, instant sport drink powder, sugar, salt, pepper, glucose sweets, Marmite, jam, ketchup, onion flakes, waterproofed matches, a resealable plastic bag, and a menu sheet."
      },
      {
        "title": "5-in-1 ration",
        "text": "The 5-in-1 ration was a United States military ration issued from 1942 to the end of World War II. Procurement ended with the war, though remaining stocks were issued to troops after the war, as well as distributed as surplus in civilian feeding programs overseas. The 5-in-1 specification remained in effect after the war, and was again used in 1948 for a new field ration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Norway utilize a 24-hour ration pack (Norwegian \"feltrasjon\") designed by Drytech, consisting of 2 freeze-dried main meals, a packet of compressed breakfast cereal, packets of instant soup, and supplements. These are packed in 3 green polylaminate bags labelled \"Breakfast\", \"Lunch\", or \"Dinner\", overwrapped in clear plastic and issued as one day's ration. Depending on the soldiers activity, the rations are delivered in two different sizes of either 3800 kcal or 5000 kcal. Included are a substantial assortment of beverages (cocoa mix, instant coffee, energy drink powder, and herbal teas), plus thin sliced rye bread and chocolate, chewing gum, a vitamin tablet, and litter bags. There are 7 completely different menus, and ongoing development to meet different nations requirements. The main meals are for example Chili con carne, different pasta dishes, Beef Stew, Beef and Potato Casserole, Lamb Mulligatawny, Cod and Potato Casserole, Pasta Bolognese, Wolf-fish with Prawns and Dill, Sweet and Sour Chicken, Rice in Basil Sauce etc. Small tins of fish are often provided separately."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ronald C. Wornick",
        "text": "The Wornick Company eventually became a supplier of individual and group military field rations to the U.S. Department of Defense. Its MREs were not only used by the U.S. military but foreign combat forces as well as international humanitarian aid organizations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Meal B (lunch):"
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Since the turn of the millennium Russia issues the Individual Food Rations (Individual'nyi Ratsion Pitaniya (\"IRP\") (\u0418\u043d\u0434\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0443\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d \u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f/\u0418\u0420\u041f), a new self-contained ration, containing the whole daily food intake for an individual soldier in the field. However, in its most frequent form it is not dietary complete, and is intended only as a stop-gap measure to be issued until the normal supply lines (with their field kitchens) are established and the hot food delivery started, to be issued for no more than six days straight. Russian Ministry of defence does not strictly prescribe the contents of the ration, only some basic packaging and inventory requirements, so every producer issues their own version. Most commonly it is packaged into a sturdy plastic blister box (nicknamed \"The Frog\" in the field for its olive-green color), or plastic-sealed cardboard box that contains five to six entrees in laminated foil cans or retort pouches, four to six pack of crackers or preserved bread, two to three dessert items in form of a spread or fruit bar, four beverage concentrate pouches, some seasonings (salt, pepper, sugar, ketchup), and various sundry items like sanitizing wipes/paper towels, spoons, can opener, four hexamine fuel tablets, folding heater, matches and water purifier tablets. The types of entrees vary with the producer and the issued menu (of which there are usually 7 to 12), but the common set is based on a traditional Russian outdoorsmen fare, is largely formed out of the commercially available canned food, and usually includes 1 portion of stewed beef or pork, two meat-with-vegetables dishes, like various porridges, stews or canned fish, and one or two spreads, such as liver p\u00e2t\u00e9, sausage stuffing or processed cheese. Desserts may include fruit jams, chocolate and/or walnut spreads, chocolate bars, sweetened condensed milk, etc., but baked goods are usually avoided out of concerns about their shelf life. Other variants may add canned speck and/or dried fish or exchange the hexamine tablets for the flameless heater."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What kinds of field rations does the United States issue its military personnel?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Meal, Ready-to-Eat (MRE) or (ABOMM) are self-contained, individual field rations in lightweight packaging bought by the United States Department of Defense for its service members for use in combat or other field conditions where other food is not available.",
      "The MRE is the field ration given to the service members with the variants being: Aircrew Build to Order Meal Module; specialized Meal, Religious, Kosher/Halal; and the Modular Operational Rations Enhancement. Which do you want to know more about?"
    ],
    "topic": "Field ration",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Meal, Ready-to-Eat:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Meal, Ready-to-Eat"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Meal, Ready-to-Eat (MRE) is a self-contained, individual field ration in lightweight packaging bought by the United States Department of Defense for its service members for use in combat or other field conditions where other food is not available. While MREs should be kept cool, they do not need to be refrigerated. MREs replaced the canned MCI, or Meal, Combat, Individual rations, in 1981, and is the intended successor to the lighter LRP ration developed by the United States Army for Special Forces and Ranger patrol units in Vietnam. MREs have also been distributed to civilians during natural disasters."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Field ration:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Field ration"
        ],
        "ctx": "A field ration (also known as combat ration, ration pack, or food packet) is a type of canned or pre-packaged military ration. They are distinguished from regular garrison rations by virtue of being designed for minimal preparation in the field, using canned, vacuum-sealed, pre-cooked or freeze-dried foods, powdered beverage mixes and concentrated food bars, as well as for long shelf life. Most field rations typically contain meat as one of their main courses. The iron ration is a soldier's dry emergency rations."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Meal, Ready-to-Eat:31",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Meal, Ready-to-Eat",
          "Variants and similar rations"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"Aircrew Build to Order Meal Module\" (ABOMM) are a special variant consisting of repacking existing MRE food elements into a form that provides military flight crews and tank operators with a meal designed to be eaten on the go or while operating their aircraft or ground vehicle without the use of utensils, and packaged for use in confined spaces."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Meal, Ready-to-Eat:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Meal, Ready-to-Eat"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Meal, Ready-to-Eat (MRE) is a self-contained, individual field ration in lightweight packaging bought by the United States Department of Defense for its service members for use in combat or other field conditions where other food is not available. While MREs should be kept cool, they do not need to be refrigerated. MREs replaced the canned MCI, or Meal, Combat, Individual rations, in 1981, and is the intended successor to the lighter LRP ration developed by the United States Army for Special Forces and Ranger patrol units in Vietnam. MREs have also been distributed to civilians during natural disasters."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Meal, Ready-to-Eat:31",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Meal, Ready-to-Eat",
          "Variants and similar rations"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"Aircrew Build to Order Meal Module\" (ABOMM) are a special variant consisting of repacking existing MRE food elements into a form that provides military flight crews and tank operators with a meal designed to be eaten on the go or while operating their aircraft or ground vehicle without the use of utensils, and packaged for use in confined spaces."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Meal, Ready-to-Eat:32",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Meal, Ready-to-Eat",
          "Variants and similar rations",
          "MRE Kosher/Halal"
        ],
        "ctx": "For servicemembers with strict religious dietary requirements, the military offers the specialized \"Meal, Religious, Kosher/Halal\". These are tailored to provide the same nutritional content, but will not contain offending ingredients. The entrees come in distinct stylized packaging with a color picture of the prepared entree on it (like civilian pre-made meals) and the food accessories come in commercial packaging. Kosher entrees are marked \"Glatt Kosher\" in Hebrew and English, while halal entrees are marked \"Dhabiha Halal\" in Arabic and English. The meals come in cases of 12 that weigh 18\u00a0lbs (8\u00a0kg) and have a volume of 1.4 cubic feet (40 L). To keep with dietary laws, the entree and accessory packets are packed in two separate inner boxes in an outer case and come in kosher or halal only (the two special ration types are never mixed in a shipping case)."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Meal, Ready-to-Eat:39",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Meal, Ready-to-Eat",
          "Variants and similar rations",
          "MRE special requirements"
        ],
        "ctx": "The \"Modular Operational Rations Enhancement\" (MORE) is issued as a supplement to meals for troops in extreme, demanding operational environments such as high-intensity training events."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Rations 6 to 19 are packaged in a resealable carry pouch, which is NATO Olive, desert brown or transparent. The meals are packed in retort pouches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "In 2008, Israel introduced a new field ration to supplement the traditional Manat Krav. Unlike previous rations, the new Battle Ration consists of individual, self-heating, ready-to-eat meals packed inside plastic-aluminum trays. They are designed to be carried and used by infantry troops for up to 24 hours, until regular supply lines can be established. Ten menus are available, including chicken, turkey and kebab; each meal pack is supplemented with dry salami, dried fruit, tuna, halva, sweet roll, and preserved dinner rolls. However, as of 2012, the older rations were still in use."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "United States military ration refers to various preparations and packages of food provided to feed members of the armed forces. U.S. military rations are often made for quick distribution, preparation, and eating in the field and tend to have long storage times in adverse conditions due to being thickly packaged and/or shelf-stable. The current ration is the Meal, Ready-to-Eat (MRE)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Indian Armed Forces have a host of Meals Ready To Eat (MRE) including the One Man Combo Pack Ration, Mini Combo Pack, Survival Ration, a ration for marine commandos and Main Battle Tank (MBT) Rations. The shelf-life of the ration is 12\u00a0months. India has adopted retort processing technology for combat rations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The 12 hour operational ration pack (ORP) is designed for patrolling for durations of 4\u201312 hours and for is suitable for remote guard posts, drivers and as a supplement to normal rations for where daily calorie expenditure is likely to exceed 6000 kcal (25,120 kJ), for instance, troops undergoing arduous duties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "To avoid menu fatigue resulting from lack of variety in the ration, all 24-hour operational rations should, at a minimum, include:\n# Main courses (breakfast, lunch, dinner, or unspecified) generally intended to be eaten heated\n# Snacks, savoury and sweet (bars, chocolates, caramels, dried meat, nuts, crackers, cookie etc.)\n# Beverages, hot and cold (coffee, tea, hot chocolate, sports drinks, etc.)\n# Spreads (cheese, jam, peanut butter, etc.) and breads."
      },
      {
        "title": "LRP ration",
        "text": "While the MRE was lighter than the canned MCI and had more dietary energy than the LRP ration, it had certain problems. US Special Operations forces found it too bulky, and troops on maneuvers found some menu items were unsuited for easy digestion in cold-weather / high-altitude or high-temperature / high-humidity environments. While unofficial practice was to strip out items deemed \"unnecessary\", this also reduced the ration's dietary energy content. Faced with these problems, this forced the adoption of a specialized ration for light troops or commando units on extended field operations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The United States' Meal, Ready-to-Eat (MRE) is packaged similarly to the Canadian ration. Each sealed plastic bag contains one entire precooked meal, with a number of supplements and accessories. The original 12 menus have been expanded to 24 and now contain a variety of ethnic and special request items as well. Kosher/Halal and Vegetarian menus are also provided. Each meal bag contains an main course (packaged in a four-layer plastic and foil laminate retort pouch), 8 hardtack crackers, some form of spread (cheese, peanut butter, or jelly), a fruit-based beverage powder, some form of dessert (cake, candy, cookies, or fruit), and an accessory packet containing coffee or tea, creamer, sugar, salt, matches, a plastic spoon, and toilet paper. A chemical heater is packed with every meal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "NATO defines a \"General Purpose Individual Operational Ration\" as \"A self-contained combat ration that provides adequate food for 24 hours for one person to maintain health, physical performance, and cognitive function under routine training or operational conditions. This ration is shelf stable and may require water to rehydrate some of the contents. The contents may be eaten hot or cold. General purpose individual operational rations are intended to be used during standard military operations in very broad but typically moderate operational conditions.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "New Zealand issues an Operational Ration Pack designed to provide one soldier with three complete meals. Based around two ready-to-eat retort pouches (e.g. Lamb Casserole, Chicken Curry), the ORP comes in 4 menus. Also included are: Anzac biscuits, chocolate bars, URC fruit grains, muesli bars, instant soup powder, instant noodles, muesli cereal, a tube of condensed milk, hard crackers, tinned cheese, cocoa powder, instant coffee, tea bags, instant sport drink powder, sugar, salt, pepper, glucose sweets, Marmite, jam, ketchup, onion flakes, waterproofed matches, a resealable plastic bag, and a menu sheet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "A field ration (also known as combat ration, ration pack, or food packet) is a type of canned or pre-packaged military ration. They are distinguished from regular garrison rations by virtue of being designed for minimal preparation in the field, using canned, vacuum-sealed, pre-cooked or freeze-dried foods, powdered beverage mixes and concentrated food bars, as well as for long shelf life. Most field rations typically contain meat as one of their main courses. The iron ration is a soldier's dry emergency rations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Saudi Arabia uses a combat meal that is packed inside a brown plastic bag about the size and shape of a US MRE pouch. It contains a small can of tuna, a small can of sardines or salmon or beef, a small can of cheese or thickened cream, an envelope of instant noodle soup, hard crackers and dry toast (like Zwieback), a small bag of raisins or dried fruit, a small package of dates, a small bag of nuts, plus instant coffee, tea bags, sugar packets, matches, and a bag of spiced dried chickpea powder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Lithuanian field rations are based on the US Army's MRE\u00a0\u2013 they come in 10 menus packed in a dark green plastic bag, and besides the main meal in a retort pouch they also include two small dark chocolate bars, honey or jam, four hard-tack biscuits, a handful of almonds or hazelnuts, instant drink mix, tea or coffee, sugar, an antiseptic wipe, matches, solid fuel tablets, a flat disposable stove, a flameless heater (similar to the US one) and a cable-tie used to seal waste packaging back into the outer bag after use."
      },
      {
        "title": "LRP ration",
        "text": "After the war, U.S. army logisticians again re-standardized field rations, eliminating all lightweight rations in favor of heavy canned wet rations such as the C ration and the Meal, Combat, Individual ration. The overuse of heavy canned wet rations reached a ludicrous extreme during the early years of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam war, when American soldiers on extended infantry patrol were forced to stack their canned rations in socks to minimize weight and noise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Field ration\n--Americas.\n----Argentina.\n----Brazil.\n----Canada.\n----Colombia.\n----Mexico.\n----United States.\n--Europe.\n----Czech Republic.\n----Denmark.\n----Finland.\n----France.\n----Germany.\n----Bundeswehr Rations.\n------Individual EPa Rations I-V.\n------Day Rations XV-XIX.\n------Earlier versions of German Rations.\n----Greece.\n----Ireland.\n----Italy.\n----Lithuania.\n----Netherlands.\n----Norway.\n----Poland.\n----Russian Federation.\n----Spain.\n----Sweden.\n----United Kingdom.\n------12 Hour Operational Ration Pack.\n------24 Hour Operational Ration Pack.\n------24 Hour Jungle Ration.\n------Cold Climate Ration.\n------10 Man Operational Ration Pack.\n------Emergency Flying Rations (EFR) Mark 4.\n--------Emergency Flying Rations (EFR) Mark 9.\n--------Costs of rations.\n------Earlier Versions of British Field Rations.\n--------1940s.\n--------1970s.\n--------1980s.\n--------Arctic Rations.\n--------1990s.\n----Ukraine.\n----Portugal.\n--Middle East.\n----Israel.\n----Saudi Arabia.\n----United Arab Emirates.\n--Oceania.\n----Australia.\n----New Zealand.\n------Operational Ration Pack 1 Man-24 Hours.\n--Asia.\n----Brunei.\n----India.\n----Indonesia.\n----Japan.\n------Type I Combat Ration (Old model).\n------Type I Combat Ration (New model).\n------Type II Combat Ration (Improved version).\n----Malaysia.\n----People's Republic of China.\n----Philippines.\n----Singapore.\n----Sri Lanka.\n----South Korea.\n----Taiwan.\n----Vietnam.\n--United Nations.\n--NATO Standard.\n----Shelf life.\n----Nutritional content.\n----Menu Fatigue.\n----Serving Temperature.\n----Accessories.\n----Food Packaging.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "This ration was issued in the early part of the war to address a problem. Soldiers fighting in the front lines needed to be supplied with their daily rations, but cooked food prepared at field kitchens was sometimes spoiled by gas attacks. The trench ration was the answer. It was a variety of canned meats (salmon, corned beef, sardines, etc.) that were commercially procured and sealed in a large tin box covered in canvas. It was bulky and heavy and the soldiers began to get weary of the limited menu and it was soon replaced by the Reserve Ration."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "Currently, the following food is available to troops:\n* A-ration: fresh food prepared on-site (or nearby and transported)\n* B-ration: a unit-sized packaged/preserved ration, most commonly found in tray rations (nicknamed T-rat) heated by immersion.\n* Meal, Ready-to-Eat: the standard individual field ration\n* First Strike Ration: an individual ration designed to be edible while on the move\n* HOOAH! Bar: energy bar (the spiritual successor to the D-ration), found in some menus of MREs"
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The \"Einmannpackung\" ration of the Bundeswehr is supplied in two types, rations 1 to 5 are packaged in a grey cardboard box with the meals packaged in sealed heavy duty foil trays which may be heated by immersing in hot water. The trays are opened using a knife or other sharp implement. Rations 6 to 19 are packaged in a resealable carry pouch, which is NATO Olive, desert brown or transparent. The meals are packed in retort pouches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Uniquely, India also developed an operational ration pack specifically for Main Battle Tank (MBT) and other Armored vehicle crews. Designed to sustain four soldiers for 72\u00a0h in closed-in battle conditions, the MBT ration is based on instant/ready to eat foods and ration/survival bars. First and second day ration packs weigh 2\u00a0kg each and provide per soldier, while the third day ration pack weighs 1.5\u00a0kg and supplies ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Italy uses the \"Razione Viveri Speciali da Combattimento\", consisting of a heavy duty brownish-green plastic bag with three thin white cardboard cartons inside (one for breakfast, one for lunch and one for dinner), each containing meal items plus accessories."
      },
      {
        "title": "LRP ration",
        "text": "In response, the \"Food Packet, Individual, Combat\" (FPIC), was developed in the early-1960s, though not fielded until 1966. The FPIC was designed to be nutritious, lightweight, and easily portable, the descendant of the dehydrated rations used by NASA's astronauts. The ration was originally a response to complaints about the weight of the canned ration. Carrying a multi-day supply of heavy wet canned MCI or C-rations, \"a special operations team could become virtually immobile due to the weight of needed supplies. Mobility and stealth are decreased when loads become too heavy, and the soldier is too often worn down by midday. Fatigue affects alertness, making him more vulnerable to detection and error.\" The ration's final weight was a compromise between the original packet's target weight of and the base target weight of the larger experimental \"Meal, Ready-to-Eat, Individual\" (MRE-I), a forerunner of the later MRE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "In 2016, it was announced that the Armed Forces of the Philippines will get new \"Ready-to-Eat\" rations. They are packed in green plastic retort pouches and considered fit to eat for Muslim service members (halal). For example, Menu #2 has four packs of cooked rice, one tuna rice with sisig, one pack of chicken sausage with sauce, one pack of chicken lechon paksiw, one pack of powdered milk, one pack of 3-in-1 coffee, one pack of plain crackers, a spork and wet tissues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Israeli \"battle ration\" (Manat Krav) is designed to be shared by four soldiers. It contains: 1 can of rice filled vine leaves, 8 small cans of tuna, canned olives, a can of sweet corn, a can of pickled cucumbers, 1 can of halva spread and 1 chocolate spread, a can of peanuts, fruit flavored drink powder, and bread or matzoh crackers. There is also an \"ambush pack\" of candy and high-energy protein bars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Canada provides each soldier with a complete pre-cooked meal known as the IMP (Individual Meal Pack), packaged inside a heavy-duty folding paper bag. There are 5 breakfast menus, 6 lunch menus, and 6 supper menus. Canadian rations provide generous portions and contain a large number of commercially available items. Like the US ration, the main meal is precooked and ready-to-eat, packed in heavy-duty plastic-foil retort pouches boxed with cardboard. Typically, the ration contains a meal item (beans and wiener sausages, scalloped potatoes with ham, smoked salmon fillet, macaroni and cheese, cheese omelette with mushrooms, shepherd's pie, etc.), wet-packed (sliced or mashed) fruit in a boxed retort pouch, and depending on the meal a combination of instant soup or cereal, fruit drink crystals, jam or cheese spread, peanut butter, honey, crackers, bread (bun) compressed into a retort pouch, coffee and tea, sugar, commercially available chocolate bars and hard candy, a long plastic spoon, paper towels and wet wipes. Canada also makes limited use of a Light Meal Pack containing dried meat or cheese, dried fruit, a granola bar, a breakfast cereal square, a chocolate bar, hard candy, hot cocoa mix, tea, and two pouches of instant fruit drink. Canadian ration packs also contain a book of cardboard matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel Defense Forces",
        "text": "Field rations, called \"manot krav\", usually consist of canned tuna, sardines, beans, stuffed vine leaves, maize and fruit cocktail and bars of halva. Packets of fruit flavored drink powder are also provided along with condiments like ketchup, mustard, chocolate spread and jam. Around 2010, the IDF announced that certain freeze dried MREs served in water activated disposable heaters like goulash, turkey schwarma and meatballs would be introduced as field rations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The ration is packed inside a heavy-duty (.25\u00a0mm thick) matte green or olive drab polyethylene bag measuring 300\u00a0mm wide by 400\u00a0mm long. It is printed with the logo of the Brazilian Army, \"Ra\u00e7\u00e3o de Combate R2 (24 Horas)\" and Menu information. Inside are 5 thinner (.10\u00a0mm) semi-transparent plastic bags, one for each meal and one for the accessories. Each bag is printed with meal information and contents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Danish military developed a modern field ration inspired by Norwegian and American rations. It consist of Drytech freeze-dried main meals and several additional items such as dried fruits and nuts, energy bars, hard biscuits, meat p\u00e2t\u00e9, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Also included are: a can of fruit, a package of ramen noodles, 2 flameless chemical ration heaters, a menu/instruction sheet, 1 pack dried hummus powder, and a book of matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Patrol Ration One Man is a complete 24-hour ration pack that contains freeze dried main meals, meaning that the total weight of each pack is reduced, however a correspondingly higher quantity of water must be carried in order to reconstitute the main meal. Otherwise, it is similar to the Combat Ration One Man. It is packed in tough clear polyethylene bags and is available in five menu choices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meal, Ready-to-Eat",
        "text": "After repeated experiences with providing prepared rations to soldiers dating from before World War II, Pentagon officials ultimately realized that simply providing a nutritionally balanced meal in the field was not adequate. Service members in various geographic regions and combat situations often required different subsets of ingredients for food to be considered palatable over long periods. Moreover, catering to individual tastes and preferences would encourage service members to actually consume the whole ration and its nutrition. Most importantly, the use of specialized forces in extreme environments and the necessity of carrying increasingly heavy field loads while on foot during extended missions required significantly lighter alternatives to standard canned wet rations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli Ground Forces",
        "text": "Field rations, called \"manot krav\", usually consist of canned tuna, sardines, beans, stuffed vine leaves, maize and fruit cocktail and bars of halva. Packets of fruit flavored drink powder are also provided along with condiments like ketchup, mustard, chocolate spread and jam. Around 2010, the IDF announced that certain freeze dried MREs served in water activated disposable heaters like goulash, turkey schwarma and meatballs would be introduced as field rations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Ministry of Defense is also developing new MREs for the Special Operations Force as well as the Border Patrol Force. The new MREs are used in three main courses - breakfast, lunch and dinner. They mostly contain Vietnamese braised pork, meat stews, sticky rice, white rice, dried vegetables that can be heated with water, nutrition drinks, fruit juices, nutrition snacks, eateries (spoon, fork and straw), napkins and toothpicks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meal, Combat, Individual ration",
        "text": "Though it had been given a new name, the MCI was in essence still the canned C ration of prior years. Selecting the MCI ration for all field issue resulted in limiting troops in the field to a single class of heavy wet packaged ration that despite meal variances, was simply not suitable for extended consumption. As they had in World War II and Korea, soldiers and Marines regularly complained of the monotony of a single class of field ration, especially where field mess A and B rations were not available for extended periods of time. Despite the inclusion of additional menu items, the MCI was still designed only for \"infrequent use\" (unlike later individual rations, which would be required to pass a new field test of seven consecutive days of consumption as the sole diet without complaints of monotony)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The old model type I combat rations were supplied in cans, with one large can containing the rice portion and 2 or 3 smaller cans containing other portions."
      },
      {
        "title": "A-ration",
        "text": "'A' rations today may include the Unitized Group Ration A (UGR-A), a hybrid meal kit designed to feed a group of 50 persons for one meal. The UGR-A has several different varieties, including a tray-based heat and serve (T-rat) form, heated by hot water immersion when a field kitchen is not available, or the express form, with a self-heating module and disposable accessories. The UGR-A is used to sustain military personnel during worldwide operations that allow organized food service facilities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meal, Ready-to-Eat",
        "text": "The Meal, Ready-to-Eat (MRE) is a self-contained, individual field ration in lightweight packaging bought by the United States Department of Defense for its service members for use in combat or other field conditions where other food is not available. While MREs should be kept cool, they do not need to be refrigerated. MREs replaced the canned MCI, or Meal, Combat, Individual rations, in 1981, and is the intended successor to the lighter LRP ration developed by the United States Army for Special Forces and Ranger patrol units in Vietnam. MREs have also been distributed to civilians during natural disasters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Most armed forces in the world today now field some form of pre-packaged combat ration, often suitably tailored to meet national or regional cuisines."
      },
      {
        "title": "K-ration",
        "text": "In 1941, Ancel Keys, a University of Minnesota physiologist, was assigned by the U.S. War Department to design a non-perishable, ready-to-eat meal that could fit in a soldier's pocket as a short-duration, individual ration. Keys went to a local supermarket to choose foods that would be inexpensive, but still be enough to provide energy. He purchased hard biscuits, dry sausages, hard candy, and chocolate bars. He then tested his , meals on six soldiers in a nearby army base. The meals only gained \"palatable\" and \"better than nothing\" ratings from the soldiers, but were successful in relieving hunger and providing sufficient energy. The new rations were initially intended as individual rations suitable for short durations only, to be used for a maximum of fifteen meals before supplementation or replacement with 'A-ration' or 'B-ration' field rations. They were soon called the \"paratrooper ration\", since paratroopers were the first to be issued the ration on an experimental basis."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "After 1918, the army ration system went through several revisions, eventually leading to the:\n* \"A-ration\": Garrison Ration. Fresh, refrigerated, or frozen food prepared in dining halls or field kitchens. The most valued of all rations.\n* \"B-ration\": Field Ration. Canned, packaged, or preserved foods normally prepared in field kitchens without refrigeration.\n* \"C-ration\": Individual Ration. A complete pre-cooked, ready-to-eat canned individual meal.\n* \"K-ration\": Individual Ration. Designed as a short duration individual \"assault\" ration for paratroopers and other specialized light infantry forces. Declared obsolete in 1948.\n* \"D-ration\": Emergency Ration. Bars of concentrated chocolate combined with other ingredients to provide high calorie content (intended as an emergency ration)."
      },
      {
        "title": "C-ration",
        "text": "The C-Ration, or Field Ration, Type C, was a prepared and canned wet combat ration intended to be issued to U.S. military land forces when fresh food (A-ration) or packaged unprepared food (B-ration) prepared in mess halls or field kitchens was not possible or not available, and when a survival ration (K-ration or D-ration) was insufficient. Development began in 1938 with the first rations being field-tested in 1940 and wide-scale adoption following soon after. Operational conditions often caused the C-ration to be standardized for field issue regardless of environmental suitability or weight limitations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The ration is similar to the R2 and uses the same components, but contains less food. The bag is printed with the emblem of the Brazilian Army, \"Ra\u00e7\u00e3o de Emerg\u00eancia R3 (12 Horas)\" and Menu information. Inside are 3 thin plastic bags: 2 meal bags and 1 accessory packet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Malaysian Army version of the 24-hour ration pack is intended to provide one man with sufficient food and supplements for one day. Most items are domestically procured and cater to local tastes and religious dietary requirements. The ration makes extensive use of commercially available canned and dehydrated items. Wherever possible, plastic-foil pouches are used instead of cans. The ration is supplemented with precooked or freeze-dried rice. Example menu C: Beef Kurma, Chicken Masak Merah, Fish Curry, and Sambal Shrimp; Bean Curd and Vegetable mix; long bean stew; canned pineapple and canned papaya; 2 packages of quick-cooking porridge (black bean porridge and flour porridge); military biscuits; jam; instant coffee; tea; instant milk powder; sugar; salt; vitamin tablets; matches; and napkins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The primary operational ration used in Greece is the so-called \"Merida Eidikon Dynameon\" (Special Forces' Ration, also known as a 4B-ration), a 24-hour ration pack inside a cardboard box measuring and weighing . Most items are commercially procured, with the main meals in round pull-ring cans. Typical contents include: a 200\u00a0g canned meat (\"SPAM\"); 280\u00a0g can of meat with vegetables (beef and potatoes, etc.) (termed Prepared Food With Meat or \u03a0\u03a6\u039c\u039a); a 280\u00a0g can of cooked vegetables (green peas, etc.) (Prepared Food Without Meat or \u03a0\u03a6\u0391\u039a); an 85\u00a0g can of cheese; 6 hard biscuits; 40\u00a0g honey; three 50\u00a0g packages of raisins or chocolate; 30\u00a0g sugar; 1.5\u00a0g black tea, 2\u00a0g instant coffee; 19\u00a0g instant milk powder; two small packets of salt; a multivitamin tablet; 4 water purification tablets; a pack of tissues; a disposable ration heater with 5 fuel tablets; and a box of matches. In wartime, packs of locally commandeered cigarettes may also be issued."
      },
      {
        "title": "LRP ration",
        "text": "The LRP ration continued to be procured in small quantities until the mid-1980s, when it was replaced by a thermo-stabilized ration, the \"Meal, Ready-to-Eat\" (MRE). Quartermaster Command and Army Food Services viewed the new ration as a suitable replacement for issue in all combat environments. Despite the long history of operational failures previously encountered in standardizing on a single type of individual ration, the new MRE was duly adopted with the intention of replacing all the field rations and ration supplements in use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corned beef",
        "text": "Canned corned beef has long been one of the standard meals included in military field ration packs globally, due to its simplicity and instant preparation. One example is the American Meal, Ready-to-Eat (MRE) pack. Astronaut John Young sneaked a contraband corned beef sandwich on board Gemini 3, hiding it in a pocket of his spacesuit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Dinner has a retort pouch of pasta rigatoni, an envelope instant soup, and a third accessory pack."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Patrol Ration Pac (PRP) is a shelf-stable product that provides an efficient, flexible and nutritionally robust feeding method. The PRP is designed to cover activities when you have access to other food sources during the day and is ideal to replace a single meal or provide snack options. The PRP provides approximately one-third of the energy and nutrient requirements of most military personnel during moderate, prolonged-intensity physical activity, in a temperate environment. Therefore, it is desirable that all of the food in the pack is eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "K-ration",
        "text": "The actual prototype of the K-ration was a pocket ration for paratroopers developed by the Subsistence Research Laboratory (SRL) at the request of the U.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) early in the war. Two original samples (one version used pemmican biscuits, a peanut bar, raisins, and bouillon paste; the other used pemmican biscuits, a small D ration bar, canned processed meat, and lemon beverage powder) evolved into the one-package breakfast-dinner-supper combination later adopted as standard. The Quartermaster Command's Subsistence Branch altered some components and renamed the ration the Field Ration, Type K, or \"K-ration\"; the final version totaled . The first procurement of K-rations was made in May 1942. Some believed the K-ration was named after Dr. Keys or was short for \"Commando\" (as elite troops were the first to receive it). However, the letter \"K\" was selected because it was phonetically distinct from other letter-name rations."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "Some of these specialized rations were discontinued during the war due to cost concerns, forcing commanders to adopt standardized rations in their place. The K- and D-rations were declared obsolete after World War II but canned wet rations in the form of the C-ration (later the MCI) continued until 1983, when they were replaced by the Meal, Ready-to-Eat (MRE)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Like other German rations, is packed in a resealable carry pouch with the meals in retort pouches."
      },
      {
        "title": "C-ration",
        "text": "Instead, the C-Ration, still designated as a packaged ration intended for infrequent or short-term use, went through a series of largely unsuccessful minor revisions. This decision resulted in limiting troops in the field to a single class of packaged ration that despite meal variances was neither suited to varied field environments nor for long-term use. Troops continued to complain of the monotony of a single class of field ration with one or more unpalatable menu items, especially where A and B rations were not available for extended periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Meal A (breakfast):"
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The modern Korean army issues 2 types of field rations, Type I and Type II. Type I ration has ready-to-eat foods packed in foil-plastic trilaminate pouches, placed in turn inside a thin cardboard box. Typical contents include: 1 pouch (250\u00a0g) precooked white rice with meat and vegetables, plus a separate seasoning packet; 1 pouch (250\u00a0g) precooked rice with red beans; 1 packet (100\u00a0g) of 6 pork sausages in BBQ; 1 packet (100\u00a0g) kimchi; and 1 packet (50\u00a0g) cooked black beans. The Type II ration is a smaller, lighter, freeze-dried single-meal ration consisting of several small pouches packed inside a larger gray plastic pouch measuring 225\u00a0mm\u00a0x\u00a0200\u00a0mm\u00a0x\u00a090\u00a0mm and weighing 278\u00a0g. Typical contents include: freeze dried rice (various flavors, usually with meat and vegetables included), a pouch of instant soup, flavored sesame oil, seasoning and spice packets, dried chives and chocolate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The UK provides the Operational Ration Pack, General Purpose. Packed inside a small cardboard box, each ration has enough retort-pouched and canned foods to feed one soldier for 24 hours. Seven menus (plus vegetarian and religious variants) provide two precooked meals (Breakfast and Main Meal) plus a midday snack. Example (Menu A) Breakfast: Hamburger and beans, Instant Porridge. All ration packs also contain Oatmeal Block, Fruit Biscuits, Biscuits Brown (a more compact alternative to bread), a sachet of instant soup and jam or yeast extract (a Marmite like spread) for a lunchtime snack, and chocolate (in the form of a specially made Yorkie bar which is flatter than civilian bars, or, more recently, a simple unbranded bar of milk chocolate), though this has been phased out with the introduction of the more recent multi-climate ration packs, and boiled sweets (hard candy) for snacking whilst on patrol, or in free time. Main Meal: Instant soup, Chicken with Mushroom and Pasta, Treacle Pudding. Each pack also contains instant coffee, tea bags, creamer, sugar, hot cocoa mix, beef/vegetable stock powder, lemon/orange powder or Lucozade electrolyte powder, matches, packet of tissues, chewing-gum, a small bottle of Tabasco sauce, and water purifying tablets. They sometimes also contain chicken and herb p\u00e2t\u00e9. Also available are Kosher/Halal, Vegetarian, and Hindu/Sikh specific menus. Regardless of their contents, these ration packs are referred to as Rat-Packs or Compo (short for Composite Rations) by the soldiers who eat them. In addition to containing the 24-hour ration, the outside of the cardboard box has a range card printed on its side for use by the soldier to record key features and their range from their position. Other variations designed for specific environments exist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Raci\u00f3n de Combate (Individual) was introduced in 2003, consisting of a gray plastic-foil laminate pouch containing a mix of canned and dehydrated foods, plus minimal supplements, for 1 soldier for 1 day. All products in the RC are domestically produced, commercially available items. Each ration contains: canned meat, small can of meat spread, crackers, instant soup, cereal bar with fruit, a chocolate bar with nuts or caramels, instant coffee, orange juice powder, sugar, salt, a heating kit with disposable stove and alcohol-based fuel tablets, disposable butane lighter, resealable plastic bag, cooked rice and a pack of paper tissues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Such meals also prove invaluable for disaster or wartime relief, where large stocks of these can be ferried and distributed easily, and provide basic nutritional support to victims before kitchens can be set up to produce fresh food. Rations intended for emergency or disaster relief are often referred to as survival rations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meal, Combat, Individual ration",
        "text": "Meal, Combat, Individual ration\n--Development and packaging.\n--Menus.\n----Meat unit.\n----Bread unit.\n----Dessert unit.\n----Repackaging.\n----Postwar additions.\n----Field reports.\n--Improvised stove.\n--End of the MCI ration.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "B-ration",
        "text": "The B ration (or Type B Ration) was a type of field ration used in the United States military. Field rations such as the A ration, B ration, and emergency rations consisted of food items issued to troops operating in the field. Like the A ration, the B ration required the use of trained cooks and a field kitchen for preparation. However it consisted entirely of semi-perishable foods (i.e. canned and dehydrated food) and so did not require refrigeration equipment."
      },
      {
        "title": "K-ration",
        "text": "The K-ration originally came packed in an unbleached tan-colored rectangular cardstock box with black lettering. The outer box was printed on its top in bold capital sans serif block letter type with the text: \"US ARMY FIELD RATION K\", with the meal unit type (BREAKFAST, DINNER, or SUPPER UNIT) printed underneath it and a capital letter on each end (B, D, or S). While it was intended that the three meals be eaten in their named order, they were not always consumed in this manner. The inner box had the meal unit type printed across its top and a capital letter on each end (B, D, or S)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meal, Ready-to-Eat",
        "text": "The first U.S. soldier ration established by a Congressional Resolution, during the Revolutionary War, consisted of enough food to feed a man for one day, mostly beef, peas, and rice. During the Civil War, the U.S. military moved toward canned goods. Later, self-contained kits were issued as a whole ration and contained canned meat, bread, coffee, sugar and salt. During the First World War, canned meats were replaced with lightweight preserved meats (salted or dried) to save weight and allow more rations to be carried by soldiers carrying their supplies on foot. At the beginning of World War II, a number of new field rations were introduced, including the Mountain ration and the Jungle ration. However, cost-cutting measures by Quartermaster Command officials during the latter part of World War II and the Korean War again saw the predominance of heavy canned C rations issued to troops, regardless of operating environment or mission. During WWII, over 100 million cans of Spam were sent to the Pacific. The use of canned wet rations continued through the Vietnam War, with the improved MCI field ration."
      },
      {
        "title": "A-ration",
        "text": "'A' ration meals may be served in dining facilities (\"DFAC\"), prepared in the field by the use of field kitchens, or prepared at a fixed facility and transported to field locations in containers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Meal C (dinner):"
      },
      {
        "title": "Meal, Ready-to-Eat",
        "text": "The \"Modular Operational Rations Enhancement\" (MORE) is issued as a supplement to meals for troops in extreme, demanding operational environments such as high-intensity training events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "There are seven menus, called \"modules\", identified by colors: yellow, red, grey, green, white, pink and blue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The UK also fields a larger pack of rations intended to feed ten soldiers for 24 hours from centralised but basic preparation; generally similar in content to the single issue ORP but tending to contain larger quantities of food in cylindrical tin cans to be divided up on preparation, rather than individual retort pouches or packets. Even dry materials like sugar or biscuits are often packed in these cans. They contain ingredients for baking bread and tinned food, including vegetables, corned beef and sausages in lard. Also included are chocolate, pre-cooked chicken or beef in gravy and soya mince. Ten boxed one-man ORPs are supplied in larger boxes identical in shape to the single ten-man pack."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "In 1943, The 24 Hour Ration was devised as a direct replacement to the 48 Hour Mess tin ration. It contained only dried goods (no tins), to save weight and tinplate, which was the criticism of the earlier mess tin ration. It was first issued to troops on D-Day to provide interim food prior to supply lines being established which would permit 14 Man Composition Rations being brought ashore."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The UAE utilizes a European-style combat ration pack containing food and accessories for one soldier for 24 hours. Packed in the UAE utilizing imported components, the ration box measures 245\u00a0mm \u00d7 195\u00a0mm \u00d7 115\u00a0mm and weighs 2.0\u00a0kg. Inside are 4 resealable (ziplock type) plastic bags, labeled in both Arabic & English, containing Breakfast, Lunch, Dinner, and Miscellaneous."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The 24 hour GS (General Service) ration pack was supplied with the contents in cans or packets.\n*Biscuits AB stands for \"Biscuits-Alternative Bread\", these were called more colourful names by members of the British Army due to the fact they caused constipation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The new model type I combat ration is supplied in olive drab retort pouches and overwrapped in an olive drab bag."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The 21-meal, 7-day menu cycle shall offer sufficient variety to at least allow a soldier to have two different meals each day for a period of 7 days, without repetition, although a breakfast meal and a variety of small snack and beverage items may be repeated. It is recommended that coffee and/or tea be provided for each meal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Spanish Army issues an individual meal pack, available in 5 different menus, comprising a small cardboard box overwrapped with drab green polyethylene. Inside are 3 canned meals, plus accessories. Typical contents (Menu B) include: stewed steak, pickled mackerel, liver p\u00e2t\u00e9 with red peppers, an envelope of instant soup, a can of fruit, 2 salt tablets, 2 water purification tablets, a large multivitamin tablet, 10 sheets of general purpose paper, a book of matches, a folding can opener, a small folding ration heater and 2 fuel tablets, and an instruction sheet in three languages (Spanish, English and French). Crackers or bread are issued separately."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "A- and B-rations were only served at bases or established camps in rear areas as they require cooking. C-rations could be eaten hot or cold and required no special preparation or storage, so these could be served almost anywhere."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "NATO bases the nutritional content requirement on a reference soldier weighing , who on normal operations would have an energy expenditure of approximately 3,600 kcal per day. For combat operations, i.e., missions involving sustained, dismounted light-infantry or Special Forces operations energy expenditure is estimated to be 4,900 kcal per day, however this is seen to be a worst-case scenario. Operational individual rations are designed to be used for a period of 30 days after which supplements of fresh food be given and medical screening for nutritional deficiencies be increased."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "During peacekeeping operations in Lebanon, UN peacekeepers were reported to make use of a ration packaged similar to that of the U.S MRE designated the \u201cIndividual Food Ration\u201d (French: Ration Alimentaire Individuelle). These rations are meant to be consumed over a period of 24 hours, and are notoriously difficult to acquire by civilians. There are 12 available menus in the form of 3 \u201cWestern\u201d (Pasta with Beef and Chickpea Stew, Vegetables with Beef and Tomato and Cheese Pasta, Chilli Con Carne and Baked Beans), 3 Halal, 3 Kosher, 3 Vegetarian. Each ration also comes with both sweet and salty biscuits and an accessory pack containing fruit muesli, fruit jelly, fruit jam, dark chocolate, cheese spread, chewing gum, eight pouches of sugar, salt, pepper, ketchup and Mexican sauce. Another accessory pack with instant coffee, tea, an instant fruit drink and a hyperprotein drink is also included."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ronald C. Wornick",
        "text": "In 1976, he resigned and reacquired the firm, later changing its name to The Wornick Company. In 1979, it was selected by the U.S. military to commercialize and deliver its newest version of the individual combat field ration, Meals, Ready to Eat or MREs. Lighter and smaller than the old C-Rations, the MREs produced by the Wornick Company, weighed approximately 1.5 pounds and covered an area of .08 cubic feet. They revolutionized how and what servicemen ate in the field."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The 250\u00a0g main meal pouches differ by menu, two provided for each menu (lunch & dinner) as follows:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI) has introduced the \"Ransum TNI\" (\"TNI ration\", from Dutch \"rantsoen\") in the mid-1970s in order to standardize nutrition for soldiers in field. There are three types of ration and each daily ration consist of three menus (breakfast, lunch, and dinner), a pack of supplementary drinks, providing approximately in total. Primary menus are often fried rice, often with regional variants such as Javanese or Balinese fried rice. The supplementary drinks are instant coffee, powdered fruit juice or vitamin supply, tea bags and powdered milk. All rations should be heated for 10\u201315 minutes over fire with the included stove and solid fuel tablets (for canned meals), or by submerging in boiling water (for meals packed in retort pouches). Virtually all products are made in Indonesia and manufactured according to Indonesian military standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Bag #1: Desjejum (Breakfast, 130\u00a0mm x 200\u00a0mm)*"
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Meal B (lunch):"
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "When (during peacetime) conscript soldiers are not provided with meals cooked either in garrisons or attached field kitchens, they are provided with rations (colloquially known as sissi rations) packed in a clear plastic bag. Several different menus exist, however all include foil packed crispbread, coffee and tea, sugar, chocolate, small tins of beef or pork, chewing gum, dry porridge, energy drink powder etc. Soups and porridges that are meant to be mixed with water and cooked are usually prepared in Trangia-type portable stoves that are shared by the pair in a fire and maneuver team, or in individual mess kits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Bag #3: Jantar (Dinner, 240\u00a0mm x 300\u00a0mm)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The 24 hour GS (General Service) ration pack was supplied with the contents in cans or packets."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "After the war, there were attempts to improve the ration based on input from the field. In 1922, the \"Meat Ration\" was revised, consisting of one pound of meat (usually a combination of dried beef and canned corned beef). This was supplemented by hard chocolate, 14 ounces of hard bread or hardtack biscuits, coffee, and sugar. In 1925, the \"Meat Ration\" was changed, removing the dried beef in favor of canned pork and beans, and reducing the bread component. The corned beef allowance was also reduced in size (older rations continued to be issued, however). In 1936, menu planners attempted to introduce more variety by developing an alternate \"Meat Ration\" consisting of an \"A\"-menu (canned corned beef) and a \"B\"-menu (canned pork & beans). The A & B Reserve or combat ration was canceled after being superseded in 1938 by the Field Ration, Type C."
      },
      {
        "title": "10-in-1 food parcel",
        "text": "\"A small-group field ration [shall be] composed of components of the standard field ration type B (modified to reduce bulk and weight) packed in basic packages of five complete rations each. . . . The inner and outer packages are to be proof against water, vapor, moisture, and chemical agents. They are to be of such shape and dimensions as to be suitable for either animal-pack or man-carry, and sufficiently sturdy as to material and construction to withstand normal handling and transportation in motor vehicles, on pack animals or by individual portage.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Swedish armed forces use ration packs from the Swedish-developed 24 hour meals. 24 hour meals have a long range of menus (approx. 200) and can deliver both freezedried and wet meals. The Swedish concept (combat edition) consists of several versions for different use, in all climate zones, and various types of missions. Examples of different types of rations: 1-course (patrolration), 2-course, 3-course and 4-course versions with a variation of 40 different meals, both wet and dry. The rations varies from 1300 kcal to 5000 kcal. The ration is packed in a transparent durable plastic bag that is resealable with a ziplock. The contents are 1\u20134 main meals with energy bars, protein bars, nuts, energy drinks, whole wheat bread, peanut butter, desserts and spices for example. The durable bag change size depending on the version for optimal space usage in cartons and soldiers' backpacks. 24 hour meals have been developed at a rapid pace and are currently producing their 5th generation (first in 2008). R&D are working close with soldiers in Scandinavia and various missions around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meal, Combat, Individual ration",
        "text": "Although the MCI had been designed as improvement over the earlier Type C or C ration of World War II and Korea, with the inclusion of additional menu items, it was still designed for infrequent use, to be regularly supplemented with fresh Type A (Garrison) and canned Type B (Field Kitchen) rations. This goal was rarely achieved in the field, and some Army and Marine forces in Vietnam would operate for two weeks or more while consuming only the MCI ration or other processed, canned foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meal, Ready-to-Eat",
        "text": "The \"Tailored Operational Training Meal\" (TOTM) first entered service in May 2001. It provides a lower calorie count (an average of 997 kilocalories) for less intensive training environments, such as classroom instruction. It replaces the earlier mess-hall bagged lunches, catered meals or field kitchens for field instruction. The TOTM allows troops to become familiar with the MRE and its contents without providing an excessive amount of calories to troops who will not necessarily burn them. It uses a transparent outer plastic bag with commercial markings rather than the MRE's tan plastic bag with standard markings. There are currently 3 different lists of twelve menus, making a total of 36 different meals. Each TOTM ration case is packed with a full menu of 12 assorted meals, weighs about 20\u00a0lbs (9\u00a0kg) , and is 0.95 cubic feet (27 L). The TOTM has a more limited shelf-life than the MRE, with a duration of only 12 to 18 months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Norway utilize a 24-hour ration pack (Norwegian \"feltrasjon\") designed by Drytech, consisting of 2 freeze-dried main meals, a packet of compressed breakfast cereal, packets of instant soup, and supplements. These are packed in 3 green polylaminate bags labelled \"Breakfast\", \"Lunch\", or \"Dinner\", overwrapped in clear plastic and issued as one day's ration. Depending on the soldiers activity, the rations are delivered in two different sizes of either 3800 kcal or 5000 kcal. Included are a substantial assortment of beverages (cocoa mix, instant coffee, energy drink powder, and herbal teas), plus thin sliced rye bread and chocolate, chewing gum, a vitamin tablet, and litter bags. There are 7 completely different menus, and ongoing development to meet different nations requirements. The main meals are for example Chili con carne, different pasta dishes, Beef Stew, Beef and Potato Casserole, Lamb Mulligatawny, Cod and Potato Casserole, Pasta Bolognese, Wolf-fish with Prawns and Dill, Sweet and Sour Chicken, Rice in Basil Sauce etc. Small tins of fish are often provided separately."
      },
      {
        "title": "LRP ration",
        "text": "The Food Packet, Long Range Patrol or \"LRP ration\" (pronounced \"lurp\") was a U.S. Army freeze-dried dehydrated field ration. It was developed in 1964 during the Vietnam War (1955\u201375) for use by Special Operations troops; small, heavily armed long-range reconnaissance teams that patrolled deep in enemy-held territory, where bulky canned MCI rations (formerly known as C-Ration's) proved too heavy for extended missions on foot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Philippine Army formerly had a combat ration similar to those of the United States Army. Typically, they include a small can of sardines or tuna, instant noodles, crackers, instant coffee, a small packet of peanuts, ginger tea, and a biscuit or cookie. Chocolate manufactured for hot conditions are sometimes issued. Canned rice is also issued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Singapore Armed Forces issues three types of combat rations\u00a0\u2013 Type M (Muslim), Type N (Non-Muslim), and Type V (Vegetarian). Each type comes in 4 or 5 different menus, packed in a heavy-duty green plastic bag similar to a US MRE bag, but measuring 205\u00a0mm x 190\u00a0mm x 115\u00a0mm (8\" x 7.5\" x 4.5\") and weighing . Most items are retort-pouched (in the form of a watery paste and eaten straight from the pouch) and (except for the hot beverages) can be eaten without further preparation. The ration provides three meals and a variety of between-meal snacks, averaging per day. Each ration bag includes 2 retort-pouched main courses, a dessert, and an accessory pack containing 2 fruit bars, 4 packages of cookies, an envelope of isotonic drink mix powder, an envelope of instant flavored tea mix, a hot beverage (coffee, cocoa, or tea), an envelope of cereal mix, candy, matches, fuel tablets, and tissue paper. A package of instant noodles is provided with every meal pack, but is issued separately. Typical Type M (Menu #1): Rendang Mutton with rice; Tandoori Chicken with rice; Red Bean dessert. Typical Type N (Menu #5): Pasta Bolognese; Yellow Rice with Chicken; Barley Dessert with milk. Typical Type V (Menu #1): Mock Chicken Curry with rice; Vegetarian Fried Noodle; Green Bean dessert with coconut milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meal, Ready-to-Eat",
        "text": "In 1963, the Department of Defense began developing the \"Meal, Ready to Eat,\" a ration that would rely on modern food preparation and packaging technology to create a lighter replacement for the canned Meal, Combat, Individual ration. In 1966, this led to the Long Range Patrol, or LRP ration, a dehydrated meal stored in a waterproof canvas pouch. However, just as with the Jungle ration, its expense compared to canned wet rations, as well as the costs of stocking and storing a specialized field ration, led to its limited usage and repeated attempts at discontinuance by Quartermaster Command officials."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The Chinese People's Liberation Army has introduced a new set of rations in 2018 consisting of pre-packaged single-person meals sealed in hard plastic retort pouches. The Chinese military rations are of two types: Instant Meal Individual (three-item menu) and Self-Heating Individual (twelve-item menu) (Type 13 and 09). A typical Chinese breakfast ration contains roughly and includes a compressed food packet, an energy bar, an egg roll with pork, pickled mustard tuber, and a powdered beverage pack. Each Self-Heating package comes with an insulated flameless heater that is activated by water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "The primary operational ration used in Sri Lanka is the \"jungle ration,\" a 24-hour ration pack whose components are produced and assembled in Sri Lanka. It is issued to soldiers at the rate of one per soldier per day, and contains both food and sundry items designed to sustain troops where food storage and preparation facilities are not practical. All meals are precooked, requiring neither cooking nor preparation, and all items are packaged inside sealed plastic packages or lightweight aluminium cans. Precooked rice is included as part of every meal. Typical contents are: chicken curry with potatoes, vegetable curry, precooked rice, hard crackers, processed cheese, soup cubes, instant milk powder, orange drink powder, and dates or dried pineapple. A sundry pack containing tea bags, sugar, salt, glucose tablets, seasonings, matches, plastic bags, and toilet paper is included with every ration pack."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Information from Mreinfo.com."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Arctic rations were dehydrated and issued to troops serving in arctic areas where snow could be melted to rehydrate the dehydrated contents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "In 2011, as a result of the manufacturer going bankrupt, the IDF phased out the can of corned beef (known as 'Loof'), which had been part of the battle ration since the nation's founding. It would be replaced by \"ground meat with tomato sauce\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Field ration",
        "text": "Combat Ration One Man is a complete 24-hour ration pack that provides two substantial meals per day and a wide variety of drinks and snacks for the remainder of the day. Most items, such as Beef Kai Si Ming, Dutch-style Beef with Vegetables, Beef with Spaghetti, Baked Beans, Sausages with Vegetables, or Chicken with pasta and vegetables, are packed in 250\u00a0gram sized plastic-foil retort pouches. Included with every meal pack is a pouch of instant rice or instant mashed potatoes, a fruit and grain bar, 2 envelopes of instant drink powder, some biscuits, an \"Anzac Biscuit\", a chocolate bar, M&M's, coffee, tea, sugar, crackers, cheese spread, jam, sweetened condensed milk, hard sweets, and Vegemite. It is packed in a tough clear polyethylene bag and weighs around . In practical use, these packs are \"stripped\" by removing and trading with other soldiers, those components that are unlikely to be consumed by the person carrying the pack. This also reduces the weight of the packs, allowing more to be carried. There are eight menu choices, one of which is vegetarian. None of them are allergen free since Defence Force members are typically selected, among many other attributes, for their no known allergy status."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States military ration",
        "text": "United States military ration\n--History.\n----18th and 19th centuries.\n----World War I.\n------\"Iron Ration\" (1907\u20131922).\n------\"Trench Ration\" (1914\u20131918).\n------\"Reserve Ration\" (1917\u20131937).\n----Field Rations during World War II.\n----Post WWII rations.\n--Current.\n--Ration waste disposal.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Individual Meal Pack",
        "text": "The Individual Meal Pack or IMP is one type of field ration used by the Canadian Forces. The IMP is designed so that a continuous diet provides all the nutrition needed to sustain a service-person in the field. The IMP meets Canada's nutrition requirements, with the exception of calcium and folic acid, which are not significant if the consumption period of rations is less than 30 (consecutive) days. IMPs will provide 1200-1400 calories per meal."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What kinds of field rations does the United States issue its military personnel?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The MRE is the field ration given to the service members with the variants being: Aircrew Build to Order Meal Module; specialized Meal, Religious, Kosher/Halal; and the Modular Operational Rations Enhancement. Which do you want to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in the Modular Operational Rations Enhancement."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The MORE is given as a supplement to meals to troops in extreme, demanding operational environments such as high-intensity training events."
    ],
    "topic": "Field ration",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Meal, Ready-to-Eat:39",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Meal, Ready-to-Eat",
          "Variants and similar rations",
          "MRE special requirements"
        ],
        "ctx": "The \"Modular Operational Rations Enhancement\" (MORE) is issued as a supplement to meals for troops in extreme, demanding operational environments such as high-intensity training events."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Stair lift",
        "text": "In the 1920s, C.C. Crispen, a Pennsylvania entrepreneur, created a way to enable his ailing friend to travel from floor to floor. Crispen's idea was to design a seat that could climb stairs. A self-taught engineer, he built the first prototype of the inclining chair. He called it the Inclin-ator."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "Nicolas-Fran\u00e7ois Blondel in the last volume of his \"Cours d'architecture\" (1675\u20131683) was the first known person to establish the ergonomic relationship of tread and riser dimensions. He specified that 2 x riser + tread = step length."
      },
      {
        "title": "Potemkin Stairs",
        "text": "In 1837, the decision was made to build a \"monstrous staircase\", which was constructed between 1837 and 1841. English engineer John Upton supervised construction. Upton had fled Britain while on bail for forgery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Escalator",
        "text": "In 1889, Leamon Souder successfully patented the \"stairway\", an analogous device that featured a \"series of steps and links jointed to each other\". No model was ever built. This was the first of at least four escalator-style patents issued to Souder, including two for spiral designs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stair lift",
        "text": "Prior to this Frederick Muffett of Royal Tunbridge Wells, invented and patented the \"An Invalid Chair with Tramway for use on Staircases\". However, TV historian Doctor David Starkey has in 2009, found evidence in a list of the possessions of King Henry VIII that attributes the first stairlift invented to the monarch. The 30 stone (190 kg) king, injured through jousting, used a chair that was hauled up and down stairs on a block and tackle system by servants at the ancient Whitehall Palace in London."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "The earliest spiral stairs architectural image was shown on a white terra cotta pot discovered in Hunan China, 7400 years ago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Potemkin Stairs",
        "text": "The original 200 stairs were designed in 1837 by Italian architect Francesco Boffo and St. Petersburg architects Avraam I. Melnikov and Pot'e. The staircase cost 800,000 rubles to build."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spanish Steps",
        "text": "The solution is a gigantic inflation of some conventions of terraced garden stairs. The first such divided and symmetrical stairs were devised for the Belvedere Courtyard in the 1600s by Donato Bramante, while shaped and angled steps were introduced by Michelangelo in the vestibule to the Laurentian Library. The Bourbon fleur-de-lys and Innocent XIII's eagle and crown are carefully balanced in the sculptural details."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "These stairs are nowadays commonly referred to as 'Witches stairs', in the belief that they were created during an earlier era in an attempt to repel witches who were thought to be unable to climb such stairs. Such an origin of the term has since been disproved however, with experts finding no mention in any historical literature of stairs that were believed to prevent access by witches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penrose stairs",
        "text": "The \"continuous staircase\" was first presented in an article that the Penroses wrote in 1959, based on the so-called \"triangle of Penrose\" published by Roger Penrose in the \"British Journal of Psychology\" in 1958. M.C. Escher then discovered the Penrose stairs in the following year and made his now famous lithograph \"Klimmen en dalen\" (\"Ascending and Descending\") in March 1960. Penrose and Escher were informed of each other's work that same year. Escher developed the theme further in his print \"Waterval\" (\"Waterfall\"), which appeared in 1961."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penrose stairs",
        "text": "The staircase design had been discovered previously by the Swedish artist Oscar Reutersv\u00e4rd, but neither Penrose nor Escher was aware of his designs. Inspired by a radio programme on Mozart's method of composition\u2014described as \"creative automatism\", that is, each creative idea written down inspired a new idea\u2014Reutersv\u00e4rd started to draw a series of impossible objects on a journey from Stockholm to Paris in 1950 in the same \"unconscious, automatic\" way. He did not realize that his figure was a continuous flight of stairs while drawing, but the process enabled him to trace his increasingly complex designs step by step. When M.C. Escher's \"Ascending and Descending\" was sent to Reutersv\u00e4rd in 1961, he was impressed but didn't like the irregularities of the stairs (). Throughout the 1960s, Reutersv\u00e4rd sent several letters to Escher to express his admiration for his work, but the Dutch artist failed to respond. Roger Penrose only discovered Reutersv\u00e4rd's work in 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penrose stairs",
        "text": "The Penrose stairs or Penrose steps, also dubbed the impossible staircase, is an impossible object created by Oscar Reutersv\u00e4rd in 1937 and later independently made popular by Lionel Penrose and his son Roger Penrose. A variation on the Penrose triangle, it is a two-dimensional depiction of a staircase in which the stairs make four 90-degree turns as they ascend or descend yet form a continuous loop, so that a person could climb them forever and never get any higher. This is clearly impossible in three-dimensional Euclidean geometry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Collinwood Mansion",
        "text": "Playroom and stairway through time\u00a0\u2014 In 1840, a particular room was used as a playroom for children. In 1970, the same room was used as a linen closet. Yet behind the room was a stairwell that the 1840 Quentin Collins placed an enchantment on. Quentin, a student of magical arts, constructed the stairway using magical means to make it ascend through time into the future. He believed his experiment was a failure, but actually succeeded. Barnabas and Julia used the stairway to travel back from 1995 to 1970. Later, Julia (and later still Prof. Stokes) used the stairwell to travel from 1970 to 1840. After Barnabas, Julia and Prof. Stokes used the stairwell one last time to get back to 1970, Desmond Collins destroyed it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bernd Grimm",
        "text": "The construction and structure of the staircase were made evident by the fact that the columns were only reproduced as outlines in stainless steel. To illustrate the dimensions of the building, Bernd Grimm gave the measurements in centimetres as well as in \"piedi\" and \"digiti\", Ancient Roman units of measurement which were also used in the Renaissance \u2013 and came to the result:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Schroeder stairs",
        "text": "It is sometimes called \"Schouten steps\", in reference to a small sheet-metal staircase given to M.C. Escher by Prof. Schouten and which was an inspiration for Escher's \"Convex and Concave\". This illusion is also seen in another Escher's work, \"Relativity\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Escalator",
        "text": "Nathan Ames, a patent attorney from Saugus, Massachusetts, is credited with patenting the first \"escalator\" in 1859, despite the fact that no working model of his design was ever built. His invention, the \"revolving stairs\", is largely speculative and the patent specifications indicate that he had no preference for materials or potential use (he noted that steps could be upholstered or made of wood, and suggested that the units might benefit the infirm within a household use). The suggested motive power was either manual or hydraulic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scholars' Stairs",
        "text": "When the Stairs were constructed, they had 300 steps. Only 176 steps remain. Musicians play guitar near the Stairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penrose stairs",
        "text": "At an Escher conference in Rome in 1985, Roger Penrose said that he had been greatly inspired by Escher's work when he and his father discovered both the Penrose tribar structure (that is, the Penrose triangle) and the continuous steps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Psychophysics",
        "text": "To avoid these potential pitfalls, Georg von B\u00e9k\u00e9sy introduced the staircase procedure in 1960 in his study of auditory perception. In this method, the sound starts out audible and gets quieter after each of the subject's responses, until the subject does not report hearing it. At that point, the sound is made louder at each step, until the subject reports hearing it, at which point it is made quieter in steps again. This way the experimenter is able to \"zero in\" on the threshold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurentian Library",
        "text": "The plan of the stairs changed dramatically in the design phase. Originally in the first design in 1524, two flights of stairs were placed against the side walls and formed a bridge in front of the reading room door. A year later the stairway was moved to the middle of the vestibule. Tribolo attempted to carry out this plan in 1550 but nothing was built. Ammannati took on the challenge of interpreting Michelangelo\u2019s ideas to the best of his abilities using a small clay model, scanty material, and Michelangelo\u2019s instructions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval fortification",
        "text": "Stairs were also constructed to contain trick or stumble steps. These were steps that had different rise height or tread depth from the rest and would cause anyone running up the stairs to stumble or fall, so slowing down the attackers' progress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pacesetters",
        "text": "There were two design prototypes considered. The first was a staircase that would contain either hydraulic or piezoelectric mechanisms within the steps to absorb the kinetic energy from stairclimbers' footfalls and convert it into electricity. This method was believed to more efficient as more energy is expended by the commuters to ascend a staircase."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harrods",
        "text": "On 16 November 1898, Harrods debuted England's first \"moving staircase\" (escalator) in their Brompton Road stores; the device was actually a woven leather conveyor belt-like unit with a mahogany and \"silver plate-glass\" balustrade. Nervous customers were offered brandy at the top to revive them after their 'ordeal'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stair tread",
        "text": "Johns Hopkins University students turned a Hackerman Hall staircase into a piano, with a new note per step. The Hopkins Robotics Club modified the staircase so the treads played the C scale."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Stairs",
        "text": "The Stairs\n--History.\n--Post Stairs.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "IBM STAIRS",
        "text": "STAIRS was introduced as a product in 1973, but had previously been developed in-house by IBM in support of its in 1969. Originally the product was called simply STAIRS but, with the advent of IBM's \"/Virtual Storage\" operating systems (such as OS/VS1), the non-CMS versions were later renamed to STAIRS/VS."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bramante Staircase",
        "text": "The stair is cited as the inspiration for Antonio da Sangallo the Younger's design for the double helix passageway at the well of San Patrizio in Orvieto, to solve a similar logistical problem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nathan Ames",
        "text": "Nathan Ames (November 17, 1826 in Roxbury, New Hampshire \u2013 August 17, 1865 in Saugus, Massachusetts) was a patent solicitor who held the first patent in the United States for an escalator-like machine. The patent (#25,076) was granted on August 9, 1859, for an invention he called \"Revolving Stairs\". The escalator had steps mounted on a continuous belt or chain. He also patented machines for improvement in polishing leather during the time when Lynn's shoemaking industry was one of the largest in the world. Another one of his patents was for a polygraph, an early copying machine that operated by using pens connected by wires. Another patent he held was for an improved grater."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bramante Staircase",
        "text": "The modern double helix staircase, also in the Pio-Clementine Museum, and commonly referred to as the \"Bramante Staircase\", was designed by Giuseppe Momo, sculpted by Antonio Maraini and realized by the Ferdinando Marinelli Artistic Foundry in 1932 and was inspired by the original Bramante Staircase."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890)",
        "text": "1859 Escalator\n*An escalator is a moving staircase, a conveyor transport device for carrying people between floors of a building. Commonly found and used in shopping malls, department stores, airports, an escalator consists of a motor-driven chain of individual, linked steps that move up or down on tracks, allowing the step treads to remain horizontal. The escalator was invented in 1859 by Nathan Ames of Saugus, Massachusetts for an invention that he called \"Revolving Stairs\". However, Ames' escalator was never built. The earliest form of a working escalator, patented in 1892 by Jesse W. Reno, was introduced as a new novelty ride at the Old Iron Pier at Coney Island, New York in 1896."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Stairs",
        "text": "The Stairs are an English rock band, formed in Liverpool in 1990 by vocalist and bassist Edgar \"Summertyme\" Jones, guitarist Ged Lynn and drummer Paul Maguire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chkalov Stairs",
        "text": "The first ideas for the construction of the stairs on the Volga slope was put forward by Alexander Shulpin, the chairman of the Gorky City Executive Committee, in 1939. The stairs were to connect the center of the city with the Volga, and outdo the Potemkin Stairs in Odessa. But the realisation of the project was prevented by World War II (Eastern Front)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bramante Staircase",
        "text": "Bramante Staircase\n--The original staircase.\n--The modern staircase.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "Stairs may be a required component of egress from structures and buildings. Stairs are also provided for convenience to access floors, roofs, levels and walking surfaces not accessible by other means. Stairs may also be a fanciful physical construct such as the \"stairs that go nowhere\" located at the Winchester Mystery House. Stairs are also a subject used in art to represent real or imaginary places built around impossible objects using geometric distortion, as in the work of artist M. C. Escher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Escalator",
        "text": "On March 15, 1892, Jesse W. Reno patented the \"Endless Conveyor or Elevator.\" A few months after Reno's patent was approved, George A. Wheeler patented his ideas for a more recognizable moving staircase, though it was never built. Wheeler's patents were bought by Charles Seeberger; some features of Wheeler's designs were incorporated in Seeberger's prototype that was built by the Otis Elevator Company in 1899."
      },
      {
        "title": "Potemkin Stairs",
        "text": "The stairs were originally known as the Boulevard steps, the Giant Staircase, or the Richelieu steps. The top step is 12.5 meters (41 feet) wide, and the lowest step is 21.7 meters (70.8 feet) wide. The staircase extends for 142 meters, but it gives the illusion of greater length."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of ancient spiral stairs",
        "text": "The list of ancient spiral stairs contains a selection of Greco-Roman spiral stairs constructed during classical antiquity. The spiral stair is a type of stairway which, due to its complex helical structure, has been introduced relatively late into architecture. Although the oldest example dates back to the 5th century BC, it was only in the wake of the influential design of the Trajan's Column that this space-saving new type permanently caught hold in ancient Roman architecture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "Stairs are a structure designed to bridge a large vertical distance by dividing it into smaller vertical distances, called steps. Stairs may be straight, round, or may consist of two or more straight pieces connected at angles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ruth Amos",
        "text": "Ruth Amos (born 1989) is a British entrepreneur and inventor of the StairSteady."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Staircase (Mystery)",
        "text": "Technical"
      },
      {
        "title": "Persepolis",
        "text": "Around 519 BC, construction of a broad stairway was begun. The stairway was initially planned to be the main entrance to the terrace above the ground. The dual stairway, known as the Persepolitan Stairway, was built symmetrically on the western side of the Great Wall. The 111 steps measured wide, with treads of and rises of . Originally, the steps were believed to have been constructed to allow for nobles and royalty to ascend by horseback. New theories, however, suggest that the shallow risers allowed visiting dignitaries to maintain a regal appearance while ascending. The top of the stairways led to a small yard in the north-eastern side of the terrace, opposite the Gate of All Nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Roman architecture",
        "text": "The spiral stair is a type of stairway which, due to its complex helical structure, was introduced relatively late into architecture. Although the oldest example dates back to the 5th century BC, it was only in the wake of the influential design of Trajan's Column that this space-saving new type permanently caught hold in Roman architecture."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Nova Scotia",
        "text": "John Fitzwilliam Stairs (1848\u20131904), scion of the powerful Stairs family, enlarged the family's multiple businesses by merging the cordage firms and sugar refineries and then creating the steel industry in the province. In order to develop new regional sources of capital, Stairs became an innovator in building legal and regulatory frameworks for these new forms of financial structure. Frost contrasts Stairs's success in promoting regional development with the obstacles that he had encountered in promoting regional interests, particularly at the federal level. The family finally sold its businesses in 1971, after 160 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Watermen's stairs",
        "text": "Watermen's stairs\n--History.\n--Cause c\u00e9l\u00e8bre.\n--Public stairs in use on the River Thames early 1700s.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ron Hickman",
        "text": "Hickman's inventions were also part of the house. Carpeted stairs in the living room rearranged to form a ramp allowing a trolley to be wheeled onto the patio. The house had an information panel which showed which doors or windows were open and the temperature of each room."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gaular",
        "text": "William T. Potts from Coreen Castle in Ireland initiated the building of the salmon stairs (a type of fish ladder), which were completed in 1871, in return for an agreement made with the farmers that had 25 years of free fishing. The salmon stairs at Osen in Bygstad are the oldest in the world. The stairs consist of 17 pools/stages and has height of around . It is very effective as the salmon are forced to make their way up the stair construction, due to the current below the falls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Watermen's stairs",
        "text": "Watermen's stairs were semipermanent structures that formed part of a complex transport network of public stairs, causeways and alleys in use from the 14th century to access the waters of the tidal River Thames in England. They were used by watermen, who taxied passengers across and along the river in London."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stair riser",
        "text": "Archaeological research by the Italian IsMEO at the Butkara Stupa suggests that small decorative stairs were adjoined to Buddhist stupas at the time of the Indo-Greek Kingdom, and that they were decorated with Buddhist scenes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palazzo Ruspoli, Rome",
        "text": "A description of the staircase in the 18th century noted that the staircase was singular among palaces in Rome for its size and for being constructed entirely of marble steps, costing 80 \"scudi\" each, arrayed in four flights of 30 steps, ten feet long and two feet wide. Along the stairs were antique busts of emperors Hadrian and Claudius; Bacchus and Silen; Apollo; Mercury; a woman dressed as Hercules; and Aesclepius."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mansion House, Hurstpierpoint",
        "text": "The staircase is stylistically datable to the early to mid 17th century; however, redundant jointing and awkwardly jointed members indicate that it is reused in its present position. It is possible that the staircase was imported from another building and altered to fit this location, indicating that the insertion was no earlier than the mid 17th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "House of Stairs",
        "text": "A total of 46 \"wentelteefje\" (imaginary creatures created by Escher) are crawling on the stairs. The \"wentelteefje\" has a long, armored body with six legs, humanoid feet, a parrot-like beak and eyes on stalks. Some are seen to roll in through doors, wound in a wheel shape and then unroll to crawl up the stairs, while others crawl down stairs and wind up to roll out. The \"wentelteefje\" first appeared earlier the same month in the lithograph \"Curl-up\". Later that month, \"House of Stairs\" was extended to a vertical length of in a print titled \"House of Stairs II\" by repeating and mirroring some of the architecture and creatures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fran\u00e7ois d'Orbay",
        "text": "In 1660 Le Vau sent d'Orbay to Rome for further study. While in Rome, d'Orbay created an ambitious but unexecuted design for a stair in front of the Trinit\u00e0 dei Monti, as well as three buildings adjacent to the church. He probably returned to Paris before the end of 1660."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ab anbar",
        "text": "In some ab anbars, such as in Qazvin, the stairway and storage would be constructed adjacently alongside each other, whereas in others such as Yazd, the storage and stairway often had no structural connections to each other and the stairway was positioned independently. To prevent fatal fall distances, and possibly provide a brief relief when traversing the steps, there would be one to three landings built midway into the stairway. All stairways are linear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penrose stairs",
        "text": "Penrose stairs\n--History of discovery.\n----The Penroses.\n----Oscar Reutersv\u00e4rd.\n--Escherian Stairwell.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Luis Mir\u00f3 Quesada Garland",
        "text": "Miro Quesada employed a cylindrical volume to connect every floor with a spiral staircase as a reference to Mies van der Rohe\u2019s Tugendhat House (1930) in order to have an important vertical reinforcement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Metamorphic library steps",
        "text": "Metamorphic library steps were first built in the mid-18th century for the private libraries and offices of the European nobility or the Bourgeoisie. The number of specialised rooms in the typical manor was increasing, so existing ones, like the library, had to use space more efficiently. Consequently, these rooms often had high ceilings and floor-to-ceiling bookshelves. The topmost shelves were difficult to reach, so movable library steps or library stairs were created as a form of domestic furniture."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Fitzwilliam Stairs",
        "text": "John Fitzwilliam Stairs, also known as John Fitz William Stairs (January 19, 1848 \u2013 September 26, 1904) was an entrepreneur and statesman, born in Halifax, Nova Scotia, a member of the prominent Stairs family of merchants and shippers founded by William Machin Stairs (1789\u20131865) that included the Victorian era explorer, William Grant Stairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ewert Janssen",
        "text": "In 1665, Janssen completed his first major achievement with a connecting stairway at the medieval Gjorslev Castle in the south of Sealand. It appears to have been copied from an earlier design by Dutch architect Philips Vingboons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyclopean stairs",
        "text": "There are a few different ways cyclopean stairs can form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moore Stairs",
        "text": "By the 1860s, the difficulty of getting between the Tarpeian Way [the path along the top of the escarpment, now part of the Royal Botanic Garden] and the quay had \"been the subject of loud complaint\" for a number of years. The first design for the stairs, in a drawing by the City Engineer Edward Bell in 1866, shows a single flight of \"bottom block Pyrmont stones\" rising to a mid-landing where the stairway divides into two and rises in separate flights to Macquarie Street. The space between the flights held a wrought iron lamp frame and gas lamp. All three flights had a Sydney sandstone balustrade of ashlar blocks and topped with a half-round coping. The whole design was to be supported on sandstone arches and in an area 20 feet wide. A building contract was drawn up and signed in March 1867. However, a land ownership claim was raised by the Mr. Talbot, owner of the Talbot Stores buildings on either side. The dispute was resolved in January 1868 with the \"Government Gazette\" proclaimed the land as being \"...dedicated to the public as a thoroughfare and footway\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oscar Reutersv\u00e4rd",
        "text": "In 1937, he created his first Impossible stairs, and the concept that would lead to the impossible fork. Subsequently, he focused on academics. In 1958, he read the now classic article by Lionel and Roger Penrose on impossible objects, which included the triangle and staircase that the British father and son team had developed independently. One artist inspired by the Penrose article was M.C. Escher\u2014who produced two prints of impossible buildings in 1961 and 1962. The application of the concepts he originated over 20 years prior, by serious mathematicians and artists, rekindled Reutersv\u00e4rd's interest. By 1963, he had created several new and original impossible figures, and was featured by a gallery in Stockholm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Stairs are a set of steps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dundurn Street (Hamilton, Ontario)",
        "text": "The Staircase originally was opened by \"Hugh MacLeod\" in 1998. The Staircase evolved and expanded from an improvisational comedy workshop to include an art gallery, a cafe, a theatre for film and live acts, and a rehearsal space. A former variety store next door was also acquired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Escalator",
        "text": "Around May 1895, Charles Seeberger began drawings on a form of escalator similar to those patented by Wheeler in 1892. This device consisted of flat, moving stairs, not unlike the escalators of today, except for one important detail: the step surface was smooth, with no comb effect to safely guide the rider's feet off at the ends. Instead, the passenger had to step off sideways. To facilitate this, at the top or bottom of the escalator the steps continued moving horizontally beyond the end of the handrail (like a miniature moving sidewalk) until they disappeared under a triangular \"divider\" which guided the passenger to either side. Seeberger teamed with Otis in 1899, and together they produced the first commercial escalator. It won first prize at the 1900 Paris \"Exposition Universelle\". Also on display at the \"Exposition\" were Reno's inclined elevator, a similar model by James M. Dodge and the Link Belt Machinery Co., and two different devices by the French manufacturers Hall\u00e9 and Piat."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of ancient spiral stairs",
        "text": "The construction of spiral stairs passed on both to Christian and Islamic architecture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cruciform block",
        "text": "Windows of stairs were very small at the time. The new design adopted an improved design that became similar to Concord blocks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Watermen's stairs",
        "text": "The Embankment which artificially engineered the Thames' natural course in the 1860s left buildings that had been located on the gently sloping incline to the river some distance from the water's edge."
      },
      {
        "title": "A. K. Dolven",
        "text": "(2001) \"stairs\", Staatliches Museum Schwerin, Germany"
      },
      {
        "title": "Escalator",
        "text": "Piat installed its \"stepless\" escalator in Harrods Knightsbridge store on Wednesday, November 16, 1898, though the company relinquished its patent rights to the department store. Noted by Bill Lancaster in \"The Department Store: a Social History\", \"customers unnerved by the experience were revived by shopmen dispensing free smelling salts and cognac.\" The Harrods unit was a continuous leather belt made of \"224 pieces . . . strongly linked together traveling in an upward direction\", and was the first \"moving staircase\" in England."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stair tread",
        "text": "IDEO Labs' interns created a musical staircase during summer of 2011. Each tread played a different sound when stepped on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Staircase (disambiguation)",
        "text": "A staircase, or stairs, is a structure used to bridge a vertical distance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atelier Bow-Wow",
        "text": "Atelier bow-wow attempted to solve this problem by obscuring the stair as much as possible. \u201cWe created slit-levels to lower the vertical intervals between floors and to shorten each stairway.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Temple Works",
        "text": "Sheep are not able to use stairs so the first hydraulic lift was devised in order to resolve the problem of moving them onto the roof; Hick was a hydraulics engineer, but it is not clear whether he was responsible for the invention, his youngest son, William Hick (1820\u20131844) supervised the installation of the 'Egyptian' beam engine from Leeds during 1841."
      },
      {
        "title": "Loretto Chapel",
        "text": "Although the staircase as built lacked any external bracing, an iron support bracket was added in 1887 at the same time as the railings. This may have been intended to limit the degree of vertical travel arising from the helical shape, which effectively makes the staircase behave as a giant coil spring and is part of the reason spiral staircases usually have a central support. Even after this modification, users of the staircase reported \"a certain amount of springiness\". Nevertheless, it was able to hold a significant amount of weight, as attested by a photo taken around 1959 of at least twelve choir members posing on the steps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penrose stairs",
        "text": "Escher, in the 1950s, had not yet drawn any impossible stairs and was not aware of their existence. Roger Penrose had been introduced to Escher's work at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Amsterdam in 1954. He was \"absolutely spellbound\" by Escher's work, and on his journey back to England he decided to produce something \"impossible\" on his own. After experimenting with various designs of bars overlying each other he finally arrived at the impossible triangle. Roger showed his drawings to his father, who immediately produced several variants, including the impossible flight of stairs. They wanted to publish their findings but did not know in what field the subject belonged. Because Lionel Penrose knew the editor of the \"British Journal of Psychology\" and convinced him to publish their short manuscript, the finding was finally presented as a psychological subject. After the publication in 1958 the Penroses sent a copy of the article to Escher as a token of their esteem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gemonian stairs",
        "text": "It is believed the stairs were built some time before the rule of Tiberius (14\u201337), as they were not mentioned by name in any ancient texts that predate this period. Their first use as a place of execution is primarily associated with the rumoured paranoid excesses of Tiberius' later reign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bellcrank",
        "text": "Bellcrank mechanisms were installed at the top of entryway stairs in multi-unit Victorian and Edwardian homes (circa 1890 to 1930), particularly in the"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "The earliest spiral staircases appear in Temple A in the Greek colony Selinunte, Sicily, to both sides of the cella. The temple was constructed around 480\u2013470 BC.\n;Apron: This is a wooden fascia board used to cover up trimmers and joists exposed by stairwell openings. The apron may be moulded or plain, and is intended to give the staircase a cleaner look by cloaking the side view.\n* Balcony: For stairs with an open concept upper floor or landing, the upper floor is functionally a balcony. For a straight flight of stairs, the balcony may be long enough to require multiple newels to support the length of railing.\n* Flight: Any uninterrupted series of steps between floors or levels.\n* Floating stairs: A flight of stairs is said to be \"floating\" if there is nothing underneath. The risers are typically missing as well to emphasize the open effect, and create a functional feature suspended in midair. There may be only one stringer or the stringers otherwise minimized. Where building codes allow, there may not even be handrails.\n* Landing, or platform: A landing is the area of a floor near the top or bottom step of a stair. An intermediate landing is a small platform that is built as part of stairs between main floor levels and is typically used to allow the stairs to change directions, or to allow the user a rest. A half landing, or half-pace, is where a 180\u00b0 change in direction is made, and a quarter landing is where a 90\u00b0 change in direction is made (on an intermediate landing). As intermediate landings consume floor space, they can be expensive to build. However, changing the direction of the stairs allows stairs to fit where they would not otherwise, or provides privacy to the upper level as visitors downstairs cannot simply look up the stairs to the upper level due to the change in direction. The word 'landing' is also commonly used for a general corridor in any of the floors above the ground floor of a building, even if that corridor is located well away from a staircase.\n* Mobile safety steps: Can be used as temporary, safe replacements for many types of stairs\n* Runner: Carpeting that runs down the middle of the stairs. Runners may be directly stapled or nailed to the stairs, or may be secured by a specialized bar, known as a stair rod, that holds the carpet in place where the tread meets the riser.\n* Spandrel: If there is not another flight of stairs immediately underneath, the triangular space underneath the stairs is called a \"spandrel\". It is frequently used as a closet.\n* Staircase: This term is often reserved for the stairs themselves: the steps, railings and landings; though often it is used interchangeably with \"stairs\" and \"stairway\". In the UK, however, the term \"staircase\" denotes what in the U.S. is called \"stairway\", but usually includes the casing \u2013 the walls, bannisters and underside of the stairs or roof above.\n* Stairway: This primarily American term is often reserved for the entire stairwell and staircase in combination; though often it is used interchangeably with \"stairs\" and \"staircase\".\n* Stairwell: The spatial opening, usually a vertical shaft, containing an indoor stairway; by extension it is often used as including the stairs it contains.\n*Staircase tower: A tower attached to, or incorporated into, a building that contains stairs linking the various floors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "Alternating tread stairs have been in use since at least 1888."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of technology",
        "text": "Further newly created techniques and items were spiral staircases, the chain drive, sliding calipers and showers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ch\u00e2teau de Maisons",
        "text": "The staircase was of a type that Mansart originated at Balleroy, in which the central space is left open so that the flights climb the four walls."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Scotsman Steps",
        "text": "Creed's original idea for the work was to create a 'musical staircase', as he ultimately did on a smaller scale in the \"Down Over Up\" exhibition. Creed described the final work as a \"microcosm of the whole world \u2013 stepping on the different marble steps is like walking through the world.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Stairs (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Potemkin Stairs",
        "text": "The steps were made famous in Sergei Eisenstein's 1925 silent film \"Battleship Potemkin\". On 11 July 2015, during the 6th International Film Festival, the European Film Academy put a commemorative plate on the stairs. The plate indicates that the Potemkin staircase is a memorable place for European cinema."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "Construction of steps"
      },
      {
        "title": "Carnewas and Bedruthan Steps",
        "text": "The name Bedruthan Steps is said to be taken from a mythological giant called Bedruthan, who used the rocks (stacks) on the beach as stepping stones, and seems to be a late-19th-century invention for Victorian tourists. The first written record of the name is from the West Briton newspaper in February 1847 and is likely to refer to one of two cliff staircases used by miners to get to the mine workings and now refers to the whole beach."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gedung Kuning",
        "text": "The staircases are constructed of timber and are an internal element. The staircases are modified to the present stairs of 175mm risers and 220mm thread. The staircases have timber handrails and simple banisters are made of polished hardwood, which are free standing as balustrades. The staircase arrangement is straight with an elevated base landing. The first few steps are made out of brick foundation but now in reinforced concrete. This was done to prevent them from coming into contact with the wet floors ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Staircase (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Staircase (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Potemkin Stairs",
        "text": "Upton went on to oversee the construction of the huge dry-docks constructed in Sevastopol and completed in 1853."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Grant Stairs",
        "text": "After graduating as a trained engineer, Stairs spent three years working for the New Zealand Trigonometrical Survey in northern New Zealand. In 1885, he accepted the offer of a commission in the British Royal Engineers and trained in Chatham, England. In 1891 he transferred to the Welsh Regiment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Queen's Staircase (Nassau)",
        "text": "In the 19th century the steps were later named in honor of Queen Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, who ended slavery in the British Empire. The number of steps is, by coincidence, equal to the number of years in Victoria's reign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Petar Kru\u017ei\u0107 staircase",
        "text": "There is a legend about the Trsat stairway. It says that the Franciscans made a deal with the Devil: if he makes a stairway, he will have a soul who climbs the stairway first. After some deliberation, the Devil accepted. Once he finished the work, the Devil waited for the victim. However, the Franciscans let a goat climb the stairway. The Devil was so enraged that he mixed the steps, so that nobody had been able to count them to this day! The legend is based on the fact that the stairway was extended on several occasions. When it was first built in 1531 by Petar Kru\u017ei\u0107, the captain of the Uskoks, there were about a hundred steps. Today, their number exceeds 500."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ocracoke Light",
        "text": "However, this is not the original staircase; the original staircase was a wooden step spiral built into the inside of the exterior wall. This was removed during the 1950s due to excessive rotting to the boards and a lacking necessity for a substantial staircase because of the automation of the light. The wooden stairs were removed and the holes in the all-brick lighthouse were cemented closed."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Hidden Staircase",
        "text": "=1959 edition="
      },
      {
        "title": "Ruth Amos",
        "text": "The StairSteady is an aid to enable people with limited mobility to use their stairs confidently and safely. Amos designed it as part of a GCSE resistant materials project as a response to her teacher\u2019s challenge to design an aid for people with limited mobility to use their stairs. She was prompted to do this as the father of one of her teachers had recently had a stroke. Her product was launched in April 2008 at Naidex, a national healthcare show, and StairSteady ltd started trading September 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Staircase (Mystery)",
        "text": "\"The Staircase (Mystery)\" is a song by English rock band Siouxsie and the Banshees, released as a stand-alone single on 23 March 1979 by Polydor Records. The track was written by Siouxsie Sioux, John McKay, Steven Severin and Kenny Morris, and was produced by Nils Stevenson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eestairs",
        "text": "One of the products of EeStairs is the 1m2 staircase. It is a small staircase using only 1m2. EeStairs patented the 1m2 staircase in 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "Combination stair",
        "text": "The combination stair became less common in the 20th century. As houses became less formal and household staff became less common, the need for both front and back stairs declined. Many houses were designed with a single stair for common use. However, since the 1980s, house sizes have increased significantly and designs have become more elaborate and more complex. Multiple stairs are becoming more common once again. Combination stairs are occasionally seen in new house designs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Owen (artist)",
        "text": "In 1963, William T. Wiley bought an oddly-slanted wood and linoleum step stool at a junk shop in Mill Valley, California for fifty cents, and gave it to Bruce Nauman, who kept it in his studio. The stool attracted the attention of students and faculty at the UC Davis art program, as a found object that provided \"cultish inspiration\", provoking drawings, sculptures and other work. In September 1966 it was exhibited alongside those works in the \"Slant Step Show\" at the Berkeley Gallery in San Francisco; during the exhibition, the step vanished from the gallery, supposedly taken by Richard Serra to New York and subsequently returned to California by Stephen Kaltenbach."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of ancient spiral stairs",
        "text": "List of ancient spiral stairs\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How were stairs invented?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I cannot find a definitive answer to that, but as far as stairs and firsts are concerned I can tell you the earliest spiral staircases appear in Temple A in the Greek colony Selinunte, Sicily, and that Nicolas-Fran\u00e7ois Blondel was the first known person to establish the ergonomic relationship of tread and riser dimensions.",
      "Would you like to know about staircases (also called stairways), ladders, or escalators?"
    ],
    "topic": "Stairs",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Stairs:12",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Stairs",
          "Components and terms",
          "The railing system"
        ],
        "ctx": "The earliest spiral staircases appear in Temple A in the Greek colony Selinunte, Sicily, to both sides of the cella. The temple was constructed around 480\u2013470 BC.\n;Apron: This is a wooden fascia board used to cover up trimmers and joists exposed by stairwell openings. The apron may be moulded or plain, and is intended to give the staircase a cleaner look by cloaking the side view.\n* Balcony: For stairs with an open concept upper floor or landing, the upper floor is functionally a balcony. For a straight flight of stairs, the balcony may be long enough to require multiple newels to support the length of railing.\n* Flight: Any uninterrupted series of steps between floors or levels.\n* Floating stairs: A flight of stairs is said to be \"floating\" if there is nothing underneath. The risers are typically missing as well to emphasize the open effect, and create a functional feature suspended in midair. There may be only one stringer or the stringers otherwise minimized. Where building codes allow, there may not even be handrails.\n* Landing, or platform: A landing is the area of a floor near the top or bottom step of a stair. An intermediate landing is a small platform that is built as part of stairs between main floor levels and is typically used to allow the stairs to change directions, or to allow the user a rest. A half landing, or half-pace, is where a 180\u00b0 change in direction is made, and a quarter landing is where a 90\u00b0 change in direction is made (on an intermediate landing). As intermediate landings consume floor space, they can be expensive to build. However, changing the direction of the stairs allows stairs to fit where they would not otherwise, or provides privacy to the upper level as visitors downstairs cannot simply look up the stairs to the upper level due to the change in direction. The word 'landing' is also commonly used for a general corridor in any of the floors above the ground floor of a building, even if that corridor is located well away from a staircase.\n* Mobile safety steps: Can be used as temporary, safe replacements for many types of stairs\n* Runner: Carpeting that runs down the middle of the stairs. Runners may be directly stapled or nailed to the stairs, or may be secured by a specialized bar, known as a stair rod, that holds the carpet in place where the tread meets the riser.\n* Spandrel: If there is not another flight of stairs immediately underneath, the triangular space underneath the stairs is called a \"spandrel\". It is frequently used as a closet.\n* Staircase: This term is often reserved for the stairs themselves: the steps, railings and landings; though often it is used interchangeably with \"stairs\" and \"stairway\". In the UK, however, the term \"staircase\" denotes what in the U.S. is called \"stairway\", but usually includes the casing \u2013 the walls, bannisters and underside of the stairs or roof above.\n* Stairway: This primarily American term is often reserved for the entire stairwell and staircase in combination; though often it is used interchangeably with \"stairs\" and \"staircase\".\n* Stairwell: The spatial opening, usually a vertical shaft, containing an indoor stairway; by extension it is often used as including the stairs it contains.\n*Staircase tower: A tower attached to, or incorporated into, a building that contains stairs linking the various floors."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Stairs:41",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Stairs",
          "Ergonomics and building code requirements"
        ],
        "ctx": "Nicolas-Fran\u00e7ois Blondel in the last volume of his \"Cours d'architecture\" (1675\u20131683) was the first known person to establish the ergonomic relationship of tread and riser dimensions. He specified that 2 x riser + tread = step length."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Stairs:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Stairs"
        ],
        "ctx": "Types of stairs include staircases (also called stairways), ladders, and escalators. Some alternatives to stairs are elevators (also called lifts), stairlifts, inclined moving walkways, and ramps. A stairwell is a vertical shaft or opening that contains a staircase. A flight (of stairs) is an inclined part of a staircase consisting of steps (and their lateral supports if supports are separate from steps)."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Escalator",
        "text": "In 1889, Leamon Souder successfully patented the \"stairway\", an analogous device that featured a \"series of steps and links jointed to each other\". No model was ever built. This was the first of at least four escalator-style patents issued to Souder, including two for spiral designs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Escalator",
        "text": "On March 15, 1892, Jesse W. Reno patented the \"Endless Conveyor or Elevator.\" A few months after Reno's patent was approved, George A. Wheeler patented his ideas for a more recognizable moving staircase, though it was never built. Wheeler's patents were bought by Charles Seeberger; some features of Wheeler's designs were incorporated in Seeberger's prototype that was built by the Otis Elevator Company in 1899."
      },
      {
        "title": "Escalator",
        "text": "Nathan Ames, a patent attorney from Saugus, Massachusetts, is credited with patenting the first \"escalator\" in 1859, despite the fact that no working model of his design was ever built. His invention, the \"revolving stairs\", is largely speculative and the patent specifications indicate that he had no preference for materials or potential use (he noted that steps could be upholstered or made of wood, and suggested that the units might benefit the infirm within a household use). The suggested motive power was either manual or hydraulic."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Staircase (Mystery)",
        "text": "Technical"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "Nicolas-Fran\u00e7ois Blondel in the last volume of his \"Cours d'architecture\" (1675\u20131683) was the first known person to establish the ergonomic relationship of tread and riser dimensions. He specified that 2 x riser + tread = step length."
      },
      {
        "title": "Schroeder stairs",
        "text": "It is sometimes called \"Schouten steps\", in reference to a small sheet-metal staircase given to M.C. Escher by Prof. Schouten and which was an inspiration for Escher's \"Convex and Concave\". This illusion is also seen in another Escher's work, \"Relativity\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Staircase (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Staircase (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Stairs",
        "text": "The Stairs\n--History.\n--Post Stairs.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890)",
        "text": "1859 Escalator\n*An escalator is a moving staircase, a conveyor transport device for carrying people between floors of a building. Commonly found and used in shopping malls, department stores, airports, an escalator consists of a motor-driven chain of individual, linked steps that move up or down on tracks, allowing the step treads to remain horizontal. The escalator was invented in 1859 by Nathan Ames of Saugus, Massachusetts for an invention that he called \"Revolving Stairs\". However, Ames' escalator was never built. The earliest form of a working escalator, patented in 1892 by Jesse W. Reno, was introduced as a new novelty ride at the Old Iron Pier at Coney Island, New York in 1896."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bramante Staircase",
        "text": "Bramante Staircase\n--The original staircase.\n--The modern staircase.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "Types of stairs include staircases (also called stairways), ladders, and escalators. Some alternatives to stairs are elevators (also called lifts), stairlifts, inclined moving walkways, and ramps. A stairwell is a vertical shaft or opening that contains a staircase. A flight (of stairs) is an inclined part of a staircase consisting of steps (and their lateral supports if supports are separate from steps)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harrods",
        "text": "On 16 November 1898, Harrods debuted England's first \"moving staircase\" (escalator) in their Brompton Road stores; the device was actually a woven leather conveyor belt-like unit with a mahogany and \"silver plate-glass\" balustrade. Nervous customers were offered brandy at the top to revive them after their 'ordeal'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Staircase (disambiguation)",
        "text": "A staircase, or stairs, is a structure used to bridge a vertical distance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Escalator",
        "text": "Around May 1895, Charles Seeberger began drawings on a form of escalator similar to those patented by Wheeler in 1892. This device consisted of flat, moving stairs, not unlike the escalators of today, except for one important detail: the step surface was smooth, with no comb effect to safely guide the rider's feet off at the ends. Instead, the passenger had to step off sideways. To facilitate this, at the top or bottom of the escalator the steps continued moving horizontally beyond the end of the handrail (like a miniature moving sidewalk) until they disappeared under a triangular \"divider\" which guided the passenger to either side. Seeberger teamed with Otis in 1899, and together they produced the first commercial escalator. It won first prize at the 1900 Paris \"Exposition Universelle\". Also on display at the \"Exposition\" were Reno's inclined elevator, a similar model by James M. Dodge and the Link Belt Machinery Co., and two different devices by the French manufacturers Hall\u00e9 and Piat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairway (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Stairway (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Penrose stairs",
        "text": "Penrose stairs\n--History of discovery.\n----The Penroses.\n----Oscar Reutersv\u00e4rd.\n--Escherian Stairwell.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Penrose stairs",
        "text": "The \"continuous staircase\" was first presented in an article that the Penroses wrote in 1959, based on the so-called \"triangle of Penrose\" published by Roger Penrose in the \"British Journal of Psychology\" in 1958. M.C. Escher then discovered the Penrose stairs in the following year and made his now famous lithograph \"Klimmen en dalen\" (\"Ascending and Descending\") in March 1960. Penrose and Escher were informed of each other's work that same year. Escher developed the theme further in his print \"Waterval\" (\"Waterfall\"), which appeared in 1961."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bernd Grimm",
        "text": "The construction and structure of the staircase were made evident by the fact that the columns were only reproduced as outlines in stainless steel. To illustrate the dimensions of the building, Bernd Grimm gave the measurements in centimetres as well as in \"piedi\" and \"digiti\", Ancient Roman units of measurement which were also used in the Renaissance \u2013 and came to the result:"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Infinite Staircase",
        "text": "The Infinite Staircase\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stair tread",
        "text": "Johns Hopkins University students turned a Hackerman Hall staircase into a piano, with a new note per step. The Hopkins Robotics Club modified the staircase so the treads played the C scale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Staircase (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Staircase may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pacesetters",
        "text": "There were two design prototypes considered. The first was a staircase that would contain either hydraulic or piezoelectric mechanisms within the steps to absorb the kinetic energy from stairclimbers' footfalls and convert it into electricity. This method was believed to more efficient as more energy is expended by the commuters to ascend a staircase."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "The earliest spiral stairs architectural image was shown on a white terra cotta pot discovered in Hunan China, 7400 years ago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Stairs (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stair (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Stair (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bramante Staircase",
        "text": "The stair is cited as the inspiration for Antonio da Sangallo the Younger's design for the double helix passageway at the well of San Patrizio in Orvieto, to solve a similar logistical problem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Collinwood Mansion",
        "text": "Playroom and stairway through time\u00a0\u2014 In 1840, a particular room was used as a playroom for children. In 1970, the same room was used as a linen closet. Yet behind the room was a stairwell that the 1840 Quentin Collins placed an enchantment on. Quentin, a student of magical arts, constructed the stairway using magical means to make it ascend through time into the future. He believed his experiment was a failure, but actually succeeded. Barnabas and Julia used the stairway to travel back from 1995 to 1970. Later, Julia (and later still Prof. Stokes) used the stairwell to travel from 1970 to 1840. After Barnabas, Julia and Prof. Stokes used the stairwell one last time to get back to 1970, Desmond Collins destroyed it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Potemkin Stairs",
        "text": "In 1837, the decision was made to build a \"monstrous staircase\", which was constructed between 1837 and 1841. English engineer John Upton supervised construction. Upton had fled Britain while on bail for forgery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bramante Staircase",
        "text": "The modern double helix staircase, also in the Pio-Clementine Museum, and commonly referred to as the \"Bramante Staircase\", was designed by Giuseppe Momo, sculpted by Antonio Maraini and realized by the Ferdinando Marinelli Artistic Foundry in 1932 and was inspired by the original Bramante Staircase."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spanish Steps",
        "text": "The solution is a gigantic inflation of some conventions of terraced garden stairs. The first such divided and symmetrical stairs were devised for the Belvedere Courtyard in the 1600s by Donato Bramante, while shaped and angled steps were introduced by Michelangelo in the vestibule to the Laurentian Library. The Bourbon fleur-de-lys and Innocent XIII's eagle and crown are carefully balanced in the sculptural details."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nathan Ames",
        "text": "Nathan Ames (November 17, 1826 in Roxbury, New Hampshire \u2013 August 17, 1865 in Saugus, Massachusetts) was a patent solicitor who held the first patent in the United States for an escalator-like machine. The patent (#25,076) was granted on August 9, 1859, for an invention he called \"Revolving Stairs\". The escalator had steps mounted on a continuous belt or chain. He also patented machines for improvement in polishing leather during the time when Lynn's shoemaking industry was one of the largest in the world. Another one of his patents was for a polygraph, an early copying machine that operated by using pens connected by wires. Another patent he held was for an improved grater."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penrose stairs",
        "text": "The staircase design had been discovered previously by the Swedish artist Oscar Reutersv\u00e4rd, but neither Penrose nor Escher was aware of his designs. Inspired by a radio programme on Mozart's method of composition\u2014described as \"creative automatism\", that is, each creative idea written down inspired a new idea\u2014Reutersv\u00e4rd started to draw a series of impossible objects on a journey from Stockholm to Paris in 1950 in the same \"unconscious, automatic\" way. He did not realize that his figure was a continuous flight of stairs while drawing, but the process enabled him to trace his increasingly complex designs step by step. When M.C. Escher's \"Ascending and Descending\" was sent to Reutersv\u00e4rd in 1961, he was impressed but didn't like the irregularities of the stairs (). Throughout the 1960s, Reutersv\u00e4rd sent several letters to Escher to express his admiration for his work, but the Dutch artist failed to respond. Roger Penrose only discovered Reutersv\u00e4rd's work in 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stair lift",
        "text": "Prior to this Frederick Muffett of Royal Tunbridge Wells, invented and patented the \"An Invalid Chair with Tramway for use on Staircases\". However, TV historian Doctor David Starkey has in 2009, found evidence in a list of the possessions of King Henry VIII that attributes the first stairlift invented to the monarch. The 30 stone (190 kg) king, injured through jousting, used a chair that was hauled up and down stairs on a block and tackle system by servants at the ancient Whitehall Palace in London."
      },
      {
        "title": "Staircase House",
        "text": "Staircase House\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "Stairs may be a required component of egress from structures and buildings. Stairs are also provided for convenience to access floors, roofs, levels and walking surfaces not accessible by other means. Stairs may also be a fanciful physical construct such as the \"stairs that go nowhere\" located at the Winchester Mystery House. Stairs are also a subject used in art to represent real or imaginary places built around impossible objects using geometric distortion, as in the work of artist M. C. Escher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "Stairs are a structure designed to bridge a large vertical distance by dividing it into smaller vertical distances, called steps. Stairs may be straight, round, or may consist of two or more straight pieces connected at angles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hyperart Thomasson",
        "text": "Also known as a Pure Staircase. A staircase that only goes up and down. Most used to have a door at the top. Some useless staircases exist that were useless right from completion, due to changes or mix-ups in the design."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Hidden Staircase",
        "text": "=1959 edition="
      },
      {
        "title": "A. Edison Stairs",
        "text": "A. Edison Stairs\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stair lift",
        "text": "In the 1920s, C.C. Crispen, a Pennsylvania entrepreneur, created a way to enable his ailing friend to travel from floor to floor. Crispen's idea was to design a seat that could climb stairs. A self-taught engineer, he built the first prototype of the inclining chair. He called it the Inclin-ator."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elisha Otis",
        "text": "An Otis Elevator Company worker coined the term \"escalator\" to refer to continuous-loop moving staircases that could either ascend or descend. The company was acquired by United Technologies in 1976."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "A \"stair\", or a \"stairstep\", is one step in a flight of stairs. In buildings, \"stairs\" is a term applied to a complete flight of steps between two floors. A \"stair flight\" is a run of stairs or steps between landings. A \"staircase\" or \"stairway\" is one or more flights of stairs leading from one floor to another, and includes landings, newel posts, handrails, balustrades and additional parts. A \"stairwell\" is a compartment extending vertically through a building in which stairs are placed. A \"stair hall\" is the stairs, landings, hallways, or other portions of the public hall through which it is necessary to pass when going from the entrance floor to the other floors of a building. \"Box stairs\" are stairs built between walls, usually with no support except the wall strings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyclopean stairs",
        "text": "There are a few different ways cyclopean stairs can form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penrose stairs",
        "text": "At an Escher conference in Rome in 1985, Roger Penrose said that he had been greatly inspired by Escher's work when he and his father discovered both the Penrose tribar structure (that is, the Penrose triangle) and the continuous steps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Stairs may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "These stairs are nowadays commonly referred to as 'Witches stairs', in the belief that they were created during an earlier era in an attempt to repel witches who were thought to be unable to climb such stairs. Such an origin of the term has since been disproved however, with experts finding no mention in any historical literature of stairs that were believed to prevent access by witches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Stairs are a set of steps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Atkins (designer)",
        "text": "He also designed the concrete staircases at Bancroft Steps and Orchard Lane (1910) at the foot of Panoramic Hill in Berkeley, California."
      },
      {
        "title": "Loretto Chapel",
        "text": "Although the staircase as built lacked any external bracing, an iron support bracket was added in 1887 at the same time as the railings. This may have been intended to limit the degree of vertical travel arising from the helical shape, which effectively makes the staircase behave as a giant coil spring and is part of the reason spiral staircases usually have a central support. Even after this modification, users of the staircase reported \"a certain amount of springiness\". Nevertheless, it was able to hold a significant amount of weight, as attested by a photo taken around 1959 of at least twelve choir members posing on the steps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ernest W. Stairs",
        "text": "Ernest W. Stairs\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Eestairs",
        "text": "Eestairs\n--History.\n--1m2 staircase.\n--Design competition.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ab anbar",
        "text": "In some ab anbars, such as in Qazvin, the stairway and storage would be constructed adjacently alongside each other, whereas in others such as Yazd, the storage and stairway often had no structural connections to each other and the stairway was positioned independently. To prevent fatal fall distances, and possibly provide a brief relief when traversing the steps, there would be one to three landings built midway into the stairway. All stairways are linear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penrose stairs",
        "text": "The Penrose stairs or Penrose steps, also dubbed the impossible staircase, is an impossible object created by Oscar Reutersv\u00e4rd in 1937 and later independently made popular by Lionel Penrose and his son Roger Penrose. A variation on the Penrose triangle, it is a two-dimensional depiction of a staircase in which the stairs make four 90-degree turns as they ascend or descend yet form a continuous loop, so that a person could climb them forever and never get any higher. This is clearly impossible in three-dimensional Euclidean geometry."
      },
      {
        "title": "A. K. Dolven",
        "text": "(2001) \"stairs\", Staatliches Museum Schwerin, Germany"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "Construction of steps"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mansion House, Hurstpierpoint",
        "text": "The staircase is stylistically datable to the early to mid 17th century; however, redundant jointing and awkwardly jointed members indicate that it is reused in its present position. It is possible that the staircase was imported from another building and altered to fit this location, indicating that the insertion was no earlier than the mid 17th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Escalator",
        "text": "Piat installed its \"stepless\" escalator in Harrods Knightsbridge store on Wednesday, November 16, 1898, though the company relinquished its patent rights to the department store. Noted by Bill Lancaster in \"The Department Store: a Social History\", \"customers unnerved by the experience were revived by shopmen dispensing free smelling salts and cognac.\" The Harrods unit was a continuous leather belt made of \"224 pieces . . . strongly linked together traveling in an upward direction\", and was the first \"moving staircase\" in England."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scholars' Stairs",
        "text": "When the Stairs were constructed, they had 300 steps. Only 176 steps remain. Musicians play guitar near the Stairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs (surname)",
        "text": "Stairs (surname)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chkalov Stairs",
        "text": "Chkalov Stairs\n--History.\n--Present day.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of ancient spiral stairs",
        "text": "List of ancient spiral stairs\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Frederick Velguth",
        "text": "He began his career as a carpenter. He designed elaborate staircases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penrose stairs",
        "text": "Escher was captivated by the endless stairs and subsequently wrote a letter to the Penroses in April 1960:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairway (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Stairway can refer to the following:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Potemkin Stairs",
        "text": "The original 200 stairs were designed in 1837 by Italian architect Francesco Boffo and St. Petersburg architects Avraam I. Melnikov and Pot'e. The staircase cost 800,000 rubles to build."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luis Mir\u00f3 Quesada Garland",
        "text": "Miro Quesada employed a cylindrical volume to connect every floor with a spiral staircase as a reference to Mies van der Rohe\u2019s Tugendhat House (1930) in order to have an important vertical reinforcement."
      },
      {
        "title": "House of Stairs (disambiguation)",
        "text": "House of Stairs (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval fortification",
        "text": "Stairs were also constructed to contain trick or stumble steps. These were steps that had different rise height or tread depth from the rest and would cause anyone running up the stairs to stumble or fall, so slowing down the attackers' progress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Staircase tower",
        "text": "Since the Renaissance period, staircase towers were markedly more decorative and representative of status. Stairs were now rarely hidden or built externally, but there were both artistically designed, curved and straight-running staircases inside the building with ornate ceilings and railings (e.\u00a0g. Ch\u00e2teau de Chambord, Palazzo Barberini and Ch\u00e2teau d'Azay-le-Rideau or Ch\u00e2teau de Chenonceau). With the increasing construction of straight staircases with intermediate landings (the modern stairwells) separate staircase towers became gradually rarer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "Tapered steps"
      },
      {
        "title": "Alfred Stair",
        "text": "Alfred Stair\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Carmichael School of Medicine",
        "text": "The stairs are granite, with an ornamental iron balustrade set in a Caen stone plinth supporting the handrail."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs (surname)",
        "text": "Stairs is the surname of:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Staircase tower",
        "text": "Staircase tower\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stair (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Stair may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of construction articles",
        "text": "- Stairs"
      },
      {
        "title": "IBM STAIRS",
        "text": "STAIRS was introduced as a product in 1973, but had previously been developed in-house by IBM in support of its in 1969. Originally the product was called simply STAIRS but, with the advent of IBM's \"/Virtual Storage\" operating systems (such as OS/VS1), the non-CMS versions were later renamed to STAIRS/VS."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neptune's Staircase",
        "text": "Neptune's Staircase\n--Description.\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Potemkin Stairs",
        "text": "The stairs were originally known as the Boulevard steps, the Giant Staircase, or the Richelieu steps. The top step is 12.5 meters (41 feet) wide, and the lowest step is 21.7 meters (70.8 feet) wide. The staircase extends for 142 meters, but it gives the illusion of greater length."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stair (disambiguation)",
        "text": "A stair is part of a flight of steps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Escalator",
        "text": "In the first half of the twentieth century, several manufacturers developed their own escalator products, though they had to market their devices under different names, due to Otis\u2019 hold on the trademark rights to the word \"escalator.\" New York-based Peelle Company called their models the Motorstair, while Westinghouse called their model an Electric Stairway. The Toledo-based Haughton Elevator company referred to their product as simply Moving Stairs. The Otis trademark is no longer in effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gedung Kuning",
        "text": "The staircases are constructed of timber and are an internal element. The staircases are modified to the present stairs of 175mm risers and 220mm thread. The staircases have timber handrails and simple banisters are made of polished hardwood, which are free standing as balustrades. The staircase arrangement is straight with an elevated base landing. The first few steps are made out of brick foundation but now in reinforced concrete. This was done to prevent them from coming into contact with the wet floors ."
      },
      {
        "title": "IBM STAIRS",
        "text": "IBM STAIRS\n--History.\n--Description.\n--Uses.\n--Technical details.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Escalier Daru",
        "text": "In 1882, Lefuel's successor started making plans for the completion of the staircase. A team of Italian specialists created colorful mosaics for the vaulted ceilings, representing Victories holding palms and portraits of illustrious figures, on a design by painter Jules-Eug\u00e8ne Lenepveu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Denis Stairs (engineer)",
        "text": "Denis Stairs (engineer)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "Stairs\n--Components and terms.\n----Step.\n------Curtail step.\n----The railing system.\n----Measurements.\n--Forms.\n----Spiral and helical stairs.\n----Alternating tread stairs or 'Witches stairs'.\n--Ergonomics and building code requirements.\n----UK requirements.\n----US requirements.\n--Stairs and art.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Eestairs",
        "text": "One of the products of EeStairs is the 1m2 staircase. It is a small staircase using only 1m2. EeStairs patented the 1m2 staircase in 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "Relativity (M. C. Escher)",
        "text": "The structure has seven stairways, and each stairway can be used by people who belong to two different gravity sources. This creates interesting phenomena, such as in the top stairway, where two inhabitants use the same stairway in the same direction and on the same side, but each using a different face of each step; thus, one descends the stairway as the other climbs it, even while moving in the same direction nearly side by side. In the other stairways, inhabitants are depicted as climbing the stairways upside-down, but based on their own gravity source, they are climbing normally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Upper Staircase",
        "text": "Upper Staircase\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Watermen's stairs",
        "text": "Watermen's stairs\n--History.\n--Cause c\u00e9l\u00e8bre.\n--Public stairs in use on the River Thames early 1700s.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "The horizontal distance between steps is reduced by a factor less than two if for construction reasons there are narrow \"unused\" steps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ascending and Descending",
        "text": "Two earlier Escher pictures that feature stairs are \"House of Stairs\" and \"Relativity\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jesse W. Reno",
        "text": "Jesse Wilford Reno (August 4, 1861 \u2013 June 2, 1947) was an American inventor and engineer. He invented the first working escalator in 1891 (patented March 15, 1892) used at the Old Iron Pier, Coney Island, New York City. His invention was referred to as the \"inclined elevator.\" An earlier escalator machine, termed \"revolving stairs\" by its inventor Nathan Ames, was patented March 9, 1859, but was never built."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penrose stairs",
        "text": "While the Penroses credited Escher in their article, Escher noted in a letter to his son in January 1960 that he was:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "Stairs may be in a \"straight run\", leading from one floor to another without a turn or change in direction. Stairs may change direction, commonly by two straight flights connected at a 90 degree angle landing. Stairs may also return onto themselves with 180 degree angle landings at each end of straight flights forming a vertical stairway commonly used in multistory and highrise buildings. Many variations of geometrical stairs may be formed of circular, elliptical and irregular constructions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stair tread",
        "text": "IDEO Labs' interns created a musical staircase during summer of 2011. Each tread played a different sound when stepped on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurentian Library",
        "text": "The plan of the stairs changed dramatically in the design phase. Originally in the first design in 1524, two flights of stairs were placed against the side walls and formed a bridge in front of the reading room door. A year later the stairway was moved to the middle of the vestibule. Tribolo attempted to carry out this plan in 1550 but nothing was built. Ammannati took on the challenge of interpreting Michelangelo\u2019s ideas to the best of his abilities using a small clay model, scanty material, and Michelangelo\u2019s instructions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grand Staircase",
        "text": "Since then, modern geologists have further divided Dutton's steps into individual rock formations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Staircase timer",
        "text": "The first staircase timers were pneumatic pushbuttons. A large push-button, distinctly larger than a normal electrical switch, is pressed manually. An internal mechanism provides the delay. The internal piston is depressed by the button and holds the electrical contacts closed. This piston is spring-loaded to return upwards but is prevented from returning quickly by a pneumatic dashpot. This dashpot provides the timing function."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herbert E. Gregory",
        "text": "In 1931, Gregory published the first geologic map of the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument. Gregory stated that no fossils had been discovered; however, many were later found."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How were stairs invented?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about staircases (also called stairways), ladders, or escalators?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I wish to know about the inventor of the staircase."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I couldn't find the inventor of the staircase but the earliest spiral staircase appeared in Temple A of the Greek colony Selinunte, Sicily and the temple was constructed in 480-470 BC."
    ],
    "topic": "Stairs",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Stairs:12",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Stairs",
          "Components and terms",
          "The railing system"
        ],
        "ctx": "The earliest spiral staircases appear in Temple A in the Greek colony Selinunte, Sicily, to both sides of the cella. The temple was constructed around 480\u2013470 BC.\n;Apron: This is a wooden fascia board used to cover up trimmers and joists exposed by stairwell openings. The apron may be moulded or plain, and is intended to give the staircase a cleaner look by cloaking the side view.\n* Balcony: For stairs with an open concept upper floor or landing, the upper floor is functionally a balcony. For a straight flight of stairs, the balcony may be long enough to require multiple newels to support the length of railing.\n* Flight: Any uninterrupted series of steps between floors or levels.\n* Floating stairs: A flight of stairs is said to be \"floating\" if there is nothing underneath. The risers are typically missing as well to emphasize the open effect, and create a functional feature suspended in midair. There may be only one stringer or the stringers otherwise minimized. Where building codes allow, there may not even be handrails.\n* Landing, or platform: A landing is the area of a floor near the top or bottom step of a stair. An intermediate landing is a small platform that is built as part of stairs between main floor levels and is typically used to allow the stairs to change directions, or to allow the user a rest. A half landing, or half-pace, is where a 180\u00b0 change in direction is made, and a quarter landing is where a 90\u00b0 change in direction is made (on an intermediate landing). As intermediate landings consume floor space, they can be expensive to build. However, changing the direction of the stairs allows stairs to fit where they would not otherwise, or provides privacy to the upper level as visitors downstairs cannot simply look up the stairs to the upper level due to the change in direction. The word 'landing' is also commonly used for a general corridor in any of the floors above the ground floor of a building, even if that corridor is located well away from a staircase.\n* Mobile safety steps: Can be used as temporary, safe replacements for many types of stairs\n* Runner: Carpeting that runs down the middle of the stairs. Runners may be directly stapled or nailed to the stairs, or may be secured by a specialized bar, known as a stair rod, that holds the carpet in place where the tread meets the riser.\n* Spandrel: If there is not another flight of stairs immediately underneath, the triangular space underneath the stairs is called a \"spandrel\". It is frequently used as a closet.\n* Staircase: This term is often reserved for the stairs themselves: the steps, railings and landings; though often it is used interchangeably with \"stairs\" and \"stairway\". In the UK, however, the term \"staircase\" denotes what in the U.S. is called \"stairway\", but usually includes the casing \u2013 the walls, bannisters and underside of the stairs or roof above.\n* Stairway: This primarily American term is often reserved for the entire stairwell and staircase in combination; though often it is used interchangeably with \"stairs\" and \"staircase\".\n* Stairwell: The spatial opening, usually a vertical shaft, containing an indoor stairway; by extension it is often used as including the stairs it contains.\n*Staircase tower: A tower attached to, or incorporated into, a building that contains stairs linking the various floors."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "These stairs are nowadays commonly referred to as 'Witches stairs', in the belief that they were created during an earlier era in an attempt to repel witches who were thought to be unable to climb such stairs. Such an origin of the term has since been disproved however, with experts finding no mention in any historical literature of stairs that were believed to prevent access by witches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witches of Benevento",
        "text": "The \"janara\"s, because of their incorporeal consistency, entered a house by passing under the door (corresponding with another possible etymology of the term: \"ianua\", 'door'. For this reason a broom or some salt was usually left on the threshold; the witch would have to count all the fibers of the broom or grains of salt before entering, but in the meantime the day would arrive and they would be compelled to go away. The two objects have a symbolic value: the broom is a phallic symbol opposed to the sterility brought by the witch; the salt was connected through a false etymology to \"salus\" ('safety')."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of ancient spiral stairs",
        "text": "List of ancient spiral stairs\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "Stairs\n--Components and terms.\n----Step.\n------Curtail step.\n----The railing system.\n----Measurements.\n--Forms.\n----Spiral and helical stairs.\n----Alternating tread stairs or 'Witches stairs'.\n--Ergonomics and building code requirements.\n----UK requirements.\n----US requirements.\n--Stairs and art.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Loretto Chapel",
        "text": "Further afield, another staircase is in the Gda\u0144sk Town Hall in Poland, which was reported to the \"New Mexican\" in 1944 by a government official named Bonnie Foster. The paper wrote: \"It is tall, spiral, and without steel nails, but the wood is different. It is in the town hall, of the 14th to the 16th century. How it was constructed, and whether there is a miracle story back of it, Mrs. Foster could not say. But she declared it is strikingly like St. Joseph's in design.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of ancient spiral stairs",
        "text": "The list of ancient spiral stairs contains a selection of Greco-Roman spiral stairs constructed during classical antiquity. The spiral stair is a type of stairway which, due to its complex helical structure, has been introduced relatively late into architecture. Although the oldest example dates back to the 5th century BC, it was only in the wake of the influential design of the Trajan's Column that this space-saving new type permanently caught hold in ancient Roman architecture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "The earliest spiral stairs architectural image was shown on a white terra cotta pot discovered in Hunan China, 7400 years ago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch's ladder",
        "text": "A witch's ladder (also known as \"rope and feathers\", witches' ladder, witches ladder, or witch ladder) is a practice, in folk magic or witchcraft, that is made from knotted cord or hair, that normally constitutes a spell. Charms are knotted or braided with specific magical intention into the cords. The number of knots and nature of charms varies with the intended effect (or spell)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bramante Staircase",
        "text": "The modern double helix staircase, also in the Pio-Clementine Museum, and commonly referred to as the \"Bramante Staircase\", was designed by Giuseppe Momo, sculpted by Antonio Maraini and realized by the Ferdinando Marinelli Artistic Foundry in 1932 and was inspired by the original Bramante Staircase."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blockula",
        "text": "There was said to be a large gate located in the meadow that led to a smaller meadow. In the smaller meadow there stood a house. In an enormous room in this house: \"[\u2026] there stood a very long Table, at which the Witches did sit down: And [\u2026] hard by this Room was another Chamber, where there were very lovely and delicate Beds.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pyramid of the Magician",
        "text": "The Eastern Stairs are the wider of the two, starting from the base of the structure to the upper temple. Near the top of the eastern stairs is a smaller inner temple that cuts into the stairway itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Collinwood Mansion",
        "text": "Playroom and stairway through time\u00a0\u2014 In 1840, a particular room was used as a playroom for children. In 1970, the same room was used as a linen closet. Yet behind the room was a stairwell that the 1840 Quentin Collins placed an enchantment on. Quentin, a student of magical arts, constructed the stairway using magical means to make it ascend through time into the future. He believed his experiment was a failure, but actually succeeded. Barnabas and Julia used the stairway to travel back from 1995 to 1970. Later, Julia (and later still Prof. Stokes) used the stairwell to travel from 1970 to 1840. After Barnabas, Julia and Prof. Stokes used the stairwell one last time to get back to 1970, Desmond Collins destroyed it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monboddo House",
        "text": "An interior stone spiral staircase is found in an ascending clockwise manner characteristic of defensive designs of towerhouses of the 14th century. Two eight-centimetre diameter gun loops are found within the 80-centimetre thick Old Red Sandstone exterior walls (Hogan, 2006)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch's ladder",
        "text": "One example of a modern witch's ladder is a string of 40 beads or a cord with 40 knots. Sometimes feathers, bones, and other trinkets are braided into the string as symbols for a desired spell effect. An earlier version of a witch's ladder consisted of a rope or cord of three, nine, or thirteen knots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinacoteca Comunale, Citt\u00e0 di Castello",
        "text": "A monumental staircase which leads to the first floor with paintings depicting prince Apollo and all of the muses of arts, inspired by Ovid\u2019s Metamorphoses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hofile\u00f1a Ancestral House",
        "text": "Materials used were hardwood. The grand staircase, which came from Gilda Hofile\u00f1a's ancestral house, is made of ironwood, or \"balayong\", which is not susceptible to termites and impenetrable by nails. The balustrades were individually carved by carpenters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Roman architecture",
        "text": "The spiral stair is a type of stairway which, due to its complex helical structure, was introduced relatively late into architecture. Although the oldest example dates back to the 5th century BC, it was only in the wake of the influential design of Trajan's Column that this space-saving new type permanently caught hold in Roman architecture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch's ladder",
        "text": "When Charles Godfrey Leland received news of the Wellington find whilst in Italy, he investigated and found that the witches there used a similar form, called a \"witches garland\"; the item was made of cord, and contained black hen feathers. The malediction was uttered as each knot was tied in and the item was placed under the victim's bed, to cause the ill fortune (see Part 2, Chapter 5 of Roman Etruscan Remains for more details)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bramante Staircase",
        "text": "The original Bramante staircase, in the Pio-Clementine Museum, was built in 1505 to a double helix design by Donato Bramante. It connects the Belvedere palace of Pope Innocent VIII to the outside and stands in a square tower of that building."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wurmberg (Harz)",
        "text": "A long, straight staircase of unhewn stone begins at a height of about 90 metres above the iron ore mining district on the eastern flank of the mountain and leads to the edge of the summit plateau in a terraced area with edging of similarly unhewn stones. Colloquially this flight of steps is known as the \"Heath Staircase\" (\"Heidentreppe\"), although in earlier times the name \"Witch's Staircase\" (\"Hexentreppe\") had been common."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch's ladder",
        "text": "Witch's ladder\n--The Wellington Witch Ladder.\n--Charles Godfrey Leland.\n--Sabine Baring-Gould's \"Curgenven\".\n--Witch's ladder in Modern Wicca.\n--Witch's ladder uses.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Shardeloes",
        "text": "The interior of the house has fine ornamental plaster work by Joseph Rose. The entrance hall by Adam has fluted Doric pilasters and massive doorcases in the north and south walls. The dining room has stucco panels and an oval panel in the ceiling. The library was designed by James Wyatt in a classical style and has painted panels by Biagio Rebecca. Nikolaus Pevsner describes the staircase as \"surprisingly small.\" Pevsner, for once, rather misses the point: as the house was designed, all rooms of importance, including the bedrooms, were on the principal ground floor; thus, there was no need for a grand staircase, as no grandee would ever need to ascend to the secondary floor above. Blenheim Palace is another house with a small staircase for the same reason."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palazzo Ruspoli, Rome",
        "text": "A description of the staircase in the 18th century noted that the staircase was singular among palaces in Rome for its size and for being constructed entirely of marble steps, costing 80 \"scudi\" each, arrayed in four flights of 30 steps, ten feet long and two feet wide. Along the stairs were antique busts of emperors Hadrian and Claudius; Bacchus and Silen; Apollo; Mercury; a woman dressed as Hercules; and Aesclepius."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bramante Staircase",
        "text": "Bramante Staircase is the name given to two staircases in the Vatican Museums in the Vatican City State: the original stair, built in 1505, and a modern equivalent from 1932."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of ancient spiral stairs",
        "text": "The construction of spiral stairs passed on both to Christian and Islamic architecture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Two Temple Place",
        "text": "The staircase hall is overlooked by a gallery that features statues made by Nicholls, having American literary associations, and a frieze in relief which features 82 characters from Shakespeare\u2019s \"Othello\", \"Henry VIII\", \"Antony and Cleopatra\" and \"Macbeth\". Around this gallery are ten pillars of solid ebony. The statues are positioned on six of the carved oak panels which surmount these pillars. The ceiling of the staircase Hall and Gallery is in stained glass, coved and panelled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witches of Benevento",
        "text": "There is also the \"manalonga\", 'the one with the long arm', who lives in wells and pulls down passersby in the vicinity. The fear of pits, imagined to be the passageways to hell, is a recurring element: in the cliff under the Bridge of the \"Janara\"s there is a pool in which whirlpools are suddenly formed, which is called \"the whirlpool of hell.\" Finally, there are the \"uria\"s, domestic spirits who recall the lares and penates of Roman times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Down the Ancient Staircase",
        "text": "In Italy, in 1930, Professor Bonaccorsi, renowned psychiatrist, conducts research on madness in the asylum where he works as a doctor in Tuscany. He has three mistresses: Bianca, his assistant; Carla, a colleague's wife; and Francesca, the wife of the asylum's director."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Pratt and Buckingham Octagon House",
        "text": "The central stairway is accessed from the L-shaped central hallway, which leads from an interior doorway in the kitchen. The hallway also provides entrance to the dining room and to the parlor. The central stairway featured a 3-step spiral at its base as late as the mid-1950s. That space now contains two landings instead. From the first landing, two steps downward through a former door once provided an additional entrance to the library. Beneath the first-floor stairway is a straight flight of stairs leading to the basement. On the second floor, at the top of the central stairway, there is an original stairway with one landing and one turn, leading to a trap door in the cupola. The central stairway, the circular stairway, and the cupola stairway all feature original, low handrails with three/quarter balusters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ocracoke Light",
        "text": "However, this is not the original staircase; the original staircase was a wooden step spiral built into the inside of the exterior wall. This was removed during the 1950s due to excessive rotting to the boards and a lacking necessity for a substantial staircase because of the automation of the light. The wooden stairs were removed and the holes in the all-brick lighthouse were cemented closed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Perron (staircase)",
        "text": "One of the largest and most impressive Baroque perrons is found outside Girona Cathedral and consists of 90 steps on three flights of stairs. The Cal\u00e0 del Sasso in Upper Italy has 4,444 steps and is one of the largest outside staircases in Europe. Also well known are the Spanish Steps in Rome, that lead from the Piazza di Spagna to the church of Santa Trinit\u00e0 dei Monti. At the theatre of Freilichtspiele Schw\u00e4bisch Hall, the perron in front of the town church is the main stage for theatre productions. The Strudlhofstiege in Vienna, an Art Nouveau style perron, is well known because it forms the title of a novel by Heimito von Doderer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "Both spiral and helical stairs can be characterized by the number of turns that are made. A \"quarter-turn\" stair deposits the person facing 90 degrees from the starting orientation. Likewise, there are half-turn, three-quarters-turn and full-turn stairs. A continuous spiral may make many turns depending on the height. Very tall multi-turn spiral staircases are usually found in old stone towers within fortifications, churches and in lighthouses."
      },
      {
        "title": "House of Stairs (disambiguation)",
        "text": "House of Stairs (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Loretto Chapel",
        "text": "Although the staircase as built lacked any external bracing, an iron support bracket was added in 1887 at the same time as the railings. This may have been intended to limit the degree of vertical travel arising from the helical shape, which effectively makes the staircase behave as a giant coil spring and is part of the reason spiral staircases usually have a central support. Even after this modification, users of the staircase reported \"a certain amount of springiness\". Nevertheless, it was able to hold a significant amount of weight, as attested by a photo taken around 1959 of at least twelve choir members posing on the steps."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Spiral Staircase (1975 film)",
        "text": "Helen Mallory is a beautiful young woman who has been unable to speak a word since seeing her husband and daughter die in a fire. She visits the home of her elderly, invalid grandmother and meets her uncle, Joe Sherman, a respected psychiatrist. The visit turns into a nightmare as she encounters Joe's brash brother Steven, as well as a pretentious Southern belle named Blanche and other mysterious characters in a house where everyone's life seems to be in grave danger."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of ancient spiral stairs",
        "text": "Apart from the triumphal columns in the imperial cities of Rome and Constantinople, other types of buildings such as temples, thermae, basilicas and tombs were also fitted with spiral stairways. Their notable absence in the towers of the Aurelian Wall indicates that they did not yet figure prominently in Roman military engineering. By late antiquity, separate stair towers were constructed adjacent to the main buildings, like in the Basilica of San Vitale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch of Agnesi",
        "text": "This equation can be simplified, by choosing \"a\" = 1/2, to the form\n: formula_2"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Staircase (Mystery)",
        "text": "Technical"
      },
      {
        "title": "Which Witch? (board game)",
        "text": "In each turn, each player rolls a single die to determine movement distance along a tiled track through the rooms. Several tiles are \"danger\" squares because they are in the path of the game's \"whammy ball\", a steel ball dropped into the central chimney that falls randomly into one of the rooms. The end of the track in the Bat's Ballroom is the \"Charmed Circle\". The player to reach the Charmed Circle first wins the game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Issogne Castle",
        "text": "The first floor of the Castle contains the rooms of the lords of the manor. They were also adapted by Vittorio Avondo when he acquired the Castle in the 19th century to his own personal use. One reaches this floor by means of a stone spiral staircase adjoining the 'hall of justice'. The same spiral staircase also provides access to the rooms of the ground floor as well as directly to the courtyard. The staircase if formed from a series of stone steps of trapezoidal shape. The wider part of the step is immured into the wall and the narrower part finished with a cylindrical element. Overlapping vertically in a series of steps, these cylindrical elements form a central column that give the staircase a significant static strength. The ceiling of the ramp is created by leaving the lower surface of the upper steps exposed, thus giving the appearance of a continuous ribbon that draws one on as one ascends the staircase."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pitfour Castle",
        "text": "The curved staircase forms the centrepiece of the house. In the 1967 sale particulars, this was described as a \"fine circular wrought iron staircase rising through the house to a cupola with painted cartoons by Ritchie\". Historic Scotland refers to these cartoons as \"figure panels by Zucchi\", an Italian who worked with Robert Adam. Prior to its subdivision, the house had 12 principal bedrooms, four bathrooms, five reception rooms and staff accommodation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Temple of Garni",
        "text": "The triangular pediment depicts sculptures of plants and geometrical figures. The staircase has nine unusually high steps\u2014 high, about twice as high as the average height of stairs. Tananyan suggests that the unusually high stairs compel a person ascending the staircase to feel humbled and make physical effort to reach the altar. On both sides of the staircase there are roughly square pedestals. Atlas, the Greek mythological Titan who held up the earth, is sculpted on both pedestals in a way seemingly trying to hold the entire temple on its shoulders. It is assumed that, originally, pedestals held up altars (sacrificial tables)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leap Castle",
        "text": "A Red Lady ghost is reported to walk the halls holding a dagger. Two little girls named Charlotte and Emily are reported to run up and down the spiral staircase. Emily died after she fell from the battlements on the top of the castle's tower and Charlotte can still be seen running around after her sister and calling her name."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bramante Staircase",
        "text": "Bramante Staircase\n--The original staircase.\n--The modern staircase.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Italian Hall",
        "text": ", the exterior doors from the base of the stairway are on display at the Coppertown USA Museum in Calumet. , one of the stairway's steps is displayed in the visitor center of the KNHP in Calumet. Because of arguments presented in Steve Lehto's \"Death's Door\", the MSHS marker was modified in June 2013 to omit any mention of the doors or the direction they opened; it previously claimed that the doors opened inward."
      },
      {
        "title": "A. K. Dolven",
        "text": "(2001) \"stairs\", Staatliches Museum Schwerin, Germany"
      },
      {
        "title": "Spiral Staircase",
        "text": "Spiral Staircase\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mansion House, Hurstpierpoint",
        "text": "The staircase is stylistically datable to the early to mid 17th century; however, redundant jointing and awkwardly jointed members indicate that it is reused in its present position. It is possible that the staircase was imported from another building and altered to fit this location, indicating that the insertion was no earlier than the mid 17th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baguenaudier",
        "text": "Variations of this include the \"Devil's staircase\", \"Devil's Halo\" and the \"impossible staircase\". Another similar puzzle is the \"Giant's causeway\" which uses a separate pillar with an embedded ring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch of Agnesi",
        "text": "The construction given above for this curve was found by ; the same construction was also found earlier by Isaac Newton, but only published posthumously later, in 1779."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "When used in Roman architecture spiral stairs were generally restricted to elite structures. They were then adopted into Christian ecclesiastic architecture. There is a common misconception that spiral staircases in castles rose in a clockwise direction to hinder right-handed attackers. While clockwise spiral staircases are more common in castles than anti-clockwise, they were even more common in medieval structures without a military role such as religious buildings. Studies of spiral stairs in castle have concluded that \"the role and position of spirals in castles\u00a0... had a much stronger domestic and status role than a military function\" and that \"there are sufficient examples of anticlockwise stairs in Britain and France in [the 11th and 12th centuries] to indicate that the choice must have depended both on physical convenience and architectural practicalities and there was no military ideology that demanded clockwise staircases in the cause of fighting efficiency or advantage\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bramshill House",
        "text": "Beyond the staircase are the state rooms and what was known as the \"Wrought Room\". The room has an ornamental ceiling with a Renaissance chimneypiece. Two of the bedrooms, the two \"White Rooms\", were originally connected to what was called the Flower-de-luce Room, but the doors have been boarded up."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Four Witches",
        "text": "The globe hanging above the figures is divided into twelve segments, and contains two inscriptions; the year 1497, and, outlined with girdling, and the letters \"\" - perhaps meaning \"Odium generis humani\" (\"Odium (disgust or ambush) against the human race\"), or \"Oh Gott h\u00fcte\" (\"Oh God Forbid\") as suggested in 1675 by the German art-historian and painter Joachim von Sandrart, or \"Ordo Graciarum Horarumque\" (\"Order of the Graces and Hours\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fredelsloh Abbey",
        "text": "A unique double helix circular stairs is one of the architectural highlights but not publicly accessible due to a supporting wall that was built in the 17th century. These stairs are classified as 13th-century work, the builder most likely stemming from the Levant region. One of the counts of Dassel had participated in the Third Crusade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devil's staircase",
        "text": "Devil's staircase\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pyramid of the Magician",
        "text": "The Western Stairs overlook the Nunnery and are richly decorated compared to the eastern side. Along both sides of this narrower staircase, images of the hooked-nose rain god Chaac line the steps. As worshipers climbed the stairs to the upper temple, they would be ceremoniously climbing the \"Stairways of the Gods\" towards the sacrificial altar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witches of Benevento",
        "text": "[[Category:Medieval Italy]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Spiral Staircase",
        "text": "A spiral staircase is a type of stairway characterized by its helical shape"
      },
      {
        "title": "Staircases in Mariahilf",
        "text": "Staircases in Mariahilf\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bramante Staircase",
        "text": "The stair is cited as the inspiration for Antonio da Sangallo the Younger's design for the double helix passageway at the well of San Patrizio in Orvieto, to solve a similar logistical problem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palazzo Carafa della Spina",
        "text": "The elaborate Baroque portal made of piperno rock, create a grand entrance to the courtyard. Atop the portal, two satyrs serve as telamons to support the balcony and hold the heraldic shield of the Carafa family. Further below are two flanking masks and pylons with lion heads. The portal and internal stairwell have been attributed to Ferdinando Sanfelice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stephen Hogeboom House",
        "text": "Staircases lead from the cellar and second story to the rear kitchen wing. It has its original cooking hearth, complete with crane, and a brick oven that protrudes slightly from the rear wall. A small pantry made from old panel doors and other reused woodwork is in the passageway to the main block. A steep, turning staircase leads up to the garret."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devil's staircase",
        "text": "Devil's staircase may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bernd Grimm",
        "text": "During his time as a practice scholarship holder at Villa Massimo in Rome in 2015, Bernd Grimm did research on the \"Scala del Bramante\" of the architect Donato Bramante, which is located in the Vatican Museums. It is a spiral staircase built in 1512 to connect the Pope's Palace with the city of Rome. It was built as a stepless ramp (Italian \"Rampa\"), therefore Grimm calls his research report \"Rampa del Bramante\". The staircase is housed in a square tower and has 36 columns of different types. Grimm received permission from the Vatican to measure and photograph the stairs in detail. He subsequently drew up his report. Part of the investigation was the \"decoding of the mathematical and geometrical basic structure\" of the ramp. In addition, Grimm investigated the structural composition of the columns. In the Classical antiquity and since the Renaissance, so-called order of columns formed an important architectural system with a hierarchy of different types of columns. Grimm in his report revealed that Bramante did not strictly adhere to this system in the construction of his staircase. Thanks to a scholarship from the \"Rolf Linnenkamp-Stiftung\" he was able to produce a three-dimensional model of the staircase in stainless steel and birch multiplex in 1:20 scale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Staircase tower",
        "text": "Since the Renaissance period, staircase towers were markedly more decorative and representative of status. Stairs were now rarely hidden or built externally, but there were both artistically designed, curved and straight-running staircases inside the building with ornate ceilings and railings (e.\u00a0g. Ch\u00e2teau de Chambord, Palazzo Barberini and Ch\u00e2teau d'Azay-le-Rideau or Ch\u00e2teau de Chenonceau). With the increasing construction of straight staircases with intermediate landings (the modern stairwells) separate staircase towers became gradually rarer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch of Agnesi",
        "text": "In mathematics, the witch of Agnesi () is a cubic plane curve defined from two diametrically opposite points of a circle. It gets its name from Italian mathematician Maria Gaetana Agnesi, and from a mistranslation of an Italian word for a sailing sheet. Before Agnesi, the same curve was studied by Fermat, Grandi, and Newton."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyclopean stairs",
        "text": "There are a few different ways cyclopean stairs can form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch tower",
        "text": "Witch tower or Witches' Tower () is a common name or description in English and other European languages for a tower that was part of a medieval town wall or castle, often used as a prison or dungeon."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Four Witches",
        "text": "D\u00fcrer's monogram \"AD\" appears on the center of the floor. Numerous original prints exist, held at a number of major museums."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witches of Benevento",
        "text": "[[Category:Benevento]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pyramid of the Magician",
        "text": "There are two staircases that lead to the top of the pyramid, both at a steep 60\u00b0 angle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cantwell's Castle",
        "text": "The staircase is mural, starting left of the entrance door and running clockwise in the walls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castleknock Castle",
        "text": "steps ascending the stone staircase that led to her apartment,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orazio Torriani",
        "text": "At the church of Santi Domenico e Sisto, now the church of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, \"Angelicum\", the double staircase and balustrade built in 1654 are accepted as his work. American painter John Singer Sargent during a visit to Rome in 1906 made an oil painting and several pencil sketches of this staircase and balustrade writing in 1907: \"I did in Rome a study of a magnificent curved staircase and balustrade, leading to a grand facade that would reduce a millionaire to a worm...\" The painting now hangs at the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University and the pencil sketches are in the collection of the Harvard University art collection of the Fogg Museum. Sargent later used the architectural features of this stair and balustrade in a portrait of Charles William Eliot, President of Harvard University from 1869-1909."
      },
      {
        "title": "University of Coimbra",
        "text": "Other items are plain local knowledge:\n* \"Black it is, Chicken made it\" (a pun on a children's charade, \"White it is, chicken hatched it\", to which the answer is \"the egg\")\u2014it happens that the gates of the Botanical Garden are black, and were made by a person named Chicken (Galinha).\n* Bet you can't climb the Monumental Stairs, two steps at a time, as there are 125 steps in 5 installments of 25 steps each."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch's ladder",
        "text": "Some Modern Wiccans believe there are many uses for a witch\u2019s ladder. They claim that whatever one's intention is can be made into a magical spell in a witches ladder. It was believed that witches of old cast a death spell over a person by tying the knots and then hiding the cord, and the only way to undo the spell was to find the secreted cord and untie each knot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch of Agnesi",
        "text": "also suggested the name \"versiera\" (in Italian) or \"versoria\" (in Latin) for the curve. The Latin term is also used for a sheet, the rope which turns the sail, but Grandi may have instead intended merely to refer to the versine function that appeared in his construction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval fortification",
        "text": "Stairs were also constructed to contain trick or stumble steps. These were steps that had different rise height or tread depth from the rest and would cause anyone running up the stairs to stumble or fall, so slowing down the attackers' progress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Our Lady of the Assumption Convent, Warwick",
        "text": "Separating the entrance hall from the central corridor is a fine cedar screen, with three tiers of trefoil arched openings, some of which are glazed with embossed glass panels. Beyond the screen and separated from the corridor by a round plaster arch, supported on Norman-inspired corbels, is the principal half turn closed well stair of cedar, with a large carved newel post and turned blasters. The underside of the stair is lined with coffered cedar panels. A stained glass staircase window, of two vertical panels and a transom light, provides natural lighting. Two pointed arched openings in the corridor, flanking the stair, separate this principal entrance area from the remainder of the ground floor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bernd Grimm",
        "text": "The construction and structure of the staircase were made evident by the fact that the columns were only reproduced as outlines in stainless steel. To illustrate the dimensions of the building, Bernd Grimm gave the measurements in centimetres as well as in \"piedi\" and \"digiti\", Ancient Roman units of measurement which were also used in the Renaissance \u2013 and came to the result:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gemonian stairs",
        "text": "It is believed the stairs were built some time before the rule of Tiberius (14\u201337), as they were not mentioned by name in any ancient texts that predate this period. Their first use as a place of execution is primarily associated with the rumoured paranoid excesses of Tiberius' later reign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Covenstead",
        "text": "The 1998 American TV series \"Charmed,\" starring Hollie Marie Combs, Alyssa Milano and Rose McGowan, was a highly rated show that depicted three witch sisters living together in a single house they called the Halliwell Manor. This house was often the place in which they carried out spells and rituals with the Book of Shadows. However, in the Harry Potter books and films, the education of magic primarily occurs in an institute dedicated to the purpose, The Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, instead of a more private and secluded room or home that is traditionally identified as a covenstead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witches' Cave",
        "text": "Witches' Cave\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Roslin Castle",
        "text": "All five floors are connected by a central scale-and-platt staircase, added in the early 17th century to replace a turnpike stair in the south-west. The rooms of the upper floors have impressive panelling and decorated ceilings. The main hall, in the south part of the block, has been divided, but retains a large fireplace with the carved initials WS and JE, for William Sinclair and his wife Jean Edmonstone, and the date 1597."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spiral Staircase",
        "text": "Spiral Staircase may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Witches of Benevento",
        "text": "\"'Nguento, 'nguento,\"<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "House of Stairs",
        "text": "A total of 46 \"wentelteefje\" (imaginary creatures created by Escher) are crawling on the stairs. The \"wentelteefje\" has a long, armored body with six legs, humanoid feet, a parrot-like beak and eyes on stalks. Some are seen to roll in through doors, wound in a wheel shape and then unroll to crawl up the stairs, while others crawl down stairs and wind up to roll out. The \"wentelteefje\" first appeared earlier the same month in the lithograph \"Curl-up\". Later that month, \"House of Stairs\" was extended to a vertical length of in a print titled \"House of Stairs II\" by repeating and mirroring some of the architecture and creatures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catalan mythology about witches",
        "text": "To prevent witches from sowing evil herbs to damage the fields and crops, one would place to the right of the gate a figure of a guardsman, precisely vertical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch of Agnesi",
        "text": "The largest area of a rectangle that can be inscribed between the witch and its asymptote is formula_9, for a rectangle whose height is the radius of the defining circle and whose width is twice the diameter of the circle."
      },
      {
        "title": "House of Stairs",
        "text": "House of Stairs\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch's ladder",
        "text": "The first recorded witch ladder found was in an old house in Wellington, Shropshire which was demolished in 1878. Six brooms, an old armchair and a \u2018rope with feathers woven into it\u2019 were found in the space that separated the roof from the upper room and was inaccessible from the interior of the house. The brooms had handles so decayed they snapped under pressure, but these had been replaced so they could be used. The chair and rope were stored in a warehouse. Due to the investigations of local antiquarians, (Abraham Colles & E.B. Tylor) the find was published in the \"Folk-Lore Journal\". This article detailed the responses to local enquiries, but was followed by a number of letters to the journal which expressed a range of opinions as to the function of the rope."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witches of Benevento",
        "text": "send me to the walnut tree of Benevento,<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Raio Palace",
        "text": "In 1760, the staircase was painted."
      },
      {
        "title": "St Elisabeth Cathedral",
        "text": "It is constrained and therefore it is assumed it had mainly decorative function. This twisted staircase is the oldest existing one in Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Broch of Mousa",
        "text": "The stair, which begins at the second level, is reached by a doorway in the inner wall face, which has an adjacent cell. There is also an upper cell above the entrance passage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pyramid of the Magician",
        "text": "Parts of the first temple can be seen when ascending the western staircase; the second and third temples are accessed by the eastern staircase, through an inner chamber at the second level. In front of it Temple III, forming a narthex, is the fourth temple, which is clearly visible from the west side. A climb to the top of the east stairs reveals the fifth temple, situated atop Temples II and III (Stierlin 66)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basildon Park",
        "text": "The Great Staircase, which rises only between the first and second floors, is just one of three staircases all within metres of the other at the centre of the house. A narrow spiral stair, concealed in one of the cut off corners of the Octagon Drawing Room rises from the ground floor to the roof, while \"the backstairs\" is another large staircase lit by the same clerestory as the Great Staircase; this rises from the ground floor to the second floor."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. John's Conservatory Theater",
        "text": "The witches were played by Angela Conzone Dwyer as Ophelia Hollyhock Queen of Hubba Bubba, Shelly Murdock as Delia Hollyhock, Angelina Schembry as Vermilia Hollyhock and Krista Kelly as Misty the Singing Cauldron, along with Ryan Woodard as Yadder the Troll. Calea LeBel played Arema, Maddison LeBel played Gogo and Chloe Preston played Spiridon, the banshees of the dark castle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bramante Staircase",
        "text": "The staircase was built to allow Pope Julius II to enter his private residence while still in his carriage, since walking up the several flights in heavy papal vestments would have been onerous."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hylton Castle",
        "text": "The kitchen, oratory and great chamber rose two floors, therefore only the minstrels' gallery was accessed via the main staircase on the second floor. However, the butlery and pantry was single-storeyed, but held the butler's chamber (with a garderobe) above it, accessed either via a staircase in that room or via the gallery."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How were stairs invented?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about staircases (also called stairways), ladders, or escalators?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I wish to know about the inventor of the staircase."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I couldn't find the inventor of the staircase but the earliest spiral staircase appeared in Temple A of the Greek colony Selinunte, Sicily and the temple was constructed in 480-470 BC."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are Witches stairs?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Where there is insufficient space for the full run length of normal stairs, alternating tread stairs may be used. These stairs are nowadays commonly referred to as 'Witches stairs', in the belief that they were created during an earlier era in an attempt to repel witches who were thought to be unable to climb such stairs.",
      "Where there is insufficient space for the full run length of normal stairs, alternating tread stairs may be used, having been in use since at least 1888. These stairs are nowadays commonly referred to as 'Witches stairs', in the belief that they were created during an earlier era in an attempt to repel witches who were thought to be unable to climb such stairs, though that belief has since been disproved."
    ],
    "topic": "Stairs",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Stairs:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Stairs",
          "Forms",
          "Alternating tread stairs or 'Witches stairs'"
        ],
        "ctx": "Where there is insufficient space for the full run length of normal stairs, alternating tread stairs may be used. Alternating tread stairs allow for a safe forward-facing descent of very steep stairs. The treads are designed such that they alternate between treads for each foot: one step is wide on the left side; the next step is wide on the right side. There is insufficient space on the narrow portion of the step for the other foot to stand, hence the person must always use the correct foot on the correct step. The slope of alternating tread stairs can be as high as 65 degrees as opposed to standard stairs, which are almost always less than 45 degrees. The advantage of alternating tread stairs is that people can descend face forward. The only other alternative in such short spaces would be a ladder which requires backward-facing descent. Alternating tread stairs may not be safe for small children, the elderly or the physically challenged. Building codes typically classify them as ladders and will only allow them where ladders are allowed, usually basement or attic utility or storage areas not frequently accessed."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Stairs:35",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Stairs",
          "Forms",
          "Alternating tread stairs or 'Witches stairs'"
        ],
        "ctx": "These stairs are nowadays commonly referred to as 'Witches stairs', in the belief that they were created during an earlier era in an attempt to repel witches who were thought to be unable to climb such stairs. Such an origin of the term has since been disproved however, with experts finding no mention in any historical literature of stairs that were believed to prevent access by witches."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Stairs:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Stairs",
          "Forms",
          "Alternating tread stairs or 'Witches stairs'"
        ],
        "ctx": "Where there is insufficient space for the full run length of normal stairs, alternating tread stairs may be used. Alternating tread stairs allow for a safe forward-facing descent of very steep stairs. The treads are designed such that they alternate between treads for each foot: one step is wide on the left side; the next step is wide on the right side. There is insufficient space on the narrow portion of the step for the other foot to stand, hence the person must always use the correct foot on the correct step. The slope of alternating tread stairs can be as high as 65 degrees as opposed to standard stairs, which are almost always less than 45 degrees. The advantage of alternating tread stairs is that people can descend face forward. The only other alternative in such short spaces would be a ladder which requires backward-facing descent. Alternating tread stairs may not be safe for small children, the elderly or the physically challenged. Building codes typically classify them as ladders and will only allow them where ladders are allowed, usually basement or attic utility or storage areas not frequently accessed."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Stairs:35",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Stairs",
          "Forms",
          "Alternating tread stairs or 'Witches stairs'"
        ],
        "ctx": "These stairs are nowadays commonly referred to as 'Witches stairs', in the belief that they were created during an earlier era in an attempt to repel witches who were thought to be unable to climb such stairs. Such an origin of the term has since been disproved however, with experts finding no mention in any historical literature of stairs that were believed to prevent access by witches."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Stairs:36",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Stairs",
          "Forms",
          "Alternating tread stairs or 'Witches stairs'"
        ],
        "ctx": "Alternating tread stairs have been in use since at least 1888."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "These stairs are nowadays commonly referred to as 'Witches stairs', in the belief that they were created during an earlier era in an attempt to repel witches who were thought to be unable to climb such stairs. Such an origin of the term has since been disproved however, with experts finding no mention in any historical literature of stairs that were believed to prevent access by witches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samlesbury witches",
        "text": "Potts devotes several pages to a fairly detailed criticism of the evidence presented in Grace Sowerbutts' statement, giving an insight into the discrepancies that existed during the early 17th century between the Protestant establishment's view of witchcraft and the beliefs of the common people, who may have been influenced by the more continental views of Catholic priests such as Christopher Southworth. Unlike their European counterparts, the English Protestant elite believed that witches kept familiars, or companion animals, and so it was not considered credible that the Samlesbury witches had none. Grace's story of the sabbat, too, was unfamiliar to the English at that time, although belief in such secret gatherings of witches was widespread in Europe. Most demonologists of the period, including King James, held that only God could perform miracles, and that he had not given the power to go against the laws of nature to those in league with the Devil. Hence Potts dismisses Sowerbutts' claim that Jennet Bierley transformed herself into a black dog with the comment \"I would know by what means any Priest can maintaine this point of Evidence\". He equally lightly dismisses Grace's account of the sabbat she claimed to have attended, where she met with \"foure black things\u00a0... not like men in the face\", with the comment that \"The Seminarie [priest] mistakes the face for the feete: For Chattox [one of the Pendle witches] and all her fellow witches agree, the Devill is cloven-footed: but Fancie [Chattox's familiar] had a very good face, and was a proper man.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Witches of Benevento",
        "text": "The \"janara\"s, because of their incorporeal consistency, entered a house by passing under the door (corresponding with another possible etymology of the term: \"ianua\", 'door'. For this reason a broom or some salt was usually left on the threshold; the witch would have to count all the fibers of the broom or grains of salt before entering, but in the meantime the day would arrive and they would be compelled to go away. The two objects have a symbolic value: the broom is a phallic symbol opposed to the sterility brought by the witch; the salt was connected through a false etymology to \"salus\" ('safety')."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch's ladder",
        "text": "When Charles Godfrey Leland received news of the Wellington find whilst in Italy, he investigated and found that the witches there used a similar form, called a \"witches garland\"; the item was made of cord, and contained black hen feathers. The malediction was uttered as each knot was tied in and the item was placed under the victim's bed, to cause the ill fortune (see Part 2, Chapter 5 of Roman Etruscan Remains for more details)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blockula",
        "text": "There was said to be a large gate located in the meadow that led to a smaller meadow. In the smaller meadow there stood a house. In an enormous room in this house: \"[\u2026] there stood a very long Table, at which the Witches did sit down: And [\u2026] hard by this Room was another Chamber, where there were very lovely and delicate Beds.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "John Cotta",
        "text": "He believed in evil spirits, sorcerers and magic. He begins his book \"The Triall of Witch-craft\" (1616) by stating that these phenomena were beyond human knowledge, and that only by conjecture and inference is it possible to understand these events. He did warn readers that many suspected witches were really imposters, or unwitting agents of the devil. He presents as evidence that evil spirits exist the standard classical history and biblical texts. He even uses reason to dismiss the \"water test\" for witches, where a purported witch would be submerged in water, and if she had renounced her baptism and was a true witch, the water would reject her and she would float. Cotta did still agree with others like Reginald Scot that magic was clearly a factor in day-to-day life because many diseases displayed symptoms they could not understand, or did not respond to standard remedies. Also he asserted that eyewitness accounts were sufficient to charge a suspected witch with witchcraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paisley witches",
        "text": "In 1839 a small hole was discovered in the wall of Shaw's bedroom at Bargarron House, which by then had become a local attraction, through which an accomplice may have passed the items she supposedly removed from her mouth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas Weir",
        "text": "Weir's house in the West Bow stood empty for over a century because of its reputation for being haunted. It was said that one of Weir's enchantments made people ascending the stair think they were descending in the opposite direction. It was eventually bought cheaply in about 1780 by an ex-soldier William Patullo who moved in with his wife. They are said to have fled the house on their first night there after experiencing a strange apparition of a calf approaching them in the night, propping itself up with its forelegs on the bed-end and staring at them in bed. According to Walter Scott, the house, which remained unoccupied after the incident, was demolished in 1830."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witchcraft",
        "text": "Societies that believed in witchcraft also believed that it could be thwarted in various ways. One common way was to use protective magic or counter-magic, of which the cunning folk were experts. This included charms, talismans and amulets, anti-witch marks, witch bottles, witch balls, and burying objects such as horse skulls inside the walls of buildings. Another believed cure for bewitchment was to persuade or force the alleged witch to lift their spell. Often, people would attempt to thwart the witchcraft by physically punishing the alleged witch, such as by banishing, wounding, torturing or killing them. \"In most societies, however, a formal and legal remedy was preferred to this sort of private action\", whereby the alleged witch would be prosecuted and then formally punished if found guilty. This often resulted in execution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bute witches",
        "text": "A strong belief in fairy traditions and folklore persisted in Scotland during the seventeenth century despite being subjected to nearly a hundred years of vigorous oppression. The Kirk session in Rothesay heard a complaint against Jeane Campbell in 1660 as it was claimed she went with the fairies who had instructed her how to make spells; she was also accused of applying \"a salve to rub on her breast, which was good for comforting the heart against scunners [afflictions].\" It was discovered she suffered from indigestion so the local minister allayed the fears of his congregation regarding her involvement in witchcraft. The following year she was brought before the session again after she used the cure on others; she was discharged but informed she would be deemed a witch if she repeated the offence. Ten years earlier, in 1650, another woman, Finwell Hyndman from Kingarth, was interviewed as she went missing for a day every three months; when she returned she had such a repugnant smell no one could approach her and it seemed she had been on a long journey. As she offered no adequate reason for her absence, she was \"bruted for a witch or (as the commone people calls it) being with the fayryes\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rehmeyer's Hollow",
        "text": "In 1928, under the malicious advice of a local woman named Nellie Noll (known as the River Witch of Marietta), John Blymire believed that he had been cursed by Nelson Rehmeyer. Blymire and his accomplices broke into Rehmeyer's home to find his copy of the braucherei 'spell book' known as the Long Lost Friend. Blymire and his fellow conspirators John Curry and Wilbert Hess (who likewise felt victimized by Rehmeyer) were unable to find the book, but did find Rehmeyer himself, whom they killed and mutilated in hopes that this would lift the curse. The three men charged with the crime also set fire to the house, hoping to remove remnants of the curse, as well as to destroy evidence of their murder. However, the house did not burn down as they had hoped. This led to many people further believing that Rehmeyer was a witch and that his power prevented the destruction of the house. The resulting trial drew substantial media attention."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Murrell",
        "text": "In April 1849, the \"Ipswich Express\" and \"Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper\" reported on a case in a village near to Rayleigh in which a girl had been afflicted with fits. Her family believed that a witch was to blame, with Murrell being called in to free her of the perceived bewitchment. He commissioned the local blacksmith to create an iron witch bottle, into which he placed toe-nail clippings and locks of hair belonging to the putative victim. The bottle was then placed into the hearth and heated until it exploded, with this supposedly defeating the witch's machinations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Francis Barrett (occultist)",
        "text": "When writing about witches Barrett stated that he did not believe that their power to torment or kill by enchantment, touch or by using a wax effigy came from Satan. He claimed if the Devil wanted to kill a man guilty of deadly sin, he did not need a witch as an intermediary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christence Kruckow",
        "text": "Kruckow was the neighbor of the priest of the church of Vor Frue Kirke, and when his wife became mentally ill in 1618, he claimed that she had been bewitched. He pointed out the fact that some of the women denounced by the witches of the 1612 witch trial had never been investigated, and demanded that the case be reopened and those pointed out as witches be arrested. In 1619, the authorities reopened the case and investigated. Several women were arrested, confessed their guilt and pointed out Kruckow as one of them, but the authorities did not wish to accuse a member of the nobility."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch's ladder",
        "text": "Some Modern Wiccans believe there are many uses for a witch\u2019s ladder. They claim that whatever one's intention is can be made into a magical spell in a witches ladder. It was believed that witches of old cast a death spell over a person by tying the knots and then hiding the cord, and the only way to undo the spell was to find the secreted cord and untie each knot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch post",
        "text": "\"The witch, in order to gain power over a dwelling house, must go through the house and past the hearth. The door and chimney were the only means of access, but she could not pass the witch post with its cross. Hence it was a defence at the hearth ... a crooked sixpence was kept in a hole at the centre of the post. When the butter would not turn you took a knitting needle, which was kept for the purpose in a groove at the top, and with it got out the sixpence and put it in the churn.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Barefoot",
        "text": "During the era of the Catholic Inquisition it was a conviction that women allegedly practicing witchcraft had their ability to use their \"sinister powers\" largely impaired if they were barefoot. Arrested women first had their footwear taken away and it was ensured that they remained barefoot at all times. Due to interpretations of the \"Malleus Maleficarum\" it was believed that in case an accused witch was not strictly kept with bare feet she could cast a spell on people by only looking at them. As the prosecutors wanted to avoid any risks, it was ensured that the bare feet of the women remained visible throughout. During questioning or in court, the accused women often had to stand within the boundaries of a consecrated spot with the soles of their bare feet constantly being in contact with the sanctified section of the ground. This was believed to inhibit any of their purported magic powers entirely. The women were prevented from even looking at the prosecutors when their feet were not strictly in place. To further ensure safety they were often led in walking backwards for their court sessions. They were not allowed to turn around until their bare feet were visibly placed within the bounded spot. As the accused women were not able use magic after all, this assumption became accepted doctrine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shtriga",
        "text": "Usually, shtriga were described as old or middle-aged women with grey, pale green, or pale blue eyes (called white eyes or pale eyes) () and a crooked nose. Their stare would make people uncomfortable, and people were supposed to avoid looking them directly in the eyes because they have the evil eye (). To ward off a witch, people could take a pinch of salt in their fingers and touch their (closed) eyes, mouth, heart and the opposite part of the heart and the pit of the stomach and then throw the salt in direct flames saying \" or just whisper 3\u20136 times \" or \".\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Paisley witches",
        "text": "The anxiety induced in Christian Shaw by Catherine Campbell's curse may have brought on a conversion disorder in the young girl, the modern name for what was once known as hysteria. The term \"conversion\" derives from Sigmund Freud's idea that anxiety can be converted into physical symptoms such as the seizures displayed by Shaw."
      },
      {
        "title": "Knole",
        "text": "In 2013, Knole was granted \u00a37.75m. by the Heritage Lottery Fund for conservation and repair work to the House. As part of this work, in 2014, archaeologists found that the late-medieval wall and roof timbers, and the oak beams beneath floors, particularly near fireplaces, had been scorched and carved with scratched marks. Initial media coverage focused on these being apotropaic marks, or \"witch marks\", to prevent witches and demons from coming down the chimney. This is one of a series of possible interpretations of such marks, which are now being found increasingly on medieval and renaissance building across England, including at Sissinghurst. However, all interpretations suggest they were apotropaic rituals to ward off fire damage or evil spirits. Since many of these are late-medieval marks, covered up during the early-17th century rebuilding of Knole, it is fanciful to link them to James I's interest in witchcraft, particularly since, after the publication of his book \"Daemonologie\" (1597), he later became much more sceptical about the existence of witches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pendle witches",
        "text": "Six of the Pendle witches came from one of two families, each at the time headed by a woman in her eighties: Elizabeth Southerns (a.k.a. Demdike), her daughter Elizabeth Device, and her grandchildren James and Alizon Device; Anne Whittle (a.k.a. Chattox), and her daughter Anne Redferne. The others accused were Jane Bulcock and her son John Bulcock, Alice Nutter, Katherine Hewitt, Alice Grey, and Jennet Preston. The outbreaks of 'witchcraft' in and around Pendle may suggest that some people made a living as traditional healers, using a mixture of herbal medicine and talismans or charms, which might leave them open to charges of sorcery. Many of the allegations resulted from accusations that members of the Demdike and Chattox families made against each other, perhaps because they were in competition, both trying to make a living from healing, begging, and extortion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch-cult hypothesis",
        "text": "In 1994, the English folklorist Jacqueline Simpson devoted a paper in the \"Folklore\" journal to the subject of \"Margaret Murray: Who Believed Her, and Why?\". She noted that the Murrayite theory was \"based on deeply flawed methods and illogical arguments\" and that the discipline of folkloristics had been damaged by its association with Murray, who had been appointed President of the Folklore Society. Simpson outlined how Murray had selected her use of evidence very specifically, particularly by ignoring and/or rationalising any accounts of supernatural or miraculous events in the trial records, thereby distorting the events that she was describing. Thus, Simpson pointed out, Murray rationalised claims that the cloven-hoofed Devil appeared at the witches' Sabbath by stating that he was a man with a special kind of shoe, and similarly asserted that witches' claims to have flown through the air on broomsticks were actually based on their practice of either hopping along on broomsticks or smearing hallucinogenic salves onto themselves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witches of Belvoir",
        "text": "At Lincoln, Margaret accused her mother of witchcraft, while Phillipa admitted to witchcraft on behalf of herself, Margaret and Joan. The sisters said they had entered into communion with familiar spirits that had assisted them with their schemes. The mother's familiar was a cat named \"Rutterkin\". The women admitted that they stole the glove of Lord Ros and gave it to their mother, who had dipped it in boiling water, stroked it along Rutterkin's back, and pricked it. Combined with some incantations this supposedly caused Lord Ros to become ill and die. An attempt to harm Lady Katherine, the Earl's daughter, had failed when it was found that \"Rutterkin\" had no power over her. The women had also taken some feathers from the quilt of Rutland's bed and a pair of gloves. By boiling these in water mixed with blood they cast spells to prevent the Earl and Countess from having any more children. Both women admitted to experiencing visions of devils and that their familiar spirits visited them and sucked at their bodies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Isobel Gowdie",
        "text": "Gowdie testified the Devil handmade elf arrows that were then enhanced by small roughly-spoken \"elf-boys\". The Devil allocated a number of arrows to each coven member with instructions they were to be fired in his name; no bows were supplied so the arrows were flicked by thumb. The witches were not always accurate when they fired the arrows but if the intended target, whether it was a woman, a man or an animal, was touched by the implement, she claimed they would die even if wearing a protective armour. Spells used to inflict illness and torment on Harry Forbes, the minister, were also described."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch's ladder",
        "text": "Leland's version differs from that found in Somerset in that the feathers were knotted into the cord rather than braided, and the cord was to have hairs of the victim braided into it. The feathers were plucked from a live black hen one by one and inserted into the knots as they are made in the cord. Leland also claimed that intrinsic to the witch garland was the placing of an image of a hen or cock (made of cotton or similar) next to the garland, upon which a cross of black pins is made. The whole is then hidden in the mattress of the one you are bewitching. Leland says the curse is lifted by finding the hen and wreath (garland), and throwing the whole lot into running water; the bewitched is then taken into a church whilst a baptism is being carried out, where they must repeat a certain spell before bathing it in holy water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witches of Benevento",
        "text": "Only in the 17th century was it realized that truthful confessions could not be made under torture. During the Enlightenment a rational interpretation of the legend came to prevail with Girolamo Tartarotti, who in 1749 explained the witches' flight as a hallucination provoked by the Devil, or Ludovico Antonio Muratori, who in 1745 asserted that the witches were only psychologically ill women. Successive hypotheses held that the unguent the witches were anointed with was a hallucinogenic substance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pendle witches",
        "text": "Katherine Hewitt (a.k.a. Mould-Heeles) was charged and found guilty of the murder of Anne Foulds. She was the wife of a clothier from Colne, and had attended the meeting at Malkin Tower with Alice Grey. According to the evidence given by James Device, both Hewitt and Grey told the others at that meeting that they had killed a child from Colne, Anne Foulds. Jennet Device also picked Katherine out of a line-up, and confirmed her attendance at the Malkin Tower meeting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apotropaic magic",
        "text": "People believed that the doorways and windows of buildings were particularly vulnerable to the entry or passage of evil. In ancient Greece, grotesque, satyr-like bearded faces, sometimes with the pointed cap of the workman, were carved over the doors of ovens and kilns, to protect the work from fire and mishap. Later, on churches and castles, gargoyles or other grotesque faces and figures such as \"sheela na gigs\" and hunky punks were carved to frighten away witches and other malign influences. Figures may also have been carved at fireplaces or chimneys; in some cases, simple geometric or letter carvings were used for these. When a wooden post was used to support a chimney opening, this was often an easier material for amateur carving. To discourage witchcraft, rowan wood may have been chosen for the post or mantel."
      },
      {
        "title": "McRaven House",
        "text": "ghostly apparition has appeared on the house's flying wing staircase, and in the dining room. While handling Mary Elizabeth's wedding shawl, some people say it emits heat, while others claim it almost jumped out of their hands."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Hathorne",
        "text": "Hathorne's son, Judge John Hathorne, is also a symbol of this period. People believed that witches were real. There was no scientific explanation for individuals' bizarre behavior, so witchcraft appeared to be the logical explanation for people's fits (which experts now suspect may have been the result of ergotism). Nothing caused more fear in the Puritan community than people who appeared to be possessed by the devil. Witchcraft was a major felony. Judge Hathorne is the best known of the witch trial judges, and he became known as the \"Hanging Judge\" for sentencing witches to death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witches of Warboys",
        "text": "The first allegations declaring Alice as a practitioner of witchcraft were made in November 1589. Following this, there were a total of twelve maid-servants of the Throckmorton household (in addition to the five daughters) who experienced fits and the torment of Alice Samuell's witchcraft. Jane's fits were described as such: \"Sometimes she would neese [sneeze] very loud and thick for the space of half an hour together; and evidently as one in a great trance and sound lay quietly as long, soon after would begin to swell and heave up her belly so as none was able to bend her or keep her down, sometime thee would shake one leg and no other part of her, as if the palsie had been in it, sometimes the other, presently she would shake one of her arms and then the other, and soon after her head, as if she had been infected with the running palsie\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witches (Discworld)",
        "text": "During this time it is revealed that her arrogance may in part be an overreaction to a deep insecurity about dealing with situations she cannot control. She admits to Tiffany, under pressure, that, unlike what her behavior might let people think, her family is quite poor, even for Lancre standards, not even having their own cottage (living in a rented one), nor do they have their own pig. This gives another reason why having her own cottage is so important to her. She later assists Tiffany by temporarily dispelling the Wintersmith's physical form with a fireball and ordering her broomstick to carry Tiffany away before he could re-form himself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samlesbury witches",
        "text": "Grace was the first to give evidence. In her statement she claimed that both her grandmother and aunt, Jennet and Ellen Bierley, were able to transform themselves into dogs and that they had \"haunted and vexed her\" for years. She further alleged that they had transported her to the top of a hayrick by her hair, and on another occasion had tried to persuade her to drown herself. According to Grace, her relatives had taken her to the house of Thomas Walshman and his wife, from whom they had stolen a baby to suck its blood. Grace claimed that the child died the following night, and that after its burial at Samlesbury Church Ellen and Jennet dug up the body and took it home, where they cooked and ate some of it and used the rest to make an ointment that enabled them to change themselves into other shapes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ada Besinnet",
        "text": "Besinnet refused to sit with the magician Harry Houdini. She had been exposed as a fraud by an undercover magician Fulton Oursler. During the s\u00e9ance he heard the medium leaving her chair, moved his shoe over the seat and discovered she was not there. Oursler in his exposure wrote that Besinnet had easily performed the phenomenon herself by getting up and moving around the room making noises. He had studied ventriloquism and stated all the voices were her own. As for the faces and lights, he suggested they were masks and observed a flashlight and, on another occasion, a rag in her hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tyldesley witch",
        "text": "Anne Parr, who had inherited Cleworth Hall, married Nicholas Starkie of Huntroyde depriving her Roman Catholic relations of what they considered their inheritance. Some were said to have prayed for the death of her four children that died in infancy. Their surviving children, Ann aged about ten, and John, two years older began having fits. Their father spent \u00a3200 on doctors with no success and became convinced they were \"possessed by the Devil\". He asked a Catholic priest to exorcise the evil spirits but the priest declined. Starkie in desperation approached Edmund Hartley, a magician and travelling \"conjurer\", who was in the neighbourhood for help."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Forest coven",
        "text": "According to Gardner, his first contact with the witches was through an inner group within the Crotona Fellowship, a Rosicrucian society that operated a theatre in Christchurch. They were a reserved group, who remained somewhat separate from other members of the order and the theatre. Historian Philip Heselton has identified some of the members of this group as Edith Woodford-Grimes, Ernie Mason, and his sisters Susie Mason and Rosetta Fudge. It is possible that by the late 1930s some members of the Crotona Fellowship, inspired by the work of Margaret Murray, were performing rituals based on Co-Masonry and incorporating elements of folklore, and that these were the rituals that Gardner encountered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mina Crandon",
        "text": "On August 27, the investigator Comstock asked her to wear a similar device called, a \"median control\". The device consisted of a box into which Crandon and an investigator would put their feet. Connecting to the box was a board which was locked on top of the knees, preventing withdrawal of the feet. Crandon's hands were held by the investigator and the box with the bell was placed outside the control-box. Crandon agreed to be tested and, because of the strict control, no paranormal phenomena in the s\u00e9ance were observed. Margery did not win the prize money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Margherita Aldobrandini",
        "text": "The superstitious Duke Ranuccio I, who believed in the effectiveness of witchcraft, convinced himself that he was the victim of someone's curse. After trying all medical methods, he turned to astrologers and exorcists, began to fast and generously give alms. Finally, he ordered the initiation of an investigation into the witchcraft case, which established that his wife had been damaged by the Duke's former mistresses, the beautiful noblewoman Claudia Colla and her mother Elena, nicknamed \"the Roman Woman\" (\"le Romane\"). The women were convicted and imprisoned in the Rocchetta prison."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oudewater",
        "text": "From all over Europe people made the journey to Oudewater to avoid prosecution. After the weighing, they received an official certificate proclaiming them not a witch. Nobody was ever found to be an actual witch in Oudewater, though the weighings were still a public spectacle. Certificates would state that \"the body weight is in proportion to its build.\" The reasoning behind this is the old belief that a witch has no soul and therefore weighs significantly less than an ordinary person; this distinction would supposedly allow the witch to fly on a broomstick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samlesbury witches",
        "text": "Grace also alleged that her grandmother and aunt, with Jane Southworth, attended sabbats held every Thursday and Sunday night at Red Bank, on the north shore of the River Ribble. At those secret meetings they met with \"foure black things, going upright, and yet not like men in the face\", with whom they ate, danced, and had sex."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Married a Witch",
        "text": "Initially, Jennifer and Daniel manifest themselves as white vertical smoky \"trails\", occasionally hiding in empty, or sometimes not-so-empty, bottles of alcohol. Jennifer persuades Daniel to create a human body for her so she can torment Wallace. Daniel needs a fire to perform the spell, so he burns down a building, appropriately enough, the Pilgrim Hotel. This serves dual purposes, as Jennifer uses it to get the passing Wallace to rescue her from the flames."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bloody Mary (folklore)",
        "text": "Historically, the divination ritual encouraged young women to walk up a flight of stairs backward holding a candle and a hand mirror, in a darkened house. As they gazed into the mirror, they were supposed to be able to catch a view of their future husband's face. There was, however, a chance that they would see a skull (or the face of the Grim Reaper) instead, indicating that they were going to die before they would have the chance to marry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Besom",
        "text": "According to a note in the MacGregor Mathers translation of Abramelin, witches mounted upon broomsticks were said to leap around the fields while hallucinating with the aid of the flying ointment, in order to \"teach the crops how high to grow\", the vivid hallucinatory experience thus caused making them believe that they had flown great distances. This interpretation is not supported (in its entirety) by most early modern sources, which generally describe the experience caused by flying ointments as one of prolonged death-like trance in which the ecstatic flight, wild dancing and carousal of the Sabbath were experienced in dream only, the body of the witch remaining immobile and thus incapable of any actual dancing (see, for example, the accounts in the \"Magia Naturalis\" of Giambattista della Porta)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Raynham Hall Museum",
        "text": "Whoever the ghost on the stairs is, he may not be alone. The only recent incidents of a possibly supernatural origin have all taken place on or near the stairs. A visitor to the museum claimed to hear the swish of petticoats behind her as she walked past the base of the staircase. Turning, she was able to see just a portion of a figure, dressed in Victorian finery, go past her down the hallway toward the back of the house."
      },
      {
        "title": "Helleborus niger",
        "text": "In the Middle Ages, people strewed the flowers on the floors of their homes to drive out evil influences. They blessed their animals with it and used it to ward off the power of witches. These same people believed, however, that witches employed the herb in their spells and that sorcerers tossed the powdered herb into the air around them to make themselves invisible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bury St Edmunds witch trials",
        "text": "\"... how so many learned heads should so far forget their metaphysics, and destroy the ladder and scale of creatures, as to question the existence of spirits: for my part, I have ever believed, and do now know, that there are witches;\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Witches of Warboys",
        "text": "The parents were then worried, but could not understand why any such harm would come to them, for they had only moved into the town the \"Michaelmas before\" (September 29, 1588). Their youngest daughter, nine years old, fell sick less than a month later. Soon after this, the oldest daughter, fifteen years old, fell sick. She was sickest out of the five. Both cried out against Alice Samuell. Their eldest sister, having been the strongest, strived with the spirit, and was grievously tortured not being able to overcome it. This caused her to \"(neese), screech and groan very fearfully, sometimes it would heave up her belly and bounce up her body with such violence that she was not kept upon her bed\". When sitting in a chair, her fits often caused her to break that chair."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabeth Booth",
        "text": "In February 1692, both Paris and Williams began acting suspicious, catching the attention of many. The girls fell into trances, crouched in the corner of rooms, saying things that were not sensible, and threw \"fits\" consisting of screaming and epileptic symptoms. \"Their bodies supposedly twisted as though their bones were made of putty.\" This behavior spread to six other girls in Salem Village, one being the sixteen year old Booth, making her one of the accusers. An assortment of doctors came to Salem to examine the girls, but nothing was concluded from their behavior. Then, Dr. William Griggs diagnosed the symptoms as stemming from witchcraft. The girls continued to have these symptoms, having episodes of \"fits\" and then afterward being perfectly fine. \"Asked what or who had caused them to suffer so, they could not answer. Authorities began questioning people exhibiting suspicious behavior to determine if they may have caused or influenced the condition of the afflicted girls. Tituba was one of those questioned and she confessed she knew of four witches and had knowledge of the behavior and actions the witches had taken. She confessed that she herself had attempted to murder children while under the influence of a specter. This confession made the girl's claim of seeing specters valid, and vastly aided the witch trials."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cunning folk in Britain",
        "text": "One of the best known means by which the cunning folk opposed witchcraft was through the use of witch bottles; ceramic bottles containing such items as urine, nails, hair and nail clippings which it was believed, when put together, would cause harm to the malevolent witch. Another commonly used method was to take the heart of an animal, and to pierce it with pins, in order to do harm to the witch, whilst other cunning folk preferred to make dolls of the witch out of rags and other materials and then pierce them with pins, again with the intention of inflicting physical harm on the witch, and breaking their bewitchment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witches of Benevento",
        "text": "There is also the \"manalonga\", 'the one with the long arm', who lives in wells and pulls down passersby in the vicinity. The fear of pits, imagined to be the passageways to hell, is a recurring element: in the cliff under the Bridge of the \"Janara\"s there is a pool in which whirlpools are suddenly formed, which is called \"the whirlpool of hell.\" Finally, there are the \"uria\"s, domestic spirits who recall the lares and penates of Roman times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Book of Shadows (Charmed)",
        "text": "For many years, the \"Book\" was kept in the Manor's attic. Normally, all witches are supposed to keep their \"Book of Shadows\" in a specially protected altar room. The book has a different protection mechanism against evil. In several episodes, various effects resulted from an evil magical being tried to take the book for themselves, including: jumping off the stand in \"Once Upon a Time\" and \"The Seven Year Witch\", repelling the being away from the book in \"Death Becomes Them\", projecting a spherical shield around the Book in \"Death Becomes Them\", burning the user's hands in \"Imaginary Fiends\", and so on. When the sisters' powers were unbound, evil beings could touch it, but they couldn't get it out of the Manor. However, by 2000, the sisters had become powerful enough that evil beings couldn't even touch it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witches of Warboys",
        "text": "The daughters could not see, hear or feel while in these fits. They accused Mother Samuell, asking for her to be taken away. These fits would sometimes last for half a day and happened up to six or seven times a day. They believed that God freed them of this sorcery and afterwards, the sisters remembered nothing of what they had been saying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polissena of San Macario",
        "text": "The fact that Polisenna suffered from epilepsy was well known. At one occasion, she had suffered a seizure and fallen backwards upon a bed, where she had been \"laying like a dead\". She had been treated with smelling salt and vinegar, which had been done before to awaken her, and when it had no effect, a bit of fabric had been burnt under her nose. Polissena: \"...then opened her eyes and started to make noise by crying very loudly and turned her eyes inside and out, so that all fled from her and left her alone, as she was thought to be a witch...\". The morning after, she had asked them not to disturb her when she had a seizure, \"...as you will do me more harm than good\", and added that it was the epilepsy which had caused her to fall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paisley witches",
        "text": "One of those convicted, James Reid committed suicide by hanging himself in his prison cell, using his handkerchief attached to a nail in the wall. The remaining six were hanged and then burned on the Gallow Green in Paisley on 10\u00a0June 1697 the last mass execution for witchcraft in western Europe. John and James Lindsay, brothers from Formakin Mill, near Houston, aged 11 and 14 respectively, held each other's hands as they were hanged together. Catherine Campbell, after having been carried struggling and screaming to the gallows, \"called down the wrath of God and the Devil on her accusers\" before being despatched. Margaret Fulton appeared to have become insane, and \"spoke cheerfully about visits to Elfland and the Abode of the Fairies on the backs of magical horses\". Margaret Lang admitted to consorting with the Devil, but said that she had renounced sin and was reconciled with God. Agnes Naismith laid a \"dying woman's curse\" on everyone present and their descendants; for many years afterwards every tragedy in the town was blamed on \"the witches' curse\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pendle witches",
        "text": "Elizabeth Device was charged with the murders of James Robinson, John Robinson and, together with Alice Nutter and Demdike, the murder of Henry Mitton. Elizabeth Device vehemently maintained her innocence. Potts records that \"this odious witch\" suffered from a facial deformity resulting in her left eye being set lower than her right. The main witness against Device was her daughter, Jennet, who was about nine years old. When Jennet was brought into the courtroom and asked to stand up and give evidence against her mother, Elizabeth, confronted with her own child making accusations that would lead to her execution, began to curse and scream at her daughter, forcing the judges to have her removed from the courtroom before the evidence could be heard. Jennet was placed on a table and stated that she believed her mother had been a witch for three or four years. She also said her mother had a familiar called Ball, who appeared in the shape of a brown dog. Jennet claimed to have witnessed conversations between Ball and her mother, in which Ball had been asked to help with various murders. James Device also gave evidence against his mother, saying he had seen her making a clay figure of one of her victims, John Robinson. Elizabeth Device was found guilty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Metternich Stela",
        "text": "The first few spells on the stela are related to reptiles and other harmful creatures. The most prominent was the serpent demon Apophis who was the enemy of Ra for he is the equivalent of the devil. The spell forced the serpent to decapitate and burn into pieces. The second half of the spell would force the serpent to vomit and while the priest recited this spell the person inflicted would also vomit freeing their body of the poison."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witches of Belvoir",
        "text": "Greene claimed that she had accompanied Willimot into a wood where she said Willimot had conjured up two spirits in the form of a kitten and a \"moldewarp\" (mole) which had climbed on her shoulders and sucked at her ears. Greene sent these familiars to kill a man and woman with whom she had argued and both died within a fortnight. Baker also confessed to possessing a familiar in the form of a white dog, but most of her testimony concerned the visions she had witnessed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leonora Piper",
        "text": "In 1885, the year after the death of his young son, psychologist, philosopher, and SPR member William James had his first sitting with Piper at the suggestion of his mother-in-law. He advocated a \"third way\" as a sort of agnosticism for cases where things were not yet explained and held out for the possibility of belief. James was soon convinced that Piper knew things she could only have discovered by supernatural means. James expressed his belief in Piper by saying, \"If you wish to upset the law that all crows are black, it is enough if you prove that one crow is white. My white crow is Mrs. Piper.\" as well as stating, \"My own conviction is not evidence, but it seems fitting to record it. I am persuaded of the medium's honesty, and of the genuineness of her trance; and although at first disposed to think that the 'hits' she made were either lucky coincidences, or the result of knowledge on her part of who the sitter was and of his or her family affairs, I now believe her to be in possession of a power as yet unexplained.\" However, James did not believe that Piper was in contact with spirits. After evaluating sixty-nine reports of Piper's mediumship he considered the hypothesis of telepathy as well as Piper obtaining information about her sitters by natural means such as her memory recalling information. James could find little \"independent evidence\" to support the spirit-control hypothesis. Most of it was ambiguous or only circumstantially relevant, and some of it was false. However, Piper and the Italian Eusapia Palladino became the most widely studied parapsychologists and mediums of their time, especially by the works of Hugo M\u00fcnsterberg and G. Stanley Hall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gershom Bulkeley",
        "text": "During the period of the Connecticut Witch Trials, which predate the more famous Salem Witch Trials, Bulkeley expressed considerable scepticism about the evidence, saying that he had heard nothing of any weight to convince him that anyone was guilty of witchcraft. In particular he argued that Mercy Disborough, one of the only two women accused in Connecticut who actually stood trial for witchcraft, was the victim of the malice of her neighbours. Mercy was found guilty and sentenced to death, but she received a reprieve. She was set free and died some time after 1709."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch's ladder",
        "text": "The first recorded witch ladder found was in an old house in Wellington, Shropshire which was demolished in 1878. Six brooms, an old armchair and a \u2018rope with feathers woven into it\u2019 were found in the space that separated the roof from the upper room and was inaccessible from the interior of the house. The brooms had handles so decayed they snapped under pressure, but these had been replaced so they could be used. The chair and rope were stored in a warehouse. Due to the investigations of local antiquarians, (Abraham Colles & E.B. Tylor) the find was published in the \"Folk-Lore Journal\". This article detailed the responses to local enquiries, but was followed by a number of letters to the journal which expressed a range of opinions as to the function of the rope."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salem witch trials",
        "text": "In his treatise, Glanvill claimed that ingenious men should believe in witches and apparitions; if they doubted the reality of spirits, they not only denied demons but also the almighty God. Glanvill wanted to prove that the supernatural could not be denied; those who did deny apparitions were considered heretics, for it also disproved their beliefs in angels. Works by men such as Glanvill and Cotton Mather tried to prove that \"demons were alive.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Polissena of San Macario",
        "text": "She had then been reported for sorcery and arrested for witchcraft. Under torture, she claimed she had replaced her aunt as a witch one year after her death, when she had been called by a voice, smeared herself with oil \"...and when I had been turned into a cat and went down the stairs and through the gate, while I left my body behind...\" The same description was given by another woman accused in the same witch trial, Margherita di San Rocco: \" This wandering I did, I did not do myself, but with my spirit, as I left my body at home\", and she added, that if the body was to fall with the face to the ground, they would not be able to come back to it before dawn, but die, and live inside the shape of the cat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron in folklore",
        "text": "\"Cold iron\" is historically believed to repel, contain, or harm ghosts, fairies, witches, and other malevolent supernatural creatures. This belief continued into later superstitions in a number of forms:\n* Nailing an iron horseshoe to a door was said to repel evil spirits or, later, to bring good luck.\n* Surrounding a cemetery with an iron fence was thought to contain the souls of the dead.\n* Burying an iron knife under the entrance to one's home was alleged to keep witches from entering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witches (Discworld)",
        "text": "No witch actually has spiders' webs in her cottage or keeps skulls for any reason, but most simple folk \"expect\" witches to do so, and so Miss Treason obliges them; the better to ensure that when people come calling they don't see what is really there (a tired, blind 111-year-old woman), but what they expect (a venerable, terrifying 113-year-old witch). She also ensured that many of the rumours about her are kept current and circulating, to ensure the presence of \"Boffo thinking\" among her clients. One of the most prevalent rumours is that her heart had stopped many years ago and that the iron clock she carries at her waist is actually an external mechanical heart."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Discoverie of Witchcraft",
        "text": "He set himself to prove that the belief in witchcraft and magic was rejected by reason and by religion and that spiritualistic manifestations were wilful impostures or illusions due to mental disturbance in the observers. His aim was to prevent the persecution of poor, aged, and simple persons, who were popularly credited with being witches. The maintenance of the superstition he blamed largely on the Roman Catholic Church, and he attacked writers including Jean Bodin (1530\u20131596), author of \"D\u00e9monomanie des Sorciers\" (Paris, 1580), and Jacobus Sprenger, supposed joint author of \"Malleus Maleficarum\" (Nuremberg, 1494)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bretforton",
        "text": "A curious mediaeval tradition also survives at the Fleece, preserved in accordance with Lola's wishes. This is the practice of chalking \"witch circles\" on the floor in front of each hearth to prevent witches from getting in through the chimneys. There are \"witch marks\" on the inside of the door as well to ward off evil spirits,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Salem witch trials",
        "text": "Mather illustrates how the Goodwins' eldest child had been tempted by the devil and had stolen linen from the washerwoman Goody Glover. Glover, of Irish Catholic descent, was characterized as a disagreeable old woman and described by her husband as a witch; this may have been why she was accused of casting spells on the Goodwin children. After the event, four out of six Goodwin children began to have strange fits, or what some people referred to as \"the disease of astonishment.\" The manifestations attributed to the disease quickly became associated with witchcraft. Symptoms included neck and back pains, tongues being drawn from their throats, and loud random outcries; other symptoms included having no control over their bodies such as becoming limber, flapping their arms like birds, or trying to harm others as well as themselves. These symptoms fuelled the craze of 1692."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eusapia Palladino",
        "text": "The magician Howard Thurston attended a s\u00e9ance and endorsed Palladino's levitation of a table as genuine. However, at a s\u00e9ance on 18 December in New York, the Harvard psychologist Hugo M\u00fcnsterberg with the help of a hidden man lying under a table, caught her levitating the table with her foot. He had also observed Palladino free her foot from her shoe and use her toes to move a guitar in the s\u00e9ance cabinet. M\u00fcnsterberg also claimed that Palladino moved the curtains from a distance in the room by releasing a jet of air from a rubber bulb that she had in her hand. Daniel Cohen said that \"[Palladino] was undaunted by Munsterberg's exposure. Her tricks had been exposed many times before, yet she had prospered.\" The exposure was not taken seriously by Palladino's defenders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ann Glover",
        "text": "The evidence adduced against her is open to question. When Glover told Mather that she prayed to a host of spirits she may have been talking about Catholic saints. The dolls she had in her possession and which were believed to have been used for witchcraft might actually have been crude representations of Catholic saints. The majority of the population at that time and place was Puritan, and there was Puritan prejudice against Catholics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samlesbury witches",
        "text": "One of the accused witches, Jane Southworth, was the widow of the disinherited son, John. Relations between John and his father do not seem to have been amicable; according to a statement made by John Singleton, in which he referred to Sir John as his \"old Master\", Sir John refused even to pass his son's house if he could avoid it, and believed that Jane would probably kill her husband. Jane Southworth (n\u00e9e Sherburne) and John were married in about 1598, and the couple lived in Samlesbury Lower Hall. Jane had been widowed only a few months before her trial for witchcraft in 1612, and had seven children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pittenweem witches",
        "text": "Layng, who was charged with maleficium, confessed she had made spells with buckets of water and burning coals as well as stabbing needles into a wax model of her intended victim. She met the Devil in the form of a black dog on Ceres Moor and made a bargain with him; she knew he was the Devil as he had the ability to change shape and had undergone a transformation in front of her. Initially she offered him her daughter then her granddaughter who was six years old. The four other women were named as co-conspirators in her confession."
      },
      {
        "title": "Margaret Murray",
        "text": "Hutton stated that Murray had treated her source material with \"reckless abandon\", in that she had taken \"vivid details of alleged witch practices\" from \"sources scattered across a great extent of space and time\" and then declared them to be normative of the cult as a whole. Simpson outlined how Murray had selected her use of evidence very specifically, particularly by ignoring and/or rationalising any accounts of supernatural or miraculous events in the trial records, thereby distorting the events that she was describing. Thus, Simpson pointed out, Murray rationalised claims that the cloven-hoofed Devil appeared at the witches' Sabbath by stating that he was a man with a special kind of shoe, and similarly asserted that witches' claims to have flown through the air on broomsticks were actually based on their practice of either hopping along on broomsticks or smearing hallucinogenic salves onto themselves. Concurring with this assessment, the historian Jeffrey Burton Russell, writing with the independent author Brooks Alexander, stated that \"Murray's use of sources, in general, is appalling\". The pair went on to claim that \"today, scholars are agreed that Murray was more than just wrong\u00a0\u2013 she was completely and embarrassingly wrong on nearly all of her basic premises\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alonso de Salazar Fr\u00edas",
        "text": "However, important sceptics believed that the accused in the Logro\u00f1o trials had made false statements under torture or threats. This conviction was shared by local priests, Jesuit preachers and even the Bishop of Pamplona, Venegas de Figueroa, who informed the Inquisitor General that the witch craze consisted of rumours spread by children and simple folk who had heard about the witches in France. Faced with so many new unsubstantiated accusations and confessions, Salazar refused to support the other inquisitors, and a divided vote was forwarded to the Supreme Council."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leonora Piper",
        "text": "In 1898, the magician Joseph Rinn attended a s\u00e9ance with Piper. During the s\u00e9ance, Piper held the hands of Hodgson and Hyslop. Rinn suggested that Piper was a practitioner of muscle reading. He had set a trap for Piper by inventing the fictitious name \"Esther Horton\" which Piper's alleged trance control accepted as a real person. Many of the statements \"Phinuit\" gave were nonsensical. Rinn commented that Hyslop and Hodgson were credulous investigators and that their methods of investigating Piper were unscientific. He was not invited to any other s\u00e9ances with Piper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roermond witch trial",
        "text": "The ten other witches were taken into custody together with Jan van Ool. He admitted to having tried to convince his wife to seal a pact with the devil, which she refused. He claimed he then became scared she would turn him in, so he cut her into pieces and threw her down a well and told everyone she ran away. He was forced by the devil to kill one patient with magic for every ten he healed. In 16 years he would have killed 150 people. That would mean he would be treating about 100 people a year. During his torture he accused 41 other people of being witches. He was burnt alive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Bowes (diplomat)",
        "text": "Bowes also described a woman from L\u00fcbeck who claimed to a prophet, who was interviewed by George Young and thought to be a fraud. In February 1591 a Scottish woman called Agnes Sampson was accused of witchcraft during the North Berwick Witch Trials. She said that Bowes was \"a little black and fat man with black hair\", who had given her gold in a cellar while James VI was in Denmark to make a charm with a toad to hurt the king and make him infertile. Bowes noted that the personal description was inaccurate. He made arrangements that English border officials including John Selby would send any suspect witches fleeing to England back to Scotland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Terrassa witch trials",
        "text": "Joan Font, the witch hunter of Sallent testified to the Mayor and his advisors that after washing the backs of Joana Toy and Margarida Tafanera with holy water, he found the sign that the Devil used to mark his witches. Margarida Tafanera confessed to being a witch (probably under torture). She named a French women, called Joana Ferres as their witchcraft teacher and said that they met frequently in the house of Joana Toy. She also explained that they scrubbed their armpits, and other parts of the body and flew through the air to meet under a pine tree, with a demon who appeared as a very handsome young man wearing red clothes. The demon played the Flabiol and usually the meeting ended in an orgy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch's ladder",
        "text": "Reverend Sabine Baring-Gould included an extensive article on the witch's ladder in his novel \"Curgenven\" published in 1893. In his account the ladder was made of black wool, with white and brown thread, and at every two inches it was tied around cock's feathers. The maker would weave into it aches and pains and other ailments intended for the victim. The ladder was then thrown to the bottom of Dozmary Pond, located on Bodmin Moor. They believed that as the bubbles rose to the top of the pond, the curse was released."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lady Gwen Thompson",
        "text": "Thompson's claims to be an hereditary witch have little independent support, since she states that she destroyed the original version of her grandmother's lore-book after copying its contents, and recopied her own book several times throughout her lifetime. While a recent book by Robert Mathiesen and Theitic documents a long history of occultism within Thompson's ancestry, including the seventeenth-century alchemist, Jonathan Brewster, as well as several of the families on both sides of the Salem witch trials of 1692, there is no direct evidence of the veracity of Thompson's claims as she, her mother and any others who could have provided first-hand information are all deceased, and any written documentation has not been made public."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bell Witch",
        "text": "In November 1965, an article was published involving an antique oak rocking chair said to have been previously owned by attorney Charlie Willett, a Bell descendant. The rocking chair was acquired in Willett's estate sale by Mrs. J. C. Adams, owner of an antique store on U.S. 41. A customer sat down in the chair, after learning it was not for sale, and while rocking in the chair asked Mrs. Adams if she believed in the supernatural. Two weeks later, the customer's daughter visited the home of Mrs. Adams and said after her mother had left and visited the Bell cemetery a voice told her to \"stand up and look around, you will find something of much value.\" After some car trouble, the woman walked out into a field and found a black iron kettle turned over. She turned the kettle over and found a pearl buckle in the grass. The woman's daughter reported a jeweler estimated the buckle to be 160 to 200 years old."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch trial of Nogaredo",
        "text": "On 26 October 1646, Maria Salvatori from Castelnovo, nicknamed \"la Mercuria,\" was arrested and accused of witch craft. Salvatori had long been suspected of sorcery. She was accused of not swallowing the Host at her communions but instead preserving it for use in sorcery. She was also accused of having caused Marchioness Bevilacqua to miscarry by the use of spells. During torture, she pointed out the widow Domenica Camelli, and Domenica's daughter, Lucia Caveden, as witches. Salvatori claimed that she had given a host to Lucia Caveden, who used it to cast the spell on Marchioness Bevilacqua. She named a certain Delaito Cavaleri was a necromancer and a worshipper of Satan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pittenweem witches",
        "text": "In early March 1704 Beatrix Layng approached Patrick Morton, a 16-year-old working in his father's smithy, to ask if he would make her some nails. Morton refused as he was already assigned an urgent task making nails for a merchant's ship in the harbour. Displeased, Layng left threatening revenge on him. The following day Morton noticed a bucket filled with water and burning coal outside Layng's house; he thought it was there to cast a spell on him. Layng had a reputation as a witch having already appeared before the Kirk session in 1696 for charming. Morton immediately felt weak and had difficulty standing or walking. His health deteriorated; he began to have fits and convulsions, his stomach became distended and his body was rigid and twisted. People claimed they could see marks left on his skin by fingernails where Morton said he had been pinched. He refused food and his breathing was laboured."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protests against early modern witch trials",
        "text": "Martin LeFranc (1440) objected that witchcraft could not take place in reality due to the sovereignty of God, and that even witches who confessed to witchcraft were being deceived by illusions of the devil. LeFranc blamed the clergy for permitting such beliefs to flourish. Antonino, Archbishop of Florence (1384\u20131459), insisted that common beliefs concerning witches were mere foolishness, and required those who held such beliefs to make confession and repent of them. Ulrich M\u00fcller, writing as \"Molitoris\" (1489), believed in witchcraft but opposed common beliefs on the subject on the basis of the theological arguments of the Canon Episcopi. Gianfrancesco Ponzinibio (1520) extended this argument to deny the reality of all diabolical witchcraft. Reginald Scot (1584) put forward similar arguments and cited John Calvin numerous times. Cornelius Loos (1592) claimed that belief in witchcraft was mere superstition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bury St Edmunds witch trials",
        "text": "\"And I ask, is it not likely there was either a jadish horse or a silly driver that belonged to that cart? For before the poor woman had spoken to them that cart could not keep the road but ran against her house. And without any witchcraft might not the same jadish horse or bad driver make it go wrong afterward as well as before? But this witness adds that the cart was set fast in a Gate-head, though it did not not touch the posts, as far as they could perceive. But if it did not touch the posts what made them cut the post down? Will cutting down a post that is not touched dissolve a charm? But they make themselves ridiculous, that they might lay blame upon this poor woman.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Mary Warren (Salem witch trials)",
        "text": "In early March 1692, Warren began having fits, claiming that she saw the ghost of Giles Corey. John Proctor told her she was just seeing his shadow, and put her to work at the spinning wheel, threatening to beat her if she pretended to have any more fits. For some time, she did not report any more sightings, but she started to have fits again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paisley witches",
        "text": "On 17 August 1696, 11-year-old Christian Shaw, the daughter of a local landowner, John Shaw of Bargarran, saw one of her family's servants, Catherine Campbell, steal a drink of milk. Shaw reported the theft to her mother, whereupon Campbell cursed her, wishing that the Devil would \"haul her soul through Hell\". Four days later Shaw encountered Agnes Naismith, an old woman reputed to be a witch. The following day, 22 August, Shaw became violently ill with fits, similar to the symptoms reported a few years earlier in the American Salem witch trials of 1693. After eight weeks Shaw's parents took her to see the eminent Glasgow physician Matthew Brisbane, who could find no cause for her symptoms. For eight days after her visit Shaw seemed to have recovered, but then \"the fits returned with increased violence. She would become as stiff as a corpse and be senseless and motionless\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Late Lancashire Witches",
        "text": "Generous returns, stupefied by what has happened in the stable. Mistress Generous, completely incriminated, confesses to witchcraft, and to having made a full pact with the devil. Generous, the sceptic, is confuted, and now witchcraft lore fills his mind as truth: he can now imagine that he has often slept with a succubus, left by his side while she has been out with her fellow witches. Mistress Generous expresses great contrition, and either weeps or seems to weep (a pacted witch was not supposed to be able to do this), and her husband decides to believe in her penitence, and tells Robin to keep quiet about what he has seen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Levitation (paranormal)",
        "text": "The magician Joseph Rinn gave a full account of fraudulent behavior observed in a s\u00e9ance of Eusapia Palladino and explained how her levitation trick had been performed. Milbourne Christopher summarized the exposure:\n:\"Joseph F. Rinn and Warner C. Pyne, clad in black coveralls, had crawled into the dining room of Columbia professor Herbert G. Lord's house while a Palladino seance was in progress. Positioning themselves under the table, they saw the medium's foot strike a table leg to produce raps. As the table tilted to the right, due to pressure of her right hand on the surface, they saw her put her left foot under the left table leg. Pressing down on the tabletop with her left hand and up with her left foot under the table leg to form a clamp, she lifted her foot and \"levitated\" the table from the floor.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Thisted witch trial",
        "text": "The witch trial started with the fits of cramp- and nervous attacks of 27-year-old Maren Christensdatter Spillemand. In January 1696, the local vicar, Ole Bjorn, diagnosed her fits as demonic possession. Soon, several other young women was afflicted by the same attacks. The fits were considered to be possessions caused by sorcery, and several local women were pointed out as responsible. The accused were arrested and put on trial, and a local court sentenced them guilty to be burned at the stake for witchcraft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Museum of Witchcraft and Magic",
        "text": "However, Gardner fell out with Williamson over what he saw as sensationalist displays. Williamson, in retaliation, removed a photograph of Gardner from the display."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tyldesley witch",
        "text": "The story of the demonic possessions at Cleworth Hall was documented by George More, who with John Darrell and several others including a local curate, arrived at Cleworth after Hartley's execution in March 1597 to dispossess the seven of their demons. In turn Darrell and More were imprisoned for their involvement in the dispossessions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wi\u00f0 f\u00e6rstice",
        "text": "Hall also argued that there was a \"remarkable parallel\" between \"Wi\u00f0 f\u00e6rstice\" and the accounts of magical practices provided by Isobel Gowdie, a Scottish woman accused of witchcraft in 1662, during her confessions. Gowdie claimed that she rode through the air on straw with her fellow witches, firing \"elf-arrows\" at her victims; these had been acquired from the Devil, who had been aided in their creation by \"Elf-boyes\". Hall stated that this exhibited a general similarity to the account provided in \"Wi\u00f0 f\u00e6rstice\". He also thought there were parallels between the two accounts in terms of their use of smiths; in both, one smith (the Devil in Gowdie's account) is part of a wider group of smiths."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch trials in early modern Scotland",
        "text": "It has often been stated that Scottish witchcraft was particularly concerned with the demonic pact. In the high court, Katherine Sands, who was one of four women accused of witchcraft at Culross in 1675, admitted to renouncing her baptism, receiving the Devil's mark and having sex with the Devil, but in local trials these demonic elements were rarer. Stuart MacDonald notes that in trials from Fife the Devil was a relatively insignificant and indistinct figure and that a number of instances of covens meeting look like fairy revels, where the dancing fairies traditionally disappeared when a human broke the ring, rather than satanic gatherings. Fairies were an important part of magical beliefs in Scotland. Isobel Gowdie, the young wife of a cottar from near Auldearn, who was tried for witchcraft in 1662, left four depositions, gained without torture, that provide one of the most detailed insights into magical beliefs in Britain. She stated that her coven met on nearby Downie Hill, that they could transform themselves into hares and that she had been entertained by the Queen of the Fairies in her home under the hill. J. A. MacCulloch argued that there was a \"mingling of beliefs\" in Scotland, between popular belief in fairies and elite Christian ideas of demonic action."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spectral evidence",
        "text": "The suspected witches, Amy Denny and Rose Cullender, were accused of bewitching several of their neighbours' children. The alleged victims were reported to be suffering from fits, lameness, and temporary speech loss, and were often said to have been seen coughing up pins. The evidence which tied these afflictions to Denny and Cullender was the testimony of the children that they had often been threatened by apparitions of these women. For instance, Samuel Pacy made the following statement concerning his two daughters:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Baleroy Mansion",
        "text": "Another claimed ghost is an unknown elderly woman that reportedly walks the upstairs hallway with a cane. Family members and guests were toyed with by the spirits, and it was never uncommon to hear knocking and unexplained footsteps. A respected minister was hit by a flying antique pot that flew like a missile. Electrical fields in the house also attract lightning, and the electricity would go off for no reason. People, including family members, housekeepers, visitors, and even renovators, claim to have seen these ghosts. Others have allegedly seen or heard 1930s phantom cars that drove up the long and narrow driveway into the estate's parking area, but when they went to look there was nothing to see."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Silver Chair",
        "text": "In Chapter IV of the book, an owl speculates that the Lady of the Green Kirtle \u2013 the enchantress of the Underworld \u2013 may be \"one of the same crew\" as the White Witch from \"The Lion, The Witch, and the Wardrobe\" and \"The Magician's Nephew\". Some readers have suggested that she may in fact be the White Witch brought back to life. The cast of characters introduced by later editors seems to promote this, but it is not supported by Lewis's text. The Lady of the Green Kirtle is a were-snake, and it is never implied in any of the books that Jadis \"or\" the White Witch possess this attribute. (See the Lady of the Green Kirtle for more discussion.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mary Webster (alleged witch)",
        "text": "In the fall of 1693, the Mathers were continuing to push for more witchcraft trials and this inspired a letter writing campaign from Boston wool merchant named Robert Calef. Among other things, Calef criticized them for suggesting \"that hanging or chaining\" a person can somehow \"restore those that were at a distance tormented.\" Such notions according to Calef, \"all tending... to the dishonor of God and the endangering of the well-being of a people.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Redworth Hall",
        "text": "The building was reputed to be haunted by a child walking along the corridors. Folklore has it that Lord Surtees had his mentally ill child chained to the fireplace whose cries of anguish can still be heard. It also tells the story of the peer's affair with his scullery maid, who committed suicide by throwing herself down the staircase when his wife discovered she was pregnant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Malleus Maleficarum",
        "text": "Witches were usually female. The reasons for this is the suggestion that women are \"prone to believing and because the demon basically seeks to corrupt the faith, he assails them in particular.\" They also have a \"temperament towards flux\" and \"loose tongues\". They \"are defective in all the powers of both soul and body\" and are stated to be more lustful than men."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetheart Roland",
        "text": "A wicked witch had an evil daughter, whom she loved, and a good stepdaughter, whom she hated. One day, the witch decided she would kill the stepdaughter at night, and the daughter was told to make sure she lay by the wall, and her stepsister in the front of the bed. The stepdaughter overheard this and, after her stepsister slept, she shifted their places. The witch instead killed her own daughter, and the stepdaughter rose and went to her sweetheart Roland, telling what had happened, and that they had to flee."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How were stairs invented?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about staircases (also called stairways), ladders, or escalators?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I wish to know about the inventor of the staircase."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I couldn't find the inventor of the staircase but the earliest spiral staircase appeared in Temple A of the Greek colony Selinunte, Sicily and the temple was constructed in 480-470 BC."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are Witches stairs?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Where there is insufficient space for the full run length of normal stairs, alternating tread stairs may be used, having been in use since at least 1888. These stairs are nowadays commonly referred to as 'Witches stairs', in the belief that they were created during an earlier era in an attempt to repel witches who were thought to be unable to climb such stairs, though that belief has since been disproved."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any other things that people believed repelled witches?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Gargoyles or other grotesque faces and figures such as sheela na gigs and hunky punks were carved on buildings to frighten away witches. Apotropaic marks such as the initials of the Virgin Mary were scratched near the openings of buildings in England to ward off witches.",
      "People used apotropaic marks, which are symbols or patterns scratched into the fabric of a building to keep witches out, as well as witch bottles to protect against witchcraft."
    ],
    "topic": "Stairs",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Apotropaic magic:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Apotropaic magic",
          "Symbols and objects",
          "Faces"
        ],
        "ctx": "People believed that the doorways and windows of buildings were particularly vulnerable to the entry or passage of evil. In ancient Greece, grotesque, satyr-like bearded faces, sometimes with the pointed cap of the workman, were carved over the doors of ovens and kilns, to protect the work from fire and mishap. Later, on churches and castles, gargoyles or other grotesque faces and figures such as \"sheela na gigs\" and hunky punks were carved to frighten away witches and other malign influences. Figures may also have been carved at fireplaces or chimneys; in some cases, simple geometric or letter carvings were used for these. When a wooden post was used to support a chimney opening, this was often an easier material for amateur carving. To discourage witchcraft, rowan wood may have been chosen for the post or mantel."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Apotropaic magic:21",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Apotropaic magic",
          "Symbols and objects",
          "Others"
        ],
        "ctx": "Apotropaic marks such as the initials of the Virgin Mary were scratched near the openings of buildings in England to ward off witches."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Witch bottle:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Witch bottle"
        ],
        "ctx": "A witch bottle is a counter-magical item used as protection against witchcraft. They are described in historical sources in England and the United States. The earliest surviving mention of a witch bottle is from 17th century England."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Apotropaic mark:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Apotropaic mark"
        ],
        "ctx": "An apotropaic mark, also called a witch mark or anti-witch mark, is a symbol or pattern scratched into the fabric of a building to keep witches out. It should not be confused with a witch's mark, which is a mark thought to be found on a witch."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Witch bottle",
        "text": "This form of \"bottled spell\" dates back hundreds of years, and were prevalent in Elizabethan England\u00a0\u2013 especially East Anglia, where superstitions and belief in witches were strong. The bottles were most often found buried under the fireplace, under the floor, and plastered inside walls. In 2016 a glass bottle found buried in the threshold of a man's house was featured in an episode of \"Antiques Roadshow\" filmed in Trelissick, Cornwall; glass specialist Andy McConnell tasted a small amount of the contents theorising it was possibly port or wine though he did note the rusty flavour and the presence of nails, a later episode in 2019 then revealed the contents had been analysed by Loughborough University that identified it actually contained \"urine, a tiny bit of alcohol, and one human hair\" alongside some brass pins dating from the late 1840s and an ostracod. It was theorised to be a witch bottle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch bottle",
        "text": "Since at least the early modern period it has been a common custom to hide objects such as written charms, dried cats, horse skulls, concealed shoes, and witch bottles in the structure of a building. Folk magic contends that witch bottles protect against evil spirits and magical attack, and counteract spells cast by witches; they are countermagical devices, the purpose of which is to draw in and trap harmful intentions directed at their owners."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch bottle",
        "text": "Later witch bottles were made from glass bottles, small glass vials, and a variety of other containers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch bottle",
        "text": "The witch bottle was believed to be active as long as the bottle remained hidden and unbroken. People did go through a lot of trouble in hiding their witch bottles\u00a0\u2013 those buried underneath fireplaces have been found only after the rest of the building has been torn down or otherwise disappeared. The origins of this tradition have been dated at least to the 16th century. In ancient times the bottles were made of stone and originally contained rusty nails, urine, thorns, hair, menstrual blood, and pieces of glass, wood, and bone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch bottle",
        "text": "A witch or folk healer would prepare the witch's bottle. Historically, the witch's bottle contained the victim's (the person who believed they had a spell put on them, for example) urine, hair or nail clippings, or red thread from sprite traps. Later witch bottles were filled with rosemary, needles and pins, and red wine. Historically and currently, the bottle is then buried at the farthest corner of the property, beneath the house hearth, or placed in an inconspicuous spot in the house. It is believed that after being buried, the bottle captures evil which is impaled on the pins and needles, drowned by the wine, and sent away by the rosemary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch bottle",
        "text": "Some of the earliest documented witch bottles consist of salt glazed stoneware jugs known as Bartmann jugs, Bellarmines, or \"Greybeards\". Bellarmines were named after a particularly fearsome Catholic Inquisitor, Robert Bellarmine, who persecuted Protestants and was instrumental in the burning of Giordano Bruno. Greybeards and Bellarmines were made of brown or gray stoneware glazed with salt and embossed with a bearded face."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corpse road",
        "text": "This was part of a broader fear of spirits that might flit into dwellings. Witch bottles were common throughout Europe \u2013 bottles or glass spheres containing a mass of threads, often with charms entangled in them. Its purpose was to draw in and trap evil and negative energy directed at its owner. Folk magic contends that the witch bottle protects against evil spirits and magical attack, and counteracts spells cast by witches, also forestalling the passage into habitations of witches flying about at night. A witch ball was much the same; however, a more light-hearted belief was that the witch saw her distorted face in the curved glass and was frightened away. The term witch ball is probably a corruption of \"watch ball\" because it was used as a guard against evil spirits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch bottle",
        "text": "Sometimes sea water or earth are used instead. Other types of witch bottles may contain sand, stones, knotted threads, feathers, shells, herbs, flowers, salt, vinegar, oil, coins, or ashes. A similar magical device is the \"lemon and pins\" charm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch bottle",
        "text": "A witch bottle is a counter-magical item used as protection against witchcraft. They are described in historical sources in England and the United States. The earliest surviving mention of a witch bottle is from 17th century England."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch bottle",
        "text": "Bibliography\n*\n*\n* Master\u2019s thesis, Anthropology Program, Ball State University, Muncie, IN.\n*Maple, Eric. \"The Dark World of Witches\". New York: A.S. Barnes & Co., 1962\n*Pennick, Nigel. \"Secrets of East Anglian Magic\". London: Robert Hale, 1995\n*Semmens, Jason. \"The Usage of Witch-Bottles and Apotropaic Charms in Cornwall\" \"Old Cornwall\" 12, No. 6 (2000) pp.\u00a025\u201330\n* Brian Hoggard's site on witch-bottles and other apotropaic objects\n* \"17th Century Urine-Filled 'Witch Bottle' Found\", MSNBC.com, 4 June 2009\n* An American Witch Bottle\n* Buried Bottles: The Archaeology of Witchcraft and Sympathetic Magic, M. Chris Manning\n* Opening a Witch Bottle\n* Witch Bottle, Jefferson Patterson Park & Museum, Maryland\n* 19th-Century Glass Witch Bottle from Lincolnshire, England, Portable Antiquities Scheme.\n* mosoho's Bellarmine Jar"
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch bottle",
        "text": "Another variation is within the disposal of the bottle. Some witch's bottles were thrown into a fire and when they exploded, the spell was broken or the witch supposedly killed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apotropaic magic",
        "text": "In early modern Europe, certain objects were buried in the walls of houses to protect the household from witchcraft. These included specially-prepared witch bottles, horse skulls and the bodies of dried cats, as well as shoes (see concealed shoes)."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Murrell",
        "text": "Murrell used witch bottles as part of his magical practices, and, during the 1950s, the folklorist Eric Maple encountered claims that Murrell was able to summon anyone he wished using them, including individuals who had gone overseas. Murrell experimented with the use of a witch bottle constructed out of iron; he had two such devices created by a local smith, Stephen Choppen, and had the plug at the mouth soldered up before the bottle was placed in a fire as part of an anti-bewitchment spell. The idea behind this was that the bottle itself would not explode under the heat, and that thus it could be reused on other occasions. According to folklore collected by Maple, the smith's attempts, which were initially unsuccessful, succeeded only after Murrell had recited a charm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch ball",
        "text": "In the 17th century, witch balls and witch bottles were filled with holy water or salt. Balls containing salt were hung up in the chimney to keep the salt dry. Salt was a precious commodity, and breaking the ball or bottle was considered bad luck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch's ladder",
        "text": "When Charles Godfrey Leland received news of the Wellington find whilst in Italy, he investigated and found that the witches there used a similar form, called a \"witches garland\"; the item was made of cord, and contained black hen feathers. The malediction was uttered as each knot was tied in and the item was placed under the victim's bed, to cause the ill fortune (see Part 2, Chapter 5 of Roman Etruscan Remains for more details)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cunning folk in Britain",
        "text": "One of the best known means by which the cunning folk opposed witchcraft was through the use of witch bottles; ceramic bottles containing such items as urine, nails, hair and nail clippings which it was believed, when put together, would cause harm to the malevolent witch. Another commonly used method was to take the heart of an animal, and to pierce it with pins, in order to do harm to the witch, whilst other cunning folk preferred to make dolls of the witch out of rags and other materials and then pierce them with pins, again with the intention of inflicting physical harm on the witch, and breaking their bewitchment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch bottle",
        "text": "To date, less than a dozen possible witch bottles have been identified in the United States. Archaeologist Marshall Becker was the first to identify an American witch bottle in an archaeological context. Known as the Essington witch bottle, the artifact was recovered during excavations on Great Tinicum Island in Delaware County, Pennsylvania. A mid-19th to early 20th-century slave or tenant site in Dorchester County, Maryland yielded a buried witch bottle whose cork stopper was bristling with straight pins. In 2016, a bottle filled with nails was excavated from the hearth of a Civil War site in Virginia and appears to be a witch bottle.\n* Amulet\n* Apotropaic magic\n* Concealed shoes\n* Dreamcatcher\n* Dried cat\n* Frog coffin\n* Hoko\n* Horse skulls\n* Poppet\n* Shikigami\n* Talisman\n* Voodoo doll\n* Witch ball"
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch bottle",
        "text": "One of the earliest descriptions of a witch bottle in Suffolk, England, appears in 1681 in Joseph Glanvill\u2019s \"Saducismus Triumphatus, or Evidence concerning Witches and Apparitions\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch bottle",
        "text": "Notes"
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch's ladder",
        "text": "A witch's ladder (also known as \"rope and feathers\", witches' ladder, witches ladder, or witch ladder) is a practice, in folk magic or witchcraft, that is made from knotted cord or hair, that normally constitutes a spell. Charms are knotted or braided with specific magical intention into the cords. The number of knots and nature of charms varies with the intended effect (or spell)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apotropaic magic",
        "text": "People believed that the doorways and windows of buildings were particularly vulnerable to the entry or passage of evil. In ancient Greece, grotesque, satyr-like bearded faces, sometimes with the pointed cap of the workman, were carved over the doors of ovens and kilns, to protect the work from fire and mishap. Later, on churches and castles, gargoyles or other grotesque faces and figures such as \"sheela na gigs\" and hunky punks were carved to frighten away witches and other malign influences. Figures may also have been carved at fireplaces or chimneys; in some cases, simple geometric or letter carvings were used for these. When a wooden post was used to support a chimney opening, this was often an easier material for amateur carving. To discourage witchcraft, rowan wood may have been chosen for the post or mantel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "These stairs are nowadays commonly referred to as 'Witches stairs', in the belief that they were created during an earlier era in an attempt to repel witches who were thought to be unable to climb such stairs. Such an origin of the term has since been disproved however, with experts finding no mention in any historical literature of stairs that were believed to prevent access by witches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bartmann jug",
        "text": "In the 17th century Bartmann jugs were employed as witch bottles, a popular type of magic item which was filled with various objects such as human urine, hair and magical charms, which were supposed to benefit their owners or harm their enemies. Bottles with malevolent-looking face masks, typical of the period, were routinely chosen for this very purpose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inexhaustible bottle",
        "text": "The Inexhaustible Bottle is a classic magic trick performed by stage magicians. It dates to the 17th century and has since inspired many variations; well known examples include Any Drink Called For, The Bar Act, Satan's Barman, the Assassin's Teapot and Think-a-Drink. During the temperance movement it became The Obliging Tea Kettle, and the modern Magic Tea Kettle remains a common prop available at most magic stores. A slight variation is the Magic Funnel. Today the trick is normally performed for children, although some stand-up shows retain a variation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch's ladder",
        "text": "One example of a modern witch's ladder is a string of 40 beads or a cord with 40 knots. Sometimes feathers, bones, and other trinkets are braided into the string as symbols for a desired spell effect. An earlier version of a witch's ladder consisted of a rope or cord of three, nine, or thirteen knots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch's ladder",
        "text": "Leland's version differs from that found in Somerset in that the feathers were knotted into the cord rather than braided, and the cord was to have hairs of the victim braided into it. The feathers were plucked from a live black hen one by one and inserted into the knots as they are made in the cord. Leland also claimed that intrinsic to the witch garland was the placing of an image of a hen or cock (made of cotton or similar) next to the garland, upon which a cross of black pins is made. The whole is then hidden in the mattress of the one you are bewitching. Leland says the curse is lifted by finding the hen and wreath (garland), and throwing the whole lot into running water; the bewitched is then taken into a church whilst a baptism is being carried out, where they must repeat a certain spell before bathing it in holy water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grandma Prisbrey's Bottle Village",
        "text": "After starting with a wall, she continued to build until she had constructed 16 buildings and structures made of glass and assorted other materials, a mosaic sidewalk, the \"Leaning Tower of Bottle Village\", the \"Dolls Head Shrine\", \"Cleopatra's Bedroom\", the \"Round House\", and more. The \"Los Angeles Times\" described Bottle Village as an \"eccentric folk-art wonderland.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Witches of Benevento",
        "text": "The \"janara\"s, because of their incorporeal consistency, entered a house by passing under the door (corresponding with another possible etymology of the term: \"ianua\", 'door'. For this reason a broom or some salt was usually left on the threshold; the witch would have to count all the fibers of the broom or grains of salt before entering, but in the meantime the day would arrive and they would be compelled to go away. The two objects have a symbolic value: the broom is a phallic symbol opposed to the sterility brought by the witch; the salt was connected through a false etymology to \"salus\" ('safety')."
      },
      {
        "title": "Navenby",
        "text": "By 1871, the Dean and Chapter of Lincoln was the principal landowner and Lord of the Manor of Navenby. A witch bottle was discovered in the foundations of a Navenby farmhouse in 2005, thought to date back to about 1830. Containing pins, human hair and urine, the bottle was believed to protect a household against evil spells."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Priest House, West Hoathly",
        "text": "There are witch marks scratched into wood in several places in the house including the front door and on the beam above the main fireplace. These are more properly known as apotropaic marks and were believed to prevent witches from entering the house. They are believed to date from the seventeenth century. Set into the ground outside the front door is a rough slab of iron which is waste from a local furnace. This was believed to prevent witches entering the house (witches were commonly believed to be scared of iron)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch bottle",
        "text": "Witch bottle\n--Origins and purpose.\n--Description.\n--Preparation.\n--In England.\n--In the United States.\n--References.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Inexhaustible bottle",
        "text": "The original \"any drink\" methods using bottles were similar to \"Hocus Pocus\", simply on a smaller scale. Most variations used what appeared to be a bottle but was actually a tin container japanned (lacquered) green to appear like glass. The internal area is divided into sections and each one empties into a tube that ends just short of the neck. Very small holes drilled into the bottle allow them to be selected in the same fashion as \"Hocus Pocus\", with the magician's hand holding the bottle so their fingers cover the holes; lifting one starts the pour. The tea kettle varieties simply moved the holes to the handle. A slight variation on the theme is the Magic Funnel, which uses a two-walled funnel holding liquid between the walls. The magician pours a small amount of liquid through the funnel as normal, but it continues to pour when they lift their finger from a hole on the handle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blockula",
        "text": "There was said to be a large gate located in the meadow that led to a smaller meadow. In the smaller meadow there stood a house. In an enormous room in this house: \"[\u2026] there stood a very long Table, at which the Witches did sit down: And [\u2026] hard by this Room was another Chamber, where there were very lovely and delicate Beds.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch post",
        "text": "\"The witch, in order to gain power over a dwelling house, must go through the house and past the hearth. The door and chimney were the only means of access, but she could not pass the witch post with its cross. Hence it was a defence at the hearth ... a crooked sixpence was kept in a hole at the centre of the post. When the butter would not turn you took a knitting needle, which was kept for the purpose in a groove at the top, and with it got out the sixpence and put it in the churn.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "James Murrell",
        "text": "In April 1849, the \"Ipswich Express\" and \"Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper\" reported on a case in a village near to Rayleigh in which a girl had been afflicted with fits. Her family believed that a witch was to blame, with Murrell being called in to free her of the perceived bewitchment. He commissioned the local blacksmith to create an iron witch bottle, into which he placed toe-nail clippings and locks of hair belonging to the putative victim. The bottle was then placed into the hearth and heated until it exploded, with this supposedly defeating the witch's machinations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bretforton",
        "text": "A curious mediaeval tradition also survives at the Fleece, preserved in accordance with Lola's wishes. This is the practice of chalking \"witch circles\" on the floor in front of each hearth to prevent witches from getting in through the chimneys. There are \"witch marks\" on the inside of the door as well to ward off evil spirits,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sealed bottles",
        "text": "Up until the 17th century bottles would have been made of pottery or leather but by the middle of the century a 'new' black/dark green glass wine bottle came into general use. Early glass bottles were squat, broad and rounded sometimes referred to as \"onion bottles\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blackguard Children",
        "text": "Those who know the position of the glass houses, and the arches where they neal the bottles after they are made (...), know that those places where the ashes are cast, and where the poor boys lie, are cavities in the brick-work, perfectly close, except at the entrance, and consequently warm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch bottle",
        "text": "Lore Podcast Episode 156: Bottled Up"
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan of Arc",
        "text": "In 1867, a jar was found in a Paris pharmacy with the inscription \"Remains found under the stake of Joan of Arc, virgin of Orleans.\" They consisted of a charred human rib, carbonized wood, a piece of linen, and a cat femur\u2014explained as the practice of throwing black cats onto the pyre of witches. Beginning in 2006, a forensic study including carbon-14 dating and spectroscopic analyses was performed. The researchers determined that the remains came from the balm of an Egyptian mummy from the sixth to the third century BC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apotropaic magic",
        "text": "Apotropaic marks, also called 'witch marks' or 'anti-witch marks' in Europe, are symbols or patterns scratched on the walls, beams and thresholds of buildings to protect them from witchcraft or evil spirits. They have many forms; in Britain they are often flower-like patterns of overlapping circles. Taper burn marks on thresholds of early modern buildings are also thought to be apotropaic marks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bottle wall",
        "text": "Bottle wall\n--Bottle wall construction.\n--Construction.\n----Construction materials.\n----Heat sink.\n--Binding mixtures.\n--Bottle houses throughout history.\n----The Heineken WOBO (World Bottle).\n----Bottle house of Ganja.\n----Wat Pa Maha Chedi Kaew.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Harry Bailey House",
        "text": "Most of the bottles used in construction of the house came from a tavern located on the property known as the \"Jungle.\" Vehicle headlights shining on the bottles at night create a sparkle look. The house contain other features as well. The bottles are embedded in the stone, brick and mortar around the house. Ceramic tile can be seen around the window edges. Two wooden windows make up part of the exterior of the home. These windows are false and can not be seen from the inside of the house."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catalan mythology about witches",
        "text": "An alternative tradition was simply to put salt on the chimney. It also was the custom to wash and sprinkle with holy water all the doors and windows, and above all the keyhole, pushing through it a blessed sprig of laurel or rosemary and reciting a prayer (which, again, has a great number of variants). In the region of Montserrat blessed palm leaves would be placed, crossed on the chimney to stop the witches from coming down it. In Llu\u00e7an\u00e9s, they would pour out all the water in the house to prevent the witches from being able to bewitch the house by washing it on their visit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch's ladder",
        "text": "Some Modern Wiccans believe there are many uses for a witch\u2019s ladder. They claim that whatever one's intention is can be made into a magical spell in a witches ladder. It was believed that witches of old cast a death spell over a person by tying the knots and then hiding the cord, and the only way to undo the spell was to find the secreted cord and untie each knot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fort Magruder",
        "text": "At the former site of Redoubt 9, located in the median of Interstate 64 between exits 238 and 242 in York County, William and Mary archaeologists in 2016 unearthed a jade blue bottle less than six inches long filled with nails, next to what archaeologists believed to be the remains of a hearth or fire pit. William and Mary researchers have advanced the theory that the object may be a witch bottle, an English-origin object thought by users to lure witches or evil spirits and then trap them. Only a few such objects have been found in the United States, and this particular bottle, bearing the name of a manufacturer in eastern Pennsylvania, probably came with Union troops occupying the redoubt after the Battle of Williamsburg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apotropaic magic",
        "text": "Mirrors and other shiny reflective objects were believed to deflect the evil eye. Traditional English \"Plough Jags\" (performers of a regional variant of the mummers play) sometimes decorated their costumes (particularly their hats) with shiny items, to the extent of borrowing silver plate for the purpose. \"Witch balls\" are shiny blown glass ornaments, such as Christmas baubles, that were hung in windows. Similarly, the Chinese Bagua mirror is usually installed to ward off negative energy and protect the entryways of residences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Playtoons",
        "text": "Archibald explains that the little green bottle contained a spell that materialized things that we imagine."
      },
      {
        "title": "GreenBottle",
        "text": "The bottles are made by moulding the pulp of wood fibre which is then pressed into shape. The plastic liner is automatically vacuum formed and inserted into one half shell, another half shell is placed on top and the two are then sealed together. The bottles are designed to easily integrate with existing filling lines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grandma Prisbrey's Bottle Village",
        "text": "There are heart, diamond, and spade stepping stones that symbolize when Prisbrey visited Las Vegas, Nevada. She made the forms out of cement but then filled them with random recycled things like scissors. Bottle Village also has wishing wells made from tiles, ground is paved with recyclables, a doll shrine, and a leaning tower of bottles. Each building has its own theme. A doll house was built to house Prisbrey's doll collection which held 600 dolls. Prisbrey mentioned every day she would go into that house and dress up some of the dolls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fiasco (bottle)",
        "text": "The basket is typically made of \"\", a swamp weed, sun-dried and blanched with sulfur. The basket provides protection during transportation and handling, and also a flat base for the container. Thus the glass bottle can have a round bottom, which is much simpler to make by glass blowing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shtriga",
        "text": "Usually, shtriga were described as old or middle-aged women with grey, pale green, or pale blue eyes (called white eyes or pale eyes) () and a crooked nose. Their stare would make people uncomfortable, and people were supposed to avoid looking them directly in the eyes because they have the evil eye (). To ward off a witch, people could take a pinch of salt in their fingers and touch their (closed) eyes, mouth, heart and the opposite part of the heart and the pit of the stomach and then throw the salt in direct flames saying \" or just whisper 3\u20136 times \" or \".\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oudewater",
        "text": "From all over Europe people made the journey to Oudewater to avoid prosecution. After the weighing, they received an official certificate proclaiming them not a witch. Nobody was ever found to be an actual witch in Oudewater, though the weighings were still a public spectacle. Certificates would state that \"the body weight is in proportion to its build.\" The reasoning behind this is the old belief that a witch has no soul and therefore weighs significantly less than an ordinary person; this distinction would supposedly allow the witch to fly on a broomstick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch's ladder",
        "text": "The first recorded witch ladder found was in an old house in Wellington, Shropshire which was demolished in 1878. Six brooms, an old armchair and a \u2018rope with feathers woven into it\u2019 were found in the space that separated the roof from the upper room and was inaccessible from the interior of the house. The brooms had handles so decayed they snapped under pressure, but these had been replaced so they could be used. The chair and rope were stored in a warehouse. Due to the investigations of local antiquarians, (Abraham Colles & E.B. Tylor) the find was published in the \"Folk-Lore Journal\". This article detailed the responses to local enquiries, but was followed by a number of letters to the journal which expressed a range of opinions as to the function of the rope."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clay-body",
        "text": "Supposedly, when a witch wanted to destroy anyone to whom she had an ill will, she often made a \u201ccorpse\u201d of clay resembling the unfortunate one, and placed it in some out-of-the-way stream under a precipice or waterfall, in such a way that the water trickled slowly on it. As the clay-body wasted, so the live body of the person it resembled was also supposed to waste away. Were the clay-body found, it was carefully preserved, and so the spell of the witch was broken. Sometimes pins were stuck in the clay body to make the death of the doomed one more painful. Several such bodies have been found, even around the turn of the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch's ladder",
        "text": "Reverend Sabine Baring-Gould included an extensive article on the witch's ladder in his novel \"Curgenven\" published in 1893. In his account the ladder was made of black wool, with white and brown thread, and at every two inches it was tied around cock's feathers. The maker would weave into it aches and pains and other ailments intended for the victim. The ladder was then thrown to the bottom of Dozmary Pond, located on Bodmin Moor. They believed that as the bubbles rose to the top of the pond, the curse was released."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Bottle House, P.E.I",
        "text": "The bottles were sourced from various trash sites around the town and from the community as they began to donate their own bottles to help the project. They were built from the ground up, bound with cement to form the shape of houses. As light shines through them they create kaleidoscopic patterns and stained glass colors on the cement floor, creating a magical and euphoric feeling for the visitors that enter the space, as to why it's named \"the symphony of color and light\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catalan mythology about witches",
        "text": "To prevent witches from sowing evil herbs to damage the fields and crops, one would place to the right of the gate a figure of a guardsman, precisely vertical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch window",
        "text": "The name \"witch window\" appears to come from a folk belief that witches cannot fly their broomsticks through the tilted windows, although it seems unlikely that the tale was taken seriously. The windows are also known as \"coffin windows\"; it is unclear if they really were used for removing a coffin from the second floor (avoiding a narrow staircase), or if the odd placement on the wall were reminiscent of a coffin. Either explanation seems far-fetched. The windows are also known as \"Vermont windows\" for their distribution and as \"sideways\" or \"lazy windows\" for their orientation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bottle cage",
        "text": "Varieties, often made out of plastic or carbon fiber, may completely encircle the bottle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch post",
        "text": "There have only ever been two witches posts found outside the North York Moors, one from Rawtenstall in Lancashire, and one at Great House, Midgley. They were always made of oak and built into the structure of the house as a support for the smokehood above the inglenook fireplace. The posts were carved at the top with varying degrees of complexity, but all the designs included at least one X shaped cross. Often there were one or more rolls fashioned beneath it. A witch post from Postgate Farm, Glaisdale has the date 1664 carved into it, together with the letters EPIB."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Lancashire Witches",
        "text": "Alice takes two bottles from a small box she is carrying. One contains a sparkling liquid, the other a greenish unguent. She drinks a few drops of the bright liquid before anointing her face and hands with the unguent, chanting \"Emen hetan\" repeatedly as she does so, before leaving the room. Curious about the liquid she had seen Alice take, Dorothy tries a few drops herself, and is instantly overcome by a \"bewildering excitement\". Having felt the effect of the potion herself, and wondering if it might have the power to rouse Alizon from her sleep, she rubs a few drops on Alizon's lips. Almost at once Alizon awakes, almost as excited as Dorothy. Together the pair make their way down to the garden and towards the ruined conventual church. When the girls get close to the church they hear the hubbub of a witches' Sabbath, and hiding behind two columns to observe proceedings they learn that tonight a new witch is to be introduced into the group."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Bottle Conjuror",
        "text": "As the crowd grew more restless, someone threw a lighted candle onto the stage. Most of the audience\u2014including the Duke\u2014took this as their cue to leave, some \"losing a cloak, others a hat, others a wig, and swords also\". A group of angry spectators stayed inside and gutted the theatre. Benches were ripped up, scenery was destroyed and boxes were demolished. Debris was dragged into the street and burnt on a bonfire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch ball",
        "text": "Witch balls sometimes measure as large as seven inches (18\u00a0cm) in diameter. The witch ball is traditionally, but not always, green or blue in colour and made from glass (others, however, are made of wood, grass, or twigs instead of glass). Some are decorated in swirls and brilliant stripes of various colours. Witch balls normally have a hole in the top where a peg can be inserted; string is then attached to the peg so the ball can be hung in a chimney or over a window. Early witch balls often had a short neck sealed by a stopper. The gazing balls found in many of today's gardens are derived from the silvered witch balls that acted as convex mirrors, warding off evil by reflecting it away."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apotropaic magic",
        "text": "Apotropaic marks such as the initials of the Virgin Mary were scratched near the openings of buildings in England to ward off witches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bottles (film)",
        "text": "But all is not well in the pharmacy, as the skeleton has secretly formed an alliance with a small cadre of evil bottles that inhabit the darker corners of the shelves: a bottle of witch hazel springs to life as an old witch, and several bottles of spirits of ammonia open up to release a trio of mischievous singing ghosts. As the witch and the skeleton mix a poisonous brew in the pharmacist's beakers and test tubes, the ghosts fly out to snatch up the pharmacist and bring him back to the skeleton. As the skeleton cackles triumphantly, the ghosts hurl the pharmacist into the glass distiller as it bubbles with chemicals. Helpless, the pharmacist is sent hurtling through the twisting tubes of his distiller, chased and ground up in a mincer (which splits him up into tiny duplicates of himself), only to be hurled back into the distiller after the skeleton sucks him up in a syringe. After sending him through the distiller twice, the skeleton finally traps the pharmacist in a glass beaker, laughing as he ties him up with rubber tubing and attacks him with a pair of scissors, threatening to snip him in half."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Bottle Imp",
        "text": "\"The Witch's Tale\", a horror anthology radio series, adapted the story as \"The Wonderful Bottle\" in 1934."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bologna bottle",
        "text": "A Bologna bottle, also known as a Bologna phial or philosophical vial, is a glass bottle which has great external strength, often used in physics demonstrations and magic tricks. The exterior is generally strong enough that one could pound a nail into a block of wood using the bottle as a hammer; however, even a small scratch on the interior would cause it to crumble."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch ball",
        "text": "In the Appalachian Mountains of Kentucky, tradition holds that witch balls were made by rolling cow or horse hair into a small ball. A witch would draw a picture of the intended victim, then throw the ball at the part of the victim they wished to injure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gabriel de Solages",
        "text": "There were four store-rooms for the bottles, a room for the ashes, one for sand and one for earth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apotropaic magic",
        "text": "Items and symbols such as crosses, crucifixes, silver bullets, wild roses and garlic were believed to ward off or destroy vampires."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inexhaustible bottle",
        "text": "A very different variation on the any drink method uses small packets of dried flavouring or color that can be dropped into the cups before the pour begins. \"Think-a-Drink\" used this at least for some performances, and prior to one show the seemingly dirty cups were polished by a stage hand and had to be re-prepared. In spite of Hoffman's attempts to protect the act, or perhaps because of it, this is now the basis for the simplest version, the Magic Tea Kettle. This version uses small beads of colouring that are dropped into the cup, preferably during the pour, and the container itself holds water. Most versions contain water only in the bottom of the kettle, the upper portion is a separate container that can be used for a reveal. Other versions may use various simple chemistry to produce the colors. These variations are simple to distinguish because the fluid coming out of the bottle is always the same color (normally clear), while the original method actually has different fluids inside."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward",
        "text": "Ward first noticed the effects of a hermetically sealed glass container in 1829. He had placed a chrysalis of a sphinx moth in damp soil at the bottom of a bottle and covered it with a lid. A week later he noticed that a fern and grass seedling had sprouted from the soil. His interest piqued, he saw that evaporated moisture condensed on the walls of the bottle during the day, and ran back down into the soil towards evening, maintaining a constant humidity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catalan mythology about witches",
        "text": "Witches were said to make unguents or brews from the flesh of the hanged, from live infants, from black flour or grain, in a cauldron big enough to hold seven witches, cooked over a fire lit by the heat from their furious dancing. This was the unguent that enabled them to fly, to turn into whatever species of animal they desire, to prophesy, and to make all manner of evil spells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Isobel Gowdie",
        "text": "Gowdie testified the Devil handmade elf arrows that were then enhanced by small roughly-spoken \"elf-boys\". The Devil allocated a number of arrows to each coven member with instructions they were to be fired in his name; no bows were supplied so the arrows were flicked by thumb. The witches were not always accurate when they fired the arrows but if the intended target, whether it was a woman, a man or an animal, was touched by the implement, she claimed they would die even if wearing a protective armour. Spells used to inflict illness and torment on Harry Forbes, the minister, were also described."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch doctor",
        "text": "The said Dorothy Durent, having been with a Witch-Doctor, acknowledges upon Oath, that by his Advice she hang'd up her Child's Blanket in the Chimney, found a Toad in it at Night, had put it into the Fire, and held it there tho' it made a great and horrible Noise, and flash'd like Gunpowder, and went off like a Pistol, and then became invisible, and that by this the Prisoner was scorch'd and burn'd lamentably."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Murrell",
        "text": "An alternate story spread that Murrell had been killed by a witch-bottle that had been placed into a fire by an aggrieved local man who believed that Murrell had bewitched his donkey and thus caused its death. The archaeologist Ralph Merrifield concluded that this tale was \"probably entirely apocryphal\". Another story given by Choppen was that Murrell's son Edward \u2013 or \"Buck\" as he was nicknamed \u2013 had taken the cunning man's final witch-bottle. Placing the bottle in his household fire, it was there that the bottle exploded and destroyed a wall of Buck's cottage."
      },
      {
        "title": "University of Coimbra",
        "text": "Other items are plain local knowledge:\n* \"Black it is, Chicken made it\" (a pun on a children's charade, \"White it is, chicken hatched it\", to which the answer is \"the egg\")\u2014it happens that the gates of the Botanical Garden are black, and were made by a person named Chicken (Galinha).\n* Bet you can't climb the Monumental Stairs, two steps at a time, as there are 125 steps in 5 installments of 25 steps each."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch ball",
        "text": "A witch ball is a hollow sphere of glass. Historically, witch balls were hung in cottage windows in 17th and 18th century England to ward off evil spirits, witches, evil spells, ill fortune and bad spirits."
      },
      {
        "title": "John J. Makinen Bottle House",
        "text": "Most of the bottles came from his bottling plant as the bottom of the bottles reveal. There is a large variety of bottles that were used for many products, including drinks, wine, beer, and liqueur. The bottles were not only round, but oblong in shape as well. The bottles are arranged with clear bottles and brown color bottles on the front of the house to spell \"HAPPY HOME.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Witchcraft",
        "text": "Societies that believed in witchcraft also believed that it could be thwarted in various ways. One common way was to use protective magic or counter-magic, of which the cunning folk were experts. This included charms, talismans and amulets, anti-witch marks, witch bottles, witch balls, and burying objects such as horse skulls inside the walls of buildings. Another believed cure for bewitchment was to persuade or force the alleged witch to lift their spell. Often, people would attempt to thwart the witchcraft by physically punishing the alleged witch, such as by banishing, wounding, torturing or killing them. \"In most societies, however, a formal and legal remedy was preferred to this sort of private action\", whereby the alleged witch would be prosecuted and then formally punished if found guilty. This often resulted in execution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apotropaic mark",
        "text": "An apotropaic mark, also called a witch mark or anti-witch mark, is a symbol or pattern scratched into the fabric of a building to keep witches out. It should not be confused with a witch's mark, which is a mark thought to be found on a witch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inexhaustible bottle",
        "text": "The magician produces a bottle or kettle and asks the audience to name any sort of drink: water, beer, tea, or any other liquid. The magician tips the bottle and pours out a glass of that drink. He then asks for another example, and another, with the bottle producing the drinks on demand, seemingly forever. At the end of the performance the bottle is broken open to reveal various objects. Kettles generally reveal a number of colored handkerchiefs inside, which are said to give the kettle its magical powers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grandma Prisbrey's Bottle Village",
        "text": "When building Bottle Village, no help was given and everything is made from hand and all recycled materials. One of the shrines is called The Headlight Garden. This garden was made for her then 35-year-old daughter who had been diagnosed with cancer. Her daughter loved flowers so Prisbrey decided to make her a rose garden made out of headlights and recycled materials. Before her daughter's passing, she would love to wake up every morning and sit by the garden in silence. According to Prisbrey, the day her daughter died, the roses died."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Magic Circle (Waterhouse painting)",
        "text": "Waterhouse paid careful attention to the angles employed in this work, balancing the circle the figure is drawing around herself by the use of a triangle \u2013 her straight arm, extended by the straight stick, held out at 25 degrees to her erect body. The witch's power is emphasised by the determined face, by her exclusion of the ravens and frog \u2013 popular symbols representing magic \u2013 and by her command over the smoke pillar. Instead of billowing outwards or being affected by the wind, it remains in a straight line. A live snake ouroboros loops around the woman's neck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bottles (film)",
        "text": "The Pharmacist is an old and ancient man who is working late making some magical chemicals, liquids and potions around the interior of the old, and vintage apothecary building with windows, top and glass bottom shelves, and a table with a stool."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tempest prognosticator",
        "text": "The tempest prognosticator comprises twelve pint bottles in a circle around and beneath a large bell. Atop the glasses are small metal tubes which contain a piece of whalebone and a wire connecting them to small hammers positioned to strike the bell. In his essay Merryweather described the workings of the device:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mississippian culture pottery",
        "text": "Hooded bottles or vessels were globular containers, resembling gourds, with a rounded base and a smaller \"head.\" One side of the head was shaped like an animal or human face, while the other side was a black, hollow opening. They were slipped on their exterior surface. A theory is that these were used to store seed grain, and unfired clay plugs, such as Kersey Clay Objects, sealed the opening. Another theory is that the bottles were used for liquids. Owls and opossums are often featured on hooded vessels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hoodoo (spirituality)",
        "text": "Bakongo spiritual protections influenced African American yard decorations. In Central Africa, Bantu-Kongo people decorated their yards and entrances to doorways with baskets and broken shiny items to protect from evil spirits and thieves. This practice is the origin of the bottle tree in hoodoo. Throughout the American South in African American neighborhoods, there are some houses that have bottle trees and baskets placed at entrances to doorways for spiritual protection against conjure and evil spirits. An African American man in North Carolina buried a jar under the steps with water and string in it for protection. If someone conjured him the string would turn into a snake. The man interviewed called it \"inkabera.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Apotropaic mark",
        "text": "Marks have been found at Knole House, at Shakespeare's Birthplace in Stratford-upon-Avon, at the Tower of London, and many churches, but little effort has been made to find them on secular buildings. The marks are most common near places where witches were thought to be able to enter, whether doors, windows or chimneys. For example, during works at Knole, near Sevenoaks in Kent, in 1609, oak beams beneath floors, particularly near fireplaces, were scorched and carved with scratched witch marks to prevent witches and demons from coming down the chimney. At the Bradford-on-Avon Tithe Barn, a flower-like pattern of overlapping circles is incised into a stone in the wall. Similar marks of overlapping circles have been found on a window sill dated about 1616 at Owlpen Manor in Gloucestershire, as well as taper burn marks on the jambs of a medieval door frame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bottle wall",
        "text": "A bottle wall is a wall made out of glass or plastic bottles and binding material."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pennington, Hampshire",
        "text": "In \"Pennington Remembered\", Joan Stephens writes that whilst hanging washing to dry on the furze bushes (as was commonly done by women of the village to supplement their usual income) women would hide bottles of brandy in their washing baskets and use the disguise as a means of transporting it to their customers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch ball",
        "text": "The witch ball originated among cultures where harmful magic and those who practiced it were feared. They are one of many folk practices involving objects for protecting the household. The word \"witch ball\" may be a corruption of \"watch ball\" because it was used to ward off, guard against, evil spirits. They may be hung in an eastern window, placed on top of a vase or suspended by a cord (as from the mantelpiece or rafters). They may also be placed on sticks in windows or hung in rooms where inhabitants wanted to ward off evil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cellarette",
        "text": "A cellarette or cellaret is a small furniture cabinet, available in various sizes, shapes, and designs which is used to store bottles of alcoholic beverages such as wine or whiskey. They usually come with some type of security such as a lock to protect the contents. Such wooden containers for alcoholic beverages appeared in Europe as early as the fifteenth century. They first appeared in America in the early eighteenth century and were popular through the nineteenth century. They were usually made of a decorative wood and sometimes had special designs so as to conceal them from the casual observer. They were found in pubs, taverns, and homes of the wealthy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catalan mythology about witches",
        "text": "Other stories include a story from Girona that a particular gargoyle is actually a witch turned to stone, or a story from Canig\u00f3 of witches producing a hailstorm by urinating into a hole and beating the liquid with vines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bocksbeutel",
        "text": "This bottle shape is derived from that of field bottles, which were known already in antiquity, and which were manufactured with a flattened shape for practical purposes, for example to keep the bottle from rolling away on uneven ground."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Possession",
        "text": "A 2019 article in \"Skeptical Inquirer\" concluded that the dybbuk Box \"is not a haunted Jewish wine cabinet from Spain but instead a minibar from New York.\" The author believes Kevin Mannis created the dybbuk box story \"from whole cloth\", and that \"This elaborate story that started the entire legend was not an account of real supernatural events, but instead a fictional backstory he came up with to sell an ordinary and incomplete mini bar.\" The article includes a screen capture of a Facebook post made by Kevin Mannis. The post, dated October 24, 2015, states:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Potion",
        "text": "Catherine would then begin making potions whether it be for love, murder, or everyday life. Her love potion consisted of bones, the teeth of moles, human blood, Spanish fly beetles, and even small amounts of human remains. Her predecessor and major influence was Giulia Tofana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tiger Corporation",
        "text": "At the time, most vacuum bottles were made of glass and very fragile. With much trial and error, Takenori thought of placing a layer of cardboard between the inner and outer containers to protect the glass."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paisley witches",
        "text": "In 1839 a small hole was discovered in the wall of Shaw's bedroom at Bargarron House, which by then had become a local attraction, through which an accomplice may have passed the items she supposedly removed from her mouth."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How were stairs invented?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about staircases (also called stairways), ladders, or escalators?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I wish to know about the inventor of the staircase."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I couldn't find the inventor of the staircase but the earliest spiral staircase appeared in Temple A of the Greek colony Selinunte, Sicily and the temple was constructed in 480-470 BC."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are Witches stairs?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Where there is insufficient space for the full run length of normal stairs, alternating tread stairs may be used, having been in use since at least 1888. These stairs are nowadays commonly referred to as 'Witches stairs', in the belief that they were created during an earlier era in an attempt to repel witches who were thought to be unable to climb such stairs, though that belief has since been disproved."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any other things that people believed repelled witches?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "People used apotropaic marks, which are symbols or patterns scratched into the fabric of a building to keep witches out, as well as witch bottles to protect against witchcraft."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are witch bottles made of?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Some of the earliest documented witch bottles consist of salt glazed stoneware jugs known as Bartmann jugs, Bellarmines, or \"Greybeards\".Later witch bottles were made from glass bottles, small glass vials, and a variety of other containers.",
      "Some of the earliest documented witch bottles consist of salt glazed stoneware jugs known as Bartmann jugs, Bellarmines, or \"Greybeards\".  Later witch bottles were made from glass bottles, small glass vials, and a variety of other containers."
    ],
    "topic": "Stairs",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Witch bottle:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Witch bottle",
          "Description"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some of the earliest documented witch bottles consist of salt glazed stoneware jugs known as Bartmann jugs, Bellarmines, or \"Greybeards\". Bellarmines were named after a particularly fearsome Catholic Inquisitor, Robert Bellarmine, who persecuted Protestants and was instrumental in the burning of Giordano Bruno. Greybeards and Bellarmines were made of brown or gray stoneware glazed with salt and embossed with a bearded face."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Witch bottle:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Witch bottle",
          "Description"
        ],
        "ctx": "Later witch bottles were made from glass bottles, small glass vials, and a variety of other containers."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Witch bottle:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Witch bottle",
          "Description"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some of the earliest documented witch bottles consist of salt glazed stoneware jugs known as Bartmann jugs, Bellarmines, or \"Greybeards\". Bellarmines were named after a particularly fearsome Catholic Inquisitor, Robert Bellarmine, who persecuted Protestants and was instrumental in the burning of Giordano Bruno. Greybeards and Bellarmines were made of brown or gray stoneware glazed with salt and embossed with a bearded face."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Witch bottle:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Witch bottle",
          "Description"
        ],
        "ctx": "Later witch bottles were made from glass bottles, small glass vials, and a variety of other containers."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "These stairs are nowadays commonly referred to as 'Witches stairs', in the belief that they were created during an earlier era in an attempt to repel witches who were thought to be unable to climb such stairs. Such an origin of the term has since been disproved however, with experts finding no mention in any historical literature of stairs that were believed to prevent access by witches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hofile\u00f1a Ancestral House",
        "text": "Materials used were hardwood. The grand staircase, which came from Gilda Hofile\u00f1a's ancestral house, is made of ironwood, or \"balayong\", which is not susceptible to termites and impenetrable by nails. The balustrades were individually carved by carpenters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Loretto Chapel",
        "text": "Further afield, another staircase is in the Gda\u0144sk Town Hall in Poland, which was reported to the \"New Mexican\" in 1944 by a government official named Bonnie Foster. The paper wrote: \"It is tall, spiral, and without steel nails, but the wood is different. It is in the town hall, of the 14th to the 16th century. How it was constructed, and whether there is a miracle story back of it, Mrs. Foster could not say. But she declared it is strikingly like St. Joseph's in design.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch bottle",
        "text": "Some of the earliest documented witch bottles consist of salt glazed stoneware jugs known as Bartmann jugs, Bellarmines, or \"Greybeards\". Bellarmines were named after a particularly fearsome Catholic Inquisitor, Robert Bellarmine, who persecuted Protestants and was instrumental in the burning of Giordano Bruno. Greybeards and Bellarmines were made of brown or gray stoneware glazed with salt and embossed with a bearded face."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ham House",
        "text": "The Great Staircase, described by the historian Christopher Rowell as \"remarkable\" and \"apparently without a close parallel in the British Isles\", was created for William Murray at the east end of the Great Hall in 1638\u201339 as part of a series of improvements to the house which reflected his rising status at Court. An ornately carved archway marks the entrance from the Great Hall to the stairs, which were designed as a grand processional route giving access to the State Apartments on the first floor. The cantilever staircase rises over three floors above a square stairwell. The balustrade is composed of boldly hand-carved pierced wooden panels depicting trophies of war. Each panel is different, with varying images on each face of arms and armour, including a set of horse armour. The wide range of arms includes field guns with cannon balls and barrels of gunpowder, swords, shields, quivers of arrows and halberds. Dolphins, elephant heads, dragons and other fantastical creatures also appear on the dado panelling, together with military drums and trumpets. The martial theme of these panels is interspersed with drops of relief carvings of bay leaves, richly carved newel posts topped with baskets of fruit designed to carry candles or candelabra, and miniature swags decorating the outer string. Originally gilded and grained to resemble walnut, in the 19th century the balustrade and other woodwork were picked out in bronze, traces of which survive. According to Rowell, \"There is no other architectural wood carving on this scale and of such sophistication surviving from the late 1630s.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "J. Mora Moss House",
        "text": "Mirrored glass as well as plated, gilded and cast metal ornamental features were shipped around the Horn from France and England. Cast plaster rosettes, bosses and medallions detail the ceiling which otherwise is composed of geometric traceries of wood on smooth plaster. The main interior staircase is composed of three flights in a square 'U' shape and is finished in oak handrails supported by gothic arch balusters. Upper and lower flooring is blind-nailed hard pine tongue and groove. Hard pine steps make up the stairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Altarpiece of Alella",
        "text": "In the parish church of Alella there is another piece that can be attributed to Gaud\u00ed. It is the first section of the staircase of the romanesque bell tower, considered the most notable of its style in the coastal area of Catalonia, which received a modification in its initial section on the ground floor giving it curved shape with broken triangular floor steps so that each step allows to gain two heights, according to the Gothic system described and illustrated by Viollet-le-Duc that allows stairs with slopes of up to 45 degrees. Gaud\u00ed should be credited with having innovated on this scheme which applied only to straight stairs. By the same dates Gaud\u00ed was building a similar staircase in the stables of the Finca G\u00fcell, which turns very likely to attribute to him the one of the bell tower of Alella. Stairs with the same configuration were projected by Gaud\u00ed in the waterfall of the park of the Ciutadella in Barcelona when he collaborated with Joan Fontser\u00e9. In this case the structure was metallic, while the other two are made of bricks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Potemkin Stairs",
        "text": "In 1837, the decision was made to build a \"monstrous staircase\", which was constructed between 1837 and 1841. English engineer John Upton supervised construction. Upton had fled Britain while on bail for forgery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gemonian stairs",
        "text": "It is believed the stairs were built some time before the rule of Tiberius (14\u201337), as they were not mentioned by name in any ancient texts that predate this period. Their first use as a place of execution is primarily associated with the rumoured paranoid excesses of Tiberius' later reign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stephen Hogeboom House",
        "text": "Staircases lead from the cellar and second story to the rear kitchen wing. It has its original cooking hearth, complete with crane, and a brick oven that protrudes slightly from the rear wall. A small pantry made from old panel doors and other reused woodwork is in the passageway to the main block. A steep, turning staircase leads up to the garret."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval fortification",
        "text": "Stairs were also constructed to contain trick or stumble steps. These were steps that had different rise height or tread depth from the rest and would cause anyone running up the stairs to stumble or fall, so slowing down the attackers' progress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Collinwood Mansion",
        "text": "Playroom and stairway through time\u00a0\u2014 In 1840, a particular room was used as a playroom for children. In 1970, the same room was used as a linen closet. Yet behind the room was a stairwell that the 1840 Quentin Collins placed an enchantment on. Quentin, a student of magical arts, constructed the stairway using magical means to make it ascend through time into the future. He believed his experiment was a failure, but actually succeeded. Barnabas and Julia used the stairway to travel back from 1995 to 1970. Later, Julia (and later still Prof. Stokes) used the stairwell to travel from 1970 to 1840. After Barnabas, Julia and Prof. Stokes used the stairwell one last time to get back to 1970, Desmond Collins destroyed it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cassiobury House",
        "text": "Among the internal decorations was the ornately carved main staircase, a work attributed to Gibbons (although more recently attributed to Edward Pearce) which featured flower and fruit formations, oak leaves and acorns, acanthus flowers and foliation, bursting seed pods and pine-cones on the bannister finials. The staircase was built of oak wood, with the balustrade and decorations and executed in pine and ash."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ab anbar",
        "text": "In some ab anbars, such as in Qazvin, the stairway and storage would be constructed adjacently alongside each other, whereas in others such as Yazd, the storage and stairway often had no structural connections to each other and the stairway was positioned independently. To prevent fatal fall distances, and possibly provide a brief relief when traversing the steps, there would be one to three landings built midway into the stairway. All stairways are linear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Staddle stones",
        "text": "These were often constructed with wooden weather-boards such as at Blaxland Farm in Sturry, Kent, which has nine staddles. However, if the grain was stored loose then the sides were filled in with brick nogging and light lath-and-plaster at the wall tops. Wooden steps up to the buildings were detachable and stored by hanging them up on the side of the structure. If stone or brick steps were built then the top step was not built, thus denying access to rats and other vermin. Some of these granaries had a 'cat flap' and others had a recess inside the steps which served as a dog kennel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Petar Kru\u017ei\u0107 staircase",
        "text": "There is a legend about the Trsat stairway. It says that the Franciscans made a deal with the Devil: if he makes a stairway, he will have a soul who climbs the stairway first. After some deliberation, the Devil accepted. Once he finished the work, the Devil waited for the victim. However, the Franciscans let a goat climb the stairway. The Devil was so enraged that he mixed the steps, so that nobody had been able to count them to this day! The legend is based on the fact that the stairway was extended on several occasions. When it was first built in 1531 by Petar Kru\u017ei\u0107, the captain of the Uskoks, there were about a hundred steps. Today, their number exceeds 500."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish round tower",
        "text": "The distance from the ground to the raised doorway is somewhat greater than that from the first floor to the second; thus large, rigid steps would be too large for the door. Excavations in the 1990s, revealing postholes, confirm that wooden steps were built. However, the use of ladders prior to the construction of such steps"
      },
      {
        "title": "Princes Risborough",
        "text": "Inside the house the staircase and some of the panelling and fireplaces in the hall and drawing room date from the 17th-century re-building. The oak staircase opens at the back of the hall through a 17th-century arch and ascends two storeys round a square well. Arthur Oswald describes it as of Jacobean type but likely to have been made by a country joiner at the time of the Commonwealth or Charles II. Pevsner & Williamson, who call it \"spectacular\", describe it as made in the mid-17th century but in the strapwork tradition."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of ancient spiral stairs",
        "text": "Apart from the triumphal columns in the imperial cities of Rome and Constantinople, other types of buildings such as temples, thermae, basilicas and tombs were also fitted with spiral stairways. Their notable absence in the towers of the Aurelian Wall indicates that they did not yet figure prominently in Roman military engineering. By late antiquity, separate stair towers were constructed adjacent to the main buildings, like in the Basilica of San Vitale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Priestley House",
        "text": "The lack of skilled craftspeople in Northumberland made the construction of the house difficult. For example, Richardson speculates that the main staircase was assembled from a kit. It is one step too short for the Northumberland hallway, but no extra step was added to finish off the symmetry of the stairwell, suggesting a dearth of skilled labor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ocracoke Light",
        "text": "However, this is not the original staircase; the original staircase was a wooden step spiral built into the inside of the exterior wall. This was removed during the 1950s due to excessive rotting to the boards and a lacking necessity for a substantial staircase because of the automation of the light. The wooden stairs were removed and the holes in the all-brick lighthouse were cemented closed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Loretto Chapel",
        "text": "Although the staircase as built lacked any external bracing, an iron support bracket was added in 1887 at the same time as the railings. This may have been intended to limit the degree of vertical travel arising from the helical shape, which effectively makes the staircase behave as a giant coil spring and is part of the reason spiral staircases usually have a central support. Even after this modification, users of the staircase reported \"a certain amount of springiness\". Nevertheless, it was able to hold a significant amount of weight, as attested by a photo taken around 1959 of at least twelve choir members posing on the steps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bramshill House",
        "text": "The standards and balusters of the stairs on the north side of the hall came from Eversley Manor House and probably date to the mid-17th century, although the treads are original to the house and possibly mid-16th century. The walls above the stairs and on the first-floor landing contain some very large paintings, including several portraits."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of ancient spiral stairs",
        "text": "The list of ancient spiral stairs contains a selection of Greco-Roman spiral stairs constructed during classical antiquity. The spiral stair is a type of stairway which, due to its complex helical structure, has been introduced relatively late into architecture. Although the oldest example dates back to the 5th century BC, it was only in the wake of the influential design of the Trajan's Column that this space-saving new type permanently caught hold in ancient Roman architecture."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of ancient spiral stairs",
        "text": "The construction of spiral stairs passed on both to Christian and Islamic architecture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shardeloes",
        "text": "The interior of the house has fine ornamental plaster work by Joseph Rose. The entrance hall by Adam has fluted Doric pilasters and massive doorcases in the north and south walls. The dining room has stucco panels and an oval panel in the ceiling. The library was designed by James Wyatt in a classical style and has painted panels by Biagio Rebecca. Nikolaus Pevsner describes the staircase as \"surprisingly small.\" Pevsner, for once, rather misses the point: as the house was designed, all rooms of importance, including the bedrooms, were on the principal ground floor; thus, there was no need for a grand staircase, as no grandee would ever need to ascend to the secondary floor above. Blenheim Palace is another house with a small staircase for the same reason."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hermit's Cave",
        "text": "90-step remnant of stone stair constructed by Ricetti."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mansion House, Hurstpierpoint",
        "text": "The staircase is stylistically datable to the early to mid 17th century; however, redundant jointing and awkwardly jointed members indicate that it is reused in its present position. It is possible that the staircase was imported from another building and altered to fit this location, indicating that the insertion was no earlier than the mid 17th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabeth Dundas",
        "text": "Elizabeth\u2019s grandparents, Sir William Gray and Egidia Smith built the house now known as Lady Stair\u2019s House in 1622."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gedung Kuning",
        "text": "The staircases are constructed of timber and are an internal element. The staircases are modified to the present stairs of 175mm risers and 220mm thread. The staircases have timber handrails and simple banisters are made of polished hardwood, which are free standing as balustrades. The staircase arrangement is straight with an elevated base landing. The first few steps are made out of brick foundation but now in reinforced concrete. This was done to prevent them from coming into contact with the wet floors ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bramante Staircase",
        "text": "The original Bramante staircase, in the Pio-Clementine Museum, was built in 1505 to a double helix design by Donato Bramante. It connects the Belvedere palace of Pope Innocent VIII to the outside and stands in a square tower of that building."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stairs",
        "text": "The earliest spiral stairs architectural image was shown on a white terra cotta pot discovered in Hunan China, 7400 years ago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scholars' Stairs",
        "text": "When the Stairs were constructed, they had 300 steps. Only 176 steps remain. Musicians play guitar near the Stairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carmichael School of Medicine",
        "text": "The stairs are granite, with an ornamental iron balustrade set in a Caen stone plinth supporting the handrail."
      },
      {
        "title": "College of Nosa Se\u00f1ora da Antiga",
        "text": "The school has two cloisters, and appears to be incomplete in its west wing. The monumental staircase, built from 1594 to 1603, is located in the east wing; its design is built on three arches, without apparent support, that support thirteen, nine thirteen steps each. The ladder is held because of a carefully calculated play of forces. The steps are carved from a single piece of high-quality granite. On the ground, drawing of the projection of the staircase can be seen, drawn for its construction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bramante Staircase",
        "text": "The staircase was built to allow Pope Julius II to enter his private residence while still in his carriage, since walking up the several flights in heavy papal vestments would have been onerous."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clement Weaver\u2013Daniel Howland House",
        "text": "The sheathed entry hall between the keeping room and the older kitchen contains a rare \"split\" staircase. To one side the staircase contains six steps while the other contains seven. These staircases were built at different times to reach the garret above the older kitchen, now the museum room. Stairway sheathing was carefully cut on a diagonal to facilitate the moving of furniture. All of what appear to be the original vertical boards are still there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Work of William Burges at Cardiff Castle",
        "text": "A pair of double doors led from the hall to the grand staircase, recorded in a watercolour perspective prepared by Axel Haig. Long believed not to have been built, recent investigation has confirmed that it was constructed during Burges's time, but removed in its entirety in the 1930s, reputedly after the third Marchioness had \"once slipped on its polished surface.\" The staircase was not universally praised in the contemporary press; the \"Building News\" writing that the design was \"one of the least happy we have seen from Mr Burges's pencil...the contrasts of colour are more startling than pleasing.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Christmas Steps, Bristol",
        "text": "The steep-slanted steps were constructed in September 1669 and were paid for by wealthy wine merchant, Jonathan Blackwell. Prior to this there had been a steep, muddy and narrow street leading from the bridge over the Frome outside the city walls near the old St Bartholomew's Hospital, towards St Michael's church."
      },
      {
        "title": "Staircase tower",
        "text": "Since the Renaissance period, staircase towers were markedly more decorative and representative of status. Stairs were now rarely hidden or built externally, but there were both artistically designed, curved and straight-running staircases inside the building with ornate ceilings and railings (e.\u00a0g. Ch\u00e2teau de Chambord, Palazzo Barberini and Ch\u00e2teau d'Azay-le-Rideau or Ch\u00e2teau de Chenonceau). With the increasing construction of straight staircases with intermediate landings (the modern stairwells) separate staircase towers became gradually rarer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fredelsloh Abbey",
        "text": "A unique double helix circular stairs is one of the architectural highlights but not publicly accessible due to a supporting wall that was built in the 17th century. These stairs are classified as 13th-century work, the builder most likely stemming from the Levant region. One of the counts of Dassel had participated in the Third Crusade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ripley Ville",
        "text": "Internal staircases from the ground floor were constructed of stone. Attic staircases were timber. The staircases were well lit by windows in the rear elevation. Cellars and back rooms had stone flagged floors, other floors were suspended timber"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wurmberg (Harz)",
        "text": "A long, straight staircase of unhewn stone begins at a height of about 90 metres above the iron ore mining district on the eastern flank of the mountain and leads to the edge of the summit plateau in a terraced area with edging of similarly unhewn stones. Colloquially this flight of steps is known as the \"Heath Staircase\" (\"Heidentreppe\"), although in earlier times the name \"Witch's Staircase\" (\"Hexentreppe\") had been common."
      },
      {
        "title": "Staircase tower",
        "text": "Only a few examples of staircase towers have survived from ancient times (e.g. on the Imperial Baths in Trier); staircases were often superfluous on the only single-storey buildings or were built into the outer walls of buildings that were often several feet thick. This tradition continued in the keeps (\"donjons\"), churches and castles of the early and high Middle Ages; and this situation only changed with the increasing construction of purpose-built and generally rather undecorated staircase towers of the High and Late Middle Ages (Romanesque and Gothic architecture styles)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orazio Torriani",
        "text": "At the church of Santi Domenico e Sisto, now the church of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, \"Angelicum\", the double staircase and balustrade built in 1654 are accepted as his work. American painter John Singer Sargent during a visit to Rome in 1906 made an oil painting and several pencil sketches of this staircase and balustrade writing in 1907: \"I did in Rome a study of a magnificent curved staircase and balustrade, leading to a grand facade that would reduce a millionaire to a worm...\" The painting now hangs at the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University and the pencil sketches are in the collection of the Harvard University art collection of the Fogg Museum. Sargent later used the architectural features of this stair and balustrade in a portrait of Charles William Eliot, President of Harvard University from 1869-1909."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grandma Prisbrey's Bottle Village",
        "text": "After starting with a wall, she continued to build until she had constructed 16 buildings and structures made of glass and assorted other materials, a mosaic sidewalk, the \"Leaning Tower of Bottle Village\", the \"Dolls Head Shrine\", \"Cleopatra's Bedroom\", the \"Round House\", and more. The \"Los Angeles Times\" described Bottle Village as an \"eccentric folk-art wonderland.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of ancient spiral stairs",
        "text": "List of ancient spiral stairs\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Two Temple Place",
        "text": "The staircase hall is overlooked by a gallery that features statues made by Nicholls, having American literary associations, and a frieze in relief which features 82 characters from Shakespeare\u2019s \"Othello\", \"Henry VIII\", \"Antony and Cleopatra\" and \"Macbeth\". Around this gallery are ten pillars of solid ebony. The statues are positioned on six of the carved oak panels which surmount these pillars. The ceiling of the staircase Hall and Gallery is in stained glass, coved and panelled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palazzo Ruspoli, Rome",
        "text": "A description of the staircase in the 18th century noted that the staircase was singular among palaces in Rome for its size and for being constructed entirely of marble steps, costing 80 \"scudi\" each, arrayed in four flights of 30 steps, ten feet long and two feet wide. Along the stairs were antique busts of emperors Hadrian and Claudius; Bacchus and Silen; Apollo; Mercury; a woman dressed as Hercules; and Aesclepius."
      },
      {
        "title": "La Quemada",
        "text": "Stairway. At about 30 metres west of the Votive Pyramid this stairway was discovered, was used as main access to the top levels of the site. It was constructed in two stages; the first, that approximately reached the middle of the height now observed, apparently it was round shape, and can be associated with shapes of now missing structures; the second, built over the former and with greater height, it reached the walkway on the second level, evidence shows ties with a two ramp stairway that ascended to the third level. At a point in time the main stairway was cancelled, by defence reasons by means of the retaining wall, limiting access."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spanish Steps",
        "text": "The monumental stairway of 135 steps (the slightly elevated drainage system is often mistaken for the first step) was built with French diplomat \u00c9tienne Gueffier's bequeathed funds of 20,000 \"scudi\", in 1723\u20131725, linking the Trinit\u00e0 dei Monti church that was under the patronage of the Bourbon kings of France and the Bourbon Spanish Embassy at the top of the steps to the Holy See in the Palazzo Monaldeschi at the bottom of the steps. The stairway was designed by architects Francesco de Sanctis and Alessandro Specchi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wolfeton House",
        "text": "Inside the house is oak panelled and includes an extensive collection of Elizabethan and Jacobean carvings, including those of Roman Soldiers and a figure of a Briton brandishing a club. The main staircase of stone is believed to be unique, built in 1580 with carved figures in the balustrade. The Great Chamber's floor is original and dates to the 16th century, whilst the fireplace is carved with figures including a Native American."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bernd Grimm",
        "text": "The construction and structure of the staircase were made evident by the fact that the columns were only reproduced as outlines in stainless steel. To illustrate the dimensions of the building, Bernd Grimm gave the measurements in centimetres as well as in \"piedi\" and \"digiti\", Ancient Roman units of measurement which were also used in the Renaissance \u2013 and came to the result:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Althorp",
        "text": "Beyond the Wootton Hall is the Saloon, which was converted from an inner courtyard and roofed in 1650 by Dorothy Spencer, Countess of Sunderland. The Saloon was the first room at Althorp to have electricity installed, and it contains an imposing oak staircase, added in the 1660s. Cosmo III noted Althorp's \"spacious staircase of the wood of the walnut tree, stained, constructed with great magnificence; this staircase, dividing itself into two equal branches, leads to the grand saloon, from which is the passage into the chambers, all of them regularly disposed after the Italian manner, to which country the Earl was indented for a model of the design.\" Historically, the staircase was painted white. It is described as being \"surprisingly shallow and delightfully uneven \u2013 a physical manifestation of the long history of the house\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cruciform block",
        "text": "Windows of stairs were very small at the time. The new design adopted an improved design that became similar to Concord blocks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tour Jean-sans-Peur",
        "text": "The grand stairway continues upwards. At the top of the stairway is a chamber with the most celebrated decorative element in the tower, a vault decorated with carved stone vegetation. (See decoration). In the Middle Ages this chamber gave access to a small balcony with a view of the fa\u00e7ade of the main building. The chamber also gives access to a narrower winding stairway which leads upwards to two private chambers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lord Hill's Column",
        "text": "In 1817, a cantilevered spiral staircase of 172 steps was constructed inside of the column. Each of the 172 balusters carries on its stem a circular medallion on which are cast a letter or letters in upper and lower case spelling out the message: \"'This staircase was the gift of John Straphen, the builder, as his donation towards erecting this Column. The first stone of the foundation was laid December 27, 1814, and completed June 18th, 1816, the anniversary of the glorious battle of Waterloo.\"'"
      },
      {
        "title": "Haus zur goldenen Waage",
        "text": "If you continued up the staircase, the stone steps turned into wooden ones and the timber-framed character of the stair tower revealed itself on the walls. On the southern side, a wooden hatch with a lift could also be seen, allowing the transport of goods and supplies from the courtyard to the attic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Browne's Folly (tower)",
        "text": "The tower is made of coursed rubble stone, has a square plan and tapers as it rises. Inside, there is a spiral staircase in some degree of disrepair and with no handrail. The upper stage has round-arched openings but the balustraded handrails are missing the entire way up the staircase."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch's ladder",
        "text": "Reverend Sabine Baring-Gould included an extensive article on the witch's ladder in his novel \"Curgenven\" published in 1893. In his account the ladder was made of black wool, with white and brown thread, and at every two inches it was tied around cock's feathers. The maker would weave into it aches and pains and other ailments intended for the victim. The ladder was then thrown to the bottom of Dozmary Pond, located on Bodmin Moor. They believed that as the bubbles rose to the top of the pond, the curse was released."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch's ladder",
        "text": "The first recorded witch ladder found was in an old house in Wellington, Shropshire which was demolished in 1878. Six brooms, an old armchair and a \u2018rope with feathers woven into it\u2019 were found in the space that separated the roof from the upper room and was inaccessible from the interior of the house. The brooms had handles so decayed they snapped under pressure, but these had been replaced so they could be used. The chair and rope were stored in a warehouse. Due to the investigations of local antiquarians, (Abraham Colles & E.B. Tylor) the find was published in the \"Folk-Lore Journal\". This article detailed the responses to local enquiries, but was followed by a number of letters to the journal which expressed a range of opinions as to the function of the rope."
      },
      {
        "title": "Widows' Almshouses, Nantwich",
        "text": "A grade-II-listed mounting block dating from the 17th or 18th century stands outside the Welsh Row face. It has four steps cut from a single stone block, which are much eroded. The wear has been attributed to the adjacent butcher's shop (now incorporated into the Nakatcha Bar, formerly the Three Pigeons public house) belonging to Harry Bebbington, who is said to have sharpened his knives on the steps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordan Staircase of the Winter Palace",
        "text": "Rastrelli was commissioned by F. Fontebasso in Italy to create the picturesque plafond. The banisters and balusters of the stairs, the vases as well as the bases of the columns were to be made of gilded copper. The walls were to be painted pink, while the stucco rocaille would remain white. However, by 1761 the walls and wooden columns were clad in artificial marble and the rococoils were gilded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Loretto Chapel",
        "text": "The staircase as originally built lacked handrails and was reportedly so frightening to descend that some of the nuns and students did so on their hands and knees. Eventually, railings were added in 1887 by another craftsman, Phillip August Hesch. The stairs have been mostly closed to the public since the chapel became a privately-run museum in the 1960s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taymouth Castle",
        "text": "Francis Bernasconi, acknowledged as the greatest designer of fine plasterwork of the era, created the magnificent central staircase, that connects all four storeys of the central tower. Many of the ceilings were painted by Cornelius Dixon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stone Jug",
        "text": "In the 1950s the north wing was added. In the process of doing so the original staircase's steps were replaced with wider ones. There have been no other changes to the house."
      },
      {
        "title": "Katarina Church",
        "text": "man denna trappa uppbyggt har (man built this stair)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bramante Staircase",
        "text": "The modern double helix staircase, also in the Pio-Clementine Museum, and commonly referred to as the \"Bramante Staircase\", was designed by Giuseppe Momo, sculpted by Antonio Maraini and realized by the Ferdinando Marinelli Artistic Foundry in 1932 and was inspired by the original Bramante Staircase."
      },
      {
        "title": "Witch post",
        "text": "There have only ever been two witches posts found outside the North York Moors, one from Rawtenstall in Lancashire, and one at Great House, Midgley. They were always made of oak and built into the structure of the house as a support for the smokehood above the inglenook fireplace. The posts were carved at the top with varying degrees of complexity, but all the designs included at least one X shaped cross. Often there were one or more rolls fashioned beneath it. A witch post from Postgate Farm, Glaisdale has the date 1664 carved into it, together with the letters EPIB."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bramante Staircase",
        "text": "The stair is cited as the inspiration for Antonio da Sangallo the Younger's design for the double helix passageway at the well of San Patrizio in Orvieto, to solve a similar logistical problem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Architecture of Bermuda",
        "text": "The archetypical house of the late 17th century had several distinguishing features. The building was usually quite simple in design, with a similar plan to a contemporary English farmhouse. Though usually only one storey tall, most were built facing out from slopes (possibly to preserve the comparatively fertile valleys for agriculture, a dominant industry until the 20th century), thus necessitating a set of steps to the front entrance. These staircases were styled to curve out, so ending up far wider at the base than at the top. This flared style, known locally today as \"Welcoming Arm\" stairs, remains common. Less common variants used parallel arms, and in the narrow streets of the Town of St. George staircases were often flush with the wall. At the top of the stairs would be a porch-like vestibule, larger than was common elsewhere, where visitors and passersby could rest in the shade. These porch areas were continuously expanded with furniture and muslin mosquito nets. Wooden window shutters became common, particularly \"jalousies\" \u2014 which were hinged at the top \u2014 that were probably imported from the West Indies. Food was often stored in a buttery separate from the main house, which was designed to keep food cool. This was achieved by keeping the actual storage room raised above the ground, typically five or six steps worth of height, and using a pointed roof, enabling convective heat transfer to keep warm air from the food. Kitchens were also distinctive, occasionally placed in out-buildings or in basements and noted for the use of wide, raised chimneys possibly inspired by the open hearth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kew Gardens",
        "text": "Each storey finishes with a projecting roof, after the Chinese manner, originally covered with ceramic tiles and adorned with large dragons; a tale is still propagated that they were made of gold and were reputedly sold by George\u00a0IV to settle his debts. In fact the dragons were made of wood painted gold, and simply rotted away with the ravages of time. The walls of the building are composed of brick. The staircase, 253 steps, is in the center of the building. During the Second World War holes were cut in each floor to allow for drop-testing of model bombs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pembroke Castle",
        "text": "In the late 13th century, additional buildings were added to the inner ward, including a new Great Hall. A 55-step spiral staircase was also created that led down to a large limestone cave, known as Wogan Cavern, beneath the castle. The cave, which was created by natural water erosion, was fortified with a wall, a barred gateway and arrowslits. It may have served as a boathouse or a sallyport to the river where cargo or people could have been transferred."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blockula",
        "text": "There was said to be a large gate located in the meadow that led to a smaller meadow. In the smaller meadow there stood a house. In an enormous room in this house: \"[\u2026] there stood a very long Table, at which the Witches did sit down: And [\u2026] hard by this Room was another Chamber, where there were very lovely and delicate Beds.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Medun",
        "text": "Besides the stairways cut into the cliffs on all sides, dating from the Iron Age, from this earlier period is also a portion of the west wall, subsequently built over by a medieval wall. Different parts of the medieval fortification date from different periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Convento de San Esteban, Salamanca",
        "text": "This staircase was built between 1553 and 1556 and its name comes from the patron, Brother Domingo de Soto, professor at the University (part of the School of Salamanca) and confessor of Emperor Charles V. The designer was the architect Rodrigo Gil de Honta\u00f1\u00f3n, who used a revolutionary new technique of cantilevering the stairs out from the walls, without other bearers, creating a space that allows the transition from the lower to the upper cloister. It is decorated with polychrome relief floral coffers, and Mary Magdalene appears in its upper section."
      },
      {
        "title": "Llanvihangel Court",
        "text": "The staircase rises in an extension of the late 17th century by John Arnold. It is variously described as of \"yew\" (by Coflein), or of \"oak\" (by Cadw). On the turn are two early 20th century stained glass windows, depicting Elizabeth I and Charles I and his family, both of whom are traditionally supposed to have visited the court."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bramante Staircase",
        "text": "Bramante Staircase is the name given to two staircases in the Vatican Museums in the Vatican City State: the original stair, built in 1505, and a modern equivalent from 1932."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canonbury Tower",
        "text": "The tower, whose core is the central staircase, has a stairway in short straight flights and quarter landings, with the centre filled in with timber and plaster forming a series of cupboards. The black oak of the balusters is mostly original timber. At the top, the handrail newel and baluster are cut from sound oak beams found among the woodwork during the restoration of 1907\u201308: four centuries old but when sawn still fresh and sweet smelling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beaupr\u00e9 Hall",
        "text": "The entry had four-centred arches connected to four towers built mostly of brick with stone dressings and upper caps made of ashlar. The second floor of the Gate House was a drawing room, lit by square-headed windows decorated with stone mullions and transom, and fitted with a fine Elizabethan fireplace, which had a marble frame and carved wood overmantel that enclosed the fireplace from the floor to the ceiling and had early Jacobean architecture style paneling with a pair of trimmed arches that were encased and separated by ornate columns, directly above the center of the marble arch frame. Each trimmed arch panel displayed a heraldic relief carving:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stone Jug",
        "text": "Original Dutch doors are on both entrances, at the south of the basement and east of the first story. The lintel above the east entrance has the year 1752 and \"K.B.L & J.\" carved into it. The lower one opens into a large room with a hearth built into the west wall. The staircase is original except for the steps. Upstairs, the main room is also mostly intact except for a small entry hall partitioned off to the east. Most of the windows are original except for the double casement on the west wall. On the top is a garret with exposed rafters."
      },
      {
        "title": "House of St Barnabas",
        "text": "The wrought-iron balustrades of the staircase are original. The original chandelier held candles and the mechanism for raising and lowering still exists. The Angel on the landing is the oldest object in the house. It dates from the 1600s, is made of wood and is Flemish. This has been embellished by the artist Nancy Fouts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nuraghe",
        "text": "The entrance leads into a corridor, on whose sides are often open niches, that leads to the round chamber. A spiral stone stair, leading to upper floors (if present) and/or to a terrace, was built within the thick walls and it was illuminated by embrasures. The Nuragic towers might have as much as three corbel chambers one on top of the other. In complex Nuraghes corridors were often present, sometimes corbelled, such as at Santu Antine, in which the corbelled arch corridors were superimposed on two levels, and reached a length of 27\u00a0meters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goodwyn-Bailey House",
        "text": "Removal of the 20th century staircase exposed the original outline of the early stair. The Smiths have recreated the stair with old materials where possible, including a newel post from a demolished Coweta home of the same era."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elevated entrance",
        "text": "The elevated entrance was usually reached on a wooden or stone staircase or from a footbridge from another part of the building. Immediately in front of the entrance there was usually a wooden platform; on particularly long stairways there could be intermediate landings. A steep stairway and narrow landing in front of the entrance made it difficult for attackers to use heavy demolition equipment such as battering rams. Below the entranceway the corbels or putlog holes have often survived. Even the fixtures of the original wooden stairways are frequently still visible. In several cases, elevated entranceways built in the Late Middle Ages or Early Modern times were accessed by staircase towers with spiral staircases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mason House (Guilford, Virginia)",
        "text": "Original mantels do not survive, but window frames, sash, door trim and the staircase do. In general, the trim is spare but distinctive. At least one door architrave used on the ground floor includes a wide plane that transitions to the adjoining plaster wall with a cyma in a manner uncharacteristic of typical Georgian-era work. Similar architraves were used at Larkin's Hundred, a ca. 1740 dwelling in Anne Arundel County Maryland, and in the original 1740s wing of Myrtle Grove in Talbot County on Maryland's Eastern Shore. The joiner built the stair as a closed string, with heavy, symmetrically-turned balusters set over a skirt board finished as an Ionic entablature complete with a pulvinated frieze. A large, molded newel post is reminiscent of late 17th-century work in England and its handrail, molded in the form of early Georgian work, is quite large in cross section. The rail and molded treads are made of oak."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ka'ba-ye Zartosht",
        "text": "A thirty-stair stairway (each stair is long, wide and high) is placed in the middle of the northern wall, reaching the threshold of the entrance doorway. Thus, the intention was for the Ka'ba to look like a three-floor tower that has seven doors or hatches on each floor; but only one hatch has been made into a true door, while the others are left as holeless blind windows."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Burges",
        "text": "The central portion of the castle also included the Grand Staircase. Illustrated in a watercolour perspective prepared by Axel Haig, the staircase was long thought never to have been built but recent research has shown that it was constructed, only to be torn out in the 1930s, reputedly after the third Marchioness had \"once slipped on its polished surface.\" The staircase was not universally praised in the contemporary press; the \"Building News\" writing that the design was \"one of the least happy we have seen from Mr Burges's pencil...the contrasts of colour are more startling than pleasing.\" The Arab Room in the Herbert Tower was the last room on which Burges was working when he fell ill in 1881. Bute placed Burges's initials, together with his own and the date, in the fireplace of that room as a memorial. The room was completed by Burges's brother-in-law, Richard Popplewell Pullan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bramante Staircase",
        "text": "Bramante Staircase\n--The original staircase.\n--The modern staircase.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Villa Majorelle",
        "text": "The curving stairway was made of massive oak, finely carved. the stairway was lit by stained glass window with a floral pattern by Jacques Gruber on the first landing, and large windows at the top of the stairwell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Duntryleague",
        "text": "Inside, there are fourteen foot ceilings in all rooms. An elaborately carved cedar staircase, very wide and generous was created by Richard Albon of Sydney with barley sugar balusters dominates the central hall. A large stained glass window on its first landing was presented to James Dalton when he was invested as a papal knight in 1877. The stair finishes at the top with a stained glass skylight in the form of a small tower with finial on the roof."
      },
      {
        "title": "Equestrian staircase",
        "text": "From the 15th century, imposing equestrian staircases were built in the stately homes of the nobility. These staircases enabled riders to reach the upper floor on horseback. The equestrian staircase leading to Vladislav Hall in Prague Castle, which was built around 1500, is one of the oldest known examples."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stephen and Harriet Myers House",
        "text": "At the rear end of the hall the stairs begin. There is a newel post at the base but the balustrade is missing. The stairs make 180-degree turns, with the stairwell windows slightly dropped from the other two on the corresponding story."
      },
      {
        "title": "RMS Lady of Mann",
        "text": "Alterations had to be made in the mid-1960s; the stylish opening had to be blocked in with steel walls, and steel doors had to be fitted. The appearance was largely sacrificed; the regulations concerning fire precautions duly satisfied. But when \"Lady of Mann\" was due to be broken up in the early 1970s, this much desired staircase was not quite finished. An enthusiast living in Castletown, succeeded in acquiring at least part of the woodwork, and it was reassembled at Lorne House in Castletown, where it remains to this day. Steam Packet officials affectionately described her as having been 'foreman built'."
      },
      {
        "title": "St Elisabeth Cathedral",
        "text": "It is constrained and therefore it is assumed it had mainly decorative function. This twisted staircase is the oldest existing one in Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baron of Loughmoe",
        "text": "The southern tower was built much earlier than the remainder and includes arrow holes, murder holes, spiral staircases and rounded corners. There are still staircases and different floors remaining in the old, 13th century tower. However, the remainder, built sometime later, is now in ruins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stone Bell House",
        "text": "Firstly, it is worth noting that the passage between the snail staircase and the hall is not nearly as decorated as the portal of the floor below. This indicates a space of less importance. Another breach in this speculation is the fact that a representative hall already existed on the first floor, another hall therefore lacks purpose. Furthermore, the flue over the fireplace was wrongly dated and is much newer than the opening above it. This proves, that the fireplace was most likely added to the room during the later renovations, the stone brackets therefore do not cohere with it. The research of associate professor Rykl and professor \u0160kabrada shows that these brackets could have been placed in the apex of the triple niche, today finished off with unmoulded stone blocks. According to their opinions, the room was divided into a smaller entrance hall, a room with heating and a hall room with windows in the wall facing the Old Town square."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carsluith Castle",
        "text": "The ground floor entrance is via the stair tower. The Brown arms are carved above the door, with initials and the date 156-, the last digit being illegible, although it was said in the 19th century to have been legible as 4. The vaulted basement is divided into two cellars, with gunloops in the walls. Above is the hall with windows and a fireplace. Another floor would have had bedrooms, with an attic at the wall walk level, although these floors have gone. On the north side, holes exist in the outside wall which would have supported an external timber gallery linking the second floor rooms and stair tower."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tappoch Broch",
        "text": "The chamber of the broch, whose walls are about six metres thick, still reach a height of two or three metres, but in recent times whole wall sections have collapsed. The dry stonework is built of large, irregular stone blocks from the immediate vicinity. The oval chamber measures 10.8 to 9.8 metres, is paved and has a large fire spot in the middle. Access, with some of the fallen stones still in situ, is from the southeast. About halfway down the passage is a stop for a door with a latch for the door beam. In the south-west of the chamber a short aisle branches off to the right and leads to an unusually well-preserved staircase in the wall. In 1864 there were still eleven steps, some of which were later lost. The side walls of the stairs slope inwards, which indicates that it was originally designed as a cantilever vault. A small chamber in the north-east of the wall appears to be of modern origin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gaular",
        "text": "William T. Potts from Coreen Castle in Ireland initiated the building of the salmon stairs (a type of fish ladder), which were completed in 1871, in return for an agreement made with the farmers that had 25 years of free fishing. The salmon stairs at Osen in Bygstad are the oldest in the world. The stairs consist of 17 pools/stages and has height of around . It is very effective as the salmon are forced to make their way up the stair construction, due to the current below the falls."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How were stairs invented?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about staircases (also called stairways), ladders, or escalators?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I wish to know about the inventor of the staircase."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I couldn't find the inventor of the staircase but the earliest spiral staircase appeared in Temple A of the Greek colony Selinunte, Sicily and the temple was constructed in 480-470 BC."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are Witches stairs?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Where there is insufficient space for the full run length of normal stairs, alternating tread stairs may be used, having been in use since at least 1888. These stairs are nowadays commonly referred to as 'Witches stairs', in the belief that they were created during an earlier era in an attempt to repel witches who were thought to be unable to climb such stairs, though that belief has since been disproved."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any other things that people believed repelled witches?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "People used apotropaic marks, which are symbols or patterns scratched into the fabric of a building to keep witches out, as well as witch bottles to protect against witchcraft."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are witch bottles made of?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Some of the earliest documented witch bottles consist of salt glazed stoneware jugs known as Bartmann jugs, Bellarmines, or \"Greybeards\".  Later witch bottles were made from glass bottles, small glass vials, and a variety of other containers."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Stairs are pretty cool to look at, are there any notable stairs that were built?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Yes, The Spanish Steps  are a set of steps in Rome, Italy, climbing a steep slope between the Piazza di Spagna at the base and Piazza Trinit\u00e0 dei Monti, dominated by the Trinit\u00e0 dei Monti church at the top. The monumental stairway of 135 steps was built with French diplomat \u00c9tienne Gueffier's bequeathed funds; at the top, the stairway ramp up the Pincio which is the Pincian Hill, the Villa Medici can be reached."
    ],
    "topic": "Stairs",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Spanish Steps:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Spanish Steps"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Spanish Steps () are a set of steps in Rome, Italy, climbing a steep slope between the Piazza di Spagna at the base and Piazza Trinit\u00e0 dei Monti, dominated by the Trinit\u00e0 dei Monti church at the top."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Spanish Steps:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Spanish Steps"
        ],
        "ctx": "The monumental stairway of 135 steps (the slightly elevated drainage system is often mistaken for the first step) was built with French diplomat \u00c9tienne Gueffier's bequeathed funds of 20,000 \"scudi\", in 1723\u20131725, linking the Trinit\u00e0 dei Monti church that was under the patronage of the Bourbon kings of France and the Bourbon Spanish Embassy at the top of the steps to the Holy See in the Palazzo Monaldeschi at the bottom of the steps. The stairway was designed by architects Francesco de Sanctis and Alessandro Specchi."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Spanish Steps:10",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Spanish Steps",
          "Uses"
        ],
        "ctx": "At the top, the stairway ramp up the \"Pincio\" which is the Pincian Hill. From the top of the steps the Villa Medici can be reached."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "A 90-minute edit of this show was broadcast on 29 December 2006, 10 June 2007 and 17 June 2008 on Channel 4, on 10 May 2008, 17 January 2009 and 6 January 2012 on E4; a longer, unedited version was released on DVD in May 2008. The show won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Entertainment Show 2006. The show was co-written and directed by his longtime collaborator Andy Nyman. The title originates from the Ray Bradbury novel, which is itself a quote from Act 4, Scene 2 of William Shakespeare's \"Macbeth\". (The same verse also is the source of the title of Agatha Christie's By The Pricking of My Thumbs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "Olivier's dermatomyositis meant he spent the last three months of 1974 in hospital, and he spent early 1975 slowly recovering and regaining his strength. When strong enough, he was contacted by the director John Schlesinger, who offered him the role of a Nazi torturer in the 1976 film \"Marathon Man\". Olivier shaved his pate and wore oversized glasses to enlarge the look of his eyes, in a role that the critic David Robinson, writing for \"The Times\", thought was \"strongly played\", adding that Olivier was \"always at his best in roles that call for him to be seedy or nasty or both\". Olivier was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role, and won the Golden Globe of the same category."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The Experiments won a BAFTA for Best Entertainment Programme at the 2012 awards in May 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"Enigma\" is the name of Brown's 2009\u201310 stage tour, directed by Andy Nyman. It began in Chatham on Friday 17 April 2009, visiting various UK towns before ending in London with a month at the Adelphi Theatre starting Monday 15 June 2009. The show includes Brown attempting to put the entire audience into a trance (he makes it clear this is \"not\" hypnotism and will \"not\" affect everyone). At the end of the show Brown requests that audience members, particularly reviewers and the press, do not reveal the show's secrets and surprises to others to avoid spoiling the fun. The show toured the UK again during the first half of 2010. Enigma was nominated for an Olivier award on 8 February 2010, Brown's second nomination for an Olivier following his 2006 show Something Wicked This Way Comes."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"Svengali\" was filmed for television and first broadcast on Channel 4 on 18 September 2012. The show won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Entertainment Show 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dein Perry",
        "text": "Perry won the Laurence Olivier Award for two consecutive years (in 1995 and 1996). At the time he was the youngest person to do so."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Derren Brown (born 27 February 1971) is an English mentalist, illusionist, painter, and author. He began performing in 1992, making his television debut with \"Derren Brown: Mind Control\" in 2000, and has since produced several more shows for stage and television. His 2006 show \"Something Wicked This Way Comes\" and his 2012 show \"Svengali\" won him two Laurence Olivier Awards for Best Entertainment. He made his Broadway debut with his 2019 stage show \"Secret\". He has also written books for both magicians and the general public."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The show toured again from February until April 2008 throughout the UK, and concluded with a West End run at the Garrick Theatre during May and early June. The West End run was a strictly limited season of 32 performances only. A performance from the last week of the tour at the Garrick Theatre was filmed for Channel 4 and aired on 13 January 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Olivier Dahan",
        "text": "Olivier Dahan\n--Biography.\n--Awards and nominations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Brown's second live stage show, \"Something Wicked This Way Comes\", toured around the UK following its success in the West End. The tour began in March 2005 at the Cambridge Theatre and finished in May at the Hammersmith Apollo. The run was then once more extended into the following year, being performed and filmed for a final time at the Old Vic Theatre in mid-June 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Denise Gough",
        "text": "Gough is a double Olivier Award winner."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "In 2010, Brown appeared in a special Comedy Gala for Channel 4 and Great Ormond Street Hospital. He appeared with Kevin Bishop, who played his jealous annoying twin 'Darren'."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Derren's first stage show began at the Tobacco Factory Theatre in 2003 near Brown's home in Bristol. It then grew into a major 2003/4 tour concluding with a London run at the Palace Theatre. The show was never recorded for television broadcast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dominic Cooke",
        "text": "He has won five Olivier Awards. In addition to Best Director and Best Revival for The Crucible in 2007, he won Best Revival for Ma Rainey\u2019s Black Bottomin 2016, Best Musical Revival for Follies in 2018 and in 2013 his final season in the Jerwood Theatre Upstairs at the Royal Court won Achievement In An Affiliate Theatre."
      },
      {
        "title": "London Film Critics Circle Awards 1997",
        "text": "British Actress of the Year\n*Judi Dench - \"Mrs. Brown\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Maurice Jarre",
        "text": "Jarre received three Academy Awards and received a total of nine nominations, eight for Best Original Score and one for Best Original Song. He also won four Golden Globes and was nominated for ten."
      },
      {
        "title": "2012 British Academy Television Awards",
        "text": "Derren Brown: The Experiments (Channel 4)\n*\"Celebrity Juice\" (ITV2)\n*\"Harry Hill's TV Burp\" (ITV)\n*\"Michael McIntyre\u2019s Christmas Comedy Roadshow\" (BBC One)"
      },
      {
        "title": "2018 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "\"Hamilton\" was nominated for a record 13 awards, ultimately claiming seven awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "2014 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following six productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "During one performance of the show, a woman in the audience pushed her husband as a joke and he fell over the balcony. He managed to hang on to the upper circle and was not injured."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "In 2008, Brown made a guest acting appearance in BBC Four's \"Crooked House\" as Sir Roger Widdowson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Olivier Dahan",
        "text": "Olivier Dahan (born 26 June 1967) is a French film director and screenwriter. His third directed film, \"La Vie en rose\", was one of the only French cinema films to win two Academy Awards, including the first acting Oscar in the French language."
      },
      {
        "title": "1993 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following six productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "2003 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following seven productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geraldine McEwan",
        "text": "McEwan was a five-time Olivier Award nominee, and twice won the Evening Standard Award for Best Actress; for \"The Rivals\" (1983) and \"The Way of the World\" (1995). She was also nominated for the 1998 Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play for \"The Chairs\". She won the BAFTA TV Award for Best Actress for the 1990 television serial \"Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit\", and from 2004 to 2009, she starred as the Agatha Christie sleuth Miss Marple, in the ITV series \"Marple\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "2009 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following four productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "2000 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following seven productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1978 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following three productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "For his work in films, Olivier received four Academy Awards: an honorary award for \"Henry V\" (1947), a Best Actor award and one as producer for \"Hamlet\" (1948), and a second honorary award in 1979 to recognise his lifetime of contribution to the art of film. He was nominated for nine other acting Oscars and one each for production and direction. He also won two British Academy Film Awards out of ten nominations, five Emmy Awards out of nine nominations, and three Golden Globe Awards out of six nominations. He was nominated once for a Tony Award (for best actor, as Archie Rice) but did not win."
      },
      {
        "title": "2012 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following four productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1977 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following 15 productions received multiple nominations:\n* 4: \"Privates on Parade\"\n* 3: \"Bubbling Brown Sugar\" and \"Just between Ourselves\"\n* 2: \"Bedroom Farce\", \"Cause C\u00e9l\u00e8bre\", \"Dusa, Fish, Stas and Vi\", \"King Lear\", \"Macbeth\", \"Once a Catholic \", \"State of Revolution\", \"Stevie\", \"The Fire That Consumes\", \"The Kingfisher\", \"The Plough and the Stars\", \"Volpone\" and \"Wild Oats\""
      },
      {
        "title": "2002 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following six productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Douglas Hodge",
        "text": "Olivier Awards include 2012 Best Actor for \"Inadmissible Evidence\" (nomination), 2009 Best Actor in a Musical for \"La Cage aux Folles\" (winner), and 2006 Best Actor in a Musical for \"Guys and Dolls\" (nomination). He was also nominated for Best Actor in the 2005 Evening Standard Awards for his role in \"Dumbshow\" at the Royal Court."
      },
      {
        "title": "2013 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following five productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1976 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following three productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "2006 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following three productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1992 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following eight productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "2019 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following 19 productions received multiple nominations:"
      },
      {
        "title": "2005 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following four productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1990 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following three productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1983 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following four productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following 7 productions received multiple awards:\n*3: \"& Juliet\", \"Dear Evan Hansen\", \"Emilia\"\n*2: \"Death of a Salesman\", \"Leopoldstadt\", \"Mary Poppins\", \"Present Laughter\""
      },
      {
        "title": "1994 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following four productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "2016 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following six productions, including one dance, received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Olivier Ayache-Vidal",
        "text": "Later on, he filmed \"Coming-out\" (2004), a comedy starring Omar Sy, whose script was late adapted to a live show by comedians \"Omar et Fred\". In 2006, he directed \"Mon dernier r\u00f4le\", starring Patrick Chesnais and guest starring Patrick Poivre d\u2019Arvor during a fake news broadcast. This black comedy was selected in fifty festivals, winning several awards, including the grand prize of the Meudon short film festival and the grand prize of the Comedia Festival, in Montreal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Musical Revival",
        "text": "Four nominations"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mrs Brown",
        "text": "The film was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1997 Cannes Film Festival and released in the United Kingdom on 5 September 1997. Judi Dench won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture - Drama and the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role; additionally, she was nominated for many other awards for her performance, including the Academy Award for Best Actress and the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role, but lost both awards to Helen Hunt for her role in \"As Good as It Gets\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "1985 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following three productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1991 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following six productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bruno Delbonnel",
        "text": "Delbonnel's accolades include a C\u00e9sar Award and a European Film Award, as well as six Academy Award nominations and four BAFTA Award nominations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hugh Vanstone",
        "text": "He has received three Olivier Awards for his work in London: for \"Pacific Overtures\" (Donmar Warehouse) in 2004, for \"The Cherry Orchard\" and \"The Graduate\" in 2001, and for \"The Unexpected Man\" and \"The Blue Room\" in 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Revival",
        "text": "2 nominations"
      },
      {
        "title": "1982 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following four productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1977 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following production received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Set Designer",
        "text": "The award was retired after the 2002 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anthony Ward",
        "text": "Olivier Award Nomination:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1979 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following two productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1986 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following four productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "2022 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "2022 Laurence Olivier Awards\n--Winners and nominees.\n--Productions with multiple wins and nominations.\n----Multiple wins.\n----Multiple nominations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "1990 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following 15 productions received multiple nominations:\n* 5: \"Miss Saigon\"\n* 4: \"Ghetto\" and \"Racing Demon\"\n* 3: \"Othello\", \"Shadowlands\", \"The Baker's Wife\", \"The Voysey Inheritance\" and \"The Wars of the Roses\"\n* 2: \"Buddy\", \"Jeffrey Bernard Is Unwell\", \"Man of the Moment\", \"Return to the Forbidden Planet\", \"Single Spies\" and \"Some Americans Abroad\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Olivier Dahan",
        "text": "Wins:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bernard Derrida",
        "text": "Awarded the Amp\u00e8re Prize in 2001."
      },
      {
        "title": "2014 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The nominations were announced on 10 March 2014 in 26 categories."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The nominations were announced on 3 March 2020 in 26 categories. The winners were announced during the ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "1988 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following 19 productions received multiple nominations:\n* 4: \"Candide\" and \"The Wizard of Oz\"\n* 3: \"A Family Affair\", \"A Touch of the Poet\", \"An Enemy of the People\", \"Blood Brothers\", \"Our Country's Good\", \"Separation\", \"The Secret Rapture\", \"Titus Andronicus\" and \"Too Clever by Half\"\n* 2: \"A Walk in the Woods\", \"Cat on a Hot Tin Roof\", \"Hello and Goodbye\", \"Henceforward\", \"Mrs. Klein\", \"Shirley Valentine\", \"Sugar Babies\" and \"The Shaughraun\""
      },
      {
        "title": "1978 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following 16 productions received multiple nominations:\n* 4: \"Evita\"\n* 3: \"Annie\", \"Filumena\" and \"The Double Dealer\"\n* 2: \"Brand\", \"Coriolanus\", \"Half-Life\", \"Henry VI\", \"Lark Rise\", \"Plenty\", \"Shut Your Eyes and Think of England\", \"The Homecoming\", \"The Woman\", \"Twelfth Night\", \"Waters of the Moon\" and \"Whose Life Is It Anyway\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Olivier Deriviere",
        "text": "Olivier Deriviere\n--Career.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "2017 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The nominations were announced on 6 March 2017 in 26 categories."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deborah Brown",
        "text": "Brown was awarded the IR\u00a3400 \"Carroll Open Prize\" for painting at the Irish Exhibition of Living Art in 1970 for Fibreglass form on canvas, painted red and black."
      },
      {
        "title": "1980 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following two productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "2018 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "\"Hamilton\" broke the record for most nominations by a single production with 13 nominations. This title was previously held by \"Harry Potter and the Cursed Child\" at the 2017 ceremony and \"Hairspray\" at the 2008 ceremony; both received 11 nominations."
      },
      {
        "title": "1996 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following three productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "2022 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The nominations were announced on 8 March 2022 in 26 categories."
      },
      {
        "title": "Olivier Choini\u00e8re",
        "text": "In 2014, he was awarded both the Canada Council's Victor Martyn Lynch-Staunton Award and the Siminovitch Prize in Theatre."
      },
      {
        "title": "Patrice Vermette",
        "text": "He was also a Jutra winner for \"Caf\u00e9 de Flore\" at the 14th Jutra Awards and for \"1987\" at the 17th Jutra Awards, and was nominated at the 13th Jutra Awards for \"City of Shadows (La Cit\u00e9)\" and at the 17th Jutra Awards for \"Enemy\". He was a Genie and Canadian Screen Award nominee at the 30th Genie Awards for \"1981\", at the 32nd Genie Awards for \"Caf\u00e9 de Flore\" and at the 2nd Canadian Screen Awards for \"Enemy\", and an Academy Award nominee at the 82nd Academy Awards for \"The Young Victoria\" and at the 89th Academy Awards for \"Arrival\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "2018 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "\"Hamilton\" matched the record set by \"Matilda the Musical\" in the 2012 ceremony by winning 7 Olivier Awards, including Best New Musical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor",
        "text": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor\n--Multiple awards and nominations for Best Actor.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles Olivier",
        "text": "While in school at NYU, he won the Wasserman award for Best Screenwriting. He also won Arista's Clive Davis award for his film scores and music composition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deborah Warner",
        "text": "Awards\n* 1988 Laurence Olivier Award for Best Director \u2013 \"Titus Andronicus\"\n* 1992 Laurence Olivier Award for Best Director of a Play \u2013 \"Hedda Gabler\"\n* 1992 Chevalier of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres\n* 2006 Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE), \"for services to drama\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Napier Brown",
        "text": "Napier Brown remained at the Royal Theatre for over 20 years (where he directed over 130 productions) and wrote the plays \"Is This the Day?\" (1990), co-written with his wife Vilma Hollingbery and which won the Eileen Anderson Central TV award for Best New Play. He also wrote dramatisations based on \"Wuthering Heights\" (1994), \"An Old Man's Love\" (1996), \"Northanger Abbey\" (1998), \"The Turn of the Screw\" (1999) and \"Emma\" (2000). He directed 14 pantomimes, all of which had book, music and lyrics by his wife. In 1995 he was nominated as Best Director for the Martini Regional Awards for \"The Day After the Fair\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "1988 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following five productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "2012 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The nominations were announced on 15 March 2012 in 23 categories."
      },
      {
        "title": "2017 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "Any new production that opened between 17 February 2016 and 21 February 2017 in a theatre represented in membership of the Society of London Theatre was eligible for consideration, provided it had performed at least 30 performances.\n*2 March: Kenneth Branagh announced as the recipient of the Society Special Award\n*6 March: Nominations announced by Denise Gough and Matt Henry on Facebook Live\n*10 March: Nominations party held; Jason Manford announced as the host of the ceremony\n*9 April: Award ceremony held"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dermot Whelan",
        "text": "Dermot Whelan\n--Awards.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Showing in March and April 2017, \"Derren Brown: Underground\" was an exclusive stage show to the Charing Cross Theatre in London (an underground theatre). It contained a collection of Brown's favourite bits of his previous stage shows as a warm-up for his first American shows. It was later extended to a full tour in the UK, which commenced after Brown returned to the country from 'Secret'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean-Dominique de La Rochefoucauld",
        "text": "In 1990, he was awarded the Prize XVIIe for his TV drama \"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "List of awards and nominations received by Laurence Olivier\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Denis Delestrac",
        "text": "He has won over 30 international prizes and became a member of the European Film Academy in 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "1987 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following three productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Derren Brown was born in the Croydon area of London on 27 February 1971, the son of Chris and Bob Brown. He was raised in the nearby area of Purley, which he described as \"the epitome of middle-class suburbia\". He has a brother nine years his junior. He was privately educated at Whitgift School in Croydon, where his father was a swimming coach, before going on to study law and German at the University of Bristol. While there, he attended a hypnotist show by Martin S Taylor, which inspired him to turn to illusion and hypnosis as a career. As an undergraduate, he started working as a conjuror, performing the traditional skills of close-up magic in bars and restaurants. In 1992, he started performing stage shows at the University of Bristol under the stage name Darren V. Brown; the \"V\" stood for \"Victor\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following two productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1997 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following three productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "In 1939, Olivier appeared in the film \"Wuthering Heights\" in a role that saw him nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor. The following year he was again nominated for the same award for his portrayal of Maxim de Winter in \"Rebecca\". In 1944, he produced, directed and appeared as Henry V of England in \"Henry V\". The film was nominated for several Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Actor, although it failed to win in any competitive category; instead Olivier received a \"Special Award\" for his work on the film. His next film, \"Hamlet\" (1948), became the first non-American film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture, and he also received the award for Best Actor. In 1979, Olivier was presented with an Academy Honorary Award to recognize his lifetime of contribution to the art of film. In total he was nominated for nine other acting Academy Awards and one each for production and direction. For his stage work, Olivier won three \"Evening Standard\" Theatre Awards and was nominated for a Tony Award. He made his television debut in 1956, and was subsequently nominated nine times for an Emmy Award, winning on five occasions; he was also nominated for two British Academy Television Awards for his work in the medium."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adrian Brown (director)",
        "text": "Adrian Brown (30 April 1929 - 27 April 2019) was a British theatre, television director and poet. He was nominated for a BAFTA with Peter Griffiths for his direction of \"The Caucasian Chalk Circle\" in 1985 and won an International Emmy for Thames TV in 1987 for an adaptation of William Luce's \"The Belle of Amherst\" starring Claire Bloom. He directed the world premiere of \"Less Than Kind\" by Terence Rattigan at the Jermyn Street Theatre, which was staged in early 2011. He has published two volumes of verse, and holds the title of the Grand Master of the Knights of Verse of the Eccentric Club."
      },
      {
        "title": "2018 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The nominations were announced on 6 March 2018 in 25 categories."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following 19 productions and 2 operas received multiple nominations:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor",
        "text": "This award was introduced in 1985, as Actor of the Year, then retitled to its current name for the 1993 ceremony. Prior to this award, from 1976\u20131984 (and again in 1988), there was a pair of awards given each year for this general category, one for Actor of the Year in a New Play and the other for Actor of the Year in a Revival."
      },
      {
        "title": "1981 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following two productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "2011 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The nominations were announced on 7 February 2011 in 25 categories."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Filmed for Channel 4 in front of a live studio audience, this new series, airing in September 2009 was made up of four one-hour specials, during which Brown attempted what he described as \"some of the most incredible feats to date\". The show consisted of a mixture of pre-recorded location pieces connected by theatre-based segments, with each of the four one-hour programmes building up to a major stunt performance. The first teasers broadcast were shown backwards. When played forwards, Brown explained that in his new series he would be revealing the \"inner workings\" of his tricks and showing the viewer \"how to get away with it\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many Luarence Olivier Awards did Derren Brown win?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "His 2006 show Something Wicked This Way Comes and his 2012 show Svengali won him two Laurence Olivier Awards for Best Entertainment.  Laurence Olivier Awards are presented annually by the Society of London Theatre to recognise excellence in professional theatre in London at an annual ceremony in the capital.",
      "Derren Brown's 2006 show Something Wicked This Way Comes and his 2012 show Svengali won him two Laurence Olivier Awards for Best Entertainment."
    ],
    "topic": "Derren Brown",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Derren Brown:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Derren Brown"
        ],
        "ctx": "Derren Brown (born 27 February 1971) is an English mentalist, illusionist, painter, and author. He began performing in 1992, making his television debut with \"Derren Brown: Mind Control\" in 2000, and has since produced several more shows for stage and television. His 2006 show \"Something Wicked This Way Comes\" and his 2012 show \"Svengali\" won him two Laurence Olivier Awards for Best Entertainment. He made his Broadway debut with his 2019 stage show \"Secret\". He has also written books for both magicians and the general public."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Laurence Olivier Awards:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Laurence Olivier Awards"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Laurence Olivier Awards, or simply the Olivier Awards, are presented annually by the Society of London Theatre to recognise excellence in professional theatre in London at an annual ceremony in the capital. The awards were originally known as the Society of West End Theatre Awards, but they were renamed in honour of the British actor of the same name in 1984."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Derren Brown:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Derren Brown"
        ],
        "ctx": "Derren Brown (born 27 February 1971) is an English mentalist, illusionist, painter, and author. He began performing in 1992, making his television debut with \"Derren Brown: Mind Control\" in 2000, and has since produced several more shows for stage and television. His 2006 show \"Something Wicked This Way Comes\" and his 2012 show \"Svengali\" won him two Laurence Olivier Awards for Best Entertainment. He made his Broadway debut with his 2019 stage show \"Secret\". He has also written books for both magicians and the general public."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "A 90-minute edit of this show was broadcast on 29 December 2006, 10 June 2007 and 17 June 2008 on Channel 4, on 10 May 2008, 17 January 2009 and 6 January 2012 on E4; a longer, unedited version was released on DVD in May 2008. The show won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Entertainment Show 2006. The show was co-written and directed by his longtime collaborator Andy Nyman. The title originates from the Ray Bradbury novel, which is itself a quote from Act 4, Scene 2 of William Shakespeare's \"Macbeth\". (The same verse also is the source of the title of Agatha Christie's By The Pricking of My Thumbs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The awards were established in 1976 by the Society of London Theatre as the Society of West End Theatre Awards and were designed by artist Tom Merrifield. The first ceremony was in December 1976 at the Caf\u00e9 Royal. In 1984, British actor Laurence Olivier gave his consent for the awards to be renamed in his honour and they became known as the Laurence Olivier Awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Revival",
        "text": "This award was introduced in 1991, presented through to 1995, set aside from 1996 to 2002, and reintroduced for the 2003 Olivier Awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Performance in a Musical",
        "text": "This commingled actor/actress award was introduced in 1977, was also presented in 1978, then in 1979 was replaced by newly created awards for Best Actress in a Musical and Best Actor in a Musical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Musical Revival",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Musical Revival is an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Musical Revival",
        "text": "From 1997 to 2007, the award was presented as Outstanding Musical Production.\n;Two awards"
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "Olivier's dermatomyositis meant he spent the last three months of 1974 in hospital, and he spent early 1975 slowly recovering and regaining his strength. When strong enough, he was contacted by the director John Schlesinger, who offered him the role of a Nazi torturer in the 1976 film \"Marathon Man\". Olivier shaved his pate and wore oversized glasses to enlarge the look of his eyes, in a role that the critic David Robinson, writing for \"The Times\", thought was \"strongly played\", adding that Olivier was \"always at his best in roles that call for him to be seedy or nasty or both\". Olivier was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role, and won the Golden Globe of the same category."
      },
      {
        "title": "1976 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following 12 productions received multiple nominations:\n* 6: \"Henry IV\"\n* 5: \"Henry V\"\n* 4: \"Donkeys' Years\", \"Funny Peculiar\" and \"Old World\"\n* 3: \"Confusions\" and \"Hamlet\"\n* 2: \"For King and Country\", \"Tamburlaine the Great\", \"The Bed Before Yesterday\" and \"The Family Dance\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Newcomer in a Play",
        "text": "This commingled award, covering all roles and responsibilities in a production, was introduced in 1980, and was last presented at the 2008 ceremony, after which it was retired. During its existence, the award was not used for 1991\u20132003, nor 2005\u20132007."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"Svengali\" was filmed for television and first broadcast on Channel 4 on 18 September 2012. The show won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Entertainment Show 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Musical",
        "text": "The Olivier Awards are the most prestigious theatrical awards in the United Kingdom and are the UK equivalent of the Tony Awards. In both 1977 and 1978, the Oliviers presented an award for Best Performance in a Musical, won both time by an actress. The following year, they created the category for Best Actor in a Musical. As of 2021, the actor who holds the most awards in this category is Philip Quast, with three."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "For his work in films, Olivier received four Academy Awards: an honorary award for \"Henry V\" (1947), a Best Actor award and one as producer for \"Hamlet\" (1948), and a second honorary award in 1979 to recognise his lifetime of contribution to the art of film. He was nominated for nine other acting Oscars and one each for production and direction. He also won two British Academy Film Awards out of ten nominations, five Emmy Awards out of nine nominations, and three Golden Globe Awards out of six nominations. He was nominated once for a Tony Award (for best actor, as Archie Rice) but did not win."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor",
        "text": "This award was introduced in 1985, as Actor of the Year, then retitled to its current name for the 1993 ceremony. Prior to this award, from 1976\u20131984 (and again in 1988), there was a pair of awards given each year for this general category, one for Actor of the Year in a New Play and the other for Actor of the Year in a Revival."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following 7 productions received multiple awards:\n*3: \"& Juliet\", \"Dear Evan Hansen\", \"Emilia\"\n*2: \"Death of a Salesman\", \"Leopoldstadt\", \"Mary Poppins\", \"Present Laughter\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Musical Revival",
        "text": "Four nominations"
      },
      {
        "title": "1979 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1979 Society of West End Theatre Awards were held in 1979 in London at the Caf\u00e9 Royal, celebrating excellence in West End theatre by the Society of West End Theatre. The awards would not become the Laurence Olivier Awards, as they are known today, until the 1984 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The awards ceremony was held at the Royal Opera House from 2012 to 2016, moving to the Royal Albert Hall in 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "2018 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "\"Hamilton\" matched the record set by \"Matilda the Musical\" in the 2012 ceremony by winning 7 Olivier Awards, including Best New Musical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry V (1944 film)",
        "text": "Miller adds that \"Olivier won Best Actor awards from the New York Film Critics Circle and the National Review, also capturing the latter's Best Picture award and coming within a few votes of beating \"The Best Years of Our Lives\" (1946) for the New York Film Critics Award in that category.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Outstanding Achievement in a Musical",
        "text": "This award was introduced in 1981, was also presented in 1982 and 1984, then was retired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Actor of the Year in a Revival",
        "text": "This award was presented from 1976 to 1984, then in 1985 the award was combined with the Actor of the Year in a New Play award to create the Best Actor award. The original Actor of the Year in a Revival award returned one last time, for the 1988 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Revival",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Revival is an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Actor of the Year in a New Play",
        "text": "This award was presented from 1976 to 1984, then in 1985 the award was combined with the Actor of the Year in a Revival award to create the Best Actor award. The original Actor of the Year in a New Play award returned one last time, for the 1988 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier on stage and screen",
        "text": "In 1930, to gain money for his forthcoming marriage, Olivier began his film career with small roles in two films. In 1939 he appeared as Heathcliff in \"Wuthering Heights\" in a role that saw him nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor. The following year he was again nominated for the same award for his portrayal of Maxim de Winter in \"Rebecca\". In 1944 he produced, directed and appeared as Henry V of England in \"Henry V\". There were Oscar nominations for the film, including Best Picture and Best Actor, but it won none and the film instead won a \"Special Award\". He won the Best Actor award for the 1948 film \"Hamlet\", which became the first non-American film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture. He later received Oscar nominations for roles in \"Richard III\" (1955), \"The Entertainer\" (1960), \"Othello\" (1965), \"Sleuth\" (1972), \"Marathon Man\" (1976) and \"The Boys from Brazil\" (1978). In 1979 he was also presented with an Honorary Award, at the Academy Awards, to recognise his lifetime of contribution to the art of film. He was nominated for nine other acting Oscars and one each for production and direction. Throughout his career Olivier appeared in radio dramas and poetry readings, and made his television debut in 1956."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Original Score or New Orchestrations",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Original Score or New Orchestrations is an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "1981 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1981 Society of West End Theatre Awards were held in 1981 in London celebrating excellence in West End theatre by the Society of West End Theatre. The awards would not become the Laurence Olivier Awards, as they are known today, until the 1984 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "1978 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1978 Society of West End Theatre Awards were held in 1978 in London celebrating excellence in West End theatre by the Society of West End Theatre. The awards would not become the Laurence Olivier Awards, as they are known today, until the 1984 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Musical",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Musical is an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress",
        "text": "This award was introduced in 1985, as Actress of the Year, then retitled to its current name for the 1993 ceremony. Prior to this award, from 1976\u20131984 (and again in 1988), there was a pair of awards given each year for this general category, one for Actress of the Year in a New Play and the other for Actress of the Year in a Revival."
      },
      {
        "title": "1976 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1976 Society of West End Theatre Awards were held in December 1976, London. They were the first major award ceremony celebrating excellence in West End theatre from the Society of West End Theatre, which would later be called the Society of London Theatre. The awards would not become the Laurence Olivier Awards, as they are known today, until the 1984 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Director of a Musical",
        "text": "This award was introduced in 1991, along with Best Director of a Play, when the original (and singular) Best Director award was divided. The new pair of awards were last presented in 1995, after which the original Best Director award returned to the roster of Olivier Awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Play",
        "text": "The award was titled Play of the Year from its establishment in 1976, and was first retitled to its current name for the 2001 Olivier Awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Sarah Lancashire",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Awards, are presented annually by the Society of London Theatre to recognise excellence in professional theatre in London at an annual ceremony in the capital. The awards were first established in 1976 by the Society of London Theatre as the Society of West End Awards. In 1984, British actor Laurence Olivier gave his consent for the awards to be renamed in his honour and they became known as the Laurence Olivier Awards. The Awards are judged by four separate panels for theatre, opera, dance, and Affiliate."
      },
      {
        "title": "1980 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1980 Society of West End Theatre Awards were held in 1980 in London celebrating excellence in West End theatre by the Society of West End Theatre. The awards would not become the Laurence Olivier Awards, as they are known today, until the 1984 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Performance in a Musical",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Performance in a Musical was an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The first Laurence Olivier Awards to be broadcast on television was the 1981 ceremony, which was broadcast on BBC1. This continued until 1992, before a switch to BBC2 until 2003. The awards ceremony was then only broadcast on radio until 2011, when the BBC broadcast live interactive red-button coverage of the event, while Paul Gambaccini presented a programme on BBC Radio 2 with live coverage and interviews. The same coverage followed in 2012, before ITV secured the broadcast rights which saw the return of the Olivier Awards to mainstream television in 2013. This has continued in recent years, and the ceremony has also been broadcast on Magic Radio.\n* Best New Play\n* Best Revival\n* Best Entertainment or Comedy Play\n* Best Actor\n* Best Actress\n* Best Performance in a Supporting Role\n** Best Actor in a Supporting Role\n** Best Actress in a Supporting Role\n* Best New Musical\n* Best Musical Revival\n* Best Actor in a Musical\n* Best Actress in a Musical\n* Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical\n** Best Actor in a Supporting Role in a Musical\n** Best Actress in a Supporting Role in a Musical\n* Outstanding Achievement in Music\n* Best Director\n* Best Theatre Choreographer\n* Best Set Design\n* Best Costume Design\n* Best Lighting Design\n* Best Sound Design\n* Best New Dance Production\n* Best New Opera Production\n* Outstanding Achievement in Dance\n* Outstanding Achievement in Opera\n* Special Award\n* Best Entertainment and Family\n* Outstanding Achievement in an Affiliate Theatre\n* Audience Award\n* Actor of the Year in a New Play\n* Actress of the Year in a New Play\n* Actor of the Year in a Revival\n* Actress of the Year in a Revival\n* Best Comedy Performance\n* Best Performance in a Musical\n* Supporting Artist of the Year\n* Best Newcomer in a Play\n* Most Promising Performer\n* Best Company Performance\n* Best Director of a Play\n* Best Director of a Musical\n* Most Promising Playwright\n* Best Set Designer\n* Outstanding Achievement in a Musical"
      },
      {
        "title": "1990 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1990 Laurence Olivier Awards were held in 1990 in London celebrating excellence in West End theatre by the Society of London Theatre. As the last ceremony was held in 1988, these awards honored productions from both 1989 and 1990."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oliver!",
        "text": "British comedian Rowan Atkinson played Fagin. He had played the role in a school production but had turned it down in the Palladium revival. Burn Gorman played Bill Sikes, making his West End musical debut. Three actors shared the role of Oliver: Harry Stott, Laurence Jeffcoate and Gwion Wyn Jones. Robert Madge, Ross McCormack, Eric Dibb Fuller and Jack Glister played The Artful Dodger. Jodie Prenger won the role of Nancy, shared with Australian Tamsin Carroll, who played two performances each week. Sarah Lark, a runner-up on \"I'd do Anything\" understudied the role. Royal Shakespeare Company actor Julian Glover played Mr. Brownlow with Julian Bleach as Mr. Sowerberry/Dr. Grimwig, Louise Gold as Mrs. Sowerberry, Julius D'Silva as Mr. Bumble and Wendy Ferguson as Widow Corney. The revival was nominated for three 2010 Olivier Awards: Best Revival of a Musical, Best Actor in a Musical (Atkinson) and Best Theatre Choreography, but failed to win any. After the departure of the original Olivers, the role was passed on to Zac Hurst, Fanncesco Piancentini-Smith, Edward Cooke, Edward Holtom and Ethan Smith. Edward Holtom made a sad departure, one month before his scheduled leave and the date on his contract expired. No reason was given for this."
      },
      {
        "title": "1978 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following 16 productions received multiple nominations:\n* 4: \"Evita\"\n* 3: \"Annie\", \"Filumena\" and \"The Double Dealer\"\n* 2: \"Brand\", \"Coriolanus\", \"Half-Life\", \"Henry VI\", \"Lark Rise\", \"Plenty\", \"Shut Your Eyes and Think of England\", \"The Homecoming\", \"The Woman\", \"Twelfth Night\", \"Waters of the Moon\" and \"Whose Life Is It Anyway\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "From academic and other institutions, Olivier received honorary doctorates from the university of Tufts, Massachusetts (1946), Oxford (1957) and Edinburgh (1964). He was also awarded the Danish Sonning Prize for outstanding contributions to European culture in 1966, the Gold Medallion of the Royal Swedish Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities in 1968; and the Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts in 1976. In February 1960, for his contribution to the film industry, Olivier was inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame, with a star at 6319 Hollywood Boulevard; he is also included in the American Theater Hall of Fame. In 1977, Olivier was awarded a British Film Institute Fellowship."
      },
      {
        "title": "2005 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following 15 productions, including three operas, received multiple nominations:\n* 9: \"Mary Poppins\"\n* 8: \"The Producers\"\n* 5: \"Festen\" and \"The Woman in White\"\n* 4: \"All's Well That Ends Well\" and \"The History Boys\"\n* 3: \"Hamlet\", \"His Dark Materials\", \"Peter Grimes\", \"Suddenly, Last Summer\" and \"The Goat: Who Is Sylvia\"\n* 2: \"Endgame\", \"Grand Hotel\", \"Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District\" and \"\""
      },
      {
        "title": "1977 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following 15 productions received multiple nominations:\n* 4: \"Privates on Parade\"\n* 3: \"Bubbling Brown Sugar\" and \"Just between Ourselves\"\n* 2: \"Bedroom Farce\", \"Cause C\u00e9l\u00e8bre\", \"Dusa, Fish, Stas and Vi\", \"King Lear\", \"Macbeth\", \"Once a Catholic \", \"State of Revolution\", \"Stevie\", \"The Fire That Consumes\", \"The Kingfisher\", \"The Plough and the Stars\", \"Volpone\" and \"Wild Oats\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Actor of the Year in a Revival",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Actor of the Year in a Revival was an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "1977 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1977 Society of West End Theatre Awards were held in 1977 in London celebrating excellence in West End theatre by the Society of West End Theatre. The awards would not become the Laurence Olivier Awards, as they are known today, until the 1984 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Outstanding Achievement in a Musical",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Outstanding Achievement in a Musical was an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "1982 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1982 Society of West End Theatre Awards were held in 1982 in London celebrating excellence in West End theatre by the Society of West End Theatre. The awards would not become the Laurence Olivier Awards, as they are known today, until the 1984 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "From academic and other institutions, Olivier received honorary doctorates from Tufts University in Massachusetts (1946), Oxford (1957) and Edinburgh (1964). He was also awarded the Danish Sonning Prize in 1966, the Gold Medallion of the Royal Swedish Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities in 1968; and the Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts in 1976."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Musical",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Musical is an annual award presented by the Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "Some notable records and facts about the Laurence Olivier Awards include the following:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Actress of the Year in a Revival",
        "text": "This award was presented from 1976 to 1984, then in 1985 the award was combined with the Actress of the Year in a New Play award to create the Best Actress award. The original Actress of the Year in a Revival award returned one last time, for the 1988 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "In 1939, Olivier appeared in the film \"Wuthering Heights\" in a role that saw him nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor. The following year he was again nominated for the same award for his portrayal of Maxim de Winter in \"Rebecca\". In 1944, he produced, directed and appeared as Henry V of England in \"Henry V\". The film was nominated for several Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Actor, although it failed to win in any competitive category; instead Olivier received a \"Special Award\" for his work on the film. His next film, \"Hamlet\" (1948), became the first non-American film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture, and he also received the award for Best Actor. In 1979, Olivier was presented with an Academy Honorary Award to recognize his lifetime of contribution to the art of film. In total he was nominated for nine other acting Academy Awards and one each for production and direction. For his stage work, Olivier won three \"Evening Standard\" Theatre Awards and was nominated for a Tony Award. He made his television debut in 1956, and was subsequently nominated nine times for an Emmy Award, winning on five occasions; he was also nominated for two British Academy Television Awards for his work in the medium."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1984 Laurence Olivier Awards were held in 1984 in London celebrating excellence in West End theatre by the Society of London Theatre. These were the first awards to be held after Laurence Olivier consented to the awards being renamed in his honour."
      },
      {
        "title": "1983 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1983 Society of West End Theatre Awards were held in 1983 in London celebrating excellence in West End theatre by the Society of West End Theatre. The awards would not become the Laurence Olivier Awards, as they are known today, until the 1984 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical is an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Awards, or simply the Olivier Awards, are presented annually by the Society of London Theatre to recognise excellence in professional theatre in London at an annual ceremony in the capital. The awards were originally known as the Society of West End Theatre Awards, but they were renamed in honour of the British actor of the same name in 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Actress of the Year in a New Play",
        "text": "This award was presented from 1976 to 1984, then in 1985 the award was combined with the Actress of the Year in a Revival award to create the Best Actress award. The original Actress of the Year in a New Play award returned one last time, for the 1988 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The awards are given to individuals involved in West End productions and other leading non-commercial theatres based in London across a range of categories covering plays, musicals, dance, opera and affiliate theatre. A discretionary non-competitive Special Olivier Award is also given each year. The Olivier Awards are recognised internationally as the highest honour in British theatre, equivalent to the BAFTA Awards for film and television, and the BRIT Awards for music. The Olivier Awards are considered equivalent to Broadway's Tony Awards and France's Moli\u00e8re Award."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Director of a Play",
        "text": "This award was introduced in 1991, along with Best Director of a Musical, when the original (and singular) Best Director award was divided. The new pair of awards were last presented in 1995, after which the original Best Director award returned to the roster of Olivier Awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "Laurence Olivier (1907\u20131989) was an English actor who, along with his contemporaries Ralph Richardson and John Gielgud, dominated the British stage of the mid-20th century. He also worked in films throughout his career, playing more than fifty cinema roles. From 1956, he performed in television roles, for which he won several awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "Olivier was appointed Knight Bachelor in the 1947 Birthday Honours for services to the stage and to films. A life peerage as Baron Olivier, of Brighton in the County of Sussex followed in the 1970 Birthday Honours for services to the theatre. Olivier was later appointed to the Order of Merit in 1981. He also received honours from foreign governments. In 1949 he was made Commander of the Danish Order of the Dannebrog; the French appointed him , Legion of Honour, in 1953; the Italian government created him , Order of Merit of the Italian Republic, in 1953; and in 1971 he was granted the Order of Yugoslav Flag with Golden Wreath."
      },
      {
        "title": "In memoriam segment",
        "text": "In April 2018, the Laurence Olivier Awards came under fire for not including the late Sir Peter Hall, acclaimed British theatre director, in its in memoriam segment. To make up for this omission, the Olivier Awards renamed its Best Director trophy the \"Sir Peter Hall Award for Best Director.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of London Theatre",
        "text": "The Olivier Awards (or simply the Olivier's) are presented annually by the Society of London Theatre to recognise excellence in professional theatre. Originally known as the Society of West End Theatre Awards, they were renamed in honour of the British actor Laurence Olivier in 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "Since inception, the awards have been held at various venues and theatres across London, from 2012 to 2016 at the Royal Opera House, before moving to the Royal Albert Hall in 2017. Television coverage is broadcast in prime time on ITV, who acquired the rights from 2013 onwards, with radio coverage by Magic Radio."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Actress of the Year in a Revival",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Actress of the Year in a Revival was an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The Oliviers were originally scheduled to be held on 5 April 2020 at the Royal Albert Hall with Manford as host, but was cancelled on 17 March due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom.\n*12 January: Jason Manford announced as host\n*14 February: Jo Hawes, Thelma Holt, Stephen Jameson, Sarah Preece and Peter Roberts are announced as the recipients of the Special Recognition Award\n*3 March: Nominations announced\n*6 March: Don Black is announced as a recipient of the Special Award\n*17 March: Award ceremony cancelled\n*5 April: Award ceremony originally scheduled\n*28 September: Award ceremony rescheduled\n*21 October: Ian McKellen is announced as a recipient of the Special Award\n*25 October: Award ceremony aired"
      },
      {
        "title": "2009 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following 24 productions, including two ballets and four operas, received multiple nominations:\n* 7: \"La Cage aux Folles\"\n* 5: \"Black Watch\", \"Jersey Boys\", \"Piaf\" and \"Zorro\"\n* 4: \"\", \"Brief Encounter\", \"Sunset Boulevard\", \"The Chalk Garden\", \"The Histories\" and \"The Norman Conquests\"\n* 3: \"Marguerite\", \"No Man's Land\" and \"Partenope\"\n* 2: \"Don Carlo\", \"Hamlet\", \"I pagliacci\", \"Impressing the Czar\", \"Infra\", \"Ivanov\", \"That Face\", \"The Minotaur\", \"Twelfth Night\" and \"West Side Story\""
      },
      {
        "title": "1980 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following 21 productions, including two operas, received multiple nominations:\n* 7: \"Nicholas Nickleby\"\n* 4: \"Amadeus\"\n* 3: \"Juno and the Paycock\", \"Life of Galileo\", \"Pal Joey\", \"\" and \"They're Playing Our Song\"\n* 2: \"A Lesson from Aloes\", \"Born in the Gardens\", \"Cos\u00ec fan tutte\", \"Duet for One\", \"Educating Rita\", \"Harlequinade\", \"Jeeves Takes Charge\", \"Make and Break\", \"Oklahoma\", \"On the Twentieth Century\", \"The Browning Version\", \"The Dresser\", \"The Greeks\" and \"The Turn of the Screw\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical",
        "text": "This commingled actor/actress award was introduced in 1991, presented through to 2014, then in 2015 was replaced by newly created awards for Best Actor in a Supporting Role in a Musical and Best Actress in a Supporting Role in a Musical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical was an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "Olivier's honours included a knighthood (1947), a life peerage (1970) and the Order of Merit (1981). For his on-screen work he received four Academy Awards, two British Academy Film Awards, five Emmy Awards, and three Golden Globe Awards. The National Theatre's largest auditorium is named in his honour, and he is commemorated in the Laurence Olivier Awards, given annually by the Society of London Theatre. He was married three times, to the actresses Jill Esmond from 1930 to 1940, Vivien Leigh from 1940 to 1960, and Joan Plowright from 1961 until his death."
      },
      {
        "title": "2018 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following productions received multiple awards:\n* 7: \"Hamilton\"\n* 3: \"The Ferryman\"\n* 2: \"Angels in America, Follies,\" \"Girl from the North Country\", \"Semiramide\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "In addition to the naming of the National Theatre's largest auditorium in his honour, Olivier is commemorated in the Laurence Olivier Awards, bestowed annually since 1984 by the Society of West End Theatre. In 1991 Olivier's friend, the actor John Gielgud, unveiled a memorial stone commemorating Olivier in Poets' Corner at Westminster Abbey. In 2007, the centenary of Olivier's birth, a life-sized statue of him was unveiled on the South Bank, outside the National Theatre; the same year the British Film Institute held a retrospective season of his film work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Set Design",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Set Design is an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Set Designer",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Set Designer was an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Revival",
        "text": "2 awards\n* \"Hedda Gabler\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role in a Musical",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role in a Musical is an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "1981 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following 18 productions, including one ballet and one opera, received multiple nominations:\n* 6: \"Cats\"\n* 3: \"Barnum\", \"Children of a Lesser God\", \"Hamlet\", \"One Mo' Time\" and \"The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas\"\n* 2: \"Anyone for Denis\", \"Dances of Albion\", \"Les contes d'Hoffmann\", \"Man and Superman\", \"On the Razzle\", \"Passion Play\", \"Present Laughter\", \"Quartermaine's Terms\", \"Steaming\", \"The Mitford Girls\", \"The Provoked Wife\" and \"Translations\""
      },
      {
        "title": "2014 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following 16 productions received multiple nominations:\n* 7: \"Charlie and the Chocolate Factory\" and \"Merrily We Roll Along\"\n* 6: \"Once\", \"The Book of Mormon\" and \"The Scottsboro Boys\"\n* 5: \"Chimerica\" and \"Ghosts\"\n* 4: \"The Light Princess\"\n* 3: \"The Amen Corner\"\n* 2: \"Coriolanus\", \"Henry V\", \"Othello\", \"Peter and Alice\", \"Private Lives\", \"The Sound of Music\" and \"The Wind in the Willows\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Director of a Musical",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Director of a Musical was an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "2022 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 2022 Laurence Olivier Awards were held on 10 April 2022 at the Royal Albert Hall and hosted by Jason Manford. They were the first Oliviers to be held since 2020 due to the complete shutdown of UK theatres in 2020/2021 as a result of lockdowns caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Due to this, the eligibility period was expanded from 19 February 2020 to 22 February 2022. The green carpet, hosted by Emma B, Angellica Bell, Frank DiLella and Anita Rani, was livestreamed on YouTube and the Olivier ceremony itself was broadcast in full on Magic with hosts Alice Arnold and Ruthie Henshall. Highlights from the show were broadcast on ITV.\n*2 February: In-person event hosted by Jason Manford and venue confirmed at the Royal Albert Hall announcement\n*8 March: Nominations announcement by Miriam-Teak Lee and Sam Tutty\n*24 March: Special Recognition Award recipients announced\n*10 April: Award ceremony held\n*Jade Anouka\n*Floella Benjamin\n*Don Black\n*Anne-Marie Duff\n*Noma Dumezweni\n*Tom Felton\n*Kit Harrington\n*Max Harwood\n*Ruthie Henshall\n*Cassidy Janson\n*Beverley Knight\n*Bonnie Langford\n*Miriam-Teak Lee\n*Oti Mabuse\n*Arlene Phillips\n*Jonathan Pryce\n*Keala Settle\n*Ranj Singh\n*Giles Terera\n*Sam Tutty\n*Eric Underwood\n*Layton Williams\n*Samantha Barks, Steph McKeon and the cast of \"Frozen\" \u2013 \"For the First Time in Forever/Let It Go\"\n*Beverley Knight and the cast of \"The Drifters Girl\" \u2013 \"Kissin' in the Back Row of the Movies/Harlem Child/You're More than a Number in my Little Red Book\"\n*Hiran Abeysekera and the cast of \"Life of Pi\"\n*Kerry Ellis and the cast of \"Anything Goes\" \u2013 \"Anything Goes\"\n*Olly Dobson, Cedric Neal and the cast of \"\"\n*Arinz\u00e9 Kene and the cast of \"Get Up, Stand Up\" \u2013 \"Get Up, Stand Up\"\n*\"State Anthem of Ukraine\"\n*Amy Lennox from \"Cabaret\" \u2013 \"Cabaret\"\n*The cast of \"Dear Evan Hansen\" \u2013 \"For Forever/You Will Be Found\" (in memoriam)\n*Clive Carter and the cast of \"Moulin Rouge\" \u2013 \"Welcome to the Moulin Rouge\"\n*The cast of \"Spring Awakening\" \u2013 \"The Song of Purple Summer\""
      },
      {
        "title": "2017 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "Any new production that opened between 17 February 2016 and 21 February 2017 in a theatre represented in membership of the Society of London Theatre was eligible for consideration, provided it had performed at least 30 performances.\n*2 March: Kenneth Branagh announced as the recipient of the Society Special Award\n*6 March: Nominations announced by Denise Gough and Matt Henry on Facebook Live\n*10 March: Nominations party held; Jason Manford announced as the host of the ceremony\n*9 April: Award ceremony held"
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Newcomer in a Play",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Newcomer in a Play was an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "1988 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following 19 productions received multiple nominations:\n* 4: \"Candide\" and \"The Wizard of Oz\"\n* 3: \"A Family Affair\", \"A Touch of the Poet\", \"An Enemy of the People\", \"Blood Brothers\", \"Our Country's Good\", \"Separation\", \"The Secret Rapture\", \"Titus Andronicus\" and \"Too Clever by Half\"\n* 2: \"A Walk in the Woods\", \"Cat on a Hot Tin Roof\", \"Hello and Goodbye\", \"Henceforward\", \"Mrs. Klein\", \"Shirley Valentine\", \"Sugar Babies\" and \"The Shaughraun\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Opera Production",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Opera Production is an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of London Theatre",
        "text": "Awards are presented annually across a range of categories covering plays, musicals, dance, opera and affiliate theatre. The Olivier Awards are recognised internationally as the highest honour in British theatre, equivalent to Broadway's Tony Awards and France's Moli\u00e8re Award. Award winners receive a bronze statuette of Sir Laurence Olivier playing Henry V in 1937. The awards have taken place at various hotels and theatres across London, and since 2012 have been held at the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden."
      },
      {
        "title": "1977 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following production received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1986 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1986 Laurence Olivier Awards were held in 1986 in London celebrating excellence in West End theatre by the Society of London Theatre."
      },
      {
        "title": "1987 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following 17 productions received multiple nominations:\n* 4: \"Kiss Me, Kate\"\n* 3: \"A Lie of the Mind\", \"A View from the Bridge\", \"\" and \"Up on the Roof\"\n* 2: \"A Penny for a Song\", \"Antony and Cleopatra\", \"Blues in the Night\", \"Follies\", \"Lettice and Lovage\", \"Macbeth\" (Lyttelton), \"Medea\", \"Sarcophagus\", \"The Rover\", \"The Two Noble Kinsmen\", \"Three Men on a Horse\" and \"Twelfth Night\""
      },
      {
        "title": "1982 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following four productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Set Designer",
        "text": "The award was retired after the 2002 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical",
        "text": "The Olivier Awards are the most prestigious theatrical awards in the United Kingdom and are the UK equivalent of the Tony Awards. In both 1977 and 1978, the Oliviers presented an award for Best Performance in a Musical, this was won by a female performer on both occasions. The 1977 winner was Anna Sharkey for \"Maggie\", while in 1978 it was won by Elaine Paige for \"Evita\". The following year, they created the category for Best Actress in a Musical. As of 2021, the actress who holds the most awards in this category is Imelda Staunton, with three."
      },
      {
        "title": "1983 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following four productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1978 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following three productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1976 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following three productions received multiple awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1985 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1985 Laurence Olivier Awards were held in 1985 in London celebrating excellence in West End theatre by the Society of London Theatre."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Director",
        "text": "In 1991, the category was briefly retired and divided into the categories Best Director of a Play and Best Director of a Musical. These two categories were in turn retired in 1995, and the Best Director award was reinstated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role in a Musical",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role in a Musical is an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amadeus (film)",
        "text": "The film was nominated for eleven Academy Awards, winning eight (including Best Picture). At the end of the Oscar ceremony, Laurence Olivier came on stage to present the Oscar for Best Picture. As Olivier thanked the Academy for inviting him, he was already opening the envelope. Instead of announcing the nominees, he simply read, \"The winner for this is \"Amadeus\".\" An AMPAS official quickly went onstage to confirm the winner and signaled that all was well, before Olivier then presented the award to producer Saul Zaentz. Olivier (in his 78th year) had been ill for many years, and it was because of mild dementia that he forgot to read the nominees. Zaentz then thanked Olivier, saying it was an honour to receive the award from him, before mentioning the other nominees in his acceptance speech: \"The Killing Fields\", \"A Passage to India\", \"Places in the Heart\" and \"A Soldier's Story\". Maurice Jarre won the Oscar for Best Original Music Score for his scoring of \"A Passage to India\". In his acceptance speech for the award, Jarre remarked \"I was lucky Mozart was not eligible this year\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Audience Award for Most Popular Show",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Most Popular Show was an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Douglas Hodge",
        "text": "Olivier Awards include 2012 Best Actor for \"Inadmissible Evidence\" (nomination), 2009 Best Actor in a Musical for \"La Cage aux Folles\" (winner), and 2006 Best Actor in a Musical for \"Guys and Dolls\" (nomination). He was also nominated for Best Actor in the 2005 Evening Standard Awards for his role in \"Dumbshow\" at the Royal Court."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many Luarence Olivier Awards did Derren Brown win?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Derren Brown's 2006 show Something Wicked This Way Comes and his 2012 show Svengali won him two Laurence Olivier Awards for Best Entertainment."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the history of the Olivier Awards?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The awards were established in 1976, with the first ceremony in December 1976.",
      "They were established in 1976 by the Society of London Theatre as the Society of West End Theatre Awards, and the first ceremony was in December 1976 at the Caf\u00e9 Royal, then in 1984 the awards were renamed afer British actor Laurence Olivier."
    ],
    "topic": "Derren Brown",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Laurence Olivier Awards:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Laurence Olivier Awards",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "The awards were established in 1976 by the Society of London Theatre as the Society of West End Theatre Awards and were designed by artist Tom Merrifield. The first ceremony was in December 1976 at the Caf\u00e9 Royal. In 1984, British actor Laurence Olivier gave his consent for the awards to be renamed in his honour and they became known as the Laurence Olivier Awards."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Laurence Olivier Awards:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Laurence Olivier Awards",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "The awards were established in 1976 by the Society of London Theatre as the Society of West End Theatre Awards and were designed by artist Tom Merrifield. The first ceremony was in December 1976 at the Caf\u00e9 Royal. In 1984, British actor Laurence Olivier gave his consent for the awards to be renamed in his honour and they became known as the Laurence Olivier Awards."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "Olivier's dermatomyositis meant he spent the last three months of 1974 in hospital, and he spent early 1975 slowly recovering and regaining his strength. When strong enough, he was contacted by the director John Schlesinger, who offered him the role of a Nazi torturer in the 1976 film \"Marathon Man\". Olivier shaved his pate and wore oversized glasses to enlarge the look of his eyes, in a role that the critic David Robinson, writing for \"The Times\", thought was \"strongly played\", adding that Olivier was \"always at his best in roles that call for him to be seedy or nasty or both\". Olivier was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role, and won the Golden Globe of the same category."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "A 90-minute edit of this show was broadcast on 29 December 2006, 10 June 2007 and 17 June 2008 on Channel 4, on 10 May 2008, 17 January 2009 and 6 January 2012 on E4; a longer, unedited version was released on DVD in May 2008. The show won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Entertainment Show 2006. The show was co-written and directed by his longtime collaborator Andy Nyman. The title originates from the Ray Bradbury novel, which is itself a quote from Act 4, Scene 2 of William Shakespeare's \"Macbeth\". (The same verse also is the source of the title of Agatha Christie's By The Pricking of My Thumbs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The awards were established in 1976 by the Society of London Theatre as the Society of West End Theatre Awards and were designed by artist Tom Merrifield. The first ceremony was in December 1976 at the Caf\u00e9 Royal. In 1984, British actor Laurence Olivier gave his consent for the awards to be renamed in his honour and they became known as the Laurence Olivier Awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"Enigma\" is the name of Brown's 2009\u201310 stage tour, directed by Andy Nyman. It began in Chatham on Friday 17 April 2009, visiting various UK towns before ending in London with a month at the Adelphi Theatre starting Monday 15 June 2009. The show includes Brown attempting to put the entire audience into a trance (he makes it clear this is \"not\" hypnotism and will \"not\" affect everyone). At the end of the show Brown requests that audience members, particularly reviewers and the press, do not reveal the show's secrets and surprises to others to avoid spoiling the fun. The show toured the UK again during the first half of 2010. Enigma was nominated for an Olivier award on 8 February 2010, Brown's second nomination for an Olivier following his 2006 show Something Wicked This Way Comes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "One of Olivier's contemporaries at the school was Peggy Ashcroft, who observed he was \"rather uncouth in that his sleeves were too short and his hair stood on end but he was intensely lively and great fun\". By his own admission, he was not a very conscientious student, but Fogerty liked him and later said that he and Ashcroft stood out among her many pupils. On leaving the school after a year, Olivier gained work with small touring companies before being taken on in 1925 by Sybil Thorndike and her husband Lewis Casson as a bit-part player, understudy and assistant stage manager for their London company. He modelled his performing style on that of Gerald du Maurier, of whom he said, \"He seemed to mutter on stage but had such perfect technique. When I started I was so busy doing a du Maurier that no one ever heard a word I said. The Shakespearean actors one saw were terrible hams like Frank Benson.\" Olivier's concern with speaking naturally and avoiding what he called \"singing\" Shakespeare's verse was the cause of much frustration in his early career, as critics regularly decried his delivery."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Derren's first stage show began at the Tobacco Factory Theatre in 2003 near Brown's home in Bristol. It then grew into a major 2003/4 tour concluding with a London run at the Palace Theatre. The show was never recorded for television broadcast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "The third, and final, London season under the triumvirate was in 1946\u201347. Olivier played King Lear, and Richardson took the title role in \"Cyrano de Bergerac\". Olivier would have preferred the roles to be reversed, but Richardson did not wish to attempt Lear. Olivier's Lear received good but not outstanding reviews. In his scenes of decline and madness towards the end of the play some critics found him less moving than his finest predecessors in the role. The influential critic James Agate suggested that Olivier used his dazzling stage technique to disguise a lack of feeling, a charge that the actor strongly rejected, but which was often made throughout his later career. During the run of \"Cyrano\", Richardson was knighted, to Olivier's undisguised envy. The younger man received the accolade six months later, by which time the days of the triumvirate were numbered. The high profile of the two star actors did not endear them to the new chairman of the Old Vic governors, Lord Esher. He had ambitions to be the first head of the National Theatre and had no intention of letting actors run it. He was encouraged by Guthrie, who, having instigated the appointment of Richardson and Olivier, had come to resent their knighthoods and international fame."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "In addition to the naming of the National Theatre's largest auditorium in his honour, Olivier is commemorated in the Laurence Olivier Awards, bestowed annually since 1984 by the Society of West End Theatre. In 1991 Olivier's friend, the actor John Gielgud, unveiled a memorial stone commemorating Olivier in Poets' Corner at Westminster Abbey. In 2007, the centenary of Olivier's birth, a life-sized statue of him was unveiled on the South Bank, outside the National Theatre; the same year the British Film Institute held a retrospective season of his film work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Many of Brown's shows have generated controversy. In 2007, BBC News listed two of his shows (\"Russian Roulette\" and \"Seance\") in a list of examples of Channel 4's \"legacy of controversy\". In 2013, he said, \"Controversy has never interested me for its own sake. It's always been about doing stuff that feels dramatic.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "In 1924 Gerard Olivier, a habitually frugal man, told his son that he must gain not only admission to the Central School of Speech Training and Dramatic Art, but also a scholarship with a bursary to cover his tuition fees and living expenses. Olivier's sister had been a student there and was a favourite of Elsie Fogerty, the founder and principal of the school. Olivier later speculated that it was on the strength of this that Fogerty agreed to award him the bursary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Codron",
        "text": "At the 2010 Laurence Olivier Awards ceremony, held on 21 March 2010 at the Grosvenor House Hotel, Codron was the recipient of the award for Outstanding Achievement, for being \"one of the West End's most influential producers\" and \"discovering Harold Pinter.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Actor of the Year in a Revival",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Actor of the Year in a Revival was an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The show toured again from February until April 2008 throughout the UK, and concluded with a West End run at the Garrick Theatre during May and early June. The West End run was a strictly limited season of 32 performances only. A performance from the last week of the tour at the Garrick Theatre was filmed for Channel 4 and aired on 13 January 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "Laurence Kerr Olivier, Baron Olivier, (; 22 May 1907 \u2013 11 July 1989) was an English actor and director who, along with his contemporaries Ralph Richardson and John Gielgud, was one of a trio of male actors who dominated the British stage of the mid-20th century. He also worked in films throughout his career, playing more than fifty cinema roles. Late in his career, he had considerable success in television roles."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"Svengali\" was filmed for television and first broadcast on Channel 4 on 18 September 2012. The show won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Entertainment Show 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "Olivier was appointed Knight Bachelor in the 1947 Birthday Honours for services to the stage and to films. A life peerage as Baron Olivier, of Brighton in the County of Sussex followed in the 1970 Birthday Honours for services to the theatre. Olivier was later appointed to the Order of Merit in 1981. He also received honours from foreign governments. In 1949 he was made Commander of the Danish Order of the Dannebrog; the French appointed him , Legion of Honour, in 1953; the Italian government created him , Order of Merit of the Italian Republic, in 1953; and in 1971 he was granted the Order of Yugoslav Flag with Golden Wreath."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ivor Brown",
        "text": "Though his contributions ranged over a number of subjects, Brown developed a particular interest in the theatre. He became a drama critic for the Saturday Review in 1923 and was named the Shute lecturer in the art of the theatre at Liverpool University three years later. In 1929, Brown joined \"The Observer\" as their drama critic. In the decade that followed, he emerged as the most influential and insightful drama critic in the British press, a status acknowledged in 1939 with his appointment as professor of drama in the Royal Society of Literature and his selection as director of drama for the Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts the following year."
      },
      {
        "title": "2017 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "Any new production that opened between 17 February 2016 and 21 February 2017 in a theatre represented in membership of the Society of London Theatre was eligible for consideration, provided it had performed at least 30 performances.\n*2 March: Kenneth Branagh announced as the recipient of the Society Special Award\n*6 March: Nominations announced by Denise Gough and Matt Henry on Facebook Live\n*10 March: Nominations party held; Jason Manford announced as the host of the ceremony\n*9 April: Award ceremony held"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oliver Lyttelton, 1st Viscount Chandos",
        "text": "During Laurence Olivier's tenure as director of the National, Chandos was a central figure in the controversy over a proposed production of Rolf Hochhuth's \"Soldiers\". The production had been championed by Olivier's dramaturg, Kenneth Tynan. Though Olivier, a great admirer of Winston Churchill (who essentially is accused of assassinating Polish Prime Minister General W\u0142adys\u0142aw Sikorski by Hochhuth) did not particularly like the play or its depiction of Churchill (whom Tynan wanted him to play), he backed his dramaturg. There was a potential problem with the Lord Chamberlain, who might not have licensed the play due to its controversial stand on Churchill. The National's board vetoed the production and Lord Chandos damned the play as a \"grotesque and grievous libel\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "In memoriam segment",
        "text": "In April 2018, the Laurence Olivier Awards came under fire for not including the late Sir Peter Hall, acclaimed British theatre director, in its in memoriam segment. To make up for this omission, the Olivier Awards renamed its Best Director trophy the \"Sir Peter Hall Award for Best Director.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of London Theatre",
        "text": "The Olivier Awards (or simply the Olivier's) are presented annually by the Society of London Theatre to recognise excellence in professional theatre. Originally known as the Society of West End Theatre Awards, they were renamed in honour of the British actor Laurence Olivier in 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Glenn Close",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award is presented annually by the Society of London Theatre (SLT) to recognize excellence in professional theater. Named after the renowned British actor Laurence Olivier, the awards are a UK equivalent of Broadway's Tony Awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "Olivier's honours included a knighthood (1947), a life peerage (1970) and the Order of Merit (1981). For his on-screen work he received four Academy Awards, two British Academy Film Awards, five Emmy Awards, and three Golden Globe Awards. The National Theatre's largest auditorium is named in his honour, and he is commemorated in the Laurence Olivier Awards, given annually by the Society of London Theatre. He was married three times, to the actresses Jill Esmond from 1930 to 1940, Vivien Leigh from 1940 to 1960, and Joan Plowright from 1961 until his death."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The Oliviers were originally scheduled to be held on 5 April 2020 at the Royal Albert Hall with Manford as host, but was cancelled on 17 March due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom.\n*12 January: Jason Manford announced as host\n*14 February: Jo Hawes, Thelma Holt, Stephen Jameson, Sarah Preece and Peter Roberts are announced as the recipients of the Special Recognition Award\n*3 March: Nominations announced\n*6 March: Don Black is announced as a recipient of the Special Award\n*17 March: Award ceremony cancelled\n*5 April: Award ceremony originally scheduled\n*28 September: Award ceremony rescheduled\n*21 October: Ian McKellen is announced as a recipient of the Special Award\n*25 October: Award ceremony aired"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Brown's second live stage show, \"Something Wicked This Way Comes\", toured around the UK following its success in the West End. The tour began in March 2005 at the Cambridge Theatre and finished in May at the Hammersmith Apollo. The run was then once more extended into the following year, being performed and filmed for a final time at the Old Vic Theatre in mid-June 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Becket",
        "text": "However, according to John Cottrell's biography of Laurence Olivier, Anthony Quinn was dismayed and angry when he read that Olivier was getting better reviews for his performance as Henry than Quinn had gotten, claiming that he would never have left the production if he had known that was going to happen. (After Olivier's death Quinn displayed extreme animosity towards the actor in his second autobiography.) Even so, it was Quinn who was nominated for a Tony Award for his performance, while Olivier was overlooked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Awards, or simply the Olivier Awards, are presented annually by the Society of London Theatre to recognise excellence in professional theatre in London at an annual ceremony in the capital. The awards were originally known as the Society of West End Theatre Awards, but they were renamed in honour of the British actor of the same name in 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "1979 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1979 Society of West End Theatre Awards were held in 1979 in London at the Caf\u00e9 Royal, celebrating excellence in West End theatre by the Society of West End Theatre. The awards would not become the Laurence Olivier Awards, as they are known today, until the 1984 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "1976 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1976 Society of West End Theatre Awards were held in December 1976, London. They were the first major award ceremony celebrating excellence in West End theatre from the Society of West End Theatre, which would later be called the Society of London Theatre. The awards would not become the Laurence Olivier Awards, as they are known today, until the 1984 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "Olivier received another BAFTA nomination for his supporting role in 1959's \"The Devil's Disciple\". The same year, after a gap of two decades, Olivier returned to the role of Coriolanus, in a Stratford production directed by the 28-year-old Peter Hall. Olivier's performance received strong praise from the critics for its fierce athleticism combined with an emotional vulnerability. In 1960 he made his second appearance for the Royal Court company in Ionesco's absurdist play \"Rhinoceros\". The production was chiefly remarkable for the star's quarrels with the director, Orson Welles, who according to the biographer Francis Beckett suffered the \"appalling treatment\" that Olivier had inflicted on Gielgud at Stratford five years earlier. Olivier again ignored his director and undermined his authority. In 1960 and 1961 Olivier appeared in Anouilh's \"Becket\" on Broadway, first in the title role, with Anthony Quinn as the king, and later exchanging roles with his co-star."
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of London Theatre Special Award",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Society of London Theatre Special Award is an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier. In 2020, the award was expanded with additional Special Recognition Recipients, recognizing a larger number of people each year for their lifetime of contributions to commercial British theatre."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Sarah Lancashire",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Awards, are presented annually by the Society of London Theatre to recognise excellence in professional theatre in London at an annual ceremony in the capital. The awards were first established in 1976 by the Society of London Theatre as the Society of West End Awards. In 1984, British actor Laurence Olivier gave his consent for the awards to be renamed in his honour and they became known as the Laurence Olivier Awards. The Awards are judged by four separate panels for theatre, opera, dance, and Affiliate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Olivier Dahan",
        "text": "Olivier Dahan\n--Biography.\n--Awards and nominations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Harry Loman",
        "text": "He was awarded the Society of London Theatre Special Award (one of the Laurence Olivier Awards) in 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "The last two stage plays Olivier directed were Jean Giradoux's \"Amphitryon\" (1971) and Priestley's \"Eden End\" (1974). By the time of \"Eden End\", he was no longer director of the National Theatre; Peter Hall took over on 1 November 1973. The succession was tactlessly handled by the board, and Olivier felt that he had been eased out\u2014although he had declared his intention to go\u2014and that he had not been properly consulted about the choice of successor. The largest of the three theatres within the National's new building was named in his honour, but his only appearance on the stage of the Olivier Theatre was at its official opening by the Queen in October 1976, when he made a speech of welcome, which Hall privately described as the most successful part of the evening."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor",
        "text": "This award was introduced in 1985, as Actor of the Year, then retitled to its current name for the 1993 ceremony. Prior to this award, from 1976\u20131984 (and again in 1988), there was a pair of awards given each year for this general category, one for Actor of the Year in a New Play and the other for Actor of the Year in a Revival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Denis Quilley",
        "text": "Olivier Theatre in 2002. The production was a success, but during the run his health gave way. The show transferred to the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane shortly after his death, and the first night was dedicated to his memory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rolf Hochhuth",
        "text": "Controversy arose in Britain in 1967 when the intended premiere at Britain's National Theatre Company was cancelled, due to the intervention of the National Theatre board, despite the support for the play by literary manager Kenneth Tynan and Laurence Olivier, under pressure from Joan Plowright, his wife. At the time of the controversy in Britain, Irving was the only figure who gave his \"unequivocal\" support for Hochhuth's thesis; others consulted by Tynan considered it highly improbable. The play was produced shortly afterwards in the West End with John Colicos in the cast. The English translation was again by Robert David MacDonald. In the UK, the play was seen on tour in the early 1990s and was revived most recently at the Finborough Theatre, London, in 2004."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clarence Derwent Awards",
        "text": "From 1946 to 1952 Derwent was President of America's Actors' Equity. His will stipulated that two $500 prizes were to be given out annually to the best individual male and female supporting performances on Broadway and a \u00a3100 prize to the best supporting performances in the West End. So that Derwent could have the gratification of seeing the awards given out, they were started in America in 1945 and in the UK in 1948. The prizes in the US are now $2,000 and an engraved crystal trophy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Actor of the Year in a New Play",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Actor of the Year in a New Play was an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "From academic and other institutions, Olivier received honorary doctorates from the university of Tufts, Massachusetts (1946), Oxford (1957) and Edinburgh (1964). He was also awarded the Danish Sonning Prize for outstanding contributions to European culture in 1966, the Gold Medallion of the Royal Swedish Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities in 1968; and the Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts in 1976. In February 1960, for his contribution to the film industry, Olivier was inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame, with a star at 6319 Hollywood Boulevard; he is also included in the American Theater Hall of Fame. In 1977, Olivier was awarded a British Film Institute Fellowship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "The opening production of the National Theatre was \"Hamlet\" in October 1963, starring Peter O'Toole and directed by Olivier. O'Toole was a guest star, one of occasional exceptions to Olivier's policy of casting productions from a regular company. Among those who made a mark during Olivier's directorship were Michael Gambon, Maggie Smith, Alan Bates, Derek Jacobi and Anthony Hopkins. It was widely remarked that Olivier seemed reluctant to recruit his peers to perform with his company. Evans, Gielgud and Paul Scofield guested only briefly, and Ashcroft and Richardson never appeared at the National during Olivier's time. Robert Stephens, a member of the company, observed, \"Olivier's one great fault was a paranoid jealousy of anyone who he thought was a rival\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "1978 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1978 Society of West End Theatre Awards were held in 1978 in London celebrating excellence in West End theatre by the Society of West End Theatre. The awards would not become the Laurence Olivier Awards, as they are known today, until the 1984 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Musical Revival",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Musical Revival is an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Revival",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Revival is an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "Laurence Olivier (1907\u20131989) was an English actor who, along with his contemporaries Ralph Richardson and John Gielgud, dominated the British stage of the mid-20th century. He also worked in films throughout his career, playing more than fifty cinema roles. From 1956, he performed in television roles, for which he won several awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Supporting Artist of the Year",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Supporting Artist of the Year was a one-off award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Douglas Hodge",
        "text": "Olivier Awards include 2012 Best Actor for \"Inadmissible Evidence\" (nomination), 2009 Best Actor in a Musical for \"La Cage aux Folles\" (winner), and 2006 Best Actor in a Musical for \"Guys and Dolls\" (nomination). He was also nominated for Best Actor in the 2005 Evening Standard Awards for his role in \"Dumbshow\" at the Royal Court."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1984 Laurence Olivier Awards were held in 1984 in London celebrating excellence in West End theatre by the Society of London Theatre. These were the first awards to be held after Laurence Olivier consented to the awards being renamed in his honour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Newcomer in a Play",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Newcomer in a Play was an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adrian Brunel",
        "text": "In an assessment of Brunel's significance in British cinema history, Geoff Brown concludes: \"...(his) career was clearly not what it might have been, and the apparent absence of surviving copies of many of his talkies makes a thorough re-evaluation of his work difficult. But the burlesque comedies alone give him a distinctive place in British cinema history as a satirical jester, and a key player in the film industry's uneasy war between art and commerce.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "In 1967 Olivier was caught in the middle of a confrontation between Chandos and Tynan over the latter's proposal to stage Rolf Hochhuth's \"Soldiers\". As the play speculatively depicted Churchill as complicit in the assassination of the Polish prime minister W\u0142adys\u0142aw Sikorski, Chandos regarded it as indefensible. At his urging the board unanimously vetoed the production. Tynan considered resigning over this interference with the management's artistic freedom, but Olivier himself stayed firmly in place, and Tynan also remained. At about this time Olivier began a long struggle against a succession of illnesses. He was treated for prostate cancer and, during rehearsals for his production of Chekhov's \"Three Sisters\" he was hospitalised with pneumonia. He recovered enough to take the heavy role of Edgar in Strindberg's \"The Dance of Death\", the finest of all his performances other than in Shakespeare, in Gielgud's view."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "During one performance of the show, a woman in the audience pushed her husband as a joke and he fell over the balcony. He managed to hang on to the upper circle and was not injured."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger K. Furse",
        "text": "Furse became a frequent collaborator with Olivier on both stage and screen, often on Shakespearean productions. He won two Oscars in 1949, one each for his art direction and costume design of Olivier's film version of \"Hamlet\" (1948). He also worked with Olivier on his films \"Richard III\" (1955) and \"The Prince and the Showgirl\" (1957)."
      },
      {
        "title": "1977 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1977 Society of West End Theatre Awards were held in 1977 in London celebrating excellence in West End theatre by the Society of West End Theatre. The awards would not become the Laurence Olivier Awards, as they are known today, until the 1984 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Brown has faced allegations of using stooges in his work. Viewers complained that the subject of \"Apocalypse\" was an actor, pointing to his CastingCallPro account as evidence. Brown dismissed these allegations as conspiracy theories and then responded directly, calling them untrue and hurtful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "Together with Richardson and Gielgud, Olivier was internationally recognised as one of the \"great trinity of theatrical knights\" who dominated the British stage during the middle and later decades of the 20th century. In an obituary tribute in \"The Times\", Bernard Levin wrote, \"What we have lost with Laurence Olivier is \"glory\". He reflected it in his greatest roles; indeed he walked clad in it\u2014you could practically see it glowing around him like a nimbus... no one will ever play the roles he played as he played them; no one will replace the splendour that he gave his native land with his genius.\" Billington commented:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Musical",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Musical is an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "Olivier said in 1963 that he believed he was born to be an actor, but his colleague Peter Ustinov disagreed; he commented that although Olivier's great contemporaries were clearly predestined for the stage, \"Larry could have been a notable ambassador, a considerable minister, a redoubtable cleric. At his worst, he would have acted the parts more ably than they are usually lived.\" The director David Ayliff agreed that acting did not come instinctively to Olivier as it did to his great rivals. He observed, \"Ralph was a natural actor, he couldn't stop being a perfect actor; Olivier did it through sheer hard work and determination.\" The American actor William Redfield had a similar view:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Audience Award for Most Popular Show",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Most Popular Show was an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The awards are given to individuals involved in West End productions and other leading non-commercial theatres based in London across a range of categories covering plays, musicals, dance, opera and affiliate theatre. A discretionary non-competitive Special Olivier Award is also given each year. The Olivier Awards are recognised internationally as the highest honour in British theatre, equivalent to the BAFTA Awards for film and television, and the BRIT Awards for music. The Olivier Awards are considered equivalent to Broadway's Tony Awards and France's Moli\u00e8re Award."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ralph Richardson",
        "text": "During the run of \"Cyrano\", Richardson was knighted in the 1947 New Year Honours, to Olivier's undisguised envy. The younger man received the accolade six months later, by which time the days of the triumvirate were numbered. The high profile of the two star actors did not endear them to the new chairman of the Old Vic governors, Lord Esher. He had ambitions to be the first head of the National Theatre and had no intention of letting actors run it. He was encouraged by Guthrie, who, having instigated the appointment of Richardson and Olivier, had come to resent their knighthoods and international fame. Esher terminated their contracts while both were out of the country, and they and Burrell were said to have \"resigned\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "1983 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1983 Society of West End Theatre Awards were held in 1983 in London celebrating excellence in West End theatre by the Society of West End Theatre. The awards would not become the Laurence Olivier Awards, as they are known today, until the 1984 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "Olivier spent the last 15 years of his life securing his finances and dealing with deteriorating health, which included thrombosis and dermatomyositis, a degenerative muscle disorder. Professionally, and to provide financial security, he made a series of advertisements for Polaroid cameras in 1972, although he stipulated that they must never be shown in Britain; he also took a number of cameo film roles, which were in \"often undistinguished films\", according to Billington. Olivier's move from leading parts to supporting and cameo roles came about because his poor health meant he could not get the necessary long insurance for larger parts, with only short engagements in films available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "From academic and other institutions, Olivier received honorary doctorates from Tufts University in Massachusetts (1946), Oxford (1957) and Edinburgh (1964). He was also awarded the Danish Sonning Prize in 1966, the Gold Medallion of the Royal Swedish Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities in 1968; and the Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts in 1976."
      },
      {
        "title": "1981 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1981 Society of West End Theatre Awards were held in 1981 in London celebrating excellence in West End theatre by the Society of West End Theatre. The awards would not become the Laurence Olivier Awards, as they are known today, until the 1984 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "His family had no theatrical connections, but Olivier's father, a clergyman, decided that his son should become an actor. After attending a drama school in London, Olivier learned his craft in a succession of acting jobs during the late 1920s. In 1930 he had his first important West End success in No\u00ebl Coward's \"Private Lives\", and he appeared in his first film. In 1935 he played in a celebrated production of \"Romeo and Juliet\" alongside Gielgud and Peggy Ashcroft, and by the end of the decade he was an established star. In the 1940s, together with Richardson and John Burrell, Olivier was the co-director of the Old Vic, building it into a highly respected company. There his most celebrated roles included Shakespeare's Richard III and Sophocles's Oedipus. In the 1950s Olivier was an independent actor-manager, but his stage career was in the doldrums until he joined the \"avant-garde\" English Stage Company in 1957 to play the title role in \"The Entertainer\", a part he later played on film. From 1963 to 1973 he was the founding director of Britain's National Theatre, running a resident company that fostered many future stars. His own parts there included the title role in \"Othello\" (1965) and Shylock in \"The Merchant of Venice\" (1970)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "Laurence Olivier\n--Life and career.\n----Family background and early life (1907\u20131924).\n----Early acting career (1924\u20131929).\n----Rising star (1930\u20131935).\n----Old Vic and Vivien Leigh (1936\u20131938).\n----Hollywood and the Second World War (1938\u20131944).\n----Co-directing the Old Vic (1944\u20131948).\n----Post-war (1948\u20131951).\n----Independent actor-manager (1951\u20131954).\n----Last productions with Leigh (1955\u20131956).\n----Royal Court and Chichester (1957\u20131963).\n----National Theatre.\n------1963\u20131968.\n------1968\u20131974.\n----Later years (1975\u20131989).\n--Honours.\n--Awards and memorials.\n--Technique and reputation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenneth Tynan",
        "text": "In 1963, Laurence Olivier became the British National Theatre Company's first artistic director. Tynan had been highly dismissive of Olivier's achievements as artistic director of the Chichester Festival Theatre, which had opened in 1962, but he recommended himself for the role of literary manager. Olivier was initially outraged by Tynan's presumption but Olivier's wife, Joan Plowright, convinced him that Tynan would be an asset at the National Theatre Company, then based at the Old Vic theatre. When he became the National Theatre's literary manager, Tynan ceased to be the theatre critic for \"The Observer\", but he stayed on the paper for several more years as a film reviewer."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The Experiments won a BAFTA for Best Entertainment Programme at the 2012 awards in May 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role in a Musical",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role in a Musical is an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "1982 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1982 Society of West End Theatre Awards were held in 1982 in London celebrating excellence in West End theatre by the Society of West End Theatre. The awards would not become the Laurence Olivier Awards, as they are known today, until the 1984 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "1980 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1980 Society of West End Theatre Awards were held in 1980 in London celebrating excellence in West End theatre by the Society of West End Theatre. The awards would not become the Laurence Olivier Awards, as they are known today, until the 1984 ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "In addition to the naming of the National Theatre's largest auditorium in Olivier's honour, he is commemorated in the Laurence Olivier Awards, bestowed annually since 1984 by the Society of West End Theatre. In 1991 Gielgud unveiled a memorial stone commemorating Olivier in Poets' Corner at Westminster Abbey. In 2007, the centenary of Olivier's birth, a life-sized statue of him was unveiled on the South Bank, outside the National Theatre; the same year the BFI held a retrospective season of his film work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Newcomer in a Play",
        "text": "This commingled award, covering all roles and responsibilities in a production, was introduced in 1980, and was last presented at the 2008 ceremony, after which it was retired. During its existence, the award was not used for 1991\u20132003, nor 2005\u20132007."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dein Perry",
        "text": "Perry won the Laurence Olivier Award for two consecutive years (in 1995 and 1996). At the time he was the youngest person to do so."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rhinoceros (Orson Welles production)",
        "text": "Olivier and Plowright had fallen in love during the making of \"The Entertainer\" earlier that year, although Olivier was still married to Vivien Leigh, and the affair of the two actors first became public during the play's run, when Leigh announced her husband wanted a divorce, causing a minor scandal at the time.\n*Bessie . . . Monica Evans\n*Berenger . . . Laurence Olivier\n*John . . . Duncan Macrae\n*A Grocer . . . Henry Woolf\n*Grocer's Wife . . . Margery Caldicott\n*Lady with a Cat . . . Hazel Hughes\n*A Logician . . . Geoffrey Lumsden\n*An Old Gentleman . . . Michael Bates\n*A Publican . . . Will Stampe\n*Daisy . . . Joan Plowright (at Royal Court Theatre) / Maggie Smith (at Strand Theatre)\n*Duddard . . . Alan Webb (at Royal Court Theatre) / Michael Gough (at Strand Theatre)\n*Mr. Butterfly . . . Miles Malleson\n*Bottard . . . Peter Sallis\n*Mrs. Beef . . . Gladys Henson\n*A Fireman . . . Philip Anthony\n:: (Both Joan Plowright and Peter Sallis had acted in Welles's previous London stage play, \"Moby Dick\u2014Rehearsed\", in 1955.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "2015 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "Any new production that opened between 26 February 2014 and 25 February 2015 in a theatre represented in membership of the Society of London Theatre was eligible for consideration, provided it had performed at least 30 performances.\n*17 February: Voting opens for the Audience Award for Most Popular Show's first round (by the general public)\n*26 February: Kevin Spacey is announced as a recipient of the Special Award\n*5 March: Voting closes for the Audience Award's first round\n*9 March: Nominations announced by Lesley Manville and James McAvoy (Audience Award round two voting opens to the general public)\n*18 March: Sylvie Guillem is announced as a recipient of the Special Award\n*10 April: Voting closes for the Audience Award's final round\n*12 April: Award ceremony held"
      },
      {
        "title": "1990 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following 15 productions received multiple nominations:\n* 5: \"Miss Saigon\"\n* 4: \"Ghetto\" and \"Racing Demon\"\n* 3: \"Othello\", \"Shadowlands\", \"The Baker's Wife\", \"The Voysey Inheritance\" and \"The Wars of the Roses\"\n* 2: \"Buddy\", \"Jeffrey Bernard Is Unwell\", \"Man of the Moment\", \"Return to the Forbidden Planet\", \"Single Spies\" and \"Some Americans Abroad\""
      },
      {
        "title": "1977 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The following 15 productions received multiple nominations:\n* 4: \"Privates on Parade\"\n* 3: \"Bubbling Brown Sugar\" and \"Just between Ourselves\"\n* 2: \"Bedroom Farce\", \"Cause C\u00e9l\u00e8bre\", \"Dusa, Fish, Stas and Vi\", \"King Lear\", \"Macbeth\", \"Once a Catholic \", \"State of Revolution\", \"Stevie\", \"The Fire That Consumes\", \"The Kingfisher\", \"The Plough and the Stars\", \"Volpone\" and \"Wild Oats\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Set Designer",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Set Designer was an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Play is an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Laurence Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Most Promising Performer",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Most Promising Performer was an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "In May 1936 Olivier and Richardson jointly directed and starred in a new piece by J.\u00a0B. Priestley, \"Bees on the Boatdeck\". Both actors won excellent notices, but the play, an allegory of Britain's decay, did not attract the public and closed after four weeks. Later in the same year Olivier accepted an invitation to join the Old Vic company. The theatre, in an unfashionable location south of the Thames, had offered inexpensive tickets for opera and drama under its proprietor Lilian Baylis since 1912. Her drama company specialised in the plays of Shakespeare, and many leading actors had taken very large cuts in their pay to develop their Shakespearean techniques there. Gielgud had been in the company from 1929 to 1931, and Richardson from 1930 to 1932. Among the actors whom Olivier joined in late 1936 were Edith Evans, Ruth Gordon, Alec Guinness and Michael Redgrave. In January 1937 he took the title role in an uncut version of \"Hamlet\", in which once again his delivery of the verse was unfavourably compared with that of Gielgud, who had played the role on the same stage seven years previously to enormous acclaim. \"The Observer\"s Ivor Brown praised Olivier's \"magnetism and muscularity\" but missed \"the kind of pathos so richly established by Mr Gielgud\". The reviewer in \"The Times\" found the performance \"full of vitality\", but at times \"too light\u00a0... the character slips from Mr Olivier's grasp\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role is an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The Oliviers were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Showing in March and April 2017, \"Derren Brown: Underground\" was an exclusive stage show to the Charing Cross Theatre in London (an underground theatre). It contained a collection of Brown's favourite bits of his previous stage shows as a warm-up for his first American shows. It was later extended to a full tour in the UK, which commenced after Brown returned to the country from 'Secret'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Performance in a Supporting Role",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Best Performance in a Supporting Role was an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and, renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier Award for Actress of the Year in a Revival",
        "text": "The Laurence Olivier Award for Actress of the Year in a Revival was an annual award presented by The Society of London Theatre in recognition of achievements in commercial British theatre. The awards were established as the Society of West End Theatre Awards in 1976, and renamed in 1984 in honour of English actor Lord Olivier."
      },
      {
        "title": "1990 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "The 1990 Laurence Olivier Awards were held in 1990 in London celebrating excellence in West End theatre by the Society of London Theatre. As the last ceremony was held in 1988, these awards honored productions from both 1989 and 1990."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Redgrave",
        "text": "Alongside John Dexter's Chichester staging of \"Saint Joan\", Olivier's \"Uncle Vanya\" was first revived in Chichester in 1963 before transferring to the Old Vic as part of the nascent Royal National Theatre's inaugural season, winning rave reviews and Redgrave's second win as Best Actor in the 1963 Evening Standard Awards. Critic Michael Billington recalled: \"In Redgrave's Vanya you saw both a tremulous victim of a lifetime's emotional repression and the wasted potential of a Chekhovian might-have-been: as Redgrave and Olivier took their joint curtain call, linked hands held triumphantly aloft, we were not to know that this was to symbolise the end of their artistic amity.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Royal National Theatre",
        "text": "Laurence Olivier became Artistic Director of the National Theatre at its formation in 1963. He was considered the foremost British film and stage actor of the period, and became the first director of the Chichester Festival Theatre \u2013 there forming the company that would unite with the Old Vic Company to form the National Theatre Company. In addition to directing, he continued to appear in many successful productions, not least as Shylock in \"The Merchant of Venice\". In 1969 the National Theatre Company received a Special Tony Award which was accepted by Olivier at the 23rd Tony Awards. He became a life peer in 1970, for his services to theatre, and stepped down in 1973."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Derren Brown (born 27 February 1971) is an English mentalist, illusionist, painter, and author. He began performing in 1992, making his television debut with \"Derren Brown: Mind Control\" in 2000, and has since produced several more shows for stage and television. His 2006 show \"Something Wicked This Way Comes\" and his 2012 show \"Svengali\" won him two Laurence Olivier Awards for Best Entertainment. He made his Broadway debut with his 2019 stage show \"Secret\". He has also written books for both magicians and the general public."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "Tynan remarked to Olivier, \"you aren't really a contemplative or philosophical actor\"; Olivier was known for the strenuous physicality of his performances in some roles. He told Tynan this was because he was influenced as a young man by Douglas Fairbanks, Ramon Navarro and John Barrymore in films, and Barrymore on stage as Hamlet: \"tremendously athletic. I admired that greatly, all of us did.\u00a0... One thought of oneself, idiotically, skinny as I was, as a sort of Tarzan.\" According to Morley, Gielgud was widely considered \"the best actor in the world from the neck up and Olivier from the neck down.\" Olivier described the contrast thus: \"I've always thought that we were the reverses of the same coin... the top half John, all spirituality, all beauty, all abstract things; and myself as all earth, blood, humanity.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "For his work in films, Olivier received four Academy Awards: an honorary award for \"Henry V\" (1947), a Best Actor award and one as producer for \"Hamlet\" (1948), and a second honorary award in 1979 to recognise his lifetime of contribution to the art of film. He was nominated for nine other acting Oscars and one each for production and direction. He also won two British Academy Film Awards out of ten nominations, five Emmy Awards out of nine nominations, and three Golden Globe Awards out of six nominations. He was nominated once for a Tony Award (for best actor, as Archie Rice) but did not win."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "In 1948 Olivier led the Old Vic company on a six-month tour of Australia and New Zealand. He played Richard\u00a0III, Sir Peter Teazle in Sheridan's\" The School for Scandal\" and Antrobus in Thornton Wilder's \"The Skin of Our Teeth\", appearing alongside Leigh in the latter two plays. While Olivier was on the Australian tour and Richardson was in Hollywood, Esher terminated the contracts of the three directors, who were said to have \"resigned\". Melvyn Bragg in a 1984 study of Olivier, and John Miller in the authorised biography of Richardson, both comment that Esher's action put back the establishment of a National Theatre for at least a decade. Looking back in 1971, Bernard Levin wrote that the Old Vic company of 1944 to 1948 \"was probably the most illustrious that has ever been assembled in this country\". \"The Times\" said that the triumvirate's years were the greatest in the Old Vic's history; as \"The Guardian\" put it, \"the governors summarily sacked them in the interests of a more mediocre company spirit\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Derren Brown was born in the Croydon area of London on 27 February 1971, the son of Chris and Bob Brown. He was raised in the nearby area of Purley, which he described as \"the epitome of middle-class suburbia\". He has a brother nine years his junior. He was privately educated at Whitgift School in Croydon, where his father was a swimming coach, before going on to study law and German at the University of Bristol. While there, he attended a hypnotist show by Martin S Taylor, which inspired him to turn to illusion and hypnosis as a career. As an undergraduate, he started working as a conjuror, performing the traditional skills of close-up magic in bars and restaurants. In 1992, he started performing stage shows at the University of Bristol under the stage name Darren V. Brown; the \"V\" stood for \"Victor\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "2011 Laurence Olivier Awards",
        "text": "Special guests included Stephen Sondheim, Angela Lansbury, Cameron Mackintosh, Barry Manilow as well as performances by Ramin Karimloo, Alfie Boe, Kerry Ellis, Adrian Lester as well as the London casts of \"Legally Blonde\" and \"Into the Woods\" to name a few."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laurence Olivier",
        "text": "In comparing Olivier and the other leading actors of his generation, Ustinov wrote, \"It is of course vain to talk of who is and who is not the greatest actor. There is simply no such thing as a greatest actor, or painter or composer\". Nonetheless, some colleagues, particularly film actors such as Spencer Tracy, Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall, came to regard Olivier as the finest of his peers. Peter Hall, though acknowledging Olivier as the head of the theatrical profession, thought Richardson the greater actor. Olivier's claim to theatrical greatness lay not only in his acting, but as, in Hall's words, \"the supreme man of the theatre of our time\", pioneering Britain's National Theatre. As Bragg identified, \"no one doubts that the National is perhaps his most enduring monument\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of London Theatre",
        "text": "Award winners have included the leading names in British theatrical talent, including Laurence Olivier, John Gielgud, Ralph Richardson, Peggy Ashcroft, Joan Plowright, Alec Guinness, Ian McKellen, Judi Dench, Maggie Smith, Derek Jacobi, Eileen Atkins, Ian Holm, Michael Gambon, Helen Mirren, Peter Hall, Joan Littlewood, Alan Ayckbourn, Nicholas Hytner, Harold Pinter, Alan Bennett, Michael Frayn, Ninette de Valois, Gillian Lynne and Andrew Lloyd Webber."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Brown himself defended the programme, saying, \"It probably sounds odd. But as a magic-related performer, to have that even being asked: Was it real? Was it not real? That lifts it to a level that I'm very comfortable with. What's left is the fact that it was a terrific piece of television.\""
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many Luarence Olivier Awards did Derren Brown win?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Derren Brown's 2006 show Something Wicked This Way Comes and his 2012 show Svengali won him two Laurence Olivier Awards for Best Entertainment."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the history of the Olivier Awards?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They were established in 1976 by the Society of London Theatre as the Society of West End Theatre Awards, and the first ceremony was in December 1976 at the Caf\u00e9 Royal, then in 1984 the awards were renamed afer British actor Laurence Olivier."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Were there any controversies associated with Derren Brown?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Are interested in controversies involving his show Russian Roulette, Seance, Heist, or Trick or Treat?",
      "Many of Brown's shows have generated controversy. There were public complaints that his show Russian Roulette was distasteful; Seance received 487 complaints to Channel 4 and 208 to Ofcom, making it the third most complained about show in UK history and the GMB union criticised Heist on behalf of security workers, arguing it was \"irresponsible and insensitive\" in light of increased attacks on staff."
    ],
    "topic": "Derren Brown",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Derren Brown:10",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Derren Brown",
          "Controversies"
        ],
        "ctx": "Public complaints that \"Russian Roulette\" was distasteful, made light of suicide, and promoted gun culture were ultimately rejected by Ofcom on the basis that the context (a post-watershed magic show) was enough and that the warnings given were sufficient. Additionally, the use of a 15-minute time delay ensured no viewer would have seen the result of any mistake. The police had also warned that the show might inspire copycat acts."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Derren Brown:11",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Derren Brown",
          "Controversies"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"Seance\" received 487 complaints to Channel 4 and 208 to Ofcom, making it the third most complained about show in UK history. Most were from church groups and came before transmission, i.e. before Brown revealed during the broadcast that his attempt to contact the dead was a hoax. The show was ultimately cleared of any wrongdoing."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Derren Brown:12",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Derren Brown",
          "Controversies"
        ],
        "ctx": "The GMB union criticised \"Heist\" on behalf of security workers, arguing it was \"irresponsible and insensitive\" in light of increased attacks on staff. Channel 4 responded by arguing that it was made \"very clear that attempting any form of robbery was criminal behaviour.\""
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Derren Brown:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Derren Brown",
          "Controversies"
        ],
        "ctx": "An episode of \"Trick or Treat\" caused charity Cats Protection to complain and news reports to label Brown a \"cat killer\", after he appeared to convince someone to press a button even though they thought it would electrocute a kitten inside a metal box. Brown responded by arguing they had misunderstood the trick (the box wasn't wired up), and he \"wasn\u2019t glorifying cruelty to cats. People would have been hard-pressed to recreate the electrocution device at home even if they wanted to.\" Another episode which saw someone hypnotised into thinking they had been killed in a car crash after not wearing a seatbelt was criticised by a road safety charity, who alleged it trivialised the issue."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Derren Brown:9",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Derren Brown",
          "Controversies"
        ],
        "ctx": "Many of Brown's shows have generated controversy. In 2007, BBC News listed two of his shows (\"Russian Roulette\" and \"Seance\") in a list of examples of Channel 4's \"legacy of controversy\". In 2013, he said, \"Controversy has never interested me for its own sake. It's always been about doing stuff that feels dramatic.\""
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Derren Brown:11",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Derren Brown",
          "Controversies"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"Seance\" received 487 complaints to Channel 4 and 208 to Ofcom, making it the third most complained about show in UK history. Most were from church groups and came before transmission, i.e. before Brown revealed during the broadcast that his attempt to contact the dead was a hoax. The show was ultimately cleared of any wrongdoing."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Derren Brown:12",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Derren Brown",
          "Controversies"
        ],
        "ctx": "The GMB union criticised \"Heist\" on behalf of security workers, arguing it was \"irresponsible and insensitive\" in light of increased attacks on staff. Channel 4 responded by arguing that it was made \"very clear that attempting any form of robbery was criminal behaviour.\""
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Many of Brown's shows have generated controversy. In 2007, BBC News listed two of his shows (\"Russian Roulette\" and \"Seance\") in a list of examples of Channel 4's \"legacy of controversy\". In 2013, he said, \"Controversy has never interested me for its own sake. It's always been about doing stuff that feels dramatic.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "On 5 October 2003, Brown performed Russian roulette, live on Channel 4, which was watched by over 3.3 million viewers. The stunt was performed at an undisclosed location, supposedly in Jersey, due to laws in mainland Britain restricting the firing of live rounds to qualified armourers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Public complaints that \"Russian Roulette\" was distasteful, made light of suicide, and promoted gun culture were ultimately rejected by Ofcom on the basis that the context (a post-watershed magic show) was enough and that the warnings given were sufficient. Additionally, the use of a 15-minute time delay ensured no viewer would have seen the result of any mistake. The police had also warned that the show might inspire copycat acts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "In January 2011, to celebrate 10 years since his first television appearance, Channel 4 held a special \"Derren Brown Night\". As well as re-showing \"The Heist\" (which had won a recent poll of favourite Brown specials) and one of his \"Enigma\" live shows, the channel screened a special documentary called \"Derren Brown: Behind the Mischief\". It was a personal and candid film about Brown which included the story of how he met his co-writer (who was featured in \"Seance\"), his mother's feelings about his involvement in the \"Russian Roulette\" special, and an emotional visit back to his old school, university, and bars/pubs where he first began his career. Celebrity contributors included Matt Lucas, Jo Whiley, Stephen Merchant, and Simon Pegg. In January 2013, he was featured in a Channel 4 \"Deal or No Deal\" special, where he appeared to have predicted all the correct boxes to win the big jackpot of \u00a3250,000. That same year, he appeared in a comedy sketch at the beginning of an \"8 Out of 10 Cats Does Deal or No Deal\" special."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The stunts included a live TV broadcast in which Brown suggested that he had successfully predicted the winning National Lottery numbers, and another in which Brown played a subliminal video suggesting that viewers at home would feel that they had become stuck to their sofas. Brown also projected an image into viewers' minds and asked them draw it on paper. The series' final event was an attempt to predict the outcome of a roulette wheel, staking \u00a35,000 of a chosen viewer's money on the outcome. The ball landed in the pocket numbered 30, adjacent to Brown's choice of 8."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "At the end of the show, a title card explained that \"at each stage of the process, participants who did not make it to the next round were offered a complete refund of any bets they had placed.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "List of Derren Brown shows\n--Television series.\n----\"Mind Control\" (2000\u201303).\n----\"Trick of the Mind\" (2004\u201306).\n------\"Waking Dead\" episode.\n----\"Trick or Treat\" (2007\u201308).\n----\"Mind Control with Derren Brown\" (2007).\n----\"Derren Brown: The Events\" (2009).\n----\"Derren Brown Investigates\" (2010).\n----\"Derren Brown: The Experiments\" (2011).\n--Television specials.\n----\"Derren Brown Plays Russian Roulette Live\" (2003).\n----\"Derren Brown: S\u00e9ance\" (2004).\n----\"Derren Brown: Messiah\" (2005).\n----\"Derren Brown: The Gathering\" (2005).\n----\"Derren Brown: The Heist\" (2006).\n----\"Derren Brown: The System\" (2008).\n----\"Derren Brown: Hero at 30,000 Feet\" (2010).\n----\"Derren Brown: Miracles for Sale\" (2011).\n----\"Derren Brown: Apocalypse\" (2012).\n----\"Derren Brown: Fear and Faith\" (2012).\n----\"Derren Brown: The Great Art Robbery\" (2013).\n----\"Derren Brown: Pushed to the Edge\" (2016).\n----\"Derren Brown: Sacrifice\" (2018).\n--Stage shows.\n----\"Derren Brown: Live\" (2003\u201304).\n----\"Something Wicked This Way Comes\" (2005\u201306).\n----\"Mind Reader \u2013 An Evening of Wonders\" (2007\u201308).\n----\"Derren Brown \u2013 Enigma\" (2009\u201310).\n----\"Svengali\" (2011\u201312).\n----\"Infamous\" (2013\u201314).\n----\"Miracle\" (2015\u201316).\n----\"Derren Brown: Underground\" (2017\u201318).\n----\"Derren Brown: Secret\" (2017, 2019).\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The second episode called \"The Gameshow\" aired on 28 October 2011. Brown hosted a show purportedly called \"Remote Control\", asking a masked audience to vote for the escalating fate of a contestant in an attempt to demonstrate the effect of deindividuation. The audience were repeatedly given two choices, positive and negative, that would affect the life of a man named Kris. The choices grew increasingly darker but they continued to embrace the negative options. It reached the point where the audience were happy to see Kris' television destroyed and Kris kidnapped by masked thugs. The theory is that taking away people's individuality and encouraging them to regard themselves as just part of a crowd makes them act in a way that will sometimes conflict with their personal morality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "In a \"Daily Telegraph\" article published in 2003 Simon Singh criticised Brown's early TV appearances, arguing that he presented standard magic and mentalism effects\u2014such as the classic ten-card poker deal trick\u2014as genuine psychological manipulation. On Brown's television and live shows he often appears to show the audience how a particular effect was created\u2014claiming to use techniques such as subliminal suggestion, hypnosis, and body language reading. Singh's suggestion is that these explanations are dishonest. Furthermore, Singh took exception to the programme's website being categorised under Channel 4's \"Science\" section. The mini-site was moved to \"Entertainment\" for later series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Brown has faced allegations of using stooges in his work. Viewers complained that the subject of \"Apocalypse\" was an actor, pointing to his CastingCallPro account as evidence. Brown dismissed these allegations as conspiracy theories and then responded directly, calling them untrue and hurtful."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Brown himself defended the programme, saying, \"It probably sounds odd. But as a magic-related performer, to have that even being asked: Was it real? Was it not real? That lifts it to a level that I'm very comfortable with. What's left is the fact that it was a terrific piece of television.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Episodes of \"Trick or Treat\" are not preceded by Brown's usual claim that no actors or stooges were used in the filming of the shows. Indeed, some participants (such as the ambulance crew in the last episode) are declared to be actors."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "During one performance of the show, a woman in the audience pushed her husband as a joke and he fell over the balcony. He managed to hang on to the upper circle and was not injured."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Most of the show involved the selection of a volunteer to assist Brown, who apparently would risk firing a live round into his own head, in a game of Russian Roulette. Twelve thousand people applied for the task and these were whittled down to five men, who were given additional psychological testing and trained to load a revolver. On the day of the stunt, James was chosen to be the only person in the room when Brown performed. James was required to load a single shot into a revolver with six numbered chambers. Brown aimed the revolver at his head and fired chambers 3 and 4, then fired chamber 5 while aiming at a sand bag hanging nearby; they were all empty. The tension mounted as Brown paused, then fired chamber 6 aimed at his head and then quickly fired chamber 1 towards the sand bag; the sand bag appeared to have been pierced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rosyjska ruletka",
        "text": "In the case of Round 4, if all questions were used, the host pulled his podium's lever to start one last game of Russian Roulette to determine the winner, regardless of scores."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The first episode, entitled \"The Assassin\", aired on 21 October 2011 and consisted of Brown successfully hypnotising an unwitting member of the public to 'assassinate' a celebrity revealed to be Stephen Fry. This technique was used as a comparison to theories regarding the assassination of Robert F. Kennedy by Sirhan Sirhan, who claims to have no memory of the event."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The second series of \"Trick or Treat\" began on 2 May 2008. The third episode showed a slight change from the previous format, as actor David Tennant became the first celebrity to be used for the show. The two had met at a party where Tennant expressed interest in Brown's work. While writing the second season Brown \"thought it would be fun if one of the participants was well known\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Derren Brown\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n----Performance.\n----Other appearances.\n--Controversies.\n--Methods.\n----Suggested methods.\n----Actual versus suggested methods.\n--Personal life.\n--Works.\n----Books.\n----Other productions and publications.\n----Thorpe Park ride.\n----Playing cards.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The final episode of the second series featured all of the volunteers from the series who had previously received a trick or treat. This episode highlighted belief in superstition and the degree to which it can be applied."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Every two years, Brown and his collaborators prepare a new live show. Brown spends one month generating ideas that will equal previous ones without being repetitive, by looking through old books on Victorian and modern magic, spiritualism and suggestion etc. They then consider the practical details, prop lists and attempt to get budgets approved. Brown states \"It's a show that relies on real people taking part, which means there is no way of rehearsing it without an audience to play their part. So I go out gingerly on the first night knowing that some parts will fail. And some parts always do.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Serkan Altunorak",
        "text": "In October 2006, he had to play Russian roulette in a scene of the TV series \"\u0130mkans\u0131z A\u015fk\", in which he starred with Ebru G\u00fcnde\u015f. Altunorak, who put the gun to his head, collapsed to the ground in blood as soon as he pulled the trigger. He was seriously injured as the pistol was still loaded and he was treated for a long time. The series was subsequently cancelled."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Andy Nyman was originally intended to front the programme, but he wanted to concentrate on acting so Brown was recommended to the producers by comedian and close-up magician Jerry Sadowitz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Derren Brown (born 27 February 1971) is an English mentalist, illusionist, painter, and author. He began performing in 1992, making his television debut with \"Derren Brown: Mind Control\" in 2000, and has since produced several more shows for stage and television. His 2006 show \"Something Wicked This Way Comes\" and his 2012 show \"Svengali\" won him two Laurence Olivier Awards for Best Entertainment. He made his Broadway debut with his 2019 stage show \"Secret\". He has also written books for both magicians and the general public."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Brown explained some of the manipulations which had occurred, such as unconscious fraud and the ideomotor effect. The suicide pact had not actually taken place and \"Jane\" was introduced alive and well to the students at the end of the show. Brown later revealed it was a hoax designed to show how susceptible people could be convinced seances were real. In his book, \"Tricks of the Mind\", Brown revealed that, contrary to claims made when the show was aired, \"S\u00e9ance\" did not go out live. He said it was necessary to make viewers believe at the time that it was live."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The various stage and television shows performed by the psychological illusionist Derren Brown."
      },
      {
        "title": "How to Take Down a Casino",
        "text": "After an advertising break, Derren speaks over a map of Europe, saying that they cannot film due to the risk of their location being recognised. In another pre-recorded segment, Brown explores the concept of luck and the notion that \"lucky\" people are those who take more opportunities. He plays a game involving two audience members involving two matchboxes and a \u00a320 note: the unlucky person ends up with it, but an instruction to give it to the other person is written on the note."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "During the show, Brown hypnotised the audience as a group and convinced them that for approximately half an hour after leaving the room they would have no memory of the events. Furthermore, the word \"forget\" was intermittently flashed very briefly on the backdrop throughout the performance. A variety of audience members were interviewed in a vox pop segment afterwards; some could not recollect anything, but were nevertheless impressed. One of the most prominent stunts was asking a London taxi driver to choose a street in London and then choose and mentally drive a random route. This was achieved by drawing a line on a map of London made of stuck together A-Z pages. An envelope, which had been visible on-stage throughout the entire show, was then opened. This contained a card listing the page number and coordinate of the destination, an acetate with the route marked on it and a receipt for \u00a38 (the estimated cost of the journey by the driver). The driver's route started at Buckingham Palace and ended at Shepherd's Bush Green, the street where the secret performance took place."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Derren Brown's sixth live stage show, \"Infamous\", toured the UK from March 2013 and visited Ireland in 2014. Derren Brown's website stated that it would \"not be suitable for under 12s\". A televised version of the show aired on Channel 4 on 22 September 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Derren's first stage show began at the Tobacco Factory Theatre in 2003 near Brown's home in Bristol. It then grew into a major 2003/4 tour concluding with a London run at the Palace Theatre. The show was never recorded for television broadcast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Brown's first two books were intended for magicians; they were written before his fame. He has said that he pulled them from the market when he found that non-magicians would bring them to his shows for autographs. He says he felt bad because, \"...they're spending a lot of money on those things and...if they wanted to find out how I was doing the TV shows it wasn't really answering that question.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Heist (Derren Brown special)",
        "text": "Brown stated that the four final participants were all pleased with a screening they saw after the show had been entirely taped; and that he and Danny afterwards \"became good friends\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Audience participants were selected at random by means of Brown throwing frisbees into the audience. The show included the following:\n*Gorillas \u2013 the introduction to the show was a video including gorillas playing table tennis to demonstrate change blindness. Brown then appeared and indicated that a some point during the show \"a man in a gorilla suit will come onto stage and steal a banana\". The challenge for the audience was to notice the banana being stolen. The banana was then successfully removed while the audience attention was directed elsewhere. Later in the show, when the gorilla came on stage more obviously, it was revealed that it was Derren in the costume.\n*\u00a3500 v \u00a35000 \u2013 Brown brought out a concealed box containing either \u00a3500 or \u00a35000. The selected participant was asked specific questions by Brown and then asked to name what was inside the box. If he was correct, the contents would be theirs.\n*20 Questions \u2013 Brown played the game with 6 audience members on stage in a variety of different ways (e.g. face to face, with his back towards them and with them being told to not even give a yes or no answer in response to the questions).\n*Tossed-Out Deck - Brown performed his own version of the Tossed-Out Deck Routine with three members of the audience in the first few rows.\n*Psychic powers \u2013 Brown privately gave instructions to a participant (always a woman) on how to guess correctly playing cards which other people had selected. He then put the person in a trance and told her to forget everything he had told her.\n*Number predictions \u2013 an audience member was told to contact someone on a phone (always a man) and ask various questions with the hope of the participant saying numbers which Brown had already written on a whiteboard. In reality, the person on the phone was made to say the serial number of a ten-pound note given to the audience member.\n*Table-Turning \u2013 as a lead up to The Oracle Act, Brown fashioned various table turning acts in order to demonstrate the effects which led people to believe in supernatural occurrences in those days.\n*The Oracle Act \u2013 the main feature was a recreation of the act performed by the mediums and charlatans in the 1930s. During the interval, audience members had been asked to write personal questions and leave them in envelopes on the stage. Just by looking at the writing on the front of the envelopes (initials and row), Brown was able to deduce the type of person who was responsible for it and give various specific facts about the person including the exact question asked. He then blindfolded himself and continued in the same manner with almost perfect results. Nearing the end of the act Brown repeatedly asked for some water, which was not given to him. He then became more and more agitated until collapsing. After a brief pause, someone came out to check him and the curtain closed. Brown then stepped out from behind the curtain and explained that that was how the mediums in the 1930s would end their acts, and that was how he would end his.\n*The Box \u2013 the culmination of the show was to reveal the contents of a box which was suspended from the roof of the stage and had been untouched and visible to the audience before and throughout the show. A scroll in the box was unraveled and showed that Brown had seemingly made predictions prior to the show about specific things which had come up in the show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "\"The Devil's Picturebook\" is a near 3-hour home-made video. The first half explains in detail some classic card routines from his earlier career as a conjurer, all of which rely on sleight of hand, misdirection and audience management. The second looks at psychological card routines and shows a distinct move towards mentalism, for which he is now known. It is an instructional video for aspiring magicians and not an entertainment piece. For this reason, it was available only to practitioners through a password-protected \"magicians only\" area of his website. The clue to the password tells you that the word itself begins with T and is a type of palming trick."
      },
      {
        "title": "How to Take Down a Casino",
        "text": "Broadcasting live from a van in an undisclosed location in Europe, Derren Brown tells viewers that he will bet \u00a35000 taken from a member of the public on a single casino roulette wheel number. He plans to win \u00a3175,000 for the person from whom he took the money."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Heist (Derren Brown special)",
        "text": "\"The Heist\" faced some controversy during its airing. John Beyer, chairman of media watchdog Mediawatch-uk, called the show \"a waste of public money and a valuable waste of police officers' time\". He also accused it of \"glamourising crime\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Brown responded to scepticism about the show on his blog, noting that many aspects of the show's production were edited from the televised version due to time constraints. He cited \"Donnie Darko\", \"Fight Club\", \"The Game\" and \"Watchmen\" as influences for the show. Brown went on to say that \"this has been my favourite show to work on \u2013 most ambitious, most involved, most demanding and by far the most joyful. I consider it my fondest and best...\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Heist (Derren Brown special)",
        "text": "Initially, Brown sets up tests to see how each of them react to different situations such as an irritating security guard hassling them on the way to dinner to see how they react to authority, and a ma\u00eetre d\u2019h\u00f4tel presenting them with an unexpected bill after dinner and drinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian Roulette (Red Velvet song)",
        "text": "During their Naver \"V Live\" broadcast on September 6, the group revealed that some members broke large parts of the set which the staff had to rebuild as they were filming it, partly due to the nature of the scenes they shot. Member Joy also expressed her concerns about its rating due to the violent theme of some of the scenes."
      },
      {
        "title": "How to Take Down a Casino",
        "text": "After the broadcast, Derren Brown said on his blog that he was \"still reeling from tonight's escapade\", but that \"I called Ben as soon as I could and he doesn't hate me\". Several days later, Brown posted a video on YouTube in which he impersonated \"Family Guy\"s Stewie Griffin and self-deprecatingly called the ending an \"epic fail\", saying that he \"fucked it up\"; the \"Mirror\" newspaper called the video \"bizarre\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Heist (Derren Brown special)",
        "text": "In a Channel 4 viewer poll for \"Derren Brown night\" on 8 January 2011, \"The Heist\" was revealed to be the viewers' (as well as Brown's) favourite Derren Brown special."
      },
      {
        "title": "Messiah (Derren Brown special)",
        "text": "Brown explained that many mediums use a technique called cold reading. To illustrate this he arranged a clairvoyant demonstration with \"fairly sceptical New Yorkers\". During the s\u00e9ance Brown convinced three women into believing that he was in contact with deceased loved ones and during the performance many tears were shed. Afterwards it was explained to the participants that it was a trick, and those appearing agreed to broadcasting the event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Brown often claims to reveal the methods by which he achieves his tricks, however this is typically an additional layer of misdirection, as the stated methods are not the methods that he uses. The perception by his audience that he uses deep psychological insights typically aids the misdirection required for his tricks. He therefore relies on an array of techniques to prevent audiences from deducing the techniques he has used. This has led to criticism that his presentation as a sceptic is misleading, since his performances encourage belief in pseudoscience. For example, after performing a trick in which he appeared to , his demonstrated explanation included using the Wisdom of Crowds, but it has been theorised that the actual method relied on split-screen video. This has been interpreted as undermining sceptic efforts to reduce the magical thinking that mentalist performances can promote."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Brown does not claim to possess any supernatural powers; conversely, his acts are often designed to expose the methods of those who do assert such claims, such as faith healers and mediums. He often begins live performances by stating that his results are achieved through \"magic, suggestion, psychology, misdirection, and showmanship\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Showing in March and April 2017, \"Derren Brown: Underground\" was an exclusive stage show to the Charing Cross Theatre in London (an underground theatre). It contained a collection of Brown's favourite bits of his previous stage shows as a warm-up for his first American shows. It was later extended to a full tour in the UK, which commenced after Brown returned to the country from 'Secret'."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "To demonstrate the system to the viewer, Brown tossed a coin showing ten heads in a row to prove it was not impossible, just highly improbable."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The show attempted to involve the television audience and they were encouraged to get items to create a ouija board. Viewers who experienced \"something unusual\" during the show were invited to call a telephone number and some of these recordings were played in the show as the participants moved between rooms. Brown also warned viewers about the impending ouija board scene, advising those who objected for \"religious reasons or otherwise\" to stop watching the show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andy Nyman",
        "text": "As an accomplished magician and mentalist, Nyman has frequently collaborated with psychological illusionist Derren Brown. He is the co-creator and co-writer of the television shows \"Derren Brown \u2013 Mind Control\" and \"Trick of the Mind\". He and Brown wrote \"Russian Roulette\", \"\", and \"Messiah\", as well as three series of \"Trick of the Mind\". He also co-wrote and co-directed four of Brown's stage shows, all of which have toured and played the West End. For \"Something Wicked This Way Comes\" they were awarded the 2006 Olivier Award for Best Entertainment."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Heist (Derren Brown special)",
        "text": "Brown said that the show was inspired in part by \"a vague distaste for the cult of selfishness apotheosised through self-help seminars\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "In his 2006 book \"Tricks of the Mind\", Brown wrote, \"I am often dishonest in my techniques, but always honest about my dishonesty...I happily admit cheating, as it's all part of the game\" and claimed to never use actors or \"stooges\" in his work without informing the viewers, calling it \"artistically repugnant and simply unnecessary\". However, in an October 2010 interview Brown conceded that Singh may have had a point, explaining that at the start of his television career \"I was overstating the case, overstating my skills. I thought there'll only be one show, there'll never be a repeat, so I might as well go for it.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"Derren Brown: Pushed to the Edge\", broadcast on 12 January 2016, was advertised as Brown attempting to use social coercion to convince one member of the public, Chris Kingston, who doesn't know he's being manipulated or filmed, to push another person off a roof to their apparent death, during the fictitious launch of a charity called 'Push'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown's Ghost Train",
        "text": "Derren Brown's Ghost Train\n--History.\n--Ride experience.\n--Controversy.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Heist (Derren Brown special)",
        "text": "Thirteen delegates are invited to an intimate seminar in a hotel in Hertfordshire apparently to learn some of Brown\u2019s skills, after responding to adverts in the press. They had to be open responsive types who would respond well to his techniques; have no criminal record; fall into a typical middle-management income bracket or above; and be deemed psychologically robust enough by an independent psychologist to take part in the show."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Heist (Derren Brown special)",
        "text": "In a later interview, Brown stated of the experience, \"It was shocking, actually, how easy it was.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian Roulette (game show)",
        "text": "Russian Roulette is an American game show created and executive produced by Gunnar Wetterberg that ran for two seasons on Game Show Network from June 3, 2002 to June 13, 2003. The show was hosted by Mark L. Walberg and announced by Burton Richardson."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "During the programme Galley was put through a series of challenges: being the victim of an armed robbery, touching a live crocodile, illicitly entering a policeman's home, lying strapped to a rail track in a straitjacket while a train approached (the first challenge when he knew he was awake and that Brown was involved in this). The show culminated in Galley travelling on a plane where the pilot had supposedly been incapacitated."
      },
      {
        "title": "My God-Given Right",
        "text": "\"Russian Roul\u00e9\" is a word play involving Russian roulette and \"rock and roll\"; it talks about finishing school and not being sure about what to do with life, based on Deris's own experience of aspiring to be a musician and most people not taking him seriously. Guitarist Sascha Gerstner described \"The Swing of a Fallen World\" as the darkest track on the album and, like Deris, identified some Black Sabbath elements on it, while Deris compared it to their \"The Dark Ride\"-era songs. \"Like Everybody Else\" had parts recorded during the \"Straight Out of Hell\" sessions. It was written by Gerstner about some people not understanding him since he was a child and about one just trying to be themselves in spite of people trying to pinch them."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"Trick or Treat\" started on Channel 4 in 2007. The focus of the show is on one volunteer who receives either a good experience or a bad experience. The experience the volunteers receive is decided by which card they choose. If they choose the card that says 'Trick' they receive a bad experience, and if they choose the card that says 'Treat' they receive a good experience. In the first series of \"Trick or Treat\", the volunteer had no choice over the matter as the cards were ambigrams; however, in the second series, they were replaced by two more clearly defined cards that were no longer ambigrams."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"Derren Brown: The Experiments\" was announced on 4 October 2011 on his official blog. Brown said that each special was an \"ambitious sociological experiment, in which the unwitting subject is a single person, a crowd, or even an entire town\". Brown stated that 'Three of [the episodes] are relatively dark, looking into the darker side of human behaviour, and one of them is rather positive and jolly' on his blog."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"Derren Brown: The Great Art Robbery\" centres on Brown teaching a group of old age pensioners how to get away with a robbery using various techniques such as how to stay unnoticed as well as controlling fear and nerves. The OAPs then embark on a large-scale robbery, which involves stealing an expensive painting from art collector Ivan Massow. The catch, however, is that Derren openly tells Massow the exact time the robbery will take place and whom to look for. The show first aired on Friday 13 December."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "During the first program, Brown met with British psychic medium Joe Power. A second programme concerned a Ukrainian system of human development that claims to teach people to see without the use of their eyes, and in a third he met a \"ghosthunter\" from the United States. With these people he discussed their claims to have evidence of the paranormal."
      },
      {
        "title": "How to Take Down a Casino",
        "text": "\"How to Take Down a Casino\", also called \"How to Beat a Casino\" or \"How to Beat the Casino\", is the fourth and final special in British psychological illusionist Derren Brown's \"\" television series. The episode featured both live and pre-recorded segments, and showed Brown attempting to win \u00a3175,000 by placing money that he had taken from a member of the public on a roulette wheel in an undisclosed European casino."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Heist (Derren Brown special)",
        "text": "After filming, all four subjects were de-programmed of any temporary criminal inclinations, spending time with both Brown and an independent psychologist. The three participants who performed a hold-up are shown stating positive things about their experience, although it is unclear whether these were taped before or after the heist itself. To end the show, Ally says: \"Stealing sweets is one thing, but stealing boxes of money from the Bank of England is a completely different kettle of fish.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Brown's next project, \"Derren Brown: S\u00e9ance,\" aired on Channel 4 on 31 May 2004. He brought 12 students from Roehampton University together for a live s\u00e9ance. He held the event at Elton Hall in east London, claiming the location had a history of paranormal activity after 12 people killed themselves there in a suicide pact in 1974. Brown then proceeded to demonstrate the methods used by spiritualists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Derren Brown was born in the Croydon area of London on 27 February 1971, the son of Chris and Bob Brown. He was raised in the nearby area of Purley, which he described as \"the epitome of middle-class suburbia\". He has a brother nine years his junior. He was privately educated at Whitgift School in Croydon, where his father was a swimming coach, before going on to study law and German at the University of Bristol. While there, he attended a hypnotist show by Martin S Taylor, which inspired him to turn to illusion and hypnosis as a career. As an undergraduate, he started working as a conjuror, performing the traditional skills of close-up magic in bars and restaurants. In 1992, he started performing stage shows at the University of Bristol under the stage name Darren V. Brown; the \"V\" stood for \"Victor\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"Derren Brown: Secret\" is Derren's eighth live stage show and his first live stage show to be performed in the United States of America. \"Secret\" had its first performance 21 April 2017 at the Atlantic Theater Company in New York City and ran until 25 June 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "A 90-minute edit of this show was broadcast on 29 December 2006, 10 June 2007 and 17 June 2008 on Channel 4, on 10 May 2008, 17 January 2009 and 6 January 2012 on E4; a longer, unedited version was released on DVD in May 2008. The show won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Entertainment Show 2006. The show was co-written and directed by his longtime collaborator Andy Nyman. The title originates from the Ray Bradbury novel, which is itself a quote from Act 4, Scene 2 of William Shakespeare's \"Macbeth\". (The same verse also is the source of the title of Agatha Christie's By The Pricking of My Thumbs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"The System\", a Channel\u00a04 special in which Brown shared his \"100 percent guaranteed\" method for winning on the horses, was first shown on 1 February 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "This show was said to have taken months of planning including hacking Steven's phone, controlling his news feeds and Twitter, recording special versions of TV and radio shows, and using over 200 actors."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Heist (Derren Brown special)",
        "text": "The results of Brown\u2019s experiment were almost identical to those of the original - over 50% of participants continued up to 450V. Only one of the participants, Victoria, had heard of the experiment previously; she had refused to go on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "An episode of \"Trick or Treat\" caused charity Cats Protection to complain and news reports to label Brown a \"cat killer\", after he appeared to convince someone to press a button even though they thought it would electrocute a kitten inside a metal box. Brown responded by arguing they had misunderstood the trick (the box wasn't wired up), and he \"wasn\u2019t glorifying cruelty to cats. People would have been hard-pressed to recreate the electrocution device at home even if they wanted to.\" Another episode which saw someone hypnotised into thinking they had been killed in a car crash after not wearing a seatbelt was criticised by a road safety charity, who alleged it trivialised the issue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mentalism",
        "text": "Some contemporary performers, such as Derren Brown, attribute their results and effects to natural skills, including the ability to master magic techniques and showmanship, read body language, and influence audiences with psychological principles, such as suggestion. In this vein, Brown explains that he presents and stages \"psychological experiments\" through his performances. Mentalist and psychic entertainer Banachek also rejects that he possesses any supernatural or actual psychic powers, having worked with the James Randi Educational Foundation for many years to investigate and debunk fake psychics. Thus, he is also clear with the public that the effects and experiences he creates through his stage performance are the result of his highly developed performance skills and magic techniques, combined with psychological principles and tactics."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Derren Brown's fifth tour, entitled \"Svengali\", opened on 9 March 2011 in Brighton and ran until 11 August 2012, finishing up with a second London run at the Novello Theatre. It is Brown's first show that is not written in collaboration with Andy Nyman."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "After the selected horse in the final race lost, and Khadisha was convinced that she had lost all her borrowed money, Brown told Khadisha to look again at the betting slip in her hand. The ticket showed the winning horse's name, meaning Khadisha kept her stake and received winnings of \u00a313,000. Brown claimed that he had decided to bet on a different horse when he got to the booth."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The show was based around the idea that a system could be developed to \"guarantee a winner\" of horse races. Cameras followed a member of the public, Khadisha, as Brown anonymously sent her correct predictions of five races in a row, before encouraging her to place as much money as she could on the sixth race."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The trailer for \"The Experiments\" was released on 11 October 2011. It is notably creepy, cutting between different people who ask what it takes to make someone behave out of character. All of them have been edited digitally so that they have mouths similar to ventriloquist dummies. It ends with a large group of people including Brown altogether, asking if we are in control of ourselves, before Brown tilts his head and walks off looking at his phone, with the others following his movements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "In January 2014, Brown appeared as himself in the \"Sherlock\" episode \"The Empty Hearse\", as part of a theory regarding how the title character faked his own death. On 9 November 2018, he appeared as a guest on \"The Joe Rogan Experience\" to promote his Netflix special \"Sacrifice\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Heist (Derren Brown special)",
        "text": "However, responses were played by a pre-recorded CD which the teacher could hear coming from the other room, apparently showing the learner to be in agonising pain and pleading for the experiment to stop. The point is to see whether the teachers (subjects) will call a stop to the experiment or continue to the point where they are administering seemingly lethal electric shocks to the victim simply because the scientist is telling them to. After the experiment, each participant is told the true nature of the test, and that it was filmed for the show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown's Ghost Train",
        "text": "Guests enter a dimly lit pre-show room until the light source is switched off and they are left in the dark room. An audio recording of Derren Brown begins to play stating that \" statistically 11% of the guests are scared of the dark, 34% are scared of small spaces\" then jokingly presents the figure that \"3% will wet themselves due to the sight of a stupid clown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Brown states that he uses a variety of methods to achieve his illusions including traditional magic/conjuring techniques, memory techniques, hypnosis, body language reading, cognitive psychology, cold reading, and psychological, subliminal (specifically the use of PWA \u2013 \"perception without awareness\"), and ideomotor suggestion. Others additionally ascribe methods to him that he denies, ranging from the pseudoscience neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) to paid actors."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"The Heist\" was shown on 4 January 2006 at 21:00, on Channel 4. In the show, Brown used his skills on selected participants who answered an advertisement. Under the guise of a \"motivational seminar\" (where they would allegedly learn Brown's skills) Brown recruited a number of participants, eventually manipulating a number of them into robbing a security van in broad daylight. \"The Heist\" has been described by Brown as one of the stunts of which he is most proud."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Heist (Derren Brown special)",
        "text": "The teacher is shown the generator in the other room, which ranges from 15V all the way up to a lethal 450V and then are shocked at a moderate 45V, to show the effects of this reasonably low voltage. The teacher asks a series of memory questions and incorrect answers from the learner receive an electric shock. The teacher is told to increase the voltage each time the learner gets a question wrong."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "\"International Magic Presents: The Derren Brown Lecture\" is an 80-minute lecture DVD of close-up mentalism and subsequent discussion of various aspects of Brown's performance. Again, this product is not intended for general consumption but is directed at magicians and mentalists only."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "The GMB union criticised \"Heist\" on behalf of security workers, arguing it was \"irresponsible and insensitive\" in light of increased attacks on staff. Channel 4 responded by arguing that it was made \"very clear that attempting any form of robbery was criminal behaviour.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Brown's second live stage show, \"Something Wicked This Way Comes\", toured around the UK following its success in the West End. The tour began in March 2005 at the Cambridge Theatre and finished in May at the Hammersmith Apollo. The run was then once more extended into the following year, being performed and filmed for a final time at the Old Vic Theatre in mid-June 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Heist (Derren Brown special)",
        "text": "After the end of this experiment, Brown chooses the four participants who will take part in the heist, based on their behaviour in the experiment and in previous tests. Two of the four participants he chose, Danny and Victoria, in fact refused to complete the experiment; Brown chose Danny anyway because his vocal refusal to go on indicated to Brown a \"strength of character\" that he felt would be helpful; and Victoria was chosen because Brown wanted at least one woman in the final group, and he felt that she was the best choice."
      },
      {
        "title": "How to Control the Nation",
        "text": "Brown plays a piece of music which he says will give one audience member a strong feeling that they should volunteer themselves: a man does, and he takes part in a trick in which Derren predicts which chair, pen and order of the numbers 1\u20133 he selects, as well as the number of his ticket stub. A film is shown in which Brown dresses as a homeless beggar and collects \u00a3350 from members of the public in under an hour using a subliminal questionnaire and shop window decorations; one man gives his shoes."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Wisdom of Crowds",
        "text": "Illusionist Derren Brown claimed to use the 'Wisdom of Crowds' concept to explain how he correctly predicted the UK National Lottery results in September 2009. His explanation was met with criticism on-line, by people who argued that the concept was misapplied. The methodology employed was too flawed; the sample of people could not have been totally objective and free in thought, because they were gathered multiple times and socialised with each other too much; a condition Surowiecki tells us is corrosive to pure independence and the diversity of mind required (Surowiecki 2004:38). Groups thus fall into groupthink where they increasingly make decisions based on influence of each other and are thus \"less\" accurate. However, other commentators have suggested that, given the entertainment nature of the show, Brown's misapplication of the theory may have been a deliberate smokescreen to conceal his true method."
      },
      {
        "title": "Audience",
        "text": "Magic shows often rely on some audience participation. Psychological illusionist Derren Brown relies heavily on audience participation in his live shows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trapt",
        "text": "In March 2020, \"Metal Injection\", \"The A.V. Club\", and \"Slate\" all reported that the band's Twitter account had gone on a week-long effort of arguing with and insulting people. It began with insults of civil rights activist and bishop Talbert W. Swan II and accusations of having a \"victim mentality\". The comments then expanded into areas such as defending the Unite the Right rally, calling people \"nerds\", challenging the existence of white privilege in society, supporting Trump's \"Chinese virus\" rhetoric in reference to the COVID-19 pandemic, and fat-shaming women. \"Loudwire\" noted that many notable bands and musicians later responded to counter or ridicule the claims. Brown later used the band account to threaten legal action against an unflattering parody account assuming Trapt's identity, only to drop the issue on the same day once the account altered its Twitter handle to make the parody clearer. In May 2020, Brown threatened legal action against multiple Change.org petitions to keep the band's music off of the upcoming \"Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 1 + 2\" re-release, even though the band's music never appeared on the originals nor was announced for the remaster. In the same month, Brown used the band's account to partially blame George Floyd for his own death."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The robbery involved holding up a security van and guard (played by an actor) using a realistic-looking toy pistol that Brown had given the subjects earlier, and stealing a case filled with real money. Four people were selected to carry out the robbery from an initial field of thirteen, with three of them actually carrying out the \"robbery\". The idea was that, after the conditioning they received, they would voluntarily rob the van of their own accord. There was no mention of the \"crime\" to the participants, and they were not (directly) instructed to do it. The \"robbery\" was carried out as a result of the conditioning they received and was their own choice, not because of instructions from any third party, including Brown."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The final scene, the s\u00e9ance itself, saw the group \"contact\" Jane. One of the students was chosen as the medium and spoke as though she were Jane, giving details of her life. The group became increasingly distressed by events in the room, such as movement of items on the table. A letter and short film from Jane's sibling confirmed the accuracy of details revealed in the s\u00e9ance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "In 2008, Brown made a brief cameo in the supernatural drama series \"Crooked House\". An interview with Brown was featured in Richard Dawkins' 2009 two-part documentary series \"The Enemies of Reason\". Brown explained various psychological techniques used by purported psychics and spiritual mediums to manipulate their audiences. The most notable was cold reading, a technique which he discusses extensively in his book \"Tricks of the Mind\". Some video footage was also used from his TV special \"Messiah\". As part of Channel 4's 3D season in 2009, Brown presented \"Derren Brown's 3D Magic Spectacular\". The show was not a new special from Brown; instead, he was the presenter for a number of other magicians and clips that were shown. However, he did include one extract taken from a 2006 episode of \"Trick of the Mind\" in which he found an object that had been hidden in the streets of Venice by a volunteer."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"Seance\" received 487 complaints to Channel 4 and 208 to Ofcom, making it the third most complained about show in history. Most were from church groups and came before transmission. The show was ultimately cleared of any wrongdoing."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"Derren Brown: Apocalypse\" is a two-part special that aired on Friday 26 October 2012 and concluded on Friday 2 November 2012. It centred around one man named Steven, who had been described as suffering from a \"lazy sense of entitlement\". In a trailer for the show, he said he was \"lazy\" and \"irresponsible\", while his mother said that sometimes she felt like he did not love her any more."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "After Brown had placed a bet of \u00a34,000 of Khadisha's money on a horse in the final race, he explained how \"The System\" worked. He had started by contacting 7,776 people and split them into six groups, giving each group a different horse. As each race had taken place 5\u20446 of the people had lost and were dropped from the system. Brown had a different person backing each horse in each race, and one individual, Khadisha, won five times in a row. This was similar to the coin flipping earlier: rather than having a predictive technique, Brown had tossed a coin repeatedly until ten heads had come up in a row, taking over nine hours to produce the required film. Brown expressed the opinion that the principle behind \"The System\" (essentially confirmation bias or survivorship bias) is what is behind belief in spiritualism or homoeopathic and alternative medicine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "In 2019, Brown collaborated with playing card company Theory11 on a deck of cards that are sold on the company's website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trapt",
        "text": "Many publications have taken note of the band's unusual use of social media accounts, run by Brown, often to lash out and attack others, something not often done from official band accounts. Music website \"Metal Sucks\" noted in 2015 that the band's official Facebook account made lengthy posts criticizing viewers of \"Keeping Up with the Kardashians\", which devolved into the account swearing and berating commenters. The comment also included homophobic insults towards internet musician Rob Scallon, whom the band had feuded with on social media earlier in the year over the unauthorized and unattributed use of Scallon's videos. In 2017, Brown insulted commenters who disagreed with his defense of President Trump's dismissal of James Comey, and then again later in the year with critics of Brown's stance that institutional racism does not exist."
      },
      {
        "title": "La Fura dels Baus",
        "text": "In 2011 La Fura attracted controversy for performing for the 35th birthday party of the Chechen dictator, Ramzan Kadyrov."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian Roulette (game show)",
        "text": "The \"Russian Roulette\" set consists of a circle with six trapdoors (referred to as \"drop zones\" by the host), four of which are occupied by the episode's contestants."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Andrew Marr Show",
        "text": "Public figures and politicians had a range of views on the line of questioning. Ben Bradshaw and Lord Mandelson, both members of Brown's Cabinet, criticised the questioning, with Mandelson saying it showed \"personal intrusiveness\" and alleged the question was based on false rumours being spread by \"extreme right wing\" bloggers. Others took a different line \u2013 historian David Starkey told \"Question Time\" \"we have a right to know\" adding that Brown's recent behaviour had \"suggest[ed] this is a man not completely in control\", and former Home Secretary Charles Clarke suggested that Brown's health might have been a reason for the Prime Minister to stand down and that within the context of a long interview, it was reasonable also to ask Mr Brown about his health. The editor of the show, Barney Jones, defended the questioning in October 2009, saying:"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many Luarence Olivier Awards did Derren Brown win?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Derren Brown's 2006 show Something Wicked This Way Comes and his 2012 show Svengali won him two Laurence Olivier Awards for Best Entertainment."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the history of the Olivier Awards?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They were established in 1976 by the Society of London Theatre as the Society of West End Theatre Awards, and the first ceremony was in December 1976 at the Caf\u00e9 Royal, then in 1984 the awards were renamed afer British actor Laurence Olivier."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Were there any controversies associated with Derren Brown?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are interested in controversies involving his show Russian Roulette, Seance, Heist, or Trick or Treat?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the ones involving the show Russian Roulette."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "There were complaints that it was distasteful, made light of suicide, and promoted gun culture. The police also warned that the show might inspire copycat acts.",
      "Public complaints that Russian Roulette was distasteful, made light of suicide, and promoted gun culture were ultimately rejected by Ofcom on the basis that the context (a post-watershed magic show) was enough and that the warnings given were sufficient, additionally, the use of a 15-minute time delay ensured no viewer would have seen the result of any mistake, but the police had also warned that the show might inspire copycat acts."
    ],
    "topic": "Derren Brown",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Derren Brown:10",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Derren Brown",
          "Controversies"
        ],
        "ctx": "Public complaints that \"Russian Roulette\" was distasteful, made light of suicide, and promoted gun culture were ultimately rejected by Ofcom on the basis that the context (a post-watershed magic show) was enough and that the warnings given were sufficient. Additionally, the use of a 15-minute time delay ensured no viewer would have seen the result of any mistake. The police had also warned that the show might inspire copycat acts."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Derren Brown:10",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Derren Brown",
          "Controversies"
        ],
        "ctx": "Public complaints that \"Russian Roulette\" was distasteful, made light of suicide, and promoted gun culture were ultimately rejected by Ofcom on the basis that the context (a post-watershed magic show) was enough and that the warnings given were sufficient. Additionally, the use of a 15-minute time delay ensured no viewer would have seen the result of any mistake. The police had also warned that the show might inspire copycat acts."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "On 5 October 2003, Brown performed Russian roulette, live on Channel 4, which was watched by over 3.3 million viewers. The stunt was performed at an undisclosed location, supposedly in Jersey, due to laws in mainland Britain restricting the firing of live rounds to qualified armourers."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "During one performance of the show, a woman in the audience pushed her husband as a joke and he fell over the balcony. He managed to hang on to the upper circle and was not injured."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The stunts included a live TV broadcast in which Brown suggested that he had successfully predicted the winning National Lottery numbers, and another in which Brown played a subliminal video suggesting that viewers at home would feel that they had become stuck to their sofas. Brown also projected an image into viewers' minds and asked them draw it on paper. The series' final event was an attempt to predict the outcome of a roulette wheel, staking \u00a35,000 of a chosen viewer's money on the outcome. The ball landed in the pocket numbered 30, adjacent to Brown's choice of 8."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Public complaints that \"Russian Roulette\" was distasteful, made light of suicide, and promoted gun culture were ultimately rejected by Ofcom on the basis that the context (a post-watershed magic show) was enough and that the warnings given were sufficient. Additionally, the use of a 15-minute time delay ensured no viewer would have seen the result of any mistake. The police had also warned that the show might inspire copycat acts."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The second episode called \"The Gameshow\" aired on 28 October 2011. Brown hosted a show purportedly called \"Remote Control\", asking a masked audience to vote for the escalating fate of a contestant in an attempt to demonstrate the effect of deindividuation. The audience were repeatedly given two choices, positive and negative, that would affect the life of a man named Kris. The choices grew increasingly darker but they continued to embrace the negative options. It reached the point where the audience were happy to see Kris' television destroyed and Kris kidnapped by masked thugs. The theory is that taking away people's individuality and encouraging them to regard themselves as just part of a crowd makes them act in a way that will sometimes conflict with their personal morality."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "At the end of the show, a title card explained that \"at each stage of the process, participants who did not make it to the next round were offered a complete refund of any bets they had placed.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Many of Brown's shows have generated controversy. In 2007, BBC News listed two of his shows (\"Russian Roulette\" and \"Seance\") in a list of examples of Channel 4's \"legacy of controversy\". In 2013, he said, \"Controversy has never interested me for its own sake. It's always been about doing stuff that feels dramatic.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Derren's first stage show began at the Tobacco Factory Theatre in 2003 near Brown's home in Bristol. It then grew into a major 2003/4 tour concluding with a London run at the Palace Theatre. The show was never recorded for television broadcast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "In January 2014, Brown appeared as himself in the \"Sherlock\" episode \"The Empty Hearse\", as part of a theory regarding how the title character faked his own death. On 9 November 2018, he appeared as a guest on \"The Joe Rogan Experience\" to promote his Netflix special \"Sacrifice\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "During the programme Galley was put through a series of challenges: being the victim of an armed robbery, touching a live crocodile, illicitly entering a policeman's home, lying strapped to a rail track in a straitjacket while a train approached (the first challenge when he knew he was awake and that Brown was involved in this). The show culminated in Galley travelling on a plane where the pilot had supposedly been incapacitated."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Most of the show involved the selection of a volunteer to assist Brown, who apparently would risk firing a live round into his own head, in a game of Russian Roulette. Twelve thousand people applied for the task and these were whittled down to five men, who were given additional psychological testing and trained to load a revolver. On the day of the stunt, James was chosen to be the only person in the room when Brown performed. James was required to load a single shot into a revolver with six numbered chambers. Brown aimed the revolver at his head and fired chambers 3 and 4, then fired chamber 5 while aiming at a sand bag hanging nearby; they were all empty. The tension mounted as Brown paused, then fired chamber 6 aimed at his head and then quickly fired chamber 1 towards the sand bag; the sand bag appeared to have been pierced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Derren Brown\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n----Performance.\n----Other appearances.\n--Controversies.\n--Methods.\n----Suggested methods.\n----Actual versus suggested methods.\n--Personal life.\n--Works.\n----Books.\n----Other productions and publications.\n----Thorpe Park ride.\n----Playing cards.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "In January 2011, to celebrate 10 years since his first television appearance, Channel 4 held a special \"Derren Brown Night\". As well as re-showing \"The Heist\" (which had won a recent poll of favourite Brown specials) and one of his \"Enigma\" live shows, the channel screened a special documentary called \"Derren Brown: Behind the Mischief\". It was a personal and candid film about Brown which included the story of how he met his co-writer (who was featured in \"Seance\"), his mother's feelings about his involvement in the \"Russian Roulette\" special, and an emotional visit back to his old school, university, and bars/pubs where he first began his career. Celebrity contributors included Matt Lucas, Jo Whiley, Stephen Merchant, and Simon Pegg. In January 2013, he was featured in a Channel 4 \"Deal or No Deal\" special, where he appeared to have predicted all the correct boxes to win the big jackpot of \u00a3250,000. That same year, he appeared in a comedy sketch at the beginning of an \"8 Out of 10 Cats Does Deal or No Deal\" special."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Brown explained some of the manipulations which had occurred, such as unconscious fraud and the ideomotor effect. The suicide pact had not actually taken place and \"Jane\" was introduced alive and well to the students at the end of the show. Brown later revealed it was a hoax designed to show how susceptible people could be convinced seances were real. In his book, \"Tricks of the Mind\", Brown revealed that, contrary to claims made when the show was aired, \"S\u00e9ance\" did not go out live. He said it was necessary to make viewers believe at the time that it was live."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"Derren Brown: Apocalypse\" is a two-part special that aired on Friday 26 October 2012 and concluded on Friday 2 November 2012. It centred around one man named Steven, who had been described as suffering from a \"lazy sense of entitlement\". In a trailer for the show, he said he was \"lazy\" and \"irresponsible\", while his mother said that sometimes she felt like he did not love her any more."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The show attempted to involve the television audience and they were encouraged to get items to create a ouija board. Viewers who experienced \"something unusual\" during the show were invited to call a telephone number and some of these recordings were played in the show as the participants moved between rooms. Brown also warned viewers about the impending ouija board scene, advising those who objected for \"religious reasons or otherwise\" to stop watching the show."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The show was an opportunity to give Steven a second chance at life and making him realise how important his life really is. The setup was that a huge meteorite hitting Earth had caused the end of the world. Steven supposedly woke up two weeks after the disaster in an abandoned military hospital to find that he is one of a group of survivors now living in a zombie wasteland. He made his way through a carefully planned storyline."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The first episode, entitled \"The Assassin\", aired on 21 October 2011 and consisted of Brown successfully hypnotising an unwitting member of the public to 'assassinate' a celebrity revealed to be Stephen Fry. This technique was used as a comparison to theories regarding the assassination of Robert F. Kennedy by Sirhan Sirhan, who claims to have no memory of the event."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"Derren Brown: The Experiments\" was announced on 4 October 2011 on his official blog. Brown said that each special was an \"ambitious sociological experiment, in which the unwitting subject is a single person, a crowd, or even an entire town\". Brown stated that 'Three of [the episodes] are relatively dark, looking into the darker side of human behaviour, and one of them is rather positive and jolly' on his blog."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Every two years, Brown and his collaborators prepare a new live show. Brown spends one month generating ideas that will equal previous ones without being repetitive, by looking through old books on Victorian and modern magic, spiritualism and suggestion etc. They then consider the practical details, prop lists and attempt to get budgets approved. Brown states \"It's a show that relies on real people taking part, which means there is no way of rehearsing it without an audience to play their part. So I go out gingerly on the first night knowing that some parts will fail. And some parts always do.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Brown himself defended the programme, saying, \"It probably sounds odd. But as a magic-related performer, to have that even being asked: Was it real? Was it not real? That lifts it to a level that I'm very comfortable with. What's left is the fact that it was a terrific piece of television.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"Derren Brown: Pushed to the Edge\", broadcast on 12 January 2016, was advertised as Brown attempting to use social coercion to convince one member of the public, Chris Kingston, who doesn't know he's being manipulated or filmed, to push another person off a roof to their apparent death, during the fictitious launch of a charity called 'Push'."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The robbery involved holding up a security van and guard (played by an actor) using a realistic-looking toy pistol that Brown had given the subjects earlier, and stealing a case filled with real money. Four people were selected to carry out the robbery from an initial field of thirteen, with three of them actually carrying out the \"robbery\". The idea was that, after the conditioning they received, they would voluntarily rob the van of their own accord. There was no mention of the \"crime\" to the participants, and they were not (directly) instructed to do it. The \"robbery\" was carried out as a result of the conditioning they received and was their own choice, not because of instructions from any third party, including Brown."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Brown's next project, \"Derren Brown: S\u00e9ance,\" aired on Channel 4 on 31 May 2004. He brought 12 students from Roehampton University together for a live s\u00e9ance. He held the event at Elton Hall in east London, claiming the location had a history of paranormal activity after 12 people killed themselves there in a suicide pact in 1974. Brown then proceeded to demonstrate the methods used by spiritualists."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The final scene, the s\u00e9ance itself, saw the group \"contact\" Jane. One of the students was chosen as the medium and spoke as though she were Jane, giving details of her life. The group became increasingly distressed by events in the room, such as movement of items on the table. A letter and short film from Jane's sibling confirmed the accuracy of details revealed in the s\u00e9ance."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "List of Derren Brown shows\n--Television series.\n----\"Mind Control\" (2000\u201303).\n----\"Trick of the Mind\" (2004\u201306).\n------\"Waking Dead\" episode.\n----\"Trick or Treat\" (2007\u201308).\n----\"Mind Control with Derren Brown\" (2007).\n----\"Derren Brown: The Events\" (2009).\n----\"Derren Brown Investigates\" (2010).\n----\"Derren Brown: The Experiments\" (2011).\n--Television specials.\n----\"Derren Brown Plays Russian Roulette Live\" (2003).\n----\"Derren Brown: S\u00e9ance\" (2004).\n----\"Derren Brown: Messiah\" (2005).\n----\"Derren Brown: The Gathering\" (2005).\n----\"Derren Brown: The Heist\" (2006).\n----\"Derren Brown: The System\" (2008).\n----\"Derren Brown: Hero at 30,000 Feet\" (2010).\n----\"Derren Brown: Miracles for Sale\" (2011).\n----\"Derren Brown: Apocalypse\" (2012).\n----\"Derren Brown: Fear and Faith\" (2012).\n----\"Derren Brown: The Great Art Robbery\" (2013).\n----\"Derren Brown: Pushed to the Edge\" (2016).\n----\"Derren Brown: Sacrifice\" (2018).\n--Stage shows.\n----\"Derren Brown: Live\" (2003\u201304).\n----\"Something Wicked This Way Comes\" (2005\u201306).\n----\"Mind Reader \u2013 An Evening of Wonders\" (2007\u201308).\n----\"Derren Brown \u2013 Enigma\" (2009\u201310).\n----\"Svengali\" (2011\u201312).\n----\"Infamous\" (2013\u201314).\n----\"Miracle\" (2015\u201316).\n----\"Derren Brown: Underground\" (2017\u201318).\n----\"Derren Brown: Secret\" (2017, 2019).\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "This show was said to have taken months of planning including hacking Steven's phone, controlling his news feeds and Twitter, recording special versions of TV and radio shows, and using over 200 actors."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"Derren Brown: Secret\" is Derren's eighth live stage show and his first live stage show to be performed in the United States of America. \"Secret\" had its first performance 21 April 2017 at the Atlantic Theater Company in New York City and ran until 25 June 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The show toured again from February until April 2008 throughout the UK, and concluded with a West End run at the Garrick Theatre during May and early June. The West End run was a strictly limited season of 32 performances only. A performance from the last week of the tour at the Garrick Theatre was filmed for Channel 4 and aired on 13 January 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The third episode, \"The Guilt Trip\", aired on 5 November 2011. Brown attempted to find out if he could convince someone through association to admit to a crime he or she had not committed. He worked through tricking a participant into distrusting his own memory and having excessive feelings of guilt, to the extent that he confessed to the murder of an actor with whom he had interacted and was later reported murdered."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "In \"Sacrifice\", unsuspecting participant Phil takes part in a faked medical experiment to increase his bravery and empathy, before being put in a situation where he must decide whether to take a bullet for a stranger or save his own life."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Derren Brown's sixth live stage show, \"Infamous\", toured the UK from March 2013 and visited Ireland in 2014. Derren Brown's website stated that it would \"not be suitable for under 12s\". A televised version of the show aired on Channel 4 on 22 September 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"Derren Brown: The Great Art Robbery\" centres on Brown teaching a group of old age pensioners how to get away with a robbery using various techniques such as how to stay unnoticed as well as controlling fear and nerves. The OAPs then embark on a large-scale robbery, which involves stealing an expensive painting from art collector Ivan Massow. The catch, however, is that Derren openly tells Massow the exact time the robbery will take place and whom to look for. The show first aired on Friday 13 December."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Photographs of the 12 members of the suicide pact were shown on screen in a grid. Brown instructed viewers to choose one of the images that they \"felt a connection with\" before directing movements around the grid, which caused viewers to finish on the picture of \"Jane\". Ten of the students also chose Jane. During the following ouija board scene, the \"spirit\" guided the students to spell the name Jane. Two of the students were asked to write the name of a city using automatic writing, as were television viewers. Both students wrote London, which was revealed to be Jane's home in a pre-prepared envelope."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The various stage and television shows performed by the psychological illusionist Derren Brown."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "On 8 September 2010, Brown presented a new special on Channel 4 entitled \"Derren Brown: Hero at 30,000 Feet\". The programme showed Brown taking a man named Matt Galley, an ordinary person stuck in a rut in his life, coaching him to take control of life and achieve his aspirations. The programme was divided into chapters to introduce different stages in the transformation, many of which were undertaken without the subject knowing of Brown's involvement (via cooperation with Galley's parents and girlfriend to set up cameras in his house). At one stage Brown visited Galley in the middle of the night, but left the subject believing it was a dream."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The programme was initially condemned by senior British police officers, apparently fearful of copycat acts. In addition Jersey police stated that \"There was no live ammunition involved and at no time was anyone at risk\" and \"There is absolutely no way that the States of Jersey police would allow anybody to put themselves at risk and shoot themselves dead.\" When asked about the possible use of blanks in the act Brown responded, \"But the frustrating and kind of ironic part of it was that even if it had been a blank that wouldn\u2019t have made it any less dangerous. You shoot a blank next to your head and it will still kill you.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "A 90-minute edit of this show was broadcast on 29 December 2006, 10 June 2007 and 17 June 2008 on Channel 4, on 10 May 2008, 17 January 2009 and 6 January 2012 on E4; a longer, unedited version was released on DVD in May 2008. The show won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Entertainment Show 2006. The show was co-written and directed by his longtime collaborator Andy Nyman. The title originates from the Ray Bradbury novel, which is itself a quote from Act 4, Scene 2 of William Shakespeare's \"Macbeth\". (The same verse also is the source of the title of Agatha Christie's By The Pricking of My Thumbs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Showing in March and April 2017, \"Derren Brown: Underground\" was an exclusive stage show to the Charing Cross Theatre in London (an underground theatre). It contained a collection of Brown's favourite bits of his previous stage shows as a warm-up for his first American shows. It was later extended to a full tour in the UK, which commenced after Brown returned to the country from 'Secret'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Derren Brown was born in the Croydon area of London on 27 February 1971, the son of Chris and Bob Brown. He was raised in the nearby area of Purley, which he described as \"the epitome of middle-class suburbia\". He has a brother nine years his junior. He was privately educated at Whitgift School in Croydon, where his father was a swimming coach, before going on to study law and German at the University of Bristol. While there, he attended a hypnotist show by Martin S Taylor, which inspired him to turn to illusion and hypnosis as a career. As an undergraduate, he started working as a conjuror, performing the traditional skills of close-up magic in bars and restaurants. In 1992, he started performing stage shows at the University of Bristol under the stage name Darren V. Brown; the \"V\" stood for \"Victor\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Heist (Derren Brown special)",
        "text": "Brown stated that the four final participants were all pleased with a screening they saw after the show had been entirely taped; and that he and Danny afterwards \"became good friends\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Brown responded to scepticism about the show on his blog, noting that many aspects of the show's production were edited from the televised version due to time constraints. He cited \"Donnie Darko\", \"Fight Club\", \"The Game\" and \"Watchmen\" as influences for the show. Brown went on to say that \"this has been my favourite show to work on \u2013 most ambitious, most involved, most demanding and by far the most joyful. I consider it my fondest and best...\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"The Gathering\" was a specially recorded as-live show at a secret location (hidden from the audience) with an invited audience of students from Roehampton University, celebrities, psychologists, psychics, taxi drivers and magicians. It was filmed on 18 May 2005 and broadcast on 29 May. As part of the show Brown recalled streets, page numbers and grid references from the Greater London A-Z map. Pseudo-psychic \"mind reading\" and \"remote viewing\" activities were also recreated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Brown does not claim to possess any supernatural powers; conversely, his acts are often designed to expose the methods of those who do assert such claims, such as faith healers and mediums. He often begins live performances by stating that his results are achieved through \"magic, suggestion, psychology, misdirection, and showmanship\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Derren Brown (born 27 February 1971) is an English mentalist, illusionist, painter, and author. He began performing in 1992, making his television debut with \"Derren Brown: Mind Control\" in 2000, and has since produced several more shows for stage and television. His 2006 show \"Something Wicked This Way Comes\" and his 2012 show \"Svengali\" won him two Laurence Olivier Awards for Best Entertainment. He made his Broadway debut with his 2019 stage show \"Secret\". He has also written books for both magicians and the general public."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "In 2009, a book, \"Portraits\", was released containing a selection of Brown's paintings and bizarre caricatures of celebrities."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Audience participants were selected at random by means of Brown throwing frisbees into the audience. The show included the following:\n*Gorillas \u2013 the introduction to the show was a video including gorillas playing table tennis to demonstrate change blindness. Brown then appeared and indicated that a some point during the show \"a man in a gorilla suit will come onto stage and steal a banana\". The challenge for the audience was to notice the banana being stolen. The banana was then successfully removed while the audience attention was directed elsewhere. Later in the show, when the gorilla came on stage more obviously, it was revealed that it was Derren in the costume.\n*\u00a3500 v \u00a35000 \u2013 Brown brought out a concealed box containing either \u00a3500 or \u00a35000. The selected participant was asked specific questions by Brown and then asked to name what was inside the box. If he was correct, the contents would be theirs.\n*20 Questions \u2013 Brown played the game with 6 audience members on stage in a variety of different ways (e.g. face to face, with his back towards them and with them being told to not even give a yes or no answer in response to the questions).\n*Tossed-Out Deck - Brown performed his own version of the Tossed-Out Deck Routine with three members of the audience in the first few rows.\n*Psychic powers \u2013 Brown privately gave instructions to a participant (always a woman) on how to guess correctly playing cards which other people had selected. He then put the person in a trance and told her to forget everything he had told her.\n*Number predictions \u2013 an audience member was told to contact someone on a phone (always a man) and ask various questions with the hope of the participant saying numbers which Brown had already written on a whiteboard. In reality, the person on the phone was made to say the serial number of a ten-pound note given to the audience member.\n*Table-Turning \u2013 as a lead up to The Oracle Act, Brown fashioned various table turning acts in order to demonstrate the effects which led people to believe in supernatural occurrences in those days.\n*The Oracle Act \u2013 the main feature was a recreation of the act performed by the mediums and charlatans in the 1930s. During the interval, audience members had been asked to write personal questions and leave them in envelopes on the stage. Just by looking at the writing on the front of the envelopes (initials and row), Brown was able to deduce the type of person who was responsible for it and give various specific facts about the person including the exact question asked. He then blindfolded himself and continued in the same manner with almost perfect results. Nearing the end of the act Brown repeatedly asked for some water, which was not given to him. He then became more and more agitated until collapsing. After a brief pause, someone came out to check him and the curtain closed. Brown then stepped out from behind the curtain and explained that that was how the mediums in the 1930s would end their acts, and that was how he would end his.\n*The Box \u2013 the culmination of the show was to reveal the contents of a box which was suspended from the roof of the stage and had been untouched and visible to the audience before and throughout the show. A scroll in the box was unraveled and showed that Brown had seemingly made predictions prior to the show about specific things which had come up in the show."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Derren Brown's seventh live stage show, \"Miracle\" was filmed for television in London's Palace Theater and first broadcast on Channel 4 on 10 October 2016. The show examined the subject of faith healing and the performance of miracles. In June 2018, the show was released on Netflix."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Heist (Derren Brown special)",
        "text": "Brown said that the show was inspired in part by \"a vague distaste for the cult of selfishness apotheosised through self-help seminars\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Derren Brown's fifth tour, entitled \"Svengali\", opened on 9 March 2011 in Brighton and ran until 11 August 2012, finishing up with a second London run at the Novello Theatre. It is Brown's first show that is not written in collaboration with Andy Nyman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "In 2010, Brown appeared in a special Comedy Gala for Channel 4 and Great Ormond Street Hospital. He appeared with Kevin Bishop, who played his jealous annoying twin 'Darren'."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Andy Nyman was originally intended to front the programme, but he wanted to concentrate on acting so Brown was recommended to the producers by comedian and close-up magician Jerry Sadowitz."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The trailer for \"The Experiments\" was released on 11 October 2011. It is notably creepy, cutting between different people who ask what it takes to make someone behave out of character. All of them have been edited digitally so that they have mouths similar to ventriloquist dummies. It ends with a large group of people including Brown altogether, asking if we are in control of ourselves, before Brown tilts his head and walks off looking at his phone, with the others following his movements."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "In the fourth episode, \"The Secret of Luck\" which aired on 11 November 2011, Brown spread a rumour of a lucky-dog statue throughout the entire population of a town and documented the consequences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Brown has faced allegations of using stooges in his work. Viewers complained that the subject of \"Apocalypse\" was an actor, pointing to his CastingCallPro account as evidence. Brown dismissed these allegations as conspiracy theories and then responded directly, calling them untrue and hurtful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Although Brown's parents were not practising Christians, they sent him to Bible classes from the age of five because they believed it was the \"right thing to do\". In an effort to deal with issues of self-esteem and sexuality, he became an evangelical Christian throughout his teenage years in order to present himself as confident and asexual; by his 20s, he had decided that his belief in Christianity had no basis, and he became an atheist. By 48, Brown revealed in an interview with Russell Brand that he had since regained his belief in spirituality. He states that this was based on his own coming of age and need to \"surrender\" his ego to the possibility of \"transcending to something larger than the self.\" He came out as gay at the age of 30. He revealed that he was dating a designer named Marc at the time, though they later ended their eight-year relationship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Nesbitt",
        "text": "His third wife was an Australian beauty queen, and for a time he moved to her country where he taught theatre studies at The Northern Rivers Conservatorium of Arts in Lismore NSW. As of 2014, he lives in Worthing, West Sussex, with his fourth wife, Miranda."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Brown's second live stage show, \"Something Wicked This Way Comes\", toured around the UK following its success in the West End. The tour began in March 2005 at the Cambridge Theatre and finished in May at the Hammersmith Apollo. The run was then once more extended into the following year, being performed and filmed for a final time at the Old Vic Theatre in mid-June 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "In an episode first broadcast on Friday 6 May 2005, Brown claimed to have created a video game called \"Waking Dead\" which \"is able to put roughly 1/3 of the people who play it into a catatonic trance\". The video game is then placed in a pub. Brown then \"kidnaps\" the catatonic \"victim\" and places him in a real-life recreation of the video game, having him fire a paintball marker at actors pretending to be zombies and outfitted with explosive squibs."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"Svengali\" was filmed for television and first broadcast on Channel 4 on 18 September 2012. The show won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Entertainment Show 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "How to Take Down a Casino",
        "text": "After the broadcast, Derren Brown said on his blog that he was \"still reeling from tonight's escapade\", but that \"I called Ben as soon as I could and he doesn't hate me\". Several days later, Brown posted a video on YouTube in which he impersonated \"Family Guy\"s Stewie Griffin and self-deprecatingly called the ending an \"epic fail\", saying that he \"fucked it up\"; the \"Mirror\" newspaper called the video \"bizarre\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "\"Confessions of a Conjuror\" was published by Channel 4 Books in October 2010. It is a mix of autobiography and humorous observation told mostly through footnotes and diversions while Brown describes performing a single card routine for a group of people at his old restaurant gig. ()"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The final episode of the second series featured all of the volunteers from the series who had previously received a trick or treat. This episode highlighted belief in superstition and the degree to which it can be applied."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "After the selected horse in the final race lost, and Khadisha was convinced that she had lost all her borrowed money, Brown told Khadisha to look again at the betting slip in her hand. The ticket showed the winning horse's name, meaning Khadisha kept her stake and received winnings of \u00a313,000. Brown claimed that he had decided to bet on a different horse when he got to the booth."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Filmed for Channel 4 in front of a live studio audience, this new series, airing in September 2009 was made up of four one-hour specials, during which Brown attempted what he described as \"some of the most incredible feats to date\". The show consisted of a mixture of pre-recorded location pieces connected by theatre-based segments, with each of the four one-hour programmes building up to a major stunt performance. The first teasers broadcast were shown backwards. When played forwards, Brown explained that in his new series he would be revealing the \"inner workings\" of his tricks and showing the viewer \"how to get away with it\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "To demonstrate the system to the viewer, Brown tossed a coin showing ten heads in a row to prove it was not impossible, just highly improbable."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Brown's third live stage show toured the United Kingdom in 2007 and 2008. \"Derren Brown, Mind Reader \u2013 An Evening of Wonders\", initially toured for 42 dates from 29 April 2007 in Blackpool, and ended 17 June in Bristol."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The show became available on Netflix in February 2018, retitled \"Derren Brown: The Push\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"The System\", a Channel\u00a04 special in which Brown shared his \"100 percent guaranteed\" method for winning on the horses, was first shown on 1 February 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Shown on 7 January 2005, Brown travelled to the United States to try to convince five leading figures that he had powers in their particular field of expertise: Christian evangelism, alien abduction, psychic powers, New Age theories and contacting the dead."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "During the first program, Brown met with British psychic medium Joe Power. A second programme concerned a Ukrainian system of human development that claims to teach people to see without the use of their eyes, and in a third he met a \"ghosthunter\" from the United States. With these people he discussed their claims to have evidence of the paranormal."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "At the launch, Kingston is induced into following the requests of the charity's director. He meets a wealthy donor, who then appears to die of a heart attack. He agrees to delay reporting the death and hide the body (replaced with a realistic dummy), and then passes himself off as the donor and gives a speech. After moving the body, Kingston then refuses to kick it (to bruise the body to make it look like he fell down a stairwell). After learning the donor simply has a medical condition, the pair confess to the other members of the charity's board, who then find the body is gone. Directed to the roof, the donor reveals he knows what they did to him and refuses to give the charity any money. The group forms a conspiracy to murder and pressures Kingston into being the one to push the donor off the roof. He refuses and walks away, and Brown then makes himself known to Kingston. Brown then reveals that the same process was applied to the other three unsuspecting finalists, who are shown through a series of clips to have all pushed the donor to his apparent death (prevented through the use of a safety harness). Closing the show, Brown urges viewers to push back against any group or ideology which seeks to manipulate them through the evolutionary power of social conformity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derwin Brown",
        "text": "Derwin Brown\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n--Assassination.\n--Legacy.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vadhir Derbez",
        "text": "Vadhir Derbez\n--Personal life.\n--Career.\n----Television.\n----Theatre.\n----Film.\n----Music.\n--Discography.\n----Albums.\n--Accolades.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Brown began his television work with three sixty-minute specials produced over two years. In 1999 he was asked by Channel 4 to put a mind-reading programme together. The six part series \"Mind Control\" incorporated new footage with the best of his hour-long shows. Selected highlights from the first series were later made available on DVD as \"Derren Brown\u00a0\u2013 Inside Your Mind\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "How to Control the Nation",
        "text": "Brown plays a piece of music which he says will give one audience member a strong feeling that they should volunteer themselves: a man does, and he takes part in a trick in which Derren predicts which chair, pen and order of the numbers 1\u20133 he selects, as well as the number of his ticket stub. A film is shown in which Brown dresses as a homeless beggar and collects \u00a3350 from members of the public in under an hour using a subliminal questionnaire and shop window decorations; one man gives his shoes."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The show was based around the idea that a system could be developed to \"guarantee a winner\" of horse races. Cameras followed a member of the public, Khadisha, as Brown anonymously sent her correct predictions of five races in a row, before encouraging her to place as much money as she could on the sixth race."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "\"Derren Brown Investigates\" began a run of three programmes on Channel 4 on 10 May 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Heist (Derren Brown special)",
        "text": "In a Channel 4 viewer poll for \"Derren Brown night\" on 8 January 2011, \"The Heist\" was revealed to be the viewers' (as well as Brown's) favourite Derren Brown special."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "During the show, Brown hypnotised the audience as a group and convinced them that for approximately half an hour after leaving the room they would have no memory of the events. Furthermore, the word \"forget\" was intermittently flashed very briefly on the backdrop throughout the performance. A variety of audience members were interviewed in a vox pop segment afterwards; some could not recollect anything, but were nevertheless impressed. One of the most prominent stunts was asking a London taxi driver to choose a street in London and then choose and mentally drive a random route. This was achieved by drawing a line on a map of London made of stuck together A-Z pages. An envelope, which had been visible on-stage throughout the entire show, was then opened. This contained a card listing the page number and coordinate of the destination, an acetate with the route marked on it and a receipt for \u00a38 (the estimated cost of the journey by the driver). The driver's route started at Buckingham Palace and ended at Shepherd's Bush Green, the street where the secret performance took place."
      },
      {
        "title": "How to Be a Psychic Spy",
        "text": "In the museum, four designs are revealed to be the most prevalent: concentric circles, Stonehenge, trains and horses. Brown asks viewers to submit what they drew by text, and messages appear throughout \"Guess Who?\", a segment in which Derren plays a real-life version of the board game with a court illustrator. Brown introduces \"The Bat Man\", a film about Daniel Kish, a blind man who uses echolocation to sense his surroundings by making clicks with his mouth."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Heist (Derren Brown special)",
        "text": "After filming, all four subjects were de-programmed of any temporary criminal inclinations, spending time with both Brown and an independent psychologist. The three participants who performed a hold-up are shown stating positive things about their experience, although it is unclear whether these were taped before or after the heist itself. To end the show, Ally says: \"Stealing sweets is one thing, but stealing boxes of money from the Bank of England is a completely different kettle of fish.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Scott Brown (politician)",
        "text": "Brown had a difficult childhood; after her divorce, his working mother received welfare benefits. Brown experienced sexual abuse from a camp counselor who threatened to kill the 10-year-old boy if he told anyone\u00a0\u2013 which he did not disclose, even to his family, until his autobiography \"Against All Odds\" (2011)\u00a0\u2013 and physical abuse from his stepfathers. During various periods of his childhood, Brown lived with his grandparents and his aunt. He shoplifted many times, and was arrested for stealing record albums and brought before Judge Samuel Zoll in Salem, Massachusetts at the age of 13 or 14. Zoll asked Brown if his siblings would like seeing him play basketball in jail and required Brown to write a 1,500-word essay on that question as his punishment. Brown later said, \"that was the last time I ever stole.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Derman Christopherson",
        "text": "Derman Christopherson\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "In his 2006 book \"Tricks of the Mind\", Brown wrote, \"I am often dishonest in my techniques, but always honest about my dishonesty...I happily admit cheating, as it's all part of the game\" and claimed to never use actors or \"stooges\" in his work without informing the viewers, calling it \"artistically repugnant and simply unnecessary\". However, in an October 2010 interview Brown conceded that Singh may have had a point, explaining that at the start of his television career \"I was overstating the case, overstating my skills. I thought there'll only be one show, there'll never be a repeat, so I might as well go for it.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Brown's first two books were intended for magicians; they were written before his fame. He has said that he pulled them from the market when he found that non-magicians would bring them to his shows for autographs. He says he felt bad because, \"...they're spending a lot of money on those things and...if they wanted to find out how I was doing the TV shows it wasn't really answering that question.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "How to Take Down a Casino",
        "text": "After an advertising break, Derren speaks over a map of Europe, saying that they cannot film due to the risk of their location being recognised. In another pre-recorded segment, Brown explores the concept of luck and the notion that \"lucky\" people are those who take more opportunities. He plays a game involving two audience members involving two matchboxes and a \u00a320 note: the unlucky person ends up with it, but an instruction to give it to the other person is written on the note."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "In 2008, Brown made a guest acting appearance in BBC Four's \"Crooked House\" as Sir Roger Widdowson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Litten",
        "text": "Derren Litten\n--Career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Heist (Derren Brown special)",
        "text": "Initially, Brown sets up tests to see how each of them react to different situations such as an irritating security guard hassling them on the way to dinner to see how they react to authority, and a ma\u00eetre d\u2019h\u00f4tel presenting them with an unexpected bill after dinner and drinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "In a \"Daily Telegraph\" article published in 2003 Simon Singh criticised Brown's early TV appearances, arguing that he presented standard magic and mentalism effects\u2014such as the classic ten-card poker deal trick\u2014as genuine psychological manipulation. On Brown's television and live shows he often appears to show the audience how a particular effect was created\u2014claiming to use techniques such as subliminal suggestion, hypnosis, and body language reading. Singh's suggestion is that these explanations are dishonest. Furthermore, Singh took exception to the programme's website being categorised under Channel 4's \"Science\" section. The mini-site was moved to \"Entertainment\" for later series."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The second series of \"Trick or Treat\" began on 2 May 2008. The third episode showed a slight change from the previous format, as actor David Tennant became the first celebrity to be used for the show. The two had met at a party where Tennant expressed interest in Brown's work. While writing the second season Brown \"thought it would be fun if one of the participants was well known\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andr\u00e9 Deryckere",
        "text": "Andr\u00e9 Deryckere\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Live Rushfeldt Deila",
        "text": "Live Rushfeldt Deila\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Galley, who had not been on a plane in ten years and had a fear of flying, boarded a flight travelling from Leeds to Jersey, where he had been told that a fake game-show presented by Brown was to be filmed. The flight crew, stewards and stewardesses were real, but the rest of the passengers were actors. During the flight, the cabin crew announced that the captain had been taken ill and asked for a volunteer to land the plane. At the last minute, Galley volunteered. While walking up to the front of the plane he was placed into a trance by Brown. After the plane landed, Galley was placed into a cockpit flight simulator and woken up. He was talked through landing procedures by a person identified to him as an air traffic controller. Galley completed the challenge successfully and then emerged from the simulator to meet Brown and all the actors involved in the programme, plus his family and friends."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Heist (Derren Brown special)",
        "text": "Thirteen delegates are invited to an intimate seminar in a hotel in Hertfordshire apparently to learn some of Brown\u2019s skills, after responding to adverts in the press. They had to be open responsive types who would respond well to his techniques; have no criminal record; fall into a typical middle-management income bracket or above; and be deemed psychologically robust enough by an independent psychologist to take part in the show."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Heist (Derren Brown special)",
        "text": "In a later interview, Brown stated of the experience, \"It was shocking, actually, how easy it was.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "The Experiments won a BAFTA for Best Entertainment Programme at the 2012 awards in May 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Derren Brown shows",
        "text": "Brown associated colours, music and phrases to build the participants into a highly motivated state, converging all of those psychological empowerment tools into a single set-up. The seminar subliminally anchored freedom, childhood, opportunity and romance into various criminal acts. After having previously been convinced to steal sweets from a shop based in Codicote High Street in Hertfordshire, they experienced the euphoria that could be gained from criminal acts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Nesbitt",
        "text": "Derren Nesbitt\n--Acting career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many Luarence Olivier Awards did Derren Brown win?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Derren Brown's 2006 show Something Wicked This Way Comes and his 2012 show Svengali won him two Laurence Olivier Awards for Best Entertainment."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the history of the Olivier Awards?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They were established in 1976 by the Society of London Theatre as the Society of West End Theatre Awards, and the first ceremony was in December 1976 at the Caf\u00e9 Royal, then in 1984 the awards were renamed afer British actor Laurence Olivier."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Were there any controversies associated with Derren Brown?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are interested in controversies involving his show Russian Roulette, Seance, Heist, or Trick or Treat?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the ones involving the show Russian Roulette."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There were complaints that it was distasteful, made light of suicide, and promoted gun culture. The police also warned that the show might inspire copycat acts."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about the personal life of Derren Brown?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In an effort to deal with issues of self-esteem and sexuality, he became an evangelical Christian throughout his teenage years in order to present himself as confident and asexual; by his 20s, he had decided that his belief in Christianity had no basis, and he became an atheist. He came out as gay at the age of 30; He revealed that he was dating a designer named Marc at the time, though they later ended their eight-year relationship.",
      "Since 2004, Brown has been the patron of the Parrot Zoo Trust in Friskney, Lincolnshire."
    ],
    "topic": "Derren Brown",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Derren Brown:23",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Derren Brown",
          "Personal life"
        ],
        "ctx": "Although Brown's parents were not practising Christians, they sent him to Bible classes from the age of five because they believed it was the \"right thing to do\". In an effort to deal with issues of self-esteem and sexuality, he became an evangelical Christian throughout his teenage years in order to present himself as confident and asexual; by his 20s, he had decided that his belief in Christianity had no basis, and he became an atheist. By 48, Brown revealed in an interview with Russell Brand that he had since regained his belief in spirituality. He states that this was based on his own coming of age and need to \"surrender\" his ego to the possibility of \"transcending to something larger than the self.\" He came out as gay at the age of 30. He revealed that he was dating a designer named Marc at the time, though they later ended their eight-year relationship."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Derren Brown:24",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Derren Brown",
          "Personal life"
        ],
        "ctx": "Since 2004, Brown has been the patron of the Parrot Zoo Trust in Friskney, Lincolnshire. In an interview with \"LeftLion\" magazine, he said, \"I'm a big fan of parrots. I think they're fascinating creatures. Many of them live for longer than us humans and it's interesting to me the way they learn to mimic human voices even though they don't really comprehend what they're saying.\""
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "Although Brown's parents were not practising Christians, they sent him to Bible classes from the age of five because they believed it was the \"right thing to do\". In an effort to deal with issues of self-esteem and sexuality, he became an evangelical Christian throughout his teenage years in order to present himself as confident and asexual; by his 20s, he had decided that his belief in Christianity had no basis, and he became an atheist. By 48, Brown revealed in an interview with Russell Brand that he had since regained his belief in spirituality. He states that this was based on his own coming of age and need to \"surrender\" his ego to the possibility of \"transcending to something larger than the self.\" He came out as gay at the age of 30. He revealed that he was dating a designer named Marc at the time, though they later ended their eight-year relationship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ryan Beatty",
        "text": "Beatty came out as gay in June 2016, at the age of 20, three weeks after the Orlando nightclub shooting. He uploaded an Instagram photo of a Gay Power balloon on his Instagram account with the following caption: \"proud to be a raging homosexual. it's taken 20 years of suffocating in the closet for me to become comfortable enough to say it, but now I can finally breathe. i did it!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Colton Haynes",
        "text": "Haynes came out as gay at the age of 14. He has said that he experienced bullying due to his sexuality, and that he ran away from home for a time due to his mother's negative reaction to it. His father died by suicide during Haynes's teen years, and Haynes was told that his being gay is what drove his father to kill himself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim Verraros",
        "text": "Around the age of twelve or thirteen, Verraros realized that he is gay. Although he did not come out publicly until after adolescence, his sexual orientation was apparent to his classmates, who bullied him during middle school. In response, Verraros developed a more masculine appearance. In a 2003 interview, he said of the time, \"I changed my image. I wore a lot of baggy jeans, I gained weight, and it was fine for a while.\" He also sought help from the school psychologist during those years. High school marked a more significant improvement for him \u2013 he became active in theater and went on to attend Monmouth College on a theater scholarship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brenton Metzler",
        "text": "Metzler was worried about coming out as gay and originally intended on telling his family while he was in town for his 21st birthday. He later admitted that \"I didn't get the nerve to tell anyone.\" Several years later, Metzler reported that \"my sister is gay too, and we knew about each other...my parents called her and said 'We know you're gay, you can come out of the closet.' She replied: 'I'm not gay, but Brenton is.' She totally threw me out of the closet!\" Metzler found that his hometown community was accepting of his orientation despite his initial apprehension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deen (singer)",
        "text": "Deen now lives in Los Angeles, United States. Backovi\u0107 has dodged rumors of his homosexuality for years. When asked by the Bosnian magazine \"Gracija\" in September 2010 if he had relocated to Milan to live an openly gay life outside of more conservative Bosnia, he replied that although he knew many gay people, that he was heterosexual. He also stated that he was not open to marriage. Backovi\u0107 was in a possible \"lavender\" relationship with Bosnian socialite Hana Had\u017eiavdagi\u0107, who later came out as bisexual."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ryan Dolan",
        "text": "During an interview on RT\u00c9 Radio 1 in February 2014, Dolan came out as gay. He said, \"In school I was confused about who I was, and it was really hard for me growing up because of that. It was hard to deal with because I knew that I was gay, but I couldn't get the courage to talk to someone about it\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey Davenport",
        "text": "Having known he was gay for most of his life, Heath-Clark said, \"The first person I ever came out to was my godfather and math teacher\u2014my Uncle John. He overheard me in the classroom being attacked for my sexual orientation, and afterwards, he promised me that even if what he heard was true, he would always have my back.\" Heath-Clark came out to his mother at age 19, when he called her to talk after breaking up with his first boyfriend. Her response was supportive. Though she embraced him as a gay man, she was initially unhappy with his decision to pursue drag, but she changed her mind after seeing him perform. Heath-Clark's father learned he was a drag queen years later, in 2013, when he visited New York to see Heath-Clark act in \"The Orion Experience\". He responded with enthusiasm and support."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Gold",
        "text": "Brown also noted, \"Several of the main characters in the next one will be gay. Darrow's heteronormative outlook has been changing after leaving the mines. He began embracing sexual fluidity and gay characters like Tactus.\" He discussed the popularity of his novels among the LGBT community, adding \"It's amazing that they have found a home in these books ... All these lost souls in my books have connected with people and I find it incredibly moving.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Troye Sivan",
        "text": "Sivan came out publicly as gay via a YouTube video on 7 August 2013, three years after coming out to his family. He has a mild form of Marfan syndrome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ron Suresha",
        "text": "Suresha identified as a gay man \"since puberty\" until his forties. After cancer and several other midlife crises, Suresha came out as bisexual. Suresha says that this second coming out was \"much more provocative and positive than my first arduous teenage process of self-discovery as gay, but just as much a rollercoaster.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Djuan Trent",
        "text": "Trent publicly came out as gay with an announcement on her blog, \"I am queer,\" on February 20, 2014. The self-described former student from a Southern Baptist conservative Christian school told The Huffington Post that she came out \"to help foster visibility of young queer women of color.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jason Gould",
        "text": "At the age of 21, Gould came out to his parents as gay. By 1991, he was outed by tabloids. In an interview with \"The Advocate\" published August 17, 1999, Streisand said:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jason Brown (figure skater)",
        "text": "Brown came out as gay via Instagram post on June 11, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jason Danino-Holt",
        "text": "In 2008 he came out as gay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thammy Miranda",
        "text": "After coming out as lesbian in 2006, Miranda cut his long hair and began using male clothes. In a statement, his mother said that, since he was a child, Miranda had preferences for male clothes, and hated dolls and skirts. About his sexual orientation, Miranda said:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ryan O'Connell",
        "text": "He remained closeted until he was 17 and felt he needed to come out, to pursue another boy who was already out. His family was supportive when he did; his sister, uncle, and grandfather had already identified as LGBTQ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dennis Del Valle",
        "text": "Del Valle came out as gay in May 2020 \u201cin hopes that it will inspire other queer athletes to do the same\u201d."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coming out",
        "text": "On 29 March 2010, Puerto Rican singer Ricky Martin came out publicly in a post on his official web site by stating, \"I am proud to say that I am a fortunate homosexual man. I am very blessed to be who I am.\" Martin said that \"these years in silence and reflection made me stronger and reminded me that acceptance has to come from within and that this kind of truth gives me the power to conquer emotions I didn't even know existed.\" Singer Adam Lambert came out after pictures of him kissing another man were publicly circulated while he was a participant on the eighth season of \"American Idol\". In January 2013, while accepting the honorary Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award, American actress and director Jodie Foster made the first public acknowledgment of her sexual orientation, saying; \"I already did my coming out a thousand years ago, in the Stone Age, in those very quaint days when a fragile young girl would open up to friends and family and co-workers then gradually to everyone that knew her, everyone she actually met.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Nigel Owens",
        "text": "In May 2007, Owens publicly came out as gay in an interview with \"Wales on Sunday\". Reaction was mostly supportive. Owens said that coming out was a difficult decision, and that he had contemplated suicide when he was 26."
      },
      {
        "title": "Todrick Hall",
        "text": "Hall came out as gay at the age of fifteen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tomie dePaola",
        "text": "DePaola was gay. He came out later in his life, telling \"The New York Times Magazine\" in 2019 that, for much of his career, \"If it became known you were gay, you\u2019d have a big red \u2018G\u2019 on your chest... and schools wouldn\u2019t buy your books anymore.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Nigel Owens",
        "text": "It's such a big taboo to be gay in my line of work, I had to think very hard about it because I didn't want to jeopardise my career. Coming out was very difficult and I tried to live with who I really was for years. I knew I was 'different' from my late teens, but I was just living a lie."
      },
      {
        "title": "Almost Normal",
        "text": "Brad Jenkins, a 40-year-old gay college professor, is still uncomfortable in his own skin. After a disagreement with his mother, he storms out of his home, claiming that he is \"going somewhere where [he] is more normal.\" A sudden car accident propels him back to his youth and into a world in which gay is \"normal\" and being straight is not accepted. Brad has to weigh whether to remain in the past and be \"normal\" or attempt to return to his old life. A local jock, who had ignored him before, now dates him. However, he grows attracted to a girl \u2013 his best friend/sister-in-law in the heteronormative world. The couple attempts to deal with the pressures of being straight in a gay world. Eventually, everyone dances with people of the opposite sex at the school ball, even though they are in the homonormative world, showing Brad's \"acceptance\" of his straightness in the past and his gay self in real life. He then returns to his life as a professor and re-unites with the jock, who turns out to be the gay father of a student of Brad's.\n* J. Andrew Keitch as Brad Jenkins\n* Joan Lauckner as Julie Erwin\n* Tim Hammer as Roland Davis\n* Nils Haaland as Terry\n* Kehry Anson Lane as Bill Dempson\n* Joel Egger as Dwayne Twillis\n* Virginia Smith as Doris Jenkins\n* Brad Buffum as Bob Jenkins\n* Mary Douglass as Louise Baker\n* Steve Balsarini as Halbert Baker\n* John Brennan as Mr. Thompson\n* Adam Jefferis as Steven Davis\n* Katherine Nora Leroy as Yolanda\n* Stan Brown as Mr. Fock\n* Eric Smith as Keith Stevens\n* Paige Edwards as Little Girl"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rita Mae Brown",
        "text": "When asked if she had ever really come out, she told \"Time\" in 2008, I don't believe in straight or gay. I really don't. I think we're all degrees of bisexual. There may be a few people on the extreme if it's a bell curve who really truly are gay or really truly are straight. Because nobody had ever said these things and used their real name, I suddenly became the only lesbian in America. It was hysterical. It was a misnomer, but it's okay. It was a fight worth fighting. Brown also does not consider herself a \"lesbian writer\" because she believes art is about connection and not about divisive labels. In a 2015 interview for \"The Washington Post\", Brown was asked if she thought awards in gay and lesbian literature were important; she replied: I love language, I love literature, I love history, and I'm not even remotely interested in being gay. I find that one of those completely useless and confining categories. Those are definitions from our oppressors, if you will. I would use them warily. I would certainly not define myself \u2014 ever \u2014 in the terms of my oppressor. If you accept these terms, you're now lumped in a group. Now, you may need to be lumped in a group politically in order to fight that oppression; I understand that, but I don't accept it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Howard Junior Brown",
        "text": "By this time, Brown had taken an apartment in Greenwich Village just a few blocks from the Stonewall Inn, and he witnessed the beginnings of the gay rights movement. As gay service organizations and gay churches rose in number, Brown lost his sense of shame about being gay and became increasingly angry about the routine insults directed at men like him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derren Brown",
        "text": "In 2010, Brown appeared in a special Comedy Gala for Channel 4 and Great Ormond Street Hospital. He appeared with Kevin Bishop, who played his jealous annoying twin 'Darren'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coming Out (1989 film)",
        "text": "It later becomes clear that Philipp is conflicted about his sexuality. He demonstrates empathy with a discriminated minority by defending a black man who is being bullied on a train. Jakob, an out gay friend of Tanja's, comes to visit. Unknown to her, he and Philipp have had a previous relationship that didn't end well."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Brown Thanksgiving",
        "text": "\"A Brown Thanksgiving\" came under fire from the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD) after Bil Browning of the LGBT blog The Bilerico Project expressed shock at the organization's lack of response to the portrayal of a transgender character. GLAAD released a statement that it had already been in contact with Fox and the show's producers as \"part of an ongoing discussion that GLAAD is having with Fox regarding consistent homophobic and transphobic jokes in some of its animated programming. The problematic transgender episode Bilerico points to is one of several instances that the Entertainment Team will be discussing with them, as well as advocating for more fair LGBT inclusion.\" Speaking with LGBT media website AfterElton.com in January 2010, series creator Seth MacFarlane said \"It always distresses me when I hear that the gay community is upset with us, because that's one group of people I hope would know we're on their side.\" However, in May 2010 MacFarlane again drew GLAAD's ire when, in the \"Family Guy\" episode \"Quagmire's Dad\", another character (Brian) also reacts to learning he had sex with a trans woman by vomiting for close to 30 seconds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spencer Brown (musician)",
        "text": "Brown is openly gay; he came out publicly in June 2020, although he had confided in friends six years earlier. Being in the closet had led to depression and illness which he credits the dance music community for helping him recover, \u201cI\u2019ve transformed from a self-hating, anxiety-ridden boy to a self-loving, grateful man. I\u2019m learning to transform my OCD into something more productive\u2014like perfecting my mixdowns and sound design. I\u2019m discovering ways to pass on the support I found in the dance music community, and I\u2019m finding so much to be thankful for.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fez Whatley",
        "text": "On February 24, 2012, Whatley came out as gay. Fez had been playing a flamboyant character on the air for more than 20 years, but became increasingly uncomfortable in the role after recognizing his sexual orientation and being unable to publicly embrace it. After admitting his sexuality to his co-host Ron Bennington three years earlier, Whatley spoke openly on the air about his issues as a closeted man, but had remained unable to say it explicitly. He chose to come out on the one-year anniversary of his father's death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aydian Dowling",
        "text": "Aydian grew up in Long Island with two older brothers and two step-siblings, and was often described as a tomboy from a young age. He came out as a lesbian as a teen, but felt like this did not fully describe his experience, and that he was out of place, even among masculine lesbians. He had his first girlfriend at 16 and realized he may be trans when one of his girlfriends asked if he ever wanted to be a boy. Aydian subsequently realized he is transgender in February, 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Sayman",
        "text": "In August 2018, Sayman publicly came out as gay in an interview with People en Espa\u00f1ol. He said in the interview that he chose to come out because he believed that \"this will be able to help other Latinos who go through the same situation.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "David Geffen",
        "text": "Though not only closeted but defensive about his true sexuality and the speculation that resulted , Geffen eventually came out as gay in 1992. In May 2007, \"Out\" magazine ranked Geffen first in its list of the fifty \"Most Powerful Gay Men and Women in America\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colton Haynes",
        "text": "Haynes has struggled with anxiety all his life. In January 2016, after years of public speculation concerning his \"secret gay past\", an off-the-cuff response he made on Tumblr regarding a comment on photos that appeared in gay lifestyle magazine \"XY\" a decade before was taken by many media outlets as confirmation of his coming out. Not yet ready to speak openly about his sexual orientation, the renewed attention led Haynes to seek treatment for his anxiety for the next three months. He later publicly came out as gay in an interview in \"Entertainment Weekly\" in May 2016. Haynes revealed that he had concealed his sexuality based on advice from entertainment industry insiders who told him that being open about the topic would hinder his career."
      },
      {
        "title": "Howard Junior Brown",
        "text": "To show that even members of a profession regarded as a citadel of respectability could be homosexuals, Brown decided to make a public announcement about his sexuality. A publicist for the Gay Activists Alliance sent out a press release alerting the media to the story. On October 3, 1973, Brown came out at a symposium on sexuality at the Carrier Clinic in Belle Mead, New Jersey and immediately became a media sensation. His announcement made the front page of the \"New York Times\" and received coverage by every television station in New York City."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ronald Dominique",
        "text": "As a gay man, Dominique was unmarried and had no children, preferring to spend most of his free time in gay bars, often dressed as singer Patti LaBelle, of whom he was a great fan. However, due to various circumstances, Dominique was unable to establish a serious relationship and was often looked down upon by the local gay community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rafael Mandelman",
        "text": "Mandelman came out as gay while at Yale University."
      },
      {
        "title": "Connor Franta",
        "text": "On December 8, 2014, Franta publicly came out as gay in a YouTube video, stating he has accepted who he is and is \"happy with that person\". He also spoke on the help he got from others on the Internet, and wanted to give people struggling with their sexuality similar advice. This six-minute long video, titled \"Coming Out\", has over 12 million views and over 976,000 likes, being the second most viewed video on Franta's channel as of February 20, 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sturla Berg-Johansen",
        "text": "He had been known for a long time as a \"ladies man\", but in February 2009 he came out as gay on the premi\u00e8re of his new show \"Damenes aften\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clark Moore",
        "text": "Moore came out to his friends and family as gay when he was in junior high school. He stated that his parents were supportive. Moore described his high school community as very \"liberal\" and as a result he did not experience bullying after coming out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peterson Toscano",
        "text": "The conflict between his beliefs and his sexuality led him to consider suicide. He has stated that his experiences in Love in Action \"felt like ... a biblically induced coma\". He came out as a gay man in December 1998 and now presents his LGBT-affirming message through theatre and talks at universities, schools, conferences, churches, gay clubs, theaters and on-line through blogs and YouTube videos. In a 2009 interview Toscano explained, \"I had an aversion to being gay because of the aversion I experienced in the world around me. Now I see that a gay orientation and gender diversity are normal phenomena in the natural world and throughout human history.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Absolutely, Positively Not",
        "text": "Steven DeNarsky, a 16-year-old Superman fan, starts to develop sexual feelings for his substitute homeroom teacher, Mr. Bowman. Steven tries to reassure himself by buying such magazines like Playboy and the Victoria's Secret catalog, and dating several attractive girls. Unable to bottle his emotions any longer, he confesses to his friend, Rachel, that he is gay. To his surprise, Rachel and her entire family had previously assumed that Steven was gay, and already waited for him to tell her. Rachel urges Steven to create a gay/lesbian alliance club at their high school, but Steven is not optimistic about completely \"coming out of the closet\". Steven later does reveal that he is gay to both his parents, who don't think much of it. Steven eventually accepts his homosexuality by attending a teen gay/lesbian club, but mistakenly goes when it is specifically a lesbian meeting. Despite this, he has a good time and decides to embrace his homosexuality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luther Vandross",
        "text": "Vandross' sexual orientation was a subject of media speculation. Jason King, writing in Vandross' obituary in \"The Village Voice\", said: \"Though he never came out as gay or bisexual, you had to be wearing blinders.\" According to Gene Davis, a television producer who worked with Vandross, \"Everybody in the business knew that Luther was gay\". In 2006, Bruce Vilanch, a friend and colleague of Vandross, told \"Out\" magazine, \"He said to me, 'No one knows I'm in the life.' ... He had very few sexual contacts\". According to Vilanch, Vandross experienced his longest romantic relationship with a man while living in Los Angeles during the late 1980s and early 1990s. In December 2017, 12 years after his death, Vandross's friend Patti LaBelle confirmed that he was gay. In addition, Vandross was well aware that officially coming out as gay while he was actively making music would have been detrimental to the trajectory of his career, given the majority of his target audience was women seeking some mode of emotional engagement from his words. LaBelle shared that \"[Vandross] had a lot of lady fans\" and \"he just didn't want to upset the world\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leelah Alcorn",
        "text": "Alcorn's mother sent her to Christian conversion therapists, but Alcorn later related that there she only encountered \"more Christians\" telling her that she was \"selfish and wrong\" and \"should look to God for help\". Aged 16, she requested that she be allowed to undergo transition treatment, but was denied permission: in her words, \"I felt hopeless, that I was just going to look like a man in drag for the rest of my life. On my 16th birthday, when I didn't receive consent from my parents to start transitioning, I cried myself to sleep.\" Alcorn publicly revealed her attraction to males when she was 16, as she believed that identifying as a gay male at that point would be a stepping stone to coming out as a transgender female at a later date. According to a childhood friend, Alcorn received a positive reception from many at Kings High School, although her parents were appalled. In Alcorn's words, \"They felt like I was attacking their image, and that I was an embarrassment to them. They wanted me to be their perfect little straight Christian boy, and that's obviously not what I wanted.\" They removed her from the school and enrolled her as an eleventh grader at the Ohio Virtual Academy online school."
      },
      {
        "title": "Armistead Maupin",
        "text": "Maupin said he knew he was gay since childhood, but did not have sex until he was 26 and decided to come out in 1974."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graeme Obree",
        "text": "In January 2011, Obree disclosed in an interview with the \"Scottish Sun\" that he is gay and that his difficulty with coming to terms with his sexual orientation contributed to his earlier suicide attempts. \"I was brought up by a war generation; they grew up when gay people were put in jail. Being homosexual was so unthinkable that you just wouldn't be gay. I'd no inkling about anything, I just closed down.\" He came out to his family in 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jeffrey Bowyer-Chapman",
        "text": "Bowyer-Chapman came out publicly as gay in a 2016 interview."
      },
      {
        "title": "Die andere Liebe",
        "text": "DEFA's only feature film dealing with gay themes, \"Coming Out\", premiered a year later, on 9 November 1989 at the Kino International. The actor Dirk Kummer, who played 'Matthias' in \"Coming Out\", appears in \"Die andere Liebe\" being interviewed with his boyfriend."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bryn Christopher",
        "text": "Christopher is gay. In an interview with \"Gay Times\" in October 2018, he revealed he has not come out to his family and dismissed the idea of doing so until he was in a relationship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Grabarz",
        "text": "On December 17, 1990, Grabarz came out as gay at a press conference. He had already been out in his personal life for a number of years, but realized that even some of his colleagues in the legislature didn't know that he was gay after a Republican legislator questioned the need for a gay rights bill on the grounds that he had never met a gay person. Following his speech, while hugging and thanking well-wishers who had attended the event, he gave a kiss to his friend Greg Campora, and a photograph of that kiss accompanied most media coverage of his announcement. Although he received some negative reaction, his coming out was credited with helping to secure passage of a bill outlawing discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation in Connecticut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christine Nairn",
        "text": "In 2017, Nairn came out as gay on her personal blog, \"Finding my Euphoria\". In her post \"What Even is Normal\" she stated:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jonathan Groff",
        "text": "Groff publicly came out as gay when asked by a \"Broadway.com\" reporter during the National Equality March in October 2009. He later shared his experience with coming out, discussing the pain of being closeted and the knowledge that disclosing his sexuality could have negative ramifications on his career. He has also expressed how much he values being a role model for young people as an out actor, and has advocated for the importance of sharing coming out stories."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevi Moran",
        "text": "On October 9, 2015, Moran publicly came out as gay in a YouTube video. In December 2017, she announced that, during the year, she underwent what she called an \"identity crisis\" and questioned whether she may be transgender before concluding that, at that time, she was not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris New",
        "text": "New is openly gay, having come out of the closet \"professionally\" in 2006. Worried about the impact of being known as a \"gay actor\" on his career, he discussed the issue with \"Bent\" co-star Alan Cumming (who has been open about his bisexuality for decades). After weighing the risks, New decided to come out as gay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lucas Hedges",
        "text": "When asked about his sexuality in 2018, Hedges said: \"In the early stages of my life, some of the people I was most infatuated with were my closest male friends. That was the case through high school, and I think I was always aware of that, while for the most part I was attracted to women,\" also adding that he exists \"on that spectrum: Not totally straight, but also not gay and not necessarily bisexual.\" He later spoke about being an ally to the LGBTQ community and said that he considered his sexuality to be a \"fluid experience.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jaye Davidson",
        "text": "Davidson is gay. During his acting career, he said that his androgynous look alienated him within the gay community; he stated that gay men \"love very masculine men. And I'm not a very masculine person. I'm reasonably thin. I have long hair, which isn't very popular with gay men.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Buddy Handleson",
        "text": "On June 25, 2017, Handleson came out as gay through a caption on an Instagram photo depicting him in front of a pride flag. He wrote,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Marsha P. Johnson",
        "text": "Johnson first began wearing dresses at the age of five but stopped temporarily due to harassment by boys who lived nearby. In a 1992 interview, Johnson described being the young victim of rape by a thirteen year old boy. After this, Johnson described the idea of being gay as \"some sort of dream\", rather than something that seemed possible, and so chose to remain sexually inactive until leaving for New York City at 17. Johnson's mother reportedly said that being homosexual is like being \"lower than a dog\", but Johnson said that Alberta was unaware of the LGBT community. Johnson's mother also encouraged her child to find a \"billionaire\" boyfriend or husband to take care of (Johnson) for life, a goal Johnson often talked about."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adore Delano",
        "text": "Noriega came out as gay at 12 years old. In a 2012 interview, she said she is not opposed to dating women. As of 2017, Noriega identifies as non-binary and uses any pronouns. Noriega says that \"gender isn't a real thing... it's just something they came up with to categorize and control people\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kerron Clement",
        "text": "On October 11, 2019, National Coming Out Day, Clement came out as gay during a Nike event, saying \"It's who I am and it's what made me become the athlete I am today.\" He had struggled with his sexuality since his teens and decided it was time \u201cto be free.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Terence Siufay",
        "text": "He came out as a gay man in 2020, after many years of speculation and living in fear in an interview on Stephen Chan Chi-wan's YouTube talk show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Honey Davenport",
        "text": "Heath-Clark identifies as non-binary and pansexual. As of May 2020, he keeps a vegan diet. He stopped drinking alcohol a few months after filming \"Drag Race\" but later resumed its consumption. He has stated that he suffers from anxiety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anwesh Sahoo",
        "text": "He came out as gay to his sister at the age of 16, and by the age of 18 had started writing a blog 'The Effeminare', to combat homophobia in his own little way and create awareness related to LGBTIQ issues in India. He went on to write an article called Under the Lucky Star for Pink-Pages, a National LGBT Magazine in India, where he came out to the readers and later on, also to his parents through the article. In his article he writes, \"\"There is an underlying sense of security that only the walls of the closet can ensure. But then follows the phase of suffocation. The walls that once protected us begin to make us feel restricted. And what follows is the \"end of self denial\". This is when it all gets better.\"\" He went on to write another article the following year for Pink-Pages called 'Growing Up Gay', where he spoke of how contrary to the reactions of people, growing up gay in India isn't half as bad. He continued to write for online forums that same year including 'That Time I Chose To be Gay' for Youth Youniverse and 'Miscellaneous Miley' for Artists at Work Productions' blog."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graeme Obree",
        "text": "In 2011 Obree came out as gay. Obree suffers from bipolar disorder. He attempted suicide in his teens by gassing himself. He was saved by his father, who had returned early from work. In the 1990s he took an overdose of aspirin washed down by water from a puddle. He had personality problems, sniffed the gas he used to weld bicycles, and was being chased for \u00a3492 owed in college fees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fred Schneider",
        "text": "Schneider discussed with Howard Stern his experience of coming out to his mother as gay on Stern's radio broadcast on February 22, 2010. He said that his mother always knew more about her son than he knew about himself, and he said he came out of the closet while she was vacuum-cleaning. His mother replied with \"Oh I know, Freddie\" and continued vacuuming without missing a beat. Schneider said his reaction was: \"It's like, well, OK. I guess I'll go back outside and smoke some pot.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jason Mraz",
        "text": "During this period of his life, he struggled with his sexuality at times, wondering if he was gay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Markus Thormeyer",
        "text": "Thormeyer came out as gay in late 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard A. Fowler",
        "text": "Fowler came out as gay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trey Pearson",
        "text": "In summer 2016, Pearson was interviewed on \"The View\" about his acceptance of himself as a gay man. Pearson was one of the featured in a promotional video by Human Rights Campaign titled \"HRC Celebrates National Coming Out Day 2016\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steven Daigle",
        "text": "Daigle has stated that while he had sex with women when he was younger, he prefers men and identifies as a gay man."
      },
      {
        "title": "Johan Verstreken",
        "text": "He outed himself publicly as gay in his own book in 2015, his first experience was in recent years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chaz Cardigan",
        "text": "Cardigan came out as queer early in life. Regarding that, he said: \u201cI came out around the time I was 13. Which in Kentucky is not exactly a popular move. There was a lot of tension with students and parents and teachers around it, and that was an awkwardness I had to learn to navigate really early. Thankfully I had music as a way to cope.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Christopher Landon (filmmaker)",
        "text": "Landon came out as gay in 1999, having only written the script of \"Another Day in Paradise\", unafraid of his sexuality harming his career potential. He says that growing up he was called a \"faggot\" by peers at his high school. His mother, a Christian, initially hesitated to accept his sexuality, but he told her, \"I don't even know if I believe in God, but if I do, he gave you a gay son so that you can start confronting some of these issues and get yourself out of the box you've placed yourself in for so long.\" His stepmother, Cindy Clerico, his father's next wife, told him that both she and his father suspected he was gay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Erlend Bratland",
        "text": "Bratland publicly acknowledged that he was gay during an interview with God Kveld, Norge in 2010, after two years of speculation from the press. In a 2011 interview, he stated that he had been aware of his homosexuality \"as long as I've known\", and that his friends and family had been equally aware of it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ed Le Brocq",
        "text": "In a 2018 interview, Ayres said \"...there's no medical proof of this, really, but I believe that I am male and that my body doesn't represent what I see myself as being. I have always felt in some sort of corner of my being that something wasn't quite right... Realising you're transgender, for me, was utterly, utterly devastating\". He had thought that as a female he was a lesbian, but his partners at the time had refused to stay with him if he transitioned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Facundo Imhoff",
        "text": "In August 2019 he publicly came out as gay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adam Rippon",
        "text": "On October 2, 2015, Rippon publicly came out as gay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mark Patton",
        "text": "Patton says he gave up on his acting career following being cast in a planned CBS series in which he would have played a gay character. \"They began to ask me if I would be comfortable playing a gay character and telling people I was straight if they began to question my sexuality?...All I could think about was how everyone I knew was dying from AIDS and we were having this bullshit conversation. My heart just broke and that was the line for me. I knew I would never be able to do what they were asking, so I walked away from Hollywood and decided to move on to a place where it was totally acceptable to be gay.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Bill Brochtrup",
        "text": "Brochtrup came out to \"People\" magazine as gay in 1997. He said, \"[C]asting directors have known [that] for years,\" and assured that being gay would have no \"adverse effect\" on his career, even with potential typecasting. In 2012, Brochtrup said that he has not regretted coming out back then."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ed Le Brocq",
        "text": "In an interview published in the \"Sydney Morning Herald\" in 2016, Ayres came out as a transgender man. He said that he had first realised he was a man during a cycling trip in Pakistan in 2013 in a \"total beam of light\" moment one evening while watching the film \"Boys Don't Cry\". He said, \"I've waited a long time to do this. I suppressed this for so long, now I feel I can't wait\". He transitioned just before his 50th birthday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hig Roberts",
        "text": "In December 2020, Roberts came out as gay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Keren Neubach",
        "text": "In 2015, following the murder of a teenager during the Jerusalem Pride Parade, Neubach came out as bisexual in a Facebook post."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lukas Ridgeston",
        "text": "When asked, \"Do you identify as gay, straight or bi-sexual?\", he replied, \"I always say I am sexual\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wesley Morris",
        "text": "He has come out as gay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colin Jackson",
        "text": "On 26 August 2017, Jackson came out as gay in a clip on Swedish television promoting the series \"Rainbow Heroes\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charlie David",
        "text": "David has consciously chosen to be \"out\" as a gay man in his personal life and career."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stanley Baxter",
        "text": "In August 2020, Baxter came out as gay, following the release of his authorised biography. His biography described how Baxter had told Moira that he was gay before they married, with Baxter having sought to end their relationship as a result, but that she had threatened suicide, causing him to relent. Moira accepted that he was gay and allowed him to bring men home for sex, despite homosexual acts being illegal in England and Wales until the passing of the Sexual Offences Act 1967 16 years after their marriage. Five years before then, Baxter had been arrested for cottaging and contemplated suicide for fear of scandal causing an end to his career. The soliciting charges were subsequently dropped."
      },
      {
        "title": "J\u00e1nos Kulka (actor)",
        "text": "He publicly came out as gay in 2013. In 2016 he suffered a serious stroke resulting an aphasia, which disables his speech and limits his theatrical performances. Ever since he is doing efforts to raise awareness of the disorder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Branden Miller",
        "text": "Miller claims he had a difficult time discussing his homosexuality with his classmates, and described himself as \"trade\". He came out to his family and friends after his sister discovered gay porn on his computer, and says he was not shown support from his mother, who claimed his sexuality was unbiblical. Miller discovered at the age of 17 that he was adopted, and that he was born to a mother of Puerto Rican descent and a black father of unspecified heritage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rostam Batmanglij",
        "text": "Batmanglij is gay and talked about his sexual orientation in the magazine \"Out\". In an Instagram post in 2015, he said that Ed Droste of the band Grizzly Bear influenced his decision to publicly come out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rufus Wainwright",
        "text": "Wainwright identified as gay while a teenager. In 1999, he told \"Rolling Stone\" that his father recognized his homosexuality early on. \"We'd drive around in the car, he'd play 'Heart of Glass' and I'd sort of mouth the words, pretend to be Blondie. Just a sign of many other things to come as well.\" Wainwright later said in another interview that his \"mother and father could not even handle me being gay. We never talked about it really.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Irvin",
        "text": "Irvin spoke in a 2011 article in \"Out\" magazine. Irvin discussed his homosexual older brother, who died of stomach cancer in 2006. He claimed his initial feelings of homophobia in relation to his brother led to womanizing during his playing days, but eventual acceptance and feelings of love toward his older brother initiated his understanding for people with difficulty sharing their circumstances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tom Harald Hagen",
        "text": "In October 2020, Hagen came out as gay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Omer Blaes",
        "text": "Blaes came out as gay at the age of 28 while he was a postdoctoral researcher in Toronto. Blaes was married to his husband before the 2008 California Proposition 8."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dennis Day (Mouseketeer)",
        "text": "He came out as gay to his family and moved to San Francisco when he turned 18, though he later told a \"Rolling Stone\" interviewer in 1971 that he was bisexual and had used drugs. He continued to work as an actor and dancer, including at La MaMa Theatre in New York and in Los Angeles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steven Runciman",
        "text": "Runciman was homosexual. There is little evidence of a long-term lover but Runciman boasted of a number of casual sexual encounters\u2014telling a friend in later life: \"I have the temperament of a harlot, and so am free of emotional complications.\" Nevertheless Runciman was discreet about his homosexuality, partly perhaps because of religious feelings that homosexuality was \"an inarguable offence against God\". Runciman also felt that his sexuality had potentially held back his career. Max Mallowan related a conversation where Runciman told him \"that he felt his life had been a failure because of his gayness\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jeffrey Wammes",
        "text": "In 2011, Wammes came out as gay when he appeared in an edition of \"Linda Magazine\" focused on gay athletes. He stated, \"There was already a lot of speculation about whether or not I fell for boys or girls. To me it has nothing to do with sport or how I perform. But when I was asked to do this, I made it clear straight away how things were and that\u2019s that.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Andy Brennan",
        "text": "In an interview with the \"Herald Sun\", Brennan came out as gay after being closeted for several months. He had previously dated women, but had been unsure of his sexuality for years, stating that it had been a \"mental burden\". Brennan is the first male Australian footballer to come out as gay, and one of only a few openly gay players playing professionally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kieron Richardson",
        "text": "On 15 September 2010, Richardson stated on television programme \"This Morning\" that he is gay, and had accepted that at the age of 20. He was inspired to come out by Joe McElderry. In July 2014, Richardson received homophobic abuse via social networking site Twitter."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many Luarence Olivier Awards did Derren Brown win?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Derren Brown's 2006 show Something Wicked This Way Comes and his 2012 show Svengali won him two Laurence Olivier Awards for Best Entertainment."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the history of the Olivier Awards?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They were established in 1976 by the Society of London Theatre as the Society of West End Theatre Awards, and the first ceremony was in December 1976 at the Caf\u00e9 Royal, then in 1984 the awards were renamed afer British actor Laurence Olivier."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Were there any controversies associated with Derren Brown?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are interested in controversies involving his show Russian Roulette, Seance, Heist, or Trick or Treat?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the ones involving the show Russian Roulette."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There were complaints that it was distasteful, made light of suicide, and promoted gun culture. The police also warned that the show might inspire copycat acts."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about the personal life of Derren Brown?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In an effort to deal with issues of self-esteem and sexuality, he became an evangelical Christian throughout his teenage years in order to present himself as confident and asexual; by his 20s, he had decided that his belief in Christianity had no basis, and he became an atheist. He came out as gay at the age of 30; He revealed that he was dating a designer named Marc at the time, though they later ended their eight-year relationship."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did people react to Derren Brown coming out as gay?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
    ],
    "topic": "Derren Brown",
    "ground_truth_ctx": []
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "In the late Middle Ages, the increasing wealth of middle class merchants and traders meant that commoners began emulating the aristocracy, and threatened to break down some of the symbolic barriers between the nobility and the lower classes. The response came in two forms: didactic literature warning of the dangers of adapting a diet inappropriate for one's class, and sumptuary laws that put a cap on the lavishness of commoners' banquets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The caloric content and structure of medieval diet varied over time, from region to region, and between classes. However, for most people, the diet tended to be high-carbohydrate, with most of the budget spent on, and the majority of calories provided by, cereals and alcohol (such as beer). Even though meat was highly valued by all, lower classes often could not afford it, nor were they allowed by the church to consume it every day. In England in the 13th century, meat contributed a negligible portion of calories to a typical harvest worker's diet; however, its share increased after the Black Death and, by the 15th century, it provided about 20% of the total. Even among the lay nobility of medieval England, grain provided 65\u201370% of calories in the early 14th century, though a generous provision of meat and fish was included, and their consumption of meat increased in the aftermath of the Black Death as well. In one early-15th-century English aristocratic household for which detailed records are available (that of the Earl of Warwick), gentle members of the household received a staggering of assorted meats in a typical meat meal in the autumn and in the winter, in addition to of bread and of beer or possibly wine (and there would have been two meat meals per day, five days a week, except during Lent). In the household of Henry Stafford in 1469, gentle members received of meat per meal, and all others received , and everyone was given of bread and of alcohol. On top of these quantities, some members of these households (usually, a minority) ate breakfast, which would not include any meat, but would probably include another of beer; and uncertain quantities of bread and ale could have been consumed in between meals. The diet of the lord of the household differed somewhat from this structure, including less red meat, more high-quality wild game, fresh fish, fruit, and wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Cereals remained the most important staple during the early Middle Ages as rice was introduced late, and the potato was only introduced in 1536, with a much later date for widespread consumption. Barley, oats and rye were eaten by the poor. Wheat was for the governing classes. These were consumed as bread, porridge, gruel and pasta by all of society's members. Fava beans and vegetables were important supplements to the cereal-based diet of the lower orders. (\"Phaseolus\" beans, today the \"common bean\", were of New World origin and were introduced after the Columbian exchange in the 16th century.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "The meals people ate were controlled by the seasons, geography, and religious restrictions. For most people food supply was limited to what the nearby lands and seas could provide. Peasants made do with what they could, primarily cooking over an open fire, in a cauldron or on a spit. Their ovens were typically outside of the home, and made on top of clay or turf. Poor families primarily consumed grains and vegetables in the form of stew, soup, or pottage, and anything grown on their own small plots of land. They were unable to afford spices, and it was a crime for them to hunt deer, boar, or rabbits. Their staples included rye or barley bread, stews, local dairy products, cheaper meats like beef, pork or lamb, fish if there was access to freshwater, vegetables and herbs grown at home, fruit from local trees and bushes, nuts, and honey. The upper class and nobility had better food and diet than that the lower classes, but food was eaten in small portions. Meals were laid out with many different colors and flavors\u2014a very different experience from those in the lower class. Smaller portion sizes developed around this time due to various cultural influences, and these large, table-long meals were essentially picked at by the nobility. Foods were highly spiced, and many of these were expensively imported, often from outside Europe. The Middle Ages diet of the upper class and nobility included manchet bread, a variety of meats like venison, pork, and lamb, fish and shellfish, spices, cheese, fruits, and a limited number of vegetables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "While grains were the primary constituent of most meals, vegetables such as cabbage, chard, onions, garlic and carrots were common foodstuffs. Many of these were eaten daily by peasants and workers and were less prestigious than meat. Cookbooks, which appeared in the late Middle Ages and were intended mostly for those who could afford such luxuries, contained only a small number of recipes using vegetables as the main ingredient. The lack of recipes for many basic vegetable dishes, such as potages, has been interpreted not to mean that they were absent from the meals of the nobility, but rather that they were considered so basic that they did not require recording. Carrots were available in many variants during the Middle Ages: among them a tastier reddish-purple variety and a less prestigious green-yellow type. Various legumes, like chickpeas, fava beans and field peas were also common and important sources of protein, especially among the lower classes. With the exception of peas, legumes were often viewed with some suspicion by the dietitians advising the upper class, partly because of their tendency to cause flatulence but also because they were associated with the coarse food of peasants. The importance of vegetables to the common people is illustrated by accounts from 16th century Germany stating that many peasants ate sauerkraut from three to four times a day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "One of the most common constituents of a medieval meal, either as part of a banquet or as a small snack, were sops, pieces of bread with which a liquid like wine, soup, broth, or sauce could be soaked up and eaten. Another common sight at the medieval dinner table was the frumenty, a thick wheat porridge often boiled in a meat broth and seasoned with spices. Porridges were also made of every type of grain and could be served as desserts or dishes for the sick, if boiled in milk (or almond milk) and sweetened with sugar. Pies filled with meats, eggs, vegetables, or fruit were common throughout Europe, as were turnovers, fritters, doughnuts, and many similar pastries. By the Late Middle Ages biscuits (cookies in the U.S.) and especially wafers, eaten for dessert, had become high-prestige foods and came in many varieties. Grain, either as bread crumbs or flour, was also the most common thickener of soups and stews, alone or in combination with almond milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "Welsh cuisine in the Middle Ages was limited in range; Gerald of Wales, chaplain to Henry II, wrote after an 1188 tour that \"The whole population lives almost entirely on oats and the produce of their herds, milk, cheese and butter. You must not expect a variety of dishes from a Welsh kitchen, and there are no highly-seasoned titbits to whet your appetite.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English tastes evolved during the sixteenth century in at least three ways. First, recipes emphasise a balance of sweet and sour. Second, butter becomes an important ingredient in sauces, a trend which continued in later centuries. Third, herbs, which could be grown locally but had been little used in the Middle Ages, started to replace spices as flavourings. In A. W.'s \"Book of Cookrye\", 35% of the recipes for meat stews and sauces include herbs, most commonly thyme. On the other hand, 76% of those meat recipes still used the distinctly mediaeval combination of sugar and dried fruit, together or separately. New ingredients were arriving from distant countries, too: \"The Good Huswifes Jewell\" introduced sweet potatoes (from the tropical Americas) alongside familiar Medieval recipes."
      },
      {
        "title": "European cuisine",
        "text": "In medieval times, a person's diet varied depending on their social class. Cereal grains made up a lot of a medieval person's diet, regardless of social class. Bread was common to both classes- it was taken as a lunch for the working man, and thick slices of it were used as plates called trenchers. People of the noble class had access to finely ground flours for their breads and other baked goods. Noblemen were allowed to hunt for deer, boar, rabbits, birds, and other animals, giving them access to fresh meat and fish for their meals. Dishes for people of these classes were often heavily spiced. Spices at that time were very expensive, and the more spices used in dishes, the more wealth the person had to be able to purchase such ingredients. Common spices used were cinnamon, ginger, nutmeg, pepper, cumin, cloves, turmeric, anise, and saffron. Other ingredients used in dishes for the nobility and clergy included sugar, almonds and dried fruits like raisins. These imported ingredients would have been very expensive and nearly impossible for commoners to obtain. When banquets were held, the dishes served would be very spectacular- another way for the noblemen to show how rich they were. Sugar sculptures would be placed on the tables as decoration and to eat, and foods would be dyed vibrant colors with imported spices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "Relatively little is known about the eating habits of the Anglo-Saxons of the Early and High Middle Ages before the Norman conquest in 1066. Ale was the drink of choice of both commoners and nobles, and the known dishes included various stews, simple broths, soups and a hard pancake like bread called crumpet. Bacons were also consumed. The level of refinement was low, and international influence fairly insignificant. This all changed in the 11th century after the Norman invasion. With the invaders came a new and less provincial gentry, and new eating habits, especially for the nobility. While traditional British cooking today is not regarded with high esteem internationally, the Medieval Anglo-Norman cooks were considerably more refined and more cosmopolitan. It has previously been believed that the Anglo-Norman cuisine was mostly similar to that of France, but recent study has shown that many recipes had unique English traits. This was based partly on the different available foodstuffs on the British Isles, but more due to influence from Arab cuisine through the Norman conquest of Sicily. The Arab invaders in the 9th century had cultivated their lifestyle culturally and economically to such a degree that the Norman invaders inherited and adapted many of their habits, including cooking styles. Norman participation in the crusades also brought them into contact with Middle Eastern and Byzantine cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The common method of grinding and mashing ingredients into pastes and the many potages and sauces has been used as an argument that most adults within the medieval nobility lost their teeth at an early age, and hence were forced to eat nothing but porridge, soup and ground-up meat. But, naturally, this is a totally unfounded theory. The image of nobles gumming their way through multi-course meals of nothing but mush has lived side by side with the contradictory apparition of the \"mob of uncouth louts (disguised as noble lords) who, when not actually hurling huge joints of greasy meat at one another across the banquet hall, are engaged in tearing at them with a perfectly healthy complement of incisors, canines, bicuspids and molars\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "Cereals remained the most important staple during the early Middle Ages. Barley, oats and rye were eaten by the poor. Standard foods included bread, porridge, and gruel. Fava beans and vegetables were important supplements to the cereal-based diet of the lower orders. Meat was expensive and prestigious. Game was common only on the tables of landowners. The most prevalent butcher's meats were pork, chicken, and other domestic fowl; beef, which required greater investment in land, was less common. Cod and herring were mainstays among the northern populations; dried, smoked or salted, they made their way far inland, but a wide variety of other saltwater and freshwater fish was also eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "In Europe there were typically two meals a day: dinner at mid-day and a lighter supper in the evening. The two-meal system remained consistent throughout the late Middle Ages. Smaller intermediate meals were common, but became a matter of social status, as those who did not have to perform manual labor could go without them. Moralists frowned on breaking the overnight fast too early, and members of the church and cultivated gentry avoided it. For practical reasons, breakfast was still eaten by working men, and was tolerated for young children, women, the elderly and the sick. Because the church preached against gluttony and other weaknesses of the flesh, men tended to be ashamed of the weak practicality of breakfast. Lavish dinner banquets and late-night \"reresopers\" (from Occitan \"r\u00e8ire-sopar\", \"late supper\") with considerable amounts of alcoholic beverage were considered immoral. The latter were especially associated with gambling, crude language, drunkenness, and lewd behavior. Minor meals and snacks were common (although also disliked by the church), and working men commonly received an allowance from their employers in order to buy \"nuncheons\", small morsels to be eaten during breaks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Plain milk was not consumed by adults except the poor or sick, being reserved for the very young or elderly, and then usually as buttermilk or whey. Fresh milk was overall less common than other dairy products because of the lack of technology to keep it from spoiling. Tea and coffee, both made from plants found in the Old World, were popular in East Asia and the Muslim world during the Middle Ages. However, neither of these non-alcoholic social drinks were consumed in Europe before the late 16th and early 17th centuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabethan era",
        "text": "The poorer among the population consumed a diet largely of bread, cheese, milk, and beer, with small portions of meat, fish and vegetables, and occasionally some fruit. Potatoes were just arriving at the end of the period, and became increasingly important. The typical poor farmer sold his best products on the market, keeping the cheap food for the family. Stale bread could be used to make bread puddings, and bread crumbs served to thicken soups, stews, and sauces.\n: Diet of the middle class"
      },
      {
        "title": "English society",
        "text": "The people discovered new foods (such as the potato and tomato imported from the Americas), and developed new tastes during the era. The more prosperous enjoyed a wide variety of food and drink, including exotic new drinks such as tea, coffee, and chocolate. French and Italian chefs appeared in the country houses and palaces, bringing new standards of food preparation and taste. For example, the English developed a taste for acidic foods\u2014such as oranges for the upper class\u2014and started to use vinegar heavily. The gentry paid increasing attention to their gardens, with new fruits, vegetables and herbs; pasta, pastries, and dried mustard balls first appeared on the table. The apricot was a special treat at fancy banquets. Roast beef remained a staple for those who could afford it. The rest ate a great deal of bread and fish. Every class had a taste for beer and rum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "While all forms of wild game were popular among those who could obtain it, most meat came from domestic animals. Domestic working animals that were no longer able to work were slaughtered but not particularly appetizing and therefore were less valued as meat. Beef was not as common as today because raising cattle was labor-intensive, requiring pastures and feed, and oxen and cows were much more valuable as draught animals and for producing milk. Mutton and lamb were fairly common, especially in areas with a sizeable wool industry, as was veal. Far more common was pork, as domestic pigs required less attention and cheaper feed. Domestic pigs often ran freely even in towns and could be fed on just about any organic waste, and suckling pig was a sought-after delicacy. Just about every part of the pig was eaten, including ears, snout, tail, tongue, and womb. Intestines, bladder and stomach could be used as casings for sausage or even illusion food such as giant eggs. Among the meats that today are rare or even considered inappropriate for human consumption are the hedgehog and porcupine, occasionally mentioned in late medieval recipe collections. Rabbits remained a rare and highly prized commodity. In England, they were deliberately introduced by the 13th century and their colonies were carefully protected. Further south, domesticated rabbits were commonly raised and bred both for their meat and fur. They were of particular value for monasteries, because newborn rabbits were allegedly declared fish (or, at least, not-meat) by the church and therefore they could be eaten during Lent."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Some traditional meals, such as bread and cheese, roasted and stewed meats, meat and game pies, boiled vegetables and broths, and freshwater and saltwater fish have ancient origins. The 14th-century English cookbook, the \"Forme of Cury\", contains recipes for these, and dates from the royal court of Richard II."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Fruit was readily combined with meat, fish and eggs. The recipe for \"Tart de brymlent\", a fish pie from the recipe collection \"The Forme of Cury\", includes a mix of figs, raisins, apples and pears with fish (salmon, codling or haddock) and pitted damson plums under the top crust. It was considered important to make sure that the dish agreed with contemporary standards of medicine and dietetics. This meant that food had to be \"tempered\" according to its nature by an appropriate combination of preparation and mixing certain ingredients, condiments and spices; fish was seen as being cold and moist, and best cooked in a way that heated and dried it, such as frying or oven baking, and seasoned with hot and dry spices; beef was dry and hot and should therefore be boiled; pork was hot and moist and should therefore always be roasted. In some recipe collections, alternative ingredients were assigned with more consideration to the humoral nature than what a modern cook would consider to be similarity in taste. In a recipe for quince pie, cabbage is said to work equally well, and in another turnips could be replaced by pears."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "A type of refined cooking developed in the late Middle Ages that set the standard among the nobility all over Europe. Common seasonings in the highly spiced sweet-sour repertory typical of upper-class medieval food included verjuice, wine and vinegar in combination with spices such as black pepper, saffron and ginger. These, along with the widespread use of sugar or honey, gave many dishes a sweet-sour flavor. Almonds were very popular as a thickener in soups, stews, and sauces, particularly as almond milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The most ideal food was that which most closely matched the humour of human beings, i.e. moderately warm and moist. Food should preferably also be finely chopped, ground, pounded and strained to achieve a true mixture of all the ingredients. White wine was believed to be cooler than red and the same distinction was applied to red and white vinegar. Milk was moderately warm and moist, but the milk of different animals was often believed to differ. Egg yolks were considered to be warm and moist while the whites were cold and moist. Skilled cooks were expected to conform to the regimen of humoral medicine. Even if this limited the combinations of food they could prepare, there was still ample room for artistic variation by the chef."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Common and often basic ingredients in many modern European cuisines like potatoes, kidney beans, cacao, vanilla, tomatoes, chili peppers and maize were not available to Europeans until after 1492, after European contact with the Americas, and even then it often took considerable time, sometimes several centuries, for the new foodstuffs to be accepted by society at large."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Medieval cuisine includes foods, eating habits, and cooking methods of various European cultures during the Middle Ages, which lasted from the fifth to the fifteenth century. During this period, diets and cooking changed less than they did in the early modern period that followed, when those changes helped lay the foundations for modern European cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Another manuscript, \"Utilis Coquinario\", mentions dishes such as \"pyany\", poultry garnished with peonies; \"hyppee\", a rose-hip broth; and birds such as cormorants and woodcocks."
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "In the Middle Ages, the Anglo-Saxons introduced bacon to Britain sometime during the 1st millennium AD. The Norman conquest reintroduced spices and continental influences into Great Britain in the Middle Ages; oranges arrived in the late 13th century, sugar cane in the 14th, and carrots in the 15th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch cuisine",
        "text": "Little evidence is available about food and drink in the late medieval Low Countries. In the consumption of pottage, the Low Countries were not very different from other Western European countries during the Middle Ages. Half-liquid pottage consisted of milk, beer, water, root vegetable and peas or grain, sometimes enriched with a piece of meat. The content changed throughout the seasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Olive oil was a ubiquitous ingredient in Mediterranean cultures, but remained an expensive import in the north where oils of poppy, walnut, hazel and filbert were the most affordable alternatives. Butter and lard, especially after the terrible mortality during the Black Death made them less scarce, were used in considerable quantities in the northern and northwestern regions, especially in the Low Countries. Almost universal in middle and upper class cooking all over Europe was the almond, which was in the ubiquitous and highly versatile almond milk, which was used as a substitute in dishes that otherwise required eggs or milk, though the bitter variety of almonds came along much later."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Before a meal, the stomach would preferably be \"opened\" with an \"ap\u00e9ritif\" (from Latin \"aperire\", \"to open\") that was preferably of a hot and dry nature: confections made from sugar- or honey-coated spices like ginger, caraway and seeds of anise, fennel or cumin, wine and sweetened fortified milk drinks. As the stomach had been opened, it should then be \"closed\" at the end of the meal with the help of a digestive, most commonly a drag\u00e9e, which during the Middle Ages consisted of lumps of spiced sugar, or hypocras, a wine flavoured with fragrant spices, along with aged cheese. A meal would ideally begin with easily digestible fruit, such as apples. It would then be followed by vegetables such as lettuce, cabbage, purslane, herbs, moist fruits, light meats, such as chicken or goat kid, with potages and broths. After that came the \"heavy\" meats, such as pork and beef, as well as vegetables and nuts, including pears and chestnuts, both considered difficult to digest. It was popular, and recommended by medical expertise, to finish the meal with aged cheese and various digestives."
      },
      {
        "title": "A History of English Food",
        "text": "Page numbers refer to the first English edition.\n* 1 Bacon and new-laid eggs: the medieval larder 1\n* 2 Eastern spices and baked venison: the high middle ages 43\n* 3 Marzipan and new world turkeys: the Tudor kitchen 77\n* 4 Orange carrots and white bread: England in the age of Gloriana 117\n* 5 Preserved quince and my Lord of Devonshire's pudding: the Elizabethan year 149\n* 6 Double cream and pastry galleons: the early Stuarts 171\n* 7 Coffee and my Lord Lumley's pease-porage: war and peace in the Seventeenth century 201\n* 8 Roast beef and sweet oranges: the late Stuarts 231\n* 9 Turtle soup and plum pudding: the Georgian age 255\n* 10 Roast hare and Indian curry: the era of Hannah Glasse 293\n* 11 Pheasant consomm\u00e9 and forced peas: rich eating in the nineteenth century 315\n* 12 Brown Windsor soup and high tea: The world of the Victorians 343\n* 13 Omelette Arnold Bennett and bully beef: From the Edwardians to the eve of war 381\n* 14 Spam and coronation chicken: The Second World War and the years of austerity 417\n* 15 Prawn cocktail and pizza: Modern English food 445\n* Appendix of historical recipes 466"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pottage",
        "text": "Some pottages that were typical of medieval cuisine were frumenty, jelly (flesh or fish in aspic), mawmenny (a thickened stew of capon or similar fowl), and pears in syrup. There were also many kinds of potages made of thickened liquids (such as milk and almond milk) with mashed flowers or mashed or strained fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Fruit was popular and could be served fresh, dried, or preserved, and was a common ingredient in many cooked dishes. Since sugar and honey were both expensive, it was common to include many types of fruit in dishes that called for sweeteners of some sort. The fruits of choice in the south were lemons, citrons, bitter oranges (the sweet type was not introduced until several hundred years later), pomegranates, quinces, and grapes. Farther north, apples, pears, plums, and wild strawberries were more common. Figs and dates were eaten all over Europe, but remained rather expensive imports in the north."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabethan era",
        "text": "At a somewhat higher social level families ate an enormous variety of meats, who could choose among venison, beef, mutton, veal, pork, lamb, fowl, salmon, eel, and shellfish. The holiday goose was a special treat. Rich spices were used by the wealthier people to offset the smells of old salt-preserved meat. Many rural folk and some townspeople tended a small garden which produced vegetables such as asparagus, cucumbers, spinach, lettuce, beans, cabbage, turnips, radishes, carrots, leeks, and peas, as well as medicinal and flavoring herbs. Some grew their own apricots, grapes, berries, apples, pears, plums, strawberries, currants, and cherries. Families without a garden could trade with their neighbors to obtain vegetables and fruits at low cost. Fruits and vegetables were used in desserts such as pastries, tarts, cakes, crystallized fruit, and syrup.\n: Diet of the upper class"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pottage",
        "text": "The earliest known cookery manuscript in the English language, \"The Forme of Cury\", written by the court chefs of King Richard II in 1390, contains several potage recipes including one made from cabbage, ham, onions and leeks. A slightly later manuscript from the 1430s is called \" Potage Dyvers\" (\"Various Potages\"). The word \"pottage\" is used in the earliest English translations of the Bible, in relation to the lentil soup for which Esau trades his birthright in ; from this story, the phrase \"mess of pottage\" means something attractive but of little value being exchanged for something much more important. During the Tudor period, a good many English peasants' diets consisted almost solely of potage. Some Tudor-era people ate self-cultivated vegetables like cabbages and carrots and a few were able to supplement this from fruit gardens with fruit trees nearby."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early modern European cuisine",
        "text": "Peas and beans, which made up a very large part of the diet of the medieval poor, were still often treated as a staple food, but to a diminishing extent over the period, to be replaced by cereals and the potato."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabethan era",
        "text": "England was exposed to new foods (such as the potato imported from South America), and developed new tastes during the era. The more prosperous enjoyed a wide variety of food and drink, including exotic new drinks such as tea, coffee, and chocolate. French and Italian chefs appeared in the country houses and palaces bringing new standards of food preparation and taste. For example, the English developed a taste for acidic foods\u2014such as oranges for the upper class\u2014and started to use vinegar heavily. The gentry paid increasing attention to their gardens, with new fruits, vegetables and herbs; pasta, pastries, and dried mustard balls first appeared on the table. The apricot was a special treat at fancy banquets. Roast beef remained a staple for those who could afford it. The rest ate a great deal of bread and fish. Every class had a taste for beer and rum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "The food of the lower classes was mostly vegetarian and limited to olives, fruit, onions, and the occasional piece of cheese, or stews made from cabbage and salted pork. The standard meal of a shoemaker was described in a Byzantine poem, one of the \"Prodromic Poems\", as consisting of some cooked foods and an omelette followed by hot salted pork with an unspecified garlic dish."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cookery has developed over many centuries since at least the time of \"The Forme of Cury\", written in the Middle Ages around 1390 in the reign of King Richard II. The book offers imaginative and sophisticated recipes, with spicy sweet and sour sauces thickened with bread or quantities of almonds boiled, peeled, dried and ground, and often served in pastry. Foods such as gingerbread are described. It was not at all, emphasises Clarissa Dickson Wright in her \"A History of English Food\", a matter of large lumps of roast meat at every meal as imagined in Hollywood films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The most common grains were rye, barley, buckwheat, millet and oats. Rice remained a fairly expensive import for most of the Middle Ages and was grown in northern Italy only towards the end of the period. Wheat was common all over Europe and was considered to be the most nutritious of all grains, but was more prestigious and thus more expensive. The finely sifted white flour that modern Europeans are most familiar with was reserved for the bread of the upper classes. As one descended the social ladder, bread became coarser, darker, and its bran content increased. In times of grain shortages or outright famine, grains could be supplemented with cheaper and less desirable substitutes like chestnuts, dried legumes, acorns, ferns, and a wide variety of more or less nutritious vegetable matter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The term \"dessert\" comes from the Old French \"desservir\" 'to clear a table', literally 'to un-serve', and originated during the Middle Ages. It would typically consist of drag\u00e9es and mulled wine accompanied by aged cheese, and by the Late Middle Ages could also include fresh fruit covered in sugar, honey or syrup and boiled-down fruit pastes. Sugar, from its first appearance in Europe, was viewed as much as a drug as a sweetener; its long-lived medieval reputation as an exotic luxury encouraged its appearance in elite contexts accompanying meats and other dishes that to modern taste are more naturally savoury. There was a wide variety of fritters, cr\u00eapes with sugar, sweet custards and darioles, almond milk and eggs in a pastry shell that could also include fruit and sometimes even bone marrow or fish. German-speaking areas had a particular fondness for \"krapfen\": fried pastries and dough with various sweet and savory fillings. Marzipan in many forms was well known in Italy and southern France by the 1340s and is assumed to be of Arab origin. Anglo-Norman cookbooks are full of recipes for sweet and savory custards, potages, sauces and tarts with strawberries, cherries, apples and plums. The English chefs also had a penchant for using flower petals such as roses, violets, and elder flowers. An early form of quiche can be found in \"Forme of Cury\", a 14th-century recipe collection, as a \"Torte de Bry\" with a cheese and egg yolk filling. Le M\u00e9nagier de Paris (\"Parisian Household Book\") written in 1393 includes a quiche recipe made with three kinds of cheese, eggs, beet greens, spinach, fennel fronds, and parsley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Meat was more expensive and therefore more prestigious. Game, a form of meat acquired from hunting, was common only on the nobility's tables. The most prevalent butcher's meats were pork, chicken and other domestic fowl; beef, which required greater investment in land, was less common. Cod and herring were mainstays among the northern populations; dried, smoked or salted, they made their way far inland, but a wide variety of other saltwater and freshwater fish was also eaten."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Slow transportation and food preservation techniques (based on drying, salting, smoking and pickling) made long-distance trade of many foods very expensive. Because of this, the nobility's food was more prone to foreign influence than the cuisine of the poor; it was dependent on exotic spices and expensive imports. As each level of society imitated the one above it, innovations from international trade and foreign wars from the 12th century onward gradually disseminated through the upper middle class of medieval cities. Aside from economic unavailability of luxuries such as spices, decrees outlawed consumption of certain foods among certain social classes and sumptuary laws limited conspicuous consumption among the nouveaux riches. Social norms also dictated that the food of the working class be less refined, since it was believed there was a natural resemblance between one's labour and one's food; manual labour required coarser, cheaper food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Medical science of the Middle Ages had a considerable influence on what was considered healthy and nutritious among the upper classes. One's lifestyle\u2014including diet, exercise, appropriate social behavior, and approved medical remedies\u2014was the way to good health, and all types of food were assigned certain properties that affected a person's health. All foodstuffs were also classified on scales ranging from hot to cold and moist to dry, according to the four bodily humours theory proposed by Galen that dominated Western medical science from late Antiquity until the 17th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cuisine\n--History.\n----Middle Ages.\n----Sixteenth century.\n----Seventeenth century.\n----Eighteenth century.\n----Nineteenth century.\n----Twentieth century.\n--Stereotypes.\n--Foreign influence.\n----The role of Empire.\n----Indian and Anglo-Indian cuisine.\n----Other influences.\n--Food establishments.\n----Cafes and tea shops.\n----Fish and chip shops.\n----Pub food.\n--Vegetarianism.\n--Quality.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Economics of English agriculture in the Middle Ages",
        "text": "In the more fertile parts of the country such as the Thames valley, the Midlands and the east of England, legumes and beans were also cultivated. Sheep, cattle, oxen and pigs were kept on English holdings, although most of these breed were much smaller than modern equivalents and most would have been slaughtered in winter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The period between c. 500 and 1300 saw a major change in diet that affected most of Europe. More intense agriculture on ever-increasing acreage resulted in a shift from animal products, like meat and dairy, to various grains and vegetables as the staple of the majority population. Before the 14th century, bread was not as common among the lower classes, especially in the north where wheat was more difficult to grow. A bread-based diet became gradually more common during the 15th century and replaced warm intermediate meals that were porridge- or gruel-based. Leavened bread was more common in wheat-growing regions in the south, while unleavened flatbread of barley, rye or oats remained more common in northern and highland regions, and unleavened flatbread was also common as provisions for troops."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cookery has been open to foreign ingredients and influence from as early as the thirteenth century, and in the case of a few foods like sausages from Roman times. The Countess of Leicester, daughter of King John purchased large amounts of cinnamon, while King Edward I ordered large quantities of spices such as pepper and ginger, as well as of what was then an expensive imported luxury, sugar. Dickson Wright refutes the popular idea that spices were used to disguise bad meat, pointing out that this would have been as fatal then as it would be today. She suggests instead that spices were used to hide the taste of salt, which was used to preserve food in the absence of refrigeration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tudor food and drink",
        "text": "The aristocrats held banquets and feasts consisting of different courses where each course had a variety of dishes brought out at the same time. People then could choose what they wanted to eat.\n* Brawn (boar meat)\n* roast tongue\n* Leg of pork\n* Roast beef\n* deer\n* Meat pie\n* Vegetables in season\n* Bread\n* Wine\n* Roast lamb\n* Rabbit\n* Bread\n* Preserved fruit\n* Gingerbread\n* Sugared almonds\n* Deer pie\n* Fish pie"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tudor food and drink",
        "text": "The poor ate whatever meat they could find, such as rabbits, blackbirds, pheasants, partridges, hens, ducks, and pigeons, and also fish they caught from lakes and rivers. Meanwhile, the rich people also ate more costly varieties of meat, such as swan, peafowl, geese, boar, and deer (venison)."
      },
      {
        "title": "England in the Late Middle Ages",
        "text": "In the spring of 1315 unusually heavy rain began in much of Europe. Throughout the spring and summer, it continued to rain and the temperature remained cool. These conditions caused widespread crop failures. The straw and hay for the animals could not be cured and there was no fodder for livestock. The price of food began to rise, doubling in England between spring and midsummer. Salt, the only way to cure and preserve meat, was difficult to obtain because it could not be extracted through evaporation in the wet weather; it peaked in price in the period 1310\u201320, reaching double the price from the decade before. In the spring of 1316 it continued to rain on a European population deprived of energy and reserves to sustain itself. All segments of society from nobles to peasants were affected, but especially the peasants who were the overwhelming majority of the population and who had no reserve food supplies. The height of the famine was reached in 1317 as the wet weather continued. Finally, in the summer the weather returned to its normal patterns. By now, however, people were so weakened by diseases such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and tuberculosis, and so much of the seed stock had been eaten, that it was not until 1325 that the food supply returned to relatively normal conditions and the population began to increase again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of England",
        "text": "Since the early modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce. During the Middle Ages and through the Renaissance period, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with the move away from the land and increasing urbanisation of the populace. This has resulted in a traditional cuisine which tended to avoid strong flavours, such as garlic, and also complex sauces which were commonly associated with Roman Catholic Continental affiliations."
      },
      {
        "title": "A History of English Food",
        "text": "The book is divided into 15 chapters, forming a strict chronological sequence of periods such as \"the Georgian age\". The chapters freely combine outlines of the historical context, descriptions of recipes, stories about significant figures, and personal anecdotes. For example, \"The Medieval Larder\" has an extensive section on the \"medieval pig\" (page 22ff), leading into a description of Dickson Wright's own childhood memories of helping to kill her father's pigs and making black pudding, chitterlings and sausages, as well as having hams and bacon smoked. To this is added her personal opinion; thus, the medieval chapter ends \"The battles of Cr\u00e9cy and Agincourt would scarcely have been won had they been fought by soldiers from a destitute nation.\" (page 41)"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Instead, medieval dishes often had the texture of a pure\u00e9, possibly containing small fragments of meat or fish: 48% of the recipes in the Beinecke manuscript are for dishes similar to stews or pure\u00e9s. Such dishes could be broadly of three types: somewhat acid, with wine, vinegar, and spices in the sauce, thickened with bread; sweet and sour, with sugar and vinegar; and sweet, using then-expensive sugar. An example of such a sweet pure\u00e9 dish for meat (it could also be made with fish) from the Beinecke manuscript is the rich, saffron-yellow \"Mortruys\", thickened with egg:"
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "English cuisine has distinctive attributes of its own, but also shares much with wider British cuisine, partly through the importation of ingredients and ideas from North America, China, and India during the time of the British Empire and as a result of post-war immigration. Some traditional meals, such as sausages, cheese, roasted and stewed meats, meat and game pies, boiled vegetables and broths, and freshwater and saltwater fish have ancient origins. The 14th-century English cookbook, the \"Forme of Cury\", contains recipes for these, and dates from the royal court of Richard II."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Surviving medieval recipes frequently call for flavoring with a number of sour, tart liquids. Wine, verjuice (the juice of unripe grapes or fruits) vinegar and the juices of various fruits, especially those with tart flavors, were almost universal and a hallmark of late medieval cooking. In combination with sweeteners and spices, it produced a distinctive \"pungeant, fruity\" flavor. Equally common, and used to complement the tanginess of these ingredients, were (sweet) almonds. They were used in a variety of ways: whole, shelled or unshelled, slivered, ground and, most importantly, processed into almond milk. This last type of non-dairy milk product is probably the single most common ingredient in late medieval cooking and blended the aroma of spices and sour liquids with a mild taste and creamy texture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish cuisine",
        "text": "Distinct from preceding eras, the Middle Ages ushered the development of dense urban centers that dramatically affected preexisting food systems by changing both physical and societal infrastructures. The spread and increasing normalization of a new type of civilian who did not produce or hunt their own food and was thus reliant on foreign market trade and import from rural farms made the need for accessible and consistent sources of food vital."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The regional specialties that are a feature of early modern and contemporary cuisine were not in evidence in the sparser documentation that survives. Instead, medieval cuisine can be differentiated by the cereals and the oils that shaped dietary norms and crossed ethnic and, later, national boundaries. Geographical variation in eating was primarily the result of differences in climate, political administration, and local customs that varied across the continent. Though sweeping generalizations should be avoided, more or less distinct areas where certain foodstuffs dominated can be discerned. In the British Isles, northern France, the Low Countries, the northern German-speaking areas, Scandinavia and the Baltic, the climate was generally too harsh for the cultivation of grapes and olives. In the south, wine was the common drink for both rich and poor alike (though the commoner usually had to settle for cheap second-pressing wine) while beer was the commoner's drink in the north and wine an expensive import. Citrus fruits (though not the kinds most common today) and pomegranates were common around the Mediterranean. Dried figs and dates were available in the north, but were used rather sparingly in cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "Olive oil was among the ubiquitous ingredients around the Mediterranean, but remained an expensive import in the north where oil of poppy, walnut, hazel and filbert was the most affordable alternative. Butter and lard, especially after the Black Death, was used in considerable quantities in the northern and northwestern regions, especially in the Low Countries. Almost universal in middle and upper class cooking all over Europe was the almond, which was in the ubiquitous and highly versatile almond milk, which was used as a substitute in dishes that otherwise required eggs or milk, though the bitter variety came along much later."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Research into medieval foodways was, until around 1980, a somewhat neglected field of study. Misconceptions and outright errors were quite common among historians, and are still present in as a part of the popular view of the Middle Ages as a backward, primitive and barbaric era. Medieval cookery was described as revolting due to the often unfamiliar combination of flavors, the perceived lack of vegetables and a liberal use of spices. The heavy use of spices has been popular as an argument to support the claim that spices were employed to disguise the flavor of spoiled meat, a conclusion without support in historical fact and contemporary sources. Fresh meat could be procured throughout the year by those who could afford it. The preservation techniques available at the time, although crude by today's standards, were perfectly adequate. The astronomical cost and high prestige of spices, and thereby the reputation of the host, would have been effectively undone if wasted on cheap and poorly handled foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Many basic variations of cooking utensils available today, such as frying pans, pots, kettles, and waffle irons, already existed, although they were often too expensive for poorer households. Other tools more specific to cooking over an open fire were spits of various sizes, and material for skewering anything from delicate quails to whole oxen. There were also cranes with adjustable hooks so that pots and cauldrons could easily be swung away from the fire to keep them from burning or boiling over. Utensils were often held directly over the fire or placed into embers on tripods. To assist the cook there were also assorted knives, stirring spoons, ladles and graters. In wealthy households one of the most common tools was the mortar and sieve cloth, since many medieval recipes called for food to be finely chopped, mashed, strained and seasoned either before or after cooking. This was based on a belief among physicians that the finer the consistency of food, the more effectively the body would absorb the nourishment. It also gave skilled cooks the opportunity to elaborately shape the results. Fine-textured food was also associated with wealth; for example, finely milled flour was expensive, while the bread of commoners was typically brown and coarse. A typical procedure was \"farcing\" (from the Latin \"farcio\" 'to cram'), to skin and dress an animal, grind up the meat and mix it with spices and other ingredients and then return it into its own skin, or mold it into the shape of a completely different animal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of England",
        "text": "The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by food critics with some good ratings in \"Restaurant\"'s best restaurant in the world charts. An early book of English recipes is the \"Forme of Cury\" from the royal court of Richard II. Traditional meals have ancient origins, such as bread, vegetables, cheese and onions, popular today as the Ploughman's lunch (usually accompanied by butter, pickles, chutney, ham, fresh green salad, boiled eggs, and apples), pottage and frumenty; roasted and stewed meats; meat and game pies; and freshwater and saltwater fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food in England",
        "text": "Most of the chapters address aspects of English food, whether types of food such as meat, eggs, fungi, and bread, or ways of dealing with food such as salting, drying and preserving. Some chapters such as 'Elizabethan households' are explicitly historical. Every chapter, however, is also a history. For example, chapter V, Meat, discusses \"a rather interesting mediaeval miracle\" and illustrates a traditional \"Colonial Travelling Meat Safe of Mosquito Net\". The text switches repeatedly from instructions (\"To prepare mutton fat for a mutton piecrust, melt it over a bowl of hot water\") to historical asides (\"Mutton fat was used in the mountain-sheep districts for the same purposes as suet or goose-grease in the valleys\"). Many of the processes are distinctly old-fashioned; thus, Hartley describes basting, dredging, and frothing, switching between the past and present tenses: \"Dredging. This was done between bastings. Thus you dredge with powders or spices to give flavour, or with acid juices, or chopped herbs, which the pouring fat washes down into the crevices of the roasting meat.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Restaurant",
        "text": "In Europe, inns which offered food and lodgings and taverns where food was served alongside alcoholic beverages continued to be the main places to buy a prepared meal into the Middle Ages and Renaissance. They typically served common fare of the type normally available to peasants. In Spain, such establishments were called \"bodegas\" and served tapas. In England, they typically served foods such as sausage and shepherd's pie."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "In most households, cooking was done on an open hearth in the middle of the main living area, to make efficient use of the heat. This was the most common arrangement, even in wealthy households, for most of the Middle Ages, where the kitchen was combined with the dining hall. Towards the Late Middle Ages a separate kitchen area began to evolve. The first step was to move the fireplaces towards the walls of the main hall, and later to build a separate building or wing that contained a dedicated kitchen area, often separated from the main building by a covered arcade. This way, the smoke, odors and bustle of the kitchen could be kept out of sight of guests, and the fire risk lessened. Few medieval kitchens survive as they were \"notoriously ephemeral structures\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "The \"subtlety\" (or entremet), the fanciful and highly decorative surprise dish used to separate one course from another, was brought to new levels of complexity and refinement by the English chefs. Among the specialties were \"pommes dor\u00e9es\" (\"gilded apples\"), meatballs of mutton or chicken colored with saffron or a glaze of egg yolk. The Anglo-Norman variant, \"pommes d'orange\", were flavored and coloured with the juice of bitter oranges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The completely edible shortcrust pie did not appear in recipes until the 15th century. Before that the pastry was primarily used as a cooking container in a technique known as huff paste. Extant recipe collections show that gastronomy in the Late Middle Ages developed significantly. New techniques, like the shortcrust pie and the clarification of jelly with egg whites began to appear in recipes in the late 14th century and recipes began to include detailed instructions instead of being mere memory aids to an already skilled cook."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Spices were among the most luxurious products available in the Middle Ages, the most common being black pepper, cinnamon (and the cheaper alternative cassia), cumin, nutmeg, ginger and cloves. They all had to be imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them extremely expensive, and gave them social cachet such that pepper for example was hoarded, traded and conspicuously donated in the manner of gold bullion. It has been estimated that around 1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000\u00a0tons of the other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the late Middle Ages. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people. While pepper was the most common spice, the most exclusive (though not the most obscure in its origin) was saffron, used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor, for according to the humours, yellow signified hot and dry, valued qualities; turmeric provided a yellow substitute, and touches of gilding at banquets supplied both the medieval love of ostentatious show and Galenic dietary lore: at the sumptuous banquet that Cardinal Riario offered the daughter of the King of Naples in June 1473, the bread was gilded. Among the spices that have now fallen into obscurity are grains of paradise, a relative of cardamom which almost entirely replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking, long pepper, mace, spikenard, galangal and cubeb. Sugar, unlike today, was considered to be a type of spice due to its high cost and humoral qualities. Few dishes employed just one type of spice or herb, but rather a combination of several different ones. Even when a dish was dominated by a single flavor it was usually combined with another to produce a compound taste, for example parsley and cloves or pepper and ginger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Common herbs such as sage, mustard, and parsley were grown and used in cooking all over Europe, as were caraway, mint, dill and fennel. Many of these plants grew throughout all of Europe or were cultivated in gardens, and were a cheaper alternative to exotic spices. Mustard was particularly popular with meat products and was described by Hildegard of Bingen (1098\u20131179) as poor man's food. While locally grown herbs were less prestigious than spices, they were still used in upper-class food, but were then usually less prominent or included merely as coloring. Anise was used to flavor fish and chicken dishes, and its seeds were served as sugar-coated comfits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Especially important was the fishing and trade in herring and cod in the Atlantic and the Baltic Sea. The herring was of unprecedented significance to the economy of much of Northern Europe, and it was one of the most common commodities traded by the Hanseatic League, a powerful north German alliance of trading guilds. Kippers made from herring caught in the North Sea could be found in markets as far away as Constantinople. While large quantities of fish were eaten fresh, a large proportion was salted, dried, and, to a lesser extent, smoked. Stockfish, cod that was split down the middle, fixed to a pole and dried, was very common, though preparation could be time-consuming, and meant beating the dried fish with a mallet before soaking it in water. A wide range of mollusks including oysters, mussels and scallops were eaten by coastal and river-dwelling populations, and freshwater crayfish were seen as a desirable alternative to meat during fish days. Compared to meat, fish was much more expensive for inland populations, especially in Central Europe, and therefore not an option for most. Freshwater fish such as pike, carp, bream, perch, lamprey and trout were common."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabeth David",
        "text": "Hardly knowing what I was doing\u00a0... I sat down and started to work out an agonized craving for the sun and a furious revolt against that terrible cheerless, heartless food by writing down descriptions of Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cooking. Even to write words like apricot, olives and butter, rice and lemons, oil and almonds, produced assuagement. Later I came to realize that in the England of 1947, those were dirty words I was putting down."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The cuisines of the cultures of the Mediterranean Basin since antiquity had been based on cereals, particularly various types of wheat. Porridge, gruel and later, bread, became the basic food staple that made up the majority of calorie intake for most of the population. From the 8th to the 11th centuries, the proportion of various cereals in the diet rose from about a third to three quarters. Dependence on wheat remained significant throughout the medieval era, and spread northward with the rise of Christianity. In colder climates, however, it was usually unaffordable for the majority population, and was associated with the higher classes. The centrality of bread in religious rituals such as the Eucharist meant that it enjoyed an especially high prestige among foodstuffs. Only (olive) oil and wine had a comparable value, but both remained quite exclusive outside the warmer grape- and olive-growing regions. The symbolic role of bread as both sustenance and substance is illustrated in a sermon given by Saint Augustine:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "As with almost every part of life at the time, a medieval meal was generally a communal affair. The entire household, including servants, would ideally dine together. To sneak off to enjoy private company was considered a haughty and inefficient egotism in a world where people depended very much on each other. In the 13th century, English bishop Robert Grosseteste advised the Countess of Lincoln: \"forbid dinners and suppers out of hall, in secret and in private rooms, for from this arises waste and no honour to the lord and lady.\" He also recommended watching that the servants not make off with leftovers to make merry at rere-suppers, rather than giving it as alms. Towards the end of the Middle Ages, the wealthy increasingly sought to escape this regime of stern collectivism. When possible, rich hosts retired with their consorts to private chambers where the meal could be enjoyed in greater exclusivity and privacy. Being invited to a lord's chambers was a great privilege and could be used as a way to reward friends and allies and to awe subordinates. It allowed lords to distance themselves further from the household and to enjoy more luxurious treats while serving inferior food to the rest of the household that still dined in the great hall. At major occasions and banquets, however, the host and hostess generally dined in the great hall with the other diners. Although there are descriptions of dining etiquette on special occasions, less is known about the details of day-to-day meals of the elite or about the table manners of the common people and the destitute. However, it can be assumed there were no such extravagant luxuries as multiple courses, luxurious spices or hand-washing in scented water in everyday meals."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Another country clergyman, Gilbert White, in \"The Natural History of Selborne\" (1789) recorded the increased consumption of vegetables by ordinary country people in the south of England, to which, he noted, potatoes, from the Americas, had only been added during the reign of King George III:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Cheese was far more important as a foodstuff, especially for common people, and it has been suggested that it was, during many periods, the chief supplier of animal protein among the lower classes. Many varieties of cheese eaten today, like Dutch Edam, Northern French Brie and Italian Parmesan, were available and well known in late medieval times. There were also whey cheeses, like ricotta, made from by-products of the production of harder cheeses. Cheese was used in cooking for pies and soups, the latter being common fare in German-speaking areas. Butter, another important dairy product, was in popular use in the regions of Northern Europe that specialized in cattle production in the latter half of the Middle Ages, the Low Countries and Southern Scandinavia. While most other regions used oil or lard as cooking fats, butter was the dominant cooking medium in these areas. Its production also allowed for a lucrative butter export from the 12th century onward."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women in the Middle Ages",
        "text": "Also on milk and meal to make porridge with"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kware\u017cimal",
        "text": "In medieval Europe, animal products were to be avoided during times of penance. The choice of ingredients may have been limited, but that did not mean that meals were smaller. Neither were there any restrictions against moderate drinking or eating sweets. Banquets held on fish days were popular occasions for serving food that imitated meat, cheese and eggs in various ingenious ways: fish could be molded to look like venison and imitation eggs could be made by stuffing empty egg shells with fish roe and almond milk and cooking on coals."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Modern Cook",
        "text": "Panikos Panayi, in his book \"Spicing Up Britain\", writes that Francatelli's book for the middle classes definitely recognised differences between British and foreign foods, even in its full title which ran \"\"...Comprising, in Addition to English Cookery, the Most Advanced and Recherch\u00e9 Systems of French, Italian and German Cookery\"\". Panayi notes that Francatelli's preface to the first edition was scathing about ignorant \"English writers on gastronomy\", comparing them unfavourably to the \"great Professors\" of cuisine in France. Panayi observes further that while most of Francatelli's chapters are not grouped by national origin, he does distinguish English, Foreign, and Italian soups. He notes that it would have taken years to eat all the dishes listed, and that it is impossible to tell how often middle-class families may have eaten \"fillets of haddocks, \u00e0 la royale\". He considers it likely that only the wealthiest could have aspired to eat the sort of food described by Francatelli, but concedes that his bills of fare for dinners for six persons (by month) do indicate that the middle classes could afford the best meat and vegetables, and indeed that they had domestic staff able to prepare dinners of that complexity described in Francatelli's French terminology. Panayi concludes that Francatelli represents \"perhaps the most extreme example\" of the nineteenth-century British habit of giving dishes French descriptions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "While animal products were to be avoided during times of penance, pragmatic compromises often prevailed. The definition of \"fish\" was often extended to marine and semi-aquatic animals such as whales, barnacle geese, puffins and even beavers. The choice of ingredients may have been limited, but that did not mean that meals were smaller. Neither were there any restrictions against (moderate) drinking or eating sweets. Banquets held on fish days could be splendid, and were popular occasions for serving illusion food that imitated meat, cheese and eggs in various ingenious ways; fish could be moulded to look like venison and fake eggs could be made by stuffing empty egg shells with fish roe and almond milk and cooking them in coals. While Byzantine church officials took a hard-line approach, and discouraged any culinary refinement for the clergy, their Western counterparts were far more lenient. There was also no lack of grumbling about the rigours of fasting among the laity. During Lent, kings and schoolboys, commoners and nobility, all complained about being deprived of meat for the long, hard weeks of solemn contemplation of their sins. At Lent, owners of livestock were even warned to keep an eye out for hungry dogs frustrated by a \"hard siege by Lent and fish bones\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "In northern France, a wide assortment of waffles and wafers was eaten with cheese and hypocras or a sweet malmsey as \"issue de table\" ('departure from the table'). The ever-present candied ginger, coriander, aniseed and other spices were referred to as \"\u00e9pices de chambre\" ('parlor spices') and were taken as digestibles at the end of a meal to \"close\" the stomach. Like their Muslim counterparts in Spain, the Arab conquerors of Sicily introduced a wide variety of new sweets and desserts that eventually found their way to the rest of Europe. Just like Montpellier, Sicily was once famous for its \"comfits\", nougat candy (\"torrone\", or \"turr\u00f3n\" in Spanish) and almond clusters (\"confetti\"). From the south, the Arabs also brought the art of ice cream making that produced sorbet and several examples of sweet cakes and pastries; \"cassata alla Siciliana\" (from Arabic \"qas'ah\", the term for the terracotta bowl with which it was shaped), made from marzipan, sponge cake and sweetened ricotta and \"cannoli alla Siciliana\", originally \"cappelli di turchi\" ('Turkish hats'), fried, chilled pastry tubes with a sweet cheese filling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Medieval cuisine\n--Dietary norms.\n----The Church.\n----Class constraints.\n----Dietetics.\n----Caloric structure.\n--Regional variation.\n--Meals.\n----Etiquette.\n--Food preparation.\n----Medieval kitchens.\n----Preservation.\n----Professional cooking.\n--Cereals.\n--Fruit and vegetables.\n--Dairy products.\n--Meats.\n----Fish and seafood.\n--Drink.\n----Wine.\n----Beer.\n----Distillates.\n--Herbs, spices and condiments.\n--Sweets and desserts.\n--Historiography and sources.\n----Cookbooks.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dutch Golden Age",
        "text": "In the Dutch Golden Age, the meals of the middle class consisted of a rich variety of dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "Many Italian staples and internationally recognized favorites were invented and refined during the Late Middle Ages and the early Renaissance; pasta was on everyone's dinner plate by the 13th century, though it was commonly made out of rice flour rather than durum wheat; pizza, the medieval Italian term for \"pie\", and tortes came in many varieties with a wide range of toppings, ranging from marzipan, and custards to chicken, eel, or even hemp; polenta made from French green lentils or barley; risotto; and a myriad of local or regional variants of sausage and cheese which was eaten by more or less everyone. As early as the Middle Ages, the cheeses, in particular, appear to have been highly specialized, from a fresh Tuscan to an aged Milanese from Tadesca, wrapped and shipped in tree bark. Medieval Italians also used eggs to a higher degree than many other regions, and the recipe collections describe herb omelettes (\"herboletos\") and frittatas. Grapes as tasty morsels and lemons as a cooking ingredient was ubiquitous and, of course, olive oil of every conceivable kind was the cooking fat of choice in all regions, including the north, for dressing salads, frying, seasoning, marinading and preserving meats."
      },
      {
        "title": "England",
        "text": "Since the early modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce. During the Middle Ages and through the Renaissance period, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with the move away from the land and increasing urbanisation of the populace. The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by food critics with some good ratings in \"Restaurant\"s best restaurant in the world charts. An early book of English recipes is the \"Forme of Cury\" from the royal court of Richard II."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast",
        "text": "In the European Middle Ages, breakfast was not usually considered a necessary and important meal, and was practically nonexistent during the earlier medieval period. Monarchs and their entourages would spend a lot of time around a table for meals. Only two formal meals were eaten per day\u2014one at mid-day and one in the evening. The exact times varied by period and region, but this two-meal system remained consistent throughout the Middle Ages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blancmange",
        "text": "The \"whitedish\" (from the original Old French term ) was an upper-class dish common to most of Europe during the Middle Ages and early modern period. It occurs in countless variations from recipe collections from all over Europe and was one of the few truly international dishes of medieval and early modern Europe. It is mentioned in the prologue to Geoffrey Chaucer's \"Canterbury Tales\" and in an early 15th-century cookbook written by the chefs of Richard II. The basic ingredients were milk or almond milk, sugar, and shredded chicken (usually capon) or fish, often combined with rosewater and rice flour, and mixed into a bland stew. Almond milk and fish were used as substitutes for the other animal products on fast days and Lent. It was also often flavoured with spices like saffron or cinnamon and the chicken could be exchanged for various types of fowl, like quail or partridge. Spices were often used in recipes of the later Middle Ages since they were considered highly prestigious."
      },
      {
        "title": "Curing (food preservation)",
        "text": "In Europe, medieval cuisine made great use of meat and vegetables, and the guild of butchers was amongst the most powerful. During the 12th century, salt beef was consumed by all social classes. Smoked meat was called \"carboucl\u00e9e\" in Romance tongues and \"bacon\" if it was pork."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tudor food and drink",
        "text": "The common vegetables used in the Tudor period were onions and cabbages, but nearer the end of the Tudor period, new foods were brought over from the Americas, such as tomatoes, potatoes, and peppers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabethan era",
        "text": "The diet in England during the Elizabethan era depended largely on social class. Bread was a staple of the Elizabethan diet, and people of different statuses ate bread of different qualities. The upper classes ate fine white bread called manchet, while the poor ate coarse bread made of barley or rye.\n: Diet of the lower class"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "James Woodforde's \"Diary of a Country Parson\" gives a good idea of the sort of food eaten in England in the eighteenth century by those who could afford to eat whatever they liked. To welcome some neighbours on 8 June 1781, he gave them for dinner:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "While wine was the most common table beverage in much of Europe, this was not the case in the northern regions where grapes were not cultivated. Those who could afford it drank imported wine, but even for nobility in these areas it was common to drink beer or ale, particularly towards the end of the Middle Ages. In England, the Low Countries, northern Germany, Poland and Scandinavia, beer was consumed on a daily basis by people of all social classes and age groups. By the mid-15th century, barley, a cereal known to be somewhat poorly suited for breadmaking but excellent for brewing, accounted for 27% of all cereal acreage in England. However, the heavy influence from Arab and Mediterranean culture on medical science (particularly due to the Reconquista and the influx of Arabic texts) meant that beer was often disfavoured. For most medieval Europeans, it was a humble brew compared with common southern drinks and cooking ingredients, such as wine, lemons and olive oil. Even comparatively exotic products like camel's milk and gazelle meat generally received more positive attention in medical texts. Beer was just an acceptable alternative and was assigned various negative qualities. In 1256, the Sienese physician Aldobrandino described beer in the following way:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Entremet",
        "text": "At the end of the Middle Ages, the level of refinement among the noble and royal courts of Europe had increased considerably, and the demands of powerful hosts and their rich dinner guests resulted in ever more complicated and elaborate creations. Chiquart, cook to Amadeus VIII, Duke of Savoy, described an entremet entitled \"Castle of Love\" in his 15th-century culinary treatise \"Du fait de cuisine\" (\"On cookery\"). It consisted of a giant castle model with four towers, carried in by four men. The castle contained, among other things, a roast piglet, a swan cooked and redressed in its own plumage, a roast boar's head and a pike cooked and sauced in three different ways without having been cut into pieces, all of them breathing fire. The battlements of the castle were adorned with the banners of the Duke and his guests, manned by miniature archers, and inside the castle there was a fountain that gushed rosewater and spiced wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cuisine in the twentieth century suffered from a poor international reputation. Keith Arscott of Chawton House Library comments that \"at one time people didn't think the English knew how to cook and yet these [eighteenth and nineteenth century] female writers were at the forefront of modern day cooking.\" English food was popularly supposed to be bland, but English cuisine has made extensive use of spices since the Middle Ages; introduced curry to Europe; and makes use of strong flavourings such as English mustard. It was similarly reputed to be dull, like roast beef: but that dish was highly prized both in Britain and abroad, and few people could afford it; the \"Roast Beef of Old England\" lauded by William Hogarth in his 1748 painting celebrated the high quality of English cattle, which the French at the \"Gate of Calais\" (the other name of his painting) could only look at with envy. The years of wartime shortages and rationing certainly did impair the variety and flavour of English food during the twentieth century, but the nation's cooking recovered from this with increasing prosperity and the availability of new ingredients from soon after the Second World War."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ribollita",
        "text": "Some sources date it back to the Middle Ages when the servants gathered up food-soaked bread trenchers from feudal lords' banquets and boiled them for their dinners."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The majority of the European population before industrialization lived in rural communities or isolated farms and households. The norm was self-sufficiency with only a small percentage of production being exported or sold in markets. Large towns were exceptions and required their surrounding hinterlands to support them with food and fuel. The dense urban population could support a wide variety of food establishments that catered to various social groups. Many of the poor city dwellers had to live in cramped conditions without access to a kitchen or even a hearth, and many did not own the equipment for basic cooking. Food from vendors was in such cases the only option. Cookshops could either sell ready-made hot food, an early form of fast food, or offer cooking services while the customers supplied some or all of the ingredients. Travellers, such as pilgrims en route to a holy site, made use of professional cooks to avoid having to carry their provisions with them. For the more affluent, there were many types of specialist that could supply various foods and condiments: cheesemongers, pie bakers, saucers, and waferers, for example. Well-off citizens who had the means to cook at home could on special occasions hire professionals when their own kitchen or staff could not handle the burden of hosting a major banquet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food history",
        "text": "In western Europe, medieval cuisine (5th\u201315th century) did not change rapidly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mincemeat",
        "text": "English recipes from the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries describe a fermented mixture of meat and fruit used as a pie filling. These early recipes included vinegars and wines, but by the 18th century, distilled spirits, frequently brandy, were being used instead. The use of spices like clove, nutmeg, mace and cinnamon was common in late medieval and renaissance meat dishes. The increase of sweetness from added sugar made mincemeat less a savoury dinner course and helped to direct its use toward desserts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "Dishes still common today, like \"escabeche\", a vinegar-based dish, and \"aillade\" (aioli), a garlic sauce (still made in Toulouse with walnut oil), were well-established in the Late Middle Ages. Evidence of influence from Muslim Spain can be found in recipes for \"matafeam\", a Christian version of the originally Hispano-Jewish Shabbat stew \"adafina\", but with pork rather than lamb. And, \"Raymonia\" (Occitan; Ital: \"Romania\") is based on the Arabic \"Rummaniya\", a chicken bruet with pomegranate juice, ground almonds, and sugar. Only one recipe collection is positively identified as being from southern France. The \"Modus viaticorum preparandorum et salsarum\" is a collection of 51 recipes. It was written ca. 1380\u201390 in Latin with occasional words in Occitan. The \"Modus\" contains a \"Salsa de cerpol\" (Wild thyme sauce) and a \"Cofiment anguille\" (Confit of eel), which appear nowhere else but in Occitania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Dorset",
        "text": "A rural county, Dorset would have been typical of England in the Middle Ages, and its population would have eaten similarly to the rest of the country. Bread was the staple food, and it came in two main categories: white and \"other breads\". White breads were the finest quality breads and would have been made using wheat and then well-sifted flour; \"other breads\" were a mixture of breads which also contained wheat (though the flour would not have been sifted as much), husk and other grains. The most commonly eaten bread, called maslin, was of the \"other\" category and contained wheat and rye."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tudor food and drink",
        "text": "Tudors of all classes consumed bread in all of their meals as the main source of carbohydrates; however, its quality varied. The cheapest bread available was Carter's bread, which was a mixture of rye and wheat. The middle class or prosperous tenants ate ravel\u2014also known as yeoman's bread\u2014made of wholemeal. The most expensive bread was manchet, made of white wheat flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irish cuisine",
        "text": "Fragile plant life erodes and disappears quickly compared to grain chaff that fossilizes easily, what evidence is recovered may present a distorted assessment of what ratio of cereals to plant life was consumed at the time only because there is no empirical data of such eroded materials. The presence of vegetables, in particular, is therefore minimal in archeological assemblages, but fruit\u2014via fossilized seeds and pits\u2014consequently features more frequently, with evidence of cherry, strawberry, sloe, rowan, blackberry, bilberry, apple, and haws as present in Medieval cesspits. Apples are frequently mentioned in Medieval texts of various kinds, particularly in reference to sweet varieties as valuable and rare offerings to nobles and lords, and sour breeds as used to make cider, verjus, vinegar, and medicine. That theological and dietetic discourse affected these texts also affected the corresponding behaviors by which certain foods were consumed\u2014to eat apples raw, for example, was frowned upon by medieval physicians and so apples were generally cooked into puddings, or fermented into drinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "The Byzantine empire also became quite famous for its desserts, which included biscuits, rice pudding, quince marmalade, rose sugar and many types of non-alcoholic beverages. The most common sweetener was honey, with sugar extracted from sugar cane being reserved for those who could afford it."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some things people ate in the Middle Ages?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Cereals remained the most important staple during the early Middle Ages as rice was introduced late, and the potato was only introduced in 1536, with a much later date for widespread consumption; barley, oats and rye were eaten by the poor. Meat was more expensive and therefore more prestigious."
    ],
    "topic": "English cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Medieval cuisine:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Medieval cuisine"
        ],
        "ctx": "Medieval cuisine includes foods, eating habits, and cooking methods of various European cultures during the Middle Ages, which lasted from the fifth to the fifteenth century. During this period, diets and cooking changed less than they did in the early modern period that followed, when those changes helped lay the foundations for modern European cuisine."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Cereal:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cereal"
        ],
        "ctx": "A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis), composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. The term may also refer to the resulting grain itself (specifically \"cereal grain\"). Cereal grain crops are grown in greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop and are therefore staple crops. Edible grains from other plant families, such as buckwheat, quinoa and chia, are referred to as pseudocereals."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Medieval cuisine:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Medieval cuisine"
        ],
        "ctx": "Meat was more expensive and therefore more prestigious. Game, a form of meat acquired from hunting, was common only on the nobility's tables. The most prevalent butcher's meats were pork, chicken and other domestic fowl; beef, which required greater investment in land, was less common. Cod and herring were mainstays among the northern populations; dried, smoked or salted, they made their way far inland, but a wide variety of other saltwater and freshwater fish was also eaten."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "The English cafe is a small, inexpensive eating place. A working men's cafe serves mainly fried or grilled food, such as fried eggs, bacon, bangers and mash\u201a black pudding, bubble and squeak, burgers, sausages, mushrooms and chips. These may be accompanied by baked beans, cooked tomatoes, and fried bread. These are referred to as \"breakfast\" even if they are available all day. Traditional cafes have declined with the rise of fast-food chains, but remain numerous all over the UK."
      },
      {
        "title": "English society",
        "text": "The people discovered new foods (such as the potato and tomato imported from the Americas), and developed new tastes during the era. The more prosperous enjoyed a wide variety of food and drink, including exotic new drinks such as tea, coffee, and chocolate. French and Italian chefs appeared in the country houses and palaces, bringing new standards of food preparation and taste. For example, the English developed a taste for acidic foods\u2014such as oranges for the upper class\u2014and started to use vinegar heavily. The gentry paid increasing attention to their gardens, with new fruits, vegetables and herbs; pasta, pastries, and dried mustard balls first appeared on the table. The apricot was a special treat at fancy banquets. Roast beef remained a staple for those who could afford it. The rest ate a great deal of bread and fish. Every class had a taste for beer and rum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabethan era",
        "text": "England was exposed to new foods (such as the potato imported from South America), and developed new tastes during the era. The more prosperous enjoyed a wide variety of food and drink, including exotic new drinks such as tea, coffee, and chocolate. French and Italian chefs appeared in the country houses and palaces bringing new standards of food preparation and taste. For example, the English developed a taste for acidic foods\u2014such as oranges for the upper class\u2014and started to use vinegar heavily. The gentry paid increasing attention to their gardens, with new fruits, vegetables and herbs; pasta, pastries, and dried mustard balls first appeared on the table. The apricot was a special treat at fancy banquets. Roast beef remained a staple for those who could afford it. The rest ate a great deal of bread and fish. Every class had a taste for beer and rum."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "The public house, or pub, is a famous English institution. In the mid-20th century, pubs were drinking establishments with little emphasis on the serving of food, other than \"bar snacks\", such as pork scratchings, pickled eggs, salted crisps, and peanuts, which helped to increase beer sales. If a pub served meals these were usually basic cold dishes such as a ploughman's lunch, invented in the 1950s."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cuisine\n--History.\n----Middle Ages.\n----Sixteenth century.\n----Seventeenth century.\n----Eighteenth century.\n----Nineteenth century.\n----Twentieth century.\n--Stereotypes.\n--Foreign influence.\n----The role of Empire.\n----Indian and Anglo-Indian cuisine.\n----Other influences.\n--Food establishments.\n----Cafes and tea shops.\n----Fish and chip shops.\n----Pub food.\n--Vegetarianism.\n--Quality.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "During the British Raj, Britain first started borrowing Indian dishes, creating Anglo-Indian cuisine, with dishes such as Kedgeree (1790) and Mulligatawny soup (1791). Indian food was served in coffee houses from 1809, and cooked at home from a similar date as cookbooks of the time attest. The Veeraswamy restaurant in Regent Street, London, was opened in 1926, at first serving Anglo-Indian food, and is the oldest surviving Indian restaurant in Britain. There was a sharp increase in the number of curry houses in the 1940s, and again in the 1970s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anglo-Indian cuisine",
        "text": "Some early restaurants in England, such as the Hindoostane Coffee House in George Street, London, which opened in 1810, served Anglo-Indian food."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Catherine of Braganza brought the Portuguese habit of tea to England around 1660. Initially, its expense restricted it to wealthy consumers, but the price gradually dropped, until by the 19th century its use was widespread. Introduced in the 16th century, coffee became popular by the 17th century, especially in the coffee houses, the first opening in Oxford in 1650. Hot chocolate was a popular drink by the 17th century, long before it was used as a food. Chocolate bars were developed and marketed by three English Quaker-founded businesses, Joseph Fry's (1847), Rowntree's (1862), and Cadbury's (1868)."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "A tea shop is a small restaurant that serves soft drinks and light meals, often in a sedate atmosphere. Customers may eat a cream tea in Cornish or Devonshire style, served from a china set, and a scone with jam and clotted cream."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "In the 1950s some British pubs started to offer \"a pie and a pint\", with hot individual steak and ale pies made on the premises by the landlord or his wife. In the 1960s this was developed into the then-fashionable \"chicken in a basket\", a portion of roast chicken with chips, served on a napkin, in a wicker basket, by the Mill pub at Withington. Quality dropped but variety increased with the introduction of microwave ovens and freezer food. \"Pub grub\" expanded to include British food items such as steak and kidney pudding, shepherd's pie, fish and chips, bangers and mash, Sunday roast, and pasties. The gastropub movement of the 21st century, on the other hand, has sought to serve restaurant-quality food, cooked to order from fresh ingredients, in a pub setting; one pub, The Hand & Flowers in Marlow has been awarded two Michelin stars, and several have one star. In 1964, pubs were serving 9.1% of meals eaten outside the home; this rose rapidly to 37.5% by 1997."
      },
      {
        "title": "England",
        "text": "Since the early modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce. During the Middle Ages and through the Renaissance period, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with the move away from the land and increasing urbanisation of the populace. The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by food critics with some good ratings in \"Restaurant\"s best restaurant in the world charts. An early book of English recipes is the \"Forme of Cury\" from the royal court of Richard II."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English tastes evolved during the sixteenth century in at least three ways. First, recipes emphasise a balance of sweet and sour. Second, butter becomes an important ingredient in sauces, a trend which continued in later centuries. Third, herbs, which could be grown locally but had been little used in the Middle Ages, started to replace spices as flavourings. In A. W.'s \"Book of Cookrye\", 35% of the recipes for meat stews and sauces include herbs, most commonly thyme. On the other hand, 76% of those meat recipes still used the distinctly mediaeval combination of sugar and dried fruit, together or separately. New ingredients were arriving from distant countries, too: \"The Good Huswifes Jewell\" introduced sweet potatoes (from the tropical Americas) alongside familiar Medieval recipes."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Oriental cuisines have become widely available across England. Chinese cuisine became established in England by the 1970s, with large cities often having a Chinatown district; the one in London's Soho developed between the two world wars, following an informal area in Limehouse. Deriving from Cantonese cuisine, the food served by Chinese restaurants has been adapted to suit English taste. From around 1980 onwards, Southeast Asian cuisines, especially Thai and Vietnamese, began to gain popularity in England."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Foreign influence was by no means limited to specific dishes. James Walvin, in his book \"Fruits of Empire\", argues that potatoes, sugar (entirely imported until around 1900 and the growing of sugar beet), tea, and coffee as well as increasing quantities of spices were \"Fruits of Empire\" that became established in Britain between 1660 and 1800, so that by the nineteenth century \"their exotic origins had been lost in the mists of time\" and had become \"part of the unquestioned fabric of local life\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "For many years, English writers including Hannah Glasse in the 18th century and Andrew Kirwan in the 19th century were ambivalent about French cooking. However, restaurants serving French haute cuisine developed for the upper and middle classes in England from the 1830s and Escoffier was recruited by the Savoy Hotel in 1890. Marcel Boulestin's 1923 \"Simple French Cooking for English Homes\" did much to popularise French dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of England",
        "text": "The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by food critics with some good ratings in \"Restaurant\"'s best restaurant in the world charts. An early book of English recipes is the \"Forme of Cury\" from the royal court of Richard II. Traditional meals have ancient origins, such as bread, vegetables, cheese and onions, popular today as the Ploughman's lunch (usually accompanied by butter, pickles, chutney, ham, fresh green salad, boiled eggs, and apples), pottage and frumenty; roasted and stewed meats; meat and game pies; and freshwater and saltwater fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "East Anglian cookery would have included recipes for dishes like suet puddings, wheaten breads, and a few shellfish delicacies, like winkles, and would have been at the time of settlement simple Puritan fare quite in contrast to the fineries and excesses expected in London cavalier circles. Most of the cuisine started with one-pot cookery, which resulted in such dishes as succotash, chowder, baked beans, and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "English cuisine has distinctive attributes of its own, but also shares much with wider British cuisine, partly through the importation of ingredients and ideas from North America, China, and India during the time of the British Empire and as a result of post-war immigration. Some traditional meals, such as sausages, cheese, roasted and stewed meats, meat and game pies, boiled vegetables and broths, and freshwater and saltwater fish have ancient origins. The 14th-century English cookbook, the \"Forme of Cury\", contains recipes for these, and dates from the royal court of Richard II."
      },
      {
        "title": "Restaurant",
        "text": "In Europe, inns which offered food and lodgings and taverns where food was served alongside alcoholic beverages continued to be the main places to buy a prepared meal into the Middle Ages and Renaissance. They typically served common fare of the type normally available to peasants. In Spain, such establishments were called \"bodegas\" and served tapas. In England, they typically served foods such as sausage and shepherd's pie."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of England",
        "text": "Since the early modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce. During the Middle Ages and through the Renaissance period, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with the move away from the land and increasing urbanisation of the populace. This has resulted in a traditional cuisine which tended to avoid strong flavours, such as garlic, and also complex sauces which were commonly associated with Roman Catholic Continental affiliations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stuart period",
        "text": "The first coffee houses appeared in the mid-1650s and quickly became established in every city in many small towns. They exemplified the emerging standards of middle-class masculine civility and politeness. Downtown London boasted about 600 by 1708. Admission was a penny for as long as a customer wanted. The customers could buy coffee, and perhaps tea and chocolate, as well as sandwiches and knickknacks. Recent newspapers and magazines could be perused by middle-class men with leisure time on their hands. Widows were often the proprietors. The coffeehouses were quiet escapes, suitable for conversation, and free of noise, disorder, shouting and fighting in drinking places. The working class could more usually be found drinking in pubs, or playing dice in the alleyways."
      },
      {
        "title": "English society",
        "text": "After the War, many new food products became available to the typical household, with branded foods advertised for their convenience. The shortage of servants was felt in the kitchen, but now instead of an experience cook spending hours on difficult custards and puddings the ordinary housewife working alone could purchase instant foods in jars, or powders that could be quickly mixed. Breakfast porridge from branded, more finely milled, oats could now be cooked in two minutes, not 20. American-style dry cereals began to challenge the porridge and bacon and eggs of the middle classes, and the bread and margarine of the poor. Street vendors were fewer. Shops were upgraded; the flies were gone as were the open barrels of biscuits and pickles. Groceries and butcher shops carried more bottled and canned goods as well as fresher meat, fish and vegetables. Whereas wartime shipping shortages had sharply narrowed choices, the 1920s saw many new kinds of foods\u2014especially fruits\u2014imported from around the world, along with better quality, packaging, and hygiene. Middle classes households now had ice boxes or electric refrigerators, which made for better storage and the convenience of buying in larger quantities."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Three of the major hot drinks popular in England, tea, coffee, and chocolate, originated from outside Europe and were already staple items by Victorian times."
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "In the Middle Ages, the Anglo-Saxons introduced bacon to Britain sometime during the 1st millennium AD. The Norman conquest reintroduced spices and continental influences into Great Britain in the Middle Ages; oranges arrived in the late 13th century, sugar cane in the 14th, and carrots in the 15th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anglo-Indian cuisine",
        "text": "During the British rule in India, local British officials began mixing Indian dishes with their British palates and creating Anglo-Indian cuisine, with dishes such as kedgeree (1790) and mulligatawny soup (1791). The first Indian restaurant in England, the Hindoostanee Coffee House, opened in 1809 in London; as described in The Epicure's Almanack in 1815, \"All the dishes were dressed with curry powder, rice, Cayenne, and the best spices of Arabia. A room was set apart for smoking hookahs with oriental herbs\". Indian food was cooked at home from a similar date as cookbooks of the time attest."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "After the First World War, many new food products became available to the typical household, with branded foods advertised for their convenience. Kitchen servants with time to make custards and puddings were replaced with instant foods in jars, or powders that the housewife could quickly mix. American-style dry cereals began to challenge the porridge and bacon and eggs of the middle classes, and the bread and margarine of the poor. While wartime shipping shortages had sharply narrowed choice, the 1920s saw many new kinds of fruit imported from around the world, along with better quality, packaging, and hygiene, aided by refrigerators and refrigerated ships. Authors in the 1930s such as Lady Sysonby drew on recipes from a wide range of countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Dorset",
        "text": "Many of the traditional dishes originate from the 17th and 18th centuries. At this time, much of the workforce were employed as agricultural labourers and, though they produced most of the food, their diet was poor. The gentry, unique in being able to shop for produce, and farmers, fared better. Despite this, until the early 19th century at least, simple foods, such as bread, comprised a sizeable part of the diet of all classes."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Western Sephardic Jews settling in England from the 16th century would have prepared fried fish like \"pescado frito\", coated in flour and fried in oil. Chips appeared in the Victorian era; Dickens's 1859 \"A Tale of Two Cities\" mentions \"husky chips of potatoes, fried with some reluctant drops of oil\". Panayi states that fish and chip shops in the 1920s were often run by Jews or Italians. Despite this, the new dish was popularly attributed to France; \"The Times\" recorded that \"potatoes chipped and fried in the French manner were introduced in Lancashire with great success about 1871.\" The \"Fish Trades Gazette\" of 29 July 1922 stated that \"Later there was introduced into this country the frying and purveying of chip potatoes from France\u00a0... which had made the fried fish trade what it is today.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of England",
        "text": "The last half century has seen significant changes in food manufacturing, retailing and consumption; an interest in different international cuisines; and the establishment of large restaurants, food outlets, coffee shops and supermarkets. However, distinctively English dishes, artisanal production, delicatessens, home cooking and traditional establishments such as pubs, cafes and tearooms remain widespread. The 1990s saw the rise of the gastropub, serving traditional English dishes, and farmers' markets, where English cheeses, breads, vegetables and other items are sold. Food culture in England has been taken more seriously since the 1960s due to writers and broadcasters such as Derek Cooper, Matthew Fort, Jonathan Meades and Nigel Slater."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "Cereals remained the most important staple during the early Middle Ages as rice was introduced late, and the potato was only introduced in 1536, with a much later date for widespread consumption. Barley, oats and rye were eaten by the poor. Wheat was for the governing classes. These were consumed as bread, porridge, gruel and pasta by all of society's members. Fava beans and vegetables were important supplements to the cereal-based diet of the lower orders. (\"Phaseolus\" beans, today the \"common bean\", were of New World origin and were introduced after the Columbian exchange in the 16th century.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabeth David",
        "text": "Hardly knowing what I was doing\u00a0... I sat down and started to work out an agonized craving for the sun and a furious revolt against that terrible cheerless, heartless food by writing down descriptions of Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cooking. Even to write words like apricot, olives and butter, rice and lemons, oil and almonds, produced assuagement. Later I came to realize that in the England of 1947, those were dirty words I was putting down."
      },
      {
        "title": "A History of English Food",
        "text": "Page numbers refer to the first English edition.\n* 1 Bacon and new-laid eggs: the medieval larder 1\n* 2 Eastern spices and baked venison: the high middle ages 43\n* 3 Marzipan and new world turkeys: the Tudor kitchen 77\n* 4 Orange carrots and white bread: England in the age of Gloriana 117\n* 5 Preserved quince and my Lord of Devonshire's pudding: the Elizabethan year 149\n* 6 Double cream and pastry galleons: the early Stuarts 171\n* 7 Coffee and my Lord Lumley's pease-porage: war and peace in the Seventeenth century 201\n* 8 Roast beef and sweet oranges: the late Stuarts 231\n* 9 Turtle soup and plum pudding: the Georgian age 255\n* 10 Roast hare and Indian curry: the era of Hannah Glasse 293\n* 11 Pheasant consomm\u00e9 and forced peas: rich eating in the nineteenth century 315\n* 12 Brown Windsor soup and high tea: The world of the Victorians 343\n* 13 Omelette Arnold Bennett and bully beef: From the Edwardians to the eve of war 381\n* 14 Spam and coronation chicken: The Second World War and the years of austerity 417\n* 15 Prawn cocktail and pizza: Modern English food 445\n* Appendix of historical recipes 466"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "James Woodforde's \"Diary of a Country Parson\" gives a good idea of the sort of food eaten in England in the eighteenth century by those who could afford to eat whatever they liked. To welcome some neighbours on 8 June 1781, he gave them for dinner:"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cuisine encompasses the cooking styles, traditions and recipes associated with England. It has distinctive attributes of its own, but also shares much with wider British cuisine, partly through the importation of ingredients and ideas from the Americas, China, and India during the time of the British Empire and as a result of post-war immigration."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Another country clergyman, Gilbert White, in \"The Natural History of Selborne\" (1789) recorded the increased consumption of vegetables by ordinary country people in the south of England, to which, he noted, potatoes, from the Americas, had only been added during the reign of King George III:"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cookery has developed over many centuries since at least the time of \"The Forme of Cury\", written in the Middle Ages around 1390 in the reign of King Richard II. The book offers imaginative and sophisticated recipes, with spicy sweet and sour sauces thickened with bread or quantities of almonds boiled, peeled, dried and ground, and often served in pastry. Foods such as gingerbread are described. It was not at all, emphasises Clarissa Dickson Wright in her \"A History of English Food\", a matter of large lumps of roast meat at every meal as imagined in Hollywood films."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Italian cuisine is the most popular Mediterranean cuisine in England. In its current form, with plenty of pizza and pasta, inspired by Elizabeth David, its rise began after 1945. There were some Italian restaurants before World War II, but they mostly served a generalised haute cuisine. Soon after the war, Italian coffee bars appeared, the first places to trade on their Italianness; they soon started to sell simple and cheap Italian food such as minestrone soup, spaghetti bolognese and pizza. From the early 1960s, the slightly more elegant trattoria restaurants offered \"Italian specialities\" such as lasagne verde al forno (baked lasagne, coloured with spinach). Other Mediterranean influences include Greek moussaka, feta and taramasalata, Turkish doner and shish kebabs, and Middle Eastern hummus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early modern European cuisine",
        "text": "Peas and beans, which made up a very large part of the diet of the medieval poor, were still often treated as a staple food, but to a diminishing extent over the period, to be replaced by cereals and the potato."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "\"Elinor Fettiplace's Receipt Book\", compiled in 1604 (and first published in 1986) gives an intimate view of Elizabethan cookery. The book provides recipes for various forms of bread, such as buttered loaves; for apple fritters; preserves and pickles; and a celebration cake for 100 people. New ingredients appear; a recipe for dressing a shoulder of mutton calls for the use of the newly available citrus fruits:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cafe (British)",
        "text": "A British cafe typically offers fried or grilled food such as an all-day \"full cooked breakfast\", which may contain a combination of ingredients such as fried egg, bacon, black pudding, bubble and squeak, hash browns, baked beans, fried bread, toast, grilled tomato, burgers, sausages, mushrooms and chips. Hot and cold sandwiches may be available, such as a bacon butty or sausage sandwich. A range of other cooked meals may be available, such as steak and kidney pie, a full roast, or liver and onions, with a cooked dessert such as apple crumble and custard. The main drink in a cafe or greasy spoon is usually tea, especially \"builder's tea\" (a nickname for a mug of strong black tea, such as English breakfast tea, usually served with milk and sugar and typically robust and flavourful with a brisk character and a dark red colour). Coffee, where available, is usually instant or sometimes espresso but rarely brewed."
      },
      {
        "title": "United Kingdom",
        "text": "British cuisine developed from various influences reflective of its land, settlements, arrivals of new settlers and immigrants, trade and colonialism. Celtic agriculture and animal breeding produced a wide variety of foodstuffs for indigenous Celts and Britons. Anglo-Saxon England developed meat and savoury herb stewing techniques before the practice became common in Europe. The Norman conquest introduced exotic spices into England in the Middle Ages. The British Empire facilitated a knowledge of Indian cuisine with its \"strong, penetrating spices and herbs\". British cuisine has absorbed the cultural influence of those who have settled in Britain, producing many hybrid dishes, such as the Anglo-Indian chicken tikka masala. Vegan and vegetarian diets have increased in Britain in recent years. In 2021, a survey found that 8% of British respondents eat a plant-based diet and 36% of respondents have a favourable view of plant-based diets."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cuisine in the twentieth century suffered from a poor international reputation. Keith Arscott of Chawton House Library comments that \"at one time people didn't think the English knew how to cook and yet these [eighteenth and nineteenth century] female writers were at the forefront of modern day cooking.\" English food was popularly supposed to be bland, but English cuisine has made extensive use of spices since the Middle Ages; introduced curry to Europe; and makes use of strong flavourings such as English mustard. It was similarly reputed to be dull, like roast beef: but that dish was highly prized both in Britain and abroad, and few people could afford it; the \"Roast Beef of Old England\" lauded by William Hogarth in his 1748 painting celebrated the high quality of English cattle, which the French at the \"Gate of Calais\" (the other name of his painting) could only look at with envy. The years of wartime shortages and rationing certainly did impair the variety and flavour of English food during the twentieth century, but the nation's cooking recovered from this with increasing prosperity and the availability of new ingredients from soon after the Second World War."
      },
      {
        "title": "British Restaurant",
        "text": "The ministry's dietician James H. Barker authorised food based upon regional preferences and health. For example, the food served in Scotland was very different from that served in London due to the taste preferences of the inhabitants. Health was also a concern, as they were supposed to provide diners with \"one third of the day's energy needs\". The dieticians were especially concerned with Vitamin C intake. Due to the war efforts and rationing, fruit intake was extremely limited. Vegetables such as cabbage, which has a high percentage of Vitamin C, were a staple vegetable, in order to provide diners with beneficial nutrients. There was concern that, with mass catering, vitamins such as Vitamin C would be destroyed in the food sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "A History of English Food",
        "text": "\"A History of English Food\" was described by \"The Independent\" as \"richly informative\" and \"surely destined for classic status\". The reviewer noted that she had seen badger hams on the bar in the West Country pubs of her childhood, and that a tripe seller in Dewsbury market sold \"nine different varieties of tripe, including penis and udder (which is remarkably like pease pudding).\""
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Modern Western vegetarianism was founded in the United Kingdom in 1847 with the world's first Vegetarian Society. It has increased markedly since the end of World War II, when there were around 100,000 vegetarians in the country. By 2003 there were between 3 and 4 million vegetarians in the UK, one of the highest percentages in the Western world, while around 7 million people claim to eat no red meat. By 2015, 11 of 22 restaurant chains studied by the Vegan Society had at least one vegan main course on their menu, though only 6 of these explicitly labelled them as vegan dishes. Top-end vegetarian restaurants remain relatively few, though they are increasing rapidly: there were some 20 in Britain in 2007, rising to 30 in 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "J. Lyons and Co.",
        "text": "To the public, J. Lyons & Co. were best known for their chain of tea shops which opened from 1894 and finally closed in 1981, and for the Lyons Corner Houses in the West End of London. The tea shops were slightly more up market than their ABC (Aerated Bread Company) counterparts. They were notable for their interior design, from the 1920s Oliver P. Bernard being consultant artistic director. Until the 1940s they had a certain working-class chic, but by the 1950s and '60s they were quick stops for busy shoppers where one could drink a cup of tea and eat a snack or an inexpensive meal. The tea shops always had a bakery counter at the front, and their signs, art nouveau gold lettering on white, were a familiar landmark. Before the Second World War service was to the table by uniformed waitresses, known as 'Nippies', after the war the tea shops converted to cafeteria service."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Indian restaurants and their cuisine in Britain gradually improved from the stereotypical flock wallpaper and standardised menus. One of the pioneers was the Bombay Brasserie, which opened in Gloucester Road, London, in 1982, serving the kind of food actually eaten in India. It was followed in 1990 by Chutney Mary in Chelsea. In 2001, two Indian restaurants in London, Tamarind (opened 1995) and Zaika (opened 1999) gained Michelin stars for the quality of their cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "English society",
        "text": "One in nine Englishmen lived in London near the end of the Stuart period. However, plagues were even more deadly in a crowded city\u2014the only remedy was to move to isolated rural areas, as Isaac Newton of Cambridge University did in 1664\u201366 as the Great Plague of London killed as many as 100,000 Londoners. The fast-growing metropolis was the centre of politics, high society and business. As a major port and hub of trade, goods from all over were for sale. Coffee houses were becoming the centres of business and social life, and it has also been suggested that tea might have played its own part in making Britain powerful, as the antiseptic qualities of tea allowed people to live closer together, protecting them from germs, and making the Industrial Revolution possible. These products can be considered as beginning the consumer society which promoted trade and brought development and riches to society."
      },
      {
        "title": "English coffeehouses in the 17th and 18th centuries",
        "text": "The Oxford-style coffeehouses, which acted as a centre for social intercourse, gossip, and scholastic interest, spread quickly to London, where English coffeehouses became popularised and embedded within the English popular and political culture. Pasqua Ros\u00e9e, a native of Smyrna, western Turkey of a Levant Company merchant named Daniel Edwards, established the first London coffeehouse in 1652. London's second coffeehouse was named the Temple Bar, established by James Farr in 1656."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Some English dishes are relatively new and can be dated to the century, and sometimes to the year, of their introduction. Thus piccalilli was introduced from India in the 18th century, as recorded by Hannah Glasse who gave a recipe for it in 1758. Conversely, dishes and sauces still considered foreign, such as fish in sweet and sour sauce, have been in English recipe books since the Middle Ages. Other dishes took their present form only gradually, as with the so-called \"Full English breakfast\". Breakfasts of this kind are indeed described in later editions of \"Mrs Beeton\", but as one of many variations. Thus her list of \"Family Breakfasts for a Week in Winter\" has for Wednesday something that looks fairly modern: \"bread, muffins, butter, brawn, grilled bacon, boiled eggs\"; but on other days less modern-looking breakfasts include mince, mutton cutlets, grilled kidneys, baked fresh herrings, and hash of cold game or poultry, while suggestions for \"Family Breakfasts for a Week in Summer\" included sardine toast, cold tongue, kedgeree and rissoles, and \"Guests' Breakfast (Autumn)\" included cold pheasant, game pie, and pressed beef."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of English dishes",
        "text": "This is a list of prepared dishes characteristic of English cuisine. English cuisine encompasses the cooking styles, traditions and recipes associated with England. It has distinctive attributes of its own, but also shares much with wider British cuisine, partly through the importation of ingredients and ideas from North America, China, and India during the time of the British Empire and as a result of post-war immigration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arcade (architecture)",
        "text": "One of the earliest British examples of a shopping arcade, the Covered Market, Oxford, England was officially opened on 1 November 1774 and is still active today. The Covered Market was started in response to a general wish to clear \"untidy, messy and unsavoury stalls\" from the main streets of central Oxford. John Gwynn, the architect of Magdalen Bridge, drew up the plans and designed the High Street front with its four entrances. In 1772, the newly formed Market committee, half of whose members came from the town and half from the university, accepted an estimate of nine hundred and sixteen pounds ten shillings, for the building of twenty butchers' shops. Twenty more soon followed, and after 1773 meat was allowed to be sold only inside the market. From this nucleus the market grew, with stalls for garden produce, pig meat, dairy products and fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Some traditional meals, such as bread and cheese, roasted and stewed meats, meat and game pies, boiled vegetables and broths, and freshwater and saltwater fish have ancient origins. The 14th-century English cookbook, the \"Forme of Cury\", contains recipes for these, and dates from the royal court of Richard II."
      },
      {
        "title": "England in the Late Middle Ages",
        "text": "In the spring of 1315 unusually heavy rain began in much of Europe. Throughout the spring and summer, it continued to rain and the temperature remained cool. These conditions caused widespread crop failures. The straw and hay for the animals could not be cured and there was no fodder for livestock. The price of food began to rise, doubling in England between spring and midsummer. Salt, the only way to cure and preserve meat, was difficult to obtain because it could not be extracted through evaporation in the wet weather; it peaked in price in the period 1310\u201320, reaching double the price from the decade before. In the spring of 1316 it continued to rain on a European population deprived of energy and reserves to sustain itself. All segments of society from nobles to peasants were affected, but especially the peasants who were the overwhelming majority of the population and who had no reserve food supplies. The height of the famine was reached in 1317 as the wet weather continued. Finally, in the summer the weather returned to its normal patterns. By now, however, people were so weakened by diseases such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and tuberculosis, and so much of the seed stock had been eaten, that it was not until 1325 that the food supply returned to relatively normal conditions and the population began to increase again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hors d'oeuvre",
        "text": "Food in England is heavily influenced by other countries due to the island nation's dependence on importing outside goods and sometimes, inspiration. Many English culinary words and customs have been directly borrowed from the original French (some completely Anglicised in spelling) such as: \"cuisine\", \"sirloin\", \"pastry\" and \"omelette\" which came from the 18th century and earlier. In the late 19th and early 20th century, even more words, foods and customs from culinary France made their way into England, such as \"\u00e9clair\", \"casserole\", \"\u00e0 la carte\", \"r\u00f4tisserie\" and hors d'oeuvre."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regency Cafe",
        "text": "Regency Cafe serves cuisine traditionally seen in a British cafe. It includes a variety of traditional breakfast food such as egg, bacon, sausage, beans, black pudding, tomatoes as well as newer additions such as eggs Benedict and hash browns. The tea served was described by Harry Wallop for \"The Daily Telegraph\", as \"Proper builders\u2019 tea, the stuff that once fuelled the docks, factories and steelworks of Britain; a mug of pure, liquid copper.\" Other items include a homemade steak pie and chips."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cooking has been influenced by foreign ingredients and cooking styles since the Middle Ages. Curry was introduced from the Indian subcontinent and adapted to English tastes from the eighteenth century with Hannah Glasse's recipe for chicken \"currey\". French cuisine influenced English recipes throughout the Victorian era. After the rationing of the Second World War, Elizabeth David's 1950 \"A Book of Mediterranean Food\" had wide influence, bringing Italian cuisine to English homes. Her success encouraged other cookery writers to describe other styles, including Chinese and Thai cuisine. England continues to absorb culinary ideas from all over the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economics of English agriculture in the Middle Ages",
        "text": "In the more fertile parts of the country such as the Thames valley, the Midlands and the east of England, legumes and beans were also cultivated. Sheep, cattle, oxen and pigs were kept on English holdings, although most of these breed were much smaller than modern equivalents and most would have been slaughtered in winter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coffeehouse",
        "text": "More generally, coffeehouses became meeting places where business could be carried on, news exchanged and the \"London Gazette\" (government announcements) read. Lloyd's of London had its origins in a coffeehouse run by Edward Lloyd, where underwriters of ship insurance met to do business. By 1739, there were 551 coffeehouses in London; each attracted a particular clientele divided by occupation or attitude, such as Tories and Whigs, wits and stockjobbers, merchants and lawyers, booksellers and authors, men of fashion or the \"cits\" of the old city center. According to one French visitor, Antoine Fran\u00e7ois Pr\u00e9vost, coffeehouses, \"where you have the right to read all the papers for and against the government\", were the \"seats of English liberty\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Dorset",
        "text": "While some of the recipes which comprise the traditional cuisine of Dorset originate from the Middle Ages, the majority come from the 17th and 18th centuries. Within the sources in which recipes are recorded (recipe books, diaries), there is considerable bias towards the cooking habits of gentry, even in those of 17th- and 18th-century origin; the upper classes of society were more literate and able to purchase the variety of ingredients which would necessitate a cookery book. Although labourers and their families were the largest section of the population in Dorset (even after mechanisation in the middle of the 19th century), their low wages could not facilitate elaborate cooking and there was widespread illiteracy. Information on the dietary habits of the working class during the 17th and 18th centuries is usually gained incidentally, such as in reports on the state of the poor in the county."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rationing in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "About 2,000 new wartime establishments called British Restaurants were run by local authorities in schools and church halls. Here, a plain three-course meal cost only 9d () and no ration coupons were required. They evolved from the London County Council's \"Londoners' Meals Service\", which began as an emergency system for feeding people who had had their houses bombed and could no longer live in them. They were open to all and mostly served office and industrial workers."
      },
      {
        "title": "England",
        "text": "Traditional examples of English food include the Sunday roast, featuring a roasted joint (usually beef, lamb, chicken or pork) served with assorted vegetables, Yorkshire pudding and gravy. Other prominent meals include fish and chips and the full English breakfast (generally consisting of bacon, sausages, grilled tomatoes, fried bread, black pudding, baked beans, mushrooms and eggs). Various meat pies are consumed, such as steak and kidney pie, steak and ale pie, cottage pie, pork pie (usually eaten cold) and the Cornish pasty."
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "With the Western exploration of the New World in 1492, the Columbian exchange led to the arrival in Europe of many new foods, including refined sugar, the potato, the banana and chocolate. The growth in worldwide trade brought foods and beverages from the Old World too, including tea and coffee. Developments in plant breeding greatly increased the number of fruit and vegetable varieties."
      },
      {
        "title": "English society",
        "text": "England's food supply was plentiful throughout most of the era; there were no famines. Bad harvests caused distress, but they were usually localised. The most widespread came in 1555\u201357 and 1596\u201398. In the towns the price of staples was fixed by law; in hard times the size of the loaf of bread sold by the baker was smaller."
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "New foodstuffs have arrived over the millennia, from sausages in Roman times, oranges in the Middle Ages, sugar, potatoes, and bananas in the Columbian exchange after 1492, and spicy curry sauces from India in the 18th and 19th centuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pub",
        "text": "Many pubs were drinking establishments, and little emphasis was placed on the serving of food, other than sandwiches and \"bar snacks\", such as pork scratchings, pickled eggs, salted crisps and peanuts which helped to increase beer sales. In South East England (especially London) it was common until recent times for vendors of cockles, whelks, mussels, and other shellfish to sell them during the evening and at closing time. Many mobile shellfish stalls would set up near pubs, a practice that continues in London's East End. Otherwise, pickled cockles and mussels may be offered by the pub in jars or packets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economics of English agriculture in the Middle Ages",
        "text": "Rabbits were introduced from France in the 13th century, being farmed for their meat in special warrens. The underlying productivity of English agriculture remained low, despite the increases in food production. Wheat prices fluctuated heavily year to year, depending on local harvests, with up to a third of the grain being produced in England potentially being for sale, much of it ending up in the growing towns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "While tea slowly became more common in coffee houses during the second half of the 17th century, the first tea shop in London did not open until the early 18th century. Thomas Twining's tea shop has been claimed as the first, opening in 1706, where it remains at 216 Strand, London; however, 1717 has also been given as the date for the first tea shop. In between tea's earliest mentions in England and its widespread popularity just over a century later, many factors contributed to the craze for this previously unknown foreign commodity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pub",
        "text": "In the 1950s some British pubs would offer \"a pie and a pint\", with hot individual steak and ale pies made easily on the premises by the proprietor's wife during the lunchtime opening hours. The ploughman's lunch became popular in the late 1960s, as did the convenient \"chicken in a basket\", a portion of roast chicken with chips, served on a napkin in a wicker basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabethan era",
        "text": "The poorer among the population consumed a diet largely of bread, cheese, milk, and beer, with small portions of meat, fish and vegetables, and occasionally some fruit. Potatoes were just arriving at the end of the period, and became increasingly important. The typical poor farmer sold his best products on the market, keeping the cheap food for the family. Stale bread could be used to make bread puddings, and bread crumbs served to thicken soups, stews, and sauces.\n: Diet of the middle class"
      },
      {
        "title": "Interwar Britain",
        "text": "After the War many new food products became available to the typical household, with branded foods advertised for their convenience. The shortage of servants was felt in the kitchen, but instead of an experienced cook spending hours on difficult custards and puddings the housewife could purchase instant foods in jars, or powders that could be quickly mixed. Breakfast porridge from branded, more finely milled, oats could be cooked in two minutes, not 20. American-style dry cereals began to challenge the porridge and bacon and eggs of the middle classes, and the bread and margarine of the poor. Shops carried more bottled and canned goods and fresher meat, fish and vegetables. While wartime shipping shortages had sharply narrowed choices, the 1920s saw many new kinds of foods\u2014especially fruits\u2014imported from around the world, along with better quality packaging and hygiene. Middle-class households often had ice boxes or electric refrigerators, which made for better storage and the convenience of buying in larger quantities."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cooking was systematized and made available to the middle classes by a series of popular books, their authors becoming household names. One of the first was Mrs Rundell's \"A New System of Domestic Cookery\", 1806; it went through sixty-seven editions by 1844, selling hundreds of thousands of copies in Britain and America. This was followed by Eliza Acton's \"Modern Cookery for Private Families\" 1845, which Bee Wilson has called \"the greatest cookery book in our language\", but \"modern\" only in a nineteenth-century sense."
      },
      {
        "title": "English society",
        "text": "The poor consumed a diet largely of bread, cheese, milk, and beer, with small portions of meat, fish and vegetables, and occasionally some fruit. Potatoes were just arriving at the end of the period, and became increasingly important. The typical poor farmer sold his best products on the market, keeping the cheap food for the family. Stale bread could be used to make bread puddings, and bread crumbs served to thicken soups, stews, and sauces. At a somewhat higher social level, families ate an enormous variety of meats, especially beef, mutton, veal, lamb, and pork, as well as chickens and ducks. The holiday goose was a special treat. Many rural folk and some townspeople tended a small garden which produced vegetables such as asparagus, cucumbers, spinach, lettuce, beans, cabbage, carrots, leeks, and peas, as well as medicinal and flavoring herbs. Some raised their own apricots, grapes, berries, apples, pears, plums, currants, and cherries. Families without a garden could trade with their neighbours to obtain vegetables and fruits at low cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "In Roman times, further foods were introduced, such as sausages, rabbit, herbs and spices from further south in the Roman empire such as chives and coriander, and wine, which was produced in Britain in vineyards as far north as Northamptonshire and Lincolnshire."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Another manuscript, \"Utilis Coquinario\", mentions dishes such as \"pyany\", poultry garnished with peonies; \"hyppee\", a rose-hip broth; and birds such as cormorants and woodcocks."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cookery has been open to foreign ingredients and influence from as early as the thirteenth century, and in the case of a few foods like sausages from Roman times. The Countess of Leicester, daughter of King John purchased large amounts of cinnamon, while King Edward I ordered large quantities of spices such as pepper and ginger, as well as of what was then an expensive imported luxury, sugar. Dickson Wright refutes the popular idea that spices were used to disguise bad meat, pointing out that this would have been as fatal then as it would be today. She suggests instead that spices were used to hide the taste of salt, which was used to preserve food in the absence of refrigeration."
      },
      {
        "title": "British people",
        "text": "Celtic agriculture and animal breeding produced a wide variety of foodstuffs for Celts and Britons. The Anglo-Saxons developed meat and savoury herb stewing techniques before the practice became common in Europe. The Norman conquest of England introduced exotic spices into Britain in the Middle Ages. The British Empire facilitated a knowledge of India's food tradition of \"strong, penetrating spices and herbs\". Food rationing policies, imposed by the British government during wartime periods of the 20th century, are said to have been the stimulus for British cuisine's poor international reputation."
      },
      {
        "title": "English society",
        "text": "Newspapers were new and soon became important tools of social discourse, and the diarists of the time such as Samuel Pepys and John Evelyn are some of the best sources we have of everyday life in Restoration England. Coffee houses grew numerous and were places for middle-class men to meet, read the papers, look over new books and gossip and share opinions. Thomas Garway operated a coffee house in London from 1657 to 1722. He sold tea, tobacco, snuff, and sandwiches. Businessmen met there informally; the first furs from the Hudson's Bay Company were auctioned there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "In the late Middle Ages, the increasing wealth of middle class merchants and traders meant that commoners began emulating the aristocracy, and threatened to break down some of the symbolic barriers between the nobility and the lower classes. The response came in two forms: didactic literature warning of the dangers of adapting a diet inappropriate for one's class, and sumptuary laws that put a cap on the lavishness of commoners' banquets."
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "British cuisine\n--History.\n----Beginnings.\n----Early Modern to 19th century.\n----20th century.\n----Anglo-Indian cuisine.\n----21st century.\n--National cuisines.\n----English.\n----Northern Irish.\n----Scottish.\n----Welsh.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Dorset",
        "text": "A rural county, Dorset would have been typical of England in the Middle Ages, and its population would have eaten similarly to the rest of the country. Bread was the staple food, and it came in two main categories: white and \"other breads\". White breads were the finest quality breads and would have been made using wheat and then well-sifted flour; \"other breads\" were a mixture of breads which also contained wheat (though the flour would not have been sifted as much), husk and other grains. The most commonly eaten bread, called maslin, was of the \"other\" category and contained wheat and rye."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabeth David",
        "text": "David consciously followed in the path of Hilda Leyel and Dorothy Hartley in researching British ingredients and dishes. Like them, she looked back into regional history to find what she saw as \"the traditions of a culture rooted to the soil\" before \"the ravages of the Industrial Revolution\". She did not romanticise Britain's culinary past: \"Farm and factory labourers, artisans and clerical workers, still lived on a very restricted diet\u00a0... their cooking facilities were so primitive and their equipment so scanty that only the most basic forms of cookery could be attempted\". But her constant benchmarks were honest ingredients and uncomplicated cooking. She condemned\u2014and explained the alternatives to\u2014the artificial, the ersatz, the \"notorious Chorleywood bread\", and \"all synthetic aids to flavouring\u00a0... Nobody has ever been able to find out why the English regard a glass of wine added to a soup or stew as a reckless extravagance and at the same time spend pounds on bottled sauces, gravy powders, soup cubes, ketchups and artificial flavourings\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "British Restaurant",
        "text": "Originally called \"Community Feeding Centres\", the name British Restaurants was chosen by the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill. They were set up by the Ministry of Food and run by local government or voluntary agencies on a non-profit basis. Meals were sold for a set maximum price of 9d (equivalent to just under 4p, about US$2 or \u00a31 in purchasing power 2008) or less. No-one could be served with a meal of more than one serving of meat, game, poultry, fish, eggs, or cheese. In one in ten restaurants the meals were prepared at central depots. Schools and churches were often used because they had dining halls and kitchens. In London, mobile canteens delivered meals to air raid shelters and on the street in the aftermath of air raids."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "The early modern period saw the gradual arrival of printed cookery books, though the very first, the printer Richard Pynson's 1500 \"Boke of Cokery\" was compiled from medieval texts. The next, \"A Proper Newe Booke of Cokerye\", was published sometime after 1545. \"The Secretes of the Reverende Maister Alexis of Piermont\" was published in 1558, translated from a French translation of Alessio Piemontese's original Italian work on confectionery. The number of titles expanded rapidly towards the end of the century to include Thomas Dawson's \"The Good Huswifes Jewell\" in 1585, the \"Book of Cookrye\" by \"A. W.\" in 1591, and John Partridge's \"The Good Hous-wives Handmaide\" in 1594. These books were of two kinds: collections of so-called secrets on confectionery and health remedies, aimed at aristocratic ladies; and advice on cookery and how to manage a household, aimed at women from more ordinary backgrounds, most likely wives of minor aristocrats, clergymen, and professional men."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muriel Paget",
        "text": "Through fundraising, similar kitchens were later founded in various other areas of London through the Invalid Kitchens of London movement (which evolved from the Southwark Invalid Kitchen), under the patronage of Queen Mary. After the outbreak of the First World War, it was found necessary to increase the number of kitchens dramatically, partly because so many hospital places had to be allocated for the treatment of wounded soldiers (which meant that other patients were obliged to convalesce at home), and partly because there were wounded soldiers who themselves were recovering at home rather than in the hospitals. In 1915, the number of kitchens increased from 17 to 29, although the numbers tended to fluctuate in proportion to the amount of funding available."
      },
      {
        "title": "English coffeehouses in the 17th and 18th centuries",
        "text": "Initially, there was little evidence to suggest that London coffeehouses were popular and largely frequented, due to the nature of the unwelcome competition felt by other London businesses. When Harrington's Rota Club began to meet in another established London coffeehouse known as the Turk's Head, to debate \"matters of politics and philosophy\", English coffeehouse popularity began to rise. This club was also a \"free and open academy unto all comers\" whose raison d'\u00eatre was the art of debate, characterised as \"contentious but civil, learned but not didactic.\" According to Cowan, despite the Rota's banishment after the Restoration of the monarchy, the discursive framework they established while meeting in coffeehouses set the tone for coffeehouse conversation throughout the rest of the 17th century. By early eighteenth century, London boasted more coffeehouses than any other city in the western world, except for Constantinople."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early modern European cuisine",
        "text": "Breakfast does not receive much attention in any sources. As in the Middle Ages, breakfast in the sense of an early morning meal, is largely absent from the sources. It's unclear if this meant it was universally avoided or that it simply was not fashionable enough to be mentioned, as most sources were written by, for, and about the upper class. There is no doubt that working people since medieval times ate some sort of morning meal, but it is unclear exactly at what time and what it consisted of. Peasants in the early modern world commonly ate a diet that consisted of \"gruels, pottages, and ... grains\". Breakfast, when it began to be fashionable, was usually just a coffee, tea or chocolate, and did not become a more substantial meal in many parts of Europe until the 19th century. In the south, where supper was the largest meal, there was less need for breakfast, and it therefore remained unimportant, something that can still be seen today in the traditionally light breakfasts of southern Europe, which usually consists of coffee or tea with bread or pastry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Thirteen Colonies",
        "text": "In the early 17th century, the first wave of English immigrants began arriving in North America, settling mainly around Chesapeake Bay in Virginia and Maryland. Virginian settlers were dominated by noblemen with their servants (many were Cavaliers fleeing in the aftermath of the English Civil War, 1642\u201351) and poor peasants from southern England."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food in England",
        "text": "\"Food in England\" has 27 chapters:\n* I Introduction\n* II Some English Kitchens\n* III Basic English\n* IV Fuels and Fireplaces\n* V Meat\n* VI Poultry and Game\n* VII Eggs\n* VIII Mediaeval feast and famine\n* IX Trade, Magic and Religious Cooking\n* X Fish\n* XI Seaweeds\n* XII Fungi\n* XIII Elizabethan households\n* XIV The New World and the Sailors' Cook\n* XV Salting, drying and preserving\n* XVI The House and Garden in 1600\n* XVII Vegetables\n* XVIII New Freedom\n* XIX Coaching Days\n* XX Fruits, Herbs, Seeds and Flowers\n* XXI The Hafod\n* XXII Dairy produce\n* XXIII Bread\n* XXIV Drinks\n* XXV The Industrial Revolution\n* XXVI Pies, Puddings, Pastries, Cakes\n* XXVII Sundry household matters"
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of England",
        "text": "The Full English breakfast, also referred to as 'bacon and eggs' or a 'fry up', typically comprises a choice from rashers of back bacon, fried or scrambled eggs, pork sausages, black pudding, grilled tomatoes, mushrooms, baked beans, fried bread, hash browns (which largely displaced bubble and squeak in the 1970s), and sometimes white pudding; usually served with toast and jam, marmalade or honey, and a cup of coffee or tea Alternative breakfast dishes include boiled eggs with toast soldiers, smoked salmon and scrambled eggs, poached eggs on toast, and Craster kippers. Porridge has long been eaten in England as a breakfast cereal. Fruit juice and yogurt are more recent additions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional cuisines of medieval Europe",
        "text": "Relatively little is known about the eating habits of the Anglo-Saxons of the Early and High Middle Ages before the Norman conquest in 1066. Ale was the drink of choice of both commoners and nobles, and the known dishes included various stews, simple broths, soups and a hard pancake like bread called crumpet. Bacons were also consumed. The level of refinement was low, and international influence fairly insignificant. This all changed in the 11th century after the Norman invasion. With the invaders came a new and less provincial gentry, and new eating habits, especially for the nobility. While traditional British cooking today is not regarded with high esteem internationally, the Medieval Anglo-Norman cooks were considerably more refined and more cosmopolitan. It has previously been believed that the Anglo-Norman cuisine was mostly similar to that of France, but recent study has shown that many recipes had unique English traits. This was based partly on the different available foodstuffs on the British Isles, but more due to influence from Arab cuisine through the Norman conquest of Sicily. The Arab invaders in the 9th century had cultivated their lifestyle culturally and economically to such a degree that the Norman invaders inherited and adapted many of their habits, including cooking styles. Norman participation in the crusades also brought them into contact with Middle Eastern and Byzantine cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval cuisine",
        "text": "The majority of the European population before industrialization lived in rural communities or isolated farms and households. The norm was self-sufficiency with only a small percentage of production being exported or sold in markets. Large towns were exceptions and required their surrounding hinterlands to support them with food and fuel. The dense urban population could support a wide variety of food establishments that catered to various social groups. Many of the poor city dwellers had to live in cramped conditions without access to a kitchen or even a hearth, and many did not own the equipment for basic cooking. Food from vendors was in such cases the only option. Cookshops could either sell ready-made hot food, an early form of fast food, or offer cooking services while the customers supplied some or all of the ingredients. Travellers, such as pilgrims en route to a holy site, made use of professional cooks to avoid having to carry their provisions with them. For the more affluent, there were many types of specialist that could supply various foods and condiments: cheesemongers, pie bakers, saucers, and waferers, for example. Well-off citizens who had the means to cook at home could on special occasions hire professionals when their own kitchen or staff could not handle the burden of hosting a major banquet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shopping",
        "text": "In the more populous European cities, a small number of shops were beginning to emerge by the 13th century. Specialist retailers such as mercers and haberdashers were known to exist in London, while grocers sold \"miscellaneous small wares as well as spices and medicines.\" However, these shops were primitive. As late as the 16th century, London's shops were described as little more than \"rude booths.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A History of English Food",
        "text": "The book is divided into 15 chapters, forming a strict chronological sequence of periods such as \"the Georgian age\". The chapters freely combine outlines of the historical context, descriptions of recipes, stories about significant figures, and personal anecdotes. For example, \"The Medieval Larder\" has an extensive section on the \"medieval pig\" (page 22ff), leading into a description of Dickson Wright's own childhood memories of helping to kill her father's pigs and making black pudding, chitterlings and sausages, as well as having hams and bacon smoked. To this is added her personal opinion; thus, the medieval chapter ends \"The battles of Cr\u00e9cy and Agincourt would scarcely have been won had they been fought by soldiers from a destitute nation.\" (page 41)"
      },
      {
        "title": "British Restaurant",
        "text": "Some smaller places did not qualify for a British Restaurant, but, instead, had what was termed a \"Cash and Carry Restaurant\" with meals being delivered from a nearby British Restaurant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walthamstow Market",
        "text": "One of London's increasingly rare pie and mash shops, L. Manze, opened in 1929 and still serves the traditional meat pie, 'liquor' (parsley sauce), mashed potatoes (mash) and jellied eels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Dorset",
        "text": "Such a situation continued until at least as late as 1868, when an inquiry was held into the food of the labourers. In fact, prior to the introduction of the potato, the diet of the labourers had been less favourable; in 1869, one investigator noted that before this: \"the labourers had very little beside bread and cheese and water\". As recorded by John Bright in 1844, many families in the county managed on 10 shillings per week, of which at least half was spent on bread. Despite this, reports of the 18th and 19th century accuse \"the poor\" of being wasteful: \"making cakes without yeast, and broiling or baking them on a gridiron, by which means it is said the quantity is lessened.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea (meal)",
        "text": "Commercial establishments known as teahouses or tearooms (similar to a coffeehouse) were once common in the UK, but they have declined in popularity since WWII. A.B.C. tea shops and Lyons Corner Houses were successful chains of such establishments, and played a role in opening up possibilities for Victorian women. A list of significant tea houses in Britain gives more examples. They served light snacks or full meals all day, some of them late into the evening. They were well-lit and did not serve alcohol."
      },
      {
        "title": "United Kingdom\u2013United States relations",
        "text": "Some American foods, like cornflakes, baked beans and crisps (known as potato chips in the United States), have become so entrenched in the UK's food culture that they have completely lost their American roots and are considered part of British cuisine. Breakfast cereals like corn flakes, bran flakes and puffed rice came from the U.S. to the UK in the beginning of twentieth century, and virtually changed the perception of breakfasts locally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional street food",
        "text": "The most common street food in the capital in earlier periods was jellied eels or pie and mash made from meat, which would be covered in the liquor from cooking the eels, although this tradition is no longer as common as in the early 20th century."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some things people ate in the Middle Ages?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Cereals remained the most important staple during the early Middle Ages as rice was introduced late, and the potato was only introduced in 1536, with a much later date for widespread consumption; barley, oats and rye were eaten by the poor. Meat was more expensive and therefore more prestigious."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did cafes and tea shops get started?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Different regions of the world have different history of cafes and tea shops. Do you want to know more about their origin in Asia, Europe or elsewhere?",
      "The first coffeehouses in the Islamic world appeared in Damascus, then spread to Mecca in the 15th century, then to the Ottoman Empire's capital of Istanbul in the 16th century."
    ],
    "topic": "English cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Teahouse:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Teahouse"
        ],
        "ctx": "A teahouse (mainly Asia) or tearoom (also tea room) is an establishment which primarily serves tea and other light refreshments. A tea room may be a room set aside in a hotel especially for serving afternoon tea, or may be an establishment which only serves cream teas. Although the function of a tearoom may vary according to the circumstance or country, teahouses often serve as centers of social interaction, like coffeehouses."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Teahouse:15",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Teahouse",
          "Europe",
          "Elsewhere"
        ],
        "ctx": "In France, a tea room is called , and pastries and cakes are also served. It seems that having a separate teahouse was a tradition in many countries in Europe."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Teahouse:0",
        "passage_titles": [],
        "ctx": "Teahouse\n--Asia.\n--Europe.\n----Britain.\n------Commonwealth.\n----Elsewhere.\n--Relationship to nineteenth century temperance movement.\n--Other meanings and related words.\n"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Coffeehouse:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Coffeehouse",
          "History",
          "Islamic world"
        ],
        "ctx": "The first coffeehouses in the Islamic world, \"qahveh khaneh\" (Persian for coffee house), appeared in Damascus. These Ottoman coffeehouses also appeared in Mecca, in the Arabian Peninsula in the 15th century, then spread to the Ottoman Empire's capital of Istanbul in the 16th century. Coffeehouses became popular meeting places where people gathered to drink coffee, have conversations, play board games such as chess and backgammon, listen to stories and music, and discuss news and politics. They became known as \"schools of wisdom\" for the type of clientele they attracted, and their free and frank discourse."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "English cuisine has distinctive attributes of its own, but also shares much with wider British cuisine, partly through the importation of ingredients and ideas from North America, China, and India during the time of the British Empire and as a result of post-war immigration. Some traditional meals, such as sausages, cheese, roasted and stewed meats, meat and game pies, boiled vegetables and broths, and freshwater and saltwater fish have ancient origins. The 14th-century English cookbook, the \"Forme of Cury\", contains recipes for these, and dates from the royal court of Richard II."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of England",
        "text": "The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by food critics with some good ratings in \"Restaurant\"'s best restaurant in the world charts. An early book of English recipes is the \"Forme of Cury\" from the royal court of Richard II. Traditional meals have ancient origins, such as bread, vegetables, cheese and onions, popular today as the Ploughman's lunch (usually accompanied by butter, pickles, chutney, ham, fresh green salad, boiled eggs, and apples), pottage and frumenty; roasted and stewed meats; meat and game pies; and freshwater and saltwater fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cuisine encompasses the cooking styles, traditions and recipes associated with England. It has distinctive attributes of its own, but also shares much with wider British cuisine, partly through the importation of ingredients and ideas from the Americas, China, and India during the time of the British Empire and as a result of post-war immigration."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cuisine\n--History.\n----Middle Ages.\n----Sixteenth century.\n----Seventeenth century.\n----Eighteenth century.\n----Nineteenth century.\n----Twentieth century.\n--Stereotypes.\n--Foreign influence.\n----The role of Empire.\n----Indian and Anglo-Indian cuisine.\n----Other influences.\n--Food establishments.\n----Cafes and tea shops.\n----Fish and chip shops.\n----Pub food.\n--Vegetarianism.\n--Quality.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Three of the major hot drinks popular in England, tea, coffee, and chocolate, originated from outside Europe and were already staple items by Victorian times."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Oriental cuisines have become widely available across England. Chinese cuisine became established in England by the 1970s, with large cities often having a Chinatown district; the one in London's Soho developed between the two world wars, following an informal area in Limehouse. Deriving from Cantonese cuisine, the food served by Chinese restaurants has been adapted to suit English taste. From around 1980 onwards, Southeast Asian cuisines, especially Thai and Vietnamese, began to gain popularity in England."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Catherine of Braganza brought the Portuguese habit of tea to England around 1660. Initially, its expense restricted it to wealthy consumers, but the price gradually dropped, until by the 19th century its use was widespread. Introduced in the 16th century, coffee became popular by the 17th century, especially in the coffee houses, the first opening in Oxford in 1650. Hot chocolate was a popular drink by the 17th century, long before it was used as a food. Chocolate bars were developed and marketed by three English Quaker-founded businesses, Joseph Fry's (1847), Rowntree's (1862), and Cadbury's (1868)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hors d'oeuvre",
        "text": "Food in England is heavily influenced by other countries due to the island nation's dependence on importing outside goods and sometimes, inspiration. Many English culinary words and customs have been directly borrowed from the original French (some completely Anglicised in spelling) such as: \"cuisine\", \"sirloin\", \"pastry\" and \"omelette\" which came from the 18th century and earlier. In the late 19th and early 20th century, even more words, foods and customs from culinary France made their way into England, such as \"\u00e9clair\", \"casserole\", \"\u00e0 la carte\", \"r\u00f4tisserie\" and hors d'oeuvre."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Some traditional meals, such as bread and cheese, roasted and stewed meats, meat and game pies, boiled vegetables and broths, and freshwater and saltwater fish have ancient origins. The 14th-century English cookbook, the \"Forme of Cury\", contains recipes for these, and dates from the royal court of Richard II."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of English dishes",
        "text": "This is a list of prepared dishes characteristic of English cuisine. English cuisine encompasses the cooking styles, traditions and recipes associated with England. It has distinctive attributes of its own, but also shares much with wider British cuisine, partly through the importation of ingredients and ideas from North America, China, and India during the time of the British Empire and as a result of post-war immigration."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English tastes evolved during the sixteenth century in at least three ways. First, recipes emphasise a balance of sweet and sour. Second, butter becomes an important ingredient in sauces, a trend which continued in later centuries. Third, herbs, which could be grown locally but had been little used in the Middle Ages, started to replace spices as flavourings. In A. W.'s \"Book of Cookrye\", 35% of the recipes for meat stews and sauces include herbs, most commonly thyme. On the other hand, 76% of those meat recipes still used the distinctly mediaeval combination of sugar and dried fruit, together or separately. New ingredients were arriving from distant countries, too: \"The Good Huswifes Jewell\" introduced sweet potatoes (from the tropical Americas) alongside familiar Medieval recipes."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "The English celebrity cook Fanny Cradock asserted: \"The English have never had a cuisine. Even Yorkshire pudding comes from Burgundy.\" Nicola Humble observed that in \"Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management\", there are about the same number of recipes from India as from Wales, Scotland and Ireland together. Panayi created controversy by asserting, with evidence, that fish and chips had foreign origins: the fried fish from Jewish cooking, the potato chips from France; the dish only came to signify national identity from about 1930. French cuisine powerfully influenced English cooking throughout the nineteenth century, and French celebrity chefs such as the Roux brothers and Raymond Blanc continue to do so in twenty-first-century England."
      },
      {
        "title": "England",
        "text": "Since the early modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce. During the Middle Ages and through the Renaissance period, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with the move away from the land and increasing urbanisation of the populace. The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by food critics with some good ratings in \"Restaurant\"s best restaurant in the world charts. An early book of English recipes is the \"Forme of Cury\" from the royal court of Richard II."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Foreign influence was by no means limited to specific dishes. James Walvin, in his book \"Fruits of Empire\", argues that potatoes, sugar (entirely imported until around 1900 and the growing of sugar beet), tea, and coffee as well as increasing quantities of spices were \"Fruits of Empire\" that became established in Britain between 1660 and 1800, so that by the nineteenth century \"their exotic origins had been lost in the mists of time\" and had become \"part of the unquestioned fabric of local life\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cooking has been influenced by foreign ingredients and cooking styles since the Middle Ages. Curry was introduced from the Indian subcontinent and adapted to English tastes from the eighteenth century with Hannah Glasse's recipe for chicken \"currey\". French cuisine influenced English recipes throughout the Victorian era. After the rationing of the Second World War, Elizabeth David's 1950 \"A Book of Mediterranean Food\" had wide influence, bringing Italian cuisine to English homes. Her success encouraged other cookery writers to describe other styles, including Chinese and Thai cuisine. England continues to absorb culinary ideas from all over the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of England",
        "text": "Since the early modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce. During the Middle Ages and through the Renaissance period, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with the move away from the land and increasing urbanisation of the populace. This has resulted in a traditional cuisine which tended to avoid strong flavours, such as garlic, and also complex sauces which were commonly associated with Roman Catholic Continental affiliations."
      },
      {
        "title": "A History of English Food",
        "text": "Page numbers refer to the first English edition.\n* 1 Bacon and new-laid eggs: the medieval larder 1\n* 2 Eastern spices and baked venison: the high middle ages 43\n* 3 Marzipan and new world turkeys: the Tudor kitchen 77\n* 4 Orange carrots and white bread: England in the age of Gloriana 117\n* 5 Preserved quince and my Lord of Devonshire's pudding: the Elizabethan year 149\n* 6 Double cream and pastry galleons: the early Stuarts 171\n* 7 Coffee and my Lord Lumley's pease-porage: war and peace in the Seventeenth century 201\n* 8 Roast beef and sweet oranges: the late Stuarts 231\n* 9 Turtle soup and plum pudding: the Georgian age 255\n* 10 Roast hare and Indian curry: the era of Hannah Glasse 293\n* 11 Pheasant consomm\u00e9 and forced peas: rich eating in the nineteenth century 315\n* 12 Brown Windsor soup and high tea: The world of the Victorians 343\n* 13 Omelette Arnold Bennett and bully beef: From the Edwardians to the eve of war 381\n* 14 Spam and coronation chicken: The Second World War and the years of austerity 417\n* 15 Prawn cocktail and pizza: Modern English food 445\n* Appendix of historical recipes 466"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "For many years, English writers including Hannah Glasse in the 18th century and Andrew Kirwan in the 19th century were ambivalent about French cooking. However, restaurants serving French haute cuisine developed for the upper and middle classes in England from the 1830s and Escoffier was recruited by the Savoy Hotel in 1890. Marcel Boulestin's 1923 \"Simple French Cooking for English Homes\" did much to popularise French dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "British cuisine\n--History.\n----Beginnings.\n----Early Modern to 19th century.\n----20th century.\n----Anglo-Indian cuisine.\n----21st century.\n--National cuisines.\n----English.\n----Northern Irish.\n----Scottish.\n----Welsh.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Dorset",
        "text": "Many of the traditional dishes originate from the 17th and 18th centuries. At this time, much of the workforce were employed as agricultural labourers and, though they produced most of the food, their diet was poor. The gentry, unique in being able to shop for produce, and farmers, fared better. Despite this, until the early 19th century at least, simple foods, such as bread, comprised a sizeable part of the diet of all classes."
      },
      {
        "title": "English society",
        "text": "The people discovered new foods (such as the potato and tomato imported from the Americas), and developed new tastes during the era. The more prosperous enjoyed a wide variety of food and drink, including exotic new drinks such as tea, coffee, and chocolate. French and Italian chefs appeared in the country houses and palaces, bringing new standards of food preparation and taste. For example, the English developed a taste for acidic foods\u2014such as oranges for the upper class\u2014and started to use vinegar heavily. The gentry paid increasing attention to their gardens, with new fruits, vegetables and herbs; pasta, pastries, and dried mustard balls first appeared on the table. The apricot was a special treat at fancy banquets. Roast beef remained a staple for those who could afford it. The rest ate a great deal of bread and fish. Every class had a taste for beer and rum."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cuisine in the twentieth century suffered from a poor international reputation. Keith Arscott of Chawton House Library comments that \"at one time people didn't think the English knew how to cook and yet these [eighteenth and nineteenth century] female writers were at the forefront of modern day cooking.\" English food was popularly supposed to be bland, but English cuisine has made extensive use of spices since the Middle Ages; introduced curry to Europe; and makes use of strong flavourings such as English mustard. It was similarly reputed to be dull, like roast beef: but that dish was highly prized both in Britain and abroad, and few people could afford it; the \"Roast Beef of Old England\" lauded by William Hogarth in his 1748 painting celebrated the high quality of English cattle, which the French at the \"Gate of Calais\" (the other name of his painting) could only look at with envy. The years of wartime shortages and rationing certainly did impair the variety and flavour of English food during the twentieth century, but the nation's cooking recovered from this with increasing prosperity and the availability of new ingredients from soon after the Second World War."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "Most of the initial colonists came from East Anglia in England, with other groups following them over the ages like francophone regions of Canada (this was especially true of Northern New England, where there are still many speakers of a dialect of French), from Ireland, from Southern Italy, and most recently from Haiti, Brazil, the Dominican Republic, and Portugal. The oldest forms of the cuisine date to the early 17th century and in the case of Massachusetts, out of the entire country only the state of Virginia can claim recipes that are older."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anglo-Indian cuisine",
        "text": "Some early restaurants in England, such as the Hindoostane Coffee House in George Street, London, which opened in 1810, served Anglo-Indian food."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cookery has developed over many centuries since at least the time of \"The Forme of Cury\", written in the Middle Ages around 1390 in the reign of King Richard II. The book offers imaginative and sophisticated recipes, with spicy sweet and sour sauces thickened with bread or quantities of almonds boiled, peeled, dried and ground, and often served in pastry. Foods such as gingerbread are described. It was not at all, emphasises Clarissa Dickson Wright in her \"A History of English Food\", a matter of large lumps of roast meat at every meal as imagined in Hollywood films."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Another country clergyman, Gilbert White, in \"The Natural History of Selborne\" (1789) recorded the increased consumption of vegetables by ordinary country people in the south of England, to which, he noted, potatoes, from the Americas, had only been added during the reign of King George III:"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "During the British Raj, Britain first started borrowing Indian dishes, creating Anglo-Indian cuisine, with dishes such as Kedgeree (1790) and Mulligatawny soup (1791). Indian food was served in coffee houses from 1809, and cooked at home from a similar date as cookbooks of the time attest. The Veeraswamy restaurant in Regent Street, London, was opened in 1926, at first serving Anglo-Indian food, and is the oldest surviving Indian restaurant in Britain. There was a sharp increase in the number of curry houses in the 1940s, and again in the 1970s."
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "In the Middle Ages, the Anglo-Saxons introduced bacon to Britain sometime during the 1st millennium AD. The Norman conquest reintroduced spices and continental influences into Great Britain in the Middle Ages; oranges arrived in the late 13th century, sugar cane in the 14th, and carrots in the 15th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabethan era",
        "text": "England was exposed to new foods (such as the potato imported from South America), and developed new tastes during the era. The more prosperous enjoyed a wide variety of food and drink, including exotic new drinks such as tea, coffee, and chocolate. French and Italian chefs appeared in the country houses and palaces bringing new standards of food preparation and taste. For example, the English developed a taste for acidic foods\u2014such as oranges for the upper class\u2014and started to use vinegar heavily. The gentry paid increasing attention to their gardens, with new fruits, vegetables and herbs; pasta, pastries, and dried mustard balls first appeared on the table. The apricot was a special treat at fancy banquets. Roast beef remained a staple for those who could afford it. The rest ate a great deal of bread and fish. Every class had a taste for beer and rum."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Stereotypes of English cuisine"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "The English cafe is a small, inexpensive eating place. A working men's cafe serves mainly fried or grilled food, such as fried eggs, bacon, bangers and mash\u201a black pudding, bubble and squeak, burgers, sausages, mushrooms and chips. These may be accompanied by baked beans, cooked tomatoes, and fried bread. These are referred to as \"breakfast\" even if they are available all day. Traditional cafes have declined with the rise of fast-food chains, but remain numerous all over the UK."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "East Anglian cookery would have included recipes for dishes like suet puddings, wheaten breads, and a few shellfish delicacies, like winkles, and would have been at the time of settlement simple Puritan fare quite in contrast to the fineries and excesses expected in London cavalier circles. Most of the cuisine started with one-pot cookery, which resulted in such dishes as succotash, chowder, baked beans, and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cookery has been open to foreign ingredients and influence from as early as the thirteenth century, and in the case of a few foods like sausages from Roman times. The Countess of Leicester, daughter of King John purchased large amounts of cinnamon, while King Edward I ordered large quantities of spices such as pepper and ginger, as well as of what was then an expensive imported luxury, sugar. Dickson Wright refutes the popular idea that spices were used to disguise bad meat, pointing out that this would have been as fatal then as it would be today. She suggests instead that spices were used to hide the taste of salt, which was used to preserve food in the absence of refrigeration."
      },
      {
        "title": "United Kingdom",
        "text": "British cuisine developed from various influences reflective of its land, settlements, arrivals of new settlers and immigrants, trade and colonialism. Celtic agriculture and animal breeding produced a wide variety of foodstuffs for indigenous Celts and Britons. Anglo-Saxon England developed meat and savoury herb stewing techniques before the practice became common in Europe. The Norman conquest introduced exotic spices into England in the Middle Ages. The British Empire facilitated a knowledge of Indian cuisine with its \"strong, penetrating spices and herbs\". British cuisine has absorbed the cultural influence of those who have settled in Britain, producing many hybrid dishes, such as the Anglo-Indian chicken tikka masala. Vegan and vegetarian diets have increased in Britain in recent years. In 2021, a survey found that 8% of British respondents eat a plant-based diet and 36% of respondents have a favourable view of plant-based diets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of England",
        "text": "The last half century has seen significant changes in food manufacturing, retailing and consumption; an interest in different international cuisines; and the establishment of large restaurants, food outlets, coffee shops and supermarkets. However, distinctively English dishes, artisanal production, delicatessens, home cooking and traditional establishments such as pubs, cafes and tearooms remain widespread. The 1990s saw the rise of the gastropub, serving traditional English dishes, and farmers' markets, where English cheeses, breads, vegetables and other items are sold. Food culture in England has been taken more seriously since the 1960s due to writers and broadcasters such as Derek Cooper, Matthew Fort, Jonathan Meades and Nigel Slater."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "The style of New England cookery originated from its colonial roots. Early New England colonists were frugal and mostly unwilling to eat anything other than what they were used to from what they previously consumed in England."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Dorset",
        "text": "While some of the recipes which comprise the traditional cuisine of Dorset originate from the Middle Ages, the majority come from the 17th and 18th centuries. Within the sources in which recipes are recorded (recipe books, diaries), there is considerable bias towards the cooking habits of gentry, even in those of 17th- and 18th-century origin; the upper classes of society were more literate and able to purchase the variety of ingredients which would necessitate a cookery book. Although labourers and their families were the largest section of the population in Dorset (even after mechanisation in the middle of the 19th century), their low wages could not facilitate elaborate cooking and there was widespread illiteracy. Information on the dietary habits of the working class during the 17th and 18th centuries is usually gained incidentally, such as in reports on the state of the poor in the county."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "James Woodforde's \"Diary of a Country Parson\" gives a good idea of the sort of food eaten in England in the eighteenth century by those who could afford to eat whatever they liked. To welcome some neighbours on 8 June 1781, he gave them for dinner:"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "A tea shop is a small restaurant that serves soft drinks and light meals, often in a sedate atmosphere. Customers may eat a cream tea in Cornish or Devonshire style, served from a china set, and a scone with jam and clotted cream."
      },
      {
        "title": "English breakfast tea",
        "text": "English breakfast tea\n--Origins and history.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Some English dishes are relatively new and can be dated to the century, and sometimes to the year, of their introduction. Thus piccalilli was introduced from India in the 18th century, as recorded by Hannah Glasse who gave a recipe for it in 1758. Conversely, dishes and sauces still considered foreign, such as fish in sweet and sour sauce, have been in English recipe books since the Middle Ages. Other dishes took their present form only gradually, as with the so-called \"Full English breakfast\". Breakfasts of this kind are indeed described in later editions of \"Mrs Beeton\", but as one of many variations. Thus her list of \"Family Breakfasts for a Week in Winter\" has for Wednesday something that looks fairly modern: \"bread, muffins, butter, brawn, grilled bacon, boiled eggs\"; but on other days less modern-looking breakfasts include mince, mutton cutlets, grilled kidneys, baked fresh herrings, and hash of cold game or poultry, while suggestions for \"Family Breakfasts for a Week in Summer\" included sardine toast, cold tongue, kedgeree and rissoles, and \"Guests' Breakfast (Autumn)\" included cold pheasant, game pie, and pressed beef."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Italian cuisine is the most popular Mediterranean cuisine in England. In its current form, with plenty of pizza and pasta, inspired by Elizabeth David, its rise began after 1945. There were some Italian restaurants before World War II, but they mostly served a generalised haute cuisine. Soon after the war, Italian coffee bars appeared, the first places to trade on their Italianness; they soon started to sell simple and cheap Italian food such as minestrone soup, spaghetti bolognese and pizza. From the early 1960s, the slightly more elegant trattoria restaurants offered \"Italian specialities\" such as lasagne verde al forno (baked lasagne, coloured with spinach). Other Mediterranean influences include Greek moussaka, feta and taramasalata, Turkish doner and shish kebabs, and Middle Eastern hummus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Thirteen Colonies",
        "text": "In the early 17th century, the first wave of English immigrants began arriving in North America, settling mainly around Chesapeake Bay in Virginia and Maryland. Virginian settlers were dominated by noblemen with their servants (many were Cavaliers fleeing in the aftermath of the English Civil War, 1642\u201351) and poor peasants from southern England."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anglo-Indian cuisine",
        "text": "During the British rule in India, local British officials began mixing Indian dishes with their British palates and creating Anglo-Indian cuisine, with dishes such as kedgeree (1790) and mulligatawny soup (1791). The first Indian restaurant in England, the Hindoostanee Coffee House, opened in 1809 in London; as described in The Epicure's Almanack in 1815, \"All the dishes were dressed with curry powder, rice, Cayenne, and the best spices of Arabia. A room was set apart for smoking hookahs with oriental herbs\". Indian food was cooked at home from a similar date as cookbooks of the time attest."
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "British culinary preferences have continued to evolve in the 21st century. Many people in a 2021 survey had never eaten such traditional favourites as toad in the hole, spotted dick, scotch eggs, black pudding, or bubble and squeak, and a minority did not believe these dishes existed."
      },
      {
        "title": "A History of English Food",
        "text": "\"A History of English Food\" was described by \"The Independent\" as \"richly informative\" and \"surely destined for classic status\". The reviewer noted that she had seen badger hams on the bar in the West Country pubs of her childhood, and that a tripe seller in Dewsbury market sold \"nine different varieties of tripe, including penis and udder (which is remarkably like pease pudding).\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A History of English Food",
        "text": "A History of English Food is a history of English cuisine from the Middle Ages to the end of the twentieth century written by the celebrity cook Clarissa Dickson Wright. Each era is treated in turn with a chapter. The text combines history, recipes, and anecdotes, and is illustrated with 32 pages of colour plates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Northern England",
        "text": "Immigration to Northern England has shaped its cuisine. The Teesside parmo is one example, derived from escalope Parmesan brought to the area by an Italian-American immigrant and adapted to the region's taste. There are large Chinatowns in Liverpool, Manchester and Newcastle, and communities from the Indian subcontinent in all major towns. Bradford has won the Federation of Specialist Restaurant's \"Curry Capital\" title six years in a row as of 2016, while the Curry Mile in Manchester formerly had the largest concentration of curry restaurants in the UK and now offers a wide range of South Asian and Middle Eastern cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of New England",
        "text": "Many of New England's earliest Puritan settlers were from eastern England and brought with the traditions of English cuisine with them. Roast duck, goose, lamb, and hams were brought to the so-called \"New World\" as farmyard stock as soon as the colonies began to prosper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of New England",
        "text": "New England cuisine is an American cuisine which originated in the New England region of the United States, and traces its roots to English cuisine. It is characterized by extensive use of seafood and dairy products, resulting from its historical reliance on its seaports and fishing industry, as well as extensive dairy farming in inland regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "British Chinese cuisine",
        "text": "British Chinese cuisine\n--History.\n--Cuisine and regional variations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "When European colonists came to Virginia, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and any of the other English colonies on the eastern seaboard of North America, their initial attempts at survival included planting crops familiar to them from back home in England. In the same way, they farmed animals for clothing and meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "In the 18th and 19th centuries, the Colonial British Empire began to be influenced by India's elaborate food tradition with strong spices and herbs. Traditional British cuisine was modified with the addition of Indian-style spices and ingredients such as rice, creating dishes such as kedgeree (1790) and mulligatawny soup (1791)."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "The public house, or pub, is a famous English institution. In the mid-20th century, pubs were drinking establishments with little emphasis on the serving of food, other than \"bar snacks\", such as pork scratchings, pickled eggs, salted crisps, and peanuts, which helped to increase beer sales. If a pub served meals these were usually basic cold dishes such as a ploughman's lunch, invented in the 1950s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of New England",
        "text": "Italians emigrated to New England beginning a little over a century ago,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of the United Kingdom",
        "text": "British cuisine is the specific set of cooking traditions and practices associated with the United Kingdom. Historically, British cuisine meant \"unfussy dishes made with quality local ingredients, matched with simple sauces to accentuate flavour, rather than disguise it\". International recognition of British cuisine was historically limited to the full breakfast and the Christmas dinner. However, Celtic agriculture and animal breeding produced a wide variety of foodstuffs for indigenous Celts. Anglo-Saxon England developed meat and savoury herb stewing techniques before the practice became common in Europe. The Norman conquest introduced exotic spices into Great Britain in the Middle Ages. The British Empire facilitated a knowledge of India's food tradition of \"strong, penetrating spices and herbs\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "A History of English Food",
        "text": "There are 32 pages of colour plates illustrating famous cookery writers such as Robert May and stages of English cuisine such as \"The 1950s kitchen\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of English cheeses",
        "text": "In English cuisine, foods such as cheese have ancient origins. The 14th-century English cookery book \"The Forme of Cury\" contains recipes for these, and dates from the royal court of Richard II."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of English dishes",
        "text": "List of English dishes\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Anglo-Indian cuisine",
        "text": "Anglo-Indian cuisine is the cuisine that developed during the British Raj in India. It was brought to England in the 1930s by the Veeraswamy restaurant, followed by a few others, but not by typical Indian restaurants. The cuisine introduced dishes such as kedgeree, mulligatawny and pish pash to English palates. One of the few Anglo-Indian foods that has had a lasting impact on English cuisine is chutney."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of English words of Arabic origin",
        "text": "The following words are from Arabic, although some of them have entered Western European languages via other languages. Baba ghanoush, Falafel, Fattoush, Halva, Hummus, Kibbeh, Kebab, Lahmacun, Shawarma, Tabouleh, Tahini, Za'atar . Some cuisine words of lesser circulation are Ful medames, Kabsa, Kushari, Labneh, Mahleb, Mulukhiyah, Ma'amoul, Mansaf, Shanklish, Tepsi Baytinijan . For more see Arab cuisine. Middle Eastern cuisine words were rare before 1970 in English, being mostly confined to travellers' reports. Usage increased rapidly in the 1970s for certain words."
      },
      {
        "title": "England",
        "text": "Traditional examples of English food include the Sunday roast, featuring a roasted joint (usually beef, lamb, chicken or pork) served with assorted vegetables, Yorkshire pudding and gravy. Other prominent meals include fish and chips and the full English breakfast (generally consisting of bacon, sausages, grilled tomatoes, fried bread, black pudding, baked beans, mushrooms and eggs). Various meat pies are consumed, such as steak and kidney pie, steak and ale pie, cottage pie, pork pie (usually eaten cold) and the Cornish pasty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabeth David",
        "text": "\"Spices, Salt and Aromatics in the English Kitchen\" (1970) and \"English Bread and Yeast Cookery\" (1977) include a few British dishes from outside England, such as Scottish Arbroath smokies and bannocks; and Welsh salt duck and bara brith. David, like many of her generation and class, used the terms \"England\" and \"English\" to refer to the whole of Britain."
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "New foodstuffs have arrived over the millennia, from sausages in Roman times, oranges in the Middle Ages, sugar, potatoes, and bananas in the Columbian exchange after 1492, and spicy curry sauces from India in the 18th and 19th centuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Thirteen Colonies",
        "text": "Although the Quaker influence from the northern Midlands was the most dominant, there was some influence from German immigrants during the 18th century. Scrapple, a pot pudding made from meat scraps and grain, became a staple of the regional cuisine for many generations."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "All of these eventually showed up in the kitchens of colonial New England women and many were sent back to England and other portions of Europe to be catalogued by scientists, collectors, and horticulturalists."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "Through hardships and eventual establishment of trade with England, the West Indies and other regions, the colonists were able to derive a cuisine similar to what they had previously consumed in Britain and Ireland, while also introducing local animals and plants to their diet."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Another manuscript, \"Utilis Coquinario\", mentions dishes such as \"pyany\", poultry garnished with peonies; \"hyppee\", a rose-hip broth; and birds such as cormorants and woodcocks."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "Typically none of them spoke English, but rather dialects of Italian and had a culture that was more closely tied to the village they were born in than the high culture only accessible to those who could afford it at this time; many could not read or write in any language."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabeth David",
        "text": "David consciously followed in the path of Hilda Leyel and Dorothy Hartley in researching British ingredients and dishes. Like them, she looked back into regional history to find what she saw as \"the traditions of a culture rooted to the soil\" before \"the ravages of the Industrial Revolution\". She did not romanticise Britain's culinary past: \"Farm and factory labourers, artisans and clerical workers, still lived on a very restricted diet\u00a0... their cooking facilities were so primitive and their equipment so scanty that only the most basic forms of cookery could be attempted\". But her constant benchmarks were honest ingredients and uncomplicated cooking. She condemned\u2014and explained the alternatives to\u2014the artificial, the ersatz, the \"notorious Chorleywood bread\", and \"all synthetic aids to flavouring\u00a0... Nobody has ever been able to find out why the English regard a glass of wine added to a soup or stew as a reckless extravagance and at the same time spend pounds on bottled sauces, gravy powders, soup cubes, ketchups and artificial flavourings\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "In the 1950s some British pubs started to offer \"a pie and a pint\", with hot individual steak and ale pies made on the premises by the landlord or his wife. In the 1960s this was developed into the then-fashionable \"chicken in a basket\", a portion of roast chicken with chips, served on a napkin, in a wicker basket, by the Mill pub at Withington. Quality dropped but variety increased with the introduction of microwave ovens and freezer food. \"Pub grub\" expanded to include British food items such as steak and kidney pudding, shepherd's pie, fish and chips, bangers and mash, Sunday roast, and pasties. The gastropub movement of the 21st century, on the other hand, has sought to serve restaurant-quality food, cooked to order from fresh ingredients, in a pub setting; one pub, The Hand & Flowers in Marlow has been awarded two Michelin stars, and several have one star. In 1964, pubs were serving 9.1% of meals eaten outside the home; this rose rapidly to 37.5% by 1997."
      },
      {
        "title": "English breakfast tea",
        "text": "The current naming practice is claimed to have originated not in England but America, as far back as Colonial times. An additional account (referencing a period-era Journal of Commerce article) dates the blend to 1843 and a tea merchant named Richard Davies in New York City. Davies, an English immigrant, started with a base of Congou and added a bit of Pekoe and Pouchong. It sold for 50 cents per pound () (equivalent to $ per pound in ), and its success led to imitators, helping to popularize the name. An investigation to find the original Journal of Commerce article failed to locate it but did come upon an earlier reference to the same story in an 1876 edition of the Daily Alta California, citing \"a New York commercial journal\" and dating the tea's origin to 1844. In an 1884 American publication it was noted that \"Bohea teas (are) known to trade in this country as \"English Breakfast\" tea, from its forming the staple shipment to England\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food in England",
        "text": "Food in England\n--Context.\n--Book.\n----Approach.\n----Contents.\n--Reception.\n----Contemporary.\n----Modern.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "British cuisine is the heritage of cooking traditions and practices of the United Kingdom."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "In 2005, 600 food critics writing for the British \"Restaurant\" magazine named 14 British restaurants among the 50 best restaurants in the world, the number one being The Fat Duck in Bray, Berkshire, led by its chef Heston Blumenthal. The quality of London's best restaurants has made the city a leading centre of international cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of New England",
        "text": "Since the 1800s New England's culinary traditions have been influenced by the arrival of Irish Americans, Portuguese Americans, and Italian Americans. Irish-style braised pickled beef was the origin of New England boiled dinner."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anglo-Indian cuisine",
        "text": "Anglo-Indian cuisine\n--History.\n--Dishes.\n--Restaurants.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Indian restaurants and their cuisine in Britain gradually improved from the stereotypical flock wallpaper and standardised menus. One of the pioneers was the Bombay Brasserie, which opened in Gloucester Road, London, in 1982, serving the kind of food actually eaten in India. It was followed in 1990 by Chutney Mary in Chelsea. In 2001, two Indian restaurants in London, Tamarind (opened 1995) and Zaika (opened 1999) gained Michelin stars for the quality of their cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "A History of English Food",
        "text": "A History of English Food\n--Book.\n----Approach.\n----Contents.\n--Reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "\"Elinor Fettiplace's Receipt Book\", compiled in 1604 (and first published in 1986) gives an intimate view of Elizabethan cookery. The book provides recipes for various forms of bread, such as buttered loaves; for apple fritters; preserves and pickles; and a celebration cake for 100 people. New ingredients appear; a recipe for dressing a shoulder of mutton calls for the use of the newly available citrus fruits:"
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "During the World Wars of the 20th century difficulties of food supply were countered by measures such as rationing. Rationing continued for nearly ten years after the Second World War, and in some aspects was stricter than during wartime, so that a whole generation was raised without access to many previously common ingredients, possibly contributing to a decline of British cuisine. A hunger for cooking from abroad was satisfied by writers such as Elizabeth David, who from 1950 produced evocative books, starting with \"A Book of Mediterranean Food\", whose ingredients were then often impossible to find in Britain. By the 1960s foreign holidays, and foreign-style restaurants in Britain, widened the popularity of foreign cuisine. This movement was assisted by celebrity chefs \u2013 on television and in their books \u2013 such as Fanny Cradock, Clement Freud, Robert Carrier, Keith Floyd, Gary Rhodes, Delia Smith, Gordon Ramsay, Ainsley Harriott, Nigella Lawson, Simon Hopkinson, Nigel Slater and Jamie Oliver. From the 1970s, the availability and range of good quality fresh products increased, and the British population became more willing to vary its diet. Modern British cooking draws on influences from Mediterranean, and more recently, Middle Eastern and Asian cuisines."
      },
      {
        "title": "English Tea House and Restaurant",
        "text": "The restaurant offers traditional English cuisine as well as Asian cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "John Nott's \"The Cooks and Confectioners Dictionary\" (1723), still with rather few precedents to go by, chose an alphabetical treatment for its recipes, from Al to Zest. The book covered everything from soups and salads to meat and fish, as well as pastries of many kinds, confectionery, and the making of beer, cider, and wine. Bills of fare are given for each month of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "England",
        "text": "Sausages are commonly eaten, either as bangers and mash or toad in the hole. Lancashire hotpot is a well-known stew originating in the northwest. Some of the more popular cheeses are Cheddar, Red Leicester, Wensleydale, Double Gloucester and Blue Stilton. Many Anglo-Indian hybrid dishes, curries, have been created, such as chicken tikka masala and balti. Traditional English dessert dishes include apple pie or other fruit pies; spotted dick \u2013 all generally served with custard; and, more recently, sticky toffee pudding. Sweet pastries include scones (either plain or containing dried fruit) served with jam or cream, dried fruit loaves, Eccles cakes and mince pies as well as a wide range of sweet or spiced biscuits."
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "The turkey was introduced to Britain in the 16th century, but its use for Christmas dinner, with Christmas pudding for dessert, was a 19th-century innovation. Other traditional British dishes, like fish and chips and the full breakfast, rose to prominence in the Victorian era; while they have a status in British culture, they are not necessarily a large part of many people's diets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Thirteen Colonies",
        "text": "Baking was a favorite method of cooking, and New England was the origin of dishes today seen as quintessentially American, such as apple pie and baked Thanksgiving turkey."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "An example recipe from Acton's \"Modern Cookery for Private Families\" is her \"Quince Blanc-Mange (Delicious)\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cooking was systematized and made available to the middle classes by a series of popular books, their authors becoming household names. One of the first was Mrs Rundell's \"A New System of Domestic Cookery\", 1806; it went through sixty-seven editions by 1844, selling hundreds of thousands of copies in Britain and America. This was followed by Eliza Acton's \"Modern Cookery for Private Families\" 1845, which Bee Wilson has called \"the greatest cookery book in our language\", but \"modern\" only in a nineteenth-century sense."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of New England",
        "text": "Many of New England's earliest Puritan settlers were from eastern England, where baking foods (for instance, pies, beans, and turkey) was more common than frying, as was the tradition elsewhere."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food in England",
        "text": "Most of the chapters address aspects of English food, whether types of food such as meat, eggs, fungi, and bread, or ways of dealing with food such as salting, drying and preserving. Some chapters such as 'Elizabethan households' are explicitly historical. Every chapter, however, is also a history. For example, chapter V, Meat, discusses \"a rather interesting mediaeval miracle\" and illustrates a traditional \"Colonial Travelling Meat Safe of Mosquito Net\". The text switches repeatedly from instructions (\"To prepare mutton fat for a mutton piecrust, melt it over a bowl of hot water\") to historical asides (\"Mutton fat was used in the mountain-sheep districts for the same purposes as suet or goose-grease in the valleys\"). Many of the processes are distinctly old-fashioned; thus, Hartley describes basting, dredging, and frothing, switching between the past and present tenses: \"Dredging. This was done between bastings. Thus you dredge with powders or spices to give flavour, or with acid juices, or chopped herbs, which the pouring fat washes down into the crevices of the roasting meat.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "French influence is evident in Hannah Woolley's \"The Cooks Guide\", 1664. Her recipes are designed to enable her non-aristocratic readers to imitate the fashionable French style of cooking with elaborate sauces. She combined the use of \"Claret wine\" and anchovies with more traditional cooking ingredients such as sugar, dried fruit, and vinegar."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "The sociologist Bob Ashley observed that while people in Britain might agree that the core national diet consisted of items such as the full English breakfast, roast beef with all the trimmings, tea with scones, and fish and chips, few had ever eaten the canonical English breakfast, lunch and dinner in any single day, and many probably never ate any item from the list at all regularly. In any case, Ashley noted, the national diet changes with time, and cookery books routinely include dishes of foreign origin. He remarked that a National Trust caf\u00e9, whose manager claimed \"We're not allowed to do foreign food\u00a0... I can't do lasagne or anything like that\", in fact served curry, because \"seemingly curry is English\". Anglo-Indian cuisine has indeed been part of the national diet since the eighteenth century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine",
        "text": "Cuisine dates back to the Antiquity. As food began to require more planning, there was an emergence of meals that situated around culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of English dishes",
        "text": "Ingredients that might be used to prepare these dishes, such as English vegetables, cuts of meat, or cheeses do not themselves form part of this list."
      },
      {
        "title": "Argentine cuisine",
        "text": "English cultural influence (reinforced at the end of the 19th century and the beginnings of the 20th by British contacts with the Far East) has also made the consumption of tea very common."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food in England",
        "text": "\"Food in England\" has 27 chapters:\n* I Introduction\n* II Some English Kitchens\n* III Basic English\n* IV Fuels and Fireplaces\n* V Meat\n* VI Poultry and Game\n* VII Eggs\n* VIII Mediaeval feast and famine\n* IX Trade, Magic and Religious Cooking\n* X Fish\n* XI Seaweeds\n* XII Fungi\n* XIII Elizabethan households\n* XIV The New World and the Sailors' Cook\n* XV Salting, drying and preserving\n* XVI The House and Garden in 1600\n* XVII Vegetables\n* XVIII New Freedom\n* XIX Coaching Days\n* XX Fruits, Herbs, Seeds and Flowers\n* XXI The Hafod\n* XXII Dairy produce\n* XXIII Bread\n* XXIV Drinks\n* XXV The Industrial Revolution\n* XXVI Pies, Puddings, Pastries, Cakes\n* XXVII Sundry household matters"
      },
      {
        "title": "English Americans",
        "text": "Much of American culture shows influences from English culture.\n*Apple pie - New England was the first region to experience large-scale English colonization in the early 17th century, beginning in 1620, and it was dominated by East Anglian Calvinists, better known as the Puritans. Baking was a particular favorite of the New Englanders and was the origin of dishes seen today as quintessentially \"American\", such as apple pie and the oven-roasted Thanksgiving turkey. \"As American as apple pie\" is a well-known phrase used to suggest that something is all-American.\n*Roast Beef - In the middle of the 17th century a second wave of English immigrants began arriving in North America, settling mainly in the Chesapeake Bay region of Virginia and Maryland, expanding upon the Jamestown settlement. Their roast beef was often served with Yorkshire puddings and horseradish sauce.\n*Thanksgiving was celebrated by English settlers to give thanks to God for helping the Pilgrims of Plymouth Colony survive the brutal winter. This feast lasted three days \u2014as accounted by attendee Edward Winslow."
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "With the Western exploration of the New World in 1492, the Columbian exchange led to the arrival in Europe of many new foods, including refined sugar, the potato, the banana and chocolate. The growth in worldwide trade brought foods and beverages from the Old World too, including tea and coffee. Developments in plant breeding greatly increased the number of fruit and vegetable varieties."
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "Traditional British dishes include full breakfast, fish and chips, and shepherd's pie. British cuisine has distinctive national varieties in the form of English, Scottish, Welsh and Northern Irish cuisines. Modern British cuisine has also been strongly influenced by other cuisines from around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Etymology of tea",
        "text": "English has all three forms: \"cha\" or \"char\" (both pronounced ), attested from the late 16th century; \"tea\", from the 17th; and \"chai\", from the 20th."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some things people ate in the Middle Ages?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Cereals remained the most important staple during the early Middle Ages as rice was introduced late, and the potato was only introduced in 1536, with a much later date for widespread consumption; barley, oats and rye were eaten by the poor. Meat was more expensive and therefore more prestigious."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did cafes and tea shops get started?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Different regions of the world have different history of cafes and tea shops. Do you want to know more about their origin in Asia, Europe or elsewhere?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about their origin in English cuisine."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In 1864, Britain, a female manager of London's Aerated Bread Company was credited with creating the bakery's first public tearoom."
    ],
    "topic": "English cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Teahouse:11",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Teahouse",
          "Europe",
          "Britain"
        ],
        "ctx": "Tea drinking is a pastime closely associated with the English. A female manager of London's Aerated Bread Company is credited with creating the bakery's first public tearoom in 1864, which became a thriving chain. Tea rooms were part of the growing opportunities for women in the Victorian era."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Aerated Bread Company",
        "text": "The tearooms provided one of the first public places where women in the Victorian era could eat a meal, alone or with women friends, without a male escort. While by 1880 unescorted women could visit higher-end restaurants, they had to avoid the bar. In at least one instance, a women's social club was housed directly above an A.B.C. tea shop:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Teahouse",
        "text": "Tea drinking is a pastime closely associated with the English. A female manager of London's Aerated Bread Company is credited with creating the bakery's first public tearoom in 1864, which became a thriving chain. Tea rooms were part of the growing opportunities for women in the Victorian era."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aerated Bread Company",
        "text": "A.B.C. operated a chain of self-service A.B.C. tea shops. These grew from A.B.C. opening a tearoom in the courtyard of London's Fenchurch Street Railway Station in 1864, two years after the company's founding. The idea for opening the tearoom is attributed to a London-based manager of the Aerated Bread Company who had been serving free tea and snacks to customers. The motivation for the company acting upon the manager's suggestion was to supplement the income derived from bread manufacture, which was not sufficient to pay a dividend to shareholders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catherine Cranston",
        "text": "In the same year Kate Cranston provided temporary \"Exhibition Cafes\" at the \"Scottish International Exhibition\", apparently set up and designed by Charles Rennie Mackintosh, though nothing is now known of his scheme for this. The menu card designed by Margaret MacDonald Mackintosh shows the name for the tearooms, \"The White Cockade\", but makes no visual connection with this reference to Jacobitism. It gives credit for supply of cakes to Miss Cranstons Bakery, 292 St Vincent St., Glasgow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catherine Cranston",
        "text": "In 1878 Miss Kate Cranston opened her first tearoom, the Crown Luncheon Room, on Argyle Street, Glasgow. She set high standards of service, food quality and cleanliness, and her innovation lay in seeing the social need for something more than a restaurant or a simple \"tea shop\", and in putting equal attention into providing amenities designed in the latest style. Her first tearoom was decorated in a contemporary baronial style. On 16 September 1886 she opened her Ingram Street tearoom and in 1888 commissioned George Walton to decorate a new smoking room in the Arts and Crafts style in one of her tea rooms."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "The public house, or pub, is a famous English institution. In the mid-20th century, pubs were drinking establishments with little emphasis on the serving of food, other than \"bar snacks\", such as pork scratchings, pickled eggs, salted crisps, and peanuts, which helped to increase beer sales. If a pub served meals these were usually basic cold dishes such as a ploughman's lunch, invented in the 1950s."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "One major recent development in the food scene is the emergence of a genuine cafe culture and disappearance of the traditional institution of tearooms at large. Before the 1990s, tearooms proliferated throughout the country offering cream tea, cakes, cucumber sandwiches, and pastries such as custard squares, with filtered coffee or tea as drinks. New Zealanders have copied the Mediterranean practise of drinking espresso-based coffees. In time, cafes became popular and many tearoom owners converted their businesses to cafes. Cream tea has gone out of fashion in the contemporary New Zealand dining scene, and scones are baked at homes rather than served in eateries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soor ploom",
        "text": "They are said to have been first made in 1337 in commemoration of a skirmish near Galashiels. A raiding party from England were overwhelmed and killed by local men when discovered eating unripe plums."
      },
      {
        "title": "London Trocadero",
        "text": "The new settings were done in an Opera Baroque style, and the various Trocaderos of the English-speaking world have derived their names from this original, the epitome of grand Edwardian catering. Murals on Arthurian themes decorated the grand staircase, and the Long Bar catered to gentlemen only. During World War I, the Trocadero initiated the first \"concert tea\": tea was served in the Empire Hall, accompanied by a full concert programme. After the war, cabaret was a feature of the Grill Room. The Trocadero closed on 13 February 1965."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frumenty",
        "text": "Food historian Polly Russell describes one of the first English recipes for it in the 1390 manuscript \"The Forme of Cury\", and how this served as the inspiration for the 2013 Christmas menu at Dinner by Heston Blumenthal, transforming Victorian workhouse food for paupers into modern luxurious dining."
      },
      {
        "title": "Buffet",
        "text": "At balls, the \"buffet\" was also where drinks were obtained, either by circulating footmen supplying orders from guests, but often by the male guests. During the Victorian period, it became usual for guests to have to eat standing up. In fact John Conrade Cooke's cookbook \"Cookery and Confectionery\", (London: 1824) says it was already \"the present fashion\". In a report on a ball in 1904, a departure from \"the usual stand-up buffet supper\", with parties being able to reserve tables, was praised."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seaton Delaval Hall",
        "text": "From 1968 to 1984 \"medieval banquets\" were held in the original kitchen of the hall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Open sandwich",
        "text": "A direct precursor to the English sandwich may be found in the Netherlands of the 17th century, where the naturalist John Ray observed that in the taverns beef hung from the rafters \"which they cut into thin slices and eat with bread and butter laying the slices upon the butter\". These explanatory specifications reveal the Dutch \"belegd broodje\", open-faced sandwich, was as yet unfamiliar in England."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese tea",
        "text": "The old Guangdong tearooms were inexpensive. Regular customers would be served with a cup of tea, and two steamed buns stuffed with diced grilled pork, steamed dumplings with the dough gathered at the top, or dumplings with shrimp stuffing. However, teahouses become different now. Nowadays, customers are provided with a pot of strong tea as soon as they arrive, and have many choices from a great variety of refreshments on the food cart."
      },
      {
        "title": "Speech House",
        "text": "Speech House pudding was a pudding traditionally served in the verderers' court room."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "In the 1950s some British pubs started to offer \"a pie and a pint\", with hot individual steak and ale pies made on the premises by the landlord or his wife. In the 1960s this was developed into the then-fashionable \"chicken in a basket\", a portion of roast chicken with chips, served on a napkin, in a wicker basket, by the Mill pub at Withington. Quality dropped but variety increased with the introduction of microwave ovens and freezer food. \"Pub grub\" expanded to include British food items such as steak and kidney pudding, shepherd's pie, fish and chips, bangers and mash, Sunday roast, and pasties. The gastropub movement of the 21st century, on the other hand, has sought to serve restaurant-quality food, cooked to order from fresh ingredients, in a pub setting; one pub, The Hand & Flowers in Marlow has been awarded two Michelin stars, and several have one star. In 1964, pubs were serving 9.1% of meals eaten outside the home; this rose rapidly to 37.5% by 1997."
      },
      {
        "title": "A History of English Food",
        "text": "Page numbers refer to the first English edition.\n* 1 Bacon and new-laid eggs: the medieval larder 1\n* 2 Eastern spices and baked venison: the high middle ages 43\n* 3 Marzipan and new world turkeys: the Tudor kitchen 77\n* 4 Orange carrots and white bread: England in the age of Gloriana 117\n* 5 Preserved quince and my Lord of Devonshire's pudding: the Elizabethan year 149\n* 6 Double cream and pastry galleons: the early Stuarts 171\n* 7 Coffee and my Lord Lumley's pease-porage: war and peace in the Seventeenth century 201\n* 8 Roast beef and sweet oranges: the late Stuarts 231\n* 9 Turtle soup and plum pudding: the Georgian age 255\n* 10 Roast hare and Indian curry: the era of Hannah Glasse 293\n* 11 Pheasant consomm\u00e9 and forced peas: rich eating in the nineteenth century 315\n* 12 Brown Windsor soup and high tea: The world of the Victorians 343\n* 13 Omelette Arnold Bennett and bully beef: From the Edwardians to the eve of war 381\n* 14 Spam and coronation chicken: The Second World War and the years of austerity 417\n* 15 Prawn cocktail and pizza: Modern English food 445\n* Appendix of historical recipes 466"
      },
      {
        "title": "French cuisine",
        "text": "In French medieval cuisine, banquets were common among the aristocracy. Multiple courses would be prepared, but served in a style called \"service en confusion\", or all at once. Food was generally eaten by hand, meats being sliced off in large pieces held between the thumb and two fingers. The sauces were highly seasoned and thick, and heavily flavored mustards were used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marston's (department store)",
        "text": "The 190-seat tearoom, the first sit-down serviced food offering at Marston's, opened April 27, 1955. It was designed by San Diego architect Sam Hamill. It had several 200- to 400-year-old Japanese screens. Pigskin covered the columns, and there was gray-green wall-to-wall carpet on the dining room floor and in the foyer. The menu included coconut cream pie, peanut butter and jelly sandwiches cut in wedges sans crust, a Pacific Paragon salad sandwich, tomatoes stuffed with cottage cheese, and a frozen fruit salad with whipped cream dressing served with minced turkey finger sandwiches. Sandwiches cost from 0.95 to 1.50 dollars, included open-faced Swiss cheese and turkey with thousand island dressing, corned beef on pumpernickel, and a club sandwich served with fruit aspic. At daily fashion shows, models walked among the tables presenting the latest fashion."
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "Bread from mixed cereal grains was first made around 3700 BC in Britain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of New England",
        "text": "\"Country stores\" sold homemade jams, fruit preserves and penny candy. Common crackers are still made with the original recipe dating to 1828."
      },
      {
        "title": "Confectionery in the English Renaissance",
        "text": "Sweetmeats frequently served in banquets included fruits preserved in sugar syrup, marmalades, moulded fruit pastes, comfits, conserves, and biscuits. Quince marmalade was a common feature of Elizabethan-era banquets, served in tandem with other preserves. A common practice after a meal would be to \"seal\" or placate the stomach with quince marmalade. Comfits and cordial waters served a similar purpose, which were consumed to counteract the effects of eating too much."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "James Woodforde's \"Diary of a Country Parson\" gives a good idea of the sort of food eaten in England in the eighteenth century by those who could afford to eat whatever they liked. To welcome some neighbours on 8 June 1781, he gave them for dinner:"
      },
      {
        "title": "English society",
        "text": "The people discovered new foods (such as the potato and tomato imported from the Americas), and developed new tastes during the era. The more prosperous enjoyed a wide variety of food and drink, including exotic new drinks such as tea, coffee, and chocolate. French and Italian chefs appeared in the country houses and palaces, bringing new standards of food preparation and taste. For example, the English developed a taste for acidic foods\u2014such as oranges for the upper class\u2014and started to use vinegar heavily. The gentry paid increasing attention to their gardens, with new fruits, vegetables and herbs; pasta, pastries, and dried mustard balls first appeared on the table. The apricot was a special treat at fancy banquets. Roast beef remained a staple for those who could afford it. The rest ate a great deal of bread and fish. Every class had a taste for beer and rum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Headcorn",
        "text": "In 1940, following the evacuation from Dunkirk, many thousands of British and allied troops received their first meal in England at Headcorn Station. Local volunteers assisted the Royal Army Service Corps in providing refreshments. One hundred trains per day were halted, allowing only eight minutes for each."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea (meal)",
        "text": "Commercial establishments known as teahouses or tearooms (similar to a coffeehouse) were once common in the UK, but they have declined in popularity since WWII. A.B.C. tea shops and Lyons Corner Houses were successful chains of such establishments, and played a role in opening up possibilities for Victorian women. A list of significant tea houses in Britain gives more examples. They served light snacks or full meals all day, some of them late into the evening. They were well-lit and did not serve alcohol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Imperial Tea Court",
        "text": "The tearoom opened in San Francisco in Chinatown in 1993. That location has closed; current locations are in San Francisco's Ferry Building and in nearby Berkeley. In 2012 the Fongs organized San Francisco's first Tea Festival at their Ferry Building location."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fire eating",
        "text": "Although not the earliest, the first to attract the attention of the upper classes was an Englishman named Richardson, who first performed in France in 1667. His methods were subsequently made public by his servant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of New England",
        "text": "They were traditionally served as a flatbread alongside chipped beef or baked beans, but in modern times they are usually eaten for breakfast with butter and maple syrup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bride",
        "text": "The cake-eating went out of fashion, but the wheat ears survived. In the Middle Ages they were either worn or carried by the bride. Eventually it became the custom for the young girls to assemble outside the church porch and throw grains of wheat over the bride, and afterwards a scramble for the grains took place. In time the wheat-grains came to be cooked into thin dry biscuits, which were broken over the bride's head, as is the custom in Scotland today, an oatmeal cake being used. In Elizabeth's reign these biscuits began to take the form of small rectangular cakes made of eggs, milk, sugar, currants and spices. Every wedding guest had one at least, and the whole collection were thrown at the bride the instant she crossed the threshold. Those that lighted on her head or shoulders were most prized by the scramblers. At last these cakes became amalgamated into a large one that took on its full glories of almond paste and ornaments during Charles II's time. But even today in rural parishes, e.g. north Notts, wheat is thrown over the bridal couple with the cry \"Bread for life and pudding for ever,\" expressive of a wish that the newly wed may be always affluent. The throwing of rice, a very ancient custom but one later than the wheat, is symbolical of the wish that the bridal may be fruitful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bishopsbourne",
        "text": "The Tadpole Tearoom, located on Frog Lane, opened in a converted farmyard in 2017 and serves hot and cold food, drinks and baked goods."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "East Anglian cookery would have included recipes for dishes like suet puddings, wheaten breads, and a few shellfish delicacies, like winkles, and would have been at the time of settlement simple Puritan fare quite in contrast to the fineries and excesses expected in London cavalier circles. Most of the cuisine started with one-pot cookery, which resulted in such dishes as succotash, chowder, baked beans, and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quaglino's",
        "text": "Queen Elizabeth II dined at Quaglino's in 1956, making her the first reigning British monarch to eat at a public restaurant. The restaurant was said to have a table permanently reserved for the regular visits by Princess Margaret, the Duke and Duchess of Kent and Princess Alexandra."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dishoom (restaurant)",
        "text": "Evoking the Irani caf\u00e9s which were popular across Bombay in the 1960s, Dishoom was founded in 2010 by co-founders Shamil Thakrar and Kavi Thakrar. The first Dishoom caf\u00e9 opened in Covent Garden in 2010. As of 2022, there are eight Dishoom restaurants open around the United Kingdom, with locations in London, Edinburgh, Manchester and Birmingham."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Tuck Box",
        "text": "In 1941, two sisters, Mrs. Watson and Mrs. Bumbridge, converted the front building into a tearoom and named it the \"Tuck Box\" after the trunks British schoolchildren used to carry their books and supplies. Today it is still a tea room that serves sandwiches, salads, hot tea in teapots, and scones with cream, orange marmalade, and other preserves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Buffet",
        "text": "In the 19th century, supper, a lighter meal some hours after the main dinner, was sometimes served as a buffet (and so called), especially late at night at grand balls, where not everyone present eats at the same time, or in the same quantity. Even in a very large building, at a large ball there might not be enough space to seat all guests at the same time, or servants to serve them in the manner required by the prevailing customs. A large cooked English breakfast with various choices was also very often routinely served this way, for similar reasons. Even when many servants were on hand, there might be an element of self-service. The term \"buffet\" originally referred to the French sideboard furniture where the food was placed, but eventually became applied to the serving format."
      },
      {
        "title": "Teahouse",
        "text": "A teahouse (mainly Asia) or tearoom (also tea room) is an establishment which primarily serves tea and other light refreshments. A tea room may be a room set aside in a hotel especially for serving afternoon tea, or may be an establishment which only serves cream teas. Although the function of a tearoom may vary according to the circumstance or country, teahouses often serve as centers of social interaction, like coffeehouses."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Closet of the Eminently Learned Sir Kenelme Digbie Kt. Opened",
        "text": "It then provides recipes for \"sallets\", eggs, potage, meat pie and meat and vegetable pasties, cooked and prepared meats, syllabub, cakes, pies, puddings and other desserts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of New England",
        "text": "During the colonial era, elections were celebrated with drink and a huge celebration cake large enough to feed the entire community, and the recipe as given by Amelia Simmons in 1796 called for butter, sugar, raisins, eggs, wine and spices in enormous quantities. Hasty pudding is sometimes found in rural communities, particularly around Thanksgiving."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tatar cuisine",
        "text": "Another non-alcoholic sweet beverage is \"\u015firb\u00e4t\" (sherbet) made from honey. In the 19th and early 20th century it was a purely ceremonial drink, served to wedding guests as the \"bride's sherbet\" in the bridegroom's home."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iftar",
        "text": "The room was a perfect square, totally unfurnished, save that in the centre of the floor was spread a carpet, on which stood a wooden frame, about two feet in height, supporting an immense round plated tray, with the edge slightly raised. In the centre of the tray was placed a capacious white basin, filled with a kind of cold bread soup; and around it were ranged a circle of small porcelain saucers, filled with sliced cheese, anchovies, caviare, and sweetmeats of every description: among these were scattered spoons of box-wood, and goblets of pink and white sherbet, whose rose-scented contents perfumed the apartment. The outer range of the tray was covered with fragments of unleavened bread, torn asunder; and portions of the Ramazan cake, a dry, close, sickly kind of paste, glazed with the whites of eggs, and strewed over with aniseeds.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Buffet",
        "text": "During the 18th century, more subtle demonstrations of wealth were preferred. The buffet was revived in England and France at the end of the century, when new ideals of privacy made a modicum of self-service at breakfast-time appealing, even among those who could have had a footman servant behind each chair. In \"The Cabinet Dictionary\" of 1803, Thomas Sheraton presented a neoclassical design and observed that \"a buffet may, with some propriety, be restored to modern use, and prove ornamental to a modern breakfast-room, answering as the china cabinet/repository of a tea equipage.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Acadian House Museum",
        "text": "La Cuisine de Brigitte (Also known as The Tearoom) is a cafe independent from the museum, owned by Donna Goldworthy. The Tearoom specializes in serving traditional Acadian food, and often caters to events hosted in conjunction with the museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of New England",
        "text": "The original menu included \"Indian corn\", wild fowl, including wild turkey and waterfowl, and venison. These are only foods mentioned by primary sources, however food historians have speculated as to what else may have been served. In addition to wild turkey, duck and goose, swan and passenger pigeons were plentiful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yeomen Warders",
        "text": "While this is the most-cited etymology, including by the Corps themselves, some etymologists have noted the term's similarity to \"\", the Old English term for a menial servant, lit. \"loaf-eater\", the counterpart of hlaford \"loaf-warden\" and hl\u00e6fdige, which became \"lord\" and \"lady\" respectively. Claims that the name derives from \"buffetier\" (an Old French term meaning 'a waiter or servant' at a sideboard) are often mentioned, since one role of Beefeaters was to attend the king at meals. However, Skeat in \"An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language\" (published 1879\u20131882), concludes that there is \"not the faintest tittle of evidence\" for this conjecture. Other reliable sources also indicate that \"buffetier\" is unlikely to have been the source of the word."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mei Quong Tart",
        "text": "The QVB Tearoom and the Tea Centre on King Street also arranged a special menu item of \"quong tarts\", a unique fruit tart, to celebrate their historical link with Mei Quong Tart."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catherine Cranston",
        "text": "The Willow Tearooms were renamed, then in 1928 they were sold on to Daly's department store who incorporated the premises into their shop, keeping the Room de Luxe in operation as the department store tea room."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabeth Raffald",
        "text": "According to the lexicographer John Ayto, Raffald was the first writer to provide a recipe for crumpets; she provided an early recipe in English cuisine for cooking yams, and an early reference to barbecuing. Ahead of her time, she was a proponent of adding wine to dishes while there was still cooking time left, \"to take off the rawness, for nothing can give a made dish a more disagreeable taste than raw wine or fresh anchovy\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sandwich",
        "text": "Initially perceived as food that men shared while gaming and drinking at night, the sandwich slowly began appearing in polite society as a late-night meal among the aristocracy. The sandwich is named after John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, an eighteenth-century English aristocrat. It is said that he ordered his valet to bring him meat tucked between two pieces of bread. It is commonly said that Lord Sandwich was fond of this form of food because it allowed him to continue playing cards, particularly cribbage, while eating, without using a fork, and without getting his cards greasy from eating meat with his bare hands. The rumour in its familiar form appeared in Pierre-Jean Grosley's \"Londres\" (Neuch\u00e2tel, 1770), translated as \"A Tour to London\" in 1772; Grosley's impressions had been formed during a year in London in 1765. An alternative is provided by Sandwich's biographer, N. A. M. Rodger, who suggests Sandwich's commitments to the navy, and to politics and the arts, mean the first sandwich was more likely to have been consumed at his desk."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Box Tree",
        "text": "The restaurant opened originally as a tearoom in 1962, and went on to become one of the first four British restaurants to win two stars in 1977, under head chef Michael Lawson. After losing both stars, it regained a star between 1996 and 2001, whilst owned by Helen Avis. In 2010, former employee Marco Pierre White bought into the restaurant. It serves modern French cuisine, and has also been awarded three AA rosettes and listed in \"Harden's\" restaurant guide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Railway refreshment room",
        "text": "A railway refreshment room is a catering facility attached to a railway station that was formerly common in Britain, Australia, New Zealand, and other countries that were formerly part of the British Empire. They were opened in the 19th century to serve passengers when trains did not convey catering facilities, and thus served passengers en route. Refreshment rooms were similar to tearooms, and generally served a variety of hot drinks, pastries, cakes, and light meals. With the introduction of buffet and restaurant cars, their importance began to decline."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anglo-Indian cuisine",
        "text": "Some early restaurants in England, such as the Hindoostane Coffee House in George Street, London, which opened in 1810, served Anglo-Indian food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Open sandwich",
        "text": "During the start of the middle ages, thin slabs of coarse bread called \"trenches\" (late 15th century English) or, in its French derivative, \"trenchers\", were used as plates. At the end of the meal, the food-soaked trencher was eaten by the diner (from which we get the expression \"trencherman\"), or perhaps fed to a dog or saved for beggars. Trenchers were as much the harbingers of open-face sandwiches as they were of disposable crockery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Food and the Scottish royal household",
        "text": "An English herald, John Young, wrote about etiquette and seating arrangements at meals during the reception of Margaret Tudor at Holyrood in 1503. He mentions some dishes at the dinner following her wedding on 8 August. The first course involved a gilded boar's head on a platter, a fair piece of brawn, and gammon ham. Apart from these delicacies, Young does not specify other foods. The ingredients of brawn, calf's head and jelly or aspic are frequently mentioned in later Scottish royal household books. A menu for the whole banquet survives, copied into a London chronicle. It lists the same three opening dishes of the first course as, \"The Borys head solemnly shedd, Sheydis & Rondis of Braun with mustard, Gambonys of Bacon with pestellys of pork\". Desserts were served with \"custard royall\". Spiced \"Hippocras\" wine was made by the apothecary, John Mosman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Antebellum America",
        "text": "Before restaurants became established in the social culture of the United States, formal dinners were held in private homes for family and friends. These could be elaborate affairs, with one meal held in 1830 in celebration for the 200th anniversary of the settlement of Salem consisting of no less that 14 selections for the first course, followed by 11 varieties of roast bird and meats for the second course. French influenced dishes like chicken \"fricassee\" and \"vol au vent au boeuf\" were still commonplace at such gatherings well into the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atora",
        "text": "In the past, it was common to be able to find blocks of suet at grocers' shops; however, it was not until 1893 that the first pre-shredded suet became available. It was the brainchild of Gabriel Hugon, a French man living in Manchester. He observed his wife struggling to cut blocks of suet in the kitchen and set about to create ready-shredded suet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ribollita",
        "text": "Some sources date it back to the Middle Ages when the servants gathered up food-soaked bread trenchers from feudal lords' banquets and boiled them for their dinners."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kissaten",
        "text": "A , literally a \"tea-drinking shop\", is a Japanese-style tearoom that is also a coffee shop. They developed in the early 20th century as a distinction from a caf\u00e9, as caf\u00e9s had become places also serving alcohol with noise and celebration. A \"kissaten\" was a quiet place to drink coffee and gathering places for writers and intellectuals."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "After the First World War, many new food products became available to the typical household, with branded foods advertised for their convenience. Kitchen servants with time to make custards and puddings were replaced with instant foods in jars, or powders that the housewife could quickly mix. American-style dry cereals began to challenge the porridge and bacon and eggs of the middle classes, and the bread and margarine of the poor. While wartime shipping shortages had sharply narrowed choice, the 1920s saw many new kinds of fruit imported from around the world, along with better quality, packaging, and hygiene, aided by refrigerators and refrigerated ships. Authors in the 1930s such as Lady Sysonby drew on recipes from a wide range of countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ye Olde Cheshire Cheese",
        "text": "In 1962, the pub gave the Museum of London a number of sexually explicit erotic plaster of Paris tiles recovered from an upper room. These tiles strongly suggest that the room was used as a brothel in the mid-eighteenth century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eton mess",
        "text": "Eton mess is a traditional English dessert consisting of a mixture of strawberries, meringue, and whipped cream. First mentioned in print in 1893, it is commonly believed to originate from Eton College and is served at the annual cricket match against the pupils of Harrow School. Eton mess is occasionally served at Harrow School, where it is referred to as Harrow mess."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tudor food and drink",
        "text": "Tudors of all classes consumed bread in all of their meals as the main source of carbohydrates; however, its quality varied. The cheapest bread available was Carter's bread, which was a mixture of rye and wheat. The middle class or prosperous tenants ate ravel\u2014also known as yeoman's bread\u2014made of wholemeal. The most expensive bread was manchet, made of white wheat flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "For many years, English writers including Hannah Glasse in the 18th century and Andrew Kirwan in the 19th century were ambivalent about French cooking. However, restaurants serving French haute cuisine developed for the upper and middle classes in England from the 1830s and Escoffier was recruited by the Savoy Hotel in 1890. Marcel Boulestin's 1923 \"Simple French Cooking for English Homes\" did much to popularise French dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Manchet",
        "text": "There is also a reference to \"Manchetts for the Queen's Maides\", a royal ordinance originating from Eltham Palace in 1526 during Henry VIII's reign which describes a menu for medieval aristocracy. It is inserted because a correspondent had requested when manchets were to be served at court. This suggests that in origin it was a luxurious bread containing ingredients that were available only to the wealthy. The most superior wheat for a manchet was said to come from Heston, near Hounslow during the reign of Elizabeth I."
      },
      {
        "title": "Service \u00e0 la fran\u00e7aise",
        "text": "Until about 1800, no glasses or drinks were on the table at the start of the meal. Footmen were beckoned and brought a salver with a glass of wine, and a decanter of water to dilute it if desired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Dorset",
        "text": "Many of the traditional dishes originate from the 17th and 18th centuries. At this time, much of the workforce were employed as agricultural labourers and, though they produced most of the food, their diet was poor. The gentry, unique in being able to shop for produce, and farmers, fared better. Despite this, until the early 19th century at least, simple foods, such as bread, comprised a sizeable part of the diet of all classes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabeth Raffald",
        "text": "For the first edition of \"The Experienced English Housekeeper\", Raffald had tested all the recipes herself; for the second edition in 1771, she added 100 recipes, some of which she had bought and not tested, but, she informed her readers, she had \"weighed them the best I could\". Colquhoun considers that the recipes Raffald wrote were those that appealed to Middle England, including \"shredded calves' feet, hot chicken pies and carrot puddings, poached eggs on toast, macaroni with parmesan, and lettuce stewed in mint and gravy\". Raffald was, Colquhoun writes, typical of her time, as she did not want to use garlic, preferred to eat crisp vegetables, and used grated horseradish and cayenne pepper\u2014the last of these Colquhoun describes as \"the taste of Empire\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "\"Elinor Fettiplace's Receipt Book\", compiled in 1604 (and first published in 1986) gives an intimate view of Elizabethan cookery. The book provides recipes for various forms of bread, such as buttered loaves; for apple fritters; preserves and pickles; and a celebration cake for 100 people. New ingredients appear; a recipe for dressing a shoulder of mutton calls for the use of the newly available citrus fruits:"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cuisine\n--History.\n----Middle Ages.\n----Sixteenth century.\n----Seventeenth century.\n----Eighteenth century.\n----Nineteenth century.\n----Twentieth century.\n--Stereotypes.\n--Foreign influence.\n----The role of Empire.\n----Indian and Anglo-Indian cuisine.\n----Other influences.\n--Food establishments.\n----Cafes and tea shops.\n----Fish and chip shops.\n----Pub food.\n--Vegetarianism.\n--Quality.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sandwich",
        "text": "During the Middle Ages in Europe, thick slabs of coarse and usually stale bread, called \"trenchers,\" were used as plates. After a meal, the food-soaked trencher was fed to a dog or to beggars at the tables of the wealthy, and eaten by diners in more modest circumstances. The immediate culinary precursor with a direct connection to the English sandwich was to be found in the Netherlands of the seventeenth century, where the naturalist John Ray observed that in the taverns beef hung from the rafters \"which they cut into thin slices and eat with bread and butter laying the slices upon the butter\"\u2014explanatory specifications that reveal the Dutch \"belegde broodje\", open-faced sandwich, was as yet unfamiliar in England."
      },
      {
        "title": "Farthingale",
        "text": "French farthingales originated in court circles in France and they first appeared in England during the 1570s. On 17 March 1577 the English ambassador to Paris, Amyas Paulet, sent a new type of farthingale to Queen Elizabeth I stating that it was \"such as is now used by the French Queen and the Queen of Navarre.\" Janet Arnold has stated that this new style was probably a roll that sat on top of the cone-shaped Spanish farthingale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great British Menu",
        "text": "The first course was referred to as canap\u00e9s for this season, rather than the amuse-bouche from the last season."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Another country clergyman, Gilbert White, in \"The Natural History of Selborne\" (1789) recorded the increased consumption of vegetables by ordinary country people in the south of England, to which, he noted, potatoes, from the Americas, had only been added during the reign of King George III:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pollen Street Social",
        "text": "The initial menu was criticised by critics for being overcomplicated. Due to Atherton's history of working at Maze, there was confusion over whether certain small plates were starters and which were sharing platters. Within a month of opening, this was reduced down to eight starters and eight mains. The desserts include the signature \"PBJ\", which features peanut butter mousse, cherry jam and rice puffs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabethan era",
        "text": "England was exposed to new foods (such as the potato imported from South America), and developed new tastes during the era. The more prosperous enjoyed a wide variety of food and drink, including exotic new drinks such as tea, coffee, and chocolate. French and Italian chefs appeared in the country houses and palaces bringing new standards of food preparation and taste. For example, the English developed a taste for acidic foods\u2014such as oranges for the upper class\u2014and started to use vinegar heavily. The gentry paid increasing attention to their gardens, with new fruits, vegetables and herbs; pasta, pastries, and dried mustard balls first appeared on the table. The apricot was a special treat at fancy banquets. Roast beef remained a staple for those who could afford it. The rest ate a great deal of bread and fish. Every class had a taste for beer and rum."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of bread",
        "text": "From the late 18th century to the end of the 19th century, bread sold in England was often adulterated with hazardous materials, including chalk, sawdust, alum, plaster, clay and ammonium carbonate. Frederick Accum was the first to raise alarm to the food adulteration in 1820."
      },
      {
        "title": "French cuisine",
        "text": "Pies were a common banquet item, with the crust serving primarily as a container, rather than as food itself, and it was not until the very end of the Late Middle Ages that the shortcrust pie was developed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pub",
        "text": "In the 1950s some British pubs would offer \"a pie and a pint\", with hot individual steak and ale pies made easily on the premises by the proprietor's wife during the lunchtime opening hours. The ploughman's lunch became popular in the late 1960s, as did the convenient \"chicken in a basket\", a portion of roast chicken with chips, served on a napkin in a wicker basket."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "During the British Raj, Britain first started borrowing Indian dishes, creating Anglo-Indian cuisine, with dishes such as Kedgeree (1790) and Mulligatawny soup (1791). Indian food was served in coffee houses from 1809, and cooked at home from a similar date as cookbooks of the time attest. The Veeraswamy restaurant in Regent Street, London, was opened in 1926, at first serving Anglo-Indian food, and is the oldest surviving Indian restaurant in Britain. There was a sharp increase in the number of curry houses in the 1940s, and again in the 1970s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flapjack (oat bar)",
        "text": "The \"Oxford English Dictionary\" records the word \"flapjack\" as being used as early as the beginning of the 16th century, although at this time it seems to have been a flat tart. Shakespeare refers to \"flap-jacks\" in \"Pericles, Prince of Tyre\", but this is one of the many anachronisms in his historical plays and does not suggest that he thought it was a middle eastern dish, merely a common English dessert of the time:\n:\"Come, thou shant go home, and we'll have flesh for holidays, fish for fasting-days, and moreo'er puddings and flap-jacks, and thou shalt be welcome.\"\n::Act II Scene I"
      },
      {
        "title": "Confectionery in the English Renaissance",
        "text": "The English sweet banquet was an early form of the modern dessert course, consisting of sweet confections, spiced drinks, and complex sugarwork served after the main meal. It evolved from the medieval \"void\": a post-dinner course where small treats were served after the table had been cleared, or \"voided\". Additionally, it was also influenced by the Italian \"collazione\", or \"sugar collation\", a luxurious presentation of sweetmeats and sugar sculptures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Almack's",
        "text": "The club took pains not to resemble expensive private balls by avoiding sumptuous repasts. In the Regency period, refreshments in the supper rooms consisted of thinly-sliced bread (which must be a day old to be sliced that thinly) with fresh butter, and dry cake (dry meaning unfrosted, without icing, not stale), probably similar to pound cake. To avoid drunkenness, only tea and lemonade were served in the supper rooms. By the 1830s, refreshments had fallen off in quality: \"Now there is no supper; there is nothing in the shape of refreshments but tea and lemonade, and the worst of it is, that both articles are so miserably bad that it requires an effort to drink either. The lemonade is sour as vinegar; while to apply the word tea to the stuff called by that name at Almack's, were one of the most unwarrantable perversions of language ever perpetrated. Give it to any person with-out calling it by any name, and that person will soon find one for himself. He will at once call it chalk and water.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cafeteria",
        "text": "Perhaps the first self-service restaurant (not necessarily a cafeteria) in the U.S. was the Exchange Buffet in New York City, opened September 4, 1885, which catered to an exclusively male clientele. Food was purchased at a counter and patrons ate standing up. This represents the predecessor of two formats: the cafeteria, described below and the automat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rode Hall",
        "text": "Rode Hall is still owned and occupied by the Wilbrahams, currently by the 8th Baronet, Sir Richard Baker Wilbraham, and his wife, Lady (Anne) Baker Wilbraham. The hall and gardens are open to the public from April to September, for an entrance fee. The tearooms, located in the 1752 section of the hall, use and sell the produce from the kitchen garden. Every month a farmers' market is held next to the kitchen garden."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Fleece Inn",
        "text": "Reputedly Oliver Cromwell's pewter dinner service was exchanged on the way to the battle of Worcester and this is on display at the pub. Even if this account is not true, it is an example of 17th century Jacobean English Pewter ware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of New England",
        "text": "The first Thanksgiving meal was shared by the Wampanoag and Pilgrims at Plymouth Rock. The menu would have been considerably more humble than the modern Thanksgiving dinner which typically includes turkey with stuffing, cranberry sauce, candied yams, mashed potatoes and pumpkin pie. Though filled pastries were common in English cuisine, the colonists did not have wheat flour or butter, so pie would have been absent from the original Thanksgiving table. White potatoes and sweet potatoes had not yet reached North America, and the first literary mention of cranberry sauce dates some 50 years after the first Thanksgiving meal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scottish Rite Dormitory",
        "text": "Old jokes about poor institutional food, especially in dormitories have never applied to SRD. Girls who have lived there usually mention the food first when expressing their feelings about the dormitory. One special dessert every SRD alumni nostalgically remembers is Chocolate Crumble Balls (CCB's). In addition to daily meals, the kitchen staff prepared special refreshments for birthday dinners, pajama parties, and other special occasions, such as the spring formal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Service \u00e0 la russe",
        "text": "The Russian Ambassador Alexander Kurakin is credited with bringing to France in 1810, at a meal in Clichy on the outskirts of Paris. It eventually caught on in England, becoming the norm by the 1870s and 1880s, though in France there was considerable resistance and lingered on until the 1890s, and even beyond for the most formal state banquets. is now the style in which most modern Western restaurants serve food (with some significant modifications)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catherine Cranston",
        "text": "Kate Cranston expanded her first tearoom to take over the whole building at 114 Argyle Street and commissioned Walton to design a new more modern interior, which opened in 1898. Walton's work included fireplaces, stencilled wall murals and stained glass panels for the doors. In the luncheon room the murals and door panels had a rose pattern theme. The furniture was designed by Mackintosh, introducing for the first time his characteristic high-backed chairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hasty pudding",
        "text": "Hasty pudding\n--Terminology.\n--American cuisine.\n----Colonial United States.\n----Antebellum period.\n--\"Yankee Doodle\" and other literary references.\n--Similar dishes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "In 1953, Britain's first celebrity chef, Philip Harben, published \"Traditional Dishes of Britain\". Its chapter titles simply listed \"the stereotypical stalwarts of the British diet\", from Cornish pasty and Yorkshire pudding to shortbread, Lancashire hotpot, steak and kidney pudding, jellied eels, clotted cream and fish and chips. Panayi noted that Harben began with contradictions and unsupported claims, naming Britain's supposed reputation for the worst food in the world, but claiming that the country's cooks were technically unmatched and that the repertoire of national dishes was the largest of any country's."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hedge's Wigwam",
        "text": "The cafeteria-style buffet was unique in the area. Once inside the restaurant, patrons were led to their table by a host dressed as a Native American maiden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beaconsfield House",
        "text": "The messes served relatively cheap meals and were open to the public."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cuisine in the twentieth century suffered from a poor international reputation. Keith Arscott of Chawton House Library comments that \"at one time people didn't think the English knew how to cook and yet these [eighteenth and nineteenth century] female writers were at the forefront of modern day cooking.\" English food was popularly supposed to be bland, but English cuisine has made extensive use of spices since the Middle Ages; introduced curry to Europe; and makes use of strong flavourings such as English mustard. It was similarly reputed to be dull, like roast beef: but that dish was highly prized both in Britain and abroad, and few people could afford it; the \"Roast Beef of Old England\" lauded by William Hogarth in his 1748 painting celebrated the high quality of English cattle, which the French at the \"Gate of Calais\" (the other name of his painting) could only look at with envy. The years of wartime shortages and rationing certainly did impair the variety and flavour of English food during the twentieth century, but the nation's cooking recovered from this with increasing prosperity and the availability of new ingredients from soon after the Second World War."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dorman Museum",
        "text": "The museum also benefits from a Victorian style tearoom on the ground floor, named Dresser's Tea Room, which serves sandwiches, cakes, hot and cold drinks, and afternoon tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trinity College, Toronto",
        "text": "In parody of the college's Oxbridge traditions, the first year students would occasionally disrupt the formality of the meal by hurling buns at their fellow undergraduates. When this occurred, it was the job of the second years to eject all offending first years, or occasionally fellow upper years, from the hall. This was generally done with much struggle, however with little injury to any of the parties concerned. As the artillery was traditionally limited to simple bread rolls, no significant damage results from these incidents. This tradition has since fallen into abeyance, as formal dinners went from a daily to a weekly event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wendouree Tearooms",
        "text": "Today the tearooms are located in a single height brick structure with prominent parapet which is slightly Egyptian in style with an art"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croquette",
        "text": "The ragout-filled dish was regarded as a French delicacy, first described in a recipe from 1691 by the chef of the French king Louis XIV, using ingredients such as truffles, sweetbreads, and cream cheese. From the 1800s onwards, it became a way to use up leftover stewed meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Aerated bread was leavened by carbon dioxide being forced into dough under pressure. From the mid-19th to mid-20th centuries, bread made this way was somewhat popular in the United Kingdom, made by the Aerated Bread Company and sold in its high-street tearooms. The company was founded in 1862, and ceased independent operations in 1955."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catherine Cranston",
        "text": "The continuing interest in Miss Cranston is also reflected in the prices realised for items associated with her tearooms; for example \u00a3940 for six pieces of cutlery stamped Miss Cranston's."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some things people ate in the Middle Ages?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Cereals remained the most important staple during the early Middle Ages as rice was introduced late, and the potato was only introduced in 1536, with a much later date for widespread consumption; barley, oats and rye were eaten by the poor. Meat was more expensive and therefore more prestigious."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did cafes and tea shops get started?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Different regions of the world have different history of cafes and tea shops. Do you want to know more about their origin in Asia, Europe or elsewhere?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about their origin in English cuisine."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In 1864, Britain, a female manager of London's Aerated Bread Company was credited with creating the bakery's first public tearoom."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did they serve at the first public tearoom?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I am not sure, but traditionally, items served at afternoon tea included thinly-sliced bread and butter, delicate sandwiches, and usually cakes, pastries, and scones.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I did not find the answer, but I did find that a female manager of London's Aerated Bread Company is credited with creating the bakery's first public tearoom in 1864,[9] which became a thriving chain."
    ],
    "topic": "English cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Tea (meal):10",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tea (meal)",
          "Afternoon tea"
        ],
        "ctx": "Afternoon tea is a light meal typically eaten between 3:30 pm and 5 pm. Traditionally it consisted of thinly-sliced bread and butter, delicate sandwiches (customarily cucumber sandwiches or egg and cress sandwiches) and usually cakes and pastries (such as Battenberg cake or Victoria sponge). Scones (with clotted cream and jam) would also be served (as they are for cream tea). The sandwiches are usually crustless, cut into small segments, either as triangles or fingers, and pressed thin. Biscuits are not usually served."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Teahouse:11",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Teahouse",
          "Europe",
          "Britain"
        ],
        "ctx": "Tea drinking is a pastime closely associated with the English. A female manager of London's Aerated Bread Company is credited with creating the bakery's first public tearoom in 1864, which became a thriving chain. Tea rooms were part of the growing opportunities for women in the Victorian era."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Tea (meal)",
        "text": "By the end of the 19th century, afternoon tea developed in its current form and was observed by both the upper and middle classes. It had become ubiquitous, even in the isolated village in the fictionalised memoir \"Lark Rise to Candleford\", where a cottager prepares what she calls a \"visitor's tea\" for their landlady: \"the table was laid\u2026 there were the best tea things with a fat pink rose on the side of each cup; hearts of lettuce, thin bread and butter, and the crisp little cakes that had been baked in readiness that morning.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea (meal)",
        "text": "Observance of the custom originated amongst the wealthy social classes in England in the 1840s. Anna Maria, Duchess of Bedford, is widely credited with inventing afternoon tea in England as a late-afternoon meal whilst visiting Belvoir Castle in Leicestershire in 1840. This legend may have been furthered by the 1882 memoir of the actress Fanny Kemble, who wrote: \"My first introduction to \u2018afternoon tea\u2019 took place during this visit to Belvoir [in 1842]. I do not believe that the now universally-honoured institution of \u2018five o'clock tea\u2019 dates further back than this.\" The \"Oxford English Dictionary\" (which quotes Kemble) provides citations dating back a century before the putative Belvoir coinage, in reference to tea as a social gathering. The earliest is from Jonathan Swift's satirical etiquette guide, \"A Complete Collection of Genteel and Ingenious Conversation\" (1738), \"Whether they meet..at Meals, Tea, or Visits\". In Fanny Burney's 1778 novel \"Evelina\", the heroine writes that \" I was relieved by a summons to tea\". John Wesley and Harriet Martineau also are quoted. Philosopher Thomas Carlyle and his wife Jane Welsh Carlyle invited guests for 7 pm to their teas in the 1850s, although 'afternoon tea' before dinner was also becoming established by this time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Teahouse",
        "text": "Tea drinking is a pastime closely associated with the English. A female manager of London's Aerated Bread Company is credited with creating the bakery's first public tearoom in 1864, which became a thriving chain. Tea rooms were part of the growing opportunities for women in the Victorian era."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anna Russell, Duchess of Bedford",
        "text": "The Duchess is best remembered as the creator of afternoon tea whilst visiting the 5th Duke of Rutland at Belvoir Castle in the mid-1840s. During the 18th century, dinner came to be served later and later in the day until, by the early 19th century, the normal time was between 7:00 and 8:30\u00a0p.m. An extra meal called luncheon had been created to fill the midday gap between breakfast and dinner, but as this new meal was very light, the long afternoon with no refreshment at all left people feeling hungry. She found a light meal of tea (usually Darjeeling) and cakes or sandwiches to be the perfect balance. The Duchess found taking an afternoon snack to be such a perfect refreshment that she soon began inviting her friends to join her. Afternoon tea quickly became an established and convivial repast in many upper middle and upper class households."
      },
      {
        "title": "English Argentines",
        "text": "Afternoon tea became standard amongst large segments of the population and generated the popular \"merienda\", an afternoon snack also known simply as \"la leche\" (milk) because it was served with tea or chocolate milk along with sweets. The Richmond caf\u00e9 on Florida Street is a notable tea venue near the Harrods department store, now an exhibition hall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea (meal)",
        "text": "Afternoon tea is a light meal typically eaten between 3:30 pm and 5 pm. Traditionally it consisted of thinly-sliced bread and butter, delicate sandwiches (customarily cucumber sandwiches or egg and cress sandwiches) and usually cakes and pastries (such as Battenberg cake or Victoria sponge). Scones (with clotted cream and jam) would also be served (as they are for cream tea). The sandwiches are usually crustless, cut into small segments, either as triangles or fingers, and pressed thin. Biscuits are not usually served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of England",
        "text": "Traditionally, High Tea would be had as a full evening meal, whereas Afternoon Tea was a lighter meal taken earlier in the afternoon only by the upper and middle classes of society, the idea being popularized by Anna Russell, Duchess of Bedford in the 1840s. A cream tea includes a pot of tea and scones (or buns called splits) served with jam and clotted cream from Devon or Cornwall, sometimes accompanied by dainty finger sandwiches, with fillings such as cucumber and smoked salmon.English cakes include a variety of fruit cakes, such as Genoa cake, and sponge cakes, such as Victoria sponge, Madeira cake, Battenberg cake, chocolate sponge, coffee cake, lemon drizzle cake, fairy cakes and Queen cakes. Wartime rationing popularised carrot cake. Simnel cake is a special fruit cake associated with Mothering Sunday and Easter. The traditional wedding cake is made from a rich fruitcake. Parkin and toffee apples are eaten on Guy Fawkes Night. Particular types of gingerbread are associated with Grasmere, Market Drayton and Cornwall. Eccles cakes and Banbury cakes are small round cakes filled with currants. Other items served for afternoon tea include teacakes, crumpets and pikelets, English muffins, Cornish saffron cake and buns, tea loaf, malt loaf, seed cake, rock cakes, flapjacks, jam tarts, maids of honour tarts, doughnuts and lardy cakes. Lemon curd or honey Cheese scones are made using grated cheese with a strong flavour such as Cheddar or Red Leicester. They may be served at afternoon tea as an alternative to jam, cake, small pastries and fruit tarts. Teas are typically served in tearooms and hotels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lunch",
        "text": "Beginning in the 1840s, afternoon tea supplemented this luncheon at four o'clock. \"Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management\" (1861)a guide to all aspects of running a household in Victorian Britain, edited by Isabella Beetonhad much less to explain about luncheon than about dinners or ball suppers:"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Catherine of Braganza brought the Portuguese habit of tea to England around 1660. Initially, its expense restricted it to wealthy consumers, but the price gradually dropped, until by the 19th century its use was widespread. Introduced in the 16th century, coffee became popular by the 17th century, especially in the coffee houses, the first opening in Oxford in 1650. Hot chocolate was a popular drink by the 17th century, long before it was used as a food. Chocolate bars were developed and marketed by three English Quaker-founded businesses, Joseph Fry's (1847), Rowntree's (1862), and Cadbury's (1868)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea party",
        "text": "Queen Victoria reportedly ordered \"16 chocolate sponges, 12 plain sponges, 16 fondant biscuits\" along with other sweets for a tea party at Buckingham Palace. The afternoon tea party became a feature of great houses in the Victorian and Edwardian ages in the United Kingdom and the Gilded Age in the United States, as well as in all continental Europe (France, Germany, and the Russian Empire). The formal tea party still survives as an event, as in the debutante teas of some affluent American communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabethan era",
        "text": "England was exposed to new foods (such as the potato imported from South America), and developed new tastes during the era. The more prosperous enjoyed a wide variety of food and drink, including exotic new drinks such as tea, coffee, and chocolate. French and Italian chefs appeared in the country houses and palaces bringing new standards of food preparation and taste. For example, the English developed a taste for acidic foods\u2014such as oranges for the upper class\u2014and started to use vinegar heavily. The gentry paid increasing attention to their gardens, with new fruits, vegetables and herbs; pasta, pastries, and dried mustard balls first appeared on the table. The apricot was a special treat at fancy banquets. Roast beef remained a staple for those who could afford it. The rest ate a great deal of bread and fish. Every class had a taste for beer and rum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Argentina\u2013United Kingdom relations",
        "text": "Afternoon tea became standard amongst large segments of the population and generated the popular \"merienda\", an afternoon snack also known simply as \"la leche\" (milk) because it was served with tea or chocolate milk along with sweets. The Richmond caf\u00e9 on Florida Street is a notable tea venue near the Harrods department store, now turned into an exhibition hall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea",
        "text": "In the United Kingdom, 63% of people drink tea daily. It is customary for a host to offer tea to guests soon after their arrival. Tea is consumed both at home and outside the home, often in caf\u00e9s or tea rooms. Afternoon tea with cakes on fine porcelain is a cultural stereotype. In southwest England, many caf\u00e9s serve a cream tea, consisting of scones, clotted cream, and jam alongside a pot of tea. In some parts of Britain and India, 'tea' may also refer to the evening meal."
      },
      {
        "title": "English society",
        "text": "The people discovered new foods (such as the potato and tomato imported from the Americas), and developed new tastes during the era. The more prosperous enjoyed a wide variety of food and drink, including exotic new drinks such as tea, coffee, and chocolate. French and Italian chefs appeared in the country houses and palaces, bringing new standards of food preparation and taste. For example, the English developed a taste for acidic foods\u2014such as oranges for the upper class\u2014and started to use vinegar heavily. The gentry paid increasing attention to their gardens, with new fruits, vegetables and herbs; pasta, pastries, and dried mustard balls first appeared on the table. The apricot was a special treat at fancy banquets. Roast beef remained a staple for those who could afford it. The rest ate a great deal of bread and fish. Every class had a taste for beer and rum."
      },
      {
        "title": "A History of English Food",
        "text": "Page numbers refer to the first English edition.\n* 1 Bacon and new-laid eggs: the medieval larder 1\n* 2 Eastern spices and baked venison: the high middle ages 43\n* 3 Marzipan and new world turkeys: the Tudor kitchen 77\n* 4 Orange carrots and white bread: England in the age of Gloriana 117\n* 5 Preserved quince and my Lord of Devonshire's pudding: the Elizabethan year 149\n* 6 Double cream and pastry galleons: the early Stuarts 171\n* 7 Coffee and my Lord Lumley's pease-porage: war and peace in the Seventeenth century 201\n* 8 Roast beef and sweet oranges: the late Stuarts 231\n* 9 Turtle soup and plum pudding: the Georgian age 255\n* 10 Roast hare and Indian curry: the era of Hannah Glasse 293\n* 11 Pheasant consomm\u00e9 and forced peas: rich eating in the nineteenth century 315\n* 12 Brown Windsor soup and high tea: The world of the Victorians 343\n* 13 Omelette Arnold Bennett and bully beef: From the Edwardians to the eve of war 381\n* 14 Spam and coronation chicken: The Second World War and the years of austerity 417\n* 15 Prawn cocktail and pizza: Modern English food 445\n* Appendix of historical recipes 466"
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of England",
        "text": "The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by food critics with some good ratings in \"Restaurant\"'s best restaurant in the world charts. An early book of English recipes is the \"Forme of Cury\" from the royal court of Richard II. Traditional meals have ancient origins, such as bread, vegetables, cheese and onions, popular today as the Ploughman's lunch (usually accompanied by butter, pickles, chutney, ham, fresh green salad, boiled eggs, and apples), pottage and frumenty; roasted and stewed meats; meat and game pies; and freshwater and saltwater fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "Tea rooms of all kinds were widespread in Britain by the 1950s, but in the following decades caf\u00e9s became more fashionable, and tea rooms became less common. Nonetheless, there are still plenty of places that offer the opportunity to enjoy afternoon tea, a luxurious light meal of savoury snacks (tea sandwiches) and small pastries. A less formal alternative is a cream tea, particularly popular in the West Country, featuring a scone with jam and clotted cream. Another possibility is the high tea, hot savoury food as the day's final (but relatively early) meal. There are plenty of regional variations. In Scotland, for instance, teas are usually served with scones, pancakes, crumpets, and other cakes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian cuisine",
        "text": "The Victorian breakfast was usually a heavy meal: sausages, preserves, ham and eggs, served with bread rolls. The custom of high tea served before dinner, with milk and sugar, became well-established in Britain in the early 19th century. A selection of tea sandwiches and biscuits, petit fours, nuts and glazed fruits would be served on the most beautiful china with the tea, and sometimes alcohol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Dorset",
        "text": "Many of the traditional dishes originate from the 17th and 18th centuries. At this time, much of the workforce were employed as agricultural labourers and, though they produced most of the food, their diet was poor. The gentry, unique in being able to shop for produce, and farmers, fared better. Despite this, until the early 19th century at least, simple foods, such as bread, comprised a sizeable part of the diet of all classes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea (meal)",
        "text": "Commercial establishments known as teahouses or tearooms (similar to a coffeehouse) were once common in the UK, but they have declined in popularity since WWII. A.B.C. tea shops and Lyons Corner Houses were successful chains of such establishments, and played a role in opening up possibilities for Victorian women. A list of significant tea houses in Britain gives more examples. They served light snacks or full meals all day, some of them late into the evening. They were well-lit and did not serve alcohol."
      },
      {
        "title": "American cuisine",
        "text": "East Anglian cookery would have included recipes for dishes like suet puddings, wheaten breads, and a few shellfish delicacies, like winkles, and would have been at the time of settlement simple Puritan fare quite in contrast to the fineries and excesses expected in London cavalier circles. Most of the cuisine started with one-pot cookery, which resulted in such dishes as succotash, chowder, baked beans, and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "\"Tea\" is not only the name of the beverage but also of a light meal. Anna Maria, Duchess of Bedford, is credited with its creation, circa 1840. The notion of cakes or a light meal with tea passed to teahouses or tea rooms. In the West Country, cream teas are a speciality: scones, clotted cream and jam accompany the drink. Afternoon tea, in contemporary British usage, usually indicates a special occasion, perhaps in a hotel dining room, with savoury snacks (tea sandwiches) as well as small sweet pastries. Queen Victoria was known to enjoy sponge cake with her afternoon tea \u2013 after the invention of baking powder by Alfred Bird in 1843 which allowed the sponge to rise higher in cakes, a patriotic cake, Victoria sponge, was created, named after the Queen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "The popularity of tea dates back to the 19th century when India was part of the British Empire, and British interests controlled tea production in the subcontinent. It was, however, first introduced in the UK by the Portuguese Catherine of Braganza, queen consort of Charles II in the 1660s and 1670s. As tea spread throughout the United Kingdom and through the social classes, tea gardens and tea dances developed. These would include watching fireworks or a dinner party and dance, concluding with an evening tea. The tea gardens lost value after World War II but tea dances are still held today in the UK."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Antebellum America",
        "text": "Breakfast was the second largest meal of the day, usually a substantial meat or fish portion, shared with the family. Dinner was the largest meal and could be served between noon and three. (The custom of evening dinner did not arise until men in the city began to eat their mid-day meals away from home.) Afternoon teas, attended only by women, were usually served around 4PM, and could last up to two hours. The 6 o'clock supper or high tea was a full meal shared by the entire family."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea (meal)",
        "text": "The most common elements of the tea meal are the drink itself, with cakes or pastries (especially scones), bread and jam, and perhaps sandwiches; these are the pillars of the \"traditional afternoon tea\" meals offered by expensive London hotels. Other types of both drink and food may be offered at home, under the same name, tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of the United Kingdom",
        "text": "A quintessential British custom, afternoon tea, is a small meal typically eaten between 4 pm and 6 pm. The most popular drink in Britain, tea became more widely drunk due to Catherine of Braganza. It is traditionally accompanied with biscuits, sandwiches, scones, cakes or pastries (such as Battenberg cake, fruit cake or Victoria sponge). In his 1946 essay \"A Nice Cup of Tea\", author George Orwell wrote: \"Tea is one of the mainstays of civilisation in this country.\" McVitie's are the best selling biscuit brand in the UK, and the most popular biscuits to \"dunk\" in tea, with McVitie's chocolate digestives, rich tea and hobnobs ranked the nation's top three favourite biscuits. Other popular British biscuits include bourbons, custard creams, Jammie Dodgers, ginger nuts and shortbread. The first documented figure-shaped biscuits (gingerbread man) was at the court of Elizabeth I in the 16th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "English breakfast tea",
        "text": "The current naming practice is claimed to have originated not in England but America, as far back as Colonial times. An additional account (referencing a period-era Journal of Commerce article) dates the blend to 1843 and a tea merchant named Richard Davies in New York City. Davies, an English immigrant, started with a base of Congou and added a bit of Pekoe and Pouchong. It sold for 50 cents per pound () (equivalent to $ per pound in ), and its success led to imitators, helping to popularize the name. An investigation to find the original Journal of Commerce article failed to locate it but did come upon an earlier reference to the same story in an 1876 edition of the Daily Alta California, citing \"a New York commercial journal\" and dating the tea's origin to 1844. In an 1884 American publication it was noted that \"Bohea teas (are) known to trade in this country as \"English Breakfast\" tea, from its forming the staple shipment to England\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Afternoon tea is a British custom with widespread appeal. The British Empire spread its own interpretation of tea to its dominions and colonies, including regions that today comprise the states of Hong Kong, India, and Pakistan, which had pre-existing tea customs, as well as regions such as East Africa (modern-day Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda) and the Pacific (Australia and New Zealand) which did not have tea customs. The tea room or teahouse is found in the US, Ireland and many Commonwealth cities."
      },
      {
        "title": "English breakfast tea",
        "text": "English breakfast tea\n--Origins and history.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea cosy",
        "text": "Although the history of the tea cosy may begin when tea was introduced to Britain in the 1660s, the first documented use of a tea cosy in Britain was in 1867. It is probably the Duchess of Bedford who, by establishing the activity of afternoon tea in 1840, would have brought the popularity of the tea cosy. Afternoon tea was the time for networking and keeping up to date with aristocracy gossip and topical news. With all the chatter at teatime the teapot would get cold, which would have at times cut short some tea parties. And so, the tea cosy came about. Tea cosies then flourished during the late 19th century, where they appeared in many households across Britain, motivated by the obsession of decorating and covering objects characteristic of the Victorian era."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian cuisine",
        "text": "The foodways of different social classes in Victorian England feature in literary works by Charles Dickens, Anthony Trollope and Jane Austen. In \"Great Expectations\", Dickens recounts the custom of the wedding breakfast. (Because all weddings in England were, until the 1880s, legally required to be held in the mornings, such \"wedding breakfasts\" became customary.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "A tea shop is a small restaurant that serves soft drinks and light meals, often in a sedate atmosphere. Customers may eat a cream tea in Cornish or Devonshire style, served from a china set, and a scone with jam and clotted cream."
      },
      {
        "title": "English afternoon tea",
        "text": "English afternoon tea or simply afternoon tea is a traditional blend of teas originating from Pakistan, China, Africa and Sri Lanka. Afternoon tea blends are often lighter than breakfast blends, being designed to \"complement, rather than mask the flavor of the afternoon tea meal\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian cuisine",
        "text": "Afternoon tea is a common practice in English Canada and takes place around 16:00. This tradition often overlaps with afterschool snack and is commonly considered to be a marker for the end of one's daily obligations, whether it be work or school."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baking",
        "text": "Baking, especially of bread, holds special significance for many cultures. It is such a fundamental part of everyday food consumption that the children's nursery rhyme \"Pat-a-cake, pat-a-cake, baker's man\" takes baking as its subject. Baked goods are normally served at all kinds of parties and special attention is given to their quality at formal events. They are also one of the main components of a tea party, including at nursery teas and high teas, a tradition which started in Victorian Britain, reportedly when Anna Russell, Duchess of Bedford \"grew tired of the sinking feeling which afflicted her every afternoon round 4 o'clock\u00a0... In 1840, she plucked up courage and asked for a tray of tea, bread and butter, and cake to be brought to her room. Once she had formed the habit she found she could not break it, so spread it among her friends instead. As the century progressed, afternoon tea became increasingly elaborate.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea (meal)",
        "text": "Nowadays, a formal afternoon tea is more of a special occasion, taken as a treat in a hotel. The food is often served on a tiered stand; there may be no sandwiches, but bread or scones with butter and jam, or toast, muffins or crumpets. Afternoon tea as a treat may be supplemented with a glass of Champagne or a similar alcoholic drink. This is a more recent innovation."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "James Woodforde's \"Diary of a Country Parson\" gives a good idea of the sort of food eaten in England in the eighteenth century by those who could afford to eat whatever they liked. To welcome some neighbours on 8 June 1781, he gave them for dinner:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea (meal)",
        "text": "The timing of the \"tea\" meal has moved over the centuries in response to the migration of the main meal, dinner. Until the late 18th century dinner was eaten at what is now called \"lunchtime\", or in the early afternoon; supper was a later and lighter meal. Gradually, dinner began to migrate, amid much controversy, until by about 1900 it arrived at its present timing in the evening. At first, the \"tea\" meal was often in the early evening, some three or four hours after mid-day dinner; another version of the tea meal was even later, after a supper and before bed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Dorset",
        "text": "While some of the recipes which comprise the traditional cuisine of Dorset originate from the Middle Ages, the majority come from the 17th and 18th centuries. Within the sources in which recipes are recorded (recipe books, diaries), there is considerable bias towards the cooking habits of gentry, even in those of 17th- and 18th-century origin; the upper classes of society were more literate and able to purchase the variety of ingredients which would necessitate a cookery book. Although labourers and their families were the largest section of the population in Dorset (even after mechanisation in the middle of the 19th century), their low wages could not facilitate elaborate cooking and there was widespread illiteracy. Information on the dietary habits of the working class during the 17th and 18th centuries is usually gained incidentally, such as in reports on the state of the poor in the county."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Monmouthshire",
        "text": "Yates notes that baking day and afternoon tea have long been traditions in Wales:"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English tastes evolved during the sixteenth century in at least three ways. First, recipes emphasise a balance of sweet and sour. Second, butter becomes an important ingredient in sauces, a trend which continued in later centuries. Third, herbs, which could be grown locally but had been little used in the Middle Ages, started to replace spices as flavourings. In A. W.'s \"Book of Cookrye\", 35% of the recipes for meat stews and sauces include herbs, most commonly thyme. On the other hand, 76% of those meat recipes still used the distinctly mediaeval combination of sugar and dried fruit, together or separately. New ingredients were arriving from distant countries, too: \"The Good Huswifes Jewell\" introduced sweet potatoes (from the tropical Americas) alongside familiar Medieval recipes."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "During the British Raj, Britain first started borrowing Indian dishes, creating Anglo-Indian cuisine, with dishes such as Kedgeree (1790) and Mulligatawny soup (1791). Indian food was served in coffee houses from 1809, and cooked at home from a similar date as cookbooks of the time attest. The Veeraswamy restaurant in Regent Street, London, was opened in 1926, at first serving Anglo-Indian food, and is the oldest surviving Indian restaurant in Britain. There was a sharp increase in the number of curry houses in the 1940s, and again in the 1970s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Portuguese cuisine",
        "text": "Tea was made fashionable in England in the 1660s after the marriage of King Charles II to the Portuguese princess Catherine of Braganza (\"Catarina De Bragan\u00e7a\"), who brought her liking for tea, originally from the colony of Macau, to the court. When Catherine relocated up north to join King Charles, she is said to have packed loose-leaf tea as part of her personal belongings; it would also have likely been part of her dowry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Argentine cuisine",
        "text": "English cultural influence (reinforced at the end of the 19th century and the beginnings of the 20th by British contacts with the Far East) has also made the consumption of tea very common."
      },
      {
        "title": "Teahouse",
        "text": "The popularity of the tea room rose as an alternative to the pub in the UK and US during the temperance movement in the 1830s. The form developed in the late nineteenth century, as Catherine Cranston opened the first of what became a chain of \"Miss Cranston's Tea Rooms\" in Glasgow, Scotland, and similar establishments became popular throughout Scotland. In the 1880s, fine hotels in both the United States and England began to offer tea service in tea rooms and tea courts, and by 1910 they had begun to host afternoon tea dances as dance crazes swept both the US and the UK. Tea rooms of all kinds were widespread in Britain by the 1950s, but in the following decades caf\u00e9s became more fashionable, and tea rooms became less common."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea (meal)",
        "text": "Formal afternoon tea remains a popular tradition in the Commonwealth, particularly at fine hotels. Afternoon tea ceremonies at Canada's grand railway hotels are a well-known tradition across the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese tea",
        "text": "The old Guangdong tearooms were inexpensive. Regular customers would be served with a cup of tea, and two steamed buns stuffed with diced grilled pork, steamed dumplings with the dough gathered at the top, or dumplings with shrimp stuffing. However, teahouses become different now. Nowadays, customers are provided with a pot of strong tea as soon as they arrive, and have many choices from a great variety of refreshments on the food cart."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Some English dishes are relatively new and can be dated to the century, and sometimes to the year, of their introduction. Thus piccalilli was introduced from India in the 18th century, as recorded by Hannah Glasse who gave a recipe for it in 1758. Conversely, dishes and sauces still considered foreign, such as fish in sweet and sour sauce, have been in English recipe books since the Middle Ages. Other dishes took their present form only gradually, as with the so-called \"Full English breakfast\". Breakfasts of this kind are indeed described in later editions of \"Mrs Beeton\", but as one of many variations. Thus her list of \"Family Breakfasts for a Week in Winter\" has for Wednesday something that looks fairly modern: \"bread, muffins, butter, brawn, grilled bacon, boiled eggs\"; but on other days less modern-looking breakfasts include mince, mutton cutlets, grilled kidneys, baked fresh herrings, and hash of cold game or poultry, while suggestions for \"Family Breakfasts for a Week in Summer\" included sardine toast, cold tongue, kedgeree and rissoles, and \"Guests' Breakfast (Autumn)\" included cold pheasant, game pie, and pressed beef."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "The earliest English equipages for making tea date to the 1660s. Small porcelain tea bowls were used by the fashionable and were occasionally shipped with the tea itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of England",
        "text": "Since the early modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce. During the Middle Ages and through the Renaissance period, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with the move away from the land and increasing urbanisation of the populace. This has resulted in a traditional cuisine which tended to avoid strong flavours, such as garlic, and also complex sauces which were commonly associated with Roman Catholic Continental affiliations."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Three of the major hot drinks popular in England, tea, coffee, and chocolate, originated from outside Europe and were already staple items by Victorian times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabeth Montagu",
        "text": "In London, Elizabeth began to be a celebrated hostess. She organized literary breakfasts with Gilbert West, George Lyttelton and others. By 1760, these had turned into populous evening entertainments. Card playing and strong drink were forbidden from these convocations, which came to be now known as Blue Stocking events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anglo-Indian cuisine",
        "text": "During the British rule in India, local British officials began mixing Indian dishes with their British palates and creating Anglo-Indian cuisine, with dishes such as kedgeree (1790) and mulligatawny soup (1791). The first Indian restaurant in England, the Hindoostanee Coffee House, opened in 1809 in London; as described in The Epicure's Almanack in 1815, \"All the dishes were dressed with curry powder, rice, Cayenne, and the best spices of Arabia. A room was set apart for smoking hookahs with oriental herbs\". Indian food was cooked at home from a similar date as cookbooks of the time attest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea dance",
        "text": "Books on Victorian-era etiquette included detailed instructions for hosting such gatherings, such as \"Party-giving on Every Scale\" (London, n.d. [1880]) which notes that \"afternoon dances are seldom given in London, but are a popular form of entertainment in the suburbs, in garrison-towns, watering-places, etc.\" Royal Navy officers hosted tea dances aboard ships at various naval stations, the expenses being shared by the captain and officers, as they were shared by colonels and officers at barrack dances in mess rooms ashore."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victorian cuisine",
        "text": "In wealthy British homes the dining customs dictated proper attire that got fancier as the day progressed with separate outfits for breakfast and lunch, then a tea gown, with the most splendid attire reserved for dinner. Family meals became common events that linked the comforts of home with this newly recognized art form. Victorian cuisine did not appeal to everyone. British chefs like Mrs. A. B. Marshall encouraged boiling and mutating food until it no longer tasted or resembled its original form. Victorian England became known throughout Europe for its bland and unappetizing food but many housewives cooked in this fashion since it was the safest way to prepare food before refrigeration."
      },
      {
        "title": "England",
        "text": "Since the early modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce. During the Middle Ages and through the Renaissance period, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with the move away from the land and increasing urbanisation of the populace. The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by food critics with some good ratings in \"Restaurant\"s best restaurant in the world charts. An early book of English recipes is the \"Forme of Cury\" from the royal court of Richard II."
      },
      {
        "title": "English Tea House and Restaurant",
        "text": "The restaurant offers traditional English cuisine as well as Asian cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cream tea",
        "text": "The exact origin of \"cream tea\" is disputed, although there is evidence to suggest that the tradition of eating bread with cream and jam already existed at Tavistock Abbey in Devon in the 11th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "\"Elinor Fettiplace's Receipt Book\", compiled in 1604 (and first published in 1986) gives an intimate view of Elizabethan cookery. The book provides recipes for various forms of bread, such as buttered loaves; for apple fritters; preserves and pickles; and a celebration cake for 100 people. New ingredients appear; a recipe for dressing a shoulder of mutton calls for the use of the newly available citrus fruits:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tiffin",
        "text": "In the British Raj, tiffin was used to denote the British custom of afternoon tea that had been supplanted by the Indian practice of having a light meal at that hour. It is derived from \"tiffing\", an English colloquial term meaning to take a little drink. By 1867 it had become naturalised among Anglo-Indians in northern British India to mean luncheon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jell-O",
        "text": "Though much of the elaborate and dainty tea time fare served between the 1920s and 1950s was luxurious and decorative, using fancy ingredients like caviar or lobster, Jell-O became an affordable ornamental ingredient that women were able to use to create feminine, light, delicate dishes that were the standard of refined tea time fare during that period. By the Jazz Age nearly 1/3 of salad recipes in an average cookbook were gelatin-based recipes including varied fillings of fruit, vegetables or even cream cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Belvoir Castle",
        "text": "Whilst visiting Belvoir castle in the 1840s, Anna, Duchess of Bedford, found that the normal time for dinner was between 7:00 and 8:30\u00a0p.m. An extra meal called luncheon had been created to fill the midday gap between breakfast and dinner, but as this new meal was very light, the long afternoon with no refreshment at all left people feeling hungry. She found a light meal of tea (usually Darjeeling) and cakes or sandwiches was the perfect balance. The Duchess found taking an afternoon snack to be such a perfect refreshment that she soon began inviting her friends to join her. Afternoon tea quickly became an established and convivial repast in many middle and upper class households."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "Tea in the United Kingdom\n--History.\n----Historiography.\n----17th century and earlier.\n------Early mentions.\n------Sale of tea begins.\n------Tea as a medicinal drink.\n------Popularity among aristocrats.\n----18th century.\n------Continuing sale of tea.\n------Introduction of milk and sugar.\n------Popularity among the middle classes.\n----19th century.\n------Adoption by the working classes.\n------Cultivation in India.\n----Today.\n--Brewing the tea.\n----Milk and tea.\n----Drinking etiquette.\n--Tea rooms.\n--Tea as a break.\n--Tea as a meal.\n--Tea cards.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cuisine\n--History.\n----Middle Ages.\n----Sixteenth century.\n----Seventeenth century.\n----Eighteenth century.\n----Nineteenth century.\n----Twentieth century.\n--Stereotypes.\n--Foreign influence.\n----The role of Empire.\n----Indian and Anglo-Indian cuisine.\n----Other influences.\n--Food establishments.\n----Cafes and tea shops.\n----Fish and chip shops.\n----Pub food.\n--Vegetarianism.\n--Quality.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Teahouse",
        "text": "In the UK today, a tea room is a small room or restaurant where beverages and light meals are served, often having a sedate or subdued atmosphere. The food served can range from a cream tea (also known as Devonshire tea), i.e. a scone with jam and clotted cream; to an elaborate afternoon tea featuring tea sandwiches and small cakes; to a high tea, a savoury meal. In Scotland teas are usually served with a variety of scones, pancakes, crumpets and other cakes. There is a long tradition of tea rooms within London hotels, for example, at Brown's Hotel at 33 Albemarle Street, which has been serving tea in its tea room for over 170 years. Part of the charm of the occasion is an attractive tea set, often decorated china."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "There is a long tradition of tea rooms within London's hotels. For example, Brown's Hotel has been serving tea for over 170 years. Since the 1880s, fine hotels in both the UK and the US featured tea rooms and tea courts, and by 1910 they had begun to host afternoon tea dances as dance crazes swept both countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "British cuisine",
        "text": "English cuisine has distinctive attributes of its own, but also shares much with wider British cuisine, partly through the importation of ingredients and ideas from North America, China, and India during the time of the British Empire and as a result of post-war immigration. Some traditional meals, such as sausages, cheese, roasted and stewed meats, meat and game pies, boiled vegetables and broths, and freshwater and saltwater fish have ancient origins. The 14th-century English cookbook, the \"Forme of Cury\", contains recipes for these, and dates from the royal court of Richard II."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian tea culture",
        "text": "According to the historian Lizzi Collingham, the taste for tea was developed in India through a dedicated push on the part of the producers of tea once tea production in India gained momentum. Initially, free samples of tea were offered from horse-drawn carts belonging to various companies. As early as 1907, Brooke Bond, an English tea company started experimenting with a fleet of horse-drawn vans for distributing teas. The British tradition of taking tea with a little milk and sugar was introduced along with the samples."
      },
      {
        "title": "London Trocadero",
        "text": "The new settings were done in an Opera Baroque style, and the various Trocaderos of the English-speaking world have derived their names from this original, the epitome of grand Edwardian catering. Murals on Arthurian themes decorated the grand staircase, and the Long Bar catered to gentlemen only. During World War I, the Trocadero initiated the first \"concert tea\": tea was served in the Empire Hall, accompanied by a full concert programme. After the war, cabaret was a feature of the Grill Room. The Trocadero closed on 13 February 1965."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Antebellum America",
        "text": "Before restaurants became established in the social culture of the United States, formal dinners were held in private homes for family and friends. These could be elaborate affairs, with one meal held in 1830 in celebration for the 200th anniversary of the settlement of Salem consisting of no less that 14 selections for the first course, followed by 11 varieties of roast bird and meats for the second course. French influenced dishes like chicken \"fricassee\" and \"vol au vent au boeuf\" were still commonplace at such gatherings well into the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cuisine in the twentieth century suffered from a poor international reputation. Keith Arscott of Chawton House Library comments that \"at one time people didn't think the English knew how to cook and yet these [eighteenth and nineteenth century] female writers were at the forefront of modern day cooking.\" English food was popularly supposed to be bland, but English cuisine has made extensive use of spices since the Middle Ages; introduced curry to Europe; and makes use of strong flavourings such as English mustard. It was similarly reputed to be dull, like roast beef: but that dish was highly prized both in Britain and abroad, and few people could afford it; the \"Roast Beef of Old England\" lauded by William Hogarth in his 1748 painting celebrated the high quality of English cattle, which the French at the \"Gate of Calais\" (the other name of his painting) could only look at with envy. The years of wartime shortages and rationing certainly did impair the variety and flavour of English food during the twentieth century, but the nation's cooking recovered from this with increasing prosperity and the availability of new ingredients from soon after the Second World War."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tudor food and drink",
        "text": "Having clean hands was very important, as several people would dig into a common dish with their fingers. Therefore, they were advised by \"Miss Manners\" of the day to wash their hands out in the open where everyone could see, to make sure that they were clean. Besides that, manuals for manners from the Renaissance and Middle Ages listed some things that were frowned upon at the dinner table, including:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pottage",
        "text": "In the cuisine of New England, pottage began as boiled grain, vegetables, seasonings and meat, fowl or fish. This simple staple of early American cuisine eventually evolved into the chowders and baked beans typical of New England's cuisine. A version of \"scotch barley broth\" is attested to in the 18th century colonial recipe collection called \"Mrs Gardiner's Family Receipts\". Indian succotash, sometimes called \"pondomenast\" or \"Indian pottage\" was made with boiled corn and, when available, meat like venison, bear, moose, otter, raccoon or beaver. Dried fish like shad, eel, or herring could be used in place of the meat. Kidney beans were sometimes mixed into Indian pottage, along with fruits like Jerusalem artichoke, pumpkin, squash. Ground nuts like acorns, chestnuts or walnuts were used to thicken the pottage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bride",
        "text": "The cake-eating went out of fashion, but the wheat ears survived. In the Middle Ages they were either worn or carried by the bride. Eventually it became the custom for the young girls to assemble outside the church porch and throw grains of wheat over the bride, and afterwards a scramble for the grains took place. In time the wheat-grains came to be cooked into thin dry biscuits, which were broken over the bride's head, as is the custom in Scotland today, an oatmeal cake being used. In Elizabeth's reign these biscuits began to take the form of small rectangular cakes made of eggs, milk, sugar, currants and spices. Every wedding guest had one at least, and the whole collection were thrown at the bride the instant she crossed the threshold. Those that lighted on her head or shoulders were most prized by the scramblers. At last these cakes became amalgamated into a large one that took on its full glories of almond paste and ornaments during Charles II's time. But even today in rural parishes, e.g. north Notts, wheat is thrown over the bridal couple with the cry \"Bread for life and pudding for ever,\" expressive of a wish that the newly wed may be always affluent. The throwing of rice, a very ancient custom but one later than the wheat, is symbolical of the wish that the bridal may be fruitful."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Oriental cuisines have become widely available across England. Chinese cuisine became established in England by the 1970s, with large cities often having a Chinatown district; the one in London's Soho developed between the two world wars, following an informal area in Limehouse. Deriving from Cantonese cuisine, the food served by Chinese restaurants has been adapted to suit English taste. From around 1980 onwards, Southeast Asian cuisines, especially Thai and Vietnamese, began to gain popularity in England."
      },
      {
        "title": "Almack's",
        "text": "The club took pains not to resemble expensive private balls by avoiding sumptuous repasts. In the Regency period, refreshments in the supper rooms consisted of thinly-sliced bread (which must be a day old to be sliced that thinly) with fresh butter, and dry cake (dry meaning unfrosted, without icing, not stale), probably similar to pound cake. To avoid drunkenness, only tea and lemonade were served in the supper rooms. By the 1830s, refreshments had fallen off in quality: \"Now there is no supper; there is nothing in the shape of refreshments but tea and lemonade, and the worst of it is, that both articles are so miserably bad that it requires an effort to drink either. The lemonade is sour as vinegar; while to apply the word tea to the stuff called by that name at Almack's, were one of the most unwarrantable perversions of language ever perpetrated. Give it to any person with-out calling it by any name, and that person will soon find one for himself. He will at once call it chalk and water.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Dorset",
        "text": "At the higher end of the county's cuisine was food cooked and prepared in the farmhouses (\"farmhouse food\"), seen as the home of traditional cooking in the 19th century. A far greater variety of ingredients were available for cooking, and, by the 18th century, ovens could be found in many farmhouses. Playwright John O'Keeffe described his lunch in 1791 at the Red Lion Inn at West Lulworth, which had its own farm, as:"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cooking was systematized and made available to the middle classes by a series of popular books, their authors becoming household names. One of the first was Mrs Rundell's \"A New System of Domestic Cookery\", 1806; it went through sixty-seven editions by 1844, selling hundreds of thousands of copies in Britain and America. This was followed by Eliza Acton's \"Modern Cookery for Private Families\" 1845, which Bee Wilson has called \"the greatest cookery book in our language\", but \"modern\" only in a nineteenth-century sense."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Zealand cuisine",
        "text": "One major recent development in the food scene is the emergence of a genuine cafe culture and disappearance of the traditional institution of tearooms at large. Before the 1990s, tearooms proliferated throughout the country offering cream tea, cakes, cucumber sandwiches, and pastries such as custard squares, with filtered coffee or tea as drinks. New Zealanders have copied the Mediterranean practise of drinking espresso-based coffees. In time, cafes became popular and many tearoom owners converted their businesses to cafes. Cream tea has gone out of fashion in the contemporary New Zealand dining scene, and scones are baked at homes rather than served in eateries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea (meal)",
        "text": "the central feature was the extension of a meal based predominantly on bread, butter and tea by the inclusion of some kind of fish or meat usually cooked in a frying pan."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "English cookery has developed over many centuries since at least the time of \"The Forme of Cury\", written in the Middle Ages around 1390 in the reign of King Richard II. The book offers imaginative and sophisticated recipes, with spicy sweet and sour sauces thickened with bread or quantities of almonds boiled, peeled, dried and ground, and often served in pastry. Foods such as gingerbread are described. It was not at all, emphasises Clarissa Dickson Wright in her \"A History of English Food\", a matter of large lumps of roast meat at every meal as imagined in Hollywood films."
      },
      {
        "title": "English breakfast tea",
        "text": "In the UK, the popularisation of breakfast tea has been attributed in part to Queen Victoria. At Balmoral in 1892 she tasted and enjoyed a blend so-named and returned to London with a supply."
      },
      {
        "title": "English Tea House and Restaurant",
        "text": "English Tea House and Restaurant\n--History.\n--Decoration.\n--Services.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "While tea slowly became more common in coffee houses during the second half of the 17th century, the first tea shop in London did not open until the early 18th century. Thomas Twining's tea shop has been claimed as the first, opening in 1706, where it remains at 216 Strand, London; however, 1717 has also been given as the date for the first tea shop. In between tea's earliest mentions in England and its widespread popularity just over a century later, many factors contributed to the craze for this previously unknown foreign commodity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chhota haazri",
        "text": "In subsequent years, the tradition of such a meal has disappeared, but the phrase lives on in Anglo-Indian households, certain regiments of the Indian Army, and in public schools \u2014such as The Doon School, Dehradun, Colonel Brown Cambridge School, Dehradun , Mayo College, Ajmer, Lawrence School, Sanawar, Lawrence School, Lovedale and St. Paul's School, Darjeeling, where it has come to refer to a cup of tea with a biscuit served at 6:00\u00a0a.m."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lunch",
        "text": "The lunch meal slowly became institutionalised in England when workers with long and fixed hour jobs at the factory were eventually given an hour off work to eat lunch and thus gain strength for the afternoon shift. Stalls and later chop houses near the factories began to provide mass-produced food for the working class, and the meal soon became an established part of the daily routine, remaining so to this day."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of tea",
        "text": "The first record of tea in English came from a letter written by Richard Wickham, who ran an East India Company office in Japan, writing to a merchant in Macao requesting \"the best sort of chaw\" in 1615. Peter Mundy, a traveller and merchant who came across tea in Fuji in 1637, wrote, \"\"chaa\"\u2014only water with a kind of herb boiled in it\". In 1657, Thomas Garway, a \"tobacconist and coffee-man\" was the first to sell tea in London at his house in Exchange Alley, charging between 16 and 50 shillings per pound. The same year, tea was listed as an item in the price list in a London coffee house, and the first advertisement for tea appeared in 1658. In 1660 Samuel Pepys recorded in his diary: \"I did send for a cup of tee (a China drink) of which I never had drank before.\" It is probable that early imports were smuggled via Amsterdam or through sailors arriving on eastern boats. The marriage of King Charles II in 1662 to the Portuguese princess Catherine of Braganza brought the tea drinking habit to court. Official trade of tea began in 1664 with an import of only two pound two ounces for presentation to the king, which grew to 24 million pounds per year by 1801."
      },
      {
        "title": "Teapot",
        "text": "To keep teapots hot after tea is first brewed, early English households employed the tea cosy, a padded fabric covering, much like a hat, that slips over the tea pot. Often decorated with lace or log cabin motifs in the early 1900s, the modern tea cosy has come back into fashion with the resurgence of loose leaf tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Block party",
        "text": "The tradition seems to have begun in England and Wales after World War I as residents' organized \"peace teas\" to celebrate the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aerated Bread Company",
        "text": "The tearooms provided one of the first public places where women in the Victorian era could eat a meal, alone or with women friends, without a male escort. While by 1880 unescorted women could visit higher-end restaurants, they had to avoid the bar. In at least one instance, a women's social club was housed directly above an A.B.C. tea shop:"
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Another country clergyman, Gilbert White, in \"The Natural History of Selborne\" (1789) recorded the increased consumption of vegetables by ordinary country people in the south of England, to which, he noted, potatoes, from the Americas, had only been added during the reign of King George III:"
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam, now known as New York, tea was served with the best silver strainers, the finest porcelain cups and pots, and wooden tea caddy. Tea became a very popular drink in the colonies, and tea ceremonies were common among all classes. In Salem, Massachusetts, tea leaves were boiled to create a bitter brew, then served as a vegetable side dish with butter. By the time of the American Revolution, tea was drunk everywhere from the backwoods to the cities."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Orwell",
        "text": "Orwell enjoyed strong tea\u2014he had Fortnum & Mason's tea brought to him in Catalonia. His 1946 essay, \"A Nice Cup of Tea\", appeared in the \"London Evening Standard\" article on how to make tea, with Orwell writing, \"tea is one of the mainstays of civilisation in this country and causes violent disputes over how it should be made\", with the main issue being whether to put tea in the cup first and add the milk afterward, or the other way round, on which he states, \"in every family in Britain there are probably two schools of thought on the subject\". He appreciated English beer, taken regularly and moderately, despised drinkers of lager and wrote about an imagined, ideal British pub in his 1946 \"Evening Standard\" article, \"The Moon Under Water\". Not as particular about food, he enjoyed the wartime \"Victory Pie\" and extolled canteen food at the BBC. He preferred traditional English dishes, such as roast beef, and kippers. His 1945 essay, \"In Defence of English Cooking\", included Yorkshire pudding, crumpets, muffins, innumerable biscuits, Christmas pudding, shortbread, various British cheeses and Oxford marmalade. Reports of his Islington days refer to the cosy afternoon tea table."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "For many years, English writers including Hannah Glasse in the 18th century and Andrew Kirwan in the 19th century were ambivalent about French cooking. However, restaurants serving French haute cuisine developed for the upper and middle classes in England from the 1830s and Escoffier was recruited by the Savoy Hotel in 1890. Marcel Boulestin's 1923 \"Simple French Cooking for English Homes\" did much to popularise French dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "When the popular English patriotic ballad The Roast Beef of Old England was written in 1731, it portrayed tea (as well as coffee) as foreign and un-English, noting that they were rare during the time of Elizabeth I."
      },
      {
        "title": "Teahouse",
        "text": "Some cultures have a variety of distinct tea-centered establishments of different types, depending on the national tea culture. For example, the British or American tearoom serves afternoon tea with a variety of small cakes."
      },
      {
        "title": "English cuisine",
        "text": "Some traditional meals, such as bread and cheese, roasted and stewed meats, meat and game pies, boiled vegetables and broths, and freshwater and saltwater fish have ancient origins. The 14th-century English cookbook, the \"Forme of Cury\", contains recipes for these, and dates from the royal court of Richard II."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anglo-Indian cuisine",
        "text": "Some early restaurants in England, such as the Hindoostane Coffee House in George Street, London, which opened in 1810, served Anglo-Indian food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Dorset",
        "text": "Such a situation continued until at least as late as 1868, when an inquiry was held into the food of the labourers. In fact, prior to the introduction of the potato, the diet of the labourers had been less favourable; in 1869, one investigator noted that before this: \"the labourers had very little beside bread and cheese and water\". As recorded by John Bright in 1844, many families in the county managed on 10 shillings per week, of which at least half was spent on bread. Despite this, reports of the 18th and 19th century accuse \"the poor\" of being wasteful: \"making cakes without yeast, and broiling or baking them on a gridiron, by which means it is said the quantity is lessened.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabeth David",
        "text": "David consciously followed in the path of Hilda Leyel and Dorothy Hartley in researching British ingredients and dishes. Like them, she looked back into regional history to find what she saw as \"the traditions of a culture rooted to the soil\" before \"the ravages of the Industrial Revolution\". She did not romanticise Britain's culinary past: \"Farm and factory labourers, artisans and clerical workers, still lived on a very restricted diet\u00a0... their cooking facilities were so primitive and their equipment so scanty that only the most basic forms of cookery could be attempted\". But her constant benchmarks were honest ingredients and uncomplicated cooking. She condemned\u2014and explained the alternatives to\u2014the artificial, the ersatz, the \"notorious Chorleywood bread\", and \"all synthetic aids to flavouring\u00a0... Nobody has ever been able to find out why the English regard a glass of wine added to a soup or stew as a reckless extravagance and at the same time spend pounds on bottled sauces, gravy powders, soup cubes, ketchups and artificial flavourings\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some things people ate in the Middle Ages?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Cereals remained the most important staple during the early Middle Ages as rice was introduced late, and the potato was only introduced in 1536, with a much later date for widespread consumption; barley, oats and rye were eaten by the poor. Meat was more expensive and therefore more prestigious."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did cafes and tea shops get started?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Different regions of the world have different history of cafes and tea shops. Do you want to know more about their origin in Asia, Europe or elsewhere?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about their origin in English cuisine."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In 1864, Britain, a female manager of London's Aerated Bread Company was credited with creating the bakery's first public tearoom."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did they serve at the first public tearoom?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I am not sure, but traditionally, items served at afternoon tea included thinly-sliced bread and butter, delicate sandwiches, and usually cakes, pastries, and scones."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did the tradition of afternoon tea get started?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Observance of the custom originated amongst the wealthy social classes in England in the 1840s.[6] Anna Maria, Duchess of Bedford, is widely credited with inventing afternoon tea in England as a late-afternoon meal whilst visiting Belvoir Castle in Leicestershire in 1840.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I am not sure, but tea first appeared publicly in England during the 1650s, where it was introduced through coffeehouses."
    ],
    "topic": "English cuisine",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Tea (meal):7",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tea (meal)",
          "Historic usage"
        ],
        "ctx": "Observance of the custom originated amongst the wealthy social classes in England in the 1840s. Anna Maria, Duchess of Bedford, is widely credited with inventing afternoon tea in England as a late-afternoon meal whilst visiting Belvoir Castle in Leicestershire in 1840. This legend may have been furthered by the 1882 memoir of the actress Fanny Kemble, who wrote: \"My first introduction to \u2018afternoon tea\u2019 took place during this visit to Belvoir [in 1842]. I do not believe that the now universally-honoured institution of \u2018five o'clock tea\u2019 dates further back than this.\" The \"Oxford English Dictionary\" (which quotes Kemble) provides citations dating back a century before the putative Belvoir coinage, in reference to tea as a social gathering. The earliest is from Jonathan Swift's satirical etiquette guide, \"A Complete Collection of Genteel and Ingenious Conversation\" (1738), \"Whether they meet..at Meals, Tea, or Visits\". In Fanny Burney's 1778 novel \"Evelina\", the heroine writes that \" I was relieved by a summons to tea\". John Wesley and Harriet Martineau also are quoted. Philosopher Thomas Carlyle and his wife Jane Welsh Carlyle invited guests for 7 pm to their teas in the 1850s, although 'afternoon tea' before dinner was also becoming established by this time."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "History of tea:24",
        "passage_titles": [
          "History of tea",
          "Global expansion"
        ],
        "ctx": "The earliest record of tea in a more occidental writing is said to be found in the statement of an Arabian traveler, that after 879 the main sources of revenue in Canton were the duties on salt and tea. Marco Polo records the deposition of a Chinese minister of finance in 1285 for his arbitrary augmentation of the tea taxes. In 1557, Portugal established a trading port in Macau, and word of the Chinese drink \"ch\u00e1\" spread quickly, but there is no mention of them bringing any samples home. In the early 17th century, a ship of the Dutch East India Company brought the first green tea leaves to Amsterdam from China. Tea was known in France by 1636. It enjoyed a brief period of popularity in Paris around 1648. The history of tea in Russia can also be traced back to the 17th century. Tea was first offered by China as a gift to Czar Michael I in 1618. The Russian ambassador tried the drink; he did not care for it and rejected the offer, delaying tea's Russian introduction by fifty years. By 1689, tea was regularly imported from China to Russia via a caravan of hundreds of camels traveling the year-long journey, making it a precious commodity at the time. Tea was appearing in German apothecaries by 1657 but never gained much esteem except in coastal areas such as Ostfriesland. Tea first appeared publicly in England during the 1650s, where it was introduced through coffeehouses. From there it was introduced to British colonies in America and elsewhere."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is observed on the 13 or 14 April every year in the 21st century. However, in 1801 AD, it fell on 11 April. This is because the date of Vaisakhi and other Sankrantis keeps changing slowly over years. Vaisakhi would fall on 29 April in Year 2999. The festival coincides with other new year festivals celebrated on the first day of Vaisakh in other regions of the Indian Subcontinent such as the Pohela Boishakh, Bohag Bihu, Vishu, Puthandu among others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi (IAST: ), also pronounced Baisakhi, marks the first day of the month of Vaisakh and is traditionally celebrated annually on 13 April and sometimes 14 April as a celebration of spring harvest primarily in Northern India. Further, other Indian cultures and diaspora celebrate this festival too. Whilst it is culturally significant as a festival of harvest, some also consider Vaisakhi to be the legitimate date for the Indian Solar New Year. However, it is important to understand that this is not a universally accepted belief, with some individuals considering the previous month of Chet the New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "In the Province of Nova Scotia, the Halifax-based Maritime Sikh Society holds Vaisakhi celebrations in April featuring Shabad Kirtan performed by professional ragis (musicians)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakh",
        "text": "Vaisakh\n--Important events during this month.\n----April.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi festivals",
        "text": "Vaisakhi, also pronounced as Baisakhi marks the beginning of Hindu solar New year. Vaisakhi marks the first day of the month of Vaisakha and is usually celebrated on 13 or 14 April every year. This holiday also is known as Vaisakha Sankranti and celebrates the Solar new year, based on the Hindu Vikram Samvat calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi festivals",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is a historical and religious festival in Hinduism. It is usually celebrated on 13 or 14 April every year. For Hindus, the festival is their traditional solar new year, a harvest festival, an occasion to bath in sacred rivers such as Ganges, Jhelum, and Kaveri, visit temples, meet friends and take part in other festivities. In other parts of India, the Vaisakhi festival is known by various regional names."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "In the Province of British Columbia, large, local Sikh communities in the cities of Vancouver, Abbotsford, and Surrey hold their annual Vaisakhi celebrations in April, which include two Nagar Kirtan (parades)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakh",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is the most important festival in the Sikh calendar, taking place on the first lunar month of Vaisakh, which falls on 14 April each year. On this day, the Khalsa was created and much celebration takes place in the form of Samagams, Nagar Kirtan, Gatka exhibitions, Akand Paths and so on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi falls on the first day of the Vaisakh month and marks the sun's entry to the Mesha Rasi marking the solar transition to Aries. The day is also described as Mesha Sankranti in India. Vaisakhi is therefore determined by the solar calendar. Baisakhi usually falls on 14 April, and on 15 April once every thirty-six years. Since 2003, the Sikh Gurdwara Prabhandak Committee named the month in which Vaisakhi falls as Vaisakh, making the first day of the second month according to the Nanakshahi calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakha",
        "text": "Vaisakha is a month of the Hindu calendar that corresponds to April/May in the Gregorian Calendar. In Indian national calendar, Vaisakha is the second month of the year. It is the first month of the Vikram Samvat calendar, Odia calendar, Punjabi calendar, Assamese calendar (where it is called \"Bohag\") and the Bengali calendar (where it is called \"Boishakh\"). This month lies between the second half of April and the first half of May."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakh",
        "text": "Vaisakh (, ) is the second month in the Nanakshahi calendar. This month coincides with April and May in the Gregorian calendar and to Vaisakha in the Hindu calendar and the Indian national calendar; it comprises the time of crop-harvesting in the Punjab region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Victoria's all-day Vaisakhi celebration features a parade that begins and ends at Gurdwara Singh Sabha, 470 Cecelia Road. The 2018 celebrations on 29 April would be the first held in Victoria in over 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "In the Province of Ontario, the Toronto Vaisakhi Parade is held in April, starting at the Canadian National Exhibition grounds and traveling east to Toronto City Hall, finishing almost three hours later. Following the parade, dignitaries address the gathering until late afternoon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is celebrated at Udhampur on the bank of Devika river where for three days devotees enjoy the folk songs. At Sudhmahadev, this festival is celebrated with great pomp and show where folk singers come down and a competition of folk songs is held. Vendors generally install their shops and stalls of eatables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surrey, British Columbia",
        "text": "Every year on April 13, the Sikh community celebrates Vaisakhi, which often includes a \"nagar kirtan\", or parade, and free food is often handed out. It is the largest Vaiskahi parade outside India, growing from 100,000 attendees in 2008 to over 500,000 in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "The Bengali new year is celebrated as Poyla Baishakh on 14 April every year, and a festive Mangal Shobhajatra, started by students of Dhaka University in Bangladesh in 1989, is organized in the Indian states of West Bengal and Tripura, as well as modern-day nation of Bangladesh. This celebration was listed in 2016 by the UNESCO as a cultural heritage of humanity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi (Punjabi: \u0a35\u0a48\u0a38\u0a3e\u0a16\u0a40 , \"vais\u0101kh\u012b\", is also known as \"Bais\u0101kh\u012b\"), it is a very important day for Sikhs and one of the most colourful events in the Sikh calendar. It occurs during mid-April every year and traditionally concurs in Punjab with the first harvesting of the crops for the year. Historically, the festival has been a very joyous occasion and a time for celebration. However, since 1699, it has marked the very significant religious event of the creation of the Khalsa Panth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakha",
        "text": "In the Hindu solar calendar, Vaisakha begins in mid-April in Bengal, Nepal, and Punjab. In Tamil Nadu, it is known as Vaikasi (mid May-mid June) and represents the second month of the Tamil solar calendar. The Tamil month that corresponds to Vaisakha is Chithirai (mid April-mid May). In the Hindu lunar calendar, Vaisakha begins with the new moon in April and represents the second month of the lunar year. The name of the month is derived from the position of the moon near the star \"Vishakha\" on full moon day. In the Vaishnava calendar, Madhusudana governs this month."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi or Vaisakhi Sankranti is celebrated on first day of Vaisakha, as per Hindu Solar Calendar. This day is also known as \"Sattu\u0101 or Satwahi\"\",\" as Sattu is donated and consumed on this day. The common rites during this festival is bath in a river or pond and to eat Sattu and \"Gur\" (Jaggery)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinjore Gardens",
        "text": "Pinjore Baisakhi Festival, a two-day spring festival of Vaisakhi is usually held in April of every year, with regional gourmet food, traditional handlooms and handicrafts, live folk arts and cultural performances, specially by the Haryana State Department of Information, Public Relations & Cultural Affairs at 6 pm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi coincides with the first day of the solar cycle year, that is the solar New Year or Mesha Sankranti which is also related to other regional new years such as 'Vishu' and 'Puthandu' celebrated in Kerala and Tamilnadu a day after Vaisakhi. The festivities include fireworks, shopping for new clothes and interesting displays called 'Vishu Kani'. Hindus make arrangements of flowers, grains, fruits which friends and family visit to admire as \"lucky sight\" (\"Vishukkani\"). Giving gifts to friends and loved ones, as well as alms to the needy, are a tradition of Kerala Hindus on this festive day. Vaisakhi is also related to Bohag (Rongali) Bihu in Assam and as Pohela Boishakh in Bengal, but typically one or two days after Vaisakhi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guru Nanak",
        "text": "Macauliffe also notes that Vaisakh (March\u2013April) already saw a number of important festivals\u2014such as Holi, Rama Navami, and Vaisakhi\u2014therefore people would be busy in agricultural activities after the harvest festival of Baisakhi. Therefore, holding Nanak's birth anniversary celebrations immediately after Vaisakhi would have resulted in thin attendance, and therefore, smaller donations for the Sikh shrines. On the other hand, by the Kattak full moon day, the major Hindu festival of Diwali was already over, and the peasants\u2014who had surplus cash from crop sales\u2014were able to donate generously."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Fried cakes of black gram which are prepared a day before are distributed to neighbours after Puja is completed. Special dishes are prepared on this day. White washing is performed on this day and floors are plastered. This is called \"Prau lagana\". In the evening people enjoy fairs which are organised for three days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is celebrated as Nepalese New Year because it is the day which marks the Hindu Solar New Year as per Vikram Samvat, the Hindu Solar Calendar. Vaisakha is the first month in Nepalese Calendar. The idols of Goddess Thimi Kumari is carried out in palanquins and is taken around the city."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakha",
        "text": "The harvest festival of Vaisakhi is celebrated on in this month which marks the Punjabi new year according to the Punjabi calendar. Jallianwala Bagh massacre took place on the Punjabi New year day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjab, Pakistan",
        "text": "Vaisakhi, also called Besakhi, is a harvest festival to celebrate harvesting the wheat crop. Colourful festivals are held at the time of Besakhi when farmers are free to enjoy their leisure time. Various literary festivals and fairs are organised in many places."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guru Nanak Gurpurab",
        "text": "However, some scholars and organizations believe the Birthday should be celebrated on Vaisakhi, which falls on 14 April according to the original Nanakshahi Calendar passed by Sri Akal Takht in 2003. However, many people and organizations would like to keep the traditional date by celebrating on the Full Moon Day (Pooranmashi or Purnima) of the Lunar Month Kartik. The original Nanakshahi Calendar follows the tradition and celebrates it on Kartik Purnima due to demands by various Sikh Saints."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakh",
        "text": "On the 16th of this month, Guru Angad and Guru Har Krishan took leave for their higher abode and passed the Guruship to Guru Amar Das and Guru Tegh Bahadur respectively. Moreover, on the 18th, the Sikhs celebrate the birthday of Guru Angad Dev (the second Sikh Guru) and Guru Tegh Bahadur (the ninth Sikh Guru).\n* 14 April (1 Vaisakh) - Vaisakhi (see above)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "For some Hindus, the first day of Vaisakh marks the traditional solar new year, in Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Kerala, Odisha, Punjab Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Uttrakhand and other parts of India. However, this is not the universal new year for all Hindus. For some, such as those in and near Gujarat, the new year festivities coincide with the five-day Diwali festival. For others, the new year falls on Cheti Chand, Gudi Padwa and Ugadi which falls a few weeks earlier. The harvest is complete and crops ready to sell, representing a time of plenty for the farmers. Fairs and special thanksgiving pujas (prayers) are common in the Hindu tradition. It is available in the Vanis of the saints that in Satlok, the Vaisakhi-like atmosphere always remains there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mesha Sankranti",
        "text": "The day is important in solar and lunisolar calendars followed on the subcontinent. Mesha Sankranti falls on 13 April usually, sometimes 14 April. This day is the basis for major Hindu, Sikh and Buddhist festivals, of which Vaisakhi and Vesak are the best known."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is the day when Hindus believe River Goddess Ganga descended on earth from heaven. One of the largest Vaisakhi fair in India is held at Haridwar, which is an important Hindu pilgrimage. Around 50\u00a0lakhs (5 million) pligrims throng \"Brahm\" \"Kund\" in Haridwar to take a dip in Ganga river on this festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is an important festival among Dogra Hindus of Jammu region. On this day, people get up early in the morning, throng the rivers, canals, and ponds and take a ritual dip every year on this occasion. In Dogra households, a Puja is performed afterwards and part of food crop is offered to the deities. New fruit of the year is enjoyed on this day. A Ritual Bath at Tawi river during Vaisakhi is common in Jammu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vairamkod",
        "text": "Every year, in the month of February, the festival is celebrated. The festival lasts for 6 days (from Sunday to Friday), The festival starts with Maram mury (To cut offered Jack Fruit Tree to make fire for Kanlattam) the 3rd day after Maram muri celebrating Cheriya Thiyyattu (Common Celebration). The Cheriya Thiyyattu for nearby villages. The 6th day celebration called Valiya Thiyyattu (Grand Festival)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "In the Province of Alberta, the Edmonton Vaisakhi parade is held in May and travels between the Gurdwara Singh Sabha (4504 Millwoods Road S) & Gurdwara Millwoods (2606 Millwoods Road E) temples."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "According to the Khalsa sambat, the Khalsa calendar starts with the creation of the Khalsa which is 1 Vaisakh 1756 Bikrami (13 April 1699). Accordingly, Vaisakhi has been the traditional Sikh New Year. The festival has been traditionally observed in the Punjab region. The alternative Nanakshahi calendar begins its year a month earlier on 1 Chait which generally falls on 14 March and begins with the birth year of the Guru Nanak Dev in 1469."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diwiparangi",
        "text": "This time Palakhi Procession is being celebrated on [21-April-2019]."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bhussi Kathian",
        "text": "The annual festival of \"Jashn e Naurooz\" is celebrated in spring, on 20\u201323 March. It is of religious significance in a traditional way. Horse dance, Dog fight, Bull race and Volleyball are played here during the festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "According to Aziz-ud-din Ahmed, Lahore used to have Baisakhi Mela after the harvesting of the wheat crop in April. However, adds Ahmed, the city started losing its cultural vibrancy in 1970s after Zia-ul-Haq came to power, and in recent years \"the Pakistan Muslim League (N) government in Punjab banned kite flying through an official edict more under the pressure of those who want a puritanical version of Islam to be practiced in the name of religion than anything else\". Unlike the Indian state of Punjab that recognizes the Vaisakhi Sikh festival as an official holiday, the festival is not an official holiday in Punjab or Sindh provinces of Pakistan as Sikhs constitute a very small number in terms of population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is a harvest festival for people of Northern India. Chander and Dogra (2003) state that in Punjab, Vaisakhi marks the ripening of the rabi harvest. According to Dhillon (2015), in Punjab, this day is observed as a thanksgiving day by farmers whereby farmers pay their tribute, thanking God for the abundant harvest and also praying for future prosperity. The harvest festival is celebrated by Hindus and Sikhs. In the Punjab, historically, during the early 20th century, Vaisakhi was a sacred day for Hindus and Sikhs and a secular festival for all Muslims and Christians. In modern times, sometimes Christians in Punjab participate in Baisakhi celebrations along with Hindus and Sikhs. The harvest festival is also characterized by the folk dance, Bhangra which traditionally is a harvest dance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is celebrated by Hindu community and Indian & Nepalese diaspora in United States of America. Every year Nepalese Hindus gather up in traditional outsfits like kurtis and Nepalese caps to observe Hindu Solar New Year. The Bengali Hindu Community also celebrates its new year 'Pohela Baisakh' on this day. A Baisakhi Mela or fair is also held where Bengali handicrafts sessions are held. The Bay Area Malayalee Association holds Vishu celebration (Kerala New Year). Event includes Sadhya (Kerala-style feast) and cultural, cinematics and comedy programs, and end with a tea social. Tamil Community also celebrates New Year on this day as Puthandu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "The Sikh community, a subgroup of the Malaysian Indian ethnic minority race, is an ethnoreligious minority in Malaysia, which is why Vaisakhi is not a public holiday. However, in line with the government's efforts to promote integration among the country's different ethnic and religious groups, the prime minister, Najib Razak has announced that beginning 2013, all government servants from the Sikh Malaysian Indian community will be given a day off on Vaisakhi Day. Vaisakhi 'open houses' are also held across the country during the day of the festival, or the closest weekend to it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goramansingh",
        "text": "Vaisakhi or Joor Sital: This festival always falls on 14 April just after Amavasaya (New Moon) of the Chaitra month, and it marks the beginning of the new year. The Amavasaya of Chaitra month is the last day of the Hindu year. The next day marks the beginning of the new year according to the Hindu calendar. The festival is known by various names in different parts of India: Vaisakhi in Northern India and Vishu in the Kerala region. People of the Mithila region know this festival as Joor Sital. Villagers of the Mithila region celebrate the festival in different ways. On the day of the Joor Sital, every elder of each family gets up early in the morning. They give blessings to every younger one. The way of blessing is taking water (\"Jal\") in a bended palm leaf (\"Htheli\") and placing their palm on the head of younger ones at least three or five times. People perform puja at home in a mango garden. They offer Baasi (cooked food in night), Vari and Rice to God. Every child pours water onto the dry land. They irrigate all plants and trees in their own garden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "For Sikhs, in addition to its significance as the harvest festival, during which Sikhs hold kirtans, visit local Gurdwaras, community fairs, hold \"nagar kirtan\" processions, raise the Nishan Sahib flag, and gather to socialize and share festive foods, Vaisakhi observes major events in the history of Sikhism and the Indian subcontinent that happened in the Punjab region. Vaisakhi as a major Sikh festival marks the birth of the Khalsa order by Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Guru of Sikhism, on 13 April, 1699. Later, Ranjit Singh was proclaimed as Maharaja of the Sikh Empire on 12 April 1801 (to coincide with Vaisakhi), creating a unified political state, Vaisakhi was also the day when Bengal Army officer Reginald Dyer orders his troops to shoot into a protesting crowd, an event which would come to be known the Jallianwala Bagh massacre; the massacre proved influential to the history of the Indian independence movement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaklush Tolev",
        "text": "8 April \u2013 The Day of the Resurrection"
      },
      {
        "title": "Armed Forces Day",
        "text": "Rouz-e Artesh (English: \"Army Day\") is celebrated on 18 April. Exhibitions of the Iranian Army, such as a military parade of active personnel and veterans in the presence of the President of Iran in front of the Mausoleum of Ruhollah Khomeini, takes place during the holiday events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vishu is a Hindu festival celebrated on the same day as Vaisakhi in the Indian state of Kerala, and falls on the first day of Malayali month called Medam. The festival is notable for its solemnity and the general lack of pomp and show that characterize other Hindu festivals of Kerala such as Onam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakha",
        "text": "Vaisakha sukla chaturdasi is celebrated as Narasimha Jayanthi Festival in Sri Varaha Lakshmi Narasimha Swamivari Temple at Simhachalam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikhism in Canada",
        "text": "To celebrate the 2012 Vaisakhi festival, the local Sikh community decided to sponsor a new Canadian Army Cadet Corps, which was being formed by the Department of National Defence. Whilst happening on April 13 in 2012, Vaisakhi was celebrated in Vancouver on April 14. The Vancouver Sun made their estimation of the Metro Vancouver Sikh population to be at 200,000 during an article about the 2012 Vaisakhi. The Vancouver Vaisakhi ended up attracting thousands of people as well as various politicians including BC Premier Christy Clark. At the April 21st Surrey Vaisakhi, the Sikh peoples demonstrated support for Rajoana through various posters, with large banners calling India the world's largest \"Democracy\". The response to the support was positive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is celebrated in much the same way as Gurpurab, or a Guru's birthday anniversary, with gurdwaras being decorated and attended by Sikhs who listen to \"kirtan\" and religious discourses there. Many Sikhs also choose to be inducted into the Khalsa order on this day. After the prayers, \"Karah Parshad\" is then served to the congregation, and the function ends with a \"langar\", or community lunch. The festival is marked with a \"nagar kirtan\" street procession headed by a group of \"Panj Pyare\" representatives, and music, singing, and chanting scripture are part of the celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Bohag Bihu or Rangali Bihu marks the beginning of the Assamese New Year on 13 April. It is celebrated for seven days Vishuva Sankranti (Mesha Sankranti) of the month of Vaisakh or locally 'Bohag' (Bhaskar Calendar). The three primary types of Bihu are Rongali Bihu, Kongali Bihu, and Bhogali Bihu. Each festival historically recognizes a different agricultural cycle of the paddy crops. During Rangali Bihu there are 7 pinnacle phases: 'Chot', 'Raati', 'Goru', 'Manuh', 'Kutum', 'Mela' and 'Chera'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Kelowna's annual Vaisakhi parade is held a week after Surrey's parade each year and begins and ends at the Sikh Temple on Rutland Road."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "It is regionally known by many names among the Hindus, though the festivities and its significance is similar. It is celebrated by Hindus bathing in sacred rivers, as they believe that river goddess Ganges descended to earth on Vaisakhi from Svarga. Some rivers considered particularly sacred include the Ganges, Jhelum and Kaveri. Hindus visit temples, meet friends and party over festive foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "The festival is celebrated as a national holiday in Bangladesh. Also spelled Pohela Boishakh is also known as Nobo Barsho as it is the first day of the Bengali month of Bongabdo. Fairs are organised to celebrate the event which provides entertainment including the presentation of folk songs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is celebrated with religious fervour in Yamunanagar and Kurukshetra. In Kurukshetra district, Vaisakhi fair is held at \"Baan Ganga Tirtha\"\",\" which is associated with Arjuna of Mahabharata. There is a Vaisakhi tradition of ritual bath at the sacred tank of \"Baan Ganga Tirtha\" in Village Dayalpur of Kurukshetra. A fair is held annually on Vaisakhi at this Hindu pilgrimage. Besides, Haryana government organizes a Vaisakhi festival in Pinjore Garden to commemorate this religious and cultural festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ayya Vaikunda Avataram",
        "text": "On the next day on 20th of Masi, (4 March) 'The Great Masi Procession' begins early in the morning from Nagercoil. The Dharmaghartta's usually will lead the procession. A decorated vahana is carried in front of the procession in which the Akilathirattu Ammanai (palm-leaf version) is sacredly placed. This is an on-foot procession and people walk following the vahana, chanting Ayya \" 'Siva-siva Siva-siva Ara-kara Ara-kara' \". The participants will hold a saffron flag on their hands. Decorated Elephants and horses participate in this procession."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vasanthotsavam",
        "text": "Vasantotsavam is the combination of 2 words - \"Vasantha\" (Spring season in Sanskrit) and \"Utsavam\" (festival in Sanskrit). The festival is celebrated on the three days of \"tryodasi\", \"chaturdasi\" and \"pournami\" in the month of Chaitra In the Gregorian calendar, the festival occurs between the end of March through mid-April."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surhuri",
        "text": "So as North Chuvashs Cheremis people celebrate it on Friday before or after Russian Christmas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Artsakh Defence Army",
        "text": "Shushi Liberation Day (9 May) and Homeland Defender's Day (28 January) are two military holidays celebrated by the Defence Army. The former commemorates the founding of the military as well as the Capture of Shusha and the traditional Victory Day celebrations commemorating the surrender of Nazi Germany at the end of the Great Patriotic War in 1945. Because of this, it is sometimes referred to as a \"triple holiday\". An annual military parade is held in the capital, with a reception being held at the local House of Officers in the capital."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is an important among Pakistani Hindus. In Undivided Punjab, the Hindu Shrine of Katas Raj was known for its Vaisakhi fair. It was attended by around 10,000 pilgrims who were mostly Hindus. Similarly, at the shrine of Bairagi Baba Ram Thaman, a Vaisakhi fair was held annually since 16th century CE which was attended by around 60,000 Hindu pilgrims and Bairagi saints from all over India used to throng the shrine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi festivals",
        "text": "Vaisakhi additionally marks the Punjabi new year. This day is observed as a thanksgiving day by farmers whereby farmers pay their tribute, thanking God for the abundant harvest and also praying for future prosperity. Historically, during the early 20th century, Vaisakhi was a sacred day for Sikhs and Hindus and a secular festival for all Muslims and non-Muslims including Punjabi Christians. In modern times, sometimes Christians participate in Baisakhi celebrations along with Sikhs and Hindus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "The word Vaisakhi or Baisakhi is an Apabhra\u1e43\u015ba form evolved from the word Vaish\u0101kh\u012b (\u0935\u0948\u0936\u093e\u0916\u0940), derived from the name of the Indian month of Vaishakha. There is no distinction between sounds 'sha' (\u0936) & 'sa' (\u0938) and between 'va' (\u0935) & 'ba' (\u092c) in Prakrit & Apbhramsa. Hence the name, Vaisakhi or Baisakhi. In tonal languages like Bengali, it is pronounced as 'Boishakhi'. Vaisakhi which is observed on Sankranti of Vaisakh (Vaishakh) month literally means 'related to Vaisakh month', which in turn is derived from the name of a Nakshatra known as Vishakha. In Punjabi, the spelling varies with region. In Punjab region, \"Vaisakhi\" is common, but in the Doabi and Malwai dialects, speakers often substitute a \"B\" for a \"V\". The spelling used depends on the dialect of the writer."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of multinational festivals and holidays",
        "text": "World Down Syndrome Awareness Day - March 21st\n;Secular and multiple religions\n* Nowruz/Newroz (\u0646\u0647\u200c\u0648\u0631\u06c6\u0632/\u0646\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0632) : \"spring equinox (on or near 21 March)\"\u00a0\u2013 originally the Iranian New Year, celebrated as a secular holiday in Iran and many neighbouring countries and as a religious holiday by Alawites, Alevis, Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00eds, Bektashis, Zoroastrians, and most Shi'a Muslims.\n;Maithil\n* Sapta-Bipta (Maithil worship festival Sapta Mai worship)\n;Hinduism\n* Holi (Hindu holiday in honor of Lord Vishnu)\n* Dhulendi: \"6 March\"\n* Ram Navami: \"28 March\"\u00a0- Birthday of Lord Rama is celebrated all over India. The epic Ramayana is recited in temples and homes.\n;Judaism\n* Pesach: \"late March or in April\". See \"movable\"\n;Buddhism\n* Hanamatsuri: \"8 April\"\u00a0\u2013 Celebrated in Japan as Buddha's Birthday.\n;Islam\n* Ramadan: \"14 April\"\n;Secular\n* April Fools' Day: \"1 April\"\n* World Autism Awareness Day: \"2 April\"\n* Children\u2019s Day: \"4 April\"\n* Earth Day: \"22 April\"\n* Saint George's Day: \"23 April\"\n* Anzac Day: \"25 April\"\n;Christianity\n* Good Friday: \"the Friday preceding Easter Sunday, see \"movable\"\"\n* Holy Saturday: \"also called Easter Eve, the Saturday preceding Easter Sunday, see \"movable\"\"\n* Easter: \"typically in April, but sometimes in March or May, see \"movable\"\"\n;Hinduism\n* Rama Navami: birth of the god Rama\n* Hanuman Jayanti: typically a week after Rama Navami, in honour of the birth of Hanuman\n* Gangaur: occurring in April, in honour of the victory of Goddess Mahagauri\n* Maithil: occurring in April, Joor-seetal First day of Mithila calendar\n;Satanism\n* Hexennacht: \"30 April\"\u00a0\u2013 A TST Satanic occasion solemnly honoring those who fell victim to superstition and pseudoscience, whether by witch hunt, Satanic panic, or other injustices.\n;South and Southeast Asian\n* Traditional New Year: \"14 April\" (Usually between 12-14 April. Date is reckoned based on sun's entry into the constellation Aries) \u00a0\u2013 In many South and Southeast Asian cultures the festival is based on harvesting of crops and a new beginning marked by the sun's entry into the constellation Aries.\n;Judaism\n* Yom HaShoah\n* Lag BaOmer\n* Shavuot: \"usually in May, but sometimes in June\". See \"Movable\"\n;Paganism\n* May Day: \"1 May\"\u00a0\u2013 a traditional spring holiday in many cultures.\n;Buddhism\n* Vesak: Buddha's Birthday \u2013 celebrated on Vesak Full Moon by most buddhists.\n;Secular\n* International Workers' Day: \"1 May\"\n* Star Wars Day: \"May the 4th\"\n* Cinco de Mayo \"May 5\"\n* Matariki: The \"Maori new year\" festival running between a week and month from late May, celebrated by kite flying and a range of artistic activities.\n* Yom HaZikaron\n* Yom Ha'atzmaut: Israeli Independence Day\n;Maithil\n* Raib-Shain Paavein Worship of Sun and Saturn god\n* Inti Raymi: \"late June\"\u00a0\u2013 festival of the Sun in Quechua, winter solstice festival in areas of the former Inca Empire, still celebrated every June in Cusco.\n* We Tripantu\n;Hinduism\n* Ratha Yatra: procession of Vishnu\n;Islam\n* Eid al-Fitr: \"24 May 2020\"\n;Secular\n* World Environment Day: 5 June\n* Juneteenth : 19 June\n* World Humanist Day: 21 June\n* midsummer: 21 June\n* Yulefest/Midwinter Christmas: \"late June or July\"\u00a0\u2013 Australian/New Zealander winter 'Christmas/Yuletide'\n;Buddhism\n* Asalha Puja: Dhamma Day a Day When First Time Buddha gave Dhamma (updesh) To his First Five Sermons It Celebrate on full moon Day of Ashaldh\n;Hinduism\n* Guru Purnima: a reverential day in honour of all teachers and instructors.\n* Devshayani Ekadashi: solemnity of the repose of Vishnu, coincides with the first day of the highly inauspicious Chaturmas season.\n;Islam\n* Eid al-Adha: \"20 July\"\n;Satanism\n* Unveiling Day: \"25 July\"\u00a0\u2013 A TST Satanic celebration of religious plurality and shedding archaic superstition; celebrated on the date upon which The Satanic Temple's Baphomet statue was unveiled in 2015, an icon of modern Satanism created with \"respect for diversity and religious minorities\" in mind.\n;Christianity\n* Assumption of Mary: \"15 August\"\n;Hinduism\n* Raksha Bandhan: a festival commemorating filial love.\n* Krishna Janmashtami: birth anniversary of Krishna.\n* Onam: a festival of Kerala, India.\n;Secular\n* International Friendship Day: \"2 August\"\n* International Lefthanders Day: \"13 August\"\n* Saint Bartholomew's Day: \"24 August\"\n;Judaism\n* Rosh Hashanah: \"usually September, sometimes early October\" see \"Moveable\"\n* Yom Kippur: \"late September, early October\" see \"Moveable\"\n* Sukkot: \"sometimes late September, usually October\" see \"Moveable\"\n;Secular\n* Labor Day/Labour Day: \"first Monday of September (US/Canada)\"\n* International Talk Like a Pirate Day: \"19 September\"\n* World Peace Day: \"21 September\"\n;Judaism\n* Simchat Torah\n;Buddhism\n* Dhammachakra Pravartan Din :14 December Mostly Celebrate in India By Followers Of B. R. Ambedkar 14 October Samraat Ashok accepted Buddhist religion and On Same Day Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar Accepted Buddhist Religion with lakh of People This is Largest Dharmantaran in World Without any War And Harm .\n;Hinduism\n* Navratri: celebrates the conquest of Goddess Durga\n* Diwali: \"mid-October\u2013mid-November\"\u00a0\u2013 see \"movable\"\n* Kartik Purnima: An additional commemoration of the Celestial Diwali, or the \"Diwali of the Gods\"; hence the Sanskrit appellation \"Dev Diwali\", in honour of Vishnu, Kartikeya and Goddess Ganga.\n;Paganism\n* Samhain: \"31 October\u20131 November\"\u00a0\u2013 first day of winter in the Celtic calendar (and Celtic New Year's Day)\n;Secular\n* Gandhi Jayanti: an indoctrinated festival; the birth anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi, falls on 2 October.\n* Columbus Day: \"12 October\" or the second Monday in October\n* Indigenous Peoples' Day: the second Monday in October\n* Halloween: \"31 October\"\u00a0\u2013 also known as Allhalloween, All Hallows' Eve, or All Saints' Eve, is a celebration observed in many countries on 31 October, the eve of the Western Christian feast of All Hallows' Day.\n;Christianity\n* All Saints'/Souls' Day: \"1-2 November\"\u00a0\u2013 in Western Christian churches.\n* Dia de los muertos (Day of the Dead): \"1-2 November\"\u00a0\u2013 Celebrated in mostly Catholic Mexico but with origins that predate European contact.\n* Nativity Fast: \"forty days leading to Christmas\"\u00a0\u2013 also Saint Philip's fast, Christmas fast, or winter Lent or fast (Eastern Christianity).\n;Secular\n* Calan Gaeaf: \"1 November\"\u00a0\u2013 the first day of winter in Wales\n* Guy Fawkes Night: \"5 November\"\u00a0\u2013 celebrated in the UK commemorating the anniversary of the Gunpowder Plot\n* International Pianist Day: \"8 November\": celebrates the mastery of playing piano\n* Armistice Day (also Remembrance Day or Veterans Day): \"11 November\": memorial day honoring the war dead\n* International Men's Day: \"19 November\"\n* Thanksgiving Day: \"fourth Thursday of November (US); second Monday of October (CAN)\"\n*Maaveerar Naal: \"27\" \"November:\" Remembrance day observed by Sri Lankan Tamils in honour of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.\n;Hinduism\n* Diwali: \"mid-October\u2013mid-November\"\u00a0\u2013 see \"movable\"\n* Mandala Vratham: \"mid-November to mid-January\"\u00a0\u2013 see \"movable\": 48 days of fasting in honour of the deity Ayyappan begins.\n;Buddhism\n* Bodhi Day: \"8 December\"\u00a0\u2013 Day of Enlightenment, celebrating the day that the historical Buddha (Shakyamuni or Siddhartha Gautama) experienced enlightenment (also known as Bodhi).\n;Christianity\n* Advent: \"four Sundays preceding Christmas Day\"\n* Saint Barbara's Day: \"4 December\"\u00a0\u2013 The Feast of St. Barbara is celebrated by Artillery regiments across the Commonwealth and some western Catholic countries.\n* Krampusnacht: \"5 December\"\u00a0\u2013 The Feast of St. Nicholas is celebrated in parts of Europe on 6 December. In Alpine countries, Saint Nicholas has a devilish companion named Krampus who punishes the bad children the night before.\n* Saint Nicholas Day: \"6 December\"\n* Feast of the Immaculate Conception: \"8 December\"\u00a0\u2013 The day of Virgin Mary's Immaculate Conception is celebrated as a public holiday in many Catholic countries.\n* Saint Lucy's Day: \"13 December\"\u00a0\u2013 Church Feast Day. Saint Lucy comes as a young woman with lights and sweets.\n* Las Posadas: \"16\u201324 December\"\u00a0\u2013 procession to various family lodgings for celebration & prayer and to re-enact Mary & Joseph's journey to Bethlehem\n* Longest Night: A modern Christian service to help those coping with loss, usually held on the eve of the Winter solstice.\n* Nikoljdan: \"19 December\"\u00a0- the most common slava, St. Nicholas's feast day.\n* Christmas Eve: \"24 December\"\u00a0\u2013 In many countries e.g. the German speaking countries, but also in Poland, Hungary and the Nordic countries, gift giving is on 24 December.\n* Christmas Day: \"25 December\" and \"7 January\"\u00a0\u2013 celebrated by Christians and non-Christians alike.\n* Anastasia of Sirmium feast day: \"25 December\"\n* Twelve Days of Christmas: \"25 December\u20136 January\"\n* Saint Stephen's Day: \"26 December\"\u00a0\u2013 In Germany, Poland, the Czech Republic and Ireland a holiday celebrated as Second Day of Christmas.\n* Saint John the Evangelist's Day: \"27 December\"\n* Holy Innocents' Day: \"28 December\"\n* Saint Sylvester's Day: \"31 December\"\n;Hinduism\n* Pancha Ganapati: a modern five-day Hindu festival celebrated from 21 through 25 December in honor of Ganesha.\n* Vaikuntha Ekadashi: Mid December - Mid January: see \"moveable\".\n;Historical\n* Malkh: \"25 December\"\n* M\u014ddraniht: or Mothers' Night, the Saxon winter solstice festival.\n* Saturnalia: \"17\u201323 December\" \u2013 An ancient Roman winter solstice festival in honor of the deity Saturn, held on 17 December of the Julian calendar and expanded with festivities through to 23 December. Celebrated with sacrifice, a public banquet, followed by private gift-giving, continual partying, and a carnival.\n* Dies Natalis Solis Invicti (Day of the birth of the Unconquered Sun): \"25 December\"\u00a0\u2013 late Roman Empire\n;Humanism\n* HumanLight: \"23 December\"\u00a0\u2013 Humanist holiday originated by the New Jersey Humanist Network in celebration of \"a Humanist's vision of a good future.\"\n;Judaism\n* Hanukkah: usually falls anywhere between late November and early January. See \"movable\"\n;Paganism\n* Yule: Pagan winter festival that was celebrated by the historical Germanic people from late December to early January.\n* Koliada: Slavic winter festival celebrated on late December with parades and singers who visit houses and receive gifts.\n;Persian\n* Yalda: \"21 December\"\u00a0\u2013 The turning point, Winter Solstice. As the longest night of the year and the beginning of the lengthening of days, \"Shabe Yald\u0101\" or \"Shabe Chelle\" is an Iranian festival celebrating the victory of light and goodness over darkness and evil. \"Shabe yalda\" means 'birthday eve.' According to Persian mythology, Mithra was born at dawn on 22 December to a virgin mother. He symbolizes light, truth, goodness, strength, and friendship. Herodotus reports that this was the most important holiday of the year for contemporary Persians. In modern times Persians celebrate \"Yalda\" by staying up late or all night, a practice known as \"Shab Chera\" meaning 'night gazing'. Fruits and nuts are eaten, especially pomegranates and watermelons, whose red color invokes the crimson hues of dawn and symbolize Mithra.\n;Satanism\n* Sol Invictus: \"25 December\"\u00a0\u2013 A TST Satanic celebration of being unconquered by superstition and consistent in the pursuit and sharing of knowledge.\n;Secular\n* World AIDS Day: \"1 December\"\n*International Day of Disabled Persons: \"3 December\"\n* Boxing Day: \"26 December\"\n* Human Rights Day: \"10 December\"\n* Dongzhi Festival\u00a0\u2013 a celebration of Winter\n* Hogmanay: \"night of 31 December\u2013before dawn of 1 January\"\u00a0\u2013 Scottish New Year's Eve celebration\n* Newtonmas: 25 December\u00a0\u2013 As an alternative to celebrating the religious holiday Christmas, some atheists and skeptics have chosen to celebrate 25 December as Newtonmas, due to it being Isaac Newton's birthday on the old style date.\n* Kwanzaa: \"26 December\u20131 January\"\u00a0\u2013 Pan-African festival celebrated in the US\n* New Year's Eve: \"31 December\"\u00a0\u2013 last day of the Gregorian year\n* \u014cmisoka:\"31 December\"\u00a0\u2013 Japanese traditional celebration on the last day of the year\n* Soyal: \"21 December\"\u00a0\u2013 Zuni and Hopi\n* Winter Solstice: on or about \"21 December\"\n* Zamenhof Day: \"15 December\"\u00a0\u2013 Birthday of Ludwig Zamenhof, inventor of Esperanto; holiday reunion for Esperantists\n* Watch Night: \"31 December\"\n* Salgirah: 13 December - celebration of Shia Ismaili Muslims of their Imam (Aga Khan IV)\n;Unitarian Universalism\n* Chalica: \"first week of December\"\u00a0\u2013 A holiday created in 2005, celebrated by some Unitarian Universalists.\n;Fictional or parody\n*Erastide: In David Eddings' Belgariad and Malloreon series, Erastide is a celebration of the day on which the Seven Gods created the world. Greetings (\"Joyous Erastide\") and gifts are exchanged, and feasts are held.\n* Feast of Winter Veil: \"15 December\u20132 January\"\u00a0\u2013 A holiday in \"World of Warcraft\". This holiday is based on Christmas. Cities are decorated with lights and a tree with presents. Special quests, items and snowballs are available to players during this time. The character of \"Greatfather Winter\", who is modeled after Santa Claus, appears. Germanic tribes used to celebrate the Winter Solstice as a time to be thankful for the blessings given to them to survive harsh winters. The term \"Weil\", incorrectly translated to \"veil\", means abundance in German.\n* Feast of Alvis: in the TV series \"Sealab 2021\". \"Believer, you have forgotten the true meaning of Alvis Day. Neither is it ham, nor pomp. Nay, the true meaning of Alvis day is drinking. Drinking and revenge.\"\u2013Alvis\n* Hogswatch: a holiday celebrated on the fictional world of Disc-world. It is very similar to the Christian celebration of Christmas.\n* Festivus: \"23 December\"\u00a0\u2013 a parody holiday created by Daniel O'Keefe and made popular by \"Seinfeld\" as an alternative to Christmas.\n* Frostvale: the winter holidays in the Artix Entertainment universe\n* Decemberween: \"25 December\"\u00a0\u2013 a parody of Christmas that features gift-giving, carol-singing and decorated trees. The fact that it takes place on 25 December, the same day as Christmas, has been presented as just a coincidence, and it has been stated that Decemberween traditionally takes place \"55 days after Halloween\". The holiday has been featured in the \"Homestar Runner\" series.\n* Wintersday, the end-of-the-year celebration in the fictional universe of the Guild Wars franchise, starts every year mid December and ends the next year on early January.\n* IES Competition Time, Don's Event questions on the number of trips he took all over the world and in return offering prizes for the person who can guess closest. Follows this up with everyone's favourite Andrew Award presentation.\n* Winter's Crest: the winter celebration held on the continent of Tal'Dorei in the world of Exandria, as featured in the RPG show \"Critical Role.\"\n*Candlenights: pan-religious, pan-sexual, personal pan pizza winter holiday created by Justin, Travis, and Griffin McElroy. Featured on the podcasts My Brother, My Brother, and Me, and Adventure Zone.\n*Snowdown: A celebration observed in Runetera, The world in which League of Legends is set. During snowdown, starting in December and ending in January \"Frost-chilled days give way to colder nights, but the warmth of Snowdown calls together kindred spirits and foes alike.\" During this time, winter game modes, winter cosmetic map changes, and new Snowdown skins are released, as well as the previous years' Snowdown skins being made available again.\n*Life Day: Wookie celebration of life, featured in the Star Wars Holiday Special, in which Wookies gather with family, wear long red robes, sing under sacred The Tree of Life and reminisce.\n*The Dawning: A celebration of the Light of the Traveler, and a time to spread cheer and give gifts to help keep The Darkness at bay during the long days of the winter months. Celebrated in the Destiny franchise of video games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "One week later, the festival in Surrey is one of the largest such celebrations outside of India, having attracted over 200,000 people in 2014, over 350,000 in 2015, and approached 400,000 in 2016. The 2017 attendance in Surrey reportedly topped 400,000, causing organizers to consider future distribution of the festival over several days and local cities, particularly in areas of economic disadvantage which would benefit from the generous charitable efforts seen during Vaisakhi celebrations. Record attendance was again experienced in April 2018 in the 20th annual Surrey Vaisakhi parade, with the RCMP officially estimating the crowd at over half a million people in a city with a 2016 census population of 517,887. Starting at the Gurdwara Dashmesh Darbar Temple (12885 85th Avenue in Surrey), the parade features a variety of floats, community groups, free food, live music and dancers and performers, and travels along 124th Street, turns left onto 75th Avenue, continues on 76th Avenue, onto 128th Street, then back to the Temple."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shushi Liberation Day",
        "text": "Shushi Liberation Day () is a national holiday celebrated in Armenia and the unrecognized Nagorno Kharabakh. It is commemorated on both 8 and 9 May as a way to celebrate the anniversary of the Capture of Shusha and the Siege of Stepanakert (referred to commonly by Armenians as the Liberation of Shushi) from Azerbaijani forces in 1992. Being both former Soviet republics, the holiday also commemorates the traditional Victory Day celebrations on 9 May, commemorating the surrender of Nazi Germany at the end of the Great Patriotic War in 1945. The holiday serves as the official holiday of the Artsakh Defense Army, which was established on this day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "In Himachal Pradesh, Vaisakhi is an important festival of Hindus. People get up early in the morning and have a ritual bath. Two earthen lamps are lighted on this day one of Sangiya of oil and other one is Jyot of Ghee. These are kept in a large saucer along with water pot, blades of evergreen turf, Kusha, Incense, Sandal, Vermillion and Dakshina (money). With these things worship of household deities is performed. Alms are given in form of rice and pulses with small coins which are placed near Deity. This is called \"Nasrawan\" and is commonly to family priest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zoroastrian calendar",
        "text": "In a leap year of the Fasli observance, Mukhtad is observed 10\u201319\u00a0March, with Hamaspathmaidyem and the Gatha days 15\u201319\u00a0March. Mareshpand Jashan is on 13\u00a0March. The leap day, 20\u00a0March, called \"Avardad-sal-Gah\", is considered a duplication of \"Wahishtoisht\", the fifth Gatha day, but is not reckoned as Mukhtad or Hamaspathmaidyem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sankhu",
        "text": "The festival of Vajrayogini occurs in \"Chaitra Sukla Astami\" (late March or early April). A nine days tradition jatra of Mhasukhwamaju and other Vaghini (Bagini), Singhini and a stupa shaped Buddha starts on the day of full moon (purnima) and continues for nine days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hashim Thattvi",
        "text": "Makhdoom Hashim's urs is celebrated every year on the 6th of rajab at the shrine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saadi Shirazi",
        "text": "Annually, on April 21 (Apr. 20 in leap years) a crowd of foreign tourists and Iranians gather at Saadi's tomb in order to mark the day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "This holiday also is known as Vaisakha Sankranti, based on the Hindu Vikram Samvat calendar, and is known by various regional names in other parts of India. For many Hindu communities, the festival is an occasion to ritually bathe in sacred rivers such as Ganges, Jhelum, and Kaveri, visit temples, meet friends, take part in other festivities, and perform a mandatory \"daan\" (charity) especially of hand fans, water pitchers and seasonal fruits. Community fairs are held at Hindu pilgrimage sites. In many areas, processions of temple deities are taken out. Although Vaisakhi began as a grain harvest festival for Hindus, it eventually gained historical association with the Sikhs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi Market, Vancouver",
        "text": "Beginning in 1979, the Khalsa Diwan society at the Ross Street Gurdwara has celebrated Vaisakhi each year in April with a public celebration. Festivities include Vancouver's largest annual one-day parade, where up to 300,000 people come together from to celebrate the birth of the Sikh religion. Many restaurants and households near the strip offer local food tasting and other goods during the event.. The City of Vancouver has granted the Vaisakhi Parade Civic Parades Category in 2013, which is reserved for events with >100,000 attendees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sirimanothsavam",
        "text": "Sirimanu Utsav is being celebrated every year on the first Tuesday following Vijayadasami. Sirimanu means a big trunk. It is believed that approximately 15\u00a0days before"
      },
      {
        "title": "Varuthini Ekadashi",
        "text": "Varuthini Ekadashi, also known Baruthani Ekadashi, is a Hindu holy day, which falls on the 11th lunar day (ekadashi) of the fortnight of the waning moon in the Hindu month of Chaitra (per the South Indian \"Amavasyant\" calendar, every month ends with a new moon) or Vaishakha (per the North Indian \"Purnimant\" calendar, every month ends with a full moon). By both schemes, Varuthini Ekadashi falls on the same day in April or May. Like all ekadashis, the God Vishnu, especially his fifth avatar Vamana, is worshipped."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Many people go to the Nagbani temple to witness the grand New Year celebration. Vaisakhi is also considered \"harvest festival\" and considered auspicious, especially for marriages. Celebrations of Vaisakhi also include Dogri Bhangra.According to Ganhar (1975), \"Bhangra dances are a special feature of Baisakhi celebrations but bhangra is an importation from the Punjab and is more secular than religious\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kottiyoor Temple",
        "text": "The Vaisakha Maholsavam festival is held every year during the months of May - June. The twenty eight-day festival commences with the 'Neyyattam' ritual on the 'chodi' Day in Edavam (rishabham) and concludes with the Thrikkalashaattu. The Vaisakha Maholsavam celebrations begin with the ritual of bringing a sword from Muthirerikavu from Wayanad. On the following day, on Visakham star, Bhandaram Ezhunnallath ritual is held. Ornaments and Pooja vessels of pure gold and silver are brought from the nearby Manathana village to Kottiyoor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is a harvest festival for people of Northern India. Chander and Dogra (2003) state that in Punjab, Vaisakhi marks the ripening of the rabi harvest. Vaisakhi, the Hindu Solar new year, also marks the Nepalese, Punjabi and Bengali New year. Fairs or \"Melas\" (fair) are held in many parts of North India to mark the new year and the harvesting season. Vaisakhi fairs take place in various places, including Jammu City, Kathua, Udhampur, Reasi and Samba, in the Pinjore complex near Chandigarh, in Himachal Pradesh cities of Rewalsar, Shimla, Mandi and Prashar Lakes. According to Ann Louise Wood, Vaisakhi is a festival that is celebrated by the Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims of Punjab."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vikram Samvat",
        "text": "In India, the reformulated Saka calendar is officially used (except for computing dates of the traditional festivals). In the Hindi version of the preamble of the constitution of India, the date of its adoption (26 November 1949) is presented in Vikram Samvat as Margsheersh Shukla Saptami Samvat 2006. A call has been made for the Vikram Samvat to replace the Saka calendar as India's official calendar.\n*Chaitra Navaratri: the second most celebrated, named after \"vasanta\" which means spring. It is observed the lunar month of Chaitra (post-winter, March\u2013April). In many regions the festival falls after spring harvest, and in others during harvest. It also marks the first day of the Hindu calendar, hence also known as the Hindu Lunar New Year according to Vikram Samvat calendar.\n*Vaisakhi:\n**Vaisakhi marks the beginning of Hindu Solar New Year in Punjab, Northern, Eastern, North-eastern and Central India according to the solar Vikram Samvat calendar. and marks the first day of the month of Vaisakha, which is usually celebrated on 13 or 14 April every year and is a historical and religious festival in Hinduism.\n**Baisakhi (Nepal): Baisakhi is celebrated as Nepalese New Year because it is the day which marks Hindu Solar New Year as per the solar Nepali Bikram Sambat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "The United Kingdom has a large Sikh community originating from the Indian sub-continent, East Africa and Afghanistan. The largest concentrations of Sikhs in the UK are to be found in the West Midlands (especially Birmingham and Wolverhampton) and London. The Southall Nagar Kirtan is held on a Sunday a week or two before Vaisakhi. The Birmingham Nagar Kirtan is held in late April in association with Birmingham City Council, and is an annual event attracting thousands of people which commences with two separate nagar kirtans setting off from gurdwaras in the city and culminating in the Vaisakhi Mela at Handsworth Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikhs",
        "text": "During the day of Vaisakhi in 1999, Sikhs worldwide celebrated the 300th anniversary of the creation of the Khalsa. Canada Post honoured Sikh Canadians with a commemorative stamp in conjunction with the anniversary. Likewise, on 9 April 1999, Indian president K. R. Narayanan issued a stamp commemorating the 300th anniversary of the Khalsa as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sepand\u0101rmazg\u0101n",
        "text": "This day is dedicated to \"Sp\u0259nta \u0100rmaiti\" (Avestan for \"Holy Devotion\", ' in Middle Persian, ' or \"\"), the Amesha Spenta who is given the domain of \"earth\". The date of the festival as observed in the Sassanid era was on the 5th day of the month Spandarmad. When the name of the day and the month of the day were the same, a \"name-feast\" celebration was always done."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi festivals",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is a religious festival of Sikhs. Vaisakhi marks the beginning of Sikh new year and the formation of the Khalsa. Punjabi Muslims observe the new year according to the Islamic calendar. Vaisakhi is also a harvest festival for people of the Punjab region. The harvest festival is celebrated by Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus. In the Punjab, Vaisakhi marks the ripening of the rabi harvest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penchalakona",
        "text": "There is an annual festival at the temple, which is a major event in Penchalakona, celebrated during Vaisakha, the period of time in the Hindu solar calendar that begins in mid-April in Bengal, Nepal, and Punjab. It starts on the day of Suddha Dwadasi and lasts until Bahula Padyami, a total of five days. Devotees congregate for Narasimhaswamy Jayanthi to celebrate the occasion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shri Laxmi Narsimha Temple",
        "text": "Vaisakha Navratri is the biggest festival celebrated at the temple. The festival starts on the sixth day of the month of Vaisakha and ends on fourteenth day which is Narasimha Jayanti. A procession of Shri Narasimha's paduka is taken out on the fifteenth day followed by Dahi Handi on the next day. The festival is marked by Pravachan, Bhajan, Kirtan and Indian classical music concerts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ujjal Dosanjh",
        "text": "On April 16, 2010, the day prior to the annual Vaisakhi Parade held in Surrey, B.C., one of the parade organizers issued a statement indicating should Dosanjh and BC Liberal backbencher Dave Hayer choose to attend the parade, their safety could not be guaranteed. This was due in part to comments that Dosanjh had made after the parade in 2007, suggesting a police investigation into reports of a parade float that had a picture of Talwinder Singh Parmar on it, a former accused in the Air India Bombing. Dosanjh also expressed concerns over some attendees wearing International Sikh Youth Federation T-shirts, a group that is classified as a terrorist organization in Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaishnava Nambi and Thirukurungudivalli Nachiar temple",
        "text": "The \"Chittirai utsavam\"(festival) in the month of Chittirai (April - May), Vaikasi Jestabishekam during June, Aavani Pavithrotsavam during \"Aavani\" (August - September), Float festival during \"Thai\" (January - February) and Brahmostavam during March\u2013April are the major festivals in the temple."
      },
      {
        "title": "Panj Pyare",
        "text": "Bhai Daya Ram became Bhai Daya Singh, Bhai Dharam Das Became Bhai Dharam Singh, Bhai Himmat Rai became Bhai Himmat Singh, Bhai Mohkam Chand became Bhai Mohkam Singh, Bhai Sahib Chand became Bhai Sahib Singh \u2212 by Guru Gobind Singh during the historic and monumental divan at Anandpur Sahib on March 30, 1699.(Gregorian calendar skipped 11 days in 1752. So, in present times Baisakhi occurs near 13 April every year)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surhuri",
        "text": "In Ulhash Chuvash pagans celebrate Surhuri on January 6. According to V.K. Magnitskiy, earlier Chuvash people celebrated it at the end of December, on the third Friday after Nikola Day (December 6 ). It approximately coincides with Russian Christmas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vadhav",
        "text": "The Radha Krishna Temple was built in the 19th century. Shri. Narayan Paranjape was its first head priest. A Mela (\"yatra\") is celebrated in the month of April in the faith of Bahiri Dev. A procession of Bahiri Dev is held. A traditional competition of raising Kathi is held. Most senior citizens from Patil family came to Vadhav for staying they have their Kuldev Thankeshwar in Kamble Ali. The temple presents six ancient stone idols with Lord Shiva. A Grand Festival is celebrated on the occasion of Mahashivratri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "In Vancouver, the parade was first held in 1979 and is the largest annual single-day festival in the city. The parade starts at Ross Street Temple and makes its way through the traditional Punjabi Market in South Vancouver, attracting up to 300,000 people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "The occasion is marked by numerous fairs and people come by the thousands to celebrate Vaisakhi. For example, Airwan in Kathua is known for Vaisakhi fair attended by 10,000 people as per Census 1961. Every year on Baisakhi festival around 15,000 pilgrims pay their obeisance at 700 tear old temple of \"Subar Nag Devta\" temple in Bhaderwah. Other places where Vaisakhi fairs are held are Doda Bridge and Ramban."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sindkheda",
        "text": "Ratha Palkhi is one of the major utsav celebrated on the day of Sharad Paurnima which is also known as Kojagiri Paurnima."
      },
      {
        "title": "Padayani",
        "text": "At Kadammanitta Devi Kshethram-\u00a0First two days are the ceremonial rituals (9.pm-30mts) to start the Padayani. The presence of Goddess is evoked to the Padayani performing ground by folk songs and drumming Thappu. From third day onwards Padayani Kolam like Ganapathi, Marutha, Pakshi, Kalan, Sundara Yekshi, Bhairavi, Kanjiramala etc. are staged. (11 pm-4am). On the sixth day (19 Apr) night is Adavi, a ritual where a Palmyra tree is brought and mounts it on the ground, after some rituals the tree is then pushed down. On 21 April is Valiya padayani, the most important day of the festival. During the full night performance (12 nt to 6am), about 15 variety Kolams are staged including Maya yakshi, Anthara yakshi, Arakki yakshi, Kurathi kolam, Shiva kolam, Kanjhiramala and Mangala Bhairavi. There is no performance on ninth day. The concluding day performance is in the morning (11am-12.20pm).\u00a0 Apart from Folk songs, a type of folk dance called Pulavrutham and Thavadi is also performed. A grand procession is the conducted (4.30pm- 6.30pm) through the streets of the village with Jeevatha, accompanied by Velakali, kavadi, Melam, Panchavadyam etc. A similar procession (Vilakku ezhunnallippu) is conducted in the temple compound during night (11.30pm to 2 hrs) with Thalappoli etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vadner Bhairao",
        "text": "Every year in the month of April, a festival takes place on the eve of the marriage of the god Bhairvnath."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jakkasandra",
        "text": "Jakkasandra Shree AadiShakti draupadamma Karaga Bangalore Karaga utsava, Shree Renuka Yallamma & Shree Venugopala Swamy, and Shree Muneshwara swamy Pallakki Jathre Mahotsava is celebrated every year, on the second Saturday of April."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vishu",
        "text": "Vishu, which used to be the Kerala new year day, is celebrated elsewhere but called by other names. It is called Vaisakhi by Hindus and Sikhs in north and central India, which marks the solar new year, and Tamil New Year day called Puthandu. The new year day on or next to 14 April every year, is also the new year for many Buddhist communities in parts of southeast Asia such as Myanmar and Cambodia, likely an influence of their shared culture in the 1st millennium CE.Vishu is known as Bishu which is celebrated on Baisakh 1 of Nepal \ud83c\uddf3\ud83c\uddf5 calender in Farwest Province of Nepal.It is the most important festival in that region."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year",
        "text": "The new year of many South and Southeast Asian calendars falls between April 13\u201315, marking the beginning of spring.\n*The Baloch Hindu people in Pakistan and India celebrate their new year called Bege Roch in the month of Daardans according to their Saaldar calendar.\n*Tamil New Year ( \"Puthandu\") is celebrated in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu, on the first of \"Chithrai\" (\u0b9a\u0bbf\u0ba4\u0bcd\u0ba4\u0bbf\u0bb0\u0bc8) (April 13, 14, or 15). In the temple city of Madurai, the Chithrai Thiruvizha is celebrated in the Meenakshi Temple. A huge exhibition is also held, called Chithrai Porutkaatchi. In some parts of Southern Tamil Nadu, it is also called Chithrai Vishu. The day is marked with a feast in Hindu homes and the entrance to the houses are decorated elaborately with kolams.\n*Punjabi/Sikh Vaisakhi (\u0a35\u0a3f\u0a38\u0a3e\u0a16\u0a40) is celebrated on April 14 in Punjab according to their nanakshahi calendar.\n*Nepal New Year in Nepal is celebrated on the 1st of Baisakh \"Bais\u0101kh\" which falls on 12\u201315 April in the Gregorian calendar. Nepal follows the Bikram Sambat (BS) as an official calendar.\n*The Dogra of Himachal Pradesh celebrate their new year Chaitti in the month of Chaitra.\n*Maithili New Year or Jude-Sheetal too fall on these days. It is celebrated by Maithili People all around the world.\n*Assamese New Year (\"Rongali Bihu\" or \"Bohag Bihu\") is celebrated on April 14 or 15 in the Indian state of Assam.\n*Bengali New Year ( \"P\u00f4hela Boishakh\" or \"Bangla N\u00f4bob\u00f4rsho\") is celebrated on the 1st of Boishakh (April 14 or 15) in Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal and Tripura.\n*Odia New Year (\"Vishuva Sankranti\") is celebrated on April 14 in the Indian state of Odisha. It is also called Vishuva Sankranti or Pana Sankranti (\u0b2a\u0b23\u0b3e \u0b38\u0b02\u0b15\u0b4d\u0b30\u0b3e\u0b28\u0b4d\u0b24\u0b3f).\n*Manipuri New Year or Cheirouba is celebrated on April 14 in the Indian State of Manipur with much festivities and feasting.\n*Sinhalese New Year is celebrated with the harvest festival (in the month of Bak) when the sun moves from the Meena Rashiya (House of Pisces) to the Mesha Rashiya (House of Aries). Sri Lankans begin celebrating their National New Year \"Aluth Avurudda (\u0d85\u0dbd\u0dd4\u0dad\u0dca \u0d85\u0dc0\u0dd4\u0dbb\u0dd4\u0daf\u0dca\u0daf)\" in Sinhala and \"Puththandu (\u0baa\u0bc1\u0ba4\u0bcd\u0ba4\u0bbe\u0ba3\u0bcd\u0b9f\u0bc1)\" in Tamil. However, unlike the usual practice where the new year begins at midnight, the National New Year begins at the time determined by the astrologers by calculating the exact time that sun goes from Meena Rashiya (House of Pisces) to the Mesha Rashiya (House of Aries). Not only the beginning of the new year but the conclusion of the old year is also specified by the astrologers. And unlike the customary ending and beginning of the new year, there is a period of a few hours in between the conclusion of the Old Year and the commencement of the New Year, which is called the \"nona gathe\" (neutral period) Where part of the sun in House of Pisces and Part is in House of Aries.\n*Malayali New Year (, \"Vishu\") is celebrated in the South Indian state of Kerala in mid-April.\n*Western parts of Karnataka where Tulu is spoken, the new year is celebrated along with Tamil/ Malayali New year April 14 or 15, although in other parts most commonly celebrated on the day of Gudi Padwa, the Maharashtrian new year. In Kodagu, in Southwestern Karnataka, however, both new year, Yugadi (corresponding to Gudi Padwa in March) and Bisu (corresponding to Vishu in around April 14 or 15), are observed.\n*The Water Festival is the form of similar new year celebrations taking place in many Southeast Asian countries, on the day of the full moon of the 11th month on the lunisolar calendar each year. The date of the festival is based off the traditional lunisolar calendar which determines the dates of Buddhist festivals and holidays, and is observed from April 13 to 15. Traditionally people gently sprinkled water on one another as a sign of respect, but since the new year falls during the hottest month in Southeast Asia, many people end up dousing strangers and passersby in vehicles in boisterous celebration. The festival has many different names specific to each country:\n**In Burma it is known as \"Thingyan\" ()\n** Songkran () in Thailand\n** \"Pi Mai Lao\" ( \"Songkan\") in Laos\n** \"Chaul Chnam Thmey\" ( ) in Cambodia.\n** It is also the traditional new year of the Dai peoples of Yunnan Province, China. Religious activities in the tradition of Theravada Buddhism are also carried out, a tradition in which all of these cultures share.\n* The New Year of the Kutchi people occurs on \"Ashadi Beej\", that is 2nd day of Shukla paksha of Aashaadha month of Hindu calendar. As for people of Kutch, this day is associated with the beginning of rains in Kutch, which is largely a desert area. Hindu calendar month of Aashaadh usually begins on June 22 and ending on July 22.\n* Odunde Festival is a celebration on the 2nd Sunday of June, where \"Odunde\" means \"Happy New Year\" in the Yorube Nigerian language.\n*The Xooy ceremony of the Serer people of Senegal, Gambia and Mauritania marks the Serer New Year.\n*In the Dogon religion, the \"Bulo\" festival marks the Dogon New Year.\n* The New Year of the Zulu people occurs on the full moon of July.\n* Neyrouz, the Coptic New Year, is the continuation of the ancient Egyptian New Year following the Roman emperor Augustus's reform of its calendar. Its date of Thoth 1 usually occurs on August 29 in the Julian calendar, except in the year before a Julian leap year, when it occurs the next day. The leap years removed from the Gregorian calendar mean that it presently falls on September 11 or 12 but on different days before 1900 or after 2100.\n* Enkutatash, the Ethiopian New Year, occurs on the same day as Neyrouz.\n* The New Year of the French Revolutionary Calendar, in force from 1793 to 1805 and briefly under the Paris Commune in 1871, occurred on the Southward equinox (22, 23, or 24 September)\n*Rosh Hashanah (Hebrew for 'head of the year') is a Jewish, two day holiday, commemorating the culmination of the seven days of Creation, and marking God's yearly renewal of His world. The day has elements of festivity and introspection, as God is traditionally believed to be assessing His creation and determining the fate of all men and creatures for the coming year. In Jewish tradition, honey is used to symbolize a sweet new year. At the traditional meal for that holiday, apple slices are dipped in honey and eaten with blessings recited for a good, sweet new year. Some Rosh Hashanah greetings show honey and an apple, symbolizing the feast. In some congregations, small straws of honey are given out to usher in the new year.\n*The Pathans Kalasha celebrate their Chowmus which marks the beginning of their year in Chitral district of Pakistan and parts of India.\n*The Marwari New Year (Thapna) is celebrated on the day of the festival of Diwali, which is the last day Krishna Paksha of the Ashvin month & also the last day of the Ashvin month of the Hindu calendar.\n*The Gujarati New Year (Bestu/Nao Varas) is celebrated the day after the festival of Diwali (which occurs in mid-fall \u2013 either October or November, depending on the Lunar calendar). The Gujarati New Year is synonymous with \"sud ekam\", i.e. first day of Shukla paksha of the \"Kartik\" month, which is taken as the first day of the first month of the Gujarati lunar calendar. Most other Hindus celebrate the New Year in early spring. The Gujarati community all over the world celebrates the New Year after Diwali to mark the beginning of a new fiscal year.\n*The Sikkimese celebrate their new year called Losar.\n*The Nepal Era New year (see Nepal Sambat) is celebrated in regions encompassing original Nepal. The new year occurs on the fourth day of Diwali. The calendar was used as an official calendar until the mid-19th century. However, the new year is still celebrated by the Newars community of Nepal.\n*Some neo-pagans celebrate their interpretation of Samhain (a festival of the ancient Celts, held around November 1) as a New Year's Day representing the new cycle of the Wheel of the Year, although they do not use a different calendar that starts on this day.\n* The Mizo in northeast India celebrate their Pawl Kut in December.\n* The Inuit, the Aleut, the Yupik, the Chukchi and the I\u00f1upiat celebrate Quviasukvik () as their New Year. It occurs on the same day as Christmas Eve.\n* The Islamic New Year occurs on Muharram. Since the Islamic calendar is based on 12 lunar months amounting to about 354 days, its New Year occurs about eleven days earlier each year in relation to the Gregorian calendar, with two Islamic New Years falling in the Gregorian year 2008.\n* The \"Opening of the Year\" (), usually transcribed as Wep Renpet, was the ancient Egyptian New Year. It appears to have originally been set to occur upon Sirius's return to the night sky (July 19 proleptic Julian calendar), during the initial stages of former annual flood of the Nile. However the Egyptian calendar's lack of leap years, until its reform by the Roman emperor Augustus, meant that the celebration slowly cycled through the entire solar year over the course of two or three 1460-year Sothic cycles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vadugam",
        "text": "Every year around April the village celebrates Mariamman festival for a fortnight. During this festival, Goddess Mariamman is decorated with jewellery and flower chariots and taken around the village at midnight. This festival is celebrated for a week.\n* Government Higher Secondary School - Vadugam\n* Rassie Vidya Mandir Primary and Nursery School - Vadugam"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vadakkan Koyikkal Devi Temple Puthiyavila",
        "text": "Navaha Yekngam is the one of the celebration in vadakkan koyikkal devi temple it will be conducted for nine days in April \u2013 May months. In this nine days very good religious ceremonies (poojas) will be conducted in temple and all the nine days annadana (offering food to people) also will be there in the temple."
      },
      {
        "title": "13 (number)",
        "text": "The Vaisakhi, which commemorates the creation of \"Khalsa\" or pure Sikh was celebrated on April 13 for many years.\n* In Judaism, 13 signifies the age at which a boy matures and becomes a Bar Mitzvah, \"i.e.\", a full member of the Jewish faith (counts as a member of Minyan).\n* The number of principles of Jewish faith according to Maimonides.\n* According to Rabbinic commentary on the Torah, God has 13 Attributes of Mercy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chusdazat",
        "text": "His feast is celebrated on April 14 in the Syrian Church, April 17 in the Greek Orthodox Church, April 21 in the Roman Catholic Church, April 30 in the Melkite Catholic Church, and the Friday after Easter in the Syriac Orthodox Church and the Assyrian Church of the East."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What days is Vaisakhi usually celebrated in April?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Vaisakhi, also pronounced Baisakhi, marks the first day of the month of Vaisakh and is traditionally celebrated annually on the 13th of April and sometimes on the 14th of April as a celebration of spring harvest primarily in Northern India.",
      "Vaisakhi is traditionally celebrated annually on 13 April and sometimes 14 April."
    ],
    "topic": "Vaisakhi",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Vaisakhi:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vaisakhi"
        ],
        "ctx": "Vaisakhi (IAST: ), also pronounced Baisakhi, marks the first day of the month of Vaisakh and is traditionally celebrated annually on 13 April and sometimes 14 April as a celebration of spring harvest primarily in Northern India. Further, other Indian cultures and diaspora celebrate this festival too. Whilst it is culturally significant as a festival of harvest, some also consider Vaisakhi to be the legitimate date for the Indian Solar New Year. However, it is important to understand that this is not a universally accepted belief, with some individuals considering the previous month of Chet the New Year."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Vaisakhi:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vaisakhi"
        ],
        "ctx": "Vaisakhi (IAST: ), also pronounced Baisakhi, marks the first day of the month of Vaisakh and is traditionally celebrated annually on 13 April and sometimes 14 April as a celebration of spring harvest primarily in Northern India. Further, other Indian cultures and diaspora celebrate this festival too. Whilst it is culturally significant as a festival of harvest, some also consider Vaisakhi to be the legitimate date for the Indian Solar New Year. However, it is important to understand that this is not a universally accepted belief, with some individuals considering the previous month of Chet the New Year."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is observed on the 13 or 14 April every year in the 21st century. However, in 1801 AD, it fell on 11 April. This is because the date of Vaisakhi and other Sankrantis keeps changing slowly over years. Vaisakhi would fall on 29 April in Year 2999. The festival coincides with other new year festivals celebrated on the first day of Vaisakh in other regions of the Indian Subcontinent such as the Pohela Boishakh, Bohag Bihu, Vishu, Puthandu among others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi (IAST: ), also pronounced Baisakhi, marks the first day of the month of Vaisakh and is traditionally celebrated annually on 13 April and sometimes 14 April as a celebration of spring harvest primarily in Northern India. Further, other Indian cultures and diaspora celebrate this festival too. Whilst it is culturally significant as a festival of harvest, some also consider Vaisakhi to be the legitimate date for the Indian Solar New Year. However, it is important to understand that this is not a universally accepted belief, with some individuals considering the previous month of Chet the New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "13 (number)",
        "text": "The Vaisakhi, which commemorates the creation of \"Khalsa\" or pure Sikh was celebrated on April 13 for many years.\n* In Judaism, 13 signifies the age at which a boy matures and becomes a Bar Mitzvah, \"i.e.\", a full member of the Jewish faith (counts as a member of Minyan).\n* The number of principles of Jewish faith according to Maimonides.\n* According to Rabbinic commentary on the Torah, God has 13 Attributes of Mercy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi festivals",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is a historical and religious festival in Hinduism. It is usually celebrated on 13 or 14 April every year. For Hindus, the festival is their traditional solar new year, a harvest festival, an occasion to bath in sacred rivers such as Ganges, Jhelum, and Kaveri, visit temples, meet friends and take part in other festivities. In other parts of India, the Vaisakhi festival is known by various regional names."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi festivals",
        "text": "Vaisakhi, also pronounced as Baisakhi marks the beginning of Hindu solar New year. Vaisakhi marks the first day of the month of Vaisakha and is usually celebrated on 13 or 14 April every year. This holiday also is known as Vaisakha Sankranti and celebrates the Solar new year, based on the Hindu Vikram Samvat calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guru Nanak Gurpurab",
        "text": "However, some scholars and organizations believe the Birthday should be celebrated on Vaisakhi, which falls on 14 April according to the original Nanakshahi Calendar passed by Sri Akal Takht in 2003. However, many people and organizations would like to keep the traditional date by celebrating on the Full Moon Day (Pooranmashi or Purnima) of the Lunar Month Kartik. The original Nanakshahi Calendar follows the tradition and celebrates it on Kartik Purnima due to demands by various Sikh Saints."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi falls on the first day of the Vaisakh month and marks the sun's entry to the Mesha Rasi marking the solar transition to Aries. The day is also described as Mesha Sankranti in India. Vaisakhi is therefore determined by the solar calendar. Baisakhi usually falls on 14 April, and on 15 April once every thirty-six years. Since 2003, the Sikh Gurdwara Prabhandak Committee named the month in which Vaisakhi falls as Vaisakh, making the first day of the second month according to the Nanakshahi calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "13 (number)",
        "text": "Since beginning of the Nowruz tradition, the 13th day of each new Iranian year is called Sizdah Be-dar, a festival dedicated to pranks and spending time outdoors.\n* The Thirteen Classics is considered to be a part of the Chinese classics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakh",
        "text": "Vaisakh (, ) is the second month in the Nanakshahi calendar. This month coincides with April and May in the Gregorian calendar and to Vaisakha in the Hindu calendar and the Indian national calendar; it comprises the time of crop-harvesting in the Punjab region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "The Bengali new year is celebrated as Poyla Baishakh on 14 April every year, and a festive Mangal Shobhajatra, started by students of Dhaka University in Bangladesh in 1989, is organized in the Indian states of West Bengal and Tripura, as well as modern-day nation of Bangladesh. This celebration was listed in 2016 by the UNESCO as a cultural heritage of humanity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surrey, British Columbia",
        "text": "Every year on April 13, the Sikh community celebrates Vaisakhi, which often includes a \"nagar kirtan\", or parade, and free food is often handed out. It is the largest Vaiskahi parade outside India, growing from 100,000 attendees in 2008 to over 500,000 in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thrayodashi",
        "text": "Trayodashi is the Sanskrit word for \"thirteen\", and is the thirteenth day in the lunar fortnight (\"Paksha\") of the Hindu calendar. Each month has two Thrayodashi days, being the thirteenth day of the \"bright\" (\"Shukla\") and of the \"dark\" (\"Krishna\") fortnights respectively. Thus Thrayodashi occurs on the thirteenth and the twenty-eighth day of each month."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "For some Hindus, the first day of Vaisakh marks the traditional solar new year, in Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Kerala, Odisha, Punjab Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Uttrakhand and other parts of India. However, this is not the universal new year for all Hindus. For some, such as those in and near Gujarat, the new year festivities coincide with the five-day Diwali festival. For others, the new year falls on Cheti Chand, Gudi Padwa and Ugadi which falls a few weeks earlier. The harvest is complete and crops ready to sell, representing a time of plenty for the farmers. Fairs and special thanksgiving pujas (prayers) are common in the Hindu tradition. It is available in the Vanis of the saints that in Satlok, the Vaisakhi-like atmosphere always remains there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Srinivasa Ramanujan",
        "text": "In 2011, on the 125th anniversary of his birth, the Indian government declared that 22 December will be celebrated every year as \"National Mathematics Day\". Then Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh also declared that 2012 would be celebrated as National Mathematics Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakha",
        "text": "Vaisakha is a month of the Hindu calendar that corresponds to April/May in the Gregorian Calendar. In Indian national calendar, Vaisakha is the second month of the year. It is the first month of the Vikram Samvat calendar, Odia calendar, Punjabi calendar, Assamese calendar (where it is called \"Bohag\") and the Bengali calendar (where it is called \"Boishakh\"). This month lies between the second half of April and the first half of May."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakh",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is the most important festival in the Sikh calendar, taking place on the first lunar month of Vaisakh, which falls on 14 April each year. On this day, the Khalsa was created and much celebration takes place in the form of Samagams, Nagar Kirtan, Gatka exhibitions, Akand Paths and so on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mesha Sankranti",
        "text": "The day is important in solar and lunisolar calendars followed on the subcontinent. Mesha Sankranti falls on 13 April usually, sometimes 14 April. This day is the basis for major Hindu, Sikh and Buddhist festivals, of which Vaisakhi and Vesak are the best known."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dabhoi",
        "text": "The Vaidyanatha-Mahadeva temple, Parsavanath Jain temple, torana in white marble, Vireshwara temple, and Kumbeshwara complex was also built in the 13th century. Of all these, only gates, Vaidyanatha Mahadeva temple, and Parshwanath Jain temples are in good condition. The ruins of other structures and a \"kund\" suggest the grandeur of the town in the 13th and 14th centuries. It came under the Gujarat Sultanate later."
      },
      {
        "title": "Porhalaan",
        "text": "In order to minimize the risk of accidentally selecting an unfavorable day due to errors in calendar management, days are often chosen based on whether the day is able to promise happiness in two months time, probably the current month and the following one. There is often an extra 13th month in the calendar that serves this purpose, originally a Hindu leap year, but in the Batak context, it is used for a different reason. If the additional 13th month is not available, then the first month is simply used again for protection. Whether the 13th month is used to compensate for the difference to the solar year is not proven in the context of Batak society."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "The new year falls on or about the same day every year for many Buddhist communities in parts of South and Southeast Asia. This is likely an influence of their shared culture in the 1st millennium CE. Some examples include:\n* \"Sangken\" in Arunachal Pradesh and parts of Assam, India\n* \"Aluth Avuruthu\" in Sri Lanka.\n* \"Chol Chnam Thmey\" in Cambodia\n* \"Pi Mai\" in Laos\n* \"Songkran\" in Thailand\n* \"Thingyan\" in Myanmar\n* \"Water-Sprinkling Festival\", celebrated by the Dai people in Sipsongpanna in Yunnan, China"
      },
      {
        "title": "14th Punjab Regiment",
        "text": "Kashmir 1948."
      },
      {
        "title": "Passover",
        "text": "Note that if the 14th of Nisan is Shabbat, many of the below will be celebrated on the 13th instead due to restrictions in place during Shabbat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi festivals",
        "text": "Vaisakhi additionally marks the Punjabi new year. This day is observed as a thanksgiving day by farmers whereby farmers pay their tribute, thanking God for the abundant harvest and also praying for future prosperity. Historically, during the early 20th century, Vaisakhi was a sacred day for Sikhs and Hindus and a secular festival for all Muslims and non-Muslims including Punjabi Christians. In modern times, sometimes Christians participate in Baisakhi celebrations along with Sikhs and Hindus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Esther 9",
        "text": "The Jews in the Persian empire celebrate on the fourteenth, except those in Susa who celebrate on the fifteenth (verse 18).\n:\"But the Jews that were at Shushan assembled together on the thirteenth day thereof, and on the fourteenth thereof; and on the fifteenth day of the same they rested, and made it a day of feasting and gladness.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosta Tsonev",
        "text": "in English: On the Eve of the 13th\n* Badi shtastliva, Ani! (1961) as Boyan"
      },
      {
        "title": "13th Lancers",
        "text": "Ghuznee 1839, Afghanistan 1839, Mooltan, Punjaub, Central India, Afghanistan 1879\u201380, Burma"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakha",
        "text": "The harvest festival of Vaisakhi is celebrated on in this month which marks the Punjabi new year according to the Punjabi calendar. Jallianwala Bagh massacre took place on the Punjabi New year day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Warkari",
        "text": "Devotees of Vitthal were holding pilgrimages prior to the 14th century. In the present day, about 40 palkhis and their devotees from all over Maharashtra do so. Another pilgrimage is celebrated on the \"Ekadashi\" of the month of Kartika, which falls in November of the Gregorian Calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mansukhbhai Vasava",
        "text": "2004 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 Re-elected to 14th Lok Sabha( 3rd term)"
      },
      {
        "title": "13th "Shavnabada" Light Infantry Battalion",
        "text": "13th "Shavnabada" Light Infantry Battalion\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "The occasion is marked by numerous fairs and people come by the thousands to celebrate Vaisakhi. For example, Airwan in Kathua is known for Vaisakhi fair attended by 10,000 people as per Census 1961. Every year on Baisakhi festival around 15,000 pilgrims pay their obeisance at 700 tear old temple of \"Subar Nag Devta\" temple in Bhaderwah. Other places where Vaisakhi fairs are held are Doda Bridge and Ramban."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vikram Samvat",
        "text": "In India, the reformulated Saka calendar is officially used (except for computing dates of the traditional festivals). In the Hindi version of the preamble of the constitution of India, the date of its adoption (26 November 1949) is presented in Vikram Samvat as Margsheersh Shukla Saptami Samvat 2006. A call has been made for the Vikram Samvat to replace the Saka calendar as India's official calendar.\n*Chaitra Navaratri: the second most celebrated, named after \"vasanta\" which means spring. It is observed the lunar month of Chaitra (post-winter, March\u2013April). In many regions the festival falls after spring harvest, and in others during harvest. It also marks the first day of the Hindu calendar, hence also known as the Hindu Lunar New Year according to Vikram Samvat calendar.\n*Vaisakhi:\n**Vaisakhi marks the beginning of Hindu Solar New Year in Punjab, Northern, Eastern, North-eastern and Central India according to the solar Vikram Samvat calendar. and marks the first day of the month of Vaisakha, which is usually celebrated on 13 or 14 April every year and is a historical and religious festival in Hinduism.\n**Baisakhi (Nepal): Baisakhi is celebrated as Nepalese New Year because it is the day which marks Hindu Solar New Year as per the solar Nepali Bikram Sambat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is celebrated as Nepalese New Year because it is the day which marks the Hindu Solar New Year as per Vikram Samvat, the Hindu Solar Calendar. Vaisakha is the first month in Nepalese Calendar. The idols of Goddess Thimi Kumari is carried out in palanquins and is taken around the city."
      },
      {
        "title": "Makar Sankranti",
        "text": "Due to the addition of one day in leap years, the date of Makar Sankranti may vary a bit. On leap years it falls on 15 January, otherwise on 14 January."
      },
      {
        "title": "13 Rajab",
        "text": "In the conventional Lunar Hijri calendar, this day is the 190th day of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaklush Tolev",
        "text": "The 13-th of October \u2013 the date on which the Society of Wisdom was registered as a social body, is celebrated as the Day of the Children of Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "1912 in India",
        "text": "Events in the year 1912 in India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guru Nanak",
        "text": "Macauliffe also notes that Vaisakh (March\u2013April) already saw a number of important festivals\u2014such as Holi, Rama Navami, and Vaisakhi\u2014therefore people would be busy in agricultural activities after the harvest festival of Baisakhi. Therefore, holding Nanak's birth anniversary celebrations immediately after Vaisakhi would have resulted in thin attendance, and therefore, smaller donations for the Sikh shrines. On the other hand, by the Kattak full moon day, the major Hindu festival of Diwali was already over, and the peasants\u2014who had surplus cash from crop sales\u2014were able to donate generously."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yanam Venkanna Babu Kaly\u0101\u1e47\u014dtsavam",
        "text": "On the thirteenth day of the Kaly\u0101\u1e47\u014dtsavam Festival, V\u0101hanam of the day will be Ponna V\u0101hanam (\u0c2a\u0c4a\u0c28\u0c4d\u0c28\u0c35\u0c3e\u0c39\u0c28\u0c2e\u0c41), i.e., \"The Ponna Tree Chariot\" which will be generally of much grandeur than previous ones. The Sponsor of the day (\u0c09\u0c24\u0c4d\u0c38\u0c35 \u0c28\u0c3f\u0c30\u0c4d\u0c35\u0c3e\u0c39\u0c15\u0c41\u0c32\u0c41) will be \"Kapaganty family\" of Kapaganty Suryaprakasarao. The 'V\u0101hana Seva' ends on this day."
      },
      {
        "title": "13th Rajputs (The Shekhawati Regiment)",
        "text": "13th Rajputs (The Shekhawati Regiment)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sepand\u0101rmazg\u0101n",
        "text": "The revival of the festival dates to the Pahlavi dynasty, advocated by Ebrahim Pourdavoud as \"Nurses' Day\" () in 1962."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mansukhbhai Vasava",
        "text": "1999 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 Re-elected to 13th Lok Sabha (2nd term)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakh",
        "text": "On the 16th of this month, Guru Angad and Guru Har Krishan took leave for their higher abode and passed the Guruship to Guru Amar Das and Guru Tegh Bahadur respectively. Moreover, on the 18th, the Sikhs celebrate the birthday of Guru Angad Dev (the second Sikh Guru) and Guru Tegh Bahadur (the ninth Sikh Guru).\n* 14 April (1 Vaisakh) - Vaisakhi (see above)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sizdah Be-dar",
        "text": "Generally, among Iranian festivals, \"Sizdah Bedar\" is a bit vague in terms of historical roots. There is no direct mention of such a celebration in history books prior to Qajar era. But in ancient sources, such as Shahnameh, there is a reference to \"the thirteenth day of Farvardin\". The popular belief is that ancient Iranians celebrated the 13th day of Nowruz after twelve days of celebrating, each day represents a month of the year. It was an official ending to Nowruz and a beginning to the remaining twelve months of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "The word Vaisakhi or Baisakhi is an Apabhra\u1e43\u015ba form evolved from the word Vaish\u0101kh\u012b (\u0935\u0948\u0936\u093e\u0916\u0940), derived from the name of the Indian month of Vaishakha. There is no distinction between sounds 'sha' (\u0936) & 'sa' (\u0938) and between 'va' (\u0935) & 'ba' (\u092c) in Prakrit & Apbhramsa. Hence the name, Vaisakhi or Baisakhi. In tonal languages like Bengali, it is pronounced as 'Boishakhi'. Vaisakhi which is observed on Sankranti of Vaisakh (Vaishakh) month literally means 'related to Vaisakh month', which in turn is derived from the name of a Nakshatra known as Vishakha. In Punjabi, the spelling varies with region. In Punjab region, \"Vaisakhi\" is common, but in the Doabi and Malwai dialects, speakers often substitute a \"B\" for a \"V\". The spelling used depends on the dialect of the writer."
      },
      {
        "title": "13th Armoured Regiment (India)",
        "text": "The Regiment had the honour of participating in the 1987 and 2009 Republic Day Parades with the Vijayanta and T-90 tanks respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi or Vaisakhi Sankranti is celebrated on first day of Vaisakha, as per Hindu Solar Calendar. This day is also known as \"Sattu\u0101 or Satwahi\"\",\" as Sattu is donated and consumed on this day. The common rites during this festival is bath in a river or pond and to eat Sattu and \"Gur\" (Jaggery)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is celebrated at Udhampur on the bank of Devika river where for three days devotees enjoy the folk songs. At Sudhmahadev, this festival is celebrated with great pomp and show where folk singers come down and a competition of folk songs is held. Vendors generally install their shops and stalls of eatables."
      },
      {
        "title": "14th Iranian Majlis",
        "text": "14th Iranian Majlis\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi coincides with the first day of the solar cycle year, that is the solar New Year or Mesha Sankranti which is also related to other regional new years such as 'Vishu' and 'Puthandu' celebrated in Kerala and Tamilnadu a day after Vaisakhi. The festivities include fireworks, shopping for new clothes and interesting displays called 'Vishu Kani'. Hindus make arrangements of flowers, grains, fruits which friends and family visit to admire as \"lucky sight\" (\"Vishukkani\"). Giving gifts to friends and loved ones, as well as alms to the needy, are a tradition of Kerala Hindus on this festive day. Vaisakhi is also related to Bohag (Rongali) Bihu in Assam and as Pohela Boishakh in Bengal, but typically one or two days after Vaisakhi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Many people go to the Nagbani temple to witness the grand New Year celebration. Vaisakhi is also considered \"harvest festival\" and considered auspicious, especially for marriages. Celebrations of Vaisakhi also include Dogri Bhangra.According to Ganhar (1975), \"Bhangra dances are a special feature of Baisakhi celebrations but bhangra is an importation from the Punjab and is more secular than religious\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Georgi Georgiev-Getz",
        "text": "in English: On the Eve of the 13th\n* \"Stramnata pateka\" (1961) as Ivan Diviya"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is a harvest festival for people of Northern India. Chander and Dogra (2003) state that in Punjab, Vaisakhi marks the ripening of the rabi harvest. Vaisakhi, the Hindu Solar new year, also marks the Nepalese, Punjabi and Bengali New year. Fairs or \"Melas\" (fair) are held in many parts of North India to mark the new year and the harvesting season. Vaisakhi fairs take place in various places, including Jammu City, Kathua, Udhampur, Reasi and Samba, in the Pinjore complex near Chandigarh, in Himachal Pradesh cities of Rewalsar, Shimla, Mandi and Prashar Lakes. According to Ann Louise Wood, Vaisakhi is a festival that is celebrated by the Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims of Punjab."
      },
      {
        "title": "1813 in India",
        "text": "Events in the year 1813 in India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "According to the Khalsa sambat, the Khalsa calendar starts with the creation of the Khalsa which is 1 Vaisakh 1756 Bikrami (13 April 1699). Accordingly, Vaisakhi has been the traditional Sikh New Year. The festival has been traditionally observed in the Punjab region. The alternative Nanakshahi calendar begins its year a month earlier on 1 Chait which generally falls on 14 March and begins with the birth year of the Guru Nanak Dev in 1469."
      },
      {
        "title": "13 (number)",
        "text": "According to famous Sakhi (Evidence) or story of Guru Nanak Dev Ji, when he was an accountant at a town of Sultanpur Lodhi, he was distributing groceries to people. When he gave groceries to the 13th person, he stopped because in Gurmukhi and Hindi the word 13 is called Terah, which means yours. And Guru Nanak Dev Ji kept saying, \"Yours, yours, yours...\" remembering God. People reported to the emperor that Guru Nanak Dev Ji was giving out free food to the people. When treasures were checked, there was more money than before."
      },
      {
        "title": "1913 in India",
        "text": "Events in the year 1913 in India."
      },
      {
        "title": "13th Armoured Regiment (India)",
        "text": "The regiment was initially raised with Sikhs, Rajputs and South Indian classes, but was later converted to an all-class regiment. The regiment was raised on 21 December 1984 by Lt Col Balram Singh Mehta at Ahmednagar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mankeshwar temple, Zodage",
        "text": "A fair is held every year in the Hindu calendar month of Magha on 13th day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is a harvest festival for people of Northern India. Chander and Dogra (2003) state that in Punjab, Vaisakhi marks the ripening of the rabi harvest. According to Dhillon (2015), in Punjab, this day is observed as a thanksgiving day by farmers whereby farmers pay their tribute, thanking God for the abundant harvest and also praying for future prosperity. The harvest festival is celebrated by Hindus and Sikhs. In the Punjab, historically, during the early 20th century, Vaisakhi was a sacred day for Hindus and Sikhs and a secular festival for all Muslims and Christians. In modern times, sometimes Christians in Punjab participate in Baisakhi celebrations along with Hindus and Sikhs. The harvest festival is also characterized by the folk dance, Bhangra which traditionally is a harvest dance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public holidays in India",
        "text": "The \"Shahenshahi\" and \"Kadmi\" variants of the Zoroastrian calendar do not intercalate leap years and hence the day of the Gregorian calendar year on which these days are celebrated shifts ahead with time. The third variant of the Zoroastrian calendar, known as either \"Fasli\" (in India) or \"Bastani\" (in Iran), intercalcates according to Gregorian calendar rules and thus remains synchronous with the seasons. The Parsis in India use a Shahenshahi calendar, unlike the Iranian Zoroastrians who use a Kadmi calendar. The North American and European Parsis have adapted their own version of the Fasli calendar. These differences cause changes in the dates of the holidays. For example, the Zoroastrian New Year, Nowruz, falls in the spring for the Iranians but in the summer for the Parsis."
      },
      {
        "title": "14th King's Hussars",
        "text": "The regiment returned to India in May 1857 and took part in the Central Indian campaign during 1858 in the latter stages of the Indian Rebellion. Major James Leith was awarded the Victoria Cross during this campaign; the regiment were ordered home in February 1860. The title of the regiment was simplified in August 1861 to the 14th (King's) Hussars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Partition Horrors Remembrance Day",
        "text": "On 14 August 2021, Prime Minister Narendra Modi said, \"Partitions pains can never be forgotten. Millions of our sisters and brothers were displaced and many lost their lives due to mindless hate and violence. In memory of the struggles and sacrifices of our people, 14th August will be observed as Partition Horrors Remembrance Day, May the Partition Horrors Remembrance Day keep reminding us of the need to remove the poison of social divisions, disharmony and further strengthen the spirit of oneness, social harmony and human empowerment.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "1947\u20131948 Rajouri massacre",
        "text": "April 13 every year is now celebrated as \"Vijay Diwas\" in Rajouri.\n*Persecution of Hindus\n*Persecution of Sikhs\n*1947 Mirpur Massacre\n*1947 Jammu massacres\n*Partition of India\n*\n*\n*\n*\n**\n*"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gudi Padwa",
        "text": "In Punjab, the new year is celebrated as \"Baisakhi\" falling mostly on 13 or 14 April, first day of month Baisakh of the Bikram Samavt or calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is celebrated by Hindu community and Indian & Nepalese diaspora in United States of America. Every year Nepalese Hindus gather up in traditional outsfits like kurtis and Nepalese caps to observe Hindu Solar New Year. The Bengali Hindu Community also celebrates its new year 'Pohela Baisakh' on this day. A Baisakhi Mela or fair is also held where Bengali handicrafts sessions are held. The Bay Area Malayalee Association holds Vishu celebration (Kerala New Year). Event includes Sadhya (Kerala-style feast) and cultural, cinematics and comedy programs, and end with a tea social. Tamil Community also celebrates New Year on this day as Puthandu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is celebrated with religious fervour in Yamunanagar and Kurukshetra. In Kurukshetra district, Vaisakhi fair is held at \"Baan Ganga Tirtha\"\",\" which is associated with Arjuna of Mahabharata. There is a Vaisakhi tradition of ritual bath at the sacred tank of \"Baan Ganga Tirtha\" in Village Dayalpur of Kurukshetra. A fair is held annually on Vaisakhi at this Hindu pilgrimage. Besides, Haryana government organizes a Vaisakhi festival in Pinjore Garden to commemorate this religious and cultural festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mehregan",
        "text": "What that day corresponds to in another calendar is subject to which variant of the Zoroastrian calendar is followed:\n*The \"Fasili\" and \"Bastani\" variants of the religious calendar adhere to Gregorian intercalation (leap-day) rules, and therefore Mehreg\u0101n is celebrated on a day that is fixed in relation to the Gregorian calendar. Mehrg\u0101n is then always on October 8.\n*The \"Shahanshahi\" and \"Kadmi\" variants of the religious calendar do not intercalate at all, with the result that over the last 14 centuries, Mehrg\u0101n has fallen behind and is now either 7th (\"Shahenshahi\") or 8th (\"Kadmi\") months before the same date in the \"Fasili\" and \"Bastani\" variants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dhanteras",
        "text": "In Jainism, this day is celebrated as DHANYATERAS instead of DHANTERAS meaning auspicious day of thirteenth. It is said that on this day Mahavira was in the state of leaving everything in this world and meditating before Moksha which made this day auspicious or DHANYA."
      },
      {
        "title": "13th Lok Sabha",
        "text": "13th Lok Sabha\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sepand\u0101rmazg\u0101n",
        "text": "This day is dedicated to \"Sp\u0259nta \u0100rmaiti\" (Avestan for \"Holy Devotion\", ' in Middle Persian, ' or \"\"), the Amesha Spenta who is given the domain of \"earth\". The date of the festival as observed in the Sassanid era was on the 5th day of the month Spandarmad. When the name of the day and the month of the day were the same, a \"name-feast\" celebration was always done."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Mathematics Year",
        "text": ", during the inaugural ceremony of the celebrations to mark the 125th birth anniversary of Srinivasa Ramanujan held at the Madras University Centenary Auditorium on 26 February 2012. The Prime Minister also announced that December 22 would be celebrated as National Mathematics Day from 2012 onwards."
      },
      {
        "title": "13th Sarasaviya Awards",
        "text": "13th Sarasaviya Awards\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "14th Puducherry Assembly",
        "text": "The Fourteenth Assembly of Pondicherry succeeded the 13th Assembly of Pondicherry and was constituted after the victory of Indian National Congress (INC) and allies in the 2016 assembly election held on 16 May 2016.\n* Speaker:\n**V. Vaithilingam from 10 June 2016 to 21 March 2019\n**V.P. Sivakolundhu from 3 June 2019 to till date\n* Deputy Speaker:\n** V.P. Sivakolundhu from 10 Jun 2016 to 2. Jun. 2019\n** M.N.R. Balan from 4 September 2019 to till date\n* Chief minister:\n** V. Narayanasamy from 6 June 2016 to till date\n* Leader of opposition:\n** N. Rangaswamy from June 2016 to till date"
      },
      {
        "title": "14th Iranian Majlis",
        "text": "14th Iranian Majlis was commenced on 6 March 1944 and ended on 12 March 1946."
      },
      {
        "title": "Panj Pyare",
        "text": "Bhai Daya Ram became Bhai Daya Singh, Bhai Dharam Das Became Bhai Dharam Singh, Bhai Himmat Rai became Bhai Himmat Singh, Bhai Mohkam Chand became Bhai Mohkam Singh, Bhai Sahib Chand became Bhai Sahib Singh \u2212 by Guru Gobind Singh during the historic and monumental divan at Anandpur Sahib on March 30, 1699.(Gregorian calendar skipped 11 days in 1752. So, in present times Baisakhi occurs near 13 April every year)."
      },
      {
        "title": "14th Punjab Regiment",
        "text": "On the independence in 1947, the 14th Punjab Regiment was allotted to Pakistan Army. At the time, the active battalions were 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th. Jats, Jatsikhs, and Dogras were transferred to the Indian Army and the regiment's new class composition was fixed as Punjabis and Pathans. The 5th Battalion (Pathans) was re-raised in 1952. In 1948, the 2nd and 4th Battalions fought in the war with India in Kashmir."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bengali calendars",
        "text": "The Language Martyrs' Day of 21 February, Independence Day of 26 March and Victory Day of 16 December will fall on Falgun 8, Chaitra 12, and Poush 1, respectively of the Bengali calendar for next 100 years now as they did in the Gregorian calendar years 1952 and 1971, according to new rules. In the old Bengali calendar, 21 February fell on Falgun 9 earlier this year. After the change 16 December will fall on Poush 1, not on the second day of the month."
      },
      {
        "title": "Swami Vivekananda",
        "text": "While National Youth Day in India is observed on his birthday, 12 January, the day he delivered his masterful speech at the Parliament of Religions, 11 September 1893, is \"World Brotherhood Day\". The 150th birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda was celebrated in India and abroad. The Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports in India officially observed 2013 as the occasion in a declaration."
      },
      {
        "title": "13th Rajputs (The Shekhawati Regiment)",
        "text": "After World War I the Indian government reformed the army again moving from single battalion regiments to multi battalion regiments. The 13th Rajputs (The Shekhawati Regiment) now became the 10th (Shekhawati) Battalion 6th Rajputana Rifles (1922\u20131947). After independence this was one of the regiments allocated to the new Indian Army."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melukote",
        "text": "During the 13-day celebration, Kalyanotsava, Nagavalli Mahotsava are held in the Holy Kalyani, followed by Maharatotsava. In most years the spiritual events have been accompanied by cultural programmes, including music and dance performances, but in 2014 they were cancelled because of the upcoming election and its \"model code of conduct\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early Telugu epigraphy",
        "text": "The details of the date given for the said Srimukha viz., Vaisakha su. 11 and Thursday do not agree for the year. But they work out correctly for the previous year Bhava. Hence assuming the cyclic year to be a mistake for Bhava, the date would correspond to AD 1514, 4 May.\n* No. 57. (A.R. No. 474 of 1919.) Little Kanchipuram, Kanchipuram Taluk, Chingleput District. On the north wall of the rock in the Arulala-perumal temple. Krishnaraya, 1517 AD. This is dated Saka 1438, Dhatri, Pushya ba. 7, Wednesday, corresponding to AD 1517, 14 January."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Youth Day (India)",
        "text": "Swami Vivekananda's birthday (12 January 1863), according to the Indian Almanac (Vishuddha Siddhanta Almanac) is on Pausha Krishna Saptami tithi, which falls on different dates in the English Calendar every year (generally in the month of January). This is observed in various centres of Ramakrishna Math and Mission in a traditional Hindu manner which includes mangal arati (a kind of worship practised in India, especially by Hindu people), special worship, homa (fire-ritual), meditation, devotional songs, religious discourses and sandhya-arati (vesper service at evenings). The National Youth Day is observed all over India at schools and colleges, with processions, speeches, music, youth conventions, seminars, Yogasanas, presentations, competitions in essay-writing, recitations and sports on 12 January every year. Swami Vivekananda's lectures and writings, deriving their inspiration from Indian spiritual tradition and the broad outlook of his Master Sri Ramakrishna Paramahansa. These were the source of inspiration and have motivated numerous youth organizations, study circles and service projects involving the youth. Swami Vivekananda's birthday (12 January 1863), according to the Indian Almanac (Vishuddha Siddhanta Almanac) is on Pausha Krishna Saptami tithi, which falls on different dates in the English Calendar every year (generally in the month of January). This is observed in various centres of Ramakrishna Math and Mission in a traditional Hindu manner which includes mangal arati (a kind of worship practised in India, especially by Hindu people), special worship, homa (fire-ritual), meditation, devotional songs, religious discourses and sandhya-arati (vesper service at evenings)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shri Laxmi Narsimha Temple",
        "text": "Vaisakha Navratri is the biggest festival celebrated at the temple. The festival starts on the sixth day of the month of Vaisakha and ends on fourteenth day which is Narasimha Jayanti. A procession of Shri Narasimha's paduka is taken out on the fifteenth day followed by Dahi Handi on the next day. The festival is marked by Pravachan, Bhajan, Kirtan and Indian classical music concerts."
      },
      {
        "title": "14th Sarasaviya Awards",
        "text": "14th Sarasaviya Awards\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjab, Pakistan",
        "text": "Vaisakhi, also called Besakhi, is a harvest festival to celebrate harvesting the wheat crop. Colourful festivals are held at the time of Besakhi when farmers are free to enjoy their leisure time. Various literary festivals and fairs are organised in many places."
      },
      {
        "title": "1813 in India",
        "text": "1813 in India\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "January 13 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)",
        "text": "Russian Sources"
      },
      {
        "title": "July 13 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)",
        "text": "All fixed commemorations below are celebrated on July 26 by Old Calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "14th Battalion, Maratha Light Infantry",
        "text": "The 14th Battalion, Maratha Light Infantry () is a battalion of infantry in the Indian Army. It was initially raised as the 14th/5th Mahratta Light Infantry on 1 February 1941, at Ambala by Lieutenant Colonel E.S. Storey-Cooper, OBE, MC, \u2013 a British officer who joined the regiment as a staff captain with 2nd/5th Mahratta Light Infantry on 1 April 1933. The battalion proceeded to Dacca, in Eastern Bengal, for a term of internal security duty in the autumn of the same year. In February 1942 the 14th Battalion moved across India to undergo a period of training at Campbellpore (now known as Attock, Pakistan)."
      },
      {
        "title": "13th "Shavnabada" Light Infantry Battalion",
        "text": "The 13th \"Shavnabada\" Light Infantry Battalion () also known as the (official name) 13th Light Infantry Battalion (formerly the 113th mechanized infantry Battalion) is a military unit within the Georgian Armed Forces, so named for a type of cloak worn by medieval warriors. The most famous cloak is said to have worn by the patron saint of Georgia, Saint George, when he, according to a legend, appeared to lead Georgian army to a victory. The battalion's crest includes the word \"Shavnabada\" in Georgian, the battalion's symbol, the Griffin, and the number \"13\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakha",
        "text": "In the Hindu solar calendar, Vaisakha begins in mid-April in Bengal, Nepal, and Punjab. In Tamil Nadu, it is known as Vaikasi (mid May-mid June) and represents the second month of the Tamil solar calendar. The Tamil month that corresponds to Vaisakha is Chithirai (mid April-mid May). In the Hindu lunar calendar, Vaisakha begins with the new moon in April and represents the second month of the lunar year. The name of the month is derived from the position of the moon near the star \"Vishakha\" on full moon day. In the Vaishnava calendar, Madhusudana governs this month."
      },
      {
        "title": "12th Armoured Regiment (India)",
        "text": "The Regiment had the honour of participating in the annual Republic Day parade in 2004 and 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "14th Indian Division",
        "text": "Departed for the North Persia Force in June 1918, replaced by 56th Indian Brigade\n* 1/4th Battalion, Hampshire Regiment\n* 26th Punjabis\n* 62nd Punjabis\n* 82nd Punjabis\n* 1st Battalion, 2nd King Edward's Own Gurkha Rifles (The Sirmoor Rifles)\n* 36th Sikhs\n* 64th Pioneers\n* 1/4th Battalion, Devonshire Regiment\n* 45th Rattray's Sikhs\n* 2nd Battalion, Norfolk Regiment\n* 2nd Battalion, 9th Gurkha Rifles\n* 1st Battalion, 67th Punjabis\n* 82nd Punjabis\n* 185th Machine Gun Company\n* 37th Light Trench Mortar Battery"
      },
      {
        "title": "1912 in India",
        "text": "1912 in India\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "13 (number)",
        "text": "The apparitions of the Virgin of F\u00e1tima in 1917 were claimed to occur on the 13th day of six consecutive months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deekshabhoomi",
        "text": "Buddhism was 2,550 years old in 1956, so it was a notable year of celebration for the Buddhist religious world globally and 14 October was the traditional date of conversion of Emperor Ashoka, the great Indian Buddhist Monarch and the day is celebrated as Ashok Vijaya Dashmi. He selected Nagpur for his conversion ceremony, as he explained in his speech at that occasion, because Nagpur was the homeland of 'Nag' people who embraced Buddhism, supported it with great efforts in its early period, and propagated it throughout India. Ground near the Ramdaspeth area in Nagpur was selected for the ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fravashi",
        "text": "According to Mary Boyce, the perplexing anomalies of \"Yasht\" 13 are residual traces of \"fravashi\" cult, which she defines as a form of an ancestor worship and/or hero-cult that developed during (what she calls) the 'Iranian Heroic Age' (\"c.\" 1500 BCE onwards)."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "On the final day of Muharram, Sizdah Bedar, or Day 13 Outing, no food is served in homes as the holiday is celebrated by families leaving their homes to spend the day away to prevent bad luck from entering their home due to 13 being an unlucky number."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "In Undivided Punjab, the Hindu Shrine of Katas Raj was known for its Vaisakhi fair. It was attended by around 10,000 pilgrims who were mostly Hindus. Similarly, at the shrine of Bairagi Baba Ram Thaman, a Vaisakhi fair was held annually since 16th century CE which was attended by around 60,000 pilgrims and Bairagi saints from all over India used to throng the shrine."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What days is Vaisakhi usually celebrated in April?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Vaisakhi, also pronounced Baisakhi, marks the first day of the month of Vaisakh and is traditionally celebrated annually on the 13th of April and sometimes on the 14th of April as a celebration of spring harvest primarily in Northern India."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any specific years or reasons it's celebrated on the 14th instead of the 13th?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Vaisakhi is observed on the 13th or 14th every year in the 21st century but it'll change because the date depends on the solar calendar and in the future will be on a different date."
    ],
    "topic": "Vaisakhi",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Vaisakhi:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vaisakhi",
          "Date"
        ],
        "ctx": "Vaisakhi is observed on the 13 or 14 April every year in the 21st century. However, in 1801 AD, it fell on 11 April. This is because the date of Vaisakhi and other Sankrantis keeps changing slowly over years. Vaisakhi would fall on 29 April in Year 2999. The festival coincides with other new year festivals celebrated on the first day of Vaisakh in other regions of the Indian Subcontinent such as the Pohela Boishakh, Bohag Bihu, Vishu, Puthandu among others."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Vaisakhi:7",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vaisakhi",
          "Sikhism"
        ],
        "ctx": "Vaisakhi falls on the first day of the Vaisakh month and marks the sun's entry to the Mesha Rasi marking the solar transition to Aries. The day is also described as Mesha Sankranti in India. Vaisakhi is therefore determined by the solar calendar. Baisakhi usually falls on 14 April, and on 15 April once every thirty-six years. Since 2003, the Sikh Gurdwara Prabhandak Committee named the month in which Vaisakhi falls as Vaisakh, making the first day of the second month according to the Nanakshahi calendar."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is observed on the 13 or 14 April every year in the 21st century. However, in 1801 AD, it fell on 11 April. This is because the date of Vaisakhi and other Sankrantis keeps changing slowly over years. Vaisakhi would fall on 29 April in Year 2999. The festival coincides with other new year festivals celebrated on the first day of Vaisakh in other regions of the Indian Subcontinent such as the Pohela Boishakh, Bohag Bihu, Vishu, Puthandu among others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi (IAST: ), also pronounced Baisakhi, marks the first day of the month of Vaisakh and is traditionally celebrated annually on 13 April and sometimes 14 April as a celebration of spring harvest primarily in Northern India. Further, other Indian cultures and diaspora celebrate this festival too. Whilst it is culturally significant as a festival of harvest, some also consider Vaisakhi to be the legitimate date for the Indian Solar New Year. However, it is important to understand that this is not a universally accepted belief, with some individuals considering the previous month of Chet the New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "2022 in Afghanistan",
        "text": "2022 (MMXXII) is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar, the 2022nd year of the Common Era (CE) and \"Anno Domini\" (AD) designations, the 22nd year of the 3rd millennium and the 21st century, and the 3rd year of the 2020s decade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thiruvathira",
        "text": "As there is no date for Arudra Darshan in 2022, it will be celebrated twice in 2023, which is a common occurrence for same."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi festivals",
        "text": "Vaisakhi, also pronounced as Baisakhi marks the beginning of Hindu solar New year. Vaisakhi marks the first day of the month of Vaisakha and is usually celebrated on 13 or 14 April every year. This holiday also is known as Vaisakha Sankranti and celebrates the Solar new year, based on the Hindu Vikram Samvat calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is celebrated as Nepalese New Year because it is the day which marks the Hindu Solar New Year as per Vikram Samvat, the Hindu Solar Calendar. Vaisakha is the first month in Nepalese Calendar. The idols of Goddess Thimi Kumari is carried out in palanquins and is taken around the city."
      },
      {
        "title": "Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar",
        "text": "To illustrate: consider the Gregorian date 18th Sep 2021. Instead of referring to it as \"2nd dina of kany\u0101 masa\" Hindus will refer to it as \" bh\u0101drapada m\u0101sa, \u015bukla pak\u1e63a, dv\u0101da\u015b\u012b tithi\", which is the tithi prevailing at sunrise on that s\u0101vana dina. Even though the moon moves into the trayoda\u015b\u012b arc soon after sunrise (at 6:54AM), that entire s\u0101vana dina is considered to be dv\u0101da\u015b\u012b tithi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi falls on the first day of the Vaisakh month and marks the sun's entry to the Mesha Rasi marking the solar transition to Aries. The day is also described as Mesha Sankranti in India. Vaisakhi is therefore determined by the solar calendar. Baisakhi usually falls on 14 April, and on 15 April once every thirty-six years. Since 2003, the Sikh Gurdwara Prabhandak Committee named the month in which Vaisakhi falls as Vaisakh, making the first day of the second month according to the Nanakshahi calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi festivals",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is a historical and religious festival in Hinduism. It is usually celebrated on 13 or 14 April every year. For Hindus, the festival is their traditional solar new year, a harvest festival, an occasion to bath in sacred rivers such as Ganges, Jhelum, and Kaveri, visit temples, meet friends and take part in other festivities. In other parts of India, the Vaisakhi festival is known by various regional names."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "The new year falls on or about the same day every year for many Buddhist communities in parts of South and Southeast Asia. This is likely an influence of their shared culture in the 1st millennium CE. Some examples include:\n* \"Sangken\" in Arunachal Pradesh and parts of Assam, India\n* \"Aluth Avuruthu\" in Sri Lanka.\n* \"Chol Chnam Thmey\" in Cambodia\n* \"Pi Mai\" in Laos\n* \"Songkran\" in Thailand\n* \"Thingyan\" in Myanmar\n* \"Water-Sprinkling Festival\", celebrated by the Dai people in Sipsongpanna in Yunnan, China"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "For some Hindus, the first day of Vaisakh marks the traditional solar new year, in Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Kerala, Odisha, Punjab Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Uttrakhand and other parts of India. However, this is not the universal new year for all Hindus. For some, such as those in and near Gujarat, the new year festivities coincide with the five-day Diwali festival. For others, the new year falls on Cheti Chand, Gudi Padwa and Ugadi which falls a few weeks earlier. The harvest is complete and crops ready to sell, representing a time of plenty for the farmers. Fairs and special thanksgiving pujas (prayers) are common in the Hindu tradition. It is available in the Vanis of the saints that in Satlok, the Vaisakhi-like atmosphere always remains there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi festivals",
        "text": "Vaisakhi additionally marks the Punjabi new year. This day is observed as a thanksgiving day by farmers whereby farmers pay their tribute, thanking God for the abundant harvest and also praying for future prosperity. Historically, during the early 20th century, Vaisakhi was a sacred day for Sikhs and Hindus and a secular festival for all Muslims and non-Muslims including Punjabi Christians. In modern times, sometimes Christians participate in Baisakhi celebrations along with Sikhs and Hindus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Historical Vaikundar",
        "text": "The year as well as the exact date of birth of Vaikundar is a matter of conflict. Various historians place the year of birth as 1833 C.E , for which the exact date is mentioned in Akilam as 20th Masi 1008 M.E which falls on 1 March 1833."
      },
      {
        "title": "21st century",
        "text": "The 21st (twenty-first) century is the current century in the \"Anno Domini\" era or Common Era, under the Gregorian calendar. It began on January 1, 2001 (MMI) and will end on December 31, 2100 (MMC)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakh",
        "text": "Vaisakh (, ) is the second month in the Nanakshahi calendar. This month coincides with April and May in the Gregorian calendar and to Vaisakha in the Hindu calendar and the Indian national calendar; it comprises the time of crop-harvesting in the Punjab region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Srinivasa Ramanujan",
        "text": "In 2011, on the 125th anniversary of his birth, the Indian government declared that 22 December will be celebrated every year as \"National Mathematics Day\". Then Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh also declared that 2012 would be celebrated as National Mathematics Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakha",
        "text": "Vaisakha is a month of the Hindu calendar that corresponds to April/May in the Gregorian Calendar. In Indian national calendar, Vaisakha is the second month of the year. It is the first month of the Vikram Samvat calendar, Odia calendar, Punjabi calendar, Assamese calendar (where it is called \"Bohag\") and the Bengali calendar (where it is called \"Boishakh\"). This month lies between the second half of April and the first half of May."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi or Vaisakhi Sankranti is celebrated on first day of Vaisakha, as per Hindu Solar Calendar. This day is also known as \"Sattu\u0101 or Satwahi\"\",\" as Sattu is donated and consumed on this day. The common rites during this festival is bath in a river or pond and to eat Sattu and \"Gur\" (Jaggery)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sepand\u0101rmazg\u0101n",
        "text": "The revival of the festival dates to the Pahlavi dynasty, advocated by Ebrahim Pourdavoud as \"Nurses' Day\" () in 1962."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakh",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is the most important festival in the Sikh calendar, taking place on the first lunar month of Vaisakh, which falls on 14 April each year. On this day, the Khalsa was created and much celebration takes place in the form of Samagams, Nagar Kirtan, Gatka exhibitions, Akand Paths and so on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi coincides with the first day of the solar cycle year, that is the solar New Year or Mesha Sankranti which is also related to other regional new years such as 'Vishu' and 'Puthandu' celebrated in Kerala and Tamilnadu a day after Vaisakhi. The festivities include fireworks, shopping for new clothes and interesting displays called 'Vishu Kani'. Hindus make arrangements of flowers, grains, fruits which friends and family visit to admire as \"lucky sight\" (\"Vishukkani\"). Giving gifts to friends and loved ones, as well as alms to the needy, are a tradition of Kerala Hindus on this festive day. Vaisakhi is also related to Bohag (Rongali) Bihu in Assam and as Pohela Boishakh in Bengal, but typically one or two days after Vaisakhi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakha",
        "text": "In the Hindu solar calendar, Vaisakha begins in mid-April in Bengal, Nepal, and Punjab. In Tamil Nadu, it is known as Vaikasi (mid May-mid June) and represents the second month of the Tamil solar calendar. The Tamil month that corresponds to Vaisakha is Chithirai (mid April-mid May). In the Hindu lunar calendar, Vaisakha begins with the new moon in April and represents the second month of the lunar year. The name of the month is derived from the position of the moon near the star \"Vishakha\" on full moon day. In the Vaishnava calendar, Madhusudana governs this month."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guru Nanak Gurpurab",
        "text": "However, some scholars and organizations believe the Birthday should be celebrated on Vaisakhi, which falls on 14 April according to the original Nanakshahi Calendar passed by Sri Akal Takht in 2003. However, many people and organizations would like to keep the traditional date by celebrating on the Full Moon Day (Pooranmashi or Purnima) of the Lunar Month Kartik. The original Nanakshahi Calendar follows the tradition and celebrates it on Kartik Purnima due to demands by various Sikh Saints."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjab, Pakistan",
        "text": "Vaisakhi, also called Besakhi, is a harvest festival to celebrate harvesting the wheat crop. Colourful festivals are held at the time of Besakhi when farmers are free to enjoy their leisure time. Various literary festivals and fairs are organised in many places."
      },
      {
        "title": "22nd century BC",
        "text": "The 22nd century BC was a century which lasted from the year 2200 BC to 2101 BC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vesak",
        "text": "In the following table, year 2021 date as per the Buddhist calendar"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is an important among Pakistani Hindus. In Undivided Punjab, the Hindu Shrine of Katas Raj was known for its Vaisakhi fair. It was attended by around 10,000 pilgrims who were mostly Hindus. Similarly, at the shrine of Bairagi Baba Ram Thaman, a Vaisakhi fair was held annually since 16th century CE which was attended by around 60,000 Hindu pilgrims and Bairagi saints from all over India used to throng the shrine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maghe Sankranti",
        "text": "Scientifically, currently in the Northern Hemisphere, winter solstice occurs between 21 and 22 December. Day light will begin to increase on 22 December and on this day, the Sun will begin its northward journey which marks \"Uttarayaan\". The date of winter solstice changes gradually due to the Axial precession of the Earth, coming earlier by approximately 1 day in every 70 years. Hence, if the Maghe Sankranti at some point of time did mark the day after the actual date of winter solstice, a date in mid-January would correspond to around 300CE, the heyday of Hellenic mathematics and astronomy, which was very influential in northern India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of 21st-century Muslim history",
        "text": "Timeline of 21st-century Muslim history\n--21st century (2001\u20132100) (1421 AH\u20131527 AH).\n----2018.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "According to the Khalsa sambat, the Khalsa calendar starts with the creation of the Khalsa which is 1 Vaisakh 1756 Bikrami (13 April 1699). Accordingly, Vaisakhi has been the traditional Sikh New Year. The festival has been traditionally observed in the Punjab region. The alternative Nanakshahi calendar begins its year a month earlier on 1 Chait which generally falls on 14 March and begins with the birth year of the Guru Nanak Dev in 1469."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zoroastrian calendar",
        "text": "The Fasli calendar has become very popular outside India, especially in the West, but many Parsis believe that adding a leap day is against the rules, and they mostly continue to use the Shahanshahi calendar. There is a proposal to correct matters by restoring the leap month, but unless this happens, the Shahanshahi and Qadimi years will continue to start earlier and earlier ... the unrevised Qadimi calendar would eventually coincide with the Fasli calendar in Gregorian year\u00a02508, the Shahanshahi New Year will next fall on 21\u00a0March in 2632."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant",
        "text": "Timeline of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant\n--November 2021.\n----4 November.\n----8 November.\n----9 November.\n----14\u201323 November.\n----24 November.\n----25 November.\n----26 November.\n----27 November.\n----28 November.\n----29 November.\n----30 November.\n--December 2021.\n----2 December.\n----3 December.\n----5 December.\n----6 December.\n----7 December.\n----8 December.\n----9 December.\n----10 December.\n----11 December.\n----13 December.\n----14 December.\n----15 December.\n----16 December.\n----17 December.\n----24 December.\n----25 December.\n----26 December.\n----27 December.\n----30 December.\n----31 December.\n--January 2022.\n----January 1.\n----January 3.\n----January 4.\n----January 6.\n----January 7.\n----January 9.\n----January 10.\n----January 12.\n----January 13.\n----January 14.\n----January 15.\n----January 17.\n----January 19.\n----January 20.\n----January 27.\n----January 28.\n--February 2022.\n----8 February.\n----24 February.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "22nd century (disambiguation)",
        "text": "The 22nd century is a century of the Christian or Common Era, which runs from 2101 through 2200."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is a harvest festival for people of Northern India. Chander and Dogra (2003) state that in Punjab, Vaisakhi marks the ripening of the rabi harvest. According to Dhillon (2015), in Punjab, this day is observed as a thanksgiving day by farmers whereby farmers pay their tribute, thanking God for the abundant harvest and also praying for future prosperity. The harvest festival is celebrated by Hindus and Sikhs. In the Punjab, historically, during the early 20th century, Vaisakhi was a sacred day for Hindus and Sikhs and a secular festival for all Muslims and Christians. In modern times, sometimes Christians in Punjab participate in Baisakhi celebrations along with Hindus and Sikhs. The harvest festival is also characterized by the folk dance, Bhangra which traditionally is a harvest dance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Makar Sankranti",
        "text": "Due to the addition of one day in leap years, the date of Makar Sankranti may vary a bit. On leap years it falls on 15 January, otherwise on 14 January."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakh",
        "text": "Vaisakh\n--Important events during this month.\n----April.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "1922 in Afghanistan",
        "text": "Festivities are held at Paghman to celebrate the anniversary of Afghan independence. The \"amir\" on this occasion becomes reconciled with his elder brother, Inayatullah Khan. A rumour spread that he had been murdered, and he had to hasten to Kabul to show himself. He takes the opportunity of making a speech in which he lays stress on the importance of developing home industries, of dispensing with foreign officials, and of a strong army to preserve the national independence. Subject to these conditions the \"amir\" shows himself anxious to modernize the country. He welcomes the presence of all kinds of foreign missions. Thus on October 13 Raymond Poincar\u00e9 demands from the French chamber credits for the creation of a French legation in Afghanistan, the two governments having agreed to receive permanent diplomatic missions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vajiravudh",
        "text": "In 1912, Vajiravudh announced the change in the solar calendar era from the Rattanakosin Era (R.S.) designated by Chulalongkorn to the Buddhist Era with the year beginning 1 April 2455 BE (1912 CE)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surhuri",
        "text": "In Ulhash Chuvash pagans celebrate Surhuri on January 6. According to V.K. Magnitskiy, earlier Chuvash people celebrated it at the end of December, on the third Friday after Nikola Day (December 6 ). It approximately coincides with Russian Christmas."
      },
      {
        "title": "23rd century BC",
        "text": "The 23rd century BC was a century which lasted from the year 2300 BC to 2201 BC.\n*2334 BC \u2013 2279 BC: (short chronology) Sargon of Akkad's conquest of Mesopotamia.\n*c. 2300 BC: Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan) flourishing in modern-day eastern Pakistan - western India.\n*c. 2300 BC: Metals start to be used in Northern Europe.\n*c. 2300 BC: Unetice culture emerges in the modern day Czech Republic.\n*c. 2300 BC: Canal Bahr Yusuf (current name) is created when the waterway from the Nile to the natural lake (now Lake Moeris) is widened and deepened to create a canal.\n*c. 2300 BC \u2013 2200 BC: \"Head of a man from Nineveh\" (modern Kuyunjik, Iraq) is made. It is now in Iraq Museum, Baghdad.\n*c. 2300 BC \u2013 2184 BC: Disk of Enheduanna, from Ur, (modern Muqaiyir, Iraq) is made. It is now in University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.\n*c. 2288 BC: \"Queen Merye-ankhnes and her son Pepy II\" is sculpted, Sixth dynasty of Egypt. The alabaster statuette is now at The Brooklyn Museum of Art, New York.\n*c. 2285 BC: Enheduanna, high priestess of the moon god Nanna in Ur, was born.\n*c. 2278 BC: Pharaoh Pepi II starts to rule (probably).\n*c. 2254 BC \u2013 2218 BC: Stela of Naram-Sin, probably from Sippar, discovered in Susa (modern Shush, Iran), is made. It is now in Mus\u00e9e du Louvre, Paris.\n*c. 2250 BC: The beginning of the Meghalayan Stage, the last of the three stages of the Holocene.\n*c. 2250 BC: Earliest evidence of maize cultivation in Central America.\n*c. 2240 BC: Akkad, capital of the Akkadian Empire, becomes the largest city in the world, surpassing Memphis, capital of Egypt.\n*c. 2220 BC: Scord of Brouster farmstead established in Shetland, Scotland\n*c. 2220 BC: Mount Edgecumbe (Alaska) volcano erupts near present-day Sitka, Alaska.\n*c. 2215 BC: A Guti army swept down from the Zagros Mountains and defeated the demoralized Akkadian army. They took Agade, the capital of Akkad, and destroyed it thoroughly.\n*c. July 2215 BC: Comet Hale-Bopp visits the inner solar system and would not return until the year AD 1997."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sepand\u0101rmazg\u0101n",
        "text": "This day is dedicated to \"Sp\u0259nta \u0100rmaiti\" (Avestan for \"Holy Devotion\", ' in Middle Persian, ' or \"\"), the Amesha Spenta who is given the domain of \"earth\". The date of the festival as observed in the Sassanid era was on the 5th day of the month Spandarmad. When the name of the day and the month of the day were the same, a \"name-feast\" celebration was always done."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is celebrated at Udhampur on the bank of Devika river where for three days devotees enjoy the folk songs. At Sudhmahadev, this festival is celebrated with great pomp and show where folk singers come down and a competition of folk songs is held. Vendors generally install their shops and stalls of eatables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vayakhel",
        "text": "Jews read it the 22nd Sabbath after Simchat Torah, generally in March or rarely in late February. The lunisolar Hebrew calendar contains up to 55 weeks, the exact number varying between 50 in common years and 54 or 55 in leap years. In leap years (for example, 2019, 2022, 2024, and 2027), parashah Vayakhel is read separately. In common years (for example, 2018, 2020, 2021, 2023, and 2026), parashah Vayakhel is usually combined with the next parashah, Pekudei, to help achieve the number of weekly readings needed (although in some non-leap years, such as 2025, they are not combined)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vesak",
        "text": "The exact date of Vesak is based on Asian lunisolar calendars and is primarily celebrated in Vaisakha, a month of both the Buddhist and Hindu calendars, hence the name Vesak. In Nepal, which is considered the birth-country of Buddha, it is celebrated on the full moon day of the Vaisakha month of the Hindu calendar, and is traditionally called Buddha Purnima, Purnima meaning the full moon day in Sanskrit. In Theravada countries following the Buddhist calendar, it falls on Uposatha Day, the full moon typically in the 5th or 6th lunar month."
      },
      {
        "title": "Subhas Chandra Bose",
        "text": "In 2021, the Government of India declared 23 January as Parakram Divas to commemorate the birth anniversary of Subhas Chandra Bose. Political party, Trinamool Congress and the All India Forward Bloc demanded that the day should be observed as 'Deshprem Divas'. A holographic statue of Bose at the India Gate to mark his 125th birth anniversary was installed at India Gate and a permanent granite statue will replace the holographic statue later."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is celebrated by Hindu community and Indian & Nepalese diaspora in United States of America. Every year Nepalese Hindus gather up in traditional outsfits like kurtis and Nepalese caps to observe Hindu Solar New Year. The Bengali Hindu Community also celebrates its new year 'Pohela Baisakh' on this day. A Baisakhi Mela or fair is also held where Bengali handicrafts sessions are held. The Bay Area Malayalee Association holds Vishu celebration (Kerala New Year). Event includes Sadhya (Kerala-style feast) and cultural, cinematics and comedy programs, and end with a tea social. Tamil Community also celebrates New Year on this day as Puthandu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iranian calendars",
        "text": "The fourth month includes 20 July, the date of the heliacal rising of Sirius. In the first year the people carried on using the old calendar, anticipating festival dates by five days. As each day is named after a god, it is important to observe the celebrations on the right day. Thus the \"fravasis\" festival, which in the old calendar was kept between sunset on 30 Spandarmad and sunrise on 1 Frawardin, was now observed throughout the \"epagemonai\". In the second year of the reform, the old 30 Spandarmad was the new 25 Spandarmad, so from then on the festival covered eleven days, up to the new 1 Frawardin. Five days was considered enough for other festivals, however."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakha",
        "text": "The harvest festival of Vaisakhi is celebrated on in this month which marks the Punjabi new year according to the Punjabi calendar. Jallianwala Bagh massacre took place on the Punjabi New year day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vikram Samvat",
        "text": "In India, the reformulated Saka calendar is officially used (except for computing dates of the traditional festivals). In the Hindi version of the preamble of the constitution of India, the date of its adoption (26 November 1949) is presented in Vikram Samvat as Margsheersh Shukla Saptami Samvat 2006. A call has been made for the Vikram Samvat to replace the Saka calendar as India's official calendar.\n*Chaitra Navaratri: the second most celebrated, named after \"vasanta\" which means spring. It is observed the lunar month of Chaitra (post-winter, March\u2013April). In many regions the festival falls after spring harvest, and in others during harvest. It also marks the first day of the Hindu calendar, hence also known as the Hindu Lunar New Year according to Vikram Samvat calendar.\n*Vaisakhi:\n**Vaisakhi marks the beginning of Hindu Solar New Year in Punjab, Northern, Eastern, North-eastern and Central India according to the solar Vikram Samvat calendar. and marks the first day of the month of Vaisakha, which is usually celebrated on 13 or 14 April every year and is a historical and religious festival in Hinduism.\n**Baisakhi (Nepal): Baisakhi is celebrated as Nepalese New Year because it is the day which marks Hindu Solar New Year as per the solar Nepali Bikram Sambat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uttarayana",
        "text": "There is a common misconception that Makar Sankranti marks the beginning of Uttarayana. This is because at one point in time Sayana and Nirayana zodiac were the same. Every year sidereal and tropical equinoxes slide by 50 seconds due to axial precession, giving birth to Ayanamsha and causing Makar Sankranti to slide further. When equinox slides it will increase ayanamsha and Makar Sankranti will also slide. This misconception continues as there is not much difference between actual Uttarayana date which occurs a day after winter solstice (of Dec 21) when the sun makes the northward journey, and January 14. However, the difference will be significant as equinoxes slide further. In 272 AD, Makar Sankranti was on Dec 21. In 1000 AD, Makar Sankranti was on Dec 31 and now it falls on January 14. After 9000 years, Makar Sankranti will be in June. Then Makar Sankranti would mark the beginning of Dakshinayana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Navreh",
        "text": "It is believed that Saptarishi era of the Kashmiri Hindus started on the day of Navreh, 5079 years ago. According to legends, Mother Goddess Sharika's dwelling was on Sharika Parabata (Hari Parabata) where celebrated Shapta Rishi gathered. It is an auspicious day as the first ray of sun fell on Chakreshwari and paid honor to her. This moment is considered the beginning of New Year and the Saptarishi era for astrologers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mithraism in comparison with other belief systems",
        "text": "Meanwhile, in modern-day Iran, the original homeland of Mithra, its religious followers celebrate a traditional feast of his birth. The present-day Iran Chamber Society's Ramona Shashaani claims that Christians borrowed the 25th December date from this 'Persian' (i.e. \"Parsee\" = Zoroastrian) tradition:\n:While Christians around the world are preparing to celebrate Christmas on Dec.\u00a025th, the Persians are getting ready to tribute one of their most festive celebrations on Dec.\u00a021st, the eve of winter solstice, the longest night and shortest day of the year. In Iran this night is called \"Shab-e Yaldaa\", also known as \"Shab-e Chelleh\", which refers to the birthday or rebirth of the sun.\n:... \"Yaldaa\" is chiefly related to \"Mehr Yazat\"; it is the night of the birth of the unconquerable sun, \"Mehr\" or Mithra, meaning love and sun, and has been celebrated by the followers of Mithraism as early as 5000\u00a0BC\n:... But in the [Roman-controlled areas] 4th\u00a0century\u00a0AD, because of some errors in counting the leap year, the birthday of Mithra shifted to 25th of December and was established as such."
      },
      {
        "title": "13 (number)",
        "text": "The Vaisakhi, which commemorates the creation of \"Khalsa\" or pure Sikh was celebrated on April 13 for many years.\n* In Judaism, 13 signifies the age at which a boy matures and becomes a Bar Mitzvah, \"i.e.\", a full member of the Jewish faith (counts as a member of Minyan).\n* The number of principles of Jewish faith according to Maimonides.\n* According to Rabbinic commentary on the Torah, God has 13 Attributes of Mercy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early Telugu epigraphy",
        "text": "The details of the date given for the said Srimukha viz., Vaisakha su. 11 and Thursday do not agree for the year. But they work out correctly for the previous year Bhava. Hence assuming the cyclic year to be a mistake for Bhava, the date would correspond to AD 1514, 4 May.\n* No. 57. (A.R. No. 474 of 1919.) Little Kanchipuram, Kanchipuram Taluk, Chingleput District. On the north wall of the rock in the Arulala-perumal temple. Krishnaraya, 1517 AD. This is dated Saka 1438, Dhatri, Pushya ba. 7, Wednesday, corresponding to AD 1517, 14 January."
      },
      {
        "title": "Khorram rooz",
        "text": "The followers of the Mithraic mysteries consider the first day of Dey to be the birthday of the sun, because the days lengthen afterwards. In sasanid era cause of defeat if the calendar they were adding 5 days every four years to the last month of the fall and first days of winter. These 5 days were called Khorram Rooz (Nowrooz-E-Kuchak) but still the New Year was on the first day of spring in Iranian calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of solar eclipses in the 22nd century",
        "text": "List of solar eclipses in the 22nd century\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Noravank",
        "text": "1201 - This date is found on a khachkar at the southern entrance of the Church of St. Karapet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "In Undivided Punjab, the Hindu Shrine of Katas Raj was known for its Vaisakhi fair. It was attended by around 10,000 pilgrims who were mostly Hindus. Similarly, at the shrine of Bairagi Baba Ram Thaman, a Vaisakhi fair was held annually since 16th century CE which was attended by around 60,000 pilgrims and Bairagi saints from all over India used to throng the shrine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "It is regionally known by many names among the Hindus, though the festivities and its significance is similar. It is celebrated by Hindus bathing in sacred rivers, as they believe that river goddess Ganges descended to earth on Vaisakhi from Svarga. Some rivers considered particularly sacred include the Ganges, Jhelum and Kaveri. Hindus visit temples, meet friends and party over festive foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vasantotsav",
        "text": "2016 Vasantotsav, Nasik is planned on 19th Feb."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ansariyan Publications",
        "text": "It started in 1352 in the Persian calendar, 1974 CE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is a harvest festival for people of Northern India. Chander and Dogra (2003) state that in Punjab, Vaisakhi marks the ripening of the rabi harvest. Vaisakhi, the Hindu Solar new year, also marks the Nepalese, Punjabi and Bengali New year. Fairs or \"Melas\" (fair) are held in many parts of North India to mark the new year and the harvesting season. Vaisakhi fairs take place in various places, including Jammu City, Kathua, Udhampur, Reasi and Samba, in the Pinjore complex near Chandigarh, in Himachal Pradesh cities of Rewalsar, Shimla, Mandi and Prashar Lakes. According to Ann Louise Wood, Vaisakhi is a festival that is celebrated by the Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims of Punjab."
      },
      {
        "title": "Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei",
        "text": "Although \"Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikesi\" is a historical film set in the late 18th century AD, most of the issues it raises are contemporary. Topics discussed include child labour, globalisation, the bureaucratic inefficiency of government, pesticide usage in soft drinks, and divisions in the caste system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Udvada",
        "text": "Ceremonial anniversary celebrations are held at the \"Atash Behram\" on the day of its founding. The ceremonies in Udvada are held on the ninth day of the ninth month in the \"Shahenshahi\" (imperial) version of the Zoroastrian calendar (which, in 2020, was on 21 April). Pilgrims from all over the world visit the temple on that day. Special ceremonies are also held on the 20th day of each month. In the Zoroastrian calendar, that day is dedicated to the divinity Verethragna (Avestan, Middle Persian \"Waharam\", hence \"Behram\"), hypostasis of victory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bhrukutesvar Siva Temple",
        "text": "i) Precise date: Late 13th Century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mehregan",
        "text": "Irrespective of which calendar is observed, Mehrg\u0101n falls on the 196th day of the calendar year. For details on how this date is calculated, see basis for the date, below. For calendars that have March 21 as Nowruz or New Year's Day (i.e. in the \"Fasili\" and \"Bastani\" variants of the Zoroastrian calendar as well as in the Iranian civil calendar), Mehrg\u0101n falls on October 2 but according to Jalali calendar Mehregan falls on October 8. For the \"Shahanshahi\" variant of the Zoroastrian calendar, which in 2006\u20132007 has New Year's Day on August 20, Mehrg\u0101n fell on March 3 of the following Gregorian year. For the \"Kadmi\" variant, which has New Year's Day 30 days earlier, Mehrg\u0101n falls on February 1."
      },
      {
        "title": "21st century BC",
        "text": "The 21st century BC was a century which lasted from the year 2100 BC to 2001 BC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity in the 21st century",
        "text": "Amidst the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War, on 8 October 2020, the mother church of Artsakhtsi Christians Ghazanchetsots Cathedral in Shushi was bombed by the Azerbaijani Armed Forces. Archbishop Pargev Martirosyan of Artsakh compared the shelling with the actions of Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, saying \"They are bombarding our spiritual values, when we are restoring and preserving mosques\". Another priest at the cathedral said \"I feel the pain that the walls of our beautiful cathedral are destroyed. I feel the pain that today the world does not react to what's happening here and that our boys are dying defending our Motherland\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guru Nanak",
        "text": "Macauliffe also notes that Vaisakh (March\u2013April) already saw a number of important festivals\u2014such as Holi, Rama Navami, and Vaisakhi\u2014therefore people would be busy in agricultural activities after the harvest festival of Baisakhi. Therefore, holding Nanak's birth anniversary celebrations immediately after Vaisakhi would have resulted in thin attendance, and therefore, smaller donations for the Sikh shrines. On the other hand, by the Kattak full moon day, the major Hindu festival of Diwali was already over, and the peasants\u2014who had surplus cash from crop sales\u2014were able to donate generously."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi\n--Date.\n--Etymology and pronunciation.\n--Sikhism.\n----Punjab.\n------Harvest festival.\n----Himachal Pradesh.\n----Jammu.\n----Kashmir.\n----Nihang.\n----Sikh New Year.\n--Sikh celebrations outside India.\n----Pakistan.\n----Canada.\n------British Columbia.\n------Ontario.\n------Prairies.\n------Atlantic.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n----Malaysia.\n--Buddhism.\n--As a harvest festival.\n--Hinduism.\n----Haridwar.\n----Hindus in Punjab.\n----Jammu.\n----Himachal Pradesh.\n----Haryana.\n----Uttar Pradesh.\n----Other Regional Hindu Solar New Years.\n------Vishu.\n------Bohag Bihu.\n------Maha Vishuba Sankranti.\n------Poyla Baishakh.\n------Puthandu.\n------Jur Sital in Bihar.\n--Hindu Celebrations elsewhere.\n----Pakistan.\n----Nepal.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "1923 in Afghanistan",
        "text": "1923 in Afghanistan\n--First half of 1923.\n--January 1923.\n--March 1923.\n--April 1923.\n--May 1923.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tsikhistavi",
        "text": "In the 17th and 18th centuries, Tsikhistavis sometimes are named as a Minibashi ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "V\u0101sishka",
        "text": "The rule of V\u0101sishka in the area of Punjab is attested by inscriptions, as well as in the area of Mathura (Isapur inscription). His rule is recorded as far south as Sanchi, where one and possibly another inscription in his name have been found, dated to the year 22 (The Sanchi inscription of \"Vaskushana\"-i.e. Vasishka Kushana) and year 28 (The Sanchi inscription of Vasaska-i.e. Vasishka) of a Kushan era (widely thought to be the second century of the Kanishka era). This would place his reign c. 247\u2013265."
      },
      {
        "title": "22nd century (disambiguation)",
        "text": "22nd century (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is the day when Hindus believe River Goddess Ganga descended on earth from heaven. One of the largest Vaisakhi fair in India is held at Haridwar, which is an important Hindu pilgrimage. Around 50\u00a0lakhs (5 million) pligrims throng \"Brahm\" \"Kund\" in Haridwar to take a dip in Ganga river on this festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of Armenian history",
        "text": "Centuries: 24th 23rd 22nd 21st"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "The Sikh community, a subgroup of the Malaysian Indian ethnic minority race, is an ethnoreligious minority in Malaysia, which is why Vaisakhi is not a public holiday. However, in line with the government's efforts to promote integration among the country's different ethnic and religious groups, the prime minister, Najib Razak has announced that beginning 2013, all government servants from the Sikh Malaysian Indian community will be given a day off on Vaisakhi Day. Vaisakhi 'open houses' are also held across the country during the day of the festival, or the closest weekend to it."
      },
      {
        "title": "22nd century (disambiguation)",
        "text": "22nd century may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "This holiday also is known as Vaisakha Sankranti, based on the Hindu Vikram Samvat calendar, and is known by various regional names in other parts of India. For many Hindu communities, the festival is an occasion to ritually bathe in sacred rivers such as Ganges, Jhelum, and Kaveri, visit temples, meet friends, take part in other festivities, and perform a mandatory \"daan\" (charity) especially of hand fans, water pitchers and seasonal fruits. Community fairs are held at Hindu pilgrimage sites. In many areas, processions of temple deities are taken out. Although Vaisakhi began as a grain harvest festival for Hindus, it eventually gained historical association with the Sikhs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Y\u0101j\u00f1avalkya Sm\u1e5bti",
        "text": "The text most likely dates to the Gupta period, roughly between the 3rd and 5th centuries of the common era. There is some debate as to whether it is to be placed in the earlier or later part of that time span. Patrick Olivelle suggests the likely date may be in the 4th to 5th-century CE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dilip Sardesai",
        "text": "Double Centuries\n* 212 v at Sabina Park, Kingston, 18\u201323 Feb 1971\n* 200* v at Mumbai, Mumbai, 12\u201315 Mar 1965"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "According to Aziz-ud-din Ahmed, Lahore used to have Baisakhi Mela after the harvesting of the wheat crop in April. However, adds Ahmed, the city started losing its cultural vibrancy in 1970s after Zia-ul-Haq came to power, and in recent years \"the Pakistan Muslim League (N) government in Punjab banned kite flying through an official edict more under the pressure of those who want a puritanical version of Islam to be practiced in the name of religion than anything else\". Unlike the Indian state of Punjab that recognizes the Vaisakhi Sikh festival as an official holiday, the festival is not an official holiday in Punjab or Sindh provinces of Pakistan as Sikhs constitute a very small number in terms of population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "In the Province of Nova Scotia, the Halifax-based Maritime Sikh Society holds Vaisakhi celebrations in April featuring Shabad Kirtan performed by professional ragis (musicians)."
      },
      {
        "title": "1922 in Afghanistan",
        "text": "1922 in Afghanistan\n--February 1922.\n--Beginning of March 1922.\n--Early summer 1922.\n--August 16\u201325, 1922.\n--October 1922.\n--Early November 1922.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Surhuri",
        "text": "So as North Chuvashs Cheremis people celebrate it on Friday before or after Russian Christmas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vasylkiv",
        "text": "In the morning of 27 February 2022, Russian forces struck an oil depot in the city, leading to large explosions and fires."
      },
      {
        "title": "1721 in India",
        "text": "Events in the year 1721 in India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaasan Palloseura",
        "text": "\"As of 9 November 2021\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is celebrated with religious fervour in Yamunanagar and Kurukshetra. In Kurukshetra district, Vaisakhi fair is held at \"Baan Ganga Tirtha\"\",\" which is associated with Arjuna of Mahabharata. There is a Vaisakhi tradition of ritual bath at the sacred tank of \"Baan Ganga Tirtha\" in Village Dayalpur of Kurukshetra. A fair is held annually on Vaisakhi at this Hindu pilgrimage. Besides, Haryana government organizes a Vaisakhi festival in Pinjore Garden to commemorate this religious and cultural festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisheshika",
        "text": "Vai\u015be\u1e63ika darshana was founded by Ka\u1e47\u0101da Kashyapa around the 6th to 2nd century BC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yhyakh",
        "text": "The Sakha Yhyakh festival (literally meaning \"abundance\") is related to a cult of a solar deity, with a fertility cult. Before the German invasion of the Soviet Union it was held on 22 June, the longest day of the year. However, after 1941, as the date of Yhyakh had coincided with the beginning of Operation Barbarossa, it began to be celebrated in the period between 10 and 25 June."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shemini Atzeret",
        "text": "Additionally, calculation of the Karaite calendar is not based on astronomical calculations, but only on direct observation of the New Moon and the ripening of barley. Because of that, the 22nd day of the 7th month does not necessarily fall on the same date as 22 Tishrei in the (conventional, Rabbinic) Jewish calendar. In 2015, Shemini Atzeret fell on October 7 for Karaites, two days later than in the conventional Jewish calendar. In 2016, Shemini Atzeret fell on the same day according to both calendars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sepand\u0101rmazg\u0101n",
        "text": "The date of the modern festival is on the 5th of Esfand in the Iranian calendar (24 February) due to the reorganization of the calendar, once by Omar Khayyam in the 11th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Solar eclipse of May 20, 2050",
        "text": "In the 22nd century:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Shvaikivtsi",
        "text": "In 2022, Lyudmila Humeniuk published the book \"Shvaykivtsi in the course of centuries\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Expedition of Dhat al-Riqa",
        "text": "It is well documented that the Battle of Badr was fought on Friday, 17 Ramadan AH 2. In his book \"Essai sur l'histoire des arabes avant l'islamisme, pendant l'epoque de Mahomet\" Armand-Pierre Caussin de Perceval equates Ramadan with the Muslim month ending in January AD 624 and notes (correctly) that the seventeenth of that month was a Saturday (14 January). Again, it is well documented that the battle of Uhud was fought on Saturday, 7 Shawwal AH 3. Caussin de Perceval equates Shawwal with the Muslim month ending in February 625 and says that the seventh of that month was Tuesday. The new moon of that month fell on a Monday morning so would have become visible that evening. Thus the first would have been Tuesday and the seventh Monday. The reason why the dates do not agree is that Caussin de Perceval assumes an intercalation every three years (thus in AH 1, AH 4 and AH 7). This period is too long (the average is seven intercalations in nineteen years rather than seven in 21), which means that his dates become progressively more and more late moving back from the reform of the calendar in AD 632. Since the day of the week in the Muslim calendar advances by one or two days per month the discrepancy is resolved by pushing Caussin de Perceval's calculated dates back a month."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mehregan",
        "text": "What that day corresponds to in another calendar is subject to which variant of the Zoroastrian calendar is followed:\n*The \"Fasili\" and \"Bastani\" variants of the religious calendar adhere to Gregorian intercalation (leap-day) rules, and therefore Mehreg\u0101n is celebrated on a day that is fixed in relation to the Gregorian calendar. Mehrg\u0101n is then always on October 8.\n*The \"Shahanshahi\" and \"Kadmi\" variants of the religious calendar do not intercalate at all, with the result that over the last 14 centuries, Mehrg\u0101n has fallen behind and is now either 7th (\"Shahenshahi\") or 8th (\"Kadmi\") months before the same date in the \"Fasili\" and \"Bastani\" variants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "The occasion is marked by numerous fairs and people come by the thousands to celebrate Vaisakhi. For example, Airwan in Kathua is known for Vaisakhi fair attended by 10,000 people as per Census 1961. Every year on Baisakhi festival around 15,000 pilgrims pay their obeisance at 700 tear old temple of \"Subar Nag Devta\" temple in Bhaderwah. Other places where Vaisakhi fairs are held are Doda Bridge and Ramban."
      },
      {
        "title": "Warkari",
        "text": "Devotees of Vitthal were holding pilgrimages prior to the 14th century. In the present day, about 40 palkhis and their devotees from all over Maharashtra do so. Another pilgrimage is celebrated on the \"Ekadashi\" of the month of Kartika, which falls in November of the Gregorian Calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nimbarkacharya",
        "text": "According to Satyanand, Bose's dating of the 13th century is an erroneous attribution. Malkovsky, following Satyanand, notes that in Bhandarkar's own work it is clearly stated that his dating of Nimbarka was an approximation based on an extremely flimsy calculation; yet most scholars chose to honour his suggested date, even until modern times. According to Malkovsky, Satyanand has convincingly demonstrated that Nimbarka and his immediate disciple Shrinivasa flourished well before Ramanuja (1017\u20131137 CE), arguing that Shrinivasa was a contemporary, or just after Sankaracarya (early 8th century). According to Ramnarace, summarising the available research, Nimbarka must be dated in the 7th century CE."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What days is Vaisakhi usually celebrated in April?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Vaisakhi, also pronounced Baisakhi, marks the first day of the month of Vaisakh and is traditionally celebrated annually on the 13th of April and sometimes on the 14th of April as a celebration of spring harvest primarily in Northern India."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any specific years or reasons it's celebrated on the 14th instead of the 13th?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Vaisakhi is observed on the 13th or 14th every year in the 21st century but it'll change because the date depends on the solar calendar and in the future will be on a different date."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What date will it be on in the 22nd century?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I'm not sure, but in 2999, it will be observed on the 29th of April.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I could not find the date for the 22nd century, but in the year of 2999 the date of the event will fall on 29 April."
    ],
    "topic": "Vaisakhi",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Vaisakhi:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vaisakhi",
          "Date"
        ],
        "ctx": "Vaisakhi is observed on the 13 or 14 April every year in the 21st century. However, in 1801 AD, it fell on 11 April. This is because the date of Vaisakhi and other Sankrantis keeps changing slowly over years. Vaisakhi would fall on 29 April in Year 2999. The festival coincides with other new year festivals celebrated on the first day of Vaisakh in other regions of the Indian Subcontinent such as the Pohela Boishakh, Bohag Bihu, Vishu, Puthandu among others."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Vaisakhi:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vaisakhi",
          "Date"
        ],
        "ctx": "Vaisakhi is observed on the 13 or 14 April every year in the 21st century. However, in 1801 AD, it fell on 11 April. This is because the date of Vaisakhi and other Sankrantis keeps changing slowly over years. Vaisakhi would fall on 29 April in Year 2999. The festival coincides with other new year festivals celebrated on the first day of Vaisakh in other regions of the Indian Subcontinent such as the Pohela Boishakh, Bohag Bihu, Vishu, Puthandu among others."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is observed on the 13 or 14 April every year in the 21st century. However, in 1801 AD, it fell on 11 April. This is because the date of Vaisakhi and other Sankrantis keeps changing slowly over years. Vaisakhi would fall on 29 April in Year 2999. The festival coincides with other new year festivals celebrated on the first day of Vaisakh in other regions of the Indian Subcontinent such as the Pohela Boishakh, Bohag Bihu, Vishu, Puthandu among others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi (IAST: ), also pronounced Baisakhi, marks the first day of the month of Vaisakh and is traditionally celebrated annually on 13 April and sometimes 14 April as a celebration of spring harvest primarily in Northern India. Further, other Indian cultures and diaspora celebrate this festival too. Whilst it is culturally significant as a festival of harvest, some also consider Vaisakhi to be the legitimate date for the Indian Solar New Year. However, it is important to understand that this is not a universally accepted belief, with some individuals considering the previous month of Chet the New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of religion",
        "text": "Even today, most Indians celebrate all religious festivals with equal enthusiasm and respect. Hindu festivals like Deepavali and Holi, Muslim festivals like Eid al-Fitr, Eid-Ul-Adha, Muharram, Christian festivals like Christmas and other festivals like Buddha Purnima, Mahavir Jayanti, Gur Purab etc. are celebrated and enjoyed by all Indians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Christian Day",
        "text": "Indian Christian Day / Yashu Bhakti Divas is an annual day of celebration on July 3 in India to celebrate the person and message of Jesus Christ, which was brought to India in 52 AD by St. Thomas the Apostle. This day of remembrance commemorates the nearly 2,000 years of rich Christian history, and the contributions of the Christian faith to India's culture, society, and nation-building."
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of American Indians",
        "text": "In 1916, the Governor Charles S. Whitman of New York declared the first official state American Indian Day on the second Saturday in May. The year before this proclamation was issued, Red Fox James (Blackfoot), a Society member, rode horseback from state to state seeking approval for a day to honor Indians. On December 14, 1915, he presented the endorsements of 24 state governments at the White House. There is no record, however, of such a national day being proclaimed. Today, several states celebrate the fourth Friday in September. In Illinois, for example, legislators enacted such a day in 1919. Presently, several states have designated Columbus Day as Native American Day, but it is observed without any recognition as a national legal holiday. In 1990. President George H. W. Bush approved a joint resolution designating November 1990 \"National American Indian Heritage Month\". Similar proclamations have been issued each year since 1994."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi festivals",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is a historical and religious festival in Hinduism. It is usually celebrated on 13 or 14 April every year. For Hindus, the festival is their traditional solar new year, a harvest festival, an occasion to bath in sacred rivers such as Ganges, Jhelum, and Kaveri, visit temples, meet friends and take part in other festivities. In other parts of India, the Vaisakhi festival is known by various regional names."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "For some Hindus, the first day of Vaisakh marks the traditional solar new year, in Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Kerala, Odisha, Punjab Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Uttrakhand and other parts of India. However, this is not the universal new year for all Hindus. For some, such as those in and near Gujarat, the new year festivities coincide with the five-day Diwali festival. For others, the new year falls on Cheti Chand, Gudi Padwa and Ugadi which falls a few weeks earlier. The harvest is complete and crops ready to sell, representing a time of plenty for the farmers. Fairs and special thanksgiving pujas (prayers) are common in the Hindu tradition. It is available in the Vanis of the saints that in Satlok, the Vaisakhi-like atmosphere always remains there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "This holiday also is known as Vaisakha Sankranti, based on the Hindu Vikram Samvat calendar, and is known by various regional names in other parts of India. For many Hindu communities, the festival is an occasion to ritually bathe in sacred rivers such as Ganges, Jhelum, and Kaveri, visit temples, meet friends, take part in other festivities, and perform a mandatory \"daan\" (charity) especially of hand fans, water pitchers and seasonal fruits. Community fairs are held at Hindu pilgrimage sites. In many areas, processions of temple deities are taken out. Although Vaisakhi began as a grain harvest festival for Hindus, it eventually gained historical association with the Sikhs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is celebrated by Hindu community and Indian & Nepalese diaspora in United States of America. Every year Nepalese Hindus gather up in traditional outsfits like kurtis and Nepalese caps to observe Hindu Solar New Year. The Bengali Hindu Community also celebrates its new year 'Pohela Baisakh' on this day. A Baisakhi Mela or fair is also held where Bengali handicrafts sessions are held. The Bay Area Malayalee Association holds Vishu celebration (Kerala New Year). Event includes Sadhya (Kerala-style feast) and cultural, cinematics and comedy programs, and end with a tea social. Tamil Community also celebrates New Year on this day as Puthandu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Amongst Sikh populations in the United States, there is usually a parade commemorating the Vaisakhi celebration. In Manhattan, New York City people come out to do \"Seva\" (selfless service) such as giving out free food, and completing any other labor that needs to be done. In Los Angeles, California, the local Sikh community consisting of many gurdwaras holds a full day Kirtan (spiritual music) program followed by a parade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Independence Day (India)",
        "text": "The Indian diaspora celebrates Independence Day around the world with parades and pageants, particularly in regions with higher concentrations of Indian immigrants. In some locations, such as New York and other US cities, 15 August has become \"India Day\" among the diaspora and the local populace. Pageants celebrate \"India Day\" either on 15 August or an adjoining weekend day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi festivals",
        "text": "Vaisakhi, also pronounced as Baisakhi marks the beginning of Hindu solar New year. Vaisakhi marks the first day of the month of Vaisakha and is usually celebrated on 13 or 14 April every year. This holiday also is known as Vaisakha Sankranti and celebrates the Solar new year, based on the Hindu Vikram Samvat calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "It is regionally known by many names among the Hindus, though the festivities and its significance is similar. It is celebrated by Hindus bathing in sacred rivers, as they believe that river goddess Ganges descended to earth on Vaisakhi from Svarga. Some rivers considered particularly sacred include the Ganges, Jhelum and Kaveri. Hindus visit temples, meet friends and party over festive foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi coincides with the first day of the solar cycle year, that is the solar New Year or Mesha Sankranti which is also related to other regional new years such as 'Vishu' and 'Puthandu' celebrated in Kerala and Tamilnadu a day after Vaisakhi. The festivities include fireworks, shopping for new clothes and interesting displays called 'Vishu Kani'. Hindus make arrangements of flowers, grains, fruits which friends and family visit to admire as \"lucky sight\" (\"Vishukkani\"). Giving gifts to friends and loved ones, as well as alms to the needy, are a tradition of Kerala Hindus on this festive day. Vaisakhi is also related to Bohag (Rongali) Bihu in Assam and as Pohela Boishakh in Bengal, but typically one or two days after Vaisakhi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vat Purnima",
        "text": "In the present day, the festival is celebrated in the following way. Women dress in fine sarees and jewelry, and their day begins with the offering of any five fruits and a coconut. Each woman winds white thread around a banyan tree seven times as a reminder of their husbands. They fast for the whole day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dhanteras",
        "text": "Indian people also celebrate Dhanteras by preparing rangolis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surhuri",
        "text": "So as North Chuvashs Cheremis people celebrate it on Friday before or after Russian Christmas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is the day when Hindus believe River Goddess Ganga descended on earth from heaven. One of the largest Vaisakhi fair in India is held at Haridwar, which is an important Hindu pilgrimage. Around 50\u00a0lakhs (5 million) pligrims throng \"Brahm\" \"Kund\" in Haridwar to take a dip in Ganga river on this festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Christian Day",
        "text": "This day, historically observed as St. Thomas Day, commemorates the martyrdom of the apostle in 72 AD near Chennai, India. In marking it in 2021 and every year henceforth, followers of Jesus intend to preserve identity within the Indian cultural heritage, while uniting with all who wish to celebrate, irrespective of language, custom, creed, region or religion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi or Vaisakhi Sankranti is celebrated on first day of Vaisakha, as per Hindu Solar Calendar. This day is also known as \"Sattu\u0101 or Satwahi\"\",\" as Sattu is donated and consumed on this day. The common rites during this festival is bath in a river or pond and to eat Sattu and \"Gur\" (Jaggery)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sohrai",
        "text": "It is celebrated on Amavasya of the Hindu month Kartik in the month of October\u2013November. In some region it celebrated also in mid January. In this festival, people fast, paint house, prepared food. In night, they light earthen lamps in the cattle-sheds and offered sacrifice to deity of animals Gaurea also known as Pasupati."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaikuntha Chaturdashi",
        "text": "Another observance is by celebrating \"avail bhojan\" (means a dinner) taken under the \"Phyllanthus emblica\" tree (Indian gooseberry)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "The Sikh community, a subgroup of the Malaysian Indian ethnic minority race, is an ethnoreligious minority in Malaysia, which is why Vaisakhi is not a public holiday. However, in line with the government's efforts to promote integration among the country's different ethnic and religious groups, the prime minister, Najib Razak has announced that beginning 2013, all government servants from the Sikh Malaysian Indian community will be given a day off on Vaisakhi Day. Vaisakhi 'open houses' are also held across the country during the day of the festival, or the closest weekend to it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nyepi",
        "text": "Many Hindus in the Indian subcontinent observe the same day as new year. For example, the Hindus of Maharashtra term the same festival, observed on the same day, Gudi Padwa (Marathi: \u0917\u0941\u0922\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0921\u0935\u093e). The Sindhis, people from Sindh, celebrate the same day as Cheti Chand, which is the beginning of their calendar year. Manipuris also celebrate their New Year as Sajibu Nongma Panba on the same day. The Hindus of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka also celebrate their new year on the same day as Ugadi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is a harvest festival for people of Northern India. Chander and Dogra (2003) state that in Punjab, Vaisakhi marks the ripening of the rabi harvest. According to Dhillon (2015), in Punjab, this day is observed as a thanksgiving day by farmers whereby farmers pay their tribute, thanking God for the abundant harvest and also praying for future prosperity. The harvest festival is celebrated by Hindus and Sikhs. In the Punjab, historically, during the early 20th century, Vaisakhi was a sacred day for Hindus and Sikhs and a secular festival for all Muslims and Christians. In modern times, sometimes Christians in Punjab participate in Baisakhi celebrations along with Hindus and Sikhs. The harvest festival is also characterized by the folk dance, Bhangra which traditionally is a harvest dance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "In the Province of Nova Scotia, the Halifax-based Maritime Sikh Society holds Vaisakhi celebrations in April featuring Shabad Kirtan performed by professional ragis (musicians)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian New Year's days",
        "text": "There are numerous days throughout the year celebrated as New Year's Day in the different regions of India. The observance is determined by whether the lunar calendar is being followed or the solar calendar. Those regions which follow the Solar calendar, the new year falls on Baisakhi in Bangladesh, Rongali Bihu in Assam, Puthandu in Tamil Nadu, Vishu in Kerala, Pana Sankranti or Odia Nababarsa in Odisha and Poila Boishakh in Bengal in the month of the calendar, i.e., Vaishakha. Generally, this day falls during 14th or 15th of the month of April. Those following Lunar calendar consider the month of Chaitra (corresponding to March-April) as the first month of the year, so the new year is celebrated on the first day of this month like Ugadi in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka and Gudhi Padwa in Maharashtra. Similarly, few regions in India consider the period between consecutive Sankarantis as one month and few others take the period between consecutive Purnimas as a month. In Gujarat the new year is celebrated as the day after Diwali. As per the Hindu Calendar, it falls on Shukla Paksha Pratipada in the Hindu month of Kartik. As per the Indian Calendar based on Lunar Cycle, Kartik is the first month of the year and the New Year in Gujarat falls on the first bright day of Kartik (Ekam). In other parts of India, New Year Celebrations begin in the spring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bonfire",
        "text": "Another tradition of this day is to make special Chaharshanbe Suri Ajil, or mixed nuts and berries. People wear disguises and go door to door knocking on doors as similar to Trick-or-treating. Receiving of the Ajeel is customary, as is receiving of a bucket of water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fireworks",
        "text": "Indians throughout the world celebrate with fireworks as part of their popular \"festival of lights\" (Diwali) in Oct-Nov every year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surrey, British Columbia",
        "text": "Every year on April 13, the Sikh community celebrates Vaisakhi, which often includes a \"nagar kirtan\", or parade, and free food is often handed out. It is the largest Vaiskahi parade outside India, growing from 100,000 attendees in 2008 to over 500,000 in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is celebrated at Udhampur on the bank of Devika river where for three days devotees enjoy the folk songs. At Sudhmahadev, this festival is celebrated with great pomp and show where folk singers come down and a competition of folk songs is held. Vendors generally install their shops and stalls of eatables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ugadi",
        "text": "The Sindhis, people from Sindh, celebrate the same day as Cheti Chand, which is the beginning of their calendar year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi festivals",
        "text": "Vaisakhi additionally marks the Punjabi new year. This day is observed as a thanksgiving day by farmers whereby farmers pay their tribute, thanking God for the abundant harvest and also praying for future prosperity. Historically, during the early 20th century, Vaisakhi was a sacred day for Sikhs and Hindus and a secular festival for all Muslims and non-Muslims including Punjabi Christians. In modern times, sometimes Christians participate in Baisakhi celebrations along with Sikhs and Hindus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Native American Indian Heritage Month",
        "text": "This commemorative month aims to provide a platform for Native people in the United States of America to share their culture, traditions, music, crafts, dance, and ways and concepts of life. This gives Native people the opportunity to express to their community, both city, county and state officials their concerns and solutions for building bridges of understanding and friendship in their local area. Federal Agencies are encouraged to provide educational programs for their employees regarding Native American history, rights, culture and contemporary issues, to better assist them in their jobs and for overall awareness.\n* 101st United States Congress \u2013 November 1990 National American Indian Heritage Month\n* 101st Congress \u2013 December 3\u20139, 1989 (American Indian Week)\n* 100th United States Congress \u2013 , September 23\u201330, 1988 (American Indian Week)\n* 100th Congress \u2013 , November 22\u201328, 1987 (American Indian Week)\n* 99th United States Congress \u2013 , November 23\u201330, 1986 (American Indian Week)\n* 97th United States Congress \u2013 , May 13, 1983 (American Indian Day)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "In the Province of British Columbia, large, local Sikh communities in the cities of Vancouver, Abbotsford, and Surrey hold their annual Vaisakhi celebrations in April, which include two Nagar Kirtan (parades)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Americans",
        "text": "The United States is home to various associations that promote Indian languages and cultures. Some major organizations include,\n*Telugu Association of North America (TANA)\n*American Telugu Association (ATA)\n*Federation of Tamil Sangams of North America (FeTNA)\n*Federation of Kerala Associations in North America (FOKANA)\n*Association of Kannada Kootas of America (AKKA)\n*North America Vishwa Kannada Association (NAVIKA)\n*North American Bengali Conference (NABC)\n*The Odisha Society of the Americas (OSA)\n*Maharashtra Mandal (MM)\n* 1600: Beginning of the East India Company.\n* 1635: An \"East Indian\" is documented present in Jamestown, Virginia.\n* 1680: Due to anti-miscegenation laws, a mixed-race girl born to an Indian father and an Irish mother is classified as mulatto and sold into slavery.\n* 1790: The first officially confirmed Indian immigrant arrives in the United States from Madras, South India on a British ship.\n* 1899\u20131914: The first significant wave of Indian immigrants arrives in the United States, mostly consisting of Sikh farmers and businessmen from the Punjab region of British India. They arrive in Angel Island, California via Hong Kong. They start businesses including farms and lumber mills in California, Oregon, and Washington.\n* 1909: Bhicaji Balsara becomes the first known Indian-born person to gain naturalised U.S. citizenship. As a Parsi, he was considered a \"pure member of the Persian sect\" and therefore a free White person. The judge Emile Henry Lacombe, of the Southern District of New York, only gave Balsara citizenship on the hope that the United States attorney would indeed challenge his decision and appeal it to create \"an authoritative interpretation\" of the law. The U.S. attorney adhered to Lacombe's wishes and took the matter to the Circuit Court of Appeals in 1910. The Circuit Court of Appeal agrees that Parsis are classified as white.\n* 1912: The first Sikh gurdwara opens in Stockton, California.\n* 1913: A.K. Mozumdar becomes the second Indian-born person to earn U.S. citizenship, having convinced the Spokane district judge that he was \"Caucasian\" and met the requirements of naturalization law that restricted citizenship to free White persons. In 1923, as a result of \"United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind\", his citizenship was revoked.\n* 1914: Dhan Gopal Mukerji obtains a graduate degree from Stanford University, studying also at University of California, Berkeley and later goes on to win the Newbery Medal in 1928, and thus becomes the first successful India-born man of letters in the United States, as well as the first popular Indian writer in English.\n* 1917: The Barred Zone Act passes in Congress through two-thirds majority, overriding President Woodrow Wilson's earlier veto. Asians, including Indians, are barred from entering the United States.\n* 1918: Due to anti-miscegenation laws, there was significant controversy in Arizona when an Indian farmer B. K. Singh married the sixteen-year-old daughter of one of his White American tenants.\n* 1918: Private Raghunath N. Banawalkar is the first Indian American recruited into the U.S. Army on February 25, 1918 and serves in the Sanitary Detachment of the 305th Infantry Regiment, 77th Division, American Expeditionary Forces in France. Gassed while on active service in October 1918 and subsequently awarded Purple Heart medal.\n* 1918: Earliest record of LGBT Indian Americans, Jamil Singh in Sacramento, California\n* 1922: Yellapragada Subbarao, a Telugu from the state of Andhra Pradesh in Southern India arrived in Boston on October 26, 1922. He discovered the role of phosphocreatine and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in muscular activity, which earned him an entry into biochemistry textbooks in the 1930s. He obtained his Ph.D the same year, and went on to make other major discoveries; including the synthesis of aminopterin (later developed into methotrexate), the first cancer chemotherapy.\n* 1923: In \"United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind\", the Supreme Court unanimously rules that Indian people are aliens ineligible for United States citizenship. Bhagat Singh Thind regained his citizenship years later in New York.\n* 1943: Republican Clare Boothe Luce and Democrat Emanuel Celler introduce a bill to open naturalization to Indian immigrants to the United States. Prominent Americans Pearl Buck, Louis Fischer, Albert Einstein and Robert Millikan give their endorsement to the bill. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, a Democrat, also endorses the bill, calling for an end to the \"statutory discrimination against the Indians\".\n* 1946: President Harry Truman signs into law the Luce\u2013Celler Act of 1946, returning the right to Indian Americans to immigrate to the United States and become naturalized citizens.\n* 1956: Dalip Singh Saund elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from California. He was re-elected to a second and third term, winning over 60% of the vote. He is also the first Asian immigrant from any country to be elected to Congress.\n* 1962: Zubin Mehta appointed music director of the Los Angeles Philharmonic, becoming the first person of Indian origin to become the principal conductor of a major American orchestra. Subsequently, he was appointed principal conductor of the New York Philharmonic.\n* 1964: Amar G. Bose founded Bose Corporation. He was the chairman, primary stockholder, and Technical Director at Bose Corporation. He was former professor of electrical engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology.\n* 1965: President Lyndon Johnson signs the INS Act of 1965 into law, eliminating per-country immigration quotas and introducing immigration on the basis of professional experience and education. Satinder Mullick is one of the first to immigrate under the new law in November 1965\u2014sponsored by Corning Glass Works.\n* 1968: Hargobind Khorana shared the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with Marshall W. Nirenberg and Robert W. Holley for discovering the mechanisms by which RNA codes for the synthesis of proteins. He was then on faculty at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, but later moved to MIT.\n* 1974: Mafat and Tulsi Patel open the first location of Patel Brothers on Devon Avenue in Chicago, one of the first Indian grocery chains in America\n* 1975: Launch of India-West, a leading newspaper covering issues of relevance to the Indian American community.\n* 1981: Suhas Patil co-founded Cirrus Logic, one of the first fabless semiconductor companies.\n* 1982: Vinod Khosla co-founded Sun Microsystems.\n* 1983: Subrahmanyam Chandrasekhar won the Nobel Prize for Physics; Asian Indian Women in America attended the first White House Briefing for Asian American Women. (AAIWA, formed in 1980, is the 1st Indian women's organization in North America.)\n* 1985: Balu Natarajan becomes the first Indian-American to win the Scripps National Spelling Bee\n* 1987: President Ronald Reagan appoints Joy Cherian, the first Indian Commissioner of the United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC).\n* 1988: Sanjay Mehrotra co-founded SanDisk.\n* 1989: Launch of RBC Radio, the first South Asian-Indian radio station in the United States.\n* 1990: Shiva Subramanya (an India-born Nuclear Physicist and Space Scientist working at TRW, Inc) became the first South Asian and first Indian American to win the Medal of Merit, the AFCEA's highest award for a civilian and one of the America's top defense award, in recognition of his exceptional service to AFCEA and the fields of Command, Control, Communications, Computers and Intelligence (C4I).\n* 1994: Rajat Gupta elected managing director of McKinsey & Company, the first Indian-born CEO of a multinational company.\n* 1994: Guitarist Kim Thayil, of Indian origin, wins Grammy award for his Indian inspired guitarwork on the album Superunknown by his band Soundgarden.\n* 1994: Raj Reddy received the ACM Turing Award (with Edward Feigenbaum) \"For pioneering the design and construction of large scale artificial intelligence systems, demonstrating the practical importance and potential commercial impact of artificial intelligence technology\".\n* 1996: Pradeep Sindhu co-founded Juniper Networks\n* 1996: Rajat Gupta and Anil Kumar of McKinsey & Company co-found the Indian School of Business.\n* 1997: Kalpana Chawla, one of the six-member crew of STS-87 mission, becomes the first Indian American astronaut.\n* 1999: NASA names the third of its four \"Great Observatories\" Chandra X-ray Observatory after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar the Indian-born American astrophysicist and a Nobel laureate.\n* 1999: Filmmaker M. Night Shyamalan enters film history with his film \"The Sixth Sense\" becoming one of the all-time highest-grossing films worldwide.\n* 1999: Rono Dutta becomes the president of United Airlines.\n* 2001: Professor Dipak C. Jain (born in Tezpur \u2013 Assam, India) appointed as dean of the Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University.\n* 2002: Professor of statistics Calyampudi Radhakrishna Rao is awarded National Medal of Science by President George W. Bush.\n* 2005: Abhi Talwalkar becomes president and chief executive officer of LSI Corporation\n* 2006: Indra Nooyi (born in Chennai, India) appointed as CEO of PepsiCo.\n* 2007: Bobby Jindal is elected governor of Louisiana and is the first person of Indian descent to be elected governor of an American state.\n* 2007: Renu Khator appointed to a dual-role as chancellor of the University of Houston System and president of the University of Houston.\n* 2007: Francisco D'Souza appointed as the president and CEO and of Cognizant Technology Solutions. He is one of the youngest chief executive officers in the software services sector at the age 38 in the United States.\n* 2007: Vikram Pandit (born in Nagpur, Maharashtra, India) appointed as CEO of Citigroup. He was previously the president and CEO of the Institutional Securities and Investment Banking Group at Morgan Stanley.\n* 2007: Shantanu Narayen appointed as CEO of Adobe Systems.\n* 2008: Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson appoints Neel Kashkari as the Interim U.S. Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Financial Stability.\n* 2008: Raj Chetty appointed as professor of economics at Harvard University the age of 29, one of the youngest ever to receive tenure of professorship in the Department of Economics at Harvard.\n* 2008: Sanjay Jha appointed as Co-CEO of Motorola, Inc..\n* 2008: Establishment of the South Asian American Digital Archive (SAADA) to document the history of the South Asian American community.\n* 2009: President Barack Obama appoints Preet Bharara (born in Firozpur, India; graduate of Harvard College Class of 1990 and Columbia Law School Class of 1993) as United States attorney for the Southern District of New York Manhattan.\n* Farah Pandith appointed as Special Representative to Muslim Communities for the United States Department of State.\n* 2009: President Barack Obama appoints Aneesh Paul Chopra as the first American Federal Chief Technology Officer of the United States (CTO).\n* 2009: President Barack Obama appoints Eboo Patel and Anju Bhargava on President's Advisory Council on Faith Based and Neighborhood Partnerships.\n* 2009: President Barack Obama appoints Vinai Thummalapally as the U.S. Ambassador to Belize\n* 2009: President Barack Obama nominates Rajiv Shah, M.D. as the new head of United States Agency for International Development.\n* 2009: President Barack Obama nominates Islam A. Siddiqui as the Chief Agricultural Negotiator in the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative.\n* 2010: President of Harvard University Catherine Drew Gilpin Faust appoints Nitin Nohria as the tenth dean of Harvard Business School.\n* 2010: President of University of Chicago Robert Zimmer appoints Sunil Kumar as the dean of University of Chicago Booth School of Business.\n* 2010: Deven Sharma appointed president of Standard & Poor's.\n* 2010: Ajaypal Banga appointed president and CEO of MasterCard.\n* 2010: President Barack Obama nominates Subra Suresh, Dean of Engineering at MIT as director of National Science Foundation.\n* 2010: Year marks the most candidates of Indian origin, running for political offices in the United States, including candidates such as Kamala Harris and Ami Bera.\n* 2010: State Representative Nikki Haley is elected Governor of South Carolina and becomes the first Indian American woman and second Indian American in general to become Governor of an American state.\n* 2011: Jamshed Bharucha named president of Cooper Union. Previous to that, he was appointed dean of the Faculty of Arts & Sciences at Dartmouth College in 2001, the first Indian American dean at an Ivy League institution, and Provost at Tufts University in 2002.\n* 2011: Satish K. Tripathi appointed as President of University at Buffalo, The State University of New York.\n* 2011: Rohit Gupta wins over 100 international awards & accolades for his films \"Life! Camera Action...\" and \"Another Day Another Life\".\n* 2011: Bobby Jindal is re-elected Governor of Louisiana.\n* 2012: Ami Bera is elected to the House of Representatives from California.\n* 2013: Vistap Karbhari appointed as president of University of Texas at Arlington\n* 2013: Sri Srinivasan is confirmed as a Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit.\n* 2013: Nina Davuluri wins Miss America 2014.\n* 2013: Arun M Kumar appointed as assistant secretary and director general of the U.S. and Foreign Commercial Service, International Trade Administration in the Department of Commerce.\n* 2014: Satya Nadella appointed as CEO of Microsoft.\n* 2014: Vivek Murthy appointed as the nineteenth Surgeon General of the United States. He returned to the role again in 2021 to serve as the twenty-first Surgeon General.\n* 2014: Rakesh Khurana appointed as the dean of Harvard College, the original founding college of Harvard University.\n* 2014: Manjul Bhargava wins Fields Medal in Mathematics.\n* 2015: Sundar Pichai appointed as the chairman and CEO of Google.\n* 2016: Pramila Jayapal, Ro Khanna, and Raja Krishnamoorthi are elected to the U.S. House of Representatives and Kamala Harris to the Senate. This puts the total number of people of Indian and South Asian origin in Congress at 5, the largest in history.\n* 2016: President Donald Trump nominates Seema Verma to lead the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Her nomination is confirmed in 2017.\n* 2017: Hasan Minhaj roasts President Donald Trump at the White House Correspondents' Association Dinner, becoming the first Indian American and Muslim-American to perform at the event.\n* 2017: President Donald Trump nominates Ajit Pai as chairman of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).\n* 2017: Balvir Singh was elected to the Burlington County Board of Chosen Freeholders, New Jersey on November 7, 2017. He became the first Asian-American to win a countywide election in Burlington County and the first Sikh-American to win a countywide election in New Jersey.\n* 2019: Seven out of the eight winners of the Scripps National Spelling Bee (Saketh Sundar, Abhijay Kodali, Shruthika Padhy, Sohum Sukhatankar, Christopher Serrao, Rohan Raja, and Rishik Gandhasri), are Indian Americans. They have broken the spelling bee according to several experts and have dominated this American institution.\n* 2019: Abhijit Banerjee is awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.\n* 2020: Kash Patel is named chief of staff to the Acting Defense Secretary Chris Miller.\n* 2020: Kamala Harris wins election as Vice President of the United States.\n* 2021: Parag Agrawal appointed as the CEO of Twitter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nandotsava",
        "text": "On this day people celebrate 'Govinda'- Devotees form small groups and break Maakhan Haandis tied to ropes on high-rise buildings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Venkatachalapathi Samuldrala prayer controversy",
        "text": "Today is a great day for Indian-American relations. For the first time, a Hindu priest has given the opening prayer at a session of Congress, and the Prime Minister of India [Atal Bihari Vajpayee] later this morning will address a joint session of Congress... The United States is also home to an Indian-American community of 1.4 million people. I requested the House Chaplain and Speaker to invite Mr. Samuldrala to give today's prayer as a testimony to the religious diversity that is the hallmark of our great nation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of American Indians",
        "text": "The Society of American Indians was one of the first proponents of an \"American Indian Day\" in recognition for the significant contributions the first Americans made to the establishment and growth of the U.S. In 1915, Dr. Arthur C. Parker, a Seneca, and Director of the Rochester Museum and Science Center in Rochester, New York, persuaded the Boy Scouts of America to set aside a day for the \"First Americans\", and for three years they adopted such a day. In September 1915, the Society formally approved a plan concerning American Indian Day at the annual conference in Lawrence, Kansas, and Society President Rev. Sherman Coolidge appealed for recognition of American Indians as citizens and called upon the country to observe a national \"American Indian Day\". In response, the President issued a proclamation on September 28, 1915, which declared the second Saturday of each May as American Indian Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Independence Day (India)",
        "text": "Independence Day, one of the three National holidays in India (the other two being the Republic Day on 26 January and Mahatma Gandhi's birthday on 2 October), is observed in all Indian states and union territories. On the eve of Independence Day, the President of India delivers the \"Address to the Nation\". On 15 August, the Prime Minister hoists the Indian flag on the ramparts of the historical site of Red Fort in Delhi. Twenty-one gun shots are fired in honour of the solemn occasion. In his speech, the Prime Minister highlights the past year's achievements, raises important issues and calls for further development. He pays tribute to the leaders of the Indian independence movement. The Indian national anthem, \"Jana Gana Mana\", is sung. The speech is followed by a march past of divisions of the Indian Armed Forces and paramilitary forces. Parades and pageants showcase scenes from the independence struggle and India's diverse cultural traditions. Similar events take place in state capitals where the Chief Ministers of individual states unfurl the national flag, followed by parades and pageants. Until 1973, the Governor of the State hoisted the National Flag at the State capital. In February 1974, the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, M. Karunanidhi took up the issue with then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi that the Chief Ministers, like the Prime Minister, should be allowed to hoist the national flag on Independence Day. Since 1974, Chief Ministers of the respective states have been allowed to hoist the national flag on Independence Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Asia",
        "text": "In India, Republic Day and Independence Day are important national festivals celebrated by people irrespective of faith. Major Hindu festivals of India include Diwali, Dussehra or Daserra, Holi, Makar Sankranti, Pongal, Mahashivratri, Ugadi, Navratri, Ramanavami, Baisakhi, Onam, Rathayatra, Ganesh Chaturthi and Krishna Janmaashtami. Islamic festivals such as Eid ul-Fitr and Eid ul-Adha, Sikh festivals such as Vaisakhi, and Christian festivals such as Christmas, are also celebrated in India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Macchial Lake",
        "text": "A fair marking the commencement of the Indian traditional month Vaishakh is held here every year. It is held during three days in which people from surrounding villages gather and observe the fair with great pomp and show. Along with a number of other sports activities including wrestling or kusti is centre of interest which is held on the final day. Wrestlers from distant cities and districts come to show their talent and to win a handsome prize money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Party",
        "text": "India\n*Diwali\n*Holi\n*Dussehra\n*Indian Independence Day\n*Republic Day\n*Chaand Raat (Eid)\n*Christmas\n*Labour Day"
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of India",
        "text": "India, being a multi-cultural, multi-ethnic and multi-religious society, celebrates holidays and festivals of various religions. The three national holidays in India, the Independence Day, the Republic Day and the Gandhi Jayanti, are celebrated with zeal and enthusiasm across India. In addition, many Indian states and regions have local festivals depending on prevalent religious and linguistic demographics. Popular religious festivals include the Hindu festivals of Navratri, Janmashtami, Diwali, Maha Shivratri, Ganesh Chaturthi, Durga Puja, Holi, Rath Yatra, Ugadi, Vasant Panchami, Rakshabandhan, and Dussehra. Several harvest festivals such as Makar Sankranti, Sohrai, Pusn\u00e2, Hornbill, Chapchar Kut, Pongal, Onam and Raja sankaranti swinging festival are also fairly popular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Native American Heritage Day",
        "text": "Native American Heritage Day is a civil holiday observed on the day after Thanksgiving in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "In Himachal Pradesh, Vaisakhi is an important festival of Hindus. People get up early in the morning and have a ritual bath. Two earthen lamps are lighted on this day one of Sangiya of oil and other one is Jyot of Ghee. These are kept in a large saucer along with water pot, blades of evergreen turf, Kusha, Incense, Sandal, Vermillion and Dakshina (money). With these things worship of household deities is performed. Alms are given in form of rice and pulses with small coins which are placed near Deity. This is called \"Nasrawan\" and is commonly to family priest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guru Purnima",
        "text": "Irrespective of their religions, Indian academics celebrate this day by thanking their teachers. Many schools, colleges and universities have events in which students thank their teachers and remember past scholars. Alumni visit their teachers and present gifts as a gesture of gratitude."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indo-Guyanese",
        "text": "Indo-Guyanese Hindus continue to observe holidays such as Diwali, Phagwah, Maha Shivratri, Hanuman Jayanti, Ram Navami, Navratri, Vijayadashami, Krishna Janmashtami, Radhastami, Saraswati Jayanti, Raksha Bandhan, Vivaha Panchami, Guru Purnima, Ganesh Chaturthi, Kartik Snan, Mesha Sankranti, Makar Sankranti, Tulsi Vivah, and Gita Jayanti among others, while Indo-Guyanese Muslims observe Ramadan, Eid ul-Fitr, Eid al-Adha, Hosay, Mawlid, and the Islamic New Year. Indo-Guyanese Christians celebrate holidays such as New Year's, Christmas, Easter, All Saints' Day and the Feast of Corpus Christi, among others. Through colonial influence, celebrating holidays such as Diwali, Phagwah, Eid, Hosay, New Year's, Christmas, and Easter, is common regardless of religious beliefs. In Guyana, Indian Arrival Day is celebrated on May 5 commemorating the first arrival of indentured servants from India to the country, on 5 May 1838. On this day, the workers arrived to work in sugar plantations. Indo-Guyanese also celebrate Guyanese national holidays such as Independence Day and Republic Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is an important festival among Dogra Hindus of Jammu region. On this day, people get up early in the morning, throng the rivers, canals, and ponds and take a ritual dip every year on this occasion. In Dogra households, a Puja is performed afterwards and part of food crop is offered to the deities. New fruit of the year is enjoyed on this day. A Ritual Bath at Tawi river during Vaisakhi is common in Jammu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vasant Panchami",
        "text": "People celebrate the day by wearing yellow (white), eating sweet dishes and displaying yellow flowers in homes. In Rajasthan, it is customary for people to wear jasmine garlands. In Maharashtra, newly married couples visit a temple and offer prayers on the first Basant Panchami after the wedding. wearing yellow dresses. In the Punjab region, Sikhs and Hindus wear yellow turban or headdress. In Uttarakhand, in addition to Saraswati Puja, people worship Shiva, Parvati as the mother earth and the crops or agriculture. People eat yellow rice and wear yellow. It is also a significant school supplies shopping and related gift-giving season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Arrival Day",
        "text": "In Mauritius, the holiday is celebrated on November 2 to commemorate the arrival of Indian labourers. 65.8% of the total population is of Indian origins with Mauritius being the only African country with a Hindu majority."
      },
      {
        "title": "Native American Day",
        "text": "Native American Day is a holiday observed in several states in celebration of Native American culture. In California and Nevada, the holiday is designated on the fourth Friday of September, whereas in South Dakota and Wisconsin, it falls on the second Monday of October. Within each of these states, Native American Day honors the cultural contributions of Native American communities to the respective state's history, as well as to the overall country. The state of Washington celebrates Native American Heritage Day on the Friday immediately following the fourth Thursday in November. The state of Tennessee observes a similar American Indian Day each year on the fourth Monday of September."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Christian Day",
        "text": "The declaration of 3 July 2021 as Indian Christian Day / Yeshu Bhakti Divas as an annual day of remembrance, is for Indian followers of Jesus to celebrate the person and message of Christ which was brought to India in 52 AD by his disciple, St. Thomas the Apostle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Arrival Day",
        "text": "Mauritius, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, South Africa, Suriname, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia. However, there is no similar celebration in Malaysia, Singapore, R\u00e9union, Seychelles, Tanzania, Uganda, or Kenya, which are also home to somewhat large Indian-origin populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi\n--Date.\n--Etymology and pronunciation.\n--Sikhism.\n----Punjab.\n------Harvest festival.\n----Himachal Pradesh.\n----Jammu.\n----Kashmir.\n----Nihang.\n----Sikh New Year.\n--Sikh celebrations outside India.\n----Pakistan.\n----Canada.\n------British Columbia.\n------Ontario.\n------Prairies.\n------Atlantic.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n----Malaysia.\n--Buddhism.\n--As a harvest festival.\n--Hinduism.\n----Haridwar.\n----Hindus in Punjab.\n----Jammu.\n----Himachal Pradesh.\n----Haryana.\n----Uttar Pradesh.\n----Other Regional Hindu Solar New Years.\n------Vishu.\n------Bohag Bihu.\n------Maha Vishuba Sankranti.\n------Poyla Baishakh.\n------Puthandu.\n------Jur Sital in Bihar.\n--Hindu Celebrations elsewhere.\n----Pakistan.\n----Nepal.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Mary's High School, Barpeta Road",
        "text": "Indian Independence Day 15 August and Republic Day 26 January are also celebrated with the flag hoisting, singing of national anthem and a march-past by the Scout and Guide students."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi (Punjabi: \u0a35\u0a48\u0a38\u0a3e\u0a16\u0a40 , \"vais\u0101kh\u012b\", is also known as \"Bais\u0101kh\u012b\"), it is a very important day for Sikhs and one of the most colourful events in the Sikh calendar. It occurs during mid-April every year and traditionally concurs in Punjab with the first harvesting of the crops for the year. Historically, the festival has been a very joyous occasion and a time for celebration. However, since 1699, it has marked the very significant religious event of the creation of the Khalsa Panth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gudi Padwa",
        "text": "However, this is not the universal new year for all Hindus. For some, such as those in and near Gujarat, the new year festivities coincide with the five day Diwali festival. For many others, the new year falls on Vaisakhi between 13 and 15 April, according to the solar cycle part of the Hindu lunisolar calendar and this is by far the most popular not only among Hindus of the Indian subcontinent but also among Buddhists and Hindus in many parts of southeast Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "The festival is marked by family time, preparing colorful auspicious items and viewing these as the first thing on the Vishu day. In particular, Malayali Hindus seek to view the golden blossoms of the Indian laburnum (\"Kani Konna\"), money or silver items (\"Vishukkaineetam\"), and rice. The day also attracts firework play by children, wearing new clothes (\"Puthukodi\") and the eating a special meal called \"Sadya\", which is a mix of salty, sweet, sour and bitter items. The Vishu arrangement typically includes an image of Vishnu, typically as Krishna. People also visit temples on the day."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Museum of the American Indian",
        "text": "The national memorial was unveiled with a virtual event on Veterans Day 2020, with a dedication ceremony postponed indefinitely due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. It comprises a vertical steel circle standing on a stone drum, surrounded by benches and engravings of the logos of the military branches. Four stainless steel lances are incorporated around the benches where veterans, family members, tribal leaders, and other visitors can tie cloths for prayers and healing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is celebrated in much the same way as Gurpurab, or a Guru's birthday anniversary, with gurdwaras being decorated and attended by Sikhs who listen to \"kirtan\" and religious discourses there. Many Sikhs also choose to be inducted into the Khalsa order on this day. After the prayers, \"Karah Parshad\" is then served to the congregation, and the function ends with a \"langar\", or community lunch. The festival is marked with a \"nagar kirtan\" street procession headed by a group of \"Panj Pyare\" representatives, and music, singing, and chanting scripture are part of the celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Pana Sankranti (\u0b2a\u0b23\u0b3e \u0b38\u0b02\u0b15\u0b4d\u0b30\u0b3e\u0b28\u0b4d\u0b24\u0b3f) also known as Maha Vishuba Sankranti marks the Odia new year in Odisha. Celebrations include various types of folk and classical dances, such as the Shiva-related Chhau dance. On this day people hang pieces of Neem branches with leaves in front of their houses believed to have health benefits. They prepare a liquid mixture of jaggery, mango, pepper and other ingredients which is called Pana (\u0b2a\u0b23\u0b3e). An earthen pot with a small hole and a grass (\u0b15\u0b41\u0b41\u0b36) within the hole at the bottom is hung over the Tulasi (\u0b24\u0b41\u0b41\u0b41\u0b33\u0b38\u0b40 \u0b1a\u0b09\u0b30\u0b3e). The pot is filled with water daily which acts as a drip to protect the sacred plant from the summer heat."
      },
      {
        "title": "This Day in North American Indian History",
        "text": "and the ease of browsing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Acajutla",
        "text": "They celebrate their traditional parties between the last days of May and 2 June as the main day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mesha Sankranti",
        "text": "The day is important in solar and lunisolar calendars followed on the subcontinent. Mesha Sankranti falls on 13 April usually, sometimes 14 April. This day is the basis for major Hindu, Sikh and Buddhist festivals, of which Vaisakhi and Vesak are the best known."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Fried cakes of black gram which are prepared a day before are distributed to neighbours after Puja is completed. Special dishes are prepared on this day. White washing is performed on this day and floors are plastered. This is called \"Prau lagana\". In the evening people enjoy fairs which are organised for three days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indians in the New York City metropolitan area",
        "text": "Efforts have been undertaken in Millburn, Monroe Township, West Windsor-Plainsboro, Bernards Township, and North Brunswick, New Jersey, Long Island, as well as in New York City, among other school districts in the metropolitan region, to make Diwali a holiday on the school calendar. According to the \"Star-Ledger\", Edison, New Jersey councilman Sudhanshu Prasad has noted parents' engagement in making Deepavali a holiday there; while in Jersey City, the four schools with major Asian Indian populations mark the holiday by inviting parents to the school buildings for festivities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holi",
        "text": "Sometimes the Indian immigrants from other countries may also celebrate a small-scale version of Holi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Christian Day",
        "text": "The celebration of Indian Christian Day / Yeshu Bhakti Divas on 3 July 2021, launched a decade of celebration (2021-2030) to honor the 2000th anniversary of the earthly ministry of Jesus Christ, whose teaching and life principles have helped to shape and transform India and the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chaiti ghoda",
        "text": "Two horses are used as black horse and white horse. The festival is celebrated for eight days in honour of vasuli devi. Vasuli devi is the main deity of fishermen tribes. It is celebrated to take the blessings of the deity of this ethnic group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Srinivasa Ramanujan",
        "text": "In 2011, on the 125th anniversary of his birth, the Indian government declared that 22 December will be celebrated every year as \"National Mathematics Day\". Then Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh also declared that 2012 would be celebrated as National Mathematics Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashmiri Hindu festivals",
        "text": "Kashmiri Pandits celebrate their New Year's Day on the first day of the bright half of the month of Chaitra (Mar\u2013Apr) and call it Navreh- the word derived from the Sanskrit \"nava varsha\", literary meaning 'new year'. The Kashmiri Pandit families that migrated to the plains before 1900 also celebrate Navreh. On the eve of Navreh, a platter of unhusked rice with a bread, a cup of curd, a little salt, a little sugar candy, a few walnuts or almonds, a silver coin, a pen, a mirror, some flowers (rose, marigold, crocus, or jasmine) and the new panchanga or almanac is kept and seen as the first thing on waking up in the morning. This ritual is more or less the same as the Iranian Haft-Seen and Zoroastrian Nowruz. The Bhringisha Samhita says that the platter should be of bronze (\"kansyapatraka\"). The same ritual is observed on \"Sonth\" or the Kashmiri spring festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indians in the New York City metropolitan area",
        "text": "The annual New York City India Day Parade, held on or approximately every August 15 since 1981, is the world's largest Indian Independence Day parade outside of India and is hosted by The Federation of Indian Associations (FIA). According to the website of Baruch College of the City University of New York, \"The FIA, which came into being in 1970 is an umbrella organization meant to represent the diverse Indian population of NYC. Its mission is to promote and further the interests of its 500,000 members and to collaborate with other Indian cultural organization. The FIA acts as a mouth piece for the diverse Indian-Asian population in United States, and is focused on furthering the interests of this diverse community. The parade begins on East 38th Street and continues down Madison Avenue in Midtown Manhattan until it reaches 28th Street. At the review stand on 28th Street, the grand marshal and various celebrities greet onlookers. Throughout the parade, participants find themselves surrounded by the saffron, white and green colors of the Indian flag. They can enjoy Indian food, merchandise booths, live dancing and music present at the Parade. After the parade is over, various cultural organizations and dance schools participate in program on 23rd Street and Madison Avenue until 6PM.\" The New York/New Jersey metropolitan region's second-largest India Independence Day parade takes place in Little India, Edison/Iselin in Middlesex County, New Jersey, annually in August."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caucasian days",
        "text": "Banine describes the celebration of different holidays such as the spring new year Novruz bayram and the end of Ramadan month and how guests would get together in their house. She depicts Ashura in this way:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "The Bengali new year is celebrated as Poyla Baishakh on 14 April every year, and a festive Mangal Shobhajatra, started by students of Dhaka University in Bangladesh in 1989, is organized in the Indian states of West Bengal and Tripura, as well as modern-day nation of Bangladesh. This celebration was listed in 2016 by the UNESCO as a cultural heritage of humanity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Visakha Valley School",
        "text": "5 September, the birthday of the second President of India, academic philosopher Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan is celebrated as Teachers' Day. It is considered a \"celebration\" day, where teachers and students report to school but the usual activities and classes are replaced by activities of celebration, thanks, and remembrance. The responsibility of teaching is taken up by the senior students to show appreciation for their teachers. Students come dressed in colorful sarees and welcome the teachers with flowers and garlands. Competitive sporting activities are conducted between the teachers and the students. The early morning assembly, which is usually done by the students, is done by the teachers on this day. For the rest of the day, most teachers act as students. No classes are held."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public holidays in India",
        "text": "India, being a culturally diverse society, celebrates many holidays and festivals, but there are only three national festivals: Republic Day (26 January), Independence Day (15 August), and Gandhi Jayanti (2 October)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is a harvest festival for people of Northern India. Chander and Dogra (2003) state that in Punjab, Vaisakhi marks the ripening of the rabi harvest. Vaisakhi, the Hindu Solar new year, also marks the Nepalese, Punjabi and Bengali New year. Fairs or \"Melas\" (fair) are held in many parts of North India to mark the new year and the harvesting season. Vaisakhi fairs take place in various places, including Jammu City, Kathua, Udhampur, Reasi and Samba, in the Pinjore complex near Chandigarh, in Himachal Pradesh cities of Rewalsar, Shimla, Mandi and Prashar Lakes. According to Ann Louise Wood, Vaisakhi is a festival that is celebrated by the Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims of Punjab."
      },
      {
        "title": "I-Day",
        "text": "I-Day or Independence Day or India Day is the Independence Day of India on 15th August. India gained independence from UK on 15th August 1947. Celebration include military parade in New Delhi and various patriotic events in other cities in the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakh",
        "text": "Vaisakh (, ) is the second month in the Nanakshahi calendar. This month coincides with April and May in the Gregorian calendar and to Vaisakha in the Hindu calendar and the Indian national calendar; it comprises the time of crop-harvesting in the Punjab region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Christian Day",
        "text": "Both Christians of all denominations and non-Christians joined millions of people around the world to celebrate July 3, 2021 as Indian Christian Day for the first time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goramansingh",
        "text": "Vaisakhi or Joor Sital: This festival always falls on 14 April just after Amavasaya (New Moon) of the Chaitra month, and it marks the beginning of the new year. The Amavasaya of Chaitra month is the last day of the Hindu year. The next day marks the beginning of the new year according to the Hindu calendar. The festival is known by various names in different parts of India: Vaisakhi in Northern India and Vishu in the Kerala region. People of the Mithila region know this festival as Joor Sital. Villagers of the Mithila region celebrate the festival in different ways. On the day of the Joor Sital, every elder of each family gets up early in the morning. They give blessings to every younger one. The way of blessing is taking water (\"Jal\") in a bended palm leaf (\"Htheli\") and placing their palm on the head of younger ones at least three or five times. People perform puja at home in a mango garden. They offer Baasi (cooked food in night), Vari and Rice to God. Every child pours water onto the dry land. They irrigate all plants and trees in their own garden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public holidays in India",
        "text": "Popular Hindu festivals like Makar Sankranti, Pongal, Maha Shivratri, Onam, Janmashtami, Saraswati Puja, Guru Purnima, Ganesh Chaturthi, Raksha Bandhan, Holi, Durga Puja, Dussehra, and Diwali; Jain festivals like Mahavir Janma Kalyanak and Paryushan; Sikh festivals like Guru Nanak Jayanti and Vaisakhi; Muslim festivals like Eid ul-Fitr, Eid ul-Adha, Mawlid, and Muharram; Buddhist festivals like Ambedkar Jayanti, Buddha Jayanti, Dhammachakra Pravartan Day, and Losar; Parsi Zoroastrian holidays such as Nowruz; and Christian festivals like Good Friday, Christmas and Easter, some festivals are celebrated by the whole India and some festivals are celebrated by limited region of India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vachhavad",
        "text": "Diwali: This day kids fire crackers and celebrate end of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Americans",
        "text": "Indian Muslim Americans also congregate with other American Muslims, including those from Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan and Myanmar when there are events"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "For Sikhs, in addition to its significance as the harvest festival, during which Sikhs hold kirtans, visit local Gurdwaras, community fairs, hold \"nagar kirtan\" processions, raise the Nishan Sahib flag, and gather to socialize and share festive foods, Vaisakhi observes major events in the history of Sikhism and the Indian subcontinent that happened in the Punjab region. Vaisakhi as a major Sikh festival marks the birth of the Khalsa order by Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Guru of Sikhism, on 13 April, 1699. Later, Ranjit Singh was proclaimed as Maharaja of the Sikh Empire on 12 April 1801 (to coincide with Vaisakhi), creating a unified political state, Vaisakhi was also the day when Bengal Army officer Reginald Dyer orders his troops to shoot into a protesting crowd, an event which would come to be known the Jallianwala Bagh massacre; the massacre proved influential to the history of the Indian independence movement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Krishna Janmashtami",
        "text": "In Arizona, United States, Governor Janet Napolitano was the first American leader to greet a message on Janmashtami, while acknowledging ISKCON. The festival is also celebrated widely by Hindus in Caribbean in the countries of Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica and the former British colony Fiji as well as the former Dutch colony of Suriname. Many Hindus in these countries originate from Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar; descendants of indentured immigrants from Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa."
      },
      {
        "title": "This Day in North American Indian History",
        "text": "This Day in North American Indian History\n--Contents.\n--Author.\n--Reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Sikhs in Kashmir celebrate Vaisakhi as a religious festival to mark the foundation of the Khalsa. Unlike in the North Indian plains where Vaisalhi is also associated with harvesting, Sikhs in Kashmir mark the day when Guru Gobind Singh baptised the Panj Pyare. Bajan Keertans are held in all gurdwaras in Kashmir. However, the main celebration takes place at Chatti Pathshahi Gurdwara in Rainawari. Sikhs will visit friends and family in Vaisakhi. People will wear special clothes and prepare special food to mark the festival. Sikhs will also visit the gardens and markets. The mode of celebration is believed to be different to the way the festival is celebrated elsewhere."
      },
      {
        "title": "Debagarh",
        "text": "water to the citizen. Pradhanpat ustav is celebrated annually near the fall."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year",
        "text": "The new year of many South and Southeast Asian calendars falls between April 13\u201315, marking the beginning of spring.\n*The Baloch Hindu people in Pakistan and India celebrate their new year called Bege Roch in the month of Daardans according to their Saaldar calendar.\n*Tamil New Year ( \"Puthandu\") is celebrated in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu, on the first of \"Chithrai\" (\u0b9a\u0bbf\u0ba4\u0bcd\u0ba4\u0bbf\u0bb0\u0bc8) (April 13, 14, or 15). In the temple city of Madurai, the Chithrai Thiruvizha is celebrated in the Meenakshi Temple. A huge exhibition is also held, called Chithrai Porutkaatchi. In some parts of Southern Tamil Nadu, it is also called Chithrai Vishu. The day is marked with a feast in Hindu homes and the entrance to the houses are decorated elaborately with kolams.\n*Punjabi/Sikh Vaisakhi (\u0a35\u0a3f\u0a38\u0a3e\u0a16\u0a40) is celebrated on April 14 in Punjab according to their nanakshahi calendar.\n*Nepal New Year in Nepal is celebrated on the 1st of Baisakh \"Bais\u0101kh\" which falls on 12\u201315 April in the Gregorian calendar. Nepal follows the Bikram Sambat (BS) as an official calendar.\n*The Dogra of Himachal Pradesh celebrate their new year Chaitti in the month of Chaitra.\n*Maithili New Year or Jude-Sheetal too fall on these days. It is celebrated by Maithili People all around the world.\n*Assamese New Year (\"Rongali Bihu\" or \"Bohag Bihu\") is celebrated on April 14 or 15 in the Indian state of Assam.\n*Bengali New Year ( \"P\u00f4hela Boishakh\" or \"Bangla N\u00f4bob\u00f4rsho\") is celebrated on the 1st of Boishakh (April 14 or 15) in Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal and Tripura.\n*Odia New Year (\"Vishuva Sankranti\") is celebrated on April 14 in the Indian state of Odisha. It is also called Vishuva Sankranti or Pana Sankranti (\u0b2a\u0b23\u0b3e \u0b38\u0b02\u0b15\u0b4d\u0b30\u0b3e\u0b28\u0b4d\u0b24\u0b3f).\n*Manipuri New Year or Cheirouba is celebrated on April 14 in the Indian State of Manipur with much festivities and feasting.\n*Sinhalese New Year is celebrated with the harvest festival (in the month of Bak) when the sun moves from the Meena Rashiya (House of Pisces) to the Mesha Rashiya (House of Aries). Sri Lankans begin celebrating their National New Year \"Aluth Avurudda (\u0d85\u0dbd\u0dd4\u0dad\u0dca \u0d85\u0dc0\u0dd4\u0dbb\u0dd4\u0daf\u0dca\u0daf)\" in Sinhala and \"Puththandu (\u0baa\u0bc1\u0ba4\u0bcd\u0ba4\u0bbe\u0ba3\u0bcd\u0b9f\u0bc1)\" in Tamil. However, unlike the usual practice where the new year begins at midnight, the National New Year begins at the time determined by the astrologers by calculating the exact time that sun goes from Meena Rashiya (House of Pisces) to the Mesha Rashiya (House of Aries). Not only the beginning of the new year but the conclusion of the old year is also specified by the astrologers. And unlike the customary ending and beginning of the new year, there is a period of a few hours in between the conclusion of the Old Year and the commencement of the New Year, which is called the \"nona gathe\" (neutral period) Where part of the sun in House of Pisces and Part is in House of Aries.\n*Malayali New Year (, \"Vishu\") is celebrated in the South Indian state of Kerala in mid-April.\n*Western parts of Karnataka where Tulu is spoken, the new year is celebrated along with Tamil/ Malayali New year April 14 or 15, although in other parts most commonly celebrated on the day of Gudi Padwa, the Maharashtrian new year. In Kodagu, in Southwestern Karnataka, however, both new year, Yugadi (corresponding to Gudi Padwa in March) and Bisu (corresponding to Vishu in around April 14 or 15), are observed.\n*The Water Festival is the form of similar new year celebrations taking place in many Southeast Asian countries, on the day of the full moon of the 11th month on the lunisolar calendar each year. The date of the festival is based off the traditional lunisolar calendar which determines the dates of Buddhist festivals and holidays, and is observed from April 13 to 15. Traditionally people gently sprinkled water on one another as a sign of respect, but since the new year falls during the hottest month in Southeast Asia, many people end up dousing strangers and passersby in vehicles in boisterous celebration. The festival has many different names specific to each country:\n**In Burma it is known as \"Thingyan\" ()\n** Songkran () in Thailand\n** \"Pi Mai Lao\" ( \"Songkan\") in Laos\n** \"Chaul Chnam Thmey\" ( ) in Cambodia.\n** It is also the traditional new year of the Dai peoples of Yunnan Province, China. Religious activities in the tradition of Theravada Buddhism are also carried out, a tradition in which all of these cultures share.\n* The New Year of the Kutchi people occurs on \"Ashadi Beej\", that is 2nd day of Shukla paksha of Aashaadha month of Hindu calendar. As for people of Kutch, this day is associated with the beginning of rains in Kutch, which is largely a desert area. Hindu calendar month of Aashaadh usually begins on June 22 and ending on July 22.\n* Odunde Festival is a celebration on the 2nd Sunday of June, where \"Odunde\" means \"Happy New Year\" in the Yorube Nigerian language.\n*The Xooy ceremony of the Serer people of Senegal, Gambia and Mauritania marks the Serer New Year.\n*In the Dogon religion, the \"Bulo\" festival marks the Dogon New Year.\n* The New Year of the Zulu people occurs on the full moon of July.\n* Neyrouz, the Coptic New Year, is the continuation of the ancient Egyptian New Year following the Roman emperor Augustus's reform of its calendar. Its date of Thoth 1 usually occurs on August 29 in the Julian calendar, except in the year before a Julian leap year, when it occurs the next day. The leap years removed from the Gregorian calendar mean that it presently falls on September 11 or 12 but on different days before 1900 or after 2100.\n* Enkutatash, the Ethiopian New Year, occurs on the same day as Neyrouz.\n* The New Year of the French Revolutionary Calendar, in force from 1793 to 1805 and briefly under the Paris Commune in 1871, occurred on the Southward equinox (22, 23, or 24 September)\n*Rosh Hashanah (Hebrew for 'head of the year') is a Jewish, two day holiday, commemorating the culmination of the seven days of Creation, and marking God's yearly renewal of His world. The day has elements of festivity and introspection, as God is traditionally believed to be assessing His creation and determining the fate of all men and creatures for the coming year. In Jewish tradition, honey is used to symbolize a sweet new year. At the traditional meal for that holiday, apple slices are dipped in honey and eaten with blessings recited for a good, sweet new year. Some Rosh Hashanah greetings show honey and an apple, symbolizing the feast. In some congregations, small straws of honey are given out to usher in the new year.\n*The Pathans Kalasha celebrate their Chowmus which marks the beginning of their year in Chitral district of Pakistan and parts of India.\n*The Marwari New Year (Thapna) is celebrated on the day of the festival of Diwali, which is the last day Krishna Paksha of the Ashvin month & also the last day of the Ashvin month of the Hindu calendar.\n*The Gujarati New Year (Bestu/Nao Varas) is celebrated the day after the festival of Diwali (which occurs in mid-fall \u2013 either October or November, depending on the Lunar calendar). The Gujarati New Year is synonymous with \"sud ekam\", i.e. first day of Shukla paksha of the \"Kartik\" month, which is taken as the first day of the first month of the Gujarati lunar calendar. Most other Hindus celebrate the New Year in early spring. The Gujarati community all over the world celebrates the New Year after Diwali to mark the beginning of a new fiscal year.\n*The Sikkimese celebrate their new year called Losar.\n*The Nepal Era New year (see Nepal Sambat) is celebrated in regions encompassing original Nepal. The new year occurs on the fourth day of Diwali. The calendar was used as an official calendar until the mid-19th century. However, the new year is still celebrated by the Newars community of Nepal.\n*Some neo-pagans celebrate their interpretation of Samhain (a festival of the ancient Celts, held around November 1) as a New Year's Day representing the new cycle of the Wheel of the Year, although they do not use a different calendar that starts on this day.\n* The Mizo in northeast India celebrate their Pawl Kut in December.\n* The Inuit, the Aleut, the Yupik, the Chukchi and the I\u00f1upiat celebrate Quviasukvik () as their New Year. It occurs on the same day as Christmas Eve.\n* The Islamic New Year occurs on Muharram. Since the Islamic calendar is based on 12 lunar months amounting to about 354 days, its New Year occurs about eleven days earlier each year in relation to the Gregorian calendar, with two Islamic New Years falling in the Gregorian year 2008.\n* The \"Opening of the Year\" (), usually transcribed as Wep Renpet, was the ancient Egyptian New Year. It appears to have originally been set to occur upon Sirius's return to the night sky (July 19 proleptic Julian calendar), during the initial stages of former annual flood of the Nile. However the Egyptian calendar's lack of leap years, until its reform by the Roman emperor Augustus, meant that the celebration slowly cycled through the entire solar year over the course of two or three 1460-year Sothic cycles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guru Nanak Gurpurab",
        "text": "However, some scholars and organizations believe the Birthday should be celebrated on Vaisakhi, which falls on 14 April according to the original Nanakshahi Calendar passed by Sri Akal Takht in 2003. However, many people and organizations would like to keep the traditional date by celebrating on the Full Moon Day (Pooranmashi or Purnima) of the Lunar Month Kartik. The original Nanakshahi Calendar follows the tradition and celebrates it on Kartik Purnima due to demands by various Sikh Saints."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marathi people",
        "text": "Marathi Hindus celebrate most of the Indian Hindu festivals such as Dasara, Diwali and Raksha Bandhan. These are, however, celebrated with certain Maharashtrian regional variations. Others festivals like Ganeshotsav have a more characteristic Marathi flavour. The festivals described below are in chronological order as they occur during a Shaka year, starting with Shaka new year festival of Gudhi Padwa.\n* Gudhi Padwa: A victory pole or Gudi is erected outside homes on the day. This day is considered one of the three-and-a-half most auspicious days of the Hindu calendar and many new ventures and activities such as opening a new business etc. are started on this day. The leaves of \"Neem\" or and shrikhand are a part of the day's cuisine. The day is also known as Ugadi, the Kannada and Telugu New Year.\n* Akshaya Tritiya: The third day of Vaishakh is celebrated as Akshaya Tritiya. This is one of the three-and-a-half most auspicious days in the Hindu Calendar and usually occurs in the month of April. In the Vidharbha region, this festival is celebrated in remembrance of the departed members of the family. The upper castes feed a Brahmin and married couple on this day. The Mahars community used to celebrate it by offering food to crows. This marks the end of the \"Haldi\"-\"Kunku\" festival which is a get-together organised by women for women. Married women invite lady friends, relatives, and new acquaintances to meet in an atmosphere of merriment and fun. On such occasions, the hostess distributes bangles, sweets, small novelties, flowers, betel leaves, and nuts as well as coconuts. The snacks include \"kairichi panhe\" (raw mango juice) and \"vatli dal\", a dish prepared from crushed chickpeas.\n* Vat Pournima: This festival is celebrated on Jyeshtha Pournima (full moon day of the Jyeshtha month in the Hindu calendar), around June. On this day, women fast and worship the banyan tree to pray for the growth and strength of their families, like the sprawling tree which lives for centuries. Married women visit a nearby tree and worship it by tying red threads of love around it. They pray for well-being and long life for their husband.\n* Ashadhi Ekadashi: Ashadhi Ekadashi (11th day of the month of Ashadha, (falls in July\u2013early August of Gregorian calendar) is closely associated with the Marathi \"sant\"s Dnyaneshwar, Tukaram and others. Twenty days before this day, thousands of Warkaris start their pilgrimage to Pandharpur from the resting places of the saint. For example, in the case of Dynaneshwar, it starts from Alandi with Dynaneshwar's \"paduka\" (symbolic sandals made out of wood) in a \"Palakhi\". Varkaris carry \"tals\" or small cymbals in their hand, wear Hindu prayer beads made from \"tulasi\" around their necks and sing and dance to the devotional hymns and prayers to Vitthala. People all over Maharashtra fast on this day and offer prayers in the temples. This day marks the start of Chaturmas (The four monsoon months, from Ashadh to Kartik) according to the Hindu calendar. This is one of the most important fasting days for Marathi Hindu people.\n* Guru Pournima: The full moon day of the month of Ashadh is celebrated as Guru Pournima. For Hindus \"Guru-Shishya\" (teacher-student) tradition is very important, be it educational or spiritual. Gurus are often equated with God and always regarded as a link between the individual and the immortal. On this day spiritual aspirants and devotees worship Maharshi Vyasa, who is regarded as Guru of Gurus.\n* Divyanchi Amavasya: The new moon day/last day of the month of Ashadh/\u0906\u0937\u093e\u0922 (falls between June and July of Gregorian Calendar) is celebrated as Divyanchi Amavasya. This new moon signifies the end of the month of Ashadh, and the arrival of the month of Shravan, which is considered the most pious month of the Hindu calendar. On this day, all the traditional lamps of the house are cleaned and fresh wicks are put in. The lamps are then lit and worshiped. People cook a specific item called \"diva\" (literally lamp), prepared by steaming sweet wheat dough batter and shaping it like little lamps. They are eaten warm with ghee.\n* Nag Panchami: One of the many festivals in India during which Marathi people celebrate and worship nature. \"Nags\" (cobras) are worshiped on the fifth day of the month of Shravan (around August) in the Hindu calendar. On Nagpanchami Day, people draw a \"nag\" family depicting the male and female snake and their nine offspring or \"nagkul\". The \"nag\" family is worshiped and a bowl of milk and wet \"chandan\" (sandalwood powder) offered. It is believed that the \"nag\" deity visits the household, enjoys languishing in the moist \"chandan\", drinks the milk offering, and blesses the household with good luck. Women put temporary henna tattoos (\"mehndi\") on their hand on the previous day, and buy new bangles on Nagpanchami Day. According to folklore, people refrain from digging the soil, cutting vegetables, frying and roasting on a hot plate on this day, while farmers do not harrow their farms to prevent any accidental injury to snakes. In a small village named Battis Shirala in Maharashtra a big snake festival is held which attracts thousands of tourists from all over the world. In other parts of Maharashtra, snake charmers are seen sitting by the roadsides or moving from one place to another with their baskets holding snakes. While playing the lingering melodious notes on their pungi, they beckon devotees with their calls\u2014\"Nagoba-la dudh de Mayi\" ('Give milk to the cobra oh mother!'). Women offer sweetened milk, popcorn (\"lahya\" in Marathi) made out of jwari/dhan/corns to the snakes and pray. Cash and old clothes are also given to the snake-charmers. In Barshi Town in the Solapur district, a big \"jatra\" (carnival) is held at Nagoba Mandir in Tilak chowk.\n* Rakhi Pournima and Narali Pournima: Narali Pournima is celebrated on the full moon day of the month of Shravan in the Shaka Hindu calendar (around August). This is the most important festival for the coastal Konkan region because the new season for fishing starts on this day. Fishermen and women offer coconuts to the sea and ask for a peaceful season while praying for the sea to remain calm. The same day is celebrated as Rakhi Pournima to commemorate the abiding ties between brother and sister in Maharashtra as well other parts of Northern India. \"Narali bhaat\" (sweet rice with coconut) is the main dish on this day. On this day, Brahmin men change their sacred thread (\"Janve\"; Marathi: \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0935\u0947) at a common gathering ceremony called Shraavani (Marathi:\u0936\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0935\u0923\u0940).\n* Gokul Ashtami: The birthday of Krishna is celebrated with great fervour all over India on the eighth day of second fortnight of the month Shravan (usually in the month of August). In Maharashtra, Gokul Ashtami is synonymous with the ceremony of \"dahi handi\". This is a reenactment of Krishna's efforts to steal butter from a \"matka\" (earthen pot) suspended from the ceiling. Large earthen pots filled with milk, curds, butter, honey, fruits, etc. are suspended at a height of between in the streets. Teams of young men and boys come forward to claim this prize. They construct a human pyramid by standing on each other's shoulders until the pyramid is tall enough to enable the topmost person to reach the pot and claim the contents after breaking it. Currency notes are often tied to the rope by which the pot is suspended. The prize money is distributed among those who participate in the pyramid building. The \"dahi-handi\" draws a huge crowd and they support the teams trying to grab these pots by chanting 'Govinda ala re ala'.\n* Mangala Gaur: Pahili Mangala Gaur (first Mangala Gaur) is one of the most important celebrations for the new brides amongst Marathi Brahmins. On the Tuesday of the month of the Shravan falling within a year after her marriage, the new bride performs Shivling puja for the well-being of her husband and new family. It is also a get-together of all womenfolk. It includes chatting, playing games, \"ukhane\" (married women take their husband's name woven in 2/4 rhyming liners) and sumptuous food. They typically play zimma, fugadi, bhendya (more popularly known as Antakshari in modern India) until the early hours of the following morning.\n* Bail Pola: the festival is celebrated on the new moon day (Pithori Amavasya) of the month of Shravan (August - September), to honor farm oxen for their service. On this day the oxen are decorated by their owners and taken around the village in a parade. The festival is popular in rural areas of Maharashtra and other Southern Indian States.\n* Hartalika: The third day of the month of Bhadrapada (usually around August/September) is celebrated as Hartalika in honour of Harita Gauri or the green and golden goddess of harvests and prosperity. A lavishly decorated form of Parvati, Gauri is venerated as the mother of Ganesha. Women fast on this day and worship Shiva and Parvati in the evening with green leaves. Women wear green bangles and green clothes and stay awake till midnight. Both married and unmarried women may observe this fast.\n* Ganeshotsav: This 11-day festival starts on Ganesh Chaturthi on the fourth day of Bhadrapada in honour of Ganesha, the God of wisdom. Hindu households install in their house, Ganesha idols made out of clay called \"shadu\" and painted in watercolours. Early in the morning on this day, the clay idols of Ganesha are brought home while chanting \"Ganpati Bappa Morya\" and installed on decorated platforms. The idol is worshiped in the morning and evening with offerings of flowers, durva (strands of young grass), karanji and modaks. The worship ends with the singing of an \"aarti\" in honour of Ganesha, other gods and saints. The worship includes singing the \"aarti\" 'Sukhakarta Dukhaharta', composed by the 17th century saint, Samarth Ramdas . Family traditions differ about when to end the celebration. Domestic celebrations end after , 3, 5, 7 or 11 days. At that time the idol is ceremoniously brought to a body of water (such as a lake, river or the sea) for immersion. In Maharashtra, Ganeshotsav also incorporates other festivals, namely Hartalika and the Gauri festival, the former is observed with a fast by women on the day before Ganesh Chaturthi, while the latter by the installation of idols of Gauris. In 1894, Nationalist leader Lokmanya Tilak turned this festival into a public event as a means of uniting people toward the common goal of campaigning against British colonial rule. The public festival lasts for 11 days with various cultural programmes including music concerts, orchestra, plays, and skits. Some social activities are also undertaken during this period like blood donation, scholarships for the needy, or donations to people suffering from any kind of natural calamity. Due to environmental concerns, a number of families now avoid bodies of water, and let the clay statue disintegrate in a barrel of water at home. After a few days, the clay is spread in the home garden. In some cities, a public, eco-friendly process is used for the immersion.\n* Gauri/Mahalakshmi: Along with Ganesha, Gauri (also known as Mahalaxmi in the Vidharbha region of Maharashtra) festival is celebrated in Maharashtra. On the first day of the three-day festival, Gauris arrive home, the next day they eat lunch with a variety of sweets, and on the third day, they return to their home. Gauris arrive in a pair, one as \"Jyeshta\" (the Elder one) and another as \"Kanishta\" (the Younger one). They are treated with love since they represent the daughters arriving at their parents' home. In many parts of Maharashtra including Marathwada and Vidarbha, this festival is called Mahalakshmi or Mahalakshmya or simply Lakshmya.\n* Anant Chaturdashi: The 11th day of the Ganesh festival (14th day of the month of Bhadrapada) is celebrated as Anant Chaturdashi, which marks the end of the celebration. People bid a tearful farewell to the God by immersing the installed idols from home/public places in water and chanting 'Ganapati Bappa Morya, pudhchya warshi Lawakar ya!!' ('Ganesha, come early next year.') Some people also keep the traditional wow (Vrata) of Ananta Pooja. This involves the worship of Ananta the coiled snake or Shesha on which Vishnu resides. A delicious mixture of 14 vegetables is prepared as \"naivedyam\" on this day.\n* Navaratri and Ghatasthapana: Starting with the first day of the month of Ashvin in the Hindu calendar (around the month of October), the nine-day and -night festival immediately preceding the most important festival Dasara is celebrated all over India with different traditions. In Maharashtra, on the first day of this 10-day festival, idols of the Goddess Durga are ritually installed at many homes. This installation of the Goddess is popularly known as Ghatasthapana."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of multinational festivals and holidays",
        "text": "World Down Syndrome Awareness Day - March 21st\n;Secular and multiple religions\n* Nowruz/Newroz (\u0646\u0647\u200c\u0648\u0631\u06c6\u0632/\u0646\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0632) : \"spring equinox (on or near 21 March)\"\u00a0\u2013 originally the Iranian New Year, celebrated as a secular holiday in Iran and many neighbouring countries and as a religious holiday by Alawites, Alevis, Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00eds, Bektashis, Zoroastrians, and most Shi'a Muslims.\n;Maithil\n* Sapta-Bipta (Maithil worship festival Sapta Mai worship)\n;Hinduism\n* Holi (Hindu holiday in honor of Lord Vishnu)\n* Dhulendi: \"6 March\"\n* Ram Navami: \"28 March\"\u00a0- Birthday of Lord Rama is celebrated all over India. The epic Ramayana is recited in temples and homes.\n;Judaism\n* Pesach: \"late March or in April\". See \"movable\"\n;Buddhism\n* Hanamatsuri: \"8 April\"\u00a0\u2013 Celebrated in Japan as Buddha's Birthday.\n;Islam\n* Ramadan: \"14 April\"\n;Secular\n* April Fools' Day: \"1 April\"\n* World Autism Awareness Day: \"2 April\"\n* Children\u2019s Day: \"4 April\"\n* Earth Day: \"22 April\"\n* Saint George's Day: \"23 April\"\n* Anzac Day: \"25 April\"\n;Christianity\n* Good Friday: \"the Friday preceding Easter Sunday, see \"movable\"\"\n* Holy Saturday: \"also called Easter Eve, the Saturday preceding Easter Sunday, see \"movable\"\"\n* Easter: \"typically in April, but sometimes in March or May, see \"movable\"\"\n;Hinduism\n* Rama Navami: birth of the god Rama\n* Hanuman Jayanti: typically a week after Rama Navami, in honour of the birth of Hanuman\n* Gangaur: occurring in April, in honour of the victory of Goddess Mahagauri\n* Maithil: occurring in April, Joor-seetal First day of Mithila calendar\n;Satanism\n* Hexennacht: \"30 April\"\u00a0\u2013 A TST Satanic occasion solemnly honoring those who fell victim to superstition and pseudoscience, whether by witch hunt, Satanic panic, or other injustices.\n;South and Southeast Asian\n* Traditional New Year: \"14 April\" (Usually between 12-14 April. Date is reckoned based on sun's entry into the constellation Aries) \u00a0\u2013 In many South and Southeast Asian cultures the festival is based on harvesting of crops and a new beginning marked by the sun's entry into the constellation Aries.\n;Judaism\n* Yom HaShoah\n* Lag BaOmer\n* Shavuot: \"usually in May, but sometimes in June\". See \"Movable\"\n;Paganism\n* May Day: \"1 May\"\u00a0\u2013 a traditional spring holiday in many cultures.\n;Buddhism\n* Vesak: Buddha's Birthday \u2013 celebrated on Vesak Full Moon by most buddhists.\n;Secular\n* International Workers' Day: \"1 May\"\n* Star Wars Day: \"May the 4th\"\n* Cinco de Mayo \"May 5\"\n* Matariki: The \"Maori new year\" festival running between a week and month from late May, celebrated by kite flying and a range of artistic activities.\n* Yom HaZikaron\n* Yom Ha'atzmaut: Israeli Independence Day\n;Maithil\n* Raib-Shain Paavein Worship of Sun and Saturn god\n* Inti Raymi: \"late June\"\u00a0\u2013 festival of the Sun in Quechua, winter solstice festival in areas of the former Inca Empire, still celebrated every June in Cusco.\n* We Tripantu\n;Hinduism\n* Ratha Yatra: procession of Vishnu\n;Islam\n* Eid al-Fitr: \"24 May 2020\"\n;Secular\n* World Environment Day: 5 June\n* Juneteenth : 19 June\n* World Humanist Day: 21 June\n* midsummer: 21 June\n* Yulefest/Midwinter Christmas: \"late June or July\"\u00a0\u2013 Australian/New Zealander winter 'Christmas/Yuletide'\n;Buddhism\n* Asalha Puja: Dhamma Day a Day When First Time Buddha gave Dhamma (updesh) To his First Five Sermons It Celebrate on full moon Day of Ashaldh\n;Hinduism\n* Guru Purnima: a reverential day in honour of all teachers and instructors.\n* Devshayani Ekadashi: solemnity of the repose of Vishnu, coincides with the first day of the highly inauspicious Chaturmas season.\n;Islam\n* Eid al-Adha: \"20 July\"\n;Satanism\n* Unveiling Day: \"25 July\"\u00a0\u2013 A TST Satanic celebration of religious plurality and shedding archaic superstition; celebrated on the date upon which The Satanic Temple's Baphomet statue was unveiled in 2015, an icon of modern Satanism created with \"respect for diversity and religious minorities\" in mind.\n;Christianity\n* Assumption of Mary: \"15 August\"\n;Hinduism\n* Raksha Bandhan: a festival commemorating filial love.\n* Krishna Janmashtami: birth anniversary of Krishna.\n* Onam: a festival of Kerala, India.\n;Secular\n* International Friendship Day: \"2 August\"\n* International Lefthanders Day: \"13 August\"\n* Saint Bartholomew's Day: \"24 August\"\n;Judaism\n* Rosh Hashanah: \"usually September, sometimes early October\" see \"Moveable\"\n* Yom Kippur: \"late September, early October\" see \"Moveable\"\n* Sukkot: \"sometimes late September, usually October\" see \"Moveable\"\n;Secular\n* Labor Day/Labour Day: \"first Monday of September (US/Canada)\"\n* International Talk Like a Pirate Day: \"19 September\"\n* World Peace Day: \"21 September\"\n;Judaism\n* Simchat Torah\n;Buddhism\n* Dhammachakra Pravartan Din :14 December Mostly Celebrate in India By Followers Of B. R. Ambedkar 14 October Samraat Ashok accepted Buddhist religion and On Same Day Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar Accepted Buddhist Religion with lakh of People This is Largest Dharmantaran in World Without any War And Harm .\n;Hinduism\n* Navratri: celebrates the conquest of Goddess Durga\n* Diwali: \"mid-October\u2013mid-November\"\u00a0\u2013 see \"movable\"\n* Kartik Purnima: An additional commemoration of the Celestial Diwali, or the \"Diwali of the Gods\"; hence the Sanskrit appellation \"Dev Diwali\", in honour of Vishnu, Kartikeya and Goddess Ganga.\n;Paganism\n* Samhain: \"31 October\u20131 November\"\u00a0\u2013 first day of winter in the Celtic calendar (and Celtic New Year's Day)\n;Secular\n* Gandhi Jayanti: an indoctrinated festival; the birth anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi, falls on 2 October.\n* Columbus Day: \"12 October\" or the second Monday in October\n* Indigenous Peoples' Day: the second Monday in October\n* Halloween: \"31 October\"\u00a0\u2013 also known as Allhalloween, All Hallows' Eve, or All Saints' Eve, is a celebration observed in many countries on 31 October, the eve of the Western Christian feast of All Hallows' Day.\n;Christianity\n* All Saints'/Souls' Day: \"1-2 November\"\u00a0\u2013 in Western Christian churches.\n* Dia de los muertos (Day of the Dead): \"1-2 November\"\u00a0\u2013 Celebrated in mostly Catholic Mexico but with origins that predate European contact.\n* Nativity Fast: \"forty days leading to Christmas\"\u00a0\u2013 also Saint Philip's fast, Christmas fast, or winter Lent or fast (Eastern Christianity).\n;Secular\n* Calan Gaeaf: \"1 November\"\u00a0\u2013 the first day of winter in Wales\n* Guy Fawkes Night: \"5 November\"\u00a0\u2013 celebrated in the UK commemorating the anniversary of the Gunpowder Plot\n* International Pianist Day: \"8 November\": celebrates the mastery of playing piano\n* Armistice Day (also Remembrance Day or Veterans Day): \"11 November\": memorial day honoring the war dead\n* International Men's Day: \"19 November\"\n* Thanksgiving Day: \"fourth Thursday of November (US); second Monday of October (CAN)\"\n*Maaveerar Naal: \"27\" \"November:\" Remembrance day observed by Sri Lankan Tamils in honour of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.\n;Hinduism\n* Diwali: \"mid-October\u2013mid-November\"\u00a0\u2013 see \"movable\"\n* Mandala Vratham: \"mid-November to mid-January\"\u00a0\u2013 see \"movable\": 48 days of fasting in honour of the deity Ayyappan begins.\n;Buddhism\n* Bodhi Day: \"8 December\"\u00a0\u2013 Day of Enlightenment, celebrating the day that the historical Buddha (Shakyamuni or Siddhartha Gautama) experienced enlightenment (also known as Bodhi).\n;Christianity\n* Advent: \"four Sundays preceding Christmas Day\"\n* Saint Barbara's Day: \"4 December\"\u00a0\u2013 The Feast of St. Barbara is celebrated by Artillery regiments across the Commonwealth and some western Catholic countries.\n* Krampusnacht: \"5 December\"\u00a0\u2013 The Feast of St. Nicholas is celebrated in parts of Europe on 6 December. In Alpine countries, Saint Nicholas has a devilish companion named Krampus who punishes the bad children the night before.\n* Saint Nicholas Day: \"6 December\"\n* Feast of the Immaculate Conception: \"8 December\"\u00a0\u2013 The day of Virgin Mary's Immaculate Conception is celebrated as a public holiday in many Catholic countries.\n* Saint Lucy's Day: \"13 December\"\u00a0\u2013 Church Feast Day. Saint Lucy comes as a young woman with lights and sweets.\n* Las Posadas: \"16\u201324 December\"\u00a0\u2013 procession to various family lodgings for celebration & prayer and to re-enact Mary & Joseph's journey to Bethlehem\n* Longest Night: A modern Christian service to help those coping with loss, usually held on the eve of the Winter solstice.\n* Nikoljdan: \"19 December\"\u00a0- the most common slava, St. Nicholas's feast day.\n* Christmas Eve: \"24 December\"\u00a0\u2013 In many countries e.g. the German speaking countries, but also in Poland, Hungary and the Nordic countries, gift giving is on 24 December.\n* Christmas Day: \"25 December\" and \"7 January\"\u00a0\u2013 celebrated by Christians and non-Christians alike.\n* Anastasia of Sirmium feast day: \"25 December\"\n* Twelve Days of Christmas: \"25 December\u20136 January\"\n* Saint Stephen's Day: \"26 December\"\u00a0\u2013 In Germany, Poland, the Czech Republic and Ireland a holiday celebrated as Second Day of Christmas.\n* Saint John the Evangelist's Day: \"27 December\"\n* Holy Innocents' Day: \"28 December\"\n* Saint Sylvester's Day: \"31 December\"\n;Hinduism\n* Pancha Ganapati: a modern five-day Hindu festival celebrated from 21 through 25 December in honor of Ganesha.\n* Vaikuntha Ekadashi: Mid December - Mid January: see \"moveable\".\n;Historical\n* Malkh: \"25 December\"\n* M\u014ddraniht: or Mothers' Night, the Saxon winter solstice festival.\n* Saturnalia: \"17\u201323 December\" \u2013 An ancient Roman winter solstice festival in honor of the deity Saturn, held on 17 December of the Julian calendar and expanded with festivities through to 23 December. Celebrated with sacrifice, a public banquet, followed by private gift-giving, continual partying, and a carnival.\n* Dies Natalis Solis Invicti (Day of the birth of the Unconquered Sun): \"25 December\"\u00a0\u2013 late Roman Empire\n;Humanism\n* HumanLight: \"23 December\"\u00a0\u2013 Humanist holiday originated by the New Jersey Humanist Network in celebration of \"a Humanist's vision of a good future.\"\n;Judaism\n* Hanukkah: usually falls anywhere between late November and early January. See \"movable\"\n;Paganism\n* Yule: Pagan winter festival that was celebrated by the historical Germanic people from late December to early January.\n* Koliada: Slavic winter festival celebrated on late December with parades and singers who visit houses and receive gifts.\n;Persian\n* Yalda: \"21 December\"\u00a0\u2013 The turning point, Winter Solstice. As the longest night of the year and the beginning of the lengthening of days, \"Shabe Yald\u0101\" or \"Shabe Chelle\" is an Iranian festival celebrating the victory of light and goodness over darkness and evil. \"Shabe yalda\" means 'birthday eve.' According to Persian mythology, Mithra was born at dawn on 22 December to a virgin mother. He symbolizes light, truth, goodness, strength, and friendship. Herodotus reports that this was the most important holiday of the year for contemporary Persians. In modern times Persians celebrate \"Yalda\" by staying up late or all night, a practice known as \"Shab Chera\" meaning 'night gazing'. Fruits and nuts are eaten, especially pomegranates and watermelons, whose red color invokes the crimson hues of dawn and symbolize Mithra.\n;Satanism\n* Sol Invictus: \"25 December\"\u00a0\u2013 A TST Satanic celebration of being unconquered by superstition and consistent in the pursuit and sharing of knowledge.\n;Secular\n* World AIDS Day: \"1 December\"\n*International Day of Disabled Persons: \"3 December\"\n* Boxing Day: \"26 December\"\n* Human Rights Day: \"10 December\"\n* Dongzhi Festival\u00a0\u2013 a celebration of Winter\n* Hogmanay: \"night of 31 December\u2013before dawn of 1 January\"\u00a0\u2013 Scottish New Year's Eve celebration\n* Newtonmas: 25 December\u00a0\u2013 As an alternative to celebrating the religious holiday Christmas, some atheists and skeptics have chosen to celebrate 25 December as Newtonmas, due to it being Isaac Newton's birthday on the old style date.\n* Kwanzaa: \"26 December\u20131 January\"\u00a0\u2013 Pan-African festival celebrated in the US\n* New Year's Eve: \"31 December\"\u00a0\u2013 last day of the Gregorian year\n* \u014cmisoka:\"31 December\"\u00a0\u2013 Japanese traditional celebration on the last day of the year\n* Soyal: \"21 December\"\u00a0\u2013 Zuni and Hopi\n* Winter Solstice: on or about \"21 December\"\n* Zamenhof Day: \"15 December\"\u00a0\u2013 Birthday of Ludwig Zamenhof, inventor of Esperanto; holiday reunion for Esperantists\n* Watch Night: \"31 December\"\n* Salgirah: 13 December - celebration of Shia Ismaili Muslims of their Imam (Aga Khan IV)\n;Unitarian Universalism\n* Chalica: \"first week of December\"\u00a0\u2013 A holiday created in 2005, celebrated by some Unitarian Universalists.\n;Fictional or parody\n*Erastide: In David Eddings' Belgariad and Malloreon series, Erastide is a celebration of the day on which the Seven Gods created the world. Greetings (\"Joyous Erastide\") and gifts are exchanged, and feasts are held.\n* Feast of Winter Veil: \"15 December\u20132 January\"\u00a0\u2013 A holiday in \"World of Warcraft\". This holiday is based on Christmas. Cities are decorated with lights and a tree with presents. Special quests, items and snowballs are available to players during this time. The character of \"Greatfather Winter\", who is modeled after Santa Claus, appears. Germanic tribes used to celebrate the Winter Solstice as a time to be thankful for the blessings given to them to survive harsh winters. The term \"Weil\", incorrectly translated to \"veil\", means abundance in German.\n* Feast of Alvis: in the TV series \"Sealab 2021\". \"Believer, you have forgotten the true meaning of Alvis Day. Neither is it ham, nor pomp. Nay, the true meaning of Alvis day is drinking. Drinking and revenge.\"\u2013Alvis\n* Hogswatch: a holiday celebrated on the fictional world of Disc-world. It is very similar to the Christian celebration of Christmas.\n* Festivus: \"23 December\"\u00a0\u2013 a parody holiday created by Daniel O'Keefe and made popular by \"Seinfeld\" as an alternative to Christmas.\n* Frostvale: the winter holidays in the Artix Entertainment universe\n* Decemberween: \"25 December\"\u00a0\u2013 a parody of Christmas that features gift-giving, carol-singing and decorated trees. The fact that it takes place on 25 December, the same day as Christmas, has been presented as just a coincidence, and it has been stated that Decemberween traditionally takes place \"55 days after Halloween\". The holiday has been featured in the \"Homestar Runner\" series.\n* Wintersday, the end-of-the-year celebration in the fictional universe of the Guild Wars franchise, starts every year mid December and ends the next year on early January.\n* IES Competition Time, Don's Event questions on the number of trips he took all over the world and in return offering prizes for the person who can guess closest. Follows this up with everyone's favourite Andrew Award presentation.\n* Winter's Crest: the winter celebration held on the continent of Tal'Dorei in the world of Exandria, as featured in the RPG show \"Critical Role.\"\n*Candlenights: pan-religious, pan-sexual, personal pan pizza winter holiday created by Justin, Travis, and Griffin McElroy. Featured on the podcasts My Brother, My Brother, and Me, and Adventure Zone.\n*Snowdown: A celebration observed in Runetera, The world in which League of Legends is set. During snowdown, starting in December and ending in January \"Frost-chilled days give way to colder nights, but the warmth of Snowdown calls together kindred spirits and foes alike.\" During this time, winter game modes, winter cosmetic map changes, and new Snowdown skins are released, as well as the previous years' Snowdown skins being made available again.\n*Life Day: Wookie celebration of life, featured in the Star Wars Holiday Special, in which Wookies gather with family, wear long red robes, sing under sacred The Tree of Life and reminisce.\n*The Dawning: A celebration of the Light of the Traveler, and a time to spread cheer and give gifts to help keep The Darkness at bay during the long days of the winter months. Celebrated in the Destiny franchise of video games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi falls on the first day of the Vaisakh month and marks the sun's entry to the Mesha Rasi marking the solar transition to Aries. The day is also described as Mesha Sankranti in India. Vaisakhi is therefore determined by the solar calendar. Baisakhi usually falls on 14 April, and on 15 April once every thirty-six years. Since 2003, the Sikh Gurdwara Prabhandak Committee named the month in which Vaisakhi falls as Vaisakh, making the first day of the second month according to the Nanakshahi calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakh",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is the most important festival in the Sikh calendar, taking place on the first lunar month of Vaisakh, which falls on 14 April each year. On this day, the Khalsa was created and much celebration takes place in the form of Samagams, Nagar Kirtan, Gatka exhibitions, Akand Paths and so on."
      },
      {
        "title": "This Day in North American Indian History",
        "text": "by Menominee Indians in 1975."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakha",
        "text": "Vaisakha is a month of the Hindu calendar that corresponds to April/May in the Gregorian Calendar. In Indian national calendar, Vaisakha is the second month of the year. It is the first month of the Vikram Samvat calendar, Odia calendar, Punjabi calendar, Assamese calendar (where it is called \"Bohag\") and the Bengali calendar (where it is called \"Boishakh\"). This month lies between the second half of April and the first half of May."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sindhi Americans",
        "text": "Sindhi festivals such as Cheti Chand are celebrated each year with much fanfare. The American Institute of Sindhulogy (AIS) is a non-profit institute of Sindhology in the U.S., dedicated to researching the history and cultural heritage of Sindh as well as its ancient Indus Valley Civilisation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basant (season)",
        "text": "In India, Vasanta is not a national holiday. However, it is celebrated in North and Eastern India. Students participate in the decoration and preparation of their place of worship. A few weeks before the celebration, schools become active in organizing various annual competitions of music, debate, sports and other activities. Prizes are distributed on the day of Vasanta Panchami. Many schools organize cultural activities in the evening of the Saraswati Puja day when parents and other community members attend the functions to encourage the children."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What days is Vaisakhi usually celebrated in April?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Vaisakhi, also pronounced Baisakhi, marks the first day of the month of Vaisakh and is traditionally celebrated annually on the 13th of April and sometimes on the 14th of April as a celebration of spring harvest primarily in Northern India."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any specific years or reasons it's celebrated on the 14th instead of the 13th?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Vaisakhi is observed on the 13th or 14th every year in the 21st century but it'll change because the date depends on the solar calendar and in the future will be on a different date."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What date will it be on in the 22nd century?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I could not find the date for the 22nd century, but in the year of 2999 the date of the event will fall on 29 April."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How do Indians in the US celebrate this holiday?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Amongst Sikh populations in the United States, there is usually a parade commemorating the Vaisakhi celebration. In Manhattan, New York City people come out to do \"Seva\" (selfless service) such as giving out free food, and completing any other labor that needs to be done, while in Los Angeles, California, the local Sikh community consisting of many gurdwaras holds a full day Kirtan (spiritual music) program followed by a parade.",
      "Among Sikh populations in the United States have a parade to commemorate the celebrations. People in Manhattan, New York City do the \"Seva\" selfless services while in Los Angeles, California, there's many gurdwaras that hold a full day of spiritual music programs followed by a parade."
    ],
    "topic": "Vaisakhi",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Vaisakhi:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vaisakhi",
          "Sikh celebrations outside India",
          "United States"
        ],
        "ctx": "Amongst Sikh populations in the United States, there is usually a parade commemorating the Vaisakhi celebration. In Manhattan, New York City people come out to do \"Seva\" (selfless service) such as giving out free food, and completing any other labor that needs to be done. In Los Angeles, California, the local Sikh community consisting of many gurdwaras holds a full day Kirtan (spiritual music) program followed by a parade."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Vaisakhi:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vaisakhi",
          "Sikh celebrations outside India",
          "United States"
        ],
        "ctx": "Amongst Sikh populations in the United States, there is usually a parade commemorating the Vaisakhi celebration. In Manhattan, New York City people come out to do \"Seva\" (selfless service) such as giving out free food, and completing any other labor that needs to be done. In Los Angeles, California, the local Sikh community consisting of many gurdwaras holds a full day Kirtan (spiritual music) program followed by a parade."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Amongst Sikh populations in the United States, there is usually a parade commemorating the Vaisakhi celebration. In Manhattan, New York City people come out to do \"Seva\" (selfless service) such as giving out free food, and completing any other labor that needs to be done. In Los Angeles, California, the local Sikh community consisting of many gurdwaras holds a full day Kirtan (spiritual music) program followed by a parade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is celebrated in much the same way as Gurpurab, or a Guru's birthday anniversary, with gurdwaras being decorated and attended by Sikhs who listen to \"kirtan\" and religious discourses there. Many Sikhs also choose to be inducted into the Khalsa order on this day. After the prayers, \"Karah Parshad\" is then served to the congregation, and the function ends with a \"langar\", or community lunch. The festival is marked with a \"nagar kirtan\" street procession headed by a group of \"Panj Pyare\" representatives, and music, singing, and chanting scripture are part of the celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Sahib Patshahi Chhevi",
        "text": "Gurd\u016b\u0101r\u0101 S\u0101hib P\u0101tsh\u0101h\u012b Chhev\u012b is a gurdwara or Sikh temple situated in the village of Khur\u0101\u1e47\u0101 in the district of Sangrur in the Indian state of Punjab. It dedicated to the Sikh Guru Hargobind who visited the village in 1618 CE. The gurdwara is housed in a small square, domed hall in the middle of a low walled compound. It is a scheduled gurdwara under the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee and is administered through the manager of N\u0101nak\u012b\u0101n\u0101 S\u0101hib assisted by a committee of the local sangat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Gai Ghat",
        "text": "Gurdwara Pahila Bara, commonly known as Gurdwara Gai Ghat, is a holy Gurdwara of Sikh religion. It is located in the city of Patna, Bihar, India and dedicated to Guru Nanak Dev. The Gurdwara is part of \"Guru Circuit\" - A Government of Bihar initiative connecting important Sikh religious destinations in Bihar to attract more pilgrims."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Gurdwara Dera Nangali Sahib in Jammu was established in 1803. The Gurdwara is situated in the Poonch district of Jammu. An annual gathering takes place at the gurdwara on the on Baisakhi when many people participate in the day-long function of Baisakhi. Dera Nangali Sahib is known as a centre for Sikhism in Jammu. The other important gurdwara is the Dera Baba Banda which is dedicated to Banda Bahadur. The gurdwara is located near Reasi. Baisakhi celebrations take place at this Dera."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Sikhs in Kashmir celebrate Vaisakhi as a religious festival to mark the foundation of the Khalsa. Unlike in the North Indian plains where Vaisalhi is also associated with harvesting, Sikhs in Kashmir mark the day when Guru Gobind Singh baptised the Panj Pyare. Bajan Keertans are held in all gurdwaras in Kashmir. However, the main celebration takes place at Chatti Pathshahi Gurdwara in Rainawari. Sikhs will visit friends and family in Vaisakhi. People will wear special clothes and prepare special food to mark the festival. Sikhs will also visit the gardens and markets. The mode of celebration is believed to be different to the way the festival is celebrated elsewhere."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "In the city of Brampton, the Gurudwara Sikh Sangat temple and Gobind Sarvar Gurmat School hold Vaisakhi cultural events such as yoga, pagh (turban) tying, storytelling, and food fairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikhism",
        "text": "Observant Sikhs adhere to long-standing practices and traditions to strengthen and express their faith. The daily recitation of the divine name of God VaheGuru and from a memory of specific passages from the Gur\u016b Granth S\u0101hib, like the \"Japu\" (or \"Japj\u012b\", literally \"chant\") hymns is recommended immediately after rising and bathing. Baptized Sikhs recite the five-morning prayers, the evening and night prayer. Family customs include both reading passages from the scripture and attending the gurdwara (also \"gurdu\u0101r\u0101\", meaning \"the doorway to God\"; sometimes transliterated as \"Gurudwara\"). There are many gurdwaras prominently constructed and maintained across India, as well as in almost every nation where Sikhs reside. Gurdwaras are open to all, regardless of religion, background, caste, or race."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palahi",
        "text": "Palahi is the site of the Gurdwara, 'Chhevin Patshahi' Sri Guru Hargobind Sahib Ji to commemorate a battle in 1635, between Sri Guru Hargobind Ji and the invading Mughal forces. Many Sikhs perished during the battle, however, they still emerged victorious. It is during this time that Guru Ji also visited Domeli and Babeli passing Lakhpur before visiting Palahi."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Gurdwara",
        "text": "Located on Massachusetts Avenue, the National Gurdwara is the first and only Sikh institution in the capital of the United States. It is located near the National Cathedral, Naval Observatory and American University. The gurdwara officially opened in February 2006, and cost over 2 million US dollars. Along with religious services, Punjabi language classes and kirtan classes are held."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of gurdwaras",
        "text": "A gurdwara (, ' or , ', meaning \"the doorway to the Guru\") is the Sikh place of worship and may be referred to as a Sikh temple."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sajjana",
        "text": "This Gurudwara is situated in the center of the village. Gurbani From Shri Guru Granth Sahib ji is recited here in the morning and evening. Gurudwara sahib has a very tall hydraulic 'Nishan Sahib' which is washed with Water and Milk every year on occasion of Vaisakhi. Every religious festival of Sikh Religion is Celebrated here. Some of them are :\n* Gurupurab of Shri Guru Gobind Singh ji.\n* Gurupurab of Shri Guru Nanak Dev ji.\n* Shaheedi divas of Guru Arjun Dev ji.\n* Vaisakhi celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Gurdwara",
        "text": "National Gurdwara is a Sikh gurdwara located in Washington, D.C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "The United Kingdom has a large Sikh community originating from the Indian sub-continent, East Africa and Afghanistan. The largest concentrations of Sikhs in the UK are to be found in the West Midlands (especially Birmingham and Wolverhampton) and London. The Southall Nagar Kirtan is held on a Sunday a week or two before Vaisakhi. The Birmingham Nagar Kirtan is held in late April in association with Birmingham City Council, and is an annual event attracting thousands of people which commences with two separate nagar kirtans setting off from gurdwaras in the city and culminating in the Vaisakhi Mela at Handsworth Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "In the Province of British Columbia, large, local Sikh communities in the cities of Vancouver, Abbotsford, and Surrey hold their annual Vaisakhi celebrations in April, which include two Nagar Kirtan (parades)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guru Nanak Gurpurab",
        "text": "The celebration is generally similar for all Sikhs; only the hymns are different. The celebrations usually commence with Prabhat Pheris. Prabhat Pheris are early morning processions that begin at the Gurudwaras and proceed around the localities singing hymns. Generally, two days before the birthday, \"Akhand Path\" (a forty-eight-hour non-stop reading of the \"Guru Granth Sahib\", the holy book of the Sikhs) is held in the \"Gurdwaras\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ontario Gurdwara Committee",
        "text": "The Ontario Gurdwaras Committee is a group of over 20 gurdwaras located in Ontario and Quebec. A gurdwara (, ' or , '), meaning \"the doorway to the Guru\", is the Sikh place of worship. It organizes the annual Khalsa Day parade in Mississauga; over 100,000 people attended the parade in 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surrey, British Columbia",
        "text": "Every year on April 13, the Sikh community celebrates Vaisakhi, which often includes a \"nagar kirtan\", or parade, and free food is often handed out. It is the largest Vaiskahi parade outside India, growing from 100,000 attendees in 2008 to over 500,000 in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bradford",
        "text": "The Sikh community has six gurudwaras in the city. The Sikh festival of Vaisakhi is celebrated on 14 April. Sikhs travel to each of the gurudwaras in the city in a procession called a \"nagar kirtan\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guru Nanak Nishkam Sevak Jatha",
        "text": "The Gurdwara Sahib is a Sikh place of worship or Gurdwara in Handsworth, Birmingham, England. It was built in the late 1970s under the spiritual guidance of Puran Singh (d. 1983) and the leadership of Norang Singh (d. 1995). The Spiritual leadership of the jatha is now continued through the vision of Mohinder Singh."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jargari",
        "text": "A gurudwara (Punjabi: \u0a17\u0a41\u0a30\u0a26\u0a41\u0a06\u0a30\u0a3e, gurdu\u0101r\u0101 or \u0a17\u0a41\u0a30\u0a26\u0a35\u0a3e\u0a30\u0a3e, gurdw\u0101r\u0101; sometimes transliterated from Punjabi as gurdwara), meaning \"the doorway to the guru\", is a place of worship for Sikhs. A gurudwara is also referred to as a \"Sikh temple\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "For Sikhs, in addition to its significance as the harvest festival, during which Sikhs hold kirtans, visit local Gurdwaras, community fairs, hold \"nagar kirtan\" processions, raise the Nishan Sahib flag, and gather to socialize and share festive foods, Vaisakhi observes major events in the history of Sikhism and the Indian subcontinent that happened in the Punjab region. Vaisakhi as a major Sikh festival marks the birth of the Khalsa order by Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Guru of Sikhism, on 13 April, 1699. Later, Ranjit Singh was proclaimed as Maharaja of the Sikh Empire on 12 April 1801 (to coincide with Vaisakhi), creating a unified political state, Vaisakhi was also the day when Bengal Army officer Reginald Dyer orders his troops to shoot into a protesting crowd, an event which would come to be known the Jallianwala Bagh massacre; the massacre proved influential to the history of the Indian independence movement."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of gurdwaras in North America",
        "text": "This is a list of gurdwaras in North America. A gurdwara is a Sikh center of worship or temple."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thanesar",
        "text": "Sikh Gurdwara is equally significant for the Sikhs. It was visited by Guru Amar Das, Guru Hargobind, Guru Har Rai, Guru Har Krishan, Guru Tegh Bahadur and Guru Gobind Singh. Four Gurdwaras are there in their memory: Gurdwara Dasvin Patshahi, Gurdwara Tisari and Satvin Patshahi and Gurdwara Navin Patshahi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurudwara Nagiana Sahib",
        "text": "Gurdwara Nagiana Sahib is a Gurudwara, or holy Sikh shrine, located in Udoke, a small village near Batala in Punjab, India. The\u00a0shrine was built by the Sikh saint Sant Baba Chuggat Singh Ji, who served as the first official \"Sewadar\" (volunteer) of the shrine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurudwara Sis Ganj Sahib",
        "text": "Gurdwara Sis Ganj Sahib is one of the nine historical Gurdwaras in Delhi. It was first constructed in 1783 as a small shrine by Baghel Singh Dhaliwal to commemorate the martyrdom site of the ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur and was probably expanded after Indian Rebellion of 1857 or after Partition of India. Before its construction the Mughal \"Kotwali\" (Police Station and Jail) was situated here. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857 the Mughal Kotwali was demolished by the British.and the land was given to the Sikhs because the Sikh Maharaja of Patiala and other Sikh soldiers helped the British to defeat the Mughal soldiers by providing large numbers of ammunition and soldiers. Its current building was made by Rai Bahadur Narain Singh a contractor who build most of roads in Lutyens New Delhi construction under British Rule. Situated in Chandni Chowk in Old Delhi, it marks the site where the ninth Sikh Guru was beheaded on the orders of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb on 11 November 1675 for saving Kashmiri pandits who refusing to convert to Islam. The Sikh regiment of the Indian army salute the Sis Ganj Gurudwara after saluting the president of India since 1979, the only instance of saluting twice in the Republic Day parade by a regiment of Indian army."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara",
        "text": "Gurdwara\n--History.\n----Panj Takht.\n--Description.\n--Customs.\n--Architecture.\n--Spiritual significance.\n----Meditating by the Guru Granth Sahib.\n----Holy congregation (Sadh Sangat) and reflecting on Gurbani.\n----Voluntary service (Seva).\n----Community life and other matters.\n--Learning and other facilities.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara",
        "text": "Seva is an important and prominent part of the Sikh religion. Dasvand forms a central part of Sikh belief (of Vand Chhako) and literally means donating ten percent of one's harvest, both financial and in the form of time and service such as seva to the gurdwara and anywhere where help is needed. All Sikhs therefore get involved in this communal service whenever an opportunity arises. This in its simple forms can be: sweeping and washing the floors of the gurdwara, serving water and food (Langar) to or fanning the congregation, offering provisions or preparing food and doing other 'house keeping' duties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara",
        "text": "The etymology of the term \"gurdwara\" is from the words () (a reference to the Sikh gurus) and () (gateway in Gurmukhi), together meaning 'the gateway through which the guru could be reached'. Thereafter, all Sikh places of worship came to be known as gurdwaras."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara",
        "text": "All gurdwaras have a hall, where people can eat free vegetarian food served by volunteers at the gurdwara. They may also have a medical facility room, library, nursery, classroom, meeting rooms, playground, sports ground, a gift shop, and finally a repair shop. A gurdwara can be identified from a distance by tall flagpoles bearing the Nishan Sahib, the Sikh flag."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara",
        "text": "A gurdwara (; meaning \"door to the guru\") is a place of assembly and worship for Sikhs. Sikhs also refer to gurdwaras as \"Gurdwara Sahib\". People from all faiths are welcomed in gurdwaras. Each gurdwara has a \"Darbar Sahib\" where the current and everlasting guru of the Sikhs, the scripture Guru Granth Sahib, is placed on a (an elevated throne) in a prominent central position. The (who sing Ragas) recite, sing, and explain the verses from the Guru Granth Sahib, in the presence of the congregation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Darbar Sahib Kartarpur",
        "text": "According to Lahore-based art historian Fakr Syed Aijazuddin, the shrine houses the last copies of the original Guru Granth Sahib. A Sikh pilgrim remarked, \"every step here reminds us of the Guru's life\". Indian Sikhs gather in large numbers on bluffs on the Indian side of the border to obtain \"darshan\", or sacred viewing, of the site."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Fatehgarh Sahib",
        "text": "Gurdwara Fatehgarh Sahib is a Sikh gurdwara or place of worship in the city of Fatehgarh Sahib in the Indian state of Punjab. The gurdwara marks the 1710 conquest of the city by the Sikhs under the leadership of Banda Singh Bahadur. Sikhs captured the area and razed the fort built by Ferozshah Tughlaq to the ground."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glen Cove Gurdwara",
        "text": "Gurdwara Sahib have Ragi Jathas by each month and Gurbani Vichar is done by Sikh preachers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Normanton, Derby",
        "text": "The local Sikh community organise an annual Vaisakhi parade around Normanton from the gurdwara. The 2012 event attracted between ten and fifteen thousand people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Mata Sundri",
        "text": "The Temple is built in brick and lime mortar, on the farther end of the hall is a marble-paved gallery. The carved weed beam of the gallery bears an inscription in Gurmukhi script in bold letters. There is a marble slab in the center which surrounded by the inscribed sacred emblem of the Sikhs [3]. It has a standard square-domed sanctums, arched copings and a traditional styled entrance perfectly characterizes the religious structure of Gurudwara Mata Sundri [4]."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara",
        "text": "By the early 20th century, a number of Sikh gurdwaras in British India were under the control of the Udasi mahants (clergymen). The Gurdwara Reform Movement of the 1920s resulted in Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee taking control of these gurdwaras."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parivar Vichora",
        "text": "At this holy spot Gurudwara Parivar Vichhora, was built by grateful devotees of the great Guru. It marks the place where the Guru's family was separated from the main body of the Sikhs. The Gurdwara is on a hill top, and commands a panoramic view of the surrounding valley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parivar Vichora",
        "text": "Parivar Vichora is a Gurdwara situated on the bank of the river Sirsa in India. This is where the 10th Guru of Sikh, Guru Gobind SIngh Ji's, family got separated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Guptsar Sahib",
        "text": "Guptsar Sahib () is a holy Gurdwara (English: Sikh shrine) located on the outskirts of Chhattiana village of Sri Muktsar Sahib district in Punjab, India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vadda Ghalughara",
        "text": "Vadda Ghalughara () was the mass murder of unarmed Sikhs by the Afghan forces of the Durrani Empire during the years of Afghan influence in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent owing to the repeated incursions of Ahmad Shah Durrani in February 1762. It is distinguished from the Chhota Ghalughara (the Smaller Massacre). Mostly non-combatants were killed in the event, and an estimated that 10,000 to 20,000 Sikhs were killed on 5 February 1762."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mehdiana Sahib",
        "text": "The gurdwara is a fine specimen of Sikh architecture. Crores of rupees have been spent on its construction. Exquisite meenakari work can be seen here. On the door of the eighth floor of the building is engraved a picture of Bhai Gurdas who is dictating the bagtan di bani to the fifth guru. On the walls of the gurdwara are engraved images of Guru Gobind Singh's deeds along with his hymns and on the main door is shown Bhai Daya Singh Hura holding the horse of the Guru. Inside the main building of gurdwara a beautifully decorated Guru Granth Sahib is kept."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Rakab Ganj Sahib",
        "text": "The Gurdwara Rakab Ganj Sahib is a historic gurdwara near Parliament House in New Delhi. It was built in 1783, after Sikh military leader Baghel Singh Dhaliwal (1730\u20131802) captured Delhi, on 11 March 1783, and his brief stay in Delhi, led to the construction of several Sikh religious shrines within the city. This one marks the site of cremation of the ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, after his martyrdom in November 1675 for saving Hindu Kashmiri Pandits, under orders of Aurangzeb. The Gurudwara Sahib is built near old Raisina village near Raisina Hill, at present Pandit Pant Marg, took 12 years to build. Prior to that, a mosque had been built near the spot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Nanak Shahi",
        "text": "Gurdwara Nanak Shahi is open for people of all religion. Each day, recitation from the holy scripture of Sikh religion Granth Sahib and prayer takes place in Gurdwara Nanak Shahi. Weekly prayer and Kirtan are organized every Friday. On this day in the morning and after prayer, free food known as langar is served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikh Rehat Maryada",
        "text": "No one is to be barred from entering a Gurdwara, no matter in which country, religion, or caste he/she belongs to. The Gurdwara is open to all for the Guru's \"darshan\" (seeing the holy Guru) and Langar. However the person must not have on his/her person anything, such as tobacco or other intoxicants, which are tabooed by the Sikh religion. Shoes must be removed, one's head must be covered, and respectful clothing is a must."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Baba Bakala Sahib",
        "text": "Gurdwara Baba Bakala Sahib; () is a prominent Sikh Gurdwara in Baba Bakala, Punjab, India which is about 42 km from Amritsar. It is known for its association with the 9th Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, Mata Ganga and Baba Makhan Shah Lubana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikh music",
        "text": "The Nagara drum is also required in every Gurdwara according to the Sikh Rehat Maryada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Sri Guru Singh Sabha (Greater Kailash)",
        "text": "Gurdwara Sri Guru Singh Sabha is a Sikh \"gurdwara\", or Sikh house of worship, in Delhi, India. It also known as the \"Gurdwara Pahari Wala\" or \"Pahariwala\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikhism in India",
        "text": "A Sikh place of worship is called Gurdwara. The Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar in Punjab is a prominent Sikh Gurdwara. The Golden Temple represents the highest spiritual seat of Sikh Authority."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Nanak Shahi",
        "text": "Gurdwara Nanak Shahi\n--History.\n--Architectural significance.\n--Present condition.\n--Sikh relics.\n--Religious rituals.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikh Gurdwara of San Francisco",
        "text": "<br>San Mateo, CA 94403"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurunanak Darbar, Ireland",
        "text": "Inside the Gurdwara, near the entrance, is the \"Nishan Sahib\", the large Sikh flag. \"Nishan\" is a Persian word with several meanings, one of which is \"flag\". \"Sahib\", an Arabic word meaning lord or master, is used here as an honorific. Thus \"Nishan Sahib\" in the Sikh tradition means the holy flag or exalted ensign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dhubri district",
        "text": "This place is known for the Sikh Gurdwara namely Gurdwara Damdama Sahib or Thara Sahib which was constructed in memory of visit of First Sikh Guru Nanak Dev (Punjabi: \u0a17\u0a41\u0a30\u0a42 \u0a28\u0a3e\u0a28\u0a15, Hindi: \u0917\u0941\u0930\u0941 \u0928\u093e\u0928\u0915, Urdu: \u06af\u0631\u0648\u0646\u0627\u0646\u06a9 Guru N\u0101nak) and later it was followed by visit of Ninth guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur (Punjabi: \u0a17\u0a41\u0a30\u0a42 \u0a24\u0a47\u0a17\u0a3c \u0a2c\u0a39\u0a3e\u0a26\u0a41\u0a30, Hindi: \u0917\u0941\u0930\u0942 \u0924\u0947\u0917\u093c \u092c\u0939\u093e\u0926\u0941\u0930) and the Gurdwara is named as Gurdwara Sri Guru Tegh Bahadur Sahib. Hence, it has great importance for Sikh community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karah Parshad",
        "text": "The Gurdwara is the place where Sikhs go to worship. Gurdwaras can be any size or shape, but one thing they always have is a kitchen, or langar. People can go there for food, and can even rest there for the night. Every day a meal is prepared here for as many people who want to eat, always for free."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dhandwar",
        "text": "There are two gurdwaras, one of this is Sikh temple and other one is Guru Ravidass gurudwara. There are also one temple, and two masjids (mosques) in the village."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hounslow",
        "text": "Gurdwaras include Gurdwara Sri Guru Singh Sabha and Gurdwara Guru Nanak Nishkam Sewak Jatha."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Rakab Ganj Sahib",
        "text": "The Gurdwara marks the site, where Lakhi Shah Banjara and his son Bhai Naghaiya burnt their own house to cremate the headless body of the Sikh Guru Guru Tegh Bahadur sahib who, on 11 November 1675, was martyred by beheading at Chandni Chowk on the orders of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb for refusing to convert to Islam and buried the ashes in the house itself. In 1707 when Guru Gobind Singh tenth Sikh guru came to Delhi to meet prince Muzaum later Mughal king Bahadur Shah I , he located the place of cremation with help of local Sikhs and built a simple Memorial there. Later a mosque came to be built at site which s. Baghel Singh had to demolish in 1783 to raise gurdwara at the place. Muslims again built a mosque at site during mutiny of 1857. Sikhs took the matter to court which decided in favour of Sikhs and they quickly rebuilt the Gurdwara. Another dispute arose when during 1914 a portion of boundary wall was demolished by British Goveronment to straighten a passage to viceregal building. On a protest and agitation raised by Sikhs Goveronment yielded as soon as World War I came to end in 1918, and boundary wall was rebuilt at public expense. Construction of present building was started in 1960 and was completed in 1967\u201368."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurudwara Bangla Sahib",
        "text": "The gurdwara and its \"Sarovar\" are now a place of great reverence for Sikhs, and a place for special congregation on birth anniversary of Guru Har Krishan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "In the Province of Alberta, the Edmonton Vaisakhi parade is held in May and travels between the Gurdwara Singh Sabha (4504 Millwoods Road S) & Gurdwara Millwoods (2606 Millwoods Road E) temples."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Sri Guru Tegh Bahadur Sahib",
        "text": "Gurdwara Sri Guru tegh Bahadur Sahib is the Gurdwara of Sikhs in Dhubri town on the bank of the Brahmaputra River in Assam, India. The first Sikh guru, Guru Nanak Dev, visited this place in 1505 AD and met Srimanta Sankardeva on his way when he traveled from Dhaka to Assam. Later, the 9th Guru Teg Bahadur came to this place and established this Gurdwara during the 17th century. More than 50,000 Hindus, Sikhs, Muslims and all faiths devotees from all over the country and the world assemble in this historic shrine every year in December to mark the martyrdom of Guru Tegh Bahadur. The festival starts on 3 December with great solemnity and ceremony. Sikhs call this festival Sahidee-Guru-Parav."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indo-Canadians",
        "text": "There are over 175 gurdwaras in Canada, the oldest of which was built in 1908 in the Kitsilano neighbourhood of Vancouver and served early settlers who worked at nearby sawmills along False Creek at the time. The temple eventually closed in 1970 as the Sikh population relocated to the Sunset neighbourhood of South Vancouver. The oldest gurdwara still in service is the Gurudwara Gur Sikh Temple, located in Abbotsford, BC. Built in 1911, the gurdwara was designated as a National Historic Site in 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rewalsar, India",
        "text": "Also, there is a Gurdwara which was built in 1930 by Raja Joginder Sen of Mandi. It commemorates Guru Gobind Singh's visit, when he sought to evolve a common strategy with the hill rulers against the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jainism and Sikhism",
        "text": "Where the Guru Granth Sahib is present, that place becomes a Gurdwara. The focal point of worship in a Gurdwara (the gateway to God) is the eternal teachings of Guru Granth Sahib -the Shabad (Word) Guru."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kartarpur, India",
        "text": "Gurudwaras include:\n*Gurudwara Shri Tham ji Sahib\n*Gurudwara Mata Gujri Ji\n*Gurudwara Shri Mai Bhago Ji\n*Gurudwara Shri Gangsar Sahib\n*Gurudwara Tahli Sahib\n*Gurudwara Shaheed Baba Sangat Singh ji, Mohalla Charkhari wala\n*First Guru Granth Sahib (Adi Granth) is placed at Qila Kothi (Kartarpur Fort).\n*Gurdwara Pind Khusropur, Khusropur\n*Ramgarhia gurdwara, Khusropur\n*Gurdwara Basrampur, Basrampur."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Janam Asthan Guru Ram Das",
        "text": "The childhood home existed until the era of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, who purportedly was asked to build a new shrine at the site during the birth celebrations of Kharak Singh in 1801. Ranjit Singh agreed to the request, and acquired plots surrounding the site in order to build a new gurdwara. 18 Sikhs were reportedly killed in the gurdwara premises during communal rioting that occurred during the Partition of British India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikh Temple Makindu, Makindu",
        "text": "Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims would gather together in the evenings and sing the praises of God. They did so under a tree, the spot where the current Gurdwara now stands. It is also believed that the Gurdwara was funded by non-Sikhs along with Sikhs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Gai Ghat",
        "text": "Gurdwara Pahila Bara is a historical Sikh shrine situated at Gaighat in the Alamganj area of Patna. It is the oldest Gurdwara in this region. A new building consisting of a spacious square hall with the sanctum in the middle was constructed in the year 1980. It is about 4 kilometers from Takht Sri Patna Sahib, on the Ashok Raj Path."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "In the Province of Nova Scotia, the Halifax-based Maritime Sikh Society holds Vaisakhi celebrations in April featuring Shabad Kirtan performed by professional ragis (musicians)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bandi Chhor Divas",
        "text": "Bandi Chhor Divas () is a Sikh celebration that commemorates the day the sixth Guru of Sikhs, Guru Hargobind ji released 52 kings from Gwalior Fort, who had been imprisoned by Mughal Emperor Jahangir. Emperor Jahangir had held 52 kings at the Gwalior Fort for several months. A Sikh Gurdwara, Gurdwara Data Bandi Chhor Sahib, is located at the place of the Gurus internment in the Fort. The day falls in autumn and often overlaps with Hindu Diwali, the festival of lights celebrated across Punjab. Historically, from the time of the third Sikh Guru Amar Das, Sikhs and Hindus of the time used the occasion of Diwali, Vaisakhi and other such festivals to congregate at the seat of the Gurus. In the late 20th century, Sikh religious leaders and the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee formally adopted this day into the Nanakshahi calendar in 2003, under President Prof. Kirpal Singh Badungar the then-president of Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mehdiana Sahib",
        "text": "In the vicinity of this gurdwara are the sculptures and statues of Sikh warriors who not only laid their lives for the sake of the religion but also endured torture at the hands of the Mughals. These statues depict soldiers, women and children being cut to pieces. Some sculptures show Bhai Kanhaiya, one of the soldiers of Guru Gobind Singh, serving water not only to the wounded soldiers in their own army but also to wounded enemy soldiers. Through these sculptures Lakha not only aimed to depict history but also to educate people that religion was more important than their lives. He felt it was better to sacrifice one's life than to accept injustice and cruelty and lose one's self-respect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Dukh Nivaran Sahib",
        "text": "The interior is paved with marble slabs in white and grey against black and white of the outer platform. The walls and pillars are also panelled with white marble slabs. The ceiling is decorated with stucco work in floral design. The Guru Granth Sahib is seated under a square canopy at the far end. The 75metre square sarovar, since considerably extended, is on the right and Guru ka Langar on the left as one enters. The Gurdwara is administered by the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee. A big gathering is held on the fifth day of the light half of each lunar month. The festival of the year is Basant Panchmi which marks the day of Guru Tegh Bahadur's visit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guru Nanak Jhira Sahib",
        "text": "A beautiful Gurdwara has been constructed after the independence of India in 1948 by the side of the spring. The water from the spring is collected in a small Amrit Kund (a holy water tank) built opposite to the front stairs of the Gurudwara . It is believed that a holy dip is enough to cleanse the body as well as the soul. There is a free community kitchen (Guru Ka Langar) where free food is given to pilgrims 24 hours night and day. A Sikh museum has been built in the memory of Guru Tegh Bahadur, depicting the important events of Sikh history through pictures and paintings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Likhansar Sahib",
        "text": "Gurdwara Likhansar Sahib is an historical Gurdwara situated in Talwandi Sabo (District Bhathinda) in Punjab, India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikh Rehat Maryada",
        "text": "Seva (voluntary service) is an important prominent part of the Sikh religion and all Sikhs must get involved in this communal service whenever an opportunity arises. This in its simple forms can be: sweeping and washing the floors of the Gurdwara, serving water and food (Langar) to or fanning the congregation, offering provisions or preparing food and doing other 'house keeping' duties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikhism",
        "text": "Worship in a gurdwara consists chiefly of the singing of passages from the scripture. Sikhs will commonly enter the gurdwara, touch the ground before the holy scripture with their foreheads. The recitation of the eighteenth century \"ard\u0101s\" is also customary for attending Sikhs. The ard\u0101s recalls past sufferings and glories of the community, invoking divine grace for all humanity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hazur Sahib",
        "text": "Hazur Sahib (; ), also known as Takht Sachkhand Sri Hazur Abchalnagar Sahib, is one of the five takhts in Sikhism. The gurdwara was built between 1832 and 1837 by Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1780\u20131839). It is located on the banks of the Godavari River at the city of Nanded in the state of Maharashtra, India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara",
        "text": "Other ceremonies performed there include the Sikh marriage ceremony, ; some of the rites of the death ceremony, ; and most of the important Sikh Festivals. The , a Sikh processional singing of holy hymns throughout a community, begin and conclude at a gurdwara."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bandi Chhor Divas",
        "text": "Bandi Chhor Divas was celebrated when Guru Hargobind sahib ji was released from Gwalior prison with 52 Hindu kings and princes holding on to his robe or cape with 52 ropes.The guru led all 52 innocent rulers to safety without any signs of war or battle. In addition to \"Nagar keertan\" (a street procession) and an \"Akhand paath\" (a continuous reading of Guru Granth Sahib), Bandi Chhor (Shodh) Divas is celebrated with a fireworks display. The Sri Harmandir Sahib, as well as the whole complex, is festooned with thousands of shimmering lights. The gurdwara organizes continuous \"kirtan\" singing and special musicians. Sikhs consider this occasion as an important time to visit Gurdwaras and spend time with their families."
      },
      {
        "title": "Battle of Nadaun",
        "text": "Later, Maharaja Ranjit Singh built a gurdwara on the spot where the Guru had pitched his tent. The Gurdwara was affiliated to Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee in 1935. It is known as Gurudwara Dasvin Patshahi or Gurdwara Nadaun Sahib."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of gurdwaras",
        "text": "List of gurdwaras\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Goindval",
        "text": "The entrance of Goindwal is decorated with murals describing significant scenes of the Sikh history. The main gurdwara, standing next to the Baoli, white against the chequerboard of the courtyard. The Gurdwara is an example of typical Sikh architecture with a large dome tipped with a gold pinnacle - four cupolas echoing the main dome in shape and the ubiquitous facade of turrets, elliptical cornices and projected windows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lakhpat Gurdwara Sahib",
        "text": "Lakhpat Gurdwara Sahib or Gurdwara Pehli Patshahi (Gurdwara of The First Master) is a Gurdwara, a place of worship for the Sikhs, located in Lakhpat of Kutch district, Gujarat, India. Guru Nanak on his way to Mecca stayed over in the town during his second (1506-1513) and fourth (1519-1521) missionary journey called \"Udasi\"s. It is believed that he had visited the site during his fourth journey. The descendants of the host established Gurdwara here in early 19th century. This Gurdwara have his relics like wooden footwear and palkhi (cradle) as well as manuscripts and markings of two important heads of Udasi sect. The site is worshiped by the Udasi sect and initially it was maintained by them. Now it is maintained by local Sikh community and Gurdwara Shri Guru Nanak Singh Sabha of Gandhidham. The Gurdwara is the State Protected Monument (S-GJ-65) by the state archeological department. It has won the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Award in 2004 of Distinction for conservation after the earthquake in 2001."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Dera Sahib",
        "text": "Gurdwara Dera Sahib () is a gurudwara in Lahore, Pakistan, which commemorates the spot where the 5th guru of Sikhism, Guru Arjan Dev, was martyred in 1606."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Sahib Woolwich",
        "text": "The Soldiers' Institute closed after the Second World War and church attendance dwindled to around fifteen in 1977. A redevelopment scheme for the site was blocked by Greenwich Council after the chapel was listed in 1973. In 1977 the two buildings were put up for sale and shortly afterwards acquired by the local Sikh community to be converted into a gurdwara, which has been its function ever since. During the harvest festival (\"Visakhi\"), thousands of Sikhs march in procession (\"Nagar Kirtan\") through Woolwich, starting at the Gurdwara Ramgarhia in Masons Hill and finishing at the Gurdwara Sahib in Calderwood Street."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "A large number of Sikhs visit Paonta Sahib on the festival of Vaisakhi. According to Sahi (1999), Paonta Sahib \"was the abode of Guru Gobind Singh Ji for a couple of years.\" Paanta Sahib Gurdwara is in Sirmaur district in Himachal Pradesh. The site is located near the river Yamuna. The tricentenary celebrations to mark the birth of the Khalsa were started from Paanta Sahib Gurdwara in 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nagar kirtan",
        "text": "Nagar Kirtan, in Sikhism, is customary in the festival of Vaisakhi. Traditionally, the procession is led by the saffron-robed Panj Piare (the five beloved of the Guru), who are followed by the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy Sikh scripture, which is placed on a float."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikhism",
        "text": "Some Sikh sects outside the Punjab region of India, such as those found in Maharashtra and Bihar, practice \"aarti\" (the ceremonial use of lamps) during Bhakti observances in a Sikh gurdwara. But, most Sikh gurdwaras forbid \"aarti\" during their Bhakti practices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hadiabad (Phagwara)",
        "text": "The gurdwara and historical shrine Chhevin Patshahi is located in Hadiabad, as a three-storey pavilion with an octagonal dome. In the main hall, the Holy Guru Granth Sahib is displayed. All major Sikh festivals are celebrated there, along with daily worship by many devotees who travel to Hadiabad to offer their services. Mansa Devi Mandir and the Vishwakarma Temple are nearby. The Pathshala predates the Gurudwara, indeed the gurudwara stands on land donated by the pathshala."
      },
      {
        "title": "Idolatry in Sikhism",
        "text": "The daily routine of the gurdwara includes the \"prakash\", which involves carrying the Sikh scripture, the Guru Granth Sahib, in a small procession of granthis, or gurdwara religious officials, placing it on a stand, unwrapping it, and opening it to be read; and the \"sukhasan\", when the scripture is retired at the end of the day to a designated room, or \"sachkhand\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jhatka",
        "text": "On religious Sikh festivals, including Hola Mohalla and Vaisakhi, at the Hazur Sahib Nanded, and many other Sikh Gurdwaras, jhatka meat is offered as \"mahaprasad\" to all visitors in a Gurdwara. This practice is considered to be unacceptable by modern sikh sects who believe only lacto-vegetarian langar is supposed to be served inside gurudwaras after the introduction of Colonial-era \"Mahants\" and \"Udasis\" into Sikh Gurdwaras."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara",
        "text": "The which literally means five seats or thrones of authority, are five gurdwaras which have a very special significance for the Sikh community. They are result of the historical growth of the religion of Sikhism and represent the centers of power of the religion.\n* Akal Takht Sahib, (the Throne of the Timeless One) established by Guru Hargobind in 1609 is situated in the complex of The Golden Temple, Amritsar, India\n* Takht Sri Kesgarh Sahib, located in Anandpur Sahib, Punjab, India\n* Takht Sri Damdama Sahib, located in Bathinda, Punjab, India\n* Takhat Sri Harimandir Patna Sahib, in the neighborhood of Patna Sahib, Patna, Bihar, India\n* Takht Sri Hazur Sahib, located on banks of the River Godavari in Nanded, Maharashtra, India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikh architecture",
        "text": "Apart from religious buildings, Sikh architecture includes secular forts, \"bungas\" (residential places), palaces, and colleges. The religious structure is called \"gurdwara\" (a place where the Guru dwells). The word \"gurdwara\" is a compound of \"guru\" (guide or master) and \"dwara\" (gateway or seat). So, it has an architectural connotation. Sikh \"gurdwaras\" are generally commemorative buildings connected with the ten gurus in some way, or with places and events of historical significance. Some examples are Gurdwara Dera Sahib (halting place), in Batala in Gurdaspur district. It was erected in memory of the brief stay of Guru Nanak along with his companions on the occasion of his marriage. Gurdwara Shahid Ganj (Martyr's Memorial) in Muktsar in Faridkot district commemorates the cremation spot of Sikhs who were killed in a battle between Guru Gobind Singh and the Mughals in 1705. Gurdwara Shish Mahal (hall of mirrors) in Kiratpur in Ropar district was made where Guru Har Kisan was born."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikh Gurdwara of San Francisco",
        "text": "The Sikh Gurdwara of San Francisco is a Sikh gurdwara in the Peninsula, just south of San Francisco in San Mateo, California."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pessina Cremonese",
        "text": "On 21 August 2011 a temple for the local Sikh community was inaugurated. The construction of the building with a space of 2352 square meters for 500 worshippers cost 1.3 million Euro. Further funds will be needed to erect the five golden cupolas of the temple. The Gurdwara follows Shri Guru Kalgidhar Singh Sabha. It is said to be the largest gurdwara in continental Europe (i.e. not including Britain, which has a large Sikh community)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurpurb",
        "text": "The martyrdom anniversary of Guru Arjan, the fifth Guru, falls in May or June, the hottest months in India. He was tortured to death under the orders of Mughal Emperor, Jahangir, at Lahore on 25 May 1606. Celebrations consist of Kirtan, Katha, lectures, Karah Parsad and Langar in the Gurdwara. Because of summer heat, chilled sweetened drink made from milk, sugar, essence and water, called chhabeel is freely distributed in Gurdwaras and in neighbourhoods to everybody irrespective of their religious beliefs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikhism in Canada",
        "text": "Vaisakhi celebrations happen in both British Columbia and Ontario, with many including a Nagar Kirtan parade. In Ontario, the Vaisakhi celebrations are reported to get bigger and bigger in terms of festivities and attending populace every year. Many Sikh academies and institutes also participate in the Ontario parades, such as the Akal Academy Brampton. While the Nagar Kirtan in the Ontario Vaisakhi celebration starts at the Malton Gurudwara and ends at the Sikh Spiritual Centre, festivities go on until the Rexdale Gurudwara is reached, it is organized annually by the Ontario Gurdwara Committee. Nagar Kirtan parades also take place in Alberta. Both the cities of Calgary and Edmonton hold them around the May long weekend."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara",
        "text": "Many gurdwaras are designed to seat men on one side and women on the other, although designs vary, and the divided seating is far from mandatory. They do not generally sit together but on separate sides of the room, both at an equal distance from the Guru Granth Sahib, as a sign of equality. Worshippers are offered (sweet flour and ghee-based food offered as ) in the hall, which is usually given into cupped hands by a (gurdwara volunteer)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in India",
        "text": "The Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar is the most sacred gurdwara of Sikhism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikh Gurdwara of San Francisco",
        "text": "1700 Alameda De las Pulgas"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikhism in Greater Vancouver",
        "text": "Dasmesh Darbar Gurdwara is an orthodox gurdwara in Surrey."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What days is Vaisakhi usually celebrated in April?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Vaisakhi, also pronounced Baisakhi, marks the first day of the month of Vaisakh and is traditionally celebrated annually on the 13th of April and sometimes on the 14th of April as a celebration of spring harvest primarily in Northern India."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any specific years or reasons it's celebrated on the 14th instead of the 13th?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Vaisakhi is observed on the 13th or 14th every year in the 21st century but it'll change because the date depends on the solar calendar and in the future will be on a different date."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What date will it be on in the 22nd century?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I could not find the date for the 22nd century, but in the year of 2999 the date of the event will fall on 29 April."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How do Indians in the US celebrate this holiday?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Among Sikh populations in the United States have a parade to commemorate the celebrations. People in Manhattan, New York City do the \"Seva\" selfless services while in Los Angeles, California, there's many gurdwaras that hold a full day of spiritual music programs followed by a parade."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is a gurdwara?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "A gurdwara is a place of assembly and worship for Sikhs. Sikhs also refer to gurdwaras as Gurdwara Sahib,  and people from all faiths are welcomed in gurdwaras.",
      "A gurdwara is a place of assembly and worship for Sikhs. Sikhs also refer to gurdwaras as Gurdwara Sahib. People from all faiths are welcomed in gurdwaras. Each gurdwara has a Darbar Sahib where the current and everlasting guru of the Sikhs, the scripture Guru Granth Sahib, is placed on a takhat (an elevated throne) in a prominent central position."
    ],
    "topic": "Vaisakhi",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Gurdwara:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Gurdwara"
        ],
        "ctx": "A gurdwara (; meaning \"door to the guru\") is a place of assembly and worship for Sikhs. Sikhs also refer to gurdwaras as \"Gurdwara Sahib\". People from all faiths are welcomed in gurdwaras. Each gurdwara has a \"Darbar Sahib\" where the current and everlasting guru of the Sikhs, the scripture Guru Granth Sahib, is placed on a (an elevated throne) in a prominent central position. The (who sing Ragas) recite, sing, and explain the verses from the Guru Granth Sahib, in the presence of the congregation."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Gurdwara:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Gurdwara"
        ],
        "ctx": "A gurdwara (; meaning \"door to the guru\") is a place of assembly and worship for Sikhs. Sikhs also refer to gurdwaras as \"Gurdwara Sahib\". People from all faiths are welcomed in gurdwaras. Each gurdwara has a \"Darbar Sahib\" where the current and everlasting guru of the Sikhs, the scripture Guru Granth Sahib, is placed on a (an elevated throne) in a prominent central position. The (who sing Ragas) recite, sing, and explain the verses from the Guru Granth Sahib, in the presence of the congregation."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Amongst Sikh populations in the United States, there is usually a parade commemorating the Vaisakhi celebration. In Manhattan, New York City people come out to do \"Seva\" (selfless service) such as giving out free food, and completing any other labor that needs to be done. In Los Angeles, California, the local Sikh community consisting of many gurdwaras holds a full day Kirtan (spiritual music) program followed by a parade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is celebrated in much the same way as Gurpurab, or a Guru's birthday anniversary, with gurdwaras being decorated and attended by Sikhs who listen to \"kirtan\" and religious discourses there. Many Sikhs also choose to be inducted into the Khalsa order on this day. After the prayers, \"Karah Parshad\" is then served to the congregation, and the function ends with a \"langar\", or community lunch. The festival is marked with a \"nagar kirtan\" street procession headed by a group of \"Panj Pyare\" representatives, and music, singing, and chanting scripture are part of the celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "In the Province of Nova Scotia, the Halifax-based Maritime Sikh Society holds Vaisakhi celebrations in April featuring Shabad Kirtan performed by professional ragis (musicians)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Sikhs in Kashmir celebrate Vaisakhi as a religious festival to mark the foundation of the Khalsa. Unlike in the North Indian plains where Vaisalhi is also associated with harvesting, Sikhs in Kashmir mark the day when Guru Gobind Singh baptised the Panj Pyare. Bajan Keertans are held in all gurdwaras in Kashmir. However, the main celebration takes place at Chatti Pathshahi Gurdwara in Rainawari. Sikhs will visit friends and family in Vaisakhi. People will wear special clothes and prepare special food to mark the festival. Sikhs will also visit the gardens and markets. The mode of celebration is believed to be different to the way the festival is celebrated elsewhere."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "In the Province of British Columbia, large, local Sikh communities in the cities of Vancouver, Abbotsford, and Surrey hold their annual Vaisakhi celebrations in April, which include two Nagar Kirtan (parades)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "The United Kingdom has a large Sikh community originating from the Indian sub-continent, East Africa and Afghanistan. The largest concentrations of Sikhs in the UK are to be found in the West Midlands (especially Birmingham and Wolverhampton) and London. The Southall Nagar Kirtan is held on a Sunday a week or two before Vaisakhi. The Birmingham Nagar Kirtan is held in late April in association with Birmingham City Council, and is an annual event attracting thousands of people which commences with two separate nagar kirtans setting off from gurdwaras in the city and culminating in the Vaisakhi Mela at Handsworth Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi\n--Date.\n--Etymology and pronunciation.\n--Sikhism.\n----Punjab.\n------Harvest festival.\n----Himachal Pradesh.\n----Jammu.\n----Kashmir.\n----Nihang.\n----Sikh New Year.\n--Sikh celebrations outside India.\n----Pakistan.\n----Canada.\n------British Columbia.\n------Ontario.\n------Prairies.\n------Atlantic.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n----Malaysia.\n--Buddhism.\n--As a harvest festival.\n--Hinduism.\n----Haridwar.\n----Hindus in Punjab.\n----Jammu.\n----Himachal Pradesh.\n----Haryana.\n----Uttar Pradesh.\n----Other Regional Hindu Solar New Years.\n------Vishu.\n------Bohag Bihu.\n------Maha Vishuba Sankranti.\n------Poyla Baishakh.\n------Puthandu.\n------Jur Sital in Bihar.\n--Hindu Celebrations elsewhere.\n----Pakistan.\n----Nepal.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "For Sikhs, in addition to its significance as the harvest festival, during which Sikhs hold kirtans, visit local Gurdwaras, community fairs, hold \"nagar kirtan\" processions, raise the Nishan Sahib flag, and gather to socialize and share festive foods, Vaisakhi observes major events in the history of Sikhism and the Indian subcontinent that happened in the Punjab region. Vaisakhi as a major Sikh festival marks the birth of the Khalsa order by Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Guru of Sikhism, on 13 April, 1699. Later, Ranjit Singh was proclaimed as Maharaja of the Sikh Empire on 12 April 1801 (to coincide with Vaisakhi), creating a unified political state, Vaisakhi was also the day when Bengal Army officer Reginald Dyer orders his troops to shoot into a protesting crowd, an event which would come to be known the Jallianwala Bagh massacre; the massacre proved influential to the history of the Indian independence movement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surrey, British Columbia",
        "text": "Every year on April 13, the Sikh community celebrates Vaisakhi, which often includes a \"nagar kirtan\", or parade, and free food is often handed out. It is the largest Vaiskahi parade outside India, growing from 100,000 attendees in 2008 to over 500,000 in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "The Sikh community, a subgroup of the Malaysian Indian ethnic minority race, is an ethnoreligious minority in Malaysia, which is why Vaisakhi is not a public holiday. However, in line with the government's efforts to promote integration among the country's different ethnic and religious groups, the prime minister, Najib Razak has announced that beginning 2013, all government servants from the Sikh Malaysian Indian community will be given a day off on Vaisakhi Day. Vaisakhi 'open houses' are also held across the country during the day of the festival, or the closest weekend to it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is an important among Pakistani Hindus. In Undivided Punjab, the Hindu Shrine of Katas Raj was known for its Vaisakhi fair. It was attended by around 10,000 pilgrims who were mostly Hindus. Similarly, at the shrine of Bairagi Baba Ram Thaman, a Vaisakhi fair was held annually since 16th century CE which was attended by around 60,000 Hindu pilgrims and Bairagi saints from all over India used to throng the shrine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikhs",
        "text": "During the day of Vaisakhi in 1999, Sikhs worldwide celebrated the 300th anniversary of the creation of the Khalsa. Canada Post honoured Sikh Canadians with a commemorative stamp in conjunction with the anniversary. Likewise, on 9 April 1999, Indian president K. R. Narayanan issued a stamp commemorating the 300th anniversary of the Khalsa as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "In the city of Brampton, the Gurudwara Sikh Sangat temple and Gobind Sarvar Gurmat School hold Vaisakhi cultural events such as yoga, pagh (turban) tying, storytelling, and food fairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi (Punjabi: \u0a35\u0a48\u0a38\u0a3e\u0a16\u0a40 , \"vais\u0101kh\u012b\", is also known as \"Bais\u0101kh\u012b\"), it is a very important day for Sikhs and one of the most colourful events in the Sikh calendar. It occurs during mid-April every year and traditionally concurs in Punjab with the first harvesting of the crops for the year. Historically, the festival has been a very joyous occasion and a time for celebration. However, since 1699, it has marked the very significant religious event of the creation of the Khalsa Panth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi festivals",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is a religious festival of Sikhs. Vaisakhi marks the beginning of Sikh new year and the formation of the Khalsa. Punjabi Muslims observe the new year according to the Islamic calendar. Vaisakhi is also a harvest festival for people of the Punjab region. The harvest festival is celebrated by Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus. In the Punjab, Vaisakhi marks the ripening of the rabi harvest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi festivals",
        "text": "Vaisakhi additionally marks the Punjabi new year. This day is observed as a thanksgiving day by farmers whereby farmers pay their tribute, thanking God for the abundant harvest and also praying for future prosperity. Historically, during the early 20th century, Vaisakhi was a sacred day for Sikhs and Hindus and a secular festival for all Muslims and non-Muslims including Punjabi Christians. In modern times, sometimes Christians participate in Baisakhi celebrations along with Sikhs and Hindus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is a harvest festival for people of Northern India. Chander and Dogra (2003) state that in Punjab, Vaisakhi marks the ripening of the rabi harvest. According to Dhillon (2015), in Punjab, this day is observed as a thanksgiving day by farmers whereby farmers pay their tribute, thanking God for the abundant harvest and also praying for future prosperity. The harvest festival is celebrated by Hindus and Sikhs. In the Punjab, historically, during the early 20th century, Vaisakhi was a sacred day for Hindus and Sikhs and a secular festival for all Muslims and Christians. In modern times, sometimes Christians in Punjab participate in Baisakhi celebrations along with Hindus and Sikhs. The harvest festival is also characterized by the folk dance, Bhangra which traditionally is a harvest dance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "According to Aziz-ud-din Ahmed, Lahore used to have Baisakhi Mela after the harvesting of the wheat crop in April. However, adds Ahmed, the city started losing its cultural vibrancy in 1970s after Zia-ul-Haq came to power, and in recent years \"the Pakistan Muslim League (N) government in Punjab banned kite flying through an official edict more under the pressure of those who want a puritanical version of Islam to be practiced in the name of religion than anything else\". Unlike the Indian state of Punjab that recognizes the Vaisakhi Sikh festival as an official holiday, the festival is not an official holiday in Punjab or Sindh provinces of Pakistan as Sikhs constitute a very small number in terms of population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "For some Hindus, the first day of Vaisakh marks the traditional solar new year, in Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Kerala, Odisha, Punjab Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Uttrakhand and other parts of India. However, this is not the universal new year for all Hindus. For some, such as those in and near Gujarat, the new year festivities coincide with the five-day Diwali festival. For others, the new year falls on Cheti Chand, Gudi Padwa and Ugadi which falls a few weeks earlier. The harvest is complete and crops ready to sell, representing a time of plenty for the farmers. Fairs and special thanksgiving pujas (prayers) are common in the Hindu tradition. It is available in the Vanis of the saints that in Satlok, the Vaisakhi-like atmosphere always remains there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikhism in Canada",
        "text": "Vaisakhi celebrations happen in both British Columbia and Ontario, with many including a Nagar Kirtan parade. In Ontario, the Vaisakhi celebrations are reported to get bigger and bigger in terms of festivities and attending populace every year. Many Sikh academies and institutes also participate in the Ontario parades, such as the Akal Academy Brampton. While the Nagar Kirtan in the Ontario Vaisakhi celebration starts at the Malton Gurudwara and ends at the Sikh Spiritual Centre, festivities go on until the Rexdale Gurudwara is reached, it is organized annually by the Ontario Gurdwara Committee. Nagar Kirtan parades also take place in Alberta. Both the cities of Calgary and Edmonton hold them around the May long weekend."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Gurdwara Dera Nangali Sahib in Jammu was established in 1803. The Gurdwara is situated in the Poonch district of Jammu. An annual gathering takes place at the gurdwara on the on Baisakhi when many people participate in the day-long function of Baisakhi. Dera Nangali Sahib is known as a centre for Sikhism in Jammu. The other important gurdwara is the Dera Baba Banda which is dedicated to Banda Bahadur. The gurdwara is located near Reasi. Baisakhi celebrations take place at this Dera."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Fairs and melas are held in many places in Punjab to celebrate the formation of the Khalsa. According to Dogra and Dogra (2003), \"an annual fair is held at Takht Kesgarh Sahib on Baisakhi day\". A procession is lead through the city of Anandpur to mark the occasion. Other important places where large gatherings take place are Harmandar Sahib, Amritsar and Takht Sri Damdama Sahib, Talwandi Sabo. A special celebration takes place at Talwandi Sabo (where Guru Gobind Singh stayed for nine months and completed the recompilation of the Guru Granth Sahib), in the Gurudwara at Anandpur Sahib the birthplace of the Khalsa, and at the Golden Temple in Amritsar.Celebrations include performing the martial art of Gatka using swords, sticks and daggers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "In Undivided Punjab, the Hindu Shrine of Katas Raj was known for its Vaisakhi fair. It was attended by around 10,000 pilgrims who were mostly Hindus. Similarly, at the shrine of Bairagi Baba Ram Thaman, a Vaisakhi fair was held annually since 16th century CE which was attended by around 60,000 pilgrims and Bairagi saints from all over India used to throng the shrine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakh",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is the most important festival in the Sikh calendar, taking place on the first lunar month of Vaisakh, which falls on 14 April each year. On this day, the Khalsa was created and much celebration takes place in the form of Samagams, Nagar Kirtan, Gatka exhibitions, Akand Paths and so on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi festivals",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is a historical and religious festival in Hinduism. It is usually celebrated on 13 or 14 April every year. For Hindus, the festival is their traditional solar new year, a harvest festival, an occasion to bath in sacred rivers such as Ganges, Jhelum, and Kaveri, visit temples, meet friends and take part in other festivities. In other parts of India, the Vaisakhi festival is known by various regional names."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Pakistan has many sites that are of historic importance to the Sikh faith, such as the birthplace of Guru Nanak. These sites attract pilgrims from India and abroad every year on Vaisakhi. Pakistan used to have many more Sikhs, but a vast majority moved to India during the 1947 India-Pakistan partition. Contemporary Pakistan has about 20,000 Sikhs in a total population of about 200\u00a0million Pakistanis, or about 0.01%. These Sikhs, and thousands more who arrive from other parts of the world for pilgrimage, observe Vaisakhi in Western Punjab (Pakistan) with festivities centered on the Panja Sahib complex in Hasan Abdal, Gurudwaras in Nankana Sahib, and in various historical sites in Lahore."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikhism in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "Some of the bigger festival celebrations within the British Sikh community include Vaisakhi which usually involves colourful street processions throughout the country and Diwali. Southall hosts one of the largest Vaisakhi street processions in Europe. Since 2009, both Vaisakhi and Diwali have been celebrated every year at 10 Downing Street, the residence of the British Prime Minister."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi festivals",
        "text": "In Punjab it is celebrated as the birth of the Khalsa brotherhood. It is celebrated at a large scale at Kesgarh Sahib, Anandpur Sahib. In India, U.K., Canada, United States, and other Sikh populated areas, people come together for a public mela or parade. The main part of the mela is where a local Sikh Temple (Gurdwara) has a beautiful Sikh themed float on which the Guru Granth Sahib is located and every one offers their respect by bowing with much reverence and fervour. To mark the celebrations, Sikh devotees generally attend the Gurudwara before dawn with flowers and offerings in hands. Processions through towns are also common. Vaisakhi is the day on which the Khalsa was born and Sikhs were given a clear identity and a code of conduct to live by, led by the 10th Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh Ji, who baptized the first Sikhs using sweet nectar called Amrit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "The significance of Vaisakhi as a Sikh religious festival started after the execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur for refusing to convert to Islam under the orders of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. This triggered the ascension of Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Guru of Sikhism, who subsequently inaugurated the Khalsa on Vaisakhi of 1699. The increased persecution of Sikhs by Mughal authorities followed a period of increasing strength of the Sikh movement in the Malwa region of Punjab during the period of Guru Tegh Bahadur, which would lead to his execution and the resulting foundation of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh, to defend religious freedoms. This gave Vaisakhi the added dimension of being observed as a celebration of the formation of the Khalsa, and is also known as Khalsa Sirjana Divas or Khalsa Sajna Divas. The Birth of the Khalsa Panth was on 30 March 1699."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bandi Chhor Divas",
        "text": "Bandi Chhor Divas () is a Sikh celebration that commemorates the day the sixth Guru of Sikhs, Guru Hargobind ji released 52 kings from Gwalior Fort, who had been imprisoned by Mughal Emperor Jahangir. Emperor Jahangir had held 52 kings at the Gwalior Fort for several months. A Sikh Gurdwara, Gurdwara Data Bandi Chhor Sahib, is located at the place of the Gurus internment in the Fort. The day falls in autumn and often overlaps with Hindu Diwali, the festival of lights celebrated across Punjab. Historically, from the time of the third Sikh Guru Amar Das, Sikhs and Hindus of the time used the occasion of Diwali, Vaisakhi and other such festivals to congregate at the seat of the Gurus. In the late 20th century, Sikh religious leaders and the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee formally adopted this day into the Nanakshahi calendar in 2003, under President Prof. Kirpal Singh Badungar the then-president of Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "In the Province of Alberta, the Edmonton Vaisakhi parade is held in May and travels between the Gurdwara Singh Sabha (4504 Millwoods Road S) & Gurdwara Millwoods (2606 Millwoods Road E) temples."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is a harvest festival for people of Northern India. Chander and Dogra (2003) state that in Punjab, Vaisakhi marks the ripening of the rabi harvest. Vaisakhi, the Hindu Solar new year, also marks the Nepalese, Punjabi and Bengali New year. Fairs or \"Melas\" (fair) are held in many parts of North India to mark the new year and the harvesting season. Vaisakhi fairs take place in various places, including Jammu City, Kathua, Udhampur, Reasi and Samba, in the Pinjore complex near Chandigarh, in Himachal Pradesh cities of Rewalsar, Shimla, Mandi and Prashar Lakes. According to Ann Louise Wood, Vaisakhi is a festival that is celebrated by the Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims of Punjab."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "A large number of Sikhs visit Paonta Sahib on the festival of Vaisakhi. According to Sahi (1999), Paonta Sahib \"was the abode of Guru Gobind Singh Ji for a couple of years.\" Paanta Sahib Gurdwara is in Sirmaur district in Himachal Pradesh. The site is located near the river Yamuna. The tricentenary celebrations to mark the birth of the Khalsa were started from Paanta Sahib Gurdwara in 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sajjana",
        "text": "This Gurudwara is situated in the center of the village. Gurbani From Shri Guru Granth Sahib ji is recited here in the morning and evening. Gurudwara sahib has a very tall hydraulic 'Nishan Sahib' which is washed with Water and Milk every year on occasion of Vaisakhi. Every religious festival of Sikh Religion is Celebrated here. Some of them are :\n* Gurupurab of Shri Guru Gobind Singh ji.\n* Gurupurab of Shri Guru Nanak Dev ji.\n* Shaheedi divas of Guru Arjun Dev ji.\n* Vaisakhi celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is celebrated with religious fervour in Yamunanagar and Kurukshetra. In Kurukshetra district, Vaisakhi fair is held at \"Baan Ganga Tirtha\"\",\" which is associated with Arjuna of Mahabharata. There is a Vaisakhi tradition of ritual bath at the sacred tank of \"Baan Ganga Tirtha\" in Village Dayalpur of Kurukshetra. A fair is held annually on Vaisakhi at this Hindu pilgrimage. Besides, Haryana government organizes a Vaisakhi festival in Pinjore Garden to commemorate this religious and cultural festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is observed on the 13 or 14 April every year in the 21st century. However, in 1801 AD, it fell on 11 April. This is because the date of Vaisakhi and other Sankrantis keeps changing slowly over years. Vaisakhi would fall on 29 April in Year 2999. The festival coincides with other new year festivals celebrated on the first day of Vaisakh in other regions of the Indian Subcontinent such as the Pohela Boishakh, Bohag Bihu, Vishu, Puthandu among others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guru Nanak",
        "text": "Macauliffe also notes that Vaisakh (March\u2013April) already saw a number of important festivals\u2014such as Holi, Rama Navami, and Vaisakhi\u2014therefore people would be busy in agricultural activities after the harvest festival of Baisakhi. Therefore, holding Nanak's birth anniversary celebrations immediately after Vaisakhi would have resulted in thin attendance, and therefore, smaller donations for the Sikh shrines. On the other hand, by the Kattak full moon day, the major Hindu festival of Diwali was already over, and the peasants\u2014who had surplus cash from crop sales\u2014were able to donate generously."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bradford",
        "text": "The Sikh community has six gurudwaras in the city. The Sikh festival of Vaisakhi is celebrated on 14 April. Sikhs travel to each of the gurudwaras in the city in a procession called a \"nagar kirtan\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakh",
        "text": "On the 16th of this month, Guru Angad and Guru Har Krishan took leave for their higher abode and passed the Guruship to Guru Amar Das and Guru Tegh Bahadur respectively. Moreover, on the 18th, the Sikhs celebrate the birthday of Guru Angad Dev (the second Sikh Guru) and Guru Tegh Bahadur (the ninth Sikh Guru).\n* 14 April (1 Vaisakh) - Vaisakhi (see above)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "This holiday also is known as Vaisakha Sankranti, based on the Hindu Vikram Samvat calendar, and is known by various regional names in other parts of India. For many Hindu communities, the festival is an occasion to ritually bathe in sacred rivers such as Ganges, Jhelum, and Kaveri, visit temples, meet friends, take part in other festivities, and perform a mandatory \"daan\" (charity) especially of hand fans, water pitchers and seasonal fruits. Community fairs are held at Hindu pilgrimage sites. In many areas, processions of temple deities are taken out. Although Vaisakhi began as a grain harvest festival for Hindus, it eventually gained historical association with the Sikhs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nagar kirtan",
        "text": "Nagar Kirtan, in Sikhism, is customary in the festival of Vaisakhi. Traditionally, the procession is led by the saffron-robed Panj Piare (the five beloved of the Guru), who are followed by the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy Sikh scripture, which is placed on a float."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "The most spectacular gathering of Vaisakhi fair is at \"Thakurdwara\" of Bhagwan Narainji at Pandori Mahatan village in Gurdaspur district of Punjab where the fair lasts for three days from 1st Vaisakha to 3rd Vaisakha. The celebrations start in form of procession on morning of 1st Vaisakha, carrying \"Mahant\" in a palanquin by \"Brahmacharis\" and devotees. After that Navgraha Puja is held and charities in money, grains and cows are done. At evening, Sankirtan is held in which \"Mahant\" delivers religious discourses and concludes it by distributing prasad of Patashas (candy drops). Pilgrims also take ritual bathings at sacred tank in the shrine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is celebrated by Hindu community and Indian & Nepalese diaspora in United States of America. Every year Nepalese Hindus gather up in traditional outsfits like kurtis and Nepalese caps to observe Hindu Solar New Year. The Bengali Hindu Community also celebrates its new year 'Pohela Baisakh' on this day. A Baisakhi Mela or fair is also held where Bengali handicrafts sessions are held. The Bay Area Malayalee Association holds Vishu celebration (Kerala New Year). Event includes Sadhya (Kerala-style feast) and cultural, cinematics and comedy programs, and end with a tea social. Tamil Community also celebrates New Year on this day as Puthandu."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Gurdwara",
        "text": "Located on Massachusetts Avenue, the National Gurdwara is the first and only Sikh institution in the capital of the United States. It is located near the National Cathedral, Naval Observatory and American University. The gurdwara officially opened in February 2006, and cost over 2 million US dollars. Along with religious services, Punjabi language classes and kirtan classes are held."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjab, Pakistan",
        "text": "Vaisakhi, also called Besakhi, is a harvest festival to celebrate harvesting the wheat crop. Colourful festivals are held at the time of Besakhi when farmers are free to enjoy their leisure time. Various literary festivals and fairs are organised in many places."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi festivals",
        "text": "Vaisakhi, also pronounced as Baisakhi marks the beginning of Hindu solar New year. Vaisakhi marks the first day of the month of Vaisakha and is usually celebrated on 13 or 14 April every year. This holiday also is known as Vaisakha Sankranti and celebrates the Solar new year, based on the Hindu Vikram Samvat calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi or Vaisakhi Sankranti is celebrated on first day of Vaisakha, as per Hindu Solar Calendar. This day is also known as \"Sattu\u0101 or Satwahi\"\",\" as Sattu is donated and consumed on this day. The common rites during this festival is bath in a river or pond and to eat Sattu and \"Gur\" (Jaggery)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian Americans",
        "text": "Sikh men are typically identifiable by their unshorn beards and turbans (head coverings), articles of their faith. Many organisations like World Sikh Organisation (WSO), Sikh Riders of America, SikhNet, Sikh Coalition, SALDEF, United Sikhs, National Sikh Campaign continue to educate people about Sikhism. There are many \"Gurudwaras\" Sikh temples present in all states of USA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kashmiriyat",
        "text": "Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs celebrate the annual Sufi festival of urs together in the Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "According to the Khalsa sambat, the Khalsa calendar starts with the creation of the Khalsa which is 1 Vaisakh 1756 Bikrami (13 April 1699). Accordingly, Vaisakhi has been the traditional Sikh New Year. The festival has been traditionally observed in the Punjab region. The alternative Nanakshahi calendar begins its year a month earlier on 1 Chait which generally falls on 14 March and begins with the birth year of the Guru Nanak Dev in 1469."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mewa Singh Lopoke",
        "text": "For the Sikh community of Vancouver, Mewa Singh is a martyr and his martyrdom is celebrated every year in the Khalsa Diwan Society's Gurdwara on Ross Street. Also, this occasion is marked and celebrated by other Sikh temples across Canada, and in the United States as well. In Sikh circles, Mewa Singh is often referred to with the honorific title \"Bhai\" (or \"brother\"), which is accorded to those Sikhs who have distinguished themselves in their deeds for the community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikhism in Canada",
        "text": "To celebrate the 2012 Vaisakhi festival, the local Sikh community decided to sponsor a new Canadian Army Cadet Corps, which was being formed by the Department of National Defence. Whilst happening on April 13 in 2012, Vaisakhi was celebrated in Vancouver on April 14. The Vancouver Sun made their estimation of the Metro Vancouver Sikh population to be at 200,000 during an article about the 2012 Vaisakhi. The Vancouver Vaisakhi ended up attracting thousands of people as well as various politicians including BC Premier Christy Clark. At the April 21st Surrey Vaisakhi, the Sikh peoples demonstrated support for Rajoana through various posters, with large banners calling India the world's largest \"Democracy\". The response to the support was positive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vasant Panchami",
        "text": "The festival is particularly observed by Hindus in the Indian subcontinent, notably India and Nepal. It has been a historical tradition of Sikhs as well. In southern states, the same day is called \"Sri Panchami\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurpurb",
        "text": "The martyrdom anniversary of Guru Arjan, the fifth Guru, falls in May or June, the hottest months in India. He was tortured to death under the orders of Mughal Emperor, Jahangir, at Lahore on 25 May 1606. Celebrations consist of Kirtan, Katha, lectures, Karah Parsad and Langar in the Gurdwara. Because of summer heat, chilled sweetened drink made from milk, sugar, essence and water, called chhabeel is freely distributed in Gurdwaras and in neighbourhoods to everybody irrespective of their religious beliefs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baba Ram Thaman Shrine",
        "text": "Even after the Partition, the Vaisaki celebrations are conducted annually in Shrine and a majority of the attendants are Muslims."
      },
      {
        "title": "Normanton, Derby",
        "text": "The local Sikh community organise an annual Vaisakhi parade around Normanton from the gurdwara. The 2012 event attracted between ten and fifteen thousand people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is an important festival among Dogra Hindus of Jammu region. On this day, people get up early in the morning, throng the rivers, canals, and ponds and take a ritual dip every year on this occasion. In Dogra households, a Puja is performed afterwards and part of food crop is offered to the deities. New fruit of the year is enjoyed on this day. A Ritual Bath at Tawi river during Vaisakhi is common in Jammu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is the day when Hindus believe River Goddess Ganga descended on earth from heaven. One of the largest Vaisakhi fair in India is held at Haridwar, which is an important Hindu pilgrimage. Around 50\u00a0lakhs (5 million) pligrims throng \"Brahm\" \"Kund\" in Haridwar to take a dip in Ganga river on this festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikhism",
        "text": "Vaisakhi is one of the most important festivals of Sikhs, while other significant festivals commemorate the birth, lives of the Gurus and Sikh martyrs. Historically, these festivals have been based on the moon calendar Bikrami calendar. In 2003, the SGPC, the Sikh organisation in charge of upkeep of the historical gurdwaras of Punjab, adopted Nanakshahi calendar. The new calendar is highly controversial among Sikhs and is not universally accepted. Sikh festivals include the following:\n* Vaisakhi which includes Parades and Nagar Kirtan and occurs on 13 April or 14 April. Sikhs celebrate it because on this day, which fell on 30 March 1699, the tenth Guru, Gobind Singh, inaugurated the Khalsa, the 11th body of Guru Granth Sahib and leader of Sikhs until eternity.\n** Nagar Kirtan involves the processional singing of holy hymns throughout a community. While practiced at any time, it is customary in the month of Visakhi (or Vaisakhi). Traditionally, the procession is led by the saffron-robed Panj Piare (the five beloved of the Guru), who are followed by the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy Sikh scripture, which is placed on a float.\n* Band Chor Diwas has been another important Sikh festival in its history. In recent years, instead of Diwali, the post-2003 calendar released by SGPC has named it the Bandi Chhor divas. Sikhs celebrate Guru Hargobind's release from the Gwalior Fort, with several innocent Raja kings who were also imprisoned by Mughal Emperor Jahangir in 1619. This day continues to be commemorated on the same day of Hindu festival of Diwali, with lights, fireworks and festivities.\n* Hola Mohalla is a tradition started by Guru Gobind Singh. It starts the day after Sikhs celebrate Holi, sometimes referred to as \"Hola\". Guru Gobind Singh modified Holi with a three-day Hola Mohalla extension festival of martial arts. The extension started the day after the Holi festival in Anandpur Sahib, where Sikh soldiers would train in mock battles, compete in horsemanship, athletics, archery and military exercises.\n* Gurpurbs are celebrations or commemorations based on the lives of the Sikh Gurus. They tend to be either birthdays or celebrations of Sikh martyrdom. All ten Gurus have Gurpurbs on the Nanakshahi calendar, but it is Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh who have a gurpurb that is widely celebrated in Gurdwaras and Sikh homes. The martyrdoms are also known as a Shaheedi Gurpurbs, which mark the martyrdom anniversary of Guru Arjan and Guru Tegh Bahadur."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Darbar Sahib Kartarpur",
        "text": "According to Lahore-based art historian Fakr Syed Aijazuddin, the shrine houses the last copies of the original Guru Granth Sahib. A Sikh pilgrim remarked, \"every step here reminds us of the Guru's life\". Indian Sikhs gather in large numbers on bluffs on the Indian side of the border to obtain \"darshan\", or sacred viewing, of the site."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mool Nanakshahi Calendar",
        "text": "In 2018, The Akal Takhat Jathedar, Giani Gurbachan Singh asked that the Sikhs should unite and adopt the new Nanakshahi Calendar and that the \"majority of Sikh sects, including Nihangs, Nirmalays, Udhasis and Damdami Taksal, observe and want to observe Sikh religious days according to the (amended) Nanakshahi calendar.\". The Sikh communities around the world are embracing the calendar.\n* Most Gurdwaras in Jammu and Kashmir\n* Sikh Youth of Punjab (SYP)\n* The American Sikh Council\n* Sikh Religious Society of Wisconsin\n* Sikh Society of Michigan\n* Mata Tripta Ji Gurdwara Sahib, Michigan\n* Singh Sabha of Michigan\n* Tri State Sikh Cultural Society, PA\n* Sikh Gurdwara, Rochester Hills, MI\n* Gurudwara Sikh Center Houston\n* Sikh Centre of Seattle\n* Khalsa Sikh Center, Michigan\n* Guru Nanak Sikh Society, IN\n* Downriver Sikh Temple, Michigan\n* Gurdwara Sahib Guru Nanak Darbar, Ohio\n* Guru Angad Institute of Sikh Studies, Virginia\n* Sikh National Archives of Canada\n* Guru Nanak Darbar Society, Bolingbrook, IL\n* Sikh Religious Society, Palatine, IL\n* Illinois Sikh Community Center\n*Sikh Society of Central Florida"
      },
      {
        "title": "13 (number)",
        "text": "The Vaisakhi, which commemorates the creation of \"Khalsa\" or pure Sikh was celebrated on April 13 for many years.\n* In Judaism, 13 signifies the age at which a boy matures and becomes a Bar Mitzvah, \"i.e.\", a full member of the Jewish faith (counts as a member of Minyan).\n* The number of principles of Jewish faith according to Maimonides.\n* According to Rabbinic commentary on the Torah, God has 13 Attributes of Mercy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi Market, Vancouver",
        "text": "Beginning in 1979, the Khalsa Diwan society at the Ross Street Gurdwara has celebrated Vaisakhi each year in April with a public celebration. Festivities include Vancouver's largest annual one-day parade, where up to 300,000 people come together from to celebrate the birth of the Sikh religion. Many restaurants and households near the strip offer local food tasting and other goods during the event.. The City of Vancouver has granted the Vaisakhi Parade Civic Parades Category in 2013, which is reserved for events with >100,000 attendees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palahi",
        "text": "Palahi is the site of the Gurdwara, 'Chhevin Patshahi' Sri Guru Hargobind Sahib Ji to commemorate a battle in 1635, between Sri Guru Hargobind Ji and the invading Mughal forces. Many Sikhs perished during the battle, however, they still emerged victorious. It is during this time that Guru Ji also visited Domeli and Babeli passing Lakhpur before visiting Palahi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi falls on the first day of the Vaisakh month and marks the sun's entry to the Mesha Rasi marking the solar transition to Aries. The day is also described as Mesha Sankranti in India. Vaisakhi is therefore determined by the solar calendar. Baisakhi usually falls on 14 April, and on 15 April once every thirty-six years. Since 2003, the Sikh Gurdwara Prabhandak Committee named the month in which Vaisakhi falls as Vaisakh, making the first day of the second month according to the Nanakshahi calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nowruz",
        "text": "Nowruz is celebrated by Kurds in Iraq and Turkey, as well as by the Iranis, Shias and Parsis in the Indian subcontinent and diaspora."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Vaisakhi (IAST: ), also pronounced Baisakhi, marks the first day of the month of Vaisakh and is traditionally celebrated annually on 13 April and sometimes 14 April as a celebration of spring harvest primarily in Northern India. Further, other Indian cultures and diaspora celebrate this festival too. Whilst it is culturally significant as a festival of harvest, some also consider Vaisakhi to be the legitimate date for the Indian Solar New Year. However, it is important to understand that this is not a universally accepted belief, with some individuals considering the previous month of Chet the New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Gurdwara",
        "text": "National Gurdwara is a Sikh gurdwara located in Washington, D.C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Krishna Janmashtami",
        "text": "In Arizona, United States, Governor Janet Napolitano was the first American leader to greet a message on Janmashtami, while acknowledging ISKCON. The festival is also celebrated widely by Hindus in Caribbean in the countries of Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica and the former British colony Fiji as well as the former Dutch colony of Suriname. Many Hindus in these countries originate from Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar; descendants of indentured immigrants from Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hazur Sahib",
        "text": "In October 2008, the 300th-anniversary celebration of the Guruship of Guru Granth Sahib ji took place here. This site is now one of five Takhats which are places of primary importance to the Sikhs. The other four takhats are: Sri Akal Takht Sahib at Amritsar, Takhat Sri Keshgarh Sahib at Anandpur, Takhat Sri Patna Sahib in Bihar and Takhat Sri Damdama Sahib in Talwandi Sabo, Bathinda, Punjab."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guru Nanak Gurpurab",
        "text": "Night prayer sessions are also held in some Gurudwaras, which begin around sunset when Rehras (evening prayer) is recited, followed by Kirtan till late at night. The congregation starts singing Gurbani at about 1:20\u00a0a.m., which is the actual time of birth of Guru Nanak. The celebrations culminate at around 2\u00a0a.m. Guru Nanak Gurpurab is celebrated by the Sikh community all over the world and is one of the most important festivals in the Sikh calendar. The celebrations are especially colorful in Punjab, Haryana, and Chandigarh and many more locations like in parts of Pakistan and England. Even some Sindhis celebrate this festival. Celebrating the auspicious day, the Punjab government has announced that it will install chairs dedicated to the great saint in 11 universities. The announcement was made on 11 November 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glen Cove Gurdwara",
        "text": "Gurdwara Sahib have Ragi Jathas by each month and Gurbani Vichar is done by Sikh preachers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Aawat pauni is a tradition associated with harvesting in the Punjab, which involves people getting together to harvest the wheat. Drums are played while people work. At the end of the day, people sing dohay to the tunes of the drum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mid-Sha'ban",
        "text": "Mid-Sha'ban is celebrated in countries including India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Lebanon, Iran, Azerbaijan, Turkey, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan. The Salafi Arabs do not celebrate this holiday. In the Arab world the festival is celebrated by Arabs with Sufi heritage, and Shias. In Iraq, children are given candies as they walk around their neighborhoods. Sunni Muslims in Iraqi Kurdistan and Afghanistan celebrate this holiday 15 days before Ramadan. Some Muslims in Indonesia do communal zikr in mosques followed by a lecture (ceramah) led by an ustad or otherwise known in Java and Madura as a kyai. This tradition is rarely followed in Indonesia, but it is widely followed in Aceh, West Sumatra and South Kalimantan. In South Asia, Muslims make sweets (especially Halwa or Zarda) to be given to the neighbors and the poor on the evening prior to the 15th of Sha'ban. This custom of distributing Halva is also practiced in Bosnia on the 15th night of Sha'ban, as well as on three other holidays: Laylat al-Qadr, Laylat al-Mi'raj and Laylat al-Raghaib."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Victoria's all-day Vaisakhi celebration features a parade that begins and ends at Gurdwara Singh Sabha, 470 Cecelia Road. The 2018 celebrations on 29 April would be the first held in Victoria in over 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thanksgiving (United States)",
        "text": "Joy Fisher, a Baptist writer, states that \"this holiday takes on a spiritual emphasis and includes recognition of the source of the blessings they enjoy year round\u2014a loving God.\" In the same vein, Hesham A. Hassaballa, an American Muslim scholar and physician, has written that Thanksgiving \"is wholly consistent with Islamic principles\" and that \"few things are more Islamic than thanking God for His blessings\". Similarly many Sikh Americans also celebrate the holiday by \"giving thanks to Almighty\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guru Nanak Gurpurab",
        "text": "The celebration is generally similar for all Sikhs; only the hymns are different. The celebrations usually commence with Prabhat Pheris. Prabhat Pheris are early morning processions that begin at the Gurudwaras and proceed around the localities singing hymns. Generally, two days before the birthday, \"Akhand Path\" (a forty-eight-hour non-stop reading of the \"Guru Granth Sahib\", the holy book of the Sikhs) is held in the \"Gurdwaras\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in the United States",
        "text": "Sikhism is a religion originating from the Indian subcontinent which was introduced into the United States when, around the turn of the 20th century, Sikhs started emigrating to the United States in significant numbers to work on farms in California. They were the first community to come from India to the US in large numbers. The first Sikh Gurdwara in America was built in Stockton, California, in 1912. In 2007, there were estimated to be between 250,000 and 500,000 Sikhs living in the United States, with the largest populations living on the East and West Coasts, with additional populations in Detroit, Chicago, and Austin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi festivals",
        "text": "The most spectacular gathering of Vaisakhi fair is at \"Thakurdwara\" of Bhagwan Narainji at Pandori Mahatan village in Gurdaspur district of Punjab where the fair lasts for three days from 1st Vaisakha to 3rd Vaisakha. The celebrations start in form of procession on morning of 1st Vaisakha, carrying \"Mahant\" in a palanquin by \"Brahmacharis\" and devotees. After that Navgraha Puja is held and charities in money, grains and cows are done. At evening, Sankirtan is held in which \"Mahant\" delivers religious discourses and concludes it by distributing prasad of Patashas (candy drops). Pilgrims also take ritual bathings at sacred tank in the shrine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Punjabi festivals",
        "text": "On this day Guru Nanak was born in Nanakana Sahib, now situated in Pakistan. Every year Sikhs celebrate this day with large-scale gatherings. Candles, divas and lights are lit in Gurdwaras, in the honour of Guru along with fireworks. The birthday celebration usually lasts three days. Generally two days before the birthday, Akhand Path (forty-eight-hour non-stop reading of Guru Granth Sahib) is held in the Gurdwara. One day before the birthday, a procession is organized which is led by the Panj Pyares (Five Beloved Ones) and the Palki (Palanquin) of Sri Guru Granth Sahib and followed by teams of Ragis singing hymns, brass bands playing different tunes and devotees singing the chorus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Sahib Patshahi Chhevi",
        "text": "Gurd\u016b\u0101r\u0101 S\u0101hib P\u0101tsh\u0101h\u012b Chhev\u012b is a gurdwara or Sikh temple situated in the village of Khur\u0101\u1e47\u0101 in the district of Sangrur in the Indian state of Punjab. It dedicated to the Sikh Guru Hargobind who visited the village in 1618 CE. The gurdwara is housed in a small square, domed hall in the middle of a low walled compound. It is a scheduled gurdwara under the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee and is administered through the manager of N\u0101nak\u012b\u0101n\u0101 S\u0101hib assisted by a committee of the local sangat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jainism and Sikhism",
        "text": "Diwali is celebrated by both religions. Although Sikhs celebrate the day as Bandi Chhor Divas, the homecoming to Amritsar of the sixth Sikh Guru, Guru Hargobind from Gwalior. The release of 52 Rajas from the fort of Gwalior is attributed to this Guru."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bandi Chhor Divas",
        "text": "The Bandi Chhor Divas is celebrated by the lighting up of homes and Gurdwaras, celebratory processions (nagar kirtan) and langar (community kitchen). It is an important Sikh celebration along with Vaisakhi, Hola Mohalla and Gurpurab."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakh",
        "text": "Vaisakh (, ) is the second month in the Nanakshahi calendar. This month coincides with April and May in the Gregorian calendar and to Vaisakha in the Hindu calendar and the Indian national calendar; it comprises the time of crop-harvesting in the Punjab region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guru Nanak Gurpurab",
        "text": "However, some scholars and organizations believe the Birthday should be celebrated on Vaisakhi, which falls on 14 April according to the original Nanakshahi Calendar passed by Sri Akal Takht in 2003. However, many people and organizations would like to keep the traditional date by celebrating on the Full Moon Day (Pooranmashi or Purnima) of the Lunar Month Kartik. The original Nanakshahi Calendar follows the tradition and celebrates it on Kartik Purnima due to demands by various Sikh Saints."
      },
      {
        "title": "Urs-e-Razavi",
        "text": "Because the crowds became too large, the Dargah officials distributed the Urs celebration among other countries, including Pakistan, Bangladesh, mauritius, the United Kingdom, South Africa the United States, and Turkey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sukhmani Sahib",
        "text": "Sukhmani Sahib is frequently recited by Sikhs is one of the popular \"Banis\" (compositions of the Guru). It can be done individually or as a group usually in either a place of worship (\"Gurdwara\") or at home. Reciting the entire Sukhmani Sahib takes about 60 to 90 minutes, and is sometimes undertaken by everyone in a smaller congregation with turn by turn reading. Reciting the \"Gurbani\" of Sukhmani Sahib is believed to bring peace to one's mind and aid help remembering God constantly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikhism in the United States",
        "text": "Sikh men are typically identifiable by their unshorn beards and turbans (head coverings), articles of their faith. Following the 9/11 terrorist attacks, and subsequent other terrorism related activities by Islamic groups, Sikhs have often been mistaken as Muslims or Arabs, and have been subject to several hate crimes, including murders. Sikh temples have also been targets of violence due to being mistaken for mosques. A 2012 shooting at a Sikh temple in Oak Creek, Wisconsin garnered national and international attention, with then President Obama ordering flags to be half-staffed at all federal buildings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikhism",
        "text": "Some Sikh sects outside the Punjab region of India, such as those found in Maharashtra and Bihar, practice \"aarti\" (the ceremonial use of lamps) during Bhakti observances in a Sikh gurdwara. But, most Sikh gurdwaras forbid \"aarti\" during their Bhakti practices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jhatka",
        "text": "On religious Sikh festivals, including Hola Mohalla and Vaisakhi, at the Hazur Sahib Nanded, and many other Sikh Gurdwaras, jhatka meat is offered as \"mahaprasad\" to all visitors in a Gurdwara. This practice is considered to be unacceptable by modern sikh sects who believe only lacto-vegetarian langar is supposed to be served inside gurudwaras after the introduction of Colonial-era \"Mahants\" and \"Udasis\" into Sikh Gurdwaras."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dhubri",
        "text": "More than 50,000 Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims assemble in this historic shrine every year in the month of December to mark the martyrdom of Guru Tegh Bahadur, which starts on 3 December with great solemnity and ceremony. Sikhs call the week long reverence of Sahidee-Guru-Parav which is marked with a massive procession. Guru Tegh Bahadur thus earned the affectionate title of \"Hind-di-Chadar\" or the Shield of Hind dates back to Hindustan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakha",
        "text": "Vaisakha sukla chaturdasi is celebrated as Narasimha Jayanthi Festival in Sri Varaha Lakshmi Narasimha Swamivari Temple at Simhachalam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Debagarh",
        "text": "water to the citizen. Pradhanpat ustav is celebrated annually near the fall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sikhism in the United States",
        "text": "As a result of the September 11 attacks, some Sikh Americans have become subject to discrimination, often from individuals who mistakenly believe that they are Arab or Muslim."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gurdwara Sri Guru Tegh Bahadur Sahib",
        "text": "Gurdwara Sri Guru tegh Bahadur Sahib is the Gurdwara of Sikhs in Dhubri town on the bank of the Brahmaputra River in Assam, India. The first Sikh guru, Guru Nanak Dev, visited this place in 1505 AD and met Srimanta Sankardeva on his way when he traveled from Dhaka to Assam. Later, the 9th Guru Teg Bahadur came to this place and established this Gurdwara during the 17th century. More than 50,000 Hindus, Sikhs, Muslims and all faiths devotees from all over the country and the world assemble in this historic shrine every year in December to mark the martyrdom of Guru Tegh Bahadur. The festival starts on 3 December with great solemnity and ceremony. Sikhs call this festival Sahidee-Guru-Parav."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakha",
        "text": "The harvest festival of Vaisakhi is celebrated on in this month which marks the Punjabi new year according to the Punjabi calendar. Jallianwala Bagh massacre took place on the Punjabi New year day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sakhi Sarwar",
        "text": "An \"urs\", or festival in the honour of Syed Ahmad Sultan, also locally called \"Sangh Mela\", has been celebrated for centuries during Vaisakhi (March\u2013April), with thousands of pilgrims coming to the town from the nearby localities. First they visit to the shrine of syed sakhi Zain ul Abdieen at Lar Multan to pay Salam or homage to the parents of Sakhi Sarwar, than they go to Dera Ghazi Khan.Sarwaris love the belongings of the saint, specially the Mohar Mubarak.Historically, followers of Syed Ahmad Sultan belonged to various religions \u2013 Max Arthur Macauliffe, a colonial office appointed in Punjab, observed in 1875 that not only Muslims but Hindus also visited the shrines during the \"urs\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guru Gaddi",
        "text": "This event is commemorated with a festival/ritual that starts with Diwali in India - a Hindu Sikh festival. The tercentenary celebrations of the occasion are being referred at Guru-da-gaddi and are being celebrated on 3 November 2008 in Nanded in Maharshtra. The occasion comes after celebrations of 300 Years of Khalsa panth established by Guru Gobind Singh ji in 1699."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vasant Panchami",
        "text": "Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the founder of the Sikh Empire, encouraged the celebration of Basant Panchami as a social event in the Gurdwaras. In 1825 CE he gave 2,000 rupees to the Harmandir Sahib Gurdwara in Amritsar to distribute food. He held an annual Basant fair and sponsored kite flying as a regular feature of the fairs. Maharaja Ranjit Singh and his queen Moran would dress in yellow and fly kites on Basant Panchami. Maharaja Ranjit Singh would also hold a darbar or court in Lahore on Basant Panchami which lasted ten days when soldiers would dress in yellow and show their military prowess."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vaisakhi",
        "text": "Kelowna's annual Vaisakhi parade is held a week after Surrey's parade each year and begins and ends at the Sikh Temple on Rutland Road."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What days is Vaisakhi usually celebrated in April?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Vaisakhi, also pronounced Baisakhi, marks the first day of the month of Vaisakh and is traditionally celebrated annually on the 13th of April and sometimes on the 14th of April as a celebration of spring harvest primarily in Northern India."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any specific years or reasons it's celebrated on the 14th instead of the 13th?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Vaisakhi is observed on the 13th or 14th every year in the 21st century but it'll change because the date depends on the solar calendar and in the future will be on a different date."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What date will it be on in the 22nd century?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I could not find the date for the 22nd century, but in the year of 2999 the date of the event will fall on 29 April."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How do Indians in the US celebrate this holiday?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Among Sikh populations in the United States have a parade to commemorate the celebrations. People in Manhattan, New York City do the \"Seva\" selfless services while in Los Angeles, California, there's many gurdwaras that hold a full day of spiritual music programs followed by a parade."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is a gurdwara?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A gurdwara is a place of assembly and worship for Sikhs. Sikhs also refer to gurdwaras as Gurdwara Sahib. People from all faiths are welcomed in gurdwaras. Each gurdwara has a Darbar Sahib where the current and everlasting guru of the Sikhs, the scripture Guru Granth Sahib, is placed on a takhat (an elevated throne) in a prominent central position."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Vaisakhi celebrated in the United States?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Amongst Sikh populations in the United States, there is usually a parade commemorating the Vaisakhi celebration. In Manhattan, New York City people come out to do \"Seva\" (selfless service) such as giving out free food, and completing any other labor that needs to be done, and in Los Angeles, California, the local Sikh community consisting of many gurdwaras holds a full day Kirtan (spiritual music) program followed by a parade.",
      "Amongst Sikh populations in the United States, there is usually a parade commemorating the Vaisakhi celebration. In Manhattan, New York City people come out to do \"Seva\" (selfless service) such as giving out free food, and completing any other labor that needs to be done."
    ],
    "topic": "Vaisakhi",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Vaisakhi:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vaisakhi",
          "Sikh celebrations outside India",
          "United States"
        ],
        "ctx": "Amongst Sikh populations in the United States, there is usually a parade commemorating the Vaisakhi celebration. In Manhattan, New York City people come out to do \"Seva\" (selfless service) such as giving out free food, and completing any other labor that needs to be done. In Los Angeles, California, the local Sikh community consisting of many gurdwaras holds a full day Kirtan (spiritual music) program followed by a parade."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Vaisakhi:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Vaisakhi",
          "Sikh celebrations outside India",
          "United States"
        ],
        "ctx": "Amongst Sikh populations in the United States, there is usually a parade commemorating the Vaisakhi celebration. In Manhattan, New York City people come out to do \"Seva\" (selfless service) such as giving out free food, and completing any other labor that needs to be done. In Los Angeles, California, the local Sikh community consisting of many gurdwaras holds a full day Kirtan (spiritual music) program followed by a parade."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "A tree grown from seed may take 20 years or more before it bears fruits, but a grafted cultivar such as 'Marron de Lyon' or 'Paragon' may start production within five years of being planted. Both cultivars bear fruits with a single large kernel, rather than the usual two to four smaller kernels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "\"C. sativa\" attains a height of with a trunk often in diameter. The bark often has a net-shaped (retiform) pattern with deep furrows or fissures running spirally in both directions up the trunk. The trunk is mostly straight with branching starting at low heights. Sweet chestnut trees live to an age of 500 to 600 years. In cultivation they may even grow as old as 1000 years or more. Their large genetic diversity and different cultivars are exploited for uses such as flour, boiling, roasting, drying, sweets or wood. The oblong-lanceolate, boldly toothed leaves are long and broad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The ornamental cultivar \"C. sativa\" 'Albomarginata' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit"
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The tree requires a mild climate and adequate moisture for good growth and a good nut harvest. Its year-growth (but not the rest of the tree) is sensitive to late spring and early autumn frosts, and is intolerant of lime. Under forest conditions, it will tolerate moderate shade well. It can live to more than 2,000 years of age in natural conditions, see the poetically-named \"hundred-horse chestnut\" in eastern Sicily for example."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The species is widely cultivated for its edible seeds (also called nuts) and for its wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quercus castaneifolia",
        "text": "It has a height of 60.4m, a diameter of 4.9m, and a circumference of 22m."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea crenata",
        "text": "\"Castanea crenata\" is a small to medium-sized deciduous tree growing to 10\u201315 m tall. The leaves are similar to those of the sweet chestnut, though usually a little smaller, 8\u201319\u00a0cm long and 3\u20135\u00a0cm broad. The flowers of both sexes are borne in 7\u201320\u00a0cm long, upright catkins, the male flowers in the upper part and female flowers in the lower part. They appear in summer, and by autumn, the female flowers develop into spiny cupules containing 3\u20137 brownish nuts that are shed during October."
      },
      {
        "title": "Virola pavonis",
        "text": "The tree grows to a height of about 15-30m tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea mollissima",
        "text": "It is a deciduous tree growing to 20 m tall with a broad crown. The leaves are alternate, simple, 10\u201322\u00a0cm long and 4.5\u20138\u00a0cm broad, with a toothed margin. The flowers are produced in catkins 4\u201320\u00a0cm long, with the female flowers at the base of the catkin and males on the rest. The fruit is a densely spiny cupule 4\u20138\u00a0cm diameter, containing two or three glossy brown nuts; these are 2\u20133\u00a0cm diameter on wild trees. The scientific name \"mollissima\" derives from the softly downy shoots and young leaves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea seguinii",
        "text": "\"Castanea seguinii\" are small trees or shrubs, rarely reaching 12m. Their stipules are narrowly lanceolate, 0.7 to 1.5cm long, and are shed (become deciduous) when the plant is in fruit. Leaf petioles are 0.5 to 1.5cm long. Leaves are 6 to 14cm long, with their abaxial sides covered with yellowishbrown to gray scaly glands, and have sparse hairs along the veins when young. Leaf blades are oblongobovate to ellipticoblong in shape, with bases rounded or infrequently subcordate, but cuneate when young, with acuminate apices. Leaf margins are coarsely serrate. Male inflorescences are 5 to 12cm long and catkinlike. Female inflorescences are held in a cupule, with one to two (rarely more) flowers in each. Cupules are 3 to 5cm wide, and covered with sparsely pilose spiny bracts which are 6 to 10mm long. Each cupule produces two or three nuts, rarely more, with each nut being 1.5 to 2.0cm in diameter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The tree is to be distinguished from the horse chestnut \"Aesculus hippocastanum\", to which it is only distantly related. The horse chestnut bears similar looking seeds (conkers) in a similar seed case, which are not palatable to humans. Other common names include \"Spanish chestnut\", or \"marron\" (French for \"chestnut\"). The Latin \"sativa\" means \"cultivated by humans\". Some selected varieties are smaller and more compact in growth yielding earlier in life with different ripening time: the Marigoule, the Marisol and the Maraval."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quercus castanea",
        "text": "\"Quercus castanea\" is a deciduous tree up to 15 meters tall with a trunk as much as 80\u00a0cm in diameter. Leaves are thick and leathery, up to 116\u00a0mm long, elliptical with numerous pointed teeth along the edges."
      },
      {
        "title": "8 Foot Sativa",
        "text": "Guitar \u2013 Gary Smith"
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis fargesii",
        "text": "Castanopsis fargesii Is an evergreen tree that grows 10\u201330 m tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "Castanea sativa\n--Names.\n--Description.\n----Reproduction.\n--Habitat.\n--Pests and diseases.\n--Historic development.\n--Distribution.\n--Uses.\n--Cultivation.\n----Cultivation forms.\n----Requirements.\n----Harvest.\n----Post-harvest treatment.\n--Food.\n----Food constituents.\n----Effect of processing.\n--Wood.\n--Cultivars.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "Castanea sativa, the sweet chestnut, Spanish chestnut or just chestnut, is a species of tree in the family Fagaceae, native to Southern Europe and Asia Minor, and widely cultivated throughout the temperate world. A substantial, long-lived deciduous tree, it produces an edible seed, the chestnut, which has been used in cooking since ancient times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The leaves provide food for some animals, including Lepidoptera such as the case-bearer moth \"Coleophora anatipennella\" and North American rose chafer Macrodactylus subspinosus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flora of Turkey, Fagaceae",
        "text": "Castanea\n*Castanea sativa"
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "This tree responds very well to coppicing, which is still practised in Britain, and produces a good crop of tannin-rich wood every 12 to 30 years, depending on intended use and local growth rate. The tannin renders the young growing wood durable and weather resistant for outdoor use, thus suitable for posts, fencing or stakes. The wood is of light colour, hard and strong. It is used to make furniture, barrels (sometimes used to age balsamic vinegar), and roof beams notably in southern Europe (for example in houses of the Alpujarra, Spain, in southern France and elsewhere). The timber has a density of 560\u00a0kg per cubic meter, and due to its durability in ground contact is often used for external purposes such as fencing. It is also a good fuel, though not favoured for open fires as it tends to spit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "Tannin is found in the following proportions on a 10% moisture basis: bark (6.8%), wood (13.4%), seed husks (10 - 13%). The leaves also contain tannin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prainea limpato",
        "text": "The tree grows to 30\u00a0m in height, with a bole of 2\u20134\u00a0m, with white latex. The leaves are 10\u201335\u00a0cm long by 4\u201315\u00a0cm wide. The globular inflorescences occur in the leaf axils. The syncarpous infructescences comprise 8\u201320 oval fruits, each 1.5\u20132\u00a0cm by 1\u00a0cm in diameter, projecting outwards from the core and ripening orange. The fruits are edible, with the orange aril tasting of bananas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis buruana",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis buruana\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The brown bark is smooth or scaly. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its ovoid to roundish nuts measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis indica",
        "text": "The tree can be found between above sea level."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea seguinii",
        "text": "\"Castanea seguinii\" grow in mixed mesophytic forests and thickets from 400 to 2000m in elevation. Their bark is eaten by golden snubnosed monkeys (\"Rhinopithecus roxellana\") in winter. In their native habitat they flower in May through July, and fruit from September to November."
      },
      {
        "title": "Helianthella castanea",
        "text": "\"Helianthella castanea\" is a herbaceous plant up to 45\u00a0cm (18 inches) tall. Leaves are up to 15\u00a0cm (6 inches) long. The plant usually produces one yellow flower head per stem. Each head contains both ray flowers and disc flowers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis paucispina",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis paucispina\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The brown bark is smooth to slightly cracked. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its obovoid to roundish nuts measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scaphium affine",
        "text": "The tree grows to a height of 25\u201330 m."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis costata",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis costata\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The whitish bark is smooth, scaly or flaky. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its conical nuts measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canarium vitiense",
        "text": "Full grown trees may reach up to tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gossia gonoclada",
        "text": "The tree may grow up to in height."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hydnocarpus castaneus",
        "text": "This tree species grows to between 10 and 20 m with coriaceous, glabrous leaves 150\u2013300\u00a0mm long. The spherical fruits are velvety and brown-black, with a diameter of 70\u2013150\u00a0mm and containing 30\u201350 fleshy 15-20mm seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis fulva",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis fulva\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The bark is smooth or fissured. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its ovoid or conical nuts measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyathea howeana",
        "text": "The plant is a treefern with a trunk up to 3\u00a0m in height."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis oligoneura",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis oligoneura\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The brownish bark is smooth to lenticellate. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its roundish nuts measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The sweet chestnut tree grows well on limestone-free, deeply weathered soil. The optimal pH value of the soil is between 4.5 and 6, and the tree cannot tolerate soil compaction. The tolerance to wet ground and to clay-rich soils is very low. It is a heat-loving tree which needs a long vegetation period. The optimal average temperature is between 8\u00a0\u00b0C and 15\u00a0\u00b0C and in January the temperature should preferably not be below -1\u00a0\u00b0C but it may tolerate temperatures as low as -15\u00a0\u00b0C. Low temperature in autumn can damage the fruit. The maximal altitude is strongly dependent on the climate. In general, the climate should be similar to viticulture. Optimal precipitation is between 400 and 1600\u00a0mm. Before planting, seeds must be stratified at 2-3\u00a0\u00b0C so germination can start 30\u201340 days later. After a year, the young trees are being transplanted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Euonymus castaneifolius",
        "text": "\"Euonymus castaneifolius\" grows up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The smooth bark is grey-brown. The flowers are white. The obovoid fruits ripen red and measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea pumila",
        "text": "It is a spreading shrub or small tree, reaching in height at maturity. The bark is red- or gray-brown and slightly furrowed into scaly plates. The leaves are simple, narrowly elliptical or lanceolate, yellow-green above and paler and finely hairy on the underside. Each leaf is long by wide with parallel side veins ending in short pointed teeth. The flowers are monoecious and appear in early summer. Male flowers are small and pale yellow to white, borne on erect catkins long attached to the base of each leaf. Female flowers are long and are located at the base of some catkins. The fruit is a golden-colored cupule in diameter with many sharp spines, maturing in autumn. Each cupule contains one ovoid shiny dark brown nut that is edible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis pedunculata",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis pedunculata\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The brown bark is flaky to lenticellate. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its ovoid nuts measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gymnanthes lucida",
        "text": "It is a tree, reaching a height of ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lasjia erecta",
        "text": "The species grows to about 14\u00a0m height, with a straight trunk up to 70\u00a0cm in diameter. The leaves are consistently 4-whorled, 4\u20139\u00a0cm long by 1.5\u20134.2\u00a0cm wide. The creamy-green flowers appear in erect terminal inflorescences. The round fruits are 2.5\u20133\u00a0cm in diameter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ulmus castaneifolia",
        "text": "The tree can reach a height of with a trunk of about 0.5\u00a0m d.b.h. The bark is thick with a pronounced corky layer, and is longitudinally fissured. The branchlets are devoid of the corky wings common to many elms. The leaves are generally narrow, ranging from obovate to elliptic, up to 15\u00a0cm long, and densely hirsute when young. The perfect wind-pollinated apetalous flowers are produced on second-year shoots in February; the samarae are mostly obovate < 30 \u00d7 16\u00a0mm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis lucida",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis lucida\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The brown bark is glabrescent, lenticellate, fissured or occasionally smooth. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its ovoid nuts measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Senna alata",
        "text": "The shrub stands tall, with leaves long."
      },
      {
        "title": "8 Foot Sativa",
        "text": "Guitar \u2013 Nik Davies"
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis javanica",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis javanica\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The brown bark is smooth or scaly. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its discoid to ovoid nuts measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis acuminatissima",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis acuminatissima\" is a large canopy tree, up to 40 meters in height. The trunk is markedly fluted, and sometimes buttressed. The bark is grey or pale brown, rough and fissured, less than 25\u00a0mm thick, with red under-bark."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis endertii",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis endertii\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The brownish bark is slightly fissured with ring-like features. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its roundish, edible nuts measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The total world chestnut harvest was 1,17 Mio Tons in 2006, but only 151 000 Tons were \"C. sativa.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Picea farreri",
        "text": "This tree can reach 35 meters tall. It grows on limestone soils in cool, wet mountainous habitat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castilleja ambigua",
        "text": "This is a highly variable annual herb growing to a maximum height near 30 centimeters. The leaves are 1 to 5 centimeters long and lobed or not. The inflorescence is up to 12 centimeters long and a few wide. It is packed with bracts that have white to light purple ridged tips. Between the bracts emerge the lobed flowers, which are yellow to light purple or rose. The fruit is a capsule about a centimeter long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Byrsonima sericea",
        "text": "The tree is medium-sized and usually grows 6\u201318 meters tall. Flowers are tall orange plumes which develop into small, 8\u00a0mm large fruits when mature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mosannona depressa",
        "text": "A mature tree is generally 6\u201310\u00a0m (19-32') tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "8 Foot Sativa",
        "text": "Drums \u2013 Corey Friedlander"
      },
      {
        "title": "Livistona mariae",
        "text": "The height of the plant may be over twenty metres, with leaves over four metres on long petioles of a similar length. The base of the tree becomes wider and raised at an advanced age, the trunk gently tapers to a narrower width toward the crown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saurauia elegans",
        "text": "It is a tree reaching 20 feet in height. Its twigs are covered in rough hairs. Its leaves are 10.2 \u2013 12.7 centimeters long, 2.7-3.4\u00a0cm wide at their base and come to a point at their tip. Its petioles are 0.5 inches long. Its flowers are axillary. Its oval-shaped sepals are 3.4 millimeters long. Its corolla are 6.8 millimeters long. It has numerous stamens and 3 styles. Its seeds are wrinkled and angular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis cuspidata",
        "text": "It is a medium-sized evergreen tree growing to 20\u201330 m tall, related to beech and oak. The leaves are 5\u20139\u00a0cm long and 2\u20134\u00a0cm broad, leathery in texture, with an entire or irregularly toothed margin. It grows in woods and ravines, especially near the sea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castilleja attenuata",
        "text": "\"Castilleja attenuata\" is an annual herb growing up to about 50 centimeters tall. The leaves are linear in shape and several centimeters long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castilleja campestris",
        "text": "It is an annual herb growing 10 to 30 centimeters tall with linear or narrowly lance-shaped leaves up to 4 centimeters long. The inflorescence is up to 15 centimeters long. It is filled with leaflike green bracts which are generally not tipped with another color. The flower is yellow or orange."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salvia castanea",
        "text": "Salvia castanea is a herbaceous perennial plant discovered in the Yunnan Valley in China in 1904 by plant collector George Forrest. It also grows in Nepal, Bhutan, and Tibet. The plants used in horticulture today likely came from seed collected from a plant at 14,000\u00a0ft in Nepal, at the base of Mt. Everest. It grows 3\u00a0ft tall in the wild, and 1\u20132 feet in cultivation in Europe and the U.S. The few 1.0\u20131.5 in flowers grow in whorls on an inflorescence about 1\u00a0ft long. The name \"castanea\", which means 'chestnut colored', refers to the purplish-maroon flowers"
      },
      {
        "title": "Quintinia sieberi",
        "text": "A medium-sized tree to 25 metres tall and a stem diameter of 75\u00a0cm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fontanesia",
        "text": "It is a deciduous shrub growing to 8 m tall. The leaves are opposite, lanceolate to narrow ovate, 3\u201312\u00a0cm long and 8\u201326\u00a0mm broad, with an acute apex and a usually entire margin, sometimes finely serrated. The flowers are white, with a deeply four-lobed corolla; they are produced in panicles 2\u20136\u00a0cm long. The fruit is a flat samara, surrounded by a wing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alfaroa guanacastensis",
        "text": "The trees grow to 90 feet tall with a DBH of up to 2 feet. The lower trunk often has buttresses. The sapwood is white, and the heartwood is pink. The pith is solid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis oviformis",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis oviformis\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The brownish bark is scaly or cracked. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its ovoid nuts measure up to long and are considered edible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "In Switzerland, it is often served as \"Vermicelles\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carya floridana",
        "text": "Although it can grow to the height of 25 m (80 ft), many specimens are seen as shrubs 3\u20135 m tall with many small trunks. The leaves are 20\u201330\u00a0cm long, pinnate, with three to seven leaflets, each leaflet 4\u201310\u00a0cm long and 2\u20134\u00a0cm broad, with a coarsely toothed margin. The fruit is a nut 3\u20134\u00a0cm long and 2-2.5\u00a0cm diameter, with a thick, hard shell and a sweet, edible seed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Valle Verzasca",
        "text": "The Romans introduced and comparable to the tropical wood species, \"Castanea sativa\" is in the southern part of the valley, below , the dominant species. It is no longer actively cultivated, but favors the further diffusion, and studies suggest taking advantage of the valuable wood of chestnut as a valuable wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis densinervia",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis densinervia\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The greyish bark is smooth. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its ovoid nuts measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agave polianthiflora",
        "text": "The flower spike is tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quercus phanera",
        "text": "\"Quercus phanera\" is a tree up to 25 meters tall. Twigs are grayish brown. Leaves can be as much as 15\u00a0cm long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "Three different cultivation systems for the sweet chestnut can be distinguished:\n* \"Coppicing\": Mainly for wood extraction. Standard conditions yield 15 m3 wood per ha and year.\n* \"Selve\": Fruit production from grafted trees. The trees have a short tribe and a big crown. Trees have a high density and the ground between the trees is often used as pasture.\n* \"High forest:\" Wood and fruit production. This cultivation form is less intensive with a yield of 4-12 dt/ha and replacement of trees every 50\u201380 years. The trees grow from seeds and build a dense canopy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castilleja salsuginosa",
        "text": "This plant grows up to about tall. It is entirely brown or purplish to gray in color. In June and July it bears inflorescences of cream and pink colored bracts and flowers. It is very similar to \"Castilleja nana\". It is possible that it is part of that species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agave salmiana",
        "text": "Old plants reach 1.8\u00a0m in height and the leaves form a rosette 3.6\u00a0m in diameter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyanella hyacinthoides",
        "text": "The plant can be up to 40 centimetres high."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The species is widely distributed throughout Europe, where in 2004 \"C. sativa\" was grown on 2.25 million hectares of forest, of which 1.78 million hectares were mainly cultivated for wood and 0.43 million hectares for fruit production. Italy, France, southern Switzerland, Spain, Portugal and Greece are countries with a strong sweet chestnut tradition, with trees cultivated intensively in coppices and orchards. Countries like England, Croatia, Turkey and Georgia only have a partially developed sweet chestnut tradition due to geography or history. Nevertheless, centuries-old specimens may be found in Great Britain today. Examples can be seen particularly in the London Boroughs of Islington and Camden. In other European countries, \"C. sativa\" has only been introduced recently, for example in Slovakia or the Netherlands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Securinega flexuosa",
        "text": "Mainly found on low elevation, the plant's height can reach from 10 to 20 meters (32.8 to 65.6 feet) and its diameter at breast height measures . The leaves of this plant are alternate, elliptic or oblong with length ranging from 10 to 16 centimeters (3.94 to 6.30 inches) and width ranging from 4 to 6 centimeters (1,57 to 2.36 inches)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Annona squamosa",
        "text": "much branched shrub or small tree to tall"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vatica endertii",
        "text": "\"Vatica endertii\" grows up to tall, with a trunk diameter of up to . Its chartaceous leaves are obovate or oblong and measure up to long. The fruits measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prati di Caprara",
        "text": "trees of considerable diameter and height of about forty years old. These species are gradually going"
      },
      {
        "title": "Viola calcarata",
        "text": "This plant, up to 15\u00a0cm tall, has short and glabrous stem, leafy in the lower part, prostrate, ascendent or suberect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis hypophoenicea",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis hypophoenicea\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The greyish bark is rough, sometimes smooth. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its ovoid or ellipsoid nuts measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nigella sativa",
        "text": "\"N. sativa\" grows to tall, with finely divided, linear (but not thread-like) leaves. The flowers are delicate, and usually coloured pale blue and white, with five to ten petals. The fruit is a large and inflated capsule composed of three to seven united follicles, each containing numerous seeds which are used as spice, sometimes as a replacement for black cumin (\"Bunium bulbocastanum\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Erythrina mulungu",
        "text": "This tree reaches up to 15 meters in height."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuspidata castanea",
        "text": "Cuspidata castanea\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Actephila excelsa",
        "text": "The taxa grows as a shrub or tree from 1 to 10m (rarely 15m) tall with a trunk that is up to 30cm in diameter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castilleja neglecta",
        "text": "The plant grows on serpentine soils below 300 meters in elevation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerrad\u00e3o",
        "text": "Trees have an average height of ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quercus castaneifolia",
        "text": "Quercus castaneifolia\n--Description.\n--Cultivation.\n--Trivia.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Guibourtia arnoldiana",
        "text": "It is a tree growing to 20\u201330 m tall, with a trunk 40\u201380\u00a0cm diameter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis megacarpa",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis megacarpa\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The grey bark is smooth or slightly fissured. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its roundish or ellipsoid nuts measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "Roman soldiers were given chestnut porridge before going into battle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis pierrei",
        "text": "A shrub, or small tree, growing some 5-10m tall. It has leaves with an entire margin, and spiny capsules. The capsules have 1 to 3 nuts each, with the acorn measuring some 3\u20135\u00a0cm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis psilophylla",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis psilophylla\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The brown bark is smooth or with fine fissures. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its ovoid nuts measure up to long and are considered edible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meliosma cordata",
        "text": "The tree is 3-6 meters tall, with branchlets covered with fine hairs that grows into large scattered pale lenticels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis evansii",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis evansii\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The greyish bark is smooth, sometimes flaky. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its ovoid nuts measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castilleja brevistyla",
        "text": "This annual herb grows up to about 40 centimeters tall with linear leaves each a few centimeters long. The inflorescence has bracts tipped in pink or reddish purple. Between the bracts appear pouched, fuzzy purplish or pink flowers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Papa Ibra Tall",
        "text": "Source:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Utania racemosa",
        "text": "The small tree, usually 3-6m tall, but sometimes 15m tall, trunk up to 18\u00a0cm in diameter, with smooth to slightly flaky or fissured bark The leaves (elliptic-ovate to elliptic-lanceolate) are (6\u2013)13\u201325(\u201330)cm long, and (4\u2013)6\u201313 (\u201320)cm wide. The flowers grow terminally, in structure a many flowered panicle, corolla (petals) are cream-white. The fruit has a beaked apex and is smooth, when mature its size is (7\u2013)10\u201312(\u201315)mm long, (8\u2013)9\u201310(\u201311)mm diam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Couroupita guianensis",
        "text": "\"Couroupita guianensis\" is a tree that reaches heights of up to . The leaves, which occur in clusters at the ends of branches, are usually 8 to 31 centimeters (3 to 12 inches) long, but can reach lengths of up to ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mangifera torquenda",
        "text": "The tree grows to 40\u00a0m in height with a 10\u00a0m bole and a dark green, rounded crown. The oval leaves are smooth, 17\u201321\u00a0cm long by 6\u20139\u00a0cm wide. The inflorescences occur as 25\u00a0cm pseudo-terminal panicles of fragrant, white to pale yellow flowers. The fruits are round to ovoid drupes 7.5\u201310\u00a0cm long by 6.5\u20138.5\u00a0cm wide, greenish-yellow when ripe, with brown spots and patches. The flesh is pale yellow and edible. The seed has a smooth white endocarp ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eucithara castanea",
        "text": "The length of the shell attains 11\u00a0mm."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How tall is the tree \"Castanea sativa\"?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "C. sativa can grow to a height of 20\u201335 m (66\u2013115 ft)."
    ],
    "topic": "Castanea sativa",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Castanea sativa:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Castanea sativa",
          "Description"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"C. sativa\" attains a height of with a trunk often in diameter. The bark often has a net-shaped (retiform) pattern with deep furrows or fissures running spirally in both directions up the trunk. The trunk is mostly straight with branching starting at low heights. Sweet chestnut trees live to an age of 500 to 600 years. In cultivation they may even grow as old as 1000 years or more. Their large genetic diversity and different cultivars are exploited for uses such as flour, boiling, roasting, drying, sweets or wood. The oblong-lanceolate, boldly toothed leaves are long and broad."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Quercus castaneifolia",
        "text": "A specimen of Quercus castaneifolia found in the Hyrcanian forest of northern Iran on 29. April 2021 by Alireza Naqinezhad is considered to be the tallest oak in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Virola pavonis",
        "text": "The tree grows to a height of about 15-30m tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quercus castaneifolia",
        "text": "It has a height of 60.4m, a diameter of 4.9m, and a circumference of 22m."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samanea saman",
        "text": "During his 1799\u20131804 travels in the Americas, Alexander von Humboldt encountered a giant saman tree near Maracay, Venezuela. He measured the circumference of the parasol-shaped crown at 576\u00a0ft (about 180.8 m), its diameter was around 190\u00a0ft (about 59.6 m), on a trunk at 9\u00a0ft (about 2.8 m) in diameter and reaching just 60\u00a0ft (nearly 19 m) in height. Humboldt mentioned the tree was reported to have changed little since the Spanish colonization of Venezuela; he estimated it to be as old as the famous Canary Islands dragon tree (\"Dracaena draco\") of Icod de los Vinos on Tenerife."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gossia gonoclada",
        "text": "The tree may grow up to in height."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dinizia excelsa",
        "text": "Dinizia excelsa\n--Description.\n--Distribution and habitat.\n--Tallest tree.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Guibourtia arnoldiana",
        "text": "It is a tree growing to 20\u201330 m tall, with a trunk 40\u201380\u00a0cm diameter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canarium vitiense",
        "text": "Full grown trees may reach up to tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerrad\u00e3o",
        "text": "Trees have an average height of ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ceiba pentandra",
        "text": "The referenced reports make it clear that \"C. pentandra\" is among the largest trees in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Erythrina mulungu",
        "text": "This tree reaches up to 15 meters in height."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gymnanthes lucida",
        "text": "It is a tree, reaching a height of ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tree",
        "text": "Trees have a theoretical maximum height of , but the tallest known specimen on earth is believed to be a coast redwood (\"Sequoia sempervirens\") at Redwood National Park, California. It has been named Hyperion and is tall. In 2006, it was reported to be tall. The tallest known broad-leaved tree is a mountain ash (\"Eucalyptus regnans\") growing in Tasmania with a height of ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Menara (tree)",
        "text": "Menara was discovered in August 2018. A research team scanned the tree in August 2018 with a terrestrial laser scanner and drone flights to produce a 3D model. On January 6, 2019, Unding Jami and his team established a measurement for the tree by climbing it and measuring its height using a tape measure. Menara is likely the tallest flowering plant in the world as it is taller than the previous record holder, a mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) in Tasmania that may be 100.5 m tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "\"C. sativa\" attains a height of with a trunk often in diameter. The bark often has a net-shaped (retiform) pattern with deep furrows or fissures running spirally in both directions up the trunk. The trunk is mostly straight with branching starting at low heights. Sweet chestnut trees live to an age of 500 to 600 years. In cultivation they may even grow as old as 1000 years or more. Their large genetic diversity and different cultivars are exploited for uses such as flour, boiling, roasting, drying, sweets or wood. The oblong-lanceolate, boldly toothed leaves are long and broad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "A tree grown from seed may take 20 years or more before it bears fruits, but a grafted cultivar such as 'Marron de Lyon' or 'Paragon' may start production within five years of being planted. Both cultivars bear fruits with a single large kernel, rather than the usual two to four smaller kernels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Annona salzmannii",
        "text": "The tree is an evergreen tree to , one of the tallest \"Annona\" trees. Those weird and wonderful fruit trees are like \"A. scleroderma\" and \"A. crassiflora\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scalesia",
        "text": "One of the largest and most widespread species is \"Scalesia pedunculata\" \u2013 a large tree which grows up to 15 to 20 metres tall, reaching maturity in a few years time. These trees typically grow in dense stands of the same species and age. They die around the same time, and then a new generation of seedlings grows up in the same place. The largest stands of \"Scalesia pedunculata\" are found on the humid windward sides of Santa Cruz, San Crist\u00f3bal, Santiago and Floreana islands, at an altitude of 400\u2013700\u00a0m. The best known and most visited stand is on Santa Cruz Island, and is crossed by a road."
      },
      {
        "title": "Entandrophragma excelsum",
        "text": "\"Entandrophragma excelsum\" deciduous, dioecious large tree commonly up to 45 (\u201360) m tall. Bole branchless for up to 27 m, straight and cylindrical, up to 200 (\u2013250) cm in diameter, with large buttresses up to 5 m high. In 2016 in a remote valley on the continent's highest mountain Kilimanjaro, northern Tanzania has been discovered Africa's tallest tree, it was measured at 81.5 meters tall. The ten known tallest individuals of Entandrophragma excelsum ranged from 59.2 to 81.5 m and 1.24 to 2.55 m diameter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mosannona depressa",
        "text": "A mature tree is generally 6\u201310\u00a0m (19-32') tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parque de la Ceiba",
        "text": "In 1916, the tree measured 118 feet in circumference, measured at 4 feet from the ground surface."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis fargesii",
        "text": "Castanopsis fargesii Is an evergreen tree that grows 10\u201330 m tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Tallest Tree in Our Forest",
        "text": "The Tallest Tree in Our Forest\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis indica",
        "text": "The tree can be found between above sea level."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shorea faguetiana",
        "text": "Previously, in 2016, the then tallest tropical tree in the world known as \"Lahad Datu\" was found at the Danum Valley Conservation Area measuring with a canopy measuring in diameter. The initial measurement from an aircraft was and the accurate tape drop measurement by a climber to the highest and to the lowest ground level. is the average of these figures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cupressus cashmeriana",
        "text": "A tree of tall has recently been reported, but the measurements await verification."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samanea saman",
        "text": "The tree, called \"Sam\u00e1n de G\u00fcere\" (transcribed \"Zamang del Guayre\" by von Humboldt) still stands today, and is a Venezuelan national treasure. Just like the dragon tree on Tenerife, the age of the saman in Venezuela is rather indeterminate. As von Humboldt's report makes clear, according to local tradition, it would be older than 500 years today, which is rather outstanding by the genus' standards. It is certain, however, the tree is quite more than 200 years old today, but it is one exceptional individual; even the well-learned von Humboldt could not believe it was actually the same species as the saman trees he knew from the greenhouses at Sch\u00f6nbrunn Castle. A famous specimen called the \"Brahmaputra Rain Tree\" located at Guwahati on the banks of the Brahmaputra River in Assam, India has the thickest trunk of any Saman; approximately twelve feet (3.66\u00a0meters) diameter at breast height (DBH). The size of the pollen is around 119 microns and it is polyad of 24 to 32 grains."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brosimum alicastrum",
        "text": "The tree can grow up to 45\u00a0m (130\u00a0ft) in height and up to 1.5 m in diameter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scaphium affine",
        "text": "The tree grows to a height of 25\u201330 m."
      },
      {
        "title": "Forests Commission Victoria",
        "text": "Currently the world's tallest living tree is a \"Sequoia sempervirens,\" named the Hyperion, discovered in California in 2006. It is believed to be between 700 and 800 years old and was measured at 380.3 feet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Durio grandiflorus",
        "text": "It is a medium-sized tree up to 30\u00a0m tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jubaea",
        "text": "In 1843, a specimen was grown from seed at Kew Gardens in London, and was moved into the Temperate House in 1863, eventually growing to . It was believed to be the world's tallest indoor plant, until it had to be felled in 2013 because it had outgrown the space available and could not be moved. It has been replaced by seedlings from the original tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dipteryx alata",
        "text": "The tree can measure up to 25 m in height and 0.7 m in diameter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Picea farreri",
        "text": "This tree can reach 35 meters tall. It grows on limestone soils in cool, wet mountainous habitat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alfaroa guanacastensis",
        "text": "The trees grow to 90 feet tall with a DBH of up to 2 feet. The lower trunk often has buttresses. The sapwood is white, and the heartwood is pink. The pith is solid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crotalaria juncea",
        "text": "Annual, c. 100\u20131000\u00a0cm tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dinizia excelsa",
        "text": "It is the tallest-growing species in the pea family, Fabaceae and one of the tallest tropical tree species in any family, reaching and taller. The unarmed trunk is cylindrical, the bole of larger specimens 15\u201322.5 m, up to 3 m in diameter at soil level. The DBH of mature specimens is typically between , moderately to strongly buttressed, the buttresses to 4\u20135 m tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Couroupita guianensis",
        "text": "\"Couroupita guianensis\" is a tree that reaches heights of up to . The leaves, which occur in clusters at the ends of branches, are usually 8 to 31 centimeters (3 to 12 inches) long, but can reach lengths of up to ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Santa Mar\u00eda del Tule",
        "text": "The tree is one of the oldest and largest in the world and has the widest girth. It has an age of at least 2,000 years, with its existence chronicled by both the Aztecs and the Spanish that founded the city of Oaxaca. It has a height of forty meters, a volume of between 700 and 800m3, an estimated weight of 630 tons and a circumference of about forty meters. The trunk is so wide that thirty people with arms extended joining hands are needed to encircle it. The tree dwarfs the town's main church and is taller than its spires, and it is still growing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The ornamental cultivar \"C. sativa\" 'Albomarginata' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vinhedo",
        "text": "In the vinhedense original flora, there is a predominance of trees such as the pink jequitib\u00e1 (\"Cariniana legalis\"), the pink peroba (\"Aspidosperma polyneuron\") and the jatob\u00e1 (\"Hymenaea courbaril\"), which reach 25 meters in height. There is an arboreal stratum of 15 to 18 meters high, composed of several species such as the white jequitib\u00e1 (\"Cariniana estrellensis\"), the cedar-rose (\"Cedrela fissilis\"), the ivory (\"Balfourodendron riedellianum\") and the fig trees (\"Ficus ennormis\", \"Ficus glabra \"and \"Ficus guaran\u00edtica\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The total world chestnut harvest was 1,17 Mio Tons in 2006, but only 151 000 Tons were \"C. sativa.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Araucaria humboldtensis",
        "text": "\"Araucaria humboldtensis\" is one of the smaller trees in its family, ranging from 6\u201315\u00a0m in height, with a distinct flattened crown in mature specimens. It is found in the wild only in three remnant populations in the south of the main island Grand Terre, growing on Mont Humboldt, Mont Mou and Mont des Sources at an altitude of between 750 and 1500\u00a0m."
      },
      {
        "title": "Syncarpia hillii",
        "text": "The tree can grow to 40 metres tall, and the trunk may reach one metre in diameter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Helicia nortoniana",
        "text": "It has been recorded growing up to about tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea crenata",
        "text": "\"Castanea crenata\" is a small to medium-sized deciduous tree growing to 10\u201315 m tall. The leaves are similar to those of the sweet chestnut, though usually a little smaller, 8\u201319\u00a0cm long and 3\u20135\u00a0cm broad. The flowers of both sexes are borne in 7\u201320\u00a0cm long, upright catkins, the male flowers in the upper part and female flowers in the lower part. They appear in summer, and by autumn, the female flowers develop into spiny cupules containing 3\u20137 brownish nuts that are shed during October."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quintinia sieberi",
        "text": "A medium-sized tree to 25 metres tall and a stem diameter of 75\u00a0cm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Torreya jackii",
        "text": "It can be up to tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canarium australianum",
        "text": "Full grown trees may grow up to about tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tree height measurement",
        "text": "The tallest tree in the world is a coast redwood (\"Sequoia sempervirens\") growing in Northern California that has been named Hyperion. In September 2012, it was measured at tall. There are 7 other coastal redwoods known to be over in height, and 222 specimens over . There are only five species known to grow over in height worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Papa Ibra Tall",
        "text": "Source:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Uzhhorod National University",
        "text": "The University Botanical Garden grows a giant redwood, the tallest and one of the oldest trees on Earth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colossal (chestnut)",
        "text": "(Castanea crenata) tree. The original Colossal tree and its pollinizer were planted in approximately 1888-1890 by Benjamin Tonella in Nevada City, California"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ficus tsjahela",
        "text": "Deciduous trees up to 25 m tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abies procera",
        "text": "The specific epithet \"procera\" means \"tall\". It is the world's tallest true fir."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of tallest trees",
        "text": "The following are the tallest reliably-measured specimens from the top species. This table contains information on all species for which at least one specimen has been reliably measured at 80 meters (262 feet) or taller."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cupressus torulosa",
        "text": "It is a large tree, growing up to in height."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea mollissima",
        "text": "It is a deciduous tree growing to 20 m tall with a broad crown. The leaves are alternate, simple, 10\u201322\u00a0cm long and 4.5\u20138\u00a0cm broad, with a toothed margin. The flowers are produced in catkins 4\u201320\u00a0cm long, with the female flowers at the base of the catkin and males on the rest. The fruit is a densely spiny cupule 4\u20138\u00a0cm diameter, containing two or three glossy brown nuts; these are 2\u20133\u00a0cm diameter on wild trees. The scientific name \"mollissima\" derives from the softly downy shoots and young leaves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Livistona mariae",
        "text": "The height of the plant may be over twenty metres, with leaves over four metres on long petioles of a similar length. The base of the tree becomes wider and raised at an advanced age, the trunk gently tapers to a narrower width toward the crown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eucalyptus",
        "text": "Several eucalypt species are among the tallest trees in the world. \"Eucalyptus regnans\", the Australian 'mountain ash', is the tallest of all flowering plants (angiosperms); today, the tallest measured specimen named Centurion is tall. Coast Douglas-fir is about the same height; only coast redwood is taller, and they are conifers (gymnosperms). Six other eucalypt species exceed 80 metres in height: \"Eucalyptus obliqua\", \"Eucalyptus delegatensis\", \"Eucalyptus diversicolor\", \"Eucalyptus nitens\", \"Eucalyptus globulus\" and \"Eucalyptus viminalis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The tree is to be distinguished from the horse chestnut \"Aesculus hippocastanum\", to which it is only distantly related. The horse chestnut bears similar looking seeds (conkers) in a similar seed case, which are not palatable to humans. Other common names include \"Spanish chestnut\", or \"marron\" (French for \"chestnut\"). The Latin \"sativa\" means \"cultivated by humans\". Some selected varieties are smaller and more compact in growth yielding earlier in life with different ripening time: the Marigoule, the Marisol and the Maraval."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meliosma cordata",
        "text": "The tree is 3-6 meters tall, with branchlets covered with fine hairs that grows into large scattered pale lenticels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diospyros ovalifolia",
        "text": "Full grown trees usually stand 12m tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prati di Caprara",
        "text": "trees of considerable diameter and height of about forty years old. These species are gradually going"
      },
      {
        "title": "Shorea faguetiana",
        "text": "Shorea faguetiana\n--Tallest \"Shorea faguetiana\".\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Eucalyptus regnans",
        "text": "Historically, the tallest individual is claimed to be the Ferguson Tree, at , found in the Watts River region of Victoria in 1871 or 1872. This record is often disputed as unreliable, despite first-hand documentary evidence of it being measured on the ground with surveyor's tape by a senior forestry official (see below). Widespread agreement exists, however, that an exceptionally tall individual was reliably measured at by theodolite in 1880 by a surveyor, George Cornthwaite, at Thorpdale, Victoria (the tree is known both as the Cornthwaite or Thorpdale Tree). When it was felled in 1881, Cornthwaite remeasured it on the ground by chain at . The stump is commemorated with a plaque. That tree was about shorter than \"Hyperion\", the world's current tallest living tree, a coast redwood measuring ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ceiba pentandra",
        "text": "The tree grows to as confirmed by climbing and tape drop with reports of Kapoks up to . Trunks can often be up to in diameter above the extensive buttress roots. The very largest individuals, however, can be thick or more above the buttresses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dendrosenecio",
        "text": "tall enough to reach above the tree line"
      },
      {
        "title": "Prainea limpato",
        "text": "The tree grows to 30\u00a0m in height, with a bole of 2\u20134\u00a0m, with white latex. The leaves are 10\u201335\u00a0cm long by 4\u201315\u00a0cm wide. The globular inflorescences occur in the leaf axils. The syncarpous infructescences comprise 8\u201320 oval fruits, each 1.5\u20132\u00a0cm by 1\u00a0cm in diameter, projecting outwards from the core and ripening orange. The fruits are edible, with the orange aril tasting of bananas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomasia quercifolia",
        "text": "It grows to around 1 metre in height."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fitzroya",
        "text": "\"Fitzroya cupressoides\" is the largest tree species in South America, normally growing to 40\u201360\u00a0m, but occasionally more than 70\u00a0m, and up to 5\u00a0m in trunk diameter. Its rough pyramidal canopy provides cover for the southern beech, laurel and myrtle. The largest known living specimen is Alerce Milenario in Alerce Costero National Park, Chile. It is more than 60\u00a0m tall, with a trunk diameter of 4.26\u00a0m. Much larger specimens existed before the species was heavily logged in the 19th and 20th centuries; Charles Darwin reported finding a specimen 12.6\u00a0m in diameter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Centurion (tree)",
        "text": "The Centurion is the world's tallest known individual \"Eucalyptus regnans\" tree and \"E. regnans\" is the third-tallest tree species in the world after the coast redwood and the yellow meranti. The tree is located in southern Tasmania, Australia and was measured by climber-deployed tapeline at tall in 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protea gaguedi",
        "text": "This plant usually grows in the form of a small, erect to gnarled tree, reaching up to three metres in height."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polyscias murrayi",
        "text": "This small to medium size tree grows to 25 metres tall with a trunk diameter of 50\u00a0cm. It is unbranched at the end of the main trunk, then breaks out into a many branched crown. The cylindrical trunk is mostly smooth, greyish or brown. The base of the tree is not flanged, fluted or buttressed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ocotea porosa",
        "text": "The trees typically reach 40 meters in height and 1.8 meters in trunk diameter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Actephila excelsa",
        "text": "The taxa grows as a shrub or tree from 1 to 10m (rarely 15m) tall with a trunk that is up to 30cm in diameter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Buchenavia capitata",
        "text": "This tree grows to a height of 60 to 80\u00a0ft and 2 to 4\u00a0ft in diameter; has rather large buttresses, but has good log form above them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agave polianthiflora",
        "text": "The flower spike is tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Byrsonima sericea",
        "text": "The tree is medium-sized and usually grows 6\u201318 meters tall. Flowers are tall orange plumes which develop into small, 8\u00a0mm large fruits when mature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyathea howeana",
        "text": "The plant is a treefern with a trunk up to 3\u00a0m in height."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calodendrum capense",
        "text": "The tree can reach 20 metres high in a forest, but in cultivation it is more likely to reach 10 metres, with a spreading canopy."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of tallest trees",
        "text": "The heights of the tallest trees in the world have been the subject of considerable dispute and much exaggeration. Modern verified measurements with laser rangefinders or with tape drop measurements made by tree climbers (such as those carried out by canopy researchers), have shown that some older tree height measurement methods are often unreliable, sometimes producing exaggerations of 5% to 15% or more above the real height."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agathis australis",
        "text": "\"Agathis australis\" can attain heights of 40 to 50 metres and trunk diameters big enough to rival Californian sequoias at over 5 metres. The largest kauri trees did not attain as much height or girth at ground level but contain more timber in their cylindrical trunks than comparable Sequoias with their tapering stems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stratosphere Giant",
        "text": "The Stratosphere Giant was once considered the tallest tree in the world. It was discovered in July 2000 growing along Bull Creek in Humboldt Redwoods State Park by Chris Atkins, measuring 112.34\u00a0meters (368.6\u00a0ft) tall. The tree has continued to grow and measured 113.11\u00a0m (371.1\u00a0ft) in 2010. It is a specimen of the species \"Sequoia\u00a0sempervirens\", the Coast Redwood. The tree features three prominent burls on the southwestern side of its trunk and is surrounded by a large number of trees of almost equal size. In an effort to avoid damage to the tree's shallow roots by tourism, its exact location was never disclosed to the public."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pandanus pyramidalis",
        "text": "A tall species, reaching up to 15 meters in height. Its horizontal branches end in rosettes of tapering leaves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Purus v\u00e1rzea",
        "text": "The largest tree in the v\u00e1rzea is \"Ceiba pentandra\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Helicia recurva",
        "text": "They have been recorded growing up to about tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ceodes umbellifera",
        "text": "There are discrepancies between sources regarding the height of the shrub. Most state that \"Ceodes umbellifera\" will grow to between 4 and 12 metres. Some sources suggest the tallest known specimen is 20 metres tall, whilst another reports a height of 28 metres. Once mature, the tree has a spreading, rounded crown which may cover over 20 feet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "This tree responds very well to coppicing, which is still practised in Britain, and produces a good crop of tannin-rich wood every 12 to 30 years, depending on intended use and local growth rate. The tannin renders the young growing wood durable and weather resistant for outdoor use, thus suitable for posts, fencing or stakes. The wood is of light colour, hard and strong. It is used to make furniture, barrels (sometimes used to age balsamic vinegar), and roof beams notably in southern Europe (for example in houses of the Alpujarra, Spain, in southern France and elsewhere). The timber has a density of 560\u00a0kg per cubic meter, and due to its durability in ground contact is often used for external purposes such as fencing. It is also a good fuel, though not favoured for open fires as it tends to spit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dendrosenecio adnivalis",
        "text": "\"Dendrosenecio adnivalis\" attains heights of tall, trunk can be 40 centimeters diameter and the pith diameter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tragopogon pratensis",
        "text": "The plant grows up to tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dipteryx micrantha",
        "text": "Habitus: This is a very large tree, sometimes growing up to 60m, although in Man\u00fa National Park in Peru the average height was 44m. The trunk has large buttresses although individual trees have been recorded with smallish buttresses. The buttresses can grow to 4m high and 1.5m thick in mature individuals. In young trees the buttresses may faintly snake up the trunk, giving a furrowed or corrugated profile to a cross-section of the trunk, but in older mature trees the bole is cylindrical. The base is wide and parasol-shaped. The bark is distinctively coloured salmon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lodoicea",
        "text": "The tree generally grows to 25\u201334 m tall. The tallest on record, measured on the ground after felling, was in total height. The leaves are fan-shaped, 7\u201310 m long and 4.5 m wide with a 4 m petiole in mature plants. However juveniles produce much longer petioles; up to or even . It is dioecious, with separate male and female plants. The male flowers are arranged in a catkin-like inflorescence up to 2 m (6\u00a0ft 7 in) long which continues to produce pollen over a ten-year period; one of the longest-living inflorescences known. The mature fruit is 40\u201350\u00a0cm in diameter and weighs 15\u201330\u00a0kg, and contains the largest seed in the plant kingdom. The fruit, which requires 6\u20137 years to mature and a further two years to germinate, is sometimes also referred to as the sea coconut, love nut, double coconut, coco fesse, or Seychelles nut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quercus castanea",
        "text": "\"Quercus castanea\" is a deciduous tree up to 15 meters tall with a trunk as much as 80\u00a0cm in diameter. Leaves are thick and leathery, up to 116\u00a0mm long, elliptical with numerous pointed teeth along the edges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The tree requires a mild climate and adequate moisture for good growth and a good nut harvest. Its year-growth (but not the rest of the tree) is sensitive to late spring and early autumn frosts, and is intolerant of lime. Under forest conditions, it will tolerate moderate shade well. It can live to more than 2,000 years of age in natural conditions, see the poetically-named \"hundred-horse chestnut\" in eastern Sicily for example."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bridelia exaltata",
        "text": "The generic name honours Samuel Elis\u00e9e Bridel-Brideri, an expert on mosses. \"exaltata\" refers to the height of the tallest trees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lasjia erecta",
        "text": "The species grows to about 14\u00a0m height, with a straight trunk up to 70\u00a0cm in diameter. The leaves are consistently 4-whorled, 4\u20139\u00a0cm long by 1.5\u20134.2\u00a0cm wide. The creamy-green flowers appear in erect terminal inflorescences. The round fruits are 2.5\u20133\u00a0cm in diameter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ulmus \u00d7 hollandica 'Wredei'",
        "text": "In the UK, the Tree Register of the British Isles (TROBI) Champion is at Blakers Park, Brighton, measuring 17\u00a0m high and 57\u00a0cm d.b.h. in 2009, when the leaf colour was reverting to green."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ficus sciaphila",
        "text": "Trees can grow up to 8 m tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "Castanea sativa, the sweet chestnut, Spanish chestnut or just chestnut, is a species of tree in the family Fagaceae, native to Southern Europe and Asia Minor, and widely cultivated throughout the temperate world. A substantial, long-lived deciduous tree, it produces an edible seed, the chestnut, which has been used in cooking since ancient times."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How tall is the tree \"Castanea sativa\"?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "C. sativa can grow to a height of 20\u201335 m (66\u2013115 ft)."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the tallest tree in the world?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Hyperion is a coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) in California considered the world's tallest known living tree."
    ],
    "topic": "Castanea sativa",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Hyperion (tree):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Hyperion (tree)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Hyperion is a coast redwood (\"Sequoia sempervirens\") in California considered the world's tallest known living tree."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Sequoia sempervirens",
        "text": "Today, trees over are common, and many are over . The current tallest tree is the Hyperion tree, measuring . The tree was discovered in Redwood National Park during mid-2006 by Chris Atkins and Michael Taylor, and is thought to be the world's tallest living organism. The previous record holder was the Stratosphere Giant in Humboldt Redwoods State Park at (as measured in 2004). Until it fell in March 1991, the \"Dyerville Giant\" was the record holder. It, too, stood in Humboldt Redwoods State Park and was high and estimated to be 1,600\u00a0years old. This fallen giant has been preserved in the park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Forests Commission Victoria",
        "text": "Currently the world's tallest living tree is a \"Sequoia sempervirens,\" named the Hyperion, discovered in California in 2006. It is believed to be between 700 and 800 years old and was measured at 380.3 feet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii",
        "text": "Unconfirmed reports of even taller individuals may be found in historic records.\n*A tree cut down on the Alfred Nye property in 1902 in Lynn Valley on the north shore of the city of Vancouver, British Columbia was reported to have measured in height, and in diameter, and another tree felled in the same valley was said to have measured tall.\n*The Nooksack Giant, a Douglas-fir felled in 1897 at Loop's Ranch in Whatcom County, Washington reportedly measured in height, in circumference at the butt, and to the first branch. With a volume of 96,345 marketable board feet (227 m3), this tree was estimated to be 480 years old."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tree",
        "text": "Trees have a theoretical maximum height of , but the tallest known specimen on earth is believed to be a coast redwood (\"Sequoia sempervirens\") at Redwood National Park, California. It has been named Hyperion and is tall. In 2006, it was reported to be tall. The tallest known broad-leaved tree is a mountain ash (\"Eucalyptus regnans\") growing in Tasmania with a height of ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tree height measurement",
        "text": "The tallest tree in the world is a coast redwood (\"Sequoia sempervirens\") growing in Northern California that has been named Hyperion. In September 2012, it was measured at tall. There are 7 other coastal redwoods known to be over in height, and 222 specimens over . There are only five species known to grow over in height worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "William I of W\u00fcrttemberg",
        "text": "In order to cultivate them for their wood, the King had some 5,000 Giant Sequoia (\"Sequoiadendron giganteum\") grown from seed in 1865. He had the seeds sent from California. Today, after years, the remaining examples have reached a height of over . Their older Californian relatives, with a height of and a trunk circumference of more than , are the largest living organisms on our planet. Of the original 5,000 trees, 123 of the Giant Sequoia remain as memorials of King William."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eucalyptus globulus",
        "text": "They typically grow from tall. There are historical claims of even taller trees with Robert Edwards Carter Stearns claiming that when he was alive, they were capable of growing to 400 feet. While this claim is often regarded as being exaggerated, the environmentalist Jared Diamond argues in favor of this claim, stating that such trees were likely cut down during the colonization of Australia by the English. Tasmanian D. W. Lewin claimed that the tallest was ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Redwoods of the Otway Ranges",
        "text": "Currently, the world's tallest living tree is also a Coast Redwood, \"Sequoia sempervirens\", named the Hyperion, that was discovered in California in 2006 in a remote section of the Redwood National Park. The measurement of that tree was undertaken by Professor Stephen Sillett, renowned tall tree and canopy researcher at Humboldt State University, who confirmed its status as the tallest living Redwood at a height of 115.55 metres."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stratosphere Giant",
        "text": "On August 25, 2006, a taller redwood tree, named Hyperion, in the Redwood National Park was discovered by Chris Atkins and Michael Taylor, and is considered the tallest tree (and living thing), measuring 115.55\u00a0m (379.1\u00a0ft). This has been confirmed using a tape measurement. Two other trees in this forest were found to be taller than Stratosphere Giant as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jubaea",
        "text": "In 1843, a specimen was grown from seed at Kew Gardens in London, and was moved into the Temperate House in 1863, eventually growing to . It was believed to be the world's tallest indoor plant, until it had to be felled in 2013 because it had outgrown the space available and could not be moved. It has been replaced by seedlings from the original tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of tallest trees",
        "text": "Two main opposing forces affect a tree's height; one pushes it upward while the other holds it down. By analyzing the interplay between these forces in coast redwoods (\"Sequoia sempervirens\"), a team of biologists led by George Koch of Northern Arizona University calculated the theoretical maximum tree height or the point at which opposing forces balance out and a tree stops growing. This point lies somewhere between 122 and 130 m (400 and 426 feet). On the one hand, the researchers found, trees in forests \"desire\" to grow as tall as possible to overtake neighboring trees and reach stronger sunlight. On the other hand, gravity makes it more and more difficult to haul water upwards from the roots to the canopy as the tree grows, and leaves thus become smaller near the top. They discovered that despite the moistness of the ground far below, the leaves at the treetops struggle to get enough water, so they are effectively living in a constant drought. The difficulty of getting water so far up into the sky is what ultimately constrains growth. Other researchers have developed models of maximum height for Coast Douglas-fir (\"Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii\") trees that yield similar estimates of 109\u2013138 meters (357\u2013452 feet), a range that includes the height of the tallest reliably-measured historical (dead) specimen, a 126-meter tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Methuselah (sequoia tree)",
        "text": "When the tree was measured in the 1950s it had a height of about , but at some point prior to the 1980s the top was broken off, probably during a storm. This reduced the height to under , but a new leader at the top has subsequently grown, and the height of the tree continues to increase. Wendell D. Flint in 1987 collected the dimension data given below, which provide a calculated volume that ignores burns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hyperion (tree)",
        "text": "Hyperion is a coast redwood (\"Sequoia sempervirens\") in California considered the world's tallest known living tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sequoia sempervirens",
        "text": "Heights of the tallest coast redwoods are measured yearly by experts. Even with recent discoveries of tall coast redwoods above , it is likely that no taller trees will be discovered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Erik Grant Lea",
        "text": "He planted \"Sequoia gigantea\" trees. One of them has survived to this day and has reached a height of about 4 m. It is not in very good health, but is still growing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pseudotsuga",
        "text": "\"Pseudotsuga menziesii\" var. \"menziesii\" has attained heights of 393 feet (120* m). That was the estimated height of the tallest conifer ever well-documented, the Mineral Tree (Mineral, Washington), measured in 1924 by Dr. Richard E. McArdle, former chief of the U.S. Forest Service. The volume of that tree was . The tallest living individual is the Brummitt (Doerner) Fir in Coos County, Oregon, tall. Only coast redwood and \"Eucalyptus regnans\" reach greater heights based on current knowledge of living trees: 379 and 331 feet (116 and 101* m), respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Helicia nortoniana",
        "text": "It has been recorded growing up to about tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lindsey Creek tree",
        "text": "If these estimates were correct, this would have made it close to twice the size (in volume) of the largest living single-stem tree, the giant sequoia known as General Sherman; nearly triple that of the largest living coast redwood, Grogan's Fault, and having a trunk volume five times larger than the tallest of its species existing today, the Hyperion, only ten feet shorter at 380.1 feet\u2014necessarily calling the measurements into doubt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eucalyptus regnans",
        "text": "Historically, the tallest individual is claimed to be the Ferguson Tree, at , found in the Watts River region of Victoria in 1871 or 1872. This record is often disputed as unreliable, despite first-hand documentary evidence of it being measured on the ground with surveyor's tape by a senior forestry official (see below). Widespread agreement exists, however, that an exceptionally tall individual was reliably measured at by theodolite in 1880 by a surveyor, George Cornthwaite, at Thorpdale, Victoria (the tree is known both as the Cornthwaite or Thorpdale Tree). When it was felled in 1881, Cornthwaite remeasured it on the ground by chain at . The stump is commemorated with a plaque. That tree was about shorter than \"Hyperion\", the world's current tallest living tree, a coast redwood measuring ."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of tallest trees",
        "text": "There are many historical and contemporary claims of superlative height for species beyond those listed in the table above. In most cases, these claims are not supported by detailed methodological documentation or drawn from scientific sources or official \"big tree\" registries. For example, several articles published in 1878 describe an \"Eucalyptus amygdalina\" exceeding and others nearing up to ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sequoia sempervirens",
        "text": "Fairly solid evidence indicates that coast redwoods were the world's largest trees before logging, with numerous historical specimens reportedly over . The theoretical maximum potential height of coast redwoods is thought to be limited to between , as evapotranspiration is insufficient to transport water to leaves beyond this range. Further studies have indicated this cap is eased by fog, which is prevalent in these trees' natural environment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sequoiadendron giganteum",
        "text": "Giant sequoia specimens are the most massive individual trees in the world. They grow to an average height of with trunk diameters ranging from . Record trees have been measured at tall. Trunk diameters of have been claimed via research figures taken out of context. The specimen known to have the greatest diameter at breast height is the General Grant tree at . Between 2014 and 2016, it is claimed that specimens of coast redwood were found to have greater trunk diameters than all known giant sequoias - though this has not been independently verified or affirmed in any academic literature. The trunks of coast redwoods taper at lower heights than those of giant sequoias which have more columnar trunks that maintain larger diameters to greater heights."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Great Sequoia",
        "text": "The tree measured 40 meters of height, 8 meters of circumference of trunk and 16 meters of crown. It was located in the back court of a public building at Magdalena street N\u00ba12, close to Urkide's college and 200 meters from the Florida. It was the oldest living being of Vitoria-Gasteiz until 2014, having been planted in 1860 by D. Juan Ibarrondo. It was one of the \"Colossuses of Vitoria\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hyperion (tree)",
        "text": "Hyperion was discovered August 25, 2006, by naturalists Chris Atkins and Michael Taylor. The tree was verified as standing tall by Stephen Sillett. It was found in a remote area of Redwood National Park purchased in 1978. It is estimated to contain of wood. The park also houses the second and third known tallest trees, named Helios and Icarus. Sillett estimates Hyperion to be 600 years old while others report it to be roughly 700\u2013800 years old."
      },
      {
        "title": "Helicia recurva",
        "text": "They have been recorded growing up to about tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agathis australis",
        "text": "\"Agathis australis\" can attain heights of 40 to 50 metres and trunk diameters big enough to rival Californian sequoias at over 5 metres. The largest kauri trees did not attain as much height or girth at ground level but contain more timber in their cylindrical trunks than comparable Sequoias with their tapering stems."
      },
      {
        "title": "El Palo Alto",
        "text": "In 1776, the tree was measured at 135.7 feet with a circumference of 15.1 feet. In 1814, measurement found a height of 162.2 feet. However, from 1865 to 1955, the tree's health was in decline exhibiting sparse branching and foliage. In 1926, fearing the tree's loss, a bronze plaque commemorating the tree was set in a granite boulder by the local Native Sons of the Golden West. In 1951 its height was 134.6 feet, in 1977 its height was reduced to 126 feet to remove the dead top, and again in 1999 where it still stands at nearly 110 feet."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of largest plants",
        "text": "This list lists the largest plants by family.\n:The conifer division of plants include the tallest organism, and the largest single-stemmed plants by wood volume, wood mass, and main stem circumference. The largest by wood volume and mass is the giant sequoia (\"Sequoiadendron giganteum\"), native to Sierra Nevada and California; it grows to an average height of and in diameter. Specimens have been recorded up to in height and (not the same individual) in diameter; the largest individual still standing is the General Sherman tree, with a volume of .\n:Although typically not so large in volume, the closely related coast redwood (\"Sequoia sempervirens\") of the Pacific coast in North America is taller, reaching a maximum height of \u2013 the Hyperion Tree, which ranks it as the world's tallest known living tree and organism (not including its roots under ground). The largest historical specimen (and largest known single-stem organism) was the Lindsey Creek tree, a coast redwood with a minimum trunk volume of over and a mass of over . It fell during a storm in 1905.\n:The conifers also include the largest tree by circumference in the world, the Montezuma Cypress (\"Taxodium mucronatum\"). The thickest recorded tree, found in Mexico, is called \u00c1rbol del Tule, with a circumference of at its base and a diameter of at above ground level; its height is over . These trees dwarf any other non-communal organism, as even the largest blue whales are likely to weigh one-sixteenth as much as a large giant sequoia or coast redwood. See list of superlative trees for other tree records.\n:This is the most diverse and numerous division of plants, with upwards of 400,000 species.\n*Clonal colonies\n:For two-dimensional area, the largest known clonal flowering plant, and indeed largest plant and organism, is a grove of male Aspen in Utah, nicknamed Pando (\"Populus tremuloides\"). The grove is connected by a single root system, and each stem above the ground is genetically identical. It is estimated to weigh approximately , and covers .\n:Another form of flowering plant that rivals Pando as the largest organism on earth in breadth, if not mass, is the giant marine plant, \"Posidonia oceanica\", discovered in the Mediterranean near the Balearic Islands, Spain. Its length is about . Although this plant has not been proven to be a single connected organism, all the samples do have the same DNA. It may also be the oldest living organism in the world, with an estimated age of 100,000 years.\n*\"Individual\" plants\n:By a stricter definition of individuality, and using contending measures of size, \"Ficus benghalensis\", the giant banyan trees of India are the largest trees in the world. In these trees, a network of interconnected stems and branches has grown entirely by vegetative, \"branching\" propagation. One individual, Thimmamma Marrimanu, in Andhra Pradesh, covers 19,107 square metres, making it the largest single tree by two-dimensional canopy coverage area. This tree is also the world's largest known tree by a related measure, perimeter length, with a distance of 846 metres required to walk around the edge of the canopy. Thimmama Marrimanu is likely also the world's largest tree by three-dimensional canopy volume.\n:The tallest flowering plant species known is \"Eucalyptus regnans\", of which a living specimen has been measured at in Southern Tasmania. The longest vine to be accurately measured is \"Rattan Manau\" (\"Calamus manan\") of the palm family (historically Palmae, but now often Arecaceae) and native to the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Java. One unbranched stem at Buitenzorg (now Bogor) Botanic Garden, Java was carefully measured to a length of .\n:Of herbaceous plants, plants without persistent woody growth above ground, Musa ingens is the largest. It can reach about 15 meters tall with a pseudostem diameter of around a meter. It also holds the record for the longest petioles or leaf stalks of any plant.\n:Bamboos are a tribe of flowering perennial evergreen plants in the grass family Poaceae, subfamily Bambusoideae, tribe Bambuseae. Dendrocalamus is a tropical genus of giant clumping bamboo found throughout Southeast Asia. It includes \"Dendrocalamus giganteus\", which can reach heights up to 30 m.\n:Other records among flowering plants include, the title of largest flower, which belongs to the species \"Rafflesia arnoldii\". One of these flowers can reach a diameter of and weigh up to . The largest unbranched inflorescence, resembling (but not qualifying as) a giant flower, belongs to the titan arum (\"Amorphophallus titanum\"), reaching almost in height. The absolute largest inflorescence, at up to long, is borne by the talipot palm (\"Corypha umbraculifera\") of India. The largest leaves belong to either \"Gunnera manicata\", \"Raphia regalis\", \"Manicaria saccifera\", \"Marojejya darianii\", \"Johannesteijsmannia altifrons\", or \"Victoria amazonica\", depending on criteria.\n:The largest single-stemmed species of cycad is Hope's cycad (\"Lepidozamia hopei\"), endemic to the Australian state of Queensland. The largest examples of this species have been over tall and have had a circumference of ."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of superlative trees",
        "text": "The heights of the tallest trees in the world have been the subject of considerable dispute and much exaggeration. Modern verified measurements with laser rangefinders or with tape drop measurements made by tree climbers (such as those carried out by canopy researchers), have shown that some older tree height measurement methods are often unreliable, sometimes producing exaggerations of 5% to 15% or more above the real height. Historical claims of trees growing to , and even , are now largely disregarded as unreliable, and attributed to human error."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of tallest trees",
        "text": "The heights of the tallest trees in the world have been the subject of considerable dispute and much exaggeration. Modern verified measurements with laser rangefinders or with tape drop measurements made by tree climbers (such as those carried out by canopy researchers), have shown that some older tree height measurement methods are often unreliable, sometimes producing exaggerations of 5% to 15% or more above the real height."
      },
      {
        "title": "Methuselah (sequoia tree)",
        "text": "In 2013 it was found to have in tree height measurement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Centurion (tree)",
        "text": "Two more recent measurements indicated that the tree was growing, albeit very slowly. In January 2014 the tree was climbed and the tape drop indicated the tree had grown to 99.82m. However, a further tape drop done in 2016 obtained the slightly lower height of 99.67m. Centurion was re-measured again by ground laser in December 2018 and was found to have possibly reached 100.5 meters in height."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinus lambertiana",
        "text": "The sugar pine is the tallest and largest \"Pinus\" species, commonly growing to tall, exceptionally to tall, with a trunk diameter of , exceptionally . The tallest recorded specimen is tall, is located in Yosemite National Park, and was discovered in 2015. The second tallest recorded was \"Yosemite Giant\", an tall specimen in Yosemite National Park, which died from a bark beetle attack in 2007. The tallest known living specimens today grow in southern Oregon and Yosemite National Park: one in Umpqua National Forest is tall and another in Siskiyou National Forest is tall. Yosemite National Park also has the third tallest, measured to tall as of June 2013; the Rim Fire affected this specimen, but it survived."
      },
      {
        "title": "Old Survivor",
        "text": "Old Survivor has a unique shaggy appearance with several large branches drooping outward from its sparse upper crown. The tree is much taller than the surrounding trees, all of which are second growth. Despite its name, the tree, which dates to 1549\u20131554, is actually young for an old-growth coastal redwood, many of which live between 1200 and 1800 years old or more. Between 7-12 years before Old Survivor was seeded, Spanish/Portuguese explorer Juan Rodr\u00edguez Cabrillo had led the first expedition to explore the coast of what is now California."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samanea saman",
        "text": "During his 1799\u20131804 travels in the Americas, Alexander von Humboldt encountered a giant saman tree near Maracay, Venezuela. He measured the circumference of the parasol-shaped crown at 576\u00a0ft (about 180.8 m), its diameter was around 190\u00a0ft (about 59.6 m), on a trunk at 9\u00a0ft (about 2.8 m) in diameter and reaching just 60\u00a0ft (nearly 19 m) in height. Humboldt mentioned the tree was reported to have changed little since the Spanish colonization of Venezuela; he estimated it to be as old as the famous Canary Islands dragon tree (\"Dracaena draco\") of Icod de los Vinos on Tenerife."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lindsey Creek tree",
        "text": "Skip Johnson, a Fieldbrook logger interviewed in 1971, testified that he witnessed the Lindsey Creek Tree after it had fallen. He reported it as the tallest tree in Fieldbrook. He stated that a family member measured its diameter at at off the ground, and at off the ground, and its total height slightly exceeded . Fairly solid evidence indicates that coast redwoods were the world's largest trees before logging, with numerous historical specimens reportedly over . Hyperion, another coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), currently the tallest, is , which also makes it the world's tallest known living tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stratosphere Giant",
        "text": "The Stratosphere Giant was once considered the tallest tree in the world. It was discovered in July 2000 growing along Bull Creek in Humboldt Redwoods State Park by Chris Atkins, measuring 112.34\u00a0meters (368.6\u00a0ft) tall. The tree has continued to grow and measured 113.11\u00a0m (371.1\u00a0ft) in 2010. It is a specimen of the species \"Sequoia\u00a0sempervirens\", the Coast Redwood. The tree features three prominent burls on the southwestern side of its trunk and is surrounded by a large number of trees of almost equal size. In an effort to avoid damage to the tree's shallow roots by tourism, its exact location was never disclosed to the public."
      },
      {
        "title": "Helicia blakei",
        "text": "They have been recorded growing up to about tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tetraxylopteris",
        "text": "The complex three-dimensional branching pattern imples that both species would have been open bushy plants. The exact height cannot be determined from the fossils, which consist of broken-off portions. The longest known section of \"T. schmidtii\" is 50\u00a0cm \u2013 rather less for \"T. reposana\", which may nevertheless have been the taller species. An overall height of a few metres has been proposed. Hammond and Berry suggest that \"T. reposana\" may have grown in dense thickets so that plants supported one another."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Taylor (forester)",
        "text": "Redwoods: Helios and Icarus were discovered in 2006, shortly before Hyperion. Hyperion was the record height coast redwood that prompted National Geographic Society and Save-the-Redwoods League to coordinate a documentary. These are just 3 of many coast redwoods over feet which Michael Taylor discovered. The details are chronicled at www.talltreesclub.org"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sequoiadendron giganteum",
        "text": "The tallest giant sequoia ever measured outside of the United States is a specimen planted near Ribeauvill\u00e9 in France in 1856 and measured in 2014 at a height between and at age 158 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human height",
        "text": "In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, people of European descent in North America were far taller than those in Europe and were the tallest in the world. The original indigenous population of Plains Native Americans was also among the tallest populations of the world at the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lynn Valley Tree",
        "text": "It was one of the tallest trees ever recorded, perhaps exceeded only by a small number of Australian mountain ash (\"Eucalyptus regnans\"). A Coast Douglas-fir in Washington State, the Nooksack Giant, may have been taller, but the measurement of the Lynn Valley Tree's height is considered by some more reliable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii",
        "text": "The tallest well-documented conifer was , the Mineral Tree (Mineral, Washington), a coast Douglas fir, measured in 1924 by Dr. Richard E. McArdle, former chief of the U.S. Forest Service. The volume of that tree was . Research suggests Douglas fir could grow to a maximum height of between , at which point water supply would fail."
      },
      {
        "title": "Redwood National and State Parks",
        "text": "Before September 2006, the tallest living specimen known was the Stratosphere Giant, outside the park in Humboldt Redwoods State Park, which was in 2004. For many years, one specimen simply named Tall Tree in Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park and within the RNSP was measured at , but the top of the tree was reported to have died in the 1990s. One tree that fell in 1991 was reported to be . Only the giant sequoia has more mass. The largest redwood by volume is the 42,500\u00a0cubic foot (1,205\u00a0m\u00b3) Lost Monarch, located in Jedediah Smith Redwoods State Park. Mature Coast redwoods live an average of 500\u2013700\u00a0years and a few are documented to be 2,000\u00a0years old, making them some of the longest-living organisms on earth. They are highly resistant to disease, due to a thick protective bark and high tannin content. Redwoods prefer sheltered slopes, slightly inland and near water sources such as rivers and streams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Helicia lamingtoniana",
        "text": "They have been recorded growing up to about tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "General Sherman (tree)",
        "text": "While it is the largest tree known, the General Sherman Tree is neither the tallest known living tree on Earth (that distinction belongs to the Hyperion tree, a Coast redwood), nor is it the widest (both the largest cypress and largest baobab have a greater diameter), nor is it the oldest known living tree on Earth (that distinction belongs to a Great Basin bristlecone pine). With a height of , a diameter of , an estimated bole volume of , and an estimated age of 2,3002,700 years, it is nevertheless among the tallest, widest, and longest-lived of all trees on the planet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Genesis (tree)",
        "text": "By 2013, the tree had grown to 86.2 meters (282.8 feet) in height and attained a girth of 24.04 meters (78.9 feet) at 1.37 meters (4.5 feet) above the base."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii",
        "text": "Coast Douglas-fir is the second-tallest conifer in the world (after coast redwood), and the third-tallest of all trees, (after Eucalyptus regnans). Currently, coast Douglas-fir trees or more in height and in diameter are common in old growth stands, and maximum heights of and diameters up to have been documented. The tallest living specimen is the Doerner Fir, (previously known as the Brummit fir), tall, at East Fork Brummit Creek in Coos County, Oregon, the stoutest is the Queets Fir, diameter, in the Queets River valley, Olympic National Park, Washington. The talles specimen ever was probably the Nooksack Giant, with a height of 142 metres, but this is probably overestimated. Coast Douglas-fir commonly lives more than 500 years and occasionally more than 1,000 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Taylor (forester)",
        "text": "Michael W. Taylor (born 25 April 1966, in Los Angeles) is a leading discoverer of champion and tallest trees - most notably coast redwoods. In 2006, Taylor co-discovered the tallest known tree in the world, a coast redwood (\"Sequoia sempervirens\") now named \"Hyperion\". He also discovered \"Helios\" and \"Icarus\", the 2nd and 3rd tallest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Redwoods of the Otway Ranges",
        "text": "In 1977, the Forests Commission remeasured the trees (then aged 41 years), finding a height of 40.3 metres and a diameter of 85\u00a0cm for the largest tree. When measured in 2004 (aged 68 years) the trees had reached nearly 60 metres in height and 107\u00a0cm in diameter, with the largest tree on the plot being 184.9\u00a0cm. The initial plot of 461 trees had also thinned down to 220 stems since planting in 1936. Some had died, some had been struck by lightning, some had been removed or cut down, and others had fallen down. The planting rows, where trees were originally spaced at of 3.3 metres, are still visible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Montgomery Woods State Natural Reserve",
        "text": "Between December 1996 and August 2000, the tallest tree in Montgomery Woods, named the Mendocino Tree, was the world's tallest known tree. It was displaced by the discovery of a number of taller trees in Humboldt Redwoods State Park and later Redwood National Park in Humboldt County. The tree is one of dozens of similar height in the grove, and was never specifically marked in order to protect the tree. Earlier well-publicized candidates for the world's tallest tree suffered damage from stresses resulting from crowds of tourists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Helicia grayi",
        "text": "They have been recorded growing up to about tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eucalyptus",
        "text": "Several eucalypt species are among the tallest trees in the world. \"Eucalyptus regnans\", the Australian 'mountain ash', is the tallest of all flowering plants (angiosperms); today, the tallest measured specimen named Centurion is tall. Coast Douglas-fir is about the same height; only coast redwood is taller, and they are conifers (gymnosperms). Six other eucalypt species exceed 80 metres in height: \"Eucalyptus obliqua\", \"Eucalyptus delegatensis\", \"Eucalyptus diversicolor\", \"Eucalyptus nitens\", \"Eucalyptus globulus\" and \"Eucalyptus viminalis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hyperion (tree)",
        "text": "Researchers have said that woodpecker activity at the top may have prevented the tree from growing taller."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sequoia sempervirens",
        "text": "Sequoia sempervirens () is the sole living species of the genus \"Sequoia\" in the cypress family Cupressaceae (formerly treated in Taxodiaceae). Common names include coast redwood, coastal redwood, and California redwood. It is an evergreen, long-lived, monoecious tree living 1,200\u20132,200 years or more. This species includes the tallest living trees on Earth, reaching up to in height (without the roots) and up to in diameter at breast height. These trees are also among the oldest living things on Earth. Before commercial logging and clearing began by the 1850s, this massive tree occurred naturally in an estimated along much of coastal California (excluding southern California where rainfall is not sufficient) and the southwestern corner of coastal Oregon within the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quercus castaneifolia",
        "text": "A specimen of Quercus castaneifolia found in the Hyrcanian forest of northern Iran on 29. April 2021 by Alireza Naqinezhad is considered to be the tallest oak in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prometheus (tree)",
        "text": "Currey originally estimated the tree was at least 4844\u00a0years old. A few years later, this was increased to 4862\u00a0by Donald Graybill of the University of Arizona's Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research. These ring counts were done on a trunk cross-section taken about 2.5\u00a0m (8\u00a0feet) above the original germination point of the tree, because the innermost rings were missing below that point. Adjusting Graybill's figure by adding the estimated number of years required to reach that height, plus a correction for the estimated number of missing rings (not uncommon in trees at the tree line), it is probable that the tree was at least 5000\u00a0years old when it fell. That made it the oldest known unitary (i.e. non-clonal) organism at the time, exceeding even the Methuselah tree of the White Mountains' Schulman Grove, in California, though Methuselah was later redated to 4850 years old."
      },
      {
        "title": "Centurion (tree)",
        "text": "The tallest known coast Douglas fir is now listed at 99.7 m tall and comes a close third or fourth."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of tallest trees",
        "text": "The following are the tallest reliably-measured specimens from the top species. This table contains information on all species for which at least one specimen has been reliably measured at 80 meters (262 feet) or taller."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tree measurement",
        "text": "The oldest known tree is a Great Basin bristlecone pine, Pinus longaeva, growing in the White Mountains of eastern California. The tree was cored by Edmund Schulman in the late 1950s, but was never dated. Recently Tom Harlan completed the dating of the old core sample. The tree is still alive and is 5062 years old as of the 2012 growing season. Older ages are given for sprouts growing from roots or clonal colonies, but these values are not from an individual stem that has persisted for that duration. Whether these are considered to be older trees or not is dependent on the definition of the term 'tree'."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Lobb",
        "text": "In the autumn of 1851, he moved north collecting large quantities of seed from the sugar pine (\"Pinus lambertiana\"), and the western white pine (\"Pinus monticola\"); he also collected sackfuls of seed from the world's tallest tree, the California redwood (\"Sequoia sempervirens\"), which had been first introduced by Patrick Matthew to Britain in 1853."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taller Boricua",
        "text": "Taller Boricua\n--Recent developments.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Humboldt Redwoods State Park",
        "text": "Before the discovery of Hyperion, the tallest redwood ever measured was the Dyerville Giant, also in Humboldt Redwoods State Park. It was high when it fell in March 1991. It was estimated to be 1,600 years old. The Dyerville Giant can be seen on Founders Grove Nature Trail, which honors the creators of Save the Redwoods League. Also in this grove is Founders Tree, which is tall with circumference of ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gossia gonoclada",
        "text": "The tree may grow up to in height."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sequoia sempervirens",
        "text": "A tree reportedly in length was felled in Sonoma County by the Murphy Brothers saw mill in the 1870s, another claimed to be and in diameter was cut down near Eureka in 1914, and the Lindsey Creek tree was documented to have a height of when it was uprooted and felled by a storm in 1905. A tree reportedly tall was felled in November 1886 by the Elk River Mill and Lumber Co. in Humboldt County, yielding 79,736 marketable board feet from 21 cuts. In 1893, a Redwood cut at Eel River, near Scotia, reportedly measured in length, and in girth. However, limited evidence corroborates these historical measurements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sequoia sempervirens",
        "text": "Diameter is measured at above average ground level (at breast height). Details of the precise locations for most tallest trees were not announced to the general public for fear of causing damage to the trees and the surrounding habitat. The tallest coast redwood easily accessible to the public is the National Geographic Tree, immediately trailside in the Tall Trees Grove of Redwood National Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human height",
        "text": "Attributed as a significant reason for the trend of increasing height in parts of Europe are the egalitarian populations where proper medical care and adequate nutrition are relatively equally distributed. The uneven distribution of nutritional resources makes it more plausible for individuals with better access to resources to grow taller, while the other population group who does not have so much of a nutritious food availability height growth is not as promising. Average height in a nation is correlated with protein quality. Nations that consume more protein in the form of meat, dairy, eggs, and fish tend to be taller, while those that obtain more protein from cereals tend to be shorter. Therefore, populations with high cattle per capita and high consumption of dairy live longer and are taller. Historically, this can be seen in the cases of the United States, Argentina, New Zealand and Australia in the beginning of the 19th century. Moreover, when the production and consumption of milk and beef is taken to consideration, it can be seen why the Germanic people who lived outside of the \u201cimperium Romanum\u201d were taller than those who lived at the heart of the Empire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homo ergaster",
        "text": "\"H. ergaster\" individuals were significantly taller than their ancestors. Whereas Lucy, a famous \"Australopithecus\" fossil, would only have been about tall at her death, Turkana Boy was about tall and would probably have reached or more if he had survived to adulthood. Adult \"H. ergaster\" are believed to have ranged in size from about tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cupressaceae",
        "text": "The world's largest (\"Sequoiadendron giganteum\") and tallest (\"Sequoia sempervirens\") trees belong to the Cupressaceae, as do six of the ten longest-lived tree species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clement Oak",
        "text": "The girth of the tree (2011) at was . The estimated height was with an overall spread of over ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Talleres",
        "text": "Talleres\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Avenue of the Giants",
        "text": "Though not the oldest redwood in the forest, this large tree is at age millennium, and is currently around tall, though originally it was much taller. It has survived not only the ravages of time but also the 1964 flood of the area, a 1908 attempt at logging, and a direct lightning strike which removed the top of the tree (making its original height close to 300\u00a0ft). It is from its age and the perceived hardiness to the fates that the tree derives its name. Markers are visible on the tree, denoting the heights of where the loggers' axes and the floodwaters struck the tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sequoiadendron giganteum",
        "text": "Numerous giant sequoia were planted in Italy from 1860 through 1905. Several regions contain specimens that range from in height. The largest tree is in Roccavione, in the Piedmont, with a basal circumference of . One notable tree survived a tall flood wave in 1963 that was caused by a landslide at Vajont Dam. There are numerous giant sequoia in parks and reserves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boole (tree)",
        "text": "The Boole Tree, by far the largest giant sequoia in Converse Basin Grove, was named around 1895 by A.H. Sweeny, a Fresno doctor, after Franklin A. Boole, a supervisor of the logging operation who spared the tree due to its great size. Before 1931, it was thought by many to be the largest tree in the world (although the General Grant Tree was more popularly known as the largest tree in the world at that time), but it is now known as the sixth largest tree, after five other giant sequoias: the General Sherman tree, the General Grant, the President tree, the Lincoln tree, and the Stagg tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of tallest trees",
        "text": "List of tallest trees\n--Tallest living individuals by species.\n--Maximum limits of tree height.\n--Other claims of superlative height.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Petersianthus quadrialatus",
        "text": "Currently known tallest \"Petersianthus quadrialatus\" growing near national highway, in the outskirts of San Francisco town, Alegria municipality in the northeastern part of Mindanao island. The tree is meters high, in diameter, and estimated to be ~ 300 years old."
      },
      {
        "title": "El Palo Alto",
        "text": "In July 2016, El Palo Alto was 110 feet (33.5 meters) in height, down from 162.2 feet (49.4 meters) in 1814. Its top progressively died from 1865 to 1955 from lowering of the water table so that its roots could no longer reach sustenance. The landmark redwood is 90\u00a0inches (2.3 meters) in diameter, and has a crown spread of 40 feet (12 meters). In 1955, an increment boring of the tree was taken and the tree's age was accurately determined to be 1,015 years. El Palo Alto originally had 3 trunks. It is unknown what happened to the first trunk; it remains as a stump attached to the current trunk. The second trunk fell in 1886, also for unknown reasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lynn Valley Tree",
        "text": "The Lynn Valley Tree was the tallest known Coast Douglas-fir (\"Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii\"), at a measured height of . It was cut down in 1902. The tree grew in Lynn Valley, now part of metropolitan Vancouver, B.C. Since that time, in the lower valley where the tree grew, the entire old-growth forest has been logged."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinus ponderosa",
        "text": "The National Register of Big Trees lists a ponderosa pine that is tall and in circumference. In January 2011, a Pacific ponderosa pine in the Rogue River\u2013Siskiyou National Forest in Oregon was measured with a laser to be high. The measurement was performed by Michael Taylor and Mario Vaden, a professional arborist from Oregon. The tree was climbed on October\u00a013, 2011, by Ascending The Giants (a tree-climbing company in Portland, Oregon) and directly measured with tape-line at high. As of 2015, a \"Pinus lambertiana\" specimen was measured at , which surpassed the ponderosa pine previously considered the world's tallest pine tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laysan fan palm",
        "text": "The palms were known to be up to 15 feet tall. Schauinsland noticed stumps with a diameter up to 50 cm. He was told that the palms had huge fan-shaped leaves, long inflorescences, and long fruit racemes, leading to him identifying it as a \"Pritchardia\". The species was once widespread on the island. Dense forests were hypothesized to exist based on historic palynology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sequoiadendron giganteum",
        "text": "Some sequoias, such as the Mother of the Forest, were undoubtedly far larger than any living tree today. However, as of 2009, the top ten largest giant sequoias sorted by volume of their trunks are:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Quercus alba",
        "text": "\"Quercus alba\" typically reaches heights of at maturity, and its canopy can become quite massive as its lower branches are apt to extend far out laterally, parallel to the ground. Trees growing in a forest will become much taller than ones in an open area which develop to be short and massive. The Mingo Oak was the tallest known white oak at before it was felled in 1938. It is not unusual for a white oak tree to be as wide as it is tall, but specimens growing at high altitudes may only become small shrubs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mariposa Grove",
        "text": "The giant sequoia named Grizzly Giant is between probably 1900\u20132400 years old: the oldest tree in the grove. It has a volume of , and is counted as the 25th largest tree in the world. It is tall, and has a heavily buttressed base with a basal circumference of 28\u00a0m (92\u00a0ft) or a diameter of ; above the buttresses at 2.4 m above ground, the circumference is only 23 m. Grizzly Giant's first branch from the base is 2\u00a0m (6\u00a0ft) in diameter. Another tree, the Wawona Tree, had a tunnel cut through it in the nineteenth century that was wide enough for horse-drawn carriages and early automobiles to drive through. Weakened by the large opening at its base, the tree fell down in a storm in 1969."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colossal (chestnut)",
        "text": "(Castanea crenata) tree. The original Colossal tree and its pollinizer were planted in approximately 1888-1890 by Benjamin Tonella in Nevada City, California"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of tallest trees",
        "text": "This is a list of the tallest known tree species, as reflected by measurements of the tallest reliably-measured individual specimen. Although giant trees grow in both tropical and temperate regions, they are very restricted geographically and phylogenetically. All the known giant trees occur in mesic climates, and nearly all of them are found in three regions: western North America from California to British Columbia, Southeast Asia (especially Borneo) and southeastern Australia (especially Tasmania)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samanea saman",
        "text": "The tree, called \"Sam\u00e1n de G\u00fcere\" (transcribed \"Zamang del Guayre\" by von Humboldt) still stands today, and is a Venezuelan national treasure. Just like the dragon tree on Tenerife, the age of the saman in Venezuela is rather indeterminate. As von Humboldt's report makes clear, according to local tradition, it would be older than 500 years today, which is rather outstanding by the genus' standards. It is certain, however, the tree is quite more than 200 years old today, but it is one exceptional individual; even the well-learned von Humboldt could not believe it was actually the same species as the saman trees he knew from the greenhouses at Sch\u00f6nbrunn Castle. A famous specimen called the \"Brahmaputra Rain Tree\" located at Guwahati on the banks of the Brahmaputra River in Assam, India has the thickest trunk of any Saman; approximately twelve feet (3.66\u00a0meters) diameter at breast height (DBH). The size of the pollen is around 119 microns and it is polyad of 24 to 32 grains."
      },
      {
        "title": "Virola pavonis",
        "text": "The tree grows to a height of about 15-30m tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii",
        "text": ", coast Douglas fir was the second-tallest conifer in the world (after coast redwood). Extant coast Douglas fir trees or more in height and in diameter are common in old growth stands, and maximum heights of and diameters up to have been documented. The tallest living specimen is the \"Doerner Fir\", previously known as the Brummit Fir, tall, at East Fork Brummit Creek in Coos County, Oregon, the stoutest is the \"Queets Fir\", in diameter, in the Queets River valley of Olympic National Park in Washington. The largest at is the Red Creek fir in British Columbia, Canada. Douglas firs commonly live more than 500 years and occasionally more than 1,000 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dendrosenecio",
        "text": "tall enough to reach above the tree line"
      },
      {
        "title": "Menara (tree)",
        "text": "Menara was discovered in August 2018. A research team scanned the tree in August 2018 with a terrestrial laser scanner and drone flights to produce a 3D model. On January 6, 2019, Unding Jami and his team established a measurement for the tree by climbing it and measuring its height using a tape measure. Menara is likely the tallest flowering plant in the world as it is taller than the previous record holder, a mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) in Tasmania that may be 100.5 m tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Helicia australasica",
        "text": "They have been recorded growing up to about tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Globularia amygdalifolia",
        "text": "No significant variation has been observed. Old plants higher than 0.5\u20131 m are extremely rare today. Large plants up to 2 m are only known from outer escarpments of the central caldeira on Fogo as scattered relicts of a scrub vegetation type with old individuals of \"Artemisia gorgonum\" and \"Echium vulcanorum\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerrad\u00e3o",
        "text": "Trees have an average height of ."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of largest giant sequoias",
        "text": "The giant sequoia (\"Sequoiadendron giganteum\") is the world's most massive tree, and arguably the largest living organism on Earth. It is neither the tallest extant species of tree (that distinction belongs to the coast redwood), nor is it the widest (that distinction belongs to the baobab tree or Montezuma cypresses), nor is it the longest-lived (that distinction belongs to the Great Basin bristlecone pine). However, with a height of or more, a circumference of or more, an estimated bole volume of up to , and a documented lifespan of 3266 years, the giant sequoia is among the tallest, widest, and longest-lived of all organisms on Earth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great sugi of Kayano",
        "text": "The tree stands tall. At the base, it measures in circumference and across. At chest height, it is around and across. The tree splits into two trunks above ground level. In 1928, Professor Manabu Miyoshi of Tokyo Imperial University estimated the age of the tree to be 2,300 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uzhhorod National University",
        "text": "The University Botanical Garden grows a giant redwood, the tallest and one of the oldest trees on Earth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ulmus glabra 'Cornuta'",
        "text": "A very large tree survives at Meise, in Belgium; measured in 2002, it had attained a height of 35\u00a0m, and a d.b.h. of at 1.2\u00a0m. Several examples survive along Milletstraat in Amsterdam. Three heavily pruned trees, closely planted and now fused together as one stand behind the Centraal Museum in Utrecht, Netherlands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canarium vitiense",
        "text": "Full grown trees may reach up to tall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brenden Adams",
        "text": "Adams' growth curve almost mimics that of Robert Wadlow, the tallest man in recorded history. Some doctors estimate that Adams would have been over tall if he had kept growing constantly. After endocrinologist Dr. Gad Kletter's treatment with high-dose testosterone, his growth was arrested."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How tall is the tree \"Castanea sativa\"?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "C. sativa can grow to a height of 20\u201335 m (66\u2013115 ft)."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the tallest tree in the world?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Hyperion is a coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) in California considered the world's tallest known living tree."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any trees that are no longer alive that were known to have been taller?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "A. mirabilis are known from large amounts of very well preserved silicified wood and cones from the Cerro Cuadrado Petrified Forest, including tree trunks that reached 100 m (330 ft) in height in life."
    ],
    "topic": "Castanea sativa",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Araucaria mirabilis:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Araucaria mirabilis"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"A. mirabilis\" are known from large amounts of very well preserved silicified wood and cones from the Cerro Cuadrado Petrified Forest, including tree trunks that reached in height in life. The site was buried by a volcanic eruption during the Middle Jurassic, approximately 160 million years ago."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "Another serious pest which is difficult to control is the gall wasp (\"Dryocosmus kuriphylus\") which was recently introduced in Southern Europe, originating from Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sierras de Cazorla, Segura y Las Villas Natural Park",
        "text": "Equally, plant species have suffered epidemics that have damaged the health of extensive forest areas, such as the pine processionary (\"Thaumetopoea pityocampa\"), a moth that does major damage to conifers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Araucaria hunsteinii",
        "text": "\"Barinae\" spp., \"Setomorpha rutella\", Microlepidopteras, \"Cacatua galerita\" (the Sulphur-crested cockatoo) are pests of pine nut production in \"A. hunsteinii\". \"C. galerita\" may cause half of the seed crop to be lost in a year, mostly by trying to eat cones that are not yet ready. However, another source describes \"A. hunsteinii\" as suffering few pests \"in plantations\", and therefore substituting \"A. cunninghamii\" in plantations that suffer more from pests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "Castanea sativa\n--Names.\n--Description.\n----Reproduction.\n--Habitat.\n--Pests and diseases.\n--Historic development.\n--Distribution.\n--Uses.\n--Cultivation.\n----Cultivation forms.\n----Requirements.\n----Harvest.\n----Post-harvest treatment.\n--Food.\n----Food constituents.\n----Effect of processing.\n--Wood.\n--Cultivars.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicia sativa",
        "text": "Pests that attack this crop include the powdery mildew fungus \"Erysiphe pisi\", the pea aphid \"Acyrthosiphon pisum\", the corn earworm (\"Heliothis zea\"), the fall armyworm (\"Spodoptera frugiperda\"), and spider mites of genus \"Tetranychus\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Valle Verzasca",
        "text": "The Romans introduced and comparable to the tropical wood species, \"Castanea sativa\" is in the southern part of the valley, below , the dominant species. It is no longer actively cultivated, but favors the further diffusion, and studies suggest taking advantage of the valuable wood of chestnut as a valuable wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crassula ovata",
        "text": "Scale insects are common pests of \"Crassula ovata\" and can cause deformation of the plant during growth. An infestation can be eliminated by killing each insect with a cotton bud or brush that has been soaked in rubbing alcohol. This process is repeated daily until all mealybugs have been killed, as well as new insects that may still hatch after the mealybugs living on the plant have been killed. Aphids are also common pests, but they tend to infest the stems of flowers. Spider mites can also cause problems. Exposure to sap or leaves can cause dermatitis in humans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elaeis guineensis",
        "text": "\"Phytophthora palmivora\" has caused a loss of of \"E. guineensis\" near San Lorenzo in Ecuador. The protozoa cause bud rot (Spanish: pudrici\u00f3n del cogollo). In reaction, growers there replanted using a hybrid of \"E. guineensis\" and \"E. oleifera\", the South American oil palm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Picea mariana",
        "text": "The spruce budworm, a moth larva, causes defoliation, which kills trees if it occurs several years in a row, though black spruce is less susceptible than white spruce or balsam fir. Trees most at risk are those growing with balsam fir and white spruce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bombus dahlbomii",
        "text": "In regions of South America (Chile, Patagonia), \"B. dahlbomii\" coexists and competes with two other species, \"Bombus terrestris\" and \"Bombus ruderatus,\" that are congeneric with \"B. dahlbomii\". \"B. terrestris\" and \"B. ruderatus\" were introduced into Patagonia for commercial purposes 30 years ago in order to increase the seed and fruit yields of cultivated crops in orchards and farms. At the time of introduction, the invasive potential of \"B. terrestris\" and \"B. ruderatus\" was severely underestimated and large populations were released without much regulation. Over the past three decades, \"B. terrestris\" and \"B. ruderatus\" have had a negative effect on the propagation and survival of the native \"B. dahlbomii\". The southward spread of these alien species at rates of up to 200 kilometers per year mirrors the simultaneous retraction and decline of \"B. dahlbomii\" populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gratiana boliviana",
        "text": "The plant is a noxious weed producing large, dense, prickly thickets that outcompete native plants and disturb wildlife habitat. It reduces the cattle carrying capacity of pasture land, costing ranchers millions of dollars in Florida alone. It is an alternate host for several viruses of crop plants, including cucumber mosaic virus, potato leafroll virus, potato virus Y, tobacco etch virus, and tomato mosaic virus. It hosts pest insects such as the silverleaf whitefly, Colorado potato beetle, tomato hornworm, tobacco hornworm, and southern green stinkbug."
      },
      {
        "title": "Consolea corallicola",
        "text": "This \"is an extremely rare species\" that is \"near extinction\", according to many conservation sources, considering that it \"may very well be the most endangered plant in the United States\". The worst immediate threat to the species today is \"Cactoblastis cactorum\", an invasive, non-native species of moth which eats cacti. It is also threatened by hurricane activity and sea-level rise, which can affect it because it lives near sea level. It has trouble reproducing because one population is all male and can only reproduce vegetatively. It is also suffering from a rot disease. Other threats include scale insects, poaching and habitat destruction and degradation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aonidiella aurantii",
        "text": "Although citrus is the main crop attacked by red scale, it can also be found on species from at least seventy-seven plant families and has been successfully reared in the laboratory on potato tubers and pumpkin. Scale insects of all ages feed by sucking sap. They are found on all parts of the plant but are most noticeable on the fruit. Heavy infestations may cause discoloration, shoot distortion and leaf drop. The fruit may become pitted and unmarketable. The tree's bark may split and the twigs and branches may die back and this sometimes results in the death of the tree. Chemical control is difficult because the insects are protected by their hard waxy covers. They are also becoming resistant to many insecticides and indiscriminate use of pesticides has adverse effects on their natural predators."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pammene fasciana",
        "text": "The larvae feed on \"Castanea\", \"Fagus\" and \"Quercus\" species. It is considered a serious pest on sweet chestnut (\"Castanea sativa\"). The larvae feed internally in the acorns or nuts of the host plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tilia cordata",
        "text": "The tree is fairly disease-resistant, though a common problem is leaf scorch where planted on dry soils, however leaf scorch is not a long-term problem as the leaves are lost in the autumn. Pests include Japanese beetles, aphids, lace bugs and various species of moths, such as \"Lymantria dispar dispar\" (Gypsy moth). This moth is one of the top 100 invasive species in North America, introduced by \u00c9tienne L\u00e9opold Trouvelot, and citizens are encouraged to remove Gypsy moth egg masses and cocoons from tree bark in order to help prevent the spread of this species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melanaspis glomerata",
        "text": "The primary host of \"Melanaspis glomerata\" is \"Saccharum officinarum\" (sugarcane). The insect is very small and the main evidence of its presence is greyish patches on the midribs of the leaves and on the stems, where most of the insects may be concealed under the leaf sheaths. The scales are often so crowded together as to make them difficult to discern individually. The cumulative presence of so many insects sucking its sap weakens the plant and reduces the sucrose and dry matter content of the crop. Heavy infestations can cause decay and death of the stalks. Natural enemies of this scale include \"Rhyzobius lophanthae\", \"Chilocorus cacti\", and several other species of lady beetle, and the thrips \"Podothrips lucasseni\". The insects are also parasitised by \"Trichogramma japonicum\" and other small parasitic wasps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juan Fern\u00e1ndez firecrown",
        "text": "Contributing factors to the decline in population include destruction of native flora by man; invasion of exotic zarzamora blackberry (\"Rubus ulmifolius\") and maqui wineberry (\"Aristotelia chilensis\"), particularly by reducing the extent of the luma trees used for nesting; predation by domestic and feral cats; and erosion by actions of introduced rabbits and goats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The two major fungal pathogens of the sweet chestnut are the chestnut blight (\"Cryphonectria parasitica\") and the ink disease caused by \"Phytophthora cambivora\" and \"Phytophthora cinnamomi\". In North America as well as in Southern Europe C\"ryphonectria parasitica\" destroyed most of the chestnut population in the 20th century. With biological control, the population of the sweet chestnut is not threatened anymore by the chestnut blight and is regenerating. Ink disease is infesting trees mostly in humid soils, with the mycelium invading the root and resulting in wilting of the leaf. Absence of fruit formation leads to die back of the petal. The ink disease is named after the black exudates at the base of the trunk. Nowadays there are cultivars that are resistant to the ink disease. \"Phytophthora cambivora\" caused serious damage in Asia and the US, and it still continues to destroy new plantations in Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyanea truncata",
        "text": "The aforementioned pigs were a major force that drove the plant to near extinction. The animals are extremely destructive to the habitat, rooting the soil, tearing down larger vegetation, uprooting small plants and seedlings, and transporting the seeds of exotic plants into the area. Exotic plants that threaten this and other rare natives include kukui (\"Aleurites moluccanus\"), ti (\"Cordyline fruitcosa\"), and Christmas berry (\"Schinus terebinthifolius\"). Rats and slugs also damage the plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Isotenes miserana",
        "text": "The larvae are considered a pest for flowers and fruit of a wide variety of agricultural plants and fruit trees, including \"Citrus sinensis\", \"Persea americana\", \"Macadamia integrifolia\", \"Litchi chinensis\", \"Vitis vinifera\" and \"Morus\" species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pristimantis ruthveni",
        "text": "This species is threatened by habitat loss and deterioration of its forest, p\u00e1ramo, and riparian habitats, primarily because of agricultural activities (slash-and-burn cultivation of crops and cattle raising). It occurs in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Natural Park as well as in the Fundaci\u00f3n ProAves nature reserve \"El Dorado\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Liriomyza sativae",
        "text": "The larvae of \"Liriomyza sativae\" mine the leaves of a number of plants grown as vegetables as well as many weeds, with forty plants from ten families acting as hosts in Florida. Plants in the families Cucurbitaceae, Fabaceae and Solanaceae are often infested, and vegetable crops affected include beans, eggplant, potato, pepper, tomato, squash and watermelon. Celery is also attacked, but to a lesser extent than by the closely related American leaf miner (\"Liriomyza trifolii\"), and wild plants that act as host include \"Solanum americanum\" and \"Bidens alba\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Torreya taxifolia",
        "text": "Another threat to the population is destruction by deer. Deer preferentially select young trees of this species to rub their new antlers on, sometimes killing them. Feral pigs may also uproot and destroy seedlings. Another possible cause of the historical decline may be changes in the environment due to fire suppression, and changes in water tables linked to the construction of dams. Specifically, many trees were killed when the land was flooded in the construction of the Jim Woodruff Dam impounding Lake Seminole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pestalotiopsis microspora",
        "text": "In 1996 Julie C. Lee first isolated Torreyanic acid, a dimeric quinone, from \"P. microspora\", and noted that the species is likely the cause of the decline of Florida torreya (\"Torreya taxifolia\"), an endangered species of a tree that is related to the paclitaxel-producing yew tree \"Taxus brevifolia\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ctenopseustis herana",
        "text": "The larvae feed on a wide range of plants, including avocado to which they can cause significant damage to young fruitlets and terminal shoots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cactus",
        "text": "A range of pests attack cacti in cultivation. Those that feed on sap include mealybugs, living on both stems and roots; scale insects, generally only found on stems; whiteflies, which are said to be an \"infrequent\" pest of cacti; red spider mites, which are very small but can occur in large numbers, constructing a fine web around themselves and badly marking the cactus via their sap sucking, even if they do not kill it; and thrips, which particularly attack flowers. Some of these pests are resistant to many insecticides, although there are biological controls available. Roots of cacti can be eaten by the larvae of sciarid flies and fungus gnats. Slugs and snails also eat cacti."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gratiana boliviana",
        "text": "The larva of the beetle feeds on the upper third of the plant, damaging its leaves. The adult also feeds on the foliage. Feeding damage takes the form of holes in the leaves. The injury facilitates the entry of pathogens and causes stress to the plant, reducing its growth and fruit production. Larvae kept free of natural enemies can almost completely defoliate a plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leptoglossus zonatus",
        "text": "This leaf-footed bug is one of the two major pests of physic nut plants in Nicaragua. In Honduras, where the bug is known commonly as \"chinche patona\" (large-legged bug), it is a minor garden pest. It is a pest of many crops in Brazil and it may transmit the plant pathogen \"Herpetomonas macgheei\", a trypanosomatid protozoan. It breeds in pomegranate and desert willow trees, and the gregarious bright orange nymphs aggregate there. It is a serious pest of satsuma oranges in Louisiana, causing damage by feeding and by transmitting the pathogenic yeast \"Nematospora coryli\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spilonota eremitana",
        "text": "The larvae feed on \"Larix leptolepis\", \"Larix dahurica var. japonica\", \"Larix dahurica var. olgensis\" and \"Larix decidua\". It is considered an important pest of larch. Trees are completely defoliated when outbreaks occur."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spulerina castaneae",
        "text": "The larvae feed on \"Quercus\" species and \"Castanea crenata\". They mine the stem of their host plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indarbela quadrinotata",
        "text": "Crops that are readily attacked by the pest are: \"Albizia lebbeck\", \"Albizia procera\", \"Anacardium occidentale\", \"Camellia sinensis\", \"Cassia fistula\", \"Chloroxylon swietenia\", \"Citrus reticulata\", \"Citrus sinensis\", \"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"paradisi\", \"Corymbia citriodora\", \"Eriobotrya japonica\", \"Eucalyptus camaldulensis\", \"Falcataria moluccana\", \"Ficus benghalensis\", \"Ficus carica\", \"Gmelina arborea\", \"Grewia asiatica\", \"Hevea brasiliensis\", \"Litchi chinensis\", \"Mangifera indica\", \"Manilkara zapota\", \"Mimusops elengi\", \"Mitragyna parvifolia\", \"Moringa oleifera\", \"Morus alba\", \"Phyllanthus emblica\", \"Populus deltoides\", \"Prunus armeniaca\", \"Psidium guajava\", \"Punica granatum\", \"Sesbania cannabina\", \"Syzygium cumini\", \"Tectona grandis\", \"Terminalia arjuna\", \"Theobroma cacao\", and \"Ziziphus mauritiana\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ascotis selenaria",
        "text": "The caterpillars reach a length up to 55 millimeters. They are polyphagous, feeding mainly on field wormwood (\"Artemisia campestris\"), \"Sambucus\" sp., rose (\" Rosa\" sp.), blackberry (\"Rubus fruticosus\"), broom (\"Cytisus scoparius\"), \"Taraxacum\" sp., birch (\"Betula\" sp.), \"Arbutus\" sp., \"Pimpinella\" sp., clover (\"Melilotus\" sp.), cypress spurge (\" Euphorbia\" sp.), acacia (\"Mimosa longifolia\"), \"Mimosa dealbata\", \"Salvia\" sp. and \"Salix glabra\". In India, the pest has been reported to infest on prosopis (\"Prosopis juliflora\"), \"Delonix regia\" and sal (\"Shorea robusta\"). A nucleopolyhedrovirus suppressing population of \"Ascotis seleneria\" has been reported in India. In many areas they are considered a pest causing serious damages to agriculture. They pupate and overwinter in the soil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pestalotiopsis adusta",
        "text": "Pestalotiopsis adusta is a fungal plant pathogen infecting tea and avocados."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maytenus boaria",
        "text": "Example occurrences include the forested slopes of Cerro la Campana in the La Campana National Park of central Chile. There it is associated with the endangered Chilean wine palm, \"Jubaea chilensis\" as well as a number of threatened understory plants including \"Adiantum gertrudis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baptisia arachnifera",
        "text": "95 to 99% of the species' native habitat has been destroyed and replanted with plantations of pine trees. It now remains in patchy areas among these stands and in nearby forest and even roadsides. Fire suppression in areas of silviculture may be detrimental to the plant, but specimens growing among the pines encounter less competition with other plants and may grow bigger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phytoptus avellanae",
        "text": "This pest causes important reductions in the harvest, especially as the buds destined to give female flowers and fruit seem to be preferentially invaded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Postelectrotermes militaris",
        "text": "It is one of major plant pest that attack wide range of economically important plants such as \"Acacia decurrens\", \"Camellia sinensis\", \"Casuarina equisetifolia\", \"Cedrus\" sp., \"Cinnamomum camphora\", \"Cryptomeria japonica\", \"Erythrina subumbrans\", \"Eucalyptus robusta\", \"Grevillea robusta\", \"Stenocarpus salignus\", and \"Tephrosia vogelii\". It mainly affects roots and stem parts, and sometimes to whole plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobathra strigifinitella",
        "text": "The larvae feed on \"Castanea\" species (including \"Castanea dentata\", \"Castanea pumila\" and \"Castanea sativa\"), \"Castanopsis\", \"Fagus\" species (including \"Fagus grandifolia\") and \"Quercus\" species (including \"Quercus nigra\", \"Quercus prinoides\", \"Quercus rubra\" and \"Quercus virginiana\"). They probably mine the leaves of their host plant. The mines may be found under the edge of a turned down leaf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Centrosema pubescens",
        "text": "Insects are the biggest problem for centro plants. Pests include meloidae beetles, thrips, red spiders, bean flies and caterpillars. Centro is mostly unaffected by diseases, and tends not to have any major attacks [6]. Fungal diseases that have previously affected centro include leaf spot, anthracnose and rhizoctonia blight and wilt. Simple solutions to prevent these pests and pathogens are slashing, and spot treatments with herbicides."
      },
      {
        "title": "Araucaria mirabilis",
        "text": "A large number of petrified tree trunks of \"A. mirabilis\" are found still standing in the Cerro Cuadrado Petrified Forest. Preserved in volcanic ash, some of the specimens measure in diameter and were at least in height when alive. The trees were preserved just as the cones had finished maturing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Solanum sandwicense",
        "text": "The plant is threatened by feral pigs, feral goats, and mule deer. It is eaten by rats and slugs. The invasion of introduced species of plants such as \"Kalanchoe pinnata\" (air plant) and \"Passiflora tarminiana\" (banana poka) degrades the habitat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camptoloma interiorata",
        "text": "It is considered a pest on \"Quercus\" species and \"Sapium sebiferum\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castilleja mollis",
        "text": "There are two known occurrences of the plant remaining on Santa Rosa Island. It has become rare due to habitat destruction, mainly from the presence of domesticated and feral ungulates such as cattle, elk (\"Cervus canadensis roosevelti\"), and deer (\"Odocoileus hemionus\"). These animals trample the soil, which compacts and degrades it. Deer also tend to use patches of the plant as bedding. Introduced plant species have also taken over the area. The cattle and most of the other non-native animals have been removed, but many weeds remain, such as ice plant. The plant depends on Menzies' goldenbush, which has also declined in the area, its habitat becoming fragmented. Invasive grasses prevent the small \"Castilleja\" plants from establishing haustoria, its connections to the roots of the goldenbush."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The field management is dependent on the cultivation system. While cleaning the soil from the leaves and pruning is the norm, the use of fertilizer, irrigation and pesticides is less common and reserved for more intensive cultivation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Liriomyza huidobrensis",
        "text": "This insect is highly polyphagous and feeds on plants in at least fifteen plant families, without showing a preference for any particular family. Crops that act as hosts to this leaf miner include peas, beans, lettuce, celery, spinach, broccoli, onions and many ornamental plants. Young plants can be severely affected and even die, and older plants have reduced photosynthetic activity and thus impaired growth rate. Even a few mines in the foliage of lettuce, celery or spinach can render the crop unmarketable. Feeding damage by adult females, and the puncture holes they make when laying eggs can affect the appearance of cut flowers and ornamental plants. In potatoes, the larvae first affect only the lower part of the plant, but as the plant matures and growth ceases, upper parts are affected, the tissues become necrotic and die."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinus radiata",
        "text": "On Guadalupe Island, var. \"binata\" is critically endangered. Most of the population was destroyed as tens of thousands of feral goats ate \"binata\" seedlings and caused soil erosion from the mid-19th century until just a few years ago. The older trees gradually died off until by 2001\u20132002 the population stood at only one hundred. With a program to remove the goats essentially complete by 2005, hundreds of young Guadalupe pines have started to grow up in habitat fenced after 2001, the first significant new growth in about 150 years. Possible accidental introduction of pine pitch canker is considered the biggest threat at present to the survival of the Guadalupe Island pine population. The University of California's Russell Reservation forestry research station hosts an orchard planted with 73 \"P. radiata\" seedlings from Guadalupe Island and plays an important role in conserving the \"binata\" variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyanea asarifolia",
        "text": "Threats to the remaining population include natural events such as landslides, which could conceivably cause extinction. The gene pool is small. Plants are threatened by slugs, rats, mice, feral pigs, and exotic plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parkia timoriana",
        "text": "The tree is vulnerable to the pest insect \"Cadra cautella\", a moth. The larva bores into the seed to pupate, feeding on the seed interior and filling it with webbing. It also consumes the flower heads."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cassava",
        "text": "A wide range of plant parasitic nematodes have been reported associated with cassava worldwide. These include \"Pratylenchus brachyurus\", \"Rotylenchulus reniformis\", \"Helicotylenchus\" spp., \"Scutellonema\" spp. and \"Meloidogyne\" spp., of which \"Meloidogyne incognita\" and \"Meloidogyne javanica\" are the most widely reported and economically important. \"Meloidogyne\" spp. feeding produces physically damaging galls with eggs inside them. Galls later merge as the females grow and enlarge, and they interfere with water and nutrient supply. Cassava roots become tough with age and restrict the movement of the juveniles and the egg release. It is therefore possible that extensive galling can be observed even at low densities following infection. Other pests and diseases can gain entry through the physical damage caused by gall formation, leading to rots. They have not been shown to cause direct damage to the enlarged storage roots, but plants can have reduced height if there was loss of enlarged root weight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cadra figulilella",
        "text": "Several hymenopteran parasitoids such as \"Venturia canescens\" and \"Habrobracon hebetor\" harm raisin moth larvae. Specifically, \"Habrobracon hebetor\" stings and in effect parasitizes raisin moth larvae during warm winter days when they are located under tree bark. However, this parasitoid will not affect them during warmer seasons or on host plant fruit, so it is not effective as a natural pesticide. However, it can be used to effectively parasitize the larvae during storage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sierra Gorda",
        "text": "Lastly, there have been problems with droughts and pest infestations. These include the roundheaded pine beetle, European mistletoe and caterpillars. Some residents see the event as divine will but others place global warming. It is not known how much of the oaks, junipers and pines that make up most of the forested areas have been compromised but there are visible yellow patches seen in the otherwise green forest. The pests have been able to infest more because trees are weak due to drought conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yerba mate",
        "text": "Many of the natural enemies of yerba mate are difficult to control in plantation settings. Insect pests include \"Gyropsylla spegazziniana\", a true bug that lays eggs in the branches; \"Hedyphates betulinus\", a type of beetle that weakens the tree and makes it more susceptible to mold and mildew; \"Perigonia lusca\", a moth whose larvae eat the leaves; and several species of mites. \"P. lusca\" may be controlled with a nuclear polyhedrosis virus used as a biopesticide. This was first applied in 1992."
      },
      {
        "title": "Schlumbergera",
        "text": "Aphids, mealybugs and other invertebrate pests can spread viruses. Symptoms vary with the species, but a loss of vigour is usual. Cactus virus X has been isolated from \"S. truncata\". There is no treatment for virus diseases; it is recommended that infected plants be destroyed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bactris gasipaes",
        "text": "The trunk of the tree can be infested with \"Phytophthora\" water molds. The foliage is infested with fungi of the genera \"Pestalotiopsis\", \"Mycosphaerella\", and \"Colletotrichum\". The fruit is attacked by fungi of the genera \"Monilinia\" and \"Ceratocystis\". Other pests include mites and insects (\"Metamasius hemipterus\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Schoepfia arenaria",
        "text": "The four originally known localities are at Isabela, Fajardo, Pi\u00f1ones Commonwealth Forest and R\u00edo Abajo Commonwealth Forest. The largest population, some 100 individuals of all ages, is found at Isabela, on private land. These plants are found growing on the wooded upper slopes of the hills to the west of the mouth of the Guajataca Gorge. The hills are only a remnant of the original land, most other hills in this area were destroyed during construction of Highway 2. The surroundings have further been developed into numerous golf courses, hotel resorts, tennis courts and housing units. The population at Pi\u00f1ones is located at Punta Maldonado, it was once larger, but numerous mature plants were destroyed by Hurricane Hugo in 1989. In 1991 there were still some 30 trees here, but there were numerous seedlings and young saplings. Roy O. Woodbury reported also seeing the species at nearby Punta Vacia Talega in 1981, but these appear to have disappeared by 1991. Both these Pi\u00f1ones locations are not actually in the forest proper, but are actually on private lands. At El Convento, Fajardo, the species grows on small limestone hills on the property of the governor's beach house. At least 10 individuals were counted here in the early 1990s, but some 50 individuals are estimated to grow on the property. Only a single individual tree was found growing in the R\u00edo Abajo Forest in 1985, at a place called Cuesta de los Perros."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pristimantis elegans",
        "text": "\"Pristimantis elegans\" is an abundant species but it is known from few localities. It is threatened by habitat loss and degradation caused by mining, agriculture, and cattle ranching. It is known from the Chingaza National Natural Park and Sumapaz National Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boucerosia frerei",
        "text": "The plant's natural pollinators are believed to have all gone extinct, leaving it unable to set fruit in its native habitat. The wild population is further threatened by overgrazing, landslides, fire, and insects. There are also reports that locals eat the succulent stems. Greenhouse plants are pollinated using ants and flies, which are attracted to a foul-smelling secretion from the flower. Fruit setting and germination of seeds are now common in greenhouse conditions. The plant is also easily propagated from cuttings. \"B. frerei\" is still classified as Endangered by the IUCN Red List."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cameraria castaneaeella",
        "text": "The larvae feed on \"Castanea\" species (including \"Castanea dentata\" and \"Castanea sativa\") and \"Quercus\" species (including \"Quercus ilicifolia\"). They mine the leaves of their host plant. The mine has the form of an irregular yellowish blotch mine on the upperside of the leaf. The larva hibernates on a slight bed of silk beneath the folded epidermis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ectomyelois ceratoniae",
        "text": "The larvae are translucent white, with the internal organs visible from the outside. They feed on the seeds and pods of a wide range of plants, including \"Punica granatum\", \"Citrus\" fruit, \"Pistacia vera\", \"Juglans regia\", \"Prunus dulcis\", \"Macadamia integrifolia\", \"Acacia farnesiana\", \"Caesalpinia sappan\", \"Cassia bicapsularis\", \"Ricinus\", \"Erythrina monosperma\", \"Haematoxylum campechianum\", \"Prosopis juliflora\", \"Samanea saman\", \"Phoenix dactylifera\", and \"Ceratonia siliqua\". It is a considerable agricultural pest, recognized as the most economically damaging pest of the date industry in California. In many regions around the world, it also damages many other high-value nut and fruit commodities such as almonds, pistachios, macadamias, pomegranates, and stone and pome fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atropa baetica",
        "text": "Considerable damage, through browsing, is also inflicted on the plant in the Sierra de la Cazorla during the time of its flowering and fruiting by two non-native/introduced ungulate species, namely \"Ovis orientalis ssp. musimon\", the mouflon and \"Dama dama\", the fallow deer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apodiphus amygdali",
        "text": "Imago and nymphs of these large bugs suck on the stems, leaves and immature fruits of various deciduous trees and are considered an agricultural pest. They mainly feed on plum (\"Prunus domestica\"), apricot (\"Prunus armeniaca\"), apple (\"Malus pumila\"), olive (\"Olea europaea\"), pear (\"Pyrus communis\") and pistachio (\"Pistacia vera\"). They attack also silver poplar (\"Populus alba\"), Turkish pine (\"Pinus brutia\"), plane (\"Platanus orientalis\"), field elm (\"Ulmus minor\") and silver willow (\"Salix alba\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pristimantis frater",
        "text": "This species is common, but it suffers from habitat loss and degradation caused primarily by agriculture (crops and cattle ranching), but also by oil exploration and road infrastructure. It has been found in areas where \"Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis\" is prevalent, but so far this species has tested negative. It is present in the Serran\u00eda de la Macarena and Tam\u00e1 National Natural Parks. It might also be present in the immediately adjacent El Tam\u00e1 National Park in Venezuela, but there are no records yet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "A tree grown from seed may take 20 years or more before it bears fruits, but a grafted cultivar such as 'Marron de Lyon' or 'Paragon' may start production within five years of being planted. Both cultivars bear fruits with a single large kernel, rather than the usual two to four smaller kernels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Protopulvinaria pyriformis",
        "text": "The pyriform scale is known from Australia, South Africa, Israel, Italy, France, Spain, Cuba, Florida, and Peru. It is normally found on avocado, and in Peru it is said to be the worst insect pest of avocado, but in Spain it has also been found on citrus. Certain cultivars of avocado seem more susceptible to attack than others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mylabris phalerata",
        "text": "When population levels are high, \"M. phalerata\" can be important pests of the flowers of the cowpea plant; they will destroy flowers and chew holes in the young pods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zeuzera pyrina",
        "text": "It is considered a pest by fruit growers, as the larva feed on branches of many kinds of fruit trees (see list below). Olive trees in particular are very susceptible and can be killed by the larvae burrowing within them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physaria pruinosa",
        "text": "The greatest threats to the survival of this plant are forces that destroy its habitat. These include development, off-road vehicle use, energy exploration and development, introduced species, herbicides, and grazing. Development in the vicinity of Pagosa Springs, Colorado, is probably the worst threat. Its habitat is currently being consumed for residential and commercial development. Roads are being constructed, destroying habitat and facilitating the spread of weeds that compete with the plant. Archuleta County, Colorado, \"is one of the fastest growing counties in the United States.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolitoglossa oresbia",
        "text": "The type locality is a small patch of forest (<1 ha) on a mountain top, completely surrounded by crop fields. Habitat loss may further threaten this population by leading to drying of the environment. Also use of the pesticides in the surrounding area is a potential threat. Fortunately, in 2008 the species was found inside the Cerro Azul Me\u00e1mbar National Park, some from the type locality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atropa baetica",
        "text": "Neither vertebrates nor invertebrates consume \"A. baetica\" during the earlier stages of its growth cycle; however, during the month of September, when the onset of senescence causes the levels of tropanes in the aerial parts of the plant to fall, it often sustains severe damage from being browsed by the Southeastern Spanish ibex \"Capra pyrenaica\" Schinz. ssp. \"hispanica\" Schimper. Plants are stripped almost bare of leaves, fruit (both ripe and unripe) and even stem tips. Plants damaged in this way respond by producing small rosettes of leaves \u2013 either at ground level or upon the lower third of the flowering stem \u2013 which tend to sustain no further browsing damage before winter dormancy, possibly because of alkaloid levels raised as a defense mechanism activated by the check to growth. Needless to say, the effect of such browsing upon the sexual reproduction of \"A. baetica\" is profound: fewer ripe berries \u2013 and therefore fewer viable seeds \u2013 survive such wholesale destruction and the plants themselves are weakened and effectively undergo a prematurely enforced dormancy. The ibexes do not appear to suffer any ill effects from consuming a plant so rich in toxic alkaloids, which fact (even allowing for the decrease in the plant's toxicity in the month of September) highlights the widely varying susceptibility of different vertebrate species to the poisons involved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mirabilis macfarlanei",
        "text": "This species faces a number of threats. Most all of the populations are on land that has been heavily grazed by domestic cattle and sheep, and trampling and predation by the animals can adversely affect the plant. Grazing still occurs in some parts of the plant's range, and it generally grows in steeper spots that have been less impacted by grazing. The area is also browsed by bighorn sheep, elk, deer, and mountain goats. The ecosystem is negatively impacted by introduced species of plants, including cheat grass (\"Bromus tectorum\"), St. John's wort (\"Hypericum perforatum\"), field bindweed (\"Convolvulus arvensis\"), Dalmatian toadflax (\"Linaria genistifolia\" ssp. \"dalmatica\"), and yellow starthistle (\"Centaurea solstitialis\"). The three-toed stem-boring weevil (\"Mecinus janthinus\") has been released into four o'clock habitat that is infested with dalmatian toadflax to act as an agent of biological pest control against the weed. While the four o'clock generally survives wildfire due to its large underground rhizome, fires increase the number of non-native plants growing in the area. Insecticides may damage populations of important pollinating insects. Off-road vehicles and trampling by hikers may damage plants. Herbicide spraying has damaged populations. Insects have been noted to feed on the plant, including spittlebugs (\"Aprophora\" and \"Philaenus\" sp.) and the small moth \"Lithariapteryx abroniaeella\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scapteriscus borellii",
        "text": "In its native South America, populations of \"S. borellii\" are kept under control by natural enemies, but in the southern United States, where it appeared in the early 1900s, it is regarded as an invasive pest species. It lives in shallow burrows in sandy soil and causes damage to lawns, pastures, golf courses and cultivated plants, primarily through its burrowing activities which loosen the soil, uproot plants and cause the soil to dry out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Araucaria mirabilis",
        "text": "\"A. mirabilis\" are known from large amounts of very well preserved silicified wood and cones from the Cerro Cuadrado Petrified Forest, including tree trunks that reached in height in life. The site was buried by a volcanic eruption during the Middle Jurassic, approximately 160 million years ago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Justicia cooleyi",
        "text": "The main threat to this rare plant is habitat destruction. Much of its forest habitat has been lost to residential and agricultural development and limestone mining. Remaining habitat is degraded by the presence of invasive plant species, particularly skunkvine (\"Paederia foetida\") and air potato (\"Dioscorea bulbifera\"), which form a thick groundcover that chokes out native plants. The construction and maintenance of roads also threaten the plant and its habitat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Enterolobium cyclocarpum",
        "text": "An insect pest, common to guanacaste trees of the Costa Rican Central Valley, produces spherical green galls of 1.5\u00a0cm diameter on new shoots in February and March. Similar parasitism seems to occur on guanacaste trees of the wet, southwestern lowlands (around Palmar Sur)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pouteria caimito",
        "text": "The commercial value of the fruit in its native range is limited because it is often damaged by small insects. In Brazil, the main pest that destroys the fruit is thought to be the fruit fly. Thrips are known to attack buds, leaves, and young fruits, but in exotic locations, abiu can be relatively pest-free, especially if fruit is harvested at maturity and ripened off the tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crupina vulgaris",
        "text": "A number of natural enemies have been recorded, such as the mite \"Aceria balasi\", which attacks the inflorescence, the moths \"Clytie illunaris\", \"Metzneria aprilella\", and \"Ornativalva plutelliformis\", which feed on the seeds, and the weevil \"Styphlus penicillus\", which feeds on the leaves. \"Ramularia crupinae\", first described from the plant, is a pathogenic sac fungus that grows on its leaves. No agents of biological pest control have been established."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tirathaba rufivena",
        "text": "The larvae is an agricultural pest that feeds on \"Cocos nucifera\", \"Nypa fruticans\", \"Elaeis guineensis\", \"Musa\" species, and \"Phaseolus\" species. Usually the caterpillar attacks male flowers where infestation causes abortion of young and results in underdeveloped fruits. A severe attack can wilt the plant and delay plant development. They are not borers, and only show external feeding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Telfairia pedata",
        "text": "Vines cultivated in Costa Rica have been attacked by borers in the main stem, which can be serious, and even kill the vines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mata de Santa Genebra",
        "text": "Human actions and natural causes have degraded some of the natural plant communities, and the unit now contains areas of secondary growth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ulmus castaneifolia",
        "text": "Ulmus castaneifolia\n--Description.\n--Pests and diseases.\n--Cultivation.\n--Notable trees.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Osteocephalus castaneicola",
        "text": "This species is locally threatened by habitat loss caused by agricultural activities (including habitat conversion for cattle ranching) and by illegal gold mining. It occurs in the Manu National Park and Los Amigos Conservation Concession in Peru, and in the Cuni\u00e3 Ecological Station and Jamari National Forest in Brazil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cnaphalocrocis medinalis",
        "text": "The larvae are considered a pest of \"Oryza sativa\", \"Zea mays\", and \"Triticum\", \"Saccharum\" and \"Sorghum\" species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Teleiodes flavimaculella",
        "text": "The larvae possibly feed on \"Castanea sativa\" and \"Quercus\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chilecomadia valdiviana",
        "text": "The larvae feed on \"Nothofagus\" and \"Salix\" species and are considered a pest in Chilean eucalyptus plantations. They have been reported on \"Eucalyptus globulus globulus\", \"Eucalyptus nitens\", \"Eucalyptus camaldulensis\", \"Eucalyptus delegatensis\" and \"Eucalyptus viminalis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyanea pinnatifida",
        "text": "The plant was said to be driven to extinction by the destruction and degradation of its habitat by several forces. The most destructive was the feral pig. Others included exotic plant species, such as Koster's curse (\"Clidemia hirta\") and passionflower (\"Passiflora suberosa\"). Rats and slugs, which are very damaging to many \"Cyanea\" species, may have affected this one as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Accuminulia buscki",
        "text": "Larvae have been reared from the fruit of grape \"Vitis\" species, \"Prunus domestica\", \"Prunus armeniaca\" and \"Prunus persica\". They bore into the fruit of their host plant. It is not thought to be an introduced pest in Chile, but a native species that has expanded its food plant range to include agricultural plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fontainea venosa",
        "text": "\"F. venosa\" is categorized as \"under threat\" and \"poorly conserved\". Threats include habitat destruction due to urban and agricultural development in a majority of vine forests where it naturally occurs, particularly nearby Bahr's Scrub, Beenleigh and exotic weed infestation, including \"Rivina humilis\", \"Lantana camara\" and \"Passiflora subpeltata\", that hindered \"F. venosa\" germination and seedling growth, particularly in SF 82 (Brooyar)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mojojoy",
        "text": "They are the larvae of \"Ancognatha scarabaeoides\" and \"Rhynchophorus palmarum\" which are considered pests that can attack crops, destroying them partially or totally, or affecting them from the root. The weevils burrow into the \"aguaje\" tree, lays eggs, and after hatching, the grubs feed on the oily bark. It is speculated that the fatty flavor comes from this."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sima de las Cotorras",
        "text": "Most of the vegetation of the area has been wiped out or severely degraded by agriculture, forestry and other human activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paratachardina lobata",
        "text": "The adult scales cluster on woody twigs and small branches of the host plant, forming bumps and knobs when they are plentiful. On one wax-myrtle (\"Myrica cerifera\"), a highly susceptible plant, 42 mature individuals were recorded on a section of twig. They plunge their mouthparts into the host and suck sap. The excess fluid is secreted as honeydew and on this sooty mould grows profusely covering twigs and foliage. Shoots may be stunted and die-back may occur, and in extreme cases the plant may die. Because the adults are immobile, it is the crawler that may disperse the insect to new hosts, the nymphs being carried by the wind or adhering to animals or birds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paratylenchus hamatus",
        "text": "P. hamatus has been shown to have different levels of effect on different crops. In California, P. hamatus is the most common pin nematode and has been seen to reduce crop yield of grapes in vineyards and fig farms by stunting plant growth and reducing fruit size. This ultimately results in loss of profits for local farmers. However, data from stone fruit farms in California show no damage to crops with populations of pin nematodes reaching 3000 nematodes/ 1\u00a0kg of soil. There is also evidence that populations of pin nematodes around 500 nematodes/ 1\u00a0kg of soil work as antagonists for other more damaging nematodes producing healthier trees. So in that case they are not really detrimental to the plant, but possible indirectly beneficial. This not always the case however. For example, P. hamatus in mint caused losses of 25% - 36% when planted in soil with 8000 nematodes/ quart, which shows it does not play an antagonistic role. Overall, the disease severity of P. hamatus is variable and is specific to the species of plant that it is parasitizing on and the concentration at which it is found."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castilleja salsuginosa",
        "text": "This rare plant faces several threats, including livestock, horses, pronghorn, off-road vehicles, geothermal development, land conversion, water diversion, and climate change."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glyptoscelis squamulata",
        "text": "In the 1920s to 1940s, \"G. squamulata\" was considered a major pest of table grapes in Coachella Valley of southern California. It is now considered to be a minor pest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prosopis glandulosa",
        "text": "The seeds are disseminated by livestock that graze on the sweet pods, and the shrubs can invade grasslands, with cattlemen regarding mesquites as range weeds to be eradicated. Due to latent buds underground, permanent removal is difficult. Cutting them will only coppice them: A single-trunked tree that is cut down will soon be replaced by a multi-trunked version."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castilleja cinerea",
        "text": "The \"Castilleja cinerea\" plant is a federally listed threatened species. Threats to its survival include development of its habitat for human use, recreation, off-road vehicles, logging, grazing, mining, and invasive species of plants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adoxophyes orana",
        "text": "The larvae feed on various trees and shrubs with a preference for Rosaceous plants, particularly apple (\"Malus domestica\") and pear (\"Prunus pyrifolia\"). The species is considered a pest due to the damage the larvae do to fruit trees while feeding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Semiothisa eleonora",
        "text": "The larva is a pest which is known to attack \"Mimosa rubicaulis\" and \"Acacia concinna\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zeiraphera canadensis",
        "text": "In 1980, the moth was named a pest due to its effects on the white spruce tree\u2019s growth. The spruce bud moth defoliates young white spruce trees, stunts tree growth, and deforms buds. Although the moth does not lead to spruce tree death, the deformation negatively affects the quality of wood harvested from spruce tree plantations. As a result, much research is being conducted into control methods for the spruce bud moth, including the use of sex pheromones in traps and annual pesticide sprays."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gastrotheca trachyceps",
        "text": "This species is only known from two localities. It was reported as relatively common at the type locality, but recent surveys have failed to locate it. Even though the type locality is entirely within the Munchique National Park, cultivation of illegal crops is causing habitat loss; spraying these crops with glyphosate may have impacted this species. The second population in Vereda Santa Elena was discovered in 2005, but an intensive survey in 2016 recovered only one individual. In this locality, \"Gastrotheca trachyceps\" is threatened by the establishment of eucalyptus plantations and the use of pesticides on these plantations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pseudopaludicola llanera",
        "text": "This species can be locally impacted by expanding rice fields and the chemical pollution associated with them."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How tall is the tree \"Castanea sativa\"?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "C. sativa can grow to a height of 20\u201335 m (66\u2013115 ft)."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the tallest tree in the world?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Hyperion is a coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) in California considered the world's tallest known living tree."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any trees that are no longer alive that were known to have been taller?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A. mirabilis are known from large amounts of very well preserved silicified wood and cones from the Cerro Cuadrado Petrified Forest, including tree trunks that reached 100 m (330 ft) in height in life."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What type of pests affect Castanea sativa?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "There are several. Would you like to hear about the different Lepidoptera, fungal pathogens, or the type of wasp that serve as pests to it?",
      "The leaves provide food for some animals, including Lepidoptera such as the case-bearer moth Coleophora anatipennella and North American rose chafer Macrodactylus subspinosus. Another serious pest which is difficult to control is the gall wasp (Dryocosmus kuriphylus) which was recently introduced in Southern Europe, originating from Asia."
    ],
    "topic": "Castanea sativa",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Castanea sativa:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Castanea sativa",
          "Pests and diseases"
        ],
        "ctx": "The leaves provide food for some animals, including Lepidoptera such as the case-bearer moth \"Coleophora anatipennella\" and North American rose chafer Macrodactylus subspinosus."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Castanea sativa:7",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Castanea sativa",
          "Pests and diseases"
        ],
        "ctx": "The two major fungal pathogens of the sweet chestnut are the chestnut blight (\"Cryphonectria parasitica\") and the ink disease caused by \"Phytophthora cambivora\" and \"Phytophthora cinnamomi\". In North America as well as in Southern Europe C\"ryphonectria parasitica\" destroyed most of the chestnut population in the 20th century. With biological control, the population of the sweet chestnut is not threatened anymore by the chestnut blight and is regenerating. Ink disease is infesting trees mostly in humid soils, with the mycelium invading the root and resulting in wilting of the leaf. Absence of fruit formation leads to die back of the petal. The ink disease is named after the black exudates at the base of the trunk. Nowadays there are cultivars that are resistant to the ink disease. \"Phytophthora cambivora\" caused serious damage in Asia and the US, and it still continues to destroy new plantations in Europe."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Castanea sativa:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Castanea sativa",
          "Pests and diseases"
        ],
        "ctx": "Another serious pest which is difficult to control is the gall wasp (\"Dryocosmus kuriphylus\") which was recently introduced in Southern Europe, originating from Asia."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Castanea sativa:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Castanea sativa",
          "Pests and diseases"
        ],
        "ctx": "The leaves provide food for some animals, including Lepidoptera such as the case-bearer moth \"Coleophora anatipennella\" and North American rose chafer Macrodactylus subspinosus."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Castanea sativa:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Castanea sativa",
          "Pests and diseases"
        ],
        "ctx": "Another serious pest which is difficult to control is the gall wasp (\"Dryocosmus kuriphylus\") which was recently introduced in Southern Europe, originating from Asia."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "Another serious pest which is difficult to control is the gall wasp (\"Dryocosmus kuriphylus\") which was recently introduced in Southern Europe, originating from Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pestalotiopsis adusta",
        "text": "Pestalotiopsis adusta is a fungal plant pathogen infecting tea and avocados."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicia sativa",
        "text": "Pests that attack this crop include the powdery mildew fungus \"Erysiphe pisi\", the pea aphid \"Acyrthosiphon pisum\", the corn earworm (\"Heliothis zea\"), the fall armyworm (\"Spodoptera frugiperda\"), and spider mites of genus \"Tetranychus\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cercospora pisa-sativae",
        "text": "Cercospora pisa-sativae is a fungal plant pathogen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The two major fungal pathogens of the sweet chestnut are the chestnut blight (\"Cryphonectria parasitica\") and the ink disease caused by \"Phytophthora cambivora\" and \"Phytophthora cinnamomi\". In North America as well as in Southern Europe C\"ryphonectria parasitica\" destroyed most of the chestnut population in the 20th century. With biological control, the population of the sweet chestnut is not threatened anymore by the chestnut blight and is regenerating. Ink disease is infesting trees mostly in humid soils, with the mycelium invading the root and resulting in wilting of the leaf. Absence of fruit formation leads to die back of the petal. The ink disease is named after the black exudates at the base of the trunk. Nowadays there are cultivars that are resistant to the ink disease. \"Phytophthora cambivora\" caused serious damage in Asia and the US, and it still continues to destroy new plantations in Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pammene fasciana",
        "text": "The larvae feed on \"Castanea\", \"Fagus\" and \"Quercus\" species. It is considered a serious pest on sweet chestnut (\"Castanea sativa\"). The larvae feed internally in the acorns or nuts of the host plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Choanephora cucurbitarum",
        "text": "Choanephora cucurbitarum is a fungal plant pathogen that causes fruit and blossom rot of various cucurbits. It can also affect okra, snap bean, and southern pea, and may cause a stem and leaf rot of \"Withania somnifera\". Recently Das et al. 2017 added few more patho-index on aubergine (\"Solanum melongena\" L.), teasle gourd (\"Momordica subangulata\" Blume subsp. \"renigera\" (G. Don) de Wilde, hyacinth bean (\"Lablab purpureus\" (L.) Sweet), green pea (\"Pisum sativum\") from India. Wet weather, high temperature and high humidity favor disease development from inoculum that is typically soil-borne. Signs of infection on fruits or leaves include water-soaked, necrotic lesions, which progress rapidly under ideal conditions. As the fungus begins to produce spores, affected tissues become dark grey-brown and hairy as a result of the superficial sporangia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sphaceloma perseae",
        "text": "\"Sphaceloma perseae\" persists across seasons on avocado in lesions. The pathogen generates acervuli as the asexual fruiting body that erupt from these lesions, present on either fruit or leaves, as small cream or olive-colored masses of clustered conidiophores and spores. During cool, moist weather, conidia may be formed on infected leaves, twigs and fruit. They are carried to infection courts by wind, rain and insects. In Mexico, most spores are produced in the winter prior to active growth, while most lesions were found 6 months later after the fruit set and foliage flush. \"S. perseae\" is a pathogen of young tissue. The leaves become resistant one month after emergence and the avocado fruit becomes resistant once it is half-grown. \"S. perseae\" is most severe when its host tissue is at a susceptible growth stage and the humidity level remains above 80%. Injuries caused by thrips (insect) create entry wounds for \"S. perseae\" and greatly exacerbate scab development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Araucaria hunsteinii",
        "text": "\"Barinae\" spp., \"Setomorpha rutella\", Microlepidopteras, \"Cacatua galerita\" (the Sulphur-crested cockatoo) are pests of pine nut production in \"A. hunsteinii\". \"C. galerita\" may cause half of the seed crop to be lost in a year, mostly by trying to eat cones that are not yet ready. However, another source describes \"A. hunsteinii\" as suffering few pests \"in plantations\", and therefore substituting \"A. cunninghamii\" in plantations that suffer more from pests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leaf vegetable",
        "text": "Common fungal pathogens include: \"Alternaria brassicicola\", \"A. alternata\", \"A. arborescens\", \"A. tenuissima\", \"A. japonica\", \"Colletotrichum higginsianum\", \"Colletotrichum dematium\" f. \"spinaciae\", \"Microdochium panattonianum\", \"Stemphylium botryosum\", \"Cladosporium variabile\", \"Cercospora beticola\", \"C. lactucae-sativae\", \"C. brassicicola\", \"C. acetosella\", \"Botrytis cinerea\", \"Golovinomyces cichoracearum\", \"Podosphaera fusca\", \"Erysiphe cruciferarum\", \"E. polygoni\", \"E. heraclei\", \"Sclerotinia sclerotiorum\", and \"S. minor\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "Castanea sativa\n--Names.\n--Description.\n----Reproduction.\n--Habitat.\n--Pests and diseases.\n--Historic development.\n--Distribution.\n--Uses.\n--Cultivation.\n----Cultivation forms.\n----Requirements.\n----Harvest.\n----Post-harvest treatment.\n--Food.\n----Food constituents.\n----Effect of processing.\n--Wood.\n--Cultivars.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Venturia inaequalis",
        "text": "The \"Venturia inaequalis\" pathogen is a fungal organism that produces similar symptoms across a range of woody hosts. These include the common pear (\"Pyrus spp.)\", firethorn (\"Pyracantha spp.)\", mountain ash (\"Sorbus spp.\"), and most notably both commercial apples along with ornamental crabapples (\"Malus spp.\"). Symptoms of the infection occur on leaves, fruit, flowers, and young green shoots. Foliar symptoms begin to occur in the early spring around budbreak and mainly present as light green lesions that progress to an olive-brown color with a velvety texture due to conidia formation as time passes. These large scab-like lesions can warp the leaf\u2019s shape and can eventually lead to defoliation. Lesions formed by primary infection via ascospores tend to have more distinct borders when compared to lesions as a result of a secondary infection cycle via conidia. Young fruit, often infected by foliar conidia, can also display similar symptoms to infected leaves. In this case the lesions progress to bare, brown and corky spots. The apple skin and flesh can split open as the fruit enlarges, though young fruits often prematurely drop. Mature fruits are more resistant to infection and only form small, black \u2018pin-head scabs\u2019 which might not even be noticeable until after storage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vicia faba",
        "text": "\"Erysiphe cichoracearum\" overwinters on residue and has alternate hosts. Resistant cultivars and overhead irrigation are preventative. Sulfur fungicides are recommended in severe outbreak."
      },
      {
        "title": "Liriomyza sativae",
        "text": "The larvae of \"Liriomyza sativae\" mine the leaves of a number of plants grown as vegetables as well as many weeds, with forty plants from ten families acting as hosts in Florida. Plants in the families Cucurbitaceae, Fabaceae and Solanaceae are often infested, and vegetable crops affected include beans, eggplant, potato, pepper, tomato, squash and watermelon. Celery is also attacked, but to a lesser extent than by the closely related American leaf miner (\"Liriomyza trifolii\"), and wild plants that act as host include \"Solanum americanum\" and \"Bidens alba\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gibberella pulicaris",
        "text": "Gibberella pulicaris is a fungal plant pathogen infecting several hosts including potato, strawberry, hop, alfalfa and Douglas-fir.\n*\"Sphaeria pulicaris\" Fr., Mykologische Hefte 2: 37 (1823) [MB#239256]\n*\"Gibbera pulicaris\" (Fr.) Fr., Summa vegetabilium Scandinaviae 2: 402 (1849) [MB#190097]\n*\"Botryosphaeria pulicaris\" (Fr.) Ces. & De Not. (1863) [MB#184344]\n*\"Nectria pulicaris\" (Fr.) Tul. & C. Tul., Selecta Fungorum Carpologia: Nectriei- Phacidiei- Pezizei 3: 63 (1865) [MB#465479]\n*\"Cucurbitaria pulicaris\" (Fr.) Qu\u00e9l., M\u00e9moires de la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d'\u00c9mulation de Montb\u00e9liard s\u00e9r. 2, 5: 511 (1875) [MB#504675]\n*\"Sphaeria cyanogena\" Desm., Annales des Sciences Naturelles Botanique s\u00e9r. 3, 10: 352 (1848) [MB#199264]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Zornia latifolia",
        "text": "The plant is susceptible to plant pathogens such as the fungi \"Sphaceloma zorniae\", which causes scab disease, and \"Meliola\" species, which cause stunting and distortion of the leaves. Insect pests include the red-necked peanutworm moth (\"Stegasta bosqueella\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tubercularia lateritia",
        "text": "Tubercularia lateritia is a fungal saprobe or plant pathogen that sometimes infects avocados. It grows mostly on decaying bark and rotting wood in tropical countries. It is an asexual fungus (anamorph) and is correctly known by the different name used for its sexual state (teleomorph), Nectria pseudotrichia. The asexual state and sexual state are often, but not always, found together."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cinara pilicornis",
        "text": "\"C. pilicornis\", which is attended by the honeydew-collecting ants \"Formica polyctena\", is seldom attacked by the parasitoid wasp \"Pauesia pini\". It is also a host for \"Entomophthora\" fungi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crupina vulgaris",
        "text": "A number of natural enemies have been recorded, such as the mite \"Aceria balasi\", which attacks the inflorescence, the moths \"Clytie illunaris\", \"Metzneria aprilella\", and \"Ornativalva plutelliformis\", which feed on the seeds, and the weevil \"Styphlus penicillus\", which feeds on the leaves. \"Ramularia crupinae\", first described from the plant, is a pathogenic sac fungus that grows on its leaves. No agents of biological pest control have been established."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elaeis guineensis",
        "text": "\"Phytophthora palmivora\" has caused a loss of of \"E. guineensis\" near San Lorenzo in Ecuador. The protozoa cause bud rot (Spanish: pudrici\u00f3n del cogollo). In reaction, growers there replanted using a hybrid of \"E. guineensis\" and \"E. oleifera\", the South American oil palm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pseudopezicula tetraspora",
        "text": "Pseudopezicula tetraspora is a species of fungus in the family Helotiaceae. Found in North America, it is a plant pathogen that infects grape, causing a disease known as \"angular leaf scorch\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Teleiodes flavimaculella",
        "text": "The larvae possibly feed on \"Castanea sativa\" and \"Quercus\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cercospora fragariae",
        "text": "Cercospora fragariae is a fungal plant pathogen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cocoa necrosis virus",
        "text": "The virus has been transmitted to numerous diagnostically susceptible host species including \"Beta vulgaris\", \"Chenopodium amaranticolor\", \"Chenopodium quinoa\", \"Cucumis sativus\", \"Glycine max\", \"Gomphrena globosa\", \"Nicotiana clevelandii\", \"Nicotiana glutinosa\", \"Nicotiana tabacum\", \"Petunia \u00d7 hybrida\", \"Phaseolus vulgaris\", \"Tetragonia tetragonioides\", \"Theobroma cacao\", and \"Vigna unguiculata\", but these plants are not infected in nature. The strain used to infect these species was the Ghanaian isolate. Three of these species displayed characteristic symptoms: \"P. vulgaris\" cv. The Prince, \"Beta vulgaris\" cv. Greentop, and \"Chenopodium quinoa\". \"P. vulgaris\" develops chlorotic rings 4\u20135 days post inoculation on the primary leaf site, followed by veinal chlorotic mottling on systemic infection of trifoliate leaves. \"B. vulgaris\" displays red rings to the inoculated leaves 10 days post infection without systemic infection. \"C. quinoa\" displays severe tip necrosis 10\u201312 days post inoculation without systemic infection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fibuloides aestuosa",
        "text": "The larvae feed on \"Castanea mollissima\" and \"Castanea cranata\". They are considered a pest on \"Castanea crenata\". The larvae bore into the nuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cercospora carotae",
        "text": "Cercospora carotae is a fungal plant pathogen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Serpula himantioides",
        "text": "\"Serpula himantioides\" is a fungal pathogen within the division Basidiomycota. It produces thin, resupinate (inverted), membranous fan-like basidiocarps that are brownish in color and appear as distinctive fruiting bodies on the exterior of the host. \"S.\u00a0himantioides\" prefers the moist wood of coniferous hosts such as fir, larch, spruce, and pine. It is the causal agent of butt rot disease, the symptoms of which include rotting the heartwood at base of tree, as well as damage to the tap root and cores of lateral roots, but standing trees show no signs of infection. It also a common cause of timber rotting in buildings, which has made this pathogen difficult to differentiate from \"S.\u00a0lacrymans\" because of their similarities. This disease often goes unnoticed initially due to a lack of any above ground symptoms of disease. Signs of the pathogen include basidiospores, and fungal masses that are generally dark brown and membranous in the center but become thin white mycelium towards edges of the mass. The brown cubical rot caused by \"S.\u00a0himantioides\" resembles the rots of \"Phaeolus schweinitzii\" and \"S.\u00a0lacrymans\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coniella castaneicola",
        "text": "Coniella castaneicola is a plant pathogen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cinara",
        "text": "Some species are pests that attack cultivated Christmas trees. The parasitoid wasp species in the genus \"Pauesia\" are specific to the genus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pyrenochaeta terrestris",
        "text": "Pyrenochaeta terrestris is a fungal plant pathogen infecting maize, sweet potatoes and strawberries. This plant pathogen causes a disease in onion (\"Allium cepa\") that is commonly called Pink Root. This fungus is also known to infect shallot, garlic, leek and chive, cantaloupe, carrot, cauliflower, corn, cowpea, cucumber, eggplant, lima bean, millet, vats, peas, peppers, potato, spinach, sugarcane and tomato."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cercospora platanicola",
        "text": "Cercospora platanicola is a fungal plant pathogen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rhizina undulata",
        "text": "This is a widespread fungus that grows on burned soil or conifer debris. The spores are activated by the heat of the fire, which is why the disease is present in burned soil. This is because the fire breaks the spore dormancy and also creates a competitive advantage and allows the fungus to thrive. It prefers growing in acidic soil. Although it is regarded as a saprobic species, it can also attack conifers of varying age parasitically. Its parasitic nature was recognized by scientists in the late 1800s and early 1900s, in particular, through several studies by German forestry scientist and mycologist Robert Hartig. He determined that the fungus can cause the death of four-year-old seedlings of several conifers, including European silver fir (\"Abies alba\"), eastern white pine (\"Pinus strobus\"), European larch (\"Larix decidua\"), Sitka spruce (\"Picea sitchensis\"), mountain hemlock (\"Tsuga mertensiana\"), Douglas fir \"Pseudotsuga menziesii\", and sweet chestnut (\"Castanea vesca\"). Later research determined that the fungus also attacks conifers between 15 and 60 years old."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bipolaris cactivora",
        "text": "Bipolaris cactivora is a plant pathogen causing cactus stem rot and pitaya fruit rot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cercospora vicosae",
        "text": "Cercospora vicosae is a fungal plant pathogen. It causes leaf spot on cassava."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cis castaneus",
        "text": "The nematode species \"Caenorhabditis monodelphis\" is a freeliving species that can be found in galleries inside of the fungus \"Ganoderma applanatum (Polyporaceae) which grew on the stump of trees a few centimeters above ground. It is phoretic on \"C. castaneus\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spulerina castaneae",
        "text": "The larvae feed on \"Quercus\" species and \"Castanea crenata\". They mine the stem of their host plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cameraria castaneaeella",
        "text": "The larvae feed on \"Castanea\" species (including \"Castanea dentata\" and \"Castanea sativa\") and \"Quercus\" species (including \"Quercus ilicifolia\"). They mine the leaves of their host plant. The mine has the form of an irregular yellowish blotch mine on the upperside of the leaf. The larva hibernates on a slight bed of silk beneath the folded epidermis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bipolaris cactivora",
        "text": "\"Bipolaris cactivora\" will overwinter in the asexual state as conidia on grass, weeds, and debris, although sometimes the mycelia will also live on debris or weeds. The pathogen normally begins to infect a host in late spring and early summer when the hosts start to flower and the temperature raises above 25\u00a0\u00b0C. Once the conidia infect the petals they do not start to cause any visible symptoms until the fruit begins to grow and ripen within the flower. Once the fruit ripens, the fungal conidia germinate, producing mycelia. The mycelia will then produce hyphae that force their way into the openings of the plant tissue and take hold of the host. When the temperature rises to around 35\u00ba the mycelia will start to mature into fruiting bodies that release their ascospores. These are distributed by wind, rain, and irrigation. Some of these will make it to a viable host, grass, weeds, and debris, and will begin to form conidia on the surface. The conidia will infect additional hosts that are in close proximity where they will wait for the next flowering period. The conidia are primarily distributed by wind and rain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ctenopseustis herana",
        "text": "The larvae feed on a wide range of plants, including avocado to which they can cause significant damage to young fruitlets and terminal shoots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ensete ventricosum",
        "text": "Another disease can strike enset even though it has been more observed on Banana plants (Musacea). This disease is caused by Mycospharella spp. and is commonly called black Sigatoka leaf streaks. The symptoms are basically dark/brown lesions surrounded by yellow on the leaves. This disease happens to be favoured by high rainfall and lower temperature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobathra strigifinitella",
        "text": "The larvae feed on \"Castanea\" species (including \"Castanea dentata\", \"Castanea pumila\" and \"Castanea sativa\"), \"Castanopsis\", \"Fagus\" species (including \"Fagus grandifolia\") and \"Quercus\" species (including \"Quercus nigra\", \"Quercus prinoides\", \"Quercus rubra\" and \"Quercus virginiana\"). They probably mine the leaves of their host plant. The mines may be found under the edge of a turned down leaf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gratiana boliviana",
        "text": "Pathogens that can affect the beetle include the parasitic neogregarine protozoan \"Mattesia oryzaephili\" and a microsporidian of the genus \"Nosema\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bactris gasipaes",
        "text": "The trunk of the tree can be infested with \"Phytophthora\" water molds. The foliage is infested with fungi of the genera \"Pestalotiopsis\", \"Mycosphaerella\", and \"Colletotrichum\". The fruit is attacked by fungi of the genera \"Monilinia\" and \"Ceratocystis\". Other pests include mites and insects (\"Metamasius hemipterus\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The leaves provide food for some animals, including Lepidoptera such as the case-bearer moth \"Coleophora anatipennella\" and North American rose chafer Macrodactylus subspinosus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Schlumbergera",
        "text": "Aphids, mealybugs and other invertebrate pests can spread viruses. Symptoms vary with the species, but a loss of vigour is usual. Cactus virus X has been isolated from \"S. truncata\". There is no treatment for virus diseases; it is recommended that infected plants be destroyed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Semiothisa eleonora",
        "text": "The larva is a pest which is known to attack \"Mimosa rubicaulis\" and \"Acacia concinna\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spermospora avenae",
        "text": "Spermospora avenae or red leather leaf is a fungal plant pathogen of \"Avena sativa\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pestalotiopsis mangiferae",
        "text": "Pestalotiopsis mangiferae is a fungal plant pathogen infecting mangoes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silvia Blumenfeld",
        "text": "resistantes a la degradaci\u00f3n f\u00fangica.\" Actas V Jornadas Forestales Argentinas :532\u2013543."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kuehneola uredinis",
        "text": "Kuehneola uredinis is a plant pathogen. \"Kuehneola uredinis\" is a fungal pathogen that causes cane and leaf rust only in \"Rubus\" cultivars or wild and ornamental blackberry species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pyronota festiva",
        "text": "As well as this bacterium, the fungus \"Beauveria brongniartii\" is being tested to help Cape Foulwind dairy farmers attack the pest. It is achieving relatively high rates of mortality in the larvae stage of the beetles. The fungal infection affects only an isolated selection of \u2018scarab\u2019 beetles, which means that it might, but is unlikely to spread onto other harmless beetles (depending on what they are)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Puccinia recondita",
        "text": "These fungi are endoparasites plant pathogens mainly infecting Balsaminaceae, Boraginaceae, Hydrophyllaceae, Ranunculaceae and Poaceae (especially wheat and rye)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Septoria malagutii",
        "text": "Septoria malagutii is a fungal plant pathogen infecting potatoes. The casual fungal pathogen is a deuteromycete and therefore has no true sexual stage. As a result, Septoria produces pycnidia, an asexual flask shaped fruiting body, on the leaves of potato and other tuber-bearing spp. causing small black to brown necrotic lesions ranging in size from 1-5mm. The necrotic lesions can fuse together forming large necrotic areas susceptible to leaf drop, early senescence, dieback, and dwarfing. \"Septoria malagutii\" has been found only in the Andean countries of Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela at altitudes of near 3000 meters. Consequently, the fungi grows and disperses best under relatively low temperatures with high humidities, with optimal growth occurring at 20\u00a0\u00b0C (68\u00a0\u00b0F). The disease has caused devastation on potato yields in South America and in areas where this disease is common, potato yields have been seen to drop by 60%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phytophthora quercina",
        "text": "\"Phytophthora quercina\" is an oomycete pathogen that requires free water to disperse, but field and lab studies have indicated that \"P. quercina\" displays high plasticity and adaptability to soil moisture, pH, and nutrient conditions. The pathogen can cause root damage when moisture conditions are extremely wet or restricted. In addition, spores may survive in the soil during extended dry periods without a host. \"Phytophthora\" species cause more severe disease at higher pH levels. Sporangia cannot be formed at pH levels below 4.0, and sporangia production is increased with increasing pH. \"P. quercina\" can be isolated from soils with pH ranging from 3.5-6.6. Pathogenicity is increased with low aluminum and high calcium soil concentrations, although soil composition within the range of \"P. quercina\" are often unfavorable yet disease symptoms are still observed in infected roots. High soil nitrate has been identified as a stimulating factor for production of sporangia. \"P. quercina\" has been isolated from lab cultures in both low pH, nitrogen-rich but nutrient poor soil and high pH, nutrient rich soil with restricted water and the results prove the plasticity of the pathogen under somewhat unfavorable conditions. \u00a0\"P. quercina\" has been shown to only infect the roots of the host but not the stem and collar of seedlings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fusarium circinatum",
        "text": "Fusarium circinatum is a fungal plant pathogen that causes the serious disease pitch canker on pine trees and Douglas firs (\"Pseudotsuga menziesii\"). The most common hosts of the pathogen include slash pine (\"Pinus elliottii\"), loblolly pine (\"Pinus taeda\"), Monterey pine (\"Pinus radiata\"), Mexican weeping pine (\"Pinus patula\"), and Douglas fir. Like other \"Fusarium\" species in the phylum Ascomycota, it is the asexual reproductive state of the fungus and has a teleomorph, \"Gibberella circinata\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physalospora perseae",
        "text": "Physalospora perseae is a fungal plant pathogen infecting avocados."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cercospora lentis",
        "text": "Cercospora lentis is a fungal plant pathogen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xestia castanea",
        "text": "Larva varying from green to dull pink, with darker irroration; spiracular line broadly white, the others merely pale. The larvae feed on various shrubs, including \"Calluna\", \"Sarothamnus\", \"Vaccinium\" and \"Poaceae\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cercospora papayae",
        "text": "Cercospora papayae is a fungal plant pathogen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Subcoccinella vigintiquatuorpunctata",
        "text": "Larvae feed only on the mycelium of Erysiphales (mainly \"Podosphaera\" on trees (in particular \"Quercus robur\" and \"Fraxinus excelsior\") Also on these fungi on Poaceae, \"Astragalus\" and some species of the families Fabaceae and Boraginaceae) The insects carry spores of the fungi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Platynota stultana",
        "text": "Larvae have been recorded on a wide range of plants, including \"Albizia\", \"Medicago sativa\", \"Amaranthus\", \"Malus\", \"Aster\", \"Persea americana\", \"Phaseolus\", \"Rubus\", \"Vigna unguiculata\", \"Dianthus caryophyllus\", \"Apium graveolens\", \"Trifolium\", \"Beta vulgaris\", \"Zea mays\", \"Cotoneaster\", \"Gossypium\", \"Ribes\", \"Cyclamen\", \"Chrysanthemum\", \"Eucalyptus\", \"Gardenia\", \"Pelargonium\", \"Ginkgo\", \"Vitis\", \"Poaceae\", \"Packera\", \"Juniperus\", \"Chenopodium album\", \"Citrus x limon\", \"Malva\", \"Citrus\", \"Mentha\", \"Prunus persica\", \"Arachis\", \"Pyrus\", \"Capsicum\", \"Pinus\", \"Ambrosia\", \"Rosa\", \"Portulaca grandiflora\", \"Citrus maxima\", \"Sorghum bicolor\", \"Glycine max\", \"Citharexylum spinosum\", \"Actinidia arguta\", \"Solanum lycopersicum\", \"Juglans regia\", and \"Taxus\". It is considered a serious pest of greenhouse plants and vineyards. Feeding damage to grape leads to bunch-rot, resulting in crop losses amounting to 80%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phaeoisariopsis bataticola",
        "text": "Phaeoisariopsis bataticola is a fungal plant pathogen infecting sweet potatoes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phanerochaete carnosa",
        "text": "Phanerochaete carnosa is a species of crust fungus in the family Phanerochaetaceae. It is a plant pathogen that infects plane trees. The fungus was first described to science by Edward Angus Burt in 1926 as a species of \"Peniophora\". It was transferred to the genus \"Phanerochaete\" by Erast Parmasto in 1967."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sphaerotheca castagnei",
        "text": "Sphaerotheca castagnei is a species of ascomycete fungus in the family Erysiphaceae. A plant pathogen, it causes a form of powdery mildew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cercospora corylina",
        "text": "Cercospora corylina is a fungal plant pathogen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biological pest control",
        "text": "\"Botrytis cinerea\" on lettuce, by \"Fusarium\" spp. and \"Penicillium claviforme\", on grape and strawberry by \"Trichoderma\" spp., on strawberry by \"Cladosporium herbarum\", on Chinese cabbage by \"Bacillus brevis\", and on various other crops by various yeasts and bacteria. \"Sclerotinia sclerotiorum\" by several fungal biocontrols. Fungal pod infection of snap bean by \"Trichoderma hamatum\" if before or concurrent with infection. \"Cryphonectria parasitica\", \"Gaeumannomyces graminis\", \"Sclerotinia\" spp., and \"Ophiostoma novo-ulmi\" by viruses. Various powdery mildews and rusts by various \"Bacillus\" spp. and fluorescent Pseudomonads. \"Colletotrichum orbiculare\" will suppress further infection by itself if manipulated to produce plant-induced systemic resistance by infected the lowest leaf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Septoria malagutii",
        "text": "Hosts of \"Septoria malagutii\" include: potatoes and other tuber-bearing Solanum spp.; however, tomatoes can be infected by artificial inoculation. The disease is found in a series of \u2018tuberosa\u2019 in the Andes mountains of Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela at elevations reaching above 3000m.\"Septoria malagutii\" is a deuteromycete; therefore, the fungi does not have a true sexual stage or the sexual stage is extremely uncommon. Consequently, the fungi reproduces asexually via its conidiomata, pycnidia. The pycnidia are an asexual flask shaped fruiting body that produces conidia via mitosis. Above ground parts of the potato become infected by the conidia (pycnidiospores) in a variety of natural ways such as rainy or windy conditions. Signs and symptoms of the disease are easily observable on the upper side of infected leaves where small, dark brown, and round necrotic lesions ranging in size from 1-5mm are formed. The lesions exhibit pronounced concentric ridges with 1 to 3 erumpent black pycnidia within the central ring. Other symptoms on the leaves include: the lesions often fusing together to create large necrotic areas, making the leaves brittle and susceptible to leaf drop or wind damage. Additionally, the stems can become discolored and resemble bark and the whole plant can exhibit dwarfing, early senescence, and dieback. Stem lesions are more elongated than leaf lesions reaching up to 15mm in length and 2mm in diameter. Furthermore, there has been no report on the underground plant parts, such as roots and tubers, having been affected by the pathogen. Potato is known to be the only naturally cultivated host and infection is limited to the leaves of potato plants under natural circumstances; and, fertile formation of pycnidia on living leaves has not been observed. Lastly, the prevalence of resistance in varying cultivars is low, ranging from moderately resistant to very resistant, but it is uncertain how long the pathogen can survive in the infected host debris in soil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phalaenoides glycinae",
        "text": "The larvae mainly feed on \"Parthenocissus quinquefolia\", \"Hibbertia obtusifolia\", \"Amyema gaudichaudii\", \"Epilobium ciliatum\", \"Fuchsia\" and \"Oenothera\" species, but mainly \"Vitis vinifera\", hence it is considered an agricultural pest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carpophilus lugubris",
        "text": "Being capable of attacking undamaged fruits and vegetables makes the genus \"Carpophilus\" a large threat to economic crops. \"C. lugubris\", is a common pest of corn in North America, but tomato plants are also at risk. Larva present in corn kernels often go undiscovered and this can lead to their rejection and subsequent discarding. They can also act as vectors for fungi transfer to crop plants. Related species act as vectors for disease, such as Oak Wilt. The ability to disperse via flight gives this genus great potential for disease transfer. A related species is known to be parasitic to honey bee hives, in which they burrow into the hive and predate the larva. The use of the dusky sap beetle to fight fungal infections is a possibility as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saluria inficita",
        "text": "Its caterpillars are pests of \"Eleusine coracana\", \"Oryza sativa\", \"Setaria italica\" and \"Zea mays\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pseudopezicula tetraspora",
        "text": "The hosts of \"P. tetraspora\" include some plants of the family Vitaceae. Angular leaf scorch of grapevines has been observed on 18 species of grapevines \"Vitis\", on interspecific hybrids of \"Vitis\", and on Virginia creeper \"Parthenocissus quiniquefolia\". An early symptom of angular leaf scorch of grapevines is the presence of faint chlorotic lesions near major veins on the leaf surface. As the disease progresses, the lesions spread, changing from yellow to reddish brown. Reddening/browning of major leaf veins accompanies the lesions. The reddish brown tissue turns necrotic and retains a yellow margin, which separates the necrotic tissue from the healthy tissue. In red or black \"Vitis\" cultivars, the margin is read, not yellow and on occasion, the yellow margin is not present. The reddish brown lesions with yellow margins can be seen in early June or three to four weeks after infection begins. As the lesions become larger late in the growing season, necrosis can cause premature defoliation, thus inhibiting photosynthesis of the plant host. Flower clusters can also dry prematurely, which decreases the plant's ability to produce fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melanaspis glomerata",
        "text": "The primary host of \"Melanaspis glomerata\" is \"Saccharum officinarum\" (sugarcane). The insect is very small and the main evidence of its presence is greyish patches on the midribs of the leaves and on the stems, where most of the insects may be concealed under the leaf sheaths. The scales are often so crowded together as to make them difficult to discern individually. The cumulative presence of so many insects sucking its sap weakens the plant and reduces the sucrose and dry matter content of the crop. Heavy infestations can cause decay and death of the stalks. Natural enemies of this scale include \"Rhyzobius lophanthae\", \"Chilocorus cacti\", and several other species of lady beetle, and the thrips \"Podothrips lucasseni\". The insects are also parasitised by \"Trichogramma japonicum\" and other small parasitic wasps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Callistephus",
        "text": "The plants are susceptible to fusarium wilt, a fungal disease. Some cultivars are more resistant to this than others. Pest insects can include leafhoppers, aphids, blister beetles, and the tarnished plant bug. The plant is also susceptible to mites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cigaritis phanes",
        "text": "The larvae feed on \"Acacia mellifera\" and \"Ximenia caffra\". They are associated with the ant species \"Crematogaster castanea\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chilecomadia valdiviana",
        "text": "The larvae feed on \"Nothofagus\" and \"Salix\" species and are considered a pest in Chilean eucalyptus plantations. They have been reported on \"Eucalyptus globulus globulus\", \"Eucalyptus nitens\", \"Eucalyptus camaldulensis\", \"Eucalyptus delegatensis\" and \"Eucalyptus viminalis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anacamptodes fragilaria",
        "text": "The larvae are a pest on citrus species. Recorded hosts are:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bipolaris cactivora",
        "text": "\"Bipolaris cactivora\" is an ascomycete, causing cactus stem rot and pitahaya (dragon fruit) rot. Also known as \"Drechslera cactivora\", this fungus has been reported causing fruit rot on \"Hylocereus undatus\" (white-fleshed pitahaya). This specific cactus is both used decoratively as well as commercially in production of pitahaya fruit. The initial symptoms of the disease, appearing two to three days after inoculation, are yellowish lesions that are water soaked, which progress to a brown color. Seven to ten days after initial appearance of lesions, the rot expands to form large areas of rot which grow dark colored spores. The rot then dries, and the plant dies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Acmaeoderella flavofasciata",
        "text": "Main larval host plants are in genus \"Acer\", \"Castanea\", \"Fagus\", \"Juniperus\", \"Populus\", \"Prunus\", \"Pyrus\", \"Quercus\" and \"Ulmus\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calonectria kyotensis",
        "text": "Calonectria kyotensis is a fungal plant pathogen. It is known to affect harvested durians, including from \"Durio graveolens\" and \"D. kutejensis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cercospora sojina",
        "text": "\"Cercospora sojina\", the causal fungal agent, and Frogeye Leaf Spot, the resulting disease, have a polycyclic infection cycle. Within this cycle, the pathogen can infect multiple plants during the growing season. In the winter, the pathogen is present as mycelium in crop residue and in leftover soybeans from the previous harvest. According to Bradley et al., the fungus can remain in plant residue for a minimum of two years (2016)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Centrosema pubescens",
        "text": "Insects are the biggest problem for centro plants. Pests include meloidae beetles, thrips, red spiders, bean flies and caterpillars. Centro is mostly unaffected by diseases, and tends not to have any major attacks [6]. Fungal diseases that have previously affected centro include leaf spot, anthracnose and rhizoctonia blight and wilt. Simple solutions to prevent these pests and pathogens are slashing, and spot treatments with herbicides."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phytophthora boehmeriae",
        "text": "Phytophthora boehmeriae is an oomycete plant pathogen that causes disease on a wide range of host plants, including root rot of Mexican yellow pine and brown rot of Citrus fruits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thecaphora solani",
        "text": "Thecaphora solani, potato smut, is a fungal plant pathogen. It affects plants, primarily potatoes, in the Andean part of South America. The disease of potatoes that it causes is economically important (there have been reports of crop losses up to 80 percent in South America)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indarbela quadrinotata",
        "text": "Crops that are readily attacked by the pest are: \"Albizia lebbeck\", \"Albizia procera\", \"Anacardium occidentale\", \"Camellia sinensis\", \"Cassia fistula\", \"Chloroxylon swietenia\", \"Citrus reticulata\", \"Citrus sinensis\", \"Citrus\" \u00d7 \"paradisi\", \"Corymbia citriodora\", \"Eriobotrya japonica\", \"Eucalyptus camaldulensis\", \"Falcataria moluccana\", \"Ficus benghalensis\", \"Ficus carica\", \"Gmelina arborea\", \"Grewia asiatica\", \"Hevea brasiliensis\", \"Litchi chinensis\", \"Mangifera indica\", \"Manilkara zapota\", \"Mimusops elengi\", \"Mitragyna parvifolia\", \"Moringa oleifera\", \"Morus alba\", \"Phyllanthus emblica\", \"Populus deltoides\", \"Prunus armeniaca\", \"Psidium guajava\", \"Punica granatum\", \"Sesbania cannabina\", \"Syzygium cumini\", \"Tectona grandis\", \"Terminalia arjuna\", \"Theobroma cacao\", and \"Ziziphus mauritiana\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phakopsora euvitis",
        "text": "Teliospores on the grapevines germinate and produce thin-walled basidiospores that are carried by wind or other methods of dispersal to leaves or parts of the plant tissues of \"M. myriantha\" (alternate host). After 7\u201315 days the basidiospores will produce spermagonia. Production of asexual spores in aecia will also occur on the surfaces of the leaves after another 7\u201314 days. Those aecia will then produce aeciospores. The aeciospores are dispersed to \"Vitis spp\"., which is the telial host of this rust fungus. Infected grape leaves give rise to uredinia and disperse urediniospores, usually by wind, back to the aecial host \"M. myriantha\". Later in the season teleia develop near uredinia on the leaf. This allows for the fungus to overwinter as telia, or in some regions persist solely in the uredinial state without a need for an alternate host. Mycelium may survive unfavorable conditions in dormant buds that can lead to future infection cycles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Venturia effusa",
        "text": "\"Venturia effusa\" is a fungal pathogen of pecan trees (\"Carya illinoinensis\"), on which it causes pecan scab. The fungus is highly pathogenic and causes substantial economic losses throughout the southeastern United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calonectria quinqueseptata",
        "text": "Calonectria quinqueseptata is a fungal plant pathogen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cercospora vexans",
        "text": "Cercospora vexans is a fungal plant pathogen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The ornamental cultivar \"C. sativa\" 'Albomarginata' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lantana",
        "text": "\"Ceratobasidium cornigerum\" is a higher fungus which parasitizes \"Lantana\" among other plants. The sweet potato whitefly (\"Bemisia tabaci\") is a common greenhouse pest and is often distributed with infested lantanas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Armillaria novae-zelandiae",
        "text": "Huang (2016) describes that early symptoms of this pathogen include yellowish-brown water-soaked lesions on the cortex of the host plant at the root collar. The cortex rots gradually and the phloem tissues begin to flake off and the xylem rots. There is chlorosis of the leaves as well. As the disease progresses, more visible signs of the pathogen become apparent as the mycelium invades the infected tissues. Clusters of the honey-yellow umbrella-shaped sporocarps, also known as mushrooms, form on the rotten roots. This can result in dieback and even death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cercospora mangiferae",
        "text": "Cercospora mangiferae is a fungal plant pathogen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gratiana boliviana",
        "text": "The larva of the beetle feeds on the upper third of the plant, damaging its leaves. The adult also feeds on the foliage. Feeding damage takes the form of holes in the leaves. The injury facilitates the entry of pathogens and causes stress to the plant, reducing its growth and fruit production. Larvae kept free of natural enemies can almost completely defoliate a plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Argyrotaenia sphaleropa",
        "text": "The larvae feed on \"Baccharis salicifolia\", \"Citrus\" species, \"Cosmos\" species, \"Diospyros kaki\", \"Medicago sativa\", \"Mimosa diplotricha\", \"Mentha sauveolens\", \"Persea\" species, \"Hibiscus rosa-sinensis\", \"Rapanea umbellata\", \"Rosa\" species, \"Solanum bonariense\", \"Lantana camara\", \"Vitis\" species (including \"Vitis vinifera\") and \"Mikania cordifolia\". The larvae are considered a pest, causing damage to leaves and reproductive structures of numerous fruits, herbaceous and ornamental plant species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zurobata vacillans",
        "text": "The caterpillar is unusual in having host plants other than typical green plants. The larva feeds on fungus on dead leaves, several lichens and Coccoidea (scale insects)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elsino\u00eb batatas",
        "text": "Elsino\u00eb batatas is a species of fungus in the Elsinoaceae family. It is a plant pathogen that affects members of the genus \"Ipomoea\", including the sweet potato. The species was originally described in 1931 as a species of \"Sphaceloma\", and in 1943 was transferred to \"Elsino\u00eb\" by Ahm\u00e9s Pinto Vi\u00e9gas and Anna Eliza Jenkins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Septoria caryae",
        "text": "Septoria caryae is a fungal pecan-infecting plant pathogen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cronartium ribicola",
        "text": "\"Cronartium ribicola\" has two obligate hosts: \"Pinus\" spp and \"Ribes\" spp. Five-needle pines (\"Pinus\" spp.) are infected in the fall by basidiospores that have spread under cool, moist conditions from the alternate host, currants and gooseberries (\"Ribes\" spp.), and germinated on needles to enter with germ tubes through open stomata. Young pines are most susceptible and will die at faster rates following infection. A mycelial network then spreads through the needle and into intercellular space in the inner bark, resulting in the formation of a blister rust canker. Spermagonia are produced at the margins on the canker and give rise to spermatia in the following spring. Once spermatia have fertilized receptive hyphae in the \"Pinus\" spp. host, aecia are formed within a year, appearing as white blisters before rupture reveals the orange or yellow aeciospores within. The wind-blown aeciospores infect \"Ribes\" spp. and the fungus quickly develops uredia in less than a few weeks. Uredospores produced in this stage spread to infect other parts of the same host or other \"Ribes\" spp. hosts in the area. Next, telia are developed on the abaxial (lower) surface of leaves, where teliospores germinate to give rise to basidiospores that will complete the disease cycle by infecting \"Pinus\" spp. hosts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dioryctria sylvestrella",
        "text": "The larvae of this moth are one of the main pests of maritime pine, an important plantation crop of the Mediterranean region where it is grown for timber and resin production as well as dune stabilisation. Their boring activity causes large quantities of resin to flow from the wounds which weakens the tree and allows fungi and other pathogens to gain entry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amorbia emigratella",
        "text": "The larvae have been recorded on a wide range of plants, including \"Acacia koaia\", \"Arachis hypogaea\", \"Brassaia\", \"Brassica oleracea\", \"Carica papaya\", \"Cassia leschenaltiana\", \"Citrus sinensis\", \"Dodonaea viscosa\", \"Dracaena\", \"Gardenia\", \"Gliricidia septum\", \"Gossypium\", \"Ipomoea batatas\", \"Lycopersicon esculentum\", \"Macadamia\", \"Orchidaceae\", \"Passiflora\", \"Persea americana\", \"Phais\", \"Phaseolus\", \"Pipturus\", \"Psidium guajava\", \"Rosa\", \"Rubus\", \"Rubus hawaiiensis\", \"Solanum melongena\", \"Solanum tuberosum\", \"Sophora\", \"Theobroma cacao\", \"Ulex europaeus\", \"Wikstroemia foetida\" and \"Zea mays\". They are leaf-rollers and are often so numerous as to defoliate the trees. They are known to attack the fruit of some plants or web together leaves as well. The larvae are yellowish green and may have dark lateral lines."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How tall is the tree \"Castanea sativa\"?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "C. sativa can grow to a height of 20\u201335 m (66\u2013115 ft)."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the tallest tree in the world?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Hyperion is a coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) in California considered the world's tallest known living tree."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any trees that are no longer alive that were known to have been taller?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A. mirabilis are known from large amounts of very well preserved silicified wood and cones from the Cerro Cuadrado Petrified Forest, including tree trunks that reached 100 m (330 ft) in height in life."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What type of pests affect Castanea sativa?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are several. Would you like to hear about the different Lepidoptera, fungal pathogens, or the type of wasp that serve as pests to it?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about fungal pathogens?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The two major fungal pathogens of the sweet chestnut are the chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) and the ink disease caused by Phytophthora cambivora and Phytophthora cinnamomi. In North America as well as in Southern Europe Cryphonectria parasitica destroyed most of the chestnut population in the 20th century.",
      "In North America as well as in Southern Europe Cryphonectria parasitica destroyed most of the chestnut population in the 20th century. With biological control, the population of the sweet chestnut is not threatened anymore by the chestnut blight and is regenerating, ink disease is infesting trees mostly in humid soils, with the mycelium invading the root and resulting in wilting of the leaf. Absence of fruit formation leads to die back of the petal. The ink disease is named after the black exudates at the base of the trunk."
    ],
    "topic": "Castanea sativa",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Castanea sativa:7",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Castanea sativa",
          "Pests and diseases"
        ],
        "ctx": "The two major fungal pathogens of the sweet chestnut are the chestnut blight (\"Cryphonectria parasitica\") and the ink disease caused by \"Phytophthora cambivora\" and \"Phytophthora cinnamomi\". In North America as well as in Southern Europe C\"ryphonectria parasitica\" destroyed most of the chestnut population in the 20th century. With biological control, the population of the sweet chestnut is not threatened anymore by the chestnut blight and is regenerating. Ink disease is infesting trees mostly in humid soils, with the mycelium invading the root and resulting in wilting of the leaf. Absence of fruit formation leads to die back of the petal. The ink disease is named after the black exudates at the base of the trunk. Nowadays there are cultivars that are resistant to the ink disease. \"Phytophthora cambivora\" caused serious damage in Asia and the US, and it still continues to destroy new plantations in Europe."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Castanea sativa:7",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Castanea sativa",
          "Pests and diseases"
        ],
        "ctx": "The two major fungal pathogens of the sweet chestnut are the chestnut blight (\"Cryphonectria parasitica\") and the ink disease caused by \"Phytophthora cambivora\" and \"Phytophthora cinnamomi\". In North America as well as in Southern Europe C\"ryphonectria parasitica\" destroyed most of the chestnut population in the 20th century. With biological control, the population of the sweet chestnut is not threatened anymore by the chestnut blight and is regenerating. Ink disease is infesting trees mostly in humid soils, with the mycelium invading the root and resulting in wilting of the leaf. Absence of fruit formation leads to die back of the petal. The ink disease is named after the black exudates at the base of the trunk. Nowadays there are cultivars that are resistant to the ink disease. \"Phytophthora cambivora\" caused serious damage in Asia and the US, and it still continues to destroy new plantations in Europe."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "Castanea sativa, the sweet chestnut, Spanish chestnut or just chestnut, is a species of tree in the family Fagaceae, native to Southern Europe and Asia Minor, and widely cultivated throughout the temperate world. A substantial, long-lived deciduous tree, it produces an edible seed, the chestnut, which has been used in cooking since ancient times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The species is widely cultivated for its edible seeds (also called nuts) and for its wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The species is widely distributed throughout Europe, where in 2004 \"C. sativa\" was grown on 2.25 million hectares of forest, of which 1.78 million hectares were mainly cultivated for wood and 0.43 million hectares for fruit production. Italy, France, southern Switzerland, Spain, Portugal and Greece are countries with a strong sweet chestnut tradition, with trees cultivated intensively in coppices and orchards. Countries like England, Croatia, Turkey and Georgia only have a partially developed sweet chestnut tradition due to geography or history. Nevertheless, centuries-old specimens may be found in Great Britain today. Examples can be seen particularly in the London Boroughs of Islington and Camden. In other European countries, \"C. sativa\" has only been introduced recently, for example in Slovakia or the Netherlands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The tree is to be distinguished from the horse chestnut \"Aesculus hippocastanum\", to which it is only distantly related. The horse chestnut bears similar looking seeds (conkers) in a similar seed case, which are not palatable to humans. Other common names include \"Spanish chestnut\", or \"marron\" (French for \"chestnut\"). The Latin \"sativa\" means \"cultivated by humans\". Some selected varieties are smaller and more compact in growth yielding earlier in life with different ripening time: the Marigoule, the Marisol and the Maraval."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The two major fungal pathogens of the sweet chestnut are the chestnut blight (\"Cryphonectria parasitica\") and the ink disease caused by \"Phytophthora cambivora\" and \"Phytophthora cinnamomi\". In North America as well as in Southern Europe C\"ryphonectria parasitica\" destroyed most of the chestnut population in the 20th century. With biological control, the population of the sweet chestnut is not threatened anymore by the chestnut blight and is regenerating. Ink disease is infesting trees mostly in humid soils, with the mycelium invading the root and resulting in wilting of the leaf. Absence of fruit formation leads to die back of the petal. The ink disease is named after the black exudates at the base of the trunk. Nowadays there are cultivars that are resistant to the ink disease. \"Phytophthora cambivora\" caused serious damage in Asia and the US, and it still continues to destroy new plantations in Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "\"C. sativa\" attains a height of with a trunk often in diameter. The bark often has a net-shaped (retiform) pattern with deep furrows or fissures running spirally in both directions up the trunk. The trunk is mostly straight with branching starting at low heights. Sweet chestnut trees live to an age of 500 to 600 years. In cultivation they may even grow as old as 1000 years or more. Their large genetic diversity and different cultivars are exploited for uses such as flour, boiling, roasting, drying, sweets or wood. The oblong-lanceolate, boldly toothed leaves are long and broad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "Three different cultivation systems for the sweet chestnut can be distinguished:\n* \"Coppicing\": Mainly for wood extraction. Standard conditions yield 15 m3 wood per ha and year.\n* \"Selve\": Fruit production from grafted trees. The trees have a short tribe and a big crown. Trees have a high density and the ground between the trees is often used as pasture.\n* \"High forest:\" Wood and fruit production. This cultivation form is less intensive with a yield of 4-12 dt/ha and replacement of trees every 50\u201380 years. The trees grow from seeds and build a dense canopy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "\"C. sativa\" is found across the Mediterranean region, from the Caspian Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. It is thought to have survived the last ice age in several refuges in southern Europe, on the southern coast of the Black Sea with a main centre on the southern slope of the Caucasus and in the region of north-western Syria, possibly extending into Lebanon. Pollen data indicates that the first spreading of \"C. sativa\" due to human activity started around 2100-2050 B.C. in Anatolia, northeastern Greece and southeastern Bulgaria. Compared to other crops, the sweet chestnut was probably of relatively minor importance and distributed very heterogeneously throughout these regions. The first charcoal remains of sweet chestnut only date from around 850-950 B.C., making it very difficult to infer a precise origin history. A newer but more reliable source are the literary works of Ancient Greece, with the richest being Theophrastus's \"Historia plantarum\", written in the third century B.C. Theophrastus focuses mainly on the use of sweet chestnut wood as timber and charcoal, only mentioning the use of the fruit once when commenting on the digestive difficulties it causes, but praising its nourishing quality. Several Greek authors wrote about medicinal properties of the sweet chestnut, specifically as a remedy against lacerations of the lips and of the oesophagus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The total world chestnut harvest was 1,17 Mio Tons in 2006, but only 151 000 Tons were \"C. sativa.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The flowers of both sexes are borne in long, upright catkins, the male flowers in the upper part and female flowers in the lower part. In the northern hemisphere, they appear in late June to July, and by autumn, the female flowers develop into spiny cupules containing 3-7 brownish nuts that are shed during October. The female flowers eventually form a spiky sheath that deters predators from the seed. The sweet chestnut is naturally self incompatible, meaning that the plant cannot pollinate itself, making cross-pollination necessary. Some cultivars only produce one large seed per cupule, while others produce up to three seeds. The nut itself is composed of two skins: an external, shiny brown part, and an internal skin adhering to the fruit. Inside, there is an edible, creamy-white part developed from the cotyledon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The ornamental cultivar \"C. sativa\" 'Albomarginata' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit"
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "Similar to the introduction of grape vine and olive cultivation to the Latin world, \"C. sativa\" is thought to have been introduced during the colonisation of the Italian peninsula by the Greeks. Further clues pointing to this theory can be found in the work of Pliny the Elder, who mentions only Greek colonies in connection with sweet chestnut cultivation. Today's phylogenetic map of the sweet chestnut, while not fully understood, shows greater genetic similarity between Italian and western Anatolian \"C. sativa\" trees compared to eastern Anatolian specimen, reinforcing these findings. Nonetheless, until the end of the pre-Christian era, the spread and use of the chestnut in Italy remained limited. Carbonised sweet chestnuts were found in a Roman villa at Torre Annunziata near Naples, destroyed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in A.D. 79."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "A tree grown from seed may take 20 years or more before it bears fruits, but a grafted cultivar such as 'Marron de Lyon' or 'Paragon' may start production within five years of being planted. Both cultivars bear fruits with a single large kernel, rather than the usual two to four smaller kernels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "Castanea sativa\n--Names.\n--Description.\n----Reproduction.\n--Habitat.\n--Pests and diseases.\n--Historic development.\n--Distribution.\n--Uses.\n--Cultivation.\n----Cultivation forms.\n----Requirements.\n----Harvest.\n----Post-harvest treatment.\n--Food.\n----Food constituents.\n----Effect of processing.\n--Wood.\n--Cultivars.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The sweet chestnut tree grows well on limestone-free, deeply weathered soil. The optimal pH value of the soil is between 4.5 and 6, and the tree cannot tolerate soil compaction. The tolerance to wet ground and to clay-rich soils is very low. It is a heat-loving tree which needs a long vegetation period. The optimal average temperature is between 8\u00a0\u00b0C and 15\u00a0\u00b0C and in January the temperature should preferably not be below -1\u00a0\u00b0C but it may tolerate temperatures as low as -15\u00a0\u00b0C. Low temperature in autumn can damage the fruit. The maximal altitude is strongly dependent on the climate. In general, the climate should be similar to viticulture. Optimal precipitation is between 400 and 1600\u00a0mm. Before planting, seeds must be stratified at 2-3\u00a0\u00b0C so germination can start 30\u201340 days later. After a year, the young trees are being transplanted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "Roman soldiers were given chestnut porridge before going into battle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Valle Verzasca",
        "text": "The Romans introduced and comparable to the tropical wood species, \"Castanea sativa\" is in the southern part of the valley, below , the dominant species. It is no longer actively cultivated, but favors the further diffusion, and studies suggest taking advantage of the valuable wood of chestnut as a valuable wood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "After water treatment, the sweet chestnuts are stored in a controlled environment with high carbon dioxide concentrations. In contrast to a cold storage system, where the fruits are stored at low temperatures in untreated air, the controlled environment method avoids flesh hardening which negatively impacts the processability of the product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "In Switzerland, it is often served as \"Vermicelles\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "Clues in art and literature indicate a dislike of the sweet chestnut by the Roman aristocracy. Like Theophrastus, Latin authors are sceptical of the sweet chestnut as a fruit, and Pliny the Elder even goes as far as admiring how well nature has hidden this fruit of apparently so little value. In the beginning of the Christian era, people probably started to realize the value and versatility of sweet chestnut wood, leading to a slow spread of the cultivation of \"C. sativa\" trees, a theory that is supported by pollen data and literary sources, as well as the increased use of sweet chestnut wood as poles and in supporting structures, wood works and pier building between A.D. 100 and 600."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "Increasing sweet chestnut pollen appearances in Switzerland, France, Germany and the Iberian peninsula in the first century A.D. suggests the spreading of cultivated sweet chestnut trees by the Romans. Contrary to that notion, other scientists found no indication of the Romans spreading \"C. sativa\" before the fifth century. While the husks of sweet chestnuts, dated to the third or early fourth century, have been identified from the bottom of a Roman well at Great Holts Farm, in Boreham in Essex, England; this deposit includes remains of other exotic food plants and provides no evidence that any of them originated locally. No other evidence of sweet chestnut in Roman Britain has been confirmed. Indeed, no centre of sweet chestnut cultivation outside the Italian peninsula in Roman times has been detected. Widespread use of chestnut in western Europe started in the early Middle Ages and flourished in the late Middle Ages. In the mid-seventh-century Lombard laws, a composition of one solidi is set for felling a chestnut tree (or, also, hazel, pear or apple) belonging to another person (\"Edictum Rothari\", No. 301, 643 AD). Since the beginning of the 20th century, due to depopulation of the countryside and the abandonment of the sweet chestnut as a staple food as well as the spread of chestnut blight and ink disease, \"C. sativa\" cultivation has dramatically decreased. Nowadays, sweet chestnut production is sometimes seen at a turning point again, because the development of high-value sweet chestnut products combined with changing needs of an urban society is leading to a revival in \"C. sativa\" cultivation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The tree requires a mild climate and adequate moisture for good growth and a good nut harvest. Its year-growth (but not the rest of the tree) is sensitive to late spring and early autumn frosts, and is intolerant of lime. Under forest conditions, it will tolerate moderate shade well. It can live to more than 2,000 years of age in natural conditions, see the poetically-named \"hundred-horse chestnut\" in eastern Sicily for example."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The raw nuts, though edible, have a skin which is astringent and unpleasant to eat when still moist; after drying for a time the thin skin loses its astringency but is still better removed to reach the white fruit underneath. Cooking dry in an oven or fire normally helps remove this skin. Chestnuts are traditionally roasted in their tough brown husks after removing the spiny cupules in which they grow on the tree, the husks being peeled off and discarded and the hot chestnuts dipped in salt before eating them. Roast chestnuts are traditionally sold in streets, markets and fairs by street vendors with mobile or static braziers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea crenata",
        "text": "It is resistant to chestnut blight and to ink disease, and for these reasons is of importance in North America in the development of disease-resistant hybrids and genetic engineering of the American chestnut, which is susceptible to both fungal pathogens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colossal (chestnut)",
        "text": "The chestnut cultivar Colossal originates from the USA - California Central Valley. It is a \"Castanea sativa\" \u00d7 \"Castanea crenata\" hybrid that is cold hardy to . The tree can be grown in Zones 4-8, blooms early, and is pollen sterile. Colossal is chestnut blight, root rot and kernel rot susceptible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea mollissima",
        "text": "When cultivated close to other species of chestnut (including Japanese chestnut, \"C. crenata\"; American chestnut, \"C. dentata\"; and sweet chestnut, \"C. sativa\"), Chinese chestnut readily cross-pollinates with them to form hybrids."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea seguinii",
        "text": "\"Castanea seguinii\" grow in mixed mesophytic forests and thickets from 400 to 2000m in elevation. Their bark is eaten by golden snubnosed monkeys (\"Rhinopithecus roxellana\") in winter. In their native habitat they flower in May through July, and fruit from September to November."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea crenata",
        "text": "\"Castanea crenata\" is a small to medium-sized deciduous tree growing to 10\u201315 m tall. The leaves are similar to those of the sweet chestnut, though usually a little smaller, 8\u201319\u00a0cm long and 3\u20135\u00a0cm broad. The flowers of both sexes are borne in 7\u201320\u00a0cm long, upright catkins, the male flowers in the upper part and female flowers in the lower part. They appear in summer, and by autumn, the female flowers develop into spiny cupules containing 3\u20137 brownish nuts that are shed during October."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea seguinii",
        "text": "Its nuts are small, but are edible and occasionally cultivated or collected in the wild and consumed by locals. Locals also practice coppicing for firewood. Another use in China is as a trap crop for \"Dryocosmus kuriphilus\" gall wasps. By planting a hedge of \"C.seguinii\" around \"C.mollissima\" (Chinese chestnut) orchards, the wasps will first encounter and attack the buds of the less valuable \"C. seguinii\", allowing the galled twigs to be cut off and destroyed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flora of Turkey, Fagaceae",
        "text": "Castanea\n*Castanea sativa"
      },
      {
        "title": "Salvia castanea",
        "text": "Salvia castanea is a herbaceous perennial plant discovered in the Yunnan Valley in China in 1904 by plant collector George Forrest. It also grows in Nepal, Bhutan, and Tibet. The plants used in horticulture today likely came from seed collected from a plant at 14,000\u00a0ft in Nepal, at the base of Mt. Everest. It grows 3\u00a0ft tall in the wild, and 1\u20132 feet in cultivation in Europe and the U.S. The few 1.0\u20131.5 in flowers grow in whorls on an inflorescence about 1\u00a0ft long. The name \"castanea\", which means 'chestnut colored', refers to the purplish-maroon flowers"
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "Tannin is found in the following proportions on a 10% moisture basis: bark (6.8%), wood (13.4%), seed husks (10 - 13%). The leaves also contain tannin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chestnut",
        "text": "Although \"Castanea\" can grow in very acid soil, and while these soils are reasonably well tolerated, the preferred range is from pH 5.5-6.0. It does not grow well on alkaline soils, such as chalk, but thrives on soils such as those derived from granite, sandstone, or schist. On alkaline soils, chestnut trees can be grown by grafting them onto oak rootstocks. <br> Recently cleared land is best avoided to help resist the root rot, \"Armillaria mellia\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea crenata",
        "text": "Castanea crenata, known as Korean chestnut, Korean castanea, and Japanese chestnut, is a species of chestnut native to Japan and Korea. Castanea crenata exhibits resistance to \"Phytophthora cinnamomi\", the fungal pathogen that causes ink disease in several Castanea species. The mechanism of resistance of \"Castanea crenata\" to \"Phytophthora cinnamomi\" may derive from its expression of the Cast_Gnk2-like gene."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The fruit yield per tree is usually between 30 and 100\u00a0kg, but can get as high as 300\u00a0kg. Harvest time is between middle of September and middle of November. There are three harvesting techniques:\n* By hand: The sweet chestnuts are harvested by rake or broom, with a harvest speed of 5 to 30\u00a0kg every hour depending on the soil relief. Also, the capsule makes the harvest more complicated and even painful for the worker.\n* By hand with nets: This technique is less time-consuming and protects the fruits from injuries. However, setting up the nets is work intensive.\n* Mechanical: The fruits are collected with a machine that works similarly to a vacuum cleaner. Doing so is time-saving and economical, but it's possible that some fruits get injured, and a big initial investment is needed. Furthermore, a visual sorting is not possible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chestnut",
        "text": "\"Castanea\" grows best in a soil with good drainage and adequate moisture. The tree prefers sloping, deep soils; it does not like shallow or heavy soils with impermeable, clay subsoils. The Chinese chestnut prefers a fertile, well-drained soil, but it grows well in fairly dry, rocky, or poor soils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lands of Dallars",
        "text": "The site has a large Spanish Chestnut (Castanea sativa) that is said to have been planted by William and Agnes Cuningham. The walled garden has the very rare Mistletoe (Viscum album) growing on an apple tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "American chestnut",
        "text": "\"Castanea dentata\" is susceptible to ink disease, particularly in the southern part of its natural range. Unlike \"Castanea dentata\", \"Castanea crenata\" exhibits resistance to \"Phytophthora cinnamomi\", the fungal pathogen that causes ink disease. The mechanism of resistance of \"Castanea crenata\" to \"Phytophthora cinnamomi\" may derive from its expression of the Cast_Gnk2-like gene. Transgenic modification of \"Castanea dentata\" with the Cast_Gnk2-like gene may provide a mechanism for developing \"Castanea dentata\" trees resistant to \"Phytophthora cinnamomi\". Stacking of the Cast_Gnk2-like gene and the oxalate oxidase gene may provide a means of developing genetically modified \"Castanea dentata\" trees resistant to both the chestnut blight and to ink disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cortinarius aurae",
        "text": "\"Cortinarius aurae\" is found in mesic to damp coniferous forests, but also known to occur with sweet chestnut (\"Castanea sativa\"). The species is widespread, being known from both Europe and North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "This tree responds very well to coppicing, which is still practised in Britain, and produces a good crop of tannin-rich wood every 12 to 30 years, depending on intended use and local growth rate. The tannin renders the young growing wood durable and weather resistant for outdoor use, thus suitable for posts, fencing or stakes. The wood is of light colour, hard and strong. It is used to make furniture, barrels (sometimes used to age balsamic vinegar), and roof beams notably in southern Europe (for example in houses of the Alpujarra, Spain, in southern France and elsewhere). The timber has a density of 560\u00a0kg per cubic meter, and due to its durability in ground contact is often used for external purposes such as fencing. It is also a good fuel, though not favoured for open fires as it tends to spit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The leaves provide food for some animals, including Lepidoptera such as the case-bearer moth \"Coleophora anatipennella\" and North American rose chafer Macrodactylus subspinosus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea mollissima",
        "text": "Chinese chestnut has been cultivated in East Asia for millennia and its exact original range cannot be determined. In the provinces of Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Liaoning, Nei Mongol, Qinghai, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, Xizang, Yunnan, and Zhejiang, and also to Taiwan and Korea. It grows close to sea level in the north of its range, and at altitudes of up to 2,800 m in the south of the range. The species prefers full sun and acidic, loamy soil, and has a medium growth rate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The field management is dependent on the cultivation system. While cleaning the soil from the leaves and pruning is the norm, the use of fertilizer, irrigation and pesticides is less common and reserved for more intensive cultivation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pammene fasciana",
        "text": "The larvae feed on \"Castanea\", \"Fagus\" and \"Quercus\" species. It is considered a serious pest on sweet chestnut (\"Castanea sativa\"). The larvae feed internally in the acorns or nuts of the host plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The skin of raw peeled chestnuts can be relatively easily removed by quickly blanching the nuts after scoring them by a cross slit at the tufted end. Once cooked, chestnuts acquire a sweet flavour and a floury texture similar to the sweet potato. The cooked nuts can be used for stuffing poultry, as a vegetable or in nut roasts. They can also be used in confections, puddings, desserts and cakes. They are used for flour, bread making, a cereal substitute, coffee substitute, a thickener in soups and other cookery uses, as well as for fattening stock. A sugar can be extracted from them. The Corsican variety of polenta (called \"pulenta\") is made with sweet chestnut flour. A local variety of Corsican beer also uses chestnuts. The product is sold as a sweetened paste mixed with vanilla, , sweetened or unsweetened as chestnut pur\u00e9e or \"pur\u00e9e de marron\", and candied chestnuts as \"marrons glac\u00e9s\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Artocarpus camansi",
        "text": "Other common names for plant include \"chataigne\", \"casta\u00f1a\" 'tropical' (French and Spanish for the unrelated but culinarily similar chestnut), \"kapiak\" in New Guinea, \"katahar\" in Guyana, \"kluwih\" in Indonesia, \"sukun biji\" in Malaysia, \"kos-del\" (\u0d9a\u0ddc\u0dc3\u0dca\u0daf\u0dd9\u0dbd\u0dca ) in Sri Lanka, \"pan de fruta\" in Dominican Republic (Spanish for its relative breadfruit), \"labapin\" in Ha\u00efti, and \"pana de pepita\" in Puerto Rico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lepiota castanea",
        "text": "The spores and flesh are white, with a mild taste. The stem is typically chestnut brown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cameraria castaneaeella",
        "text": "The larvae feed on \"Castanea\" species (including \"Castanea dentata\" and \"Castanea sativa\") and \"Quercus\" species (including \"Quercus ilicifolia\"). They mine the leaves of their host plant. The mine has the form of an irregular yellowish blotch mine on the upperside of the leaf. The larva hibernates on a slight bed of silk beneath the folded epidermis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "The most widespread treatment before storage is water curing, a process in which the sweet chestnuts are immersed in water for nine days. The aim of this practice is to limit the main storage problems threatening the sweet chestnut: fungi development and the presence of insect worms. As an alternative to water curing, hot water treatment is also commercially used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea seguinii",
        "text": "\"Castanea seguinii\" are small trees or shrubs, rarely reaching 12m. Their stipules are narrowly lanceolate, 0.7 to 1.5cm long, and are shed (become deciduous) when the plant is in fruit. Leaf petioles are 0.5 to 1.5cm long. Leaves are 6 to 14cm long, with their abaxial sides covered with yellowishbrown to gray scaly glands, and have sparse hairs along the veins when young. Leaf blades are oblongobovate to ellipticoblong in shape, with bases rounded or infrequently subcordate, but cuneate when young, with acuminate apices. Leaf margins are coarsely serrate. Male inflorescences are 5 to 12cm long and catkinlike. Female inflorescences are held in a cupule, with one to two (rarely more) flowers in each. Cupules are 3 to 5cm wide, and covered with sparsely pilose spiny bracts which are 6 to 10mm long. Each cupule produces two or three nuts, rarely more, with each nut being 1.5 to 2.0cm in diameter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis endertii",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis endertii\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The brownish bark is slightly fissured with ring-like features. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its roundish, edible nuts measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castilleja exserta",
        "text": "The seeds were harvested by indigenous peoples of California for food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis cuspidata",
        "text": "The cotyledon of the nut is eaten boiled or roasted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis buruana",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis buruana\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The brown bark is smooth or scaly. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its ovoid to roundish nuts measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Valdostana Castana",
        "text": "The Valdostana Castana ranges in colour from chestnut-brown to black. The hooves and mucosa are slate-coloured or black. It is robust and hardy, and well able to exploit high mountain pasture. Its principal characteristic is its ability in the Bataille de Reines, the annual cow-fighting contests held in the Valle d'Aosta region. Partly due to its combative nature, it is not suited to intensive farming; management is transhumant: the cattle are stabled only in winter, and spend the summer months on the mountain pastures of the Alps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea (journal)",
        "text": "\"Castanea: Journal of the Southern Appalachian Botanical Society\" is a biannual peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Southern Appalachian Botanical Society. It was established in 1936 and covers the botany of the eastern United States, in particular systematics, floristics, ecology, physiology, and biochemistry. The journal name \"Castanea\" comes from the genus of chestnuts that were fresh in the minds of the founders of the society when the journal was established; the chestnut blight ravaged the American Chestnut, \"Castanea dentata\", in the early part of the twentieth century and drastically changed the plant communities of the Appalachians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea crenata",
        "text": "\"Castanea crenata\" is an important tree in Japan and Korea for its heavy production of sweet, edible nuts. A number of cultivars have been selected for large nut size. It is also widely cultivated in eastern China and Taiwan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea crenata",
        "text": "Castanea crenata\n--Description.\n--Cultivation and uses.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Camelina sativa",
        "text": "\"C. sativa\" has been traditionally cultivated as an oilseed crop to produce vegetable oil and animal feed. Ample archeological evidence shows it has been grown in Europe for at least 3,000 years. The earliest findsites include the Neolithic levels at Auvernier, Switzerland (dated to the second millennium BC), the Chalcolithic level at Pefkakia in Greece (dated to the third millennium BC), and Sucidava-Celei, Romania (\"circa\" 2200 BC). During the Bronze Age and Iron Age, it was an important agricultural crop in northern Greece beyond the current range of the olive. It apparently continued to be grown at the time of the Roman Empire, although its Greek and Latin names are not known. As early as 600 BC, it was being sown as a monoculture around the Rhine River Valley, and was thought to have spread mainly by coexisting as a weed with flax monocultures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis oviformis",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis oviformis\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The brownish bark is scaly or cracked. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its ovoid nuts measure up to long and are considered edible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuspidata castanea",
        "text": "Cuspidata castanea\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Castilleja kerryana",
        "text": "\"Castilleja kerryana\" often grows alongside \"Dryas octopetala\", and it is suspected that it is hemiparasitic on it, as many \"Castilleja\" tap the roots of various other species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dioryctria castanea",
        "text": "Larvae have been reared on \"Pinus kesiya\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quercus castaneifolia",
        "text": "Quercus castaneifolia\n--Description.\n--Cultivation.\n--Trivia.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea sativa",
        "text": "Sweet chestnut has been listed as one of the 38 substances used to prepare Bach flower remedies, a kind of alternative medicine promoted for its supposed effect on health. However, according to Cancer Research UK, \"there is no scientific evidence to prove that flower remedies can control, cure or prevent any type of disease, including cancer\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis costata",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis costata\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The whitish bark is smooth, scaly or flaky. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its conical nuts measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chaenomeles cathayensis",
        "text": "The plant is cultivated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea pumila",
        "text": "It is a spreading shrub or small tree, reaching in height at maturity. The bark is red- or gray-brown and slightly furrowed into scaly plates. The leaves are simple, narrowly elliptical or lanceolate, yellow-green above and paler and finely hairy on the underside. Each leaf is long by wide with parallel side veins ending in short pointed teeth. The flowers are monoecious and appear in early summer. Male flowers are small and pale yellow to white, borne on erect catkins long attached to the base of each leaf. Female flowers are long and are located at the base of some catkins. The fruit is a golden-colored cupule in diameter with many sharp spines, maturing in autumn. Each cupule contains one ovoid shiny dark brown nut that is edible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea mollissima",
        "text": "It is a deciduous tree growing to 20 m tall with a broad crown. The leaves are alternate, simple, 10\u201322\u00a0cm long and 4.5\u20138\u00a0cm broad, with a toothed margin. The flowers are produced in catkins 4\u201320\u00a0cm long, with the female flowers at the base of the catkin and males on the rest. The fruit is a densely spiny cupule 4\u20138\u00a0cm diameter, containing two or three glossy brown nuts; these are 2\u20133\u00a0cm diameter on wild trees. The scientific name \"mollissima\" derives from the softly downy shoots and young leaves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Casimiroa",
        "text": "Some species are cultivated. \"C. edulis\" (white sapote) produces edible fruit. It is also used as a shade tree in coffee plantations, as an ornamental, as an herbal remedy, and occasionally as lumber. \"C. sapota\", which also produces edible fruit, is grown in Mexico, and \"C. tetrameria\" is also known in cultivation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spulerina castaneae",
        "text": "The larvae feed on \"Quercus\" species and \"Castanea crenata\". They mine the stem of their host plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis argentea",
        "text": "The fruits are decorated with branched spines. Each fruit cup contains one to four edible nuts that are oval or flattened and have a size of up to . The fruit stalk is up to long. Flowering occurs most of the year, but usually from March to April. The fruit ripens from February to November, usually May to July."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phytophthora cambivora",
        "text": "Phytophthora cambivora is a plant pathogen that causes ink disease in European chestnut trees (\"Castanea sativa\"). Ink disease, also caused by \"Phytophthora cinnamomi\", is thought to have been present in Europe since the 18th century, and causes chestnut trees to wilt and die; major epidemics occurred during the 19th and 20th centuries. \"P. cinnamomi\" and \"P. cambivora\" are now present throughout Europe since the 1990s. Ink disease has resurged, often causing high mortality of trees, particularly in Portugal, Italy, and France. It has also been isolated from a number of different species since the 1990s, including:\n*Golden chinquapin trees, (\"Chrysolepis chrysophylla\") in Oregon, United States\n*\"Rhododendron\" and \"Pieris\" species in North Carolina\n*Noble fir trees (\"Abies procera\") in Norway\n*Beech trees (\"Fagus sylvatica\") in Italy and Germany."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis indica",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis indica\" grows naturally in Nepal, Bhutan to Taiwan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lepiota castaneidisca",
        "text": "\"Lepiota castaneidisca\" is a saprobic fungus. Fruit bodies appear in the late fall and winter (November to February), where they grow gregariously near cypress, redwood or in mixed coast live oak forests. The fungus is common in coastal and northern California, and is often found in the San Francisco Bay Area. The northern limit of its distribution is Washington state and southern British Columbia, and it has been recorded as far south as Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis oligoneura",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis oligoneura\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The brownish bark is smooth to lenticellate. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its roundish nuts measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis lucida",
        "text": "The bark produces tannin. The nuts are considered edible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chestnut",
        "text": "\"Castanea\" likes a full sun position. An experiment with \"C. dentata\" seedlings in Ohio confirmed the need for sun for optimal growth. The butt of the tree is sometimes painted with white paint to protect the tree from sunburn until it has developed enough canopy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scorzonera hispanica",
        "text": "\"Scorzonera hispanica\" is grown commercially as an annual, although it is a biennial plant. After a vegetative phase in the first year, the plant flowers in its second year and can reach a height of 60cm with a stem diameter of 5 cm. The hermaphroditic flowers are insect-pollinated. The flower-head is terminal and consists of yellow ray florets. The stem is smooth and leafy and the leaves are lanceolate to ovate with entire margins. Black salsify forms a long cylindrical taproot with a brownish to black cork layer. If harvested young, the carrot-like roots are tender, long and tapered with shiny white flesh. They contain a milky latex, which turns the roots black when exposed to air."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis fulva",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis fulva\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The bark is smooth or fissured. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its ovoid or conical nuts measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coleophora flavipennella",
        "text": "The larvae feed on sweet chestnut (\"Castanea sativa\"), sessile oak (\"Quercus petraea\"), pedunculate oak (\"Quercus robur\") and northern red oak (\"Quercus rubra\"). Young larvae make a tiny blotch mine and then create a leaf case from the mined leaf fragment. Later this first case is enlarged with silk. The small leaf fragment remains part of the case. The final case is a light brown, trivalved, tubular silken case of about with a mouth angle of about 45\u00b0. Full-grown larvae can be found in May."
      },
      {
        "title": "Griva, Kilkis",
        "text": "Local agriculture produces chestnuts, sheep, and timber."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charadra tapa",
        "text": "Larvae have been reared on \"Quercus gambelii\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castilleja sessiliflora",
        "text": "This perennial herb produces one or more stems up to tall from a woody root crown. It is hemiparasitic, obtaining water and nutrients from other plants by tapping their roots. This \"Castilleja\" species has been observed parasitizing eastern redcedar (\"Juniperus virginiana\") and oldfield juniper (\"J. communis\" var. \"depressa\"). It reproduces sexually and vegetatively by resprouting from its root crown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis costata",
        "text": "The wood is locally used in construction. The nuts are considered edible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis pedunculata",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis pedunculata\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The brown bark is flaky to lenticellate. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its ovoid nuts measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pittosporum patulum",
        "text": "It is occasionally cultivated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis psilophylla",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis psilophylla\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The brown bark is smooth or with fine fissures. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its ovoid nuts measure up to long and are considered edible."
      },
      {
        "title": "American chestnut",
        "text": "\"Castanea dentata\" is a rapidly growing deciduous hardwood tree, historically reaching up to in height, and in circumference. It ranged from Maine and southern Ontario to Mississippi, and from the Atlantic coast to the Appalachian Mountains and the Ohio Valley. \"C. dentata\" was once one of the most common trees in the Northeastern United States. In Pennsylvania, it is estimated to have comprised 25\u201330% of all hardwoods. The tree's huge population was due to a combination of rapid growth and a large annual seed crop in comparison to oaks which do not reliably produce sizable numbers of acorns every year. Nut production begins when \"C. dentata\" is 7\u20138 years old."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyanea crispa",
        "text": "The plant is being propagated and the seeds collected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quararibea cordata",
        "text": "Chupa-chupa has failed to gain much international recognition and has not been widely planted outside its native range. In 1964, US pomologist Bill Whitman obtained seeds from Peru and planted a tree in his garden at Bal Harbour, Florida, where it has successfully fruited."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inonotus obliquus",
        "text": "Attempts at cultivating this fungus on potato dextrose agar and other simulated mediums resulted in a reduced and markedly different production of metabolites. Cultivated chaga developed a reduced number of phytosterols, particularly lanosterol, an intermediate in the synthesis of ergosterol and lanostane-type triterpenes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Casta\u00f1ada",
        "text": "Chestnut festival is traditionally celebrated in the same grove (\"souto\"), starting early in the afternoon to collect firewood and chestnuts. One or more bonfires are lit with sticks and pine needles. Young people take to the streets. It was customary for the girls to bring the chestnuts, and for the boys to bring the wine. Chestnuts are roasted on the floor, directly in the fire. Children play and are donned with soot and ash. The adults dance and sing, jumping over the remains of the fire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quercus castanea",
        "text": "Quercus castanea\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanea pumila",
        "text": "Castanea pumila, commonly known as the Allegheny chinquapin, American chinquapin (from the Powhatan) or dwarf chestnut, is a species of chestnut native to the southeastern United States. The native range is from Maryland and extreme southern New Jersey and southeast Pennsylvania south to central Florida, west to eastern Texas, and north to southern Missouri and Kentucky. The plant's habitat is dry sandy and rocky uplands and ridges mixed with oak and hickory to 1000 m elevation. It grows best on well-drained soils in full sun or partial shade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Teleiodes flavimaculella",
        "text": "The larvae possibly feed on \"Castanea sativa\" and \"Quercus\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chestnut blight",
        "text": "The pathogenic fungus Cryphonectria parasitica (formerly \"Endothia parasitica\") is a member of the Ascomycota (sac fungi). This necrotrophic fungus is native to East Asia and South East Asia and was introduced into Europe and North America in the early 1900s. The fungus spread rapidly and caused significant tree loss in both regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castanopsis hypophoenicea",
        "text": "\"Castanopsis hypophoenicea\" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The greyish bark is rough, sometimes smooth. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its ovoid or ellipsoid nuts measure up to long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cercospora pisa-sativae",
        "text": "Cercospora pisa-sativae is a fungal plant pathogen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Castilleja parviflora",
        "text": "There are several varieties of \"Castilleja parviflora\":"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How tall is the tree \"Castanea sativa\"?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "C. sativa can grow to a height of 20\u201335 m (66\u2013115 ft)."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the tallest tree in the world?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Hyperion is a coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) in California considered the world's tallest known living tree."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any trees that are no longer alive that were known to have been taller?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A. mirabilis are known from large amounts of very well preserved silicified wood and cones from the Cerro Cuadrado Petrified Forest, including tree trunks that reached 100 m (330 ft) in height in life."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What type of pests affect Castanea sativa?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are several. Would you like to hear about the different Lepidoptera, fungal pathogens, or the type of wasp that serve as pests to it?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about fungal pathogens?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The two major fungal pathogens of the sweet chestnut are the chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) and the ink disease caused by Phytophthora cambivora and Phytophthora cinnamomi. In North America as well as in Southern Europe Cryphonectria parasitica destroyed most of the chestnut population in the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How is the castanea sativa cultivated?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "There are three different cultivation systems for the sweet chestnut: Coppicing for wood extraction; Selve for fruit production from grafted trees; and High forest for wood and fruit production."
    ],
    "topic": "Castanea sativa",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Castanea sativa:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Castanea sativa",
          "Cultivation",
          "Cultivation forms"
        ],
        "ctx": "Three different cultivation systems for the sweet chestnut can be distinguished:\n* \"Coppicing\": Mainly for wood extraction. Standard conditions yield 15 m3 wood per ha and year.\n* \"Selve\": Fruit production from grafted trees. The trees have a short tribe and a big crown. Trees have a high density and the ground between the trees is often used as pasture.\n* \"High forest:\" Wood and fruit production. This cultivation form is less intensive with a yield of 4-12 dt/ha and replacement of trees every 50\u201380 years. The trees grow from seeds and build a dense canopy."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Hawkgirl regained control of her body after Wonder Woman used her Lasso of Truth on her, restoring Kendra's memories. After finding Hawkman's Nth Metal mace, Wonder Woman and Hawkgirl traveled through a portal to Earth, where they ended up fighting various corrupted versions of the Justice League. During their battle, Hawkgirl encountered Hawkman possessed by the darkness of \"Barbatos\". She was able to release him from the villain's command after encouraging Carter to remember all their past lives together. After assisting in the defeat of \"Barbatos\" and the \"Dark Knights\", Hawkgirl is recruited to join the new Justice League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Within the DC Super Hero Girls comics adaptation, Hawkgirl is depicted as a student at Super Hero High, being a Latina superheroine. During the issue \"Hits and Myths\", Kendra alongside Flash, Batgirl and Bumblebee forms a team to help Batgirl locating her missing Batplane. They track the Batplane up until a street bar. There they fight against Black Canary, Silver Banshee and Jinx, during the fight Black Canary escapes with the Batplane, so Hawkgirl, Poison Ivy, Flash, Supergirl and Batgirl chases her to retrieve the batplane, after defeating Black Canary they successfully retrieve the batplane, to celebrate their victory they all go to Themyscira with Wonder Woman to have a slumber party."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Within the DC Super Hero Girls comics adaptation, Hawkgirl is depicted as a student at Super Hero High, being a Latina superheroine. During the issue \"Hits and Myths\", Kendra alongside Flash, Batgirl and Bumblebee forms a team to help Batgirl locating her missing Batplane. They track the Batplane up until a street bar. There they fight against Black Canary, Silver Banshee and Jinx, during the fight Black Canary escapes with the Batplane, so Hawkgirl, Poison Ivy, Flash, Supergirl and Batgirl chases her to retrieve the batplane, after defeating Black Canary they successfully retrieve the batplane, to celebrate their victory they all go to Themyscira with Wonder Woman to have a slumber party."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "Within the DC Super Hero Girls comics adaptation, Hawkgirl is depicted as a student at Super Hero High, being a Latina superheroine. During the issue \"Hits and Myths\", Kendra alongside Flash, Batgirl and Bumblebee forms a team to help Batgirl locating her missing Batplane. They track the Batplane up until a street bar. There they fight against Black Canary, Silver Banshee and Jinx, during the fight Black Canary escapes with the Batplane, so Hawkgirl, Poison Ivy, Flash, Supergirl and Batgirl chases her to retrieve the batplane, after defeating Black Canary they successfully retrieve the batplane, to celebrate their victory they all go to Themyscira with Wonder Woman to have a slumber party."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Later, Kendra would come to learn that she had a pivotal role in healing the Source Wall that was previously destroyed in the Dark Nights: Metal event. Her Nth Metal wings were entrusted with the power to restore the Source Wall's integrity. After discovering this, Kendra tried to save the universe by sacrificing herself to the Source Wall, but her plan was thwarted by Brainiac."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "While in a mission with the Justice League inside the \"Prison Planet,\" Hawkgirl discovered another ability provided by the Nth Metal, the power to weaken forces drawn from the fabric of space-time. Thus, Kendra was the only member not affected by Kanjar Ro, enabling her to fight against the villain and rescue her friends. Hawkgirl then left the Justice League due to injuries sustained in Final Crisis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Kendra Saunders made her \"DC Rebirth\" debut in \"\" #1, she is introduced as the leader of the current Blackhawks, an anti-apocalyptic team. Seeking to prevent the Dark Knights' invasion on Earth, Hawkgirl warned the Justice League of the upcoming invasion of the Dark Multiverse and later worked with the League to help them defeat the Dark Knights. Hawkgirl is also a member of the Immortal Men, a group of the oldest beings of Earth. As such, she was entrusted by the Immortals with the mission of using the Anti-Monitor's astral brain in the Rock of Eternity to destroy the Dark Knights. However, when she tried to do so, she was interrupted by Barbatos who transformed her into a dark-hawk version of herself called Lady Blackhawk. It's later revealed that because of Barbatos's influence, Kendra's bond to the Nth Metal was merged into her being. She now boasts an altered physiology reminiscent to her past life as a Thanagarian, which resulted in the grafting of Nth Metal wings to Hawkgirl's back."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shiera Sanders Hall",
        "text": "Hawkgirl appears as a playable character in \"\", voiced by Jennifer Hale. The \"prime\" version is a member of the Justice League while an alternate reality version became a member of Superman's Regime. After the Regime is defeated, she is captured and imprisoned. In her non-canonical single-player ending, Hawkgirl is revealed to have been brainwashed by the Regime. Once she gets free, she defeats Superman for killing her husband Hawkman, but is imprisoned for her role in the Regime. One night, she is teleported to a stone of pure Nth Metal, which encases her in invincible armor. Using her new power, she sets out to exact revenge on those who helped Superman capture Hawkman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "She is one of the heroes who fought in space during the Rann-Thanagar War. Following the events of Infinite Crisis, a Zeta Beam transporter malfunction injured many of the superheroes in space, including Hawkgirl, causing her to grow over twenty feet tall. Some time later, her proper stature restored, Kendra was shown living in St. Roch, Louisiana, working in Stonechat Museum and protecting the city as Hawkgirl."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Their relationship became one of the major subplots of the series, with Black Canary's disapproval of the relationship bringing some tension to it. Additionally, Power Girl advised Red Arrow not to get involved with Hawkgirl, as she was destined to eventually return to Hawkman (Carter Hall). Despite everything the two started dating, with the Justice League later finding out after Red Tornado caught Hawkgirl and Red Arrow sleeping together."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "In the comic book adaptation of \"\", Hawkgirl (Shayera Hol) appears as a member of Superman's Regime. She first appears to answer Wonder Woman's call for heroes at the Watchtower. After being informed of the situation, the kidnapping of Superman's parents at the hands of Mirror Master, she is one of the many heroes to agree to help locate the Rogue. She battles Weather Wizard in Central City, and is later seen waiting outside the villain's bar. Hawkgirl next appears to help Wonder Woman battle the attacking Atlanteans and Aquaman. Hawkgirl battles the forces of Atlantis as Wonder Woman orders her to rescue the people who had been knocked off the boat by Aquaman's attack. She watches Arthur's forces suddenly retreat and notices the massive tsunami fast approaching. She is the first to realize there is something behind the wave. Hawkgirl spots what she believes are mountains rising out of the water, but are in fact the massive tentacles of the Kraken Aquaman called to his aid. Hawkgirl is ensnared by one of the Kraken's tentacles and dragged underwater, slowly drowning while Wonder Woman struggles to save her. After Superman arrives and forces Aquaman to call his beast off, Hawkgirl is ordered by the Man of Steel to help the sailors while Superman and the League go to give their response to Aquaman's ultimatum. Hawkgirl removes the leader of a country from his limousine during a parade before she loses him to Captain Atom. Shocked, Shiera lets her guard down and is struck by a blast of electricity, causing her to fall to the streets below. Collapsed, Hawkgirl sees Black Lightning and Huntress before the latter knocks her unconscious with an arrow bolt. Hawkgirl is later seen being held in a cell in the Batcave, glaring at Batman and Catwoman as they discuss the League's reaction to her kidnapping. When Catwoman points out the League will be searching for her, Batman disagrees and the scene cuts to the Watchtower, where to many heroes shock, a second Hawkgirl is seen arriving. The true Hawkgirl has remained trapped within the Batcave while her imposter has been revealed as the Martian Manhunter, shape-shifted into her form. Exactly a week later, the Martian Manhunter is exposed thanks to Batman's son Damian, and Bruce releases Hawkgirl as promised. Shiera makes her way to the crashed Watchtower and confirms her identity by easily putting out a lit match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Hawkgirl is the name of several fictional superheroines appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The original Hawkgirl, Shiera Sanders Hall, was created by writer Gardner Fox and artist Dennis Neville, and first appeared in \"Flash Comics\" #1 (January 1940). Shayera Hol was created by writer Gardner Fox and artist Joe Kubert, and first appeared in \"The Brave and the Bold\" #34 (March 1961). Kendra Saunders was created by writer David S. Goyer and artist Stephen Sadowski, and first appeared in \"JSA: Secret Files and Origins\" #1 (August 1999). One of DC's earliest super-heroines, Hawkgirl has appeared in many of the company's flagship team-up titles including Justice Society of America and Justice League of America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Despite his help against Grundy, the Atom, under orders from the World Army, tried to capture Hawkgirl, but she escaped with the help of the Flash. Green Lantern then returned to Earth after removing the danger of the nuclear missiles that the World Army launched under the advice of Terry Sloan. Unfortunately, he had run out of power, after using so much of it to defeat Grundy. He was saved by Hawkgirl, who caught him in mid-free fall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "In the comic book adaptation of \"\", Hawkgirl (Shayera Hol) appears as a member of Superman's Regime. She first appears to answer Wonder Woman's call for heroes at the Watchtower. After being informed of the situation, the kidnapping of Superman's parents at the hands of Mirror Master, she is one of the many heroes to agree to help locate the Rogue. She battles Weather Wizard in Central City, and is later seen waiting outside the villain's bar. Hawkgirl next appears to help Wonder Woman battle the attacking Atlanteans and Aquaman. Hawkgirl battles the forces of Atlantis as Wonder Woman orders her to rescue the people who had been knocked off the boat by Aquaman's attack. She watches Arthur's forces suddenly retreat and notices the massive tsunami fast approaching. She is the first to realize there is something behind the wave. Hawkgirl spots what she believes are mountains rising out of the water, but are in fact the massive tentacles of the Kraken Aquaman called to his aid. Hawkgirl is ensnared by one of the Kraken's tentacles and dragged underwater, slowly drowning while Wonder Woman struggles to save her. After Superman arrives and forces Aquaman to call his beast off, Hawkgirl is ordered by the Man of Steel to help the sailors while Superman and the League go to give their response to Aquaman's ultimatum. Hawkgirl removes the leader of a country from his limousine during a parade before she loses him to Captain Atom. Shocked, Shiera lets her guard down and is struck by a blast of electricity, causing her to fall to the streets below. Collapsed, Hawkgirl sees Black Lightning and Huntress before the latter knocks her unconscious with an arrow bolt. Hawkgirl is later seen being held in a cell in the Batcave, glaring at Batman and Catwoman as they discuss the League's reaction to her kidnapping. When Catwoman points out the League will be searching for her, Batman disagrees and the scene cuts to the Watchtower, where to many heroes shock, a second Hawkgirl is seen arriving. The true Hawkgirl has remained trapped within the Batcave while her imposter has been revealed as the Martian Manhunter, shape-shifted into her form. Exactly a week later, the Martian Manhunter is exposed thanks to Batman's son Damian, and Bruce releases Hawkgirl as promised. Shiera makes her way to the crashed Watchtower and confirms her identity by easily putting out a lit match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shiera Sanders Hall",
        "text": "In the comic book adaptation of \"\", Hawkgirl (Shiera Hall) appears as a member of Superman's Regime. She first appears to answer Wonder Woman's call for heroes at the Watchtower. After being informed of the situation, the kidnapping of Superman's parents at the hands of Mirror Master, she is one of the many heroes to agree to help locate the Rogue. She battles Weather Wizard in Central City, and is later seen waiting outside the villain's bar. Hawkgirl next appears to help Wonder Woman battle the attacking Atlanteans and Aquaman. Hawkgirl battles the forces of Atlantis as Wonder Woman orders her to rescue the people who had been knocked off the boat by Aquaman's attack. She watches Arthur's forces suddenly retreat and notices the massive tsunami fast approaching. She is the first to realize there is something behind the wave. Hawkgirl spots what she believes are mountains rising out of the water, but are in fact the massive tentacles of the Kraken Aquaman called to his aid. Hawkgirl is ensnared by one of the Kraken's tentacles and dragged underwater, slowly drowning while Wonder Woman struggles to save her. After Superman arrives and forces Aquaman to call his beast off, Hawkgirl is ordered by the Man of Steel to help the sailors while Superman and the League go to give their response to Aquaman's ultimatum. Hawkgirl removes the leader of a country from his limousine during a parade before she loses him to Captain Atom. Shocked, Shiera lets her guard down and is struck by a blast of electricity, causing her to fall to the streets below. Collapsed, Hawkgirl sees Black Lightning and Huntress before the latter knocks her unconscious with an arrow bolt. Hawkgirl is later seen being held in a cell in the Batcave, glaring at Batman and Catwoman as they discuss the League's reaction to her kidnapping. When Catwoman points out the League will be searching for her, Batman disagrees and the scene cuts to the Watchtower, where to many heroes shock, a second Hawkgirl is seen arriving. The true Hawkgirl has remained trapped within the Batcave while her imposter has been revealed as the Martian Manhunter, shape-shifted into her form. Exactly a week later, the Martian Manhunter is exposed thanks to Batman's son Damian, and Bruce releases Hawkgirl as promised. Shiera makes her way to the crashed Watchtower and confirms her identity by easily putting out a lit match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Kendra Saunders's version of Hawkgirl is featured in the DCeased comic book series. In this alternative Earth where a zombie-like virus has infected most of the planet, Kendra is one of the remaining survivors. She informs the Justice League that Captain Atom is about to self-implode, giving Black Canary's green lantern ring just enough time to shield them from the blast. Hawkgirl is later able to evacuate from Earth alongside a few civilians and Justice League members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders) is the name of a fictional superheroine appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Kendra Saunders was created by writers James Robinson & David S. Goyer and artist Scott Benefiel, and she first appeared in \"JSA: Secret Files and Origins\" #1 (August 1999)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "As a giant mechanized version of Hawkgirl, the gizmoid begins attacking St. Roch with its arsenal of weaponry. Bernadeth and the other Furies try to destroy the gizmoid but are unsuccessful. But, due to her brief connection with the gizmoid, Hawkgirl discovers a weakness whereby she and the Furies are able to defeat it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)",
        "text": "She has superhuman strength and the ability to fly and is the first chairwoman of the Justice Society of America. She sports a bob of blond hair; wears a distinctive white, red, and blue costume; and has an aggressive fighting style. Throughout her early appearances in \"All Star Comics\", she is often at odds with Wildcat because his penchant for talking to her as if she were an ordinary human female rather than a superpowered Kryptonian annoys her."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "When Hawkman returns to Thanagar and does not find Hawkgirl he goes to Earth. There he tries to force Hawkgirl to leave Superman's Regime and return home, but, loyal to Superman, Shayera fights against Hawkman; after defeating him she asks him to leave or she will kill him. Not respecting her wish, Hawkman later returns to Earth and tries to kill Superman with a kryptonite mace; he fails and is killed in a fist fight against Superman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Hawkgirl goes to the Hall of Justice to question Lex Luthor over whether Sinestro truly willingly gave up his ring and powers before allowing himself to be imprisoned. Luthor confirms her questions before saying he still believes Sinestro has something else to play before Sinestro responds that the Green Lanterns will soon arrive to capture Superman and that the League will need his help to stop them. Hawkgirl is next seen waiting for Superman and Shazam in Utah at the Great Salt desert, mace at the ready as she answers Shazam's question of what the Man of Steel thinks they're dealing with by replying \"He thinks we're dealing with Green Lanterns.\" When Superman asks how she knows, she tells him she was talking with their 'guest' at the Hall of Justice. When she sees Superman staring up into the sky, she asks how many Lanterns are on the way, with Superman replying, \"Too many.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Hawkgirl has been adapted into various media, including direct-to-video animated films, video games, and both live-action and animated television series, featuring as a main or recurring character in the shows \"Justice League\", \"Justice League Unlimited\", \"The Flash\", \"Arrow\", \"Young Justice\", \"DC Super Hero Girls\" and \"DC's Legends of Tomorrow\". Ciara Ren\u00e9e portrayed the character in live action in the Arrowverse shows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "In the \"DC Bombshells\" continuity set in World War II, Shiera is a technological genius and archaeologist who aids the Bombshells with her lover, Vixen. As Hawkgirl, she uses a jetpack rather than fly with wings, though when Cheetah forces her to build weapons out of ancient technology, she designs one with wings as well as a powerful mace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Kendra later fights alongside the Furies of Darkseid when St. Roch is attacked by an evil doomsday weapon of Apokolips, a stolen Beta-3 Gizmoid. It turns out that the gizmoid is linked to the Hawks' old enemy, Hath-Set, as it had been taken to Earth ages ago and landed in Ancient Egypt during Hath-Set's reign, and hidden in a canopic jar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "The Green Lanterns survive and engage the three, with Hawkgirl fighting the Green Lanterns Isamot Kol and RRU-9-2, when she sees Superman suddenly go down, calling out his name. Shortly after, Hawkgirl is defeated, her Nth Metal mace taken by Green Lantern Tomar-Re, and her unconscious body trapped in a bubble construct alongside Shazam. Before any of them can be taken to Oa, Sinestro arrives, killing Ch'p. Shiera is freed and recovers her mace before engaging Tomar-Re and Procanon Kaa in a battle until the arrival of the Sinestro Corps. Hawkgirl flies above the captured Green Lanterns, silently observing as they remove their rings in surrender and she witnesses the Sinestro Corps depart the Earth on Sinestro's orders. During the lost seven months, Hawkgirl worked alongside fellow League members Superman and Shazam as well as Lanterns Hal, John and Sinestro in toppling more 'rogue nations' to continue establishing peace across the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Kendra Saunders's version of Hawkgirl is featured in \"Gotham City Garage\" series. She is the youngest member of a very old team. It's revealed that Kendra's parents were killed during an alien invasion, she was later rescued by the Blackhawks and trained from a young age with captain Blackhawk. She is shown using the Lady Blackhawk costume and the alias Kendra Blackhawk. She resigns from the Blackhawks in order to help the Gotham City Garage against Lex Luthor's attacks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)\n--Publication history.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----\"Hawkman\" Vol. 4 (2002\u20132006).\n----\"Hawkgirl\", the series.\n----\"Justice League of America\".\n----\"Blackest Night\".\n----\"Brightest Day\".\n----\"The New 52\".\n----\"DC Rebirth\".\n----\"Infinite Frontier\".\n--Other versions.\n----\"DC Super Hero Girls\".\n----Earth 2.\n----\"Gotham City Garage\".\n----\"DCeased\".\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Some time later, Kendra met with the Flash in Europe. She was guided by a certain Fate as to where she might find him. Together, they went to Washington, D.C. and fought Solomon Grundy, without much success. They were later joined by Green Lantern, and subsequently by the Atom. To defeat Grundy, Green Lantern carried him out of the Earth's atmosphere, and stranded him on the moon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "The new Hawkgirl was introduced as part of the 1999 revival of the JSA monthly title. The new Hawkgirl is Kendra Saunders, granddaughter of the Golden Age Hawkgirl's cousin, Speed Saunders. Hawkgirl would continue to appear regularly in the monthly \"JSA\" series and later in the \"Hawkman\" monthly. In 2006, the ongoing \"Hawkman\" monthly series was retitled \"Hawkgirl\" starting with issue #50 as part of the \"One Year Later\" jump forward; Kendra replaced Hawkman as the lead character. The \"Hawkgirl\" comic book series was finished with issue #66."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "In Alex Ross's Silver Age-toned \"Justice\", Hawkgirl is a member of the Justice League and co-director of the Midway City Museum, alongside her husband. With the entire JLA's secrets and weaknesses in hand, the Legion of Doom stages a simultaneous attack on nearly every member of the League. Hawkgirl and Hawkman are surprised by Toyman in the Midway City Museum, but manage to survive and decide to investigate his warehouse, where they are assaulted by his forces, and discover that he is making multiple Brainiac androids. She also appears in \"Secret Origins\" and \"Liberty and Justice\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Hawkgirl\n--Publication history.\n----Golden Age.\n----Silver Age.\n----Post-Crisis and One Year Later.\n--Fictional character biographies.\n----Shiera Sanders Hall.\n----Kendra Saunders.\n--Other versions.\n----\"Flashpoint\".\n----\"DC Bombshells\".\n----\"DC Super Hero Girls\".\n----\"Injustice: Gods Among Us\".\n----\"Justice League Beyond\".\n----Elseworlds.\n----\"Legend of the Hawkman\".\n----\"Justice League Adventures\".\n----\"JLA: The Nail\" & \"JLA: Another Nail\".\n----\"Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again\".\n----\"Justice\".\n----\"Batman: The Brave and the Bold\".\n----\"Gotham City Garage\".\n----\"DC New Talents Showcase\".\n----\"Scooby-Doo Team-Up\" #17.\n----\"Bombshells: United\".\n--Reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Hawkgirl was a member of the Justice League roster during the events of Death Metal. Kendra, and the rest of the team, were assigned to rescue the Legion of Doom from Perpetua's grasp."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "A new Hawkgirl was introduced as part of the 1999 revival of the JSA monthly title. The new Hawkgirl is Kendra Saunders, granddaughter of the Golden Age Hawkgirl's cousin, Speed Saunders. Hawkgirl would continue to appear regularly in the monthly \"JSA\" series and later in the \"Hawkman\" monthly. In 2006, the ongoing \"Hawkman\" monthly series was retitled \"Hawkgirl\" starting with issue #50 as part of the \"One Year Later\" jump forward; Kendra replaced Hawkman as the lead character. The \"Hawkgirl\" comic book series was finished with issue #66."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hank Hall",
        "text": "As Hawk he possessed a \"danger sense transformation\" which allowed him to change into a super-human with the powers of super strength, unlimited stamina, enhanced speed, increased agility, enhanced body density, extreme durability and healing factor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Due to Hath-Set's efforts to reacquire the jar, the gizmoid is reactivated near Stonechat Museum. According to its programming, it spots Hawkgirl and, choosing her as a template, assumes her form in order to begin Earth's eradication. Tracking it, the Female Furies arrive by Boom Tube but are rendered conscious."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkwoman",
        "text": "Shortly after that, Kendra Saunders became the new Hawkgirl, and Carter Hall, the original Hawkman, was resurrected. Shayera met them during her final battle against Byth when the three Hawks, aided by Animal Man, defeated the Thanagarian criminal for good."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Hawkgirl then visited the apartment of Alan Scott who was still mourning over the death of his partner Sam. Hawkgirl's detective skills allowed her to discover that Alan and Green Lantern were one and the same. She tried to convince him to join her and the Flash to form a team against the coming danger. Since then, Hawkgirl alongside the Flash, Green Lantern and Doctor Fate formed the Wonders of the World."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Kendra Saunders's version of Hawkgirl is featured in the \"Gotham City Garage\" series. She is the youngest member of a very old team. It's revealed that Kendra's parents were killed during an alien invasion, she was later rescued by the Blackhawks and trained from a young age with captain Blackhawk. She is shown using the Lady Blackhawk costume and the alias Kendra Blackhawk. She resigns from the Blackhawks in order to help the Gotham City Garage against Lex Luthor's attacks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "Hawkgirl goes to the Hall of Justice to question Lex Luthor over whether Sinestro truly willingly gave up his ring and powers before allowing himself to be imprisoned. Luthor confirms her questions before saying he still believes Sinestro has something else to play before Sinestro responds that the Green Lanterns will soon arrive to capture Superman and that the League will need his help to stop them. Hawkgirl is next seen waiting for Superman and Shazam in Utah at the Great Salt desert, mace at the ready as she answers Shazam's question of what the Man of Steel thinks they're dealing with by replying \"He thinks we're dealing with Green Lanterns.\" When Superman asks how she knows, she tells him she was talking with their 'guest' at the Hall of Justice. When she sees Superman staring up into the sky, she asks how many Lanterns are on the way, with Superman replying, \"Too many.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "In ' and ', Hawkgirl is a member of a Justice League, and remains so even after her husband's death by Amazo, although the team faces anti-alien prejudice and suspicion. She briefly contemplates abandoning Earth when anti-alien propaganda leads to a museum exhibit dedicated to Hawkman being vandalized, but when she returns to save two children from a burning building, her faith in humanity is restored when a group of civilians stand between her and government officials attempting to bring her in as an alien, the family she saved affirming that they still see Hawkman and her as heroes. In \"Another Nail\", she appears to be close friends with Zatanna. She has forgiven Oliver Queen (in Amazo's body) after he admits feeling responsible for getting Katar killed, Queen believing that his attempts to prove himself caused Hawkman to put himself in danger to project the more vulnerable Oliver. Her role as the sole Hawk with League membership is much like her animated counterpart in the \"Justice League\" animated series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "After the Green Lanterns arrive in front of them and Superman and Kilowog have a brief conversation, Shiera demands to know where Hal Jordan is, and when Kilowog doesn't respond, Superman has Cyborg fire a beam down on the Green Lanterns from the Watchtower."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "Hawkgirl was chosen for one of the seven features in the one-shot comic book. She lives in Chicago, working as a police detective. She is from Thanagar, her mace vibrates like a smartphone when Nth-Metal Thanagarian weapons are near and she has a secret Hawkroom. It is revealed that she did not leave Thanagar on good terms, after some time collecting Thanagarian weapons from crime scenes she started suspecting something was wrong. This led to her fighting against an ancient Thanagarian that wanted her dead since she chose humans instead of Thanagarians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Hawkgirl discovered her true Thanagarian origins while fighting against Baroness Paula von Gunther. After connecting herself with an ancient mechanic god it was revealed to Shiera that her parents were members of the Wingmen of Thanagar, they sought to warn the humans of the intentions of Thanagar who wished to conquer the Earth; due to their actions they were captured and murdered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "In ' and ', Hawkgirl is a member of a Justice League, and remains so even after her husband's death by Amazo, although the team faces anti-alien prejudice and suspicion. She briefly contemplates abandoning Earth when anti-alien propaganda leads to a museum exhibit dedicated to Hawkman being vandalized, but when she returns to save two children from a burning building, her faith in humanity is restored when a group of civilians stand between her and government officials attempting to bring her in as an alien, the family she saved affirming that they still see Hawkman and her as heroes. In \"Another Nail\", she appears to be close friends with Zatanna. She has forgiven Oliver Queen (in Amazo's body) after he admits feeling responsible for getting Katar killed, Queen believing that his attempts to prove himself caused Hawkman to put himself in danger to project the more vulnerable Oliver. Her role as the sole Hawk with League membership is much like her animated counterpart in the \"Justice League\" animated series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Searching for answers related to her new Nth Metal wings, Hawkgirl went on a mission to Thanagar Prime with Martian Manhunter and John Stewart. There Kendra encountered Shayera Hol, the Silver Age Hawkgirl. Shayera is shown as the Empress of Thanagar and very protective of the planet's secrets. Kendra reveals that Shayera is indeed her previous life and Starman says that the two are existing at the same time is because of Perpetua and the Totality breaking the chain of resurrection and splitting the two. As such, Kendra and Shayera are two completely separate people ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "The \"Hawkman\" ongoing monthly series was retitled to \"Hawkgirl\", with Kendra replacing Carter as the lead character. Hawkgirl is seen protecting St. Roch, Louisiana in the absence of Hawkman, and working in Stonechat Museum. She fights Khimaera several times, finally killing her. She is later abducted and put on mock trial for high treason against her people by a group of rogue Thanagarian criminals, at the instigation of Blackfire. After declaring her guilty, one of the rogues ties her hands behind her back, covers her mouth with a piece of duct tape, and attempts to execute her by hanging \u2014 whereupon Kendra finds that she can hover without her wings, and is thus able to fake her death and defeat the criminals. Kendra then becomes a direct target of Blackfire who decides to go to Earth, herself, to kill Hawkgirl and Hawkman. Together, the Hawks defeat her and take away her powers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "During the battling at Coast City, the Atom is chosen by the Indigo Tribe to be more effective against Nekron's forces. The Atom tells Indigo-1 to keep his involvement in the deployment of the troops a secret, and asks that she help him find a way to legitimately resurrect Hawkman and Hawkgirl. In the final battle, the duo are transformed by Hal Jordan into the White Lantern Corps and upon Nekron's destruction, they are both resurrected. Hawkgirl says she remembers all her past lives, then unmasks to reveal herself to be Shiera, she and Carter joyfully reuniting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Still believing herself to be Kendra, she debuted as a hero using the original Hawkgirl's equipment and set out in search of a being called the Fate-Child (actually her own reincarnated son, Hector Hall). This led to a meeting with the Justice Society and Kendra's induction to that team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "When Hawkman returns to Thanagar and does not find Hawkgirl he goes to Earth. There he tries to force Hawkgirl to leave Superman's Regime and return home, but, loyal to Superman, Shayera fights against Hawkman; after defeating him she asks him to leave or she will kill him. Not respecting her wish, Hawkman later returns to Earth and tries to kill Superman with a kryptonite mace; he fails and is killed in a fist fight against Superman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Hawkgirl was chosen for one of the seven features in the one-shot comic book. She lives in Chicago, working as a police detective. She is from Thanagar, her mace vibrates like a smartphone when Nth-Metal Thanagarian weapons are near and she has a secret Hawkroom. It is revealed that she did not leave Thanagar on good terms. After some time collecting Thanagarian weapons from crime scenes, she started suspecting something was wrong. This led to her fighting against an ancient Thanagarian that wanted her dead since she chose humans instead of Thanagarians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shiera Sanders Hall",
        "text": "Hawkgirl discovers her true Thanagarian origins while fighting against Baroness Paula von Gunther. After connecting herself with an ancient mechanic god it's revealed to Shiera that her parents were members of the Wingmen of Thanagar, they sought to warn the humans upon the intentions of Thanagar who wished to conquer the Earth; due to their actions they were captured and murdered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Hawkgirl's plan works and the gizmoid falls to pieces, but afterward the vampiric Bloody Mary, one of the Furies, turns on Hawkgirl as she lies unconscious. Fortunately, Danny Evans had been following the battle and shows up just in time. He manages to delay Bloody Mary just long enough for Hawkgirl to reawaken and subdue her. The Female Furies collect Bloody Mary and reluctantly thank Hawkgirl for her efforts before departing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawk and Dove",
        "text": "Hawk possesses a \"danger sense transformation\" which allows him to change into a super-human with the powers of superstrength, unlimited stamina, enhanced speed, enhanced agility, enhanced durability, enhanced body density and healing factor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shiera Sanders Hall",
        "text": "Hawkgirl goes to the Hall of Justice to question Lex Luthor over whether Sinestro truly willingly gave up his ring and powers before allowing himself to be imprisoned. Luthor confirms her questions before saying he still believes Sinestro has something else to play before Sinestro responds that the Green Lanterns will soon arrive to capture Superman and that the League will need his help to stop them. Hawkgirl is next seen waiting for Superman and Shazam in Utah at the Great Salt desert, mace at the ready as she answers Shazam's question of what the Man of Steel thinks they're dealing with by replying \"He thinks we're dealing with Green Lanterns.\" When Superman asks how she knows, she tells him she was talking with their 'guest' at the Hall of Justice. When she sees Superman staring up into the sky, she asks how many Lanterns are on the way, with Superman replying, \"Too many.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Kendra was a recurrent member of the Birds of Prey. Oracle first solicits her assistance in issue #104 in dealing with the Secret Six, for which Oracle rewards her with a car. Throughout the Russian arc, Hawkgirl serves as a team member and develops a rivalry with Secret Six member Scandal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkmistress!",
        "text": "Romilly MacAran has the \"laran\" gift of her family \u2013 the ability to merge with the minds of animals. She uses this gift to train hawks and horses. When she reaches the age of fifteen (womanhood, in Darkover's terms), her father refuses to allow her to continue working with animals on the grounds that it isn't ladylike. He gives her prized hawk, Preciosa, to her brother, who has no gift. He also refuses her requests for an education."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Linda Danvers)",
        "text": "Original powers: Linda was originally a normal human, with no superhuman abilities. Upon fusing with the Matrix Supergirl, Linda gained her psychokinetic abilities. This granted her an incredible level of superhuman strength and speed, near invulnerability to harm, and the power to fly at high speeds. Linda was also able to produce concussive blasts of telekinetic energy, typically referred to as \"psi blasts.\" Linda was also able to change from her normal, Linda Danvers persona into her \"Supergirl\" form which was taller, had blonde hair, and a larger bust. The transformation was purely cosmetic, as Linda retained her powers in either form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morgaine le Fey (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Morgaine appears as a member of Hawkman & Hawkgirl's group The Immortals, advising Kendra Saunders/Lady Blackhawk to use the brain of Anti-Monitor to destroy the Dark Multiverse.\n* Morgan le Fey is a sorceress skilled in the use of black magic. She has cast spells that are able to control even the strongest of supernatural beings. She was able to transport Wonder Woman to another dimension (the Nether Plane) and fight her for her Amazonian fighting skills. By using a device, she was able to magically view individuals from miles away.\n* She is immortal, although she claims to have lost this ability. As shown in the \"Wonder Woman\" comic, she must \"steal\" immortality from other immortals in order to maintain her youth. After Merlin robs her of her youth and beauty, she wears a golden armor to shield her withered and ancient body. Morgaine also possesses a machine capable of binding beings and stealing their immortal lifeforces.\n* Other powers include magic immunity, immunity to telepathy, immunity to power theft through the use of her armor, cancellation of magic and annulment of divine powers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Hawkgirl appears as Shiera Hall in the continuation series to \"DC Comics Bombshells\", \"Bombshells: United\" set in the United States in 1943. Shiera is shown in Zambesi alongside her lover, Vixen. Hawkgirl is later featured fighting against the Apokolips invasion on Earth.\n* The Shayera Hol incarnation of Hawkgirl appeared in \"The All-New Super Friends Hour\", voiced by Shannon Farnon.\n* The Shayera Hol incarnation of Hawkgirl appeared in \"Super Friends\", voiced by Janet Waldo.\n* The Shayera Hol incarnation of Hawkgirl appeared the DC Animated Universe series \"Justice League\", \"Justice League Unlimited\", and the \"Static Shock\" two-part episode, \"A League of Their Own\", voiced by Maria Canals-Barrera.\n* The Kendra Saunders incarnation of Hawkgirl appeared in the web series \"DC Super Hero Girls\" and special \"DC Super Hero High\", voiced by Nika Futterman.\n* The Shiera Sanders Hall incarnation of Hawkgirl appeared in the \"DC Super Hero Girls\" animated series episode \"#TheBirdAndTheBee\", voiced by Stephanie Lemelin.\n* The Kendra Saunders incarnation of Hawkgirl, with elements of Shiera Sanders Hall, appears in live-action media set in the Arrowverse, portrayed by Ciara Ren\u00e9e.\n* The Shiera Sanders Hall incarnation of Hawkgirl appears in \"Stargirl\".\n* Shayera Hol makes a cameo appearance in the animated film \".\n* An evil, alternate universe version of Hawkgirl called Angelique appears in the animated film \". This character is a member of the Crime Syndicate of America who wields a flaming sword and was killed by the Jester.\n* The Kendra Saunders incarnation of Hawkgirl appears in the animated film \"The Lego Batman Movie\".\n* The Kendra Saunders incarnation of Hawkgirl appeared in ', ', ', ' and \"\", voiced again by Nika Futterman.\n* The Shayera Hol incarnation of Hawkgirl appears in the animated film \"Teen Titans Go! To the Movies\".\n* The Shayera Hol incarnation of Hawkgirl was originally going to appear in the upcoming live-action DC Extended Universe film \"Black Adam\", but Dwayne Johnson stated that she will not be in it.\n* The Shayera Hol incarnation of Hawkgirl appears as a playable character in the Game Boy Advance games \"Justice League: Injustice for All\" and \"Justice League: Chronicles\".\n* The Kendra Saunders incarnation of Hawkgirl appears as a playable character in \"Justice League Heroes\", voiced by Collette Whittaker.\n* The Kendra Saunders incarnation of Hawkgirl appears in \"DC Universe Online\", voiced by Lana Lesley.\n* The Shayera Hol incarnation of Hawkgirl appears as a playable character in \", voiced by Kari Wahlgren.\n* The Shiera Sanders Hall incarnation of Hawkgirl appears as a playable character in \", voiced by Jennifer Hale.\n* The Shayera Hol incarnation of Hawkgirl appears as a playable character in \"\", voiced again by Kari Wahlgren.\n* Hawkgirl appears as a playable character in \"Infinite Crisis\", voiced again by Maria Canals-Barrera.\n* Hawkgirl appears as a playable character in \"DC Legends\".\n* The Shayera Hol incarnation of Hawkgirl appears as a modifier in \"Injustice 2\"s \"Multiverse\" mode.\n* The Shayera Hol incarnation of Hawkgirl appears as a playable character in \"Lego DC Super-Villains\", voiced by Tiffany Smith."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "In ', the Hawks tried to return to Thanagar to flee from Lex Luthor's military dictatorship, only to crash in the rain forests of Costa Rica. They decided to remain in hiding. They gave birth to a son and daughter, giving them natural wings. Katar and Shayera were killed in a military strike ordered by Lex Luthor, embracing each other in their final moments. The children were brought up in the jungle ever since. They were bent on revenge against Lex. As Hawkboy, the son ultimately kills Lex with Batman's permission, since he understands what he has been through."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Hawkgirl felt that she wasn't the first person Hawkman would turn to in a moment of crisis, treating her as a damsel in distress incapable of holding her own, and degrading her position in both the eyes of the Justice Society of America and in their partnership. She observed that he would frequently treat her as a sidekick, a relationship that Kendra denied, wanting to be seen as his equal. Toward the end of the series Hawkgirl reveals all of her feelings to Carter, causing him to apologize and admit that he was treating her wrongly all along. The story finishes on a romantic note with the Hawks fighting together during the \"Rann-Thanagar War\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Actress Ciara Ren\u00e9e portrayed the character in The CW's Arrowverse television series \"The Flash\" in the first season finale, appeared in the Arrowverse crossover \"Heroes Join Forces\", and starred in the first season of \"Legends of Tomorrow\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Kendra finally resolves to take the fight to her mortal enemy, Hath-Set, who had been spying on her for some time. Hawkgirl starts getting closer to finding him with the assistance of Batman, Superman, and Oracle. During her search Kendra is kidnapped by Hath-Set and taken to Egypt. Hawkman follows on a rescue mission, but is captured and imprisoned by Hath-Set's minions. Meanwhile, Hawkgirl is able to free herself. She encounters Hath-Set, and after a final battle, kills him and saves Hawkman. The two now finally find peace, breaking the cycle of reincarnation and failure. They can see themselves falling in love again, but with Hawkgirl asserting that, this time, Carter must earn her love."
      },
      {
        "title": "My Super Ex-Girlfriend",
        "text": "Soon after, Jenny reveals to him that she is in fact the voluptuous blonde superheroine G-Girl, who received the powers of flight, superhuman strength, speed, heightened senses, invulnerability, super breath, and heat vision after being exposed to radiation from a crashed meteorite as a teenager. She becomes more controlling after revealing her powers and Matt is overwhelmed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Hawkgirl's main story arc in the early issues of Justice League of America Vol. 2 centered around her relationship with Red Arrow. Initially both were looking for a fling, but then found themselves in love, with Hawkgirl even meeting his daughter Lian, a result of his former romance with Cheshire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shiera Sanders Hall",
        "text": "When Hawkman returns to Thanagar and does not find Hawkgirl he goes to Earth. There he tries to force Hawkgirl to leave Superman's Regime and return home, but, loyal to Superman, Shiera fights against Hawkman; after defeating him she asks him to leave or she will kill him. Not respecting her wish, Hawkman later returns to Earth and tries to kill Superman with a kryptonite mace; he fails and is killed in a fist fight against Superman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "She is shown in the sequel \"DCeased: Dead Planet\", that is set five years after the original mini-series. The survivors make Earth-2 their new home, but after they receive a distress signal from Cyborg, Kendra, amidst other heroes, returns to Earth to respond to the signal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "The Green Lanterns survive and engage the three, with Hawkgirl fighting the Green Lanterns Isamot Kol and RRU-9-2, when she sees Superman suddenly go down, calling out his name. Shortly after, Hawkgirl is defeated, her Nth Metal mace taken by Green Lantern Tomar-Re, and her unconscious body trapped in a bubble construct alongside Shazam. Before any of them can be taken to Oa, Sinestro arrives, killing Ch'p. Shiera is freed and recovers her mace before engaging Tomar-Re and Procanon Kaa in a battle until the arrival of the Sinestro Corps. Hawkgirl flies above the captured Green Lanterns, silently observing as they remove their rings in surrender and she witnesses the Sinestro Corps depart the Earth on Sinestro's orders. During the lost seven months, Hawkgirl worked alongside fellow League members Superman and Shazam as well as Lanterns Hal, John and Sinestro in toppling more 'rogue nations' to continue establishing peace across the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)",
        "text": "In the rare instances that Kara is harmed by someone matching her strength or by the use of one of her weaknesses, she can heal almost instantaneously. Her power surpasses most other beings, though she can be overpowered by those who rival her strength such as Black Adam, Darkseid, Despero, Doomsday, Bizarro, Wonder Woman, and Superman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "In Alex Ross's Silver Age-toned \"Justice\", Hawkgirl is a member of the Justice League and co-director of the Midway City Museum, alongside her husband. With the entire JLA's secrets and weaknesses in hand, the Legion of Doom stages a simultaneous attack on nearly every member of the League. Hawkgirl and Hawkman are surprised by Toyman in the Midway City Museum, but manage to survive and decide to investigate his warehouse, where they are assaulted by his forces, and discover that he is making multiple Brainiac androids. She also appears in \"Secret Origins\" and \"Liberty and Justice\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "In the \"Hawkman\" ongoing monthly comic book series, Hawkgirl was presented as a very afflicted young woman, seeking clarity regarding the murder of her parents by a corrupt cop and confused by her jumble of memories and feelings. She had all of Kendra's memories but almost none of Shiera's. This created tension with Hawkman since he remembered all of their past lives together and believed they were destined for each other. She operated as Hawkman's partner, but eventually began to actually admit her attraction to him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shiera Sanders Hall",
        "text": "The Green Lanterns survive and engage the three, with Hawkgirl fighting the Green Lanterns Isamot Kol and RRU-9-2, when she sees Superman suddenly go down, calling out his name. Shortly after, Hawkgirl is defeated, her Nth Metal mace taken by Green Lantern Tomar-Re, and her unconscious body trapped in a bubble construct alongside Shazam. Before any of them can be taken to Oa, Sinestro arrives, killing Ch'p. Shiera is freed and recovers her mace before engaging Tomar-Re and Procanon Kaa in a battle until the arrival of the Sinestro Corps. Hawkgirl flies above the captured Green Lanterns, silently observing as they remove their rings in surrender and she witnesses the Sinestro Corps depart the Earth on Sinestro's orders. During the lost seven months, Hawkgirl worked alongside fellow League members Superman and Shazam as well as Lanterns Hal, John and Sinestro in toppling more 'rogue nations' to continue establishing peace across the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Several incarnations of Hawkgirl have appeared in DC Comics, all of them characterized by the use of archaic weaponry and artificial wings, attached to a harness made from the special Nth metal that allows flight. Most incarnations of Hawkgirl work closely with a partner/romantic interest Hawkman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "In the \"Brightest Day\" crossover, Carter and Shiera follow Hath-Set, who has collected the bones from all of their past bodies, and created from them a portal to Hawkworld. While there, Shiera is told by the Entity to stop Hath-Set from killing Carter because if he dies one more time, he will not undergo the cycle of resurrection again. Shiera is attacked in Hawkworld's dungeon and captured by Hath-Set. She is then taken to the Queen of Hawkworld, who reveals to Shiera that she is her mother. Hawkgirl is tied by Hath-Set and Queen Khea to the gateway, and they strike her in order to lure Hawkman to the location. Hawkman and his group of the panthera attack the Manhawks homeworld. When Hawkman arrives and draws his attention, Shiera turns the tables on Hath-Set and uses her legs to snap his neck, killing him. In the meantime, Hawkman is held by Queen Khea's control of Nth metal mace and armor, and she puts Carter with Shiera. Queen Khea opens the gateway and enters the portal to the Zamaron homeworld. When she arrives on the Zamaron homeworld, Star Sapphire (Carol Ferris) frees them both to stop Queen Khea's invasion. Hawkgirl soon faces her mother, but the Predator feels the lack of love inside Khea's heart bond with her and does not know if she truly is able to contain the power of true love."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Erica Schultz, said she was inspired by Justice League Animated version of the character, \"I've always been drawn to strong characters, but what really solidified my love for Shayera was the Justice League cartoon show.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Wonder Woman in other media",
        "text": "Her powers are almost the same as her comics counterpart, including flight and super strength, lending Wonder Woman the ability to hold out against Superman in a fight, while both were hallucinating. She has a weakness to pierce wounds as shown by Devil Ray's poisonous dart harming her. In \"Grudge Match\", she is able to singlehandedly defeat Vixen, Hawkgirl, Huntress and Black Canary in a no-holds barred fight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "The Predator makes Khea his host, but Shiera and Carter manage to separate both of them by stabbing Khea at the same time with weapons made of Zamaronian crystals. The bones of the past lives of Hawkman and Hawkgirl separate from the gateway and, animated by the power of the violet light of love, grab Khea and imprison her in the Zamaronian Central Power Battery. Shiera and Carter, with both of their missions accomplished, have their lives returned and Carol teleports both of them back to the museum of St. Roch. There, the couple, happy for finally defeating the curse, start to take off their clothes in order to make love, but they are suddenly interrupted by the apparition of Deadman, brought there by his white ring. The ring gives Shiera and Carter an order that they must live separately to live life stronger (because they appreciate love more than life itself), but when Carter replies by saying they are not going to live apart again, the ring responds \"So be it\" and unleashes a blast of white light that turns Hawkman and Hawkgirl into white dust, while Deadman looks in horror. Deadman orders the ring to resurrect both Hawkman and Hawkgirl, but the ring refuses, and tells him that Hawkgirl is unique and that she was brought back life to overcome what held her back in her past life because she is essential in saving Earth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Hawkgirl is a member of the relaunched Justice League bi-weekly series, written by Scott Snyder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "She is also a returning member of the new Justice League, having effectively served with the team when the original members were previously missing. A brewing relationship between Hawkgirl and Red Arrow became one of the major subplots in the series though it appears to have ended. Hawkgirl is now 100% Kendra Saunders. Shiera Sanders' soul left Kendra's body and moved on to the afterlife. Shiera hopes her passing on will finally remove the curse of Hath-Set."
      },
      {
        "title": "Streaky the Supercat",
        "text": "The effects of the battle with the Positive Man (defeated by use of a Negative Bird) have caused the Legionnaires to seemingly lose their powers. Supergirl covers for the team, but they betray her. She and Whizzy are tossed into the Phantom Zone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "This was the beginning of a turbulent relationship, with past relationships, parenting, and the inability to express their feelings to each other causing problems. Red Arrow's constant pain due Cheshire's absence, and Hawkgirl conflicted feelings regarding Hawkman brought stress in their romance, causing the couple to fight regularly. Eventually the relationship dissolved and Red Arrow left the Justice League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Following DC's \"Convergence\" storyline, the Silver Age version of Hawkgirl is featured in a Pre-Crisis universe. With the story taking place right after the events of \"Shadow of War\" miniseries, Hawkman and Hawkgirl have been captured inside a domed Gotham City. They are featured working as curators in the city's museum, while also fighting crime against hidden Thanagarians that had the original intent of conquest over the Earth, admitting later that they abandoned it when the dome came down. One of the rogues explains that they have seen the future, and that their universe will not survive. Hawkman and Hawkgirl watch as their world starts collapsing due to the Crisis, but they also realize that there might be a new beginning and they fly off with hope in their hearts."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law and Birdgirl characters",
        "text": "Birdman gets strength and power from sunlight, and grows weak if kept away from the sun for too long. His superpowers include flight, though as Harvey Birdman, he often completely forgets about this. He also has the ability to create a shield of solid light, and the ability to shoot destructive energy beams from his fists. These powers are thought to stem from the crest on his helmet, though Harvey is not entirely sure of the crest's true role in his powers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Kendra Saunders was a young Hispanic woman who committed suicide. When Kendra's soul left her body, that of her grandfather's first cousin Shiera Hall, the Golden Age Hawkgirl entered it, making Kendra a walk-in. Her grandfather, former OSS agent and globe-trotting adventurer Speed Saunders, recognized this, in part due to a change in eye color, and encouraged his granddaughter to embrace her destiny as the \"new\" Hawkgirl."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "IGN's list of the \"Top 25 Heroes of DC Comics\" ranked Hawkgirl as \"#22\". She was ranked \"80th\" in Comics Buyer's Guide's \"100 Sexiest Women in Comics\" list."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cybergirl",
        "text": "Her powers include super-human strength, super-human speed, and the ability to interface directly with electronic devices and computers; she is also able to physically change her appearance between that of the blue-haired, ethereal-looking Cybergirl and the less conspicuous, mousy-haired Ashley, and can alter her clothing at will."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "As Hawkgirl, Shayera eventually joined her husband as a member of the Justice League. She was the first League member admitted as part of the League's vote to lift its prior twelve-member limitation. Her membership set precedent for the admission of Zatanna as the League's fifteenth member. Both Zatanna and Shayera became close friends since \"Hawkman\" vol. 2 #4."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of The Flash characters",
        "text": "Kendra Saunders / Chay-Ara / Hawkgirl (portrayed by Ciara Ren\u00e9e) is a young woman who has been repeatedly reincarnated over the centuries. When provoked, her ancient warrior persona manifests itself, along with wings that grow out of her back. She is a potential love interest for Cisco Ramon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "She was a member of the Justice League of America at its relaunch, but left the team due to injuries sustained in \"Final Crisis\". Kendra and the original Hawkman (Carter Hall) were killed during the \"Blackest Night\" storyline; Katar Hol had been killed previously in a final battle with the Hawkgod, and Carter Hall, who had reincarnated in a new body, replaced him as Hawkgirl's partner. Carter and Shiera were resurrected after \"Blackest Night\", but Kendra has since been killed again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shiera Sanders Hall",
        "text": "In the \"DC Bombshells\" continuity set in World War II, Shiera is a technological genius and archaeologist who aids the Bombshells with her lover, Vixen. As Hawkgirl, she uses a jetpack rather than fly with wings, though when Cheetah forces her to build weapons out of ancient technology, she designs one with wings as well as a powerful mace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "After the conclusion of \"\", Hawkgirl is once again core member of the new Justice League series, written by Brian Michael Bendis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "In 2011, DC Comics rebooted its continuity as part of the publishing event \"The New 52\". Following this, a reimagined Kendra Saunders version of Hawkgirl features in the comic book \"Earth 2\", set in the parallel reality of that designation. Her full origin has not been revealed other than some insinuation of her background as part of a secret program that included Al Pratt. It is later revealed that Kendra Munoz-Saunders is a professional treasure hunter, and was hired by the World Army before an unrevealed event occurred in Egypt that resulted in the grafting of wings to Kendra's back, the same time Khalid Ben-Hassin found the Helmet of Fate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Hawkgirl was originally born as Chay-Ara, the lover of the Egyptian prince Khufu. One night, Khufu and Chay-Ara discovered a Thanagarian ship that had landed on Earth. The ship was made of the mysterious Nth Metal. Exposure to the metal forced Chay-Ara and Khufu, as well as their enemy Hath-Set, into a cycle of endless reincarnation through time and space. Chay-Ara lived countless lives, before being reborn most recently as Kendra Saunders, while her lover's latest incarnation is Carter Hall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Created by writer Gardner Fox and artist Dennis Neville, Shiera Sanders first appeared in \"Flash Comics\" #1 (January 1940), in the same 12-page story in which Fox and Neville introduced Hawkman. Shiera first appears as Hawkgirl in \"All Star Comics\" #5 (July 1941), in a costume created by Sheldon Moldoff, based on Neville's Hawkman costume."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Kendra eventually meets with the police officer Hawkwoman, who was searching for her missing partner Katar Hol, previously possessed by a creature known as the Hawk Avatar. Also seeking to arrest the Thanagarian criminal Byth Rok, Shayera Thal asked for Kendra's help. Working together they were able to defeat the villain. Before departing to Thanagar with Byth as her prisoner, Hawkwoman gave Hawkgirl her harness as symbol of their recently formed friendship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shiera Sanders Hall",
        "text": "Hawkgirl appears as Shiera Hall in the continuation series to \"DC Comics Bombshells\", \"Bombshells: United\" set in the United States in 1943. Shiera is shown in Zambesi alongside her lover, Vixen. Hawkgirl is later featured fighting against the Apokolips invasion on Earth.\n* Shiera Sanders Hall / Hawkgirl and her original identity of Princess Chay-Ara appear in the \"Smallville\" live-action series, with the latter portrayed by Sahar Biniaz. This version was a member of the Justice Society of America (JSA). In the two-part episode, \"Absolute Justice\", Hawkgirl was killed by Icicle years prior and her gear was put on display in the JSA's brownstone. In the episode \"Shield\", Chay-Ara appears in a flashback as Carter Hall relates his and his wife's history to Lois Lane. In the episode \"Icarus\", Carter is killed while saving Lois from Slade Wilson and is later buried next to Shiera.\n* Shiera Hall / Hawkgirl appears in the DC Universe streaming service and The CW live-action series \"Stargirl\". This version is a member of the Justice Society of America. 10 years prior to the series, as seen in the pilot, Hawkgirl was with the JSA when the Injustice Society attacked their headquarters and killed most of their members, with Shiera in particular killed by Brainwave.\n* Shiera Sanders appears in the \"DC Super Hero Girls\" animated series episode \"#TheBirdAndTheBee\", voiced by Stephanie Lemelin. This version works as a musician."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "In the alternate timeline of the \"Flashpoint\" event, Hawkgirl joined with the Amazons' Furies. Later, Hawkgirl is seen aiding Artemis in her attempt to kill the Resistance movement member, Lois Lane. Although, Lois is rescued by Resistance member Penny Black using the smoke grenades, Penny is seriously wounded. Later, when the Furies attack Grifter and the Resistance, Hawkgirl pins Grifter down, but he pulls Hawkgirl down and then stabs her chest with a trench knife."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Unfortunately, before they can continue their search the Green reaches out to Alan and implores him to return to America. While Alan resists as much as he can, the force of the command proves too irresistible and he's forced to leave Kendra behind despite her protests, when he leaves however he begs Kendra to keep looking in his place. Still helping Alan with his problem, Hawkgirl is seen in a graveyard searching for answers, there she is attacked by genetically enhanced Apokorats ridden by Apokolips warriors, Batman assists her and tells her to go search for Kanto, the assassin of Apokolips. She finds out that Alan's dead husband, was mixed up with Apokolips battle tech."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "In 2011, DC Comics rebooted its continuity as part of the publishing event \"The New 52\". In stories set on DC's Prime Earth, the \"Savage Hawkman\" story arc \"Hawkman Wanted\" (\"Savage Hawkman\" #13-16, and optionally issues #0 and #12) explains the character's place in the New 52. Shayera Thal is revealed as the princess of Thanagar, former lover of Katar Hol and sister of the Emperor Corsar. Initially, she is depicted as a villain, seeking revenge against Katar and coming to Earth to bring Katar to justice for his crimes against Thanagar and the murder of Corsar. It is later evident that Katar was innocent and Shayera is surprised when she discovers her brother alive and behind Katar's arrest in the attempt to part Katar from the Nth metal and own it for himself. She then sacrifices herself in order to save Katar's life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Ariella Kent)",
        "text": "A hybrid of metahuman/Kryptonian heritage, Ariella possesses vast powers for her young age. She has incredible superhuman strength and speed. She can fly, travel through time at will, move objects via telekinesis, and teleport anywhere she wishes. She is invulnerable, and ages at an extremely slow rate, energy blasts, energy absorption and also duplication. She also has X-ray vision and heat vision. Due to her high level of power and young age, Ariella can be highly destructive, as she has not learned to hold back her abilities."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some of Hawkgirl's super powers?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Are you interested in her depiction in the Golden Age, Silver, Age or the Post-Crisis period?",
      "Would you like to know about the original Hawkgirl named  Shiera Sanders Hall,  Shayera Hol, or  Kendra Saunders?"
    ],
    "topic": "Hawkgirl",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Hawkgirl:7",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Hawkgirl",
          "Publication history",
          "Silver Age"
        ],
        "ctx": "With the establishment of DC's multiverse system, the Golden Age Hawkgirl was said to have lived on Earth-Two and the Silver Age Hawkgirl on Earth-One."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Hawkgirl:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Hawkgirl",
          "Publication history",
          "Silver Age"
        ],
        "ctx": "With the fading popularity of superheroes during the late 1940s, the Hawkman feature ended in the last issue of \"Flash Comics\" in 1949. In 1956, DC Comics resurrected the Flash by revamping the character with a new identity and backstory. Following the success of the new Flash, DC Comics revamped Hawkman in a similar fashion with \"The Brave and the Bold\" #34 in 1961. The Silver Age versions of Hawkman and Hawkgirl became married Thanagarian police officers from the planet Thanagar who come to Earth in order to study police techniques. Silver Age Hawkgirl is introduced as Shayera Hol (phonetically identical to Shiera Hall), who appears in costume as of her first appearance. Although Silver Age Hawkman joins the Justice League in \"Justice League of America\" #31 in 1964, Silver Age Hawkgirl was not offered membership because Justice League rules only allowed for one new member to be admitted at a time. In 1981, Silver Age Hawkgirl changed her name to Hawkwoman in the Hawkman backup feature of \"World's Finest Comics\" #274."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Hawkgirl:0",
        "passage_titles": [],
        "ctx": "Hawkgirl\n--Publication history.\n----Golden Age.\n----Silver Age.\n----Post-Crisis and One Year Later.\n--Fictional character biographies.\n----Shiera Sanders Hall.\n----Kendra Saunders.\n--Other versions.\n----\"Flashpoint\".\n----\"DC Bombshells\".\n----\"DC Super Hero Girls\".\n----\"Injustice: Gods Among Us\".\n----\"Justice League Beyond\".\n----Elseworlds.\n----\"Legend of the Hawkman\".\n----\"Justice League Adventures\".\n----\"JLA: The Nail\" & \"JLA: Another Nail\".\n----\"Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again\".\n----\"Justice\".\n----\"Batman: The Brave and the Bold\".\n----\"Gotham City Garage\".\n----\"DC New Talents Showcase\".\n----\"Scooby-Doo Team-Up\" #17.\n----\"Bombshells: United\".\n--Reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Hawkgirl:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Hawkgirl"
        ],
        "ctx": "Hawkgirl is the name of several fictional superheroines appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The original Hawkgirl, Shiera Sanders Hall, was created by writer Gardner Fox and artist Dennis Neville, and first appeared in \"Flash Comics\" #1 (January 1940). Shayera Hol was created by writer Gardner Fox and artist Joe Kubert, and first appeared in \"The Brave and the Bold\" #34 (March 1961). Kendra Saunders was created by writer David S. Goyer and artist Stephen Sadowski, and first appeared in \"JSA: Secret Files and Origins\" #1 (August 1999). One of DC's earliest super-heroines, Hawkgirl has appeared in many of the company's flagship team-up titles including Justice Society of America and Justice League of America."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "Within the DC Super Hero Girls comics adaptation, Hawkgirl is depicted as a student at Super Hero High, being a Latina superheroine. During the issue \"Hits and Myths\", Kendra alongside Flash, Batgirl and Bumblebee forms a team to help Batgirl locating her missing Batplane. They track the Batplane up until a street bar. There they fight against Black Canary, Silver Banshee and Jinx, during the fight Black Canary escapes with the Batplane, so Hawkgirl, Poison Ivy, Flash, Supergirl and Batgirl chases her to retrieve the batplane, after defeating Black Canary they successfully retrieve the batplane, to celebrate their victory they all go to Themyscira with Wonder Woman to have a slumber party."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Later, Kendra would come to learn that she had a pivotal role in healing the Source Wall that was previously destroyed in the Dark Nights: Metal event. Her Nth Metal wings were entrusted with the power to restore the Source Wall's integrity. After discovering this, Kendra tried to save the universe by sacrificing herself to the Source Wall, but her plan was thwarted by Brainiac."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "She is one of the heroes who fought in space during the Rann-Thanagar War. Following the events of Infinite Crisis, a Zeta Beam transporter malfunction injured many of the superheroes in space, including Hawkgirl, causing her to grow over twenty feet tall. Some time later, her proper stature restored, Kendra was shown living in St. Roch, Louisiana, working in Stonechat Museum and protecting the city as Hawkgirl."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Searching for answers related to her new Nth Metal wings, Hawkgirl went on a mission to Thanagar Prime with Martian Manhunter and John Stewart. There Kendra encountered Shayera Hol, the Silver Age Hawkgirl. Shayera is shown as the Empress of Thanagar and very protective of the planet's secrets. Kendra reveals that Shayera is indeed her previous life and Starman says that the two are existing at the same time is because of Perpetua and the Totality breaking the chain of resurrection and splitting the two. As such, Kendra and Shayera are two completely separate people ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkwoman",
        "text": "Shortly after that, Kendra Saunders became the new Hawkgirl, and Carter Hall, the original Hawkman, was resurrected. Shayera met them during her final battle against Byth when the three Hawks, aided by Animal Man, defeated the Thanagarian criminal for good."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders) is the name of a fictional superheroine appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Kendra Saunders was created by writers James Robinson & David S. Goyer and artist Scott Benefiel, and she first appeared in \"JSA: Secret Files and Origins\" #1 (August 1999)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Within the DC Super Hero Girls comics adaptation, Hawkgirl is depicted as a student at Super Hero High, being a Latina superheroine. During the issue \"Hits and Myths\", Kendra alongside Flash, Batgirl and Bumblebee forms a team to help Batgirl locating her missing Batplane. They track the Batplane up until a street bar. There they fight against Black Canary, Silver Banshee and Jinx, during the fight Black Canary escapes with the Batplane, so Hawkgirl, Poison Ivy, Flash, Supergirl and Batgirl chases her to retrieve the batplane, after defeating Black Canary they successfully retrieve the batplane, to celebrate their victory they all go to Themyscira with Wonder Woman to have a slumber party."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Hawkgirl regained control of her body after Wonder Woman used her Lasso of Truth on her, restoring Kendra's memories. After finding Hawkman's Nth Metal mace, Wonder Woman and Hawkgirl traveled through a portal to Earth, where they ended up fighting various corrupted versions of the Justice League. During their battle, Hawkgirl encountered Hawkman possessed by the darkness of \"Barbatos\". She was able to release him from the villain's command after encouraging Carter to remember all their past lives together. After assisting in the defeat of \"Barbatos\" and the \"Dark Knights\", Hawkgirl is recruited to join the new Justice League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Their relationship became one of the major subplots of the series, with Black Canary's disapproval of the relationship bringing some tension to it. Additionally, Power Girl advised Red Arrow not to get involved with Hawkgirl, as she was destined to eventually return to Hawkman (Carter Hall). Despite everything the two started dating, with the Justice League later finding out after Red Tornado caught Hawkgirl and Red Arrow sleeping together."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "She is also a returning member of the new Justice League, having effectively served with the team when the original members were previously missing. A brewing relationship between Hawkgirl and Red Arrow became one of the major subplots in the series though it appears to have ended. Hawkgirl is now 100% Kendra Saunders. Shiera Sanders' soul left Kendra's body and moved on to the afterlife. Shiera hopes her passing on will finally remove the curse of Hath-Set."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Still believing herself to be Kendra, she debuted as a hero using the original Hawkgirl's equipment and set out in search of a being called the Fate-Child (actually her own reincarnated son, Hector Hall). This led to a meeting with the Justice Society and Kendra's induction to that team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "While in a mission with the Justice League inside the \"Prison Planet,\" Hawkgirl discovered another ability provided by the Nth Metal, the power to weaken forces drawn from the fabric of space-time. Thus, Kendra was the only member not affected by Kanjar Ro, enabling her to fight against the villain and rescue her friends. Hawkgirl then left the Justice League due to injuries sustained in Final Crisis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Kendra eventually meets with the police officer Hawkwoman, who was searching for her missing partner Katar Hol, previously possessed by a creature known as the Hawk Avatar. Also seeking to arrest the Thanagarian criminal Byth Rok, Shayera Thal asked for Kendra's help. Working together they were able to defeat the villain. Before departing to Thanagar with Byth as her prisoner, Hawkwoman gave Hawkgirl her harness as symbol of their recently formed friendship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Hawkgirl is the name of several fictional superheroines appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The original Hawkgirl, Shiera Sanders Hall, was created by writer Gardner Fox and artist Dennis Neville, and first appeared in \"Flash Comics\" #1 (January 1940). Shayera Hol was created by writer Gardner Fox and artist Joe Kubert, and first appeared in \"The Brave and the Bold\" #34 (March 1961). Kendra Saunders was created by writer David S. Goyer and artist Stephen Sadowski, and first appeared in \"JSA: Secret Files and Origins\" #1 (August 1999). One of DC's earliest super-heroines, Hawkgirl has appeared in many of the company's flagship team-up titles including Justice Society of America and Justice League of America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Kendra later fights alongside the Furies of Darkseid when St. Roch is attacked by an evil doomsday weapon of Apokolips, a stolen Beta-3 Gizmoid. It turns out that the gizmoid is linked to the Hawks' old enemy, Hath-Set, as it had been taken to Earth ages ago and landed in Ancient Egypt during Hath-Set's reign, and hidden in a canopic jar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Hawkgirl was a member of the Justice League roster during the events of Death Metal. Kendra, and the rest of the team, were assigned to rescue the Legion of Doom from Perpetua's grasp."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Kendra Saunders's version of Hawkgirl is featured in the DCeased comic book series. In this alternative Earth where a zombie-like virus has infected most of the planet, Kendra is one of the remaining survivors. She informs the Justice League that Captain Atom is about to self-implode, giving Black Canary's green lantern ring just enough time to shield them from the blast. Hawkgirl is later able to evacuate from Earth alongside a few civilians and Justice League members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Actress Ciara Ren\u00e9e portrayed the character in The CW's Arrowverse television series \"The Flash\" in the first season finale, appeared in the Arrowverse crossover \"Heroes Join Forces\", and starred in the first season of \"Legends of Tomorrow\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "She was a member of the Justice League of America at its relaunch, but left the team due to injuries sustained in \"Final Crisis\". Kendra and the original Hawkman (Carter Hall) were killed during the \"Blackest Night\" storyline; Katar Hol had been killed previously in a final battle with the Hawkgod, and Carter Hall, who had reincarnated in a new body, replaced him as Hawkgirl's partner. Carter and Shiera were resurrected after \"Blackest Night\", but Kendra has since been killed again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Kendra Saunders made her \"DC Rebirth\" debut in \"\" #1, she is introduced as the leader of the current Blackhawks, an anti-apocalyptic team. Seeking to prevent the Dark Knights' invasion on Earth, Hawkgirl warned the Justice League of the upcoming invasion of the Dark Multiverse and later worked with the League to help them defeat the Dark Knights. Hawkgirl is also a member of the Immortal Men, a group of the oldest beings of Earth. As such, she was entrusted by the Immortals with the mission of using the Anti-Monitor's astral brain in the Rock of Eternity to destroy the Dark Knights. However, when she tried to do so, she was interrupted by Barbatos who transformed her into a dark-hawk version of herself called Lady Blackhawk. It's later revealed that because of Barbatos's influence, Kendra's bond to the Nth Metal was merged into her being. She now boasts an altered physiology reminiscent to her past life as a Thanagarian, which resulted in the grafting of Nth Metal wings to Hawkgirl's back."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "The new Hawkgirl was introduced as part of the 1999 revival of the JSA monthly title. The new Hawkgirl is Kendra Saunders, granddaughter of the Golden Age Hawkgirl's cousin, Speed Saunders. Hawkgirl would continue to appear regularly in the monthly \"JSA\" series and later in the \"Hawkman\" monthly. In 2006, the ongoing \"Hawkman\" monthly series was retitled \"Hawkgirl\" starting with issue #50 as part of the \"One Year Later\" jump forward; Kendra replaced Hawkman as the lead character. The \"Hawkgirl\" comic book series was finished with issue #66."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Hawkgirl appears as Shiera Hall in the continuation series to \"DC Comics Bombshells\", \"Bombshells: United\" set in the United States in 1943. Shiera is shown in Zambesi alongside her lover, Vixen. Hawkgirl is later featured fighting against the Apokolips invasion on Earth.\n* The Shayera Hol incarnation of Hawkgirl appeared in \"The All-New Super Friends Hour\", voiced by Shannon Farnon.\n* The Shayera Hol incarnation of Hawkgirl appeared in \"Super Friends\", voiced by Janet Waldo.\n* The Shayera Hol incarnation of Hawkgirl appeared the DC Animated Universe series \"Justice League\", \"Justice League Unlimited\", and the \"Static Shock\" two-part episode, \"A League of Their Own\", voiced by Maria Canals-Barrera.\n* The Kendra Saunders incarnation of Hawkgirl appeared in the web series \"DC Super Hero Girls\" and special \"DC Super Hero High\", voiced by Nika Futterman.\n* The Shiera Sanders Hall incarnation of Hawkgirl appeared in the \"DC Super Hero Girls\" animated series episode \"#TheBirdAndTheBee\", voiced by Stephanie Lemelin.\n* The Kendra Saunders incarnation of Hawkgirl, with elements of Shiera Sanders Hall, appears in live-action media set in the Arrowverse, portrayed by Ciara Ren\u00e9e.\n* The Shiera Sanders Hall incarnation of Hawkgirl appears in \"Stargirl\".\n* Shayera Hol makes a cameo appearance in the animated film \".\n* An evil, alternate universe version of Hawkgirl called Angelique appears in the animated film \". This character is a member of the Crime Syndicate of America who wields a flaming sword and was killed by the Jester.\n* The Kendra Saunders incarnation of Hawkgirl appears in the animated film \"The Lego Batman Movie\".\n* The Kendra Saunders incarnation of Hawkgirl appeared in ', ', ', ' and \"\", voiced again by Nika Futterman.\n* The Shayera Hol incarnation of Hawkgirl appears in the animated film \"Teen Titans Go! To the Movies\".\n* The Shayera Hol incarnation of Hawkgirl was originally going to appear in the upcoming live-action DC Extended Universe film \"Black Adam\", but Dwayne Johnson stated that she will not be in it.\n* The Shayera Hol incarnation of Hawkgirl appears as a playable character in the Game Boy Advance games \"Justice League: Injustice for All\" and \"Justice League: Chronicles\".\n* The Kendra Saunders incarnation of Hawkgirl appears as a playable character in \"Justice League Heroes\", voiced by Collette Whittaker.\n* The Kendra Saunders incarnation of Hawkgirl appears in \"DC Universe Online\", voiced by Lana Lesley.\n* The Shayera Hol incarnation of Hawkgirl appears as a playable character in \", voiced by Kari Wahlgren.\n* The Shiera Sanders Hall incarnation of Hawkgirl appears as a playable character in \", voiced by Jennifer Hale.\n* The Shayera Hol incarnation of Hawkgirl appears as a playable character in \"\", voiced again by Kari Wahlgren.\n* Hawkgirl appears as a playable character in \"Infinite Crisis\", voiced again by Maria Canals-Barrera.\n* Hawkgirl appears as a playable character in \"DC Legends\".\n* The Shayera Hol incarnation of Hawkgirl appears as a modifier in \"Injustice 2\"s \"Multiverse\" mode.\n* The Shayera Hol incarnation of Hawkgirl appears as a playable character in \"Lego DC Super-Villains\", voiced by Tiffany Smith."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shiera Sanders Hall",
        "text": "Hawkgirl appears as a playable character in \"\", voiced by Jennifer Hale. The \"prime\" version is a member of the Justice League while an alternate reality version became a member of Superman's Regime. After the Regime is defeated, she is captured and imprisoned. In her non-canonical single-player ending, Hawkgirl is revealed to have been brainwashed by the Regime. Once she gets free, she defeats Superman for killing her husband Hawkman, but is imprisoned for her role in the Regime. One night, she is teleported to a stone of pure Nth Metal, which encases her in invincible armor. Using her new power, she sets out to exact revenge on those who helped Superman capture Hawkman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Kendra Saunders was a young Hispanic woman who committed suicide. When Kendra's soul left her body, that of her grandfather's first cousin Shiera Hall, the Golden Age Hawkgirl entered it, making Kendra a walk-in. Her grandfather, former OSS agent and globe-trotting adventurer Speed Saunders, recognized this, in part due to a change in eye color, and encouraged his granddaughter to embrace her destiny as the \"new\" Hawkgirl."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "A new Hawkgirl was introduced as part of the 1999 revival of the JSA monthly title. The new Hawkgirl is Kendra Saunders, granddaughter of the Golden Age Hawkgirl's cousin, Speed Saunders. Hawkgirl would continue to appear regularly in the monthly \"JSA\" series and later in the \"Hawkman\" monthly. In 2006, the ongoing \"Hawkman\" monthly series was retitled \"Hawkgirl\" starting with issue #50 as part of the \"One Year Later\" jump forward; Kendra replaced Hawkman as the lead character. The \"Hawkgirl\" comic book series was finished with issue #66."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)\n--Publication history.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----\"Hawkman\" Vol. 4 (2002\u20132006).\n----\"Hawkgirl\", the series.\n----\"Justice League of America\".\n----\"Blackest Night\".\n----\"Brightest Day\".\n----\"The New 52\".\n----\"DC Rebirth\".\n----\"Infinite Frontier\".\n--Other versions.\n----\"DC Super Hero Girls\".\n----Earth 2.\n----\"Gotham City Garage\".\n----\"DCeased\".\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Within the DC Super Hero Girls comics adaptation, Hawkgirl is depicted as a student at Super Hero High, being a Latina superheroine. During the issue \"Hits and Myths\", Kendra alongside Flash, Batgirl and Bumblebee forms a team to help Batgirl locating her missing Batplane. They track the Batplane up until a street bar. There they fight against Black Canary, Silver Banshee and Jinx, during the fight Black Canary escapes with the Batplane, so Hawkgirl, Poison Ivy, Flash, Supergirl and Batgirl chases her to retrieve the batplane, after defeating Black Canary they successfully retrieve the batplane, to celebrate their victory they all go to Themyscira with Wonder Woman to have a slumber party."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Hawkgirl is a member of the relaunched Justice League bi-weekly series, written by Scott Snyder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "She currently has all of Kendra's memories, but almost none of Shiera's save for fighting experiences. This creates tension with Hawkman since he remembers all of their past lives together and believes they are destined for each other. Kendra has been presented as a very troubled young woman, haunted by the murder of her parents by a corrupt cop and confused by her jumble of memories and feelings. She has operated as Hawkman's partner but only recently begun to actually admit her attraction to him. The truth about Kendra's identity was eventually revealed to her by the angel Zauriel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "She is shown in the sequel \"DCeased: Dead Planet\", that is set five years after the original mini-series. The survivors make Earth-2 their new home, but after they receive a distress signal from Cyborg, Kendra, amidst other heroes, returns to Earth to respond to the signal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "During the battling at Coast City, the Atom is chosen by the Indigo Tribe to be more effective against Nekron's forces. The Atom tells Indigo-1 to keep his involvement in the deployment of the troops a secret, and asks that she help him find a way to legitimately resurrect Hawkman and Hawkgirl. In the final battle, the duo are transformed by Hal Jordan into the White Lantern Corps and upon Nekron's destruction, they are both resurrected. Hawkgirl says she remembers all her past lives, then unmasks to reveal herself to be Shiera, she and Carter joyfully reuniting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Kendra Saunders's version of Hawkgirl is featured in \"Gotham City Garage\" series. She is the youngest member of a very old team. It's revealed that Kendra's parents were killed during an alien invasion, she was later rescued by the Blackhawks and trained from a young age with captain Blackhawk. She is shown using the Lady Blackhawk costume and the alias Kendra Blackhawk. She resigns from the Blackhawks in order to help the Gotham City Garage against Lex Luthor's attacks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Kendra Saunders's version of Hawkgirl is featured in the \"Gotham City Garage\" series. She is the youngest member of a very old team. It's revealed that Kendra's parents were killed during an alien invasion, she was later rescued by the Blackhawks and trained from a young age with captain Blackhawk. She is shown using the Lady Blackhawk costume and the alias Kendra Blackhawk. She resigns from the Blackhawks in order to help the Gotham City Garage against Lex Luthor's attacks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Some time later, Kendra met with the Flash in Europe. She was guided by a certain Fate as to where she might find him. Together, they went to Washington, D.C. and fought Solomon Grundy, without much success. They were later joined by Green Lantern, and subsequently by the Atom. To defeat Grundy, Green Lantern carried him out of the Earth's atmosphere, and stranded him on the moon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Due to Hath-Set's efforts to reacquire the jar, the gizmoid is reactivated near Stonechat Museum. According to its programming, it spots Hawkgirl and, choosing her as a template, assumes her form in order to begin Earth's eradication. Tracking it, the Female Furies arrive by Boom Tube but are rendered conscious."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Kendra Saunders was a young Hispanic woman who committed suicide. When Kendra's soul left her body, that of her grandfather's first cousin Shiera Sanders Hall, the Golden Age Hawkgirl and Carter Hall's wife entered it, making Kendra a walk-in. Her grandfather, former OSS agent and globe-trotting adventurer Speed Saunders, recognized this, in part due to a change in eye color, and encouraged his granddaughter to embrace her destiny as the \"new\" Hawkgirl."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Hawkgirl felt that she wasn't the first person Hawkman would turn to in a moment of crisis, treating her as a damsel in distress incapable of holding her own, and degrading her position in both the eyes of the Justice Society of America and in their partnership. She observed that he would frequently treat her as a sidekick, a relationship that Kendra denied, wanting to be seen as his equal. Toward the end of the series Hawkgirl reveals all of her feelings to Carter, causing him to apologize and admit that he was treating her wrongly all along. The story finishes on a romantic note with the Hawks fighting together during the \"Rann-Thanagar War\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "After the conclusion of \"\", Hawkgirl is once again core member of the new Justice League series, written by Brian Michael Bendis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Hawkgirl was originally born as Chay-Ara, the lover of the Egyptian prince Khufu. One night, Khufu and Chay-Ara discovered a Thanagarian ship that had landed on Earth. The ship was made of the mysterious Nth Metal. Exposure to the metal forced Chay-Ara and Khufu, as well as their enemy Hath-Set, into a cycle of endless reincarnation through time and space. Chay-Ara lived countless lives, before being reborn most recently as Kendra Saunders, while her lover's latest incarnation is Carter Hall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shiera Sanders Hall",
        "text": "Hawkgirl discovers her true Thanagarian origins while fighting against Baroness Paula von Gunther. After connecting herself with an ancient mechanic god it's revealed to Shiera that her parents were members of the Wingmen of Thanagar, they sought to warn the humans upon the intentions of Thanagar who wished to conquer the Earth; due to their actions they were captured and murdered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Hawkgirl's main story arc in the early issues of Justice League of America Vol. 2 centered around her relationship with Red Arrow. Initially both were looking for a fling, but then found themselves in love, with Hawkgirl even meeting his daughter Lian, a result of his former romance with Cheshire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "In the \"Hawkman\" ongoing monthly comic book series, Hawkgirl was presented as a very afflicted young woman, seeking clarity regarding the murder of her parents by a corrupt cop and confused by her jumble of memories and feelings. She had all of Kendra's memories but almost none of Shiera's. This created tension with Hawkman since he remembered all of their past lives together and believed they were destined for each other. She operated as Hawkman's partner, but eventually began to actually admit her attraction to him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shiera Sanders Hall",
        "text": "When Hawkman returns to Thanagar and does not find Hawkgirl he goes to Earth. There he tries to force Hawkgirl to leave Superman's Regime and return home, but, loyal to Superman, Shiera fights against Hawkman; after defeating him she asks him to leave or she will kill him. Not respecting her wish, Hawkman later returns to Earth and tries to kill Superman with a kryptonite mace; he fails and is killed in a fist fight against Superman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkwoman",
        "text": "In the \"Rann-Thanagar War\" miniseries, Shayera Thal reappeared as a reinstated soldier of the Thanagarian Army, last seen fighting with the invasion force of Polara. She considered reborn Hawkman Carter Hall and Hawkgirl Kendra Saunders friends of Thanagar, but grew angry with their ally Adam Strange blaming Rannian science for the destruction of her birth world. Despite this, she reluctantly served alongside him as a comrade-in-arms during the war."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "Hawkgirl was chosen for one of the seven features in the one-shot comic book. She lives in Chicago, working as a police detective. She is from Thanagar, her mace vibrates like a smartphone when Nth-Metal Thanagarian weapons are near and she has a secret Hawkroom. It is revealed that she did not leave Thanagar on good terms, after some time collecting Thanagarian weapons from crime scenes she started suspecting something was wrong. This led to her fighting against an ancient Thanagarian that wanted her dead since she chose humans instead of Thanagarians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Following this, Hawkgirl made her first appearance in ' and ', which served as a prelude to \"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Hawkgirl\n--Publication history.\n----Golden Age.\n----Silver Age.\n----Post-Crisis and One Year Later.\n--Fictional character biographies.\n----Shiera Sanders Hall.\n----Kendra Saunders.\n--Other versions.\n----\"Flashpoint\".\n----\"DC Bombshells\".\n----\"DC Super Hero Girls\".\n----\"Injustice: Gods Among Us\".\n----\"Justice League Beyond\".\n----Elseworlds.\n----\"Legend of the Hawkman\".\n----\"Justice League Adventures\".\n----\"JLA: The Nail\" & \"JLA: Another Nail\".\n----\"Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again\".\n----\"Justice\".\n----\"Batman: The Brave and the Bold\".\n----\"Gotham City Garage\".\n----\"DC New Talents Showcase\".\n----\"Scooby-Doo Team-Up\" #17.\n----\"Bombshells: United\".\n--Reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "In 2011, DC Comics rebooted its continuity as part of the publishing event \"The New 52\". In stories set on DC's Prime Earth, the \"Savage Hawkman\" story arc \"Hawkman Wanted\" (\"Savage Hawkman\" #13-16, and optionally issues #0 and #12) explains the character's place in the New 52. Shayera Thal is revealed as the princess of Thanagar, former lover of Katar Hol and sister of the Emperor Corsar. Initially, she is depicted as a villain, seeking revenge against Katar and coming to Earth to bring Katar to justice for his crimes against Thanagar and the murder of Corsar. It is later evident that Katar was innocent and Shayera is surprised when she discovers her brother alive and behind Katar's arrest in the attempt to part Katar from the Nth metal and own it for himself. She then sacrifices herself in order to save Katar's life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "As a giant mechanized version of Hawkgirl, the gizmoid begins attacking St. Roch with its arsenal of weaponry. Bernadeth and the other Furies try to destroy the gizmoid but are unsuccessful. But, due to her brief connection with the gizmoid, Hawkgirl discovers a weakness whereby she and the Furies are able to defeat it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "The \"Hawkman\" ongoing monthly series was retitled to \"Hawkgirl\", with Kendra replacing Carter as the lead character. Hawkgirl is seen protecting St. Roch, Louisiana in the absence of Hawkman, and working in Stonechat Museum. She fights Khimaera several times, finally killing her. She is later abducted and put on mock trial for high treason against her people by a group of rogue Thanagarian criminals, at the instigation of Blackfire. After declaring her guilty, one of the rogues ties her hands behind her back, covers her mouth with a piece of duct tape, and attempts to execute her by hanging \u2014 whereupon Kendra finds that she can hover without her wings, and is thus able to fake her death and defeat the criminals. Kendra then becomes a direct target of Blackfire who decides to go to Earth, herself, to kill Hawkgirl and Hawkman. Together, the Hawks defeat her and take away her powers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Kendra finally resolves to take the fight to her mortal enemy, Hath-Set, who had been spying on her for some time. Hawkgirl starts getting closer to finding him with the assistance of Batman, Superman, and Oracle. During her search Kendra is kidnapped by Hath-Set and taken to Egypt. Hawkman follows on a rescue mission, but is captured and imprisoned by Hath-Set's minions. Meanwhile, Hawkgirl is able to free herself. She encounters Hath-Set, and after a final battle, kills him and saves Hawkman. The two now finally find peace, breaking the cycle of reincarnation and failure. They can see themselves falling in love again, but with Hawkgirl asserting that, this time, Carter must earn her love."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "When Hawkman returns to Thanagar and does not find Hawkgirl he goes to Earth. There he tries to force Hawkgirl to leave Superman's Regime and return home, but, loyal to Superman, Shayera fights against Hawkman; after defeating him she asks him to leave or she will kill him. Not respecting her wish, Hawkman later returns to Earth and tries to kill Superman with a kryptonite mace; he fails and is killed in a fist fight against Superman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Despite his help against Grundy, the Atom, under orders from the World Army, tried to capture Hawkgirl, but she escaped with the help of the Flash. Green Lantern then returned to Earth after removing the danger of the nuclear missiles that the World Army launched under the advice of Terry Sloan. Unfortunately, he had run out of power, after using so much of it to defeat Grundy. He was saved by Hawkgirl, who caught him in mid-free fall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Kendra was a recurrent member of the Birds of Prey. Oracle first solicits her assistance in issue #104 in dealing with the Secret Six, for which Oracle rewards her with a car. Throughout the Russian arc, Hawkgirl serves as a team member and develops a rivalry with Secret Six member Scandal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "This was the beginning of a turbulent relationship, with past relationships, parenting, and the inability to express their feelings to each other causing problems. Red Arrow's constant pain due Cheshire's absence, and Hawkgirl conflicted feelings regarding Hawkman brought stress in their romance, causing the couple to fight regularly. Eventually the relationship dissolved and Red Arrow left the Justice League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shiera Sanders Hall",
        "text": "In the \"DC Bombshells\" continuity set in World War II, Shiera is a technological genius and archaeologist who aids the Bombshells with her lover, Vixen. As Hawkgirl, she uses a jetpack rather than fly with wings, though when Cheetah forces her to build weapons out of ancient technology, she designs one with wings as well as a powerful mace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "One of Kendra's past lives is revealed as the bounty hunter, Cinnamon, a reincarnation of the Egyptian princess Chay-Ara. As such, she becomes the lover of Prince Khufu's reincarnation, the hero Nighthawk. When Cinnamon is assaulted by the burglar \"Gentleman Jim\" Craddock, Nighthawk hangs him up, thereby tying his destiny to theirs. Cinnamon, along with Nighthawk, is killed by the latest incarnation of Hath-Set, their biggest enemy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shiera Sanders Hall",
        "text": "Shiera Sanders Hall is a fictional superheroine, the first Hawkgirl appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Shiera Sanders Hall was created by writer Gardner Fox and artist Dennis Neville, and first appeared in \"Flash Comics\" #1 (January 1940) as a romantic interest of Hawkman (Carter Hall). Then later as one of DC's earliest super-heroines, she has appeared in many of the company's flagship team-up titles including the Justice Society of America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "In 2011, DC Comics rebooted its continuity as part of the publishing event \"The New 52\". Following this, a reimagined Kendra Saunders version of Hawkgirl features in the comic book \"Earth 2\", set in the parallel reality of that designation. Her full origin has not been revealed other than some insinuation of her background as part of a secret program that included Al Pratt. It is later revealed that Kendra Munoz-Saunders is a professional treasure hunter, and was hired by the World Army before an unrevealed event occurred in Egypt that resulted in the grafting of wings to Kendra's back, the same time Khalid Ben-Hassin found the Helmet of Fate."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of supporting Arrow characters",
        "text": "Kendra Saunders / Hawkgirl (portrayed by Ciara Ren\u00e9e) is a young woman who is just beginning to learn that she has been repeatedly reincarnated over the centuries. When provoked, her ancient warrior persona manifests itself, along with wings that grow out of her back, earning her the name Hawkgirl. Ren\u00e9e stars as the character on \"Legends of Tomorrow\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shiera Sanders Hall",
        "text": "Hawkgirl goes to the Hall of Justice to question Lex Luthor over whether Sinestro truly willingly gave up his ring and powers before allowing himself to be imprisoned. Luthor confirms her questions before saying he still believes Sinestro has something else to play before Sinestro responds that the Green Lanterns will soon arrive to capture Superman and that the League will need his help to stop them. Hawkgirl is next seen waiting for Superman and Shazam in Utah at the Great Salt desert, mace at the ready as she answers Shazam's question of what the Man of Steel thinks they're dealing with by replying \"He thinks we're dealing with Green Lanterns.\" When Superman asks how she knows, she tells him she was talking with their 'guest' at the Hall of Justice. When she sees Superman staring up into the sky, she asks how many Lanterns are on the way, with Superman replying, \"Too many.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Hawkgirl then visited the apartment of Alan Scott who was still mourning over the death of his partner Sam. Hawkgirl's detective skills allowed her to discover that Alan and Green Lantern were one and the same. She tried to convince him to join her and the Flash to form a team against the coming danger. Since then, Hawkgirl alongside the Flash, Green Lantern and Doctor Fate formed the Wonders of the World."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "Hawkgirl goes to the Hall of Justice to question Lex Luthor over whether Sinestro truly willingly gave up his ring and powers before allowing himself to be imprisoned. Luthor confirms her questions before saying he still believes Sinestro has something else to play before Sinestro responds that the Green Lanterns will soon arrive to capture Superman and that the League will need his help to stop them. Hawkgirl is next seen waiting for Superman and Shazam in Utah at the Great Salt desert, mace at the ready as she answers Shazam's question of what the Man of Steel thinks they're dealing with by replying \"He thinks we're dealing with Green Lanterns.\" When Superman asks how she knows, she tells him she was talking with their 'guest' at the Hall of Justice. When she sees Superman staring up into the sky, she asks how many Lanterns are on the way, with Superman replying, \"Too many.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of The Flash characters",
        "text": "Kendra Saunders / Chay-Ara / Hawkgirl (portrayed by Ciara Ren\u00e9e) is a young woman who has been repeatedly reincarnated over the centuries. When provoked, her ancient warrior persona manifests itself, along with wings that grow out of her back. She is a potential love interest for Cisco Ramon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "In the \"Brightest Day\" crossover, Carter and Shiera follow Hath-Set, who has collected the bones from all of their past bodies, and created from them a portal to Hawkworld. While there, Shiera is told by the Entity to stop Hath-Set from killing Carter because if he dies one more time, he will not undergo the cycle of resurrection again. Shiera is attacked in Hawkworld's dungeon and captured by Hath-Set. She is then taken to the Queen of Hawkworld, who reveals to Shiera that she is her mother. Hawkgirl is tied by Hath-Set and Queen Khea to the gateway, and they strike her in order to lure Hawkman to the location. Hawkman and his group of the panthera attack the Manhawks homeworld. When Hawkman arrives and draws his attention, Shiera turns the tables on Hath-Set and uses her legs to snap his neck, killing him. In the meantime, Hawkman is held by Queen Khea's control of Nth metal mace and armor, and she puts Carter with Shiera. Queen Khea opens the gateway and enters the portal to the Zamaron homeworld. When she arrives on the Zamaron homeworld, Star Sapphire (Carol Ferris) frees them both to stop Queen Khea's invasion. Hawkgirl soon faces her mother, but the Predator feels the lack of love inside Khea's heart bond with her and does not know if she truly is able to contain the power of true love."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Created by writer Gardner Fox and artist Dennis Neville, Shiera Sanders first appeared in \"Flash Comics\" #1 (January 1940), in the same 12-page story in which Fox and Neville introduced Hawkman. Shiera first appears as Hawkgirl in \"All Star Comics\" #5 (July 1941), in a costume created by Sheldon Moldoff, based on Neville's Hawkman costume."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "The Predator makes Khea his host, but Shiera and Carter manage to separate both of them by stabbing Khea at the same time with weapons made of Zamaronian crystals. The bones of the past lives of Hawkman and Hawkgirl separate from the gateway and, animated by the power of the violet light of love, grab Khea and imprison her in the Zamaronian Central Power Battery. Shiera and Carter, with both of their missions accomplished, have their lives returned and Carol teleports both of them back to the museum of St. Roch. There, the couple, happy for finally defeating the curse, start to take off their clothes in order to make love, but they are suddenly interrupted by the apparition of Deadman, brought there by his white ring. The ring gives Shiera and Carter an order that they must live separately to live life stronger (because they appreciate love more than life itself), but when Carter replies by saying they are not going to live apart again, the ring responds \"So be it\" and unleashes a blast of white light that turns Hawkman and Hawkgirl into white dust, while Deadman looks in horror. Deadman orders the ring to resurrect both Hawkman and Hawkgirl, but the ring refuses, and tells him that Hawkgirl is unique and that she was brought back life to overcome what held her back in her past life because she is essential in saving Earth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lady Blackhawk",
        "text": "Kendra Saunders took the name of Lady Blackhawk in \"Dark Nights: Metal\" #1, where she is the leader of the Blackhawks, an anti-apocalyptic team that wants to prevent the Dark Multiverse from rising. Kendra Saunders returns to her original alias Hawkgirl in issue #5 of the comic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "When Hawkman returns to Thanagar and does not find Hawkgirl he goes to Earth. There he tries to force Hawkgirl to leave Superman's Regime and return home, but, loyal to Superman, Shayera fights against Hawkman; after defeating him she asks him to leave or she will kill him. Not respecting her wish, Hawkman later returns to Earth and tries to kill Superman with a kryptonite mace; he fails and is killed in a fist fight against Superman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Hawkgirl is also shown as a member of the Guild of Detectives, a group featuring the greatest detectives of Earth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Unfortunately, before they can continue their search the Green reaches out to Alan and implores him to return to America. While Alan resists as much as he can, the force of the command proves too irresistible and he's forced to leave Kendra behind despite her protests, when he leaves however he begs Kendra to keep looking in his place. Still helping Alan with his problem, Hawkgirl is seen in a graveyard searching for answers, there she is attacked by genetically enhanced Apokorats ridden by Apokolips warriors, Batman assists her and tells her to go search for Kanto, the assassin of Apokolips. She finds out that Alan's dead husband, was mixed up with Apokolips battle tech."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkman (Carter Hall)",
        "text": "During the battle at Coast City, the Atom is chosen by the Indigo Tribe to be more effective against Nekron's forces. The Atom tells Indigo-1 to keep his involvement in the deployment of the troops a secret, and asks that she help him find a way to resurrect Hawkman and Hawkgirl. In the final battle, Hawkman and Hawkgirl are resurrected by the white light. Kendra is revealed to be Shiera Hall, who remembers her past lives; she and Carter joyfully reunite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shiera Sanders Hall",
        "text": "Hawkgirl appears as Shiera Hall in the continuation series to \"DC Comics Bombshells\", \"Bombshells: United\" set in the United States in 1943. Shiera is shown in Zambesi alongside her lover, Vixen. Hawkgirl is later featured fighting against the Apokolips invasion on Earth.\n* Shiera Sanders Hall / Hawkgirl and her original identity of Princess Chay-Ara appear in the \"Smallville\" live-action series, with the latter portrayed by Sahar Biniaz. This version was a member of the Justice Society of America (JSA). In the two-part episode, \"Absolute Justice\", Hawkgirl was killed by Icicle years prior and her gear was put on display in the JSA's brownstone. In the episode \"Shield\", Chay-Ara appears in a flashback as Carter Hall relates his and his wife's history to Lois Lane. In the episode \"Icarus\", Carter is killed while saving Lois from Slade Wilson and is later buried next to Shiera.\n* Shiera Hall / Hawkgirl appears in the DC Universe streaming service and The CW live-action series \"Stargirl\". This version is a member of the Justice Society of America. 10 years prior to the series, as seen in the pilot, Hawkgirl was with the JSA when the Injustice Society attacked their headquarters and killed most of their members, with Shiera in particular killed by Brainwave.\n* Shiera Sanders appears in the \"DC Super Hero Girls\" animated series episode \"#TheBirdAndTheBee\", voiced by Stephanie Lemelin. This version works as a musician."
      },
      {
        "title": "Speed Saunders",
        "text": "In the modern era, Cyril finds his orphaned granddaughter, Kendra Saunders; he takes her in and begins training her in hand-to-hand combat and other skills. He knows that she has a great destiny as the next Hawkgirl."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Following DC's \"Convergence\" storyline, the Silver Age version of Hawkgirl is featured in a Pre-Crisis universe. With the story taking place right after the events of \"Shadow of War\" miniseries, Hawkman and Hawkgirl have been captured inside a domed Gotham City. They are featured working as curators in the city's museum, while also fighting crime against hidden Thanagarians that had the original intent of conquest over the Earth, admitting later that they abandoned it when the dome came down. One of the rogues explains that they have seen the future, and that their universe will not survive. Hawkman and Hawkgirl watch as their world starts collapsing due to the Crisis, but they also realize that there might be a new beginning and they fly off with hope in their hearts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "Following Rebirth's continuity, Shayera Hol appeared in the Hawkman (vol. 5) series. She was shown in Thanagar alongside her partner Katar Hol. Later, Shayera appeared in the Justice League (vol. 2) issues #14-16 where she was shown as the empress of Thanagar Prime. Initially presenting herself as a friend and ally to the Justice League, she was revealed to be hiding many secrets from them, including a surviving Martian elder known as the Keep. It is revealed that Shayera used a device known as the Absorbacon and the Martian elder to create a fake construct of a restored Thanagar Prime, her people, and Katar Hol (the Savage Hawkman). After the death of the Martian elder, Shayera tries to keep her constructed reality from fading away but is unable to, saying goodbye to Katar one last time. It is revealed by Starman that the reason Shayera still exists despite being Kendra Saunders' immediate predecessor in their chain of resurrection is due to the Totality breaking said chain and splitting the two, making Shayera a completely independent being from Kendra. This was done by Perpetua as she feared what would happen if a whole Hawkgirl faced her at the end. Shayera assists the Justice League in their failed attempt to heal the Source Wall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "In the \"DC Bombshells\" continuity set in World War II, Shiera is a technological genius and archaeologist who aids the Bombshells with her lover, Vixen. As Hawkgirl, she uses a jetpack rather than fly with wings, though when Cheetah forces her to build weapons out of ancient technology, she designs one with wings as well as a powerful mace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shiera Sanders Hall",
        "text": "The Green Lanterns survive and engage the three, with Hawkgirl fighting the Green Lanterns Isamot Kol and RRU-9-2, when she sees Superman suddenly go down, calling out his name. Shortly after, Hawkgirl is defeated, her Nth Metal mace taken by Green Lantern Tomar-Re, and her unconscious body trapped in a bubble construct alongside Shazam. Before any of them can be taken to Oa, Sinestro arrives, killing Ch'p. Shiera is freed and recovers her mace before engaging Tomar-Re and Procanon Kaa in a battle until the arrival of the Sinestro Corps. Hawkgirl flies above the captured Green Lanterns, silently observing as they remove their rings in surrender and she witnesses the Sinestro Corps depart the Earth on Sinestro's orders. During the lost seven months, Hawkgirl worked alongside fellow League members Superman and Shazam as well as Lanterns Hal, John and Sinestro in toppling more 'rogue nations' to continue establishing peace across the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shiera Sanders Hall",
        "text": "Shiera died when she was merged with Carter and Katar Hol to form a new Hawkman version, a \"hawk god\" creature, during the events of \"\", but was revived during the events of \"Blackest Night\" by the White Lantern ring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "When the second invasion of Apokolips in Earth-2 happened, the Wonders of the World, tried to save Earth-2 from destruction, unsuccessfully, they had to evacuate to an Earth twin, only two million survived the war. In 2015, the follow-on series called \"Earth 2: Society\" showed the survivors of Earth-2's war with Apokolips, such as Hawkgirl, Green Lantern and The Flash, finding themselves on a new world having to create a fresh life there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "Kendra had a daughter named Mia, who is not shown but mentioned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "Shayera Thal, later married with the name Shayera Hol, is a fictional superheroine appearing in American comic books during the Silver Age of Comics published by DC Comics. The character was created by writer Gardner Fox and artist Joe Kubert, and first appeared in \"The Brave and the Bold\" #34 (March 1961). She is the second Hawkgirl and first Hawkwoman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "In ' and ', Hawkgirl is a member of a Justice League, and remains so even after her husband's death by Amazo, although the team faces anti-alien prejudice and suspicion. She briefly contemplates abandoning Earth when anti-alien propaganda leads to a museum exhibit dedicated to Hawkman being vandalized, but when she returns to save two children from a burning building, her faith in humanity is restored when a group of civilians stand between her and government officials attempting to bring her in as an alien, the family she saved affirming that they still see Hawkman and her as heroes. In \"Another Nail\", she appears to be close friends with Zatanna. She has forgiven Oliver Queen (in Amazo's body) after he admits feeling responsible for getting Katar killed, Queen believing that his attempts to prove himself caused Hawkman to put himself in danger to project the more vulnerable Oliver. Her role as the sole Hawk with League membership is much like her animated counterpart in the \"Justice League\" animated series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "Hawkgirl is featured in \"\" comics. Much like their Silver Age counterparts, Shayera and Katar are married and very much in love."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "In Alex Ross's Silver Age-toned \"Justice\", Hawkgirl is a member of the Justice League and co-director of the Midway City Museum, alongside her husband. With the entire JLA's secrets and weaknesses in hand, the Legion of Doom stages a simultaneous attack on nearly every member of the League. Hawkgirl and Hawkman are surprised by Toyman in the Midway City Museum, but manage to survive and decide to investigate his warehouse, where they are assaulted by his forces, and discover that he is making multiple Brainiac androids. She also appears in \"Secret Origins\" and \"Liberty and Justice\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shiera Sanders Hall",
        "text": "In the comic book adaptation of \"\", Hawkgirl (Shiera Hall) appears as a member of Superman's Regime. She first appears to answer Wonder Woman's call for heroes at the Watchtower. After being informed of the situation, the kidnapping of Superman's parents at the hands of Mirror Master, she is one of the many heroes to agree to help locate the Rogue. She battles Weather Wizard in Central City, and is later seen waiting outside the villain's bar. Hawkgirl next appears to help Wonder Woman battle the attacking Atlanteans and Aquaman. Hawkgirl battles the forces of Atlantis as Wonder Woman orders her to rescue the people who had been knocked off the boat by Aquaman's attack. She watches Arthur's forces suddenly retreat and notices the massive tsunami fast approaching. She is the first to realize there is something behind the wave. Hawkgirl spots what she believes are mountains rising out of the water, but are in fact the massive tentacles of the Kraken Aquaman called to his aid. Hawkgirl is ensnared by one of the Kraken's tentacles and dragged underwater, slowly drowning while Wonder Woman struggles to save her. After Superman arrives and forces Aquaman to call his beast off, Hawkgirl is ordered by the Man of Steel to help the sailors while Superman and the League go to give their response to Aquaman's ultimatum. Hawkgirl removes the leader of a country from his limousine during a parade before she loses him to Captain Atom. Shocked, Shiera lets her guard down and is struck by a blast of electricity, causing her to fall to the streets below. Collapsed, Hawkgirl sees Black Lightning and Huntress before the latter knocks her unconscious with an arrow bolt. Hawkgirl is later seen being held in a cell in the Batcave, glaring at Batman and Catwoman as they discuss the League's reaction to her kidnapping. When Catwoman points out the League will be searching for her, Batman disagrees and the scene cuts to the Watchtower, where to many heroes shock, a second Hawkgirl is seen arriving. The true Hawkgirl has remained trapped within the Batcave while her imposter has been revealed as the Martian Manhunter, shape-shifted into her form. Exactly a week later, the Martian Manhunter is exposed thanks to Batman's son Damian, and Bruce releases Hawkgirl as promised. Shiera makes her way to the crashed Watchtower and confirms her identity by easily putting out a lit match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "After the Hawkworld reboot, Hawkgirl (Hawkwoman) was now Shayera Thal and not married to Katar Hol, instead merely his police partner. In post-Hawkworld continuity, Shayera adopts the name Hawkwoman from the very beginning of her costumed career and never uses the name Hawkgirl. The Golden Age Hawkgirl is eventually returned from Limbo, but during the \"\" miniseries she is merged with Katar Hol and Golden Age Hawkman into a new persona."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "In \"Blackest Night\" #1, Kendra is shown having an argument with Hawkman over whether or not to visit Jean Loring's grave with the Atom. As the two heroes quarrel, the reanimated corpses of Ralph and Sue Dibny, now members of the Black Lantern Corps, enter Hawkman's sanctuary. The Black Lanterns attack, Sue impaling Hawkgirl on a spear. Ralph taunts Hawkman, telling him that Hawkgirl never loved him; a claim she refutes with her dying breath. Hawkman is killed shortly afterward, and both heroes are reanimated as Black Lanterns by Black Hand himself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "The Golden Age Hawkgirl was Shiera Sanders Hall, the reincarnation of the Egyptian princess Chay-Ara, and partner of Carter Hall, the Golden Age Hawkman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "After the Green Lanterns arrive in front of them and Superman and Kilowog have a brief conversation, Shiera demands to know where Hal Jordan is, and when Kilowog doesn't respond, Superman has Cyborg fire a beam down on the Green Lanterns from the Watchtower."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "In the comic book adaptation of \"\", Hawkgirl (Shayera Hol) appears as a member of Superman's Regime. She first appears to answer Wonder Woman's call for heroes at the Watchtower. After being informed of the situation, the kidnapping of Superman's parents at the hands of Mirror Master, she is one of the many heroes to agree to help locate the Rogue. She battles Weather Wizard in Central City, and is later seen waiting outside the villain's bar. Hawkgirl next appears to help Wonder Woman battle the attacking Atlanteans and Aquaman. Hawkgirl battles the forces of Atlantis as Wonder Woman orders her to rescue the people who had been knocked off the boat by Aquaman's attack. She watches Arthur's forces suddenly retreat and notices the massive tsunami fast approaching. She is the first to realize there is something behind the wave. Hawkgirl spots what she believes are mountains rising out of the water, but are in fact the massive tentacles of the Kraken Aquaman called to his aid. Hawkgirl is ensnared by one of the Kraken's tentacles and dragged underwater, slowly drowning while Wonder Woman struggles to save her. After Superman arrives and forces Aquaman to call his beast off, Hawkgirl is ordered by the Man of Steel to help the sailors while Superman and the League go to give their response to Aquaman's ultimatum. Hawkgirl removes the leader of a country from his limousine during a parade before she loses him to Captain Atom. Shocked, Shiera lets her guard down and is struck by a blast of electricity, causing her to fall to the streets below. Collapsed, Hawkgirl sees Black Lightning and Huntress before the latter knocks her unconscious with an arrow bolt. Hawkgirl is later seen being held in a cell in the Batcave, glaring at Batman and Catwoman as they discuss the League's reaction to her kidnapping. When Catwoman points out the League will be searching for her, Batman disagrees and the scene cuts to the Watchtower, where to many heroes shock, a second Hawkgirl is seen arriving. The true Hawkgirl has remained trapped within the Batcave while her imposter has been revealed as the Martian Manhunter, shape-shifted into her form. Exactly a week later, the Martian Manhunter is exposed thanks to Batman's son Damian, and Bruce releases Hawkgirl as promised. Shiera makes her way to the crashed Watchtower and confirms her identity by easily putting out a lit match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "During a crossover with the cast of \"Scooby-Doo\", Silver Age version of Hawkgirl is featured alongside Hawkman in the Midway City Museum, working as curators. The heroes team-up with the characters from the animated series to discover who were stealing from their workplace. Later they uncover that Shadow Thief, Matter Master and Fadeaway Man were behind it. After a fight against the villains the heroes retrieve the stolen items. Like Shiera Sanders Hall, Shayera is a reincarnation of Prince Khufu's consort Chay-Ara, and have been reborn as Lady Celia (love of Silent Knight) and Cinnamon (love of Nighthawk)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "Shayera Thal, The Silver Age version of Hawkgirl / Hawkwoman, was a law enforcement officer from the planet Thanagar and wife of Katar Hol, the Silver Age Hawkman and was a member of the Justice League of America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Erica Schultz, said she was inspired by Justice League Animated version of the character, \"I've always been drawn to strong characters, but what really solidified my love for Shayera was the Justice League cartoon show.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders)",
        "text": "When the \"Dark Avatar\" made his presence known, Hawkgirl and Hawkman are revealed to be part of the Elementals. They were transformed by the Entity to become the element of air and protect the Star City forest from the Dark Avatar, which appears to be the Black Lantern version of the Swamp Thing. The Elementals are then fused with the body of Alec Holland in order for him to be transformed by the Entity into the new Swamp Thing and battle against the Dark Avatar. After the Dark Avatar is defeated, Swamp Thing appears to have brought the Elementals back to normal; however, as Hawkman looks around for Shiera, he discovers that she was not brought back like he was. He is later told by Swamp Thing that Shiera is everywhere, revealing that she is still the elemental of air. Afterward, Hawkman returns home yelling \"Shiera\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shayera Hol",
        "text": "The Green Lanterns survive and engage the three, with Hawkgirl fighting the Green Lanterns Isamot Kol and RRU-9-2, when she sees Superman suddenly go down, calling out his name. Shortly after, Hawkgirl is defeated, her Nth Metal mace taken by Green Lantern Tomar-Re, and her unconscious body trapped in a bubble construct alongside Shazam. Before any of them can be taken to Oa, Sinestro arrives, killing Ch'p. Shiera is freed and recovers her mace before engaging Tomar-Re and Procanon Kaa in a battle until the arrival of the Sinestro Corps. Hawkgirl flies above the captured Green Lanterns, silently observing as they remove their rings in surrender and she witnesses the Sinestro Corps depart the Earth on Sinestro's orders. During the lost seven months, Hawkgirl worked alongside fellow League members Superman and Shazam as well as Lanterns Hal, John and Sinestro in toppling more 'rogue nations' to continue establishing peace across the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "Hawkgirl goes to the Hall of Justice to question Lex Luthor over whether Sinestro truly willingly gave up his ring and powers before allowing himself to be imprisoned. Luthor confirms her questions before saying he still believes Sinestro has something else to play before Sinestro responds that the Green Lanterns will soon arrive to capture Superman and that the League will need his help to stop them. Hawkgirl is next seen waiting for Superman and Shazam in Utah at the Great Salt desert, mace at the ready as she answers Shazam's question of what the Man of Steel thinks they're dealing with by replying \"He thinks we're dealing with Green Lanterns.\" When Superman asks how she knows, she tells him she was talking with their 'guest' at the Hall of Justice. When she sees Superman staring up into the sky, she asks how many Lanterns are on the way, with Superman replying, \"Too many.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Super Friends members",
        "text": "Hawkgirl (Shayera Hol) appeared in a few episodes of the \"Super Friends\" paired alongside her husband Hawkman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkman (Carter Hall)",
        "text": "Hall briefly assists the Justice League during their battle with the Shadow Cabinet by knocking out Hardware as he tried to flee from the JLA Watchtower with Arthur Light's corpse. In the aftermath of the battle, Carter reunites with Kendra after her relationship with Red Arrow ends."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hawkgirl",
        "text": "In the comic book adaptation of \"\", Hawkgirl (Shayera Hol) appears as a member of Superman's Regime. She first appears to answer Wonder Woman's call for heroes at the Watchtower. After being informed of the situation, the kidnapping of Superman's parents at the hands of Mirror Master, she is one of the many heroes to agree to help locate the Rogue. She battles Weather Wizard in Central City, and is later seen waiting outside the villain's bar. Hawkgirl next appears to help Wonder Woman battle the attacking Atlanteans and Aquaman. Hawkgirl battles the forces of Atlantis as Wonder Woman orders her to rescue the people who had been knocked off the boat by Aquaman's attack. She watches Arthur's forces suddenly retreat and notices the massive tsunami fast approaching. She is the first to realize there is something behind the wave. Hawkgirl spots what she believes are mountains rising out of the water, but are in fact the massive tentacles of the Kraken Aquaman called to his aid. Hawkgirl is ensnared by one of the Kraken's tentacles and dragged underwater, slowly drowning while Wonder Woman struggles to save her. After Superman arrives and forces Aquaman to call his beast off, Hawkgirl is ordered by the Man of Steel to help the sailors while Superman and the League go to give their response to Aquaman's ultimatum. Hawkgirl removes the leader of a country from his limousine during a parade before she loses him to Captain Atom. Shocked, Shiera lets her guard down and is struck by a blast of electricity, causing her to fall to the streets below. Collapsed, Hawkgirl sees Black Lightning and Huntress before the latter knocks her unconscious with an arrow bolt. Hawkgirl is later seen being held in a cell in the Batcave, glaring at Batman and Catwoman as they discuss the League's reaction to her kidnapping. When Catwoman points out the League will be searching for her, Batman disagrees and the scene cuts to the Watchtower, where to many heroes shock, a second Hawkgirl is seen arriving. The true Hawkgirl has remained trapped within the Batcave while her imposter has been revealed as the Martian Manhunter, shape-shifted into her form. Exactly a week later, the Martian Manhunter is exposed thanks to Batman's son Damian, and Bruce releases Hawkgirl as promised. Shiera makes her way to the crashed Watchtower and confirms her identity by easily putting out a lit match."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some of Hawkgirl's super powers?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about the original Hawkgirl named  Shiera Sanders Hall,  Shayera Hol, or  Kendra Saunders?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I wish to know the super powers for Kendra Saunders' Hawkgirl."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "While I could not find Kendra's specific powers, Hawkgirl's powers in general include the use of archaic weaponry and artificial wings."
    ],
    "topic": "Hawkgirl",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Hawkgirl:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Hawkgirl"
        ],
        "ctx": "Several incarnations of Hawkgirl have appeared in DC Comics, all of them characterized by the use of archaic weaponry and artificial wings, attached to a harness made from the special Nth metal that allows flight. Most incarnations of Hawkgirl work closely with a partner/romantic interest Hawkman."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle is the name of three fictional superheroes who appear in a number of American comic books published by a variety of companies since 1939. The most recent of the companies to own rights to the Blue Beetle is DC Comics who bought the rights to the character in 1983, using the name for three distinct characters over the years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The original Blue Beetle was created by Fox Comics and later owned by Charlton Comics. The first Beetle was Dan Garret (later spelled Dan Garrett), who initially gained super powers from a special vitamin, which was later changed to gaining powers from a \"sacred scarab\". The original Blue Beetle was featured not only in his own comic but also a weekly radio serial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "DC Comics acquired Charlton in the mid-1980s. They then revised Ted Kord with collaboration from Len Wein and Paris Cullins that lasted until issue #24 in May 1988."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Charlton Comics allegedly obtained the rights to the Blue Beetle (although there is no proof that a formal purchase ever took place) and reprinted some stories in its anthology titles and in a four-issue \"Blue Beetle\" reprint series numbered 18\u201321."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (comic book)\n--Fox Feature Syndicate and Holyoke Publishing.\n--Charlton Comics.\n--DC Comics.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle\n--Publication history.\n--Blue Beetles.\n----Dan Garret / Dan Garrett.\n----Ted Kord.\n----Jaime Reyes.\n--The Scarab - Khaji Da.\n--Other versions.\n----Kingdom Come.\n----52 Multiverse.\n----DC Animated Universe comics.\n--In other media.\n----Radio.\n----Audio drama.\n----Television.\n------Unreleased screen test.\n----Video games.\n----\"The Electric Company\".\n--Homages.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In the mid-1950s, Fox Comics went out of business and sold the printing plates to some stories featuring the Blue Beetle to Charlton Comics. That company published a few sporadic adventures of the Golden Age character before revamping the hero in 1964. Charlton tried three times to use the character to carry a self-titled series. Two of the attempts retained the numbering of a previous title. These also were eventually replaced with new titles that carried on the numbering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle is a long running comic book series that was first published by Fox Feature Syndicate before being a Charlton Comics title and currently a DC Comics title. The series starred certain characters with the same name."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In 2006, DC introduced a new Blue Beetle, teenager Jaime Reyes, whose powers are derived from the scarab, now revealed as a piece of advanced alien technology. The series was initially written by Keith Giffen and John Rogers, with artist Cully Hamner. Giffen left in issue #10 and Rogers took over full writing duties, joined by a new artist, Rafael Albuquerque. Rogers left the title with issue #25 in order to concentrate on his television series \"Leverage\". After three fill-in issues, Matt Sturges became the main writer in issue #29, but the series was cancelled with issue #36. Editor Dan DiDio put the cancellation down to poor sales and said that \"Blue Beetle\" was \"a book that we started with very high expectations, but it lost its audience along the way\". In June 2009, Blue Beetle was brought back as a \"co-feature\" of the more popular \"Booster Gold\" comic. A new \"Blue Beetle\" comic was launched as part of The New 52 initiative in September 2011, with Jaime Reyes' history being rebooted with a new origin and without any apparent history of Kord or Garrett as prior Blue Beetles. The new book was written by Tony Bedard and drawn by Ig Guara."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "The original Blue Beetle comic first appeared in Winter 1940 by Fox Feature Syndicate and Holyoke Publishing. It starred the original Blue Beetle named Dan Garret who first appeared in \"Mystery Men Comics\" anthology comic book series. He was depicted as a police officer who secretly dons a superhero costume to thwart crime. The series was the second featured title of a superhero in American comic book magazines after Superman having his own series. The volume series lasted until August 1950 with issue #60 when the company of Fox Feature Syndicate collapsed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The replacement Blue Beetle created by Charlton Comics, and later published by Americomics and DC Comics, is Ted Kord, a former student of Dan Garrett, a genius-level inventor and a gifted athlete. Kord and Garrett were investigating Kord's Uncle Jarvis when they learned Jarvis was working to create an army of androids to take over Earth. Garrett changed into Blue Beetle, but was killed in battle. As he died, he passed on to Kord the responsibility of being Blue Beetle, but was unable to pass on the mystical scarab."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "The character was revised and reprinted briefly by Charlton Comics with issues #18-#20."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime Reyes is a fictional superhero character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Created by Keith Giffen, John Rogers, and Cully Hamner, the character made his first appearance in \"Infinite Crisis\" #3 (February 2006)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles Nicholas",
        "text": "The Blue Beetle first appeared in Fox Comics' superhero anthology series \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (Aug. 1939), with art by Wojtkoski (as Charles Nicholas), though the Grand Comics Database tentatively credits Will Eisner as the scripter. His family has said Wojtkowski \"decided in the late 1930s to sell the rights to the character to raise money\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "The character ran as a backup feature in \"Captain Atom\" #83\u201386 (November 1966 \u2013 June 1967) before getting his own \"Blue Beetle\" title, which ran for 5 issues between June 1967 and November 1968. A sixth issue was produced, but published in the \"Charlton Portfolio\" by CPL Gang. The Question ran as a backup series, with the fifth issue featuring a quasi-team-up in which the Blue Beetle story continues in part in the \"Question\" tale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "In the mid-1950s, Fox Comics went out of business, and despite allegations that they sold Blue Beetle's rights to Charlton Comics, there is no proof that a formal sale took place. Charlton nevertheless published a few sporadic adventures of the Golden Age character before revamping the hero in 1964. Charlton tried three times to use the character to carry a self-titled series. Two of the attempts retained the numbering of a previous title, and were eventually replaced with new titles that carried on the numbering. The new series was short-lived."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Charlton Comics reprinted some stories in its anthology titles and in a four-issue \"Blue Beetle\" reprint series numbered 18\u201321, although there is no evidence that they obtained the rights to the character - just that they purchased the printing plates to earlier stories."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "After the death of Ted Kord, a new Blue Beetle was introduced named Jaime Reyes in \"Infinite Crisis\" #3. His own solo series begun in issue #1 and ended in issue #36 in February 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "This version of Blue Beetle has been ranked as the 61st-greatest comic book character of all time IGN also ranked this version of the Blue Beetle as the 61st-greatest comic book hero of all time stating that his intelligence, his \"bwahahha\" antics, his endearing partnership with Booster Gold, and his brave sacrifice during the build-up to \"Infinite Crisis\" all serve to cement this particular Beetle's legacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The character first appeared by Fox Comics in August 1939 issue of \"Mystery Men Comics\" with art by Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski (as Charles Nicholas), though the Grand Comics Database tentatively credits Will Eisner as the scripter. Blue Beetle has starred in a comic book series, comic strip and radio serial, but like most Golden Age of Comic Books superheroes, fell into obscurity in the 1950s. The comic book series saw a number of anomalies in publication: 19 issues, #12 through #30, were published through Holyoke Publishing; no issue #43 was published; publication frequency varied throughout the run; and there were gaps where issues were not published, with large ones occurring in early 1947 and between mid-1948 and early 1950."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In \"Infinite Crisis\" #5 (March 2006), Reyes became Blue Beetle's third incarnation. His own monthly series debuted two months later with \"Blue Beetle\" vol. 7 #1 (May 2006); it was initially written by Keith Giffen and John Rogers, with artist Cully Hamner. Giffen left before issue #10 and Rogers took over full writing duties, joined by new artist Rafael Albuquerque. Rogers left in issue #25 to concentrate on his television series \"Leverage\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The Blue Beetle had his own short-lived comic strip, drawn by a pseudonymous Jack Kirby and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "A new \"Blue Beetle\" title launched in fall 2011 after the conclusion of the \"Flashpoint\" event. It was written by Tony Bedard and drawn by Ig Guara and cancelled in February 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "After The New 52 was launched, a new series starring Jaime Reyes was introduced. It launched in November 2011 and ended in March 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles Nicholas",
        "text": "Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski (December 6, 1921 \u2013 June 21, 1985) was an American comic book writer-artist best known as the credited creator of the Fox Comics character Blue Beetle, which in various incarnations has continued through three comics companies and into the 21st century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Comics",
        "text": "The name \"Blue Comics\" came from a small producer of \"zines\" bought by Mica\u00edas Ramos in 2015, but only in 2016, the publisher started to use the name \"Blue Comics e Entretenimento\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In issue #0 of the \"Project Superpowers\" miniseries, the Fox Feature Syndicate version of the Blue Beetle appeared in flashbacks (as by now the character/spelling \"Dan Garret\" was in the public domain). To avoid trademark conflicts with DC Comics, he is referred to in this series by the nickname \"Big Blue\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "1967 in comics",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (vol. 5)\n: \"Release\": June by Charlton Comics. \"Writer/Artist\": Steve Ditko."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The original Blue Beetle, Dan Garret, first appeared in Fox Comics' \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (cover-dated August 1939), with art by Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski (as Charles Nicholas), though the Grand Comics Database tentatively credits Will Eisner as the scripter. A rookie police officer, he wore a special bulletproof costume and took \"Vitamin 2X\" which endowed him with super-energy, and he was assisted by a neighborhood pharmacist in his fight against crime. Blue Beetle starred in a comic book series, comic strip and radio serial, but like most Golden Age superheroes, he fell into obscurity in the 1950s. The comic book series saw a number of anomalies in publication: 19 issues, #12 through #30, were published through Holyoke Publishing; no issue #43 was published; publication frequency varied throughout the run; and there were gaps where issues were not published, with large ones occurring in early 1947 and between mid-1948 and early 1950."
      },
      {
        "title": "Question (character)",
        "text": "In 1967, Steve Ditko created the character of Mr. A, whom he conceived as an undiluted expression of his values, ethics and Objectivist philosophy. Later that year, Ditko was hired by Charlton Comics to revive their superhero character Blue Beetle. Due to its low page rates, Charlton tended to give free rein to its artists when they wanted to include more personal ideas in their comics. Ditko therefore decided to create the Question, a less radical version of Mr. A who could be acceptable to the Comics Code Authority. The character was included as a back-pages feature in the new \"Blue Beetle\" comic book."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "A popular character in his era, the Blue Beetle had his own short-lived comic strip, drawn by a pseudonymous Jack Kirby and others, and a radio serial that ran for 48 thirteen-minute episodes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holyoke Publishing",
        "text": "Comic books\n*\"Blue Beetle\" \u2014 19 issues, #12-30 (June 1942 \u2013 Feb. 1944)\n*\"Captain Aero Comics\" \u2014 9 issues, vol. 1, #8 (2) - vol. 2, #4 (10) (Feb. 1942 \u2013 Jan. 1943)\n*\"Cat-Man Comics\" \u2014 12 issues, vol. 1, #11 (6) - vol. 3, #7 (17) (Jan. 1942 - Jan. 1943)\n*\"Sparkling Stars\" \u2014 32 issues, #1-33 (no #32 published) (June 1944 - March 1948)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The third Blue Beetle, created by DC Comics, is Jaime Reyes, a teenager who discovered that the original Blue Beetle scarab morphed into a battle suit allowing him to fight crime and travel in space. Over the years Reyes became a member of the Teen Titans and starred in two Blue Beetle comic series. In DC Comics' 2011 \"New 52\" reboot, Jaime Reyes was the primary Blue Beetle character, only occasionally referring to past versions. With the subsequent continuity revision \"DC Rebirth\", the previous versions were restored."
      },
      {
        "title": "1986 in comics",
        "text": "Blue Beetle\n: \"Release\": June. \"Writer\": Len Wein. Artists: Paris Cullins and Bruce Patterson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In the latest relaunch of the DC Universe, \"DC Rebirth\", Jaime is working with Ted Kord to study the beetle attached to Jaime's back and remove it. Once again, the beetle's origin is retconned, as revealed by Doctor Fate, who tells Kord that the beetle is not alien, but magical, similar to the original continuity pre-\"Infinite Crisis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "After the popularity of Charlton's new Blue Beetle named Ted Kord that was introduced in the back up feature of Captain Atom solo series in issue #83. Ted had his own series by Charlton which also lasted five issues between June 1967 and November 1968."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "DC Comics once again relaunched its titles with DC Rebirth and featured Reyes in his new series that lasted in April 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "In 1964, Charlton modernized the \"Blue Beetle\" title. Instead of Dan Garret, he was renamed Dan Garrett. Also instead of a policeman he was an archeologist who discovered the ancient mystical scarab which gave him multiple superpowers. The series lasted five issues through March\u2013April 1965. The Dan Garrett version would briefly be revised again in July 1965 throughout February\u2013March 1966, lasting another five issues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "On the PBS children's educational series \"The Electric Company\", the Blue Beetle was a bumbling superhero (played by Jim Boyd) who would often make matters worse instead of better. He wore a mask, a hood with antennae, wings, tennis shoes, boxer shorts, and a T-shirt bearing the name \"Blue Beetle\". Outside of the name, the character is unrelated to any of the comic book characters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The character returned in June 2009 as a \"co-feature\" of the more popular \"Booster Gold\" comic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The original Golden Age Blue Beetle is Dan Garret, son of a police officer killed by a criminal. This Fox Feature Syndicate version of the character debuted in \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (August 1939), and began appearing in his own 60-issue series shortly thereafter. Fox Feature Syndicate sponsored a \"Blue Beetle Day\" at the 1939 New York World's Fair on August 7, 1940, beginning at 10:30\u00a0a.m. and including 300 children in relay-race finals at the Field of Special Events, following preliminaries in New York City parks. The race was broadcast over radio station WMCA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "Nearly all of Ted Kord's Charlton Comics appearances as the Blue Beetle have been collected as part of the DC Archive Editions series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime Reyes is the third character to assume the mantle of Blue Beetle, but he is substantially different from his predecessors. Introduced in 1939, the original Blue Beetle, Dan Garret, was a Fox Comics police officer who fought crime with superpowers gained by ingesting \"Vitamin 2X\". A revamped version of this character, archaeologist Dan Garrett, introduced in 1964 by Charlton Comics drew mystical abilities from an ancient Egyptian scarab. Published by Charlton Comics and later DC, 1966 creation Ted Kord was Garret's student who continued his legacy of costumed crime-fighting, although he had no superpowers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "In issue #0 of the \"Project Superpowers\" miniseries, the Fox Feature Syndicate version of the Blue Beetle appeared in flashbacks (as by now the character/spelling \"Dan Garret\" was in the public domain). To avoid trademark conflicts with DC Comics, he is referred to in this series by the nickname \"Big Blue\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "DC Comics acquired the Charlton heroes in the mid-1980s and used the \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\" crossover event to integrate them all into the DC Universe. During this period, Ted Kord had his own \"Blue Beetle\" series, written by Len Wein, which ran for 24 issues from June 1986 to May 1988. Also published during this time was \"Secret Origins\" #2 (cover illustrated by Gil Kane), which explained the origins and careers of the Ted Kord and Dan Garrett Blue Beetles in the post-Crisis continuity. They would also follow up on the hinted android in stasis from the Charlton series, which would eventually become \"Carapax, the Indestructible Man\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "In the early 1980s, the first issue of Charlton's anthology comic \"Charlton Bullseye\" featured a team-up of the Blue Beetle and the Question. Later, AC Comics would publish a story intended for \"Charlton Bullseye\" in \"Americomics\" #3, and a one-shot of a team-up of all the Charlton \"Action Heroes\" called the Sentinels of Justice, as the company called its lineup. Upon losing Blue Beetle, AC Comics created a similar character called Scarlet Scorpion."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unproduced DC Comics projects",
        "text": "Geoff Johns announced a live action TV series featuring the Jamie Reyes version of Blue Beetle. They made a test trailer with stuntman and actor Garrett Plotkin as Jaime Reyes. Scenes of this trailer were shown as part of the upcoming DC Nation block of programming in 2012 on Cartoon Network during the premiere of \"\". Since then, nothing has been announced about the project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joe Gill",
        "text": "The character would eventually become a stalwart of the DC stable, as would Blue Beetle, an old Fox Comics superhero revived by Gill and artists Bill Fraccio and Tony Tallarico as a campy, comedic character in \"Blue Beetle\" #1 (June 1964)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The second Blue Beetle, created by Charlton and later taken over by DC Comics, was the successor to Dan Garrett known as Ted Kord. Kord \"jumped\" to the DC Comics universe during the \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\" alongside a number of other Charlton Comics characters. The second Blue Beetle later starred in his own 24-issue comic. Kord never had any super powers but used science to create various devices to help him fight crime. He became a member of the Justice League of America and was later killed during DC Comics' \"Infinite Crisis\" cross over."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)\n--Publication history.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----Golden Age version (Dan Garret).\n----Silver Age version (Dan Garrett).\n----AC Comics.\n----DC Comics.\n----Dynamite Entertainment.\n----Legacy.\n----DC Universe.\n--In other media.\n----Comic strip.\n----Radio serial.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of DC Animated Universe characters",
        "text": "Blue Beetle could not appear as a member of the Justice League due to rights being tied up until 2007 because of his 1940s radio show and 1980s cartoon proposals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Following DC's \"Flashpoint\" storyline \"Blue Beetle\" was one of 52 monthly titles launched in September 2011, again starring Jaime Reyes. The series was cancelled after 17 issues in January 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The new series was short-lived, and in the pages of \"Captain Atom\" #83 (cover-dated November 1966) through #86, Charlton introduced Ted Kord, a student of Dan Garrett's (note the changed spelling) who took on the role when Garrett died. Kord was an inventor hero, using a variety of gadgets. This Beetle received his own series in 1967, but the entire Charlton \"Action Heroes\" line of comic books ceased publication in 1968. With the rest of the Charlton line-up, he was sold to DC Comics in 1983 and appeared with several incarnations of the Justice League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In 1964, during the Silver Age of comics, Charlton revised the character for a new Blue Beetle series. Charlton's new Blue Beetle retained the original's name (adding a second \"t\"), but none of his powers or origin, making him a different character. This Beetle was archaeologist Dan Garrett, who obtained a number of superhuman powers (including super strength and vision, flight, and the ability to generate energy blasts) from a mystical scarab he found during a dig in Egypt, where it had been used to imprison an evil mummified Pharaoh. He would transform into the Blue Beetle by saying the words \"Kaji Dha!\" This version, by writer Joe Gill and artist Tony Tallarico, was played at least initially for camp, with stories like \"The Giant Mummy Who was Not Dead\". The Charlton Dan Garrett version of the Blue Beetle ran only until 1966 before his replacement debuted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Roy Thomas wrote the Blue Beetle in one of his earliest professional credits and later created a couple of Blue Beetle pastiches: the Scarlet Scarab for Marvel Comics and the Silver Scarab for DC Comics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Dan Garret or Dan Garrett is a fictional superhero, appearing in American comic books published by multiple companies, including Fox Comics, Charlton Comics, and DC Comics. Garret was created by Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski, and made his first appearance in Fox's \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 during the Golden Age of Comic Books. Garrett is the first character to become the superhero Blue Beetle, predating Ted Kord and Jaime Reyes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Comics",
        "text": "The company was created by Mica\u00edas Ramos in 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The character briefly returned in DC Comics' first run of \"Blue Beetle\", resurrected by his mystical scarab to battle against his successor. He can also be seen in various flashback stories. His 1940s incarnation is briefly glimpsed in DC's 1993 limited series \"The Golden Age\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "In 1964, during the Silver Age of comics, Charlton revised the character for a new Blue Beetle series. Charlton's new Blue Beetle retained the original's name (adding a second \"t\"), but no powers or back story, making him a different character. This Beetle was archaeologist Dan Garrett, who obtained a number of superhuman powers (including super strength and vision, flight, and the ability to generate energy blasts) from a mystical scarab he found during a dig in Egypt, where it had been used to imprison an evil mummified Pharaoh. He would transform into the Blue Beetle by saying the words \"Kaji Dha!\" This version, by writer Joe Gill and artist Tony Tallarico, was played at least initially for camp, with stories like \"The Giant Mummy Who Was Not Dead\". The Charlton Dan Garrett version of the Blue Beetle ran only until 1966 before his replacement debuted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In \"\", other representatives of the Reach attack Odym, homeworld of the Blue Lantern Corps, where it is revealed that their armours have taken control of them; Jaime speculates, during a confrontation with Kyle Rayner, that his armour is damaged, explaining why he is in control of himself where other Reach soldiers are enslaved to their armour."
      },
      {
        "title": "NOW Comics",
        "text": "The company was headquartered in the Chicago Loop in Chicago, Illinois. Most NOW titles were the results of licensing arrangements with such companies as Columbia (Sony) Pictures, Broadway Video, ELP Communications, CBS Entertainment, Inc., Speed Racer Enterprises, and Leisure Concepts, resulting in titles like \"Vector\", \"Mr. T & The T-Force\", \"Speed Racer\", \"The Original Astro Boy\", \"Alias\", \"\", \"The Real Ghostbusters\" and \"Ghostbusters II\", \"Fright Night\", \"Married... with Children\", and \"The Green Hornet\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "Theodore Stephen \"Ted\" Kord is the second Blue Beetle, a superhero who was originally published by Charlton Comics and later picked up by DC Comics. This version of the character was created by Steve Ditko and first appeared as a back-up feature in \"Captain Atom\" #83 (November 1966), with Gary Friedrich scripting from Ditko's conception and plot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The character briefly returned in DC Comics' first run of \"Blue Beetle\", resurrected by his mystical scarab to battle against his successor. He can also be seen in various flashback stories. His 1940s incarnation is briefly glimpsed in DC's 1993 limited series \"The Golden Age\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charlton Comics",
        "text": "The company's most noteworthy period was during the \"silver age\" of comic books, which had begun with DC Comics' successful revival of superheroes in 1956. In March 1960, Charlton's science fiction anthology title \"Space Adventures\" introduced Captain Atom, by Gill and the future co-creator of Marvel Comics' Spider-Man, Steve Ditko. (After the mid-1980s demise of Charlton, Captain Atom would go on to become a stalwart of the DC stable, as would Blue Beetle, the old Fox Comics superhero revived by Gill and artists Bill Fraccio and Tony Tallarico as a campy, comedic character in \"Blue Beetle\" #1 [June 1964].)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Both Blue Beetles reappeared in the third issue of \"Americomics\", a title published by AC Comics in 1983/1984. In the first story in this issue, Ted Kord fought a bogus Dan Garrett, but the second story was more significant. It revealed that the original 1940s Dan was reincarnated as the Silver Age version (minus his memories of his earlier existence) by some unspecified \"gods\", presumably the ones responsible for his mystic scarab. The gods subsequently resurrected Dan again and sent him off to save Ted Kord's life (leaving him a note saying simply, \"Try not to get killed this time\"). After this adventure, Kord turned the Blue Beetle name back over to Dan. \"Americomics\" was canceled after issue #6, and so far this story has never been referenced by any other publisher. Another Blue Beetle crossover story depiction revolving around the Blue Beetles is depicted in \"Booster Gold\" (vol. 2) #6 by DC Comics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle has appeared in the \"Justice League Unlimited\" spin-off comic book, in issues #5 and #8."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Both Blue Beetles reappeared in the third issue of \"Americomics\", a title published by AC Comics in 1983/1984. In the first story in this issue, Ted Kord fought a bogus Dan Garrett, but the second story was more significant. It revealed that the original 1940s Dan was reincarnated as the Silver Age version (minus his memories of his earlier existence) by some unspecified \"gods\", presumably the ones responsible for his mystic scarab. The gods subsequently resurrected Dan again and sent him off to save Ted Kord's life (leaving him a note saying simply, \"Try not to get killed this time\"). After this adventure, Kord turned the Blue Beetle name back over to Dan. \"Americomics\" was canceled after issue #6, and so far this story has never been referenced by any other publisher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "After a couple of fill-in issues, Lilah Sturges became the main writer in issue #29 but the series was canceled with last issue #36 in February 2009. Editor Dan DiDio put the cancellation down to poor sales and said that \"Blue Beetle\" was \"a book that we started with very high expectations, but it lost its audience along the way\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Louis Cazeneuve",
        "text": "Cazeneuve's earliest work includes Fox Feature Syndicate's 1940 comic strip \"Blue Beetle\", succeeding Jack Kirby under the house name Charles Nicholas. With writer Joe Simon, editor-in-chief of Marvel Comics predecessor Timely Comics, he co-created the character Red Raven \u2014 the first Timely/Marvel character to star in his own self-titled series, predating by several months \"Captain America Comics\" #1 (March 1941)."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Thing!",
        "text": "The Thing! is an American horror comic book published by Charlton Comics that ran 17 issues from 1952 to 1954. Its tagline was \"Weird tales of suspense and horror!\" After the 17th issue, it was cancelled and the series' numbering continued as \"Blue Beetle\" vol. 2."
      },
      {
        "title": "Question (character)",
        "text": "The Charlton characters were acquired by DC Comics while the former company was in decline in 1983. The Question appeared briefly in 1985's \"Crisis On Infinite Earths\" and in a three-issue arc of DC's Blue Beetle revival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Spin-offs from the series \"Countdown to Final Crisis\" would introduce more alternate Blue Beetles in 2007. Earth-19 (the \"Gotham by Gaslight\" universe), set in a Victorian-like era, has its own version of Dan Garrett who in his secret identity is the leading Egyptologist at the Gotham Museum of Natural History and wears a monocle, appearing in \"The Search for Ray Palmer: Gotham by Gaslight\". The limited series \"\" depicted three more: Earth-26 Blue Beetle, a swarm of sentient insects that form a man-shaped body (calling themselves \"The Scarab\"), Ted of Earth-33, an anthropomorphic beetle, the pet of Mr. and Mrs. Kord, and Earth-39 Blue Beetle, a younger version of Dan Garrett, who has bonded with his scarab in the same way as Jaime Reyes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Bolt",
        "text": "In 1949, Novelty Press sold its assets, including Blue Bolt, to series cover artist L. B. Cole due to the growing criticism over violence in comic books. Using his new assets, Cole began his own company, Star Publications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kord Enterprises",
        "text": "Kord Enterprises (or Kord Industries) is a fictional multibillion-dollar multinational corporation in the DC Comics universe. It is owned and run by scientist and businessman Ted Kord, the superhero Blue Beetle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The supporting cast remained fairly stable throughout this original run and included Joan Mason, a beautiful blond reporter for the \"Daily Blade\" who would ultimately star in her own backup stories, and Mike Mannigan, Dan's stereotypical Irish partner on the force who believed despite all evidence to the contrary that the Blue Beetle was a criminal and was always trying to arrest him with little success. Dr. Franz, a local pharmacist and inventor of the bulletproof suit and 2X formula (as well as many other gadgets, including the portable wireless telephone nearly a half-century before they came into common use), played a large role in the early issues but eventually faded from the cast. The Beetle also had a short-lived spunky kid sidekick in the form of Sparkington J. Northrup (Sparky), who originally wore an abbreviated version of the Beetle's costume but later went into action wearing his regular clothes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Threshold (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle, last seen being captured by Lady Styx's henchmen, is also dropped into the competition, but without his scarab armed. Caul later meets up with T'morra and Ember at a bar, where they inform Caul of Beetle's presence, because his residual Green Lantern energy might have an effect on Beetle's Reach armor. Captain K'rot with his team, Sleen and Pig-Iron, are trying to claim Beetle's Scarab. The Scarab activates to protect its unconscious host. During their altercation with Beetle, they run into Caul, which causes the Scarab to go berserk. Once Caul gets far away enough from Beetle, Jaime Reyes regains control and flies away. Star Hawkins and Ilda, a robot uploaded with the personality and memories of his deceased wife, arrive to cloak Caul and tell him the location of his Green Lantern power battery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Later, both team up to destroy the Black Lantern, succeeding by blasting him with a special light gun designed by Ted Kord and separating him from the ring. Then, they move the remains into the Time Sphere and take the lifeless corpse to Vanishing Point Fortress, in the last second of the universe. There, Jaime promises to eventually live up to the legacy of the Blue Beetle and reestablish the Blue & Gold Team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holyoke Publishing",
        "text": "The two titles acquired from Heinit reverted to Temerson's new company Et-Es-Go Magazines (later Continental Magazines) following Holyoke's \"Cat-Man Comics\" vol. 3, #7, the overall 17th issue, and \"Captain Aero Comics\" vol. 2, #4, the overall 10th issue (both Jan. 1943). Later that year, Fox won \"Blue Beetle\" back in a lawsuit; Holyoke's final issue was #30 (Feb. 1944)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Xolo Maridue\u00f1a will portray the character in his own live action film set in the DC Extended Universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "During the \"\" storyline, Blue Beetle was among the prisoners in New Apokolips after The Batman Who Laughs and his Dark Knights took over Prime-Earth. They were freed when Wonder Woman, Batman, and Harley Quinn freed Superman from the control of Darkfather. During the heroes fight with Robin King, Blue Beetle accompanied Red Tornado and Blue Beetle into battle against Robin King. Robin King summoned a giant beetle which killed Blue Beetle. Batman later revived him with a Black Lantern ring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Dan Garret was a son of a police officer killed by a criminal. This Fox Feature Syndicate version of the character debuted in \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (August 1939) and continued through issue #31. He began appearing in his own 60-issue series shortly thereafter. Fox Feature Syndicate sponsored a \"Blue Beetle Day\" at the 1939 New York World's Fair on August 7, 1940, beginning at 10:30\u00a0a.m. and including 300 children in relay-race finals at the Field of Special Events, following preliminaries in New York City parks. The race was broadcast over radio station WMCA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nite Owl",
        "text": "The duo are modified analogues of the first two Blue Beetle characters created for Fox Feature Syndicate and later sold to Charlton Comics. The second Nite Owl received a four-part miniseries as part of the \"Before Watchmen\" comic book prequel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Comics",
        "text": "In 2016, the publisher began to renew its shared universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "He began a career as a superhero, meeting Oracle, the Phantom Stranger and the current Peacemaker during his early adventures and ends up in conflict with supervillains like the ones that work for the crime boss La Dama. He often associates himself with a street gang of local superhumans known as the Posse. His support team agreed to help Jaime track crime and natural disasters in the Midwest via the Internet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The final issue, #52, of DC Comics' 2006/2007 year-long weekly series \"52\" revealed that a \"Multiverse\" system of 52 parallel universes, with each Earth being a different take on established DC Comics characters as featured in the mainstream continuity (designated as \"New Earth\") had come into existence. The Multiverse acts as a storytelling device that allows writers to introduce alternate versions of fictional characters, hypothesize \"What if?\" scenarios, revisit popular Elseworlds stories and allow these characters to interact with the mainstream continuity. For example, the Ted Kord of the \"Kingdom Come\" limited series is said to reside on Earth-22."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "It was eventually established that the Charlton Comics incarnation of the Dan Garrett Blue Beetle made his debut on August 14, 1939."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In \"Futures End\" #0 Blue Beetle is seen working together with the resistance against Brother Eye and all the other dead superheroes. He dies and mutates into a robot controlled by Brother Eye."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The mystical Scarab that had given Dan Garrett his powers had been thought destroyed. When it was found intact, it was given to Ted Kord, who was never able to use it. After an attack by Brother Eye, the Scarab appeared energized and Ted brought it to the wizard Shazam, who took it and sent Ted away. Shortly after, in the \"Day of Vengeance\" storyline, Shazam was killed and the Scarab was blasted across the globe along with shards from Rock of Eternity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Novelty Press",
        "text": "In 1949, due to the growing criticism over violence in comic books, Novelty Press sold its assets to \"Blue Bolt\" cover artist L.B. Cole. Using his new assets, Cole began his own company, Star Publications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "An evil version has appeared in the antimatter universe of Qward, the universe of the Crime Syndicate of America, known as the Scarab."
      },
      {
        "title": "Booster Gold (comic book)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle began a co-feature in issues #21\u201329."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The villain Shockwave revealed during his battle with Jaime that Kord Industries is now owned by the 100. He again came into conflict with Kid Devil, who still harbored a grudge against him because of both the future Titans incident and his status with Ravager. Jaime tries to mend fences with Kid Devil, but their squabbling allows Shockwave to escape. During their second battle with him, Kid Devil managed to tap into his demonic powers and partially melts Shockwave's armor, enabling the two boys to defeat him. This seems to squelch the ill feelings between them. Kid Devil asks Jaime if he's heard from Ravager and Jaime replies that he's faced down an entire alien race, but Ravager scares him. Kid Devil finally realizes that Jaime is being sincere and they shake hands and tell each other their real names. Later at Titans Tower Robin offers Jaime full-membership, which Jaime finally feels ready to accept."
      },
      {
        "title": "Threshold (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle is tracked by another Hunted contestant, a New God named Lonar, who has plans for Beetle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "The young teenager Jaime Reyes later merges the scarab as the new Blue Beetle. A statue of Kord in J'onn J'onzz's memorial to fallen Justice League members. When recruiting members for the new Justice League, Superman suggests Booster Gold to which Batman responds: \"There are better ways to honor Ted\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Alan Moore used the two Charlton Comics versions of the Blue Beetle as inspiration for the two Nite Owls in his comic book series \"Watchmen\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) was seen in Alex Ross and Mark Waid's limited series \"Kingdom Come\". He is shown with the rest of the Charlton \"Action Heroes\" not as a member of Magog's Justice Battalion, but as part of Batman's group and later of the MLF (Mankind Liberation Front). He would be shown later in the title in a suit of armor powered by the then-mystic scarab, working with Batman's team. In the novelization of the series, Batman thinks of Blue Beetle, along with Green Arrow and Black Canary, as his closest (at the time) friends. Blue Beetle is killed with most of the other heroes by a nuclear explosion."
      },
      {
        "title": "One Year Later",
        "text": "Follow-ups to \"Infinite Crisis\":\n* \"Blue Beetle\" has a new character following in the footsteps of Ted Kord, written by Keith Giffen and John Rogers, with art by Cully Hamner. The series concluded in February 2009 with issue #36.\n* \"Crisis Aftermath: The Battle for Bl\u00fcdhaven\" is a six-issue limited series written by Jimmy Palmiotti and Justin Grey, with art by Dan Jurgens and Palmiotti.\n* \"Crisis Aftermath: The Spectre\" is a three-issue limited series written by Will Pfeifer with art by Cliff Chiang.\n* \"Ion\" is a 12-issue limited series spun off from \"Green Lantern\" and \"Rann-Thanagar War\", with writer Ron Marz and artist Greg Tocchini."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The Charlton version of Dan Garrett was spotlighted in the second issue of DC's 1980s \"Secret Origins\" series, in which his origin was retold along with that of Ted Kord. Subsequent appearances by Dan Garrett (in flashback stories) include guest spots or cameos in \"Infinity, Inc.\", \"Captain Atom\", \"JLA: Year One\", and \"Legends of the DC Universe\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Following \"Blackest Night\", Jaime and the other Titans travel to the city of Dakota to rescue Static after he is kidnapped by a metahuman gangster named Holocaust. Jaime uses the scarab to help locate Static, but he and his teammates are easily defeated during a battle by Holocaust, who is able to block a blast from Jaime's cannon and then strike him with a fireball. The Titans are ultimately rescued when Cyborg arrives with Kid Flash and Superboy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle was selling well in comics in 1940, so Fox licensed the character to CBS Radio for a syndicated \"Blue Beetle\" radio serial, hoping to match the success of \"The Adventures of Superman\", which began in February 1940. \"The Blue Beetle\" launched on May 15, 1940, starring motion picture and radio actor Frank Lovejoy in the title role. As in the comics, Blue Beetle was a young police officer who saw the need for extraordinary crime fighting, and secretly dons a superhero costume to frighten the criminals who oppose him. The show was not a success. According to Christopher Irving, \"Lovejoy brought a maniacal, almost sadistic, cackle to the character. His Blue Beetle seemed as if he took some sick pride in hurting criminals\". Lovejoy left the show after four episodes, and was replaced with a different, uncredited actor. The last episode aired on September 13, 1940."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who is the most recent comic company that own the rights to the Blue Beetle?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The most recent of the companies to own rights to the Blue Beetle is DC Comics who bought the rights to the character in 1983, using the name for three distinct characters (Jaime Reyes, Dan Garrett and Ted Kord) over the years.",
      "The DC Comics is the most recent company to own rights to the Blue Beetle."
    ],
    "topic": "Blue Beetle",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Blue Beetle:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blue Beetle"
        ],
        "ctx": "Blue Beetle is the name of three fictional superheroes who appear in a number of American comic books published by a variety of companies since 1939. The most recent of the companies to own rights to the Blue Beetle is DC Comics who bought the rights to the character in 1983, using the name for three distinct characters over the years."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blue Beetle:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blue Beetle"
        ],
        "ctx": "The original Blue Beetle was created by Fox Comics and later owned by Charlton Comics. The first Beetle was Dan Garret (later spelled Dan Garrett), who initially gained super powers from a special vitamin, which was later changed to gaining powers from a \"sacred scarab\". The original Blue Beetle was featured not only in his own comic but also a weekly radio serial."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blue Beetle:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blue Beetle"
        ],
        "ctx": "The second Blue Beetle, created by Charlton and later taken over by DC Comics, was the successor to Dan Garrett known as Ted Kord. Kord \"jumped\" to the DC Comics universe during the \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\" alongside a number of other Charlton Comics characters. The second Blue Beetle later starred in his own 24-issue comic. Kord never had any super powers but used science to create various devices to help him fight crime. He became a member of the Justice League of America and was later killed during DC Comics' \"Infinite Crisis\" cross over."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blue Beetle:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blue Beetle"
        ],
        "ctx": "The third Blue Beetle, created by DC Comics, is Jaime Reyes, a teenager who discovered that the original Blue Beetle scarab morphed into a battle suit allowing him to fight crime and travel in space. Over the years Reyes became a member of the Teen Titans and starred in two Blue Beetle comic series. In DC Comics' 2011 \"New 52\" reboot, Jaime Reyes was the primary Blue Beetle character, only occasionally referring to past versions. With the subsequent continuity revision \"DC Rebirth\", the previous versions were restored."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blue Beetle:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blue Beetle"
        ],
        "ctx": "Blue Beetle is the name of three fictional superheroes who appear in a number of American comic books published by a variety of companies since 1939. The most recent of the companies to own rights to the Blue Beetle is DC Comics who bought the rights to the character in 1983, using the name for three distinct characters over the years."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "DC Comics acquired Charlton in the mid-1980s. They then revised Ted Kord with collaboration from Len Wein and Paris Cullins that lasted until issue #24 in May 1988."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The original Blue Beetle was created by Fox Comics and later owned by Charlton Comics. The first Beetle was Dan Garret (later spelled Dan Garrett), who initially gained super powers from a special vitamin, which was later changed to gaining powers from a \"sacred scarab\". The original Blue Beetle was featured not only in his own comic but also a weekly radio serial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle is the name of three fictional superheroes who appear in a number of American comic books published by a variety of companies since 1939. The most recent of the companies to own rights to the Blue Beetle is DC Comics who bought the rights to the character in 1983, using the name for three distinct characters over the years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "In the mid-1950s, Fox Comics went out of business, and despite allegations that they sold Blue Beetle's rights to Charlton Comics, there is no proof that a formal sale took place. Charlton nevertheless published a few sporadic adventures of the Golden Age character before revamping the hero in 1964. Charlton tried three times to use the character to carry a self-titled series. Two of the attempts retained the numbering of a previous title, and were eventually replaced with new titles that carried on the numbering. The new series was short-lived."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Charlton Comics allegedly obtained the rights to the Blue Beetle (although there is no proof that a formal purchase ever took place) and reprinted some stories in its anthology titles and in a four-issue \"Blue Beetle\" reprint series numbered 18\u201321."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime Reyes is the third character to assume the mantle of Blue Beetle, but he is substantially different from his predecessors. Introduced in 1939, the original Blue Beetle, Dan Garret, was a Fox Comics police officer who fought crime with superpowers gained by ingesting \"Vitamin 2X\". A revamped version of this character, archaeologist Dan Garrett, introduced in 1964 by Charlton Comics drew mystical abilities from an ancient Egyptian scarab. Published by Charlton Comics and later DC, 1966 creation Ted Kord was Garret's student who continued his legacy of costumed crime-fighting, although he had no superpowers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "DC Comics acquired the Charlton heroes in the mid-1980s and used the \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\" crossover event to integrate them all into the DC Universe. During this period, Ted Kord had his own \"Blue Beetle\" series, written by Len Wein, which ran for 24 issues from June 1986 to May 1988. Also published during this time was \"Secret Origins\" #2 (cover illustrated by Gil Kane), which explained the origins and careers of the Ted Kord and Dan Garrett Blue Beetles in the post-Crisis continuity. They would also follow up on the hinted android in stasis from the Charlton series, which would eventually become \"Carapax, the Indestructible Man\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The replacement Blue Beetle created by Charlton Comics, and later published by Americomics and DC Comics, is Ted Kord, a former student of Dan Garrett, a genius-level inventor and a gifted athlete. Kord and Garrett were investigating Kord's Uncle Jarvis when they learned Jarvis was working to create an army of androids to take over Earth. Garrett changed into Blue Beetle, but was killed in battle. As he died, he passed on to Kord the responsibility of being Blue Beetle, but was unable to pass on the mystical scarab."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In the mid-1950s, Fox Comics went out of business and sold the printing plates to some stories featuring the Blue Beetle to Charlton Comics. That company published a few sporadic adventures of the Golden Age character before revamping the hero in 1964. Charlton tried three times to use the character to carry a self-titled series. Two of the attempts retained the numbering of a previous title. These also were eventually replaced with new titles that carried on the numbering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "The character ran as a backup feature in \"Captain Atom\" #83\u201386 (November 1966 \u2013 June 1967) before getting his own \"Blue Beetle\" title, which ran for 5 issues between June 1967 and November 1968. A sixth issue was produced, but published in the \"Charlton Portfolio\" by CPL Gang. The Question ran as a backup series, with the fifth issue featuring a quasi-team-up in which the Blue Beetle story continues in part in the \"Question\" tale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "In 1964, Charlton modernized the \"Blue Beetle\" title. Instead of Dan Garret, he was renamed Dan Garrett. Also instead of a policeman he was an archeologist who discovered the ancient mystical scarab which gave him multiple superpowers. The series lasted five issues through March\u2013April 1965. The Dan Garrett version would briefly be revised again in July 1965 throughout February\u2013March 1966, lasting another five issues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "The original Blue Beetle comic first appeared in Winter 1940 by Fox Feature Syndicate and Holyoke Publishing. It starred the original Blue Beetle named Dan Garret who first appeared in \"Mystery Men Comics\" anthology comic book series. He was depicted as a police officer who secretly dons a superhero costume to thwart crime. The series was the second featured title of a superhero in American comic book magazines after Superman having his own series. The volume series lasted until August 1950 with issue #60 when the company of Fox Feature Syndicate collapsed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In 2006, DC introduced a new Blue Beetle, teenager Jaime Reyes, whose powers are derived from the scarab, now revealed as a piece of advanced alien technology. The series was initially written by Keith Giffen and John Rogers, with artist Cully Hamner. Giffen left in issue #10 and Rogers took over full writing duties, joined by a new artist, Rafael Albuquerque. Rogers left the title with issue #25 in order to concentrate on his television series \"Leverage\". After three fill-in issues, Matt Sturges became the main writer in issue #29, but the series was cancelled with issue #36. Editor Dan DiDio put the cancellation down to poor sales and said that \"Blue Beetle\" was \"a book that we started with very high expectations, but it lost its audience along the way\". In June 2009, Blue Beetle was brought back as a \"co-feature\" of the more popular \"Booster Gold\" comic. A new \"Blue Beetle\" comic was launched as part of The New 52 initiative in September 2011, with Jaime Reyes' history being rebooted with a new origin and without any apparent history of Kord or Garrett as prior Blue Beetles. The new book was written by Tony Bedard and drawn by Ig Guara."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The new series was short-lived, and in the pages of \"Captain Atom\" #83 (cover-dated November 1966) through #86, Charlton introduced Ted Kord, a student of Dan Garrett's (note the changed spelling) who took on the role when Garrett died. Kord was an inventor hero, using a variety of gadgets. This Beetle received his own series in 1967, but the entire Charlton \"Action Heroes\" line of comic books ceased publication in 1968. With the rest of the Charlton line-up, he was sold to DC Comics in 1983 and appeared with several incarnations of the Justice League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The third Blue Beetle, created by DC Comics, is Jaime Reyes, a teenager who discovered that the original Blue Beetle scarab morphed into a battle suit allowing him to fight crime and travel in space. Over the years Reyes became a member of the Teen Titans and starred in two Blue Beetle comic series. In DC Comics' 2011 \"New 52\" reboot, Jaime Reyes was the primary Blue Beetle character, only occasionally referring to past versions. With the subsequent continuity revision \"DC Rebirth\", the previous versions were restored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The second Blue Beetle, created by Charlton and later taken over by DC Comics, was the successor to Dan Garrett known as Ted Kord. Kord \"jumped\" to the DC Comics universe during the \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\" alongside a number of other Charlton Comics characters. The second Blue Beetle later starred in his own 24-issue comic. Kord never had any super powers but used science to create various devices to help him fight crime. He became a member of the Justice League of America and was later killed during DC Comics' \"Infinite Crisis\" cross over."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Dan Garret or Dan Garrett is a fictional superhero, appearing in American comic books published by multiple companies, including Fox Comics, Charlton Comics, and DC Comics. Garret was created by Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski, and made his first appearance in Fox's \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 during the Golden Age of Comic Books. Garrett is the first character to become the superhero Blue Beetle, predating Ted Kord and Jaime Reyes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The character briefly returned in DC Comics' first run of \"Blue Beetle\", resurrected by his mystical scarab to battle against his successor. He can also be seen in various flashback stories. His 1940s incarnation is briefly glimpsed in DC's 1993 limited series \"The Golden Age\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "After the death of Ted Kord, a new Blue Beetle was introduced named Jaime Reyes in \"Infinite Crisis\" #3. His own solo series begun in issue #1 and ended in issue #36 in February 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The character first appeared by Fox Comics in August 1939 issue of \"Mystery Men Comics\" with art by Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski (as Charles Nicholas), though the Grand Comics Database tentatively credits Will Eisner as the scripter. Blue Beetle has starred in a comic book series, comic strip and radio serial, but like most Golden Age of Comic Books superheroes, fell into obscurity in the 1950s. The comic book series saw a number of anomalies in publication: 19 issues, #12 through #30, were published through Holyoke Publishing; no issue #43 was published; publication frequency varied throughout the run; and there were gaps where issues were not published, with large ones occurring in early 1947 and between mid-1948 and early 1950."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime Reyes is a fictional superhero character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Created by Keith Giffen, John Rogers, and Cully Hamner, the character made his first appearance in \"Infinite Crisis\" #3 (February 2006)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)\n--Publication history.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----Golden Age version (Dan Garret).\n----Silver Age version (Dan Garrett).\n----AC Comics.\n----DC Comics.\n----Dynamite Entertainment.\n----Legacy.\n----DC Universe.\n--In other media.\n----Comic strip.\n----Radio serial.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In the latest relaunch of the DC Universe, \"DC Rebirth\", Jaime is working with Ted Kord to study the beetle attached to Jaime's back and remove it. Once again, the beetle's origin is retconned, as revealed by Doctor Fate, who tells Kord that the beetle is not alien, but magical, similar to the original continuity pre-\"Infinite Crisis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Question (character)",
        "text": "The Charlton characters were acquired by DC Comics while the former company was in decline in 1983. The Question appeared briefly in 1985's \"Crisis On Infinite Earths\" and in a three-issue arc of DC's Blue Beetle revival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle\n--Publication history.\n--Blue Beetles.\n----Dan Garret / Dan Garrett.\n----Ted Kord.\n----Jaime Reyes.\n--The Scarab - Khaji Da.\n--Other versions.\n----Kingdom Come.\n----52 Multiverse.\n----DC Animated Universe comics.\n--In other media.\n----Radio.\n----Audio drama.\n----Television.\n------Unreleased screen test.\n----Video games.\n----\"The Electric Company\".\n--Homages.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "In issue #0 of the \"Project Superpowers\" miniseries, the Fox Feature Syndicate version of the Blue Beetle appeared in flashbacks (as by now the character/spelling \"Dan Garret\" was in the public domain). To avoid trademark conflicts with DC Comics, he is referred to in this series by the nickname \"Big Blue\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The Charlton version of Dan Garrett was spotlighted in the second issue of DC's 1980s \"Secret Origins\" series, in which his origin was retold along with that of Ted Kord. Subsequent appearances by Dan Garrett (in flashback stories) include guest spots or cameos in \"Infinity, Inc.\", \"Captain Atom\", \"JLA: Year One\", and \"Legends of the DC Universe\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "Nearly all of Ted Kord's Charlton Comics appearances as the Blue Beetle have been collected as part of the DC Archive Editions series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In issue #0 of the \"Project Superpowers\" miniseries, the Fox Feature Syndicate version of the Blue Beetle appeared in flashbacks (as by now the character/spelling \"Dan Garret\" was in the public domain). To avoid trademark conflicts with DC Comics, he is referred to in this series by the nickname \"Big Blue\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The Charlton version of Dan Garrett was spotlighted in the second issue of DC's 1980s \"Secret Origins\" series, in which his origin was retold along with that of Ted Kord. Subsequent appearances by Dan Garrett (in flashback stories) include guest spots or cameos in \"Infinity, Inc.\", \"Captain Atom\", \"JLA: Year One\", and \"Legends of the DC Universe\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Both Blue Beetles reappeared in the third issue of \"Americomics\", a title published by AC Comics in 1983/1984. In the first story in this issue, Ted Kord fought a bogus Dan Garrett, but the second story was more significant. It revealed that the original 1940s Dan was reincarnated as the Silver Age version (minus his memories of his earlier existence) by some unspecified \"gods\", presumably the ones responsible for his mystic scarab. The gods subsequently resurrected Dan again and sent him off to save Ted Kord's life (leaving him a note saying simply, \"Try not to get killed this time\"). After this adventure, Kord turned the Blue Beetle name back over to Dan. \"Americomics\" was canceled after issue #6, and so far this story has never been referenced by any other publisher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The Blue Beetle had his own short-lived comic strip, drawn by a pseudonymous Jack Kirby and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "In the early 1980s, the first issue of Charlton's anthology comic \"Charlton Bullseye\" featured a team-up of the Blue Beetle and the Question. Later, AC Comics would publish a story intended for \"Charlton Bullseye\" in \"Americomics\" #3, and a one-shot of a team-up of all the Charlton \"Action Heroes\" called the Sentinels of Justice, as the company called its lineup. Upon losing Blue Beetle, AC Comics created a similar character called Scarlet Scorpion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Both Blue Beetles reappeared in the third issue of \"Americomics\", a title published by AC Comics in 1983/1984. In the first story in this issue, Ted Kord fought a bogus Dan Garrett, but the second story was more significant. It revealed that the original 1940s Dan was reincarnated as the Silver Age version (minus his memories of his earlier existence) by some unspecified \"gods\", presumably the ones responsible for his mystic scarab. The gods subsequently resurrected Dan again and sent him off to save Ted Kord's life (leaving him a note saying simply, \"Try not to get killed this time\"). After this adventure, Kord turned the Blue Beetle name back over to Dan. \"Americomics\" was canceled after issue #6, and so far this story has never been referenced by any other publisher. Another Blue Beetle crossover story depiction revolving around the Blue Beetles is depicted in \"Booster Gold\" (vol. 2) #6 by DC Comics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The character briefly returned in DC Comics' first run of \"Blue Beetle\", resurrected by his mystical scarab to battle against his successor. He can also be seen in various flashback stories. His 1940s incarnation is briefly glimpsed in DC's 1993 limited series \"The Golden Age\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (comic book)\n--Fox Feature Syndicate and Holyoke Publishing.\n--Charlton Comics.\n--DC Comics.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "DC's introduction of Jaime Reyes in 2006 retconned and expanded upon the Blue Beetle mythos. Revealed to be alien in origin, the scarab bonds with Reyes and provides him with a suit of extraterrestrial armor shortly after Kord's death. Though only a teenager, Reyes quickly forms a working relationship with Kord's former teammate and best friend Booster Gold and is inducted into the Teen Titans and the Justice League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "After the popularity of Charlton's new Blue Beetle named Ted Kord that was introduced in the back up feature of Captain Atom solo series in issue #83. Ted had his own series by Charlton which also lasted five issues between June 1967 and November 1968."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In 1964, during the Silver Age of comics, Charlton revised the character for a new Blue Beetle series. Charlton's new Blue Beetle retained the original's name (adding a second \"t\"), but none of his powers or origin, making him a different character. This Beetle was archaeologist Dan Garrett, who obtained a number of superhuman powers (including super strength and vision, flight, and the ability to generate energy blasts) from a mystical scarab he found during a dig in Egypt, where it had been used to imprison an evil mummified Pharaoh. He would transform into the Blue Beetle by saying the words \"Kaji Dha!\" This version, by writer Joe Gill and artist Tony Tallarico, was played at least initially for camp, with stories like \"The Giant Mummy Who was Not Dead\". The Charlton Dan Garrett version of the Blue Beetle ran only until 1966 before his replacement debuted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Following DC's \"Flashpoint\" storyline \"Blue Beetle\" was one of 52 monthly titles launched in September 2011, again starring Jaime Reyes. The series was cancelled after 17 issues in January 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "In 1964, during the Silver Age of comics, Charlton revised the character for a new Blue Beetle series. Charlton's new Blue Beetle retained the original's name (adding a second \"t\"), but no powers or back story, making him a different character. This Beetle was archaeologist Dan Garrett, who obtained a number of superhuman powers (including super strength and vision, flight, and the ability to generate energy blasts) from a mystical scarab he found during a dig in Egypt, where it had been used to imprison an evil mummified Pharaoh. He would transform into the Blue Beetle by saying the words \"Kaji Dha!\" This version, by writer Joe Gill and artist Tony Tallarico, was played at least initially for camp, with stories like \"The Giant Mummy Who Was Not Dead\". The Charlton Dan Garrett version of the Blue Beetle ran only until 1966 before his replacement debuted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "DC Comics once again relaunched its titles with DC Rebirth and featured Reyes in his new series that lasted in April 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle is a long running comic book series that was first published by Fox Feature Syndicate before being a Charlton Comics title and currently a DC Comics title. The series starred certain characters with the same name."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kord Enterprises",
        "text": "Kord Enterprises (or Kord Industries) is a fictional multibillion-dollar multinational corporation in the DC Comics universe. It is owned and run by scientist and businessman Ted Kord, the superhero Blue Beetle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The original Blue Beetle, Dan Garret, first appeared in Fox Comics' \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (cover-dated August 1939), with art by Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski (as Charles Nicholas), though the Grand Comics Database tentatively credits Will Eisner as the scripter. A rookie police officer, he wore a special bulletproof costume and took \"Vitamin 2X\" which endowed him with super-energy, and he was assisted by a neighborhood pharmacist in his fight against crime. Blue Beetle starred in a comic book series, comic strip and radio serial, but like most Golden Age superheroes, he fell into obscurity in the 1950s. The comic book series saw a number of anomalies in publication: 19 issues, #12 through #30, were published through Holyoke Publishing; no issue #43 was published; publication frequency varied throughout the run; and there were gaps where issues were not published, with large ones occurring in early 1947 and between mid-1948 and early 1950."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "An origin was given in \"Secret Origins\" vol. 2, #2, linking him to the original Blue Beetle. Ted was a former student of Dan Garrett, and they were investigating his uncle Jarvis Kord, learning Jarvis was working to create an army of androids to take over Earth; Garrett fought Jarvis, but both were killed in the battle. Garrett died and passed on the responsibility of the alter-ego to Ted, but was not able to pass on the mystical Blue Beetle scarab (a convenient means for Ditko to explain his preference for a power-free character). There was a hint that one android was still left in stasis, but this would remain unresolved until the DC series of the late 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "This version of Blue Beetle has been ranked as the 61st-greatest comic book character of all time IGN also ranked this version of the Blue Beetle as the 61st-greatest comic book hero of all time stating that his intelligence, his \"bwahahha\" antics, his endearing partnership with Booster Gold, and his brave sacrifice during the build-up to \"Infinite Crisis\" all serve to cement this particular Beetle's legacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The original Golden Age Blue Beetle is Dan Garret, son of a police officer killed by a criminal. This Fox Feature Syndicate version of the character debuted in \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (August 1939), and began appearing in his own 60-issue series shortly thereafter. Fox Feature Syndicate sponsored a \"Blue Beetle Day\" at the 1939 New York World's Fair on August 7, 1940, beginning at 10:30\u00a0a.m. and including 300 children in relay-race finals at the Field of Special Events, following preliminaries in New York City parks. The race was broadcast over radio station WMCA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In \"Infinite Crisis\" #5 (March 2006), Reyes became Blue Beetle's third incarnation. His own monthly series debuted two months later with \"Blue Beetle\" vol. 7 #1 (May 2006); it was initially written by Keith Giffen and John Rogers, with artist Cully Hamner. Giffen left before issue #10 and Rogers took over full writing duties, joined by new artist Rafael Albuquerque. Rogers left in issue #25 to concentrate on his television series \"Leverage\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The mystical Scarab that had given Dan Garrett his powers had been thought destroyed. When it was found intact, it was given to Ted Kord, who was never able to use it. After an attack by Brother Eye, the Scarab appeared energized and Ted brought it to the wizard Shazam, who took it and sent Ted away. Shortly after, in the \"Day of Vengeance\" storyline, Shazam was killed and the Scarab was blasted across the globe along with shards from Rock of Eternity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "A popular character in his era, the Blue Beetle had his own short-lived comic strip, drawn by a pseudonymous Jack Kirby and others, and a radio serial that ran for 48 thirteen-minute episodes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "Theodore Stephen \"Ted\" Kord is the second Blue Beetle, a superhero who was originally published by Charlton Comics and later picked up by DC Comics. This version of the character was created by Steve Ditko and first appeared as a back-up feature in \"Captain Atom\" #83 (November 1966), with Gary Friedrich scripting from Ditko's conception and plot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Question (character)",
        "text": "In 1967, Steve Ditko created the character of Mr. A, whom he conceived as an undiluted expression of his values, ethics and Objectivist philosophy. Later that year, Ditko was hired by Charlton Comics to revive their superhero character Blue Beetle. Due to its low page rates, Charlton tended to give free rein to its artists when they wanted to include more personal ideas in their comics. Ditko therefore decided to create the Question, a less radical version of Mr. A who could be acceptable to the Comics Code Authority. The character was included as a back-pages feature in the new \"Blue Beetle\" comic book."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "The young teenager Jaime Reyes later merges the scarab as the new Blue Beetle. A statue of Kord in J'onn J'onzz's memorial to fallen Justice League members. When recruiting members for the new Justice League, Superman suggests Booster Gold to which Batman responds: \"There are better ways to honor Ted\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joe Gill",
        "text": "The character would eventually become a stalwart of the DC stable, as would Blue Beetle, an old Fox Comics superhero revived by Gill and artists Bill Fraccio and Tony Tallarico as a campy, comedic character in \"Blue Beetle\" #1 (June 1964)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Dan Garret was a son of a police officer killed by a criminal. This Fox Feature Syndicate version of the character debuted in \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (August 1939) and continued through issue #31. He began appearing in his own 60-issue series shortly thereafter. Fox Feature Syndicate sponsored a \"Blue Beetle Day\" at the 1939 New York World's Fair on August 7, 1940, beginning at 10:30\u00a0a.m. and including 300 children in relay-race finals at the Field of Special Events, following preliminaries in New York City parks. The race was broadcast over radio station WMCA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles Nicholas",
        "text": "The Blue Beetle first appeared in Fox Comics' superhero anthology series \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (Aug. 1939), with art by Wojtkoski (as Charles Nicholas), though the Grand Comics Database tentatively credits Will Eisner as the scripter. His family has said Wojtkowski \"decided in the late 1930s to sell the rights to the character to raise money\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "It was eventually established that the Charlton Comics incarnation of the Dan Garrett Blue Beetle made his debut on August 14, 1939."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The \"Kingdom Come\" story, in which the Blue Beetle took part, has been adapted as an audio drama by John Whitman, based on the story by Mark Waid and Alex Ross and the novelization by Elliot S. Maggin (Time Warner Audio Books, 1998).\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears on the cover of a comic book in the \"Watchmen\" film tie-in \"Under the Hood\".\n* In \"\", an evil version of Blue Beetle appeared on a computer page of the lesser members of the Crime Syndicate.\n* The Ted Kord Blue Beetle is portrayed by Luke Barats in the 2011 short film \"The Death and Return of Superman\".\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in \"Justice League vs. Teen Titans\", where he is a member of the Teen Titans. He is a close friend of Beast Boy and helps in fending off Trigon's demonic emissaries from Hell. He is voiced by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in the sequel \"\" with Austin reprising his role again.\n* Ted Kord as Blue Beetle makes a brief appearance in \"Teen Titans Go! To the Movies\".\n* In \"\", he was one among the Titans who were killed by the Paradooms.\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears in the 2012 film \"Agent Beetle\". He is never referred to as Blue Beetle in the film, possibly to avoid copyright issues.\n* The Ted Kord version appears in a DC Showcase short that was included in \"\".\n* A film centered around Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle is in development, with Gareth Dunnet-Alcocer serving as screenwriter and Angel Manuel Soto will direct the film. The film will be an installment in the DC Extended Universe franchise. Xolo Maridue\u00f1a was cast as Jamie Reyes. Other actors Bruna Marquezine and Belissa Escobedo were respectively cast as the protagonist's love interest Penny and younger sister Milagros; Harvey Guill\u00e9n also joined the cast in an undisclosed role.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the episode \"Booster\" in the final season of \"Smallville\", where the scarab bonds with Jaime who is saved by Booster Gold. Ted Kord also makes an appearance as well, searching for the lost, and apparently extremely dangerous Blue Beetle scarab. Dan Garrett is also mentioned, with Clark Kent stating he was a Kord Industries scientist who was killed after the Scarab bonded with him.\n* Kord Industries is referenced in the second and fourth season of The CW show \"Arrow\". The producers planned for Ted Kord to join the show in the third season, but when DC told them that they had \"other plans for him\", he was replaced by Ray Palmer.\n* Blue Beetle was referenced in the 7th episode of \"Legends of Tomorrow\" when Kendra asks Ray about his favorite color, blue, and his favorite Beatle, he does not have one.\n* Several incarnations of the Blue Beetle appear on \"\":\n** The Jaime Reyes incarnation is a featured character, with Jaime Reyes voiced by Will Friedle and the Blue Beetle Scarab voiced by Ioan Gruffudd. He appears in the episodes \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Invasion of the Secret Santas!\", \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Game Over for Owlman!\", \"Night of the Huntress!\", \"The Fate of Equinox!\", \"Revenge of the Reach!\", \"Aquaman's Outrageous Adventure!\", \"The Power of Shazam!\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part One\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part Two\", \"Cry Freedom Fighters!\", \"Darkseid Descending!\", \"Shadow of the Bat!\", \"Time Out for Vengeance!\", and \"Crisis: 22,300 Miles Above Earth!\".\n** The Ted Kord version appears in the episodes \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" and \"Menace of the Madniks!\", voiced by Wil Wheaton.\n** In \"Rise of the Blue Beetle\", the Blue Beetle scarab is briefly worn by Kanjar Ro (voiced by Marc Worden).\n** The Dan Garrett version makes a brief, non-voiced appearance in \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" as Batman narrates about the Blue Beetles to Reyes and \"Menace of the Madniks!\" displayed his Blue Beetle suit next to Kord's.\n* The Jaime Reyes version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"Young Justice\", voiced by actor Eric Lopez. In a running gag, Jaime can often be seen rejecting the Blue Beetle Scarab's (also voiced by Lopez) more violent and bloodthirsty suggestions (\"No, it would \"not\" have been easier to just vaporize him back in the diner!\"), which confuses those around him as it looks like he's talking to himself. Much of season 2's main story arc also revolves around Jaime's main antagonists, the Reach. Dan Garrett, the original Blue Beetle, appears in a non-speaking cameo in the episode \"Failsafe\", in which several scenes depict the members of the Justice Society of America, in 1939. Dan appears among several of the most prominent members of the team, such as Green Lantern, Doctor Fate, and Flash. The episode \"Intervention\" later tells the full story of the scarab: ancient Bialyan mystics deactivated its Reach control centuries ago, and it lay dormant until it was discovered by Dan Garrett, who fused with it to become the first Blue Beetle. His successor and protege, the technological genius Ted Kord, was able to recognize the Scarab as a potentially dangerous piece of alien technology, and thus made use of his own inventions as a hero, but still used the Blue Beetle identity. Kord later lost his life in a battle with Deathstroke and Sportsmaster upon discovering The Light planned to steal and reactivate the Scarab. Jaime came across the Scarab just after Ted Kord's death, and became the third Blue Beetle, while believing the Scarab was Kord's own invention. He was recruited into the Justice League's teenage strike team, where subsequent conflicts with the Reach led him to discover the Scarab's true origin and purpose, but his attempts to remove it were unable to keep his body from being completely controlled by it. Some of the Team made a separate discovery of the Bialyan ritual that could remove the Reach's control over the Scarab, and kept the knowledge quiet while Doctor Fate taught Zatanna the ritual, so the Team could once again deactivate the Scarab to allow Jaime to resume control. The Scarab then cooperates with Jaime without much resistance, preferring their partnership over enslavement.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the animated series \"Justice League Action\", voiced again by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Ted Kord version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"DC Super Hero Girls\", voiced by Max Mittelman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Threshold (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle, last seen being captured by Lady Styx's henchmen, is also dropped into the competition, but without his scarab armed. Caul later meets up with T'morra and Ember at a bar, where they inform Caul of Beetle's presence, because his residual Green Lantern energy might have an effect on Beetle's Reach armor. Captain K'rot with his team, Sleen and Pig-Iron, are trying to claim Beetle's Scarab. The Scarab activates to protect its unconscious host. During their altercation with Beetle, they run into Caul, which causes the Scarab to go berserk. Once Caul gets far away enough from Beetle, Jaime Reyes regains control and flies away. Star Hawkins and Ilda, a robot uploaded with the personality and memories of his deceased wife, arrive to cloak Caul and tell him the location of his Green Lantern power battery."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of DC Animated Universe characters",
        "text": "Blue Beetle could not appear as a member of the Justice League due to rights being tied up until 2007 because of his 1940s radio show and 1980s cartoon proposals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "In \"DC Universe: Rebirth\", Ted Kord is the owner of Kord Industries where he makes and designs technologies. After Jaime Reyes approached Kord for help to get rid of the Scarab, Kord is trying to figure out what the Scarab can do and help as many people in the process. Kord is warned by Doctor Fate that he does not know what he's dealing with as the Scarab is not xenotechnology but magic. In \"Blue Beetle\", Ted Kord is established to have been Blue Beetle some time in the past, having worked alongside other heroes such as Nightshade."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unproduced DC Comics projects",
        "text": "Geoff Johns announced a live action TV series featuring the Jamie Reyes version of Blue Beetle. They made a test trailer with stuntman and actor Garrett Plotkin as Jaime Reyes. Scenes of this trailer were shown as part of the upcoming DC Nation block of programming in 2012 on Cartoon Network during the premiere of \"\". Since then, nothing has been announced about the project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "The character was revised and reprinted briefly by Charlton Comics with issues #18-#20."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Spin-offs from the series \"Countdown to Final Crisis\" would introduce more alternate Blue Beetles in 2007. Earth-19 (the \"Gotham by Gaslight\" universe), set in a Victorian-like era, has its own version of Dan Garrett who in his secret identity is the leading Egyptologist at the Gotham Museum of Natural History and wears a monocle, appearing in \"The Search for Ray Palmer: Gotham by Gaslight\". The limited series \"\" depicted three more: Earth-26 Blue Beetle, a swarm of sentient insects that form a man-shaped body (calling themselves \"The Scarab\"), Ted of Earth-33, an anthropomorphic beetle, the pet of Mr. and Mrs. Kord, and Earth-39 Blue Beetle, a younger version of Dan Garrett, who has bonded with his scarab in the same way as Jaime Reyes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The character returned in June 2009 as a \"co-feature\" of the more popular \"Booster Gold\" comic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime is recruited by Black Beetle (who originally identifies himself as a Blue Beetle from the future) and Garrett to go into the past with Booster Gold to prevent Kord's death. After saving Kord, Jaime and Garrett return, the future is revealed to be a dystopia ruled by Maxwell Lord, who now was never exposed and defeated. Black Beetle is also revealed to be a future enemy of Jaime's, who tries to create this future so he will never have to deal with Jaime and so he \"would not lose her\". In \"Booster Gold\" vol. 2 #10, seeing the damage done by their actions, Ted decides to accept his death and returns to the past, seemingly to the exact moment where he was murdered by Lord, returning the timeline to equilibrium and thus preventing the dystopia. However, in the epilogue for \"Booster Gold\" vol. 2 #1.000.000, a figure with a scarab enters a Kord Industries building that contains a Bug and a picture of Kord's enemy Overthrow among other things. His trademark laugh hints that it is actually Ted, who somehow escaped death but managed to fix the timestream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The supporting cast remained fairly stable throughout this original run and included Joan Mason, a beautiful blond reporter for the \"Daily Blade\" who would ultimately star in her own backup stories, and Mike Mannigan, Dan's stereotypical Irish partner on the force who believed despite all evidence to the contrary that the Blue Beetle was a criminal and was always trying to arrest him with little success. Dr. Franz, a local pharmacist and inventor of the bulletproof suit and 2X formula (as well as many other gadgets, including the portable wireless telephone nearly a half-century before they came into common use), played a large role in the early issues but eventually faded from the cast. The Beetle also had a short-lived spunky kid sidekick in the form of Sparkington J. Northrup (Sparky), who originally wore an abbreviated version of the Beetle's costume but later went into action wearing his regular clothes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "After The New 52 was launched, a new series starring Jaime Reyes was introduced. It launched in November 2011 and ended in March 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Not much later, he is visited by Skeets, Booster Gold's robotic partner, who warned him of his disappearance. Deciding to team up with the small machine to find Booster to pay respect to him for introducing him to the superhero world, he reaches the house of Rose Levin and Daniel Carter, Booster's 21st century ancestors. Soon after he arrives, the Black Lantern Ted Kord crashes his ship into Daniel's house and Jaime proceeds to battle Kord. Although outmatched and insulted by the Black Lantern, Jaime keeps fighting until Booster enters the scene."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles Nicholas",
        "text": "Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski (December 6, 1921 \u2013 June 21, 1985) was an American comic book writer-artist best known as the credited creator of the Fox Comics character Blue Beetle, which in various incarnations has continued through three comics companies and into the 21st century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The villain Shockwave revealed during his battle with Jaime that Kord Industries is now owned by the 100. He again came into conflict with Kid Devil, who still harbored a grudge against him because of both the future Titans incident and his status with Ravager. Jaime tries to mend fences with Kid Devil, but their squabbling allows Shockwave to escape. During their second battle with him, Kid Devil managed to tap into his demonic powers and partially melts Shockwave's armor, enabling the two boys to defeat him. This seems to squelch the ill feelings between them. Kid Devil asks Jaime if he's heard from Ravager and Jaime replies that he's faced down an entire alien race, but Ravager scares him. Kid Devil finally realizes that Jaime is being sincere and they shake hands and tell each other their real names. Later at Titans Tower Robin offers Jaime full-membership, which Jaime finally feels ready to accept."
      },
      {
        "title": "Question (character)",
        "text": "However, Charlton discontinued its \"action hero\" line in December 1967 after only four issues of \"Blue Beetle\" had been published. A three-part Question story, which Ditko had already penciled, appeared in the one-shot comic book \"Mysterious Suspense\" (October 1968). One fifth and final issue of \"Blue Beetle\", featuring the Question, was published in November of the same year. In 1985, after DC Comics had acquired the right to Charlton's characters, the Question reappeared in \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\". In February 1987, DC launched a new \"The Question\" comic book, scripted by Dennis O'Neil and penciled by Denys Cowan. This series, which ran for 36 regular issues and two annuals, was replaced in September 1990 by \"The Question Quarterly\", which ran for five issues. The Question has since then remained a recurring character of the DC Universe. A six-issue \"The Question\" limited series was published by DC in 2005. A four-issue limited series titled \"The Question: The Deaths of Vic Sage\" was published under the DC Black Label imprint beginning in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "On the PBS children's educational series \"The Electric Company\", the Blue Beetle was a bumbling superhero (played by Jim Boyd) who would often make matters worse instead of better. He wore a mask, a hood with antennae, wings, tennis shoes, boxer shorts, and a T-shirt bearing the name \"Blue Beetle\". Outside of the name, the character is unrelated to any of the comic book characters."
      },
      {
        "title": "1967 in comics",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (vol. 5)\n: \"Release\": June by Charlton Comics. \"Writer/Artist\": Steve Ditko."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "In the pages of \"\", Dan Garrett was among the deceased superheroes that Batman revived using the Black Lantern ring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "A new \"Blue Beetle\" title launched in fall 2011 after the conclusion of the \"Flashpoint\" event. It was written by Tony Bedard and drawn by Ig Guara and cancelled in February 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "During the \"\" storyline, Blue Beetle was among the prisoners in New Apokolips after The Batman Who Laughs and his Dark Knights took over Prime-Earth. They were freed when Wonder Woman, Batman, and Harley Quinn freed Superman from the control of Darkfather. During the heroes fight with Robin King, Blue Beetle accompanied Red Tornado and Blue Beetle into battle against Robin King. Robin King summoned a giant beetle which killed Blue Beetle. Batman later revived him with a Black Lantern ring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle was selling well in comics in 1940, so Fox licensed the character to CBS Radio for a syndicated \"Blue Beetle\" radio serial, hoping to match the success of \"The Adventures of Superman\", which began in February 1940. \"The Blue Beetle\" launched on May 15, 1940, starring motion picture and radio actor Frank Lovejoy in the title role. As in the comics, Blue Beetle was a young police officer who saw the need for extraordinary crime fighting, and secretly dons a superhero costume to frighten the criminals who oppose him. The show was not a success. According to Christopher Irving, \"Lovejoy brought a maniacal, almost sadistic, cackle to the character. His Blue Beetle seemed as if he took some sick pride in hurting criminals\". Lovejoy left the show after four episodes, and was replaced with a different, uncredited actor. The last episode aired on September 13, 1940."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) was seen in Alex Ross and Mark Waid's limited series \"Kingdom Come\". He is shown with the rest of the Charlton \"Action Heroes\" not as a member of Magog's Justice Battalion, but as part of Batman's group and later of the MLF (Mankind Liberation Front). He would be shown later in the title in a suit of armor powered by the then-mystic scarab, working with Batman's team. In the novelization of the series, Batman thinks of Blue Beetle, along with Green Arrow and Black Canary, as his closest (at the time) friends. Blue Beetle is killed with most of the other heroes by a nuclear explosion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paris Cullins",
        "text": "\"Blue Devil\" ran 31 issues, through cover\u2013date December 1986, with Cullins penciling the first six and \"Blue Devil Annual\" #1 (1985), and covers through the end of the run. Cullins additionally drew dozens of DC covers and occasional stories through the decade, and numerous character pages for \"Who's Who: The Definitive Directory of the DC Universe\". Cullins and writer Len Wein produced a Ted Kord \"Blue Beetle\" series for DC, which had acquired the character from the defunct Charlton Comics. Cullins penciled issues #1\u20139, 11\u201314, and 17\u201318 (collectively, June 1986\u2013Nov. 1987). He was one of the artists on \"Batman\" #400 (Oct. 1986)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In \"\", other representatives of the Reach attack Odym, homeworld of the Blue Lantern Corps, where it is revealed that their armours have taken control of them; Jaime speculates, during a confrontation with Kyle Rayner, that his armour is damaged, explaining why he is in control of himself where other Reach soldiers are enslaved to their armour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Charlton Comics reprinted some stories in its anthology titles and in a four-issue \"Blue Beetle\" reprint series numbered 18\u201321, although there is no evidence that they obtained the rights to the character - just that they purchased the printing plates to earlier stories."
      },
      {
        "title": "1986 in comics",
        "text": "Blue Beetle\n: \"Release\": June. \"Writer\": Len Wein. Artists: Paris Cullins and Bruce Patterson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)\n--Publication history.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----\"Infinite Crisis\".\n----Ongoing series.\n----The Reach.\n----Teen Titans.\n----Series finale.\n----Further adventures.\n----\"Justice League: Generation Lost\".\n----The New 52.\n----DC Rebirth.\n--Powers and abilities.\n--Collected editions.\n--In other media.\n----Film.\n------DC Extended Universe.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "DC Comics v Mark Towle",
        "text": "The United States Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit concluded that DC comics owns the copyright to the 'Batmobile' character as it appeared in 1966 television series and the 1989 motion pictures. Further, that Mark had infringed this copyright by manufacturing replicas of the character. Thus by concluding so, the ninth circuit affirmed the decision of the federal district court."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holyoke Publishing",
        "text": "Comic books\n*\"Blue Beetle\" \u2014 19 issues, #12-30 (June 1942 \u2013 Feb. 1944)\n*\"Captain Aero Comics\" \u2014 9 issues, vol. 1, #8 (2) - vol. 2, #4 (10) (Feb. 1942 \u2013 Jan. 1943)\n*\"Cat-Man Comics\" \u2014 12 issues, vol. 1, #11 (6) - vol. 3, #7 (17) (Jan. 1942 - Jan. 1943)\n*\"Sparkling Stars\" \u2014 32 issues, #1-33 (no #32 published) (June 1944 - March 1948)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Charlton Comics",
        "text": "The company's most noteworthy period was during the \"silver age\" of comic books, which had begun with DC Comics' successful revival of superheroes in 1956. In March 1960, Charlton's science fiction anthology title \"Space Adventures\" introduced Captain Atom, by Gill and the future co-creator of Marvel Comics' Spider-Man, Steve Ditko. (After the mid-1980s demise of Charlton, Captain Atom would go on to become a stalwart of the DC stable, as would Blue Beetle, the old Fox Comics superhero revived by Gill and artists Bill Fraccio and Tony Tallarico as a campy, comedic character in \"Blue Beetle\" #1 [June 1964].)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Xolo Maridue\u00f1a will portray the character in his own live action film set in the DC Extended Universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The Scarab came to Earth in El Paso, Texas, where Jaime picked it up. Not long after, Booster Gold appeared at Jaime's house to retrieve it, but it had fused itself to Jaime's spine while he was sleeping. Booster recruited Jaime for Batman's assault on the Brother Eye satellite, since the Scarab was the only thing that could see the satellite. Using the Scarab's powers, Jaime was able to reveal the satellite to Batman's group, enabled them to defeat it. Once Brother Eye was sent plummeting Earthward, Jaime disappeared from the ship, teleported away by the scarab, which sought to escape the Green Lanterns on board."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "After a couple of fill-in issues, Lilah Sturges became the main writer in issue #29 but the series was canceled with last issue #36 in February 2009. Editor Dan DiDio put the cancellation down to poor sales and said that \"Blue Beetle\" was \"a book that we started with very high expectations, but it lost its audience along the way\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "During World War II, Garret became a government agent who was often sent overseas on secret missions, but after peace was declared he returned to his former role of neighborhood cop. The Blue Beetle's powers slowly increased over time, eventually giving him the ability to fly and X-ray vision among other bizarre powers that changed from issue to issue at the whim of the writers. However, when superheroes fell out of vogue in the late 1940s, Fox started to downplay his superhero powers and they were removed. His adventures turned darker, full of sadistic violence and scantily-clad women until he was eventually relegated to hosting true crime stories before the character went on hiatus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mask (DC Comics)",
        "text": "In \"Blue Beetle\" #4, Ted Kord fought a villain called the Mask who also made just one appearance and had no real name given to him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Threshold (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle is tracked by another Hunted contestant, a New God named Lonar, who has plans for Beetle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Rookie patrolman Dan Garret originally fought crime as the Blue Beetle without the benefit of superhuman abilities. Garret later donned a bulletproof blue costume (described by Garret as being made of a cellulose material which was \"as thin and light as silk but stronger than steel\" and temporarily gained superhuman strength and stamina by ingesting the mysterious \"Vitamin 2X\". Like the Green Hornet, the Blue Beetle would use his signature scarab symbol to bedevil criminals, leaving it to be easily found, hanging it down into a room on a string and even projecting its enlarged image onto a wall with a flashlight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The \"Blue Beetle\" series has been collected into a number of trade paperbacks:\n* Jaren Brandt Bartlett portrayed Jaime Reyes in the tenth season of \"Smallville\". In the episode \"Booster\", he is originally portrayed as a teenager living in Metropolis who is shy and somewhat-clumsy, and was bullied because of it, until the Blue Beetle scarab attached itself to him after he was nearly in a traffic accident involving a vehicle that was transporting it to a Kord Industries facility. After seeking out a new hero, Booster Gold in the hopes that he could help remove the scarab from his spine, the scarab transforms Jaime into the Blue Beetle, and Jaime is unable to stop the armor from making him attack Booster. After nearly strangling Booster, Jaime is able to gain control over the scarab when Booster convinces him to stand up and assert himself over the scarab, shutting it down and reverting to his normal self. Ted Kord later offers to remove the scarab, but Jaime tells him he wishes to keep it and learn how to become a hero, and Booster offers to help Jaime control his powers and convinces Lois Lane to interview Jaime. This version's battle suit is rather bulky and lacks the traditional mouth seen in the comics (as the effect is difficult to pull off in live action). The name Blue Beetle was not used in the episode. Even though this incarnation is from Metropolis, he is seen in the episode wearing a shirt reading \"El Paso\", a nod to his comic book roots.\n* Jaime Reyes is a featured character in the animated series \"\", voiced by Will Friedle. This version is a fan of Batman and best friends with Paco Testas. In the pilot episode \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\", hee has a central role while fighting against Kanjar Ro. Jaime makes another appearance in the episode \"Invasion of the Secret Santas!\", assisting Batman in fighting the Sportsmaster and his henchmen and inviting Batman to his family's Christmas Eve dinner. Jaime appeared again fighting Planet Master alongside Aquaman in \"Aquaman's Outrageous Adventure!\". Blue Beetle also appears in the episodes \"Deep Cover for Batman!\" and \"Game Over for Owlman!\". In \"Night of the Huntress!\", Blue Beetle, Batman, and the Huntress have to stop the gangsters Baby-Face and Mrs. Manface while developing a crush on Huntress. Reyes appeared again in \"The Fate of Equinox!\" where he, along with Doctor Fate, Aquaman, Black Canary, Black Lightning, Fire, the original Flash, Green Arrow, Green Lantern, Plastic Man, and Red Tornado temporarily gave their powers to Batman, turning the Dark Knight into Bat Monolith to battle the omnipotent Equinox. In \"Revenge of the Reach!\", Jaime learns the Blue Beetle Scarab is a part of the Reach. His Blue Beetle suit takes control of him to shut down Oa's defenses, allowing the Reach to use an army of other Scarab-controlled beings to invade. Fortunately, Jaime regains control of his Blue Beetle suit by reminding the latter what they did was of their will, not the Reach's. Channeling the Green Lanterns' energy via his suit, Blue Beetle is able to free the other Scarab-controlled beings from the Reach's control. Despite the Guardians of the Universe asking Jaime for his Blue Beetle scarab's destruction along with the others, Guy Gardner is convinced that Jaime proved he's the master.\n* An alternate universe version named Scarlet Scarab is shown as a member of the Injustice Syndicate led by Owlman, also voiced by Freidle.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in \"Young Justice: Invasion\", voiced by Eric Lopez. This version appears as a member of the Young Justice team. Jaime initially believes the Scarab to be of technology that had been created by Ted Kord, prior to the former Blue Beetle's death at the hands of The Light's enforcers. After an explosion at Kord Industries, the Scarab bonded with Jaime who was passing by at the time. The explosion would later be revealed to have been the end result of Ted's fight with The Light's enforcers that cost the previous Blue Beetle's life. Unlike other versions, the Scarab speaks to Jaime only in English and finds lethal courses of action preferable to capture and restraint, which is why Jaime is constantly at odds with it, and unlike his comic book counterpart, he does not experience any discomfort when transforming into Blue Beetle. While Impulse is liberating Jaime from the Reach's first attempts to control him, he tells Jaime the reason of why the latter traveled to the past in the first place: Jaime's Scarab had become on mode and turned him into Earth's dictator. Jaime refuses to believe any of this, but is still dazed from the experiments. He later searches for a way to remove the Scarab to prevent what Impulse had told him from happening, but both his Scarab and body are eventually put under full Reach control by the Reach's armor-welding Green Martian agent Green Beetle. This virtually trapped Jaime inside of his mind, and allowed the Reach to make Jaime turn on the rest of the Team against his own will. The Team, mainly Zatanna, later frees Blue Beetle and his Scarab from the Reach's control. He then goes on to help Earth's heroes to defeat the Reach, playing an important role in helping them defeat the Reach's armor-wielding agent Black Beetle, and save the world from the Reach's attempt to destroy it. In the , he becomes a member of Beast Boy's Outsiders and is in a relationship with Traci Thurston.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in \"DC Super Hero Girls\". He is seen as one of the background students of Super Hero High.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in \"Justice League Action\", voiced again by Jake T. Austin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holyoke Publishing",
        "text": "Holyoke Publishing originated with Sherman Bowles, who had taken over his family's Springfield, Massachusetts newspaper dynasty, consisting of \"The Republican\" and other papers. He entered comic-book publishing through his printing division, which took over two existing titles from Frank Z. Temerson's Helnit Publishing Company: the superhero series \"Cat-Man Comics\" and the war comics series \"Captain Aero Comics\". This occurred in late 1941, with comics cover-dated January 1942 and February 1942. Temerson's staff, including artist Charles Quinlan, continued to produce both series. Quinlan had previously partnered with publisher Worth Carnahan in the companies Bilbara Publishing and Hit Publishing, leading them to often be erroneously grouped with Holyoke. Holyoke's next acquisition was the superhero series \"Blue Beetle\", taking it over from Victor A. Fox's bankrupt Fox Publications beginning with issue #12 (June 1942)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Bolt",
        "text": "In 1949, Novelty Press sold its assets, including Blue Bolt, to series cover artist L. B. Cole due to the growing criticism over violence in comic books. Using his new assets, Cole began his own company, Star Publications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Roy Thomas wrote the Blue Beetle in one of his earliest professional credits and later created a couple of Blue Beetle pastiches: the Scarlet Scarab for Marvel Comics and the Silver Scarab for DC Comics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In \"DC Universe: Rebirth\", Ted Kord and Jaime Reyes believe the scarab is an alien device that bonded to Jaime's spine. Kord is fascinated by this scarab and wants to investigate the potential of it while Jaime fears it. When Jaime leaves Kord's lab to get to school, Dr. Fate appears in the lab to warn Kord that the scarab is not an alien device, but it is instead magic. This further sparks Kord's interest in the potential of the scarab."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who is the most recent comic company that own the rights to the Blue Beetle?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The most recent of the companies to own rights to the Blue Beetle is DC Comics who bought the rights to the character in 1983, using the name for three distinct characters (Jaime Reyes, Dan Garrett and Ted Kord) over the years."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who owned Blue Beetle before DC Comics?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The original Blue Beetle was created by Fox Comics and later owned by Charlton Comics.",
      "Charlton Comics owned Blue Beetle before DC, and before Charlton he was created and owned by by Fox Comics."
    ],
    "topic": "Blue Beetle",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Blue Beetle:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blue Beetle"
        ],
        "ctx": "The original Blue Beetle was created by Fox Comics and later owned by Charlton Comics. The first Beetle was Dan Garret (later spelled Dan Garrett), who initially gained super powers from a special vitamin, which was later changed to gaining powers from a \"sacred scarab\". The original Blue Beetle was featured not only in his own comic but also a weekly radio serial."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blue Beetle:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blue Beetle"
        ],
        "ctx": "The second Blue Beetle, created by Charlton and later taken over by DC Comics, was the successor to Dan Garrett known as Ted Kord. Kord \"jumped\" to the DC Comics universe during the \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\" alongside a number of other Charlton Comics characters. The second Blue Beetle later starred in his own 24-issue comic. Kord never had any super powers but used science to create various devices to help him fight crime. He became a member of the Justice League of America and was later killed during DC Comics' \"Infinite Crisis\" cross over."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blue Beetle:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blue Beetle"
        ],
        "ctx": "The original Blue Beetle was created by Fox Comics and later owned by Charlton Comics. The first Beetle was Dan Garret (later spelled Dan Garrett), who initially gained super powers from a special vitamin, which was later changed to gaining powers from a \"sacred scarab\". The original Blue Beetle was featured not only in his own comic but also a weekly radio serial."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The original Blue Beetle was created by Fox Comics and later owned by Charlton Comics. The first Beetle was Dan Garret (later spelled Dan Garrett), who initially gained super powers from a special vitamin, which was later changed to gaining powers from a \"sacred scarab\". The original Blue Beetle was featured not only in his own comic but also a weekly radio serial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "The original Blue Beetle comic first appeared in Winter 1940 by Fox Feature Syndicate and Holyoke Publishing. It starred the original Blue Beetle named Dan Garret who first appeared in \"Mystery Men Comics\" anthology comic book series. He was depicted as a police officer who secretly dons a superhero costume to thwart crime. The series was the second featured title of a superhero in American comic book magazines after Superman having his own series. The volume series lasted until August 1950 with issue #60 when the company of Fox Feature Syndicate collapsed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The character first appeared by Fox Comics in August 1939 issue of \"Mystery Men Comics\" with art by Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski (as Charles Nicholas), though the Grand Comics Database tentatively credits Will Eisner as the scripter. Blue Beetle has starred in a comic book series, comic strip and radio serial, but like most Golden Age of Comic Books superheroes, fell into obscurity in the 1950s. The comic book series saw a number of anomalies in publication: 19 issues, #12 through #30, were published through Holyoke Publishing; no issue #43 was published; publication frequency varied throughout the run; and there were gaps where issues were not published, with large ones occurring in early 1947 and between mid-1948 and early 1950."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "The character ran as a backup feature in \"Captain Atom\" #83\u201386 (November 1966 \u2013 June 1967) before getting his own \"Blue Beetle\" title, which ran for 5 issues between June 1967 and November 1968. A sixth issue was produced, but published in the \"Charlton Portfolio\" by CPL Gang. The Question ran as a backup series, with the fifth issue featuring a quasi-team-up in which the Blue Beetle story continues in part in the \"Question\" tale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles Nicholas",
        "text": "The Blue Beetle first appeared in Fox Comics' superhero anthology series \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (Aug. 1939), with art by Wojtkoski (as Charles Nicholas), though the Grand Comics Database tentatively credits Will Eisner as the scripter. His family has said Wojtkowski \"decided in the late 1930s to sell the rights to the character to raise money\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The character briefly returned in DC Comics' first run of \"Blue Beetle\", resurrected by his mystical scarab to battle against his successor. He can also be seen in various flashback stories. His 1940s incarnation is briefly glimpsed in DC's 1993 limited series \"The Golden Age\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime Reyes is the third character to assume the mantle of Blue Beetle, but he is substantially different from his predecessors. Introduced in 1939, the original Blue Beetle, Dan Garret, was a Fox Comics police officer who fought crime with superpowers gained by ingesting \"Vitamin 2X\". A revamped version of this character, archaeologist Dan Garrett, introduced in 1964 by Charlton Comics drew mystical abilities from an ancient Egyptian scarab. Published by Charlton Comics and later DC, 1966 creation Ted Kord was Garret's student who continued his legacy of costumed crime-fighting, although he had no superpowers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The supporting cast remained fairly stable throughout this original run and included Joan Mason, a beautiful blond reporter for the \"Daily Blade\" who would ultimately star in her own backup stories, and Mike Mannigan, Dan's stereotypical Irish partner on the force who believed despite all evidence to the contrary that the Blue Beetle was a criminal and was always trying to arrest him with little success. Dr. Franz, a local pharmacist and inventor of the bulletproof suit and 2X formula (as well as many other gadgets, including the portable wireless telephone nearly a half-century before they came into common use), played a large role in the early issues but eventually faded from the cast. The Beetle also had a short-lived spunky kid sidekick in the form of Sparkington J. Northrup (Sparky), who originally wore an abbreviated version of the Beetle's costume but later went into action wearing his regular clothes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The original Golden Age Blue Beetle is Dan Garret, son of a police officer killed by a criminal. This Fox Feature Syndicate version of the character debuted in \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (August 1939), and began appearing in his own 60-issue series shortly thereafter. Fox Feature Syndicate sponsored a \"Blue Beetle Day\" at the 1939 New York World's Fair on August 7, 1940, beginning at 10:30\u00a0a.m. and including 300 children in relay-race finals at the Field of Special Events, following preliminaries in New York City parks. The race was broadcast over radio station WMCA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Charlton Comics allegedly obtained the rights to the Blue Beetle (although there is no proof that a formal purchase ever took place) and reprinted some stories in its anthology titles and in a four-issue \"Blue Beetle\" reprint series numbered 18\u201321."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "In 1964, Charlton modernized the \"Blue Beetle\" title. Instead of Dan Garret, he was renamed Dan Garrett. Also instead of a policeman he was an archeologist who discovered the ancient mystical scarab which gave him multiple superpowers. The series lasted five issues through March\u2013April 1965. The Dan Garrett version would briefly be revised again in July 1965 throughout February\u2013March 1966, lasting another five issues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The original Blue Beetle, Dan Garret, first appeared in Fox Comics' \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (cover-dated August 1939), with art by Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski (as Charles Nicholas), though the Grand Comics Database tentatively credits Will Eisner as the scripter. A rookie police officer, he wore a special bulletproof costume and took \"Vitamin 2X\" which endowed him with super-energy, and he was assisted by a neighborhood pharmacist in his fight against crime. Blue Beetle starred in a comic book series, comic strip and radio serial, but like most Golden Age superheroes, he fell into obscurity in the 1950s. The comic book series saw a number of anomalies in publication: 19 issues, #12 through #30, were published through Holyoke Publishing; no issue #43 was published; publication frequency varied throughout the run; and there were gaps where issues were not published, with large ones occurring in early 1947 and between mid-1948 and early 1950."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime Reyes is a fictional superhero character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Created by Keith Giffen, John Rogers, and Cully Hamner, the character made his first appearance in \"Infinite Crisis\" #3 (February 2006)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In issue #0 of the \"Project Superpowers\" miniseries, the Fox Feature Syndicate version of the Blue Beetle appeared in flashbacks (as by now the character/spelling \"Dan Garret\" was in the public domain). To avoid trademark conflicts with DC Comics, he is referred to in this series by the nickname \"Big Blue\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The character briefly returned in DC Comics' first run of \"Blue Beetle\", resurrected by his mystical scarab to battle against his successor. He can also be seen in various flashback stories. His 1940s incarnation is briefly glimpsed in DC's 1993 limited series \"The Golden Age\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Dan Garret was a son of a police officer killed by a criminal. This Fox Feature Syndicate version of the character debuted in \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (August 1939) and continued through issue #31. He began appearing in his own 60-issue series shortly thereafter. Fox Feature Syndicate sponsored a \"Blue Beetle Day\" at the 1939 New York World's Fair on August 7, 1940, beginning at 10:30\u00a0a.m. and including 300 children in relay-race finals at the Field of Special Events, following preliminaries in New York City parks. The race was broadcast over radio station WMCA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In 1964, during the Silver Age of comics, Charlton revised the character for a new Blue Beetle series. Charlton's new Blue Beetle retained the original's name (adding a second \"t\"), but none of his powers or origin, making him a different character. This Beetle was archaeologist Dan Garrett, who obtained a number of superhuman powers (including super strength and vision, flight, and the ability to generate energy blasts) from a mystical scarab he found during a dig in Egypt, where it had been used to imprison an evil mummified Pharaoh. He would transform into the Blue Beetle by saying the words \"Kaji Dha!\" This version, by writer Joe Gill and artist Tony Tallarico, was played at least initially for camp, with stories like \"The Giant Mummy Who was Not Dead\". The Charlton Dan Garrett version of the Blue Beetle ran only until 1966 before his replacement debuted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle\n--Publication history.\n--Blue Beetles.\n----Dan Garret / Dan Garrett.\n----Ted Kord.\n----Jaime Reyes.\n--The Scarab - Khaji Da.\n--Other versions.\n----Kingdom Come.\n----52 Multiverse.\n----DC Animated Universe comics.\n--In other media.\n----Radio.\n----Audio drama.\n----Television.\n------Unreleased screen test.\n----Video games.\n----\"The Electric Company\".\n--Homages.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The Charlton version of Dan Garrett was spotlighted in the second issue of DC's 1980s \"Secret Origins\" series, in which his origin was retold along with that of Ted Kord. Subsequent appearances by Dan Garrett (in flashback stories) include guest spots or cameos in \"Infinity, Inc.\", \"Captain Atom\", \"JLA: Year One\", and \"Legends of the DC Universe\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "On the PBS children's educational series \"The Electric Company\", the Blue Beetle was a bumbling superhero (played by Jim Boyd) who would often make matters worse instead of better. He wore a mask, a hood with antennae, wings, tennis shoes, boxer shorts, and a T-shirt bearing the name \"Blue Beetle\". Outside of the name, the character is unrelated to any of the comic book characters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The Charlton version of Dan Garrett was spotlighted in the second issue of DC's 1980s \"Secret Origins\" series, in which his origin was retold along with that of Ted Kord. Subsequent appearances by Dan Garrett (in flashback stories) include guest spots or cameos in \"Infinity, Inc.\", \"Captain Atom\", \"JLA: Year One\", and \"Legends of the DC Universe\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The second Blue Beetle, created by Charlton and later taken over by DC Comics, was the successor to Dan Garrett known as Ted Kord. Kord \"jumped\" to the DC Comics universe during the \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\" alongside a number of other Charlton Comics characters. The second Blue Beetle later starred in his own 24-issue comic. Kord never had any super powers but used science to create various devices to help him fight crime. He became a member of the Justice League of America and was later killed during DC Comics' \"Infinite Crisis\" cross over."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "In issue #0 of the \"Project Superpowers\" miniseries, the Fox Feature Syndicate version of the Blue Beetle appeared in flashbacks (as by now the character/spelling \"Dan Garret\" was in the public domain). To avoid trademark conflicts with DC Comics, he is referred to in this series by the nickname \"Big Blue\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle is a long running comic book series that was first published by Fox Feature Syndicate before being a Charlton Comics title and currently a DC Comics title. The series starred certain characters with the same name."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "DC Comics acquired Charlton in the mid-1980s. They then revised Ted Kord with collaboration from Len Wein and Paris Cullins that lasted until issue #24 in May 1988."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "In 1964, during the Silver Age of comics, Charlton revised the character for a new Blue Beetle series. Charlton's new Blue Beetle retained the original's name (adding a second \"t\"), but no powers or back story, making him a different character. This Beetle was archaeologist Dan Garrett, who obtained a number of superhuman powers (including super strength and vision, flight, and the ability to generate energy blasts) from a mystical scarab he found during a dig in Egypt, where it had been used to imprison an evil mummified Pharaoh. He would transform into the Blue Beetle by saying the words \"Kaji Dha!\" This version, by writer Joe Gill and artist Tony Tallarico, was played at least initially for camp, with stories like \"The Giant Mummy Who Was Not Dead\". The Charlton Dan Garrett version of the Blue Beetle ran only until 1966 before his replacement debuted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "A popular character in his era, the Blue Beetle had his own short-lived comic strip, drawn by a pseudonymous Jack Kirby and others, and a radio serial that ran for 48 thirteen-minute episodes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The third Blue Beetle, created by DC Comics, is Jaime Reyes, a teenager who discovered that the original Blue Beetle scarab morphed into a battle suit allowing him to fight crime and travel in space. Over the years Reyes became a member of the Teen Titans and starred in two Blue Beetle comic series. In DC Comics' 2011 \"New 52\" reboot, Jaime Reyes was the primary Blue Beetle character, only occasionally referring to past versions. With the subsequent continuity revision \"DC Rebirth\", the previous versions were restored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle was selling well in comics in 1940, so Fox licensed the character to CBS Radio for a syndicated \"Blue Beetle\" radio serial, hoping to match the success of \"The Adventures of Superman\", which began in February 1940. \"The Blue Beetle\" launched on May 15, 1940, starring motion picture and radio actor Frank Lovejoy in the title role. As in the comics, Blue Beetle was a young police officer who saw the need for extraordinary crime fighting, and secretly dons a superhero costume to frighten the criminals who oppose him. The show was not a success. According to Christopher Irving, \"Lovejoy brought a maniacal, almost sadistic, cackle to the character. His Blue Beetle seemed as if he took some sick pride in hurting criminals\". Lovejoy left the show after four episodes, and was replaced with a different, uncredited actor. The last episode aired on September 13, 1940."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle is the name of three fictional superheroes who appear in a number of American comic books published by a variety of companies since 1939. The most recent of the companies to own rights to the Blue Beetle is DC Comics who bought the rights to the character in 1983, using the name for three distinct characters over the years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In the mid-1950s, Fox Comics went out of business and sold the printing plates to some stories featuring the Blue Beetle to Charlton Comics. That company published a few sporadic adventures of the Golden Age character before revamping the hero in 1964. Charlton tried three times to use the character to carry a self-titled series. Two of the attempts retained the numbering of a previous title. These also were eventually replaced with new titles that carried on the numbering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "In the mid-1950s, Fox Comics went out of business, and despite allegations that they sold Blue Beetle's rights to Charlton Comics, there is no proof that a formal sale took place. Charlton nevertheless published a few sporadic adventures of the Golden Age character before revamping the hero in 1964. Charlton tried three times to use the character to carry a self-titled series. Two of the attempts retained the numbering of a previous title, and were eventually replaced with new titles that carried on the numbering. The new series was short-lived."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Dan Garret or Dan Garrett is a fictional superhero, appearing in American comic books published by multiple companies, including Fox Comics, Charlton Comics, and DC Comics. Garret was created by Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski, and made his first appearance in Fox's \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 during the Golden Age of Comic Books. Garrett is the first character to become the superhero Blue Beetle, predating Ted Kord and Jaime Reyes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The \"Kingdom Come\" story, in which the Blue Beetle took part, has been adapted as an audio drama by John Whitman, based on the story by Mark Waid and Alex Ross and the novelization by Elliot S. Maggin (Time Warner Audio Books, 1998).\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears on the cover of a comic book in the \"Watchmen\" film tie-in \"Under the Hood\".\n* In \"\", an evil version of Blue Beetle appeared on a computer page of the lesser members of the Crime Syndicate.\n* The Ted Kord Blue Beetle is portrayed by Luke Barats in the 2011 short film \"The Death and Return of Superman\".\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in \"Justice League vs. Teen Titans\", where he is a member of the Teen Titans. He is a close friend of Beast Boy and helps in fending off Trigon's demonic emissaries from Hell. He is voiced by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in the sequel \"\" with Austin reprising his role again.\n* Ted Kord as Blue Beetle makes a brief appearance in \"Teen Titans Go! To the Movies\".\n* In \"\", he was one among the Titans who were killed by the Paradooms.\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears in the 2012 film \"Agent Beetle\". He is never referred to as Blue Beetle in the film, possibly to avoid copyright issues.\n* The Ted Kord version appears in a DC Showcase short that was included in \"\".\n* A film centered around Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle is in development, with Gareth Dunnet-Alcocer serving as screenwriter and Angel Manuel Soto will direct the film. The film will be an installment in the DC Extended Universe franchise. Xolo Maridue\u00f1a was cast as Jamie Reyes. Other actors Bruna Marquezine and Belissa Escobedo were respectively cast as the protagonist's love interest Penny and younger sister Milagros; Harvey Guill\u00e9n also joined the cast in an undisclosed role.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the episode \"Booster\" in the final season of \"Smallville\", where the scarab bonds with Jaime who is saved by Booster Gold. Ted Kord also makes an appearance as well, searching for the lost, and apparently extremely dangerous Blue Beetle scarab. Dan Garrett is also mentioned, with Clark Kent stating he was a Kord Industries scientist who was killed after the Scarab bonded with him.\n* Kord Industries is referenced in the second and fourth season of The CW show \"Arrow\". The producers planned for Ted Kord to join the show in the third season, but when DC told them that they had \"other plans for him\", he was replaced by Ray Palmer.\n* Blue Beetle was referenced in the 7th episode of \"Legends of Tomorrow\" when Kendra asks Ray about his favorite color, blue, and his favorite Beatle, he does not have one.\n* Several incarnations of the Blue Beetle appear on \"\":\n** The Jaime Reyes incarnation is a featured character, with Jaime Reyes voiced by Will Friedle and the Blue Beetle Scarab voiced by Ioan Gruffudd. He appears in the episodes \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Invasion of the Secret Santas!\", \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Game Over for Owlman!\", \"Night of the Huntress!\", \"The Fate of Equinox!\", \"Revenge of the Reach!\", \"Aquaman's Outrageous Adventure!\", \"The Power of Shazam!\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part One\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part Two\", \"Cry Freedom Fighters!\", \"Darkseid Descending!\", \"Shadow of the Bat!\", \"Time Out for Vengeance!\", and \"Crisis: 22,300 Miles Above Earth!\".\n** The Ted Kord version appears in the episodes \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" and \"Menace of the Madniks!\", voiced by Wil Wheaton.\n** In \"Rise of the Blue Beetle\", the Blue Beetle scarab is briefly worn by Kanjar Ro (voiced by Marc Worden).\n** The Dan Garrett version makes a brief, non-voiced appearance in \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" as Batman narrates about the Blue Beetles to Reyes and \"Menace of the Madniks!\" displayed his Blue Beetle suit next to Kord's.\n* The Jaime Reyes version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"Young Justice\", voiced by actor Eric Lopez. In a running gag, Jaime can often be seen rejecting the Blue Beetle Scarab's (also voiced by Lopez) more violent and bloodthirsty suggestions (\"No, it would \"not\" have been easier to just vaporize him back in the diner!\"), which confuses those around him as it looks like he's talking to himself. Much of season 2's main story arc also revolves around Jaime's main antagonists, the Reach. Dan Garrett, the original Blue Beetle, appears in a non-speaking cameo in the episode \"Failsafe\", in which several scenes depict the members of the Justice Society of America, in 1939. Dan appears among several of the most prominent members of the team, such as Green Lantern, Doctor Fate, and Flash. The episode \"Intervention\" later tells the full story of the scarab: ancient Bialyan mystics deactivated its Reach control centuries ago, and it lay dormant until it was discovered by Dan Garrett, who fused with it to become the first Blue Beetle. His successor and protege, the technological genius Ted Kord, was able to recognize the Scarab as a potentially dangerous piece of alien technology, and thus made use of his own inventions as a hero, but still used the Blue Beetle identity. Kord later lost his life in a battle with Deathstroke and Sportsmaster upon discovering The Light planned to steal and reactivate the Scarab. Jaime came across the Scarab just after Ted Kord's death, and became the third Blue Beetle, while believing the Scarab was Kord's own invention. He was recruited into the Justice League's teenage strike team, where subsequent conflicts with the Reach led him to discover the Scarab's true origin and purpose, but his attempts to remove it were unable to keep his body from being completely controlled by it. Some of the Team made a separate discovery of the Bialyan ritual that could remove the Reach's control over the Scarab, and kept the knowledge quiet while Doctor Fate taught Zatanna the ritual, so the Team could once again deactivate the Scarab to allow Jaime to resume control. The Scarab then cooperates with Jaime without much resistance, preferring their partnership over enslavement.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the animated series \"Justice League Action\", voiced again by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Ted Kord version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"DC Super Hero Girls\", voiced by Max Mittelman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The new series was short-lived, and in the pages of \"Captain Atom\" #83 (cover-dated November 1966) through #86, Charlton introduced Ted Kord, a student of Dan Garrett's (note the changed spelling) who took on the role when Garrett died. Kord was an inventor hero, using a variety of gadgets. This Beetle received his own series in 1967, but the entire Charlton \"Action Heroes\" line of comic books ceased publication in 1968. With the rest of the Charlton line-up, he was sold to DC Comics in 1983 and appeared with several incarnations of the Justice League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (comic book)\n--Fox Feature Syndicate and Holyoke Publishing.\n--Charlton Comics.\n--DC Comics.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "Nearly all of Ted Kord's Charlton Comics appearances as the Blue Beetle have been collected as part of the DC Archive Editions series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joe Gill",
        "text": "The character would eventually become a stalwart of the DC stable, as would Blue Beetle, an old Fox Comics superhero revived by Gill and artists Bill Fraccio and Tony Tallarico as a campy, comedic character in \"Blue Beetle\" #1 (June 1964)."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of DC Animated Universe characters",
        "text": "Blue Beetle could not appear as a member of the Justice League due to rights being tied up until 2007 because of his 1940s radio show and 1980s cartoon proposals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Question (character)",
        "text": "However, Charlton discontinued its \"action hero\" line in December 1967 after only four issues of \"Blue Beetle\" had been published. A three-part Question story, which Ditko had already penciled, appeared in the one-shot comic book \"Mysterious Suspense\" (October 1968). One fifth and final issue of \"Blue Beetle\", featuring the Question, was published in November of the same year. In 1985, after DC Comics had acquired the right to Charlton's characters, the Question reappeared in \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\". In February 1987, DC launched a new \"The Question\" comic book, scripted by Dennis O'Neil and penciled by Denys Cowan. This series, which ran for 36 regular issues and two annuals, was replaced in September 1990 by \"The Question Quarterly\", which ran for five issues. The Question has since then remained a recurring character of the DC Universe. A six-issue \"The Question\" limited series was published by DC in 2005. A four-issue limited series titled \"The Question: The Deaths of Vic Sage\" was published under the DC Black Label imprint beginning in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "It was eventually established that the Charlton Comics incarnation of the Dan Garrett Blue Beetle made his debut on August 14, 1939."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "The character was revised and reprinted briefly by Charlton Comics with issues #18-#20."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)\n--Publication history.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----Golden Age version (Dan Garret).\n----Silver Age version (Dan Garrett).\n----AC Comics.\n----DC Comics.\n----Dynamite Entertainment.\n----Legacy.\n----DC Universe.\n--In other media.\n----Comic strip.\n----Radio serial.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Following DC's \"Flashpoint\" storyline \"Blue Beetle\" was one of 52 monthly titles launched in September 2011, again starring Jaime Reyes. The series was cancelled after 17 issues in January 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In 2006, DC introduced a new Blue Beetle, teenager Jaime Reyes, whose powers are derived from the scarab, now revealed as a piece of advanced alien technology. The series was initially written by Keith Giffen and John Rogers, with artist Cully Hamner. Giffen left in issue #10 and Rogers took over full writing duties, joined by a new artist, Rafael Albuquerque. Rogers left the title with issue #25 in order to concentrate on his television series \"Leverage\". After three fill-in issues, Matt Sturges became the main writer in issue #29, but the series was cancelled with issue #36. Editor Dan DiDio put the cancellation down to poor sales and said that \"Blue Beetle\" was \"a book that we started with very high expectations, but it lost its audience along the way\". In June 2009, Blue Beetle was brought back as a \"co-feature\" of the more popular \"Booster Gold\" comic. A new \"Blue Beetle\" comic was launched as part of The New 52 initiative in September 2011, with Jaime Reyes' history being rebooted with a new origin and without any apparent history of Kord or Garrett as prior Blue Beetles. The new book was written by Tony Bedard and drawn by Ig Guara."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The \"Blue Beetle\" series has been collected into a number of trade paperbacks:\n* Jaren Brandt Bartlett portrayed Jaime Reyes in the tenth season of \"Smallville\". In the episode \"Booster\", he is originally portrayed as a teenager living in Metropolis who is shy and somewhat-clumsy, and was bullied because of it, until the Blue Beetle scarab attached itself to him after he was nearly in a traffic accident involving a vehicle that was transporting it to a Kord Industries facility. After seeking out a new hero, Booster Gold in the hopes that he could help remove the scarab from his spine, the scarab transforms Jaime into the Blue Beetle, and Jaime is unable to stop the armor from making him attack Booster. After nearly strangling Booster, Jaime is able to gain control over the scarab when Booster convinces him to stand up and assert himself over the scarab, shutting it down and reverting to his normal self. Ted Kord later offers to remove the scarab, but Jaime tells him he wishes to keep it and learn how to become a hero, and Booster offers to help Jaime control his powers and convinces Lois Lane to interview Jaime. This version's battle suit is rather bulky and lacks the traditional mouth seen in the comics (as the effect is difficult to pull off in live action). The name Blue Beetle was not used in the episode. Even though this incarnation is from Metropolis, he is seen in the episode wearing a shirt reading \"El Paso\", a nod to his comic book roots.\n* Jaime Reyes is a featured character in the animated series \"\", voiced by Will Friedle. This version is a fan of Batman and best friends with Paco Testas. In the pilot episode \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\", hee has a central role while fighting against Kanjar Ro. Jaime makes another appearance in the episode \"Invasion of the Secret Santas!\", assisting Batman in fighting the Sportsmaster and his henchmen and inviting Batman to his family's Christmas Eve dinner. Jaime appeared again fighting Planet Master alongside Aquaman in \"Aquaman's Outrageous Adventure!\". Blue Beetle also appears in the episodes \"Deep Cover for Batman!\" and \"Game Over for Owlman!\". In \"Night of the Huntress!\", Blue Beetle, Batman, and the Huntress have to stop the gangsters Baby-Face and Mrs. Manface while developing a crush on Huntress. Reyes appeared again in \"The Fate of Equinox!\" where he, along with Doctor Fate, Aquaman, Black Canary, Black Lightning, Fire, the original Flash, Green Arrow, Green Lantern, Plastic Man, and Red Tornado temporarily gave their powers to Batman, turning the Dark Knight into Bat Monolith to battle the omnipotent Equinox. In \"Revenge of the Reach!\", Jaime learns the Blue Beetle Scarab is a part of the Reach. His Blue Beetle suit takes control of him to shut down Oa's defenses, allowing the Reach to use an army of other Scarab-controlled beings to invade. Fortunately, Jaime regains control of his Blue Beetle suit by reminding the latter what they did was of their will, not the Reach's. Channeling the Green Lanterns' energy via his suit, Blue Beetle is able to free the other Scarab-controlled beings from the Reach's control. Despite the Guardians of the Universe asking Jaime for his Blue Beetle scarab's destruction along with the others, Guy Gardner is convinced that Jaime proved he's the master.\n* An alternate universe version named Scarlet Scarab is shown as a member of the Injustice Syndicate led by Owlman, also voiced by Freidle.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in \"Young Justice: Invasion\", voiced by Eric Lopez. This version appears as a member of the Young Justice team. Jaime initially believes the Scarab to be of technology that had been created by Ted Kord, prior to the former Blue Beetle's death at the hands of The Light's enforcers. After an explosion at Kord Industries, the Scarab bonded with Jaime who was passing by at the time. The explosion would later be revealed to have been the end result of Ted's fight with The Light's enforcers that cost the previous Blue Beetle's life. Unlike other versions, the Scarab speaks to Jaime only in English and finds lethal courses of action preferable to capture and restraint, which is why Jaime is constantly at odds with it, and unlike his comic book counterpart, he does not experience any discomfort when transforming into Blue Beetle. While Impulse is liberating Jaime from the Reach's first attempts to control him, he tells Jaime the reason of why the latter traveled to the past in the first place: Jaime's Scarab had become on mode and turned him into Earth's dictator. Jaime refuses to believe any of this, but is still dazed from the experiments. He later searches for a way to remove the Scarab to prevent what Impulse had told him from happening, but both his Scarab and body are eventually put under full Reach control by the Reach's armor-welding Green Martian agent Green Beetle. This virtually trapped Jaime inside of his mind, and allowed the Reach to make Jaime turn on the rest of the Team against his own will. The Team, mainly Zatanna, later frees Blue Beetle and his Scarab from the Reach's control. He then goes on to help Earth's heroes to defeat the Reach, playing an important role in helping them defeat the Reach's armor-wielding agent Black Beetle, and save the world from the Reach's attempt to destroy it. In the , he becomes a member of Beast Boy's Outsiders and is in a relationship with Traci Thurston.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in \"DC Super Hero Girls\". He is seen as one of the background students of Super Hero High.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in \"Justice League Action\", voiced again by Jake T. Austin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "After the popularity of Charlton's new Blue Beetle named Ted Kord that was introduced in the back up feature of Captain Atom solo series in issue #83. Ted had his own series by Charlton which also lasted five issues between June 1967 and November 1968."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The replacement Blue Beetle created by Charlton Comics, and later published by Americomics and DC Comics, is Ted Kord, a former student of Dan Garrett, a genius-level inventor and a gifted athlete. Kord and Garrett were investigating Kord's Uncle Jarvis when they learned Jarvis was working to create an army of androids to take over Earth. Garrett changed into Blue Beetle, but was killed in battle. As he died, he passed on to Kord the responsibility of being Blue Beetle, but was unable to pass on the mystical scarab."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unproduced DC Comics projects",
        "text": "Geoff Johns announced a live action TV series featuring the Jamie Reyes version of Blue Beetle. They made a test trailer with stuntman and actor Garrett Plotkin as Jaime Reyes. Scenes of this trailer were shown as part of the upcoming DC Nation block of programming in 2012 on Cartoon Network during the premiere of \"\". Since then, nothing has been announced about the project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Rookie patrolman Dan Garret originally fought crime as the Blue Beetle without the benefit of superhuman abilities. Garret later donned a bulletproof blue costume (described by Garret as being made of a cellulose material which was \"as thin and light as silk but stronger than steel\" and temporarily gained superhuman strength and stamina by ingesting the mysterious \"Vitamin 2X\". Like the Green Hornet, the Blue Beetle would use his signature scarab symbol to bedevil criminals, leaving it to be easily found, hanging it down into a room on a string and even projecting its enlarged image onto a wall with a flashlight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In the latest relaunch of the DC Universe, \"DC Rebirth\", Jaime is working with Ted Kord to study the beetle attached to Jaime's back and remove it. Once again, the beetle's origin is retconned, as revealed by Doctor Fate, who tells Kord that the beetle is not alien, but magical, similar to the original continuity pre-\"Infinite Crisis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "1967 in comics",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (vol. 5)\n: \"Release\": June by Charlton Comics. \"Writer/Artist\": Steve Ditko."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The character returned in June 2009 as a \"co-feature\" of the more popular \"Booster Gold\" comic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "A new \"Blue Beetle\" title launched in fall 2011 after the conclusion of the \"Flashpoint\" event. It was written by Tony Bedard and drawn by Ig Guara and cancelled in February 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) was seen in Alex Ross and Mark Waid's limited series \"Kingdom Come\". He is shown with the rest of the Charlton \"Action Heroes\" not as a member of Magog's Justice Battalion, but as part of Batman's group and later of the MLF (Mankind Liberation Front). He would be shown later in the title in a suit of armor powered by the then-mystic scarab, working with Batman's team. In the novelization of the series, Batman thinks of Blue Beetle, along with Green Arrow and Black Canary, as his closest (at the time) friends. Blue Beetle is killed with most of the other heroes by a nuclear explosion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The Blue Beetle had his own short-lived comic strip, drawn by a pseudonymous Jack Kirby and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "After The New 52 was launched, a new series starring Jaime Reyes was introduced. It launched in November 2011 and ended in March 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Spin-offs from the series \"Countdown to Final Crisis\" would introduce more alternate Blue Beetles in 2007. Earth-19 (the \"Gotham by Gaslight\" universe), set in a Victorian-like era, has its own version of Dan Garrett who in his secret identity is the leading Egyptologist at the Gotham Museum of Natural History and wears a monocle, appearing in \"The Search for Ray Palmer: Gotham by Gaslight\". The limited series \"\" depicted three more: Earth-26 Blue Beetle, a swarm of sentient insects that form a man-shaped body (calling themselves \"The Scarab\"), Ted of Earth-33, an anthropomorphic beetle, the pet of Mr. and Mrs. Kord, and Earth-39 Blue Beetle, a younger version of Dan Garrett, who has bonded with his scarab in the same way as Jaime Reyes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "During World War II, Garret became a government agent who was often sent overseas on secret missions, but after peace was declared he returned to his former role of neighborhood cop. The Blue Beetle's powers slowly increased over time, eventually giving him the ability to fly and X-ray vision among other bizarre powers that changed from issue to issue at the whim of the writers. However, when superheroes fell out of vogue in the late 1940s, Fox started to downplay his superhero powers and they were removed. His adventures turned darker, full of sadistic violence and scantily-clad women until he was eventually relegated to hosting true crime stories before the character went on hiatus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Both Blue Beetles reappeared in the third issue of \"Americomics\", a title published by AC Comics in 1983/1984. In the first story in this issue, Ted Kord fought a bogus Dan Garrett, but the second story was more significant. It revealed that the original 1940s Dan was reincarnated as the Silver Age version (minus his memories of his earlier existence) by some unspecified \"gods\", presumably the ones responsible for his mystic scarab. The gods subsequently resurrected Dan again and sent him off to save Ted Kord's life (leaving him a note saying simply, \"Try not to get killed this time\"). After this adventure, Kord turned the Blue Beetle name back over to Dan. \"Americomics\" was canceled after issue #6, and so far this story has never been referenced by any other publisher. Another Blue Beetle crossover story depiction revolving around the Blue Beetles is depicted in \"Booster Gold\" (vol. 2) #6 by DC Comics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Geoff Johns stated on his Twitter account that there is a live action screen test of Jaime Reyes as the Blue Beetle. This screen test was used to trial the concept of a Blue Beetle television series."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Rise of the Blue Beetle!",
        "text": "\"The Rise of the Blue Beetle\" is the first episode of the animated television series \"\". The episode introduces Blue Beetle in his first on-screen appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The mystical Scarab that had given Dan Garrett his powers had been thought destroyed. When it was found intact, it was given to Ted Kord, who was never able to use it. After an attack by Brother Eye, the Scarab appeared energized and Ted brought it to the wizard Shazam, who took it and sent Ted away. Shortly after, in the \"Day of Vengeance\" storyline, Shazam was killed and the Scarab was blasted across the globe along with shards from Rock of Eternity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nite Owl",
        "text": "The duo are modified analogues of the first two Blue Beetle characters created for Fox Feature Syndicate and later sold to Charlton Comics. The second Nite Owl received a four-part miniseries as part of the \"Before Watchmen\" comic book prequel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Question (character)",
        "text": "In 1967, Steve Ditko created the character of Mr. A, whom he conceived as an undiluted expression of his values, ethics and Objectivist philosophy. Later that year, Ditko was hired by Charlton Comics to revive their superhero character Blue Beetle. Due to its low page rates, Charlton tended to give free rein to its artists when they wanted to include more personal ideas in their comics. Ditko therefore decided to create the Question, a less radical version of Mr. A who could be acceptable to the Comics Code Authority. The character was included as a back-pages feature in the new \"Blue Beetle\" comic book."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Charlton Comics reprinted some stories in its anthology titles and in a four-issue \"Blue Beetle\" reprint series numbered 18\u201321, although there is no evidence that they obtained the rights to the character - just that they purchased the printing plates to earlier stories."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In \"Infinite Crisis\" #5 (March 2006), Reyes became Blue Beetle's third incarnation. His own monthly series debuted two months later with \"Blue Beetle\" vol. 7 #1 (May 2006); it was initially written by Keith Giffen and John Rogers, with artist Cully Hamner. Giffen left before issue #10 and Rogers took over full writing duties, joined by new artist Rafael Albuquerque. Rogers left in issue #25 to concentrate on his television series \"Leverage\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "Theodore Stephen \"Ted\" Kord is the second Blue Beetle, a superhero who was originally published by Charlton Comics and later picked up by DC Comics. This version of the character was created by Steve Ditko and first appeared as a back-up feature in \"Captain Atom\" #83 (November 1966), with Gary Friedrich scripting from Ditko's conception and plot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "After the death of Ted Kord, a new Blue Beetle was introduced named Jaime Reyes in \"Infinite Crisis\" #3. His own solo series begun in issue #1 and ended in issue #36 in February 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Both Blue Beetles reappeared in the third issue of \"Americomics\", a title published by AC Comics in 1983/1984. In the first story in this issue, Ted Kord fought a bogus Dan Garrett, but the second story was more significant. It revealed that the original 1940s Dan was reincarnated as the Silver Age version (minus his memories of his earlier existence) by some unspecified \"gods\", presumably the ones responsible for his mystic scarab. The gods subsequently resurrected Dan again and sent him off to save Ted Kord's life (leaving him a note saying simply, \"Try not to get killed this time\"). After this adventure, Kord turned the Blue Beetle name back over to Dan. \"Americomics\" was canceled after issue #6, and so far this story has never been referenced by any other publisher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Question (character)",
        "text": "The Charlton characters were acquired by DC Comics while the former company was in decline in 1983. The Question appeared briefly in 1985's \"Crisis On Infinite Earths\" and in a three-issue arc of DC's Blue Beetle revival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "In the early 1980s, the first issue of Charlton's anthology comic \"Charlton Bullseye\" featured a team-up of the Blue Beetle and the Question. Later, AC Comics would publish a story intended for \"Charlton Bullseye\" in \"Americomics\" #3, and a one-shot of a team-up of all the Charlton \"Action Heroes\" called the Sentinels of Justice, as the company called its lineup. Upon losing Blue Beetle, AC Comics created a similar character called Scarlet Scorpion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "DC Comics acquired the Charlton heroes in the mid-1980s and used the \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\" crossover event to integrate them all into the DC Universe. During this period, Ted Kord had his own \"Blue Beetle\" series, written by Len Wein, which ran for 24 issues from June 1986 to May 1988. Also published during this time was \"Secret Origins\" #2 (cover illustrated by Gil Kane), which explained the origins and careers of the Ted Kord and Dan Garrett Blue Beetles in the post-Crisis continuity. They would also follow up on the hinted android in stasis from the Charlton series, which would eventually become \"Carapax, the Indestructible Man\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Blue Beetle enemies",
        "text": "List of Blue Beetle enemies\n--Dan Garret (Fox Syndicate).\n--Dan Garrett (Charlton).\n--Ted Kord.\n--Jaime Reyes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Xolo Maridue\u00f1a will portray the character in his own live action film set in the DC Extended Universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "DC's introduction of Jaime Reyes in 2006 retconned and expanded upon the Blue Beetle mythos. Revealed to be alien in origin, the scarab bonds with Reyes and provides him with a suit of extraterrestrial armor shortly after Kord's death. Though only a teenager, Reyes quickly forms a working relationship with Kord's former teammate and best friend Booster Gold and is inducted into the Teen Titans and the Justice League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles Nicholas",
        "text": "Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski (December 6, 1921 \u2013 June 21, 1985) was an American comic book writer-artist best known as the credited creator of the Fox Comics character Blue Beetle, which in various incarnations has continued through three comics companies and into the 21st century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The Scarab came to Earth in El Paso, Texas, where Jaime picked it up. Not long after, Booster Gold appeared at Jaime's house to retrieve it, but it had fused itself to Jaime's spine while he was sleeping. Booster recruited Jaime for Batman's assault on the Brother Eye satellite, since the Scarab was the only thing that could see the satellite. Using the Scarab's powers, Jaime was able to reveal the satellite to Batman's group, enabled them to defeat it. Once Brother Eye was sent plummeting Earthward, Jaime disappeared from the ship, teleported away by the scarab, which sought to escape the Green Lanterns on board."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "After being captured by Lady Styx's henchmen in \"Blue Beetle\" vol. 8 #16, Jaimie is forced to take part in the bounty hunter game The Haunted on the planet called Tolerance. After losing control over the Scarab armor and regaining control back, he teams up with a New God named Lonar, to kill the creator of the game Adonis and escape the planet. Lonar kills Adonis, takes his pocket dimension, and disappears. In \"Threshold\" #8 the producer of the show The Hunted, reveals that the show has been cancelled and sends Jaimie back to Earth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "DC Comics once again relaunched its titles with DC Rebirth and featured Reyes in his new series that lasted in April 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "In the pages of \"\", Dan Garrett was among the deceased superheroes that Batman revived using the Black Lantern ring."
      },
      {
        "title": "1986 in comics",
        "text": "Blue Beetle\n: \"Release\": June. \"Writer\": Len Wein. Artists: Paris Cullins and Bruce Patterson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Alan Moore used the two Charlton Comics versions of the Blue Beetle as inspiration for the two Nite Owls in his comic book series \"Watchmen\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The Blue Beetle had a short career on the radio, between May and September 1940. Motion picture and radio actor Frank Lovejoy was the Blue Beetle for the first 13 episodes, while for the rest of the shows, the voice was provided by a different, uncredited actor."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Rise of the Blue Beetle!",
        "text": "Michael Jelenic, the story editor and co-producer of the show, wrote the scene with Jaime and his friend Paco, commented on Batman and Green Arrow on television because that is the type of thing that he imagined fanboys arguing about. The Clock King segment includes pop culture references while Jaime's room has a \"The Dark Knight Returns\" poster. The episode has easter eggs of characters that didn't appear in the episode."
      },
      {
        "title": "Threshold (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle, last seen being captured by Lady Styx's henchmen, is also dropped into the competition, but without his scarab armed. Caul later meets up with T'morra and Ember at a bar, where they inform Caul of Beetle's presence, because his residual Green Lantern energy might have an effect on Beetle's Reach armor. Captain K'rot with his team, Sleen and Pig-Iron, are trying to claim Beetle's Scarab. The Scarab activates to protect its unconscious host. During their altercation with Beetle, they run into Caul, which causes the Scarab to go berserk. Once Caul gets far away enough from Beetle, Jaime Reyes regains control and flies away. Star Hawkins and Ilda, a robot uploaded with the personality and memories of his deceased wife, arrive to cloak Caul and tell him the location of his Green Lantern power battery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle has appeared in the \"Justice League Unlimited\" spin-off comic book, in issues #5 and #8."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)\n--Publication history.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----\"Infinite Crisis\".\n----Ongoing series.\n----The Reach.\n----Teen Titans.\n----Series finale.\n----Further adventures.\n----\"Justice League: Generation Lost\".\n----The New 52.\n----DC Rebirth.\n--Powers and abilities.\n--Collected editions.\n--In other media.\n----Film.\n------DC Extended Universe.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fox Feature Syndicate",
        "text": "Future comics legend Jack Kirby, brought on staff here after freelancing for Eisner & Iger, wrote and drew the syndicated newspaper comic strip \"The Blue Beetle\" (starting Jan. 1940), starring a character created by Charles Nicholas Wojtkowski in \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (Aug. 1939). Kirby retained the house name \"Charles Nicholas\" for the comic strip, which lasted three months. Kirby, additionally, created and did one story each of the Fox features \"Wing Turner\" (\"Mystery Men\" #10, May 1940) and \"Cosmic Carson\" (\"Science Comics\" #4, same month)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime was next seen in his own monthly series, fighting off Green Lantern Guy Gardner, who had been driven to rage by his ring's reaction to the scarab. A flashback expanded on Jaime's discovery of the scarab, revealing how the scarab bonded itself to Jaime and showing his first encounter with a metahuman. After the fight, Jaime found himself alone and naked in the desert and had to hitch-hike home. Upon his return, Jaime discovered he had been missing for a whole year because the scarab used a dimensional mode of transport to get back to Earth. Unlike most superheroes, Jaime shared his identity with family and friends."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Rise of the Blue Beetle!",
        "text": "The episode opens with Batman and Green Arrow (James Arnold Taylor) breaking out of Clock King's clockwork death trap clock that would have lowered them into acid, before going on to fight him and his henchmen. The main plot starts after the theme song airs. Teenage Jaime Reyes (Will Friedle) has become the new Blue Beetle but is not convinced that he has what it takes to be a superhero, partially because he has a few problems with controlling his powers, such as when he tried to rescue a cat from a tree. Batman decides to take the young superhero under his wing and asks Blue Beetle to help him stop a meteor. The mission is stopped, however, when Blue Beetle's scarab creates a wormhole which sends the two superheroes to a distant planet. The planet is inhabited by intelligent single-celled aliens called Gibbles that are under constant siege by the intergalactic pirate Kanjar Ro, who wants to harvest their bodies for fuel. The aliens mistakenly believe Blue Beetle is another, alien, scarab-wearing Blue Beetle who is their savior, and who Batman correctly guesses was killed, and think Batman is his sidekick. Blue Beetle is not confident that he can save them, although he decides to try when he sees the hope they have for him. Batman tells the Blue Beetle to give a speech to the aliens to encourage them to help him and Batman fight Kanjar Ro. Kanjar Ro is meanwhile draining energy from the Gibbles to power his ships for raids on the Medra Quadrant. However, Batman, Blue Beetle and the Gibble army attacks and Blue Beetle starts getting the hang of controlling the suit. He saves Batman from Kanjar Ro, then fights and defeats him, but Ro returns, freeing his crew and using his Gamma Gong on Blue Beetle, which he knows that he has a weakness for; its sonic waves eliminates his suit, and was how he killed the last Blue Beetle. Batman is incapacitated, and another blow of the Gong completely strips Blue Beetle's armor away; when Ro sees his greatest foe is a child, he realizes he did eliminate the Beetle the last time they fought. After the Gibble army is soon after defeated, Ro has Batman and some Gibbles tied to a satellite floating in a part of space with fish-like space monsters that come to eat them, but Batman plugs one of the satellite's cables into the body of the Gibble next to him, charging it with power to electrocute one of the monsters and scare the other monsters away. Meanwhile, Ro has tied up Blue Beetle and is now using the Gong to find the right frequency to remove the Scarab. As Batman enters and Ro is knocked into the Gong, the scarab is removed by the created tones. Ro attaches it to his spine and uses its power to fight Batman. Meanwhile, Jaime thinks creatively and escapes his bonds, and before Ro can kill Batman, he arrives with the Gong and uses it to strip away the armor and remove the Scarab from Ro. Enraged, he tries to attack them, but the Gibble from before arrives and uses a newly made weapon that utilizes the power from its body to knock Ro out. Before he and Blue Beetle leave their planet, the Gibbles thank Batman for his part in helping Blue Beetle and themselves to defeat Kanjor Ro. Returning to Earth through the wormhole, they find it has brought them back to not only the exact place, but also the exact time after they had gone through it the first time. This gives them enough time to finish the mission to stop the meteor that got them sent through the wormhole in the first place, and after making sure his partner is ready, Batman and Blue Beetle take on the meteor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Threshold (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle is tracked by another Hunted contestant, a New God named Lonar, who has plans for Beetle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Ted had the scarab for some time, but never used it. He carried it during the \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\" when he was chosen by the Monitor to protect the multiple Earths, but it only reacted when he was attacked; it did not give him superpowers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "This version of Blue Beetle has been ranked as the 61st-greatest comic book character of all time IGN also ranked this version of the Blue Beetle as the 61st-greatest comic book hero of all time stating that his intelligence, his \"bwahahha\" antics, his endearing partnership with Booster Gold, and his brave sacrifice during the build-up to \"Infinite Crisis\" all serve to cement this particular Beetle's legacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Roy Thomas wrote the Blue Beetle in one of his earliest professional credits and later created a couple of Blue Beetle pastiches: the Scarlet Scarab for Marvel Comics and the Silver Scarab for DC Comics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Not much later, he is visited by Skeets, Booster Gold's robotic partner, who warned him of his disappearance. Deciding to team up with the small machine to find Booster to pay respect to him for introducing him to the superhero world, he reaches the house of Rose Levin and Daniel Carter, Booster's 21st century ancestors. Soon after he arrives, the Black Lantern Ted Kord crashes his ship into Daniel's house and Jaime proceeds to battle Kord. Although outmatched and insulted by the Black Lantern, Jaime keeps fighting until Booster enters the scene."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In \"\", other representatives of the Reach attack Odym, homeworld of the Blue Lantern Corps, where it is revealed that their armours have taken control of them; Jaime speculates, during a confrontation with Kyle Rayner, that his armour is damaged, explaining why he is in control of himself where other Reach soldiers are enslaved to their armour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime is recruited by Black Beetle (who originally identifies himself as a Blue Beetle from the future) and Garrett to go into the past with Booster Gold to prevent Kord's death. After saving Kord, Jaime and Garrett return, the future is revealed to be a dystopia ruled by Maxwell Lord, who now was never exposed and defeated. Black Beetle is also revealed to be a future enemy of Jaime's, who tries to create this future so he will never have to deal with Jaime and so he \"would not lose her\". In \"Booster Gold\" vol. 2 #10, seeing the damage done by their actions, Ted decides to accept his death and returns to the past, seemingly to the exact moment where he was murdered by Lord, returning the timeline to equilibrium and thus preventing the dystopia. However, in the epilogue for \"Booster Gold\" vol. 2 #1.000.000, a figure with a scarab enters a Kord Industries building that contains a Bug and a picture of Kord's enemy Overthrow among other things. His trademark laugh hints that it is actually Ted, who somehow escaped death but managed to fix the timestream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "He began a career as a superhero, meeting Oracle, the Phantom Stranger and the current Peacemaker during his early adventures and ends up in conflict with supervillains like the ones that work for the crime boss La Dama. He often associates himself with a street gang of local superhumans known as the Posse. His support team agreed to help Jaime track crime and natural disasters in the Midwest via the Internet."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Blue Racer",
        "text": "A fast-moving blue snake named the Blue Racer (voiced by Larry D. Mann) tries unsuccessfully to catch a stereotypically-Japanese beetle (voiced by Tom Holland), who is a black belt in karate. Both characters spun off from \"Tijuana Toads\" in \"Hop and Chop\" (the Japanese beetle) and \"Snake in the Gracias\" (the Blue Racer). The goofy crane from \"Tijuana Toads\" (Crazylegs Crane, who also repeatedly failed to collar the Racer and the Toads himself) also later appeared in the series as well. 17 cartoons were produced.\n* Bob Holt voiced both the Blue Racer and the Japanese Beetle in the 1972 short \"Support Your Local Serpent\".\n* The Japanese Beetle's last appearance was in the 1972 short \"Blue Racer Blues\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who is the most recent comic company that own the rights to the Blue Beetle?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The most recent of the companies to own rights to the Blue Beetle is DC Comics who bought the rights to the character in 1983, using the name for three distinct characters (Jaime Reyes, Dan Garrett and Ted Kord) over the years."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who owned Blue Beetle before DC Comics?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The original Blue Beetle was created by Fox Comics and later owned by Charlton Comics."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has Blue Beetle ever appeared in the television?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Blue Beetle has appeared in both live action and animation, which would you like to know about?",
      "Several incarnations of the Blue Beetle appear on Batman: The Brave and the Bold. The Jaime Reyes version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of Young Justice, voiced by actor Eric Lopez."
    ],
    "topic": "Blue Beetle",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Blue Beetle:36",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blue Beetle",
          "In other media",
          "Audio drama"
        ],
        "ctx": "The \"Kingdom Come\" story, in which the Blue Beetle took part, has been adapted as an audio drama by John Whitman, based on the story by Mark Waid and Alex Ross and the novelization by Elliot S. Maggin (Time Warner Audio Books, 1998).\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears on the cover of a comic book in the \"Watchmen\" film tie-in \"Under the Hood\".\n* In \"\", an evil version of Blue Beetle appeared on a computer page of the lesser members of the Crime Syndicate.\n* The Ted Kord Blue Beetle is portrayed by Luke Barats in the 2011 short film \"The Death and Return of Superman\".\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in \"Justice League vs. Teen Titans\", where he is a member of the Teen Titans. He is a close friend of Beast Boy and helps in fending off Trigon's demonic emissaries from Hell. He is voiced by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in the sequel \"\" with Austin reprising his role again.\n* Ted Kord as Blue Beetle makes a brief appearance in \"Teen Titans Go! To the Movies\".\n* In \"\", he was one among the Titans who were killed by the Paradooms.\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears in the 2012 film \"Agent Beetle\". He is never referred to as Blue Beetle in the film, possibly to avoid copyright issues.\n* The Ted Kord version appears in a DC Showcase short that was included in \"\".\n* A film centered around Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle is in development, with Gareth Dunnet-Alcocer serving as screenwriter and Angel Manuel Soto will direct the film. The film will be an installment in the DC Extended Universe franchise. Xolo Maridue\u00f1a was cast as Jamie Reyes. Other actors Bruna Marquezine and Belissa Escobedo were respectively cast as the protagonist's love interest Penny and younger sister Milagros; Harvey Guill\u00e9n also joined the cast in an undisclosed role.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the episode \"Booster\" in the final season of \"Smallville\", where the scarab bonds with Jaime who is saved by Booster Gold. Ted Kord also makes an appearance as well, searching for the lost, and apparently extremely dangerous Blue Beetle scarab. Dan Garrett is also mentioned, with Clark Kent stating he was a Kord Industries scientist who was killed after the Scarab bonded with him.\n* Kord Industries is referenced in the second and fourth season of The CW show \"Arrow\". The producers planned for Ted Kord to join the show in the third season, but when DC told them that they had \"other plans for him\", he was replaced by Ray Palmer.\n* Blue Beetle was referenced in the 7th episode of \"Legends of Tomorrow\" when Kendra asks Ray about his favorite color, blue, and his favorite Beatle, he does not have one.\n* Several incarnations of the Blue Beetle appear on \"\":\n** The Jaime Reyes incarnation is a featured character, with Jaime Reyes voiced by Will Friedle and the Blue Beetle Scarab voiced by Ioan Gruffudd. He appears in the episodes \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Invasion of the Secret Santas!\", \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Game Over for Owlman!\", \"Night of the Huntress!\", \"The Fate of Equinox!\", \"Revenge of the Reach!\", \"Aquaman's Outrageous Adventure!\", \"The Power of Shazam!\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part One\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part Two\", \"Cry Freedom Fighters!\", \"Darkseid Descending!\", \"Shadow of the Bat!\", \"Time Out for Vengeance!\", and \"Crisis: 22,300 Miles Above Earth!\".\n** The Ted Kord version appears in the episodes \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" and \"Menace of the Madniks!\", voiced by Wil Wheaton.\n** In \"Rise of the Blue Beetle\", the Blue Beetle scarab is briefly worn by Kanjar Ro (voiced by Marc Worden).\n** The Dan Garrett version makes a brief, non-voiced appearance in \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" as Batman narrates about the Blue Beetles to Reyes and \"Menace of the Madniks!\" displayed his Blue Beetle suit next to Kord's.\n* The Jaime Reyes version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"Young Justice\", voiced by actor Eric Lopez. In a running gag, Jaime can often be seen rejecting the Blue Beetle Scarab's (also voiced by Lopez) more violent and bloodthirsty suggestions (\"No, it would \"not\" have been easier to just vaporize him back in the diner!\"), which confuses those around him as it looks like he's talking to himself. Much of season 2's main story arc also revolves around Jaime's main antagonists, the Reach. Dan Garrett, the original Blue Beetle, appears in a non-speaking cameo in the episode \"Failsafe\", in which several scenes depict the members of the Justice Society of America, in 1939. Dan appears among several of the most prominent members of the team, such as Green Lantern, Doctor Fate, and Flash. The episode \"Intervention\" later tells the full story of the scarab: ancient Bialyan mystics deactivated its Reach control centuries ago, and it lay dormant until it was discovered by Dan Garrett, who fused with it to become the first Blue Beetle. His successor and protege, the technological genius Ted Kord, was able to recognize the Scarab as a potentially dangerous piece of alien technology, and thus made use of his own inventions as a hero, but still used the Blue Beetle identity. Kord later lost his life in a battle with Deathstroke and Sportsmaster upon discovering The Light planned to steal and reactivate the Scarab. Jaime came across the Scarab just after Ted Kord's death, and became the third Blue Beetle, while believing the Scarab was Kord's own invention. He was recruited into the Justice League's teenage strike team, where subsequent conflicts with the Reach led him to discover the Scarab's true origin and purpose, but his attempts to remove it were unable to keep his body from being completely controlled by it. Some of the Team made a separate discovery of the Bialyan ritual that could remove the Reach's control over the Scarab, and kept the knowledge quiet while Doctor Fate taught Zatanna the ritual, so the Team could once again deactivate the Scarab to allow Jaime to resume control. The Scarab then cooperates with Jaime without much resistance, preferring their partnership over enslavement.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the animated series \"Justice League Action\", voiced again by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Ted Kord version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"DC Super Hero Girls\", voiced by Max Mittelman."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blue Beetle:36",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blue Beetle",
          "In other media",
          "Audio drama"
        ],
        "ctx": "The \"Kingdom Come\" story, in which the Blue Beetle took part, has been adapted as an audio drama by John Whitman, based on the story by Mark Waid and Alex Ross and the novelization by Elliot S. Maggin (Time Warner Audio Books, 1998).\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears on the cover of a comic book in the \"Watchmen\" film tie-in \"Under the Hood\".\n* In \"\", an evil version of Blue Beetle appeared on a computer page of the lesser members of the Crime Syndicate.\n* The Ted Kord Blue Beetle is portrayed by Luke Barats in the 2011 short film \"The Death and Return of Superman\".\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in \"Justice League vs. Teen Titans\", where he is a member of the Teen Titans. He is a close friend of Beast Boy and helps in fending off Trigon's demonic emissaries from Hell. He is voiced by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in the sequel \"\" with Austin reprising his role again.\n* Ted Kord as Blue Beetle makes a brief appearance in \"Teen Titans Go! To the Movies\".\n* In \"\", he was one among the Titans who were killed by the Paradooms.\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears in the 2012 film \"Agent Beetle\". He is never referred to as Blue Beetle in the film, possibly to avoid copyright issues.\n* The Ted Kord version appears in a DC Showcase short that was included in \"\".\n* A film centered around Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle is in development, with Gareth Dunnet-Alcocer serving as screenwriter and Angel Manuel Soto will direct the film. The film will be an installment in the DC Extended Universe franchise. Xolo Maridue\u00f1a was cast as Jamie Reyes. Other actors Bruna Marquezine and Belissa Escobedo were respectively cast as the protagonist's love interest Penny and younger sister Milagros; Harvey Guill\u00e9n also joined the cast in an undisclosed role.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the episode \"Booster\" in the final season of \"Smallville\", where the scarab bonds with Jaime who is saved by Booster Gold. Ted Kord also makes an appearance as well, searching for the lost, and apparently extremely dangerous Blue Beetle scarab. Dan Garrett is also mentioned, with Clark Kent stating he was a Kord Industries scientist who was killed after the Scarab bonded with him.\n* Kord Industries is referenced in the second and fourth season of The CW show \"Arrow\". The producers planned for Ted Kord to join the show in the third season, but when DC told them that they had \"other plans for him\", he was replaced by Ray Palmer.\n* Blue Beetle was referenced in the 7th episode of \"Legends of Tomorrow\" when Kendra asks Ray about his favorite color, blue, and his favorite Beatle, he does not have one.\n* Several incarnations of the Blue Beetle appear on \"\":\n** The Jaime Reyes incarnation is a featured character, with Jaime Reyes voiced by Will Friedle and the Blue Beetle Scarab voiced by Ioan Gruffudd. He appears in the episodes \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Invasion of the Secret Santas!\", \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Game Over for Owlman!\", \"Night of the Huntress!\", \"The Fate of Equinox!\", \"Revenge of the Reach!\", \"Aquaman's Outrageous Adventure!\", \"The Power of Shazam!\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part One\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part Two\", \"Cry Freedom Fighters!\", \"Darkseid Descending!\", \"Shadow of the Bat!\", \"Time Out for Vengeance!\", and \"Crisis: 22,300 Miles Above Earth!\".\n** The Ted Kord version appears in the episodes \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" and \"Menace of the Madniks!\", voiced by Wil Wheaton.\n** In \"Rise of the Blue Beetle\", the Blue Beetle scarab is briefly worn by Kanjar Ro (voiced by Marc Worden).\n** The Dan Garrett version makes a brief, non-voiced appearance in \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" as Batman narrates about the Blue Beetles to Reyes and \"Menace of the Madniks!\" displayed his Blue Beetle suit next to Kord's.\n* The Jaime Reyes version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"Young Justice\", voiced by actor Eric Lopez. In a running gag, Jaime can often be seen rejecting the Blue Beetle Scarab's (also voiced by Lopez) more violent and bloodthirsty suggestions (\"No, it would \"not\" have been easier to just vaporize him back in the diner!\"), which confuses those around him as it looks like he's talking to himself. Much of season 2's main story arc also revolves around Jaime's main antagonists, the Reach. Dan Garrett, the original Blue Beetle, appears in a non-speaking cameo in the episode \"Failsafe\", in which several scenes depict the members of the Justice Society of America, in 1939. Dan appears among several of the most prominent members of the team, such as Green Lantern, Doctor Fate, and Flash. The episode \"Intervention\" later tells the full story of the scarab: ancient Bialyan mystics deactivated its Reach control centuries ago, and it lay dormant until it was discovered by Dan Garrett, who fused with it to become the first Blue Beetle. His successor and protege, the technological genius Ted Kord, was able to recognize the Scarab as a potentially dangerous piece of alien technology, and thus made use of his own inventions as a hero, but still used the Blue Beetle identity. Kord later lost his life in a battle with Deathstroke and Sportsmaster upon discovering The Light planned to steal and reactivate the Scarab. Jaime came across the Scarab just after Ted Kord's death, and became the third Blue Beetle, while believing the Scarab was Kord's own invention. He was recruited into the Justice League's teenage strike team, where subsequent conflicts with the Reach led him to discover the Scarab's true origin and purpose, but his attempts to remove it were unable to keep his body from being completely controlled by it. Some of the Team made a separate discovery of the Bialyan ritual that could remove the Reach's control over the Scarab, and kept the knowledge quiet while Doctor Fate taught Zatanna the ritual, so the Team could once again deactivate the Scarab to allow Jaime to resume control. The Scarab then cooperates with Jaime without much resistance, preferring their partnership over enslavement.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the animated series \"Justice League Action\", voiced again by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Ted Kord version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"DC Super Hero Girls\", voiced by Max Mittelman."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blue Beetle:36",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blue Beetle",
          "In other media",
          "Audio drama"
        ],
        "ctx": "The \"Kingdom Come\" story, in which the Blue Beetle took part, has been adapted as an audio drama by John Whitman, based on the story by Mark Waid and Alex Ross and the novelization by Elliot S. Maggin (Time Warner Audio Books, 1998).\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears on the cover of a comic book in the \"Watchmen\" film tie-in \"Under the Hood\".\n* In \"\", an evil version of Blue Beetle appeared on a computer page of the lesser members of the Crime Syndicate.\n* The Ted Kord Blue Beetle is portrayed by Luke Barats in the 2011 short film \"The Death and Return of Superman\".\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in \"Justice League vs. Teen Titans\", where he is a member of the Teen Titans. He is a close friend of Beast Boy and helps in fending off Trigon's demonic emissaries from Hell. He is voiced by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in the sequel \"\" with Austin reprising his role again.\n* Ted Kord as Blue Beetle makes a brief appearance in \"Teen Titans Go! To the Movies\".\n* In \"\", he was one among the Titans who were killed by the Paradooms.\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears in the 2012 film \"Agent Beetle\". He is never referred to as Blue Beetle in the film, possibly to avoid copyright issues.\n* The Ted Kord version appears in a DC Showcase short that was included in \"\".\n* A film centered around Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle is in development, with Gareth Dunnet-Alcocer serving as screenwriter and Angel Manuel Soto will direct the film. The film will be an installment in the DC Extended Universe franchise. Xolo Maridue\u00f1a was cast as Jamie Reyes. Other actors Bruna Marquezine and Belissa Escobedo were respectively cast as the protagonist's love interest Penny and younger sister Milagros; Harvey Guill\u00e9n also joined the cast in an undisclosed role.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the episode \"Booster\" in the final season of \"Smallville\", where the scarab bonds with Jaime who is saved by Booster Gold. Ted Kord also makes an appearance as well, searching for the lost, and apparently extremely dangerous Blue Beetle scarab. Dan Garrett is also mentioned, with Clark Kent stating he was a Kord Industries scientist who was killed after the Scarab bonded with him.\n* Kord Industries is referenced in the second and fourth season of The CW show \"Arrow\". The producers planned for Ted Kord to join the show in the third season, but when DC told them that they had \"other plans for him\", he was replaced by Ray Palmer.\n* Blue Beetle was referenced in the 7th episode of \"Legends of Tomorrow\" when Kendra asks Ray about his favorite color, blue, and his favorite Beatle, he does not have one.\n* Several incarnations of the Blue Beetle appear on \"\":\n** The Jaime Reyes incarnation is a featured character, with Jaime Reyes voiced by Will Friedle and the Blue Beetle Scarab voiced by Ioan Gruffudd. He appears in the episodes \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Invasion of the Secret Santas!\", \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Game Over for Owlman!\", \"Night of the Huntress!\", \"The Fate of Equinox!\", \"Revenge of the Reach!\", \"Aquaman's Outrageous Adventure!\", \"The Power of Shazam!\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part One\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part Two\", \"Cry Freedom Fighters!\", \"Darkseid Descending!\", \"Shadow of the Bat!\", \"Time Out for Vengeance!\", and \"Crisis: 22,300 Miles Above Earth!\".\n** The Ted Kord version appears in the episodes \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" and \"Menace of the Madniks!\", voiced by Wil Wheaton.\n** In \"Rise of the Blue Beetle\", the Blue Beetle scarab is briefly worn by Kanjar Ro (voiced by Marc Worden).\n** The Dan Garrett version makes a brief, non-voiced appearance in \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" as Batman narrates about the Blue Beetles to Reyes and \"Menace of the Madniks!\" displayed his Blue Beetle suit next to Kord's.\n* The Jaime Reyes version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"Young Justice\", voiced by actor Eric Lopez. In a running gag, Jaime can often be seen rejecting the Blue Beetle Scarab's (also voiced by Lopez) more violent and bloodthirsty suggestions (\"No, it would \"not\" have been easier to just vaporize him back in the diner!\"), which confuses those around him as it looks like he's talking to himself. Much of season 2's main story arc also revolves around Jaime's main antagonists, the Reach. Dan Garrett, the original Blue Beetle, appears in a non-speaking cameo in the episode \"Failsafe\", in which several scenes depict the members of the Justice Society of America, in 1939. Dan appears among several of the most prominent members of the team, such as Green Lantern, Doctor Fate, and Flash. The episode \"Intervention\" later tells the full story of the scarab: ancient Bialyan mystics deactivated its Reach control centuries ago, and it lay dormant until it was discovered by Dan Garrett, who fused with it to become the first Blue Beetle. His successor and protege, the technological genius Ted Kord, was able to recognize the Scarab as a potentially dangerous piece of alien technology, and thus made use of his own inventions as a hero, but still used the Blue Beetle identity. Kord later lost his life in a battle with Deathstroke and Sportsmaster upon discovering The Light planned to steal and reactivate the Scarab. Jaime came across the Scarab just after Ted Kord's death, and became the third Blue Beetle, while believing the Scarab was Kord's own invention. He was recruited into the Justice League's teenage strike team, where subsequent conflicts with the Reach led him to discover the Scarab's true origin and purpose, but his attempts to remove it were unable to keep his body from being completely controlled by it. Some of the Team made a separate discovery of the Bialyan ritual that could remove the Reach's control over the Scarab, and kept the knowledge quiet while Doctor Fate taught Zatanna the ritual, so the Team could once again deactivate the Scarab to allow Jaime to resume control. The Scarab then cooperates with Jaime without much resistance, preferring their partnership over enslavement.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the animated series \"Justice League Action\", voiced again by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Ted Kord version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"DC Super Hero Girls\", voiced by Max Mittelman."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blue Beetle:36",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blue Beetle",
          "In other media",
          "Audio drama"
        ],
        "ctx": "The \"Kingdom Come\" story, in which the Blue Beetle took part, has been adapted as an audio drama by John Whitman, based on the story by Mark Waid and Alex Ross and the novelization by Elliot S. Maggin (Time Warner Audio Books, 1998).\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears on the cover of a comic book in the \"Watchmen\" film tie-in \"Under the Hood\".\n* In \"\", an evil version of Blue Beetle appeared on a computer page of the lesser members of the Crime Syndicate.\n* The Ted Kord Blue Beetle is portrayed by Luke Barats in the 2011 short film \"The Death and Return of Superman\".\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in \"Justice League vs. Teen Titans\", where he is a member of the Teen Titans. He is a close friend of Beast Boy and helps in fending off Trigon's demonic emissaries from Hell. He is voiced by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in the sequel \"\" with Austin reprising his role again.\n* Ted Kord as Blue Beetle makes a brief appearance in \"Teen Titans Go! To the Movies\".\n* In \"\", he was one among the Titans who were killed by the Paradooms.\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears in the 2012 film \"Agent Beetle\". He is never referred to as Blue Beetle in the film, possibly to avoid copyright issues.\n* The Ted Kord version appears in a DC Showcase short that was included in \"\".\n* A film centered around Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle is in development, with Gareth Dunnet-Alcocer serving as screenwriter and Angel Manuel Soto will direct the film. The film will be an installment in the DC Extended Universe franchise. Xolo Maridue\u00f1a was cast as Jamie Reyes. Other actors Bruna Marquezine and Belissa Escobedo were respectively cast as the protagonist's love interest Penny and younger sister Milagros; Harvey Guill\u00e9n also joined the cast in an undisclosed role.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the episode \"Booster\" in the final season of \"Smallville\", where the scarab bonds with Jaime who is saved by Booster Gold. Ted Kord also makes an appearance as well, searching for the lost, and apparently extremely dangerous Blue Beetle scarab. Dan Garrett is also mentioned, with Clark Kent stating he was a Kord Industries scientist who was killed after the Scarab bonded with him.\n* Kord Industries is referenced in the second and fourth season of The CW show \"Arrow\". The producers planned for Ted Kord to join the show in the third season, but when DC told them that they had \"other plans for him\", he was replaced by Ray Palmer.\n* Blue Beetle was referenced in the 7th episode of \"Legends of Tomorrow\" when Kendra asks Ray about his favorite color, blue, and his favorite Beatle, he does not have one.\n* Several incarnations of the Blue Beetle appear on \"\":\n** The Jaime Reyes incarnation is a featured character, with Jaime Reyes voiced by Will Friedle and the Blue Beetle Scarab voiced by Ioan Gruffudd. He appears in the episodes \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Invasion of the Secret Santas!\", \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Game Over for Owlman!\", \"Night of the Huntress!\", \"The Fate of Equinox!\", \"Revenge of the Reach!\", \"Aquaman's Outrageous Adventure!\", \"The Power of Shazam!\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part One\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part Two\", \"Cry Freedom Fighters!\", \"Darkseid Descending!\", \"Shadow of the Bat!\", \"Time Out for Vengeance!\", and \"Crisis: 22,300 Miles Above Earth!\".\n** The Ted Kord version appears in the episodes \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" and \"Menace of the Madniks!\", voiced by Wil Wheaton.\n** In \"Rise of the Blue Beetle\", the Blue Beetle scarab is briefly worn by Kanjar Ro (voiced by Marc Worden).\n** The Dan Garrett version makes a brief, non-voiced appearance in \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" as Batman narrates about the Blue Beetles to Reyes and \"Menace of the Madniks!\" displayed his Blue Beetle suit next to Kord's.\n* The Jaime Reyes version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"Young Justice\", voiced by actor Eric Lopez. In a running gag, Jaime can often be seen rejecting the Blue Beetle Scarab's (also voiced by Lopez) more violent and bloodthirsty suggestions (\"No, it would \"not\" have been easier to just vaporize him back in the diner!\"), which confuses those around him as it looks like he's talking to himself. Much of season 2's main story arc also revolves around Jaime's main antagonists, the Reach. Dan Garrett, the original Blue Beetle, appears in a non-speaking cameo in the episode \"Failsafe\", in which several scenes depict the members of the Justice Society of America, in 1939. Dan appears among several of the most prominent members of the team, such as Green Lantern, Doctor Fate, and Flash. The episode \"Intervention\" later tells the full story of the scarab: ancient Bialyan mystics deactivated its Reach control centuries ago, and it lay dormant until it was discovered by Dan Garrett, who fused with it to become the first Blue Beetle. His successor and protege, the technological genius Ted Kord, was able to recognize the Scarab as a potentially dangerous piece of alien technology, and thus made use of his own inventions as a hero, but still used the Blue Beetle identity. Kord later lost his life in a battle with Deathstroke and Sportsmaster upon discovering The Light planned to steal and reactivate the Scarab. Jaime came across the Scarab just after Ted Kord's death, and became the third Blue Beetle, while believing the Scarab was Kord's own invention. He was recruited into the Justice League's teenage strike team, where subsequent conflicts with the Reach led him to discover the Scarab's true origin and purpose, but his attempts to remove it were unable to keep his body from being completely controlled by it. Some of the Team made a separate discovery of the Bialyan ritual that could remove the Reach's control over the Scarab, and kept the knowledge quiet while Doctor Fate taught Zatanna the ritual, so the Team could once again deactivate the Scarab to allow Jaime to resume control. The Scarab then cooperates with Jaime without much resistance, preferring their partnership over enslavement.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the animated series \"Justice League Action\", voiced again by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Ted Kord version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"DC Super Hero Girls\", voiced by Max Mittelman."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle\n--Publication history.\n--Blue Beetles.\n----Dan Garret / Dan Garrett.\n----Ted Kord.\n----Jaime Reyes.\n--The Scarab - Khaji Da.\n--Other versions.\n----Kingdom Come.\n----52 Multiverse.\n----DC Animated Universe comics.\n--In other media.\n----Radio.\n----Audio drama.\n----Television.\n------Unreleased screen test.\n----Video games.\n----\"The Electric Company\".\n--Homages.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Rise of the Blue Beetle!",
        "text": "\"The Rise of the Blue Beetle\" is the first episode of the animated television series \"\". The episode introduces Blue Beetle in his first on-screen appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Geoff Johns stated on his Twitter account that there is a live action screen test of Jaime Reyes as the Blue Beetle. This screen test was used to trial the concept of a Blue Beetle television series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Xolo Maridue\u00f1a will portray the character in his own live action film set in the DC Extended Universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "On the PBS children's educational series \"The Electric Company\", the Blue Beetle was a bumbling superhero (played by Jim Boyd) who would often make matters worse instead of better. He wore a mask, a hood with antennae, wings, tennis shoes, boxer shorts, and a T-shirt bearing the name \"Blue Beetle\". Outside of the name, the character is unrelated to any of the comic book characters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The supporting cast remained fairly stable throughout this original run and included Joan Mason, a beautiful blond reporter for the \"Daily Blade\" who would ultimately star in her own backup stories, and Mike Mannigan, Dan's stereotypical Irish partner on the force who believed despite all evidence to the contrary that the Blue Beetle was a criminal and was always trying to arrest him with little success. Dr. Franz, a local pharmacist and inventor of the bulletproof suit and 2X formula (as well as many other gadgets, including the portable wireless telephone nearly a half-century before they came into common use), played a large role in the early issues but eventually faded from the cast. The Beetle also had a short-lived spunky kid sidekick in the form of Sparkington J. Northrup (Sparky), who originally wore an abbreviated version of the Beetle's costume but later went into action wearing his regular clothes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "A new \"Blue Beetle\" title launched in fall 2011 after the conclusion of the \"Flashpoint\" event. It was written by Tony Bedard and drawn by Ig Guara and cancelled in February 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The character returned in June 2009 as a \"co-feature\" of the more popular \"Booster Gold\" comic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime Reyes is a fictional superhero character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Created by Keith Giffen, John Rogers, and Cully Hamner, the character made his first appearance in \"Infinite Crisis\" #3 (February 2006)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "The character ran as a backup feature in \"Captain Atom\" #83\u201386 (November 1966 \u2013 June 1967) before getting his own \"Blue Beetle\" title, which ran for 5 issues between June 1967 and November 1968. A sixth issue was produced, but published in the \"Charlton Portfolio\" by CPL Gang. The Question ran as a backup series, with the fifth issue featuring a quasi-team-up in which the Blue Beetle story continues in part in the \"Question\" tale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The \"Kingdom Come\" story, in which the Blue Beetle took part, has been adapted as an audio drama by John Whitman, based on the story by Mark Waid and Alex Ross and the novelization by Elliot S. Maggin (Time Warner Audio Books, 1998).\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears on the cover of a comic book in the \"Watchmen\" film tie-in \"Under the Hood\".\n* In \"\", an evil version of Blue Beetle appeared on a computer page of the lesser members of the Crime Syndicate.\n* The Ted Kord Blue Beetle is portrayed by Luke Barats in the 2011 short film \"The Death and Return of Superman\".\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in \"Justice League vs. Teen Titans\", where he is a member of the Teen Titans. He is a close friend of Beast Boy and helps in fending off Trigon's demonic emissaries from Hell. He is voiced by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in the sequel \"\" with Austin reprising his role again.\n* Ted Kord as Blue Beetle makes a brief appearance in \"Teen Titans Go! To the Movies\".\n* In \"\", he was one among the Titans who were killed by the Paradooms.\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears in the 2012 film \"Agent Beetle\". He is never referred to as Blue Beetle in the film, possibly to avoid copyright issues.\n* The Ted Kord version appears in a DC Showcase short that was included in \"\".\n* A film centered around Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle is in development, with Gareth Dunnet-Alcocer serving as screenwriter and Angel Manuel Soto will direct the film. The film will be an installment in the DC Extended Universe franchise. Xolo Maridue\u00f1a was cast as Jamie Reyes. Other actors Bruna Marquezine and Belissa Escobedo were respectively cast as the protagonist's love interest Penny and younger sister Milagros; Harvey Guill\u00e9n also joined the cast in an undisclosed role.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the episode \"Booster\" in the final season of \"Smallville\", where the scarab bonds with Jaime who is saved by Booster Gold. Ted Kord also makes an appearance as well, searching for the lost, and apparently extremely dangerous Blue Beetle scarab. Dan Garrett is also mentioned, with Clark Kent stating he was a Kord Industries scientist who was killed after the Scarab bonded with him.\n* Kord Industries is referenced in the second and fourth season of The CW show \"Arrow\". The producers planned for Ted Kord to join the show in the third season, but when DC told them that they had \"other plans for him\", he was replaced by Ray Palmer.\n* Blue Beetle was referenced in the 7th episode of \"Legends of Tomorrow\" when Kendra asks Ray about his favorite color, blue, and his favorite Beatle, he does not have one.\n* Several incarnations of the Blue Beetle appear on \"\":\n** The Jaime Reyes incarnation is a featured character, with Jaime Reyes voiced by Will Friedle and the Blue Beetle Scarab voiced by Ioan Gruffudd. He appears in the episodes \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Invasion of the Secret Santas!\", \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Game Over for Owlman!\", \"Night of the Huntress!\", \"The Fate of Equinox!\", \"Revenge of the Reach!\", \"Aquaman's Outrageous Adventure!\", \"The Power of Shazam!\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part One\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part Two\", \"Cry Freedom Fighters!\", \"Darkseid Descending!\", \"Shadow of the Bat!\", \"Time Out for Vengeance!\", and \"Crisis: 22,300 Miles Above Earth!\".\n** The Ted Kord version appears in the episodes \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" and \"Menace of the Madniks!\", voiced by Wil Wheaton.\n** In \"Rise of the Blue Beetle\", the Blue Beetle scarab is briefly worn by Kanjar Ro (voiced by Marc Worden).\n** The Dan Garrett version makes a brief, non-voiced appearance in \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" as Batman narrates about the Blue Beetles to Reyes and \"Menace of the Madniks!\" displayed his Blue Beetle suit next to Kord's.\n* The Jaime Reyes version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"Young Justice\", voiced by actor Eric Lopez. In a running gag, Jaime can often be seen rejecting the Blue Beetle Scarab's (also voiced by Lopez) more violent and bloodthirsty suggestions (\"No, it would \"not\" have been easier to just vaporize him back in the diner!\"), which confuses those around him as it looks like he's talking to himself. Much of season 2's main story arc also revolves around Jaime's main antagonists, the Reach. Dan Garrett, the original Blue Beetle, appears in a non-speaking cameo in the episode \"Failsafe\", in which several scenes depict the members of the Justice Society of America, in 1939. Dan appears among several of the most prominent members of the team, such as Green Lantern, Doctor Fate, and Flash. The episode \"Intervention\" later tells the full story of the scarab: ancient Bialyan mystics deactivated its Reach control centuries ago, and it lay dormant until it was discovered by Dan Garrett, who fused with it to become the first Blue Beetle. His successor and protege, the technological genius Ted Kord, was able to recognize the Scarab as a potentially dangerous piece of alien technology, and thus made use of his own inventions as a hero, but still used the Blue Beetle identity. Kord later lost his life in a battle with Deathstroke and Sportsmaster upon discovering The Light planned to steal and reactivate the Scarab. Jaime came across the Scarab just after Ted Kord's death, and became the third Blue Beetle, while believing the Scarab was Kord's own invention. He was recruited into the Justice League's teenage strike team, where subsequent conflicts with the Reach led him to discover the Scarab's true origin and purpose, but his attempts to remove it were unable to keep his body from being completely controlled by it. Some of the Team made a separate discovery of the Bialyan ritual that could remove the Reach's control over the Scarab, and kept the knowledge quiet while Doctor Fate taught Zatanna the ritual, so the Team could once again deactivate the Scarab to allow Jaime to resume control. The Scarab then cooperates with Jaime without much resistance, preferring their partnership over enslavement.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the animated series \"Justice League Action\", voiced again by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Ted Kord version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"DC Super Hero Girls\", voiced by Max Mittelman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The character briefly returned in DC Comics' first run of \"Blue Beetle\", resurrected by his mystical scarab to battle against his successor. He can also be seen in various flashback stories. His 1940s incarnation is briefly glimpsed in DC's 1993 limited series \"The Golden Age\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)\n--Publication history.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----Golden Age version (Dan Garret).\n----Silver Age version (Dan Garrett).\n----AC Comics.\n----DC Comics.\n----Dynamite Entertainment.\n----Legacy.\n----DC Universe.\n--In other media.\n----Comic strip.\n----Radio serial.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "A popular character in his era, the Blue Beetle had his own short-lived comic strip, drawn by a pseudonymous Jack Kirby and others, and a radio serial that ran for 48 thirteen-minute episodes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The \"Blue Beetle\" series has been collected into a number of trade paperbacks:\n* Jaren Brandt Bartlett portrayed Jaime Reyes in the tenth season of \"Smallville\". In the episode \"Booster\", he is originally portrayed as a teenager living in Metropolis who is shy and somewhat-clumsy, and was bullied because of it, until the Blue Beetle scarab attached itself to him after he was nearly in a traffic accident involving a vehicle that was transporting it to a Kord Industries facility. After seeking out a new hero, Booster Gold in the hopes that he could help remove the scarab from his spine, the scarab transforms Jaime into the Blue Beetle, and Jaime is unable to stop the armor from making him attack Booster. After nearly strangling Booster, Jaime is able to gain control over the scarab when Booster convinces him to stand up and assert himself over the scarab, shutting it down and reverting to his normal self. Ted Kord later offers to remove the scarab, but Jaime tells him he wishes to keep it and learn how to become a hero, and Booster offers to help Jaime control his powers and convinces Lois Lane to interview Jaime. This version's battle suit is rather bulky and lacks the traditional mouth seen in the comics (as the effect is difficult to pull off in live action). The name Blue Beetle was not used in the episode. Even though this incarnation is from Metropolis, he is seen in the episode wearing a shirt reading \"El Paso\", a nod to his comic book roots.\n* Jaime Reyes is a featured character in the animated series \"\", voiced by Will Friedle. This version is a fan of Batman and best friends with Paco Testas. In the pilot episode \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\", hee has a central role while fighting against Kanjar Ro. Jaime makes another appearance in the episode \"Invasion of the Secret Santas!\", assisting Batman in fighting the Sportsmaster and his henchmen and inviting Batman to his family's Christmas Eve dinner. Jaime appeared again fighting Planet Master alongside Aquaman in \"Aquaman's Outrageous Adventure!\". Blue Beetle also appears in the episodes \"Deep Cover for Batman!\" and \"Game Over for Owlman!\". In \"Night of the Huntress!\", Blue Beetle, Batman, and the Huntress have to stop the gangsters Baby-Face and Mrs. Manface while developing a crush on Huntress. Reyes appeared again in \"The Fate of Equinox!\" where he, along with Doctor Fate, Aquaman, Black Canary, Black Lightning, Fire, the original Flash, Green Arrow, Green Lantern, Plastic Man, and Red Tornado temporarily gave their powers to Batman, turning the Dark Knight into Bat Monolith to battle the omnipotent Equinox. In \"Revenge of the Reach!\", Jaime learns the Blue Beetle Scarab is a part of the Reach. His Blue Beetle suit takes control of him to shut down Oa's defenses, allowing the Reach to use an army of other Scarab-controlled beings to invade. Fortunately, Jaime regains control of his Blue Beetle suit by reminding the latter what they did was of their will, not the Reach's. Channeling the Green Lanterns' energy via his suit, Blue Beetle is able to free the other Scarab-controlled beings from the Reach's control. Despite the Guardians of the Universe asking Jaime for his Blue Beetle scarab's destruction along with the others, Guy Gardner is convinced that Jaime proved he's the master.\n* An alternate universe version named Scarlet Scarab is shown as a member of the Injustice Syndicate led by Owlman, also voiced by Freidle.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in \"Young Justice: Invasion\", voiced by Eric Lopez. This version appears as a member of the Young Justice team. Jaime initially believes the Scarab to be of technology that had been created by Ted Kord, prior to the former Blue Beetle's death at the hands of The Light's enforcers. After an explosion at Kord Industries, the Scarab bonded with Jaime who was passing by at the time. The explosion would later be revealed to have been the end result of Ted's fight with The Light's enforcers that cost the previous Blue Beetle's life. Unlike other versions, the Scarab speaks to Jaime only in English and finds lethal courses of action preferable to capture and restraint, which is why Jaime is constantly at odds with it, and unlike his comic book counterpart, he does not experience any discomfort when transforming into Blue Beetle. While Impulse is liberating Jaime from the Reach's first attempts to control him, he tells Jaime the reason of why the latter traveled to the past in the first place: Jaime's Scarab had become on mode and turned him into Earth's dictator. Jaime refuses to believe any of this, but is still dazed from the experiments. He later searches for a way to remove the Scarab to prevent what Impulse had told him from happening, but both his Scarab and body are eventually put under full Reach control by the Reach's armor-welding Green Martian agent Green Beetle. This virtually trapped Jaime inside of his mind, and allowed the Reach to make Jaime turn on the rest of the Team against his own will. The Team, mainly Zatanna, later frees Blue Beetle and his Scarab from the Reach's control. He then goes on to help Earth's heroes to defeat the Reach, playing an important role in helping them defeat the Reach's armor-wielding agent Black Beetle, and save the world from the Reach's attempt to destroy it. In the , he becomes a member of Beast Boy's Outsiders and is in a relationship with Traci Thurston.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in \"DC Super Hero Girls\". He is seen as one of the background students of Super Hero High.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in \"Justice League Action\", voiced again by Jake T. Austin."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of DC Animated Universe characters",
        "text": "Blue Beetle could not appear as a member of the Justice League due to rights being tied up until 2007 because of his 1940s radio show and 1980s cartoon proposals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In issue #0 of the \"Project Superpowers\" miniseries, the Fox Feature Syndicate version of the Blue Beetle appeared in flashbacks (as by now the character/spelling \"Dan Garret\" was in the public domain). To avoid trademark conflicts with DC Comics, he is referred to in this series by the nickname \"Big Blue\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In 1964, during the Silver Age of comics, Charlton revised the character for a new Blue Beetle series. Charlton's new Blue Beetle retained the original's name (adding a second \"t\"), but none of his powers or origin, making him a different character. This Beetle was archaeologist Dan Garrett, who obtained a number of superhuman powers (including super strength and vision, flight, and the ability to generate energy blasts) from a mystical scarab he found during a dig in Egypt, where it had been used to imprison an evil mummified Pharaoh. He would transform into the Blue Beetle by saying the words \"Kaji Dha!\" This version, by writer Joe Gill and artist Tony Tallarico, was played at least initially for camp, with stories like \"The Giant Mummy Who was Not Dead\". The Charlton Dan Garrett version of the Blue Beetle ran only until 1966 before his replacement debuted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "The original Blue Beetle comic first appeared in Winter 1940 by Fox Feature Syndicate and Holyoke Publishing. It starred the original Blue Beetle named Dan Garret who first appeared in \"Mystery Men Comics\" anthology comic book series. He was depicted as a police officer who secretly dons a superhero costume to thwart crime. The series was the second featured title of a superhero in American comic book magazines after Superman having his own series. The volume series lasted until August 1950 with issue #60 when the company of Fox Feature Syndicate collapsed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "In issue #0 of the \"Project Superpowers\" miniseries, the Fox Feature Syndicate version of the Blue Beetle appeared in flashbacks (as by now the character/spelling \"Dan Garret\" was in the public domain). To avoid trademark conflicts with DC Comics, he is referred to in this series by the nickname \"Big Blue\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In \"\", other representatives of the Reach attack Odym, homeworld of the Blue Lantern Corps, where it is revealed that their armours have taken control of them; Jaime speculates, during a confrontation with Kyle Rayner, that his armour is damaged, explaining why he is in control of himself where other Reach soldiers are enslaved to their armour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The character briefly returned in DC Comics' first run of \"Blue Beetle\", resurrected by his mystical scarab to battle against his successor. He can also be seen in various flashback stories. His 1940s incarnation is briefly glimpsed in DC's 1993 limited series \"The Golden Age\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "The character was revised and reprinted briefly by Charlton Comics with issues #18-#20."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "In 1964, during the Silver Age of comics, Charlton revised the character for a new Blue Beetle series. Charlton's new Blue Beetle retained the original's name (adding a second \"t\"), but no powers or back story, making him a different character. This Beetle was archaeologist Dan Garrett, who obtained a number of superhuman powers (including super strength and vision, flight, and the ability to generate energy blasts) from a mystical scarab he found during a dig in Egypt, where it had been used to imprison an evil mummified Pharaoh. He would transform into the Blue Beetle by saying the words \"Kaji Dha!\" This version, by writer Joe Gill and artist Tony Tallarico, was played at least initially for camp, with stories like \"The Giant Mummy Who Was Not Dead\". The Charlton Dan Garrett version of the Blue Beetle ran only until 1966 before his replacement debuted."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Rise of the Blue Beetle!",
        "text": "Dan Phillips of IGN said that people would not like \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\" very much if they have a problem with \"wormholes, single-cell organisms and evil intergalactic pirates being mentioned in the same breath as Batman\". Scott Summers of Toonzone liked the plot of the episode while also noting that there are references to older Batman animation. Rob M. Worley of Mania said that the episode has \"laugh-out-loud moments\" and praised the action and plot twists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Rookie patrolman Dan Garret originally fought crime as the Blue Beetle without the benefit of superhuman abilities. Garret later donned a bulletproof blue costume (described by Garret as being made of a cellulose material which was \"as thin and light as silk but stronger than steel\" and temporarily gained superhuman strength and stamina by ingesting the mysterious \"Vitamin 2X\". Like the Green Hornet, the Blue Beetle would use his signature scarab symbol to bedevil criminals, leaving it to be easily found, hanging it down into a room on a string and even projecting its enlarged image onto a wall with a flashlight."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Rise of the Blue Beetle!",
        "text": "Michael Jelenic, the story editor and co-producer of the show, wrote the scene with Jaime and his friend Paco, commented on Batman and Green Arrow on television because that is the type of thing that he imagined fanboys arguing about. The Clock King segment includes pop culture references while Jaime's room has a \"The Dark Knight Returns\" poster. The episode has easter eggs of characters that didn't appear in the episode."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Before they can figure out their next move, the base is attacked by the Creature Commandos. During the battle Max reveals himself while posing as one of the Creature Commandos. Blue Beetle ends up unconscious and Max captures him, heading to the teleporter and leaving the JLI behind. When Blue Beetle is in captivity, Max injects him with an unknown substance. Tortured, he remembers Max's existence as the man who killed Ted Kord and destroyed his legacy. Jaime eventually manages to send a signal to the rest of the JLI to lead them to Max's headquarters. He breaks out of the laboratory and attacks Max, who, having discovered the weaknesses of the Blue Scarab, zaps Jaime with a special beam and, just as the JLI arrives, shoots him in the head with a blaster, apparently killing him in the same manner as his predecessor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abner Jenkins",
        "text": "In 1997, Abner Jenkins as the Beetle received an action figure in the \"\" tie-in toyline, despite the character not being featured in the show."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Blue Racer",
        "text": "A fast-moving blue snake named the Blue Racer (voiced by Larry D. Mann) tries unsuccessfully to catch a stereotypically-Japanese beetle (voiced by Tom Holland), who is a black belt in karate. Both characters spun off from \"Tijuana Toads\" in \"Hop and Chop\" (the Japanese beetle) and \"Snake in the Gracias\" (the Blue Racer). The goofy crane from \"Tijuana Toads\" (Crazylegs Crane, who also repeatedly failed to collar the Racer and the Toads himself) also later appeared in the series as well. 17 cartoons were produced.\n* Bob Holt voiced both the Blue Racer and the Japanese Beetle in the 1972 short \"Support Your Local Serpent\".\n* The Japanese Beetle's last appearance was in the 1972 short \"Blue Racer Blues\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "An evil version has appeared in the antimatter universe of Qward, the universe of the Crime Syndicate of America, known as the Scarab."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) was seen in Alex Ross and Mark Waid's limited series \"Kingdom Come\". He is shown with the rest of the Charlton \"Action Heroes\" not as a member of Magog's Justice Battalion, but as part of Batman's group and later of the MLF (Mankind Liberation Front). He would be shown later in the title in a suit of armor powered by the then-mystic scarab, working with Batman's team. In the novelization of the series, Batman thinks of Blue Beetle, along with Green Arrow and Black Canary, as his closest (at the time) friends. Blue Beetle is killed with most of the other heroes by a nuclear explosion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The original Blue Beetle was created by Fox Comics and later owned by Charlton Comics. The first Beetle was Dan Garret (later spelled Dan Garrett), who initially gained super powers from a special vitamin, which was later changed to gaining powers from a \"sacred scarab\". The original Blue Beetle was featured not only in his own comic but also a weekly radio serial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The Blue Beetle had his own short-lived comic strip, drawn by a pseudonymous Jack Kirby and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle is the name of three fictional superheroes who appear in a number of American comic books published by a variety of companies since 1939. The most recent of the companies to own rights to the Blue Beetle is DC Comics who bought the rights to the character in 1983, using the name for three distinct characters over the years."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unproduced DC Comics projects",
        "text": "Geoff Johns announced a live action TV series featuring the Jamie Reyes version of Blue Beetle. They made a test trailer with stuntman and actor Garrett Plotkin as Jaime Reyes. Scenes of this trailer were shown as part of the upcoming DC Nation block of programming in 2012 on Cartoon Network during the premiere of \"\". Since then, nothing has been announced about the project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The character first appeared by Fox Comics in August 1939 issue of \"Mystery Men Comics\" with art by Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski (as Charles Nicholas), though the Grand Comics Database tentatively credits Will Eisner as the scripter. Blue Beetle has starred in a comic book series, comic strip and radio serial, but like most Golden Age of Comic Books superheroes, fell into obscurity in the 1950s. The comic book series saw a number of anomalies in publication: 19 issues, #12 through #30, were published through Holyoke Publishing; no issue #43 was published; publication frequency varied throughout the run; and there were gaps where issues were not published, with large ones occurring in early 1947 and between mid-1948 and early 1950."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The original Golden Age Blue Beetle is Dan Garret, son of a police officer killed by a criminal. This Fox Feature Syndicate version of the character debuted in \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (August 1939), and began appearing in his own 60-issue series shortly thereafter. Fox Feature Syndicate sponsored a \"Blue Beetle Day\" at the 1939 New York World's Fair on August 7, 1940, beginning at 10:30\u00a0a.m. and including 300 children in relay-race finals at the Field of Special Events, following preliminaries in New York City parks. The race was broadcast over radio station WMCA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime Reyes is the third character to assume the mantle of Blue Beetle, but he is substantially different from his predecessors. Introduced in 1939, the original Blue Beetle, Dan Garret, was a Fox Comics police officer who fought crime with superpowers gained by ingesting \"Vitamin 2X\". A revamped version of this character, archaeologist Dan Garrett, introduced in 1964 by Charlton Comics drew mystical abilities from an ancient Egyptian scarab. Published by Charlton Comics and later DC, 1966 creation Ted Kord was Garret's student who continued his legacy of costumed crime-fighting, although he had no superpowers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "This version of Blue Beetle has been ranked as the 61st-greatest comic book character of all time IGN also ranked this version of the Blue Beetle as the 61st-greatest comic book hero of all time stating that his intelligence, his \"bwahahha\" antics, his endearing partnership with Booster Gold, and his brave sacrifice during the build-up to \"Infinite Crisis\" all serve to cement this particular Beetle's legacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles Nicholas",
        "text": "The Blue Beetle first appeared in Fox Comics' superhero anthology series \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (Aug. 1939), with art by Wojtkoski (as Charles Nicholas), though the Grand Comics Database tentatively credits Will Eisner as the scripter. His family has said Wojtkowski \"decided in the late 1930s to sell the rights to the character to raise money\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Booster Gold",
        "text": "Alternate versions of Booster Gold and Blue Beetle as they were prior to \"Countdown to Infinite Crisis\" appear in the pages of \"Justice League 3000\" #14, where they are awaken from a 1,000-year suspended animation on Takron-Galtos in the 31st century. According to Keith Giffen, \"they're J.M. DeMatteis and \"my\" Blue Beetle and Booster Gold\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The mystical Scarab that had given Dan Garrett his powers had been thought destroyed. When it was found intact, it was given to Ted Kord, who was never able to use it. After an attack by Brother Eye, the Scarab appeared energized and Ted brought it to the wizard Shazam, who took it and sent Ted away. Shortly after, in the \"Day of Vengeance\" storyline, Shazam was killed and the Scarab was blasted across the globe along with shards from Rock of Eternity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In \"Futures End\" #0 Blue Beetle is seen working together with the resistance against Brother Eye and all the other dead superheroes. He dies and mutates into a robot controlled by Brother Eye."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue's Clues & You!",
        "text": "Similar to the original 1996 series, this series has a live-action host in an animated world. The series features new production designs and the characters (aside from the host) are animated digitally, though the visual style remains similar to the style used in the original series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle has appeared in the \"Justice League Unlimited\" spin-off comic book, in issues #5 and #8."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In the game \"Infinite Crisis\", a multiplayer online battle arena developed by Turbine, Jaime Reyes is playable character. All three Blue Beetles appear as playable characters in the Wii U version of '. Jaime Reyes also appears in ' and \"Lego DC Super-Villains\" as a playable character. Jaime Reyes is also a playable fighter in \"Injustice 2\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Rise of the Blue Beetle!",
        "text": "The episode opens with Batman and Green Arrow (James Arnold Taylor) breaking out of Clock King's clockwork death trap clock that would have lowered them into acid, before going on to fight him and his henchmen. The main plot starts after the theme song airs. Teenage Jaime Reyes (Will Friedle) has become the new Blue Beetle but is not convinced that he has what it takes to be a superhero, partially because he has a few problems with controlling his powers, such as when he tried to rescue a cat from a tree. Batman decides to take the young superhero under his wing and asks Blue Beetle to help him stop a meteor. The mission is stopped, however, when Blue Beetle's scarab creates a wormhole which sends the two superheroes to a distant planet. The planet is inhabited by intelligent single-celled aliens called Gibbles that are under constant siege by the intergalactic pirate Kanjar Ro, who wants to harvest their bodies for fuel. The aliens mistakenly believe Blue Beetle is another, alien, scarab-wearing Blue Beetle who is their savior, and who Batman correctly guesses was killed, and think Batman is his sidekick. Blue Beetle is not confident that he can save them, although he decides to try when he sees the hope they have for him. Batman tells the Blue Beetle to give a speech to the aliens to encourage them to help him and Batman fight Kanjar Ro. Kanjar Ro is meanwhile draining energy from the Gibbles to power his ships for raids on the Medra Quadrant. However, Batman, Blue Beetle and the Gibble army attacks and Blue Beetle starts getting the hang of controlling the suit. He saves Batman from Kanjar Ro, then fights and defeats him, but Ro returns, freeing his crew and using his Gamma Gong on Blue Beetle, which he knows that he has a weakness for; its sonic waves eliminates his suit, and was how he killed the last Blue Beetle. Batman is incapacitated, and another blow of the Gong completely strips Blue Beetle's armor away; when Ro sees his greatest foe is a child, he realizes he did eliminate the Beetle the last time they fought. After the Gibble army is soon after defeated, Ro has Batman and some Gibbles tied to a satellite floating in a part of space with fish-like space monsters that come to eat them, but Batman plugs one of the satellite's cables into the body of the Gibble next to him, charging it with power to electrocute one of the monsters and scare the other monsters away. Meanwhile, Ro has tied up Blue Beetle and is now using the Gong to find the right frequency to remove the Scarab. As Batman enters and Ro is knocked into the Gong, the scarab is removed by the created tones. Ro attaches it to his spine and uses its power to fight Batman. Meanwhile, Jaime thinks creatively and escapes his bonds, and before Ro can kill Batman, he arrives with the Gong and uses it to strip away the armor and remove the Scarab from Ro. Enraged, he tries to attack them, but the Gibble from before arrives and uses a newly made weapon that utilizes the power from its body to knock Ro out. Before he and Blue Beetle leave their planet, the Gibbles thank Batman for his part in helping Blue Beetle and themselves to defeat Kanjor Ro. Returning to Earth through the wormhole, they find it has brought them back to not only the exact place, but also the exact time after they had gone through it the first time. This gives them enough time to finish the mission to stop the meteor that got them sent through the wormhole in the first place, and after making sure his partner is ready, Batman and Blue Beetle take on the meteor."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Blue Beetle enemies",
        "text": "List of Blue Beetle enemies\n--Dan Garret (Fox Syndicate).\n--Dan Garrett (Charlton).\n--Ted Kord.\n--Jaime Reyes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Charlton Comics allegedly obtained the rights to the Blue Beetle (although there is no proof that a formal purchase ever took place) and reprinted some stories in its anthology titles and in a four-issue \"Blue Beetle\" reprint series numbered 18\u201321."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In the latest relaunch of the DC Universe, \"DC Rebirth\", Jaime is working with Ted Kord to study the beetle attached to Jaime's back and remove it. Once again, the beetle's origin is retconned, as revealed by Doctor Fate, who tells Kord that the beetle is not alien, but magical, similar to the original continuity pre-\"Infinite Crisis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Rise of the Blue Beetle!",
        "text": "The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n--Reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "After The New 52 was launched, a new series starring Jaime Reyes was introduced. It launched in November 2011 and ended in March 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "1986 in comics",
        "text": "Blue Beetle\n: \"Release\": June. \"Writer\": Len Wein. Artists: Paris Cullins and Bruce Patterson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (comic book)\n--Fox Feature Syndicate and Holyoke Publishing.\n--Charlton Comics.\n--DC Comics.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle is a long running comic book series that was first published by Fox Feature Syndicate before being a Charlton Comics title and currently a DC Comics title. The series starred certain characters with the same name."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "After being captured by Lady Styx's henchmen in \"Blue Beetle\" vol. 8 #16, Jaimie is forced to take part in the bounty hunter game The Haunted on the planet called Tolerance. After losing control over the Scarab armor and regaining control back, he teams up with a New God named Lonar, to kill the creator of the game Adonis and escape the planet. Lonar kills Adonis, takes his pocket dimension, and disappears. In \"Threshold\" #8 the producer of the show The Hunted, reveals that the show has been cancelled and sends Jaimie back to Earth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)\n--Publication history.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----\"Infinite Crisis\".\n----Ongoing series.\n----The Reach.\n----Teen Titans.\n----Series finale.\n----Further adventures.\n----\"Justice League: Generation Lost\".\n----The New 52.\n----DC Rebirth.\n--Powers and abilities.\n--Collected editions.\n--In other media.\n----Film.\n------DC Extended Universe.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "1967 in comics",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (vol. 5)\n: \"Release\": June by Charlton Comics. \"Writer/Artist\": Steve Ditko."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Dan Garret or Dan Garrett is a fictional superhero, appearing in American comic books published by multiple companies, including Fox Comics, Charlton Comics, and DC Comics. Garret was created by Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski, and made his first appearance in Fox's \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 during the Golden Age of Comic Books. Garrett is the first character to become the superhero Blue Beetle, predating Ted Kord and Jaime Reyes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime is recruited by Black Beetle (who originally identifies himself as a Blue Beetle from the future) and Garrett to go into the past with Booster Gold to prevent Kord's death. After saving Kord, Jaime and Garrett return, the future is revealed to be a dystopia ruled by Maxwell Lord, who now was never exposed and defeated. Black Beetle is also revealed to be a future enemy of Jaime's, who tries to create this future so he will never have to deal with Jaime and so he \"would not lose her\". In \"Booster Gold\" vol. 2 #10, seeing the damage done by their actions, Ted decides to accept his death and returns to the past, seemingly to the exact moment where he was murdered by Lord, returning the timeline to equilibrium and thus preventing the dystopia. However, in the epilogue for \"Booster Gold\" vol. 2 #1.000.000, a figure with a scarab enters a Kord Industries building that contains a Bug and a picture of Kord's enemy Overthrow among other things. His trademark laugh hints that it is actually Ted, who somehow escaped death but managed to fix the timestream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joe Gill",
        "text": "The character would eventually become a stalwart of the DC stable, as would Blue Beetle, an old Fox Comics superhero revived by Gill and artists Bill Fraccio and Tony Tallarico as a campy, comedic character in \"Blue Beetle\" #1 (June 1964)."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Blue Beetle enemies",
        "text": "This is a list of fictional characters from comic books and other media who are or have been enemies of the Blue Beetle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "A new version of the Blue Beetle known as \"Blue Scarab\" was shown as a member of the Justice League in the apocalyptic future depicted in \"Justice League: Generation Lost\". He is stated as being the \"descendant of the Blue Beetle\", and has a very alien-looking appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Not much later, he is visited by Skeets, Booster Gold's robotic partner, who warned him of his disappearance. Deciding to team up with the small machine to find Booster to pay respect to him for introducing him to the superhero world, he reaches the house of Rose Levin and Daniel Carter, Booster's 21st century ancestors. Soon after he arrives, the Black Lantern Ted Kord crashes his ship into Daniel's house and Jaime proceeds to battle Kord. Although outmatched and insulted by the Black Lantern, Jaime keeps fighting until Booster enters the scene."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Some time later, Booster Gold, along with Jaime, Dan, and the Black Beetle in the guise of a Blue Beetle from the future, travels back in time to rescue Kord moments before his death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The Charlton version of Dan Garrett was spotlighted in the second issue of DC's 1980s \"Secret Origins\" series, in which his origin was retold along with that of Ted Kord. Subsequent appearances by Dan Garrett (in flashback stories) include guest spots or cameos in \"Infinity, Inc.\", \"Captain Atom\", \"JLA: Year One\", and \"Legends of the DC Universe\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "Nearly all of Ted Kord's Charlton Comics appearances as the Blue Beetle have been collected as part of the DC Archive Editions series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "In 1964, Charlton modernized the \"Blue Beetle\" title. Instead of Dan Garret, he was renamed Dan Garrett. Also instead of a policeman he was an archeologist who discovered the ancient mystical scarab which gave him multiple superpowers. The series lasted five issues through March\u2013April 1965. The Dan Garrett version would briefly be revised again in July 1965 throughout February\u2013March 1966, lasting another five issues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Dan Garret was a son of a police officer killed by a criminal. This Fox Feature Syndicate version of the character debuted in \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (August 1939) and continued through issue #31. He began appearing in his own 60-issue series shortly thereafter. Fox Feature Syndicate sponsored a \"Blue Beetle Day\" at the 1939 New York World's Fair on August 7, 1940, beginning at 10:30\u00a0a.m. and including 300 children in relay-race finals at the Field of Special Events, following preliminaries in New York City parks. The race was broadcast over radio station WMCA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Spin-offs from the series \"Countdown to Final Crisis\" would introduce more alternate Blue Beetles in 2007. Earth-19 (the \"Gotham by Gaslight\" universe), set in a Victorian-like era, has its own version of Dan Garrett who in his secret identity is the leading Egyptologist at the Gotham Museum of Natural History and wears a monocle, appearing in \"The Search for Ray Palmer: Gotham by Gaslight\". The limited series \"\" depicted three more: Earth-26 Blue Beetle, a swarm of sentient insects that form a man-shaped body (calling themselves \"The Scarab\"), Ted of Earth-33, an anthropomorphic beetle, the pet of Mr. and Mrs. Kord, and Earth-39 Blue Beetle, a younger version of Dan Garrett, who has bonded with his scarab in the same way as Jaime Reyes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The Scarab came to Earth in El Paso, Texas, where Jaime picked it up. Not long after, Booster Gold appeared at Jaime's house to retrieve it, but it had fused itself to Jaime's spine while he was sleeping. Booster recruited Jaime for Batman's assault on the Brother Eye satellite, since the Scarab was the only thing that could see the satellite. Using the Scarab's powers, Jaime was able to reveal the satellite to Batman's group, enabled them to defeat it. Once Brother Eye was sent plummeting Earthward, Jaime disappeared from the ship, teleported away by the scarab, which sought to escape the Green Lanterns on board."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "He began a career as a superhero, meeting Oracle, the Phantom Stranger and the current Peacemaker during his early adventures and ends up in conflict with supervillains like the ones that work for the crime boss La Dama. He often associates himself with a street gang of local superhumans known as the Posse. His support team agreed to help Jaime track crime and natural disasters in the Midwest via the Internet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The original Blue Beetle, Dan Garret, first appeared in Fox Comics' \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (cover-dated August 1939), with art by Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski (as Charles Nicholas), though the Grand Comics Database tentatively credits Will Eisner as the scripter. A rookie police officer, he wore a special bulletproof costume and took \"Vitamin 2X\" which endowed him with super-energy, and he was assisted by a neighborhood pharmacist in his fight against crime. Blue Beetle starred in a comic book series, comic strip and radio serial, but like most Golden Age superheroes, he fell into obscurity in the 1950s. The comic book series saw a number of anomalies in publication: 19 issues, #12 through #30, were published through Holyoke Publishing; no issue #43 was published; publication frequency varied throughout the run; and there were gaps where issues were not published, with large ones occurring in early 1947 and between mid-1948 and early 1950."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime lives in El Paso, Texas, US with his father, mother and little sister; his father owns a garage. Jaime offers to help his father at the garage, but his father feels Jaime should study and enjoy his childhood for as long as he can. Jaime has an acute sense of responsibility for his family and friends, though he complains about having to sort out their various problems. He derives strength and courage from his family's support, wanting what's best for them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Starting in \"Booster Gold\" vol. 2 #21, Blue Beetle was featured as a 10-page ongoing co-feature. The stories focused on a smaller cast than before, focusing on Jaime, Paco and Brenda while Jaime's family occasionally appears. The rebooted scarab is shown to be more bloodthirsty than in the past, constantly urging Jaime to use more lethal weaponry. In the first serial, Jaime faces the android daughter of an old supervillain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue SWAT",
        "text": "Mademoiselle Q/Queen made an appearance in the episode \"Convention Dimension\" in \"Big Bad Beetleborgs\" as Wingar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The Blue Beetle scarab is grafted onto Jaime Reyes's spine and can manifest a number of powers of its own volition, an act usually accompanied by blue energy emitted by the scarab's \"antennae\". Over the course of the first year of his ongoing series, Jaime had little, if any, control over those powers, but slowly asserts himself. When Jaime is in danger, the scarab activates, crawling out on to Jaime's back and generating a high-tech suit of powered armor around his body. The armor is resilient enough that it can protect him against re-entry from Earth's orbit. When the danger passes, the scarab deactivates, dissolving the costume and retracting back onto Jaime's spine, causing intense pain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast and Furry-ous",
        "text": "\"Fast and Furry-ous\" is available in its blue ribbon reissue on ', ', and \"\" in 1080p resolution. It is also available on the \"Road Runner Vs. Wile E. Coyote: The Classic Chase\" VHS, the \"Stars Of Space Jam: Wile E. Coyote And Road Runner\" VHS, and the \"Road Runner Vs. Wile E. Coyote: If At First You Don't Succeed...\" Laserdisc. You can see the superhero scene on \"The Bugs Bunny Road Runner Movie\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The Blue Beetle had a short career on the radio, between May and September 1940. Motion picture and radio actor Frank Lovejoy was the Blue Beetle for the first 13 episodes, while for the rest of the shows, the voice was provided by a different, uncredited actor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The third Blue Beetle, created by DC Comics, is Jaime Reyes, a teenager who discovered that the original Blue Beetle scarab morphed into a battle suit allowing him to fight crime and travel in space. Over the years Reyes became a member of the Teen Titans and starred in two Blue Beetle comic series. In DC Comics' 2011 \"New 52\" reboot, Jaime Reyes was the primary Blue Beetle character, only occasionally referring to past versions. With the subsequent continuity revision \"DC Rebirth\", the previous versions were restored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Both Blue Beetles reappeared in the third issue of \"Americomics\", a title published by AC Comics in 1983/1984. In the first story in this issue, Ted Kord fought a bogus Dan Garrett, but the second story was more significant. It revealed that the original 1940s Dan was reincarnated as the Silver Age version (minus his memories of his earlier existence) by some unspecified \"gods\", presumably the ones responsible for his mystic scarab. The gods subsequently resurrected Dan again and sent him off to save Ted Kord's life (leaving him a note saying simply, \"Try not to get killed this time\"). After this adventure, Kord turned the Blue Beetle name back over to Dan. \"Americomics\" was canceled after issue #6, and so far this story has never been referenced by any other publisher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Both Blue Beetles reappeared in the third issue of \"Americomics\", a title published by AC Comics in 1983/1984. In the first story in this issue, Ted Kord fought a bogus Dan Garrett, but the second story was more significant. It revealed that the original 1940s Dan was reincarnated as the Silver Age version (minus his memories of his earlier existence) by some unspecified \"gods\", presumably the ones responsible for his mystic scarab. The gods subsequently resurrected Dan again and sent him off to save Ted Kord's life (leaving him a note saying simply, \"Try not to get killed this time\"). After this adventure, Kord turned the Blue Beetle name back over to Dan. \"Americomics\" was canceled after issue #6, and so far this story has never been referenced by any other publisher. Another Blue Beetle crossover story depiction revolving around the Blue Beetles is depicted in \"Booster Gold\" (vol. 2) #6 by DC Comics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Threshold (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle is tracked by another Hunted contestant, a New God named Lonar, who has plans for Beetle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Following DC's \"Flashpoint\" storyline \"Blue Beetle\" was one of 52 monthly titles launched in September 2011, again starring Jaime Reyes. The series was cancelled after 17 issues in January 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "In the pages of \"\", Dan Garrett was among the deceased superheroes that Batman revived using the Black Lantern ring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Friz Freleng",
        "text": "David DePatie, when asked about the Japanese beetle in Blue Racer in 1996, said this about Friz's view on race, \"It seems like poking fun at certain ethnic groups had always spelled success. Friz had always felt that way in his cartoons, especially with Speedy.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle has met Daniel's granddaughter, Danielle, and has also met Dan himself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The Charlton version of Dan Garrett was spotlighted in the second issue of DC's 1980s \"Secret Origins\" series, in which his origin was retold along with that of Ted Kord. Subsequent appearances by Dan Garrett (in flashback stories) include guest spots or cameos in \"Infinity, Inc.\", \"Captain Atom\", \"JLA: Year One\", and \"Legends of the DC Universe\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beetle Bailey",
        "text": "A 30-minute animated TV special co-written by Mort Walker and Hank Saroyan was produced for CBS in 1989, but did not air due to management changes at the CBS network. It has been released on DVD alongside the 1960s cartoons. Greg Whalen played Beetle, Bob Bergen portrayed Killer, Henry Corden was Sgt. Snorkel, Frank Welker was both Zero and Otto, Linda Gary voiced both Miss Buxley and Ms. Blips and General Halftrack was Larry Storch. This special was one of a number of specials made in the same timeframe by King Features/Hearst for TV as potential series pilots; others included \"Blondie & Dagwood\" (co-produced with Marvel Productions, who had also collaborated with King Features for the \"Defenders of the Earth\" series a few years before) and \"H\u00e4gar the Horrible\" (co-produced with Hanna-Barbera Productions)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "It was eventually established that the Charlton Comics incarnation of the Dan Garrett Blue Beetle made his debut on August 14, 1939."
      },
      {
        "title": "Question (character)",
        "text": "The Question's most frequent foe was Max Bine a.k.a. the Banshee. Introduced in \"Blue Beetle\" (vol. 4) #2 (August 1967), Bine was the apprentice of a circus performer named the Flying Dundo. After designing a cape that enabled the wearer to fly, Dundo was slain by his pupil and Max Bine became the costumed Banshee, using his mentor's invention to terrorize towns he crossed. The Banshee met his match when he reached Crown City and sparred with the Question on several occasions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle was selling well in comics in 1940, so Fox licensed the character to CBS Radio for a syndicated \"Blue Beetle\" radio serial, hoping to match the success of \"The Adventures of Superman\", which began in February 1940. \"The Blue Beetle\" launched on May 15, 1940, starring motion picture and radio actor Frank Lovejoy in the title role. As in the comics, Blue Beetle was a young police officer who saw the need for extraordinary crime fighting, and secretly dons a superhero costume to frighten the criminals who oppose him. The show was not a success. According to Christopher Irving, \"Lovejoy brought a maniacal, almost sadistic, cackle to the character. His Blue Beetle seemed as if he took some sick pride in hurting criminals\". Lovejoy left the show after four episodes, and was replaced with a different, uncredited actor. The last episode aired on September 13, 1940."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The new series was short-lived, and in the pages of \"Captain Atom\" #83 (cover-dated November 1966) through #86, Charlton introduced Ted Kord, a student of Dan Garrett's (note the changed spelling) who took on the role when Garrett died. Kord was an inventor hero, using a variety of gadgets. This Beetle received his own series in 1967, but the entire Charlton \"Action Heroes\" line of comic books ceased publication in 1968. With the rest of the Charlton line-up, he was sold to DC Comics in 1983 and appeared with several incarnations of the Justice League."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Warner Bros. cartoons with Blue Ribbon reissues",
        "text": "The titles for \"A Day at the Zoo\", \"Of Fox and Hounds\", \"The Isle of Pingo Pongo\", \"Don't Look Now\", \"Wacky Wildlife\", \"Johnny Smith and Poker-Huntas\", \"Thugs with Dirty Mugs\", \"A Feud There Was\", \"The Early Worm Gets the Bird\", \"Circus Today\", \"The Mice Will Play\", \"Fresh Fish\", \"Cross Country Detours\", and \"I Only Have Eyes for You\" were found on eBay in 2007, but never released on DVD."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Blue Beetle enemies",
        "text": "In chronological order (with issue and date of first appearance):"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Blue Beetle enemies",
        "text": "In chronological order (with issue and date of first appearance):"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Blue Beetle enemies",
        "text": "In chronological order (with issue and date of first appearance):"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Blue Beetle enemies",
        "text": "In chronological order (with issue and date of first appearance):"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Max escapes from the JLI using an escape pod. Failing to capture Max, the JLI carried Jaime on the land surface where paramedics Rocket Red and Skeets try to resuscitate him. Their efforts fail as Jaime had already died. As the team deals with his loss, suddenly he sits up, healed, declaring he knows Max's ultimate plans and that they can stop him. Jaime reveals to them that his healing scarab armor is what protected him from the blaster. When the battle against the OMAC Prime goes nowhere, Blue Beetle attacks and OMAC Prime appears to take his power, but Blue Beetle mentions that it cannot take control with the Scarab's power. Blue Beetle attacks and blasts OMAC Prime."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who is the most recent comic company that own the rights to the Blue Beetle?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The most recent of the companies to own rights to the Blue Beetle is DC Comics who bought the rights to the character in 1983, using the name for three distinct characters (Jaime Reyes, Dan Garrett and Ted Kord) over the years."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who owned Blue Beetle before DC Comics?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The original Blue Beetle was created by Fox Comics and later owned by Charlton Comics."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has Blue Beetle ever appeared in the television?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Blue Beetle has appeared in both live action and animation, which would you like to know about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the live action version please!"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Blue Beetle appears in an episode of the final season of Smallville, and is referenced in the 7th episode of Legends of Tomorrow.",
      "The Dan Garrett version of the Beetle appears in the 2012 film Agent Beetle."
    ],
    "topic": "Blue Beetle",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Blue Beetle:36",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blue Beetle",
          "In other media",
          "Audio drama"
        ],
        "ctx": "The \"Kingdom Come\" story, in which the Blue Beetle took part, has been adapted as an audio drama by John Whitman, based on the story by Mark Waid and Alex Ross and the novelization by Elliot S. Maggin (Time Warner Audio Books, 1998).\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears on the cover of a comic book in the \"Watchmen\" film tie-in \"Under the Hood\".\n* In \"\", an evil version of Blue Beetle appeared on a computer page of the lesser members of the Crime Syndicate.\n* The Ted Kord Blue Beetle is portrayed by Luke Barats in the 2011 short film \"The Death and Return of Superman\".\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in \"Justice League vs. Teen Titans\", where he is a member of the Teen Titans. He is a close friend of Beast Boy and helps in fending off Trigon's demonic emissaries from Hell. He is voiced by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in the sequel \"\" with Austin reprising his role again.\n* Ted Kord as Blue Beetle makes a brief appearance in \"Teen Titans Go! To the Movies\".\n* In \"\", he was one among the Titans who were killed by the Paradooms.\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears in the 2012 film \"Agent Beetle\". He is never referred to as Blue Beetle in the film, possibly to avoid copyright issues.\n* The Ted Kord version appears in a DC Showcase short that was included in \"\".\n* A film centered around Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle is in development, with Gareth Dunnet-Alcocer serving as screenwriter and Angel Manuel Soto will direct the film. The film will be an installment in the DC Extended Universe franchise. Xolo Maridue\u00f1a was cast as Jamie Reyes. Other actors Bruna Marquezine and Belissa Escobedo were respectively cast as the protagonist's love interest Penny and younger sister Milagros; Harvey Guill\u00e9n also joined the cast in an undisclosed role.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the episode \"Booster\" in the final season of \"Smallville\", where the scarab bonds with Jaime who is saved by Booster Gold. Ted Kord also makes an appearance as well, searching for the lost, and apparently extremely dangerous Blue Beetle scarab. Dan Garrett is also mentioned, with Clark Kent stating he was a Kord Industries scientist who was killed after the Scarab bonded with him.\n* Kord Industries is referenced in the second and fourth season of The CW show \"Arrow\". The producers planned for Ted Kord to join the show in the third season, but when DC told them that they had \"other plans for him\", he was replaced by Ray Palmer.\n* Blue Beetle was referenced in the 7th episode of \"Legends of Tomorrow\" when Kendra asks Ray about his favorite color, blue, and his favorite Beatle, he does not have one.\n* Several incarnations of the Blue Beetle appear on \"\":\n** The Jaime Reyes incarnation is a featured character, with Jaime Reyes voiced by Will Friedle and the Blue Beetle Scarab voiced by Ioan Gruffudd. He appears in the episodes \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Invasion of the Secret Santas!\", \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Game Over for Owlman!\", \"Night of the Huntress!\", \"The Fate of Equinox!\", \"Revenge of the Reach!\", \"Aquaman's Outrageous Adventure!\", \"The Power of Shazam!\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part One\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part Two\", \"Cry Freedom Fighters!\", \"Darkseid Descending!\", \"Shadow of the Bat!\", \"Time Out for Vengeance!\", and \"Crisis: 22,300 Miles Above Earth!\".\n** The Ted Kord version appears in the episodes \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" and \"Menace of the Madniks!\", voiced by Wil Wheaton.\n** In \"Rise of the Blue Beetle\", the Blue Beetle scarab is briefly worn by Kanjar Ro (voiced by Marc Worden).\n** The Dan Garrett version makes a brief, non-voiced appearance in \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" as Batman narrates about the Blue Beetles to Reyes and \"Menace of the Madniks!\" displayed his Blue Beetle suit next to Kord's.\n* The Jaime Reyes version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"Young Justice\", voiced by actor Eric Lopez. In a running gag, Jaime can often be seen rejecting the Blue Beetle Scarab's (also voiced by Lopez) more violent and bloodthirsty suggestions (\"No, it would \"not\" have been easier to just vaporize him back in the diner!\"), which confuses those around him as it looks like he's talking to himself. Much of season 2's main story arc also revolves around Jaime's main antagonists, the Reach. Dan Garrett, the original Blue Beetle, appears in a non-speaking cameo in the episode \"Failsafe\", in which several scenes depict the members of the Justice Society of America, in 1939. Dan appears among several of the most prominent members of the team, such as Green Lantern, Doctor Fate, and Flash. The episode \"Intervention\" later tells the full story of the scarab: ancient Bialyan mystics deactivated its Reach control centuries ago, and it lay dormant until it was discovered by Dan Garrett, who fused with it to become the first Blue Beetle. His successor and protege, the technological genius Ted Kord, was able to recognize the Scarab as a potentially dangerous piece of alien technology, and thus made use of his own inventions as a hero, but still used the Blue Beetle identity. Kord later lost his life in a battle with Deathstroke and Sportsmaster upon discovering The Light planned to steal and reactivate the Scarab. Jaime came across the Scarab just after Ted Kord's death, and became the third Blue Beetle, while believing the Scarab was Kord's own invention. He was recruited into the Justice League's teenage strike team, where subsequent conflicts with the Reach led him to discover the Scarab's true origin and purpose, but his attempts to remove it were unable to keep his body from being completely controlled by it. Some of the Team made a separate discovery of the Bialyan ritual that could remove the Reach's control over the Scarab, and kept the knowledge quiet while Doctor Fate taught Zatanna the ritual, so the Team could once again deactivate the Scarab to allow Jaime to resume control. The Scarab then cooperates with Jaime without much resistance, preferring their partnership over enslavement.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the animated series \"Justice League Action\", voiced again by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Ted Kord version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"DC Super Hero Girls\", voiced by Max Mittelman."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blue Beetle:36",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blue Beetle",
          "In other media",
          "Audio drama"
        ],
        "ctx": "The \"Kingdom Come\" story, in which the Blue Beetle took part, has been adapted as an audio drama by John Whitman, based on the story by Mark Waid and Alex Ross and the novelization by Elliot S. Maggin (Time Warner Audio Books, 1998).\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears on the cover of a comic book in the \"Watchmen\" film tie-in \"Under the Hood\".\n* In \"\", an evil version of Blue Beetle appeared on a computer page of the lesser members of the Crime Syndicate.\n* The Ted Kord Blue Beetle is portrayed by Luke Barats in the 2011 short film \"The Death and Return of Superman\".\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in \"Justice League vs. Teen Titans\", where he is a member of the Teen Titans. He is a close friend of Beast Boy and helps in fending off Trigon's demonic emissaries from Hell. He is voiced by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in the sequel \"\" with Austin reprising his role again.\n* Ted Kord as Blue Beetle makes a brief appearance in \"Teen Titans Go! To the Movies\".\n* In \"\", he was one among the Titans who were killed by the Paradooms.\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears in the 2012 film \"Agent Beetle\". He is never referred to as Blue Beetle in the film, possibly to avoid copyright issues.\n* The Ted Kord version appears in a DC Showcase short that was included in \"\".\n* A film centered around Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle is in development, with Gareth Dunnet-Alcocer serving as screenwriter and Angel Manuel Soto will direct the film. The film will be an installment in the DC Extended Universe franchise. Xolo Maridue\u00f1a was cast as Jamie Reyes. Other actors Bruna Marquezine and Belissa Escobedo were respectively cast as the protagonist's love interest Penny and younger sister Milagros; Harvey Guill\u00e9n also joined the cast in an undisclosed role.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the episode \"Booster\" in the final season of \"Smallville\", where the scarab bonds with Jaime who is saved by Booster Gold. Ted Kord also makes an appearance as well, searching for the lost, and apparently extremely dangerous Blue Beetle scarab. Dan Garrett is also mentioned, with Clark Kent stating he was a Kord Industries scientist who was killed after the Scarab bonded with him.\n* Kord Industries is referenced in the second and fourth season of The CW show \"Arrow\". The producers planned for Ted Kord to join the show in the third season, but when DC told them that they had \"other plans for him\", he was replaced by Ray Palmer.\n* Blue Beetle was referenced in the 7th episode of \"Legends of Tomorrow\" when Kendra asks Ray about his favorite color, blue, and his favorite Beatle, he does not have one.\n* Several incarnations of the Blue Beetle appear on \"\":\n** The Jaime Reyes incarnation is a featured character, with Jaime Reyes voiced by Will Friedle and the Blue Beetle Scarab voiced by Ioan Gruffudd. He appears in the episodes \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Invasion of the Secret Santas!\", \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Game Over for Owlman!\", \"Night of the Huntress!\", \"The Fate of Equinox!\", \"Revenge of the Reach!\", \"Aquaman's Outrageous Adventure!\", \"The Power of Shazam!\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part One\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part Two\", \"Cry Freedom Fighters!\", \"Darkseid Descending!\", \"Shadow of the Bat!\", \"Time Out for Vengeance!\", and \"Crisis: 22,300 Miles Above Earth!\".\n** The Ted Kord version appears in the episodes \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" and \"Menace of the Madniks!\", voiced by Wil Wheaton.\n** In \"Rise of the Blue Beetle\", the Blue Beetle scarab is briefly worn by Kanjar Ro (voiced by Marc Worden).\n** The Dan Garrett version makes a brief, non-voiced appearance in \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" as Batman narrates about the Blue Beetles to Reyes and \"Menace of the Madniks!\" displayed his Blue Beetle suit next to Kord's.\n* The Jaime Reyes version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"Young Justice\", voiced by actor Eric Lopez. In a running gag, Jaime can often be seen rejecting the Blue Beetle Scarab's (also voiced by Lopez) more violent and bloodthirsty suggestions (\"No, it would \"not\" have been easier to just vaporize him back in the diner!\"), which confuses those around him as it looks like he's talking to himself. Much of season 2's main story arc also revolves around Jaime's main antagonists, the Reach. Dan Garrett, the original Blue Beetle, appears in a non-speaking cameo in the episode \"Failsafe\", in which several scenes depict the members of the Justice Society of America, in 1939. Dan appears among several of the most prominent members of the team, such as Green Lantern, Doctor Fate, and Flash. The episode \"Intervention\" later tells the full story of the scarab: ancient Bialyan mystics deactivated its Reach control centuries ago, and it lay dormant until it was discovered by Dan Garrett, who fused with it to become the first Blue Beetle. His successor and protege, the technological genius Ted Kord, was able to recognize the Scarab as a potentially dangerous piece of alien technology, and thus made use of his own inventions as a hero, but still used the Blue Beetle identity. Kord later lost his life in a battle with Deathstroke and Sportsmaster upon discovering The Light planned to steal and reactivate the Scarab. Jaime came across the Scarab just after Ted Kord's death, and became the third Blue Beetle, while believing the Scarab was Kord's own invention. He was recruited into the Justice League's teenage strike team, where subsequent conflicts with the Reach led him to discover the Scarab's true origin and purpose, but his attempts to remove it were unable to keep his body from being completely controlled by it. Some of the Team made a separate discovery of the Bialyan ritual that could remove the Reach's control over the Scarab, and kept the knowledge quiet while Doctor Fate taught Zatanna the ritual, so the Team could once again deactivate the Scarab to allow Jaime to resume control. The Scarab then cooperates with Jaime without much resistance, preferring their partnership over enslavement.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the animated series \"Justice League Action\", voiced again by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Ted Kord version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"DC Super Hero Girls\", voiced by Max Mittelman."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle\n--Publication history.\n--Blue Beetles.\n----Dan Garret / Dan Garrett.\n----Ted Kord.\n----Jaime Reyes.\n--The Scarab - Khaji Da.\n--Other versions.\n----Kingdom Come.\n----52 Multiverse.\n----DC Animated Universe comics.\n--In other media.\n----Radio.\n----Audio drama.\n----Television.\n------Unreleased screen test.\n----Video games.\n----\"The Electric Company\".\n--Homages.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The \"Blue Beetle\" series has been collected into a number of trade paperbacks:\n* Jaren Brandt Bartlett portrayed Jaime Reyes in the tenth season of \"Smallville\". In the episode \"Booster\", he is originally portrayed as a teenager living in Metropolis who is shy and somewhat-clumsy, and was bullied because of it, until the Blue Beetle scarab attached itself to him after he was nearly in a traffic accident involving a vehicle that was transporting it to a Kord Industries facility. After seeking out a new hero, Booster Gold in the hopes that he could help remove the scarab from his spine, the scarab transforms Jaime into the Blue Beetle, and Jaime is unable to stop the armor from making him attack Booster. After nearly strangling Booster, Jaime is able to gain control over the scarab when Booster convinces him to stand up and assert himself over the scarab, shutting it down and reverting to his normal self. Ted Kord later offers to remove the scarab, but Jaime tells him he wishes to keep it and learn how to become a hero, and Booster offers to help Jaime control his powers and convinces Lois Lane to interview Jaime. This version's battle suit is rather bulky and lacks the traditional mouth seen in the comics (as the effect is difficult to pull off in live action). The name Blue Beetle was not used in the episode. Even though this incarnation is from Metropolis, he is seen in the episode wearing a shirt reading \"El Paso\", a nod to his comic book roots.\n* Jaime Reyes is a featured character in the animated series \"\", voiced by Will Friedle. This version is a fan of Batman and best friends with Paco Testas. In the pilot episode \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\", hee has a central role while fighting against Kanjar Ro. Jaime makes another appearance in the episode \"Invasion of the Secret Santas!\", assisting Batman in fighting the Sportsmaster and his henchmen and inviting Batman to his family's Christmas Eve dinner. Jaime appeared again fighting Planet Master alongside Aquaman in \"Aquaman's Outrageous Adventure!\". Blue Beetle also appears in the episodes \"Deep Cover for Batman!\" and \"Game Over for Owlman!\". In \"Night of the Huntress!\", Blue Beetle, Batman, and the Huntress have to stop the gangsters Baby-Face and Mrs. Manface while developing a crush on Huntress. Reyes appeared again in \"The Fate of Equinox!\" where he, along with Doctor Fate, Aquaman, Black Canary, Black Lightning, Fire, the original Flash, Green Arrow, Green Lantern, Plastic Man, and Red Tornado temporarily gave their powers to Batman, turning the Dark Knight into Bat Monolith to battle the omnipotent Equinox. In \"Revenge of the Reach!\", Jaime learns the Blue Beetle Scarab is a part of the Reach. His Blue Beetle suit takes control of him to shut down Oa's defenses, allowing the Reach to use an army of other Scarab-controlled beings to invade. Fortunately, Jaime regains control of his Blue Beetle suit by reminding the latter what they did was of their will, not the Reach's. Channeling the Green Lanterns' energy via his suit, Blue Beetle is able to free the other Scarab-controlled beings from the Reach's control. Despite the Guardians of the Universe asking Jaime for his Blue Beetle scarab's destruction along with the others, Guy Gardner is convinced that Jaime proved he's the master.\n* An alternate universe version named Scarlet Scarab is shown as a member of the Injustice Syndicate led by Owlman, also voiced by Freidle.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in \"Young Justice: Invasion\", voiced by Eric Lopez. This version appears as a member of the Young Justice team. Jaime initially believes the Scarab to be of technology that had been created by Ted Kord, prior to the former Blue Beetle's death at the hands of The Light's enforcers. After an explosion at Kord Industries, the Scarab bonded with Jaime who was passing by at the time. The explosion would later be revealed to have been the end result of Ted's fight with The Light's enforcers that cost the previous Blue Beetle's life. Unlike other versions, the Scarab speaks to Jaime only in English and finds lethal courses of action preferable to capture and restraint, which is why Jaime is constantly at odds with it, and unlike his comic book counterpart, he does not experience any discomfort when transforming into Blue Beetle. While Impulse is liberating Jaime from the Reach's first attempts to control him, he tells Jaime the reason of why the latter traveled to the past in the first place: Jaime's Scarab had become on mode and turned him into Earth's dictator. Jaime refuses to believe any of this, but is still dazed from the experiments. He later searches for a way to remove the Scarab to prevent what Impulse had told him from happening, but both his Scarab and body are eventually put under full Reach control by the Reach's armor-welding Green Martian agent Green Beetle. This virtually trapped Jaime inside of his mind, and allowed the Reach to make Jaime turn on the rest of the Team against his own will. The Team, mainly Zatanna, later frees Blue Beetle and his Scarab from the Reach's control. He then goes on to help Earth's heroes to defeat the Reach, playing an important role in helping them defeat the Reach's armor-wielding agent Black Beetle, and save the world from the Reach's attempt to destroy it. In the , he becomes a member of Beast Boy's Outsiders and is in a relationship with Traci Thurston.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in \"DC Super Hero Girls\". He is seen as one of the background students of Super Hero High.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in \"Justice League Action\", voiced again by Jake T. Austin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The \"Kingdom Come\" story, in which the Blue Beetle took part, has been adapted as an audio drama by John Whitman, based on the story by Mark Waid and Alex Ross and the novelization by Elliot S. Maggin (Time Warner Audio Books, 1998).\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears on the cover of a comic book in the \"Watchmen\" film tie-in \"Under the Hood\".\n* In \"\", an evil version of Blue Beetle appeared on a computer page of the lesser members of the Crime Syndicate.\n* The Ted Kord Blue Beetle is portrayed by Luke Barats in the 2011 short film \"The Death and Return of Superman\".\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in \"Justice League vs. Teen Titans\", where he is a member of the Teen Titans. He is a close friend of Beast Boy and helps in fending off Trigon's demonic emissaries from Hell. He is voiced by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in the sequel \"\" with Austin reprising his role again.\n* Ted Kord as Blue Beetle makes a brief appearance in \"Teen Titans Go! To the Movies\".\n* In \"\", he was one among the Titans who were killed by the Paradooms.\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears in the 2012 film \"Agent Beetle\". He is never referred to as Blue Beetle in the film, possibly to avoid copyright issues.\n* The Ted Kord version appears in a DC Showcase short that was included in \"\".\n* A film centered around Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle is in development, with Gareth Dunnet-Alcocer serving as screenwriter and Angel Manuel Soto will direct the film. The film will be an installment in the DC Extended Universe franchise. Xolo Maridue\u00f1a was cast as Jamie Reyes. Other actors Bruna Marquezine and Belissa Escobedo were respectively cast as the protagonist's love interest Penny and younger sister Milagros; Harvey Guill\u00e9n also joined the cast in an undisclosed role.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the episode \"Booster\" in the final season of \"Smallville\", where the scarab bonds with Jaime who is saved by Booster Gold. Ted Kord also makes an appearance as well, searching for the lost, and apparently extremely dangerous Blue Beetle scarab. Dan Garrett is also mentioned, with Clark Kent stating he was a Kord Industries scientist who was killed after the Scarab bonded with him.\n* Kord Industries is referenced in the second and fourth season of The CW show \"Arrow\". The producers planned for Ted Kord to join the show in the third season, but when DC told them that they had \"other plans for him\", he was replaced by Ray Palmer.\n* Blue Beetle was referenced in the 7th episode of \"Legends of Tomorrow\" when Kendra asks Ray about his favorite color, blue, and his favorite Beatle, he does not have one.\n* Several incarnations of the Blue Beetle appear on \"\":\n** The Jaime Reyes incarnation is a featured character, with Jaime Reyes voiced by Will Friedle and the Blue Beetle Scarab voiced by Ioan Gruffudd. He appears in the episodes \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Invasion of the Secret Santas!\", \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Game Over for Owlman!\", \"Night of the Huntress!\", \"The Fate of Equinox!\", \"Revenge of the Reach!\", \"Aquaman's Outrageous Adventure!\", \"The Power of Shazam!\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part One\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part Two\", \"Cry Freedom Fighters!\", \"Darkseid Descending!\", \"Shadow of the Bat!\", \"Time Out for Vengeance!\", and \"Crisis: 22,300 Miles Above Earth!\".\n** The Ted Kord version appears in the episodes \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" and \"Menace of the Madniks!\", voiced by Wil Wheaton.\n** In \"Rise of the Blue Beetle\", the Blue Beetle scarab is briefly worn by Kanjar Ro (voiced by Marc Worden).\n** The Dan Garrett version makes a brief, non-voiced appearance in \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" as Batman narrates about the Blue Beetles to Reyes and \"Menace of the Madniks!\" displayed his Blue Beetle suit next to Kord's.\n* The Jaime Reyes version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"Young Justice\", voiced by actor Eric Lopez. In a running gag, Jaime can often be seen rejecting the Blue Beetle Scarab's (also voiced by Lopez) more violent and bloodthirsty suggestions (\"No, it would \"not\" have been easier to just vaporize him back in the diner!\"), which confuses those around him as it looks like he's talking to himself. Much of season 2's main story arc also revolves around Jaime's main antagonists, the Reach. Dan Garrett, the original Blue Beetle, appears in a non-speaking cameo in the episode \"Failsafe\", in which several scenes depict the members of the Justice Society of America, in 1939. Dan appears among several of the most prominent members of the team, such as Green Lantern, Doctor Fate, and Flash. The episode \"Intervention\" later tells the full story of the scarab: ancient Bialyan mystics deactivated its Reach control centuries ago, and it lay dormant until it was discovered by Dan Garrett, who fused with it to become the first Blue Beetle. His successor and protege, the technological genius Ted Kord, was able to recognize the Scarab as a potentially dangerous piece of alien technology, and thus made use of his own inventions as a hero, but still used the Blue Beetle identity. Kord later lost his life in a battle with Deathstroke and Sportsmaster upon discovering The Light planned to steal and reactivate the Scarab. Jaime came across the Scarab just after Ted Kord's death, and became the third Blue Beetle, while believing the Scarab was Kord's own invention. He was recruited into the Justice League's teenage strike team, where subsequent conflicts with the Reach led him to discover the Scarab's true origin and purpose, but his attempts to remove it were unable to keep his body from being completely controlled by it. Some of the Team made a separate discovery of the Bialyan ritual that could remove the Reach's control over the Scarab, and kept the knowledge quiet while Doctor Fate taught Zatanna the ritual, so the Team could once again deactivate the Scarab to allow Jaime to resume control. The Scarab then cooperates with Jaime without much resistance, preferring their partnership over enslavement.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the animated series \"Justice League Action\", voiced again by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Ted Kord version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"DC Super Hero Girls\", voiced by Max Mittelman."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Rise of the Blue Beetle!",
        "text": "\"The Rise of the Blue Beetle\" is the first episode of the animated television series \"\". The episode introduces Blue Beetle in his first on-screen appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Warner Bros. cartoons with Blue Ribbon reissues",
        "text": "The titles for \"A Day at the Zoo\", \"Of Fox and Hounds\", \"The Isle of Pingo Pongo\", \"Don't Look Now\", \"Wacky Wildlife\", \"Johnny Smith and Poker-Huntas\", \"Thugs with Dirty Mugs\", \"A Feud There Was\", \"The Early Worm Gets the Bird\", \"Circus Today\", \"The Mice Will Play\", \"Fresh Fish\", \"Cross Country Detours\", and \"I Only Have Eyes for You\" were found on eBay in 2007, but never released on DVD."
      },
      {
        "title": "Booster Gold",
        "text": "Alternate versions of Booster Gold and Blue Beetle as they were prior to \"Countdown to Infinite Crisis\" appear in the pages of \"Justice League 3000\" #14, where they are awaken from a 1,000-year suspended animation on Takron-Galtos in the 31st century. According to Keith Giffen, \"they're J.M. DeMatteis and \"my\" Blue Beetle and Booster Gold\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "This version of Blue Beetle has been ranked as the 61st-greatest comic book character of all time IGN also ranked this version of the Blue Beetle as the 61st-greatest comic book hero of all time stating that his intelligence, his \"bwahahha\" antics, his endearing partnership with Booster Gold, and his brave sacrifice during the build-up to \"Infinite Crisis\" all serve to cement this particular Beetle's legacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The supporting cast remained fairly stable throughout this original run and included Joan Mason, a beautiful blond reporter for the \"Daily Blade\" who would ultimately star in her own backup stories, and Mike Mannigan, Dan's stereotypical Irish partner on the force who believed despite all evidence to the contrary that the Blue Beetle was a criminal and was always trying to arrest him with little success. Dr. Franz, a local pharmacist and inventor of the bulletproof suit and 2X formula (as well as many other gadgets, including the portable wireless telephone nearly a half-century before they came into common use), played a large role in the early issues but eventually faded from the cast. The Beetle also had a short-lived spunky kid sidekick in the form of Sparkington J. Northrup (Sparky), who originally wore an abbreviated version of the Beetle's costume but later went into action wearing his regular clothes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Some time later, Booster Gold, along with Jaime, Dan, and the Black Beetle in the guise of a Blue Beetle from the future, travels back in time to rescue Kord moments before his death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In 1964, during the Silver Age of comics, Charlton revised the character for a new Blue Beetle series. Charlton's new Blue Beetle retained the original's name (adding a second \"t\"), but none of his powers or origin, making him a different character. This Beetle was archaeologist Dan Garrett, who obtained a number of superhuman powers (including super strength and vision, flight, and the ability to generate energy blasts) from a mystical scarab he found during a dig in Egypt, where it had been used to imprison an evil mummified Pharaoh. He would transform into the Blue Beetle by saying the words \"Kaji Dha!\" This version, by writer Joe Gill and artist Tony Tallarico, was played at least initially for camp, with stories like \"The Giant Mummy Who was Not Dead\". The Charlton Dan Garrett version of the Blue Beetle ran only until 1966 before his replacement debuted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Not much later, he is visited by Skeets, Booster Gold's robotic partner, who warned him of his disappearance. Deciding to team up with the small machine to find Booster to pay respect to him for introducing him to the superhero world, he reaches the house of Rose Levin and Daniel Carter, Booster's 21st century ancestors. Soon after he arrives, the Black Lantern Ted Kord crashes his ship into Daniel's house and Jaime proceeds to battle Kord. Although outmatched and insulted by the Black Lantern, Jaime keeps fighting until Booster enters the scene."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In issue #0 of the \"Project Superpowers\" miniseries, the Fox Feature Syndicate version of the Blue Beetle appeared in flashbacks (as by now the character/spelling \"Dan Garret\" was in the public domain). To avoid trademark conflicts with DC Comics, he is referred to in this series by the nickname \"Big Blue\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)\n--Publication history.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----Golden Age version (Dan Garret).\n----Silver Age version (Dan Garrett).\n----AC Comics.\n----DC Comics.\n----Dynamite Entertainment.\n----Legacy.\n----DC Universe.\n--In other media.\n----Comic strip.\n----Radio serial.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "In 1964, during the Silver Age of comics, Charlton revised the character for a new Blue Beetle series. Charlton's new Blue Beetle retained the original's name (adding a second \"t\"), but no powers or back story, making him a different character. This Beetle was archaeologist Dan Garrett, who obtained a number of superhuman powers (including super strength and vision, flight, and the ability to generate energy blasts) from a mystical scarab he found during a dig in Egypt, where it had been used to imprison an evil mummified Pharaoh. He would transform into the Blue Beetle by saying the words \"Kaji Dha!\" This version, by writer Joe Gill and artist Tony Tallarico, was played at least initially for camp, with stories like \"The Giant Mummy Who Was Not Dead\". The Charlton Dan Garrett version of the Blue Beetle ran only until 1966 before his replacement debuted."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Rise of the Blue Beetle!",
        "text": "Michael Jelenic, the story editor and co-producer of the show, wrote the scene with Jaime and his friend Paco, commented on Batman and Green Arrow on television because that is the type of thing that he imagined fanboys arguing about. The Clock King segment includes pop culture references while Jaime's room has a \"The Dark Knight Returns\" poster. The episode has easter eggs of characters that didn't appear in the episode."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The mystical Scarab that had given Dan Garrett his powers had been thought destroyed. When it was found intact, it was given to Ted Kord, who was never able to use it. After an attack by Brother Eye, the Scarab appeared energized and Ted brought it to the wizard Shazam, who took it and sent Ted away. Shortly after, in the \"Day of Vengeance\" storyline, Shazam was killed and the Scarab was blasted across the globe along with shards from Rock of Eternity."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Rise of the Blue Beetle!",
        "text": "The episode opens with Batman and Green Arrow (James Arnold Taylor) breaking out of Clock King's clockwork death trap clock that would have lowered them into acid, before going on to fight him and his henchmen. The main plot starts after the theme song airs. Teenage Jaime Reyes (Will Friedle) has become the new Blue Beetle but is not convinced that he has what it takes to be a superhero, partially because he has a few problems with controlling his powers, such as when he tried to rescue a cat from a tree. Batman decides to take the young superhero under his wing and asks Blue Beetle to help him stop a meteor. The mission is stopped, however, when Blue Beetle's scarab creates a wormhole which sends the two superheroes to a distant planet. The planet is inhabited by intelligent single-celled aliens called Gibbles that are under constant siege by the intergalactic pirate Kanjar Ro, who wants to harvest their bodies for fuel. The aliens mistakenly believe Blue Beetle is another, alien, scarab-wearing Blue Beetle who is their savior, and who Batman correctly guesses was killed, and think Batman is his sidekick. Blue Beetle is not confident that he can save them, although he decides to try when he sees the hope they have for him. Batman tells the Blue Beetle to give a speech to the aliens to encourage them to help him and Batman fight Kanjar Ro. Kanjar Ro is meanwhile draining energy from the Gibbles to power his ships for raids on the Medra Quadrant. However, Batman, Blue Beetle and the Gibble army attacks and Blue Beetle starts getting the hang of controlling the suit. He saves Batman from Kanjar Ro, then fights and defeats him, but Ro returns, freeing his crew and using his Gamma Gong on Blue Beetle, which he knows that he has a weakness for; its sonic waves eliminates his suit, and was how he killed the last Blue Beetle. Batman is incapacitated, and another blow of the Gong completely strips Blue Beetle's armor away; when Ro sees his greatest foe is a child, he realizes he did eliminate the Beetle the last time they fought. After the Gibble army is soon after defeated, Ro has Batman and some Gibbles tied to a satellite floating in a part of space with fish-like space monsters that come to eat them, but Batman plugs one of the satellite's cables into the body of the Gibble next to him, charging it with power to electrocute one of the monsters and scare the other monsters away. Meanwhile, Ro has tied up Blue Beetle and is now using the Gong to find the right frequency to remove the Scarab. As Batman enters and Ro is knocked into the Gong, the scarab is removed by the created tones. Ro attaches it to his spine and uses its power to fight Batman. Meanwhile, Jaime thinks creatively and escapes his bonds, and before Ro can kill Batman, he arrives with the Gong and uses it to strip away the armor and remove the Scarab from Ro. Enraged, he tries to attack them, but the Gibble from before arrives and uses a newly made weapon that utilizes the power from its body to knock Ro out. Before he and Blue Beetle leave their planet, the Gibbles thank Batman for his part in helping Blue Beetle and themselves to defeat Kanjor Ro. Returning to Earth through the wormhole, they find it has brought them back to not only the exact place, but also the exact time after they had gone through it the first time. This gives them enough time to finish the mission to stop the meteor that got them sent through the wormhole in the first place, and after making sure his partner is ready, Batman and Blue Beetle take on the meteor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "On the PBS children's educational series \"The Electric Company\", the Blue Beetle was a bumbling superhero (played by Jim Boyd) who would often make matters worse instead of better. He wore a mask, a hood with antennae, wings, tennis shoes, boxer shorts, and a T-shirt bearing the name \"Blue Beetle\". Outside of the name, the character is unrelated to any of the comic book characters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "A new version of the Blue Beetle known as \"Blue Scarab\" was shown as a member of the Justice League in the apocalyptic future depicted in \"Justice League: Generation Lost\". He is stated as being the \"descendant of the Blue Beetle\", and has a very alien-looking appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The character briefly returned in DC Comics' first run of \"Blue Beetle\", resurrected by his mystical scarab to battle against his successor. He can also be seen in various flashback stories. His 1940s incarnation is briefly glimpsed in DC's 1993 limited series \"The Golden Age\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Spin-offs from the series \"Countdown to Final Crisis\" would introduce more alternate Blue Beetles in 2007. Earth-19 (the \"Gotham by Gaslight\" universe), set in a Victorian-like era, has its own version of Dan Garrett who in his secret identity is the leading Egyptologist at the Gotham Museum of Natural History and wears a monocle, appearing in \"The Search for Ray Palmer: Gotham by Gaslight\". The limited series \"\" depicted three more: Earth-26 Blue Beetle, a swarm of sentient insects that form a man-shaped body (calling themselves \"The Scarab\"), Ted of Earth-33, an anthropomorphic beetle, the pet of Mr. and Mrs. Kord, and Earth-39 Blue Beetle, a younger version of Dan Garrett, who has bonded with his scarab in the same way as Jaime Reyes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "In issue #0 of the \"Project Superpowers\" miniseries, the Fox Feature Syndicate version of the Blue Beetle appeared in flashbacks (as by now the character/spelling \"Dan Garret\" was in the public domain). To avoid trademark conflicts with DC Comics, he is referred to in this series by the nickname \"Big Blue\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In the aftermath of the massive \"Final Crisis\" crossover event, Kid Eternity, Static and Aquagirl join the team after their rescue from the Dark Side Club. Aquagirl begins hitting on Jaime despite knowing of his relationship with Traci, often speaking to him in Spanish to hide her intentions from the team. Despite feeling attracted, he chooses to remain loyal to Traci."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "A new \"Blue Beetle\" title launched in fall 2011 after the conclusion of the \"Flashpoint\" event. It was written by Tony Bedard and drawn by Ig Guara and cancelled in February 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The character briefly returned in DC Comics' first run of \"Blue Beetle\", resurrected by his mystical scarab to battle against his successor. He can also be seen in various flashback stories. His 1940s incarnation is briefly glimpsed in DC's 1993 limited series \"The Golden Age\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "During the \"Titans of Tomorrow, Today!\" arc, Jaime takes the Titans up on their offer to visit, only to find that an alternate future version of the Titans have attacked the Tower and managed to kidnap key members of the Justice League. He later proves instrumental in the younger Titans' victory against their future selves and proves himself to be a competent hero by incapacitating the Future Flash and freeing the Justice League. He also aids the Titans in defeating Starro. During the conflict with the future Titans, Jaime is actively attacked by the adult version of Kid Devil, Red Devil, who claims that Jaime cannot be trusted. On the other hand, Lex Luthor describes Blue Beetle as an \"unremitting nuisance\" who holds on to his view of right and wrong no matter how much the world changes around him."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unproduced DC Comics projects",
        "text": "Geoff Johns announced a live action TV series featuring the Jamie Reyes version of Blue Beetle. They made a test trailer with stuntman and actor Garrett Plotkin as Jaime Reyes. Scenes of this trailer were shown as part of the upcoming DC Nation block of programming in 2012 on Cartoon Network during the premiere of \"\". Since then, nothing has been announced about the project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime is recruited by Black Beetle (who originally identifies himself as a Blue Beetle from the future) and Garrett to go into the past with Booster Gold to prevent Kord's death. After saving Kord, Jaime and Garrett return, the future is revealed to be a dystopia ruled by Maxwell Lord, who now was never exposed and defeated. Black Beetle is also revealed to be a future enemy of Jaime's, who tries to create this future so he will never have to deal with Jaime and so he \"would not lose her\". In \"Booster Gold\" vol. 2 #10, seeing the damage done by their actions, Ted decides to accept his death and returns to the past, seemingly to the exact moment where he was murdered by Lord, returning the timeline to equilibrium and thus preventing the dystopia. However, in the epilogue for \"Booster Gold\" vol. 2 #1.000.000, a figure with a scarab enters a Kord Industries building that contains a Bug and a picture of Kord's enemy Overthrow among other things. His trademark laugh hints that it is actually Ted, who somehow escaped death but managed to fix the timestream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In the game \"Infinite Crisis\", a multiplayer online battle arena developed by Turbine, Jaime Reyes is playable character. All three Blue Beetles appear as playable characters in the Wii U version of '. Jaime Reyes also appears in ' and \"Lego DC Super-Villains\" as a playable character. Jaime Reyes is also a playable fighter in \"Injustice 2\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Xolo Maridue\u00f1a will portray the character in his own live action film set in the DC Extended Universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "The character was revised and reprinted briefly by Charlton Comics with issues #18-#20."
      },
      {
        "title": "Susie the Little Blue Coupe",
        "text": "The DVD release of \"The Love Bug\" featured this short as a special feature. \"The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad\" DVD also features the short as a bonus episode on the DVD's trivia section."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In \"Futures End\" #0 Blue Beetle is seen working together with the resistance against Brother Eye and all the other dead superheroes. He dies and mutates into a robot controlled by Brother Eye."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "An evil version has appeared in the antimatter universe of Qward, the universe of the Crime Syndicate of America, known as the Scarab."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The original Blue Beetle was created by Fox Comics and later owned by Charlton Comics. The first Beetle was Dan Garret (later spelled Dan Garrett), who initially gained super powers from a special vitamin, which was later changed to gaining powers from a \"sacred scarab\". The original Blue Beetle was featured not only in his own comic but also a weekly radio serial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "In 1964, Charlton modernized the \"Blue Beetle\" title. Instead of Dan Garret, he was renamed Dan Garrett. Also instead of a policeman he was an archeologist who discovered the ancient mystical scarab which gave him multiple superpowers. The series lasted five issues through March\u2013April 1965. The Dan Garrett version would briefly be revised again in July 1965 throughout February\u2013March 1966, lasting another five issues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Before they can figure out their next move, the base is attacked by the Creature Commandos. During the battle Max reveals himself while posing as one of the Creature Commandos. Blue Beetle ends up unconscious and Max captures him, heading to the teleporter and leaving the JLI behind. When Blue Beetle is in captivity, Max injects him with an unknown substance. Tortured, he remembers Max's existence as the man who killed Ted Kord and destroyed his legacy. Jaime eventually manages to send a signal to the rest of the JLI to lead them to Max's headquarters. He breaks out of the laboratory and attacks Max, who, having discovered the weaknesses of the Blue Scarab, zaps Jaime with a special beam and, just as the JLI arrives, shoots him in the head with a blaster, apparently killing him in the same manner as his predecessor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In \"\", other representatives of the Reach attack Odym, homeworld of the Blue Lantern Corps, where it is revealed that their armours have taken control of them; Jaime speculates, during a confrontation with Kyle Rayner, that his armour is damaged, explaining why he is in control of himself where other Reach soldiers are enslaved to their armour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) was seen in Alex Ross and Mark Waid's limited series \"Kingdom Come\". He is shown with the rest of the Charlton \"Action Heroes\" not as a member of Magog's Justice Battalion, but as part of Batman's group and later of the MLF (Mankind Liberation Front). He would be shown later in the title in a suit of armor powered by the then-mystic scarab, working with Batman's team. In the novelization of the series, Batman thinks of Blue Beetle, along with Green Arrow and Black Canary, as his closest (at the time) friends. Blue Beetle is killed with most of the other heroes by a nuclear explosion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "The young teenager Jaime Reyes later merges the scarab as the new Blue Beetle. A statue of Kord in J'onn J'onzz's memorial to fallen Justice League members. When recruiting members for the new Justice League, Superman suggests Booster Gold to which Batman responds: \"There are better ways to honor Ted\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "When necessary, Jaime can have the Scarab take over in Infiltrator Mode. When this happens, the suit becomes taller, more muscular and grows spikes and allows the scarab to fight without Jaime's conscience as a restriction. This lets it fight more brutally, but Jaime and the scarab do not like this and only resort to it in desperate situations.\n* An alternate version of Jaime appears in \"Justice Society of America\" vol. 3 #37-38 as part of the \"Fatherland\" storyline. Set twenty years in the future, Jaime has lost his powers after Captain Nazi and his fellow white supremacist villains activate their Great Darkness Engine, a device which neutralizes most of the world's metahumans and allows a Neo-Nazi regime known as the Fourth Reich to take over America. Held prisoner alongside the world's few surviving superheroes, Jaime is ultimately killed by security guards after attacking Mr. Terrific as a distraction for the other heroes to further their escape plans during the execution ceremony for Batman and the Joker.\n* In the alternate future called of the book \"Titans Tomorrow\", Red Devil killed this timeline's Blue Beetle.\n* In \"\", Jaime was among the surviving meta humans of Earth gathered by Lex Luthor.\n* In the alternate timeline of the 2011 \"Flashpoint\" storyline, Jaime was a part of a team called the Ambush Bugs led by the Canterbury Cricket. They did an attack on the Amazons which ended in failure with the demise of every bug hero except the Canterbury Cricket.\n* In \"Smallville: Titans\", Jaime is a member of the team with Conner Kent/Superboy, Speedy, Miss Martian, Zan and Jayna at Jay Garrick's school for the \"gifted\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime Reyes is a fictional superhero character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Created by Keith Giffen, John Rogers, and Cully Hamner, the character made his first appearance in \"Infinite Crisis\" #3 (February 2006)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Booster Gold",
        "text": "Despite Rip's objections, Booster and three Blue Beetles team up to rescue Kord moments before his death. They succeed, and the restored Blue/Gold duo deserts Rip Hunter to side with the Blue Beetles group. Rip retaliates by presenting Michael's ancestors Daniel Carter and Rose Levin with replicas of the Supernova and Booster Gold suits, stating that the Carter family's heroic legacy starts \"right freakin' now\". When time \"solidifies\" following Kord's rescue, and the other three Beetles return to their own times, Ted and Michael find that the world has now become overrun by Maxwell Lord's OMACs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)\n--Publication history.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----\"Infinite Crisis\".\n----Ongoing series.\n----The Reach.\n----Teen Titans.\n----Series finale.\n----Further adventures.\n----\"Justice League: Generation Lost\".\n----The New 52.\n----DC Rebirth.\n--Powers and abilities.\n--Collected editions.\n--In other media.\n----Film.\n------DC Extended Universe.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Rise of the Blue Beetle!",
        "text": "Dan Phillips of IGN said that people would not like \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\" very much if they have a problem with \"wormholes, single-cell organisms and evil intergalactic pirates being mentioned in the same breath as Batman\". Scott Summers of Toonzone liked the plot of the episode while also noting that there are references to older Batman animation. Rob M. Worley of Mania said that the episode has \"laugh-out-loud moments\" and praised the action and plot twists."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Warner Bros. cartoons with Blue Ribbon reissues",
        "text": "Sketches and photos of the original titles for \"Katnip Kollege\", \"Farm Frolics\", \"Sioux Me\", \"The Fifth-Column Mouse\", \"Pigs in a Polka\", \"The Mouse-Merized Cat\", \"The Cagey Canary\", \"A Tale of Two Kitties\" and \"Horton Hatches the Egg\" have surfaced, but their real titles have not been found."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Both Blue Beetles reappeared in the third issue of \"Americomics\", a title published by AC Comics in 1983/1984. In the first story in this issue, Ted Kord fought a bogus Dan Garrett, but the second story was more significant. It revealed that the original 1940s Dan was reincarnated as the Silver Age version (minus his memories of his earlier existence) by some unspecified \"gods\", presumably the ones responsible for his mystic scarab. The gods subsequently resurrected Dan again and sent him off to save Ted Kord's life (leaving him a note saying simply, \"Try not to get killed this time\"). After this adventure, Kord turned the Blue Beetle name back over to Dan. \"Americomics\" was canceled after issue #6, and so far this story has never been referenced by any other publisher. Another Blue Beetle crossover story depiction revolving around the Blue Beetles is depicted in \"Booster Gold\" (vol. 2) #6 by DC Comics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle is the name of three fictional superheroes who appear in a number of American comic books published by a variety of companies since 1939. The most recent of the companies to own rights to the Blue Beetle is DC Comics who bought the rights to the character in 1983, using the name for three distinct characters over the years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In the latest relaunch of the DC Universe, \"DC Rebirth\", Jaime is working with Ted Kord to study the beetle attached to Jaime's back and remove it. Once again, the beetle's origin is retconned, as revealed by Doctor Fate, who tells Kord that the beetle is not alien, but magical, similar to the original continuity pre-\"Infinite Crisis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime Reyes is the third character to assume the mantle of Blue Beetle, but he is substantially different from his predecessors. Introduced in 1939, the original Blue Beetle, Dan Garret, was a Fox Comics police officer who fought crime with superpowers gained by ingesting \"Vitamin 2X\". A revamped version of this character, archaeologist Dan Garrett, introduced in 1964 by Charlton Comics drew mystical abilities from an ancient Egyptian scarab. Published by Charlton Comics and later DC, 1966 creation Ted Kord was Garret's student who continued his legacy of costumed crime-fighting, although he had no superpowers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Rookie patrolman Dan Garret originally fought crime as the Blue Beetle without the benefit of superhuman abilities. Garret later donned a bulletproof blue costume (described by Garret as being made of a cellulose material which was \"as thin and light as silk but stronger than steel\" and temporarily gained superhuman strength and stamina by ingesting the mysterious \"Vitamin 2X\". Like the Green Hornet, the Blue Beetle would use his signature scarab symbol to bedevil criminals, leaving it to be easily found, hanging it down into a room on a string and even projecting its enlarged image onto a wall with a flashlight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Both Blue Beetles reappeared in the third issue of \"Americomics\", a title published by AC Comics in 1983/1984. In the first story in this issue, Ted Kord fought a bogus Dan Garrett, but the second story was more significant. It revealed that the original 1940s Dan was reincarnated as the Silver Age version (minus his memories of his earlier existence) by some unspecified \"gods\", presumably the ones responsible for his mystic scarab. The gods subsequently resurrected Dan again and sent him off to save Ted Kord's life (leaving him a note saying simply, \"Try not to get killed this time\"). After this adventure, Kord turned the Blue Beetle name back over to Dan. \"Americomics\" was canceled after issue #6, and so far this story has never been referenced by any other publisher."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Blue Cat of Castle Town",
        "text": "\"It goes into tomorrow,\"<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "1967 in comics",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (vol. 5)\n: \"Release\": June by Charlton Comics. \"Writer/Artist\": Steve Ditko."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "A popular character in his era, the Blue Beetle had his own short-lived comic strip, drawn by a pseudonymous Jack Kirby and others, and a radio serial that ran for 48 thirteen-minute episodes."
      },
      {
        "title": "1986 in comics",
        "text": "Blue Beetle\n: \"Release\": June. \"Writer\": Len Wein. Artists: Paris Cullins and Bruce Patterson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Geoff Johns stated on his Twitter account that there is a live action screen test of Jaime Reyes as the Blue Beetle. This screen test was used to trial the concept of a Blue Beetle television series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The character returned in June 2009 as a \"co-feature\" of the more popular \"Booster Gold\" comic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Charlton Comics allegedly obtained the rights to the Blue Beetle (although there is no proof that a formal purchase ever took place) and reprinted some stories in its anthology titles and in a four-issue \"Blue Beetle\" reprint series numbered 18\u201321."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fast and Furry-ous",
        "text": "\"Fast and Furry-ous\" is available in its blue ribbon reissue on ', ', and \"\" in 1080p resolution. It is also available on the \"Road Runner Vs. Wile E. Coyote: The Classic Chase\" VHS, the \"Stars Of Space Jam: Wile E. Coyote And Road Runner\" VHS, and the \"Road Runner Vs. Wile E. Coyote: If At First You Don't Succeed...\" Laserdisc. You can see the superhero scene on \"The Bugs Bunny Road Runner Movie\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The original Golden Age Blue Beetle is Dan Garret, son of a police officer killed by a criminal. This Fox Feature Syndicate version of the character debuted in \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (August 1939), and began appearing in his own 60-issue series shortly thereafter. Fox Feature Syndicate sponsored a \"Blue Beetle Day\" at the 1939 New York World's Fair on August 7, 1940, beginning at 10:30\u00a0a.m. and including 300 children in relay-race finals at the Field of Special Events, following preliminaries in New York City parks. The race was broadcast over radio station WMCA."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of DC Animated Universe characters",
        "text": "Blue Beetle could not appear as a member of the Justice League due to rights being tied up until 2007 because of his 1940s radio show and 1980s cartoon proposals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mr. Bug Goes to Town",
        "text": "\"Mr. Bug Goes to Town\" was planned to be released on [[Blu-ray]] in June 2017 from [[Thunderbean Animation]]. However it has currently been put on hold as of July 2017.\n* [[List of American films of 1941]]\n* [[Fleischer Studios]]\n* [[Gulliver's Travels (1939 film)]]\n*\n* \"Mr. Bug Goes to Town (1941)\", Studio release DVD, 2019: [[AllMovies.com]] website. Retrieved on June 30, 2021.\n*Mr. Bug Goes to Town at [[The Big Cartoon DataBase]]\n*\"Mr. Bug Goes to Town\" (aka \"Hoppity Goes to Town, aka \"Bugville\" at [[Don Markstein's Toonopedia]]. Archived from the original on February 5, 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Warner Bros. cartoons with Blue Ribbon reissues",
        "text": "Though some have had their original bullet title sequences and credits restored for official DVD and Blu-ray releases, majority of the re-releases still have the Blue Ribbon credits. In addition, most Blue Ribbon prints of the short, usually through the American and European 1995 Turner prints, can be seen on television packages throughout the world. Some of them, like \"A Wild Hare\", have edited lines, although the original unedited version is present on \"The Golden Age of Looney Tunes\", Volume 4, Side 1, the \"Warner Bros. Home Entertainment Academy Awards Animation Collection\", \"The Essential Bugs Bunny\", and the \"\", Disc 1. Also, several Blue Ribbon prints have altered titles. For example, \"A Wild Hare\" is titled \"The Wild Hare\", \"My Little Buckaroo\" is titled \"My Little Buckeroo\", and \"The Fella with the Fiddle\" is titled \"The Fella with a Fiddle\". In addition to \"A Feud There Was\", instead of re-releasing other shorts into the Blue Ribbon program, seven other Blue Ribbon shorts have been re-released twice, scrapping the first re-release titles. They are, \"The Cat Came Back\" (1944 and 1954), \"Of Fox and Hounds\", (1944 and 1954), \"The Fighting 69\u00bdth\" (1943 and 1953), \"The Early Worm Gets the Bird\" (1943 and 1952), \"Rhapsody in Rivets\" (1947 and 1954), \"The Trial of Mr. Wolf\" (1946 and 1954), and \"Old Glory\" (1945 and 1953). However, the latter three were credited Warner Bros. on their first re-release, keeping the first Blue Ribbon re-release closing titles for the second re-release. Starting with the 1947\u201348 animation season reissues, custom fonts for titles were used. \"Dangerous Dan McFoo\" was the first cartoon to use this."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The replacement Blue Beetle created by Charlton Comics, and later published by Americomics and DC Comics, is Ted Kord, a former student of Dan Garrett, a genius-level inventor and a gifted athlete. Kord and Garrett were investigating Kord's Uncle Jarvis when they learned Jarvis was working to create an army of androids to take over Earth. Garrett changed into Blue Beetle, but was killed in battle. As he died, he passed on to Kord the responsibility of being Blue Beetle, but was unable to pass on the mystical scarab."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean Loring",
        "text": "\"Blue Beetle\" #16 shows Eclipso kidnapping a baby with huge raw magical abilities and attempting to corrupt it into a new host for herself. The combined efforts of Blue Beetle and Traci Thirteen foil her plans, steering her attention toward Mary Marvel instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Following \"Blackest Night\", Jaime and the other Titans travel to the city of Dakota to rescue Static after he is kidnapped by a metahuman gangster named Holocaust. Jaime uses the scarab to help locate Static, but he and his teammates are easily defeated during a battle by Holocaust, who is able to block a blast from Jaime's cannon and then strike him with a fireball. The Titans are ultimately rescued when Cyborg arrives with Kid Flash and Superboy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (comic book)\n--Fox Feature Syndicate and Holyoke Publishing.\n--Charlton Comics.\n--DC Comics.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "He began a career as a superhero, meeting Oracle, the Phantom Stranger and the current Peacemaker during his early adventures and ends up in conflict with supervillains like the ones that work for the crime boss La Dama. He often associates himself with a street gang of local superhumans known as the Posse. His support team agreed to help Jaime track crime and natural disasters in the Midwest via the Internet."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Foghorn Leghorn",
        "text": "This was one of only five post-1948 WB cartoons to get a Blue Ribbon reissue prior to 1956, with the original credits cut. The others were \"Daffy Dilly\", \"Kit for Cat\", \"Scaredy Cat\", and \"You Were Never Duckier\". In 1998, for the \"THIS VERSION\" of the short, the original opening and credits were restored. This print was used on the \"Golden Collection\", without the notice at the end."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "The original Blue Beetle comic first appeared in Winter 1940 by Fox Feature Syndicate and Holyoke Publishing. It starred the original Blue Beetle named Dan Garret who first appeared in \"Mystery Men Comics\" anthology comic book series. He was depicted as a police officer who secretly dons a superhero costume to thwart crime. The series was the second featured title of a superhero in American comic book magazines after Superman having his own series. The volume series lasted until August 1950 with issue #60 when the company of Fox Feature Syndicate collapsed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Smallville (season 10)",
        "text": "On January 21, 2011, it was announced that Eric Martsolf was cast as Booster Gold. Sebastian Spence was cast as the Ted Kord version of the Blue Beetle and Jaren Brandt Bartlett as the Jaime Reyes version. In addition to the return of Lois's father and sister, Teri Hatcher was cast as Lois's mother. Hatcher, who starred as Lois Lane for four seasons of \"\", appeared in lost video footage that Lois discovers. \"Entertainment Weekly\" reported that Callum Blue will return for the 19th episode, \"Dominion\". On February 11, 2011, Michael Ausiello reported that after the back and forth speculation as to whether Rosenbaum would return to the series the actor finally agreed to appear in the series finale. Rosenbaum expressed that his return for the final episode was for the fans, stating, \"I appreciate all of their passion, their relentlessness, and even their threats.\" On April 14, 2011, The Futon Critic's official CW press release announced the return of Chris Gauthier as Toyman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Smallville (season 10)",
        "text": "In addition, Geoff Johns, who previously wrote the introductions for the Legion of Super-Heroes and the Justice Society of America, wrote an episode featuring the introduction of superheroes Blue Beetle and Booster Gold, along with Suicide Squad member Rick Flag. In an interview with Comic Book Resources TV, Johns noted that the version of Blue Beetle will be that of Jaime Reyes, and that Booster Gold will be modeled directly after his comic book counterpart, as far as personality and history. Johns also explained that the episode might also see the introduction of the second Blue Beetle Ted Kord. He admitted that his choice in which comic book character to introduce was based solely on his personal preference, as he is a fan of Blue Beetle and Booster Gold and has a history of writing for those characters. These introductions will come at a time when Clark needs to have interactions with the characters to \"propel him forward\". He noted that the two characters embody what Clark needs to learn: being in the public eye and fully accepting his alien heritage. Johns pointed out that Booster Gold is all about being in the spotlight, while Clark is not. At the same time, Blue Beetle is trying to understand the alien technology he has been given. Johns also stated that Booster's introduction will serve to show Clark that society needs a hero to look up to."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue's Clues & You!",
        "text": "Similar to the original 1996 series, this series has a live-action host in an animated world. The series features new production designs and the characters (aside from the host) are animated digitally, though the visual style remains similar to the style used in the original series."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Blue Racer",
        "text": "A fast-moving blue snake named the Blue Racer (voiced by Larry D. Mann) tries unsuccessfully to catch a stereotypically-Japanese beetle (voiced by Tom Holland), who is a black belt in karate. Both characters spun off from \"Tijuana Toads\" in \"Hop and Chop\" (the Japanese beetle) and \"Snake in the Gracias\" (the Blue Racer). The goofy crane from \"Tijuana Toads\" (Crazylegs Crane, who also repeatedly failed to collar the Racer and the Toads himself) also later appeared in the series as well. 17 cartoons were produced.\n* Bob Holt voiced both the Blue Racer and the Japanese Beetle in the 1972 short \"Support Your Local Serpent\".\n* The Japanese Beetle's last appearance was in the 1972 short \"Blue Racer Blues\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime lives in El Paso, Texas, US with his father, mother and little sister; his father owns a garage. Jaime offers to help his father at the garage, but his father feels Jaime should study and enjoy his childhood for as long as he can. Jaime has an acute sense of responsibility for his family and friends, though he complains about having to sort out their various problems. He derives strength and courage from his family's support, wanting what's best for them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The Scarab came to Earth in El Paso, Texas, where Jaime picked it up. Not long after, Booster Gold appeared at Jaime's house to retrieve it, but it had fused itself to Jaime's spine while he was sleeping. Booster recruited Jaime for Batman's assault on the Brother Eye satellite, since the Scarab was the only thing that could see the satellite. Using the Scarab's powers, Jaime was able to reveal the satellite to Batman's group, enabled them to defeat it. Once Brother Eye was sent plummeting Earthward, Jaime disappeared from the ship, teleported away by the scarab, which sought to escape the Green Lanterns on board."
      },
      {
        "title": "Threshold (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle is tracked by another Hunted contestant, a New God named Lonar, who has plans for Beetle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "During the \"\" storyline, Blue Beetle was among the prisoners in New Apokolips after The Batman Who Laughs and his Dark Knights took over Prime-Earth. They were freed when Wonder Woman, Batman, and Harley Quinn freed Superman from the control of Darkfather. During the heroes fight with Robin King, Blue Beetle accompanied Red Tornado and Blue Beetle into battle against Robin King. Robin King summoned a giant beetle which killed Blue Beetle. Batman later revived him with a Black Lantern ring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The Charlton version of Dan Garrett was spotlighted in the second issue of DC's 1980s \"Secret Origins\" series, in which his origin was retold along with that of Ted Kord. Subsequent appearances by Dan Garrett (in flashback stories) include guest spots or cameos in \"Infinity, Inc.\", \"Captain Atom\", \"JLA: Year One\", and \"Legends of the DC Universe\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The Charlton version of Dan Garrett was spotlighted in the second issue of DC's 1980s \"Secret Origins\" series, in which his origin was retold along with that of Ted Kord. Subsequent appearances by Dan Garrett (in flashback stories) include guest spots or cameos in \"Infinity, Inc.\", \"Captain Atom\", \"JLA: Year One\", and \"Legends of the DC Universe\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Max escapes from the JLI using an escape pod. Failing to capture Max, the JLI carried Jaime on the land surface where paramedics Rocket Red and Skeets try to resuscitate him. Their efforts fail as Jaime had already died. As the team deals with his loss, suddenly he sits up, healed, declaring he knows Max's ultimate plans and that they can stop him. Jaime reveals to them that his healing scarab armor is what protected him from the blaster. When the battle against the OMAC Prime goes nowhere, Blue Beetle attacks and OMAC Prime appears to take his power, but Blue Beetle mentions that it cannot take control with the Scarab's power. Blue Beetle attacks and blasts OMAC Prime."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle has appeared in the \"Justice League Unlimited\" spin-off comic book, in issues #5 and #8."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Dan Garret or Dan Garrett is a fictional superhero, appearing in American comic books published by multiple companies, including Fox Comics, Charlton Comics, and DC Comics. Garret was created by Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski, and made his first appearance in Fox's \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 during the Golden Age of Comic Books. Garrett is the first character to become the superhero Blue Beetle, predating Ted Kord and Jaime Reyes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Reyes and his friend Paco are driving to a party when a fight over a backpack between some men and the Brotherhood of Evil members Phobia, Plasmus and Warp erupts from a nearby building. To protect Paco, Jaime grabs the backpack. When La Dama's agents Brutale, Bone-Crusher and a new villain called Coyote join the fight, Brutale throws a knife at the backpack. The scarab inside is set off and Jaime is transformed into Blue Beetle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The Blue Beetle had his own short-lived comic strip, drawn by a pseudonymous Jack Kirby and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Friz Freleng",
        "text": "David DePatie, when asked about the Japanese beetle in Blue Racer in 1996, said this about Friz's view on race, \"It seems like poking fun at certain ethnic groups had always spelled success. Friz had always felt that way in his cartoons, especially with Speedy.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "The character ran as a backup feature in \"Captain Atom\" #83\u201386 (November 1966 \u2013 June 1967) before getting his own \"Blue Beetle\" title, which ran for 5 issues between June 1967 and November 1968. A sixth issue was produced, but published in the \"Charlton Portfolio\" by CPL Gang. The Question ran as a backup series, with the fifth issue featuring a quasi-team-up in which the Blue Beetle story continues in part in the \"Question\" tale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Charlton Comics reprinted some stories in its anthology titles and in a four-issue \"Blue Beetle\" reprint series numbered 18\u201321, although there is no evidence that they obtained the rights to the character - just that they purchased the printing plates to earlier stories."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Rise of the Blue Beetle!",
        "text": "The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n--Reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Beetle (comics)",
        "text": "Beetle's suit is later seen being repaired by the Tinkerer when a group of villains arrives for weapons against Spider-Man.\n* The Abner Jenkins incarnation of the Beetle appeared in the \"Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends\" animated series episode \"Origin of the Spider-Friends\", voiced by Christopher Collins.\n* The Abner Jenkins incarnation of the Beetle makes a brief appearance in the 1990s \"Iron Man\" animated series episode \"Armor Wars\" Pt. 1, voiced by John Reilly with a Liverpudlian accent evocative of the similarly named band.\n* The Ultimate Marvel incarnation of the Beetle appears in the \"Ultimate Spider-Man\" animated series, voiced by Steve Blum. This version is a highly capable criminal mercenary who is mostly silent, with his most notable trademark being the unusually large amount of fold-out rocket launchers hidden throughout his armor's surface. Following his introduction in the episode \"Beetle Mania\", he has several confrontations with Spider-Man and his allies and is defeated by them each time. In one notable appearance during the episode \"The Sinister Six\", the Beetle joins the eponymous team in attempt to get revenge on Spider-Man, only to be defeated by Iron Fist.\n** Additionally, the Abner Jenkins and Leila Davis incarnations of the Beetle make non-speaking cameo appearances in \"Beetle Mania\" within the S.H.I.E.L.D. trainees' imagination.\n* The Abner Jenkins incarnation of the Beetle appears in the \"Avengers: Ultron Revolution\" animated series, voiced by Mark C. Hanson.\n* The Abner Jenkins incarnation of the Beetle appears in the animated series \"Marvel's Spider-Man\", voiced by Fred Tatasciore."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Later, both team up to destroy the Black Lantern, succeeding by blasting him with a special light gun designed by Ted Kord and separating him from the ring. Then, they move the remains into the Time Sphere and take the lifeless corpse to Vanishing Point Fortress, in the last second of the universe. There, Jaime promises to eventually live up to the legacy of the Blue Beetle and reestablish the Blue & Gold Team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue (Red Dwarf)",
        "text": "\"Blue\" has been seen as an episode of rather mixed quality. DVDActive complained about the \"weak\" flashback sequences, the \"overlong\" dream-sequence, and \"Kryten and Kochanski continuously squabbling\"; however, the reviewer enjoyed the \"dazzling musical finale.\" Sci-Fi Online thought the episode had a couple of \"classic, attention-grabbing moments\" including \"\"that\" kiss and the unforgettable Munchkin Song at the end.\" BellaOnline liked the episode, calling the final musical sequence a \"classic moment\" with a \"song [that] is as catchy and sticky as 'It\u2019s A Small World After All' at Disney\u2019s Magic Kingdom.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Abner Jenkins",
        "text": "In 1997, Abner Jenkins as the Beetle received an action figure in the \"\" tie-in toyline, despite the character not being featured in the show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "After the death of Ted Kord, a new Blue Beetle was introduced named Jaime Reyes in \"Infinite Crisis\" #3. His own solo series begun in issue #1 and ended in issue #36 in February 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Blue Cat of Castle Town",
        "text": "\"\"Out of yesterday song comes.\"<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The Black Beetle attacks during a family hike. During the battle, Black Beetle claims to be Hector's future incarnation, wanting revenge for Nadia's death. He retracts his statement, claiming to have killed Hector and taken his scarab. When Milagro was injured by Black Beetle, Jaime loses his temper, finally giving in to the scarab's suggestions to use lethal force. Jaime eventually manages to use tachyon beams to paralyze Black Beetle, only for the villain to claim that he was Jaime from the future and that he would don the black scarab after Milagro (who would suffer brain damage from the injury she had just received in the present) destroyed the scarab. Jaime, deciding to get Milagro medical attention as quickly as possible, was forced to let Black Beetle escape. Before he departed, Black Beetle tells Jaime: \"When you see Ted Kord, tell him I said \"drop dead\"\". When Jaime states that Ted was already dead, Black Beetle replies \"Yeah. I know\". A few days later, Milagro is shown recovering in the hospital and Jaime is left deeply disturbed by his encounter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "After being captured by Lady Styx's henchmen in \"Blue Beetle\" vol. 8 #16, Jaimie is forced to take part in the bounty hunter game The Haunted on the planet called Tolerance. After losing control over the Scarab armor and regaining control back, he teams up with a New God named Lonar, to kill the creator of the game Adonis and escape the planet. Lonar kills Adonis, takes his pocket dimension, and disappears. In \"Threshold\" #8 the producer of the show The Hunted, reveals that the show has been cancelled and sends Jaimie back to Earth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Dan Garret was a son of a police officer killed by a criminal. This Fox Feature Syndicate version of the character debuted in \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (August 1939) and continued through issue #31. He began appearing in his own 60-issue series shortly thereafter. Fox Feature Syndicate sponsored a \"Blue Beetle Day\" at the 1939 New York World's Fair on August 7, 1940, beginning at 10:30\u00a0a.m. and including 300 children in relay-race finals at the Field of Special Events, following preliminaries in New York City parks. The race was broadcast over radio station WMCA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle is a long running comic book series that was first published by Fox Feature Syndicate before being a Charlton Comics title and currently a DC Comics title. The series starred certain characters with the same name."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who is the most recent comic company that own the rights to the Blue Beetle?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The most recent of the companies to own rights to the Blue Beetle is DC Comics who bought the rights to the character in 1983, using the name for three distinct characters (Jaime Reyes, Dan Garrett and Ted Kord) over the years."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who owned Blue Beetle before DC Comics?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The original Blue Beetle was created by Fox Comics and later owned by Charlton Comics."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has Blue Beetle ever appeared in the television?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Blue Beetle has appeared in both live action and animation, which would you like to know about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the live action version please!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Blue Beetle appears in an episode of the final season of Smallville, and is referenced in the 7th episode of Legends of Tomorrow."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about the animated version of Blue Beetle?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Blue Beetle has appeared in the Justice League Unlimited spin-off comic book, in issues #5 and #8.",
      "Several animated incarnations of the Blue Beetle appear on Batman: The Brave and the Bold.  The Jaime Reyes version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of Young Justice, voiced by actor Eric Lopez, and Jaime appears again in the animated series Justice League Action."
    ],
    "topic": "Blue Beetle",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Blue Beetle:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blue Beetle",
          "Other versions",
          "DC Animated Universe comics"
        ],
        "ctx": "Blue Beetle has appeared in the \"Justice League Unlimited\" spin-off comic book, in issues #5 and #8."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blue Beetle:36",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blue Beetle",
          "In other media",
          "Audio drama"
        ],
        "ctx": "The \"Kingdom Come\" story, in which the Blue Beetle took part, has been adapted as an audio drama by John Whitman, based on the story by Mark Waid and Alex Ross and the novelization by Elliot S. Maggin (Time Warner Audio Books, 1998).\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears on the cover of a comic book in the \"Watchmen\" film tie-in \"Under the Hood\".\n* In \"\", an evil version of Blue Beetle appeared on a computer page of the lesser members of the Crime Syndicate.\n* The Ted Kord Blue Beetle is portrayed by Luke Barats in the 2011 short film \"The Death and Return of Superman\".\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in \"Justice League vs. Teen Titans\", where he is a member of the Teen Titans. He is a close friend of Beast Boy and helps in fending off Trigon's demonic emissaries from Hell. He is voiced by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in the sequel \"\" with Austin reprising his role again.\n* Ted Kord as Blue Beetle makes a brief appearance in \"Teen Titans Go! To the Movies\".\n* In \"\", he was one among the Titans who were killed by the Paradooms.\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears in the 2012 film \"Agent Beetle\". He is never referred to as Blue Beetle in the film, possibly to avoid copyright issues.\n* The Ted Kord version appears in a DC Showcase short that was included in \"\".\n* A film centered around Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle is in development, with Gareth Dunnet-Alcocer serving as screenwriter and Angel Manuel Soto will direct the film. The film will be an installment in the DC Extended Universe franchise. Xolo Maridue\u00f1a was cast as Jamie Reyes. Other actors Bruna Marquezine and Belissa Escobedo were respectively cast as the protagonist's love interest Penny and younger sister Milagros; Harvey Guill\u00e9n also joined the cast in an undisclosed role.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the episode \"Booster\" in the final season of \"Smallville\", where the scarab bonds with Jaime who is saved by Booster Gold. Ted Kord also makes an appearance as well, searching for the lost, and apparently extremely dangerous Blue Beetle scarab. Dan Garrett is also mentioned, with Clark Kent stating he was a Kord Industries scientist who was killed after the Scarab bonded with him.\n* Kord Industries is referenced in the second and fourth season of The CW show \"Arrow\". The producers planned for Ted Kord to join the show in the third season, but when DC told them that they had \"other plans for him\", he was replaced by Ray Palmer.\n* Blue Beetle was referenced in the 7th episode of \"Legends of Tomorrow\" when Kendra asks Ray about his favorite color, blue, and his favorite Beatle, he does not have one.\n* Several incarnations of the Blue Beetle appear on \"\":\n** The Jaime Reyes incarnation is a featured character, with Jaime Reyes voiced by Will Friedle and the Blue Beetle Scarab voiced by Ioan Gruffudd. He appears in the episodes \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Invasion of the Secret Santas!\", \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Game Over for Owlman!\", \"Night of the Huntress!\", \"The Fate of Equinox!\", \"Revenge of the Reach!\", \"Aquaman's Outrageous Adventure!\", \"The Power of Shazam!\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part One\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part Two\", \"Cry Freedom Fighters!\", \"Darkseid Descending!\", \"Shadow of the Bat!\", \"Time Out for Vengeance!\", and \"Crisis: 22,300 Miles Above Earth!\".\n** The Ted Kord version appears in the episodes \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" and \"Menace of the Madniks!\", voiced by Wil Wheaton.\n** In \"Rise of the Blue Beetle\", the Blue Beetle scarab is briefly worn by Kanjar Ro (voiced by Marc Worden).\n** The Dan Garrett version makes a brief, non-voiced appearance in \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" as Batman narrates about the Blue Beetles to Reyes and \"Menace of the Madniks!\" displayed his Blue Beetle suit next to Kord's.\n* The Jaime Reyes version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"Young Justice\", voiced by actor Eric Lopez. In a running gag, Jaime can often be seen rejecting the Blue Beetle Scarab's (also voiced by Lopez) more violent and bloodthirsty suggestions (\"No, it would \"not\" have been easier to just vaporize him back in the diner!\"), which confuses those around him as it looks like he's talking to himself. Much of season 2's main story arc also revolves around Jaime's main antagonists, the Reach. Dan Garrett, the original Blue Beetle, appears in a non-speaking cameo in the episode \"Failsafe\", in which several scenes depict the members of the Justice Society of America, in 1939. Dan appears among several of the most prominent members of the team, such as Green Lantern, Doctor Fate, and Flash. The episode \"Intervention\" later tells the full story of the scarab: ancient Bialyan mystics deactivated its Reach control centuries ago, and it lay dormant until it was discovered by Dan Garrett, who fused with it to become the first Blue Beetle. His successor and protege, the technological genius Ted Kord, was able to recognize the Scarab as a potentially dangerous piece of alien technology, and thus made use of his own inventions as a hero, but still used the Blue Beetle identity. Kord later lost his life in a battle with Deathstroke and Sportsmaster upon discovering The Light planned to steal and reactivate the Scarab. Jaime came across the Scarab just after Ted Kord's death, and became the third Blue Beetle, while believing the Scarab was Kord's own invention. He was recruited into the Justice League's teenage strike team, where subsequent conflicts with the Reach led him to discover the Scarab's true origin and purpose, but his attempts to remove it were unable to keep his body from being completely controlled by it. Some of the Team made a separate discovery of the Bialyan ritual that could remove the Reach's control over the Scarab, and kept the knowledge quiet while Doctor Fate taught Zatanna the ritual, so the Team could once again deactivate the Scarab to allow Jaime to resume control. The Scarab then cooperates with Jaime without much resistance, preferring their partnership over enslavement.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the animated series \"Justice League Action\", voiced again by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Ted Kord version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"DC Super Hero Girls\", voiced by Max Mittelman."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blue Beetle:36",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blue Beetle",
          "In other media",
          "Audio drama"
        ],
        "ctx": "The \"Kingdom Come\" story, in which the Blue Beetle took part, has been adapted as an audio drama by John Whitman, based on the story by Mark Waid and Alex Ross and the novelization by Elliot S. Maggin (Time Warner Audio Books, 1998).\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears on the cover of a comic book in the \"Watchmen\" film tie-in \"Under the Hood\".\n* In \"\", an evil version of Blue Beetle appeared on a computer page of the lesser members of the Crime Syndicate.\n* The Ted Kord Blue Beetle is portrayed by Luke Barats in the 2011 short film \"The Death and Return of Superman\".\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in \"Justice League vs. Teen Titans\", where he is a member of the Teen Titans. He is a close friend of Beast Boy and helps in fending off Trigon's demonic emissaries from Hell. He is voiced by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in the sequel \"\" with Austin reprising his role again.\n* Ted Kord as Blue Beetle makes a brief appearance in \"Teen Titans Go! To the Movies\".\n* In \"\", he was one among the Titans who were killed by the Paradooms.\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears in the 2012 film \"Agent Beetle\". He is never referred to as Blue Beetle in the film, possibly to avoid copyright issues.\n* The Ted Kord version appears in a DC Showcase short that was included in \"\".\n* A film centered around Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle is in development, with Gareth Dunnet-Alcocer serving as screenwriter and Angel Manuel Soto will direct the film. The film will be an installment in the DC Extended Universe franchise. Xolo Maridue\u00f1a was cast as Jamie Reyes. Other actors Bruna Marquezine and Belissa Escobedo were respectively cast as the protagonist's love interest Penny and younger sister Milagros; Harvey Guill\u00e9n also joined the cast in an undisclosed role.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the episode \"Booster\" in the final season of \"Smallville\", where the scarab bonds with Jaime who is saved by Booster Gold. Ted Kord also makes an appearance as well, searching for the lost, and apparently extremely dangerous Blue Beetle scarab. Dan Garrett is also mentioned, with Clark Kent stating he was a Kord Industries scientist who was killed after the Scarab bonded with him.\n* Kord Industries is referenced in the second and fourth season of The CW show \"Arrow\". The producers planned for Ted Kord to join the show in the third season, but when DC told them that they had \"other plans for him\", he was replaced by Ray Palmer.\n* Blue Beetle was referenced in the 7th episode of \"Legends of Tomorrow\" when Kendra asks Ray about his favorite color, blue, and his favorite Beatle, he does not have one.\n* Several incarnations of the Blue Beetle appear on \"\":\n** The Jaime Reyes incarnation is a featured character, with Jaime Reyes voiced by Will Friedle and the Blue Beetle Scarab voiced by Ioan Gruffudd. He appears in the episodes \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Invasion of the Secret Santas!\", \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Game Over for Owlman!\", \"Night of the Huntress!\", \"The Fate of Equinox!\", \"Revenge of the Reach!\", \"Aquaman's Outrageous Adventure!\", \"The Power of Shazam!\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part One\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part Two\", \"Cry Freedom Fighters!\", \"Darkseid Descending!\", \"Shadow of the Bat!\", \"Time Out for Vengeance!\", and \"Crisis: 22,300 Miles Above Earth!\".\n** The Ted Kord version appears in the episodes \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" and \"Menace of the Madniks!\", voiced by Wil Wheaton.\n** In \"Rise of the Blue Beetle\", the Blue Beetle scarab is briefly worn by Kanjar Ro (voiced by Marc Worden).\n** The Dan Garrett version makes a brief, non-voiced appearance in \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" as Batman narrates about the Blue Beetles to Reyes and \"Menace of the Madniks!\" displayed his Blue Beetle suit next to Kord's.\n* The Jaime Reyes version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"Young Justice\", voiced by actor Eric Lopez. In a running gag, Jaime can often be seen rejecting the Blue Beetle Scarab's (also voiced by Lopez) more violent and bloodthirsty suggestions (\"No, it would \"not\" have been easier to just vaporize him back in the diner!\"), which confuses those around him as it looks like he's talking to himself. Much of season 2's main story arc also revolves around Jaime's main antagonists, the Reach. Dan Garrett, the original Blue Beetle, appears in a non-speaking cameo in the episode \"Failsafe\", in which several scenes depict the members of the Justice Society of America, in 1939. Dan appears among several of the most prominent members of the team, such as Green Lantern, Doctor Fate, and Flash. The episode \"Intervention\" later tells the full story of the scarab: ancient Bialyan mystics deactivated its Reach control centuries ago, and it lay dormant until it was discovered by Dan Garrett, who fused with it to become the first Blue Beetle. His successor and protege, the technological genius Ted Kord, was able to recognize the Scarab as a potentially dangerous piece of alien technology, and thus made use of his own inventions as a hero, but still used the Blue Beetle identity. Kord later lost his life in a battle with Deathstroke and Sportsmaster upon discovering The Light planned to steal and reactivate the Scarab. Jaime came across the Scarab just after Ted Kord's death, and became the third Blue Beetle, while believing the Scarab was Kord's own invention. He was recruited into the Justice League's teenage strike team, where subsequent conflicts with the Reach led him to discover the Scarab's true origin and purpose, but his attempts to remove it were unable to keep his body from being completely controlled by it. Some of the Team made a separate discovery of the Bialyan ritual that could remove the Reach's control over the Scarab, and kept the knowledge quiet while Doctor Fate taught Zatanna the ritual, so the Team could once again deactivate the Scarab to allow Jaime to resume control. The Scarab then cooperates with Jaime without much resistance, preferring their partnership over enslavement.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the animated series \"Justice League Action\", voiced again by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Ted Kord version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"DC Super Hero Girls\", voiced by Max Mittelman."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blue Beetle:36",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blue Beetle",
          "In other media",
          "Audio drama"
        ],
        "ctx": "The \"Kingdom Come\" story, in which the Blue Beetle took part, has been adapted as an audio drama by John Whitman, based on the story by Mark Waid and Alex Ross and the novelization by Elliot S. Maggin (Time Warner Audio Books, 1998).\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears on the cover of a comic book in the \"Watchmen\" film tie-in \"Under the Hood\".\n* In \"\", an evil version of Blue Beetle appeared on a computer page of the lesser members of the Crime Syndicate.\n* The Ted Kord Blue Beetle is portrayed by Luke Barats in the 2011 short film \"The Death and Return of Superman\".\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in \"Justice League vs. Teen Titans\", where he is a member of the Teen Titans. He is a close friend of Beast Boy and helps in fending off Trigon's demonic emissaries from Hell. He is voiced by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in the sequel \"\" with Austin reprising his role again.\n* Ted Kord as Blue Beetle makes a brief appearance in \"Teen Titans Go! To the Movies\".\n* In \"\", he was one among the Titans who were killed by the Paradooms.\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears in the 2012 film \"Agent Beetle\". He is never referred to as Blue Beetle in the film, possibly to avoid copyright issues.\n* The Ted Kord version appears in a DC Showcase short that was included in \"\".\n* A film centered around Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle is in development, with Gareth Dunnet-Alcocer serving as screenwriter and Angel Manuel Soto will direct the film. The film will be an installment in the DC Extended Universe franchise. Xolo Maridue\u00f1a was cast as Jamie Reyes. Other actors Bruna Marquezine and Belissa Escobedo were respectively cast as the protagonist's love interest Penny and younger sister Milagros; Harvey Guill\u00e9n also joined the cast in an undisclosed role.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the episode \"Booster\" in the final season of \"Smallville\", where the scarab bonds with Jaime who is saved by Booster Gold. Ted Kord also makes an appearance as well, searching for the lost, and apparently extremely dangerous Blue Beetle scarab. Dan Garrett is also mentioned, with Clark Kent stating he was a Kord Industries scientist who was killed after the Scarab bonded with him.\n* Kord Industries is referenced in the second and fourth season of The CW show \"Arrow\". The producers planned for Ted Kord to join the show in the third season, but when DC told them that they had \"other plans for him\", he was replaced by Ray Palmer.\n* Blue Beetle was referenced in the 7th episode of \"Legends of Tomorrow\" when Kendra asks Ray about his favorite color, blue, and his favorite Beatle, he does not have one.\n* Several incarnations of the Blue Beetle appear on \"\":\n** The Jaime Reyes incarnation is a featured character, with Jaime Reyes voiced by Will Friedle and the Blue Beetle Scarab voiced by Ioan Gruffudd. He appears in the episodes \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Invasion of the Secret Santas!\", \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Game Over for Owlman!\", \"Night of the Huntress!\", \"The Fate of Equinox!\", \"Revenge of the Reach!\", \"Aquaman's Outrageous Adventure!\", \"The Power of Shazam!\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part One\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part Two\", \"Cry Freedom Fighters!\", \"Darkseid Descending!\", \"Shadow of the Bat!\", \"Time Out for Vengeance!\", and \"Crisis: 22,300 Miles Above Earth!\".\n** The Ted Kord version appears in the episodes \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" and \"Menace of the Madniks!\", voiced by Wil Wheaton.\n** In \"Rise of the Blue Beetle\", the Blue Beetle scarab is briefly worn by Kanjar Ro (voiced by Marc Worden).\n** The Dan Garrett version makes a brief, non-voiced appearance in \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" as Batman narrates about the Blue Beetles to Reyes and \"Menace of the Madniks!\" displayed his Blue Beetle suit next to Kord's.\n* The Jaime Reyes version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"Young Justice\", voiced by actor Eric Lopez. In a running gag, Jaime can often be seen rejecting the Blue Beetle Scarab's (also voiced by Lopez) more violent and bloodthirsty suggestions (\"No, it would \"not\" have been easier to just vaporize him back in the diner!\"), which confuses those around him as it looks like he's talking to himself. Much of season 2's main story arc also revolves around Jaime's main antagonists, the Reach. Dan Garrett, the original Blue Beetle, appears in a non-speaking cameo in the episode \"Failsafe\", in which several scenes depict the members of the Justice Society of America, in 1939. Dan appears among several of the most prominent members of the team, such as Green Lantern, Doctor Fate, and Flash. The episode \"Intervention\" later tells the full story of the scarab: ancient Bialyan mystics deactivated its Reach control centuries ago, and it lay dormant until it was discovered by Dan Garrett, who fused with it to become the first Blue Beetle. His successor and protege, the technological genius Ted Kord, was able to recognize the Scarab as a potentially dangerous piece of alien technology, and thus made use of his own inventions as a hero, but still used the Blue Beetle identity. Kord later lost his life in a battle with Deathstroke and Sportsmaster upon discovering The Light planned to steal and reactivate the Scarab. Jaime came across the Scarab just after Ted Kord's death, and became the third Blue Beetle, while believing the Scarab was Kord's own invention. He was recruited into the Justice League's teenage strike team, where subsequent conflicts with the Reach led him to discover the Scarab's true origin and purpose, but his attempts to remove it were unable to keep his body from being completely controlled by it. Some of the Team made a separate discovery of the Bialyan ritual that could remove the Reach's control over the Scarab, and kept the knowledge quiet while Doctor Fate taught Zatanna the ritual, so the Team could once again deactivate the Scarab to allow Jaime to resume control. The Scarab then cooperates with Jaime without much resistance, preferring their partnership over enslavement.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the animated series \"Justice League Action\", voiced again by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Ted Kord version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"DC Super Hero Girls\", voiced by Max Mittelman."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "The young teenager Jaime Reyes later merges the scarab as the new Blue Beetle. A statue of Kord in J'onn J'onzz's memorial to fallen Justice League members. When recruiting members for the new Justice League, Superman suggests Booster Gold to which Batman responds: \"There are better ways to honor Ted\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime Reyes is a fictional superhero character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Created by Keith Giffen, John Rogers, and Cully Hamner, the character made his first appearance in \"Infinite Crisis\" #3 (February 2006)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "A new \"Blue Beetle\" title launched in fall 2011 after the conclusion of the \"Flashpoint\" event. It was written by Tony Bedard and drawn by Ig Guara and cancelled in February 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The Scarab came to Earth in El Paso, Texas, where Jaime picked it up. Not long after, Booster Gold appeared at Jaime's house to retrieve it, but it had fused itself to Jaime's spine while he was sleeping. Booster recruited Jaime for Batman's assault on the Brother Eye satellite, since the Scarab was the only thing that could see the satellite. Using the Scarab's powers, Jaime was able to reveal the satellite to Batman's group, enabled them to defeat it. Once Brother Eye was sent plummeting Earthward, Jaime disappeared from the ship, teleported away by the scarab, which sought to escape the Green Lanterns on board."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The \"Kingdom Come\" story, in which the Blue Beetle took part, has been adapted as an audio drama by John Whitman, based on the story by Mark Waid and Alex Ross and the novelization by Elliot S. Maggin (Time Warner Audio Books, 1998).\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears on the cover of a comic book in the \"Watchmen\" film tie-in \"Under the Hood\".\n* In \"\", an evil version of Blue Beetle appeared on a computer page of the lesser members of the Crime Syndicate.\n* The Ted Kord Blue Beetle is portrayed by Luke Barats in the 2011 short film \"The Death and Return of Superman\".\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in \"Justice League vs. Teen Titans\", where he is a member of the Teen Titans. He is a close friend of Beast Boy and helps in fending off Trigon's demonic emissaries from Hell. He is voiced by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Jaime Reyes Blue Beetle is a main character in the sequel \"\" with Austin reprising his role again.\n* Ted Kord as Blue Beetle makes a brief appearance in \"Teen Titans Go! To the Movies\".\n* In \"\", he was one among the Titans who were killed by the Paradooms.\n* The Dan Garret Blue Beetle appears in the 2012 film \"Agent Beetle\". He is never referred to as Blue Beetle in the film, possibly to avoid copyright issues.\n* The Ted Kord version appears in a DC Showcase short that was included in \"\".\n* A film centered around Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle is in development, with Gareth Dunnet-Alcocer serving as screenwriter and Angel Manuel Soto will direct the film. The film will be an installment in the DC Extended Universe franchise. Xolo Maridue\u00f1a was cast as Jamie Reyes. Other actors Bruna Marquezine and Belissa Escobedo were respectively cast as the protagonist's love interest Penny and younger sister Milagros; Harvey Guill\u00e9n also joined the cast in an undisclosed role.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the episode \"Booster\" in the final season of \"Smallville\", where the scarab bonds with Jaime who is saved by Booster Gold. Ted Kord also makes an appearance as well, searching for the lost, and apparently extremely dangerous Blue Beetle scarab. Dan Garrett is also mentioned, with Clark Kent stating he was a Kord Industries scientist who was killed after the Scarab bonded with him.\n* Kord Industries is referenced in the second and fourth season of The CW show \"Arrow\". The producers planned for Ted Kord to join the show in the third season, but when DC told them that they had \"other plans for him\", he was replaced by Ray Palmer.\n* Blue Beetle was referenced in the 7th episode of \"Legends of Tomorrow\" when Kendra asks Ray about his favorite color, blue, and his favorite Beatle, he does not have one.\n* Several incarnations of the Blue Beetle appear on \"\":\n** The Jaime Reyes incarnation is a featured character, with Jaime Reyes voiced by Will Friedle and the Blue Beetle Scarab voiced by Ioan Gruffudd. He appears in the episodes \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Invasion of the Secret Santas!\", \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\", \"Game Over for Owlman!\", \"Night of the Huntress!\", \"The Fate of Equinox!\", \"Revenge of the Reach!\", \"Aquaman's Outrageous Adventure!\", \"The Power of Shazam!\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part One\", \"The Siege of Starro! Part Two\", \"Cry Freedom Fighters!\", \"Darkseid Descending!\", \"Shadow of the Bat!\", \"Time Out for Vengeance!\", and \"Crisis: 22,300 Miles Above Earth!\".\n** The Ted Kord version appears in the episodes \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" and \"Menace of the Madniks!\", voiced by Wil Wheaton.\n** In \"Rise of the Blue Beetle\", the Blue Beetle scarab is briefly worn by Kanjar Ro (voiced by Marc Worden).\n** The Dan Garrett version makes a brief, non-voiced appearance in \"Fall of the Blue Beetle!\" as Batman narrates about the Blue Beetles to Reyes and \"Menace of the Madniks!\" displayed his Blue Beetle suit next to Kord's.\n* The Jaime Reyes version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"Young Justice\", voiced by actor Eric Lopez. In a running gag, Jaime can often be seen rejecting the Blue Beetle Scarab's (also voiced by Lopez) more violent and bloodthirsty suggestions (\"No, it would \"not\" have been easier to just vaporize him back in the diner!\"), which confuses those around him as it looks like he's talking to himself. Much of season 2's main story arc also revolves around Jaime's main antagonists, the Reach. Dan Garrett, the original Blue Beetle, appears in a non-speaking cameo in the episode \"Failsafe\", in which several scenes depict the members of the Justice Society of America, in 1939. Dan appears among several of the most prominent members of the team, such as Green Lantern, Doctor Fate, and Flash. The episode \"Intervention\" later tells the full story of the scarab: ancient Bialyan mystics deactivated its Reach control centuries ago, and it lay dormant until it was discovered by Dan Garrett, who fused with it to become the first Blue Beetle. His successor and protege, the technological genius Ted Kord, was able to recognize the Scarab as a potentially dangerous piece of alien technology, and thus made use of his own inventions as a hero, but still used the Blue Beetle identity. Kord later lost his life in a battle with Deathstroke and Sportsmaster upon discovering The Light planned to steal and reactivate the Scarab. Jaime came across the Scarab just after Ted Kord's death, and became the third Blue Beetle, while believing the Scarab was Kord's own invention. He was recruited into the Justice League's teenage strike team, where subsequent conflicts with the Reach led him to discover the Scarab's true origin and purpose, but his attempts to remove it were unable to keep his body from being completely controlled by it. Some of the Team made a separate discovery of the Bialyan ritual that could remove the Reach's control over the Scarab, and kept the knowledge quiet while Doctor Fate taught Zatanna the ritual, so the Team could once again deactivate the Scarab to allow Jaime to resume control. The Scarab then cooperates with Jaime without much resistance, preferring their partnership over enslavement.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in the animated series \"Justice League Action\", voiced again by Jake T. Austin.\n* The Ted Kord version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of \"DC Super Hero Girls\", voiced by Max Mittelman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In the latest relaunch of the DC Universe, \"DC Rebirth\", Jaime is working with Ted Kord to study the beetle attached to Jaime's back and remove it. Once again, the beetle's origin is retconned, as revealed by Doctor Fate, who tells Kord that the beetle is not alien, but magical, similar to the original continuity pre-\"Infinite Crisis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of DC Animated Universe characters",
        "text": "Blue Beetle could not appear as a member of the Justice League due to rights being tied up until 2007 because of his 1940s radio show and 1980s cartoon proposals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The third Blue Beetle, created by DC Comics, is Jaime Reyes, a teenager who discovered that the original Blue Beetle scarab morphed into a battle suit allowing him to fight crime and travel in space. Over the years Reyes became a member of the Teen Titans and starred in two Blue Beetle comic series. In DC Comics' 2011 \"New 52\" reboot, Jaime Reyes was the primary Blue Beetle character, only occasionally referring to past versions. With the subsequent continuity revision \"DC Rebirth\", the previous versions were restored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Later, both team up to destroy the Black Lantern, succeeding by blasting him with a special light gun designed by Ted Kord and separating him from the ring. Then, they move the remains into the Time Sphere and take the lifeless corpse to Vanishing Point Fortress, in the last second of the universe. There, Jaime promises to eventually live up to the legacy of the Blue Beetle and reestablish the Blue & Gold Team."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Rise of the Blue Beetle!",
        "text": "Michael Jelenic, the story editor and co-producer of the show, wrote the scene with Jaime and his friend Paco, commented on Batman and Green Arrow on television because that is the type of thing that he imagined fanboys arguing about. The Clock King segment includes pop culture references while Jaime's room has a \"The Dark Knight Returns\" poster. The episode has easter eggs of characters that didn't appear in the episode."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unproduced DC Comics projects",
        "text": "Geoff Johns announced a live action TV series featuring the Jamie Reyes version of Blue Beetle. They made a test trailer with stuntman and actor Garrett Plotkin as Jaime Reyes. Scenes of this trailer were shown as part of the upcoming DC Nation block of programming in 2012 on Cartoon Network during the premiere of \"\". Since then, nothing has been announced about the project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The \"Blue Beetle\" series has been collected into a number of trade paperbacks:\n* Jaren Brandt Bartlett portrayed Jaime Reyes in the tenth season of \"Smallville\". In the episode \"Booster\", he is originally portrayed as a teenager living in Metropolis who is shy and somewhat-clumsy, and was bullied because of it, until the Blue Beetle scarab attached itself to him after he was nearly in a traffic accident involving a vehicle that was transporting it to a Kord Industries facility. After seeking out a new hero, Booster Gold in the hopes that he could help remove the scarab from his spine, the scarab transforms Jaime into the Blue Beetle, and Jaime is unable to stop the armor from making him attack Booster. After nearly strangling Booster, Jaime is able to gain control over the scarab when Booster convinces him to stand up and assert himself over the scarab, shutting it down and reverting to his normal self. Ted Kord later offers to remove the scarab, but Jaime tells him he wishes to keep it and learn how to become a hero, and Booster offers to help Jaime control his powers and convinces Lois Lane to interview Jaime. This version's battle suit is rather bulky and lacks the traditional mouth seen in the comics (as the effect is difficult to pull off in live action). The name Blue Beetle was not used in the episode. Even though this incarnation is from Metropolis, he is seen in the episode wearing a shirt reading \"El Paso\", a nod to his comic book roots.\n* Jaime Reyes is a featured character in the animated series \"\", voiced by Will Friedle. This version is a fan of Batman and best friends with Paco Testas. In the pilot episode \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\", hee has a central role while fighting against Kanjar Ro. Jaime makes another appearance in the episode \"Invasion of the Secret Santas!\", assisting Batman in fighting the Sportsmaster and his henchmen and inviting Batman to his family's Christmas Eve dinner. Jaime appeared again fighting Planet Master alongside Aquaman in \"Aquaman's Outrageous Adventure!\". Blue Beetle also appears in the episodes \"Deep Cover for Batman!\" and \"Game Over for Owlman!\". In \"Night of the Huntress!\", Blue Beetle, Batman, and the Huntress have to stop the gangsters Baby-Face and Mrs. Manface while developing a crush on Huntress. Reyes appeared again in \"The Fate of Equinox!\" where he, along with Doctor Fate, Aquaman, Black Canary, Black Lightning, Fire, the original Flash, Green Arrow, Green Lantern, Plastic Man, and Red Tornado temporarily gave their powers to Batman, turning the Dark Knight into Bat Monolith to battle the omnipotent Equinox. In \"Revenge of the Reach!\", Jaime learns the Blue Beetle Scarab is a part of the Reach. His Blue Beetle suit takes control of him to shut down Oa's defenses, allowing the Reach to use an army of other Scarab-controlled beings to invade. Fortunately, Jaime regains control of his Blue Beetle suit by reminding the latter what they did was of their will, not the Reach's. Channeling the Green Lanterns' energy via his suit, Blue Beetle is able to free the other Scarab-controlled beings from the Reach's control. Despite the Guardians of the Universe asking Jaime for his Blue Beetle scarab's destruction along with the others, Guy Gardner is convinced that Jaime proved he's the master.\n* An alternate universe version named Scarlet Scarab is shown as a member of the Injustice Syndicate led by Owlman, also voiced by Freidle.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in \"Young Justice: Invasion\", voiced by Eric Lopez. This version appears as a member of the Young Justice team. Jaime initially believes the Scarab to be of technology that had been created by Ted Kord, prior to the former Blue Beetle's death at the hands of The Light's enforcers. After an explosion at Kord Industries, the Scarab bonded with Jaime who was passing by at the time. The explosion would later be revealed to have been the end result of Ted's fight with The Light's enforcers that cost the previous Blue Beetle's life. Unlike other versions, the Scarab speaks to Jaime only in English and finds lethal courses of action preferable to capture and restraint, which is why Jaime is constantly at odds with it, and unlike his comic book counterpart, he does not experience any discomfort when transforming into Blue Beetle. While Impulse is liberating Jaime from the Reach's first attempts to control him, he tells Jaime the reason of why the latter traveled to the past in the first place: Jaime's Scarab had become on mode and turned him into Earth's dictator. Jaime refuses to believe any of this, but is still dazed from the experiments. He later searches for a way to remove the Scarab to prevent what Impulse had told him from happening, but both his Scarab and body are eventually put under full Reach control by the Reach's armor-welding Green Martian agent Green Beetle. This virtually trapped Jaime inside of his mind, and allowed the Reach to make Jaime turn on the rest of the Team against his own will. The Team, mainly Zatanna, later frees Blue Beetle and his Scarab from the Reach's control. He then goes on to help Earth's heroes to defeat the Reach, playing an important role in helping them defeat the Reach's armor-wielding agent Black Beetle, and save the world from the Reach's attempt to destroy it. In the , he becomes a member of Beast Boy's Outsiders and is in a relationship with Traci Thurston.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in \"DC Super Hero Girls\". He is seen as one of the background students of Super Hero High.\n* Jaime Reyes appears in \"Justice League Action\", voiced again by Jake T. Austin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In \"\", other representatives of the Reach attack Odym, homeworld of the Blue Lantern Corps, where it is revealed that their armours have taken control of them; Jaime speculates, during a confrontation with Kyle Rayner, that his armour is damaged, explaining why he is in control of himself where other Reach soldiers are enslaved to their armour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "After The New 52 was launched, a new series starring Jaime Reyes was introduced. It launched in November 2011 and ended in March 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Not much later, he is visited by Skeets, Booster Gold's robotic partner, who warned him of his disappearance. Deciding to team up with the small machine to find Booster to pay respect to him for introducing him to the superhero world, he reaches the house of Rose Levin and Daniel Carter, Booster's 21st century ancestors. Soon after he arrives, the Black Lantern Ted Kord crashes his ship into Daniel's house and Jaime proceeds to battle Kord. Although outmatched and insulted by the Black Lantern, Jaime keeps fighting until Booster enters the scene."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In \"Infinite Crisis\" #5 (March 2006), Reyes became Blue Beetle's third incarnation. His own monthly series debuted two months later with \"Blue Beetle\" vol. 7 #1 (May 2006); it was initially written by Keith Giffen and John Rogers, with artist Cully Hamner. Giffen left before issue #10 and Rogers took over full writing duties, joined by new artist Rafael Albuquerque. Rogers left in issue #25 to concentrate on his television series \"Leverage\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "DC's introduction of Jaime Reyes in 2006 retconned and expanded upon the Blue Beetle mythos. Revealed to be alien in origin, the scarab bonds with Reyes and provides him with a suit of extraterrestrial armor shortly after Kord's death. Though only a teenager, Reyes quickly forms a working relationship with Kord's former teammate and best friend Booster Gold and is inducted into the Teen Titans and the Justice League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Reyes and his friend Paco are driving to a party when a fight over a backpack between some men and the Brotherhood of Evil members Phobia, Plasmus and Warp erupts from a nearby building. To protect Paco, Jaime grabs the backpack. When La Dama's agents Brutale, Bone-Crusher and a new villain called Coyote join the fight, Brutale throws a knife at the backpack. The scarab inside is set off and Jaime is transformed into Blue Beetle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The character returned in June 2009 as a \"co-feature\" of the more popular \"Booster Gold\" comic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "After the death of Ted Kord, a new Blue Beetle was introduced named Jaime Reyes in \"Infinite Crisis\" #3. His own solo series begun in issue #1 and ended in issue #36 in February 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime Reyes is the third character to assume the mantle of Blue Beetle, but he is substantially different from his predecessors. Introduced in 1939, the original Blue Beetle, Dan Garret, was a Fox Comics police officer who fought crime with superpowers gained by ingesting \"Vitamin 2X\". A revamped version of this character, archaeologist Dan Garrett, introduced in 1964 by Charlton Comics drew mystical abilities from an ancient Egyptian scarab. Published by Charlton Comics and later DC, 1966 creation Ted Kord was Garret's student who continued his legacy of costumed crime-fighting, although he had no superpowers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In \"Futures End\" #0 Blue Beetle is seen working together with the resistance against Brother Eye and all the other dead superheroes. He dies and mutates into a robot controlled by Brother Eye."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Rise of the Blue Beetle!",
        "text": "The episode opens with Batman and Green Arrow (James Arnold Taylor) breaking out of Clock King's clockwork death trap clock that would have lowered them into acid, before going on to fight him and his henchmen. The main plot starts after the theme song airs. Teenage Jaime Reyes (Will Friedle) has become the new Blue Beetle but is not convinced that he has what it takes to be a superhero, partially because he has a few problems with controlling his powers, such as when he tried to rescue a cat from a tree. Batman decides to take the young superhero under his wing and asks Blue Beetle to help him stop a meteor. The mission is stopped, however, when Blue Beetle's scarab creates a wormhole which sends the two superheroes to a distant planet. The planet is inhabited by intelligent single-celled aliens called Gibbles that are under constant siege by the intergalactic pirate Kanjar Ro, who wants to harvest their bodies for fuel. The aliens mistakenly believe Blue Beetle is another, alien, scarab-wearing Blue Beetle who is their savior, and who Batman correctly guesses was killed, and think Batman is his sidekick. Blue Beetle is not confident that he can save them, although he decides to try when he sees the hope they have for him. Batman tells the Blue Beetle to give a speech to the aliens to encourage them to help him and Batman fight Kanjar Ro. Kanjar Ro is meanwhile draining energy from the Gibbles to power his ships for raids on the Medra Quadrant. However, Batman, Blue Beetle and the Gibble army attacks and Blue Beetle starts getting the hang of controlling the suit. He saves Batman from Kanjar Ro, then fights and defeats him, but Ro returns, freeing his crew and using his Gamma Gong on Blue Beetle, which he knows that he has a weakness for; its sonic waves eliminates his suit, and was how he killed the last Blue Beetle. Batman is incapacitated, and another blow of the Gong completely strips Blue Beetle's armor away; when Ro sees his greatest foe is a child, he realizes he did eliminate the Beetle the last time they fought. After the Gibble army is soon after defeated, Ro has Batman and some Gibbles tied to a satellite floating in a part of space with fish-like space monsters that come to eat them, but Batman plugs one of the satellite's cables into the body of the Gibble next to him, charging it with power to electrocute one of the monsters and scare the other monsters away. Meanwhile, Ro has tied up Blue Beetle and is now using the Gong to find the right frequency to remove the Scarab. As Batman enters and Ro is knocked into the Gong, the scarab is removed by the created tones. Ro attaches it to his spine and uses its power to fight Batman. Meanwhile, Jaime thinks creatively and escapes his bonds, and before Ro can kill Batman, he arrives with the Gong and uses it to strip away the armor and remove the Scarab from Ro. Enraged, he tries to attack them, but the Gibble from before arrives and uses a newly made weapon that utilizes the power from its body to knock Ro out. Before he and Blue Beetle leave their planet, the Gibbles thank Batman for his part in helping Blue Beetle and themselves to defeat Kanjor Ro. Returning to Earth through the wormhole, they find it has brought them back to not only the exact place, but also the exact time after they had gone through it the first time. This gives them enough time to finish the mission to stop the meteor that got them sent through the wormhole in the first place, and after making sure his partner is ready, Batman and Blue Beetle take on the meteor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Geoff Johns stated on his Twitter account that there is a live action screen test of Jaime Reyes as the Blue Beetle. This screen test was used to trial the concept of a Blue Beetle television series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Following \"Blackest Night\", Jaime and the other Titans travel to the city of Dakota to rescue Static after he is kidnapped by a metahuman gangster named Holocaust. Jaime uses the scarab to help locate Static, but he and his teammates are easily defeated during a battle by Holocaust, who is able to block a blast from Jaime's cannon and then strike him with a fireball. The Titans are ultimately rescued when Cyborg arrives with Kid Flash and Superboy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Xolo Maridue\u00f1a will portray the character in his own live action film set in the DC Extended Universe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Jaime co-starred along with the rest of the former Justice League International in \"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "During the start of the \"Brightest Day\" event, Deadman has a vision of Jaime shaking hands with Maxwell Lord, who is holding a gun behind his back. Shaken by his near-death in Dakota, Jaime informs Static that he plans to briefly leave to visit his family, fearing what would happen if he were to die without saying goodbye. Shortly after arriving home, Jaime and his family are attacked by a squad of OMACs. With help from Booster Gold, Ice and Captain Atom, Jaime is able to repel the OMACs, but is accidentally sucked into a teleportation rift they create. The heroes end up in Russia, where Jaime learns of Max Lord and his attempt to make the world forget he ever existed. He agrees to help the former Justice League members bring Lord to justice. After a battle with members of the Rocket Red Brigade, the heroes learn that Max Lord has been manipulating the team in hopes that they would reform Justice League International, with Jaime taking the role held years earlier by Ted Kord."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In the aftermath of the massive \"Final Crisis\" crossover event, Kid Eternity, Static and Aquagirl join the team after their rescue from the Dark Side Club. Aquagirl begins hitting on Jaime despite knowing of his relationship with Traci, often speaking to him in Spanish to hide her intentions from the team. Despite feeling attracted, he chooses to remain loyal to Traci."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)\n--Publication history.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----\"Infinite Crisis\".\n----Ongoing series.\n----The Reach.\n----Teen Titans.\n----Series finale.\n----Further adventures.\n----\"Justice League: Generation Lost\".\n----The New 52.\n----DC Rebirth.\n--Powers and abilities.\n--Collected editions.\n--In other media.\n----Film.\n------DC Extended Universe.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In the game \"Infinite Crisis\", a multiplayer online battle arena developed by Turbine, Jaime Reyes is playable character. All three Blue Beetles appear as playable characters in the Wii U version of '. Jaime Reyes also appears in ' and \"Lego DC Super-Villains\" as a playable character. Jaime Reyes is also a playable fighter in \"Injustice 2\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The new series was short-lived, and in the pages of \"Captain Atom\" #83 (cover-dated November 1966) through #86, Charlton introduced Ted Kord, a student of Dan Garrett's (note the changed spelling) who took on the role when Garrett died. Kord was an inventor hero, using a variety of gadgets. This Beetle received his own series in 1967, but the entire Charlton \"Action Heroes\" line of comic books ceased publication in 1968. With the rest of the Charlton line-up, he was sold to DC Comics in 1983 and appeared with several incarnations of the Justice League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "A new version of the Blue Beetle known as \"Blue Scarab\" was shown as a member of the Justice League in the apocalyptic future depicted in \"Justice League: Generation Lost\". He is stated as being the \"descendant of the Blue Beetle\", and has a very alien-looking appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The mystical Scarab that had given Dan Garrett his powers had been thought destroyed. When it was found intact, it was given to Ted Kord, who was never able to use it. After an attack by Brother Eye, the Scarab appeared energized and Ted brought it to the wizard Shazam, who took it and sent Ted away. Shortly after, in the \"Day of Vengeance\" storyline, Shazam was killed and the Scarab was blasted across the globe along with shards from Rock of Eternity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "He began a career as a superhero, meeting Oracle, the Phantom Stranger and the current Peacemaker during his early adventures and ends up in conflict with supervillains like the ones that work for the crime boss La Dama. He often associates himself with a street gang of local superhumans known as the Posse. His support team agreed to help Jaime track crime and natural disasters in the Midwest via the Internet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle\n--Publication history.\n--Blue Beetles.\n----Dan Garret / Dan Garrett.\n----Ted Kord.\n----Jaime Reyes.\n--The Scarab - Khaji Da.\n--Other versions.\n----Kingdom Come.\n----52 Multiverse.\n----DC Animated Universe comics.\n--In other media.\n----Radio.\n----Audio drama.\n----Television.\n------Unreleased screen test.\n----Video games.\n----\"The Electric Company\".\n--Homages.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle also teams with egotistical superhero Hardware to bring down a group of criminals using tech stolen from the late Edwin Alva by the second Gizmo. Despite finding Hardware extremely difficult to work with, the two take down the criminals and depart on friendly terms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The Blue Beetle scarab is grafted onto Jaime Reyes's spine and can manifest a number of powers of its own volition, an act usually accompanied by blue energy emitted by the scarab's \"antennae\". Over the course of the first year of his ongoing series, Jaime had little, if any, control over those powers, but slowly asserts himself. When Jaime is in danger, the scarab activates, crawling out on to Jaime's back and generating a high-tech suit of powered armor around his body. The armor is resilient enough that it can protect him against re-entry from Earth's orbit. When the danger passes, the scarab deactivates, dissolving the costume and retracting back onto Jaime's spine, causing intense pain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Before they can figure out their next move, the base is attacked by the Creature Commandos. During the battle Max reveals himself while posing as one of the Creature Commandos. Blue Beetle ends up unconscious and Max captures him, heading to the teleporter and leaving the JLI behind. When Blue Beetle is in captivity, Max injects him with an unknown substance. Tortured, he remembers Max's existence as the man who killed Ted Kord and destroyed his legacy. Jaime eventually manages to send a signal to the rest of the JLI to lead them to Max's headquarters. He breaks out of the laboratory and attacks Max, who, having discovered the weaknesses of the Blue Scarab, zaps Jaime with a special beam and, just as the JLI arrives, shoots him in the head with a blaster, apparently killing him in the same manner as his predecessor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "During the \"\" storyline, Blue Beetle was among the prisoners in New Apokolips after The Batman Who Laughs and his Dark Knights took over Prime-Earth. They were freed when Wonder Woman, Batman, and Harley Quinn freed Superman from the control of Darkfather. During the heroes fight with Robin King, Blue Beetle accompanied Red Tornado and Blue Beetle into battle against Robin King. Robin King summoned a giant beetle which killed Blue Beetle. Batman later revived him with a Black Lantern ring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) was seen in Alex Ross and Mark Waid's limited series \"Kingdom Come\". He is shown with the rest of the Charlton \"Action Heroes\" not as a member of Magog's Justice Battalion, but as part of Batman's group and later of the MLF (Mankind Liberation Front). He would be shown later in the title in a suit of armor powered by the then-mystic scarab, working with Batman's team. In the novelization of the series, Batman thinks of Blue Beetle, along with Green Arrow and Black Canary, as his closest (at the time) friends. Blue Beetle is killed with most of the other heroes by a nuclear explosion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In 2006, DC introduced a new Blue Beetle, teenager Jaime Reyes, whose powers are derived from the scarab, now revealed as a piece of advanced alien technology. The series was initially written by Keith Giffen and John Rogers, with artist Cully Hamner. Giffen left in issue #10 and Rogers took over full writing duties, joined by a new artist, Rafael Albuquerque. Rogers left the title with issue #25 in order to concentrate on his television series \"Leverage\". After three fill-in issues, Matt Sturges became the main writer in issue #29, but the series was cancelled with issue #36. Editor Dan DiDio put the cancellation down to poor sales and said that \"Blue Beetle\" was \"a book that we started with very high expectations, but it lost its audience along the way\". In June 2009, Blue Beetle was brought back as a \"co-feature\" of the more popular \"Booster Gold\" comic. A new \"Blue Beetle\" comic was launched as part of The New 52 initiative in September 2011, with Jaime Reyes' history being rebooted with a new origin and without any apparent history of Kord or Garrett as prior Blue Beetles. The new book was written by Tony Bedard and drawn by Ig Guara."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In 1964, during the Silver Age of comics, Charlton revised the character for a new Blue Beetle series. Charlton's new Blue Beetle retained the original's name (adding a second \"t\"), but none of his powers or origin, making him a different character. This Beetle was archaeologist Dan Garrett, who obtained a number of superhuman powers (including super strength and vision, flight, and the ability to generate energy blasts) from a mystical scarab he found during a dig in Egypt, where it had been used to imprison an evil mummified Pharaoh. He would transform into the Blue Beetle by saying the words \"Kaji Dha!\" This version, by writer Joe Gill and artist Tony Tallarico, was played at least initially for camp, with stories like \"The Giant Mummy Who was Not Dead\". The Charlton Dan Garrett version of the Blue Beetle ran only until 1966 before his replacement debuted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Following DC's \"Flashpoint\" storyline \"Blue Beetle\" was one of 52 monthly titles launched in September 2011, again starring Jaime Reyes. The series was cancelled after 17 issues in January 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "In a \"Countdown to Final Crisis\" tie-in, Jaime assists Traci Thirteen (former) in foiling Eclipso's attempt to kidnap a baby with great magical potential and use it as a new, uncorrupted host. In the aftermath, Jaime and Traci kiss, hinting at a relationship starting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "During the \"Titans of Tomorrow, Today!\" arc, Jaime takes the Titans up on their offer to visit, only to find that an alternate future version of the Titans have attacked the Tower and managed to kidnap key members of the Justice League. He later proves instrumental in the younger Titans' victory against their future selves and proves himself to be a competent hero by incapacitating the Future Flash and freeing the Justice League. He also aids the Titans in defeating Starro. During the conflict with the future Titans, Jaime is actively attacked by the adult version of Kid Devil, Red Devil, who claims that Jaime cannot be trusted. On the other hand, Lex Luthor describes Blue Beetle as an \"unremitting nuisance\" who holds on to his view of right and wrong no matter how much the world changes around him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime is recruited by Black Beetle (who originally identifies himself as a Blue Beetle from the future) and Garrett to go into the past with Booster Gold to prevent Kord's death. After saving Kord, Jaime and Garrett return, the future is revealed to be a dystopia ruled by Maxwell Lord, who now was never exposed and defeated. Black Beetle is also revealed to be a future enemy of Jaime's, who tries to create this future so he will never have to deal with Jaime and so he \"would not lose her\". In \"Booster Gold\" vol. 2 #10, seeing the damage done by their actions, Ted decides to accept his death and returns to the past, seemingly to the exact moment where he was murdered by Lord, returning the timeline to equilibrium and thus preventing the dystopia. However, in the epilogue for \"Booster Gold\" vol. 2 #1.000.000, a figure with a scarab enters a Kord Industries building that contains a Bug and a picture of Kord's enemy Overthrow among other things. His trademark laugh hints that it is actually Ted, who somehow escaped death but managed to fix the timestream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime first teams up with the Titans in \"Teen Titans\" vol. 3 #50 and \"Blue Beetle\" vol. 7 #18, fighting Lobo, along with the group to ensure the launch of a satellite armed with anti-Reach technology. The Reach themselves apparently hire Lobo to keep their facade as benevolent protectors; at the last moment, Batman and the Teen Titans believe Jaime. Although criticizing Jaime for his lack of formal training, the Titans extend an invitation to visit and perhaps join the team. The Reach later attempt to remove Jaime from the equation, combining the missing A.I. of Jaime's scarab, a new scarab and a Sinestro Corps power ring into the Peacemaker, forcing him to cut the scarab from his spine to ensure that his scarab could not be used as a weapon again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Blue Beetle has appeared in the \"Justice League Unlimited\" spin-off comic book, in issues #5 and #8."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The replacement Blue Beetle created by Charlton Comics, and later published by Americomics and DC Comics, is Ted Kord, a former student of Dan Garrett, a genius-level inventor and a gifted athlete. Kord and Garrett were investigating Kord's Uncle Jarvis when they learned Jarvis was working to create an army of androids to take over Earth. Garrett changed into Blue Beetle, but was killed in battle. As he died, he passed on to Kord the responsibility of being Blue Beetle, but was unable to pass on the mystical scarab."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "When Beast Boy arrives at Titans Tower to lead the team, Jaime distrusts him and accuses him of caring more about winning Raven's love than helping the team."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Rise of the Blue Beetle!",
        "text": "\"The Rise of the Blue Beetle\" is the first episode of the animated television series \"\". The episode introduces Blue Beetle in his first on-screen appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime was next seen in his own monthly series, fighting off Green Lantern Guy Gardner, who had been driven to rage by his ring's reaction to the scarab. A flashback expanded on Jaime's discovery of the scarab, revealing how the scarab bonded itself to Jaime and showing his first encounter with a metahuman. After the fight, Jaime found himself alone and naked in the desert and had to hitch-hike home. Upon his return, Jaime discovered he had been missing for a whole year because the scarab used a dimensional mode of transport to get back to Earth. Unlike most superheroes, Jaime shared his identity with family and friends."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "The original Blue Beetle comic first appeared in Winter 1940 by Fox Feature Syndicate and Holyoke Publishing. It starred the original Blue Beetle named Dan Garret who first appeared in \"Mystery Men Comics\" anthology comic book series. He was depicted as a police officer who secretly dons a superhero costume to thwart crime. The series was the second featured title of a superhero in American comic book magazines after Superman having his own series. The volume series lasted until August 1950 with issue #60 when the company of Fox Feature Syndicate collapsed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "In 1964, during the Silver Age of comics, Charlton revised the character for a new Blue Beetle series. Charlton's new Blue Beetle retained the original's name (adding a second \"t\"), but no powers or back story, making him a different character. This Beetle was archaeologist Dan Garrett, who obtained a number of superhuman powers (including super strength and vision, flight, and the ability to generate energy blasts) from a mystical scarab he found during a dig in Egypt, where it had been used to imprison an evil mummified Pharaoh. He would transform into the Blue Beetle by saying the words \"Kaji Dha!\" This version, by writer Joe Gill and artist Tony Tallarico, was played at least initially for camp, with stories like \"The Giant Mummy Who Was Not Dead\". The Charlton Dan Garrett version of the Blue Beetle ran only until 1966 before his replacement debuted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Booster Gold",
        "text": "Alternate versions of Booster Gold and Blue Beetle as they were prior to \"Countdown to Infinite Crisis\" appear in the pages of \"Justice League 3000\" #14, where they are awaken from a 1,000-year suspended animation on Takron-Galtos in the 31st century. According to Keith Giffen, \"they're J.M. DeMatteis and \"my\" Blue Beetle and Booster Gold\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "When necessary, Jaime can have the Scarab take over in Infiltrator Mode. When this happens, the suit becomes taller, more muscular and grows spikes and allows the scarab to fight without Jaime's conscience as a restriction. This lets it fight more brutally, but Jaime and the scarab do not like this and only resort to it in desperate situations.\n* An alternate version of Jaime appears in \"Justice Society of America\" vol. 3 #37-38 as part of the \"Fatherland\" storyline. Set twenty years in the future, Jaime has lost his powers after Captain Nazi and his fellow white supremacist villains activate their Great Darkness Engine, a device which neutralizes most of the world's metahumans and allows a Neo-Nazi regime known as the Fourth Reich to take over America. Held prisoner alongside the world's few surviving superheroes, Jaime is ultimately killed by security guards after attacking Mr. Terrific as a distraction for the other heroes to further their escape plans during the execution ceremony for Batman and the Joker.\n* In the alternate future called of the book \"Titans Tomorrow\", Red Devil killed this timeline's Blue Beetle.\n* In \"\", Jaime was among the surviving meta humans of Earth gathered by Lex Luthor.\n* In the alternate timeline of the 2011 \"Flashpoint\" storyline, Jaime was a part of a team called the Ambush Bugs led by the Canterbury Cricket. They did an attack on the Amazons which ended in failure with the demise of every bug hero except the Canterbury Cricket.\n* In \"Smallville: Titans\", Jaime is a member of the team with Conner Kent/Superboy, Speedy, Miss Martian, Zan and Jayna at Jay Garrick's school for the \"gifted\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In \"DC Universe: Rebirth\", Ted Kord and Jaime Reyes believe the scarab is an alien device that bonded to Jaime's spine. Kord is fascinated by this scarab and wants to investigate the potential of it while Jaime fears it. When Jaime leaves Kord's lab to get to school, Dr. Fate appears in the lab to warn Kord that the scarab is not an alien device, but it is instead magic. This further sparks Kord's interest in the potential of the scarab."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "In the pages of \"\", Dan Garrett was among the deceased superheroes that Batman revived using the Black Lantern ring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles Nicholas",
        "text": "The Blue Beetle first appeared in Fox Comics' superhero anthology series \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (Aug. 1939), with art by Wojtkoski (as Charles Nicholas), though the Grand Comics Database tentatively credits Will Eisner as the scripter. His family has said Wojtkowski \"decided in the late 1930s to sell the rights to the character to raise money\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Threshold (DC Comics)",
        "text": "Blue Beetle, last seen being captured by Lady Styx's henchmen, is also dropped into the competition, but without his scarab armed. Caul later meets up with T'morra and Ember at a bar, where they inform Caul of Beetle's presence, because his residual Green Lantern energy might have an effect on Beetle's Reach armor. Captain K'rot with his team, Sleen and Pig-Iron, are trying to claim Beetle's Scarab. The Scarab activates to protect its unconscious host. During their altercation with Beetle, they run into Caul, which causes the Scarab to go berserk. Once Caul gets far away enough from Beetle, Jaime Reyes regains control and flies away. Star Hawkins and Ilda, a robot uploaded with the personality and memories of his deceased wife, arrive to cloak Caul and tell him the location of his Green Lantern power battery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "During the \"Death of Superman\" saga, the Blue Beetle and the other JLA members tried to stop Doomsday's path of destruction. Doomsday displayed his near-invulnerability and, while brutally defeating the League, put the Blue Beetle into a coma. Upon recovery, he continued his tenure with the JLA as well as its offshoot, Extreme Justice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The original Blue Beetle was created by Fox Comics and later owned by Charlton Comics. The first Beetle was Dan Garret (later spelled Dan Garrett), who initially gained super powers from a special vitamin, which was later changed to gaining powers from a \"sacred scarab\". The original Blue Beetle was featured not only in his own comic but also a weekly radio serial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Booster Gold",
        "text": "The remnants of the JLI are, seemingly by chance, joined by the successors of Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes) and Rocket Red. Rocket Red declares the newly formed team as the new Justice League International, prompting Booster to figure out that Max Lord manipulated them to be together. Later, during the assault on Checkmate, Fire and Ice discuss how Booster has become the leader of the team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "After Wonder Girl is kidnapped by the Fearsome Five, Beetle reluctantly allows Traci to assist the team in rescuing her. In the aftermath, Red Devil is killed saving the city."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Rookie patrolman Dan Garret originally fought crime as the Blue Beetle without the benefit of superhuman abilities. Garret later donned a bulletproof blue costume (described by Garret as being made of a cellulose material which was \"as thin and light as silk but stronger than steel\" and temporarily gained superhuman strength and stamina by ingesting the mysterious \"Vitamin 2X\". Like the Green Hornet, the Blue Beetle would use his signature scarab symbol to bedevil criminals, leaving it to be easily found, hanging it down into a room on a string and even projecting its enlarged image onto a wall with a flashlight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Max escapes from the JLI using an escape pod. Failing to capture Max, the JLI carried Jaime on the land surface where paramedics Rocket Red and Skeets try to resuscitate him. Their efforts fail as Jaime had already died. As the team deals with his loss, suddenly he sits up, healed, declaring he knows Max's ultimate plans and that they can stop him. Jaime reveals to them that his healing scarab armor is what protected him from the blaster. When the battle against the OMAC Prime goes nowhere, Blue Beetle attacks and OMAC Prime appears to take his power, but Blue Beetle mentions that it cannot take control with the Scarab's power. Blue Beetle attacks and blasts OMAC Prime."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The original Golden Age Blue Beetle is Dan Garret, son of a police officer killed by a criminal. This Fox Feature Syndicate version of the character debuted in \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (August 1939), and began appearing in his own 60-issue series shortly thereafter. Fox Feature Syndicate sponsored a \"Blue Beetle Day\" at the 1939 New York World's Fair on August 7, 1940, beginning at 10:30\u00a0a.m. and including 300 children in relay-race finals at the Field of Special Events, following preliminaries in New York City parks. The race was broadcast over radio station WMCA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "A film centered around Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle is in development, with Xolo Maridue\u00f1a in the lead role. Angel Manuel Soto will serve as director, with a script written by Gareth Dunnet-Alcocer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Dan Garret or Dan Garrett is a fictional superhero, appearing in American comic books published by multiple companies, including Fox Comics, Charlton Comics, and DC Comics. Garret was created by Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski, and made his first appearance in Fox's \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 during the Golden Age of Comic Books. Garrett is the first character to become the superhero Blue Beetle, predating Ted Kord and Jaime Reyes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime lives in El Paso, Texas, US with his father, mother and little sister; his father owns a garage. Jaime offers to help his father at the garage, but his father feels Jaime should study and enjoy his childhood for as long as he can. Jaime has an acute sense of responsibility for his family and friends, though he complains about having to sort out their various problems. He derives strength and courage from his family's support, wanting what's best for them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Jaime comes face to face with the Spectre, along with Luis, the man who had been responsible for crippling Jaime's father. After a visit from his quasi-girlfriend Traci Thirteen (former), Jaime realizes that he cannot stop the Spectre from executing the inmates. Jaime is forced to forgive Luis and reason with the Spectre. Partially successful, the Spectre warns Jaime that if he ever lets the scarab kill, the Spectre will come for him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "Contrary to Jaime's initial belief, the scarab is revealed to be extraterrestrial technology. However, magical influences involving the first contact with Earthmen left the scarab \"corrupted\" and uncontrollable by the Reach of Space Sector 2. Gardner returns and reveals how the Reach and the Green Lantern Corps had battled in the past, forcing the Reach into a truce. The Reach continued pursuing their invasion plans, offering the scarab as a \"protector\" and then forcibly turning his host into their vanguard. The scarab's fully functional A.I. acts as an agent for the Reach. As Jaime's scarab has only a partly functioning A.I., falling more and more into his control and forming an alliance with him, the Reach changed their agenda into feigning friendship with Jaime and the Earth, attacking him in a more subversive manner."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Spin-offs from the series \"Countdown to Final Crisis\" would introduce more alternate Blue Beetles in 2007. Earth-19 (the \"Gotham by Gaslight\" universe), set in a Victorian-like era, has its own version of Dan Garrett who in his secret identity is the leading Egyptologist at the Gotham Museum of Natural History and wears a monocle, appearing in \"The Search for Ray Palmer: Gotham by Gaslight\". The limited series \"\" depicted three more: Earth-26 Blue Beetle, a swarm of sentient insects that form a man-shaped body (calling themselves \"The Scarab\"), Ted of Earth-33, an anthropomorphic beetle, the pet of Mr. and Mrs. Kord, and Earth-39 Blue Beetle, a younger version of Dan Garrett, who has bonded with his scarab in the same way as Jaime Reyes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The character first appeared by Fox Comics in August 1939 issue of \"Mystery Men Comics\" with art by Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski (as Charles Nicholas), though the Grand Comics Database tentatively credits Will Eisner as the scripter. Blue Beetle has starred in a comic book series, comic strip and radio serial, but like most Golden Age of Comic Books superheroes, fell into obscurity in the 1950s. The comic book series saw a number of anomalies in publication: 19 issues, #12 through #30, were published through Holyoke Publishing; no issue #43 was published; publication frequency varied throughout the run; and there were gaps where issues were not published, with large ones occurring in early 1947 and between mid-1948 and early 1950."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The Reach are ancient enemies of the Guardians of the Universe, though their pact with the Guardians forbids them from invading new cultures, including Earth. Jaime has recently sought help from S.T.A.R. Labs to discover the scarab's full power. The Reach appear to be enemies of the Controllers; Jaime's scarab suit reacts violently to a Darkstars uniform worn by the current Manhunter Kate Spencer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The supporting cast remained fairly stable throughout this original run and included Joan Mason, a beautiful blond reporter for the \"Daily Blade\" who would ultimately star in her own backup stories, and Mike Mannigan, Dan's stereotypical Irish partner on the force who believed despite all evidence to the contrary that the Blue Beetle was a criminal and was always trying to arrest him with little success. Dr. Franz, a local pharmacist and inventor of the bulletproof suit and 2X formula (as well as many other gadgets, including the portable wireless telephone nearly a half-century before they came into common use), played a large role in the early issues but eventually faded from the cast. The Beetle also had a short-lived spunky kid sidekick in the form of Sparkington J. Northrup (Sparky), who originally wore an abbreviated version of the Beetle's costume but later went into action wearing his regular clothes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The Black Beetle attacks during a family hike. During the battle, Black Beetle claims to be Hector's future incarnation, wanting revenge for Nadia's death. He retracts his statement, claiming to have killed Hector and taken his scarab. When Milagro was injured by Black Beetle, Jaime loses his temper, finally giving in to the scarab's suggestions to use lethal force. Jaime eventually manages to use tachyon beams to paralyze Black Beetle, only for the villain to claim that he was Jaime from the future and that he would don the black scarab after Milagro (who would suffer brain damage from the injury she had just received in the present) destroyed the scarab. Jaime, deciding to get Milagro medical attention as quickly as possible, was forced to let Black Beetle escape. Before he departed, Black Beetle tells Jaime: \"When you see Ted Kord, tell him I said \"drop dead\"\". When Jaime states that Ted was already dead, Black Beetle replies \"Yeah. I know\". A few days later, Milagro is shown recovering in the hospital and Jaime is left deeply disturbed by his encounter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Kord",
        "text": "The character ran as a backup feature in \"Captain Atom\" #83\u201386 (November 1966 \u2013 June 1967) before getting his own \"Blue Beetle\" title, which ran for 5 issues between June 1967 and November 1968. A sixth issue was produced, but published in the \"Charlton Portfolio\" by CPL Gang. The Question ran as a backup series, with the fifth issue featuring a quasi-team-up in which the Blue Beetle story continues in part in the \"Question\" tale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The second Blue Beetle, created by Charlton and later taken over by DC Comics, was the successor to Dan Garrett known as Ted Kord. Kord \"jumped\" to the DC Comics universe during the \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\" alongside a number of other Charlton Comics characters. The second Blue Beetle later starred in his own 24-issue comic. Kord never had any super powers but used science to create various devices to help him fight crime. He became a member of the Justice League of America and was later killed during DC Comics' \"Infinite Crisis\" cross over."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The character briefly returned in DC Comics' first run of \"Blue Beetle\", resurrected by his mystical scarab to battle against his successor. He can also be seen in various flashback stories. His 1940s incarnation is briefly glimpsed in DC's 1993 limited series \"The Golden Age\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extreme Justice",
        "text": "In \"Extreme Justice\" #0, Blue Beetle refers to them specifically as just the Justice League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "In issue #0 of the \"Project Superpowers\" miniseries, the Fox Feature Syndicate version of the Blue Beetle appeared in flashbacks (as by now the character/spelling \"Dan Garret\" was in the public domain). To avoid trademark conflicts with DC Comics, he is referred to in this series by the nickname \"Big Blue\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "In issue #0 of the \"Project Superpowers\" miniseries, the Fox Feature Syndicate version of the Blue Beetle appeared in flashbacks (as by now the character/spelling \"Dan Garret\" was in the public domain). To avoid trademark conflicts with DC Comics, he is referred to in this series by the nickname \"Big Blue\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "Dan Garret was a son of a police officer killed by a criminal. This Fox Feature Syndicate version of the character debuted in \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (August 1939) and continued through issue #31. He began appearing in his own 60-issue series shortly thereafter. Fox Feature Syndicate sponsored a \"Blue Beetle Day\" at the 1939 New York World's Fair on August 7, 1940, beginning at 10:30\u00a0a.m. and including 300 children in relay-race finals at the Field of Special Events, following preliminaries in New York City parks. The race was broadcast over radio station WMCA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "On the PBS children's educational series \"The Electric Company\", the Blue Beetle was a bumbling superhero (played by Jim Boyd) who would often make matters worse instead of better. He wore a mask, a hood with antennae, wings, tennis shoes, boxer shorts, and a T-shirt bearing the name \"Blue Beetle\". Outside of the name, the character is unrelated to any of the comic book characters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Convergence (comics)",
        "text": "Ted has been working on a device that could possibly shatter the dome. When Allen Adam arrives, Ted's device is activated, shooting a hole in the dome but does not bring it down. Ted considers putting on his Blue Beetle outfit, but Allen Adam warns that costumed superhero work is still illegal. Strange lights appear in the sky, and when Allan Adam recognizes the energy signature, he flies up to investigate. Allan Adam finds Doctor Spectro investigating the incident that returned his powers as well. They are interrupted by Booster Gold of New Earth who Allan Adam attacks after assuming he is with Doctor Spectro. Ted in his Blue Beetle uniform arrives just in time to see Booster Gold of New-Earth disappear along with everyone's powers. However, Blue Beetle's choice to save Allan Adam results in Spectro falling with no one to catch him. The Question suggests that their powers returned as a result of someone from outside the dome coming in and that they should pursue that theory instead of finding a way out. Suddenly, the building beneath them shudders and transforms into the form of a humanoid which speaks and warns that the dome will soon fall. When it does, champions from each of the many domed cities on the planet's surface will have to rise and fight for their home's survival. Within moments, the dome falls and the heroes of Hub City must wait to discover what that means for them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "The scarab exhibits a reluctance to harm nature, as evidenced in \"Blue Beetle\" vol. 7 #4, in which Jaime is attacked by a pair of anthropomorphized trees, and the suit declines to use great force against them, until Jaime convinces the scarab that his life is in danger and wrests control over the suit to destroy the trees, much to the scarab's displeasure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Angel Manuel Soto",
        "text": "In February 2021, Soto was announced as the director of an upcoming film about the Blue Beetle for DC Films and Warner Bros. The superhero's alter-ego is a Mexican-American teenager called Jaime Reyes, which would make it the first DC film to feature a Latino superhero as the lead. The film is set to be written by Mexican-born writer Gareth Dunnet-Alcocer. In March 2021, it was announced that Soto would also direct an upcoming \"Transformers\" film, along with screenwriter Marco Ramirez."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joe Gill",
        "text": "The character would eventually become a stalwart of the DC stable, as would Blue Beetle, an old Fox Comics superhero revived by Gill and artists Bill Fraccio and Tony Tallarico as a campy, comedic character in \"Blue Beetle\" #1 (June 1964)."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Rise of the Blue Beetle!",
        "text": "Dan Phillips of IGN said that people would not like \"The Rise of the Blue Beetle!\" very much if they have a problem with \"wormholes, single-cell organisms and evil intergalactic pirates being mentioned in the same breath as Batman\". Scott Summers of Toonzone liked the plot of the episode while also noting that there are references to older Batman animation. Rob M. Worley of Mania said that the episode has \"laugh-out-loud moments\" and praised the action and plot twists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "The character briefly returned in DC Comics' first run of \"Blue Beetle\", resurrected by his mystical scarab to battle against his successor. He can also be seen in various flashback stories. His 1940s incarnation is briefly glimpsed in DC's 1993 limited series \"The Golden Age\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Epoch (DC Comics)",
        "text": "The Lord of Time battles both the Batman and the new Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (comic book)",
        "text": "DC Comics once again relaunched its titles with DC Rebirth and featured Reyes in his new series that lasted in April 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eric Lopez (voice actor)",
        "text": "Eric Lopez is an American voice actor of Mexican descent. His roles include Blue Beetle in \"Young Justice\" and Bumblebee Man in \"The Simpsons\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Countdown to Infinite Crisis",
        "text": "Alone and unaided, Blue Beetle continues to follow the clues to Switzerland where he infiltrates the castle base of the Checkmate organization. There, he confronts Maxwell Lord, who is revealed to be using his Justice League files and Batman's satellite, the Brother MK I, to keep an eye on the superhero community, which he considers a threat to the human race. After Beetle refuses to join Lord, Lord executes him with a fatal gunshot to the head."
      },
      {
        "title": "Question (character)",
        "text": "In 1967, Steve Ditko created the character of Mr. A, whom he conceived as an undiluted expression of his values, ethics and Objectivist philosophy. Later that year, Ditko was hired by Charlton Comics to revive their superhero character Blue Beetle. Due to its low page rates, Charlton tended to give free rein to its artists when they wanted to include more personal ideas in their comics. Ditko therefore decided to create the Question, a less radical version of Mr. A who could be acceptable to the Comics Code Authority. The character was included as a back-pages feature in the new \"Blue Beetle\" comic book."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)",
        "text": "The Charlton version of Dan Garrett was spotlighted in the second issue of DC's 1980s \"Secret Origins\" series, in which his origin was retold along with that of Ted Kord. Subsequent appearances by Dan Garrett (in flashback stories) include guest spots or cameos in \"Infinity, Inc.\", \"Captain Atom\", \"JLA: Year One\", and \"Legends of the DC Universe\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)",
        "text": "After a couple of fill-in issues, Lilah Sturges became the main writer in issue #29 but the series was canceled with last issue #36 in February 2009. Editor Dan DiDio put the cancellation down to poor sales and said that \"Blue Beetle\" was \"a book that we started with very high expectations, but it lost its audience along the way\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blue Beetle",
        "text": "Some time later, Booster Gold, along with Jaime, Dan, and the Black Beetle in the guise of a Blue Beetle from the future, travels back in time to rescue Kord moments before his death."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who is the most recent comic company that own the rights to the Blue Beetle?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The most recent of the companies to own rights to the Blue Beetle is DC Comics who bought the rights to the character in 1983, using the name for three distinct characters (Jaime Reyes, Dan Garrett and Ted Kord) over the years."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who owned Blue Beetle before DC Comics?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The original Blue Beetle was created by Fox Comics and later owned by Charlton Comics."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has Blue Beetle ever appeared in the television?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Blue Beetle has appeared in both live action and animation, which would you like to know about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the live action version please!"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Blue Beetle appears in an episode of the final season of Smallville, and is referenced in the 7th episode of Legends of Tomorrow."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about the animated version of Blue Beetle?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Several animated incarnations of the Blue Beetle appear on Batman: The Brave and the Bold.  The Jaime Reyes version of Blue Beetle appears in season 2 of Young Justice, voiced by actor Eric Lopez, and Jaime appears again in the animated series Justice League Action."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did the idea of the Blue Beetle come into place?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I did not find the direct inspiration, but I did find that The original Blue Beetle, Dan Garret, first appeared in Fox Comics' Mystery Men Comics #1 (cover-dated August 1939), with art by Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski (as Charles Nicholas), though the Grand Comics Database tentatively credits Will Eisner as the scripter.",
      "The original Blue Beetle was created by Fox Comics and later owned by Charlton Comics. The original Blue Beetle was featured not only in his own comic but also a weekly radio serial."
    ],
    "topic": "Blue Beetle",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Blue Beetle:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blue Beetle",
          "Publication history"
        ],
        "ctx": "The original Blue Beetle, Dan Garret, first appeared in Fox Comics' \"Mystery Men Comics\" #1 (cover-dated August 1939), with art by Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski (as Charles Nicholas), though the Grand Comics Database tentatively credits Will Eisner as the scripter. A rookie police officer, he wore a special bulletproof costume and took \"Vitamin 2X\" which endowed him with super-energy, and he was assisted by a neighborhood pharmacist in his fight against crime. Blue Beetle starred in a comic book series, comic strip and radio serial, but like most Golden Age superheroes, he fell into obscurity in the 1950s. The comic book series saw a number of anomalies in publication: 19 issues, #12 through #30, were published through Holyoke Publishing; no issue #43 was published; publication frequency varied throughout the run; and there were gaps where issues were not published, with large ones occurring in early 1947 and between mid-1948 and early 1950."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Blue Beetle:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Blue Beetle"
        ],
        "ctx": "The original Blue Beetle was created by Fox Comics and later owned by Charlton Comics. The first Beetle was Dan Garret (later spelled Dan Garrett), who initially gained super powers from a special vitamin, which was later changed to gaining powers from a \"sacred scarab\". The original Blue Beetle was featured not only in his own comic but also a weekly radio serial."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Film speed is the measure of a photographic film's sensitivity to light, determined by sensitometry and measured on various numerical scales, the most recent being the ISO system. A closely related ISO system is used to describe the relationship between exposure and output image lightness in digital cameras."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Film speed\n--Film speed measurement systems.\n----Historical systems.\n------Warnerke.\n------Hurter & Driffield.\n------Scheiner.\n------DIN.\n------BSI.\n------Weston.\n------General Electric.\n------ASA.\n------GOST.\n----Current system: ISO.\n----Conversion between current scales.\n----Historic ASA and DIN conversion.\n----Determining film speed.\n----Applying film speed.\n----Exposure index.\n--Reciprocity.\n--Film sensitivity and grain.\n----Marketing anomalies.\n--Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index.\n----The ISO (International Organization of Standards) 12232:2019 standard.\n----Measurements and calculations.\n------Saturation-based speed.\n------Noise-based speed.\n------Standard output sensitivity (SOS).\n------Discussion.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Camera",
        "text": "Traditionally used to tell the camera the film speed of the selected film on film cameras, film speed numbers are employed on modern digital cameras as an indication of the system's gain from light to numerical output and to control the automatic exposure system. Film speed is usually measured via the ISO 5800 system. The higher the film speed number, the greater the film sensitivity to light, whereas with a lower number, the film is less sensitive to light."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Originally only meant for black-and-white negative film, the system was later extended and regrouped into nine parts, including DIN 4512-1:1971-04 for black-and-white negative film, DIN 4512-4:1977-06 for color reversal film and DIN 4512-5:1977-10 for color negative film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The film speed scale recommended by the British Standards Institution (BSI) was almost identical to the DIN system except that the BS number was 10 degrees greater than the DIN number."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "His system saw some success but proved to be unreliable due to its spectral sensitivity to light, the fading intensity of the light emitted by the phosphorescent tablet after its excitation as well as high built-tolerances. The concept, however, was later built upon in 1900 by Henry Chapman Jones (1855\u20131932) in the development of his plate tester and modified speed system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "As in the Scheiner system, speeds were expressed in 'degrees'. Originally the sensitivity was written as a fraction with 'tenths' (for example \"18/10\u00b0 DIN\"), where the resultant value 1.8 represented the relative base 10 logarithm of the speed. 'Tenths' were later abandoned with DIN 4512:1957-11, and the example above would be written as \"18\u00b0 DIN\". The degree symbol was finally dropped with DIN 4512:1961-10. This revision also saw significant changes in the definition of film speeds in order to accommodate then-recent changes in the American ASA PH2.5-1960 standard, so that film speeds of black-and-white negative film effectively would become doubled, that is, a film previously marked as \"18\u00b0 DIN\" would now be labeled as \"21 DIN\" without emulsion changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "This value is then rounded to the nearest standard speed in Table\u00a01 of ISO 6:1993."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The DIN system was inspired by Scheiner's system, but the sensitivities were represented as the base 10 logarithm of the sensitivity multiplied by 10, similar to decibels. Thus an increase of 20\u00b0 (and not 19\u00b0 as in Scheiner's system) represented a hundredfold increase in sensitivity, and a difference of 3\u00b0 was much closer to the base 10 logarithm of 2 (0.30103...):\n:formula_2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The ISO system defines both an arithmetic and a logarithmic scale. The arithmetic ISO scale corresponds to the arithmetic ASA system, where a doubling of film sensitivity is represented by a doubling of the numerical film speed value. In the logarithmic ISO scale, which corresponds to the DIN scale, adding 3\u00b0 to the numerical value constitutes a doubling of sensitivity. For example, a film rated ISO\u00a0200/24\u00b0 is twice as sensitive as one rated ISO\u00a0100/21\u00b0."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "and rounding to the nearest standard arithmetic speed in Table\u00a01 below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The system was later extended to cover larger ranges and some of its practical shortcomings were addressed by the Austrian scientist Josef Maria Eder (1855\u20131944) and Flemish-born botanist (1896\u20131960), (who, in 1919/1920, jointly developed their \"Eder\u2013Hecht neutral wedge sensitometer\" measuring emulsion speeds in \"Eder\u2013Hecht\" grades). Still, it remained difficult for manufacturers to reliably determine film speeds, often only by comparing with competing products, so that an increasing number of modified semi-Scheiner-based systems started to spread, which no longer followed Scheiner's original procedures and thereby defeated the idea of comparability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The methods to determine the sensitivity were later modified in 1925 (in regard to the light source used) and in 1928 (regarding light source, developer and proportional factor)\u2014this later variant was sometimes called \"H&D 10\". The H&D system was officially accepted as a standard in the former Soviet Union from 1928 until September 1951, when it was superseded by GOST 2817\u201350."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "On an international level, the ASA system was superseded by the ISO film speed system between 1982 and 1987, however, the arithmetic ASA speed scale continued to live on as the linear speed value of the ISO system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The \"Scheinergrade\" (Sch.) system was devised by the German astronomer Julius Scheiner (1858\u20131913) in 1894 originally as a method of comparing the speeds of plates used for astronomical photography. Scheiner's system rated the speed of a plate by the least exposure to produce a visible darkening upon development. Speed was expressed in degrees Scheiner, originally ranging from 1\u00b0 Sch. to 20\u00b0 Sch., where an increment of 19\u00b0 Sch. corresponded to a hundredfold increase in sensitivity, which meant that an increment of 3\u00b0 Sch. came close to a doubling of sensitivity.\n:formula_1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Photographic film",
        "text": "Film speed describes a film's threshold sensitivity to light. The international standard for rating film speed is the ISO#ISO scale, which combines both the ASA speed and the DIN speed in the format ASA/DIN. Using ISO convention film with an ASA speed of 400 would be labeled 400/27\u00b0. A fourth naming standard is GOST, developed by the Russian standards authority. See the film speed article for a table of conversions between ASA, DIN, and GOST film speeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The \"saturation-based speed\" is defined as\n:formula_8"
      },
      {
        "title": "Preferred number",
        "text": "The film speed is a measure of the film's sensitivity to light. It is expressed as ISO values such as \"ISO 100\". An earlier standard, occasionally still in use, uses the term \"ASA\" rather than \"ISO\", referring to the (former) American Standards Association. Measured film speeds are rounded to the nearest preferred number from a modified Renard series including 100, 125, 160, 200, 250, 320, 400, 500, 640, 800... This is the same as the R10\u2032 rounded Renard series, except for the use of 6.4 instead of 6.3, and for having more aggressive rounding below ISO 16. Film marketed to amateurs, however, uses a restricted series including only powers of two multiples of ISO 100: 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600 and 3200. Some low-end cameras can only reliably read these values from DX encoded film cartridges because they lack the extra electrical contacts that would be needed to read the complete series. Some digital cameras extend this binary series to values like 12800, 25600, etc. instead of the modified Renard values 12500, 25000, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Methods-time measurement",
        "text": "Films were taken using constant speed cameras, running at 16 frames per second, of the work performed by qualified workers on the shop floor at the Westinghouse Brake and Signal Corporation. Each sequence was rated during filming by three qualified Industrial Engineers. These ratings had to agree within a close band, otherwise the sequence was not used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Another early practical system for measuring the sensitivity of an emulsion was that of Hurter and Driffield (H&D), originally described in 1890, by the Swiss-born Ferdinand Hurter (1844\u20131898) and British Vero Charles Driffield (1848\u20131915). In their system, speed numbers were inversely proportional to the exposure required. For example, an emulsion rated at 250 H&D would require ten times the exposure of an emulsion rated at 2500 H&D."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The DIN system, officially DIN standard 4512 by ' (but still named ' (DNA) at this time), was published in January 1934. It grew out of drafts for a standardized method of sensitometry put forward by ' as proposed by the committee for sensitometry of the ' since 1930 and presented by (1868\u20131945) and Emanuel Goldberg (1881\u20131970) at the influential VIII. International Congress of Photography (German: \"\") held in Dresden from 3 to 8 August 1931."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The ASA scale is a linear scale, that is, a film denoted as having a film speed of 200 ASA is twice as fast as a film with 100 ASA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The current International Standard for measuring the speed of colour negative film is ISO 5800:2001 (first published in 1979, revised in November 1987) from the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Related standards ISO 6:1993 (first published in 1974) and ISO 2240:2003 (first published in July 1982, revised in September 1994 and corrected in October 2003) define scales for speeds of black-and-white negative film and colour reversal film, respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Conversion from arithmetic speed \"S\" to logarithmic speed \"S\"\u00b0 is given by\n:formula_3"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The Warnerke Standard Sensitometer consisted of a frame holding an opaque screen with an array of typically 25 numbered, gradually pigmented squares brought into contact with the photographic plate during a timed test exposure under a phosphorescent tablet excited before by the light of a burning magnesium ribbon. The speed of the emulsion was then expressed in 'degrees' Warnerke (sometimes seen as Warn. or \u00b0W.) corresponding with the last number visible on the exposed plate after development and fixation. Each number represented an increase of 1/3 in speed, typical plate speeds were between 10\u00b0 and 25\u00b0 Warnerke at the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The \"saturation-based\" (SAT or Ssat) technique is closely related to the SOS technique, with the sRGB output level being measured at 100% white rather than 18% gray. The SOS value is effectively 0.704 times the saturation-based value. Because the output level is measured in the sRGB output from the camera, it is only applicable to sRGB images\u2014typically TIFF\u2014and not to output files in raw image format. It is not applicable when multi-zone metering is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film chain",
        "text": "In PAL, SECAM, and other 25 frames per second systems, the film projector speed is increased one frame per second to 25 frame/s. This gives a one-to-one film to video frame transfer ratio. Thus a standard two-bladed shutter can be used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of motion picture\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Film speed \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "(Cyrillic: ) was an arithmetic film speed scale defined in GOST 2817-45 and GOST 2817\u201350. It was used in the former Soviet Union since October 1951, replacing Hurter & Driffield (H&D, Cyrillic: \u0425\u0438\u0414) numbers, which had been used since 1928."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The ASA standard underwent a major revision in 1960 with ASA PH2.5-1960, when the method to determine film speed was refined and previously applied safety factors against under-exposure were abandoned, effectively doubling the nominal speed of many black-and-white negative films. For example, an Ilford HP3 that had been rated at 200 ASA before 1960 was labeled 400 ASA afterwards without any change to the emulsion. Similar changes were applied to the DIN system with DIN 4512:1961-10 and the BS system with BS 1380:1963 in the following years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Film speed is found from a plot of optical density vs. log of exposure for the film, known as the \"D\"\u2013log \"H\" curve or Hurter\u2013Driffield curve. There typically are five regions in the curve: the base + fog, the toe, the linear region, the shoulder, and the overexposed region. For black-and-white negative film, the \"speed point\" m is the point on the curve where density exceeds the base + fog density by 0.1 when the negative is developed so that a point n where the log of exposure is 1.3 units greater than the exposure at point m has a density 0.8 greater than the density at point m. The exposure \"H\"m, in lux-s, is that for point m when the specified contrast condition is satisfied. The ISO arithmetic speed is determined from:\n:formula_5"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "This evolved into multiple parts including GOST 10691.6\u201388 and GOST 10691.5\u201388, which both became functional on 1 January 1991."
      },
      {
        "title": "APEX system",
        "text": "for monochrome film speed, ASA PH2.5-1960,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Kodak has defined a \"Print Grain Index\" (PGI) to characterize film grain (color negative films only), based on perceptual just-noticeable difference of graininess in prints. They also define \"granularity\", a measurement of grain using an RMS measurement of density fluctuations in uniformly exposed film, measured with a microdensitometer with 48 micrometre aperture. Granularity varies with exposure \u2014 underexposed film looks grainier than overexposed film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers",
        "text": "Before this it was determined by the hand cranking speed of the cameraman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers",
        "text": "SMP(T)E's standard in 1927 was for speed at which sound film is shown, 24 frames per second."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "In digital camera systems, an arbitrary relationship between exposure and sensor data values can be achieved by setting the signal gain of the sensor. The relationship between the sensor data values and the lightness of the finished image is also arbitrary, depending on the parameters chosen for the interpretation of the sensor data into an image color space such as sRGB."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Film speed values for use with their meters were published in regularly updated \"General Electric Film Values\" leaflets and in the \"General Electric Photo Data Book\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Intermediate film system",
        "text": "The exposed film, either 35mm or 17.5mm (35mm split in half, to save expense), travelled in a continuous band from the camera, usually atop a remote broadcast vehicle, into a machine that developed and fixed the image. The film was then run through a flying spot scanner (so called because it moved a focused beam of light back and forth across the image), and electronically converted from a negative to a positive image. Depending on the equipment, the time from camera to scanner could be a minute or less. An optical soundtrack was recorded onto the film, between the perforations and the edge of the film, at the same time the image was taken to keep the sound and image in synchronization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Scheiner's system was eventually abandoned in Germany, when the standardized DIN system was introduced in 1934. In various forms, it continued to be in widespread use in other countries for some time."
      },
      {
        "title": "APEX system",
        "text": "Because Exif 2.2 records ISO arithmetic speed rather than film sensitivity, the value of formula_10 affects the recorded value of formula_68 but not the recorded film speed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "In addition to the above speed ratings, the standard also defines the \"standard output sensitivity\" (SOS), how the exposure is related to the digital pixel values in the output image. It is defined as\n:formula_10"
      },
      {
        "title": "Silent film",
        "text": "Until the standardization of the projection speed of 24 frames per second (fps) for sound films between 1926 and 1930, silent films were shot at variable speeds (or \"frame rates\") anywhere from 12 to 40\u00a0fps, depending on the year and studio. \"Standard silent film speed\" is often said to be 16\u00a0fps as a result of the Lumi\u00e8re brothers' Cin\u00e9matographe, but industry practice varied considerably; there was no actual standard. William Kennedy Laury Dickson, an Edison employee, settled on the astonishingly fast 40 frames per second. Additionally, cameramen of the era insisted that their cranking technique was exactly 16\u00a0fps, but modern examination of the films shows this to be in error, and that they often cranked faster. Unless carefully shown at their intended speeds silent films can appear unnaturally fast or slow. However, some scenes were intentionally undercranked during shooting to accelerate the action\u2014particularly for comedies and action films."
      },
      {
        "title": "High-definition television",
        "text": "Standard 35mm photographic film used for cinema projection has a much higher image resolution than HDTV systems, and is exposed and projected at a rate of 24 frames per second (frame/s). To be shown on standard television, in PAL-system countries, cinema film is scanned at the TV rate of 25 frame/s, causing a speedup of 4.1 percent, which is generally considered acceptable. In NTSC-system countries, the TV scan rate of 30 frame/s would cause a perceptible speedup if the same were attempted, and the necessary correction is performed by a technique called : Over each successive pair of film frames, one is held for three video fields (1/20 of a second) and the next is held for two video fields (1/30 of a second), giving a total time for the two frames of 1/12 of a second and thus achieving the correct average film frame rate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "as well as a user-adjustable SOS value. In all cases, the camera should indicate for the white balance setting for which the speed rating applies, such as daylight or tungsten (incandescent light)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Commonly, the logarithmic speed is omitted; for example, \"ISO 100\" denotes \"ISO 100/21\u00b0\", while logarithmic ISO speeds are written as \"ISO 21\u00b0\" as per the standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Exposure index, or EI, refers to speed rating assigned to a particular film and shooting situation in variance to the film's actual speed. It is used to compensate for equipment calibration inaccuracies or process variables, or to achieve certain effects. The exposure index may simply be called the \"speed setting\", as compared to the speed \"rating\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Determining speed for color negative film is similar in concept but more complex because it involves separate curves for blue, green, and red. The film is processed according to the film manufacturer's recommendations rather than to a specified contrast. ISO speed for color reversal film is determined from the middle rather than the threshold of the curve; it again involves separate curves for blue, green, and red, and the film is processed according to the film manufacturer's recommendations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The picture shows an ASA/DIN conversion in a 1952 photography book in which 21/10\u00b0\u00a0DIN was converted to ASA\u00a080 instead of ASA\u00a0100."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movietone sound system",
        "text": "After the split with de Forest, Case adopted a revised position for the projector soundhead, which was now placed below the picture head, with a sound-picture offset of 14 \u00bd inches (368\u00a0mm) (which is close to the present day standard), rather than being placed above the picture head as had been the phonofilm practice. Case also adopted the 24 frames/sec speed for Movietone, bringing it in line with the speed already chosen for the Western Electric Vitaphone sound-on-disc system, and thus establishing 24 frames/sec as the standard speed for all sound films, whether sound-on-disc or sound-on-film. With a few exceptions, this has remained the standard speed for professional sound films ever since."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "where formula_11 is the exposure that will lead to values of 118 in 8-bit pixels, which is 18 percent of the saturation value in images encoded as sRGB or with gamma\u00a0=\u00a02.2."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of articles related to motion pictures",
        "text": "- Film speed"
      },
      {
        "title": "DX encoding",
        "text": "Most cameras read the film speed only (first row)."
      },
      {
        "title": "576i",
        "text": "Motion pictures are typically shot on film at 24 frames per second. When telecined and played back at PAL's standard of 25 frames per second, films run about 4% faster. This also applies to most TV series that are shot on film or digital 24p. Unlike NTSC's telecine system, which uses to convert the 24 frames per second to the 30 fps frame rate, PAL speed-up results in the telecined video running 4% shorter than the original film as well as the equivalent NTSC telecined video."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "As discussed in the ASA and DIN sections, the definition of the ASA and DIN scales changed several times in the 1950s up into the early 1960s making it necessary to convert between the different scales. Since the ISO system combines the newer ASA and DIN definitions, this conversion is also necessary when comparing older ASA and DIN scales with the ISO scale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "On 1 January 1987, the GOST scale was realigned to the ISO scale with GOST 10691\u201384,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The determination of ISO speeds with digital still-cameras is described in ISO 12232:2019 (first published in August 1998, revised in April 2006, corrected in October 2006 and again revised in February 2019)."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Dickson Experimental Sound Film",
        "text": "One question that remains unanswered is how the eventual running time of just over 17 seconds was arrived at. Per the curatorial reports, the 35-mm prints have a standard 16 frames per foot of film\u2014 plus 14 frames thus equals a total of 638 frames. Murch describes the film as having been shot at 40 frames per second (fps); Loughney describes it as 46 fps. At 40 fps, 638 frames would run 15.95 seconds, which should be the maximum length of the restored film if all other reports are correct; as Loughney notes, at 46 fps, the film would last 13.86 seconds. If the latter figure is correct, as many as 9 seconds of film are missing from both extant prints if the entire violin performance was filmed. On the basis of his own tests of eighteen Kinetoscope films, scholar Gordon Hendricks argued that no Kinetoscope films were shot at 46 fps, making the speed of 40 fps reported by Murch more likely. Yet there is still a difference of more than a second between the maximum potential running time at that speed and the actual duration of the film as digitized by Murch. That 17-second running time works out to an average camera speed of approximately 37.5 fps, a significant difference from Murch's report."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Before the advent of the ASA system, the system of \"Weston film speed ratings\" was introduced by Edward Faraday Weston (1878\u20131971) and his father Dr. Edward Weston (1850\u20131936), a British-born electrical engineer, industrialist and founder of the US-based Weston Electrical Instrument Corporation, with the Weston model 617, one of the earliest photo-electric exposure meters, in August 1932. The meter and film rating system were invented by William Nelson Goodwin, Jr., who worked for them and later received a Howard N. Potts Medal for his contributions to engineering."
      },
      {
        "title": "APEX system",
        "text": "implied value (1/3.125) for the speed scaling constant formula_10 given in the Exif 2.2 specification (\"Exif 2.2\"; JEITA 2002) differs slightly from the APEX value of formula_40 (0.2973); with the Exif value, an ISO arithmetic film speed of 100 corresponds exactly to a speed value formula_67 of 5."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "GOST 2817-50 was similar to the ASA standard, having been based on a speed point at a density 0.2 above base plus fog, as opposed to the ASA's 0.1. GOST markings are only found on pre-1987 photographic equipment (film, cameras, lightmeters, etc.) of Soviet Union manufacture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Table notes:\n# Speeds shown in bold under APEX, ISO and ASA are values actually assigned in speed standards from the respective agencies; other values are calculated extensions to assigned speeds using the same progressions as for the assigned speeds.\n# APEX \"Sv\" values 1 to 10 correspond with logarithmic ASA grades 1\u00b0 to 10\u00b0 found in ASA PH2.5-1960.\n# ASA arithmetic speeds from 4 to 5 are taken from ANSI PH2.21-1979 (Table\u00a01, p.\u00a08).\n# ASA arithmetic speeds from 6 to 3200 are taken from ANSI PH2.5-1979 (Table\u00a01, p.\u00a05) and ANSI PH2.27-1979.\n# ISO arithmetic speeds from 4 to 3200 are taken from ISO 5800:1987 (Table \"ISO speed scales\", p.\u00a04).\n# ISO arithmetic speeds from 6 to 10000 are taken from ISO 12232:1998 (Table\u00a01, p.\u00a09).\n# ISO 12232:1998 does not specify speeds greater than 10000. However, the upper limit for \"S\"noise 10000 was given as 12500, suggesting that ISO may have envisioned a progression of 12500, 25000, 50000, and 100000, similar to that from 1250 to 10000. This was consistent with ASA PH2.12-1961. For digital cameras, Nikon, Canon, Sony, Pentax, and Fujifilm chose to express the greater speeds in an exact power-of-2 progression from the highest previously realized speed (6400) rather than rounding to an extension of the existing progression. Speed ratings greater than 10000 have finally been defined in ISO 12232:2019.\n# Most of the modern 35 mm film SLRs support an automatic film speed range from ISO 25/15\u00b0 to 5000/38\u00b0 with DX-coded films, or ISO 6/9\u00b0 to 6400/39\u00b0 manually (without utilizing exposure compensation). The film speed range with support for TTL flash is smaller, typically ISO 12/12\u00b0 to 3200/36\u00b0 or less.\n# The Booster accessory for the Canon Pellix QL (1965) and Canon FT QL (1966) supported film speeds from 25 to 12800 ASA.\n# The film speed dial of the Canon A-1 (1978) supported a speed range from 6 to 12800 ASA (but already called ISO film speeds in the manual). On this camera exposure compensation and extreme film speeds were mutually exclusive.\n# The Leica R8 (1996) and R9 (2002) officially supported film speeds of 8000/40\u00b0, 10000/41\u00b0 and 12800/42\u00b0 (in the case of the R8) or 12500/42\u00b0 (in the case of the R9), and utilizing its \u00b13 EV exposure compensation the range could be extended from ISO 0.8/0\u00b0 to ISO 100000/51\u00b0 in half exposure steps.\n# Digital camera manufacturers' arithmetic speeds from 12800 to 409600 are from specifications by Nikon (12800, 25600, 51200, 102400 in 2009, 204800 in 2012, 409600 in 2014), Canon (12800, 25600, 51200, 102400 in 2009, 204800 in 2011, 4000000 in 2015), Sony (12800 in 2009, 25600 in 2010, 409600 in 2014), Pentax (12800, 25600, 51200 in 2010, 102400, 204800 in 2014) and Fujifilm (12800 in 2011)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Based on earlier research work by Loyd Ancile Jones (1884\u20131954) of Kodak and inspired by the systems of Weston film speed ratings and General Electric film values, the American Standards Association (now named ANSI) defined a new method to determine and specify film speeds of black-and-white negative films in 1943. ASA Z38.2.1\u20131943 was revised in 1946 and 1947 before the standard grew into ASA PH2.5-1954. Originally, ASA values were frequently referred to as \"American standard speed numbers\" or \"ASA exposure-index numbers\". (See also: Exposure Index (EI).)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film",
        "text": "Originally moving picture film was shot and projected at various speeds using hand-cranked cameras and projectors; though 1000 frames per minute (16 frame/s) is generally cited as a standard silent speed, research indicates most films were shot between 16 frame/s and 23 frame/s and projected from 18 frame/s on up (often reels included instructions on how fast each scene should be shown). When sound film was introduced in the late 1920s, a constant speed was required for the sound head. 24 frames per second were chosen because it was the slowest (and thus cheapest) speed which allowed for sufficient sound quality. Improvements since the late 19th century include the mechanization of cameras\u00a0\u2013 allowing them to record at a consistent speed, quiet camera design\u00a0\u2013 allowing sound recorded on-set to be usable without requiring large \"blimps\" to encase the camera, the invention of more sophisticated filmstocks and lenses, allowing directors to film in increasingly dim conditions, and the development of synchronized sound, allowing sound to be recorded at exactly the same speed as its corresponding action. The soundtrack can be recorded separately from shooting the film, but for live-action pictures, many parts of the soundtrack are usually recorded simultaneously."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "In addition to the established arithmetic speed scale, ASA PH2.5-1960 also introduced logarithmic ASA grades (100 ASA = 5\u00b0 ASA), where a difference of 1\u00b0 ASA represented a full exposure stop and therefore the doubling of a film speed. For some while, ASA grades were also printed on film boxes, and they saw life in the form of the APEX speed value \"Sv\" (without degree symbol) as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "126 film",
        "text": "The top edge of the cartridge above the film gate has a square notch in a specific position corresponding to the speed of the film in the cartridge. Some of the higher-end cameras used this notch to determine the correct exposure, or to set the light meter, if so equipped. Although only film with speeds between ISO 64/19\u00b0 and ISO 400/27\u00b0 were ever manufactured in this format, the standard defined 20 different speeds, from ISO 20/14\u00b0 to ISO 1600/33\u00b0."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The standard specifies how speed ratings should be reported by the camera. If the noise-based speed (40:1) is \"higher\" than the saturation-based speed, the noise-based speed should be reported, rounded \"downwards\" to a standard value (e.g. 200, 250, 320, or 400). The rationale is that exposure according to the lower saturation-based speed would not result in a visibly better image. In addition, an exposure latitude can be specified, ranging from the saturation-based speed to the 10:1 noise-based speed. If the noise-based speed (40:1) is \"lower\" than the saturation-based speed, or undefined because of high noise, the saturation-based speed is specified, rounded upwards to a standard value, because using the noise-based speed would lead to overexposed images. The camera may also report the SOS-based speed (explicitly as being an SOS speed), rounded to the nearest standard speed rating."
      },
      {
        "title": "High-speed camera",
        "text": "A normal motion picture film is played back at 24 frames per second, while television uses 25 frames/s (PAL) or 29.97 frames/s (NTSC). High-speed film cameras can film up to a quarter of a million fps by running the film over a rotating prism or mirror instead of using a shutter, thus reducing the need for stopping and starting the film behind a shutter which would tear the film stock at such speeds. Using this technique one second of action can be stretched to more than ten minutes of playback time (super slow motion). High-speed video cameras are widely used for scientific research, military test and evaluation, and industry. Examples of industrial applications are filming a manufacturing line to better tune the machine, or in the car industry filming a crash test to investigate the effect on the crash dummy passengers and the automobile. Today, the digital high-speed camera has replaced the film camera used for Vehicle Impact Testing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "ISO speed ratings of a digital camera are based on the properties of the sensor and the image processing done in the camera, and are expressed in terms of the luminous exposure \"H\" (in lux seconds) arriving at the sensor. For a typical camera lens with an effective focal length \"f\" that is much smaller than the distance between the camera and the photographed scene, \"H\" is given by\n:formula_6"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "and rounding to the nearest integer; the log is base 10. Conversion from logarithmic speed to arithmetic speed is given by\n:formula_4"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The \"Standard Output Sensitivity\" (SOS) technique, also new in the 2006 version of the standard, effectively specifies that the average level in the sRGB image must be 18% gray plus or minus 1/3 stop when the exposure is controlled by an automatic exposure control system calibrated per ISO 2721 and set to the EI with no exposure compensation. Because the output level is measured in the sRGB output from the camera, it is only applicable to sRGB JPEG\u2014and not to output files in raw image format. It is not applicable when multi-zone metering is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The \"noise-based speed\" is defined as the exposure that will lead to a given signal-to-noise ratio on individual pixels. Two ratios are used, the 40:1 (\"excellent image quality\") and the 10:1 (\"acceptable image quality\") ratio. These ratios have been subjectively determined based on a resolution of 70 pixels per cm (178 DPI) when viewed at 25\u00a0cm (9.8\u00a0inch) distance. The noise is defined as the standard deviation of a weighted average of the luminance and color of individual pixels. The noise-based speed is mostly determined by the properties of the sensor and somewhat affected by the noise in the electronic gain and AD converter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "where \"L\" is the luminance of the scene (in candela per m\u00b2), \"t\" is the exposure time (in seconds), \"N\" is the aperture f-number, and\n:formula_7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pentax 6\u00d77",
        "text": "The film advance system is a tension/friction type, the film source side being a tension brake and the take-up side torque/slip clutch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "where formula_9 is the maximum possible exposure that does not lead to a clipped or bloomed camera output. Typically, the lower limit of the saturation speed is determined by the sensor itself, but with the gain of the amplifier between the sensor and the analog-to-digital converter, the saturation speed can be increased. The factor 78 is chosen such that exposure settings based on a standard light meter and an 18-percent reflective surface will result in an image with a grey level of 18%/ = 12.7% of saturation. The factor indicates that there is half a stop of headroom to deal with specular reflections that would appear brighter than a 100% reflecting diffuse white surface."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Despite these detailed standard definitions, cameras typically do not clearly indicate whether the user \"ISO\" setting refers to the noise-based speed, saturation-based speed, or the specified output sensitivity, or even some made-up number for marketing purposes. Because the 1998 version of ISO 12232 did not permit measurement of camera output that had lossy compression, it was not possible to correctly apply any of those measurements to cameras that did not produce sRGB files in an uncompressed format such as TIFF. Following the publication of CIPA DC-004 in 2006, Japanese manufacturers of digital still cameras are required to specify whether a sensitivity rating is REI or SOS."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "is a factor depending on the transmittance \"T\" of the lens, the vignetting factor \"v\"(\"\u03b8\"), and the angle \"\u03b8\" relative to the axis of the lens. A typical value is \"q\"\u00a0=\u00a00.65, based on \"\u03b8\"\u00a0=\u00a010\u00b0, \"T\"\u00a0=\u00a00.9, and \"v\"\u00a0=\u00a00.98."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The company tested and frequently published speed ratings for most films of the time. Weston film speed ratings could since be found on most Weston exposure meters and were sometimes referred to by film manufacturers and third parties in their exposure guidelines. Since manufacturers were sometimes creative about film speeds, the company went as far as to warn users about unauthorized uses of their film ratings in their \"Weston film ratings\" booklets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zone System",
        "text": "The ISO standard for black-and-white negative film, ISO 6:1993, specifies development criteria that may differ from those used in practical photography (previous standards, such as ANSI PH2.5-1979, also specified chemistry and development technique). Consequently, the Zone System practitioner often must determine the speed for a particular combination of film, developer, and enlarger type; the speed determination is commonly based on Zone\u00a0I. Although the method for determining speed for the Zone System is conceptually similar to the ISO method for determining speed, the Zone System speed is an \"effective speed\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Upon exposure, the amount of light energy that reaches the film determines the effect upon the emulsion. If the brightness of the light is multiplied by a factor and the exposure of the film decreased by the same factor by varying the camera's shutter speed and aperture, so that the energy received is the same, the film will be developed to the same density. This rule is called reciprocity. The systems for determining the sensitivity for an emulsion are possible because reciprocity holds over a wide range of customary conditions. In practice, reciprocity works reasonably well for normal photographic films for the range of exposures between 1/1000\u00a0second to 1/2\u00a0second. However, this relationship breaks down outside these limits, a phenomenon known as reciprocity failure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Speed (1925 film)",
        "text": "A print of \"Speed\" is held in the Gosfilmofond film archve in Moscow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of motion picture\u2013related articles",
        "text": "ASA speed rating \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Movie camera",
        "text": "One of the problems in film is synchronizing a sound recording with the film. Most film cameras do not record sound internally; instead, the sound is captured separately by a precision audio device (see double-system recording). The exceptions to this are the single-system news film cameras, which had either an optical\u2014or later\u2014magnetic recording head inside the camera. For optical recording, the film only had a single perforation and the area where the other set of perforations would have been was exposed to a controlled bright light that would burn a waveform image that would later regulate the passage of light and playback the sound. For magnetic recording, that same area of the single perf 16\u00a0mm film that was prestriped with a magnetic stripe. A smaller balance stripe existed between the perforations and the edge to compensate the thickness of the recording stripe to keep the film wound evenly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "For example, a photographer may rate an ISO 400 film at EI 800 and then use push processing to obtain printable negatives in low-light conditions. The film has been exposed at EI 800."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roll film",
        "text": "Roll film\n--History.\n--Automatic film speed sensing.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "On an international level the German DIN 4512 system has been effectively superseded in the 1980s by ISO 6:1974, ISO 2240:1982, and ISO 5800:1979 where the same sensitivity is written in linear and logarithmic form as \"ISO 100/21\u00b0\" (now again with degree symbol). These ISO standards were subsequently adopted by DIN as well. Finally, the latest DIN 4512 revisions were replaced by corresponding ISO standards, DIN 4512-1:1993-05 by DIN ISO 6:1996-02 in September 2000, DIN 4512-4:1985-08 by DIN ISO 2240:1998-06 and DIN 4512-5:1990-11 by DIN ISO 5800:1998-06 both in July 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "An update to this standard has been published as ISO 12232:2019, defining a wider range of ISO speeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Prior to the establishment of the ASA scale and similar to Weston film speed ratings another manufacturer of photo-electric exposure meters, General Electric, developed its own rating system of so-called \"General Electric film values\" (often abbreviated as \"G-E\" or \"GE\") around 1937."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guide number",
        "text": "Bear in mind that the above table is \"for only one film speed\". For end users, obtaining proper exposures with flashbulbs was an error-prone effort as they mentally interpolated between distances and fstop combinations that weren\u2019t very accurate in the first place. Had the guide number system existed by this point, the above table would not have required the left-most column showing distances and would have required only one row (showing guide numbers) under each heading."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roll film",
        "text": "In 1998, Fujifilm introduced a film identification system for 120 and 220 format roll film called \"Barcode System\" (with logo \"|||B\"). The barcode encoding the film format and length as well as the film speed and type is located on the sticker between the emulsion carrying film and the backing paper. This 13-bit barcode is optically scanned by newer medium format cameras like the Fujifilm GA645i Professional, GA645Wi Professional, GA645Zi Professional, GX645AF Professional, GX680III Professional, GX680IIIS Professional, Hasselblad H1, H2, H2F and H3D Model\u00a0I with HM\u00a016-32 as well as by the Contax 645\u00a0AF."
      },
      {
        "title": "Broadcast television systems",
        "text": "All films and other filmed material shot at 24 frames per second must be transferred to video frame rates using a telecine in order to prevent severe motion jitter effects. Typically, for 25 frame/s formats (European among other countries with 50\u00a0Hz mains supply), the content is PAL speedup, while a technique known as \"\" is used for 30 frame/s formats (North America among other countries with 60\u00a0Hz mains supply) to match the film frame rate to the video frame rate without speeding up the play back."
      },
      {
        "title": "Olympus OM system",
        "text": "Exposure control was aperture priority AE using center-weighted light metering. Film speeds of the camera range from ASA 25 to ASA 1600. Film winding was done by using the film-wind lever located on the top right of the camera. Film rewinding was done manually using the film-rewind crank located at the top left. The camera body measured 136 \u00d7 83 \u00d7 50\u00a0mm and weighed approximately ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Super Speed (film)",
        "text": "A print of \"Super Speed\" is located at the Library of Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Speed (1983 film)",
        "text": "Unknown Grigory Yakovlev suddenly overtook top racers in racing car competitions and as a result was invited to the laboratory of the head of the design bureau."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Color reversal film speeds were defined in ANSI PH2.21-1983, which was revised in 1989 before it became ANSI/NAPM IT2.21 in 1994, the US adoption of the ISO\u00a02240 standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of motion picture\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Double-system recording \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Showscan",
        "text": "Showscan is a cinematic process developed by Douglas Trumbull that uses 70mm film photographed and projected at 60 frames per second, 2.5 times the standard speed of movie film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Julius Scheiner",
        "text": "He is also credited with developing the first system for measuring the sensitivity of photographic emulsions in 1894, Scheinergrade, which also inspired the later DIN 4512 standard to measure film speeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zorki",
        "text": "Film speed range: 20 \u2013 320 ASA (14 \u2013 26 DIN, 16 \u2013 250 GOST)"
      },
      {
        "title": "DX encoding",
        "text": "In 1998, Fujifilm introduced a film identification system for 120 and 220 format roll film called \"Barcode System\" (with logo \"|||B\"). The barcode encoding the film format and length as well as the film speed and type is located on the sticker between the emulsion carrying film and the backing paper. This 13-bit barcode is optically scanned by newer medium format cameras like the Fujifilm GA645i Professional, GA645Wi Professional, GA645Zi Professional, GX645AF Professional, GX680III Professional, GX680IIIS Professional, Hasselblad H1, H2, H2F and H3D Model\u00a0I with HM\u00a016-32 as well as by the Contax 645\u00a0AF."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What system is film speed measured on?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Would you like to know about historical systems or current systems?"
    ],
    "topic": "Film speed",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Film speed:0",
        "passage_titles": [],
        "ctx": "Film speed\n--Film speed measurement systems.\n----Historical systems.\n------Warnerke.\n------Hurter & Driffield.\n------Scheiner.\n------DIN.\n------BSI.\n------Weston.\n------General Electric.\n------ASA.\n------GOST.\n----Current system: ISO.\n----Conversion between current scales.\n----Historic ASA and DIN conversion.\n----Determining film speed.\n----Applying film speed.\n----Exposure index.\n--Reciprocity.\n--Film sensitivity and grain.\n----Marketing anomalies.\n--Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index.\n----The ISO (International Organization of Standards) 12232:2019 standard.\n----Measurements and calculations.\n------Saturation-based speed.\n------Noise-based speed.\n------Standard output sensitivity (SOS).\n------Discussion.\n"
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Film speed\n--Film speed measurement systems.\n----Historical systems.\n------Warnerke.\n------Hurter & Driffield.\n------Scheiner.\n------DIN.\n------BSI.\n------Weston.\n------General Electric.\n------ASA.\n------GOST.\n----Current system: ISO.\n----Conversion between current scales.\n----Historic ASA and DIN conversion.\n----Determining film speed.\n----Applying film speed.\n----Exposure index.\n--Reciprocity.\n--Film sensitivity and grain.\n----Marketing anomalies.\n--Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index.\n----The ISO (International Organization of Standards) 12232:2019 standard.\n----Measurements and calculations.\n------Saturation-based speed.\n------Noise-based speed.\n------Standard output sensitivity (SOS).\n------Discussion.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "His system saw some success but proved to be unreliable due to its spectral sensitivity to light, the fading intensity of the light emitted by the phosphorescent tablet after its excitation as well as high built-tolerances. The concept, however, was later built upon in 1900 by Henry Chapman Jones (1855\u20131932) in the development of his plate tester and modified speed system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "As in the Scheiner system, speeds were expressed in 'degrees'. Originally the sensitivity was written as a fraction with 'tenths' (for example \"18/10\u00b0 DIN\"), where the resultant value 1.8 represented the relative base 10 logarithm of the speed. 'Tenths' were later abandoned with DIN 4512:1957-11, and the example above would be written as \"18\u00b0 DIN\". The degree symbol was finally dropped with DIN 4512:1961-10. This revision also saw significant changes in the definition of film speeds in order to accommodate then-recent changes in the American ASA PH2.5-1960 standard, so that film speeds of black-and-white negative film effectively would become doubled, that is, a film previously marked as \"18\u00b0 DIN\" would now be labeled as \"21 DIN\" without emulsion changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The system was later extended to cover larger ranges and some of its practical shortcomings were addressed by the Austrian scientist Josef Maria Eder (1855\u20131944) and Flemish-born botanist (1896\u20131960), (who, in 1919/1920, jointly developed their \"Eder\u2013Hecht neutral wedge sensitometer\" measuring emulsion speeds in \"Eder\u2013Hecht\" grades). Still, it remained difficult for manufacturers to reliably determine film speeds, often only by comparing with competing products, so that an increasing number of modified semi-Scheiner-based systems started to spread, which no longer followed Scheiner's original procedures and thereby defeated the idea of comparability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The methods to determine the sensitivity were later modified in 1925 (in regard to the light source used) and in 1928 (regarding light source, developer and proportional factor)\u2014this later variant was sometimes called \"H&D 10\". The H&D system was officially accepted as a standard in the former Soviet Union from 1928 until September 1951, when it was superseded by GOST 2817\u201350."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Originally only meant for black-and-white negative film, the system was later extended and regrouped into nine parts, including DIN 4512-1:1971-04 for black-and-white negative film, DIN 4512-4:1977-06 for color reversal film and DIN 4512-5:1977-10 for color negative film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Scheiner's system was eventually abandoned in Germany, when the standardized DIN system was introduced in 1934. In various forms, it continued to be in widespread use in other countries for some time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The film speed scale recommended by the British Standards Institution (BSI) was almost identical to the DIN system except that the BS number was 10 degrees greater than the DIN number."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "On an international level, the ASA system was superseded by the ISO film speed system between 1982 and 1987, however, the arithmetic ASA speed scale continued to live on as the linear speed value of the ISO system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The DIN system was inspired by Scheiner's system, but the sensitivities were represented as the base 10 logarithm of the sensitivity multiplied by 10, similar to decibels. Thus an increase of 20\u00b0 (and not 19\u00b0 as in Scheiner's system) represented a hundredfold increase in sensitivity, and a difference of 3\u00b0 was much closer to the base 10 logarithm of 2 (0.30103...):\n:formula_2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The \"Scheinergrade\" (Sch.) system was devised by the German astronomer Julius Scheiner (1858\u20131913) in 1894 originally as a method of comparing the speeds of plates used for astronomical photography. Scheiner's system rated the speed of a plate by the least exposure to produce a visible darkening upon development. Speed was expressed in degrees Scheiner, originally ranging from 1\u00b0 Sch. to 20\u00b0 Sch., where an increment of 19\u00b0 Sch. corresponded to a hundredfold increase in sensitivity, which meant that an increment of 3\u00b0 Sch. came close to a doubling of sensitivity.\n:formula_1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers",
        "text": "Before this it was determined by the hand cranking speed of the cameraman."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film",
        "text": "Cecil Hepworth took this technique further, by printing the negative of the forwards motion backwards frame by frame, so producing a print in which the original action was exactly reversed. To do this he built a special printer in which the negative running through a projector was projected into the gate of a camera through a special lens giving a same-size image. This arrangement came to be called a \"projection printer\", and eventually an \"optical printer\".The use of different camera speeds also appeared around 1900 in the films of Robert W. Paul and Hepworth. Paul shot scenes from \"On a Runaway Motor Car through Piccadilly Circus\" (1899) with the camera turning very slowly. When the film was projected at the usual 16 frames per second, the scenery appeared to be passing at great speed. Hepworth used the opposite effect in \"The Indian Chief and the Seidlitz Powder\" (1901). The Chief's movements are sped up by cranking the camera much faster than 16 frames per second. This gives what we would call a \"slow motion\" effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "and rounding to the nearest standard arithmetic speed in Table\u00a01 below."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film technology",
        "text": "Initially, a lack of standardization meant that film producers used a variety of different film widths and projection speeds, but after a few years the 35-mm wide Edison film, and the 16-frames-per-second projection speed of the Lumi\u00e8re Cin\u00e9matographe became the standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Dickson Experimental Sound Film",
        "text": "One question that remains unanswered is how the eventual running time of just over 17 seconds was arrived at. Per the curatorial reports, the 35-mm prints have a standard 16 frames per foot of film\u2014 plus 14 frames thus equals a total of 638 frames. Murch describes the film as having been shot at 40 frames per second (fps); Loughney describes it as 46 fps. At 40 fps, 638 frames would run 15.95 seconds, which should be the maximum length of the restored film if all other reports are correct; as Loughney notes, at 46 fps, the film would last 13.86 seconds. If the latter figure is correct, as many as 9 seconds of film are missing from both extant prints if the entire violin performance was filmed. On the basis of his own tests of eighteen Kinetoscope films, scholar Gordon Hendricks argued that no Kinetoscope films were shot at 46 fps, making the speed of 40 fps reported by Murch more likely. Yet there is still a difference of more than a second between the maximum potential running time at that speed and the actual duration of the film as digitized by Murch. That 17-second running time works out to an average camera speed of approximately 37.5 fps, a significant difference from Murch's report."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film technology",
        "text": "Other systems used a continuous feed of film and projected the images intermittently by reflections from a mirror carousel, similar to the principle applied in Reynaud's Praxinoscope."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silent film",
        "text": "Until the standardization of the projection speed of 24 frames per second (fps) for sound films between 1926 and 1930, silent films were shot at variable speeds (or \"frame rates\") anywhere from 12 to 40\u00a0fps, depending on the year and studio. \"Standard silent film speed\" is often said to be 16\u00a0fps as a result of the Lumi\u00e8re brothers' Cin\u00e9matographe, but industry practice varied considerably; there was no actual standard. William Kennedy Laury Dickson, an Edison employee, settled on the astonishingly fast 40 frames per second. Additionally, cameramen of the era insisted that their cranking technique was exactly 16\u00a0fps, but modern examination of the films shows this to be in error, and that they often cranked faster. Unless carefully shown at their intended speeds silent films can appear unnaturally fast or slow. However, some scenes were intentionally undercranked during shooting to accelerate the action\u2014particularly for comedies and action films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The DIN system, officially DIN standard 4512 by ' (but still named ' (DNA) at this time), was published in January 1934. It grew out of drafts for a standardized method of sensitometry put forward by ' as proposed by the committee for sensitometry of the ' since 1930 and presented by (1868\u20131945) and Emanuel Goldberg (1881\u20131970) at the influential VIII. International Congress of Photography (German: \"\") held in Dresden from 3 to 8 August 1931."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camera",
        "text": "Traditionally used to tell the camera the film speed of the selected film on film cameras, film speed numbers are employed on modern digital cameras as an indication of the system's gain from light to numerical output and to control the automatic exposure system. Film speed is usually measured via the ISO 5800 system. The higher the film speed number, the greater the film sensitivity to light, whereas with a lower number, the film is less sensitive to light."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The ASA standard underwent a major revision in 1960 with ASA PH2.5-1960, when the method to determine film speed was refined and previously applied safety factors against under-exposure were abandoned, effectively doubling the nominal speed of many black-and-white negative films. For example, an Ilford HP3 that had been rated at 200 ASA before 1960 was labeled 400 ASA afterwards without any change to the emulsion. Similar changes were applied to the DIN system with DIN 4512:1961-10 and the BS system with BS 1380:1963 in the following years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Another early practical system for measuring the sensitivity of an emulsion was that of Hurter and Driffield (H&D), originally described in 1890, by the Swiss-born Ferdinand Hurter (1844\u20131898) and British Vero Charles Driffield (1848\u20131915). In their system, speed numbers were inversely proportional to the exposure required. For example, an emulsion rated at 250 H&D would require ten times the exposure of an emulsion rated at 2500 H&D."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of motion picture\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Film speed \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "This evolved into multiple parts including GOST 10691.6\u201388 and GOST 10691.5\u201388, which both became functional on 1 January 1991."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Some classic camera's exposure guides show the old conversion as they were valid at the time of production, for example the exposure guide of the classic camera Tessina (since 1957), where 21/10\u00b0\u00a0DIN is related to ASA\u00a080, 18\u00b0\u00a0DIN to ASA\u00a040, etc. Users of classic cameras, who do not know the historic background, may be confused."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "This value is then rounded to the nearest standard speed in Table\u00a01 of ISO 6:1993."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film",
        "text": "Originally moving picture film was shot and projected at various speeds using hand-cranked cameras and projectors; though 1000 frames per minute (16 frame/s) is generally cited as a standard silent speed, research indicates most films were shot between 16 frame/s and 23 frame/s and projected from 18 frame/s on up (often reels included instructions on how fast each scene should be shown). When sound film was introduced in the late 1920s, a constant speed was required for the sound head. 24 frames per second were chosen because it was the slowest (and thus cheapest) speed which allowed for sufficient sound quality. Improvements since the late 19th century include the mechanization of cameras\u00a0\u2013 allowing them to record at a consistent speed, quiet camera design\u00a0\u2013 allowing sound recorded on-set to be usable without requiring large \"blimps\" to encase the camera, the invention of more sophisticated filmstocks and lenses, allowing directors to film in increasingly dim conditions, and the development of synchronized sound, allowing sound to be recorded at exactly the same speed as its corresponding action. The soundtrack can be recorded separately from shooting the film, but for live-action pictures, many parts of the soundtrack are usually recorded simultaneously."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Film speed is the measure of a photographic film's sensitivity to light, determined by sensitometry and measured on various numerical scales, the most recent being the ISO system. A closely related ISO system is used to describe the relationship between exposure and output image lightness in digital cameras."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silent film",
        "text": "In the 1950s, many telecine conversions of silent films at grossly incorrect frame rates for broadcast television may have alienated viewers. Film speed is often a vexed issue among scholars and film buffs in the presentation of silents today, especially when it comes to DVD releases of restored films, such as the case of the 2002 restoration of \"Metropolis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers",
        "text": "SMP(T)E's standard in 1927 was for speed at which sound film is shown, 24 frames per second."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roll film",
        "text": "Roll film\n--History.\n--Automatic film speed sensing.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Movietone sound system",
        "text": "After the split with de Forest, Case adopted a revised position for the projector soundhead, which was now placed below the picture head, with a sound-picture offset of 14 \u00bd inches (368\u00a0mm) (which is close to the present day standard), rather than being placed above the picture head as had been the phonofilm practice. Case also adopted the 24 frames/sec speed for Movietone, bringing it in line with the speed already chosen for the Western Electric Vitaphone sound-on-disc system, and thus establishing 24 frames/sec as the standard speed for all sound films, whether sound-on-disc or sound-on-film. With a few exceptions, this has remained the standard speed for professional sound films ever since."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movie camera",
        "text": "William Kennedy Laurie Dickson, a Scottish inventor and employee of Thomas Edison, designed the Kinetograph Camera in 1891. The camera was powered by an electric motor and was capable of shooting with the new sprocketed film. To govern the intermittent movement of the film in the camera, allowing the strip to stop long enough so each frame could be fully exposed and then advancing it quickly (in about 1/460 of a second) to the next frame, the sprocket wheel that engaged the strip was driven by an escapement disc mechanism\u2014the first practical system for the high-speed stop-and-go film movement that would be the foundation for the next century of cinematography."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The Warnerke Standard Sensitometer consisted of a frame holding an opaque screen with an array of typically 25 numbered, gradually pigmented squares brought into contact with the photographic plate during a timed test exposure under a phosphorescent tablet excited before by the light of a burning magnesium ribbon. The speed of the emulsion was then expressed in 'degrees' Warnerke (sometimes seen as Warn. or \u00b0W.) corresponding with the last number visible on the exposed plate after development and fixation. Each number represented an increase of 1/3 in speed, typical plate speeds were between 10\u00b0 and 25\u00b0 Warnerke at the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "(Cyrillic: ) was an arithmetic film speed scale defined in GOST 2817-45 and GOST 2817\u201350. It was used in the former Soviet Union since October 1951, replacing Hurter & Driffield (H&D, Cyrillic: \u0425\u0438\u0414) numbers, which had been used since 1928."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "As discussed in the ASA and DIN sections, the definition of the ASA and DIN scales changed several times in the 1950s up into the early 1960s making it necessary to convert between the different scales. Since the ISO system combines the newer ASA and DIN definitions, this conversion is also necessary when comparing older ASA and DIN scales with the ISO scale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The ISO system defines both an arithmetic and a logarithmic scale. The arithmetic ISO scale corresponds to the arithmetic ASA system, where a doubling of film sensitivity is represented by a doubling of the numerical film speed value. In the logarithmic ISO scale, which corresponds to the DIN scale, adding 3\u00b0 to the numerical value constitutes a doubling of sensitivity. For example, a film rated ISO\u00a0200/24\u00b0 is twice as sensitive as one rated ISO\u00a0100/21\u00b0."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Before the advent of the ASA system, the system of \"Weston film speed ratings\" was introduced by Edward Faraday Weston (1878\u20131971) and his father Dr. Edward Weston (1850\u20131936), a British-born electrical engineer, industrialist and founder of the US-based Weston Electrical Instrument Corporation, with the Weston model 617, one of the earliest photo-electric exposure meters, in August 1932. The meter and film rating system were invented by William Nelson Goodwin, Jr., who worked for them and later received a Howard N. Potts Medal for his contributions to engineering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Intermediate film system",
        "text": "The exposed film, either 35mm or 17.5mm (35mm split in half, to save expense), travelled in a continuous band from the camera, usually atop a remote broadcast vehicle, into a machine that developed and fixed the image. The film was then run through a flying spot scanner (so called because it moved a focused beam of light back and forth across the image), and electronically converted from a negative to a positive image. Depending on the equipment, the time from camera to scanner could be a minute or less. An optical soundtrack was recorded onto the film, between the perforations and the edge of the film, at the same time the image was taken to keep the sound and image in synchronization."
      },
      {
        "title": "APEX system",
        "text": "for monochrome film speed, ASA PH2.5-1960,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Methods-time measurement",
        "text": "Films were taken using constant speed cameras, running at 16 frames per second, of the work performed by qualified workers on the shop floor at the Westinghouse Brake and Signal Corporation. Each sequence was rated during filming by three qualified Industrial Engineers. These ratings had to agree within a close band, otherwise the sequence was not used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Table notes:\n# Speeds shown in bold under APEX, ISO and ASA are values actually assigned in speed standards from the respective agencies; other values are calculated extensions to assigned speeds using the same progressions as for the assigned speeds.\n# APEX \"Sv\" values 1 to 10 correspond with logarithmic ASA grades 1\u00b0 to 10\u00b0 found in ASA PH2.5-1960.\n# ASA arithmetic speeds from 4 to 5 are taken from ANSI PH2.21-1979 (Table\u00a01, p.\u00a08).\n# ASA arithmetic speeds from 6 to 3200 are taken from ANSI PH2.5-1979 (Table\u00a01, p.\u00a05) and ANSI PH2.27-1979.\n# ISO arithmetic speeds from 4 to 3200 are taken from ISO 5800:1987 (Table \"ISO speed scales\", p.\u00a04).\n# ISO arithmetic speeds from 6 to 10000 are taken from ISO 12232:1998 (Table\u00a01, p.\u00a09).\n# ISO 12232:1998 does not specify speeds greater than 10000. However, the upper limit for \"S\"noise 10000 was given as 12500, suggesting that ISO may have envisioned a progression of 12500, 25000, 50000, and 100000, similar to that from 1250 to 10000. This was consistent with ASA PH2.12-1961. For digital cameras, Nikon, Canon, Sony, Pentax, and Fujifilm chose to express the greater speeds in an exact power-of-2 progression from the highest previously realized speed (6400) rather than rounding to an extension of the existing progression. Speed ratings greater than 10000 have finally been defined in ISO 12232:2019.\n# Most of the modern 35 mm film SLRs support an automatic film speed range from ISO 25/15\u00b0 to 5000/38\u00b0 with DX-coded films, or ISO 6/9\u00b0 to 6400/39\u00b0 manually (without utilizing exposure compensation). The film speed range with support for TTL flash is smaller, typically ISO 12/12\u00b0 to 3200/36\u00b0 or less.\n# The Booster accessory for the Canon Pellix QL (1965) and Canon FT QL (1966) supported film speeds from 25 to 12800 ASA.\n# The film speed dial of the Canon A-1 (1978) supported a speed range from 6 to 12800 ASA (but already called ISO film speeds in the manual). On this camera exposure compensation and extreme film speeds were mutually exclusive.\n# The Leica R8 (1996) and R9 (2002) officially supported film speeds of 8000/40\u00b0, 10000/41\u00b0 and 12800/42\u00b0 (in the case of the R8) or 12500/42\u00b0 (in the case of the R9), and utilizing its \u00b13 EV exposure compensation the range could be extended from ISO 0.8/0\u00b0 to ISO 100000/51\u00b0 in half exposure steps.\n# Digital camera manufacturers' arithmetic speeds from 12800 to 409600 are from specifications by Nikon (12800, 25600, 51200, 102400 in 2009, 204800 in 2012, 409600 in 2014), Canon (12800, 25600, 51200, 102400 in 2009, 204800 in 2011, 4000000 in 2015), Sony (12800 in 2009, 25600 in 2010, 409600 in 2014), Pentax (12800, 25600, 51200 in 2010, 102400, 204800 in 2014) and Fujifilm (12800 in 2011)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of articles related to motion pictures",
        "text": "- Film speed"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film",
        "text": "This development was contemporary with the growth of the studio system and its greatest publicity method, the star system, which characterized American film for decades to come and provided models for other film industries. The studios' efficient, top-down control over all stages of their product enabled a new and ever-growing level of lavish production and technical sophistication. At the same time, the system's commercial regimentation and focus on glamorous escapism discouraged daring and ambition beyond a certain degree, a prime example being the brief but still legendary directing career of the iconoclastic Erich von Stroheim in the late teens and the 1920s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Empire (1965 film)",
        "text": "Mechanical projectors capable of showing the film at 16 frames per second have become rarer since the 1970s, with most current machines capable of a minimum speed of 18 frames per second; when projected at this rate, the film is about seven hours and 10 minutes long. \"Empire\" is currently distributed by the Museum of Modern Art's Circulating Film and Video Library both in its full length and in a 46-minute edit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonofilm",
        "text": "In 1924, Western Electric had settled on 24 frames per second (90 feet per minute) as the standard film speed for both the sound-on-disc and optical sound systems it was developing. Western Electric's ERPI division dominated the theater hardware market when the sound revolution finally got underway, so its new standard speed was universally adopted by Fox and all the other studios as each began making sound films. (See the Fleischer cartoon \"Finding His Voice\" (1929), credited to Mr. W. E. Erpi.) As a consequence, Case's tests and DeForest's early Phonofilms, shot at about 21 frames per second, gave speakers and singers laughably high-pitched \"helium voices\" if they were run on a standard sound projector. The Library of Congress and other film archives have printed new copies of some early Phonofilms, modifying them by periodically duplicating frames and correspondingly \"stretching\" the soundtracks to make them compatible with standard projectors and telecine equipment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film chain",
        "text": "In PAL, SECAM, and other 25 frames per second systems, the film projector speed is increased one frame per second to 25 frame/s. This gives a one-to-one film to video frame transfer ratio. Thus a standard two-bladed shutter can be used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of motion picture\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Double-system recording \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The picture shows an ASA/DIN conversion in a 1952 photography book in which 21/10\u00b0\u00a0DIN was converted to ASA\u00a080 instead of ASA\u00a0100."
      },
      {
        "title": "Motion History Images",
        "text": "\"MHI\"\"t\"\"(x, y)\" := 0"
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper print",
        "text": "With adjustments, issues of frame lines and sprocket holes were resolved with each incoming print, but hand cranked film speed was also a nagging issue. Renovare would capture each frame, but a film could have been undercranked and exposed only for twelve frames per second. Playback on today's film projectors might require 18 or 24 frame/s. Everything would appear comically fast. The solution was to expose a frame or every other frame twice, thereby making the action appear realistic. The reverse was true as well, with overcranked exposures, and frames would have to be removed to avoid slow motion films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cue mark",
        "text": "However, most modern movie film projection systems have the film loaded on a very large horizontally-oriented platter (often colloquially known as a \"cakestand\"), in which all the reels of a movie are spliced together into one large contiguous wind of film filling the platter. Studios and preservation libraries that allow their archival or other rare prints to be exhibited typically demand that a twin projection system still be used so that their prints are not cut up for assembly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movie projector",
        "text": "Silent films usually were not projected at constant speeds, but could vary throughout the show because projectors were hand-cranked at the discretion of the projectionist, often following some notes provided by the distributor. When the electric motor supplanted hand cranking in both movie cameras and projectors, a more uniform frame rate became possible. Speeds ranged from about 18 frame/s on up \u2013 sometimes even faster than modern sound film speed (24 frame/s)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Conversion from arithmetic speed \"S\" to logarithmic speed \"S\"\u00b0 is given by\n:formula_3"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Based on earlier research work by Loyd Ancile Jones (1884\u20131954) of Kodak and inspired by the systems of Weston film speed ratings and General Electric film values, the American Standards Association (now named ANSI) defined a new method to determine and specify film speeds of black-and-white negative films in 1943. ASA Z38.2.1\u20131943 was revised in 1946 and 1947 before the standard grew into ASA PH2.5-1954. Originally, ASA values were frequently referred to as \"American standard speed numbers\" or \"ASA exposure-index numbers\". (See also: Exposure Index (EI).)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "In addition to the established arithmetic speed scale, ASA PH2.5-1960 also introduced logarithmic ASA grades (100 ASA = 5\u00b0 ASA), where a difference of 1\u00b0 ASA represented a full exposure stop and therefore the doubling of a film speed. For some while, ASA grades were also printed on film boxes, and they saw life in the form of the APEX speed value \"Sv\" (without degree symbol) as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Film speed values for use with their meters were published in regularly updated \"General Electric Film Values\" leaflets and in the \"General Electric Photo Data Book\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frame rate",
        "text": "When sound film was introduced in 1926, variations in film speed were no longer tolerated, as the human ear is more sensitive than the eye to changes in frequency. Many theaters had shown silent films at 22 to 26\u00a0FPS, which is why the industry chose 24\u00a0FPS for sound films as a compromise. From 1927 to 1930, as various studios updated equipment, the rate of 24\u00a0FPS became standard for 35\u00a0mm sound film. At 24\u00a0FPS, the film travels through the projector at a rate of per second. This allowed simple two-blade shutters to give a projected series of images at 48 per second, satisfying Edison's recommendation. Many modern 35\u00a0mm film projectors use three-blade shutters to give 72 images per second\u2014each frame is flashed on screen three times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "GOST 2817-50 was similar to the ASA standard, having been based on a speed point at a density 0.2 above base plus fog, as opposed to the ASA's 0.1. GOST markings are only found on pre-1987 photographic equipment (film, cameras, lightmeters, etc.) of Soviet Union manufacture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of motion picture\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Film rating systems \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of articles related to motion pictures",
        "text": "- Double-system recording"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of film sound systems",
        "text": "The following is a list of film sound systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Speed (1936 film)",
        "text": "Scenes of the actual Indianapolis 500 were used from an earlier era when riding mechanics had to be incorporated in the race cars. The Emery \"Falcon\" world speed record race car transposed to the similar testing area, the Muroc dry lake bed, resembles the Tatra V570 streamliner series, but was a car designed and built by Harlan Fengler. He built the car to make an attempt at the land speed record but, after investing $100,000, ran out of money. The realistic sequences of an automobile factory that begin the film were shot in advance at Chrysler. The production company was able to film at the Chrysler factory in Detroit, and show the latest model Chrysler Airflow cars produced in the assembly line and the use of the testing grounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movie camera",
        "text": "One of the problems in film is synchronizing a sound recording with the film. Most film cameras do not record sound internally; instead, the sound is captured separately by a precision audio device (see double-system recording). The exceptions to this are the single-system news film cameras, which had either an optical\u2014or later\u2014magnetic recording head inside the camera. For optical recording, the film only had a single perforation and the area where the other set of perforations would have been was exposed to a controlled bright light that would burn a waveform image that would later regulate the passage of light and playback the sound. For magnetic recording, that same area of the single perf 16\u00a0mm film that was prestriped with a magnetic stripe. A smaller balance stripe existed between the perforations and the edge to compensate the thickness of the recording stripe to keep the film wound evenly."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of film sound systems",
        "text": "List of film sound systems\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Motion History Images",
        "text": "else if \"MHI\"\"t\"-1 \u2260 0"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pentax 6\u00d77",
        "text": "The film advance system is a tension/friction type, the film source side being a tension brake and the take-up side torque/slip clutch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "On an international level the German DIN 4512 system has been effectively superseded in the 1980s by ISO 6:1974, ISO 2240:1982, and ISO 5800:1979 where the same sensitivity is written in linear and logarithmic form as \"ISO 100/21\u00b0\" (now again with degree symbol). These ISO standards were subsequently adopted by DIN as well. Finally, the latest DIN 4512 revisions were replaced by corresponding ISO standards, DIN 4512-1:1993-05 by DIN ISO 6:1996-02 in September 2000, DIN 4512-4:1985-08 by DIN ISO 2240:1998-06 and DIN 4512-5:1990-11 by DIN ISO 5800:1998-06 both in July 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film censorship",
        "text": "Film censorship\n--Rating systems.\n--By country.\n----Australia.\n----Brazil.\n----Canada.\n----China.\n----Germany.\n------Pre war and during the First World War.\n------Post WW1.\n----India.\n----Iran.\n----Ireland.\n----Israel.\n----Kuwait.\n----Pakistan.\n----South Africa.\n----South Korea.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n--Brief history.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lists of historical films",
        "text": "This is an index of lists of historical films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Motion History Images",
        "text": "if \"B\"\"t\"\"(x, y)\" = 1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sound film",
        "text": "It was a double system, that is, the sound was on a different piece of film from the picture... In essence, the sound was captured by a microphone and translated into light waves via a light valve, a thin ribbon of sensitive metal over a tiny slit. The sound reaching this ribbon would be converted into light by the shivering of the diaphragm, focusing the resulting light waves through the slit, where it would be photographed on the side of the film, on a strip about a tenth of an inch wide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Larry Cuba",
        "text": "Of the two minutes of film produced on the system, about 40 seconds appear in the movie, back projected into the scene. As of 2017, the original system was still operational."
      },
      {
        "title": "Speed (1925 film)",
        "text": "Speed (1925 film)\n--Plot.\n--Preservation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Motion History Images",
        "text": "\"B\"\"t\" := absolute_difference(\"I\"\"t\", \"I\"\"t\"-1) > threshold"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The determination of ISO speeds with digital still-cameras is described in ISO 12232:2019 (first published in August 1998, revised in April 2006, corrected in October 2006 and again revised in February 2019)."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film technology",
        "text": "Experimentation with sound film technology, both for recording and playback, was virtually constant throughout the silent era, but the twin problems of accurate synchronization and sufficient amplification had been difficult to overcome (Eyman, 1997). In 1926, Hollywood studio Warner Bros. introduced the \"Vitaphone\" system, producing short films of live entertainment acts and public figures and adding recorded sound effects and orchestral scores to some of its major features."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photographic film",
        "text": "Film speed describes a film's threshold sensitivity to light. The international standard for rating film speed is the ISO#ISO scale, which combines both the ASA speed and the DIN speed in the format ASA/DIN. Using ISO convention film with an ASA speed of 400 would be labeled 400/27\u00b0. A fourth naming standard is GOST, developed by the Russian standards authority. See the film speed article for a table of conversions between ASA, DIN, and GOST film speeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Full Speed (1925 film)",
        "text": "The film is preserved in the Library of Congress collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "NTSC",
        "text": "Because both film speeds have been used in 25-fps regions, viewers can face confusion about the true speed of video and audio, and the pitch of voices, sound effects, and musical performances, in television films from those regions. For example, they may wonder whether the Jeremy Brett series of Sherlock Holmes television films, made in the 1980s and early 1990s, was shot at 24\u00a0fps and then transmitted at an artificially fast speed in 25-fps regions, or whether it was shot at 25 fps natively and then slowed to 24 fps for NTSC exhibition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Historic Films Archive",
        "text": "Historic Films Archive\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Alan E. Freedman",
        "text": "He started his long career in film processing at the industry's infancy in 1907, a time before cameras and projectors had sprockets and film had holes to match in order to assure a constant film flow, and steady exposed and projected image. Safety film, sound, and color reversal film stocks had not been conceived. And it was a time before continuous processing; when movie film was loaded on racks, batch processed in dip tanks and dried in drums."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film",
        "text": "Advances towards motion picture projection technologies evolved upon the popularity of magic lanterns, chronophotographic demonstrations, and other closely related forms of projected entertainment such as illustrated songs. From October 1892 to March 1900, inventor \u00c9mile Reynaud exhibited his Th\u00e9\u00e2tre Optique (\"Optical Theatre\") film system at the Mus\u00e9e Gr\u00e9vin in Paris. Reynaud's device, which projected a series of animated stories such as \"Pauvre Pierrot\" and \"Autour d'une cabine\", was displayed to over 500,000 visitors over the course of 12,800 shows. On 25, 29 and 30 November 1894, Ottomar Ansch\u00fctz projected moving images from Electrotachyscope discs on a large screen in the darkened Grand Auditorium of a Post Office Building in Berlin. From 22 February to 30 March 1895, a commercial 1.5-hour program of 40 different scenes was screened for audiences of 300 people at the old Reichstag and received circa 4,000 visitors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film stock",
        "text": "Film stock\n--History.\n----1888\u20131899: Before standardization.\n----1900\u20131919: Toward the standard picture film.\n----1920s: Diversification of film sensitivity.\n----Colour films.\n--Classification and properties.\n----Base.\n----Emulsion.\n----Chemistry.\n----Image record.\n----Physical characteristics.\n----Responsivity.\n----Colour temperature.\n----Sound.\n--Deterioration.\n--Intermediate and print stocks.\n--Decline.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Technology of television",
        "text": "Yet the various television systems were not originally designed to be compatible with film at all. Traditional, narrow-screen movies are projected onto a television camera either so that the top of the screens line up to show facial features, or, for films with subtitles, the bottoms. What this means is that filmed newspapers or long captions filling the screen for explanation are cut off at each end. Similarly, while the frame rate of sound films is 24 per second, the screen scanning rate of the NTSC is 29.97 Hz (per second), which requires a complex scanning schedule. That of PAL and SECAM are 50\u00a0Hz, which means that films are shortened (and the sound is offkey) by scanning each frame twice for 25 per second."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of color film systems",
        "text": "List of color film systems\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of motion picture\u2013related articles",
        "text": "ASA speed rating \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The current International Standard for measuring the speed of colour negative film is ISO 5800:2001 (first published in 1979, revised in November 1987) from the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Related standards ISO 6:1993 (first published in 1974) and ISO 2240:2003 (first published in July 1982, revised in September 1994 and corrected in October 2003) define scales for speeds of black-and-white negative film and colour reversal film, respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Filmow",
        "text": "Filmow\n--Website.\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Derby (1895 film)",
        "text": "Often confused with the 1896 Derby, shot by Robert Paul, the 1895 film is now freely available to viewers in the UK in a digital restoration on the BFI Player. New research has revealed that the Acres and Paul films, including this one, were shot far slower than the forty frames per second required by the Kinetoscope. They were actually filmed at around sixteen frames per second, which would later be established as the standard speed in the silent era."
      },
      {
        "title": "Super Speed (film)",
        "text": "Super Speed (film)\n--Plot.\n--Preservation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Guide number",
        "text": "Bear in mind that the above table is \"for only one film speed\". For end users, obtaining proper exposures with flashbulbs was an error-prone effort as they mentally interpolated between distances and fstop combinations that weren\u2019t very accurate in the first place. Had the guide number system existed by this point, the above table would not have required the left-most column showing distances and would have required only one row (showing guide numbers) under each heading."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lists of historical films",
        "text": "Lists of historical films\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Honor System (film)",
        "text": "With no prints of \"The Honor System\" located in any film archives, it is a lost film."
      },
      {
        "title": "High-definition television",
        "text": "Standard 35mm photographic film used for cinema projection has a much higher image resolution than HDTV systems, and is exposed and projected at a rate of 24 frames per second (frame/s). To be shown on standard television, in PAL-system countries, cinema film is scanned at the TV rate of 25 frame/s, causing a speedup of 4.1 percent, which is generally considered acceptable. In NTSC-system countries, the TV scan rate of 30 frame/s would cause a perceptible speedup if the same were attempted, and the necessary correction is performed by a technique called : Over each successive pair of film frames, one is held for three video fields (1/20 of a second) and the next is held for two video fields (1/30 of a second), giving a total time for the two frames of 1/12 of a second and thus achieving the correct average film frame rate."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film technology",
        "text": "Before 1902, the quality of the experience of films was often troubled by an obvious flicker in the projected image. Many of the systems in use featured intermittent transport of the film strip in order to avoid motion blur, while a shutter blocked projection for each advancement of the film frames. Intermittently blocking the light was also necessary for the stroboscopic effect that was widely known from the ph\u00e9nakisticope and zoetrope. The strain of starting and stopping also often caused damage to the film strip and could cause the system to jam (often with the result of burning the combustible film material as it was exposed to the heat of the lamp for too long). Eventually the solution was found in a three-bladed shutter that not just blocked the light intermittently during film transport, but more often and also during projection. The first three-bladed shutter was developed by Theodor P\u00e4tzold and went in production with Messter in 1902."
      },
      {
        "title": "Filmweb",
        "text": "Filmweb\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film laboratory",
        "text": "Film laboratory\n--History.\n--Processes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Film speed is found from a plot of optical density vs. log of exposure for the film, known as the \"D\"\u2013log \"H\" curve or Hurter\u2013Driffield curve. There typically are five regions in the curve: the base + fog, the toe, the linear region, the shoulder, and the overexposed region. For black-and-white negative film, the \"speed point\" m is the point on the curve where density exceeds the base + fog density by 0.1 when the negative is developed so that a point n where the log of exposure is 1.3 units greater than the exposure at point m has a density 0.8 greater than the density at point m. The exposure \"H\"m, in lux-s, is that for point m when the specified contrast condition is satisfied. The ISO arithmetic speed is determined from:\n:formula_5"
      },
      {
        "title": "Speed (serial)",
        "text": "Rainey, Buck, \"Serials and Series, a World Filmography, 1912-1956, 1999\", McFarland & Co., Inc."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What system is film speed measured on?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about historical systems or current systems?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I would like the know more about the current system."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The current International Standard for measuring the speed of colour negative film is ISO 5800:2001, related standards ISO define scales for speeds of black-and-white negative film and colour reversal film, respectively.",
      "The ASA and DIN film speed standards have been combined into the ISO standards since 1974. The current International Standard for measuring the speed of colour negative film is ISO 5800:2001 and the determination of ISO speeds with digital still-cameras is described in ISO 12232:2019."
    ],
    "topic": "Film speed",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Film speed:0",
        "passage_titles": [],
        "ctx": "Film speed\n--Film speed measurement systems.\n----Historical systems.\n------Warnerke.\n------Hurter & Driffield.\n------Scheiner.\n------DIN.\n------BSI.\n------Weston.\n------General Electric.\n------ASA.\n------GOST.\n----Current system: ISO.\n----Conversion between current scales.\n----Historic ASA and DIN conversion.\n----Determining film speed.\n----Applying film speed.\n----Exposure index.\n--Reciprocity.\n--Film sensitivity and grain.\n----Marketing anomalies.\n--Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index.\n----The ISO (International Organization of Standards) 12232:2019 standard.\n----Measurements and calculations.\n------Saturation-based speed.\n------Noise-based speed.\n------Standard output sensitivity (SOS).\n------Discussion.\n"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Film speed:35",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Film speed",
          "Film speed measurement systems",
          "Current system: ISO"
        ],
        "ctx": "The ASA and DIN film speed standards have been combined into the ISO standards since 1974."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Film speed:36",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Film speed",
          "Film speed measurement systems",
          "Current system: ISO"
        ],
        "ctx": "The current International Standard for measuring the speed of colour negative film is ISO 5800:2001 (first published in 1979, revised in November 1987) from the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Related standards ISO 6:1993 (first published in 1974) and ISO 2240:2003 (first published in July 1982, revised in September 1994 and corrected in October 2003) define scales for speeds of black-and-white negative film and colour reversal film, respectively."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Film speed:37",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Film speed",
          "Film speed measurement systems",
          "Current system: ISO"
        ],
        "ctx": "The determination of ISO speeds with digital still-cameras is described in ISO 12232:2019 (first published in August 1998, revised in April 2006, corrected in October 2006 and again revised in February 2019)."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Film speed\n--Film speed measurement systems.\n----Historical systems.\n------Warnerke.\n------Hurter & Driffield.\n------Scheiner.\n------DIN.\n------BSI.\n------Weston.\n------General Electric.\n------ASA.\n------GOST.\n----Current system: ISO.\n----Conversion between current scales.\n----Historic ASA and DIN conversion.\n----Determining film speed.\n----Applying film speed.\n----Exposure index.\n--Reciprocity.\n--Film sensitivity and grain.\n----Marketing anomalies.\n--Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index.\n----The ISO (International Organization of Standards) 12232:2019 standard.\n----Measurements and calculations.\n------Saturation-based speed.\n------Noise-based speed.\n------Standard output sensitivity (SOS).\n------Discussion.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film technology",
        "text": "Other systems used a continuous feed of film and projected the images intermittently by reflections from a mirror carousel, similar to the principle applied in Reynaud's Praxinoscope."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Originally only meant for black-and-white negative film, the system was later extended and regrouped into nine parts, including DIN 4512-1:1971-04 for black-and-white negative film, DIN 4512-4:1977-06 for color reversal film and DIN 4512-5:1977-10 for color negative film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film",
        "text": "As a medium, film is not limited to motion pictures, since the technology developed as the basis for photography. It can be used to present a progressive sequence of still images in the form of a slideshow. Film has also been incorporated into multimedia presentations and often has importance as primary historical documentation. However, historic films have problems in terms of preservation and storage, and the motion picture industry is exploring many alternatives. Most films on cellulose nitrate base have been copied onto modern safety films. Some studios save color films through the use of separation masters: three B&W negatives each exposed through red, green, or blue filters (essentially a reverse of the Technicolor process). Digital methods have also been used to restore films, although their continued obsolescence cycle makes them (as of 2006) a poor choice for long-term preservation. Film preservation of decaying film stock is a matter of concern to both film historians and archivists and to companies interested in preserving their existing products in order to make them available to future generations (and thereby increase revenue). Preservation is generally a higher concern for nitrate and single-strip color films, due to their high decay rates; black-and-white films on safety bases and color films preserved on Technicolor imbibition prints tend to keep up much better, assuming proper handling and storage."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film",
        "text": "Systems that were cheaper and more easily handled (including 8mm film, video and smartphone cameras) allowed for an increasing number of people to create films of varying qualities, for any purpose (including home movies and video art). The technical quality was usually lower than that of professional movies, but improved with digital video and affordable high quality digital cameras."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film",
        "text": "This development was contemporary with the growth of the studio system and its greatest publicity method, the star system, which characterized American film for decades to come and provided models for other film industries. The studios' efficient, top-down control over all stages of their product enabled a new and ever-growing level of lavish production and technical sophistication. At the same time, the system's commercial regimentation and focus on glamorous escapism discouraged daring and ambition beyond a certain degree, a prime example being the brief but still legendary directing career of the iconoclastic Erich von Stroheim in the late teens and the 1920s."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film",
        "text": "Cecil Hepworth took this technique further, by printing the negative of the forwards motion backwards frame by frame, so producing a print in which the original action was exactly reversed. To do this he built a special printer in which the negative running through a projector was projected into the gate of a camera through a special lens giving a same-size image. This arrangement came to be called a \"projection printer\", and eventually an \"optical printer\".The use of different camera speeds also appeared around 1900 in the films of Robert W. Paul and Hepworth. Paul shot scenes from \"On a Runaway Motor Car through Piccadilly Circus\" (1899) with the camera turning very slowly. When the film was projected at the usual 16 frames per second, the scenery appeared to be passing at great speed. Hepworth used the opposite effect in \"The Indian Chief and the Seidlitz Powder\" (1901). The Chief's movements are sped up by cranking the camera much faster than 16 frames per second. This gives what we would call a \"slow motion\" effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "On an international level, the ASA system was superseded by the ISO film speed system between 1982 and 1987, however, the arithmetic ASA speed scale continued to live on as the linear speed value of the ISO system."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film technology",
        "text": "Initially, a lack of standardization meant that film producers used a variety of different film widths and projection speeds, but after a few years the 35-mm wide Edison film, and the 16-frames-per-second projection speed of the Lumi\u00e8re Cin\u00e9matographe became the standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of British film certificates",
        "text": "In each section, \"italics\" indicates when a certificate has changed since the previous system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Studio system",
        "text": "While the studio system is largely identified as an American phenomenon, film production companies in other countries did at times achieve and maintain full integration in a manner similar to Hollywood's Big Five. As historian James Chapman describes,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The ISO system defines both an arithmetic and a logarithmic scale. The arithmetic ISO scale corresponds to the arithmetic ASA system, where a doubling of film sensitivity is represented by a doubling of the numerical film speed value. In the logarithmic ISO scale, which corresponds to the DIN scale, adding 3\u00b0 to the numerical value constitutes a doubling of sensitivity. For example, a film rated ISO\u00a0200/24\u00b0 is twice as sensitive as one rated ISO\u00a0100/21\u00b0."
      },
      {
        "title": "Television system",
        "text": "Television system\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Keller-Dorian cinematography",
        "text": "The system was used to film several scenes of Abel Gance's \"Napol\u00e9on\" (1927) and for \"La Femme et le pantin\" by Jacques de Baroncelli (1928). However, projection of this process in movie theaters seems to have been more difficult, so neither of these films was ever presented using this technique. Also, making prints was described by one source as \"impossible.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Lists of historical films",
        "text": "This is an index of lists of historical films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The ASA standard underwent a major revision in 1960 with ASA PH2.5-1960, when the method to determine film speed was refined and previously applied safety factors against under-exposure were abandoned, effectively doubling the nominal speed of many black-and-white negative films. For example, an Ilford HP3 that had been rated at 200 ASA before 1960 was labeled 400 ASA afterwards without any change to the emulsion. Similar changes were applied to the DIN system with DIN 4512:1961-10 and the BS system with BS 1380:1963 in the following years."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film",
        "text": "During the immediate post-war years the cinematic industry was also threatened by television, and the increasing popularity of the medium meant that some film theatres would bankrupt and close. The demise of the \"studio system\" spurred the self-commentary of films like \"Sunset Boulevard\" (1950) and \"The Bad and the Beautiful\" (1952)."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film technology",
        "text": "After experimenting from 1915 to 1921 with additive color systems that filmed and projected the two color components simultaneously, rather than in rapid alternation (thereby eliminating Kinemacolor's color flicker and false color fringes around rapidly moving objects), the Technicolor Motion Picture Corporation developed a subtractive color print process. As in its last additive system, the camera had only one lens but used a beam splitter that allowed red and green-filtered images to be photographed simultaneously on adjacent frames of a single strip of black-and-white 35\u00a0mm film, which ran through the camera at twice the normal rate. By skip-frame printing from the negative, two prints were made, on film stock with half the normal base thickness. They were chemically toned (i.e., the silver particles forming the black-and-white images were proportionally replaced by coloring matter) to colors roughly complementary to the filter colors (red for the green-filtered images and vice versa), as subtractive color reproduction requires. They were then cemented together, base to base, into a single strip of film. No special projection equipment was needed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Remaster",
        "text": "An example of a restored film is the 1939 film \"The Wizard of Oz\". The color portions of \"Oz\" were shot in the three-strip Technicolor process, which in the 1930s yielded three black and white negatives created from red, green and blue light filters which were used to print the cyan, magenta and yellow portions of the final printed color film answer print. These three negatives were scanned individually into a computer system, where the digital images were tinted and combined using proprietary software."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film technology",
        "text": "In 1928, the system was refined by the adoption of dye imbibition, which allowed for the transferring of dyes from both color matrices into a single one-sided print, thus eliminating the complication of attaching two prints back to back and allowing multiple prints to be created from a single pair of matrices."
      },
      {
        "title": "RetroArch",
        "text": "RetroArch\n--History.\n--Features.\n--Supported systems.\n--Reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "His system saw some success but proved to be unreliable due to its spectral sensitivity to light, the fading intensity of the light emitted by the phosphorescent tablet after its excitation as well as high built-tolerances. The concept, however, was later built upon in 1900 by Henry Chapman Jones (1855\u20131932) in the development of his plate tester and modified speed system."
      },
      {
        "title": "405-line television system",
        "text": "Robson, Neil. 'Living Pictures Out of Space: The Forlorn Hopes for Television in Pre-1939 London', \"Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television\", vol. 24, no. 2 (June 2004), pp.\u00a0223\u201332."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lists of historical films",
        "text": "Lists of historical films\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film technology",
        "text": "Experimentation with sound film technology, both for recording and playback, was virtually constant throughout the silent era, but the twin problems of accurate synchronization and sufficient amplification had been difficult to overcome (Eyman, 1997). In 1926, Hollywood studio Warner Bros. introduced the \"Vitaphone\" system, producing short films of live entertainment acts and public figures and adding recorded sound effects and orchestral scores to some of its major features."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film technology",
        "text": "History of film technology\n--From ancient times to 1894: motion picture technologies before film.\n----1831\u20131848: Early stroboscopic animation.\n----1849\u20131870: Photography in motion.\n----1874: Janssen's photographic revolver.\n----1876\u20131878: Donisthorpe's early film concepts.\n----1878\u20131881: Muybridge and the horse in motion.\n----1882\u20131890s: Marey and chronophotography.\n----1886\u20131895: Ansch\u00fctz' Electrotachyscope.\n--1884-1900: paper and gelatin films.\n----1886\u20131889: Le Prince's \"animated pictures of natural scenery and life\".\n----1888\u20131900: Reynaud's Th\u00e9\u00e2tre Optique.\n--1889\u20131896: early celluloid films.\n----1891\u20131896: The Kinetoscope.\n----1894-1896: Early film screenings.\n--1896-1910s: Early movie industry.\n--Flicker problem and solutions.\n--Color films.\n----Additive process.\n----Technicolor.\n--Sound era.\n--Digital film.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History (database systems)",
        "text": "History (database systems)"
      },
      {
        "title": "History (database systems)",
        "text": "History (database systems)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film stock",
        "text": "Film stock\n--History.\n----1888\u20131899: Before standardization.\n----1900\u20131919: Toward the standard picture film.\n----1920s: Diversification of film sensitivity.\n----Colour films.\n--Classification and properties.\n----Base.\n----Emulsion.\n----Chemistry.\n----Image record.\n----Physical characteristics.\n----Responsivity.\n----Colour temperature.\n----Sound.\n--Deterioration.\n--Intermediate and print stocks.\n--Decline.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "As in the Scheiner system, speeds were expressed in 'degrees'. Originally the sensitivity was written as a fraction with 'tenths' (for example \"18/10\u00b0 DIN\"), where the resultant value 1.8 represented the relative base 10 logarithm of the speed. 'Tenths' were later abandoned with DIN 4512:1957-11, and the example above would be written as \"18\u00b0 DIN\". The degree symbol was finally dropped with DIN 4512:1961-10. This revision also saw significant changes in the definition of film speeds in order to accommodate then-recent changes in the American ASA PH2.5-1960 standard, so that film speeds of black-and-white negative film effectively would become doubled, that is, a film previously marked as \"18\u00b0 DIN\" would now be labeled as \"21 DIN\" without emulsion changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "AOLpress",
        "text": "AOLpress\n--History.\n--System requirements.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward Raymond Turner",
        "text": "The modern digital restoration allows present-day viewers to see a more successful combination of the three colour elements than was possible with the original mechanical projection system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The methods to determine the sensitivity were later modified in 1925 (in regard to the light source used) and in 1928 (regarding light source, developer and proportional factor)\u2014this later variant was sometimes called \"H&D 10\". The H&D system was officially accepted as a standard in the former Soviet Union from 1928 until September 1951, when it was superseded by GOST 2817\u201350."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "As discussed in the ASA and DIN sections, the definition of the ASA and DIN scales changed several times in the 1950s up into the early 1960s making it necessary to convert between the different scales. Since the ISO system combines the newer ASA and DIN definitions, this conversion is also necessary when comparing older ASA and DIN scales with the ISO scale."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Barnes (film historian)",
        "text": "John began the work in 1976, documenting the arrival of film in England (1894-1896). The book traced the history of film through the machinery and then the personalities involved in the art, through to modes of exhibition and a thorough filmography for the period. He continued to document the history of cinema in England with volumes focused on 1897, 1898, 1899, and 1900. The whole series was eventually republished in a uniform edition by University of Exeter Press in 1998."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sagar Mitchell",
        "text": "Over the years film historians had traditionally regarded Mitchell and Kenyon as minor contributors to film history, known principally for the fake Boer War films that had survived. Then in 1994, during building alteration work at the premises in Northgate, three large sealed steel drums were discovered in the basement. On examination, the drums were discovered to contain the original nitrate negatives of 800 Mitchell and Kenyon films in a remarkably good state of preservation. These eventually found their way in 2000 to the National Film and Television Archive, where they extended the holdings of films of the 1900-1913 period by 20%, giving a new and fresh view of Edwardian England and an important resource for historians. A further 65 fiction films are preserved in The Cinema Museum, London. The survival of these films has allowed Mitchell and Kenyon's place in English film history to be reappraised."
      },
      {
        "title": "Studio system",
        "text": "The period stretching from the introduction of sound motion pictures to the beginning of the demise of the studio system, 1927\u20131948, is referred to by some film historians as the Golden Age of Hollywood. The Golden Age is a purely technical distinction and not to be confused with the style in film criticism known as Classical Hollywood cinema, a style of American film which developed from 1917 to 1963 and characterizes it to this day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sageuk",
        "text": "As fusion conquered televisions, they started to infiltrate cinema, as well. This can be attributed partially to the success of television dramas and partially to the international success of such Chinese historical epics like \"Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon\", \"Hero\" or the American \"Gladiator\", prompting the need to produce such works at home, as well. In 2003, \"Untold Scandal\" with drama icon Bae Yong-joon was released, but the real turning point in historical films came in 2005 with \"The King and the Clown\", breaking box office records selling more than 12 million tickets. Period films are also successful in the 2010s in South Korea, between 2012 and 2015, five out of all the films surpassing 10 million viewers were \",\" and the record keeper (as of 2016 June) is also a historical piece: \"\" sold 17.61 million tickets. The most popular ones are also of the fusion type, mixing historical facts with fictional people or events. Such works include for example, \"The Face Reader\" or \"Masquerade\". Apart from so-called palace dramas, spectacular action-filled like \"War of the Arrows\", \"The Grand Heist\" or \"Pirates\" are also successful in the 21st century. Film series have also appeared, like the \"Detective K\"-series, placing a crime investigation story into Joseon settings. Erotic period films experience a renaissance in South Korean cinema, with pieces like \"Forbidden Quest\", \"The Servant\" or \"Empire of Lust\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rota system",
        "text": "Rota system\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Historic Films Archive",
        "text": "Historic Films Archive\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery",
        "text": "Historians agree that films have largely shaped historical memories, but they debate issues of accuracy, plausibility, moralism, sensationalism, how facts are stretched in search of broader truths, and suitability for the classroom. Berlin argues that critics complain if the treatment emphasizes historical brutality, or if it glosses over the harshness to highlight the emotional impact of slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Cinema (2008 film)",
        "text": "Rashidi shot the film with webcam and mobile phone cameras between 2002 and 2004. Each segment of the film was shot and edited separately, and compiled them together in 2008 for the final version. Rashidi used archival footage from the early films of cinema and integrated them with the rest of material in order to create the sense of history. The film is heavily saturated, grainy and full of distorted images. The soundscape designed by Rashidi was added into the film with chosen music."
      },
      {
        "title": "Telesensory Systems",
        "text": "Telesensory Systems\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The History of Motion Pictures",
        "text": "French"
      },
      {
        "title": "Motion History Images",
        "text": "\"B\"\"t\" := absolute_difference(\"I\"\"t\", \"I\"\"t\"-1) > threshold"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film",
        "text": "Advances towards motion picture projection technologies evolved upon the popularity of magic lanterns, chronophotographic demonstrations, and other closely related forms of projected entertainment such as illustrated songs. From October 1892 to March 1900, inventor \u00c9mile Reynaud exhibited his Th\u00e9\u00e2tre Optique (\"Optical Theatre\") film system at the Mus\u00e9e Gr\u00e9vin in Paris. Reynaud's device, which projected a series of animated stories such as \"Pauvre Pierrot\" and \"Autour d'une cabine\", was displayed to over 500,000 visitors over the course of 12,800 shows. On 25, 29 and 30 November 1894, Ottomar Ansch\u00fctz projected moving images from Electrotachyscope discs on a large screen in the darkened Grand Auditorium of a Post Office Building in Berlin. From 22 February to 30 March 1895, a commercial 1.5-hour program of 40 different scenes was screened for audiences of 300 people at the old Reichstag and received circa 4,000 visitors."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film technology",
        "text": "Before 1902, the quality of the experience of films was often troubled by an obvious flicker in the projected image. Many of the systems in use featured intermittent transport of the film strip in order to avoid motion blur, while a shutter blocked projection for each advancement of the film frames. Intermittently blocking the light was also necessary for the stroboscopic effect that was widely known from the ph\u00e9nakisticope and zoetrope. The strain of starting and stopping also often caused damage to the film strip and could cause the system to jam (often with the result of burning the combustible film material as it was exposed to the heat of the lamp for too long). Eventually the solution was found in a three-bladed shutter that not just blocked the light intermittently during film transport, but more often and also during projection. The first three-bladed shutter was developed by Theodor P\u00e4tzold and went in production with Messter in 1902."
      },
      {
        "title": "Motion History Images",
        "text": "else if \"MHI\"\"t\"-1 \u2260 0"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The current International Standard for measuring the speed of colour negative film is ISO 5800:2001 (first published in 1979, revised in November 1987) from the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Related standards ISO 6:1993 (first published in 1974) and ISO 2240:2003 (first published in July 1982, revised in September 1994 and corrected in October 2003) define scales for speeds of black-and-white negative film and colour reversal film, respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edwardian era",
        "text": "Filmmakers Mitchell and Kenyon documented many scenes from Britain and Ireland from 1900 to 1907, sports, parades, factory exits, parks, city streets, boating and the like. Their films have survived in very good quality restored from the original negatives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Scheiner's system was eventually abandoned in Germany, when the standardized DIN system was introduced in 1934. In various forms, it continued to be in widespread use in other countries for some time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ryotwari",
        "text": "Ryotwari\n--Description.\n--History.\n--Other systems.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "James Kenyon (cinematographer)",
        "text": "Over the years film historians had traditionally regarded Mitchell and Kenyon as minor contributors to film history, known principally for the fake Boer War films that had survived. Then in 1994, during building alteration work at the premises in Northgate, three large sealed steel drums were discovered in the basement. On examination, the drums were discovered to contain the original nitrate negatives of 800 Mitchell and Kenyon films in a remarkably good state of preservation. These eventually found their way in 2000 to the National Film and Television Archive, where they extended the holdings of films of the 1900-1913 period by 20%, giving a new and fresh view of Edwardian England and an important resource for historians. A further 65 fiction films are preserved in The Cinema Museum, London. The survival of these films has allowed Mitchell and Kenyon's place in English film history to be reappraised."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film",
        "text": "With the worldwide film boom, more countries now joined Britain, France, Germany and the United States in serious film production. In Italy, production was spread over several centres, with Turin being the first and biggest hub for film activity. There, Ambrosio was the first company in the field in 1905, and remained the largest in the country through this period. Its most substantial rival was Cines in Rome, which started producing in 1906. The great strength of the Italian industry was historical epics, with large casts and massive scenery. As early as 1911, Giovanni Pastrone's two-reel \"La Caduta di Troia (The Fall of Troy)\" made a big impression worldwide, and it was followed by even bigger glasses like \"Quo Vadis?\" (1912), which ran for 90 minutes, and Pastrone's \"Cabiria\" of 1914, which ran for two and a half hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bataidari system",
        "text": "Bataidari system\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "AdriPSX",
        "text": "AdriPSX\n--History.\n--System Requirements.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Broadcast television systems",
        "text": "History"
      },
      {
        "title": "Motion History Images",
        "text": "\"MHI\"\"t\"\"(x, y)\" := 0"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of color film systems",
        "text": "List of color film systems\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The History of Motion Pictures",
        "text": "English\n*"
      },
      {
        "title": "The History of Motion Pictures",
        "text": "Bibliography"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film technology",
        "text": "In 1913, French film entrepreneur and inventor L\u00e9on Gaumont unveiled Chronochrome, a full-color additive system. The camera used three lenses with color filters to photograph red, green and blue color components simultaneously on consecutive frames of one strip of 35\u00a0mm black-and-white film. The projector had a corresponding triad of lenses. To reduce the strain imposed on the film as the mechanism in each device pulled it down three frames at a time, frame height was reduced from the usual four film perforations to three, resulting in a widescreen image format identical with the modern 16:9 aspect ratio."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film",
        "text": "Conventions toward a general cinematic language developed over the years with editing, camera movements and other cinematic techniques contributing specific roles in the narrative of films."
      },
      {
        "title": "The System (1964 film)",
        "text": "The System (1964 film)\n--Synopsis.\n--Production.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film technology",
        "text": "Turner's camera used a rotating disk of three color filters to photograph color separations on one roll of black-and-white film. A red, green or blue-filtered image was recorded on each successive frame of film. The finished film print was projected, three frames at a time, through the corresponding color filters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cargo system",
        "text": "Cargo system\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of historical films set in Near Eastern and Western civilization",
        "text": "The historical drama or period drama is a film genre in which stories are based upon historical events and famous people. Some historical dramas are docudramas, which attempt an accurate portrayal of a historical event or biography, to the degree that the available historical research will allow. Other historical dramas are fictionalized tales that are based on an actual person and their deeds, such as \"Braveheart\", which is loosely based on the 13th-century knight William Wallace's fight for Scotland's independence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Star system (filmmaking)",
        "text": "In the early years of the cinema (1890s\u20131900s), performers were not identified in films. There are two main reasons for this. First, from the perspective of actors who were trained in the theatre, they were embarrassed to be working in film and feared it would ruin their reputation. Silent film was thought of as mere pantomime and one of theatre actors' main skills was their command of their voice."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of historical films set in Asia",
        "text": "Due to the sheer volume of films included in this genre and in the interest of continuity, this list is primarily focused on films pertaining to the history of East Asia, Central Asia, and India. For films pertaining to the history of Near Eastern and Western civilisation, please refer to list of historical period drama films and series set in Near Eastern and Western civilization."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film technology",
        "text": "Current digital film cameras with 4k output are approximately equal to 35mm film in their resolution and dynamic range capacity, however, digital film still has a slightly different look to analog film. Some filmmakers and photographers still prefer to use analogue film to achieve the desired results."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Romanian historical films",
        "text": "The list of Romanian historical films groups historical drama film and TV productions by the Romanian cinema. Historical films are a genre in which stories are based upon historical events and famous persons. Some films attempt to accurately portray a historical event or biography, to the degree that the available historical research will allow, while others are fictionalized tales that are based on an actual person and their deeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Russian historical films",
        "text": "Not all films have remained true to the genuine history of the event or the characters they are portraying, often adding action and drama to increase the substance and popularity of the film. For films pertaining to the history of Near Eastern and Western civilisation, please refer to list of historical period drama films and series set in Near Eastern and Western civilization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "On an international level the German DIN 4512 system has been effectively superseded in the 1980s by ISO 6:1974, ISO 2240:1982, and ISO 5800:1979 where the same sensitivity is written in linear and logarithmic form as \"ISO 100/21\u00b0\" (now again with degree symbol). These ISO standards were subsequently adopted by DIN as well. Finally, the latest DIN 4512 revisions were replaced by corresponding ISO standards, DIN 4512-1:1993-05 by DIN ISO 6:1996-02 in September 2000, DIN 4512-4:1985-08 by DIN ISO 2240:1998-06 and DIN 4512-5:1990-11 by DIN ISO 5800:1998-06 both in July 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "Color motion picture film",
        "text": "The first color systems that appeared in motion pictures were additive color systems. Additive color was practical because no special color stock was necessary. Black-and-white film could be processed and used in both filming and projection. The various additive systems entailed the use of color filters on both the movie camera and projector. Additive color adds lights of the primary colors in various proportions to the projected image. Because of the limited amount of space to record images on film, and later because the lack of a camera that could record more than two strips of film at once, most early motion-picture color systems consisted of two colors, often red and green or red and blue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zone System",
        "text": "The ISO standard for black-and-white negative film, ISO 6:1993, specifies development criteria that may differ from those used in practical photography (previous standards, such as ANSI PH2.5-1979, also specified chemistry and development technique). Consequently, the Zone System practitioner often must determine the speed for a particular combination of film, developer, and enlarger type; the speed determination is commonly based on Zone\u00a0I. Although the method for determining speed for the Zone System is conceptually similar to the ISO method for determining speed, the Zone System speed is an \"effective speed\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of historical films set in Near Eastern and Western civilization",
        "text": "Due to the sheer volume of films included in this genre and in the interest of continuity, this list is primarily focused on films pertaining to the history of Near Eastern and Western civilization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steve F. Anderson",
        "text": "\"Technologies of History\" marks an intervention in the academic sub-field of Film and History, which has largely focused on the accuracy and verifiability of cinematic and televisual history, especially in the genres of documentary and historical epics. Anderson's book advocates consideration of the historiographical value of non-traditional (what he terms \"eccentric\") forms of visual history including experimental film and video, fake documentary, found footage, science fiction time travel and digital games. D. L. LeMahieu's book review in the journal Film & History notes that \"Anderson\u2019s validation of the idiosyncratic and experimental opens new areas of research and analysis for historians.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Advanced Photo System",
        "text": "The film is 24\u00a0mm wide, and has three image formats:\n* H for \"High Definition\" (30.2 \u00d7 16.7\u00a0mm; aspect ratio 16:9; 4\u00d77\" print) (1.25 crop compared to 36x24mm full frame)\n* C for \"Classic\" (25.1 \u00d7 16.7\u00a0mm; aspect ratio 3:2; 4\u00d76\" print) (1.44 crop compared to 36x24mm full frame)\n* P for \"Panoramic\" (30.2 \u00d7 9.5\u00a0mm; aspect ratio 3:1; 4\u00d711\" print) (1.36 crop compared to 36x24mm full frame)"
      },
      {
        "title": "35 mm movie film",
        "text": "While the format was dormant by the early 1960s, the camera system was revived for visual effects by John Dykstra at Industrial Light and Magic, starting with \"Star Wars\", as a way of reducing granularity in the optical printer by having increased original camera negative area at the point of image origination. Its usage has again declined since the dominance of computer-based visual effects, although it still sees limited utilization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Systemography",
        "text": "Systemography\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Historic Films Archive",
        "text": "The Historic Films library is fully digitized and its material is viewable for research purposes on its official website."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mitchell and Kenyon",
        "text": "The Peter Worden Collection of Mitchell & Kenyon Films has now been preserved by staff at the British Film Institute's National Film and Television Archive, carefully storing the dangerously flammable 35\u00a0mm nitrate negatives in rooms that are constructed with water tanks suspended above a glass ceiling so that if the stock should ignite, the resulting fire will cause the glass ceiling to fail and enable the suspended tanks of water to extinguish the fire. Painstaking film preservation techniques were used to produce remarkably clean and scratch-free positives, adjusting the speed to smooth out the variations in these hand-cranked films. The results are fresh and natural, offering an unparalleled social record of early 20th century British life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saher System",
        "text": "Saher System\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "SynCardia Systems",
        "text": "SynCardia Systems\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film technology",
        "text": "Technicolor's system was popular for a number of years, but it was an expensive process: shooting cost three times as much as black-and-white photography and printing costs were also much higher. By 1932, color photography in general had nearly been abandoned by the major studios, but then Technicolor introduced a new process which recorded all three primary colors. Utilizing a dichroic beam splitter sandwiched between two 45-degree prisms in the form of a cube, light from the lens was split into two paths to expose three black-and-white films (two of them in bipack), one each to record the densities for red, green and blue."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Honor System (film)",
        "text": "With no prints of \"The Honor System\" located in any film archives, it is a lost film."
      },
      {
        "title": "The System (1953 film)",
        "text": "The System (1953 film)\n--Plot.\n--Reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Russian historical films",
        "text": "List of Russian historical films\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Studio system",
        "text": "At the beginning of the 1960s the major studios began to reissue older films for syndication and transformed into mainly producing telefilms and b-movies to supply TV's demand for programming. Between 1969 and 1971 the industry underwent a severe recession, due in part to big-budget flops, but soon recovered artistically with such films as \"The Godfather\" (1972) and \"Chinatown\" (1974)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Intermediate film system",
        "text": "The exposed film, either 35mm or 17.5mm (35mm split in half, to save expense), travelled in a continuous band from the camera, usually atop a remote broadcast vehicle, into a machine that developed and fixed the image. The film was then run through a flying spot scanner (so called because it moved a focused beam of light back and forth across the image), and electronically converted from a negative to a positive image. Depending on the equipment, the time from camera to scanner could be a minute or less. An optical soundtrack was recorded onto the film, between the perforations and the edge of the film, at the same time the image was taken to keep the sound and image in synchronization."
      },
      {
        "title": "The System (1953 film)",
        "text": "The System is a 1953 American film noir crime film directed by Lewis Seiler and starring Frank Lovejoy, Joan Weldon and Robert Arthur."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zoom Systems",
        "text": "Zoom Systems\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "BGW Systems",
        "text": "BGW Systems\n--History.\n--Present.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film technology",
        "text": "The first person to demonstrate a natural-color motion picture system was British inventor Edward Raymond Turner, who applied for his patent in 1899, received it in 1900, and was able to show promising but very mechanically defective results in 1902."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Honor System (film)",
        "text": "The Honor System (film)\n--Preservation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica Films",
        "text": "Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica Films\n--History.\n----Early years as ERPI Classroom Films.\n----Merging with Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica.\n----EB's Golden Age.\n----Post Benton Era: from 16mm movies to video to internet.\n----Renewed interest.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Studio system",
        "text": "A studio system is a method of filmmaking wherein the production and distribution of films is dominated by a small number of large movie studios. It is most often used in reference to Hollywood motion picture studios during the Golden Age of Hollywood from the 1920s to 1960s, wherein studios produced films primarily on their own filmmaking lots with creative personnel under often long-term contract, and dominated exhibition through vertical integration, i.e., the ownership or effective control of distributors and exhibition, guaranteeing additional sales of films through manipulative booking techniques such as block booking."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film",
        "text": "History of film\n--Before 1890s.\n----1878\u20131887 Chronophotography and early animated recordings.\n----1888\u20131895: First motion pictures and early film projection.\n--1890s.\n----1896\u20131900: novelty attraction, cheap entertainment, early narratives.\n----Advancement of film language.\n----Film editing and continuous narrative.\n----Early exploitation.\n--1900s.\n----Maturation and film business.\n----Innovation and early storytelling.\n----Early animation.\n----Feature film.\n--1910s.\n----New film producing countries.\n----Film technique.\n----During World War I and industry.\n----New techniques.\n----Film art.\n--1920s.\n----Golden years of German cinema, Hollywood triumphant.\n--1930s.\n----Sound era.\n----Creative impact of sound.\n----Color in cinema.\n--1940s.\n----World War II and its aftermath.\n--1950s.\n----Golden age of Asian cinema.\n--1960s.\n--1970s.\n--1980s.\n--1990s.\n--2000s.\n--2010s.\n--2020s.\n----COVID-19 pandemic.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "American Epic (film series)",
        "text": "New sound restoration techniques were developed for the films and utilized to restore the recordings featured in the series. The 78rpm disc transfers were made by sound engineer Nicholas Bergh, using reverse engineering techniques garnered from working with the first electrical recording system on \"The American Epic Sessions\" along with meticulous sound restoration undertaken by Peter Henderson and Joel Tefteller to reveal greater fidelity, presence, and clarity to these 1920s and 1930s recordings than had been heard before. Nicholas Bergh commented that the 1920s recordings \"are special since they utilize the earliest and simplest type of electric recording equipment used for commercial studio work. As a result, they have an unrivaled immediacy to the sound.\" Some of the recordings were repressed from the original metal parts, which the production located while researching the films. Peter Henderson explained, \"In some cases we were lucky enough to get some metal parts \u2013 that's the originals where they were cut to wax and the metal was put into the grooves and the discs were printed from those back in the '20s. Some of those still exist \u2013 Sony had some of them in their vaults\" The same care was taken in transferring and restoring the audio pulled from archival film clips, again using techniques and proprietary equipment devised by sound engineer Nicholas Bergh, who specializes in the restoration of audio tracks for the major Hollywood studios. The films were mixed in mono to match the contemporary audio with the 1920s and 1930s recordings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Celestial's Shaw Brothers Film Library",
        "text": "State of the art digital technologies are employed to restore each and every frame - 150,000 on average - for every film. Film fans around the world are then made access to some of the best Chinese's films ever produced with all sound and picture quality even more stunning than the original cinematic prints."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What system is film speed measured on?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about historical systems or current systems?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I would like the know more about the current system."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The current International Standard for measuring the speed of colour negative film is ISO 5800:2001, related standards ISO define scales for speeds of black-and-white negative film and colour reversal film, respectively."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What about the historical systems?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Historically, the speed of film was measured using various methods; sensitometer invented by Warnerke, measurement of the sensitivity of an emulsion by Hurter & Driffield, Scheinergrade system by Scheiner, and the DIN system. Which of these historical systems do you want more information?",
      "There were many historical systems including: the Warnerke system, the Hurter & Driffield system, the Scheiner system, and the DIN system. Would you like to know more about one of these or some of the other historical systems?"
    ],
    "topic": "Film speed",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Film speed:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Film speed",
          "Film speed measurement systems",
          "Historical systems",
          "Warnerke"
        ],
        "ctx": "The first known practical sensitometer, which allowed measurements of the speed of photographic materials, was invented by the Polish engineer Leon Warnerke \u2013 pseudonym of (1837\u20131900) \u2013 in 1880, among the achievements for which he was awarded the Progress Medal of the Photographic Society of Great Britain in 1882. It was commercialized since 1881."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Film speed:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Film speed",
          "Film speed measurement systems",
          "Historical systems",
          "Hurter & Driffield"
        ],
        "ctx": "Another early practical system for measuring the sensitivity of an emulsion was that of Hurter and Driffield (H&D), originally described in 1890, by the Swiss-born Ferdinand Hurter (1844\u20131898) and British Vero Charles Driffield (1848\u20131915). In their system, speed numbers were inversely proportional to the exposure required. For example, an emulsion rated at 250 H&D would require ten times the exposure of an emulsion rated at 2500 H&D."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Film speed:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Film speed",
          "Film speed measurement systems",
          "Historical systems",
          "Scheiner"
        ],
        "ctx": "The \"Scheinergrade\" (Sch.) system was devised by the German astronomer Julius Scheiner (1858\u20131913) in 1894 originally as a method of comparing the speeds of plates used for astronomical photography. Scheiner's system rated the speed of a plate by the least exposure to produce a visible darkening upon development. Speed was expressed in degrees Scheiner, originally ranging from 1\u00b0 Sch. to 20\u00b0 Sch., where an increment of 19\u00b0 Sch. corresponded to a hundredfold increase in sensitivity, which meant that an increment of 3\u00b0 Sch. came close to a doubling of sensitivity.\n:formula_1"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Film speed:11",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Film speed",
          "Film speed measurement systems",
          "Historical systems",
          "DIN"
        ],
        "ctx": "The DIN system, officially DIN standard 4512 by ' (but still named ' (DNA) at this time), was published in January 1934. It grew out of drafts for a standardized method of sensitometry put forward by ' as proposed by the committee for sensitometry of the ' since 1930 and presented by (1868\u20131945) and Emanuel Goldberg (1881\u20131970) at the influential VIII. International Congress of Photography (German: \"\") held in Dresden from 3 to 8 August 1931."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Film speed:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Film speed",
          "Film speed measurement systems",
          "Historical systems",
          "Warnerke"
        ],
        "ctx": "The first known practical sensitometer, which allowed measurements of the speed of photographic materials, was invented by the Polish engineer Leon Warnerke \u2013 pseudonym of (1837\u20131900) \u2013 in 1880, among the achievements for which he was awarded the Progress Medal of the Photographic Society of Great Britain in 1882. It was commercialized since 1881."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Film speed:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Film speed",
          "Film speed measurement systems",
          "Historical systems",
          "Hurter & Driffield"
        ],
        "ctx": "Another early practical system for measuring the sensitivity of an emulsion was that of Hurter and Driffield (H&D), originally described in 1890, by the Swiss-born Ferdinand Hurter (1844\u20131898) and British Vero Charles Driffield (1848\u20131915). In their system, speed numbers were inversely proportional to the exposure required. For example, an emulsion rated at 250 H&D would require ten times the exposure of an emulsion rated at 2500 H&D."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Film speed:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Film speed",
          "Film speed measurement systems",
          "Historical systems",
          "Scheiner"
        ],
        "ctx": "The \"Scheinergrade\" (Sch.) system was devised by the German astronomer Julius Scheiner (1858\u20131913) in 1894 originally as a method of comparing the speeds of plates used for astronomical photography. Scheiner's system rated the speed of a plate by the least exposure to produce a visible darkening upon development. Speed was expressed in degrees Scheiner, originally ranging from 1\u00b0 Sch. to 20\u00b0 Sch., where an increment of 19\u00b0 Sch. corresponded to a hundredfold increase in sensitivity, which meant that an increment of 3\u00b0 Sch. came close to a doubling of sensitivity.\n:formula_1"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Film speed:11",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Film speed",
          "Film speed measurement systems",
          "Historical systems",
          "DIN"
        ],
        "ctx": "The DIN system, officially DIN standard 4512 by ' (but still named ' (DNA) at this time), was published in January 1934. It grew out of drafts for a standardized method of sensitometry put forward by ' as proposed by the committee for sensitometry of the ' since 1930 and presented by (1868\u20131945) and Emanuel Goldberg (1881\u20131970) at the influential VIII. International Congress of Photography (German: \"\") held in Dresden from 3 to 8 August 1931."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The DIN system was inspired by Scheiner's system, but the sensitivities were represented as the base 10 logarithm of the sensitivity multiplied by 10, similar to decibels. Thus an increase of 20\u00b0 (and not 19\u00b0 as in Scheiner's system) represented a hundredfold increase in sensitivity, and a difference of 3\u00b0 was much closer to the base 10 logarithm of 2 (0.30103...):\n:formula_2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "His system saw some success but proved to be unreliable due to its spectral sensitivity to light, the fading intensity of the light emitted by the phosphorescent tablet after its excitation as well as high built-tolerances. The concept, however, was later built upon in 1900 by Henry Chapman Jones (1855\u20131932) in the development of his plate tester and modified speed system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Another early practical system for measuring the sensitivity of an emulsion was that of Hurter and Driffield (H&D), originally described in 1890, by the Swiss-born Ferdinand Hurter (1844\u20131898) and British Vero Charles Driffield (1848\u20131915). In their system, speed numbers were inversely proportional to the exposure required. For example, an emulsion rated at 250 H&D would require ten times the exposure of an emulsion rated at 2500 H&D."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The system was later extended to cover larger ranges and some of its practical shortcomings were addressed by the Austrian scientist Josef Maria Eder (1855\u20131944) and Flemish-born botanist (1896\u20131960), (who, in 1919/1920, jointly developed their \"Eder\u2013Hecht neutral wedge sensitometer\" measuring emulsion speeds in \"Eder\u2013Hecht\" grades). Still, it remained difficult for manufacturers to reliably determine film speeds, often only by comparing with competing products, so that an increasing number of modified semi-Scheiner-based systems started to spread, which no longer followed Scheiner's original procedures and thereby defeated the idea of comparability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cinema Digital Sound",
        "text": "Because the data rate was 5.8 million bits-per-second (5.8mbp/s), significant error detection and correction was required. A custom designed Reed-Solomon block code, was used with additional CRC characters for error correction. Interleaving of odd and even audio samples was performed to protect against burst errors. Just as in audio tape machines, transport problems with tension, guides, and supply and take-up reels could result in vertical or horizontal weave, and as bit sizes were only 14\u03bcm, precise timing and tracking was essential, thus the CDS system required installation of special projector modifications to smooth the film path travel and steady the take-up speed. It was found later, however, that modifications to the projectors were not needed and that the CDS systems sensitivity to improper film speed was due to a diode installed incorrectly in the CDS decoder module. Horizontal tracking was provided by a 76-MHz digital servo, while vertical timing was accomplished with an algorithm written into the data format itself. Rows of data were scanned horizontally, thus a self-clocking run-length-limited code was used for this error correction. A 6-to-8-bit mapping was performed upon encoding to ensure that each 8-bit word contained exactly four ones. This form of parity worked well in correcting errors upon decoding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "As in the Scheiner system, speeds were expressed in 'degrees'. Originally the sensitivity was written as a fraction with 'tenths' (for example \"18/10\u00b0 DIN\"), where the resultant value 1.8 represented the relative base 10 logarithm of the speed. 'Tenths' were later abandoned with DIN 4512:1957-11, and the example above would be written as \"18\u00b0 DIN\". The degree symbol was finally dropped with DIN 4512:1961-10. This revision also saw significant changes in the definition of film speeds in order to accommodate then-recent changes in the American ASA PH2.5-1960 standard, so that film speeds of black-and-white negative film effectively would become doubled, that is, a film previously marked as \"18\u00b0 DIN\" would now be labeled as \"21 DIN\" without emulsion changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The \"Scheinergrade\" (Sch.) system was devised by the German astronomer Julius Scheiner (1858\u20131913) in 1894 originally as a method of comparing the speeds of plates used for astronomical photography. Scheiner's system rated the speed of a plate by the least exposure to produce a visible darkening upon development. Speed was expressed in degrees Scheiner, originally ranging from 1\u00b0 Sch. to 20\u00b0 Sch., where an increment of 19\u00b0 Sch. corresponded to a hundredfold increase in sensitivity, which meant that an increment of 3\u00b0 Sch. came close to a doubling of sensitivity.\n:formula_1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Film speed\n--Film speed measurement systems.\n----Historical systems.\n------Warnerke.\n------Hurter & Driffield.\n------Scheiner.\n------DIN.\n------BSI.\n------Weston.\n------General Electric.\n------ASA.\n------GOST.\n----Current system: ISO.\n----Conversion between current scales.\n----Historic ASA and DIN conversion.\n----Determining film speed.\n----Applying film speed.\n----Exposure index.\n--Reciprocity.\n--Film sensitivity and grain.\n----Marketing anomalies.\n--Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index.\n----The ISO (International Organization of Standards) 12232:2019 standard.\n----Measurements and calculations.\n------Saturation-based speed.\n------Noise-based speed.\n------Standard output sensitivity (SOS).\n------Discussion.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The methods to determine the sensitivity were later modified in 1925 (in regard to the light source used) and in 1928 (regarding light source, developer and proportional factor)\u2014this later variant was sometimes called \"H&D 10\". The H&D system was officially accepted as a standard in the former Soviet Union from 1928 until September 1951, when it was superseded by GOST 2817\u201350."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Scheiner's system was eventually abandoned in Germany, when the standardized DIN system was introduced in 1934. In various forms, it continued to be in widespread use in other countries for some time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movie camera",
        "text": "One of the problems in film is synchronizing a sound recording with the film. Most film cameras do not record sound internally; instead, the sound is captured separately by a precision audio device (see double-system recording). The exceptions to this are the single-system news film cameras, which had either an optical\u2014or later\u2014magnetic recording head inside the camera. For optical recording, the film only had a single perforation and the area where the other set of perforations would have been was exposed to a controlled bright light that would burn a waveform image that would later regulate the passage of light and playback the sound. For magnetic recording, that same area of the single perf 16\u00a0mm film that was prestriped with a magnetic stripe. A smaller balance stripe existed between the perforations and the edge to compensate the thickness of the recording stripe to keep the film wound evenly."
      },
      {
        "title": "9.5 mm film",
        "text": "A further problem was that the film had to be passed through continuous processing machines slowly. The sprocket caused turbulence (the same effect as over agitation) to the developer immediately adjacent to the sprocket hole which resulted in that portion of the frame becoming overdeveloped (which manifested itself on the projected frame as over exposure)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sound film",
        "text": "Three major problems persisted, leading to motion pictures and sound recording largely taking separate paths for a generation. The primary issue was synchronization: pictures and sound were recorded and played back by separate devices, which were difficult to start and maintain in tandem. Sufficient playback volume was also hard to achieve. While motion picture projectors soon allowed film to be shown to large theater audiences, audio technology before the development of electric amplification could not project satisfactorily to fill large spaces. Finally, there was the challenge of recording fidelity. The primitive systems of the era produced sound of very low quality unless the performers were stationed directly in front of the cumbersome recording devices (acoustical horns, for the most part), imposing severe limits on the sort of films that could be created with live-recorded sound."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward Raymond Turner",
        "text": "The system suffered from two types of colour registration problems.\n*First, because the three frames had not been photographed at the same time, rapidly moving objects in the scene did not match up on the screen and appeared as a blurred jumble of false colours.\n*Second, and apparently much worse, mechanical instabilities in the system caused serious overall registration problems, so that the three superimposed images ceaselessly jittered and wove about relative to each other."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cinerama",
        "text": "The Cinerama system had some obvious drawbacks. If one of the films should break, it had to be repaired with a black slug exactly equal to the missing footage. Otherwise, the corresponding frames would have had to be cut from the other three films (the other two picture films plus the soundtrack film) in order to preserve synchronization. The use of zoom lenses was impossible since the three images would no longer match. Perhaps the greatest limitation of the process is that the picture looks natural only from within a rather limited \"sweet spot.\" Viewed from outside the sweet spot, the picture can look distorted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper print",
        "text": "With adjustments, issues of frame lines and sprocket holes were resolved with each incoming print, but hand cranked film speed was also a nagging issue. Renovare would capture each frame, but a film could have been undercranked and exposed only for twelve frames per second. Playback on today's film projectors might require 18 or 24 frame/s. Everything would appear comically fast. The solution was to expose a frame or every other frame twice, thereby making the action appear realistic. The reverse was true as well, with overcranked exposures, and frames would have to be removed to avoid slow motion films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Julius Scheiner",
        "text": "He is also credited with developing the first system for measuring the sensitivity of photographic emulsions in 1894, Scheinergrade, which also inspired the later DIN 4512 standard to measure film speeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film technology",
        "text": "Before 1902, the quality of the experience of films was often troubled by an obvious flicker in the projected image. Many of the systems in use featured intermittent transport of the film strip in order to avoid motion blur, while a shutter blocked projection for each advancement of the film frames. Intermittently blocking the light was also necessary for the stroboscopic effect that was widely known from the ph\u00e9nakisticope and zoetrope. The strain of starting and stopping also often caused damage to the film strip and could cause the system to jam (often with the result of burning the combustible film material as it was exposed to the heat of the lamp for too long). Eventually the solution was found in a three-bladed shutter that not just blocked the light intermittently during film transport, but more often and also during projection. The first three-bladed shutter was developed by Theodor P\u00e4tzold and went in production with Messter in 1902."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The Warnerke Standard Sensitometer consisted of a frame holding an opaque screen with an array of typically 25 numbered, gradually pigmented squares brought into contact with the photographic plate during a timed test exposure under a phosphorescent tablet excited before by the light of a burning magnesium ribbon. The speed of the emulsion was then expressed in 'degrees' Warnerke (sometimes seen as Warn. or \u00b0W.) corresponding with the last number visible on the exposed plate after development and fixation. Each number represented an increase of 1/3 in speed, typical plate speeds were between 10\u00b0 and 25\u00b0 Warnerke at the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Relatively insensitive film, with a correspondingly lower speed index, requires more exposure to light to produce the same image density as a more sensitive film, and is thus commonly termed a \"slow film\". Highly sensitive films are correspondingly termed \"fast films\". In both digital and film photography, the reduction of exposure corresponding to use of higher sensitivities generally leads to reduced image quality (via coarser film grain or higher image noise of other types). In short, the higher the sensitivity, the grainier the image will be. Ultimately sensitivity is limited by the quantum efficiency of the film or sensor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kinescope",
        "text": "Because television is a field- rather than frame-based system, however, not all the information in the picture can be retained on film in the same way as it can on videotape. The time taken physically to move the film on by one frame and stop it so that the gate can be opened to expose a new frame of film to the two fields of television picture is much longer than the vertical blanking interval between these fields\u2014so the film is still moving when the start of the next field is being displayed on the television screen. It is not possible to accelerate the film fast enough to get it there in time without destroying the perforations in the film stock\u2014and the larger the film gauge used, the worse the problem becomes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vitaphone",
        "text": "These innovations notwithstanding, the Vitaphone process lost the early format war with sound-on-film processes for many reasons:\n* Distribution \u2013 Vitaphone records had to be distributed along with film prints, and shipping the records required a whole infrastructure apart from the already-existing film distribution system. The records would start to suffer from audible wear after an estimated 20 playings (a check box system on the label was used to keep count) and were then supposed to be replaced with a fresh set. Damage and breakage were inherent dangers, so a spare set of discs was usually kept on hand, further adding to the costs.\n* Synchronization \u2013 Vitaphone was vulnerable to severe synchronization problems, famously spoofed in MGM's 1952 musical \"Singin' in the Rain\". If a record was improperly cued up, it would start out of sync with the picture and the projectionist would have to try to manually acquire sync. If the wrong record had been cued up there was no realistic option but to pause the show for a few minutes while swapping in the correct disc, resetting everything and starting that reel again. If the film print became damaged and was not precisely repaired, the relationship between the record and the print would be thrown off, also causing a loss of sync. Vitaphone projectors had special levers and linkages to advance and retard sync, but only within certain limits. Scrupulous care and attention were demanded from the projectionist. In the absence of human error and the occasional malfunction that can befall any complicated machine, the Vitaphone system worked as intended, but when a problem did occur it could be an embarrassing disaster.\n* Editing \u2013 A phonograph record cannot be physically edited, and this significantly limited the creative potential of Vitaphone films. Warner Bros. went to great expense to develop a highly complex phonograph-based dubbing system, using synchronous motors and Strowger switch-triggered playback phonographs. Multiple source discs would be carefully cued up, then parts of each in turn were dubbed to a new master disc. The cutting of the new wax master could not be paused, so each playback turntable had to be started at just the right moment and each signal switched to the recorder at just the right moment. The system worked, but imprecisely enough that the reel of film often required some adjustment, by adding or removing one or more film frames at imperfectly matched edit points, to conform it to the disc of edited sound. This discouraged frequent changes of scene in the film and the lively pace that they created. Editing sound on disc was a nightmare for the editor, and it was increasingly obvious to everyone that while the system sufficed for musical shorts and a synchronized musical accompaniment for otherwise silent films (the only applications originally planned), it was a clumsy way to make a feature-length film with \"live\" sound. By the middle of 1931, Warner Bros.-First National had thrown in the towel and was recording and editing optical sound on film, like all the other studios, and only then dubbing the completed soundtrack to discs for use with the Vitaphone projection system.\n* Fidelity versus Sound-on-Film \u2013 The fidelity of sound-on-film processes was improved considerably after the early work by Lee De Forest on his Phonofilm system and that of his former associate Theodore Case on what eventually became the Fox Movietone system, introduced in 1927. The De Forest and Case-Fox systems used variable-density soundtracks, but the variable-area soundtrack used by RCA Photophone, introduced in 1928, eventually predominated. Although the fidelity of optical sound never quite caught up with ongoing improvements in disc recording technology, for practical purposes the early quality advantage of discs had been overcome within a few years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Krugovaya Kinopanorama",
        "text": "Special systems of movie-cameras were needed for the exposure of this theatre's films. In the pursuit of these a number of complex technical problems were solved. For example, in 1959 the designers of the Yakovlev design bureau managed to develop a suspension device for shooting circular kinopanoramic films from a Yak-24 helicopter. Developing these cameras simultaneously solved the task of carriage of goods with minimal transfer of vibration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film preservation",
        "text": "By the 1980s, it was becoming apparent that the collections of motion picture heritage were at risk of becoming lost. Not only was the preservation of nitrate film an ongoing problem, but it was then discovered that safety film, used as a replacement for the more volatile nitrate stock, was beginning to be affected by a unique form of decay known as \"vinegar syndrome\", and color film manufactured, in particular, by Eastman Kodak, was found to be at risk of fading. At that time, the best-known solution was to duplicate the original film onto a more secure medium."
      },
      {
        "title": "Subwoofer",
        "text": "Subwoofers received a great deal of publicity in 1974 with the movie \"Earthquake\", which was released in Sensurround. Initially installed in 17 U.S. theaters, the Cerwin-Vega \"Sensurround\" system used large subwoofers that were driven by racks of 500 watt amplifiers, triggered by control tones printed on one of the audio tracks on the film. Four of the subwoofers were positioned in front of the audience under (or behind) the film screen and two more were placed together at the rear of the audience on a platform. Powerful noise energy and loud rumbling in the range of 17\u00a0Hz to 120\u00a0Hz were generated at the level of 110\u2013120 decibels of sound pressure level, abbreviated dB(SPL). The new low frequency entertainment method helped the film become a box office success. More Sensurround systems were assembled and installed. By 1976, there were almost 300 Sensurround systems leapfrogging through select theaters. Other films to use the effect include the WW II naval battle epic \"Midway\" in 1976 and \"Rollercoaster\" in 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Intermediate film system",
        "text": "The exposed film, either 35mm or 17.5mm (35mm split in half, to save expense), travelled in a continuous band from the camera, usually atop a remote broadcast vehicle, into a machine that developed and fixed the image. The film was then run through a flying spot scanner (so called because it moved a focused beam of light back and forth across the image), and electronically converted from a negative to a positive image. Depending on the equipment, the time from camera to scanner could be a minute or less. An optical soundtrack was recorded onto the film, between the perforations and the edge of the film, at the same time the image was taken to keep the sound and image in synchronization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The DIN system, officially DIN standard 4512 by ' (but still named ' (DNA) at this time), was published in January 1934. It grew out of drafts for a standardized method of sensitometry put forward by ' as proposed by the committee for sensitometry of the ' since 1930 and presented by (1868\u20131945) and Emanuel Goldberg (1881\u20131970) at the influential VIII. International Congress of Photography (German: \"\") held in Dresden from 3 to 8 August 1931."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photographic hypersensitization",
        "text": "It had been known since the 1930s that LIRF was less severe during low-temperature exposures. Cooling the emulsion during the exposure reduces reciprocity failure by extending the lifetime of the unstable single-atom stage of latent image formation. Accordingly, many experimenters built film cameras with 'cold backs', metal plates in contact with the film, often cooled with solid carbon dioxide. These were awkward to use because of film embrittlement and condensation, but some good results were obtained with color film, and cooling seemed to affect all the sensitive layers of color film equally, so shifts in color balance were small."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film technology",
        "text": "Experimentation with sound film technology, both for recording and playback, was virtually constant throughout the silent era, but the twin problems of accurate synchronization and sufficient amplification had been difficult to overcome (Eyman, 1997). In 1926, Hollywood studio Warner Bros. introduced the \"Vitaphone\" system, producing short films of live entertainment acts and public figures and adding recorded sound effects and orchestral scores to some of its major features."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Originally only meant for black-and-white negative film, the system was later extended and regrouped into nine parts, including DIN 4512-1:1971-04 for black-and-white negative film, DIN 4512-4:1977-06 for color reversal film and DIN 4512-5:1977-10 for color negative film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The size of silver halide grains in the emulsion affects film sensitivity, which is related to granularity because larger grains give film greater sensitivity to light. Fine-grain film, such as film designed for portraiture or copying original camera negatives, is relatively insensitive, or \"slow\", because it requires brighter light or a longer exposure than a \"fast\" film. Fast films, used for photographing in low light or capturing high-speed motion, produce comparatively grainy images."
      },
      {
        "title": "Earthquake (1974 film)",
        "text": "The \"Sensurround\" process proved to be a large audience draw, but not without generating a fair share of controversy. When the film premiered in Chicago, Illinois, the head of the building and safety department demanded the system be turned down, as he was afraid it would cause structural damage. In Billings, Montana, a knick-knack shop next door to a theatre using the system lost part of its inventory when items from several shelves were thrown to the floor when the system was cued during the quake scenes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Latham loop",
        "text": "Woodville Latham applied for a patent on June 1, 1896. In his patent application, Latham wrote,\n:In order that these parts [of the film projector] may operate as described, it is essential that the loop of slack film be maintained at all times ready for the intermittingly-acting device and also that the slack-manipulating and the intermittingly-moving devices be positively driven by mechanism which will absolutely insure the presence of the slack and the accurate movement of the film. The reason these parts and their arrangement and method of operation are such important and valuable features of the invention is because their action is necessarily exceedingly rapid, and if the intermittingly-feeding mechanism were heavy, so as to have much inertia, or if any considerable portion of the film or either of the reels which support it were stopped and started at each transition from picture to picture there would be such strain brought to bear on the sprocket-holes in the film as would speedily tear it adjacent to such holes, thus ruining it..."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pre-Code Hollywood",
        "text": "Complicating matters for the studios, the advent of sound film in 1927 required an immense expenditure in sound stages, recording booths, cameras, and movie-theater sound systems, not to mention the new-found artistic complications of producing in a radically altered medium. The studios were in a difficult financial position even before the market crash as the sound conversion process and some risky purchases of theater chains had pushed their finances near the breaking point. These economic circumstances led to a loss of nearly half of the weekly attendance numbers and closure of almost a third of the country's theaters in the first few years of the depression. Even so, 60 million Americans went to the cinema weekly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cinerama",
        "text": "The system also required a bit of improvisation on the part of the film producers. It was not possible to film any scene where any part of the scene was close to the camera, as the fields of view no longer met exactly. Further, any close-up material had a noticeable bend in it at the joins. It was also difficult to film actors talking to each other where both were in shot, because when they looked at each other when filmed, the resultant image showed the actors appearing to look past each other, particularly if they appeared on different films. Early directors sidestepped this latter problem by only shooting one actor at a time and cutting between them. Later directors worked out where to have the actors looking to create a natural shot. Each actor was required not to look at their fellow actor, but at a predetermined cue place instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "405-line television system",
        "text": "Since the mid-1930s it has been standard practice to use a field frequency equal to the AC mains electric supply frequency (or a submultiple thereof), 50\u00a0Hz in most countries, (60\u00a0Hz in the Americas) because studio lighting generally uses an alternating current supply to the lamps and if these were not synchronized with the field frequency, an unwelcome strobe effect could appear on TV pictures. Secondly, the smoothing (filtering) of power supply circuits in early TV receivers was rather poor, and ripple superimposed on the DC could cause visual interference. However, the main problem was the susceptibility of the electron beam in the CRT being deflected by stray magnetic fields from nearby transformers or motors. If the picture was locked to the mains frequency, this interference would at least be static on the screen and thus relatively unnoticeable. The very earliest TV sets used a mains transformer; care had to be taken in design to prevent the transformer's stray magnetic field from disturbing the electron beam in the CRT."
      },
      {
        "title": "Television standards conversion",
        "text": "Television systems converters must avoid creating telecine judder effects during the conversion process. Avoiding this judder is economically importance, because much NTSC (60\u00a0Hz, technically 29.97 frame/s) resolution material that originates from film will have this problem when converted to PAL or SECAM (both 50\u00a0Hz, 25 frame/s)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Star system (filmmaking)",
        "text": "In the early years of the cinema (1890s\u20131900s), performers were not identified in films. There are two main reasons for this. First, from the perspective of actors who were trained in the theatre, they were embarrassed to be working in film and feared it would ruin their reputation. Silent film was thought of as mere pantomime and one of theatre actors' main skills was their command of their voice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sound film",
        "text": "Cinematic innovators attempted to cope with the fundamental synchronization problem in a variety of ways. An increasing number of motion picture systems relied on gramophone records\u2014known as sound-on-disc technology. The records themselves were often referred to as \"Berliner discs\", after one of the primary inventors in the field, German-American Emile Berliner. In 1902, L\u00e9on Gaumont demonstrated his sound-on-disc Chronophone, involving an electrical connection he had recently patented, to the French Photographic Society. Four years later, Gaumont introduced the Elg\u00e9phone, a compressed-air amplification system based on the Auxetophone, developed by British inventors Horace Short and Charles Parsons. Despite high expectations, Gaumont's sound innovations had only limited commercial success. Despite some improvements, they still did not satisfactorily address the three basic issues with sound film and were expensive as well. For some years, American inventor E. E. Norton's Cameraphone was the primary competitor to the Gaumont system (sources differ on whether the Cameraphone was disc- or cylinder-based); it ultimately failed for many of the same reasons that held back the Chronophone."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film",
        "text": "This development was contemporary with the growth of the studio system and its greatest publicity method, the star system, which characterized American film for decades to come and provided models for other film industries. The studios' efficient, top-down control over all stages of their product enabled a new and ever-growing level of lavish production and technical sophistication. At the same time, the system's commercial regimentation and focus on glamorous escapism discouraged daring and ambition beyond a certain degree, a prime example being the brief but still legendary directing career of the iconoclastic Erich von Stroheim in the late teens and the 1920s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film preservation",
        "text": "Regardless of the age of the print itself, damage may occur if stored improperly. Damage to the film (caused by tears on the print, curling of the film base due to intense light exposure, temperature, humidity, etc.) can significantly raise the difficulty and the cost of preservation processes. Many films simply do not have enough information left on the film to piece together a new master, although careful digital restoration can produce stunning results by gathering bits and pieces of buildings from adjacent frames for restoration on a damaged frame, predicting entire frames based on the characters' movements in prior and subsequent frames, etc. As time goes on, this digital capability will only improve, but it will ultimately require sufficient information from the original film to make proper restorations and predictions."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film",
        "text": "During the immediate post-war years the cinematic industry was also threatened by television, and the increasing popularity of the medium meant that some film theatres would bankrupt and close. The demise of the \"studio system\" spurred the self-commentary of films like \"Sunset Boulevard\" (1950) and \"The Bad and the Beautiful\" (1952)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movietone sound system",
        "text": "Variable density (VD) recording systems developed from Movietone gradually lost market share to variable area (VA) ones developed from Photophone from the 1940s onwards, a process that gathered pace as VA-related patents expired. Though both methods are theoretically capable of achieving similar standards of recording, duplication and reproduction, quality control in the lab proved to be far more critical in the duplication of VD tracks than VA ones: slight errors in printer light settings and sensitometry and densitometry control will affect the signal-to-noise ratio far more on a VD track than on a VA one. For this reason archives have tended to remaster original VD tracks to VA negatives for preservation and the creation of new prints."
      },
      {
        "title": "35 mm movie film",
        "text": "While the format was dormant by the early 1960s, the camera system was revived for visual effects by John Dykstra at Industrial Light and Magic, starting with \"Star Wars\", as a way of reducing granularity in the optical printer by having increased original camera negative area at the point of image origination. Its usage has again declined since the dominance of computer-based visual effects, although it still sees limited utilization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philips DP70",
        "text": "Small-scale attempts had been made to use wide film for commercial theater exhibition around the time of the conversion to sound, of which Fox Grandeur was technologically the closest to the format the DP70 was designed to facilitate the launch of, two decades later. One of the reasons these early systems failed to establish wide film as an industry standard was that the projectors developed for them were incompatible with the existing 4/35 standard. In order to be able to project both, therefore, theaters had to be equipped with two sets of projectors, which involved significant extra cost and in some cases architectural modifications to projection booths."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "On an international level the German DIN 4512 system has been effectively superseded in the 1980s by ISO 6:1974, ISO 2240:1982, and ISO 5800:1979 where the same sensitivity is written in linear and logarithmic form as \"ISO 100/21\u00b0\" (now again with degree symbol). These ISO standards were subsequently adopted by DIN as well. Finally, the latest DIN 4512 revisions were replaced by corresponding ISO standards, DIN 4512-1:1993-05 by DIN ISO 6:1996-02 in September 2000, DIN 4512-4:1985-08 by DIN ISO 2240:1998-06 and DIN 4512-5:1990-11 by DIN ISO 5800:1998-06 both in July 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film",
        "text": "Creatively, however, the rapid transition was a difficult one, and in some ways, film briefly reverted to the conditions of its earliest days. The late '20s were full of static, stagey talkies as artists in front of and behind the camera struggled with the stringent limitations of the early sound equipment and their own uncertainty as to how to utilize the new medium. Many stage performers, directors and writers were introduced to cinema as producers sought personnel experienced in dialogue-based storytelling. Many major silent filmmakers and actors were unable to adjust and found their careers severely curtailed or even ended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sound film",
        "text": "There were consequences, as well, for other technological aspects of the cinema. Proper recording and playback of sound required exact standardization of camera and projector speed. Before sound, 16 frames per second (fps) was the supposed norm, but practice varied widely. Cameras were often undercranked or overcranked to improve exposures or for dramatic effect. Projectors were commonly run too fast to shorten running time and squeeze in extra shows. Variable frame rate, however, made sound unlistenable, and a new, strict standard of 24 fps was soon established. Sound also forced the abandonment of the noisy arc lights used for filming in studio interiors. The switch to quiet incandescent illumination in turn required a switch to more expensive film stock. The sensitivity of the new panchromatic film delivered superior image tonal quality and gave directors the freedom to shoot scenes at lower light levels than was previously practical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Another example occurs where a camera's shutter is miscalibrated and consistently overexposes or underexposes the film; similarly, a light meter may be inaccurate. One may adjust the EI setting accordingly in order to compensate for these defects and consistently produce correctly exposed negatives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sensitometry",
        "text": "Although films originally made for television in Great Britain (whether by telerecording or by conventional cinematography) will be photographed at 25 frames per second, films exposed for cinema exhibition at 24 frames per second are also transmitted for television at 25 frames per second. This naturally causes an increase in the speed of image movement and raises the frequency of sound reproduction by approximately 4 per cent. (this results in the pitch of musical notes rising by something less than a semi-tone and is acceptable to all but the most critical ear)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ludwig Czerny",
        "text": "In 1919 he co-developed the NotoFilm system for adding sound to a film (also called \" Czerny-Springefeld method \"). In the system sheet music was copied into part of a film image, which was to serve as a score for the conductor and orchestra present in a cinema theater. During the music passages, the conductor was able to direct the melody from the images of the notes running at the bottom of the picture; Singers in the hall tried to perform their arias on the screen in sync with the actors' lip movements. Despite the considerable effort, these films turned out to be technically poor and, moreover, quite unsuccessful. After the public and critic flop \" Das M\u00e4del von Pontecuculi \", film critic Robert Volz called the work premiered in November 1924 a \"freak of this film operetta\", the pioneer of this film genre completely withdrew from the directing business. After the singing film \" Gretchen Schubert \", which was shot in 1925, failed in every respect, NotoFilm ceased production entirely."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Room to Run",
        "text": "Lewis says \"the film industry was very primitive\" in Australia - he was happy with the cinematographer and camera operator but felt the grips, gaffers and electricians were too inexperienced and the stuntmen were \"too careless\" and almost caused someone to be injured. \"The whole set up was poor,\" says Lewis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film preservation",
        "text": "The great majority of films made in the silent era are now considered to be lost forever. Movies of the first half of the 20th century were filmed on an unstable, highly flammable cellulose nitrate film base, which required careful storage to slow its inevitable process of decomposition over time. Most films made on nitrate stock were not preserved; over the years, their negatives and prints crumbled into powder or dust. Many of them were recycled for their silver content, or destroyed in studio or vault fires. The largest cause, however, was intentional destruction. As film preservationist Robert A. Harris explains, \"Most of the early films did not survive because of wholesale junking by the studios. There was no thought of ever saving these films. They simply needed vault space and the materials were expensive to house.\" Silent films had little or no commercial value after the advent of sound films in the 1930s, and as such, they were not kept. As a result, preserving the now-rare silent films has been proposed as a high priority amongst film historians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alan E. Freedman",
        "text": "He started his long career in film processing at the industry's infancy in 1907, a time before cameras and projectors had sprockets and film had holes to match in order to assure a constant film flow, and steady exposed and projected image. Safety film, sound, and color reversal film stocks had not been conceived. And it was a time before continuous processing; when movie film was loaded on racks, batch processed in dip tanks and dried in drums."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lawrence of Arabia (film)",
        "text": "Super Panavision technology was used to shoot the film, meaning that spherical lenses were used instead of anamorphic ones, and the image was exposed on a 65\u00a0mm negative, then printed onto a 70\u00a0mm positive to leave room for the soundtracks. Rapid cutting was more disturbing on the wide screen, so filmmakers had to apply longer and more fluid takes. Shooting such a wide ratio produced some unwanted effects during projection, such as a peculiar \"flutter\" effect, a blurring of certain parts of the image. To avoid the problem, the director often had to modify blocking, giving the actor a more diagonal movement, where the flutter was less likely to occur. David Lean was asked whether he could handle CinemaScope: \"If one had an eye for composition, there would be no problem.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film",
        "text": "Sound further tightened the grip of major studios in numerous countries: the vast expense of the transition overwhelmed smaller competitors, while the novelty of sound lured vastly larger audiences for those producers that remained. In the case of the U.S., some historians credit sound with saving the Hollywood studio system in the face of the Great Depression (Parkinson, 1995). Thus began what is now often called \"The Golden Age of Hollywood\", which refers roughly to the period beginning with the introduction of sound until the late 1940s. The American cinema reached its peak of efficiently manufactured glamour and global appeal during this period. The top actors of the era are now thought of as the classic film stars, such as Clark Gable, Katharine Hepburn, Humphrey Bogart, Greta Garbo, and the greatest box office draw of the 1930s, child performer Shirley Temple."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Upon exposure, the amount of light energy that reaches the film determines the effect upon the emulsion. If the brightness of the light is multiplied by a factor and the exposure of the film decreased by the same factor by varying the camera's shutter speed and aperture, so that the energy received is the same, the film will be developed to the same density. This rule is called reciprocity. The systems for determining the sensitivity for an emulsion are possible because reciprocity holds over a wide range of customary conditions. In practice, reciprocity works reasonably well for normal photographic films for the range of exposures between 1/1000\u00a0second to 1/2\u00a0second. However, this relationship breaks down outside these limits, a phenomenon known as reciprocity failure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The ISO system defines both an arithmetic and a logarithmic scale. The arithmetic ISO scale corresponds to the arithmetic ASA system, where a doubling of film sensitivity is represented by a doubling of the numerical film speed value. In the logarithmic ISO scale, which corresponds to the DIN scale, adding 3\u00b0 to the numerical value constitutes a doubling of sensitivity. For example, a film rated ISO\u00a0200/24\u00b0 is twice as sensitive as one rated ISO\u00a0100/21\u00b0."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silent film",
        "text": "In the 1950s, many telecine conversions of silent films at grossly incorrect frame rates for broadcast television may have alienated viewers. Film speed is often a vexed issue among scholars and film buffs in the presentation of silents today, especially when it comes to DVD releases of restored films, such as the case of the 2002 restoration of \"Metropolis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photographic film",
        "text": "Over the active dynamic range of most films, the density of the developed film is proportional to the logarithm of the total amount of light to which the film was exposed, so the transmission coefficient of the developed film is proportional to a power of the reciprocal of the brightness of the original exposure. The plot of the density of the film image against the log of the exposure is known as an H&D curve. This effect is due to the statistics of grain activation: as the film becomes progressively more exposed, each incident photon is less likely to impact a still-unexposed grain, yielding the logarithmic behavior. A simple, idealized statistical model yields the equation , where \"light\" is proportional to the number of photons hitting a unit area of film, \"k\" is the probability of a single photon striking a grain (based on the size of the grains and how closely spaced they are), and \"density\" is the proportion of grains that have been hit by at least one photon. The relationship between density and log exposure is linear for photographic films except at the extreme ranges of maximum exposure (D-max) and minimum exposure (D-min) on an H&D curve, so the curve is characteristically S-shaped (as opposed to digital camera sensors which have a linear response through the effective exposure range). The sensitivity (i.e., the ISO speed) of a film can be affected by changing the length or temperature of development, which would move the H&D curve to the left or right (\"see figure\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ultra Panavision 70",
        "text": "In 1948, a U.S. Supreme Court decision forced movie studios to divest themselves of their profitable theater chains. The loss of these theaters and the competitive pressure of television caused significant financial distress for many American motion picture studios. In 1952, the launch of Cinerama was a public sensation and suggested a way to bring studios back from the financial brink, but the triple 35mm camera systems used for this widescreen presentation were heavy, bulky, and difficult to use. Installing Cinerama in a theater was no simple matter either, as the system required three projectors, each in its own projection booth, as well as an elaborate 7-channel sound system and a special large, deeply curved screen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Autographic film",
        "text": "The system was patented by Henry Jacques Gaisman, inventor and safety razor manufacturer. George Eastman purchased the rights for US$300,000. It consisted of a tissue-like carbon paper sandwiched between the film and the paper backing. Text was entered using a metal stylus, and would appear in the margin of the processed print. The system was common on early consumer cameras but became unpopular in the 1920s, and was discontinued in 1932."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of science fiction films",
        "text": "By the middle of the decade, the theater audience had begun to decline and this was reflected in the numbers attending the science fiction movie releases of this period. Sophisticated home theater systems came close to matching the cinema experience, and avoided the expense and inconvenience. Film studios had begun placing product advertisements prior to the start of films in theatres, seeking another means to enhance their bottom line, and alienating a segment of the theater-going audience. Making up for the losses in cinema revenue were sales and rentals of the high-quality DVD releases, many of which included previously cut scenes and extra material."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coherer",
        "text": "Coherers were also finicky to adjust and not very sensitive. Another problem was that, because of the cumbersome mechanical \"decohering\" mechanism, the coherer was limited to a receiving speed of 12 \u2013 15 words per minute of Morse code, while telegraph operators could send at rates of 50 WPM, and paper tape machines at 100 WPM."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film stock",
        "text": "Film stock\n--History.\n----1888\u20131899: Before standardization.\n----1900\u20131919: Toward the standard picture film.\n----1920s: Diversification of film sensitivity.\n----Colour films.\n--Classification and properties.\n----Base.\n----Emulsion.\n----Chemistry.\n----Image record.\n----Physical characteristics.\n----Responsivity.\n----Colour temperature.\n----Sound.\n--Deterioration.\n--Intermediate and print stocks.\n--Decline.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Motion Picture Patents Co. v. Universal Film Manufacturing Co.",
        "text": "He explains, further, that a patentee's simple refusal to license a patent may lead to loss of efficiency but the costs are those arising from the existence of the patent system. \"If that produces net inefficiencies, the problem lies exclusively\" in the way the U.S. patent system has been set up, which is a matter of congressional choice, subject only to constitutional limitations. Privately constructed terms of access (licensing conditions) can produce additional costs, which may arise from effects of imposing conditions on the licensee. \"As the \"Motion Picture\" majority properly observes, such rights must be examined to determine whether their harms outweigh the benefits.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Push processing",
        "text": "When a film's effective sensitivity has been varied, the resulting sensitivity is called the exposure index; the film's speed remains at the manufacturer's indication. For example, an ISO 200/24\u00b0 film could be push processed to EI 400/27\u00b0 or pull processed to EI 100/21\u00b0."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guide number",
        "text": "Bear in mind that the above table is \"for only one film speed\". For end users, obtaining proper exposures with flashbulbs was an error-prone effort as they mentally interpolated between distances and fstop combinations that weren\u2019t very accurate in the first place. Had the guide number system existed by this point, the above table would not have required the left-most column showing distances and would have required only one row (showing guide numbers) under each heading."
      },
      {
        "title": "APEX system",
        "text": "Because Exif 2.2 records ISO arithmetic speed rather than film sensitivity, the value of formula_10 affects the recorded value of formula_68 but not the recorded film speed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Direct cinema",
        "text": "Before the use of pilottone (invented in 1954) and the 1961 Nagra III, sound recording machinery was either extremely heavy or unreliable. Many attempts were made to solve this problem during the 1950s and 1960s. At the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), for example, a system called \"Sprocketape\" was designed, but was not implemented."
      },
      {
        "title": "Panavision",
        "text": "In the 1950s, the motion picture industry was threatened by the advent of television\u2014TV kept moviegoers at home, reducing box office revenues. Film studios sought to lure audiences to theaters with attractions that television could not provide. These included a revival of color films, three-dimensional films, stereophonic sound, and widescreen movies. Cinerama was one of the first widescreen movie processes of the era. In its initial conception, the cumbersome system required three cameras for shooting and three synchronized projectors to display a picture on one wide, curved screen. Along with the logistical and financial challenges of tripling equipment usage and cost, the process led to distracting vertical lines between the three projected images. Looking for a high-impact method of widescreen filmmaking that was cheaper, simpler, and less visually distracting, 20th Century Fox acquired the rights to a process it branded CinemaScope: in this system, the film was shot with anamorphic lenses. The film was then exhibited with a complementary anamorphic lens on the projector that expanded the image, creating a projected aspect ratio (the ratio of the image's width to its height) twice that of the image area on the physical frame of film. By the time the first CinemaScope movie\u2014\"The Robe\" (1953)\u2014was announced for production, Gottschalk, Moore and Nicholson had a demo reel of work with their anamorphic underwater system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavery",
        "text": "Historians agree that films have largely shaped historical memories, but they debate issues of accuracy, plausibility, moralism, sensationalism, how facts are stretched in search of broader truths, and suitability for the classroom. Berlin argues that critics complain if the treatment emphasizes historical brutality, or if it glosses over the harshness to highlight the emotional impact of slavery."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Was an Acrobat's Daughter",
        "text": "The film depicts the typical audience of a movie theater in the early sound film era. The film-going audience of the era did participate in sing-alongs and group activities within the theater. But this lively-participating audience then had to turn silent. Due to technical limitations, the theaters offered poor sound quality. Listening to the dialogue of a sound film required silence. Sources of noise and distraction within a theater were annoying and disruptive to film viewers. Like other Warner Bros. animated shorts of the late 1930s, the film uses such typical nuisances and the reactions to them as a subject of comedy. The hippo who keeps changing seats and the goose who keeps talking both annoy their fellow viewers. It is the reaction of said annoyed viewers which is played for laughs."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film technology",
        "text": "Chronochrome's color quality was impressive, as surviving specimens attest, and because the three frames were exposed and projected simultaneously, Kinemacolor's color bombardment and color fringes around moving objects were avoided. However, because the camera's three lenses could not all photograph the scene from exactly the same viewpoint, subjects that were too near the camera would exhibit color fringes if the registration of the three projected images was optimized for the background of the scene, and vice versa. A method of notching the prints to trigger automatic adjustment of the projection optics was invented, but expert supervision of the presentation was still a requisite. Light loss due to the color filters and the constrained dimensions of the projection lenses resulted in an image that was too dim for showing in a large auditorium unless a highly reflective metalized screen or rear-projection onto a translucent screen was used, and either solution created a \"hot spot\" that made the views from the side sections of the auditorium very unsatisfactory. The films were seldom screened outside of Gaumont's own cinemas and the system soon fell into disuse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Social problem film",
        "text": "An important fact of the social problem film is its ability to react and display a social problem that is relevant to the current era it was produced in. It specifically addresses an issue while the issue is still part of the national consciousness, often forming an argument for what the problem actually is through the narrative and character development. Early social problem films often blended ideological feelings of the time into a narrative which translated it into a message for audiences to absorb. This can be evidenced within certain sociological experiments that occurred revolving around the ability for a film to change public perception. A prime example of this is the representation of anti-semitism within the film \"Gentleman's Agreement\" (1947) and the subsequent sociological study by Russell Middleton that measured perceived anti-semitism before and after seeing the film. Surprisingly the film seemed to positively affect the subjects as the majority of people who participated in the study had markedly less anti-semitic feelings than before they saw the film. Although there are certain factors that need to be considered this study seems to indicate once again the primary didactic nature of the social problem film as well as the tackling of subject matter relevant to the current era of the film and how audiences of the historical period perceived such a message."
      },
      {
        "title": "3D film",
        "text": "The first decline in the theatrical 3D craze started in August and September 1953. The factors causing this decline were:\n* Two prints had to be projected simultaneously.\n* The prints had to remain exactly alike after repair, or synchronization would be lost.\n* It sometimes required two projectionists to keep sync working properly.\n* When either prints or shutters became out of sync, even for a single frame, the picture became virtually unwatchable and accounted for headaches and eyestrain.\n* The necessary silver projection screen was very directional and caused sideline seating to be unusable with both 3D and regular films, due to the angular darkening of these screens. Later films that opened in wider-seated venues often premiered flat for that reason (such as \"Kiss Me Kate\" at the Radio City Music Hall).\n* A mandatory intermission was needed to properly prepare the theater's projectors for the showing of the second half of the film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movietone sound system",
        "text": "The Case Research Lab sound system influenced many industry standards, such as location of the optical sound 20 frames in advance of the image it accompanies. The current \"SMPTE\" standard for 35 mm sound film is +21 frames for optical, but a 46-foot theatre reduces this to +20 frames; this was originally done partly to ensure the film runs smoothly past the sound head, but also to ensure that no Phonofilm could again be played in theaters\u00a0\u2014 the Phonofilm system being incompatible with Case Research Lab specifications\u00a0\u2014 and also to ease the modification of projectors already widely in use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frame rate",
        "text": "When sound film was introduced in 1926, variations in film speed were no longer tolerated, as the human ear is more sensitive than the eye to changes in frequency. Many theaters had shown silent films at 22 to 26\u00a0FPS, which is why the industry chose 24\u00a0FPS for sound films as a compromise. From 1927 to 1930, as various studios updated equipment, the rate of 24\u00a0FPS became standard for 35\u00a0mm sound film. At 24\u00a0FPS, the film travels through the projector at a rate of per second. This allowed simple two-blade shutters to give a projected series of images at 48 per second, satisfying Edison's recommendation. Many modern 35\u00a0mm film projectors use three-blade shutters to give 72 images per second\u2014each frame is flashed on screen three times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cinerama",
        "text": "According to film historian Martin Hart, in the original Cinerama system \"the camera aspect ratio [was] 2.59:1\" with an \"optimum screen image, with no architectural constraints, [of] about 2.65:1, with the extreme top and bottom cropped slightly to hide anomalies\". He further comments on the unreliability of \"numerous websites and other resources that will tell you that Cinerama had an aspect ratio of up to 3:1.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Intermediate film system",
        "text": "Television tubes developed by Farnsworth and Zworykin in the United States, and by EMI in England, with much higher sensitivity to light, made the intermediate film system obsolete by 1937. Film continued to be used for time-shifting and as a long-term storage until electronic video recorders were invented."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electric Palace Cinema, Harwich",
        "text": "The Syntok equipment had proved to be unsatisfactory, it was both unreliable and had poor sound quality. Consequently, it was replaced by a new Western Electric sound-on-film sound system. This consisted of standard Western Electric soundheads together with the Western Electric 4A amplifier system. The 4A was the smallest of the Western Electric cinema amplifier systems available at the time and was intended for small cinemas. Two Western Electric 12A full-range horn loudspeakers were employed, hung from a substantial wooden structure behind the screen. The high efficiency of these speakers made the most of the limited output power (about 5 watts) of the 4A amplifier system. At the same time the two Gaumont projectors were replaced by new Kalee model 7 machines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polavision",
        "text": "Due to the light loss caused by the filtering layer, which allows only red, green or blue light to pass through any given point on it, the film had relatively low light sensitivity (40 ASA) and the developed footage has an overall veil that appears to be a neutral gray. The system features a standalone tabletop viewer designed to minimize the problems inherent in projecting such dense film. Somewhat resembling a small television, it projects the inserted film cartridge onto its translucent screen from behind, but critics from publications like \"Consumer Reports\" called the images \"murky and dark\". Despite this (or perhaps because of it), the format was used by artists, including Charles and Ray Eames, Stan Brakhage and Andy Warhol."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Shakshuka System",
        "text": "The banning of the film created a public uproar. Among others, a number of filmmakers unions organized and held a press conference about the censorship made due to pressure from the wealthiest people in Israel's economy. Eventually the film was approved for screening at the Cinematheque in Tel Aviv, despite cease and desist letters sent by the lawyers of the Ofer family. Later on the film was screened at the Jerusalem Cinematheque."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonofilm",
        "text": "In 1924, Western Electric had settled on 24 frames per second (90 feet per minute) as the standard film speed for both the sound-on-disc and optical sound systems it was developing. Western Electric's ERPI division dominated the theater hardware market when the sound revolution finally got underway, so its new standard speed was universally adopted by Fox and all the other studios as each began making sound films. (See the Fleischer cartoon \"Finding His Voice\" (1929), credited to Mr. W. E. Erpi.) As a consequence, Case's tests and DeForest's early Phonofilms, shot at about 21 frames per second, gave speakers and singers laughably high-pitched \"helium voices\" if they were run on a standard sound projector. The Library of Congress and other film archives have printed new copies of some early Phonofilms, modifying them by periodically duplicating frames and correspondingly \"stretching\" the soundtracks to make them compatible with standard projectors and telecine equipment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Star system (filmmaking)",
        "text": "The conspiratorial aspect of the star system manipulating images and reality eventually began to falter. By the '60s and '70s, a more natural style of acting \"the Stanislavski Method\" started. With competition from TV, and entire studios changing hands, the star system faltered and did not recover. The studio system could no longer resist the changes occurring in entertainment, culture, labor, and news, and by 1970 the star system had disappeared."
      },
      {
        "title": "Digital cinematography",
        "text": "Film proponents have argued that early digital cameras lack the reliability of film, particularly when filming sequences at high speed or in chaotic environments, due to digital cameras' technical glitches. Cinematographer Wally Pfister noted that for his shoot on the film \"Inception\", \"Out of six times that we shot on the digital format, we only had one useable piece and it didn't end up in the film. Out of the six times we shot with the Photo-Sonics camera and 35mm running through it, every single shot was in the movie.\" Michael Bay stated that when filming \"\", 35mm cameras had to be used when filming in slow-motion and sequences where the digital cameras were subject to strobing or electrical damage from dust. Since 2015 digital has almost totally replaced film for high speed sequences up to 1000 frames per second."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The ASA standard underwent a major revision in 1960 with ASA PH2.5-1960, when the method to determine film speed was refined and previously applied safety factors against under-exposure were abandoned, effectively doubling the nominal speed of many black-and-white negative films. For example, an Ilford HP3 that had been rated at 200 ASA before 1960 was labeled 400 ASA afterwards without any change to the emulsion. Similar changes were applied to the DIN system with DIN 4512:1961-10 and the BS system with BS 1380:1963 in the following years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bass (sound)",
        "text": "The use of subwoofers to provide deep bass in film presentations received a great deal of publicity in 1974 with the movie \"Earthquake\" which was released in Sensurround. Initially installed in 17 U.S. theaters, the Cerwin Vega \"Sensurround\" system used large subwoofers which were driven by racks of 500 watt amplifiers which were triggered by control tones printed on one of the audio tracks on the film. Four of the subwoofers were positioned in front of the audience under (or behind) the film screen and two more were placed together at the rear of the audience on a platform. Powerful noise energy and loud rumbling in the range of 17\u00a0Hz to 120\u00a0Hz was generated at the level of 110\u2013120 decibels of sound pressure level, abbreviated dB(SPL). The new low frequency entertainment method helped the film become a box office success. More Sensurround systems were assembled and installed. By 1976 there were almost 300 Sensurround systems leapfrogging through select theaters. Other films to use the effect include the WW II naval battle epic \"Midway\" in 1976 and \"Rollercoaster\" in 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dust reduction system",
        "text": "These problems are not as critical with film SLRs as the dust disappears as the film is wound on, but with DSLRs the image sensor always remains in the same place. Even with dust particles smaller than 1 micrometre (0.001 mm) and invisible to the human eye, once they land on the image sensor's surface they can degrade the quality of all the images taken thereafter. Furthermore, it can be a difficult task to remove the dust, sometimes making it necessary to send the camera in for servicing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The film speed scale recommended by the British Standards Institution (BSI) was almost identical to the DIN system except that the BS number was 10 degrees greater than the DIN number."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film technology",
        "text": "A variant method was promoted by William Friese-Greene. He called his additive color system \"Biocolour\". It differed from Kinemacolor only in that the need for a filter-equipped projector was eliminated by staining alternate frames of the film itself with red and green dyes. An ordinary projector could therefore be used, if it would bear being cranked at a sufficient rate. Like Kinemacolor, Biocolour suffered from noticeable color flicker and from red and green fringing when the subject was in rapid motion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Projectionist",
        "text": "The technology of cinema projection, and with it the role of the projectionist, changed fundamentally over an extended period between the early 1950s and late 1960s. Nitrate film was superseded by cellulose triacetate for release prints in the US and Europe over about a five-year period following the stock's commercial launch in October 1948 (though older nitrate prints remained in circulation for quite a long time afterwards and are still occasionally utilized in licensed cinemas for special screenings). With nitrate went the restrictions on reel lengths previously necessitated by the fire risk, with the result that systems were developed to enable the projection of a complete feature film using a single, unattended projector. Two essential technologies were needed to enable this: the long-play device, a.k.a. platter, i.e. a turntable 4\u20136 feet in diameter or (in the case of Sword Systems and Sabre Systems by EPRAD) an extremely large film reel 3\u20135 feet in diameter either of which enabled the reels of a feature presentation to be joined together into a single roll, in some cases up to 30,000 feet (approx. six hours at 24fps) in length; and the xenon arc lamp, which can burn continuously and unattended for as long as is needed (most carbon arc lamphouses will run for a maximum of 40\u201350 minutes before the carbon rod needs replacing, and require regular adjustment by the projectionist during that time). Automation systems were also introduced, which could be programmed in advance of each screening to perform functions such as operating auditorium lighting, adjusting volume levels and changing audio formats. Some would argue that these technologies reduced the skill level or downgraded the showmanship element of the projectionist's job (for example, by eliminating the need for changeovers and nitrate handling precautions). Others would argue that more advanced skills were needed in other areas. With the introduction of widescreen in the early 1950s, projectionists had to cope with the additional lenses, aperture plates and masking systems needed for different aspect ratios for the first time. Multiple channel audio systems using magnetic sound and 70mm film prints were also introduced in the 1950s, and these required specialist projection skills to handle. Like nitrate film prints, xenon arc bulbs require special safety precautions: if handled incorrectly they can explode, causing serious injury to the projectionist. Staffing levels in projection booths decreased rapidly during this period. In the classical \"movie palace\", the labour-intensive nature of changeovers, carbon arc lamps, and nitrate handling required large workforces of projectionists, with up to six or seven working in a single booth and a rigid management hierarchy within the profession being common. In contrast, the multiplexes of the 1980s and '90s were designed in such a way that a single projectionist can operate simultaneous screenings in 10-20 auditoria, and it is unusual for these venues to have a total projectionist workforce of more than three or four."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silent film",
        "text": "Until the standardization of the projection speed of 24 frames per second (fps) for sound films between 1926 and 1930, silent films were shot at variable speeds (or \"frame rates\") anywhere from 12 to 40\u00a0fps, depending on the year and studio. \"Standard silent film speed\" is often said to be 16\u00a0fps as a result of the Lumi\u00e8re brothers' Cin\u00e9matographe, but industry practice varied considerably; there was no actual standard. William Kennedy Laury Dickson, an Edison employee, settled on the astonishingly fast 40 frames per second. Additionally, cameramen of the era insisted that their cranking technique was exactly 16\u00a0fps, but modern examination of the films shows this to be in error, and that they often cranked faster. Unless carefully shown at their intended speeds silent films can appear unnaturally fast or slow. However, some scenes were intentionally undercranked during shooting to accelerate the action\u2014particularly for comedies and action films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Telecine",
        "text": "However, this still left film shot at cinema frame rates as a problem. The obvious solution is to simply speed up the film to match the television frame rates, but this, at least in the case of NTSC, is rather obvious to the eye and ear. This problem is not difficult to fix, however; the solution being to periodically play a selected frame twice. For NTSC, the difference in frame rates can be corrected by showing every fourth frame of film twice, although this does require the sound to be handled separately to avoid \"skipping\" effects. A more advanced technique is to use \"2:3 pulldown\", discussed below, which turns every second frame of the film into three \"fields\" of video, which results in a slightly smoother display. PAL uses a similar system, \"2:2 pulldown\". However, during the analogue broadcasting period, the 24 frame per second film was shown at a slightly faster 25 frames per second rate, to match the PAL video signal. This resulted in a fractionally higher pitched audio soundtrack, and resulted in feature films having a slightly shorter duration, by being shown 1 frame per second faster."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film stock",
        "text": "All plastic is subject to deterioration through physical or chemical means, and thus, motion picture film is at risk for the same reason. Films deteriorate over time, which can damage individual frames or even lead to the entire film being destroyed. Cellulose nitrate, cellulose diacetate and triacetate are known to be unstable media: improperly preserved film can deteriorate in a period of time much faster than many photographs or other visual presentations. Cellulose nitrate, because of its unstable chemistry, eventually breaks down, releasing nitric acid, further catalyzing the decomposition. In the final stage of celluloid decomposition, the film has turned into a rust-like powder. Likewise, tri-acetate stock is also vulnerable to deterioration. Because of the small gauge of the film, owners of home-made films often find that their film can become shrunken and brittle to the point where the film is unwatchable in the space of a few years. In general, decaying acetate film breaks down into acetic acid, and similar to celluloid decomposition, leads to an auto-catylictic breakdown of the base that cannot be reversed. The result of the acetic acid released is a strong odor of vinegar, which is why the decay process in the archival community is known as \"vinegar syndrome\". Modern polyester-based stocks are far more stable by comparison and are rated to last hundreds of years if stored properly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Motion picture content rating system",
        "text": "There are also operational descriptions of attenuating and aggravating elements that can interfere on the final rating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ben Hecht",
        "text": "At least part of the reason for this was due to the industry's system of censorship. Black writes, \"as Mankiewicz, Selznick, and Hecht knew all too well, much of the blame for the failure of the movies to deal more frankly and honestly with life, lay with a rigid censorship imposed on the industry ... [and] on the content of films during its golden era of studio production.\" Because the costs of production and distribution were so high, the primary \"goal of the studios was profit, not art...[and] fearful of losing any segment of their audiences, the studios either carefully avoided controversial topics or presented them in a way that evaded larger issues\", thereby creating only 'harmless entertainment'\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "CinemaScope",
        "text": "Magnetic-striped prints were expensive to produce; each print cost at least twice as much as a print with a standard optical soundtrack only. Furthermore, these striped prints wore out faster than optical prints and caused more problems in use, such as flakes of oxide clogging the replay heads. Due to these problems, and also because many cinemas never installed the necessary playback equipment, magnetic-sound prints started to be made in small quantities for roadshow screenings only, with the main release using standard mono optical-sound prints. As time went by roadshow screenings were increasingly made using 70\u00a0mm\u00a0film, and the use of striped 35\u00a0mm prints declined further. Many CinemaScope films from the 1960s and 1970s were never released in stereo at all. Finally, the 1976 introduction of Dolby Stereo \u2013 which provided similar performance to striped magnetic prints albeit more reliable and at a far lower cost \u2013 caused the four-track magnetic system to become totally obsolete."
      },
      {
        "title": "Syndromes and a Century",
        "text": "The censorship of the film came about as a motion picture rating system was being considered by the National Legislative Assembly. A replacement for the 1930 film act, the ratings law contained a restrictive ratings structure and retained the government's powers to censor and ban films it deemed would \"undermine or disrupt social order and moral decency, or that might impact national security or the pride of the nation\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cinema Digital Sound",
        "text": "The digital information was printed on the film, similar to Dolby Digital and SDDS. However, unlike those formats, there was no analog optical backup in 35\u00a0mm and no magnetic backup in 70\u00a0mm, meaning that if the digital information were damaged in some way, there would be no sound at all. This was one of the factors that contributed to its inevitable demise; the then-new Dolby Digital format moved its information to another area (in between the film sprocket holes), preserving the optical tracks."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What system is film speed measured on?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about historical systems or current systems?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I would like the know more about the current system."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The current International Standard for measuring the speed of colour negative film is ISO 5800:2001, related standards ISO define scales for speeds of black-and-white negative film and colour reversal film, respectively."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What about the historical systems?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There were many historical systems including: the Warnerke system, the Hurter & Driffield system, the Scheiner system, and the DIN system. Would you like to know more about one of these or some of the other historical systems?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about any problems that may occur due to the sensitivity of film?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Insensitive film requires more light exposure to produce the same image density as a more sensitive film. Higher sensitivity results in grainer images but is limited by the quantum efficiency of the film or sensor.",
      "In both digital and film photography, the reduction of exposure corresponding to use of higher sensitivities generally leads to reduced image quality (via coarser film grain or higher image noise of other types). In short, the higher the sensitivity, the grainier the image will be."
    ],
    "topic": "Film speed",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Film speed:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Film speed"
        ],
        "ctx": "Relatively insensitive film, with a correspondingly lower speed index, requires more exposure to light to produce the same image density as a more sensitive film, and is thus commonly termed a \"slow film\". Highly sensitive films are correspondingly termed \"fast films\". In both digital and film photography, the reduction of exposure corresponding to use of higher sensitivities generally leads to reduced image quality (via coarser film grain or higher image noise of other types). In short, the higher the sensitivity, the grainier the image will be. Ultimately sensitivity is limited by the quantum efficiency of the film or sensor."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Film speed:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Film speed"
        ],
        "ctx": "Relatively insensitive film, with a correspondingly lower speed index, requires more exposure to light to produce the same image density as a more sensitive film, and is thus commonly termed a \"slow film\". Highly sensitive films are correspondingly termed \"fast films\". In both digital and film photography, the reduction of exposure corresponding to use of higher sensitivities generally leads to reduced image quality (via coarser film grain or higher image noise of other types). In short, the higher the sensitivity, the grainier the image will be. Ultimately sensitivity is limited by the quantum efficiency of the film or sensor."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Detective quantum efficiency",
        "text": "A study comparing film/screen and digital imaging demonstrates that a digital system with high DQE can improve one's ability to detect small, low-contrast objects \u2013 even though the digital system may have substantially lower Limiting Spatial Resolution (LSR) than film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Relatively insensitive film, with a correspondingly lower speed index, requires more exposure to light to produce the same image density as a more sensitive film, and is thus commonly termed a \"slow film\". Highly sensitive films are correspondingly termed \"fast films\". In both digital and film photography, the reduction of exposure corresponding to use of higher sensitivities generally leads to reduced image quality (via coarser film grain or higher image noise of other types). In short, the higher the sensitivity, the grainier the image will be. Ultimately sensitivity is limited by the quantum efficiency of the film or sensor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum efficiency",
        "text": "The term quantum efficiency (QE) may apply to incident photon to converted electron (IPCE) ratio of a photosensitive device, or it may refer to the TMR effect of a Magnetic Tunnel Junction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photocathode",
        "text": "Quantum efficiency is a unitless number that measures the sensitivity of the photocathode to light. It is the ratio of the number of electrons emitted to the number of incident photons. This property depends on the wavelength of light being used to illuminate the photocathode. For many applications, QE is the most important property as the photocathodes are used solely for converting photons into an electrical signal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Detective quantum efficiency",
        "text": "Starting in the 1940s, there was much scientific interest in classifying the signal and noise performance of various optical detectors such as television cameras and photoconductive devices. It was shown, for example, that image quality is limited by the number of quanta used to produce an image. The quantum efficiency of a detector is a primary metric of performance because it describes the fraction of incident quanta that interact and therefore affected image quality. However, other physical processes may also degrade image quality, and in 1946, Albert Rose proposed the concept of a \"useful quantum efficiency\" or \"equivalent quantum efficiency\" to describe the performance of those systems, which we now call the detective quantum efficiency. Early reviews of the importance and application of the DQE were given by Zweig and Jones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum efficiency",
        "text": "Quantum efficiency of Image Sensors :"
      },
      {
        "title": "Detective quantum efficiency",
        "text": "The DQE was introduced to the medical-imaging community by Shaw for the description of x-ray film-screen systems. He showed how image quality with these systems (in terms of the signal-to-noise ratio) could be expressed in terms of the noise-equivalent quanta (NEQ). The NEQ describes the minimum number of x-ray quanta required to produce a specified SNR. Thus, the NEQ is a measure of image quality and, in a very fundamental sense, describes how many x-ray quanta an image is \"worth\". It also has an important physical meaning as it describes how well a low-contrast structure can be detected in a uniform noise-limited image by the \"ideal observer\" which is an indication of what can be visualized by a human observer under specified conditions. If we also know how many x-ray quanta were used to produce the image (the number of x-ray quanta incident on a detector), q, we know the \"cost\" of the image in terms of a number of x-ray quanta. The DQE is the ratio of what an image is \"worth\" to what it \"cost\" in terms of numbers of Poisson-distributed quanta:\n:formula_1."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum efficiency",
        "text": "This article deals with the term as a measurement of a device's electrical sensitivity to light. In a charge-coupled device (CCD) or other photodetector, it is the ratio between the number of charge carriers collected at either terminal and the number of photons hitting the device's photoreactive surface. As a ratio, QE is dimensionless, but it is closely related to the responsivity, which is expressed in amps per watt. Since the energy of a photon is inversely proportional to its wavelength, QE is often measured over a range of different wavelengths to characterize a device's efficiency at each photon energy level. For typical semiconductor photodetectors, QE drops to zero for photons whose energy is below the band gap. A photographic film typically has a QE of much less than 10%, while CCDs can have a QE of well over 90% at some wavelengths."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum efficiency",
        "text": "Quantum efficiency (QE) is the fraction of photon flux that contributes to the photocurrent in a photodetector or"
      },
      {
        "title": "Photocathode",
        "text": "Quantum efficiency may be calculated from photocurrent (formula_1), laser power (formula_2), and either the photon energy (formula_3) or laser wavelength (formula_4) using the following equation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum efficiency",
        "text": "a pixel. Quantum efficiency is one of the most important parameters used to evaluate the quality of a detector and is often called the spectral response to reflect its wavelength dependence. It is defined as the number of signal electrons created per incident photon. In some cases it can exceed 100% (i.e. when more than one electron is created per incident photon)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Detective quantum efficiency",
        "text": "This relationship is only true when the input is a uniform Poisson distribution of image quanta and signal and noise are defined correctly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Resonant-cavity-enhanced photo detector",
        "text": "The quantum efficiency of conventional detectors is dominated by the optical absorption (electromagnetic radiation) of the semiconductor material. For semiconductors with low absorption coefficients, a thicker absorption region is required to achieve higher quantum efficiency, but at the cost of the signal-processing bandwidth of photodetectors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Detective quantum efficiency",
        "text": "The detective quantum efficiency (often abbreviated as DQE) is a measure of the combined effects of the signal (related to image contrast) and noise performance of an imaging system, generally expressed as a function of spatial frequency. This value is used primarily to describe imaging detectors in optical imaging and medical radiography."
      },
      {
        "title": "Resonant-cavity-enhanced photo detector",
        "text": "However the quantum efficiency is a function of L as:\n::::formula_9."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shot noise",
        "text": "QE = Quantum efficiency,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Detective quantum efficiency",
        "text": "and that of an image corresponding to this input is given by\n:formula_4"
      },
      {
        "title": "Detective quantum efficiency",
        "text": "DQE especially affects one's ability to view small, low-contrast objects. In fact, in many imaging situations, it's more important to detecting small objects than is limiting spatial resolution (LSR) - the parameter traditionally used to determine how small an object one can visualize. Even if a digital system has very high LSR, it can't take advantage of the resolution if it has low DQE, which prevents the detection of very small objects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Resonant-cavity-enhanced photo detector",
        "text": "For a high speed detector for a small value of L, as \u03b1 is very small, \u03b7 becomes very small (\u03b7\u00ab1). This shows for an optimum value of quantum efficiency the bandwidth has to sacrifice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum efficiency",
        "text": "The external quantum efficiency therefore depends on both the absorption of light and the collection of charges. Once a photon has been absorbed and has generated an electron-hole pair, these charges must be separated and collected at the junction. A \"good\" material avoids charge recombination. Charge recombination causes a drop in the external quantum efficiency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photocathode",
        "text": "The effectiveness of a photocathode is commonly expressed as quantum efficiency, that being the ratio of emitted electrons vs. impinging quanta (of light). The efficiency varies with construction as well, as it can be improved with a stronger electric field."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum efficiency",
        "text": "Assuming each photon absorbed in the depletion layer produces a viable electron-hole pair, and all other photons do not,\n:formula_8"
      },
      {
        "title": "Organic solar cell",
        "text": "As described above, dispersed heterojunctions of donor-acceptor organic materials have high quantum efficiencies compared to the planar hetero-junction, because in dispersed heterojunctions it is more likely for an exciton to find an interface within its diffusion length. Film morphology can also have a drastic effect on the quantum efficiency of the device. Rough surfaces and the presence of voids can increase the series resistance and also the chance of short-circuiting. Film morphology and, as a result, quantum efficiency can be improved by annealing of a device after covering it by a ~1000 \u00c5 thick metal cathode. Metal film on top of the organic film applies stresses on the organic film, which helps to prevent the morphological relaxation in the organic film. This gives more densely packed films and at the same time allows the formation of phase-separated interpenetrating donor-acceptor interface inside the bulk of organic thin film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The size of silver halide grains in the emulsion affects film sensitivity, which is related to granularity because larger grains give film greater sensitivity to light. Fine-grain film, such as film designed for portraiture or copying original camera negatives, is relatively insensitive, or \"slow\", because it requires brighter light or a longer exposure than a \"fast\" film. Fast films, used for photographing in low light or capturing high-speed motion, produce comparatively grainy images."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Kodak has defined a \"Print Grain Index\" (PGI) to characterize film grain (color negative films only), based on perceptual just-noticeable difference of graininess in prints. They also define \"granularity\", a measurement of grain using an RMS measurement of density fluctuations in uniformly exposed film, measured with a microdensitometer with 48 micrometre aperture. Granularity varies with exposure \u2014 underexposed film looks grainier than overexposed film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum noise",
        "text": "Let an ideal linear noiseless gain, formula_56, act on the photon stream. We also assume a unity quantum efficiency, or every photon is converted to a photocurrent. The output will be following with no noise added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum efficiency",
        "text": "formula_10 = optical power absorbed in depletion layer, also in watts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum efficiency",
        "text": "where formula_5 = number of electrons produced, formula_6 = number of photons absorbed.\n:formula_7"
      },
      {
        "title": "InVisage Technologies",
        "text": "Using quantum dots is more efficient at capturing light than traditional silicon-based image sensor chips (capturing 90-95% of the light that hits it), giving the sensors higher sensitivity in low light as well as higher resolution. And while traditional image sensors read an image from top to bottom (which can create a blurred image when the subject is moving), quantum dots detect the entire image at the same moment, reducing the chance for distortion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Detective quantum efficiency",
        "text": "Reducing radiation dose is another potential advantage of digital x-ray technology; and high DQE should make significant contributions to this equation. Compared with film/screen imaging, a digital detector with high DQE has the potential to deliver significant object-detectability improvements at an equivalent dose, or to permit object detectability comparable to film's at reduced dose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Resonant-cavity-enhanced photo detector",
        "text": "This shows that higher quantum efficiency can be achieved for smaller absorption region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photographic film",
        "text": "Over the active dynamic range of most films, the density of the developed film is proportional to the logarithm of the total amount of light to which the film was exposed, so the transmission coefficient of the developed film is proportional to a power of the reciprocal of the brightness of the original exposure. The plot of the density of the film image against the log of the exposure is known as an H&D curve. This effect is due to the statistics of grain activation: as the film becomes progressively more exposed, each incident photon is less likely to impact a still-unexposed grain, yielding the logarithmic behavior. A simple, idealized statistical model yields the equation , where \"light\" is proportional to the number of photons hitting a unit area of film, \"k\" is the probability of a single photon striking a grain (based on the size of the grains and how closely spaced they are), and \"density\" is the proportion of grains that have been hit by at least one photon. The relationship between density and log exposure is linear for photographic films except at the extreme ranges of maximum exposure (D-max) and minimum exposure (D-min) on an H&D curve, so the curve is characteristically S-shaped (as opposed to digital camera sensors which have a linear response through the effective exposure range). The sensitivity (i.e., the ISO speed) of a film can be affected by changing the length or temperature of development, which would move the H&D curve to the left or right (\"see figure\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "where formula_9 is the maximum possible exposure that does not lead to a clipped or bloomed camera output. Typically, the lower limit of the saturation speed is determined by the sensor itself, but with the gain of the amplifier between the sensor and the analog-to-digital converter, the saturation speed can be increased. The factor 78 is chosen such that exposure settings based on a standard light meter and an 18-percent reflective surface will result in an image with a grey level of 18%/ = 12.7% of saturation. The factor indicates that there is half a stop of headroom to deal with specular reflections that would appear brighter than a 100% reflecting diffuse white surface."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "In addition to the above speed ratings, the standard also defines the \"standard output sensitivity\" (SOS), how the exposure is related to the digital pixel values in the output image. It is defined as\n:formula_10"
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum well laser",
        "text": "Moreover, since quantum efficiency (photons-out per electrons-in) is largely limited by optical absorption by the"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fluoroscopy",
        "text": "Modern image intensifiers no longer use a separate fluorescent screen. Instead, a caesium iodide phosphor is deposited directly on the photocathode of the intensifier tube. On a typical general-purpose system, the output image is approximately 105 times brighter than the input image. This brightness gain comprises a flux gain (amplification of photon number) and minification gain (concentration of photons from a large input screen onto a small output screen) each of about 100. This level of gain is sufficient that quantum noise, due to the limited number of X-ray photons, is a significant factor limiting image quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum well infrared photodetector",
        "text": "where formula_4 is the elementary charge, formula_5 is the absorption efficiency and formula_6 is the photoconductive gain. formula_5 and formula_6 are the probabilities for a photon to add an electron to the photocurrent, also called quantum efficiency. formula_5 is the probability of a photon exciting an electron, and formula_6 depends on the electronic transport properties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum image",
        "text": "The laws of quantum mechanics allow one to reduce the required resources for some tasks by many orders of magnitude if the image data are encoded in the quantum state of a suitable physical system. The researchers discuss a suitable method for encoding image data, and develop a new quantum algorithm that can detect boundaries among parts of an image with a single logical operation. This edge-detection operation is independent of the size of the image. Several other algorithms are also discussed. It is theoretically and experimentally demonstrated that they work in practice. This is the first experiment to demonstrate practical quantum image processing. It contributes a substantial progress towards both theoretical and experimental quantum computing for image processing, it will stimulate future studies in the field of quantum information processing of visual data."
      },
      {
        "title": "Detective quantum efficiency",
        "text": "In medical radiography, the DQE describes how effectively an x-ray imaging system can produce an image with a high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) relative to an ideal detector. It is sometimes viewed to be a surrogate measure of the radiation \"dose efficiency\" of a detector since the required radiation exposure to a patient (and therefore the biological risk from that radiation exposure) decreases as the DQE is increased for the same image SNR and exposure conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photographic hypersensitization",
        "text": "This process became especially important for the new generation of high detective quantum efficiency, fine-grained (but slow) plates Eastman Kodak had developed in the late 1960s. In 1974, researchers at Eastman Kodak announced that plates treated in pure hydrogen after nitrogen treatment were more sensitive at all exposure times than untreated plates, and this was quickly adopted by many observatories, some of whom used non-explosive forming gas (a 4\u20138% mixture of hydrogen in nitrogen) for reasons of safety. The optimum gas-phase processes combine the effects of heating and de-gassing with reduction sensitization by pure hydrogen to give a sensitivity gain of about 30 times for an hour-long exposure. This worked very well with fine-grain, high resolution emulsions on film, typified by Eastman Kodak's Tech Pan Film. They were also effective with negative and reversal color film, but were unpredictable and could produce difficult-to-correct shifts in color balance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Two-photon photovoltaic effect",
        "text": "First, external quantum efficiency is given by formula_17, where formula_18 refers to the coupling efficiency of the light into the waveguide and"
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum image processing",
        "text": "The corresponding unitary operator formula_18 can then be written as formula_19. Several commonly used two-dimensional image transforms, such as the Haar wavelet, Fourier, and Hadamard transforms, are experimentally demonstrated on a quantum computer, with exponential speedup over their classical counterparts. In addition, a novel highly efficient quantum algorithm is proposed and experimentally implemented for detecting the boundary between different regions of a picture: It requires only one single-qubit gate in the processing stage, independent of the size of the picture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reciprocity (optoelectronic)",
        "text": "The photovoltaic quantum efficiency formula_1 is a spectral quantity that is generally measured as a function of photon energy (or wavelength). The same is true for the electroluminescence spectrum formula_2 of a light emitting diode under applied forward voltage formula_3. Under certain conditions specified below, these two properties measured on the same diode are connected via the equation\n:formula_4 (1)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The \"Standard Output Sensitivity\" (SOS) technique, also new in the 2006 version of the standard, effectively specifies that the average level in the sRGB image must be 18% gray plus or minus 1/3 stop when the exposure is controlled by an automatic exposure control system calibrated per ISO 2721 and set to the EI with no exposure compensation. Because the output level is measured in the sRGB output from the camera, it is only applicable to sRGB JPEG\u2014and not to output files in raw image format. It is not applicable when multi-zone metering is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum heat engines and refrigerators",
        "text": "The efficiency of the refrigerator defined as the coefficient of performance (COP) for the reversed device is:\n::formula_17"
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum dot solar cell",
        "text": "Another way to improve efficiency is to capture the extra energy in the electron when emitted from a single-bandgap material. In traditional materials like silicon, the distance from the emission site to the electrode where they are harvested is too far to allow this to occur; the electron will undergo many interactions with the crystal materials and lattice, giving up this extra energy as heat. Amorphous thin-film silicon was tried as an alternative, but the defects inherent to these materials overwhelmed their potential advantage. Modern thin-film cells remain generally less efficient than traditional silicon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photoconductive atomic force microscopy",
        "text": "To date, the best OPV devices have a maximum power conversion efficiency of approximately 8.13%. This low power conversion efficiency is directly related to discrepancies in the film morphology on the nano-scale level. Explanations of film morphology include recombination and/or trapping of charges, low open circuit voltages, heterogeneous interfaces, grain boundaries, and phase-separated domains. Many of these problems arise from the deficient knowledge of electro-optical properties on the nano-scale level. In numerous studies, it has been observed that heterogeneities in the electrical and optical properties influence device performance. These heterogeneities which occur in OPVs are a result the manufacturing process, such as annealing time, which is explained below. Research has mainly consisted of discovering exactly how this film morphology affects the device performance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum well infrared photodetector",
        "text": "Once the electron is in an excited state, it can escape into the continuum and be measured as photocurrent. To externally measure a photocurrent the electrons need to be extracted by applying an electric field to the quantum wells. The efficiency of this absorption and extraction process depends on several parameters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum efficiency",
        "text": "where \"\u03bb\" is the wavelength in nm, \"h\" is the Planck constant, \"c\" is the speed of light in a vacuum, and \"e\" is the elementary charge.\n:formula_4"
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum efficiency",
        "text": "To convert from responsivity (\"R\u03bb\", in A/W) to QE\u03bb (on a scale 0 to 1):\n:formula_3"
      },
      {
        "title": "Solar cell efficiency",
        "text": "Quantum efficiency is most usefully expressed as a \"spectral\" measurement (that is, as a function of photon wavelength or energy). Since some wavelengths are absorbed more effectively than others, spectral measurements of quantum efficiency can yield valuable information about the quality of the semiconductor bulk and surfaces. Quantum efficiency alone is not the same as overall energy conversion efficiency, as it does not convey information about the fraction of power that is converted by the solar cell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum efficiency",
        "text": "where \"t\" is the measurement time (in seconds),"
      },
      {
        "title": "Detective quantum efficiency",
        "text": "where u is the spatial frequency variable in cycles per millimeter, q is the density of incident x-ray quanta in quanta per square millimeter, G is the system gain relating q to the output signal for a linear and offset-corrected detector, T(u) is the system modulation transfer function, and W(u) is the image Wiener noise power spectrum corresponding to q. As this is a Fourier-based method of analysis, it is valid only for linear and shift-invariant imaging systems (analogous to linear and time-invariant system theory but replacing time invariance with spatial-shift invariance) involving wide-sense stationary or wide-sense cyclostationary noise processes. The DQE can often be modelled theoretically for particular imaging systems using cascaded linear-systems theory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Upon exposure, the amount of light energy that reaches the film determines the effect upon the emulsion. If the brightness of the light is multiplied by a factor and the exposure of the film decreased by the same factor by varying the camera's shutter speed and aperture, so that the energy received is the same, the film will be developed to the same density. This rule is called reciprocity. The systems for determining the sensitivity for an emulsion are possible because reciprocity holds over a wide range of customary conditions. In practice, reciprocity works reasonably well for normal photographic films for the range of exposures between 1/1000\u00a0second to 1/2\u00a0second. However, this relationship breaks down outside these limits, a phenomenon known as reciprocity failure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spectral sensitivity",
        "text": "Spectral sensitivity is sometimes expressed as a quantum efficiency, that is, as probability of getting a quantum reaction, such as a captured electron, to a quantum of light, as a function of wavelength. In other contexts, the spectral sensitivity is expressed as the relative response per light energy, rather than per quantum, normalized to a peak value of 1, and a quantum efficiency is used to calibrate the sensitivity at that peak wavelength. In some linear applications, the spectral sensitivity may be expressed as a spectral responsivity, with units such as amperes per watt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oversampled binary image sensor",
        "text": "Building a binary sensor that emulates the photographic film process was first envisioned by Fossum, who coined the name \"digital film sensor\" (now referred to as a \"quanta image sensor\"). The original motivation was mainly out of technical necessity. The miniaturization of camera systems calls for the continuous shrinking of pixel sizes. At a certain point, however, the limited full-well capacity (i.e., the maximum photon-electrons a pixel can hold) of small pixels becomes a bottleneck, yielding very low signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) and poor dynamic ranges. In contrast, a binary sensor whose pixels need to detect only a few photon-electrons around a small threshold \"q\" has much less requirement for full-well capacities, allowing pixel sizes to shrink further."
      },
      {
        "title": "Optics",
        "text": "The absolute value for the exposure time required depends on how sensitive to light the medium being used is (measured by the film speed, or, for digital media, by the quantum efficiency). Early photography used media that had very low light sensitivity, and so exposure times had to be long even for very bright shots. As technology has improved, so has the sensitivity through film cameras and digital cameras."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum efficiency",
        "text": "formula_9 = incident optical power in watts,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Detective quantum efficiency",
        "text": "Detective quantum efficiency\n--History.\n--Definition.\n--Measuring the DQE.\n--Advantages of high DQE.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Shockley\u2013Queisser limit",
        "text": "Another possibility for increased efficiency is to convert the frequency of light down towards the bandgap energy with a fluorescent material. In particular, to exceed the Shockley\u2013Queisser limit, it is necessary for the fluorescent material to convert a single high-energy photon into several lower-energy ones (quantum efficiency > 1). For example, one photon with more than double the bandgap energy can become two photons above the bandgap energy. In practice, however, this conversion process tends to be relatively inefficient. If a very efficient system were found, such a material could be painted on the front surface of an otherwise standard cell, boosting its efficiency for little cost. In contrast, considerable progress has been made in the exploration of fluorescent downshifting, which converts high-energy light (e. g., UV light) to low-energy light (e. g., red light) with a quantum efficiency smaller than 1. The cell may be more sensitive to these lower-energy photons. Dyes, rare-earth phosphors and quantum dots are actively investigated for fluorescent downshifting. For example, silicon quantum dots enabled downshifting has led to the efficiency enhancement of the state-of-the-art silicon solar cells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Detective quantum efficiency",
        "text": "It's the combination of very low noise and superior contrast performance that allows some digital x-ray systems to offer such significant improvements in the detectability of low-contrast objects - a quality that is best quantified by a single parameter, the DQE. As one medical physics expert recently reported, The DQE has become the de facto benchmark in the comparison of existing and emerging x-ray detector technologies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum efficiency",
        "text": "EQE mapping :"
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum efficiency",
        "text": "Conventional measurement of the EQE will give the efficiency of the overall device. However it is often useful to have a map of the EQE over large area of the device. This mapping provides an efficient way to visualize the homogeneity and/or the defects in the sample. It was realized by researchers from the Institute of Researcher and Development on Photovoltaic Energy (IRDEP) who calculated the EQE mapping from electroluminescence measurements taken with a hyperspectral imager."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum noise",
        "text": "Where,\n*formula_84 is the power at the detector,\n*formula_85 is the power limited shot noise,\n*formula_56 the unsaturated gain and is also true for saturated gain,\n*formula_87 is the efficiency factor. That is the product of transmission window efficiency to our photodetector, and quantum efficiency.\n*formula_88 is the spontaneous emission factor that typically corresponds relative strength of spontaneous emission to stimulated emission. A value of unity would mean all doped ions are in the excited state."
      },
      {
        "title": "Detective quantum efficiency",
        "text": "The DQE is also an important consideration for CCDs, especially those used for low-level imaging in light and electron microscopy, because it affects the SNR of the images. It is also similar to the noise factor used to describe some electronic devices. The concept has been extended to chemical sensors, in which case the alternative term detectivity is more appropriate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Resonant-cavity-enhanced photo detector",
        "text": "The Quantum efficiency formula_3 for a RCE detector is given by:\n::::formula_4"
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum heat engines and refrigerators",
        "text": "The efficiency at this limit is formula_34, always smaller than the Carnot efficiency formula_35. At high temperature and for the harmonic working medium the efficiency at maximum power"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "His system saw some success but proved to be unreliable due to its spectral sensitivity to light, the fading intensity of the light emitted by the phosphorescent tablet after its excitation as well as high built-tolerances. The concept, however, was later built upon in 1900 by Henry Chapman Jones (1855\u20131932) in the development of his plate tester and modified speed system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Detective quantum efficiency",
        "text": "In this sense the DQE describes how effectively an imaging system captures the information content available in an x-ray image relative to an ideal detector. This is critically important in x-ray medical imaging as it tells us that radiation exposures to patients can only be kept as low as possible if the DQE is made as close to unity as possible. For this reason, the DQE is widely accepted in regulatory, commercial, scientific and medical communities as a fundamental measure of detector performance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Image sensor format",
        "text": "Apart from the quantum efficiency it depends on the incident photon flux and the exposure time, which is equivalent to the exposure and the sensor area; since the exposure is the integration time multiplied with the image plane illuminance, and illuminance is the luminous flux per unit area. Thus for equal exposures, the signal to noise ratios of two different size sensors of equal quantum efficiency and pixel count will (for a given final image size) be in proportion to the square root of the sensor area (or the linear scale factor of the sensor). If the exposure is constrained by the need to achieve some required depth of field (with the same shutter speed) then the exposures will be in inverse relation to the sensor area, producing the interesting result that if depth of field is a constraint, image shot noise is not dependent on sensor area. For identical f-number lenses the signal to noise ratio increases as square root of the pixel area, or linearly with pixel pitch. As typical f-numbers for lenses for cell phones and DSLR are in the same range f/1.5-f/2 it is interesting to compare performance of cameras with small and big sensors. A good cell phone camera with typical pixel size 1.1 \u03bcm (Samsung A8) would have about 3 times worse SNR due to shot noise than a 3.7 \u03bcm pixel interchangeable lens camera (Panasonic G85) and 5 times worse than a 6 \u03bcm full frame camera (Sony A7 III). Taking into consideration the dynamic range makes the difference even more prominent. As such the trend of increasing the number of \"megapixels\" in cell phone cameras during last 10 years was caused rather by marketing strategy to sell \"more megapixels\" than by attempts to improve image quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Detective quantum efficiency",
        "text": "resulting in the popularized interpretation of the DQE being equal to the ratio of the squared output SNR to the squared input SNR:\n:formula_5"
      },
      {
        "title": "Resonant-cavity-enhanced photo detector",
        "text": "This is a significant improve from the quantum efficiency of a conventional photodetector which is given by:\n::::formula_9."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum tomography",
        "text": "Field amplitudes or quadratures with high efficiencies can be measured with photodetectors together with temporal mode selectivity. Balanced homodyne tomography is a reliable technique of reconstructing quantum states in the optical domain. This technique combines the advantages of the high efficiencies of photodiodes in measuring the intensity or photon number of light, together with measuring the quantum features of light by a clever set-up called the homodyne tomography detector. This is explained by the following example."
      },
      {
        "title": "InVisage Technologies",
        "text": "QuantumFilm Technology involves the creation of a film to coat the image sensors used in a cellphone camera, allowing it to capture more light, improving the quality of the images taken. A typical camera phone pixel sensor is made up of several layers, with a layer of colored plastic or glass acting as a color filter sitting on top of several layers of metal connecting silicon electronic transistors together, which is itself on top of a base layer of silicon used by the sensor's electronic transistors and photodetectors. The light coming to the sensor has to pass through the layers of metal before reaching the silicon, a weak light absorber, so the sensor detects only about 25 percent of the light that makes up the image. QuantumFilm places a layer of semiconducting crystals - called quantum dots - on top of the chip, which allows the chip to absorb more light, place more pixels in a smaller space, and create sharper images."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film grain",
        "text": "Granularity, or RMS granularity, is a numerical quantification of film-grain noise, equal to the root-mean-square (rms) fluctuations in optical density, measured with a microdensitometer with a 0.048\u00a0mm (48-micrometre) diameter circular aperture, on a film area that has been exposed and normally developed to a mean density of 1.0 D (that is, it transmits 10% of light incident on it)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum imaging",
        "text": "Classical ellipsometry is a thin film material characterization methodology used to determine reflectivity, phase shift, and thickness resulting from light shining on a material. Though, it can only be effectively used if the properties are well known for the user to reference and calibrate. Quantum ellipsometry has the distinct advantage of not requiring the properties of the material to be well-defined for calibration. This is because any detected photons will already have a relative phase relation with another detected photon assuring the measured light is from the material being studied."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum computing",
        "text": "As described in the Quantum threshold theorem, if the error rate is small enough, it is thought to be possible to use quantum error correction to suppress errors and decoherence. This allows the total calculation time to be longer than the decoherence time if the error correction scheme can correct errors faster than decoherence introduces them. An often cited figure for the required error rate in each gate for fault-tolerant computation is 10\u22123, assuming the noise is depolarizing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum heat engines and refrigerators",
        "text": "The efficiency of the amplifier in converting heat to power is the ratio of work output to heat input:\n::formula_11."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reciprocity (photography)",
        "text": "At very low light levels, film is less responsive. Light can be considered to be a stream of discrete photons, and a light-sensitive emulsion is composed of discrete light-sensitive grains, usually silver halide crystals. Each grain must absorb a certain number of photons in order for the light-driven reaction to occur and the latent image to form. In particular, if the surface of the silver halide crystal has a cluster of approximately four or more reduced silver atoms, resulting from absorption of a sufficient number of photons (usually a few dozen photons are required), it is rendered developable. At low light levels, \"i.e.\" few photons per unit time, photons impinge upon each grain relatively infrequently; if the four photons required arrive over a long enough interval, the partial change due to the first one or two is not stable enough to survive before enough photons arrive to make a permanent latent image center."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum well",
        "text": "With the introduction of quantum wells (QWs), the efficiency limit of single-junction strained QW silicon devices have increased to 28.3%. The increase is due to the bandgap of the barrier material determining the built-in voltage. Whereas the bandgap of the QWs is now what determines the absorption limit. With their experiments on p-i-n junction photodiodes, Barnham's group showed that placing QWs in the depleted region increases the efficiency of a device. Researchers infer that the resulting increase indicates that the generation of new carriers and photocurrent due to the inclusion of lower energies in the absorption spectrum outweighs the drop in terminal voltage resulting from the recombination of carriers trapped in the quantum wells. Further studies have been able to conclude that the photocurrent increase is directly related to the redshift of the absorption spectrum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum amplifier",
        "text": "To obtain a large amplification coefficient with minimal noise, one may use homodyne detection, constructing a field state with known amplitude and phase, corresponding to the linear phase-invariant amplifier. The uncertainty principle sets the lower bound of quantum noise in an amplifier. In particular, the output of a laser system and the output of an optical generator are not coherent states."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum image",
        "text": "Quantum image is encoding the image information in quantum-mechanical systems instead of classical ones and replacing classical with quantum information processing may alleviate some of these challenges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photographic film",
        "text": "Most films are affected by the physics of silver grain activation (which sets a minimum amount of light required to expose a single grain) and by the statistics of random grain activation by photons. The film requires a minimum amount of light before it begins to expose, and then responds by progressive darkening over a wide dynamic range of exposure until all of the grains are exposed, and the film achieves (after development) its maximum optical density."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The \"noise-based speed\" is defined as the exposure that will lead to a given signal-to-noise ratio on individual pixels. Two ratios are used, the 40:1 (\"excellent image quality\") and the 10:1 (\"acceptable image quality\") ratio. These ratios have been subjectively determined based on a resolution of 70 pixels per cm (178 DPI) when viewed at 25\u00a0cm (9.8\u00a0inch) distance. The noise is defined as the standard deviation of a weighted average of the luminance and color of individual pixels. The noise-based speed is mostly determined by the properties of the sensor and somewhat affected by the noise in the electronic gain and AD converter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Detective quantum efficiency",
        "text": "Equally important, high DQE provides the requisite foundation for advanced digital applications - dual-energy imaging, tomosynthesis, and low-dose fluoro, for instance. Combined with advanced image-processing algorithms and fast acquisition and readout capability, high DQE is key to making such applications as these clinically practical in the years to come."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum noise",
        "text": "In precision optics with highly stabilzed lasers and efficient detectors, quantum noise refers to the fluctuations of signal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Film speed is the measure of a photographic film's sensitivity to light, determined by sensitometry and measured on various numerical scales, the most recent being the ISO system. A closely related ISO system is used to describe the relationship between exposure and output image lightness in digital cameras."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dye-sensitized solar cell",
        "text": "In quantum efficiency terms, DSSCs are extremely efficient. Due to their \"depth\" in the nanostructure there is a very high chance that a photon will be absorbed, and the dyes are very effective at converting them to electrons. Most of the small losses that do exist in DSSC's are due to conduction losses in the TiO2 and the clear electrode, or optical losses in the front electrode. The overall quantum efficiency for green light is about 90%, with the \"lost\" 10% being largely accounted for by the optical losses in the top electrode. The quantum efficiency of traditional designs vary, depending on their thickness, but are about the same as the DSSC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Refractive index and extinction coefficient of thin film materials",
        "text": "The derivation of the Forouhi\u2013Bloomer dispersion equations is based on obtaining an expression for \"k\" as a function of photon energy, symbolically written as \"k\"(E), starting from first principles quantum mechanics and solid state physics. An expression for \"n\" as a function of photon energy, symbolically written as \"n\"(E), is then determined from the expression for \"k\"(E) in accordance to the Kramers\u2013Kronig relations which states that \"n\"(E) is the Hilbert transform of \"k\"(E)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Detective quantum efficiency",
        "text": "A report by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC 62220-1) was developed in an effort to standardize methods and algorithms required to measure the DQE of digital x-ray imaging systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Film speed\n--Film speed measurement systems.\n----Historical systems.\n------Warnerke.\n------Hurter & Driffield.\n------Scheiner.\n------DIN.\n------BSI.\n------Weston.\n------General Electric.\n------ASA.\n------GOST.\n----Current system: ISO.\n----Conversion between current scales.\n----Historic ASA and DIN conversion.\n----Determining film speed.\n----Applying film speed.\n----Exposure index.\n--Reciprocity.\n--Film sensitivity and grain.\n----Marketing anomalies.\n--Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index.\n----The ISO (International Organization of Standards) 12232:2019 standard.\n----Measurements and calculations.\n------Saturation-based speed.\n------Noise-based speed.\n------Standard output sensitivity (SOS).\n------Discussion.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Slope efficiency",
        "text": "The curve described above is nearly linear above threshold when the optical losses in the laser cavity remain the same for all input powers. Sometimes the curve is nonlinear, typically with lower slope at high input powers. This is characteristic of increased losses, which are often thermal in nature, such as due to lensing. This is especially common in powerful lasers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum image processing",
        "text": "By encoding and processing the image information in quantum-mechanical systems, a framework of quantum image processing is presented, where a pure quantum state encodes the image information: to encode the pixel values in the probability amplitudes and the pixel positions in the computational basis states."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fluorescence",
        "text": "The fluorescence quantum yield gives the efficiency of the fluorescence process. It is defined as the ratio of the number of photons emitted to the number of photons absorbed.\n: formula_10"
      },
      {
        "title": "Optical resolution",
        "text": "If objects within the scene are in motion relative to the imaging system, the resulting motion blur will result in lower spatial resolution. Short integration times will minimize the blur, but integration times are limited by sensor sensitivity. Furthermore, motion between frames in motion pictures will impact digital movie compression schemes (e.g. MPEG-1, MPEG-2). Finally, there are sampling schemes that require real or apparent motion inside the camera (scanning mirrors, rolling shutters) that may result in incorrect rendering of image motion. Therefore, sensor sensitivity and other time-related factors will have a direct impact on spatial resolution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reciprocity (optoelectronic)",
        "text": "Thus, any reduction in the external luminescence quantum efficiency by one order of magnitude would lead to a reduction in open-circuit voltage (relative to formula_23) by formula_27. Equation (2) is frequently used in the literature on solar cells. For instance for an improved understanding of the open-circuit voltage in organic solar cells and for comparing voltage losses between different photovoltaic technologies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum biology",
        "text": "Another process in photosynthesis that has almost 100% efficiency is charge transfer, again suggesting that quantum mechanical phenomena are at play. In 1966, a study on the photosynthetic bacteria Chromatium found that at temperatures below 100 K, cytochrome oxidation is temperature-independent, slow (on the order of milliseconds), and very low in activation energy. The authors, Don DeVault and Britton Chase, postulated that these characteristics of electron transfer are indicative of quantum tunneling, whereby electrons penetrate a potential barrier despite possessing less energy than is classically necessary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Push processing",
        "text": "When a film's effective sensitivity has been varied, the resulting sensitivity is called the exposure index; the film's speed remains at the manufacturer's indication. For example, an ISO 200/24\u00b0 film could be push processed to EI 400/27\u00b0 or pull processed to EI 100/21\u00b0."
      },
      {
        "title": "Solar cell efficiency",
        "text": "Quantum efficiency refers to the percentage of photons that are converted to electric current (i.e., collected carriers) when the cell is operated under short circuit conditions. The \"external\" quantum efficiency of a silicon solar cell includes the effect of optical losses such as transmission and reflection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Image scanner",
        "text": "Purity can be diminished by scanner noise, optical flare, poor analog to digital conversion, scratches, dust, Newton's rings, out of focus sensors, improper scanner operation, and poor software. Drum scanners are said to produce the purest digital representations of the film, followed by high end film scanners that use the larger Kodak Tri-Linear sensors."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What system is film speed measured on?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about historical systems or current systems?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I would like the know more about the current system."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The current International Standard for measuring the speed of colour negative film is ISO 5800:2001, related standards ISO define scales for speeds of black-and-white negative film and colour reversal film, respectively."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What about the historical systems?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There were many historical systems including: the Warnerke system, the Hurter & Driffield system, the Scheiner system, and the DIN system. Would you like to know more about one of these or some of the other historical systems?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about any problems that may occur due to the sensitivity of film?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Insensitive film requires more light exposure to produce the same image density as a more sensitive film. Higher sensitivity results in grainer images but is limited by the quantum efficiency of the film or sensor."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What do you mean by quantum efficiency?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In a charge-coupled device (CCD) or other photodetector, it is the ratio between the number of charge carriers collected at either terminal and the number of photons hitting the device's photoreactive surface.",
      "The term quantum efficiency (QE) may apply to incident photon to converted electron ratio of a photosensitive device, or it may refer to the Tunnel magnetoresistance effect of a Magnetic Tunnel Junction.  A photographic film typically has a QE of much less than 10%."
    ],
    "topic": "Film speed",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Quantum efficiency:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Quantum efficiency"
        ],
        "ctx": "This article deals with the term as a measurement of a device's electrical sensitivity to light. In a charge-coupled device (CCD) or other photodetector, it is the ratio between the number of charge carriers collected at either terminal and the number of photons hitting the device's photoreactive surface. As a ratio, QE is dimensionless, but it is closely related to the responsivity, which is expressed in amps per watt. Since the energy of a photon is inversely proportional to its wavelength, QE is often measured over a range of different wavelengths to characterize a device's efficiency at each photon energy level. For typical semiconductor photodetectors, QE drops to zero for photons whose energy is below the band gap. A photographic film typically has a QE of much less than 10%, while CCDs can have a QE of well over 90% at some wavelengths."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Quantum efficiency:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Quantum efficiency"
        ],
        "ctx": "The term quantum efficiency (QE) may apply to incident photon to converted electron (IPCE) ratio of a photosensitive device, or it may refer to the TMR effect of a Magnetic Tunnel Junction."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Quantum efficiency:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Quantum efficiency"
        ],
        "ctx": "This article deals with the term as a measurement of a device's electrical sensitivity to light. In a charge-coupled device (CCD) or other photodetector, it is the ratio between the number of charge carriers collected at either terminal and the number of photons hitting the device's photoreactive surface. As a ratio, QE is dimensionless, but it is closely related to the responsivity, which is expressed in amps per watt. Since the energy of a photon is inversely proportional to its wavelength, QE is often measured over a range of different wavelengths to characterize a device's efficiency at each photon energy level. For typical semiconductor photodetectors, QE drops to zero for photons whose energy is below the band gap. A photographic film typically has a QE of much less than 10%, while CCDs can have a QE of well over 90% at some wavelengths."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Tunnel magnetoresistance:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tunnel magnetoresistance"
        ],
        "ctx": "Tunnel magnetoresistance (TMR) is a magnetoresistive effect that occurs in a magnetic tunnel junction (MTJ), which is a component consisting of two ferromagnets separated by a thin insulator. If the insulating layer is thin enough (typically a few nanometres), electrons can tunnel from one ferromagnet into the other. Since this process is forbidden in classical physics, the tunnel magnetoresistance is a strictly quantum mechanical phenomenon."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Qrpff",
        "text": "The fast version is actually fast enough to decode a movie in real-time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Relatively insensitive film, with a correspondingly lower speed index, requires more exposure to light to produce the same image density as a more sensitive film, and is thus commonly termed a \"slow film\". Highly sensitive films are correspondingly termed \"fast films\". In both digital and film photography, the reduction of exposure corresponding to use of higher sensitivities generally leads to reduced image quality (via coarser film grain or higher image noise of other types). In short, the higher the sensitivity, the grainier the image will be. Ultimately sensitivity is limited by the quantum efficiency of the film or sensor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of motion picture\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Film speed \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "and rounding to the nearest standard arithmetic speed in Table\u00a01 below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "His system saw some success but proved to be unreliable due to its spectral sensitivity to light, the fading intensity of the light emitted by the phosphorescent tablet after its excitation as well as high built-tolerances. The concept, however, was later built upon in 1900 by Henry Chapman Jones (1855\u20131932) in the development of his plate tester and modified speed system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photographic film",
        "text": "Film speed describes a film's threshold sensitivity to light. The international standard for rating film speed is the ISO#ISO scale, which combines both the ASA speed and the DIN speed in the format ASA/DIN. Using ISO convention film with an ASA speed of 400 would be labeled 400/27\u00b0. A fourth naming standard is GOST, developed by the Russian standards authority. See the film speed article for a table of conversions between ASA, DIN, and GOST film speeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of articles related to motion pictures",
        "text": "- Film speed"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "is a factor depending on the transmittance \"T\" of the lens, the vignetting factor \"v\"(\"\u03b8\"), and the angle \"\u03b8\" relative to the axis of the lens. A typical value is \"q\"\u00a0=\u00a00.65, based on \"\u03b8\"\u00a0=\u00a010\u00b0, \"T\"\u00a0=\u00a00.9, and \"v\"\u00a0=\u00a00.98."
      },
      {
        "title": "DX encoding",
        "text": "Most cameras read the film speed only (first row)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The picture shows an ASA/DIN conversion in a 1952 photography book in which 21/10\u00b0\u00a0DIN was converted to ASA\u00a080 instead of ASA\u00a0100."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Digital cameras have far surpassed film in terms of sensitivity to light, with ISO equivalent speeds of up to 4,560,000, a number that is unfathomable in the realm of conventional film photography. Faster processors, as well as advances in software noise reduction techniques allow this type of processing to be executed the moment the photo is captured, allowing photographers to store images that have a higher level of refinement and would have been prohibitively time-consuming to process with earlier generations of digital camera hardware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Film speed\n--Film speed measurement systems.\n----Historical systems.\n------Warnerke.\n------Hurter & Driffield.\n------Scheiner.\n------DIN.\n------BSI.\n------Weston.\n------General Electric.\n------ASA.\n------GOST.\n----Current system: ISO.\n----Conversion between current scales.\n----Historic ASA and DIN conversion.\n----Determining film speed.\n----Applying film speed.\n----Exposure index.\n--Reciprocity.\n--Film sensitivity and grain.\n----Marketing anomalies.\n--Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index.\n----The ISO (International Organization of Standards) 12232:2019 standard.\n----Measurements and calculations.\n------Saturation-based speed.\n------Noise-based speed.\n------Standard output sensitivity (SOS).\n------Discussion.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film technology",
        "text": "Initially, a lack of standardization meant that film producers used a variety of different film widths and projection speeds, but after a few years the 35-mm wide Edison film, and the 16-frames-per-second projection speed of the Lumi\u00e8re Cin\u00e9matographe became the standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Film speed is the measure of a photographic film's sensitivity to light, determined by sensitometry and measured on various numerical scales, the most recent being the ISO system. A closely related ISO system is used to describe the relationship between exposure and output image lightness in digital cameras."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silent film",
        "text": "Until the standardization of the projection speed of 24 frames per second (fps) for sound films between 1926 and 1930, silent films were shot at variable speeds (or \"frame rates\") anywhere from 12 to 40\u00a0fps, depending on the year and studio. \"Standard silent film speed\" is often said to be 16\u00a0fps as a result of the Lumi\u00e8re brothers' Cin\u00e9matographe, but industry practice varied considerably; there was no actual standard. William Kennedy Laury Dickson, an Edison employee, settled on the astonishingly fast 40 frames per second. Additionally, cameramen of the era insisted that their cranking technique was exactly 16\u00a0fps, but modern examination of the films shows this to be in error, and that they often cranked faster. Unless carefully shown at their intended speeds silent films can appear unnaturally fast or slow. However, some scenes were intentionally undercranked during shooting to accelerate the action\u2014particularly for comedies and action films."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Dickson Experimental Sound Film",
        "text": "One question that remains unanswered is how the eventual running time of just over 17 seconds was arrived at. Per the curatorial reports, the 35-mm prints have a standard 16 frames per foot of film\u2014 plus 14 frames thus equals a total of 638 frames. Murch describes the film as having been shot at 40 frames per second (fps); Loughney describes it as 46 fps. At 40 fps, 638 frames would run 15.95 seconds, which should be the maximum length of the restored film if all other reports are correct; as Loughney notes, at 46 fps, the film would last 13.86 seconds. If the latter figure is correct, as many as 9 seconds of film are missing from both extant prints if the entire violin performance was filmed. On the basis of his own tests of eighteen Kinetoscope films, scholar Gordon Hendricks argued that no Kinetoscope films were shot at 46 fps, making the speed of 40 fps reported by Murch more likely. Yet there is still a difference of more than a second between the maximum potential running time at that speed and the actual duration of the film as digitized by Murch. That 17-second running time works out to an average camera speed of approximately 37.5 fps, a significant difference from Murch's report."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The size of silver halide grains in the emulsion affects film sensitivity, which is related to granularity because larger grains give film greater sensitivity to light. Fine-grain film, such as film designed for portraiture or copying original camera negatives, is relatively insensitive, or \"slow\", because it requires brighter light or a longer exposure than a \"fast\" film. Fast films, used for photographing in low light or capturing high-speed motion, produce comparatively grainy images."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Table notes:\n# Speeds shown in bold under APEX, ISO and ASA are values actually assigned in speed standards from the respective agencies; other values are calculated extensions to assigned speeds using the same progressions as for the assigned speeds.\n# APEX \"Sv\" values 1 to 10 correspond with logarithmic ASA grades 1\u00b0 to 10\u00b0 found in ASA PH2.5-1960.\n# ASA arithmetic speeds from 4 to 5 are taken from ANSI PH2.21-1979 (Table\u00a01, p.\u00a08).\n# ASA arithmetic speeds from 6 to 3200 are taken from ANSI PH2.5-1979 (Table\u00a01, p.\u00a05) and ANSI PH2.27-1979.\n# ISO arithmetic speeds from 4 to 3200 are taken from ISO 5800:1987 (Table \"ISO speed scales\", p.\u00a04).\n# ISO arithmetic speeds from 6 to 10000 are taken from ISO 12232:1998 (Table\u00a01, p.\u00a09).\n# ISO 12232:1998 does not specify speeds greater than 10000. However, the upper limit for \"S\"noise 10000 was given as 12500, suggesting that ISO may have envisioned a progression of 12500, 25000, 50000, and 100000, similar to that from 1250 to 10000. This was consistent with ASA PH2.12-1961. For digital cameras, Nikon, Canon, Sony, Pentax, and Fujifilm chose to express the greater speeds in an exact power-of-2 progression from the highest previously realized speed (6400) rather than rounding to an extension of the existing progression. Speed ratings greater than 10000 have finally been defined in ISO 12232:2019.\n# Most of the modern 35 mm film SLRs support an automatic film speed range from ISO 25/15\u00b0 to 5000/38\u00b0 with DX-coded films, or ISO 6/9\u00b0 to 6400/39\u00b0 manually (without utilizing exposure compensation). The film speed range with support for TTL flash is smaller, typically ISO 12/12\u00b0 to 3200/36\u00b0 or less.\n# The Booster accessory for the Canon Pellix QL (1965) and Canon FT QL (1966) supported film speeds from 25 to 12800 ASA.\n# The film speed dial of the Canon A-1 (1978) supported a speed range from 6 to 12800 ASA (but already called ISO film speeds in the manual). On this camera exposure compensation and extreme film speeds were mutually exclusive.\n# The Leica R8 (1996) and R9 (2002) officially supported film speeds of 8000/40\u00b0, 10000/41\u00b0 and 12800/42\u00b0 (in the case of the R8) or 12500/42\u00b0 (in the case of the R9), and utilizing its \u00b13 EV exposure compensation the range could be extended from ISO 0.8/0\u00b0 to ISO 100000/51\u00b0 in half exposure steps.\n# Digital camera manufacturers' arithmetic speeds from 12800 to 409600 are from specifications by Nikon (12800, 25600, 51200, 102400 in 2009, 204800 in 2012, 409600 in 2014), Canon (12800, 25600, 51200, 102400 in 2009, 204800 in 2011, 4000000 in 2015), Sony (12800 in 2009, 25600 in 2010, 409600 in 2014), Pentax (12800, 25600, 51200 in 2010, 102400, 204800 in 2014) and Fujifilm (12800 in 2011)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sensitometry",
        "text": "Although films originally made for television in Great Britain (whether by telerecording or by conventional cinematography) will be photographed at 25 frames per second, films exposed for cinema exhibition at 24 frames per second are also transmitted for television at 25 frames per second. This naturally causes an increase in the speed of image movement and raises the frequency of sound reproduction by approximately 4 per cent. (this results in the pitch of musical notes rising by something less than a semi-tone and is acceptable to all but the most critical ear)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movie projector",
        "text": "Silent films usually were not projected at constant speeds, but could vary throughout the show because projectors were hand-cranked at the discretion of the projectionist, often following some notes provided by the distributor. When the electric motor supplanted hand cranking in both movie cameras and projectors, a more uniform frame rate became possible. Speeds ranged from about 18 frame/s on up \u2013 sometimes even faster than modern sound film speed (24 frame/s)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "where formula_11 is the exposure that will lead to values of 118 in 8-bit pixels, which is 18 percent of the saturation value in images encoded as sRGB or with gamma\u00a0=\u00a02.2."
      },
      {
        "title": "Time-lapse photography",
        "text": "So a film recorded at 12 frames per second will appear to move twice as fast. Shooting at camera speeds between 8 and 22 frames per second usually falls into the undercranked fast motion category, with images shot at slower speeds more closely falling into the realm of time-lapse, although these distinctions of terminology have not been entirely established in all movie production circles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roll film",
        "text": "Roll film\n--History.\n--Automatic film speed sensing.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "NTSC",
        "text": "Because both film speeds have been used in 25-fps regions, viewers can face confusion about the true speed of video and audio, and the pitch of voices, sound effects, and musical performances, in television films from those regions. For example, they may wonder whether the Jeremy Brett series of Sherlock Holmes television films, made in the 1980s and early 1990s, was shot at 24\u00a0fps and then transmitted at an artificially fast speed in 25-fps regions, or whether it was shot at 25 fps natively and then slowed to 24 fps for NTSC exhibition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "This value is then rounded to the nearest standard speed in Table\u00a01 of ISO 6:1993."
      },
      {
        "title": "Detective quantum efficiency",
        "text": "A study comparing film/screen and digital imaging demonstrates that a digital system with high DQE can improve one's ability to detect small, low-contrast objects \u2013 even though the digital system may have substantially lower Limiting Spatial Resolution (LSR) than film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film",
        "text": "Originally moving picture film was shot and projected at various speeds using hand-cranked cameras and projectors; though 1000 frames per minute (16 frame/s) is generally cited as a standard silent speed, research indicates most films were shot between 16 frame/s and 23 frame/s and projected from 18 frame/s on up (often reels included instructions on how fast each scene should be shown). When sound film was introduced in the late 1920s, a constant speed was required for the sound head. 24 frames per second were chosen because it was the slowest (and thus cheapest) speed which allowed for sufficient sound quality. Improvements since the late 19th century include the mechanization of cameras\u00a0\u2013 allowing them to record at a consistent speed, quiet camera design\u00a0\u2013 allowing sound recorded on-set to be usable without requiring large \"blimps\" to encase the camera, the invention of more sophisticated filmstocks and lenses, allowing directors to film in increasingly dim conditions, and the development of synchronized sound, allowing sound to be recorded at exactly the same speed as its corresponding action. The soundtrack can be recorded separately from shooting the film, but for live-action pictures, many parts of the soundtrack are usually recorded simultaneously."
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers",
        "text": "SMP(T)E's standard in 1927 was for speed at which sound film is shown, 24 frames per second."
      },
      {
        "title": "High-speed camera",
        "text": "A normal motion picture film is played back at 24 frames per second, while television uses 25 frames/s (PAL) or 29.97 frames/s (NTSC). High-speed film cameras can film up to a quarter of a million fps by running the film over a rotating prism or mirror instead of using a shutter, thus reducing the need for stopping and starting the film behind a shutter which would tear the film stock at such speeds. Using this technique one second of action can be stretched to more than ten minutes of playback time (super slow motion). High-speed video cameras are widely used for scientific research, military test and evaluation, and industry. Examples of industrial applications are filming a manufacturing line to better tune the machine, or in the car industry filming a crash test to investigate the effect on the crash dummy passengers and the automobile. Today, the digital high-speed camera has replaced the film camera used for Vehicle Impact Testing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Super Speed (film)",
        "text": "A print of \"Super Speed\" is located at the Library of Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of motion picture\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Shutter speed \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "As in the Scheiner system, speeds were expressed in 'degrees'. Originally the sensitivity was written as a fraction with 'tenths' (for example \"18/10\u00b0 DIN\"), where the resultant value 1.8 represented the relative base 10 logarithm of the speed. 'Tenths' were later abandoned with DIN 4512:1957-11, and the example above would be written as \"18\u00b0 DIN\". The degree symbol was finally dropped with DIN 4512:1961-10. This revision also saw significant changes in the definition of film speeds in order to accommodate then-recent changes in the American ASA PH2.5-1960 standard, so that film speeds of black-and-white negative film effectively would become doubled, that is, a film previously marked as \"18\u00b0 DIN\" would now be labeled as \"21 DIN\" without emulsion changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "This evolved into multiple parts including GOST 10691.6\u201388 and GOST 10691.5\u201388, which both became functional on 1 January 1991."
      },
      {
        "title": "Time-lapse photography",
        "text": "Even if the film camera is set to record at a slower speed, it will still be projected at 24 frame/s. Thus the image on screen will appear to move faster."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fastest (film)",
        "text": "The film is available on DVD in the US, UK and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Color reversal film speeds were defined in ANSI PH2.21-1983, which was revised in 1989 before it became ANSI/NAPM IT2.21 in 1994, the US adoption of the ISO\u00a02240 standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The ASA scale is a linear scale, that is, a film denoted as having a film speed of 200 ASA is twice as fast as a film with 100 ASA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper print",
        "text": "With adjustments, issues of frame lines and sprocket holes were resolved with each incoming print, but hand cranked film speed was also a nagging issue. Renovare would capture each frame, but a film could have been undercranked and exposed only for twelve frames per second. Playback on today's film projectors might require 18 or 24 frame/s. Everything would appear comically fast. The solution was to expose a frame or every other frame twice, thereby making the action appear realistic. The reverse was true as well, with overcranked exposures, and frames would have to be removed to avoid slow motion films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Conversion from arithmetic speed \"S\" to logarithmic speed \"S\"\u00b0 is given by\n:formula_3"
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers",
        "text": "Before this it was determined by the hand cranking speed of the cameraman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silent film",
        "text": "In the 1950s, many telecine conversions of silent films at grossly incorrect frame rates for broadcast television may have alienated viewers. Film speed is often a vexed issue among scholars and film buffs in the presentation of silents today, especially when it comes to DVD releases of restored films, such as the case of the 2002 restoration of \"Metropolis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zorki",
        "text": "Film speed range: 20 \u2013 320 ASA (14 \u2013 26 DIN, 16 \u2013 250 GOST)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "In addition to the above speed ratings, the standard also defines the \"standard output sensitivity\" (SOS), how the exposure is related to the digital pixel values in the output image. It is defined as\n:formula_10"
      },
      {
        "title": "Quantum efficiency",
        "text": "The term quantum efficiency (QE) may apply to incident photon to converted electron (IPCE) ratio of a photosensitive device, or it may refer to the TMR effect of a Magnetic Tunnel Junction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phonofilm",
        "text": "In 1924, Western Electric had settled on 24 frames per second (90 feet per minute) as the standard film speed for both the sound-on-disc and optical sound systems it was developing. Western Electric's ERPI division dominated the theater hardware market when the sound revolution finally got underway, so its new standard speed was universally adopted by Fox and all the other studios as each began making sound films. (See the Fleischer cartoon \"Finding His Voice\" (1929), credited to Mr. W. E. Erpi.) As a consequence, Case's tests and DeForest's early Phonofilms, shot at about 21 frames per second, gave speakers and singers laughably high-pitched \"helium voices\" if they were run on a standard sound projector. The Library of Congress and other film archives have printed new copies of some early Phonofilms, modifying them by periodically duplicating frames and correspondingly \"stretching\" the soundtracks to make them compatible with standard projectors and telecine equipment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "where \"L\" is the luminance of the scene (in candela per m\u00b2), \"t\" is the exposure time (in seconds), \"N\" is the aperture f-number, and\n:formula_7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Super Speed (film)",
        "text": "Super Speed (film)\n--Plot.\n--Preservation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The \"saturation-based speed\" is defined as\n:formula_8"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The \"saturation-based\" (SAT or Ssat) technique is closely related to the SOS technique, with the sRGB output level being measured at 100% white rather than 18% gray. The SOS value is effectively 0.704 times the saturation-based value. Because the output level is measured in the sRGB output from the camera, it is only applicable to sRGB images\u2014typically TIFF\u2014and not to output files in raw image format. It is not applicable when multi-zone metering is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of motion picture\u2013related articles",
        "text": "ASA speed rating \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The methods to determine the sensitivity were later modified in 1925 (in regard to the light source used) and in 1928 (regarding light source, developer and proportional factor)\u2014this later variant was sometimes called \"H&D 10\". The H&D system was officially accepted as a standard in the former Soviet Union from 1928 until September 1951, when it was superseded by GOST 2817\u201350."
      },
      {
        "title": "Speed (1925 film)",
        "text": "A print of \"Speed\" is held in the Gosfilmofond film archve in Moscow."
      },
      {
        "title": "High-speed camera",
        "text": "In 2010 researchers built a camera exposing each frame for two trillionths of a second (picoseconds), for an effective frame rate of half a trillion fps (femto-photography). Modern high-speed cameras operate by converting the incident light (photons) into a stream of electrons which are then deflected onto a photoanode, back into photons, which can then be recorded onto either film or CCD.\n*The show \"MythBusters\" prominently uses high-speed cameras for measuring speed or height.\n*\"Time Warp\" was centered around the use of high-speed cameras to slow things down that are usually too fast to see with the naked eye.\n*High-speed cameras are frequently used in television productions of many major sporting events for slow motion instant replays when normal slow motion is not slow enough, such as international Cricket matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fastest (film)",
        "text": "Fastest (film)\n--Overview.\n--Notable appearances.\n--Release.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Camera",
        "text": "Traditionally used to tell the camera the film speed of the selected film on film cameras, film speed numbers are employed on modern digital cameras as an indication of the system's gain from light to numerical output and to control the automatic exposure system. Film speed is usually measured via the ISO 5800 system. The higher the film speed number, the greater the film sensitivity to light, whereas with a lower number, the film is less sensitive to light."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Film speed is found from a plot of optical density vs. log of exposure for the film, known as the \"D\"\u2013log \"H\" curve or Hurter\u2013Driffield curve. There typically are five regions in the curve: the base + fog, the toe, the linear region, the shoulder, and the overexposed region. For black-and-white negative film, the \"speed point\" m is the point on the curve where density exceeds the base + fog density by 0.1 when the negative is developed so that a point n where the log of exposure is 1.3 units greater than the exposure at point m has a density 0.8 greater than the density at point m. The exposure \"H\"m, in lux-s, is that for point m when the specified contrast condition is satisfied. The ISO arithmetic speed is determined from:\n:formula_5"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "ASA PH2.5-1960 was revised as ANSI PH2.5-1979, without the logarithmic speeds, and later replaced by NAPM IT2.5\u20131986 of the National Association of Photographic Manufacturers, which represented the US adoption of the international standard ISO\u00a06. The latest issue of ANSI/NAPM IT2.5 was published in 1993."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "where formula_9 is the maximum possible exposure that does not lead to a clipped or bloomed camera output. Typically, the lower limit of the saturation speed is determined by the sensor itself, but with the gain of the amplifier between the sensor and the analog-to-digital converter, the saturation speed can be increased. The factor 78 is chosen such that exposure settings based on a standard light meter and an 18-percent reflective surface will result in an image with a grey level of 18%/ = 12.7% of saturation. The factor indicates that there is half a stop of headroom to deal with specular reflections that would appear brighter than a 100% reflecting diffuse white surface."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of motion picture\u2013related articles",
        "text": "High speed camera \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The determination of ISO speeds with digital still-cameras is described in ISO 12232:2019 (first published in August 1998, revised in April 2006, corrected in October 2006 and again revised in February 2019)."
      },
      {
        "title": "High-definition television",
        "text": "Standard 35mm photographic film used for cinema projection has a much higher image resolution than HDTV systems, and is exposed and projected at a rate of 24 frames per second (frame/s). To be shown on standard television, in PAL-system countries, cinema film is scanned at the TV rate of 25 frame/s, causing a speedup of 4.1 percent, which is generally considered acceptable. In NTSC-system countries, the TV scan rate of 30 frame/s would cause a perceptible speedup if the same were attempted, and the necessary correction is performed by a technique called : Over each successive pair of film frames, one is held for three video fields (1/20 of a second) and the next is held for two video fields (1/30 of a second), giving a total time for the two frames of 1/12 of a second and thus achieving the correct average film frame rate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The \"noise-based speed\" is defined as the exposure that will lead to a given signal-to-noise ratio on individual pixels. Two ratios are used, the 40:1 (\"excellent image quality\") and the 10:1 (\"acceptable image quality\") ratio. These ratios have been subjectively determined based on a resolution of 70 pixels per cm (178 DPI) when viewed at 25\u00a0cm (9.8\u00a0inch) distance. The noise is defined as the standard deviation of a weighted average of the luminance and color of individual pixels. The noise-based speed is mostly determined by the properties of the sensor and somewhat affected by the noise in the electronic gain and AD converter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fujifilm X20",
        "text": "According to Fujifilm, the X20 has \"the world's fastest autofocus speed in its class\", focusing in as little as 0.06 seconds. It was superseded by the Fujifilm X30 in August 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "576i",
        "text": "Motion pictures are typically shot on film at 24 frames per second. When telecined and played back at PAL's standard of 25 frames per second, films run about 4% faster. This also applies to most TV series that are shot on film or digital 24p. Unlike NTSC's telecine system, which uses to convert the 24 frames per second to the 30 fps frame rate, PAL speed-up results in the telecined video running 4% shorter than the original film as well as the equivalent NTSC telecined video."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The first known practical sensitometer, which allowed measurements of the speed of photographic materials, was invented by the Polish engineer Leon Warnerke \u2013 pseudonym of (1837\u20131900) \u2013 in 1880, among the achievements for which he was awarded the Progress Medal of the Photographic Society of Great Britain in 1882. It was commercialized since 1881."
      },
      {
        "title": "Speed (1925 film)",
        "text": "Speed (1925 film)\n--Plot.\n--Preservation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The CIPA DC-004 standard requires that Japanese manufacturers of digital still cameras use either the REI or SOS techniques, and DC-008 updates the Exif specification to differentiate between these values. Consequently, the three EI techniques carried over from ISO 12232:1998 are not widely used in recent camera models (approximately 2007 and later). As those earlier techniques did not allow for measurement from images produced with lossy compression, they cannot be used at all on cameras that produce images only in JPEG format."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movie camera",
        "text": "William Kennedy Laurie Dickson, a Scottish inventor and employee of Thomas Edison, designed the Kinetograph Camera in 1891. The camera was powered by an electric motor and was capable of shooting with the new sprocketed film. To govern the intermittent movement of the film in the camera, allowing the strip to stop long enough so each frame could be fully exposed and then advancing it quickly (in about 1/460 of a second) to the next frame, the sprocket wheel that engaged the strip was driven by an escapement disc mechanism\u2014the first practical system for the high-speed stop-and-go film movement that would be the foundation for the next century of cinematography."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Film speed values for use with their meters were published in regularly updated \"General Electric Film Values\" leaflets and in the \"General Electric Photo Data Book\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Methods-time measurement",
        "text": "Films were taken using constant speed cameras, running at 16 frames per second, of the work performed by qualified workers on the shop floor at the Westinghouse Brake and Signal Corporation. Each sequence was rated during filming by three qualified Industrial Engineers. These ratings had to agree within a close band, otherwise the sequence was not used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cinematography",
        "text": "Motion picture images are presented to an audience at a constant speed. In the theater it is 24 frames per second, in NTSC (US) Television it is 30 frames per second (29.97 to be exact), in PAL (Europe) television it is 25 frames per second. This speed of presentation does not vary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Faster (2010 film)",
        "text": "Faster (2010 film)\n--Plot.\n--Production.\n----Chevelle.\n--Release.\n--Reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Moving image formats",
        "text": "Usually 24\u00a0Hz material from film is usually sped up by 4%, when it is of feature film origin. The sound is also raised in pitch slightly as a result of the 4% speedup but pitch correction circuits are typically used.\n* Older technology allows an alternative option where every 12th film frame is held for three video fields instead of two mostly fixing the problem.\n* More modern film playback technology allows for every 25th frame to be interpolated, with less objectionable results and no need for pitch modification.\n* Each of these film oriented content transmission techniques has its own drawbacks. However modern motion compensation processors are considered to produce the least objectionable output."
      },
      {
        "title": "High Speed (1917 film)",
        "text": "High Speed (1917 film)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Frame rate",
        "text": "When sound film was introduced in 1926, variations in film speed were no longer tolerated, as the human ear is more sensitive than the eye to changes in frequency. Many theaters had shown silent films at 22 to 26\u00a0FPS, which is why the industry chose 24\u00a0FPS for sound films as a compromise. From 1927 to 1930, as various studios updated equipment, the rate of 24\u00a0FPS became standard for 35\u00a0mm sound film. At 24\u00a0FPS, the film travels through the projector at a rate of per second. This allowed simple two-blade shutters to give a projected series of images at 48 per second, satisfying Edison's recommendation. Many modern 35\u00a0mm film projectors use three-blade shutters to give 72 images per second\u2014each frame is flashed on screen three times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Interlaced video",
        "text": "When motion picture film was developed, the movie screen had to be illuminated at a high rate to prevent visible flicker. The exact rate necessary varies by brightness \u2014 50\u00a0Hz is (barely) acceptable for small, low brightness displays in dimly lit rooms, whilst 80\u00a0Hz or more may be necessary for bright displays that extend into peripheral vision. The film solution was to project each frame of film three times using a three-bladed shutter: a movie shot at 16 frames per second illuminated the screen 48 times per second. Later, when sound film became available, the higher projection speed of 24 frames per second enabled a two bladed shutter to produce 48 times per second illumination\u2014but only in projectors incapable of projecting at the lower speed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Telecine",
        "text": "Digital television and high-definition standards provide several methods for encoding film material. Fifty field/s formats such as 576i50 and 1080i50 can accommodate film content using a 4% speed-up like PAL. 59.94 field/s interlaced formats such as 480i60 and 1080i60 use the same 2:3 pulldown technique as NTSC. In 59.94 frame/s progressive formats such as 480p60 and 720p60, entire frames (rather than fields) are repeated in a 2:3 pattern, accomplishing the frame rate conversion without interlacing and its associated artifacts. Other formats such as 1080p24 can decode film material at its native rate of 24 or 23.976 frame/s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "In addition to the established arithmetic speed scale, ASA PH2.5-1960 also introduced logarithmic ASA grades (100 ASA = 5\u00b0 ASA), where a difference of 1\u00b0 ASA represented a full exposure stop and therefore the doubling of a film speed. For some while, ASA grades were also printed on film boxes, and they saw life in the form of the APEX speed value \"Sv\" (without degree symbol) as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Upon exposure, the amount of light energy that reaches the film determines the effect upon the emulsion. If the brightness of the light is multiplied by a factor and the exposure of the film decreased by the same factor by varying the camera's shutter speed and aperture, so that the energy received is the same, the film will be developed to the same density. This rule is called reciprocity. The systems for determining the sensitivity for an emulsion are possible because reciprocity holds over a wide range of customary conditions. In practice, reciprocity works reasonably well for normal photographic films for the range of exposures between 1/1000\u00a0second to 1/2\u00a0second. However, this relationship breaks down outside these limits, a phenomenon known as reciprocity failure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trent Haaga",
        "text": "Haaga has praised the speed of digital filmmaking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The \"Standard Output Sensitivity\" (SOS) technique, also new in the 2006 version of the standard, effectively specifies that the average level in the sRGB image must be 18% gray plus or minus 1/3 stop when the exposure is controlled by an automatic exposure control system calibrated per ISO 2721 and set to the EI with no exposure compensation. Because the output level is measured in the sRGB output from the camera, it is only applicable to sRGB JPEG\u2014and not to output files in raw image format. It is not applicable when multi-zone metering is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The two \"noise-based\" techniques have rarely been used for consumer digital still cameras. These techniques specify the highest EI that can be used while still providing either an \"excellent\" picture or a \"usable\" picture depending on the technique chosen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Digital cinematography",
        "text": "Film proponents have argued that early digital cameras lack the reliability of film, particularly when filming sequences at high speed or in chaotic environments, due to digital cameras' technical glitches. Cinematographer Wally Pfister noted that for his shoot on the film \"Inception\", \"Out of six times that we shot on the digital format, we only had one useable piece and it didn't end up in the film. Out of the six times we shot with the Photo-Sonics camera and 35mm running through it, every single shot was in the movie.\" Michael Bay stated that when filming \"\", 35mm cameras had to be used when filming in slow-motion and sequences where the digital cameras were subject to strobing or electrical damage from dust. Since 2015 digital has almost totally replaced film for high speed sequences up to 1000 frames per second."
      },
      {
        "title": "Computer animation",
        "text": "Films seen in theaters in the United States run at 24 frames per second, which is sufficient to create the illusion of continuous movement. For high resolution, adapters are used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Preferred number",
        "text": "The film speed is a measure of the film's sensitivity to light. It is expressed as ISO values such as \"ISO 100\". An earlier standard, occasionally still in use, uses the term \"ASA\" rather than \"ISO\", referring to the (former) American Standards Association. Measured film speeds are rounded to the nearest preferred number from a modified Renard series including 100, 125, 160, 200, 250, 320, 400, 500, 640, 800... This is the same as the R10\u2032 rounded Renard series, except for the use of 6.4 instead of 6.3, and for having more aggressive rounding below ISO 16. Film marketed to amateurs, however, uses a restricted series including only powers of two multiples of ISO 100: 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600 and 3200. Some low-end cameras can only reliably read these values from DX encoded film cartridges because they lack the extra electrical contacts that would be needed to read the complete series. Some digital cameras extend this binary series to values like 12800, 25600, etc. instead of the modified Renard values 12500, 25000, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The current International Standard for measuring the speed of colour negative film is ISO 5800:2001 (first published in 1979, revised in November 1987) from the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Related standards ISO 6:1993 (first published in 1974) and ISO 2240:2003 (first published in July 1982, revised in September 1994 and corrected in October 2003) define scales for speeds of black-and-white negative film and colour reversal film, respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "An update to this standard has been published as ISO 12232:2019, defining a wider range of ISO speeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "High-speed camera",
        "text": "Television series such as \"MythBusters\" and \"Time Warp\" often use high-speed cameras to show their tests in slow motion. Saving the recorded high-speed images can be time consuming because , consumer cameras have resolutions up to four megapixels with frame rates of over 1,000 per second which will record at a rate of 11 gigabytes per second. Technologically these cameras are very advanced, yet saving images requires use of slower standard video-computer interfaces. While recording is very fast, saving images is considerably slower."
      },
      {
        "title": "Instant film",
        "text": "Instant film is notable for having had a wider range of film speeds available than other negative films of the same era, having been produced in ISO 4 to ISO 20,000. Current instant film formats typically have an ISO between 100 and 1000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of articles related to motion pictures",
        "text": "- ASA speed rating"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sample-rate conversion",
        "text": "Movies (shot at 24 frames per second) are converted to television (roughly 50 or 60 fields per second). To convert a 24 frame/sec movie to 60 field/sec television, for example, . For 50\u00a0Hz systems such as PAL each frame is shown twice. Since 50 is not exactly 2\u00d724, the movie will run 50/48 = 4% faster, and the audio pitch will be 4% higher, an effect known as PAL speed-up. This is often accepted for simplicity, but more complex methods are possible that preserve the running time and pitch. Every rather than twice, or digital interpolation (see above) can be used in a video scaler."
      },
      {
        "title": "High Speed (1932 film)",
        "text": "High Speed (1932 film)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "5 Centimeters per Second",
        "text": "In 2010, \"Trains\" magazine rated this film 45th of the 100 Greatest Train Movies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slow motion",
        "text": "Typically this style is achieved when each film frame is captured at a rate much faster than it will be played back. When replayed at normal speed, time appears to be moving more slowly. A term for creating slow motion film is overcranking which refers to hand cranking an early camera at a faster rate than normal (i.e. faster than 24 frames per second). Slow motion can also be achieved by playing normally recorded footage at a slower speed. This technique is more often applied to video subjected to instant replay than to film. A third technique that is becoming common using current computer software post-processing is to fabricate digitally interpolated frames to smoothly transition between the frames that were actually shot. Motion can be slowed further by combining techniques, such as for example by interpolating between overcranked frames. The traditional method for achieving super-slow motion is through high-speed photography, a more sophisticated technique that uses specialized equipment to record fast phenomena, usually for scientific applications."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Derby (1895 film)",
        "text": "Often confused with the 1896 Derby, shot by Robert Paul, the 1895 film is now freely available to viewers in the UK in a digital restoration on the BFI Player. New research has revealed that the Acres and Paul films, including this one, were shot far slower than the forty frames per second required by the Kinetoscope. They were actually filmed at around sixteen frames per second, which would later be established as the standard speed in the silent era."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The Warnerke Standard Sensitometer consisted of a frame holding an opaque screen with an array of typically 25 numbered, gradually pigmented squares brought into contact with the photographic plate during a timed test exposure under a phosphorescent tablet excited before by the light of a burning magnesium ribbon. The speed of the emulsion was then expressed in 'degrees' Warnerke (sometimes seen as Warn. or \u00b0W.) corresponding with the last number visible on the exposed plate after development and fixation. Each number represented an increase of 1/3 in speed, typical plate speeds were between 10\u00b0 and 25\u00b0 Warnerke at the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The film speed scale recommended by the British Standards Institution (BSI) was almost identical to the DIN system except that the BS number was 10 degrees greater than the DIN number."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of film",
        "text": "Cecil Hepworth took this technique further, by printing the negative of the forwards motion backwards frame by frame, so producing a print in which the original action was exactly reversed. To do this he built a special printer in which the negative running through a projector was projected into the gate of a camera through a special lens giving a same-size image. This arrangement came to be called a \"projection printer\", and eventually an \"optical printer\".The use of different camera speeds also appeared around 1900 in the films of Robert W. Paul and Hepworth. Paul shot scenes from \"On a Runaway Motor Car through Piccadilly Circus\" (1899) with the camera turning very slowly. When the film was projected at the usual 16 frames per second, the scenery appeared to be passing at great speed. Hepworth used the opposite effect in \"The Indian Chief and the Seidlitz Powder\" (1901). The Chief's movements are sped up by cranking the camera much faster than 16 frames per second. This gives what we would call a \"slow motion\" effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pigeon photography",
        "text": "In 2007, a researcher remarked that only little technical information is available about lenses, shutters and the speed of the photographic media, but reported that Neubronner obtained the film for his panoramic camera from ADOX. For this camera he estimated a film speed of ISO 25/15\u00b0\u00a0\u2013\u00a040/17\u00b0 and a shutter speed of 1/60\u00a0s\u00a0\u2013\u00a01/100\u00a0s. The film was cut to the format 30\u00a0mm\u00a0\u00d7\u00a060\u00a0mm and bent into a concave shape to prevent unnecessary distortion due to the half-circle movement of the lens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Originally only meant for black-and-white negative film, the system was later extended and regrouped into nine parts, including DIN 4512-1:1971-04 for black-and-white negative film, DIN 4512-4:1977-06 for color reversal film and DIN 4512-5:1977-10 for color negative film."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What system is film speed measured on?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about historical systems or current systems?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I would like the know more about the current system."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The current International Standard for measuring the speed of colour negative film is ISO 5800:2001, related standards ISO define scales for speeds of black-and-white negative film and colour reversal film, respectively."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What about the historical systems?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There were many historical systems including: the Warnerke system, the Hurter & Driffield system, the Scheiner system, and the DIN system. Would you like to know more about one of these or some of the other historical systems?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about any problems that may occur due to the sensitivity of film?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Insensitive film requires more light exposure to produce the same image density as a more sensitive film. Higher sensitivity results in grainer images but is limited by the quantum efficiency of the film or sensor."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What do you mean by quantum efficiency?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The term quantum efficiency (QE) may apply to incident photon to converted electron ratio of a photosensitive device, or it may refer to the Tunnel magnetoresistance effect of a Magnetic Tunnel Junction.  A photographic film typically has a QE of much less than 10%."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the fastest film speed possible given modern technology?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I don't know what the fastest film speed possible given modern technology is, in 2010 researchers built a camera exposing each frame for two trillionths of a second, or picoseconds, for an effective frame rate of half a trillion fps.",
      "Are you asking about Noise-based speed or Saturation-based speed? Exposure index will also cause variance to the film's actual speed."
    ],
    "topic": "Film speed",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "High-speed camera:9",
        "passage_titles": [
          "High-speed camera",
          "Overview"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2010 researchers built a camera exposing each frame for two trillionths of a second (picoseconds), for an effective frame rate of half a trillion fps (femto-photography). Modern high-speed cameras operate by converting the incident light (photons) into a stream of electrons which are then deflected onto a photoanode, back into photons, which can then be recorded onto either film or CCD.\n*The show \"MythBusters\" prominently uses high-speed cameras for measuring speed or height.\n*\"Time Warp\" was centered around the use of high-speed cameras to slow things down that are usually too fast to see with the naked eye.\n*High-speed cameras are frequently used in television productions of many major sporting events for slow motion instant replays when normal slow motion is not slow enough, such as international Cricket matches."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Film speed:77",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Film speed",
          "Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index",
          "Measurements and calculations",
          "Discussion"
        ],
        "ctx": "The standard specifies how speed ratings should be reported by the camera. If the noise-based speed (40:1) is \"higher\" than the saturation-based speed, the noise-based speed should be reported, rounded \"downwards\" to a standard value (e.g. 200, 250, 320, or 400). The rationale is that exposure according to the lower saturation-based speed would not result in a visibly better image. In addition, an exposure latitude can be specified, ranging from the saturation-based speed to the 10:1 noise-based speed. If the noise-based speed (40:1) is \"lower\" than the saturation-based speed, or undefined because of high noise, the saturation-based speed is specified, rounded upwards to a standard value, because using the noise-based speed would lead to overexposed images. The camera may also report the SOS-based speed (explicitly as being an SOS speed), rounded to the nearest standard speed rating."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Film speed:74",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Film speed",
          "Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index",
          "Measurements and calculations",
          "Noise-based speed"
        ],
        "ctx": "The \"noise-based speed\" is defined as the exposure that will lead to a given signal-to-noise ratio on individual pixels. Two ratios are used, the 40:1 (\"excellent image quality\") and the 10:1 (\"acceptable image quality\") ratio. These ratios have been subjectively determined based on a resolution of 70 pixels per cm (178 DPI) when viewed at 25\u00a0cm (9.8\u00a0inch) distance. The noise is defined as the standard deviation of a weighted average of the luminance and color of individual pixels. The noise-based speed is mostly determined by the properties of the sensor and somewhat affected by the noise in the electronic gain and AD converter."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Film speed:52",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Film speed",
          "Film speed measurement systems",
          "Exposure index"
        ],
        "ctx": "Exposure index, or EI, refers to speed rating assigned to a particular film and shooting situation in variance to the film's actual speed. It is used to compensate for equipment calibration inaccuracies or process variables, or to achieve certain effects. The exposure index may simply be called the \"speed setting\", as compared to the speed \"rating\"."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The \"noise-based speed\" is defined as the exposure that will lead to a given signal-to-noise ratio on individual pixels. Two ratios are used, the 40:1 (\"excellent image quality\") and the 10:1 (\"acceptable image quality\") ratio. These ratios have been subjectively determined based on a resolution of 70 pixels per cm (178 DPI) when viewed at 25\u00a0cm (9.8\u00a0inch) distance. The noise is defined as the standard deviation of a weighted average of the luminance and color of individual pixels. The noise-based speed is mostly determined by the properties of the sensor and somewhat affected by the noise in the electronic gain and AD converter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The standard specifies how speed ratings should be reported by the camera. If the noise-based speed (40:1) is \"higher\" than the saturation-based speed, the noise-based speed should be reported, rounded \"downwards\" to a standard value (e.g. 200, 250, 320, or 400). The rationale is that exposure according to the lower saturation-based speed would not result in a visibly better image. In addition, an exposure latitude can be specified, ranging from the saturation-based speed to the 10:1 noise-based speed. If the noise-based speed (40:1) is \"lower\" than the saturation-based speed, or undefined because of high noise, the saturation-based speed is specified, rounded upwards to a standard value, because using the noise-based speed would lead to overexposed images. The camera may also report the SOS-based speed (explicitly as being an SOS speed), rounded to the nearest standard speed rating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "where formula_9 is the maximum possible exposure that does not lead to a clipped or bloomed camera output. Typically, the lower limit of the saturation speed is determined by the sensor itself, but with the gain of the amplifier between the sensor and the analog-to-digital converter, the saturation speed can be increased. The factor 78 is chosen such that exposure settings based on a standard light meter and an 18-percent reflective surface will result in an image with a grey level of 18%/ = 12.7% of saturation. The factor indicates that there is half a stop of headroom to deal with specular reflections that would appear brighter than a 100% reflecting diffuse white surface."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Exposure index, or EI, refers to speed rating assigned to a particular film and shooting situation in variance to the film's actual speed. It is used to compensate for equipment calibration inaccuracies or process variables, or to achieve certain effects. The exposure index may simply be called the \"speed setting\", as compared to the speed \"rating\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Film speed\n--Film speed measurement systems.\n----Historical systems.\n------Warnerke.\n------Hurter & Driffield.\n------Scheiner.\n------DIN.\n------BSI.\n------Weston.\n------General Electric.\n------ASA.\n------GOST.\n----Current system: ISO.\n----Conversion between current scales.\n----Historic ASA and DIN conversion.\n----Determining film speed.\n----Applying film speed.\n----Exposure index.\n--Reciprocity.\n--Film sensitivity and grain.\n----Marketing anomalies.\n--Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index.\n----The ISO (International Organization of Standards) 12232:2019 standard.\n----Measurements and calculations.\n------Saturation-based speed.\n------Noise-based speed.\n------Standard output sensitivity (SOS).\n------Discussion.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "and rounding to the nearest standard arithmetic speed in Table\u00a01 below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The two \"noise-based\" techniques have rarely been used for consumer digital still cameras. These techniques specify the highest EI that can be used while still providing either an \"excellent\" picture or a \"usable\" picture depending on the technique chosen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of motion picture\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Film speed \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The \"saturation-based speed\" is defined as\n:formula_8"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "where formula_11 is the exposure that will lead to values of 118 in 8-bit pixels, which is 18 percent of the saturation value in images encoded as sRGB or with gamma\u00a0=\u00a02.2."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "This value is then rounded to the nearest standard speed in Table\u00a01 of ISO 6:1993."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Relatively insensitive film, with a correspondingly lower speed index, requires more exposure to light to produce the same image density as a more sensitive film, and is thus commonly termed a \"slow film\". Highly sensitive films are correspondingly termed \"fast films\". In both digital and film photography, the reduction of exposure corresponding to use of higher sensitivities generally leads to reduced image quality (via coarser film grain or higher image noise of other types). In short, the higher the sensitivity, the grainier the image will be. Ultimately sensitivity is limited by the quantum efficiency of the film or sensor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of articles related to motion pictures",
        "text": "- Film speed"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "where \"L\" is the luminance of the scene (in candela per m\u00b2), \"t\" is the exposure time (in seconds), \"N\" is the aperture f-number, and\n:formula_7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The \"saturation-based\" (SAT or Ssat) technique is closely related to the SOS technique, with the sRGB output level being measured at 100% white rather than 18% gray. The SOS value is effectively 0.704 times the saturation-based value. Because the output level is measured in the sRGB output from the camera, it is only applicable to sRGB images\u2014typically TIFF\u2014and not to output files in raw image format. It is not applicable when multi-zone metering is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Film speed is the measure of a photographic film's sensitivity to light, determined by sensitometry and measured on various numerical scales, the most recent being the ISO system. A closely related ISO system is used to describe the relationship between exposure and output image lightness in digital cameras."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "In addition to the above speed ratings, the standard also defines the \"standard output sensitivity\" (SOS), how the exposure is related to the digital pixel values in the output image. It is defined as\n:formula_10"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film",
        "text": "Originally moving picture film was shot and projected at various speeds using hand-cranked cameras and projectors; though 1000 frames per minute (16 frame/s) is generally cited as a standard silent speed, research indicates most films were shot between 16 frame/s and 23 frame/s and projected from 18 frame/s on up (often reels included instructions on how fast each scene should be shown). When sound film was introduced in the late 1920s, a constant speed was required for the sound head. 24 frames per second were chosen because it was the slowest (and thus cheapest) speed which allowed for sufficient sound quality. Improvements since the late 19th century include the mechanization of cameras\u00a0\u2013 allowing them to record at a consistent speed, quiet camera design\u00a0\u2013 allowing sound recorded on-set to be usable without requiring large \"blimps\" to encase the camera, the invention of more sophisticated filmstocks and lenses, allowing directors to film in increasingly dim conditions, and the development of synchronized sound, allowing sound to be recorded at exactly the same speed as its corresponding action. The soundtrack can be recorded separately from shooting the film, but for live-action pictures, many parts of the soundtrack are usually recorded simultaneously."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silent film",
        "text": "Until the standardization of the projection speed of 24 frames per second (fps) for sound films between 1926 and 1930, silent films were shot at variable speeds (or \"frame rates\") anywhere from 12 to 40\u00a0fps, depending on the year and studio. \"Standard silent film speed\" is often said to be 16\u00a0fps as a result of the Lumi\u00e8re brothers' Cin\u00e9matographe, but industry practice varied considerably; there was no actual standard. William Kennedy Laury Dickson, an Edison employee, settled on the astonishingly fast 40 frames per second. Additionally, cameramen of the era insisted that their cranking technique was exactly 16\u00a0fps, but modern examination of the films shows this to be in error, and that they often cranked faster. Unless carefully shown at their intended speeds silent films can appear unnaturally fast or slow. However, some scenes were intentionally undercranked during shooting to accelerate the action\u2014particularly for comedies and action films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Film speed is found from a plot of optical density vs. log of exposure for the film, known as the \"D\"\u2013log \"H\" curve or Hurter\u2013Driffield curve. There typically are five regions in the curve: the base + fog, the toe, the linear region, the shoulder, and the overexposed region. For black-and-white negative film, the \"speed point\" m is the point on the curve where density exceeds the base + fog density by 0.1 when the negative is developed so that a point n where the log of exposure is 1.3 units greater than the exposure at point m has a density 0.8 greater than the density at point m. The exposure \"H\"m, in lux-s, is that for point m when the specified contrast condition is satisfied. The ISO arithmetic speed is determined from:\n:formula_5"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Despite these detailed standard definitions, cameras typically do not clearly indicate whether the user \"ISO\" setting refers to the noise-based speed, saturation-based speed, or the specified output sensitivity, or even some made-up number for marketing purposes. Because the 1998 version of ISO 12232 did not permit measurement of camera output that had lossy compression, it was not possible to correctly apply any of those measurements to cameras that did not produce sRGB files in an uncompressed format such as TIFF. Following the publication of CIPA DC-004 in 2006, Japanese manufacturers of digital still cameras are required to specify whether a sensitivity rating is REI or SOS."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of motion picture\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Shutter speed \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of motion picture\u2013related articles",
        "text": "ASA speed rating \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "DX encoding",
        "text": "Most cameras read the film speed only (first row)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Kodak has defined a \"Print Grain Index\" (PGI) to characterize film grain (color negative films only), based on perceptual just-noticeable difference of graininess in prints. They also define \"granularity\", a measurement of grain using an RMS measurement of density fluctuations in uniformly exposed film, measured with a microdensitometer with 48 micrometre aperture. Granularity varies with exposure \u2014 underexposed film looks grainier than overexposed film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "A greater SOS setting for a given sensor comes with some loss of image quality, just like with analog film. However, this loss is visible as image noise rather than grain. APS- and 35\u00a0mm-sized digital image sensors, both CMOS and CCD based, do not produce significant noise until about \"ISO 1600\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers",
        "text": "SMP(T)E's standard in 1927 was for speed at which sound film is shown, 24 frames per second."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Table notes:\n# Speeds shown in bold under APEX, ISO and ASA are values actually assigned in speed standards from the respective agencies; other values are calculated extensions to assigned speeds using the same progressions as for the assigned speeds.\n# APEX \"Sv\" values 1 to 10 correspond with logarithmic ASA grades 1\u00b0 to 10\u00b0 found in ASA PH2.5-1960.\n# ASA arithmetic speeds from 4 to 5 are taken from ANSI PH2.21-1979 (Table\u00a01, p.\u00a08).\n# ASA arithmetic speeds from 6 to 3200 are taken from ANSI PH2.5-1979 (Table\u00a01, p.\u00a05) and ANSI PH2.27-1979.\n# ISO arithmetic speeds from 4 to 3200 are taken from ISO 5800:1987 (Table \"ISO speed scales\", p.\u00a04).\n# ISO arithmetic speeds from 6 to 10000 are taken from ISO 12232:1998 (Table\u00a01, p.\u00a09).\n# ISO 12232:1998 does not specify speeds greater than 10000. However, the upper limit for \"S\"noise 10000 was given as 12500, suggesting that ISO may have envisioned a progression of 12500, 25000, 50000, and 100000, similar to that from 1250 to 10000. This was consistent with ASA PH2.12-1961. For digital cameras, Nikon, Canon, Sony, Pentax, and Fujifilm chose to express the greater speeds in an exact power-of-2 progression from the highest previously realized speed (6400) rather than rounding to an extension of the existing progression. Speed ratings greater than 10000 have finally been defined in ISO 12232:2019.\n# Most of the modern 35 mm film SLRs support an automatic film speed range from ISO 25/15\u00b0 to 5000/38\u00b0 with DX-coded films, or ISO 6/9\u00b0 to 6400/39\u00b0 manually (without utilizing exposure compensation). The film speed range with support for TTL flash is smaller, typically ISO 12/12\u00b0 to 3200/36\u00b0 or less.\n# The Booster accessory for the Canon Pellix QL (1965) and Canon FT QL (1966) supported film speeds from 25 to 12800 ASA.\n# The film speed dial of the Canon A-1 (1978) supported a speed range from 6 to 12800 ASA (but already called ISO film speeds in the manual). On this camera exposure compensation and extreme film speeds were mutually exclusive.\n# The Leica R8 (1996) and R9 (2002) officially supported film speeds of 8000/40\u00b0, 10000/41\u00b0 and 12800/42\u00b0 (in the case of the R8) or 12500/42\u00b0 (in the case of the R9), and utilizing its \u00b13 EV exposure compensation the range could be extended from ISO 0.8/0\u00b0 to ISO 100000/51\u00b0 in half exposure steps.\n# Digital camera manufacturers' arithmetic speeds from 12800 to 409600 are from specifications by Nikon (12800, 25600, 51200, 102400 in 2009, 204800 in 2012, 409600 in 2014), Canon (12800, 25600, 51200, 102400 in 2009, 204800 in 2011, 4000000 in 2015), Sony (12800 in 2009, 25600 in 2010, 409600 in 2014), Pentax (12800, 25600, 51200 in 2010, 102400, 204800 in 2014) and Fujifilm (12800 in 2011)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Another example occurs where a camera's shutter is miscalibrated and consistently overexposes or underexposes the film; similarly, a light meter may be inaccurate. One may adjust the EI setting accordingly in order to compensate for these defects and consistently produce correctly exposed negatives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camera",
        "text": "Traditionally used to tell the camera the film speed of the selected film on film cameras, film speed numbers are employed on modern digital cameras as an indication of the system's gain from light to numerical output and to control the automatic exposure system. Film speed is usually measured via the ISO 5800 system. The higher the film speed number, the greater the film sensitivity to light, whereas with a lower number, the film is less sensitive to light."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photographic film",
        "text": "Film speed describes a film's threshold sensitivity to light. The international standard for rating film speed is the ISO#ISO scale, which combines both the ASA speed and the DIN speed in the format ASA/DIN. Using ISO convention film with an ASA speed of 400 would be labeled 400/27\u00b0. A fourth naming standard is GOST, developed by the Russian standards authority. See the film speed article for a table of conversions between ASA, DIN, and GOST film speeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The size of silver halide grains in the emulsion affects film sensitivity, which is related to granularity because larger grains give film greater sensitivity to light. Fine-grain film, such as film designed for portraiture or copying original camera negatives, is relatively insensitive, or \"slow\", because it requires brighter light or a longer exposure than a \"fast\" film. Fast films, used for photographing in low light or capturing high-speed motion, produce comparatively grainy images."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movie projector",
        "text": "The birth of sound film created a need for a steady playback rate to prevent dialog and music from changing pitch and distracting the audience. Virtually all film projectors in commercial movie theaters project at a constant speed of 24 frame/s. This speed was chosen for both financial and technical reasons. A higher frame rate produces a better looking picture, but costs more as film stock is consumed faster. When Warner Bros. and Western Electric were trying to find the ideal compromise projection speed for the new sound pictures, Western Electric went to the Warner Theater in Los Angeles, and noted the average speed at which films were projected there. They set that as the sound speed at which a satisfactory reproduction and amplification of sound could be conducted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moving image formats",
        "text": "Usually 24\u00a0Hz material from film is usually sped up by 4%, when it is of feature film origin. The sound is also raised in pitch slightly as a result of the 4% speedup but pitch correction circuits are typically used.\n* Older technology allows an alternative option where every 12th film frame is held for three video fields instead of two mostly fixing the problem.\n* More modern film playback technology allows for every 25th frame to be interpolated, with less objectionable results and no need for pitch modification.\n* Each of these film oriented content transmission techniques has its own drawbacks. However modern motion compensation processors are considered to produce the least objectionable output."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The \"Standard Output Sensitivity\" (SOS) technique, also new in the 2006 version of the standard, effectively specifies that the average level in the sRGB image must be 18% gray plus or minus 1/3 stop when the exposure is controlled by an automatic exposure control system calibrated per ISO 2721 and set to the EI with no exposure compensation. Because the output level is measured in the sRGB output from the camera, it is only applicable to sRGB JPEG\u2014and not to output files in raw image format. It is not applicable when multi-zone metering is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paper print",
        "text": "With adjustments, issues of frame lines and sprocket holes were resolved with each incoming print, but hand cranked film speed was also a nagging issue. Renovare would capture each frame, but a film could have been undercranked and exposed only for twelve frames per second. Playback on today's film projectors might require 18 or 24 frame/s. Everything would appear comically fast. The solution was to expose a frame or every other frame twice, thereby making the action appear realistic. The reverse was true as well, with overcranked exposures, and frames would have to be removed to avoid slow motion films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The picture shows an ASA/DIN conversion in a 1952 photography book in which 21/10\u00b0\u00a0DIN was converted to ASA\u00a080 instead of ASA\u00a0100."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movie projector",
        "text": "Silent films usually were not projected at constant speeds, but could vary throughout the show because projectors were hand-cranked at the discretion of the projectionist, often following some notes provided by the distributor. When the electric motor supplanted hand cranking in both movie cameras and projectors, a more uniform frame rate became possible. Speeds ranged from about 18 frame/s on up \u2013 sometimes even faster than modern sound film speed (24 frame/s)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Based on earlier research work by Loyd Ancile Jones (1884\u20131954) of Kodak and inspired by the systems of Weston film speed ratings and General Electric film values, the American Standards Association (now named ANSI) defined a new method to determine and specify film speeds of black-and-white negative films in 1943. ASA Z38.2.1\u20131943 was revised in 1946 and 1947 before the standard grew into ASA PH2.5-1954. Originally, ASA values were frequently referred to as \"American standard speed numbers\" or \"ASA exposure-index numbers\". (See also: Exposure Index (EI).)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Frame rate",
        "text": "When sound film was introduced in 1926, variations in film speed were no longer tolerated, as the human ear is more sensitive than the eye to changes in frequency. Many theaters had shown silent films at 22 to 26\u00a0FPS, which is why the industry chose 24\u00a0FPS for sound films as a compromise. From 1927 to 1930, as various studios updated equipment, the rate of 24\u00a0FPS became standard for 35\u00a0mm sound film. At 24\u00a0FPS, the film travels through the projector at a rate of per second. This allowed simple two-blade shutters to give a projected series of images at 48 per second, satisfying Edison's recommendation. Many modern 35\u00a0mm film projectors use three-blade shutters to give 72 images per second\u2014each frame is flashed on screen three times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The film speed scale recommended by the British Standards Institution (BSI) was almost identical to the DIN system except that the BS number was 10 degrees greater than the DIN number."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guide number",
        "text": "Bear in mind that the above table is \"for only one film speed\". For end users, obtaining proper exposures with flashbulbs was an error-prone effort as they mentally interpolated between distances and fstop combinations that weren\u2019t very accurate in the first place. Had the guide number system existed by this point, the above table would not have required the left-most column showing distances and would have required only one row (showing guide numbers) under each heading."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "is a factor depending on the transmittance \"T\" of the lens, the vignetting factor \"v\"(\"\u03b8\"), and the angle \"\u03b8\" relative to the axis of the lens. A typical value is \"q\"\u00a0=\u00a00.65, based on \"\u03b8\"\u00a0=\u00a010\u00b0, \"T\"\u00a0=\u00a00.9, and \"v\"\u00a0=\u00a00.98."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The ASA scale is a linear scale, that is, a film denoted as having a film speed of 200 ASA is twice as fast as a film with 100 ASA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Some classic camera's exposure guides show the old conversion as they were valid at the time of production, for example the exposure guide of the classic camera Tessina (since 1957), where 21/10\u00b0\u00a0DIN is related to ASA\u00a080, 18\u00b0\u00a0DIN to ASA\u00a040, etc. Users of classic cameras, who do not know the historic background, may be confused."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "For example, a photographer may rate an ISO 400 film at EI 800 and then use push processing to obtain printable negatives in low-light conditions. The film has been exposed at EI 800."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Conversion from arithmetic speed \"S\" to logarithmic speed \"S\"\u00b0 is given by\n:formula_3"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Dickson Experimental Sound Film",
        "text": "One question that remains unanswered is how the eventual running time of just over 17 seconds was arrived at. Per the curatorial reports, the 35-mm prints have a standard 16 frames per foot of film\u2014 plus 14 frames thus equals a total of 638 frames. Murch describes the film as having been shot at 40 frames per second (fps); Loughney describes it as 46 fps. At 40 fps, 638 frames would run 15.95 seconds, which should be the maximum length of the restored film if all other reports are correct; as Loughney notes, at 46 fps, the film would last 13.86 seconds. If the latter figure is correct, as many as 9 seconds of film are missing from both extant prints if the entire violin performance was filmed. On the basis of his own tests of eighteen Kinetoscope films, scholar Gordon Hendricks argued that no Kinetoscope films were shot at 46 fps, making the speed of 40 fps reported by Murch more likely. Yet there is still a difference of more than a second between the maximum potential running time at that speed and the actual duration of the film as digitized by Murch. That 17-second running time works out to an average camera speed of approximately 37.5 fps, a significant difference from Murch's report."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zorki",
        "text": "Film speed range: 20 \u2013 320 ASA (14 \u2013 26 DIN, 16 \u2013 250 GOST)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film stock",
        "text": "A critical property of a stock is its film speed, determined by ASA or its sensitivity to light listed by a measurement on the raw stock which must be chosen with care. Speed determines the range of lighting conditions under which the film can be shot, and is related to granularity and contrast, which influence the look of the image. The stock manufacturer will usually give an exposure index (EI) number equal to the ASA which they recommend exposing for. However, factors such as forced or non-standard development (such as bleach bypass or cross processing), compensation for filters or shutter angle, as well as intended under- and over-exposure may cause the cinematographer to actually \"rate\" the stock differently from the EI. This new rating is not a change to the stock itself\u00a0\u2014 it is merely a way of calculating exposure without figuring out the compensation after each light reading."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of articles related to motion pictures",
        "text": "- ASA speed rating"
      },
      {
        "title": "126 film",
        "text": "The top edge of the cartridge above the film gate has a square notch in a specific position corresponding to the speed of the film in the cartridge. Some of the higher-end cameras used this notch to determine the correct exposure, or to set the light meter, if so equipped. Although only film with speeds between ISO 64/19\u00b0 and ISO 400/27\u00b0 were ever manufactured in this format, the standard defined 20 different speeds, from ISO 20/14\u00b0 to ISO 1600/33\u00b0."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "In digital camera systems, an arbitrary relationship between exposure and sensor data values can be achieved by setting the signal gain of the sensor. The relationship between the sensor data values and the lightness of the finished image is also arbitrary, depending on the parameters chosen for the interpretation of the sensor data into an image color space such as sRGB."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of motion picture\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Noise reduction \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "In addition to the established arithmetic speed scale, ASA PH2.5-1960 also introduced logarithmic ASA grades (100 ASA = 5\u00b0 ASA), where a difference of 1\u00b0 ASA represented a full exposure stop and therefore the doubling of a film speed. For some while, ASA grades were also printed on film boxes, and they saw life in the form of the APEX speed value \"Sv\" (without degree symbol) as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Upon exposure, the amount of light energy that reaches the film determines the effect upon the emulsion. If the brightness of the light is multiplied by a factor and the exposure of the film decreased by the same factor by varying the camera's shutter speed and aperture, so that the energy received is the same, the film will be developed to the same density. This rule is called reciprocity. The systems for determining the sensitivity for an emulsion are possible because reciprocity holds over a wide range of customary conditions. In practice, reciprocity works reasonably well for normal photographic films for the range of exposures between 1/1000\u00a0second to 1/2\u00a0second. However, this relationship breaks down outside these limits, a phenomenon known as reciprocity failure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "His system saw some success but proved to be unreliable due to its spectral sensitivity to light, the fading intensity of the light emitted by the phosphorescent tablet after its excitation as well as high built-tolerances. The concept, however, was later built upon in 1900 by Henry Chapman Jones (1855\u20131932) in the development of his plate tester and modified speed system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roll film",
        "text": "Roll film\n--History.\n--Automatic film speed sensing.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Push processing",
        "text": "When a film's effective sensitivity has been varied, the resulting sensitivity is called the exposure index; the film's speed remains at the manufacturer's indication. For example, an ISO 200/24\u00b0 film could be push processed to EI 400/27\u00b0 or pull processed to EI 100/21\u00b0."
      },
      {
        "title": "Photographic film",
        "text": "Over the active dynamic range of most films, the density of the developed film is proportional to the logarithm of the total amount of light to which the film was exposed, so the transmission coefficient of the developed film is proportional to a power of the reciprocal of the brightness of the original exposure. The plot of the density of the film image against the log of the exposure is known as an H&D curve. This effect is due to the statistics of grain activation: as the film becomes progressively more exposed, each incident photon is less likely to impact a still-unexposed grain, yielding the logarithmic behavior. A simple, idealized statistical model yields the equation , where \"light\" is proportional to the number of photons hitting a unit area of film, \"k\" is the probability of a single photon striking a grain (based on the size of the grains and how closely spaced they are), and \"density\" is the proportion of grains that have been hit by at least one photon. The relationship between density and log exposure is linear for photographic films except at the extreme ranges of maximum exposure (D-max) and minimum exposure (D-min) on an H&D curve, so the curve is characteristically S-shaped (as opposed to digital camera sensors which have a linear response through the effective exposure range). The sensitivity (i.e., the ISO speed) of a film can be affected by changing the length or temperature of development, which would move the H&D curve to the left or right (\"see figure\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "As in the Scheiner system, speeds were expressed in 'degrees'. Originally the sensitivity was written as a fraction with 'tenths' (for example \"18/10\u00b0 DIN\"), where the resultant value 1.8 represented the relative base 10 logarithm of the speed. 'Tenths' were later abandoned with DIN 4512:1957-11, and the example above would be written as \"18\u00b0 DIN\". The degree symbol was finally dropped with DIN 4512:1961-10. This revision also saw significant changes in the definition of film speeds in order to accommodate then-recent changes in the American ASA PH2.5-1960 standard, so that film speeds of black-and-white negative film effectively would become doubled, that is, a film previously marked as \"18\u00b0 DIN\" would now be labeled as \"21 DIN\" without emulsion changes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sensitometry",
        "text": "Although films originally made for television in Great Britain (whether by telerecording or by conventional cinematography) will be photographed at 25 frames per second, films exposed for cinema exhibition at 24 frames per second are also transmitted for television at 25 frames per second. This naturally causes an increase in the speed of image movement and raises the frequency of sound reproduction by approximately 4 per cent. (this results in the pitch of musical notes rising by something less than a semi-tone and is acceptable to all but the most critical ear)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Preferred number",
        "text": "The film speed is a measure of the film's sensitivity to light. It is expressed as ISO values such as \"ISO 100\". An earlier standard, occasionally still in use, uses the term \"ASA\" rather than \"ISO\", referring to the (former) American Standards Association. Measured film speeds are rounded to the nearest preferred number from a modified Renard series including 100, 125, 160, 200, 250, 320, 400, 500, 640, 800... This is the same as the R10\u2032 rounded Renard series, except for the use of 6.4 instead of 6.3, and for having more aggressive rounding below ISO 16. Film marketed to amateurs, however, uses a restricted series including only powers of two multiples of ISO 100: 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600 and 3200. Some low-end cameras can only reliably read these values from DX encoded film cartridges because they lack the extra electrical contacts that would be needed to read the complete series. Some digital cameras extend this binary series to values like 12800, 25600, etc. instead of the modified Renard values 12500, 25000, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers",
        "text": "Before this it was determined by the hand cranking speed of the cameraman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pilottone",
        "text": "On playback, the record head is used as a push-pull playback head in order to reproduce the pilot tone. All speed variations of the camera and tape can be detected as deviations from 60/50 Hz, and compared at the time of playback with in built quartz reference oscillator. For cinematic audio, speed variations are rectified (resolved) at the time of transfer to the perforated 35mm/16mm audio tape. At that time the mains power supply frequency is also taken as reference. (The selection of the 60/50 Hz equipment depends on the power supply in the country where filming is being conducted. North America has a supply of 60 Hz whereas Europe and some Asian countries have 50 Hz.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Shutter speed",
        "text": "With a traditional shutter angle of 180\u00b0, film is exposed for second at 24 frame/s. To avoid effect of light interference when shooting under artificial lights or when shooting television screens and computer monitors, \u00a0s (172.8\u00b0) or \u00a0s (144\u00b0) shutter is often used."
      },
      {
        "title": "NTSC",
        "text": "Because both film speeds have been used in 25-fps regions, viewers can face confusion about the true speed of video and audio, and the pitch of voices, sound effects, and musical performances, in television films from those regions. For example, they may wonder whether the Jeremy Brett series of Sherlock Holmes television films, made in the 1980s and early 1990s, was shot at 24\u00a0fps and then transmitted at an artificially fast speed in 25-fps regions, or whether it was shot at 25 fps natively and then slowed to 24 fps for NTSC exhibition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sound film",
        "text": "There were consequences, as well, for other technological aspects of the cinema. Proper recording and playback of sound required exact standardization of camera and projector speed. Before sound, 16 frames per second (fps) was the supposed norm, but practice varied widely. Cameras were often undercranked or overcranked to improve exposures or for dramatic effect. Projectors were commonly run too fast to shorten running time and squeeze in extra shows. Variable frame rate, however, made sound unlistenable, and a new, strict standard of 24 fps was soon established. Sound also forced the abandonment of the noisy arc lights used for filming in studio interiors. The switch to quiet incandescent illumination in turn required a switch to more expensive film stock. The sensitivity of the new panchromatic film delivered superior image tonal quality and gave directors the freedom to shoot scenes at lower light levels than was previously practical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Commonly, the logarithmic speed is omitted; for example, \"ISO 100\" denotes \"ISO 100/21\u00b0\", while logarithmic ISO speeds are written as \"ISO 21\u00b0\" as per the standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signal-to-noise ratio (imaging)",
        "text": "Industry standards define sensitivity in terms of the ISO film speed equivalent, using SNR thresholds (at average scene luminance) of 40:1 for \"excellent\" image quality and 10:1 for \"acceptable\" image quality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of motion picture\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Sound effects editor \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The determination of ISO speeds with digital still-cameras is described in ISO 12232:2019 (first published in August 1998, revised in April 2006, corrected in October 2006 and again revised in February 2019)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of motion picture\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Film timing \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Interlaced video",
        "text": "When motion picture film was developed, the movie screen had to be illuminated at a high rate to prevent visible flicker. The exact rate necessary varies by brightness \u2014 50\u00a0Hz is (barely) acceptable for small, low brightness displays in dimly lit rooms, whilst 80\u00a0Hz or more may be necessary for bright displays that extend into peripheral vision. The film solution was to project each frame of film three times using a three-bladed shutter: a movie shot at 16 frames per second illuminated the screen 48 times per second. Later, when sound film became available, the higher projection speed of 24 frames per second enabled a two bladed shutter to produce 48 times per second illumination\u2014but only in projectors incapable of projecting at the lower speed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Determining speed for color negative film is similar in concept but more complex because it involves separate curves for blue, green, and red. The film is processed according to the film manufacturer's recommendations rather than to a specified contrast. ISO speed for color reversal film is determined from the middle rather than the threshold of the curve; it again involves separate curves for blue, green, and red, and the film is processed according to the film manufacturer's recommendations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of motion picture\u2013related articles",
        "text": "High speed camera \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The \"Recommended Exposure Index\" (REI) technique, new in the 2006 version of the standard, allows the manufacturer to specify a camera model's EI choices arbitrarily. The choices are based solely on the manufacturer's opinion of what EI values produce well-exposed sRGB images at the various sensor sensitivity settings. This is the only technique available under the standard for output formats that are not in the sRGB color space. This is also the only technique available under the standard when multi-zone metering (also called \"pattern\" metering) is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The system was later extended to cover larger ranges and some of its practical shortcomings were addressed by the Austrian scientist Josef Maria Eder (1855\u20131944) and Flemish-born botanist (1896\u20131960), (who, in 1919/1920, jointly developed their \"Eder\u2013Hecht neutral wedge sensitometer\" measuring emulsion speeds in \"Eder\u2013Hecht\" grades). Still, it remained difficult for manufacturers to reliably determine film speeds, often only by comparing with competing products, so that an increasing number of modified semi-Scheiner-based systems started to spread, which no longer followed Scheiner's original procedures and thereby defeated the idea of comparability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "Film speed values for use with their meters were published in regularly updated \"General Electric Film Values\" leaflets and in the \"General Electric Photo Data Book\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The DIN system was inspired by Scheiner's system, but the sensitivities were represented as the base 10 logarithm of the sensitivity multiplied by 10, similar to decibels. Thus an increase of 20\u00b0 (and not 19\u00b0 as in Scheiner's system) represented a hundredfold increase in sensitivity, and a difference of 3\u00b0 was much closer to the base 10 logarithm of 2 (0.30103...):\n:formula_2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of motion picture\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Film technique \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "as well as a user-adjustable SOS value. In all cases, the camera should indicate for the white balance setting for which the speed rating applies, such as daylight or tungsten (incandescent light)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The ISO standard ISO 12232:2006 gave digital still camera manufacturers a choice of five different techniques for determining the exposure index rating at each sensitivity setting provided by a particular camera model. Three of the techniques in ISO 12232:2006 were carried over from the 1998 version of the standard, while two new techniques allowing for measurement of JPEG output files were introduced from CIPA DC-004. Depending on the technique selected, the exposure index rating could depend on the sensor sensitivity, the sensor noise, and the appearance of the resulting image. The standard specified the measurement of light sensitivity of the entire digital camera system and not of individual components such as digital sensors, although Kodak has reported using a variation to characterize the sensitivity of two of their sensors in 2001."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silent film",
        "text": "In the 1950s, many telecine conversions of silent films at grossly incorrect frame rates for broadcast television may have alienated viewers. Film speed is often a vexed issue among scholars and film buffs in the presentation of silents today, especially when it comes to DVD releases of restored films, such as the case of the 2002 restoration of \"Metropolis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "ISO speed ratings of a digital camera are based on the properties of the sensor and the image processing done in the camera, and are expressed in terms of the luminous exposure \"H\" (in lux seconds) arriving at the sensor. For a typical camera lens with an effective focal length \"f\" that is much smaller than the distance between the camera and the photographed scene, \"H\" is given by\n:formula_6"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "and rounding to the nearest integer; the log is base 10. Conversion from logarithmic speed to arithmetic speed is given by\n:formula_4"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The methods to determine the sensitivity were later modified in 1925 (in regard to the light source used) and in 1928 (regarding light source, developer and proportional factor)\u2014this later variant was sometimes called \"H&D 10\". The H&D system was officially accepted as a standard in the former Soviet Union from 1928 until September 1951, when it was superseded by GOST 2817\u201350."
      },
      {
        "title": "High-speed camera",
        "text": "A normal motion picture film is played back at 24 frames per second, while television uses 25 frames/s (PAL) or 29.97 frames/s (NTSC). High-speed film cameras can film up to a quarter of a million fps by running the film over a rotating prism or mirror instead of using a shutter, thus reducing the need for stopping and starting the film behind a shutter which would tear the film stock at such speeds. Using this technique one second of action can be stretched to more than ten minutes of playback time (super slow motion). High-speed video cameras are widely used for scientific research, military test and evaluation, and industry. Examples of industrial applications are filming a manufacturing line to better tune the machine, or in the car industry filming a crash test to investigate the effect on the crash dummy passengers and the automobile. Today, the digital high-speed camera has replaced the film camera used for Vehicle Impact Testing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qrpff",
        "text": "The fast version is actually fast enough to decode a movie in real-time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shutter speed",
        "text": "The amount of light that reaches the film or image sensor is proportional to the exposure time. of a second will let half as much light in as ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The ASA standard underwent a major revision in 1960 with ASA PH2.5-1960, when the method to determine film speed was refined and previously applied safety factors against under-exposure were abandoned, effectively doubling the nominal speed of many black-and-white negative films. For example, an Ilford HP3 that had been rated at 200 ASA before 1960 was labeled 400 ASA afterwards without any change to the emulsion. Similar changes were applied to the DIN system with DIN 4512:1961-10 and the BS system with BS 1380:1963 in the following years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Top Speed (film)",
        "text": "Top Speed (film)\n--Synopsis.\n--Production.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "The Warnerke Standard Sensitometer consisted of a frame holding an opaque screen with an array of typically 25 numbered, gradually pigmented squares brought into contact with the photographic plate during a timed test exposure under a phosphorescent tablet excited before by the light of a burning magnesium ribbon. The speed of the emulsion was then expressed in 'degrees' Warnerke (sometimes seen as Warn. or \u00b0W.) corresponding with the last number visible on the exposed plate after development and fixation. Each number represented an increase of 1/3 in speed, typical plate speeds were between 10\u00b0 and 25\u00b0 Warnerke at the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Speed (1925 film)",
        "text": "Speed (1925 film)\n--Plot.\n--Preservation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Super Speed (film)",
        "text": "Super Speed (film)\n--Plot.\n--Preservation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "GOST 2817-50 was similar to the ASA standard, having been based on a speed point at a density 0.2 above base plus fog, as opposed to the ASA's 0.1. GOST markings are only found on pre-1987 photographic equipment (film, cameras, lightmeters, etc.) of Soviet Union manufacture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Super Speed (film)",
        "text": "A print of \"Super Speed\" is located at the Library of Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of motion picture\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Sound editor \u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Film speed",
        "text": "This evolved into multiple parts including GOST 10691.6\u201388 and GOST 10691.5\u201388, which both became functional on 1 January 1991."
      },
      {
        "title": "DX encoding",
        "text": "Where \"G\" are the two common-ground contacts, \"S\" is the film speed, \"L\" the film length, and \"T\" the exposure tolerance."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What system is film speed measured on?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about historical systems or current systems?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I would like the know more about the current system."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The current International Standard for measuring the speed of colour negative film is ISO 5800:2001, related standards ISO define scales for speeds of black-and-white negative film and colour reversal film, respectively."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What about the historical systems?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There were many historical systems including: the Warnerke system, the Hurter & Driffield system, the Scheiner system, and the DIN system. Would you like to know more about one of these or some of the other historical systems?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about any problems that may occur due to the sensitivity of film?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Insensitive film requires more light exposure to produce the same image density as a more sensitive film. Higher sensitivity results in grainer images but is limited by the quantum efficiency of the film or sensor."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What do you mean by quantum efficiency?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The term quantum efficiency (QE) may apply to incident photon to converted electron ratio of a photosensitive device, or it may refer to the Tunnel magnetoresistance effect of a Magnetic Tunnel Junction.  A photographic film typically has a QE of much less than 10%."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the fastest film speed possible given modern technology?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you asking about Noise-based speed or Saturation-based speed? Exposure index will also cause variance to the film's actual speed."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Noise based speed please?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "The noise-based speed is defined as the exposure that will lead to a given signal-to-noise ratio on individual pixels, with two ratios being used, the 40:1, \"excellent image quality\" and the 10:1, \"acceptable image quality\". But I can't find any direct information on how fast these speed actually is.",
      "The noise-based speed is mostly determined by the properties of the sensor and somewhat affected by the noise in the electronic gain and AD converter, and not determined by the film itself."
    ],
    "topic": "Film speed",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Film speed:74",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Film speed",
          "Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index",
          "Measurements and calculations",
          "Noise-based speed"
        ],
        "ctx": "The \"noise-based speed\" is defined as the exposure that will lead to a given signal-to-noise ratio on individual pixels. Two ratios are used, the 40:1 (\"excellent image quality\") and the 10:1 (\"acceptable image quality\") ratio. These ratios have been subjectively determined based on a resolution of 70 pixels per cm (178 DPI) when viewed at 25\u00a0cm (9.8\u00a0inch) distance. The noise is defined as the standard deviation of a weighted average of the luminance and color of individual pixels. The noise-based speed is mostly determined by the properties of the sensor and somewhat affected by the noise in the electronic gain and AD converter."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Film speed:74",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Film speed",
          "Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index",
          "Measurements and calculations",
          "Noise-based speed"
        ],
        "ctx": "The \"noise-based speed\" is defined as the exposure that will lead to a given signal-to-noise ratio on individual pixels. Two ratios are used, the 40:1 (\"excellent image quality\") and the 10:1 (\"acceptable image quality\") ratio. These ratios have been subjectively determined based on a resolution of 70 pixels per cm (178 DPI) when viewed at 25\u00a0cm (9.8\u00a0inch) distance. The noise is defined as the standard deviation of a weighted average of the luminance and color of individual pixels. The noise-based speed is mostly determined by the properties of the sensor and somewhat affected by the noise in the electronic gain and AD converter."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea (or ice tea) is a form of cold tea. Though usually served in a glass with ice, it can refer to any tea that has been chilled or cooled. It may be sweetened with sugar, syrup and/or apple slices. Iced tea is also a popular packaged drink and can be mixed with flavored syrup, with multiple common flavors including lemon, raspberry, lime, passion fruit, peach, orange, strawberry, and cherry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Iced tea is a cold tea drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Iced tea may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Iced tea (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "While most iced teas get their flavor from tea leaves (\"Camellia sinensis\"), herbal teas are sometimes served cold and referred to as iced tea. Iced tea is sometimes made by a particularly long steeping of tea leaves at a lower temperature (one hour in the sun versus five minutes at , which is known as sun tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "This is another name for regular Iced Tea, but in the Southern area of America it is called this because Sweetened tea is the norm, so they have to call the Tea \"Unsweet\" to make a divide between the two types of teas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Sweet tea is a tea that is brewed very strong with a large amount of sugar added while the tea is hot. The mixture of sugar and tea is then diluted with water, served over ice, and occasionally garnished with lemon. Sometimes the diluted mixture is allowed to cool to room temperature. Other times the sugar and tea mixture is diluted by pouring the hot tea and sugar over a full tumbler of ice to cool it instantly. Sweet tea is traditionally the most common variety of iced tea in the American South; elsewhere in the United States, unsweetened iced tea is more common, although there has been a growing trend of offering both sweetened and plain since the early 2000s. Because of the popularity of sweet tea in the south, plain iced tea is often called unsweet tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "It is a common stereotype of the Southeastern United States that due to the popularity of sweet iced tea in the region, unsweetened iced tea is not available or is frowned upon. It is often the case, however, that the term \"tea\" is assumed by default to mean sweetened iced tea in that region."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In the Northern United States and the Western United States, \"tea\" generally means the hot beverage and iced tea is referred to by name."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In dessert parlors (such as \"Quickly\"), iced green tea is often available (usually flavored with jasmine blossoms), with and without tapioca pearls, as is Hong Kong milk tea (usually served warm in cafes, but poured over ice when served with tapioca, creating a very creamy iced tea)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Rather than drinking tea hot, many Americans prefer tea served with ice. In fact, in the United States, about 80% of the tea consumed is served cold, or \"iced\". Iced tea has become an iconic symbol of the Southern United States and Southern hospitality, often appearing alongside summer barbecue cooking or grilled foods. Iced tea is often made as sweet tea, which is simply iced tea with copious amounts of sugar or sweetener."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Although not produced traditionally (tea is usually served hot, with lemon and sugar/honey), iced tea became popular in these countries following the fall of the Eastern bloc in 1989\u20131990. Iced tea is mainly available in shops, being sold by companies such as Lipton and Nestea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweet Tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sweet tea is a style of iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Iced tea is usually prepared from bagged tea. In addition to tea bags and loose tea, powdered \"instant iced tea mix\" is available in stores. This is made by preparing tea and then dehydrating it, similar to instant coffee. Iced tea can be purchased, like soda, in canned or bottled form at vending machines and convenience stores; usually, this pre-made tea is sweetened with corn syrup, and sometimes some other flavoring, such as lemon or raspberry, is added. Also, like other soft drinks, it can be purchased as a fountain drink, though in some establishments it is pumped from a bag-in-box, and in others, it is simply poured from a separate container that contains freshly brewed tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In restaurants, iced tea is usually served unsweetened except in the Southeastern United States where iced tea is much more common and is available both sweet and unsweetened and \"iced tea\" is often considered to be \"sweet tea\" unless otherwise specified. The reason for the presweetening is that it may be difficult to dissolve sugar in iced tea, even with constant stirring. The result can be insufficiently sweetened tea or gritty, undissolved sugar crystals in the tea. Some restaurants have begun serving iced tea that has been pre-flavored with fruit essences, particularly passion fruit, often as the only iced tea made available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is widely drunk both in bottled and teabag version, (Nestea and Lipton are the most common in supermarkets). Although it is not served traditionally where tea is hot, it is still the most known tea and is well-liked by most."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "In the Southern United States, a regional favorite called sweet tea \u2013 which is brewed, sweetened, and chilled before consumption \u2013 may be served at all meals and throughout the day as an alternate to other beverages. In the United States, about 85% of the tea consumed is served cold, or \"iced\". Iced tea is more frequently consumed during periods of hot weather or in lower latitudes, and hot tea is likewise more common in colder weather. Any confusion when one is visiting different parts of the country can easily be solved by explicitly asking for either \"hot tea\" or \"iced tea.\" Afternoon tea, as a meal, is rarely served in the U.S. except in ritualized special occasions such as the tea party or an afternoon out at a high-end hotel or restaurant, which may also offer cream tea on their menu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea",
        "text": "In the United States, 80% of tea is consumed as iced tea. Sweet tea is native to the southeastern U.S. and is iconic in its cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweet tea",
        "text": "Sweet tea, also known as sweet iced tea, is a popular style of iced tea commonly consumed in countries such as the United States (especially the South) and Indonesia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Bubble tea is usually a strong black tea, sweetened with sugar and condensed milk. It is served cold, usually with tapioca pearls. There are many variations of it, made with different types of teas; fruit-flavored bubble teas are popular as well. Sometimes pudding, jelly, or chunks of fruit are put into it instead of tapioca pearls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Mass-produced iced teas such as Nestea (Nestl\u00e9), Migros Ice Tea and Lipton are popular refreshments, while fresh-brewed iced teas are seldom found outside the home. Iced herbal teas, typically dominated by peppermint, are readily available, as are flavored black teas. It is typically labeled as \"ice tea\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Another popular use for the term \"half-and-half\" is that of a mixture of sweetened and unsweetened tea at a restaurant or fast-food establishment that offers both choices. This provides a middle ground for those who want sweetness but not as much as the sweet tea being served."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In the U.S. south a regional favorite called sweet tea \u2013 which is brewed, sweetened, and chilled in advance of consumption \u2013 may be served at all meals and throughout the day as an alternate to other beverages. In the United States, about 85% of the tea consumed is served cold, or \"iced\". Iced tea is more frequently consumed during periods of hot weather or in lower latitudes, and hot tea is likewise more common in colder weather. Any confusion when one is visiting different parts of the country can easily be solved by explicitly asking for either \"hot tea\" or \"iced tea.\" Afternoon tea, as a meal, is rarely served in the U.S. except in ritualized special occasions such as the tea party or an afternoon out at a high-end hotel or restaurant, which may also offer cream tea on their menu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Because of this danger an alternative called \"refrigerator tea\" has been suggested where the tea is brewed in the refrigerator overnight. This has the dual advantage of preventing the growth of harmful bacteria and the tea already being cold without the addition of ice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "The temperature of the tea brewed in this manner is never heated high enough to kill any bacteria, leaving the water potentially unsafe to drink. The tea should be discarded if it appears thick, syrupy, or has rope-like strands in it, though it may be hazardous even without such indicators."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea",
        "text": "\"Instant tea\", similar to freeze-dried instant coffee and an alternative to brewed tea, can be consumed either hot or cold. Instant tea was developed in the 1930s, with Nestl\u00e9 introducing the first commercial product in 1946, while Redi-Tea debuted instant iced tea in 1953. Additives such as chai, vanilla, honey or fruit, are popular, as is powdered milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In the early 1980s, a mini-revival of demand for better quality teas from all origins occurred in the United States. Prior to this time, much of the tea available in 20th century USA was blended specifically for gallon and half-gallon sized iced tea bags, with the quality of not \"creaming down\" (a creamy looking color that imparts to some teas after cooling down) when iced as a needed aspect; \"clear-liquoring\" teas were required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea's popularity in the United States has led to an addition to standard cutlery sets: the iced tea spoon is a teaspoon with a long handle, suitable for stirring sugar in the tall glasses in which iced tea is usually served. Iced tea is at its most popular in the summer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Thai iced tea or \"cha yen\" () in Thailand is a drink made from strongly brewed black tea. It is sweetened with sugar and condensed milk and served chilled. Evaporated milk, coconut milk or whole milk is generally poured over the tea and ice before serving to add taste and creamy appearance. However, in Thailand, condensed milk and sugar are mixed with the tea before it is poured over ice and then topped with evaporated milk. In Thai restaurants worldwide, it is served in a tall glass, though in Thailand it is more typically poured over the crushed ice in a clear (or translucent) plastic cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea can be brewed by placing tea (bags or loose-leaf) in a large glass container with water and leaving the container in the sun for hours. This often results in a smoother flavor. An advantage is that sun tea does not require using electricity or burning fuel, thus saving energy. Sun tea is sometimes served with syrup or lemon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced lemon tea is available at many Hong Kong restaurants. A strong black tea (e.g., Ceylon) is brewed at length in a metal pot over a burner and prepared as follows: a large glass is filled with ice, a scoop of simple syrup is added (if desired), and the glass is filled to the top with hot tea. Slices of lemon are placed atop the mixture, which are then muddled into the tea by the customer, ensuring that the volatile oils present in the lemon peel are at their peak when consumed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In Canada, iced tea refers to sweetened iced tea, flavoured with lemon. The iced tea can be made at home from drink powder but is usually sold in single bottles or cans alongside other soft drinks. Unlike in the US, iced tea in Canada is not seen as an alternative to hot tea. Sweetened green teas and those flavored with raspberry, peach, or pomegranate are becoming more common via marketing efforts. Sweetened iced tea is often served as an alternative to other soft drinks, prepared by companies like Arizona, Nestl\u00e9 (Nestea) and Brisk. Many health food stores carry iced tea made of whole-leaf tea without additives. Fresh-brewed iced tea can also be found, particularly in smaller independently owned restaurants. Powdered or frozen iced tea is a common preparation at home, due to its ease of use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "The most common variations are lemon and calamansi iced teas. Some brands offer bottled iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "\"Sweet tea\", with sugar or corn syrup added (usually while the tea is still hot from brewing), the mixture then being cooled with ice, is ubiquitous in the Southeastern United States. In these states, when a person says \"tea\", they normally mean sweetened iced tea. The unsweetened variant is often called \"unsweet\" tea instead of unsweetened or plain. The consumption of sweet tea with many meals leads to it sometimes called the \"table wine of the South\", and this trait is considered an important marker of the culture of the Southern United States. Southern sweet tea is made by brewing tea at double strength, adding a large amount of sugar to the freshly brewed hot tea, and diluting to the proper strength. It is served over a glass full of ice cubes and is often garnished with a slice of lemon. While high fructose corn syrup is commonly used as a sweetener for commercially manufactured tea, more often consumers are unaware of this, and when made at home, refined sugar is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In Belgium, the Netherlands (ijsthee), and other parts of Europe, \"Ice-Tea\" is the brand name of a carbonated variety of iced tea marketed by Lipton since 1978. They also market other non-carbonated iced teas under the \"Ice Tea\" brand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Thai tea (also known as Thai iced tea) or \"cha-yen\" () when ordered in Thailand is a drink made from strongly-brewed red tea that usually contains added anise, red and yellow food colouring, and sometimes other spices as well. This tea is sweetened with sugar and condensed milk and served chilled. Evaporated or whole milk is generally poured over the tea and ice before serving without mixing to add taste and creamy appearance. Locally, it is served in a traditional tall glass and when ordered take-out, it is poured over the crushed ice in a clear (or translucent) plastic bag. It can be made into a frapp\u00e9 at more westernised vendors."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "The so-called Long Island Iced Tea usually contains no tea; it is an alcoholic cocktail that looks like iced tea. A variant recipe uses actual iced tea as a mixer and is named after a professional golfer; the drink, called John Daly, contains iced or sweet tea, and vodka, and is based on the Arnold Palmer, which contains half iced tea and half lemonade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thai tea",
        "text": "Thai tea (, , ) is usually known as a Thai drink made from Ceylon tea, milk and sugar, and served hot or cold. It is popular in Southeast Asia and is served in many restaurants that serve Thai food. When served cold it is known as Thai iced tea (, , ; )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is popular in Austria and is commonly known as \"Eistee\" (ice tea); it is usually drunk heavily sweetened. Pfanner and Rauch are two of the most popular manufacturers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Additional variations include:\n* Dark Thai iced tea (Thai: \u0e0a\u0e32\u0e14\u0e33\u0e40\u0e22\u0e47\u0e19, \"cha dam yen\"): Thai tea served chilled with no milk content and sweetened with sugar only. The concept is based on traditional Indian tea, which is used as the main ingredient.\n* Lime Thai tea (Thai: \u0e0a\u0e32\u0e21\u0e30\u0e19\u0e32\u0e27, \"cha manao\"): Similar to dark Thai iced tea but flavored with lime as well as sweetened with sugar. Mint may be added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Tea or TEA may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Although not a traditional way to serve tea, iced tea gained widespread popularity in even rural areas since the late 1980s with canned or bottled tea. Many varieties of tea, including green tea, are available packaged and sold in stores. Many families make their iced tea by either putting much ice in a small amount of strong hot tea or by putting hot tea in a fridge for some time. Common types of iced tea are black, green, oolong (\u70cf\u9f8d\u8336), and many herbals as well. Iced herbal teas are especially popular in the hot summers, where \"yin\"\uff08\u9670\uff09or cooling herbs are used to make tea such as chrysanthemum, kuding tea (\u82e6\u4e01\u8336), etc. Cooled tea (but still warm) was popular throughout ancient times. Refrigerated tea was only available to those politically connected to the Communist Party. The introduction of limited capitalism and the opening markets in the 1990s made refrigeration available to the general population for the first time. China's refrigerator-ownership increased from just 7% of urban families in 1997 to 95% in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea spoon",
        "text": "Iced tea spoon\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Nestea, Lipton, and Pfanner are the most dominant brands and lemon- and peach-flavored iced teas are the most popular variants. Lipton offers several non-carbonated iced teas under the \"Ice Tea\" brand and the carbonated variety under the brand \"Ice Tea Sparkling\". Iced tea is also available in many restaurants and caf\u00e9s. Half-sweetened iced tea (i.e. 50\u00a0g/l sugar compared to the 100\u00a0g/l found in soft drinks) is available in most big supermarkets, mainly \"Lipton Green\". Instant teas are available that can be used to prepare iced tea with cold or hot water which are often called \"Kr\u00fcmeltee\" (meaning crumb tea or crumble tea) because of its characteristic appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Because of the varieties of eateries in the United States, as well as climatic and cultural differences, a variety of iced teas are available. Most prominent are:\n* In barbecue, soul food, and Southern cuisine-style, establishments, along with diners and general eateries, black tea is iced. This is by far the most commonly available form of freshly brewed iced tea, to which the above statements apply. Fruit-flavored teas and herbal teas are also popular iced.\n* In some coffeehouses, more exotic varieties may be iced, such as Jasmine tea or Earl Grey tea.\n* Thai iced tea is common in Thai restaurants.\n* Iced chai (spiced Indian tea) is available from some restaurants and stores. While not traditionally served iced, in the U.S. chai is frequently served iced, with honey as a sweetener, or pre-sweetened when bottled.\n* Iced Jasmine tea, Genmaicha, and H\u014djicha are available from some Chinese cuisine or other Asian cuisine restaurants, but rarely. It is more common to find one of these varieties hot, where the patron may pour the tea over ice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is traditionally served with lemon slice used as a garnish, which is often placed on the rim of the glass. In the Southwest United States (or at least in restaurants with a Southwest theme), lime is also very popular (especially in Mexican restaurants). It is not entirely uncommon for establishments to put out slices of lemon and lime for the customer to take for themselves. Many people in the Southeastern USA will also drink sweet (iced) tea with milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In the United States, iced tea makes up about 85% of all tea consumed and is very popular as an alternative to carbonated soft drinks, especially as a characteristic beverage of the American South. It is ubiquitous in grocery stores, convenience stores, restaurants, vending machines, and soda fountains. It may be freshly made on-premises or available in bottles and cans and at self-serve soda fountains."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced coffee",
        "text": "Coffee brewed then chilled with ice, called \"iced coffee\", appears in menus and recipes in the late 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea",
        "text": "Canned tea is sold prepared and ready to drink. It was introduced in 1981 in Japan. The first bottled tea was introduced by an Indonesian tea company, PT. Sinar Sosro in 1969 with the brand name Teh Botol Sosro (or Sosro bottled tea). In 1983, Swiss-based Bischofszell Food Ltd. was the first company to bottle iced tea on an industrial scale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is a popular drink in Italy and is widely available, generally only in lemon- and peach-flavored incarnations. (which was first released in 1972 by Ferrero) and Lipton are well-known brands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea () is sold in grocery stores. The most popular brands are , and Fuze."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Iced tea can be purchased like soda, in canned or bottled form at vending machines and convenience stores. This pre-made tea is usually sweetened. Sometimes some other flavorings, such as lemon or raspberry, are added. Many restaurants dispense iced tea brewed throughout the day from upright containers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Skittles & Iced Tea",
        "text": "Skittles & Iced Tea\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea started to appear in the United States during the 1860s. Seen as a novelty at first, during the 1870s it became quite widespread. Recipes appeared in print, iced tea was offered on hotel menus, and it was on sale at railroad stations. Its popularity rapidly increased after Richard Blechynden introduced it at the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cold brew tea",
        "text": "Cold brew tea is tea steeped in cold or room temperature water for an extended period of time. The process brews the tea leaves slowly, using time rather than temperature to release the flavors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Cold tea (usually without ice) is popular during the summer months in South Korea. Common varieties include corn, barley, and green tea. Bottled iced tea is found in nearly all grocery and convenience stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Iced tea's popularity in the United States has led to an addition to standard cutlery sets; the iced tea spoon is a standard flatware teaspoon, but with a long handle, suitable for stirring sugar into the taller glasses commonly used for iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Health food and some other specialty stores often carry a different set of iced tea bottles which may include Role Tea, Tazo, Sweet Leaf Tea, MaryAnna's Tea, U.S. brands of the Japanese green tea giant Ito En, and other small companies. These are available in a variety of flavors, although there is less emphasis on fruits and sweeteners and greater emphasis on traditional tea spices and herbs (which can range from mint to the oil of bergamot). Corn syrup as a sweetener is very rare, with cane sugar, honey, and other sweeteners being more prominent. Citric acid as a stand-alone ingredient (i.e., present as a chemical additive and not because of the addition of citrus) is less common. With these alternative producers, unsweetened tea with no additional ingredients (just tea-infused water) may be available, as well as uncommon varieties such as chai tea, white tea, genmai tea, Jasmine tea, Earl Grey tea, and hoji tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk tea",
        "text": "In Britain, when hot tea and cold milk are drunk together, the drink is simply known as \"tea\" due to the vast majority of tea being consumed in such a way. The term \"milk tea\" is unused, although one may specify \"tea with milk\" if context requires it. This may cause confusion for people from cultures that traditionally drink tea without milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea\n--Cultural variations.\n----Austria.\n----Belgium and the Netherlands.\n----Brazil.\n----Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania.\n----Canada.\n----China.\n----Denmark.\n----Germany.\n----Greece.\n----Hong Kong.\n----India.\n----Nepal.\n----Indonesia.\n----Italy.\n----Japan.\n----Malaysia.\n----Norway.\n----Philippines.\n----Portugal.\n----Singapore.\n----South Africa.\n----South Korea.\n----Sweden.\n----Switzerland.\n----Taiwan.\n----Thailand.\n----Turkey.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n----Vietnam.\n--History.\n--Varieties.\n----Bottled iced tea.\n----Sweet tea.\n----Unsweet Tea.\n----Sun and refrigerator tea.\n----Fountain iced tea.\n----Half-and-half.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "As early as 1823, Marguerite Countess of Blessington wrote of sipping iced tea in Naples."
      },
      {
        "title": "T\u00e9a",
        "text": "T\u00e9a can refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea spoon",
        "text": "Originally known as a parfait spoon, it is also commonly used for eating ice cream, especially floats and sundaes. As these desserts are usually served in tall glasses, regular teaspoons or dessert spoons become inconvenient choices due to their limited reach."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Tea (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is a common drink in India, found at most restaurants, hotels, and malls. The most popular form of iced tea in India is ginger lemon iced tea or lemon iced tea. Other kinds are rather uncommon, though peach iced tea is quite popular. Brands of iced tea include Lipton and Nestl\u00e9, which have become affiliated with the same."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In 1996, the City of Cincinnati's Health Department discovered high levels of coliform bacteria (due to inadequate daily cleansing) in the spigots of dispensers filled by automatic fresh brewed iced tea machines in several area restaurants. Approximately the same time, the Coca-Cola and Pepsi Cola companies began aggressive targeted marketing campaigns aimed at replacing fresh brewed iced tea in foodservice establishments with the cola companies' tea concentrate that is dispensed using the same method as fountain drinks, pumped from a bag-in-box. In many cases, the cola companies provided a fountain dispenser for the tea concentrate that looked similar to the containers that were previously used to dispense fresh-brewed tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Long Island iced tea",
        "text": "A Long Island iced tea or Long Island ice tea is a type of cocktail typically made with vodka, tequila, light rum, triple sec, gin, and a splash of cola, which gives the drink the same amber hue as iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of the Southern United States",
        "text": "Iced tea is commonly associated with the South. Specifically, sweet tea, or brewed iced tea sweetened with granulated sugar, has traditionally been served in the South. In fact, most southern restaurants serve sweet tea in addition to \"unsweet tea\", whereas most restaurants in other regions serve only (unsweetened) iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Most tea sold in the United States is sold in bags, although loose leaf teas and iced are also available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Long Island iced tea",
        "text": "Long Island iced tea\n--Origin.\n--Analysis.\n--Recipes and variations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Tea is a beverage made from steeping the processed leaves, buds, or twigs of the tea bush in water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is sold in 7-Eleven stores and supermarkets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced coffee",
        "text": "The \"Tak\" technique involves leaving the coffee to cool to room temperature over a number of hours, then adding ice afterwards. A bottled variant is to be made available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cup of Tea",
        "text": "\"Cup of Tea\" may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "The oldest printed recipes for iced tea date back to the 1870s. In her 1871 cook book, Mary Ann Bryan Mason wrote of iced tea: \"...it should be well iced\". Two of the earliest cookbooks with iced tea recipes are the \"Buckeye Cookbook\" by Estelle Woods Wilcox, first published in 1876, and \"Housekeeping in Old Virginia\" by Marion Cabell Tyree, copyright 1878."
      },
      {
        "title": "King of Pops",
        "text": "-Thai Iced Tea"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced!",
        "text": "Iced!\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea leaf grading",
        "text": "When crushed to make bagged teas, the tea is referred to as \"broken\", as in \"broken orange pekoe\" (\"BOP\"). These lower grades include fannings and dust, which are tiny remnants created in the sorting and crushing processes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea bowl",
        "text": "Tea bowl may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Society Tea",
        "text": "Iced Teas\n* Society Iced Tea \u2013 Lemon flavour green tea\n* Society Iced Tea \u2013 Peach and Apricot\n* Society Iced Tea \u2013 Raw Mango"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is a popular drink in Indonesia. It is served in a vast majority of foodservice businesses, ranging from street hawkers and traditional food corners to high-end restaurants. Iced tea is sweetened; it is known as \"es manis\" and is served with a meal. Bottled brands include Sosro and Lipton."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Japanese-style products rather than the Western-style products are penetrating the markets of East Asia. Several Japanese companies have started exporting their products to Europe and North America, in particular Ito En, which markets a whole range of Japanese-style unsweetened green and oolong teas in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard Blechynden",
        "text": "In 1904, Blechyden reportedly decided that a cool tea drink would be more profitable than hot tea during that year's World's Fair. The fair was held in St. Louis that year during a particularly hot period, driving up sales of Blechyden's iced tea. The beverage sold so well that it gain national popularity after the event. Another telling of Blechdyen's story holds that his marketing of iced tea was an act of \"desperation\". In this telling of iced tea's origin, Blechdyn had originally been selling hot tea, but found that fairgoers weren't interested in near-boiling tea in the intense St. Louis heat. It is unknown if he had previously heard of iced tea, but it is certain that his decision to begin selling chilled tea was widely popular at the fair and had a lasting impact."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweet Tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "\"Sweet Tea\" can also refer to the following:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea spoon",
        "text": "An iced tea spoon, also called a soda spoon or a latte spoon, is a thin spoon with a very long handle. It is used primarily in the United States, for stirring sugar or other sweeteners into iced tea, which is traditionally served in a tall glass. This is why the spoon has a very long handle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Teaoraereke",
        "text": "Teaoraereke\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweet Tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sweet Tea (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "English tea",
        "text": "English tea may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Black tea",
        "text": "The tea is then ready for packaging."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In a traditionally tea-drinking country such as Turkey, with its own tea and tea culture, iced tea became popular when Lipton introduced it in the 2000s. Iced teas are a popular alternative to soft drinks. Lipton and Nestea were the two major brands until 2012 when the contract between Coca-Cola \u0130\u00e7ecek A.\u015e. and Nestea expired. Coca-Cola replaced Nestea with its Fuze Beverage brand, but due to the word \"f\u00fcze\" meaning \"missile\" in Turkish, the name used for the Turkish market is Fuse Tea. The national tea company \u00c7aykur is in the market with its iced tea brand 'Didi'."
      },
      {
        "title": "All in This Tea",
        "text": "All in This Tea\n--Critical response.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mate (drink)",
        "text": "Today, mate tea is sold commercially in tea bags and as bottled iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Green Tea may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Although iced tea is not as widely consumed in the United Kingdom as in other European countries, the drink became more popular in the 2000s. In the 1990s Lipton sold a carbonated iced tea, similar to the one sold in Belgium. In recent years, Lipton has returned to the general sale of non-carbonated tea, quickly followed by Nestea and Twinings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cold brew tea",
        "text": "Cold brew tea\n--Method.\n--Chemical composition.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Shit",
        "text": "In polite company, sometimes backronyms such as \"Sugar Honey in Tea\" or \"Sugar Honey Ice(d) Tea\" are used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nilgiri tea",
        "text": "Nilgiri tea is particularly useful for making iced tea since it retains its clarity as it cools, whereas other black teas will often become cloudy. Global commercial brands, such as Nestea, utilize Nilgiri tea in their iced tea products that use real tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lipton",
        "text": "Brisk, formerly Lipton Brisk, is an iced tea brand distributed primarily in North America as a joint venture between Lipton and PepsiCo. It differs from Lipton's other iced tea brands in that phosphoric acid is added to the blend, giving the beverage a distinctive sharp flavour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Popular manufacturers of bottled or canned iced tea include Arizona, Honest Tea, Lipton, Nestea, Gold Peak, Snapple and Turkey Hill. Such tea can be found on the shelves of most Western groceries and convenience stores, or online, in a variety of flavors and leaf types (usually black or green, occasionally white). With iced tea mass-produced at this scale, unsweetened varieties are somewhat rare: Most are sweetened with corn syrup, and their sweetness places them in the same market as soft drinks. Brands such as Snapple and Lipton offer iced teas sweetened with sugar in place of corn syrup. Both the sweetened and unsweetened varieties usually contain the additive citric acid, labeled either \"for flavor\" or as a \"preservative.\" Canned varieties are canned under high pressure to prevent the cans from being crushed, which may result in very mild effervescence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Green Tea (disambiguation)\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When tea is chilled and cooled is known as what?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Iced tea is usually served in a glass with ice, but it can refer to any tea that has been chilled or cooled."
    ],
    "topic": "Iced tea",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Iced tea:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iced tea"
        ],
        "ctx": "Iced tea (or ice tea) is a form of cold tea. Though usually served in a glass with ice, it can refer to any tea that has been chilled or cooled. It may be sweetened with sugar, syrup and/or apple slices. Iced tea is also a popular packaged drink and can be mixed with flavored syrup, with multiple common flavors including lemon, raspberry, lime, passion fruit, peach, orange, strawberry, and cherry."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea (or ice tea) is a form of cold tea. Though usually served in a glass with ice, it can refer to any tea that has been chilled or cooled. It may be sweetened with sugar, syrup and/or apple slices. Iced tea is also a popular packaged drink and can be mixed with flavored syrup, with multiple common flavors including lemon, raspberry, lime, passion fruit, peach, orange, strawberry, and cherry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "While most iced teas get their flavor from tea leaves (\"Camellia sinensis\"), herbal teas are sometimes served cold and referred to as iced tea. Iced tea is sometimes made by a particularly long steeping of tea leaves at a lower temperature (one hour in the sun versus five minutes at , which is known as sun tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "The two dominating brands are Lipton and Nestea\u2014the two best-selling flavors are lemon and peach. Iced tea is also sold in grocery stores and some restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Although not produced traditionally (tea is usually served hot, with lemon and sugar/honey), iced tea became popular in these countries following the fall of the Eastern bloc in 1989\u20131990. Iced tea is mainly available in shops, being sold by companies such as Lipton and Nestea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Mass-produced iced teas such as Nestea (Nestl\u00e9), Migros Ice Tea and Lipton are popular refreshments, while fresh-brewed iced teas are seldom found outside the home. Iced herbal teas, typically dominated by peppermint, are readily available, as are flavored black teas. It is typically labeled as \"ice tea\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Rather than drinking tea hot, many Americans prefer tea served with ice. In fact, in the United States, about 80% of the tea consumed is served cold, or \"iced\". Iced tea has become an iconic symbol of the Southern United States and Southern hospitality, often appearing alongside summer barbecue cooking or grilled foods. Iced tea is often made as sweet tea, which is simply iced tea with copious amounts of sugar or sweetener."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is widely drunk both in bottled and teabag version, (Nestea and Lipton are the most common in supermarkets). Although it is not served traditionally where tea is hot, it is still the most known tea and is well-liked by most."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Nestea, Lipton, and Pfanner are the most dominant brands and lemon- and peach-flavored iced teas are the most popular variants. Lipton offers several non-carbonated iced teas under the \"Ice Tea\" brand and the carbonated variety under the brand \"Ice Tea Sparkling\". Iced tea is also available in many restaurants and caf\u00e9s. Half-sweetened iced tea (i.e. 50\u00a0g/l sugar compared to the 100\u00a0g/l found in soft drinks) is available in most big supermarkets, mainly \"Lipton Green\". Instant teas are available that can be used to prepare iced tea with cold or hot water which are often called \"Kr\u00fcmeltee\" (meaning crumb tea or crumble tea) because of its characteristic appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Sweet tea is a tea that is brewed very strong with a large amount of sugar added while the tea is hot. The mixture of sugar and tea is then diluted with water, served over ice, and occasionally garnished with lemon. Sometimes the diluted mixture is allowed to cool to room temperature. Other times the sugar and tea mixture is diluted by pouring the hot tea and sugar over a full tumbler of ice to cool it instantly. Sweet tea is traditionally the most common variety of iced tea in the American South; elsewhere in the United States, unsweetened iced tea is more common, although there has been a growing trend of offering both sweetened and plain since the early 2000s. Because of the popularity of sweet tea in the south, plain iced tea is often called unsweet tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Because of the varieties of eateries in the United States, as well as climatic and cultural differences, a variety of iced teas are available. Most prominent are:\n* In barbecue, soul food, and Southern cuisine-style, establishments, along with diners and general eateries, black tea is iced. This is by far the most commonly available form of freshly brewed iced tea, to which the above statements apply. Fruit-flavored teas and herbal teas are also popular iced.\n* In some coffeehouses, more exotic varieties may be iced, such as Jasmine tea or Earl Grey tea.\n* Thai iced tea is common in Thai restaurants.\n* Iced chai (spiced Indian tea) is available from some restaurants and stores. While not traditionally served iced, in the U.S. chai is frequently served iced, with honey as a sweetener, or pre-sweetened when bottled.\n* Iced Jasmine tea, Genmaicha, and H\u014djicha are available from some Chinese cuisine or other Asian cuisine restaurants, but rarely. It is more common to find one of these varieties hot, where the patron may pour the tea over ice."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In restaurants, iced tea is usually served unsweetened except in the Southeastern United States where iced tea is much more common and is available both sweet and unsweetened and \"iced tea\" is often considered to be \"sweet tea\" unless otherwise specified. The reason for the presweetening is that it may be difficult to dissolve sugar in iced tea, even with constant stirring. The result can be insufficiently sweetened tea or gritty, undissolved sugar crystals in the tea. Some restaurants have begun serving iced tea that has been pre-flavored with fruit essences, particularly passion fruit, often as the only iced tea made available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "It is a common stereotype of the Southeastern United States that due to the popularity of sweet iced tea in the region, unsweetened iced tea is not available or is frowned upon. It is often the case, however, that the term \"tea\" is assumed by default to mean sweetened iced tea in that region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "The most common variations are lemon and calamansi iced teas. Some brands offer bottled iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea () is sold in grocery stores. The most popular brands are , and Fuze."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Popular manufacturers of bottled or canned iced tea include Arizona, Honest Tea, Lipton, Nestea, Gold Peak, Snapple and Turkey Hill. Such tea can be found on the shelves of most Western groceries and convenience stores, or online, in a variety of flavors and leaf types (usually black or green, occasionally white). With iced tea mass-produced at this scale, unsweetened varieties are somewhat rare: Most are sweetened with corn syrup, and their sweetness places them in the same market as soft drinks. Brands such as Snapple and Lipton offer iced teas sweetened with sugar in place of corn syrup. Both the sweetened and unsweetened varieties usually contain the additive citric acid, labeled either \"for flavor\" or as a \"preservative.\" Canned varieties are canned under high pressure to prevent the cans from being crushed, which may result in very mild effervescence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Health food and some other specialty stores often carry a different set of iced tea bottles which may include Role Tea, Tazo, Sweet Leaf Tea, MaryAnna's Tea, U.S. brands of the Japanese green tea giant Ito En, and other small companies. These are available in a variety of flavors, although there is less emphasis on fruits and sweeteners and greater emphasis on traditional tea spices and herbs (which can range from mint to the oil of bergamot). Corn syrup as a sweetener is very rare, with cane sugar, honey, and other sweeteners being more prominent. Citric acid as a stand-alone ingredient (i.e., present as a chemical additive and not because of the addition of citrus) is less common. With these alternative producers, unsweetened tea with no additional ingredients (just tea-infused water) may be available, as well as uncommon varieties such as chai tea, white tea, genmai tea, Jasmine tea, Earl Grey tea, and hoji tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In dessert parlors (such as \"Quickly\"), iced green tea is often available (usually flavored with jasmine blossoms), with and without tapioca pearls, as is Hong Kong milk tea (usually served warm in cafes, but poured over ice when served with tapioca, creating a very creamy iced tea)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea's popularity in the United States has led to an addition to standard cutlery sets: the iced tea spoon is a teaspoon with a long handle, suitable for stirring sugar in the tall glasses in which iced tea is usually served. Iced tea is at its most popular in the summer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In the United States, iced tea makes up about 85% of all tea consumed and is very popular as an alternative to carbonated soft drinks, especially as a characteristic beverage of the American South. It is ubiquitous in grocery stores, convenience stores, restaurants, vending machines, and soda fountains. It may be freshly made on-premises or available in bottles and cans and at self-serve soda fountains."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is a popular drink in Italy and is widely available, generally only in lemon- and peach-flavored incarnations. (which was first released in 1972 by Ferrero) and Lipton are well-known brands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Although not a traditional way to serve tea, iced tea gained widespread popularity in even rural areas since the late 1980s with canned or bottled tea. Many varieties of tea, including green tea, are available packaged and sold in stores. Many families make their iced tea by either putting much ice in a small amount of strong hot tea or by putting hot tea in a fridge for some time. Common types of iced tea are black, green, oolong (\u70cf\u9f8d\u8336), and many herbals as well. Iced herbal teas are especially popular in the hot summers, where \"yin\"\uff08\u9670\uff09or cooling herbs are used to make tea such as chrysanthemum, kuding tea (\u82e6\u4e01\u8336), etc. Cooled tea (but still warm) was popular throughout ancient times. Refrigerated tea was only available to those politically connected to the Communist Party. The introduction of limited capitalism and the opening markets in the 1990s made refrigeration available to the general population for the first time. China's refrigerator-ownership increased from just 7% of urban families in 1997 to 95% in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Iced tea is usually prepared from bagged tea. In addition to tea bags and loose tea, powdered \"instant iced tea mix\" is available in stores. This is made by preparing tea and then dehydrating it, similar to instant coffee. Iced tea can be purchased, like soda, in canned or bottled form at vending machines and convenience stores; usually, this pre-made tea is sweetened with corn syrup, and sometimes some other flavoring, such as lemon or raspberry, is added. Also, like other soft drinks, it can be purchased as a fountain drink, though in some establishments it is pumped from a bag-in-box, and in others, it is simply poured from a separate container that contains freshly brewed tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In Canada, iced tea refers to sweetened iced tea, flavoured with lemon. The iced tea can be made at home from drink powder but is usually sold in single bottles or cans alongside other soft drinks. Unlike in the US, iced tea in Canada is not seen as an alternative to hot tea. Sweetened green teas and those flavored with raspberry, peach, or pomegranate are becoming more common via marketing efforts. Sweetened iced tea is often served as an alternative to other soft drinks, prepared by companies like Arizona, Nestl\u00e9 (Nestea) and Brisk. Many health food stores carry iced tea made of whole-leaf tea without additives. Fresh-brewed iced tea can also be found, particularly in smaller independently owned restaurants. Powdered or frozen iced tea is a common preparation at home, due to its ease of use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweet tea",
        "text": "Sweet tea, also known as sweet iced tea, is a popular style of iced tea commonly consumed in countries such as the United States (especially the South) and Indonesia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is a common drink in India, found at most restaurants, hotels, and malls. The most popular form of iced tea in India is ginger lemon iced tea or lemon iced tea. Other kinds are rather uncommon, though peach iced tea is quite popular. Brands of iced tea include Lipton and Nestl\u00e9, which have become affiliated with the same."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is traditionally served with lemon slice used as a garnish, which is often placed on the rim of the glass. In the Southwest United States (or at least in restaurants with a Southwest theme), lime is also very popular (especially in Mexican restaurants). It is not entirely uncommon for establishments to put out slices of lemon and lime for the customer to take for themselves. Many people in the Southeastern USA will also drink sweet (iced) tea with milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Bubble tea is usually a strong black tea, sweetened with sugar and condensed milk. It is served cold, usually with tapioca pearls. There are many variations of it, made with different types of teas; fruit-flavored bubble teas are popular as well. Sometimes pudding, jelly, or chunks of fruit are put into it instead of tapioca pearls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is served in many bars, restaurants, grocery stores, schools, and fast food outlets as an alternative to carbonated soda. In most areas, the Nestea brand is the most popular. It is available in powdered form as well as in cans and bottles. Iced tea in the Philippines is almost always sweet, with a slight lemon flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Ice tea in Greece is primarily either lemon or peach flavor. Most dominant brands are Lipton, Fuze Tea, Arizona, Nestea, and Life Tsai. Lately, new flavors have appeared but have not reached the popularity of lemon and peach, though varieties of these exist such as no sugar or with green tea with the above flavorings. Sparkling Ice Tea is almost non-existent, but there is powdered Ice Tea available in supermarkets. Ice Tea not concerning the brand is readily available in most restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea",
        "text": "In the United States, 80% of tea is consumed as iced tea. Sweet tea is native to the southeastern U.S. and is iconic in its cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "This is another name for regular Iced Tea, but in the Southern area of America it is called this because Sweetened tea is the norm, so they have to call the Tea \"Unsweet\" to make a divide between the two types of teas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Iced tea can be purchased like soda, in canned or bottled form at vending machines and convenience stores. This pre-made tea is usually sweetened. Sometimes some other flavorings, such as lemon or raspberry, are added. Many restaurants dispense iced tea brewed throughout the day from upright containers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Cold tea (usually without ice) is popular during the summer months in South Korea. Common varieties include corn, barley, and green tea. Bottled iced tea is found in nearly all grocery and convenience stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Iced tea's popularity in the United States has led to an addition to standard cutlery sets; the iced tea spoon is a standard flatware teaspoon, but with a long handle, suitable for stirring sugar into the taller glasses commonly used for iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In a traditionally tea-drinking country such as Turkey, with its own tea and tea culture, iced tea became popular when Lipton introduced it in the 2000s. Iced teas are a popular alternative to soft drinks. Lipton and Nestea were the two major brands until 2012 when the contract between Coca-Cola \u0130\u00e7ecek A.\u015e. and Nestea expired. Coca-Cola replaced Nestea with its Fuze Beverage brand, but due to the word \"f\u00fcze\" meaning \"missile\" in Turkish, the name used for the Turkish market is Fuse Tea. The national tea company \u00c7aykur is in the market with its iced tea brand 'Didi'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea\n--Cultural variations.\n----Austria.\n----Belgium and the Netherlands.\n----Brazil.\n----Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania.\n----Canada.\n----China.\n----Denmark.\n----Germany.\n----Greece.\n----Hong Kong.\n----India.\n----Nepal.\n----Indonesia.\n----Italy.\n----Japan.\n----Malaysia.\n----Norway.\n----Philippines.\n----Portugal.\n----Singapore.\n----South Africa.\n----South Korea.\n----Sweden.\n----Switzerland.\n----Taiwan.\n----Thailand.\n----Turkey.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n----Vietnam.\n--History.\n--Varieties.\n----Bottled iced tea.\n----Sweet tea.\n----Unsweet Tea.\n----Sun and refrigerator tea.\n----Fountain iced tea.\n----Half-and-half.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Most iced tea blends in the USA have traditionally been made from the teas of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Argentina and Malawi. Even though there is no correlation between the quality of cloudy teas versus clear teas, clear iced teas were considered more attractive by the consumer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is popular in Austria and is commonly known as \"Eistee\" (ice tea); it is usually drunk heavily sweetened. Pfanner and Rauch are two of the most popular manufacturers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea can be brewed by placing tea (bags or loose-leaf) in a large glass container with water and leaving the container in the sun for hours. This often results in a smoother flavor. An advantage is that sun tea does not require using electricity or burning fuel, thus saving energy. Sun tea is sometimes served with syrup or lemon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Iced tea is a cold tea drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "In the Southern United States, a regional favorite called sweet tea \u2013 which is brewed, sweetened, and chilled before consumption \u2013 may be served at all meals and throughout the day as an alternate to other beverages. In the United States, about 85% of the tea consumed is served cold, or \"iced\". Iced tea is more frequently consumed during periods of hot weather or in lower latitudes, and hot tea is likewise more common in colder weather. Any confusion when one is visiting different parts of the country can easily be solved by explicitly asking for either \"hot tea\" or \"iced tea.\" Afternoon tea, as a meal, is rarely served in the U.S. except in ritualized special occasions such as the tea party or an afternoon out at a high-end hotel or restaurant, which may also offer cream tea on their menu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Additional variations include:\n* Dark Thai iced tea (Thai: \u0e0a\u0e32\u0e14\u0e33\u0e40\u0e22\u0e47\u0e19, \"cha dam yen\"): Thai tea served chilled with no milk content and sweetened with sugar only. The concept is based on traditional Indian tea, which is used as the main ingredient.\n* Lime Thai tea (Thai: \u0e0a\u0e32\u0e21\u0e30\u0e19\u0e32\u0e27, \"cha manao\"): Similar to dark Thai iced tea but flavored with lime as well as sweetened with sugar. Mint may be added."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In the U.S. south a regional favorite called sweet tea \u2013 which is brewed, sweetened, and chilled in advance of consumption \u2013 may be served at all meals and throughout the day as an alternate to other beverages. In the United States, about 85% of the tea consumed is served cold, or \"iced\". Iced tea is more frequently consumed during periods of hot weather or in lower latitudes, and hot tea is likewise more common in colder weather. Any confusion when one is visiting different parts of the country can easily be solved by explicitly asking for either \"hot tea\" or \"iced tea.\" Afternoon tea, as a meal, is rarely served in the U.S. except in ritualized special occasions such as the tea party or an afternoon out at a high-end hotel or restaurant, which may also offer cream tea on their menu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea started to appear in the United States during the 1860s. Seen as a novelty at first, during the 1870s it became quite widespread. Recipes appeared in print, iced tea was offered on hotel menus, and it was on sale at railroad stations. Its popularity rapidly increased after Richard Blechynden introduced it at the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Another popular use for the term \"half-and-half\" is that of a mixture of sweetened and unsweetened tea at a restaurant or fast-food establishment that offers both choices. This provides a middle ground for those who want sweetness but not as much as the sweet tea being served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is a popular drink in Indonesia. It is served in a vast majority of foodservice businesses, ranging from street hawkers and traditional food corners to high-end restaurants. Iced tea is sweetened; it is known as \"es manis\" and is served with a meal. Bottled brands include Sosro and Lipton."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Iced tea may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "24 flavors",
        "text": "The tea is somewhat bitter in taste and may be consumed by a person who has too much 'yeet hey' or 'hot air'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Iced tea (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In Belgium, the Netherlands (ijsthee), and other parts of Europe, \"Ice-Tea\" is the brand name of a carbonated variety of iced tea marketed by Lipton since 1978. They also market other non-carbonated iced teas under the \"Ice Tea\" brand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of the Southern United States",
        "text": "Iced tea is commonly associated with the South. Specifically, sweet tea, or brewed iced tea sweetened with granulated sugar, has traditionally been served in the South. In fact, most southern restaurants serve sweet tea in addition to \"unsweet tea\", whereas most restaurants in other regions serve only (unsweetened) iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Japan is one of the most important iced tea markets in the world, with iced tea in bottles and cans a common sight in the country's ubiquitous vending machines. Japanese iced-tea products mirror the market for hot tea in the sense that they are mostly green tea and oolong products, usually unflavoured and mostly unsweetened. Suntory, Kirin, and the Coca-Cola Company are some of the largest producers. Lipton, the world's largest tea brand, offers a range of iced tea products based on black tea through joint ventures with two local partners, Suntory and Morinaga. Black tea products are sweetened with sugar and come in a variety of flavors, including lemon, peach and unflavored. Milk tea is another flavor of black tea that is particular to the Japanese market. Kirin Beverage also offers a few carbonated black tea products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweet Tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sweet tea is a style of iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lipton",
        "text": "Lipton Iced Tea or Lipton Ice Tea is sold in five flavours, lemon, peach, peach & nectarine, mango and raspberry. Green Tea and Rooibos flavours are also available in some regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nilgiri tea",
        "text": "Nilgiri tea is particularly useful for making iced tea since it retains its clarity as it cools, whereas other black teas will often become cloudy. Global commercial brands, such as Nestea, utilize Nilgiri tea in their iced tea products that use real tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea has become increasingly popular in South Africa and is now widely available in cafes and retail outlets countrywide. Nestea, Lipton, Manhattan and Fuze Tea are the most popular brands, in addition to the South African brand BOS, which uses rooibos sourced locally from the Western Cape."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "The so-called Long Island Iced Tea usually contains no tea; it is an alcoholic cocktail that looks like iced tea. A variant recipe uses actual iced tea as a mixer and is named after a professional golfer; the drink, called John Daly, contains iced or sweet tea, and vodka, and is based on the Arnold Palmer, which contains half iced tea and half lemonade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Japanese-style products rather than the Western-style products are penetrating the markets of East Asia. Several Japanese companies have started exporting their products to Europe and North America, in particular Ito En, which markets a whole range of Japanese-style unsweetened green and oolong teas in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green tea ice cream",
        "text": "Statistics from the Japanese Ice Cream Association show that green tea ice cream was ranked third in the \"Favorite Ice Cream Flavor\" study."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In the early 1980s, a mini-revival of demand for better quality teas from all origins occurred in the United States. Prior to this time, much of the tea available in 20th century USA was blended specifically for gallon and half-gallon sized iced tea bags, with the quality of not \"creaming down\" (a creamy looking color that imparts to some teas after cooling down) when iced as a needed aspect; \"clear-liquoring\" teas were required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea has been a popular drink in Portugal since the early 1990s. It is sold in cans and bottles found in bars, restaurants, grocery stores, and supermarkets. Lipton Ice Tea, Nestea and Frutea are the leading brands. The most common types of iced tea sold in Portugal are lemon, peach or mango flavored."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Although iced tea is not as widely consumed in the United Kingdom as in other European countries, the drink became more popular in the 2000s. In the 1990s Lipton sold a carbonated iced tea, similar to the one sold in Belgium. In recent years, Lipton has returned to the general sale of non-carbonated tea, quickly followed by Nestea and Twinings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea",
        "text": "\"Instant tea\", similar to freeze-dried instant coffee and an alternative to brewed tea, can be consumed either hot or cold. Instant tea was developed in the 1930s, with Nestl\u00e9 introducing the first commercial product in 1946, while Redi-Tea debuted instant iced tea in 1953. Additives such as chai, vanilla, honey or fruit, are popular, as is powdered milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In the Northern United States and the Western United States, \"tea\" generally means the hot beverage and iced tea is referred to by name."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pickwick (brand)",
        "text": "There are several types of tea flavors including: forest fruits, lemon, orange, strawberry, cactus, melon, cherries, tropical fruits, southern fruits, mango, peach, cinnamon, vanilla, green tea, rooibos, easter tea flavors, traditional tea flavors, iced teas and separate teas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is a very popular drink in Malaysia and is mostly sold in mamak stalls as well as kopitiams across the country. The two most common types of tea are plain Chinese iced tea \"(Teh O' Ais\") and iced lime tea (\"Teh O' Ais Limau\"). The name \"Teh O\" means \"empty tea\" which are served without condensed milk but with sugar, unlike \"Teh Tarik\". Both varieties can be bought at most coffee shops and restaurants and are usually made by the outlet, though canned and bottle iced lemon tea is readily available at grocery stores. Popular brands of iced lemon tea are Lipton, Nestea, and F&N Seasons as well as F&N iced tea of Oishi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Thai iced tea or \"cha yen\" () in Thailand is a drink made from strongly brewed black tea. It is sweetened with sugar and condensed milk and served chilled. Evaporated milk, coconut milk or whole milk is generally poured over the tea and ice before serving to add taste and creamy appearance. However, in Thailand, condensed milk and sugar are mixed with the tea before it is poured over ice and then topped with evaporated milk. In Thai restaurants worldwide, it is served in a tall glass, though in Thailand it is more typically poured over the crushed ice in a clear (or translucent) plastic cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green tea ice cream",
        "text": "or matcha ice (\u62b9\u8336\u30a2\u30a4\u30b9 \"Matcha aisu\") is a Japanese ice cream flavor. This flavor is popular in Japan and other parts of East Asia. Green tea ice cream is also sold in \"monaka\" form. It has been available in the United States since the late 1970s, primarily in Japanese restaurants and markets, but is currently moving into mainstream availability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Long Island iced tea",
        "text": "The cocktail has been criticized for its large number of ingredients, making it cumbersome to prepare in busy bars. It is considered a favorite of university students in the United States and it has thus garnered negative connotations as \"an act of mixological atrocity favored by college students and wastrels\", in the words of one food critic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard Blechynden",
        "text": "Richard Blechynden was an American merchant who is credited with popularizing iced tea. Blechynden sold iced tea at the 1904 World's Fair, after which the drink attained nationwide recognition."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "\"Sweet tea\", with sugar or corn syrup added (usually while the tea is still hot from brewing), the mixture then being cooled with ice, is ubiquitous in the Southeastern United States. In these states, when a person says \"tea\", they normally mean sweetened iced tea. The unsweetened variant is often called \"unsweet\" tea instead of unsweetened or plain. The consumption of sweet tea with many meals leads to it sometimes called the \"table wine of the South\", and this trait is considered an important marker of the culture of the Southern United States. Southern sweet tea is made by brewing tea at double strength, adding a large amount of sugar to the freshly brewed hot tea, and diluting to the proper strength. It is served over a glass full of ice cubes and is often garnished with a slice of lemon. While high fructose corn syrup is commonly used as a sweetener for commercially manufactured tea, more often consumers are unaware of this, and when made at home, refined sugar is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice cream",
        "text": "The most popular flavours of ice cream in North America (based on consumer surveys) are vanilla and chocolate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shirin David",
        "text": "In late summer 2021, David brought her own ice tea line called \"DirTea\" (\"Dir\" stands for \"dirty\"; \"Tea\" stands for \"tea\") out. Three different tastes called \"Candy Shop\" (Cotton Candy), \"Wet Peach\" (Peach) and \"Busty Blueberry\" (Blueberry) came out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peace Iced Tea",
        "text": "Peace Iced Tea (often labeled Peace Tea) is a brand of assorted iced tea beverages produced by the Coca-Cola Company. It was originally produced by the Monster Beverage Company. The product launched on December 21, 2009. Peace Tea contains no artificial flavors or coloring, although it does contain an artificial sweetener, sucralose. The only flavor not to include sucralose was the Unsweetened Tea (also branded as High Tea), but it was discontinued in early 2012. Peace tea is served in 23 oz cans in the United States, and 695 mL cans in Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "The temperature of the tea brewed in this manner is never heated high enough to kill any bacteria, leaving the water potentially unsafe to drink. The tea should be discarded if it appears thick, syrupy, or has rope-like strands in it, though it may be hazardous even without such indicators."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In Brazil, particularly in Rio de Janeiro, one of the most popular beverages is mate or \"ch\u00e1 mate\". Unlike the Argentinian or gaucho mate (also known as chimarr\u00e3o), the carioca rendering is consumed iced and sweetened. A preferred flavouring is lime juice (not lemon), referred in Rio as \"mate com lim\u00e3o\". It is a part of the local beach culture, where it is sold by walking vendors in portable coolers. Mate dried leaves can be bought in supermarkets to be made at home. The most popular brand is Le\u00e3o, originally from Paran\u00e1, and later acquired by The Coca-Cola Company. It is generally left overnight at the refrigerator. Le\u00e3o also markets mate as a non-carbonated soft drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Because of this danger an alternative called \"refrigerator tea\" has been suggested where the tea is brewed in the refrigerator overnight. This has the dual advantage of preventing the growth of harmful bacteria and the tea already being cold without the addition of ice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Long Island iced tea",
        "text": "The cocktail's flavor has been described as \"bright and refreshing\". It is easy to drink, making it \"dangerously boozy\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Long Island iced tea",
        "text": "However, there are many similar cocktails due to the popularity of the cocktail and the large number of ingredients that can be substituted with alternatives. Some variations include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Thai tea (also known as Thai iced tea) or \"cha-yen\" () when ordered in Thailand is a drink made from strongly-brewed red tea that usually contains added anise, red and yellow food colouring, and sometimes other spices as well. This tea is sweetened with sugar and condensed milk and served chilled. Evaporated or whole milk is generally poured over the tea and ice before serving without mixing to add taste and creamy appearance. Locally, it is served in a traditional tall glass and when ordered take-out, it is poured over the crushed ice in a clear (or translucent) plastic bag. It can be made into a frapp\u00e9 at more westernised vendors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peace Iced Tea",
        "text": "Once Peace Tea was transferred to the Coca-Cola Company in 2015, newer and more simple designs were produced.\n*Razzleberry (Raspberry)\n*Sweet Lemon\n*Sno-berry (Blueberry)\n*Green Tea\n*Caddy Shack (Tea and Lemonade)\n*Just Peachy (Called Peach Party in Canada)\n*Pineapple Groove Zer-Oh\n*Hello Mango (Mango Green Tea)\n*Cheeky Cherry (Canada only)\n*Cheeky Cherry Fizz (Canada only)\n*Sweet Lemon Fizz (Canada only)\n*Strawberry Lemon Love (Strawberry Lemonade, Canada only)\n*Mango Mood\n*Ceylon\n*Cranberry\n*Pink Lemonade and Tea\n*Unsweetened Tea\n*Texas Style Sweet Tea\n*Strawberry Lemon Love (discontinued in US)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is sold in 7-Eleven stores and supermarkets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reily Foods Company",
        "text": "In 1932, noticing the increased popularity of iced tea, especially in the South, Reily and his sons created a blend of tea made specifically to be used for iced tea. Luzianne Iced Tea has since become the cornerstone product of the company and the second best selling iced tea in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweet tea",
        "text": "Sweet tea is most commonly made by adding sugar or simple syrup to black tea either while the tea is brewing or still hot, although artificial sweeteners are also frequently used. Sweet tea is almost always served ice cold. It may sometimes be flavored, most commonly with lemon but also with peach, raspberry, or mint. The drink is sometimes tempered with baking soda to reduce its acidity. Although sweet tea may be brewed with a lower sugar and calorie content than most fruit juices and sodas, it is not unusual to find sweet tea with a sugar level as high as 22 degrees Brix, or per of liquid, a level twice that of Coca-Cola."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "There has been a growing popularity in the United States of a mixed drink called \"half-and-half\" since the late 1960s when golf-great Arnold Palmer ordered one in Palm Beach, Florida. Half-and-half is a mix of iced tea and lemonade, giving the drink a much sweeter taste. Often called an \"Arnold Palmer\" (although Palmer himself preferred a ratio of two parts iced tea to one part lemonade), the drink was eventually marketed by Snapple, Nantucket Nectars, and AriZona Iced Tea; AriZona has licensed Arnold Palmer's name and image for its versions. In 2012 an ESPN short documentary was produced on the drink, featuring Palmer, beverage experts, a group of PGA golfers and comedian Will Arnett discussing the drink's history and popularity. A John Daly is an alcoholic version of the drink, often made with sweet tea, vodka, and lemonade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monster Beverage",
        "text": "In 2006, Hansen's introduced a line of iced teas in 16-ounce PET bottles. Some varieties were sweetened with cane sugar and some were unsweetened. Flavors included Lemon Mint, Pomegranate, Ginger, and Tangerine. There were also three flavors of diet green tea soda: Lemon Mint, Ginger and Tangerine. Each bottle of tea contained 75\u00a0mg of Epigallocatechin gallate. Hansen's also made tea bags."
      },
      {
        "title": "Masala chai",
        "text": "As an alternative to the hot tea format, several types of cold \"chai\" beverages have become popular in the United States. These range in complexity from a simple spiced iced tea without milk to a slush of spiced tea, ice, and milk (or nondairy creamer) mixed in a blender and topped with whipped cream. It is essentially different from the original version of a hot beverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Butterfly pea flower tea",
        "text": "A popular use of the tea is in cocktails where the showmanship of the cocktail making incorporates the instantaneous color change in front of the patron that ordered the drink. Other uses included cocktails or punch bowls where the tea is frozen into ice cubes, causing the drink to change color as the ice cube dissolves leading to what has been labeled as a \"mood ring cocktail\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Most tea sold in the United States is sold in bags, although loose leaf teas and iced are also available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Society Tea",
        "text": "Iced Teas\n* Society Iced Tea \u2013 Lemon flavour green tea\n* Society Iced Tea \u2013 Peach and Apricot\n* Society Iced Tea \u2013 Raw Mango"
      },
      {
        "title": "Canned tea",
        "text": "\"Black tea\", the most oxidized of the four main varieties, is generally stronger in flavor and contains more caffeine than the less oxidized varieties. It is the traditional tea of the western world where it is known simply as \"tea\".\n*Iced tea (unsweetened) is an alternative to carbonated soft drinks, popular in many countries especially the hotter ones. One study has demonstrated that unsweetened canned black tea has a neutral to beneficial effect on dental health.\n*Iced tea (sweetened) is popular mainly in the southern United States where it is ubiquitous and available freshly made, in bottles and cans or at self-serve soda fountains. Sweet tea (also known as southern table wine) is brewed very strong with a large amount of sugar added while the tea is still hot. The mixture of sugar and tea is cooled, diluted with water and served over ice garnished with lemon. Alternatively, the sugar and tea mixture is not diluted but rather poured hot over a full tumbler of ice to cool and dilute it. Due mainly to its high sugar content, canned sweet tea has been proven to cause tooth decay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced lemon tea is available at many Hong Kong restaurants. A strong black tea (e.g., Ceylon) is brewed at length in a metal pot over a burner and prepared as follows: a large glass is filled with ice, a scoop of simple syrup is added (if desired), and the glass is filled to the top with hot tea. Slices of lemon are placed atop the mixture, which are then muddled into the tea by the customer, ensuring that the volatile oils present in the lemon peel are at their peak when consumed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lipton",
        "text": "Brisk, formerly Lipton Brisk, is an iced tea brand distributed primarily in North America as a joint venture between Lipton and PepsiCo. It differs from Lipton's other iced tea brands in that phosphoric acid is added to the blend, giving the beverage a distinctive sharp flavour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tip Top (ice cream)",
        "text": "Today, the three most sold bowl ice cream flavours are Vanilla, Hokey Pokey and Jelly Tip. The five most popular (by sales) Tip Top novelties are Choc Bar, Lemonade Popsicle, Memphis Meltdown Big Nuts, Jelly Tip and Pineapple FruJu. The oldest novelty ice cream still in production"
      },
      {
        "title": "Club-Mate",
        "text": "There are several variations on the original recipe available: Club-Mate IceT Kraftstoff (an iced-tea variant with slightly higher caffeine content (220\u00a0mg per L) and more sugar), Club-Mate Granat (with added pomegranate for a more fruity taste) and Club-Mate Winter Edition (with spices giving it a gingerbread-like taste - this edition is only available during the winter months)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red bean ice",
        "text": "Red bean ice tea has been around since the 1970s. Some places which serve the drink add in chewy flavored jelly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Long Island iced tea",
        "text": "Long Island iced tea\n--Origin.\n--Analysis.\n--Recipes and variations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of ice cream varieties by country",
        "text": "Although chocolate, vanilla, and strawberry are the traditional favorite flavors of ice cream, and once enjoyed roughly equal popularity, vanilla has grown to be the most popular, most likely because of its use as a topping for fruit based pies and its use as the key ingredient for milkshakes. According to the International Ice Cream Association (1994), supermarket sales of ice cream break down as follows: vanilla, 28%; fruit flavours, 15%; nut flavours, 13.5%; candy mix-in flavours, 12.5%; chocolate, 8%; cake and cookie flavours, 7.5%; Neapolitan, 7%; and coffee/mocha, 3%. Other flavours combine to make 5.5%. Sales in ice cream parlors are more variable, as new flavours come and go, but about three times as many people call vanilla their favorite compared to chocolate, the runner-up."
      },
      {
        "title": "Long Island iced tea",
        "text": "A Long Island iced tea or Long Island ice tea is a type of cocktail typically made with vodka, tequila, light rum, triple sec, gin, and a splash of cola, which gives the drink the same amber hue as iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luzianne",
        "text": "Iced Tea\n*Luzianne Iced Tea\n*Luzianne Decaf Iced Tea\n*Luzianne Green Iced Tea\n*Luzianne Peach Iced Tea\n*Luzianne Raspberry Iced Tea\n*Luzianne Lemon Iced Tea\n*Luzianne Iced Tea Flavoring \u2013 Peach Mango\n*Luzianne Iced Tea Flavoring \u2013 Raspberry"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When tea is chilled and cooled is known as what?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Iced tea is usually served in a glass with ice, but it can refer to any tea that has been chilled or cooled."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What's the most popular flavor of iced tea?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I could not find what is the most popular flavor, but common flavors include lemon, raspberry, lime, passion fruit, peach, orange, strawberry, and cherry.",
      "Common flavors include lemon, raspberry, lime, passion fruit, peach, orange, strawberry, and cherry."
    ],
    "topic": "Iced tea",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Iced tea:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iced tea"
        ],
        "ctx": "Iced tea (or ice tea) is a form of cold tea. Though usually served in a glass with ice, it can refer to any tea that has been chilled or cooled. It may be sweetened with sugar, syrup and/or apple slices. Iced tea is also a popular packaged drink and can be mixed with flavored syrup, with multiple common flavors including lemon, raspberry, lime, passion fruit, peach, orange, strawberry, and cherry."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Iced tea:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iced tea"
        ],
        "ctx": "Iced tea (or ice tea) is a form of cold tea. Though usually served in a glass with ice, it can refer to any tea that has been chilled or cooled. It may be sweetened with sugar, syrup and/or apple slices. Iced tea is also a popular packaged drink and can be mixed with flavored syrup, with multiple common flavors including lemon, raspberry, lime, passion fruit, peach, orange, strawberry, and cherry."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Rather than drinking tea hot, many Americans prefer tea served with ice. In fact, in the United States, about 80% of the tea consumed is served cold, or \"iced\". Iced tea has become an iconic symbol of the Southern United States and Southern hospitality, often appearing alongside summer barbecue cooking or grilled foods. Iced tea is often made as sweet tea, which is simply iced tea with copious amounts of sugar or sweetener."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea\n--Cultural variations.\n----Austria.\n----Belgium and the Netherlands.\n----Brazil.\n----Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania.\n----Canada.\n----China.\n----Denmark.\n----Germany.\n----Greece.\n----Hong Kong.\n----India.\n----Nepal.\n----Indonesia.\n----Italy.\n----Japan.\n----Malaysia.\n----Norway.\n----Philippines.\n----Portugal.\n----Singapore.\n----South Africa.\n----South Korea.\n----Sweden.\n----Switzerland.\n----Taiwan.\n----Thailand.\n----Turkey.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n----Vietnam.\n--History.\n--Varieties.\n----Bottled iced tea.\n----Sweet tea.\n----Unsweet Tea.\n----Sun and refrigerator tea.\n----Fountain iced tea.\n----Half-and-half.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "American tea culture\n--History.\n--American Tea Masters.\n--Iced tea.\n--Tea bags.\n----U.S. Patent on the Tea Bag.\n------Incorrectly Credited With Accidentally Inventing the Teabag.\n------The Modern Teabag.\n--Instant tea.\n--Revival of fine teas.\n----Varieties of teas.\n--U.S. regional tea traditions.\n----Sweet tea.\n----Sun tea.\n--Alcoholic \"tea\".\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In the early 1980s, a mini-revival of demand for better quality teas from all origins occurred in the United States. Prior to this time, much of the tea available in 20th century USA was blended specifically for gallon and half-gallon sized iced tea bags, with the quality of not \"creaming down\" (a creamy looking color that imparts to some teas after cooling down) when iced as a needed aspect; \"clear-liquoring\" teas were required."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In the U.S. south a regional favorite called sweet tea \u2013 which is brewed, sweetened, and chilled in advance of consumption \u2013 may be served at all meals and throughout the day as an alternate to other beverages. In the United States, about 85% of the tea consumed is served cold, or \"iced\". Iced tea is more frequently consumed during periods of hot weather or in lower latitudes, and hot tea is likewise more common in colder weather. Any confusion when one is visiting different parts of the country can easily be solved by explicitly asking for either \"hot tea\" or \"iced tea.\" Afternoon tea, as a meal, is rarely served in the U.S. except in ritualized special occasions such as the tea party or an afternoon out at a high-end hotel or restaurant, which may also offer cream tea on their menu."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Iced tea's popularity in the United States has led to an addition to standard cutlery sets; the iced tea spoon is a standard flatware teaspoon, but with a long handle, suitable for stirring sugar into the taller glasses commonly used for iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In the Northern United States and the Western United States, \"tea\" generally means the hot beverage and iced tea is referred to by name."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "In the Southern United States, a regional favorite called sweet tea \u2013 which is brewed, sweetened, and chilled before consumption \u2013 may be served at all meals and throughout the day as an alternate to other beverages. In the United States, about 85% of the tea consumed is served cold, or \"iced\". Iced tea is more frequently consumed during periods of hot weather or in lower latitudes, and hot tea is likewise more common in colder weather. Any confusion when one is visiting different parts of the country can easily be solved by explicitly asking for either \"hot tea\" or \"iced tea.\" Afternoon tea, as a meal, is rarely served in the U.S. except in ritualized special occasions such as the tea party or an afternoon out at a high-end hotel or restaurant, which may also offer cream tea on their menu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "The most common variations are lemon and calamansi iced teas. Some brands offer bottled iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In restaurants, iced tea is usually served unsweetened except in the Southeastern United States where iced tea is much more common and is available both sweet and unsweetened and \"iced tea\" is often considered to be \"sweet tea\" unless otherwise specified. The reason for the presweetening is that it may be difficult to dissolve sugar in iced tea, even with constant stirring. The result can be insufficiently sweetened tea or gritty, undissolved sugar crystals in the tea. Some restaurants have begun serving iced tea that has been pre-flavored with fruit essences, particularly passion fruit, often as the only iced tea made available."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "The so-called Long Island Iced Tea usually contains no tea; it is an alcoholic cocktail that looks like iced tea. A variant recipe uses actual iced tea as a mixer and is named after a professional golfer; the drink, called John Daly, contains iced or sweet tea, and vodka, and is based on the Arnold Palmer, which contains half iced tea and half lemonade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Although not a traditional way to serve tea, iced tea gained widespread popularity in even rural areas since the late 1980s with canned or bottled tea. Many varieties of tea, including green tea, are available packaged and sold in stores. Many families make their iced tea by either putting much ice in a small amount of strong hot tea or by putting hot tea in a fridge for some time. Common types of iced tea are black, green, oolong (\u70cf\u9f8d\u8336), and many herbals as well. Iced herbal teas are especially popular in the hot summers, where \"yin\"\uff08\u9670\uff09or cooling herbs are used to make tea such as chrysanthemum, kuding tea (\u82e6\u4e01\u8336), etc. Cooled tea (but still warm) was popular throughout ancient times. Refrigerated tea was only available to those politically connected to the Communist Party. The introduction of limited capitalism and the opening markets in the 1990s made refrigeration available to the general population for the first time. China's refrigerator-ownership increased from just 7% of urban families in 1997 to 95% in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "It is a common stereotype of the Southeastern United States that due to the popularity of sweet iced tea in the region, unsweetened iced tea is not available or is frowned upon. It is often the case, however, that the term \"tea\" is assumed by default to mean sweetened iced tea in that region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of the Southern United States",
        "text": "Iced tea is commonly associated with the South. Specifically, sweet tea, or brewed iced tea sweetened with granulated sugar, has traditionally been served in the South. In fact, most southern restaurants serve sweet tea in addition to \"unsweet tea\", whereas most restaurants in other regions serve only (unsweetened) iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Iced tea can be purchased like soda, in canned or bottled form at vending machines and convenience stores. This pre-made tea is usually sweetened. Sometimes some other flavorings, such as lemon or raspberry, are added. Many restaurants dispense iced tea brewed throughout the day from upright containers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Because of the varieties of eateries in the United States, as well as climatic and cultural differences, a variety of iced teas are available. Most prominent are:\n* In barbecue, soul food, and Southern cuisine-style, establishments, along with diners and general eateries, black tea is iced. This is by far the most commonly available form of freshly brewed iced tea, to which the above statements apply. Fruit-flavored teas and herbal teas are also popular iced.\n* In some coffeehouses, more exotic varieties may be iced, such as Jasmine tea or Earl Grey tea.\n* Thai iced tea is common in Thai restaurants.\n* Iced chai (spiced Indian tea) is available from some restaurants and stores. While not traditionally served iced, in the U.S. chai is frequently served iced, with honey as a sweetener, or pre-sweetened when bottled.\n* Iced Jasmine tea, Genmaicha, and H\u014djicha are available from some Chinese cuisine or other Asian cuisine restaurants, but rarely. It is more common to find one of these varieties hot, where the patron may pour the tea over ice."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Iced tea is usually prepared from bagged tea. In addition to tea bags and loose tea, powdered \"instant iced tea mix\" is available in stores. This is made by preparing tea and then dehydrating it, similar to instant coffee. Iced tea can be purchased, like soda, in canned or bottled form at vending machines and convenience stores; usually, this pre-made tea is sweetened with corn syrup, and sometimes some other flavoring, such as lemon or raspberry, is added. Also, like other soft drinks, it can be purchased as a fountain drink, though in some establishments it is pumped from a bag-in-box, and in others, it is simply poured from a separate container that contains freshly brewed tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian tea culture",
        "text": "In the Soviet period, tea-drinking was extremely popular in the daily life of office workers (female secretaries, laboratory assistants, etc.). Tea brands of the time were nicknamed \"the brooms\" (Georgian) and \"the tea with an elephant\" (Indian). Tea was an immutable element of kitchen life among the intelligentsia in 1960s-'70s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Different regions favour different varieties of tea\u2014white, yellow, green, oolong, black, or post-fermented (dark)\u2014and use different flavourings, such as herbs, milk, or sugar. The temperature and strength of the tea likewise vary widely."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "\"Sweet tea\", with sugar or corn syrup added (usually while the tea is still hot from brewing), the mixture then being cooled with ice, is ubiquitous in the Southeastern United States. In these states, when a person says \"tea\", they normally mean sweetened iced tea. The unsweetened variant is often called \"unsweet\" tea instead of unsweetened or plain. The consumption of sweet tea with many meals leads to it sometimes called the \"table wine of the South\", and this trait is considered an important marker of the culture of the Southern United States. Southern sweet tea is made by brewing tea at double strength, adding a large amount of sugar to the freshly brewed hot tea, and diluting to the proper strength. It is served over a glass full of ice cubes and is often garnished with a slice of lemon. While high fructose corn syrup is commonly used as a sweetener for commercially manufactured tea, more often consumers are unaware of this, and when made at home, refined sugar is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Etymology of tea",
        "text": "At times, a \"te\" form will follow a \"cha\" form, or \"vice versa\", giving rise to both in one language, at times one an imported variant of the other:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea (or ice tea) is a form of cold tea. Though usually served in a glass with ice, it can refer to any tea that has been chilled or cooled. It may be sweetened with sugar, syrup and/or apple slices. Iced tea is also a popular packaged drink and can be mixed with flavored syrup, with multiple common flavors including lemon, raspberry, lime, passion fruit, peach, orange, strawberry, and cherry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Additional variations include:\n* Dark Thai iced tea (Thai: \u0e0a\u0e32\u0e14\u0e33\u0e40\u0e22\u0e47\u0e19, \"cha dam yen\"): Thai tea served chilled with no milk content and sweetened with sugar only. The concept is based on traditional Indian tea, which is used as the main ingredient.\n* Lime Thai tea (Thai: \u0e0a\u0e32\u0e21\u0e30\u0e19\u0e32\u0e27, \"cha manao\"): Similar to dark Thai iced tea but flavored with lime as well as sweetened with sugar. Mint may be added."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Most iced tea blends in the USA have traditionally been made from the teas of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Argentina and Malawi. Even though there is no correlation between the quality of cloudy teas versus clear teas, clear iced teas were considered more attractive by the consumer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dongchimi",
        "text": "There are many other variations depending on region and personal taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Although not produced traditionally (tea is usually served hot, with lemon and sugar/honey), iced tea became popular in these countries following the fall of the Eastern bloc in 1989\u20131990. Iced tea is mainly available in shops, being sold by companies such as Lipton and Nestea."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "A recent rise in the demand for orthodox tea in both gallon and half-gallon iced tea bags, as well as 500 and 1,000 gram loose tea packs has caused manufacturers to reinstate orthodox manufacturing methods. This is a departure from the more common Sri Lankan, Indonesian, Argentinian and other nations' orthodox rotorvane tea-making method which has limitations and can not produce whole leaf black tea. The rotorvane method was adopted primarily to satisfy the demand for the smaller leaf sizes that fit into small (1-2 gram) tea bag blends worldwide starting in the early 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Other infusions bearing the name \"cha\" are barley tea (\"mugi-cha\") which is popular as a cold drink in the summer, buckwheat tea (\"soba-cha\"), and hydrangea tea (\"ama-cha\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Currently, there is a revival of interest in the many varieties of black teas throughout the United States. Additionally, other exotic teas (such as the vast variety of African, Asian and South American teas) and different brewing styles are becoming more commonplace. Teas from all origins and elevations, made in all methods of manufacture, are popular in the US, a tea market which has traditionally been more flexible and willing to try new types of drinks than tea markets throughout the old world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nettle soup",
        "text": "Nettle soup\n--History.\n--Regional variations.\n----Scandinavia.\n------Finland.\n------Sweden.\n----Native American.\n----Iran.\n----Ireland.\n----Pontic Greeks.\n----Eastern Europe.\n------Ukraine.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Teacake",
        "text": "Teacake\n--Regional variations.\n----England.\n----Scotland.\n----Sweden and Finland.\n----United States.\n----Australia/India.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is a common drink in India, found at most restaurants, hotels, and malls. The most popular form of iced tea in India is ginger lemon iced tea or lemon iced tea. Other kinds are rather uncommon, though peach iced tea is quite popular. Brands of iced tea include Lipton and Nestl\u00e9, which have become affiliated with the same."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Tea culture\n--East Asia.\n----China.\n------Hong Kong.\n------Tibet.\n----Japan.\n----Korea.\n----Taiwan.\n--Southeast Asia.\n----Myanmar.\n------Lahpet.\n----Thailand.\n----Vietnam.\n--Central Asia.\n--South Asia.\n----Bangladesh.\n----India.\n----Pakistan.\n----Sri Lanka.\n--West Asia.\n----Iran.\n----Turkey.\n--Africa.\n----Algeria.\n----Egypt.\n----Libya.\n----Mauritius.\n----Morocco.\n----Sahel.\n--Europe.\n----Czech Republic and Slovakia.\n----Germany.\n----Russia.\n----France.\n----Ireland.\n----Portugal.\n----United Kingdom.\n--North America.\n----Canada.\n----United States.\n--Formal Tea.\n--Tea As Popular Culture.\n--South America.\n----Argentina.\n----Brazil.\n----Chile.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian tea culture",
        "text": "The drink is served hot and often an evening or after-meal beverage. However, iced versions are sometimes offered with meals at caf\u00e9s."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Most tea sold in the United States is sold in bags, although loose leaf teas and iced are also available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian tea culture",
        "text": "There are many other popular variations depending on regional and cultural affiliations. By and large, tea drinkers in India drink milk tea. In Southern India, Masala Chai is not popular; instead, tea brewed with milk and sugar is the prime beverage. Popular tea brews in Assam are Sah, Ronga Sah (red tea without milk) and Gakhir Sah (milk tea). In West Bengal and Bangladesh it is called Cha. In Hindi speaking north India, popular tea brews are Masala Chai, Kadak Chai (typically a feature of the mountain community of North India, this is a very strongly brewed tea, almost to the point of bitterness), Malai Mar Ke Chai (where a generous dollop of full fat cream is spooned into the cup of tea) are some of the more popular variations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Korean tea",
        "text": "During the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), Korean tea culture underwent secularization. The royal family and aristocracy used tea for simple rites, a practice referred to as \"darye\" (, \"tea rite\"), which is often translated as \"etiquette for tea\". Towards the end of the Joseon Dynasty, commoners adopted the practice of using tea for ancestral rites. The word \"charye\" (, \"tea rite\"), cognate to \"darye\", now refers to \"jesa\" (ancestral rite). In the past, the two terms were synonymous, as ancestral rites often involved offerings of tea to the ancestors. Wedding ceremonies also included tea offerings. The practice of packing tea into small cakes, which lost popularity in China during the 14th century, continued in Korea until the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brazilian tea culture",
        "text": "Brazilian tea culture\n--erva-mate.\n--Common modern varieties.\n--Indigenous teas.\n----Mint tea.\n----Ayahuasca.\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Thalassery",
        "text": "Thalassery Falooda is a regional variant of the Persian dessert. This is a cocktail of fruit salad, dry fruits such as black current, pistachio, cashew, almond (badam), rose milk and vanilla ice cream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian tea culture",
        "text": "In pre-Revolutionary Russia there was a joke \"\u0447\u0442\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0447\u0430\u044e \u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0435\u0442?\" ('what follows after tea?', translit. \"chto poslye chayu slyeduyet\") with the correct answer being \"the resurrection of the dead\" from the Nicene Creed. This is based on the word \"\u0447\u0430\u044e\" (\"chayu\"), the homograph designating formerly \"I expect\" (\"look for\" in the creed) and the partitive case of the word \"tea\", still in use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Club-Mate",
        "text": "There are several variations on the original recipe available: Club-Mate IceT Kraftstoff (an iced-tea variant with slightly higher caffeine content (220\u00a0mg per L) and more sugar), Club-Mate Granat (with added pomegranate for a more fruity taste) and Club-Mate Winter Edition (with spices giving it a gingerbread-like taste - this edition is only available during the winter months)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Tea plays an important role in some countries. It is commonly consumed at social events, and many cultures have created intricate formal ceremonies for these events. East Asian tea ceremonies, with their roots in the Chinese tea culture, differ among East Asian countries, such as the Japanese or Korean variants. Tea may differ widely in preparation, such as in Tibet, where the beverage is commonly brewed with salt and butter. Tea may be drunk in small private gatherings (tea parties) or in public (tea houses designed for social interaction)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea started to appear in the United States during the 1860s. Seen as a novelty at first, during the 1870s it became quite widespread. Recipes appeared in print, iced tea was offered on hotel menus, and it was on sale at railroad stations. Its popularity rapidly increased after Richard Blechynden introduced it at the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In the United States, iced tea makes up about 85% of all tea consumed and is very popular as an alternative to carbonated soft drinks, especially as a characteristic beverage of the American South. It is ubiquitous in grocery stores, convenience stores, restaurants, vending machines, and soda fountains. It may be freshly made on-premises or available in bottles and cans and at self-serve soda fountains."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian tea culture",
        "text": "In Japan, the term \"Russian tea\" is used to refer specifically to the act of having black tea with a spoonful of jam, whether added into the cup or placed on the tongue before drinking. The typical choice is strawberry jam, but not exclusively so."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian tea culture",
        "text": "There is a beverage called \"Russian Tea\" which likely originated in America. This drink is especially popular in the Southeastern United States where it is traditionally served at social events during Advent and Christmastide. Recipes vary, but the most common ingredients are loose black tea, orange juice (or orange peel), cinnamon, and cloves; some recipes use instant tea powder. Other juices such as lemon and pineapple are sometimes called for. Cream may also be added when serving. A homemade 'instant' variety, often using Tang, has become a popular stocking stuffer in recent decades."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "While most iced teas get their flavor from tea leaves (\"Camellia sinensis\"), herbal teas are sometimes served cold and referred to as iced tea. Iced tea is sometimes made by a particularly long steeping of tea leaves at a lower temperature (one hour in the sun versus five minutes at , which is known as sun tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian ice cream (Canada)",
        "text": "One variation of the recipe includes adding snow flavoured with smoked mountain goat fat after whipping the berries to give additional flavor. To prepare this, fresh snow is packed into a porous basket and hung high off the ground. Directly beneath it, fat is placed on the surface of a red-hot rock. As the smoke from the cooking of the fat rises to the basket, the snow is steeped with the fragrance of mountain goat fat. Modern variations may include the addition of fruits, such as bananas or raspberries, after whipping to increase the dessert's sweetness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Health food and some other specialty stores often carry a different set of iced tea bottles which may include Role Tea, Tazo, Sweet Leaf Tea, MaryAnna's Tea, U.S. brands of the Japanese green tea giant Ito En, and other small companies. These are available in a variety of flavors, although there is less emphasis on fruits and sweeteners and greater emphasis on traditional tea spices and herbs (which can range from mint to the oil of bergamot). Corn syrup as a sweetener is very rare, with cane sugar, honey, and other sweeteners being more prominent. Citric acid as a stand-alone ingredient (i.e., present as a chemical additive and not because of the addition of citrus) is less common. With these alternative producers, unsweetened tea with no additional ingredients (just tea-infused water) may be available, as well as uncommon varieties such as chai tea, white tea, genmai tea, Jasmine tea, Earl Grey tea, and hoji tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "The American tea culture is a part of the history of the United States, as this beverage appeals to all classes and has adapted to the customs of the United States of America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian tea culture",
        "text": "Despite the name, \"Russian Tea\" probably has no link to its namesake. References to \"Russian Tea\" and instructions have been found in American newspapers and cookbooks dating as early as the 1880s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian tea culture",
        "text": "Russian tea culture\n--History.\n--Varieties.\n--Brewing.\n--Tea culture.\n--\"Russian Tea\" in other countries.\n----United States.\n----Japan.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In a traditionally tea-drinking country such as Turkey, with its own tea and tea culture, iced tea became popular when Lipton introduced it in the 2000s. Iced teas are a popular alternative to soft drinks. Lipton and Nestea were the two major brands until 2012 when the contract between Coca-Cola \u0130\u00e7ecek A.\u015e. and Nestea expired. Coca-Cola replaced Nestea with its Fuze Beverage brand, but due to the word \"f\u00fcze\" meaning \"missile\" in Turkish, the name used for the Turkish market is Fuse Tea. The national tea company \u00c7aykur is in the market with its iced tea brand 'Didi'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Northern American English",
        "text": "These phonemic variants in certain words are particularly correlated with the American Northeast (with the more common variants nationwide given in parentheses):\n*\"aunt\" as (in addition to )\n*\"cauliflower\" with the \"i\" pronounced with the vowel (in addition to the vowel )\n*\"centaur\" rhyming with \"four\" (in addition to the variant rhyming with \"far\")\n*\"miracle\" as or (in addition to )\n*\"route\" rhyming with \"shoot\" (in addition to \"shout\")\n*\"syrup\" as or (in addition to )"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea",
        "text": "In the United States, 80% of tea is consumed as iced tea. Sweet tea is native to the southeastern U.S. and is iconic in its cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Milk tea",
        "text": "Milk tea\n--Variations.\n--Popular culture.\n----Milk Tea Alliance.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tameletjie",
        "text": "As the sweet became more popular it was adopted in different cultures which resulted in variations of the tameletjie. It is popular in different cultures and has a history unlike the sweets found in stores today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is traditionally served with lemon slice used as a garnish, which is often placed on the rim of the glass. In the Southwest United States (or at least in restaurants with a Southwest theme), lime is also very popular (especially in Mexican restaurants). It is not entirely uncommon for establishments to put out slices of lemon and lime for the customer to take for themselves. Many people in the Southeastern USA will also drink sweet (iced) tea with milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian tea culture",
        "text": "In the 19th century, Russians drank their tea with a cube of sugar (from sugarloaf) held between their teeth. The tradition still exists today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Etymology of tea",
        "text": "Languages in more intense contact with Chinese, Sinospheric languages like Korean, and Japanese, may have borrowed their words for tea at an earlier time and from a different variety of Chinese, in the so-called Sino-Xenic pronunciations. Although normally pronounced as \"cha\" (commonly with an honorific prefix \"o-\" as \"ocha\"), Japanese also retains the early but now uncommon pronunciations of \"ta\" and \"da\", similarly Korean also has \"ta\" in addition to \"cha\", and Vietnamese \"tr\u00e0\" in addition to \"ch\u00e8\". The different pronunciations for tea in Japanese arose from the different times the pronunciations were borrowed into the language: \"Ta\" comes from the Tang dynasty court at Chang'an: that is, from Middle Chinese; \"da\" however comes from the earlier Southern Dynasties court at Nanjing, a place where the consonant was still voiced, as it is today in neighbouring Shanghainese \"zo\". Zhuang has southern \"cha\"-type pronunciations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yapchik",
        "text": "Yapchik\n--Overview.\n--Other variations.\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "In the United States, tea can typically be served at all meals as an alternative to coffee, when served hot, or soft drinks, when served iced. Tea is also consumed throughout the day as a beverage. Afternoon tea, the meal done in the English tradition, is rarely served in the United States, although it remains romanticized by small children; it is usually reserved for special occasions like tea parties."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of tea",
        "text": "During the Song dynasty, production and preparation of all tea changed. The tea included many loose-leaf styles (to preserve the delicate character favored by court society), and it is the origin of today's loose teas and the practice of brewed tea. A powdered form of tea also emerged. Steaming tea leaves was the primary process used for centuries in the preparation of tea. After the transition from compressed tea to the powdered form, the production of tea for trade and distribution changed once again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Tea remains a popular hot drink among Canadians of European (especially British and Irish) heritage. Black orange pekoe tea and other breakfast style teas may be drunk with the morning meal or as a part of a mid-morning or afternoon break. These types of teas are typically served with milk and sugar. Red Rose and King Cole are some of the more well-known Canadian brands of tea, and the Tim Hortons chain of caf\u00e9s serves their ready-to-drink hot \u201csteeped tea\u201d, a strong breakfast-style tea. Cookies, tea biscuits or scones, and other pastries may accompany any tea that is served, but formal \u201cafternoon tea\" in the British tradition is typically confined to tourist destinations, such as Victoria's Empress Hotel or Toronto's Royal York Hotel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Pakistan",
        "text": "Different regions throughout the country have their own different flavors and varieties, giving Pakistani tea culture a diverse blend."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Brazilian tea culture has its origins with the infused beverages, or \"ch\u00e1s\" (), made by the indigenous cultures of the south region. It has evolved since the Portuguese colonial period to include imported varieties and tea-drinking customs. There is a folk knowledge in Brazil which says that Brazilians, mainly the urban ones, have a greater taste for using sugar in teas than in other cultures due to the lack of habit to unsweetened drinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cream tea",
        "text": "Yet another variation is a \"savoury cream tea\", with cheese scones; cream cheese instead of clotted cream, and chutney instead of jam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Butter tea",
        "text": "Butter tea\n--History.\n--Preparation.\n--Customs.\n--Butter tea in popular culture.\n----Literature.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Masala chai",
        "text": "As an alternative to the hot tea format, several types of cold \"chai\" beverages have become popular in the United States. These range in complexity from a simple spiced iced tea without milk to a slush of spiced tea, ice, and milk (or nondairy creamer) mixed in a blender and topped with whipped cream. It is essentially different from the original version of a hot beverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "During the Tang Dynasty, Lu Yu found that the plants which grow under shady hillsides produced poor quality tea, often resulting in abdominal distension. The common methods of making tea at the time were boiling the water and tea leaves at the same time. The water was heated in a cauldron on a brazier to the first boil level, which was described as \"fish eyes\u201d. Appropriate salts were added into the water with a view to enhancing the flavor of the tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Argentine cuisine",
        "text": "English cultural influence (reinforced at the end of the 19th century and the beginnings of the 20th by British contacts with the Far East) has also made the consumption of tea very common."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Yellow and white teas became difficult to find in the United States and even green tea had become uncommon because of the People's Republic of China's ban on exports to the USA which was lifted in 1971. After the resumption of trade between mainland China and the US, these teas typical to China re-entered the American market for the first time since the first two decades of the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peace Iced Tea",
        "text": "Once Peace Tea was transferred to the Coca-Cola Company in 2015, newer and more simple designs were produced.\n*Razzleberry (Raspberry)\n*Sweet Lemon\n*Sno-berry (Blueberry)\n*Green Tea\n*Caddy Shack (Tea and Lemonade)\n*Just Peachy (Called Peach Party in Canada)\n*Pineapple Groove Zer-Oh\n*Hello Mango (Mango Green Tea)\n*Cheeky Cherry (Canada only)\n*Cheeky Cherry Fizz (Canada only)\n*Sweet Lemon Fizz (Canada only)\n*Strawberry Lemon Love (Strawberry Lemonade, Canada only)\n*Mango Mood\n*Ceylon\n*Cranberry\n*Pink Lemonade and Tea\n*Unsweetened Tea\n*Texas Style Sweet Tea\n*Strawberry Lemon Love (discontinued in US)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Etymology of tea",
        "text": "English has all three forms: \"cha\" or \"char\" (both pronounced ), attested from the late 16th century; \"tea\", from the 17th; and \"chai\", from the 20th."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Ice tea in Greece is primarily either lemon or peach flavor. Most dominant brands are Lipton, Fuze Tea, Arizona, Nestea, and Life Tsai. Lately, new flavors have appeared but have not reached the popularity of lemon and peach, though varieties of these exist such as no sugar or with green tea with the above flavorings. Sparkling Ice Tea is almost non-existent, but there is powdered Ice Tea available in supermarkets. Ice Tea not concerning the brand is readily available in most restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Historically there were two phases of tea drinking in China based on the form of tea that was produced and consumed, namely: \"tea bricks\" versus \"loose leaf tea\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Many Japanese are still taught the proper art of the centuries-old tea ceremony as well. Still, the Japanese now enjoy green tea processed using state of the art technology. Today, hand pressing\u2014a method demonstrated to tourists\u2014is taught only as a technique preserved as a part of the Japanese cultural tradition. Most of the ubiquitous vending machines also carry a wide selection of both hot and cold bottled teas. Oolong tea enjoys considerable popularity. Black tea, often with milk or lemon, is served ubiquitously in cafes, coffee shops, and restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian tea culture",
        "text": "Tea cultivation in India has somewhat ambiguous origins. Though the extent of the popularity of tea in ancient India is unknown, it is known that the tea plant was a wild plant in India that was indeed brewed by local inhabitants of different regions. But there is no substantial documentation of the history of tea drinking in the Indian subcontinent for the pre-colonial period. One can only speculate that tea leaves were widely used in ancient India since the plant is native to some parts of India. The Singpho tribe and the Khamti tribe, inhabitants of the regions where the \"Camellia sinensis\" plant grew native, have been consuming tea since the 12th century. It is also possible that tea may have been used under another name. Frederick R. Dannaway, in the essay \"Tea As Soma\", argues that tea was perhaps better known as \"Soma\" in ancient Indian history. The tea plant is native to East Asia and the Indian subcontinent, but the origins and history of tea are not precise. Many of the origin myths for tea are found in Chinese mythology, and the first verifiable records for tea consumption also point towards China."
      },
      {
        "title": "BLT",
        "text": "BLT\n--History.\n----Popularity.\n--Ingredients and preparation.\n----Variations.\n--In culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese tea",
        "text": "Spelling of varieties often reflects English usage, and historical or southern-Chinese pronunciation rather than official modern pinyin, for example; Bohea (\u6b66\u5937\u8336 w\u01d4y\u00ed ch\u00e1), Congou (\u5de5\u592b g\u014dngfu), Hyson (\u7199\u6625\u8336 x\u012bch\u016bn ch\u00e1), Souchong (\u62c9\u666e\u5c71\u5c0f\u7a2e l\u0101p\u01d4sh\u0101n xi\u01ceozh\u01d2ng), Chunmee (\u73cd\u7709 zh\u0113nm\u00e9i), Sowmee (\u79c0\u7709 xi\u00f9m\u00e9i), Pekoe (\u767d\u6beb b\u00e1ih\u00e1o), Keemun (\u7941\u9580\u7d05\u8336 q\u00edm\u00e9n h\u00f3ngch\u00e1)."
      },
      {
        "title": "East Asian tea ceremony",
        "text": "In the United States, American tea culture has roots that trace back to the Dutch colonization of the Americas. In the colonies, teas were served with silver strainers, fine porcelain cups and pots and exquisite tea caddies. In recent years there has been a resurgence of interest in fine teas in the United States, mainly due to the lifting of China's ban on exports in 1971. From the 1920s to 1971, Americans could not get much Chinese tea and very little Indian tea was imported."
      },
      {
        "title": "Long Island iced tea",
        "text": "A slightly different drink is claimed to have been invented in the 1920s during Prohibition in the United States by an \"Old Man Bishop\" in a local community named Long Island in Kingsport, Tennessee. The drink was then tweaked by Ransom Bishop, Old Man Bishop's son, by adding cola, lemon, and lime. Old Man's version included whiskey, maple syrup, varied quantities of the five liquors, and no triple sec; rather than the modern one with cola and five equal portions of the five liquors. It was prepared in the following way:\n* Squeeze a fresh lemon and a fresh lime into a glass\n* Add rum, oz. gin, oz tequila, vodka, 1 oz. whiskey, and oz. maple syrup\n* Mix, then add of cola"
      },
      {
        "title": "Icebox cake",
        "text": "Icebox cake\n--History.\n--Regional variations.\n----American.\n----Australian.\n----Philippine.\n----United Kingdom.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice cream",
        "text": "Around the world, different cultures have developed unique versions of ice cream, suiting the product to local tastes and preferences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Etymology of tea",
        "text": "The etymology of the various words for \"tea\" reflects the history of transmission of tea drinking culture and trade from China to countries around the world. Nearly all of the words for tea worldwide fall into three broad groups: \"te\", \"cha\" and \"chai\", present in English as \"tea\", \"cha\" or \"char\", and \"chai\". The earliest of the three to enter English is \"cha\", which came in the 1590s via the Portuguese, who traded in Macao and picked up the Cantonese pronunciation of the word. The more common \"tea\" form arrived in the 17th century via the Dutch, who acquired it either indirectly from the Malay \"teh\", or directly from the \"t\u00ea\" pronunciation in Min Chinese. The third form \"chai\" (meaning \"spiced tea\") originated from a northern Chinese pronunciation of \"cha\", which travelled overland to Central Asia and Persia where it picked up a Persian ending \"yi\", and entered English via Hindustani in the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Long Island iced tea",
        "text": "However, there are many similar cocktails due to the popularity of the cocktail and the large number of ingredients that can be substituted with alternatives. Some variations include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Mass-produced iced teas such as Nestea (Nestl\u00e9), Migros Ice Tea and Lipton are popular refreshments, while fresh-brewed iced teas are seldom found outside the home. Iced herbal teas, typically dominated by peppermint, are readily available, as are flavored black teas. It is typically labeled as \"ice tea\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "History"
      },
      {
        "title": "Brazilian tea culture",
        "text": "As in other South American countries, mate is traditionally drunk from a hollow gourd using a silver straw, a tradition that continues from indigenous cultures who introduced mate to colonists, though in other parts of the country, processed mate is drunk iced, as a non-carbonated soft drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of tea",
        "text": "Stoneware was common, ceramic more frequent, mostly made in provincial kilns, with porcelain rare, imperial porcelain with dragons the rarest. The earliest kinds of tea used in tea ceremonies were heavily pressed cakes of black tea, the equivalent of aged pu-erh tea in China. However, importation of tea plants by Buddhist monks brought a more delicate series of teas into Korea, and the tea ceremony. Green tea, \"Jakseol(\uc791\uc124, \u96c0\u820c)\" or \"Jungno(\uc8fd\ub85c, \u7af9\u9732)\", is most often served. However, other teas such as \"Byeoksoryeong(\ubcbd\uc18c\ub839, \u78a7\u5bb5\u5dba)\" Cheonhachun(\ucc9c\ud558\ucd98, \u5929\u4e0b\u6625), Ujeon(\uc6b0\uc804, \u96e8\u524d), Okcheon(\uc625\ucc9c, \u7389\u6cc9), as well as native chrysanthemum tea, persimmon leaf tea, or mugwort tea may be served at different times of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian tea culture",
        "text": "Within Russia, tea preparation differs, but usually includes lemon, and sugar or jam. Tea sachets are widely popular, but when a teapot is used it is very common to make a strong brew, then pour some into a cup and top it with hot or boiling water, adding milk and sugar afterwards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In Canada, iced tea refers to sweetened iced tea, flavoured with lemon. The iced tea can be made at home from drink powder but is usually sold in single bottles or cans alongside other soft drinks. Unlike in the US, iced tea in Canada is not seen as an alternative to hot tea. Sweetened green teas and those flavored with raspberry, peach, or pomegranate are becoming more common via marketing efforts. Sweetened iced tea is often served as an alternative to other soft drinks, prepared by companies like Arizona, Nestl\u00e9 (Nestea) and Brisk. Many health food stores carry iced tea made of whole-leaf tea without additives. Fresh-brewed iced tea can also be found, particularly in smaller independently owned restaurants. Powdered or frozen iced tea is a common preparation at home, due to its ease of use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Etymology of tea",
        "text": "The different words for tea fall into two main groups: \"\"te\"-derived\" (Min) and \"\"cha\"-derived\" (Cantonese and Mandarin). Most notably through the Silk Road; global regions with a history of land trade with central regions of Imperial China (such as North Asia, Central Asia, the Indian subcontinent and the Middle East) pronounce it along the lines of \"'cha'\", whilst most global maritime regions with a history of sea trade with certain southeast regions of Imperial China (such as Europe), pronounce it like \"'teh\"'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Camellia sinensis",
        "text": "Assuming a generation of 12 years, Chinese small leaf tea is estimated to have diverged from Assam tea around 22,000 years ago, while Chinese Assam tea and Indian Assam tea diverged 2,800 years ago. This divergence tea would correspond to the last glacial maximum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese tea culture",
        "text": "This custom is said to have originated in the Qing dynasty when the Qianlong Emperor traveled in disguise throughout the empire and his accompanying servants were instructed not to reveal their master's identity. One day in a restaurant in southern China, the emperor poured tea for a servant. To that servant it was a huge honor to have the emperor pour him a cup of tea. Out of habit, he wanted to kneel and bow to express his thanks to the emperor, however he could not do this since that would reveal the emperor's identity. Instead, he tapped the table with bent fingers to represent kneeling to the Emperor and to express his gratitude and respect. In this sense, the bent fingers supposedly signify a bowing servant."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In 1946, Nestle USA introduced the first instant tea, Nestea. Instant teas are produced from black tea by extracting the liquor from processed portion of tea typically from offgrade black teas; green tea in a smaller proportion has traditionally been used by the instant tea makers as a \"clarification agent\" - again, in effort to maximize the clarity of color and minimize off-colors created by certain teas that cloud. The extract is concentrated under low pressure, and drying the concentrate to a powder by freeze-drying, spray-drying, or vacuum-drying. Low temperatures tend to be used to minimize loss of flavor. The American market for instant tea powders, which developed quickly following Nestle's introduction, has slackened off considerably over the past quarter century, as Americans have more and more turned to naturally icing their favorite loose teas, as well as preparing iced tea from tea bags, and to ready-to-drink iced teas where the smaller sizes are found in the supermarkets' refrigerated drinks sections and the larger gallon sizes are found in the supermarkets' non-refrigerated drinks sections."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Afternoon tea is a British custom with widespread appeal. The British Empire spread its own interpretation of tea to its dominions and colonies, including regions that today comprise the states of Hong Kong, India, and Pakistan, which had pre-existing tea customs, as well as regions such as East Africa (modern-day Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda) and the Pacific (Australia and New Zealand) which did not have tea customs. The tea room or teahouse is found in the US, Ireland and many Commonwealth cities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Long Island iced tea",
        "text": "Long Island iced tea\n--Origin.\n--Analysis.\n--Recipes and variations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wanderwort",
        "text": "Tea, with its maritime variant \"tea\" and Eurasian continental variant \"chai\" (both variants have entered English), is an example whose spread occurred relatively late in human history and is therefore fairly well understood: \"tea\" is from Hokkien, specifically Amoy, from the Fujianese port of Xiamen, hence maritime, while \"cha\" (whence \"chai\") is used in Cantonese and Mandarin. See etymology of tea for further details."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "The two dominating brands are Lipton and Nestea\u2014the two best-selling flavors are lemon and peach. Iced tea is also sold in grocery stores and some restaurants."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When tea is chilled and cooled is known as what?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Iced tea is usually served in a glass with ice, but it can refer to any tea that has been chilled or cooled."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What's the most popular flavor of iced tea?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I could not find what is the most popular flavor, but common flavors include lemon, raspberry, lime, passion fruit, peach, orange, strawberry, and cherry."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Could you tell me about any noteworthy cultural variations?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Would you like to know about cultural variations in Austria, Belgium and the Netherlands, Brazil, or Greece?"
    ],
    "topic": "Iced tea",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Iced tea:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iced tea",
          "Cultural variations",
          "Austria"
        ],
        "ctx": "Iced tea is popular in Austria and is commonly known as \"Eistee\" (ice tea); it is usually drunk heavily sweetened. Pfanner and Rauch are two of the most popular manufacturers."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Iced tea:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iced tea",
          "Cultural variations",
          "Belgium and the Netherlands"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Belgium, the Netherlands (ijsthee), and other parts of Europe, \"Ice-Tea\" is the brand name of a carbonated variety of iced tea marketed by Lipton since 1978. They also market other non-carbonated iced teas under the \"Ice Tea\" brand."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Iced tea:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iced tea",
          "Cultural variations",
          "Brazil"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Brazil, particularly in Rio de Janeiro, one of the most popular beverages is mate or \"ch\u00e1 mate\". Unlike the Argentinian or gaucho mate (also known as chimarr\u00e3o), the carioca rendering is consumed iced and sweetened. A preferred flavouring is lime juice (not lemon), referred in Rio as \"mate com lim\u00e3o\". It is a part of the local beach culture, where it is sold by walking vendors in portable coolers. Mate dried leaves can be bought in supermarkets to be made at home. The most popular brand is Le\u00e3o, originally from Paran\u00e1, and later acquired by The Coca-Cola Company. It is generally left overnight at the refrigerator. Le\u00e3o also markets mate as a non-carbonated soft drink."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Iced tea:11",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iced tea",
          "Cultural variations",
          "Greece"
        ],
        "ctx": "Ice tea in Greece is primarily either lemon or peach flavor. Most dominant brands are Lipton, Fuze Tea, Arizona, Nestea, and Life Tsai. Lately, new flavors have appeared but have not reached the popularity of lemon and peach, though varieties of these exist such as no sugar or with green tea with the above flavorings. Sparkling Ice Tea is almost non-existent, but there is powdered Ice Tea available in supermarkets. Ice Tea not concerning the brand is readily available in most restaurants."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea\n--Cultural variations.\n----Austria.\n----Belgium and the Netherlands.\n----Brazil.\n----Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania.\n----Canada.\n----China.\n----Denmark.\n----Germany.\n----Greece.\n----Hong Kong.\n----India.\n----Nepal.\n----Indonesia.\n----Italy.\n----Japan.\n----Malaysia.\n----Norway.\n----Philippines.\n----Portugal.\n----Singapore.\n----South Africa.\n----South Korea.\n----Sweden.\n----Switzerland.\n----Taiwan.\n----Thailand.\n----Turkey.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n----Vietnam.\n--History.\n--Varieties.\n----Bottled iced tea.\n----Sweet tea.\n----Unsweet Tea.\n----Sun and refrigerator tea.\n----Fountain iced tea.\n----Half-and-half.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Tea culture\n--East Asia.\n----China.\n------Hong Kong.\n------Tibet.\n----Japan.\n----Korea.\n----Taiwan.\n--Southeast Asia.\n----Myanmar.\n------Lahpet.\n----Thailand.\n----Vietnam.\n--Central Asia.\n--South Asia.\n----Bangladesh.\n----India.\n----Pakistan.\n----Sri Lanka.\n--West Asia.\n----Iran.\n----Turkey.\n--Africa.\n----Algeria.\n----Egypt.\n----Libya.\n----Mauritius.\n----Morocco.\n----Sahel.\n--Europe.\n----Czech Republic and Slovakia.\n----Germany.\n----Russia.\n----France.\n----Ireland.\n----Portugal.\n----United Kingdom.\n--North America.\n----Canada.\n----United States.\n--Formal Tea.\n--Tea As Popular Culture.\n--South America.\n----Argentina.\n----Brazil.\n----Chile.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Teacake",
        "text": "Teacake\n--Regional variations.\n----England.\n----Scotland.\n----Sweden and Finland.\n----United States.\n----Australia/India.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced coffee",
        "text": "Iced coffee\n--History.\n--Serving.\n--Variations by country.\n----Australia.\n----Canada.\n----Chile.\n----China.\n----Czech Republic.\n----Germany.\n----Greece.\n----India.\n----Italy.\n----Japan.\n----New Zealand.\n----Philippines.\n----Slovenia.\n----Sri Lanka.\n----Thailand.\n----United States.\n----Vietnam.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Nettle soup",
        "text": "Nettle soup\n--History.\n--Regional variations.\n----Scandinavia.\n------Finland.\n------Sweden.\n----Native American.\n----Iran.\n----Ireland.\n----Pontic Greeks.\n----Eastern Europe.\n------Ukraine.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In the Northern United States and the Western United States, \"tea\" generally means the hot beverage and iced tea is referred to by name."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thieboudienne",
        "text": "Thieboudienne\n--Recipe.\n--Variations.\n----By country.\n----By ethnicity.\n--Other renderings.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Funnel cake",
        "text": "Funnel cake\n--History.\n--Preparation.\n--Cultural variations.\n----Europe.\n----Asia.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian tea culture",
        "text": "Russian tea culture\n--History.\n--Varieties.\n--Brewing.\n--Tea culture.\n--\"Russian Tea\" in other countries.\n----United States.\n----Japan.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Brazilian tea culture",
        "text": "Brazilian tea culture\n--erva-mate.\n--Common modern varieties.\n--Indigenous teas.\n----Mint tea.\n----Ayahuasca.\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Brazilian tea culture has its origins with the infused beverages, or \"ch\u00e1s\" (), made by the indigenous cultures of the south region. It has evolved since the Portuguese colonial period to include imported varieties and tea-drinking customs. There is a folk knowledge in Brazil which says that Brazilians, mainly the urban ones, have a greater taste for using sugar in teas than in other cultures due to the lack of habit to unsweetened drinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elevenses",
        "text": "Elevenses\n--Regional variations.\n----Australia and New Zealand.\n----Belgium.\n----Chile.\n----Colombia.\n----Hungary.\n----Netherlands.\n----Poland.\n----Spain.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "American tea culture\n--History.\n--American Tea Masters.\n--Iced tea.\n--Tea bags.\n----U.S. Patent on the Tea Bag.\n------Incorrectly Credited With Accidentally Inventing the Teabag.\n------The Modern Teabag.\n--Instant tea.\n--Revival of fine teas.\n----Varieties of teas.\n--U.S. regional tea traditions.\n----Sweet tea.\n----Sun tea.\n--Alcoholic \"tea\".\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Austrian literature",
        "text": "In its history, the country and Austrian literature have been a cultural melting pot that put together different ethnicities, ideas, and cultures. Today, this element has shrunk enormously but is still not wiped out. Examples of this are novelist Zdenka Becker who emigrated from Slovakia, Dimitr\u00e9 Dinev from Bulgaria, and Vladimir Vertlib who was born in Russia. Very often their topics have to do with immigration and interculturality."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of tea",
        "text": "History of tea\n--Geographic origins.\n--Origin myths.\n--Early history.\n----China.\n----Japan.\n----Korea.\n--Global expansion.\n----Portugal and Italy.\n----India.\n----Iran.\n----Taiwan.\n----United Kingdom.\n----The Americas.\n----Australia.\n----Sri Lanka.\n----Africa.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Rather than drinking tea hot, many Americans prefer tea served with ice. In fact, in the United States, about 80% of the tea consumed is served cold, or \"iced\". Iced tea has become an iconic symbol of the Southern United States and Southern hospitality, often appearing alongside summer barbecue cooking or grilled foods. Iced tea is often made as sweet tea, which is simply iced tea with copious amounts of sugar or sweetener."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In the U.S. south a regional favorite called sweet tea \u2013 which is brewed, sweetened, and chilled in advance of consumption \u2013 may be served at all meals and throughout the day as an alternate to other beverages. In the United States, about 85% of the tea consumed is served cold, or \"iced\". Iced tea is more frequently consumed during periods of hot weather or in lower latitudes, and hot tea is likewise more common in colder weather. Any confusion when one is visiting different parts of the country can easily be solved by explicitly asking for either \"hot tea\" or \"iced tea.\" Afternoon tea, as a meal, is rarely served in the U.S. except in ritualized special occasions such as the tea party or an afternoon out at a high-end hotel or restaurant, which may also offer cream tea on their menu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is popular in Austria and is commonly known as \"Eistee\" (ice tea); it is usually drunk heavily sweetened. Pfanner and Rauch are two of the most popular manufacturers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Icebox cake",
        "text": "Icebox cake\n--History.\n--Regional variations.\n----American.\n----Australian.\n----Philippine.\n----United Kingdom.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "In the Southern United States, a regional favorite called sweet tea \u2013 which is brewed, sweetened, and chilled before consumption \u2013 may be served at all meals and throughout the day as an alternate to other beverages. In the United States, about 85% of the tea consumed is served cold, or \"iced\". Iced tea is more frequently consumed during periods of hot weather or in lower latitudes, and hot tea is likewise more common in colder weather. Any confusion when one is visiting different parts of the country can easily be solved by explicitly asking for either \"hot tea\" or \"iced tea.\" Afternoon tea, as a meal, is rarely served in the U.S. except in ritualized special occasions such as the tea party or an afternoon out at a high-end hotel or restaurant, which may also offer cream tea on their menu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural cringe",
        "text": "Cultural cringe\n--Origin.\n--By country.\n----Australia.\n----Brazil.\n----Canada.\n----New Zealand.\n----Scotland.\n--Connection with cultural alienation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Brazilian tea culture",
        "text": "Brazilian tea culture has its origins in the infused beverages, or \"ch\u00e1s\" (), made by the indigenous cultures of the Amazon region and the Rio da Prata basin. It has evolved since the Portuguese colonial period to include imported varieties and tea-drinking customs. There is a popular belief in Brazil that Brazilians, especially the urban ones, have a greater taste for using sugar in teas than in other cultures, being unused to unsweetened drinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Specific tea culture has developed in the Czech Republic in recent years, including many styles of tearooms. Despite having the same name, they differ from British tearooms. Pure teas are usually prepared with respect to their country of origin, and good tea palaces may offer 80 teas from almost all tea-producing countries. Different tea rooms have also created blends and methods of preparation and serving."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guernica Editions",
        "text": "Hutcheon, Linda. \"The Canadian Mosaic: A Melting Pot on Ice: The Ironies of Ethnicity and Race.\" \"Splitting Images: Contemporary Canadian Ironies\". Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1991."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Iced tea's popularity in the United States has led to an addition to standard cutlery sets; the iced tea spoon is a standard flatware teaspoon, but with a long handle, suitable for stirring sugar into the taller glasses commonly used for iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of the Southern United States",
        "text": "Iced tea is commonly associated with the South. Specifically, sweet tea, or brewed iced tea sweetened with granulated sugar, has traditionally been served in the South. In fact, most southern restaurants serve sweet tea in addition to \"unsweet tea\", whereas most restaurants in other regions serve only (unsweetened) iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice cream",
        "text": "Around the world, different cultures have developed unique versions of ice cream, suiting the product to local tastes and preferences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Omelette",
        "text": "Omelette\n--History.\n--Variations by country.\n----Korea.\n----Mesoamerica.\n----Philippines.\n----United Kingdom.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Melting pot",
        "text": "Melting pot\n--Origins of the term.\n--United States.\n----Native Americans.\n----Miscegenation.\n----Multiracial influences on culture.\n------Ethnicity in films.\n------Hawaii.\n------Olympics.\n--Melting pot and cultural pluralism.\n--Use in other regions.\n----Antiquity.\n----Mexico.\n----South America.\n------Argentina.\n------Brazil.\n------Chile.\n------Colombia.\n------Costa Rica.\n----Indian subcontinent.\n----Afghanistan.\n----Israel.\n----Russia.\n----Soviet Union.\n----Southeast Asia.\n------Philippines.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "\"Sweet tea\", with sugar or corn syrup added (usually while the tea is still hot from brewing), the mixture then being cooled with ice, is ubiquitous in the Southeastern United States. In these states, when a person says \"tea\", they normally mean sweetened iced tea. The unsweetened variant is often called \"unsweet\" tea instead of unsweetened or plain. The consumption of sweet tea with many meals leads to it sometimes called the \"table wine of the South\", and this trait is considered an important marker of the culture of the Southern United States. Southern sweet tea is made by brewing tea at double strength, adding a large amount of sugar to the freshly brewed hot tea, and diluting to the proper strength. It is served over a glass full of ice cubes and is often garnished with a slice of lemon. While high fructose corn syrup is commonly used as a sweetener for commercially manufactured tea, more often consumers are unaware of this, and when made at home, refined sugar is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Tea plays an important role in some countries. It is commonly consumed at social events, and many cultures have created intricate formal ceremonies for these events. East Asian tea ceremonies, with their roots in the Chinese tea culture, differ among East Asian countries, such as the Japanese or Korean variants. Tea may differ widely in preparation, such as in Tibet, where the beverage is commonly brewed with salt and butter. Tea may be drunk in small private gatherings (tea parties) or in public (tea houses designed for social interaction)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian tea culture",
        "text": "The drink is served hot and often an evening or after-meal beverage. However, iced versions are sometimes offered with meals at caf\u00e9s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mitten im 8en",
        "text": "Austrian (youth) culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian tea culture",
        "text": "Indian tea culture\n--Ancient India.\n--Dutch exploration.\n--Early British surveys.\n--East India Company.\n--Modern tea production in India.\n--Geographical varieties of tea in India.\n----Darjeeling tea.\n--Consumption of tea in India.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Scone",
        "text": "Scone\n--Lexicology.\n--History.\n--Varieties.\n--Regional variations.\n----Australia.\n----Germany & Hungary.\n----New Zealand.\n----South Africa.\n----South America.\n----United States.\n--Cultural references.\n--Other usage.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Butter tea",
        "text": "Butter tea\n--History.\n--Preparation.\n--Customs.\n--Butter tea in popular culture.\n----Literature.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Annates",
        "text": "Annates\n--History.\n--Classification.\n--National variation.\n----Britain.\n----France.\n----Germany.\n--References.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Commonwealth countries"
      },
      {
        "title": "Please",
        "text": "Please\n--Origin and understanding.\n--Learning to use the term.\n--Cultural variations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Coffee culture",
        "text": "Coffee culture\n--History.\n--Coffeehouses.\n--Social aspects.\n--Coffee break.\n--By country.\n----Albania.\n----Esperantujo.\n----Italy.\n----Japan.\n----Sweden.\n----Hong Kong.\n--Education and research.\n--In media.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese tea culture",
        "text": "Chinese tea culture\n--Etymology.\n--Tea drinking customs.\n--Finger tapping.\n--Brewing Chinese tea.\n----Gongfu cha (Kung fu tea).\n--Influence on Chinese culture.\n----Teaware.\n----Teahouse.\n----Modern culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Spe\u0137rau\u0161i",
        "text": "Spe\u0137rau\u0161i\n--Variations.\n--Preparation.\n--History and folklore.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "It is a common stereotype of the Southeastern United States that due to the popularity of sweet iced tea in the region, unsweetened iced tea is not available or is frowned upon. It is often the case, however, that the term \"tea\" is assumed by default to mean sweetened iced tea in that region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Argentine cuisine",
        "text": "English cultural influence (reinforced at the end of the 19th century and the beginnings of the 20th by British contacts with the Far East) has also made the consumption of tea very common."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "History"
      },
      {
        "title": "Green sauce",
        "text": "A possible origin of the German variant are French Protestant immigrants emigrating to Kurhessen in the 18th century. The German variant uses a different mix of herbs, since Mediterranean herbs were not available in Germany at the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "The American tea culture is a part of the history of the United States, as this beverage appeals to all classes and has adapted to the customs of the United States of America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Argentine tea culture",
        "text": "An elaborate ritual exists for sharing \"mate\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Austria",
        "text": "Austria\n--Etymology.\n--History.\n----Middle Ages.\n----17th and 18th centuries.\n----19th century.\n----20th century.\n----Interwar period and World War II.\n----Contemporary era.\n--Politics.\n----Since 2006.\n----Foreign relations.\n----Military.\n----Administrative divisions.\n----Corrections system.\n--Geography.\n----Climate.\n--Economy.\n----Infrastructure and natural resources.\n--Demographics.\n----Language.\n----Ethnic groups.\n----Religion.\n----Education.\n--Culture.\n----Music.\n----Art and architecture.\n----Cinema and theatre.\n----Science and philosophy.\n----Literature.\n----Food and beverages.\n----Sports.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Austria",
        "text": "In addition to native regional traditions, the cuisine has been influenced by Hungarian, Czech, Polish, Jewish, Italian, Balkan and French cuisines, from which both dishes and methods of food preparation have often been borrowed. The Austrian cuisine is therefore one of the most multicultural and transcultural in Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "BLT",
        "text": "BLT\n--History.\n----Popularity.\n--Ingredients and preparation.\n----Variations.\n--In culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Two periods"
      },
      {
        "title": "Brazilian tea culture",
        "text": "As in other South American countries, mate is traditionally drunk from a hollow gourd using a silver straw, a tradition that continues from indigenous cultures who introduced mate to colonists, though in other parts of the country, processed mate is drunk iced, as a non-carbonated soft drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In the early 1980s, a mini-revival of demand for better quality teas from all origins occurred in the United States. Prior to this time, much of the tea available in 20th century USA was blended specifically for gallon and half-gallon sized iced tea bags, with the quality of not \"creaming down\" (a creamy looking color that imparts to some teas after cooling down) when iced as a needed aspect; \"clear-liquoring\" teas were required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coffee in world cultures",
        "text": "Coffee in world cultures\n--History.\n----Origins.\n------Ethiopian Legend.\n------Cultivation.\n----Expansion.\n------Europe.\n------The Americas.\n------Slavery.\n--World cultures.\n----Coffeehouse culture.\n----Africa.\n------Ethiopia.\n----Europe.\n------France.\n------Greece.\n------Albania.\n------Ireland.\n------Italy.\n------Nordic Countries.\n------Portugal.\n------Spain.\n----Latin America.\n------Mexico.\n------Brazil.\n------Ecuador.\n------Cuba.\n----North America.\n----East Asia.\n------Japan.\n------Southeast Asian coffee culture.\n--------Vietnam.\n------India.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pre-Christian Alpine traditions",
        "text": "Ancient customs survived in the rural parts of Austria, Switzerland, Bavaria, Slovenia, western and northern Croatia and north eastern Italy in the form of dance, art, processions, rituals and games. The high regional diversity results from the mutual isolation of Alpine communities. In the Alps, the relationship between the Roman Catholic Church and paganism has been an ambivalent one. While some customs survived only in the remote valleys inaccessible to the church's influence, other customs were actively assimilated over the centuries. In light of the dwindling rural population of the Alps, many customs have evolved into more modern interpretations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian tea culture",
        "text": "Writing in \"The Cambridge World History of Food\" , Weisburger & Comer write:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Iced tea (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Most tea sold in the United States is sold in bags, although loose leaf teas and iced are also available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rusk",
        "text": "Rusk\n--International variations.\n----Azerbaijan.\n----Cuba.\n----Denmark.\n----France.\n----Finland.\n----Germany.\n----Greece.\n----India.\n----Indonesia.\n----Iran.\n----Italy.\n----Japan.\n----The Levant.\n----Netherlands and Belgium (Flanders).\n----Norway.\n----Pakistan.\n----Philippines.\n----Portugal.\n----Russia.\n----South Africa.\n------Definition.\n------Recipe.\n------Local Tradition.\n----Sweden.\n----Turkey.\n----United Kingdom.\n------Farley's Rusks.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mille-feuille",
        "text": "Mille-feuille\n--History.\n--Composition.\n--Variations.\n----Australia.\n----Balkan countries.\n----Belgium and the Netherlands.\n----Canada.\n----German varieties.\n----Greece.\n----Hong Kong.\n----Hungary.\n----Italy.\n----Iran.\n----Lithuania.\n----North Africa.\n----Philippines.\n----Poland.\n----Russia.\n----South Africa.\n----Spain.\n----The Nordics.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n--Other.\n--References.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tinola",
        "text": "Tinola\n--Variants.\n--Cultural significance.\n--Similar dishes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Koottu",
        "text": "Many other regional variations exist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Etymology of tea",
        "text": "At times, a \"te\" form will follow a \"cha\" form, or \"vice versa\", giving rise to both in one language, at times one an imported variant of the other:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Afternoon tea is a British custom with widespread appeal. The British Empire spread its own interpretation of tea to its dominions and colonies, including regions that today comprise the states of Hong Kong, India, and Pakistan, which had pre-existing tea customs, as well as regions such as East Africa (modern-day Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda) and the Pacific (Australia and New Zealand) which did not have tea customs. The tea room or teahouse is found in the US, Ireland and many Commonwealth cities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abgoosht",
        "text": "Abgoosht\n--Preparation.\n--Variations.\n----Assyrian abgoosht.\n----Armenian abgoosht.\n----Piti (Caucasus and Central Asia).\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Brazil",
        "text": "Also similarly to the American English, the Brazilian regional variation as well as the European one include a small number of words of Indigenous American and African origin, mainly restricted to place names and fauna and flora."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Historically there were two phases of tea drinking in China based on the form of tea that was produced and consumed, namely: \"tea bricks\" versus \"loose leaf tea\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural variation",
        "text": "Cultural variation\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Wishing-Table, the Gold-Ass, and the Cudgel in the Sack",
        "text": "Professor Dov Noy cited that variants in the Americas are found in the French, English and Spanish traditions of the continent."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In restaurants, iced tea is usually served unsweetened except in the Southeastern United States where iced tea is much more common and is available both sweet and unsweetened and \"iced tea\" is often considered to be \"sweet tea\" unless otherwise specified. The reason for the presweetening is that it may be difficult to dissolve sugar in iced tea, even with constant stirring. The result can be insufficiently sweetened tea or gritty, undissolved sugar crystals in the tea. Some restaurants have begun serving iced tea that has been pre-flavored with fruit essences, particularly passion fruit, often as the only iced tea made available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dapenkeng culture",
        "text": "Other scholars consider them distinct cultures, pointing to differences in pottery styles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Austrians",
        "text": "Austrians\n--Name.\n--History.\n----Early history.\n----Early Modern period.\n----19th-century nationalism.\n----World Wars.\n----Republic of Austria (1955 to present).\n--Language.\n--Naturalization.\n--Culture.\n----Music.\n----Literature.\n----Cuisine.\n----Religion.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of ice cream varieties by country",
        "text": "List of ice cream varieties by country\n--Argentina.\n--Australia and New Zealand.\n--China, Hong Kong, Macao,.\n--Cuba.\n--Finland.\n--France.\n--Germany.\n--Ghana.\n--Greece.\n--India.\n--Indonesia.\n--Iran.\n--Italy.\n--Japan.\n--Laos.\n--Norway.\n--Pakistan.\n--Philippines.\n--Spain.\n--Syria.\n--Turkey.\n--United Kingdom.\n--United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Love for Three Oranges (fairy tale)",
        "text": "The Love for Three Oranges (fairy tale)\n--Summary.\n--Analysis.\n----Tale type.\n----The transformations and the false bride.\n------Parallels.\n----Other motifs.\n--Variants.\n----Origins.\n----Distribution.\n----Europe.\n------Italy.\n------Spain.\n------Northern Europe.\n------Slovakia.\n------Slovenia.\n------Croatia.\n------Ukraine.\n------Poland.\n------Hungary.\n------Greece.\n------Romania.\n------Bulgaria.\n------Cyprus.\n------Malta.\n------Azerbaijan.\n------Yiddish.\n------Georgia.\n----Asia.\n------Middle East.\n------Iran.\n------Iraq.\n------Turkey.\n------Afghanistan.\n------India.\n------Japan.\n------Tibet.\n------Shan people.\n----Americas.\n------Brazil.\n--Popular culture.\n----Theatre and opera.\n----Literature.\n----Television.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Most iced tea blends in the USA have traditionally been made from the teas of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Argentina and Malawi. Even though there is no correlation between the quality of cloudy teas versus clear teas, clear iced teas were considered more attractive by the consumer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean de l'Ours",
        "text": "Professor Bertram Colgrove also stated that variants have been found in Indian languages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bunjevci",
        "text": "Bunjevci\n--Ethnology.\n----Ethnonym.\n--History.\n----Origin theories.\n----Early Modern Period and Austro-Hungarian Empire.\n----Yugoslavia.\n----Contemporary period.\n------Croatia.\n------Hungary.\n------Serbia.\n--National status dispute - Bunjevac question (\"Bunjeva\u010dko pitanje\").\n--Heritage.\n----Cooking & Baking.\n----Costume.\n----Dance.\n----Feast.\n----Music instruments.\n----Songs.\n--Demographics.\n----Croatia.\n----Hungary.\n----Serbia.\n--Media.\n--Museums.\n--Political parties.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Austrians",
        "text": "Austrian culture has largely been influenced by its neighbouring lands such as Italy, Germany, Hungary, and Switzerland, and those which were historically part of Austria - e.g. Bohemia, and parts of Croatia, Slovenia, Poland and Ukraine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian tea culture",
        "text": "\"The Cambridge World History of Food\" , writes:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Feijoada",
        "text": "Feijoada\n--Brazilian feijoada.\n----Origins.\n----Regional variations.\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pea soup",
        "text": "Pea soup\n--History.\n--Around the world.\n----Australia.\n----Britain and Ireland.\n----Canada.\n----Germany.\n----Indonesia.\n----Netherlands.\n----Nordic countries.\n------Sweden and Finland.\n------Denmark.\n------Norway.\n----Poland.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Sweden",
        "text": "Culture of Sweden\n--Regions.\n--Food and drink.\n--Film.\n--Music.\n--Literature.\n--Design.\n----National costuming.\n----Fashion.\n--Art.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oatcake",
        "text": "Oatcake\n--History.\n--Regional variations.\n----Great Britain.\n------England.\n------Scotland.\n------Wales.\n----Ireland.\n----Canada.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00d8stre Gasv\u00e6rk Teater",
        "text": "\u00d8stre Gasv\u00e6rk Teater\n--History.\n--Cultural references.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Epaulette",
        "text": "Epaulette\n--Etymology.\n--How to wear.\n--History.\n--Modern derivations.\n--Belgium.\n--Canada.\n--France.\n--Germany.\n--Haiti.\n--Ottoman Empire.\n--Russian Empire.\n--Sweden.\n--United Kingdom.\n--United States.\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Midsummer",
        "text": "Midsummer\n--History.\n--Contemporary national traditions.\n----Austria.\n----Brazil.\n----Bulgaria.\n----Canada.\n----Croatia.\n----Denmark.\n----Estonia.\n----Faroe Islands.\n----Finland.\n----France.\n----Germany.\n----Greece.\n----Hungary.\n----India.\n----Iran.\n----Ireland.\n----Italy.\n----Jersey.\n----Latvia.\n----Lithuania.\n----Norway.\n----Poland.\n----Portugal.\n----Romania.\n----Russia.\n----Serbia.\n----Slovenia.\n----Spain.\n----Sweden.\n----Ukraine.\n----United Kingdom.\n------England.\n------Scotland.\n------Wales.\n----United States.\n------Alaska.\n------Arizona.\n------California.\n------Illinois.\n------Michigan.\n------Oregon.\n------New York.\n------Washington.\n------Wyoming.\n--Analogous summer solstice observances.\n----Neopaganism.\n------Germanic Neopaganism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot pot",
        "text": "Hot pot\n--Description.\n--History.\n--Regional variations.\n----Greater China.\n------Mainland China.\n--------Southern styles.\n--------Northern styles.\n------Taiwan.\n----Southeast Asia.\n------Cambodia.\n------Philippines.\n------Thailand.\n------Vietnam.\n----Europe.\n------Switzerland.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kruidnoten",
        "text": "Kruidnoten\n--Traditions.\n----The Netherlands.\n----Belgium.\n--Variations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Konditorei",
        "text": "The abundance of sugar through the native sugar beet in the 19th century lead to the development of cakes and pastries, with focus taken off decorative art. Light sponge cakes, almond pastries, apple strudel or milk-cream strudel, Gugelhupf, and cream cakes were served with then modern drinks such as coffee, tea and chocolate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kn\u00e9setja",
        "text": "Comparable customs have been suggested for Indo-Iranian and Celtic cultures."
      },
      {
        "title": "B\u00f8fsandwich",
        "text": "B\u00f8fsandwich\n--Condiments.\n--Local variations.\n--International variations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sagu (dessert)",
        "text": "There are lesser traditional variations of this dessert, according to the origin of the immigrants. In the families of German origin, for example, sagu can be prepared with milk, wine or also with fruits, like orange or pineapple. The Italian families make the dessert only with red wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tteokguk",
        "text": "Tteokguk\n--History.\n--Ingredients and varieties.\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caf\u00e9 au lait",
        "text": "Caf\u00e9 au lait\n--Variations.\n----Europe.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Stammtisch",
        "text": "This culture is still to be found in the Iberian area ( Spain, Portugal, Latin America and Brazil) in the form of \"Tertulias\". In Great Britain and Ireland many pubs fulfilled this function by offering separate back rooms (in case there was no doorkeeper). In the United States a group of regulars (such as in the T.V. series \"Cheers\") would be a close equivalent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rissole",
        "text": "Rissole\n--Variations.\n----Europe.\n------France.\n------Great Britain.\n------Ireland.\n------Poland.\n------Portugal.\n----South America.\n----Australia and New Zealand.\n----Indonesia.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian tea culture",
        "text": "Despite the name, \"Russian Tea\" probably has no link to its namesake. References to \"Russian Tea\" and instructions have been found in American newspapers and cookbooks dating as early as the 1880s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coleslaw",
        "text": "Coleslaw\n--History.\n--Cabbage salad variations.\n----Germany.\n----Israel.\n----Italy.\n----Poland.\n----Russia and Ukraine.\n----Sweden.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian tea culture",
        "text": "In the 19th century, Russians drank their tea with a cube of sugar (from sugarloaf) held between their teeth. The tradition still exists today."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When tea is chilled and cooled is known as what?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Iced tea is usually served in a glass with ice, but it can refer to any tea that has been chilled or cooled."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What's the most popular flavor of iced tea?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I could not find what is the most popular flavor, but common flavors include lemon, raspberry, lime, passion fruit, peach, orange, strawberry, and cherry."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Could you tell me about any noteworthy cultural variations?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about cultural variations in Austria, Belgium and the Netherlands, Brazil, or Greece?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the cultural variations in Austria."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In Austria, iced tea is commonly known as Eistee, and it is usually drunk heavily sweetened.",
      "Iced tea is popular in Austria and is commonly known as Eistee (ice tea); it is usually drunk heavily sweetened. Pfanner and Rauch are two of the most popular manufacturers."
    ],
    "topic": "Iced tea",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Iced tea:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iced tea",
          "Cultural variations",
          "Austria"
        ],
        "ctx": "Iced tea is popular in Austria and is commonly known as \"Eistee\" (ice tea); it is usually drunk heavily sweetened. Pfanner and Rauch are two of the most popular manufacturers."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Iced tea:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iced tea",
          "Cultural variations",
          "Austria"
        ],
        "ctx": "Iced tea is popular in Austria and is commonly known as \"Eistee\" (ice tea); it is usually drunk heavily sweetened. Pfanner and Rauch are two of the most popular manufacturers."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is popular in Austria and is commonly known as \"Eistee\" (ice tea); it is usually drunk heavily sweetened. Pfanner and Rauch are two of the most popular manufacturers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea\n--Cultural variations.\n----Austria.\n----Belgium and the Netherlands.\n----Brazil.\n----Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania.\n----Canada.\n----China.\n----Denmark.\n----Germany.\n----Greece.\n----Hong Kong.\n----India.\n----Nepal.\n----Indonesia.\n----Italy.\n----Japan.\n----Malaysia.\n----Norway.\n----Philippines.\n----Portugal.\n----Singapore.\n----South Africa.\n----South Korea.\n----Sweden.\n----Switzerland.\n----Taiwan.\n----Thailand.\n----Turkey.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n----Vietnam.\n--History.\n--Varieties.\n----Bottled iced tea.\n----Sweet tea.\n----Unsweet Tea.\n----Sun and refrigerator tea.\n----Fountain iced tea.\n----Half-and-half.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In restaurants, iced tea is usually served unsweetened except in the Southeastern United States where iced tea is much more common and is available both sweet and unsweetened and \"iced tea\" is often considered to be \"sweet tea\" unless otherwise specified. The reason for the presweetening is that it may be difficult to dissolve sugar in iced tea, even with constant stirring. The result can be insufficiently sweetened tea or gritty, undissolved sugar crystals in the tea. Some restaurants have begun serving iced tea that has been pre-flavored with fruit essences, particularly passion fruit, often as the only iced tea made available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Rather than drinking tea hot, many Americans prefer tea served with ice. In fact, in the United States, about 80% of the tea consumed is served cold, or \"iced\". Iced tea has become an iconic symbol of the Southern United States and Southern hospitality, often appearing alongside summer barbecue cooking or grilled foods. Iced tea is often made as sweet tea, which is simply iced tea with copious amounts of sugar or sweetener."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Although not produced traditionally (tea is usually served hot, with lemon and sugar/honey), iced tea became popular in these countries following the fall of the Eastern bloc in 1989\u20131990. Iced tea is mainly available in shops, being sold by companies such as Lipton and Nestea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "It is a common stereotype of the Southeastern United States that due to the popularity of sweet iced tea in the region, unsweetened iced tea is not available or is frowned upon. It is often the case, however, that the term \"tea\" is assumed by default to mean sweetened iced tea in that region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "While most iced teas get their flavor from tea leaves (\"Camellia sinensis\"), herbal teas are sometimes served cold and referred to as iced tea. Iced tea is sometimes made by a particularly long steeping of tea leaves at a lower temperature (one hour in the sun versus five minutes at , which is known as sun tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea (or ice tea) is a form of cold tea. Though usually served in a glass with ice, it can refer to any tea that has been chilled or cooled. It may be sweetened with sugar, syrup and/or apple slices. Iced tea is also a popular packaged drink and can be mixed with flavored syrup, with multiple common flavors including lemon, raspberry, lime, passion fruit, peach, orange, strawberry, and cherry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "This is another name for regular Iced Tea, but in the Southern area of America it is called this because Sweetened tea is the norm, so they have to call the Tea \"Unsweet\" to make a divide between the two types of teas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Iced tea (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "\"Sweet tea\", with sugar or corn syrup added (usually while the tea is still hot from brewing), the mixture then being cooled with ice, is ubiquitous in the Southeastern United States. In these states, when a person says \"tea\", they normally mean sweetened iced tea. The unsweetened variant is often called \"unsweet\" tea instead of unsweetened or plain. The consumption of sweet tea with many meals leads to it sometimes called the \"table wine of the South\", and this trait is considered an important marker of the culture of the Southern United States. Southern sweet tea is made by brewing tea at double strength, adding a large amount of sugar to the freshly brewed hot tea, and diluting to the proper strength. It is served over a glass full of ice cubes and is often garnished with a slice of lemon. While high fructose corn syrup is commonly used as a sweetener for commercially manufactured tea, more often consumers are unaware of this, and when made at home, refined sugar is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In the U.S. south a regional favorite called sweet tea \u2013 which is brewed, sweetened, and chilled in advance of consumption \u2013 may be served at all meals and throughout the day as an alternate to other beverages. In the United States, about 85% of the tea consumed is served cold, or \"iced\". Iced tea is more frequently consumed during periods of hot weather or in lower latitudes, and hot tea is likewise more common in colder weather. Any confusion when one is visiting different parts of the country can easily be solved by explicitly asking for either \"hot tea\" or \"iced tea.\" Afternoon tea, as a meal, is rarely served in the U.S. except in ritualized special occasions such as the tea party or an afternoon out at a high-end hotel or restaurant, which may also offer cream tea on their menu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "In the Southern United States, a regional favorite called sweet tea \u2013 which is brewed, sweetened, and chilled before consumption \u2013 may be served at all meals and throughout the day as an alternate to other beverages. In the United States, about 85% of the tea consumed is served cold, or \"iced\". Iced tea is more frequently consumed during periods of hot weather or in lower latitudes, and hot tea is likewise more common in colder weather. Any confusion when one is visiting different parts of the country can easily be solved by explicitly asking for either \"hot tea\" or \"iced tea.\" Afternoon tea, as a meal, is rarely served in the U.S. except in ritualized special occasions such as the tea party or an afternoon out at a high-end hotel or restaurant, which may also offer cream tea on their menu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Sweet tea is a tea that is brewed very strong with a large amount of sugar added while the tea is hot. The mixture of sugar and tea is then diluted with water, served over ice, and occasionally garnished with lemon. Sometimes the diluted mixture is allowed to cool to room temperature. Other times the sugar and tea mixture is diluted by pouring the hot tea and sugar over a full tumbler of ice to cool it instantly. Sweet tea is traditionally the most common variety of iced tea in the American South; elsewhere in the United States, unsweetened iced tea is more common, although there has been a growing trend of offering both sweetened and plain since the early 2000s. Because of the popularity of sweet tea in the south, plain iced tea is often called unsweet tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In Canada, iced tea refers to sweetened iced tea, flavoured with lemon. The iced tea can be made at home from drink powder but is usually sold in single bottles or cans alongside other soft drinks. Unlike in the US, iced tea in Canada is not seen as an alternative to hot tea. Sweetened green teas and those flavored with raspberry, peach, or pomegranate are becoming more common via marketing efforts. Sweetened iced tea is often served as an alternative to other soft drinks, prepared by companies like Arizona, Nestl\u00e9 (Nestea) and Brisk. Many health food stores carry iced tea made of whole-leaf tea without additives. Fresh-brewed iced tea can also be found, particularly in smaller independently owned restaurants. Powdered or frozen iced tea is a common preparation at home, due to its ease of use."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Iced tea is usually prepared from bagged tea. In addition to tea bags and loose tea, powdered \"instant iced tea mix\" is available in stores. This is made by preparing tea and then dehydrating it, similar to instant coffee. Iced tea can be purchased, like soda, in canned or bottled form at vending machines and convenience stores; usually, this pre-made tea is sweetened with corn syrup, and sometimes some other flavoring, such as lemon or raspberry, is added. Also, like other soft drinks, it can be purchased as a fountain drink, though in some establishments it is pumped from a bag-in-box, and in others, it is simply poured from a separate container that contains freshly brewed tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Health food and some other specialty stores often carry a different set of iced tea bottles which may include Role Tea, Tazo, Sweet Leaf Tea, MaryAnna's Tea, U.S. brands of the Japanese green tea giant Ito En, and other small companies. These are available in a variety of flavors, although there is less emphasis on fruits and sweeteners and greater emphasis on traditional tea spices and herbs (which can range from mint to the oil of bergamot). Corn syrup as a sweetener is very rare, with cane sugar, honey, and other sweeteners being more prominent. Citric acid as a stand-alone ingredient (i.e., present as a chemical additive and not because of the addition of citrus) is less common. With these alternative producers, unsweetened tea with no additional ingredients (just tea-infused water) may be available, as well as uncommon varieties such as chai tea, white tea, genmai tea, Jasmine tea, Earl Grey tea, and hoji tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Iced tea's popularity in the United States has led to an addition to standard cutlery sets; the iced tea spoon is a standard flatware teaspoon, but with a long handle, suitable for stirring sugar into the taller glasses commonly used for iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In the Northern United States and the Western United States, \"tea\" generally means the hot beverage and iced tea is referred to by name."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Because of the varieties of eateries in the United States, as well as climatic and cultural differences, a variety of iced teas are available. Most prominent are:\n* In barbecue, soul food, and Southern cuisine-style, establishments, along with diners and general eateries, black tea is iced. This is by far the most commonly available form of freshly brewed iced tea, to which the above statements apply. Fruit-flavored teas and herbal teas are also popular iced.\n* In some coffeehouses, more exotic varieties may be iced, such as Jasmine tea or Earl Grey tea.\n* Thai iced tea is common in Thai restaurants.\n* Iced chai (spiced Indian tea) is available from some restaurants and stores. While not traditionally served iced, in the U.S. chai is frequently served iced, with honey as a sweetener, or pre-sweetened when bottled.\n* Iced Jasmine tea, Genmaicha, and H\u014djicha are available from some Chinese cuisine or other Asian cuisine restaurants, but rarely. It is more common to find one of these varieties hot, where the patron may pour the tea over ice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea",
        "text": "Assuming a generation of 12 years, Chinese small-leaf tea is estimated to have diverged from Assam tea around 22,000 years ago, while Chinese Assam tea and Indian Assam tea diverged 2,800 years ago. The divergence of Chinese small-leaf tea and Assam tea would correspond to the last glacial maximum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Nestea, Lipton, and Pfanner are the most dominant brands and lemon- and peach-flavored iced teas are the most popular variants. Lipton offers several non-carbonated iced teas under the \"Ice Tea\" brand and the carbonated variety under the brand \"Ice Tea Sparkling\". Iced tea is also available in many restaurants and caf\u00e9s. Half-sweetened iced tea (i.e. 50\u00a0g/l sugar compared to the 100\u00a0g/l found in soft drinks) is available in most big supermarkets, mainly \"Lipton Green\". Instant teas are available that can be used to prepare iced tea with cold or hot water which are often called \"Kr\u00fcmeltee\" (meaning crumb tea or crumble tea) because of its characteristic appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Iced tea may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "A recent rise in the demand for orthodox tea in both gallon and half-gallon iced tea bags, as well as 500 and 1,000 gram loose tea packs has caused manufacturers to reinstate orthodox manufacturing methods. This is a departure from the more common Sri Lankan, Indonesian, Argentinian and other nations' orthodox rotorvane tea-making method which has limitations and can not produce whole leaf black tea. The rotorvane method was adopted primarily to satisfy the demand for the smaller leaf sizes that fit into small (1-2 gram) tea bag blends worldwide starting in the early 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In a traditionally tea-drinking country such as Turkey, with its own tea and tea culture, iced tea became popular when Lipton introduced it in the 2000s. Iced teas are a popular alternative to soft drinks. Lipton and Nestea were the two major brands until 2012 when the contract between Coca-Cola \u0130\u00e7ecek A.\u015e. and Nestea expired. Coca-Cola replaced Nestea with its Fuze Beverage brand, but due to the word \"f\u00fcze\" meaning \"missile\" in Turkish, the name used for the Turkish market is Fuse Tea. The national tea company \u00c7aykur is in the market with its iced tea brand 'Didi'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is widely drunk both in bottled and teabag version, (Nestea and Lipton are the most common in supermarkets). Although it is not served traditionally where tea is hot, it is still the most known tea and is well-liked by most."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Most iced tea blends in the USA have traditionally been made from the teas of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Argentina and Malawi. Even though there is no correlation between the quality of cloudy teas versus clear teas, clear iced teas were considered more attractive by the consumer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea",
        "text": "In the United States, 80% of tea is consumed as iced tea. Sweet tea is native to the southeastern U.S. and is iconic in its cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Japanese-style products rather than the Western-style products are penetrating the markets of East Asia. Several Japanese companies have started exporting their products to Europe and North America, in particular Ito En, which markets a whole range of Japanese-style unsweetened green and oolong teas in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In Belgium, the Netherlands (ijsthee), and other parts of Europe, \"Ice-Tea\" is the brand name of a carbonated variety of iced tea marketed by Lipton since 1978. They also market other non-carbonated iced teas under the \"Ice Tea\" brand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of the Southern United States",
        "text": "Iced tea is commonly associated with the South. Specifically, sweet tea, or brewed iced tea sweetened with granulated sugar, has traditionally been served in the South. In fact, most southern restaurants serve sweet tea in addition to \"unsweet tea\", whereas most restaurants in other regions serve only (unsweetened) iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Omotesenke",
        "text": "There are small stylistic differences between the different schools. For example, the Omotesenke school whisks the tea less than the Urasenke school, creating less foam on the top of the tea. Also, Omotesenke uses both an untreated bamboo \"chasen\" and a\" susudake chasen\", or darkened-bamboo tea whisk, while Urasenke uses untreated bamboo for its \"chasen\" or tea whisk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Etymology of tea",
        "text": "At times, a \"te\" form will follow a \"cha\" form, or \"vice versa\", giving rise to both in one language, at times one an imported variant of the other:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Mass-produced iced teas such as Nestea (Nestl\u00e9), Migros Ice Tea and Lipton are popular refreshments, while fresh-brewed iced teas are seldom found outside the home. Iced herbal teas, typically dominated by peppermint, are readily available, as are flavored black teas. It is typically labeled as \"ice tea\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Although not a traditional way to serve tea, iced tea gained widespread popularity in even rural areas since the late 1980s with canned or bottled tea. Many varieties of tea, including green tea, are available packaged and sold in stores. Many families make their iced tea by either putting much ice in a small amount of strong hot tea or by putting hot tea in a fridge for some time. Common types of iced tea are black, green, oolong (\u70cf\u9f8d\u8336), and many herbals as well. Iced herbal teas are especially popular in the hot summers, where \"yin\"\uff08\u9670\uff09or cooling herbs are used to make tea such as chrysanthemum, kuding tea (\u82e6\u4e01\u8336), etc. Cooled tea (but still warm) was popular throughout ancient times. Refrigerated tea was only available to those politically connected to the Communist Party. The introduction of limited capitalism and the opening markets in the 1990s made refrigeration available to the general population for the first time. China's refrigerator-ownership increased from just 7% of urban families in 1997 to 95% in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "The so-called Long Island Iced Tea usually contains no tea; it is an alcoholic cocktail that looks like iced tea. A variant recipe uses actual iced tea as a mixer and is named after a professional golfer; the drink, called John Daly, contains iced or sweet tea, and vodka, and is based on the Arnold Palmer, which contains half iced tea and half lemonade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Iced tea is a cold tea drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In dessert parlors (such as \"Quickly\"), iced green tea is often available (usually flavored with jasmine blossoms), with and without tapioca pearls, as is Hong Kong milk tea (usually served warm in cafes, but poured over ice when served with tapioca, creating a very creamy iced tea)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Ice tea in Greece is primarily either lemon or peach flavor. Most dominant brands are Lipton, Fuze Tea, Arizona, Nestea, and Life Tsai. Lately, new flavors have appeared but have not reached the popularity of lemon and peach, though varieties of these exist such as no sugar or with green tea with the above flavorings. Sparkling Ice Tea is almost non-existent, but there is powdered Ice Tea available in supermarkets. Ice Tea not concerning the brand is readily available in most restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea's popularity in the United States has led to an addition to standard cutlery sets: the iced tea spoon is a teaspoon with a long handle, suitable for stirring sugar in the tall glasses in which iced tea is usually served. Iced tea is at its most popular in the summer."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "American tea culture\n--History.\n--American Tea Masters.\n--Iced tea.\n--Tea bags.\n----U.S. Patent on the Tea Bag.\n------Incorrectly Credited With Accidentally Inventing the Teabag.\n------The Modern Teabag.\n--Instant tea.\n--Revival of fine teas.\n----Varieties of teas.\n--U.S. regional tea traditions.\n----Sweet tea.\n----Sun tea.\n--Alcoholic \"tea\".\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Camellia sinensis",
        "text": "Assuming a generation of 12 years, Chinese small leaf tea is estimated to have diverged from Assam tea around 22,000 years ago, while Chinese Assam tea and Indian Assam tea diverged 2,800 years ago. This divergence tea would correspond to the last glacial maximum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Another popular use for the term \"half-and-half\" is that of a mixture of sweetened and unsweetened tea at a restaurant or fast-food establishment that offers both choices. This provides a middle ground for those who want sweetness but not as much as the sweet tea being served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweet Tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sweet tea is a style of iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Popular manufacturers of bottled or canned iced tea include Arizona, Honest Tea, Lipton, Nestea, Gold Peak, Snapple and Turkey Hill. Such tea can be found on the shelves of most Western groceries and convenience stores, or online, in a variety of flavors and leaf types (usually black or green, occasionally white). With iced tea mass-produced at this scale, unsweetened varieties are somewhat rare: Most are sweetened with corn syrup, and their sweetness places them in the same market as soft drinks. Brands such as Snapple and Lipton offer iced teas sweetened with sugar in place of corn syrup. Both the sweetened and unsweetened varieties usually contain the additive citric acid, labeled either \"for flavor\" or as a \"preservative.\" Canned varieties are canned under high pressure to prevent the cans from being crushed, which may result in very mild effervescence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Etymology of tea",
        "text": "The different words for tea fall into two main groups: \"\"te\"-derived\" (Min) and \"\"cha\"-derived\" (Cantonese and Mandarin). Most notably through the Silk Road; global regions with a history of land trade with central regions of Imperial China (such as North Asia, Central Asia, the Indian subcontinent and the Middle East) pronounce it along the lines of \"'cha'\", whilst most global maritime regions with a history of sea trade with certain southeast regions of Imperial China (such as Europe), pronounce it like \"'teh\"'."
      },
      {
        "title": "East Frisia",
        "text": "The tea is not only a kind of beverage for the population, but also part of its cultural tradition. Over the years the region developed a unique tea ceremony that can be strictly observed in older households. As a part of these rules, the oldest woman in the round has to serve the other guests with tea, starting with the second oldest and then going down in age regardless of gender. The \"kluntje\" must be placed inside the teacup before the tea is poured right on top of it. After that some heavy cream is added carefully just as a top layer so it can make \"clouds\" (wulkjes) that swim on the tea itself. It's then forbidden to stir the tea, so the layers stay mild, strong and then sweet from top to bottom. Depending on the area of East Frisia, the tea can also be poured out of the cup into its saucer and drunk from there. If you don't want any more tea, you have to put your spoon into the cup or else the host will refill your cup immediately after everyone in the round finished their current cup of tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In the early 1980s, a mini-revival of demand for better quality teas from all origins occurred in the United States. Prior to this time, much of the tea available in 20th century USA was blended specifically for gallon and half-gallon sized iced tea bags, with the quality of not \"creaming down\" (a creamy looking color that imparts to some teas after cooling down) when iced as a needed aspect; \"clear-liquoring\" teas were required."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Most tea sold in the United States is sold in bags, although loose leaf teas and iced are also available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Although iced tea is not as widely consumed in the United Kingdom as in other European countries, the drink became more popular in the 2000s. In the 1990s Lipton sold a carbonated iced tea, similar to the one sold in Belgium. In recent years, Lipton has returned to the general sale of non-carbonated tea, quickly followed by Nestea and Twinings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Tea remains a popular hot drink among Canadians of European (especially British and Irish) heritage. Black orange pekoe tea and other breakfast style teas may be drunk with the morning meal or as a part of a mid-morning or afternoon break. These types of teas are typically served with milk and sugar. Red Rose and King Cole are some of the more well-known Canadian brands of tea, and the Tim Hortons chain of caf\u00e9s serves their ready-to-drink hot \u201csteeped tea\u201d, a strong breakfast-style tea. Cookies, tea biscuits or scones, and other pastries may accompany any tea that is served, but formal \u201cafternoon tea\" in the British tradition is typically confined to tourist destinations, such as Victoria's Empress Hotel or Toronto's Royal York Hotel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Tea plays an important role in some countries. It is commonly consumed at social events, and many cultures have created intricate formal ceremonies for these events. East Asian tea ceremonies, with their roots in the Chinese tea culture, differ among East Asian countries, such as the Japanese or Korean variants. Tea may differ widely in preparation, such as in Tibet, where the beverage is commonly brewed with salt and butter. Tea may be drunk in small private gatherings (tea parties) or in public (tea houses designed for social interaction)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced coffee",
        "text": "In Germany there are different types of \"Eiskaffee\" (coffee with ice cream). The most widespread form is a flavoured milk drink similar to Australian iced coffee, available in German coffeehouses and in \"Eisdielen\" (ice cream parlours). It consists of filtered, hot brewed and cooled coffee with vanilla ice cream and whipped cream on top. However, this type of iced coffee is rarely available in German supermarkets. The most widespread form of iced coffee in supermarkets is a canned version from a variety of brands with different flavours such as Cappuccino and Espresso. This iced coffee is very similar to the canned iced coffee in the UK and in the case of some brands (particularly Nestl\u00e9) actually the same product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Iced tea can be purchased like soda, in canned or bottled form at vending machines and convenience stores. This pre-made tea is usually sweetened. Sometimes some other flavorings, such as lemon or raspberry, are added. Many restaurants dispense iced tea brewed throughout the day from upright containers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "The most common variations are lemon and calamansi iced teas. Some brands offer bottled iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reily Foods Company",
        "text": "In 1932, noticing the increased popularity of iced tea, especially in the South, Reily and his sons created a blend of tea made specifically to be used for iced tea. Luzianne Iced Tea has since become the cornerstone product of the company and the second best selling iced tea in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "The two dominating brands are Lipton and Nestea\u2014the two best-selling flavors are lemon and peach. Iced tea is also sold in grocery stores and some restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea",
        "text": "\"Instant tea\", similar to freeze-dried instant coffee and an alternative to brewed tea, can be consumed either hot or cold. Instant tea was developed in the 1930s, with Nestl\u00e9 introducing the first commercial product in 1946, while Redi-Tea debuted instant iced tea in 1953. Additives such as chai, vanilla, honey or fruit, are popular, as is powdered milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweet tea",
        "text": "Sweet tea, also known as sweet iced tea, is a popular style of iced tea commonly consumed in countries such as the United States (especially the South) and Indonesia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Tea culture\n--East Asia.\n----China.\n------Hong Kong.\n------Tibet.\n----Japan.\n----Korea.\n----Taiwan.\n--Southeast Asia.\n----Myanmar.\n------Lahpet.\n----Thailand.\n----Vietnam.\n--Central Asia.\n--South Asia.\n----Bangladesh.\n----India.\n----Pakistan.\n----Sri Lanka.\n--West Asia.\n----Iran.\n----Turkey.\n--Africa.\n----Algeria.\n----Egypt.\n----Libya.\n----Mauritius.\n----Morocco.\n----Sahel.\n--Europe.\n----Czech Republic and Slovakia.\n----Germany.\n----Russia.\n----France.\n----Ireland.\n----Portugal.\n----United Kingdom.\n--North America.\n----Canada.\n----United States.\n--Formal Tea.\n--Tea As Popular Culture.\n--South America.\n----Argentina.\n----Brazil.\n----Chile.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Drink",
        "text": "Tea, the second most consumed drink in the world, is produced from infusing dried leaves of the \"camellia sinensis\" shrub, in boiling water. There are many ways in which tea is prepared for consumption: lemon or milk and sugar are among the most common additives worldwide. Other additions include butter and salt in Bhutan, Nepal, and Tibet; bubble tea in Taiwan; fresh ginger in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; mint in North Africa and Senegal; cardamom in Central Asia; rum to make Jagertee in Central Europe; and coffee to make yuanyang in Hong Kong. Tea is also served differently from country to country: in China and Japan tiny cups are used to serve tea; in Thailand and the United States tea is often served cold (as \"iced tea\") or with a lot of sweetener; Indians boil tea with milk and a blend of spices as masala chai; tea is brewed with a samovar in Iran, Kashmir, Russia and Turkey; and in the Australian Outback it is traditionally brewed in a billycan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Specific tea culture has developed in the Czech Republic in recent years, including many styles of tearooms. Despite having the same name, they differ from British tearooms. Pure teas are usually prepared with respect to their country of origin, and good tea palaces may offer 80 teas from almost all tea-producing countries. Different tea rooms have also created blends and methods of preparation and serving."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea can be brewed by placing tea (bags or loose-leaf) in a large glass container with water and leaving the container in the sun for hours. This often results in a smoother flavor. An advantage is that sun tea does not require using electricity or burning fuel, thus saving energy. Sun tea is sometimes served with syrup or lemon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jagertee",
        "text": "The name \"Jagertee\" (alternatively \"Jagatee\" or \"J\u00e4gertee\") is derived from the Austro-Bavarian pronunciation of the standard German \"J\u00e4ger\" \"hunter\" + \"Tee\" \"tea\". According to EC Regulation 110/2008, Annex III, No. 32, it is a Protected Designation of Origin reserved for the beverage made in Austria. Therefore, varieties made in Germany are sold under names like \"H\u00fcttentee\" (\"hut tea\") or \"F\u00f6rstertee\" (\"forester tea\"). It has also been sold under the name of \"Grog\" in the Czech Republic and Slovakia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In the United States, iced tea makes up about 85% of all tea consumed and is very popular as an alternative to carbonated soft drinks, especially as a characteristic beverage of the American South. It is ubiquitous in grocery stores, convenience stores, restaurants, vending machines, and soda fountains. It may be freshly made on-premises or available in bottles and cans and at self-serve soda fountains."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Bubble tea is usually a strong black tea, sweetened with sugar and condensed milk. It is served cold, usually with tapioca pearls. There are many variations of it, made with different types of teas; fruit-flavored bubble teas are popular as well. Sometimes pudding, jelly, or chunks of fruit are put into it instead of tapioca pearls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Absinthiana",
        "text": "A less common variation of the absinthe spoon is similar to iced tea spoons. By contrast, these have a normal spoon bowl and the sugar holder built into the handle."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of tea",
        "text": "During the Song dynasty, production and preparation of all tea changed. The tea included many loose-leaf styles (to preserve the delicate character favored by court society), and it is the origin of today's loose teas and the practice of brewed tea. A powdered form of tea also emerged. Steaming tea leaves was the primary process used for centuries in the preparation of tea. After the transition from compressed tea to the powdered form, the production of tea for trade and distribution changed once again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Institut del Teatre",
        "text": "(Escola d' Ensenyament Secundari i Art\u00edstic / Conservatori Professional"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bubble tea",
        "text": "Bubble tea shops often give customers the option of choosing the amount of ice or sugar in their drink. Sugar level is usually specified in percentages (e.g. 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%), and ice level is usually specified ordinally (e.g. no ice, less ice, normal ice), though they can both be specified ordinally in some shops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Teapot",
        "text": "Tea drinking in Europe was initially the preserve of the upper classes, due to the expense. Porcelain teapots were particularly desirable because porcelain could not be made in Europe at that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Switzerland is considered the motherland of bottled iced tea. Ruedi B\u00e4rlocher and Martin Sprenger, two employees of the Swiss Bischofszell beverage company, had tried the famous American iced tea and first suggested to produce ready-made iced tea in bottles. In 1983 Bischofszell Food Ltd. became the first producer in the world of bottled ice tea on an industrial scale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is a common drink in India, found at most restaurants, hotels, and malls. The most popular form of iced tea in India is ginger lemon iced tea or lemon iced tea. Other kinds are rather uncommon, though peach iced tea is quite popular. Brands of iced tea include Lipton and Nestl\u00e9, which have become affiliated with the same."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Different regions favour different varieties of tea\u2014white, yellow, green, oolong, black, or post-fermented (dark)\u2014and use different flavourings, such as herbs, milk, or sugar. The temperature and strength of the tea likewise vary widely."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Cold tea (usually without ice) is popular during the summer months in South Korea. Common varieties include corn, barley, and green tea. Bottled iced tea is found in nearly all grocery and convenience stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea started to appear in the United States during the 1860s. Seen as a novelty at first, during the 1870s it became quite widespread. Recipes appeared in print, iced tea was offered on hotel menus, and it was on sale at railroad stations. Its popularity rapidly increased after Richard Blechynden introduced it at the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prunus mume",
        "text": "In Korea, both the flowers and the fruits are used to make tea. \"Maehwa-cha\" (; \"plum blossom tea\") is made by infusing the flowers in hot water. \"Maesil-cha\" (; \"plum tea\") is made by mixing water with \"maesil-cheong\" (plum syrup) and is served either hot or cold. In Japan, similar drink made from green plums, tastes sweet and tangy, is considered a cold, refreshing drink and is often enjoyed in the summer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is a popular drink in Indonesia. It is served in a vast majority of foodservice businesses, ranging from street hawkers and traditional food corners to high-end restaurants. Iced tea is sweetened; it is known as \"es manis\" and is served with a meal. Bottled brands include Sosro and Lipton."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "While coffee remains more popular than tea in Germany, the region of East Frisia is noted for its consumption of tea and its tea culture. Nearly 75 percent of all tea imported to Germany is consumed in this region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Teacake",
        "text": "Teacake\n--Regional variations.\n----England.\n----Scotland.\n----Sweden and Finland.\n----United States.\n----Australia/India.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice trade",
        "text": "The ice trade enabled the consumption of a wide range of new products during the 19th century. One simple use for natural ice was to chill drinks, either being directly added to the glass or barrel, or indirectly chilling it in a wine cooler or similar container. Iced drinks were a novelty and were initially viewed with concern by customers, worried about the health risks, although this rapidly vanished in the US. By the mid-19th century, water was always chilled in America if possible. Iced milk was also popular, and German lager, traditionally drunk chilled, also used ice. Drinks such as sherry-cobblers and mint juleps were created that could only be made using crushed ice. There were distinct differences in 19th-century American and European attitudes to adding ice directly to drinks, with the Europeans regarding this as an unpleasant habit; British visitors to India were surprised to see the Anglo-Indian elite prepared to drink iced water. Some Hindus in India regarded ice as unclean for religious reasons, and as such an inappropriate food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is a popular drink in Italy and is widely available, generally only in lemon- and peach-flavored incarnations. (which was first released in 1972 by Ferrero) and Lipton are well-known brands."
      },
      {
        "title": "J. Lyons and Co., Greenford",
        "text": "The tea production facilities were developed post World War 2, with the introduction of tea bags. As loose leaf tea became less popular, the balance of production facilities changed to reflect changed consumer buying patterns. To cope with this expansion, and increasing profits from the now wholly owned subsidiary tea division, in 1968 a new tea warehouse and distribution centre was built on residual land adjoining the Bridge Park ice cream factory. On hygiene production grounds, there were no connecting passages between the two facilities, except via the main entrances on Oldfield Lane North."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Brazilian tea culture has its origins with the infused beverages, or \"ch\u00e1s\" (), made by the indigenous cultures of the south region. It has evolved since the Portuguese colonial period to include imported varieties and tea-drinking customs. There is a folk knowledge in Brazil which says that Brazilians, mainly the urban ones, have a greater taste for using sugar in teas than in other cultures due to the lack of habit to unsweetened drinks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shoumei tea",
        "text": "Typically, white teas are brewed at a lower temperature than black teas. Often temperatures such as 70 degrees Celsius is all that is required. Different steep times and different temperatures have a remarkably different effect on the outcome of the final brew, but two to five minutes is ideal. This is correct for western style brewing when one is making the tea in a mug or western teapot, but when a gaiwan or yixing teapot is used in the gong fu style of brewing where larger quantities of leaf and smaller quantities of water are used and shared amongst the tea drinkers, steep times of less than a minute and measured in seconds would be preferred."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Historically there were two phases of tea drinking in China based on the form of tea that was produced and consumed, namely: \"tea bricks\" versus \"loose leaf tea\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In 1946, Nestle USA introduced the first instant tea, Nestea. Instant teas are produced from black tea by extracting the liquor from processed portion of tea typically from offgrade black teas; green tea in a smaller proportion has traditionally been used by the instant tea makers as a \"clarification agent\" - again, in effort to maximize the clarity of color and minimize off-colors created by certain teas that cloud. The extract is concentrated under low pressure, and drying the concentrate to a powder by freeze-drying, spray-drying, or vacuum-drying. Low temperatures tend to be used to minimize loss of flavor. The American market for instant tea powders, which developed quickly following Nestle's introduction, has slackened off considerably over the past quarter century, as Americans have more and more turned to naturally icing their favorite loose teas, as well as preparing iced tea from tea bags, and to ready-to-drink iced teas where the smaller sizes are found in the supermarkets' refrigerated drinks sections and the larger gallon sizes are found in the supermarkets' non-refrigerated drinks sections."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea",
        "text": "Given their genetic differences forming distinct clades, Chinese Assam-type tea (\"C. sinensis\" var. \"assamica\") may have two different parentages \u2013 one being found in southern Yunnan (Xishuangbanna, Pu'er City) and the other in western Yunnan (Lincang, Baoshan). Many types of Southern Yunnan Assam tea have been hybridized with the closely related species \"Camellia taliensis\". Unlike Southern Yunnan Assam tea, Western Yunnan Assam tea shares many genetic similarities with Indian Assam-type tea (also \"C. sinensis\" var. \"assamica\"). Thus, Western Yunnan Assam tea and Indian Assam tea both may have originated from the same parent plant in the area where southwestern China, Indo-Burma, and Tibet meet. However, as the Indian Assam tea shares no haplotypes with Western Yunnan Assam tea, Indian Assam tea is likely to have originated from an independent domestication. Some Indian Assam tea appears to have hybridized with the species \"Camellia pubicosta\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "While France is well known for its coffee drinking, afternoon tea has long been a social habit of the upper-middle class. Mariage Fr\u00e8res is a famous high-end tea shop from Paris, active since 1854. The French tea market is still only a fraction of the British one (a consumption of per person a year compared to about in the UK), but it has doubled from 1995 to 2005 and is growing steadily. Tea in France is of the black variety, but Asian green teas and fruit-flavoured teas are becoming increasingly popular. French people generally drink tea in the afternoon. It is often taken in \"salons de th\u00e9\". Tea is generally served with some pastries, both sweet and pastries made especially for tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea",
        "text": "Tea\n--Etymology.\n--Origin and history.\n----Botanical origin.\n----Early tea drinking.\n----Developments.\n----Worldwide spread.\n--Cultivation and harvesting.\n--Chemical composition.\n--Processing and classification.\n----Additional processing and additives.\n--Tea culture.\n--Production.\n--Economics.\n----Labor and consumer safety problems.\n----Certification.\n--Packaging.\n----Tea bags.\n----Loose tea.\n----Compressed tea.\n----Instant tea.\n----Bottled and canned tea.\n--Storage.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Additional variations include:\n* Dark Thai iced tea (Thai: \u0e0a\u0e32\u0e14\u0e33\u0e40\u0e22\u0e47\u0e19, \"cha dam yen\"): Thai tea served chilled with no milk content and sweetened with sugar only. The concept is based on traditional Indian tea, which is used as the main ingredient.\n* Lime Thai tea (Thai: \u0e0a\u0e32\u0e21\u0e30\u0e19\u0e32\u0e27, \"cha manao\"): Similar to dark Thai iced tea but flavored with lime as well as sweetened with sugar. Mint may be added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "The oldest printed recipes for iced tea date back to the 1870s. In her 1871 cook book, Mary Ann Bryan Mason wrote of iced tea: \"...it should be well iced\". Two of the earliest cookbooks with iced tea recipes are the \"Buckeye Cookbook\" by Estelle Woods Wilcox, first published in 1876, and \"Housekeeping in Old Virginia\" by Marion Cabell Tyree, copyright 1878."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doublet (linguistics)",
        "text": "More remotely, cognate terms from different languages can be borrowed, such as \"sauce\" (Old French) and \"salsa\" (Spanish), both ultimately from Latin, or \"tea\" (Dutch \"\") and \"chai\" (Hindi), both ultimately from Chinese. This last pair reflects the history of how tea has entered English via different trade routes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eichstaettia",
        "text": "Eichstaettia\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian tea culture",
        "text": "The drink is served hot and often an evening or after-meal beverage. However, iced versions are sometimes offered with meals at caf\u00e9s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Korean tea ceremony",
        "text": "Autumn and winter tea equipment consisted of taller narrower bowls, such as the \"irabo\" style, that would contain and maintain heat. Typically of spiral construction, shallow, with a high rim. Once again tea made within that bowl would then be poured into heated teapots, and poured centered over a smaller matching cup with cover. Tea would be taken hot. And once again repeatedly poured in small spurts from cup to cup so as to prevent flavour concentrated in one cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Long Island iced tea",
        "text": "However, there are many similar cocktails due to the popularity of the cocktail and the large number of ingredients that can be substituted with alternatives. Some variations include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Teastas Eorpach na Gaeilge",
        "text": "Teastas Eorpach na Gaeilge\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chaki",
        "text": "The term \"chaire\" generally refers to a relatively small ceramic jar with a lid, used to hold the tea powder for use in making thick tea (\"koicha\"). The lid is traditionally made from elephant ivory with a gold leafed underside, though today lids are usually created from other materials made to resemble ivory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is served in many bars, restaurants, grocery stores, schools, and fast food outlets as an alternative to carbonated soda. In most areas, the Nestea brand is the most popular. It is available in powdered form as well as in cans and bottles. Iced tea in the Philippines is almost always sweet, with a slight lemon flavor."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When tea is chilled and cooled is known as what?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Iced tea is usually served in a glass with ice, but it can refer to any tea that has been chilled or cooled."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What's the most popular flavor of iced tea?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I could not find what is the most popular flavor, but common flavors include lemon, raspberry, lime, passion fruit, peach, orange, strawberry, and cherry."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Could you tell me about any noteworthy cultural variations?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about cultural variations in Austria, Belgium and the Netherlands, Brazil, or Greece?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the cultural variations in Austria."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Iced tea is popular in Austria and is commonly known as Eistee (ice tea); it is usually drunk heavily sweetened. Pfanner and Rauch are two of the most popular manufacturers."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any differences between ice tea and Eistee?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I am not sure, but as stated before, it is heavily sweetened so it might be sweeter than normal iced tea.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I did not find a difference, but I did find Iced tea is popular in Austria and is commonly known as Eistee (ice tea); it is usually drunk heavily sweetened. Pfanner and Rauch are two of the most popular manufacturers."
    ],
    "topic": "Iced tea",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Iced tea:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iced tea",
          "Cultural variations",
          "Austria"
        ],
        "ctx": "Iced tea is popular in Austria and is commonly known as \"Eistee\" (ice tea); it is usually drunk heavily sweetened. Pfanner and Rauch are two of the most popular manufacturers."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Iced tea:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iced tea",
          "Cultural variations",
          "Austria"
        ],
        "ctx": "Iced tea is popular in Austria and is commonly known as \"Eistee\" (ice tea); it is usually drunk heavily sweetened. Pfanner and Rauch are two of the most popular manufacturers."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Most iced tea blends in the USA have traditionally been made from the teas of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Argentina and Malawi. Even though there is no correlation between the quality of cloudy teas versus clear teas, clear iced teas were considered more attractive by the consumer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In Canada, iced tea refers to sweetened iced tea, flavoured with lemon. The iced tea can be made at home from drink powder but is usually sold in single bottles or cans alongside other soft drinks. Unlike in the US, iced tea in Canada is not seen as an alternative to hot tea. Sweetened green teas and those flavored with raspberry, peach, or pomegranate are becoming more common via marketing efforts. Sweetened iced tea is often served as an alternative to other soft drinks, prepared by companies like Arizona, Nestl\u00e9 (Nestea) and Brisk. Many health food stores carry iced tea made of whole-leaf tea without additives. Fresh-brewed iced tea can also be found, particularly in smaller independently owned restaurants. Powdered or frozen iced tea is a common preparation at home, due to its ease of use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea",
        "text": "In the United States, 80% of tea is consumed as iced tea. Sweet tea is native to the southeastern U.S. and is iconic in its cuisine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Rather than drinking tea hot, many Americans prefer tea served with ice. In fact, in the United States, about 80% of the tea consumed is served cold, or \"iced\". Iced tea has become an iconic symbol of the Southern United States and Southern hospitality, often appearing alongside summer barbecue cooking or grilled foods. Iced tea is often made as sweet tea, which is simply iced tea with copious amounts of sugar or sweetener."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "It is a common stereotype of the Southeastern United States that due to the popularity of sweet iced tea in the region, unsweetened iced tea is not available or is frowned upon. It is often the case, however, that the term \"tea\" is assumed by default to mean sweetened iced tea in that region."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In the Northern United States and the Western United States, \"tea\" generally means the hot beverage and iced tea is referred to by name."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In restaurants, iced tea is usually served unsweetened except in the Southeastern United States where iced tea is much more common and is available both sweet and unsweetened and \"iced tea\" is often considered to be \"sweet tea\" unless otherwise specified. The reason for the presweetening is that it may be difficult to dissolve sugar in iced tea, even with constant stirring. The result can be insufficiently sweetened tea or gritty, undissolved sugar crystals in the tea. Some restaurants have begun serving iced tea that has been pre-flavored with fruit essences, particularly passion fruit, often as the only iced tea made available."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Iced tea's popularity in the United States has led to an addition to standard cutlery sets; the iced tea spoon is a standard flatware teaspoon, but with a long handle, suitable for stirring sugar into the taller glasses commonly used for iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In the United States, iced tea makes up about 85% of all tea consumed and is very popular as an alternative to carbonated soft drinks, especially as a characteristic beverage of the American South. It is ubiquitous in grocery stores, convenience stores, restaurants, vending machines, and soda fountains. It may be freshly made on-premises or available in bottles and cans and at self-serve soda fountains."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In the U.S. south a regional favorite called sweet tea \u2013 which is brewed, sweetened, and chilled in advance of consumption \u2013 may be served at all meals and throughout the day as an alternate to other beverages. In the United States, about 85% of the tea consumed is served cold, or \"iced\". Iced tea is more frequently consumed during periods of hot weather or in lower latitudes, and hot tea is likewise more common in colder weather. Any confusion when one is visiting different parts of the country can easily be solved by explicitly asking for either \"hot tea\" or \"iced tea.\" Afternoon tea, as a meal, is rarely served in the U.S. except in ritualized special occasions such as the tea party or an afternoon out at a high-end hotel or restaurant, which may also offer cream tea on their menu."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Most tea sold in the United States is sold in bags, although loose leaf teas and iced are also available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "In the Southern United States, a regional favorite called sweet tea \u2013 which is brewed, sweetened, and chilled before consumption \u2013 may be served at all meals and throughout the day as an alternate to other beverages. In the United States, about 85% of the tea consumed is served cold, or \"iced\". Iced tea is more frequently consumed during periods of hot weather or in lower latitudes, and hot tea is likewise more common in colder weather. Any confusion when one is visiting different parts of the country can easily be solved by explicitly asking for either \"hot tea\" or \"iced tea.\" Afternoon tea, as a meal, is rarely served in the U.S. except in ritualized special occasions such as the tea party or an afternoon out at a high-end hotel or restaurant, which may also offer cream tea on their menu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is popular in Austria and is commonly known as \"Eistee\" (ice tea); it is usually drunk heavily sweetened. Pfanner and Rauch are two of the most popular manufacturers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Japanese-style products rather than the Western-style products are penetrating the markets of East Asia. Several Japanese companies have started exporting their products to Europe and North America, in particular Ito En, which markets a whole range of Japanese-style unsweetened green and oolong teas in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Iced tea is usually prepared from bagged tea. In addition to tea bags and loose tea, powdered \"instant iced tea mix\" is available in stores. This is made by preparing tea and then dehydrating it, similar to instant coffee. Iced tea can be purchased, like soda, in canned or bottled form at vending machines and convenience stores; usually, this pre-made tea is sweetened with corn syrup, and sometimes some other flavoring, such as lemon or raspberry, is added. Also, like other soft drinks, it can be purchased as a fountain drink, though in some establishments it is pumped from a bag-in-box, and in others, it is simply poured from a separate container that contains freshly brewed tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In the early 1980s, a mini-revival of demand for better quality teas from all origins occurred in the United States. Prior to this time, much of the tea available in 20th century USA was blended specifically for gallon and half-gallon sized iced tea bags, with the quality of not \"creaming down\" (a creamy looking color that imparts to some teas after cooling down) when iced as a needed aspect; \"clear-liquoring\" teas were required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea\n--Cultural variations.\n----Austria.\n----Belgium and the Netherlands.\n----Brazil.\n----Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania.\n----Canada.\n----China.\n----Denmark.\n----Germany.\n----Greece.\n----Hong Kong.\n----India.\n----Nepal.\n----Indonesia.\n----Italy.\n----Japan.\n----Malaysia.\n----Norway.\n----Philippines.\n----Portugal.\n----Singapore.\n----South Africa.\n----South Korea.\n----Sweden.\n----Switzerland.\n----Taiwan.\n----Thailand.\n----Turkey.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n----Vietnam.\n--History.\n--Varieties.\n----Bottled iced tea.\n----Sweet tea.\n----Unsweet Tea.\n----Sun and refrigerator tea.\n----Fountain iced tea.\n----Half-and-half.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of the Southern United States",
        "text": "Iced tea is commonly associated with the South. Specifically, sweet tea, or brewed iced tea sweetened with granulated sugar, has traditionally been served in the South. In fact, most southern restaurants serve sweet tea in addition to \"unsweet tea\", whereas most restaurants in other regions serve only (unsweetened) iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Although not produced traditionally (tea is usually served hot, with lemon and sugar/honey), iced tea became popular in these countries following the fall of the Eastern bloc in 1989\u20131990. Iced tea is mainly available in shops, being sold by companies such as Lipton and Nestea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "This is another name for regular Iced Tea, but in the Southern area of America it is called this because Sweetened tea is the norm, so they have to call the Tea \"Unsweet\" to make a divide between the two types of teas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Because of the varieties of eateries in the United States, as well as climatic and cultural differences, a variety of iced teas are available. Most prominent are:\n* In barbecue, soul food, and Southern cuisine-style, establishments, along with diners and general eateries, black tea is iced. This is by far the most commonly available form of freshly brewed iced tea, to which the above statements apply. Fruit-flavored teas and herbal teas are also popular iced.\n* In some coffeehouses, more exotic varieties may be iced, such as Jasmine tea or Earl Grey tea.\n* Thai iced tea is common in Thai restaurants.\n* Iced chai (spiced Indian tea) is available from some restaurants and stores. While not traditionally served iced, in the U.S. chai is frequently served iced, with honey as a sweetener, or pre-sweetened when bottled.\n* Iced Jasmine tea, Genmaicha, and H\u014djicha are available from some Chinese cuisine or other Asian cuisine restaurants, but rarely. It is more common to find one of these varieties hot, where the patron may pour the tea over ice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea's popularity in the United States has led to an addition to standard cutlery sets: the iced tea spoon is a teaspoon with a long handle, suitable for stirring sugar in the tall glasses in which iced tea is usually served. Iced tea is at its most popular in the summer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian tea regulations",
        "text": "Canadian tea regulations encompass all tea products sold, processed or imported into Canada. Tea products in Canada are strictly defined regarding human consumption. Only dried \"Thea sinensis\" leaves and buds are considered tea products. Black tea is a black tea or a blend of two or more black tea that cannot be less than 30% waters-soluble content and must be between 4 and 7 percent ash when dry. Additional black tea regulations apply to unblended black teas; these must not be less than 25% water-soluble extractive and must be 4 to 7 percent ash and must also be dry. Green teas sold in Canada have separate regulations applied. Dry green teas cannot be less than 33% waters-soluble content and must be between 4 and 7 percent ash."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "A recent rise in the demand for orthodox tea in both gallon and half-gallon iced tea bags, as well as 500 and 1,000 gram loose tea packs has caused manufacturers to reinstate orthodox manufacturing methods. This is a departure from the more common Sri Lankan, Indonesian, Argentinian and other nations' orthodox rotorvane tea-making method which has limitations and can not produce whole leaf black tea. The rotorvane method was adopted primarily to satisfy the demand for the smaller leaf sizes that fit into small (1-2 gram) tea bag blends worldwide starting in the early 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Sweet tea is a tea that is brewed very strong with a large amount of sugar added while the tea is hot. The mixture of sugar and tea is then diluted with water, served over ice, and occasionally garnished with lemon. Sometimes the diluted mixture is allowed to cool to room temperature. Other times the sugar and tea mixture is diluted by pouring the hot tea and sugar over a full tumbler of ice to cool it instantly. Sweet tea is traditionally the most common variety of iced tea in the American South; elsewhere in the United States, unsweetened iced tea is more common, although there has been a growing trend of offering both sweetened and plain since the early 2000s. Because of the popularity of sweet tea in the south, plain iced tea is often called unsweet tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea started to appear in the United States during the 1860s. Seen as a novelty at first, during the 1870s it became quite widespread. Recipes appeared in print, iced tea was offered on hotel menus, and it was on sale at railroad stations. Its popularity rapidly increased after Richard Blechynden introduced it at the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "\"Sweet tea\", with sugar or corn syrup added (usually while the tea is still hot from brewing), the mixture then being cooled with ice, is ubiquitous in the Southeastern United States. In these states, when a person says \"tea\", they normally mean sweetened iced tea. The unsweetened variant is often called \"unsweet\" tea instead of unsweetened or plain. The consumption of sweet tea with many meals leads to it sometimes called the \"table wine of the South\", and this trait is considered an important marker of the culture of the Southern United States. Southern sweet tea is made by brewing tea at double strength, adding a large amount of sugar to the freshly brewed hot tea, and diluting to the proper strength. It is served over a glass full of ice cubes and is often garnished with a slice of lemon. While high fructose corn syrup is commonly used as a sweetener for commercially manufactured tea, more often consumers are unaware of this, and when made at home, refined sugar is used."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "The so-called Long Island Iced Tea usually contains no tea; it is an alcoholic cocktail that looks like iced tea. A variant recipe uses actual iced tea as a mixer and is named after a professional golfer; the drink, called John Daly, contains iced or sweet tea, and vodka, and is based on the Arnold Palmer, which contains half iced tea and half lemonade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea (or ice tea) is a form of cold tea. Though usually served in a glass with ice, it can refer to any tea that has been chilled or cooled. It may be sweetened with sugar, syrup and/or apple slices. Iced tea is also a popular packaged drink and can be mixed with flavored syrup, with multiple common flavors including lemon, raspberry, lime, passion fruit, peach, orange, strawberry, and cherry."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of tea",
        "text": "Canadians were big tea drinkers from the days of British colonisation until the Second World War, when they began drinking more coffee like their American neighbors to the south. During the 1990s, Canadians begun to purchase more specialty teas instead of coffee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Tea remains a popular hot drink among Canadians of European (especially British and Irish) heritage. Black orange pekoe tea and other breakfast style teas may be drunk with the morning meal or as a part of a mid-morning or afternoon break. These types of teas are typically served with milk and sugar. Red Rose and King Cole are some of the more well-known Canadian brands of tea, and the Tim Hortons chain of caf\u00e9s serves their ready-to-drink hot \u201csteeped tea\u201d, a strong breakfast-style tea. Cookies, tea biscuits or scones, and other pastries may accompany any tea that is served, but formal \u201cafternoon tea\" in the British tradition is typically confined to tourist destinations, such as Victoria's Empress Hotel or Toronto's Royal York Hotel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Iced tea (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian values",
        "text": "Lipset argues that:\n:Many writers seeking to account for value differences between the United States and Canada suggest that they stem in large part from the revolutionary origins of the United States and the counterrevolutionary history of Canada\u2026. The Loyalist emigr\u00e9s from the American Revolution and Canada's subsequent repeatedly aroused fears of United States encroachment fostered the institutionalization of a counterrevolutionary or conservative ethos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is traditionally served with lemon slice used as a garnish, which is often placed on the rim of the glass. In the Southwest United States (or at least in restaurants with a Southwest theme), lime is also very popular (especially in Mexican restaurants). It is not entirely uncommon for establishments to put out slices of lemon and lime for the customer to take for themselves. Many people in the Southeastern USA will also drink sweet (iced) tea with milk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweet tea",
        "text": "Sweet tea, also known as sweet iced tea, is a popular style of iced tea commonly consumed in countries such as the United States (especially the South) and Indonesia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Iced tea may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Health food and some other specialty stores often carry a different set of iced tea bottles which may include Role Tea, Tazo, Sweet Leaf Tea, MaryAnna's Tea, U.S. brands of the Japanese green tea giant Ito En, and other small companies. These are available in a variety of flavors, although there is less emphasis on fruits and sweeteners and greater emphasis on traditional tea spices and herbs (which can range from mint to the oil of bergamot). Corn syrup as a sweetener is very rare, with cane sugar, honey, and other sweeteners being more prominent. Citric acid as a stand-alone ingredient (i.e., present as a chemical additive and not because of the addition of citrus) is less common. With these alternative producers, unsweetened tea with no additional ingredients (just tea-infused water) may be available, as well as uncommon varieties such as chai tea, white tea, genmai tea, Jasmine tea, Earl Grey tea, and hoji tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Although iced tea is not as widely consumed in the United Kingdom as in other European countries, the drink became more popular in the 2000s. In the 1990s Lipton sold a carbonated iced tea, similar to the one sold in Belgium. In recent years, Lipton has returned to the general sale of non-carbonated tea, quickly followed by Nestea and Twinings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peace Iced Tea",
        "text": "Once Peace Tea was transferred to the Coca-Cola Company in 2015, newer and more simple designs were produced.\n*Razzleberry (Raspberry)\n*Sweet Lemon\n*Sno-berry (Blueberry)\n*Green Tea\n*Caddy Shack (Tea and Lemonade)\n*Just Peachy (Called Peach Party in Canada)\n*Pineapple Groove Zer-Oh\n*Hello Mango (Mango Green Tea)\n*Cheeky Cherry (Canada only)\n*Cheeky Cherry Fizz (Canada only)\n*Sweet Lemon Fizz (Canada only)\n*Strawberry Lemon Love (Strawberry Lemonade, Canada only)\n*Mango Mood\n*Ceylon\n*Cranberry\n*Pink Lemonade and Tea\n*Unsweetened Tea\n*Texas Style Sweet Tea\n*Strawberry Lemon Love (discontinued in US)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "While most iced teas get their flavor from tea leaves (\"Camellia sinensis\"), herbal teas are sometimes served cold and referred to as iced tea. Iced tea is sometimes made by a particularly long steeping of tea leaves at a lower temperature (one hour in the sun versus five minutes at , which is known as sun tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "American tea culture\n--History.\n--American Tea Masters.\n--Iced tea.\n--Tea bags.\n----U.S. Patent on the Tea Bag.\n------Incorrectly Credited With Accidentally Inventing the Teabag.\n------The Modern Teabag.\n--Instant tea.\n--Revival of fine teas.\n----Varieties of teas.\n--U.S. regional tea traditions.\n----Sweet tea.\n----Sun tea.\n--Alcoholic \"tea\".\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Popular manufacturers of bottled or canned iced tea include Arizona, Honest Tea, Lipton, Nestea, Gold Peak, Snapple and Turkey Hill. Such tea can be found on the shelves of most Western groceries and convenience stores, or online, in a variety of flavors and leaf types (usually black or green, occasionally white). With iced tea mass-produced at this scale, unsweetened varieties are somewhat rare: Most are sweetened with corn syrup, and their sweetness places them in the same market as soft drinks. Brands such as Snapple and Lipton offer iced teas sweetened with sugar in place of corn syrup. Both the sweetened and unsweetened varieties usually contain the additive citric acid, labeled either \"for flavor\" or as a \"preservative.\" Canned varieties are canned under high pressure to prevent the cans from being crushed, which may result in very mild effervescence."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States\u2013Mexico\u2013Canada Agreement",
        "text": "In December 2019, Thea M. Lee and Robert E. Scott of the Economic Policy Institute criticized USMCA as \"weak tea, at best\" because it would have \"virtually no measurable impacts on wages or incomes for U.S. workers,\" noting that \"The benefits are tiny, and it's highly uncertain whether the deal will be a net winner or loser, in the end.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced coffee",
        "text": "Iced coffee\n--History.\n--Serving.\n--Variations by country.\n----Australia.\n----Canada.\n----Chile.\n----China.\n----Czech Republic.\n----Germany.\n----Greece.\n----India.\n----Italy.\n----Japan.\n----New Zealand.\n----Philippines.\n----Slovenia.\n----Sri Lanka.\n----Thailand.\n----United States.\n----Vietnam.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea can be brewed by placing tea (bags or loose-leaf) in a large glass container with water and leaving the container in the sun for hours. This often results in a smoother flavor. An advantage is that sun tea does not require using electricity or burning fuel, thus saving energy. Sun tea is sometimes served with syrup or lemon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In Belgium, the Netherlands (ijsthee), and other parts of Europe, \"Ice-Tea\" is the brand name of a carbonated variety of iced tea marketed by Lipton since 1978. They also market other non-carbonated iced teas under the \"Ice Tea\" brand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian ice cream (Canada)",
        "text": "The consistency of the dessert ranges from a thin, frothy liquid to a thick foam, which is determined by the amount of water added to the recipe. First Nations that originate from the Pacific Northwest, Oregon, Upper Tanana, and Flathead regions prefer to use larger amounts of water to attain a frothy drink. Areas like Clallam, Coeur d'Alene, Bella Coola, and Alaska are more familiar with an ice cream-like consistency of their dessert, which comes from using small volumes, or even no water in their recipes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is widely drunk both in bottled and teabag version, (Nestea and Lipton are the most common in supermarkets). Although it is not served traditionally where tea is hot, it is still the most known tea and is well-liked by most."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "In 1946, Nestle USA introduced the first instant tea, Nestea. Instant teas are produced from black tea by extracting the liquor from processed portion of tea typically from offgrade black teas; green tea in a smaller proportion has traditionally been used by the instant tea makers as a \"clarification agent\" - again, in effort to maximize the clarity of color and minimize off-colors created by certain teas that cloud. The extract is concentrated under low pressure, and drying the concentrate to a powder by freeze-drying, spray-drying, or vacuum-drying. Low temperatures tend to be used to minimize loss of flavor. The American market for instant tea powders, which developed quickly following Nestle's introduction, has slackened off considerably over the past quarter century, as Americans have more and more turned to naturally icing their favorite loose teas, as well as preparing iced tea from tea bags, and to ready-to-drink iced teas where the smaller sizes are found in the supermarkets' refrigerated drinks sections and the larger gallon sizes are found in the supermarkets' non-refrigerated drinks sections."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Iced tea is a cold tea drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian tea regulations",
        "text": "Canadian tea regulations\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is sold in 7-Eleven stores and supermarkets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chocolate ice cream",
        "text": "The minimum fat content of chocolate ice cream in both Canada and the United States is 8%, irrespective of the amount of chocolate sweetener in the recipe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reily Foods Company",
        "text": "In 1932, noticing the increased popularity of iced tea, especially in the South, Reily and his sons created a blend of tea made specifically to be used for iced tea. Luzianne Iced Tea has since become the cornerstone product of the company and the second best selling iced tea in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "The two dominating brands are Lipton and Nestea\u2014the two best-selling flavors are lemon and peach. Iced tea is also sold in grocery stores and some restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Yellow and white teas became difficult to find in the United States and even green tea had become uncommon because of the People's Republic of China's ban on exports to the USA which was lifted in 1971. After the resumption of trade between mainland China and the US, these teas typical to China re-entered the American market for the first time since the first two decades of the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red Rose Tea",
        "text": "Red Rose brand tea has been available in the United States since the 1920s, but their Original Blend is a different blend of black pekoe and cut black teas, compared to the orange pekoe sold in Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peace Iced Tea",
        "text": "Peace Iced Tea (often labeled Peace Tea) is a brand of assorted iced tea beverages produced by the Coca-Cola Company. It was originally produced by the Monster Beverage Company. The product launched on December 21, 2009. Peace Tea contains no artificial flavors or coloring, although it does contain an artificial sweetener, sucralose. The only flavor not to include sucralose was the Unsweetened Tea (also branded as High Tea), but it was discontinued in early 2012. Peace tea is served in 23 oz cans in the United States, and 695 mL cans in Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea () is sold in grocery stores. The most popular brands are , and Fuze."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Nestea, Lipton, and Pfanner are the most dominant brands and lemon- and peach-flavored iced teas are the most popular variants. Lipton offers several non-carbonated iced teas under the \"Ice Tea\" brand and the carbonated variety under the brand \"Ice Tea Sparkling\". Iced tea is also available in many restaurants and caf\u00e9s. Half-sweetened iced tea (i.e. 50\u00a0g/l sugar compared to the 100\u00a0g/l found in soft drinks) is available in most big supermarkets, mainly \"Lipton Green\". Instant teas are available that can be used to prepare iced tea with cold or hot water which are often called \"Kr\u00fcmeltee\" (meaning crumb tea or crumble tea) because of its characteristic appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada\u2013United States sports rivalries",
        "text": "In the Winter Olympics, both the United States and Canada have won the medal table once, while the US is ranked second in the all time Winter Olympic table, with Canada ranked fifth. In the Summer Olympics, the United States has won the medal count 18 times, compared to zero for Canada. The United States is ranked number 1 in the all time Summer Olympic medal table, while Canada is ranked number 20."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea production in the United States",
        "text": "Tea production in the United States\n--History.\n----Hawaii.\n----South Carolina.\n--Alabama.\n--Recent Production.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Canada",
        "text": "The United States is home to a number of perceptions about Canadian culture, due to the countries' partially shared heritage and the relatively large number of cultural features common to both the US and Canada. For example, the average Canadian may be perceived as more reserved than his or her American counterpart. Canada and the United States are often inevitably compared as sibling countries, and the perceptions that arise from this oft-held contrast have gone to shape the advertised worldwide identities of both nations: the United States is seen as the rebellious child of the British Crown, forged in the fires of violent revolution; Canada is the calmer offspring of the United Kingdom, known for a more relaxed national demeanour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Etiquette in North America",
        "text": "Due to the United States's dominance in media and the cultural image of Canada, Canadians strongly dislike being mistaken for American citizens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Comparison of the healthcare systems in Canada and the United States",
        "text": "The U.S. and Canada differ substantially in their demographics, and these differences may contribute to differences in health outcomes between the two nations. Although both countries have white majorities, Canada has a proportionately larger immigrant minority population. Furthermore, the relative size of different ethnic and racial groups vary widely in each country. Hispanics and peoples of African descent constitute a much larger proportion of the U.S. population. Non-Hispanic North American aboriginal peoples constitute a much larger proportion of the Canadian population. Canada also has a proportionally larger South Asian and East Asian population. Also, the proportion of each population that is immigrant is higher in Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Mass-produced iced teas such as Nestea (Nestl\u00e9), Migros Ice Tea and Lipton are popular refreshments, while fresh-brewed iced teas are seldom found outside the home. Iced herbal teas, typically dominated by peppermint, are readily available, as are flavored black teas. It is typically labeled as \"ice tea\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada\u2013United States women's national ice hockey rivalry",
        "text": "1 Tie"
      },
      {
        "title": "Indian ice cream (Canada)",
        "text": "Sugar is added as needed; the bitterness or sweetness of the berries can vary greatly between bushes, with bitter berries requiring the addition of more sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada\u2013United States women's national ice hockey rivalry",
        "text": "Canada\u2013United States women's national ice hockey rivalry\n--Head to Head Record.\n----Overall.\n----Gold Medal Games.\n--Results of Tournaments.\n--Medal Tables.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Iced tea is served in many bars, restaurants, grocery stores, schools, and fast food outlets as an alternative to carbonated soda. In most areas, the Nestea brand is the most popular. It is available in powdered form as well as in cans and bottles. Iced tea in the Philippines is almost always sweet, with a slight lemon flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Teacake",
        "text": "Teacake\n--Regional variations.\n----England.\n----Scotland.\n----Sweden and Finland.\n----United States.\n----Australia/India.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice hockey rules",
        "text": "Hockey Canada and USA Hockey's rule books differ primarily in technical matters such as the severity of penalties handed out for various fouls. IIHF rules differ a bit more due to the differences in the dimensions of North American hockey rinks from those in the rest of the world. In recent times, both USA Hockey and Hockey Canada have been trying to make their rules more similar to the international rules. The merits of this move toward a more standardized rule book, however, are debated in amateur hockey circles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada\u2013United States junior ice hockey rivalry",
        "text": "Canada\u2013United States junior ice hockey rivalry\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In a traditionally tea-drinking country such as Turkey, with its own tea and tea culture, iced tea became popular when Lipton introduced it in the 2000s. Iced teas are a popular alternative to soft drinks. Lipton and Nestea were the two major brands until 2012 when the contract between Coca-Cola \u0130\u00e7ecek A.\u015e. and Nestea expired. Coca-Cola replaced Nestea with its Fuze Beverage brand, but due to the word \"f\u00fcze\" meaning \"missile\" in Turkish, the name used for the Turkish market is Fuse Tea. The national tea company \u00c7aykur is in the market with its iced tea brand 'Didi'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada\u2013United States junior ice hockey rivalry",
        "text": "A highly competitive sports rivalry that exists between the national under-20 ice hockey teams of the two countries, as well as their respective sets of fans. The two countries are perennial rivals at the World Junior Championships for players under 20 years of age. Overall, Canada holds a total of 18 gold medals, while the United States holds five gold medals."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "Currently, there is a revival of interest in the many varieties of black teas throughout the United States. Additionally, other exotic teas (such as the vast variety of African, Asian and South American teas) and different brewing styles are becoming more commonplace. Teas from all origins and elevations, made in all methods of manufacture, are popular in the US, a tea market which has traditionally been more flexible and willing to try new types of drinks than tea markets throughout the old world."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Tea Room",
        "text": "American Tea Room\n--Products.\n----Teas.\n----Tea products.\n--Locations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada\u2013United States women's national ice hockey rivalry",
        "text": "At the 4 Nations Cup, Canada and the USA have faced each other in every gold medal game (except 2001 when the USA withdrew due to the September 11 attacks and 2013 where Canada won gold defeating Finland and the USA won bronze defeating Sweden), with Canada winning 10 of the first 13 and the USA winning 6 of the last 10."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada\u2013United States women's national ice hockey rivalry",
        "text": "DNP = Did not participate"
      },
      {
        "title": "A&W (Canada)",
        "text": "The Canadian menu diverges significantly from their US counterpart due to their independent management."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea production in the United States",
        "text": "\"Camellia sinensis\", the source of tea leaves and buds, can be grown in warmer parts of the United States. Commercial cultivation has been tried at various times and locations since the 1700s, but tea has remained a niche crop and has never been cultivated widely in the United States. As of 2020, the US mainland has one relatively large plantation with full mechanization in Charleston, South Carolina, and numerous small commercial tea gardens that pick tea by hand. Some growers feel that tea production is not viable without some mechanization, but there is evidence that unmechanized tea production is viable, albeit with lower net profit margins. Most domestically grown teas are available through mail order and online purchases."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tea culture",
        "text": "Iced tea can be purchased like soda, in canned or bottled form at vending machines and convenience stores. This pre-made tea is usually sweetened. Sometimes some other flavorings, such as lemon or raspberry, are added. Many restaurants dispense iced tea brewed throughout the day from upright containers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada\u2013United States women's national ice hockey rivalry",
        "text": "USA <br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada\u2013United States women's national ice hockey rivalry",
        "text": "USA <br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea spoon",
        "text": "An iced tea spoon, also called a soda spoon or a latte spoon, is a thin spoon with a very long handle. It is used primarily in the United States, for stirring sugar or other sweeteners into iced tea, which is traditionally served in a tall glass. This is why the spoon has a very long handle."
      },
      {
        "title": "American tea culture",
        "text": "\"\u00a0 \u00a0Be it known that we, Roberta C. Lawson and Mary McLaren, citizens of the united states, residing at Milwaukee, WI have invented a new and useful Improvement in Tea-Leaf Holders, of which the following is a description, reference being had to the accompanying drawings, which are a part of this specification. (from the U.S. Patent Approval)\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Etiquette in North America",
        "text": "Both Canada and the United States have shared cultural and linguistic heritage originating in Europe, and as such some points of traditional European etiquette apply to both, especially in more formal settings; however, each have formed their own etiquette as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "American (word)",
        "text": "Modern Canadians typically refer to people from the United States as \"Americans\", though they seldom refer to the United States as \"America\"; they use the terms \"the United States\", \"the U.S.\", or (informally) \"the States\" instead. Rarely applying the term \"American\" to themselves, some Canadians resent being referred to as Americans or mistaken for U.S. citizens. This is often due to others' inability, particularly overseas, to distinguish Canadians from Americans, by their accent or other cultural attributes. Some Canadians have protested the use of \"American\" as a national demonym. People of U.S. ethnic origin in Canada are categorized as \"Other North American origins\" by Statistics Canada for purposes of census counts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arizona Beverage Company",
        "text": "In Sweden, seven different flavors of Arizona Iced Tea and Green Tea are sold. Although no official distributor partnered with AriZona exists, independent importers supply a limited amount of shops. Either for shops with focus on American imported products, or in regular stores as an exotic and premium import. They are imported directly from the US in the standard 23 Fl. Oz. or 680 ml cans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada\u2013United States women's national ice hockey rivalry",
        "text": "<br><br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada\u2013United States women's national ice hockey rivalry",
        "text": "<br><br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada\u2013United States women's national ice hockey rivalry",
        "text": "<br><br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian English",
        "text": "The following are common in Canada, but not in the United States or the United Kingdom.\n* \"runners\": running shoes, especially in Western Canada. Also used in Australian English and Irish English. Atlantic Canada prefers \"sneakers\" while central Canada (including Quebec and Ontario) prefers \"running shoes\".\n* \"touque\" (also spelled \"toque\" or \"tuque\"): a knitted winter hat. A similar hat would be called a \"beanie\" in the western United States and a \"watch cap\" in the eastern United States, though these forms are generally closer-fitting, and may lack a brim as well as a pompom. There seems to be no exact equivalent outside Canada, since the tuque is of French Canadian origin.\n* \"bunnyhug\": a hooded sweatshirt, with or without a zipper. Used mainly in Saskatchewan.\n* Most Canadians as well as Americans in the Northwest, North Central, Prairie and Inland North prefer \"pop\" over \"soda\" to refer to a carbonated beverage, but \"soda\" is understood to mean the same thing, in contrast to British English where \"soda\" refers specifically to soda \"water\" (US/Canadian \"seltzer water\"). \"Soft drink\" is also extremely common throughout Canada.\n* What Americans call \"Canadian bacon\" is named \"back bacon\" in Canada, or, if it is coated in cornmeal or ground peas, \"cornmeal bacon\" or \"peameal bacon\".\n* What most Americans call a \"candy bar\" is usually known as a \"chocolate bar\" (as in the United Kingdom). In certain areas surrounding the Bay of Fundy, it is sometimes known as a \"nut bar\"; however, this use is more popular amongst older generations. Legally only bars made of solid chocolate may be labelled chocolate bars.\n* Even though the terms \"French fries\" and \"fries\" are used by Canadians, some speakers use the word \"chips\" (and its diminutive, \"chippies\") (chips is always used when referring to \"fish and chips\", as elsewhere).\n* \"brown bread\" refers to whole-wheat bread, as in \"Would you like white or brown bread for your toast?\"\n* An \"expiry date\" is the term used for the date when a perishable product will go bad (similar to the UK \"Use By\" date). The term \"expiration date\" is more common in the United States (where \"expiry date\" is seen mostly on the packaging of Asian food products). The term \"Best Before\" also sees common use, where although not spoiled, the product may not taste \"as good\".\n* \"double-double\": a cup of coffee with two measures of cream and two of sugar, most commonly associated with the Tim Hortons chain of coffee shops.\n* Canadianisms relating to alcohol:\n** \"mickey\": a bottle of hard liquor (informally called a pint in the Maritimes and the United States). In Newfoundland, this is almost exclusively referred to as a \"flask\". In the United States, \"mickey\", or \"Mickey Finn\", refers to a drink laced with drugs.\n** \"two-six\", \"twenty-sixer\", \"twixer\": a bottle of hard liquor (called a quart in the Maritimes). The word \"handle\" is less common. Similarly, a bottle of hard liquor is known as a \"forty\" and a bottle is known as a \"sixty\" or \"half gallon\" in Nova Scotia.\n** \"Texas mickey\" (especially in Saskatchewan, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia; more often a \"Saskatchewan mickey\" in western Canada): a bottle of hard liquor. (Despite the name, Texas mickeys are generally unavailable outside of Canada.)\n** \"two-four\": a case of 24 beers, also known as a \"case\" in Eastern Canada, or a \"flat\" in Western Canada (referencing that cans of beer are often sold in packages of six, with four packages to a flat box for shipping and stacking purposes).\n** \"six-pack\", \"half-sack\", \"half-case\", or \"poverty-pack\": a case of six beers\n* \"poutine\": a snack of french fries topped with cheese curds and hot gravy.\n* There are also genericized trademarks used in Canada:\n** \"cheezies\": cheese puffs. The name is a genericized trademark based on a brand of crunchy cheese snack sold in Canada.\n** Kraft Dinner or \"KD\": for any packaged dry macaroni and cheese mix, even when it is not produced by Kraft.\n* \"freezie\": A frozen flavoured sugar water snack common worldwide, but known by this name exclusively in Canada.\n* \"dainty\": a fancy cookie, pastry, or square served at a social event (usually plural). Used in western Canada.\n* \"Smarties\": a bean-sized, small candy-covered chocolate, similar to plain M&M's. This is also seen in British English. Smarties in the United States refer to small tart powdered disc sold in rolls; in Canada these tart candies are sold as \"Rockets\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada\u2013United States women's national ice hockey rivalry",
        "text": "Canada <br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Canada\u2013United States women's national ice hockey rivalry",
        "text": "Canada <br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweet Tea (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Sweet tea is a style of iced tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "In dessert parlors (such as \"Quickly\"), iced green tea is often available (usually flavored with jasmine blossoms), with and without tapioca pearls, as is Hong Kong milk tea (usually served warm in cafes, but poured over ice when served with tapioca, creating a very creamy iced tea)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice trade",
        "text": "The ice trade enabled the consumption of a wide range of new products during the 19th century. One simple use for natural ice was to chill drinks, either being directly added to the glass or barrel, or indirectly chilling it in a wine cooler or similar container. Iced drinks were a novelty and were initially viewed with concern by customers, worried about the health risks, although this rapidly vanished in the US. By the mid-19th century, water was always chilled in America if possible. Iced milk was also popular, and German lager, traditionally drunk chilled, also used ice. Drinks such as sherry-cobblers and mint juleps were created that could only be made using crushed ice. There were distinct differences in 19th-century American and European attitudes to adding ice directly to drinks, with the Europeans regarding this as an unpleasant habit; British visitors to India were surprised to see the Anglo-Indian elite prepared to drink iced water. Some Hindus in India regarded ice as unclean for religious reasons, and as such an inappropriate food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced tea",
        "text": "Another popular use for the term \"half-and-half\" is that of a mixture of sweetened and unsweetened tea at a restaurant or fast-food establishment that offers both choices. This provides a middle ground for those who want sweetness but not as much as the sweet tea being served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iced coffee",
        "text": "In Canada, the popular Tim Hortons coffee chain sells iced cappuccinos, known locally as Ice Capps. The chain has also recently introduced traditional iced coffee to its Canadian menu in addition to its U.S. menu. Other fast-food and beverage chains also provide iced coffee. A June 2016 study by research firm NPD found that the popularity of iced coffee drinks had increased by about 16 percent over the same period a year earlier."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When tea is chilled and cooled is known as what?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Iced tea is usually served in a glass with ice, but it can refer to any tea that has been chilled or cooled."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What's the most popular flavor of iced tea?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I could not find what is the most popular flavor, but common flavors include lemon, raspberry, lime, passion fruit, peach, orange, strawberry, and cherry."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Could you tell me about any noteworthy cultural variations?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to know about cultural variations in Austria, Belgium and the Netherlands, Brazil, or Greece?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the cultural variations in Austria."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Iced tea is popular in Austria and is commonly known as Eistee (ice tea); it is usually drunk heavily sweetened. Pfanner and Rauch are two of the most popular manufacturers."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any differences between ice tea and Eistee?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find a difference, but I did find Iced tea is popular in Austria and is commonly known as Eistee (ice tea); it is usually drunk heavily sweetened. Pfanner and Rauch are two of the most popular manufacturers."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How does iced tea differ in Canada compared to the United States?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In Canada, iced tea refers to sweetened iced tea, flavoured with lemon. Unlike in the US, iced tea in Canada is not seen as an alternative to hot tea.",
      "In Canada, iced tea refers to sweetened iced tea, flavored with lemon, and unlike in the US, is not seen as an alternative to hot tea."
    ],
    "topic": "Iced tea",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Iced tea:7",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iced tea",
          "Cultural variations",
          "Canada"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Canada, iced tea refers to sweetened iced tea, flavoured with lemon. The iced tea can be made at home from drink powder but is usually sold in single bottles or cans alongside other soft drinks. Unlike in the US, iced tea in Canada is not seen as an alternative to hot tea. Sweetened green teas and those flavored with raspberry, peach, or pomegranate are becoming more common via marketing efforts. Sweetened iced tea is often served as an alternative to other soft drinks, prepared by companies like Arizona, Nestl\u00e9 (Nestea) and Brisk. Many health food stores carry iced tea made of whole-leaf tea without additives. Fresh-brewed iced tea can also be found, particularly in smaller independently owned restaurants. Powdered or frozen iced tea is a common preparation at home, due to its ease of use."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Iced tea:7",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iced tea",
          "Cultural variations",
          "Canada"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Canada, iced tea refers to sweetened iced tea, flavoured with lemon. The iced tea can be made at home from drink powder but is usually sold in single bottles or cans alongside other soft drinks. Unlike in the US, iced tea in Canada is not seen as an alternative to hot tea. Sweetened green teas and those flavored with raspberry, peach, or pomegranate are becoming more common via marketing efforts. Sweetened iced tea is often served as an alternative to other soft drinks, prepared by companies like Arizona, Nestl\u00e9 (Nestea) and Brisk. Many health food stores carry iced tea made of whole-leaf tea without additives. Fresh-brewed iced tea can also be found, particularly in smaller independently owned restaurants. Powdered or frozen iced tea is a common preparation at home, due to its ease of use."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Pysanka Museum",
        "text": "There are many examples of both pysanky and other forms of decorated eggs from other Slavic countries (Belarus, the Czech Republic, Poland) and more distant lands (Romania, Sweden, United States, Canada, France, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, India)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Pysanky are Ukrainian Easter eggs, decorated using a wax-resist (batik) method. The word comes from the verb \"pysaty\", \"to write\", as the designs are not painted on, but written with beeswax."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "With the advent of Christianity, via a process of religious syncretism, the symbolism of the egg was changed to represent, not nature's rebirth, but the rebirth of man. Christians embraced the egg symbol and likened it to the tomb from which Christ rose. With the acceptance of Christianity in 988, the decorated pysanka, in time, was adapted to play an important role in Ukrainian rituals of the new religion. Many symbols of the old sun worship survived and were adapted to represent Easter and Christ's Resurrection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukraine",
        "text": "The tradition of the Easter egg, known as pysanky, has long roots in Ukraine. These eggs were drawn on with wax to create a pattern; then, the dye was applied to give the eggs their pleasant colours, the dye did not affect the previously wax-coated parts of the egg. After the entire egg was dyed, the wax was removed leaving only the colourful pattern. This tradition is thousands of years old, and precedes the arrival of Christianity to Ukraine. In the city of Kolomyia near the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains, the museum of Pysanka was built in 2000 and won a nomination as the monument of modern Ukraine in 2007, part of the Seven Wonders of Ukraine action."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "A pisanka, pysanka (, plural: \"pisanki, pysanky\") is a Polish-Ukrainian Easter egg, decorated with traditional folk designs using a wax-resist method. The word \"pisanka\" comes from the verb \"pisa\u0107, pysaty,\" \"to write\" or \"to inscribe,\" as the designs are written (inscribed) with beeswax, not painted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukrainian Canadians",
        "text": "Ukrainians in general are noted for their elaborately decorated Easter Eggs or \"pysanky\", and that is also true in Canada. The world's second largest pysanka is in Vegreville, Alberta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Newer legends blended folklore and Christian beliefs and firmly attached the egg to the Easter celebration. One legend concerns the Virgin Mary. It tells of the time Mary gave eggs to the soldiers at the cross. She entreated them to be less cruel to her son and she wept. The tears of Mary fell upon the eggs, spotting them with dots of brilliant color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Everyone from the youngest to the oldest received a pysanka for Easter. Young people were given pysanky with bright designs; dark pysanky were given to older people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Each region, each village, and almost every family had its own special ritual, its own symbols, meanings and secret formulas for dyeing eggs. These customs were preserved faithfully and passed down from mother to daughter through generations. The custom of decorating pysanky was observed with greatest care, and a pysanka, after receiving the Easter blessing, was held to have great powers as a talisman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The oldest mention of Easter eggs in Polish literature comes from the 13th-century Chronica Polonorum, i.e. the history of Poland by Wincenty Kad\u0142ubek. The text tells about an interesting game with Easter eggs - as well as about the supposedly capricious nature of Poles themselves: \"Since ancient times, Poles have always been envious and played with their masters as if they were painted eggs\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Similarly, no actual pysanky from the Kyivan Rus' period exist, but stone, clay and bone versions exist and have been excavated in many sites throughout Ukraine. Most common are ceramic eggs decorated with a horsetail plant (\u0441\u043e\u0441\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430 \"sosonka\") pattern in yellow and bright green against a dark background. More than 70 such eggs have been excavated throughout Ukraine, many of them from graves of children and adults. They are thought to be representations of real decorated eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegreville",
        "text": "Vegreville's pysanka, the second largest Ukrainian Easter egg in the world, was created to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police in 1974 and to celebrate Vegreville's ethnic heritage. On July 6, 2009, the pysanka was one of four attractions featured on the first set of the Canadian Roadside Attractions Series of stamps issued by Canada Post."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "All but the krashanky and lystovky are usually meant to be decorative (as opposed to edible), and the egg yolk and white are either allowed to dry up over time or (in modern times) removed by blowing them out through a small hole in the egg.\n* A\u017curki - is one of the more complicated techniques for decorating eggs. They are made of egg shells, i.e. eggs from which their contents have been blown out. Decorating the shell itself is very labour intensive and requires great care because it is very easy to damage the delicate shell of the egg. The patterns are cut into the shell with a high speed drill.The finished Easter egg looks like a three dimensional lace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "A bowl full of pysanky was invariably kept in every home. It served not only as a colorful display, but also as protection from all dangers. Some of the eggs were emptied, and a bird's head made of wax or dough and wings and tail-feathers of folded paper were attached. These \u201cdoves\u201d were suspended before icons in commemoration of the birth of Christ, when a dove came down from heaven and soared over the child Jesus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Many other Central and Eastern European ethnic groups decorate eggs using wax resist for Easter. These include the Belarusians (\u043f\u0456\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0430, \"pisanka\"), Bulgarians (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043e \u044f\u0439\u0446\u0435, \"pisano yaytse\"), Carpatho-Rusyns (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043a\u044b, \"pysank\u0177\"), Croats (\"pisanica\"), Czechs (\"kraslice\"), Hungarians (\"h\u00edmestoj\u00e1s\"), Lithuanians (\"margutis\"), Romanians (\"ou\u0103 vopsite\", \"\u00eencondeiate\" or \"\u00eempistrite\"), Serbs (\"pisanica\"), Slovaks (\"kraslica\"), Slovenes (\"pirhi\", \"pisanice,\" or \"remenke\") and Sorbs (\"jejka pisa\u0107\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Boiled eggs were not used, as pysanky were generally written on raw or, less commonly, baked eggs (pecharky). Boiled eggs were dyed red for Easter, using an onion skin dye, and called \"krashanky\". The number of colors on an egg was usually limited, as natural dyes had very long dyeing times, sometimes hours. Pysanky would be written\u2014and dyed\u2014in batches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "No actual pysanky have been found from Ukraine's prehistoric periods, as eggshells do not preserve well. Cultic ceramic eggs have been discovered in excavations near the village of Luka Vrublivets'ka, during excavations of a Trypillian site (5th to 3rd millennium BC). These eggs were ornamented and in the form of \u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0446\u0456 (torokhkal'tsi; rattles containing a small stone with which to scare evil spirits away)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "In recent years, new forms of egg decoration have been brought from abroad and become popularized in Ukraine. These include:\n* \"Rizblenky\" \u2013from \"rizbyty\" (\u0440\u0456\u0437\u044c\u0431\u0438\u0442\u0438), \"to cut, to carve\"\u2013 are created by drilling the surface of an egg to create cut out areas.\n* \"Linyvky\" \u2013from \"linyvyi\" (\u043b\u0456\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0439), \"lazy\"\u2013 a joking term to describe eggs decorated using stickers or shrink-wrap sleeves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanky were traditionally made during the last week of Lent, Holy Week in the Orthodox and Greek (Uniate) Catholic calendars. (Both faiths are represented in Ukraine, and both still celebrate Easter by the Julian calendar.) They were made by the women of the family. During the middle of the Lenten season, women began putting aside eggs, those that were most perfectly shaped and smooth, and ideally, the first laid eggs of young hens. There had to be a rooster, as only fertilized eggs could be used. (If non-fertile eggs were used, there would be no fertility in the home.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "According to many scholars, the art of wax-resist (batik) egg decoration in Slavic cultures probably dates back to the pre-Christian era. They base this on the widespread nature of the practice, and pre-Christian nature of the symbols used. No ancient examples of intact pysanky exist, as the eggshells of domesticated fowl are fragile, but fragments of colored shells with wax-resist decoration on them were unearthed during the archaeological excavations in Ostr\u00f3wek, Poland (near the city of Opole), where remnants of a Slavic settlement from the early Piast Era were found."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "\"Pysanka\" is often taken to mean any type of decorated egg, but it specifically refers to an egg created by the written-wax batik method and utilizing traditional folk motifs and designs. Several other types of decorated eggs are seen in Polish, Ukrainian tradition, and these vary throughout the regions of Poland and Ukraine.\n* \"Kraszanki, Krashanky\" \u2013from \"krasyty\" (\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0438), \"to decorate\"\u2013 are boiled eggs dyed a single color (with vegetable dyes, traditionally onion skin), and are blessed and eaten at Easter.\n* \"Pisanki, Pysanky\" \u2013from \"pysaty\" (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to write\"\u2013 are raw eggs created with the wax-resist method (Resist dyeing). The designs are \"written\" in hot wax with a pinhead or a special stylus called a \"pysachok\" (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0447\u043e\u043a) or a \"kistka\" (\u043a\u0456\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430) which has a small funnel attached to hold a small amount of liquid wax. The word that is used to describe the egg actually comes from the Polish, Ukrainian verb \"pisa\u0107, pysaty\", which means \"to write\". Wooden eggs and beaded eggs are often referred to as \"pysanky\" because they mimic the decorative style of pysanky in a different medium.\n* \"Krapanky\" \u2013from \"krapka\" (\u043a\u0440\u0430\u043f\u043a\u0430), \"a dot\"\u2013 are raw eggs decorated using the wax-resist method, but with only dots as ornamentation (no symbols or other drawings). They are traditionally created by dripping molten wax from a beeswax candle onto an egg. They can be considered the simplest version of a pysanka, or a \"proto-pysanka.\"\n* \"Drapanki, Dryapanky\" \u2013from \"dryapaty\" (\u0434\u0440\u044f\u043f\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to scratch\"\u2013 are created by scratching the surface of a dyed egg to reveal the white shell below.\n* \"Malowanki, Malyovanky\" \u2013from \"malyuvaty\" (\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to paint\"\u2013 are created by painting a design with a brush using oil or water color paints. It is sometimes used to refer to coloring (e.g. with a marker) on an egg.\n* \"Naklejanki, Nakleyanky\" \u2013from \"kleyaty\" (\u043a\u043b\u0435\u0457\u0442\u0438), \"to glue on\"\u2013 are created by glueing objects to the surface of an egg.\n* \"Travlenky\" \u2013from \"travlenya\" (\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f), \u201cetching\u201d \u2013 are created by waxing eggs and then etching away the unwaxed areas.\n* \"Biserky\" \u2013from \"biser\" (\u0431\u0456\u0441\u0435\u0440), \"beads\"\u2013 are created by coating an egg with beeswax, and then embedding beads into the wax to create geometric designs.\n* \"Lystovky\" \u2013from \"lystya\" (\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044f), \"leaves\"\u2013 are created by dyeing an egg to which small leaves have been attached."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Bunny",
        "text": "As a special dish, eggs would probably have been decorated as part of the Easter celebrations. Later, German Protestants retained the custom of eating colored eggs for Easter, though they did not continue the tradition of fasting. Eggs boiled with some flowers change their color, bringing the spring into the homes, and some over time added the custom of decorating the eggs. Many Christians of the Eastern Orthodox Church to this day typically dye their Easter eggs red, the color of blood, in recognition of the blood of the sacrificed Christ (and, of the renewal of life in springtime). Some also use the color green, in honor of the new foliage emerging after the long-dead time of winter. The Ukrainian art of decorating eggs for Easter, known as \"pysanky\", dates to ancient, pre-Christian times. Similar variants of this form of artwork are seen amongst other eastern and central European cultures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The symbols which decorated pysanky underwent a process of adaptation over time. In pre-Christian times these symbols imbued an egg with magical powers to ward off evil spirits, banish winter, guarantee a good harvest and bring a person good luck. After 988, when Christianity became the state religion of Ukraine, the interpretation of many of the symbols began to change, and the pagan motifs were reinterpreted in a Christian light."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "It is not only motifs on pysanky which carried symbolic weight: colors also had significance. Although the earliest pysanky were often simply two-toned, and many folk designs still are, some believed that the more colors there were on a decorated egg, the more magical power it held. A multi-colored egg could thus bring its owner better luck and a better fate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Easter eggs are frequently depicted in sculpture, including a sculpture of a pysanka standing in Vegreville, Alberta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "As in many ancient cultures, Poles and Ukrainians worshipped a sun god, Dazhboh. The sun was important \u2013 it warmed the earth and thus was a source of all life. Eggs decorated with nature symbols became an integral part of spring rituals, serving as benevolent talismans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter traditions",
        "text": "In Bulgaria, the Easter eggs are decorated on Thursday or Saturday before Easter. Widespread tradition is to fight with eggs by pair, and the one whose egg is the last surviving is called \"borak\" (, \"fighter\"). The tradition is to display the decorated eggs on the Easter table together with the Easter dinner consisting of roasted lamb, a salad called \"Easter salad\" (lettuce with cucumbers), and a sweet bread called kozunak."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "These ceramic eggs were common in Kyivan Rus' and had a characteristic style. They were slightly smaller than life size (2.5 by 4\u00a0cm, or 1 by 1.6\u00a0inches) and were created from reddish pink clays by the spiral method. The majolica glazed eggs had a brown, green or yellow background and showed interwoven yellow and green stripes. The eggs were made in large cities like Kyiv and Chernihiv, which had workshops that produced clay tile and bricks; these tiles (and pysanky) were not only used locally but were exported to Poland and to several Scandinavian and Baltic countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "A great variety of ornamental motifs are found on pysanky. Because of the egg's fragility, few ancient examples of pysanky have survived. However, similar design motifs occur in pottery, woodwork, metalwork, Ukrainian embroidery and other folk arts, many of which have survived."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "There used to be a custom in Ukraine, during Easter celebrations to have \"krashanky\" on a table in a bowl with wheatgrass. The number of the \"krashanky\" equalled the number of departed family members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The oldest \"real\" pysanka was excavated in L'viv in 2013 and was found in a rainwater collection system that dates to the 15th or 16th century. The pysanka was written on a goose egg, which was discovered largely intact, and the design is that of a wave pattern. The second oldest known pysanka was excavated in Baturyn in 2008 and dates to the end of the 17th century. Baturyn was Hetman Mazepa's capital, and it was razed in 1708 by the armies of Peter I. A complete (but crushed) pysanka was discovered, a chicken egg shell with geometric designs against a blue-gray background."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Another legend tells of when Mary Magdalene went to the sepulchre to anoint the body of Jesus. She had with her a basket of eggs to serve as a repast. When she arrived at the sepulchre and uncovered the eggs, the pure white shells had miraculously taken on a rainbow of colors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanky were made using a wax resist (batik) method. Beeswax was heated in a small bowl on the large family stove (\u043f\u0456\u0447), and the styluses were dipped into it. The molten wax was applied to the white egg with a writing motion; any bit of shell covered with wax would be sealed, and remain white. Then the egg was dyed yellow, and more wax applied, and then orange, red, purple, black. (The dye sequence was always light to dark). Bits of shell covered with wax remained that color. After the final color, usually red, brown or black, the wax was removed by heating the egg in the stove and gently wiping off the melted wax, or by briefly dipping the egg into boiling water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegreville egg",
        "text": "The Vegreville egg is a giant sculpture of a pysanka, a Ukrainian-style Easter egg. The work by Paul Maxym Sembaliuk is built of an intricate set of two-dimensional anodized aluminum tiles in the shape of congruent equilateral triangles and star-shaped hexagons, fashioned over an aluminum framework. The egg is long and three and a half storeys high, weighing in at . It is the second largest pysanka in the world (the biggest one was built into part of the Kolomyia Pysanka Museum in Ukraine, in 2000)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "In a large family, by Holy Thursday, 60 or more eggs would have been completed by the women of the house. (The more daughters a family had, the more pysanky would be produced.) The eggs would then be taken to the church on Easter Sunday to be blessed, after which they were given away. Here is a partial list of how the pysanky would be used:\n# One or two would be given to the priest.\n# Three or four were taken to the cemetery and placed on graves of the family.\n# Ten or twenty were given to children or godchildren.\n# Ten or twelve were exchanged by the unmarried girls with the eligible men in the community.\n# Several were saved to place in the coffin of loved ones who might die during the year.\n# Several were saved to keep in the home for protection from fire, lightning and storms.\n# Two or three were placed in the mangers of cows and horses to ensure safe calving and colting and a good milk supply for the young.\n# At least one egg was placed beneath the bee hive to ensure good production of honey.\n# One was saved for each grazing animal to be taken out to the fields with the shepherds in the spring.\n# Several pysanky were placed in the nests of hens to encourage the laying of eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanka\n--Types of decorated eggs.\n--History.\n--Archaeology.\n--Legends.\n--Superstitions and folk beliefs.\n--Writing pysanky.\n--Sharing pysanky.\n--Symbolism in pysanky.\n----Geometric.\n------Eternity bands.\n----Berehynia.\n----Christian symbols.\n----Phytomorphic (plant) motifs.\n------Flowers.\n------Vazon/Tree of Life.\n------Fruit.\n----Scevomorphic motifs.\n----Zoomorphic (animal) motifs.\n------Birds.\n------Insects.\n------Fish.\n------Serpent.\n----Cosmomorphic motifs.\n--Color symbolism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "Easter eggs are a widely popular symbol of new life among the Eastern Orthodox but also in folk traditions in Slavic countries and elsewhere. A batik-like decorating process known as pisanka produces intricate, brilliantly colored eggs. The celebrated House of Faberg\u00e9 workshops created exquisite jewelled Easter eggs for the Russian Imperial family from 1885 to 1916."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "An adaptation of the geometric design is not a symbol per se but a division of the egg called \"forty triangles\" (actually 48) or \"Sorokoklyn (forty wedges).\" Its ancient meaning is not known, but is often said to represent the forty days of lent, the forty martyrs, the forty days that Christ spent in the desert, or the forty life tasks of married couples."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The most popular pysanka designs are geometric figures. The egg itself is most often divided by straight lines into squares, triangles and other shapes. These shapes are then filled with other forms and designs. These are also among the most ancient symbols, with the \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0435\u0442\u043e (resheto, sieve) motif dating back to Paleolithic times. Other ancient geometric symbols are agricultural in nature: triangles, which symbolized clouds or rain; quadrilaterals, especially those with a resheto design in them, symbolized a ploughed field; dots stood for seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pisanka (Polish)",
        "text": "Today in Poland, eggs and pisanki are hallowed on Easter Saturday along with the traditional Easter basket. On Easter Sunday, before the ceremonial breakfast, these eggs are exchanged and shared among the family at the table. This is a symbol of friendship, similar to the sharing of the Op\u0142atek (Christmas wafer) on Christmas Eve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pisanka (Polish)",
        "text": "In the past, only women decorated eggs. Men were not allowed to come inside the house during the process, as it was believed that they could put a spell on the eggs and cause bad luck."
      },
      {
        "title": "First Hen (Faberg\u00e9 egg)",
        "text": "In the 19th century, Russian Orthodox Christians held Easter as the most important day of the year. Following a strict fast throughout all of Great Lent, Easter was a day of celebration of Christ's resurrection. To celebrate this holiday, Tsar Alexander III's brother, the Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich ordered Peter Faberg\u00e9 to create an Easter surprise for the Tsarina. Correspondence between the Tsar and his brother dated March 21, 1885 indicates the Grand Duke relayed the Tsar's desires and instructions for the gift to Faberg\u00e9 rather than the Tsar himself supervising the crafting of the egg. Amid terrorist attempts on the Imperial family's lives, the Tsar wanted to give his wife something that would take her mind off worries for the Easter of 1885. Faberg\u00e9 created an egg inspired by one the Tsarina knew from her childhood as a princess of Denmark's royal court. The egg, still in the Royal Danish Collection, is made of ivory instead of gold, has a ring instead of a pendant inside, and dates to the 18th century. Faberg\u00e9 undoubtedly chose the design because the Tsarina would have recognized the design from her youth. The design delighted both the Tsar and Tsarina so much the Alexander III ordered one for the next Easter and granted Faberg\u00e9 \"permission...to bear the title Supplier to the Imperial Court with the right to bear the State Coat of Arms in his shop's sign\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luba Perchyshyn",
        "text": "In time, the pysanky classes, kits, tools, and other supplies became the shop's signature items. Perchyshyn demonstrated the process on television, on videos, and at cultural events. The Ukrainian Gift Shop was featured in a \"National Geographic\" article in 1972, and Perchyshyn's decorated eggs were featured in a 1976 short documentary about pysanky by Slavko Nowytski."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg decorating",
        "text": "Persian culture has a tradition of egg decorating, which takes place during the spring equinox. This time marks Nowruz, the Persian New Year. Family members decorate eggs together and place them in a bowl. It is said that it is from this cultural tradition that the Christian practice on Easter ultimately originates, having been transmitted via the Slavs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "In Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Russia, Ukraine, and other Central European countries' folk traditions, Easter eggs are carved from wood and hand-painted, and making artificial eggs out of porcelain for ladies is common."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sorbs",
        "text": "Egg decorating (\"pisanici\") is a Slavic Easter tradition maintained by Sorbs since the 17th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg decorating",
        "text": "Eastern European and North Asian cultures, particularly Slavic ones, have a strong tradition of decorating eggs which date back at least to times when Slavic paganism was the predominant religion. Chicken, duck and goose eggs are decorated variously with batik dyeing, applique, scratch-work, wax encaustic and carving. Egg decorating is particularly popular in Ukraine, where as in many Slavic countries, the eggs are called Pysanky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter traditions",
        "text": "Many central and eastern European ethnic groups, including the Albanians, Armenians, Belarusians, Bulgarians, Croats, Czechs, Estonians, Georgians, Germans, Hungarians, Latvians, Lithuanians, Macedonians, Poles, Romanians, Russians, Serbs, Slovaks, Slovenes, and Ukrainians, decorate eggs for Easter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "In pre-Christian times, Dazhboh was one of the major deities in the Slavic pantheon; birds were the sun god's chosen creations, for they were the only ones who could get near him. Humans could not catch the birds, but they did manage to obtain the eggs the birds laid. Thus, the eggs were magical objects, a source of life. The egg was also honored during rite-of-Spring festivals\u2013\u2013it represented the rebirth of the earth. The long, hard winter was over; the earth burst forth and was reborn just as the egg miraculously burst forth with life. The egg therefore, was believed to have special powers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Poljubinj",
        "text": "Poljubinj is known for egg decoration during the local \"\u0161empav\" holiday, which is named after the former Saint Paul's Church on \u017dab\u010de Peak (, ) and is celebrated on the first Sunday in May. Eggs are colored red, and verses and designs are written and painted on them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg decorating in Slavic culture",
        "text": "Many Slavic ethnic groups, including the Belarusians (\u043f\u0456\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0430, \"pisanka\"), Bulgarians (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043e \u044f\u0439\u0446\u0435, \"pisano yaytse\"), Carpatho-Rusyns (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043a\u044b, \"pysank\u0177\"), Croats (\"pisanica\"), Czechs (\"kraslice\"), Macedonians (\u0432\u0430\u043f\u0446\u0430\u043d\u043e \u0458\u0430\u0458\u0446\u0435, \"vapcano jajce\"), Poles (\"pisanka\"), , Serbs (\"\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430 / pisanica\"), Slovaks (\"kraslica\"), Slovenes (\"pisanica,\" \"pirhi\" or \"remenke\"), Sorbs (\"jejka pisa\u0107\") and Ukrainians (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0430, \"pysanka\") decorate eggs for Easter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "In Greece, superstitions of the past included the custom of placing the first-dyed red egg at the home's iconostasis (place where icons are displayed) to ward off evil. The heads and backs of small lambs were also marked with the red dye to protect them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luba Perchyshyn",
        "text": "In 1947, Perchyshyn and her mother started a Ukrainian gift shop, selling traditional embroidery, tapestries, and ceramics, as well as books. They started from home, but soon moved into a storefront on Hennepin Avenue, where Luba Perchyshyn began assembling kits for making pysanky, intricately decorated eggs made with a wax-resist technique. Another family member, Luba's sister Johanna Luciow, joined the business in 1958."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg decorating in Slavic culture",
        "text": "The tradition of egg decoration in Slavic cultures originated in pagan times, and was transformed by the process of religious syncretism into the Christian Easter egg. Nevertheless, these decorated eggs have retained much of their pagan symbolism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka Museum",
        "text": "The central part of the museum is in the shape of a pysanka (Ukrainian Easter egg). This is the only museum in the world dedicated to the pysanka, and it has become a calling card of the city. In August 2007 the museum was recognized as a landmark of modern Ukraine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "In the 20th and 21st centuries, the commercially produced folk pysanky of the Carpathians, especially Kosmach, have begun displaying more Christian symbols. The lower arm of the cross in older designs is often lengthened to appear more Christian, even if it throws off the symmetry of the design. Crucifixes are sometimes seen. Pysanky are being written with depictions of Easter baskets on them, including a paska and candle. White doves, symbols of the Holy Spirit, are also more frequently seen; doves are usually depicted in flight, while other wild birds are traditionally shown perched."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luba Perchyshyn",
        "text": "Perchyshyn co-authored several books, including \"Ukrainian Easter Eggs and How We Make Them\" (1979), and \"The Ukrainian Design Book\" (1999). Perchyshyn's eggs were admired and sold internationally, and were included in White House holiday decorations and events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Alternatively, in ethnic Lemko and Boiko areas, as well as Nadsiannia, the drop pull method was also utilized. A pinhead was dipped into molten wax and then applied to the shell of the egg. Simple drops were made, or there was an additional pulling motion, which would create teardrop or comma shapes. These drops were used to create patterns and designs. Dyeing and wax removal proceeded as with traditional pysanky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "The practice of decorating eggshells is quite ancient, with decorated, engraved ostrich eggs found in Africa which are 60,000 years old. In the pre-dynastic period of Egypt and the early cultures of Mesopotamia and Crete, eggs were associated with death and rebirth, as well as with kingship, with decorated ostrich eggs, and representations of ostrich eggs in gold and silver, were commonly placed in graves of the ancient Sumerians and Egyptians as early as 5,000 years ago. These cultural relationships may have influenced early Christian and Islamic cultures in those areas, as well as through mercantile, religious, and political links from those areas around the Mediterranean."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Painted eggs are used at the Iranian spring holidays, the Nowruz that marks the first day of spring or Equinox, and the beginning of the year in the Persian calendar. It is celebrated on the day of the astronomical Northward equinox, which usually occurs on March 21 or the previous/following day depending on where it is observed. The painted eggs symbolize fertility and are displayed on the Nowruz table, called Haft-Seen together with various other symbolic objects. There are sometimes one egg for each member of the family. The ancient Zoroastrians painted eggs for Nowruz, their New Year celebration, which falls on the Spring equinox. The tradition continues among Persians of Islamic, Zoroastrian, and other faiths today. The Nowruz tradition has existed for at least 2,500 years. The sculptures on the walls of Persepolis show people carrying eggs for Nowruz to the king."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg decorating",
        "text": "In many parts of Europe, egg decorating took place before the widespread adoption of Christianity. It is unclear to what extent paganism and Christianity influenced the practice. The earliest example of egg decoration in Europe was a decorated egg found buried with a Slavic girl in modern-day Worms, Germany, dating to the 5th century, when eggs were not yet associated with Easter. This was near the beginning of the Slavic migrations into Europe. Slavic paganism had ties to other early Eastern Indo-European religions such as old Persian religions, albeit often with peculiar influence from neighbouring Finnic peoples as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Museum of Ethnography",
        "text": "- 35 Easter-eggs (from: \u010cadca, Ve\u013ek\u00e1 \u010causa, Martin, Levo\u010da, Ve\u013ek\u00fd Grob, Poprad, Domani\u017ea regions)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Paska (bread)",
        "text": "In Ukraine it is tradition to fill your Easter basket (koshyk) with Easter eggs (pysanky), Easter bread (paska), sausage (kovbasa), butter, salt and other ceremonial foods on Holy Saturday (Easter Eve). On Easter morning, after the liturgy and the blessing of the paska and other staples, everyone returns home to feast on the eggs, cold meats, and other goods that were blessed at church. After the matins all the people in the congregation exchange Easter greetings, give each other \"krashanky\", and then hurry home with their baskets of blessed food (\"sviachene\"). In eastern Ukraine they go home, place the \"sviachene\" on the table, and the oldest member of the family opens the cloths in which the food is wrapped, slices pieces from each item, and distributes them to members of the family along with a piece of unleavened bread that has also been blessed. In Western Ukraine, especially in the Hutsul region, the people first walk around the house three times, go to the stable, extend Easter greetings to the cattle, touch them with the \"sviachene\", scatter pieces of Easter bread and salt in the manger, and send holiday greetings to the bees. Only then do they enter the house, ceremoniously open the bundle (\"dorinnyk\") over the heads of the children, and sit down to the table to break their fast. Modern pasky usually have a white glaze made from sugar and egg and are decorated on top with coloured wheat grains or poppy seeds. However, an old custom, which is still practised in some Ukrainian regions and diasporas, is to create dough ornaments for the paska. The symbolism of these ornaments is connected with spring themes: the awakening of nature, resurrection and rebirth. Birds, especially larks, as heralds of spring, took a much-deserved place on pasky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "A common legend tells of Simon the peddler, who helped Jesus carry his cross on the way to Calvary. He had left his goods at the side of the road, and, when he returned, the eggs had all turned into intricately decorated pysanky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanky are typically made to be given to family members and respected outsiders. To give a pysanka is to give a symbolic gift of life, which is why the egg must remain whole. Furthermore, the design, a combination of the motifs and colors on a traditional folk pysanka, has a deep, symbolic meaning. Traditionally, a pysanka given with its symbolic meaning in mind, be it wishes of protection, fecundity, or love. Typically, pysanky were displayed prominently in a public room of the house."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The pysanky were made at night, when the children were asleep. The women in the family gathered together, said the appropriate prayers, and went to work. It was done in secret\u2014the patterns and color combinations were handed down from mother to daughter and carefully guarded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Osterbrunnen",
        "text": "The Osterbrunnen (Easter Well or Easter Fountain) is a German tradition of decorating public wells or fountains with Easter eggs for Easter. It began in the early 20th century in the Franconian Switzerland region of Upper Franconia but has spread to other regions. The decoration is usually kept from Good Friday until two weeks after Easter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pelaheia Lytvynova",
        "text": "Throughout her life Lytvynova-Bartosh collected samples of folk ornaments, drew patterns of embroidery, weaving, drawings on tiles, ceramics, wood, painted Easter eggs, towels, tablecloths. The result of fruitful research work was the first volume of \"South-Russian folk ornament\", published in 1878. The collection includes 20 tables with samples of ornaments for embroidery, weaving and Easter painting, collected in Hlukhiv district of Chernihiv province."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Red Easter eggs, known as \"kokkina avga\" (\u03ba\u03cc\u03ba\u03ba\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1 \u03b1\u03c5\u03b3\u03ac) in Greece and \"krashanki\" in Ukraine, are an Easter tradition and a distinct type of Easter egg prepared by various Orthodox Christian peoples. The red eggs are part of Easter custom in many areas and often accompany other traditional Easter foods. Passover haminados are prepared with similar methods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka Museum",
        "text": "The museum was opened on 23 September 2000, during the 10th International Hutsul festival. Director Yaroslava Tkachuk first came up with the idea of a museum in the shape of a pysanka, local artists Vasyl Andrushko and Myroslav Yasinskyi brought the idea to life. The museum is not only shaped like an egg (14 m in height and 10 m in diameter), but parts of the exterior of and inside of the dome are painted to resemble a pysanka."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter traditions",
        "text": "In Germany, decorated eggs are hung on branches of bushes and trees to make them Easter egg trees. Eggs are also used to dress wells for Easter, the Osterbrunnen, most prominently in the Fr\u00e4nkische Schweiz (Franconian Switzerland)."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u015awi\u0119conka",
        "text": "The tradition of food blessing at Easter, which has early-medieval roots in Christian society, possibly originated from a pagan ritual. The tradition is said to date from the 7th century in its basic form, the more modern form containing bread and eggs (symbols of resurrection and Christ) are said to date from the 12th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Julius Rappoport",
        "text": "3) silver enamel decorated Eggs made in St. Petersburg circa 1883."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pisanki from Opole's Ostr\u00f3wek, Poland may be as much as a thousand years old, dating from the late 10th to the 13th century, when a Piast stronghold existed at the site. They were excavated at a depth of 3.5 to 5 metres. There are seven of them in total - three slightly smaller from clay and four, the size of chicken eggs, from limestone. Some of them are covered with a green-yellow pattern of almost perfect stripes or patterns, made in the same way as pottery was decorated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukrainian National Museum",
        "text": "Also on display are decorated Easter Eggs\u2014\"Pysanky\" a Ukrainian staple folk art. The oldest designs are called ideograms, but the painted eggs share a common theme: the sun (represented by a tripod); a rose and stars in various patterns. Ukrainian embroidery, a highly developed folk art, is included in the collection. In addition, on display are Ukrainian language books received in donation from immigrants and visitors coming from Europe. An exhibit \"Ukrainian Genocide -Holodomor of 1932-1933\" showcases photographs, documents and newspaper articles dedicated to providing the public with information about the forced famine in Ukraine. An exhibit dealing with Chicago's unique Ukrainian community complete the museum exhibits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Sociology professor Kenneth Thompson discusses the spread of the Easter egg throughout Christendom, writing that \"use of eggs at Easter seems to have come from Persia into the Greek Christian Churches of Mesopotamia, thence to Russia and Siberia through the medium of Orthodox Christianity. From the Greek Church the custom was adopted by either the Roman Catholics or the Protestants and then spread through Europe.\" Both Thompson, as well as British orientalist Thomas Hyde state that in addition to dyeing the eggs red, the early Christians of Mesopotamia also stained Easter eggs green and yellow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "Manufacturing their first Easter egg in 1875, British chocolate company Cadbury sponsors the annual Easter egg hunt which takes place in over 250 National Trust locations in the United Kingdom. On Easter Monday, the President of the United States holds an annual Easter egg roll on the White House lawn for young children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg decorating",
        "text": "Long ago Slavic and Iranic peoples formed a close continuum sharing many traditions and innovations in religion and language and in the first millennium many formerly Iranic peoples would eventually become Turkic or Slavic in identity. The tradition of Nowruz, which has its roots in at least ancient Zoroastrian tradition, is practised by Persian and Turkic peoples of various faiths, albeit the tradition of egg decorating may be even older than the holiday as known modernly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter in Latvia",
        "text": "In other areas, the first Lieldienas held an \"egg hunt\". Young boys went to the neighboring houses, searching for Lieldienas eggs. Eggs were requested by the girls, which was the main reason for looting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter traditions",
        "text": "Preparations for Easter celebration in Ukraine begin weeks before the feast day, with Great Lent being part of it. The Ukrainian Easter eggs include pysanky, krashanky (edible, one-colour dyed eggs), driapanky (a design is scratched on the eggshell) etc. During the Easter Vigil a priest also blesses the parishioners' Easter baskets, which include Easter eggs, paska, butter, cheese, kovbasa, salt and a few other products. With this food, on their return home, people break their fast. The ritual is called \"'rozhovyny\"'. People visit their relatives and neighbours exchanging Easter greetings. Celebration of Easter in Ukraine is filled with many other customs and rituals, most of which are centuries-old."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg rolling",
        "text": "According to tradition, Dolley Madison, the wife of President James Madison, began the event in 1814. Hundreds of children brought their decorated eggs to join in games. Rolling Easter eggs was a popular annual custom in Washington D.C. and Alexandria, Virginia, as early as the 1850s. Children rolled eggs on Easter Monday (and sometimes Good Friday) at the Capitol, the White House, and other parks and open spaces. Easter eggs were rolled at the Capitol as early as 1855 and at the White House as early as 1860. By the 1870s, the Capitol had become the most popular place to roll eggs, although they were also rolled at the White House and other places."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Similarly, in the Roman Catholic Church in Poland, the so-called \u015bwi\u0119conka, i.e. blessing of decorative baskets with a sampling of Easter eggs and other symbolic foods, is one of the most enduring and beloved Polish traditions on Holy Saturday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pisanica (Croatian)",
        "text": "Pisanica (pl. \"pisanice\") is a decorated Croatian Easter egg that comes from an old Slavic custom dating back to pagan times. During Easter, eggs would be painted with bright colors, and would be given as gifts, especially to young children or a significant other. Before paint became common, villagers would have to use whatever resources they had available around them to make the dyes and paints themselves. The most common color for eggs was red, due to the abundance of red beets and other vegetables. In the Me\u0111imurje area, soot would often be mixed with oak to make a dark brown color. Green plants would be used for green dye. The word \"pisanica\" is derived from the Croatian word that means \"writing.\" The most common phrase put on pisanicas is Happy Easter, or \"Sretan Uskrs.\" Other common decorations are doves, crosses, flowers, traditional designs, and other slogans wishing health and happiness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter in Poland",
        "text": "At home, people partake in an Easter breakfast, during which they gift and share eggs. The Easter table is decorated with Easter eggs and other symbols, such as a Lamb of God (a small figurine, often sculpted from edible substances such as sugar, bread, or butter), similar small figurines of chickens and rabbits (Easter Bunnies), and springtime flowers or twigs of plants such as buxus. Typical Easter foods include eggs, meats such as \"kie\u0142basa\" (sausage), soups such as \"\u017curek\" and \"barszcz\", and cakes such as \"mazurek\" and \"babka\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Museum of Calligraphy",
        "text": "April 8, 2012 \u2013 The Day of the Slavic Eastern Egg, a celebration on Easter Eve, dedicated to painted egg tradition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vytynanky (Wycinanki)",
        "text": "Vytynanky that were made for the occasions of religious feasts and holidays were more decorative than the ones used for everyday decoration. Christmas and Easter called for vytynanky in the shapes of angels, churches or even whole evangelical scenes to be pasted prominently on the walls. Marriages saw vytynanky in the shapes of doves, flowers, or the ones that formed \u201ctrees of life.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "The Neopagan holiday of Ostara occurs at roughly the same time as Easter. While it is often claimed that the use of painted eggs is an ancient, pre-Christian component of the celebration of Ostara, there are no historical accounts that ancient celebrations included this practice, apart from the Old High German lullaby which is believed by most to be a modern fabrication. Rather, the use of painted eggs has been adopted under the assumption that it might be a pre-Christian survival. In fact, modern scholarship has been unable to trace any association between eggs and a supposed goddess named Ostara before the 19th century, when early folklorists began to speculate about the possibility."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cradle with Garlands (Faberg\u00e9 egg)",
        "text": "It was an Easter 1907 gift for Tsarina Maria Feodorovna from her son Tsar Nicholas II, who had a standing order of two Faberg\u00e9 Easter eggs every year, one for his mother and one for his wife. Its Easter 1907 counterpart, presented to the Tsar's wife, is the Rose Trellis egg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holy Trinity Ukrainian Orthodox Cathedral",
        "text": "At Easter 1950 the first Divine Liturgy was served in the yet-unfinished church. In the ensuing years the church was completed and decorated according to the Orthodox tradition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pelican (Faberg\u00e9 egg)",
        "text": "Because of the dates \"1797 and 1897\" on the Egg, for many years the Pelican Egg was ascribed to 1897, but when the original Faberg\u00e9 invoice was found it showed that this Egg was presented to Maria Feodorovna for Easter 1898."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basket of Flowers (Faberg\u00e9 egg)",
        "text": "If the egg originally came with a surprise (as the majority of Imperial Easter eggs) is unknown. There is no evidence on the objet d'art that it ever had another piece attached or with it and no document or photograph has been found proving the existence of an accompanying surprise. The egg was executed by one of Faberg\u00e9's workmasters, but the name of the workmaster was not recorded and the egg itself bears no maker's marks or other hallmarks of its manufacture, at one point leading to some doubts as to its authenticity. It is designed as an egg-shaped silver-gilt oyster guilloche basket containing a bouquet of blossoms of mock orange, daisies, pansies, calla lilies, cornflowers, morning glories, and oats, with the date \"1901\" displayed on the front in diamonds. The egg stands on a blue enameled pedestal (not its original\u2014 the original white enamel was likely damaged during the Russian Revolution and has been replaced/ re-enameled with the current blue seen today), and is surmounted by an arcing basket handle of gold and diamonds. Base and egg are also decorated in a trellis work of diamonds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg decorating",
        "text": "Orthodox Christians in Mesopotamia used red dyed eggs to symbolise the blood of Christ, which is a possible origin of the Easter egg. Red eggs feature in Greek Easter celebrations, where people play games which involve tapping the red eggs against each other."
      },
      {
        "title": "Imperial Coronation (Faberg\u00e9 egg)",
        "text": "The Egg was first given to Tsarina Alexandra of Imperial Russia on Easter of 1897. The egg was displayed in the Empress' apartment at the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, resting in a jewelled carriage. Upon the fall of the Romanov Dynasty, the egg was confiscated by the Provisional Government in 1917 and was listed among the treasures removed from the Anichkov Palace. It was then dispatched to the Kremlin and finally transferred to the Sovnarkom in 1922 for sale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gyeran-ppang",
        "text": "Egg bread was first made at the back gate of Inha University in 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "Faberg\u00e9 egg",
        "text": "Prior to 1885, Tsar Alexander III gave his wife Empress Maria Feodorovna jeweled Easter eggs. For Easter in 1883, before his coronation, Alexander III and Maria Feodorovna were given eggs, one of which contained a silver dagger and two skulls. The egg came with messages including \"Christ is risen\" and \"You may crush us\u2013but we Nihilists shall rise again!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pisanica (Croatian)",
        "text": "On Easter day, a traditional game is played in which at least two people choose eggs and hold them vertically while one person lightly taps the end of the other egg with their end, to see whose will crack. Anyone whose egg cracks must choose another and then tap the other person's egg, and they continue until all the eggs have been used and cracked but the last one. Whoever holds the strongest egg in the end which has not been cracked, wins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Easter eggs, also called Paschal eggs, are eggs that are decorated for the Christian feast of Easter, which celebrates the resurrection of Jesus. As such, Easter eggs are common during the season of Eastertide (Easter season). The oldest tradition, which continues to be used in Central and Eastern Europe, is to use dyed and painted chicken eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "First Hen (Faberg\u00e9 egg)",
        "text": "The Tsarina was impressed and delighted by the Easter gift from her husband. The egg was kept in the Anichkov Palace until the 1917 revolutions. At that time the revolutionaries seized the First Hen Egg along with most of the other imperial eggs and sent it to the Armory Palace of the Kremlin. A London dealer named either Derek or Frederick Berry purchased the egg from Russian officials around 1920, probably in either Berlin or Paris. Christie's of London sold the egg as lot 55 of the Berry Collection for \u00a385 ($430) to Mr Alfred Suenson-Taylor in 1934. Taylor was made Lord Grantchester in 1955, and the egg formed part of the Grantchester estate when both Lord and Lady Taylor died within months of one another in 1976. A La Vieille Russie of New York acquired the egg from the estate and sold it, together with the Resurrection Egg, to Forbes Magazine Collection in 1978. Viktor Vekselberg purchased the First Hen Egg along with eight other imperial eggs from Forbes, together with the entire Forbes Faberg\u00e9 collection, before they were to be auctioned. Vekselberg then returned the eggs to Russia where they are now on display in the Faberg\u00e9 Museum in Saint Petersburg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Some central European nations (Czechs and Slovaks etc.) have a tradition of gathering eggs by gaining them from the females in return of whipping them with a pony-tail shaped whip made out of fresh willow branches and splashing them with water, by the Ruthenians called \"polivanja\", which is supposed to give them health and beauty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "In Greece, women traditionally dye the eggs with onion skins and vinegar on Thursday (also the day of Communion). These ceremonial eggs are known as kokkina avga. They also bake tsoureki for the Easter Sunday feast. Red Easter eggs are sometimes served along the centerline of tsoureki (braided loaf of bread)."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When where Easter eggs first decorated?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I'm sorry, but I could not find the information you requested. However, I did find that the custom of the Easter egg, according to many sources, can be traced to early Christians of Mesopotamia, and from there it spread into Eastern Europe and Siberia through the Orthodox Churches, and later into Europe through the Catholic and Protestant Churches.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I did not find the exact first egg decorations, but I did find that the custom can, according to many sources, can be traced to early Christians of Mesopotamia."
    ],
    "topic": "Pysanka",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Easter egg:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Easter egg"
        ],
        "ctx": "This custom of the Easter egg, according to many sources, can be traced to early Christians of Mesopotamia, and from there it spread into Eastern Europe and Siberia through the Orthodox Churches, and later into Europe through the Catholic and Protestant Churches. Mediaevalist scholars normally conclude that the custom of Easter eggs has its roots in the prohibition of eggs during Lent after which, on Easter, they have been blessed for the occasion."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Easter egg:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Easter egg"
        ],
        "ctx": "This custom of the Easter egg, according to many sources, can be traced to early Christians of Mesopotamia, and from there it spread into Eastern Europe and Siberia through the Orthodox Churches, and later into Europe through the Catholic and Protestant Churches. Mediaevalist scholars normally conclude that the custom of Easter eggs has its roots in the prohibition of eggs during Lent after which, on Easter, they have been blessed for the occasion."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Knanaya",
        "text": "Knanaya tradition states that the Syriac Christian migrants who arrived with Thomas of Cana were Jewish-Christians. Community scholars express the historicity of this tradition by noting that Jewish-Christian tribes in Mesopotamia were a major component of the early Church of the East. Dr. Jacob Kollaparambil notes specifically that the Jewish-Christians of southern Mesopotamia (modern day Iraq) were the most vehement in maintaining their Jewish ethnicity, even after conversion to Syriac Christianity. Kollaparambil expresses that the historic endogamous practice of the Knanaya is a continuation of the endogamous nature of the Jewish-Christians in Mesopatamia. Additionally, scholars express that both Jewish and Christian merchants of the region took part in the Arabian Sea trade with Kerala."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Each region, each village, and almost every family had its own special ritual, its own symbols, meanings and secret formulas for dyeing eggs. These customs were preserved faithfully and passed down from mother to daughter through generations. The custom of decorating pysanky was observed with greatest care, and a pysanka, after receiving the Easter blessing, was held to have great powers as a talisman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Sociology professor Kenneth Thompson discusses the spread of the Easter egg throughout Christendom, writing that \"use of eggs at Easter seems to have come from Persia into the Greek Christian Churches of Mesopotamia, thence to Russia and Siberia through the medium of Orthodox Christianity. From the Greek Church the custom was adopted by either the Roman Catholics or the Protestants and then spread through Europe.\" Both Thompson, as well as British orientalist Thomas Hyde state that in addition to dyeing the eggs red, the early Christians of Mesopotamia also stained Easter eggs green and yellow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg decorating",
        "text": "Orthodox Christians in Mesopotamia used red dyed eggs to symbolise the blood of Christ, which is a possible origin of the Easter egg. Red eggs feature in Greek Easter celebrations, where people play games which involve tapping the red eggs against each other."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "With the advent of Christianity, via a process of religious syncretism, the symbolism of the egg was changed to represent, not nature's rebirth, but the rebirth of man. Christians embraced the egg symbol and likened it to the tomb from which Christ rose. With the acceptance of Christianity in 988, the decorated pysanka, in time, was adapted to play an important role in Ukrainian rituals of the new religion. Many symbols of the old sun worship survived and were adapted to represent Easter and Christ's Resurrection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "This custom of the Easter egg, according to many sources, can be traced to early Christians of Mesopotamia, and from there it spread into Eastern Europe and Siberia through the Orthodox Churches, and later into Europe through the Catholic and Protestant Churches. Mediaevalist scholars normally conclude that the custom of Easter eggs has its roots in the prohibition of eggs during Lent after which, on Easter, they have been blessed for the occasion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Newer legends blended folklore and Christian beliefs and firmly attached the egg to the Easter celebration. One legend concerns the Virgin Mary. It tells of the time Mary gave eggs to the soldiers at the cross. She entreated them to be less cruel to her son and she wept. The tears of Mary fell upon the eggs, spotting them with dots of brilliant color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Art of Mesopotamia",
        "text": "Even before dominating the region the Assyrians had continued the cylinder seal tradition with designs which are often exceptionally energetic and refined. At Nimrud the carved Nimrud ivories and bronze bowls were found that are decorated in the Assyrian style but were produced in several parts of the Near East including many by Phoenician and Aramaean artisans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pyromancy",
        "text": "Fire rituals in Mesopotamia and Eurasia were thought to originate with Ancient Zoroastrian rituals around the use of fire in temples and on altars. Ancient Zoroastrians believe fire to have been \u201cthe most holy spirit\u201d from which all life was born, and was used as a central icon in many rituals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paska (bread)",
        "text": "In Iran and the diaspora, Assyrians will eat a paska cake on Easter, \"Ida Gura\". The tall cake is decorated with a cross on top to represent Calvary, the place of Jesus' crucifixion, and surrounded with colored eggs to symbolize the people who visited Jesus during his death and were at his cross."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The symbols which decorated pysanky underwent a process of adaptation over time. In pre-Christian times these symbols imbued an egg with magical powers to ward off evil spirits, banish winter, guarantee a good harvest and bring a person good luck. After 988, when Christianity became the state religion of Ukraine, the interpretation of many of the symbols began to change, and the pagan motifs were reinterpreted in a Christian light."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Many other Central and Eastern European ethnic groups decorate eggs using wax resist for Easter. These include the Belarusians (\u043f\u0456\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0430, \"pisanka\"), Bulgarians (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043e \u044f\u0439\u0446\u0435, \"pisano yaytse\"), Carpatho-Rusyns (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043a\u044b, \"pysank\u0177\"), Croats (\"pisanica\"), Czechs (\"kraslice\"), Hungarians (\"h\u00edmestoj\u00e1s\"), Lithuanians (\"margutis\"), Romanians (\"ou\u0103 vopsite\", \"\u00eencondeiate\" or \"\u00eempistrite\"), Serbs (\"pisanica\"), Slovaks (\"kraslica\"), Slovenes (\"pirhi\", \"pisanice,\" or \"remenke\") and Sorbs (\"jejka pisa\u0107\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Eggs in Christianity carry a Trinitarian symbolism as shell, yolk, and albumen are three parts of one egg. According to many sources, the Christian custom of Easter eggs was adopted from Persian tradition into the early Christians of Mesopotamia, who stained them with red colouring \"in memory of the blood of Christ, shed at His crucifixion\". The Christian Church officially adopted the custom, regarding the eggs as a symbol of the resurrection of Jesus, with the Roman Ritual, the first edition of which was published in 1610 but which has texts of much older date, containing among the Easter Blessings of Food, one for eggs, along with those for lamb, bread, and new produce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumuzid",
        "text": "Traditional Mesopotamian religion began to gradually decline between the third and fifth centuries AD as ethnic Assyrians converted to Christianity. Nonetheless, the cult of Ishtar and Tammuz managed to survive in parts of Upper Mesopotamia. The Church Father Jerome records in a letter dated to the year 395 AD that \"Bethlehem... belonging now to us... was overshadowed by a grove of Tammuz, that is to say, Adonis, and in the cave where once the infant Christ cried, the lover of Venus was lamented.\" This same cave later became the site of the Church of the Nativity. The church historian Eusebius, however, does not mention pagans having ever worshipped in the cave, nor do any other early Christian writers. Peter Welten has argued that the cave was never dedicated to Tammuz and that Jerome misinterpreted Christian mourning over the Massacre of the Innocents as a pagan ritual over Tammuz's death. Joan E. Taylor has countered this contention by arguing that Jerome, as an educated man, could not have been so na\u00efve as to mistake Christian mourning over the Massacre of the Innocents as a pagan ritual for Tammuz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Erbil",
        "text": "Its populace then gradually converted from the ancient Mesopotamian religion between the first and fourth centuries to Christianity, with Pkidha traditionally becoming its first bishop around 104 AD. The ancient Mesopotamian religion did not die out entirely in the region until the tenth century AD. The Adiabene (East Syriac ecclesiastical province) in Arbela (Syriac: \"Arbel\") became a centre of eastern Syriac Christianity until late in the Middle Ages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Temple",
        "text": "The temple-building tradition of Mesopotamia derived from the cults of gods and deities in the Mesopotamian religion. It spanned several civilizations; from Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian. The most common temple architecture of Mesopotamia is the structure of sun-baked bricks called a Ziggurat, having the form of a terraced step pyramid with a flat upper terrace where the shrine or temple stood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Audianism",
        "text": "In 325 at the First Council of Nicaea, it was decreed that all Christians should follow the Roman tradition of celebrating Pascha (Easter) on Easter Sunday, and no longer on the date of 14 Nisan (the Jewish Passover), as the so-called Quartodecimans used to do. The Audians, however, continued the Quartodeciman practice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "An adaptation of the geometric design is not a symbol per se but a division of the egg called \"forty triangles\" (actually 48) or \"Sorokoklyn (forty wedges).\" Its ancient meaning is not known, but is often said to represent the forty days of lent, the forty martyrs, the forty days that Christ spent in the desert, or the forty life tasks of married couples."
      },
      {
        "title": "Asoristan",
        "text": "The religious demography of Mesopotamia was very diverse during Late Antiquity. From the 1st and 2nd centuries Syriac Christianity became the primary religion, while other groups practiced Mandaeism, Judaism, Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism, and the ancient Assyro-Babylonian Mesopotamian religion. Assyrian Christians were probably the most numerous group in the province."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion",
        "text": "Mesopotamian religion refers to the religious beliefs and practices of the civilizations of ancient Mesopotamia, particularly Sumer, Akkad, Assyria and Babylonia between circa 3500 BC and 400 AD, after which they largely gave way to Syriac Christianity practiced by today's Assyrians. The religious development of Mesopotamia and Mesopotamian culture in general, especially in the south, was not particularly influenced by the movements of the various peoples into and throughout the area. Rather, Mesopotamian religion was a consistent and coherent tradition which adapted to the internal needs of its adherents over millennia of development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "According to many scholars, the art of wax-resist (batik) egg decoration in Slavic cultures probably dates back to the pre-Christian era. They base this on the widespread nature of the practice, and pre-Christian nature of the symbols used. No ancient examples of intact pysanky exist, as the eggshells of domesticated fowl are fragile, but fragments of colored shells with wax-resist decoration on them were unearthed during the archaeological excavations in Ostr\u00f3wek, Poland (near the city of Opole), where remnants of a Slavic settlement from the early Piast Era were found."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion",
        "text": "There was increasing syncretism between the Sumerian and Akkadian cultures and deities, with the Akkadians typically preferring to worship fewer deities but elevating them to greater positions of power. Circa 2335 BC, Sargon of Akkad conquered all of Mesopotamia, uniting its inhabitants into the world's first empire and spreading its domination into ancient Iran, the Levant, Anatolia, Canaan and the Arabian Peninsula. The Akkadian Empire endured for two centuries before collapsing due to economic decline, internal strife and attacks from the north east by the Gutian people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Incantation bowl",
        "text": "The majority of Mesopotamia's population were either Christian, Manichaean, Mandaean, Jewish or adherents of the ancient Babylonian religion, all of whom spoke Aramaic dialects. Zoroastrians who spoke Persian also lived here. Mandaeans and Jews each used their own Aramaic variety, although very closely related. A subcategory of incantation bowls are those used in Jewish and Christian magical practice. (See Jewish magical papyri for context) The majority of recovered incantation bowls were written in Jewish Aramaic. These are followed in frequency by the Mandaic language and then Syriac. A handful of bowls have been discovered that were written in Arabic or Persian. An estimated 10% of incantation bowls were not written in any real language but pseudo-script. They are thought to be forgeries by illiterate \u201cscribes\u201d and sold to illiterate clients. The bowls are thought to have been regularly commissioned across religious lines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanky were traditionally made during the last week of Lent, Holy Week in the Orthodox and Greek (Uniate) Catholic calendars. (Both faiths are represented in Ukraine, and both still celebrate Easter by the Julian calendar.) They were made by the women of the family. During the middle of the Lenten season, women began putting aside eggs, those that were most perfectly shaped and smooth, and ideally, the first laid eggs of young hens. There had to be a rooster, as only fertilized eggs could be used. (If non-fertile eggs were used, there would be no fertility in the home.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Upsherin",
        "text": "Yoram Bilu, a professor of anthropology and psychology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, suggests that there is little or no religious basis for the custom and its popularity is probably mainly social. The following are some quotes from his paper,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Another legend tells of when Mary Magdalene went to the sepulchre to anoint the body of Jesus. She had with her a basket of eggs to serve as a repast. When she arrived at the sepulchre and uncovered the eggs, the pure white shells had miraculously taken on a rainbow of colors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Everyone from the youngest to the oldest received a pysanka for Easter. Young people were given pysanky with bright designs; dark pysanky were given to older people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "The practice of decorating eggshells is quite ancient, with decorated, engraved ostrich eggs found in Africa which are 60,000 years old. In the pre-dynastic period of Egypt and the early cultures of Mesopotamia and Crete, eggs were associated with death and rebirth, as well as with kingship, with decorated ostrich eggs, and representations of ostrich eggs in gold and silver, were commonly placed in graves of the ancient Sumerians and Egyptians as early as 5,000 years ago. These cultural relationships may have influenced early Christian and Islamic cultures in those areas, as well as through mercantile, religious, and political links from those areas around the Mediterranean."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion",
        "text": "Mesopotamian religion has historically the oldest body of recorded literature of any religious tradition. What is known about Mesopotamian religion comes from archaeological evidence uncovered in the region, particularly numerous literary sources, which are usually written in Sumerian, Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) or Aramaic using cuneiform script on clay tablets and which describe both mythology and cultic practices. Other artifacts can also be useful when reconstructing Mesopotamian religion. As is common with most ancient civilizations, the objects made of the most durable and precious materials, and thus more likely to survive, were associated with religious beliefs and practices. This has prompted one scholar to make the claim that the Mesopotamian's \"entire existence was infused by their religiosity, just about everything they have passed on to us can be used as a source of knowledge about their religion.\" While Mesopotamian religion had almost completely died out by approximately 400\u2013500 CE after its indigenous adherents had largely become Assyrian Christians, it has still had an influence on the modern world, predominantly because many biblical stories that are today found in Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Mandaeism were possibly based upon earlier Mesopotamian myths, in particular that of the creation myth, the Garden of Eden, the flood myth, the Tower of Babel, figures such as Nimrod and Lilith and the Book of Esther. It has also inspired various contemporary neo-pagan groups."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukraine",
        "text": "The tradition of the Easter egg, known as pysanky, has long roots in Ukraine. These eggs were drawn on with wax to create a pattern; then, the dye was applied to give the eggs their pleasant colours, the dye did not affect the previously wax-coated parts of the egg. After the entire egg was dyed, the wax was removed leaving only the colourful pattern. This tradition is thousands of years old, and precedes the arrival of Christianity to Ukraine. In the city of Kolomyia near the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains, the museum of Pysanka was built in 2000 and won a nomination as the monument of modern Ukraine in 2007, part of the Seven Wonders of Ukraine action."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "A bowl full of pysanky was invariably kept in every home. It served not only as a colorful display, but also as protection from all dangers. Some of the eggs were emptied, and a bird's head made of wax or dough and wings and tail-feathers of folded paper were attached. These \u201cdoves\u201d were suspended before icons in commemoration of the birth of Christ, when a dove came down from heaven and soared over the child Jesus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg decorating",
        "text": "Persian culture has a tradition of egg decorating, which takes place during the spring equinox. This time marks Nowruz, the Persian New Year. Family members decorate eggs together and place them in a bowl. It is said that it is from this cultural tradition that the Christian practice on Easter ultimately originates, having been transmitted via the Slavs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter traditions",
        "text": "As well as the common painted easter egg hunt, in Cyprus it is customary for people to light great fires (Greek: \u03bb\u03b1\u03bc\u03c0\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b6\u03b9\u03b1) in schools or church yards. The fires are made up of scrap wood, gathered usually by enthusiastic young boys which scour their neighbourhoods for them, in order to make their fire as great as it can be (and bigger than the neighbouring one). More than often this competition leads to fights happening over scraps of wood and the police or fire department being called to put out the fires that have gone out of control. It is customary for a small doll representing Judas Iscariot to be burnt. The same thing happens on Crete, but it is non-competitive, and the fire is called \"founara\" which means \"big fire\" in Cretan Greek. The founara burns coupled with the detonation of small dynamites called \"plakatzikia\" in plural, and with gunshots in the air."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Dark red eggs are a tradition in Greece and represent the blood of Christ shed on the cross. The practice dates to the early Christian church in Mesopotamia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "A pisanka, pysanka (, plural: \"pisanki, pysanky\") is a Polish-Ukrainian Easter egg, decorated with traditional folk designs using a wax-resist method. The word \"pisanka\" comes from the verb \"pisa\u0107, pysaty,\" \"to write\" or \"to inscribe,\" as the designs are written (inscribed) with beeswax, not painted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nayakanahatti Thipperudra Swamy",
        "text": "Local experts believe that the custom may have been originally started to burn dry [[coconut]] husks (Instead of the dried coconut meat, as it is done now.) over an enclosed low fire, which would then become [[activated charcoal]]. This activated charcoal was consumed by the devotees for its medicinal and purifying properties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peshitta",
        "text": "Although physical evidence has yet to be found, J.S. Assemane in his Bibliotheca stated that a Syriac Gospel dated 78 A.D. was found in Mesopotamia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Khidr",
        "text": "Another hypothesis of Aksoy about the cultural origins of the Anatolian conception of Khidr points to another common element relating to a religious tradition in Near East, the traditional celebration of H\u0131d\u0131rellez. Like Alevis, people make flour of roasted wheat on the day before the festival for Khidr. They keep it somewhere in the kitchen to see later for Khidr's traces. Next day in the morning if they see some signs on the flour, it means that Khidr came there to bring abundance and blessing for them. Later they bake some kind of cake which is called \"Q\u0101vut\", \"Kavut\", \"K\u00f6me\" or \"G\u00f6me\". According to Aksoy, this tradition originated from the mythico-rituals of Ancient Near Eastern dying gods like Osiris, Adonis (also Dionysos, Melqart and Mithra), and the process which shows the transformation of the grain to flour symbolizes cremation (\"death\") of the god."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion",
        "text": "Although ancient paganism tended to focus more on duty and ritual than morality, a number of general moral virtues can be gleaned from surviving prayers and myths. It was believed that man originated as a divine act of creation, and the gods were believed to be the source of life, and held power over sickness and health, as well as the destinies of men. Personal names show that each child was considered a gift from divinity. Man was believed to have been created to serve the gods, or perhaps wait on them: the god is lord (\"belu\") and man is servant or slave (\"ardu\"), and was to fear (\"puluhtu\") the gods and have the appropriate attitude towards them. Duties seem to have been primarily of a cultic and ritual nature, although some prayers express a positive psychological relationship, or a sort of conversion experience in regard to a god. Generally the reward to mankind is described as success and long life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Bunny",
        "text": "As a special dish, eggs would probably have been decorated as part of the Easter celebrations. Later, German Protestants retained the custom of eating colored eggs for Easter, though they did not continue the tradition of fasting. Eggs boiled with some flowers change their color, bringing the spring into the homes, and some over time added the custom of decorating the eggs. Many Christians of the Eastern Orthodox Church to this day typically dye their Easter eggs red, the color of blood, in recognition of the blood of the sacrificed Christ (and, of the renewal of life in springtime). Some also use the color green, in honor of the new foliage emerging after the long-dead time of winter. The Ukrainian art of decorating eggs for Easter, known as \"pysanky\", dates to ancient, pre-Christian times. Similar variants of this form of artwork are seen amongst other eastern and central European cultures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "No actual pysanky have been found from Ukraine's prehistoric periods, as eggshells do not preserve well. Cultic ceramic eggs have been discovered in excavations near the village of Luka Vrublivets'ka, during excavations of a Trypillian site (5th to 3rd millennium BC). These eggs were ornamented and in the form of \u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0446\u0456 (torokhkal'tsi; rattles containing a small stone with which to scare evil spirits away)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Assyrian culture",
        "text": "This custom, particular to members of the Church of the East and the Chaldean Catholic Church, survives in these communities worldwide and is marked by a party, often women only. It is also a new custom to hold a mock wedding reception complete with khigga, slow dance, dinner, and cake, the only difference being that the bride, groom, best man and maid of honour are all young girls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pangu",
        "text": "We cannot deny that the myth must have been known also in Mesopotamia, the main center of civilization between India and Greece, and it becomes probable that the figure Sui-Jen has been derived from the same prototype as the Greek Prometheus."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Assyrians",
        "text": "Though tradition holds that Christianity was first spread to Mesopotamia by Thomas the Apostle, the exact timespan when the Assyrians were first Christianized is unknown. The city of Arbela was an important early Christian center. According to the later \"Chronicle of Arbela\", Arbela became the seat of a bishop already in AD 100, but the reliability of this document is questioned among scholars. It is known that both Arbela and Kirkuk later served as important Christian centers in the Sasanian and later Islamic periods. According to some traditions, Christianity took hold in Assyria when Saint Thaddeus of Edessa converted King Abgar V of Osroene in the mid-1st century AD. From the 3rd century AD onwards, it is clear that Christianity was becoming the major religion of the region, with the Christian god replacing the old Mesopotamian deities. Assyrians had by this time already intellectually contributed to Christian thought; in the 1st century AD, the Christian Assyrian writer Tatian composed the influential \"Diatessaron\", a synoptic rendition of the gospels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion",
        "text": "During the Parthian Empire there was a major revival in Assyria (known as Athura and Assuristan) between the 2nd century BC and 4th century CE, with temples once more being dedicated to gods such as Ashur, Sin, Shamash, Hadad and Ishtar in various Parthian vassal states in Mesopotamia. From the first century AD onwards, Christianity spread through Mesopotamia, with much of the populace converting to Eastern Rite Christianity in the form of the Church of the East and Syriac Orthodox Church, as well as Judaism. Gnostic religions such as Mandaeism (Sabianism) also became popular, though native religions still coexisted alongside these new monotheistic religions among the native populace; Gods such as Ashur and Sin were still worshiped until the 4th century CE in Assyria. In the 3rd century CE, another native Mesopotamian religion flourished, Manicheanism, which incorporated elements of Christianity, Judaism, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism, as well as local Mesopotamian elements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amestris",
        "text": "The origin of this story is unclear, since known records and accounts indicate that human sacrifices were not permitted within the Persian religion. Also since most accounts of the time are from Greek sources, and due to the involvement of Greece as an opponent of Persia, it is possible that not all accounts are accurate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion",
        "text": "Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic, thereby accepting the existence of many different deities, both male and female, though it was also henotheistic, with certain gods being viewed as superior to others by their specific devotees. These devotees were often from a particular city or city-state that held that deity as its patron deity, for instance the god Enki was often associated with the city of Eridu in Sumer, the god Ashur with Assur and Assyria, Enlil with the Sumerian city of Nippur, Ishtar with the Assyrian city of Arbela, and the god Marduk was associated with Babylon. Though the full number of gods and goddesses found in Mesopotamia is not known, K. Tallqvist, in his \"Akkadische G\u00f6tterepitheta\" (1938) counted around 2,400 that scholars know, most of which had Sumerian names. In the Sumerian language, the gods were referred to as \"dingir\", while in the Akkadian language they were known as \"ilu\" and it seems that there was syncreticism between the gods worshipped by the two groups, adopting one another's deities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "This controversy between those who advocated independent computations, and those who wished to continue the custom of relying on the Jewish calendar, was formally resolved by the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which endorsed changing to an independent computation by the Christian community in order to celebrate in common. This effectively required the abandonment of the old custom of consulting the Jewish community in those places where it was still used. Epiphanius of Salamis wrote in the mid-4th century:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Assyrian people",
        "text": "Assyrian culture is largely influenced by Christianity. There are many Assyrian customs that are common in other Middle Eastern cultures. Main festivals occur during religious holidays such as Easter and Christmas. There are also secular holidays such as Kha b-Nisan (vernal equinox)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Church of the East",
        "text": "Christians were already forming communities in Mesopotamia as early as the 1st century under the Parthian Empire. In 266, the area was annexed by the Sasanian Empire (becoming the province of As\u014drist\u0101n), and there were significant Christian communities in Upper Mesopotamia, Elam, and Fars. The Church of the East traced its origins ultimately to the evangelical activity of Thaddeus of Edessa, Mari and Thomas the Apostle. Leadership and structure remained disorganised until 315 when Papa bar Aggai (310\u2013329), bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, imposed the primacy of his see over the other Mesopotamian and Persian bishoprics which were grouped together under the Catholicate of Seleucia-Ctesiphon; Papa took the title of Catholicos, or universal leader. This position received an additional title in 410, becoming Catholicos and Patriarch of the East."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg decorating",
        "text": "Long ago Slavic and Iranic peoples formed a close continuum sharing many traditions and innovations in religion and language and in the first millennium many formerly Iranic peoples would eventually become Turkic or Slavic in identity. The tradition of Nowruz, which has its roots in at least ancient Zoroastrian tradition, is practised by Persian and Turkic peoples of various faiths, albeit the tradition of egg decorating may be even older than the holiday as known modernly."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Iraq",
        "text": "Christianity reached Mesopotamia in the 1st century AD, and Roman Syria in particular became the center of Eastern Rite Christianity and the Syriac literary tradition. Mandeism is also believed to have either originated there around this time or entered as Mandaeans sought refuge from Palestine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "In Greece, superstitions of the past included the custom of placing the first-dyed red egg at the home's iconostasis (place where icons are displayed) to ward off evil. The heads and backs of small lambs were also marked with the red dye to protect them."
      },
      {
        "title": "YBC 7289",
        "text": "It is unknown where in Mesopotamia YBC 7289 comes from, but its shape and writing style make it likely that it was created in southern Mesopotamia, sometime between 1800BC and 1600BC. Yale University acquired it in 1909 as a donation from the estate of J. P. Morgan, who had collected many Babylonian tablets; his bequest became the Yale Babylonian Collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mesopotamia, Kastoria",
        "text": "Mesopotamia has three Byzantine style churches. The most recent and largest is that of the cathedral of St. Peter and St. Paul. The oldest church is the church of St. Constantine and St. Helen which contains the village cemetery, and the church of Saint Demetrios. The chapel of St. George is a few kilometers outside of the village."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burney Relief",
        "text": "Mesopotamian religion recognizes literally thousands of deities, and distinct iconographies have been identified for about a dozen. Less frequently, gods are identified by a written label or dedication; such labels would only have been intended for the literate elites. In creating a religious object, the sculptor was not free to create novel images: the representation of deities, their attributes and context were as much part of the religion as the rituals and the mythology. Indeed, innovation and deviation from an accepted canon could be considered a cultic offense. The large degree of similarity that is found in plaques and seals suggests that detailed iconographies could have been based on famous cult statues; they established the visual tradition for such derivative works but have now been lost. It appears, though, that the Burney Relief was the product of such a tradition, not its source, since its composition is unique."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion",
        "text": "Mesopotamian temples were originally built to serve as dwelling places for the god, who was thought to reside and hold court on earth for the good of the city and kingdom. His presence was symbolized by an image of the god in a separate room. The god's presence within the image seems to have been thought of in a very concrete way, as instruments for the presence of the deity.\" This is evident from the poem \"How Erra Wrecked the World\", in which Erra deceived the god Marduk into leaving his cult statue. Once constructed, idols were consecrated through special nocturnal rituals where they were given \"life\", and their mouth \"was opened\" (\"pet p\u00ee\") and washed (\"mes p\u00ee\") so they could see and eat. If the deity approved, it would accept the image and agree to \"inhabit\" it. These images were also entertained, and sometime escorted on hunting expeditions. In order to service the gods, the temple was equipped with a household with kitchens and kitchenware, sleeping rooms with beds and side rooms for the deity's family, as well as a courtyard with a basin and water for cleansing visitors, as well as a stable for the god's chariot and draft animals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Art of Mesopotamia",
        "text": "Many masterpieces have also been found at the Royal Cemetery at Ur (c. 2650 BC), including the two figures of a \"Ram in a Thicket\", the \"Copper Bull\" and a bull's head on one of the Lyres of Ur. The so-called Standard of Ur, actually an inlaid box or set of panels of uncertain function, is finely inlaid with partly figurative designs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "A common legend tells of Simon the peddler, who helped Jesus carry his cross on the way to Calvary. He had left his goods at the side of the road, and, when he returned, the eggs had all turned into intricately decorated pysanky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "The egg is an ancient symbol of new life and rebirth. In Christianity it became associated with Jesus's crucifixion and resurrection. The custom of the Easter egg originated in the early Christian community of Mesopotamia, who stained eggs red in memory of the blood of Christ, shed at his crucifixion. As such, for Christians, the Easter egg is a symbol of the empty tomb. The oldest tradition is to use dyed chicken eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion",
        "text": "In 539 BC, Mesopotamia was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire (539\u2013332 BC), then ruled by Cyrus the Great. This brought to an end over 3,000 years of Semitic Mesopotamian dominance of the Near East. The Persians maintained and did not interfere in the native culture and religion and Assyria and Babylon continued to exist as entities (although Chaldea and the Chaldeans disappeared), and Assyria was strong enough to launch major rebellions against Persia in 522 and 482 BC. During this period the Syriac language and Syriac script evolved in Assyria, and were centuries later to be the vehicle for the spread of Syriac Christianity throughout the near east."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion",
        "text": "Generally, the god's well-being was maintained through service, or work (\"dullu\"). The image was dressed and served banquets twice a day. It is not known how the god was thought to consume the food, but a curtain was drawn before the table while he or she \"ate\", just as the king himself was not allowed to be seen by the masses while he ate. Occasionally, the king shared in these meals, and the priests may have had some share in the offerings as well. Incense was also burned before the image, because it was thought that the gods enjoyed the smell. Sacrificial meals were also set out regularly, with a sacrificial animal seen as a replacement (\"p\u016bhu\") or substitute (\"din\u0101nu\") for a man, and it was considered that the anger of the gods or demons was then directed towards the sacrificial animal. Additionally, certain days required extra sacrifices and ceremonies for certain gods, and every day was sacred to a particular god."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Pysanky are Ukrainian Easter eggs, decorated using a wax-resist (batik) method. The word comes from the verb \"pysaty\", \"to write\", as the designs are not painted on, but written with beeswax."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nardoqan",
        "text": "Europeans, Muazzez Ilmiye \u00c7\u0131\u011f argues, adopted a rite to their own holiday ritual that stems from an old Turkish custom in which people decorated a special tree to offer their thanks to God."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion",
        "text": "The modern study of Mesopotamia (Assyriology) is still a fairly young science, beginning only in the middle of the Nineteenth century, and the study of Mesopotamian religion can be a complex and difficult subject because, by nature, their religion was governed only by usage, not by any official decision, and by nature it was neither dogmatic nor systematic. Deities, characters, and their actions within myths changed in character and importance over time, and occasionally depicted different, sometimes even contrasting images or concepts. This is further complicated by the fact that scholars are not entirely certain what role religious texts played in the Mesopotamian world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inanna",
        "text": "Traditional Mesopotamian religion began to gradually decline between the third and fifth centuries AD as ethnic Assyrians converted to Christianity. Nonetheless, the cult of Ishtar and Tammuz managed to survive in parts of Upper Mesopotamia. In the tenth century AD, an Arab traveler wrote that \"All the Sabaeans of our time, those of Babylonia as well as those of Harran, lament and weep to this day over Tammuz at a festival which they, more particularly the women, hold in the month of the same name.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Post-imperial Assyria",
        "text": "The Assyrians at Assur continued to follow the ancient Mesopotamian religion in the post-imperial period, and continued to especially venerate their national deity Ashur. In many other parts of northern Mesopotamia, religious traditions quickly diverged and developed in different directions. In particular, there was from the time of Seleucid rule onwards significant influence of ancient Greek religion, with many Greek deities becoming syncretized with Mesopotamian deities. There was also some influence of Judaism, given that the kings of Adiabene converted to Judaism in the 1st century AD. Though outside Assyria proper, excavations of the Parthian-age sections of the nearby site Dura-Europos found a temple with a diverse arrangement of deities, a Christian church and a Jewish synagogue, all dating to the 3rd century AD. This religious and cultural complexity is likely to also have been reflected within Assyria, as it was now a frontier region between the Roman and Parthian empires."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Mesopotamia",
        "text": "Pottery was decorated with abstract geometric patterns and ornaments, especially in the Halaf culture, also known for its clay fertility figurines, painted with lines. Clay was all around and the main material; often modelled figures were painted with black decoration. Carefully crafted and dyed pots, especially jugs and bowls, were traded. As dyes, iron oxide containing clays were diluted in different degrees or various minerals were mixed to produce different colours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Post-imperial Assyria",
        "text": "It is not clear when exactly the Assyrians were first Christianized, but Arbela was an important early Christian center. According to the later \"Chronicle of Arbela\", Arbela became the seat of a bishop already in AD 100, but the reliability of this document is questioned among scholars. It is however known that both Arbela and Kirkuk later served as important Christian centers in the Sasanian and later Islamic periods. From the 3rd century onwards, it is clear that Christianity was becoming the major religion of the region, with the Christian god replacing the old Mesopotamian deities, including Ashur, who had just previously experienced a remarkable period of revival. The ancient Mesopotamian religion persisted in some places for much longer, such as at Harran until at least the 10th century and at Mardin until as late as the 18th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Malanka",
        "text": "According to custom, after finishing their ritual rounds, the next morning the young men went to a crossroads to burn the \"Did or \"Didukh\"\u2014a sheaf of grain that had stood in the pokuttia since Sviat Vechir (Christmas Eve)\u2014and then jumped over a bonfire. This was meant to cleanse them after dealing with the evil spirits all night."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion",
        "text": "The earliest undercurrents of Mesopotamian religious thought date to the mid 4th millennium BC, and involved the worship of forces of nature as providers of sustenance. In the 3rd millennium BC objects of worship were personified and became an expansive cast of divinities with particular functions. The last stages of Mesopotamian polytheism, which developed in the 2nd and 1st millenniums BC, introduced greater emphasis on personal religion and structured the gods into a monarchical hierarchy with the national god being the head of the pantheon. Mesopotamian religion finally declined with the spread of Iranian religions during the Achaemenid Empire and with the Christianization of Mesopotamia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cookbook",
        "text": "Ancient Mesopotamian recipes have been found on three Akkadian tablets, dating to about 1700 BC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "There used to be a custom in Ukraine, during Easter celebrations to have \"krashanky\" on a table in a bowl with wheatgrass. The number of the \"krashanky\" equalled the number of departed family members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ka'ak",
        "text": "Arab Christians, primary among them Palestinian Christians (including those who live in the Palestinian diaspora) and Lebanese Christians, make these sweets to celebrate Easter. The pastries are often shaped as wreaths and symbolize the crown of thorns that Christians believe Jesus of Nazareth was wearing on the day of his crucifixion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mesopotamia (theme)",
        "text": "It is thus possible that Mesopotamia was constituted in the late 9th century out of an Armenian principality as a division (\"tourma\") of some neighbouring theme, with its prince receiving a Byzantine title and continuing to govern it, before it was expanded into a full theme. This may also explain the peculiar custom of its \"strategos\" drawing, until 911, his salary not from the imperial treasury but from the customs proceeds of the of his province."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)",
        "text": "The best preserved inlaid object is the Standard of Ur found in one of the royal tombs of this city. It represents two principal scenes on its two sides: a battle and a banquet that probably follows a military victory. The \"dairy frieze\" found at Tell al-'Ubaid represents, as its name suggests, dairy activities (milking cows, cowsheds, preparing dairy products). It is our source of the most information on this practice in ancient Mesopotamia"
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian observances of Jewish holidays",
        "text": "St Thomas Syrian Christians (Nasranis) on the Malabar coast of India (Kerala) have a customary celebration of Pesaha at their homes. On the evening before Good Friday, the Pesaha bread is made at home with unleavened flour. A sweet drink made up of coconut milk and jaggery is used along with this bread (comparable to Charoset). On the Pesaha night, the bread is baked or steamed in a new vessel immediately after rice flour is mixed with water, and they pierce it many times with the handle of a spoon to let out steam so that the bread will not rise (this custom is called \"juthante kannu kuthal\" in the Malayalam language meaning piercing the bread according to the custom of Jews). This bread is cut by the head of the family and shared among the family members after prayers. In some families, a creamy dip made up of jaggery and coconut milk is used along with the Pesaha bread. If the family is in mourning, Pesaha bread is not made at their home, but some of the Syrian Christian neighbours share their bread with them. This custom may have its origin in their probable Jewish ancestry since many other Jewish customs like separating the sexes at church, praying with veils on their heads (women), naming conventions in line with the Jewish customs, kiss of peace (kaikasthoori) in their Holy Quorbono (mass), presentation of their babies on the 40th day after birth in the church and ceremonial bath of the dead bodies. Unlike other Christians in their weddings, the bride stands on the right side of the groom, resembling the Jewish custom, and during the wedding a veil is given to the bride."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion",
        "text": "The Mesopotamian gods bore many similarities with humans, and were anthropomorphic, thereby having humanoid form. Similarly, they often acted like humans, requiring food and drink, as well as drinking alcohol and subsequently suffering the effects of drunkenness, but were thought to have a higher degree of perfection than common men. They were thought to be more powerful, all-seeing and all-knowing, unfathomable, and, above all, immortal. One of their prominent features was a terrifying brightness (\"melammu\") which surrounded them, producing an immediate reaction of awe and reverence among men. In many cases, the various deities were family relations of one another, a trait found in many other polytheistic religions. The historian J. Bott\u00e9ro was of the opinion that the gods were not viewed mystically, but were instead seen as high-up masters who had to be obeyed and feared, as opposed to loved and adored. Nonetheless, many Mesopotamians, of all classes, often had names that were devoted to a certain deity; this practice appeared to have begun in the third millennium BC among the Sumerians, but also was later adopted by the Akkadians, Assyrians and Babylonians as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion",
        "text": "Each Mesopotamian city was home to a deity, and each of the prominent deities was the patron of a city, and all known temples were located in cities, though there may have been shrines in the suburbs. The temple itself was constructed of mud brick in the form of a ziggurat, which rose to the sky in a series of stairstep stages. Its significance and symbolism have been the subject of much discussion, but most regard the tower as a kind of staircase or ladder for the god to descend from and ascend to the heavens, though there are signs which point towards an actual cult having been practiced in the upper temple, so the entire temple may have been regarded as a giant altar. Other theories treat the tower as an image of the cosmic mountain where a dying and rising god \"lay buried.\" Some temples, such as the temple of Enki in Eridu contained a holy tree (\"kiskanu\") in a holy grove, which was the central point of various rites performed by the king, who functioned as a \"master gardener.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Passover",
        "text": "A further hypothesis maintains that once the Priestly Code was promulgated, the Exodus narrative took on a central function, as the apotropaic rite was, arguably, amalgamated with the Canaanite agricultural festival of spring which was a ceremony of unleavened bread, connected with the barley harvest. As the Exodus motif grew, the original function and symbolism of these double origins was lost. Several motifs replicate the features associated with the Mesopotamian Akitu festival. Other scholars, John Van Seters, J.B.Segal and Tamara Prosic disagree with the merged two-festivals hypothesis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agiasos",
        "text": "The tradition of woodcarving is said to have its origins among the craftsmen who created the wood-carved iconostasis of the Church of Panayia in 1812. Originally these craftsmen were the Greeks of Asia Minor, who had astute apprentices from Agiasos to whom they passed on their trade and who inherited their legacy. The families of the \u201cSentoukadhes\u201d (chest-makers) were named after the trade of some of their members were chest-makers who made fine \u201csentoukia\u201d (chests/trunks). A large number of houses in Agiasos are decorated with old furniture (mainly chests) which are decorated with carved fretwork designs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Assyrian culture",
        "text": "Assyrians would celebrate this day like any other feast, with music, dancing, food and drink, but also with a few differences. Apart from the little girls dressed as brides, there was also a custom practised by Assyrians living in Hakkari, where ropes were tied to strong branches of large trees. After this was done, all those present would attempt to climb one, and any not doing so would mean bad luck for them, while anyone reaching the end of the rope and the branch would have the best of luck for the coming year. This was done to represent the Ascension of Jesus and the eventual resurrection of the dead and final judgement. This custom is seldom practised today apart from certain areas in the northernmost extremities of Iraq."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lecanomancy",
        "text": "There are also reports of inductive lecanomany being used by the Mesopotamians, though they sometimes substituted flour for oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient art",
        "text": "Around 150 BC, Mesopotamia was under the control of the Parthians. Mesopotamia became a battleground between the Romans and Parthians, with parts of Mesopotamia (particularly Assyria) coming under periodic Roman control. In 226 AD, it fell to the Sassanid Persians, and remained under Persian rule until the 7th-century Arab Islamic conquest of the Sassanid Empire. A number of primarily Christian native Mesopotamian states existed between the 1st century BC and 3rd century AD, including Adiabene, Oshroene and Hatra."
      },
      {
        "title": "Custom and traditions in Azerbaijan",
        "text": "Another tradition is \"papagatdi\". children knock on the neighbors' or relatives\u2019 doors and leave behind the door their hats or a little basket and they hide. And secretly wait for candies, pastry, and nuts. People never give it back empty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fars (East Syriac ecclesiastical province)",
        "text": "According to tradition, Christianity was brought to the Persian province of Fars ( \"Beth Parsaye\") by Persian merchants exposed to the teaching of the apostle Addai in Roman Edessa. This tradition, which rejected a significant role for the apostle Mari, widely credited with the evangelisation of the Mesopotamian provinces of the Church of the East, reflects a deep division within the Church of the East in the Sassanian period between its Syriac and Persian converts. The patriarchs of Seleucia-Ctesiphon frequently found it difficult to exert authority over the ecclesiastical province of Fars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Etched carnelian beads",
        "text": "Some of the designs on the etched carnelian beads found in Mesopotamia are also typically Mesopotamian, and have no equivalent in the Indus region, such as stepped patterns, guilloch\u00e9 designs, or a Mesopotamian sun symbol in one case. This again suggests the existence of Mesopotamian workshops dedicated to the creation of some local designs of etched carnelian beads, the carnelian material itself most probably coming from the Indus region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ishmekarab",
        "text": "In Mesopotamia Ishmekarab was worshiped as a member of various groups of judge deities, including the \"standing god of Ebabbar\" and three similar groups attested from Assyria from between the period of Erishum I's reign and the era of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Many attestations are also known from Susa in Elam, where a number of deities of Mesopotamian origin were worshiped."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egypt\u2013Mesopotamia relations",
        "text": "Recessed niches in particular, which are characteristic of Mesopotamian temple architecture, were adopted for the design of false doors in the tombs of the First Dynasty and Second Dynasty, from the time of the Naqada III period (circa 3000 BCE). It is unknown if the transfer of this design was the result of Mesopotamian builders and architects in Egypt, or if temple designs on imported Mesopotamian seals may have been a sufficient source of inspiration for Egyptian architects to manage themselves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anastenaria",
        "text": "According to some myths the custom originated in the Middle Ages when the church of Saint Constantine in their original home in Kosti, now in Bulgaria, caught fire, and the voices of the saints calling for help could be heard from inside. The villagers who braved the flames to rescue them were unharmed, being protected by the saints. Other ethnographers, however, have argued that the Anastenaria are vestiges of ancient practices of cults of Dionysus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Julian of Mesopotamia",
        "text": "Venerable Julian the Hermit of Mesopotamia is commemorated 18 October in the Eastern Orthodox, Byzantine Catholic, and Roman Catholic Churches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mesopotamian prayer",
        "text": "Another source shows \"ikrib\u016b\" were benedictions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arameans",
        "text": "Between the 1st and 4th centuries AD, the Arameans began to adopt Christianity in place of the polytheist Aramean religion, and the regions of the Levant and Mesopotamia became an important centre of Syriac Christianity, along with the Aramean kingdom Osroene to the east from where the Syriac language and Syriac script emerged."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Mesopotamian religion",
        "text": "As with most dead religions, many aspects of the common practices and intricacies of the doctrine have been lost and forgotten over time. However, much of the information and knowledge has survived, and great work has been done by historians and scientists, with the help of religious scholars and translators, to re-construct a working knowledge of the religious history, customs, and the role these beliefs played in everyday life in Sumer, Akkad, Assyria, Babylonia, Ebla and Chaldea during this time. Mesopotamian religion is thought to have been an influence on subsequent religions throughout the world, including Canaanite, Aramean, and ancient Greek."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u0160\u0113p lemutti",
        "text": "The work \"\u0161\u0113p lemutti ina b\u012bt am\u0113li par\u0101su\" (inscribed \"-tim\" \"-si\"), \u201cto block the entry of the enemy (\u2018foot of evil\u2019) into someone\u2019s house,\u201d also referred to as \"ana nas\u0101\u1e2b \u0161\u0113p lemutti\", \"to expel the 'foot of evil',\" is a first millennium BC Mesopotamian ritual text idiom well attested in the apodoses of divinations which provides the procedures to protect a house with magical defenses from demonic attack. Sickness, death, misfortune, and ominous occurrences in the house, were perceived to be the result of actions of the hordes of demons from the netherworld. These involve the use of apotropaic figurines, whose god, apkallu, and monster alter-egos, are invoked by an incantation, and their interment in various parts of a private house. Archaeological excavation has uncovered many instances of small figurines buried in boxes in the foundations of structures such as palaces and domestic houses of the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bottle-kicking",
        "text": "Local lore claims that the custom began when two ladies of Hallaton were saved from a raging bull by a startled hare, distracting the bull from its charge. They showed their gratitude to God for sending the hare by a gift of Land to the church on the understanding that every Easter Monday, the vicar would provide a Hare pie, twelve penny loaves, and two barrels of ale for the poor of the village."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paprenjak",
        "text": "Traditionally, a square paprenjak is decorated with wooden press, embossing a pattern on the biscuit. These patterns were traditionally pagan and Christian symbols, such as fish, wheat or sun. Today paprenjak today takes on many shapes, such as gingerbread men, stars, trees, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Serb traditions",
        "text": "The archaic term for Easter is \"Veligdan\" (; from \"Velikdan\", , \"Great Day\") while \"Vaskrs/Uskrs\" () is officially in use. In these times people greet each other with the terms \"Hristos vaskrse\" (\"Christ is Risen\") and the reply \"Vaistinu vaskrse\" (\"Indeed, He is Risen\").\n*Egg tapping\n*Egg decoration (Pisanke)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Art of Mesopotamia",
        "text": "Mesopotamian art survives in a number of forms: cylinder seals, relatively small figures in the round, and reliefs of various sizes, including cheap plaques of moulded pottery for the home, some religious and some apparently not. Favourite subjects include deities, alone or with worshippers, and animals in several types of scenes: repeated in rows, single, fighting each other or a human, confronted animals by themselves or flanking a human or god in the Master of Animals motif, or a Tree of Life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka Museum",
        "text": "There are many examples of both pysanky and other forms of decorated eggs from other Slavic countries (Belarus, the Czech Republic, Poland) and more distant lands (Romania, Sweden, United States, Canada, France, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, India)."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When where Easter eggs first decorated?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find the exact first egg decorations, but I did find that the custom can, according to many sources, can be traced to early Christians of Mesopotamia."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is custom can, and what does it have to do with the Christians of Mesopotamia?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "There was a misunderstanding, but the usage of red Easter eggs dates back to the early Christian church in Mesopotamia. The dark red eggs represent Christ's blood shed on the cross.",
      "There is no \"custom can\". This custom of the Easter egg, according to many sources, can be traced to early Christians of Mesopotamia, and from there it spread into Eastern Europe and Siberia through the Orthodox Churches, and later into Europe through the Catholic and Protestant Churches."
    ],
    "topic": "Pysanka",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Easter egg:52",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Easter egg",
          "Legends",
          "Christian traditions"
        ],
        "ctx": "Red Easter eggs, known as \"kokkina avga\" (\u03ba\u03cc\u03ba\u03ba\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1 \u03b1\u03c5\u03b3\u03ac) in Greece and \"krashanki\" in Ukraine, are an Easter tradition and a distinct type of Easter egg prepared by various Orthodox Christian peoples. The red eggs are part of Easter custom in many areas and often accompany other traditional Easter foods. Passover haminados are prepared with similar methods."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Easter egg:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Easter egg"
        ],
        "ctx": "This custom of the Easter egg, according to many sources, can be traced to early Christians of Mesopotamia, and from there it spread into Eastern Europe and Siberia through the Orthodox Churches, and later into Europe through the Catholic and Protestant Churches. Mediaevalist scholars normally conclude that the custom of Easter eggs has its roots in the prohibition of eggs during Lent after which, on Easter, they have been blessed for the occasion."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Boiled eggs were not used, as pysanky were generally written on raw or, less commonly, baked eggs (pecharky). Boiled eggs were dyed red for Easter, using an onion skin dye, and called \"krashanky\". The number of colors on an egg was usually limited, as natural dyes had very long dyeing times, sometimes hours. Pysanky would be written\u2014and dyed\u2014in batches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Similarly, no actual pysanky from the Kyivan Rus' period exist, but stone, clay and bone versions exist and have been excavated in many sites throughout Ukraine. Most common are ceramic eggs decorated with a horsetail plant (\u0441\u043e\u0441\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430 \"sosonka\") pattern in yellow and bright green against a dark background. More than 70 such eggs have been excavated throughout Ukraine, many of them from graves of children and adults. They are thought to be representations of real decorated eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukraine",
        "text": "The tradition of the Easter egg, known as pysanky, has long roots in Ukraine. These eggs were drawn on with wax to create a pattern; then, the dye was applied to give the eggs their pleasant colours, the dye did not affect the previously wax-coated parts of the egg. After the entire egg was dyed, the wax was removed leaving only the colourful pattern. This tradition is thousands of years old, and precedes the arrival of Christianity to Ukraine. In the city of Kolomyia near the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains, the museum of Pysanka was built in 2000 and won a nomination as the monument of modern Ukraine in 2007, part of the Seven Wonders of Ukraine action."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Red Easter eggs, known as \"kokkina avga\" (\u03ba\u03cc\u03ba\u03ba\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1 \u03b1\u03c5\u03b3\u03ac) in Greece and \"krashanki\" in Ukraine, are an Easter tradition and a distinct type of Easter egg prepared by various Orthodox Christian peoples. The red eggs are part of Easter custom in many areas and often accompany other traditional Easter foods. Passover haminados are prepared with similar methods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "With the advent of Christianity, via a process of religious syncretism, the symbolism of the egg was changed to represent, not nature's rebirth, but the rebirth of man. Christians embraced the egg symbol and likened it to the tomb from which Christ rose. With the acceptance of Christianity in 988, the decorated pysanka, in time, was adapted to play an important role in Ukrainian rituals of the new religion. Many symbols of the old sun worship survived and were adapted to represent Easter and Christ's Resurrection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Pysanky are Ukrainian Easter eggs, decorated using a wax-resist (batik) method. The word comes from the verb \"pysaty\", \"to write\", as the designs are not painted on, but written with beeswax."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg decorating",
        "text": "Orthodox Christians in Mesopotamia used red dyed eggs to symbolise the blood of Christ, which is a possible origin of the Easter egg. Red eggs feature in Greek Easter celebrations, where people play games which involve tapping the red eggs against each other."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Bunny",
        "text": "As a special dish, eggs would probably have been decorated as part of the Easter celebrations. Later, German Protestants retained the custom of eating colored eggs for Easter, though they did not continue the tradition of fasting. Eggs boiled with some flowers change their color, bringing the spring into the homes, and some over time added the custom of decorating the eggs. Many Christians of the Eastern Orthodox Church to this day typically dye their Easter eggs red, the color of blood, in recognition of the blood of the sacrificed Christ (and, of the renewal of life in springtime). Some also use the color green, in honor of the new foliage emerging after the long-dead time of winter. The Ukrainian art of decorating eggs for Easter, known as \"pysanky\", dates to ancient, pre-Christian times. Similar variants of this form of artwork are seen amongst other eastern and central European cultures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "In the Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches, Easter eggs are dyed red to represent the blood of Christ, with further symbolism being found in the hard shell of the egg symbolizing the sealed Tomb of Christ \u2014 the cracking of which symbolized his resurrection from the dead. The tradition of red easter eggs was used by the Russian Orthodox Church. The tradition to dyeing the easter eggs in an Onion tone exists in the cultures of Armenia, Georgia, Belarus, Russia, Czechia, Romania, Slovenia, and Israel. The colour is made by boiling onion peel in water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Many other Central and Eastern European ethnic groups decorate eggs using wax resist for Easter. These include the Belarusians (\u043f\u0456\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0430, \"pisanka\"), Bulgarians (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043e \u044f\u0439\u0446\u0435, \"pisano yaytse\"), Carpatho-Rusyns (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043a\u044b, \"pysank\u0177\"), Croats (\"pisanica\"), Czechs (\"kraslice\"), Hungarians (\"h\u00edmestoj\u00e1s\"), Lithuanians (\"margutis\"), Romanians (\"ou\u0103 vopsite\", \"\u00eencondeiate\" or \"\u00eempistrite\"), Serbs (\"pisanica\"), Slovaks (\"kraslica\"), Slovenes (\"pirhi\", \"pisanice,\" or \"remenke\") and Sorbs (\"jejka pisa\u0107\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Dark red eggs are a tradition in Greece and represent the blood of Christ shed on the cross. The practice dates to the early Christian church in Mesopotamia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "There were superstitions regarding the colors and designs on the pysanky. One old Ukrainian myth centered on the wisdom of giving older people gifts of pysanky with darker colors and/or rich designs, for their life has already been filled. Similarly, it is appropriate to give young people pysanky with white as the predominant color because their life is still a blank page. Girls would often give pysanky to young men they fancied, and include heart motifs. It was said, though, that a girl should never give her boyfriend a pysanky that has no design on the top and bottom of the egg, as this might signify that the boyfriend would soon lose his hair."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanky were made using a wax resist (batik) method. Beeswax was heated in a small bowl on the large family stove (\u043f\u0456\u0447), and the styluses were dipped into it. The molten wax was applied to the white egg with a writing motion; any bit of shell covered with wax would be sealed, and remain white. Then the egg was dyed yellow, and more wax applied, and then orange, red, purple, black. (The dye sequence was always light to dark). Bits of shell covered with wax remained that color. After the final color, usually red, brown or black, the wax was removed by heating the egg in the stove and gently wiping off the melted wax, or by briefly dipping the egg into boiling water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukrainian Canadians",
        "text": "Ukrainians in general are noted for their elaborately decorated Easter Eggs or \"pysanky\", and that is also true in Canada. The world's second largest pysanka is in Vegreville, Alberta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "These ceramic eggs were common in Kyivan Rus' and had a characteristic style. They were slightly smaller than life size (2.5 by 4\u00a0cm, or 1 by 1.6\u00a0inches) and were created from reddish pink clays by the spiral method. The majolica glazed eggs had a brown, green or yellow background and showed interwoven yellow and green stripes. The eggs were made in large cities like Kyiv and Chernihiv, which had workshops that produced clay tile and bricks; these tiles (and pysanky) were not only used locally but were exported to Poland and to several Scandinavian and Baltic countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Sociology professor Kenneth Thompson discusses the spread of the Easter egg throughout Christendom, writing that \"use of eggs at Easter seems to have come from Persia into the Greek Christian Churches of Mesopotamia, thence to Russia and Siberia through the medium of Orthodox Christianity. From the Greek Church the custom was adopted by either the Roman Catholics or the Protestants and then spread through Europe.\" Both Thompson, as well as British orientalist Thomas Hyde state that in addition to dyeing the eggs red, the early Christians of Mesopotamia also stained Easter eggs green and yellow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "\"Pysanka\" is often taken to mean any type of decorated egg, but it specifically refers to an egg created by the written-wax batik method and utilizing traditional folk motifs and designs. Several other types of decorated eggs are seen in Polish, Ukrainian tradition, and these vary throughout the regions of Poland and Ukraine.\n* \"Kraszanki, Krashanky\" \u2013from \"krasyty\" (\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0438), \"to decorate\"\u2013 are boiled eggs dyed a single color (with vegetable dyes, traditionally onion skin), and are blessed and eaten at Easter.\n* \"Pisanki, Pysanky\" \u2013from \"pysaty\" (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to write\"\u2013 are raw eggs created with the wax-resist method (Resist dyeing). The designs are \"written\" in hot wax with a pinhead or a special stylus called a \"pysachok\" (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0447\u043e\u043a) or a \"kistka\" (\u043a\u0456\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430) which has a small funnel attached to hold a small amount of liquid wax. The word that is used to describe the egg actually comes from the Polish, Ukrainian verb \"pisa\u0107, pysaty\", which means \"to write\". Wooden eggs and beaded eggs are often referred to as \"pysanky\" because they mimic the decorative style of pysanky in a different medium.\n* \"Krapanky\" \u2013from \"krapka\" (\u043a\u0440\u0430\u043f\u043a\u0430), \"a dot\"\u2013 are raw eggs decorated using the wax-resist method, but with only dots as ornamentation (no symbols or other drawings). They are traditionally created by dripping molten wax from a beeswax candle onto an egg. They can be considered the simplest version of a pysanka, or a \"proto-pysanka.\"\n* \"Drapanki, Dryapanky\" \u2013from \"dryapaty\" (\u0434\u0440\u044f\u043f\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to scratch\"\u2013 are created by scratching the surface of a dyed egg to reveal the white shell below.\n* \"Malowanki, Malyovanky\" \u2013from \"malyuvaty\" (\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to paint\"\u2013 are created by painting a design with a brush using oil or water color paints. It is sometimes used to refer to coloring (e.g. with a marker) on an egg.\n* \"Naklejanki, Nakleyanky\" \u2013from \"kleyaty\" (\u043a\u043b\u0435\u0457\u0442\u0438), \"to glue on\"\u2013 are created by glueing objects to the surface of an egg.\n* \"Travlenky\" \u2013from \"travlenya\" (\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f), \u201cetching\u201d \u2013 are created by waxing eggs and then etching away the unwaxed areas.\n* \"Biserky\" \u2013from \"biser\" (\u0431\u0456\u0441\u0435\u0440), \"beads\"\u2013 are created by coating an egg with beeswax, and then embedding beads into the wax to create geometric designs.\n* \"Lystovky\" \u2013from \"lystya\" (\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044f), \"leaves\"\u2013 are created by dyeing an egg to which small leaves have been attached."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka Museum",
        "text": "There are many examples of both pysanky and other forms of decorated eggs from other Slavic countries (Belarus, the Czech Republic, Poland) and more distant lands (Romania, Sweden, United States, Canada, France, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, India)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vyshyvanka",
        "text": "In Ukrainian embroidery, black, red, and white colours are basic, and yellow, blue, and green are supplementary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "It is not only motifs on pysanky which carried symbolic weight: colors also had significance. Although the earliest pysanky were often simply two-toned, and many folk designs still are, some believed that the more colors there were on a decorated egg, the more magical power it held. A multi-colored egg could thus bring its owner better luck and a better fate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The symbols which decorated pysanky underwent a process of adaptation over time. In pre-Christian times these symbols imbued an egg with magical powers to ward off evil spirits, banish winter, guarantee a good harvest and bring a person good luck. After 988, when Christianity became the state religion of Ukraine, the interpretation of many of the symbols began to change, and the pagan motifs were reinterpreted in a Christian light."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "No actual pysanky have been found from Ukraine's prehistoric periods, as eggshells do not preserve well. Cultic ceramic eggs have been discovered in excavations near the village of Luka Vrublivets'ka, during excavations of a Trypillian site (5th to 3rd millennium BC). These eggs were ornamented and in the form of \u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0446\u0456 (torokhkal'tsi; rattles containing a small stone with which to scare evil spirits away)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "As in many ancient cultures, Poles and Ukrainians worshipped a sun god, Dazhboh. The sun was important \u2013 it warmed the earth and thus was a source of all life. Eggs decorated with nature symbols became an integral part of spring rituals, serving as benevolent talismans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "There used to be a custom in Ukraine, during Easter celebrations to have \"krashanky\" on a table in a bowl with wheatgrass. The number of the \"krashanky\" equalled the number of departed family members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "In recent years, new forms of egg decoration have been brought from abroad and become popularized in Ukraine. These include:\n* \"Rizblenky\" \u2013from \"rizbyty\" (\u0440\u0456\u0437\u044c\u0431\u0438\u0442\u0438), \"to cut, to carve\"\u2013 are created by drilling the surface of an egg to create cut out areas.\n* \"Linyvky\" \u2013from \"linyvyi\" (\u043b\u0456\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0439), \"lazy\"\u2013 a joking term to describe eggs decorated using stickers or shrink-wrap sleeves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rahmans",
        "text": "Since Rahmans live in isolation and have no year computation of their own, they have no way of knowing when Easter comes. It is for this reason that Romanians and Ukrainians eat dyed eggs and let the shells flow downstream, from there they believe they will get to the Rahmans. There is a custom in Oster, Lityn, and Lutsk districts to throw egg shells into the river on Easter Eve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "A pisanka, pysanka (, plural: \"pisanki, pysanky\") is a Polish-Ukrainian Easter egg, decorated with traditional folk designs using a wax-resist method. The word \"pisanka\" comes from the verb \"pisa\u0107, pysaty,\" \"to write\" or \"to inscribe,\" as the designs are written (inscribed) with beeswax, not painted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Each region, each village, and almost every family had its own special ritual, its own symbols, meanings and secret formulas for dyeing eggs. These customs were preserved faithfully and passed down from mother to daughter through generations. The custom of decorating pysanky was observed with greatest care, and a pysanka, after receiving the Easter blessing, was held to have great powers as a talisman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The color palette of traditional pysanky was fairly limited, and based on natural dyes. Yellow, red/orange, green, brown and black were the predominant colors. With the advent of aniline dyes in the 1800s, small amounts of blue and purple were sometimes added. It is important to note that the meanings below are generalizations; different regions interpreted colors differently.\n* Red - is probably the oldest symbolic color, and has many meanings. It represents life-giving blood, and often appears on pysanky with nocturnal and heavenly symbols. It represents love and joy, and the hope of marriage. It is also associated with the sun.\n* Black - is a particularly sacred color, and is most commonly associated with the \"other world,\" but not in a negative sense.\n* Yellow - symbolized the moon and stars and also, agriculturally, the harvest.\n* Blue - Represented blue skies or the air, and good health.\n* White - Signified purity, birth, light, rejoicing, virginity.\n* Green - the color of new life in the spring. Green represents the resurrection of nature, and the riches of vegetation.\n* Brown - represents the earth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "An adaptation of the geometric design is not a symbol per se but a division of the egg called \"forty triangles\" (actually 48) or \"Sorokoklyn (forty wedges).\" Its ancient meaning is not known, but is often said to represent the forty days of lent, the forty martyrs, the forty days that Christ spent in the desert, or the forty life tasks of married couples."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanky were traditionally made during the last week of Lent, Holy Week in the Orthodox and Greek (Uniate) Catholic calendars. (Both faiths are represented in Ukraine, and both still celebrate Easter by the Julian calendar.) They were made by the women of the family. During the middle of the Lenten season, women began putting aside eggs, those that were most perfectly shaped and smooth, and ideally, the first laid eggs of young hens. There had to be a rooster, as only fertilized eggs could be used. (If non-fertile eggs were used, there would be no fertility in the home.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Newer legends blended folklore and Christian beliefs and firmly attached the egg to the Easter celebration. One legend concerns the Virgin Mary. It tells of the time Mary gave eggs to the soldiers at the cross. She entreated them to be less cruel to her son and she wept. The tears of Mary fell upon the eggs, spotting them with dots of brilliant color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Everyone from the youngest to the oldest received a pysanka for Easter. Young people were given pysanky with bright designs; dark pysanky were given to older people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "A great variety of ornamental motifs are found on pysanky. Because of the egg's fragility, few ancient examples of pysanky have survived. However, similar design motifs occur in pottery, woodwork, metalwork, Ukrainian embroidery and other folk arts, many of which have survived."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy of Edmonton",
        "text": "As in classical iconography, the colour blue also represents divinity. The darker the blue, the more deeply we enter into the life of the Holy Trinity. The circle stands for the eternal nature of God \u2013 without beginning or end. As such, God\u2019s love for us is eternal \u2013 a mystery beyond our understanding. In contrast, the golden dome reflects the glory of God, the Divine Light visible to us. Its shape reminds us of the vault of heaven where we experience the embrace of the living God, especially through the Holy Mysteries, the Eucharist in particular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "In Greece, superstitions of the past included the custom of placing the first-dyed red egg at the home's iconostasis (place where icons are displayed) to ward off evil. The heads and backs of small lambs were also marked with the red dye to protect them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanka\n--Types of decorated eggs.\n--History.\n--Archaeology.\n--Legends.\n--Superstitions and folk beliefs.\n--Writing pysanky.\n--Sharing pysanky.\n--Symbolism in pysanky.\n----Geometric.\n------Eternity bands.\n----Berehynia.\n----Christian symbols.\n----Phytomorphic (plant) motifs.\n------Flowers.\n------Vazon/Tree of Life.\n------Fruit.\n----Scevomorphic motifs.\n----Zoomorphic (animal) motifs.\n------Birds.\n------Insects.\n------Fish.\n------Serpent.\n----Cosmomorphic motifs.\n--Color symbolism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists",
        "text": "The red and black colors, common in Ukrainian embroidery, represent blood and soil. Natalia Khanenko-Friesen, director of the Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies (and scholar of Ukrainian folklore) explained the red is traditionally synonymous with \"life\" rather than with violence. \u201cBlood as life, as blossom, and not as blood lost in battles.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "All but the krashanky and lystovky are usually meant to be decorative (as opposed to edible), and the egg yolk and white are either allowed to dry up over time or (in modern times) removed by blowing them out through a small hole in the egg.\n* A\u017curki - is one of the more complicated techniques for decorating eggs. They are made of egg shells, i.e. eggs from which their contents have been blown out. Decorating the shell itself is very labour intensive and requires great care because it is very easy to damage the delicate shell of the egg. The patterns are cut into the shell with a high speed drill.The finished Easter egg looks like a three dimensional lace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The Hutsuls\u2014a group of Rusyns who live in the Carpathian Mountains around western Ukraine\u2014believe that the fate of the world depends upon the pysanka. As long as the egg writing custom continues, the world will exist. If, for any reason, this custom is abandoned, evil\u2014in the shape of a horrible serpent who is forever chained to a cliff\u2014will overrun the world. Each year the serpent sends out his minions to see how many pysanky have been written. If the number is low the serpent's chains are loosened and he is free to wander the earth causing havoc and destruction. If, on the other hand, the number of pysanky has increased, the chains are tightened and good triumphs over evil for yet another year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Alternatively, in ethnic Lemko and Boiko areas, as well as Nadsiannia, the drop pull method was also utilized. A pinhead was dipped into molten wax and then applied to the shell of the egg. Simple drops were made, or there was an additional pulling motion, which would create teardrop or comma shapes. These drops were used to create patterns and designs. Dyeing and wax removal proceeded as with traditional pysanky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg decorating in Slavic culture",
        "text": "Many Slavic ethnic groups, including the Belarusians (\u043f\u0456\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0430, \"pisanka\"), Bulgarians (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043e \u044f\u0439\u0446\u0435, \"pisano yaytse\"), Carpatho-Rusyns (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043a\u044b, \"pysank\u0177\"), Croats (\"pisanica\"), Czechs (\"kraslice\"), Macedonians (\u0432\u0430\u043f\u0446\u0430\u043d\u043e \u0458\u0430\u0458\u0446\u0435, \"vapcano jajce\"), Poles (\"pisanka\"), , Serbs (\"\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430 / pisanica\"), Slovaks (\"kraslica\"), Slovenes (\"pisanica,\" \"pirhi\" or \"remenke\"), Sorbs (\"jejka pisa\u0107\") and Ukrainians (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0430, \"pysanka\") decorate eggs for Easter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter traditions",
        "text": "Preparations for Easter celebration in Ukraine begin weeks before the feast day, with Great Lent being part of it. The Ukrainian Easter eggs include pysanky, krashanky (edible, one-colour dyed eggs), driapanky (a design is scratched on the eggshell) etc. During the Easter Vigil a priest also blesses the parishioners' Easter baskets, which include Easter eggs, paska, butter, cheese, kovbasa, salt and a few other products. With this food, on their return home, people break their fast. The ritual is called \"'rozhovyny\"'. People visit their relatives and neighbours exchanging Easter greetings. Celebration of Easter in Ukraine is filled with many other customs and rituals, most of which are centuries-old."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "According to many scholars, the art of wax-resist (batik) egg decoration in Slavic cultures probably dates back to the pre-Christian era. They base this on the widespread nature of the practice, and pre-Christian nature of the symbols used. No ancient examples of intact pysanky exist, as the eggshells of domesticated fowl are fragile, but fragments of colored shells with wax-resist decoration on them were unearthed during the archaeological excavations in Ostr\u00f3wek, Poland (near the city of Opole), where remnants of a Slavic settlement from the early Piast Era were found."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The dyes were prepared from dried plants, roots, bark, berries and insects (cochineal). Yellow was obtained from the flowers of the woadwaxen, and gold from onion skins. Red could be extracted from logwood or cochineal, and dark green and violet from the husks of sunflower seeds and the berries and bark of the elderberry bush. Black dye was made from walnut husks. The dyes were prepared in secret, using recipes handed down from mother to daughter. Sometimes chemical dyes (of unusual or difficult colors) were purchased from peddlers along with alum, a mordant that helped the natural dyes adhere better to eggshells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegreville",
        "text": "Vegreville's pysanka, the second largest Ukrainian Easter egg in the world, was created to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police in 1974 and to celebrate Vegreville's ethnic heritage. On July 6, 2009, the pysanka was one of four attractions featured on the first set of the Canadian Roadside Attractions Series of stamps issued by Canada Post."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukrainian National Museum",
        "text": "Also on display are decorated Easter Eggs\u2014\"Pysanky\" a Ukrainian staple folk art. The oldest designs are called ideograms, but the painted eggs share a common theme: the sun (represented by a tripod); a rose and stars in various patterns. Ukrainian embroidery, a highly developed folk art, is included in the collection. In addition, on display are Ukrainian language books received in donation from immigrants and visitors coming from Europe. An exhibit \"Ukrainian Genocide -Holodomor of 1932-1933\" showcases photographs, documents and newspaper articles dedicated to providing the public with information about the forced famine in Ukraine. An exhibit dealing with Chicago's unique Ukrainian community complete the museum exhibits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The most popular pysanka designs are geometric figures. The egg itself is most often divided by straight lines into squares, triangles and other shapes. These shapes are then filled with other forms and designs. These are also among the most ancient symbols, with the \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0435\u0442\u043e (resheto, sieve) motif dating back to Paleolithic times. Other ancient geometric symbols are agricultural in nature: triangles, which symbolized clouds or rain; quadrilaterals, especially those with a resheto design in them, symbolized a ploughed field; dots stood for seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "A bowl full of pysanky was invariably kept in every home. It served not only as a colorful display, but also as protection from all dangers. Some of the eggs were emptied, and a bird's head made of wax or dough and wings and tail-feathers of folded paper were attached. These \u201cdoves\u201d were suspended before icons in commemoration of the birth of Christ, when a dove came down from heaven and soared over the child Jesus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "In the 20th and 21st centuries, the commercially produced folk pysanky of the Carpathians, especially Kosmach, have begun displaying more Christian symbols. The lower arm of the cross in older designs is often lengthened to appear more Christian, even if it throws off the symmetry of the design. Crucifixes are sometimes seen. Pysanky are being written with depictions of Easter baskets on them, including a paska and candle. White doves, symbols of the Holy Spirit, are also more frequently seen; doves are usually depicted in flight, while other wild birds are traditionally shown perched."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rushnyk",
        "text": "Colour plays a very important symbolic role in traditional Slavic embroidery. Red is the colour of life, the sun, fertility and health. The majority of rushnyks are embroidered with red threads. The very word \"red\" means \"beautiful\" and \"splendid\" in Old Russian and Ruthenian: a red girl, a red sun or a red spring. The phrase \"Krasnaya devitsa\" in Old Russian language for example is an old idiomatic expression which means beautiful girl, the word \"Krasnaya\" translates in Russian language also into red. The diamond-shaped design of the rushnyk is an ancient agricultural symbol, which means a sown field, or the sun, and expresses the idea of fertility and protection against evil. Ducks, in the centre of the rushnyk, symbolize the element of life-giving water. In wedding folklore a duck and a drake symbolize a bride and a groom, in other words a pair of ducks is a symbol of family life. Another common symbol on rushniks are birds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegreville egg",
        "text": "The Vegreville egg is a giant sculpture of a pysanka, a Ukrainian-style Easter egg. The work by Paul Maxym Sembaliuk is built of an intricate set of two-dimensional anodized aluminum tiles in the shape of congruent equilateral triangles and star-shaped hexagons, fashioned over an aluminum framework. The egg is long and three and a half storeys high, weighing in at . It is the second largest pysanka in the world (the biggest one was built into part of the Kolomyia Pysanka Museum in Ukraine, in 2000)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Some color combinations had specific meanings, too:\n* Black and white - mourning, respect for the souls of the dead.\n* Black and red - this combination was perceived as \"harsh and frightful,\" and very disturbing. It is common in Podillya, where both serpent motifs and goddess motifs were written with this combination.\n* Four or more colors - the family's happiness, prosperity, love, health and achievements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Symbols of Ukrainian people",
        "text": "Symbols of Ukrainian people\n--Classification of symbols.\n--Clothes.\n----Embroidered shirt (Vyshyvanka).\n----Wreath.\n----Ukrainian embroidered cloth (Rushnyk).\n--Floristic symbols.\n--Animalistic symbols.\n--Didukh.\n--Painted Easter egg (Pysanka).\n--Hair.\n--Holy images.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter traditions",
        "text": "Many central and eastern European ethnic groups, including the Albanians, Armenians, Belarusians, Bulgarians, Croats, Czechs, Estonians, Georgians, Germans, Hungarians, Latvians, Lithuanians, Macedonians, Poles, Romanians, Russians, Serbs, Slovaks, Slovenes, and Ukrainians, decorate eggs for Easter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg decorating",
        "text": "Eastern European and North Asian cultures, particularly Slavic ones, have a strong tradition of decorating eggs which date back at least to times when Slavic paganism was the predominant religion. Chicken, duck and goose eggs are decorated variously with batik dyeing, applique, scratch-work, wax encaustic and carving. Egg decorating is particularly popular in Ukraine, where as in many Slavic countries, the eggs are called Pysanky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "In pre-Christian times, Dazhboh was one of the major deities in the Slavic pantheon; birds were the sun god's chosen creations, for they were the only ones who could get near him. Humans could not catch the birds, but they did manage to obtain the eggs the birds laid. Thus, the eggs were magical objects, a source of life. The egg was also honored during rite-of-Spring festivals\u2013\u2013it represented the rebirth of the earth. The long, hard winter was over; the earth burst forth and was reborn just as the egg miraculously burst forth with life. The egg therefore, was believed to have special powers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "In Greece, women traditionally dye the eggs with onion skins and vinegar on Thursday (also the day of Communion). These ceremonial eggs are known as kokkina avga. They also bake tsoureki for the Easter Sunday feast. Red Easter eggs are sometimes served along the centerline of tsoureki (braided loaf of bread)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "Easter eggs are a widely popular symbol of new life among the Eastern Orthodox but also in folk traditions in Slavic countries and elsewhere. A batik-like decorating process known as pisanka produces intricate, brilliantly colored eggs. The celebrated House of Faberg\u00e9 workshops created exquisite jewelled Easter eggs for the Russian Imperial family from 1885 to 1916."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "As with symbols, these talismanic meanings of colors applied to traditional pysanky with traditional designs, and not to modern decorative pysanky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukrainian embroidery",
        "text": "In the Lemko region, the oldest embroideries were executed in red and red-blue linear motifs. Over time, other colors, such as blue, green and yellow, were added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "In the Greek Orthodox tradition, red eggs are also cracked together when people exchange Easter greetings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paska (bread)",
        "text": "In Ukraine it is tradition to fill your Easter basket (koshyk) with Easter eggs (pysanky), Easter bread (paska), sausage (kovbasa), butter, salt and other ceremonial foods on Holy Saturday (Easter Eve). On Easter morning, after the liturgy and the blessing of the paska and other staples, everyone returns home to feast on the eggs, cold meats, and other goods that were blessed at church. After the matins all the people in the congregation exchange Easter greetings, give each other \"krashanky\", and then hurry home with their baskets of blessed food (\"sviachene\"). In eastern Ukraine they go home, place the \"sviachene\" on the table, and the oldest member of the family opens the cloths in which the food is wrapped, slices pieces from each item, and distributes them to members of the family along with a piece of unleavened bread that has also been blessed. In Western Ukraine, especially in the Hutsul region, the people first walk around the house three times, go to the stable, extend Easter greetings to the cattle, touch them with the \"sviachene\", scatter pieces of Easter bread and salt in the manger, and send holiday greetings to the bees. Only then do they enter the house, ceremoniously open the bundle (\"dorinnyk\") over the heads of the children, and sit down to the table to break their fast. Modern pasky usually have a white glaze made from sugar and egg and are decorated on top with coloured wheat grains or poppy seeds. However, an old custom, which is still practised in some Ukrainian regions and diasporas, is to create dough ornaments for the paska. The symbolism of these ornaments is connected with spring themes: the awakening of nature, resurrection and rebirth. Birds, especially larks, as heralds of spring, took a much-deserved place on pasky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Symbols of Ukrainian people",
        "text": "\"Vyshyvanka\" is an embroidered national women's and men's white shirt. Embroidered shirt is a symbol of health, beauty, happy destiny, generic memory, decency, honesty, love, festivity; amulet. The symbolism of embroidery depended on the person for whom it was made: a bridegroom, a husband, a young boy, a girl, a married woman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanky are typically made to be given to family members and respected outsiders. To give a pysanka is to give a symbolic gift of life, which is why the egg must remain whole. Furthermore, the design, a combination of the motifs and colors on a traditional folk pysanka, has a deep, symbolic meaning. Traditionally, a pysanka given with its symbolic meaning in mind, be it wishes of protection, fecundity, or love. Typically, pysanky were displayed prominently in a public room of the house."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flag of Ukraine",
        "text": "The official flag of Pavlo Skoropadsky's Hetmanate also was light blue\u2013yellow and became the same under the Directorate of Symon Petlura. The flag of the West Ukrainian People's Republic was blue-yellow. The stateless Makhnovshchina (Free Territory), which existed during the Ukrainian War of Independence, used the black flag."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukrainian embroidery",
        "text": "In the Central and Eastern parts of Ukraine, embroidery usually consists of geometric forms and plant ornaments. The color range of the motifs is very delicate and very diverse as to individual details. In the Poltava Region, the colors usually include pale blue, white, light ochre, pale green and gray tones. Poltava products are especially famed for their \u201cwhite-on-white\u201d and openwork embroidery. The red, red-blue (or red-black) color scheme plays an important role in Central- and Eastern-Ukrainian embroidery, as it did throughout almost the whole of Ukraine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baba Marta",
        "text": "The white color first symbolized man, the power light solar zone. Later, under the influence of Christian mythology it began to indicate integrity and virginity \u2013 white is the color of Christ. Red represents the woman and health: it is a sign of blood, conception and birth. In ancient times women\u2019s wedding dresses were red. The martenitsa comes in all shapes and sizes - from building packages to strings on a newborn's arm. Children usually compete who will get the most."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pelican (Faberg\u00e9 egg)",
        "text": "The egg is supported on a varicolored gold, four-legged stand and retains its original red velvet case, the only time this color was used for a Tsar Imperial Easter Egg-case."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pisanica (Croatian)",
        "text": "Pisanica (pl. \"pisanice\") is a decorated Croatian Easter egg that comes from an old Slavic custom dating back to pagan times. During Easter, eggs would be painted with bright colors, and would be given as gifts, especially to young children or a significant other. Before paint became common, villagers would have to use whatever resources they had available around them to make the dyes and paints themselves. The most common color for eggs was red, due to the abundance of red beets and other vegetables. In the Me\u0111imurje area, soot would often be mixed with oak to make a dark brown color. Green plants would be used for green dye. The word \"pisanica\" is derived from the Croatian word that means \"writing.\" The most common phrase put on pisanicas is Happy Easter, or \"Sretan Uskrs.\" Other common decorations are doves, crosses, flowers, traditional designs, and other slogans wishing health and happiness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Crosses are fairly common, although most of those found on traditional pysanky are not Ukrainian (Byzantine) crosses. The crosses most commonly depicted are of the simple \"Greek\" cross type, with arms of equal lengths. This type of cross predates Christianity, and is a sun symbol (an abstracted representation of the solar bird); it is sometimes combined with the star (ruzha) motif. The \"cross crosslet\" type of cross, one in which the ends of each arm are crossed, is frequently seen, particularly on Hutsul and Bukovynian pysanky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavic creation myth",
        "text": "There were also riddles in Poland that pointed to the egg: \"There is a world. And in this world there is a yellow flower\" or \"There is a white world. And in this world a yellow flower\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "In Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Russia, Ukraine, and other Central European countries' folk traditions, Easter eggs are carved from wood and hand-painted, and making artificial eggs out of porcelain for ladies is common."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red Cross with Imperial Portraits (Faberg\u00e9 egg)",
        "text": "The Imperial Red Cross Easter Egg is made of silver, with the shell surrounded by a series of horizontal bands edged in gold. The bands each have a different guilloche pattern and are covered in white enamel. Two red crosses, made of enamel, are on either side of the egg. One includes the date \"1914\" and the other \"1915.\" Inscribed on the outside of the egg are the words, \"Greater Love hath no man than this, to lay down his life for his friends\". Dowager Empress Maria Fedorovna's monogram is displayed on the top of the shell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The oldest mention of Easter eggs in Polish literature comes from the 13th-century Chronica Polonorum, i.e. the history of Poland by Wincenty Kad\u0142ubek. The text tells about an interesting game with Easter eggs - as well as about the supposedly capricious nature of Poles themselves: \"Since ancient times, Poles have always been envious and played with their masters as if they were painted eggs\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "In a large family, by Holy Thursday, 60 or more eggs would have been completed by the women of the house. (The more daughters a family had, the more pysanky would be produced.) The eggs would then be taken to the church on Easter Sunday to be blessed, after which they were given away. Here is a partial list of how the pysanky would be used:\n# One or two would be given to the priest.\n# Three or four were taken to the cemetery and placed on graves of the family.\n# Ten or twenty were given to children or godchildren.\n# Ten or twelve were exchanged by the unmarried girls with the eligible men in the community.\n# Several were saved to place in the coffin of loved ones who might die during the year.\n# Several were saved to keep in the home for protection from fire, lightning and storms.\n# Two or three were placed in the mangers of cows and horses to ensure safe calving and colting and a good milk supply for the young.\n# At least one egg was placed beneath the bee hive to ensure good production of honey.\n# One was saved for each grazing animal to be taken out to the fields with the shepherds in the spring.\n# Several pysanky were placed in the nests of hens to encourage the laying of eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Symbols of Ukrainian people",
        "text": "\"Vyshyvanka\" was made from handmade flax or hemp cloth. There existed many types of traditional shirts depending on the shape, materials, semantics of colors. They were named after Ukrainian ethnographical regions where they were produced, such as Podillia, Halychyna, Polissia, Volyn, Dnipro, Poltava, Hutsulshchyna, Bukovyna, Lemkivshchyna and others. The symbolism of embroidery often coincides with the symbols of objects ornaments of material Trypillia culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Eggs in Christianity carry a Trinitarian symbolism as shell, yolk, and albumen are three parts of one egg. According to many sources, the Christian custom of Easter eggs was adopted from Persian tradition into the early Christians of Mesopotamia, who stained them with red colouring \"in memory of the blood of Christ, shed at His crucifixion\". The Christian Church officially adopted the custom, regarding the eggs as a symbol of the resurrection of Jesus, with the Roman Ritual, the first edition of which was published in 1610 but which has texts of much older date, containing among the Easter Blessings of Food, one for eggs, along with those for lamb, bread, and new produce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pterolonche inspersa",
        "text": "The eggs are oval and black."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siwki (Easter tradition)",
        "text": "Each year there are about half a dozen Greys in Chobienice. The character is dressed up in white clothes, often made from bed linen or a first communion alb. The Greys' heads and necks are covered with white balaclava-like"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kar\u015f\u0131yaka BESEM Spor",
        "text": "The colors of Kar\u015f\u0131yaka BESEM Spor are red, green and black."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u0160K Petrochema Dubov\u00e1",
        "text": "Its colors were yellow and blue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegreville",
        "text": "A large percentage of Vegreville's population is of Ukrainian Canadian descent, and it is home to the Vegreville egg, the world's second largest pysanka (Ukrainian Easter egg)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiev Tumbler",
        "text": "They are found in colors of Red, Yellow, Black, Blue Bar and other colors but the pigeon must always have"
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Although one of the Christian traditions are to use dyed or painted chicken eggs, a modern custom is to substitute chocolate eggs, or plastic eggs filled with candy such as jelly beans; as many people give up sweets as their Lenten sacrifice, individuals enjoy them at Easter after having abstained from them during the preceding forty days of Lent. These eggs can be hidden for children to find on Easter morning, which may be left by the Easter Bunny. They may also be put in a basket filled with real or artificial straw to resemble a bird's nest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Symbols of Ukrainian people",
        "text": "National symbols are the sacred attributes for Ukrainian people. In Ukrainian graphics there exist a number of symbols and images from national songs, legends. Such symbols and imagery are used in national customs and rituals. They are reproduced in embroidery on national costumes, ritual cloth\u2014\"rushnyks\", painted on crockery, in forged products, in carving, in bas-relief house decoration, in hearth painting, pottery, engraving and also in Ukrainian traditional Easter eggs\u2014\"pysankas\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The spiral is said to be protective against the \"\u043d\u0435\u0447\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430 \u0441\u0438\u043b\u0430\"; an evil spirit which happens to enter a house will be drawn into the spiral and trapped there. Dots, which can represent seeds, stars or cuckoo birds\u2019 eggs (a symbol of spring), are popularly said to be the tears of the blessed Virgin. Hearts are also sometimes seen, and, as in other cultures, they represent love."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "In some Mediterranean countries, especially in Lebanon, chicken eggs are boiled and decorated by dye and/or painting and used as decoration around the house. Then, on Easter Day, young kids would duel with them saying 'Christ is resurrected, Indeed, He is', breaking and eating them. This also happens in Georgia, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Greece, Macedonia, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Ukraine. In Easter Sunday friends and family hit each other's egg with their own. The one whose egg does not break is believed to be in for good luck in the future."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukrainian embroidery",
        "text": "In the northwest and north of Ukraine (including the Ukrainian ethno-historic territory of Poland) needlework traditions have been preserved relatively intact from the oldest of times. Red, as well as red-blue and red-black were the predominant color schemes in the archaic geometric embroideries of these northern regions of Ukraine, executed primarily in dense rows of a horizontal needle-weaving stitch (called \u201czavolikannia\u201d) that created horizontal bands of patterns reminiscent of weaving. Floral motifs are also popular in the North, using red, red-blue or red-black palette as the needle-woven bands, but in the much more recent technique of cross-stitch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flag of Ukraine",
        "text": "Yellow\u2013blue, red-black, crimson-olive and especially raspberry colour banners were widely used by Cossacks between the 16th and 18th centuries. These were not the only possible combinations, since normally Cossacks would fly their hetman's banners, which were similar to the coats of arms of the nobility. Also, yellow and blue were the colours common on coats of arms in Galicia. In fact, the coat of arms of Lviv to this day remains a golden lion on a blue field."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luba Perchyshyn",
        "text": "Perchyshyn co-authored several books, including \"Ukrainian Easter Eggs and How We Make Them\" (1979), and \"The Ukrainian Design Book\" (1999). Perchyshyn's eggs were admired and sold internationally, and were included in White House holiday decorations and events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Symbols of Ukrainian people",
        "text": "Pysanka is a symbol of the sun; life, his immortality; love and beauty; spring renewal; the good, happiness, joy. Every ornamental motif has a certain sacral meaning. They all together shape the painted prayer about consent and peace between people. In the Christian culture of Ukrainians, pysanka has become a symbol of resurrection. There is a Ukrainian saying: \"As long as people paint pysanky, there will be love in the world\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiev Tumbler",
        "text": "Colors: The feathers of the head, breast, neck and feet are white; Including a frontal spot on the forehead, which should be of the same color as the rest of the body. Its eye is bull, with flesh-colored eye cere."
      },
      {
        "title": "Symbols of Ukrainian people",
        "text": "Iconography of Podniprovia region (Cherkasy region, in particular Chyhyrynshchyna), partly in Kyiv Polissia is poorly ornamented. The entire decoration is limited to two large flowers placed at the top of the icon or scattered throughout the background with small flowers in the form of stylized crosses of yellow and white."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter food",
        "text": "In Russia, red eggs, kulich and paskha are Easter traditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Symbols of Ukrainian people",
        "text": "The distinctive feature of holy images of Sivershchyna region have on their background different sized beads. Such an artistic technique gives the impression that the icon was dressed in a robe that resembles a delicate lace. The frame of such an icon is the flowers, painted in modernist style using a wavy line."
      },
      {
        "title": "Symbols of Ukrainian people",
        "text": "Symbols of Cherkashchyna region are characterized by conventional floral ornaments such as bouquets, peonies, grape vine stems (grapes are isomorphic and stylized images, which emphasizes the compact grouping of rounded, dotted or even linear elements, resembling abundant grape clusters; grapevine is a symbol of the Eucharist, a symbol of Christ, His blood shed for the redemption of mankind from sins"
      },
      {
        "title": "Paska (bread)",
        "text": "Easter is called in the Ukrainian language () whilst in Russian it is spelt (). The Ukrainian word () is traditionally used to describe the Easter bread in Ukraine whilst \u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0301\u043a\u0434\u0435\u043d\u044c () is used to denote the day. Whilst Russia has its own Easter bread called () and the word () is used to denote the day. The word is connected to Ancient Greek word () and Georgian: (, \"Easter\"), derived from the Orthodox believers in Byzantine Empire. The name is connected to the Jewish holiday of \"Pesach\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Vigil",
        "text": "Before the Gospel reading, in place of the \"Alleluia\" sung at every other Liturgy of the year, is a prokeimenon during which, in the Russian tradition, all vestments and decorations of the church are quickly and dramatically changed from black to white. Another feature unique to this Liturgy is that the usual Cherubic Hymn is replaced by that from the Liturgy of St. James, \"Let all mortal flesh keep silence\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Symbols of Ukrainian people",
        "text": "Didukh (rye, wheat or oatmeal sheaf)\u2014Ukrainian Christmas adornment."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When where Easter eggs first decorated?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find the exact first egg decorations, but I did find that the custom can, according to many sources, can be traced to early Christians of Mesopotamia."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is custom can, and what does it have to do with the Christians of Mesopotamia?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There was a misunderstanding, but the usage of red Easter eggs dates back to the early Christian church in Mesopotamia. The dark red eggs represent Christ's blood shed on the cross."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any colors other than red that are used for Ukrainian Easter eggs?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "There's the Krashanky, boiled eggs dyed a single color, but I couldn't find what range of colors are used. There's also Maliovanky, designed with a brush using oil or water color paints.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I did not find any colors, but I did find that Pysanky are Ukrainian Easter eggs, decorated using a wax-resist (batik) method, the word comes from the verb pysaty, \"to write\", as the designs are not painted on, but written with beeswax."
    ],
    "topic": "Pysanka",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Pysanka:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pysanka",
          "Types of decorated eggs"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"Pysanka\" is often taken to mean any type of decorated egg, but it specifically refers to an egg created by the written-wax batik method and utilizing traditional folk motifs and designs. Several other types of decorated eggs are seen in Polish, Ukrainian tradition, and these vary throughout the regions of Poland and Ukraine.\n* \"Kraszanki, Krashanky\" \u2013from \"krasyty\" (\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0438), \"to decorate\"\u2013 are boiled eggs dyed a single color (with vegetable dyes, traditionally onion skin), and are blessed and eaten at Easter.\n* \"Pisanki, Pysanky\" \u2013from \"pysaty\" (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to write\"\u2013 are raw eggs created with the wax-resist method (Resist dyeing). The designs are \"written\" in hot wax with a pinhead or a special stylus called a \"pysachok\" (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0447\u043e\u043a) or a \"kistka\" (\u043a\u0456\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430) which has a small funnel attached to hold a small amount of liquid wax. The word that is used to describe the egg actually comes from the Polish, Ukrainian verb \"pisa\u0107, pysaty\", which means \"to write\". Wooden eggs and beaded eggs are often referred to as \"pysanky\" because they mimic the decorative style of pysanky in a different medium.\n* \"Krapanky\" \u2013from \"krapka\" (\u043a\u0440\u0430\u043f\u043a\u0430), \"a dot\"\u2013 are raw eggs decorated using the wax-resist method, but with only dots as ornamentation (no symbols or other drawings). They are traditionally created by dripping molten wax from a beeswax candle onto an egg. They can be considered the simplest version of a pysanka, or a \"proto-pysanka.\"\n* \"Drapanki, Dryapanky\" \u2013from \"dryapaty\" (\u0434\u0440\u044f\u043f\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to scratch\"\u2013 are created by scratching the surface of a dyed egg to reveal the white shell below.\n* \"Malowanki, Malyovanky\" \u2013from \"malyuvaty\" (\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to paint\"\u2013 are created by painting a design with a brush using oil or water color paints. It is sometimes used to refer to coloring (e.g. with a marker) on an egg.\n* \"Naklejanki, Nakleyanky\" \u2013from \"kleyaty\" (\u043a\u043b\u0435\u0457\u0442\u0438), \"to glue on\"\u2013 are created by glueing objects to the surface of an egg.\n* \"Travlenky\" \u2013from \"travlenya\" (\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f), \u201cetching\u201d \u2013 are created by waxing eggs and then etching away the unwaxed areas.\n* \"Biserky\" \u2013from \"biser\" (\u0431\u0456\u0441\u0435\u0440), \"beads\"\u2013 are created by coating an egg with beeswax, and then embedding beads into the wax to create geometric designs.\n* \"Lystovky\" \u2013from \"lystya\" (\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044f), \"leaves\"\u2013 are created by dyeing an egg to which small leaves have been attached."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pysanka:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pysanka",
          "Types of decorated eggs"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"Pysanka\" is often taken to mean any type of decorated egg, but it specifically refers to an egg created by the written-wax batik method and utilizing traditional folk motifs and designs. Several other types of decorated eggs are seen in Polish, Ukrainian tradition, and these vary throughout the regions of Poland and Ukraine.\n* \"Kraszanki, Krashanky\" \u2013from \"krasyty\" (\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0438), \"to decorate\"\u2013 are boiled eggs dyed a single color (with vegetable dyes, traditionally onion skin), and are blessed and eaten at Easter.\n* \"Pisanki, Pysanky\" \u2013from \"pysaty\" (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to write\"\u2013 are raw eggs created with the wax-resist method (Resist dyeing). The designs are \"written\" in hot wax with a pinhead or a special stylus called a \"pysachok\" (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0447\u043e\u043a) or a \"kistka\" (\u043a\u0456\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430) which has a small funnel attached to hold a small amount of liquid wax. The word that is used to describe the egg actually comes from the Polish, Ukrainian verb \"pisa\u0107, pysaty\", which means \"to write\". Wooden eggs and beaded eggs are often referred to as \"pysanky\" because they mimic the decorative style of pysanky in a different medium.\n* \"Krapanky\" \u2013from \"krapka\" (\u043a\u0440\u0430\u043f\u043a\u0430), \"a dot\"\u2013 are raw eggs decorated using the wax-resist method, but with only dots as ornamentation (no symbols or other drawings). They are traditionally created by dripping molten wax from a beeswax candle onto an egg. They can be considered the simplest version of a pysanka, or a \"proto-pysanka.\"\n* \"Drapanki, Dryapanky\" \u2013from \"dryapaty\" (\u0434\u0440\u044f\u043f\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to scratch\"\u2013 are created by scratching the surface of a dyed egg to reveal the white shell below.\n* \"Malowanki, Malyovanky\" \u2013from \"malyuvaty\" (\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to paint\"\u2013 are created by painting a design with a brush using oil or water color paints. It is sometimes used to refer to coloring (e.g. with a marker) on an egg.\n* \"Naklejanki, Nakleyanky\" \u2013from \"kleyaty\" (\u043a\u043b\u0435\u0457\u0442\u0438), \"to glue on\"\u2013 are created by glueing objects to the surface of an egg.\n* \"Travlenky\" \u2013from \"travlenya\" (\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f), \u201cetching\u201d \u2013 are created by waxing eggs and then etching away the unwaxed areas.\n* \"Biserky\" \u2013from \"biser\" (\u0431\u0456\u0441\u0435\u0440), \"beads\"\u2013 are created by coating an egg with beeswax, and then embedding beads into the wax to create geometric designs.\n* \"Lystovky\" \u2013from \"lystya\" (\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044f), \"leaves\"\u2013 are created by dyeing an egg to which small leaves have been attached."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Easter egg:29",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Easter egg",
          "Traditions and customs",
          "Patterning"
        ],
        "ctx": "Pysanky are Ukrainian Easter eggs, decorated using a wax-resist (batik) method. The word comes from the verb \"pysaty\", \"to write\", as the designs are not painted on, but written with beeswax."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Boiled eggs were not used, as pysanky were generally written on raw or, less commonly, baked eggs (pecharky). Boiled eggs were dyed red for Easter, using an onion skin dye, and called \"krashanky\". The number of colors on an egg was usually limited, as natural dyes had very long dyeing times, sometimes hours. Pysanky would be written\u2014and dyed\u2014in batches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka Museum",
        "text": "There are many examples of both pysanky and other forms of decorated eggs from other Slavic countries (Belarus, the Czech Republic, Poland) and more distant lands (Romania, Sweden, United States, Canada, France, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, India)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Similarly, no actual pysanky from the Kyivan Rus' period exist, but stone, clay and bone versions exist and have been excavated in many sites throughout Ukraine. Most common are ceramic eggs decorated with a horsetail plant (\u0441\u043e\u0441\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430 \"sosonka\") pattern in yellow and bright green against a dark background. More than 70 such eggs have been excavated throughout Ukraine, many of them from graves of children and adults. They are thought to be representations of real decorated eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Pysanky are Ukrainian Easter eggs, decorated using a wax-resist (batik) method. The word comes from the verb \"pysaty\", \"to write\", as the designs are not painted on, but written with beeswax."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "A pisanka, pysanka (, plural: \"pisanki, pysanky\") is a Polish-Ukrainian Easter egg, decorated with traditional folk designs using a wax-resist method. The word \"pisanka\" comes from the verb \"pisa\u0107, pysaty,\" \"to write\" or \"to inscribe,\" as the designs are written (inscribed) with beeswax, not painted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "There were superstitions regarding the colors and designs on the pysanky. One old Ukrainian myth centered on the wisdom of giving older people gifts of pysanky with darker colors and/or rich designs, for their life has already been filled. Similarly, it is appropriate to give young people pysanky with white as the predominant color because their life is still a blank page. Girls would often give pysanky to young men they fancied, and include heart motifs. It was said, though, that a girl should never give her boyfriend a pysanky that has no design on the top and bottom of the egg, as this might signify that the boyfriend would soon lose his hair."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "\"Pysanka\" is often taken to mean any type of decorated egg, but it specifically refers to an egg created by the written-wax batik method and utilizing traditional folk motifs and designs. Several other types of decorated eggs are seen in Polish, Ukrainian tradition, and these vary throughout the regions of Poland and Ukraine.\n* \"Kraszanki, Krashanky\" \u2013from \"krasyty\" (\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0438), \"to decorate\"\u2013 are boiled eggs dyed a single color (with vegetable dyes, traditionally onion skin), and are blessed and eaten at Easter.\n* \"Pisanki, Pysanky\" \u2013from \"pysaty\" (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to write\"\u2013 are raw eggs created with the wax-resist method (Resist dyeing). The designs are \"written\" in hot wax with a pinhead or a special stylus called a \"pysachok\" (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0447\u043e\u043a) or a \"kistka\" (\u043a\u0456\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430) which has a small funnel attached to hold a small amount of liquid wax. The word that is used to describe the egg actually comes from the Polish, Ukrainian verb \"pisa\u0107, pysaty\", which means \"to write\". Wooden eggs and beaded eggs are often referred to as \"pysanky\" because they mimic the decorative style of pysanky in a different medium.\n* \"Krapanky\" \u2013from \"krapka\" (\u043a\u0440\u0430\u043f\u043a\u0430), \"a dot\"\u2013 are raw eggs decorated using the wax-resist method, but with only dots as ornamentation (no symbols or other drawings). They are traditionally created by dripping molten wax from a beeswax candle onto an egg. They can be considered the simplest version of a pysanka, or a \"proto-pysanka.\"\n* \"Drapanki, Dryapanky\" \u2013from \"dryapaty\" (\u0434\u0440\u044f\u043f\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to scratch\"\u2013 are created by scratching the surface of a dyed egg to reveal the white shell below.\n* \"Malowanki, Malyovanky\" \u2013from \"malyuvaty\" (\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to paint\"\u2013 are created by painting a design with a brush using oil or water color paints. It is sometimes used to refer to coloring (e.g. with a marker) on an egg.\n* \"Naklejanki, Nakleyanky\" \u2013from \"kleyaty\" (\u043a\u043b\u0435\u0457\u0442\u0438), \"to glue on\"\u2013 are created by glueing objects to the surface of an egg.\n* \"Travlenky\" \u2013from \"travlenya\" (\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f), \u201cetching\u201d \u2013 are created by waxing eggs and then etching away the unwaxed areas.\n* \"Biserky\" \u2013from \"biser\" (\u0431\u0456\u0441\u0435\u0440), \"beads\"\u2013 are created by coating an egg with beeswax, and then embedding beads into the wax to create geometric designs.\n* \"Lystovky\" \u2013from \"lystya\" (\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044f), \"leaves\"\u2013 are created by dyeing an egg to which small leaves have been attached."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukraine",
        "text": "The tradition of the Easter egg, known as pysanky, has long roots in Ukraine. These eggs were drawn on with wax to create a pattern; then, the dye was applied to give the eggs their pleasant colours, the dye did not affect the previously wax-coated parts of the egg. After the entire egg was dyed, the wax was removed leaving only the colourful pattern. This tradition is thousands of years old, and precedes the arrival of Christianity to Ukraine. In the city of Kolomyia near the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains, the museum of Pysanka was built in 2000 and won a nomination as the monument of modern Ukraine in 2007, part of the Seven Wonders of Ukraine action."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "No actual pysanky have been found from Ukraine's prehistoric periods, as eggshells do not preserve well. Cultic ceramic eggs have been discovered in excavations near the village of Luka Vrublivets'ka, during excavations of a Trypillian site (5th to 3rd millennium BC). These eggs were ornamented and in the form of \u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0446\u0456 (torokhkal'tsi; rattles containing a small stone with which to scare evil spirits away)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Everyone from the youngest to the oldest received a pysanka for Easter. Young people were given pysanky with bright designs; dark pysanky were given to older people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "It is not only motifs on pysanky which carried symbolic weight: colors also had significance. Although the earliest pysanky were often simply two-toned, and many folk designs still are, some believed that the more colors there were on a decorated egg, the more magical power it held. A multi-colored egg could thus bring its owner better luck and a better fate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Each region, each village, and almost every family had its own special ritual, its own symbols, meanings and secret formulas for dyeing eggs. These customs were preserved faithfully and passed down from mother to daughter through generations. The custom of decorating pysanky was observed with greatest care, and a pysanka, after receiving the Easter blessing, was held to have great powers as a talisman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "A great variety of ornamental motifs are found on pysanky. Because of the egg's fragility, few ancient examples of pysanky have survived. However, similar design motifs occur in pottery, woodwork, metalwork, Ukrainian embroidery and other folk arts, many of which have survived."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "As with symbols, these talismanic meanings of colors applied to traditional pysanky with traditional designs, and not to modern decorative pysanky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "These ceramic eggs were common in Kyivan Rus' and had a characteristic style. They were slightly smaller than life size (2.5 by 4\u00a0cm, or 1 by 1.6\u00a0inches) and were created from reddish pink clays by the spiral method. The majolica glazed eggs had a brown, green or yellow background and showed interwoven yellow and green stripes. The eggs were made in large cities like Kyiv and Chernihiv, which had workshops that produced clay tile and bricks; these tiles (and pysanky) were not only used locally but were exported to Poland and to several Scandinavian and Baltic countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "In recent years, new forms of egg decoration have been brought from abroad and become popularized in Ukraine. These include:\n* \"Rizblenky\" \u2013from \"rizbyty\" (\u0440\u0456\u0437\u044c\u0431\u0438\u0442\u0438), \"to cut, to carve\"\u2013 are created by drilling the surface of an egg to create cut out areas.\n* \"Linyvky\" \u2013from \"linyvyi\" (\u043b\u0456\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0439), \"lazy\"\u2013 a joking term to describe eggs decorated using stickers or shrink-wrap sleeves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanky were made using a wax resist (batik) method. Beeswax was heated in a small bowl on the large family stove (\u043f\u0456\u0447), and the styluses were dipped into it. The molten wax was applied to the white egg with a writing motion; any bit of shell covered with wax would be sealed, and remain white. Then the egg was dyed yellow, and more wax applied, and then orange, red, purple, black. (The dye sequence was always light to dark). Bits of shell covered with wax remained that color. After the final color, usually red, brown or black, the wax was removed by heating the egg in the stove and gently wiping off the melted wax, or by briefly dipping the egg into boiling water."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u0160K Petrochema Dubov\u00e1",
        "text": "Its colors were yellow and blue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The color palette of traditional pysanky was fairly limited, and based on natural dyes. Yellow, red/orange, green, brown and black were the predominant colors. With the advent of aniline dyes in the 1800s, small amounts of blue and purple were sometimes added. It is important to note that the meanings below are generalizations; different regions interpreted colors differently.\n* Red - is probably the oldest symbolic color, and has many meanings. It represents life-giving blood, and often appears on pysanky with nocturnal and heavenly symbols. It represents love and joy, and the hope of marriage. It is also associated with the sun.\n* Black - is a particularly sacred color, and is most commonly associated with the \"other world,\" but not in a negative sense.\n* Yellow - symbolized the moon and stars and also, agriculturally, the harvest.\n* Blue - Represented blue skies or the air, and good health.\n* White - Signified purity, birth, light, rejoicing, virginity.\n* Green - the color of new life in the spring. Green represents the resurrection of nature, and the riches of vegetation.\n* Brown - represents the earth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The pysanky were made at night, when the children were asleep. The women in the family gathered together, said the appropriate prayers, and went to work. It was done in secret\u2014the patterns and color combinations were handed down from mother to daughter and carefully guarded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The oldest \"real\" pysanka was excavated in L'viv in 2013 and was found in a rainwater collection system that dates to the 15th or 16th century. The pysanka was written on a goose egg, which was discovered largely intact, and the design is that of a wave pattern. The second oldest known pysanka was excavated in Baturyn in 2008 and dates to the end of the 17th century. Baturyn was Hetman Mazepa's capital, and it was razed in 1708 by the armies of Peter I. A complete (but crushed) pysanka was discovered, a chicken egg shell with geometric designs against a blue-gray background."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukrainian Canadians",
        "text": "Ukrainians in general are noted for their elaborately decorated Easter Eggs or \"pysanky\", and that is also true in Canada. The world's second largest pysanka is in Vegreville, Alberta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Alternatively, in ethnic Lemko and Boiko areas, as well as Nadsiannia, the drop pull method was also utilized. A pinhead was dipped into molten wax and then applied to the shell of the egg. Simple drops were made, or there was an additional pulling motion, which would create teardrop or comma shapes. These drops were used to create patterns and designs. Dyeing and wax removal proceeded as with traditional pysanky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The Hutsuls\u2014a group of Rusyns who live in the Carpathian Mountains around western Ukraine\u2014believe that the fate of the world depends upon the pysanka. As long as the egg writing custom continues, the world will exist. If, for any reason, this custom is abandoned, evil\u2014in the shape of a horrible serpent who is forever chained to a cliff\u2014will overrun the world. Each year the serpent sends out his minions to see how many pysanky have been written. If the number is low the serpent's chains are loosened and he is free to wander the earth causing havoc and destruction. If, on the other hand, the number of pysanky has increased, the chains are tightened and good triumphs over evil for yet another year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanky were traditionally made during the last week of Lent, Holy Week in the Orthodox and Greek (Uniate) Catholic calendars. (Both faiths are represented in Ukraine, and both still celebrate Easter by the Julian calendar.) They were made by the women of the family. During the middle of the Lenten season, women began putting aside eggs, those that were most perfectly shaped and smooth, and ideally, the first laid eggs of young hens. There had to be a rooster, as only fertilized eggs could be used. (If non-fertile eggs were used, there would be no fertility in the home.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Many other Central and Eastern European ethnic groups decorate eggs using wax resist for Easter. These include the Belarusians (\u043f\u0456\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0430, \"pisanka\"), Bulgarians (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043e \u044f\u0439\u0446\u0435, \"pisano yaytse\"), Carpatho-Rusyns (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043a\u044b, \"pysank\u0177\"), Croats (\"pisanica\"), Czechs (\"kraslice\"), Hungarians (\"h\u00edmestoj\u00e1s\"), Lithuanians (\"margutis\"), Romanians (\"ou\u0103 vopsite\", \"\u00eencondeiate\" or \"\u00eempistrite\"), Serbs (\"pisanica\"), Slovaks (\"kraslica\"), Slovenes (\"pirhi\", \"pisanice,\" or \"remenke\") and Sorbs (\"jejka pisa\u0107\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The symbols which decorated pysanky underwent a process of adaptation over time. In pre-Christian times these symbols imbued an egg with magical powers to ward off evil spirits, banish winter, guarantee a good harvest and bring a person good luck. After 988, when Christianity became the state religion of Ukraine, the interpretation of many of the symbols began to change, and the pagan motifs were reinterpreted in a Christian light."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka Museum",
        "text": "The central part of the museum is in the shape of a pysanka (Ukrainian Easter egg). This is the only museum in the world dedicated to the pysanka, and it has become a calling card of the city. In August 2007 the museum was recognized as a landmark of modern Ukraine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegreville egg",
        "text": "The Vegreville egg is a giant sculpture of a pysanka, a Ukrainian-style Easter egg. The work by Paul Maxym Sembaliuk is built of an intricate set of two-dimensional anodized aluminum tiles in the shape of congruent equilateral triangles and star-shaped hexagons, fashioned over an aluminum framework. The egg is long and three and a half storeys high, weighing in at . It is the second largest pysanka in the world (the biggest one was built into part of the Kolomyia Pysanka Museum in Ukraine, in 2000)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka Museum",
        "text": "The museum was opened on 23 September 2000, during the 10th International Hutsul festival. Director Yaroslava Tkachuk first came up with the idea of a museum in the shape of a pysanka, local artists Vasyl Andrushko and Myroslav Yasinskyi brought the idea to life. The museum is not only shaped like an egg (14 m in height and 10 m in diameter), but parts of the exterior of and inside of the dome are painted to resemble a pysanka."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka Museum",
        "text": "The museum also presents temporary exhibitions in its galleries, usually collections of folk or original pysanky by local pysankary. Other exhibits are usually related to the pysanka and Hutsul Easter traditions, but can also encompass other folk arts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "A bowl full of pysanky was invariably kept in every home. It served not only as a colorful display, but also as protection from all dangers. Some of the eggs were emptied, and a bird's head made of wax or dough and wings and tail-feathers of folded paper were attached. These \u201cdoves\u201d were suspended before icons in commemoration of the birth of Christ, when a dove came down from heaven and soared over the child Jesus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "In the 20th and 21st centuries, the commercially produced folk pysanky of the Carpathians, especially Kosmach, have begun displaying more Christian symbols. The lower arm of the cross in older designs is often lengthened to appear more Christian, even if it throws off the symmetry of the design. Crucifixes are sometimes seen. Pysanky are being written with depictions of Easter baskets on them, including a paska and candle. White doves, symbols of the Holy Spirit, are also more frequently seen; doves are usually depicted in flight, while other wild birds are traditionally shown perched."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "As in many ancient cultures, Poles and Ukrainians worshipped a sun god, Dazhboh. The sun was important \u2013 it warmed the earth and thus was a source of all life. Eggs decorated with nature symbols became an integral part of spring rituals, serving as benevolent talismans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nikolay Malynka",
        "text": "By the end of 1939, Soviet mainstream newspaper \u201cPravda\u201d (\u201cThe Truth\u201d) recognized Nikolay Malinka as one of the best students who had good understanding of the color palette and composition. [1]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka Museum",
        "text": "The current Pysanka Museum building was built in 2000 in the western Ukrainian city of Kolomyia, Ivano-Frankivska Oblast. Previously the pysanka collection had been housed in the Kolomyia church of the Annunciation. The museum is part of the National Museum of Hutsulshchyna and Pokuttya Folk Art."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "All but the krashanky and lystovky are usually meant to be decorative (as opposed to edible), and the egg yolk and white are either allowed to dry up over time or (in modern times) removed by blowing them out through a small hole in the egg.\n* A\u017curki - is one of the more complicated techniques for decorating eggs. They are made of egg shells, i.e. eggs from which their contents have been blown out. Decorating the shell itself is very labour intensive and requires great care because it is very easy to damage the delicate shell of the egg. The patterns are cut into the shell with a high speed drill.The finished Easter egg looks like a three dimensional lace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nikolay Malynka",
        "text": "Malinka left behind more than 300 paintings, sketches, drawings of realist and impressionist style, mostly oils and partially watercolors. Majority are displayed in museums and galleries of his homeland \u2013 Yahotyn and villages of the Yahotyn county; some are spread worldwide, including Ukraine and its capital Kyiv, as often happens with an art of a great significance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The only true traditional Christian symbol, and not one adapted from an earlier pagan one, is the church. Stylized churches are often found on pysanky from Hutsul regions (including parts of Bukovyna). Church parts are usually in threes: three stories/roofs, three towers, three openings (windows, doors). Sometimes only the bell tower (dzvinytsia) is depicted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The most popular pysanka designs are geometric figures. The egg itself is most often divided by straight lines into squares, triangles and other shapes. These shapes are then filled with other forms and designs. These are also among the most ancient symbols, with the \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0435\u0442\u043e (resheto, sieve) motif dating back to Paleolithic times. Other ancient geometric symbols are agricultural in nature: triangles, which symbolized clouds or rain; quadrilaterals, especially those with a resheto design in them, symbolized a ploughed field; dots stood for seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanka\n--Types of decorated eggs.\n--History.\n--Archaeology.\n--Legends.\n--Superstitions and folk beliefs.\n--Writing pysanky.\n--Sharing pysanky.\n--Symbolism in pysanky.\n----Geometric.\n------Eternity bands.\n----Berehynia.\n----Christian symbols.\n----Phytomorphic (plant) motifs.\n------Flowers.\n------Vazon/Tree of Life.\n------Fruit.\n----Scevomorphic motifs.\n----Zoomorphic (animal) motifs.\n------Birds.\n------Insects.\n------Fish.\n------Serpent.\n----Cosmomorphic motifs.\n--Color symbolism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "With the advent of Christianity, via a process of religious syncretism, the symbolism of the egg was changed to represent, not nature's rebirth, but the rebirth of man. Christians embraced the egg symbol and likened it to the tomb from which Christ rose. With the acceptance of Christianity in 988, the decorated pysanka, in time, was adapted to play an important role in Ukrainian rituals of the new religion. Many symbols of the old sun worship survived and were adapted to represent Easter and Christ's Resurrection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanky are typically made to be given to family members and respected outsiders. To give a pysanka is to give a symbolic gift of life, which is why the egg must remain whole. Furthermore, the design, a combination of the motifs and colors on a traditional folk pysanka, has a deep, symbolic meaning. Traditionally, a pysanka given with its symbolic meaning in mind, be it wishes of protection, fecundity, or love. Typically, pysanky were displayed prominently in a public room of the house."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka Museum",
        "text": "Another special collection at the museum are pysanky decorated with hand-signatures by all Ukrainian presidents and most of First Ladies, and by foreign politicians who visited the museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The names and meaning of various symbols and design elements vary from region to region, and even from village to village. Similar symbols can have totally different interpretations in different places. There are several thousand different motifs in Ukrainian folk designs. They can be grouped into several families. Keep in mind that these talismanic meanings applied to traditional folk pysanky with traditional designs, not to modern original creations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Among the oldest and most important symbols of pysanky is the sun, and the simplest rendering of the sun is a closed circle with or without rays. Pysanky from all regions of Ukraine depict an eight-sided star, the most common depiction of the sun; this symbol is also called a \"ruzha.\" Six- or seven-sided stars can also be seen, but much less commonly."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u0160K Tom\u00e1\u0161ov",
        "text": "Its colors are green and white."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The dyes were prepared from dried plants, roots, bark, berries and insects (cochineal). Yellow was obtained from the flowers of the woadwaxen, and gold from onion skins. Red could be extracted from logwood or cochineal, and dark green and violet from the husks of sunflower seeds and the berries and bark of the elderberry bush. Black dye was made from walnut husks. The dyes were prepared in secret, using recipes handed down from mother to daughter. Sometimes chemical dyes (of unusual or difficult colors) were purchased from peddlers along with alum, a mordant that helped the natural dyes adhere better to eggshells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "In modern times, the art of the pysanka was carried abroad by Ukrainian emigrants to North and South America, where the custom took hold, and concurrently banished in Ukraine by the Soviet regime (as a religious practice), where it was nearly forgotten. Museum collections were destroyed both by war and by Soviet cadres. Since Ukrainian Independence in 1991, there has been a rebirth of this folk art in its homeland and a renewal of interest in the preservation of traditional designs and research into its symbolism and history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka Museum",
        "text": "At this time, the museum possesses a collection of over 10,000 pysanky. The permanent collection includes pysanky from the majority of the oblasts of Ukraine. Many are modern re-creations of traditional designs, including a recreation by Oksana Bilous and Zoya Stashuk of the Skarzhynska collection (as depicted by Kulzhynsky), but there is also a fine collection of older pysanky from the Ivano-Frankivsk region that date from the 19th and 20th centuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "According to many scholars, the art of wax-resist (batik) egg decoration in Slavic cultures probably dates back to the pre-Christian era. They base this on the widespread nature of the practice, and pre-Christian nature of the symbols used. No ancient examples of intact pysanky exist, as the eggshells of domesticated fowl are fragile, but fragments of colored shells with wax-resist decoration on them were unearthed during the archaeological excavations in Ostr\u00f3wek, Poland (near the city of Opole), where remnants of a Slavic settlement from the early Piast Era were found."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pisanka (Polish)",
        "text": "Kraszanki (sometimes called malowanki or byczki) are made by boiling an egg in a decoction of plants or other natural products. The colour of kraszanka depends on the kind of product used:\n* \"brown\": onion peels;\n* \"black\": oak or alder bark or the nutshell of walnut;\n* \"golden\": the bark of young apple tree or the marigold flower;\n* \"violet\": petals of the mallow flower;\n* \"green\": shoots of young rye or leaves of periwinkle;\n* \"pink\": the juice of beet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luba Perchyshyn",
        "text": "In time, the pysanky classes, kits, tools, and other supplies became the shop's signature items. Perchyshyn demonstrated the process on television, on videos, and at cultural events. The Ukrainian Gift Shop was featured in a \"National Geographic\" article in 1972, and Perchyshyn's decorated eggs were featured in a 1976 short documentary about pysanky by Slavko Nowytski."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Some color combinations had specific meanings, too:\n* Black and white - mourning, respect for the souls of the dead.\n* Black and red - this combination was perceived as \"harsh and frightful,\" and very disturbing. It is common in Podillya, where both serpent motifs and goddess motifs were written with this combination.\n* Four or more colors - the family's happiness, prosperity, love, health and achievements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nikolay Malynka",
        "text": "A typical Malinka's subject is Ukraine. Thematically, works belong to several groups, such as: Ukrainian history; the village of the Soviet epoch (which include portraiture); picturesque Ukrainian landscapes; and still life. Sometimes it is a whole story behind the canvas (such as \u201cA Zaporozhian Hut at Supper\u201d, \u201cKobzars\u201d or \u201cThe Total Collectivization\u201d), and sometimes his set-ups are simple, incorporating at most a tree, or an old hut, or a tractor on the collective farm's field. As usual, his simple pictures (such as \u201cThe Parental Hut\u201d, \u201cThe Stacks under Snow\u201d, \u201cThe Windmills\u201d, and others) are painted in narrowed color palette; this is combined with a colorful imagination and a skillful brush, which obviously helps to create glowing masterpieces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Skeuomorphic designs are the second-largest group of designs, and are representations of man-made agricultural objects. These symbols are very common, as Ukraine was a highly agricultural society, and drew many of its positive images from field and farm. Some of these symbols are related to agriculture; others have older meanings, but were renamed in more recent times based on their appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Other adapted religious symbols include a triangle with a circle in the center, denoting the eye of God, and one known as the \"hand of god.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Vyshyvanka",
        "text": "In Ukrainian embroidery, black, red, and white colours are basic, and yellow, blue, and green are supplementary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Two very popular plant motifs on modern diasporan pysanky are poppies and wheat; these motifs are never seen on traditional pysanky, and are purely a modern invention."
      },
      {
        "title": "Malanka",
        "text": "Young men also go about on Malanka. This is called \"leading M\u0430lanka\". Young men in masks express good wishes, and amuse with funny songs, dances, and skits. One of them is usually dressed in women's clothing and is called Melanka."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kolomyia",
        "text": "The museum was opened on 23 September 2000, during the 10th International Hutsul festival. Director Yaroslava Tkachuk first came up with the idea of a museum in the shape of a pysanka, local artists Vasyl Andrushko and Myroslav Yasinskyi brought the idea to life. The museum is not only shaped like an egg (14 m in height and 10 m in diameter), but parts of the exterior and interior of the dome are painted to resemble a pysanka.\n* Church of the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary (1709)\n* Academic Regional Ukrainian Drama Theater named after Iwan Osarkewytsch\n;Regional orientation"
      },
      {
        "title": "Valeriy Brezdenyuk",
        "text": "Valeriy Brezdenyuk (; June 17, 1963 \u2013 February 18, 2014) was a Ukrainian painter from Zhmerynka, Vinnytska Oblast, practicing paper marbling. He was killed in action during Euromaidan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Birds were almost always shown in full profile, stylized, but with characteristic features of the species. Partial representations of some birds\u2013\u2013mostly domestic fowl\u2013\u2013are often seen on pysanky. Bird parts (eyes, feet, beaks, combs, feathers) are said carry the same meaning as the entire bird. Thus hen's feet represent fertility and the rooster's comb signifies masculinity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukrainian National Museum",
        "text": "Also on display are decorated Easter Eggs\u2014\"Pysanky\" a Ukrainian staple folk art. The oldest designs are called ideograms, but the painted eggs share a common theme: the sun (represented by a tripod); a rose and stars in various patterns. Ukrainian embroidery, a highly developed folk art, is included in the collection. In addition, on display are Ukrainian language books received in donation from immigrants and visitors coming from Europe. An exhibit \"Ukrainian Genocide -Holodomor of 1932-1933\" showcases photographs, documents and newspaper articles dedicated to providing the public with information about the forced famine in Ukraine. An exhibit dealing with Chicago's unique Ukrainian community complete the museum exhibits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Sometime women simply drew parts of animals; these symbols were probably a sort of shorthand, endowed with all the attributes of the animal represented. Ducks\u2019 necks, goose feet, rabbits\u2019 ears, rams\u2019 horns, wolves\u2019 teeth, bear claws, and bulls\u2019 eyes can all be found on pysanky. One cannot be sure, however, if these symbols were actually meant to represent animals, or were renamed centuries later because of their appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Malinovka, Aleysky District, Altai Krai",
        "text": "The village is inhabited by Russians and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "There used to be a custom in Ukraine, during Easter celebrations to have \"krashanky\" on a table in a bowl with wheatgrass. The number of the \"krashanky\" equalled the number of departed family members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pisanka (Polish)",
        "text": "Oklejanki or wyklejanki are decorated with bulrush pith or yarn. They are common in the Podlaskie region of Poland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sukharevskaya (Moscow Metro)",
        "text": "The yellowish marble pylons resemble stylized sheaves of wheat in keeping with the station's original name, Kolkhoznaya or \"Collective Farm.\" The walls are faced with white marble and decorated with plaques by R. Pogrebnoy (who was also the architect), Ye. Kolyupanova, and S. Kolyupanov. Lighting comes from rows of inset lamps running along the base of the ceiling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Although animal motifs are not as popular as plant motifs, they are nevertheless found on pysanky, especially those of the people of the Carpathian Mountains. Animal depicted on pysanky include both wild animals (deer, birds, fish) and domesticated ones (rams, horses, poultry). As with plants, animals were depicted in the abstract, highly stylized, and not with realistic detail."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Insects are only rarely depicted on pysanky. Highly stylized spiders (and occasionally their webs) are the most common on folk pysanky, and symbolize perseverance. Beetles are sometimes seen, but rarely look anything like a beetle. What they do resemble, somewhat, is the letter \u0416, as in their Ukrainian name \"\u0436\u0443\u0447\u043e\u043a.\" Other insects are sometimes seen on modern, diasporan pysanky, most commonly butterflies and bees, but seem to be a modern innovation. In Onyshchuk's \"Symbolism of the Ukrainian Pysanka\" she depicts pysanky with a butterfly motif, but the original design, recorded by Kulzhynsky in 1899, was labeled as being swallows' tails."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka Museum",
        "text": "Pysanka Museum\n--Museum collections.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Maidan Nezalezhnosti",
        "text": "Kropyvnytskyi, Kremenchuk and Odesa have \"Independent Squares\" named (using rather than for \"square\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pisanki from Opole's Ostr\u00f3wek, Poland may be as much as a thousand years old, dating from the late 10th to the 13th century, when a Piast stronghold existed at the site. They were excavated at a depth of 3.5 to 5 metres. There are seven of them in total - three slightly smaller from clay and four, the size of chicken eggs, from limestone. Some of them are covered with a green-yellow pattern of almost perfect stripes or patterns, made in the same way as pottery was decorated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jaroslava Korol",
        "text": "\"Zamkova shparynka\" (Keyhole), \"Chorna maska\" (The Black Mask), \"Rankovyy tuman\" (Morning Mist) (2007)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mal\u00ednky",
        "text": "Mal\u00ednky lies approximately south-east of Vy\u0161kov, east of Brno, and south-east of Prague."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "An adaptation of the geometric design is not a symbol per se but a division of the egg called \"forty triangles\" (actually 48) or \"Sorokoklyn (forty wedges).\" Its ancient meaning is not known, but is often said to represent the forty days of lent, the forty martyrs, the forty days that Christ spent in the desert, or the forty life tasks of married couples."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pov\u00eddky malostransk\u00e9",
        "text": "Pov\u00eddky malostransk\u00e9\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ples sa zvijezdama",
        "text": "Color key:"
      },
      {
        "title": "He\u0159manova Hu\u0165",
        "text": "The municipality is made up of villages of Doln\u00ed Seky\u0159any, Horn\u00ed Seky\u0159any, Vlk\u00fd\u0161 and Vlk\u00fd\u0161 I."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegreville",
        "text": "Vegreville's pysanka, the second largest Ukrainian Easter egg in the world, was created to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police in 1974 and to celebrate Vegreville's ethnic heritage. On July 6, 2009, the pysanka was one of four attractions featured on the first set of the Canadian Roadside Attractions Series of stamps issued by Canada Post."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Crosses are fairly common, although most of those found on traditional pysanky are not Ukrainian (Byzantine) crosses. The crosses most commonly depicted are of the simple \"Greek\" cross type, with arms of equal lengths. This type of cross predates Christianity, and is a sun symbol (an abstracted representation of the solar bird); it is sometimes combined with the star (ruzha) motif. The \"cross crosslet\" type of cross, one in which the ends of each arm are crossed, is frequently seen, particularly on Hutsul and Bukovynian pysanky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pisanka (Polish)",
        "text": "Naklejanki or nalepianki are decorated with petals of elderberry, scraps of colourful paper (including wycinanki) or with patches of cloth. Popular in \u0141owicz and the surrounding area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The oldest mention of Easter eggs in Polish literature comes from the 13th-century Chronica Polonorum, i.e. the history of Poland by Wincenty Kad\u0142ubek. The text tells about an interesting game with Easter eggs - as well as about the supposedly capricious nature of Poles themselves: \"Since ancient times, Poles have always been envious and played with their masters as if they were painted eggs\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Malinovka (Primorsky Krai)",
        "text": "Malinovka (Primorsky Krai)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Slovak name",
        "text": "Maliar \u2013 painter,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Malinovka, Aleysky District, Altai Krai",
        "text": "Malinovka is located 47 km west of Aleysk (the district's administrative centre) by road. Bobrovka is the nearest rural locality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Fruit is not a common motif on pysanky, but is sometimes represented. Apples, plums and cherries are depicted on traditional pysanky. Currants and viburnum (kalyna) berries are sometimes seen, too. These motifs are probably related to fecundity. Grapes are seen more often, as they have been transformed from an agricultural motif to a religious one, representing the Holy Communion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pyh\u00e4selk\u00e4",
        "text": "Pyh\u00e4selk\u00e4\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Serhiy Svetoslavsky",
        "text": "The early landscapes of Svetoslavsky, mostly cityscapes, are made in mostly grey and brown colors, as was typical for the Peredvizhniki. After his return to Ukraine, brighter colors started to proliferate. He was interested mostly in cityscapes of Kiev and in rural landscapes of the surroundings of the city. One of his favorite topics was the Dnieper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mali Kamen",
        "text": "There is a small square chapel with a belfry in the settlement. It is dedicated to the Virgin Mary and was built in the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mali Po\u017earevac",
        "text": "Mali Po\u017earevac\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiyevskaya (Arbatsko\u2013Pokrovskaya line)",
        "text": "Kiyevskaya (), named for the nearby Kiyevsky railway station, is a station on the Arbatsko\u2013Pokrovskaya line of the Moscow Metro. Opened in 1953, it is lavishly decorated in the quasi-baroque style that predominated in the early 1950s. The square pylons are faced with white Ural marble and elaborately patterned ceramic tile and the plastered ceiling is decorated with a series of frescoes by various artists depicting life in Ukraine. A large mosaic at the end of the platform commemorates the 300th anniversary of the reunification of Russia and Ukraine. Light comes from a row of hexagonal chandeliers. The architects were L. V. Lile, V. A. Litvinov, M. F. Markovsky, and V. M. Dobrokovsky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Symbols of Ukrainian people",
        "text": "Pysanka is a symbol of the sun; life, his immortality; love and beauty; spring renewal; the good, happiness, joy. Every ornamental motif has a certain sacral meaning. They all together shape the painted prayer about consent and peace between people. In the Christian culture of Ukrainians, pysanka has become a symbol of resurrection. There is a Ukrainian saying: \"As long as people paint pysanky, there will be love in the world\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bayartsogtyn M\u00f6nkhzayaa",
        "text": "Bayartsogtyn M\u00f6nkhzayaa\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vegreville",
        "text": "A large percentage of Vegreville's population is of Ukrainian Canadian descent, and it is home to the Vegreville egg, the world's second largest pysanka (Ukrainian Easter egg)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Universytet (Kyiv Metro)",
        "text": "The white marble friezes also decorate the pylons and lighting is achieved by hidden lamps in the niches of the central vault, and by lamps on the platforms. The walls are covered with orange tiles and the floor is made of various shades of granite arranged in a traditional Ukrainian ornament layout. In the end of the station is white marbled wall, before which a large statue of Vladimir Lenin used to sit. However this was dismantled in the early 1990s, making the station lose its original look."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mal\u00ednky",
        "text": "Mal\u00ednky is a village and municipality (\"obec\") in Vy\u0161kov District in the South Moravian Region of the Czech Republic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mal\u00ednky",
        "text": "The municipality covers an area of , and has a population of 141 (as of 3\u00a0July 2006)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hrayesh chy ne hrayesh?",
        "text": "There are 26 cases containing prizes from 1,000,000 Ukrainian hryvnia to 0.01 kopiyok."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When where Easter eggs first decorated?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find the exact first egg decorations, but I did find that the custom can, according to many sources, can be traced to early Christians of Mesopotamia."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is custom can, and what does it have to do with the Christians of Mesopotamia?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There was a misunderstanding, but the usage of red Easter eggs dates back to the early Christian church in Mesopotamia. The dark red eggs represent Christ's blood shed on the cross."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any colors other than red that are used for Ukrainian Easter eggs?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There's the Krashanky, boiled eggs dyed a single color, but I couldn't find what range of colors are used. There's also Maliovanky, designed with a brush using oil or water color paints."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me more about Maliovanky?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "It is also sometimes used to refer the coloring on an egg.",
      "It is sometimes used to refer to coloring (e.g. with a marker) on an egg."
    ],
    "topic": "Pysanka",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Pysanka:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pysanka",
          "Types of decorated eggs"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"Pysanka\" is often taken to mean any type of decorated egg, but it specifically refers to an egg created by the written-wax batik method and utilizing traditional folk motifs and designs. Several other types of decorated eggs are seen in Polish, Ukrainian tradition, and these vary throughout the regions of Poland and Ukraine.\n* \"Kraszanki, Krashanky\" \u2013from \"krasyty\" (\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0438), \"to decorate\"\u2013 are boiled eggs dyed a single color (with vegetable dyes, traditionally onion skin), and are blessed and eaten at Easter.\n* \"Pisanki, Pysanky\" \u2013from \"pysaty\" (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to write\"\u2013 are raw eggs created with the wax-resist method (Resist dyeing). The designs are \"written\" in hot wax with a pinhead or a special stylus called a \"pysachok\" (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0447\u043e\u043a) or a \"kistka\" (\u043a\u0456\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430) which has a small funnel attached to hold a small amount of liquid wax. The word that is used to describe the egg actually comes from the Polish, Ukrainian verb \"pisa\u0107, pysaty\", which means \"to write\". Wooden eggs and beaded eggs are often referred to as \"pysanky\" because they mimic the decorative style of pysanky in a different medium.\n* \"Krapanky\" \u2013from \"krapka\" (\u043a\u0440\u0430\u043f\u043a\u0430), \"a dot\"\u2013 are raw eggs decorated using the wax-resist method, but with only dots as ornamentation (no symbols or other drawings). They are traditionally created by dripping molten wax from a beeswax candle onto an egg. They can be considered the simplest version of a pysanka, or a \"proto-pysanka.\"\n* \"Drapanki, Dryapanky\" \u2013from \"dryapaty\" (\u0434\u0440\u044f\u043f\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to scratch\"\u2013 are created by scratching the surface of a dyed egg to reveal the white shell below.\n* \"Malowanki, Malyovanky\" \u2013from \"malyuvaty\" (\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to paint\"\u2013 are created by painting a design with a brush using oil or water color paints. It is sometimes used to refer to coloring (e.g. with a marker) on an egg.\n* \"Naklejanki, Nakleyanky\" \u2013from \"kleyaty\" (\u043a\u043b\u0435\u0457\u0442\u0438), \"to glue on\"\u2013 are created by glueing objects to the surface of an egg.\n* \"Travlenky\" \u2013from \"travlenya\" (\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f), \u201cetching\u201d \u2013 are created by waxing eggs and then etching away the unwaxed areas.\n* \"Biserky\" \u2013from \"biser\" (\u0431\u0456\u0441\u0435\u0440), \"beads\"\u2013 are created by coating an egg with beeswax, and then embedding beads into the wax to create geometric designs.\n* \"Lystovky\" \u2013from \"lystya\" (\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044f), \"leaves\"\u2013 are created by dyeing an egg to which small leaves have been attached."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pysanka:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pysanka",
          "Types of decorated eggs"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"Pysanka\" is often taken to mean any type of decorated egg, but it specifically refers to an egg created by the written-wax batik method and utilizing traditional folk motifs and designs. Several other types of decorated eggs are seen in Polish, Ukrainian tradition, and these vary throughout the regions of Poland and Ukraine.\n* \"Kraszanki, Krashanky\" \u2013from \"krasyty\" (\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0438), \"to decorate\"\u2013 are boiled eggs dyed a single color (with vegetable dyes, traditionally onion skin), and are blessed and eaten at Easter.\n* \"Pisanki, Pysanky\" \u2013from \"pysaty\" (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to write\"\u2013 are raw eggs created with the wax-resist method (Resist dyeing). The designs are \"written\" in hot wax with a pinhead or a special stylus called a \"pysachok\" (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0447\u043e\u043a) or a \"kistka\" (\u043a\u0456\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430) which has a small funnel attached to hold a small amount of liquid wax. The word that is used to describe the egg actually comes from the Polish, Ukrainian verb \"pisa\u0107, pysaty\", which means \"to write\". Wooden eggs and beaded eggs are often referred to as \"pysanky\" because they mimic the decorative style of pysanky in a different medium.\n* \"Krapanky\" \u2013from \"krapka\" (\u043a\u0440\u0430\u043f\u043a\u0430), \"a dot\"\u2013 are raw eggs decorated using the wax-resist method, but with only dots as ornamentation (no symbols or other drawings). They are traditionally created by dripping molten wax from a beeswax candle onto an egg. They can be considered the simplest version of a pysanka, or a \"proto-pysanka.\"\n* \"Drapanki, Dryapanky\" \u2013from \"dryapaty\" (\u0434\u0440\u044f\u043f\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to scratch\"\u2013 are created by scratching the surface of a dyed egg to reveal the white shell below.\n* \"Malowanki, Malyovanky\" \u2013from \"malyuvaty\" (\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to paint\"\u2013 are created by painting a design with a brush using oil or water color paints. It is sometimes used to refer to coloring (e.g. with a marker) on an egg.\n* \"Naklejanki, Nakleyanky\" \u2013from \"kleyaty\" (\u043a\u043b\u0435\u0457\u0442\u0438), \"to glue on\"\u2013 are created by glueing objects to the surface of an egg.\n* \"Travlenky\" \u2013from \"travlenya\" (\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f), \u201cetching\u201d \u2013 are created by waxing eggs and then etching away the unwaxed areas.\n* \"Biserky\" \u2013from \"biser\" (\u0431\u0456\u0441\u0435\u0440), \"beads\"\u2013 are created by coating an egg with beeswax, and then embedding beads into the wax to create geometric designs.\n* \"Lystovky\" \u2013from \"lystya\" (\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044f), \"leaves\"\u2013 are created by dyeing an egg to which small leaves have been attached."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Each region, each village, and almost every family had its own special ritual, its own symbols, meanings and secret formulas for dyeing eggs. These customs were preserved faithfully and passed down from mother to daughter through generations. The custom of decorating pysanky was observed with greatest care, and a pysanka, after receiving the Easter blessing, was held to have great powers as a talisman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Many superstitions were attached to pysanky. Pysanky were thought to protect households from evil spirits, catastrophe, lightning and fires. Pysanky with spiral motifs were the most powerful, as the demons and other unholy creatures would be trapped within the spirals forever. A blessed pysanka could be used to find demons hidden in the dark corners of your house."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "There were superstitions regarding the colors and designs on the pysanky. One old Ukrainian myth centered on the wisdom of giving older people gifts of pysanky with darker colors and/or rich designs, for their life has already been filled. Similarly, it is appropriate to give young people pysanky with white as the predominant color because their life is still a blank page. Girls would often give pysanky to young men they fancied, and include heart motifs. It was said, though, that a girl should never give her boyfriend a pysanky that has no design on the top and bottom of the egg, as this might signify that the boyfriend would soon lose his hair."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The symbols which decorated pysanky underwent a process of adaptation over time. In pre-Christian times these symbols imbued an egg with magical powers to ward off evil spirits, banish winter, guarantee a good harvest and bring a person good luck. After 988, when Christianity became the state religion of Ukraine, the interpretation of many of the symbols began to change, and the pagan motifs were reinterpreted in a Christian light."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "It is not only motifs on pysanky which carried symbolic weight: colors also had significance. Although the earliest pysanky were often simply two-toned, and many folk designs still are, some believed that the more colors there were on a decorated egg, the more magical power it held. A multi-colored egg could thus bring its owner better luck and a better fate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "As with symbols, these talismanic meanings of colors applied to traditional pysanky with traditional designs, and not to modern decorative pysanky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The spiral is said to be protective against the \"\u043d\u0435\u0447\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430 \u0441\u0438\u043b\u0430\"; an evil spirit which happens to enter a house will be drawn into the spiral and trapped there. Dots, which can represent seeds, stars or cuckoo birds\u2019 eggs (a symbol of spring), are popularly said to be the tears of the blessed Virgin. Hearts are also sometimes seen, and, as in other cultures, they represent love."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The Hutsuls\u2014a group of Rusyns who live in the Carpathian Mountains around western Ukraine\u2014believe that the fate of the world depends upon the pysanka. As long as the egg writing custom continues, the world will exist. If, for any reason, this custom is abandoned, evil\u2014in the shape of a horrible serpent who is forever chained to a cliff\u2014will overrun the world. Each year the serpent sends out his minions to see how many pysanky have been written. If the number is low the serpent's chains are loosened and he is free to wander the earth causing havoc and destruction. If, on the other hand, the number of pysanky has increased, the chains are tightened and good triumphs over evil for yet another year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Other adapted religious symbols include a triangle with a circle in the center, denoting the eye of God, and one known as the \"hand of god.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanky held powerful magic, and had to be disposed of properly, lest a witch get a hold of one. She could use the shell to gather dew, and use the gathered dew to dry up a cow's milk. The witch could also use bits of the eggshell to poke people and sicken them. The eggshell had to be ground up very finely (and fed to chickens to make them good egg layers) or broken into pieces and tossed into a running stream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "A pisanka, pysanka (, plural: \"pisanki, pysanky\") is a Polish-Ukrainian Easter egg, decorated with traditional folk designs using a wax-resist method. The word \"pisanka\" comes from the verb \"pisa\u0107, pysaty,\" \"to write\" or \"to inscribe,\" as the designs are written (inscribed) with beeswax, not painted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Everyone from the youngest to the oldest received a pysanka for Easter. Young people were given pysanky with bright designs; dark pysanky were given to older people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The cloth used to dry pysanky was powerful, too, and could be used to cure skin diseases. And it was considered very bad luck to trample on a pysanka\u2014God would punish anyone who did with a variety of illnesses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "No actual pysanky have been found from Ukraine's prehistoric periods, as eggshells do not preserve well. Cultic ceramic eggs have been discovered in excavations near the village of Luka Vrublivets'ka, during excavations of a Trypillian site (5th to 3rd millennium BC). These eggs were ornamented and in the form of \u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0446\u0456 (torokhkal'tsi; rattles containing a small stone with which to scare evil spirits away)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "As in many ancient cultures, Poles and Ukrainians worshipped a sun god, Dazhboh. The sun was important \u2013 it warmed the earth and thus was a source of all life. Eggs decorated with nature symbols became an integral part of spring rituals, serving as benevolent talismans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The pysanky were made at night, when the children were asleep. The women in the family gathered together, said the appropriate prayers, and went to work. It was done in secret\u2014the patterns and color combinations were handed down from mother to daughter and carefully guarded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Newer legends blended folklore and Christian beliefs and firmly attached the egg to the Easter celebration. One legend concerns the Virgin Mary. It tells of the time Mary gave eggs to the soldiers at the cross. She entreated them to be less cruel to her son and she wept. The tears of Mary fell upon the eggs, spotting them with dots of brilliant color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Fruit is not a common motif on pysanky, but is sometimes represented. Apples, plums and cherries are depicted on traditional pysanky. Currants and viburnum (kalyna) berries are sometimes seen, too. These motifs are probably related to fecundity. Grapes are seen more often, as they have been transformed from an agricultural motif to a religious one, representing the Holy Communion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Similarly, no actual pysanky from the Kyivan Rus' period exist, but stone, clay and bone versions exist and have been excavated in many sites throughout Ukraine. Most common are ceramic eggs decorated with a horsetail plant (\u0441\u043e\u0441\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430 \"sosonka\") pattern in yellow and bright green against a dark background. More than 70 such eggs have been excavated throughout Ukraine, many of them from graves of children and adults. They are thought to be representations of real decorated eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The most popular pysanka designs are geometric figures. The egg itself is most often divided by straight lines into squares, triangles and other shapes. These shapes are then filled with other forms and designs. These are also among the most ancient symbols, with the \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0435\u0442\u043e (resheto, sieve) motif dating back to Paleolithic times. Other ancient geometric symbols are agricultural in nature: triangles, which symbolized clouds or rain; quadrilaterals, especially those with a resheto design in them, symbolized a ploughed field; dots stood for seeds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanky are typically made to be given to family members and respected outsiders. To give a pysanka is to give a symbolic gift of life, which is why the egg must remain whole. Furthermore, the design, a combination of the motifs and colors on a traditional folk pysanka, has a deep, symbolic meaning. Traditionally, a pysanka given with its symbolic meaning in mind, be it wishes of protection, fecundity, or love. Typically, pysanky were displayed prominently in a public room of the house."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Sometime women simply drew parts of animals; these symbols were probably a sort of shorthand, endowed with all the attributes of the animal represented. Ducks\u2019 necks, goose feet, rabbits\u2019 ears, rams\u2019 horns, wolves\u2019 teeth, bear claws, and bulls\u2019 eyes can all be found on pysanky. One cannot be sure, however, if these symbols were actually meant to represent animals, or were renamed centuries later because of their appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The names and meaning of various symbols and design elements vary from region to region, and even from village to village. Similar symbols can have totally different interpretations in different places. There are several thousand different motifs in Ukrainian folk designs. They can be grouped into several families. Keep in mind that these talismanic meanings applied to traditional folk pysanky with traditional designs, not to modern original creations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Boiled eggs were not used, as pysanky were generally written on raw or, less commonly, baked eggs (pecharky). Boiled eggs were dyed red for Easter, using an onion skin dye, and called \"krashanky\". The number of colors on an egg was usually limited, as natural dyes had very long dyeing times, sometimes hours. Pysanky would be written\u2014and dyed\u2014in batches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The color palette of traditional pysanky was fairly limited, and based on natural dyes. Yellow, red/orange, green, brown and black were the predominant colors. With the advent of aniline dyes in the 1800s, small amounts of blue and purple were sometimes added. It is important to note that the meanings below are generalizations; different regions interpreted colors differently.\n* Red - is probably the oldest symbolic color, and has many meanings. It represents life-giving blood, and often appears on pysanky with nocturnal and heavenly symbols. It represents love and joy, and the hope of marriage. It is also associated with the sun.\n* Black - is a particularly sacred color, and is most commonly associated with the \"other world,\" but not in a negative sense.\n* Yellow - symbolized the moon and stars and also, agriculturally, the harvest.\n* Blue - Represented blue skies or the air, and good health.\n* White - Signified purity, birth, light, rejoicing, virginity.\n* Green - the color of new life in the spring. Green represents the resurrection of nature, and the riches of vegetation.\n* Brown - represents the earth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Since the mid-19th century, pysanky have been created more for decorative reasons than for the purposes of magic, especially among the Diaspora, as belief in most such rituals and practices has fallen by the wayside in a more modern, scientific era. Additionally, the Ukrainian diaspora has reinterpreted meanings and created their own new symbols and interpretations of older ones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanka\n--Types of decorated eggs.\n--History.\n--Archaeology.\n--Legends.\n--Superstitions and folk beliefs.\n--Writing pysanky.\n--Sharing pysanky.\n--Symbolism in pysanky.\n----Geometric.\n------Eternity bands.\n----Berehynia.\n----Christian symbols.\n----Phytomorphic (plant) motifs.\n------Flowers.\n------Vazon/Tree of Life.\n------Fruit.\n----Scevomorphic motifs.\n----Zoomorphic (animal) motifs.\n------Birds.\n------Insects.\n------Fish.\n------Serpent.\n----Cosmomorphic motifs.\n--Color symbolism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "An adaptation of the geometric design is not a symbol per se but a division of the egg called \"forty triangles\" (actually 48) or \"Sorokoklyn (forty wedges).\" Its ancient meaning is not known, but is often said to represent the forty days of lent, the forty martyrs, the forty days that Christ spent in the desert, or the forty life tasks of married couples."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Some color combinations had specific meanings, too:\n* Black and white - mourning, respect for the souls of the dead.\n* Black and red - this combination was perceived as \"harsh and frightful,\" and very disturbing. It is common in Podillya, where both serpent motifs and goddess motifs were written with this combination.\n* Four or more colors - the family's happiness, prosperity, love, health and achievements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "In pre-Christian times, Dazhboh was one of the major deities in the Slavic pantheon; birds were the sun god's chosen creations, for they were the only ones who could get near him. Humans could not catch the birds, but they did manage to obtain the eggs the birds laid. Thus, the eggs were magical objects, a source of life. The egg was also honored during rite-of-Spring festivals\u2013\u2013it represented the rebirth of the earth. The long, hard winter was over; the earth burst forth and was reborn just as the egg miraculously burst forth with life. The egg therefore, was believed to have special powers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "With the advent of Christianity, via a process of religious syncretism, the symbolism of the egg was changed to represent, not nature's rebirth, but the rebirth of man. Christians embraced the egg symbol and likened it to the tomb from which Christ rose. With the acceptance of Christianity in 988, the decorated pysanka, in time, was adapted to play an important role in Ukrainian rituals of the new religion. Many symbols of the old sun worship survived and were adapted to represent Easter and Christ's Resurrection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The goddess is sometimes depicted with arms upraised, and the arms vary in number but are always in pairs: 2, 4 or 6. This is similar to the appearance of the Christian Oranta. Pysanky with this motif were called \u201cbohyn\u2019ky\u201d (\u0431\u043e\u0433\u0438\u043d\u044c\u043a\u0438, little goddesses) or \u201czhuchky\u201d (\u0436\u0443\u0447\u043a\u0438, beetles), the latter because they are similar in appearance to the Cyrillic letter \u0416 (zh). Sometimes the berehynia has become abstracted, and is represented by a plant\u2014vazon\u2014the tree of life. Her arms become the branches and flowers, and she is firmly rooted in a flowerpot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "A great variety of ornamental motifs are found on pysanky. Because of the egg's fragility, few ancient examples of pysanky have survived. However, similar design motifs occur in pottery, woodwork, metalwork, Ukrainian embroidery and other folk arts, many of which have survived."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "In the 20th and 21st centuries, the commercially produced folk pysanky of the Carpathians, especially Kosmach, have begun displaying more Christian symbols. The lower arm of the cross in older designs is often lengthened to appear more Christian, even if it throws off the symmetry of the design. Crucifixes are sometimes seen. Pysanky are being written with depictions of Easter baskets on them, including a paska and candle. White doves, symbols of the Holy Spirit, are also more frequently seen; doves are usually depicted in flight, while other wild birds are traditionally shown perched."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Another legend tells of when Mary Magdalene went to the sepulchre to anoint the body of Jesus. She had with her a basket of eggs to serve as a repast. When she arrived at the sepulchre and uncovered the eggs, the pure white shells had miraculously taken on a rainbow of colors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanky with sun motifs were said to have been especially powerful, because they could protect their owner from sickness, bad luck and the evil eye. In Christian times the sun symbol is said to represent life, warmth, and the love and the Christian God."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Alternatively, in ethnic Lemko and Boiko areas, as well as Nadsiannia, the drop pull method was also utilized. A pinhead was dipped into molten wax and then applied to the shell of the egg. Simple drops were made, or there was an additional pulling motion, which would create teardrop or comma shapes. These drops were used to create patterns and designs. Dyeing and wax removal proceeded as with traditional pysanky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "A bowl full of pysanky was invariably kept in every home. It served not only as a colorful display, but also as protection from all dangers. Some of the eggs were emptied, and a bird's head made of wax or dough and wings and tail-feathers of folded paper were attached. These \u201cdoves\u201d were suspended before icons in commemoration of the birth of Christ, when a dove came down from heaven and soared over the child Jesus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "\"Pysanka\" is often taken to mean any type of decorated egg, but it specifically refers to an egg created by the written-wax batik method and utilizing traditional folk motifs and designs. Several other types of decorated eggs are seen in Polish, Ukrainian tradition, and these vary throughout the regions of Poland and Ukraine.\n* \"Kraszanki, Krashanky\" \u2013from \"krasyty\" (\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0438), \"to decorate\"\u2013 are boiled eggs dyed a single color (with vegetable dyes, traditionally onion skin), and are blessed and eaten at Easter.\n* \"Pisanki, Pysanky\" \u2013from \"pysaty\" (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to write\"\u2013 are raw eggs created with the wax-resist method (Resist dyeing). The designs are \"written\" in hot wax with a pinhead or a special stylus called a \"pysachok\" (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0447\u043e\u043a) or a \"kistka\" (\u043a\u0456\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430) which has a small funnel attached to hold a small amount of liquid wax. The word that is used to describe the egg actually comes from the Polish, Ukrainian verb \"pisa\u0107, pysaty\", which means \"to write\". Wooden eggs and beaded eggs are often referred to as \"pysanky\" because they mimic the decorative style of pysanky in a different medium.\n* \"Krapanky\" \u2013from \"krapka\" (\u043a\u0440\u0430\u043f\u043a\u0430), \"a dot\"\u2013 are raw eggs decorated using the wax-resist method, but with only dots as ornamentation (no symbols or other drawings). They are traditionally created by dripping molten wax from a beeswax candle onto an egg. They can be considered the simplest version of a pysanka, or a \"proto-pysanka.\"\n* \"Drapanki, Dryapanky\" \u2013from \"dryapaty\" (\u0434\u0440\u044f\u043f\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to scratch\"\u2013 are created by scratching the surface of a dyed egg to reveal the white shell below.\n* \"Malowanki, Malyovanky\" \u2013from \"malyuvaty\" (\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0438), \"to paint\"\u2013 are created by painting a design with a brush using oil or water color paints. It is sometimes used to refer to coloring (e.g. with a marker) on an egg.\n* \"Naklejanki, Nakleyanky\" \u2013from \"kleyaty\" (\u043a\u043b\u0435\u0457\u0442\u0438), \"to glue on\"\u2013 are created by glueing objects to the surface of an egg.\n* \"Travlenky\" \u2013from \"travlenya\" (\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f), \u201cetching\u201d \u2013 are created by waxing eggs and then etching away the unwaxed areas.\n* \"Biserky\" \u2013from \"biser\" (\u0431\u0456\u0441\u0435\u0440), \"beads\"\u2013 are created by coating an egg with beeswax, and then embedding beads into the wax to create geometric designs.\n* \"Lystovky\" \u2013from \"lystya\" (\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044f), \"leaves\"\u2013 are created by dyeing an egg to which small leaves have been attached."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Geometric symbols used quite commonly on pysanky today. The triangle is said to symbolize the Holy Trinity; in ancient times it symbolized other trinities: the elements of air, fire and water, the family (man, woman and child) or the cycle of life (birth, life, and death). Diamonds, a type of quadrilateral, are sometimes said to symbolize knowledge. Curls/spirals are ancient symbols of the Zmiya/Serpent, and are said to have a meaning of defense or protection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Another ancient symbol is that of the \u0437\u043c\u0456\u044f or serpent, the ancient god of water and earth. The serpent could be depicted in several ways: as an \"S\" or sigma, as a curl or spiral, or as a wave. When depicted as a sigma, the zmiya often wears a crown. Depictions of the serpent can be found on Neolithic Trypillian pottery. The serpent symbol on a \"pysanka\" is said to bring protection from catastrophe. Spirals were particularly strong talismans, as an evil spirit, upon entering the house, would be drawn into the spiral and trapped there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka Museum",
        "text": "There are many examples of both pysanky and other forms of decorated eggs from other Slavic countries (Belarus, the Czech Republic, Poland) and more distant lands (Romania, Sweden, United States, Canada, France, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, India)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanky were made using a wax resist (batik) method. Beeswax was heated in a small bowl on the large family stove (\u043f\u0456\u0447), and the styluses were dipped into it. The molten wax was applied to the white egg with a writing motion; any bit of shell covered with wax would be sealed, and remain white. Then the egg was dyed yellow, and more wax applied, and then orange, red, purple, black. (The dye sequence was always light to dark). Bits of shell covered with wax remained that color. After the final color, usually red, brown or black, the wax was removed by heating the egg in the stove and gently wiping off the melted wax, or by briefly dipping the egg into boiling water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The oldest \"real\" pysanka was excavated in L'viv in 2013 and was found in a rainwater collection system that dates to the 15th or 16th century. The pysanka was written on a goose egg, which was discovered largely intact, and the design is that of a wave pattern. The second oldest known pysanka was excavated in Baturyn in 2008 and dates to the end of the 17th century. Baturyn was Hetman Mazepa's capital, and it was razed in 1708 by the armies of Peter I. A complete (but crushed) pysanka was discovered, a chicken egg shell with geometric designs against a blue-gray background."
      },
      {
        "title": "Symbols of Ukrainian people",
        "text": "Pysanka is a symbol of the sun; life, his immortality; love and beauty; spring renewal; the good, happiness, joy. Every ornamental motif has a certain sacral meaning. They all together shape the painted prayer about consent and peace between people. In the Christian culture of Ukrainians, pysanka has become a symbol of resurrection. There is a Ukrainian saying: \"As long as people paint pysanky, there will be love in the world\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The only true traditional Christian symbol, and not one adapted from an earlier pagan one, is the church. Stylized churches are often found on pysanky from Hutsul regions (including parts of Bukovyna). Church parts are usually in threes: three stories/roofs, three towers, three openings (windows, doors). Sometimes only the bell tower (dzvinytsia) is depicted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Among the oldest and most important symbols of pysanky is the sun, and the simplest rendering of the sun is a closed circle with or without rays. Pysanky from all regions of Ukraine depict an eight-sided star, the most common depiction of the sun; this symbol is also called a \"ruzha.\" Six- or seven-sided stars can also be seen, but much less commonly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Other cosmomorphic symbols are less commonly seen. The moon is sometimes depicted as a circle with a cross inside it; it is begged to shed its light at night to help the traveller, and to chase away evil powers from the household. Stars are sometimes represented as dots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanky created by the mountain people of the Hutsul region of Ukraine often showed a stylized fir tree branch, a symbol of youth and eternal life. Trees, in general, symbolized strength, renewal, creation, growth; as with animal motifs, the parts (leaves, branches) had the same symbolic meaning as the whole. The oak tree was a sacred to the ancient god Perun, the most powerful of the pagan Slavic pantheon, and thus oak leaves symbolized strength."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Skeuomorphic designs are the second-largest group of designs, and are representations of man-made agricultural objects. These symbols are very common, as Ukraine was a highly agricultural society, and drew many of its positive images from field and farm. Some of these symbols are related to agriculture; others have older meanings, but were renamed in more recent times based on their appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The dyes were prepared from dried plants, roots, bark, berries and insects (cochineal). Yellow was obtained from the flowers of the woadwaxen, and gold from onion skins. Red could be extracted from logwood or cochineal, and dark green and violet from the husks of sunflower seeds and the berries and bark of the elderberry bush. Black dye was made from walnut husks. The dyes were prepared in secret, using recipes handed down from mother to daughter. Sometimes chemical dyes (of unusual or difficult colors) were purchased from peddlers along with alum, a mordant that helped the natural dyes adhere better to eggshells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The sun can also appear as a flower or a \u0442\u0440\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442 (three leaf). The swastika, called in Ukrainian a \"svarha,\" is sometimes referred to as a \"broken cross\" or \"ducks\u2019 necks.\" It represented the sun in pagan times: the movement of the arms around the cross represented the movement of the sun across the sky. The Slavic pagans also believed that the sun did not rise on its own, but was carried across the sky by a stag (or, in some versions, a horse). The deer and horses often found on Hutsul pysanky are solar symbols."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Common symbols include the ladder, symbolizing prayers going up to heaven, and the sieve (\"resheto\"), standing for a plowed field, or perhaps the separation of good and evil. Rakes and combs are often depicted; both are meant to invoke a good harvest. Both are rain symbols. The body of the rake (sometimes depicted as a triangle) is the cloud, and the teeth symbolize rain drops. (Note: these combs are not hair combs, but agricultural implements, see Harrow (tool).)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Birds were considered the harbingers of spring, thus they were a commonplace pysanka motif. Birds of all kinds are the messengers of the sun and heaven. Birds are always shown perched, at rest, never flying (except for swallows and, in more recent times, white doves carrying letters). Roosters are symbols of masculinity, or the coming of dawn, and hens represent fertility."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukraine",
        "text": "The tradition of the Easter egg, known as pysanky, has long roots in Ukraine. These eggs were drawn on with wax to create a pattern; then, the dye was applied to give the eggs their pleasant colours, the dye did not affect the previously wax-coated parts of the egg. After the entire egg was dyed, the wax was removed leaving only the colourful pattern. This tradition is thousands of years old, and precedes the arrival of Christianity to Ukraine. In the city of Kolomyia near the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains, the museum of Pysanka was built in 2000 and won a nomination as the monument of modern Ukraine in 2007, part of the Seven Wonders of Ukraine action."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Two very popular plant motifs on modern diasporan pysanky are poppies and wheat; these motifs are never seen on traditional pysanky, and are purely a modern invention."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanky were traditionally made during the last week of Lent, Holy Week in the Orthodox and Greek (Uniate) Catholic calendars. (Both faiths are represented in Ukraine, and both still celebrate Easter by the Julian calendar.) They were made by the women of the family. During the middle of the Lenten season, women began putting aside eggs, those that were most perfectly shaped and smooth, and ideally, the first laid eggs of young hens. There had to be a rooster, as only fertilized eggs could be used. (If non-fertile eggs were used, there would be no fertility in the home.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "According to many scholars, the art of wax-resist (batik) egg decoration in Slavic cultures probably dates back to the pre-Christian era. They base this on the widespread nature of the practice, and pre-Christian nature of the symbols used. No ancient examples of intact pysanky exist, as the eggshells of domesticated fowl are fragile, but fragments of colored shells with wax-resist decoration on them were unearthed during the archaeological excavations in Ostr\u00f3wek, Poland (near the city of Opole), where remnants of a Slavic settlement from the early Piast Era were found."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "A common legend tells of Simon the peddler, who helped Jesus carry his cross on the way to Calvary. He had left his goods at the side of the road, and, when he returned, the eggs had all turned into intricately decorated pysanky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The most common depiction of the great goddess is a composition containing \u201ckucheri\u201d (curls). The berehynia may be seen perched on a curl, or a curl may be given wings; the symbol may be doubled, end-to-end. There is usually a crown on the berehynia's head. These compositions are given the folk names of \u201cqueen,\u201d \u201cprincess,\u201d \"rooster,\" \u201cscythe,\u201d \u201cdrake,\u201d or simply \u201cwings.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "In modern times, the art of the pysanka was carried abroad by Ukrainian emigrants to North and South America, where the custom took hold, and concurrently banished in Ukraine by the Soviet regime (as a religious practice), where it was nearly forgotten. Museum collections were destroyed both by war and by Soviet cadres. Since Ukrainian Independence in 1991, there has been a rebirth of this folk art in its homeland and a renewal of interest in the preservation of traditional designs and research into its symbolism and history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Pysanky are Ukrainian Easter eggs, decorated using a wax-resist (batik) method. The word comes from the verb \"pysaty\", \"to write\", as the designs are not painted on, but written with beeswax."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Windmills, a variation on the broken cross (swastika) motif, are sun symbols. The movement of the cross echoes the movement of the sun across the sky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The \u201ctree of life\u201d motif is widely used in traditional pysanky designs. It can be represented in many ways. Sometimes it appears as two deer on either side of a pine tree. More often it manifests as a flower pot (\u201cvazon\u201d), filled with leaves and flowers. The pot itself is usually a rectangle, triangle or a rhomboid (symbolic of the earth), and is covered with dots (seeds) and dashes (water). Many branches grow out of it, in a symmetric fashion, with leaves and flowers. This plant is a berehynia (goddess) symbol, with the branches representing the many arms of the mother goddess."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vyshyvanka",
        "text": "Vyshyvanka is used as a talisman to protect the person wearing it and to tell a story. A geometric pattern woven in the past by adding red or black threads into the light thread was later imitated by embroidery, and believed to have the power to protect a person from all harm. There is a saying in Ukrainian \"\u041d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0432\u0441\u044f \u0443 \u0432\u0438\u0448\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0456\" which is translated as somebody was born wearing vyshyvanka. It is used to emphasize someone's luck and ability to survive in any situation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Insects are only rarely depicted on pysanky. Highly stylized spiders (and occasionally their webs) are the most common on folk pysanky, and symbolize perseverance. Beetles are sometimes seen, but rarely look anything like a beetle. What they do resemble, somewhat, is the letter \u0416, as in their Ukrainian name \"\u0436\u0443\u0447\u043e\u043a.\" Other insects are sometimes seen on modern, diasporan pysanky, most commonly butterflies and bees, but seem to be a modern innovation. In Onyshchuk's \"Symbolism of the Ukrainian Pysanka\" she depicts pysanky with a butterfly motif, but the original design, recorded by Kulzhynsky in 1899, was labeled as being swallows' tails."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pussy willow branches are sometimes depicted on pysanky; in Ukraine, the pussy willow replaces the palm leaf on Palm Sunday. This is not a common motif, though, and may be a more recent addition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "In recent years, new forms of egg decoration have been brought from abroad and become popularized in Ukraine. These include:\n* \"Rizblenky\" \u2013from \"rizbyty\" (\u0440\u0456\u0437\u044c\u0431\u0438\u0442\u0438), \"to cut, to carve\"\u2013 are created by drilling the surface of an egg to create cut out areas.\n* \"Linyvky\" \u2013from \"linyvyi\" (\u043b\u0456\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0439), \"lazy\"\u2013 a joking term to describe eggs decorated using stickers or shrink-wrap sleeves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Crosses are fairly common, although most of those found on traditional pysanky are not Ukrainian (Byzantine) crosses. The crosses most commonly depicted are of the simple \"Greek\" cross type, with arms of equal lengths. This type of cross predates Christianity, and is a sun symbol (an abstracted representation of the solar bird); it is sometimes combined with the star (ruzha) motif. The \"cross crosslet\" type of cross, one in which the ends of each arm are crossed, is frequently seen, particularly on Hutsul and Bukovynian pysanky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Eternity bands or meanders are composed of waves, lines or ribbons; such a line is called a \"bezkonechnyk.\" A line without end is said to represent immortality. Waves, however, are a water symbol, and thus a symbol of the Zmiya/Serpent, the ancient water god. Waves are therefore considered an agricultural symbol, because it is rain that ensures good crops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Birds were almost always shown in full profile, stylized, but with characteristic features of the species. Partial representations of some birds\u2013\u2013mostly domestic fowl\u2013\u2013are often seen on pysanky. Bird parts (eyes, feet, beaks, combs, feathers) are said carry the same meaning as the entire bird. Thus hen's feet represent fertility and the rooster's comb signifies masculinity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Although animal motifs are not as popular as plant motifs, they are nevertheless found on pysanky, especially those of the people of the Carpathian Mountains. Animal depicted on pysanky include both wild animals (deer, birds, fish) and domesticated ones (rams, horses, poultry). As with plants, animals were depicted in the abstract, highly stylized, and not with realistic detail."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The goddess motif is an ancient one, and most commonly found in pysanky from Bukovyna, Polissia or Podillia. The berehynia was believed to be the source of life and death. On the one hand, she is a life giving mother, the creator of heaven and all living things, and the mistress of heavenly water (rain), upon which the world relies for fertility and fruitfulness. On the other hand, she was the merciless controller of destinies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Folk Orthodoxy",
        "text": "The image of Paraskeva Pyatnitsa according to folk representations is markedly different from the iconographic, where she is depicted as an ascetic-looking woman in a red omophorion. Folk imagination endowed her with demonic features: tall stature, long loose hair, large breasts, which she throws behind her back, and others, which brings her closer to female mythological characters such as Doli, Death, Mermaid. There was a ritual of \"driving Pyatnitsa\", recorded in the 18th century: \"In Little Russia, in the Starodubsky regiment on a feast day a plain woman named Pyatnitsa is led through the church and during the church, her people honor her with gifts and with the hope of some benefit\". In the stories Paraskeva Pyatnitsa spins the kudel left by her mistress (similar to domovyi, kimora, mar), punishes the woman who dared in spite of the ban on spinning, thread winding, sewing: tangles the threads, may skin the offending woman, take away her sight, turn her into a frog, throw forty spindles into the window with orders to strain them until morning, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Many other Central and Eastern European ethnic groups decorate eggs using wax resist for Easter. These include the Belarusians (\u043f\u0456\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0430, \"pisanka\"), Bulgarians (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043e \u044f\u0439\u0446\u0435, \"pisano yaytse\"), Carpatho-Rusyns (\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u043a\u044b, \"pysank\u0177\"), Croats (\"pisanica\"), Czechs (\"kraslice\"), Hungarians (\"h\u00edmestoj\u00e1s\"), Lithuanians (\"margutis\"), Romanians (\"ou\u0103 vopsite\", \"\u00eencondeiate\" or \"\u00eempistrite\"), Serbs (\"pisanica\"), Slovaks (\"kraslica\"), Slovenes (\"pirhi\", \"pisanice,\" or \"remenke\") and Sorbs (\"jejka pisa\u0107\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devana",
        "text": "In Slavic folklore there are devony () \u2013 female mountain spirits or demons living in the caves, engaged in spinning, related to the forest fleece, who may be a demonized Devana. It can be similar with dziwo\u017cony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "These ceramic eggs were common in Kyivan Rus' and had a characteristic style. They were slightly smaller than life size (2.5 by 4\u00a0cm, or 1 by 1.6\u00a0inches) and were created from reddish pink clays by the spiral method. The majolica glazed eggs had a brown, green or yellow background and showed interwoven yellow and green stripes. The eggs were made in large cities like Kyiv and Chernihiv, which had workshops that produced clay tile and bricks; these tiles (and pysanky) were not only used locally but were exported to Poland and to several Scandinavian and Baltic countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The most common motifs found on pysanky are those associated with plants and their parts (flowers and fruit). Women who wrote pysanky drew their inspiration from the world of nature, depicting flowers, trees, fruits, leaves and whole plants in a highly stylized (not realistic) fashion. Such ornaments symbolized the rebirth of nature after winter, and pysanky were written with plant motifs to guarantee a good harvest. A most popular floral design is a plant in a vase of standing on its own, which symbolized the tree of life and was a highly abstracted version of the berehynia (great goddess)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Flowers are a common pysanka motif. They can be divided into two types: specific botanical types, and non-specific."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "In a large family, by Holy Thursday, 60 or more eggs would have been completed by the women of the house. (The more daughters a family had, the more pysanky would be produced.) The eggs would then be taken to the church on Easter Sunday to be blessed, after which they were given away. Here is a partial list of how the pysanky would be used:\n# One or two would be given to the priest.\n# Three or four were taken to the cemetery and placed on graves of the family.\n# Ten or twenty were given to children or godchildren.\n# Ten or twelve were exchanged by the unmarried girls with the eligible men in the community.\n# Several were saved to place in the coffin of loved ones who might die during the year.\n# Several were saved to keep in the home for protection from fire, lightning and storms.\n# Two or three were placed in the mangers of cows and horses to ensure safe calving and colting and a good milk supply for the young.\n# At least one egg was placed beneath the bee hive to ensure good production of honey.\n# One was saved for each grazing animal to be taken out to the fields with the shepherds in the spring.\n# Several pysanky were placed in the nests of hens to encourage the laying of eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tiyanak",
        "text": "\"They have many other superstitions, as that of the \"patianac\", a spirit or ideal being, whose employment or amusement consists in preventing, [41]by certain means peculiar to itself, the delivery of a woman in labour. To counteract the malignity of this spirit, the husband, fastening the door, reduces himself to a state of complete nudity, lights a fire, and arming himself with his sword, continues to flourish it furiously, until the woman is delivered.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pisanki from Opole's Ostr\u00f3wek, Poland may be as much as a thousand years old, dating from the late 10th to the 13th century, when a Piast stronghold existed at the site. They were excavated at a depth of 3.5 to 5 metres. There are seven of them in total - three slightly smaller from clay and four, the size of chicken eggs, from limestone. Some of them are covered with a green-yellow pattern of almost perfect stripes or patterns, made in the same way as pottery was decorated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pisanka (Polish)",
        "text": "In the past, only women decorated eggs. Men were not allowed to come inside the house during the process, as it was believed that they could put a spell on the eggs and cause bad luck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The fish, originally a symbol of health, eventually came to symbolize Jesus Christ, the \"fisher of men.\" In old Ukrainian fairy tales, the fish often helped the hero to win his fight with evil. In the Greek alphabet \u201cfish\u201d (ichthys) is an acrostic of \"Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior,\u201d and it became a secret symbol used by the early Christians. The fish represents abundance, as well as Christian interpretations of baptism, sacrifice, the powers of regeneration, and Christ himself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maliri people",
        "text": "Pokot traditions recall that the victory came when \"... there arose a wizard among the Suk who prepared a charm in the form of a stick, which he placed in the Loikop cattle kraals, with the result that they all died.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The oldest mention of Easter eggs in Polish literature comes from the 13th-century Chronica Polonorum, i.e. the history of Poland by Wincenty Kad\u0142ubek. The text tells about an interesting game with Easter eggs - as well as about the supposedly capricious nature of Poles themselves: \"Since ancient times, Poles have always been envious and played with their masters as if they were painted eggs\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Horses were popular ornaments because they symbolized strength and endurance, as well as wealth and prosperity. They also had a second meaning as a sun symbol: in some versions of pagan mythology, the sun was drawn across the sky by the steeds of Dazhboh, the sun god. Similarly, deer designs were fairly common as they were intended to bring prosperity and long life; in other versions of the myth, it was the stag who carried the sun across the sky on his antlers. Rams are symbols of leadership, strength, dignity, and perseverance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Specific botanical types include sunflowers, daisies, violets, carnations, periwinkle and lily-of the-valley. These flowers are represented with identifying features that make them recognizable. Carnations will have a serrated edge to the petals, the flowers of the lily of the valley will be arrayed along a stem, periwinkle will have three or four leaves (periwinkle is represented by its leaves, not its flowers, on pysanky)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "A stylus, known as a pysachok, pysak, pysal'tse, or kystka (kistka), depending on region, was prepared. A piece of thin brass was wrapped around a needle, forming a hollow cone. This was attached to a small stick (willow was preferred) with wire or horsehair. In the Lemko regions, a simple pin or nail inserted onto the end of a stick was used instead (drop-pull technique)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "There are also flower motifs called orchids and tulips, but these are not botanical names. They are actually the names given to fantastical flowers, as neither of these flowers was commonly found in Ukraine until modern times. The names reflected the exoticism of the designs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zorya",
        "text": "Similar images to the one from the Psalter and the Nashik appear in various parts of Slavic lands, e.g. On a carved and painted gate of a Slovak peasant estate (village of O\u010dov\u00e1): on one of the pillars is carved the Morning Zora, with a golden head, above her is a glow, and even higher is the Sun, which rolls along an arched road, and on the other pillar is carved the Evening Zora, above it is a setting sun. There are also darkened suns on this relief, possibly \"dead suns\" appearing in Slavic folklore. These motifs are also confirmed by the Russian saying \"The sun will not rise without the Morning Zoryushka\". Such a motif was also found on the back of a 19th-century sled where the Sun, in the form of a circle, is in the palace and two Zoryas stand in the exit, and on a peasant rushnyk from the Tver region where Zoryas on horseback rides up to the Sun, one is red and the other is green."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka Museum",
        "text": "The central part of the museum is in the shape of a pysanka (Ukrainian Easter egg). This is the only museum in the world dedicated to the pysanka, and it has become a calling card of the city. In August 2007 the museum was recognized as a landmark of modern Ukraine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luba Perchyshyn",
        "text": "In time, the pysanky classes, kits, tools, and other supplies became the shop's signature items. Perchyshyn demonstrated the process on television, on videos, and at cultural events. The Ukrainian Gift Shop was featured in a \"National Geographic\" article in 1972, and Perchyshyn's decorated eggs were featured in a 1976 short documentary about pysanky by Slavko Nowytski."
      },
      {
        "title": "Devana",
        "text": "It was also proposed to combine Devana's name with the Proto-Indo-European god of heaven \"*Dy\u0113us\". Slavic folklore includes demons with a similar name, e.g. Polish and Czech dziwo\u017cona, Russian div, Bulgarian and Croatian samodiva (\"rusalka, boginka, the magical creature\"), etc. It is assumed that the feminine demons-divas derive from the Proto-Slavic word \"*diva\", and this word is the feminine form of the word \"*div\u044a\" (\"div (demon)\"). \"*div\u044a\" is derived from the PIE. word \"*Dy\u0113us\" (\"god of heaven\") through the intermediate *\"deyw\u00f3s\" (\"heavenly\") and its closest related word is Dievs \u2013 god of heaven in Baltic mythology. \"*Dy\u0113us\" in the Slavs has acquired demonic characteristics as a result of cultural contacts with Iranian peoples, who have demonized the Iranian continuator of \"*Dy\u0113us\" as a result of the Zoroastrianist reform. An argument for such an etymology is that Diana is also etymologically derived from \"*Dy\u0113us\". Anikin notes that \"Verbascum\" has sometimes been used to lighten hair, and combines the word with PIE. the root \"*dei-u\u032f-\" or \"*d\u012b-\" (\"to shine, to be bright\"), from which also comes \"*Dy\u0113us\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "All but the krashanky and lystovky are usually meant to be decorative (as opposed to edible), and the egg yolk and white are either allowed to dry up over time or (in modern times) removed by blowing them out through a small hole in the egg.\n* A\u017curki - is one of the more complicated techniques for decorating eggs. They are made of egg shells, i.e. eggs from which their contents have been blown out. Decorating the shell itself is very labour intensive and requires great care because it is very easy to damage the delicate shell of the egg. The patterns are cut into the shell with a high speed drill.The finished Easter egg looks like a three dimensional lace."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Dancing Water, the Singing Apple, and the Speaking Bird",
        "text": "Polivka identified a tale of the \"Boys With the Golden Stars\" format, which he then named \"Pani s chlapci zakopan\u00e1 do hnojiska. Slncov\u00e1 matka im pom\u00e1ha\" (\"Maiden and sons buried in manure; the Sun's Mother helps them\"). In this tale, \"O jednom zlatom orechu\" (\"About a golden nut\"), a wife gives birth to twins while her husband is at war. A witch sews the boys in an oxen hide and buries it in a pit of manure. Out of the pit springs a nut tree. The witch orders the trees to be made into beds and for the beds to be burnt to cinders. Sparks fly out of the pyre and reach a rose bush, eaten by a goat who gives birth to two kids. The animals are killed and they regain human form. The Sun, on his daily journey, sees the twins and, impressed by their beauty, tells his mother. The Sun's mother comes to them with clothes and a golden apple."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavic creation myth",
        "text": "There were also riddles in Poland that pointed to the egg: \"There is a world. And in this world there is a yellow flower\" or \"There is a white world. And in this world a yellow flower\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lady Midday",
        "text": "According to some northern Russian regions, Poludnitsa has a giant frying pan in her hands, with which she either blocks the rye from the scorching sun's rays, or burns the rye along with the herbs during the flowering period. She may also appear at midnight and show a person how to find a flower that can make them invisible, as was believed in the Arkhangelsk Governorate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Symbols of Ukrainian people",
        "text": "\"Vyshyvanka\" is an embroidered national women's and men's white shirt. Embroidered shirt is a symbol of health, beauty, happy destiny, generic memory, decency, honesty, love, festivity; amulet. The symbolism of embroidery depended on the person for whom it was made: a bridegroom, a husband, a young boy, a girl, a married woman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paraska Plytka-Horytsvit",
        "text": "She lived as an ascetic, sometimes eating only what villagers brought her. When working, she would not let even the priest enter her house, as she needed full concentration."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When where Easter eggs first decorated?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find the exact first egg decorations, but I did find that the custom can, according to many sources, can be traced to early Christians of Mesopotamia."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is custom can, and what does it have to do with the Christians of Mesopotamia?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There was a misunderstanding, but the usage of red Easter eggs dates back to the early Christian church in Mesopotamia. The dark red eggs represent Christ's blood shed on the cross."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any colors other than red that are used for Ukrainian Easter eggs?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There's the Krashanky, boiled eggs dyed a single color, but I couldn't find what range of colors are used. There's also Maliovanky, designed with a brush using oil or water color paints."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me more about Maliovanky?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It is sometimes used to refer to coloring (e.g. with a marker) on an egg."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any superstitions associated with Pysanka?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Many superstitions were attached to pysanky: they protect households from evil spirits and catastrophes; its magic had to be disposed of properly; the cloth used to dry pysanky could be used to cure diseases; and giving pysanky of darker colors and/or rich designs for old people for their life has already been filled. Which is these superstitions do you want to know more about?"
    ],
    "topic": "Pysanka",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Pysanka:21",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pysanka",
          "Superstitions and folk beliefs"
        ],
        "ctx": "Many superstitions were attached to pysanky. Pysanky were thought to protect households from evil spirits, catastrophe, lightning and fires. Pysanky with spiral motifs were the most powerful, as the demons and other unholy creatures would be trapped within the spirals forever. A blessed pysanka could be used to find demons hidden in the dark corners of your house."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pysanka:22",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pysanka",
          "Superstitions and folk beliefs"
        ],
        "ctx": "Pysanky held powerful magic, and had to be disposed of properly, lest a witch get a hold of one. She could use the shell to gather dew, and use the gathered dew to dry up a cow's milk. The witch could also use bits of the eggshell to poke people and sicken them. The eggshell had to be ground up very finely (and fed to chickens to make them good egg layers) or broken into pieces and tossed into a running stream."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pysanka:23",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pysanka",
          "Superstitions and folk beliefs"
        ],
        "ctx": "The cloth used to dry pysanky was powerful, too, and could be used to cure skin diseases. And it was considered very bad luck to trample on a pysanka\u2014God would punish anyone who did with a variety of illnesses."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pysanka:24",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pysanka",
          "Superstitions and folk beliefs"
        ],
        "ctx": "There were superstitions regarding the colors and designs on the pysanky. One old Ukrainian myth centered on the wisdom of giving older people gifts of pysanky with darker colors and/or rich designs, for their life has already been filled. Similarly, it is appropriate to give young people pysanky with white as the predominant color because their life is still a blank page. Girls would often give pysanky to young men they fancied, and include heart motifs. It was said, though, that a girl should never give her boyfriend a pysanky that has no design on the top and bottom of the egg, as this might signify that the boyfriend would soon lose his hair."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Many superstitions were attached to pysanky. Pysanky were thought to protect households from evil spirits, catastrophe, lightning and fires. Pysanky with spiral motifs were the most powerful, as the demons and other unholy creatures would be trapped within the spirals forever. A blessed pysanka could be used to find demons hidden in the dark corners of your house."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The symbols which decorated pysanky underwent a process of adaptation over time. In pre-Christian times these symbols imbued an egg with magical powers to ward off evil spirits, banish winter, guarantee a good harvest and bring a person good luck. After 988, when Christianity became the state religion of Ukraine, the interpretation of many of the symbols began to change, and the pagan motifs were reinterpreted in a Christian light."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Since the mid-19th century, pysanky have been created more for decorative reasons than for the purposes of magic, especially among the Diaspora, as belief in most such rituals and practices has fallen by the wayside in a more modern, scientific era. Additionally, the Ukrainian diaspora has reinterpreted meanings and created their own new symbols and interpretations of older ones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The Hutsuls\u2014a group of Rusyns who live in the Carpathian Mountains around western Ukraine\u2014believe that the fate of the world depends upon the pysanka. As long as the egg writing custom continues, the world will exist. If, for any reason, this custom is abandoned, evil\u2014in the shape of a horrible serpent who is forever chained to a cliff\u2014will overrun the world. Each year the serpent sends out his minions to see how many pysanky have been written. If the number is low the serpent's chains are loosened and he is free to wander the earth causing havoc and destruction. If, on the other hand, the number of pysanky has increased, the chains are tightened and good triumphs over evil for yet another year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "In modern times, the art of the pysanka was carried abroad by Ukrainian emigrants to North and South America, where the custom took hold, and concurrently banished in Ukraine by the Soviet regime (as a religious practice), where it was nearly forgotten. Museum collections were destroyed both by war and by Soviet cadres. Since Ukrainian Independence in 1991, there has been a rebirth of this folk art in its homeland and a renewal of interest in the preservation of traditional designs and research into its symbolism and history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "There were superstitions regarding the colors and designs on the pysanky. One old Ukrainian myth centered on the wisdom of giving older people gifts of pysanky with darker colors and/or rich designs, for their life has already been filled. Similarly, it is appropriate to give young people pysanky with white as the predominant color because their life is still a blank page. Girls would often give pysanky to young men they fancied, and include heart motifs. It was said, though, that a girl should never give her boyfriend a pysanky that has no design on the top and bottom of the egg, as this might signify that the boyfriend would soon lose his hair."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "No actual pysanky have been found from Ukraine's prehistoric periods, as eggshells do not preserve well. Cultic ceramic eggs have been discovered in excavations near the village of Luka Vrublivets'ka, during excavations of a Trypillian site (5th to 3rd millennium BC). These eggs were ornamented and in the form of \u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0446\u0456 (torokhkal'tsi; rattles containing a small stone with which to scare evil spirits away)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "As in many ancient cultures, Poles and Ukrainians worshipped a sun god, Dazhboh. The sun was important \u2013 it warmed the earth and thus was a source of all life. Eggs decorated with nature symbols became an integral part of spring rituals, serving as benevolent talismans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The cloth used to dry pysanky was powerful, too, and could be used to cure skin diseases. And it was considered very bad luck to trample on a pysanka\u2014God would punish anyone who did with a variety of illnesses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The names and meaning of various symbols and design elements vary from region to region, and even from village to village. Similar symbols can have totally different interpretations in different places. There are several thousand different motifs in Ukrainian folk designs. They can be grouped into several families. Keep in mind that these talismanic meanings applied to traditional folk pysanky with traditional designs, not to modern original creations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanky with sun motifs were said to have been especially powerful, because they could protect their owner from sickness, bad luck and the evil eye. In Christian times the sun symbol is said to represent life, warmth, and the love and the Christian God."
      },
      {
        "title": "Likho",
        "text": "Within the framework of superstitions, Likho was supposed to come and eat a person. In particular, this was used to scare small children. In Ukrainian folklore, it is sometimes portrayed as type of a bad spirit that can cling to one's neck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antemurale myth",
        "text": "The Ukrainians, living on the religious borderlands of Christian Europe with the Islamic Tatars and Ottomans saw themselves as \"the bastion of Christianity\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The spiral is said to be protective against the \"\u043d\u0435\u0447\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430 \u0441\u0438\u043b\u0430\"; an evil spirit which happens to enter a house will be drawn into the spiral and trapped there. Dots, which can represent seeds, stars or cuckoo birds\u2019 eggs (a symbol of spring), are popularly said to be the tears of the blessed Virgin. Hearts are also sometimes seen, and, as in other cultures, they represent love."
      },
      {
        "title": "Symbols of Ukrainian people",
        "text": "Pysanka is a symbol of the sun; life, his immortality; love and beauty; spring renewal; the good, happiness, joy. Every ornamental motif has a certain sacral meaning. They all together shape the painted prayer about consent and peace between people. In the Christian culture of Ukrainians, pysanka has become a symbol of resurrection. There is a Ukrainian saying: \"As long as people paint pysanky, there will be love in the world\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The only true traditional Christian symbol, and not one adapted from an earlier pagan one, is the church. Stylized churches are often found on pysanky from Hutsul regions (including parts of Bukovyna). Church parts are usually in threes: three stories/roofs, three towers, three openings (windows, doors). Sometimes only the bell tower (dzvinytsia) is depicted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Danylo Yanevsky",
        "text": "He is quite critical of the proposed modern Ukrainian historiography and believes that it is \u00abmade in Moscow, it is made in other geographical centers, abundantly scattered on the political map of the world. We need, I personally need, to know the truth. I do not want to live in a lie, and therefore what I am doing is destroying myths that are called national, but which are actually completely destructive and turn our people into a herd. If a herd wants to remain a herd, let it remain; and I am a free person and I want to live in a free country.\u00bb"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Similarly, no actual pysanky from the Kyivan Rus' period exist, but stone, clay and bone versions exist and have been excavated in many sites throughout Ukraine. Most common are ceramic eggs decorated with a horsetail plant (\u0441\u043e\u0441\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430 \"sosonka\") pattern in yellow and bright green against a dark background. More than 70 such eggs have been excavated throughout Ukraine, many of them from graves of children and adults. They are thought to be representations of real decorated eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "In the 20th and 21st centuries, the commercially produced folk pysanky of the Carpathians, especially Kosmach, have begun displaying more Christian symbols. The lower arm of the cross in older designs is often lengthened to appear more Christian, even if it throws off the symmetry of the design. Crucifixes are sometimes seen. Pysanky are being written with depictions of Easter baskets on them, including a paska and candle. White doves, symbols of the Holy Spirit, are also more frequently seen; doves are usually depicted in flight, while other wild birds are traditionally shown perched."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Among the oldest and most important symbols of pysanky is the sun, and the simplest rendering of the sun is a closed circle with or without rays. Pysanky from all regions of Ukraine depict an eight-sided star, the most common depiction of the sun; this symbol is also called a \"ruzha.\" Six- or seven-sided stars can also be seen, but much less commonly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian traditions and superstitions",
        "text": "Among these spirits, the domovoi was considered the least dangerous. If angered, the domovoi would act as a poltergeist. Other spirits, like the rusalka, were more malevolent. She was said to lure men to their watery deaths. Among the places where the unclean force was strongest against the Russian peasant were the crossroads, the threshold and the bathhouse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanky created by the mountain people of the Hutsul region of Ukraine often showed a stylized fir tree branch, a symbol of youth and eternal life. Trees, in general, symbolized strength, renewal, creation, growth; as with animal motifs, the parts (leaves, branches) had the same symbolic meaning as the whole. The oak tree was a sacred to the ancient god Perun, the most powerful of the pagan Slavic pantheon, and thus oak leaves symbolized strength."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolotnik",
        "text": "\"Babay\" (\u0411\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0301\u0439), a night spirit from Russian and Ukrainian folklore, according to some believes, lives in a swamp, hiding in thickets of reeds during the daylight hours. Here also lives the North Russian \"lobasta\" (\u043b\u043e\u0431\u0430\u0301\u0441\u0442\u0430), an evil old hag of enormous growth with a very large breasts. She grabs passers-by and tickles them to death with her nipples."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Each region, each village, and almost every family had its own special ritual, its own symbols, meanings and secret formulas for dyeing eggs. These customs were preserved faithfully and passed down from mother to daughter through generations. The custom of decorating pysanky was observed with greatest care, and a pysanka, after receiving the Easter blessing, was held to have great powers as a talisman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vyshyvanka",
        "text": "Vyshyvanka is used as a talisman to protect the person wearing it and to tell a story. A geometric pattern woven in the past by adding red or black threads into the light thread was later imitated by embroidery, and believed to have the power to protect a person from all harm. There is a saying in Ukrainian \"\u041d\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0432\u0441\u044f \u0443 \u0432\u0438\u0448\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0456\" which is translated as somebody was born wearing vyshyvanka. It is used to emphasize someone's luck and ability to survive in any situation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vampire folklore by region",
        "text": "Among the beliefs of the East Slavs, those of the northern regions (i.e. most of Russia) are unique in that their undead, while having many of the features of the vampires of other Slavic peoples, do not drink blood and do not bear a name derived from the common Slavic root for \"vampire\". Ukrainian and Belarusian legends are more \"conventional\", although in Ukraine the vampires may sometimes not be described as dead at all, or may be seen as engaging in vampirism long before death. Ukrainian folklore also described vampires as having red faces and tiny tails. During cholera epidemics in the 19th century, there were cases of people being burned alive by their neighbors on charges of being vampires."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alepochori, Evros",
        "text": "They believed a lot in legends, Traditions, manners, customs, Beliefs, Prejudices and Ghosts. When they got sick they had to go through a foreign field. In order not to cry, the small children went through \"wedges\". There was someone in the village who was healing the \"saralik\" (yellowness). He cut the lower part of his tongue and did not let the patient sleep for three days. They believed a lot in the \"stio\" (ghost). In an elm, in the place \"gialadarki\", the \"stio\" appeared late at night. They believed in the \"uramades\", that is, that they peed on the part of the devil and had to be healed. Doctors and herbs replaced the doctors who did not exist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wild man",
        "text": "In the East Slavic sources referred: Saratov \u2013 leshy; a short man with a big beard and tail; Ukrainian \"lisovi lyudi\" \u2013 old men with overgrown hair who give silver to those who rub their nose; Kostroma \"dikiy\" chort; Vyatka \"dikonkiy\" unclean spirit, sending paralysis; Ukrainian \"lihiy div\" \u2013 marsh spirit, sending fever; Ukrainian Carpathian \"dika baba\" \u2013 an attractive woman in seven-league boots, sacrifices children and drinks their blood, seduces men. There are similarities between the East Slavic reports about wild people and book legends about \"diviy\" peoples (unusual people from the medieval novel \"Alexandria\") and mythical representations of miraculous peoples. For example, Russians from Ural believe that \"divnye lyudi\" are short, beautiful, have a pleasant voice, live in caves in the mountains, can predict the future; among the Belarusians of Vawkavysk uyezd, the \"dzikie lyudzi\" \u2013 one-eyed cannibals living overseas, also drink lamb blood; among the Belarusians of Sok\u00f3\u0142ka uyezd, the overseas \"dzikij narod\" have grown wool, they have a long tail and ears like an ox; they do not speak, but only squeal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The sun can also appear as a flower or a \u0442\u0440\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442 (three leaf). The swastika, called in Ukrainian a \"svarha,\" is sometimes referred to as a \"broken cross\" or \"ducks\u2019 necks.\" It represented the sun in pagan times: the movement of the arms around the cross represented the movement of the sun across the sky. The Slavic pagans also believed that the sun did not rise on its own, but was carried across the sky by a stag (or, in some versions, a horse). The deer and horses often found on Hutsul pysanky are solar symbols."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zaporozhian Sich",
        "text": "Ukrainian writer Adrian Kaschenko (1858\u20131921) and historian Olena Apanovich note that the abolition of the Zaporozhian Sich had a strong symbolic effect, and memories of the event remained for a long time in local folklore."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukrainian folklore",
        "text": "Folk customs have undergone many changes in Ukraine as modern culture was introduced. Under the Soviets, folk customs were unsuccessfully suppressed. Believers still practiced the Christian customs, and some people in the country even revived the ancient customs and rites. Many Christian rites have been revived in post-Soviet Ukraine after 1991, especially in western oblasts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukrainians",
        "text": "In the Western region known as Halychyna the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, one of the Eastern Rite Catholic Churches has a strong membership. Since the fall of the Soviet Union there has been a growth of Protestant churches and Rodnovery, a contemporary Slavic modern pagan religion. There are also ethnic minorities that practice other religions, i.e. Crimean Tatars (Islam), and Jews and Karaim (Judaism)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fofudja",
        "text": "Many believe this original Ukrainian creation to be the means to combat prejudice and xenophobia exhibited towards Ukrainians in modern Russia and to mock Russian nationalists within Ukraine proper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maksym Zalizniak",
        "text": "In traditional culture of the Ukrainian people Zaliznyak lives on as a folk hero for his struggle to protect Ukrainian identity and Orthodox Christian faith though all Orthodox Christian Greeks including women and children were to be assassinated in Ukraine. A lot of Orthodox Christian Ukrainians were killed by his people as well. He had never insisted on the assassination of just Jews and Poles, his ethnic cleansing was targeted on just almost all other minorities of Ukraine. He explained that women and children being the vast majority of his army massacred Jews and Poles without any his orders. Many Jewish and Polish children became Ukrainians after his uprising while Old-believers, Greeks, Armenians, Moslems and others died together with their children. His idealized image is a subject of numerous folk songs, legends and lore. For example, Maksym Rylsky was the descendant of the Polish student of the Uniate academy in Uman, who studied Russian (Ukrainian) in the academy and sang an Orthodox/Uniate religious song before his would-be assassination. He was not killed as the result. Illegitimate children could become only Uniate clergymen, not Roman Catholic ones. He then became a landlord, an influential Polish nobleman and the ancestor of Maksym Rylsky, who protected the memory of Zaliznyak and Khmelnitzky."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of jewellery in Ukraine",
        "text": "In Slavic mythology amulets play a large role in keeping away evil spirits. During the eleventh and twelfth century, snake medallions were very popular. The medallion was round, oval or octagon in shape. On the outside, it had an image of one or more Christian saints, but on the inside facing toward the wearer and unseen by the public, it had an image of a snakelike Slavic female deity, possibly Melusine. This is an example of a \"double faith\" in the culture of ancient Rus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukrainian folklore",
        "text": "Ukrainian folklore is the folk tradition which has developed in Ukraine and among ethnic Ukrainians. The earliest examples of folklore found in Ukraine is the layer of pan-Slavic folklore that dates back to the ancient Slavic mythology of the Eastern Slavs. Gradually, Ukrainians developed a layer of their own distinct folk culture. Folklore has been an important tool in defining and retaining a cultural distinctiveness in Ukraine in the face of strong assimilatory pressures from neighboring lands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Folklore of Russia",
        "text": "Unlike the leshy, the vodyanoy is seen as unequivocally evil. In many cases, he is thought of as equivalent to the devil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mavka",
        "text": "The spirits known by this term represented the souls of girls who had died unnatural tragic or premature deaths, particularly unchristened babies. Mavkas often appeared in the form of beautiful young girls who enticed and lured young men into the woods, where they \"tickled\" them to death. Mavkas had no reflection in water, did not cast shadows, and had \"no back\", meaning that their insides could be seen. (Those were more often called \"Nyavka\" and they were believed to live in Western Ukraine, which has more dangerous mountain rivers than Central Ukraine, while Mavkas, who were believed to live in Central Ukraine, had their backs.) In some accounts, they were also said to help farmers by looking after cattle and driving out wild animals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Danylo Yanevsky",
        "text": "He considers Bohdan Khmelnytsky an antihero of Ukraine, a man who brought catastrophe to Ukraine, and \u00aba man who sold everyone who could be sold to everyone who would buy it; a man who spent the rest of his life legitimizing this quasi-state is an ugly entity in which people did not exist at all, but this Cossack's peasantry existed as the ruling class.\u00bb"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Another ancient symbol is that of the \u0437\u043c\u0456\u044f or serpent, the ancient god of water and earth. The serpent could be depicted in several ways: as an \"S\" or sigma, as a curl or spiral, or as a wave. When depicted as a sigma, the zmiya often wears a crown. Depictions of the serpent can be found on Neolithic Trypillian pottery. The serpent symbol on a \"pysanka\" is said to bring protection from catastrophe. Spirals were particularly strong talismans, as an evil spirit, upon entering the house, would be drawn into the spiral and trapped there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mostyshche",
        "text": "A manuscript of the ancient Ukrainian drama \"Povist' o zburenni pekla\" (eng. \"The tale of the perturbation of hell\") by Ivan Franko was found in the village. In 1899-1914 a public courtyard with a tavern was leased by the community. In 1902 the community of the village built a school, that works till today. In 1898 a branch of the Prosvita Society was opened in Mostyshche to oppose russophile policy of the local prist Arsen Avdykovsky. In 1915 after the return of the Austrian troops several people were accused to be Moscowphiles and sent to the concentration camp Talergof. Some families run away from the enemy with russian troops, however came back after the war was over."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supernatural beings in Slavic religion",
        "text": "In Slavic mythology, Rusalka is a water nymph, a female spirit who lives in rivers. In most versions, rusalka is an unquiet being who is no longer alive, associated with the unclean spirit (\"Nav\") and dangerous. According to Dmitry Zelenin, people who die violently and before their time, such as young women who commit suicide because they have been jilted by their lovers, or unmarried women who are pregnant out of wedlock, must live out their designated time on earth as a spirit. Another theory is that \"rusalki\" are the female spirits of the unclean dead; this includes suicides, unbaptised babies, and those who die without last rites. (Under this theory, male unclean dead were said to become vodianoi.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanky were traditionally made during the last week of Lent, Holy Week in the Orthodox and Greek (Uniate) Catholic calendars. (Both faiths are represented in Ukraine, and both still celebrate Easter by the Julian calendar.) They were made by the women of the family. During the middle of the Lenten season, women began putting aside eggs, those that were most perfectly shaped and smooth, and ideally, the first laid eggs of young hens. There had to be a rooster, as only fertilized eggs could be used. (If non-fertile eggs were used, there would be no fertility in the home.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ghost of Kyiv",
        "text": "Military.com stated that \"\"The Ghost of Kyiv,\" ... is almost certainly a myth, albeit an incredibly useful one as Ukraine tries to rally its citizens to resist Russian conquest\". \"Newsweek\" wrote that \"The \"Ghost of Kyiv\" is very likely not real, but instead an imaginary hero designed to bolster Ukrainians' morale in the face of the Russian invasion ... There is zero evidence the \"Ghost of Kyiv\" exists with Ukrainian authorities not confirming their existence\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hlybokaye",
        "text": "In July 2009, in the Orthodox Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary the council during a work order found the remains faithful to the Poles. Screening is conducted, and the bones were buried, officially because of the odor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siberian Yupik",
        "text": "The Evan people, a tribe that lived on the far eastern side of Russia, believed that the spirit of smallpox could be seen as a Russian woman with red hair. A local shaman would be there to greet migrating reindeer herders (who sometimes brought the disease with them). If the shaman saw the spirit of the disease in the caravan, several shaman worked together to fight it off with a seance. Others in the tribe helped with this ritual."
      },
      {
        "title": "White Croats",
        "text": "One of the legendary figures Kyi, Shchek and Khoryv who founded Kiev, brother Khoryv or Horiv, and its oronym Khorevytsia, is often related to the Croatian ethnonym. This legend, recorded by Nestor, has similar Armenian transcript from the 7th-8th century, in which Horiv is mentioned as \"Horean\". Pa\u0161\u010denko related his name, beside to the Croatian ethnonym, to solar deity Hors. Near Kiev there's a stream where previously existed large homonymous village Horvatka or Hrovatka (destroyed in the time of Joseph Stalin), which flows into Stuhna River. In the vicinity are parts of the Serpent's Wall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orans of Kyiv",
        "text": "The image is considered one of the greatest sacred symbols in Ukraine, a palladion defending the people of the country. It has been called an \"Indestructible Wall\" or \"Unmoveable Wall\". Legend says that as long as the Theotokos is extending Her arms over Kyiv, the city will stand indestructible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Geometric symbols used quite commonly on pysanky today. The triangle is said to symbolize the Holy Trinity; in ancient times it symbolized other trinities: the elements of air, fire and water, the family (man, woman and child) or the cycle of life (birth, life, and death). Diamonds, a type of quadrilateral, are sometimes said to symbolize knowledge. Curls/spirals are ancient symbols of the Zmiya/Serpent, and are said to have a meaning of defense or protection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laz\u0103r \u0218\u0103ineanu",
        "text": "One portion of \u0218\u0103ineanu's studies in Romanian folklore bordered on his investigation of Jewish history. The scholar noticed recurring characteristic among antagonists in Romanian fairy tales, particularly the \"uria\u0219i\"\u2014occasionally known as \"jidovi\", \"Jews\", or \"t\u0103tari\", \"Tatars\". He attributed such traits to a possible conflictual encounter, taking place at some point in the early medieval period, between Romanians (or Vlachs) and the Khazars, a Turkic tribe that had adopted Judaism. His interpretation, as paraphrased by the scholar himself, concluded: \"Was there in the past a people about which one could claim with certainty that it was both Tatar and Jewish at the same time? My answer to this question is that such a people existed, and it is known in history under the name of Khazars [...]. After spreading its domination over Eastern Europe, these Jewish-Tatars suddenly disappeared from the stage of history. What became of them? A part of these Khazars will have looked early on for a shelter in Transylvania, from where they crossed to the Danubian countries, especially in Muntenia, particularly in Muscel and Romana\u021bi districts where the traditional memories regarding them seem to be concentrated. [...] The settlements and their dwellings left important traces that took on colossal proportions in people's imagination. People of a supernatural size seemed to have lived [...] in an ancient time, which the old can hardly remember, and our peasants call those giant people Jews or Tatars.\" The scholar referred to various constants in folkloric accounts: peasants' testimonies which attributed large stone ruins to the Jews (whom they occasionally referred to as giants or supernaturally powerful people) and the \"red\" antagonists in fairy tales such as Ion Creang\u0103's \"Harap Alb\" (the \"Red Emperor\", the \"Red Man\" and people with red-colored facial markings, all placed by \u0218\u0103ineanu in connection to the \"Red Jews\" myth). \u0218\u0103ineanu's political adversaries, including V. A. Urechia, saw in this theory evidence of a Jewish historiographical attempt at overriding the Romanian presence in the area\u2014an interpretation since defined as \"in bad faith\" and \"slanderous\" by Laszlo Alexandru."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Pysanky held powerful magic, and had to be disposed of properly, lest a witch get a hold of one. She could use the shell to gather dew, and use the gathered dew to dry up a cow's milk. The witch could also use bits of the eggshell to poke people and sicken them. The eggshell had to be ground up very finely (and fed to chickens to make them good egg layers) or broken into pieces and tossed into a running stream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bulgarians",
        "text": "Bulgarian mythology and fairy tales are mainly about forest figures, such as the dragon zmey, the nymphs samovili (samodivi), the witch veshtitsa. They are usually harmful and devastating, but can also help the people. The samovili are said to live in beeches and sycamores the, which are therefore considered holy and not permitted burning. Samovili, although believed to be masters of everything between the sky and the earth, \"run away\" from fraxinus, garlic, dew and walnut. Walnut remained in Christianity to be used in prayers to \"see\" the dead in Spirits Day. Dictamnus is believed to be their favourite herb, which is intoxicating. The samovili are spirits in Bulgarian beliefs are the diseases themselves and punish people, kidnap shepherds, make blind the people or drown them and are in white colored dress, they are in odd numbers, which suggest they are ones of the \"dead\". Epic heroes as Prince Marko are believed to be descended from the samodivi. The elm is believed to scare the evil forces. Sacral trees in Bulgarian beliefs are beeches and oaks. Hawthorn is believed to expel all evil forces and is applied to cure suspected vampires. The tradition forbids killing of sacred animals - deer, while it is hold a belief the samodivi runaway from horse. The alleged as \"unclean\" animals resembling the devil such as the goat are, however, exempted from being eaten as the holy ones. The zmey is transhuman and can turn \"into\" animals, plants and items, he is also \"responsible\" for diseases, madness and missing women. The female version of the Slavic zmey is Lamia and Ala is another version. The girls who practiced Lazaruvane and other rituals \"could not\" be kidnapped by the zmey. The main enemy of the Sun is the zmey, which tries to eat the Sun, which scene is preserved in church art. The sun is painted one eyed as recorded by beliefs Perun stabbed one of the sun's eyes to save the world from overheating. The born on Saturday are thought as having supernatural powers, those born at the wolves' holidays and a number of people are alleged as varkolaks and vampires. The most spread Bulgarian view of the vampire was that of a rolling bulbous balloon of blood derived from the Slavic term \"pir\" \"drink\". Rusalka is believed to be a variety of the samodivi and Nav, but the latter are considered little fairies. The Thursdays remained feasts of Perun in Bulgarian beliefs. The wind and the hot steam of the bread is believed to be the souls of the dead. From Easter to Feast of the Ascension it is believed that the death are in the flowers and the animals. Mora in Bulgarian beliefs is a black hairy evil spirit with four firing eyes associated with nightmares when causing someone to scream, similarly to Kikimora. Polunoshtnitsa and Poludnica are believed to be evil spirits causing death, while to Lesnik, Domovnik and Vodnik a dualistic nature is attributed. Thanks to the Vlshebnik, a man of the community, a magician and a priest, communication with the \"other\" world was held. Torbalan is the Sack Man used to scare children, along with Baba Yaga, who is a witch in her Bulgarian version."
      },
      {
        "title": "Native Ukrainian National Faith",
        "text": "The book tells the history of \"Oryana\" or \"Orania\", identified as the Cucuteni\u2013Trypillia culture (3000\u20135000 BCE), assumed to have been the epicentre of the Indo-Europeans or Aryans, whom the book calls \"Oryans\", evoking a connection with the Ukrainian word for \"plowing\", \"oraty\". According to the book, the Oryans are the original progenitors of the white race, and the earliest European civilisation\u2014corresponding to, or preceding, the Cucuteni-Trypillia complex\u2014developed along the banks of the Dnieper. From the Oryans descended the Scythians, the Russians and the Ukrainians. The Ukrainians are regarded as the directest descendants of the Oryans, and therefore as superior to all Europeans. Kyiv is described as the \"most ancient city\" of the white race. The Oryans are described in the book as the carriers of the philosophy later written down in the Vedas, developed as the Oryans migrated in different directions including the north of the Indian subcontinent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kuskusky",
        "text": "These three Days past was precarious Time for Us. We were warned not to go far from the House, because the People...were possessed with a murdering Spirit, which led them as in a Halter in which they were catched, and with bloody Vengeance were thirsty and drunk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Sometime women simply drew parts of animals; these symbols were probably a sort of shorthand, endowed with all the attributes of the animal represented. Ducks\u2019 necks, goose feet, rabbits\u2019 ears, rams\u2019 horns, wolves\u2019 teeth, bear claws, and bulls\u2019 eyes can all be found on pysanky. One cannot be sure, however, if these symbols were actually meant to represent animals, or were renamed centuries later because of their appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kyi, Shchek and Khoryv",
        "text": "Khoryv or Horiv, and his oronym Khorevytsia, some scholars related to the Croatian ethnonym of White Croats. Pa\u0161\u010denko related his name, beside to the Croatian ethnonym, also to the solar deity Hors. Near Kyiv there is a stream where previously existed a large village named Horvatka or Hrovatka (it was destroyed in the time of Joseph Stalin), which flows into Stuhna River."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Insects are only rarely depicted on pysanky. Highly stylized spiders (and occasionally their webs) are the most common on folk pysanky, and symbolize perseverance. Beetles are sometimes seen, but rarely look anything like a beetle. What they do resemble, somewhat, is the letter \u0416, as in their Ukrainian name \"\u0436\u0443\u0447\u043e\u043a.\" Other insects are sometimes seen on modern, diasporan pysanky, most commonly butterflies and bees, but seem to be a modern innovation. In Onyshchuk's \"Symbolism of the Ukrainian Pysanka\" she depicts pysanky with a butterfly motif, but the original design, recorded by Kulzhynsky in 1899, was labeled as being swallows' tails."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Other adapted religious symbols include a triangle with a circle in the center, denoting the eye of God, and one known as the \"hand of god.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Antisemitism in Ukraine",
        "text": "\"The second reason for this stereotype is that Jews in the diaspora have been separated from the day-to-day of Ukrainian life\" says Abramson, and because of the assumption that the historical and present relationship between Jews and Ukrainians over thousands of years can be forever tarnished and defined by the handful of incidents he lists, such as:\n* A Possible Pogrom in 1113\n* The pogroms of 1648-49 under Khmelnytsky\n* The 1768 Haidamak Uprising\n* The pogroms of the early 20th century and the revolutionary era\n* The Holocaust, during which the Ukrainians collaborated with the Nazis to some degree"
      },
      {
        "title": "Folk Orthodoxy",
        "text": "... So also this Christian could not tolerate Christians who \"double-mindedly\" live, who believe in Peruna, Khorsa, Mokosh and Simargl, and in the pitchfork, whom the ignorant say, the triune sisters consider them goddesses and offer sacrifices to them and cut chickens, they pray to fire, calling it Svarozhich, they deify garlic, and when one has a feast, then they put it in buckets and bowls, and so they drink, rejoicing in their idols."
      },
      {
        "title": "Russian traditions and superstitions",
        "text": "The phrase Unclean Force (\"\u041d\u0435\u0447\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0438\u043b\u0430\") refers to both the Devil and all demons and potentially harmful things in the Russian pantheon. Although the beings of the unclean force resided primarily in the spirit realm (\"\u0442\u043e\u0442 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0442\") they were able to manifest themselves in this world in many forms, the most well known included the domovoi, the leshy, the kikimora, the vodianoi and the rusalka. Also counted among the unclean force are sorcerers, witches, the undead, and the \"unclean dead\", including suicides, those who died of drunkenness, victims of accidents and violent deaths, unbaptized infants, and vampires. Likewise, strangers and people of other religions were viewed as possessing the unclean force."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deities and fairies of fate in Slavic mythology",
        "text": "In the folklore of the Southern Slavs, rozhanitsy are described as beautiful girls or as good-natured elderly women. Sometimes also represented as three women of different ages: a girl, an adult woman and an elderly woman. Southern Slavs described them as beautiful figures with white, round cheeks. They were to be dressed in white clothes and had a white cap (mob cap) on their heads and to have silver and gold jewelry. In their hands they were to hold burning candles through which their silhouettes were to be easily visible in the moonlight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Folklore of Russia",
        "text": "Sometimes her mischief is as harmless as leading people astray, like the leshy or polevoi; other times she is thought to tickle people to death or drown them. Rusalka's connection with the unclean dead makes her a bearer of the unclean force associated with other nature spirits. Sometimes she is associated directly with the devil. Like other nature spirits, she is thought to be weakened by the sign of the cross and certain magic words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "Everyone from the youngest to the oldest received a pysanka for Easter. Young people were given pysanky with bright designs; dark pysanky were given to older people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shatans",
        "text": "In Belarusian folklore it is said that angry mythological creatures (for example, the Witch) tease Shatans. As Shatans are also known as cowardly creatures - they hide or run away from offenders. Sometimes, Shatans have died from attacks of evil spirits and beings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Demonology",
        "text": "So too many of the spirits, especially concerned with the operations of nature, are conceived as neutral or even benevolent; the European peasant fears the corn-spirit only when he irritates him by trenching on his domain and taking his property by cutting the corn; similarly, there is no reason why the more insignificant personages of the pantheon should be conceived as malevolent, and we find that the Petara of the Dyaks are far from indiscriminate and malignant, being viewed as invisible guardians of mankind."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pseudo-mythology",
        "text": "A good deal of non-existing deities and spirits were invented by (also alias P. Drevlyansky) in his writings about Belarusian mythology, in particular, in his work \"\" (1st part: 1846, 2nd and 3rd: 1852), where he described 52 alleged Belarusian mythological characters, most of them are questioned by modern science. Despite the fact that his writings were heavily criticized by the contemporaries (e.g., by Alexander Potebnja), it has been treated as a trusted reference work by several generations of researchers. While Shpilevsky did collect Belarusian folklore, he liberally added his own interpretations without drawing distinction from authentic folklore."
      },
      {
        "title": "Native Ukrainian National Faith",
        "text": "The scholar Mariya Lesiv noted that Sylenkoism is \"the most politically charged\" among Ukrainian Rodnover streams, and that, differently from other Rodnovers who put more emphasis on the shared identity of the Slavic peoples, the Sylenkoites tend to emphasise the unique characteristics of the Ukrainians and especially their distinction from the Russians. Some Sylenkoites consider the Ukrainians to be the true descendants of the early medieval Russes and of Kievan Rus', while the modern Russians to be for the most part Russified Tatars of late medieval Muscovy (Muscovites). The latter are depicted in the \"Maha Vira\" as historic political enemies of the Ukrainians, and the religious calendar elaborated by Lev Sylenko includes a Day of the People's Anger meant to inspire indignation towards the oppression endured in the past by the Ukrainian people. Responding to both historical foreign oppression and the contemporary socio-political problems of Ukraine, some Sylenkoites have proposed projects to strengthen the identity of the Ukrainians; for instance, the Sylenkoite Bohdan Klymchak, from Lviv, a political prisoner during the Soviet Union, proposed the project of \"Oaza-Hora\", a massive multilayered, terraced, mountain-like shrine of national awareness, dedicated to Ukrainian historical heroes and political prisoners of the Soviet regime."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukrainian folklore",
        "text": "Ukrainian folk customs have numerous layers defined by the period in which that aspect developed and the area in which it was exploited. The lowest and oldest level is the pan-Slavic layer of folk culture which has many elements that are common to the Slavic people in general. Above that are elements common to the Eastern Slavs, and above that are elements found only in Ukraine itself. The layer above this contains cultural and folkloric elements that define the various micro-groups of the Ukrainian ethos such as the Boykos, Hutsuls, Lemkos, Lyshaks, Podolians and Rusyns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Latvian mythology",
        "text": "The belief that all sorcerers and witches are evil only came in to being after Christianization. Before it was believed that, like everyone, sorcerers could be both evil and good. After Christianization it was believed that sorcerers were servants of evil called \"burvji\", \"burtnieki\" (wizards) and \"raganas\" (witches) marry \"velni\". These might, in reality, have been folk medicine practitioners."
      },
      {
        "title": "Khegayk",
        "text": "\"...These people are known as very strong and brave horsemen. There was a big fight because one of the Tatar warriors took a fish from a Circassian base. The Tatars stole their fish, and they killed them all. From there I went east again, passing dangerous places. All five hundred and fifty houses of the tribe, covered with reeds, fenced, have two doors - one after the other. In all houses there are very capable, skillful people, whose hands are not alien to any craft. If we called them \"kafirs\" (infidels), they were angry, and if we called them \"Muslims\", they were happy. However, even if they claim to be Muslims, they deny the resurrection of people on the day of the Judgment... May God forgive us. Their chief, Enjiruk-Bey, eighty years old, bearded, deaf, is a well-fed kafir... This chief owns three thousand horse and foot soldiers.\"In the 18th century, the number of Khegayk had decreased significantly. Glavani reports about one Khegayk district of 500 dwellings, managed by a chief. The district was located near the coast of the Azov Sea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paraskeva Friday",
        "text": "According to Ukrainian beliefs, Friday walks pierced with needles and spindles of negligent hosts who have not honored the saint and her days. Until the 19th century, the custom of \"leading Pyatnitsa\" - a woman with loose hair{{{Sfn|Voropay|1958}} was preserved in Ukraine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lirnyk",
        "text": "They were active in all areas of Ukraine from (at least) the 17th century on. The tradition was discontinued in Eastern/Central Ukraine in the mid-1930s, some lirnyky were seen in the regions of Western Ukraine until the 1970s and even the 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Folklore of Russia",
        "text": "In general, he is thought to be mischievous or evil, and has been said to make people get lost in the woods, cause people to fall ill, steal women, and even eat people. His traditional weaknesses include fire and the sign of the cross, indicative of later association between leshy and the Christian devil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yevhen Nakonechny",
        "text": "In spite of well-proven and widely known historical facts about the Final Solution in the territory of modern-day Ukraine, Nakonechny rejected the notion that Ukrainian nationalists participated in the destruction of the Jews. \"For Nakonechny, it was 'various Ukrainophobes' who manufactured tales about Ukrainian participation in the Holocaust. Anti-Ukrainian ideology is more important for them than historical truth\" according to him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "The color palette of traditional pysanky was fairly limited, and based on natural dyes. Yellow, red/orange, green, brown and black were the predominant colors. With the advent of aniline dyes in the 1800s, small amounts of blue and purple were sometimes added. It is important to note that the meanings below are generalizations; different regions interpreted colors differently.\n* Red - is probably the oldest symbolic color, and has many meanings. It represents life-giving blood, and often appears on pysanky with nocturnal and heavenly symbols. It represents love and joy, and the hope of marriage. It is also associated with the sun.\n* Black - is a particularly sacred color, and is most commonly associated with the \"other world,\" but not in a negative sense.\n* Yellow - symbolized the moon and stars and also, agriculturally, the harvest.\n* Blue - Represented blue skies or the air, and good health.\n* White - Signified purity, birth, light, rejoicing, virginity.\n* Green - the color of new life in the spring. Green represents the resurrection of nature, and the riches of vegetation.\n* Brown - represents the earth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "As with symbols, these talismanic meanings of colors applied to traditional pysanky with traditional designs, and not to modern decorative pysanky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vyshyvanka",
        "text": "In English translations of Ukrainian texts, the word \"vyshyvanka\" is a loanword. Same way as kilt speaks about its Scottish origin, or moccasins attribute to Native American heritage, vyshyvanka proudly defines Ukrainian people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ukrainian folklore",
        "text": "Some features of Ukrainian folklore are quite distinctive from that of the neighbouring Slavic peoples. The songs and festivities of Ivana Kupala (St John's Feast) and the Koliada normally associated with some of the deepest and most ancient levels of folklore contain features not found in the neighbouring Russian culture, and are distinctively Ukrainian. These elements put into a quandary the notion that the ethnic Russian and Ukrainian people sprang from one source."
      },
      {
        "title": "Huta Stepa\u0144ska",
        "text": "Huta Stepa\u0144ska does not exist any more. All houses inhabited by the Poles were burned to the ground in 1943, and local Ukrainians stole all their possessions, including cattle. What remains is a cross with Polish inscription \"Jezu ratuj nas\" (\"Jesus Save Us\", it is a copy of the original, 1943 cross) as well as commemorative stone, placed where once a Roman Catholic church stood, with inscriptions in both Polish and Ukrainian languages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yer-sub",
        "text": "Demons and spirits served important functions in pre-industrial Turkic societies and were considered to be very interactive in the lives and domains of humans. Some spirits were benevolent and could be helpful in human tasks, others were harmful and often destructive. These spirits were also considered to be derived from ancestors or certain deceased humans. Such spirits could appear at will in various forms including that of different animals or human form. Some of these spirits could also participate in malevolent activity to harm humans, such as drowning humans, obstructing the harvest, or sucking the blood of livestock and sometimes humans. Hence, the Turkic peoples were obliged to appease these spirits to prevent the spirits from their potential for erratic and destructive behaviour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Native Ukrainian National Faith",
        "text": "Like other Rodnovers, especially Cossack sorcerers, many Sylenkoites practise martial arts. The most widely known figure of Ukrainian martial arts in the 2010s is the Sylenkoite follower Volodymyr Pylat, the founder and teacher of \"Boiovyi Hopak\", a martial form of the traditional Cossack dance of \"hopak\" combined with a philosophical worldview. Before turning to Slavic martial arts, Pylat was a \"sensei\" in Kyokushin Karate and he studied other Eastern martial arts styles. His school is located in Lviv, and his work is appreciated both by Sylenkoites and by other Rodnovers. The basic philosophical tenets of the practice are expressed by Pylat himself in the following terms:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Early Slavs",
        "text": "Pre-Christian Slavic spirits and demons could be entities in their own right or spirits of the dead and were associated with home or nature. Forest spirits, entities in their own right, were venerated as the counterparts of home spirits, which were usually related to ancestors. Demons and spirits were good or evil, which suggests that the Slavs had a dualistic cosmology and are known to have revered them with sacrifices and gifts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blind musicians",
        "text": "The \"kobzars\" have a central place in the national identity of Ukraine. Folklorist Izmail Sreznevskyi argued that the initial Cossack bandurists were actual witnesses of the great battles about which they sang. The image of warrior-bards singing epics was quite popular, and there became a tradition that the great ancient singers were veterans valorously blinded in combat. This in turn led to the belief that the kobzar tradition had greatly weakened in the 19th century, since the traditional songs were now sung by people who were more like beggars than like warriors. Kononenko points out that there is no factual basis for this image, and her research showed that the minstrel tradition was still very strong and creative up until the 1930s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of modern Paganism",
        "text": "The conflict in eastern Ukraine has caused different reactions among Ukrainian Rodnovers. Representatives of the RUN faith view Russia as the aggressor, while members of other Rodnovery organizations, such as the Pan-Slavic Rodnovery Fire of the Native Orthodox Faith, most often believe that Russians and Ukrainians are brothers and that the conflict is caused by machinations of the USA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Danylo Nechai",
        "text": "He was opposed to the signing of the Treaty of Zboriv in 1649 by Bogdan Khmelnitsky as he believed it compromised the position of the Cossacks. The ramifications of the Treaty continue to this day...from the 3rd stanza of Pavlo Chubynski's patriotic poem \"Glory and Freedom of Ukraine Has Not Yet Perished\" (from which the (modified) 1st stanza and chorus form the Ukraine National Anthem): \"Oh Bohdan, Bohdan, Our great hetman What for did you give Ukraine To wretched muscovites?! To return her honor, We lay our heads We shall call ourselves Ukraine's Faithful sons!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Symbols of Ukrainian people",
        "text": "The distinctive feature of holy images of Sivershchyna region have on their background different sized beads. Such an artistic technique gives the impression that the icon was dressed in a robe that resembles a delicate lace. The frame of such an icon is the flowers, painted in modernist style using a wavy line."
      },
      {
        "title": "Volodymyr Vynnychenko",
        "text": "During the First World War, which brought fighting and occupation onto Ukrainian lands, Vynnychenko rhetorically wondered why our \u201cbrother\u201d Russians show little concern with the suffering of Ukrainians? Why does \u201cthe love among Ukrainians for their own nation [narod] and sorrow for its fate elicit\u2026wrath, indignation, and feelings of spite, or, at best, sarcasm or indifference?\u201d The answer, he argued (writing in Russian, so again addressing Russians as much as Ukrainians), is that Ukrainians are becoming strong and aware as a nation, and \u201cthey fear us.\u201d But nothing can stop the development of Ukrainian \u201cconsciousness,\u201d he declared, which is already manifest in its intelligentsia. \u201cJust as you cannot stop the formation of clouds, arising from the earth and returning to it, so it is impossible to stop the formation of a nationally conscious stratum in a people. We emerge from the raw earth, from the soil, from the depths of our nation, and we again return to it, and we again arise.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Serhiy Nigoyan",
        "text": "On January 22, 2014 in his Twitter Svyatoslav Vakarchuk mentioned that \"another Armenian, Parajanov created the film (Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors) that became symbol for all Ukrainians, today Armenian Nigoyan sacrificed his life that became a symbol of Ukraine\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolotnik",
        "text": "The origin of bolotniki, according to popular legends, is the same as that of the rest of the evil spirits: they are fallen angels thrown down from heaven by God or the creations of Satan. It is unknown how swamp spirits were perceived in the pre-Christian era, but the Novgorod Kormchaia Book of the 13th century mentions that the Eastern pagan Slavs made sacrifices to the swamps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dmytro Tabachnyk",
        "text": "Tabachnyk is loathed by opposition politicians for his view of Ukraine\u2019s history which includes the thesis that western Ukrainians are not really Ukrainian. In a 2009 article for the Russian newspaper \"Izvestia\", Tabachnyk wrote: \u201cHalychany (western Ukrainians) practically don\u2019t have anything in common with the people of Great Ukraine, not in mentality, not in religion, not in linguistics, not in the political arena\u201d \u201cWe have different enemies and different allies. Furthermore, our allies and even brothers are their enemies, and their \u2018heroes\u2019 (Stepan Bandera, Roman Shukhevych) for us are killers, traitors and abettors of Hitler\u2019s executioners.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Folklore of Russia",
        "text": "The polevoi seems generally less sinister than other spirits, the worst of his shenanigans being to make people get lost in the field. He is generally seen as a bad omen, though, and might accidentally run someone down on his horse, so people tried to avoid him by staying out of the fields at noon, when he was most likely to be about. The polevoi was thought to have a family and children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pyrohiv",
        "text": "Commoner's homes, buildings of small trade, commerce and local administration, and old wooden village churches contain authentic items that represent the everyday lifestyle of Ukrainian villagers and townsfolk. Local volunteers and modern Ukrainian artisans selling their wares dress in old-style clothes and demonstrate the use of authentic everyday items to visitors."
      },
      {
        "title": "By\u0142o sobie miasteczko...",
        "text": "Polish historian and publicist Ewa Siemaszko noted, that many Ukrainians in Volhynia and Lesser Poland today, are afraid to talk about the destroyed Polish settlements and the locations of Polish mass graves in Western Ukraine. The reason for that lies in the politicized mythology surrounding the OUN-UPA death squads in the struggle for Ukrainian independence. The OUN-UPA formations used to treat people saving Poles as traitors. Many ethnic Ukrainians paid for such \"betrayal\" with their lives in World War II. As a result, Poles in Poland who wish to thank those righteous today, try to avoid listing their names on inscriptions and on monuments in fear of reprisal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bolotnik",
        "text": "North Slavs treated the swamps as dangerous and \"unclean\" places where chorty, biesy and other demons live. The very origin of the swamps in the Vitebsk Governorate was associated with the earth, which, during the creation of land by God, the chort hid in his mouth, and then spat it out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Symbols of Ukrainian people",
        "text": "Holy image painting of Hutsulshchyna and Pokuttia regions have the following ornamental elements:\n* flower branches;\n* tulips, combined with \"Silesia rose\";\n* lilies;\n* bells:\n* wild rose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Valley of Ghosts (Crimea)",
        "text": "The news was spread that the stranger was the great sinner. People believed that the mountain trembled because it does not want to carry him anymore. Terrified inhabitants of the valley gathered in the ancient temple and begged God to save them from the evil alien but nothings happened for long days. When the holidays horban-Adha come, believers prayed for three days and nights. The flame was raised on Demerdzhi, buzzes and groanings were all around, great stones fell down from the mountain. As everything came to peace, people did not see the terrible alien anymore."
      },
      {
        "title": "Symbols of Ukrainian people",
        "text": "\"Vyshyvanka\" was made from handmade flax or hemp cloth. There existed many types of traditional shirts depending on the shape, materials, semantics of colors. They were named after Ukrainian ethnographical regions where they were produced, such as Podillia, Halychyna, Polissia, Volyn, Dnipro, Poltava, Hutsulshchyna, Bukovyna, Lemkivshchyna and others. The symbolism of embroidery often coincides with the symbols of objects ornaments of material Trypillia culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pysanka",
        "text": "It is not only motifs on pysanky which carried symbolic weight: colors also had significance. Although the earliest pysanky were often simply two-toned, and many folk designs still are, some believed that the more colors there were on a decorated egg, the more magical power it held. A multi-colored egg could thus bring its owner better luck and a better fate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Symbols of Ukrainian people",
        "text": "Symbols of Cherkashchyna region are characterized by conventional floral ornaments such as bouquets, peonies, grape vine stems (grapes are isomorphic and stylized images, which emphasizes the compact grouping of rounded, dotted or even linear elements, resembling abundant grape clusters; grapevine is a symbol of the Eucharist, a symbol of Christ, His blood shed for the redemption of mankind from sins"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When where Easter eggs first decorated?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find the exact first egg decorations, but I did find that the custom can, according to many sources, can be traced to early Christians of Mesopotamia."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is custom can, and what does it have to do with the Christians of Mesopotamia?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There was a misunderstanding, but the usage of red Easter eggs dates back to the early Christian church in Mesopotamia. The dark red eggs represent Christ's blood shed on the cross."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any colors other than red that are used for Ukrainian Easter eggs?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There's the Krashanky, boiled eggs dyed a single color, but I couldn't find what range of colors are used. There's also Maliovanky, designed with a brush using oil or water color paints."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me more about Maliovanky?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It is sometimes used to refer to coloring (e.g. with a marker) on an egg."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any superstitions associated with Pysanka?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Many superstitions were attached to pysanky: they protect households from evil spirits and catastrophes; its magic had to be disposed of properly; the cloth used to dry pysanky could be used to cure diseases; and giving pysanky of darker colors and/or rich designs for old people for their life has already been filled. Which is these superstitions do you want to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about the spirits. What evil spirits have Ukrainians people believed in historically?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Pysanky were thought to protect households from evil spirits, and Pysanky with spiral motifs were the most powerful, as the demons and other unholy creatures would be trapped within the spirals forever. A blessed pysanka could be used to find demons hidden in the dark corners of your house."
    ],
    "topic": "Pysanka",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Pysanka:21",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pysanka",
          "Superstitions and folk beliefs"
        ],
        "ctx": "Many superstitions were attached to pysanky. Pysanky were thought to protect households from evil spirits, catastrophe, lightning and fires. Pysanky with spiral motifs were the most powerful, as the demons and other unholy creatures would be trapped within the spirals forever. A blessed pysanka could be used to find demons hidden in the dark corners of your house."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Carbon",
        "text": "According to the USGS, world production of natural graphite was 1.1\u00a0million tonnes in 2010, to which China contributed 800,000\u00a0t, India 130,000 t, Brazil 76,000\u00a0t, North Korea 30,000\u00a0t and Canada 25,000 t. No natural graphite was reported mined in the United States, but 118,000 t of synthetic graphite with an estimated value of $998\u00a0million was produced in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), world production of natural graphite in 2016 was 1,200,000 tonnes, of which the following major exporters are: China (780,000\u00a0t), India (170,000\u00a0t), Brazil (80,000\u00a0t), Turkey (32,000\u00a0t) and North Korea (6,000\u00a0t). Graphite is not yet mined in the United States. However, Westwater Resources is currently in the development stages of creating a pilot plant for their Coosa Graphite Mine near Sylacauga, Alabama. U.S. production of synthetic graphite in 2010 was 134,000\u00a0t valued at $1.07\u00a0billion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Today, pencils are still a small but significant market for natural graphite. Around 7% of the 1.1\u00a0million tonnes produced in 2011 was used to make pencils. Low-quality amorphous graphite is used and sourced mainly from China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economy of Sri Lanka",
        "text": "Sri Lanka is famous specially for its highly valued and high-purity vein graphite. As of 2014, graphite was produced at the two largest graphite mines in Sri Lanka, the Bogala and the Kahatagaha Mines. Major investors in graphite mining are Graphite Lanka Ltd., Bogala Graphite Lanka Plc, Bora Bora Resources Ltd. (BBR) of Australia, MRL Corp. Ltd. of Australia, and Saint Jean Carbon Inc. of Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite mining in Sri Lanka",
        "text": "In 1912 graphite, which matched the quality of Sri Lankan Graphite, was discovered in Madagascar. As the Madagascar graphite was able to be extracted at a lower cost, this resulted in a stiff competition. Sri Lankan production declined slowly with small revivals during the First and Second World Wars, when 30,000 metric tons of natural graphite was exported per year and over 6,000 shallow workings, pits and small scale mines were in operation. The highest historical production of in a single year was in 1962."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "According to the USGS, US natural graphite consumption in refractories comprised 12,500 tonnes in 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Graphite occurs in metamorphic rocks as a result of the reduction of sedimentary carbon compounds during metamorphism. It also occurs in igneous rocks and in meteorites. Minerals associated with graphite include quartz, calcite, micas and tourmaline. The principal export sources of mined graphite are in order of tonnage: China, Mexico, Canada, Brazil, and Madagascar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbon group",
        "text": "Carbon's allotrope diamond is produced mostly by Russia, Botswana, Congo, Canada, and South Africa, India. 80% of all synthetic diamonds are produced by Russia. China produces 70% of the world's graphite. Other graphite-mining countries are Brazil, Canada, and Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "In the United States, in 1885, Hezekiah Bradford of Philadelphia patented a similar process, but it is uncertain if his process was used successfully in the nearby graphite deposits of Chester County, Pennsylvania, a major producer by the 1890s. The Bessel process was limited in use, primarily because of the abundant cleaner deposits found around the globe, which needed not much more than hand-sorting to gather the pure graphite. The state of the art, ca. 1900, is described in the Canadian Department of Mines report on graphite mines and mining when Canadian deposits began to become important producers of graphite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbon",
        "text": "Commercially viable natural deposits of graphite occur in many parts of the world, but the most important sources economically are in China, India, Brazil and North Korea. Graphite deposits are of metamorphic origin, found in association with quartz, mica and feldspars in schists, gneisses and metamorphosed sandstones and limestone as lenses or veins, sometimes of a metre or more in thickness. Deposits of graphite in Borrowdale, Cumberland, England were at first of sufficient size and purity that, until the 19th century, pencils were made simply by sawing blocks of natural graphite into strips before encasing the strips in wood. Today, smaller deposits of graphite are obtained by crushing the parent rock and floating the lighter graphite out on water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "During the 19th century, graphite's uses greatly expanded to include stove polish, lubricants, paints, crucibles, foundry facings, and pencils, a major factor in the expansion of educational tools during the first great rise of education for the masses. The British Empire controlled most of the world's production (especially from Ceylon), but production from Austrian, German, and American deposits expanded by mid-century. For example, the Dixon Crucible Company of Jersey City, New Jersey, founded by Joseph Dixon and partner Orestes Cleveland in 1845, opened mines in the Lake Ticonderoga district of New York, built a processing plant there, and a factory to manufacture pencils, crucibles and other products in New Jersey, described in the \"Engineering & Mining Journal\" 21 December 1878. The Dixon pencil is still in production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite mining in Sri Lanka",
        "text": "During the period from 1869 to 1918 there were nearly 3,000 graphite pits and mines scattered across the south-west of the island. A number of these pits were mechanised (mol pathal) although the majority were primitive pits/mines operated manually (dabare pathal). Graphite exports peaked in 1899, with export tonnage of (35% of the world's total graphite consumption) accounting for Rs. 2.2 million (or about 22% of Sri Lanka's total foreign exchange earnings). Great Britain was the primary import of Ceylon Graphite until 1901 when they were overtaken by the United States. In 1909 the second largest imported was Germany."
      },
      {
        "title": "Agalawatte",
        "text": "Meegahatenna, in the south of Agalawatte, was the site of graphite mines which produced some of the highest quality graphite in the world. South of Meegahatenna is the Sinharaja forest, the only virgin rain forest in the wet zone of Sri Lanka."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbon",
        "text": "There are three types of natural graphite\u2014amorphous, flake or crystalline flake, and vein or lump. Amorphous graphite is the lowest quality and most abundant. Contrary to science, in industry \"amorphous\" refers to very small crystal size rather than complete lack of crystal structure. Amorphous is used for lower value graphite products and is the lowest priced graphite. Large amorphous graphite deposits are found in China, Europe, Mexico and the United States. Flake graphite is less common and of higher quality than amorphous; it occurs as separate plates that crystallized in metamorphic rock. Flake graphite can be four times the price of amorphous. Good quality flakes can be processed into expandable graphite for many uses, such as flame retardants. The foremost deposits are found in Austria, Brazil, Canada, China, Germany and Madagascar. Vein or lump graphite is the rarest, most valuable, and highest quality type of natural graphite. It occurs in veins along intrusive contacts in solid lumps, and it is only commercially mined in Sri Lanka."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bentonite",
        "text": "In 2018, China was the top producer of bentonite, with almost a one-quarter share of the world's production, followed by the United States and India. Total worldwide production was 24,400,000 metric tons of bentonite and 3,400,000 metric tons of fuller's earth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lanka Graphite",
        "text": "Lanka Graphite\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bentonite production by country",
        "text": "Bentonite production by country\n--List of producing countries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite Capital",
        "text": "- Random42 \u2013 a producer of digital medical animation"
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite mining in Sri Lanka",
        "text": "The earliest records of graphite being exported are in 1825, with the first commercial shipment occurring in 1829 to Joseph Dixon, founder of the American Crucible Company. The first official mention was in 1831, when it was included in the list of products subject to export duty. In 1832 the export revenue to the government was \u00a322 18s 16d sterling. Due to its high carbon content there was a growing demand for Sri Lankan graphite, particularly by the rapidly emerging crucible industry in Great Britain and United States, in part due to the American Civil War."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite (software)",
        "text": "Graphite is used in production by companies such as Ford Motor Company, Booking.com, GitHub, Etsy, The Washington Post and Electronic Arts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nuclear graphite",
        "text": "During this period, Fermi and Szilard purchased graphite from several manufacturers with various degrees of neutron absorption cross section: AGX graphite from National Carbon Company with 6.68 mb (millibarns) cross section, US graphite from United States Graphite Company with 6.38 mb cross section, Speer graphite from the Speer Carbon Company with 5.51 mb cross section, and when it became available, AGOT graphite from National Carbon, with 4.97 mb cross section. (See also Haag [2005].) By November 1942 National Carbon had shipped 250 tons of AGOT graphite to the University of Chicago where it became the primary source of graphite to be used in the construction of Fermi's Chicago Pile-1, the first nuclear reactor to generate a sustained chain reaction (December 2, 1942). AGOT graphite was used to build the X-10 graphite reactor in Oak Ridge TN (early 1943) and the first reactors at the Hanford Site in Washington (mid 1943), for the production of plutonium during and after World War II. The AGOT process and its later refinements became standard techniques in the manufacture of nuclear graphite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Windscale Piles",
        "text": "The graphite for the neutron moderator had to be as pure as possible, as even the smallest impurities could act as neutron poisons that would impede the reactor's operation. Normal industrial graphite would not do. The British had been excluded from the work the Manhattan Project had done in this field, but Union Carbide, the Americans' principal supplier of graphite, had subsidiaries in Britain and Canada, British Acheson at Sheffield, and the Electro-Metallurgical Company in Welland, Ontario. The latter had a great deal of technical information about manufacturing pure graphite that it was willing to share."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphene production techniques",
        "text": "Graphite particles can be corroded in molten salts to form a variety of carbon nanostructures including graphene. Hydrogen cations, dissolved in molten Lithium chloride, can be discharged on cathodically polarized graphite rods, which then intercalate into the graphite structure, peeling graphite to produce graphene. The graphene nanosheets produced displayed a single-crystalline structure with a lateral size of several hundred nanometers and a high degree of crystallinity and thermal stability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "Graphite sticks were initially wrapped in string or sheepskin for stability. England would enjoy a monopoly on the production of pencils until a method of reconstituting the graphite powder was found in 1662 in Italy. However, the distinctively square English pencils continued to be made with sticks cut from natural graphite into the 1860s. The town of Keswick, near the original findings of block graphite, still manufactures pencils, the factory also being the location of the Cumberland Pencil Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Sometime before 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), an enormous deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England, which the locals found useful for marking sheep. During the reign of Elizabeth I (1558\u20131603), Borrowdale graphite was used as a refractory material to line molds for cannonballs, resulting in rounder, smoother balls that could be fired farther, contributing to the strength of the English navy. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and soft, and could easily be cut into sticks. Because of its military importance, this unique mine and its production were strictly controlled by the Crown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mersen",
        "text": "In addition, it acquired a number of competitors such as Ferraz, one of the biggest manufacturers of fuses and electrical protection systems. Then, it took the control of Stackpole, which led it to become one of the world leaders in graphite production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Valence Industries",
        "text": "Valence Industries\u2019 aim is to produce graphite products for multiple applications and multiple industries for sale to global markets, including the Asia Pacific region, Europe and North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "A high-quality flake graphite product that closely resembles natural flake graphite can be made from steelmaking kish. Kish is a large-volume near-molten waste skimmed from the molten iron feed to a basic oxygen furnace and consists of a mix of graphite (precipitated out of the supersaturated iron), lime-rich slag, and some iron. The iron is recycled on-site, leaving a mixture of graphite and slag. The best recovery process uses hydraulic classification (which utilizes a flow of water to separate minerals by specific gravity: graphite is light and settles nearly last) to get a 70% graphite rough concentrate. Leaching this concentrate with hydrochloric acid gives a 95% graphite product with a flake size ranging from 10 mesh down."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbon",
        "text": "As for individual carbon allotropes, graphite is found in large quantities in the United States (mostly in New York and Texas), Russia, Mexico, Greenland, and India. Natural diamonds occur in the rock kimberlite, found in ancient volcanic \"necks\", or \"pipes\". Most diamond deposits are in Africa, notably in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, the Republic of the Congo, and Sierra Leone. Diamond deposits have also been found in Arkansas, Canada, the Russian Arctic, Brazil, and in Northern and Western Australia. Diamonds are now also being recovered from the ocean floor off the Cape of Good Hope. Diamonds are found naturally, but about 30% of all industrial diamonds used in the U.S. are now manufactured."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bentonite production by country",
        "text": "This is a list of countries by bentonite in 2006 mostly based on British Geological Survey accessed in June 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "Production technology has changed little over the past 120 years; only standards and mechanisms for the manufacture of graphite rods and wooden halves have improved. The main components in the manufacture of rods \u2013 purified graphite powder and the clay binder kaolin \u2013 remain the same; the hardness of the graphite core depends on the ratio of graphite to kaolin, with softer cores containing more graphite. The hardest pencil contains about 20% graphite, the softest one up to 90%. A 1:1 ratio roughly corresponds to the 3H hardness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Automotive industry in Turkey",
        "text": "Despite large reserves of amorphous graphite not enough is mined and there are missing links in processing it into negative electrodes (sometimes called anodes)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nuclear graphite",
        "text": "The neutron cross section of graphite was also investigated during the second world war in Germany by Walter Bothe, P. Jensen, and Werner Heisenberg. The purest graphite available to them was a product from the Siemens Plania company, which exhibited a neutron absorption cross section of about 6.4 mb to 7.5 mb (Haag 2005). Heisenberg therefore decided that graphite would be unsuitable as a moderator in a reactor design using natural uranium, due to this apparently high rate of neutron absorption. Consequently, the German effort to create a chain reaction involved attempts to use heavy water, an expensive and scarce alternative, made all the more difficult to acquire as a consequence of the Norwegian heavy water sabotage by Norwegian and Allied forces. Writing as late as 1947, Heisenberg still did not understand that the only problem with graphite was the boron impurity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphene",
        "text": "Since the early 2000s, a number of companies and research laboratories have been working to develop commercial applications of graphene. In 2014 a National Graphene Institute was established with that purpose at the University of Manchester, with a 60 million GBP initial funding. In North East England two commercial manufacturers, Applied Graphene Materials and Thomas Swan Limited have begun manufacturing. Cambridge Nanosystems is a large-scale graphene powder production facility in East Anglia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nuclear graphite",
        "text": "Reactor-grade graphite must be free of neutron absorbing materials, especially boron, which has a large neutron capture cross section. Boron sources in graphite include the raw materials, the packing materials used in baking the product, and even the choice of soap (for example, borax) used to launder the clothing worn by workers in the machine shop. Boron concentration in thermally purified graphite (such as AGOT graphite) can be less than 0.4 ppm and in chemically purified nuclear graphite it is less than 0.06 ppm."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Brothers (islands), Hong Kong",
        "text": "Graphite was mined at West Brother Island between 1952 and 1971. By 1964, the mine workings had reached 90 m below sea level."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "The first attempt to manufacture graphite sticks from powdered graphite was in Nuremberg, Germany, in 1662. It used a mixture of graphite, sulphur, and antimony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphene",
        "text": "Tsinghua University in Beijing, led by Wei Fei of the Department of Chemical Engineering, claims to be able to create a carbon nanotube fibre which has a tensile strength of ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The US and European refractories industry had a crisis in 2000\u20132003, with an indifferent market for steel and a declining refractory consumption per tonne of steel underlying firm buyouts and many plant closures. Many of the plant closures resulted from the acquisition of Harbison-Walker Refractories by RHI AG and some plants had their equipment auctioned off. Since much of the lost capacity was for carbon-magnesite brick, graphite consumption within the refractories area moved towards alumina-graphite shapes and Monolithics, and away from the brick. The major source of carbon-magnesite brick is now imported from China. Almost all of the above refractories are used to make steel and account for 75% of refractory consumption; the rest is used by a variety of industries, such as cement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite mining in Sri Lanka",
        "text": "Graphite mining in Sri Lanka has occurred since the Dutch occupation of the country. It is the only country in the world to produce the purest form of graphite, vein graphite (also known as lump graphite), in commercial quantities, currently accounts for less than 1% of the world graphite production. Graphite (locally known as plumbago) mines were mostly located in north western and south western parts of the island, with working pits located in Aluketiya, Meegahatenna, Matugama and Agalawatta. The Geological Survey Department, started in 1903, maintained records of all graphite pits, shallow workings and mines under the Inspector of Mines. However these records were lost when the Geological Survey and Mines Bureau was established in 1992. The miners were Singhalese peasants, using primitive methods for driving shafts, adding to local folklore. Through plumbago mining, entrepreneurs such as Don Charles Gemoris Attygalle, Don Spater Senanayake and Duenuge Disan Pedris made their fortunes leading to many of the larger mines coming under the control several business families such as the Senanayakes, Kotalawelas and De Mels. These families dominated the pre-independence and post-independence political landscape in Ceylon, with membership in the United National Party. Many of these politicians (Sir John Kotelawala in Dodangaslanda, Dudley Senanayake in Dedigama) established their constituencies in these mining areas, where they traditionally had influence over the villages employed in their mines. Sri Lanka's current annual production is 9,000 to 10,000 tons for two underground mines, one of which is Kahatagha and Bogala."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nuclear graphite",
        "text": "As a result of this meeting, over the next two years, MacPherson and Hamister developed thermal and gas extraction purification techniques at National Carbon for the production of boron-free graphite. The resulting product was designated AGOT Graphite (\"Acheson Graphite Ordinary Temperature\") by National Carbon, and it was \"the first true nuclear grade graphite\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The powder is made by heating powdered petroleum coke above the temperature of graphitization, sometimes with minor modifications. The graphite scrap comes from pieces of unusable electrode material (in the manufacturing stage or after use) and lathe turnings, usually after crushing and sizing. Most synthetic graphite powder goes to carbon raising in steel (competing with natural graphite), with some used in batteries and brake linings. According to the USGS, US synthetic graphite powder and scrap production were 95,000 tonnes in 2001 (latest data)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphene production techniques",
        "text": "The early approaches of cleaving multi-layer graphite into single layers or growing it epitaxially by depositing a layer of carbon onto another material have been supplemented by numerous alternatives. In all cases, the graphite must bond to some substrate to retain its 2d shape."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancuabe District",
        "text": "There are also large reserves of graphite which were exploited commercially from 1994 to 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) is the highest-quality synthetic form of graphite. It is used in scientific research, in particular, as a length standard for scanner calibration of scanning probe microscope."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pingdu mine",
        "text": "The Pingdu mine is one of the largest graphite mines in China and in the world. The mine is located in the east of the country in Shandong. The mine has estimated reserves of 100 million tonnes of ore 10% graphite."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by bauxite production",
        "text": "List of countries by bauxite production\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "English and German pencils were not available to the French during the Napoleonic Wars; France, under naval blockade imposed by Great Britain, was unable to import the pure graphite sticks from the British Grey Knotts mines \u2013 the only known source in the world. France was also unable to import the inferior German graphite pencil substitute. It took the efforts of an officer in Napoleon's army to change this. In 1795, Nicolas-Jacques Cont\u00e9 discovered a method of mixing powdered graphite with clay and forming the mixture into rods that were then fired in a kiln. By varying the ratio of graphite to clay, the hardness of the graphite rod could also be varied. This method of manufacture, which had been earlier discovered by the Austrian Joseph Hardtmuth, the founder of the Koh-I-Noor in 1790, remains in use. In 1802, the production of graphite leads from graphite and clay was patented by the Koh-I-Noor company in Vienna."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The foil is made into heat sinks for laptop computers which keeps them cool while saving weight, and is made into a foil laminate that can be used in valve packings or made into gaskets. Old-style packings are now a minor member of this grouping: fine flake graphite in oils or greases for uses requiring heat resistance. A GAN estimate of current US natural graphite consumption in this end-use is 7,500\u00a0tonnes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lonsdaleite",
        "text": "In addition to laboratory synthesis by compressing and heating graphite either in a static press or using explosives, lonsdaleite has also been produced by chemical vapor deposition, and also by the thermal decomposition of a polymer, poly(hydridocarbyne), at atmospheric pressure, under argon atmosphere, at ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lignite",
        "text": "Germany is the largest producer of lignite, followed by China, Russia, and United States. Lignite accounted for 8% of all U.S. coal production in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "In the 4th millennium BCE, during the Neolithic Age in southeastern Europe, the Mari\u021ba culture used graphite in a ceramic paint for decorating pottery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Graphite (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wollastonite",
        "text": "In 2016, the major producers were China (425,000 tonnes), India (185,000 t), United States (Information withheld for commercial reasons but stated to be in third place), Mexico (67,000 t) and Finland (16,000)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kahatagaha",
        "text": "It is the site of the Kahatagaha Graphite Mine, which is one of the largest graphite mines in the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphene production techniques",
        "text": "Producing graphene via intercalation splits graphite into single layer graphene by inserting guest molecules/ions between the graphite layers. Graphite was first intercalated in 1841 using a strong oxidizing or reducing agent that damaged the material's desirable properties. Kovtyukhova developed a widely used oxidative intercalation method in 1999. In 2014, she was able to achieve intercalation using non-oxidizing Br\u00f8nsted acids (phosphoric, sulfuric, dichloroacetic and alkylsulfonic acids), but without oxidizing agents. The new method has yet to achieve output sufficient for commercialization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Compagnie des Bauxites de Guin\u00e9e",
        "text": "Guinea is the world's 5th largest producer of bauxite, yet the country holds the world's largest reserves of the valuable ore used to produce aluminum. Estimates of the country's reserves rise as high as 25 billion tons, or the majority of the world's bauxite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nuclear graphite",
        "text": "Nuclear graphite for the UK Magnox reactors was manufactured from petroleum coke mixed with coal-based binder pitch heated and extruded into billets, and then baked at 1,000\u00a0\u00b0C for several days. To reduce porosity and increase density, the billets were impregnated with coal tar at high temperature and pressure before a final bake at 2,800\u00a0\u00b0C. Individual billets were then machined into the final required shapes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "Graphite pencil\n--History.\n--Production.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ilmenite",
        "text": "Australia was the world's largest ilmenite ore producer in 2011, with about 1.3 million tonnes of production, followed by South Africa, Canada, Mozambique, India, China, Vietnam, Ukraine, Norway, Madagascar and United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Liumao mine",
        "text": "The Liumao mine is one of the largest graphite mines in China and in the world. The mine is located in the north of the country in Inner Mongolia. The mine has estimated reserves of 28.3 million tonnes of ore 16% graphite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second sound",
        "text": "characteristic length 1-10 microns. Therefore, presumably graphite in the right temperature regime has extraordinarily high thermal conductivity but only for the purpose of transferring heat pulses distances of order 10 microns, and for pulses of duration on the order of 10 nanoseconds. For more \"normal\" heat-transfer, graphite's observed thermal conductivity is less than that of, e.g, copper. The theoretical models, however, predict longer absorption lengths would be seen in isotopically-pure graphite, and perhaps over a wider temperature range, e.g. even at room temperature. (As of March 2019, that experiment has not yet been tried.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by bauxite production",
        "text": "This is a list of countries by bauxite production in 2020. It exhibits certain changes from the geographical rankings of 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "OCSiAl",
        "text": "The company's initial synthesis facility, named Graphetron 1.0, produced the first industrial-scale batch of graphene nanotubes \u2013 1.2 tonnes \u2013 in 2015, which at the time exceeded the entire volume of this material ever produced since its discovery in 1991. In February 2020, OCSiAl announced the launch of its second synthesis facility, named Graphetron 50, which is currently the world\u2019s largest plant for graphene nanotube production. OCSiAl's current production capacity is 90 tonnes per year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The ability to leave marks on paper and other objects gave graphite its name, given in 1789 by German mineralogist Abraham Gottlob Werner. It stems from \"\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd (\"graphein\")\", meaning \"to write\" or \"draw\" in Ancient Greek."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fluorite production by country",
        "text": "This is a list of countries by fluorite in 2006 mostly based on British Geological Survey accessed in July 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The demand for batteries, primarily nickel\u2013metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries, caused a growth in demand for graphite in the late 1980s and early 1990s \u2013 a growth driven by portable electronics, such as portable CD players and power tools. Laptops, mobile phones, tablets, and smartphone products have increased the demand for batteries. Electric-vehicle batteries are anticipated to increase graphite demand. As an example, a lithium-ion battery in a fully electric Nissan Leaf contains nearly 40\u00a0kg of graphite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Talc",
        "text": "China is the key world talc and steatite producing country with an output of about 2.2M tonnes(2016), which accounts for 30% of total global output. The other major producers are Brazil (12%), India (11%), the U.S. (9%), France (6%), Finland (4%), Italy, Russia, Canada, and Austria (2%, each)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bogala Graphite Mine",
        "text": "The Bogala mine was nationalised in 1971 falling under the control of the State Graphite Corporation of Ceylon, which was renamed in 1979 to the State Mining and Mineral Development Corporation. In 1991 the mine was subsequently privatised under the ownership of Bogala Graphite Ltd. In 1999 Germany\u2019s Graphit Kropfm\u00fchl AG initially acquired a 20% share in the company, increased their shareholding to 80% in 2001 and 88% by 2004. Graphit Kropfm\u00fchl AG currently owns 79.58% of the company and the other, Graphite is mined through open pit and underground methods. major shareholder is Alterna GK LLC which controls a 10.33% stake."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphene production techniques",
        "text": "Applying a layer of graphite oxide film to a DVD and burning it in a DVD writer produced a thin graphene film with high electrical conductivity (1738 siemens per meter) and specific surface area (1520 square meters per gram) that was highly resistant and malleable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Valence Industries",
        "text": "Graphite was discovered in the area of the Uley project in the early 1800s and was mined intermittently at the site since the 1920s. When in production, the open cut mine was capable of producing up to 14,000 tonnes of graphite concentrate annually. It was placed on care and maintenance in 1993 and was not worked again until 2014, when Valence reported the first sales of graphite from the mine under its ownership had taken place. These initial sales were for advanced qualification and testing purposes ahead of proposed long term sales contracts."
      },
      {
        "title": "AA'-graphite",
        "text": "attribution This article contains content copied from licensed under CC-BY-4.0 license"
      },
      {
        "title": "Duftite",
        "text": "Reported from Argentina, Australia, Austria, Chile, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Namibia, Poland, Portugal, Russia, South Africa, Spain, Switzerland, the UK, the US and Zimbabwe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancuabe",
        "text": "Graphites de Ancuabe Ltda. operated a sizeable mine and plant near Ancuabe from 1994 to 1999. The mined graphite would be transported east to the larger town of Pemba on the coast where the mined material would be cut and processed. Due to a rise in graphite prices work in the mine was suspended in 1999. In 2007, the Mozambique government announced its intention to re-open the mine, depending on the supply of electricity from the Cahora Bassa dam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Perlite",
        "text": "Perlite world production, led by China, Turkey, Greece, USA, Armenia and Hungary, summed up to 4.6 million tonnes in 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphene production techniques",
        "text": "In 2014 defect-free, unoxidized graphene-containing liquids were made from graphite using mixers that produce local shear rates greater than . The method was claimed to be applicable to other 2D materials, including boron nitride, Molybdenum disulfide and other layered crystals. The liquid phase shear technique with the aid of surfactant is more suitable for pristine graphene exfoliation at room temperature and avoiding multi-step preparation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite (album)",
        "text": "Graphite is the sixth studio album by Polish gothic rock band Closterkeller. It was released on April 26, 1999 in Poland through Metal Mind Productions. The album was recorded at Q-Sound studio in March 1999. The cover art was created by Tomasz \"Graal\" Dani\u0142owicz and fotos by Edward Wosk and Marcin Wegner. English version of album was released on March 12, 2003 in United States through Pitchfork Promotions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphene",
        "text": "Dispersing graphite in a liquid medium can produce graphene by sonication followed by centrifugation, producing concentrations in N-methylpyrrolidone. Using a suitable ionic liquid as the dispersing liquid medium produced concentrations of . Restacking is an issue with this technique."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cordite",
        "text": "As noted above, in addition to its own facilities, the British Government had ICI Nobel set up a number of Agency Factories producing cordite in Scotland, Australia, Canada and South Africa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphene production techniques",
        "text": "Sonicating graphite at the interface of two immiscible liquids, most notably heptane and water, produced macro-scale graphene films. The graphene sheets are adsorbed to the high energy interface between the heptane and the water, where they are kept from restacking. The graphene remained at the interface even when exposed to force in excess of 300,000 g. The solvents may then be evaporated. The sheets are up to ~95% transparent and conductive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "The usefulness of graphite for pencils was discovered as well, but graphite for pencils had to be smuggled. Because graphite is soft, it requires some form of encasement. Graphite sticks were initially wrapped in string or sheepskin for stability. England would enjoy a monopoly on the production of pencils until a method of reconstituting the graphite powder was found in 1662 in Italy. However, the distinctively square English pencils continued to be made with sticks cut from natural graphite into the 1860s. The town of Keswick, near the original findings of block graphite, still manufactures pencils, the factory also being the location of the Derwent Pencil Museum. The meaning of \"graphite writing implement\" apparently evolved late in the 16th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bauxite",
        "text": "Australia is the largest producer of bauxite, followed by China. Increased aluminium recycling, which has the advantage of lowering the cost in electric power in producing aluminium, will considerably extend the world's bauxite reserves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allotropes of carbon",
        "text": "A single layer of graphite is called graphene and has extraordinary electrical, thermal, and physical properties. It can be produced by epitaxy on an insulating or conducting substrate or by mechanical exfoliation (repeated peeling) from graphite. Its applications may include replacing silicon in high-performance electronic devices. With two layers stacked, bilayer graphene results with different properties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphene",
        "text": "P. Boehm reported producing monolayer flakes of reduced graphene oxide in 1962. Rapid heating of graphite oxide and exfoliation yields highly dispersed carbon powder with a few percent of graphene flakes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The use of graphite as a refractory (heat-resistant) material began before 1900 with graphite crucibles used to hold molten metal; this is now a minor part of refractories. In the mid-1980s, the carbon-magnesite brick became important, and a bit later the alumina-graphite shape. the order of importance is: alumina-graphite shapes, carbon-magnesite brick, Monolithics (gunning and ramming mixes), and then crucibles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zavalye mine",
        "text": "The Zavalye mine is one of the largest graphite mines in Ukraine and in the world. The mine is located in the center of the country in Kirovohrad Oblast. The mine has estimated reserves of 6.4 million tonnes of ore 7% graphite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancuabe District",
        "text": "Graphites de Ancuabe Ltda. operated a sizeable mine and plant near Ancuabe from 1994 to 1999. According to feasibility studies for international mining companies, the reserves amount to about 1 million tonnes of ore with a content of 10% graphite. The extraction capacity installed (open) has a potential production capacity of 10,000 tons of graphite a year. The extraction and processing were stalled in 1999, however, due to a number of reasons, particularly financial difficulties of the dealer, the low price of the mineral on the international market and a poor and expensive power supply, because the district is not yet connected to the national grid. In 2007, the Mozambique government announced its intention to re-open the mine, but this depends on the supply of electricity from the Cahora Bassa Dam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Hardtmuth",
        "text": "In 1792, Hardtmuth established a pencil factory in Vienna after he succeeded in creating an artificial graphite pencil by mixing powdered graphite with clay. Until that time, whole pieces, cut from graphite, were glued in between wood and were imported from England. With the new method, graphite of inferior quality could be used in pencil manufacturing, lowering the price and making the product more accessible for the masses. His company Koh-i-Noor Hardtmuth still exists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphene",
        "text": "In 2002, Robert B. Rutherford and Richard L. Dudman filed for a patent in the US on a method to produce graphene by repeatedly peeling off layers from a graphite flake adhered to a substrate, achieving a graphite thickness of . The key to success was high-throughput visual recognition of graphene on a properly chosen substrate, which provides a small but noticeable optical contrast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "In 1893, Charles Street of Le Carbone discovered a process for making artificial graphite. In the mid-1890s, Edward Goodrich Acheson (1856\u20131931) accidentally invented another way to produce synthetic graphite after synthesizing carborundum (silicon carbide or SiC). He discovered that overheating carborundum, as opposed to pure carbon, produced almost pure graphite. While studying the effects of high temperature on carborundum, he had found that silicon vaporizes at about 4,150\u00a0\u00b0C (7,500\u00a0\u00b0F), leaving the carbon behind in graphitic carbon. This graphite became valuable as a lubricant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cordite",
        "text": "Prior to World War I, most of the cordite used by the British Government was produced in its own factories. Immediately prior to World War I, between 6,000 and 8,000 tons per year of cordite were produced in the United Kingdom by private manufacturers; between 1,000 and 1,500 tons per year were made by Nobel's Explosives, at Ardeer. However, private industry had the capability to produce about 10,000 tons per year, with Ardeer able to produce some 3,000 tons of this total."
      },
      {
        "title": "Magnesium production by country",
        "text": "This is a list of countries by magnesium production in 2018 based on United States Geological Survey figures and US capacity figures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anglo Great Lakes Graphite Plant",
        "text": "The plant was built on the Newburn Haugh. During World War I a munitions factory was built on the site. The factory was demolished following World War II and the land reclaimed. The graphite plant was then constructed in 1958 for the conversion of carbon into graphite for use in the nuclear industry, supplying graphite for nuclear power stations including; Bradwell, Dungeness 'A', Hinkley Point 'B', Hunterston 'A', Hunterston 'B', Latina & Oldbury."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Natural graphite is mostly used for refractories, batteries, steelmaking, expanded graphite, brake linings, foundry facings, and lubricants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uley graphite project",
        "text": "The total Inferred, Indicated and Measured Mineral Resource is; 6.3 Mt @ 11.1% graphitic Carbon (gC) for 697,000 contained tonnes (at a 3.5% gC cut-off grade)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite oxide",
        "text": "Large amounts of graphene sheets may also be produced through thermal methods. For example, in 2006 a method was discovered that simultaneously exfoliates and reduces graphite oxide by rapid heating (>2000\u00a0\u00b0C/min) to 1050\u00a0\u00b0C. At this temperature, carbon dioxide is released as the oxygen functionalities are removed and it explosively separates the sheets as it comes out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphene production techniques",
        "text": "As of 2014 exfoliation produced graphene with the lowest number of defects and highest electron mobility."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of countries by manganese production",
        "text": "List of countries by manganese production\n--List of countries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite mining in Sri Lanka",
        "text": "The existence of graphite in Sri Lanka has been known since 1675 when the Dutch governor, Rijckloff van Goens, mentions the existence of veins of 'potloop' in the hills and maritime provinces, in correspondence to his successor, Joan Maetsuycker. The mine, which reportedly existed near Colombo, was deemed so important it was placed under military guard. Based on local archaeological evidence iron ore was being melted in graphite crucibles during the Kandyan period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Feldspar",
        "text": "About 20 million tonnes of feldspar were produced in 2010, mostly by three countries: Italy (4.7 Mt), Turkey (4.5 Mt), and China (2 Mt)."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which country produces the most graphite?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The country that produces the most by tonnage is China.",
      "Of the 1,200,000 tonnes of graphite mined in 2016, China was responsible for 780,000 tonnes, making it the largest miner."
    ],
    "topic": "Graphite",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Graphite:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Graphite",
          "Occurrence"
        ],
        "ctx": "Graphite occurs in metamorphic rocks as a result of the reduction of sedimentary carbon compounds during metamorphism. It also occurs in igneous rocks and in meteorites. Minerals associated with graphite include quartz, calcite, micas and tourmaline. The principal export sources of mined graphite are in order of tonnage: China, Mexico, Canada, Brazil, and Madagascar."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Graphite:57",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Graphite",
          "Graphite mining, beneficiation, and milling"
        ],
        "ctx": "According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), world production of natural graphite in 2016 was 1,200,000 tonnes, of which the following major exporters are: China (780,000\u00a0t), India (170,000\u00a0t), Brazil (80,000\u00a0t), Turkey (32,000\u00a0t) and North Korea (6,000\u00a0t). Graphite is not yet mined in the United States. However, Westwater Resources is currently in the development stages of creating a pilot plant for their Coosa Graphite Mine near Sylacauga, Alabama. U.S. production of synthetic graphite in 2010 was 134,000\u00a0t valued at $1.07\u00a0billion."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "From the 16th century, all pencils were made with leads of English natural graphite, but modern pencil lead is most commonly a mix of powdered graphite and clay; it was invented by Nicolas-Jacques Cont\u00e9 in 1795. It is chemically unrelated to the metal lead, whose ores had a similar appearance, hence the continuation of the name. Plumbago is another older term for natural graphite used for drawing, typically as a lump of the mineral without a wood casing. The term plumbago drawing is normally restricted to 17th and 18th-century works, mostly portraits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "English and German pencils were not available to the French during the Napoleonic Wars; France, under naval blockade imposed by Great Britain, was unable to import the pure graphite sticks from the British Grey Knotts mines \u2013 the only known source in the world. France was also unable to import the inferior German graphite pencil substitute. It took the efforts of an officer in Napoleon's army to change this. In 1795, Nicolas-Jacques Cont\u00e9 discovered a method of mixing powdered graphite with clay and forming the mixture into rods that were then fired in a kiln. By varying the ratio of graphite to clay, the hardness of the graphite rod could also be varied. This method of manufacture, which had been earlier discovered by the Austrian Joseph Hardtmuth, the founder of the Koh-I-Noor in 1790, remains in use. In 1802, the production of graphite leads from graphite and clay was patented by the Koh-I-Noor company in Vienna."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Today, pencils are still a small but significant market for natural graphite. Around 7% of the 1.1\u00a0million tonnes produced in 2011 was used to make pencils. Low-quality amorphous graphite is used and sourced mainly from China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "As a technique for drawing, the closest predecessor to the pencil was silverpoint or leadpoint until in 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), a large deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks. It remains the only large-scale deposit of graphite ever found in this solid form. Chemistry was in its infancy and the substance was thought to be a form of lead. Consequently, it was called \"plumbago\" (Latin for \"lead ore\"). Because the pencil core is still referred to as \"lead\", or \"a lead\", many people have the misconception that the graphite in the pencil is lead, and the black core of pencils is still referred to as \"lead\", even though it never contained the element lead. The words for pencil in German (\"Bleistift\"), Irish (\"peann luaidhe\"), Arabic (\u0642\u0644\u0645 \u0631\u0635\u0627\u0635 \"qalam ra\u1e63\u0101\u1e63\"), and some other languages literally mean \"lead pen\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicolas-Jacques Cont\u00e9",
        "text": "Cont\u00e9 invented the modern pencil lead at the request of Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot. The French Republic was at that time under economic blockade and unable to import graphite from Great Britain, the main source of the material. Carnot asked Cont\u00e9 to create a pencil that did not rely on foreign imports. After several days of research, Cont\u00e9 had the idea of mixing powdered graphite with clay and pressing the material between two half-cylinders of wood. Thus was formed the modern pencil. Cont\u00e9 received a patent for the invention in 1795 and formed la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 Cont\u00e9 to make them. He also invented the cont\u00e9 crayon named after him, a hard pastel stick used by artists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "A large deposit of graphite was discovered in 1565 on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks. It remains the only large-scale deposit of graphite ever found in this solid form. Chemistry was in its infancy and the substance was thought to be a form of lead. Consequently, it was called \"plumbago\" (Latin for \"lead ore\"). Because the pencil core is still referred to as \"lead\", or a \"lead\", many people have the misconception that the graphite in the pencil is lead, even though it never contained the element lead. The words for pencil in German (\"Bleistift\"), Irish (\"peann luaidhe\"), Arabic (\u0642\u0644\u0645 \u0631\u0635\u0627\u0635 \"qalam ra\u1e63\u0101\u1e63\"), and some other languages literally mean \"lead pen\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "Graphite sticks were initially wrapped in string or sheepskin for stability. England would enjoy a monopoly on the production of pencils until a method of reconstituting the graphite powder was found in 1662 in Italy. However, the distinctively square English pencils continued to be made with sticks cut from natural graphite into the 1860s. The town of Keswick, near the original findings of block graphite, still manufactures pencils, the factory also being the location of the Cumberland Pencil Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "During the 19th century, graphite's uses greatly expanded to include stove polish, lubricants, paints, crucibles, foundry facings, and pencils, a major factor in the expansion of educational tools during the first great rise of education for the masses. The British Empire controlled most of the world's production (especially from Ceylon), but production from Austrian, German, and American deposits expanded by mid-century. For example, the Dixon Crucible Company of Jersey City, New Jersey, founded by Joseph Dixon and partner Orestes Cleveland in 1845, opened mines in the Lake Ticonderoga district of New York, built a processing plant there, and a factory to manufacture pencils, crucibles and other products in New Jersey, described in the \"Engineering & Mining Journal\" 21 December 1878. The Dixon pencil is still in production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "A graphite pencil, also called a lead pencil, is a type of pencil in which a thin graphite core is embedded in a shell of other material. The pencil shell is typically wooden, but can be made of plastic or recycled paper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Writing implement",
        "text": "However, most modern \"lead pencils\" have a nonpoisonous core of greyish-black graphite mixed with various proportions of clay for consistency, enclosed within an outer wooden casing to protect the fragile graphite from being snapped apart or from leaving marks on the user's hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "Production technology has changed little over the past 120 years; only standards and mechanisms for the manufacture of graphite rods and wooden halves have improved. The main components in the manufacture of rods \u2013 purified graphite powder and the clay binder kaolin \u2013 remain the same; the hardness of the graphite core depends on the ratio of graphite to kaolin, with softer cores containing more graphite. The hardest pencil contains about 20% graphite, the softest one up to 90%. A 1:1 ratio roughly corresponds to the 3H hardness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Dixon (inventor)",
        "text": "During the 1860s, people typically wrote with quill pens and ink even though Dixon introduced graphite pencils in 1829. But the American Civil War created a demand for a dry, clean, portable writing instrument and led to the mass production of pencils. At the time of Dixon's death in 1869, the Joseph Dixon Crucible Company was the largest manufacturer of graphite products in the world. By 1870, The Joseph Dixon Crucible Company was the world's largest dealer and consumer of graphite. By 1872 the Dixon company was making 86,000 pencils a day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "The usefulness of graphite for pencils was discovered as well, but graphite for pencils had to be smuggled. Because graphite is soft, it requires some form of encasement. Graphite sticks were initially wrapped in string or sheepskin for stability. England would enjoy a monopoly on the production of pencils until a method of reconstituting the graphite powder was found in 1662 in Italy. However, the distinctively square English pencils continued to be made with sticks cut from natural graphite into the 1860s. The town of Keswick, near the original findings of block graphite, still manufactures pencils, the factory also being the location of the Derwent Pencil Museum. The meaning of \"graphite writing implement\" apparently evolved late in the 16th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "The value of graphite would soon be realised to be enormous, mainly because it could be used to line the moulds for cannonballs; the mines were taken over by the Crown and were guarded. When sufficient stores of graphite had been accumulated, the mines were flooded to prevent theft until more was required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ticonderoga, New York",
        "text": "As early as 1812, Ticonderoga was the site of graphite mining. Commercial mining of graphite began in 1832, though logging remained the chief Industry. Graphite was not widely used in the 19th century, as most writing was done in pen, rather than pencil. It was not until the mid-20th century that pencils came into greater use, with the No. 2 HB pencil becoming the standard writing implement in schools and universities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead",
        "text": "Contrary to popular belief, pencil leads in wooden pencils have never been made from lead. When the pencil originated as a wrapped graphite writing tool, the particular type of graphite used was named \"plumbago\" (literally, \"act for lead\" or \"lead mockup\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "In England, pencils continued to be made from whole sawn graphite. Henry Bessemer's first successful invention (1838) was a method of compressing graphite powder into solid graphite thus allowing the waste from sawing to be reused."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Hardtmuth",
        "text": "In 1792, Hardtmuth established a pencil factory in Vienna after he succeeded in creating an artificial graphite pencil by mixing powdered graphite with clay. Until that time, whole pieces, cut from graphite, were glued in between wood and were imported from England. With the new method, graphite of inferior quality could be used in pencil manufacturing, lowering the price and making the product more accessible for the masses. His company Koh-i-Noor Hardtmuth still exists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbon",
        "text": "According to the USGS, world production of natural graphite was 1.1\u00a0million tonnes in 2010, to which China contributed 800,000\u00a0t, India 130,000 t, Brazil 76,000\u00a0t, North Korea 30,000\u00a0t and Canada 25,000 t. No natural graphite was reported mined in the United States, but 118,000 t of synthetic graphite with an estimated value of $998\u00a0million was produced in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seathwaite, Allerdale",
        "text": "The commercial mining of the unusual solid form of graphite found near the hamlet of Seathwaite ceased around 1891 when veins of the solid graphite became harder to find. In addition, around that time the Keswick pencil factories had switched to making pencil pigments out of the familiar combination of clay powder and graphite powder. Graphite powder could be mined and imported from elsewhere. The mine entrance is north-northwest of the hamlet at ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "The value of graphite would soon be realised to be enormous, mainly because it could be used to line the moulds for cannonballs; the mines were taken over by the Crown and were guarded. When sufficient stores of graphite had been accumulated, the mines were flooded to prevent theft until more was required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "The first attempt to manufacture graphite sticks from powdered graphite was in Nuremberg, Germany, in 1662. It used a mixture of graphite, sulphur, and antimony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Historically, graphite was called black lead or plumbago. Plumbago was commonly used in its massive mineral form. Both of these names arise from confusion with the similar-appearing lead ores, particularly galena. The Latin word for lead, \"plumbum\", gave its name to the English term for this grey metallic-sheened mineral and even to the leadworts or plumbagos, plants with flowers that resemble this colour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "Graphite pencil\n--History.\n--Production.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Joseph Dixon, an inventor and entrepreneur involved with the Tantiusques graphite mine in Sturbridge, Massachusetts, developed a means to mass-produce pencils. By 1870, The Joseph Dixon Crucible Company was the world's largest dealer and consumer of graphite and later became the contemporary Dixon Ticonderoga pencil and art supplies company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tantiusques",
        "text": "In 1828, Frederic Tudor, a Boston merchant, purchased the property. He successfully mined the graphite for over a quarter of a century until his death in 1864 when the mining operation ceased with his death. He had employed Captain Joseph Dixon and his son, who would later found the J.D. Crucible Company of New Jersey. This company eventually evolved into Dixon Ticonderoga, the famous manufacturer of pencils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil Full of Lead",
        "text": "Fraser McAlpine on the BBC Radio 1 Chart Blog wrote:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The ability to leave marks on paper and other objects gave graphite its name, given in 1789 by German mineralogist Abraham Gottlob Werner. It stems from \"\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd (\"graphein\")\", meaning \"to write\" or \"draw\" in Ancient Greek."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "On 3 September 2007, Ashrita Furman unveiled his giant US$20,000 pencil \u2013 long, (with over for the graphite centre) \u2013 after three weeks of creation in August 2007 as a birthday gift for teacher Sri Chinmoy. It is longer than the pencil outside the Malaysia HQ of stationers Faber-Castell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil Full of Lead",
        "text": "\"Angryape.com\" said:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The demand for batteries, primarily nickel\u2013metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries, caused a growth in demand for graphite in the late 1980s and early 1990s \u2013 a growth driven by portable electronics, such as portable CD players and power tools. Laptops, mobile phones, tablets, and smartphone products have increased the demand for batteries. Electric-vehicle batteries are anticipated to increase graphite demand. As an example, a lithium-ion battery in a fully electric Nissan Leaf contains nearly 40\u00a0kg of graphite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The term \"black lead\" usually refers to a powdered or processed graphite, matte black in color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seathwaite, Allerdale",
        "text": "was opened after the discovery of graphite there in 1555. The extracted graphite was eventually used to supply the Derwent Cumberland Pencil Company factory in Keswick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orestes Cleveland",
        "text": "In 1850, he moved to Jersey City, New Jersey, where he specialized in the manufacture of black lead, stove polish and pencils. With Joseph Dixon, he helped organize the Dixon Crucible Company, of which Cleveland served as president. Dixon Crucible became one of the world's largest graphite products manufacturers in the 1870s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grey Knotts",
        "text": "Also on the Borrowdale side of the fell at the upper end of Newhouse Gill at grid reference is the site of the former Borrowdale graphite (then called Plumbago) mines. The mine was started in the 16th century by German immigrants; the graphite found was in a very pure form and in those early days was used only for marking sheep. Later, however, graphite was found to be suitable for lining the casting moulds for cannon and musket balls, which caused its value to soar in the 17th century, as England, France and the Dutch Republic built up their armies. The graphite was also used in pencil-making, which in 1790 led to the founding of the Cumberland pencil industry based in Keswick. The mine closed in 1891 after new techniques meant that graphite no longer needed to be so pure, so the Borrowdale mine became uneconomical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Sometime before 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), an enormous deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England, which the locals found useful for marking sheep. During the reign of Elizabeth I (1558\u20131603), Borrowdale graphite was used as a refractory material to line molds for cannonballs, resulting in rounder, smoother balls that could be fired farther, contributing to the strength of the English navy. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and soft, and could easily be cut into sticks. Because of its military importance, this unique mine and its production were strictly controlled by the Crown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Abraham Gottlob Werner coined the name \"graphite\" (\"writing stone\") in 1789. He attempted to clear up the confusion between molybdena, plumbago and black lead after Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1778 proved that there are at least three different minerals. Scheele's analysis showed that the chemical compounds molybdenum sulfide (molybdenite), lead(II) sulfide (galena) and graphite were three different soft black minerals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Graphite (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kaspar Faber",
        "text": "Pencils made of pure graphite easily crumbled and broke. Thus in 1771 Faber undertook the first attempts to improve pencils by combining ground graphite with sulfur, antimony, and binding resins. The technique of gluing pencils into wooden sticks was already well known in Nuremberg at that time, but Faber did not use it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Liquid graphite pencils are pencils that write like pens. The technology was first invented in 1955 by Scripto and Parker Pens. Scripto's liquid graphite formula came out about three months before Parker's liquid lead formula. To avoid a lengthy patent fight the two companies agreed to share their formulas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbon",
        "text": "Commercially viable natural deposits of graphite occur in many parts of the world, but the most important sources economically are in China, India, Brazil and North Korea. Graphite deposits are of metamorphic origin, found in association with quartz, mica and feldspars in schists, gneisses and metamorphosed sandstones and limestone as lenses or veins, sometimes of a metre or more in thickness. Deposits of graphite in Borrowdale, Cumberland, England were at first of sufficient size and purity that, until the 19th century, pencils were made simply by sawing blocks of natural graphite into strips before encasing the strips in wood. Today, smaller deposits of graphite are obtained by crushing the parent rock and floating the lighter graphite out on water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbon",
        "text": "In 1779, Carl Wilhelm Scheele showed that graphite, which had been thought of as a form of lead, was instead identical with charcoal but with a small admixture of iron, and that it gave \"aerial acid\" (his name for carbon dioxide) when oxidized with nitric acid. In 1786, the French scientists Claude Louis Berthollet, Gaspard Monge and C. A. Vandermonde confirmed that graphite was mostly carbon by oxidizing it in oxygen in much the same way Lavoisier had done with diamond. Some iron again was left, which the French scientists thought was necessary to the graphite structure. In their publication they proposed the name \"carbone\" (Latin \"carbonum\") for the element in graphite which was given off as a gas upon burning graphite. Antoine Lavoisier then listed carbon as an element in his 1789 textbook."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "In the United States, in 1885, Hezekiah Bradford of Philadelphia patented a similar process, but it is uncertain if his process was used successfully in the nearby graphite deposits of Chester County, Pennsylvania, a major producer by the 1890s. The Bessel process was limited in use, primarily because of the abundant cleaner deposits found around the globe, which needed not much more than hand-sorting to gather the pure graphite. The state of the art, ca. 1900, is described in the Canadian Department of Mines report on graphite mines and mining when Canadian deposits began to become important producers of graphite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Graphite pencils are made of a mixture of clay and graphite and their darkness varies from light grey to black: the more clay the harder the pencil. There is a wide range of grades available, mainly for artists who are interested in creating a full range of tones from light grey to black. Engineers prefer harder pencils which allow for a greater control in the shape of the lead."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Munroe (pencil maker)",
        "text": "On July 2, 1812, he had produced about thirty pencils and sold them to a Benjamin Andrews, a hardware dealer on Union Street in downtown Boston. These were the first wooden-cased graphite lead pencils manufactured in the United States. Andrews was a previous customer of Munroe's, to whom he had sold cabinetmaker's squares. He ordered more immediately, which Munroe proceeded to grind out. Munroe showed up at Andrew's hardware store with over four hundred pencils less than two weeks later. Andrews then wrote up a contract with Munroe to take for a price all the pencils that he could make in a certain time frame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Koh-i-Noor Hardtmuth",
        "text": "The company was founded in 1790 by Joseph Hardtmuth of Austria. In 1802, the company patented the first pencil lead made from a combination of kaolin and graphite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite Capital",
        "text": "- Education Personnel - a provider of supply teachers and teaching assistants to state schools in the UK"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancuabe",
        "text": "Graphites de Ancuabe Ltda. operated a sizeable mine and plant near Ancuabe from 1994 to 1999. The mined graphite would be transported east to the larger town of Pemba on the coast where the mined material would be cut and processed. Due to a rise in graphite prices work in the mine was suspended in 1999. In 2007, the Mozambique government announced its intention to re-open the mine, depending on the supply of electricity from the Cahora Bassa dam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), world production of natural graphite in 2016 was 1,200,000 tonnes, of which the following major exporters are: China (780,000\u00a0t), India (170,000\u00a0t), Brazil (80,000\u00a0t), Turkey (32,000\u00a0t) and North Korea (6,000\u00a0t). Graphite is not yet mined in the United States. However, Westwater Resources is currently in the development stages of creating a pilot plant for their Coosa Graphite Mine near Sylacauga, Alabama. U.S. production of synthetic graphite in 2010 was 134,000\u00a0t valued at $1.07\u00a0billion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Copying pencils (or indelible pencils) are graphite pencils with an added dye that creates an indelible mark. They were invented in the late 19th century for press copying and as a practical substitute for fountain pens. Their markings are often visually indistinguishable from those of standard graphite pencils, but when moistened their markings dissolve into a coloured ink, which is then pressed into another piece of paper. They were widely used until the mid-20th century when ball pens slowly replaced them. In Italy their use is still mandated by law for voting paper ballots in elections and referendums."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Pencil\n--History.\n----Camel's hair.\n----Graphite deposit discoveries.\n----Wood encasement.\n----Graphite powder and clay.\n----United States.\n----Eraser attachment.\n----Extenders.\n--Types.\n----By marking material.\n------Graphite.\n------Solid.\n------Liquid.\n------Charcoal.\n------Carbon pencils.\n------Colored.\n------Grease.\n------Watercolor.\n----By use.\n------Carpentry.\n------Copying.\n------Eyeliner.\n------Erasable coloring.\n------Non-reproduction.\n------Stenography.\n------Golf.\n----By size.\n------Typical.\n------Biggest.\n----By manufacture.\n------Mechanical.\n------Pop a Point.\n------Plastic.\n--Health.\n--Manufacture.\n--Grading and classification.\n----Hardness test.\n--External colour and shape.\n--Manufacturers.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "The lead of the pencil is a mix of finely ground graphite and clay powders. Before the two substances are mixed, they are separately cleaned of foreign matter and dried in a manner that creates large square cakes. Once the cakes have fully dried, the graphite and the clay squares are mixed together using water. The amount of clay content added to the graphite depends on the intended pencil hardness (lower proportions of clay makes the core softer), and the amount of time spent on grinding the mixture determines the quality of the lead. The mixture is then shaped into long spaghetti-like strings, straightened, dried, cut, and then tempered in a kiln. The resulting strings are dipped in oil or molten wax, which seeps into the tiny holes of the material and allows for the smooth writing ability of the pencil. A juniper or incense-cedar plank with several long parallel grooves is cut to fashion a \"slat,\" and the graphite/clay strings are inserted into the grooves. Another grooved plank is glued on top, and the whole assembly is then cut into individual pencils, which are then varnished or painted. Many pencils feature an eraser on the top and so the process is usually still considered incomplete at this point. Each pencil has a shoulder cut on one end of the pencil to allow for a metal ferrule to be secured onto the wood. A rubber plug is then inserted into the ferrule for a functioning eraser on the end of the pencil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The use of graphite as a refractory (heat-resistant) material began before 1900 with graphite crucibles used to hold molten metal; this is now a minor part of refractories. In the mid-1980s, the carbon-magnesite brick became important, and a bit later the alumina-graphite shape. the order of importance is: alumina-graphite shapes, carbon-magnesite brick, Monolithics (gunning and ramming mixes), and then crucibles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sampson Mordan",
        "text": "In 1822, Mordan and his co-inventor John Isaac Hawkins filed the first patent in Great Britain for a metal pencil with an internal mechanism for propelling the graphite \"lead\" shaft forward during use, as an improvement on the less complex leadholders that merely clutched the pencil lead to hold it into a single position."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry David Thoreau",
        "text": "Thoreau returned to Concord and worked in his family's pencil factory, which he would continue to do alongside his writing and other work for most of his adult life. He rediscovered the process of making good pencils with inferior graphite by using clay as the binder. This invention allowed profitable use of a graphite source found in New Hampshire that had been purchased in 1821 by Thoreau's uncle, Charles Dunbar. The process of mixing graphite and clay, known as the Cont\u00e9 process, had been first patented by Nicolas-Jacques Cont\u00e9 in 1795. The company's other source of graphite had been Tantiusques, a mine operated by Native Americans in Sturbridge, Massachusetts. Later, Thoreau converted the pencil factory to produce plumbago, a name for graphite at the time, which was used in the electrotyping process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uni-ball",
        "text": "While mainly focused on making pens, in 2008 they developed a new mechanical pencil that rotated the graphite lead every time it is lifted from the page to sharpen it into an even cone shape. This line of pencils is named as \"Kuru Toga\". The name \"Kuru Toga\" is a portmanteau of the two Japanese words 'kuru' (turning) and 'togaru' (to be sharpened)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Residual graphite from a pencil stick is not poisonous, and graphite is harmless if consumed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead pencil",
        "text": "Lead pencil\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "William Munroe (pencil maker)",
        "text": "Straight away Munroe obtained a few lumps of black graphite which he beat to a pulp with a hammer. He separated the fine particles that floated to the top of the water with a spoon and mixed them with a clay solution. His first experiments with this lead solution was not very successful. He continued making cabinet maker's squares and sold the few of these which he could. In this time he continued experimenting with graphite lead for pencils with little accomplishment. He had no knowledge of the subject and feared consulting others as they might take the idea and produce pencils themselves. Munroe continued experimenting in secret with graphite powder formulas on his own. Eventually he figured a way to come up with a suitable graphite paste formula of various ingredients that could be poured into a slotted line made in some cedar wood blanks. The pencil centers would be his secret formula of a mixture of dried graphite paste of clay and other unknown ingredients. They were air dried and not hardened by firing in a furnace as Europeans did, so the quality was not as good as theirs\u2014but it was fine enough to write with."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Graphite occurs in metamorphic rocks as a result of the reduction of sedimentary carbon compounds during metamorphism. It also occurs in igneous rocks and in meteorites. Minerals associated with graphite include quartz, calcite, micas and tourmaline. The principal export sources of mined graphite are in order of tonnage: China, Mexico, Canada, Brazil, and Madagascar."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Munroe (pencil maker)",
        "text": "Munroe figured that the best way to make pencils was by starting with a quarter inch slab of cedar wood. He then would cut the slots for his special formula graphite paste and fill them. He would let the paste air dry. The next step was to glue an eighth inch veneer of wood over the slots. The final step was to saw the slab into pencils. This resulted in a wooden lead graphite pencil that was just under a half inch thick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Writing in space",
        "text": "While graphite is claimed to be a hazardous material in space because it burns and conducts electricity, two facts mitigate the risks:\n# The graphite in pencils is mixed with clay during fabrication of the \"lead\" to help hold its shape, and would only burn at greater than .\n# The quantity of graphite particles actually produced during occasional writing would be too small to constitute an electrical hazard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borrowdale",
        "text": "Sometime before 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), a major deposit of graphite was discovered near the Seathwaite hamlet in Borrowdale parish. The locals found that it was useful for marking sheep. The graphite was pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks; the pencil industry was born in nearby Keswick. The graphite find remains unique."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geology of the Lake District",
        "text": "Near Seathwaite in Borrowdale an unusually large deposit of high quality graphite, known locally as \"wad\", was found in the form of veins. Although the deposit was known from at least the early 15th century, significant production only began in the early 17th century and continued until 1891, when the mine finally closed. The very irregular geometry of the veins led to a complex set of workings. Individual pods of graphite could be quite large. For example, Dixon's Pipe, discovered in 1803, generated more than 30 tons of graphite, at more than \u00a31300 per ton."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Graphite may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "According to the USGS, US natural graphite consumption in refractories comprised 12,500 tonnes in 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Valence Industries",
        "text": "Graphite was discovered in the area of the Uley project in the early 1800s and was mined intermittently at the site since the 1920s. When in production, the open cut mine was capable of producing up to 14,000 tonnes of graphite concentrate annually. It was placed on care and maintenance in 1993 and was not worked again until 2014, when Valence reported the first sales of graphite from the mine under its ownership had taken place. These initial sales were for advanced qualification and testing purposes ahead of proposed long term sales contracts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Graphite pencils are the most common types of pencil, and are encased in wood. They are made of a mixture of clay and graphite and their darkness varies from light grey to black. Their composition allows for the smoothest strokes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite mining in Sri Lanka",
        "text": "In 1912 graphite, which matched the quality of Sri Lankan Graphite, was discovered in Madagascar. As the Madagascar graphite was able to be extracted at a lower cost, this resulted in a stiff competition. Sri Lankan production declined slowly with small revivals during the First and Second World Wars, when 30,000 metric tons of natural graphite was exported per year and over 6,000 shallow workings, pits and small scale mines were in operation. The highest historical production of in a single year was in 1962."
      },
      {
        "title": "GraphBLAS",
        "text": "do {"
      },
      {
        "title": "Writing implement",
        "text": "Unlike the construction of a traditional wooden pencil around a solid graphite core, a mechanical pencil feeds a small, mobile piece of graphite through its tip. An internal mechanism controls the position of the graphite by friction, so that although it remains steady while writing, the graphite can be advanced forward to compensate for gradual wear or retracted to protect it when not in use. The graphite in mechanical pencils is typically much narrower than in wooden pencils, frequently in sub-millimeter diameters. This makes them particularly useful for fine diagrams or small handwriting, although different sizes of refill leads cannot be interchanged in the same pencil unless it has been specially designed for that purpose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "As well as simply being distinctive, the colour may have been inspired by the Austro-Hungarian flag; it was also suggestive of the Orient at a time when the best-quality graphite came from Siberia. Other companies then copied the yellow colour so that their pencils would be associated with this high-quality brand, and chose brand names with explicit Oriental references, such as Mikado (renamed Mirado) and Mongol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seathwaite Fell",
        "text": "Auntie Mabel and Pippin visit Seathwaite Fell in the second episode of the third series of Come Outside, as they learnt about how graphite was discovered and how pencils are made."
      },
      {
        "title": "AA'-graphite",
        "text": "attribution This article contains content copied from licensed under CC-BY-4.0 license"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Donohue",
        "text": "J. Donohue. Structure of graphite. \"Nature\", 255, 172 (1975).<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Keswick, Cumbria",
        "text": "As well as copper, a new substance was found, extracted and exploited: this was variously called wad, black lead, plumbago or black cauke, and is now known as graphite. Many uses were quickly discovered for the mineral: it reduced friction in machinery, made a heat-resistant glaze for crucibles, and when used to line moulds for cannonballs, resulted in rounder, smoother balls that could be fired further by English naval cannon. Later, from the second half of the 18th century, it was used to make pencils, for which Keswick became famous."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mersen",
        "text": "In addition, it acquired a number of competitors such as Ferraz, one of the biggest manufacturers of fuses and electrical protection systems. Then, it took the control of Stackpole, which led it to become one of the world leaders in graphite production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The US and European refractories industry had a crisis in 2000\u20132003, with an indifferent market for steel and a declining refractory consumption per tonne of steel underlying firm buyouts and many plant closures. Many of the plant closures resulted from the acquisition of Harbison-Walker Refractories by RHI AG and some plants had their equipment auctioned off. Since much of the lost capacity was for carbon-magnesite brick, graphite consumption within the refractories area moved towards alumina-graphite shapes and Monolithics, and away from the brick. The major source of carbon-magnesite brick is now imported from China. Almost all of the above refractories are used to make steel and account for 75% of refractory consumption; the rest is used by a variety of industries, such as cement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead pencil",
        "text": "Lead pencil may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ferdinand A. Brader",
        "text": "Most of his drawings are quite large, some measuring as large as 39\" by 53\". The vast majority of these were done using only graphite pencil. However, by 1892 Brader had started to use colored pencils as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite Capital",
        "text": "- New World Trading Company - a pub restaurant group"
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "In 1893, Charles Street of Le Carbone discovered a process for making artificial graphite. In the mid-1890s, Edward Goodrich Acheson (1856\u20131931) accidentally invented another way to produce synthetic graphite after synthesizing carborundum (silicon carbide or SiC). He discovered that overheating carborundum, as opposed to pure carbon, produced almost pure graphite. While studying the effects of high temperature on carborundum, he had found that silicon vaporizes at about 4,150\u00a0\u00b0C (7,500\u00a0\u00b0F), leaving the carbon behind in graphitic carbon. This graphite became valuable as a lubricant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Musgrave Pencil Company",
        "text": "This changed in the early 1990s, as Chinese pencil manufacturers began to undercut domestic production. These inexpensively produced and exported pencils flooded the American market and gutted the pencil industry. This forced Musgrave to cut salaries across the board and to lay off some employees, while other companies in The Pencil City closed up or moved production overseas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allotropes of carbon",
        "text": "Graphite, named by Abraham Gottlob Werner in 1789, from the Greek \u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd (, \"to draw/write\", for its use in pencils) is one of the most common allotropes of carbon. Unlike diamond, graphite is an electrical conductor. Thus, it can be used in, for instance, electrical arc lamp electrodes. Likewise, under standard conditions, graphite is the most stable form of carbon. Therefore, it is used in thermochemistry as the standard state for defining the heat of formation of carbon compounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copying pencil",
        "text": "A copying pencil, also indelible pencil or chemical pencil, is pencil whose lead contains a dye. The lead is fabricated by adding a dry water-soluble permanent dye to powdered graphite\u2014used in standard graphite pencils\u2014before binding the mixture with clay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Liumao mine",
        "text": "The Liumao mine is one of the largest graphite mines in China and in the world. The mine is located in the north of the country in Inner Mongolia. The mine has estimated reserves of 28.3 million tonnes of ore 16% graphite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Windscale Piles",
        "text": "The graphite for the neutron moderator had to be as pure as possible, as even the smallest impurities could act as neutron poisons that would impede the reactor's operation. Normal industrial graphite would not do. The British had been excluded from the work the Manhattan Project had done in this field, but Union Carbide, the Americans' principal supplier of graphite, had subsidiaries in Britain and Canada, British Acheson at Sheffield, and the Electro-Metallurgical Company in Welland, Ontario. The latter had a great deal of technical information about manufacturing pure graphite that it was willing to share."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Munroe (pencil maker)",
        "text": "Munroe had then made a business out of making lead pencils. He made the graphite formula for his pencils in secret, with only the help of his wife. The business was quite successful. By 1814 he had made nearly 175,000 pencils, which sold for about six thousand dollars, a very large amount of money at the time. When the war with England ended there were better pencils available from Europe and his profits were erased by these better imports. Munroe figured it was pointless to try to compete against these superior products so took up his normal trade of cabinet-making. He also made tooth brushes and watchmaker's brushes, also the first made in the United States. During this interim time he went back to the drawing board to do further experimenting with his secret lead pencil paste. One thing led to another until he came up with a powdered graphite paste product that would make its mark."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The foil is made into heat sinks for laptop computers which keeps them cool while saving weight, and is made into a foil laminate that can be used in valve packings or made into gaskets. Old-style packings are now a minor member of this grouping: fine flake graphite in oils or greases for uses requiring heat resistance. A GAN estimate of current US natural graphite consumption in this end-use is 7,500\u00a0tonnes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphene",
        "text": "Scientists theorized the potential existence and production of graphene for decades. It has likely been unknowingly produced in small quantities for centuries, through the use of pencils and other similar applications of graphite. It was originally observed in electron microscopes in 1962, but studied only while supported on metal surfaces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shaft (golf)",
        "text": "\"Graphite\" shafts began to emerge in the late twentieth century. The graphite shaft was invented by Frank Thomas in 1969 while working as Chief Design Engineer for Shakespeare Sporting Goods, in collaboration with Union Carbide. The original graphite shafts manufactured by Shakespeare Sporting Goods were filament wound, had extremely consistent properties and were extremely expensive. Subsequent, less expensive flagwrapped versions of the graphite shaft introduced by other manufacturers several years later had inconsistent properties and as a result professionals and skilled amateurs were initially skeptical of the new technology when compared to steel; however, advances in technology, developed by Bruce Williams, an engineer working with an Ohio-based composites company, eventually changed this perception. Graphite shafts are now more common than steel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Solid graphite pencils are solid sticks of graphite and clay composite (as found in a 'graphite pencil'), about the diameter of a common pencil, which have no casing other than a wrapper or label. They are often called \"woodless\" pencils. They are used primarily for art purposes as the lack of casing allows for covering larger spaces more easily, creating different effects, and providing greater economy as the entirety of the pencil is used. They are available in the same darkness range as wood-encased graphite pencils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hindustan Pencils",
        "text": "Market leader Hindustan Pencils has a 45% market share and is the largest manufacturer in India, at 8.5 million pencils a day. The company was started in 1958 by friends BJ Sanghvi (fondly called as Babubhai), Ramnath Mehra and Mansookani."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil sharpener",
        "text": "Mechanical pencils with thin diameter leads dispense the graphite lead progressively during use and thus do not require sharpening; such pencils are sometimes called \"self-sharpening\". A type of mechanical pencil has a rotating gear mechanism which rotates the lead slightly every time the lead is lifted off the paper, helping to maintain a consistent, sharp point. If a finer or broader line is needed, a separate mechanical pencil using a lead with a different diameter is required."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Brothers (islands), Hong Kong",
        "text": "Graphite was mined at West Brother Island between 1952 and 1971. By 1964, the mine workings had reached 90 m below sea level."
      },
      {
        "title": "Keith Millis",
        "text": "Millis and others at the International Nickel Company (Inco) sought and obtained U.S. patent 2,485,760 on October 25, 1949 for magnesium additions to cast iron that would spheroidize the graphite and dramatically ductilize the material."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancuabe District",
        "text": "Graphites de Ancuabe Ltda. operated a sizeable mine and plant near Ancuabe from 1994 to 1999. According to feasibility studies for international mining companies, the reserves amount to about 1 million tonnes of ore with a content of 10% graphite. The extraction capacity installed (open) has a potential production capacity of 10,000 tons of graphite a year. The extraction and processing were stalled in 1999, however, due to a number of reasons, particularly financial difficulties of the dealer, the low price of the mineral on the international market and a poor and expensive power supply, because the district is not yet connected to the national grid. In 2007, the Mozambique government announced its intention to re-open the mine, but this depends on the supply of electricity from the Cahora Bassa Dam."
      },
      {
        "title": "AA'-graphite",
        "text": "AA'-graphite\n--References.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil sharpener",
        "text": "An artist's or draftsman's pencil sharpener leaves the graphite untouched and sharpens only the wood (some models can switch from standard to wood-only by an adjustment). The graphite lead is then honed to a sharp point with a lead pointer, which sharpens only the lead without wood. Lead pointers are also used with mechanical leadholders, with thicker diameter leads like 2\u00a0mm which have removable/refillable leads. Some sharpeners which function as a long point sharpener, have a second hole in which the blade sharpens the untouched graphite to a long, more precise point than would be otherwise possible using a single hole long point sharpener."
      },
      {
        "title": "GraphBLAS",
        "text": "// unvisited successors from current q"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which country produces the most graphite?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Of the 1,200,000 tonnes of graphite mined in 2016, China was responsible for 780,000 tonnes, making it the largest miner."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did graphite start to replace lead in pencils?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "It didn't replace lead in pencils. Because the pencil core is still referred to as \"lead\", or a \"lead\", many people have the misconception that the graphite in the pencil is lead, even though it never contained the element lead.",
      "From the 16th century, all pencils were made with leads of English natural graphite, but it is chemically unrelated to the metal lead, whose ores had a similar appearance, hence the continuation of the name."
    ],
    "topic": "Graphite",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Graphite pencil:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Graphite pencil",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "A large deposit of graphite was discovered in 1565 on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks. It remains the only large-scale deposit of graphite ever found in this solid form. Chemistry was in its infancy and the substance was thought to be a form of lead. Consequently, it was called \"plumbago\" (Latin for \"lead ore\"). Because the pencil core is still referred to as \"lead\", or a \"lead\", many people have the misconception that the graphite in the pencil is lead, even though it never contained the element lead. The words for pencil in German (\"Bleistift\"), Irish (\"peann luaidhe\"), Arabic (\u0642\u0644\u0645 \u0631\u0635\u0627\u0635 \"qalam ra\u1e63\u0101\u1e63\"), and some other languages literally mean \"lead pen\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Graphite:36",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Graphite",
          "Uses of natural graphite",
          "Pencils"
        ],
        "ctx": "From the 16th century, all pencils were made with leads of English natural graphite, but modern pencil lead is most commonly a mix of powdered graphite and clay; it was invented by Nicolas-Jacques Cont\u00e9 in 1795. It is chemically unrelated to the metal lead, whose ores had a similar appearance, hence the continuation of the name. Plumbago is another older term for natural graphite used for drawing, typically as a lump of the mineral without a wood casing. The term plumbago drawing is normally restricted to 17th and 18th-century works, mostly portraits."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "From the 16th century, all pencils were made with leads of English natural graphite, but modern pencil lead is most commonly a mix of powdered graphite and clay; it was invented by Nicolas-Jacques Cont\u00e9 in 1795. It is chemically unrelated to the metal lead, whose ores had a similar appearance, hence the continuation of the name. Plumbago is another older term for natural graphite used for drawing, typically as a lump of the mineral without a wood casing. The term plumbago drawing is normally restricted to 17th and 18th-century works, mostly portraits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "In England, pencils continued to be made from whole sawn graphite. Henry Bessemer's first successful invention (1838) was a method of compressing graphite powder into solid graphite thus allowing the waste from sawing to be reused."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "Graphite sticks were initially wrapped in string or sheepskin for stability. England would enjoy a monopoly on the production of pencils until a method of reconstituting the graphite powder was found in 1662 in Italy. However, the distinctively square English pencils continued to be made with sticks cut from natural graphite into the 1860s. The town of Keswick, near the original findings of block graphite, still manufactures pencils, the factory also being the location of the Cumberland Pencil Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "The usefulness of graphite for pencils was discovered as well, but graphite for pencils had to be smuggled. Because graphite is soft, it requires some form of encasement. Graphite sticks were initially wrapped in string or sheepskin for stability. England would enjoy a monopoly on the production of pencils until a method of reconstituting the graphite powder was found in 1662 in Italy. However, the distinctively square English pencils continued to be made with sticks cut from natural graphite into the 1860s. The town of Keswick, near the original findings of block graphite, still manufactures pencils, the factory also being the location of the Derwent Pencil Museum. The meaning of \"graphite writing implement\" apparently evolved late in the 16th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "As a technique for drawing, the closest predecessor to the pencil was silverpoint or leadpoint until in 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), a large deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks. It remains the only large-scale deposit of graphite ever found in this solid form. Chemistry was in its infancy and the substance was thought to be a form of lead. Consequently, it was called \"plumbago\" (Latin for \"lead ore\"). Because the pencil core is still referred to as \"lead\", or \"a lead\", many people have the misconception that the graphite in the pencil is lead, and the black core of pencils is still referred to as \"lead\", even though it never contained the element lead. The words for pencil in German (\"Bleistift\"), Irish (\"peann luaidhe\"), Arabic (\u0642\u0644\u0645 \u0631\u0635\u0627\u0635 \"qalam ra\u1e63\u0101\u1e63\"), and some other languages literally mean \"lead pen\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kaspar Faber",
        "text": "Pencils made of pure graphite easily crumbled and broke. Thus in 1771 Faber undertook the first attempts to improve pencils by combining ground graphite with sulfur, antimony, and binding resins. The technique of gluing pencils into wooden sticks was already well known in Nuremberg at that time, but Faber did not use it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "A large deposit of graphite was discovered in 1565 on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks. It remains the only large-scale deposit of graphite ever found in this solid form. Chemistry was in its infancy and the substance was thought to be a form of lead. Consequently, it was called \"plumbago\" (Latin for \"lead ore\"). Because the pencil core is still referred to as \"lead\", or a \"lead\", many people have the misconception that the graphite in the pencil is lead, even though it never contained the element lead. The words for pencil in German (\"Bleistift\"), Irish (\"peann luaidhe\"), Arabic (\u0642\u0644\u0645 \u0631\u0635\u0627\u0635 \"qalam ra\u1e63\u0101\u1e63\"), and some other languages literally mean \"lead pen\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "English and German pencils were not available to the French during the Napoleonic Wars; France, under naval blockade imposed by Great Britain, was unable to import the pure graphite sticks from the British Grey Knotts mines \u2013 the only known source in the world. France was also unable to import the inferior German graphite pencil substitute. It took the efforts of an officer in Napoleon's army to change this. In 1795, Nicolas-Jacques Cont\u00e9 discovered a method of mixing powdered graphite with clay and forming the mixture into rods that were then fired in a kiln. By varying the ratio of graphite to clay, the hardness of the graphite rod could also be varied. This method of manufacture, which had been earlier discovered by the Austrian Joseph Hardtmuth, the founder of the Koh-I-Noor in 1790, remains in use. In 1802, the production of graphite leads from graphite and clay was patented by the Koh-I-Noor company in Vienna."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicolas-Jacques Cont\u00e9",
        "text": "Cont\u00e9 invented the modern pencil lead at the request of Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot. The French Republic was at that time under economic blockade and unable to import graphite from Great Britain, the main source of the material. Carnot asked Cont\u00e9 to create a pencil that did not rely on foreign imports. After several days of research, Cont\u00e9 had the idea of mixing powdered graphite with clay and pressing the material between two half-cylinders of wood. Thus was formed the modern pencil. Cont\u00e9 received a patent for the invention in 1795 and formed la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 Cont\u00e9 to make them. He also invented the cont\u00e9 crayon named after him, a hard pastel stick used by artists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "The first attempt to manufacture graphite sticks from powdered graphite was in Nuremberg, Germany, in 1662. It used a mixture of graphite, sulphur, and antimony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead",
        "text": "Contrary to popular belief, pencil leads in wooden pencils have never been made from lead. When the pencil originated as a wrapped graphite writing tool, the particular type of graphite used was named \"plumbago\" (literally, \"act for lead\" or \"lead mockup\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "During the 19th century, graphite's uses greatly expanded to include stove polish, lubricants, paints, crucibles, foundry facings, and pencils, a major factor in the expansion of educational tools during the first great rise of education for the masses. The British Empire controlled most of the world's production (especially from Ceylon), but production from Austrian, German, and American deposits expanded by mid-century. For example, the Dixon Crucible Company of Jersey City, New Jersey, founded by Joseph Dixon and partner Orestes Cleveland in 1845, opened mines in the Lake Ticonderoga district of New York, built a processing plant there, and a factory to manufacture pencils, crucibles and other products in New Jersey, described in the \"Engineering & Mining Journal\" 21 December 1878. The Dixon pencil is still in production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Today, pencils are still a small but significant market for natural graphite. Around 7% of the 1.1\u00a0million tonnes produced in 2011 was used to make pencils. Low-quality amorphous graphite is used and sourced mainly from China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Sometime before 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), an enormous deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England, which the locals found useful for marking sheep. During the reign of Elizabeth I (1558\u20131603), Borrowdale graphite was used as a refractory material to line molds for cannonballs, resulting in rounder, smoother balls that could be fired farther, contributing to the strength of the English navy. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and soft, and could easily be cut into sticks. Because of its military importance, this unique mine and its production were strictly controlled by the Crown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Hardtmuth",
        "text": "In 1792, Hardtmuth established a pencil factory in Vienna after he succeeded in creating an artificial graphite pencil by mixing powdered graphite with clay. Until that time, whole pieces, cut from graphite, were glued in between wood and were imported from England. With the new method, graphite of inferior quality could be used in pencil manufacturing, lowering the price and making the product more accessible for the masses. His company Koh-i-Noor Hardtmuth still exists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Liquid graphite pencils are pencils that write like pens. The technology was first invented in 1955 by Scripto and Parker Pens. Scripto's liquid graphite formula came out about three months before Parker's liquid lead formula. To avoid a lengthy patent fight the two companies agreed to share their formulas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Graphite pencils are made of a mixture of clay and graphite and their darkness varies from light grey to black: the more clay the harder the pencil. There is a wide range of grades available, mainly for artists who are interested in creating a full range of tones from light grey to black. Engineers prefer harder pencils which allow for a greater control in the shape of the lead."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Munroe (pencil maker)",
        "text": "Munroe figured that the best way to make pencils was by starting with a quarter inch slab of cedar wood. He then would cut the slots for his special formula graphite paste and fill them. He would let the paste air dry. The next step was to glue an eighth inch veneer of wood over the slots. The final step was to saw the slab into pencils. This resulted in a wooden lead graphite pencil that was just under a half inch thick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "American colonists imported pencils from Europe until after the American Revolution. Benjamin Franklin advertised pencils for sale in his \"Pennsylvania Gazette\" in 1729, and George Washington used a three-inch pencil when he surveyed the Ohio Country in 1762. William Munroe, a cabinetmaker in Concord, Massachusetts, made the first American wood pencils in 1812. This was not the only pencil-making occurring in Concord. According to Henry Petroski, transcendentalist philosopher Henry David Thoreau discovered how to make a good pencil out of inferior graphite using clay as the binder; this invention was prompted by his father's pencil factory in Concord, which employed graphite found in New Hampshire in 1821 by Charles Dunbar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Graphite pencils are the most common types of pencil, and are encased in wood. They are made of a mixture of clay and graphite and their darkness varies from light grey to black. Their composition allows for the smoothest strokes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Dixon (inventor)",
        "text": "During the 1860s, people typically wrote with quill pens and ink even though Dixon introduced graphite pencils in 1829. But the American Civil War created a demand for a dry, clean, portable writing instrument and led to the mass production of pencils. At the time of Dixon's death in 1869, the Joseph Dixon Crucible Company was the largest manufacturer of graphite products in the world. By 1870, The Joseph Dixon Crucible Company was the world's largest dealer and consumer of graphite. By 1872 the Dixon company was making 86,000 pencils a day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "The lead of the pencil is a mix of finely ground graphite and clay powders. Before the two substances are mixed, they are separately cleaned of foreign matter and dried in a manner that creates large square cakes. Once the cakes have fully dried, the graphite and the clay squares are mixed together using water. The amount of clay content added to the graphite depends on the intended pencil hardness (lower proportions of clay makes the core softer), and the amount of time spent on grinding the mixture determines the quality of the lead. The mixture is then shaped into long spaghetti-like strings, straightened, dried, cut, and then tempered in a kiln. The resulting strings are dipped in oil or molten wax, which seeps into the tiny holes of the material and allows for the smooth writing ability of the pencil. A juniper or incense-cedar plank with several long parallel grooves is cut to fashion a \"slat,\" and the graphite/clay strings are inserted into the grooves. Another grooved plank is glued on top, and the whole assembly is then cut into individual pencils, which are then varnished or painted. Many pencils feature an eraser on the top and so the process is usually still considered incomplete at this point. Each pencil has a shoulder cut on one end of the pencil to allow for a metal ferrule to be secured onto the wood. A rubber plug is then inserted into the ferrule for a functioning eraser on the end of the pencil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Carpenter's pencils are pencils that have two main properties: their shape prevents them from rolling, and their graphite is strong. The oldest surviving pencil is a German carpenter's pencil dating from the 17th Century and now in the Faber-Castell collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tantiusques",
        "text": "In 1828, Frederic Tudor, a Boston merchant, purchased the property. He successfully mined the graphite for over a quarter of a century until his death in 1864 when the mining operation ceased with his death. He had employed Captain Joseph Dixon and his son, who would later found the J.D. Crucible Company of New Jersey. This company eventually evolved into Dixon Ticonderoga, the famous manufacturer of pencils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Invented by Harold Grossman for the Empire Pencil Company in 1967, plastic pencils were subsequently improved upon by Arthur D. Little for Empire from 1969 through the early 1970s; the plastic pencil was commercialised by Empire as the \"EPCON\" Pencil. These pencils were co-extruded, extruding a plasticised graphite mix within a wood-composite core.\n* By factory state: sharpened, unsharpened.\n* By casing material: wood, paper, plastic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Copying pencils (or indelible pencils) are graphite pencils with an added dye that creates an indelible mark. They were invented in the late 19th century for press copying and as a practical substitute for fountain pens. Their markings are often visually indistinguishable from those of standard graphite pencils, but when moistened their markings dissolve into a coloured ink, which is then pressed into another piece of paper. They were widely used until the mid-20th century when ball pens slowly replaced them. In Italy their use is still mandated by law for voting paper ballots in elections and referendums."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "Production technology has changed little over the past 120 years; only standards and mechanisms for the manufacture of graphite rods and wooden halves have improved. The main components in the manufacture of rods \u2013 purified graphite powder and the clay binder kaolin \u2013 remain the same; the hardness of the graphite core depends on the ratio of graphite to kaolin, with softer cores containing more graphite. The hardest pencil contains about 20% graphite, the softest one up to 90%. A 1:1 ratio roughly corresponds to the 3H hardness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "The value of graphite would soon be realised to be enormous, mainly because it could be used to line the moulds for cannonballs; the mines were taken over by the Crown and were guarded. When sufficient stores of graphite had been accumulated, the mines were flooded to prevent theft until more was required."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Munroe (pencil maker)",
        "text": "Munroe had then made a business out of making lead pencils. He made the graphite formula for his pencils in secret, with only the help of his wife. The business was quite successful. By 1814 he had made nearly 175,000 pencils, which sold for about six thousand dollars, a very large amount of money at the time. When the war with England ended there were better pencils available from Europe and his profits were erased by these better imports. Munroe figured it was pointless to try to compete against these superior products so took up his normal trade of cabinet-making. He also made tooth brushes and watchmaker's brushes, also the first made in the United States. During this interim time he went back to the drawing board to do further experimenting with his secret lead pencil paste. One thing led to another until he came up with a powdered graphite paste product that would make its mark."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "Graphite pencil\n--History.\n--Production.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Borrowdale",
        "text": "Sometime before 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), a major deposit of graphite was discovered near the Seathwaite hamlet in Borrowdale parish. The locals found that it was useful for marking sheep. The graphite was pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks; the pencil industry was born in nearby Keswick. The graphite find remains unique."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "The value of graphite would soon be realised to be enormous, mainly because it could be used to line the moulds for cannonballs; the mines were taken over by the Crown and were guarded. When sufficient stores of graphite had been accumulated, the mines were flooded to prevent theft until more was required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Most pencil cores are made of graphite powder mixed with a clay binder. Graphite pencils (traditionally known as \"lead pencils\") produce grey or black marks that are easily erased, but otherwise resistant to moisture, most chemicals, ultraviolet radiation and natural aging. Other types of pencil cores, such as those of charcoal, are mainly used for drawing and sketching. Coloured pencils are sometimes used by teachers or editors to correct submitted texts, but are typically regarded as art supplies, especially those with cores made from wax-based binders that tend to smear when erasers are applied to them. Grease pencils have a softer, oily core that can leave marks on smooth surfaces such as glass or porcelain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Around 1560, an Italian couple named Simonio and Lyndiana Bernacotti made what are likely the first blueprints for the modern, wood-encased carpentry pencil. Their version was a flat, oval, more compact type of pencil. Their concept involved the hollowing out of a stick of juniper wood. Shortly thereafter, a superior technique was discovered: two wooden halves were carved, a graphite stick inserted, and the halves then glued together\u2014essentially the same method in use to this day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Joseph Dixon, an inventor and entrepreneur involved with the Tantiusques graphite mine in Sturbridge, Massachusetts, developed a means to mass-produce pencils. By 1870, The Joseph Dixon Crucible Company was the world's largest dealer and consumer of graphite and later became the contemporary Dixon Ticonderoga pencil and art supplies company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silverpoint",
        "text": "As noted by Francis Ames-Lewis, drawing styles changed at the end of the 16th century, resulting in a decline for metalpoint. The discovery of graphite deposits at Seathwaite in Borrowdale, Cumbria, England in the early 1500s, and its increasing availability to artists in a pure, soft (and erasable) form hastened silverpoint's eclipse. Artists sought more gestural qualities, for which graphite, red and black chalk were better suited. Ink and wash drawings are also prevalent in the period. In addition, these other drawing techniques required less effort and were more forgiving than silver, which resists erasure and leaves a fainter line. Furthermore, the preparation of silverpoint supports, usually with hide glue with finely ground bone ash, was labor-intensive. Modern practitioners use zinc, pre-prepared acrylic-based grounds or titanium white tempera or marble dust as a ground. Natural chalks and charcoal have the advantage of producing immediate results on uncoated papers."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Munroe (pencil maker)",
        "text": "On July 2, 1812, he had produced about thirty pencils and sold them to a Benjamin Andrews, a hardware dealer on Union Street in downtown Boston. These were the first wooden-cased graphite lead pencils manufactured in the United States. Andrews was a previous customer of Munroe's, to whom he had sold cabinetmaker's squares. He ordered more immediately, which Munroe proceeded to grind out. Munroe showed up at Andrew's hardware store with over four hundred pencils less than two weeks later. Andrews then wrote up a contract with Munroe to take for a price all the pencils that he could make in a certain time frame."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Munroe (pencil maker)",
        "text": "Straight away Munroe obtained a few lumps of black graphite which he beat to a pulp with a hammer. He separated the fine particles that floated to the top of the water with a spoon and mixed them with a clay solution. His first experiments with this lead solution was not very successful. He continued making cabinet maker's squares and sold the few of these which he could. In this time he continued experimenting with graphite lead for pencils with little accomplishment. He had no knowledge of the subject and feared consulting others as they might take the idea and produce pencils themselves. Munroe continued experimenting in secret with graphite powder formulas on his own. Eventually he figured a way to come up with a suitable graphite paste formula of various ingredients that could be poured into a slotted line made in some cedar wood blanks. The pencil centers would be his secret formula of a mixture of dried graphite paste of clay and other unknown ingredients. They were air dried and not hardened by firing in a furnace as Europeans did, so the quality was not as good as theirs\u2014but it was fine enough to write with."
      },
      {
        "title": "Writing implement",
        "text": "However, most modern \"lead pencils\" have a nonpoisonous core of greyish-black graphite mixed with various proportions of clay for consistency, enclosed within an outer wooden casing to protect the fragile graphite from being snapped apart or from leaving marks on the user's hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry David Thoreau",
        "text": "Thoreau returned to Concord and worked in his family's pencil factory, which he would continue to do alongside his writing and other work for most of his adult life. He rediscovered the process of making good pencils with inferior graphite by using clay as the binder. This invention allowed profitable use of a graphite source found in New Hampshire that had been purchased in 1821 by Thoreau's uncle, Charles Dunbar. The process of mixing graphite and clay, known as the Cont\u00e9 process, had been first patented by Nicolas-Jacques Cont\u00e9 in 1795. The company's other source of graphite had been Tantiusques, a mine operated by Native Americans in Sturbridge, Massachusetts. Later, Thoreau converted the pencil factory to produce plumbago, a name for graphite at the time, which was used in the electrotyping process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ticonderoga, New York",
        "text": "As early as 1812, Ticonderoga was the site of graphite mining. Commercial mining of graphite began in 1832, though logging remained the chief Industry. Graphite was not widely used in the 19th century, as most writing was done in pen, rather than pencil. It was not until the mid-20th century that pencils came into greater use, with the No. 2 HB pencil becoming the standard writing implement in schools and universities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil drawing",
        "text": "The evidence of \"pencil drawing\" does not occur before the 17th century. The modern concept of pencil drawing took shape in 18th and 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "By the end of the 19th century, over 240,000 pencils were used each day in the US. The favoured timber for pencils was Red Cedar as it was aromatic and did not splinter when sharpened. In the early 20th century supplies of Red Cedar were dwindling so that pencil manufacturers were forced to recycle the wood from cedar fences and barns to maintain supply."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Carbon pencils are generally made of a mixture of clay and lamp black, but are sometimes blended with charcoal or graphite depending on the darkness and manufacturer. They produce a fuller black than graphite pencils, are smoother than charcoal, and have minimal dust and smudging. They also blend very well, much like charcoal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seathwaite, Allerdale",
        "text": "was opened after the discovery of graphite there in 1555. The extracted graphite was eventually used to supply the Derwent Cumberland Pencil Company factory in Keswick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Pencil\n--History.\n----Camel's hair.\n----Graphite deposit discoveries.\n----Wood encasement.\n----Graphite powder and clay.\n----United States.\n----Eraser attachment.\n----Extenders.\n--Types.\n----By marking material.\n------Graphite.\n------Solid.\n------Liquid.\n------Charcoal.\n------Carbon pencils.\n------Colored.\n------Grease.\n------Watercolor.\n----By use.\n------Carpentry.\n------Copying.\n------Eyeliner.\n------Erasable coloring.\n------Non-reproduction.\n------Stenography.\n------Golf.\n----By size.\n------Typical.\n------Biggest.\n----By manufacture.\n------Mechanical.\n------Pop a Point.\n------Plastic.\n--Health.\n--Manufacture.\n--Grading and classification.\n----Hardness test.\n--External colour and shape.\n--Manufacturers.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "A graphite pencil, also called a lead pencil, is a type of pencil in which a thin graphite core is embedded in a shell of other material. The pencil shell is typically wooden, but can be made of plastic or recycled paper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Although lead has not been used for writing since antiquity, such as in Roman styli, lead poisoning from pencils was not uncommon. Until the middle of the 20th century the paint used for the outer coating could contain high concentrations of lead, and this could be ingested when the pencil was sucked or chewed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uni-ball",
        "text": "While mainly focused on making pens, in 2008 they developed a new mechanical pencil that rotated the graphite lead every time it is lifted from the page to sharpen it into an even cone shape. This line of pencils is named as \"Kuru Toga\". The name \"Kuru Toga\" is a portmanteau of the two Japanese words 'kuru' (turning) and 'togaru' (to be sharpened)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Pencils are commonly round, hexagonal, or sometimes triangular in section. Carpenters' pencils are typically oval or rectangular, so they cannot easily roll away during work.\n* Thomas Edison had his pencils specially made by Eagle Pencil. Each pencil was three inches long, was thicker than standard pencils and had softer graphite than was normally available.\n* Charles Fraser-Smith During World War II, Fraser-Smith worked for the Ministry of Supply, fabricating equipment nicknamed \"Q-devices\" (after Q-ships) for SOE agents operating in occupied Europe. In 1942, Charles Fraser-Smith, who worked in MI9, arrived at the Cumberland pencil factory, he had an idea to create a secret map and compass pencil. These were given to Lancaster Bomber airmen and were made secretly under the Official Secrets Act, in Keswick.\n* Vladimir Nabokov rewrote everything he had ever published, usually several times, in pencil.\n* John Steinbeck was an obsessive pencil user and is said to have used as many as 60 a day. His novel \"East of Eden\" took more than 300 pencils to write.\n* Vincent van Gogh used only Faber pencils as they were \"superior to Carpenters pencils, a capital black and most agreeable\".\n* Johnny Carson regularly played with pencils at his \"Tonight Show\" desk. These pencils were specially made with erasers at both ends to avoid on-set accidents.\n* Roald Dahl used only pencils with yellow casing to write his books. He had 6 sharpened pencils ready at the beginning of each day and only when all 6 pencils became unusable did he resharpen them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seathwaite, Allerdale",
        "text": "The commercial mining of the unusual solid form of graphite found near the hamlet of Seathwaite ceased around 1891 when veins of the solid graphite became harder to find. In addition, around that time the Keswick pencil factories had switched to making pencil pigments out of the familiar combination of clay powder and graphite powder. Graphite powder could be mined and imported from elsewhere. The mine entrance is north-northwest of the hamlet at ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil case",
        "text": "Early pencil cases were round or cylindrical in shape. Some early pencil cases were decorated with jasper (one from 1860) or platinum (from 1874). In 1946, the first patent for a pencil case was placed in the United States. This patent was made by Verona Pearl Amoth, who also invented other tools of the field like replaceable erasers for pencils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cont\u00e9",
        "text": "Cont\u00e9 (), also known as Cont\u00e9 sticks or Cont\u00e9 crayons, are a drawing medium composed of compressed powdered graphite or charcoal mixed with a clay base, square in cross-section. They were invented in 1795 by Nicolas-Jacques Cont\u00e9, who created the combination of clay and graphite in response to the shortage of graphite caused by the Napoleonic Wars (when the British naval blockade of France prevented import). Cont\u00e9 crayons had the advantage of being cost-effective to produce, and easy to manufacture in controlled grades of hardness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil drawing",
        "text": "Pencil drawing\n--History.\n--Modern period.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Solid graphite pencils are solid sticks of graphite and clay composite (as found in a 'graphite pencil'), about the diameter of a common pencil, which have no casing other than a wrapper or label. They are often called \"woodless\" pencils. They are used primarily for art purposes as the lack of casing allows for covering larger spaces more easily, creating different effects, and providing greater economy as the entirety of the pencil is used. They are available in the same darkness range as wood-encased graphite pencils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grey Knotts",
        "text": "Also on the Borrowdale side of the fell at the upper end of Newhouse Gill at grid reference is the site of the former Borrowdale graphite (then called Plumbago) mines. The mine was started in the 16th century by German immigrants; the graphite found was in a very pure form and in those early days was used only for marking sheep. Later, however, graphite was found to be suitable for lining the casting moulds for cannon and musket balls, which caused its value to soar in the 17th century, as England, France and the Dutch Republic built up their armies. The graphite was also used in pencil-making, which in 1790 led to the founding of the Cumberland pencil industry based in Keswick. The mine closed in 1891 after new techniques meant that graphite no longer needed to be so pure, so the Borrowdale mine became uneconomical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nashoba Brook Pencil Factory Site",
        "text": "The American pencil industry started in Concord in the 19th century. In 1812, William Munroe, a Concord-based cabinet maker, became the first American to successfully manufacture and sell wood-encased pencils. Munroe's main competitor later became the Thoreau family pencil business in Concord, run by John Thoreau, father of Henry David Thoreau. John Thoreau's brother-in-law, Charles Dunbar, discovered a deposit of graphite in Bristol, New Hampshire, in 1821. In 1823, Dunbar asked John Thoreau to join him in manufacturing pencils from this graphite. Later, Dunbar left the firm, and it acquired the name \"John Thoreau & Company\". Henry David Thoreau worked at his family's factory for most of his adult life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Charcoal pencils are made of charcoal and provide fuller blacks than graphite pencils, but tend to smudge easily and are more abrasive than graphite. Sepia-toned and white pencils are also available for duotone techniques."
      },
      {
        "title": "Koh-i-Noor Hardtmuth",
        "text": "The company was founded in 1790 by Joseph Hardtmuth of Austria. In 1802, the company patented the first pencil lead made from a combination of kaolin and graphite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dixon Ticonderoga",
        "text": "The company was formed by the merger of Joseph Dixon Crucible Company of New Jersey with Bryn Mawr Corporation of Pennsylvania, dating to 1795. The company was founded by Joseph Dixon and his son. Dixon also acquired 200-year-old German-based manufacturer Lyra. The pencil's name originates in the graphite ore discovered on Lead Mountain in 1815 and processed in Ticonderoga, New York."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Munroe (pencil maker)",
        "text": "Munroe decided in 1819 he would go into pencil manufacturing full-time. He no longer desired to be number two. He made a square deal with his employees then to sell them his furniture business. He contracted with them to make his cabinet maker's squares and pencil blanks for payment of the shop business. Munroe in turn then produced the unique graphite paste for his pencils, of which only he and his wife knew the secret formula. He rented an old textile factory building and there fabricated pencils on a large scale. In 1835 alone he made over 5 million pencils. He took the lead out to become the best manufacturer of American pencils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890)",
        "text": "1858 Pencil eraser\n*A pencil eraser is an article of stationery attached to the opposite end of a graphite pencil's sharpened tip. The eraser itself is typically made out of gum-like or synthetic rubber that is used for rubbing out pencil mistakes on paper. On April 15, 1770, English inventor Joseph Priestley described a vegetable gum to remove pencil marks. On March 30, 1858, Hymen Lipman received the first patent for the conception and the idea of attaching an eraser to the end of a pencil. In 1862 Lipman sold his patent to Joseph Reckendorfer for $100,000, who went to sue the pencil manufacturer Faber-Castell for infringement. In 1875, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled against Reckendorfer declaring the patent invalid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The ability to leave marks on paper and other objects gave graphite its name, given in 1789 by German mineralogist Abraham Gottlob Werner. It stems from \"\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd (\"graphein\")\", meaning \"to write\" or \"draw\" in Ancient Greek."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Residual graphite from a pencil stick is not poisonous, and graphite is harmless if consumed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eversharp",
        "text": "Charles Rood Keeran, a native of Bloomington, Illinois, had worked for the Bloomington Pickle Co. in his 20s. Around 1911 he partnered with J.F. Funk to manufacture White Crown Mason jar lids, though his attention soon turned mechanical pencils. Keeran's earliest patent on a pencil date to October 10, 1913. He was granted US patent 1,130,741 on March 9, 1915. The first production of \"Eversharp\" pencils were made in New Jersey by the \"Heath Corporation\", a prominent provider of high quality metalwork to the writing equipment industry. These pencils were test-marketed over the holiday season of 1913 at Wanamaker's in New York City. Keeran returned to Bloomington sometime in 1914 and established \"Keeran & Co.\", selling Heath-manufactured pencils. Those pencils had a .046 inch lead, which became the industry standard for thin mechanical pencil lead (although today the most popular sizes are 0.5\u00a0mm and 0.7\u00a0mm)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seathwaite Fell",
        "text": "Auntie Mabel and Pippin visit Seathwaite Fell in the second episode of the third series of Come Outside, as they learnt about how graphite was discovered and how pencils are made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbon",
        "text": "In 1779, Carl Wilhelm Scheele showed that graphite, which had been thought of as a form of lead, was instead identical with charcoal but with a small admixture of iron, and that it gave \"aerial acid\" (his name for carbon dioxide) when oxidized with nitric acid. In 1786, the French scientists Claude Louis Berthollet, Gaspard Monge and C. A. Vandermonde confirmed that graphite was mostly carbon by oxidizing it in oxygen in much the same way Lavoisier had done with diamond. Some iron again was left, which the French scientists thought was necessary to the graphite structure. In their publication they proposed the name \"carbone\" (Latin \"carbonum\") for the element in graphite which was given off as a gas upon burning graphite. Antoine Lavoisier then listed carbon as an element in his 1789 textbook."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sampson Mordan",
        "text": "In 1822, Mordan and his co-inventor John Isaac Hawkins filed the first patent in Great Britain for a metal pencil with an internal mechanism for propelling the graphite \"lead\" shaft forward during use, as an improvement on the less complex leadholders that merely clutched the pencil lead to hold it into a single position."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The use of graphite as a refractory (heat-resistant) material began before 1900 with graphite crucibles used to hold molten metal; this is now a minor part of refractories. In the mid-1980s, the carbon-magnesite brick became important, and a bit later the alumina-graphite shape. the order of importance is: alumina-graphite shapes, carbon-magnesite brick, Monolithics (gunning and ramming mixes), and then crucibles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mechanical pencil",
        "text": "The first patent for a refillable pencil with lead-propelling mechanism was issued to Sampson Mordan and John Isaac Hawkins in Britain in 1822. After buying out Hawkins' patent rights, Mordan entered into a business partnership with Gabriel Riddle from 1823 to 1837. The earliest Mordan pencils are thus hallmarked SMGR. After 1837, Mordan ended his partnership with Riddle and continued to manufacture pencils as \"S. Mordan & Co\". His company continued to manufacture pencils and a wide range of silver objects until World War II, when the factory was bombed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil drawing",
        "text": "In modern period artists have continued to use the graphite pencil for artworks and sketches. Modern computer software such as Line Integral Convolution (LIC) can help in creating pencil drawing on computer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orestes Cleveland",
        "text": "In 1850, he moved to Jersey City, New Jersey, where he specialized in the manufacture of black lead, stove polish and pencils. With Joseph Dixon, he helped organize the Dixon Crucible Company, of which Cleveland served as president. Dixon Crucible became one of the world's largest graphite products manufacturers in the 1870s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mechanical pencil",
        "text": "Conrad Gesner described a lead holder pencil in 1565, but the lead had to be manually adjusted to sharpen it. The earliest extant example of a mechanical pencil was found aboard the wreckage of HMS \"Pandora\", which sank in 1791."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blackwing 602",
        "text": "The Blackwing 602 is a pencil that is noted for its soft, dark graphite, unique flat square ferrule and replaceable eraser. It was manufactured by the Eberhard Faber Pencil Company from 1934\u20131988, then by the Faber-Castell pencil company from 1988\u20131994 and by Sanford from 1994\u20131998. The pencil initially sold for 50 cents each. After it was discontinued single original pencils were found on eBay for over $40, with some older (and rarer) ones being sold for over $100. Originals are becoming increasingly rare. As of 2012 a different pencil using the same name is being manufactured by Palomino."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Abraham Gottlob Werner coined the name \"graphite\" (\"writing stone\") in 1789. He attempted to clear up the confusion between molybdena, plumbago and black lead after Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1778 proved that there are at least three different minerals. Scheele's analysis showed that the chemical compounds molybdenum sulfide (molybdenite), lead(II) sulfide (galena) and graphite were three different soft black minerals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbon",
        "text": "Commercially viable natural deposits of graphite occur in many parts of the world, but the most important sources economically are in China, India, Brazil and North Korea. Graphite deposits are of metamorphic origin, found in association with quartz, mica and feldspars in schists, gneisses and metamorphosed sandstones and limestone as lenses or veins, sometimes of a metre or more in thickness. Deposits of graphite in Borrowdale, Cumberland, England were at first of sufficient size and purity that, until the 19th century, pencils were made simply by sawing blocks of natural graphite into strips before encasing the strips in wood. Today, smaller deposits of graphite are obtained by crushing the parent rock and floating the lighter graphite out on water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carpenter pencil",
        "text": "The flat pencil is one of the oldest pencil types. The first versions were made by hollowing out sticks of juniper wood. A superior technique was discovered: two wooden halves were carved with a groove running down them, a plumbago stick placed in one of the grooves, and the two halves then glued together\u2014essentially the same method in use to this day. Similar pencils (called 'jumbo pencils') are sometimes used by children. A pencil that is designed for a child rather than a carpenter would likely have a softer core, enabling the user to draw with less physical effort."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "As well as simply being distinctive, the colour may have been inspired by the Austro-Hungarian flag; it was also suggestive of the Orient at a time when the best-quality graphite came from Siberia. Other companies then copied the yellow colour so that their pencils would be associated with this high-quality brand, and chose brand names with explicit Oriental references, such as Mikado (renamed Mirado) and Mongol."
      },
      {
        "title": "Keswick, Cumbria",
        "text": "As well as copper, a new substance was found, extracted and exploited: this was variously called wad, black lead, plumbago or black cauke, and is now known as graphite. Many uses were quickly discovered for the mineral: it reduced friction in machinery, made a heat-resistant glaze for crucibles, and when used to line moulds for cannonballs, resulted in rounder, smoother balls that could be fired further by English naval cannon. Later, from the second half of the 18th century, it was used to make pencils, for which Keswick became famous."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crayon",
        "text": "The history of the crayon is not entirely clear. The French word \"crayon\", originally meaning \"chalk pencil\", dates to around the 16th century, and is derived from the word \"craie\" (chalk) which comes from the Latin word \"creta\" (Earth). The meaning later changed to simply \"pencil\" which it still means in modern French."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nashoba Brook Pencil Factory Site",
        "text": "Wood then started his own mill for grounding plumbago for the graphite used in pencils. Initially, Munroe was one of his customers. However, by the 1830s, he sold plumbago exclusively to the Thoreau company, a business relation that lasted many years. Henry David Thoreau supposedly purchased his sketch pencils from Wood's factory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil drawing",
        "text": "Pencil drawing is a part of drawing that is executed with a pencil composed of wood and graphite. Pencil drawing is considered \"successor\" of metallic drawing of medieval period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Viarco",
        "text": "The origin of pencil manufacture in Portugal dates back to 1907. Counselor Figueiredo Faria and his French partner and engineer Jules Cacheux make the decision to build an industrial pencil-making unit in Vila do Conde called \"Vila F\u00e9, Cacheux & C\u00aa\", also known as \"Portug\u00e1lia\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ferdinand A. Brader",
        "text": "Most of his drawings are quite large, some measuring as large as 39\" by 53\". The vast majority of these were done using only graphite pencil. However, by 1892 Brader had started to use colored pencils as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "\"Pencil\", from Old French \"pincel\", from Latin a \"little tail\" (see \"penis\"; \"pincellus\" is Latin from the post-classical period) originally referred to an artist's fine brush of camel hair, also used for writing before modern lead or chalk pencils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil2D",
        "text": "Pencil2D\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "In the United States, in 1885, Hezekiah Bradford of Philadelphia patented a similar process, but it is uncertain if his process was used successfully in the nearby graphite deposits of Chester County, Pennsylvania, a major producer by the 1890s. The Bessel process was limited in use, primarily because of the abundant cleaner deposits found around the globe, which needed not much more than hand-sorting to gather the pure graphite. The state of the art, ca. 1900, is described in the Canadian Department of Mines report on graphite mines and mining when Canadian deposits began to become important producers of graphite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "In 1893, Charles Street of Le Carbone discovered a process for making artificial graphite. In the mid-1890s, Edward Goodrich Acheson (1856\u20131931) accidentally invented another way to produce synthetic graphite after synthesizing carborundum (silicon carbide or SiC). He discovered that overheating carborundum, as opposed to pure carbon, produced almost pure graphite. While studying the effects of high temperature on carborundum, he had found that silicon vaporizes at about 4,150\u00a0\u00b0C (7,500\u00a0\u00b0F), leaving the carbon behind in graphitic carbon. This graphite became valuable as a lubricant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sonnet 16",
        "text": "Line 10 is the source of some dissent amongst scholars. One reading is that, compared to his physical offspring (\u201cthis\u201d), the depictions of time's pencil or the poet's novice pen (\"pupil\") are ineffectual. But it is the potential insight into the sonnets' chronology, through the relationship of \"this\" to \"Time's pencil\" and \"my pupil pen\", that is the focus of the debate: George Steevens regards the words as evidence Shakespeare wrote his sonnets as a youth; for T. W. Baldwin the phrase connects this sonnet to The Rape of Lucrece. While in general terms \"Time\" is in this line a form of artist (rather than a destroyer, as elsewhere in the cycle), its exact function is unclear. In Shakespeare's time, a pencil was both a small painter's brush and a tool to engrave letters, although graphite pencils bound in wax, string or even wood were known in the 16th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Negro (lead pencil)",
        "text": "Negro lead was originally composed of a mixture of wax and charcoal and was often used in combination with heavily textured coquille paper. The intention was to create sturdy pencil line art which was dark enough to be reproduced with early photographic technology. It was used as a replacement for lithographic printmaking, just as pen and ink line art essentially took the place of intaglio in late 19th-century illustration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Historically, graphite was called black lead or plumbago. Plumbago was commonly used in its massive mineral form. Both of these names arise from confusion with the similar-appearing lead ores, particularly galena. The Latin word for lead, \"plumbum\", gave its name to the English term for this grey metallic-sheened mineral and even to the leadworts or plumbagos, plants with flowers that resemble this colour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphene",
        "text": "Scientists theorized the potential existence and production of graphene for decades. It has likely been unknowingly produced in small quantities for centuries, through the use of pencils and other similar applications of graphite. It was originally observed in electron microscopes in 1962, but studied only while supported on metal surfaces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Plumbago drawing",
        "text": "Plumbago drawings are graphite drawings from the 17th and 18th centuries. There was a group of artists whose work in plumbago is remarkable for their portraits drawn with finely pointed pieces of graphite and on vellum. These works were initially prepared as the basis of an engraving. Eventually they would be produced as works in their own right."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gunpowder",
        "text": "Neither the use of graphite nor sodium nitrate was new. Glossing gunpowder corns with graphite was already an accepted technique in 1839, and sodium nitrate-based blasting powder had been made in Peru for many years using the sodium nitrate mined at Tarapac\u00e1 (now in Chile). Also, in 1846, two plants were built in south-west England to make blasting powder using this sodium nitrate. The idea may well have been brought from Peru by Cornish miners returning home after completing their contracts. Another suggestion is that it was William Lobb, the plant collector, who recognised the possibilities of sodium nitrate during his travels in South America. Lammot du Pont would have known about the use of graphite and probably also knew about the plants in south-west England. In his patent he was careful to state that his claim was for the combination of graphite with sodium nitrate-based powder, rather than for either of the two individual technologies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lamy",
        "text": "The LAMY 2000 is identical in its form with this brand's fountain pen. It features the same elegant and classic design and has a black matte finish and a high-quality writing mechanism. The pencil is made of fiberglass and stainless steel, which makes it light and well-balanced. The writing tool is developed with a conical and retractable tip and has a texturized grip made of Macrolon resin. Under the top of the push button, there is a replaceable eraser. The interior container holds a thin needle for cleaning graphite jams. The pencil has a rounded clip and comes in two lead sizes \u2013 0.7 and 0.5\u00a0mm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copying pencil",
        "text": "Copying pencil\n--History.\n--Modern uses.\n--Health risks.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Numbers as designation were first used by Cont\u00e9 and later by John Thoreau, father of Henry David Thoreau, in the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colored pencil",
        "text": "A colored pencil (American English), coloured pencil (Commonwealth English), pencil crayon, or coloured/colouring lead (Canadian English, Newfoundland English) is an art medium constructed of a narrow, pigmented core encased in a wooden cylindrical case. Unlike graphite and charcoal pencils, colored pencils' cores are wax- or oil-based and contain varying proportions of pigments, additives, and binding agents. Water-soluble (watercolor) pencils and pastel pencils are also manufactured as well as colored cores for mechanical pencils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copying pencil",
        "text": "A copying pencil, also indelible pencil or chemical pencil, is pencil whose lead contains a dye. The lead is fabricated by adding a dry water-soluble permanent dye to powdered graphite\u2014used in standard graphite pencils\u2014before binding the mixture with clay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mechanical pencil",
        "text": "Between 1822 and 1874, more than 160 patents were registered pertaining to a variety of improvements to mechanical pencils. The first spring-loaded mechanical pencil was patented in 1877 and a twist-feed mechanism was developed in 1895. The 0.9\u00a0 mm lead was introduced in 1938, and later it was followed by 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7 sizes. Eventually, 1.3 and 1.4\u00a0 mm mechanisms were available, and 0.4 and 0.2 versions are now produced."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which country produces the most graphite?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Of the 1,200,000 tonnes of graphite mined in 2016, China was responsible for 780,000 tonnes, making it the largest miner."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did graphite start to replace lead in pencils?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "From the 16th century, all pencils were made with leads of English natural graphite, but it is chemically unrelated to the metal lead, whose ores had a similar appearance, hence the continuation of the name."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were pencils made of prior to the 16th century?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In ancient times, the archetypal pencil was an artist's brush, the stylus, a thin metal stick used for scratching in papyrus or wax tablets, was used extensively by the Romans and for palm-leaf manuscripts. As a technique for drawing, the closest predecessor to the pencil was silverpoint or leadpoint until in 1565."
    ],
    "topic": "Graphite",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Pencil:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pencil",
          "History",
          "Camel's hair"
        ],
        "ctx": "Though the archetypal pencil was an artist's brush, the stylus, a thin metal stick used for scratching in papyrus or wax tablets, was used extensively by the Romans and for palm-leaf manuscripts."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pencil:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pencil",
          "History",
          "Camel's hair"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"Pencil\", from Old French \"pincel\", from Latin a \"little tail\" (see \"penis\"; \"pincellus\" is Latin from the post-classical period) originally referred to an artist's fine brush of camel hair, also used for writing before modern lead or chalk pencils."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Pencil:7",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Pencil",
          "History",
          "Graphite deposit discoveries"
        ],
        "ctx": "As a technique for drawing, the closest predecessor to the pencil was silverpoint or leadpoint until in 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), a large deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks. It remains the only large-scale deposit of graphite ever found in this solid form. Chemistry was in its infancy and the substance was thought to be a form of lead. Consequently, it was called \"plumbago\" (Latin for \"lead ore\"). Because the pencil core is still referred to as \"lead\", or \"a lead\", many people have the misconception that the graphite in the pencil is lead, and the black core of pencils is still referred to as \"lead\", even though it never contained the element lead. The words for pencil in German (\"Bleistift\"), Irish (\"peann luaidhe\"), Arabic (\u0642\u0644\u0645 \u0631\u0635\u0627\u0635 \"qalam ra\u1e63\u0101\u1e63\"), and some other languages literally mean \"lead pen\"."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Silverpoint",
        "text": "As noted by Francis Ames-Lewis, drawing styles changed at the end of the 16th century, resulting in a decline for metalpoint. The discovery of graphite deposits at Seathwaite in Borrowdale, Cumbria, England in the early 1500s, and its increasing availability to artists in a pure, soft (and erasable) form hastened silverpoint's eclipse. Artists sought more gestural qualities, for which graphite, red and black chalk were better suited. Ink and wash drawings are also prevalent in the period. In addition, these other drawing techniques required less effort and were more forgiving than silver, which resists erasure and leaves a fainter line. Furthermore, the preparation of silverpoint supports, usually with hide glue with finely ground bone ash, was labor-intensive. Modern practitioners use zinc, pre-prepared acrylic-based grounds or titanium white tempera or marble dust as a ground. Natural chalks and charcoal have the advantage of producing immediate results on uncoated papers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silverpoint",
        "text": "Silverpoint (one of several types of metalpoint) is a traditional drawing technique first used by medieval scribes on manuscripts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silverpoint",
        "text": "A silverpoint drawing is made by dragging a silver rod or wire across a surface, often prepared with gesso or primer. Silverpoint is one of several types of metalpoint used by scribes, craftsmen and artists since ancient times. Metalpoint styli were used for writing on soft surfaces (wax or bark), ruling and underdrawing on parchment, and drawing on prepared paper and panel supports. For drawing purposes, the essential metals used were lead, tin and silver. The softness of these metals made them effective drawing instruments. Goldsmiths also used metalpoint drawings to prepare their detailed, meticulous designs. Albrecht D\u00fcrer's father was one such craftsman who later taught his young son to draw in metalpoint, to such good effect that his 1484 \"Self-Portrait at the Age of 13\" is still considered a masterpiece."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "As a technique for drawing, the closest predecessor to the pencil was silverpoint or leadpoint until in 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), a large deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks. It remains the only large-scale deposit of graphite ever found in this solid form. Chemistry was in its infancy and the substance was thought to be a form of lead. Consequently, it was called \"plumbago\" (Latin for \"lead ore\"). Because the pencil core is still referred to as \"lead\", or \"a lead\", many people have the misconception that the graphite in the pencil is lead, and the black core of pencils is still referred to as \"lead\", even though it never contained the element lead. The words for pencil in German (\"Bleistift\"), Irish (\"peann luaidhe\"), Arabic (\u0642\u0644\u0645 \u0631\u0635\u0627\u0635 \"qalam ra\u1e63\u0101\u1e63\"), and some other languages literally mean \"lead pen\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silverpoint",
        "text": "In the late Gothic/early Renaissance era, silverpoint emerged as a fine line drawing technique. Not blunting as easily as lead or tin, and rendering precise detail, silverpoint was especially favored in Florentine and Flemish workshops. Silverpoint drawings of this era include model books and preparatory sheets for paintings. Artists who worked in silverpoint include Jan van Eyck, Leonardo da Vinci, Albrecht D\u00fcrer and Raphael. Cennino Cennini's \"Il Libro dell'Arte\" provides a window on the practice of silver and leadpoint drawing, as well as preparing metalpoint grounds, in the late 14th century. Susan Dorothea White's book \"Draw Like da Vinci\" describes the silverpoint technique of Leonardo da Vinci."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silverpoint",
        "text": "A traditional silverpoint stylus is made with a small fine rod of silver, such as jewelry wire, which is inserted into a wooden rod. Another design is a silver-tipped metal stylus with points on both ends. An example of this type is shown in Rogier van der Weyden's \"St. Luke Drawing the Virgin,\" ca. 1435\u201340 (Boston Museum of Fine Arts). For a contemporary stylus, jeweler's wire may be inserted into a pin vise or mechanical pencil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silverpoint",
        "text": "Silverpoint was also used in conjunction with other metal points by 20th-century artists. Pedro Joseph de Lemos, the Director of the San Francisco Art Institute from 1911 to 1917, popularized his \u201ctechniques\u201d in California art schools with his published instructions on the easy fabrication of various types of metal points that would react with inexpensive coated paper. In his \"The Last of the Old Woodstock Inn\", 1968 (The Art Institute of Chicago), Ivan Le Lorraine Albright used silver with platinum, gold, copper and brasspoint on commercially prepared video media paper. Contemporary artists continue to push the boundaries of this ancient drawing technique. Contemporary American silverpoint artist Carol Prusa combines graphite and binder on acrylic hemispheres with metal leaf, video projection and fiber optics. Susan Schwalb has combined smoke and fire in silver and copperpoints in the 1980s and currently creates drawings and paintings using numerous metals as well as acrylic paint. Jeannine Cook combines touches of colour with monochromatic drawings, employing such media as Prismacolour, watercolour, Plike paper, silk fabric and silk threads. Experimental metalpoint techniques including goldpoint on silicon carbide paper are demonstrated in \"Draw Like da Vinci\" by Susan Dorothea White, as in \"Gilding the Lily\" (2005). Elizabeth Whiteley interfaces with computer-based imagery. She draws with a silver stylus over inkjet prints that have been coated with a translucent prepared ground."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silverpoint",
        "text": "In the Middle Ages, metalpoint was used directly on parchment for the underdrawing of illuminated manuscripts or model books. On uncoated parchment (and paper), silverpoint is particularly light in value. However, since the 14th century, silverpoint was used more successfully on prepared supports. A traditional ground may be prepared with a rabbit skin glue solution pigmented with bone ash, chalk and/or lead white. Contemporary grounds include acrylic gesso, gouache and commercially prepared claycoat papers. The slight tooth of the ground preparation takes a little of the silver as it is drawn across the surface."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silverpoint",
        "text": "Dutch artists Hendrick Goltzius and Rembrandt maintained the silverpoint tradition into the 17th century, as it declined in other parts of Europe. Rembrandt made several silverpoints on prepared vellum, the best-known being the portrait of his wife Saskia, 1633. Botanical artists and architects continued to use metalpoint because of its exact lines. However, artists who continued this tradition of fine line drawing, such as Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, turned to graphite, which gradually improved in quality and availability throughout Europe since the 17th century. Silverpoint was for practical purposes rendered obsolete by the 18th century. There has however been a contemporary art revival among European and American artists and academies because the medium imposes considerable discipline in draughtsmanship since drawings cannot be erased or altered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silver Point",
        "text": "Silver Point may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Silverpoint",
        "text": "Old Master silverpoints are typically intimate in scale, recalling the technique's roots in manuscript illumination. However, modern artists have also utilized this fine line technique for works on an increasingly large scale. John Wilde's \"The Great Autobiographical Silverpoint Drawing\" (Art Institute of Chicago 1986.8) which is , one of the largest modern silverpoints."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silverpoint",
        "text": "An exhibit, \"The Fine Line: Drawing with Silver in America\" was curated for the Norton Museum of Art, in 1985 by Bruce Weber. In 2015, the National Gallery of Art and the British Museum exhibited \"Drawing in Silver and Gold: Leonardo to Jasper Johns\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silverpoint",
        "text": "The initial marks of silverpoint appear grey as other metalpoints, but silverpoint lines, when exposed to air, tarnish to a warm brown tone. The oxidation becomes perceptible over a period of several months. The speed of oxidation varies according to the level of pollution in the air. Historically, silverpoint styli ranged widely in composition from pure silver to heavily alloyed with copper (over 20% weight)."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Silver Pencil",
        "text": "The Silver Pencil\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jeannine Cook",
        "text": "Metalpoint was famously employed in European monasteries' \"scriptoria,\" such as Lindisfarne, in the 8th century AD but centuries before, in AD77, Pliny the Elder had alluded to drawing in silver in his Natural History. Highly conscious of metalpoint\u2019s illustrious heritage, Cook draws mostly in silver, always from real life, and does not lay out any preparatory indications on the drawing surface before starting her drawing in metal. She believes that working directly from life confers spontaneity to a drawing, making it possible for intuition to guide the drawing and allowing the subject matter to dictate. For Cook, this method of drawing allows for unexpected results and opportunities to grow as an artist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silver Point",
        "text": "Silver Point\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "A large deposit of graphite was discovered in 1565 on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks. It remains the only large-scale deposit of graphite ever found in this solid form. Chemistry was in its infancy and the substance was thought to be a form of lead. Consequently, it was called \"plumbago\" (Latin for \"lead ore\"). Because the pencil core is still referred to as \"lead\", or a \"lead\", many people have the misconception that the graphite in the pencil is lead, even though it never contained the element lead. The words for pencil in German (\"Bleistift\"), Irish (\"peann luaidhe\"), Arabic (\u0642\u0644\u0645 \u0631\u0635\u0627\u0635 \"qalam ra\u1e63\u0101\u1e63\"), and some other languages literally mean \"lead pen\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silverpoint",
        "text": "Silverpoint\n--History.\n--Revival.\n--Characteristics.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabeth Whiteley",
        "text": "Whiteley uses silverpoint as a drawing medium. The technique was widely used during the Italian Renaissance. She became fascinated by drawing with metal while an art student at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago. Her anatomy teacher, Paula Gerard, was a master of the technique of using a sterling silver stylus on a prepared ground. Whiteley draws with silver or gold styluses to represent botanical themes, geometric forms, frieze groups, and the sacred cut. For an essay about her solo exhibition of silverpoint drawing over color washes at the McLean Center for the Arts, curator Nancy Sausser wrote \"As an artist, Whiteley shows us her respect for the past, pays homage to it in these works, yet remains firmly rooted in the present as well.\" Her work with metalpoint drawing over inkjet printed images is discussed in a metalpoint textbook by Susan Schwalb and Tom Mazzullo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gordon Hanley",
        "text": "Beginning in 2009, Hanley began to create drawings in metalpoint. After creating a number of works in the tradition of silverpoint drawing, he began to incorporate with gold as well. His work was featured in Australian Artist Magazine, and \"Artist's Palette\". for which he later wrote several articles about his technique."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silver Center",
        "text": "Silver Center\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Thelma Wood",
        "text": "Although very little of her work survives, many of her drawings accompany collections of Djuna Barnes. Wood's sketchbook from a trip to Berlin remains in the Barnes Papers at the University of Maryland, College Park. Her work drew strongly on images from nature. Wood's silverpoint drawings were exhibited at least once, at Milch Galleries in New York City in 1931 where Mary Fanton Roberts reviewed her work favorably."
      },
      {
        "title": "Head of a Bear",
        "text": "\"Head of a Bear\" is thought to have been executed by a young Leonardo da Vinci (b. 1452) circa 1480. It is a close-up drawing of a bear's head on a piece of pink-beige paper. Its size has led it to be described as \"a Post-it Note Leonardo\". It is drawn with a silverpoint pencil. Silverpointing is a technique that Leonardo learnt in the workshop of Andrea del Verrocchio. It is an unforgiving medium as the marks made by the silver pencil are very difficult to erase."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silverite",
        "text": "Silverite\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "From the 16th century, all pencils were made with leads of English natural graphite, but modern pencil lead is most commonly a mix of powdered graphite and clay; it was invented by Nicolas-Jacques Cont\u00e9 in 1795. It is chemically unrelated to the metal lead, whose ores had a similar appearance, hence the continuation of the name. Plumbago is another older term for natural graphite used for drawing, typically as a lump of the mineral without a wood casing. The term plumbago drawing is normally restricted to 17th and 18th-century works, mostly portraits."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Silver Pencil",
        "text": "The Silver Pencil is a children's novel by Alice Dalgliesh. Based on the author's life, it tells of the childhood and young adulthood of Janet Laidlaw in the early years of the twentieth century. She moves from Trinidad to England, then to the United States and Nova Scotia, Canada, becoming a teacher and a writer. The novel, illustrated by Katherine Milhous, was first published in 1944 and was a Newbery Honor recipient in 1945."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caustic pencil",
        "text": "The silver and potassium nitrates in caustic pencils is in a dried, solid form at the tip of a wooden or plastic stick. When the material is applied to a wound or lesion, the tissue moisture or blood dissolves the dried nitrate salts, which then chemically burn the tissue. It requires moisture for activation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The ability to leave marks on paper and other objects gave graphite its name, given in 1789 by German mineralogist Abraham Gottlob Werner. It stems from \"\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd (\"graphein\")\", meaning \"to write\" or \"draw\" in Ancient Greek."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borrowdale",
        "text": "Sometime before 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), a major deposit of graphite was discovered near the Seathwaite hamlet in Borrowdale parish. The locals found that it was useful for marking sheep. The graphite was pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks; the pencil industry was born in nearby Keswick. The graphite find remains unique."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Though the archetypal pencil was an artist's brush, the stylus, a thin metal stick used for scratching in papyrus or wax tablets, was used extensively by the Romans and for palm-leaf manuscripts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caustic pencil",
        "text": "A caustic pencil (or silver nitrate stick) is a device for applying topical medication containing silver nitrate and potassium nitrate, used to chemically cauterize skin, providing hemostasis or permanently destroying unwanted tissue such as a wart, skin tag, aphthous ulcers, or over-production of granulation tissue. They are not used as a treatment for minor skin cuts, and are not to be confused with a styptic pencil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "Graphite pencil\n--History.\n--Production.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Silverpoint",
        "text": "Silverpoint has encompassed a wide range of styles from D\u00fcrer's curvilinear precision to Rembrandt's gestural sketches. Silverpoint has also proven adaptable to modern styles. Thomas Wilmer Dewing's late 19th Century silverpoint portraits are essentially tonal, as are Paula Gerard's mid-20th-century abstract compositions. Gerard's \"Vortex\" (Fairweather Hardin Gallery) is an innovative combination of silverpoint, goldpoint and watercolor on casein-coated parchment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nancy Lawton",
        "text": "Nancy Lawton (1950\u20132007) was an American artist. Originally working in graphite to create botanical drawings and portraits, Lawton began working in silverpoint in 1985. Her work is included in the collections of the Smithsonian American Art Museum, the Art Institute of Chicago, the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Brooklyn Museum of Art."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ivan Albright",
        "text": "In the late 1950s and the 1960s he employed metalpoint for drawings. \"The Last of the Old WoodStock Inn\" was drawn in 1968, using silver-, platinum-, gold-, copper-, and brasspoint on VideoMedia paper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Sometime before 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), an enormous deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England, which the locals found useful for marking sheep. During the reign of Elizabeth I (1558\u20131603), Borrowdale graphite was used as a refractory material to line molds for cannonballs, resulting in rounder, smoother balls that could be fired farther, contributing to the strength of the English navy. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and soft, and could easily be cut into sticks. Because of its military importance, this unique mine and its production were strictly controlled by the Crown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silver Cliff",
        "text": "Silver Cliff may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Drypoint",
        "text": "Drypoint is a printmaking technique of the intaglio family, in which an image is incised into a plate (or \"matrix\") with a hard-pointed \"needle\" of sharp metal or diamond point. In principle, the method is practically identical to engraving. The difference is in the use of tools, and that the raised ridge along the furrow is not scraped or filed away as in engraving. Traditionally the plate was copper, but now acetate, zinc, or plexiglas are also commonly used. Like etching, drypoint is easier to master than engraving for an artist trained in drawing because the technique of using the needle is closer to using a pencil than the engraver's burin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silver Peak",
        "text": "Silver Peak may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "The usefulness of graphite for pencils was discovered as well, but graphite for pencils had to be smuggled. Because graphite is soft, it requires some form of encasement. Graphite sticks were initially wrapped in string or sheepskin for stability. England would enjoy a monopoly on the production of pencils until a method of reconstituting the graphite powder was found in 1662 in Italy. However, the distinctively square English pencils continued to be made with sticks cut from natural graphite into the 1860s. The town of Keswick, near the original findings of block graphite, still manufactures pencils, the factory also being the location of the Derwent Pencil Museum. The meaning of \"graphite writing implement\" apparently evolved late in the 16th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "Graphite sticks were initially wrapped in string or sheepskin for stability. England would enjoy a monopoly on the production of pencils until a method of reconstituting the graphite powder was found in 1662 in Italy. However, the distinctively square English pencils continued to be made with sticks cut from natural graphite into the 1860s. The town of Keswick, near the original findings of block graphite, still manufactures pencils, the factory also being the location of the Cumberland Pencil Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "The value of graphite would soon be realised to be enormous, mainly because it could be used to line the moulds for cannonballs; the mines were taken over by the Crown and were guarded. When sufficient stores of graphite had been accumulated, the mines were flooded to prevent theft until more was required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Theory of forms",
        "text": "Scholasticism was a highly multinational, polyglottal school of philosophy, and the nominalist argument may be more obvious if an example is given in more than one language. For instance, colour terms are strongly variable by language; some languages consider blue and green the same colour, others have monolexemic terms for several shades of blue, which are considered different; other, like the Mandarin \"qing\" denote both blue and black. The German word \"Stift\" means a pen or a pencil, and also anything of the same shape. The English \"pencil\" originally meant \"small paintbrush\"; the term later included the silver rod used for silverpoint. The German \"Bleistift\" and \"Silberstift\" can both be called \"Stift\", but this term also includes felt-tip pens, which are clearly not pencils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Pencil\n--History.\n----Camel's hair.\n----Graphite deposit discoveries.\n----Wood encasement.\n----Graphite powder and clay.\n----United States.\n----Eraser attachment.\n----Extenders.\n--Types.\n----By marking material.\n------Graphite.\n------Solid.\n------Liquid.\n------Charcoal.\n------Carbon pencils.\n------Colored.\n------Grease.\n------Watercolor.\n----By use.\n------Carpentry.\n------Copying.\n------Eyeliner.\n------Erasable coloring.\n------Non-reproduction.\n------Stenography.\n------Golf.\n----By size.\n------Typical.\n------Biggest.\n----By manufacture.\n------Mechanical.\n------Pop a Point.\n------Plastic.\n--Health.\n--Manufacture.\n--Grading and classification.\n----Hardness test.\n--External colour and shape.\n--Manufacturers.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jan Wierix",
        "text": "He occasionally worked in silverpoint. The only signed silverpoint drawing by his hand is a portrait of Hieronymous Beck (Herzog Anton Ulrich-Museum, Braunschweig) and is a study in reverse for his engraving of the same subject. It is possible that he used the silverpoint frequently for the design of his engravings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabeth Whiteley",
        "text": "Whiteley's works on paper and metalpoint drawings are in museum collections such as the Carnegie Museum of Art, the Erie Art Museum, and the Spencer Museum of Art."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "A graphite pencil, also called a lead pencil, is a type of pencil in which a thin graphite core is embedded in a shell of other material. The pencil shell is typically wooden, but can be made of plastic or recycled paper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silver behenate",
        "text": "Silver behenate\n--Description.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Silver Circle",
        "text": "\"Silver Circle\" may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Grey Knotts",
        "text": "Also on the Borrowdale side of the fell at the upper end of Newhouse Gill at grid reference is the site of the former Borrowdale graphite (then called Plumbago) mines. The mine was started in the 16th century by German immigrants; the graphite found was in a very pure form and in those early days was used only for marking sheep. Later, however, graphite was found to be suitable for lining the casting moulds for cannon and musket balls, which caused its value to soar in the 17th century, as England, France and the Dutch Republic built up their armies. The graphite was also used in pencil-making, which in 1790 led to the founding of the Cumberland pencil industry based in Keswick. The mine closed in 1891 after new techniques meant that graphite no longer needed to be so pure, so the Borrowdale mine became uneconomical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Puntal dels Llops",
        "text": "In the next room (2) was an area for separating silver from lead, along with evidence for textile manufacture and cooking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silver (color)",
        "text": "Pale silver is the pale tone of silver color called \"silver\" in Crayola crayons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daniel Blumberg",
        "text": "In 2020 he continued his work with silverpoint in a short work made for JOMO, a series by the MACRO Museum of Contemporary Art. in Rome and a series of drawings made for MK Gallery, Milton Keynes He also exhibited in digital media at Homecooking for whom he created a series called SILVER DINNER combining drawing with music, performance and video in collaboration with Keiji Haino and Elvin Brandhi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Autopoint Company",
        "text": "Autopoint was founded by Frank C. Deli, Michael M. Kaufmann, and John P. Lynn around 1920. They used the name \"Realite Pencil Company.\" They worked with Lawrence V. Redman of the Redmanol Company to develop techniques for molding plastic bodies for pencils. They took out several patents on plastic molds. The company continued to do business with Redmanol, and later with Bakelite Corporation after Redmanol had been merged into it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Argiope",
        "text": "Argiope (\"silver face\") may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Seathwaite, Allerdale",
        "text": "was opened after the discovery of graphite there in 1555. The extracted graphite was eventually used to supply the Derwent Cumberland Pencil Company factory in Keswick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drypoint",
        "text": "Any sharp object can theoretically be used to make a drypoint, as long as it can be used to carve lines into metal. Dentistry tools, nails, and metal files can all be used to produce drypoints. However, certain types of needles are created specifically for drypoints:\n*Diamond-tipped needles carve easily through any metal and never need sharpening, but they are expensive.\n*Carbide-tipped steel needles can also be used to great effect, and are cheaper than diamond-tipped needles, but they need frequent sharpening to maintain a sharp point. Steel needles were traditionally used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "The value of graphite would soon be realised to be enormous, mainly because it could be used to line the moulds for cannonballs; the mines were taken over by the Crown and were guarded. When sufficient stores of graphite had been accumulated, the mines were flooded to prevent theft until more was required."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Wilde",
        "text": "A particularly notable example of this self \"mise en scene\" is the 1983-4, 9 1/2\u00a0ft long \"The Great Autobiographical Silverpoint Drawing,\" in the Chicago Art Institute. It depicts the usual Wilde-proxy now nude and triple-eyed, looking out at the viewer in front of rows of familiar figures, with the detritus of a life long-lived on one side and an immense Oak Tree on the other. Though Wilde excels in small, intimate paintings and silver points, this work, meticulously drawn in the unforgiving silver point medium, is quite possibly the largest silver point ever made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silverpoint",
        "text": "Joseph Meder, Alphonse Legros, the Pre-Raphaelites and Joseph Stella helped revitalize the technique. Art historian Meder created interest in the traditional technique in Austria and Germany, while artist and teacher Legros did likewise in England. In the early 20th century, Stella was one of the few American artists working in this method on the East Coast of the United States. Stella explored the technique on zinc white gouache prepared grounds, often with crayon and other media. Stella's silverpoint oevre includes the 1921 portrait of Marcel Duchamp (MoMA, Katherine S. Dreier Bequest). On the West Coast Xavier Mart\u00ednez, the Mexican-American artist who had studied in Paris at the \u00c9cole nationale sup\u00e9rieure des Beaux-Arts in the late 1890s during the resurgence of interest in silverpoint, taught this technique at the California College of the Arts from 1909 to the late 1930s. The last known exhibition of Martinez\u2019s silverpoints was in 1921 at the Print Room of San Francisco where critics praised his \u201cunusual\u201d and \u201cstrongly futuristic\u201d action figures on an unconventional dark mottled ground as \u201carchaic in execution\u00a0... terse, alert\u00a0... with a bit too much flesh.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Writing implement",
        "text": "However, most modern \"lead pencils\" have a nonpoisonous core of greyish-black graphite mixed with various proportions of clay for consistency, enclosed within an outer wooden casing to protect the fragile graphite from being snapped apart or from leaving marks on the user's hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Burns's diamond point engravings",
        "text": "The pen may well survive to this day, made of a cylindrical piece of wood (elder?), and has the diamond inserted at one end in a metal extension. It is held in the collection of the Rozelle House Galleries in South Ayrshire. Its Accession Number is AYRTOS:100346, The Digital Number is SABN001n. The original catalogue record for the object states that it is an \"old glass cutting diamond used by Robert Burns\". The pen is part of the collections from the former Tam O'Shanter Museum in Ayr, currently under the care of South Ayrshire Council (datum 2012)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Notebook",
        "text": "In 1902, J.A. Birchall of Birchalls, a Launceston, Tasmania, Australia-based stationery shop, decided that the cumbersome method of selling writing paper in folded stacks of \"quires\" (four sheets of paper or parchment folded to form eight leaves) was inefficient. As a solution, he glued together a stack of halved sheets of paper, supported by a sheet of cardboard, creating what he called the \"Silver City Writing Tablet\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil Full of Lead",
        "text": "\"Angryape.com\" said:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pairpoint Glass",
        "text": "In 1880, British silver designer Thomas Pairpoint (1838-1902) resigned his position as head designer at the Meriden Brittania Company and founded the Pairpoint Manufacturing Company, which was established in New Bedford as a silver manufacturer supplying Mount Washington with silver-plated metal mounts for its glass lamps and other products. In 1894, the two companies merged and in 1900 were renamed the Pairpoint Corporation."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Silver Cord (disambiguation)",
        "text": "The Silver Cord may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Silver cord",
        "text": "The attachment point of the cord to the astral body differs, not only between projectors but also from projection to projection. These points correspond to major chakra positions. According to the observations of Robert Bruce, there is not a single point of connection to the denser body, but rather a locally converging collection of strands leading out of all of the major chakras, and some of the minor ones (Astral Dynamics, p398)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Profile in Silver",
        "text": "Profile in Silver\n--Plot.\n--Response.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Toothpick",
        "text": "There are delicate, artistic examples made of silver in antiquity, as well as from mastic wood with the Romans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calotype",
        "text": "The light-sensitive silver halide in calotype paper was silver iodide, created by the reaction of silver nitrate with potassium iodide. First, \"iodised paper\" was made by brushing one side of a sheet of high-quality writing paper with a solution of silver nitrate, drying it, dipping it in a solution of potassium iodide, then drying it again. At this stage, the balance of the chemicals was such that the paper was practically insensitive to light and could be stored indefinitely. When wanted for use, the side initially brushed with silver nitrate was now brushed with a \"gallo-nitrate of silver\" solution consisting of silver nitrate, acetic acid and gallic acid, then lightly blotted and exposed in the camera. Development was effected by brushing on more of the \"gallo-nitrate of silver\" solution while gently warming the paper. When development was complete, the calotype was rinsed, blotted, then either stabilized by washing it in a solution of potassium bromide, which converted the remaining silver iodide into silver bromide in a condition such that it would only slightly discolour when exposed to light, or \"fixed\" in a hot solution of sodium thiosulphate, then known as \"hyposulphite of soda\" and commonly called \"hypo\", which dissolved the silver iodide and allowed it to be entirely washed out, leaving only the silver particles of the developed image and making the calotype completely insensitive to light."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silverhill, Nottinghamshire",
        "text": "The high point allows for panoramic views over five counties; landmarks such as Lincoln Cathedral and Bolsover Castle can be seen from the summit. The site also overlooks the Elizabethan Hardwick Hall, as well as the more modern M1 motorway. The flat area of the viewpoint was originally laid out with stone blocks, at the ordinal points of the compass. A bronze statue of a kneeling coal miner with a Davy lamp was a later addition, located on a rock plinth in the centre of the viewpoint. The sculpture, called \"Testing for Gas\", was created by artist Antony Dufort as \"A tribute to the Miners of the Nottinghamshire coalfields\", commemorating coal mining at the 85 Nottinghamshire collieries. Listed on the base are the names of the principal collieries in the county 1819\u20132005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Graphite (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Seathwaite, Allerdale",
        "text": "The commercial mining of the unusual solid form of graphite found near the hamlet of Seathwaite ceased around 1891 when veins of the solid graphite became harder to find. In addition, around that time the Keswick pencil factories had switched to making pencil pigments out of the familiar combination of clay powder and graphite powder. Graphite powder could be mined and imported from elsewhere. The mine entrance is north-northwest of the hamlet at ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Solid Silver",
        "text": "Solid Silver\n--Charts.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "The first attempt to manufacture graphite sticks from powdered graphite was in Nuremberg, Germany, in 1662. It used a mixture of graphite, sulphur, and antimony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Depletion gilding",
        "text": "Likewise, with an appropriate chemical, a layer of nearly pure silver can be produced on an object made of copper and silver. For instance, sterling silver can be depleted\u2014'depletion silvering'\u2014to produce a fine silver surface, perhaps as preamble to application of gold, as in the Keum-boo technique."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Solid graphite pencils are solid sticks of graphite and clay composite (as found in a 'graphite pencil'), about the diameter of a common pencil, which have no casing other than a wrapper or label. They are often called \"woodless\" pencils. They are used primarily for art purposes as the lack of casing allows for covering larger spaces more easily, creating different effects, and providing greater economy as the entirety of the pencil is used. They are available in the same darkness range as wood-encased graphite pencils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joyce Reopel",
        "text": "Reopel (Zabarsky), Joyce:\n* Art & Artist files, Smithsonian American Art Museum/National Portrait Gallery Library, Washington, DC\n* Folder, Smithsonian American Art Museum/National Portrait Gallery Library, Washington, DC\n* Historic Preservation Papers \u2013 MS067 Portsmouth Athenaeum, NH\n* Toshihiro Katayama posters, Houghton Library, MA\n* Radcliffe College Archives sound recordings collection, 1951-2008, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, MA\n* Records of the Radcliffe College Alumnae Association, Cambridge, MA\n* Records of the Mary Ingraham Bunting Institute, 1933-2008, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, MA\n*\"The Hollow Men\", WAM Press, Reopel and Sorenson, 1953\n*\"Joyce Reopel: Drawings in silverpoint and goldpoint, November 9th through December 4th,\" 1965\n*\"Joyce Reopel: Drawings in silverpoint, goldpoint, and pencil: January 22nd through February 15th,\" 1969\n*\"The Liberal Context,\" Issues 1\u20139, 1-17. Edited by Cudhea, David W., with Anne Chiarenza, Gobin Stair, Orloff Miller. Published by College Centers Committee of American Unitarian Association in cooperation with Liberal Religious Youth (LRY) Inc. Art by Joyce Reopel and others, 1961-1966"
      },
      {
        "title": "Spillings Hoard",
        "text": "The silver deposits were roughly square-shaped with rounded corners, about , suggesting that they had been in sacks of cloth, leather or pelt, inside boxes or chests of wood. In the bronze deposit were found substantial pieces of wood and iron, such as fittings, ironwork, nails and a lock-device, showing that the bronze had been kept in a sturdy chest. A carbon dating of the chest dated it to approximately 675, making it older than the objects stored inside it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silver Bridge",
        "text": "A scale model of the original Silver Bridge was on display at the Point Pleasant River Museum. An archive of literature about the bridge was also kept there for public inspection. On the lower ground floor, the museum displayed an eyebar assembly from the original bridge. The museum closed on July 1, 2018, due to significant fire damage. The future of the Silver Bridge exhibit is not known."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silver Studio",
        "text": "The designs are original works on paper by Silver Studio designers, in a variety of media including pencil, ink, charcoal, pastels and gouaches. It is one of the largest collections of original designs anywhere in the country, representing a significant period of time and a wide range of customers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silverchair",
        "text": "General\n*\n* Note: Archived [on-line] copy has limited functionality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silvertide",
        "text": "Silvertide\n--History.\n--Other projects.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hammerstone",
        "text": "On the other hand, if there is a Silver Age of pressure retouching, it must be the Solutrean, in the Upper Paleolithic (the most emblematic case being that of the Laurel blades); Although the technique was known before, it was hardly used. It disappeared for a time and reappeared in the Neolithic, lasting for a long time in foliaceous pieces of various sizes (from the tip of a stone arrow, to the Aztec ceremonial daggers, through the tips of the Clovis Culture or knives Egyptian Predynastics)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silver lode",
        "text": "Silver lode or Silverlode may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Silver Line",
        "text": "Silver Line may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Silver Link",
        "text": "Silver Link\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Silver-gilt",
        "text": "Silver-gilt or gilded/gilt silver, sometimes known in American English by the French term vermeil, is silver (either pure or sterling) which has been gilded with gold. Most large objects made in goldsmithing that appear to be gold are actually silver-gilt; for example most sporting trophies (including medals such as the gold medals awarded in all Olympic Games after 1912) and many crown jewels are silver-gilt objects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counterpoint (sculpture)",
        "text": "Counterpoint is a 1979 bronze sculpture by Dennis Smith, installed in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drawing",
        "text": "The \"medium\" is the means by which ink, pigment or color are delivered onto the drawing surface. Most drawing media are either dry (e.g. graphite, charcoal, pastels, Cont\u00e9, silverpoint), or use a fluid solvent or carrier (marker, pen and ink). Watercolor pencils can be used dry like ordinary pencils, then moistened with a wet brush to get various painterly effects. Very rarely, artists have drawn with (usually decoded) invisible ink. Metalpoint drawing usually employs either of two metals: silver or lead. More rarely used are gold, platinum, copper, brass, bronze, and tinpoint."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tepe Sialk",
        "text": "At Tappeh Sialk, the oldest evidence of silver production in the world has been found - such as the litharge fragments and cakes.\n:\"Pieces of charcoal found in one of the furnaces in which litharge fragments were found provided a radiocarbon date of 3660-3520 B.C. which introduces them as the oldest so far known fragments of such process in the ancient world.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Silverstone (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Silverstone may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Thelma Wood",
        "text": "Thelma Ellen Wood (July 3, 1901 \u2013 December 10, 1970) was an American artist, specialising in the traditional fine line drawing technique known as Silverpoint. She was noted for her hectic private life, and her lesbian relationship with Djuna Barnes was fictionalized in Barnes' novel \"Nightwood\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thirty pieces of silver",
        "text": "I could not bear it, although it was light,<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Silver Peak",
        "text": "Silver Peak\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "William Munroe (pencil maker)",
        "text": "Munroe figured that the best way to make pencils was by starting with a quarter inch slab of cedar wood. He then would cut the slots for his special formula graphite paste and fill them. He would let the paste air dry. The next step was to glue an eighth inch veneer of wood over the slots. The final step was to saw the slab into pencils. This resulted in a wooden lead graphite pencil that was just under a half inch thick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silver Shadow",
        "text": "Silver Shadow may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Silver Cord (disambiguation)",
        "text": "The Silver Cord (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Silver Cliff",
        "text": "Silver Cliff\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Graphite may also refer to:"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which country produces the most graphite?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Of the 1,200,000 tonnes of graphite mined in 2016, China was responsible for 780,000 tonnes, making it the largest miner."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did graphite start to replace lead in pencils?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "From the 16th century, all pencils were made with leads of English natural graphite, but it is chemically unrelated to the metal lead, whose ores had a similar appearance, hence the continuation of the name."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were pencils made of prior to the 16th century?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In ancient times, the archetypal pencil was an artist's brush, the stylus, a thin metal stick used for scratching in papyrus or wax tablets, was used extensively by the Romans and for palm-leaf manuscripts. As a technique for drawing, the closest predecessor to the pencil was silverpoint or leadpoint until in 1565."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me more about what a silverpoint is?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "A silverpoint drawing is made by dragging a silver rod or wire across a surface, often prepared with gesso or primer.",
      "A traditional silverpoint stylus is made with a small fine rod of silver, such as jewelry wire, which is inserted into a wooden rod. Another design is a silver-tipped metal stylus with points on both ends."
    ],
    "topic": "Graphite",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Silverpoint:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Silverpoint",
          "History"
        ],
        "ctx": "A silverpoint drawing is made by dragging a silver rod or wire across a surface, often prepared with gesso or primer. Silverpoint is one of several types of metalpoint used by scribes, craftsmen and artists since ancient times. Metalpoint styli were used for writing on soft surfaces (wax or bark), ruling and underdrawing on parchment, and drawing on prepared paper and panel supports. For drawing purposes, the essential metals used were lead, tin and silver. The softness of these metals made them effective drawing instruments. Goldsmiths also used metalpoint drawings to prepare their detailed, meticulous designs. Albrecht D\u00fcrer's father was one such craftsman who later taught his young son to draw in metalpoint, to such good effect that his 1484 \"Self-Portrait at the Age of 13\" is still considered a masterpiece."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Silverpoint:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Silverpoint",
          "Characteristics"
        ],
        "ctx": "A traditional silverpoint stylus is made with a small fine rod of silver, such as jewelry wire, which is inserted into a wooden rod. Another design is a silver-tipped metal stylus with points on both ends. An example of this type is shown in Rogier van der Weyden's \"St. Luke Drawing the Virgin,\" ca. 1435\u201340 (Boston Museum of Fine Arts). For a contemporary stylus, jeweler's wire may be inserted into a pin vise or mechanical pencil."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Today, pencils are still a small but significant market for natural graphite. Around 7% of the 1.1\u00a0million tonnes produced in 2011 was used to make pencils. Low-quality amorphous graphite is used and sourced mainly from China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Graphite pencils are made of a mixture of clay and graphite and their darkness varies from light grey to black: the more clay the harder the pencil. There is a wide range of grades available, mainly for artists who are interested in creating a full range of tones from light grey to black. Engineers prefer harder pencils which allow for a greater control in the shape of the lead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "Graphite sticks were initially wrapped in string or sheepskin for stability. England would enjoy a monopoly on the production of pencils until a method of reconstituting the graphite powder was found in 1662 in Italy. However, the distinctively square English pencils continued to be made with sticks cut from natural graphite into the 1860s. The town of Keswick, near the original findings of block graphite, still manufactures pencils, the factory also being the location of the Cumberland Pencil Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "As a technique for drawing, the closest predecessor to the pencil was silverpoint or leadpoint until in 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), a large deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks. It remains the only large-scale deposit of graphite ever found in this solid form. Chemistry was in its infancy and the substance was thought to be a form of lead. Consequently, it was called \"plumbago\" (Latin for \"lead ore\"). Because the pencil core is still referred to as \"lead\", or \"a lead\", many people have the misconception that the graphite in the pencil is lead, and the black core of pencils is still referred to as \"lead\", even though it never contained the element lead. The words for pencil in German (\"Bleistift\"), Irish (\"peann luaidhe\"), Arabic (\u0642\u0644\u0645 \u0631\u0635\u0627\u0635 \"qalam ra\u1e63\u0101\u1e63\"), and some other languages literally mean \"lead pen\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "Graphite pencil\n--History.\n--Production.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "Production technology has changed little over the past 120 years; only standards and mechanisms for the manufacture of graphite rods and wooden halves have improved. The main components in the manufacture of rods \u2013 purified graphite powder and the clay binder kaolin \u2013 remain the same; the hardness of the graphite core depends on the ratio of graphite to kaolin, with softer cores containing more graphite. The hardest pencil contains about 20% graphite, the softest one up to 90%. A 1:1 ratio roughly corresponds to the 3H hardness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "The lead of the pencil is a mix of finely ground graphite and clay powders. Before the two substances are mixed, they are separately cleaned of foreign matter and dried in a manner that creates large square cakes. Once the cakes have fully dried, the graphite and the clay squares are mixed together using water. The amount of clay content added to the graphite depends on the intended pencil hardness (lower proportions of clay makes the core softer), and the amount of time spent on grinding the mixture determines the quality of the lead. The mixture is then shaped into long spaghetti-like strings, straightened, dried, cut, and then tempered in a kiln. The resulting strings are dipped in oil or molten wax, which seeps into the tiny holes of the material and allows for the smooth writing ability of the pencil. A juniper or incense-cedar plank with several long parallel grooves is cut to fashion a \"slat,\" and the graphite/clay strings are inserted into the grooves. Another grooved plank is glued on top, and the whole assembly is then cut into individual pencils, which are then varnished or painted. Many pencils feature an eraser on the top and so the process is usually still considered incomplete at this point. Each pencil has a shoulder cut on one end of the pencil to allow for a metal ferrule to be secured onto the wood. A rubber plug is then inserted into the ferrule for a functioning eraser on the end of the pencil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "From the 16th century, all pencils were made with leads of English natural graphite, but modern pencil lead is most commonly a mix of powdered graphite and clay; it was invented by Nicolas-Jacques Cont\u00e9 in 1795. It is chemically unrelated to the metal lead, whose ores had a similar appearance, hence the continuation of the name. Plumbago is another older term for natural graphite used for drawing, typically as a lump of the mineral without a wood casing. The term plumbago drawing is normally restricted to 17th and 18th-century works, mostly portraits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "A graphite pencil, also called a lead pencil, is a type of pencil in which a thin graphite core is embedded in a shell of other material. The pencil shell is typically wooden, but can be made of plastic or recycled paper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "The usefulness of graphite for pencils was discovered as well, but graphite for pencils had to be smuggled. Because graphite is soft, it requires some form of encasement. Graphite sticks were initially wrapped in string or sheepskin for stability. England would enjoy a monopoly on the production of pencils until a method of reconstituting the graphite powder was found in 1662 in Italy. However, the distinctively square English pencils continued to be made with sticks cut from natural graphite into the 1860s. The town of Keswick, near the original findings of block graphite, still manufactures pencils, the factory also being the location of the Derwent Pencil Museum. The meaning of \"graphite writing implement\" apparently evolved late in the 16th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Pencil\n--History.\n----Camel's hair.\n----Graphite deposit discoveries.\n----Wood encasement.\n----Graphite powder and clay.\n----United States.\n----Eraser attachment.\n----Extenders.\n--Types.\n----By marking material.\n------Graphite.\n------Solid.\n------Liquid.\n------Charcoal.\n------Carbon pencils.\n------Colored.\n------Grease.\n------Watercolor.\n----By use.\n------Carpentry.\n------Copying.\n------Eyeliner.\n------Erasable coloring.\n------Non-reproduction.\n------Stenography.\n------Golf.\n----By size.\n------Typical.\n------Biggest.\n----By manufacture.\n------Mechanical.\n------Pop a Point.\n------Plastic.\n--Health.\n--Manufacture.\n--Grading and classification.\n----Hardness test.\n--External colour and shape.\n--Manufacturers.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Solid graphite pencils are solid sticks of graphite and clay composite (as found in a 'graphite pencil'), about the diameter of a common pencil, which have no casing other than a wrapper or label. They are often called \"woodless\" pencils. They are used primarily for art purposes as the lack of casing allows for covering larger spaces more easily, creating different effects, and providing greater economy as the entirety of the pencil is used. They are available in the same darkness range as wood-encased graphite pencils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "In England, pencils continued to be made from whole sawn graphite. Henry Bessemer's first successful invention (1838) was a method of compressing graphite powder into solid graphite thus allowing the waste from sawing to be reused."
      },
      {
        "title": "Writing implement",
        "text": "However, most modern \"lead pencils\" have a nonpoisonous core of greyish-black graphite mixed with various proportions of clay for consistency, enclosed within an outer wooden casing to protect the fragile graphite from being snapped apart or from leaving marks on the user's hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silverpoint",
        "text": "As noted by Francis Ames-Lewis, drawing styles changed at the end of the 16th century, resulting in a decline for metalpoint. The discovery of graphite deposits at Seathwaite in Borrowdale, Cumbria, England in the early 1500s, and its increasing availability to artists in a pure, soft (and erasable) form hastened silverpoint's eclipse. Artists sought more gestural qualities, for which graphite, red and black chalk were better suited. Ink and wash drawings are also prevalent in the period. In addition, these other drawing techniques required less effort and were more forgiving than silver, which resists erasure and leaves a fainter line. Furthermore, the preparation of silverpoint supports, usually with hide glue with finely ground bone ash, was labor-intensive. Modern practitioners use zinc, pre-prepared acrylic-based grounds or titanium white tempera or marble dust as a ground. Natural chalks and charcoal have the advantage of producing immediate results on uncoated papers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Figure drawing",
        "text": "Graphite pencil is also commonly used for figure drawing. For this purpose artists' pencils are sold in various formulations, ranging from 9B (very soft) to 1B (medium soft), and from 1H (medium hard) to 9H (very hard). Like charcoal, it can be erased and manipulated using a stump."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Munroe (pencil maker)",
        "text": "Munroe figured that the best way to make pencils was by starting with a quarter inch slab of cedar wood. He then would cut the slots for his special formula graphite paste and fill them. He would let the paste air dry. The next step was to glue an eighth inch veneer of wood over the slots. The final step was to saw the slab into pencils. This resulted in a wooden lead graphite pencil that was just under a half inch thick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Graphite pencils are the most common types of pencil, and are encased in wood. They are made of a mixture of clay and graphite and their darkness varies from light grey to black. Their composition allows for the smoothest strokes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Liquid graphite pencils are pencils that write like pens. The technology was first invented in 1955 by Scripto and Parker Pens. Scripto's liquid graphite formula came out about three months before Parker's liquid lead formula. To avoid a lengthy patent fight the two companies agreed to share their formulas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "The first attempt to manufacture graphite sticks from powdered graphite was in Nuremberg, Germany, in 1662. It used a mixture of graphite, sulphur, and antimony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Writing in space",
        "text": "While graphite is claimed to be a hazardous material in space because it burns and conducts electricity, two facts mitigate the risks:\n# The graphite in pencils is mixed with clay during fabrication of the \"lead\" to help hold its shape, and would only burn at greater than .\n# The quantity of graphite particles actually produced during occasional writing would be too small to constitute an electrical hazard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Joseph Dixon, an inventor and entrepreneur involved with the Tantiusques graphite mine in Sturbridge, Massachusetts, developed a means to mass-produce pencils. By 1870, The Joseph Dixon Crucible Company was the world's largest dealer and consumer of graphite and later became the contemporary Dixon Ticonderoga pencil and art supplies company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Dixon (inventor)",
        "text": "During the 1860s, people typically wrote with quill pens and ink even though Dixon introduced graphite pencils in 1829. But the American Civil War created a demand for a dry, clean, portable writing instrument and led to the mass production of pencils. At the time of Dixon's death in 1869, the Joseph Dixon Crucible Company was the largest manufacturer of graphite products in the world. By 1870, The Joseph Dixon Crucible Company was the world's largest dealer and consumer of graphite. By 1872 the Dixon company was making 86,000 pencils a day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "During the 19th century, graphite's uses greatly expanded to include stove polish, lubricants, paints, crucibles, foundry facings, and pencils, a major factor in the expansion of educational tools during the first great rise of education for the masses. The British Empire controlled most of the world's production (especially from Ceylon), but production from Austrian, German, and American deposits expanded by mid-century. For example, the Dixon Crucible Company of Jersey City, New Jersey, founded by Joseph Dixon and partner Orestes Cleveland in 1845, opened mines in the Lake Ticonderoga district of New York, built a processing plant there, and a factory to manufacture pencils, crucibles and other products in New Jersey, described in the \"Engineering & Mining Journal\" 21 December 1878. The Dixon pencil is still in production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Most pencil cores are made of graphite powder mixed with a clay binder. Graphite pencils (traditionally known as \"lead pencils\") produce grey or black marks that are easily erased, but otherwise resistant to moisture, most chemicals, ultraviolet radiation and natural aging. Other types of pencil cores, such as those of charcoal, are mainly used for drawing and sketching. Coloured pencils are sometimes used by teachers or editors to correct submitted texts, but are typically regarded as art supplies, especially those with cores made from wax-based binders that tend to smear when erasers are applied to them. Grease pencils have a softer, oily core that can leave marks on smooth surfaces such as glass or porcelain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "A large deposit of graphite was discovered in 1565 on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks. It remains the only large-scale deposit of graphite ever found in this solid form. Chemistry was in its infancy and the substance was thought to be a form of lead. Consequently, it was called \"plumbago\" (Latin for \"lead ore\"). Because the pencil core is still referred to as \"lead\", or a \"lead\", many people have the misconception that the graphite in the pencil is lead, even though it never contained the element lead. The words for pencil in German (\"Bleistift\"), Irish (\"peann luaidhe\"), Arabic (\u0642\u0644\u0645 \u0631\u0635\u0627\u0635 \"qalam ra\u1e63\u0101\u1e63\"), and some other languages literally mean \"lead pen\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Carbon pencils are generally made of a mixture of clay and lamp black, but are sometimes blended with charcoal or graphite depending on the darkness and manufacturer. They produce a fuller black than graphite pencils, are smoother than charcoal, and have minimal dust and smudging. They also blend very well, much like charcoal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "English and German pencils were not available to the French during the Napoleonic Wars; France, under naval blockade imposed by Great Britain, was unable to import the pure graphite sticks from the British Grey Knotts mines \u2013 the only known source in the world. France was also unable to import the inferior German graphite pencil substitute. It took the efforts of an officer in Napoleon's army to change this. In 1795, Nicolas-Jacques Cont\u00e9 discovered a method of mixing powdered graphite with clay and forming the mixture into rods that were then fired in a kiln. By varying the ratio of graphite to clay, the hardness of the graphite rod could also be varied. This method of manufacture, which had been earlier discovered by the Austrian Joseph Hardtmuth, the founder of the Koh-I-Noor in 1790, remains in use. In 1802, the production of graphite leads from graphite and clay was patented by the Koh-I-Noor company in Vienna."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seathwaite, Allerdale",
        "text": "The commercial mining of the unusual solid form of graphite found near the hamlet of Seathwaite ceased around 1891 when veins of the solid graphite became harder to find. In addition, around that time the Keswick pencil factories had switched to making pencil pigments out of the familiar combination of clay powder and graphite powder. Graphite powder could be mined and imported from elsewhere. The mine entrance is north-northwest of the hamlet at ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caustic pencil",
        "text": "The silver and potassium nitrates in caustic pencils is in a dried, solid form at the tip of a wooden or plastic stick. When the material is applied to a wound or lesion, the tissue moisture or blood dissolves the dried nitrate salts, which then chemically burn the tissue. It requires moisture for activation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lead",
        "text": "Contrary to popular belief, pencil leads in wooden pencils have never been made from lead. When the pencil originated as a wrapped graphite writing tool, the particular type of graphite used was named \"plumbago\" (literally, \"act for lead\" or \"lead mockup\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Charcoal pencils are made of charcoal and provide fuller blacks than graphite pencils, but tend to smudge easily and are more abrasive than graphite. Sepia-toned and white pencils are also available for duotone techniques."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Residual graphite from a pencil stick is not poisonous, and graphite is harmless if consumed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Hardtmuth",
        "text": "In 1792, Hardtmuth established a pencil factory in Vienna after he succeeded in creating an artificial graphite pencil by mixing powdered graphite with clay. Until that time, whole pieces, cut from graphite, were glued in between wood and were imported from England. With the new method, graphite of inferior quality could be used in pencil manufacturing, lowering the price and making the product more accessible for the masses. His company Koh-i-Noor Hardtmuth still exists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tantiusques",
        "text": "In 1828, Frederic Tudor, a Boston merchant, purchased the property. He successfully mined the graphite for over a quarter of a century until his death in 1864 when the mining operation ceased with his death. He had employed Captain Joseph Dixon and his son, who would later found the J.D. Crucible Company of New Jersey. This company eventually evolved into Dixon Ticonderoga, the famous manufacturer of pencils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry David Thoreau",
        "text": "Thoreau returned to Concord and worked in his family's pencil factory, which he would continue to do alongside his writing and other work for most of his adult life. He rediscovered the process of making good pencils with inferior graphite by using clay as the binder. This invention allowed profitable use of a graphite source found in New Hampshire that had been purchased in 1821 by Thoreau's uncle, Charles Dunbar. The process of mixing graphite and clay, known as the Cont\u00e9 process, had been first patented by Nicolas-Jacques Cont\u00e9 in 1795. The company's other source of graphite had been Tantiusques, a mine operated by Native Americans in Sturbridge, Massachusetts. Later, Thoreau converted the pencil factory to produce plumbago, a name for graphite at the time, which was used in the electrotyping process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seathwaite, Allerdale",
        "text": "was opened after the discovery of graphite there in 1555. The extracted graphite was eventually used to supply the Derwent Cumberland Pencil Company factory in Keswick."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Munroe (pencil maker)",
        "text": "Straight away Munroe obtained a few lumps of black graphite which he beat to a pulp with a hammer. He separated the fine particles that floated to the top of the water with a spoon and mixed them with a clay solution. His first experiments with this lead solution was not very successful. He continued making cabinet maker's squares and sold the few of these which he could. In this time he continued experimenting with graphite lead for pencils with little accomplishment. He had no knowledge of the subject and feared consulting others as they might take the idea and produce pencils themselves. Munroe continued experimenting in secret with graphite powder formulas on his own. Eventually he figured a way to come up with a suitable graphite paste formula of various ingredients that could be poured into a slotted line made in some cedar wood blanks. The pencil centers would be his secret formula of a mixture of dried graphite paste of clay and other unknown ingredients. They were air dried and not hardened by firing in a furnace as Europeans did, so the quality was not as good as theirs\u2014but it was fine enough to write with."
      },
      {
        "title": "Expandable graphite",
        "text": "To produce expandable graphite, natural graphite flakes are treated in a bath of acid and oxidizing agent.Usually used oxidizing agents are hydrogen peroxide, potassium permanganate or chromic acid. Concentrated sulphuric acid or nitric acid are usually used as the compound to be incorporated, with the reaction taking place at temperatures of 30\u00a0\u00b0C to 130\u00a0\u00b0C for up to four hours. After the reaction time, the flakes are washed with water and then dried. Starting temperature and expansion rate depend on the production conditions and particle size of the graphite. temperature and expansion rate are depending on the degree of fineness of the graphite used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Writing implement",
        "text": "Unlike the construction of a traditional wooden pencil around a solid graphite core, a mechanical pencil feeds a small, mobile piece of graphite through its tip. An internal mechanism controls the position of the graphite by friction, so that although it remains steady while writing, the graphite can be advanced forward to compensate for gradual wear or retracted to protect it when not in use. The graphite in mechanical pencils is typically much narrower than in wooden pencils, frequently in sub-millimeter diameters. This makes them particularly useful for fine diagrams or small handwriting, although different sizes of refill leads cannot be interchanged in the same pencil unless it has been specially designed for that purpose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Sometime before 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), an enormous deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England, which the locals found useful for marking sheep. During the reign of Elizabeth I (1558\u20131603), Borrowdale graphite was used as a refractory material to line molds for cannonballs, resulting in rounder, smoother balls that could be fired farther, contributing to the strength of the English navy. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and soft, and could easily be cut into sticks. Because of its military importance, this unique mine and its production were strictly controlled by the Crown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil drawing",
        "text": "In modern period artists have continued to use the graphite pencil for artworks and sketches. Modern computer software such as Line Integral Convolution (LIC) can help in creating pencil drawing on computer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "The value of graphite would soon be realised to be enormous, mainly because it could be used to line the moulds for cannonballs; the mines were taken over by the Crown and were guarded. When sufficient stores of graphite had been accumulated, the mines were flooded to prevent theft until more was required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "The value of graphite would soon be realised to be enormous, mainly because it could be used to line the moulds for cannonballs; the mines were taken over by the Crown and were guarded. When sufficient stores of graphite had been accumulated, the mines were flooded to prevent theft until more was required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphene production techniques",
        "text": "Graphite particles can be corroded in molten salts to form a variety of carbon nanostructures including graphene. Hydrogen cations, dissolved in molten Lithium chloride, can be discharged on cathodically polarized graphite rods, which then intercalate into the graphite structure, peeling graphite to produce graphene. The graphene nanosheets produced displayed a single-crystalline structure with a lateral size of several hundred nanometers and a high degree of crystallinity and thermal stability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Acheson process",
        "text": "To manufacture synthetic graphite items, carbon powder and silica are mixed with a binder, such as tar, and baked after being pressed into shape such as that of electrodes or crucibles. They are then surrounded with granulated carbon acting as a resistive element that heats them. In the more efficient Castner lengthwise graphitization furnace, the items to be graphitized, e.g. rods, are heated directly by placing them lengthwise end-to-end in contact with the carbon electrodes so that current flows through them, and the surrounding granulated carbon acts as a thermal insulator, but otherwise the furnace is similar to the Acheson design."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "In the United States, in 1885, Hezekiah Bradford of Philadelphia patented a similar process, but it is uncertain if his process was used successfully in the nearby graphite deposits of Chester County, Pennsylvania, a major producer by the 1890s. The Bessel process was limited in use, primarily because of the abundant cleaner deposits found around the globe, which needed not much more than hand-sorting to gather the pure graphite. The state of the art, ca. 1900, is described in the Canadian Department of Mines report on graphite mines and mining when Canadian deposits began to become important producers of graphite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silverpoint",
        "text": "A traditional silverpoint stylus is made with a small fine rod of silver, such as jewelry wire, which is inserted into a wooden rod. Another design is a silver-tipped metal stylus with points on both ends. An example of this type is shown in Rogier van der Weyden's \"St. Luke Drawing the Virgin,\" ca. 1435\u201340 (Boston Museum of Fine Arts). For a contemporary stylus, jeweler's wire may be inserted into a pin vise or mechanical pencil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Copying pencils (or indelible pencils) are graphite pencils with an added dye that creates an indelible mark. They were invented in the late 19th century for press copying and as a practical substitute for fountain pens. Their markings are often visually indistinguishable from those of standard graphite pencils, but when moistened their markings dissolve into a coloured ink, which is then pressed into another piece of paper. They were widely used until the mid-20th century when ball pens slowly replaced them. In Italy their use is still mandated by law for voting paper ballots in elections and referendums."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kaspar Faber",
        "text": "Pencils made of pure graphite easily crumbled and broke. Thus in 1771 Faber undertook the first attempts to improve pencils by combining ground graphite with sulfur, antimony, and binding resins. The technique of gluing pencils into wooden sticks was already well known in Nuremberg at that time, but Faber did not use it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seathwaite Fell",
        "text": "Auntie Mabel and Pippin visit Seathwaite Fell in the second episode of the third series of Come Outside, as they learnt about how graphite was discovered and how pencils are made."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lonsdaleite",
        "text": "In addition to laboratory synthesis by compressing and heating graphite either in a static press or using explosives, lonsdaleite has also been produced by chemical vapor deposition, and also by the thermal decomposition of a polymer, poly(hydridocarbyne), at atmospheric pressure, under argon atmosphere, at ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Figure drawing",
        "text": "Ink is another popular medium. The artist will often start with graphite pencil to sketch or outline the drawing, then the final line work is done with a pen or brush, with permanent ink. The ink may be diluted with water to produce gradations, a technique called ink wash. The pencil marks may be erased after the ink is applied, or left in place with the dark inks overpowering them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grey Knotts",
        "text": "Also on the Borrowdale side of the fell at the upper end of Newhouse Gill at grid reference is the site of the former Borrowdale graphite (then called Plumbago) mines. The mine was started in the 16th century by German immigrants; the graphite found was in a very pure form and in those early days was used only for marking sheep. Later, however, graphite was found to be suitable for lining the casting moulds for cannon and musket balls, which caused its value to soar in the 17th century, as England, France and the Dutch Republic built up their armies. The graphite was also used in pencil-making, which in 1790 led to the founding of the Cumberland pencil industry based in Keswick. The mine closed in 1891 after new techniques meant that graphite no longer needed to be so pure, so the Borrowdale mine became uneconomical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Copying pencil",
        "text": "A copying pencil, also indelible pencil or chemical pencil, is pencil whose lead contains a dye. The lead is fabricated by adding a dry water-soluble permanent dye to powdered graphite\u2014used in standard graphite pencils\u2014before binding the mixture with clay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borrowdale",
        "text": "Sometime before 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), a major deposit of graphite was discovered near the Seathwaite hamlet in Borrowdale parish. The locals found that it was useful for marking sheep. The graphite was pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks; the pencil industry was born in nearby Keswick. The graphite find remains unique."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Munroe (pencil maker)",
        "text": "On July 2, 1812, he had produced about thirty pencils and sold them to a Benjamin Andrews, a hardware dealer on Union Street in downtown Boston. These were the first wooden-cased graphite lead pencils manufactured in the United States. Andrews was a previous customer of Munroe's, to whom he had sold cabinetmaker's squares. He ordered more immediately, which Munroe proceeded to grind out. Munroe showed up at Andrew's hardware store with over four hundred pencils less than two weeks later. Andrews then wrote up a contract with Munroe to take for a price all the pencils that he could make in a certain time frame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicolas-Jacques Cont\u00e9",
        "text": "Cont\u00e9 invented the modern pencil lead at the request of Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot. The French Republic was at that time under economic blockade and unable to import graphite from Great Britain, the main source of the material. Carnot asked Cont\u00e9 to create a pencil that did not rely on foreign imports. After several days of research, Cont\u00e9 had the idea of mixing powdered graphite with clay and pressing the material between two half-cylinders of wood. Thus was formed the modern pencil. Cont\u00e9 received a patent for the invention in 1795 and formed la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 Cont\u00e9 to make them. He also invented the cont\u00e9 crayon named after him, a hard pastel stick used by artists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Expandable graphite",
        "text": "By compressing expanded graphite, foils can be produced from pure graphite. These are mainly used as thermally and chemically highly resistant seals in chemical plant construction or as heat spreaders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nashoba Brook Pencil Factory Site",
        "text": "Wood then started his own mill for grounding plumbago for the graphite used in pencils. Initially, Munroe was one of his customers. However, by the 1830s, he sold plumbago exclusively to the Thoreau company, a business relation that lasted many years. Henry David Thoreau supposedly purchased his sketch pencils from Wood's factory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colored pencil",
        "text": "Pastel pencils are similar to hard pastels. Pastel pencils can be used on their own or in combination with other mediums. They can be used dry, wet or blended together. Many artists use them for preliminary sketches, given that graphite pencils aren't compatible with pastels. They can also be sharpened to a fine point to add details on pastel drawings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Matrix pencil",
        "text": "If formula_23, then the pencil generated by formula_9 and formula_10:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Charcoal (art)",
        "text": "Charcoal pencils consist of compressed charcoal enclosed in a jacket of wood. Designed to be similar to graphite pencils while maintaining most of the properties of charcoal, they are often used for fine and crisp detailed drawings, while keeping the user's hand from being marked."
      },
      {
        "title": "FiftyThree",
        "text": "Pencil by FiftyThree is a digital stylus modeled after the carpenter pencil. It launched in November 2013 in the U.S. and Canada, and came in two models: graphite, made from brushed aluminum, and walnut, made from sustainably-harvested walnut. In January 2015, FiftyThree announced the availability of a third model of Pencil: Pencil Gold, made from an anodized, brushed aluminum. Pencil is an active stylus whose main features include palm rejection erase, and blend. Inside the tip and eraser are 14k gold-plated switches, allowing Pencil to communicate with an iPad over Bluetooth LE. Pencil's Palm Rejection allows users to rest their hand on the iPad while drawing, Blend lets users smudge or blur with their fingertips, and the built-in eraser enables users to flip Pencil around to erase. Pencil is certified Bluetooth Smart and has a built-in battery that charges off of a USB port."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silverpoint",
        "text": "A silverpoint drawing is made by dragging a silver rod or wire across a surface, often prepared with gesso or primer. Silverpoint is one of several types of metalpoint used by scribes, craftsmen and artists since ancient times. Metalpoint styli were used for writing on soft surfaces (wax or bark), ruling and underdrawing on parchment, and drawing on prepared paper and panel supports. For drawing purposes, the essential metals used were lead, tin and silver. The softness of these metals made them effective drawing instruments. Goldsmiths also used metalpoint drawings to prepare their detailed, meticulous designs. Albrecht D\u00fcrer's father was one such craftsman who later taught his young son to draw in metalpoint, to such good effect that his 1484 \"Self-Portrait at the Age of 13\" is still considered a masterpiece."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbon",
        "text": "Commercially viable natural deposits of graphite occur in many parts of the world, but the most important sources economically are in China, India, Brazil and North Korea. Graphite deposits are of metamorphic origin, found in association with quartz, mica and feldspars in schists, gneisses and metamorphosed sandstones and limestone as lenses or veins, sometimes of a metre or more in thickness. Deposits of graphite in Borrowdale, Cumberland, England were at first of sufficient size and purity that, until the 19th century, pencils were made simply by sawing blocks of natural graphite into strips before encasing the strips in wood. Today, smaller deposits of graphite are obtained by crushing the parent rock and floating the lighter graphite out on water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Expanded graphite is made by immersing natural flake graphite in a bath of chromic acid, then concentrated sulfuric acid, which forces the crystal lattice planes apart, thus expanding the graphite. The expanded graphite can be used to make graphite foil or used directly as a \"hot top\" compound to insulate molten metal in a ladle or red-hot steel ingots and decrease heat loss, or as firestops fitted around a fire door or in sheet metal collars surrounding plastic pipe (during a fire, the graphite expands and chars to resist fire penetration and spread), or to make high-performance gasket material for high-temperature use. After being made into graphite foil, the foil is machined and assembled into the bipolar plates in fuel cells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil sharpener",
        "text": "An artist's or draftsman's pencil sharpener leaves the graphite untouched and sharpens only the wood (some models can switch from standard to wood-only by an adjustment). The graphite lead is then honed to a sharp point with a lead pointer, which sharpens only the lead without wood. Lead pointers are also used with mechanical leadholders, with thicker diameter leads like 2\u00a0mm which have removable/refillable leads. Some sharpeners which function as a long point sharpener, have a second hole in which the blade sharpens the untouched graphite to a long, more precise point than would be otherwise possible using a single hole long point sharpener."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blackwing 602",
        "text": "The Blackwing 602 is a pencil that is noted for its soft, dark graphite, unique flat square ferrule and replaceable eraser. It was manufactured by the Eberhard Faber Pencil Company from 1934\u20131988, then by the Faber-Castell pencil company from 1988\u20131994 and by Sanford from 1994\u20131998. The pencil initially sold for 50 cents each. After it was discontinued single original pencils were found on eBay for over $40, with some older (and rarer) ones being sold for over $100. Originals are becoming increasingly rare. As of 2012 a different pencil using the same name is being manufactured by Palomino."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphotype",
        "text": "This method of typographic engraving was brought to a practical form and patented in 1860 by an American wood engraver, Mr. de Witt Clinton Hitchcock. The first step in his process is to reduce French chalk or talc to an extremely fine state of division by repeated grindings, elutriations, and siftings. After this is complete, a layer of the material (over an eighth of an inch in thickness) is forced down upon and made to adhere to a thick zinc plate, the necessary pressure being obtained by means of a hydraulic press, the platen of which is faced with a polished steel plate, so as to communicate a good surface to the layer of compressed French chalk. The device is now drawn reversed on the prepared block with an ink consisting of a weak solution of glue colored by lamp black or some other pigment. In drawing on the prepared block, care must be taken not to damage the somewhat tender surface of the compressed chalk and the safest instrument with which to apply the glutinous ink is a fine sable brush, but an ordinary pen may be employed if the operation of drawing is performed with caution. A pad of silk velvet or a fitch brush may be used for rubbing the block so as to leave the lines in relief, and it is quite sufficient to continue the friction until a depth equal to the thickness of an ordinary playing card is produced, the spaces corresponding to any extended whites of the engraving being then cut out by means of a tool. A 10% solution of sodium silicate may be used for hardening the block and, when dry, nothing remains but to take a mould from it and to reproduce it in metal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "A high-quality flake graphite product that closely resembles natural flake graphite can be made from steelmaking kish. Kish is a large-volume near-molten waste skimmed from the molten iron feed to a basic oxygen furnace and consists of a mix of graphite (precipitated out of the supersaturated iron), lime-rich slag, and some iron. The iron is recycled on-site, leaving a mixture of graphite and slag. The best recovery process uses hydraulic classification (which utilizes a flow of water to separate minerals by specific gravity: graphite is light and settles nearly last) to get a 70% graphite rough concentrate. Leaching this concentrate with hydrochloric acid gives a 95% graphite product with a flake size ranging from 10 mesh down."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ticonderoga, New York",
        "text": "As early as 1812, Ticonderoga was the site of graphite mining. Commercial mining of graphite began in 1832, though logging remained the chief Industry. Graphite was not widely used in the 19th century, as most writing was done in pen, rather than pencil. It was not until the mid-20th century that pencils came into greater use, with the No. 2 HB pencil becoming the standard writing implement in schools and universities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christina Ramberg",
        "text": "\"Untitled (Hands)\", c. 1971. Felt-tip pen, graphite, and colored pencil on graph paper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil drawing",
        "text": "Pencil drawing is a part of drawing that is executed with a pencil composed of wood and graphite. Pencil drawing is considered \"successor\" of metallic drawing of medieval period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pitseolak Ashoona",
        "text": "First working with graphite pencil, Pitseolak would later move on to coloured pencil and felt-tip pens. Lalonde said these became her favored medium because their \"rich and vibrant colours\" best expressed \"the joyfulness that characterizes her work\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Carpenter's pencils are pencils that have two main properties: their shape prevents them from rolling, and their graphite is strong. The oldest surviving pencil is a German carpenter's pencil dating from the 17th Century and now in the Faber-Castell collection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uni-ball",
        "text": "While mainly focused on making pens, in 2008 they developed a new mechanical pencil that rotated the graphite lead every time it is lifted from the page to sharpen it into an even cone shape. This line of pencils is named as \"Kuru Toga\". The name \"Kuru Toga\" is a portmanteau of the two Japanese words 'kuru' (turning) and 'togaru' (to be sharpened)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Staedtler",
        "text": "Staedtler has won awards for its products, most recently for the Wopex Graphite Pencils (designed with \"Teams Design\") and the Triplus line."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil sharpener",
        "text": "Mechanical pencils with thin diameter leads dispense the graphite lead progressively during use and thus do not require sharpening; such pencils are sometimes called \"self-sharpening\". A type of mechanical pencil has a rotating gear mechanism which rotates the lead slightly every time the lead is lifted off the paper, helping to maintain a consistent, sharp point. If a finer or broader line is needed, a separate mechanical pencil using a lead with a different diameter is required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Technical drawing tool",
        "text": "Polished sandwich paper-like, translucent thick paper, which comes in different strengths. Wrinkles upon wetting. Suitable for both graphite pencils and technical pens. An eraser or sharp scraper tool is used for corrections."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Invented by Harold Grossman for the Empire Pencil Company in 1967, plastic pencils were subsequently improved upon by Arthur D. Little for Empire from 1969 through the early 1970s; the plastic pencil was commercialised by Empire as the \"EPCON\" Pencil. These pencils were co-extruded, extruding a plasticised graphite mix within a wood-composite core.\n* By factory state: sharpened, unsharpened.\n* By casing material: wood, paper, plastic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The foil is made into heat sinks for laptop computers which keeps them cool while saving weight, and is made into a foil laminate that can be used in valve packings or made into gaskets. Old-style packings are now a minor member of this grouping: fine flake graphite in oils or greases for uses requiring heat resistance. A GAN estimate of current US natural graphite consumption in this end-use is 7,500\u00a0tonnes."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Silver Pencil",
        "text": "The Silver Pencil\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Graphite\n--Types and varieties.\n--Occurrence.\n--Properties.\n----Structure.\n----Thermodynamics.\n----Other properties.\n--History of natural graphite use.\n----Other names.\n--Uses of natural graphite.\n----Refractories.\n----Batteries.\n----Steelmaking.\n----Brake linings.\n----Foundry facings and lubricants.\n----Pencils.\n----Other uses.\n----Expanded graphite.\n----Intercalated graphite.\n--Uses of synthetic graphite.\n----Invention of a process to produce synthetic graphite.\n----Scientific research.\n----Electrodes.\n----Powder and scrap.\n----Neutron moderator.\n----Other uses.\n--Graphite mining, beneficiation, and milling.\n----Occupational safety.\n------United States.\n--Graphite recycling.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil Full of Lead",
        "text": "\"Angryape.com\" said:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Colored pencil",
        "text": "A colored pencil (American English), coloured pencil (Commonwealth English), pencil crayon, or coloured/colouring lead (Canadian English, Newfoundland English) is an art medium constructed of a narrow, pigmented core encased in a wooden cylindrical case. Unlike graphite and charcoal pencils, colored pencils' cores are wax- or oil-based and contain varying proportions of pigments, additives, and binding agents. Water-soluble (watercolor) pencils and pastel pencils are also manufactured as well as colored cores for mechanical pencils."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Vermilion Pencil",
        "text": "The Vermilion Pencil\n--Production.\n--Plot.\n--Reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The ability to leave marks on paper and other objects gave graphite its name, given in 1789 by German mineralogist Abraham Gottlob Werner. It stems from \"\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd (\"graphein\")\", meaning \"to write\" or \"draw\" in Ancient Greek."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drawing",
        "text": "The \"medium\" is the means by which ink, pigment or color are delivered onto the drawing surface. Most drawing media are either dry (e.g. graphite, charcoal, pastels, Cont\u00e9, silverpoint), or use a fluid solvent or carrier (marker, pen and ink). Watercolor pencils can be used dry like ordinary pencils, then moistened with a wet brush to get various painterly effects. Very rarely, artists have drawn with (usually decoded) invisible ink. Metalpoint drawing usually employs either of two metals: silver or lead. More rarely used are gold, platinum, copper, brass, bronze, and tinpoint."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chaoite",
        "text": "It has been claimed that an identical form can be prepared from graphite by sublimation at 2700-3000 K or by irradiating it with a laser in high vacuum. This substance has been termed \"ceraphite\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alessandro Cruto",
        "text": "Cruto's filament is produced by deposition of graphite on thin platinum filaments in the presence of gaseous hydrocarbons. Sublimating this platinum at high temperatures leaves behind thin filaments of super-pure graphite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphene production techniques",
        "text": "In 2014 defect-free, unoxidized graphene-containing liquids were made from graphite using mixers that produce local shear rates greater than . The method was claimed to be applicable to other 2D materials, including boron nitride, Molybdenum disulfide and other layered crystals. The liquid phase shear technique with the aid of surfactant is more suitable for pristine graphene exfoliation at room temperature and avoiding multi-step preparation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sharp Scale",
        "text": "To apply the method, the folio is first held at a distance of 15\u00a0cm from a 60 watt light source (such as an unshaded table lamp). A dowel (or pencil) is held behind and against it, creating a silhouette. Folios are then added until the outline of the pencil is no longer visible. The number of the folios needed to obscure the silhouette of the pencil is recorded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cast iron",
        "text": "Developed in 1948, \"nodular\" or \"ductile cast iron\" has its graphite in the form of very tiny nodules with the graphite in the form of concentric layers forming the nodules. As a result, the properties of ductile cast iron are that of a spongy steel without the stress concentration effects that flakes of graphite would produce. The carbon percentage present is 3-4% and percentage of silicon is 1.8-2.8%.Tiny amounts of 0.02 to 0.1% magnesium, and only 0.02 to 0.04% cerium added to these alloys slow the growth of graphite precipitates by bonding to the edges of the graphite planes. Along with careful control of other elements and timing, this allows the carbon to separate as spheroidal particles as the material solidifies. The properties are similar to malleable iron, but parts can be cast with larger sections."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diana Shpungin",
        "text": "The use of graphite is a foundational element to Shpungin's work. In addition to drawings and hand-drawn animations, much of her sculptural work involves coating objects and spaces in an all-consuming layer of graphite. Writer Megan Garwood referred to this as \u201ca penumbra, a motif of light and dark\u201d."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lamy",
        "text": "The LAMY 2000 is identical in its form with this brand's fountain pen. It features the same elegant and classic design and has a black matte finish and a high-quality writing mechanism. The pencil is made of fiberglass and stainless steel, which makes it light and well-balanced. The writing tool is developed with a conical and retractable tip and has a texturized grip made of Macrolon resin. Under the top of the push button, there is a replaceable eraser. The interior container holds a thin needle for cleaning graphite jams. The pencil has a rounded clip and comes in two lead sizes \u2013 0.7 and 0.5\u00a0mm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphotype",
        "text": "A block of chalk or some similar material is reduced to a level surface. On this surface, a design is drawn with a glutinous ink, the ink being sufficiently fluid to penetrate some little distance into the porous chalk. The ink having become dry, gentle friction is applied to the surface of the block so as gradually to rub away those parts of the chalk which are not indurated by the glutinous ink. The lines of the drawing being thus left in relief, a perfect model of the required printing block is obtained and this model is next hardened by immersion in a bath containing a solution of an alkaline silicate. After this, the block is dried and reproduced by the stereotype or the electrotype process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "On 3 September 2007, Ashrita Furman unveiled his giant US$20,000 pencil \u2013 long, (with over for the graphite centre) \u2013 after three weeks of creation in August 2007 as a birthday gift for teacher Sri Chinmoy. It is longer than the pencil outside the Malaysia HQ of stationers Faber-Castell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Venus Pencils",
        "text": "Venus Pencils were produced in a total of seventeen degrees under the categories of very soft, soft, medium, hard, and very hard. They were made with no eraser, a tip and eraser, or an oversized tip and eraser."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caran d'Ache (company)",
        "text": "Caran d'Ache is a Swiss manufacturing company of art materials and writing instruments. The company, established in 1915, produces a wide range of products including colored pencils, graphite pencils, pastels, fountain pens, ballpoint pens, mechanical pencils, markers, gouache paints, and ink cartridges."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which country produces the most graphite?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Of the 1,200,000 tonnes of graphite mined in 2016, China was responsible for 780,000 tonnes, making it the largest miner."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did graphite start to replace lead in pencils?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "From the 16th century, all pencils were made with leads of English natural graphite, but it is chemically unrelated to the metal lead, whose ores had a similar appearance, hence the continuation of the name."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were pencils made of prior to the 16th century?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In ancient times, the archetypal pencil was an artist's brush, the stylus, a thin metal stick used for scratching in papyrus or wax tablets, was used extensively by the Romans and for palm-leaf manuscripts. As a technique for drawing, the closest predecessor to the pencil was silverpoint or leadpoint until in 1565."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me more about what a silverpoint is?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A traditional silverpoint stylus is made with a small fine rod of silver, such as jewelry wire, which is inserted into a wooden rod. Another design is a silver-tipped metal stylus with points on both ends."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How is graphite produced for usage in pencils?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Production technology has changed little over the past 120 years; only standards and mechanisms for the manufacture of graphite rods and wooden halves have improved. The main components in the manufacture of rods \u2013 purified graphite powder and the clay binder kaolin \u2013 remain the same; the hardness of the graphite core depends on the ratio of graphite to kaolin, with softer cores containing more graphite.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I didn't find specific information on production but from the 16th century, all pencils were made with leads of English natural graphite, but modern pencil lead is most commonly a mix of powdered graphite and clay; it was invented by Nicolas-Jacques Cont\u00e9 in 1795."
    ],
    "topic": "Graphite",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Graphite pencil:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Graphite pencil",
          "Production"
        ],
        "ctx": "Production technology has changed little over the past 120 years; only standards and mechanisms for the manufacture of graphite rods and wooden halves have improved. The main components in the manufacture of rods \u2013 purified graphite powder and the clay binder kaolin \u2013 remain the same; the hardness of the graphite core depends on the ratio of graphite to kaolin, with softer cores containing more graphite. The hardest pencil contains about 20% graphite, the softest one up to 90%. A 1:1 ratio roughly corresponds to the 3H hardness."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Graphite:36",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Graphite",
          "Uses of natural graphite",
          "Pencils"
        ],
        "ctx": "From the 16th century, all pencils were made with leads of English natural graphite, but modern pencil lead is most commonly a mix of powdered graphite and clay; it was invented by Nicolas-Jacques Cont\u00e9 in 1795. It is chemically unrelated to the metal lead, whose ores had a similar appearance, hence the continuation of the name. Plumbago is another older term for natural graphite used for drawing, typically as a lump of the mineral without a wood casing. The term plumbago drawing is normally restricted to 17th and 18th-century works, mostly portraits."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The principal types of natural graphite, each occurring in different types of ore deposits, are\n* Crystalline small flakes of graphite (or flake graphite) occurs as isolated, flat, plate-like particles with hexagonal edges if unbroken. When broken the edges can be irregular or angular;\n* Amorphous graphite: very fine flake graphite is sometimes called amorphous;\n* Lump graphite (or vein graphite) occurs in fissure veins or fractures and appears as massive platy intergrowths of fibrous or acicular crystalline aggregates, and is probably hydrothermal in origin.\n* Highly ordered pyrolytic graphite refers to graphite with an angular spread between the graphite sheets of less than 1\u00b0.\n* The name \"graphite fiber\" is sometimes used to refer to carbon fibers or carbon fiber-reinforced polymer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbon",
        "text": "Commercially viable natural deposits of graphite occur in many parts of the world, but the most important sources economically are in China, India, Brazil and North Korea. Graphite deposits are of metamorphic origin, found in association with quartz, mica and feldspars in schists, gneisses and metamorphosed sandstones and limestone as lenses or veins, sometimes of a metre or more in thickness. Deposits of graphite in Borrowdale, Cumberland, England were at first of sufficient size and purity that, until the 19th century, pencils were made simply by sawing blocks of natural graphite into strips before encasing the strips in wood. Today, smaller deposits of graphite are obtained by crushing the parent rock and floating the lighter graphite out on water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Natural graphite has found uses in zinc-carbon batteries, electric motor brushes, and various specialized applications. Graphite of various hardness or softness results in different qualities and tones when used as an artistic medium. Railroads would often mix powdered graphite with waste oil or linseed oil to create a heat-resistant protective coating for the exposed portions of a steam locomotive's boiler, such as the smokebox or lower part of the firebox."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "From the 16th century, all pencils were made with leads of English natural graphite, but modern pencil lead is most commonly a mix of powdered graphite and clay; it was invented by Nicolas-Jacques Cont\u00e9 in 1795. It is chemically unrelated to the metal lead, whose ores had a similar appearance, hence the continuation of the name. Plumbago is another older term for natural graphite used for drawing, typically as a lump of the mineral without a wood casing. The term plumbago drawing is normally restricted to 17th and 18th-century works, mostly portraits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbon",
        "text": "According to the USGS, world production of natural graphite was 1.1\u00a0million tonnes in 2010, to which China contributed 800,000\u00a0t, India 130,000 t, Brazil 76,000\u00a0t, North Korea 30,000\u00a0t and Canada 25,000 t. No natural graphite was reported mined in the United States, but 118,000 t of synthetic graphite with an estimated value of $998\u00a0million was produced in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allotropes of carbon",
        "text": "Natural and crystalline graphites are not often used in pure form as structural materials due to their shear-planes, brittleness and inconsistent mechanical properties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dry lubricant",
        "text": "Graphite is characterized by two main groups: natural and synthetic.\n* Synthetic graphite is a high temperature sintered product and is characterized by its high purity of carbon (99.5\u221299.9%). Primary grade synthetic graphite can approach the good lubricity of quality natural graphite.\n* Natural graphite is derived from mining. The quality of natural graphite varies as a result of the ore quality and its post-mining processing. The end product is graphite with a content of carbon (high grade graphite 96\u221298% carbon), sulfur, SiO2, and ash. The higher the carbon content and the degree of graphitization (high crystalline) the better the lubricity and resistance to oxidation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Natural and crystalline graphites are not often used in pure form as structural materials, due to their shear-planes, brittleness, and inconsistent mechanical properties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Today, pencils are still a small but significant market for natural graphite. Around 7% of the 1.1\u00a0million tonnes produced in 2011 was used to make pencils. Low-quality amorphous graphite is used and sourced mainly from China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Natural amorphous and fine flake graphite are used in brake linings or brake shoes for heavier (nonautomotive) vehicles, and became important with the need to substitute for asbestos. This use has been important for quite some time, but nonasbestos organic (NAO) compositions are beginning to reduce graphite's market share. A brake-lining industry shake-out with some plant closures has not been beneficial, nor has an indifferent automotive market. According to the USGS, US natural graphite consumption in brake linings was 6,510 tonnes in 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "Production technology has changed little over the past 120 years; only standards and mechanisms for the manufacture of graphite rods and wooden halves have improved. The main components in the manufacture of rods \u2013 purified graphite powder and the clay binder kaolin \u2013 remain the same; the hardness of the graphite core depends on the ratio of graphite to kaolin, with softer cores containing more graphite. The hardest pencil contains about 20% graphite, the softest one up to 90%. A 1:1 ratio roughly corresponds to the 3H hardness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "A high-quality flake graphite product that closely resembles natural flake graphite can be made from steelmaking kish. Kish is a large-volume near-molten waste skimmed from the molten iron feed to a basic oxygen furnace and consists of a mix of graphite (precipitated out of the supersaturated iron), lime-rich slag, and some iron. The iron is recycled on-site, leaving a mixture of graphite and slag. The best recovery process uses hydraulic classification (which utilizes a flow of water to separate minerals by specific gravity: graphite is light and settles nearly last) to get a 70% graphite rough concentrate. Leaching this concentrate with hydrochloric acid gives a 95% graphite product with a flake size ranging from 10 mesh down."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Natural graphite is mostly used for refractories, batteries, steelmaking, expanded graphite, brake linings, foundry facings, and lubricants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Expandable graphite",
        "text": "To produce expandable graphite, natural graphite flakes are treated in a bath of acid and oxidizing agent.Usually used oxidizing agents are hydrogen peroxide, potassium permanganate or chromic acid. Concentrated sulphuric acid or nitric acid are usually used as the compound to be incorporated, with the reaction taking place at temperatures of 30\u00a0\u00b0C to 130\u00a0\u00b0C for up to four hours. After the reaction time, the flakes are washed with water and then dried. Starting temperature and expansion rate depend on the production conditions and particle size of the graphite. temperature and expansion rate are depending on the degree of fineness of the graphite used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), world production of natural graphite in 2016 was 1,200,000 tonnes, of which the following major exporters are: China (780,000\u00a0t), India (170,000\u00a0t), Brazil (80,000\u00a0t), Turkey (32,000\u00a0t) and North Korea (6,000\u00a0t). Graphite is not yet mined in the United States. However, Westwater Resources is currently in the development stages of creating a pilot plant for their Coosa Graphite Mine near Sylacauga, Alabama. U.S. production of synthetic graphite in 2010 was 134,000\u00a0t valued at $1.07\u00a0billion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "According to the USGS, US natural graphite consumption in refractories comprised 12,500 tonnes in 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "In 1893, Charles Street of Le Carbone discovered a process for making artificial graphite. In the mid-1890s, Edward Goodrich Acheson (1856\u20131931) accidentally invented another way to produce synthetic graphite after synthesizing carborundum (silicon carbide or SiC). He discovered that overheating carborundum, as opposed to pure carbon, produced almost pure graphite. While studying the effects of high temperature on carborundum, he had found that silicon vaporizes at about 4,150\u00a0\u00b0C (7,500\u00a0\u00b0F), leaving the carbon behind in graphitic carbon. This graphite became valuable as a lubricant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The foil is made into heat sinks for laptop computers which keeps them cool while saving weight, and is made into a foil laminate that can be used in valve packings or made into gaskets. Old-style packings are now a minor member of this grouping: fine flake graphite in oils or greases for uses requiring heat resistance. A GAN estimate of current US natural graphite consumption in this end-use is 7,500\u00a0tonnes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbon",
        "text": "There are three types of natural graphite\u2014amorphous, flake or crystalline flake, and vein or lump. Amorphous graphite is the lowest quality and most abundant. Contrary to science, in industry \"amorphous\" refers to very small crystal size rather than complete lack of crystal structure. Amorphous is used for lower value graphite products and is the lowest priced graphite. Large amorphous graphite deposits are found in China, Europe, Mexico and the United States. Flake graphite is less common and of higher quality than amorphous; it occurs as separate plates that crystallized in metamorphic rock. Flake graphite can be four times the price of amorphous. Good quality flakes can be processed into expandable graphite for many uses, such as flame retardants. The foremost deposits are found in Austria, Brazil, Canada, China, Germany and Madagascar. Vein or lump graphite is the rarest, most valuable, and highest quality type of natural graphite. It occurs in veins along intrusive contacts in solid lumps, and it is only commercially mined in Sri Lanka."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "Graphite sticks were initially wrapped in string or sheepskin for stability. England would enjoy a monopoly on the production of pencils until a method of reconstituting the graphite powder was found in 1662 in Italy. However, the distinctively square English pencils continued to be made with sticks cut from natural graphite into the 1860s. The town of Keswick, near the original findings of block graphite, still manufactures pencils, the factory also being the location of the Cumberland Pencil Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seathwaite, Allerdale",
        "text": "The commercial mining of the unusual solid form of graphite found near the hamlet of Seathwaite ceased around 1891 when veins of the solid graphite became harder to find. In addition, around that time the Keswick pencil factories had switched to making pencil pigments out of the familiar combination of clay powder and graphite powder. Graphite powder could be mined and imported from elsewhere. The mine entrance is north-northwest of the hamlet at ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Graphite is mined by both open pit and underground methods. Graphite usually needs beneficiation. This may be carried out by hand-picking the pieces of gangue (rock) and hand-screening the product or by crushing the rock and floating out the graphite. Beneficiation by flotation encounters the difficulty that graphite is very soft and \"marks\" (coats) the particles of gangue. This makes the \"marked\" gangue particles float off with the graphite, yielding impure concentrate. There are two ways of obtaining a commercial concentrate or product: repeated regrinding and floating (up to seven times) to purify the concentrate, or by acid leaching (dissolving) the gangue with hydrofluoric acid (for a silicate gangue) or hydrochloric acid (for a carbonate gangue)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Synthetic graphite can also be prepared from polyimide and commercialized."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Expanded graphite is made by immersing natural flake graphite in a bath of chromic acid, then concentrated sulfuric acid, which forces the crystal lattice planes apart, thus expanding the graphite. The expanded graphite can be used to make graphite foil or used directly as a \"hot top\" compound to insulate molten metal in a ladle or red-hot steel ingots and decrease heat loss, or as firestops fitted around a fire door or in sheet metal collars surrounding plastic pipe (during a fire, the graphite expands and chars to resist fire penetration and spread), or to make high-performance gasket material for high-temperature use. After being made into graphite foil, the foil is machined and assembled into the bipolar plates in fuel cells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "The usefulness of graphite for pencils was discovered as well, but graphite for pencils had to be smuggled. Because graphite is soft, it requires some form of encasement. Graphite sticks were initially wrapped in string or sheepskin for stability. England would enjoy a monopoly on the production of pencils until a method of reconstituting the graphite powder was found in 1662 in Italy. However, the distinctively square English pencils continued to be made with sticks cut from natural graphite into the 1860s. The town of Keswick, near the original findings of block graphite, still manufactures pencils, the factory also being the location of the Derwent Pencil Museum. The meaning of \"graphite writing implement\" apparently evolved late in the 16th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Linear acetylenic carbon",
        "text": "In 1968 a silver-white new mineral was discovered in graphitic gneisses of the Ries Crater (Nordlingen, Bavaria, Germany). This material was found to consist entirely of carbon and its hexagonal cell dimensions matched those reported earlier for carbine by Russians scientists.It was concluded that this novel form of natural carbon, chaoite, was generated from graphite by the combined action of high temperature and high pressure, presumably caused by the impact of meteorite. Soon afterwards this \u201cwhite\u201d carbon was synthesized by sublimation of pyrolytic graphite in vacuum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Acheson process",
        "text": "To manufacture synthetic graphite items, carbon powder and silica are mixed with a binder, such as tar, and baked after being pressed into shape such as that of electrodes or crucibles. They are then surrounded with granulated carbon acting as a resistive element that heats them. In the more efficient Castner lengthwise graphitization furnace, the items to be graphitized, e.g. rods, are heated directly by placing them lengthwise end-to-end in contact with the carbon electrodes so that current flows through them, and the surrounding granulated carbon acts as a thermal insulator, but otherwise the furnace is similar to the Acheson design."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Graphite occurs in metamorphic rocks as a result of the reduction of sedimentary carbon compounds during metamorphism. It also occurs in igneous rocks and in meteorites. Minerals associated with graphite include quartz, calcite, micas and tourmaline. The principal export sources of mined graphite are in order of tonnage: China, Mexico, Canada, Brazil, and Madagascar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allotropes of carbon",
        "text": "A single layer of graphite is called graphene and has extraordinary electrical, thermal, and physical properties. It can be produced by epitaxy on an insulating or conducting substrate or by mechanical exfoliation (repeated peeling) from graphite. Its applications may include replacing silicon in high-performance electronic devices. With two layers stacked, bilayer graphene results with different properties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nuclear graphite",
        "text": "Reactor-grade graphite must be free of neutron absorbing materials, especially boron, which has a large neutron capture cross section. Boron sources in graphite include the raw materials, the packing materials used in baking the product, and even the choice of soap (for example, borax) used to launder the clothing worn by workers in the machine shop. Boron concentration in thermally purified graphite (such as AGOT graphite) can be less than 0.4 ppm and in chemically purified nuclear graphite it is less than 0.06 ppm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Graphite (), archaically referred to as plumbago, is a crystalline form of the element carbon with its atoms arranged in a hexagonal structure. Crystalline graphite exhibits a layer lattice (i.e. it is a lamellar solid). It occurs naturally in this form and is the most stable form of carbon under standard conditions. Under high pressures and temperatures it converts to diamond. Graphite is used in pencils and lubricants. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity. Its high conductivity makes it useful in electronic products such as electrodes, batteries, and solar panels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chaoite",
        "text": "A review cautions that \"in spite of these seemingly definitive reports \u2026 several other groups have tried unsuccessfully to reproduce these experiments. Independent confirmatory work is obviously needed \u2026 and at the present time white graphite appears to be the carbon analog of polywater\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "W\u00fcstite",
        "text": "In nature, the only natural systems which are chemically reduced enough to even attain a w\u00fcstite\u2013magnetite composition are rare, including carbonate-rich skarns, meteorites, fulgurites and lightning-affected rock, and perhaps the mantle where reduced carbon is present, exemplified by the presence of diamond or graphite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elmar Peintner",
        "text": "Now Elmar Peintner presents (Museum Ferdinandeum, Innsbruck, 2004) a new series of graphite drawings which deal purely and simply with what nature offers: records of fragments or conglomerates from the patterns in nature, fanned out facet-like and presented in their transparency: ramifications, hollows, dense plasticity, nerve structures. They are not scientific herbaceous exhibits, nor are they a catalogue of floral prints. On the contrary, the subject matter emanates a liveliness of substance with all the phases of growth and decay. Inner issues and energy are released. The various processes in the unyieldingness of the substance are noted. Peintner's position as a re-creator of this nature also comes out. He declares himself in his consistency and his stamping of the graphic production. He reduces his ideal world to the factual in the motif."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allotropes of carbon",
        "text": "Graphite powder is used as a dry lubricant. Although it might be thought that this industrially important property is due entirely to the loose interlamellar coupling between sheets in the structure, in fact in a vacuum environment (such as in technologies for use in space), graphite was found to be a very poor lubricant. This fact led to the discovery that graphite's lubricity is due to adsorbed air and water between the layers, unlike other layered dry lubricants such as molybdenum disulfide. Recent studies suggest that an effect called superlubricity can also account for this effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Graphite\n--Types and varieties.\n--Occurrence.\n--Properties.\n----Structure.\n----Thermodynamics.\n----Other properties.\n--History of natural graphite use.\n----Other names.\n--Uses of natural graphite.\n----Refractories.\n----Batteries.\n----Steelmaking.\n----Brake linings.\n----Foundry facings and lubricants.\n----Pencils.\n----Other uses.\n----Expanded graphite.\n----Intercalated graphite.\n--Uses of synthetic graphite.\n----Invention of a process to produce synthetic graphite.\n----Scientific research.\n----Electrodes.\n----Powder and scrap.\n----Neutron moderator.\n----Other uses.\n--Graphite mining, beneficiation, and milling.\n----Occupational safety.\n------United States.\n--Graphite recycling.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Graphite is one of the allotropes of carbon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Residual graphite from a pencil stick is not poisonous, and graphite is harmless if consumed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Sometime before 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), an enormous deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England, which the locals found useful for marking sheep. During the reign of Elizabeth I (1558\u20131603), Borrowdale graphite was used as a refractory material to line molds for cannonballs, resulting in rounder, smoother balls that could be fired farther, contributing to the strength of the English navy. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and soft, and could easily be cut into sticks. Because of its military importance, this unique mine and its production were strictly controlled by the Crown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The powder is made by heating powdered petroleum coke above the temperature of graphitization, sometimes with minor modifications. The graphite scrap comes from pieces of unusable electrode material (in the manufacturing stage or after use) and lathe turnings, usually after crushing and sizing. Most synthetic graphite powder goes to carbon raising in steel (competing with natural graphite), with some used in batteries and brake linings. According to the USGS, US synthetic graphite powder and scrap production were 95,000 tonnes in 2001 (latest data)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pyrolytic carbon",
        "text": "Pyrolytic carbon is man-made and is not thought to be found in nature. Generally it is produced by heating a hydrocarbon nearly to its decomposition temperature, and permitting the graphite to crystalize (pyrolysis). One method is to heat synthetic fibers in a vacuum. Another method is to place seeds on a plate in the very hot gas to collect the graphite coating. It is used in high temperature applications such as missile nose cones, rocket motors, heat shields, laboratory furnaces, in graphite-reinforced plastic, coating nuclear fuel particles, and in biomedical prostheses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "English and German pencils were not available to the French during the Napoleonic Wars; France, under naval blockade imposed by Great Britain, was unable to import the pure graphite sticks from the British Grey Knotts mines \u2013 the only known source in the world. France was also unable to import the inferior German graphite pencil substitute. It took the efforts of an officer in Napoleon's army to change this. In 1795, Nicolas-Jacques Cont\u00e9 discovered a method of mixing powdered graphite with clay and forming the mixture into rods that were then fired in a kiln. By varying the ratio of graphite to clay, the hardness of the graphite rod could also be varied. This method of manufacture, which had been earlier discovered by the Austrian Joseph Hardtmuth, the founder of the Koh-I-Noor in 1790, remains in use. In 1802, the production of graphite leads from graphite and clay was patented by the Koh-I-Noor company in Vienna."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prince original graphite",
        "text": "Prince Straight Shaft,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite Capital",
        "text": "- Random42 \u2013 a producer of digital medical animation"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cliftonite",
        "text": "Cliftonite is a natural form of graphite that occurs as small octahedral inclusions in iron-containing meteorites. It typically accompanies kamacite, and more rarely schreibersite, cohenite or plessite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dry lubricant",
        "text": "Graphite is structurally composed of planes of polycyclic carbon atoms that are hexagonal in orientation. The distance of carbon atoms between planes is longer and, therefore, the bonding is weaker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seathwaite, Allerdale",
        "text": "was opened after the discovery of graphite there in 1555. The extracted graphite was eventually used to supply the Derwent Cumberland Pencil Company factory in Keswick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prince original graphite",
        "text": "The Graphite is a full-weighted tennis racquet with a box-shaped 19\u00a0mm beam, characterized by the Cross Bar Stabilizer, which reduces twisting on off-center hits. Most, if not all, versions were offered in either mid-size or oversized head. The racquet also featured a signature foam handle with a leather grip."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chaoite",
        "text": "It has been claimed that an identical form can be prepared from graphite by sublimation at 2700-3000 K or by irradiating it with a laser in high vacuum. This substance has been termed \"ceraphite\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite pencil",
        "text": "A large deposit of graphite was discovered in 1565 on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks. It remains the only large-scale deposit of graphite ever found in this solid form. Chemistry was in its infancy and the substance was thought to be a form of lead. Consequently, it was called \"plumbago\" (Latin for \"lead ore\"). Because the pencil core is still referred to as \"lead\", or a \"lead\", many people have the misconception that the graphite in the pencil is lead, even though it never contained the element lead. The words for pencil in German (\"Bleistift\"), Irish (\"peann luaidhe\"), Arabic (\u0642\u0644\u0645 \u0631\u0635\u0627\u0635 \"qalam ra\u1e63\u0101\u1e63\"), and some other languages literally mean \"lead pen\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "In the United States, in 1885, Hezekiah Bradford of Philadelphia patented a similar process, but it is uncertain if his process was used successfully in the nearby graphite deposits of Chester County, Pennsylvania, a major producer by the 1890s. The Bessel process was limited in use, primarily because of the abundant cleaner deposits found around the globe, which needed not much more than hand-sorting to gather the pure graphite. The state of the art, ca. 1900, is described in the Canadian Department of Mines report on graphite mines and mining when Canadian deposits began to become important producers of graphite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Graphite (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite oxide",
        "text": "Graphite oxide (GO), formerly called graphitic oxide or graphitic acid, is a compound of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen in variable ratios, obtained by treating graphite with strong oxidizers and acids for resolving of extra metals. The maximally oxidized bulk product is a yellow solid with C:O ratio between 2.1 and 2.9, that retains the layer structure of graphite but with a much larger and irregular spacing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Graphite (carbon) fiber and carbon nanotubes are also used in carbon fiber reinforced plastics, and in heat-resistant composites such as reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC). Commercial structures made from carbon fiber graphite composites include fishing rods, golf club shafts, bicycle frames, sports car body panels, the fuselage of the Boeing 787 Dreamliner and pool cue sticks and have been successfully employed in reinforced concrete. The mechanical properties of carbon fiber graphite-reinforced plastic composites and grey cast iron are strongly influenced by the role of graphite in these materials. In this context, the term \"(100%) graphite\" is often loosely used to refer to a pure mixture of carbon reinforcement and resin, while the term \"composite\" is used for composite materials with additional ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Solid carbon comes in different forms known as allotropes depending on the type of chemical bond. The two most common are diamond and graphite (less common ones include buckminsterfullerene). In diamond the bonds are sp3 orbital hybrids and the atoms form tetrahedra with each bound to four nearest neighbors. In graphite they are sp2 orbital hybrids and the atoms form in planes with each bound to three nearest neighbors 120 degrees apart."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The ability to leave marks on paper and other objects gave graphite its name, given in 1789 by German mineralogist Abraham Gottlob Werner. It stems from \"\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd (\"graphein\")\", meaning \"to write\" or \"draw\" in Ancient Greek."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allotropes of carbon",
        "text": "AA'-graphite is an allotrope of carbon similar to graphite, but where the layers are positioned differently to each other as compared to the order in graphite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Hardtmuth",
        "text": "In 1792, Hardtmuth established a pencil factory in Vienna after he succeeded in creating an artificial graphite pencil by mixing powdered graphite with clay. Until that time, whole pieces, cut from graphite, were glued in between wood and were imported from England. With the new method, graphite of inferior quality could be used in pencil manufacturing, lowering the price and making the product more accessible for the masses. His company Koh-i-Noor Hardtmuth still exists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allotropes of carbon",
        "text": "In its pure glassy (isotropic) synthetic forms, pyrolytic graphite and carbon fiber graphite are extremely strong, heat-resistant (to 3000\u00a0\u00b0C) materials, used in reentry shields for missile nosecones, solid rocket engines, high temperature reactors, brake shoes and electric motor brushes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aragonite",
        "text": "Aragonite also forms naturally in the endocarp of \"Celtis occidentalis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite oxide",
        "text": "Graphite oxide is hydrophilic and easily hydrated when exposed to water vapor or immersed in liquid water, resulting in a distinct increase of the inter-planar distance (up to 1.2\u00a0nm in saturated state). Additional water is also incorporated into the interlayer space due to high pressure induced effects. The maximal hydration state of graphite oxide in liquid water corresponds to insertion of 2-3 water monolayers. Cooling the graphite oxide/H2O samples results in \"pseudo-negative thermal expansion\" and cooling below the freezing point of water results in de-insertion of one water monolayer and lattice contraction. Complete removal of water from the structure seems difficult since heating at 60\u201380\u00a0\u00b0C results in partial decomposition and degradation of the material."
      },
      {
        "title": "Discovery of graphene",
        "text": "Single layers of graphite were observed by TEM within bulk materials, in particular inside soot obtained by chemical exfoliation. Efforts to make thin films of graphite by mechanical exfoliation started in 1990, but nothing thinner than 50 to 100 layers was produced before 2004."
      },
      {
        "title": "Prince original graphite",
        "text": "Prince original graphite\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "AA'-graphite",
        "text": "AA'-graphite is an allotrope of carbon similar to graphite, but where the layers are positioned differently to each other as compared to the order in graphite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cast iron",
        "text": "Developed in 1948, \"nodular\" or \"ductile cast iron\" has its graphite in the form of very tiny nodules with the graphite in the form of concentric layers forming the nodules. As a result, the properties of ductile cast iron are that of a spongy steel without the stress concentration effects that flakes of graphite would produce. The carbon percentage present is 3-4% and percentage of silicon is 1.8-2.8%.Tiny amounts of 0.02 to 0.1% magnesium, and only 0.02 to 0.04% cerium added to these alloys slow the growth of graphite precipitates by bonding to the edges of the graphite planes. Along with careful control of other elements and timing, this allows the carbon to separate as spheroidal particles as the material solidifies. The properties are similar to malleable iron, but parts can be cast with larger sections."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bieberite",
        "text": "Natural bieberite crystals may have a small amount of cobalt lattice sites instead occupied by magnesium and copper (Palache et al., 1960)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Donohue",
        "text": "J. Donohue. Structure of graphite. \"Nature\", 255, 172 (1975).<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sivaganga",
        "text": "Graphite is one of the common resources in Sivagangai. Very valuable graphite is available in Sivagangai and its surrounding areas. The Sivaganga graphite is of flaky variety with 14% average Fixed Carbon used in the manufacture of refractory bricks, expanded graphite, crucibles and carbon brushes. TAMIN has over 600 acres of graphite bearing land in Pudupatti, Kumaripatti and Senthiudayanathapuram of Sivaganga taluk, Sivagangai District, Tamil Nadu. Estimated reserve of graphite ore in leasehold area is three million tonnes.(recoverable graphite from 14% F.C is approximately 3 lakh tonnes)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borrowdale",
        "text": "Sometime before 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), a major deposit of graphite was discovered near the Seathwaite hamlet in Borrowdale parish. The locals found that it was useful for marking sheep. The graphite was pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks; the pencil industry was born in nearby Keswick. The graphite find remains unique."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphene production techniques",
        "text": "Graphite particles can be corroded in molten salts to form a variety of carbon nanostructures including graphene. Hydrogen cations, dissolved in molten Lithium chloride, can be discharged on cathodically polarized graphite rods, which then intercalate into the graphite structure, peeling graphite to produce graphene. The graphene nanosheets produced displayed a single-crystalline structure with a lateral size of several hundred nanometers and a high degree of crystallinity and thermal stability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbon",
        "text": "As for individual carbon allotropes, graphite is found in large quantities in the United States (mostly in New York and Texas), Russia, Mexico, Greenland, and India. Natural diamonds occur in the rock kimberlite, found in ancient volcanic \"necks\", or \"pipes\". Most diamond deposits are in Africa, notably in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, the Republic of the Congo, and Sierra Leone. Diamond deposits have also been found in Arkansas, Canada, the Russian Arctic, Brazil, and in Northern and Western Australia. Diamonds are now also being recovered from the ocean floor off the Cape of Good Hope. Diamonds are found naturally, but about 30% of all industrial diamonds used in the U.S. are now manufactured."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "People can be exposed to graphite in the workplace by breathing it in as well as through skin contact or eye contact."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite Peak",
        "text": "Graphite Peak\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Westwater Resources",
        "text": "As for turning the natural flake graphite into a battery-ready product, Westwater Resources has turned Dorfner Anzaplan (based in Hirschau, Germany) to define the method, equipment, and operating parameters for graphite purification to the 99.95% threshold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "As a technique for drawing, the closest predecessor to the pencil was silverpoint or leadpoint until in 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), a large deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks. It remains the only large-scale deposit of graphite ever found in this solid form. Chemistry was in its infancy and the substance was thought to be a form of lead. Consequently, it was called \"plumbago\" (Latin for \"lead ore\"). Because the pencil core is still referred to as \"lead\", or \"a lead\", many people have the misconception that the graphite in the pencil is lead, and the black core of pencils is still referred to as \"lead\", even though it never contained the element lead. The words for pencil in German (\"Bleistift\"), Irish (\"peann luaidhe\"), Arabic (\u0642\u0644\u0645 \u0631\u0635\u0627\u0635 \"qalam ra\u1e63\u0101\u1e63\"), and some other languages literally mean \"lead pen\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbon",
        "text": "In 1779, Carl Wilhelm Scheele showed that graphite, which had been thought of as a form of lead, was instead identical with charcoal but with a small admixture of iron, and that it gave \"aerial acid\" (his name for carbon dioxide) when oxidized with nitric acid. In 1786, the French scientists Claude Louis Berthollet, Gaspard Monge and C. A. Vandermonde confirmed that graphite was mostly carbon by oxidizing it in oxygen in much the same way Lavoisier had done with diamond. Some iron again was left, which the French scientists thought was necessary to the graphite structure. In their publication they proposed the name \"carbone\" (Latin \"carbonum\") for the element in graphite which was given off as a gas upon burning graphite. Antoine Lavoisier then listed carbon as an element in his 1789 textbook."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry David Thoreau",
        "text": "Thoreau returned to Concord and worked in his family's pencil factory, which he would continue to do alongside his writing and other work for most of his adult life. He rediscovered the process of making good pencils with inferior graphite by using clay as the binder. This invention allowed profitable use of a graphite source found in New Hampshire that had been purchased in 1821 by Thoreau's uncle, Charles Dunbar. The process of mixing graphite and clay, known as the Cont\u00e9 process, had been first patented by Nicolas-Jacques Cont\u00e9 in 1795. The company's other source of graphite had been Tantiusques, a mine operated by Native Americans in Sturbridge, Massachusetts. Later, Thoreau converted the pencil factory to produce plumbago, a name for graphite at the time, which was used in the electrotyping process."
      },
      {
        "title": "AA'-graphite",
        "text": "The non-Bernal AA\u2019 allotrope of graphite is synthesized by the thermal- and plasma-treatment of graphene nanopowders at ~1,500\u00a0\u00b0C. The formation of AA\u2019 bilayer graphene nuclei facilitates the preferred texture growth and results in single-crystal AA\u2019 graphite in the form of nanoribbons (1D) or microplates (2D) of a few nm in thickness. Kinetically controlled AA\u2019 graphite exhibits unique nano- and single-crystalline feature and shows quasi-linear behavior near the K-point of the electronic band structure resulting in anomalous optical and acoustic phonon behavior (Fig. 3)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anglo Great Lakes Graphite Plant",
        "text": "Anglo Great Lakes Graphite Plant\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Graphite and graphite powder are valued in industrial applications for their self-lubricating and dry lubricating properties. There is a common belief that graphite's lubricating properties are solely due to the loose interlamellar coupling between sheets in the structure. However, it has been shown that in a vacuum environment (such as in technologies for use in space), graphite degrades as a lubricant, due to the hypoxic conditions. This observation led to the hypothesis that the lubrication is due to the presence of fluids between the layers, such as air and water, which are naturally adsorbed from the environment. This hypothesis has been refuted by studies showing that air and water are not absorbed. Recent studies suggest that an effect called superlubricity can also account for graphite's lubricating properties. The use of graphite is limited by its tendency to facilitate pitting corrosion in some stainless steel, and to promote galvanic corrosion between dissimilar metals (due to its electrical conductivity). It is also corrosive to aluminium in the presence of moisture. For this reason, the US Air Force banned its use as a lubricant in aluminium aircraft, and discouraged its use in aluminium-containing automatic weapons. Even graphite pencil marks on aluminium parts may facilitate corrosion. Another high-temperature lubricant, hexagonal boron nitride, has the same molecular structure as graphite. It is sometimes called \"white graphite\", due to its similar properties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carheil Lake",
        "text": "The graphite was found in a structural lineament that runs roughly north-south for about ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphene",
        "text": "In 2014 defect-free, unoxidized graphene-containing liquids were made from graphite using mixers that produce local shear rates greater than ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dosimetry",
        "text": "The NPL operates a graphite-calorimeter for absolute photon dosimetry. Graphite is used instead of water as its specific heat capacity is one-sixth that of water and therefore the temperature increase in graphite is 6 times higher than the equivalent in water and measurements are more accurate. Significant problems exist in insulating the graphite from the surrounding environment in order to measure the tiny temperature changes. A lethal dose of radiation to a human is approximately 10\u201320 Gy. This is 10-20 joules per kilogram. A 1\u00a0cm3 piece of graphite weighing 2\u00a0grams would therefore absorb around 20\u201340 mJ. With a specific heat capacity of around 700 J\u00b7kg\u22121\u00b7K\u22121, this equates to a temperature rise of just 20 mK."
      },
      {
        "title": "Firestop pillow",
        "text": "The vermiculite fabric bag and the graphite are noncombustible. There is also no significant release of chemically bound water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diana Shpungin",
        "text": "The use of graphite is a foundational element to Shpungin's work. In addition to drawings and hand-drawn animations, much of her sculptural work involves coating objects and spaces in an all-consuming layer of graphite. Writer Megan Garwood referred to this as \u201ca penumbra, a motif of light and dark\u201d."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite oxide",
        "text": "Graphite oxide exfoliates and decomposes when rapidly heated at moderately high temperatures (~280\u2013300\u00a0\u00b0C) with formation of finely dispersed amorphous carbon, somewhat similar to activated carbon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Syngenite",
        "text": "Syngenite can be artificially produced by the action of a potassium sulfate solution on gypsum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite oxide",
        "text": "One project layered carbon atoms in a honeycomb structure, forming a hexagon-shaped crystal that measured about 0.1 millimeters in width and length, with subnanometer holes. Later work increased the membrane size to on the order of several millimeters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Graphite may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite oxide",
        "text": "Graphene oxide has also been reduced to graphene \"in situ\", using a 3D printed pattern of engineered \"E. coli\" bacteria. Currently, researchers are focussed on reducing graphene oxide using non-toxic substances; tea and coffee powder, lemon extract and various plants based antioxidants are widely used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "Natural graphite in steelmaking mostly goes into raising the carbon content in molten steel; it can also serve to lubricate the dies used to extrude hot steel. Carbon additives face competitive pricing from alternatives such as synthetic graphite powder, petroleum coke, and other forms of carbon. A carbon raiser is added to increase the carbon content of the steel to a specified level. An estimate based on USGS's graphite consumption statistics indicates that steelmakers in the US used 10,500 tonnes in this fashion in 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allotropes of carbon",
        "text": "Lonsdaleite is an allotrope sometimes called \"hexagonal diamond\", formed from graphite present in meteorites upon their impact on the earth. The great heat and pressure of the impact transforms the graphite into a denser form similar to diamond, but retaining graphite's hexagonal crystal lattice. \"Hexagonal diamond\" has also been synthesized in the laboratory, by compressing and heating graphite either in a static press or using explosives. It can also be produced by the thermal decomposition of a polymer, poly(hydridocarbyne), at atmospheric pressure, under inert gas atmosphere (e.g. argon, nitrogen), starting at temperature ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geochemistry of carbon",
        "text": "At 15 GPa graphite changes to a hard transparent form, that is not diamond. Diamond is very resistant to pressure, but at about 1\u00a0TPa (1000 GPa) transforms to a BC-8 form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphene",
        "text": "In 1859, Benjamin Brodie noted the highly lamellar structure of thermally reduced graphite oxide. In 1916, Peter Debye and Paul Scherrer determined the structure of graphite by powder X-ray diffraction. The structure was studied in more detail by V. Kohlsch\u00fctter and P. Haenni in 1918, who also described the properties of graphite oxide paper. Its structure was determined from single-crystal diffraction in 1924."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "Solid graphite pencils are solid sticks of graphite and clay composite (as found in a 'graphite pencil'), about the diameter of a common pencil, which have no casing other than a wrapper or label. They are often called \"woodless\" pencils. They are used primarily for art purposes as the lack of casing allows for covering larger spaces more easily, creating different effects, and providing greater economy as the entirety of the pencil is used. They are available in the same darkness range as wood-encased graphite pencils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite",
        "text": "The most common way of recycling graphite occurs when synthetic graphite electrodes are either manufactured and pieces are cut off or lathe turnings are discarded for reuse, or the electrode (or other materials) are used all the way down to the electrode holder. A new electrode replaces the old one, but a sizeable piece of the old electrode remains. This is crushed and sized, and the resulting graphite powder is mostly used to raise the carbon content of molten steel. Graphite-containing refractories are sometimes also recycled, but often are not due to their low graphite content: the largest-volume items, such as carbon-magnesite bricks that contain only 15\u201325% graphite, usually contain too little graphite to be worthwhile to recycle. However, some recycled carbon\u2013magnesite brick is used as the basis for furnace-repair materials, and also crushed carbon\u2013magnesite brick is used in slag conditioners. While crucibles have a high graphite content, the volume of crucibles used and then recycled is very small."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second sound",
        "text": "characteristic length 1-10 microns. Therefore, presumably graphite in the right temperature regime has extraordinarily high thermal conductivity but only for the purpose of transferring heat pulses distances of order 10 microns, and for pulses of duration on the order of 10 nanoseconds. For more \"normal\" heat-transfer, graphite's observed thermal conductivity is less than that of, e.g, copper. The theoretical models, however, predict longer absorption lengths would be seen in isotopically-pure graphite, and perhaps over a wider temperature range, e.g. even at room temperature. (As of March 2019, that experiment has not yet been tried.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbon nanocone",
        "text": "Carbon cones have also been observed, since 1968 or even earlier, on the surface of naturally occurring graphite. Their bases are attached to the graphite and their height varies between less than 1 and 40 micrometers. Their walls are often curved and are less regular than those of the laboratory made nanocones. The distribution of their apex angle also shows a strong feature at 60\u00b0, but other expected peaks, at 20\u00b0 and 40\u00b0, are much weaker and the distribution is somewhat broader for large angles. This difference is attributed to the different wall structure of the natural cones. Those walls are relatively irregular and contain numerous line defects (positive-wedge disclinations). This breaks down the angular requirement for a seamless cone and therefore broadens the angular distribution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Graphite lined stamp",
        "text": "The term \"graphite\" refers to the substance \"Naphthadag\" or \"Deflocculated Acheson's Graphite\" which was graphite in a solution of \"naphtha\". This graphite substance went under the brand name \"dag\" which was a registered trademark of Acheson Colloids Ltd. The substance is still a product of the firm today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pencil",
        "text": "The value of graphite would soon be realised to be enormous, mainly because it could be used to line the moulds for cannonballs; the mines were taken over by the Crown and were guarded. When sufficient stores of graphite had been accumulated, the mines were flooded to prevent theft until more was required."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which country produces the most graphite?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Of the 1,200,000 tonnes of graphite mined in 2016, China was responsible for 780,000 tonnes, making it the largest miner."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did graphite start to replace lead in pencils?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "From the 16th century, all pencils were made with leads of English natural graphite, but it is chemically unrelated to the metal lead, whose ores had a similar appearance, hence the continuation of the name."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were pencils made of prior to the 16th century?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In ancient times, the archetypal pencil was an artist's brush, the stylus, a thin metal stick used for scratching in papyrus or wax tablets, was used extensively by the Romans and for palm-leaf manuscripts. As a technique for drawing, the closest predecessor to the pencil was silverpoint or leadpoint until in 1565."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me more about what a silverpoint is?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A traditional silverpoint stylus is made with a small fine rod of silver, such as jewelry wire, which is inserted into a wooden rod. Another design is a silver-tipped metal stylus with points on both ends."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How is graphite produced for usage in pencils?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Production technology has changed little over the past 120 years; only standards and mechanisms for the manufacture of graphite rods and wooden halves have improved. The main components in the manufacture of rods \u2013 purified graphite powder and the clay binder kaolin \u2013 remain the same; the hardness of the graphite core depends on the ratio of graphite to kaolin, with softer cores containing more graphite."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is all graphite natural?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Apart from naturally occurring graphite, there is also synthetic \ngraphite which was invented by Charles Street of Le Carbone in 1890.  In the mid-1890s, Edward Goodrich Acheson (1856\u20131931) accidentally invented another way to produce synthetic graphite after synthesizing carborundum (silicon carbide or SiC) in a process named the Acheson process .",
      "No, as a process for creating artificial graphite was discovered in 1893, and again a few years later another way to create synthetic graphite (from carborundum) was discovered, which is now known as the Acheson process. As of today artificial graphite can also be created from polyimide."
    ],
    "topic": "Graphite",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Graphite:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Graphite"
        ],
        "ctx": "Graphite (), archaically referred to as plumbago, is a crystalline form of the element carbon with its atoms arranged in a hexagonal structure. Crystalline graphite exhibits a layer lattice (i.e. it is a lamellar solid). It occurs naturally in this form and is the most stable form of carbon under standard conditions. Under high pressures and temperatures it converts to diamond. Graphite is used in pencils and lubricants. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity. Its high conductivity makes it useful in electronic products such as electrodes, batteries, and solar panels."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Graphite:42",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Graphite",
          "Uses of synthetic graphite",
          "Invention of a process to produce synthetic graphite"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 1893, Charles Street of Le Carbone discovered a process for making artificial graphite. In the mid-1890s, Edward Goodrich Acheson (1856\u20131931) accidentally invented another way to produce synthetic graphite after synthesizing carborundum (silicon carbide or SiC). He discovered that overheating carborundum, as opposed to pure carbon, produced almost pure graphite. While studying the effects of high temperature on carborundum, he had found that silicon vaporizes at about 4,150\u00a0\u00b0C (7,500\u00a0\u00b0F), leaving the carbon behind in graphitic carbon. This graphite became valuable as a lubricant."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Graphite:43",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Graphite",
          "Uses of synthetic graphite",
          "Invention of a process to produce synthetic graphite"
        ],
        "ctx": "Acheson's technique for producing silicon carbide and graphite is named the Acheson process. In 1896, Acheson received a patent for his method of synthesizing graphite, and in 1897 started commercial production. The Acheson Graphite Co. was formed in 1899."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Graphite:42",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Graphite",
          "Uses of synthetic graphite",
          "Invention of a process to produce synthetic graphite"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 1893, Charles Street of Le Carbone discovered a process for making artificial graphite. In the mid-1890s, Edward Goodrich Acheson (1856\u20131931) accidentally invented another way to produce synthetic graphite after synthesizing carborundum (silicon carbide or SiC). He discovered that overheating carborundum, as opposed to pure carbon, produced almost pure graphite. While studying the effects of high temperature on carborundum, he had found that silicon vaporizes at about 4,150\u00a0\u00b0C (7,500\u00a0\u00b0F), leaving the carbon behind in graphitic carbon. This graphite became valuable as a lubricant."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Graphite:43",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Graphite",
          "Uses of synthetic graphite",
          "Invention of a process to produce synthetic graphite"
        ],
        "ctx": "Acheson's technique for producing silicon carbide and graphite is named the Acheson process. In 1896, Acheson received a patent for his method of synthesizing graphite, and in 1897 started commercial production. The Acheson Graphite Co. was formed in 1899."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Graphite:44",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Graphite",
          "Uses of synthetic graphite",
          "Invention of a process to produce synthetic graphite"
        ],
        "ctx": "Synthetic graphite can also be prepared from polyimide and commercialized."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Homophonic puns in Standard Chinese",
        "text": "Chinese New Year, known in China as Spring Festival, has an abundance of unique traditions associated with it. Some of these traditions are more widespread than others. Among the many New Year's customs are a few whose meaning is derived from puns of Mandarin words.\n* Ni\u00e1n ni\u00e1n y\u01d2u y\u00fa - \u5e74\u5e74\u6709\u9918 \"There will be an abundance every year\" homophonous with \u5e74\u5e74\u6709\u9b5a \"There will be fish every year.\" As a result, fish are eaten and used as common decorations during Chinese New Year.\n* Ni\u00e1n g\u0101o - \u5e74\u7cd5 \"niangao\" homophonous with \u5e74\u9ad8 from \u5e74\u5e74\u9ad8\u5347 \"ni\u00e1n ni\u00e1n g\u0101osh\u0113ng\" or \"raised higher each year,\" leading to the belief that those who eat niangao should have greater prosperity with each coming year.\n* F\u00fa d\u00e0o le - \u798f\u5230\u4e86 \"fortune has arrived\" and \u798f\u5012\u4e86 \"fortune is upside down\", the latter simply referring to the ubiquitous character \u798f, which when displayed upside down denotes one's good fortune has arrived. It is common practice to hang the character upside-down on doors during the Spring festival.\n* *Shengcai - Traditionally the first meal of the New Year is vegetarian with a variety of ingredients. The meal is served with lettuce () because the word is near homophonous to \"\" (\"sh\u0113ng c\u00e1i\"), \"to make money\". Lettuce shows up in other New Years customs as well. In the traditional New Year's Day lion dance lettuce and red envelopes of cash are offered to the lion.\n* *T\u0101ng yu\u00e1n - At times of reunion, such as Spring Festival, it is customary to eat sweet round dumplings called tangyuan (). The tangyuan are traditionally eaten during Lantern Festival, which is the last day of the Chinese New Year celebration. The roundness of the tangyuan and the bowls they are eaten out of emphasize unity in addition to the similarity of their name with the Mandarin word for reunion, \" (tu\u00e1n yu\u00e1n).\n* *F\u0101 c\u00e0i (), a thin black hair-like algae, is a feature of Spring Festival cuisine because its name is a near-homophone of \" (), meaning \"prosperity,\" and as in the Chinese New Year greeting .\n*Dream of the Red Chamber \u2013 Similar to Dickens or Dostoevsky, Cao Xueqin chose many of the names of his characters in \"Dream of the Red Chamber\" to be homophones with other words which hint at their qualities. For example, the name of the main family, \"\u8cc8\" (Ji\u01ce) puns with \"\u5047\" meaning \"fake\" or \"false\" while the name of the other main family in the story, \"\u7504\" (Zh\u0113n) puns with \"\u771e\" meaning \"real\" or \"true\".\n*H\u00f3ng Qi\u016b (\u7d05\u79cb) \u2013 In this Sichuan opera, a sternsman on the boat asks a nun her name, who defiantly responds that her name is \u9673 \"ch\u00e9n\" which is a homophone with \u6c89 or 'to sink' which is the last word one wants to hear on a boat.\n*M\u00e1o D\u00f9n \u2013 Noted 20th-century author Shen Yanbing is better known by his pseudonym Mao Dun (\u8305\u76fe), a homophone for \"contradiction\" (\u77db\u76fe). The pun is said to be a statement of his disillusionment with the ruling Kuomintang party following the Shanghai massacre of 1927.\n*F\u01ceng Z\u01d0ji\u01d4 Hu\u00e0 \u2013 Yun Shouping, a famous artist of the early Qing dynasty, is best known today for his paintings of flowers, but he was also a prolific poet. One of his poems, \"\u4eff\u5b50\u4e45\u756b\" (\"After the artistic style of Zijiu\"), was an ode to a previous master of traditional Chinese landscape painting, Huang Gongwang who was also known by his style name \"Zijiu\" (\u5b50\u4e45). The poem has several intentional puns. The poem and alternative readings are included below:"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "Chinese New Year is celebrated in January or February, depending on a lunar calendar. Gifts of citrus such as tangerines, oranges, and pomelos are thought to represent prosperity and are auspicious for New Year's Eve; their shape, color, and names are seen as symbolizing fullness and wealth. Other commonly served dishes are spring rolls, dumplings, longevity noodles, glutinous rice cake or nian gao, the name of which means progressively improving."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "Between New Year's Day and the 15th day of the month people visit friends and relatives bringing gifts of citrus, and they prepare for such visits to their own homes by making chuen hop (tray of togetherness) which includes various fruits, candies, and other sweets. On the fourth day of the New Year people make offerings of wine and fruits. On the 15th day the Lantern Festival is celebrated, also called Yuan Xiao, a name for glutinous rice balls which are eaten and symbolize unity, family, and peace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "On the eighth day of the lunar month prior to Chinese New Year, the \"Laba\" holiday (), a traditional porridge, Laba porridge (), is served in remembrance of an ancient festival, called \"La\", that occurred shortly after the winter solstice. Pickles such as Laba garlic, which turns green from vinegar, are also made on this day. For those that practice Buddhism, the Laba holiday is also considered Bodhi Day. \"Layue\" () is a term often associated with Chinese New Year as it refers to the sacrifices held in honor of the gods in the twelfth lunar month, hence the cured meats of Chinese New Year are known as \"larou\" (). The porridge was prepared by the women of the household at first light, with the first bowl offered to the family's ancestors and the household deities. Every member of the family was then served a bowl, with leftovers distributed to relatives and friends. It's still served as a special breakfast on this day in some Chinese homes. The concept of the \"La month\" is similar to Advent in Christianity. Many families eat vegetarian on Chinese New Year eve, the garlic and preserved meat are eaten on Chinese New Year day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The fifteenth day of the new year is celebrated as the Lantern Festival, also known as the Yuanxiao Festival (), the Shangyuan Festival (), and Chap Goh Meh ( in Hokkien). Rice dumplings, or \"tangyuan\" (), a sweet glutinous rice ball brewed in a soup, are eaten this day. Candles are lit outside houses as a way to guide wayward spirits home. Families may walk the streets carrying lanterns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "During the festival, people around China will prepare different gourmet dishes for their families and guests. Influenced by the flourished cultures, foods from different places look and taste totally different. Among them, the most well-known ones are dumplings from northern China and Tangyuan from southern China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Other traditional foods consists of noodles, fruits, dumplings, spring rolls, and Tangyuan which are also known as sweet rice balls. Each dish served during Chinese New Year represents something special. The noodles used to make longevity noodles are usually very thin, long wheat noodles. These noodles are longer than normal noodles that are usually fried and served on a plate, or boiled and served in a bowl with its broth. Expectedly, the noodles symbolize the wish for a long life. The fruits that are typically selected would be oranges, tangerines, and pomelos as they are round and \"golden\" color symbolizing fullness and wealth. Their lucky sound when spoken also brings good luck and fortune. The Chinese pronunciation for orange is \u6a59 (ch\u00e9ng /chnng/), which sounds the same as the Chinese for 'success' (\u6210). One of the ways to spell tangerine(\u6854 j\u00fa /jyoo/) contains the Chinese character for luck (\u5409 j\u00ed /jee/). Pomelos is believed to bring constant prosperity. Pomelo in Chinese (\u67da y\u00f2u /yo/) sounds similar to 'to have' (\u6709 y\u01d2u), disregarding its tone, however it sounds exactly like 'again' (\u53c8 y\u00f2u). Dumplings and spring rolls symbolize wealth, whereas sweet rice balls symbolize family togetherness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The Chinese New Year is associated with several myths and customs. The festival was traditionally a time to honor deities as well as ancestors. Within China, regional customs and traditions concerning the celebration of the New Year vary widely, and the evening preceding the New Year's Day is frequently regarded as an occasion for Chinese families to gather for the annual reunion dinner. It is also traditional for every family to thoroughly clean their house, in order to sweep away any ill fortune and to make way for incoming good luck. Another custom is the decoration of windows and doors with red paper-cuts and couplets. Popular themes among these paper-cuts and couplets include good fortune or happiness, wealth, and longevity. Other activities include lighting firecrackers and giving money in red paper envelopes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reunion dinner",
        "text": "The New Year's Eve dinner is very large and traditionally includes dumplings, chicken, and pork. Fish (\u9b5a, y\u00fa; Vietnamese: Con c\u00e1) is also included, but intentionally (except for Vietnam) not finished, and the remaining fish is stored overnight. The reason for this stems from a pun, as the Chinese phrase \u5e74\u5e74\u6709\u9b5a/\u9918; (ni\u00e1n ni\u00e1n y\u01d2u y\u00fa, or \"every year there is fish/leftover\") is a homophone for phrases which mean \"be blessed every year\" or \"have abundant profit every year\". Similarly, a type of black hair-like algae, \"fat choy\"(\u9aee\u83dc, f\u01ce c\u00e0i, literally \"hair vegetable\" in Chinese), is also featured in many dishes since its name sounds similar to \"prosperity\"(\u767c\u8ca1, f\u0101 c\u00e1i). Hakka will serve \"kiu nyuk\" \u6263\u8089 and \"ngiong tiu fu\" \u91c0\u8c46\u8150. The belief is that having one will lead to the other, as the phrases sound similar to one another.\n* List of dining events\n*Chinese New Year Reunion Dinner"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fuzhou",
        "text": "Fuzhou residents also enjoy eating festival foods during traditional Chinese holidays. For example, red and white rice cakes () are served over Chinese New Year, stuffed yuanxiao () during the Lantern Festival, zongzi () during the Dragon Boat Festival, and sweet soy bean powder-covered plain yuanxiao over the winter solstice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "(\"ni\u00e1n y\u00e8 f\u00e0n\") is held on New Year's Eve during which family members gather for a celebration. The venue will usually be in or near the home of the most senior member of the family. The New Year's Eve dinner is very large and sumptuous and traditionally includes dishes of meat (namely, pork and chicken) and fish. Most reunion dinners also feature a communal hot pot as it is believed to signify the coming together of the family members for the meal. Most reunion dinners (particularly in the Southern regions) also prominently feature specialty meats (e.g. wax-cured meats like duck and Chinese sausage) and seafood (e.g. lobster and abalone) that are usually reserved for this and other special occasions during the remainder of the year. In most areas, fish () is included, but not eaten completely (and the remainder is stored overnight), as the Chinese phrase \"may there be \"surpluses\" every year\" () sounds the same as \"let there be fish every year.\" Eight individual dishes are served to reflect the belief of good fortune associated with the number. If in the previous year a death was experienced in the family, seven dishes are served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ang ku kueh",
        "text": "Chinese New Year is the most important festival in Chinese culture as it represents the start of a new year for everyone where people could reconcile and welcome the new year in hope for peace and prosperity. During this festival, the Chinese people would pray for good fortune and sweets such as rice cakes and red tortoise cakes are offered to the Chinese deities on ritual altars. These ritual offerings are made in the hope that the sweetness from these cakes will leave a sweet taste in the mouths of the deities and they will bless the people with a prosperous year ahead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Chinese New Year's Eve\n--History.\n--Dates of Chinese New Year\u2019s Eve.\n--Traditions.\n----Gathering.\n----Gala TV show.\n----Burning of bamboo and use of firecrackers.\n----The Kitchen God.\n----Inviting a Door God.\n----Peach wood.\n----Traditional foods for Chinese New Year\u2019s Eve.\n------Spring Rolls.\n------Dumplings.\n------Glutinous Rice Cake.\n------Good Fortune Fruit.\n------Longevity Noodles.\n----Money gift and Money tree.\n--Similar traditions in other part of Asia.\n----Philippines.\n--Taboos.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhenjiang",
        "text": "Other local specialties include crab cream bun, Chinkiang pork (, akin to head cheese), and pickled vegetables. Formerly, households in Zhenjiang would prepare for the new year by eating a red-bean dish and avoiding rice. One bowl of beans was left on the table to feed the home's flies, from the belief that they would then avoid disturbing the family during the new year festivities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yusheng",
        "text": "The Chinese China Cuisine Association mentions the tradition coming from Guangdong, China before the dishes were brought to Southeast Asia by Chinese immigration. However, the statement only mentions the tradition of having raw fish during Chinese New Year, which was served very differently from today's Yusheng."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sungai Ruan",
        "text": "Fireworks are a classic element of Chinese New Year celebrations and celebrate in Sungai Ruan every year.\n*Bbq Chicken Wing \u2013 Among the local dishes is Sungai Ruan Chicken Wing that is well known throughout the Raub town.\n*Nasi Lemak \u2013 local cuisine and sell at Sg. Ruan Economy noodle shop .\n*ABC \u2013 ABC is an abbreviation for Air Batu Campur, or known as Ice Kacang Sungai Ruan, a dessert created from shaved ice added with corn, jelly, redbeans, groundnut, syrup, pasteurised milk, and liquid chocolate.\n*Satay \u2013 a popular food in Malaysia and made from marinated meat or chicken and burnt on a charcoal grill. Grilled satay is dipped in special peanut sauce.\n*Char kway teow \u2013 stir fried rice noodles with prawns, pork or chicken, eggs, chives and beansprouts, usually optional cockles.\n*Wantan Noodle \u2013 Chinese noodles with Chinese dumplings , chooi sam and BBQ pork. Dumplings are usually made of Pork and/or prawns. The noodles may be served either in a bowl of soup with dumplings or on a plate with some dark soya sauce flavoured with oil and slices of roast pork and vegetables. For the latter, the dumplings will be served in a separate bowl with soup.\n*Hokkien Mee \u2013 a dish of thick yellow noodles fried in thick black soy sauce and pork lard which has been fried until crispy. This dish is served mostly in Kuala Lumpur, Seremban, Klang, Kuantan and Penang.\n*Chicken Rice \u2013 steamed chicken served with rice cooked in margarine, chicken fat, chicken stock or chicken soup.\n*Banmian \u2013 made using a hand-operated machine in a stall which forms noodles from the dough. The dish is served in soup, usually with pieces of minced chicken or minced pork, ikan bilis , vegetables, eggs, sliced mushrooms and fish balls.\n*Doufuhua \u2013 a Chinese dessert made with very soft tofu. It is also referred to as tofu pudding and soybean pudding.\n*Red Beans and Wheat Porridge \u2013 new flavours, mixing the red beans soup and wheat porridge. Interestingly, the tastes of both will not cancel out tastes of each another."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "On New Year's Eve family members try to attend dinner together. Fat choy, an edible algae, is commonly served because the name sounds like the word for prosperity. Dumplings such as jiaozi are stuffed with a coin or a date; finding a coin symbolizes wealth in the coming year. A woman finding a date will give birth in the coming year. Fish traditionally appears on the table but is not eaten because the word for fish sounds like the word for profit or surplus, and eating it would \"eat up the profit\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In northern China, it is customary to make jiaozi, or dumplings, after dinner to eat around midnight. Dumplings symbolize wealth because their shape resembles a Chinese sycee. In contrast, in the South, it is customary to make a glutinous new year cake (niangao) and send pieces of it as gifts to relatives and friends in the coming days. Ni\u00e1ng\u0101o [Pinyin] literally means \"new year cake\" with a homophonous meaning of \"increasingly prosperous year in year out\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yusheng",
        "text": "Today, the common form of yusheng is the qicai yusheng (\u4e03\u5f69\u9c7c\u751f; \"seven-coloured raw fish salad\") served in local restaurants during the Chinese New Year period. Also referred to as facai yusheng (\u53d1\u8d22\u9c7c\u751f; \"prosperity raw fish salad\") or xinnian yusheng (\u65b0\u5e74\u9c7c\u751f; \"Chinese New Year raw fish salad\"). The recipe generally includes ingredients such as shredded white and green radish and carrots, ginger slices, onion slices, crushed peanuts, pomelo, pepper, essence of chicken, oil, salt, vinegar, sugar and more."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shumai",
        "text": "Called the Yifeng shaomai in the southeastern Jiangxi province, this version's distinct flavour comes from a blend of pork mince, bread flour, sesame seed powder, ground pepper and sugar. It is particularly popular in the area of Yifeng Tanshan Tianbao where it is one of the foods eaten during the Chinese New Year celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gyalpo Lhosar",
        "text": "Traditional dishes are served during the festival. One of the main dishes is a soup called Gutung cooked with nine kinds of beans and meat, wheat, rice, sweet potato, cheese, peas, green pepper, vermicelli noodles and radish. The soup is served with dumpling. Khapse, a deep-fried pastry commonly eaten during, symbolizing the start of holiday celebrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Incense, tea, fruit, vegetarian food or roast pig, and gold paper, are served as a customary protocol for paying respect to an honored person."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "The dumpling is a traditional food to eat in north China on Chinese New Year\u2019s Eve while in southern China very few people serve dumplings as Lunar New Year\u2019s Eve dinner. Minced meat (pork, shrimp, chicken, beef.etc.) and vegetables are wrapped in the elastic dough skin. Boiling, steaming, frying are the most common ways to cook dumplings in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Typical actions such as lighting fires and using knives are considered taboo, thus all consumable food has to be cooked prior. Using the broom, including swearing and breaking any dinnerware without appeasing the deities, are also considered taboo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lantern Festival",
        "text": "Eaten during the Lantern Festival, tangyuan '\u6e6f\u5713' (Southern China, Taiwan and Southeast Asia) or yuanxiao '\u5143\u5bb5' (Northern China) is a glutinous rice ball typically filled with sweet red bean paste, sesame paste, or peanut butter. Actually, tangyuan is different from yuanxiao due to different manual making and filling processes. It can be boiled, fried or steamed, each has independent taste. However, they are very similar in shape and taste, so most people do not distinguish them for convenience and consider them as the same thing. Chinese people believe that the round shape of the balls and the bowls in which they are served symbolize family togetherness, and that eating tangyuan or yuanxiao may bring the family harmony, happiness and luck in the new year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Renri",
        "text": "Nowadays during \"Zhengyue\", \"Renri\" is celebrated as part of the Chinese New Year. Chinese people prepare lucky food in the new year, where the \"seven vegetable soup\" (\u4e03\u83dc\u7fb9), \"seven vegetable congee\" (\u4e03\u83dc\u7ca5) and \"\"jidi\" congee\" (\u53ca\u7b2c\u7ca5) are specially prepared for \"Renri\". Malaysian and Singaporean Chinese use the \"seven-coloured raw fish\" () instead of the \"seven vegetable soup\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kelantan",
        "text": "Much of Chinese culture still continues until today; such as Lion Dance and Dragon Dance during the Chinese New Year, temple celebration, eating bakchang (meat dumpling), mooncake, baby fullmoon, pulut kuning, telur merah, eat 'e' (tangyuan), religious celebration including praying Na Tuk Kong. They also cook 'bak hong', 'uang (meatball)' during the wedding ceremony and ' kiam mai' during the funeral."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Spring rolls is a traditional dish in East China. It is a Cantonese dish which people make the thin dough wrappers in the cylindrical-shaped rolls and fill them with vegetables, meat, or something sweet, then fried the spring rolls to give them a golden-yellow color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yangzhou fried rice",
        "text": "Sea cucumber and crab meat are traditional elements. The peas may be a replacement for the green onions. Some recipes include Shaoxing wine. Some western Chinese restaurants also use soy sauce to flavor the rice, and add meat such as chicken."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The tradition of eating Chinese dumplings \"jiaozi\" (\u9903\u5b50) was established under the Ming dynasty at the latest. It is described in the book \"Youzhongzhi\" (\u914c\u4e2d\u5fd7): \"People get up at 5 in the morning of new year's day, burn incense and light firecrackers, throw door latch or wooden bars in the air three times, drink pepper and thuja wine, eat dumplings. Sometimes put one or two silver currency inside dumplings, and whoever gets the money will attain a year of fortune.\" Modern Chinese people also put other food that is auspicious into dumplings: such as dates, which prophesy a flourishing new year; candy, which predicts sweet days; and nian gao, which foretells a rich life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jiuhuang Bencao",
        "text": "The \"Jiuhuang bencao\" entry for \"Sagittaria sagittifolia\" \"arrowhead\" exemplifies famine food plants that were first described by Zhu Xiao and later became normal Chinese crop plants. In the present day, this edible tuber, traditionally associated with Chinese New Year, is known as \"c\u00edg\u016b\" ((, lit. \"kindly mushroom\"), also written (\"kindly aunt\") or (\"thatch wild-rice\")), \"ji\u01cend\u0101oc\u01ceo\" (, \"scissors herb\"), or \"y\u00e0nw\u011bic\u01ceo\" (, \"swallow tail herb\"). Zhu Xiao used the names \"shu\u01d0c\u00edg\u016b\" (, \"water kindly wild-rice\"), using \"g\u016b\" (, \"wild rice\") instead of \"g\u016b\" (, \"mushroom\"), \"ji\u01cend\u0101oc\u01ceo\", and \"ji\u00e0nd\u0101c\u01ceo\" (, \"arrow hang herb\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The day before the Chinese New Year (Chinese: ) usually accompanied with a dinner feast, consisting of special meats are served at the tables, as a main course for the dinner and as a offering for the New Year. This meal is comparable to Thanksgiving dinner in the U.S. and remotely similar to Christmas dinner in other countries with a high percentage of Christians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yuanxiao",
        "text": "Yuanxiao (, Yu\u00e1nxi\u0101o ) is a dumpling of glutinous rice flour, filled with sesame or peanut powder, and sugar, or sweet adzuki bean paste, eaten in a soup, during the Lantern Festival, the fifteenth day of the Chinese New Year. It is similar to Tangyuan, but is traditionally prepared in a basket, and served mainly in Northern China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese cuisine",
        "text": "Besides being served as dim sum along with tea, pastries are used for celebration of traditional festivals. The most famous one is moon cake, used to celebrate the Mid-Autumn Festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Liangmai Naga",
        "text": "Popular traditional food items include \"jiangdui\", a taste maker extracted from the juice of mustard leaves; \"tasun\", potted bamboo shoot; and \"tasang\", processed or fermented soybean."
      },
      {
        "title": "Traditional food",
        "text": "Traditional food products have been described as playing \"an important part of European culture, identity, and heritage\".\n* Humita \u2013 a traditional food in Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, and Peru\n* Country food refers to the traditional diets of Aboriginal people (known in Canada as First Nations, Metis, and Inuit), especially in remote northern regions where Western food is an expensive import, and traditional foods are still relied upon.\n* Thanksgiving dinner\n* Poutine\n* Tourti\u00e8re\n* Sucre \u00e0 la cr\u00e8me\n* P\u00e2t\u00e9 chinois\n* Pouding ch\u00f4meur\n* St. Catherine's taffy\n* Spruce beer\n* Maple syrup\n* Cretons\n* Poutine r\u00e2p\u00e9e\n* Fricot\n* Ciba cake\n* Dim sum\n* Fuling jiabing \u2013 a traditional snack food of Beijing and an integral part of the city's culture. It is a pancake-like snack made from flour, sugar, and \"fuling\" (\"Poria\"), rolled around nuts, honey, and other ingredients.\n* Spring pancake \u2013 a traditional Chinese food unique to the northern regions. People eat spring pancakes on the day called lichun to celebrate the beginning of spring.\n* Zhongzi - sticky rice with savory or sweet ingredients wrapped in bamboo leaves and boiled. Made to commemorate the poet and minister Qu Yuan during the Dragon boat festival.\n* Rice and beans\n* Lecs\u00f3\n* Tsamarella \u2013 a traditional food and one of Cyprus' main lunch meats\n* Lecs\u00f3\n* Sv\u00ed\u010dkov\u00e1\n* Mulgipuder\n* Sepik\n* Faroese puffin\n* Garnat\u00e1lg\n* Skerpikj\u00f8t\n* Whale meat\n* Karelian stew\n* Karelian pasty\n* Kes\u00e4keitto\n* Saut\u00e9ed reindeer\n* Ruisreik\u00e4leip\u00e4\n* Ryynimakkara\n* Mustamakkara\n* Kalakukko\n* L\u00f6rtsy\n* R\u00f6ntt\u00f6nen\n* Sultsina\n* M\u00e4mmi\n* \"Appellation d'origine contr\u00f4l\u00e9e\" \u2013 the French certification granted to certain French geographical indications for wines, cheeses, butters, and other agricultural products\n** Bresse chicken \u2013 a French chicken product with \"appellation d'origine contr\u00f4l\u00e9e\" status\n** List of \"Appellation d'Origine Contr\u00f4l\u00e9e\" liqueurs and spirits\n** List of \"Appellation d'Origine Contr\u00f4l\u00e9e\" wines\n* Black Forest ham \u2013 produced in the Black Forest region of Germany, it is a Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) food in the European Union.\n* Fiambre is a traditional Guatemalan dish that is prepared and eaten yearly to celebrate the Day of the Dead (\"D\u00eda de Los Muertos\") and the All Saints Day (\"D\u00eda de Todos Los Santos\").\n* H\u00e1karl \u2013 a traditional food and national dish of Iceland\n* Hangikj\u00f6t\n* \u00deorramatur \u2013 a selection of traditional Icelandic food, consisting mainly of meat and fish products cured in a traditional manner, cut into slices or pieces and served with r\u00fagbrau\u00f0 (dense and dark rye bread), butter and brenniv\u00edn (an Icelandic akvavit)\n*Chawal Daal\n*kheer\n*Roti\n* Brem \u2013 a fermented snack and beverage from Java and Bali\n* Docang \u2013 a traditional food from Cirebon\n* Gado-gado \u2013 a traditional salad in peanut sauce dressing\n* Gudeg \u2013 a young unripe jackfruit stew, a traditional food from Yogyakarta\n* Ketupat \u2013 a traditional rice dumpling commonly served during \"Lebaran\", Indonesian idul fitri\n* Kuluban \u2013 an ancient Javanese traditional salad\n* Lawar \u2013 a traditional Balinese vegetable dish\n* Opor ayam \u2013 chicken in coconut milk stew, a traditional dish commonly consumed with ketupat during \"Lebaran\"\n* Pallubasa \u2013 a traditional food from Makassar, South Sulawesi made from offal of cattle or buffalo\n* Papeda \u2013 sago congee, a traditional staple of Eastern Indonesia (Maluku and Papua)\n* Rendang \u2013 traditional Minangkabau dish from West Sumatra\n* Satay \u2013 grilled meat on skewers, various traditional regional variants exist in Indonesia\n* Soto \u2013 a category of traditional soup of Indonesia, numerous regional variations exist\n* Tempeh \u2013 fermented soy cake, traditional food from Java\n* Tumpeng \u2013 a ceremonial rice cone surrounded by various side dishes, an Indonesian national dish\n* Chelow kabab\n* Tahdig\n* Ghormeh sabzi\n* Fesenj\u0101n\n* Sabzi polo\n* Abgoosht\n* Gheimeh\n* Sholezard\n* \u0100sh\n* Mirza Ghassemi\n* Nargesi\n* Baghala ghatogh\n* Full breakfast\n* Sunday roast\n* Pasta\n* Pizza\n* Prosciutto (PDO)\n* Ravioli\n* Salami\n* \"Denominazione di origine controllata\" \u2013 a quality assurance label for Italian food products, especially Italian wine and cheese\n** List of Italian DOC wines\n** List of Italian DOCG wines\n* \"Indicazione geografica tipica\"\n* \"Prodotto agroalimentare tradizionale\" is an official approval for traditional Italian regional food products similar to the Protected Geographical Status of the European Union.\n** Mascarpone\n** Piadina\n* \"Strada dell'Olio\" \u2013 a kind of gastronomical route in Italy that crosses a territory rich of traditional products, PDOs and PGIs, DOCs and DOCGs in Italy.\n* Panna cotta \u2013 The northern Italian Region of Piedmont includes panna cotta in its 2001 list of traditional food products of the region. Panna cotta is not mentioned in Italian cookbooks before the 1960s, yet it is often cited as a traditional dessert in Piedmont.\n* Mochi \u2013 eaten year-round in Japan, mochi is a traditional food for the Japanese New Year and is commonly sold and eaten during that time"
      },
      {
        "title": "Nu people",
        "text": "On the eve of the festival, households in every village butcher pigs, make soft-rice dumplings, brew wine and clean their courtyards, similar to the Chinese New Year. On New Year's Eve, before eating, they put corn and dishes of food on a three-legged barbecue. On top of the three legs, three cups are put and also three pieces of meat, then the family members, either young or old, pray for a good harvest and strong livestock for the New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "A related tradition is the smashing and sharing of peppermint pigs on Christmas Day to ensure good luck in the new year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dongzhi Festival",
        "text": "Another tradition is eating hot pot."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "Traditional celebration food on New Year's Eve is virsli, a sausage served with mustard or horseradish, and a poppyseed roll known as bejgli. Champagne is served in midnight toasts. On New Year's Day the traditional meal is pork, lentils, and cabbage soup. Eating something sweet brings luck. Eating pork brings luck, especially the tail. Eating chicken or fish is unlucky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ang ku kueh",
        "text": "Considered to be auspicious items, these sweet pastries are especially prepared during important festivals such as Chinese New Year as offerings to the Chinese deities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Longtaitou Festival",
        "text": "Today, Longtaitou Festival is celebrated in various ways, most of which are still identical to those practiced in the ancient times, including eating Chinese pancakes (\u6625\u997c) and dragon beard noodles. It is an auspicious day for people to get a haircut, after month-long time without cutting hair in January for Lunar New Year. Women and children carry Perfume bags filled with the powder of ground fragrant herbs for good fortune, though they are no longer used as insect repellent as in ancient times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qixi Festival",
        "text": "The eating customs of Qixi Festival vary from place to place, and it is called eating Qiao food. The most famous traditional food people eat on Qixi Festival is Qiao Guo. The main material is flour, oil and honey, sometimes adding sesame, peanuts, kernels, roses and other different ingredients. After mixing those ingredients, they are then deep-fried. Qiao Guo has a history of more than one thousand years since it became popular during the Song Dynasty. Beyond that, people would eat crunchy candy, refreshments and fruits together, expressing the people's pursuit of ingenuity, family health, happy life wishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Red packets for the immediate family are sometimes distributed during the reunion dinner. These packets contain money in an amount that reflects good luck and honorability. Several foods are consumed to usher in wealth, happiness, and good fortune. Several of the Chinese food names are homophones for words that also mean good things."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chao hong guo",
        "text": "Another traditional dish of Beijing cuisine, hawthorn yogurt (\"hongguolao\", \u7ea2\u679c\u916a), utilizes stir-fried Chinese hawthorn fruits as its main ingredient by adding it to Nai Lao."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kai kou xiao",
        "text": "The traditional culinary method of this dish begins with the preparation of flour, peanut oil, egg, sugar, malt sugar, sesame seeds and baking soda. With the exception of the sesame seeds, everything else is mixed together, and the resulting dough is cut into pieces. The sesame seeds are boiled in water and each small piece of dough is rolled in the sesame seeds. The end result is then fried on a skillet. The chef must lift the frying pan off the stove and put it back on depending on the situation. The resulting opening crack is where the literal name in Chinese comes from, as it resembles a happy smiling mouth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mid-Autumn Festival",
        "text": "Food offerings made to deities are placed on an altar set up in the courtyard, including apples, pears, peaches, grapes, pomegranates, melons, oranges, and pomelos. One of the first decorations purchased for the celebration table is a clay statue of the Jade Rabbit. In Chinese folklore, the Jade Rabbit was an animal that lived on the Moon and accompanied Chang'e. Offerings of soy beans and cockscomb flowers were made to the Jade Rabbit."
      },
      {
        "title": "He (Chinese pastry)",
        "text": "He () means the clastics of wheat or rice originally and generally refers to coarse cereals. In China, it is a specifically traditional pastry in the west area of Guangdong province. In traditional festivals such as Spring festival)( also called Chinese New Year) Spirit festival (July 14) and winter solstice, and wedding. ceremony, birthday feast and housewarming party, \u7c7a(h\u00e9) is an inevitable pastry in the west area of Guangdong province, especially in Maoming City, Guangdong Province. People regard \u7c7a(h\u00e9) as an symbol of jubilance and share them with their relatives and friends, which can truly strengthen kinship and friendship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Like many other New Year dishes, certain ingredients also take special precedence over others as these ingredients also have similar-sounding names with prosperity, good luck, or even counting money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yusheng",
        "text": "Yusheng is often served as part of a multi-dish dinner, usually as the appetizer due to its symbolism of \"good luck\" for the new year. Some would consume it on Renri, the seventh day of the Chinese New Year, although in practice it may be eaten on any convenient day during the Chinese New Year period (the first to the 15th day of the first lunar month)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumpling",
        "text": "Chinese cuisine also include sweet dumplings. Tangyuan (\u6e6f\u5713) are smaller dumplings made with glutinous rice flour and filled with sweet sesame, peanut, red bean paste. Tangyuan may also be served without a filling. Tangyuan are eaten on the 15th day of Chinese New Year, or the Lantern Festival. In Southern China, people will also eat the sweet dumplings (tangyuan) with shape angle on the top, in the Winter Solstice meaning the harvest in the coming year."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "A New Year's Eve dinner is indistinguishable from the traditional Bulgarian Christmas dinner of pork, raqiya (grape brandy and red wine), pogacha, a compote of dried fruits, and banitza. Pogacha, a round bread, is served hot from the oven by the eldest family member to the rest of the family in order of age. The pork symbolizes luck, as the pig roots forward."
      },
      {
        "title": "Little New Year",
        "text": "Little New Year (), also known as the Festival of the Kitchen God, is a festival in the traditional lunisolar Chinese calendar. It honors the Kitchen God and takes place on the 23rd or 24th day of the twelfth month in the Chinese calendar, which corresponds to roughly a week before the Chinese New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "New Year's foods are dishes traditionally eaten for luck in the coming year. Many traditional New Year dishes revolve around the food's resemblance to money or to its appearance symbolizing long life, such as long noodles or strands of sauerkraut. Some cultures and religions have evolved complex food traditions associated with the new year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Japanese cuisine",
        "text": "In Japanese tradition some dishes are strongly tied to a festival or event. These dishes include:\n* Botamochi, a sticky rice dumpling with sweet azuki paste served in spring, while a similar sweet Ohagi is served in autumn.\n* Chimaki (steamed sweet rice cake): Tango no sekku and Gion Festival.\n* Hamo (a type of fish, often eel) and s\u014dmen: Gion Festival.\n* Osechi: New Year.\n* Sekihan is red rice, which is served for any celebratory occasion. It is usually sticky rice cooked with azuki, or red bean, which gives the rice its distinctive red color.\n* Soba: New Year's Eve. This is called \"toshi koshi soba\" (literally \"year crossing soba\").\n* Chirashizushi, Ushiojiru (clear soup of clams) and amazake: Hinamatsuri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cold Food Festival",
        "text": "The Cold Food or Hanshi Festival is a traditional Chinese holiday which developed from the local commemoration of the death of the Jin nobleman Jie Zitui in the 7thcenturyBC under the Zhou dynasty, into an occasion across East Asia for the commemoration and veneration of ancestors by the 7th-century Tang dynasty. Its name derives from the tradition of avoiding the lighting of any kind of fire, even for the preparation of food. This practice originally occurred at midwinter for as long as a month, but the hardship this involved led to repeated attempts to ban its observance out of concern for its practitioners. By the end of the Three Kingdoms Period (3rd century), it was limited to three days in the spring around the Qingming solar term. Under the Tang, ancestral observance was limited to the single day which is now the Tomb-Sweeping Festival. The Tomb-Sweeping Festival is a official holiday in several countries, and the Cold Food Festival which stretches either side of it continues to see some observance in China, South Korea, and Vietnam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cold Food Festival",
        "text": "The Cold Food Festival was originally observed at mid-winter (the Dongzhi solar term), but moved to late spring (the Qingming solar term) around the 2nd century. Its primary activity was a strict taboo against using fire, usually under the superstitious belief that violations led to violent weather. Leading up to the 6th century, there was a patch of blackened trees on that were used for local worship of Jie Zhitui and had a reputation for miracles. Traditional cold foods included \"l\u01d0l\u00e0o\" , a kind of congee flavored with apricot pits and malt sugar. Later activities included visiting ancestral tombs, cock fighting, playing on swings, beating blankets, and tug-of-war games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tianshui",
        "text": "Tianshui's signature dish is Guagua (\u5471\u5471), a sticky boiled buckwheat flour meal, seasoned with chili oil, sesame paste, mustard, oil, salt, vinegar and garlic paste. The dish is normally eaten as a breakfast. According to legends it was the imperial food during Han dynasty general Wei Xiao's rule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sterculia monosperma",
        "text": "In China these nuts are one of the traditional foods of the Qixi Festival, the 'night of the seven', also known as the 'anniversary of the seventh sister' (\u4e03\u59d0\u8a95). Qixi is celebrated on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month which falls on 20 Aug 2015 and on 9 Aug 2016 next year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zongzi",
        "text": "\"Zongzi\" (sticky rice dumplings) are traditionally eaten during the Duanwu Festival (Doubler Fifth Festival) which falls on the fifth day of the fifth month of the Chinese lunar calendar, and commonly known as the \"Dragon Boat Festival\" in English. The festival falls each year on a day in late-May to mid-June in the International calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shiare",
        "text": "The typical traditional food is fufu made from yams. Which is pounded by two or three people working together."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Glutinous Rice Cake is called \"Nian Gao\" in mandarin. The sound of Nian Gao has a good meaning: getting higher year by year. Glutinous Rice Cake is made of sticky rice, sugar, chestnuts, lotus leaves. It is a common dish which appeared in the southern Chinese families' Lunar New Year Eve reunion dinner."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dongzhi Festival",
        "text": "In addition to following some of the customs practiced on mainland China, the people of Taiwan have their own unique custom of offering nine-layer cakes as a ceremonial sacrifice to worship their ancestors. These cakes are made using glutinous rice flour in the shape of a chicken, duck, tortoise, pig, cow, or sheep, and then steamed in different layers of a pot. These animals all signify auspiciousness in Chinese tradition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luosi zhuan",
        "text": "The traditional culinary method of this dish begins with the preparation of flour, sesame paste, oil, salt, baking soda and Sichuan pepper. The ingredients are mixed together and cut into small pieces. The small pieces of dough would be pressed into flat pieces and sesame paste would be applied and then rolled together, compressed, and cut open from the middle. The dough would be held at one end and twisted at the other end, and then pressed down. The dish is then baked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dongzhi Festival",
        "text": "In southern China, people eat rice cake (), which means reunion. It is not only eaten by the family, but also shared with friends and relatives as a blessing. Mutton soup, rice cake and red bean sticky rice are also popular in South."
      },
      {
        "title": "Malaysian Chinese",
        "text": "Chingay processions are also being held as part of the New Year festivities especially in Johor Bahru and Penang. Several other festivals are celebrated through the seasons in a year including the Dongzhi Festival, Dragon Boat Festival, Hungry Ghost Festival, Lantern Festival (\"Chap Goh Mei\"), Mid-Autumn Festival, Nine Emperor Gods Festival and Qingming Festival which originated from much of Chinese folk beliefs and traditional agricultural society. Throughout the festivals, especially for major Chinese festivals such as the New Year, Hungry Ghost, and Mid-Autumn, Chinese temples will organize cultural and religious activities. The Hungry Ghost Festival is generally not observed by most \"Dejiao\" (\"Zi\") group in Malaysia which descended directly from \"Dejiao\" association in China, it is only mainly observed by three \"Zi\" associations in Kuala Lumpur (\"Zi Fang Ge\"), Pulau Ketam (\"Zi Bang Ge\") and Butterworth (\"Zi Wei Gi\") with the three calling the festival as \"Wanyuan Shenghui\" than \"Yulan Shanghui\". The Mooncake Festival is celebrated through the Mid-Autumn Festival where there people will exchange and eat mooncake. Traditional Chinese weddings remain popular to some ethnic Chinese Malaysian couples even though most have preferred the Western-influenced wearing of white wedding dresses and black jackets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The first day, known as \"Spring Festival\" (Chinese: ) is for the welcoming of the deities of the heavens and Earth on midnight. It is a traditional practice to light fireworks, burn bamboo sticks and firecrackers, and lion dance troupes, were done commonly as a tradition to ward off evil spirits."
      },
      {
        "title": "East Asian cultural sphere",
        "text": "Popular terms associated with East Asian cuisine include boba, kimchi, sushi, hot pot, tea, dimsum, ramen, as well as ph\u1edf, sashimi, udon, among others.\n* Fashion: see, \"Hanfu\" and \"Cheongsam\" (or \"Qipao\") (China); \"\u00c1o d\u00e0i\" and \"Vi\u1ec7t ph\u1ee5c\" (Vietnam); \"Hanbok\" (Korea); \"Kimono\" and \"Wafuku\" (Japan).\n* Dance: The Lion Dance is a form of traditional dance in Chinese culture and other culturally East Asian countries in which performers mimic a lion's movements in a lion costume to bring good luck and fortune. Aside from China, versions of the lion dance are found in Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, and Taiwan. Lion Dances are usually performed during Chinese New Year, religious and cultural celebrations.\n* New Year: China (\"Zh\u014dnggu\u00f3 X\u012bn Ni\u00e1n\"), Korea (\"Seollal\"), Vietnam (\"T\u1ebft\"), Japan (\"Kosh\u014dgatsu\"), and Taiwan traditionally observe the same Lunar New Year. However, Japan has moved its New Year (\"Sh\u014dgatsu\") to fit the Western New Year since the Meiji Restoration. Although mainland Japan may not celebrate the Lunar New Year anymore, there are some indigenous minority ethnic groups in Japan that still do such as the Okinawan/Ryukyuan people. Okinawa has traditionally observed the Lunar New Year because of heavy Chinese influence in its past. Festivities nowadays aren't as elaborate as the Western new year but, Okinawans still celebrate and partake in many traditions for Lunar New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kitchen God",
        "text": "Traditionally, every Chinese household would have a paper effigy or a plaque of Zao Jun and his wife (who writes down everything that is said in the household over the year for her husband's report to Jade Emperor) above the fireplace in the kitchen. This tradition is still widely practiced, and Zao Jun was the most highly worshiped god of those who protect the household and family. Offerings of food and incense are made to Zao Jun on his birthday (the third day of the eighth lunar month) and also on the twenty third day (or twenty fourth day) of the twelfth lunar month, which marks his return to Heaven to give his New Year's report to the Jade Emperor. On this day, the lips of Zao Jun's paper effigy are often smeared with honey to sweeten his words to Yu Huang (Jade Emperor), or to keep his lips stuck together. After this, the effigy will be burnt and replaced by a new one on New Year's Day. Firecrackers are often lit as well, to speed him on his way to heaven. If the household has a statue or a nameplate of Zao Jun it will be taken down and cleaned on this day for the new year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Tangerines, oranges and pomelos are certain fruits that been eaten on Lunar New Year's Eve. Chinese believe that eating these fruits on Chinese New Year's Eve can bring fortune as these fruits have round shape, golden colour, lucky sounds when spoken which symbolise fullness and wealth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of the Song dynasty",
        "text": "From the Song period, works such as Dongjing Meng Hua Lu (Dreams of Splendor of the Eastern Capital) preserve lists of names for entr\u00e9es and food dishes in customer menus for restaurants and taverns, as well as for feasts at banquets, festivals and carnivals, and modest dining. Many of the peculiar names for these dishes do not provide clues as to what types of food ingredients were used. However, judging from the listed seasonings they used for these dishes, such as pepper, ginger, soya sauce, oil, salt, and vinegar, Song era cuisine is perhaps not too different from the Chinese cuisine of today. Other additional seasonings and ingredients included walnuts, turnips, crushed Chinese cardamon kernels, fagara, olives, ginkgo nuts, citrus zest, and sesame oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "Sabzi Polo Mahi is the traditional meal served on New Year's Day and typically includes herbed rice and fish, reshteh polo (a rice and noodle dish similar to tahdig), dolme barg, and kookoo sabzi. After the meal Deed-o Bazdeed, or New Year's Visits, begin and continue until the 13th day of No Ruz. Typically sweets, nuts, tea, and fruit is served to visitors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nibei",
        "text": "Hakka-style fermented bean curd, \"Yong tau foo\" () is a popular dish, cooked differently from normal tofu dishes. The ingredients of the stuffing only require minced pork or fish. It is not fried all over, but only at the bottom or steamed It is usually served as the main food during Spring Festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Traditionally, red envelopes or red packets"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mauritian cuisine",
        "text": "Traditional Sino-Mauritian dishes and snacks which are eaten on important traditional Chinese holidays are:\n* nian gao (\"gato lacire\"), mooncakes, tangyuan, zongzi, fa gao (which is called \"putou chinois\" or \"poutou rouge\" in Mauritius), chipeks (also called \"sipek\"; also known as \"croustillants au tapioca\" in French), sesame balls (called \"gato zinzli\"), \"gato crab\", \"gato cravat\" (sweet or salty version), \"g\u00e2teau macaroni\", almond biscuits, \"Tao Sa\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dongzhi Festival",
        "text": "Traditionally, the Dongzhi Festival is also a time for the family to get together. One activity that occurs during these get-togethers (especially in the southern parts of China and in Chinese communities overseas) is the making and eating of \"tangyuan\" (\u6e6f\u5713) or balls of glutinous rice, which symbolize reunion. \"Tangyuan\" are made of glutinous rice flour and are sometimes brightly coloured. Each family member receives at least one large \"tangyuan\" in addition to several small ones. The flour balls are occasionally pink or green. They are cooked in a sweet soup or savory broth with both the ball and the soup/broth served in one bowl. It is also often served with a mildly alcoholic unfiltered rice wine containing whole grains of glutinous rice (and often also Sweet Osmanthus flowers), called \"jiuniang\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nian gao",
        "text": "The next stage is optional, as it can be sliced and be pan-fried afterwards, often with egg, to make fried\" nian gao\" (). When fried, it is slightly crispy on the outside, and remains pasty on the inside. During the Chinese New Year, it is cut into square pieces and served along with similar cake \"dim sum \"dishes, like water chestnut cakes and taro cakes. People also send pieces of \"nian gao\" to their friends and relatives as wishes for prosperity and good fortune."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "No Ruz is celebrated on January 1 and includes haft sin, seven items that begin with the Persian letter sin, or S, typically including the food items samanu, sabzeh, seer, senjed, and serkeh, along with sekeh, a gold coin symbolizing prosperity, and sonbol, a flower symbolizing life and beauty. Samanu, a sweet wheat pudding, represents fertility and sweetness. Sabzeh, a lentil dish, represents rebirth. Seer (garlic) symbolises medicine. Senjed symbolizes love. Serkeh, an aged vinegar, symbolizes patience and age."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In the morning (traditionally anytime between midnight and 7\u00a0am), Taiwanese households set up an altar table with three layers: one top (containing offertories of six vegetables (; those being noodles, fruits, cakes, tangyuan, vegetable bowls, and unripe betel), all decorated with paper lanterns) and two lower levels (five sacrifices and wines) to honor the deities below the Jade Emperor. The household then kneels three times and kowtows nine times to pay obeisance and wish him a long life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Domundaejak",
        "text": "It records \"yaksik\" (hangul: \uc57d\uc2dd; hanja: \u85e5\u98df) which was the food that was given to crows on the 15th day of the Lunar New Year. Chinese people learned this recipe and they named it \"goyeoban\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kai kou xiao",
        "text": "Also called \"smiling sesame cookies\" or \"laughing balls\", they are a popular dish during Lunar New Year for their resemblance to a smiling mouth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laba congee",
        "text": "The day on which it is traditionally eaten is commonly known as the Laba Festival. The earliest form of this dish was cooked with red beans and has since developed into many different kinds. It is mainly made up of many kinds of rice, beans, peanuts, dried fruit, lotus seeds, etc. Depending on region-based variations in China, it can also include tofu, potato, meat and vegetables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Manchu\u2013Han Imperial Feast",
        "text": "Some of the dishes:\n* Snowy Palm - bear claw with sturgeon\n* Golden Eyes and Burning Brain - bean curd simmered in chicken, duck and cuckoo brains\n* Monkey King and Shark - goat brain\n* Monkey brain\n* Egg tart\n* Wensi Tofu\n* Dezhou braised chicken\n* Peking duck\n* Shark fin soup\n* Edible bird's nest\n* Dried Sea Cucumbers\n* Ye wei"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lontong cap go meh",
        "text": "Early Chinese immigrants in Indonesia settled in northern coastal cities of Java, such as Semarang, Pekalongan, Lasem, Tuban and Surabaya, as early as Majapahit period. During that time only male Chinese settled in Java and they intermarried with local Javanese women and created a Javanese-Chinese Peranakan culture. These early Chinese immigrants became accustomed to the cooking of their Javanese wives. To celebrate Chinese New Year, during Cap go meh, Peranakan of Java replaced the traditional \"yuanxiao\" (rice ball) with local \"lontong\" accompanied with an array of Javanese dishes such as \"opor ayam\" and \"sambal goreng ati\" (spicy beef liver). It is believed that the dish reflect the assimilation among Chinese immigrants and local Javanese community. It is believed that \"lontong cap go meh\" is full of good fortune symbols; the thick rice cake is considered richer compared to thin watery \"bubur\" (rice congee) which is often regarded as food of the poor. The elongated form of \"lontong\" also symbolizes longevity. While eggs symbolize good fortune and yellowish turmeric-coconut milk broth represents gold and fortune."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "On New Year's Eve, Den Svatebo Silvestra is celebrated with traditional dinners of roast or smoked pork and cockova polevka, a lentil soup, both of which are thought to symbolize luck and wealth in the new year, and champagne toasts are common at midnight. On New Year's Day or novy rok eating a pig's ear or jowl is considered lucky. Eating fish or fowl is considered unlucky. Cutting into an apple and finding healthy seeds brings good health."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tteokguk",
        "text": "In Korea, on Lunar New Year's Day, a family performs ancestral rites by serving tteokguk to their ancestors during a joint meal. Although \"tteokguk\" is traditionally a seasonal dish, it is now eaten at all times of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guiyang",
        "text": "Provinces in China are known for the different specialities they offer, and Guiyang is most known for its spicy food as well as the following dishes:\n* Gaoba porridge (), a sweet dessert.\n* Fish in sour soup (), a Miao dish with roasted fish and various vegetables.\n* Huangba (), a sweet wrap made of rice that can be steamed or fried\n* Huaxi Vermicelli (), a dish that consists of beef vermicelli, that is frequently eaten as a breakfast in Guiyang.\n* Siwawa (), a dish that can be vegetarian or a mix of pork scraps and vegetables, where the ingredients are enclosed in rice wraps.\n* Ice jelly with sesame seeds and peanuts (), usually eaten in summer, with siwawa or barbecue\n* Intestines and blood noodles (), made up with pig's intestines and pig's blood.\n* Qingyan's pig's feet (), mostly found in the old town of Qingyan, pig's feet symbolize good luck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Malaysian Chinese cuisine",
        "text": "Chinese food is especially prominent in areas with concentrated Chinese communities, at roadside stalls, hawker centres and kopitiam, as well as smart cafes and upmarket restaurants throughout the nation. Many Chinese dishes have pork as a component ingredient, but chicken is available as a substitution for Muslim customers from the wider community, and some Chinese restaurants are even halal-certified.\n* Bak Kut Teh () (pork ribs soup). The root meaning for the dish, \"Bak Kut\" (Hokkien dialect) is the term for meaty ribs, at its simplest cooked with garlic, dark soy sauce and a specific combination of herbs and spices which have been boiled for many hours. Popularly regarded as a health tonic, this soup is historically eaten by hard working Chinese coolies working on the wharfs at Port Swettenham (now Port Klang) and clearing estates, accompaniment with strong tea (\"Teh\") on the side. There are some differences in seasoning amongst other Chinese communities; the Teochew prefer a clear broth which is heavier on garlic and pepper, while the Cantonese may include additional varieties of medicinal herbs and spices. Variations include the so-called \"chik kut teh\" (made with chicken and a version that is gaining popularity with Muslim diners), seafood bak kut teh, and a \"dry\" (reduced gravy) version which originated from the town of Klang.\n* Bakkwa () - literally \"dried meat\", bakkwa is better understood as barbequed meat jerky. While this delicacy is especially popular during the Chinese New Year celebration period, it is available everywhere and eaten year round as a popular snack.\n* Bean Sprouts Chicken () - Ipoh's most well known dish, Bean Sprouts Chicken consists of poached or steamed chicken accompanied with a plate of blanched locally grown bean sprouts in a simple dressing of soy sauce and sesame oil. The crunchy and stout texture of Ipoh-grown bean sprouts is attributed to the mineral-rich properties of local water supplies. The dish is usually served with hor fun noodles in a chicken broth, or plain rice.\n* Beaufort Mee () is a speciality of Beaufort town. Handmade noodles are smoked, then wok-tossed with meat (usually slices of char siu and marinated pork) or seafood and plenty of choy sum, and finished off with a thick viscous gravy.\n* Cantonese fried noodles () refers to a preparation of noodles which are shallow or deep fried to a crisp, then served as the base for a thick egg and cornstarch white sauce cooked with sliced lean pork, seafood, and green vegetables like choy sum. A related dish called wa tan hor () uses hor fun noodles, but the noodles are not deep fried, merely charred. Another variation called yuen yong () involves mixing both crisp-fried rice vermicelli as well as hor fun to form a base for the sauce.\n* Chai tow kway () - a common dish in Malaysia made of rice flour. It also known as fried radish cake, although no radish is included within the rice cakes, save perhaps the occasional addition of preserved radish () during the cooking process. Seasonings and additives vary from region, and may include bean sprouts and eggs.\n* Char kway teow (). Stir fried rice noodles with bean sprouts, prawns, eggs (duck or chicken), chives and thin slices of preserved Chinese sausages. Cockles and lardons were once standard offerings, but mostly relegated to optional additions these days due to changing taste preferences and growing health concerns. Penang-style char kway teow is the most highly regarded variant both in Malaysia as well as abroad.\n* Chee cheong fun () is square rice sheets made from a viscous mixture of rice flour and water. This liquid is poured onto a specially made flat pan in which it is steamed to produce the square rice sheets. The steamed rice sheets is rolled or folded for ease in serving. It is usually served with tofu stuffed with fish paste. The dish is eaten with accompaniment of semi sweet fermented bean paste sauce, chilli paste or light vegetable curry gravy. Ipoh and Penang have different versions of the dish as well; certain stalls in Ipoh serve the dish with a red sweet sauce, thinly sliced pickled green chillies and fried shallots, while in Penang, a type of sweet, black shrimp sauce called \"hae ko\" is the main condiment.\n* Chun gen (Chinese : \u6625\u5377) is an oblong roll of seasoned ground pork or beef wrapped with a thin omelette and steamed. The name is derived from the Hakka word for the spring season, which is pronounced as \"chun\". (Another explanation is that \"chun\" is for \"egg\" instead.) It is said to have been around since Chunqiu period with a rumor of Duke Huan of Qi and since then it's been a custom in Fujian. Today it is available beyond Tenom, and found throughout Sabah's Chinese communities. It may be eaten on its own, cooked in broth or soup, and stir-fried with noodles or vegetables.\n* Chicken rice (Chinese : \u96de\u98ef) - chicken rice is one of the most popular Chinese-inspired dishes in Malaysia. Hainanese chicken rice (Chinese : \u6d77\u5357\u96de\u98ef) is the best known version: it is prepared with the same traditional method used for cooking Wenchang chicken, which involve steeping the entire chicken at sub-boiling temperatures within a master stock until cooked, to ensure the chicken meat becomes moist and tender. The chicken is then chopped up, and served with a bowl or plate of rice cooked in chicken fat and chicken stock, along with another bowl of clear chicken broth and a set of dips and condiments. Sometimes the chicken is dipped in ice to produce a jelly-like skin finishing upon the completion of the poaching process. In Malacca, the chicken rice is served shaped into balls.\n* Curry Mee (Chinese : \u5496\u55b1\u9eb5). A bowl of thin yellow noodles mixed with bihun in a spicy curry soup enriched with coconut milk, and topped with tofu puffs, prawns, cuttlefish, chicken, long beans, cockles and mint leaves, with sambal served on the side. It is often referred to as curry laksa.\n* Fish ball () are fish paste shaped into a spherical shape. Usually fish ball is served as a condiment together with rice vermicelli or yellow noodles in a \"clear soup\" base. Bean sprouts and spring onions are also commonly added, complemented by a small plate of chilli padi soaked in soy sauce. Fishcake is also a common addition.\n* Fish head bihun (Chinese : \u9b5a\u982d\u7c73\u7c89). A noodle soup in which the main ingredients are rice vermicelli and a deep fried fish head cut into chunks. The soup itself is somewhat creamy, which is usually achieved using a mixture of rich fish stock and milk. Tomatoes and pickled vegetables are sometimes added to cut the richness and provide a tangy foil for the noodle soup.\n* Fuzhou cuisine can be found in the Sitiawan, Perak area, as well as several cities and towns in Sarawak where the Hookchiu diaspora have formed settlements. Well known specialities include \"ang zhao mee sua\" (Chinese : \u7ea2\u69fd\u9762\u7ebf), and \"kompyang\" or \"kompia\" (Chinese : \u5149\u9905).\n* Hakka mee (Chinese : \u5ba2\u5bb6\u9eb5) - Hakka Mee is a simple dish of noodles topped with a ground meat gravy. A popular hawker dish with Hakka cultural roots, it is based on an older recipe called Dabumian (Chinese : \u5927\u57d4\u9eb5); the name indicates its place of origin as Dabu County (), the center of Hakka culture in mainland China.\n* Heong Peng (Chinese : \u9999\u9905) - these fragrant pastries, which resemble slightly flattened balls, are a famed speciality of Ipoh. It contains a sweet sticky filling made from malt and shallots, covered by a flaky baked crust and garnished with sesame seeds on the surface.\n* Hokkien Mee () actually has two variants, with each being ubiquitous to a particular region of Peninsular Malaysia.\n** Penang Hokkien mee, colloquially referred to in Penang as \"Hokkien mee\", is also known as \"hae mee\" (Chinese : \u8766\u9eb5) in other parts of Malaysia. One of Penang's most famous specialties, it is a noodle soup with yellow and rice noodles immersed in a spicy stock made from prawns and pork (chicken for halal versions), and garnished with a boiled egg, poached prawns, chopped \"kangkung\" and a dollop of \"sambal\".\n** Hokkien char mee, a dish of thick yellow noodles braised, fried with thick black soy sauce and added with crispy lardons, is more commonly served in the Klang Valley. It was originally developed in Kuala Lumpur. Thus, within central Peninsular Malaysia, the term \"Hokkien mee\" refers to this particular version.\n* Ipoh white coffee (Chinese : \u6021\u4fdd\u767d\u5496\u5561). A popular coffee drink which originated in Ipoh. Unlike the robust dark roast used for typical Malaysian-style black coffee (\"Kopi-O\"), \"white\" coffee is produced with only palm oil margarine and without any sugar and wheat, resulting in a significantly lighter roast. It is typically enriched with condensed milk prior to serving.\n* Kam Heong (Chinese : \u91d1\u9999) - literally \"golden fragrance\" in English, Kam Heong is a method of cooking developed in Malaysia, and is a good example of the country's culinary style of mixing cultures. The tempering of aromatics with bird's eye chilies, curry leaves, crushed dried shrimp, curry powder, oyster sauce and various other seasonings yields a versatile stir-fry sauce that goes well with chicken, clams, crabs, prawns, and squid.\n* Kolo mee or mee kolok (Chinese : \u4e7e\u6488\u9eb5) is a dish of springy egg noodles tossed in a sweet and savoury shallot, lard and vinegar dressing, and topped with seasoned minced pork and char siu. It is similar to Peninsular-style Hakka mee or wonton mee in concept, but differs significantly in taste profile. A popular variant uses rendered oil from cooking char siu to flavour kolo mee instead of plain lard, which gives the noodles a reddish hue. Halal versions of kolo mee replace the pork components with beef (earning the moniker of \"mee sapi\") or chicken, and lard with peanut or vegetable oil. Additional toppings may include mushrooms, chicken and crab meat. \"Kampua mee\" () is a similar dish from Sibu and Sitiawan of Fuzhou origin.\n* Kuching Laksa or Laksa Sarawak (Chinese : \u53e4\u6649\u53fb\u6c99) is noodles (usually rice vermicelli) served in an aromatic spiced coconut milk soup, topped with shredded chicken, shredded omelette, bean sprouts, prawns, and garnished with coriander.This famous Sarawak dish looks like curry laksa however the Sarawak's version is subtler and more flavorful. It is made using a laksa paste consisting of sambal belacan, tamarind, lemongrass, herbs and spices with a little coconut milk thus giving it a fine balance of aromatic herbs and spices with a kind hint of sour and spicy note while presenting a soft but not overly rich creamy broth.\n* Kway chap (Chinese : \u7cbf\u6c41). Teochew dish of rice noodle sheets in a dark soy sauce gravy, served with pork pieces, pig offal, tofu products and boiled eggs.\n* Lor Bak(Chinese : \u6ef7\u8089) - a fried meat roll made from spiced minced pork and chopped water chestnuts rolled up in soya bean curd sheets, and deep fried. It is usually served with small bowl of \"Lor\" (a thick broth thickened with corn starch and beaten eggs) and chili sauce. The term also extends to other items sold alongside the meat rolls, like \"tao kwa\" (hard tofu), pork sausages, tofu skin sheets etc.\n* Lor Mee (Chinese : \u6ef7\u9eb5). A bowl of thick yellow noodles served in a thickened gravy made from eggs, starch and pork stock.\n* Marmite chicken (Chinese : \u5abd\u871c\u96de) - a unique dish of marinated fried chicken pieces glazed in a syrupy sauce made from marmite, soy sauce, maltose and honey. This dish may also be prepared with other ingredients like pork ribs and prawns.\n* Mee Hailam (Chinese : \u6d77\u5357\u9eb5) - stir-fried egg noodles with meat or seafood and copious amounts of vegetables, bathed in a gravy seasoned with dark soy sauce and calamansi lime. It is an ubiquitous menu item in Hainanese-run eateries and restaurants.\n* Ngah Po Fan or Sha Po Fan (Chinese : \u74e6\u7172\u98ef or \u6c99\u7172\u98ef) - seasoned rice cooked in a claypot with secondary ingredients, and finished with soy sauce. A typical example is rice cooked with chicken, salted fish, Chinese sausage, and vegetables. Claypots are also used for braising noodles, meat dishes and reducing soups.\n* Ngiu chap (\u725b\u4ec0) is a Chinese-influenced dish of beef broth served with noodles, usually dunked in the soup with poached beef slices, meatballs, stewed brisket, tendon, liver and various offal parts. An iconic Sabahan dish, ngiu chap has many different variations, from the lighter Hainanese style to heartier Hakka-influenced flavours, and even village-style ngiu chap adapted for indigenous Sabahan tastes.\n* Oyster omelette or \"O-chian\" () - a medley of small oysters is sauteed on a hot plate before being folded into an egg batter, which then has moistened starch mixed in for thickening, and finally fried to a crisp finish. Unlike other versions of oyster omelettes found throughout the Hokkien and Teochew diaspora, a thick savoury gravy is never poured onto Malaysian-style oyster omelettes; a chilli sauce is provided on the side for dipping instead.\n* Pan mee () - noodle soup with hand-kneaded and torn pieces of noodles or regular strips of machine-pressed noodles, with a toothsome texture not unlike Italian pasta. A variant popular in the Klang Valley is known as \"Chilli Pan Mee\", and which of cooked noodles served with minced pork, a poached egg, fried anchovies and fried chilli flakes which are added to taste. Chilli Pan Mee is accompanied with a bowl of clear soup with leafy vegetables.\n* Popiah () - Hokkien/Teochew-style crepe stuffed and rolled up with cooked shredded tofu and vegetables like turnip and carrots. The Peranakan version contains julienned bangkuang (jicama) and bamboo shoots, and the filling is seasoned with tauchu (fermented soybean paste) and meat stock. Another variation consists of popiah doused in a spicy sauce. Popiah can also be deep fried and served in a manner similar to the mainstream Chinese spring roll.\n* Sang nyuk mian () is a dish of noodles served with pork broth, originating from Tawau. Very popular with the non-Muslim communities of Sabah, it is named after the poached-to-order slices of tender marinated pork served in pork broth which is flavoured with fried lard bits. The noodles (usually thick yellow noodles) are either dressed in dark soy and lard, or dunked into the soup along with the aforementioned pork slices, vegetables, meatballs and offal.\n* Seremban Siew Pau (). The town of Seremban, the state capital of Negeri Sembilan, is famous for its \"siew pau\", a flaky oven-baked pastry bun with a treacly BBQ pork and green pea filling. Chicken fillings are available as a halal option.\n* Teochew porridge - Teochew porridge or \"muay\" () is a type of rice porridge or soup. Unlike congee, Teochew porridge is thin and watery in texture, with visible rice grains sitting loosely at the bottom of the bowl. Eaten as a substitute for plain cooked rice instead of a complete meal by itself, it is served with an assortment of side dishes like vegetables, meat and salted egg. At eateries specialising in Teochew porridge, one can find a buffet spread of at least a dozen different dishes to choose from. Some variant recipes add sweet potatoes or even shark meat to the porridge during the cooking process.\n* Tau sar pneah () - A famous Penang delicacy, this round-shaped Chinese pastry is made of wheat flour, sugar, green bean paste, fried onions, lard and salt. It is also known as Tambun biscuits as the pastry was believed to be invented in Bukit Tambun, Penang. Its popularity as a delicacy has made this biscuit one of the must-buy souvenirs from Penang.\n* Tomato kway teow () - kway teow noodles stir-fried with sweet tomato gravy, meat (usually chicken pieces), eggs and vegetables. A popular dish in Chinese restaurants throughout Sarawak, another variant () utilises egg noodles which have been fried to a crisp, and then immersed with the gravy and ingredients.\n* Tuaran mee () is a speciality of Tuaran town. This dish of wok fried fresh handmade noodles is well known in the nearby city of Kota Kinabalu as well as in neighbouring Tamparuli town, where the localised adaptation is called Tamparuli mee (). The noodles must first be toasted with oil in the wok to prevent it from clumping together, then blanched to reduce the stiff crunchy texture from toasting. The final step involves stir frying the noodles to a dry finish with eggs, vegetables, and meat or seafood.\n* Wonton Mee () - thin egg noodles with wonton dumplings (), choy sum and char siu. The dumplings are usually made of pork or prawns and typically boiled or deep fried. The noodles may be served in a bowl of broth with dumplings as in the traditional Cantonese manner, but in Malaysia it is more commonly dressed with a dark soy sauce dressing, with boiled or deep-fried wonton dumplings as a topping or served on the side in a bowl of broth. Variations of this dish are usually in the meat accompaniments with the noodles. These may include roast pork (\u70e7\u8089), braised chicken feet, and roast duck (\u71d2\u9d28).\n* Yam rice () - savoury rice dish cooked with taro, Chinese sausage, chicken, dried prawns and mushrooms. It is often served as an accompaniment for dishes like bak kut or yong tau foo.\n* Yau Zha Gwai or Eu Char Kway or You Tiao ( or ) - a version of the traditional Chinese crueller, which is a breakfast favourite. It can be eaten plain with a beverage like coffee and soy milk, spread with butter or kaya, or dipped into congee. It is shaped like a pair of chopsticks, stuck together. The name itself amusingly translates into \"greasy fried ghosts\".\n* Yong tau foo () - tofu products and vegetables like brinjals, lady's fingers, bitter gourd and chillies stuffed with fish or pork paste. Originally developed in Ampang, Selangor, it is a localised adaptation of a Hakka dish called \"ngiong tew foo\" (stuffed tofu with ground pork paste) and is usually served in a clear broth.\n* Yusheng () - a festive raw fish salad, also pronounced \"yee sang\" in the Cantonese manner. While raw fish preparations are thought to have existed in China during antiquity and can be found in the Chaoshan region of Guangdong province in modern times, yusheng was created and developed in Singapore in 1964 when the republic was still a member state of the Federation of Malaysia. It consists of strips of raw fish tossed at the dining table with shredded vegetables, crispy tidbits and a combination of sauces and condiments. Yusheng literally means \"raw fish\" but since \"fish (\u9b5a)\" is commonly conflated with its homophone \"abundance (\u9918)\", Y\u00fash\u0113ng (\u9b5a\u751f) is interpreted as a homophone for Y\u00fash\u0113ng (\u4f59\u5347) meaning an increase in abundance. Therefore, yusheng is considered a symbol of abundance, prosperity and vigor. As a result, the mixing and tossing of yusheng with chopsticks and the subsequent consumption of the salad has become ritualised as part of the commemoration of Chinese New Year festivities in Malaysia and Singapore.\n* Zongzi () - a traditional Chinese food made of glutinous rice stuffed with savoury or sweet fillings and wrapped in bamboo, reed, or other large flat leaves. They are cooked by steaming or boiling, and are a feature of the Duanwu festival, which is still celebrated by the Chinese communities in Malaysia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Changfu Temple",
        "text": "Every sixth day of the first month of the Chinese lunar calendar on Zushi-Gong's birthday, Changfu Temple holds a sacred pig (\u795e\u8c6c) contest. Farmers would compete by raising the largest pig, which during the competition day, the pig is decorated with ornaments. The largest pig will then be sacrificed to the mountain deities, then the meat will be distributed among the devotees. In the past few years, this tradition has been met with objection by animal rights activists. While the majority of temples that practice this rite have started using symbolic pigs, Changfu Temple in Sanxia still continues the tradition of using an actual pig."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese cuisine",
        "text": "Food also plays a role in daily life. The formality of the meal setting can signify what kind of relationship people have with one another, and the type of food can indicate ones' social status and their country of origin. In a formal setting, up to sixteen of any combination of hot and cold dishes would be served to respect the guests. On the other hand, in a casual setting, people would eat inexpensive meals such as at food stalls or homemade food. The typical disparity in food in the Chinese society between the wealthy and everyone below that group lies in the rarity and cost of the food or ingredient, such as shark fins and bear paws. Depending on whether one goes for rice or anything that is made of wheat flour such as noodle or bread as their main source of food, people within similar culture or of different background can assume other's country of origin from the south or north of China. Different foods have different symbolic meanings. Mooncakes and dumplings are symbolic of the Mid-autumn festival and the Spring Festival, respectively. Pear symbolizes bad luck due to its similarity in pronunciation of 'away' in the native language and noodle means living a long life for its length."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cold Food Festival",
        "text": "Since the early 7th century, Chinese and Western scholars have argued for alternative origins for the festival. Du Gongzhan, the editor of the late-Sui \"Record of the Seasons of Jingchu\", connected it with a ritual avoidance of fire mentioned in the \"Rites of Zhou\": \"In mid-spring, they announce the prohibition of fire in the capital using a bell with a wooden clapper\". This prohibition was related to the ancient Chinese use of different kinds of firewood according to the seasons, particularly after the development of Chinese astrology that considered the heliacal rising of Antares to be an occasion for great risk of conflagration and wildfire. Du was followed in his conjecture by others, including Li Fu. The Sinologist J.J.M. de Groot argued for its origin as a celebration of the sun's \"victory\" at the vernal equinox, based on a comparative anthropological analysis drawing on Ovid, Macrobius, Lucian, and Epiphanius of Salamis. James Frazer and his followers similarly considered it either a \"sun-charm\" or \"purification\" from its similarities to other \"fire-festivals\". Claude L\u00e9vi-Strauss based his analysis of the festival as a kind of Chinese Lent upon a mistranslation of the relevant passage in the \"Rites of Zhou\" by Frazer. Eberhard connected it with his idea of a prehistoric spring-based calendar and made the Cold Food Festival a remnant of its original New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Malaysian cuisine",
        "text": "A sample of representative Malaysian Chinese dishes found nationwide include:\n* Bak Kut Teh (Chinese : \u8089\u9aa8\u8336) (pork ribs soup). The root meaning for the dish, \"Bak Kut\" (Hokkien dialect) is the term for meaty ribs, at its simplest cooked with garlic, dark soy sauce and a specific combination of herbs and spices which have been boiled for many hours. Popularly regarded as a health tonic, this soup is historically eaten by hard working Chinese coolies working on the wharfs at Port Swettenham (now Port Klang) and clearing estates, accompaniment with strong tea (\"Teh\") on the side. There are some differences in seasoning amongst other Chinese communities; the Teochew prefer a clear broth which is heavier on garlic and pepper, while the Cantonese may include additional varieties of medicinal herbs and spices. Variations include the so-called \"chik kut teh\" (made with chicken and a version that is gaining popularity with Muslim diners), seafood bak kut teh, and a \"dry\" (reduced gravy) version which originated from the town of Klang.\n* Bakkwa (Chinese : \u8089\u5e72) - literally \"dried meat\", bakkwa is better understood as barbecued meat jerky. While this delicacy is especially popular during the Chinese New Year celebration period, it is available everywhere and eaten year round as a popular snack.\n* Bean sprouts chicken (Chinese : \u82bd\u83dc\u96de) - Ipoh's most well known dish, bean sprouts chicken consists of poached or steamed chicken accompanied with a plate of blanched locally grown bean sprouts in a simple dressing of soy sauce and sesame oil. The crunchy and stout texture of Ipoh-grown bean sprouts is attributed to the mineral-rich properties of local water supplies. The dish is usually served with hor fun noodles in a chicken broth, or plain rice.\n* Cantonese fried noodles (Chinese : \u5ee3\u5e9c\u7092) refers to a preparation of noodles which are shallow or deep fried to a crisp texture, then served as the base for a thick egg and cornstarch white sauce cooked with sliced lean pork, seafood, and green vegetables like choy sum. A variation called yuen yong (Chinese : \u9d1b\u9d26) involves mixing both crisp-fried rice vermicelli as well as hor fun to form a base for the sauce. A related dish called wa tan hor (Chinese : \u6ed1\u65e6\u6cb3) uses hor fun noodles, but the noodles are not deep fried, merely charred.\n* Chai tow kway (Chinese : \u83dc\u982d\u7cbf) - a common dish in Malaysia made of rice flour. It also known as fried radish cake, although no radish is included within the rice cakes, save perhaps the occasional addition of preserved radish (Chinese: \u83dc\u5703) during the cooking process. Seasonings and additives vary from region, and may include bean sprouts and eggs.\n* Char kway teow (Chinese: \u7092\u7cbf\u689d\uff0c\u7092\u6cb3\u7c89). Stir fried rice noodles with bean sprouts, prawns, eggs (duck or chicken), chives and thin slices of preserved Chinese sausages. Cockles and lardons were once standard offerings, but mostly relegated to optional additions these days due to changing taste preferences and growing health concerns. Penang-style char kway teow is the most highly regarded variant both in Malaysia as well as abroad.\n* Chee cheong fun (Chinese: \u8c6c\u8178\u7c89) is square rice sheets made from a viscous mixture of rice flour and water. This liquid is poured onto a specially made flat pan in which it is steamed to produce the square rice sheets. The steamed rice sheets is rolled or folded for ease in serving. It is usually served with tofu stuffed with fish paste. The dish is eaten with accompaniment of semi sweet fermented bean paste sauce, chilli paste or light vegetable curry gravy. Ipoh and Penang have different variants of the dish as well; certain stalls in Ipoh serve the dish with a red sweet sauce, thinly sliced pickled green chillies and fried shallots, whilst in Penang, a type of sweet, black shrimp sauce called \"hae ko\" is the main condiment.\n* Cheong Cheng style steamed fish (Chinese: \u9171\u84b8\u9c7c) - Cheong cheng literally mean gravy or sauce steamed. The main ingredients for the gravy or sauce are fermented bean paste and chillies.\n* Chicken rice (Chinese: \u96de\u98ef) - chicken rice is one of the most popular Chinese-inspired dishes in Malaysia. Hainanese chicken rice (Chinese : \u6d77\u5357\u96de\u98ef) is the best known version: it is prepared with the same traditional method used for cooking Wenchang chicken, which involve steeping the entire chicken at sub-boiling temperatures within a master stock until cooked, to ensure the chicken meat becomes moist and tender. The chicken is then chopped up, and served with a bowl or plate of rice cooked in chicken fat and chicken stock, along with another bowl of clear chicken broth and a set of dips and condiments. Sometimes the chicken is dipped in ice to produce a jelly-like skin finishing upon the completion of the poaching process. In Malacca, the chicken rice is served shaped into balls.\n* Curry Mee (Chinese: \u5496\u55b1\u9762). A bowl of thin yellow noodles mixed with bihun in a spicy curry soup enriched with coconut milk, and topped with tofu puffs, prawns, cuttlefish, chicken, long beans, cockles and mint leaves, with sambal served on the side. It is often referred to as curry laksa.\n**White Curry Mee ( Chinese : \u767d\u5496\u55b1 ) similar to curry mee, however the soup base is in white colour instead of yellow or red. The white color comes from the Coconut gravy ( Malay : santan, Chinese : \u6930\u6d46 )\n* Fish ball (Chinese: \u9c7c\u4e38\u3001\u9c7c\u86cb\u3001\u9c7c\u5706) are fish paste shaped into a spherical shape. Usually fish ball is served as a condiment together with rice vermicelli or yellow noodles in a \"clear soup\" base. Bean sprouts and spring onions are also commonly added, complemented by a small plate of chilli padi soaked in soy sauce. Fishcake is also a common addition\n* Fish head bihun (Chinese : \u9c7c\u5934\u7c73\u7c89). A noodle soup in which the main ingredients are rice vermicelli and a deep fried fish head cut into chunks. The soup itself is somewhat creamy, which is usually achieved using a mixture of rich fish stock and milk. Tomatoes and pickled vegetables are sometimes added to cut the richness and provide a tangy foil for the noodle soup.\n* Hakka mee (Chinese : \u5ba2\u5bb6\u9eb5) - Hakka Mee is a simple dish of noodles topped with a ground meat gravy. A popular hawker dish with Hakka cultural roots, it is based on an older recipe called Dabumian (Chinese : \u5927\u57d4\u9eb5); the name indicates its place of origin as Dabu County (Chinese: \u5927\u57d4\u53bf), the center of Hakka culture in mainland China.\n* Heong Peng (Chinese: \u9999\u997c) - these fragrant pastries, which resemble slightly flattened balls, are a famed speciality of Ipoh which are now widely available in Malaysia and are even exported overseas. It contains a sweet sticky filling made from malt and shallots, covered by a flaky baked crust and garnished with sesame seeds on the surface.\n* Hokkien Mee (Chinese: \u798f\u5efa\u7092\u9eb5) actually has two variants, with each being ubiquitous to a particular region of Peninsular Malaysia.\n**Penang Hokkien mee, colloquially referred to in Penang as \"Hokkien mee\", is also known as \"hae mee\" (Chinese : \u8766\u9eb5) elsewhere in Malaysia. One of Penang's most famous specialties, it is a noodle soup with yellow and rice noodles immersed in an aromatic stock made from prawns and pork (chicken for halal versions), and garnished with a boiled egg, poached prawns, chopped \"kangkung\" and a dollop of spicy \"sambal\".\n** Hokkien char mee, a dish of thick yellow noodles braised, fried with thick black soy sauce and added with crispy lardons, is more commonly served in the Klang Valley. It was originally developed in Kuala Lumpur. Thus, within the central region of Peninsular Malaysia, the term \"Hokkien mee\" refers to this particular version.\n* Ipoh white coffee (Chinese: \u6021\u4fdd\u767d\u5496\u5561). A popular coffee drink which originated in Ipoh. Unlike the robust dark roast used for typical Malaysian-style black coffee (\"Kopi-O\"), \"white\" coffee is produced with only palm oil margarine and without any sugar and wheat, resulting in a significantly lighter roast. It is typically enriched with condensed milk prior to serving. This drink inspired the OldTown White Coffee restaurant chain, and instant beverage versions are widely available throughout Malaysia and even in international markets.\n* Kam Heong (Chinese : \u91d1\u9999) - literally \"golden fragrance\" in English, Kam Heong is a method of cooking developed in Malaysia, and is a good example of the country's culinary style of mixing cultures. The tempering of aromatics with bird's eye chillies, curry leaves, crushed dried shrimp, curry powder, oyster sauce and various other seasonings yields a versatile stir-fry sauce that goes well with chicken, clams, crabs, prawns, and squid.\n* Kway chap (Chinese : \u7cbf\u6c41). Teochew dish of rice noodle sheets in a dark soy sauce gravy, served with pork pieces, pig offal, tofu products and boiled eggs.\n* Lor mee (Chinese: \u6ef7\u9eb5). A bowl of thick yellow noodles served in a thickened gravy made from eggs, starch and pork stock.\n* Marmite chicken (Chinese : \u5988\u871c\u9e21) - a unique dish of marinated fried chicken pieces glazed in a syrupy sauce made from marmite, soy sauce, maltose and honey. This dish may also be prepared with other ingredients like pork ribs and prawns.\n* Ngah Po Fan or Sha Po Fan (Chinese : \u74e6\u7172\u98ef or \u6c99\u7172\u996d) - seasoned rice cooked in a claypot with secondary ingredients, and finished with soy sauce. A typical example is rice cooked with chicken, Chinese sausage, and vegetables. Claypots are also used for braising noodles, meat dishes and reducing soups. One of the most famous and common one is:\n**Claypot chicken rice (Chinese : \u74e6\u7172\u9e21\u996d) - chicken rice served in a claypot, traditionally cooked with charcoal. Typical additions include salted fish and lap cheong. Bercham, a suburb in Ipoh is famous for claypot chicken rice.\n* Ngo hiang or lor bak (Chinese: \u4e94\u9999 or \u6ef7\u8089) - a fried meat roll made from spiced minced pork and chopped water chestnuts rolled up in soy bean curd sheets, and deep fried. It is usually served with small bowl of \"Lor\" (a thick broth thickened with corn starch and beaten eggs) and chilli sauce. The term also extends to other items sold alongside the meat rolls, like \"tao kwa\" (hard tofu), pork sausages, tofu skin sheets etc.\n* Oyster omelette or \"O-chian\" (Chinese: \u869d\u714e) - a medley of small oysters is sauteed on a hot plate before being folded into an egg batter, which then has moistened starch mixed in for thickening, and finally fried to a crisp finish. Unlike other versions of oyster omelettes found throughout the Hokkien and Teochew diaspora, a thick savoury gravy is never poured onto Malaysian-style oyster omelettes; a chilli sauce is provided on the side for dipping instead.\n* Pan mee (Chinese: \u677f\u9762) - noodle soup with hand-kneaded and torn pieces of noodles or regular strips of machine-pressed noodles, with a toothsome texture not unlike Italian pasta. A variant popular in the Klang Valley is known as \"Chilli Pan Mee\", and which of cooked noodles served with minced pork, a poached egg, fried anchovies and fried chilli flakes which are added to taste. Chilli Pan Mee is accompanied with a bowl of clear soup with leafy vegetables.\n* Popiah (Chinese : \u8584\u997c) - Hokkien/Teochew-style crepe stuffed and rolled up with cooked shredded tofu and vegetables like turnip and carrots. The Peranakan version contains julienned bangkuang (jicama) and bamboo shoots, and the filling is seasoned with tauchu (fermented soybean paste) and meat stock. Another variation consists of popiah doused in a spicy sauce. Popiah can also be deep fried and served in a manner similar to the mainstream Chinese spring roll.\n* Tau sar pneah (Chinese: \u8c46\u6c99\u997c) - A famous Penang delicacy, this round-shaped Chinese pastry contains primarily green bean paste, and its ingredients include wheat flour, sugar and salt. It is also known as Tambun biscuits as it was widely believed that the pastry originated from Bukit Tambun, Penang. Its popularity as a delicacy has made this pastry one of the must-buy souvenirs from Penang.\n* Wonton Mee (Chinese : \u96f2\u541e\u9eb5) - thin egg noodles with wonton dumplings (Chinese : \u96f2\u541e), choy sum and char siu. The dumplings are usually made of pork or prawns, and typically boiled or deep fried. The noodles may be served in a bowl of broth with dumplings as in the traditional Cantonese manner, but in Malaysia it is more commonly dressed with a dark soy sauce dressing, with boiled or deep-fried wonton dumplings as a topping or served on the side in a bowl of broth. Variations of this dish are usually in the meat accompaniments with the noodles. These may include roast pork (\u70e7\u8089), braised chicken feet, and roast duck (\u70e7\u9e2d).\n* Yau Zha Gwai or Eu Char Kway or You Tiao (Chinese: \u6cb9\u70b8\u9b3c or \u6cb9\u6761) - a version of the traditional Chinese crueller, which is a breakfast favourite. It can be eaten plain with a beverage like coffee and soy milk, spread with butter or kaya, or dipped into congee. It is shaped like a pair of chopsticks, stuck together.\n* Yong tau foo (Chinese : \u917f\u8c46\u8150) - tofu products and vegetables like brinjals, lady's fingers, bitter gourd and chillies stuffed with fish paste or surimi. Originally developed in Ampang, Selangor, Malaysian yong tau foo is a localised adaptation of a Hakka dish called \"ngiong tew foo\" (stuffed tofu with ground pork paste) and is usually served in a clear broth, with or without noodles.\n* Yusheng (Chinese : \u9c7c\u751f) - a festive raw fish salad, also pronounced \"yee sang\" in the Cantonese manner. While raw fish preparations are thought to have existed in China during antiquity and can be found in the Chaoshan region of Guangdong province in modern times, yusheng was created and developed in Singapore in 1964 when the republic was still a member state of the Federation of Malaysia. It consists of strips of raw fish tossed at the dining table with shredded vegetables, crispy tidbits and a combination of sauces and condiments. Yusheng literally means \"raw fish\" but since \"fish (\u9c7c)\" is commonly conflated with its homophone \"abundance (\u4f59)\", Y\u00fash\u0113ng (\u9c7c\u751f) is interpreted as a homophone for Y\u00fash\u0113ng (\u4f59\u5347) meaning an increase in abundance. Therefore, yusheng is considered a symbol of abundance, prosperity and vigor. As a result, the mixing and tossing of yusheng with chopsticks and the subsequent consumption of the salad has become ritualised as part of the commemoration of Chinese New Year festivities in Malaysia and Singapore.\n* Zongzi (Chinese: \u7cbd\u5b50) - a traditional Chinese food made of glutinous rice stuffed with savoury or sweet fillings and wrapped in bamboo, reed, or other large flat leaves. They are cooked by steaming or boiling, and are a feature of the Duanwu festival, which is still celebrated by the Chinese communities in Malaysia.\n* Lei Cha (Chinese: \u64c2\u8336) - This aromatic drink is a Hakka staple. The recipe differs from household to household, but generally green tea leaves are added to a mixture of salt, ground mint leaves, toasted sesame seeds and nuts. The mixture is ground or pounded into a fine powder, then brewed into a drink. Taste salty, minty, and full of nutrition.\n* Gong Pian or Kom Piang(Chinese: \u798f\u5dde\u5149\u997c) - This is a type of clay oven-baked biscuit/bagel associated with the Foochow/Fuzhou settlers brought in by the British. Unlike the more common clan communities brought in, the Foochow/Fuzhou settlers were brought in smaller numbers predominantly settling in Sitiawan, Perak and Sibu, Sarawak. The Gong Pians out of Sitiawan are generally sweet, but the Gong Pians in Sitiawan are salty. It is usually filled with pork, lard or onions and is best eaten while still hot and crispy. Foochow cuisine is unique in its own, different from the other more common Chinese clan communities. It is uncommon and can only be found mainly in Sitiawan and Sibu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qingtang wanzi",
        "text": "Traditionally, this dish includes the main ingredients: of tenderloin, of egg white, wood ear, oil, cooking wine, sesame oil, cilantro, green onion, and ginger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "After dinner, some families may visit local temples hours before midnight to pray for success by lighting the first incense of the year; however in modern practice, many households held parties to celebrate. Traditionally, firecrackers were lit to ward evil spirits when the household doors sealed, and are not to be reopened until dawn in a ritual called \"opening the door of fortune\" (). A tradition of staying up late on Chinese New Year's Eve is known as \"shousui\" (Chinese: ), which is still practised as it is thought to add on to one's parents' longevity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nankin-machi",
        "text": "Most shops show off their cuisine on display stands for potential customers. Some examples include dim sum, dumplings, buns, and Chinese pastries. During the Lunar New Year and the Mid Autumn season, two major festivals celebrated by Chinese people worldwide, New Year's delicacies and Moon Cakes appear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tuotuorou",
        "text": "These are served in traditional Yi wooden dishes, and eaten with long-handled spoons instead of chopsticks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shumai",
        "text": "This is the most well-known variety outside of Asia and is from the southern provinces of Guangdong and Guangxi. As prepared in Cantonese cuisine, \"siumaai\" is also referred to as \"pork and mushroom dumpling\". Its standard filling consists primarily of ground pork, small whole or chopped shrimp, Chinese black mushroom, green onion (also called scallion) and ginger with seasonings of Chinese rice wine (e.g. Shaoxing rice wine), soy sauce, sesame oil and chicken stock. Bamboo shoots, water chestnuts and pepper can also be added. The outer covering is made of a thin sheet of lye water dough, which is either yellow or white. The center is usually garnished with an orange dot, made of crab roe or diced carrot, although a green dot made with a pea may be used. The decorative presentations vary."
      },
      {
        "title": "D Is for Dragon Dance",
        "text": "A few of the Chinese New Year traditions featured in the book include:\n* Watching the Dragon Dance performance in the New Year's parade\n* Lighting firecrackers\n* Hanging paper lanterns\n* Eating Peking Duck\n* Children receiving Red Envelopes full of gifts\n* Eating Steamed Dumplings\n* Performing Venerationfor one's ancestors\n* Creating Xylographs\n* Welcoming the Chinese Zodiac for the new year"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "Osechi is an entire category of foods traditionally associated with the Japanese New Year, which until the late 1800s was celebrated according to a lunisolar calendar. Eating soba noodles or toshikoshi, which means \"to climb or jump from the old year to the new\", at midnight on New Year's Eve is considered lucky for the new year. The tradition dates to at least the 17th century. The long strands are symbolic of longevity and prosperity. The tradition of eating noodles on New Year's Eve dates to the 13th or 14th century. Making and eating mochi rice cakes, mochitsuki, is also traditional at New Year's. Mochi is also eaten in the form of z\u014dni. Mochi is left as an offering at Buddhist and Shintoist temples to ensure luck for the coming year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jiaozi",
        "text": "Jiaozi (; ) are Chinese dumplings commonly eaten in China and other parts of East Asia. \"Jiaozi\" are folded to resemble Chinese sycee and have great cultural significance attached to them within China. \"Jiaozi\" are one of the major dishes eaten during the Chinese New Year throughout the entire country and eaten all year round in the northern provinces. Though considered part of Chinese cuisine, \"jiaozi\" are popular in other parts of East Asia and in the Western world, where a fried variety is sometimes called potstickers. The English-language term \"potsticker\" is a calque of the Mandarin word \"guotie\" (\u934b\u8cbc). \"Potsticker\" was used by Buwei Yang Chao and her husband Yuen Ren Chao in the book \"How to Cook and Eat in Chinese\", which was first published in 1945. In northern China, however, \"guotie\" specifically refers to a type of pan-fried \"jiaozi\" with its ends left open rather than just any pan-fried \"jiaozi\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some of the traditional dishes associated with the festival?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Are you referring to the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, the Cannes Festival, the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, the Obon, or some other festival?"
    ],
    "topic": "Chinese New Year",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival (commonly called the Coachella Festival or simply Coachella) is an annual music and arts festival held at the Empire Polo Club in Indio, California, in the Coachella Valley in the Colorado Desert. It was co-founded by Paul Tollett and Rick Van Santen in 1999, and is organized by Goldenvoice, a subsidiary of AEG Presents. The event features musical artists from many genres of music, including rock, pop, indie, hip hop and electronic dance music, as well as art installations and sculptures. Across the grounds, several stages continuously host live music."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Cannes Film Festival:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cannes Film Festival"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Cannes Festival (; ), until 2003 called the International Film Festival (') and known in English as the Cannes Film Festival, is an annual film festival held in Cannes, France, which previews new films of all genres, including documentaries, from all around the world. Founded in 1946, the invitation-only festival is held annually (usually in May) at the Palais des Festivals et des Congr\u00e8s. The festival was formally accredited by the FIAPF in 1951."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Edinburgh Festival Fringe:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Edinburgh Festival Fringe"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Edinburgh Festival Fringe (also referred to as The Fringe, Edinburgh Fringe, or Edinburgh Fringe Festival) is the world's largest arts festival, which in 2018 spanned 25 days and featured more than 55,000 performances of 3,548 different shows in 317 venues. Established in 1947 as an alternative to the Edinburgh International Festival, it takes place in Edinburgh every August. The Edinburgh Festival Fringe has become a world-leading celebration of arts and culture, surpassed only by the Olympics and the World Cup in terms of global ticketed events. As an event it \"has done more to place Edinburgh in the forefront of world cities than anything else\" according to its historian and former chairman of the board, Michael Dale."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Bon (festival):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Bon (festival)"
        ],
        "ctx": "or just is a Japanese Buddhist custom to honor the spirits of one's ancestors. This Buddhist\u2013Confucian custom has evolved into a family reunion holiday during which people return to ancestral family places and visit and clean their ancestors' graves when the spirits of ancestors are supposed to revisit the household altars. It has been celebrated in Japan for more than 500 years and traditionally includes a dance, known as ."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "Chinese New Year is celebrated in January or February, depending on a lunar calendar. Gifts of citrus such as tangerines, oranges, and pomelos are thought to represent prosperity and are auspicious for New Year's Eve; their shape, color, and names are seen as symbolizing fullness and wealth. Other commonly served dishes are spring rolls, dumplings, longevity noodles, glutinous rice cake or nian gao, the name of which means progressively improving."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "During the festival, people around China will prepare different gourmet dishes for their families and guests. Influenced by the flourished cultures, foods from different places look and taste totally different. Among them, the most well-known ones are dumplings from northern China and Tangyuan from southern China."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "Between New Year's Day and the 15th day of the month people visit friends and relatives bringing gifts of citrus, and they prepare for such visits to their own homes by making chuen hop (tray of togetherness) which includes various fruits, candies, and other sweets. On the fourth day of the New Year people make offerings of wine and fruits. On the 15th day the Lantern Festival is celebrated, also called Yuan Xiao, a name for glutinous rice balls which are eaten and symbolize unity, family, and peace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "On the eighth day of the lunar month prior to Chinese New Year, the \"Laba\" holiday (), a traditional porridge, Laba porridge (), is served in remembrance of an ancient festival, called \"La\", that occurred shortly after the winter solstice. Pickles such as Laba garlic, which turns green from vinegar, are also made on this day. For those that practice Buddhism, the Laba holiday is also considered Bodhi Day. \"Layue\" () is a term often associated with Chinese New Year as it refers to the sacrifices held in honor of the gods in the twelfth lunar month, hence the cured meats of Chinese New Year are known as \"larou\" (). The porridge was prepared by the women of the household at first light, with the first bowl offered to the family's ancestors and the household deities. Every member of the family was then served a bowl, with leftovers distributed to relatives and friends. It's still served as a special breakfast on this day in some Chinese homes. The concept of the \"La month\" is similar to Advent in Christianity. Many families eat vegetarian on Chinese New Year eve, the garlic and preserved meat are eaten on Chinese New Year day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homophonic puns in Standard Chinese",
        "text": "Chinese New Year, known in China as Spring Festival, has an abundance of unique traditions associated with it. Some of these traditions are more widespread than others. Among the many New Year's customs are a few whose meaning is derived from puns of Mandarin words.\n* Ni\u00e1n ni\u00e1n y\u01d2u y\u00fa - \u5e74\u5e74\u6709\u9918 \"There will be an abundance every year\" homophonous with \u5e74\u5e74\u6709\u9b5a \"There will be fish every year.\" As a result, fish are eaten and used as common decorations during Chinese New Year.\n* Ni\u00e1n g\u0101o - \u5e74\u7cd5 \"niangao\" homophonous with \u5e74\u9ad8 from \u5e74\u5e74\u9ad8\u5347 \"ni\u00e1n ni\u00e1n g\u0101osh\u0113ng\" or \"raised higher each year,\" leading to the belief that those who eat niangao should have greater prosperity with each coming year.\n* F\u00fa d\u00e0o le - \u798f\u5230\u4e86 \"fortune has arrived\" and \u798f\u5012\u4e86 \"fortune is upside down\", the latter simply referring to the ubiquitous character \u798f, which when displayed upside down denotes one's good fortune has arrived. It is common practice to hang the character upside-down on doors during the Spring festival.\n* *Shengcai - Traditionally the first meal of the New Year is vegetarian with a variety of ingredients. The meal is served with lettuce () because the word is near homophonous to \"\" (\"sh\u0113ng c\u00e1i\"), \"to make money\". Lettuce shows up in other New Years customs as well. In the traditional New Year's Day lion dance lettuce and red envelopes of cash are offered to the lion.\n* *T\u0101ng yu\u00e1n - At times of reunion, such as Spring Festival, it is customary to eat sweet round dumplings called tangyuan (). The tangyuan are traditionally eaten during Lantern Festival, which is the last day of the Chinese New Year celebration. The roundness of the tangyuan and the bowls they are eaten out of emphasize unity in addition to the similarity of their name with the Mandarin word for reunion, \" (tu\u00e1n yu\u00e1n).\n* *F\u0101 c\u00e0i (), a thin black hair-like algae, is a feature of Spring Festival cuisine because its name is a near-homophone of \" (), meaning \"prosperity,\" and as in the Chinese New Year greeting .\n*Dream of the Red Chamber \u2013 Similar to Dickens or Dostoevsky, Cao Xueqin chose many of the names of his characters in \"Dream of the Red Chamber\" to be homophones with other words which hint at their qualities. For example, the name of the main family, \"\u8cc8\" (Ji\u01ce) puns with \"\u5047\" meaning \"fake\" or \"false\" while the name of the other main family in the story, \"\u7504\" (Zh\u0113n) puns with \"\u771e\" meaning \"real\" or \"true\".\n*H\u00f3ng Qi\u016b (\u7d05\u79cb) \u2013 In this Sichuan opera, a sternsman on the boat asks a nun her name, who defiantly responds that her name is \u9673 \"ch\u00e9n\" which is a homophone with \u6c89 or 'to sink' which is the last word one wants to hear on a boat.\n*M\u00e1o D\u00f9n \u2013 Noted 20th-century author Shen Yanbing is better known by his pseudonym Mao Dun (\u8305\u76fe), a homophone for \"contradiction\" (\u77db\u76fe). The pun is said to be a statement of his disillusionment with the ruling Kuomintang party following the Shanghai massacre of 1927.\n*F\u01ceng Z\u01d0ji\u01d4 Hu\u00e0 \u2013 Yun Shouping, a famous artist of the early Qing dynasty, is best known today for his paintings of flowers, but he was also a prolific poet. One of his poems, \"\u4eff\u5b50\u4e45\u756b\" (\"After the artistic style of Zijiu\"), was an ode to a previous master of traditional Chinese landscape painting, Huang Gongwang who was also known by his style name \"Zijiu\" (\u5b50\u4e45). The poem has several intentional puns. The poem and alternative readings are included below:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The fifteenth day of the new year is celebrated as the Lantern Festival, also known as the Yuanxiao Festival (), the Shangyuan Festival (), and Chap Goh Meh ( in Hokkien). Rice dumplings, or \"tangyuan\" (), a sweet glutinous rice ball brewed in a soup, are eaten this day. Candles are lit outside houses as a way to guide wayward spirits home. Families may walk the streets carrying lanterns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "(\"ni\u00e1n y\u00e8 f\u00e0n\") is held on New Year's Eve during which family members gather for a celebration. The venue will usually be in or near the home of the most senior member of the family. The New Year's Eve dinner is very large and sumptuous and traditionally includes dishes of meat (namely, pork and chicken) and fish. Most reunion dinners also feature a communal hot pot as it is believed to signify the coming together of the family members for the meal. Most reunion dinners (particularly in the Southern regions) also prominently feature specialty meats (e.g. wax-cured meats like duck and Chinese sausage) and seafood (e.g. lobster and abalone) that are usually reserved for this and other special occasions during the remainder of the year. In most areas, fish () is included, but not eaten completely (and the remainder is stored overnight), as the Chinese phrase \"may there be \"surpluses\" every year\" () sounds the same as \"let there be fish every year.\" Eight individual dishes are served to reflect the belief of good fortune associated with the number. If in the previous year a death was experienced in the family, seven dishes are served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Other traditional foods consists of noodles, fruits, dumplings, spring rolls, and Tangyuan which are also known as sweet rice balls. Each dish served during Chinese New Year represents something special. The noodles used to make longevity noodles are usually very thin, long wheat noodles. These noodles are longer than normal noodles that are usually fried and served on a plate, or boiled and served in a bowl with its broth. Expectedly, the noodles symbolize the wish for a long life. The fruits that are typically selected would be oranges, tangerines, and pomelos as they are round and \"golden\" color symbolizing fullness and wealth. Their lucky sound when spoken also brings good luck and fortune. The Chinese pronunciation for orange is \u6a59 (ch\u00e9ng /chnng/), which sounds the same as the Chinese for 'success' (\u6210). One of the ways to spell tangerine(\u6854 j\u00fa /jyoo/) contains the Chinese character for luck (\u5409 j\u00ed /jee/). Pomelos is believed to bring constant prosperity. Pomelo in Chinese (\u67da y\u00f2u /yo/) sounds similar to 'to have' (\u6709 y\u01d2u), disregarding its tone, however it sounds exactly like 'again' (\u53c8 y\u00f2u). Dumplings and spring rolls symbolize wealth, whereas sweet rice balls symbolize family togetherness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reunion dinner",
        "text": "The New Year's Eve dinner is very large and traditionally includes dumplings, chicken, and pork. Fish (\u9b5a, y\u00fa; Vietnamese: Con c\u00e1) is also included, but intentionally (except for Vietnam) not finished, and the remaining fish is stored overnight. The reason for this stems from a pun, as the Chinese phrase \u5e74\u5e74\u6709\u9b5a/\u9918; (ni\u00e1n ni\u00e1n y\u01d2u y\u00fa, or \"every year there is fish/leftover\") is a homophone for phrases which mean \"be blessed every year\" or \"have abundant profit every year\". Similarly, a type of black hair-like algae, \"fat choy\"(\u9aee\u83dc, f\u01ce c\u00e0i, literally \"hair vegetable\" in Chinese), is also featured in many dishes since its name sounds similar to \"prosperity\"(\u767c\u8ca1, f\u0101 c\u00e1i). Hakka will serve \"kiu nyuk\" \u6263\u8089 and \"ngiong tiu fu\" \u91c0\u8c46\u8150. The belief is that having one will lead to the other, as the phrases sound similar to one another.\n* List of dining events\n*Chinese New Year Reunion Dinner"
      },
      {
        "title": "Little New Year",
        "text": "Little New Year (), also known as the Festival of the Kitchen God, is a festival in the traditional lunisolar Chinese calendar. It honors the Kitchen God and takes place on the 23rd or 24th day of the twelfth month in the Chinese calendar, which corresponds to roughly a week before the Chinese New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The day before the Chinese New Year (Chinese: ) usually accompanied with a dinner feast, consisting of special meats are served at the tables, as a main course for the dinner and as a offering for the New Year. This meal is comparable to Thanksgiving dinner in the U.S. and remotely similar to Christmas dinner in other countries with a high percentage of Christians."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "A New Year's Eve dinner is indistinguishable from the traditional Bulgarian Christmas dinner of pork, raqiya (grape brandy and red wine), pogacha, a compote of dried fruits, and banitza. Pogacha, a round bread, is served hot from the oven by the eldest family member to the rest of the family in order of age. The pork symbolizes luck, as the pig roots forward."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ang ku kueh",
        "text": "Chinese New Year is the most important festival in Chinese culture as it represents the start of a new year for everyone where people could reconcile and welcome the new year in hope for peace and prosperity. During this festival, the Chinese people would pray for good fortune and sweets such as rice cakes and red tortoise cakes are offered to the Chinese deities on ritual altars. These ritual offerings are made in the hope that the sweetness from these cakes will leave a sweet taste in the mouths of the deities and they will bless the people with a prosperous year ahead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Chinese New Year's Eve\n--History.\n--Dates of Chinese New Year\u2019s Eve.\n--Traditions.\n----Gathering.\n----Gala TV show.\n----Burning of bamboo and use of firecrackers.\n----The Kitchen God.\n----Inviting a Door God.\n----Peach wood.\n----Traditional foods for Chinese New Year\u2019s Eve.\n------Spring Rolls.\n------Dumplings.\n------Glutinous Rice Cake.\n------Good Fortune Fruit.\n------Longevity Noodles.\n----Money gift and Money tree.\n--Similar traditions in other part of Asia.\n----Philippines.\n--Taboos.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yusheng",
        "text": "Today, the common form of yusheng is the qicai yusheng (\u4e03\u5f69\u9c7c\u751f; \"seven-coloured raw fish salad\") served in local restaurants during the Chinese New Year period. Also referred to as facai yusheng (\u53d1\u8d22\u9c7c\u751f; \"prosperity raw fish salad\") or xinnian yusheng (\u65b0\u5e74\u9c7c\u751f; \"Chinese New Year raw fish salad\"). The recipe generally includes ingredients such as shredded white and green radish and carrots, ginger slices, onion slices, crushed peanuts, pomelo, pepper, essence of chicken, oil, salt, vinegar, sugar and more."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Traditionally, red envelopes or red packets"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Incense, tea, fruit, vegetarian food or roast pig, and gold paper, are served as a customary protocol for paying respect to an honored person."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Chinese New Year is the festival that celebrates the beginning of a new year on the traditional lunisolar and solar Chinese calendar. In Chinese and other East Asian cultures, the festival is commonly referred to as the Spring Festival () as the spring season in the lunisolar calendar traditionally starts with lichun, the first of the twenty-four solar terms which the festival celebrates around the time of the Chinese New Year. Marking the end of winter and the beginning of the spring season, observances traditionally take place from New Year\u2019s Eve, the evening preceding the first day of the year to the Lantern Festival, held on the 15th day of the year. The first day of Chinese New Year begins on the new moon that appears between 21 January and 20 February."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Like many other New Year dishes, certain ingredients also take special precedence over others as these ingredients also have similar-sounding names with prosperity, good luck, or even counting money."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade",
        "text": "A Chinese candy box, called Tray of Togetherness or Harmony box, is a sectional tray which is used to serve bite-sized treats, such as candied melon, red melon seeds, candied coconut, and lotus seeds to wish guests a sweet new year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "A reunion dinner"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fuzhou",
        "text": "Fuzhou residents also enjoy eating festival foods during traditional Chinese holidays. For example, red and white rice cakes () are served over Chinese New Year, stuffed yuanxiao () during the Lantern Festival, zongzi () during the Dragon Boat Festival, and sweet soy bean powder-covered plain yuanxiao over the winter solstice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kelantan",
        "text": "Much of Chinese culture still continues until today; such as Lion Dance and Dragon Dance during the Chinese New Year, temple celebration, eating bakchang (meat dumpling), mooncake, baby fullmoon, pulut kuning, telur merah, eat 'e' (tangyuan), religious celebration including praying Na Tuk Kong. They also cook 'bak hong', 'uang (meatball)' during the wedding ceremony and ' kiam mai' during the funeral."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Spring rolls is a traditional dish in East China. It is a Cantonese dish which people make the thin dough wrappers in the cylindrical-shaped rolls and fill them with vegetables, meat, or something sweet, then fried the spring rolls to give them a golden-yellow color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "The dumpling is a traditional food to eat in north China on Chinese New Year\u2019s Eve while in southern China very few people serve dumplings as Lunar New Year\u2019s Eve dinner. Minced meat (pork, shrimp, chicken, beef.etc.) and vegetables are wrapped in the elastic dough skin. Boiling, steaming, frying are the most common ways to cook dumplings in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yusheng",
        "text": "The Chinese China Cuisine Association mentions the tradition coming from Guangdong, China before the dishes were brought to Southeast Asia by Chinese immigration. However, the statement only mentions the tradition of having raw fish during Chinese New Year, which was served very differently from today's Yusheng."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Tangerines, oranges and pomelos are certain fruits that been eaten on Lunar New Year's Eve. Chinese believe that eating these fruits on Chinese New Year's Eve can bring fortune as these fruits have round shape, golden colour, lucky sounds when spoken which symbolise fullness and wealth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Typical actions such as lighting fires and using knives are considered taboo, thus all consumable food has to be cooked prior. Using the broom, including swearing and breaking any dinnerware without appeasing the deities, are also considered taboo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sungai Ruan",
        "text": "Fireworks are a classic element of Chinese New Year celebrations and celebrate in Sungai Ruan every year.\n*Bbq Chicken Wing \u2013 Among the local dishes is Sungai Ruan Chicken Wing that is well known throughout the Raub town.\n*Nasi Lemak \u2013 local cuisine and sell at Sg. Ruan Economy noodle shop .\n*ABC \u2013 ABC is an abbreviation for Air Batu Campur, or known as Ice Kacang Sungai Ruan, a dessert created from shaved ice added with corn, jelly, redbeans, groundnut, syrup, pasteurised milk, and liquid chocolate.\n*Satay \u2013 a popular food in Malaysia and made from marinated meat or chicken and burnt on a charcoal grill. Grilled satay is dipped in special peanut sauce.\n*Char kway teow \u2013 stir fried rice noodles with prawns, pork or chicken, eggs, chives and beansprouts, usually optional cockles.\n*Wantan Noodle \u2013 Chinese noodles with Chinese dumplings , chooi sam and BBQ pork. Dumplings are usually made of Pork and/or prawns. The noodles may be served either in a bowl of soup with dumplings or on a plate with some dark soya sauce flavoured with oil and slices of roast pork and vegetables. For the latter, the dumplings will be served in a separate bowl with soup.\n*Hokkien Mee \u2013 a dish of thick yellow noodles fried in thick black soy sauce and pork lard which has been fried until crispy. This dish is served mostly in Kuala Lumpur, Seremban, Klang, Kuantan and Penang.\n*Chicken Rice \u2013 steamed chicken served with rice cooked in margarine, chicken fat, chicken stock or chicken soup.\n*Banmian \u2013 made using a hand-operated machine in a stall which forms noodles from the dough. The dish is served in soup, usually with pieces of minced chicken or minced pork, ikan bilis , vegetables, eggs, sliced mushrooms and fish balls.\n*Doufuhua \u2013 a Chinese dessert made with very soft tofu. It is also referred to as tofu pudding and soybean pudding.\n*Red Beans and Wheat Porridge \u2013 new flavours, mixing the red beans soup and wheat porridge. Interestingly, the tastes of both will not cancel out tastes of each another."
      },
      {
        "title": "Longtaitou Festival",
        "text": "Today, Longtaitou Festival is celebrated in various ways, most of which are still identical to those practiced in the ancient times, including eating Chinese pancakes (\u6625\u997c) and dragon beard noodles. It is an auspicious day for people to get a haircut, after month-long time without cutting hair in January for Lunar New Year. Women and children carry Perfume bags filled with the powder of ground fragrant herbs for good fortune, though they are no longer used as insect repellent as in ancient times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhenjiang",
        "text": "Other local specialties include crab cream bun, Chinkiang pork (, akin to head cheese), and pickled vegetables. Formerly, households in Zhenjiang would prepare for the new year by eating a red-bean dish and avoiding rice. One bowl of beans was left on the table to feed the home's flies, from the belief that they would then avoid disturbing the family during the new year festivities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Big Chinese population cities and towns like of Chinatown includes Jakarta, Medan, Singkawang, Pangkal Pinang, Binjai, Bagansiapiapi, Tanjungbalai, Pematangsiantar, Selat Panjang, Pekanbaru, Tanjung Pinang, Batam, Ketapang, Pontianak, Sungailiat, Tanjung Pandan, Manggar, Toboali, Muntok, Lubuk Pakam, Bandung, Semarang, Surabaya, Rantau Prapat, Tebing Tinggi, Sibolga, Dumai, Panipahan, Bagan Batu, Tanjung Balai Karimun, Palembang, Bengkayang, and Tangerang always have its own New Year's celebration every years with parade and fireworks. A lot shopping malls decorated its building with lantern, Chinese words and lion or dragon with red and gold as main color. Lion dance is a common sight around Chinese houses, temples and its shophouses. Usually, the Buddhist, Confucian and Taoist Chinese will burn a big incense made by aloeswood with dragon-decorated at front of their house. The Chinese temple is open 24 hours at the first day, their also distributes a red envelopes and sometimes rice, fruits or sugar to the poor around."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nu people",
        "text": "On the eve of the festival, households in every village butcher pigs, make soft-rice dumplings, brew wine and clean their courtyards, similar to the Chinese New Year. On New Year's Eve, before eating, they put corn and dishes of food on a three-legged barbecue. On top of the three legs, three cups are put and also three pieces of meat, then the family members, either young or old, pray for a good harvest and strong livestock for the New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The Chinese New Year is associated with several myths and customs. The festival was traditionally a time to honor deities as well as ancestors. Within China, regional customs and traditions concerning the celebration of the New Year vary widely, and the evening preceding the New Year's Day is frequently regarded as an occasion for Chinese families to gather for the annual reunion dinner. It is also traditional for every family to thoroughly clean their house, in order to sweep away any ill fortune and to make way for incoming good luck. Another custom is the decoration of windows and doors with red paper-cuts and couplets. Popular themes among these paper-cuts and couplets include good fortune or happiness, wealth, and longevity. Other activities include lighting firecrackers and giving money in red paper envelopes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Family reunion dinner is crucial to Chinese. Chinese New Year\u2019s Eve feast allows every family members to sit together. It takes days to do the preparation. Every dish on Chinese New Year\u2019s Eve have different meanings. Some of the most popular dishes are:"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "On New Year's Eve family members try to attend dinner together. Fat choy, an edible algae, is commonly served because the name sounds like the word for prosperity. Dumplings such as jiaozi are stuffed with a coin or a date; finding a coin symbolizes wealth in the coming year. A woman finding a date will give birth in the coming year. Fish traditionally appears on the table but is not eaten because the word for fish sounds like the word for profit or surplus, and eating it would \"eat up the profit\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Red packets for the immediate family are sometimes distributed during the reunion dinner. These packets contain money in an amount that reflects good luck and honorability. Several foods are consumed to usher in wealth, happiness, and good fortune. Several of the Chinese food names are homophones for words that also mean good things."
      },
      {
        "title": "De'e",
        "text": "Each year, at the beginning of the lunar new year, the Tiapo Festival (\u8df3\u5761\u8282; pinyin: Ti\u00e0op\u014d Ji\u00e9; literally \"leaping on the hillsides festival\"), a Miao festival featuring the music and dance, is held. Other nationalities living in the area, including the Yi, Gelao, Zhuang, and Han, also participate in this festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese school",
        "text": "Many Chinese schools put on a Chinese New Year gala as the festival is an important Chinese festival celebrated at the turn of the Chinese calendar. It is also known as the Spring Festival, the literal translation of the modern Chinese name. Chinese New Year celebrations traditionally run from Chinese New Year's Eve, the last day of the last month of the Chinese calendar, to the Lantern Festival on the 15th day of the first month, making the festival the longest in the Chinese calendar. The first day of the New Year falls between January 21 and February 20.\n* Chinese as a foreign language"
      },
      {
        "title": "San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade",
        "text": "Great happiness is symbolized with fruits such as tangerines and oranges. Tangerines with undamaged leaves symbolize secure relationships, and for newlyweds, symbolizes the beginning of a family with children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shumai",
        "text": "Called the Yifeng shaomai in the southeastern Jiangxi province, this version's distinct flavour comes from a blend of pork mince, bread flour, sesame seed powder, ground pepper and sugar. It is particularly popular in the area of Yifeng Tanshan Tianbao where it is one of the foods eaten during the Chinese New Year celebration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In northern China, it is customary to make jiaozi, or dumplings, after dinner to eat around midnight. Dumplings symbolize wealth because their shape resembles a Chinese sycee. In contrast, in the South, it is customary to make a glutinous new year cake (niangao) and send pieces of it as gifts to relatives and friends in the coming days. Ni\u00e1ng\u0101o [Pinyin] literally means \"new year cake\" with a homophonous meaning of \"increasingly prosperous year in year out\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dongzhi Festival",
        "text": "The festive food is also a reminder that celebrators are now a year older and should behave better in the coming year. Even today, many Chinese around the world, especially the elderly, still insist that one is \"a year older\" right after the Dongzhi celebration instead of waiting for the lunar new year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nankin-machi",
        "text": "Most shops show off their cuisine on display stands for potential customers. Some examples include dim sum, dumplings, buns, and Chinese pastries. During the Lunar New Year and the Mid Autumn season, two major festivals celebrated by Chinese people worldwide, New Year's delicacies and Moon Cakes appear."
      },
      {
        "title": "D Is for Dragon Dance",
        "text": "A few of the Chinese New Year traditions featured in the book include:\n* Watching the Dragon Dance performance in the New Year's parade\n* Lighting firecrackers\n* Hanging paper lanterns\n* Eating Peking Duck\n* Children receiving Red Envelopes full of gifts\n* Eating Steamed Dumplings\n* Performing Venerationfor one's ancestors\n* Creating Xylographs\n* Welcoming the Chinese Zodiac for the new year"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "New Year's foods are dishes traditionally eaten for luck in the coming year. Many traditional New Year dishes revolve around the food's resemblance to money or to its appearance symbolizing long life, such as long noodles or strands of sauerkraut. Some cultures and religions have evolved complex food traditions associated with the new year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Glutinous Rice Cake is called \"Nian Gao\" in mandarin. The sound of Nian Gao has a good meaning: getting higher year by year. Glutinous Rice Cake is made of sticky rice, sugar, chestnuts, lotus leaves. It is a common dish which appeared in the southern Chinese families' Lunar New Year Eve reunion dinner."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade",
        "text": "The weekend before Chinese New Year Day, a Lunar New Year Fair takes place in San Francisco's Chinatown. Vendors line the streets and sell goods including traditional flowers, plants, fruits and candies which people give as gifts to family and friends or use for house decorations. Throughout the streets, there are traditional Chinese performances, such as magic shows, acrobatics, folk dancing, and opera."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade",
        "text": "Starting in 2019, gold foil-wrapped chocolate coins were passed out in traditional \"lai see\" (red envelopes) to children for the one-day Choy Sun Doe event, celebrating the arrival of the god of wealth. Some also included money or a gift certificate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Renri",
        "text": "Nowadays during \"Zhengyue\", \"Renri\" is celebrated as part of the Chinese New Year. Chinese people prepare lucky food in the new year, where the \"seven vegetable soup\" (\u4e03\u83dc\u7fb9), \"seven vegetable congee\" (\u4e03\u83dc\u7ca5) and \"\"jidi\" congee\" (\u53ca\u7b2c\u7ca5) are specially prepared for \"Renri\". Malaysian and Singaporean Chinese use the \"seven-coloured raw fish\" () instead of the \"seven vegetable soup\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "Traditional celebration food on New Year's Eve is virsli, a sausage served with mustard or horseradish, and a poppyseed roll known as bejgli. Champagne is served in midnight toasts. On New Year's Day the traditional meal is pork, lentils, and cabbage soup. Eating something sweet brings luck. Eating pork brings luck, especially the tail. Eating chicken or fish is unlucky."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "A related tradition is the smashing and sharing of peppermint pigs on Christmas Day to ensure good luck in the new year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The tradition of eating Chinese dumplings \"jiaozi\" (\u9903\u5b50) was established under the Ming dynasty at the latest. It is described in the book \"Youzhongzhi\" (\u914c\u4e2d\u5fd7): \"People get up at 5 in the morning of new year's day, burn incense and light firecrackers, throw door latch or wooden bars in the air three times, drink pepper and thuja wine, eat dumplings. Sometimes put one or two silver currency inside dumplings, and whoever gets the money will attain a year of fortune.\" Modern Chinese people also put other food that is auspicious into dumplings: such as dates, which prophesy a flourishing new year; candy, which predicts sweet days; and nian gao, which foretells a rich life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Chinese New Year\n--Dates in Chinese lunisolar calendar.\n--Mythology.\n--History.\n--Naming.\n--Public holiday.\n--Festivities.\n----Preceding days.\n----Chinese New Year's Eve.\n----First day.\n----Second day.\n----Third day.\n----Fourth day.\n----Fifth day.\n----Sixth day.\n----Seventh day.\n----Eighth day.\n----Ninth day.\n----Tenth day.\n----Fifteenth day.\n--Traditional food.\n--Practices.\n----Red envelopes.\n------Mythology.\n----Gift exchange.\n----Markets.\n----Fireworks.\n----Music.\n----Movies.\n----Clothing.\n----Family portrait.\n----Symbolism.\n----Nianhua.\n----Flowers.\n----Spring travel.\n--Festivities outside Greater China.\n----Southeast Asia.\n------Malaysia.\n------Singapore.\n------Philippines.\n------Indonesia.\n------Thailand.\n----Australia and New Zealand.\n----North America.\n------New York.\n------California.\n----Europe.\n----India and Pakistan.\n--Greetings.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lantern Festival",
        "text": "Eaten during the Lantern Festival, tangyuan '\u6e6f\u5713' (Southern China, Taiwan and Southeast Asia) or yuanxiao '\u5143\u5bb5' (Northern China) is a glutinous rice ball typically filled with sweet red bean paste, sesame paste, or peanut butter. Actually, tangyuan is different from yuanxiao due to different manual making and filling processes. It can be boiled, fried or steamed, each has independent taste. However, they are very similar in shape and taste, so most people do not distinguish them for convenience and consider them as the same thing. Chinese people believe that the round shape of the balls and the bowls in which they are served symbolize family togetherness, and that eating tangyuan or yuanxiao may bring the family harmony, happiness and luck in the new year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xinye Village",
        "text": "While most regions of China celebrates the Chinese New Year as the main annual festival, in Xinye the most important festival is the Shangsi or Double Third, which falls on the third day of the third month of the Chinese calendar. Shangsi Festival is an ancient tradition that is only practiced by a few local communities in China today. The celebration includes a 3-kilometer ritual procession to Yuquan Temple () and back, and ancestor worship ceremonies and performances are held in many temples."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade",
        "text": "The route starts in the heart of Chinatown at Grant and Sacramento; the route continues through North Beach and returns via the Embarcadero. Runners in the 10K repeat the loop twice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nanshi Cuisine Street",
        "text": "The New Year Pictures (nianhua) of Yangliuqing combine delineation, woodcarving, overprinting, color painting and mounting techniques; and feature an exquisite touch, smooth lines, elaborate techniques, lifelike color paintings and a vivid luster, especially the color paintings of human faces, which are fine, bright and true to life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianshan Subdistrict",
        "text": "Since around 2011, the Agricultural Paradise has held an annual Pumpkin Art Festival for the first six days of the Chinese New Year, awarding up to 10,000 in prizes for big or unusual pumpkins. Other activities include magic shows, \"pumpkin art dancing\", pumpkin bowling, and pumpkin noodle-making."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Many celebrate the festival in Chinatown, Kolkata, India, where a significant community of people of Chinese origin exists. In Kolkata, Chinese New Year is celebrated with lion and dragon dance."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "Lentils, the most common of which are greenish-brown disks, are considered to resemble the coins of ancient Rome and are symbolic of good luck and prosperity. In Italy, dishes of lentils and sausage, also sliced into disks, are typical New Year food. One common dish is Cotechino con lenticchie, believed to bring good luck. Another common dish is zampone; chiacchiere is a common dessert, and prosecco is often served. New Year's Eve is celebrated as La Festa di San Silvestro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Markets or village fairs are set up as the New Year is approaching. These usually open-air markets feature new year related products such as flowers, toys, clothing, and even fireworks and firecrackers. It is convenient for people to buy gifts for their new year visits as well as their home decorations. In some places, the practice of shopping for the perfect plum tree is not dissimilar to the Western tradition of buying a Christmas tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade",
        "text": "Highlights of the parade include floats, lion dancers, elementary school groups in costume, marching bands, stilt walkers, Chinese acrobats, and a Golden Dragon. Observers can expect to hear at least 600,000 firecrackers, and are advised to bring ear plugs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Prior to the Reunion Dinner, a prayer of thanksgiving is held to mark the safe passage of the previous year. Confucianists take the opportunity to remember their ancestors, and those who had lived before them are revered. Some people do not give a Buddhist prayer due to the influence of Christianity, with a Christian prayer offered instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "This day often marks the end of the Chinese New Year festivities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Another family dinner is held to celebrate the eve of the birth of the Jade Emperor, the ruler of heaven. People normally return to work by the eighth day, therefore the Store owners will host a lunch/dinner with their employees, thanking their employees for the work they have done for the whole year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barrio Chino (Mexico City)",
        "text": "Comunidad China de M\u00e9xico, A. C. sponsors festivals and cultural events to preserve and promote Chinese-Mexican culture in the neighborhood. By far the largest festival sponsored is the annual Chinese New Year\u2019s celebration, which has as cosponsors organizations such as the borough of Cuauhtemoc and Coca-Cola. It is generally held on the weekend closest to the actual date of new year's and crowds squeeze into the two-block stretch of Dolores Street to see Lion dances, fireworks and other traditional new year's traditions and eat traditional foods such as steamed buns and roast suckling pig."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese Americans",
        "text": "In most American cities with significant Chinese populations, the new year is celebrated with cultural festivals and other celebrations. In Seattle, the is held every year. Other important festivals include the Dragon Boat Festival and the Mid-Autumn Festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jingchu Suishiji",
        "text": "Importantly, the \"Jingchu Suishiji\" records changing Chinese rituals, cuisine, and entertainment as religious and calendrical changes led to a \"new canon\" of major festivals. The Chinese New Year, Lantern, Tomb Sweeping, Dragon Boat, Double Seven, Ghost, and Double Ninth Festivals all took most of their present form during the period leading up to the composition of the \"Jingchu Suishiji\". The Double Seven and Double Ninth Festivals reflect the growing use from the late Han onward of monthly dating rather than the old sexagenary cycle of heavenly stems and earthly branches. Similarly, the new reckoning gave added importance to the proper new year festival, which added features from the old popular \"new year\" La sacrifices and exorcisms that had occurred in the 12th month after midwinter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The first day, known as \"Spring Festival\" (Chinese: ) is for the welcoming of the deities of the heavens and Earth on midnight. It is a traditional practice to light fireworks, burn bamboo sticks and firecrackers, and lion dance troupes, were done commonly as a tradition to ward off evil spirits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yusheng",
        "text": "Yusheng is often served as part of a multi-dish dinner, usually as the appetizer due to its symbolism of \"good luck\" for the new year. Some would consume it on Renri, the seventh day of the Chinese New Year, although in practice it may be eaten on any convenient day during the Chinese New Year period (the first to the 15th day of the first lunar month)."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "In some areas it is common for a woman to serve qyaqi ashar, a horse meat dish, to her boyfriend on New Year's Eve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year film",
        "text": "A Chinese New Year film (, Mandarin: \"h\u00e8su\u00ecpi\u0101n\", Cantonese: \"ho6seoi3pin3\") refers to movies usually released during the Chinese New Year period. It is a film that varies in genre (fantasy, comedy, action, animation, and the like) but whose style is generally relaxed and humorous. It is focused around the horoscope animal, theme, and other attributes for the upcoming year, taking these New Year ideas and presenting them in a modern and exciting way. A recent tradition, it has become a popular way to celebrate the New Year. In recent years, attendance at screenings for such films has grown during the holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade",
        "text": "The California Academy of Sciences hosts a NightLife event for adults after regular operating hours on Thursdays; since at least 2014, one Thursday night during the Festival is themed for the Lunar New Year. A special lion dance performance by the Jing Mo Athletic Association took place on February 2, 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade is the oldest and one of the largest events of its kind outside of Asia, and one of the largest Asian cultural events in North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mid-Autumn Festival",
        "text": "Food offerings made to deities are placed on an altar set up in the courtyard, including apples, pears, peaches, grapes, pomegranates, melons, oranges, and pomelos. One of the first decorations purchased for the celebration table is a clay statue of the Jade Rabbit. In Chinese folklore, the Jade Rabbit was an animal that lived on the Moon and accompanied Chang'e. Offerings of soy beans and cockscomb flowers were made to the Jade Rabbit."
      },
      {
        "title": "East Asian cultural sphere",
        "text": "Popular terms associated with East Asian cuisine include boba, kimchi, sushi, hot pot, tea, dimsum, ramen, as well as ph\u1edf, sashimi, udon, among others.\n* Fashion: see, \"Hanfu\" and \"Cheongsam\" (or \"Qipao\") (China); \"\u00c1o d\u00e0i\" and \"Vi\u1ec7t ph\u1ee5c\" (Vietnam); \"Hanbok\" (Korea); \"Kimono\" and \"Wafuku\" (Japan).\n* Dance: The Lion Dance is a form of traditional dance in Chinese culture and other culturally East Asian countries in which performers mimic a lion's movements in a lion costume to bring good luck and fortune. Aside from China, versions of the lion dance are found in Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, and Taiwan. Lion Dances are usually performed during Chinese New Year, religious and cultural celebrations.\n* New Year: China (\"Zh\u014dnggu\u00f3 X\u012bn Ni\u00e1n\"), Korea (\"Seollal\"), Vietnam (\"T\u1ebft\"), Japan (\"Kosh\u014dgatsu\"), and Taiwan traditionally observe the same Lunar New Year. However, Japan has moved its New Year (\"Sh\u014dgatsu\") to fit the Western New Year since the Meiji Restoration. Although mainland Japan may not celebrate the Lunar New Year anymore, there are some indigenous minority ethnic groups in Japan that still do such as the Okinawan/Ryukyuan people. Okinawa has traditionally observed the Lunar New Year because of heavy Chinese influence in its past. Festivities nowadays aren't as elaborate as the Western new year but, Okinawans still celebrate and partake in many traditions for Lunar New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "CCTV New Year's Gala",
        "text": "The program is a variety show, often featuring music, dance, comedy, and drama performances. It has become a ritual for many Chinese families, including overseas Chinese, to watch the show on Chinese New Year's Eve. Many \"Chunwan\" performers have emerged as household names in China solely as a result of their recurring appearances on the program."
      },
      {
        "title": "Senoi",
        "text": "The only annual ceremony is the post-harvest festival, which is now synchronized with Chinese New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Macau",
        "text": "The Lunar Chinese New Year is the most important traditional festival, and celebration normally takes place in late January or early February. The Pou Tai Un Temple in Taipa is the place for the Feast of Tou Tei, the Earth god, in February. The Procession of the Passion of Our Lord is a well-known Roman Catholic rite and journey, which travels from Saint Austin's Church to the cathedral, also taking place in February."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade",
        "text": "Families participated in making a pellet drum, used for thousands of years as part of traditional celebrations, using simple materials."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade",
        "text": "The two-day fair and its entertainment is planned by the San Francisco Chinese Chamber of Commerce and presents over 80 concessions and booths on the weekend that the Chinese New Year Parade is held. Entertainment includes folk dance, opera, drumming, family photos, giant puppets, lion dances, fine arts demonstrations, calligraphy, lantern-making, and kite-making. About 500,000 people attend the Chinatown Community Street Fair."
      },
      {
        "title": "Japanese cuisine",
        "text": "In Japanese tradition some dishes are strongly tied to a festival or event. These dishes include:\n* Botamochi, a sticky rice dumpling with sweet azuki paste served in spring, while a similar sweet Ohagi is served in autumn.\n* Chimaki (steamed sweet rice cake): Tango no sekku and Gion Festival.\n* Hamo (a type of fish, often eel) and s\u014dmen: Gion Festival.\n* Osechi: New Year.\n* Sekihan is red rice, which is served for any celebratory occasion. It is usually sticky rice cooked with azuki, or red bean, which gives the rice its distinctive red color.\n* Soba: New Year's Eve. This is called \"toshi koshi soba\" (literally \"year crossing soba\").\n* Chirashizushi, Ushiojiru (clear soup of clams) and amazake: Hinamatsuri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salatiga",
        "text": "Chinese New Year is a festive time in Salatiga. On the fifteenth and last day of celebration, also called \"Cap Go Meh\", can be witnessed a compelling performance of a large dragon puppet, the \"Barongsai\". This puppet is usually played by two or more people, performing an entrancing Chinese traditional dance at \"Klenteng Hok Tek Bio\" and along \"Sukowati\" street, where the temple is located. On this special day, civilians gather around the temple where a big celebration filled with performances is held and \"angpao\" (red envelope) is given out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In the morning (traditionally anytime between midnight and 7\u00a0am), Taiwanese households set up an altar table with three layers: one top (containing offertories of six vegetables (; those being noodles, fruits, cakes, tangyuan, vegetable bowls, and unripe betel), all decorated with paper lanterns) and two lower levels (five sacrifices and wines) to honor the deities below the Jade Emperor. The household then kneels three times and kowtows nine times to pay obeisance and wish him a long life."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Traditions include wearing yellow underwear, eating Pan de jam\u00f3n, and 12 grapes with sparkling wine."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Chinese Feast",
        "text": "During the tournament, the contestants prepared rare and luxurious dishes. Kit was able to recapture his previous glories and ultimately saved Au's restaurant after a closely fought contest. The movie would eventually end on a happy note as is the theme of all Lunar New Year movies."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "Sabzi Polo Mahi is the traditional meal served on New Year's Day and typically includes herbed rice and fish, reshteh polo (a rice and noodle dish similar to tahdig), dolme barg, and kookoo sabzi. After the meal Deed-o Bazdeed, or New Year's Visits, begin and continue until the 13th day of No Ruz. Typically sweets, nuts, tea, and fruit is served to visitors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese calendar",
        "text": "The Chinese New Year (known as the Spring Festival/\u6625\u7bc0 in China) is on the first day of the first month and was traditionally called the Yuan Dan (\u5143\u65e6) or Zheng Ri (\u6b63\u65e5). In Vietnam, it is known as T\u1ebft Nguy\u00ean \u0110\u00e1n () and in Korea, it is known as \uc124\ub0a0. Traditionally it was the most important holiday of the year. It is an official holiday in China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Vietnam, Korea, the Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. It is also a public holiday in Thailand's Narathiwat, Pattani, Yala, and Satun provinces and is an official public school holiday in New York City."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mai X\u00e1, Gio Mai",
        "text": "Beside of small clam noodles, B\u00e1nh h\u1ecdc is a specialty of the village. This is the type of bread made from new types of plastic sticky fragrant, usually only be made on New Year. Initially, people roasted sticky rice mixed with sugar provide complete, ginger and peanuts, for the wood frame (size about 12 x 30\u00a0cm) and use small wood close to the wheel hard to make."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade",
        "text": "SF Beer Week included a dim sum beer brunch on February 11, 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In addition to red envelopes, which are usually given from older people to younger people, small gifts (usually food or sweets) are also exchanged between friends or relatives (of different households) during Chinese New Year. Gifts are usually brought when visiting friends or relatives at their homes. Common gifts include fruits (typically oranges, but never trade pears), cakes, biscuits, chocolates, and candies. Gifts are preferred to be wraped with red or golden paper, which symbolises good luck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In London, celebrations take place in Chinatown, Leicester Square, and Trafalgar Square. Festivities include a parade, cultural feast, fireworks, concerts and performances. The celebration attracts between 300,000 and 500,000 people yearly according to the organisers.\n;France"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "A prominent requisite offering is sugarcane. Legends holds that the Hokkien were spared from a massacre by Japanese pirates by hiding in a sugarcane plantation between the eighth and ninth days of the Chinese New Year, coinciding with the Jade Emperor's birthday. \"Sugarcane\" () is a near homonym to \"thank you\" () in the Hokkien dialect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Japanese New Year",
        "text": "This corresponds to the Chinese Lantern Festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jiuhuang Bencao",
        "text": "The \"Jiuhuang bencao\" entry for \"Sagittaria sagittifolia\" \"arrowhead\" exemplifies famine food plants that were first described by Zhu Xiao and later became normal Chinese crop plants. In the present day, this edible tuber, traditionally associated with Chinese New Year, is known as \"c\u00edg\u016b\" ((, lit. \"kindly mushroom\"), also written (\"kindly aunt\") or (\"thatch wild-rice\")), \"ji\u01cend\u0101oc\u01ceo\" (, \"scissors herb\"), or \"y\u00e0nw\u011bic\u01ceo\" (, \"swallow tail herb\"). Zhu Xiao used the names \"shu\u01d0c\u00edg\u016b\" (, \"water kindly wild-rice\"), using \"g\u016b\" (, \"wild rice\") instead of \"g\u016b\" (, \"mushroom\"), \"ji\u01cend\u0101oc\u01ceo\", and \"ji\u00e0nd\u0101c\u01ceo\" (, \"arrow hang herb\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade",
        "text": "San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade\n--History.\n----Early celebrations.\n----Modern beginnings.\n----Current celebration.\n--Festival events.\n----CCHP Chinatown YMCA Chinese New Year Run.\n----Chinese New Year Flower Market Fair.\n----Chinatown Community Street Fair.\n----Miss Chinatown U.S.A. Pageant.\n----Other community festival events.\n------Asian Art Museum.\n------California Academy of Sciences.\n------Chinese Historical Society of America.\n------Choy Sun Doe.\n------Presidio Officer's Club.\n------San Francisco Symphony Chinese New Year Celebration.\n------SF Beer Week.\n------SF Chinese Chamber of Commerce/Southwest Airlines Basketball Jamboree.\n--Parade.\n----\"Gum Lung\".\n----Entrants.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Numerous other greetings exist, some of which may be exclaimed out loud to no one in particular in specific situations. For example, as breaking objects during the new year is considered inauspicious, one may then say (\"Su\u00ecsu\u00ec-p\u00edng'\u0101n\") immediately, which means \"everlasting peace year after year\". \"Su\u00ec\" (), meaning \"age\" is homophonous with (su\u00ec) (meaning \"shatter\"), in the demonstration of the Chinese love for wordplay in auspicious phrases. Similarly, (\"ni\u00e1nni\u00e1n y\u01d2u y\u00fa\"), a wish for surpluses and bountiful harvests every year, plays on the word \"y\u00fa\" that can also refer to (y\u00fa meaning fish), making it a catch phrase for fish-based Chinese new year dishes and for paintings or graphics of fish that are hung on walls or presented as gifts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "This day is the god of Wealth's birthday. In northern China, people eat jiaozi, or dumplings, on the morning of \"powu\" (). In Taiwan, businesses traditionally re-open on the next day (the sixth day), accompanied by firecrackers."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "Vasilopita is a type of bread or king cake which is eaten on New Year's Day (the feast of St. Basil) to bring luck for the upcoming year. Coins or trinkets are baked into the dough; it is considered lucky to find one. Eating pomegranates is considered symbolic of fertility and abundance. Diples are a typical dessert in the Peloponnese and are also served at weddings and at New Year's celebrations."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some of the traditional dishes associated with the festival?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you referring to the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, the Cannes Festival, the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, the Obon, or some other festival?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about the dishes of the Chinese New Year festival."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Do you wish to know about the food during the preceding days before the Chinese New Year, during Chinese New Year's Eve, the god of Wealth's day, the ninth day, or some other day of the event?",
      "The Chinese New Year festival features many dishes including a reunion dinner and other traditional foods. Which of these foods are you interested in learning more about?"
    ],
    "topic": "Chinese New Year",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Chinese New Year:27",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Chinese New Year",
          "Festivities",
          "Preceding days"
        ],
        "ctx": "On the eighth day of the lunar month prior to Chinese New Year, the \"Laba\" holiday (), a traditional porridge, Laba porridge (), is served in remembrance of an ancient festival, called \"La\", that occurred shortly after the winter solstice. Pickles such as Laba garlic, which turns green from vinegar, are also made on this day. For those that practice Buddhism, the Laba holiday is also considered Bodhi Day. \"Layue\" () is a term often associated with Chinese New Year as it refers to the sacrifices held in honor of the gods in the twelfth lunar month, hence the cured meats of Chinese New Year are known as \"larou\" (). The porridge was prepared by the women of the household at first light, with the first bowl offered to the family's ancestors and the household deities. Every member of the family was then served a bowl, with leftovers distributed to relatives and friends. It's still served as a special breakfast on this day in some Chinese homes. The concept of the \"La month\" is similar to Advent in Christianity. Many families eat vegetarian on Chinese New Year eve, the garlic and preserved meat are eaten on Chinese New Year day."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Chinese New Year:31",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Chinese New Year",
          "Festivities",
          "Chinese New Year's Eve"
        ],
        "ctx": "The day before the Chinese New Year (Chinese: ) usually accompanied with a dinner feast, consisting of special meats are served at the tables, as a main course for the dinner and as a offering for the New Year. This meal is comparable to Thanksgiving dinner in the U.S. and remotely similar to Christmas dinner in other countries with a high percentage of Christians."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Chinese New Year:43",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Chinese New Year",
          "Festivities",
          "Fifth day"
        ],
        "ctx": "This day is the god of Wealth's birthday. In northern China, people eat jiaozi, or dumplings, on the morning of \"powu\" (). In Taiwan, businesses traditionally re-open on the next day (the sixth day), accompanied by firecrackers."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Chinese New Year:52",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Chinese New Year",
          "Festivities",
          "Ninth day"
        ],
        "ctx": "Incense, tea, fruit, vegetarian food or roast pig, and gold paper, are served as a customary protocol for paying respect to an honored person."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Chinese New Year:58",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Chinese New Year",
          "Traditional food"
        ],
        "ctx": "(\"ni\u00e1n y\u00e8 f\u00e0n\") is held on New Year's Eve during which family members gather for a celebration. The venue will usually be in or near the home of the most senior member of the family. The New Year's Eve dinner is very large and sumptuous and traditionally includes dishes of meat (namely, pork and chicken) and fish. Most reunion dinners also feature a communal hot pot as it is believed to signify the coming together of the family members for the meal. Most reunion dinners (particularly in the Southern regions) also prominently feature specialty meats (e.g. wax-cured meats like duck and Chinese sausage) and seafood (e.g. lobster and abalone) that are usually reserved for this and other special occasions during the remainder of the year. In most areas, fish () is included, but not eaten completely (and the remainder is stored overnight), as the Chinese phrase \"may there be \"surpluses\" every year\" () sounds the same as \"let there be fish every year.\" Eight individual dishes are served to reflect the belief of good fortune associated with the number. If in the previous year a death was experienced in the family, seven dishes are served."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Chinese New Year:59",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Chinese New Year",
          "Traditional food"
        ],
        "ctx": "Other traditional foods consists of noodles, fruits, dumplings, spring rolls, and Tangyuan which are also known as sweet rice balls. Each dish served during Chinese New Year represents something special. The noodles used to make longevity noodles are usually very thin, long wheat noodles. These noodles are longer than normal noodles that are usually fried and served on a plate, or boiled and served in a bowl with its broth. Expectedly, the noodles symbolize the wish for a long life. The fruits that are typically selected would be oranges, tangerines, and pomelos as they are round and \"golden\" color symbolizing fullness and wealth. Their lucky sound when spoken also brings good luck and fortune. The Chinese pronunciation for orange is \u6a59 (ch\u00e9ng /chnng/), which sounds the same as the Chinese for 'success' (\u6210). One of the ways to spell tangerine(\u6854 j\u00fa /jyoo/) contains the Chinese character for luck (\u5409 j\u00ed /jee/). Pomelos is believed to bring constant prosperity. Pomelo in Chinese (\u67da y\u00f2u /yo/) sounds similar to 'to have' (\u6709 y\u01d2u), disregarding its tone, however it sounds exactly like 'again' (\u53c8 y\u00f2u). Dumplings and spring rolls symbolize wealth, whereas sweet rice balls symbolize family togetherness."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "A reunion dinner"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "(\"ni\u00e1n y\u00e8 f\u00e0n\") is held on New Year's Eve during which family members gather for a celebration. The venue will usually be in or near the home of the most senior member of the family. The New Year's Eve dinner is very large and sumptuous and traditionally includes dishes of meat (namely, pork and chicken) and fish. Most reunion dinners also feature a communal hot pot as it is believed to signify the coming together of the family members for the meal. Most reunion dinners (particularly in the Southern regions) also prominently feature specialty meats (e.g. wax-cured meats like duck and Chinese sausage) and seafood (e.g. lobster and abalone) that are usually reserved for this and other special occasions during the remainder of the year. In most areas, fish () is included, but not eaten completely (and the remainder is stored overnight), as the Chinese phrase \"may there be \"surpluses\" every year\" () sounds the same as \"let there be fish every year.\" Eight individual dishes are served to reflect the belief of good fortune associated with the number. If in the previous year a death was experienced in the family, seven dishes are served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reunion dinner",
        "text": "The New Year's Eve dinner is very large and traditionally includes dumplings, chicken, and pork. Fish (\u9b5a, y\u00fa; Vietnamese: Con c\u00e1) is also included, but intentionally (except for Vietnam) not finished, and the remaining fish is stored overnight. The reason for this stems from a pun, as the Chinese phrase \u5e74\u5e74\u6709\u9b5a/\u9918; (ni\u00e1n ni\u00e1n y\u01d2u y\u00fa, or \"every year there is fish/leftover\") is a homophone for phrases which mean \"be blessed every year\" or \"have abundant profit every year\". Similarly, a type of black hair-like algae, \"fat choy\"(\u9aee\u83dc, f\u01ce c\u00e0i, literally \"hair vegetable\" in Chinese), is also featured in many dishes since its name sounds similar to \"prosperity\"(\u767c\u8ca1, f\u0101 c\u00e1i). Hakka will serve \"kiu nyuk\" \u6263\u8089 and \"ngiong tiu fu\" \u91c0\u8c46\u8150. The belief is that having one will lead to the other, as the phrases sound similar to one another.\n* List of dining events\n*Chinese New Year Reunion Dinner"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Prior to the Reunion Dinner, a prayer of thanksgiving is held to mark the safe passage of the previous year. Confucianists take the opportunity to remember their ancestors, and those who had lived before them are revered. Some people do not give a Buddhist prayer due to the influence of Christianity, with a Christian prayer offered instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Red packets for the immediate family are sometimes distributed during the reunion dinner. These packets contain money in an amount that reflects good luck and honorability. Several foods are consumed to usher in wealth, happiness, and good fortune. Several of the Chinese food names are homophones for words that also mean good things."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Family reunion dinner is crucial to Chinese. Chinese New Year\u2019s Eve feast allows every family members to sit together. It takes days to do the preparation. Every dish on Chinese New Year\u2019s Eve have different meanings. Some of the most popular dishes are:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Homophonic puns in Standard Chinese",
        "text": "Chinese New Year, known in China as Spring Festival, has an abundance of unique traditions associated with it. Some of these traditions are more widespread than others. Among the many New Year's customs are a few whose meaning is derived from puns of Mandarin words.\n* Ni\u00e1n ni\u00e1n y\u01d2u y\u00fa - \u5e74\u5e74\u6709\u9918 \"There will be an abundance every year\" homophonous with \u5e74\u5e74\u6709\u9b5a \"There will be fish every year.\" As a result, fish are eaten and used as common decorations during Chinese New Year.\n* Ni\u00e1n g\u0101o - \u5e74\u7cd5 \"niangao\" homophonous with \u5e74\u9ad8 from \u5e74\u5e74\u9ad8\u5347 \"ni\u00e1n ni\u00e1n g\u0101osh\u0113ng\" or \"raised higher each year,\" leading to the belief that those who eat niangao should have greater prosperity with each coming year.\n* F\u00fa d\u00e0o le - \u798f\u5230\u4e86 \"fortune has arrived\" and \u798f\u5012\u4e86 \"fortune is upside down\", the latter simply referring to the ubiquitous character \u798f, which when displayed upside down denotes one's good fortune has arrived. It is common practice to hang the character upside-down on doors during the Spring festival.\n* *Shengcai - Traditionally the first meal of the New Year is vegetarian with a variety of ingredients. The meal is served with lettuce () because the word is near homophonous to \"\" (\"sh\u0113ng c\u00e1i\"), \"to make money\". Lettuce shows up in other New Years customs as well. In the traditional New Year's Day lion dance lettuce and red envelopes of cash are offered to the lion.\n* *T\u0101ng yu\u00e1n - At times of reunion, such as Spring Festival, it is customary to eat sweet round dumplings called tangyuan (). The tangyuan are traditionally eaten during Lantern Festival, which is the last day of the Chinese New Year celebration. The roundness of the tangyuan and the bowls they are eaten out of emphasize unity in addition to the similarity of their name with the Mandarin word for reunion, \" (tu\u00e1n yu\u00e1n).\n* *F\u0101 c\u00e0i (), a thin black hair-like algae, is a feature of Spring Festival cuisine because its name is a near-homophone of \" (), meaning \"prosperity,\" and as in the Chinese New Year greeting .\n*Dream of the Red Chamber \u2013 Similar to Dickens or Dostoevsky, Cao Xueqin chose many of the names of his characters in \"Dream of the Red Chamber\" to be homophones with other words which hint at their qualities. For example, the name of the main family, \"\u8cc8\" (Ji\u01ce) puns with \"\u5047\" meaning \"fake\" or \"false\" while the name of the other main family in the story, \"\u7504\" (Zh\u0113n) puns with \"\u771e\" meaning \"real\" or \"true\".\n*H\u00f3ng Qi\u016b (\u7d05\u79cb) \u2013 In this Sichuan opera, a sternsman on the boat asks a nun her name, who defiantly responds that her name is \u9673 \"ch\u00e9n\" which is a homophone with \u6c89 or 'to sink' which is the last word one wants to hear on a boat.\n*M\u00e1o D\u00f9n \u2013 Noted 20th-century author Shen Yanbing is better known by his pseudonym Mao Dun (\u8305\u76fe), a homophone for \"contradiction\" (\u77db\u76fe). The pun is said to be a statement of his disillusionment with the ruling Kuomintang party following the Shanghai massacre of 1927.\n*F\u01ceng Z\u01d0ji\u01d4 Hu\u00e0 \u2013 Yun Shouping, a famous artist of the early Qing dynasty, is best known today for his paintings of flowers, but he was also a prolific poet. One of his poems, \"\u4eff\u5b50\u4e45\u756b\" (\"After the artistic style of Zijiu\"), was an ode to a previous master of traditional Chinese landscape painting, Huang Gongwang who was also known by his style name \"Zijiu\" (\u5b50\u4e45). The poem has several intentional puns. The poem and alternative readings are included below:"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "Chinese New Year is celebrated in January or February, depending on a lunar calendar. Gifts of citrus such as tangerines, oranges, and pomelos are thought to represent prosperity and are auspicious for New Year's Eve; their shape, color, and names are seen as symbolizing fullness and wealth. Other commonly served dishes are spring rolls, dumplings, longevity noodles, glutinous rice cake or nian gao, the name of which means progressively improving."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "Between New Year's Day and the 15th day of the month people visit friends and relatives bringing gifts of citrus, and they prepare for such visits to their own homes by making chuen hop (tray of togetherness) which includes various fruits, candies, and other sweets. On the fourth day of the New Year people make offerings of wine and fruits. On the 15th day the Lantern Festival is celebrated, also called Yuan Xiao, a name for glutinous rice balls which are eaten and symbolize unity, family, and peace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "During the festival, people around China will prepare different gourmet dishes for their families and guests. Influenced by the flourished cultures, foods from different places look and taste totally different. Among them, the most well-known ones are dumplings from northern China and Tangyuan from southern China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reunion dinner",
        "text": "A reunion dinner (, or ; ) is held on New Year's Eve of the Chinese and Vietnamese New Years, during which family members get together to celebrate. It is often considered the most important get-together meal of the entire year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reunion dinner (disambiguation)",
        "text": "It is customary for Chinese and Vietnamese to hold reunion dinner for family members to gather on the eve of Chinese New Year or T\u1ebft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The Chinese New Year is associated with several myths and customs. The festival was traditionally a time to honor deities as well as ancestors. Within China, regional customs and traditions concerning the celebration of the New Year vary widely, and the evening preceding the New Year's Day is frequently regarded as an occasion for Chinese families to gather for the annual reunion dinner. It is also traditional for every family to thoroughly clean their house, in order to sweep away any ill fortune and to make way for incoming good luck. Another custom is the decoration of windows and doors with red paper-cuts and couplets. Popular themes among these paper-cuts and couplets include good fortune or happiness, wealth, and longevity. Other activities include lighting firecrackers and giving money in red paper envelopes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reunion Dinner (TV series)",
        "text": "Due to the series' heavy Chinese New Year theme, it was broadcast during the Chinese New Year season for 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The day before the Chinese New Year (Chinese: ) usually accompanied with a dinner feast, consisting of special meats are served at the tables, as a main course for the dinner and as a offering for the New Year. This meal is comparable to Thanksgiving dinner in the U.S. and remotely similar to Christmas dinner in other countries with a high percentage of Christians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chunyun",
        "text": "First, it is a long-held tradition for most Chinese people to reunite with their families during Chinese New Year. People return home from work or study to have reunion dinner with their families on New Year's Eve. Since the Chinese economic reforms of the late 1970s, new economic opportunities have emerged, often at a considerable distance from people's hometowns. Places such as the Special Economic Zones and the wealthy coastal regions offer employment and often, a more sought-after lifestyle. Consequently, there has been a massive migration from rural to urban areas over the course of the last few decades, reminiscent of other industrial revolutions around the world. The number of these migrant workers was estimated at 50 million at 1990 and unofficially estimated at 150 million to 200 million in 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Traditionally, families gather together during the Chinese New Year. In modern China, migrant workers in China travel home to have reunion dinners with their families on Chinese New Year's Eve. Owing to a large number of interprovincial travelers, special arrangements were made by railways, buses and airlines starting from 15 days before the New Year's Day. This 40-day period is called chunyun, and is known as the world's largest annual migration. More interurban trips are taken in mainland China in this period than the total population of China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "On the eighth day of the lunar month prior to Chinese New Year, the \"Laba\" holiday (), a traditional porridge, Laba porridge (), is served in remembrance of an ancient festival, called \"La\", that occurred shortly after the winter solstice. Pickles such as Laba garlic, which turns green from vinegar, are also made on this day. For those that practice Buddhism, the Laba holiday is also considered Bodhi Day. \"Layue\" () is a term often associated with Chinese New Year as it refers to the sacrifices held in honor of the gods in the twelfth lunar month, hence the cured meats of Chinese New Year are known as \"larou\" (). The porridge was prepared by the women of the household at first light, with the first bowl offered to the family's ancestors and the household deities. Every member of the family was then served a bowl, with leftovers distributed to relatives and friends. It's still served as a special breakfast on this day in some Chinese homes. The concept of the \"La month\" is similar to Advent in Christianity. Many families eat vegetarian on Chinese New Year eve, the garlic and preserved meat are eaten on Chinese New Year day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Other traditional foods consists of noodles, fruits, dumplings, spring rolls, and Tangyuan which are also known as sweet rice balls. Each dish served during Chinese New Year represents something special. The noodles used to make longevity noodles are usually very thin, long wheat noodles. These noodles are longer than normal noodles that are usually fried and served on a plate, or boiled and served in a bowl with its broth. Expectedly, the noodles symbolize the wish for a long life. The fruits that are typically selected would be oranges, tangerines, and pomelos as they are round and \"golden\" color symbolizing fullness and wealth. Their lucky sound when spoken also brings good luck and fortune. The Chinese pronunciation for orange is \u6a59 (ch\u00e9ng /chnng/), which sounds the same as the Chinese for 'success' (\u6210). One of the ways to spell tangerine(\u6854 j\u00fa /jyoo/) contains the Chinese character for luck (\u5409 j\u00ed /jee/). Pomelos is believed to bring constant prosperity. Pomelo in Chinese (\u67da y\u00f2u /yo/) sounds similar to 'to have' (\u6709 y\u01d2u), disregarding its tone, however it sounds exactly like 'again' (\u53c8 y\u00f2u). Dumplings and spring rolls symbolize wealth, whereas sweet rice balls symbolize family togetherness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Chinese New Year's Eve is the day before the Chinese New Year. Celebrating Chinese New Year\u2019s Eve has always been a family matter in China, it is the reunion day for every Chinese family. It has evolved over a long period of time. The origin of Chinese New Year\u2019s Eve can be traced back to 3500 years ago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Another family dinner is held to celebrate the eve of the birth of the Jade Emperor, the ruler of heaven. People normally return to work by the eighth day, therefore the Store owners will host a lunch/dinner with their employees, thanking their employees for the work they have done for the whole year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Glutinous Rice Cake is called \"Nian Gao\" in mandarin. The sound of Nian Gao has a good meaning: getting higher year by year. Glutinous Rice Cake is made of sticky rice, sugar, chestnuts, lotus leaves. It is a common dish which appeared in the southern Chinese families' Lunar New Year Eve reunion dinner."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Traditionally, red envelopes or red packets"
      },
      {
        "title": "Renri",
        "text": "Nowadays during \"Zhengyue\", \"Renri\" is celebrated as part of the Chinese New Year. Chinese people prepare lucky food in the new year, where the \"seven vegetable soup\" (\u4e03\u83dc\u7fb9), \"seven vegetable congee\" (\u4e03\u83dc\u7ca5) and \"\"jidi\" congee\" (\u53ca\u7b2c\u7ca5) are specially prepared for \"Renri\". Malaysian and Singaporean Chinese use the \"seven-coloured raw fish\" () instead of the \"seven vegetable soup\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Chinese New Year's Eve\n--History.\n--Dates of Chinese New Year\u2019s Eve.\n--Traditions.\n----Gathering.\n----Gala TV show.\n----Burning of bamboo and use of firecrackers.\n----The Kitchen God.\n----Inviting a Door God.\n----Peach wood.\n----Traditional foods for Chinese New Year\u2019s Eve.\n------Spring Rolls.\n------Dumplings.\n------Glutinous Rice Cake.\n------Good Fortune Fruit.\n------Longevity Noodles.\n----Money gift and Money tree.\n--Similar traditions in other part of Asia.\n----Philippines.\n--Taboos.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The fifteenth day of the new year is celebrated as the Lantern Festival, also known as the Yuanxiao Festival (), the Shangyuan Festival (), and Chap Goh Meh ( in Hokkien). Rice dumplings, or \"tangyuan\" (), a sweet glutinous rice ball brewed in a soup, are eaten this day. Candles are lit outside houses as a way to guide wayward spirits home. Families may walk the streets carrying lanterns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reunion Dinner (film)",
        "text": "Reunion Dinner (Chinese: \u56e2\u5706\u996d) is a 2022 Singaporean Mandarin-language Chinese New Year comedy drama film. It tells the story of a soon-to-be-married couple who arrange for their parents to meet for the first time over Chinese New Year reunion dinner. But as the boyfriend is estranged from his mother, he fakes a family to impress them instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In addition to red envelopes, which are usually given from older people to younger people, small gifts (usually food or sweets) are also exchanged between friends or relatives (of different households) during Chinese New Year. Gifts are usually brought when visiting friends or relatives at their homes. Common gifts include fruits (typically oranges, but never trade pears), cakes, biscuits, chocolates, and candies. Gifts are preferred to be wraped with red or golden paper, which symbolises good luck."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "On New Year's Eve family members try to attend dinner together. Fat choy, an edible algae, is commonly served because the name sounds like the word for prosperity. Dumplings such as jiaozi are stuffed with a coin or a date; finding a coin symbolizes wealth in the coming year. A woman finding a date will give birth in the coming year. Fish traditionally appears on the table but is not eaten because the word for fish sounds like the word for profit or surplus, and eating it would \"eat up the profit\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "This day often marks the end of the Chinese New Year festivities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In northern China, it is customary to make jiaozi, or dumplings, after dinner to eat around midnight. Dumplings symbolize wealth because their shape resembles a Chinese sycee. In contrast, in the South, it is customary to make a glutinous new year cake (niangao) and send pieces of it as gifts to relatives and friends in the coming days. Ni\u00e1ng\u0101o [Pinyin] literally means \"new year cake\" with a homophonous meaning of \"increasingly prosperous year in year out\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Like many other New Year dishes, certain ingredients also take special precedence over others as these ingredients also have similar-sounding names with prosperity, good luck, or even counting money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "In most parts of China, especially in the south, people are used to having grand family banquets to celebrate Chinese New Year's Eve which is known as \u201cHappy gathering\u201d. Since it is the last meal of the year, all the family members must sit together to enjoy the delicious family traditional dishes and everybody in the family is allowed to and encouraged to drink. Before the happy gathering, each family must offer a sacrifice to ancestors, usually three or four generations of the dead. The family must set a table with various dishes and provide a seat for each ancestor, then the eldest member of the family pours drinks for them. After burning some joss sticks and candles, the ancestors are supposed to begin to eat, and the whole family members should worship them on bended knees and kowtow. After the grand family banquet, all family members sit together around fireplace, chatting, singing, laughing or playing cards and stay up late to the dawn of next morning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Malaysian Chinese",
        "text": "With the large presence of ethnic Chinese in the country nationwide, Chinese New Year is celebrated as a national public holiday. 11 states and three federal territories in the country celebrate with two days holidays while two remaining states of Kelantan and Terengganu only celebrate a one-day holiday. During the New Year, many Chinese living with their family in the urban areas will celebrate together, while some who may have family in rural areas will return for family reunions. Traditional dinner with the entire family is the most important aspect of the celebration and may include a traditional food tossing of \"yee sang,\" especially among the Cantonese. Elders will usually give the young a red envelope (\"ang pow\" or \"angpau\"). A variety of festival sweets are presented in the house for visitors. Most Chinese settlements and Chinatown streets will be decorated before the New Year with colorful lanterns. Dragon and lion dances will be performed with firecracker and fireworks shows also featured as part of the celebrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The seventh day, traditionally known as \"Renri\" (the common person's birthday), is the day when everyone grows one year older. In some overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia, such as Malaysia and Singapore, it is also the day when tossed raw fish salad, yusheng, is eaten for continued wealth and prosperity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ang ku kueh",
        "text": "Chinese New Year is the most important festival in Chinese culture as it represents the start of a new year for everyone where people could reconcile and welcome the new year in hope for peace and prosperity. During this festival, the Chinese people would pray for good fortune and sweets such as rice cakes and red tortoise cakes are offered to the Chinese deities on ritual altars. These ritual offerings are made in the hope that the sweetness from these cakes will leave a sweet taste in the mouths of the deities and they will bless the people with a prosperous year ahead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Incense, tea, fruit, vegetarian food or roast pig, and gold paper, are served as a customary protocol for paying respect to an honored person."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinois (R\u00e9union)",
        "text": "Chinese cuisine is now consumed by people all over R\u00e9union. One of the most visible culinary legacies of South China are \"bouchons\", known as \"shumai\" in North American dim sum restaurants. Pork \"bouchons\" are commonly eaten in baguettes and paninis with melted cheese and hotsauce. \"Riz cantonais\", a basic fried rice with diced vegetables and roasted pork, is another common dish. Chinese migrants also introduced a number of different plants and animals to the island, including a Chinese variety of the guava known locally and in Mauritius and the Seychelles as \"goyave de Chine\". R\u00e9union is famous for its lychees, also from China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dongzhi Festival",
        "text": "In southern China, people eat rice cake (), which means reunion. It is not only eaten by the family, but also shared with friends and relatives as a blessing. Mutton soup, rice cake and red bean sticky rice are also popular in South."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "This day is the god of Wealth's birthday. In northern China, people eat jiaozi, or dumplings, on the morning of \"powu\" (). In Taiwan, businesses traditionally re-open on the next day (the sixth day), accompanied by firecrackers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhenjiang",
        "text": "Other local specialties include crab cream bun, Chinkiang pork (, akin to head cheese), and pickled vegetables. Formerly, households in Zhenjiang would prepare for the new year by eating a red-bean dish and avoiding rice. One bowl of beans was left on the table to feed the home's flies, from the belief that they would then avoid disturbing the family during the new year festivities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sungai Ruan",
        "text": "Fireworks are a classic element of Chinese New Year celebrations and celebrate in Sungai Ruan every year.\n*Bbq Chicken Wing \u2013 Among the local dishes is Sungai Ruan Chicken Wing that is well known throughout the Raub town.\n*Nasi Lemak \u2013 local cuisine and sell at Sg. Ruan Economy noodle shop .\n*ABC \u2013 ABC is an abbreviation for Air Batu Campur, or known as Ice Kacang Sungai Ruan, a dessert created from shaved ice added with corn, jelly, redbeans, groundnut, syrup, pasteurised milk, and liquid chocolate.\n*Satay \u2013 a popular food in Malaysia and made from marinated meat or chicken and burnt on a charcoal grill. Grilled satay is dipped in special peanut sauce.\n*Char kway teow \u2013 stir fried rice noodles with prawns, pork or chicken, eggs, chives and beansprouts, usually optional cockles.\n*Wantan Noodle \u2013 Chinese noodles with Chinese dumplings , chooi sam and BBQ pork. Dumplings are usually made of Pork and/or prawns. The noodles may be served either in a bowl of soup with dumplings or on a plate with some dark soya sauce flavoured with oil and slices of roast pork and vegetables. For the latter, the dumplings will be served in a separate bowl with soup.\n*Hokkien Mee \u2013 a dish of thick yellow noodles fried in thick black soy sauce and pork lard which has been fried until crispy. This dish is served mostly in Kuala Lumpur, Seremban, Klang, Kuantan and Penang.\n*Chicken Rice \u2013 steamed chicken served with rice cooked in margarine, chicken fat, chicken stock or chicken soup.\n*Banmian \u2013 made using a hand-operated machine in a stall which forms noodles from the dough. The dish is served in soup, usually with pieces of minced chicken or minced pork, ikan bilis , vegetables, eggs, sliced mushrooms and fish balls.\n*Doufuhua \u2013 a Chinese dessert made with very soft tofu. It is also referred to as tofu pudding and soybean pudding.\n*Red Beans and Wheat Porridge \u2013 new flavours, mixing the red beans soup and wheat porridge. Interestingly, the tastes of both will not cancel out tastes of each another."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "A New Year's Eve dinner is indistinguishable from the traditional Bulgarian Christmas dinner of pork, raqiya (grape brandy and red wine), pogacha, a compote of dried fruits, and banitza. Pogacha, a round bread, is served hot from the oven by the eldest family member to the rest of the family in order of age. The pork symbolizes luck, as the pig roots forward."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reunion Dinner (film)",
        "text": "It was one of the five 2022 Malaysian and Singaporean Chinese New Year films, including \"Ah Girls Go Army\" (Singapore), \"Nasi Lemak 1.0\", \"Kongsi Raya\" and \"Small Town Heroes\" (Malaysia)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Little New Year",
        "text": "Little New Year (), also known as the Festival of the Kitchen God, is a festival in the traditional lunisolar Chinese calendar. It honors the Kitchen God and takes place on the 23rd or 24th day of the twelfth month in the Chinese calendar, which corresponds to roughly a week before the Chinese New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "The dumpling is a traditional food to eat in north China on Chinese New Year\u2019s Eve while in southern China very few people serve dumplings as Lunar New Year\u2019s Eve dinner. Minced meat (pork, shrimp, chicken, beef.etc.) and vegetables are wrapped in the elastic dough skin. Boiling, steaming, frying are the most common ways to cook dumplings in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Chinese New Year\n--Dates in Chinese lunisolar calendar.\n--Mythology.\n--History.\n--Naming.\n--Public holiday.\n--Festivities.\n----Preceding days.\n----Chinese New Year's Eve.\n----First day.\n----Second day.\n----Third day.\n----Fourth day.\n----Fifth day.\n----Sixth day.\n----Seventh day.\n----Eighth day.\n----Ninth day.\n----Tenth day.\n----Fifteenth day.\n--Traditional food.\n--Practices.\n----Red envelopes.\n------Mythology.\n----Gift exchange.\n----Markets.\n----Fireworks.\n----Music.\n----Movies.\n----Clothing.\n----Family portrait.\n----Symbolism.\n----Nianhua.\n----Flowers.\n----Spring travel.\n--Festivities outside Greater China.\n----Southeast Asia.\n------Malaysia.\n------Singapore.\n------Philippines.\n------Indonesia.\n------Thailand.\n----Australia and New Zealand.\n----North America.\n------New York.\n------California.\n----Europe.\n----India and Pakistan.\n--Greetings.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Markets or village fairs are set up as the New Year is approaching. These usually open-air markets feature new year related products such as flowers, toys, clothing, and even fireworks and firecrackers. It is convenient for people to buy gifts for their new year visits as well as their home decorations. In some places, the practice of shopping for the perfect plum tree is not dissimilar to the Western tradition of buying a Christmas tree."
      },
      {
        "title": "COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia",
        "text": "On 4 February 2021, Senior Minister Ismail Sabri Yaakob announced that Chinese New Year family reunion dinners would only be allowed at their residences among family members from the same household. These \"standard operating procedures\" were criticised by several politicians and public figures including Deputy national unity minister Ti Lian Ker and Member of Parliament Ong Kian Ming as \"culturally insensitive\" and unnecessary. The National Unity Ministry subsequently allowed Chinese New Year family reunions of 15 family members living within a 10\u00a0km radius that did not involve interstate or inter-district travel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yusheng",
        "text": "Today, the common form of yusheng is the qicai yusheng (\u4e03\u5f69\u9c7c\u751f; \"seven-coloured raw fish salad\") served in local restaurants during the Chinese New Year period. Also referred to as facai yusheng (\u53d1\u8d22\u9c7c\u751f; \"prosperity raw fish salad\") or xinnian yusheng (\u65b0\u5e74\u9c7c\u751f; \"Chinese New Year raw fish salad\"). The recipe generally includes ingredients such as shredded white and green radish and carrots, ginger slices, onion slices, crushed peanuts, pomelo, pepper, essence of chicken, oil, salt, vinegar, sugar and more."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In those communities that celebrate Chinese New Year for 15 days, the fourth day is when corporate \"spring dinners\" kick off and business returns to normal. Other areas that have a longer Chinese New Year holiday will celebrate and welcome the gods that were previously sent on this day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fuqing",
        "text": "Coustoms and food:On the first day of the new year, people in Fuqing would eat Xianmian, which is a kind of extra-thin noodles and it means longevity. What\u2019s more, two duck eggs are in the noodles. Because in the local language, the pronunciation of duck egg is similar to suppress chaos, it stands for safe and sound. On the second day of the new year, it is the day to visit and comfort the family that lost their family members last year. Thus, people cannot visit the family where nobody died last year in that day. Otherwise, the visit would be regarded as unlucky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The new year celebration continued under the Yuan dynasty, when people also gave \"nian gao\" (\u5e74\u7cd5, year cakes) to relatives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese school",
        "text": "Many Chinese schools put on a Chinese New Year gala as the festival is an important Chinese festival celebrated at the turn of the Chinese calendar. It is also known as the Spring Festival, the literal translation of the modern Chinese name. Chinese New Year celebrations traditionally run from Chinese New Year's Eve, the last day of the last month of the Chinese calendar, to the Lantern Festival on the 15th day of the first month, making the festival the longest in the Chinese calendar. The first day of the New Year falls between January 21 and February 20.\n* Chinese as a foreign language"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yusheng",
        "text": "The Chinese China Cuisine Association mentions the tradition coming from Guangdong, China before the dishes were brought to Southeast Asia by Chinese immigration. However, the statement only mentions the tradition of having raw fish during Chinese New Year, which was served very differently from today's Yusheng."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kelantan",
        "text": "Much of Chinese culture still continues until today; such as Lion Dance and Dragon Dance during the Chinese New Year, temple celebration, eating bakchang (meat dumpling), mooncake, baby fullmoon, pulut kuning, telur merah, eat 'e' (tangyuan), religious celebration including praying Na Tuk Kong. They also cook 'bak hong', 'uang (meatball)' during the wedding ceremony and ' kiam mai' during the funeral."
      },
      {
        "title": "Senoi",
        "text": "The only annual ceremony is the post-harvest festival, which is now synchronized with Chinese New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade",
        "text": "A Chinese candy box, called Tray of Togetherness or Harmony box, is a sectional tray which is used to serve bite-sized treats, such as candied melon, red melon seeds, candied coconut, and lotus seeds to wish guests a sweet new year."
      },
      {
        "title": "D Is for Dragon Dance",
        "text": "A few of the Chinese New Year traditions featured in the book include:\n* Watching the Dragon Dance performance in the New Year's parade\n* Lighting firecrackers\n* Hanging paper lanterns\n* Eating Peking Duck\n* Children receiving Red Envelopes full of gifts\n* Eating Steamed Dumplings\n* Performing Venerationfor one's ancestors\n* Creating Xylographs\n* Welcoming the Chinese Zodiac for the new year"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Chinese New Year is the festival that celebrates the beginning of a new year on the traditional lunisolar and solar Chinese calendar. In Chinese and other East Asian cultures, the festival is commonly referred to as the Spring Festival () as the spring season in the lunisolar calendar traditionally starts with lichun, the first of the twenty-four solar terms which the festival celebrates around the time of the Chinese New Year. Marking the end of winter and the beginning of the spring season, observances traditionally take place from New Year\u2019s Eve, the evening preceding the first day of the year to the Lantern Festival, held on the 15th day of the year. The first day of Chinese New Year begins on the new moon that appears between 21 January and 20 February."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In China and Malaysia, this day is celebrated by individuals seeking a romantic partner, akin to Valentine's Day. Nowadays, single women write their contact number on mandarin oranges and throw them in a river or a lake after which single men collect the oranges and eat them. The taste is an indication of their possible love: sweet represents a good fate while sour represents a bad fate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "For other countries and regions where Chinese New Year is celebrated but not an official holiday, see the table below."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "Roast goose or chicken, stuffed with apples, is traditionally eaten for New Year's dinner. Eating as many pieces of meat as possible during New Year's dinner is believed to ensure happiness in the coming year, and a \"bountiful table\" will ensure wealth."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Dinner is traditionally eaten with relatives and friends. It often includes zampone or cotechino (a meal made with pig's trotters or entrails), and lentils. At 20:30, the President of the Republic reads a television message of greetings to Italians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Spring rolls is a traditional dish in East China. It is a Cantonese dish which people make the thin dough wrappers in the cylindrical-shaped rolls and fill them with vegetables, meat, or something sweet, then fried the spring rolls to give them a golden-yellow color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Big Chinese population cities and towns like of Chinatown includes Jakarta, Medan, Singkawang, Pangkal Pinang, Binjai, Bagansiapiapi, Tanjungbalai, Pematangsiantar, Selat Panjang, Pekanbaru, Tanjung Pinang, Batam, Ketapang, Pontianak, Sungailiat, Tanjung Pandan, Manggar, Toboali, Muntok, Lubuk Pakam, Bandung, Semarang, Surabaya, Rantau Prapat, Tebing Tinggi, Sibolga, Dumai, Panipahan, Bagan Batu, Tanjung Balai Karimun, Palembang, Bengkayang, and Tangerang always have its own New Year's celebration every years with parade and fireworks. A lot shopping malls decorated its building with lantern, Chinese words and lion or dragon with red and gold as main color. Lion dance is a common sight around Chinese houses, temples and its shophouses. Usually, the Buddhist, Confucian and Taoist Chinese will burn a big incense made by aloeswood with dragon-decorated at front of their house. The Chinese temple is open 24 hours at the first day, their also distributes a red envelopes and sometimes rice, fruits or sugar to the poor around."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Tangerines, oranges and pomelos are certain fruits that been eaten on Lunar New Year's Eve. Chinese believe that eating these fruits on Chinese New Year's Eve can bring fortune as these fruits have round shape, golden colour, lucky sounds when spoken which symbolise fullness and wealth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fai chun",
        "text": "After Nian went back to the sea, people would come out and celebrate the New Year. This became a tradition every year, with people keep pasting red couplets every year, which is called \"Fai Chun\" now."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Chinese Feast",
        "text": "During the tournament, the contestants prepared rare and luxurious dishes. Kit was able to recapture his previous glories and ultimately saved Au's restaurant after a closely fought contest. The movie would eventually end on a happy note as is the theme of all Lunar New Year movies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kai kou xiao",
        "text": "Also called \"smiling sesame cookies\" or \"laughing balls\", they are a popular dish during Lunar New Year for their resemblance to a smiling mouth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wuyi Mountains",
        "text": "Special leap-year meals are called Liu Qin () meals. Every leap year and leap month, parents and brothers must invite their married daughters and sisters to return and have meals with their original family. When parents are living, they make the invitation; otherwise brothers do it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese calendar",
        "text": "The Chinese New Year (known as the Spring Festival/\u6625\u7bc0 in China) is on the first day of the first month and was traditionally called the Yuan Dan (\u5143\u65e6) or Zheng Ri (\u6b63\u65e5). In Vietnam, it is known as T\u1ebft Nguy\u00ean \u0110\u00e1n () and in Korea, it is known as \uc124\ub0a0. Traditionally it was the most important holiday of the year. It is an official holiday in China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Vietnam, Korea, the Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. It is also a public holiday in Thailand's Narathiwat, Pattani, Yala, and Satun provinces and is an official public school holiday in New York City."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dongzhi Festival",
        "text": "The festive food is also a reminder that celebrators are now a year older and should behave better in the coming year. Even today, many Chinese around the world, especially the elderly, still insist that one is \"a year older\" right after the Dongzhi celebration instead of waiting for the lunar new year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reunion Dinner (film)",
        "text": "The film was released on 20 January 2022 in Singapore and 31 January 2022 in Malaysia during the Chinese New Year period. The film stars Lawrence Wong, , Mark Lee, Xiang Yun, Guo Liang, Zhu Houren, Mimi Choo and Das DD."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The Chinese New Year is often accompanied by loud, enthusiastic greetings, often referred to as () in Mandarin or (Kat Lei Seut Wa) in Cantonese, loosely translated as \"auspicious words or phrases\". New Year couplets printed in gold letters on bright red paper, referred to as \"chunlian\" () or \"fai chun\" (), is another way of expressing auspicious new year wishes. They probably predate the Ming dynasty (1368\u20131644), but did not become widespread until then. Today, they are ubiquitous with Chinese New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of Reunion",
        "text": "Always accompanied by white rice, the most common dishes are curry (a local version of the Indian curry), rougail and jugged meats (\"civets\" in French). Curry consists of a base of onion, garlic and spices such as turmeric (called \"safran p\u00e9\u00ef\" on the island), in which fish, meat, eggs; and finally tomato. Dishes can also be optionally flavored with ginger. Combava zest is also very popular. Chop suey (rice, not pasta) and other Asian dishes like pork with pineapple are also very common."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Watching Chinese New Year films is an expression of Chinese cultural identity. During the New Year holidays, the stage boss gathers the most popular actors whom from various troupes let them perform repertories from Qing dynasty. Nowadays people prefer celebrating the new year with their family by watching these movies together."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In the morning (traditionally anytime between midnight and 7\u00a0am), Taiwanese households set up an altar table with three layers: one top (containing offertories of six vegetables (; those being noodles, fruits, cakes, tangyuan, vegetable bowls, and unripe betel), all decorated with paper lanterns) and two lower levels (five sacrifices and wines) to honor the deities below the Jade Emperor. The household then kneels three times and kowtows nine times to pay obeisance and wish him a long life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese American Museum",
        "text": "Chinese American Museum\n--Exhibits.\n--Events.\n----Chinese New Year Celebration.\n----Historymakers Awards.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dongzhi Festival",
        "text": "Traditionally, the Dongzhi Festival is also a time for the family to get together. One activity that occurs during these get-togethers (especially in the southern parts of China and in Chinese communities overseas) is the making and eating of \"tangyuan\" (\u6e6f\u5713) or balls of glutinous rice, which symbolize reunion. \"Tangyuan\" are made of glutinous rice flour and are sometimes brightly coloured. Each family member receives at least one large \"tangyuan\" in addition to several small ones. The flour balls are occasionally pink or green. They are cooked in a sweet soup or savory broth with both the ball and the soup/broth served in one bowl. It is also often served with a mildly alcoholic unfiltered rice wine containing whole grains of glutinous rice (and often also Sweet Osmanthus flowers), called \"jiuniang\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reunion Dinner (film)",
        "text": "The film was released on 20 January 2022 in Singapore and 31 January 2022 in Malaysia during the Chinese New Year period. It was also released on iQIYI for the China market on 27 January 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "For New Year celebrations that are lunar but are outside of China and Chinese diaspora (such as Korea's \"Seollal\" and Vietnam's \"T\u1ebft\"), see the article on Lunar New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "The Hmong celebrate Xyoo Tshiab, which translates as \"the feast of thirty\", as a thanksgiving and new year; it is their only formal holiday. It is celebrated after the rice harvest sometime in November and December for at least three days, with visits back and forth to family and friends at which ten dishes are served each of the three days. A common dish is sticky rice cakes baked in banana leaves and served in sugar cane syrup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "After dinner, some families may visit local temples hours before midnight to pray for success by lighting the first incense of the year; however in modern practice, many households held parties to celebrate. Traditionally, firecrackers were lit to ward evil spirits when the household doors sealed, and are not to be reopened until dawn in a ritual called \"opening the door of fortune\" (). A tradition of staying up late on Chinese New Year's Eve is known as \"shousui\" (Chinese: ), which is still practised as it is thought to add on to one's parents' longevity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Numerous other greetings exist, some of which may be exclaimed out loud to no one in particular in specific situations. For example, as breaking objects during the new year is considered inauspicious, one may then say (\"Su\u00ecsu\u00ec-p\u00edng'\u0101n\") immediately, which means \"everlasting peace year after year\". \"Su\u00ec\" (), meaning \"age\" is homophonous with (su\u00ec) (meaning \"shatter\"), in the demonstration of the Chinese love for wordplay in auspicious phrases. Similarly, (\"ni\u00e1nni\u00e1n y\u01d2u y\u00fa\"), a wish for surpluses and bountiful harvests every year, plays on the word \"y\u00fa\" that can also refer to (y\u00fa meaning fish), making it a catch phrase for fish-based Chinese new year dishes and for paintings or graphics of fish that are hung on walls or presented as gifts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Typical actions such as lighting fires and using knives are considered taboo, thus all consumable food has to be cooked prior. Using the broom, including swearing and breaking any dinnerware without appeasing the deities, are also considered taboo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "A prominent requisite offering is sugarcane. Legends holds that the Hokkien were spared from a massacre by Japanese pirates by hiding in a sugarcane plantation between the eighth and ninth days of the Chinese New Year, coinciding with the Jade Emperor's birthday. \"Sugarcane\" () is a near homonym to \"thank you\" () in the Hokkien dialect."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "New Year's foods are dishes traditionally eaten for luck in the coming year. Many traditional New Year dishes revolve around the food's resemblance to money or to its appearance symbolizing long life, such as long noodles or strands of sauerkraut. Some cultures and religions have evolved complex food traditions associated with the new year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The tradition of eating Chinese dumplings \"jiaozi\" (\u9903\u5b50) was established under the Ming dynasty at the latest. It is described in the book \"Youzhongzhi\" (\u914c\u4e2d\u5fd7): \"People get up at 5 in the morning of new year's day, burn incense and light firecrackers, throw door latch or wooden bars in the air three times, drink pepper and thuja wine, eat dumplings. Sometimes put one or two silver currency inside dumplings, and whoever gets the money will attain a year of fortune.\" Modern Chinese people also put other food that is auspicious into dumplings: such as dates, which prophesy a flourishing new year; candy, which predicts sweet days; and nian gao, which foretells a rich life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bagansiapiapi",
        "text": "In recent years, urbanization has been an issue. Most of the youth leave the town after high school to pursue a better life, or higher education in larger cities. They normally return for the traditional family reunion during the Chinese New Year celebrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "For many Chinese Buddhists, this is another day to avoid meat, the seventh day commemorating the birth of Sakra, lord of the devas in Buddhist cosmology who is analogous to the Jade Emperor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Normal traditions occurring on the first day involve house gatherings to the families, specifically the elders and families to the oldest and most senior members of their extended families, usually their parents, grandparents and great-grandparents, and trading Mandarin oranges as a courtesy to symbolize wealth and good luck. Members of the family who are married also give red envelopes containing cash known as \"lai see\" (Cantonese: ) or \"angpow\" (Hokkien and Teochew), or \"hongbao\" (Mandarin: ), a form of a blessing and to suppress both the aging and challenges that were associated with the coming year, to junior members of the family, mostly children and teenagers. Business managers may also give bonuses in the form of red packets to employees to symbolize a smooth-sailing career. The money can be of any form, specifically numbers ending with 8, which sounded as \"huat\" (Mandarin: ), meaning prosperity, but packets with denominations of odd numbers or without money are usually not allowed due to bad luck, especially the number 4 which sounded as \"si\" (Mandarin: ), which means death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fuqing",
        "text": "Sweet Potato Ball ():The wrapper is made of starch and sweet potato flour. The mince is made of oyster, seaweed and pork. It stands for the family reunion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fuzhou",
        "text": "Fuzhou residents also enjoy eating festival foods during traditional Chinese holidays. For example, red and white rice cakes () are served over Chinese New Year, stuffed yuanxiao () during the Lantern Festival, zongzi () during the Dragon Boat Festival, and sweet soy bean powder-covered plain yuanxiao over the winter solstice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yusheng",
        "text": "Yusheng is often served as part of a multi-dish dinner, usually as the appetizer due to its symbolism of \"good luck\" for the new year. Some would consume it on Renri, the seventh day of the Chinese New Year, although in practice it may be eaten on any convenient day during the Chinese New Year period (the first to the 15th day of the first lunar month)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nian gao",
        "text": "Chinese Americans eat cooked or fried \"nian gao\" on Chinese New Year's Eve and on New Year's Eve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The act of asking for red packets is normally called (Mandarin): \u8a0e\u7d05\u5305 t\u01ceo-h\u00f3ngb\u0101o, \u8981\u5229\u662f or (Cantonese): \u9017\u5229\u662f. A married person would not turn down such a request as it would mean that he or she would be \"out of luck\" in the new year. Red packets are generally given by established married couples to the younger non-married children of the family. It is custom and polite for children to wish elders a happy new year and a year of happiness, health and good fortune before accepting the red envelope. Red envelopes are then kept under the pillow and slept on for seven nights after Chinese New Year before opening because that symbolizes good luck and fortune."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Many places in China still follow the tradition of eating only vegetarian food on the first day of the New Year, as it is believed that doing so will bring joy and peace into their lives for the whole year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year film",
        "text": "A Chinese New Year film (, Mandarin: \"h\u00e8su\u00ecpi\u0101n\", Cantonese: \"ho6seoi3pin3\") refers to movies usually released during the Chinese New Year period. It is a film that varies in genre (fantasy, comedy, action, animation, and the like) but whose style is generally relaxed and humorous. It is focused around the horoscope animal, theme, and other attributes for the upcoming year, taking these New Year ideas and presenting them in a modern and exciting way. A recent tradition, it has become a popular way to celebrate the New Year. In recent years, attendance at screenings for such films has grown during the holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nu people",
        "text": "On the eve of the festival, households in every village butcher pigs, make soft-rice dumplings, brew wine and clean their courtyards, similar to the Chinese New Year. On New Year's Eve, before eating, they put corn and dishes of food on a three-legged barbecue. On top of the three legs, three cups are put and also three pieces of meat, then the family members, either young or old, pray for a good harvest and strong livestock for the New Year."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some of the traditional dishes associated with the festival?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you referring to the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, the Cannes Festival, the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, the Obon, or some other festival?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about the dishes of the Chinese New Year festival."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Chinese New Year festival features many dishes including a reunion dinner and other traditional foods. Which of these foods are you interested in learning more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I would like to know more about the reunion dinner."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The New Year's Eve dinner is very large and traditionally has foods such as dumplings, chicken, and pork. It also has fish but intentionally not finished unless for Vietnam and a black hair-like algae.",
      "A reunion dinner (Chinese: \u5e74\u591c\u98ef, \u5718\u5e74\u98ef or \u5718\u5713\u98ef; Vietnamese: T\u1ea5t ni\u00ean) is held on New Year's Eve of the Chinese and Vietnamese New Years, during which family members get together to celebrate. It is often considered the most important get-together meal of the entire year."
    ],
    "topic": "Chinese New Year",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Reunion dinner:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Reunion dinner",
          "Typical menu"
        ],
        "ctx": "The New Year's Eve dinner is very large and traditionally includes dumplings, chicken, and pork. Fish (\u9b5a, y\u00fa; Vietnamese: Con c\u00e1) is also included, but intentionally (except for Vietnam) not finished, and the remaining fish is stored overnight. The reason for this stems from a pun, as the Chinese phrase \u5e74\u5e74\u6709\u9b5a/\u9918; (ni\u00e1n ni\u00e1n y\u01d2u y\u00fa, or \"every year there is fish/leftover\") is a homophone for phrases which mean \"be blessed every year\" or \"have abundant profit every year\". Similarly, a type of black hair-like algae, \"fat choy\"(\u9aee\u83dc, f\u01ce c\u00e0i, literally \"hair vegetable\" in Chinese), is also featured in many dishes since its name sounds similar to \"prosperity\"(\u767c\u8ca1, f\u0101 c\u00e1i). Hakka will serve \"kiu nyuk\" \u6263\u8089 and \"ngiong tiu fu\" \u91c0\u8c46\u8150. The belief is that having one will lead to the other, as the phrases sound similar to one another.\n* List of dining events\n*Chinese New Year Reunion Dinner"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Reunion dinner:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Reunion dinner"
        ],
        "ctx": "A reunion dinner (, or ; ) is held on New Year's Eve of the Chinese and Vietnamese New Years, during which family members get together to celebrate. It is often considered the most important get-together meal of the entire year."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Red packets for the immediate family are sometimes distributed during the reunion dinner. These packets contain money in an amount that reflects good luck and honorability. Several foods are consumed to usher in wealth, happiness, and good fortune. Several of the Chinese food names are homophones for words that also mean good things."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Traditionally, red envelopes or red packets"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The act of asking for red packets is normally called (Mandarin): \u8a0e\u7d05\u5305 t\u01ceo-h\u00f3ngb\u0101o, \u8981\u5229\u662f or (Cantonese): \u9017\u5229\u662f. A married person would not turn down such a request as it would mean that he or she would be \"out of luck\" in the new year. Red packets are generally given by established married couples to the younger non-married children of the family. It is custom and polite for children to wish elders a happy new year and a year of happiness, health and good fortune before accepting the red envelope. Red envelopes are then kept under the pillow and slept on for seven nights after Chinese New Year before opening because that symbolizes good luck and fortune."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In Suzhou, the children kept the red envelope in their bedroom after they received. They believed that putting the red envelope under their bed can protect the children. The action how they holding down the red envelope refer to the Chinese meaning . Those would not be used until the end of Chinese New Year. They also received fruit or cake during the new year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In addition to red envelopes, which are usually given from older people to younger people, small gifts (usually food or sweets) are also exchanged between friends or relatives (of different households) during Chinese New Year. Gifts are usually brought when visiting friends or relatives at their homes. Common gifts include fruits (typically oranges, but never trade pears), cakes, biscuits, chocolates, and candies. Gifts are preferred to be wraped with red or golden paper, which symbolises good luck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "Red envelopes are gifts presented at social and family gatherings such as weddings or holidays such as Chinese New Year. The red color of the envelope symbolizes good luck and is a symbol to ward off evil spirits. It is also gifted when a person is visiting as a gesture of kindness for visiting. The act of requesting red packets is normally called () or (), and in the south of China, (). Red envelopes are usually given out to the younger generation who are normally still in school or unmarried."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Red packets almost always contain money, usually varying from a couple of dollars to several hundred. Chinese superstitions favour amounts that begin with even numbers, such as 8 (\u516b, ) \u2014 a homophone for \"wealth\", and 6 (\u516d, ) \u2014 a homophone for \"smooth\", except for the number 4 (\u56db, ) \u2014 as it is a homophone of \"death\", and is, as such, considered unlucky in Asian culture. Odd numbers are also avoided, as they are associated with cash given during funerals (\u5e1b\u91d1, ). It is also customary for bills placed inside a red envelope to be new."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Normal traditions occurring on the first day involve house gatherings to the families, specifically the elders and families to the oldest and most senior members of their extended families, usually their parents, grandparents and great-grandparents, and trading Mandarin oranges as a courtesy to symbolize wealth and good luck. Members of the family who are married also give red envelopes containing cash known as \"lai see\" (Cantonese: ) or \"angpow\" (Hokkien and Teochew), or \"hongbao\" (Mandarin: ), a form of a blessing and to suppress both the aging and challenges that were associated with the coming year, to junior members of the family, mostly children and teenagers. Business managers may also give bonuses in the form of red packets to employees to symbolize a smooth-sailing career. The money can be of any form, specifically numbers ending with 8, which sounded as \"huat\" (Mandarin: ), meaning prosperity, but packets with denominations of odd numbers or without money are usually not allowed due to bad luck, especially the number 4 which sounded as \"si\" (Mandarin: ), which means death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "It is also given during the Chinese New Year in workplace from a person of authority (supervisors or owner of the business) out of his own fund to employees as a token of good fortune for the upcoming year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "During the Chinese New Year, in Southern China, red envelopes are typically given by the married to the unmarried, most of whom are children. In northern and southern China, red envelopes are typically given by the elders to the younger under 25 (30 in most of the three northeastern provinces), regardless of marital status. The amount of money is usually notes to avoid heavy coins and to make it difficult to judge the amount inside before opening. In Malaysia it is common to add a coin to the notes, particularly in hong baos given to children, signifying even more luck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Color in Chinese culture",
        "text": "A red envelope is a monetary gift which is given in Chinese society during holiday or special occasions. The red color of the packet symbolizes good luck. Red is strictly forbidden at funerals as it is a traditionally symbolic color of happiness; however, as the names of the dead were previously written in red, it may be considered offensive to use red ink for Chinese names in contexts other than official seals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In the Philippines, Chinese Filipinos exchange red envelopes (termed \"ang pao\") during the Lunar New Year, which is an easily recognisable symbol. The red envelope has gained wider acceptance among non-Chinese Filipinos, who have appropriated the custom for other occasions such as birthdays, and in giving monetary \"aguinaldo\" during Christmas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In the Tang Dynasty, the Chinese New Year was considered to be the beginning of spring, and in addition to congratulations, elders gave money to children to ward off evil spirits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In East and Southeast Asian cultures, a red envelope, red packet or red pocket () is a monetary gift given during holidays or for special occasions such as a wedding, a graduation, or the birth of a baby.Although the red envelope was popularised by Chinese traditions, other cultures also share similar traditional customs. The red packet is also called \"money warding off old age\" () for Chinese New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Prior to the Reunion Dinner, a prayer of thanksgiving is held to mark the safe passage of the previous year. Confucianists take the opportunity to remember their ancestors, and those who had lived before them are revered. Some people do not give a Buddhist prayer due to the influence of Christianity, with a Christian prayer offered instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Red is the predominant color used in New Year celebrations. Red is the emblem of joy, and this color also symbolizes virtue, truth and sincerity. On the Chinese opera stage, a painted red face usually denotes a sacred or loyal personage and sometimes a great emperor. Candies, cakes, decorations and many things associated with the New Year and its ceremonies are colored red. The sound of the Chinese word for \"red\" () is in Mandarin homophonous with the word for \"prosperous.\" Therefore, red is an auspicious color and has an auspicious sound."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "A reunion dinner"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reunion dinner",
        "text": "The New Year's Eve dinner is very large and traditionally includes dumplings, chicken, and pork. Fish (\u9b5a, y\u00fa; Vietnamese: Con c\u00e1) is also included, but intentionally (except for Vietnam) not finished, and the remaining fish is stored overnight. The reason for this stems from a pun, as the Chinese phrase \u5e74\u5e74\u6709\u9b5a/\u9918; (ni\u00e1n ni\u00e1n y\u01d2u y\u00fa, or \"every year there is fish/leftover\") is a homophone for phrases which mean \"be blessed every year\" or \"have abundant profit every year\". Similarly, a type of black hair-like algae, \"fat choy\"(\u9aee\u83dc, f\u01ce c\u00e0i, literally \"hair vegetable\" in Chinese), is also featured in many dishes since its name sounds similar to \"prosperity\"(\u767c\u8ca1, f\u0101 c\u00e1i). Hakka will serve \"kiu nyuk\" \u6263\u8089 and \"ngiong tiu fu\" \u91c0\u8c46\u8150. The belief is that having one will lead to the other, as the phrases sound similar to one another.\n* List of dining events\n*Chinese New Year Reunion Dinner"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Children and teenagers sometimes jokingly use the phrase \"\" (; Cantonese: ; ), roughly translated as \"Congratulations and be prosperous, now give me a red envelope!\". In Hakka the saying is more commonly said as 'Gung hee fatt choi, hung bao diu loi' which would be written as \u2013 a mixture of the Cantonese and Mandarin variants of the saying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Family reunion dinner is crucial to Chinese. Chinese New Year\u2019s Eve feast allows every family members to sit together. It takes days to do the preparation. Every dish on Chinese New Year\u2019s Eve have different meanings. Some of the most popular dishes are:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In the mid-2010s, Chinese messaging apps such as WeChat popularized the distribution of red envelopes in a virtual format via mobile payments, usually within group chats. In 2017, it was estimated that over 100 billion of these virtual red envelopes would be sent over the New Year holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The Chinese New Year is associated with several myths and customs. The festival was traditionally a time to honor deities as well as ancestors. Within China, regional customs and traditions concerning the celebration of the New Year vary widely, and the evening preceding the New Year's Day is frequently regarded as an occasion for Chinese families to gather for the annual reunion dinner. It is also traditional for every family to thoroughly clean their house, in order to sweep away any ill fortune and to make way for incoming good luck. Another custom is the decoration of windows and doors with red paper-cuts and couplets. Popular themes among these paper-cuts and couplets include good fortune or happiness, wealth, and longevity. Other activities include lighting firecrackers and giving money in red paper envelopes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "(Mandarin: ; Hakka: fung bao / Cantonese: ) are passed out during the Chinese New Year's celebrations, from married couples or the elderly to unmarried juniors or children. During this period, red packets are also known as \"yasuiqian\" (, which was evolved from , literally, \"the money used to suppress or put down the evil spirit\"). According to legend, a demon named Sui patted a child on the head three times on New Year's Eve, and the child would have a fever. The parents wrapped coins in red paper and placed them next to their children's pillows. When Sui came, the flash of the coin scared him away. From then on, every New Year's Eve, parents will wrap the coin in red paper to protect their children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "These greetings or phrases may also be used just before children receive their red packets, when gifts are exchanged, when visiting temples, or even when tossing the shredded ingredients of yusheng particularly popular in Malaysia and Singapore. Children and their parents can also pray in the temple, in hopes of getting good blessings for the new year to come."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The Chinese New Year is often accompanied by loud, enthusiastic greetings, often referred to as () in Mandarin or (Kat Lei Seut Wa) in Cantonese, loosely translated as \"auspicious words or phrases\". New Year couplets printed in gold letters on bright red paper, referred to as \"chunlian\" () or \"fai chun\" (), is another way of expressing auspicious new year wishes. They probably predate the Ming dynasty (1368\u20131644), but did not become widespread until then. Today, they are ubiquitous with Chinese New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope (disambiguation)",
        "text": "A red envelope (or \"h\u00f3ngb\u0101o\") is a monetary gift which is given during special occasions in Chinese and other East Asian societies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "As with all cultures, Chinese New Year traditions incorporate elements that are symbolic of deeper meaning. One common example of Chinese New Year symbolism is the red diamond-shaped \"fu characters\" (), which are displayed on the entrances of Chinese homes. This sign is usually seen hanging upside down, since the Chinese word \"dao\" (), is homophonous or nearly homophonous with () in all varieties of Chinese. Therefore, it symbolizes the arrival of luck, happiness, and prosperity."
      },
      {
        "title": "WeChat red envelope",
        "text": "Traditionally, Lunar New Year carries themes of reunification and strengthening relationships. However, the emphasis placed on cash-based incentives has changed the focus of the tradition into a monetary venture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ibrahim Ali (politician)",
        "text": "In January 2012 during an event celebrating the Chinese New Year, in an incident which has come to be known as \"white ang pow\", he distributed small monetary gifts that were contained within white envelopes instead of red ones. White ang pows are customarily handed out only at funerals. Some described the choice of colour a deliberate attempt to remind the Chinese community. However, a spokesman said rather than turning away the greater than expected number of guests empty handed, white envelopes were used when they ran out of red ones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "(\"ni\u00e1n y\u00e8 f\u00e0n\") is held on New Year's Eve during which family members gather for a celebration. The venue will usually be in or near the home of the most senior member of the family. The New Year's Eve dinner is very large and sumptuous and traditionally includes dishes of meat (namely, pork and chicken) and fish. Most reunion dinners also feature a communal hot pot as it is believed to signify the coming together of the family members for the meal. Most reunion dinners (particularly in the Southern regions) also prominently feature specialty meats (e.g. wax-cured meats like duck and Chinese sausage) and seafood (e.g. lobster and abalone) that are usually reserved for this and other special occasions during the remainder of the year. In most areas, fish () is included, but not eaten completely (and the remainder is stored overnight), as the Chinese phrase \"may there be \"surpluses\" every year\" () sounds the same as \"let there be fish every year.\" Eight individual dishes are served to reflect the belief of good fortune associated with the number. If in the previous year a death was experienced in the family, seven dishes are served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Big Red Envelope",
        "text": "According to director Zhao Ji, the film is intended as a commentary on modern Chinese society, where gifts of red envelopes have become so frequent as to be stressful.\n*Bao Bei'er as Chen Zhong\n*Clara Lee as Ellie\n*Jia Bing as Qian Haoshi\n*Zhang Yiming as Da Rui\n*Xu Juncong as Gangzi\n*Wang Xiaoli as Ellie's fake father\n*Liao Weiwei as Du Ying\n*Yue Yueli as Ellie's real father"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In Taiwan in the 2000s, some employers also gave red packets as a bonus to maids, nurses or domestic workers from Southeast Asian countries, although whether this is appropriate is controversial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongjun Laozu",
        "text": "After that, the people started to paste red paper on their front doors before New Year's Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The third day is known as \"red mouth\" (). \"Chikou\" is also called \"Chigou's Day\" (). \"Chigou\", literally \"red dog\", is an epithet of \"the God of Blazing Wrath\" (). Rural villagers continue the tradition of burning paper offerings over trash fires. It is considered an unlucky day to have guests or go visiting. Hakka villagers in rural Hong Kong in the 1960s called it the Day of the Poor Devil and believed everyone should stay at home. This is also considered a propitious day to visit the temple of the God of Wealth and have one's future told."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In Cambodia, red envelopes are called \"ang pav\" or \"tae ea\" (\"give \"ang pav\"\"). \"Ang pav\" are delivered with best wishes from elder to younger generations. The money amount in \"ang pav\" makes young children happy and is a most important gift which traditionally reflects the best wishes as a symbol of good luck for the elders. \"Ang pav\" can be presented on the day of Chinese New Year or \"Saen Chen\", when relatives gather together. The gift is kept as a worship item in or under the pillowcase, or somewhere else, especially near the bed of young while they are sleeping in New Year time. Gift in \"ang pav\" can be either money or a cheque, and more or less according to the charity of the donors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red in culture",
        "text": "In China, red () is the symbol of fire and the south (both south in general and Southern China specifically). It carries a largely positive connotation, being associated with courage, loyalty, honor, success, fortune, fertility, happiness, passion, and summer. In Chinese cultural traditions, red is associated with weddings (where brides traditionally wear red dresses) and red paper is frequently used to wrap gifts of money or other objects. Special red packets ( in Mandarin or \"lai see\" in Cantonese) are specifically used during Chinese New Year celebrations for giving monetary gifts. On the more negative side, obituaries are traditionally written in red ink, and to write someone's name in red signals either cutting them out of one's life, or that they have died. Red is also associated with either the feminine or the masculine (yin and yang respectively), depending on the source. The \"Little Red Book\", a collection of quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung, founding father of the People's Republic of China (PRC), was published in 1966 and widely distributed thereafter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Some of the most common greetings include:\n*Xin nian kuai le / San nin fai lok: ; Hakka: Sin Ngen Kai Lok; Taishanese: Slin Nen Fai Lok. A more contemporary greeting reflective of Western influences, it literally translates from the greeting \"Happy new year\" more common in the west. It is written in English as \"xin nian kuai le\". In northern parts of China, traditionally people say instead of (), to differentiate it from the international new year. And () can be used from the first day to the fifth day of Chinese New Year. However, () is considered very short and therefore somewhat discourteous.\n*Gong xi fa cai / Gong hei fat choi: ; Hokkien: Kiong hee huat chai (POJ: Kiong-h\u00ed hoat-ch\u00e2i); Cantonese: Gung1 hei2 faat3 coi4; Hakka: Gung hee fatt choi, which \"loosely\" translates to \"Congratulations and be prosperous\". It is spelled varyingly in English, such as \"Gung hay fat choy\", \"gong hey fat choi\", or \"Kung Hei Fat Choy\". Often mistakenly assumed to be synonymous with \"Happy New Year\", its usage dates back several centuries. While the first two words of this phrase had a much longer historical significance (legend has it that the congratulatory messages were traded for surviving the ravaging beast of \"Nian\", in practical terms it may also have meant surviving the harsh winter conditions), the last two words were added later as ideas of capitalism and consumerism became more significant in Chinese societies around the world. The saying is now commonly heard in English speaking communities for greetings during Chinese New Year in parts of the world where there is a sizable Chinese-speaking community, including overseas Chinese communities that have been resident for several generations, relatively recent immigrants from Greater China, and those who are transit migrants (particularly students)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "These customs have also been adopted across parts of Southeast Asia, and other countries that have a sizable ethnic Chinese population as well. In the mid-2010's, a digital equivalent to the practice emerged within messaging apps with mobile wallet systems localised for Chinese New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "The amount of money contained in the envelope usually ends with an even digit, in accordance with Chinese beliefs; odd-numbered money gifts are traditionally associated with funerals. The exception being the number 9 as the pronunciation of \"nine\" () is homophonous to the word \"long\" () and is the largest digit. Still in some regions of China and in its diaspora community, odd numbers are favored for weddings because they are difficult to divide. There is also a widespread tradition that money should not be given in fours, or the number four should not appear in the amount, such as in 40, 400 and 444, as the pronunciation of the word \"four\" () is homophonous to the word \"death\" (). When giving money, new crispy bills are normally given instead of old dirty bills. It is common to see long queues outside of banks before Chinese New Year with people waiting to get new bills."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reunion dinner",
        "text": "A reunion dinner (, or ; ) is held on New Year's Eve of the Chinese and Vietnamese New Years, during which family members get together to celebrate. It is often considered the most important get-together meal of the entire year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The color red is commonly worn throughout Chinese New Year; traditional beliefs held that red could scare away evil spirits and bad fortune. The wearing of new clothes is another clothing custom during the festival, the new clothes symbolize a new beginning in the year, and enough things to use and wear in this time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Big Chinese population cities and towns like of Chinatown includes Jakarta, Medan, Singkawang, Pangkal Pinang, Binjai, Bagansiapiapi, Tanjungbalai, Pematangsiantar, Selat Panjang, Pekanbaru, Tanjung Pinang, Batam, Ketapang, Pontianak, Sungailiat, Tanjung Pandan, Manggar, Toboali, Muntok, Lubuk Pakam, Bandung, Semarang, Surabaya, Rantau Prapat, Tebing Tinggi, Sibolga, Dumai, Panipahan, Bagan Batu, Tanjung Balai Karimun, Palembang, Bengkayang, and Tangerang always have its own New Year's celebration every years with parade and fireworks. A lot shopping malls decorated its building with lantern, Chinese words and lion or dragon with red and gold as main color. Lion dance is a common sight around Chinese houses, temples and its shophouses. Usually, the Buddhist, Confucian and Taoist Chinese will burn a big incense made by aloeswood with dragon-decorated at front of their house. The Chinese temple is open 24 hours at the first day, their also distributes a red envelopes and sometimes rice, fruits or sugar to the poor around."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Incense, tea, fruit, vegetarian food or roast pig, and gold paper, are served as a customary protocol for paying respect to an honored person."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homophonic puns in Standard Chinese",
        "text": "Chinese New Year, known in China as Spring Festival, has an abundance of unique traditions associated with it. Some of these traditions are more widespread than others. Among the many New Year's customs are a few whose meaning is derived from puns of Mandarin words.\n* Ni\u00e1n ni\u00e1n y\u01d2u y\u00fa - \u5e74\u5e74\u6709\u9918 \"There will be an abundance every year\" homophonous with \u5e74\u5e74\u6709\u9b5a \"There will be fish every year.\" As a result, fish are eaten and used as common decorations during Chinese New Year.\n* Ni\u00e1n g\u0101o - \u5e74\u7cd5 \"niangao\" homophonous with \u5e74\u9ad8 from \u5e74\u5e74\u9ad8\u5347 \"ni\u00e1n ni\u00e1n g\u0101osh\u0113ng\" or \"raised higher each year,\" leading to the belief that those who eat niangao should have greater prosperity with each coming year.\n* F\u00fa d\u00e0o le - \u798f\u5230\u4e86 \"fortune has arrived\" and \u798f\u5012\u4e86 \"fortune is upside down\", the latter simply referring to the ubiquitous character \u798f, which when displayed upside down denotes one's good fortune has arrived. It is common practice to hang the character upside-down on doors during the Spring festival.\n* *Shengcai - Traditionally the first meal of the New Year is vegetarian with a variety of ingredients. The meal is served with lettuce () because the word is near homophonous to \"\" (\"sh\u0113ng c\u00e1i\"), \"to make money\". Lettuce shows up in other New Years customs as well. In the traditional New Year's Day lion dance lettuce and red envelopes of cash are offered to the lion.\n* *T\u0101ng yu\u00e1n - At times of reunion, such as Spring Festival, it is customary to eat sweet round dumplings called tangyuan (). The tangyuan are traditionally eaten during Lantern Festival, which is the last day of the Chinese New Year celebration. The roundness of the tangyuan and the bowls they are eaten out of emphasize unity in addition to the similarity of their name with the Mandarin word for reunion, \" (tu\u00e1n yu\u00e1n).\n* *F\u0101 c\u00e0i (), a thin black hair-like algae, is a feature of Spring Festival cuisine because its name is a near-homophone of \" (), meaning \"prosperity,\" and as in the Chinese New Year greeting .\n*Dream of the Red Chamber \u2013 Similar to Dickens or Dostoevsky, Cao Xueqin chose many of the names of his characters in \"Dream of the Red Chamber\" to be homophones with other words which hint at their qualities. For example, the name of the main family, \"\u8cc8\" (Ji\u01ce) puns with \"\u5047\" meaning \"fake\" or \"false\" while the name of the other main family in the story, \"\u7504\" (Zh\u0113n) puns with \"\u771e\" meaning \"real\" or \"true\".\n*H\u00f3ng Qi\u016b (\u7d05\u79cb) \u2013 In this Sichuan opera, a sternsman on the boat asks a nun her name, who defiantly responds that her name is \u9673 \"ch\u00e9n\" which is a homophone with \u6c89 or 'to sink' which is the last word one wants to hear on a boat.\n*M\u00e1o D\u00f9n \u2013 Noted 20th-century author Shen Yanbing is better known by his pseudonym Mao Dun (\u8305\u76fe), a homophone for \"contradiction\" (\u77db\u76fe). The pun is said to be a statement of his disillusionment with the ruling Kuomintang party following the Shanghai massacre of 1927.\n*F\u01ceng Z\u01d0ji\u01d4 Hu\u00e0 \u2013 Yun Shouping, a famous artist of the early Qing dynasty, is best known today for his paintings of flowers, but he was also a prolific poet. One of his poems, \"\u4eff\u5b50\u4e45\u756b\" (\"After the artistic style of Zijiu\"), was an ode to a previous master of traditional Chinese landscape painting, Huang Gongwang who was also known by his style name \"Zijiu\" (\u5b50\u4e45). The poem has several intentional puns. The poem and alternative readings are included below:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In Thailand, Myanmar (Burma), and Cambodia, the Chinese diaspora and immigrants have introduced the culture of red envelopes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chunyun",
        "text": "First, it is a long-held tradition for most Chinese people to reunite with their families during Chinese New Year. People return home from work or study to have reunion dinner with their families on New Year's Eve. Since the Chinese economic reforms of the late 1970s, new economic opportunities have emerged, often at a considerable distance from people's hometowns. Places such as the Special Economic Zones and the wealthy coastal regions offer employment and often, a more sought-after lifestyle. Consequently, there has been a massive migration from rural to urban areas over the course of the last few decades, reminiscent of other industrial revolutions around the world. The number of these migrant workers was estimated at 50 million at 1990 and unofficially estimated at 150 million to 200 million in 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In Vietnam, red envelopes are a traditional part of Vietnamese culture considered to be lucky money and are typically given to children during Vietnamese Lunar New Year. They are generally given by the elders and adults, where a greeting or offering health and longevity is exchanged by the younger generation. Common greetings include \"S\u1ed1ng l\u00e2u tr\u0103m tu\u1ed5i\" (\ud852\udfe9\ud857\ude70\ud853\udf93\u6b72), \"An khang th\u1ecbnh v\u01b0\u1ee3ng\" (), \"V\u1ea1n s\u1ef1 nh\u01b0 \u00fd\" () and \"S\u1ee9c kh\u1ecfe d\u1ed3i d\u00e0o\" (\u98ed\u52b8\u6d21\ud850\udc60), which all relate back to the idea of wishing health and prosperity as age besets everyone in Vietnam on the Lunar New Year. The typical name for lucky money is \"l\u00ec x\u00ec\" (\u5229\u5e02) or, less commonly, \"m\u1eebng tu\u1ed5i (\ud849\udf20\u6b72)\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Big Red Envelope",
        "text": "Big Red Envelope () is a 2021 romantic comedy film written and directed by Li Kelong and starring Bao Bei'er, Clara Lee, Jia Bing, Zhang Yiming, Xu Juncong, Wang Xiaoli, Liao Weiwei, and Yue Yueli. It is a remake of director Li Kelong's own 2014 film \"Cash Gift\". It was released in China on 22 January 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese red eggs",
        "text": "Similar to Western Easter eggs, in Chinese culture eggs symbolize birth or a new start; thus, it is of paramount importance for eggs to be served to guests during an important birthday (such as the first month or first year). The color red symbolizes prosperity and good fortune to the Chinese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Chinese New Year's Eve is the day before the Chinese New Year. Celebrating Chinese New Year\u2019s Eve has always been a family matter in China, it is the reunion day for every Chinese family. It has evolved over a long period of time. The origin of Chinese New Year\u2019s Eve can be traced back to 3500 years ago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In northern China, it is customary to make jiaozi, or dumplings, after dinner to eat around midnight. Dumplings symbolize wealth because their shape resembles a Chinese sycee. In contrast, in the South, it is customary to make a glutinous new year cake (niangao) and send pieces of it as gifts to relatives and friends in the coming days. Ni\u00e1ng\u0101o [Pinyin] literally means \"new year cake\" with a homophonous meaning of \"increasingly prosperous year in year out\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reunion dinner (disambiguation)",
        "text": "It is customary for Chinese and Vietnamese to hold reunion dinner for family members to gather on the eve of Chinese New Year or T\u1ebft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In China and Malaysia, this day is celebrated by individuals seeking a romantic partner, akin to Valentine's Day. Nowadays, single women write their contact number on mandarin oranges and throw them in a river or a lake after which single men collect the oranges and eat them. The taste is an indication of their possible love: sweet represents a good fate while sour represents a bad fate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Malaysian Chinese",
        "text": "With the large presence of ethnic Chinese in the country nationwide, Chinese New Year is celebrated as a national public holiday. 11 states and three federal territories in the country celebrate with two days holidays while two remaining states of Kelantan and Terengganu only celebrate a one-day holiday. During the New Year, many Chinese living with their family in the urban areas will celebrate together, while some who may have family in rural areas will return for family reunions. Traditional dinner with the entire family is the most important aspect of the celebration and may include a traditional food tossing of \"yee sang,\" especially among the Cantonese. Elders will usually give the young a red envelope (\"ang pow\" or \"angpau\"). A variety of festival sweets are presented in the house for visitors. Most Chinese settlements and Chinatown streets will be decorated before the New Year with colorful lanterns. Dragon and lion dances will be performed with firecracker and fireworks shows also featured as part of the celebrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ang ku kueh",
        "text": "Chinese New Year is the most important festival in Chinese culture as it represents the start of a new year for everyone where people could reconcile and welcome the new year in hope for peace and prosperity. During this festival, the Chinese people would pray for good fortune and sweets such as rice cakes and red tortoise cakes are offered to the Chinese deities on ritual altars. These ritual offerings are made in the hope that the sweetness from these cakes will leave a sweet taste in the mouths of the deities and they will bless the people with a prosperous year ahead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Other traditional foods consists of noodles, fruits, dumplings, spring rolls, and Tangyuan which are also known as sweet rice balls. Each dish served during Chinese New Year represents something special. The noodles used to make longevity noodles are usually very thin, long wheat noodles. These noodles are longer than normal noodles that are usually fried and served on a plate, or boiled and served in a bowl with its broth. Expectedly, the noodles symbolize the wish for a long life. The fruits that are typically selected would be oranges, tangerines, and pomelos as they are round and \"golden\" color symbolizing fullness and wealth. Their lucky sound when spoken also brings good luck and fortune. The Chinese pronunciation for orange is \u6a59 (ch\u00e9ng /chnng/), which sounds the same as the Chinese for 'success' (\u6210). One of the ways to spell tangerine(\u6854 j\u00fa /jyoo/) contains the Chinese character for luck (\u5409 j\u00ed /jee/). Pomelos is believed to bring constant prosperity. Pomelo in Chinese (\u67da y\u00f2u /yo/) sounds similar to 'to have' (\u6709 y\u01d2u), disregarding its tone, however it sounds exactly like 'again' (\u53c8 y\u00f2u). Dumplings and spring rolls symbolize wealth, whereas sweet rice balls symbolize family togetherness."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "Chinese New Year is celebrated in January or February, depending on a lunar calendar. Gifts of citrus such as tangerines, oranges, and pomelos are thought to represent prosperity and are auspicious for New Year's Eve; their shape, color, and names are seen as symbolizing fullness and wealth. Other commonly served dishes are spring rolls, dumplings, longevity noodles, glutinous rice cake or nian gao, the name of which means progressively improving."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Chinese New Year\n--Dates in Chinese lunisolar calendar.\n--Mythology.\n--History.\n--Naming.\n--Public holiday.\n--Festivities.\n----Preceding days.\n----Chinese New Year's Eve.\n----First day.\n----Second day.\n----Third day.\n----Fourth day.\n----Fifth day.\n----Sixth day.\n----Seventh day.\n----Eighth day.\n----Ninth day.\n----Tenth day.\n----Fifteenth day.\n--Traditional food.\n--Practices.\n----Red envelopes.\n------Mythology.\n----Gift exchange.\n----Markets.\n----Fireworks.\n----Music.\n----Movies.\n----Clothing.\n----Family portrait.\n----Symbolism.\n----Nianhua.\n----Flowers.\n----Spring travel.\n--Festivities outside Greater China.\n----Southeast Asia.\n------Malaysia.\n------Singapore.\n------Philippines.\n------Indonesia.\n------Thailand.\n----Australia and New Zealand.\n----North America.\n------New York.\n------California.\n----Europe.\n----India and Pakistan.\n--Greetings.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "During the Tang dynasty, people established the custom of sending \"bai nian tie\" (\u62dc\u5e74\u5e16), which are New Year's greeting cards. It is said that the custom was started by Emperor Taizong of Tang. The emperor wrote \"\u666e\u5929\u540c\u6176\" (whole nation celebrate together) on gold leaves and sent them to his ministers. Word of the emperor's gesture spread, and later it became the custom of people in general, who used Xuan paper instead of gold leaves. Another theory is that \"bai nian tie\" was derived from the Han dynasty's name tag, \"\u9580\u72c0\" (door opening). As imperial examinations became essential and reached their heyday under the Tang dynasty, candidates curried favour to become pupils of respected teachers, in order to get recommendation letters. After obtaining good examination marks, a pupil went to the teacher's home with a \"men zhuang\" (\u95e8\u72b6) to convey their gratitude. Therefore, eventually \"men zhuang\" became a symbol of good luck, and people started sending them to friends on New Year's Day, calling them by a new name, \"bai nian tie\" (\u62dc\u5e74\u5e16, New Year's Greetings)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "This day often marks the end of the Chinese New Year festivities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In South Korea, a monetary gift is given to children by their relatives during the New Year period. However, white envelopes are used instead of red, with the name of the receiver written on the back."
      },
      {
        "title": "Color in Chinese culture",
        "text": "Red is found everywhere during Chinese New Year and other holiday celebrations and family gatherings. In addition to the new year, red has been used in Chinese weddings since ancient times, which can represent the traditional Chinese wedding color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Certain items should not be given, as they are considered taboo. Taboo gifts include:\n* items associated with funerals (i.e. handkerchiefs, towels, chrysanthemums, items colored white and black)\n* items that show that time is running out (i.e. clocks and watches)\n* sharp objects that symbolize cutting a tie (i.e. scissors and knives)\n* items that symbolize that you want to walk away from a relationship (examples: shoes and sandals)\n* mirrors\n* homonyms for unpleasant topics (examples: \"clock\" sounds like \"the funeral ritual\" or \"the end of life\", green hats because \"wear a green hat\" sounds like \"cuckold\", \"handkerchief\" sounds like \"goodbye\", \"pear\" sounds like \"separate\", \"umbrella\" sounds like \"disperse\", and \"shoe\" sounds like a \"rough\" year)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ang ku kueh",
        "text": "Ang ku kueh\n--Importance in Chinese culture.\n----Chinese New Year.\n----Jade Emperor's Birthday.\n----Qing Ming Festival.\n----Qi Xi Festival.\n----Birthdays.\n----Newborn's first month.\n--Availability.\n--Preparation.\n----Red tortoise cake mold.\n--Varieties.\n----Jelly red tortoise cake.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The East Is Red (1965 film)",
        "text": "The sixth stage, \"The Chinese People Have Stood Up\" is the last, and is the\u00a0sublimation of the whole scene. The stage is introduced with the singing of the national anthem \"March of the Volunteers ()\". Through the song \"Without the Communist Party, There Would Be No New China ()\" Chinese people show their love and gratitude for Mao Zedong. Starting with the song \"Ode ()\" and \"Chairman Mao, I Wish You a Long Life ()\" by Hu Songhua, a minority singer, and Tseten Dolma, and many performances by minority groups follow to represent the unity of the people of China and their love for the new leader and new China. After that, the following segments, \"Ode to the Motherland ()\" and \"The Internationale ()\" further praise the achievements of victory displayed previously. The stage concludes with all Chinese people including the previously oppressed resisting the fascist colonial rule and the imperialist aggression and colonial activities as well as welcoming together a new era."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year's food",
        "text": "Between New Year's Day and the 15th day of the month people visit friends and relatives bringing gifts of citrus, and they prepare for such visits to their own homes by making chuen hop (tray of togetherness) which includes various fruits, candies, and other sweets. On the fourth day of the New Year people make offerings of wine and fruits. On the 15th day the Lantern Festival is celebrated, also called Yuan Xiao, a name for glutinous rice balls which are eaten and symbolize unity, family, and peace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "On the days immediately before the New Year celebration, Chinese families give their homes a thorough cleaning. There is a Cantonese saying \"Wash away the dirt on \"nin ya baat\"\" (), but the practice is not restricted to \"nin ya baat\" (the 28th day of month 12). It is believed the cleaning sweeps away the bad luck of the preceding year and makes their homes ready for good luck. Brooms and dust pans are put away on the first day so that the newly arrived good luck cannot be swept away. Some people give their homes, doors and window-frames a new coat of red paint; decorators and paper-hangers do a year-end rush of business prior to Chinese New Year. Homes are often decorated with paper cutouts of Chinese auspicious phrases and couplets. Purchasing new clothing and shoes also symbolize a new start. Any hair cuts need to be completed before the New Year, as cutting hair on New Year is considered bad luck due to the homonymic nature of the word \"hair\" (fa) and the word for \"prosperity\". Businesses are expected to pay off all the debts outstanding for the year before the new year eve, extending to debts of gratitude. Thus it is a common practice to send gifts and rice to close business associates, and extended family members."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade",
        "text": "A Chinese candy box, called Tray of Togetherness or Harmony box, is a sectional tray which is used to serve bite-sized treats, such as candied melon, red melon seeds, candied coconut, and lotus seeds to wish guests a sweet new year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bukit Bintang Boys' Secondary School",
        "text": "Chinese New Year Open House was held in the Dewan McGregor since 2008, celebrating Chinese New Year, with Yee Sang every year. A line of BBians would form in front of Madam Quah, as she would be giving out Red Packets to students during the event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The seventh day, traditionally known as \"Renri\" (the common person's birthday), is the day when everyone grows one year older. In some overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia, such as Malaysia and Singapore, it is also the day when tossed raw fish salad, yusheng, is eaten for continued wealth and prosperity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "A monetary gift \"otoshidama\" () is given to children by their relatives during the New Year period. White or decorated envelopes (\"otoshidama-bukuro\" ()) are used instead of red, with the name of the receiver usually written on the front side. A similar practice, \"sh\u016bgi-bukuro\", is observed for Japanese weddings, but the envelope is folded rather than sealed, and decorated with an elaborate bow, called \"mizuhiki\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The day before the Chinese New Year (Chinese: ) usually accompanied with a dinner feast, consisting of special meats are served at the tables, as a main course for the dinner and as a offering for the New Year. This meal is comparable to Thanksgiving dinner in the U.S. and remotely similar to Christmas dinner in other countries with a high percentage of Christians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Chinese New Year is a national public holiday in many Southeast Asian countries and considered to be one of the most important holidays of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the custom of the elders giving the younger generation money continued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Numerous other greetings exist, some of which may be exclaimed out loud to no one in particular in specific situations. For example, as breaking objects during the new year is considered inauspicious, one may then say (\"Su\u00ecsu\u00ec-p\u00edng'\u0101n\") immediately, which means \"everlasting peace year after year\". \"Su\u00ec\" (), meaning \"age\" is homophonous with (su\u00ec) (meaning \"shatter\"), in the demonstration of the Chinese love for wordplay in auspicious phrases. Similarly, (\"ni\u00e1nni\u00e1n y\u01d2u y\u00fa\"), a wish for surpluses and bountiful harvests every year, plays on the word \"y\u00fa\" that can also refer to (y\u00fa meaning fish), making it a catch phrase for fish-based Chinese new year dishes and for paintings or graphics of fish that are hung on walls or presented as gifts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mandarin orange",
        "text": "During Chinese New Year, mandarin oranges/tangerine/satsumas are considered traditional symbols of abundance and good fortune. During the two-week celebration, they are frequently displayed as decoration and presented as gifts to friends, relatives, and business associates. Mandarin oranges, particularly from Japan, are a Christmas tradition in Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom and Russia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Traditionally, families gather together during the Chinese New Year. In modern China, migrant workers in China travel home to have reunion dinners with their families on Chinese New Year's Eve. Owing to a large number of interprovincial travelers, special arrangements were made by railways, buses and airlines starting from 15 days before the New Year's Day. This 40-day period is called chunyun, and is known as the world's largest annual migration. More interurban trips are taken in mainland China in this period than the total population of China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Like many other New Year dishes, certain ingredients also take special precedence over others as these ingredients also have similar-sounding names with prosperity, good luck, or even counting money."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Glutinous Rice Cake is called \"Nian Gao\" in mandarin. The sound of Nian Gao has a good meaning: getting higher year by year. Glutinous Rice Cake is made of sticky rice, sugar, chestnuts, lotus leaves. It is a common dish which appeared in the southern Chinese families' Lunar New Year Eve reunion dinner."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Chinese New Year is one of the most important holidays in Chinese culture, and has strongly influenced Lunar New Year celebrations of its 56 ethnic groups, such as the Losar of Tibet (), and of China's neighbours, including the Korean New Year (), and the of Vietnam, as well as in Okinawa. It is also celebrated worldwide in regions and countries that houses significant Overseas Chinese or Sinophone populations, especially in Southeast Asia. These include Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. It is also prominent beyond Asia, especially in Australia, Canada, Mauritius, New Zealand, Peru, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States, as well as various European countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00d4ng T\u00e1o",
        "text": "In Vietnamese culture, the Vietnamese New Year (T\u1ebft) is a time to make a new start. Children get red envelopes with money inside, known as \"l\u00ec x\u00ec\" (, \u5229\u5e02) in Vietnamese, as gifts for good luck in the coming year. Vietnamese families prepare their houses for the coming of a prosperous new year by cleaning up and polishing their silver. It is during this cultural event that \u00d4ng T\u00e1o comes in to serve as the Kitchen God for Vietnamese families. As the old year ends, he goes to heaven to discuss the family's situation with the Ng\u1ecdc Ho\u00e0ng, the Heavenly lord."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "Other similar traditions also exist in other countries in Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "Red envelope\n--Usage.\n----Virtual red envelopes.\n--Origin.\n--Other customs.\n----Ethnic Chinese.\n----Cambodia.\n----Vietnam.\n----South Korea.\n----Japan.\n----Philippines.\n----Green envelope.\n----Purple envelope.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Traditional candies in Hong Kong",
        "text": "It is established that families visit one another during the Chinese New Year, so when visits are made, visitors are normally offered candy in a red box often called a \"Tray of Togetherness\" or quanhe (). Different traditional candies such as \"sugar painting\", \"candy doll\", \"ding ding candy\" and \"dragons beard candy\" all convey symbolic meanings from wishing for increased fertility to stronger family ties . It can also mean money and sweetness of life, which is why many chocolates presented in the festival are wrapped and packaged in the shape of a gold coin. Being given candy in the Chinese New Year is seen as a blessing and a sign of luck for the rest of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "D Is for Dragon Dance",
        "text": "A few of the Chinese New Year traditions featured in the book include:\n* Watching the Dragon Dance performance in the New Year's parade\n* Lighting firecrackers\n* Hanging paper lanterns\n* Eating Peking Duck\n* Children receiving Red Envelopes full of gifts\n* Eating Steamed Dumplings\n* Performing Venerationfor one's ancestors\n* Creating Xylographs\n* Welcoming the Chinese Zodiac for the new year"
      },
      {
        "title": "San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade",
        "text": "Starting in 2019, gold foil-wrapped chocolate coins were passed out in traditional \"lai see\" (red envelopes) to children for the one-day Choy Sun Doe event, celebrating the arrival of the god of wealth. Some also included money or a gift certificate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "On the eighth day of the lunar month prior to Chinese New Year, the \"Laba\" holiday (), a traditional porridge, Laba porridge (), is served in remembrance of an ancient festival, called \"La\", that occurred shortly after the winter solstice. Pickles such as Laba garlic, which turns green from vinegar, are also made on this day. For those that practice Buddhism, the Laba holiday is also considered Bodhi Day. \"Layue\" () is a term often associated with Chinese New Year as it refers to the sacrifices held in honor of the gods in the twelfth lunar month, hence the cured meats of Chinese New Year are known as \"larou\" (). The porridge was prepared by the women of the household at first light, with the first bowl offered to the family's ancestors and the household deities. Every member of the family was then served a bowl, with leftovers distributed to relatives and friends. It's still served as a special breakfast on this day in some Chinese homes. The concept of the \"La month\" is similar to Advent in Christianity. Many families eat vegetarian on Chinese New Year eve, the garlic and preserved meat are eaten on Chinese New Year day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Another family dinner is held to celebrate the eve of the birth of the Jade Emperor, the ruler of heaven. People normally return to work by the eighth day, therefore the Store owners will host a lunch/dinner with their employees, thanking their employees for the work they have done for the whole year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hee pan",
        "text": "Traditional red hee pan is prepared for important festivals such as Lunar Chinese New Year and weddings. It is considered to be an auspicious food and is believed to bring prosperity, luck, and fortune to the people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "From the Republic of China (1912\u20131949) era, it evolved into a hundred coins wrapped in red paper, meaning \"May you live a hundred years!\". Due to the lack of holes in modern-day coins, the use of red envelopes became more prevalent\u2014because one could no longer thread the coins with string. Later on, people adopted banknotes instead of coins in red envelopes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese knotting",
        "text": "Around the times of Chinese new year festival, Chinese knot decorations can be seen hanging on walls, doors of homes and as shop decorations to add some festival feel. Usually, these decorations are in red, which traditional Chinese regards it as \"luck\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese candy box",
        "text": "The box is generally used for Chinese New Year, though some regional Chinese cultures may use it for other important events such as Chinese marriages. Usually it consists of 8 or 6 (Chinese auspicious lucky numbers) kinds of sugar preserved dried fruits or even dried vegetables like the bittergourd."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Chinese New Year's Eve\n--History.\n--Dates of Chinese New Year\u2019s Eve.\n--Traditions.\n----Gathering.\n----Gala TV show.\n----Burning of bamboo and use of firecrackers.\n----The Kitchen God.\n----Inviting a Door God.\n----Peach wood.\n----Traditional foods for Chinese New Year\u2019s Eve.\n------Spring Rolls.\n------Dumplings.\n------Glutinous Rice Cake.\n------Good Fortune Fruit.\n------Longevity Noodles.\n----Money gift and Money tree.\n--Similar traditions in other part of Asia.\n----Philippines.\n--Taboos.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "WeChat Pay",
        "text": "In 2014, for Chinese New Year, WeChat introduced a feature for distributing virtual red envelopes, modelled after the Chinese tradition of exchanging packets of money among friends and family members during holidays. The feature allows users to send money to contacts and groups as gifts. When sent to groups, the money is distributed equally, or in random shares (\"Lucky Money\"). The feature was launched through a promotion during China Central Television (CCTV)'s heavily watched New Year's Gala, where viewers were instructed to shake their phones during the broadcast for a chance to win sponsored cash prizes from red envelopes. The red envelope feature significantly increased the adoption of WeChat Pay. According to the Wall Street Journal, 16 million red envelopes were sent in the first 24 hours of this new feature's launch. A month after its launch, WeChat Pay's user base expanded from 30 million to 100 million users, and 20 million red envelopes were distributed during the New Year holiday. In 2016, 3.2 billion red envelopes were sent over the holiday period, and 409,000 alone were sent at midnight on Chinese New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sei Hei Lam Mun Hei Jing Ceon",
        "text": "Disc 2 is specially made for the Chinese New Year. The song \"() is a greeting song for the Chinese New Year,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "A contemporary interpretation of the practice comes in the form of virtual red envelopes, implemented as part of mobile payment platforms. During the Chinese New Year holiday in 2014, the messaging app WeChat introduced the ability to distribute virtual red envelopes of money to contacts and groups via its WeChat Pay platform. The launch included an on-air promotion during the CCTV New Year's Gala\u2014China's most-watched television special\u2014where viewers could win red envelopes as prizes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The most common auspicious greetings and sayings consist of four characters, such as the following:\n* , \u00a0\u2013 \"May your wealth [gold and jade] come to fill a hall\"\n* , \u00a0\u2013 \"May you realize your ambitions\"\n* , \u00a0\u2013 \"Greet the New Year and encounter happiness\"\n* , \u00a0\u2013 \"May all your wishes be fulfilled\"\n* , \u00a0\u2013 \"May your happiness be without limit\"\n* , \u00a0\u2013 \"May you hear [in a letter] that all is well\"\n* , \u00a0\u2013 \"May a small investment bring ten-thousandfold profits\"\n* , \u00a0\u2013 \"May your happiness and longevity be complete\"\n* , \u00a0\u2013 \"When wealth is acquired, precious objects follow\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Southern Chinese wedding",
        "text": "Monetary presents are usually offered in the form of a red envelope, or \"lai see\" (; Jyutping: lei6 si6), to the new couple. The \"lai see\" symbolises luck and prosperity to the new family. It is also common to give gold jewelry as presents. Wedding presents to the couple are usually expected from the elders (; Jyutping: zoeng2 bui3), family members who are older or of higher generation rank than the newlyweds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese calendar",
        "text": "The Chinese New Year (known as the Spring Festival/\u6625\u7bc0 in China) is on the first day of the first month and was traditionally called the Yuan Dan (\u5143\u65e6) or Zheng Ri (\u6b63\u65e5). In Vietnam, it is known as T\u1ebft Nguy\u00ean \u0110\u00e1n () and in Korea, it is known as \uc124\ub0a0. Traditionally it was the most important holiday of the year. It is an official holiday in China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Vietnam, Korea, the Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. It is also a public holiday in Thailand's Narathiwat, Pattani, Yala, and Satun provinces and is an official public school holiday in New York City."
      },
      {
        "title": "Renri",
        "text": "Nowadays during \"Zhengyue\", \"Renri\" is celebrated as part of the Chinese New Year. Chinese people prepare lucky food in the new year, where the \"seven vegetable soup\" (\u4e03\u83dc\u7fb9), \"seven vegetable congee\" (\u4e03\u83dc\u7ca5) and \"\"jidi\" congee\" (\u53ca\u7b2c\u7ca5) are specially prepared for \"Renri\". Malaysian and Singaporean Chinese use the \"seven-coloured raw fish\" () instead of the \"seven vegetable soup\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some of the traditional dishes associated with the festival?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you referring to the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, the Cannes Festival, the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, the Obon, or some other festival?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about the dishes of the Chinese New Year festival."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Chinese New Year festival features many dishes including a reunion dinner and other traditional foods. Which of these foods are you interested in learning more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I would like to know more about the reunion dinner."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A reunion dinner (Chinese: \u5e74\u591c\u98ef, \u5718\u5e74\u98ef or \u5718\u5713\u98ef; Vietnamese: T\u1ea5t ni\u00ean) is held on New Year's Eve of the Chinese and Vietnamese New Years, during which family members get together to celebrate. It is often considered the most important get-together meal of the entire year."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the significance in the red envelopes for Chinese New Year?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Members of the family who are married also give red envelopes containing cash known as lai  or angpow , or hongbao , a form of a blessing and to suppress both the aging and challenges that were associated with the coming year, to junior members of the family, mostly children and teenagers.",
      "Red packets almost always contain money, usually varying from a couple of dollars to several hundred;in the mid-2010s, Chinese messaging apps popularized the distribution of red envelopes in a virtual format via mobile payments. According to legend, parents wrapped coins in red paper and placed them next to their children's pillows to protect them from demons."
    ],
    "topic": "Chinese New Year",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Chinese New Year:36",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Chinese New Year",
          "Festivities",
          "First day"
        ],
        "ctx": "Normal traditions occurring on the first day involve house gatherings to the families, specifically the elders and families to the oldest and most senior members of their extended families, usually their parents, grandparents and great-grandparents, and trading Mandarin oranges as a courtesy to symbolize wealth and good luck. Members of the family who are married also give red envelopes containing cash known as \"lai see\" (Cantonese: ) or \"angpow\" (Hokkien and Teochew), or \"hongbao\" (Mandarin: ), a form of a blessing and to suppress both the aging and challenges that were associated with the coming year, to junior members of the family, mostly children and teenagers. Business managers may also give bonuses in the form of red packets to employees to symbolize a smooth-sailing career. The money can be of any form, specifically numbers ending with 8, which sounded as \"huat\" (Mandarin: ), meaning prosperity, but packets with denominations of odd numbers or without money are usually not allowed due to bad luck, especially the number 4 which sounded as \"si\" (Mandarin: ), which means death."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Chinese New Year:64",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Chinese New Year",
          "Practices",
          "Red envelopes"
        ],
        "ctx": "(Mandarin: ; Hakka: fung bao / Cantonese: ) are passed out during the Chinese New Year's celebrations, from married couples or the elderly to unmarried juniors or children. During this period, red packets are also known as \"yasuiqian\" (, which was evolved from , literally, \"the money used to suppress or put down the evil spirit\"). According to legend, a demon named Sui patted a child on the head three times on New Year's Eve, and the child would have a fever. The parents wrapped coins in red paper and placed them next to their children's pillows. When Sui came, the flash of the coin scared him away. From then on, every New Year's Eve, parents will wrap the coin in red paper to protect their children."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Chinese New Year:65",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Chinese New Year",
          "Practices",
          "Red envelopes"
        ],
        "ctx": "Red packets almost always contain money, usually varying from a couple of dollars to several hundred. Chinese superstitions favour amounts that begin with even numbers, such as 8 (\u516b, ) \u2014 a homophone for \"wealth\", and 6 (\u516d, ) \u2014 a homophone for \"smooth\", except for the number 4 (\u56db, ) \u2014 as it is a homophone of \"death\", and is, as such, considered unlucky in Asian culture. Odd numbers are also avoided, as they are associated with cash given during funerals (\u5e1b\u91d1, ). It is also customary for bills placed inside a red envelope to be new."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Chinese New Year:68",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Chinese New Year",
          "Practices",
          "Red envelopes"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the mid-2010s, Chinese messaging apps such as WeChat popularized the distribution of red envelopes in a virtual format via mobile payments, usually within group chats. In 2017, it was estimated that over 100 billion of these virtual red envelopes would be sent over the New Year holiday."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Traditionally, red envelopes or red packets"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In the mid-2010s, Chinese messaging apps such as WeChat popularized the distribution of red envelopes in a virtual format via mobile payments, usually within group chats. In 2017, it was estimated that over 100 billion of these virtual red envelopes would be sent over the New Year holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In Suzhou, the children kept the red envelope in their bedroom after they received. They believed that putting the red envelope under their bed can protect the children. The action how they holding down the red envelope refer to the Chinese meaning . Those would not be used until the end of Chinese New Year. They also received fruit or cake during the new year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In the Tang Dynasty, the Chinese New Year was considered to be the beginning of spring, and in addition to congratulations, elders gave money to children to ward off evil spirits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The act of asking for red packets is normally called (Mandarin): \u8a0e\u7d05\u5305 t\u01ceo-h\u00f3ngb\u0101o, \u8981\u5229\u662f or (Cantonese): \u9017\u5229\u662f. A married person would not turn down such a request as it would mean that he or she would be \"out of luck\" in the new year. Red packets are generally given by established married couples to the younger non-married children of the family. It is custom and polite for children to wish elders a happy new year and a year of happiness, health and good fortune before accepting the red envelope. Red envelopes are then kept under the pillow and slept on for seven nights after Chinese New Year before opening because that symbolizes good luck and fortune."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the custom of the elders giving the younger generation money continued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "During the Chinese New Year, in Southern China, red envelopes are typically given by the married to the unmarried, most of whom are children. In northern and southern China, red envelopes are typically given by the elders to the younger under 25 (30 in most of the three northeastern provinces), regardless of marital status. The amount of money is usually notes to avoid heavy coins and to make it difficult to judge the amount inside before opening. In Malaysia it is common to add a coin to the notes, particularly in hong baos given to children, signifying even more luck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Red packets almost always contain money, usually varying from a couple of dollars to several hundred. Chinese superstitions favour amounts that begin with even numbers, such as 8 (\u516b, ) \u2014 a homophone for \"wealth\", and 6 (\u516d, ) \u2014 a homophone for \"smooth\", except for the number 4 (\u56db, ) \u2014 as it is a homophone of \"death\", and is, as such, considered unlucky in Asian culture. Odd numbers are also avoided, as they are associated with cash given during funerals (\u5e1b\u91d1, ). It is also customary for bills placed inside a red envelope to be new."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "(Mandarin: ; Hakka: fung bao / Cantonese: ) are passed out during the Chinese New Year's celebrations, from married couples or the elderly to unmarried juniors or children. During this period, red packets are also known as \"yasuiqian\" (, which was evolved from , literally, \"the money used to suppress or put down the evil spirit\"). According to legend, a demon named Sui patted a child on the head three times on New Year's Eve, and the child would have a fever. The parents wrapped coins in red paper and placed them next to their children's pillows. When Sui came, the flash of the coin scared him away. From then on, every New Year's Eve, parents will wrap the coin in red paper to protect their children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "From the Republic of China (1912\u20131949) era, it evolved into a hundred coins wrapped in red paper, meaning \"May you live a hundred years!\". Due to the lack of holes in modern-day coins, the use of red envelopes became more prevalent\u2014because one could no longer thread the coins with string. Later on, people adopted banknotes instead of coins in red envelopes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "These customs have also been adopted across parts of Southeast Asia, and other countries that have a sizable ethnic Chinese population as well. In the mid-2010's, a digital equivalent to the practice emerged within messaging apps with mobile wallet systems localised for Chinese New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "It is also given during the Chinese New Year in workplace from a person of authority (supervisors or owner of the business) out of his own fund to employees as a token of good fortune for the upcoming year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongjun Laozu",
        "text": "After that, the people started to paste red paper on their front doors before New Year's Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "Red envelopes are gifts presented at social and family gatherings such as weddings or holidays such as Chinese New Year. The red color of the envelope symbolizes good luck and is a symbol to ward off evil spirits. It is also gifted when a person is visiting as a gesture of kindness for visiting. The act of requesting red packets is normally called () or (), and in the south of China, (). Red envelopes are usually given out to the younger generation who are normally still in school or unmarried."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In the Philippines, Chinese Filipinos exchange red envelopes (termed \"ang pao\") during the Lunar New Year, which is an easily recognisable symbol. The red envelope has gained wider acceptance among non-Chinese Filipinos, who have appropriated the custom for other occasions such as birthdays, and in giving monetary \"aguinaldo\" during Christmas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Color in Chinese culture",
        "text": "A red envelope is a monetary gift which is given in Chinese society during holiday or special occasions. The red color of the packet symbolizes good luck. Red is strictly forbidden at funerals as it is a traditionally symbolic color of happiness; however, as the names of the dead were previously written in red, it may be considered offensive to use red ink for Chinese names in contexts other than official seals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "After the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the custom of giving money in the Spring Festival evolved into the custom of giving children lucky money. The elderly would thread coins with a red string."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In East and Southeast Asian cultures, a red envelope, red packet or red pocket () is a monetary gift given during holidays or for special occasions such as a wedding, a graduation, or the birth of a baby.Although the red envelope was popularised by Chinese traditions, other cultures also share similar traditional customs. The red packet is also called \"money warding off old age\" () for Chinese New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In addition to red envelopes, which are usually given from older people to younger people, small gifts (usually food or sweets) are also exchanged between friends or relatives (of different households) during Chinese New Year. Gifts are usually brought when visiting friends or relatives at their homes. Common gifts include fruits (typically oranges, but never trade pears), cakes, biscuits, chocolates, and candies. Gifts are preferred to be wraped with red or golden paper, which symbolises good luck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In Qing dynasty, the name () came up. The book () recorded that \"elders give children coins threaded together by a red string, the money is called .\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "A contemporary interpretation of the practice comes in the form of virtual red envelopes, implemented as part of mobile payment platforms. During the Chinese New Year holiday in 2014, the messaging app WeChat introduced the ability to distribute virtual red envelopes of money to contacts and groups via its WeChat Pay platform. The launch included an on-air promotion during the CCTV New Year's Gala\u2014China's most-watched television special\u2014where viewers could win red envelopes as prizes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ibrahim Ali (politician)",
        "text": "In January 2012 during an event celebrating the Chinese New Year, in an incident which has come to be known as \"white ang pow\", he distributed small monetary gifts that were contained within white envelopes instead of red ones. White ang pows are customarily handed out only at funerals. Some described the choice of colour a deliberate attempt to remind the Chinese community. However, a spokesman said rather than turning away the greater than expected number of guests empty handed, white envelopes were used when they ran out of red ones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Normal traditions occurring on the first day involve house gatherings to the families, specifically the elders and families to the oldest and most senior members of their extended families, usually their parents, grandparents and great-grandparents, and trading Mandarin oranges as a courtesy to symbolize wealth and good luck. Members of the family who are married also give red envelopes containing cash known as \"lai see\" (Cantonese: ) or \"angpow\" (Hokkien and Teochew), or \"hongbao\" (Mandarin: ), a form of a blessing and to suppress both the aging and challenges that were associated with the coming year, to junior members of the family, mostly children and teenagers. Business managers may also give bonuses in the form of red packets to employees to symbolize a smooth-sailing career. The money can be of any form, specifically numbers ending with 8, which sounded as \"huat\" (Mandarin: ), meaning prosperity, but packets with denominations of odd numbers or without money are usually not allowed due to bad luck, especially the number 4 which sounded as \"si\" (Mandarin: ), which means death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "Some say that the history of the red packet dates back to Han Dynasty (202 BC \u2013 220 AD). People created a type of coin to ward off evil spirits, (), and it was inscribed with auspicious words on the front, such as \"May you live a long and successful life\". It is not real money, but a real blessing item. It was believed to protect people from sickness and death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In Thailand, Myanmar (Burma), and Cambodia, the Chinese diaspora and immigrants have introduced the culture of red envelopes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope (disambiguation)",
        "text": "A red envelope (or \"h\u00f3ngb\u0101o\") is a monetary gift which is given during special occasions in Chinese and other East Asian societies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "Adoption of WeChat Pay saw a major increase following the launch, and two years later, over 32 billion virtual envelopes were sent over the Chinese New Year holiday in 2016 (itself a tenfold increase over 2015). The popularity of the feature spawned imitations from other vendors; a \"red envelope war\" emerged between WeChat owner Tencent and its historic rival, Alibaba Group, who added a similar function to its competing messaging service and has held similar giveaway promotions. Analysts estimated that over 100 billion digital red envelopes would be sent over the New Year holiday in 2017. A research study shows that this popularization of virtual red packets comes from their contagious feature\u2014users who receive red packets feel obligated to follow suit to send another one."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Children and teenagers sometimes jokingly use the phrase \"\" (; Cantonese: ; ), roughly translated as \"Congratulations and be prosperous, now give me a red envelope!\". In Hakka the saying is more commonly said as 'Gung hee fatt choi, hung bao diu loi' which would be written as \u2013 a mixture of the Cantonese and Mandarin variants of the saying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In Taiwan in the 2000s, some employers also gave red packets as a bonus to maids, nurses or domestic workers from Southeast Asian countries, although whether this is appropriate is controversial."
      },
      {
        "title": "WeChat Pay",
        "text": "In 2014, for Chinese New Year, WeChat introduced a feature for distributing virtual red envelopes, modelled after the Chinese tradition of exchanging packets of money among friends and family members during holidays. The feature allows users to send money to contacts and groups as gifts. When sent to groups, the money is distributed equally, or in random shares (\"Lucky Money\"). The feature was launched through a promotion during China Central Television (CCTV)'s heavily watched New Year's Gala, where viewers were instructed to shake their phones during the broadcast for a chance to win sponsored cash prizes from red envelopes. The red envelope feature significantly increased the adoption of WeChat Pay. According to the Wall Street Journal, 16 million red envelopes were sent in the first 24 hours of this new feature's launch. A month after its launch, WeChat Pay's user base expanded from 30 million to 100 million users, and 20 million red envelopes were distributed during the New Year holiday. In 2016, 3.2 billion red envelopes were sent over the holiday period, and 409,000 alone were sent at midnight on Chinese New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Big Red Envelope",
        "text": "According to director Zhao Ji, the film is intended as a commentary on modern Chinese society, where gifts of red envelopes have become so frequent as to be stressful.\n*Bao Bei'er as Chen Zhong\n*Clara Lee as Ellie\n*Jia Bing as Qian Haoshi\n*Zhang Yiming as Da Rui\n*Xu Juncong as Gangzi\n*Wang Xiaoli as Ellie's fake father\n*Liao Weiwei as Du Ying\n*Yue Yueli as Ellie's real father"
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, there were two kinds of lucky money. One was made of red string and coins, sometimes placed at the foot of the bed in the shape of a dragon. The other is a colourful pouch filled with coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Big Red Envelope",
        "text": "Big Red Envelope () is a 2021 romantic comedy film written and directed by Li Kelong and starring Bao Bei'er, Clara Lee, Jia Bing, Zhang Yiming, Xu Juncong, Wang Xiaoli, Liao Weiwei, and Yue Yueli. It is a remake of director Li Kelong's own 2014 film \"Cash Gift\". It was released in China on 22 January 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "Red envelope\n--Usage.\n----Virtual red envelopes.\n--Origin.\n--Other customs.\n----Ethnic Chinese.\n----Cambodia.\n----Vietnam.\n----South Korea.\n----Japan.\n----Philippines.\n----Green envelope.\n----Purple envelope.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Red packets for the immediate family are sometimes distributed during the reunion dinner. These packets contain money in an amount that reflects good luck and honorability. Several foods are consumed to usher in wealth, happiness, and good fortune. Several of the Chinese food names are homophones for words that also mean good things."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "The amount of money contained in the envelope usually ends with an even digit, in accordance with Chinese beliefs; odd-numbered money gifts are traditionally associated with funerals. The exception being the number 9 as the pronunciation of \"nine\" () is homophonous to the word \"long\" () and is the largest digit. Still in some regions of China and in its diaspora community, odd numbers are favored for weddings because they are difficult to divide. There is also a widespread tradition that money should not be given in fours, or the number four should not appear in the amount, such as in 40, 400 and 444, as the pronunciation of the word \"four\" () is homophonous to the word \"death\" (). When giving money, new crispy bills are normally given instead of old dirty bills. It is common to see long queues outside of banks before Chinese New Year with people waiting to get new bills."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The Chinese New Year is often accompanied by loud, enthusiastic greetings, often referred to as () in Mandarin or (Kat Lei Seut Wa) in Cantonese, loosely translated as \"auspicious words or phrases\". New Year couplets printed in gold letters on bright red paper, referred to as \"chunlian\" () or \"fai chun\" (), is another way of expressing auspicious new year wishes. They probably predate the Ming dynasty (1368\u20131644), but did not become widespread until then. Today, they are ubiquitous with Chinese New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "WeChat red envelope",
        "text": "Under China's corruption campaign, red envelope has been positioned as gears of bribery because it is hardly noticed by the public. Cases related have already reached 51,600 as of July 2014, recorded by Chinese government. Currently, WeChat has set a RMB200 (US$33) ceiling for red envelope-gifting. Yet precisely since the amounts involved are small and because many people might be involved in the gift-giving through the virtual red envelopes, it has proven to be challenging for the government to monitor corrupt practices carried out in this manner."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "A monetary gift \"otoshidama\" () is given to children by their relatives during the New Year period. White or decorated envelopes (\"otoshidama-bukuro\" ()) are used instead of red, with the name of the receiver usually written on the front side. A similar practice, \"sh\u016bgi-bukuro\", is observed for Japanese weddings, but the envelope is folded rather than sealed, and decorated with an elaborate bow, called \"mizuhiki\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In South Korea, a monetary gift is given to children by their relatives during the New Year period. However, white envelopes are used instead of red, with the name of the receiver written on the back."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "Red packets as a form of bribery in China's film industry were revealed in 2014's Sony hack."
      },
      {
        "title": "WeChat red envelope",
        "text": "Traditionally, Lunar New Year carries themes of reunification and strengthening relationships. However, the emphasis placed on cash-based incentives has changed the focus of the tradition into a monetary venture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red Revenue",
        "text": "On March 20, 1896, the Qing government approved the plan to establish a national postal service, under the supervision of the Customs Department. At the inauguration of the postal service in February 1897, the Coiling Dragon stamps ordered from Japan failed to arrive on time, hence the idling 3\u00a2 red revenue stamps were overprinted to meet demand. There are five overprinted denominations: 1\u00a2, 2\u00a2, 4\u00a2, $1 and $5."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "These greetings or phrases may also be used just before children receive their red packets, when gifts are exchanged, when visiting temples, or even when tossing the shredded ingredients of yusheng particularly popular in Malaysia and Singapore. Children and their parents can also pray in the temple, in hopes of getting good blessings for the new year to come."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "Other similar traditions also exist in other countries in Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Red is the predominant color used in New Year celebrations. Red is the emblem of joy, and this color also symbolizes virtue, truth and sincerity. On the Chinese opera stage, a painted red face usually denotes a sacred or loyal personage and sometimes a great emperor. Candies, cakes, decorations and many things associated with the New Year and its ceremonies are colored red. The sound of the Chinese word for \"red\" () is in Mandarin homophonous with the word for \"prosperous.\" Therefore, red is an auspicious color and has an auspicious sound."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Back in the 1960s, children in Hong Kong used to say (Cantonese, Gung Hei Fat Choy, Lai Si Tau Loi, Tau Ling M Ngoi), which was recorded in the pop song Kowloon Hong Kong by Reynettes in 1966. Later in the 1970s, children in Hong Kong used the saying: , roughly translated as, \"Congratulations and be prosperous, now give me a red envelope, fifty cents is too little, don't want a dollar either.\" It basically meant that they disliked small change \u2013 coins which were called \"hard substance\" (Cantonese: ). Instead, they wanted \"soft substance\" (Cantonese: ), which was either a ten dollar or a twenty dollar note."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The color red is commonly worn throughout Chinese New Year; traditional beliefs held that red could scare away evil spirits and bad fortune. The wearing of new clothes is another clothing custom during the festival, the new clothes symbolize a new beginning in the year, and enough things to use and wear in this time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The third day is known as \"red mouth\" (). \"Chikou\" is also called \"Chigou's Day\" (). \"Chigou\", literally \"red dog\", is an epithet of \"the God of Blazing Wrath\" (). Rural villagers continue the tradition of burning paper offerings over trash fires. It is considered an unlucky day to have guests or go visiting. Hakka villagers in rural Hong Kong in the 1960s called it the Day of the Poor Devil and believed everyone should stay at home. This is also considered a propitious day to visit the temple of the God of Wealth and have one's future told."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In Vietnam, red envelopes are a traditional part of Vietnamese culture considered to be lucky money and are typically given to children during Vietnamese Lunar New Year. They are generally given by the elders and adults, where a greeting or offering health and longevity is exchanged by the younger generation. Common greetings include \"S\u1ed1ng l\u00e2u tr\u0103m tu\u1ed5i\" (\ud852\udfe9\ud857\ude70\ud853\udf93\u6b72), \"An khang th\u1ecbnh v\u01b0\u1ee3ng\" (), \"V\u1ea1n s\u1ef1 nh\u01b0 \u00fd\" () and \"S\u1ee9c kh\u1ecfe d\u1ed3i d\u00e0o\" (\u98ed\u52b8\u6d21\ud850\udc60), which all relate back to the idea of wishing health and prosperity as age besets everyone in Vietnam on the Lunar New Year. The typical name for lucky money is \"l\u00ec x\u00ec\" (\u5229\u5e02) or, less commonly, \"m\u1eebng tu\u1ed5i (\ud849\udf20\u6b72)\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In the Qing dynasty, the name \"ya sui qian\" (\u58d3\u6b72\u9322, New Year's Money) was given to the lucky money given to children at the new year. The book \"Qing Jia Lu\" (\u6e05\u5609\u9304) recorded: \"elders give children coins threaded together by a red string, and the money is called Ya Sui Qian.\" The name is still used by modern Chinese people. The lucky money was presented in one of two forms: one was coins strung on red string; the other was a colorful purse filled with coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "WeChat red envelope",
        "text": "WeChat red envelope (or WeChat red packet) is a mobile application developed by the Chinese technology company Tencent. The concept, also offered by its market competitors Alibaba and Baidu, is based on the Chinese tradition of \"hongbao\" (red envelope, or red packet), where money is given to family and friends as a gift. The application was launched by Tencent in January 2014 and has subsequently gained popularity, with Tencent reporting 2.3 billion transactions on 1 January 2016 alone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red Envelope Club",
        "text": "A Red Envelope Club () is a form of Cabaret in Taiwan that originated in Taipei in the 1960s as an imitation of Shanghai Cabaret. In these cabarets, female singers sing old Chinese songs from the 1920s to 1950s to mostly older men, many of whom were soldiers in General Chiang Kai-shek's Kuomintang army that fled Mainland China after the Chinese Civil War. The cabarets get their name from the fact that the audience gives the singers, who they appreciate, money in red envelopes. The remaining clubs are mostly located in the Ximending District of Taipei on Hankou Street, Emei Street, and Xining South Road."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "In the year 1890 the government of the Qing dynasty decided that \"red cash coins\" should circulate in both southern and northern Xinjiang and that they were to be equivalent of 1.2 \"qi\u00e1n\" or 1.0 \"qi\u00e1n\" standard cash coins of the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red in culture",
        "text": "In China, red () is the symbol of fire and the south (both south in general and Southern China specifically). It carries a largely positive connotation, being associated with courage, loyalty, honor, success, fortune, fertility, happiness, passion, and summer. In Chinese cultural traditions, red is associated with weddings (where brides traditionally wear red dresses) and red paper is frequently used to wrap gifts of money or other objects. Special red packets ( in Mandarin or \"lai see\" in Cantonese) are specifically used during Chinese New Year celebrations for giving monetary gifts. On the more negative side, obituaries are traditionally written in red ink, and to write someone's name in red signals either cutting them out of one's life, or that they have died. Red is also associated with either the feminine or the masculine (yin and yang respectively), depending on the source. The \"Little Red Book\", a collection of quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung, founding father of the People's Republic of China (PRC), was published in 1966 and widely distributed thereafter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "As with all cultures, Chinese New Year traditions incorporate elements that are symbolic of deeper meaning. One common example of Chinese New Year symbolism is the red diamond-shaped \"fu characters\" (), which are displayed on the entrances of Chinese homes. This sign is usually seen hanging upside down, since the Chinese word \"dao\" (), is homophonous or nearly homophonous with () in all varieties of Chinese. Therefore, it symbolizes the arrival of luck, happiness, and prosperity."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade",
        "text": "Starting in 2019, gold foil-wrapped chocolate coins were passed out in traditional \"lai see\" (red envelopes) to children for the one-day Choy Sun Doe event, celebrating the arrival of the god of wealth. Some also included money or a gift certificate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "Malay Muslims in Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, and Singapore have adopted the Chinese custom of handing out monetary gifts in envelopes as part of their Eid al-Fitr (Malay: \"Hari Raya Aidilfitri\") celebrations, but instead of red packets, green envelopes are used. Customarily a family will have (usually small) amounts of money in green envelopes ready for visitors, and may send them to friends and family unable to visit. Green is used for its traditional association with Islam, and the adaptation of the red envelope is based on the Muslim custom of \"sadaqah\", or voluntary charity. This is not necessarily true as envelopes of any or multi colors are available with contemporary designs incorporated. While present in the Qur'an, \"sadaqah\" is much less formally established than the sometimes similar practice of \"zakat\", and in many cultures this takes a form closer to gift-giving and generosity among friends than charity in the strict sense, i.e. no attempt is made to give more to guests \"in need\", nor is it as a religious obligation as Islamic charity is often viewed. Among the Sundanese people, a boy who had been recently circumcised is given monetary gifts known as \"panyecep\" or \"uang sunatan\" in the national language of Indonesia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Big Red Envelope",
        "text": "On its first day, \"Big Red Envelope\" made RMB 12.47 million at the box office. It grossed a total of RMB 235 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red Palace and Red Square",
        "text": "After the establishment of the Chinese soviet regime, Peng Pai, the leader of the regime proposed the construction of a gate for the Red Square and a Platform for speeches. Then the gate and the platform were built. There is a golden five-pointed star and two Chinese characters\u2014\u7ea2\u573a (Red Square) embossed at the top of the gate and a couplet at both sides of the gate inscribed with \u201c\u94f2\u9664\u5c01\u5efa\u52bf\u529b\uff0c\u5b9e\u884c\u571f\u5730\u9769\u547d\u201d (Wipe out the feudal forces, Carry out Agrarian Revolution). At the center of the square, a speech transmission station was set up for the convenience of rallies. On December 1, 1927, a rally with over 50,000 participants was held to celebrate the establishment of Haifeng Soviet Government. On Jan. 1st 1928, troops from Nanchang City after Nanchang Uprising led by Dong Lang () Yan Changxi () met troops from Guangzhou City after Guangzhou Uprising in the square and successfully joined together."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red Revenue",
        "text": "In January 1896, Censor Chen Pi of the Qing government petitioned the Guangxu Emperor to issue revenue stamps. The proof was submitted to Sir Robert Hart, the Inspector General of Customs, for approval. Of the revenue stamps ordered from England, only a portion of the 3\u00a2 stamps was printed and shipped to China. They were stored in the Shanghai Customs Department. The 3\u00a2 red revenue stamps were printed by Waterlow & Sons in London. The red symbolizes good luck and fortune in Chinese tradition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Big Red Envelope",
        "text": "Office workers Chen Zhong and Da Rui trick British Chinese actress Ellie into playing the part of Chen Zhong's bride at a fake wedding, so that they can collect red envelopes full of cash from their co-workers. But Chen Zhong's ex-girlfriend Du Ying realizes that their marriage isn't real and tries to expose their deception."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red Palace and Red Square",
        "text": "The Red Palace and Red Square used to be an old-style school during the Ming Dynasty. In 1927, between November 18 and 21, the Haifeng Soviet Congress of Worker-Peasant-Soldiers was held there. During this congress, the Haifeng Soviet Government was established. The congress also decided to brush walls around the palace with red paint and cover the indoor walls with red cloth, imitating the Red Palace in Moscow, Russia. Hence, the first Red regime was established. They also gave this old-style school a new name\u2014Red Palace. After that, many important meetings were held in the Red Palace and the square to the east of it was named the Red Square. It was called \u201cDongcang Bu\u201d () before that and covered an area of more than 22 square kilometers."
      },
      {
        "title": "WeChat red envelope",
        "text": "In 2015, people were deceived by fake users and imposters on the WeChat red envelope platform. One large instance of fraud occurred when a user claimed to be Chen Guangbiao, a billionaire. This user promised to give out as much as RMB 20 million (US$3,157,000) in virtual red envelope via WeChat. Many WeChat users added the user, hoping to receive a red envelope from the billionaire. Instead, the user never gave out any money himself but ended up receiving a significant gain from users who added him. Later, Chen claimed that he was not in any way involved in the scam and urged those who were misled to contact the authorities. To avoid the similar events, Chinese police have sent out the warning messages to the public."
      },
      {
        "title": "WeChat red envelope",
        "text": "The Red Envelope War is a financial battle between the two Internet companies competing for the mobile payment market in China. The competition attracted widespread attention from the public. On February 10, 2015, Alibaba announced it would give away RMB600 million (around US$97m) of \u201clucky money\u201d to users, with RMB156 million in cash and RMB430 million of e-coupons from merchants on its marketplaces. Half a day after Alibaba's announcement, WeChat announced it would give away RMB500 million (around US$81m) cash and RMB3 billion (around US$484m) of e-coupons the next night."
      },
      {
        "title": "RED People",
        "text": "In January 2015, RED People released their first Chinese New Year album, entitled \"Red Red People Red Red Year\" (\u7ea2\u7ea2\u5e74), which included the song \"\u4e03\u6d1e\u5f3a\" as well as some others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Five Red Categories",
        "text": "The \"Five Red Categories\" () during the Chinese Cultural Revolution (1966\u20131976) were the social classes favoured by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), as opposed to the Five Black Categories that were classified as potential threats or enemies. In the beginning of the Cultural Revolution, Red Guards were only allowed to come from the \"Five Red Categories\". These included:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Red envelope (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "During the Tang dynasty, people established the custom of sending \"bai nian tie\" (\u62dc\u5e74\u5e16), which are New Year's greeting cards. It is said that the custom was started by Emperor Taizong of Tang. The emperor wrote \"\u666e\u5929\u540c\u6176\" (whole nation celebrate together) on gold leaves and sent them to his ministers. Word of the emperor's gesture spread, and later it became the custom of people in general, who used Xuan paper instead of gold leaves. Another theory is that \"bai nian tie\" was derived from the Han dynasty's name tag, \"\u9580\u72c0\" (door opening). As imperial examinations became essential and reached their heyday under the Tang dynasty, candidates curried favour to become pupils of respected teachers, in order to get recommendation letters. After obtaining good examination marks, a pupil went to the teacher's home with a \"men zhuang\" (\u95e8\u72b6) to convey their gratitude. Therefore, eventually \"men zhuang\" became a symbol of good luck, and people started sending them to friends on New Year's Day, calling them by a new name, \"bai nian tie\" (\u62dc\u5e74\u5e16, New Year's Greetings)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese postal romanization",
        "text": "In 1958, Communist China announced that it was adopting the pinyin romanization system. Implementing the new system was a gradual process. The government did not get around to abolishing postal romanization until 1964. Even then, the post office did not adopt pinyin, but merely withdrew Latin characters from official use, such as in postal cancellation markings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Four Olds",
        "text": "On August 8, the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party used the term at its 8th National Congress. The term was endorsed on August 18 by Lin Biao at a mass rally, and from there it spread to \"Red Flag\" magazine, as well as to Red Guard publications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Big Chinese population cities and towns like of Chinatown includes Jakarta, Medan, Singkawang, Pangkal Pinang, Binjai, Bagansiapiapi, Tanjungbalai, Pematangsiantar, Selat Panjang, Pekanbaru, Tanjung Pinang, Batam, Ketapang, Pontianak, Sungailiat, Tanjung Pandan, Manggar, Toboali, Muntok, Lubuk Pakam, Bandung, Semarang, Surabaya, Rantau Prapat, Tebing Tinggi, Sibolga, Dumai, Panipahan, Bagan Batu, Tanjung Balai Karimun, Palembang, Bengkayang, and Tangerang always have its own New Year's celebration every years with parade and fireworks. A lot shopping malls decorated its building with lantern, Chinese words and lion or dragon with red and gold as main color. Lion dance is a common sight around Chinese houses, temples and its shophouses. Usually, the Buddhist, Confucian and Taoist Chinese will burn a big incense made by aloeswood with dragon-decorated at front of their house. The Chinese temple is open 24 hours at the first day, their also distributes a red envelopes and sometimes rice, fruits or sugar to the poor around."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red Revenue",
        "text": "The Red Revenues () are Qing dynasty Chinese revenue stamps that were overprinted (surcharged) to be used as postage stamps in 1897. Their limited number, fine design and the intaglio process made the stamps in this series some of the most sought-after in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Three Red Banners",
        "text": "The Great Leap Forward, begun in 1958, was a campaign to rapidly modernize by using China's vast labor resources in agricultural and industrial projects. The Leap instead resulted in economic destruction and tens of millions of famine deaths, and had been mostly abandoned by early 1962. Membership in communes was gradually reduced in the early 1960s, with some private property ownership and enterprise again being allowed. The communes continued until being dismantled in the early 1980s under Deng Xiaoping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "During the Guangxu period \"red cash coins\" also started being produced in the city of \u00dcr\u00fcmqi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese red eggs",
        "text": "Similar to Western Easter eggs, in Chinese culture eggs symbolize birth or a new start; thus, it is of paramount importance for eggs to be served to guests during an important birthday (such as the first month or first year). The color red symbolizes prosperity and good fortune to the Chinese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In Cambodia, red envelopes are called \"ang pav\" or \"tae ea\" (\"give \"ang pav\"\"). \"Ang pav\" are delivered with best wishes from elder to younger generations. The money amount in \"ang pav\" makes young children happy and is a most important gift which traditionally reflects the best wishes as a symbol of good luck for the elders. \"Ang pav\" can be presented on the day of Chinese New Year or \"Saen Chen\", when relatives gather together. The gift is kept as a worship item in or under the pillowcase, or somewhere else, especially near the bed of young while they are sleeping in New Year time. Gift in \"ang pav\" can be either money or a cheque, and more or less according to the charity of the donors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Envelope",
        "text": "Paper envelopes were developed in China, where paper was invented by 2nd century BC. Paper envelopes, known as \"chih poh\", were used to store gifts of money. In the Southern Song dynasty, the Chinese imperial court used paper envelopes to distribute monetary gifts to government officials."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red Hong Yi",
        "text": "In a collaboration with Pos Malaysia, Red designed a stamp honouring Malaysia's frontline workers, which was release in 2021. The design for the stamps were made out of thousands of postage stamps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "In 1828 monetary reforms were implemented to keep the current weight of \"Red Cash\" but increase their denominations to 5, and 10 w\u00e9n (while weighing the same) with 70% of Aksu's annual production being 5 w\u00e9n coins, and 30% being 10 w\u00e9n but the production of \"Red Cash\" itself was reduced by two and a half thousand strings. Later the Daoguang Emperor ordered the weight of \"Red Cash\" to further decrease in order to maximise profits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "A folklore tale of \"sui\" is about an elderly couple with a precious son. On the night of New Year's Eve, since they were afraid that \"sui\" would come, they took out eight pieces of copper coins to play with their son in order to keep him awake. Their son was very sleepy, however, so they let him go to sleep after placing a red paper bag containing the copper coins under the child's pillow. The two older children also stayed with him for the whole night. Suddenly, the doors and windows were blown open by a strange wind, and even the candlelight was extinguished. It turned out to be a \"sui\". When the \"sui\" was going to reach out and touch the child's head, the pillow suddenly brightened with the golden light, and the \"sui\" was scared away, so the exorcism effect of \"red paper wrapped copper money\" spread in the past China (see also Chinese numismatic charms). The money is then called \u201cya sui qian (\u58d3\u6b72\u9322)\u201d, the money to suppress \"sui\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sui Jianguo",
        "text": "In a more recent work, the red dinosaur, a symbol of imperialist China, like communist China, with the engraved door on the chest mentions \"Made in China\". This is a glance toward plastic toys from the start of the Chinese economic flight, and a symbol of an antiquated China moving toward being contemporary. Throughout the 1960s, it seemed that everything was \"made in Japan\", in the 1970s \"made in Taiwan\", and in the 1980s \"made in China\". The fabrication of finished products based on models and imported raw materials has become the economic norm of emerging countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Big Red Envelope",
        "text": "In December 2020, a promotional poster was released and the film's release date was announced as 29 January 2021. On 17 January 2021 it was announced that the release would be moved up a week, and the film was released in China on 22 January 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Taiwan dollar",
        "text": "On 6 January 2011, the Central Bank of the Republic of China issued a new 100-dollar legal tender circulating commemorative in celebration of the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Republic of China. The red paper note measures 145 \u00d7 70\u00a0mm and features a portrait of Dr. Sun Yat-sen on the front, and the Chung-Shan Building on the back. The design is no different from the ordinary NT$100 note, except for the Chinese wording on the reverse of the note, which reads \"Celebrating 100 years since the founding of the Republic of China ()\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red China Blues",
        "text": "In 1988, Wong returned to Beijing as \"The Globe and Mail\"'s China correspondent and witnessed the tremendous transformations market reforms have brought since her time as the first Western international student to China during the Cultural Revolution. She interviewed dissidents such as Ren Wanding and Fang Lizhi, who played a key role in the 1986 Anhui student protests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Renminbi",
        "text": "In 1999, a commemorative red \u00a550 note was issued in honor of the 50th anniversary of the establishment of the People's Republic of China. This note features Chinese Communist Party chairman Mao Zedong on the front and various animals on the back."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "According to tales and legends, Chinese New Year started with a mythical beast called the Nian (a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains) during the annual Spring Festival. The Nian would eat villagers, especially children in the middle of the night. One year, all the villagers decided to hide from the beast. An older man appeared before the villagers went into hiding and said that he would stay the night and would get revenge on the Nian. The old man put red papers up and set off firecrackers. The day after, the villagers came back to their town and saw that nothing had been destroyed. They assumed that the old man was a deity who came to save them. The villagers then understood that Yanhuang had discovered that the Nian was afraid of the color red and loud noises. Then the tradition grew when New Year was approaching, and the villagers would wear red clothes, hang red lanterns, and red spring scrolls on windows and doors and used firecrackers and drums to frighten away the Nian. From then on, Nian never came to the village again. The Nian was eventually captured by Hongjun Laozu, an ancient Taoist monk. After that, Nian retreated to a nearby mountain. The name of the mountain has long been lost over the years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banner",
        "text": "In China, it is common to find large red coloured banners, especially in schools, factories, government institutions and construction sites. Also called da zi bao (), these tend to be big and long, usually with red backgrounds and large Chinese characters. They tend to have motivational messages or industrial milestones on them. Historically, these big character posters (da zi bao) were used to convey messages during the cultural revolution, but their use changed after the country's liberalization since 1979."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Red envelope may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the People's Republic of China (1976\u20131989)",
        "text": "\"Red China\" was a frequent appellation for the PRC between the Communist ascendancy and the mid-late 1970s with the rapprochement between China and the West (generally within the capitalist/Western bloc). The term was first used, before the establishment of the PRC, in the late 1940s during the Chinese Civil War, to describe the Communist side, and saw great prevalence in the 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s. Starting around 1972\u20131973, following Richard Nixon's visit to China and the beginning of rapprochment and mounting likelihood of diplomatic normalization, the term began to drop in usage significantly. By the early 1980s, it was increasingly rare in mainstream journalism and publications in the Western countries. Since the early 1980s, however, the term remains in use in some circles, particularly right-wing or conservative political discourse and publications; nonetheless, some, including some conservatives, feel the term is not applicable to China in the contemporary period as the country is no longer a \"monolithic political entity whose subjects march in lockstep with an all-powerful Communist regime.\" As of the early 2000s, \"Red China\" still retains some use among more right-wing writers, especially when framing China as an economic or political competitor or opponent (e.g. the \"China threat\" theory). \"Red China\" is sometimes used in more mainstream/less overtly partisan journalism for metaphoric or comparative use (e.g. \"Red China or Green\", \"New York Times\" article title)."
      },
      {
        "title": "The East Is Red (1965 film)",
        "text": "\"The East Is Red\" depicts the history of the Chinese Communist Party under Mao Zedong from its founding in July 1921 to the establishment of \"New China\" in 1949. Detailed in the musical are several key events in CCP history such as the Northern Expedition (taken up by the Kuomintang (KMT) National Revolutionary Army with Chinese Communist and Soviet support), the KMT-led Shanghai massacre of 1927, the Nanchang Uprising and the formation of the People's Liberation Army, the Long March, guerrilla warfare of the PLA during the Second United Front (during the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression), the subsequent overthrow of the National Government of the Republic of China on Mainland China by the PLA in the decisive phase of the Chinese Civil War, and the founding of the People's Republic on October 1, 1949."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red House Hospital",
        "text": "After the Reifsnyder-built building burned down, a new one was constructed in 1889 with funds given wholly by Chinese and foreigners in Shanghai. Approximately three-fourths of the support of the institution came from fees and local contributions, mostly Chinese, and one-fourth from the income of beds which are endowed in the United States. The doctors' and nurses' salaries were paid by the missionary board."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qiushi",
        "text": "In light of China's changing political climate, the CCP sought to distance itself from the Cultural Revolution, favoring instead a policy of Reform and Opening. Qiushi's more Cultural Revolution-oriented, Maoist predecessor, \"Red Flag\", was halted in June 1988. Quishi was first published in July 1988 as a more reform-oriented voice for the CCP. The title originates from the quote \"sh\u00ed sh\u00ec qi\u00fa sh\u00ec\" (\u5b9e\u4e8b\u6c42\u662f), which means \"seeking truth from facts.\" The journal's logo was handwritten by CCP leader Deng Xiaoping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red Cross Society of China",
        "text": "Red Cross Society of China\n--Origins and history before 1949.\n--After the proclamation of the People's Republic of China in 1949.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "New Year picture",
        "text": "The origins of the \"New Year picture\" are unknown, although the genre is thought to have begun with the printing of door gods during the Tang dynasty. By the 19th century door gods were joined by other household protective and auspicious deities including the Kitchen God, and the God of Wealth. Images of women and babies were common, as were depictions of New Year observances, popular narratives, and depictions of the theater. Customarily, as each Chinese New Year arrives, every family replaces its New Year picture in order to \"say goodbye to the Past and welcome the Future\" (Chinese: \u8f9e\u65e7\u8fce\u65b0)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Four Olds",
        "text": "The Four Olds or the Four Old Things () was a term used during the Cultural Revolution by the student-led Red Guards in the People's Republic of China in reference to the pre-communist elements of Chinese culture they attempted to destroy. The Four Olds were: Old Ideas, Old Culture, Old Customs, and Old Habits (Chinese: Ji\u00f9 S\u012bxi\u01ceng \u65e7\u601d\u60f3, Ji\u00f9 W\u00e9nhu\u00e0 \u65e7\u6587\u5316, Ji\u00f9 F\u0113ngs\u00fa \u65e7\u98ce\u4fd7, and Ji\u00f9 X\u00edgu\u00e0n \u65e7\u4e60\u60ef). The campaign to destroy the Four Olds began in Beijing on August 19, 1966 (the \"Red August\", during which a massacre also took place in Beijing), shortly after the launch of the Cultural Revolution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Chinese New Year's Eve originated in the Shang Dynasty (1600 \u2013 1046 BC), when Chinese held sacrificial ceremonies in honour of gods and ancestors at the end of each year. Then in the Zhou Dynasty (1046 \u2013 256 BC), the phrase \u201cNian (Year)\u201dappeared and certain cultural practices became popular among Chinese such as sending door god, burning bamboo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "It was also during the Song dynasty that people started to give money to children in celebration of a new year. The money was called \"sui nian qian\" (\u968f\u5e74\u94b1), meaning \"the money based on age\". In the chapter \"Ending of a year\" (\u6b72\u9664) of \"Wulin jiushi\" (\u6b66\u6797\u820a\u4e8b), the writer recorded that concubines of the emperor prepared a hundred and twenty coins for princes and princesses, to wish them long lives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Left",
        "text": "Bo began the Red Culture Movement in 2008, which promoted Maoist culture in opposition to the capitalist culture that characterized the Chinese reformists. Radio and television played Maoist propaganda and students were organized to \"return to the countryside\" and promote the singing of \"red songs\" during this period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red Scarf British life handbook",
        "text": "The company name came from \u2018Honglingjin' in Chinese Pinyin, which is a symbol of the young students in primary and middle school in China since 1949. The company was created by Pauline Guo in 2012. The British Red Scarf provides information on shopping, food, travelling, lifestyle and tips."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some of the traditional dishes associated with the festival?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you referring to the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, the Cannes Festival, the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, the Obon, or some other festival?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about the dishes of the Chinese New Year festival."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Chinese New Year festival features many dishes including a reunion dinner and other traditional foods. Which of these foods are you interested in learning more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I would like to know more about the reunion dinner."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A reunion dinner (Chinese: \u5e74\u591c\u98ef, \u5718\u5e74\u98ef or \u5718\u5713\u98ef; Vietnamese: T\u1ea5t ni\u00ean) is held on New Year's Eve of the Chinese and Vietnamese New Years, during which family members get together to celebrate. It is often considered the most important get-together meal of the entire year."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the significance in the red envelopes for Chinese New Year?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Red packets almost always contain money, usually varying from a couple of dollars to several hundred;in the mid-2010s, Chinese messaging apps popularized the distribution of red envelopes in a virtual format via mobile payments. According to legend, parents wrapped coins in red paper and placed them next to their children's pillows to protect them from demons."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did red envelopes start becoming a thing in Chinese New Year?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Some say that red packet dates back to Han Dynasty (202 BC \u2013 220 AD), in which people created a type of coin to ward off evil spirits, and by the Tang Dynasty, these  would be given out at Chinese New Year, which was considered to be the beginning of spring. After the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the custom of giving money in the Spring Festival evolved into the custom of giving children coins threaded with a red string, which by the Republic of China (1912\u20131949) era, had evolved due to the lack of holes in modern-day coins which could be threaded, and the use of red envelopes instead became prevalent."
    ],
    "topic": "Chinese New Year",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Red envelope:15",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Red envelope",
          "Origin"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some say that the history of the red packet dates back to Han Dynasty (202 BC \u2013 220 AD). People created a type of coin to ward off evil spirits, (), and it was inscribed with auspicious words on the front, such as \"May you live a long and successful life\". It is not real money, but a real blessing item. It was believed to protect people from sickness and death."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Red envelope:16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Red envelope",
          "Origin"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the Tang Dynasty, the Chinese New Year was considered to be the beginning of spring, and in addition to congratulations, elders gave money to children to ward off evil spirits."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Red envelope:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Red envelope",
          "Origin"
        ],
        "ctx": "After the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the custom of giving money in the Spring Festival evolved into the custom of giving children lucky money. The elderly would thread coins with a red string."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Red envelope:20",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Red envelope",
          "Origin"
        ],
        "ctx": "From the Republic of China (1912\u20131949) era, it evolved into a hundred coins wrapped in red paper, meaning \"May you live a hundred years!\". Due to the lack of holes in modern-day coins, the use of red envelopes became more prevalent\u2014because one could no longer thread the coins with string. Later on, people adopted banknotes instead of coins in red envelopes."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "After the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the custom of giving money in the Spring Festival evolved into the custom of giving children lucky money. The elderly would thread coins with a red string."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "From the Republic of China (1912\u20131949) era, it evolved into a hundred coins wrapped in red paper, meaning \"May you live a hundred years!\". Due to the lack of holes in modern-day coins, the use of red envelopes became more prevalent\u2014because one could no longer thread the coins with string. Later on, people adopted banknotes instead of coins in red envelopes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "(Mandarin: ; Hakka: fung bao / Cantonese: ) are passed out during the Chinese New Year's celebrations, from married couples or the elderly to unmarried juniors or children. During this period, red packets are also known as \"yasuiqian\" (, which was evolved from , literally, \"the money used to suppress or put down the evil spirit\"). According to legend, a demon named Sui patted a child on the head three times on New Year's Eve, and the child would have a fever. The parents wrapped coins in red paper and placed them next to their children's pillows. When Sui came, the flash of the coin scared him away. From then on, every New Year's Eve, parents will wrap the coin in red paper to protect their children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "During the Chinese New Year, in Southern China, red envelopes are typically given by the married to the unmarried, most of whom are children. In northern and southern China, red envelopes are typically given by the elders to the younger under 25 (30 in most of the three northeastern provinces), regardless of marital status. The amount of money is usually notes to avoid heavy coins and to make it difficult to judge the amount inside before opening. In Malaysia it is common to add a coin to the notes, particularly in hong baos given to children, signifying even more luck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, there were two kinds of lucky money. One was made of red string and coins, sometimes placed at the foot of the bed in the shape of a dragon. The other is a colourful pouch filled with coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In Qing dynasty, the name () came up. The book () recorded that \"elders give children coins threaded together by a red string, the money is called .\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Red packets almost always contain money, usually varying from a couple of dollars to several hundred. Chinese superstitions favour amounts that begin with even numbers, such as 8 (\u516b, ) \u2014 a homophone for \"wealth\", and 6 (\u516d, ) \u2014 a homophone for \"smooth\", except for the number 4 (\u56db, ) \u2014 as it is a homophone of \"death\", and is, as such, considered unlucky in Asian culture. Odd numbers are also avoided, as they are associated with cash given during funerals (\u5e1b\u91d1, ). It is also customary for bills placed inside a red envelope to be new."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In the Tang Dynasty, the Chinese New Year was considered to be the beginning of spring, and in addition to congratulations, elders gave money to children to ward off evil spirits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Traditionally, red envelopes or red packets"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In the Qing dynasty, the name \"ya sui qian\" (\u58d3\u6b72\u9322, New Year's Money) was given to the lucky money given to children at the new year. The book \"Qing Jia Lu\" (\u6e05\u5609\u9304) recorded: \"elders give children coins threaded together by a red string, and the money is called Ya Sui Qian.\" The name is still used by modern Chinese people. The lucky money was presented in one of two forms: one was coins strung on red string; the other was a colorful purse filled with coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The act of asking for red packets is normally called (Mandarin): \u8a0e\u7d05\u5305 t\u01ceo-h\u00f3ngb\u0101o, \u8981\u5229\u662f or (Cantonese): \u9017\u5229\u662f. A married person would not turn down such a request as it would mean that he or she would be \"out of luck\" in the new year. Red packets are generally given by established married couples to the younger non-married children of the family. It is custom and polite for children to wish elders a happy new year and a year of happiness, health and good fortune before accepting the red envelope. Red envelopes are then kept under the pillow and slept on for seven nights after Chinese New Year before opening because that symbolizes good luck and fortune."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In Suzhou, the children kept the red envelope in their bedroom after they received. They believed that putting the red envelope under their bed can protect the children. The action how they holding down the red envelope refer to the Chinese meaning . Those would not be used until the end of Chinese New Year. They also received fruit or cake during the new year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the custom of the elders giving the younger generation money continued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "The amount of money contained in the envelope usually ends with an even digit, in accordance with Chinese beliefs; odd-numbered money gifts are traditionally associated with funerals. The exception being the number 9 as the pronunciation of \"nine\" () is homophonous to the word \"long\" () and is the largest digit. Still in some regions of China and in its diaspora community, odd numbers are favored for weddings because they are difficult to divide. There is also a widespread tradition that money should not be given in fours, or the number four should not appear in the amount, such as in 40, 400 and 444, as the pronunciation of the word \"four\" () is homophonous to the word \"death\" (). When giving money, new crispy bills are normally given instead of old dirty bills. It is common to see long queues outside of banks before Chinese New Year with people waiting to get new bills."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Normal traditions occurring on the first day involve house gatherings to the families, specifically the elders and families to the oldest and most senior members of their extended families, usually their parents, grandparents and great-grandparents, and trading Mandarin oranges as a courtesy to symbolize wealth and good luck. Members of the family who are married also give red envelopes containing cash known as \"lai see\" (Cantonese: ) or \"angpow\" (Hokkien and Teochew), or \"hongbao\" (Mandarin: ), a form of a blessing and to suppress both the aging and challenges that were associated with the coming year, to junior members of the family, mostly children and teenagers. Business managers may also give bonuses in the form of red packets to employees to symbolize a smooth-sailing career. The money can be of any form, specifically numbers ending with 8, which sounded as \"huat\" (Mandarin: ), meaning prosperity, but packets with denominations of odd numbers or without money are usually not allowed due to bad luck, especially the number 4 which sounded as \"si\" (Mandarin: ), which means death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In addition to red envelopes, which are usually given from older people to younger people, small gifts (usually food or sweets) are also exchanged between friends or relatives (of different households) during Chinese New Year. Gifts are usually brought when visiting friends or relatives at their homes. Common gifts include fruits (typically oranges, but never trade pears), cakes, biscuits, chocolates, and candies. Gifts are preferred to be wraped with red or golden paper, which symbolises good luck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In the Philippines, Chinese Filipinos exchange red envelopes (termed \"ang pao\") during the Lunar New Year, which is an easily recognisable symbol. The red envelope has gained wider acceptance among non-Chinese Filipinos, who have appropriated the custom for other occasions such as birthdays, and in giving monetary \"aguinaldo\" during Christmas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "Chinese will give children money gifts as lunar new year gift on Chinese New Year's Eve. They usually put money in red pockets and hide under their children's pillows. In ancient time, Chinese money is the round copper coin with a square hole in the middle. adults will thread the coins with colourful thread to make a shape of dragon and then they will put the money beside their children's beds while their children are asleep. this customs, which is very similar to Christmas gifts in west."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lion dance",
        "text": "During the Chinese New Year, lion dance troupes will visit the houses and shops of the Asian community to perform the traditional custom of \"cai qing\" (\u63a1\u9752), literally meaning \"plucking the greens\", whereby the lion plucks the auspicious green lettuce either hung on a pole or placed on a table in front of the premises. The \"greens\" (\"qing\") is tied together with a \"red envelope\" containing money and may also include auspicious fruit like oranges. In Chinese \"c\u01cei\" (\u63a1, pluck) also sounds like \"c\u00e0i\" (\u83dc, meaning vegetable) and \"c\u00e1i\" (\u8d22, meaning fortune). The \"lion\" will dance and approach the \"green\" and \"red envelope\" like a curious cat, to \"eat the green\" and \"spit\" it out but keep the \"red envelope\" which is the reward for the lion troupe. The lion dance is believed to bring good luck and fortune to the business. During the Qing Dynasty, there may be additional hidden meanings in the performances, for example the green vegetables (\"qing\") eaten by the lion may represent the Qing Manchus. The lion dance troupes are sometimes accompanied by various characters such as the Big Head Buddha."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "It is also given during the Chinese New Year in workplace from a person of authority (supervisors or owner of the business) out of his own fund to employees as a token of good fortune for the upcoming year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "It was also during the Song dynasty that people started to give money to children in celebration of a new year. The money was called \"sui nian qian\" (\u968f\u5e74\u94b1), meaning \"the money based on age\". In the chapter \"Ending of a year\" (\u6b72\u9664) of \"Wulin jiushi\" (\u6b66\u6797\u820a\u4e8b), the writer recorded that concubines of the emperor prepared a hundred and twenty coins for princes and princesses, to wish them long lives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cash (Chinese coin)",
        "text": "Under Wang Mang's Xin dynasty other than cash coins with \"flower holes\" also spade money with \"flower holes\" were cast. Under the reign of the Tang dynasty the number of Chinese cash coins with \"flower holes\" started to increase and circulated throughout the entire empire, concurrently the casting of Chinese cash coins was switched from using clay moulds to using bronze ones, however the earliest Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins were still cast with clay moulds so the mould type alone cannot explain why these \"flower holes\" became increasingly common. As mother coins (\u6bcd\u9322) were used to cast these coins which were always exact it indicates that these \"flower holes\" were added post-casting, the largest amount of known cash coins with \"flower holes\" have very prominent octagonal holes in the middle on both sides of the coin, comparatively their legends are usually as defined as they appear on \"normal cash coins\", for this reason the hypothesis that they were accidentally added is disproven. All sides of these coins (either octagonal with \"flower holes\" or hexagonal with \"turtle shell holes\") are clearly contained inside of the cash coin's central rim. After the casting of cash coins had shifted to using bronze moulds these coins would appear as if they were branches of a \"coin tree\" (\u9322\u6a39) where they had to be broken off, all excess copper-alloy had to be manually chiseled or filed off from the central holes. It is suspected that the \"flower holes\" and \"turtle shell holes\" were produced during chiseling process, presumably while the employee of the manufacturing mint was doing the final details of the cash coins. As manually filing and chiseling cash coins was both an additional expense as well as time-consuming it is likely that the creation of \"flower holes\" and \"turtle shell holes\" was ordered by the manufacturer. However, as the quality of Tang and Song dynasty coinages was quite high it's unlikely that the supervisors would have allowed for a large number of these variant coins to be produced, pass quality control or be allowed to enter circulation. Cash coins with \"flower holes\" were produced in significant numbers by the Northern Song dynasty, Southern Song dynasty, and Khitan Liao dynasty. Until 1180 the Northern Song dynasty produced \"matched cash coins\" (\u5c0d\u9322, \"du\u00ec qi\u00e1n\") which were cash coins with identical inscriptions written in different styles of Chinese calligraphy, after these coins were superseded by cash coins that included the year of production on their reverse sides the practice of casting cash coins with \"flower holes\" also seems to have drastically decreased. Due to this one hypothesis states that \"flower holes\" were added to Chinese cash coins to signify a year or period of the year or possibly a location where a cash coin was produced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "Some say that the history of the red packet dates back to Han Dynasty (202 BC \u2013 220 AD). People created a type of coin to ward off evil spirits, (), and it was inscribed with auspicious words on the front, such as \"May you live a long and successful life\". It is not real money, but a real blessing item. It was believed to protect people from sickness and death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "In the year 1890 the government of the Qing dynasty decided that \"red cash coins\" should circulate in both southern and northern Xinjiang and that they were to be equivalent of 1.2 \"qi\u00e1n\" or 1.0 \"qi\u00e1n\" standard cash coins of the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "In the mid-2010s, Chinese messaging apps such as WeChat popularized the distribution of red envelopes in a virtual format via mobile payments, usually within group chats. In 2017, it was estimated that over 100 billion of these virtual red envelopes would be sent over the New Year holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The poem \"Yuan Ri\" (\u5143\u65e5) also includes the word \"\u7206\u7af9\" (bao zhu, exploding bamboo), which is believed to be a reference to firecrackers, instead of the previous tradition of firing bamboo, both of which are called the same in the Chinese language. After gunpowder was invented in the Tang dynasty and widely used under the Song dynasty, people modified the tradition of firing bamboo by filling the bamboo pole with gunpowder, which made for louder explosions. Later under the Song, people discarded the bamboo and started to use paper to wrap the gunpowder in cylinders, in imitation of the bamboo. The firecracker was still called \"\u7206\u7af9\", thus equating the new and old traditions. It is also recorded that people linked the firecrackers with hemp rope and created the \"\u97ad\u70ae\" (bian pao, gunpowder whip) in the Song dynasty. Both \"\u7206\u7af9\" and \"\u97ad\u70ae\" are still used by present-day people to celebrate the Chinese New Year and other festive occasions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "These customs have also been adopted across parts of Southeast Asia, and other countries that have a sizable ethnic Chinese population as well. In the mid-2010's, a digital equivalent to the practice emerged within messaging apps with mobile wallet systems localised for Chinese New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cash (Chinese coin)",
        "text": "Although Chinese cash coins kept their round shape with a square hole from the Warring States period until the early years of the Republic of China, under the various regimes that ruled during the long history of China the square hole in the middle experienced only minor modifications such as being slightly bigger, smaller, more elongated, shaped incorrectly, or sometimes being filled with a bit of excess metal left over from the casting process. However, for over 2000 years Chinese cash coins mostly kept their distinctive shape. During this period a relatively small number of Chinese cash coins were minted with what are termed \"flower holes\", \"chestnut holes\" or \"rosette holes\", these holes were octagonal but resembled the shape of flowers. If the shape of these holes were only hexagonal then they were referred to as \"turtle shell holes\", in some occidental sources they may be called \"star holes\" because they resemble stars. The exact origin and purpose of these variant holes is currently unknown but several hypotheses have been proposed by Chinese scholars. The traditional explanation for why these \"flower holes\" started appearing was accidental shifts of two halves of a prototype cash coin in clay, bronze, and stone moulds, these shifts would then produce the shape of the square hole to resemble multiple square holes placed on top of each other when the metal was poured in. A common criticism of this hypothesis is that if this were to happen then the inscription on the coin would also have to appear distorted, as well as any other marks that appeared on these cash coins, however this was not the case and the \"flower holes\" are equally distinctive as the square ones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xin dynasty coinage",
        "text": "During the early years of the Republic of China sometime after 1911 (or possibly in Japan) a new type of Chinese spade charm was created. It has the same Chinese seal script inscription \"Huo Bu\" (\u8ca8\u5e03) as the original Wang Mang spade coin upon which these numismatic charms based. These spade charms are much, much bigger in size than the original spade money. Just above the Chinese seal script characters is an illustration of the seven star \"Big Dipper\" constellation. On these charms there is an image of a snake on the lower right foot of the spade as well as a \"three-legged toad\" located on the left foot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The Chinese New Year is often accompanied by loud, enthusiastic greetings, often referred to as () in Mandarin or (Kat Lei Seut Wa) in Cantonese, loosely translated as \"auspicious words or phrases\". New Year couplets printed in gold letters on bright red paper, referred to as \"chunlian\" () or \"fai chun\" (), is another way of expressing auspicious new year wishes. They probably predate the Ming dynasty (1368\u20131644), but did not become widespread until then. Today, they are ubiquitous with Chinese New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "By the late Qing dynasty it had become apparent that carrying strings of cash coins was inconvenient compared to modern currencies. In 1900, 8 shillings converted into 32.6587 kilograms of copper cash coins and it was noted that if one of the straw strings holding the coins would break that it would cost more picking those coins up in time than the value retrieved from those coins. This was one of the many different factors leading Chinese people to more readily accept the modernisation of the currency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coin-sword",
        "text": "Chinese coin-swords generally consist of either one or two iron rods as a foundation with real or replica Chinese cash coins fastened together with a string, a cord, or a wire which are usually coloured red. While the thread is usually red, it may sometimes also be yellow or gold as these are considered to be the colours of royalty."
      },
      {
        "title": "D Is for Dragon Dance",
        "text": "A few of the Chinese New Year traditions featured in the book include:\n* Watching the Dragon Dance performance in the New Year's parade\n* Lighting firecrackers\n* Hanging paper lanterns\n* Eating Peking Duck\n* Children receiving Red Envelopes full of gifts\n* Eating Steamed Dumplings\n* Performing Venerationfor one's ancestors\n* Creating Xylographs\n* Welcoming the Chinese Zodiac for the new year"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ban Liang",
        "text": "During the Han dynasty Ban Liang coins continued to be produced, but the golden currency established under the Qin would switch from being measured in taels to being measured in \"Jin\" (), which made a single Jin-denominated gold coin worth around 10.000 Ban Liang coins. As the general populace found inconvenience in using the heavy Ban Liang coins the Han government allowed for the private production of smaller Ban Liang coins known as \"elm seed\" () Ban Liang coins. The design of the Ban Liang coins would also change as Han dynasty Ban Liangs would later add rims while all Qin dynasty versions were rimless."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year's Eve",
        "text": "A money tree is a legendary tree which will shed coins when shaken. On Chinese New Year's Eve, Chinese will cut some pine branches and put the branches in vase. Then they will tie copper coins, shoe-shaped gold or silver and pomegranate flowers to the tree, which is very similar to Christmas tree in western countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taoist coin charm",
        "text": "Chinese coin-swords generally consist of either one or two iron rods as a foundation with real or replica Chinese cash coins fastened together with a string, a cord, or a wire which are usually coloured red. While the thread is usually red, it may sometimes also be yellow or gold as these are considered to be the colours of royalty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "A folklore tale of \"sui\" is about an elderly couple with a precious son. On the night of New Year's Eve, since they were afraid that \"sui\" would come, they took out eight pieces of copper coins to play with their son in order to keep him awake. Their son was very sleepy, however, so they let him go to sleep after placing a red paper bag containing the copper coins under the child's pillow. The two older children also stayed with him for the whole night. Suddenly, the doors and windows were blown open by a strange wind, and even the candlelight was extinguished. It turned out to be a \"sui\". When the \"sui\" was going to reach out and touch the child's head, the pillow suddenly brightened with the golden light, and the \"sui\" was scared away, so the exorcism effect of \"red paper wrapped copper money\" spread in the past China (see also Chinese numismatic charms). The money is then called \u201cya sui qian (\u58d3\u6b72\u9322)\u201d, the money to suppress \"sui\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qing dynasty coinage",
        "text": "The new coins often bore the inscription \"Gu\u0101ng X\u00f9 Yu\u00e1n B\u01ceo\" (\u5149\u7dd2\u5143\u5bf6) with an image of a Dragon and featured English, Chinese, and Manchu inscriptions. Further these coins tended to have their relation with China's older coinages (most often with cash coins) on the bottom, or their value in relation to silver coinage, and the Manchu words indicated the place of mintage. Meanwhile, the 10 w\u00e9n \"traditional\" cash coins were discontinued as the production of these more modern coins began."
      },
      {
        "title": "San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade",
        "text": "Starting in 2019, gold foil-wrapped chocolate coins were passed out in traditional \"lai see\" (red envelopes) to children for the one-day Choy Sun Doe event, celebrating the arrival of the god of wealth. Some also included money or a gift certificate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western Xia coinage",
        "text": "This era also saw the production of Song dynasty-style cash coins, these Song dynasty-style cash coins also followed the Song tradition of casting \u201cMatched Coins\u201d (\u5c0d\u9322, \"du\u00ec qi\u00e1n\", \u5c0d\u54c1, \"du\u00ec p\u01d0n\", \u548c\u5408\u9322, \"h\u00e9 h\u00e9 qi\u00e1n\"), where two or more different Chinese calligraphy styles were used on cash coins that had the same Chinese era title (or reign period)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "Initially, the Da-Qing Baochao banknotes were able to be redeemed through the local Yu, Ch'ien and T'ien banks in a proportion of Zhiqian (\u5236\u9322, \"standard cash coins\"), Daqian (\u5927\u9322, \"big cash\"), silver, or the Hubu Guanpiao tael notes as was officially set by government regulation. As an example Manchu bannermen were to be paid in 8 parts ordinary cash coins to 2 parts large denomination cash coins, while members of the imperial household received 6 strings (\u4e32, \"chu\u00e0n\") of standard cash coins for each 10 strings which were disbursed. Comparatively, government contractors and private merchants tended to receive more multi-denomination cash coins over standard cash coins due to their lower position. Under inflationary pressure the Chinese government wasn't able to maintain parity for its currencies. By the year Xianfeng 5 (1855) the majority of the high denomination cash coins were abolished because it was both being deprecated at a rapid paste and there was an epidemic of counterfeiting. At this point the higher denomination which still continued to be produced and circulate was the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coin, though it was only worth 70% of its nominal value on the market. During this period both the Da-Qing Baochao and Hubu Guanpiao banknotes were worth only 50% their nominal value. Privately produced cash notes around the same time were fixed to the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" Daqian and lost 60% of their value between the years 1852 and 1856. Both government issued banknotes and Yu Bank issued banknotes were only valued half that of privately issued banknotes in 1856."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "In East and Southeast Asian cultures, a red envelope, red packet or red pocket () is a monetary gift given during holidays or for special occasions such as a wedding, a graduation, or the birth of a baby.Although the red envelope was popularised by Chinese traditions, other cultures also share similar traditional customs. The red packet is also called \"money warding off old age\" () for Chinese New Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Big Chinese population cities and towns like of Chinatown includes Jakarta, Medan, Singkawang, Pangkal Pinang, Binjai, Bagansiapiapi, Tanjungbalai, Pematangsiantar, Selat Panjang, Pekanbaru, Tanjung Pinang, Batam, Ketapang, Pontianak, Sungailiat, Tanjung Pandan, Manggar, Toboali, Muntok, Lubuk Pakam, Bandung, Semarang, Surabaya, Rantau Prapat, Tebing Tinggi, Sibolga, Dumai, Panipahan, Bagan Batu, Tanjung Balai Karimun, Palembang, Bengkayang, and Tangerang always have its own New Year's celebration every years with parade and fireworks. A lot shopping malls decorated its building with lantern, Chinese words and lion or dragon with red and gold as main color. Lion dance is a common sight around Chinese houses, temples and its shophouses. Usually, the Buddhist, Confucian and Taoist Chinese will burn a big incense made by aloeswood with dragon-decorated at front of their house. The Chinese temple is open 24 hours at the first day, their also distributes a red envelopes and sometimes rice, fruits or sugar to the poor around."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianzhuang",
        "text": "Throughout Chinese history cash coins were put on strings in 10 groups of (supposedly) 100 cash coins each, these strings were separated by a knot between each group. During the Qing dynasty period strings of cash coins rarely actually contained 1000 cash coins and usually had something like 950 or 980 or a similar quantity, these amounts were due to local preferences rather than being random in any form. In the larger cities \"qianzhuang\" would make specific strings of cash coins for specific markets. The \"qianzhuang\" existed because at the time there were many different kinds of cash coins circulating in China including old Chinese cash coins from previous dynasties (\u53e4\u9322), Korean cash coins, Japanese cash coins (\u502d\u9322), Vietnamese cash coins, large and small genuine Qing dynasty cash coins, and different kinds of counterfeits, such as illegally private minted cash coins. Some of these strings would contain exclusively genuine Zhiqian, while other strings could contain between 30% and 50% of counterfeit and underweight cash coins. The actual number of cash coins on a string and the percentage of counterfeits in a string was generally known to everyone who resided in that town by the type of knots that were used. Each of these different kind of strings of cash coins fulfilled different functions. For example, one string of cash coins was acceptable to be used in a local grain market while it would not be accepted at a meat market, while another type of string was able to be used in both markets while not to pay for taxes. The \"qianzhuang\" sorted all cash coins into very specific categories, then they would make up appropriate kinds of strings that were intended for use in specific markets or to pay for taxes to the government."
      },
      {
        "title": "String of cash coins (currency unit)",
        "text": "During the Song dynasty the first series of standard government Jiaozi notes were issued in 1024 with denominations like 1 (, or 700 \"w\u00e9n\"), 1 (, or 1000 ), up to 10 . In 1039 only banknotes of 5 and 10 were issued, and in 1068 a denomination of 1 was introduced which became forty percent of all circulating Jiaozi banknotes. The Huizi also continued to use these currency units. Between the years of 1161 and 1166 the government of the Song dynasty had produced 28,000,000 (, equal to a or 1000 ) in Huizi notes. The exchange rate between Guanzi banknotes and copper cash coins was 1 for 770 \"w\u00e9n\" while Huizi notes of the eighteenth production period were valued at 3 for 1 . During the last days of the Southern Song dynasty, China was suffering from inflation to the point that the value of the Huizi had lowered so much that a was only accepted at between 300 and 400 cash coins, which caused people to start hoarding the coins, removing them from circulation which had a devastating effect on the economy. As the Mongols continued marching south, the Chinese military required more money causing the government to print an excessive amount of Huizi banknotes. The currency unit would later also be used by the Jurchen Jin dynasty and the Mongol Yuan dynasty on their Jiaochao banknotes, though due to hyperinflation these currencies would not be able to be exchanged with any real cash coins and under Mongol rule non-paper forms of currency were abolished."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese numismatic charm",
        "text": "Dots were the first and most common form of symbol that appeared on ancient Chinese cash coins, such as the Ban Liang coins, and appeared mostly during the Han dynasty. These symbols were usually on the obverse side of the coins and were probably carved as a part of the mold, meaning that they were intentionally added. Crescent symbols on both the obverse and reverse sides of coins were added around the same period as the dots. After this, both regular Chinese numerals and counting rod numerals began to appear on cash coins during the beginning of the Eastern Han dynasty. Chinese characters began to appear on these early cash coins which could mean they were intended to circulate in certain regions or might indicate the names of those who cast the coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "In July 1759 General Zhao Hui petitioned to the Qianlong Emperor to reclaim the old p\u016bl coins and using them as scrap for the production of new cash coins, these \"red cash coins\" had an official exchange rate with the p\u016bl coins that remained in circulation of 1 \"red cash\" for 2 p\u016bl coins. As Zhao Hui wanted the new can coins to have the same weight as p\u016bl coins they weighed 2 \"qi\u00e1n\" and had both a higher width and thickness than regular cash coins. Red cash coins are also generally marked by their rather crude craftsmanship when compared to the cash coins of China proper. The edges of these coins are often not filed completely and the casting technique is often inaccurate or the inscriptions on them seemed deformed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wu Zhu",
        "text": "After the fall of the Xin dynasty the production of Wu Zhu cash coins was resumed. After the restoration of the Han dynasty the production of Wu Zhu cash coins was first resumed under Emperor Guangwu who reigned from the year 25 until 56 AD. Under the reign of the warlord Dong Zhuo (\u8463\u5353) the capital of the Han dynasty was moved from Luoyang to the city of Chang'an (modern day Xi'an) where he ordered that the large Qin dynasty era bronze statues which date to the reign of Emperor Qin Shi Huang be melted down to make small cash coins, large quantity of these Wu Zhu coins were so small that they were commonly referred to as \"goose eye coins\" (\u9d5d\u773c\u9322, \"\u00e9 y\u01cen qi\u00e1n\") or \"chicken eye coins\" (\u96de\u76ee\u9322, \"j\u012b m\u00f9 qi\u00e1n\") by the people. As these cash coins were so diminutive in size only left half of the wu (\u4e94) Chinese character and the right half of the zhu (\u9296) Chinese character fit on these coins. It is also pivotal to clarify that these cash coins are not what is referred to as \"chiselled rim coins\" (\u947f\u908a\u9322, \"z\u00e1o bi\u0101n qi\u00e1n\") where regular size Wu Zhu cash coins had their insides cut out so as to form two separate cash coins. \"goose eye Wu Zhu coins\" or \"chicken eye Wu Zhu coins\" were actually cast in this diminutive manner as evidence by the remnants of the metal sprue (or stub) from the casting process are located at the rim's five o'clock position of \"goose eye\" or \"chicken eye Wu Zhu coins\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Southern Song dynasty coinage",
        "text": "In the year 1173 during the reign of Emperor Xiaozong the period title was proclaimed to be Chunxi with the \"Chun\" written as \"\u7eaf\". Only six days later after this proclamation, the \"Chun\" was officially changed to be written in Hanzi as \"\u6df3\".\u00a0The Tongan mint in the Anhui region produced a very small quantity of Chunxi Yuanbao (\u7eaf\u7199\u5143\u5bf6) iron cash coins with the chun written as \"\u7eaf\".\u00a0 These diminutive iron coins today are considered to be very rare. Furthermore, during the beginning of the Chunxi period, bronze cash coins produced from this era and continuing to the very end of the Southern Song dynasty, tended to have their inscriptions (or legends) written in a form of Chinese calligraphy that is today known as the \"Song style script\" or \"regular script\".\u00a0For this reason, there are in fact fewer number of varieties of bronze Song dynasty cash coins from this period onwards compared to those from earlier periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhiqian",
        "text": "The design of the standard Chinese cash coin was round, while it had a square centre hole that allowed them to be strung together. There inner rim as well as the outer rim of the cash coin was slightly elevated, and on the obverse side of the coin was the era name (or reign motto) of the reigning emperor, during the Ming dynasty the reverse side of their cash coins tended to be blank, while Qing dynasty period cash coins often contained mint marks."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of printing",
        "text": "In the Jin dynasty, copper-block prints were slotted with two square holes for embedding bronze movable type characters, each selected from 1000 different characters, such that each printed paper money had a different combination of markers. A copper block printed paper banknote dated between 1215 and 1216 in the collection of Luo Zhenyu's \"Pictorial Paper Money of the Four Dynasties\", 1914, shows two special characters: one called \"Ziliao\", the other called \"Zihao\", for the purpose of preventing counterfeit. Over the \"Ziliao\" there is a small character (\u8f36) printed with movable copper type, while over the \"Zihao\" there is an empty square hole; apparently the associated copper metal type was lost. Another sample of Song dynasty money of the same period in the collection of Shanghai Museum has two empty square holes above \"Ziliao\" as well as \"Zihou\", due to the loss of two copper movable types."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Chinese coinage",
        "text": "In AD 14, all these tokens were abolished, and replaced by another type of spade coin and new round coins.\n* Huo Bu ()\n* Huo Quan ()"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "As with all cultures, Chinese New Year traditions incorporate elements that are symbolic of deeper meaning. One common example of Chinese New Year symbolism is the red diamond-shaped \"fu characters\" (), which are displayed on the entrances of Chinese homes. This sign is usually seen hanging upside down, since the Chinese word \"dao\" (), is homophonous or nearly homophonous with () in all varieties of Chinese. Therefore, it symbolizes the arrival of luck, happiness, and prosperity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhou dynasty coinage",
        "text": "From 350 BC onwards, round coins started to be used. The round coins from the areas that previously used spade money, had round holes in their center. The round coins from the knife money areas typically had square holes. There are only two coins known to be exceptions to this general rule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jin dynasty coinage (1115\u20131234)",
        "text": "Although the Jin dynasty had become issuing paper Jiaochao () in 1154, they didn\u2019t produce coins until the year 1158, prior to that coins from the preceding Liao and Song dynasties continued to circulate within Jurchen territory, as well as a continuing large inflow of coins produced by the Song, this was because the territory of the Jin didn't have enough copper to meet the demand. Jin era coins circulated alongside paper money and silver sycees, and were the main medium of exchange for the general population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Iron cash coins were produced during the Han dynasty, Three Kingdoms period, Northern and Southern dynasties period, Five dynasties and Ten kingdoms period, Song dynasty, Jin dynasty (1115\u20131234), Western Xia dynasty, Ming dynasty, and Qing dynasty, but not during the Zhou dynasty, Jin dynasty (266\u2013420), Sui dynasty, Tang dynasty, Liao dynasty, and Yuan dynasty periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wu Zhu",
        "text": "After the Eastern Jin dynasty fell the Northern and Southern dynasties period commenced in the year 420. In the Southern dynasties it was customary for people to remove the middle part of Wu Zhu cash coins to create two separate coins, the portion cut out of the outer ring of the Wu Zhu is usually referred to as a \"thread ring Wu Zhu\" (\u7d96\u74b0\u4e94\u9296, \"xi\u00e0n hu\u00e1n w\u01d4 zh\u016b\") while the coin cut out of the inner portion is usually referred to as \"chiseled rim Wu Zhu\" (\u947f\u908a\u4e94\u9296, \"z\u00e1o bi\u0101n w\u01d4 zh\u016b\") cash coins or as \"cut rim Wu Zhu\" (\u526a\u8f2a\u4e94\u9296, \"ji\u01cen l\u00fan w\u01d4 zh\u016b\") cash coins. Private casting of cash coins also became a common practice during the Northern and Southern dynasties period which resulted in there being many extremely small, thin, and very fragile bronze cash coins that were cast by these private mints. These cash coins are known as \"goose eye\" (\u9d5d\u773c, \"\u00e9 y\u01cen\") or \"chicken eye\" (\u96de\u76ee, \"j\u012b m\u00f9\") coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "In 1828 monetary reforms were implemented to keep the current weight of \"Red Cash\" but increase their denominations to 5, and 10 w\u00e9n (while weighing the same) with 70% of Aksu's annual production being 5 w\u00e9n coins, and 30% being 10 w\u00e9n but the production of \"Red Cash\" itself was reduced by two and a half thousand strings. Later the Daoguang Emperor ordered the weight of \"Red Cash\" to further decrease in order to maximise profits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Tongbi",
        "text": "The reverse side of the Da-Qing Tongbi coin, like the Guangxu Yuanbao provincial coinages, also had the design of a Chinese dragon on it, but these dragons have much fewer variations in comparison to those on the Guangxu Yuanbao milled coins because of the imperial governments efforts in standardising designs. Near the upper part of the outer rim were the Traditional Chinese characters Guangxu Nianzao (\u9020\u5e74\u7dd2\u5149) written from right to left, which could be translated into English as \"minted during the Guangxu years\". Near the lower part of the outer rim was the text, written in English, \"Tai-Ching-Ti-Kuo Copper Coin\". Machine-struck Da-Qing Tongbi coins would continue to be produced during the reign of the Xuantong Emperor. The Da-Qing Tongbi coins of this period had the text Xuantong Nianzao (\u9020\u5e74\u7d71\u5ba3) written from right to left, meaning \"minted during the Xuantong years\", inscribed near the upper part of the outer rim on the reverse side of the coins to indicate the era of mintage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese numismatic charm",
        "text": "Palace cash coins are sometimes included as a category of Chinese numismatic charms. These special coins, according to the \"Standard Catalog of World Coins\" by Krause Publications, were specifically produced to be presented as gifts during Chinese new year to the people who worked in the Chinese imperial palace such as imperial guards and eunuchs, who would hang these special coins below lamps. In his book \"Qing Cash\", published by the Royal Numismatic Society in the year 2003, David Hartill noted that these palace cash coins were only produced during the establishment of a new reign era title. The first Chinese palace cash coins were produced in the year 1736 during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor and tend to be between 30 millimeters and 40 millimeters in diameter. These palace cash coins were produced until the end of the Qing dynasty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "The Southern Song dynasty saw the emergence of paper money, while coins were increasingly becoming a rarity. Iron cash coins also started to be used in greater numbers, at first due to the lack of copper, but later even as more copper was found the production of iron cash coins remained cheaper and an abundance of iron made it more attractive for the government to produce, while several problems such as the fact that iron is harder to inscribe, and that iron corrodes faster ensured the continued production of copper cash coins. From the year 1180 until the end of the Song dynasty very few bronze coins were produced by the government as the preference went to iron, this was because bronze cash coins needed to have a specific typeface which was more intricate to produce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope",
        "text": "Red envelopes are gifts presented at social and family gatherings such as weddings or holidays such as Chinese New Year. The red color of the envelope symbolizes good luck and is a symbol to ward off evil spirits. It is also gifted when a person is visiting as a gesture of kindness for visiting. The act of requesting red packets is normally called () or (), and in the south of China, (). Red envelopes are usually given out to the younger generation who are normally still in school or unmarried."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Chinese coinage",
        "text": "Attributed to the Southern Han/Chu area (900\u2013971):\n* Kai Yuan tong bao () are based on Tang Dynasty coins. They have a local style with numerous reverse inscriptions \u2013 apparently series numbers. There is a very great variety of such coins; some have crescents on the reverse. The \"Kai\" character sometimes looks like \"yong\" (). Characters and legends often reversed because the incompetent workmen had not mastered the art of engraving in negative to make the moulds. Some specimens have meaningless characters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "Back in the 1960s, children in Hong Kong used to say (Cantonese, Gung Hei Fat Choy, Lai Si Tau Loi, Tau Ling M Ngoi), which was recorded in the pop song Kowloon Hong Kong by Reynettes in 1966. Later in the 1970s, children in Hong Kong used the saying: , roughly translated as, \"Congratulations and be prosperous, now give me a red envelope, fifty cents is too little, don't want a dollar either.\" It basically meant that they disliked small change \u2013 coins which were called \"hard substance\" (Cantonese: ). Instead, they wanted \"soft substance\" (Cantonese: ), which was either a ten dollar or a twenty dollar note."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese numismatic charm",
        "text": "In the Ming and Qing dynasties, the imperial government issued coins for national festivals or ceremonies such as the emperor's birthday. It was common for the emperor's sixtieth birthday to be celebrated by issuing a charm with the inscription \"Wanshou Tongbao\" (\u842c\u5900\u901a\u5bf6), because 60 years symbolizes a complete cycle of the 10 heavenly stems and the 12 earthly branches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ban Liang",
        "text": "State of Qin era Ban Liang cash coins generally have inscriptions that are written in small seal script, with a small number in large seal script. The characters on the State of Qin Ban Liang cash coins are vertically elongated and the top horizontal stroke of the \"Liang\" (\u5169) character is short. A seal script evolved further over the centuries, the top horizontal line became longer as is seen in Ban Liang cash coins produced during the Han dynasty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Chinese coinage",
        "text": "During the Xining period (from 1068), minting was increased, and by the Yuanfeng period (from 1078) it was reported that there were nine iron coin mints, three in Sichuan and six in Shaanxi, producing over a million strings a year. Thereafter, output declined gradually.\n* Song Yuan tong bao. (). Written in \"li\" script. The inscription is based on the \"Kai Yuan\" coin. It has a nominal weight of 1 \"qian\". Various dots and crescents are found on the reverse. It was first cast in 960 and then until the end of Tai Zu's reign. Casting of iron coins started at Baizhangxian, Yazhou, in Sichuan, from 970. Ten furnaces cast 9,000 strings a year.\n* Tai Ping tong bao () (976\u2013989). Written in \"li\" script. Various dots and crescents are found on the reverse. There are also iron coins. The small iron coins come from Sichuan and 10 were equivalent to one bronze coin. The large iron coin have a large dot above on the reverse. This coin was cast at Jianzhou, Fujian in 983, and was intended to be equivalent to 3 bronze coins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jun ware",
        "text": "There has been a divergence between Asian and Western scholars in dating these; the Chinese, relying largely on evidence from excavations at the Juntai kiln, place them in the late Northern Song, while Western writers put them in the Yuan or early Ming. There has been much discussion of a single supposedly Song period coin found in a kiln at Juntai. There seem at the least to have been replacement orders for the new imperial palace in Beijing under the early Ming (Yongle and Xuande Emperors, so 1402\u20131435), and many pieces are inscribed with locations, probably added in the 18th century, and certainly remained in place in the palace until the late Qing. Jun flower pots can also be seen in paintings of the court from the Ming. The British Museum dates the official wares \"from about AD 1368 to 1435\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xin dynasty coinage",
        "text": "In AD 14, all these tokens were abolished, and replaced by another type of spade coin and new round coins.\n* Huo Bu ()\n* Huo Quan ()"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Chinese cash coins by inscription",
        "text": "Under the Southern Song dynasty it became customary to add the date of issue on the reverse of the coin and as copper shortages and phenomena known as \"currency famines\" (\u9322\u8352) plagued the land both iron cash coins and paper money (in the form of Jiaozi, Guanzi, and Huizi notes) became more common leading to a decline of the production of bronze coinage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "According to tales and legends, Chinese New Year started with a mythical beast called the Nian (a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains) during the annual Spring Festival. The Nian would eat villagers, especially children in the middle of the night. One year, all the villagers decided to hide from the beast. An older man appeared before the villagers went into hiding and said that he would stay the night and would get revenge on the Nian. The old man put red papers up and set off firecrackers. The day after, the villagers came back to their town and saw that nothing had been destroyed. They assumed that the old man was a deity who came to save them. The villagers then understood that Yanhuang had discovered that the Nian was afraid of the color red and loud noises. Then the tradition grew when New Year was approaching, and the villagers would wear red clothes, hang red lanterns, and red spring scrolls on windows and doors and used firecrackers and drums to frighten away the Nian. From then on, Nian never came to the village again. The Nian was eventually captured by Hongjun Laozu, an ancient Taoist monk. After that, Nian retreated to a nearby mountain. The name of the mountain has long been lost over the years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bingqian",
        "text": "The inscription of Huo Quan cash coins is read from right to left and they were cast beginning in the year 14 AD. Like the later Bingqian, some heave Huo Quan cash coins have four diagonal lines protruding (or radiating) from the corners of the square centre hole of the coin, while uniquely to these cash coins, they can have large blobs situated both above and below the square centre hole. It is suspected that these Wang Mang era Bingqian might be an early form of Chinese numismatic charms, but the exact meaning of these symbols remain to be discovered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "At the introduction of red cash system in Southern Xinjiang in 1760, the exchange rate of standard cash (or \"yellow cash\") and \"red cash\" was set at 10 standard cash coins were worth 1 \"red cash coin\". During two or three subsequent years this exchange rate was decreased to 5:1. When used in the Northern or Eastern circuits of Xinjiang, the \"red cash coins\" were considered equal in value as the standard cash coins that circulated there. The areas where the Dzungar p\u016bls had most circulated such as Yarkant, Hotan, and Kashgar were the sites of mints operated by the Qing government, as the official mint of the Dzungar Khanate was in the city of Yarkent the Qing used this mint to cast the new \"red cash coins\" and new mints were established in Aksu and Ili. As the Jiaqing Emperor ordered that 10% of all cash coins cast in Xinjiang should bear the inscription \"Qianlong Tongbao\" the majority of \"red cash coins\" with this inscription were actually produced after the Qianlong era as their production lasted until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 making many of them hard to attribute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Red envelope (disambiguation)",
        "text": "A red envelope (or \"h\u00f3ngb\u0101o\") is a monetary gift which is given during special occasions in Chinese and other East Asian societies."
      },
      {
        "title": "String of cash coins (currency unit)",
        "text": "Prior to the Song dynasty strings of cash coins were called (), (), or (), while during the Ming and Qing dynasties they were called () or (). In Japan and Vietnam the term would continue to be used until the abolition of cash coins in those respective countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "In the year 1853 the production of large denomination cash coins commenced at the Kucha Mint, these \"red cash coins\" were produced using local weight standards and not the ones set by the Ministry of Revenue because of their high copper content. In the year 1855 new denominations of 4 w\u00e9n and 8 w\u00e9n were introduced at the Yining mint, further the \u00dcr\u00fcmqi mint started issuing cash coins with high denominations in response. New mints were established at Kucha, and Kashgar while the Yarkant mint was re-opened. Coins also started being cast in bronze, brass, lead, and iron; this system received a chaotic response from Xinjiang's market. The Xianfeng era \"red cash coins\" produced at the Kashgar mint contain an obscure vertically written vorm of Arabic script."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salatiga",
        "text": "Chinese New Year is a festive time in Salatiga. On the fifteenth and last day of celebration, also called \"Cap Go Meh\", can be witnessed a compelling performance of a large dragon puppet, the \"Barongsai\". This puppet is usually played by two or more people, performing an entrancing Chinese traditional dance at \"Klenteng Hok Tek Bio\" and along \"Sukowati\" street, where the temple is located. On this special day, civilians gather around the temple where a big celebration filled with performances is held and \"angpao\" (red envelope) is given out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongjun Laozu",
        "text": "After that, the people started to paste red paper on their front doors before New Year's Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hung Ga",
        "text": "There are northern styles that use the name \"Hung Kuen\" (\u6d2a\u62f3; pinyin: h\u00f3ng qu\u00e1n), though these predate the Qing Dynasty (1644\u20131912). Other northern styles use the character for \"Red Fist\" ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da Ming Baochao",
        "text": "Before the establishment of the Ming dynasty the Mongol Yuan dynasty had suffered from a severe case of hyperinflation which made the paper money issued by them worthless. Under the reign of the Yuan dynasty copper cash coins remained in circulation with the inscriptions Zhida Tongbao (\u81f3\u5927\u901a\u5bf6), Dayuan Tongbao (\u5927\u5143\u901a\u5bf6), and Zhizheng Tongbao (\u81f3\u6b63\u901a\u5bf6) forming the majority of the circulating issues and \"strings of cash coins\" remaining a currency unit. Silver then started to occupy a paramount place in the Mongol economy and was supplemented by government issued paper money. Under the reign of Kublai Khan the Zhongtong Jiaochao (\u4e2d\u7d71\u4ea4\u9214) was issued whose value was based on the fabric silk. In the year 1271 the Zhiyuan Baochao (\u81f3\u5143\u5bf6\u9214) was issued which was supplemented with the silver-based Zhida Yinchao (\u81f3\u5927\u9280\u9214), but these circulated only for a year. The final series of paper money issued by the government of the Yuan dynasty from 1350 were the Zhizheng Jiaochao (\u81f3\u6b63\u4ea4\u9214). A major difference between how paper money was used under the Mongols and under the Song dynasty was that, in certain regions of the Yuan dynasty, paper notes were the only acceptable form of currency and could not be exchanged in either copper cash coins or silver sycees. Exchanging paper money into copper or silver was known as \"du\u00ecxi\u00e0n\" (\u514c\u73fe, \"convert into specie\") which was the main reason why earlier forms of paper money were deemed reliable. As these regions were completely dependent on paper money inflation hit them more severely as their notes could not be converted into a currency based on any intrinsic value, for this reason the Mongols allowed their subjects to continue using copper-alloy cash coins and issued new ones every now and then. During the last few decades of the Yuan dynasty the inflation caused people to lose their trust in paper money and barter became the most common means of exchange."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese New Year",
        "text": "The color red is commonly worn throughout Chinese New Year; traditional beliefs held that red could scare away evil spirits and bad fortune. The wearing of new clothes is another clothing custom during the festival, the new clothes symbolize a new beginning in the year, and enough things to use and wear in this time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qianlong Tongbao",
        "text": "In the Summer of 1759 the government of the Qing dynasty finished their conquest of Xinjiang, Xinjiang was divided into 3 circuits, the Northern Circuit, Eastern Circuit, and Southern Circuit. In the Southern Circuit a different monetary system was used than in the other circuits, as this circuit had been Dzungaria the Dzungar \"p\u016bl\" (\ufb58\u0648\u0644) coin system was retained, these p\u016bl coins composed of 99% copper, these new p\u016bl coins were modeled after the Qianlong Tongbao cash coins, but due to their high copper content were red in colour hence they were known as \"red cash coins\" (\u7d05\u9322) however the Qing government now faced the fact that the amount of copper ore available in the region was very little, in order to get the amount of copper needed to manufacture these \"red cash coins\", General Zhao Hui requested to the Qianlong Emperor in his July 1759 petition if he was allowed to reclaim old p\u016bl coins from the locals to use as scrap metal and cast these new \"red cash coins\" from. These \"red cash coins\" had an official exchange rate with the p\u016bl coins that remained in circulation of 1 \"red cash\" for 2 p\u016bl coins. As Zhao Hui wanted the new can coins to have the same weight as p\u016bl coins they weighed 2 \"qi\u00e1n\" (or 7.46 grams) and had both a higher width and thickness than regular cash coins. Red cash coins are also generally marked by their rather crude craftsmanship when compared to the cash coins of China proper. The edges of these coins are often not filed completely and the casting technique is often inaccurate or the inscriptions on them seemed deformed. As the copper used to make these new Qianlong Tongbao cash coins was melted from copper ore or scrap copper by local primitive methods. Therefore, the actual pure copper content in \"red cash coins\" is usually around 98%, the remaining 2% usually being lead, zinc, and other impurities which were all beyond skills of the local mint technicians in Xinjiang to remove. Sometimes due to circulation or due to corrosion the slag kernels or organic impurities in the body of a particular \"red cash coin\" would decompose or wear out and would form a comb-like cluster of very small see-through openings which the Chinese refer to as \"sand eyes\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cash (Chinese coin)",
        "text": "Prior to the Song dynasty strings of cash coins were called \"gu\u00e0n\" (\u8cab), \"su\u01d2\" (\u7d22), or \"m\u00edn\" (\u7de1), while during the Ming and Qing dynasties they were called \"chu\u00e0n\" (\u4e32) or \"di\u00e0o\" (\u540a)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "Before the establishment of the Ming dynasty the Mongol Yuan dynasty had suffered from a severe case of hyperinflation which made the paper money issued by them worthless. Under the reign of the Yuan dynasty copper cash coins remained in circulation with the inscriptions Zhida Tongbao (\u81f3\u5927\u901a\u5bf6), Dayuan Tongbao (\u5927\u5143\u901a\u5bf6), and Zhizheng Tongbao (\u81f3\u6b63\u901a\u5bf6) forming the majority of the circulating issues and \"strings of cash coins\" remaining a currency unit. Silver then started to occupy a paramount place in the Mongol economy and was supplemented by government issued paper money. Under the reign of Kublai Khan the Zhongtong Jiaochao (\u4e2d\u7d71\u4ea4\u9214) was issued whose value was based on the fabric silk. Under the reign of K\u00fcl\u00fcg Khan in the year 1308 the Zhiyuan Baochao (\u81f3\u5143\u5bf6\u9214) was issued which was supplemented with the silver-based Zhida Yinchao (\u81f3\u5927\u9280\u9214), but these circulated only for a year. The final series of paper money issued by the government of the Yuan dynasty from 1350 were the Zhizheng Jiaochao (\u81f3\u6b63\u4ea4\u9214). A major difference between how paper money was used under the Mongols and under the Song dynasty was that, in certain regions of the Yuan dynasty, paper notes were the only acceptable form of currency and could not be exchanged in either copper cash coins or silver sycees. Exchanging paper money into copper or silver was known as \"du\u00ecxi\u00e0n\" (\u514c\u73fe, \"convert into specie\") which was the main reason why earlier forms of paper money were deemed reliable. As these regions were completely dependent on paper money inflation hit them more severely as their notes could not be converted into a currency based on any intrinsic value, for this reason the Mongols allowed their subjects to continue using copper-alloy cash coins and issued new ones every now and then. During the last few decades of the Yuan dynasty the inflation caused people to lose their trust in paper money and barter became the most common means of exchange."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hongqian",
        "text": "In the year 1859 the 50 \"w\u00e9n\" and 100 \"w\u00e9n\" cash coins were officially discontinued, the Kucha mint then started collecting them for re-casting them into 10 \"w\u00e9n\" Daqian, a single string of either denomination could produce 3 strings of 10 \"w\u00e9n\" Daqian."
      },
      {
        "title": "String of cash coins (currency unit)",
        "text": "In actual circulation, however, cash coins throughout Chinese history were put on strings in ten groups of (supposedly) one hundred coins each; these strings were separated by a knot between each group. During the Qing dynasty period, strings of cash coins rarely actually contained 1000 cash coins and usually had something like 950 or 980 or a similar quantity; these amounts were due to local preferences rather than being random in any form. In the larger cities cash shops would make specific strings of cash coins for specific markets. The cash shops existed because at the time there were many different kinds of cash coins circulating in China, including old Chinese cash coins from previous dynasties (), Korean cash coins, Japanese cash coins (), Vietnamese cash coins, large and small genuine Qing dynasty cash coins, and different kinds of counterfeits, such as illegally private-minted cash coins. Some of these strings would contain exclusively genuine Zhiqian, while other strings could contain between 30% and 50% of counterfeit and underweight cash coins. The actual number of cash coins on a string and the percentage of counterfeits in a string was generally known to everyone who resided in that town by the type of knots that were used. Each of these different kind of strings of cash coins fulfilled different functions. For example, one string of cash coins was acceptable to be used in a local grain market, while it would not be accepted at a meat market, while another type of string was able to be used in both markets but not to pay taxes. The cash shops sorted all cash coins into very specific categories, then would make up appropriate kinds of strings that were intended for use in specific markets or to pay taxes to the government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jiaozi",
        "text": "At the same time, \"jiaozi\" look like \"yuan bao\" silver or gold ingots used as currency during the Ming dynasty, and as the name sounds like the word for the earliest paper money, serving them is believed to bring prosperity. Many families eat these at midnight on Chinese New Year's Eve. Some cooks will even hide a clean coin inside a \"jiaozi\" for the lucky to find."
      },
      {
        "title": "Da-Qing Baochao",
        "text": "As the Qing dynasty starting regaining territory in the areas held by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, they immediately started issuing Da-Qing Baochao and Hubu Guanpiao banknotes in these places. These issues were controlled using two different ideogram systems for the indexes and prefixes, the Chinese characters utilised by these systems were based on the Thousand Character Classic (\u5343\u5b57\u6587, \"Qi\u0101nz\u00ec W\u00e9n\"). The prefixed Chinese character (which would appear in the series block preceding the actual serial number on each banknote) was actually one of these thousand classical ideograms, it is known that the first 320 characters from this series were reserved for the Peking Metropolitan District. By contrast, early Hubu Guanpiao tael notes of the Xianfeng era, which were issued through the Peking Metropolitan District, the provincial treasuries of China, and the Chinese military commissaries, used a different prefix character system, this system was based upon the Five Confucian Virtues as opposed to the thousand character classic-based system of the Da-Qing Baochao. In the markets of Beijing the new Xianfeng banknotes could not be used, so as people could not purchase any actual goods with them in the capital market many Bannermen lost a large part of their disposable income because of this inability to actually purchase things with their salary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cash (Chinese coin)",
        "text": "It is also possible that these \"flower holes\" and \"turtle shell holes\" functioned as Chinese numismatic charms, this is because the number 8 (\u516b, \"b\u0101\") is a homophonic pun in Mandarin Chinese with \"to prosper\" or \"wealth\" (\u767c\u8ca1, \"f\u0101 c\u00e1i\"), while the number 6 (\u516d, \"li\u00f9\") is a Mandarin Chinese homophonic pun with \"prosperity\" (\u797f, \"l\u00f9\"). Concurrently the Mandarin Chinese word for as \"chestnut\" (\u6817\u5b50, \"l\u00ec zi\") as in the term \"chestnut holes\" could be a homophonic pun in Mandarin Chinese with the phrase \"establishing sons\" (\u7acb\u5b50, \"l\u00ec zi\"), which expresses a desire to produce male offspring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese numismatic charm",
        "text": "The commemorative \"k\u0101ng x\u012b t\u014dng b\u01ceo\" (\u5eb7\u7199\u901a\u5bf6) cast for the Kangxi Emperor's 60th birthday in 1713 was believed to have \"the powers of a charm\" immediately when it entered circulation. It contains a slightly different version of the Hanzi symbol \"\u7199\" at the bottom of the cash, which lacked the vertical line common at the left part of the character; the part of this symbol which was usually inscribed as \"\u81e3\" has the middle part written as a \"\u53e3\" instead. Notably, the upper left area of the symbol \"\u901a\" contains a single dot as opposed to the usual two dots used during this era. Several myths were attributed to this coin over the following 300 years; one of these myths was that the coin was cast from golden statues of the 18 disciples of the Buddha, which earned this coin the nicknames \"the Lohan coin\" and \"Arhat money\". It was given to children as \"y\u0101 su\u00ec qi\u00e1n\" (\u58d3\u6b72\u9322) during Chinese new year, some women wore it as an engagement ring, and in rural Shanxi young men wore this like golden teeth. The coin was made from a copper alloy but it was not uncommon for people to enhance the coin with gold leaf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paofu",
        "text": "Chinese-style po influenced by the Han dynasty coexisted together with the native Korean po during the Three Kingdom period. The po influenced by the Han dynasty either had \"jingnyeong\" \"gyoim\" (; i.e. straight collar crossing at the front) or \"jingnyeong daeim\" (; i.e. straight collar which does not cross at the front); the sleeves were long covering the back of the hands; the robe could reach the ankle-level or longer, and could even trail on the ground. Dallyeongpo (i.e. yuanlingpao) from the Tang dynasty was introduced during the Silla period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese burial money",
        "text": "These existed some controversy to the attribution of this Chinese burial coin, this is because the wei is written using the simplified Chinese character \"\u4e3a\" instead of the traditional Chinese variant \"\u70ba\".\u00a0The argument used to dispute its typical attribution to the Manchu Qing dynasty period was that because simplified Chinese characters did not exist in a standardised form prior to their introduction by the Communist government of the People's Republic of China in the year 1956. This hypothesis has been debunked as research into the simplified form of this particular Chinese character has shown, however, that the simplified variant of it has existed at least from the time of the Ming dynasty period ending the controversy surrounding its origins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Traditional Candy and Coconut Wrap",
        "text": "At some point between the Spring and Autumn Period and the early Han, veneration of the 7th-century-BC Jin noble Jie Zhitui as an immortal developed into the Cold Food Festival, when fire was avoided for up to a month around midwinter. This later moved to the Qingming solar term and became modern China's Tomb Sweeping Festival. Thin wraps around molded syrups shaped like scallions became popular in Chaoshan and developed into the candy and coconut wrap."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cash (Chinese coin)",
        "text": "At the introduction of red cash system in Southern Xinjiang in 1760, the exchange rate of standard cash (or \"yellow cash\") and \"red cash\" was set at 10 standard cash coins were worth 1 \"red cash coin\". During two or three subsequent years this exchange rate was decreased to 5:1. When used in the Northern or Eastern circuits of Xinjiang, the \"red cash coins\" were considered equal in value as the standard cash coins that circulated there. The areas where the Dzungar p\u016bls had most circulated such as Yarkant, Hotan, and Kashgar were the sites of mints operated by the Qing government, as the official mint of the Dzungar Khanate was in the city of Yarkent the Qing used this mint to cast the new \"red cash coins\" and new mints were established in Aksu and Ili. As the Jiaqing Emperor ordered that 10% of all cash coins cast in Xinjiang should bear the inscription \"Qianlong Tongbao\" the majority of \"red cash coins\" with this inscription were actually produced after the Qianlong era as their production lasted until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 making many of them hard to attribute."
      },
      {
        "title": "Han dynasty",
        "text": "In 144 BC Emperor Jing abolished private minting in favor of central-government and commandery-level minting; he also introduced a new coin. Emperor Wu introduced another in 120 BC, but a year later he abandoned the \"ban liangs\" entirely in favor of the \"wuzhu\" (\u4e94\u9296) coin, weighing 3.2\u00a0g (0.11\u00a0oz). The \"wuzhu\" became China's standard coin until the Tang dynasty (618\u2013907 AD). Its use was interrupted briefly by several new currencies introduced during Wang Mang's regime until it was reinstated in 40 AD by Emperor Guangwu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Traditional candies in Hong Kong",
        "text": "It is established that families visit one another during the Chinese New Year, so when visits are made, visitors are normally offered candy in a red box often called a \"Tray of Togetherness\" or quanhe (). Different traditional candies such as \"sugar painting\", \"candy doll\", \"ding ding candy\" and \"dragons beard candy\" all convey symbolic meanings from wishing for increased fertility to stronger family ties . It can also mean money and sweetness of life, which is why many chocolates presented in the festival are wrapped and packaged in the shape of a gold coin. Being given candy in the Chinese New Year is seen as a blessing and a sign of luck for the rest of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Korean yang",
        "text": "Not long after these new copper coins were introduced, black market counterfeit versions of the 10 \"w\u00e9n\" appeared, illegal mints or \"private mints\" (\u5c40\u79c1) opened all over China and started producing more coins than the Qing government's set quotas allowed there to be circulating on the market. Both Chinese and foreigners soon started producing struck cash coins of inferior quality often with traces of the Korean 5 fun coins they were overstruck on, or with characters and symbols not found on official government issued coins. Joseon began minting modern-style machine-struck copper coins in 1892, which was 8 years before the Qing dynasty did so in China.\u00a0These coins were often minted by Korean businessmen and former Japanese Samurai (specifically \"R\u014dnin\") looking to make a profit on exchanging the low value copper coins into silver dollars as a single Chinese silver dollar had the purchasing power of 1000 Korean fun. The majority of the counterfeit coins bear the inscription that they were minted in either Zhejiang province or Shandong province, but they circulated all over the coastal regions of China. Because the hand-operated presses used by the counterfeiters did not exert enough pressure on the coins to sufficiently obliterate the inscriptions and symbols on the Korean 5 fun coins, the counterfeit Qing dynasty 10 \"w\u00e9n\" coins made using this method would usually exhibit a combination of both the Chinese Da-Qing Tongbi and Korean 5 fun designs. For example there can still be traces of a wreath surrounding the dragon or minor traces of the original Korean inscription."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fu (character)",
        "text": "Mounted \"F\u00fa\" are a widespread Chinese tradition associated with Chinese New Year and can be seen on the entrances of many Chinese homes worldwide. The characters are generally printed on a square piece of paper or stitched in fabric. The practice is universal among Chinese people regardless of socioeconomic status, and dates to at least the Song Dynasty (AD 960 \u2013 1279)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Chinese coinage",
        "text": "Some coins were produced in very large numbers \u2013 during the Western Han, an average of 220\u00a0million coins a year were produced. Other coins were of limited circulation and are today extremely rare \u2013 only six examples of \"Da Quan Wu Qian\" from the Eastern Wu Dynasty (222\u2013280) are known to exist. Occasionally, large hoards of coins have been uncovered. For example, a hoard was discovered in Jiangsu containing 4,000 \"Tai Qing Feng Le\" coins and at Zhangpu in Shaanxi, a sealed jar containing 1,000 \"Ban Liang\" coins of various weights and sizes, was discovered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Chinese coinage",
        "text": "The round coin, the precursor of the familiar cash coin, circulated in both the spade and knife money areas in the Zhou period, from around 350\u00a0BC. Apart from two small and presumably late coins from the State of Qin, coins from the spade money area have a round hole and refer to the \"jin\" and \"liang\" units. Those from the knife money area have a square hole and are denominated in \"hua\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some of the traditional dishes associated with the festival?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you referring to the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, the Cannes Festival, the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, the Obon, or some other festival?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about the dishes of the Chinese New Year festival."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Chinese New Year festival features many dishes including a reunion dinner and other traditional foods. Which of these foods are you interested in learning more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I would like to know more about the reunion dinner."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A reunion dinner (Chinese: \u5e74\u591c\u98ef, \u5718\u5e74\u98ef or \u5718\u5713\u98ef; Vietnamese: T\u1ea5t ni\u00ean) is held on New Year's Eve of the Chinese and Vietnamese New Years, during which family members get together to celebrate. It is often considered the most important get-together meal of the entire year."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the significance in the red envelopes for Chinese New Year?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Red packets almost always contain money, usually varying from a couple of dollars to several hundred;in the mid-2010s, Chinese messaging apps popularized the distribution of red envelopes in a virtual format via mobile payments. According to legend, parents wrapped coins in red paper and placed them next to their children's pillows to protect them from demons."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did red envelopes start becoming a thing in Chinese New Year?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Some say that red packet dates back to Han Dynasty (202 BC \u2013 220 AD), in which people created a type of coin to ward off evil spirits, and by the Tang Dynasty, these  would be given out at Chinese New Year, which was considered to be the beginning of spring. After the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the custom of giving money in the Spring Festival evolved into the custom of giving children coins threaded with a red string, which by the Republic of China (1912\u20131949) era, had evolved due to the lack of holes in modern-day coins which could be threaded, and the use of red envelopes instead became prevalent."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me a bit about what the differences are between the dragon and lion dances that are performed during the Chinese New Year?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Chinese lion dance is normally operated by two dancers, one of whom manipulates the head while the other forms the rear end of the lion. The dragon dance is performed by a team of experienced dancers who manipulate a long flexible giant puppet of a dragon using poles positioned at regular intervals along the length of the dragon.",
      "The Chinese lion dance is normally operated by two dancers, one of whom manipulates the head while the other forms the rear end of the lion. It is distinguishable from the dragon dance which is performed by many people who hold the long sinuous body of the dragon on poles."
    ],
    "topic": "Chinese New Year",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Lion dance:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Lion dance"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Chinese lion dance is normally operated by two dancers, one of whom manipulates the head while the other forms the rear end of the lion. It is distinguishable from the dragon dance which is performed by many people who hold the long sinuous body of the dragon on poles. Chinese lion dance fundamental movements can be found in Chinese martial arts, and it is commonly performed to a vigorous drum beat."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Dragon dance:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Dragon dance"
        ],
        "ctx": "Dragon dance () is a form of traditional dance and performance in Chinese culture. Like the lion dance, it is most often seen in festive celebrations. The dance is performed by a team of experienced dancers who manipulate a long flexible giant puppet of a dragon using poles positioned at regular intervals along the length of the dragon. The dance team simulates the imagined movements of this river spirit in a sinuous, undulating manner."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Lion dance:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Lion dance"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Chinese lion dance is normally operated by two dancers, one of whom manipulates the head while the other forms the rear end of the lion. It is distinguishable from the dragon dance which is performed by many people who hold the long sinuous body of the dragon on poles. Chinese lion dance fundamental movements can be found in Chinese martial arts, and it is commonly performed to a vigorous drum beat."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Mountain Dew, stylized as Mtn Dew, is a carbonated soft drink brand produced and owned by PepsiCo. The original formula was invented in 1940 by Tennessee beverage bottlers Barney and Ally Hartman. A revised formula was created by Bill Bridgforth in 1958. The rights to this formula were obtained by the Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia. William H. \"Bill\" Jones of the Tip Corporation further refined the formula, launching that version of Mountain Dew in 1961. In August 1964, the Mountain Dew brand and production rights were acquired from Tip by the Pepsi-Cola company, and the distribution expanded across the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In response to negative publicity around high-fructose corn syrup, PepsiCo in 2009 released a limited-run production of Mountain Dew Throwback, a variation consisting of sugar in place of high-fructose corn syrup. Mountain Dew Throwback subsequently was re-released for brief periods (generally 8\u201312 weeks at a time), including a second wave from December 2009 to February 2010 and a third wave in the summer and fall of 2010. A fourth 8-week production run began in March 2011, before it became a permanent addition to the Mountain Dew flavor line-up."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia bought the rights to Mountain Dew, revising the flavor and launching it in 1961. In 1964, Pepsico purchased the Tip Corporation and thus acquired the rights to Mountain Dew. In 1999, the Virginia legislature recognized Bill Jones and the Town of Marion for their role in the history of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Between the 1940s and 1980s there was only one variety of Mountain Dew, which was citrus-flavored and caffeinated in most markets. Diet Mountain Dew was introduced in 1988, followed by Mountain Dew Red, which was introduced and discontinued in 1988. In 2001, a cherry-flavored variant called Code Red debuted. This product line extension trend has continued to this day, with expansion into specialty, limited time production, region-specific, and retailer-specific (Taco Bell, 7-Eleven, Bojangles, and KFC) variants of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain pass theorem",
        "text": "then\n:formula_30"
      },
      {
        "title": "1995 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "1995 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "2001 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "NOTES:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dew point",
        "text": "formula_5"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dew point",
        "text": "formula_1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dew point",
        "text": "formula_4"
      },
      {
        "title": "1994 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "1994 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew (film)",
        "text": "Mountain Dew is a lost 1917 American silent comedy-drama film directed by Thomas N. Heffron and starring Margery Wilson. It was produced and distributed by the Triangle Film Corporation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dew point",
        "text": "formula_3"
      },
      {
        "title": "1996 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "1996 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Diet Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Diet Mountain Dew is a no-calorie Mountain Dew that was first introduced in 1986. It was formerly known as \"Sugar-Free Mountain Dew\" until 1986, when it was given its current name. In 2006 Diet Mountain Dew was reformulated with a new \"Tuned Up Taste\", using a blend of sucralose, aspartame, and acesulfame potassium as sweeteners. The previous formulation was sweetened exclusively with aspartame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dew point",
        "text": "formula_2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Marion, Virginia",
        "text": "Marion is known for being the birthplace of the soft drink Mountain Dew, but the original drink was created in Knoxville, Tennessee. Although Mountain Dew was first marketed under that name in Knoxville, the original soft drink's formula changed drastically from Knoxville's formula to the syrup mixture that constitutes today's drink. In 1961, the rights to Mountain Dew were purchased by the Marion-based Tip Corporation. The Mountain Dew flavor was reworked by Marion resident William H. \"Bill\" Jones. Due to the success of the revised formulation, the Pepsi Corporation purchased the Tip Corporation in 1964. Marion also hosted the Mountain Dew Festival for more than 50 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Good Old Mountain Dew",
        "text": "After PepsiCo bought the soft drink Mountain Dew in 1964, they commissioned a set of advertisements featuring a \"Good Old Mountain Dew\"-based jingle and the drink's mascot: a barefooted back-country man called \"Willie the Hillbilly\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "PepsiCo (then The Pepsi-Cola Company) acquired the Mountain Dew brand in 1964, and shortly thereafter in 1969 the logo was modified as the company sought to shift its focus to a \"younger, outdoorsy\" generation. This direction continued as the logo remained the same through the 1970s, 1980s. In 1996, PepsiCo began using a strategy it was already using with its flagship cola Pepsi, changing Mountain Dew's logo every few years. New logos were introduced in 1996, 1998, and 2005. In October 2008, the Mountain Dew logo was redesigned to \"Mtn Dew\" within the U.S. market, as a result of PepsiCo announcing that it would rebrand its core carbonated soft-drink products by early 2009. However, the variant flavors continued to use the previous design until May 2011, when it was announced that the \"Code Red\", \"LiveWire\", \"Voltage\", and \"Baja Blast\" flavor variants would be given redesigned packaging, including new logos to correspond with the \"Mtn Dew\" style. The returning flavors \"Pitch Black\", \"Supernova\", \"Typhoon\", and \"Game Fuel\" were given redesigned packaging and logos for their 2011 re-release."
      },
      {
        "title": "1993 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "1993 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n--Summary.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The Hartman brothers also asked Coca-Cola for input on their soda. The Coca-Cola Company refused their offer."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Mountain Dew flavors and varieties",
        "text": "Mountain Dew, a citrus-flavored carbonated soft drink now owned by PepsiCo, has had numerous branded flavor variants since the original formula's creation in 1940. Notable flavor variants include Baja Blast, Code Red, Voltage, LiveWire, Major Melon, and Spark."
      },
      {
        "title": "1992 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "1992 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n--Summary.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Mountain Dew may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain car problem",
        "text": "formula_6"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dew point",
        "text": "Another common set of values originates from the 1974 \"Psychrometry and Psychrometric Charts\", as presented by Paroscientific,\n*\"a\" = 6.105\u00a0mbar, \"b\" = 17.27, \"c\" = 237.7\u00a0\u00b0C; for (error \u00b10.4\u00a0\u00b0C)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar",
        "text": "The second version of Mountain Dew Throwback from December 2009 differed slightly in its formula from the first version from April 2009, in that it now included concentrated orange juice as one of its ingredients, giving it a slightly different flavor more in line with \"regular\" Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "\"Mountain Dew\" was originally Southern and/or Scots/Irish slang for moonshine (i.e., homemade whiskey or poit\u00edn) as referenced in the Irish folk song The Rare Old Mountain Dew dating from 1882. Using it as the name for the soda was originally suggested by Carl E. Retzke at an Owens-Illinois Inc. meeting in Toledo, Ohio, and was first trademarked by Ally and Barney Hartman in the 1940s. Early bottles and signage carried the reference forward by showing a cartoon-stylized hillbilly. The first sketches of the original Mountain Dew bottle labels were devised in 1948 by John Brichetto, and the representation on product packaging has changed at multiple points in the history of the beverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "2001 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "2001 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n--Background.\n--Results.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Charles Gordon, who had partnered with William Swartz to bottle and promote Dr. Enuf, was introduced to Mountain Dew when he met the Hartman brothers on a train and they offered him a sample. Gordon and the Hartman brothers subsequently made a deal to bottle Mountain Dew by the Tri-Cities Beverage Corporation in Johnson City, Tennessee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain car problem",
        "text": "formula_1"
      },
      {
        "title": "2004 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "Qualifying was canceled due to rain and the starting lineup was set by owner's points. Kurt Busch was the points leader and sat on the front row. Jimmie Johnson of Hendrick Motorsports won the race."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain car problem",
        "text": "formula_3"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain pass theorem",
        "text": "If we define:\n:formula_11"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain pass theorem",
        "text": "and:\n:formula_12"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain car problem",
        "text": "formula_5"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dewetting",
        "text": "formula_1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain car problem",
        "text": "formula_2"
      },
      {
        "title": "1997 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "1997 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n--Background.\n--Summary.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain car problem",
        "text": "formula_7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Tennessee bottlers Barney and Ally Hartman developed Mountain Dew as a mixer in the 1940s. Soft drinks were sold regionally in the 1930s, and the Hartmans had difficulty in Knoxville obtaining their preferred soda to mix with liquor, preferably whiskey, so the two developed their own. Originally a 19th-century slang term for whiskey, especially Highland Scotch whiskey, the Mountain Dew name was trademarked for the soft drink in 1948."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Mountain Dew is a carbonated soft drink brand produced and owned by PepsiCo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain car problem",
        "text": "formula_4"
      },
      {
        "title": "Brominated vegetable oil",
        "text": "On May 5, 2014, Coca-Cola and PepsiCo said they would remove BVO from their products. As of 2020, Mountain Dew manufactured by PepsiCo, no longer uses BVO in the main line of beverages; but the original BVO-containing formula is still sometimes sold as the lesser distributed \"Mountain Dew Throwback\" beverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain car problem",
        "text": "formula_10"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain car problem",
        "text": "formula_9"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Production was extended to the U.K. in 1996, but was phased out in 1998. A similarly named but different-tasting product, with a recipe more similar to the original American product has been sold in the U.K. under the name \"Mountain Dew Energy\" since 2010 and in Ireland since the spring of 2011. The product was renamed in 2014 to simply 'Mountain Dew'. As of 2017, Mountain Dew represented a 6.6% share of the carbonated soft drinks market in the U.S. Its competition includes The Coca-Cola Company's Mello Yello and Surge, and Dr Pepper Snapple Group's Sun Drop; Mountain Dew accounted for 80% of citrus soft drinks sold within the U.S. in 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The Dark Knight Rises promotion inspired a permanent 24 oz. version of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "2002 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "2002 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n--Background.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Penman\u2013Monteith equation",
        "text": "The equation is named after Howard Penman and John Monteith. Penman first published his equation in 1948 and Monteith revised it in 1965."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain car problem",
        "text": "formula_8"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The computer worm Code Red was named because the person who discovered the worm was drinking this version of Mountain Dew at the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "1993 NASCAR Busch Series",
        "text": "The Mountain Dew 400 was held April 10 at Hickory Motor Speedway. Ernie Irvan won the pole."
      },
      {
        "title": "1990 NASCAR Busch Series",
        "text": "The Mountain Dew 400 was held March 25 at Hickory Motor Speedway. Chuck Bown won the pole."
      },
      {
        "title": "1988 NASCAR Busch Series",
        "text": "The Mountain Dew 400 was held February 28 at Hickory Motor Speedway. Dale Jarrett won the pole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Amp Energy is an energy drink distributed by PepsiCo under the Mountain Dew brand. Launched in 2001, Amp was originally known as \"Mountain Dew AMP.\" From 2007 to 2008, several additional flavors of Amp were introduced. In 2012, AMP's labeling and ingredients changed, as did the flavor and appeal, according to fans. The Mountain Dew branding was also removed from cans during this change."
      },
      {
        "title": "Good Old Mountain Dew",
        "text": "\"Good Old Mountain Dew\" (ROUD 18669), sometimes called simply \"Mountain Dew\" or \"Real Old Mountain Dew\", is an Appalachian folk song composed by Bascom Lamar Lunsford and Scotty Wiseman. There are two versions of the lyrics, a 1928 version written by Lunsford and a 1935 adaptation by Wiseman. Both versions of the song are about moonshine. The 1935 version has been widely covered and has entered into the folk tradition becoming a standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dewa Mountains",
        "text": "Dewa Mountains\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mattig formula",
        "text": "But in 1977 Terrell devised a formula which is valid for all formula_18,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dew point",
        "text": "The derivation of this approach, a discussion of its accuracy, comparisons to other approximations, and more information on the history and applications of the dew point, can be found in an article published in the \"Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bagnold formula",
        "text": "The formula was derived by Bagnold in 1936 and later published in his book \"The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes\" in 1941. Wind tunnel and field experiments suggest that the formula is basically correct. It has later been modified by several researchers, but is still considered to be the benchmark formula."
      },
      {
        "title": "2003 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "2003 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n--Background.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "1997 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "The 1997 Mountain Dew Southern 500, the 48th running of the event, was a NASCAR Winston Cup Series race held on August 31, 1997 at Darlington Raceway in Darlington, South Carolina. Bobby Labonte won the pole position and Jeff Gordon won the race for the third time in his career and clinched the Winston Million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wheeler\u2013DeWitt equation",
        "text": "where formula_6 and formula_7 is the Wheeler\u2013DeWitt metric."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Charles Wells",
        "text": "In the 1780s, Wells and a few others had the idea that dew and frost occurred when the ground was a few degrees colder than the air above. But they thought the cold was caused by the dew and frost, not the other way around. In the autumn of 1811 Wells took some measurements and soon came to doubt his old idea. He began serious experiments soon after and published the results in August 1814. He compared the formation of dew under varying conditions of material, location, temperature, humidity, weather, cloud cover, season, and time of day. Wells concluded that dew is a condensation of water vapor in the air caused by just the right combination of conditions involving especially temperature, temperature change, and heat conductivity of materials."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "The original formulation of Amp Energy was positioned as a flavor extension of the Mountain Dew brand, and in 2001 its label read \"\"Amp Energy Drink from Mountain Dew\".\" In 2008, the label design was changed to contract the product name to a more concise \"Amp Energy\", with the Mountain Dew logo being shifted to the lower portion of the cans. In Amp's 2011 redesign, the Mountain Dew logo was taken off the cans completely. According to beverage industry commentators at the time, this labeling update was enacted with the intent of \"placing a stronger emphasis on the 'Amp Energy' brand and less on its Mountain Dew roots\". Amp Energy Original contains taurine, B-vitamins, guarana, ginseng and maltodextrin. 8.4 fluid ounces of Amp contains 74 milligrams of caffeine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mohawk Valley formula",
        "text": "A similar, although more nuanced and longer, version was published in \"The Nation\" in 1937."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fred Pigott",
        "text": "Mountain Rescue Committee in the 1964 New Year Honours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In its primary market of the United States, the ingredient composition of Mountain Dew is listed as: \"carbonated water, high-fructose corn syrup (in much of the U.S.), concentrated orange juice, citric acid, natural flavors, sodium benzoate, caffeine, sodium citrate, erythorbic acid, gum arabic, Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, and yellow 5.\" The ingredient makeup of Mountain Dew varies based on the country of production. For example, in Canada, the sweetener listed is \"glucose-fructose\" (another name for high-fructose corn syrup), and until 2012, it was caffeine-free by default. Formerly, the composition included brominated vegetable oil, an emulsifier banned in foods throughout Europe and in Japan. As of 2020, this ingredient has been removed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dr. Enuf",
        "text": "Dr. Enuf\n--Early product heritage with Mountain Dew.\n--Availability.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Waring's problem",
        "text": "in 1947 and, ultimately,\n: formula_38"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In 2008, Doritos debuted a mystery flavor known as \"Quest\", featuring a campaign of online puzzles and prizes to identify the Quest flavor. The flavor was later identified as Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar",
        "text": "With the second release in December 2009, more accurate retro packaging was used. Pepsi used an exact replica of the 1973\u20131987 logo, while Mountain Dew used its original hillbilly theme. The use of Mountain Dew's original theme is a stark reversal of Pepsi's decision to distance the drink from its Appalachia origins, as well as a stark contrast from the drink's current male demographic, particularly those that participate in extreme sports or are involved with the gamer culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "1982 NASCAR Budweiser Late Model Sportsman Series",
        "text": "The Mountain Dew 300 was run on April 3 at Hickory Speedway in Hickory, North Carolina. Sam Ard won the pole."
      },
      {
        "title": "1991 NASCAR Busch Series",
        "text": "The Mountain Dew 400 was held March 31 at Hickory Motor Speedway. Jimmy Hensley won the pole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Delboeuf",
        "text": "Delboeuf's second change to Fechner's formula was the addition of a supplementary equation:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Total average",
        "text": "Boswell revised the formula, which by 1981 had been modified to its final form:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mist Mountain",
        "text": "The mountain was named in 1884 by George M. Dawson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Humidex",
        "text": "The current formula for determining the humidex was developed by J. M. Masterton and F. A. Richardson of Canada's Atmospheric Environment Service in 1979. Humidex differs from the heat index used in the United States in being derived from the dew point rather than the relative humidity, though both dew point and relative humidity (when used in conjunction with air temperature) are directly related to atmospheric moisture."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Zennie",
        "text": "Mountain Dew (Director)"
      },
      {
        "title": "1989 NASCAR Busch Series",
        "text": "The Mountain Dew 400 was held March 25 at Hickory Motor Speedway. Dale Jarrett won the pole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tait equation",
        "text": "Around 1895, the original isothermal Tait equation was replaced by Tammann with an equation of the form\n:formula_7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Waring's problem",
        "text": "Wooley then established that for some constant \"C\",\n: formula_42"
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward Franklin Castetter",
        "text": "He served as president of the AAAS Southwestern and Rocky Mountain Division in 1956."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rice's formula",
        "text": "The formula was published by Stephen O. Rice in 1944, having previously been discussed in his 1936 note entitled \"Singing Transmission Lines.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Mountain Dew announced a continuation of the DEWmocracy campaign\u00a0\u2013 referred to as \"DEWmocracy 2\"\u00a0\u2013 which launched in July 2009. A marked difference between DEWmocracy 2 and its predecessor was the wider range of online voting methods, expanding beyond the DEWmocracy website to include Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and the \"Dew Labs Community\"\u00a0\u2013 a private, online forum for the \"most passionate Dew fans.\" In July 2009, Dew Labs sampling trucks distributed product samples of seven potential flavor variations. At the same time, 50 \"Dew fanatics\" were chosen based on their video submissions to the video website 12seconds.tv, and were shipped boxes of the seven prototype flavors. From the initial seven flavors, taste testers were asked to elect three final flavors for later release at retail stores. The three new candidate flavors were Distortion (a Key lime flavor), Typhoon (a tropical punch flavor), and White Out (a smooth citrus flavor). The three new candidate flavors were released on 19 April 2010 and voting lasted until 14 June. The following day, White Out was announced as the winner. Mountain Dew White Out was released for sale on 4 October 2010. A limited production White Out Slurpee (Mtn Dew White Out Freeze) was made available at 7-Eleven stores beginning in January 2011. In July 2011, Mountain Dew Typhoon was re-released briefly in 2-liter form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nevis Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Set in the Queens borough of New York City in 1954, a Caribbean-American family gathers to celebrate the 50th birthday of Jared Philibert, who is confined to an iron lung due to paralysis. Ayton, Jared's best friend, arrives at the party with a bottle of rum called \"Nevis Mountain Dew.\" When people drink it, the rum seems to act as a truth serum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penman equation",
        "text": "In 1993, W.Jim Shuttleworth modified and adapted the Penman equation to use SI, which made calculating evaporation simpler. The resultant equation is:\n:formula_2"
      },
      {
        "title": "2004 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "2004 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n--Background.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar",
        "text": "Both editions have used retro packaging as part of the \"throwback\" theme. The first release featured the 1940s Pepsi-Cola script in royal blue on a modern navy blue background with the word \"throwback\" written in the modern font, while the 1973\u20131996 Mountain Dew logo was featured on a modern green background."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wald's equation",
        "text": "then\n:formula_6"
      },
      {
        "title": "Burgers vortex",
        "text": "In 1959, Roger D. Sullivan extended the Burgers vortex solution by considering the solution of the form\n:formula_57\n:formula_58\n:formula_59"
      },
      {
        "title": "Richards equation",
        "text": "Although attributed to Richards, the equation was originally introduced 9 years earlier by Lewis Fry Richardson in 1922."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antfood",
        "text": "Mountain Dew \"Dew VR\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Good Old Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The 1935 lyrics are not ballad-like and do not tell a story. This version tells of an \"old hollow tree\" that is used as a dead drop. A person who is looking to buy moonshine places money in the tree and leaves. When that person returns, there is a jug where the money was. The song goes on to extoll the drink and tell of its great properties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Forest Whitaker",
        "text": "Under Frank Cooper, he served as the creator and producer of DEWmocracy.com, an interactive video game, short film, and website that allowed people to select a new flavor of Mountain Dew. This campaign turned into the most successful launch of a soft drink in Mountain Dew's history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Van Deemter equation",
        "text": "or with the width at the base of the peak:\n:formula_11"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In October 2010, Mountain Dew started the \"FanDEWmonium\" promotion, a competition in which new flavors would compete to become permanent similar to the two DEWmocracy campaigns, but with eight diet flavors instead of three regular ones. Five of the participating flavors were diet versions of previous DEWmocracy flavors: Diet Super Nova, Diet Voltage, Diet Crave (originally Flavor #722), Diet Distortion, Diet Typhoon, and Diet White Out. Another flavor, Diet Ultra Violet, was returning from its own limited release in 2009. The remaining competitor was a brand-new Diet flavor created specifically for the promotion - Flare (berry/citrus-flavored). Each of the eight flavors was available for tasting at specific tour locations, and special cans were also mailed to some Dew Labs members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Simba (soft drink)",
        "text": "In 1979, Bob Kimball, Coca-Cola USA's marketing manager of new product development discussed how the formula for Simba stemmed from Coca-Cola's competitive market research of PepsiCo's Mountain Dew. The company developed three formulas that closely replicated Mountain Dew. One of the duplicative formulas was code-named \"Jericho\" by the company and, according to Kimball, was \"the base for Simba, a drink Coca-Cola had marketed in the late 60s for a couple of years\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who revised the mountain Dew formula in 1958?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The revised formula was created by Bill Bridgforth.",
      "The revised formula was created by Bill Bridgforth  in 1958, and the rights to this formula were obtained by the Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia."
    ],
    "topic": "Mountain Dew",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Mountain Dew:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mountain Dew"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mountain Dew, stylized as Mtn Dew, is a carbonated soft drink brand produced and owned by PepsiCo. The original formula was invented in 1940 by Tennessee beverage bottlers Barney and Ally Hartman. A revised formula was created by Bill Bridgforth in 1958. The rights to this formula were obtained by the Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia. William H. \"Bill\" Jones of the Tip Corporation further refined the formula, launching that version of Mountain Dew in 1961. In August 1964, the Mountain Dew brand and production rights were acquired from Tip by the Pepsi-Cola company, and the distribution expanded across the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Mountain Dew:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mountain Dew"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mountain Dew, stylized as Mtn Dew, is a carbonated soft drink brand produced and owned by PepsiCo. The original formula was invented in 1940 by Tennessee beverage bottlers Barney and Ally Hartman. A revised formula was created by Bill Bridgforth in 1958. The rights to this formula were obtained by the Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia. William H. \"Bill\" Jones of the Tip Corporation further refined the formula, launching that version of Mountain Dew in 1961. In August 1964, the Mountain Dew brand and production rights were acquired from Tip by the Pepsi-Cola company, and the distribution expanded across the United States and Canada."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "List of Mountain Dew flavors and varieties",
        "text": "Mountain Dew, a citrus-flavored carbonated soft drink now owned by PepsiCo, has had numerous branded flavor variants since the original formula's creation in 1940. Notable flavor variants include Baja Blast, Code Red, Voltage, LiveWire, Major Melon, and Spark."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Between the 1940s and 1980s there was only one variety of Mountain Dew, which was citrus-flavored and caffeinated in most markets. Diet Mountain Dew was introduced in 1988, followed by Mountain Dew Red, which was introduced and discontinued in 1988. In 2001, a cherry-flavored variant called Code Red debuted. This product line extension trend has continued to this day, with expansion into specialty, limited time production, region-specific, and retailer-specific (Taco Bell, 7-Eleven, Bojangles, and KFC) variants of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Mountain Dew flavors and varieties",
        "text": "List of Mountain Dew flavors and varieties\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Marion, Virginia",
        "text": "Marion is known for being the birthplace of the soft drink Mountain Dew, but the original drink was created in Knoxville, Tennessee. Although Mountain Dew was first marketed under that name in Knoxville, the original soft drink's formula changed drastically from Knoxville's formula to the syrup mixture that constitutes today's drink. In 1961, the rights to Mountain Dew were purchased by the Marion-based Tip Corporation. The Mountain Dew flavor was reworked by Marion resident William H. \"Bill\" Jones. Due to the success of the revised formulation, the Pepsi Corporation purchased the Tip Corporation in 1964. Marion also hosted the Mountain Dew Festival for more than 50 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In response to negative publicity around high-fructose corn syrup, PepsiCo in 2009 released a limited-run production of Mountain Dew Throwback, a variation consisting of sugar in place of high-fructose corn syrup. Mountain Dew Throwback subsequently was re-released for brief periods (generally 8\u201312 weeks at a time), including a second wave from December 2009 to February 2010 and a third wave in the summer and fall of 2010. A fourth 8-week production run began in March 2011, before it became a permanent addition to the Mountain Dew flavor line-up."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia bought the rights to Mountain Dew, revising the flavor and launching it in 1961. In 1964, Pepsico purchased the Tip Corporation and thus acquired the rights to Mountain Dew. In 1999, the Virginia legislature recognized Bill Jones and the Town of Marion for their role in the history of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Mountain Dew, stylized as Mtn Dew, is a carbonated soft drink brand produced and owned by PepsiCo. The original formula was invented in 1940 by Tennessee beverage bottlers Barney and Ally Hartman. A revised formula was created by Bill Bridgforth in 1958. The rights to this formula were obtained by the Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia. William H. \"Bill\" Jones of the Tip Corporation further refined the formula, launching that version of Mountain Dew in 1961. In August 1964, the Mountain Dew brand and production rights were acquired from Tip by the Pepsi-Cola company, and the distribution expanded across the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Mountain Dew announced a continuation of the DEWmocracy campaign\u00a0\u2013 referred to as \"DEWmocracy 2\"\u00a0\u2013 which launched in July 2009. A marked difference between DEWmocracy 2 and its predecessor was the wider range of online voting methods, expanding beyond the DEWmocracy website to include Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and the \"Dew Labs Community\"\u00a0\u2013 a private, online forum for the \"most passionate Dew fans.\" In July 2009, Dew Labs sampling trucks distributed product samples of seven potential flavor variations. At the same time, 50 \"Dew fanatics\" were chosen based on their video submissions to the video website 12seconds.tv, and were shipped boxes of the seven prototype flavors. From the initial seven flavors, taste testers were asked to elect three final flavors for later release at retail stores. The three new candidate flavors were Distortion (a Key lime flavor), Typhoon (a tropical punch flavor), and White Out (a smooth citrus flavor). The three new candidate flavors were released on 19 April 2010 and voting lasted until 14 June. The following day, White Out was announced as the winner. Mountain Dew White Out was released for sale on 4 October 2010. A limited production White Out Slurpee (Mtn Dew White Out Freeze) was made available at 7-Eleven stores beginning in January 2011. In July 2011, Mountain Dew Typhoon was re-released briefly in 2-liter form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In October 2010, Mountain Dew started the \"FanDEWmonium\" promotion, a competition in which new flavors would compete to become permanent similar to the two DEWmocracy campaigns, but with eight diet flavors instead of three regular ones. Five of the participating flavors were diet versions of previous DEWmocracy flavors: Diet Super Nova, Diet Voltage, Diet Crave (originally Flavor #722), Diet Distortion, Diet Typhoon, and Diet White Out. Another flavor, Diet Ultra Violet, was returning from its own limited release in 2009. The remaining competitor was a brand-new Diet flavor created specifically for the promotion - Flare (berry/citrus-flavored). Each of the eight flavors was available for tasting at specific tour locations, and special cans were also mailed to some Dew Labs members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar",
        "text": "The second version of Mountain Dew Throwback from December 2009 differed slightly in its formula from the first version from April 2009, in that it now included concentrated orange juice as one of its ingredients, giving it a slightly different flavor more in line with \"regular\" Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In 2008, Doritos debuted a mystery flavor known as \"Quest\", featuring a campaign of online puzzles and prizes to identify the Quest flavor. The flavor was later identified as Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "After much speculation over a leaked Instagram photo of a potential new flavor, it was officially announced that Mountain Dew was teaming up with Warner Bros. Pictures' and Legendary Pictures' film The Dark Knight Rises and released a limited-edition flavor on 18 June 2012. A website\u00a0\u2014 DEWGothamCity.com\u00a0\u2014 was launched, on which fans were able to enter codes to access exclusive content and details on the movie before its 20 July release date. Some Mountain Dew products temporarily featured packaging to promote the movie, including thermochromic 16 oz. cans that change color when cooled. The limited-edition flavor, Dark Berry, was mixed berry-flavored, and was available for 8 weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diet Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Diet Mountain Dew is a no-calorie Mountain Dew that was first introduced in 1986. It was formerly known as \"Sugar-Free Mountain Dew\" until 1986, when it was given its current name. In 2006 Diet Mountain Dew was reformulated with a new \"Tuned Up Taste\", using a blend of sucralose, aspartame, and acesulfame potassium as sweeteners. The previous formulation was sweetened exclusively with aspartame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "PepsiCo (then The Pepsi-Cola Company) acquired the Mountain Dew brand in 1964, and shortly thereafter in 1969 the logo was modified as the company sought to shift its focus to a \"younger, outdoorsy\" generation. This direction continued as the logo remained the same through the 1970s, 1980s. In 1996, PepsiCo began using a strategy it was already using with its flagship cola Pepsi, changing Mountain Dew's logo every few years. New logos were introduced in 1996, 1998, and 2005. In October 2008, the Mountain Dew logo was redesigned to \"Mtn Dew\" within the U.S. market, as a result of PepsiCo announcing that it would rebrand its core carbonated soft-drink products by early 2009. However, the variant flavors continued to use the previous design until May 2011, when it was announced that the \"Code Red\", \"LiveWire\", \"Voltage\", and \"Baja Blast\" flavor variants would be given redesigned packaging, including new logos to correspond with the \"Mtn Dew\" style. The returning flavors \"Pitch Black\", \"Supernova\", \"Typhoon\", and \"Game Fuel\" were given redesigned packaging and logos for their 2011 re-release."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Beginning in 2007, Mountain Dew began a promotion entitled \"DEWmocracy\", which involved the public electing new flavors, colors, names, packaging graphics and advertisements for upcoming Mountain Dew products. The campaign has been the subject of recognition within the advertising industry, cited as one of the earliest and longest-running examples of a consumer product brand employing crowdsourcing to make decisions which are traditionally made internally by employees. In its initial phase, DEWmocracy participation and voting was conducted via an online game. Television advertisements at the time featured actor Forest Whitaker asking people to decide the next new flavor of Mountain Dew. Online voters selected from three choices: Supernova (a strawberry/melon flavor), Revolution (a berry flavor), and Voltage (a raspberry/citrus flavor). Each included ginseng. The event ended on 17 August 2008, with Voltage announced as the winning flavor. It was officially released on 29 December 2008. According to Beverage Digest, sales of DEWmocracy flavors totaled 25 million cases in 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In its primary market of the United States, the ingredient composition of Mountain Dew is listed as: \"carbonated water, high-fructose corn syrup (in much of the U.S.), concentrated orange juice, citric acid, natural flavors, sodium benzoate, caffeine, sodium citrate, erythorbic acid, gum arabic, Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, and yellow 5.\" The ingredient makeup of Mountain Dew varies based on the country of production. For example, in Canada, the sweetener listed is \"glucose-fructose\" (another name for high-fructose corn syrup), and until 2012, it was caffeine-free by default. Formerly, the composition included brominated vegetable oil, an emulsifier banned in foods throughout Europe and in Japan. As of 2020, this ingredient has been removed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Leading up to 2004, Pepsico conducted extensive research to develop a beverage with a taste and color to complement Taco Bell food products. The resulting product was named Mountain Dew \"Baja Blast\", a light blue-green colored, tropical lime-flavored variety of the soft drink. Taco Bell was given a 10-year exclusive rights period, during which Baja Blast would not be available in any store or other food outlet, not even to Taco Bell's fellow Yum! Brands restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "On 18 April 2016, Mountain Dew announced the return of two popular favorites, Baja Blast and Pitch Black. Fans could vote on which flavor stays permanently on store shelves via the Mountain Dew website. Voting ended on 9 July, and, after many delays, Pitch Black was announced the winner on 18 July 2016. Pitch Black continues to be produced and became part of the brand's lineup starting in September."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "\"Mountain Dew\" was originally Southern and/or Scots/Irish slang for moonshine (i.e., homemade whiskey or poit\u00edn) as referenced in the Irish folk song The Rare Old Mountain Dew dating from 1882. Using it as the name for the soda was originally suggested by Carl E. Retzke at an Owens-Illinois Inc. meeting in Toledo, Ohio, and was first trademarked by Ally and Barney Hartman in the 1940s. Early bottles and signage carried the reference forward by showing a cartoon-stylized hillbilly. The first sketches of the original Mountain Dew bottle labels were devised in 1948 by John Brichetto, and the representation on product packaging has changed at multiple points in the history of the beverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "On March 6, 2013, Amp Energy officially announced that it will re-introduce its Orange flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "4chan",
        "text": "In August 2012, 4chan users attacked a third-party sponsored Mountain Dew campaign, \"Dub the Dew\", where users were asked to submit and vote on name ideas for a green apple flavor of the drink. Users submitted entries such as \"Diabeetus\", \"Fapple\", several variations of \"Gushing Granny\", and \"Hitler did nothing wrong\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In October 2015, Game Fuel returned with a new companion flavor, Berry Lime, for the promotion of \"\". After the promotion, Citrus Cherry once again reverted to promotionless packaging, while the Berry Lime flavor remained available as a Slurpee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In 2017, Game Fuel returned with two previously discontinued flavors: Arctic Burst (originally released as a Slurpee flavor in 2006 to promote \"Superman Returns\") and Tropical Smash (originally Flavor #736, one of the four prototype flavors for \"DEWmocracy II\" that lost to Mountain Dew White Out and did not even make the final round). As was the case with the 2013 promotion, the two flavors promoted two different Xbox games (Arctic Burst promoted \"\" while Tropical Smash promoted \"Forza 7\"). For the first time, Citrus Cherry was not fully part of the promotion; instead, promotionless Citrus Cherry was sold with the same white caps with codes under them as the other flavors in the promotion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In October 2014, Game Fuel returned with a new lemonade flavor for the promotion of \"\". Unlike past two-variant Game Fuel releases, both drinks sport the same artwork (unlike 2009's Horde Red and Alliance Blue or 2011's citrus/cherry and tropical), albeit differing colors to match their respective flavors. After the promotion ended, Citrus Cherry reverted to promotionless packaging while lemonade flavor was permanently removed from shelves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baja Blast",
        "text": "The flavor was first made available in 2004. Created for, and exclusively sold at, Taco Bell locations, it was a collaboration between the company and Mountain Dew owners PepsiCo. One of the first instances of a restaurant offering an exclusive soda beverage, it was created to increase sales of fountain soda. The flavor was heavily promoted at launch with advertising campaigns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The media response to the advertisement was mixed to negative. Melissa Cronin of Gawker described it as a \"horror-hallucination of brand awareness\", while noting the beverage itself contains brominated vegetable oil, a chemical that is banned in several countries. Jim Joseph, chief integrated marketing officer at Cohn & Wolfe, called it \"weird\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar",
        "text": "With the second release in December 2009, more accurate retro packaging was used. Pepsi used an exact replica of the 1973\u20131987 logo, while Mountain Dew used its original hillbilly theme. The use of Mountain Dew's original theme is a stark reversal of Pepsi's decision to distance the drink from its Appalachia origins, as well as a stark contrast from the drink's current male demographic, particularly those that participate in extreme sports or are involved with the gamer culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar",
        "text": "Both editions have used retro packaging as part of the \"throwback\" theme. The first release featured the 1940s Pepsi-Cola script in royal blue on a modern navy blue background with the word \"throwback\" written in the modern font, while the 1973\u20131996 Mountain Dew logo was featured on a modern green background."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "This was the Sodastream version of Mountain Dew, sold as a syrup for their home carbonation device. This flavor was sold in standard and diet varieties, both of which use Splenda as part or all of the sweetening agent, instead of aspartame or high-fructose corn syrup. Fountain Mist was discontinued as part of their brand overhaul in mid-2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "The original formulation of Amp Energy was positioned as a flavor extension of the Mountain Dew brand, and in 2001 its label read \"\"Amp Energy Drink from Mountain Dew\".\" In 2008, the label design was changed to contract the product name to a more concise \"Amp Energy\", with the Mountain Dew logo being shifted to the lower portion of the cans. In Amp's 2011 redesign, the Mountain Dew logo was taken off the cans completely. According to beverage industry commentators at the time, this labeling update was enacted with the intent of \"placing a stronger emphasis on the 'Amp Energy' brand and less on its Mountain Dew roots\". Amp Energy Original contains taurine, B-vitamins, guarana, ginseng and maltodextrin. 8.4 fluid ounces of Amp contains 74 milligrams of caffeine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "The Amp Energy product line has since expanded to a broader range of flavors and variants, which as of 2011 included Amp Energy (Original), Sugar Free, Overdrive (cherry), Relaunch (discontinued) (orange), Elevate (mixed berry), Traction (grape), Green Tea, Lightning (lemonade) and Sugar Free Lightning, and watermelon. Traction has since been renamed to Boost. There was also a limited edition flavor named Tradin Paint which was an Orange/Lime/Berry drink. In February 2010 a new series of juices was launched under the name Amp Energy Juices, which are made with B-vitamins, taurine, ginseng and guarana. These juices are produced in two flavors: Orange and Mixed Berry, and are packaged in 12-ounce bottles. Also introduced at this time was Amp Energy Gum, which is made from a blend of B-vitamins, taurine and caffeine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Bar",
        "text": "The Mountain Bar was first created in 1915 at the Brown & Haley factory in Tacoma, Washington. Originally called Mount Tacoma Bars, the name was changed in 1925 after Brown & Haley began distribution of the candy in Seattle. Shortly after World War II a cherry version of the Mountain Bar was introduced. This was followed by the peanut butter variety in 1974. Cappuccino and Mint flavored Mountain Bars were briefly available in 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baja Blast",
        "text": "In January 2014, Taco Bell released Mountain Dew Sangrita Blast, a non-alcoholic sangria flavor, as a sister flavor to Baja Blast, along with a diet version of Baja Blast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In summer 2010, a secondary type of Mountain Dew bottles began appearing on some US shelves. Designed by 4sight, a design and innovation firm, these bottles featured a sleeker design, smaller packaging labels, and a built-in grip. The bottles were dubbed \"sidekick bottles\" and were tested in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Indiana markets. By 2014, sidekick bottles had become the predominant Mountain Dew bottle design in most of the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dr. Enuf",
        "text": "Dr. Enuf\n--Early product heritage with Mountain Dew.\n--Availability.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In 2007, after using the term \"Game Fuel\" to market their sodas to the video-gaming subculture, Mountain Dew introduced a new flavor variant (citrus/cherry) with the Game Fuel name. Coinciding with the release of the Xbox 360 game \"Halo 3\", Mountain Dew Game Fuel sported a label that was almost entirely image-based, showing promotional artwork for the game and featuring the game series' main character Master Chief prominently. This variant remained on shelves for 12 weeks, and was discontinued afterwards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Amp Energy is an energy drink distributed by PepsiCo under the Mountain Dew brand. Launched in 2001, Amp was originally known as \"Mountain Dew AMP.\" From 2007 to 2008, several additional flavors of Amp were introduced. In 2012, AMP's labeling and ingredients changed, as did the flavor and appeal, according to fans. The Mountain Dew branding was also removed from cans during this change."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "On 24 August 2011, Mountain Dew announced another return of the Game Fuel promotion on their Facebook page. The original citrus/cherry would once again return, along with a new tropical companion flavor. The announcement gave a planned release date of October 2011 and stated that the packaging would feature codes granting players double experience points in \"\". Both flavors were mailed out to Dew Labs members in early September 2011, a month before the planned release date. Later that same month, it was announced through the Facebook page that Game Fuel would be arriving to the public in mid-October, though it would vary by market. These flavors began appearing from the first week of October and were also discontinued after 12 weeks of being on shelves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Tennessee bottlers Barney and Ally Hartman developed Mountain Dew as a mixer in the 1940s. Soft drinks were sold regionally in the 1930s, and the Hartmans had difficulty in Knoxville obtaining their preferred soda to mix with liquor, preferably whiskey, so the two developed their own. Originally a 19th-century slang term for whiskey, especially Highland Scotch whiskey, the Mountain Dew name was trademarked for the soft drink in 1948."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "The Our Family version of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Johnson City, Tennessee",
        "text": "The popular citrus soda Mountain Dew traces its origins to Johnson City. In July 2012, PepsiCo announced a new malt-flavored version of the drink named \"Mountain Dew Johnson City Gold\" in honor of the city. The drink was test marketed in the Chicago metropolitan area, Denver, and Charlotte, beginning in late August."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The Dark Knight Rises promotion inspired a permanent 24 oz. version of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "Mountain Dew Amp\n--Flavors.\n--Sponsorship.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Two years later, the website for the popular MMORPG \"World of Warcraft\" stated that two Mountain Dew Game Fuel flavors would be sold in June 2009 and would promote the game. Shortly afterwards, the bottle art was released, and showed that the two flavors would promote different player races in the game. One of the two was exactly the same citrus/cherry flavor from the original \"Halo 3\" promotion, with updated packaging. The second flavor was a new wild fruit drink, similar to the previously released Pepsi Blue. Both drinks were given \"World of Warcraft\"-based packaging, and sported the newly updated \"MTN Dew\" logo. Like their precursor, these two flavors lasted for 12 weeks and were discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Mountain Dew\n--Origin.\n--Packaging.\n----Logo.\n----Sidekick bottles.\n--Ingredients.\n----Tartrazine.\n----Alcohol.\n--Promotions.\n----Amp Energy.\n----Taco Bell's Mountain Dew Baja Blast.\n----DEWmocracy 1.\n----DEWmocracy 2.\n----Game Fuel.\n----Green Label.\n------Green Label Art.\n------Green Label Sound.\n------Dew Tour/Green Label experience.\n------Green Label Gaming.\n----Doritos Quest.\n----FanDEWmonium.\n----Back by Popular DEWmand.\n----\"The Dark Knight Rises\" partnership.\n----\"Dub the Dew\".\n----\"Puppy Monkey Baby\".\n----\"DEWcision 2016\".\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Also similar to the DEWmocracy campaign, those who taste-tested the Diet flavors were asked to go online and vote for which flavors they thought should be permanently sold in stores. After the first round of voting was completed, two flavor finalists were chosen to receive a limited release to store shelves for a final round of voting. Diet Voltage and Diet Super Nova were sold in stores for an eight-week period beginning in March 2011. After votes were cast, it was announced that Diet Super Nova had won, with 55% of all votes, and it returned in January 2012. Afterwards, it was removed from shelves permanently after a 12-week release due to low sales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Forest Whitaker",
        "text": "Under Frank Cooper, he served as the creator and producer of DEWmocracy.com, an interactive video game, short film, and website that allowed people to select a new flavor of Mountain Dew. This campaign turned into the most successful launch of a soft drink in Mountain Dew's history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In spring 2014, Mountain Dew began distributing its Baja Blast flavor in standard 12-ounce cans, 20-ounce bottles and 24-ounce cans for sale at supermarkets and retail businesses in the U.S. The new retail product bore the Taco Bell logo. Taco Bell's chief marketing officer, Chris Brandt, said the exclusive drinks have helped increase the company's beverage sales, even as soda sales have declined in the broader market. He noted that people are more likely to buy drinks when they are available exclusively at the chain. Due to the drink's success, many other new beverages were introduced at Taco Bell, including a new Taco Bell exclusive, Mountain Dew Sangrita Blast, a non-alcoholic sangrita-flavored Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Production was extended to the U.K. in 1996, but was phased out in 1998. A similarly named but different-tasting product, with a recipe more similar to the original American product has been sold in the U.K. under the name \"Mountain Dew Energy\" since 2010 and in Ireland since the spring of 2011. The product was renamed in 2014 to simply 'Mountain Dew'. As of 2017, Mountain Dew represented a 6.6% share of the carbonated soft drinks market in the U.S. Its competition includes The Coca-Cola Company's Mello Yello and Surge, and Dr Pepper Snapple Group's Sun Drop; Mountain Dew accounted for 80% of citrus soft drinks sold within the U.S. in 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Charles Gordon, who had partnered with William Swartz to bottle and promote Dr. Enuf, was introduced to Mountain Dew when he met the Hartman brothers on a train and they offered him a sample. Gordon and the Hartman brothers subsequently made a deal to bottle Mountain Dew by the Tri-Cities Beverage Corporation in Johnson City, Tennessee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slurpee",
        "text": "The Slurpee machine has a separate spout, or spigot, for each flavor at the front of a tumbler or freezer. When Slurpees were first introduced, the dispensing machine was located behind the counter, and the clerk dispensed the product. Common Slurpee flavors are frozen Cherry, Coca-Cola, and Mountain Dew, but new flavors are introduced regularly. In the Slurpee's early history, flavors rotated much more frequently than today. Slurpee flavors were given novelty names such as Pink Fink, Adults Only, Moonshine, Kissin' Cousin, Gully Washer, Sticky Icky, and Redeye."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The computer worm Code Red was named because the person who discovered the worm was drinking this version of Mountain Dew at the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain W is the Wegmans stores version of a Mountain Dew style soda."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doritos",
        "text": "In 2008, Doritos debuted a \"mystery flavor\" Quests with prizes being given as puzzles were solved. The mystery flavor was Mountain Dew. In 2009, Doritos released some new flavors under the banner \"Doritos Late Night\": \"Tacos at Midnight\" and \"Last Call Jalape\u00f1o Popper\". They also modified the X-13D Flavor as All Nighter Cheeseburger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surge (drink)",
        "text": "While preparations for the US launch were underway, a cry for help came in from the Norwegian Division, who were battling a successful launch of Mountain Dew in their market. Because the Surge brand was already registered by another firm, the product was launched as \"Urge\". Local food regulation prevented the bright green color from being used, so it was launched with a pale, more natural juice drink look and given a slight orange taste to match the flavor with the color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In May 2014, the original citrus/cherry Game Fuel began reappearing on shelves, but this time, the soda does not seem to be promoting any video game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Gibbin",
        "text": "In 2007, Gibbin created Dewmocracy, a story-driven fan based advertising campaign for Mountain Dew, that let consumers choose the next new flavor for the soda. The campaign featured an in-depth virtual world and a video directed by Oscar winner Forest Whitaker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mello Yello",
        "text": "There have been three flavored variants of Mello Yello in North America. Mello Yello Cherry was released in response to Mountain Dew Code Red. The other two variants were Mello Yello Afterglow (peach-flavored) and Mello Yello Melon. All three were only available for a limited time. Mello Yello Cherry is available at Coca-Cola Freestyle machines and is still available in limited markets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cool Mountain Beverages",
        "text": "When the company started, the soda label depicted an illustration of Native American Chief Hollow Horn Bear, a rendering inspired by a 14 cent stamp. In 2007, the label was changed to a rendering of Mount Rainier.\n* Blue Razzberry\n* Green Apple\n* Strawberry\n* Black Cherry\n* Cream Soda\n* Root Beer\n* Orange Cream\n* Peach"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Breeze is the Safeway SELECT generic answer to Mountain Dew. The taste of the soda is much the same as Mountain Dew, with a few noticeable differences. Mountain Dew is a bit tangier than its Safeway SELECT counterpart, which focuses more on sweetness. One 12 oz. can of Mountain Breeze contains 0 calories, 0\u00a0mg of sodium, 0g total Carbohydrate, 0g of sugar, and the following ingredients: carbonated water, high-fructose corn syrup, citric acid, sodium benzoate, orange juice concentrate, sodium citrate, caffeine, natural flavors, artificial flavors, ester gum and Yellow 5. The design of a Mountain Breeze soda can also bears a great resemblance to an older Mountain Dew can, more so than many of the generic citrus sodas. Safeway Select has replaced the brand name with Refreshe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baja Blast",
        "text": "Mountain Dew Baja Blast is a tropical lime flavored soft drink under the Mountain Dew brand, exclusively distributed at Taco Bell restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The term \"Mountain Dew Mouth\" was coined to reflect the popularity of the drink amongst some, particularly in the Appalachian region, who are afflicted by a form of tooth decay and drink a lot of soft drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Wild Mountain is the Food Club generic brand Mountain Dew available at Brookshire's Food & Pharmacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Good Old Mountain Dew",
        "text": "After PepsiCo bought the soft drink Mountain Dew in 1964, they commissioned a set of advertisements featuring a \"Good Old Mountain Dew\"-based jingle and the drink's mascot: a barefooted back-country man called \"Willie the Hillbilly\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Whitman's",
        "text": "The Whitman's Sampler was introduced in 1912, and became popular over time. During World War II, servicemen and women who got a Whitman's Sampler from family and friends spread the word about it once they returned home. Over the decades, it reached a level in American pop culture in that it was mentioned in many TV shows, movies, and the like. In 1915, a messenger boy was added to the Whitman's Sampler box, which became a symbol of quality. The stitching design of the package was inspired by grandma's needlework. The package of the box resembles the folk art sampler needlework of a bird on a branch, Pegasus, basket of flowers, rocking horse, rocking elephant, plants, rooster, dog, sailboat, tree, house, and a bear, hence the double entendre name of the product. It was the first box of chocolates to come equipped with an index of all the varieties of the sampler printed under the lid. Early designs of the package had \"Whitman's Sampler Chocolates & Confections Started in 1842\" written on it. The Sampler's contents vary from box to box, but generally contain milk and dark chocolate-covered caramel, coconut, molasses chew, chocolate-covered peanuts, almonds, cashews, clusters, cherry cordial, maple fudge, chocolate-covered toffee, and nougaty chocolate whipped candies. Seasonal flavors like strawberry cream, pumpkin marshmallow, and mint chocolate patties are occasionally included. The candies' flavors can be determined by their shapes: a square shape denotes caramels; a rectangle means nougat filling; oval chocolates typically contain fudge; the soft-centered flavors, including cherry cordials, are round; and nut clusters are easily identified by their rough surfaces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Game Fuel returned in October 2012 to promote \"Halo 4\", in the original citrus-cherry flavor. In August 2013, Mountain Dew announced that Game Fuel would be returning to stores in the fall of 2013, with a new blueberry-flavored version titled \"Electrifying Berry\". In October 2013, boxes of original citrus/cherry Game Fuel appeared on store shelves with packaging promoting Xbox One and the games \"Dead Rising 3\" and \"Forza Motorsport 5\" and with cans featuring \"Dead Rising 3\" graphics. The new Electrifying Berry flavor of Game Fuel simultaneously appeared with packaging promoting Kinect Sports Rivals and the game \"Ryse: Son of Rome\", graphics from which appear on the cans as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Fury is a Mountain Dew taste-alike produced and distributed by the Milwaukee-based Roundy's for their Pick n' Save, Rainbow, Copps and Mariano's stores in Wisconsin, Minnesota and Illinois. Diet Mountain Fury is also available. Mountain Fury has a caffeine content of 41.8\u00a0mg per 12 oz. can."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles Alderton",
        "text": "Alderton noticed that customers were tiring of the traditional flavors of sarsaparilla, lemon and vanilla, and so to try and revive sales, began experimenting with new flavor combinations, eventually settling on a 23 ingredient mix combined with phosphoric acid to give it tang. It was first sold on December 1, 1885, and was ordered by asking the soda attendant to \"shoot a Waco\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Kountry Mist is the generic version of Mountain Dew sold at Winn-Dixie stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Yeller is the Piggly Wiggly version of a Mountain Dew style soda. It is also where the South Carolina/Florida folk band The Mountain Yellers got their name."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Wave is the generic \"Nice!\" soda brand's version of Mountain Dew available at Walgreens stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The Hartman brothers also asked Coca-Cola for input on their soda. The Coca-Cola Company refused their offer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain ration",
        "text": "The mountain ration contained:\n*Biscuits\n*Carter's spread (a butter substitute)\n*Cereal (three different variations)\n*Corned beef\n*Dehydrated baked beans\n*Dehydrated cheese\n*Dehydrated potatoes\n*Dehydrated soup\n*D ration bars\n*Fruit bars\n*Granulated sugar\n*Chewing gum\n*Hard candy\n*Lemon-juice powder\n*Pork luncheon meat\n*Pork sausage meat\n*Powdered milk\n*Precooked rice\n*Salt\n*Instant coffee\n*Tea\n*Toilet paper"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "An urban legend about Mountain Dew ingredients is that dye Yellow #5 (tartrazine) lowers sperm count. Tartrazine has never been scientifically linked to any of the alleged effects in the legends, nor has any other component of the drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Holler also has a few extensions of its flavors, also similar to Mountain Dew. Mountain Holler Red Howl is similar to Code Red or even the limited time Game Fuel, and Mountain Holler Avalanche is similar to Whiteout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In 2022, PepsiCo partnered with the Boston Beer Company to produce a line of alcohol-infused drinks in four flavors. Labelled \"Hard Mtn Dew\", the drinks will initially be sold in Florida, Iowa and Tennessee."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Hillbilly Holler is a generic version of Mountain Dew sold at Fareway stores. Rather than being a direct play on the name Mountain Dew, this name and some other generics make reference to the song, Good Old Mountain Dew, which praises the moonshine brewed in the Appalachian Mountains. Hillbilly and Holler are words referring to Appalachian Mountain life. The taste falls somewhere between Mello Yello and Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pop-Tarts",
        "text": "The first Pop-Tarts came in four flavors: strawberry, blueberry, brown sugar cinnamon, and apple currant, which was soon renamed apple-berry. Originally not frosted when first introduced in 1964, it was later determined that frosting could withstand the toaster, and the first frosted Pop-Tarts were officially released in 1967. As of 2021, there are over 20 standard Pop-Tart flavors, including hot fudge sundae, s'mores, raspberry, and cinnamon pretzel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuisine of the Southern United States",
        "text": "Salt, a necessity for life, was always available (much of it coming from Saltville, Virginia), and local seasonings like spicebush were certainly known and used; but the only other seasonings used in the mountains are black pepper and flaked red pepper, along with a little use of cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves around Christmas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Mountain Dew is a carbonated soft drink brand produced and owned by PepsiCo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Knoxville, Tennessee",
        "text": "In 1948, the soft drink Mountain Dew was first marketed in Knoxville, originally designed as a mixer for whiskey. Around the same time, John Gunther dubbed Knoxville the \"ugliest city\" in America in his best-selling book \"Inside U.S.A.\" Gunther's description jolted the city into enacting a series of beautification measures that helped improve the appearance of the Downtown area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "On 7 January 2011, Mountain Dew posted on their Facebook that Pitch Black would return to the shelves in May 2011, also stating that this may be the start of many re-releases of old favorites. The company promoted Pitch Black's return heavily with giveaways and contests. About a month before the planned release date, a photo was posted on a Mountain Dew worker's Pongr, which showed Pitch Black and 2008's Supernova. Two weeks before the release, Dew Labs announced the return of 2010's Typhoon in 2-Liter bottles exclusively at Walmart Supercenters. The three flavors were re-released to stores on 2 May."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cool Mountain Beverages",
        "text": "Cool Mountain Beverages\n--Flavors.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Salt & Straw",
        "text": "Salt & Straw\n--Company history.\n--List of flavors.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Brominated vegetable oil",
        "text": "On May 5, 2014, Coca-Cola and PepsiCo said they would remove BVO from their products. As of 2020, Mountain Dew manufactured by PepsiCo, no longer uses BVO in the main line of beverages; but the original BVO-containing formula is still sometimes sold as the lesser distributed \"Mountain Dew Throwback\" beverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In August 2012, Villa Enterprises held a promotion known as \"Dub the Dew\", where users were asked to submit and vote on name ideas for a green apple flavor of Mountain Dew. The promotion was infamously hijacked by users, particularly those originating from the imageboard 4chan, who submitted and upvoted entries such as \"Hitler did nothing wrong\", \"Diabeetus\", \"Fapple\", \"Bill Cosby Sweat\", \"Jimmie Rustle's Jumpin' Juice\", and numerous variations of \"Gushing Granny\". Although the promotion was not directly connected to Mountain Dew, a representative from the company did offer to \"help clean up\" the site. \"Adweek\" compared the incident to another recent campaign hijacked under similar circumstances, where musician Pitbull was sent to perform in Kodiak, Alaska, in a Walmart promotion."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Summit is the Schnucks store brand of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew goat commercials",
        "text": "The Mountain Dew goat commercials were a series of three television commercials for the soft drink Mountain Dew, which is produced by PepsiCo. The commercials aired in 2013 and featured Tyler, the Creator, who voiced a goat named Felicia. The commercials were pulled after receiving backlash from critics, including social commentator Boyce Watkins, who stated that the commercials played to racial stereotypes regarding African Americans and trivialized violence against women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Images leaked in May 2016 led to speculation that Game Fuel would once again see a new release later in 2016, with a new mango-flavored variant alongside the original citrus/cherry, promoting the game \"Titanfall 2\". Mountain Dew announced the return of Game Fuel and the new flavor, Mango Heat, in September. Then, in October, Game Fuel was released with the \"Titanfall 2\" promotion, with a lower calorie version of the original citrus/cherry variant returning alongside the new Mango Heat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mirinda",
        "text": "Mirinda is no longer sold in New Zealand, replaced with the introduction of PepsiCo's new Mountain Dew range of similar flavours (Code Red, Live Wire, Pitch Black, Electro Shock and Passionfruit Frenzy). , Clendon New World and Countdown supermarkets were bringing back Mirinda with their two flavours raspberry and orange, but it was unknown whether this was only for a limited sale or a permanent official return."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tullamore Dew",
        "text": "Tullamore Dew\n--History.\n--Variants.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sierra Mist",
        "text": "In August 2010 PepsiCo replaced the original Sierra Mist formula with \"Sierra Mist Natural\", which is sweetened with sucrose (table sugar) instead of high fructose corn syrup. The new formulation contains four other ingredients: carbonated water, citric acid, natural flavor, potassium citrate, and Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Mellow (a cross between Mountain Dew and Mello Yello) is the Western Family and Shurfine brand Mountain Dew knockoff, sold in some areas with the subtitle \"citrus soda.\" \"Mountain Mellow\" is sold (under the Western Family banner) in Mega Foods, Lowe's Market in Texas and other stores in the northwest of the U.S.A., and under the Shurfine banner in many areas of the Northeast."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Hannaford makes Mountain Lion and it has a flavor similar to Mountain Dew but the color is a bit lighter green then Mountain Dew and it costs less it is very similar to Food Lion\u2019s Mountain Lion"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jolly Rancher",
        "text": "Jolly Rancher's original flavors were watermelon, apple, and blue raspberry. They soon introduced cherry, orange tangerine, lemon, grape, peach, black licorice, and sour apple. Eventually, blue raspberry replaced lemon. Current flavors include cherry, blue raspberry, grape, green apple, fruit punch and watermelon. There are also sour, cinnamon, and smoothie varieties. In 2013, lemon was reintroduced in an all-lemon bag. In 2015, Jolly Rancher offered a \"Fruity Bash\" variety bag which includes strawberry, mountain berry, lemon, orange, and pineapple. In 2017, Jolly Rancher offered a \"Hotties\" variety bag which includes watermelon & cayenne pepper, blue raspberry & sriracha, cherry & habanero, and green apple & ginger. In 2020, Jolly Rancher offered a tropical variety bag featuring fruit punch, golden pineapple, lime, and mango flavors. They also offer a \"red\" bag, which included cherry, watermelon, strawberry and fruit punch. As of 2012, the passion mix, which included the peach flavor, and the wild berry mix were discontinued by The Hershey Company. The Hotties mix has been discontinued as of 2019. In 2020, the peach flavor has been brought back in an \"all-peach\" bag, and replaced the mountain berry flavor in the Fruity Bash bag."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Drive is the generic version of Mountain Dew sold at Hy-Vee stores, also available in diet. Formerly known as Heee Haw."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cool Mountain Beverages",
        "text": "The company is set to introduce flavored lemonades, mixers and spring water in 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar",
        "text": "In 2011, Dr Pepper Snapple Group announced 7UP Retro, a sugar-sweetened version of 7UP, that would be available for a limited-time only. This became a direct competitor to Mountain Dew Throwback, but 7UP Retro stopped production later in the year, while Mountain Dew Throwback continued production. Mexican 7UP, which is exported to the United States, still has sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "An 'Amp' branded citrus-flavoured energy drink distributed by Britvic under license from PepsiCo. launched in the UK in August 2013. The United Kingdom version of Amp Energy is released under the 'Mountain Dew' brand with a UK-unique new logo. This is similar to its early release in North America, with the Amp logo featuring the text 'Powered by Mountain Dew' beneath it. Amp Energy\u00a0\u2014 Powered by Mountain Dew features a higher caffeine content than Mountain Dew Energy at 31\u00a0mg/100ml. It also contains real sugar as is common with other UK soft drinks. The drink was discontinued in 2017, in order for Britvic to focus more on the original variety."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who revised the mountain Dew formula in 1958?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The revised formula was created by Bill Bridgforth  in 1958, and the rights to this formula were obtained by the Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the first flavor variety for Mountain Dew?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The first variety of Mountain Dew was citrus-flavored, available from the 1940s onward."
    ],
    "topic": "Mountain Dew",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Mountain Dew:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mountain Dew"
        ],
        "ctx": "Between the 1940s and 1980s there was only one variety of Mountain Dew, which was citrus-flavored and caffeinated in most markets. Diet Mountain Dew was introduced in 1988, followed by Mountain Dew Red, which was introduced and discontinued in 1988. In 2001, a cherry-flavored variant called Code Red debuted. This product line extension trend has continued to this day, with expansion into specialty, limited time production, region-specific, and retailer-specific (Taco Bell, 7-Eleven, Bojangles, and KFC) variants of Mountain Dew."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Between the 1940s and 1980s there was only one variety of Mountain Dew, which was citrus-flavored and caffeinated in most markets. Diet Mountain Dew was introduced in 1988, followed by Mountain Dew Red, which was introduced and discontinued in 1988. In 2001, a cherry-flavored variant called Code Red debuted. This product line extension trend has continued to this day, with expansion into specialty, limited time production, region-specific, and retailer-specific (Taco Bell, 7-Eleven, Bojangles, and KFC) variants of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Beginning in 2007, Mountain Dew began a promotion entitled \"DEWmocracy\", which involved the public electing new flavors, colors, names, packaging graphics and advertisements for upcoming Mountain Dew products. The campaign has been the subject of recognition within the advertising industry, cited as one of the earliest and longest-running examples of a consumer product brand employing crowdsourcing to make decisions which are traditionally made internally by employees. In its initial phase, DEWmocracy participation and voting was conducted via an online game. Television advertisements at the time featured actor Forest Whitaker asking people to decide the next new flavor of Mountain Dew. Online voters selected from three choices: Supernova (a strawberry/melon flavor), Revolution (a berry flavor), and Voltage (a raspberry/citrus flavor). Each included ginseng. The event ended on 17 August 2008, with Voltage announced as the winning flavor. It was officially released on 29 December 2008. According to Beverage Digest, sales of DEWmocracy flavors totaled 25 million cases in 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In response to negative publicity around high-fructose corn syrup, PepsiCo in 2009 released a limited-run production of Mountain Dew Throwback, a variation consisting of sugar in place of high-fructose corn syrup. Mountain Dew Throwback subsequently was re-released for brief periods (generally 8\u201312 weeks at a time), including a second wave from December 2009 to February 2010 and a third wave in the summer and fall of 2010. A fourth 8-week production run began in March 2011, before it became a permanent addition to the Mountain Dew flavor line-up."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The media response to the advertisement was mixed to negative. Melissa Cronin of Gawker described it as a \"horror-hallucination of brand awareness\", while noting the beverage itself contains brominated vegetable oil, a chemical that is banned in several countries. Jim Joseph, chief integrated marketing officer at Cohn & Wolfe, called it \"weird\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew goat commercials",
        "text": "Mountain Dew goat commercials\n--The ads.\n--Response.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Mountain Dew flavors and varieties",
        "text": "List of Mountain Dew flavors and varieties\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew goat commercials",
        "text": "The Mountain Dew goat commercials were a series of three television commercials for the soft drink Mountain Dew, which is produced by PepsiCo. The commercials aired in 2013 and featured Tyler, the Creator, who voiced a goat named Felicia. The commercials were pulled after receiving backlash from critics, including social commentator Boyce Watkins, who stated that the commercials played to racial stereotypes regarding African Americans and trivialized violence against women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In October 2010, Mountain Dew started the \"FanDEWmonium\" promotion, a competition in which new flavors would compete to become permanent similar to the two DEWmocracy campaigns, but with eight diet flavors instead of three regular ones. Five of the participating flavors were diet versions of previous DEWmocracy flavors: Diet Super Nova, Diet Voltage, Diet Crave (originally Flavor #722), Diet Distortion, Diet Typhoon, and Diet White Out. Another flavor, Diet Ultra Violet, was returning from its own limited release in 2009. The remaining competitor was a brand-new Diet flavor created specifically for the promotion - Flare (berry/citrus-flavored). Each of the eight flavors was available for tasting at specific tour locations, and special cans were also mailed to some Dew Labs members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Mountain Dew announced a continuation of the DEWmocracy campaign\u00a0\u2013 referred to as \"DEWmocracy 2\"\u00a0\u2013 which launched in July 2009. A marked difference between DEWmocracy 2 and its predecessor was the wider range of online voting methods, expanding beyond the DEWmocracy website to include Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and the \"Dew Labs Community\"\u00a0\u2013 a private, online forum for the \"most passionate Dew fans.\" In July 2009, Dew Labs sampling trucks distributed product samples of seven potential flavor variations. At the same time, 50 \"Dew fanatics\" were chosen based on their video submissions to the video website 12seconds.tv, and were shipped boxes of the seven prototype flavors. From the initial seven flavors, taste testers were asked to elect three final flavors for later release at retail stores. The three new candidate flavors were Distortion (a Key lime flavor), Typhoon (a tropical punch flavor), and White Out (a smooth citrus flavor). The three new candidate flavors were released on 19 April 2010 and voting lasted until 14 June. The following day, White Out was announced as the winner. Mountain Dew White Out was released for sale on 4 October 2010. A limited production White Out Slurpee (Mtn Dew White Out Freeze) was made available at 7-Eleven stores beginning in January 2011. In July 2011, Mountain Dew Typhoon was re-released briefly in 2-liter form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In 2008, Doritos debuted a mystery flavor known as \"Quest\", featuring a campaign of online puzzles and prizes to identify the Quest flavor. The flavor was later identified as Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Mountain Dew flavors and varieties",
        "text": "Mountain Dew, a citrus-flavored carbonated soft drink now owned by PepsiCo, has had numerous branded flavor variants since the original formula's creation in 1940. Notable flavor variants include Baja Blast, Code Red, Voltage, LiveWire, Major Melon, and Spark."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "Mountain Dew Amp\n--Flavors.\n--Sponsorship.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "PepsiCo (then The Pepsi-Cola Company) acquired the Mountain Dew brand in 1964, and shortly thereafter in 1969 the logo was modified as the company sought to shift its focus to a \"younger, outdoorsy\" generation. This direction continued as the logo remained the same through the 1970s, 1980s. In 1996, PepsiCo began using a strategy it was already using with its flagship cola Pepsi, changing Mountain Dew's logo every few years. New logos were introduced in 1996, 1998, and 2005. In October 2008, the Mountain Dew logo was redesigned to \"Mtn Dew\" within the U.S. market, as a result of PepsiCo announcing that it would rebrand its core carbonated soft-drink products by early 2009. However, the variant flavors continued to use the previous design until May 2011, when it was announced that the \"Code Red\", \"LiveWire\", \"Voltage\", and \"Baja Blast\" flavor variants would be given redesigned packaging, including new logos to correspond with the \"Mtn Dew\" style. The returning flavors \"Pitch Black\", \"Supernova\", \"Typhoon\", and \"Game Fuel\" were given redesigned packaging and logos for their 2011 re-release."
      },
      {
        "title": "4chan",
        "text": "In August 2012, 4chan users attacked a third-party sponsored Mountain Dew campaign, \"Dub the Dew\", where users were asked to submit and vote on name ideas for a green apple flavor of the drink. Users submitted entries such as \"Diabeetus\", \"Fapple\", several variations of \"Gushing Granny\", and \"Hitler did nothing wrong\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Good Old Mountain Dew",
        "text": "After PepsiCo bought the soft drink Mountain Dew in 1964, they commissioned a set of advertisements featuring a \"Good Old Mountain Dew\"-based jingle and the drink's mascot: a barefooted back-country man called \"Willie the Hillbilly\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "At the same time of the DEWmand Promotion, Mountain Dew launched the Throwback Shack, a website where participators could enter to win exclusive Dew merchandise, including a \"secret stash\" of Mountain Dew Revolution, a losing competitor from 2008's DEWmocracy. The promotional advertisements were then taken down from the Mountain Dew website. Mountain Dew later stated via tweet that there would not be any more flavors returning 'by Popular DEWmand' for now, as it was only intended to be a summer program."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "After much speculation over a leaked Instagram photo of a potential new flavor, it was officially announced that Mountain Dew was teaming up with Warner Bros. Pictures' and Legendary Pictures' film The Dark Knight Rises and released a limited-edition flavor on 18 June 2012. A website\u00a0\u2014 DEWGothamCity.com\u00a0\u2014 was launched, on which fans were able to enter codes to access exclusive content and details on the movie before its 20 July release date. Some Mountain Dew products temporarily featured packaging to promote the movie, including thermochromic 16 oz. cans that change color when cooled. The limited-edition flavor, Dark Berry, was mixed berry-flavored, and was available for 8 weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In October 2015, Game Fuel returned with a new companion flavor, Berry Lime, for the promotion of \"\". After the promotion, Citrus Cherry once again reverted to promotionless packaging, while the Berry Lime flavor remained available as a Slurpee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Also similar to the DEWmocracy campaign, those who taste-tested the Diet flavors were asked to go online and vote for which flavors they thought should be permanently sold in stores. After the first round of voting was completed, two flavor finalists were chosen to receive a limited release to store shelves for a final round of voting. Diet Voltage and Diet Super Nova were sold in stores for an eight-week period beginning in March 2011. After votes were cast, it was announced that Diet Super Nova had won, with 55% of all votes, and it returned in January 2012. Afterwards, it was removed from shelves permanently after a 12-week release due to low sales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "On 7 February 2016, for Super Bowl 50, Mountain Dew aired a spot featuring a CGI character dubbed \"the puppy monkey baby\" (also styled PuppyMonkeyBaby). The promotion has garnered a wide amount of media coverage, both positive and negative. According to iSpot.tv, the spot was rated #1 of all the Super Bowl commercials of the night, having generated 2.2 million online views and 300,000 social media interactions after airing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Leading up to 2004, Pepsico conducted extensive research to develop a beverage with a taste and color to complement Taco Bell food products. The resulting product was named Mountain Dew \"Baja Blast\", a light blue-green colored, tropical lime-flavored variety of the soft drink. Taco Bell was given a 10-year exclusive rights period, during which Baja Blast would not be available in any store or other food outlet, not even to Taco Bell's fellow Yum! Brands restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Gibbin",
        "text": "In 2007, Gibbin created Dewmocracy, a story-driven fan based advertising campaign for Mountain Dew, that let consumers choose the next new flavor for the soda. The campaign featured an in-depth virtual world and a video directed by Oscar winner Forest Whitaker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The Dark Knight Rises promotion inspired a permanent 24 oz. version of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dr. Enuf",
        "text": "Dr. Enuf\n--Early product heritage with Mountain Dew.\n--Availability.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "On March 6, 2013, Amp Energy officially announced that it will re-introduce its Orange flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew goat commercials",
        "text": "Tyler, the Creator, who voiced the goat, uses @feliciathegoat as his Instagram handle, referencing the commercials."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "\"Mountain Dew\" was originally Southern and/or Scots/Irish slang for moonshine (i.e., homemade whiskey or poit\u00edn) as referenced in the Irish folk song The Rare Old Mountain Dew dating from 1882. Using it as the name for the soda was originally suggested by Carl E. Retzke at an Owens-Illinois Inc. meeting in Toledo, Ohio, and was first trademarked by Ally and Barney Hartman in the 1940s. Early bottles and signage carried the reference forward by showing a cartoon-stylized hillbilly. The first sketches of the original Mountain Dew bottle labels were devised in 1948 by John Brichetto, and the representation on product packaging has changed at multiple points in the history of the beverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar",
        "text": "Both editions have used retro packaging as part of the \"throwback\" theme. The first release featured the 1940s Pepsi-Cola script in royal blue on a modern navy blue background with the word \"throwback\" written in the modern font, while the 1973\u20131996 Mountain Dew logo was featured on a modern green background."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In May 2014, the original citrus/cherry Game Fuel began reappearing on shelves, but this time, the soda does not seem to be promoting any video game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar",
        "text": "The second version of Mountain Dew Throwback from December 2009 differed slightly in its formula from the first version from April 2009, in that it now included concentrated orange juice as one of its ingredients, giving it a slightly different flavor more in line with \"regular\" Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "On 18 April 2016, Mountain Dew announced the return of two popular favorites, Baja Blast and Pitch Black. Fans could vote on which flavor stays permanently on store shelves via the Mountain Dew website. Voting ended on 9 July, and, after many delays, Pitch Black was announced the winner on 18 July 2016. Pitch Black continues to be produced and became part of the brand's lineup starting in September."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In October 2014, Game Fuel returned with a new lemonade flavor for the promotion of \"\". Unlike past two-variant Game Fuel releases, both drinks sport the same artwork (unlike 2009's Horde Red and Alliance Blue or 2011's citrus/cherry and tropical), albeit differing colors to match their respective flavors. After the promotion ended, Citrus Cherry reverted to promotionless packaging while lemonade flavor was permanently removed from shelves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In 2008, a Mountain Dew-sponsored music label was launched under the name \"Green Label Sound\". In December 2010, a Mountain Dew Code Red television advertisement was produced, incorporating the hip-hop artist Jay Electronica performing his song \"The Announcement\". The advertisement concludes with the tagline \"Hip Hop is different on the mountain\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In summer 2010, a secondary type of Mountain Dew bottles began appearing on some US shelves. Designed by 4sight, a design and innovation firm, these bottles featured a sleeker design, smaller packaging labels, and a built-in grip. The bottles were dubbed \"sidekick bottles\" and were tested in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Indiana markets. By 2014, sidekick bottles had become the predominant Mountain Dew bottle design in most of the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia bought the rights to Mountain Dew, revising the flavor and launching it in 1961. In 1964, Pepsico purchased the Tip Corporation and thus acquired the rights to Mountain Dew. In 1999, the Virginia legislature recognized Bill Jones and the Town of Marion for their role in the history of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In 2007, after using the term \"Game Fuel\" to market their sodas to the video-gaming subculture, Mountain Dew introduced a new flavor variant (citrus/cherry) with the Game Fuel name. Coinciding with the release of the Xbox 360 game \"Halo 3\", Mountain Dew Game Fuel sported a label that was almost entirely image-based, showing promotional artwork for the game and featuring the game series' main character Master Chief prominently. This variant remained on shelves for 12 weeks, and was discontinued afterwards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diet Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Diet Mountain Dew is a no-calorie Mountain Dew that was first introduced in 1986. It was formerly known as \"Sugar-Free Mountain Dew\" until 1986, when it was given its current name. In 2006 Diet Mountain Dew was reformulated with a new \"Tuned Up Taste\", using a blend of sucralose, aspartame, and acesulfame potassium as sweeteners. The previous formulation was sweetened exclusively with aspartame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar",
        "text": "With the second release in December 2009, more accurate retro packaging was used. Pepsi used an exact replica of the 1973\u20131987 logo, while Mountain Dew used its original hillbilly theme. The use of Mountain Dew's original theme is a stark reversal of Pepsi's decision to distance the drink from its Appalachia origins, as well as a stark contrast from the drink's current male demographic, particularly those that participate in extreme sports or are involved with the gamer culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bob Morales",
        "text": "Also in 1985 Morales appeared in the first action-sports themed television commercial for Mountain Dew soda with fellow pro freestyle BMX riders Eddie Fiola, R.L. Osborn, Ron Wilkerson and Pat Romano. Later that year Morales became a member of the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) and pursued a career in commercial acting appearing in several national commercials."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In August 2012, Villa Enterprises held a promotion known as \"Dub the Dew\", where users were asked to submit and vote on name ideas for a green apple flavor of Mountain Dew. The promotion was infamously hijacked by users, particularly those originating from the imageboard 4chan, who submitted and upvoted entries such as \"Hitler did nothing wrong\", \"Diabeetus\", \"Fapple\", \"Bill Cosby Sweat\", \"Jimmie Rustle's Jumpin' Juice\", and numerous variations of \"Gushing Granny\". Although the promotion was not directly connected to Mountain Dew, a representative from the company did offer to \"help clean up\" the site. \"Adweek\" compared the incident to another recent campaign hijacked under similar circumstances, where musician Pitbull was sent to perform in Kodiak, Alaska, in a Walmart promotion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In its primary market of the United States, the ingredient composition of Mountain Dew is listed as: \"carbonated water, high-fructose corn syrup (in much of the U.S.), concentrated orange juice, citric acid, natural flavors, sodium benzoate, caffeine, sodium citrate, erythorbic acid, gum arabic, Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, and yellow 5.\" The ingredient makeup of Mountain Dew varies based on the country of production. For example, in Canada, the sweetener listed is \"glucose-fructose\" (another name for high-fructose corn syrup), and until 2012, it was caffeine-free by default. Formerly, the composition included brominated vegetable oil, an emulsifier banned in foods throughout Europe and in Japan. As of 2020, this ingredient has been removed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gremlins",
        "text": "In February 2021, a Mountain Dew Zero Sugar ad featuring Zach Galligan and Gizmo was released."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Mountain Dew\n--Origin.\n--Packaging.\n----Logo.\n----Sidekick bottles.\n--Ingredients.\n----Tartrazine.\n----Alcohol.\n--Promotions.\n----Amp Energy.\n----Taco Bell's Mountain Dew Baja Blast.\n----DEWmocracy 1.\n----DEWmocracy 2.\n----Game Fuel.\n----Green Label.\n------Green Label Art.\n------Green Label Sound.\n------Dew Tour/Green Label experience.\n------Green Label Gaming.\n----Doritos Quest.\n----FanDEWmonium.\n----Back by Popular DEWmand.\n----\"The Dark Knight Rises\" partnership.\n----\"Dub the Dew\".\n----\"Puppy Monkey Baby\".\n----\"DEWcision 2016\".\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "On 24 August 2011, Mountain Dew announced another return of the Game Fuel promotion on their Facebook page. The original citrus/cherry would once again return, along with a new tropical companion flavor. The announcement gave a planned release date of October 2011 and stated that the packaging would feature codes granting players double experience points in \"\". Both flavors were mailed out to Dew Labs members in early September 2011, a month before the planned release date. Later that same month, it was announced through the Facebook page that Game Fuel would be arriving to the public in mid-October, though it would vary by market. These flavors began appearing from the first week of October and were also discontinued after 12 weeks of being on shelves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The ad features a computer-generated mash-up of three things that the public generally finds to be cute or harmless; a Pug puppy (the head), a monkey (the body and tail), and a dancing baby (the hips and legs). The puppy monkey baby dances with three men who are presumably watching the Super Bowl, offering them Mountain Dew Kickstart, which is similarly described as being a combination of three things (Mountain Dew, juice, and caffeine)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The Hartman brothers also asked Coca-Cola for input on their soda. The Coca-Cola Company refused their offer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew goat commercials",
        "text": "The final commercial, which was directed by Tyler under his pseudonym of Wolf Haley, premiered in April 2013. On May 1, social commentator and political analyst Boyce Watkins wrote a post for YourBlackWorld.net titled \"Mountain Dew Releases Arguably the Most Racist Commercial in History\" wherein he criticized the commercial and accused Mountain Dew of engaging in \"corporate racism\" with its use of stereotypes of African Americans in the commercial. Additional criticism came from the commercials' trivialization of violence against women, with an article in \"The Wall Street Journal\" pointing to a threat Felicia made to the waitress (\"I'ma get out of here and I'ma do you up.\") as being a threat of sexual assault used as a play on words for Mountain Dew's slogan. Following the publishing of this post, PepsiCo released a statement to MTV News saying that they were pulling the commercials: \"We apologize for this video and take full responsibility. We have removed it from all Mountain Dew channels and Tyler is removing it from his channels as well.\" In another statement, PepsiCo said, \"We understand how this video could be perceived by some as offensive, and we apologize to those who were offended.\" In contrast, journalist LZ Granderson wrote an opinion piece for CNN defending the commercial as \"frat-boy humor\" and compares the jokes made in them to those in absurdist comedy shows such as \"Chappelle's Show\". Shortly after the ads were pulled, Tyler's manager Christian Clancy released a statement offering his apologies to people who were offended by the commercials and defending Tyler, stating that while the ads were intentionally boundary-pushing, it was not their intent to be racist."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "The Our Family version of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain (advertisement)",
        "text": "Mountain (advertisement)\n--Sequence.\n--Production.\n--Release and reception.\n----Schedule.\n----Awards.\n----Legacy.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Mountain Dew, stylized as Mtn Dew, is a carbonated soft drink brand produced and owned by PepsiCo. The original formula was invented in 1940 by Tennessee beverage bottlers Barney and Ally Hartman. A revised formula was created by Bill Bridgforth in 1958. The rights to this formula were obtained by the Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia. William H. \"Bill\" Jones of the Tip Corporation further refined the formula, launching that version of Mountain Dew in 1961. In August 1964, the Mountain Dew brand and production rights were acquired from Tip by the Pepsi-Cola company, and the distribution expanded across the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Forest Whitaker",
        "text": "Under Frank Cooper, he served as the creator and producer of DEWmocracy.com, an interactive video game, short film, and website that allowed people to select a new flavor of Mountain Dew. This campaign turned into the most successful launch of a soft drink in Mountain Dew's history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Amp Energy is an energy drink distributed by PepsiCo under the Mountain Dew brand. Launched in 2001, Amp was originally known as \"Mountain Dew AMP.\" From 2007 to 2008, several additional flavors of Amp were introduced. In 2012, AMP's labeling and ingredients changed, as did the flavor and appeal, according to fans. The Mountain Dew branding was also removed from cans during this change."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew goat commercials",
        "text": "On May 2, \"Billboard\" interviewed both Tyler and Clancy about the controversy, with Tyler defending the commercials and arguing that they were not racist. Additionally, in a Twitter post, Tyler offered to speak to Watkins about the commercials, with Watkins later stating that, while Tyler was probably well-intentioned with the advertisements, he stood by his previous criticisms of them. Clancy also deferred several questions to Mountain Dew, including an unreleased fourth commercial and how the business deal between Mountain Dew and Tyler began."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In spring 2014, Mountain Dew began distributing its Baja Blast flavor in standard 12-ounce cans, 20-ounce bottles and 24-ounce cans for sale at supermarkets and retail businesses in the U.S. The new retail product bore the Taco Bell logo. Taco Bell's chief marketing officer, Chris Brandt, said the exclusive drinks have helped increase the company's beverage sales, even as soda sales have declined in the broader market. He noted that people are more likely to buy drinks when they are available exclusively at the chain. Due to the drink's success, many other new beverages were introduced at Taco Bell, including a new Taco Bell exclusive, Mountain Dew Sangrita Blast, a non-alcoholic sangrita-flavored Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baja Blast",
        "text": "The flavor was first made available in 2004. Created for, and exclusively sold at, Taco Bell locations, it was a collaboration between the company and Mountain Dew owners PepsiCo. One of the first instances of a restaurant offering an exclusive soda beverage, it was created to increase sales of fountain soda. The flavor was heavily promoted at launch with advertising campaigns."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "This was the Sodastream version of Mountain Dew, sold as a syrup for their home carbonation device. This flavor was sold in standard and diet varieties, both of which use Splenda as part or all of the sweetening agent, instead of aspartame or high-fructose corn syrup. Fountain Mist was discontinued as part of their brand overhaul in mid-2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Label",
        "text": "In 2008, a Mountain Dew-sponsored music label was launched under the name \"Green Label Sound\". In December 2010, a Mountain Dew Code Red television advertisement was produced, incorporating the hip-hop artist Jay Electronica performing his song \"The Announcement\". The advertisement concludes with the tagline \"Hip Hop is different on the mountain\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Two years later, the website for the popular MMORPG \"World of Warcraft\" stated that two Mountain Dew Game Fuel flavors would be sold in June 2009 and would promote the game. Shortly afterwards, the bottle art was released, and showed that the two flavors would promote different player races in the game. One of the two was exactly the same citrus/cherry flavor from the original \"Halo 3\" promotion, with updated packaging. The second flavor was a new wild fruit drink, similar to the previously released Pepsi Blue. Both drinks were given \"World of Warcraft\"-based packaging, and sported the newly updated \"MTN Dew\" logo. Like their precursor, these two flavors lasted for 12 weeks and were discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Production was extended to the U.K. in 1996, but was phased out in 1998. A similarly named but different-tasting product, with a recipe more similar to the original American product has been sold in the U.K. under the name \"Mountain Dew Energy\" since 2010 and in Ireland since the spring of 2011. The product was renamed in 2014 to simply 'Mountain Dew'. As of 2017, Mountain Dew represented a 6.6% share of the carbonated soft drinks market in the U.S. Its competition includes The Coca-Cola Company's Mello Yello and Surge, and Dr Pepper Snapple Group's Sun Drop; Mountain Dew accounted for 80% of citrus soft drinks sold within the U.S. in 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In 2017, Game Fuel returned with two previously discontinued flavors: Arctic Burst (originally released as a Slurpee flavor in 2006 to promote \"Superman Returns\") and Tropical Smash (originally Flavor #736, one of the four prototype flavors for \"DEWmocracy II\" that lost to Mountain Dew White Out and did not even make the final round). As was the case with the 2013 promotion, the two flavors promoted two different Xbox games (Arctic Burst promoted \"\" while Tropical Smash promoted \"Forza 7\"). For the first time, Citrus Cherry was not fully part of the promotion; instead, promotionless Citrus Cherry was sold with the same white caps with codes under them as the other flavors in the promotion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mad (magazine)",
        "text": "Animated \"Spy vs. Spy\" sequences were also seen in TV ads for Mountain Dew soda in 2004."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain (advertisement)",
        "text": "\"Mountain\" first appeared as a 60-second television and cinema spot in 30\u00a0countries throughout Europe and Asia on November 13, 2003. These appearances were backed by a poster campaign running from November 13 to December 24. The posters were widely distributed. In Germany alone, TBWA purchased space for 315 posters inside cinemas, with a further 36 outdoors and 38 oversized (3.49m2) posters, as well as appearing as inserts on 323 foyer screens. A 42-second version of the commercial screened in 36 cinemas across Germany. The overall spend for the \"Fun, Anyone?\" campaign over the 2003 Christmas period amounted to \u00a35m. \"Mountain\" continued to air on television throughout 2004 in 10-, 30-, and 60-second versions. Despite its origins in the United Kingdom, it had not been aired in mainland Britain as of July 2004."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain W is the Wegmans stores version of a Mountain Dew style soda."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antfood",
        "text": "Mountain Dew \"Dew VR\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Diet Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Diet Mountain Dew\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Wave is the generic \"Nice!\" soda brand's version of Mountain Dew available at Walgreens stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew goat commercials",
        "text": "The ad campaign consisted of three commercials starring Felicia the Goat, an English-speaking goat voiced by American rapper Tyler, the Creator. In the first commercial, Felicia assaults a waitress at a restaurant after being told that the restaurant is out of Mountain Dew. In the second commercial, Felicia flees from a police officer who suspects the goat of a \"DewUI\" (a play on words of both DUI and Mountain Dew's slogan \"Do the Dew\"). In the third commercial, Felicia is part of a police lineup with five African-American men (including one played by Left Brain, a member of Tyler's musical collective Odd Future). The waitress from the first commercial, who is shown bruised, is trying to select from the lineup while Felicia makes threatening comments to the waitress (including \"better not snitch on a player\" and \"snitches get stitches\"). The commercial ends with the waitress shrieking and fleeing from the police station."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marion, Virginia",
        "text": "Marion is known for being the birthplace of the soft drink Mountain Dew, but the original drink was created in Knoxville, Tennessee. Although Mountain Dew was first marketed under that name in Knoxville, the original soft drink's formula changed drastically from Knoxville's formula to the syrup mixture that constitutes today's drink. In 1961, the rights to Mountain Dew were purchased by the Marion-based Tip Corporation. The Mountain Dew flavor was reworked by Marion resident William H. \"Bill\" Jones. Due to the success of the revised formulation, the Pepsi Corporation purchased the Tip Corporation in 1964. Marion also hosted the Mountain Dew Festival for more than 50 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surge (drink)",
        "text": "While preparations for the US launch were underway, a cry for help came in from the Norwegian Division, who were battling a successful launch of Mountain Dew in their market. Because the Surge brand was already registered by another firm, the product was launched as \"Urge\". Local food regulation prevented the bright green color from being used, so it was launched with a pale, more natural juice drink look and given a slight orange taste to match the flavor with the color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oscar Brand discography",
        "text": "It's Good Ol' Mountain Dew"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tyler, the Creator",
        "text": "A series of three commercials for Mountain Dew directed by Okonma created controversy in May 2013, accused of using \"racial stereotypes\" and \"making light of violence against women\". In the spots an energy drink-loving goat character called \"Felicia the Goat\" is consecutively being \"scapegoated\" in a diner, in prison, and on the road. During the 60-second ad in prison, a battered white woman on crutches examines a police line-up consisting of several African-American men and one goat, while the goat antagonizes the woman. Syracuse professor and social critic Boyce Watkins stated that the ad was \"arguably the most racist commercial in history.\" PepsiCo pulled the ad and apologized. Okonma released a statement claiming that the ad was not meant to \"spark a controversy about race\" and that \"it was simply an, again, admittedly absurd story that was never meant to be taken seriously.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Mountain Dew is a carbonated soft drink brand produced and owned by PepsiCo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Mountain Dew may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bascom Lamar Lunsford",
        "text": "Lunsford's original recording of \"Good Old Mountain Dew\" was used as the first advertising theme for the newly created Mountain Dew soda. He sold the rights to the song for a train ticket home."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "The original formulation of Amp Energy was positioned as a flavor extension of the Mountain Dew brand, and in 2001 its label read \"\"Amp Energy Drink from Mountain Dew\".\" In 2008, the label design was changed to contract the product name to a more concise \"Amp Energy\", with the Mountain Dew logo being shifted to the lower portion of the cans. In Amp's 2011 redesign, the Mountain Dew logo was taken off the cans completely. According to beverage industry commentators at the time, this labeling update was enacted with the intent of \"placing a stronger emphasis on the 'Amp Energy' brand and less on its Mountain Dew roots\". Amp Energy Original contains taurine, B-vitamins, guarana, ginseng and maltodextrin. 8.4 fluid ounces of Amp contains 74 milligrams of caffeine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The term \"Mountain Dew Mouth\" was coined to reflect the popularity of the drink amongst some, particularly in the Appalachian region, who are afflicted by a form of tooth decay and drink a lot of soft drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Mountain Dew's Green Label promotion originated in 2007, when a line of limited edition aluminum bottles was put into production, featuring artwork from a range of tattoo artists and other artists. This initial series marked the first use of the term \"Green Label Art\" to describe the use of artistic works on Mountain Dew packaging. In June 2010, a contest entitled \"Green Label Art: Shop Series\" was announced, involving 35 independent skateboard store owners who partnered with local artists to design and submit future can artwork designs. Approximately one million votes were submitted by the conclusion of the contest in October of the same year, with Street Science Skate Shop\u00a0\u2013 a store in Tracy, California\u00a0\u2013 named the winner of a cash prize. This winning can design was scheduled to appear on Mountain Dew cans at some point in 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Game Fuel returned in October 2012 to promote \"Halo 4\", in the original citrus-cherry flavor. In August 2013, Mountain Dew announced that Game Fuel would be returning to stores in the fall of 2013, with a new blueberry-flavored version titled \"Electrifying Berry\". In October 2013, boxes of original citrus/cherry Game Fuel appeared on store shelves with packaging promoting Xbox One and the games \"Dead Rising 3\" and \"Forza Motorsport 5\" and with cans featuring \"Dead Rising 3\" graphics. The new Electrifying Berry flavor of Game Fuel simultaneously appeared with packaging promoting Kinect Sports Rivals and the game \"Ryse: Son of Rome\", graphics from which appear on the cans as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The computer worm Code Red was named because the person who discovered the worm was drinking this version of Mountain Dew at the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "1995 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "1995 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "White Mountain Cooler",
        "text": "Radio ads for White Mountain Cooler were mostly unscripted. An associate creative director at Grey Advertising assisted with the creation of the White Mountain Cooler Comedy Tour. In 1990, Stroh's announced it would no longer be using Grey's for White Mountain Cooler advertising."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Green Label is an online magazine, a partnership between Mountain Dew and Complex Media producing sponsored content covering action sports, music, art and style, housed at Green-Label.com. The site replaces several websites and a YouTube channel that have been overseen by PepsiCo since 2007. The initiative originated in 2013 and will continue through the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Wild Mountain is the Food Club generic brand Mountain Dew available at Brookshire's Food & Pharmacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fry and the Slurm Factory",
        "text": "The beverage Slurm has many similarities to the short-lived soft drink Surge that was popular around the time of production, which included the hard-core image that advertised it. Slurm could also be a parody of Mountain Dew, which has similar imagery for its advertisement. Slurm's green color also resembles Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Summit is the Schnucks store brand of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "A 2009 promotion involved graphic designers, musicians and artists creating custom Amp-branded refrigerators which were placed in designers' homes and retail stores that included Crooks and Castles, Rogue Status, Huf Clothing and Reed Space. Designers that participated in the promotion included Topher Chin, Steve Aoki, Omar Epps and Han Cholo. According to Women\u2019s Wear Daily, this initiative was carried out \u201cas part of Pepsi's bid to recast the image of its Amp Energy drink as the beverage of choice for the fashion, art and lifestyle crowd.\u201d In 2010, Amp Energy became the official energy drink of the World Extreme Cagefighting (WEC) series, before the WEC went defunct in the same year. It is also the sponsor of UFC athletes Urijah Faber, Chad Mendes and Joseph Benavidez."
      },
      {
        "title": "2001 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "NOTES:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1994 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "1994 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Tops is the Tops Friendly Markets store brand of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Under the term \"Green Label Gaming\"\u00a0\u2013 coined in 2007\u00a0\u2013 Mountain Dew has broadened its sponsorship of independent video game designers and players. The brand is often the subject of media attention for its popularity among video game enthusiasts, as several flavors of Mountain Dew have been produced in partnership with video games. In December 2008, Mountain Dew produced a 30-minute television special which documented independent gamers in Japan and the U.S., which aired on the Spike TV network. In 2009, Mountain Dew sponsored two prominent gaming events: the Independent Games Festival and the Game Developers Conference. \"Green Label Gaming\" has since come under controversy over a sponsored Game Jam-themed reality show by Matti Leshem."
      },
      {
        "title": "2001 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "2001 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n--Background.\n--Results.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Zach Galligan",
        "text": "In early 2021, Galligan appeared in a Mountain Dew commercial in which his Gremlins character, Billy, gives Gizmo a drink of his Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "1996 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "1996 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain (advertisement)",
        "text": "Mountain is a 2003 television and cinema advertisement launched by Sony Corporation to promote the PlayStation 2 video game console. The budget for production and advertising space purchases for the 60-second piece amounted to \u00a35m across all markets. The commercial depicts a Brazilian crowd congregating to form a mountain of human bodies, all competing to reach the top of the pile. The campaign surrounding \"Mountain\" was handled by advertising agency TBWA London. The commercial was directed by Frank Budgen. Production was contracted to Gorgeous Enterprises, with post-production by The Mill. \"Mountain\" premiered in 30\u00a0countries on 13 November 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Drive is the generic version of Mountain Dew sold at Hy-Vee stores, also available in diet. Formerly known as Heee Haw."
      },
      {
        "title": "Johnson City, Tennessee",
        "text": "The popular citrus soda Mountain Dew traces its origins to Johnson City. In July 2012, PepsiCo announced a new malt-flavored version of the drink named \"Mountain Dew Johnson City Gold\" in honor of the city. The drink was test marketed in the Chicago metropolitan area, Denver, and Charlotte, beginning in late August."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "In addition to PepsiCo's Mountain Dew, Coca-Cola's Sprite or Dr Pepper's Sun Drop, there are a variety of smaller or regional brands for citrus soda. Several of these brands include the word \"Mountain\" in their name to help describe their product, a nod to Mountain Dew's leading market position."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepsi Globe",
        "text": "Pepsi, Diet Pepsi, and Pepsi Max now use all lower-case fonts for name brands, Mountain Dew has been renamed \"Mtn Dew,\" and Diet Pepsi Max has been re-branded as Pepsi Max, because the original 1993 version is no longer available in the United States. The new imagery has started to be used. The new lower-case font used on Pepsi's products are reminiscent of the font used in Diet Pepsi's logo from the 1970s to the mid-1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Green Label",
        "text": "Mountain Dew's Green Label promotion originated in 2007, when a line of limited edition aluminum bottles was put into production, featuring artwork from a range of tattoo artists and other artists. This initial series marked the first use of the term \"Green Label Art\" to describe the use of artistic works on Mountain Dew packaging. In June 2010, a contest entitled \"Green Label Art: Shop Series\" was announced, involving 35 independent skateboard store owners who partnered with local artists to design and submit future can artwork designs. Approximately one million votes were submitted by the conclusion of the contest in October of the same year, with Street Science Skate Shop\u00a0\u2013 a store in Tracy, California\u00a0\u2013 named the winner of a cash prize. This winning can design was scheduled to appear on Mountain Dew cans at some point in 2011."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who revised the mountain Dew formula in 1958?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The revised formula was created by Bill Bridgforth  in 1958, and the rights to this formula were obtained by the Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the first flavor variety for Mountain Dew?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The first variety of Mountain Dew was citrus-flavored, available from the 1940s onward."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were some notable advertisements for Mountain Dew?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Beginning in 2007, Mountain Dew began a promotion entitled \"DEWmocracy\", which involved the public electing new flavors, colors, names, packaging graphics and advertisements for upcoming Mountain Dew products and the campaign has been the subject of recognition within the advertising industry."
    ],
    "topic": "Mountain Dew",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Mountain Dew:19",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mountain Dew",
          "Promotions",
          "DEWmocracy 1"
        ],
        "ctx": "Beginning in 2007, Mountain Dew began a promotion entitled \"DEWmocracy\", which involved the public electing new flavors, colors, names, packaging graphics and advertisements for upcoming Mountain Dew products. The campaign has been the subject of recognition within the advertising industry, cited as one of the earliest and longest-running examples of a consumer product brand employing crowdsourcing to make decisions which are traditionally made internally by employees. In its initial phase, DEWmocracy participation and voting was conducted via an online game. Television advertisements at the time featured actor Forest Whitaker asking people to decide the next new flavor of Mountain Dew. Online voters selected from three choices: Supernova (a strawberry/melon flavor), Revolution (a berry flavor), and Voltage (a raspberry/citrus flavor). Each included ginseng. The event ended on 17 August 2008, with Voltage announced as the winning flavor. It was officially released on 29 December 2008. According to Beverage Digest, sales of DEWmocracy flavors totaled 25 million cases in 2008."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "A can of Mountain Dew contains 54\u00a0mg of caffeine (equivalent to )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In its primary market of the United States, the ingredient composition of Mountain Dew is listed as: \"carbonated water, high-fructose corn syrup (in much of the U.S.), concentrated orange juice, citric acid, natural flavors, sodium benzoate, caffeine, sodium citrate, erythorbic acid, gum arabic, Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, and yellow 5.\" The ingredient makeup of Mountain Dew varies based on the country of production. For example, in Canada, the sweetener listed is \"glucose-fructose\" (another name for high-fructose corn syrup), and until 2012, it was caffeine-free by default. Formerly, the composition included brominated vegetable oil, an emulsifier banned in foods throughout Europe and in Japan. As of 2020, this ingredient has been removed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Between the 1940s and 1980s there was only one variety of Mountain Dew, which was citrus-flavored and caffeinated in most markets. Diet Mountain Dew was introduced in 1988, followed by Mountain Dew Red, which was introduced and discontinued in 1988. In 2001, a cherry-flavored variant called Code Red debuted. This product line extension trend has continued to this day, with expansion into specialty, limited time production, region-specific, and retailer-specific (Taco Bell, 7-Eleven, Bojangles, and KFC) variants of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The media response to the advertisement was mixed to negative. Melissa Cronin of Gawker described it as a \"horror-hallucination of brand awareness\", while noting the beverage itself contains brominated vegetable oil, a chemical that is banned in several countries. Jim Joseph, chief integrated marketing officer at Cohn & Wolfe, called it \"weird\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "The original formulation of Amp Energy was positioned as a flavor extension of the Mountain Dew brand, and in 2001 its label read \"\"Amp Energy Drink from Mountain Dew\".\" In 2008, the label design was changed to contract the product name to a more concise \"Amp Energy\", with the Mountain Dew logo being shifted to the lower portion of the cans. In Amp's 2011 redesign, the Mountain Dew logo was taken off the cans completely. According to beverage industry commentators at the time, this labeling update was enacted with the intent of \"placing a stronger emphasis on the 'Amp Energy' brand and less on its Mountain Dew roots\". Amp Energy Original contains taurine, B-vitamins, guarana, ginseng and maltodextrin. 8.4 fluid ounces of Amp contains 74 milligrams of caffeine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In response to negative publicity around high-fructose corn syrup, PepsiCo in 2009 released a limited-run production of Mountain Dew Throwback, a variation consisting of sugar in place of high-fructose corn syrup. Mountain Dew Throwback subsequently was re-released for brief periods (generally 8\u201312 weeks at a time), including a second wave from December 2009 to February 2010 and a third wave in the summer and fall of 2010. A fourth 8-week production run began in March 2011, before it became a permanent addition to the Mountain Dew flavor line-up."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Beginning in 2007, Mountain Dew began a promotion entitled \"DEWmocracy\", which involved the public electing new flavors, colors, names, packaging graphics and advertisements for upcoming Mountain Dew products. The campaign has been the subject of recognition within the advertising industry, cited as one of the earliest and longest-running examples of a consumer product brand employing crowdsourcing to make decisions which are traditionally made internally by employees. In its initial phase, DEWmocracy participation and voting was conducted via an online game. Television advertisements at the time featured actor Forest Whitaker asking people to decide the next new flavor of Mountain Dew. Online voters selected from three choices: Supernova (a strawberry/melon flavor), Revolution (a berry flavor), and Voltage (a raspberry/citrus flavor). Each included ginseng. The event ended on 17 August 2008, with Voltage announced as the winning flavor. It was officially released on 29 December 2008. According to Beverage Digest, sales of DEWmocracy flavors totaled 25 million cases in 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diet Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Diet Mountain Dew is a no-calorie Mountain Dew that was first introduced in 1986. It was formerly known as \"Sugar-Free Mountain Dew\" until 1986, when it was given its current name. In 2006 Diet Mountain Dew was reformulated with a new \"Tuned Up Taste\", using a blend of sucralose, aspartame, and acesulfame potassium as sweeteners. The previous formulation was sweetened exclusively with aspartame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In January 2019, PepsiCo introduced a new line of Game Fuel called Game Fuel Amp. The can features a re-sealable lid. Game Fuel Amp has 90\u00a0mg of caffeine and also includes theanine and vitamins A and B."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Gibbin",
        "text": "In 2007, Gibbin created Dewmocracy, a story-driven fan based advertising campaign for Mountain Dew, that let consumers choose the next new flavor for the soda. The campaign featured an in-depth virtual world and a video directed by Oscar winner Forest Whitaker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "An urban legend about Mountain Dew ingredients is that dye Yellow #5 (tartrazine) lowers sperm count. Tartrazine has never been scientifically linked to any of the alleged effects in the legends, nor has any other component of the drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "An 'Amp' branded citrus-flavoured energy drink distributed by Britvic under license from PepsiCo. launched in the UK in August 2013. The United Kingdom version of Amp Energy is released under the 'Mountain Dew' brand with a UK-unique new logo. This is similar to its early release in North America, with the Amp logo featuring the text 'Powered by Mountain Dew' beneath it. Amp Energy\u00a0\u2014 Powered by Mountain Dew features a higher caffeine content than Mountain Dew Energy at 31\u00a0mg/100ml. It also contains real sugar as is common with other UK soft drinks. The drink was discontinued in 2017, in order for Britvic to focus more on the original variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Mountain Dew\n--Origin.\n--Packaging.\n----Logo.\n----Sidekick bottles.\n--Ingredients.\n----Tartrazine.\n----Alcohol.\n--Promotions.\n----Amp Energy.\n----Taco Bell's Mountain Dew Baja Blast.\n----DEWmocracy 1.\n----DEWmocracy 2.\n----Game Fuel.\n----Green Label.\n------Green Label Art.\n------Green Label Sound.\n------Dew Tour/Green Label experience.\n------Green Label Gaming.\n----Doritos Quest.\n----FanDEWmonium.\n----Back by Popular DEWmand.\n----\"The Dark Knight Rises\" partnership.\n----\"Dub the Dew\".\n----\"Puppy Monkey Baby\".\n----\"DEWcision 2016\".\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In October 2015, Game Fuel returned with a new companion flavor, Berry Lime, for the promotion of \"\". After the promotion, Citrus Cherry once again reverted to promotionless packaging, while the Berry Lime flavor remained available as a Slurpee."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Fury is a Mountain Dew taste-alike produced and distributed by the Milwaukee-based Roundy's for their Pick n' Save, Rainbow, Copps and Mariano's stores in Wisconsin, Minnesota and Illinois. Diet Mountain Fury is also available. Mountain Fury has a caffeine content of 41.8\u00a0mg per 12 oz. can."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cool Mountain Beverages",
        "text": "All Cool Mountain sodas are caffeine-free and manufactured with pure cane sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Mountain Dew flavors and varieties",
        "text": "List of Mountain Dew flavors and varieties\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In October 2010, Mountain Dew started the \"FanDEWmonium\" promotion, a competition in which new flavors would compete to become permanent similar to the two DEWmocracy campaigns, but with eight diet flavors instead of three regular ones. Five of the participating flavors were diet versions of previous DEWmocracy flavors: Diet Super Nova, Diet Voltage, Diet Crave (originally Flavor #722), Diet Distortion, Diet Typhoon, and Diet White Out. Another flavor, Diet Ultra Violet, was returning from its own limited release in 2009. The remaining competitor was a brand-new Diet flavor created specifically for the promotion - Flare (berry/citrus-flavored). Each of the eight flavors was available for tasting at specific tour locations, and special cans were also mailed to some Dew Labs members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diet Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Diet Mountain Dew\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Production was extended to the U.K. in 1996, but was phased out in 1998. A similarly named but different-tasting product, with a recipe more similar to the original American product has been sold in the U.K. under the name \"Mountain Dew Energy\" since 2010 and in Ireland since the spring of 2011. The product was renamed in 2014 to simply 'Mountain Dew'. As of 2017, Mountain Dew represented a 6.6% share of the carbonated soft drinks market in the U.S. Its competition includes The Coca-Cola Company's Mello Yello and Surge, and Dr Pepper Snapple Group's Sun Drop; Mountain Dew accounted for 80% of citrus soft drinks sold within the U.S. in 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The Dark Knight Rises promotion inspired a permanent 24 oz. version of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Amp Energy is an energy drink distributed by PepsiCo under the Mountain Dew brand. Launched in 2001, Amp was originally known as \"Mountain Dew AMP.\" From 2007 to 2008, several additional flavors of Amp were introduced. In 2012, AMP's labeling and ingredients changed, as did the flavor and appeal, according to fans. The Mountain Dew branding was also removed from cans during this change."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Mountain Dew flavors and varieties",
        "text": "Mountain Dew, a citrus-flavored carbonated soft drink now owned by PepsiCo, has had numerous branded flavor variants since the original formula's creation in 1940. Notable flavor variants include Baja Blast, Code Red, Voltage, LiveWire, Major Melon, and Spark."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In 2008, Doritos debuted a mystery flavor known as \"Quest\", featuring a campaign of online puzzles and prizes to identify the Quest flavor. The flavor was later identified as Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "The Our Family version of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dr. Enuf",
        "text": "Dr. Enuf\n--Early product heritage with Mountain Dew.\n--Availability.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "4chan",
        "text": "In August 2012, 4chan users attacked a third-party sponsored Mountain Dew campaign, \"Dub the Dew\", where users were asked to submit and vote on name ideas for a green apple flavor of the drink. Users submitted entries such as \"Diabeetus\", \"Fapple\", several variations of \"Gushing Granny\", and \"Hitler did nothing wrong\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The ad features a computer-generated mash-up of three things that the public generally finds to be cute or harmless; a Pug puppy (the head), a monkey (the body and tail), and a dancing baby (the hips and legs). The puppy monkey baby dances with three men who are presumably watching the Super Bowl, offering them Mountain Dew Kickstart, which is similarly described as being a combination of three things (Mountain Dew, juice, and caffeine)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Mountain Dew, stylized as Mtn Dew, is a carbonated soft drink brand produced and owned by PepsiCo. The original formula was invented in 1940 by Tennessee beverage bottlers Barney and Ally Hartman. A revised formula was created by Bill Bridgforth in 1958. The rights to this formula were obtained by the Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia. William H. \"Bill\" Jones of the Tip Corporation further refined the formula, launching that version of Mountain Dew in 1961. In August 1964, the Mountain Dew brand and production rights were acquired from Tip by the Pepsi-Cola company, and the distribution expanded across the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Breeze is the Safeway SELECT generic answer to Mountain Dew. The taste of the soda is much the same as Mountain Dew, with a few noticeable differences. Mountain Dew is a bit tangier than its Safeway SELECT counterpart, which focuses more on sweetness. One 12 oz. can of Mountain Breeze contains 0 calories, 0\u00a0mg of sodium, 0g total Carbohydrate, 0g of sugar, and the following ingredients: carbonated water, high-fructose corn syrup, citric acid, sodium benzoate, orange juice concentrate, sodium citrate, caffeine, natural flavors, artificial flavors, ester gum and Yellow 5. The design of a Mountain Breeze soda can also bears a great resemblance to an older Mountain Dew can, more so than many of the generic citrus sodas. Safeway Select has replaced the brand name with Refreshe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Mountain Dew is a carbonated soft drink brand produced and owned by PepsiCo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "On March 6, 2013, Amp Energy officially announced that it will re-introduce its Orange flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In October 2014, Game Fuel returned with a new lemonade flavor for the promotion of \"\". Unlike past two-variant Game Fuel releases, both drinks sport the same artwork (unlike 2009's Horde Red and Alliance Blue or 2011's citrus/cherry and tropical), albeit differing colors to match their respective flavors. After the promotion ended, Citrus Cherry reverted to promotionless packaging while lemonade flavor was permanently removed from shelves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vault (drink)",
        "text": "Coca-Cola representatives and the American Beverage Association stated that Vault contained 47\u00a0mg of caffeine per 237 ml (8 fl. oz.) serving, or 70.5\u00a0mg per 355 ml (12 fl. oz.) can, and 117.5\u00a0mg per 20 fl. oz. PET bottle. This caffeine amount was substantially higher than Surge's 52.5\u00a0mg per 12\u00a0fl.\u00a0oz., Mountain Dew's 54\u00a0mg per 12 fl. oz., Mello Yello's 51\u00a0mg per 12 fl. oz., or Sun Drop's 63\u00a0mg per 12 fl. oz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Mountain Dew may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar",
        "text": "The second version of Mountain Dew Throwback from December 2009 differed slightly in its formula from the first version from April 2009, in that it now included concentrated orange juice as one of its ingredients, giving it a slightly different flavor more in line with \"regular\" Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dewa Mountains",
        "text": "Dewa Mountains\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Antfood",
        "text": "Mountain Dew \"Dew VR\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "Mountain Dew Amp\n--Flavors.\n--Sponsorship.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The Hartman brothers also asked Coca-Cola for input on their soda. The Coca-Cola Company refused their offer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain gum",
        "text": "Mountain gum\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Big K Citrus Drop is the generic version of Mountain Dew sold at Kroger stores. Its name plays another citrus drink, Sun Drop, which claims that its introduction in 1928 makes it the first soft drink marketed in this category, earlier than Mountain Dew. The brand's slogan is \"Pop the Drop\" which is analogous to Mountain Dew's former \"Do the Dew\" slogan. Citrus Drop contains 26.2 mg of caffeine, while Diet Citrus Drop contains 25.1 mg. The Xtreme version tastes the same, but contains more caffeine than the original Citrus Drop, and comes in a 'tribal' themed can. According to Kroger's customer service, Diet Citrus Drop Xtreme has 70.9 mg of caffeine per can. The slogan is \"Citrus With Attitude\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain ration",
        "text": "The mountain ration contained:\n*Biscuits\n*Carter's spread (a butter substitute)\n*Cereal (three different variations)\n*Corned beef\n*Dehydrated baked beans\n*Dehydrated cheese\n*Dehydrated potatoes\n*Dehydrated soup\n*D ration bars\n*Fruit bars\n*Granulated sugar\n*Chewing gum\n*Hard candy\n*Lemon-juice powder\n*Pork luncheon meat\n*Pork sausage meat\n*Powdered milk\n*Precooked rice\n*Salt\n*Instant coffee\n*Tea\n*Toilet paper"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Summit is the Schnucks store brand of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "This was the Sodastream version of Mountain Dew, sold as a syrup for their home carbonation device. This flavor was sold in standard and diet varieties, both of which use Splenda as part or all of the sweetening agent, instead of aspartame or high-fructose corn syrup. Fountain Mist was discontinued as part of their brand overhaul in mid-2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain tea",
        "text": "Mountain tea\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "Mountain Dew Amp (or simply Amp) is an energy drink brand produced by PepsiCo. At the time of its introduction in 2001, Amp Energy was initially distributed under the Mountain Dew soft drink brand. Beginning in 2009, it was produced and labeled under its own stand-alone trademark name, but in 2018, reverted to using Mountain Dew branding. The beverage is packaged in both 16-ounce and 24-ounce cans, and is sold in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and Lebanon. As of 2009, Amp Energy was the number four energy drink brand in the U.S. in terms of overall retail sales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew goat commercials",
        "text": "The Mountain Dew goat commercials were a series of three television commercials for the soft drink Mountain Dew, which is produced by PepsiCo. The commercials aired in 2013 and featured Tyler, the Creator, who voiced a goat named Felicia. The commercials were pulled after receiving backlash from critics, including social commentator Boyce Watkins, who stated that the commercials played to racial stereotypes regarding African Americans and trivialized violence against women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew goat commercials",
        "text": "Mountain Dew goat commercials\n--The ads.\n--Response.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "After much speculation over a leaked Instagram photo of a potential new flavor, it was officially announced that Mountain Dew was teaming up with Warner Bros. Pictures' and Legendary Pictures' film The Dark Knight Rises and released a limited-edition flavor on 18 June 2012. A website\u00a0\u2014 DEWGothamCity.com\u00a0\u2014 was launched, on which fans were able to enter codes to access exclusive content and details on the movie before its 20 July release date. Some Mountain Dew products temporarily featured packaging to promote the movie, including thermochromic 16 oz. cans that change color when cooled. The limited-edition flavor, Dark Berry, was mixed berry-flavored, and was available for 8 weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In May 2014, the original citrus/cherry Game Fuel began reappearing on shelves, but this time, the soda does not seem to be promoting any video game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Forest Whitaker",
        "text": "Under Frank Cooper, he served as the creator and producer of DEWmocracy.com, an interactive video game, short film, and website that allowed people to select a new flavor of Mountain Dew. This campaign turned into the most successful launch of a soft drink in Mountain Dew's history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Leading up to 2004, Pepsico conducted extensive research to develop a beverage with a taste and color to complement Taco Bell food products. The resulting product was named Mountain Dew \"Baja Blast\", a light blue-green colored, tropical lime-flavored variety of the soft drink. Taco Bell was given a 10-year exclusive rights period, during which Baja Blast would not be available in any store or other food outlet, not even to Taco Bell's fellow Yum! Brands restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The term \"Mountain Dew Mouth\" was coined to reflect the popularity of the drink amongst some, particularly in the Appalachian region, who are afflicted by a form of tooth decay and drink a lot of soft drink."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain W is the Wegmans stores version of a Mountain Dew style soda."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Mountain Dew announced a continuation of the DEWmocracy campaign\u00a0\u2013 referred to as \"DEWmocracy 2\"\u00a0\u2013 which launched in July 2009. A marked difference between DEWmocracy 2 and its predecessor was the wider range of online voting methods, expanding beyond the DEWmocracy website to include Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and the \"Dew Labs Community\"\u00a0\u2013 a private, online forum for the \"most passionate Dew fans.\" In July 2009, Dew Labs sampling trucks distributed product samples of seven potential flavor variations. At the same time, 50 \"Dew fanatics\" were chosen based on their video submissions to the video website 12seconds.tv, and were shipped boxes of the seven prototype flavors. From the initial seven flavors, taste testers were asked to elect three final flavors for later release at retail stores. The three new candidate flavors were Distortion (a Key lime flavor), Typhoon (a tropical punch flavor), and White Out (a smooth citrus flavor). The three new candidate flavors were released on 19 April 2010 and voting lasted until 14 June. The following day, White Out was announced as the winner. Mountain Dew White Out was released for sale on 4 October 2010. A limited production White Out Slurpee (Mtn Dew White Out Freeze) was made available at 7-Eleven stores beginning in January 2011. In July 2011, Mountain Dew Typhoon was re-released briefly in 2-liter form."
      },
      {
        "title": "2001 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "NOTES:"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Drive is the generic version of Mountain Dew sold at Hy-Vee stores, also available in diet. Formerly known as Heee Haw."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sun Drop",
        "text": "Sun Drop is a citrus-flavored soft drink produced by Dr. Pepper Snapple Group. It has a yellowish-green color imparted by tartrazine. Among soft drinks, it is known for its high caffeine content (63 mg per 12 oz can, 9 mg higher than a 12 oz can of Mountain Dew, Nevertheless, it's not as much as Vault with 70.5 mg per 12 oz can). Orange juice is an ingredient in the drink, and remaining pulp matter from the orange juice provides some of the soft drink's taste and appearance. The Sun Drop competed primarily against The Coca-Cola Company's Mello Yello and PepsiCo's Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Maze is the Mountain Dew-like soda sold exclusively at Albertsons stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In spring 2014, Mountain Dew began distributing its Baja Blast flavor in standard 12-ounce cans, 20-ounce bottles and 24-ounce cans for sale at supermarkets and retail businesses in the U.S. The new retail product bore the Taco Bell logo. Taco Bell's chief marketing officer, Chris Brandt, said the exclusive drinks have helped increase the company's beverage sales, even as soda sales have declined in the broader market. He noted that people are more likely to buy drinks when they are available exclusively at the chain. Due to the drink's success, many other new beverages were introduced at Taco Bell, including a new Taco Bell exclusive, Mountain Dew Sangrita Blast, a non-alcoholic sangrita-flavored Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Also similar to the DEWmocracy campaign, those who taste-tested the Diet flavors were asked to go online and vote for which flavors they thought should be permanently sold in stores. After the first round of voting was completed, two flavor finalists were chosen to receive a limited release to store shelves for a final round of voting. Diet Voltage and Diet Super Nova were sold in stores for an eight-week period beginning in March 2011. After votes were cast, it was announced that Diet Super Nova had won, with 55% of all votes, and it returned in January 2012. Afterwards, it was removed from shelves permanently after a 12-week release due to low sales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew (film)",
        "text": "Mountain Dew is a lost 1917 American silent comedy-drama film directed by Thomas N. Heffron and starring Margery Wilson. It was produced and distributed by the Triangle Film Corporation."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Rapids is the \"Smart Sense\" brand's Mountain Dew-based soda available at Kmart stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Green Label is an online magazine, a partnership between Mountain Dew and Complex Media producing sponsored content covering action sports, music, art and style, housed at Green-Label.com. The site replaces several websites and a YouTube channel that have been overseen by PepsiCo since 2007. The initiative originated in 2013 and will continue through the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Wave is the generic \"Nice!\" soda brand's version of Mountain Dew available at Walgreens stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "The Amp Energy product line has since expanded to a broader range of flavors and variants, which as of 2011 included Amp Energy (Original), Sugar Free, Overdrive (cherry), Relaunch (discontinued) (orange), Elevate (mixed berry), Traction (grape), Green Tea, Lightning (lemonade) and Sugar Free Lightning, and watermelon. Traction has since been renamed to Boost. There was also a limited edition flavor named Tradin Paint which was an Orange/Lime/Berry drink. In February 2010 a new series of juices was launched under the name Amp Energy Juices, which are made with B-vitamins, taurine, ginseng and guarana. These juices are produced in two flavors: Orange and Mixed Berry, and are packaged in 12-ounce bottles. Also introduced at this time was Amp Energy Gum, which is made from a blend of B-vitamins, taurine and caffeine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain cranberry",
        "text": "Mountain cranberry\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "On 24 August 2011, Mountain Dew announced another return of the Game Fuel promotion on their Facebook page. The original citrus/cherry would once again return, along with a new tropical companion flavor. The announcement gave a planned release date of October 2011 and stated that the packaging would feature codes granting players double experience points in \"\". Both flavors were mailed out to Dew Labs members in early September 2011, a month before the planned release date. Later that same month, it was announced through the Facebook page that Game Fuel would be arriving to the public in mid-October, though it would vary by market. These flavors began appearing from the first week of October and were also discontinued after 12 weeks of being on shelves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Malepunyo Mountain Range",
        "text": "The mountain range is a famous source of Alamid Coffee due to civet cats that chew on coffee beans and ferments the seeds inside its digestive system. The fermented coffee beans are then excreted along the trails and is cleaned and pulverized for coffee preparation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "At the same time of the DEWmand Promotion, Mountain Dew launched the Throwback Shack, a website where participators could enter to win exclusive Dew merchandise, including a \"secret stash\" of Mountain Dew Revolution, a losing competitor from 2008's DEWmocracy. The promotional advertisements were then taken down from the Mountain Dew website. Mountain Dew later stated via tweet that there would not be any more flavors returning 'by Popular DEWmand' for now, as it was only intended to be a summer program."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The computer worm Code Red was named because the person who discovered the worm was drinking this version of Mountain Dew at the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brominated vegetable oil",
        "text": "On May 5, 2014, Coca-Cola and PepsiCo said they would remove BVO from their products. As of 2020, Mountain Dew manufactured by PepsiCo, no longer uses BVO in the main line of beverages; but the original BVO-containing formula is still sometimes sold as the lesser distributed \"Mountain Dew Throwback\" beverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain gum",
        "text": "Mountain gum may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "David Zennie",
        "text": "Mountain Dew (Director)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cool Mountain Beverages",
        "text": "Cool Mountain Beverages\n--Flavors.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "In addition to PepsiCo's Mountain Dew, Coca-Cola's Sprite or Dr Pepper's Sun Drop, there are a variety of smaller or regional brands for citrus soda. Several of these brands include the word \"Mountain\" in their name to help describe their product, a nod to Mountain Dew's leading market position."
      },
      {
        "title": "1995 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "1995 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia bought the rights to Mountain Dew, revising the flavor and launching it in 1961. In 1964, Pepsico purchased the Tip Corporation and thus acquired the rights to Mountain Dew. In 1999, the Virginia legislature recognized Bill Jones and the Town of Marion for their role in the history of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gremlins",
        "text": "In February 2021, a Mountain Dew Zero Sugar ad featuring Zach Galligan and Gizmo was released."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain tea",
        "text": "Mountain tea may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Charge is the Mountain dew inspired citrus soda available at ShopRite stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "PepsiCo (then The Pepsi-Cola Company) acquired the Mountain Dew brand in 1964, and shortly thereafter in 1969 the logo was modified as the company sought to shift its focus to a \"younger, outdoorsy\" generation. This direction continued as the logo remained the same through the 1970s, 1980s. In 1996, PepsiCo began using a strategy it was already using with its flagship cola Pepsi, changing Mountain Dew's logo every few years. New logos were introduced in 1996, 1998, and 2005. In October 2008, the Mountain Dew logo was redesigned to \"Mtn Dew\" within the U.S. market, as a result of PepsiCo announcing that it would rebrand its core carbonated soft-drink products by early 2009. However, the variant flavors continued to use the previous design until May 2011, when it was announced that the \"Code Red\", \"LiveWire\", \"Voltage\", and \"Baja Blast\" flavor variants would be given redesigned packaging, including new logos to correspond with the \"Mtn Dew\" style. The returning flavors \"Pitch Black\", \"Supernova\", \"Typhoon\", and \"Game Fuel\" were given redesigned packaging and logos for their 2011 re-release."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Tops is the Tops Friendly Markets store brand of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "A new line of drinks from the Amp brand was introduced in 2018, titled Mountain Dew Amp Game Fuel, bearing the name of Mountain Dew's former line of Game Fuel drinks. The line features a resealable can lid, and has sponsored several esports communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Kountry Mist is the generic version of Mountain Dew sold at Winn-Dixie stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Drops contains 20 more calories, one more gram of carbohydrates, and one more gram of sugar than Mountain Dew. This generic soda does not use any orange juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Wild Mountain is the Food Club generic brand Mountain Dew available at Brookshire's Food & Pharmacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crowfeet Mountain",
        "text": "Crowfeet Mountain\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In 2022, PepsiCo partnered with the Boston Beer Company to produce a line of alcohol-infused drinks in four flavors. Labelled \"Hard Mtn Dew\", the drinks will initially be sold in Florida, Iowa and Tennessee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dry Ridge Mountain",
        "text": "Dry Ridge Mountain\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "1994 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "1994 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "West Jefferson, North Carolina",
        "text": "West Jefferson is the home of soda manufacturers West Jefferson Dr Pepper (WJDP). The company is known for producing all their non-diet products with cane sugar, most of which are Dr Pepper Snapple Group (formerly Dr Pepper/Seven Up) products but also include Mountain Dew. WJDP is one of only two non-Pepsi franchises existing in the United States permitted to produce Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "A 2009 promotion involved graphic designers, musicians and artists creating custom Amp-branded refrigerators which were placed in designers' homes and retail stores that included Crooks and Castles, Rogue Status, Huf Clothing and Reed Space. Designers that participated in the promotion included Topher Chin, Steve Aoki, Omar Epps and Han Cholo. According to Women\u2019s Wear Daily, this initiative was carried out \u201cas part of Pepsi's bid to recast the image of its Amp Energy drink as the beverage of choice for the fashion, art and lifestyle crowd.\u201d In 2010, Amp Energy became the official energy drink of the World Extreme Cagefighting (WEC) series, before the WEC went defunct in the same year. It is also the sponsor of UFC athletes Urijah Faber, Chad Mendes and Joseph Benavidez."
      },
      {
        "title": "1996 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "1996 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Lightning is a Wal-Mart soft drink brand that resembles Mountain Dew. On the can, there is a picture of two mountains and lightning bolts surrounding it and the color scheme resembles that of Mountain Dew's. It's a less expensive alternative to Mountain Dew with less caffeine. One can presume that its name was chosen due to both brand names being alternative for moonshine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbonate Mountain",
        "text": "Carbonate Mountain\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "2001 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "2001 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n--Background.\n--Results.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian Bacon (mountain)",
        "text": "Canadian Bacon (mountain)\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who revised the mountain Dew formula in 1958?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The revised formula was created by Bill Bridgforth  in 1958, and the rights to this formula were obtained by the Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the first flavor variety for Mountain Dew?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The first variety of Mountain Dew was citrus-flavored, available from the 1940s onward."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were some notable advertisements for Mountain Dew?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Beginning in 2007, Mountain Dew began a promotion entitled \"DEWmocracy\", which involved the public electing new flavors, colors, names, packaging graphics and advertisements for upcoming Mountain Dew products and the campaign has been the subject of recognition within the advertising industry."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the caffeine content of Mountain Dew?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "A 12 US fl oz (355 mL) can of Mountain Dew contains 54 mg of caffeine (equivalent to 152 mg/L).",
      "A 12 US fl oz can of Mountain Dew contains 54 mg of caffeine."
    ],
    "topic": "Mountain Dew",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Mountain Dew:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mountain Dew",
          "Ingredients"
        ],
        "ctx": "A can of Mountain Dew contains 54\u00a0mg of caffeine (equivalent to )."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Mountain Dew:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mountain Dew",
          "Ingredients"
        ],
        "ctx": "A can of Mountain Dew contains 54\u00a0mg of caffeine (equivalent to )."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "A can of Mountain Dew contains 54\u00a0mg of caffeine (equivalent to )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In its primary market of the United States, the ingredient composition of Mountain Dew is listed as: \"carbonated water, high-fructose corn syrup (in much of the U.S.), concentrated orange juice, citric acid, natural flavors, sodium benzoate, caffeine, sodium citrate, erythorbic acid, gum arabic, Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, and yellow 5.\" The ingredient makeup of Mountain Dew varies based on the country of production. For example, in Canada, the sweetener listed is \"glucose-fructose\" (another name for high-fructose corn syrup), and until 2012, it was caffeine-free by default. Formerly, the composition included brominated vegetable oil, an emulsifier banned in foods throughout Europe and in Japan. As of 2020, this ingredient has been removed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar Mountain",
        "text": "Sugar Mountain\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In response to negative publicity around high-fructose corn syrup, PepsiCo in 2009 released a limited-run production of Mountain Dew Throwback, a variation consisting of sugar in place of high-fructose corn syrup. Mountain Dew Throwback subsequently was re-released for brief periods (generally 8\u201312 weeks at a time), including a second wave from December 2009 to February 2010 and a third wave in the summer and fall of 2010. A fourth 8-week production run began in March 2011, before it became a permanent addition to the Mountain Dew flavor line-up."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diet Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Diet Mountain Dew is a no-calorie Mountain Dew that was first introduced in 1986. It was formerly known as \"Sugar-Free Mountain Dew\" until 1986, when it was given its current name. In 2006 Diet Mountain Dew was reformulated with a new \"Tuned Up Taste\", using a blend of sucralose, aspartame, and acesulfame potassium as sweeteners. The previous formulation was sweetened exclusively with aspartame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar Mountain",
        "text": "Sugar Mountain may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Mountain Dew flavors and varieties",
        "text": "List of Mountain Dew flavors and varieties\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dewa Mountains",
        "text": "Dewa Mountains\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar",
        "text": "The second version of Mountain Dew Throwback from December 2009 differed slightly in its formula from the first version from April 2009, in that it now included concentrated orange juice as one of its ingredients, giving it a slightly different flavor more in line with \"regular\" Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugarloaf Mountain (Florida)",
        "text": "<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Between the 1940s and 1980s there was only one variety of Mountain Dew, which was citrus-flavored and caffeinated in most markets. Diet Mountain Dew was introduced in 1988, followed by Mountain Dew Red, which was introduced and discontinued in 1988. In 2001, a cherry-flavored variant called Code Red debuted. This product line extension trend has continued to this day, with expansion into specialty, limited time production, region-specific, and retailer-specific (Taco Bell, 7-Eleven, Bojangles, and KFC) variants of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar Pine Peak",
        "text": "Sugar Pine Peak\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Mountain Dew may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugarloaf Peak",
        "text": "Sugarloaf Peak\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Diet Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Diet Mountain Dew\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "The Our Family version of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Breeze is the Safeway SELECT generic answer to Mountain Dew. The taste of the soda is much the same as Mountain Dew, with a few noticeable differences. Mountain Dew is a bit tangier than its Safeway SELECT counterpart, which focuses more on sweetness. One 12 oz. can of Mountain Breeze contains 0 calories, 0\u00a0mg of sodium, 0g total Carbohydrate, 0g of sugar, and the following ingredients: carbonated water, high-fructose corn syrup, citric acid, sodium benzoate, orange juice concentrate, sodium citrate, caffeine, natural flavors, artificial flavors, ester gum and Yellow 5. The design of a Mountain Breeze soda can also bears a great resemblance to an older Mountain Dew can, more so than many of the generic citrus sodas. Safeway Select has replaced the brand name with Refreshe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain gum",
        "text": "Mountain gum\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cool Mountain Beverages",
        "text": "All Cool Mountain sodas are caffeine-free and manufactured with pure cane sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Fury is a Mountain Dew taste-alike produced and distributed by the Milwaukee-based Roundy's for their Pick n' Save, Rainbow, Copps and Mariano's stores in Wisconsin, Minnesota and Illinois. Diet Mountain Fury is also available. Mountain Fury has a caffeine content of 41.8\u00a0mg per 12 oz. can."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antfood",
        "text": "Mountain Dew \"Dew VR\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar Mountain Farm",
        "text": "Sugar Mountain Farm\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Candy Cane Mountains",
        "text": "Candy Cane Mountains\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "The original formulation of Amp Energy was positioned as a flavor extension of the Mountain Dew brand, and in 2001 its label read \"\"Amp Energy Drink from Mountain Dew\".\" In 2008, the label design was changed to contract the product name to a more concise \"Amp Energy\", with the Mountain Dew logo being shifted to the lower portion of the cans. In Amp's 2011 redesign, the Mountain Dew logo was taken off the cans completely. According to beverage industry commentators at the time, this labeling update was enacted with the intent of \"placing a stronger emphasis on the 'Amp Energy' brand and less on its Mountain Dew roots\". Amp Energy Original contains taurine, B-vitamins, guarana, ginseng and maltodextrin. 8.4 fluid ounces of Amp contains 74 milligrams of caffeine."
      },
      {
        "title": "2001 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "NOTES:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Mountain Dew is a carbonated soft drink brand produced and owned by PepsiCo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar High",
        "text": "Sugar High\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugarloaf Mountain (Arizona)",
        "text": "Sugarloaf Mountain (Arizona)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain tea",
        "text": "Mountain tea\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain ration",
        "text": "The mountain ration contained:\n*Biscuits\n*Carter's spread (a butter substitute)\n*Cereal (three different variations)\n*Corned beef\n*Dehydrated baked beans\n*Dehydrated cheese\n*Dehydrated potatoes\n*Dehydrated soup\n*D ration bars\n*Fruit bars\n*Granulated sugar\n*Chewing gum\n*Hard candy\n*Lemon-juice powder\n*Pork luncheon meat\n*Pork sausage meat\n*Powdered milk\n*Precooked rice\n*Salt\n*Instant coffee\n*Tea\n*Toilet paper"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "Mountain Dew Amp\n--Flavors.\n--Sponsorship.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain gum",
        "text": "Mountain gum may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The Dark Knight Rises promotion inspired a permanent 24 oz. version of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Production was extended to the U.K. in 1996, but was phased out in 1998. A similarly named but different-tasting product, with a recipe more similar to the original American product has been sold in the U.K. under the name \"Mountain Dew Energy\" since 2010 and in Ireland since the spring of 2011. The product was renamed in 2014 to simply 'Mountain Dew'. As of 2017, Mountain Dew represented a 6.6% share of the carbonated soft drinks market in the U.S. Its competition includes The Coca-Cola Company's Mello Yello and Surge, and Dr Pepper Snapple Group's Sun Drop; Mountain Dew accounted for 80% of citrus soft drinks sold within the U.S. in 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "An 'Amp' branded citrus-flavoured energy drink distributed by Britvic under license from PepsiCo. launched in the UK in August 2013. The United Kingdom version of Amp Energy is released under the 'Mountain Dew' brand with a UK-unique new logo. This is similar to its early release in North America, with the Amp logo featuring the text 'Powered by Mountain Dew' beneath it. Amp Energy\u00a0\u2014 Powered by Mountain Dew features a higher caffeine content than Mountain Dew Energy at 31\u00a0mg/100ml. It also contains real sugar as is common with other UK soft drinks. The drink was discontinued in 2017, in order for Britvic to focus more on the original variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Drops contains 20 more calories, one more gram of carbohydrates, and one more gram of sugar than Mountain Dew. This generic soda does not use any orange juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar Sugar",
        "text": "Sugar Sugar\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar",
        "text": "On March 11, 2011, PepsiCo announced that both Pepsi Throwback and Mountain Dew Throwback would become permanent additions to the Pepsi and Mountain Dew product lines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carbonate Mountain",
        "text": "Carbonate Mountain\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "West Jefferson, North Carolina",
        "text": "West Jefferson is the home of soda manufacturers West Jefferson Dr Pepper (WJDP). The company is known for producing all their non-diet products with cane sugar, most of which are Dr Pepper Snapple Group (formerly Dr Pepper/Seven Up) products but also include Mountain Dew. WJDP is one of only two non-Pepsi franchises existing in the United States permitted to produce Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In January 2019, PepsiCo introduced a new line of Game Fuel called Game Fuel Amp. The can features a re-sealable lid. Game Fuel Amp has 90\u00a0mg of caffeine and also includes theanine and vitamins A and B."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strawberry Mountain",
        "text": "Strawberry Mountain\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Corn sugar",
        "text": "Corn sugar\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dr. Enuf",
        "text": "Dr. Enuf\n--Early product heritage with Mountain Dew.\n--Availability.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In October 2015, Game Fuel returned with a new companion flavor, Berry Lime, for the promotion of \"\". After the promotion, Citrus Cherry once again reverted to promotionless packaging, while the Berry Lime flavor remained available as a Slurpee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The media response to the advertisement was mixed to negative. Melissa Cronin of Gawker described it as a \"horror-hallucination of brand awareness\", while noting the beverage itself contains brominated vegetable oil, a chemical that is banned in several countries. Jim Joseph, chief integrated marketing officer at Cohn & Wolfe, called it \"weird\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain cranberry",
        "text": "Mountain cranberry\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Potato Mountain",
        "text": "Potato Mountain\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gremlins",
        "text": "In February 2021, a Mountain Dew Zero Sugar ad featuring Zach Galligan and Gizmo was released."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sug\u00e1r",
        "text": "Sug\u00e1r\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Mountain Dew\n--Origin.\n--Packaging.\n----Logo.\n----Sidekick bottles.\n--Ingredients.\n----Tartrazine.\n----Alcohol.\n--Promotions.\n----Amp Energy.\n----Taco Bell's Mountain Dew Baja Blast.\n----DEWmocracy 1.\n----DEWmocracy 2.\n----Game Fuel.\n----Green Label.\n------Green Label Art.\n------Green Label Sound.\n------Dew Tour/Green Label experience.\n------Green Label Gaming.\n----Doritos Quest.\n----FanDEWmonium.\n----Back by Popular DEWmand.\n----\"The Dark Knight Rises\" partnership.\n----\"Dub the Dew\".\n----\"Puppy Monkey Baby\".\n----\"DEWcision 2016\".\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "1995 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "1995 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Similar ingredients. Mountain Frost has the same amount of sugar, which is 47 grams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mount Chitose",
        "text": "Mount Chitose\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The Hartman brothers also asked Coca-Cola for input on their soda. The Coca-Cola Company refused their offer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vault (drink)",
        "text": "Coca-Cola representatives and the American Beverage Association stated that Vault contained 47\u00a0mg of caffeine per 237 ml (8 fl. oz.) serving, or 70.5\u00a0mg per 355 ml (12 fl. oz.) can, and 117.5\u00a0mg per 20 fl. oz. PET bottle. This caffeine amount was substantially higher than Surge's 52.5\u00a0mg per 12\u00a0fl.\u00a0oz., Mountain Dew's 54\u00a0mg per 12 fl. oz., Mello Yello's 51\u00a0mg per 12 fl. oz., or Sun Drop's 63\u00a0mg per 12 fl. oz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mount Dewe",
        "text": "Mount Dewe\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar",
        "text": "In 2011, Dr Pepper Snapple Group announced 7UP Retro, a sugar-sweetened version of 7UP, that would be available for a limited-time only. This became a direct competitor to Mountain Dew Throwback, but 7UP Retro stopped production later in the year, while Mountain Dew Throwback continued production. Mexican 7UP, which is exported to the United States, still has sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugarloaf Mountain (Benson, New York)",
        "text": "Sugarloaf Mountain (Benson, New York)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Maze is the Mountain Dew-like soda sold exclusively at Albertsons stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "On March 6, 2013, Amp Energy officially announced that it will re-introduce its Orange flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dry Ridge Mountain",
        "text": "Dry Ridge Mountain\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of mountains named Sugarloaf",
        "text": "List of mountains named Sugarloaf\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain W is the Wegmans stores version of a Mountain Dew style soda."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Mountain Dew, stylized as Mtn Dew, is a carbonated soft drink brand produced and owned by PepsiCo. The original formula was invented in 1940 by Tennessee beverage bottlers Barney and Ally Hartman. A revised formula was created by Bill Bridgforth in 1958. The rights to this formula were obtained by the Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia. William H. \"Bill\" Jones of the Tip Corporation further refined the formula, launching that version of Mountain Dew in 1961. In August 1964, the Mountain Dew brand and production rights were acquired from Tip by the Pepsi-Cola company, and the distribution expanded across the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar Bush",
        "text": "Sugar Bush\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar bush",
        "text": "Sugar bush\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugarloaf Mountain (Webb, New York)",
        "text": "Sugarloaf Mountain (Webb, New York)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweet Sugar",
        "text": "Sweet Sugar\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In 2008, Doritos debuted a mystery flavor known as \"Quest\", featuring a campaign of online puzzles and prizes to identify the Quest flavor. The flavor was later identified as Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Drive is the generic version of Mountain Dew sold at Hy-Vee stores, also available in diet. Formerly known as Heee Haw."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Mountain Dew flavors and varieties",
        "text": "Mountain Dew, a citrus-flavored carbonated soft drink now owned by PepsiCo, has had numerous branded flavor variants since the original formula's creation in 1940. Notable flavor variants include Baja Blast, Code Red, Voltage, LiveWire, Major Melon, and Spark."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain tea",
        "text": "Mountain tea may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain honeyeater",
        "text": "Mountain honeyeater\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Summit is the Schnucks store brand of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deertrap Mountain",
        "text": "food."
      },
      {
        "title": "1994 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "1994 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "1996 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "1996 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian Bacon (mountain)",
        "text": "Canadian Bacon (mountain)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugarloaf Mountain (New Brunswick)",
        "text": "Sugarloaf Mountain is a Late Devonian age volcano. Its formation is associated to a period of crustal thinning that followed the Acadian orogeny in the northern Appalachian Mountains. Its rock is felsic."
      },
      {
        "title": "2001 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "2001 Mountain Dew Southern 500\n--Background.\n--Results.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Amp Energy is an energy drink distributed by PepsiCo under the Mountain Dew brand. Launched in 2001, Amp was originally known as \"Mountain Dew AMP.\" From 2007 to 2008, several additional flavors of Amp were introduced. In 2012, AMP's labeling and ingredients changed, as did the flavor and appeal, according to fans. The Mountain Dew branding was also removed from cans during this change."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dewberry",
        "text": "Dewberry\n--Description.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweetwater Mountains",
        "text": "Sweetwater Mountains\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In October 2010, Mountain Dew started the \"FanDEWmonium\" promotion, a competition in which new flavors would compete to become permanent similar to the two DEWmocracy campaigns, but with eight diet flavors instead of three regular ones. Five of the participating flavors were diet versions of previous DEWmocracy flavors: Diet Super Nova, Diet Voltage, Diet Crave (originally Flavor #722), Diet Distortion, Diet Typhoon, and Diet White Out. Another flavor, Diet Ultra Violet, was returning from its own limited release in 2009. The remaining competitor was a brand-new Diet flavor created specifically for the promotion - Flare (berry/citrus-flavored). Each of the eight flavors was available for tasting at specific tour locations, and special cans were also mailed to some Dew Labs members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pinto Mountain",
        "text": "Pinto Mountain\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar Ridge",
        "text": "Sugar Ridge\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew (film)",
        "text": "Mountain Dew is a lost 1917 American silent comedy-drama film directed by Thomas N. Heffron and starring Margery Wilson. It was produced and distributed by the Triangle Film Corporation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goon Dip Mountain",
        "text": "Goon Dip Mountain\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "De\u00e7an Mountain",
        "text": "De\u00e7an Mountain\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cedar Mountain",
        "text": "Cedar Mountain\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Powder Horn Mountain",
        "text": "Powder Horn Mountain\n--See also.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Blender (mountain)",
        "text": "Blender (mountain)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "DeWine",
        "text": "DeWine\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar High",
        "text": "Sugar High may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Crowfeet Mountain",
        "text": "Crowfeet Mountain\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Devil Mountain",
        "text": "Devil Mountain\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cocoa Sugar",
        "text": "Cocoa Sugar\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Strawberries",
        "text": "Mountain Strawberries\n--Background.\n--Synopsis.\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who revised the mountain Dew formula in 1958?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The revised formula was created by Bill Bridgforth  in 1958, and the rights to this formula were obtained by the Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the first flavor variety for Mountain Dew?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The first variety of Mountain Dew was citrus-flavored, available from the 1940s onward."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were some notable advertisements for Mountain Dew?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Beginning in 2007, Mountain Dew began a promotion entitled \"DEWmocracy\", which involved the public electing new flavors, colors, names, packaging graphics and advertisements for upcoming Mountain Dew products and the campaign has been the subject of recognition within the advertising industry."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the caffeine content of Mountain Dew?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A 12 US fl oz can of Mountain Dew contains 54 mg of caffeine."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the sugar content of Mountain Dew?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry, I was not able to locate that information."
    ],
    "topic": "Mountain Dew",
    "ground_truth_ctx": []
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "List of Mountain Dew flavors and varieties",
        "text": "List of Mountain Dew flavors and varieties\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Mountain Dew flavors and varieties",
        "text": "Mountain Dew, a citrus-flavored carbonated soft drink now owned by PepsiCo, has had numerous branded flavor variants since the original formula's creation in 1940. Notable flavor variants include Baja Blast, Code Red, Voltage, LiveWire, Major Melon, and Spark."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In response to negative publicity around high-fructose corn syrup, PepsiCo in 2009 released a limited-run production of Mountain Dew Throwback, a variation consisting of sugar in place of high-fructose corn syrup. Mountain Dew Throwback subsequently was re-released for brief periods (generally 8\u201312 weeks at a time), including a second wave from December 2009 to February 2010 and a third wave in the summer and fall of 2010. A fourth 8-week production run began in March 2011, before it became a permanent addition to the Mountain Dew flavor line-up."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Between the 1940s and 1980s there was only one variety of Mountain Dew, which was citrus-flavored and caffeinated in most markets. Diet Mountain Dew was introduced in 1988, followed by Mountain Dew Red, which was introduced and discontinued in 1988. In 2001, a cherry-flavored variant called Code Red debuted. This product line extension trend has continued to this day, with expansion into specialty, limited time production, region-specific, and retailer-specific (Taco Bell, 7-Eleven, Bojangles, and KFC) variants of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In its primary market of the United States, the ingredient composition of Mountain Dew is listed as: \"carbonated water, high-fructose corn syrup (in much of the U.S.), concentrated orange juice, citric acid, natural flavors, sodium benzoate, caffeine, sodium citrate, erythorbic acid, gum arabic, Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, and yellow 5.\" The ingredient makeup of Mountain Dew varies based on the country of production. For example, in Canada, the sweetener listed is \"glucose-fructose\" (another name for high-fructose corn syrup), and until 2012, it was caffeine-free by default. Formerly, the composition included brominated vegetable oil, an emulsifier banned in foods throughout Europe and in Japan. As of 2020, this ingredient has been removed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Mountain Dew announced a continuation of the DEWmocracy campaign\u00a0\u2013 referred to as \"DEWmocracy 2\"\u00a0\u2013 which launched in July 2009. A marked difference between DEWmocracy 2 and its predecessor was the wider range of online voting methods, expanding beyond the DEWmocracy website to include Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and the \"Dew Labs Community\"\u00a0\u2013 a private, online forum for the \"most passionate Dew fans.\" In July 2009, Dew Labs sampling trucks distributed product samples of seven potential flavor variations. At the same time, 50 \"Dew fanatics\" were chosen based on their video submissions to the video website 12seconds.tv, and were shipped boxes of the seven prototype flavors. From the initial seven flavors, taste testers were asked to elect three final flavors for later release at retail stores. The three new candidate flavors were Distortion (a Key lime flavor), Typhoon (a tropical punch flavor), and White Out (a smooth citrus flavor). The three new candidate flavors were released on 19 April 2010 and voting lasted until 14 June. The following day, White Out was announced as the winner. Mountain Dew White Out was released for sale on 4 October 2010. A limited production White Out Slurpee (Mtn Dew White Out Freeze) was made available at 7-Eleven stores beginning in January 2011. In July 2011, Mountain Dew Typhoon was re-released briefly in 2-liter form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar",
        "text": "The second version of Mountain Dew Throwback from December 2009 differed slightly in its formula from the first version from April 2009, in that it now included concentrated orange juice as one of its ingredients, giving it a slightly different flavor more in line with \"regular\" Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In October 2010, Mountain Dew started the \"FanDEWmonium\" promotion, a competition in which new flavors would compete to become permanent similar to the two DEWmocracy campaigns, but with eight diet flavors instead of three regular ones. Five of the participating flavors were diet versions of previous DEWmocracy flavors: Diet Super Nova, Diet Voltage, Diet Crave (originally Flavor #722), Diet Distortion, Diet Typhoon, and Diet White Out. Another flavor, Diet Ultra Violet, was returning from its own limited release in 2009. The remaining competitor was a brand-new Diet flavor created specifically for the promotion - Flare (berry/citrus-flavored). Each of the eight flavors was available for tasting at specific tour locations, and special cans were also mailed to some Dew Labs members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diet Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Diet Mountain Dew is a no-calorie Mountain Dew that was first introduced in 1986. It was formerly known as \"Sugar-Free Mountain Dew\" until 1986, when it was given its current name. In 2006 Diet Mountain Dew was reformulated with a new \"Tuned Up Taste\", using a blend of sucralose, aspartame, and acesulfame potassium as sweeteners. The previous formulation was sweetened exclusively with aspartame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In October 2015, Game Fuel returned with a new companion flavor, Berry Lime, for the promotion of \"\". After the promotion, Citrus Cherry once again reverted to promotionless packaging, while the Berry Lime flavor remained available as a Slurpee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In 2008, Doritos debuted a mystery flavor known as \"Quest\", featuring a campaign of online puzzles and prizes to identify the Quest flavor. The flavor was later identified as Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "After much speculation over a leaked Instagram photo of a potential new flavor, it was officially announced that Mountain Dew was teaming up with Warner Bros. Pictures' and Legendary Pictures' film The Dark Knight Rises and released a limited-edition flavor on 18 June 2012. A website\u00a0\u2014 DEWGothamCity.com\u00a0\u2014 was launched, on which fans were able to enter codes to access exclusive content and details on the movie before its 20 July release date. Some Mountain Dew products temporarily featured packaging to promote the movie, including thermochromic 16 oz. cans that change color when cooled. The limited-edition flavor, Dark Berry, was mixed berry-flavored, and was available for 8 weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In October 2014, Game Fuel returned with a new lemonade flavor for the promotion of \"\". Unlike past two-variant Game Fuel releases, both drinks sport the same artwork (unlike 2009's Horde Red and Alliance Blue or 2011's citrus/cherry and tropical), albeit differing colors to match their respective flavors. After the promotion ended, Citrus Cherry reverted to promotionless packaging while lemonade flavor was permanently removed from shelves."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "This was the Sodastream version of Mountain Dew, sold as a syrup for their home carbonation device. This flavor was sold in standard and diet varieties, both of which use Splenda as part or all of the sweetening agent, instead of aspartame or high-fructose corn syrup. Fountain Mist was discontinued as part of their brand overhaul in mid-2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "On 18 April 2016, Mountain Dew announced the return of two popular favorites, Baja Blast and Pitch Black. Fans could vote on which flavor stays permanently on store shelves via the Mountain Dew website. Voting ended on 9 July, and, after many delays, Pitch Black was announced the winner on 18 July 2016. Pitch Black continues to be produced and became part of the brand's lineup starting in September."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Breeze is the Safeway SELECT generic answer to Mountain Dew. The taste of the soda is much the same as Mountain Dew, with a few noticeable differences. Mountain Dew is a bit tangier than its Safeway SELECT counterpart, which focuses more on sweetness. One 12 oz. can of Mountain Breeze contains 0 calories, 0\u00a0mg of sodium, 0g total Carbohydrate, 0g of sugar, and the following ingredients: carbonated water, high-fructose corn syrup, citric acid, sodium benzoate, orange juice concentrate, sodium citrate, caffeine, natural flavors, artificial flavors, ester gum and Yellow 5. The design of a Mountain Breeze soda can also bears a great resemblance to an older Mountain Dew can, more so than many of the generic citrus sodas. Safeway Select has replaced the brand name with Refreshe."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "The Our Family version of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "On March 6, 2013, Amp Energy officially announced that it will re-introduce its Orange flavor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Beginning in 2007, Mountain Dew began a promotion entitled \"DEWmocracy\", which involved the public electing new flavors, colors, names, packaging graphics and advertisements for upcoming Mountain Dew products. The campaign has been the subject of recognition within the advertising industry, cited as one of the earliest and longest-running examples of a consumer product brand employing crowdsourcing to make decisions which are traditionally made internally by employees. In its initial phase, DEWmocracy participation and voting was conducted via an online game. Television advertisements at the time featured actor Forest Whitaker asking people to decide the next new flavor of Mountain Dew. Online voters selected from three choices: Supernova (a strawberry/melon flavor), Revolution (a berry flavor), and Voltage (a raspberry/citrus flavor). Each included ginseng. The event ended on 17 August 2008, with Voltage announced as the winning flavor. It was officially released on 29 December 2008. According to Beverage Digest, sales of DEWmocracy flavors totaled 25 million cases in 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "The Amp Energy product line has since expanded to a broader range of flavors and variants, which as of 2011 included Amp Energy (Original), Sugar Free, Overdrive (cherry), Relaunch (discontinued) (orange), Elevate (mixed berry), Traction (grape), Green Tea, Lightning (lemonade) and Sugar Free Lightning, and watermelon. Traction has since been renamed to Boost. There was also a limited edition flavor named Tradin Paint which was an Orange/Lime/Berry drink. In February 2010 a new series of juices was launched under the name Amp Energy Juices, which are made with B-vitamins, taurine, ginseng and guarana. These juices are produced in two flavors: Orange and Mixed Berry, and are packaged in 12-ounce bottles. Also introduced at this time was Amp Energy Gum, which is made from a blend of B-vitamins, taurine and caffeine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In 2017, Game Fuel returned with two previously discontinued flavors: Arctic Burst (originally released as a Slurpee flavor in 2006 to promote \"Superman Returns\") and Tropical Smash (originally Flavor #736, one of the four prototype flavors for \"DEWmocracy II\" that lost to Mountain Dew White Out and did not even make the final round). As was the case with the 2013 promotion, the two flavors promoted two different Xbox games (Arctic Burst promoted \"\" while Tropical Smash promoted \"Forza 7\"). For the first time, Citrus Cherry was not fully part of the promotion; instead, promotionless Citrus Cherry was sold with the same white caps with codes under them as the other flavors in the promotion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "Mountain Dew Amp\n--Flavors.\n--Sponsorship.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Mountain Dew\n--Origin.\n--Packaging.\n----Logo.\n----Sidekick bottles.\n--Ingredients.\n----Tartrazine.\n----Alcohol.\n--Promotions.\n----Amp Energy.\n----Taco Bell's Mountain Dew Baja Blast.\n----DEWmocracy 1.\n----DEWmocracy 2.\n----Game Fuel.\n----Green Label.\n------Green Label Art.\n------Green Label Sound.\n------Dew Tour/Green Label experience.\n------Green Label Gaming.\n----Doritos Quest.\n----FanDEWmonium.\n----Back by Popular DEWmand.\n----\"The Dark Knight Rises\" partnership.\n----\"Dub the Dew\".\n----\"Puppy Monkey Baby\".\n----\"DEWcision 2016\".\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Leading up to 2004, Pepsico conducted extensive research to develop a beverage with a taste and color to complement Taco Bell food products. The resulting product was named Mountain Dew \"Baja Blast\", a light blue-green colored, tropical lime-flavored variety of the soft drink. Taco Bell was given a 10-year exclusive rights period, during which Baja Blast would not be available in any store or other food outlet, not even to Taco Bell's fellow Yum! Brands restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cool Mountain Beverages",
        "text": "Cool Mountain Beverages\n--Flavors.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain W is the Wegmans stores version of a Mountain Dew style soda."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "PepsiCo (then The Pepsi-Cola Company) acquired the Mountain Dew brand in 1964, and shortly thereafter in 1969 the logo was modified as the company sought to shift its focus to a \"younger, outdoorsy\" generation. This direction continued as the logo remained the same through the 1970s, 1980s. In 1996, PepsiCo began using a strategy it was already using with its flagship cola Pepsi, changing Mountain Dew's logo every few years. New logos were introduced in 1996, 1998, and 2005. In October 2008, the Mountain Dew logo was redesigned to \"Mtn Dew\" within the U.S. market, as a result of PepsiCo announcing that it would rebrand its core carbonated soft-drink products by early 2009. However, the variant flavors continued to use the previous design until May 2011, when it was announced that the \"Code Red\", \"LiveWire\", \"Voltage\", and \"Baja Blast\" flavor variants would be given redesigned packaging, including new logos to correspond with the \"Mtn Dew\" style. The returning flavors \"Pitch Black\", \"Supernova\", \"Typhoon\", and \"Game Fuel\" were given redesigned packaging and logos for their 2011 re-release."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "On 24 August 2011, Mountain Dew announced another return of the Game Fuel promotion on their Facebook page. The original citrus/cherry would once again return, along with a new tropical companion flavor. The announcement gave a planned release date of October 2011 and stated that the packaging would feature codes granting players double experience points in \"\". Both flavors were mailed out to Dew Labs members in early September 2011, a month before the planned release date. Later that same month, it was announced through the Facebook page that Game Fuel would be arriving to the public in mid-October, though it would vary by market. These flavors began appearing from the first week of October and were also discontinued after 12 weeks of being on shelves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baja Blast",
        "text": "In January 2014, Taco Bell released Mountain Dew Sangrita Blast, a non-alcoholic sangria flavor, as a sister flavor to Baja Blast, along with a diet version of Baja Blast."
      },
      {
        "title": "4chan",
        "text": "In August 2012, 4chan users attacked a third-party sponsored Mountain Dew campaign, \"Dub the Dew\", where users were asked to submit and vote on name ideas for a green apple flavor of the drink. Users submitted entries such as \"Diabeetus\", \"Fapple\", several variations of \"Gushing Granny\", and \"Hitler did nothing wrong\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Wave is the generic \"Nice!\" soda brand's version of Mountain Dew available at Walgreens stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Drive is the generic version of Mountain Dew sold at Hy-Vee stores, also available in diet. Formerly known as Heee Haw."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar",
        "text": "In 2011, Dr Pepper Snapple Group announced 7UP Retro, a sugar-sweetened version of 7UP, that would be available for a limited-time only. This became a direct competitor to Mountain Dew Throwback, but 7UP Retro stopped production later in the year, while Mountain Dew Throwback continued production. Mexican 7UP, which is exported to the United States, still has sugar."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Fury is a Mountain Dew taste-alike produced and distributed by the Milwaukee-based Roundy's for their Pick n' Save, Rainbow, Copps and Mariano's stores in Wisconsin, Minnesota and Illinois. Diet Mountain Fury is also available. Mountain Fury has a caffeine content of 41.8\u00a0mg per 12 oz. can."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Wild Mountain is the Food Club generic brand Mountain Dew available at Brookshire's Food & Pharmacy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In spring 2014, Mountain Dew began distributing its Baja Blast flavor in standard 12-ounce cans, 20-ounce bottles and 24-ounce cans for sale at supermarkets and retail businesses in the U.S. The new retail product bore the Taco Bell logo. Taco Bell's chief marketing officer, Chris Brandt, said the exclusive drinks have helped increase the company's beverage sales, even as soda sales have declined in the broader market. He noted that people are more likely to buy drinks when they are available exclusively at the chain. Due to the drink's success, many other new beverages were introduced at Taco Bell, including a new Taco Bell exclusive, Mountain Dew Sangrita Blast, a non-alcoholic sangrita-flavored Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Holler also has a few extensions of its flavors, also similar to Mountain Dew. Mountain Holler Red Howl is similar to Code Red or even the limited time Game Fuel, and Mountain Holler Avalanche is similar to Whiteout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar",
        "text": "Both editions have used retro packaging as part of the \"throwback\" theme. The first release featured the 1940s Pepsi-Cola script in royal blue on a modern navy blue background with the word \"throwback\" written in the modern font, while the 1973\u20131996 Mountain Dew logo was featured on a modern green background."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "The original formulation of Amp Energy was positioned as a flavor extension of the Mountain Dew brand, and in 2001 its label read \"\"Amp Energy Drink from Mountain Dew\".\" In 2008, the label design was changed to contract the product name to a more concise \"Amp Energy\", with the Mountain Dew logo being shifted to the lower portion of the cans. In Amp's 2011 redesign, the Mountain Dew logo was taken off the cans completely. According to beverage industry commentators at the time, this labeling update was enacted with the intent of \"placing a stronger emphasis on the 'Amp Energy' brand and less on its Mountain Dew roots\". Amp Energy Original contains taurine, B-vitamins, guarana, ginseng and maltodextrin. 8.4 fluid ounces of Amp contains 74 milligrams of caffeine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Also similar to the DEWmocracy campaign, those who taste-tested the Diet flavors were asked to go online and vote for which flavors they thought should be permanently sold in stores. After the first round of voting was completed, two flavor finalists were chosen to receive a limited release to store shelves for a final round of voting. Diet Voltage and Diet Super Nova were sold in stores for an eight-week period beginning in March 2011. After votes were cast, it was announced that Diet Super Nova had won, with 55% of all votes, and it returned in January 2012. Afterwards, it was removed from shelves permanently after a 12-week release due to low sales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Amp Energy is an energy drink distributed by PepsiCo under the Mountain Dew brand. Launched in 2001, Amp was originally known as \"Mountain Dew AMP.\" From 2007 to 2008, several additional flavors of Amp were introduced. In 2012, AMP's labeling and ingredients changed, as did the flavor and appeal, according to fans. The Mountain Dew branding was also removed from cans during this change."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The Dark Knight Rises promotion inspired a permanent 24 oz. version of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar",
        "text": "On March 11, 2011, PepsiCo announced that both Pepsi Throwback and Mountain Dew Throwback would become permanent additions to the Pepsi and Mountain Dew product lines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Mountain Dew is a carbonated soft drink brand produced and owned by PepsiCo."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Maze is the Mountain Dew-like soda sold exclusively at Albertsons stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baja Blast",
        "text": "Mountain Dew Baja Blast is a tropical lime flavored soft drink under the Mountain Dew brand, exclusively distributed at Taco Bell restaurants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The media response to the advertisement was mixed to negative. Melissa Cronin of Gawker described it as a \"horror-hallucination of brand awareness\", while noting the beverage itself contains brominated vegetable oil, a chemical that is banned in several countries. Jim Joseph, chief integrated marketing officer at Cohn & Wolfe, called it \"weird\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Summit is the Schnucks store brand of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Kountry Mist is the generic version of Mountain Dew sold at Winn-Dixie stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Doritos",
        "text": "In 2008, Doritos debuted a \"mystery flavor\" Quests with prizes being given as puzzles were solved. The mystery flavor was Mountain Dew. In 2009, Doritos released some new flavors under the banner \"Doritos Late Night\": \"Tacos at Midnight\" and \"Last Call Jalape\u00f1o Popper\". They also modified the X-13D Flavor as All Nighter Cheeseburger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Mountain Dew may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In 2007, after using the term \"Game Fuel\" to market their sodas to the video-gaming subculture, Mountain Dew introduced a new flavor variant (citrus/cherry) with the Game Fuel name. Coinciding with the release of the Xbox 360 game \"Halo 3\", Mountain Dew Game Fuel sported a label that was almost entirely image-based, showing promotional artwork for the game and featuring the game series' main character Master Chief prominently. This variant remained on shelves for 12 weeks, and was discontinued afterwards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "A can of Mountain Dew contains 54\u00a0mg of caffeine (equivalent to )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Powerade",
        "text": "Currently, there are sixteen flavors of Powerade available in the United States:\n* Mountain Berry Blast (blue; initially titled Mountain Blast)\n* Orange (orange)\n* Fruit Punch (red)\n* Grape (purple)\n* Lemon Lime (lime green)\n* Blackberry (red-violet, Twisted)\n* Melon (green; initially titled Green Squall, renamed and re-released after being discontinued)\n* White Cherry (white, Initially titled Arctic Shatter)\n* Strawberry Lemonade (pink)\n* Tropical Mango (yellow-orange)\n* Lemonade (light yellow)\n* Watermelon Strawberry Wave (reddish pink)\n* Citrus Passionfruit (dark orange)\n* Kiwi Pineapple (green yellow)\n* Blue Raspberry Cherry (dark blue)\n* Watermelon Lime (green; exclusive to 7-Eleven)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar",
        "text": "With the second release in December 2009, more accurate retro packaging was used. Pepsi used an exact replica of the 1973\u20131987 logo, while Mountain Dew used its original hillbilly theme. The use of Mountain Dew's original theme is a stark reversal of Pepsi's decision to distance the drink from its Appalachia origins, as well as a stark contrast from the drink's current male demographic, particularly those that participate in extreme sports or are involved with the gamer culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Rapids is the \"Smart Sense\" brand's Mountain Dew-based soda available at Kmart stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "On 7 January 2011, Mountain Dew posted on their Facebook that Pitch Black would return to the shelves in May 2011, also stating that this may be the start of many re-releases of old favorites. The company promoted Pitch Black's return heavily with giveaways and contests. About a month before the planned release date, a photo was posted on a Mountain Dew worker's Pongr, which showed Pitch Black and 2008's Supernova. Two weeks before the release, Dew Labs announced the return of 2010's Typhoon in 2-Liter bottles exclusively at Walmart Supercenters. The three flavors were re-released to stores on 2 May."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar",
        "text": "In early 2009, PepsiCo announced plans to release versions of Pepsi and Mountain Dew with pure cane sugar as its main sweetener, and without the citric acid found in regular Pepsi, on a limited basis. The original shipment went on sale in April 2009, and ended in June. Sales were strong for both, prompting PepsiCo to release a second limited edition for December 2009\u2013February 2010. It's still called Pepsi Throwback in Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Tops is the Tops Friendly Markets store brand of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antfood",
        "text": "Mountain Dew \"Dew VR\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain gum",
        "text": "Mountain gum\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dr. Enuf",
        "text": "Dr. Enuf\n--Early product heritage with Mountain Dew.\n--Availability.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Production was extended to the U.K. in 1996, but was phased out in 1998. A similarly named but different-tasting product, with a recipe more similar to the original American product has been sold in the U.K. under the name \"Mountain Dew Energy\" since 2010 and in Ireland since the spring of 2011. The product was renamed in 2014 to simply 'Mountain Dew'. As of 2017, Mountain Dew represented a 6.6% share of the carbonated soft drinks market in the U.S. Its competition includes The Coca-Cola Company's Mello Yello and Surge, and Dr Pepper Snapple Group's Sun Drop; Mountain Dew accounted for 80% of citrus soft drinks sold within the U.S. in 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Powerade",
        "text": "Discontinued Flavours\n* White Cherry (white)\n* Fuel+ Berry Ice (red)\n* Fuel+ Mountain Blast (blue)\n* Mountain Blast extreme\n* Vita Lemon juice\n* Energy Punch blast\n* Aqua Powerplus\n* Powerade Recover\n* Aqua Grapefruits\n* Tidal Burst\n* Guus Hiddink\n* Gold Fever\n* Mountain Blast (blue)\n* Orange (orange)\n* Citrus Charge (yellow-green)\n* Snow Storm (white)\n* Cherry (Red)\n* Mountain Blast (blue)\n* Orange (orange)\n* Wild Cherry (red)\n* Citron (white)\n* Mountain Blast (blue)\n* Orange (orange)\n* Blood Orange (red)\n* Citrus Charge (yellow-green)\n* Cherry (red)\n* Lemon (yellow)\n* Mountain Blast (blue)\n* Orange (orange)\n* Passion Fruit (yellow)\n* Ice Storm (blue)\n* Orange (orange)\n* Cherry (red)\n* Lemon (yellow)\n* Citron (white)\n* Zero Ice Storm (blue)\n* Zero Red Fruits (red)\n* Blue Raspberry (blue)\n* Ice Storm (blue)\n* Blood Orange (red)\n* Citrus Charge (yellow-green)\n* Mandarin Orange\n* Mountain Blast\n* Tropical Fruits\n* Mountain Blast (blue)\n* Orange (orange)\n* Mango Green (green)\n* Zero Berry & Tropical (blue)\n* Mountain Blast (blue)\n* Passionfruit (yellow)\n* Citrus/Lime (white)\n* Mountain Blast (blue)\n* Orange (orange)\n* Mountain Blast\n* Tropical Fruits\n* Mandarin\n* Mountain Blast (blue)\n* Orange (orange)\n* Lemon (yellow, discontinued)\n* Citrus Lime / Lemon (clear)\n* Passionfruit (yellow)\n* Jagged Ice (purple)\n* Tangerine/Naartjie (red-orange)\n* Island Burst (orange-yellow)\n* Mountain Blast (blue)\n* Orange (orange)\n* Concentrated Tangerine/Naartjie\n* Concentrated Jagged Ice\n* Concentrated Mountain Blast\n* Concentrated Orange"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Mellow (a cross between Mountain Dew and Mello Yello) is the Western Family and Shurfine brand Mountain Dew knockoff, sold in some areas with the subtitle \"citrus soda.\" \"Mountain Mellow\" is sold (under the Western Family banner) in Mega Foods, Lowe's Market in Texas and other stores in the northwest of the U.S.A., and under the Shurfine banner in many areas of the Northeast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mirinda",
        "text": "Mirinda is no longer sold in New Zealand, replaced with the introduction of PepsiCo's new Mountain Dew range of similar flavours (Code Red, Live Wire, Pitch Black, Electro Shock and Passionfruit Frenzy). , Clendon New World and Countdown supermarkets were bringing back Mirinda with their two flavours raspberry and orange, but it was unknown whether this was only for a limited sale or a permanent official return."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Game Fuel returned in October 2012 to promote \"Halo 4\", in the original citrus-cherry flavor. In August 2013, Mountain Dew announced that Game Fuel would be returning to stores in the fall of 2013, with a new blueberry-flavored version titled \"Electrifying Berry\". In October 2013, boxes of original citrus/cherry Game Fuel appeared on store shelves with packaging promoting Xbox One and the games \"Dead Rising 3\" and \"Forza Motorsport 5\" and with cans featuring \"Dead Rising 3\" graphics. The new Electrifying Berry flavor of Game Fuel simultaneously appeared with packaging promoting Kinect Sports Rivals and the game \"Ryse: Son of Rome\", graphics from which appear on the cans as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Lion is the Food Lion equivalent to Mountain Dew. It is available in cans and PET bottles. Like all Food Lion diet drinks, Diet Mountain Lion is no longer sweetened with Splenda, and they now use aspartame. Mountain Lion tastes very similar to Mountain Dew and Mello Yello. Diet Mountain Lion is sweeter than Diet Mountain Dew. Mountain Lion contains about the same amount of caffeine as Mountain Dew. Mountain Lion can be found at Sweetbay Markets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cool Whip",
        "text": "Varieties offered include Original, Extra Creamy, Light, Free (fat-free), and Sugar-Free (made with NutraSweet). In Canada, the fat-free variety is labeled as Ultra-low Fat. Seasonal flavors include French vanilla, chocolate, and sweet cinnamon, all introduced in 2011; strawberry; peppermint, introduced in 2016; and cheesecake, introduced in 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In May 2014, the original citrus/cherry Game Fuel began reappearing on shelves, but this time, the soda does not seem to be promoting any video game."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Drops contains 20 more calories, one more gram of carbohydrates, and one more gram of sugar than Mountain Dew. This generic soda does not use any orange juice."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Hillbilly Holler is a generic version of Mountain Dew sold at Fareway stores. Rather than being a direct play on the name Mountain Dew, this name and some other generics make reference to the song, Good Old Mountain Dew, which praises the moonshine brewed in the Appalachian Mountains. Hillbilly and Holler are words referring to Appalachian Mountain life. The taste falls somewhere between Mello Yello and Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "In addition to PepsiCo's Mountain Dew, Coca-Cola's Sprite or Dr Pepper's Sun Drop, there are a variety of smaller or regional brands for citrus soda. Several of these brands include the word \"Mountain\" in their name to help describe their product, a nod to Mountain Dew's leading market position."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Charge is the Mountain dew inspired citrus soda available at ShopRite stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Mountain Dew, stylized as Mtn Dew, is a carbonated soft drink brand produced and owned by PepsiCo. The original formula was invented in 1940 by Tennessee beverage bottlers Barney and Ally Hartman. A revised formula was created by Bill Bridgforth in 1958. The rights to this formula were obtained by the Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia. William H. \"Bill\" Jones of the Tip Corporation further refined the formula, launching that version of Mountain Dew in 1961. In August 1964, the Mountain Dew brand and production rights were acquired from Tip by the Pepsi-Cola company, and the distribution expanded across the United States and Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "In 2022, PepsiCo partnered with the Boston Beer Company to produce a line of alcohol-infused drinks in four flavors. Labelled \"Hard Mtn Dew\", the drinks will initially be sold in Florida, Iowa and Tennessee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sugar Mountain",
        "text": "Sugar Mountain\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mello Yello",
        "text": "There have been three flavored variants of Mello Yello in North America. Mello Yello Cherry was released in response to Mountain Dew Code Red. The other two variants were Mello Yello Afterglow (peach-flavored) and Mello Yello Melon. All three were only available for a limited time. Mello Yello Cherry is available at Coca-Cola Freestyle machines and is still available in limited markets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain ration",
        "text": "The mountain ration contained:\n*Biscuits\n*Carter's spread (a butter substitute)\n*Cereal (three different variations)\n*Corned beef\n*Dehydrated baked beans\n*Dehydrated cheese\n*Dehydrated potatoes\n*Dehydrated soup\n*D ration bars\n*Fruit bars\n*Granulated sugar\n*Chewing gum\n*Hard candy\n*Lemon-juice powder\n*Pork luncheon meat\n*Pork sausage meat\n*Powdered milk\n*Precooked rice\n*Salt\n*Instant coffee\n*Tea\n*Toilet paper"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cool Mountain Beverages",
        "text": "The company is set to introduce flavored lemonades, mixers and spring water in 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Mountain Yeller is the Piggly Wiggly version of a Mountain Dew style soda. It is also where the South Carolina/Florida folk band The Mountain Yellers got their name."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slurpee",
        "text": "The Slurpee machine has a separate spout, or spigot, for each flavor at the front of a tumbler or freezer. When Slurpees were first introduced, the dispensing machine was located behind the counter, and the clerk dispensed the product. Common Slurpee flavors are frozen Cherry, Coca-Cola, and Mountain Dew, but new flavors are introduced regularly. In the Slurpee's early history, flavors rotated much more frequently than today. Slurpee flavors were given novelty names such as Pink Fink, Adults Only, Moonshine, Kissin' Cousin, Gully Washer, Sticky Icky, and Redeye."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hosmer Mountain Soda",
        "text": "Hosmer Mountain Soda\n--Flavors.\n--Glass Bottles Only.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Salt & Straw",
        "text": "Salt & Straw\n--Company history.\n--List of flavors.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sierra Mist",
        "text": "In August 2010 PepsiCo replaced the original Sierra Mist formula with \"Sierra Mist Natural\", which is sweetened with sucrose (table sugar) instead of high fructose corn syrup. The new formulation contains four other ingredients: carbonated water, citric acid, natural flavor, potassium citrate, and Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of citrus soft drinks",
        "text": "Hannaford makes Mountain Lion and it has a flavor similar to Mountain Dew but the color is a bit lighter green then Mountain Dew and it costs less it is very similar to Food Lion\u2019s Mountain Lion"
      },
      {
        "title": "DeKuyper",
        "text": "Apple Barrel, BlueBerry, ButterShots, Crantasia, HotDamn! (100-proof Cinnamon and 30-proof Cinnamon), Key Largo Tropical, Mountain Strawberry, Old Tavern Root Beer, Peach, Peppermint, Pomegranate, Spearmint, Tropical Pineapple, and WilderBerry. Also the tart \"Puckers\" line, which includes Berry Fusion, Strawberry Passion, Cheri-Beri, Grape, Island Blue, Peach, Raspberry, Sour Apple, and Watermelon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain cranberry",
        "text": "Mountain cranberry\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Johnson City, Tennessee",
        "text": "The popular citrus soda Mountain Dew traces its origins to Johnson City. In July 2012, PepsiCo announced a new malt-flavored version of the drink named \"Mountain Dew Johnson City Gold\" in honor of the city. The drink was test marketed in the Chicago metropolitan area, Denver, and Charlotte, beginning in late August."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Images leaked in May 2016 led to speculation that Game Fuel would once again see a new release later in 2016, with a new mango-flavored variant alongside the original citrus/cherry, promoting the game \"Titanfall 2\". Mountain Dew announced the return of Game Fuel and the new flavor, Mango Heat, in September. Then, in October, Game Fuel was released with the \"Titanfall 2\" promotion, with a lower calorie version of the original citrus/cherry variant returning alongside the new Mango Heat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diet Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Diet Mountain Dew\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gremlins",
        "text": "In February 2021, a Mountain Dew Zero Sugar ad featuring Zach Galligan and Gizmo was released."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain gum",
        "text": "Mountain gum may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "The Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia bought the rights to Mountain Dew, revising the flavor and launching it in 1961. In 1964, Pepsico purchased the Tip Corporation and thus acquired the rights to Mountain Dew. In 1999, the Virginia legislature recognized Bill Jones and the Town of Marion for their role in the history of Mountain Dew."
      },
      {
        "title": "2001 Mountain Dew Southern 500",
        "text": "NOTES:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew",
        "text": "Two years later, the website for the popular MMORPG \"World of Warcraft\" stated that two Mountain Dew Game Fuel flavors would be sold in June 2009 and would promote the game. Shortly afterwards, the bottle art was released, and showed that the two flavors would promote different player races in the game. One of the two was exactly the same citrus/cherry flavor from the original \"Halo 3\" promotion, with updated packaging. The second flavor was a new wild fruit drink, similar to the previously released Pepsi Blue. Both drinks were given \"World of Warcraft\"-based packaging, and sported the newly updated \"MTN Dew\" logo. Like their precursor, these two flavors lasted for 12 weeks and were discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mountain Dew Amp",
        "text": "An 'Amp' branded citrus-flavoured energy drink distributed by Britvic under license from PepsiCo. launched in the UK in August 2013. The United Kingdom version of Amp Energy is released under the 'Mountain Dew' brand with a UK-unique new logo. This is similar to its early release in North America, with the Amp logo featuring the text 'Powered by Mountain Dew' beneath it. Amp Energy\u00a0\u2014 Powered by Mountain Dew features a higher caffeine content than Mountain Dew Energy at 31\u00a0mg/100ml. It also contains real sugar as is common with other UK soft drinks. The drink was discontinued in 2017, in order for Britvic to focus more on the original variety."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dewa Mountains",
        "text": "Dewa Mountains\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Froster",
        "text": "The official Froster website lists the flavors:\n* Coca-Cola\n* Coca-Cola Cherry\n* Fanta Sour Green Apple Watermelon\n* Fanta Banana\n* Barq's Cream Soda\n* Powerade Ion\n* Barq's Root Beer\n* Crush Orange\n* Dr Pepper\n* Mountain Dew\n* Fanta Orange Freeze"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who revised the mountain Dew formula in 1958?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The revised formula was created by Bill Bridgforth  in 1958, and the rights to this formula were obtained by the Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the first flavor variety for Mountain Dew?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The first variety of Mountain Dew was citrus-flavored, available from the 1940s onward."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What were some notable advertisements for Mountain Dew?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Beginning in 2007, Mountain Dew began a promotion entitled \"DEWmocracy\", which involved the public electing new flavors, colors, names, packaging graphics and advertisements for upcoming Mountain Dew products and the campaign has been the subject of recognition within the advertising industry."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the caffeine content of Mountain Dew?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A 12 US fl oz can of Mountain Dew contains 54 mg of caffeine."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the sugar content of Mountain Dew?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I was not able to locate that information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some of the different available flavors of Mountain Dew?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Notable flavor variants include Baja Blast, Sweet Lightning, Uproar, Legend, Code Red, Voltage, LiveWire, Major Melon, and Spark."
    ],
    "topic": "Mountain Dew",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "List of Mountain Dew flavors and varieties:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "List of Mountain Dew flavors and varieties"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mountain Dew, a citrus-flavored carbonated soft drink now owned by PepsiCo, has had numerous branded flavor variants since the original formula's creation in 1940. Notable flavor variants include Baja Blast, Code Red, Voltage, LiveWire, Major Melon, and Spark."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Logos Complete Study Bible",
        "text": "The following example is part of the first column of page 1756, which includes parts of Matthew 2:23 and 3:1:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logophoricity",
        "text": "This account can be used to explain the following examples from Ewe:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logo (disambiguation)",
        "text": "A logo is a graphic used to represent an entity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebus",
        "text": "Today a number of abstract examples following certain conventions are occasionally used for names, primarily for corporate logos or product logos and incorporating some characters of the name, as in a monogram; see Japanese rebus monogram. The most familiar example globally is the logo for Yamasa soy sauce, which is a \u2227 with a \u30b5 under it. This is read as \"Yama\", for (symbolized by the \u2227) + ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Logos (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cuneiform",
        "text": "Cuneiform is occasionally used nowadays as inspiration for logos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lissajous curve",
        "text": "Lissajous figures are sometimes used in graphic design as logos. Examples include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Logos (, ; ; from , , ) is a term in Western philosophy, psychology, rhetoric, and religion derived from a Greek word variously meaning \"ground\", \"plea\", \"opinion\", \"expectation\", \"word\", \"speech\", \"account\", \"reason\", \"proportion\", and \"discourse\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logo",
        "text": "A logo (abbreviation of logotype; ) is a graphic mark, emblem, or symbol used to aid and promote public identification and recognition. It may be of an abstract or figurative design or include the text of the name it represents as in a wordmark."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "The word \"logos\" has been used in different senses along with \"rhema\". Both Plato and Aristotle used the term \"logos\" along with \"rhema\" to refer to sentences and propositions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos Complete Study Bible",
        "text": "At the bottom of the page are two more examples of in-text articles. The article for Nazareth is referenced from verse 23 with the symbol \"*\", and the article for John the Baptist, with the symbol \"\u2020\". The latter article continues for two more columns in the text."
      },
      {
        "title": "SUBST",
        "text": "Example of user logon"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Logos may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logo",
        "text": "A company that uses logotypes (wordmarks) may desire a logo that matches the firm's Internet address. For short logotypes consisting of two or three characters, multiple companies are found to employ the same letters. A \"CA\" logo, for example, is used by the French bank Credit Agricole, the Dutch clothing retailer C&A, and the US software corporation CA Technologies, but only one can have the Internet domain name CA.com."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Logos is an important term in philosophy, analytical psychology, rhetoric, and religion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Symmetry",
        "text": "Symmetry is also used in designing logos. By creating a logo on a grid and using the theory of symmetry, designers can organize their work, create a symmetric or asymmetrical design, determine the space between letters, determine how much negative space is required in the design, and how to accentuate parts of the logo to make it stand out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logophoricity",
        "text": "The above examples are identical save for the logophoric pronoun y\u00e8 appearing in the top example and the normal pronoun e appearing in the bottom example."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logo",
        "text": "The current era of logo design began in the 1870s with the first abstract logo, the Bass red triangle. , many corporations, products, brands, services, agencies, and other entities use an ideogram (sign, icon) or an emblem (symbol) or a combination of sign and emblem as a logo. As a result, only a few of the thousands of ideograms in circulation are recognizable without a name. An effective logo may consist of both an ideogram and the company name (logotype) to emphasize the name over the graphic, and employ a unique design via the use of letters, colors, and additional graphic elements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logogriph",
        "text": "The following example of a logogriph created by Lord Macauley"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logophoricity",
        "text": "In the example above, (a) shows that the Chinese \"ziji\" can be used as a locally bound anaphor, as well as a long-distance logophor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Furthermore, one can appeal to this sense of logic in two ways. The first is through inductive reasoning, providing the audience with relevant examples and using them to point back to the overall statement. The second is through deductive enthymeme, providing the audience with general scenarios and then indicating commonalities among them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monogram",
        "text": "Some companies and organizations adopt a monogram for a logo, usually with the letters of their acronym. For example, as well as having an official seal, and the Texas Longhorns logo, the University of Texas at Austin uses a \"UT\" monogram (in the same color as the Longhorns logo, burnt orange). The New York Yankees baseball team also uses a monogram on their ball cap insignia. The Consolidated Edison logo, with a rounded \"E\" nested inside a \"C,\" has been described as a \"classic emblem.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Logo",
        "text": "In the days of hot metal typesetting, a logotype was one word cast as a single piece of type (e.g. \"The\" in ATF Garamond), as opposed to a ligature, which is two or more letters joined, but not forming a word. By extension, the term was also used for a uniquely set and arranged typeface or colophon. At the level of mass communication and in common usage, a company's logo is today often synonymous with its trademark or brand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logo (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Logo (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mainstop",
        "text": "The corporate logo consisted of four interlaced rectangles, forming an approximation of the \"hash\" symbol (#) from a computer font set, turned through 45\u00b0, or the letter \"x\" printed twice, so as to overlap. This logo was used in signage and marketing, and on promotional items, including coffee mugs widely distributed through the end of the 1970s, at the opening ceremonies of new branches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Logos became a technical term in Western philosophy beginning with Heraclitus (), who used the term for a principle of order and knowledge. Ancient Greek philosophers used the term in different ways. The sophists used the term to mean discourse. Aristotle applied the term to refer to \"reasoned discourse\" or \"the argument\" in the field of rhetoric, and considered it one of the three modes of persuasion alongside \"ethos\" and \"pathos\". Pyrrhonist philosophers used the term to refer to dogmatic accounts of non-evident matters. The Stoics spoke of the \"logos spermatikos\" (the generative principle of the Universe) which foreshadows related concepts in Neoplatonism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inventio",
        "text": "As Aristotle explains, logos, often referred to as the \"logical\" appeal, uses the arguments present in the case itself to appeal to the audience's reason. Aristotle writes that logos depends on \"the proof, or apparent proof, provided by the words of the speech itself.\" Logos appeals work \"when we have proved a truth or an apparent truth by means of the persuasive arguments suitable to the case in question.\" \"Inventio\" is linked with logos such that it deals with what an author would say as opposed to \"how\" it might be said."
      },
      {
        "title": "Interstate (typeface)",
        "text": "The font is used by a number of large organizations in their logotype and branding materials. Notable examples include Citigroup (Citibank), \"Sesame Street\" and Sainsbury's supermarkets, as well as recent signage for Southwest Airlines, Invesco, UK rail company c2c, Ealing / Hammersmith / West London College, Trinity College, Lamborghini, Cognizant, SoundCloud and CISV. It is also used for the logo of the Spanish socialdemocratic party PSOE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Despite the conventional translation as \"word\", \"logos\" is not used for a word in the grammatical sense\u2014for that, the term \"lexis\" (, ) was used. However, both \"logos\" and \"lexis\" derive from the same verb (), meaning \"(I) count, tell, say, speak\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "58534 Logos",
        "text": "Logos is a binary with the components of comparable size orbiting the barycentre on a moderately elliptical orbit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logocracy",
        "text": "Logocracy\n--Historical examples.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Anangeon",
        "text": "Anangeon can be seen as a part of logos and is a type of non sequitur."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "The concept of \"logos\" also appears in the Targums (Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Bible dating to the first centuries AD), where the term \"memra\" (Aramaic for \"word\") is often used instead of 'the Lord', especially when referring to a manifestation of God that could be construed as anthropomorphic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logonym",
        "text": "Logonym\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "UCBLogo",
        "text": "However, in some early Logos the procedure is limited to the physical line length of the input device."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "In Christianity, the Logos () is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity. In the Douay\u2013Rheims, King James, New International, and other versions of the Bible, the first verse of the Gospel of John reads:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logophoricity",
        "text": "An example of this can be seen in Japanese where the logophoric pronoun refers back to an internal subject in the sentence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "The concept of Logos also appears in the Targums (Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Bible dating to the first centuries AD), where the term \"memra\" (Aramaic for \"word\") is often used instead of 'the Lord', especially when referring to a manifestation of God that could be construed as anthropomorphic."
      },
      {
        "title": "UCBLogo",
        "text": "All Logos can invoke an Editor, usually by EDALL. In the editor, procedures may be written over many lines, as nothing is interpreted until the edit is complete."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logogram",
        "text": "Logograms are used in modern shorthand to represent common words."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "The Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus defined the Pyrrhonist usage of \"logos\" as \"When we say 'To every logos an equal logos is opposed,' by 'every logos' we mean 'every logos that has been considered by us,' and we use 'logos' not in its ordinary sense but for that which establishes something dogmatically, that is to say, concerning the non-evident, and which establishes it in any way at all, not necessarily by means of premises and conclusion.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Logo",
        "text": "Logos and their design may be protected by copyright, via various intellectual property organisations worldwide which make available application procedures to register a design to give it protection at law. For example, in the UK, the Intellectual Property Office (United Kingdom) govern registered designs, patents, and trademarks. Ordinarily, the trademark registration will not 'make claim' to colors used, meaning it is the visual design that will be protected, even if it is reproduced in a variety of other colors or backgrounds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logographic cues",
        "text": "Examples of logographic cues include traffic signs, restroom signs, and pictorial flashcards. Unsurprisingly, logographic cues tend to be processed in the right brain hemisphere, the side more actively engaged with visuospatial input. Due to advances in technology and the media where logographic cues such as brand logos abound, the ability and tendency to draw meaning from pictures has become more widespread and intuitive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logo (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Logo may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Modes of persuasion",
        "text": "\"Logos\" (plural: \"logoi\") is logical appeal or the simulation of it, and the term \"logic\" is derived from it. It is normally used to describe facts and figures that support the speaker's claims or thesis. There are also more traditional forms of logical reasoning such as syllogisms and enthymemes. Having a \"logos\" appeal also enhances \"ethos\" because information makes the speaker look knowledgeable and prepared to his or her audience. However, the data can be confusing and thus confuse the audience. Logos can also be misleading or inaccurate, however meaningful it may seem to the subject at hand. In some cases, inaccurate, falsified, or misconstrued even be used to enact a pathos effect. Such is the case with casualty numbers, which, while not necessarily falsified, may include minor casualties (injuries) that are equated with deaths in the mind of an audience and therefore can evoke the same effect as a death toll."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "In these translations, \"Word\" is used for \u039b\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2, although the term is often used transliterated but untranslated in theological discourse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "In Christology, the Logos () is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity. The concept derives from , which in the Douay\u2013Rheims, King James, New International, and other versions of the Bible, reads:"
      },
      {
        "title": "LaTeX",
        "text": "In media where the logo cannot be precisely reproduced in running text, the word is typically given the unique capitalization \"LaTeX\". Alternatively, the TeX, LaTeX and XeTeX logos can also be rendered via pure CSS and XHTML for use in graphical web browsers \u2014 by following the specifications of the internal codice_7 macro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arsenal F.C.",
        "text": "The monogram theme was developed into an Art Deco-style badge on which the letters A and C framed a football rather than the letter F, the whole set within a hexagonal border. This early example of a corporate logo, introduced as part of Herbert Chapman's rebranding of the club in the 1930s, was used not only on Cup Final shirts but as a design feature throughout Highbury Stadium, including above the main entrance and inlaid in the floors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Philo distinguished between \"logos prophorikos\" (\"the uttered word\") and the \"logos endiathetos\" (\"the word remaining within\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Logos\n--Origins of the term.\n--Ancient Greek philosophy.\n----Heraclitus.\n----Aristotle's rhetorical logos.\n----Pyrrhonists.\n----Stoics.\n----Isocrates' logos.\n--In Hellenistic Judaism.\n----Philo of Alexandria.\n----Targums.\n--Christianity.\n--Neoplatonism.\n--Islam.\n----\"\u02bfAql\".\n--Jung's analytical psychology.\n--Rhetoric.\n--Rhema.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sequence logo",
        "text": "Sequence logos are frequently used to depict sequence characteristics such as protein-binding sites in DNA or functional units in proteins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logodaedaly",
        "text": "Neither however, used either term in anything like a favourable sense. Similarly, during the twentieth century, though \"logodaedaly\" does appear occasionally in serious usage, it is hardly ever without overtones; for example:\n:\"... we have sought to show in the last chapter that he cut through this problem by attributing magical properties to language, which enabled us to organize realities in propositions of the traditional logical form\u2014to produce products which were simply \"true\" of all the particulars we observed. Austin arrived at Anderson's result, for practical purposes, by a feat of logodaedaly.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Logosit",
        "text": "Logosit\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "UCBLogo",
        "text": "Logo provides several common control structures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logodaedaly",
        "text": "Logodaedaly\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "The Greek term \"logos\" is translated in the Vulgate with the Latin \"verbum\". Both \"logos\" and \"verbum\" are used to translate \"dabar\" in the Hebrew Bible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Theodor Birt",
        "text": "The \"logos\" is as non-spatial as music, and has its extension only in time. Before writing, our collective memory entrusted its survival to song, to Homer and the ancient rhapsodes. When writing first came, it was nothing more than a crutch for our memory. In itself, the written word is not more than sound and thought crystallized into space, and streams out into time again as soon as it touches the reader\u2019s eye."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "The Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek uses the terms \"rhema\" and \"logos\" as equivalents and uses both for the Hebrew word \"dabar\", as the Word of God."
      },
      {
        "title": "SBV Vitesse",
        "text": "In the autumn of 2011, a new version of the logo was put into use; A total of 13 changes have been made. For example, the symmetry of the eagle was improved, the black outer edge replaced by a white and in the writing has been made thinner. The football has been altered in terms of appearance as a shadow effect is added and (if the context allows it) the year of creation as text EST. 1892 under the logo can be found."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logo",
        "text": "Logo\n--History.\n--Contemporary logos.\n--Logo design.\n--Logo color.\n----Logo design process.\n----Dynamic logos.\n----Internet-compatible logos.\n--Design protection.\n--Sports.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "MicroWorlds JR",
        "text": "Logo is a computer programming language that requires the student to interact with the turtle (object), and give it commands to make it move. For example, to draw a square, the turtle would need to put its pen down, step forward 60 paces, turn 90 degrees and then repeat these two commands four times. Students need to think carefully to command the turtle in a logical manner, and then check to see whether they create the desired effect. Alternatively, procedures can be written whereby students group the commands together and have the actions executed all at once. Older students might type this command using logo as:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logo Motion",
        "text": "The following make up the FIRST Logo.\n*Triangle - a red, triangular inner tube\n*Circle - a white, circular inner tube\n*Square - a blue, square inner tube"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logodaedaly",
        "text": "Since the mid twentieth century the terms are prone to appear in humour or satire; for example:\n::\"What logodaedaly shall we practise then?\"\n::\"What loxodromics to get behind the light?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "The Purdue Online Writing Lab clarifies that \"Logos\" is \"frequently translated as some variation of \u2018logic or reasoning, but it originally referred to the actual content of a speech and how it was organized. Today, many people may discuss the logos qualities of a text to refer to how strong the logic or reasoning of the text is. But logos more closely refers to the structure and content of the text itself. In this resource, logos means \u201ctext.\u201d\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "SAML metadata",
        "text": "<mdui:Logo height=\"32\" width=\"32\" xml:lang=\"en\">https://idp.example.org/myicon.png</mdui:Logo>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logogniegue",
        "text": "Logogniegue\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "The writing of Heraclitus () was the first place where the word \"logos\" was given special attention in ancient Greek philosophy, although Heraclitus seems to use the word with a meaning not significantly different from the way in which it was used in ordinary Greek of his time. For Heraclitus, \"logos\" provided the link between rational discourse and the world's rational structure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logopolis",
        "text": "According to Christopher Bidmead, the Logopolitans employ a hexadecimal, or base-16, numerical system, a real system commonly used in computer programming. When Adric and the Monitor read strings of numbers and letters, the letters are actually the numbers between 10 and 15, expressed as single digits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logophoricity",
        "text": "In the first example, the pronoun \"him\" references the subject, \"Mr. Smith\", whose speech is being reported and who resides in the matrix clause. In the latter example, the pronoun \"him\" references some other individual."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logo",
        "text": "Since a logo is the visual entity signifying an organization, logo design is an important area of graphic design. A logo is the central element of a complex identification system that must be functionally extended to all communications of an organization. Therefore, the design of logos and their incorporation in a visual identity system is one of the most difficult and important areas of graphic design. Logos fall into three classifications (which can be combined). Ideographs, such as Chase Bank, are completely abstract forms; pictographs are iconic, representational designs; logotypes (or wordmarks) depict the name or company initials. These elements can be combined in a set position and relative size in a logo lock-up, so named because elements are \"locked\" together and should not be broken apart or resized individually. Because logos are meant to represent companies' brands or corporate identities and foster their immediate customer recognition, it is counterproductive to frequently redesign logos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logophoricity",
        "text": "A DRS representing these sentences follows:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tagesschau24",
        "text": "Tagesschau24\n--History.\n--Logos.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logorama",
        "text": "\"Logorama\" explores the extent to which logos are embedded in Earth's daily existence. H5 members explained that, \"\"Logorama\" presents us with an over-marketed world built only from logos and real trademarks that are destroyed by a series of natural disasters (including an earthquake and a tidal wave of oil). Logotypes are used to describe an alarming universe (similar to the one that we are living in) with all the graphic signs that accompany us in our lives. This over-organized universe is violently transformed by the cataclysm becoming fantastic and absurd. It shows the victory of the creative against the rational, where nature and human fantasy triumph\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Author and professor Jeanne Fahnestock describes \"logos\" as a \"premise\". She states that, to find the reason behind a rhetor's backing of a certain position or stance, one must acknowledge the different \"premises\" that the rhetor applies via his or her chosen diction. The rhetor's success, she argues, will come down to \"certain objects of agreement...between arguer and audience\". \"Logos is logical appeal, and the term logic is derived from it. It is normally used to describe facts and figures that support the speaker's topic.\" Furthermore, \"logos\" is credited with appealing to the audience's sense of logic, with the definition of \"logic\" being concerned with the thing as it is known."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yamasa",
        "text": "The corporate logo, a \u2227 with a \u30b5 under it, is a notable example of a Japanese rebus monogram. This is read as \"Yama,\" for (symbolized by the \u2227) + ."
      },
      {
        "title": "58534 Logos",
        "text": "58534 Logos\n--Zoe.\n--Orbit.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos Dictionary",
        "text": "Logos Dictionary\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logo",
        "text": "In today's digital interface adaptive world, a logo will be formatted and re-formatted from large monitors to small handheld devices. With the constant size change and re-formatting, logo designers are shifting to a more bold and simple approach, with heavy lines and shapes, and solid colors. This reduces the confusion when mingled with other logos in tight spaces and when scaled between media. Social networks like Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn, and Google+ use such logos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of logic articles",
        "text": "Logos --"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logology (science)",
        "text": "Some scientists prefer to use Bayesian methods, a more direct statistical approach which takes initial beliefs, adds in new evidence, and updates the beliefs. Another alternative procedure is to use the surprisal, a mathematical quantity that adjust \"p\" values to produce bits \u2013 as in computer bits \u2013 of information; in that perspective, 0.05 is a weak standard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logo (programming language)",
        "text": "Logo is usually an interpreted language, although compiled Logo dialects (such as Lhogho and Liogo) have been developed. Logo is not case-sensitive but retains the case used for formatting purposes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logogram",
        "text": "All historical logographic systems include a phonetic dimension, as it is impractical to have a separate basic character for every word or morpheme in a language. In some cases, such as cuneiform as it was used for Akkadian, the vast majority of glyphs are used for their sound values rather than logographically. Many logographic systems also have a semantic/ideographic component (see ideogram), called \"determinatives\" in the case of Egyptian and \"radicals\" in the case of Chinese."
      },
      {
        "title": "SAML metadata",
        "text": "<mdui:Logo height=\"32\" width=\"32\" xml:lang=\"en\">https://service.example.com/myicon.png</mdui:Logo>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Philo",
        "text": "Philo probably was the first philosopher who identified Plato's Ideas with Creator's thoughts. These thoughts make the contents of Logos; they were the seals for making sensual things during world creation. Logos resembles a book with creature paradigms. An Architect's design before the construction of a city serves to Philo as another simile of Logos. Since creation, Logos binds things together. As the receptacle and holder of ideas, Logos is distinct from the material world. At the same time, Logos pervades the world, supporting it."
      },
      {
        "title": "LogoLounge",
        "text": "LogoLounge is a research and networking tool for graphic designers who create corporate identities, or logos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philo's view of God",
        "text": "In its relation to the world the Logos appears as the Universal substance on which all things depend; and from this point of view the manna (as \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ce\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9) becomes a symbol for it. The Logos, however, is not only the archetype of things, but also the power that produces them, appearing as such especially under the name of the Logos \u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03cd\u03c2 (\"the divider\"). It separates the individual beings of nature from one another according to their characteristics; but, on the other hand, it constitutes the bond connecting the individual creatures, uniting their spiritual and physical attributes. It may be said to have invested itself with the whole world as an indestructible garment. It appears as the director and shepherd of the things in the world insofar as they are in motion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Digital on-screen graphic",
        "text": "Most logos on free channels are small, white or gray and opaque, but some have colors like National Geographic and TLC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "In his \"Dialogue with Trypho\", Justin relates how Christians maintain that the Logos,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logology (linguistics)",
        "text": "Some of the topics studied in logology are lipograms, acrostics, palindromes, tautonyms, isograms, pangrams, bigrams, trigrams, tetragrams, transdeletion pyramids, and pangrammatic windows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (journal)",
        "text": "Logos: A Journal of Modern Society and Culture is an American academic journal established in 2002 and edited by Michael J. Thompson. It is published quarterly and features articles that seek to foster critical dialogues on issues ranging from arts, politics, foreign affairs, culture, social sciences, to the humanities, as well as original fiction and poetry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basilikos logos",
        "text": "Basilikos logos\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logophoricity",
        "text": "Stirling (1993) also points out that although certain syntactic constraints influence the distribution of logophoric forms (such as requiring that an antecedent be a grammatical subject), syntactic binding is not crucial, nor sufficient, to explain the mechanism behind this. For example, a logophoric antecedent is often restricted to the semantic role of \"source\" in a discourse, or the semantic role of \"experiencer\" of a state of mind. Additionally, whether or not a logophoric form may be used may also be contingent on the lexical semantics of the verb in the matrix clause. There have been attempts to move beyond a solely syntactic approach in recent literature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Philo (), a Hellenized Jew, used the term \"logos\" to mean an intermediary divine being or demiurge. Philo followed the Platonic distinction between imperfect matter and perfect Form, and therefore intermediary beings were necessary to bridge the enormous gap between God and the material world. The \"logos\" was the highest of these intermediary beings, and was called by Philo \"the first-born of God\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logology (science)",
        "text": "Professor of psychology and neural science Gary Marcus points out a so far insuperable stumbling block to artificial intelligence: an incapacity for reliable disambiguation. \"[V]irtually every sentence [that people generate] is ambiguous, often in multiple ways. Our brain is so good at comprehending language that we do not usually notice.\" A prominent example is known as the \"pronoun disambiguation problem\" (\"PDP\"): a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a pronoun in a sentence\u2014such as \"he\", \"she\" or \"it\"\u2014refers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Production logo",
        "text": "A production logo, vanity card, vanity plate, or vanity logo is a logo used by movie studios and television production companies to brand what they produce and to determine the production company and the distributor of a television show or film. Production logos are usually seen at the beginning of a theatrical movie or video game (an \"opening logo\"), or at the end of a television program or TV movie (a \"closing logo\"). Many production logos have become famous over the years, such as the 20th Century Studios's monument and searchlights and MGM's Leo the Lion. Unlike logos for other media, production logos can take advantage of motion and synchronized sound, and almost always do."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logographic printing",
        "text": "Johnson employed several readers to study newspapers and standard works, such as The Spectator, to make lists of the words used. Through this study he was able to assemble a list of about 3500 words which would account for any requirement. To these words, he added \u2018terminations,\u2019 such as \u2018ed,\u2019 \u2018ly,\u2019 and \u2018ing.\u2019"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logo (programming language)",
        "text": "Logo is a multi-paradigm adaptation and dialect of Lisp, a functional programming language. There is no standard Logo, but UCBLogo has the best facilities for handling lists, files, I/O, and recursion in scripts, and can be used to teach all computer science concepts, as UC Berkeley lecturer Brian Harvey did in his \"Computer Science Logo Style\" trilogy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sound trademark",
        "text": "The sound logo (or audio mnemonic) is one of the tools of sound branding, along with the jingle, brand music, and brand theme. A sound logo (or audio logo or sonic logo) is a short distinctive melody or other sequence of sound, mostly positioned at the beginning or ending of a commercial. It can be seen as the acoustic equivalent of a visual logo. Often a combination of both types of logo is used to enforce the recognition of a brand. An example is the T-Mobile logo and ringtone composed by Lance Massey, the Intel logo composed by Walter Werzowa, or the Michelin logo composed by Sixi\u00e8me Son."
      },
      {
        "title": "Educational Pictures",
        "text": "The use of the logo in film credits was unique to Educational. The shorts would begin with the opening title card, usually having \"E. W. Hammons presents\" at the top, followed by the title of the short. The Educational logo would then appear full screen. Normally, studios would have their logos appear before the opening titles, while Educational placed its logo after the opening credits. At the end, there would be a standard end title card with the mini-logo for Educational Pictures appearing somewhere in the end title."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of how logos is used?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In Christianity, the Logos is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity, and within Sunni Islam, logos has been associated with, among other concepts, \u02bfaql (\"Intellect\") and kalimat All\u0101h (\"Word of God\"). Additionally, logos is also the name Atlas Sound's second studio album. Which of these are you interested in learning more about?"
    ],
    "topic": "Logos",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Logos (Christianity):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Logos (Christianity)"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Christianity, the Logos () is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity. In the Douay\u2013Rheims, King James, New International, and other versions of the Bible, the first verse of the Gospel of John reads:"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Logos (Atlas Sound album):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Logos (Atlas Sound album)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Logos is the second studio album from ambient experimental project Atlas Sound. It was released on October 19, 2009, in Europe by 4AD, and on October 20 in the US by Kranky. The album features guest contributions from Noah Lennox (a.k.a. Panda Bear of Animal Collective) and Stereolab's L\u00e6titia Sadier. Units ordered directly from Rough Trade came packaged with a bonus six-song EP of leftover material. The album reached #7 on the Billboard Heatseekers album chart. The cover art is an image of Bradford Cox, who has Marfan syndrome, and is inspired by the artwork of his previous release."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Logos (Islam):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Logos (Islam)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The concept of the logos also exists in Islam, where it was definitively articulated primarily in the writings of the classical Sunni mystics and Islamic philosophers, as well as by certain Shi'a thinkers, during the Islamic Golden Age. In Sunni Islam, the concept of the \"logos\" has been given many different names by the denomination's metaphysicians, mystics, and philosophers, including \"\u02bfaql\" (\"Intellect\"), \"al-ins\u0101n al-k\u0101mil\" (\"Universal Man\"), \"kalimat All\u0101h\" (\"Word of God\"), \"haq\u012bqa mu\u1e25ammadiyya\" (\"The Muhammadan Reality\"), and \"n\u016br mu\u1e25ammad\u012b\" (\"The Muhammadan Light\"). Throughout Islamic history, there have existed several different metaphysical concepts that have been understood to correspond \"in many respects\" to the logos Christology of Christianity and to the use of the term \"logos\" in late Greek philosophy."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "One of the names given to a concept very much like the Christian Logos by the classical Muslim metaphysicians is \"\u02bfaql\", which is the \"Arabic equivalent to the Greek (intellect).\" In the writings of the Islamic Neoplatonist philosophers, such as al-Farabi () and Avicenna (d. 1037), the idea of the \"\u02bfaql\" was presented in a manner that both resembled \"the late Greek doctrine\" and, likewise, \"corresponded in many respects to the Logos Christology.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "The concept of the \"logos\" also exists in Islam, where it was definitively articulated primarily in the writings of the classical Sunni mystics and Islamic philosophers, as well as by certain Shi'a thinkers, during the Islamic Golden Age. In Sunni Islam, the concept of the \"logos\" has been given many different names by the denomination's metaphysicians, mystics, and philosophers, including \"\u02bfaql\" (\"Intellect\"), \"al-ins\u0101n al-k\u0101mil\" (\"Universal Man\"), \"kalimat All\u0101h\" (\"Word of God\"), \"haq\u012bqa mu\u1e25ammadiyya\" (\"The Muhammadan Reality\"), and \"n\u016br mu\u1e25ammad\u012b\" (\"The Muhammadan Light\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "One of the names given to a concept very much like the Christian Logos by the classical Muslim metaphysicians is \"\u02bfaql\", which is the \"Arabic equivalent to the Greek (intellect).\" In the writings of the Islamic neoplatonist philosophers, such as al-Farabi () and Avicenna (d. 1037), the idea of the \"\u02bfaql\" was presented in a manner that both resembled \"the late Greek doctrine\" and, likewise, \"corresponded in many respects to the Logos Christology.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "The concept of \"logos\" in Sufism is used to relate the \"Uncreated\" (God) to the \"Created\" (humanity). In Sufism, for the Deist, no contact between man and God can be possible without the \"logos\". The \"logos\" is everywhere and always the same, but its personification is \"unique\" within each region. Jesus and Muhammad are seen as the personifications of the \"logos\", and this is what enables them to speak in such absolute terms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "The concept of the logos also exists in Islam, where it was definitively articulated primarily in the writings of the classical Sunni mystics and Islamic philosophers, as well as by certain Shi'a thinkers, during the Islamic Golden Age. In Sunni Islam, the concept of the \"logos\" has been given many different names by the denomination's metaphysicians, mystics, and philosophers, including \"\u02bfaql\" (\"Intellect\"), \"al-ins\u0101n al-k\u0101mil\" (\"Universal Man\"), \"kalimat All\u0101h\" (\"Word of God\"), \"haq\u012bqa mu\u1e25ammadiyya\" (\"The Muhammadan Reality\"), and \"n\u016br mu\u1e25ammad\u012b\" (\"The Muhammadan Light\"). Throughout Islamic history, there have existed several different metaphysical concepts that have been understood to correspond \"in many respects\" to the logos Christology of Christianity and to the use of the term \"logos\" in late Greek philosophy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "Other Sufi writers also show the influence of the Neoplatonic \"logos\". In the 15th century Abd al-Kar\u012bm al-J\u012bl\u012b introduced the \"Doctrine of Logos and the Perfect Man\". For al-J\u012bl\u012b, the \"perfect man\" (associated with the \"logos\" or the Prophet) has the power to assume different forms at different times and to appear in different guises."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "At the same time, the \"logos\" concept was also intimately tied in the works of the same authors to other important Islamic cosmological concepts, such as \"\u02bfaql\" (\"Intellect\"), which \"resembled the late Greek doctrine of the \"logos\"\" and represented an Arabic equivalent to the Neoplatonic \"\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2\" (\"Intellect\"). Other important Islamic concepts related to the \"logos\" include the \"law\u1e25 ma\u1e25f\u016b\u1e93\" (, in Quran 85:22), \"\u1e33alam\" (\"Divine Pen\"), \"umm al-kit\u0101b\" (\"Mother of the Book,\" in Quran 3:7, 13:39, 43:4), and, perhaps most famously, the Muhammad-related ideas of \"al-ins\u0101n al-k\u0101mil\" (\"Perfect Man\" or \"Universal Man\"), \"n\u016br mu\u1e25ammad\u012b\" (\"Muhammadan Light\"), and \"al-\u1e25aq\u012bqa al-mu\u1e25ammadiyya\" (\"Muhammadan Reality\"). The \"logos\" was often presented as \"created\" in Islamic doctrine, and thus was more akin to Philo's understanding of the phrase than Nicene Christianity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "In the writings of many of the most prominent Sunni Islamic metaphysicians, philosophers, and mystics of the Islamic Golden Age, Muhammad, who is given the title of \"Seal of the Prophets\" in the Quran, was understood to be \"both a manifestation of the Logos and the Logos itself, he was also very kind and had prayed for his people every night, and was always very worried about his people This classical identification of Muhammad with the \"logos\" emerged from particular interpretations of specific Quranic verses, sayings of the prophet, and through the writings of the early mystics of Islam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "One of the boldest and most radical attempts to reformulate the Neoplatonic concepts into Sufism arose with the philosopher Ibn Arabi, who traveled widely in Spain and North Africa. His concepts were expressed in two major works \"The Ringstones of Wisdom\" (\"Fusus al-Hikam\") and \"The Meccan Illuminations\" (\"Al-Fut\u016b\u1e25\u0101t al-Makkiyya\"). To Ibn Arabi, every prophet corresponds to a reality which he called a \"logos\" (\"Kalimah\"), as an aspect of the unique divine being. In his view the divine being would have for ever remained hidden, had it not been for the prophets, with \"logos\" providing the link between man and divinity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "Ibn Arabi seems to have adopted his version of the \"logos\" concept from Neoplatonic and Christian sources, although (writing in Arabic rather than Greek) he used more than twenty different terms when discussing it. For Ibn Arabi, the \"logos\" or \"Universal Man\" was a mediating link between individual human beings and the divine essence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "In Ottoman Sufism, \u015eeyh G\u00e2lib (d. 1799) articulates S\u00fchan (\"logos\"-\"Kalima\") in his \"H\u00fcsn \u00fc A\u015fk\" (\"Beauty and Love\") in parallel to Ibn Arabi's Kalima. In the romance, \"S\u00fchan\" appears as an embodiment of Kalima as a reference to the Word of God, the Perfect Man, and the Reality of Muhammad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "One of the boldest and most radical attempts to reformulate the neoplatonic concepts into Sufism arose with the philosopher Ibn Arabi, who traveled widely in Spain and North Africa. His concepts were expressed in two major works \"The Ringstones of Wisdom\" (\"Fusus al-Hikam\") and \"The Meccan Illuminations\" (\"Al-Fut\u016b\u1e25\u0101t al-Makkiyya\"). To Ibn Arabi, every prophet corresponds to a reality which he called a \"logos\" (\"Kalimah\"), as an aspect of the unique divine being. In his view the divine being would have for ever remained hidden, had it not been for the prophets, with \"logos\" providing the link between man and divinity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "The concept of \"logos\" in Sufism is used to relate the \"Uncreated\" (God) to the \"Created\" (humanity). In Sufism, for the Deist, no contact between man and God can be possible without the \"logos\". The \"logos\" is everywhere and always the same, but its personification is \"unique\" within each region. Jesus and Muhammad are seen as the personifications of the \"logos\", and this is what enables them to speak in such absolute terms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "Logos (Islam)\n--Prophet Muhammad.\n--Cosmological concepts.\n----\"\u02bfAql\".\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Ibn Arabi seems to have adopted his version of the \"logos\" concept from neoplatonic and Christian sources, although (writing in Arabic rather than Greek) he used more than twenty different terms when discussing it. For Ibn Arabi, the \"logos\" or \"Universal Man\" was a mediating link between individual human beings and the divine essence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Other Sufi writers also show the influence of the neoplatonic \"logos\". In the 15th century Abd al-Kar\u012bm al-J\u012bl\u012b introduced the \"Doctrine of Logos and the Perfect Man\". For al-J\u012bl\u012b, the \"perfect man\" (associated with the \"logos\" or the Prophet) has the power to assume different forms at different times and to appear in different guises."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arabic Wikipedia",
        "text": "Logos in different fonts for Arabic Wikipedia:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "In Ottoman Sufism, \u015eeyh G\u00e2lib (d. 1799) articulates S\u00fchan (\"logos\"-\"Kalima\") in his \"H\u00fcsn \u00fc A\u015fk\" (\"Beauty and Love\") in parallel to Ibn Arabi's Kalima. In the romance, \"S\u00fchan\" appears as an embodiment of Kalima as a reference to the Word of God, the Perfect Man, and the Reality of Muhammad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logocracy",
        "text": "Academic Yahya Michot has referred to Sunni Islam as a \"popular\" or \"laic logocracy\", in that it is government by the word of the Koran."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "The concept of Logos also appears in the Targums (Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Bible dating to the first centuries AD), where the term \"memra\" (Aramaic for \"word\") is often used instead of 'the Lord', especially when referring to a manifestation of God that could be construed as anthropomorphic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "The concept of \"logos\" also appears in the Targums (Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Bible dating to the first centuries AD), where the term \"memra\" (Aramaic for \"word\") is often used instead of 'the Lord', especially when referring to a manifestation of God that could be construed as anthropomorphic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "In Christianity, the Logos () is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity. In the Douay\u2013Rheims, King James, New International, and other versions of the Bible, the first verse of the Gospel of John reads:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Logos\n--Origins of the term.\n--Ancient Greek philosophy.\n----Heraclitus.\n----Aristotle's rhetorical logos.\n----Pyrrhonists.\n----Stoics.\n----Isocrates' logos.\n--In Hellenistic Judaism.\n----Philo of Alexandria.\n----Targums.\n--Christianity.\n--Neoplatonism.\n--Islam.\n----\"\u02bfAql\".\n--Jung's analytical psychology.\n--Rhetoric.\n--Rhema.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Brighter Horizons Academy",
        "text": "The school logo is an open Qur'an with the word Iqra (, \"Read\"). This was the first word of the Qur'an revealed to the Prophet Muhammad by the Angel Gabriel. Students are taught to apply Islamic studies to other areas of academics and their lives beyond school."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "The Greek term \"logos\" is translated in the Vulgate with the Latin \"verbum\". Both \"logos\" and \"verbum\" are used to translate \"dabar\" in the Hebrew Bible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "In Christology, the Logos () is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity. The concept derives from , which in the Douay\u2013Rheims, King James, New International, and other versions of the Bible, reads:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Digital on-screen graphic",
        "text": "Arabic TV logos are placed in the top-right and top-left except for Al-Jazeera, whose logo appears on the bottom-right of the screen. Some of the Arabian TV stations hide their logos during commercial breaks and promos/trailers, such as Dubai TV, Dubai One, Funoon, the Egyptian CBC and Nile TV networks, ART Hekayat, ART Hekayat 2, Iqraa and Al-Jazeera."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Logos (, ; ; from , , ) is a term in Western philosophy, psychology, rhetoric, and religion derived from a Greek word variously meaning \"ground\", \"plea\", \"opinion\", \"expectation\", \"word\", \"speech\", \"account\", \"reason\", \"proportion\", and \"discourse\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Logos (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Logos (Christianity)\n--Bible.\n----Johannine literature.\n----Luke 1:1-2.\n----Septuagint.\n--Early Christianity.\n----Ignatius of Antioch.\n----Justin Martyr.\n----Theophilus of Antioch.\n----Athenagoras of Athens.\n----Irenaeus of Lyon.\n----Gnosticism.\n--Post-Nicene Christianity.\n--Modern references.\n--Translation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "In these translations, \"Word\" is used for \u039b\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2, although the term is often used transliterated but untranslated in theological discourse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "In the Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit (also known as the Gospel of the Egyptians), a text from early Christian Gnosticism, the Logos appears as a divine emanation or aeon of the great spirit or Monad and mingles with the primordial Adam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uzhhorod National University",
        "text": "The Centre of Historical and Religious Studies \u201cLogos\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Logos is an important term in philosophy, analytical psychology, rhetoric, and religion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ibn Arabi",
        "text": "Ibn Arabi further explained the perfect man concept using at least twenty-two different descriptions and various aspects when considering the Logos. He contemplated the Logos, or \"Universal Man\", as a mediation between the individual human and the divine essence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Christianity must always remember that it is the religion of the \"Logos.\" It is faith in the \"Creator Spiritus,\" in the Creator Spirit, from which proceeds everything that exists. Today, this should be precisely its philosophical strength, in so far as the problem is whether the world comes from the irrational, and reason is not, therefore, other than a \"sub-product,\" on occasion even harmful of its development or whether the world comes from reason, and is, as a consequence, its criterion and goal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "The Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek uses the terms \"rhema\" and \"logos\" as equivalents and uses both for the Hebrew word \"dabar\", as the Word of God."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of ancient philosophy articles",
        "text": "- Logos"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Some other translations, such as An American Translation (1935) and Moffatt, New Translation, render it as \"the Word was divine\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Logos may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Although \"word\" is the most common translation of the noun \"logos\", other less accepted translations have been used, which have more or less fallen by the grammatical wayside as understanding of the Greek language has increased in the Western world. Gordon Clark (1902\u20131985), for instance, a Calvinist theologian and expert on pre-Socratic philosophy, famously translated \"Logos\" as \"Logic\": \"In the beginning was the Logic, and the Logic was with God and the Logic was God.\" He meant to imply by this translation that the laws of logic were derived from God and formed part of creation, and were therefore not a secular principle imposed on the Christian world view."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard A. Horsley",
        "text": "\u2014\u2014. \u201cLogoi Proph\u0113t\u014dn? Reflections on the Genre of Q.\u201d Pages 195-209 in The Future of Early Christianity. Edited by Birger A. Pearson, A. Thomas Kraabel, George W. E. Nickelsburg, and Norman R. Petersen. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991. Repr., Richard A. Horsley and Patrick Tiller, pages 191-206 in After Apocalyptic and Wisdom: Rethinking Texts in Context. Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos Complete Study Bible",
        "text": "In the first and fifth lines, the words Nazarene and Nazareth are rendered N\u01cez\u2019\u01cer\u1ebdth and N\u01cez-\u01ce-r\u1ebdne\u2019, respectively. These are indications of the pronunciation, and are given for most words translated or adapted from Biblical languages, particularly including place and personal names. The editors chose the then-current means employed by the Webster's International Dictionary to indicate pronunciation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "The Logos is God, begotten and therefore distinguishable from the Father, but, being God, of the same substance (essence). This was decreed at the First Council of Constantinople (381)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "In his \"Dialogue with Trypho\", Justin relates how Christians maintain that the Logos,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Origen",
        "text": "The Logos is the rational creative principle that permeates the universe. The Logos acts on all human beings through their capacity for logic and rational thought, guiding them to the truth of God's revelation. As they progress in their rational thinking, all humans become more like Christ. Nonetheless, they retain their individuality and do not become subsumed into Christ. Creation came into existence only through the Logos, and God's nearest approach to the world is the command to create. While the Logos is substantially a unity, he comprehends a multiplicity of concepts, so that Origen terms him, in Platonic fashion, \"essence of essences\" and \"idea of ideas\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos Complete Study Bible",
        "text": "At the bottom of the page are two more examples of in-text articles. The article for Nazareth is referenced from verse 23 with the symbol \"*\", and the article for John the Baptist, with the symbol \"\u2020\". The latter article continues for two more columns in the text."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Irenaeus (\"c\" 130\u2013202), a student of the Apostle John's disciple, Polycarp, identifies the Logos as Jesus, by whom all things were made, and who before his incarnation appeared to men in the theophany, conversing with the ante-Mosaic Patriarchs, with Moses at the burning bush, with Abraham at Mamre, \"et al.\", manifesting to them the unseen things of the Father. After these things, the Logos became man and suffered the death of the cross. In his \"Demonstration of the Apostolic Preaching\", Irenaeus defines the second point of the faith, after the Father, as this:The Word of God, Son of God, Christ Jesus our Lord, who was manifested to the prophets according to the form of their prophesying and according to the method of the dispensation of the Father: through whom all things were made; who also at the end of the times, to complete and gather up all things, was made man among men, visible and tangible, in order to abolish death and show forth life and produce a community of union between God and man."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "The Sunnis confess that the names of God cannot be said to be anything other than God, as Mu\u02bftazilites and Kharijites claim. Rather, they teach that there are correlating attributes (\" \u1e63if\u0101t \") which exist in each of the names of God mentioned in the Quran: God is alive through life (\" \u1e25ay\u0101h \"), knowing through knowledge (\"\u02bfilm\"), mighty through power (\"\u02bfqudra\"), wanting through will (\"ir\u0101da\"), hearing through hearing (\"sam\u02bf\"), seeing through sight (\"ba\u1e63ar\") and speaking through Speech (\"kal\u0101m\"). The attributes are not identical to God, nor are they anything different from him. Only those attributes are ascribed to God which he ascribed to himself (in the Quran) or which his prophet ascribed to him. And every attribute that he or his prophet has ascribed to him is a real attribute, not an attribute figuratively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Celsus",
        "text": "Celsus writes that \"there is an ancient doctrine [\"archaios logos\"] which has existed from the beginning, which has always been maintained by the wisest nations and cities and wise men\". He leaves Jews and Moses out of those he cites (Egyptians, Syrians,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hiwa Pashaei",
        "text": "Pashaei went to Tehran and studied graphic design in Soore University and received bachelor of fine arts (B.F.A) degree from there in 2003. He continued his education in Islamic Azad University, Central Tehran Branch and defended his thesis \"Designing Logos in Iran: Desining Logo for Iranian Institutions\" under the supervision of Bahram Kalhornia and advisory of Manouchehr Rakhshan in 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Al-Jama'a al-Islamiyya",
        "text": "While the Islamic group had originally been an amorphous movement of local groups centered in mosques without offices or membership roll, by the late 1980s it became more organized and \"even adopted an official logo: an upright sword standing on an open Qur'an with an orange sun rising in the background,\" encircled by the Qur'anic verse that Abdel Rahman had quoted at his trials while trying to explain his interpretation of jihad to the judges:"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Language of God",
        "text": "\"Bios\" is the Greek word for \"life\". \"Logos\" is Greek for \"word\", with a broader meaning in Heracleitean philosophy and Stoicism\u2014namely the rational principle ordering the universe. This concept was appropriated by Christian theology. In Christian theology, \"Word\" is actually a creative agent for all that exists, in addition to being an ordering principle. Furthermore, in some Christian thinking the eternal and divine \"Logos\" merged and synthesized with a human nature to become Jesus Christ in the Incarnation. This is laid out in the opening prologue of the Gospel of John, forming part of the textual basis for Christian belief in the Trinity, as the concept of Logos morphed over time into \"God the Son\" for the second person of the Trinity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Origen of Alexandria likewise sees in it the operation of the Trinity, a mystery intimated beforehand by the Psalmist David. Augustine of Hippo considered that in Ps.33:6 both \"logos\" and \"pneuma\" were \"on the verge of being personified\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "David Lyle Jeffrey and Leon Morris have seen in \"the word\" a reference to Jesus Christ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "To absolve God of all anthropomorphism, the Qur'anic statements that \"God sat on the throne\" (istaw\u0101 \u02bfal\u0101 l-\u02bfar\u0161; Surah 7:54; 20: 5) receive a lot of the Sunni creeds attention. The creed of al-Q\u0101dir emphasizes that God did not set himself up on the throne (\u02bfar\u0161) \"in the manner of the rest of the creatures\" and that he created this throne, although he did not need it. Al-Ghazali's knowledge of the faith states that the \"sitting down\" is free from contact (\"mum\u0101ssa\") with the throne. It is not the throne that carries God, but the throne and its bearers are carried through the grace of his power. According to al-Ash\u02bfari, the Sunnis confess that God is on his throne, but without asking how. Even if God does not need the throne and what is below, because he spatially occupies everything, including what is above him, the throne and stool (\" kurs\u012b \") are a reality."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "A figure in the Book of Revelation is called \"The Word of God\", being followed by \"the armies which are in heaven\" (Rev 19:13\u201314)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "The Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328), who was otherwise known for his uncompromising attitude, also adhered to this view. He said that the Sunnis represented \"the middle among the sects of the Umma\" (\" al-wasa\u1e6d f\u012b firaq al-umma \"), just as the Islamic Umma is the middle between the other religious communities. He illustrates this with the following examples:\n* When it comes to the attributes of God, the Sunnis stand in the middle between the Jahmiyya, who completely drains God of attributes, and the Muschabbiha, who make God similar to creation,\n* in the works of God they stand in the middle between the Qadariyya and the Jabriyya,\n* on the question of the threat from God (\"wa\u02bfid Allah\") they stand in the middle between the Murdschi'a and the Wa\u02bf\u012bdiyya, a subgroup of the Qadariyya,\n* When it comes to the question of faith and religion, they stand in the middle between Haruiyya (= Kharijites) and Mu\u02bftazila on the one hand and Murji'a and Jahmiyya on the other,\n* and with regard to the Companions of the Prophets they are in the middle between Rafidites and Kharijites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barry J. Beitzel",
        "text": "__________. General Editor and Author, \"Lexham Geographic Commentary on the Poetic and Prophetic Books.\" Bellingham, WA: Logos Bible Software and Lexham Press, 2022. (LexhamPress.com)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pre-existence of Christ",
        "text": "When the Trinity is depicted in art, the Logos is normally shown with the distinctive appearance, and cruciform halo that identifies Christ; in depictions of the Garden of Eden this looks forward to an incarnation yet to occur. In some Early Christian sarcophagi, the Logos is distinguished with a beard, \"which allows him to appear ancient, even preexistent.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "True name",
        "text": "Hellenistic Judaism emphasized the divine nature of \"logos\", later adopted by the Gospel of John. The true name of God plays a central role in Kabbalism (see Gematria, Temurah, YHWH [the tetragrammaton]) and to some extent in Sufism (see 100th name of God)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Atlas Sound album)",
        "text": "Logos (Atlas Sound album)\n--Background.\n--Reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "This debate mostly centers over the usage of the article within the clause, where some have argued that the absence of the article before (\"God\") makes it indefinite and should therefore result in the translation, \"and the Word was \"a god\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Theodor Birt",
        "text": "The \"logos\" is as non-spatial as music, and has its extension only in time. Before writing, our collective memory entrusted its survival to song, to Homer and the ancient rhapsodes. When writing first came, it was nothing more than a crutch for our memory. In itself, the written word is not more than sound and thought crystallized into space, and streams out into time again as soon as it touches the reader\u2019s eye."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jesus in Christianity",
        "text": "In Christology, the concept that Christ is the \"Logos\" (i.e., \"The Word\") has been important in establishing the doctrine of the divinity of Christ and his position as God the Son in the Trinity as set forth in the Chalcedonian Creed. This derives from the , commonly translated into English as: \"In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.\" \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 in the original Koine Greek is translated as \"Word\" and in theological discourse, this is often left in its English transliterated form, \"Logos\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bangladesh Islami Chattra Sena",
        "text": "The logo was half moon with a star above and under the moon a verse of the Quran- Ja al Haqqu wajaahaqai Batilu (truth comes and false removes)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philo's view of God",
        "text": "In its relation to the world the Logos appears as the Universal substance on which all things depend; and from this point of view the manna (as \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ce\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9) becomes a symbol for it. The Logos, however, is not only the archetype of things, but also the power that produces them, appearing as such especially under the name of the Logos \u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03cd\u03c2 (\"the divider\"). It separates the individual beings of nature from one another according to their characteristics; but, on the other hand, it constitutes the bond connecting the individual creatures, uniting their spiritual and physical attributes. It may be said to have invested itself with the whole world as an indestructible garment. It appears as the director and shepherd of the things in the world insofar as they are in motion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "The teachings of the Sunnis also include the vision of God (\"ru\u02beyat All\u0101h\") in the hereafter, which has similarities with the \"visio beatifica\" in the Christian tradition. With this teaching the Sunnis set themselves apart from the Mu\u02bftazilites, the Zaidiyyah and the philosophers who consider the vision of God intellectually impossible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arabic alphabet",
        "text": "If one of a number of the fonts (Noto Naskh Arabic, mry_KacstQurn, KacstOne, Nadeem, DejaVu Sans, Harmattan, Scheherazade, Lateef, Iranian Sans, Baghdad, DecoType Naskh) is installed on a computer (Iranian Sans is supported by Wikimedia web-fonts), the word will appear without diacritics.\n* ' + ' + \" = LILL\u0100H (meaning \"to All\u0101h [only to God]\")\"\n*: \u00a0 or \u00a0 \u0644\u0644\u0647\n* ' + ' + ' + ' = ALL\u0100H (the Arabic word for \"god\")\n*: \u00a0 or \u00a0 \u0627\u0644\u0644\u0647\n* ' + ' + ' + codice_5 ARABIC SHADDA + codice_6 ARABIC LETTER SUPERSCRIPT ALEF + '\n*: \u0627\u0644\u0644\u0651\u0670\u0647"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of logic articles",
        "text": "Logos --"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Like John 1:1-5, Luke 1:1-2 also refers to \"the beginning\" and to \"the word:\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "The first extant Christian reference to the Logos found in writings outside of the New Testament belongs to John's disciple Ignatius (\"c\" 35-108), Bishop of Antioch, who in his epistle to the Magnesians, writes, \"there is one God, who has manifested Himself by Jesus Christ His Son, who is His eternal Word, not proceeding forth from silence,\" (i.e., there was not a time when he did not exist). In similar fashion, he speaks to the Ephesians of the son as \"possessed both of flesh and spirit; both made and not made; God existing in flesh; true life in death; both of Mary and of God; first passible and then impassible\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Glasgow University Muslim Students Association",
        "text": "2003 saw the first big change in the logo used by the organisation. A GUMSA member - Maarya Sharif sketched a design of someone in \"sujood\" or 'prostration' as Muslims do when they carry out their 5 daily prayers. The logo was then uploaded to a digital format from the sketch. This iteration of the logo was used 2003-2016, yet the concept of a Muslim in prostration continued onto the next logo version."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "This translation can be found in the Jehovah's Witnesses' New World Translation, and the Unitarian Thomas Belsham's 1808 revision of William Newcome's translation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "For Fausto Sozzini, Christ was the Logos, but he denied His pre-existence; He was the Word of God as being His Interpreter (). Nathaniel Lardner and Joseph Priestley considered the Logos a personification of God's wisdom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "It is made easy for everyone for what they were created for. Blessed are whose who are saved by God's judgment (\"qa\u1e0d\u0101\u02be All\u0101h\"), condemned are whose who are condemned by the judgment of God. God created paradise and hell above all else; then he created the people who are worthy of them. He has designated some out of generosity (\"fa\u1e0dlan\") for paradise, the others out of justice (\"\u02bfadlan\") for hell. God has always known the number of those who go to paradise and the number of those who go to hell. This number is neither increased nor decreased. When God creates the body of the embryo, he sends an angel to him who writes down his livelihood (\"rizq\"), the hour he dies, his deeds and whether he is a damned (\"\u0161aq\u012b\") or a blessed (\"sa\u02bf\u012bd\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "The translation of last four words of John 1:1 () has been a particular topic of debate in Western Christianity in the modern period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Names of God",
        "text": "In Tasawwuf, the inner, mystical dimension of Islam, Hu, (depends on placement in the sentence), or \"Parvardigar\" in Persian are used as names of God. The sound derives from the last letter of the word Allah, which is read as when in the middle of a sentence. means 'Just He' or 'Revealed'. The word explicitly appears in many verses of the Quran:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Photinus denied that the Logos as the Wisdom of God had an existence of its own before the birth of Christ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rawlathus Saliheen Ahadiya School",
        "text": "The upper calligraphy Arabian text states Bismillahir Rahmanir Raheem, (In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful). The lower Arabian calligraphy text states La Ilaha Illallah Muhammadur Rasoolullah (There is no God but Allah, prophet Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah). The italic texts states our school motto. The crescent and the side way stars symbolizes the progress and light respectively. The middle depicts the Ka'bah (House of Allah),(Qiblah) the prayer direction of the whole world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heraclitus",
        "text": "Heraclitus's teaching on \"logos\" is taken as a predecessor of the \"logos\" mentioned in the New Testament, in the . The \"logos\" is Christ. Now, since Heraclitus already speaks of the \"logos\", the Greeks arrived at the very doorstep of absolute truth, namely, the revealed truth of Christianity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logo (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Logo (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fazlallah Astarabadi",
        "text": "According to Encyclopedia of Islam, one of the key tenets of \u1e24ur\u016bfism is that Allah reveals himself in the Word and that words (\"\u1e25ur\u016bf\") are composed of sounds that are associated with letters. The total number of letters (and their numerical value according to the abjad) is the total of all emanating and creating possibilities of God and is God himself made manifest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Following John 1, the early Christian apologist Justin Martyr (\"c\" 150) identifies Jesus as the Logos. Like Philo, Justin also identified the Logos with the Angel of the Lord, and he also identified the Logos with the many other theophanies of the Old Testament, and used this as a way of arguing for Christianity to Jews:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ma'ahad Muhammadi Lelaki",
        "text": "Ma'ahad Muhammadi Lelaki\n--History.\n--Logo.\n----Objects.\n----Colours.\n----Texts.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Certain references to the term \"logos\" in the Septuagint in Christian theology are taken as prefiguring New Testament usage such as Psalm 33:6, which relates directly to the Genesis creation narrative. Theophilus of Antioch references the connection in \"To Autolycus\" 1:7."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Michael Heller has argued \"that Christ is the logos implies that God\u2019s immanence in the world is his rationality\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pre-existence of Christ",
        "text": "In Trinitarianism this \"Logos\" is also called God the Son or the second person of the Trinity. Theologian Bernard Ramm noted that \"It has been standard teaching in historic Christology that the Logos, the Son, existed before the incarnation. That the Son so existed before the incarnation has been called the pre-existence of Christ.\" In the words of the Nicene Creed, Christ \"came down from heaven, and was incarnate.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos Complete Study Bible",
        "text": "The following example is part of the first column of page 1756, which includes parts of Matthew 2:23 and 3:1:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Despite the conventional translation as \"word\", \"logos\" is not used for a word in the grammatical sense\u2014for that, the term \"lexis\" (, ) was used. However, both \"logos\" and \"lexis\" derive from the same verb (), meaning \"(I) count, tell, say, speak\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logogram",
        "text": "A peculiar system of logograms developed within the Pahlavi scripts (developed from the Aramaic abjad) used to write Middle Persian during much of the Sassanid period; the logograms were composed of letters that spelled out the word in Aramaic but were pronounced as in Persian (for instance, the combination \"\" would be pronounced \"shah\"). These logograms, called (a form of heterograms), were dispensed with altogether after the Arab conquest of Persia and the adoption of a variant of the Arabic alphabet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allah",
        "text": "Unicode has a code point reserved for ', = U+FDF2, in the Arabic Presentation Forms-A block, which exists solely for \"compatibility with some older, legacy character sets that encoded presentation forms directly\"; this is discouraged for new text. Instead, the word ' should be represented by its individual Arabic letters, while modern font technologies will render the desired ligature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muqatta\u02bfat",
        "text": "In addition, he mentions that Arabs would name things after such letters (for example, 'eye' as '\u0639', clouds as '\u063a', and whale as '\u0646')."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Within Hellenistic Judaism, Philo () adopted the term into Jewish philosophy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sami Mohammad",
        "text": "Freedom is yet another important concept in the art of Mohammad. A paper about his art discussed that \"...his visual art suggests that the sign of the buoyancy of culture is the conviction that the underpinning logos should be freedom\u2013and most specifically, free speech...\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Tao",
        "text": "In some Chinese translations of the New Testament, (logos) is translated with the Chinese word dao () (e.g. John 1:1), indicating that the translators considered the concept of Tao to be somewhat equivalent to logos in Greek philosophy and the Logos in Christianity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adam Kadmon",
        "text": "This doctrine concerning the Logos, as also that of man made \"in the likeness,\" although tinged with true Philonic coloring, is also based on the theology of the Pharisees. In an old Midrash it is remarked:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logobi (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Logobi (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammadiyah University of Makassar",
        "text": "Muhammadiyah University of Makassar\n--The Symbolic Meaning of ' s Logo.\n--History.\n--Campus.\n--Student Activity Units.\n--Academic system.\n--Study programs and human resources.\n----Study programs.\n----Human resources.\n--Facilities.\n--Laboratory FKIP.\n----Menara Iqra.\n----Dormitory.\n----Central Library.\n----Subulussalam Al Khoory Mosque.\n----Balai Sidang Mukhtamar Muhammadiyah.\n----Other Facilities.\n--Networking.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "God the Son",
        "text": "The \"Logos\" or Word in (\"In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God), is often interpreted, especially by Trinitarians, to identify the pre-existent Jesus with this Word."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of how logos is used?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Christianity, the Logos is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity, and within Sunni Islam, logos has been associated with, among other concepts, \u02bfaql (\"Intellect\") and kalimat All\u0101h (\"Word of God\"). Additionally, logos is also the name Atlas Sound's second studio album. Which of these are you interested in learning more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about how logos in the Sunni religion."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In Sunni Islam, logos has been given many different names by the denomination's metaphysicians, mystics, and philosophers, including \u02bfaql (\"Intellect\"), al-ins\u0101n al-k\u0101mil (\"Universal Man\"), kalimat All\u0101h (\"Word of God\"), haq\u012bqa mu\u1e25ammadiyya (\"The Muhammadan Reality\"), and n\u016br mu\u1e25ammad\u012b (\"The Muhammadan Light\").",
      "In the writings of many of the most prominent Sunni Islamic metaphysicians, philosophers, and mystics of the Islamic Golden Age, Muhammad was understood to be \"both a manifestation of the Logos and the Logos itself. At the same time, the logos concept was also intimately tied in the works of the same authors to other important Islamic cosmological concepts."
    ],
    "topic": "Logos",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Logos (Islam):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Logos (Islam)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The concept of the logos also exists in Islam, where it was definitively articulated primarily in the writings of the classical Sunni mystics and Islamic philosophers, as well as by certain Shi'a thinkers, during the Islamic Golden Age. In Sunni Islam, the concept of the \"logos\" has been given many different names by the denomination's metaphysicians, mystics, and philosophers, including \"\u02bfaql\" (\"Intellect\"), \"al-ins\u0101n al-k\u0101mil\" (\"Universal Man\"), \"kalimat All\u0101h\" (\"Word of God\"), \"haq\u012bqa mu\u1e25ammadiyya\" (\"The Muhammadan Reality\"), and \"n\u016br mu\u1e25ammad\u012b\" (\"The Muhammadan Light\"). Throughout Islamic history, there have existed several different metaphysical concepts that have been understood to correspond \"in many respects\" to the logos Christology of Christianity and to the use of the term \"logos\" in late Greek philosophy."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Logos (Islam):2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Logos (Islam)",
          "Prophet Muhammad"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the writings of many of the most prominent Sunni Islamic metaphysicians, philosophers, and mystics of the Islamic Golden Age, Muhammad, who is given the title of \"Seal of the Prophets\" in the Quran, was understood to be \"both a manifestation of the Logos and the Logos itself, he was also very kind and had prayed for his people every night, and was always very worried about his people This classical identification of Muhammad with the \"logos\" emerged from particular interpretations of specific Quranic verses, sayings of the prophet, and through the writings of the early mystics of Islam."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Logos (Islam):3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Logos (Islam)",
          "Cosmological concepts"
        ],
        "ctx": "At the same time, the \"logos\" concept was also intimately tied in the works of the same authors to other important Islamic cosmological concepts, such as \"\u02bfaql\" (\"Intellect\"), which \"resembled the late Greek doctrine of the \"logos\"\" and represented an Arabic equivalent to the Neoplatonic \"\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2\" (\"Intellect\"). Other important Islamic concepts related to the \"logos\" include the \"law\u1e25 ma\u1e25f\u016b\u1e93\" (, in Quran 85:22), \"\u1e33alam\" (\"Divine Pen\"), \"umm al-kit\u0101b\" (\"Mother of the Book,\" in Quran 3:7, 13:39, 43:4), and, perhaps most famously, the Muhammad-related ideas of \"al-ins\u0101n al-k\u0101mil\" (\"Perfect Man\" or \"Universal Man\"), \"n\u016br mu\u1e25ammad\u012b\" (\"Muhammadan Light\"), and \"al-\u1e25aq\u012bqa al-mu\u1e25ammadiyya\" (\"Muhammadan Reality\"). The \"logos\" was often presented as \"created\" in Islamic doctrine, and thus was more akin to Philo's understanding of the phrase than Nicene Christianity."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "The concept of the \"logos\" also exists in Islam, where it was definitively articulated primarily in the writings of the classical Sunni mystics and Islamic philosophers, as well as by certain Shi'a thinkers, during the Islamic Golden Age. In Sunni Islam, the concept of the \"logos\" has been given many different names by the denomination's metaphysicians, mystics, and philosophers, including \"\u02bfaql\" (\"Intellect\"), \"al-ins\u0101n al-k\u0101mil\" (\"Universal Man\"), \"kalimat All\u0101h\" (\"Word of God\"), \"haq\u012bqa mu\u1e25ammadiyya\" (\"The Muhammadan Reality\"), and \"n\u016br mu\u1e25ammad\u012b\" (\"The Muhammadan Light\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "In the writings of many of the most prominent Sunni Islamic metaphysicians, philosophers, and mystics of the Islamic Golden Age, Muhammad, who is given the title of \"Seal of the Prophets\" in the Quran, was understood to be \"both a manifestation of the Logos and the Logos itself, he was also very kind and had prayed for his people every night, and was always very worried about his people This classical identification of Muhammad with the \"logos\" emerged from particular interpretations of specific Quranic verses, sayings of the prophet, and through the writings of the early mystics of Islam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "Ibn Arabi seems to have adopted his version of the \"logos\" concept from Neoplatonic and Christian sources, although (writing in Arabic rather than Greek) he used more than twenty different terms when discussing it. For Ibn Arabi, the \"logos\" or \"Universal Man\" was a mediating link between individual human beings and the divine essence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "One of the names given to a concept very much like the Christian Logos by the classical Muslim metaphysicians is \"\u02bfaql\", which is the \"Arabic equivalent to the Greek (intellect).\" In the writings of the Islamic Neoplatonist philosophers, such as al-Farabi () and Avicenna (d. 1037), the idea of the \"\u02bfaql\" was presented in a manner that both resembled \"the late Greek doctrine\" and, likewise, \"corresponded in many respects to the Logos Christology.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "One of the names given to a concept very much like the Christian Logos by the classical Muslim metaphysicians is \"\u02bfaql\", which is the \"Arabic equivalent to the Greek (intellect).\" In the writings of the Islamic neoplatonist philosophers, such as al-Farabi () and Avicenna (d. 1037), the idea of the \"\u02bfaql\" was presented in a manner that both resembled \"the late Greek doctrine\" and, likewise, \"corresponded in many respects to the Logos Christology.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Ibn Arabi seems to have adopted his version of the \"logos\" concept from neoplatonic and Christian sources, although (writing in Arabic rather than Greek) he used more than twenty different terms when discussing it. For Ibn Arabi, the \"logos\" or \"Universal Man\" was a mediating link between individual human beings and the divine essence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "The concept of the logos also exists in Islam, where it was definitively articulated primarily in the writings of the classical Sunni mystics and Islamic philosophers, as well as by certain Shi'a thinkers, during the Islamic Golden Age. In Sunni Islam, the concept of the \"logos\" has been given many different names by the denomination's metaphysicians, mystics, and philosophers, including \"\u02bfaql\" (\"Intellect\"), \"al-ins\u0101n al-k\u0101mil\" (\"Universal Man\"), \"kalimat All\u0101h\" (\"Word of God\"), \"haq\u012bqa mu\u1e25ammadiyya\" (\"The Muhammadan Reality\"), and \"n\u016br mu\u1e25ammad\u012b\" (\"The Muhammadan Light\"). Throughout Islamic history, there have existed several different metaphysical concepts that have been understood to correspond \"in many respects\" to the logos Christology of Christianity and to the use of the term \"logos\" in late Greek philosophy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "At the same time, the \"logos\" concept was also intimately tied in the works of the same authors to other important Islamic cosmological concepts, such as \"\u02bfaql\" (\"Intellect\"), which \"resembled the late Greek doctrine of the \"logos\"\" and represented an Arabic equivalent to the Neoplatonic \"\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2\" (\"Intellect\"). Other important Islamic concepts related to the \"logos\" include the \"law\u1e25 ma\u1e25f\u016b\u1e93\" (, in Quran 85:22), \"\u1e33alam\" (\"Divine Pen\"), \"umm al-kit\u0101b\" (\"Mother of the Book,\" in Quran 3:7, 13:39, 43:4), and, perhaps most famously, the Muhammad-related ideas of \"al-ins\u0101n al-k\u0101mil\" (\"Perfect Man\" or \"Universal Man\"), \"n\u016br mu\u1e25ammad\u012b\" (\"Muhammadan Light\"), and \"al-\u1e25aq\u012bqa al-mu\u1e25ammadiyya\" (\"Muhammadan Reality\"). The \"logos\" was often presented as \"created\" in Islamic doctrine, and thus was more akin to Philo's understanding of the phrase than Nicene Christianity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "Other Sufi writers also show the influence of the Neoplatonic \"logos\". In the 15th century Abd al-Kar\u012bm al-J\u012bl\u012b introduced the \"Doctrine of Logos and the Perfect Man\". For al-J\u012bl\u012b, the \"perfect man\" (associated with the \"logos\" or the Prophet) has the power to assume different forms at different times and to appear in different guises."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "One of the boldest and most radical attempts to reformulate the Neoplatonic concepts into Sufism arose with the philosopher Ibn Arabi, who traveled widely in Spain and North Africa. His concepts were expressed in two major works \"The Ringstones of Wisdom\" (\"Fusus al-Hikam\") and \"The Meccan Illuminations\" (\"Al-Fut\u016b\u1e25\u0101t al-Makkiyya\"). To Ibn Arabi, every prophet corresponds to a reality which he called a \"logos\" (\"Kalimah\"), as an aspect of the unique divine being. In his view the divine being would have for ever remained hidden, had it not been for the prophets, with \"logos\" providing the link between man and divinity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "One of the boldest and most radical attempts to reformulate the neoplatonic concepts into Sufism arose with the philosopher Ibn Arabi, who traveled widely in Spain and North Africa. His concepts were expressed in two major works \"The Ringstones of Wisdom\" (\"Fusus al-Hikam\") and \"The Meccan Illuminations\" (\"Al-Fut\u016b\u1e25\u0101t al-Makkiyya\"). To Ibn Arabi, every prophet corresponds to a reality which he called a \"logos\" (\"Kalimah\"), as an aspect of the unique divine being. In his view the divine being would have for ever remained hidden, had it not been for the prophets, with \"logos\" providing the link between man and divinity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Other Sufi writers also show the influence of the neoplatonic \"logos\". In the 15th century Abd al-Kar\u012bm al-J\u012bl\u012b introduced the \"Doctrine of Logos and the Perfect Man\". For al-J\u012bl\u012b, the \"perfect man\" (associated with the \"logos\" or the Prophet) has the power to assume different forms at different times and to appear in different guises."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "Logos (Islam)\n--Prophet Muhammad.\n--Cosmological concepts.\n----\"\u02bfAql\".\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "In Ottoman Sufism, \u015eeyh G\u00e2lib (d. 1799) articulates S\u00fchan (\"logos\"-\"Kalima\") in his \"H\u00fcsn \u00fc A\u015fk\" (\"Beauty and Love\") in parallel to Ibn Arabi's Kalima. In the romance, \"S\u00fchan\" appears as an embodiment of Kalima as a reference to the Word of God, the Perfect Man, and the Reality of Muhammad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "The concept of \"logos\" in Sufism is used to relate the \"Uncreated\" (God) to the \"Created\" (humanity). In Sufism, for the Deist, no contact between man and God can be possible without the \"logos\". The \"logos\" is everywhere and always the same, but its personification is \"unique\" within each region. Jesus and Muhammad are seen as the personifications of the \"logos\", and this is what enables them to speak in such absolute terms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Logos\n--Origins of the term.\n--Ancient Greek philosophy.\n----Heraclitus.\n----Aristotle's rhetorical logos.\n----Pyrrhonists.\n----Stoics.\n----Isocrates' logos.\n--In Hellenistic Judaism.\n----Philo of Alexandria.\n----Targums.\n--Christianity.\n--Neoplatonism.\n--Islam.\n----\"\u02bfAql\".\n--Jung's analytical psychology.\n--Rhetoric.\n--Rhema.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "In Ottoman Sufism, \u015eeyh G\u00e2lib (d. 1799) articulates S\u00fchan (\"logos\"-\"Kalima\") in his \"H\u00fcsn \u00fc A\u015fk\" (\"Beauty and Love\") in parallel to Ibn Arabi's Kalima. In the romance, \"S\u00fchan\" appears as an embodiment of Kalima as a reference to the Word of God, the Perfect Man, and the Reality of Muhammad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logogram",
        "text": "A peculiar system of logograms developed within the Pahlavi scripts (developed from the Aramaic abjad) used to write Middle Persian during much of the Sassanid period; the logograms were composed of letters that spelled out the word in Aramaic but were pronounced as in Persian (for instance, the combination \"\" would be pronounced \"shah\"). These logograms, called (a form of heterograms), were dispensed with altogether after the Arab conquest of Persia and the adoption of a variant of the Arabic alphabet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "The concept of \"logos\" in Sufism is used to relate the \"Uncreated\" (God) to the \"Created\" (humanity). In Sufism, for the Deist, no contact between man and God can be possible without the \"logos\". The \"logos\" is everywhere and always the same, but its personification is \"unique\" within each region. Jesus and Muhammad are seen as the personifications of the \"logos\", and this is what enables them to speak in such absolute terms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "The concept of \"logos\" also appears in the Targums (Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Bible dating to the first centuries AD), where the term \"memra\" (Aramaic for \"word\") is often used instead of 'the Lord', especially when referring to a manifestation of God that could be construed as anthropomorphic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "The concept of Logos also appears in the Targums (Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Bible dating to the first centuries AD), where the term \"memra\" (Aramaic for \"word\") is often used instead of 'the Lord', especially when referring to a manifestation of God that could be construed as anthropomorphic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ibn Arabi",
        "text": "Ibn Arabi further explained the perfect man concept using at least twenty-two different descriptions and various aspects when considering the Logos. He contemplated the Logos, or \"Universal Man\", as a mediation between the individual human and the divine essence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arabic Wikipedia",
        "text": "Logos in different fonts for Arabic Wikipedia:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "The Greek term \"logos\" is translated in the Vulgate with the Latin \"verbum\". Both \"logos\" and \"verbum\" are used to translate \"dabar\" in the Hebrew Bible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Logos (, ; ; from , , ) is a term in Western philosophy, psychology, rhetoric, and religion derived from a Greek word variously meaning \"ground\", \"plea\", \"opinion\", \"expectation\", \"word\", \"speech\", \"account\", \"reason\", \"proportion\", and \"discourse\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Within Hellenistic Judaism, Philo () adopted the term into Jewish philosophy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Although \"word\" is the most common translation of the noun \"logos\", other less accepted translations have been used, which have more or less fallen by the grammatical wayside as understanding of the Greek language has increased in the Western world. Gordon Clark (1902\u20131985), for instance, a Calvinist theologian and expert on pre-Socratic philosophy, famously translated \"Logos\" as \"Logic\": \"In the beginning was the Logic, and the Logic was with God and the Logic was God.\" He meant to imply by this translation that the laws of logic were derived from God and formed part of creation, and were therefore not a secular principle imposed on the Christian world view."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "In the Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit (also known as the Gospel of the Egyptians), a text from early Christian Gnosticism, the Logos appears as a divine emanation or aeon of the great spirit or Monad and mingles with the primordial Adam."
      },
      {
        "title": "A. Monem Mahjoub",
        "text": "These results reflected his writings on philosophical propositions by stating that the Sumerian epics produced Chaldean wisdom that produced the concept of the logos. This would later be structurized in Greece and turned into an abstract mind out of history mobility with western philosophers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Irenaeus (\"c\" 130\u2013202), a student of the Apostle John's disciple, Polycarp, identifies the Logos as Jesus, by whom all things were made, and who before his incarnation appeared to men in the theophany, conversing with the ante-Mosaic Patriarchs, with Moses at the burning bush, with Abraham at Mamre, \"et al.\", manifesting to them the unseen things of the Father. After these things, the Logos became man and suffered the death of the cross. In his \"Demonstration of the Apostolic Preaching\", Irenaeus defines the second point of the faith, after the Father, as this:The Word of God, Son of God, Christ Jesus our Lord, who was manifested to the prophets according to the form of their prophesying and according to the method of the dispensation of the Father: through whom all things were made; who also at the end of the times, to complete and gather up all things, was made man among men, visible and tangible, in order to abolish death and show forth life and produce a community of union between God and man."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pahlavi scripts",
        "text": "In both Inscriptional and Book Pahlavi, many common words, including even pronouns, particles, numerals, and auxiliaries, were spelled according to their Aramaic equivalents, which were used as logograms. For example, the word for \"dog\" was written as (Aramaic \"kalb\u0101\") but pronounced \"sag\"; and the word for \"bread\" would be written as Aramaic (\"la\u1e25m\u0101\") but understood as the sign for Iranian \"n\u0101n\". These words were known as \"huzv\u0101rishn\". Such a logogram could also be followed by letters expressing parts of the Persian word phonetically, e.g. for \"pitar\" \"father\". The grammatical endings were usually written phonetically. A logogram did not necessarily originate from the lexical form of the word in Aramaic, it could also come from a declined or conjugated Aramaic form. For example, \"t\u014d\" \"you\" (singular) was spelt (Aramaic \"to you\", including the preposition \"l-\"). A word could be written phonetically even when a logogram for it existed (\"pitar\" could be \"or\" ), but logograms were nevertheless used very frequently in texts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter Sch\u00e4fer",
        "text": "Sch\u00e4fer contends that Philo's \"logos\" was likely derived from his understanding of the \"postbiblical Wisdom literature, in particular the Wisdom of Solomon.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard A. Horsley",
        "text": "\u2014\u2014. \u201cLogoi Proph\u0113t\u014dn? Reflections on the Genre of Q.\u201d Pages 195-209 in The Future of Early Christianity. Edited by Birger A. Pearson, A. Thomas Kraabel, George W. E. Nickelsburg, and Norman R. Petersen. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991. Repr., Richard A. Horsley and Patrick Tiller, pages 191-206 in After Apocalyptic and Wisdom: Rethinking Texts in Context. Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "The Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek uses the terms \"rhema\" and \"logos\" as equivalents and uses both for the Hebrew word \"dabar\", as the Word of God."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Some other translations, such as An American Translation (1935) and Moffatt, New Translation, render it as \"the Word was divine\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Theodor Birt",
        "text": "The \"logos\" is as non-spatial as music, and has its extension only in time. Before writing, our collective memory entrusted its survival to song, to Homer and the ancient rhapsodes. When writing first came, it was nothing more than a crutch for our memory. In itself, the written word is not more than sound and thought crystallized into space, and streams out into time again as soon as it touches the reader\u2019s eye."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "This debate mostly centers over the usage of the article within the clause, where some have argued that the absence of the article before (\"God\") makes it indefinite and should therefore result in the translation, \"and the Word was \"a god\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hiwa Pashaei",
        "text": "Pashaei went to Tehran and studied graphic design in Soore University and received bachelor of fine arts (B.F.A) degree from there in 2003. He continued his education in Islamic Azad University, Central Tehran Branch and defended his thesis \"Designing Logos in Iran: Desining Logo for Iranian Institutions\" under the supervision of Bahram Kalhornia and advisory of Manouchehr Rakhshan in 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Celsus",
        "text": "Celsus writes that \"there is an ancient doctrine [\"archaios logos\"] which has existed from the beginning, which has always been maintained by the wisest nations and cities and wise men\". He leaves Jews and Moses out of those he cites (Egyptians, Syrians,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Logos (Christianity)\n--Bible.\n----Johannine literature.\n----Luke 1:1-2.\n----Septuagint.\n--Early Christianity.\n----Ignatius of Antioch.\n----Justin Martyr.\n----Theophilus of Antioch.\n----Athenagoras of Athens.\n----Irenaeus of Lyon.\n----Gnosticism.\n--Post-Nicene Christianity.\n--Modern references.\n--Translation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "The Logos is God, begotten and therefore distinguishable from the Father, but, being God, of the same substance (essence). This was decreed at the First Council of Constantinople (381)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Photinus denied that the Logos as the Wisdom of God had an existence of its own before the birth of Christ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wisdom",
        "text": "The concept of Logos or manifest word of the divine thought, a concept also present in the philosophy and hymns of Egypt and Ancient Greece (being central to the thinker Heraclitus), and substantial in the Abrahamic traditions, seems to have been derived from Mesopotamian culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "The writing of Heraclitus () was the first place where the word \"logos\" was given special attention in ancient Greek philosophy, although Heraclitus seems to use the word with a meaning not significantly different from the way in which it was used in ordinary Greek of his time. For Heraclitus, \"logos\" provided the link between rational discourse and the world's rational structure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glasgow University Muslim Students Association",
        "text": "2003 saw the first big change in the logo used by the organisation. A GUMSA member - Maarya Sharif sketched a design of someone in \"sujood\" or 'prostration' as Muslims do when they carry out their 5 daily prayers. The logo was then uploaded to a digital format from the sketch. This iteration of the logo was used 2003-2016, yet the concept of a Muslim in prostration continued onto the next logo version."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adam Kadmon",
        "text": "This doctrine concerning the Logos, as also that of man made \"in the likeness,\" although tinged with true Philonic coloring, is also based on the theology of the Pharisees. In an old Midrash it is remarked:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Frahang-i Pahlavig",
        "text": "The existence of similar glossaries from Akkadian times (explaining Sumerian logograms) led an Assyriologist, Erich Ebeling, to explain that many of the words in the \"Frahang\" were derived from Sumerian or Akkadian. This led to a number of \"far-fetched interpretations,\" which were then subsequently incorporated into a number of later interpretations, including those of Iranists, so effectively making even these unreliable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "For Fausto Sozzini, Christ was the Logos, but he denied His pre-existence; He was the Word of God as being His Interpreter (). Nathaniel Lardner and Joseph Priestley considered the Logos a personification of God's wisdom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Christianity must always remember that it is the religion of the \"Logos.\" It is faith in the \"Creator Spiritus,\" in the Creator Spirit, from which proceeds everything that exists. Today, this should be precisely its philosophical strength, in so far as the problem is whether the world comes from the irrational, and reason is not, therefore, other than a \"sub-product,\" on occasion even harmful of its development or whether the world comes from reason, and is, as a consequence, its criterion and goal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Depictions of Muhammad",
        "text": "Since the late 1990s, experts in Islamic iconography discovered images, printed on paper in Iran, portraying Mohammed as a teenager wearing a turban. There are several variants, all show the same juvenile face, identified by an inscription such as \"Muhammad, the Messenger of God\", or a more detailed legend referring to an episode in the life of Muhammad and the supposed origin of the image. Some Iranian versions of these posters attributed the original depiction to a Bahira, a Christian monk who met the young Muhammad in Syria. By crediting the image to a Christian and predating it to the time before Muhammad became a prophet, the manufacturers of the image exonerate themselves from any wrongdoing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos Complete Study Bible",
        "text": "The letter \"a\" that appears after the word \"city\" in the first line corresponds to the \"a\" in the left margin, where there is an entry containing \"Gen. 4:17\". In the text of Genesis chapter 4, verse 17, the word \"city\" also appears, where it has the symbol \"\u2021\" next to it. At the bottom of that page, there is an article entitled CITY, next to the symbol \"\u2021\", which has nearly all of the references in the Bible to the word or idea of \"city\". In the fourth line, there is a superscript \"1\" next to the word \"that\". The corresponding margin entry has the letter \"Q\", followed by a reference to Isaiah, chapter 11, verse 1. This indicates that the passage that follows the letter, in the text, is a quotation from the Old Testament. Similarly, parallel passages are indicated with a P, as used under footnote \"e\" for chapter 3 verse 1 in the left margin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brighter Horizons Academy",
        "text": "The school logo is an open Qur'an with the word Iqra (, \"Read\"). This was the first word of the Qur'an revealed to the Prophet Muhammad by the Angel Gabriel. Students are taught to apply Islamic studies to other areas of academics and their lives beyond school."
      },
      {
        "title": "Al-Jama'a al-Islamiyya",
        "text": "While the Islamic group had originally been an amorphous movement of local groups centered in mosques without offices or membership roll, by the late 1980s it became more organized and \"even adopted an official logo: an upright sword standing on an open Qur'an with an orange sun rising in the background,\" encircled by the Qur'anic verse that Abdel Rahman had quoted at his trials while trying to explain his interpretation of jihad to the judges:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "The first extant Christian reference to the Logos found in writings outside of the New Testament belongs to John's disciple Ignatius (\"c\" 35-108), Bishop of Antioch, who in his epistle to the Magnesians, writes, \"there is one God, who has manifested Himself by Jesus Christ His Son, who is His eternal Word, not proceeding forth from silence,\" (i.e., there was not a time when he did not exist). In similar fashion, he speaks to the Ephesians of the son as \"possessed both of flesh and spirit; both made and not made; God existing in flesh; true life in death; both of Mary and of God; first passible and then impassible\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of graphic design",
        "text": "In Islamic countries, calligraphy was a sacred aspect of the holy book of Islam, the Qur'an. Muslim scribes used black ink and golden paper to write and draw, using an angled alphabet called Kuffi, or Kufi. Such writings appeared in the 8th century and reached their apex in the 10th century. Later, decorations of the margins of pages, displaying a variety of graphic techniques, were added in order to beautify the book. In the 12th century, the Naskh alphabet was invented; it featured curves instead of the angled lines of Kufi script. Other styles, such as Mohaghegh, Reyhan, Sols, Reghaa, and Toghii, appeared later on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "\u201cThat by the Word, through whom God made the creation, He also bestowed salvation on the men.\u201dTherefore, while Cerinthus claimed that the world was made by \"a certain Power far separated from\" \"Almighty God,\" John, according to Irenaeus, by means of John 1:1-5, presented Almighty God as the Creator - \"by His Word.\" And while Cerinthus made a distinction between the man Jesus and \u201cthe Christ from above,\u201d who descended on the man Jesus at his baptism, John, according to Irenaeus, presented the pre-existent \u201cWord\u201d and Jesus Christ as one and the same."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "In Christianity, the Logos () is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity. In the Douay\u2013Rheims, King James, New International, and other versions of the Bible, the first verse of the Gospel of John reads:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logocracy",
        "text": "Academic Yahya Michot has referred to Sunni Islam as a \"popular\" or \"laic logocracy\", in that it is government by the word of the Koran."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bila Kayf",
        "text": "Al-Ash\u02bbar\u012b (c. 873\u2013936) originated the use of the term in his development of the orthodox Ash'ari theology against some of the paradoxes of the rationalist Mu\u02bftazila. Instead of explaining that God has a literal face, which would anthropomorphize God, he explained that the earliest Muslims simply accepted the verses as they stand - without asking how or why. This view was held by the vast majority of Sunni Muslims from the first generations of Islam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Origen",
        "text": "The Logos is the rational creative principle that permeates the universe. The Logos acts on all human beings through their capacity for logic and rational thought, guiding them to the truth of God's revelation. As they progress in their rational thinking, all humans become more like Christ. Nonetheless, they retain their individuality and do not become subsumed into Christ. Creation came into existence only through the Logos, and God's nearest approach to the world is the command to create. While the Logos is substantially a unity, he comprehends a multiplicity of concepts, so that Origen terms him, in Platonic fashion, \"essence of essences\" and \"idea of ideas\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pahlavi scripts",
        "text": "Many \"huzvarishn\" were listed in the lexicon \"Frahang-i Pahlavig\". The practice of using these logograms appears to have originated from the use of Aramaic in the chancelleries of the Achaemenid Empire. Partly similar phenomena are found in the use of Sumerograms and Akkadograms in ancient Mesopotamia and the Hittite empire, and in the adaptation of Chinese writing to Japanese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bangladesh Islami Chattra Sena",
        "text": "The logo was half moon with a star above and under the moon a verse of the Quran- Ja al Haqqu wajaahaqai Batilu (truth comes and false removes)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "In Christology, the Logos () is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity. The concept derives from , which in the Douay\u2013Rheims, King James, New International, and other versions of the Bible, reads:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "According to Irenaeus of Lyon (\"c\" 130\u2013202), a student of John's disciple Polycarp (\"c\" pre-69-156), John the Apostle wrote these words specifically to refute the teachings of Cerinthus, who both resided and taught at Ephesus, the city John settled in following his return from exile on Patmos. While Cerinthus claimed that the world was made by \"a certain Power far separated from\" \"Almighty God,\" John, according to Irenaeus, by means of John 1:1-5, presented Almighty God as the Creator - \"by His Word.\" And while Cerinthus made a distinction between the man Jesus and \u201cthe Christ from above,\u201d who descended on the man Jesus at his baptism, John, according to Irenaeus, presented the pre-existent \u201cWord\u201d and Jesus Christ as one and the same."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Logos is an important term in philosophy, analytical psychology, rhetoric, and religion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Origen of Alexandria likewise sees in it the operation of the Trinity, a mystery intimated beforehand by the Psalmist David. Augustine of Hippo considered that in Ps.33:6 both \"logos\" and \"pneuma\" were \"on the verge of being personified\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heraclitus",
        "text": "Hippolytus of Rome, one of the early Church Fathers of the Christian Church identified Heraclitus along with the other Pre-Socratics and Academics as sources of heresy, and identified the logos as meaning the Christian \"Word of God\", such as in , \"In the beginning was the Word (\"logos\") and the Word was God\". However, modern scholars such as John Burnet viewed the relationship between Heraclitean logos and Johannine logos as fallacious, saying; \"the Johannine doctrine of the logos has nothing to do with Herakleitos or with anything at all in Greek philosophy, but comes from the Hebrew Wisdom literature\".The works of dozens of writers in hundreds of pages have survived; all of them mentioned the Christian form of the \"Logos\". German physicist and philosopher Max Bernard Weinstein classed Hippolytus's view as a predecessor of pandeism. The Christian apologist Justin Martyr took a more positive view of Heraclitus. In his First Apology, he said both Socrates and Heraclitus were Christians before Christ: \"those who lived reasonably are Christians, even though they have been thought atheists; as, among the Greeks, Socrates and Heraclitus, and men like them\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Following John 1, the early Christian apologist Justin Martyr (\"c\" 150) identifies Jesus as the Logos. Like Philo, Justin also identified the Logos with the Angel of the Lord, and he also identified the Logos with the many other theophanies of the Old Testament, and used this as a way of arguing for Christianity to Jews:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "In these translations, \"Word\" is used for \u039b\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2, although the term is often used transliterated but untranslated in theological discourse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "The translation of last four words of John 1:1 () has been a particular topic of debate in Western Christianity in the modern period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of ancient philosophy articles",
        "text": "- Logos"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Irenaeus wrote that John wrote these verses to refute these errors and to state:\u201cThat there is one Almighty God, who made all things by His Word,\u201d and"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Certain references to the term \"logos\" in the Septuagint in Christian theology are taken as prefiguring New Testament usage such as Psalm 33:6, which relates directly to the Genesis creation narrative. Theophilus of Antioch references the connection in \"To Autolycus\" 1:7."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Logos became a technical term in Western philosophy beginning with Heraclitus (), who used the term for a principle of order and knowledge. Ancient Greek philosophers used the term in different ways. The sophists used the term to mean discourse. Aristotle applied the term to refer to \"reasoned discourse\" or \"the argument\" in the field of rhetoric, and considered it one of the three modes of persuasion alongside \"ethos\" and \"pathos\". Pyrrhonist philosophers used the term to refer to dogmatic accounts of non-evident matters. The Stoics spoke of the \"logos spermatikos\" (the generative principle of the Universe) which foreshadows related concepts in Neoplatonism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "The Gospel of John identifies the Christian Logos, through which all things are made, as divine (\"theos\"), and further identifies Jesus Christ as the incarnate Logos. Early translators of the Greek New Testament such as Jerome (in the 4th century AD) were frustrated by the inadequacy of any single Latin word to convey the meaning of the word \"logos\" as used to describe Jesus Christ in the Gospel of John. The Vulgate Bible usage of was thus constrained to use the (perhaps inadequate) noun for \"word\", but later Romance language translations had the advantage of nouns such as in French. Reformation translators took another approach. Martin Luther rejected (verb) in favor of (word), for instance, although later commentators repeatedly turned to a more dynamic use involving \"the living word\" as felt by Jerome and Augustine. The term is also used in Sufism, and the analytical psychology of Carl Jung."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Philo (), a Hellenized Jew, used the term \"logos\" to mean an intermediary divine being or demiurge. Philo followed the Platonic distinction between imperfect matter and perfect Form, and therefore intermediary beings were necessary to bridge the enormous gap between God and the material world. The \"logos\" was the highest of these intermediary beings, and was called by Philo \"the first-born of God\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Theophilus, the Patriarch of Antioch, (died \"c\" 180) likewise, in his \"Apology to Autolycus\", identifies the Logos as the Son of God, who was at one time internal within the Father, but was begotten by the Father before creation:And first, they taught us with one consent that God made all things out of nothing; for nothing was coeval with God: but He being His own place, and wanting nothing, and existing before the ages, willed to make man by whom He might be known; for him, therefore, He prepared the world. For he that is created is also needy; but he that is uncreated stands in need of nothing. God, then, having His own Word internal within His own bowels, begot Him, emitting Him along with His own wisdom before all things. He had this Word as a helper in the things that were created by Him, and by Him He made all things . . . Not as the poets and writers of myths talk of the sons of gods begotten from intercourse [with women], but as truth expounds, the Word, that always exists, residing within the heart of God. For before anything came into being He had Him as a counsellor, being His own mind and thought. But when God wished to make all that He determined on, He begot this Word, uttered, the first-born of all creation, not Himself being emptied of the Word [Reason], but having begotten Reason, and always conversing with His Reason.He sees in the text of Psalm 33:6 the operation of the Trinity, following the early practice as identifying the Holy Spirit as the Wisdom (Sophia) of God, when he writes that \"God by His own Word and Wisdom made all things; for by His Word were the heavens made, and all the host of them by the Spirit of His mouth\" So he expresses in his second letter to Autolycus, \"In like manner also the three days which were before the luminaries, are types of the Trinity, of God, and His Word, and His wisdom.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos Complete Study Bible",
        "text": "In the first and fifth lines, the words Nazarene and Nazareth are rendered N\u01cez\u2019\u01cer\u1ebdth and N\u01cez-\u01ce-r\u1ebdne\u2019, respectively. These are indications of the pronunciation, and are given for most words translated or adapted from Biblical languages, particularly including place and personal names. The editors chose the then-current means employed by the Webster's International Dictionary to indicate pronunciation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "While John 1:1 is generally considered the first mention of the Logos in the New Testament, arguably, the first reference occurs in the book of Revelation. In it the Logos is spoken of as \"the Word of God\", who at the Second Coming rides a white horse into the Battle of Armageddon wearing many crowns, and is identified as King of Kings, and Lord of Lords:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logocentrism",
        "text": "Ferdinand de Saussure (1857\u20131913), it is claimed by Derrida, follows this logocentric line of thought in the development of his linguistic sign and its terminology. Where the word remains known as the whole sign, the unification of concept and sound-image becomes the unification of the signified and the signifier respectively. The signifier is then composed of an indivisible sound and image whereby the graphic form of the sign is exterior."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Irenaeus of Lyon explained Psalm 33:6 as that the \u201cOne God, the Father, not made, invisible, creator of all things\u201d \u201ccreated the things that were made\u201d \u201cby (the) Word\u201d and \u201cadorned all things\u201d \u201cby (the) Spirit.\u201d Irenaeus added, \u201cfittingly is the Word called the Son, and the Spirit the Wisdom of God.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "David Lyle Jeffrey and Leon Morris have seen in \"the word\" a reference to Jesus Christ."
      },
      {
        "title": "True name",
        "text": "Hellenistic Judaism emphasized the divine nature of \"logos\", later adopted by the Gospel of John. The true name of God plays a central role in Kabbalism (see Gematria, Temurah, YHWH [the tetragrammaton]) and to some extent in Sufism (see 100th name of God)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crescent",
        "text": "While some Islamic organisations since the 1970s have embraced the crescent as their logo or emblem (e.g. \"Crescent International\" magazine, established 1980), some Muslim publications tend to emphasize that the interpretation of the crescent, historically used on the banners of Muslim armies, as a \"religious symbol\" of Islam was an error made by the \"Christians of Europe\". The identification of the crescent as an \"Islamic symbol\" is mentioned by James Hastings as a \"common error\" to which \"even approved writers on Oriental subjects\" are prone as early as 1928."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jesus in Christianity",
        "text": "In Christology, the concept that Christ is the \"Logos\" (i.e., \"The Word\") has been important in establishing the doctrine of the divinity of Christ and his position as God the Son in the Trinity as set forth in the Chalcedonian Creed. This derives from the , commonly translated into English as: \"In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.\" \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 in the original Koine Greek is translated as \"Word\" and in theological discourse, this is often left in its English transliterated form, \"Logos\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Stoic philosophy began with Zeno of Citium , in which the \"logos\" was the active reason pervading and animating the Universe. It was conceived as material and is usually identified with God or Nature. The Stoics also referred to the \"seminal logos\" (\"\"logos spermatikos\"), or the law of generation in the Universe, which was the principle of the active reason working in inanimate matter. Humans, too, each possess a portion of the divine \"logos\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "The word \"logos\" has been used in different senses along with \"rhema\". Both Plato and Aristotle used the term \"logos\" along with \"rhema\" to refer to sentences and propositions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logo (programming language)",
        "text": "Logo is an educational programming language, designed in 1967 by Wally Feurzeig, Seymour Papert, and Cynthia Solomon. \"Logo\" is not an acronym: the name was coined by Feurzeig while he was at Bolt, Beranek and Newman, and derives from the Greek \"logos\", meaning \"word\" or \"thought\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neoplatonism",
        "text": "The term \"logos\" was interpreted variously in neoplatonism. Plotinus refers to Thales in interpreting \"logos\" as the principle of meditation, the interrelationship between the hypostases (Soul, Spirit (nous) and the 'One'). St. John introduces a relation between \"Logos\" and the Son, Christ, whereas Paul calls it 'Son', 'Image', and 'Form'. Victorinus subsequently differentiated the Logos interior to God from the Logos related to the world by creation and salvation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Georg Mehlis",
        "text": "He edited (with Richard Kroner) \"Logos, Internationale Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Philosophie der Kultur\", from 1910 (\"Logos\" was the title from 1912), with contributions by many leading German intellectual figures; which had an Italian stable-mate from 1914."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philo's view of God",
        "text": "In its relation to the world the Logos appears as the Universal substance on which all things depend; and from this point of view the manna (as \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ce\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9) becomes a symbol for it. The Logos, however, is not only the archetype of things, but also the power that produces them, appearing as such especially under the name of the Logos \u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03cd\u03c2 (\"the divider\"). It separates the individual beings of nature from one another according to their characteristics; but, on the other hand, it constitutes the bond connecting the individual creatures, uniting their spiritual and physical attributes. It may be said to have invested itself with the whole world as an indestructible garment. It appears as the director and shepherd of the things in the world insofar as they are in motion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heraclitus",
        "text": "Heraclitus's teaching on \"logos\" is taken as a predecessor of the \"logos\" mentioned in the New Testament, in the . The \"logos\" is Christ. Now, since Heraclitus already speaks of the \"logos\", the Greeks arrived at the very doorstep of absolute truth, namely, the revealed truth of Christianity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samuel Werenfels",
        "text": "The underlying causes of logomachy were taken by Werenfels to be prejudice and other failings of the disputants, and ambiguity in language. In his dissertation \"De logomachiis eruditorum\" (Amsterdam, 1688) Werenfels argued that controversies that divide Christians are often verbal disputes, arising from moral deficiencies, especially from pride. He proposed to do away with them by making a universal lexicon of all terms and concepts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "The question of how to translate Logos is also treated in Goethe's \"Faust\", with lead character Heinrich Faust finally opting for , (\"deed/action\"). This interpretation owes itself to the Hebrew \u05d3\u05b8\u05bc\u05d1\u05b8\u05e8 (\"dabhar\"), which not only means \"word\", but can also be understood as a deed or thing accomplished: that is, \"the \"word\" is the highest and noblest function of man and is, for that reason, identical with his action. 'Word' and 'Deed' are thus not two different meanings of \"dabhar\", but the 'deed' is the consequence of the basic meaning inherent in \"dabhar\".\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Despite the conventional translation as \"word\", \"logos\" is not used for a word in the grammatical sense\u2014for that, the term \"lexis\" (, ) was used. However, both \"logos\" and \"lexis\" derive from the same verb (), meaning \"(I) count, tell, say, speak\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shiraz University",
        "text": "After the Revolution, the later seal designed by the current faculty of Department of Arts, Bahman Feizabi inspired by the logo designed for The Asia Institute. According to him the basic motif for the new seal was inspired by the tree of life relief in Taq Bostan which is one of the most important motifs in the Sassanid era. The tree of life is a concept used in science, religion, philosophy, myth and other fields, and is represented as a branching tree that reflects the idea that all life is related to each other on Earth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uzhhorod National University",
        "text": "The Centre of Historical and Religious Studies \u201cLogos\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "On April 1, 2005, Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (who became Pope Benedict XVI just over two weeks later) referred to the Christian religion as the religion of the Logos:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Augustine of Hippo, often seen as the father of medieval philosophy, was also greatly influenced by Plato and is famous for his re-interpretation of Aristotle and Plato in the light of early Christian thought. A young Augustine experimented with, but failed to achieve ecstasy using the meditations of Plotinus. In his \"Confessions\", Augustine described \"logos\" as the \"Divine Eternal Word\", by which he, in part, was able to motivate the early Christian thought throughout the Hellenized world (of which the Latin speaking West was a part) Augustine's \"logos\" \"had taken body\" in Christ, the man in whom the \"logos\" (i.e. or ) was present as in no other man."
      },
      {
        "title": "Osman Faruk Lo\u011fo\u011flu",
        "text": "Lo\u011fo\u011flu graduated from Tarsus American College and received his undergraduate and master's degree in political science at Brandeis University in Waltham, MA on the Wien International Scholarship, and his Ph.D. from Princeton University in 1970."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of how logos is used?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Christianity, the Logos is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity, and within Sunni Islam, logos has been associated with, among other concepts, \u02bfaql (\"Intellect\") and kalimat All\u0101h (\"Word of God\"). Additionally, logos is also the name Atlas Sound's second studio album. Which of these are you interested in learning more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about how logos in the Sunni religion."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In the writings of many of the most prominent Sunni Islamic metaphysicians, philosophers, and mystics of the Islamic Golden Age, Muhammad was understood to be \"both a manifestation of the Logos and the Logos itself. At the same time, the logos concept was also intimately tied in the works of the same authors to other important Islamic cosmological concepts."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did the word logo come about?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Logos became a technical term in Western philosophy beginning with Heraclitus (c.\u2009 535 \u2013 c.\u2009 475 BC), who used the term for a principle of order and knowledge.  Philo (c.\u2009 20 BC \u2013 c.\u2009 50 AD) adopted the term into Jewish philosophy but despite the conventional translation as \"word\", logos is not used for a word in the grammatical sense\u2014for that, the term lexis (\u03bb\u03ad\u03be\u03b9\u03c2, l\u00e9xis) was used.",
      "Logos is a term in Western philosophy, psychology, rhetoric, and religion derived from a Greek word variously meaning \"ground\", \"plea\", \"opinion\", \"expectation\", \"word\", \"speech\", \"account\", \"reason\", \"proportion\", and \"discourse\"."
    ],
    "topic": "Logos",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Logos:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Logos",
          "Origins of the term"
        ],
        "ctx": "Logos became a technical term in Western philosophy beginning with Heraclitus (), who used the term for a principle of order and knowledge. Ancient Greek philosophers used the term in different ways. The sophists used the term to mean discourse. Aristotle applied the term to refer to \"reasoned discourse\" or \"the argument\" in the field of rhetoric, and considered it one of the three modes of persuasion alongside \"ethos\" and \"pathos\". Pyrrhonist philosophers used the term to refer to dogmatic accounts of non-evident matters. The Stoics spoke of the \"logos spermatikos\" (the generative principle of the Universe) which foreshadows related concepts in Neoplatonism."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Logos:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Logos",
          "Origins of the term"
        ],
        "ctx": "Within Hellenistic Judaism, Philo () adopted the term into Jewish philosophy."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Logos:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Logos",
          "Origins of the term"
        ],
        "ctx": "Within Hellenistic Judaism, Philo () adopted the term into Jewish philosophy."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Logos:7",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Logos",
          "Origins of the term"
        ],
        "ctx": "Despite the conventional translation as \"word\", \"logos\" is not used for a word in the grammatical sense\u2014for that, the term \"lexis\" (, ) was used. However, both \"logos\" and \"lexis\" derive from the same verb (), meaning \"(I) count, tell, say, speak\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Logos:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Logos"
        ],
        "ctx": "Logos (, ; ; from , , ) is a term in Western philosophy, psychology, rhetoric, and religion derived from a Greek word variously meaning \"ground\", \"plea\", \"opinion\", \"expectation\", \"word\", \"speech\", \"account\", \"reason\", \"proportion\", and \"discourse\"."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "In the writings of many of the most prominent Sunni Islamic metaphysicians, philosophers, and mystics of the Islamic Golden Age, Muhammad, who is given the title of \"Seal of the Prophets\" in the Quran, was understood to be \"both a manifestation of the Logos and the Logos itself, he was also very kind and had prayed for his people every night, and was always very worried about his people This classical identification of Muhammad with the \"logos\" emerged from particular interpretations of specific Quranic verses, sayings of the prophet, and through the writings of the early mystics of Islam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "The concept of the \"logos\" also exists in Islam, where it was definitively articulated primarily in the writings of the classical Sunni mystics and Islamic philosophers, as well as by certain Shi'a thinkers, during the Islamic Golden Age. In Sunni Islam, the concept of the \"logos\" has been given many different names by the denomination's metaphysicians, mystics, and philosophers, including \"\u02bfaql\" (\"Intellect\"), \"al-ins\u0101n al-k\u0101mil\" (\"Universal Man\"), \"kalimat All\u0101h\" (\"Word of God\"), \"haq\u012bqa mu\u1e25ammadiyya\" (\"The Muhammadan Reality\"), and \"n\u016br mu\u1e25ammad\u012b\" (\"The Muhammadan Light\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "Logos (Islam)\n--Prophet Muhammad.\n--Cosmological concepts.\n----\"\u02bfAql\".\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "The concept of \"logos\" in Sufism is used to relate the \"Uncreated\" (God) to the \"Created\" (humanity). In Sufism, for the Deist, no contact between man and God can be possible without the \"logos\". The \"logos\" is everywhere and always the same, but its personification is \"unique\" within each region. Jesus and Muhammad are seen as the personifications of the \"logos\", and this is what enables them to speak in such absolute terms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "At the same time, the \"logos\" concept was also intimately tied in the works of the same authors to other important Islamic cosmological concepts, such as \"\u02bfaql\" (\"Intellect\"), which \"resembled the late Greek doctrine of the \"logos\"\" and represented an Arabic equivalent to the Neoplatonic \"\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2\" (\"Intellect\"). Other important Islamic concepts related to the \"logos\" include the \"law\u1e25 ma\u1e25f\u016b\u1e93\" (, in Quran 85:22), \"\u1e33alam\" (\"Divine Pen\"), \"umm al-kit\u0101b\" (\"Mother of the Book,\" in Quran 3:7, 13:39, 43:4), and, perhaps most famously, the Muhammad-related ideas of \"al-ins\u0101n al-k\u0101mil\" (\"Perfect Man\" or \"Universal Man\"), \"n\u016br mu\u1e25ammad\u012b\" (\"Muhammadan Light\"), and \"al-\u1e25aq\u012bqa al-mu\u1e25ammadiyya\" (\"Muhammadan Reality\"). The \"logos\" was often presented as \"created\" in Islamic doctrine, and thus was more akin to Philo's understanding of the phrase than Nicene Christianity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "One of the names given to a concept very much like the Christian Logos by the classical Muslim metaphysicians is \"\u02bfaql\", which is the \"Arabic equivalent to the Greek (intellect).\" In the writings of the Islamic Neoplatonist philosophers, such as al-Farabi () and Avicenna (d. 1037), the idea of the \"\u02bfaql\" was presented in a manner that both resembled \"the late Greek doctrine\" and, likewise, \"corresponded in many respects to the Logos Christology.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "The concept of the logos also exists in Islam, where it was definitively articulated primarily in the writings of the classical Sunni mystics and Islamic philosophers, as well as by certain Shi'a thinkers, during the Islamic Golden Age. In Sunni Islam, the concept of the \"logos\" has been given many different names by the denomination's metaphysicians, mystics, and philosophers, including \"\u02bfaql\" (\"Intellect\"), \"al-ins\u0101n al-k\u0101mil\" (\"Universal Man\"), \"kalimat All\u0101h\" (\"Word of God\"), \"haq\u012bqa mu\u1e25ammadiyya\" (\"The Muhammadan Reality\"), and \"n\u016br mu\u1e25ammad\u012b\" (\"The Muhammadan Light\"). Throughout Islamic history, there have existed several different metaphysical concepts that have been understood to correspond \"in many respects\" to the logos Christology of Christianity and to the use of the term \"logos\" in late Greek philosophy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "Ibn Arabi seems to have adopted his version of the \"logos\" concept from Neoplatonic and Christian sources, although (writing in Arabic rather than Greek) he used more than twenty different terms when discussing it. For Ibn Arabi, the \"logos\" or \"Universal Man\" was a mediating link between individual human beings and the divine essence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "One of the names given to a concept very much like the Christian Logos by the classical Muslim metaphysicians is \"\u02bfaql\", which is the \"Arabic equivalent to the Greek (intellect).\" In the writings of the Islamic neoplatonist philosophers, such as al-Farabi () and Avicenna (d. 1037), the idea of the \"\u02bfaql\" was presented in a manner that both resembled \"the late Greek doctrine\" and, likewise, \"corresponded in many respects to the Logos Christology.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Depictions of Muhammad",
        "text": "Most Sunni Muslims believe that visual depictions of all the prophets of Islam should be prohibited and are particularly averse to visual representations of Muhammad. The key concern is that the use of images can encourage idolatry. In Shia Islam, however, images of Muhammad are quite common nowadays, even though Shia scholars historically were against such depictions. Still, many Muslims who take a stricter view of the supplemental traditions will sometimes challenge any depiction of Muhammad, including those created and published by non-Muslims."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "Other Sufi writers also show the influence of the Neoplatonic \"logos\". In the 15th century Abd al-Kar\u012bm al-J\u012bl\u012b introduced the \"Doctrine of Logos and the Perfect Man\". For al-J\u012bl\u012b, the \"perfect man\" (associated with the \"logos\" or the Prophet) has the power to assume different forms at different times and to appear in different guises."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "The concept of \"logos\" in Sufism is used to relate the \"Uncreated\" (God) to the \"Created\" (humanity). In Sufism, for the Deist, no contact between man and God can be possible without the \"logos\". The \"logos\" is everywhere and always the same, but its personification is \"unique\" within each region. Jesus and Muhammad are seen as the personifications of the \"logos\", and this is what enables them to speak in such absolute terms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "One of the boldest and most radical attempts to reformulate the Neoplatonic concepts into Sufism arose with the philosopher Ibn Arabi, who traveled widely in Spain and North Africa. His concepts were expressed in two major works \"The Ringstones of Wisdom\" (\"Fusus al-Hikam\") and \"The Meccan Illuminations\" (\"Al-Fut\u016b\u1e25\u0101t al-Makkiyya\"). To Ibn Arabi, every prophet corresponds to a reality which he called a \"logos\" (\"Kalimah\"), as an aspect of the unique divine being. In his view the divine being would have for ever remained hidden, had it not been for the prophets, with \"logos\" providing the link between man and divinity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity and Islam",
        "text": "Muslims revere Muhammad as the embodiment of the perfect believer and take his actions and sayings as a model of ideal conduct. Unlike Jesus, who Christians believe was God's son, Muhammad was a mortal, albeit with extraordinary qualities. Today many Muslims believe that it is wrong to represent Muhammad, but this was not always the case. At various times and places pious Muslims represented Muhammad although they never worshiped these images."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Ibn Arabi seems to have adopted his version of the \"logos\" concept from neoplatonic and Christian sources, although (writing in Arabic rather than Greek) he used more than twenty different terms when discussing it. For Ibn Arabi, the \"logos\" or \"Universal Man\" was a mediating link between individual human beings and the divine essence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy",
        "text": "The Qur'an condemns idolatry, and various \"hadiths\" also forbid depictions of living beings. This has led major Islamic scholars and legal schools to prohibit figurative representation; this is known as aniconism. However, since Islam has many centres of religious authority, opinion and tradition about this is not uniform. For mainstream Islamic scholars, all pictorial representations of Prophets are prohibited. In popular practice today there is no general injunction against pictorial representation of people outside of religious contexts. Generally, images of Muhammad have been prohibited throughout history. In practice, images of Muhammad have been made on many occasions, generally in a restricted and socially regulated way; for example, they are often stylised or do not show Muhammad's face. Within Muslim communities, views about pictorial representations have varied: Shi'a Islam has been generally tolerant of pictorial representations of human figures while Sunni Islam generally forbids any pictorial representation of living beings, albeit with some variation in practice outside a religious context. Some contemporary interpretations of Islam, such as those followed by adherents of Wahhabism, are iconoclastic. The movement strongly upholds \"Tawhid\" (monotheism), advocate direct return to Scriptures in rejection of \"Taqlid\" and view various practices associated with grave veneration as idolatry. Based on these principles, its followers designated themselves as \"Muwahhidun\" (Unitarians) and destroyed tombs and shrines of \"Awliyaa\" (saints) in regions under their rule. These ideas have influenced contemporary movements such as the Taliban, known for its aniconist views that condemn all forms of pictorial representations and advocate the destruction of idols; most notably the 2001 Destruction of Bamiyan statues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muqatil ibn Sulayman",
        "text": "The accusations of anthropomorphism against Muqatil were seen as the logical opposite to those who held the negationist views of Jahm, to whom the term \"Jahmiyyah\" was used (as the opposite of \"Muqatiliyyah\"). The Sunni Muslims thus positioned themselves in the middle, between the two extremes, neither negating God's attributes nor likening them to the creation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "One of the boldest and most radical attempts to reformulate the neoplatonic concepts into Sufism arose with the philosopher Ibn Arabi, who traveled widely in Spain and North Africa. His concepts were expressed in two major works \"The Ringstones of Wisdom\" (\"Fusus al-Hikam\") and \"The Meccan Illuminations\" (\"Al-Fut\u016b\u1e25\u0101t al-Makkiyya\"). To Ibn Arabi, every prophet corresponds to a reality which he called a \"logos\" (\"Kalimah\"), as an aspect of the unique divine being. In his view the divine being would have for ever remained hidden, had it not been for the prophets, with \"logos\" providing the link between man and divinity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad in Islam",
        "text": "Although Islam only explicitly condemns depicting the divinity, the prohibition was supplementally expanded to prophets and saints and among Arab Sunnism, to any living creature. Although both the Sunni schools of law and the Shia jurisprudence alike prohibit the figurative depiction of Muhammad, visual representations of Muhammad exist in Arabic and Ottoman Turkish texts and especially flourished during the Ilkhanate (1256-1353), Timurid (1370-1506), and Safavid (1501-1722) periods. But apart from these notable exceptions and modern-day Iran, depictions of Muhammad were rare, and if given, usually with his face veiled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad",
        "text": "In line with the hadith's prohibition against creating images of sentient living beings, which is particularly strictly observed with respect to God and Muhammad, Islamic religious art is focused on the word. Muslims generally avoid depictions of Muhammad, and mosques are decorated with calligraphy and Quranic inscriptions or geometrical designs, not images or sculptures. Today, the interdiction against images of Muhammad\u2014designed to prevent worship of Muhammad, rather than God\u2014is much more strictly observed in Sunni Islam (85%\u201390% of Muslims) and Ahmadiyya Islam (1%) than among Shias (10%\u201315%). While both Sunnis and Shias have created images of Muhammad in the past, Islamic depictions of Muhammad are rare. They have mostly been limited to the private and elite medium of the miniature, and since about 1500 most depictions show Muhammad with his face veiled, or symbolically represent him as a flame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad in Islam",
        "text": "Most modern Muslims believe that visual depictions of all the prophets of Islam should be prohibited and are particularly averse to visual representations of Muhammad. One concern is that the use of images can encourage idolatry, but also creating an image might lead the artist to claim the ability to create, an ability only ascribed to God."
      },
      {
        "title": "Depictions of Muhammad",
        "text": "Since the late 1990s, experts in Islamic iconography discovered images, printed on paper in Iran, portraying Mohammed as a teenager wearing a turban. There are several variants, all show the same juvenile face, identified by an inscription such as \"Muhammad, the Messenger of God\", or a more detailed legend referring to an episode in the life of Muhammad and the supposed origin of the image. Some Iranian versions of these posters attributed the original depiction to a Bahira, a Christian monk who met the young Muhammad in Syria. By crediting the image to a Christian and predating it to the time before Muhammad became a prophet, the manufacturers of the image exonerate themselves from any wrongdoing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad in Islam",
        "text": "Muhammad is highly venerated by the Muslims, and is sometimes considered by them to be the greatest of all the prophets. Muslims do not worship Muhammad as worship in Islam is only for God. In Muhammad's own words, he said: 'Do not extol me as the Christians extolled the son of Mary, I am merely a servant'. Muslim understanding and reverence for Muhammad can largely be traced to the teachings of Quran which emphatically describes Muhammad's exalted status. To begin with, the Quran describes Muhammad as \"al-nabi al-ummi\" or unlettered prophet (Quran ), meaning that he \"received his religious knowledge only from God\". As a result, Muhammad's examples have been understood by the Muslims to represent the highest ideal for human conduct, and to reflect what God wants humanity to do. The Quran ranks Muhammad above previous prophets in terms of his moral excellence and the universal message he brought from God for humanity. The Quran calls him the \"beautiful model\" (\"al-uswa al-hasana\") for those who hope for God and the last day (Quran ). Muslims believe that Muhammad was sent not for any specific people or region, but for all of humanity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval Christian views on Muhammad",
        "text": "In his depiction of Muhammad, Dante is drawing inspiration from medieval Christian views on Muhammad. As stated by historian Karla Mallette, \u201cmedieval Christians viewed the historical Mu\u1e25ammad as a frankly theatrical character.\u201d This graphic scene is frequently shown in illustrations of the \"Divine Comedy:\" Muhammad is represented in a 15th-century fresco \"Last Judgment\" by Giovanni da Modena and drawing on Dante, in the San Petronio Basilica in Bologna, as well as in artwork by Salvador Dal\u00ed, Auguste Rodin, William Blake, and Gustave Dor\u00e9."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "In Ottoman Sufism, \u015eeyh G\u00e2lib (d. 1799) articulates S\u00fchan (\"logos\"-\"Kalima\") in his \"H\u00fcsn \u00fc A\u015fk\" (\"Beauty and Love\") in parallel to Ibn Arabi's Kalima. In the romance, \"S\u00fchan\" appears as an embodiment of Kalima as a reference to the Word of God, the Perfect Man, and the Reality of Muhammad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Depictions of Muhammad",
        "text": "In Islam, although nothing in the Quran explicitly bans images, some supplemental hadith explicitly ban the drawing of images of any living creature; other hadith tolerate images, but never encourage them. Hence, most Muslims avoid visual depictions of Muhammad or any other prophet such as Moses or Abraham."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad's views on Christians",
        "text": "Muhammad's views on Christians were shaped through his interactions with them. Muhammad had a generally semi-positive view of Christians and viewed them as People of the Book and as earlier receivers of Abrahamic revelation, but he also criticised them for some of their beliefs. He sent various letters to Christian world leaders inviting them to \"Submission to God, Islam\". According to Islamic tradition, he interacted with Christians while in Mecca."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad in Islam",
        "text": "Muslims often refer to Muhammad as Prophet Muhammad, or just \"The Prophet\" or \"The Messenger\", and regard him as the greatest of all Prophets. He is seen by the Muslims as a possessor of all virtues. As an act of respect, Muslims follow the name of Muhammad by the Arabic benediction \"sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam\", (meaning Peace be upon him), sometimes abbreviated as \"SAW\" or \"PBUH\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Other Sufi writers also show the influence of the neoplatonic \"logos\". In the 15th century Abd al-Kar\u012bm al-J\u012bl\u012b introduced the \"Doctrine of Logos and the Perfect Man\". For al-J\u012bl\u012b, the \"perfect man\" (associated with the \"logos\" or the Prophet) has the power to assume different forms at different times and to appear in different guises."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of Muhammad",
        "text": "In an essay that discusses views of Muhammad's psychology, Franz Bul (1903) is said to have observed that \"hysterical natures find unusual difficulty and often complete inability to distinguish the false from the true\", and to have thought this to be \"the safest way to interpret the strange inconsistencies in the life of the Prophet.\" In the same essay Duncan Black Macdonald (1911) is credited with the opinion that \"fruitful investigation of the Prophet's life (should) proceed upon the assumption that he was fundamentally a pathological case.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ahmad",
        "text": "\"Note that by the middle of the 2nd century AH, Muslims already identified Muhammad with the Greek word \"Paracletos\" (Counsellor / Advocate) or the Aramaic translation \"Menahhemana.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sami Mohammad",
        "text": "Freedom is yet another important concept in the art of Mohammad. A paper about his art discussed that \"...his visual art suggests that the sign of the buoyancy of culture is the conviction that the underpinning logos should be freedom\u2013and most specifically, free speech...\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Logos (, ; ; from , , ) is a term in Western philosophy, psychology, rhetoric, and religion derived from a Greek word variously meaning \"ground\", \"plea\", \"opinion\", \"expectation\", \"word\", \"speech\", \"account\", \"reason\", \"proportion\", and \"discourse\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of Muhammad",
        "text": "Modern secular historians generally decline to address the question of whether the messages Muhammad reported being revealed to him were from \"his unconscious, the collective unconscious functioning in him, or from some divine source\", but they acknowledge that the material came from \"beyond his conscious mind.\" Watt says that sincerity does not directly imply correctness: In contemporary terms, Muhammad might have mistaken for divine revelation his own unconscious. William Montgomery Watt states:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval Christian views on Muhammad",
        "text": "In contrast to the views of Muhammad in Islam, the Christian views on him stayed highly negative during the Middle Ages for over a millennium. At this time, Christendom largely viewed Islam as a Christian heresy and Muhammad as a false prophet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad in film",
        "text": "In Shia Islam, scholars historically were also against such depictions, but have taken a more relaxed view over the years and images of Muhammad are quite common nowadays. A fatwa given by Ali al-Sistani, the Shi'a marja of Iraq, states that it is permissible to depict Muhammad, even in television or movies, if done with respect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hilya",
        "text": "Many authors have commented that another reason is the affection that Muslims feel for Muhammad, which leads them to read about his physical and moral beauty. The (apocryphal) hadith that those who memorize his \"hilye\" and keep it close to their heart will see Muhammad in their dreams would have been another reason. Muslim people's love for Muhammad is considered to be one of the reasons for the display of \"hilye\" panels at a prominent place in their homes (see Graphic art form section below)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Depictions of Muhammad",
        "text": "Despite the avoidance of the representation of Muhammad in Sunni Islam, images of Muhammed are not uncommon in Iran. The Iranian Shi'ism seems more tolerant on this point than Sunnite orthodoxy. In Iran, depictions have considerable acceptance to the present day, and may be found in the modern forms of the poster and postcard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval Christian views on Muhammad",
        "text": "Muhammad is characterized as \"pseudo-prophet\" in Byzantine and post-Byzantine religious and historic texts, as for example by Niketas Choniates (12th-13th c.)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia view of Fatimah",
        "text": "Muhammad said \"Every mothers children are associated with their father except for the children of Fatimah for I am their father and lineage\". Thus descendants of Fatimah are descendants of Muhammad, and part of his \"Bayt\". Shia Islam believe this and tree placed below depict Fatimid and all other sects as vast family of Ali, Fatimah, Hasan and, Husayn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia view of the Quran",
        "text": "According to Muhammad Baqir Majlisi, the difference of opinion among the scholars and jurists was as follows:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Logos\n--Origins of the term.\n--Ancient Greek philosophy.\n----Heraclitus.\n----Aristotle's rhetorical logos.\n----Pyrrhonists.\n----Stoics.\n----Isocrates' logos.\n--In Hellenistic Judaism.\n----Philo of Alexandria.\n----Targums.\n--Christianity.\n--Neoplatonism.\n--Islam.\n----\"\u02bfAql\".\n--Jung's analytical psychology.\n--Rhetoric.\n--Rhema.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mohammad Abdul Ghafoor Hazarvi",
        "text": "Hazarvi believed that:\n*Muhammad is a human being but created from light like angels, rather than from clay like other human beings.\n*He is present in many places at the same time.\n*He is still witnessing all that goes on in the world.\n*He has knowledge of that which is unknown, including the future.\n*He has the authority to do whatever he desires as granted to him by God.\n*Although human, he possessed a \"n\u016br\" (light) that predates creation. This contrasts with the Deobandi view that Muhammad was \"insan-e-kamil\" (\"the complete man\"), a respected but physically typical human.\n*He is \"haazir naazir\" (can be present in many places at the same time, as opposed to God, who is everywhere by definition).\n*God has granted him \"ilm-e-ghaib\" (the knowledge of the unseen)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad in Islam",
        "text": "Muslims believe that Muhammad is the last and final messenger and prophet of God who began receiving direct verbal revelations in 610 CE. The first revealed verses were the first five verses of sura Al-Alaq that the archangel Jibril brought from God to Muhammad in the cave Mount Hira."
      },
      {
        "title": "Depictions of Muhammad",
        "text": "The permissibility of depictions of Muhammad in Islam has been a contentious issue. Oral and written descriptions of Muhammad are readily accepted by all traditions of Islam, but there is disagreement about visual depictions. The Quran does not explicitly or implicitly forbid images of Muhammad. The ahadith (supplemental teachings) present an ambiguous picture, but there are a few that have explicitly prohibited Muslims from creating visual depictions of human figures. It is agreed on all sides that there is no authentic visual tradition (pictures created during Muhammad's lifetime) as to the appearance of Muhammad, although there are early legends of portraits of him, and written physical descriptions whose authenticity is often accepted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Who Is Muhammad?",
        "text": "The book gives a comparison between the diverse attitudes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval Christian views on Muhammad",
        "text": "With the Crusades of the High Middle Ages, and the wars against the Ottoman Empire during the Late Middle Ages, the Christian reception of Muhammad became more polemical, moving from the classification as a heretic to depiction of Muhammad as a servant of Satan or as the Antichrist, who will be eternally suffering tortures in Hell amongst the damned. By the Late Middle Ages, Islam was more typically grouped with Paganism, and Muhammad was viewed as an idolater inspired by the Devil. A more relaxed or benign view of Islam only developed in the modern period, after the Islamic empires ceased to be an acute military threat to Europe (see Orientalism)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad in Islam",
        "text": "Thus, there remained a persistent enmity between the Muslims and the Quraysh tribe. The Muslims were still few and without substantial resources, and fearful of attacks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mohammedan",
        "text": "Some modern Muslims have objected to the term, saying that the term was not used by Muhammad himself or his early followers, and that the religion teaches the worship of God alone (see \"shirk\" and \"tawhid\") and not Muhammad or any other of God's prophets. Thus modern Muslims believe \"Mohammedan\" is a misnomer, \"which seem[s] to them to carry the implication of worship of Mohammed, as Christian and Christianity imply the worship of Christ.\" Also, the term \"al-Mu\u1e25ammad\u012bya\" (the Arabic equivalent of Mohammedan) has been used in Islam to denote several sects considered heretical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval Christian views on Muhammad",
        "text": "Encyclopedias"
      },
      {
        "title": "Everybody Draw Mohammed Day",
        "text": "Tarek Kahlaoui, an assistant professor of Islamic Art at Rutgers University, analyzed the reasons behind Islamic aniconism in an article on Global Expert Finder, pointing out that despite aniconism the depiction of Muhammad is not wholly forbidden in Islam, and so in principle it should be possible for non-Muslims to draw him as well, although stating, \"What should be an issue, however, are all possible implications between visual representation and bigotry.\" He also defended the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution in the way that it's an important right of all Americans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Warith Deen Mohammed",
        "text": "This was a focus that would persist throughout his career. In 1993 he spoke at the Interfaith Roundtable National Conference of Christians, Jews and Muslims in Detroit, Michigan. \"If we look at the broad definition for Muslim, we have to say that even though a Christian may be worshipping Jesus the Christ Prophet more than he is worshipping Allah, he or she may be Muslim in their spirit. They may still be Muslim, though the orientation has now dominated their Muslim urge. The person carrying a heavy cross may be a Muslim inwardly. So it is for a Jew, or Communist, or a Buddhist, or a Hindu.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ali Akbar Raefipour",
        "text": "He believes that the Son of Man in Bible is Mahdi. He believes jeans are named for jinns. He also compares women's high heels to the hooves of demons. Raefipour said that numbers and symbols on some t-shirts can be read as spells or satanic slogans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad",
        "text": "The earliest documented Christian knowledge of Muhammad stems from Byzantine sources. They indicate that both Jews and Christians saw Muhammad as a false prophet. Another Greek source for Muhammad is Theophanes the Confessor, a 9th-century writer. The earliest Syriac source is the 7th-century writer John bar Penkaye."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad in Islam",
        "text": "Mu\u1e25ammad ibn Abd Allah (; 570 \u2013 8 June 632 CE), is believed to be the seal of the messengers and prophets of God in all the main branches of Islam. Muslims believe that the Quran, the central religious text of Islam, was revealed to Muhammad by God, and that Muhammad was sent to restore Islam, which they believe did not originate with Muhammad but is the true unaltered original monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. The religious, social, and political tenets that Muhammad established with the Quran became the foundation of Islam and the Muslim world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hilya",
        "text": "There are several reasons given for the popularity of graphic \"hilyes\". Islam prohibits the depiction of graphic representations of people that may lead to idols. For this reason, Islamic art developed in the forms of calligraphy, miniatures and other non-figurative arts. In miniatures, Muhammad's face was either veiled or blanked. Because of the prohibition on drawing the face of Muhammad, the need to represent Muhammad was satisfied by writing his name and characteristics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aniconism",
        "text": "Aniconism in Islam not only deals with the material image, but touches upon mental representations as well. It is a thorny question, discussed by early theologians, as to how to describe God, Muhammad and other prophets, and, indeed, if it is permissible at all to do so. God is usually represented by immaterial attributes, such as \"holy\" or \"merciful\", commonly known from His \"Ninety-nine beautiful names\". Muhammad's physical appearance, however, is amply described, particularly in the traditions on his life and deeds \"Sira al-Nabi\". Of no less interest is the validity of sightings of holy personages made during dreams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad in Islam",
        "text": "However the idea of Muhammad's pre-existence was also a controversial one and disputed by some scholars like Al-Ghazali and Ibn Taymiyyah. Although the notion of the pre-existing Muhammad takes some resemblance of the Christian doctrine of the pre-existence of Christ, in Islam there can not be found any trace of Muhammad as a second person within the Godhead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval Christian views on Muhammad",
        "text": "Medieval European literature often referred to Muslims as \"infidels\" or \"pagans\", in sobriquets such as the \"paynim foe\". These depictions such as those in \"The Song of Roland\" represent Muslims worshiping Muhammad (spelt e.g. 'Mahom' and 'Mahumet') as a god, and depict them worshiping various deities in the form of \"idols\", ranging from Apollyon to Lucifer, but ascribing to them a chief deity known as \"Termagant\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of Muhammad",
        "text": "In the early 20th century Western scholarly views of Muhammad changed, including critical views. In the 1911 \"Catholic Encyclopedia\" Gabriel Oussani states that Muhammad was inspired by an \"imperfect understanding\" of Judaism and Christianity, but that the views of Luther and those who call Muhammad a \"wicked impostor\", a \"dastardly liar\" and a \"willful deceiver\" are an \"indiscriminate abuse\" and \"unsupported by facts.\" Instead, 19th-century Western scholars such as Aloys Sprenger, Theodor Noldeke, Gustav Weil, William Muir, Sigismund Koelle, and D.S. Margoliouth \"give us a more correct and unbiased estimate of Muhammad's life and character, and substantially agree as to his motives, prophetic call, personal qualifications, and sincerity.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ibadi Islam",
        "text": "In terms of scholastic theology, the Ibadi creed resembles that of the Mu\u02bftazila in many aspects, except in the central question of predestination. Like the Mu\u02bftazila and unlike the modern Sunni, the Ibadis believe that:\n* Human knowledge of God is innate through the use of reason, rather than being learned. Therefore, a Quranic verse that appears to contradict with human reason must be metaphorically reinterpreted in the light of reason rather than being taken as fact. It is forbidden to decide matters of religious belief by \"taqlid\", or deference to a clerical or otherwise human authority.\n* The attributes of God are not distinct from his essence. Mercy, power, wisdom, and other divine attributes are merely different ways to describe the single unitary essence of God, rather than independent attributes and qualities that God possesses.\n* Some Ibadis believe that the Quran was created by God at a certain point in time. While these Ibadis uphold the fact that \"essential speech\" is a way to describe his essence, they do not believe that the Quran is identical to this essence. To them, the Quran is simply a created indicator of his essence. This is in contrast to the Sunnis who believe that the Quran has always existed (it is uncreated). However historically earlier Ibadis believed that neither is the Qur'an created nor uncreated, and amongst contemporary Omani Ibadis some hold the Sunni position.\n* They interpret anthropomorphic references to God in the Quran symbolically rather than literally. Therefore, God does not actually have hands, a face, a throne, or other physical attributes, as he cannot be perceived by human senses and is not physical. They thus believe that Muslims will not see God on the Day of Resurrection, a belief shared with the Shi'a but not the Sunni. Similarly, Ibadis hold that the Scale on which God judges human deeds is metaphoric, as actions cannot be weighed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad's views on Jews",
        "text": "According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, Muhammad became increasingly hostile to the Jews over time. He grew to perceive that there were irreconcilable differences between their religion and his, especially when the belief in his prophetic mission became the criterion of a true Muslim.\" When the Jewish community challenged \"the way in which the Quran appropriated Biblical accounts and personages; for instance, its making Abraham an Arab and the founder of the Kaa\u2019bah at Mecca\" Muhammad \"accused them of intentionally concealing its true meaning or of entirely misunderstanding it, and taunted them with being.\" It is, however, important to note that neither the Quran, or Islamic exegesis called Abraham an Arab, and that the Jewish Encyclopedia was completed in 1906 and western scholarship on Islam at the time was heavily influenced by Orientalism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philo's view of God",
        "text": "In its relation to the world the Logos appears as the Universal substance on which all things depend; and from this point of view the manna (as \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ce\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9) becomes a symbol for it. The Logos, however, is not only the archetype of things, but also the power that produces them, appearing as such especially under the name of the Logos \u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03cd\u03c2 (\"the divider\"). It separates the individual beings of nature from one another according to their characteristics; but, on the other hand, it constitutes the bond connecting the individual creatures, uniting their spiritual and physical attributes. It may be said to have invested itself with the whole world as an indestructible garment. It appears as the director and shepherd of the things in the world insofar as they are in motion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Depictions of Muhammad",
        "text": "While Sunni Muslims have always explicitly prohibited the depiction of Muhammad on film, contemporary Shi'a scholars have taken a more relaxed attitude, stating that it is permissible to depict Muhammad, even in television or movies, if done with respect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval Christian views on Muhammad",
        "text": "In \"Inferno\", the first part of Dante Alighieri's \"Divine Comedy\", Muhammad is placed in Malebolge, the eighth circle, designed for those who have committed fraud; specifically, he is placed in the ninth \"bolgia\" (ditch) among the sowers of discord and schism. Muhammad is portrayed as split in half, with his entrails hanging out, representing his status as a heresiarch (\"Inferno\" 28):\n:No barrel, not even one where the hoops and staves go every which way, was ever split open like a frayed Sinner I saw, ripped from chin to where we fart below.\n:His guts hung between his legs and displayed His vital organs, including that wretched sack Which converts to shit whatever gets conveyed down the gullet.\n:As I stared at him he looked back And with his hands pulled his chest open, Saying, \"See how I split open the crack in myself! See how twisted and broken Mohammed is! Before me walks Ali, his face Cleft from chin to crown, grief\u2013stricken.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad in film",
        "text": "The depiction of Islamic prophet Muhammad in film (as with other visual depictions) is a controversial topic both within and outside of Islam. Although the Quran does not explicitly forbid images of Muhammad, there are a few hadith (supplemental teachings) which have explicitly prohibited Muslims from creating visual depictions of figures. Because the different branches of Islam use different Hadith collections, there is a split on this issue between the two major denominations of Islam, Sunni and Shia Islam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Opinions on the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy",
        "text": "The world has come to believe that Islam is what is practiced by Bin Laden, Zawahiri, Zarqawi, the Muslim Brotherhood, the Salafis, and others who have presented a distorted image of Islam. We must be honest with ourselves and admit that we are the reason for these drawings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard A. Horsley",
        "text": "\u2014\u2014. \u201cLogoi Proph\u0113t\u014dn? Reflections on the Genre of Q.\u201d Pages 195-209 in The Future of Early Christianity. Edited by Birger A. Pearson, A. Thomas Kraabel, George W. E. Nickelsburg, and Norman R. Petersen. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991. Repr., Richard A. Horsley and Patrick Tiller, pages 191-206 in After Apocalyptic and Wisdom: Rethinking Texts in Context. Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammadu Buhari",
        "text": "Shia Muslims"
      },
      {
        "title": "God in Islam",
        "text": "The Mu'tazilis reject the anthropomorphic attributes of God because an eternal being \"must be unique\" and attributes would make God comparable. The descriptions of God in the Quran are considered to be allegories. Nevertheless, the Mu\u02bftazilites thought God contains oneness (tawhid) and justice. Other characteristics like knowledge are not attributed to God; rather they describe his essence. Otherwise eternal attributes of God would give rise to a multiplicity entities existing eternal besides God."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ibadi theology",
        "text": "To distinguish between the eternal God and his non-eternal or created attributes, the Ib\u0101\u1e0d\u012bs used Aristotelian terms that had entered into Arabic philosophy, viz., the terms \"jawhar\" (substance) and \"\u02bbara\u1e0d\" (accident). The essence of God is single and eternal while His attributes are created accidents which are added to it from the outside. Similarly, the question arose whether the Qur'an was created or uncreated. The Ash\u02bbarite and Sunni teachings profess that the Qur'an is the word of God and therefore eternal and uncreated. The Ib\u0101\u1e0d\u012bs tend toward the Mu'tazilite position and believe that the Qur'an is the created word of God. As with the Christians, the Muslims too adopted the arguments of Greek philosophy, particularly Aristotelian logic, to support their positions. It is worth emphasising that, from as early as the 7th century, Islamic theology was familiar not only with the terms \"essence\" and \"accident\" from Aristotelian logic, but generally also with its syllogisms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad and the Bible",
        "text": "Middle Age Christian writers claimed that Muhammad was predicted in the Bible, as a forthcoming Antichrist, false prophet, or false Messiah. According to historian Albert Hourani, initial interactions between Christian and Muslim peoples were characterized by hostility on the part of the Byzantines because they interpreted Muhammad in a biblical context as being the Antichrist. The earliest known exponent of this view was John of Damascus in the 7th or 8th century. In the Reformation era, John Calvin (16th century) argued that \"The name Antichrist does not designate a single individual, but a single kingdom which extends throughout many generations\", saying that both Muhammad and the Catholic popes were \"antichrists\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia view of Ali",
        "text": "They all held back from the words of Muhammad, and though Ali was the youngest, he replied,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad al-Jawad",
        "text": "According to Donaldson, in spite of replacing green color with the black, which was a political act, Ma'mun's favor toward Shia continued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Shia Islam",
        "text": "Hence the question was not only who the successor to Muhammad was, but also what the attributes of a true successor were."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muslim world",
        "text": "No Islamic visual images or depictions of God are meant to exist because it is believed that such artistic depictions may lead to idolatry. Moreover, Muslims believe that God is incorporeal, making any two- or three- dimensional depictions impossible. Instead, Muslims describe God by the names and attributes that, according to Islam, he revealed to his creation. All but one sura of the Quran begins with the phrase \"In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful\". Images of Mohammed are likewise prohibited. Such aniconism and iconoclasm can also be found in Jewish and some Christian theology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islam",
        "text": "Defamatory images of Muhammad, derived from early 7th\u00a0century depictions of the Byzantine Church, appear in the 14th-century epic poem \"Divine Comedy\" by Dante Alighieri. Here, Muhammad appears in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of schism, by establishing another religion after Christianity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic\u2013Jewish relations",
        "text": "Mark Cohen adds that Muhammad appeared \"centuries after the cessation of biblical prophecy\" and \"couched his message in a verbiage foreign to Judaism both in its format and rhetoric.\" Maimonides, a Jewish scholar, referred to Muhammad as a false prophet. Moreover, Maimonides asserted that Muhammad's claim to prophethood was in itself what disqualified him, because it contradicted the prophecy of Moses, the Torah and the Oral Tradition. His argument further asserted that Muhammad being illiterate also disqualified him from being a prophet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of Muhammad",
        "text": "Among the first sources representing Muhammad is the polemical work \"Concerning Heresy\" (Per\u00ec hair\u00e9se\u014dn) of John of Damascus, translated from Greek into Latin. In this manuscript, the Syrian priest represents Muhammad as a \"false prophet,\" and an \"Antichrist\". Some demonstrate that Muhammad was pointed out in this manuscript as \"Mamed\", but this study was corrected by Ahlam Sbaihat who affirmed that it is the form \u039c\u03a9\u0391\u039c\u0395\u03b8 (Moameth) which is mentioned in this manuscript. The phoneme h and the gemination of m do not exist in Greek so it has disappeared from John's uses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval Christian views on Muhammad",
        "text": "The depiction of Islam in the \"Travels of Sir John Mandeville\" is also relatively positive, though with many inaccurate and mythical features. It is said that Muslims are easily converted to Christianity because their beliefs are already so similar in many ways, and that they believe that only the Christian revelation will last until the end of the world. The moral behaviour of Muslims at the time is shown as superior to that of Christians, and as a standing reproach to Christian society."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad in Islam",
        "text": "Muslims also venerate Muhammad as the manifestation of the Muhammadan Light. Accordingly, Muhammad's spirit already existed before the creation of the world and he was actually the first prophet created, but the last who was sent. A hadith from Al-Tirmidhi states, that Muhammad was once asked, when his prophethood was decreed and he answered: \"When Adam was between the spirit and the body.\" A more popular, but less authenticated version states, that Muhammad answered: \"when Adam was between water and mud.\" Both Sunni and Shia sources later elaborated cosmogonic scenarios in which the world emanated from the light of Muhammad. According to a Sunni tradition, when Adam was in heaven, he read an inscription on the throne of God of the \"Shahada\", Muhammad already mentioned. There also exists an extended version in Shia traditions. Therefore, the \"Shahada\" does not only mention Muhammad, but also Ali."
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Shia Islam",
        "text": "The question Madelung propose here is that why the family members of Muhammad should not inherit other (other than prophethood) aspects of Muhammad's character such as rule (hukm) wisdom (Hikmah), and the Imamate. Since The Sunnite concept of the \"true caliphate\" itself defines it as a \"succession of the Prophet in every respect except his prophethood\". Madelung further asks \"If God really wanted to indicate that he should not be succeeded by any of his family, why did He not let his grandsons and other kin die like his sons?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Isra and Mi'raj",
        "text": "The belief that Muhammad made the heavenly journey bodily was used to prove the unique status of Muhammad. One theory among Sufis was that Muhammad\u2019s body could reach God to a proximity that even the greatest saints could only reach in spirit. They debated whether Muhammad had really seen the Lord and if he did, whether he did so with his eyes or with his heart. Nevertheless, Muhammad\u2019s superiority is again demonstrated in that even in the extreme proximity of the Lord, \u201chis eye neither swerved nor was turned away,\u201d whereas Moses had fainted when the Lord appeared to him in a burning bush. Various thinkers used this point to prove the superiority of Muhammad. (The source for Moses' having fainted is in surah al-A'raf:143. In the Biblical narrative (Exodus 3:4\u20134:17), the texts for verse 3:6 state simply that Moses \"hid his face\" (Masoretic Hebrew, Targum Aramaic, and Samaritan) or \"averted his face\" (Septuagint Greek).)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic view of the Bible",
        "text": "Many Muslim scholars have argued that the Greek words \"paraklytos\" (comforter) and \"periklutos\" (famous/illustrious) were used interchangeably, and therefore, these verses constitute Jesus prophesying the coming of Muhammad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abasa",
        "text": "The word used was Abasa, which refers to 'He'. The Quran does not directly impose the frowning on Muhammad, instead it says \"He frowned away\", making it widely open for interpretation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aniconism in Islam",
        "text": "Muhammad made it very clear that angels do not like pictures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medieval Christian views on Muhammad",
        "text": "Various Western and Byzantine Christian thinkers considered Muhammad to be a perverted, deplorable man, a false prophet, and even the Antichrist, as he was frequently seen in Christendom as a heretic or possessed by demons. Some of them, like Thomas Aquinas, criticized Muhammad's promises of carnal pleasure in the afterlife."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad in Islam",
        "text": "To Muslims, the Quran is the verbatim word of God which was revealed, through Gabriel, to Muhammad who delivered it to people without any change (, ), Thus, there exists a deep relationship between Muhammad and the Quran. Muslims believe that as a recipient of the Quran, Muhammad was the man who best understood the meaning of the Quran, was its chief interpreter, and was granted by God \"the understanding of all levels of Quran's meaning\". In Islamic theology, if a report of Muhammad's Quranic interpretation is held to be authentic, then no other interpretative statement has higher theoretical value or importance than that."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad al-Jawad",
        "text": "Muhammad al-Jawad\n--Names and epithets.\n--Ancestry.\n--Life.\n----Birth and early life.\n----After his father.\n----Marriage and family life.\n----Death.\n--Imamate.\n----Divisions.\n----Wakils and companions.\n--Family.\n--Appearance and morality.\n--Knowledge and narrations.\n----Debates.\n----Works.\n--Views.\n----Sunni view.\n----Shia view.\n------Miracles.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of Muhammad",
        "text": "Bernard Lewis, another modern historian, commenting on the common Western Medieval view of Muhammad as a self-seeking impostor, states that"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tawhid",
        "text": "The desire to preserve the unity and transcendence of God led to the prohibition of Muslims from creating representation or visual depictions of God, or of any Prophet including Muhammad. Representations in art of the human form are a disputed matter in fiqh. The key concern is that the use of statues or images may lead to idolatry. The dominant forms of expression in the Islamic art, thus, became calligraphy and arabesque."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "In Ottoman Sufism, \u015eeyh G\u00e2lib (d. 1799) articulates S\u00fchan (\"logos\"-\"Kalima\") in his \"H\u00fcsn \u00fc A\u015fk\" (\"Beauty and Love\") in parallel to Ibn Arabi's Kalima. In the romance, \"S\u00fchan\" appears as an embodiment of Kalima as a reference to the Word of God, the Perfect Man, and the Reality of Muhammad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity and Islam",
        "text": "Muslims believe that Muhammad was a prophet, who received revelations (Quran) by God through the angel Gabriel (\"Jibril\"), gradually over a period of approximately 23 years, beginning on 22 December 609, when Muhammad was 40, and concluding in 632, the year of his death. Muslims regard the Quran as the most important miracle of Muhammad, a proof of his prophethood, and the culmination of a series of divine messages that started with the messages revealed to Adam and ended with Muhammad. Muslims also believe that the reference to the Paraclete in the Bible is a prophecy of the coming of Muhammad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad",
        "text": "According to William Montgomery Watt, religion for Muhammad was not a private and individual matter but \"the total response of his personality to the total situation in which he found himself. He was responding [not only]... to the religious and intellectual aspects of the situation but also to the economic, social, and political pressures to which contemporary Mecca was subject.\" Bernard Lewis says there are two important political traditions in Islam\u2014Muhammad as a statesman in Medina, and Muhammad as a rebel in Mecca. In his view, Islam is a great change, akin to a revolution, when introduced to new societies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad and the Bible",
        "text": "Muhammad said, \"My similitude in comparison with the other prophets before me, is that of a man who has built a house nicely and beautifully, except for a place of one brick in a corner. The people go about it and wonder at its beauty, but say: 'Would that this brick be put in its place!' So I am that brick, and I am the Seal of the Prophets.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Depictions of Muhammad",
        "text": "The question of whether images in Islamic art, including those depicting Muhammad, can be considered as religious art remains a matter of contention among scholars. They appear in illustrated books that are normally works of history or poetry, including those with religious subjects; the Quran is never illustrated: \"context and intent are essential to understanding Islamic pictorial art. The Muslim artists creating images of Muhammad, and the public who beheld them, understood that the images were not objects of worship. Nor were the objects so decorated used as part of religious worship\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early Islamic philosophy",
        "text": "The life of Muhammad or sira generated both the Qur'an (revelation) and hadith (his daily utterances and discourses), during which philosophy was defined by Muslims as consisting in acceptance or rejection of his message. Together the sira and hadith constitute the sunnah and are validated by isnad (\"backing\") to determine the likely truth of the report of any given saying of Muhammad. Key figures are Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Imam Bukhari, Imam Muslim, Al-Tirmidhi, Ibn Majah, Abu Dawud and Al-Nasa'i. This work, which was not completed until the 10th century, began shortly after The Farewell Sermon in 631."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of Muhammad",
        "text": "Robert Spencer pointed out that Muhammad said in \"Sahih al-Bukhari\" and \"Sahih Muslim\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Depictions of Muhammad",
        "text": "In one of the earliest sources, Ibn Sa'd's \"Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir\", there are numerous verbal descriptions of Muhammad. One description sourced to Ali ibn Abi Talib is as follows:\n: \"The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him, is neither too short nor too tall. His hair are neither curly nor straight, but a mixture of the two. He is a man of black hair and large skull. His complexion has a tinge of redness. His shoulder bones are broad and his palms and feet are fleshy. He has long \"al-masrubah\" which means hair growing from neck to navel. He is of long eye-lashes, close eyebrows, smooth and shining fore-head and long space between two shoulders. When he walks he walks inclining as if coming down from a height. [...] I never saw a man like him before him or after him.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Adam Kadmon",
        "text": "This doctrine concerning the Logos, as also that of man made \"in the likeness,\" although tinged with true Philonic coloring, is also based on the theology of the Pharisees. In an old Midrash it is remarked:"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of how logos is used?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Christianity, the Logos is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity, and within Sunni Islam, logos has been associated with, among other concepts, \u02bfaql (\"Intellect\") and kalimat All\u0101h (\"Word of God\"). Additionally, logos is also the name Atlas Sound's second studio album. Which of these are you interested in learning more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about how logos in the Sunni religion."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In the writings of many of the most prominent Sunni Islamic metaphysicians, philosophers, and mystics of the Islamic Golden Age, Muhammad was understood to be \"both a manifestation of the Logos and the Logos itself. At the same time, the logos concept was also intimately tied in the works of the same authors to other important Islamic cosmological concepts."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did the word logo come about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Logos is a term in Western philosophy, psychology, rhetoric, and religion derived from a Greek word variously meaning \"ground\", \"plea\", \"opinion\", \"expectation\", \"word\", \"speech\", \"account\", \"reason\", \"proportion\", and \"discourse\"."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is there a difference in how Sunni and Shia Muslims view Muhammad?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sunni Islam maintains that Abu Bakr was the legitimate successor to Muhammad on the basis of election. Shia Islam holds that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the designated successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "Not about Muhammad specifically, but his successor. The Sunnis believed it should have been Abu Bakr while the Shia believed it should be Ali."
    ],
    "topic": "Logos",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Succession to Muhammad:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Succession to Muhammad"
        ],
        "ctx": "The succession to Muhammad is the central issue that split the Muslim community into several divisions in the first century of Islamic history, with the most prominent among these sects being the Shia and Sunni branches of Islam. Sunni Islam maintains that Abu Bakr was the legitimate successor to Muhammad on the basis of election. Shia Islam holds that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the designated successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Shia\u2013Sunni relations:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Shia\u2013Sunni relations"
        ],
        "ctx": "The origin of Shia\u2013Sunni relations can be traced back to a dispute over the succession to the Islamic prophet Muhammad as a caliph of the Islamic community. After the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad in 632, a group of Muslims, who would come to be known as the Sunnis, believed that Muhammad's successor should be Abu Bakr whereas a second group of Muslims, who would come to be known as the Shia, believed that his successor should have been Ali. This dispute spread across various parts of the Muslim world, which eventually led to the Battle of Jamal and Battle of Siffin. Sectarianism based on this historic dispute intensified greatly after the Battle of Karbala, in which Husayn ibn Ali and some of his close partisans, including members of his household, were killed by the ruling Umayyad Caliph Yazid\u00a0I, and the outcry for revenge divided the early Islamic community, albeit disproportionately, into two groups, the Sunni and the Shia. This is known today as the Islamic schism."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "Sunni Islam () is the largest branch of Islam, followed by 85\u201390% of the world's Muslims. Its name comes from the word \"Sunnah\", referring to the tradition of Muhammad. The differences between Sunni and Shia Muslims arose from a disagreement over the succession to Muhammad and subsequently acquired broader political significance, as well as theological and juridical dimensions. According to Sunni traditions, Muhammad left no successor and the participants of the Saqifah event appointed Abu Bakr as the next-in-line (the first caliph). This contrasts with the Shia view, which holds that Muhammad appointed his son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia view of Ali",
        "text": "Shia Islam holds that the Islamic Prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor and the Imam (leader) after him, most notably at the event of Ghadir Khumm, but was prevented from the caliphate as a result of the incident of Saqifah. This view primarily contrasts with that of Sunni Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor and consider Abu Bakr, who they claim was appointed caliph by a small group of Muslims at Saqifah, to be the first rightful caliph after the Prophet. Unlike the first three Rashidun caliphs, Ali was from the same clan as Muhammad, Banu Hashim, as well as being the prophet's cousin, son in law and being the first male to become Muslim. Shia Islam is the second largest branch of Islam: as of the late 2000s, Shia Muslims constituted 10\u201315% of all Muslims. Twelver Shia (Ithn\u0101'ashariyyah) is the largest branch of Shia Islam, with 2012 estimates saying that 85% of Shias were Twelvers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Schism",
        "text": "Sunni Muslims, often referred to as \"Ahl as-Sunnah wa\u2019l-Jam\u0101\u2018h\" or \"Ahl as-Sunnah\", are the largest denomination of Islam. The word \"Sunni\" comes from the word \"Sunnah\", which means the teachings and actions or examples of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad; therefore, the term Sunni refers to those who follow or maintain the Sunnah of Muhammad. The Sunni believe that Muhammad died without appointing a successor to lead the Ummah (Muslim community). After an initial period of confusion, a group of his most prominent companions gathered and elected Abu Bakr, Muhammad's close friend and father-in-law, as the first Caliph. Sunnis regard the first four caliphs - Abu Bakr, Umar (`Umar ibn al-Khatt\u0101b), Uthman Ibn Affan, and Ali (Ali ibn Abu Talib) - as the \"al-Khulaf\u0101\u2019ur-R\u0101shid\u016bn\" or \"Rashidun\" (The Rightly Guided Caliphs). Sunnis believe that the position of Caliph may be democratically chosen, but after the first four Rightly Guided Caliphs the position turned into a hereditary dynastic rule. There has not been another widely recognized Caliph since the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1923."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni fatwas on Shias",
        "text": "While all Islamic schools and branches of Islam recognise the Qur'an, they differ in which other authorities they acknowledge; in particular the question of the Succession to Muhammad separates the Sunni, who acknowledge the elected Rashidun Caliphs and their descendants, from the Shia, who acknowledge the Imams or descendants of Prophet Muhammad; these two branches are then subdivided by their views on the further course of the succession. Shia fiqh differs with Sunni fiqh on not only political issues, but also important theological issues. Various attitudes towards Shias can be found among the worldwide majority Sunni community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "The Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328), who was otherwise known for his uncompromising attitude, also adhered to this view. He said that the Sunnis represented \"the middle among the sects of the Umma\" (\" al-wasa\u1e6d f\u012b firaq al-umma \"), just as the Islamic Umma is the middle between the other religious communities. He illustrates this with the following examples:\n* When it comes to the attributes of God, the Sunnis stand in the middle between the Jahmiyya, who completely drains God of attributes, and the Muschabbiha, who make God similar to creation,\n* in the works of God they stand in the middle between the Qadariyya and the Jabriyya,\n* on the question of the threat from God (\"wa\u02bfid Allah\") they stand in the middle between the Murdschi'a and the Wa\u02bf\u012bdiyya, a subgroup of the Qadariyya,\n* When it comes to the question of faith and religion, they stand in the middle between Haruiyya (= Kharijites) and Mu\u02bftazila on the one hand and Murji'a and Jahmiyya on the other,\n* and with regard to the Companions of the Prophets they are in the middle between Rafidites and Kharijites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yasser Al-Habib",
        "text": "Sheikh al-Habib refers to Sunnis as Bakris, meaning the followers of Abu Bakr. He says that the real Sunnis (\"Ahlul Sunnah\") are the ones who follow the Sunnah of Muhammad, that is Shia Muslims. He continues that Sunnis today follow the Sunnah and teachings of Abu Bakr instead, having rejected Ali ibn Abi Talib and Ahlulbayt. He explains in one of his lectures titled \"Bakris think they are Sunnis, but in reality are not\" that when people wanted to distance themselves from the Shia, and follow Muawiyya, they started calling themselves the Jama'ah. He explains that the reality behind why people called themselves Ahlul Sunnah wal Jama'ah only began after the Umayyad ruler Umar bin Abdul Aziz forbade the Sunnah (tradition) of cursing Ali ibn Abi Talib publicly (as previously invented by Muawiyah). It was upon then that people protested to this new prohibition, declaring that Umar bin Abdul Aziz had prohibited the Sunnah of cursing Ali ibn Abi Talib. Thus they began calling themselves Ahlul Sunnah wal Jama'ah; stressing that they adhere to the Sunnah of cursing Ali ibn Abi Talib, and that they are the Jama'ah of Muawiyah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muslim world",
        "text": "The two main denominations of Islam are the Sunni and Shia sects. They differ primarily upon of how the life of the ummah (\"faithful\") should be governed, and the role of the imam. Sunnis believe that the true political successor of Muhammad according to the Sunnah should be selected based on \u064dShura (consultation), as was done at the Saqifah which selected Abu Bakr, Muhammad's father-in-law, to be Muhammad's political but not his religious successor. Shia, on the other hand, believe that Muhammad designated his son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib as his true political as well as religious successor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Shia Islam",
        "text": "Sunnites, on the other hand, reject Imamate on the basis of Quran which says Muhammad, as the last of the Prophets, was not to be succeeded by any of his family; and that is why God let Muhammad's sons to die in infancy. And that is why Muhammad did not nominate a successor, as he wanted to leave the succession to be resolved \"by the Muslim Community on the basis of the Quranic principle of consultation (Shura).\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of human thought",
        "text": "Starting from soon after its foundation, Islam has broken into several strands, including:\n* Sunni Islam, also known as \"Ahl as-Sunnah wa'l-Jam\u0101'h\" or simply \"Ahl as-Sunnah\", is the largest denomination of Islam. The Sunnis believe that Muhammad did not specifically appoint a successor to lead the Muslim \"ummah\" (community) before his death, however they approve of the private election of the first companion, Abu Bakr. Sunni Muslims regard the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib) as \"al-Khulaf\u0101'ur-R\u0101shid\u016bn\" or \"The Rightly Guided Caliphs.\"\n* Shia Islam is the second-largest denomination of Islam, comprising 10\u201320% of the total Muslim population. In addition to believing in the authority of the Quran and teachings of Muhammad, Shia believe that Muhammad's family, the Ahl al-Bayt (the \"People of the House\"), including his descendants known as Imams, have special spiritual and political authority over the community and believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was the first of these Imams and was the rightful successor to Muhammad, and thus reject the legitimacy of the first three Rashidun caliphs. The Shia Islamic faith is broad and includes many different groups. There are various Shia theological beliefs, schools of jurisprudence, philosophical beliefs, and spiritual movements:\n** The Twelvers believe in twelve Imams and are the only school to comply with Hadith of the Twelve Successors, where Muhammad stated that he would have twelve successors.\n** Ismailism, including the Niz\u0101r\u012b, Sevener, Mustaali, Dawoodi Bohra, Hebtiahs Bohra, Sulaimani Bohra and Alavi Bohra sub-denominations.\n** The Zaidiyyah historically come from the followers of Zayd ibn Ali.\n** The Alawites are a distinct religion that developed in the 9th/10th century. Historically, Twelver Shia scholars (such as Shaykh Tusi) did not consider Alawites as Shia Muslims while condemning their heretical beliefs. Ibn Taymiyyah also pointed out that Alawites were not Shi'ites.\n** The Druze are a distinct traditional religion that developed in the 11th century as an offshoot of Ismailism. Druze are not generally considered Muslims.\n* Kharijite (literally, \"those who seceded\") is a general term embracing a variety of Muslim sects which, while originally supporting the Caliphate of Ali, later on fought against him and eventually succeeded in his martyrdom while he was praying in the mosque of Kufa. While there are few remaining Kharijite or Kharijite-related groups, the term is sometimes used to denote Muslims who refuse to compromise with those with whom they disagree. The major Kharijite sub-sect today is the Ibadi. The sect developed out of the 7th century Islamic sect of the Kharijites. While Ibadi Muslims maintain most of the beliefs of the original Kharijites, they have rejected the more aggressive methods. A number of Kharijite groups went extinct in the past:\n** Sufris were a sect of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, and a part of the Kharijites. Their most important branches were the:\n*** Qurr\u012byya\n*** Nukkari\n** Har\u016br\u012bs were an early Muslim sect from the period of the Four Rightly-Guided Caliphs (632\u2013661 CE), named for their first leader, Hab\u012bb ibn-Yaz\u012bd al-Har\u016br\u012b.\n** Azariqa\n** Najdat\n** Adjarites\n* Sufism is Islam's mystical-ascetic dimension and is represented by schools or orders known as \"Tasawwuf\u012b-\u1e6car\u012bqah.\" It is seen as that aspect of Islamic teaching that deals with the purification of inner self. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of \"intuitive and emotional faculties\" that one must be trained to use. It is composed of different orders:\n** The Azeemiyya order was founded in 1960 by Qalandar Baba Auliya, also known as Syed Muhammad Azeem Barkhia.\n** The Bektashi order was founded in the 13th century by the Islamic saint Haji Bektash Veli, and greatly influenced during its formulative period by the Hurufi Ali al-'Ala in the 15th century and reorganized by Bal\u0131m Sultan in the 16th century. Because of its adherence to the Twelve Imams it is classified under Twelver Shia Islam.\n** The Chishti order () was founded by (Khawaja) Abu Ishaq Shami (\"the Syrian\"; died 941) who brought Sufism to the town of Chisht, some 95 miles east of Herat in present-day Afghanistan. Before returning to the Levant, Shami initiated, trained and deputized the son of the local Emir \"(Khwaja)\" Abu Ahmad Abdal (died 966). Under the leadership of Abu Ahmad's descendants, the \"Chishtiyya\" as they are also known, flourished as a regional mystical order. The founder of the Chishti Order in South Asia was Moinuddin Chishti.\n** The Kubrawiya order was founded in the 13th century by Najmuddin Kubra in Bukhara in modern-day Uzbekistan.\n** The Mevlevi order is better known in the West as the \"whirling dervishes\".\n** Mouride is most prominent in Senegal and The Gambia, with headquarters in the holy city of Touba, Senegal.\n** The Naqshbandi order was founded in 1380 by Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari. It is considered by some to be a \"sober\" order known for its silent dhikr (remembrance of God) rather than the vocalized forms of dhikr common in other orders. The S\u00fcleymani and Khalidiyya orders are offshoots of the Naqshbandi order.\n** The Ni'matullahi order is the most widespread Sufi order of Persia today. It was founded by Shah Ni'matullah Wali (d. 1367), established and transformed from his inheritance of the Ma'rufiyyah circle. There are several suborders in existence today, the most known and influential in the West following the lineage of Javad Nurbakhsh, who brought the order to the West following the 1979 Iranian Revolution.\n** The Noorbakshia order, also called Nurbakshia, claims to trace its direct spiritual lineage and chain (silsilah) to the Islamic prophet Muhammad, through Ali, by way of Ali Al-Ridha. This order became known as Nurbakshi after Shah Syed Muhammad Nurbakhsh Qahistani, who was aligned to the Kubrawiya order.\n** The Oveysi (or Uwaiysi) order claims to have been founded 1,400 years ago by Uwais al-Qarni from Yemen.\n** The Qadiri order is one of the oldest Sufi Orders. It derives its name from Abdul-Qadir Gilani (1077\u20131166), a native of the Iranian province of G\u012bl\u0101n. The order is one of the most widespread of the Sufi orders in the Islamic world, and can be found in Central Asia, Turkey, Balkans and much of East and West Africa. The Qadiriyyah have not developed any distinctive doctrines or teachings outside of mainstream Islam. They believe in the fundamental principles of Islam, but interpreted through mystical experience. The Ba'Alawi order is an offshoot of Qadiriyyah.\n** Senussi is a religious-political Sufi order established by Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi. As-Senussi founded this movement due to his criticism of the Egyptian ulema.\n** The Shadhili order was founded by Abu-l-Hassan ash-Shadhili. Followers (\"murids\" Arabic: seekers) of the Shadhiliyya are often known as Shadhilis.\n** The Suhrawardiyya order () is a Sufi order founded by Abu al-Najib al-Suhrawardi (1097\u20131168).\n** The Tijaniyyah order attach a large importance to culture and education, and emphasize the individual adhesion of the disciple (\"murid\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tabarri",
        "text": "In some cases, Sunni and Shia have the same view, for example regarding Ab\u016b Lahab, Amr ibn Hish\u0101m and Umayyah ibn Khalaf. But controversies arise concerning the Sahabah since Sunnis believe in the uprightness of all Sahaba while Shia do not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "One common mistake is to assume that Sunni Islam represents a normative Islam that emerged during the period after Muhammad's death, and that Sufism and Shi'ism developed out of Sunni Islam. This perception is partly due to the reliance on highly ideological sources that have been accepted as reliable historical works, and also because the vast majority of the population is Sunni. Both Sunnism and Shiaism are the end products of several centuries of competition between ideologies. Both sects used each other to further cement their own identities and doctrines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "\u0130smail Hakk\u0131 \u0130zmirli, who took over the distinction between a broader and narrower circle of Sunnis from Ibn Taimiya, said that Kullabiyya and the Ash\u02bfar\u012byya are Sunnis in the general sense, while the Salafiyya represent Sunnis in the specific sense. About the Maturidiyya he only says that they are closer to the Salafiyya than the Ash\u02bfariyya because they excel more in Fiqh than in Kal\u0101m. The Saudi scholar Muhammad Ibn al-\u02bfUthaimin (d. 2001), who like Ibn Taimiya differentiated between Sunnis in general and special senses, also excluded the Asharites from the circle of Sunnis in the special sense and took the view that only the pious ancestors (\"as-salaf a\u1e63-\u1e63\u0101li\u1e25\") who have agreed on the Sunnah belonged to this circle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canonization of Islamic scripture",
        "text": "Shia Islam holds that instead of Islam being led by a caliphate of caliphs chosen from the Companions of the Prophet after the death of Muhammad, that Sunni believe in, Muhammad designated his nephew and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor and the first Imam (leader) of Islam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia\u2013Sunni relations",
        "text": "Shia are sometimes recognizable by their names, which are often derived from the names of Ahl al-Bayt. In particular, the names Fatima, Zaynab, Ali, Abbas, Hussein, and Hassan are disproportionately common among Shias, though they may also be used by Sunnis. Umar, Uthman, Abu Bakr, Aisha, Muawiya, being the names of figures recognized by Sunnis but not Shias, are commonly used as names for Sunnis but are very rare, if not virtually absent, for Shias."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia Islam",
        "text": "Sh\u012b\u02bfa Islam or Sh\u012b\u02bf\u012bsm is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated \u02bfAl\u012b ibn Ab\u012b \u1e6c\u0101lib as his successor (\"khal\u012bfa\") and the Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, most notably at the event of Ghadir Khumm, but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of the Muslims as a result of the choice made by some of Muhammad's other companions (\"\u1e63a\u1e25\u0101ba\") at Saqifah. This view primarily contrasts with that of Sunn\u012b Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before his death and consider Ab\u016b Bakr, who was appointed caliph by a group of senior Muslims at Saqifah, to be the first rightful (\"r\u0101shid\u016bn\") caliph after Muhammad. Adherents of Sh\u012b\u02bfa Islam are called Sh\u012b\u02bfa Muslims, Sh\u012b\u02bf\u012btes, or simply Sh\u012b\u02bfa or Shia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "The Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328) distinguished in his work \"Minh\u0101j as-sunna\" between Sunnis in the general sense (\"ahl as-unna al-\u02bf\u0101mma\") and Sunnis in the special sense (\"ahl as-sunna al-\u1e2b\u0101\u1e63\u1e63a\"). Sunnis in the general sense are all Muslims who recognize the caliphate of the three caliphs (Ab\u016b Bakr, \u02bfUmar ibn al-Kha\u1e6d\u1e6d\u0101b and \u02bfUthm\u0101n ibn \u02bfAff\u0101n). In his opinion, this includes all Islamic groups except the Shiite Rafidites. Sunnis in the special sense are only the \"people of the hadith\" (\"ahl al-\u1e25ad\u012b\u1e6f\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anti-Shi'ism",
        "text": "The dispute over who was the rightful successor to Muhammad resulted in the formation of two main sects, the Sunni, and the Shia. The Sunni, or the followers of the way, followed the caliphate and maintained the premise that any member of the Quraysh tribe could potentially become the successor to the Prophet if he was accepted by the majority of Sunni Muslims. The Shia, or the followers of Ahlul Bayt however, maintained the view that only God can decide who his hujjah (proof) can be. This is due to many reasons including every successor to be chosen by God from Prophet Adam (as) all the way to Prophet Muhammad (saws) being chosen by God. This includes leaders (Qur'an 5:12), Prophets, messengers, Imams (Qur'an 2:124) and righetous woman (Qur'an 3:42). It is the belief that Ali ibn Abi Talib was chosen by God through the Prophet (Hadith of the pond of Khumm) which is also known as Ghadir Khumm where he become the Prophet's successor, thus Ali became the religious authority for the Shia people. Militarily established and holding control over the Umayyad government, many Sunni rulers perceived the Shia as a threat \u2013 to both their political and religious authority."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia\u2013Sunni relations",
        "text": "The origin of Shia Islam initially arose in response to the succession to Muhammad, and whether Ali ibn Abi Talib or a more experienced member of the Quraysh tribe should succeed. The concept of Shi'ism further crystallized around events at the Battle of Karbala, where Husayn ibn Ali, the son of Ali and grandson of the prophet, was killed alongside many of his supporters. Thus a political split became a far more personal one, marked by blood feud, and a cause for further divergence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia Islam",
        "text": "Even during the time of Muhammad, there were signs of split among the companions with Salman al-Farsi, Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, Miqdad, and Ammar ibn Yasir amongst the most vehement and loyal supporters of \u02bfAl\u012b."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia\u2013Sunni relations",
        "text": "The present demographic breakdown between the two denominations is difficult to assess and varies by source, with most approximations stating that 80-90% of the world's Muslims are Sunni and 10-20% are Shia, with most Shias belonging to the Twelver tradition and the rest divided between many other groups. Sunnis are a majority in almost all Muslim communities around the world. Shia make up the majority of the citizen population in Iran, Iraq, Bahrain, and Azerbaijan, as well as being a small minority in Pakistan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Yemen, Nigeria, Afghanistan, Chad and Kuwait."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saqifah",
        "text": "As a result, Abu Bakr was almost universally accepted at the time as successor to Muhammad. However, the conflicts after Muhammad's death are considered as the roots of the current division among Muslims. Those who had accepted Abu Bakr's caliphate later became the Sunni, while the supporters of Ali's right to caliphate eventually became the Shia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia Islam",
        "text": "Sh\u012b\u02bfa Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone, only God has the prerogative to appoint the successor to his prophet. They believe God chose \u02bfAl\u012b ibn Ab\u012b \u1e6c\u0101lib to be Muhammad's successor, infallible, the first caliph (\"khal\u012bfa\", head of state) of Islam. Sh\u012b\u02bfa Muslims believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by God's command (Eid Al Ghadir). \u02bfAl\u012b was Muhammad's first-cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammad's daughter, F\u0101\u1e6dimah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia\u2013Sunni relations",
        "text": "The origin of Shia\u2013Sunni relations can be traced back to a dispute over the succession to the Islamic prophet Muhammad as a caliph of the Islamic community. After the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad in 632, a group of Muslims, who would come to be known as the Sunnis, believed that Muhammad's successor should be Abu Bakr whereas a second group of Muslims, who would come to be known as the Shia, believed that his successor should have been Ali. This dispute spread across various parts of the Muslim world, which eventually led to the Battle of Jamal and Battle of Siffin. Sectarianism based on this historic dispute intensified greatly after the Battle of Karbala, in which Husayn ibn Ali and some of his close partisans, including members of his household, were killed by the ruling Umayyad Caliph Yazid\u00a0I, and the outcry for revenge divided the early Islamic community, albeit disproportionately, into two groups, the Sunni and the Shia. This is known today as the Islamic schism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islam",
        "text": "Sunni Islam or Sunnism is the name for the largest denomination in Islam. The term is a contraction of the phrase \"ahl as-sunna wa'l-jamaat\", which means \"people of the sunna (the traditions of the prophet Muhammad) and the community\". Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference six major hadith works for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki or Shafi'i."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Shia Islam",
        "text": "The succession to Muhammad is an extremely contentious issue. Muslims ultimately divided into two branches based on their political attitude towards this issue, which forms the primary theological barrier between the two major divisions of Muslims: Sunni and Shi'a, with the latter following Ali as the successor to Muhammad. The two groups also disagree on Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr, and the two caliphs who succeeded him: Umar (or `Umar ibn al-Khatt\u0101b) and Uthman or (\u2018Uthm\u0101n ibn \u2018Aff\u0101n). Sunnis tend to stress Ali's acceptance and support of their rule, while the Shi'a claims that he distanced himself from them, and that he was being kept from fulfilling the religious duty that Muhammad had appointed to him. The Sunni Muslims say that if Ali was the rightful successor as ordained by God Himself, then it would have been his duty as the leader of the Muslim nation to make war with these people (Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman) until Ali established the decree. Shia claim, however, that Ali did not fight Abu Bakr, Umar or Uthman, because firstly he did not have the military strength and if he decided to, it would have caused a civil war amongst the Muslims, which was still a nascent community throughout the Arab world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hadith of the Twelve Successors",
        "text": "Shia Muslims believe in the concept of \"Imamah\", while rejecting the Sunni view of Caliphate and the three khalifs namely: Abu Bakr, Umar, and Usman (in chronological order). According to Twelver Shias, there is no tradition or proof which states that the number of leaders (which can be referred to as Khalifs, Imams, or Amirs) will be anything other than twelve. The twelve successors from the hadith (traditions of Muhammad) are already known as the Twelve Imams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ahmed Subhy Mansour",
        "text": "They do not identify themselves as Sunnis' or Shiites' sects but simply call themselves Muslims because they believe that the Qu'ran represents the single authentic scripture of Islam. The basic differences with the rest of the Orthodox Muslims is that they reject the \"Hadith\" and \"Sunna\", purported sayings and traditions of the prophet Muhammad. Mansour claims about 10,000 followers in Egypt.\n;Americans for Peace and Tolerance"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "Sunnis believe the companions of Muhammad to be reliable transmitters of Islam, since God and Muhammad accepted their integrity. Medieval sources even prohibit cursing or vilifying them. This belief is based upon prophetic traditions such as one narrated by Abdullah, son of Masud, in which Muhammad said: \"The best of the people are my generation, then those who come after them, then those who come after them.\" Support for this view is also found in the Qur'an, according to Sunnis. Therefore, narratives of companions are also reliably taken into account for knowledge of the Islamic faith. Sunnis also believe that the companions were true believers since it was the companions who were given the task of compiling the Qur'an."
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Shia Islam",
        "text": "It is said that one day the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid questioned the seventh Shiite Imam, Musa al-Kadhim, saying why he had permitted people to call him \"Son of Allah's Apostle,\" while he and his forefathers were Muhammad's daughter's children. And that \"the progeny belongs to the male (Ali) and not to the female (Fatimah)\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia Islam",
        "text": "When Muhammad died in 632 CE, \u02bfAl\u012b ibn Ab\u012b \u1e6c\u0101lib and Muhammad's closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Ab\u016b Bakr, \u02bfUmar ibn al-Kha\u1e6d\u1e6d\u0101b, and Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah met with the leaders of Medina and elected Ab\u016b Bakr as caliph. \u02bfAl\u012b did not accept the caliphate of Ab\u016b Bakr and refused to pledge allegiance to him. This is indicated in a \"\u1e25ad\u012bth\" report which both Sunn\u012b and Sh\u012b\u02bfa Muslims regard as \"sahih\" (authentic)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Shia Islam",
        "text": "Sunnis, on the other hand, often claim that Shiite beliefs only first formed under the scheming of Abdullah ibn Saba'; Sunnis reject the idea that Ali followed any beliefs that were contrary to the rest of the Sahaba."
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Shia Islam",
        "text": "Shia Islam originated as a response to questions of Islamic religious leadership which became manifest as early as the death of Muhammad in 632 CE. The issues involved not only whom to appoint as the successor to Muhammad, but also what attributes a true successor should have. Sunnis regarded Caliphs as a secular leaders, (originally elected by general agreement, though later the hereditary principle became the norm). To the Shiite, however, the question of succession is a matter of designation of an individual (Ali) through divine command. In the same way, Shias believed that each Imam designated the next Imam by the leave of God. So within Shia Islam it makes no difference to the Imam's position whether he is chosen as a Caliph or not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "Later Sunni scholars also present the Sunnis as the center of Muslim community. The idea already appears to some extent in the Ash\u02bfarite \u02bfAbd al-Q\u0101hir al-Baghd\u0101d\u012b, who emphasizes on several dogmatic questions that the Sunnis hold a position that lies in the middle between the positions of the other Islamic groups. An example is the question of predestination (Qadar), in which, according to the Kasb theory, you hold exactly the middle between the two extreme positions of the Jabriyya and the Qadariyya."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muslims",
        "text": "Over 75\u201390% of Muslims are Sunni. The second and third largest sects, Shia and Ahmadiyya, make up 10\u201320%, and 1% respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic leadership",
        "text": "Sunni's believe that he should be elected, whereas Shia believe in divinely ordained infallible twelve Shi'a Imams for leadership after Muhammad. The Ismaili Shia have their own version of the Imamah doctrine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sectarianism",
        "text": "Within Islam, there has been conflict at various periods between Sunnis and Shias; Shi'ites consider Sunnis to be damned, due to their refusal to accept the first Caliph as Ali and accept all following descendants of him as infallible and divinely guided. Many Sunni religious leaders, including those inspired by Wahhabism and other ideologies have declared Shias to be heretics or apostates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rashidun",
        "text": "The succession to Muhammad is the central issue that divides the Muslim community. Sunni Islam, according to the author Carl Ernst, accepts the political status quo of their succession, regardless of its justice, whereas Shia Muslims largely reject the legitimacy of the first three caliphs, and maintain that Muhammad had appointed Ali as his successor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "Furthermore Sunnis believe in angels. God hid the angels from the vision of humans, thus they can usually not see them. Just in some special occusations God unveils them for individual humans. Like when the archangel Gabrel appeared to the prophet Muhammad one time in his true form with 600 wings, filling the entire horizon and another time when he was among the circles of the Sahaba, in the form of a white clothed traveller."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia view of the Quran",
        "text": "The Sh\u012b\u2018ah \"tafs\u012br\" on several verses are different from the traditional Sunni view either through a totally different interpretation or by giving the same interpretation, but giving that interpretation a larger impact on their jurisprudence. Shia also tend to interpret the Quran more allegorically (Batin) and less literally than Sunnis. For example, Shia writers, including Ali Ibn Ibrahim Qomi, usually allegorically interpret the term \"Bani Isra'il\" (sons/tribe of Israel) as a code word for the Ahlul Bayt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Different usages of the term 'Shia'",
        "text": "The important point is that Ali was not present there and he was not among the nominees. There were Sa\u2019d from Ans\u0101r and these three people from Immigrants, then why should the name of Ali be raised there? This fact indicates that there was such a background that Ali was introduced as the successor of the prophet before. Those who stood fast with this view even after Ab\u016b Bakr grasped power, were the true Shia whom we call theological Shia. The Twelve Imami Shia that we have today, are the followers of these Shia. As Ab\u0101n bin Taghlib one of the companions of Imam Ja\u2019far Al-S\u0101diq elaborated the definition of Shia:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia\u2013Sunni relations",
        "text": "The Five Pillars of Islam (Arabic: \u0623\u0631\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645) is the term given to the five duties incumbent on every Muslim. These duties are \"Shahada\" (profession of faith), salat (prayers), \"Zak\u0101t\" (giving of alms), \"Sawm\" (fasting, specifically during Ramadan) and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca). These five practices are essential to Sunni and Shia Muslims. Shia theology has two concepts that define religion as a whole. There are Roots of Religion (\"Us\u016bl al-D\u012bn\") and Branches of Religion (\"Furu al Din\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Depictions of Muhammad",
        "text": "Most Sunni Muslims believe that visual depictions of all the prophets of Islam should be prohibited and are particularly averse to visual representations of Muhammad. The key concern is that the use of images can encourage idolatry. In Shia Islam, however, images of Muhammad are quite common nowadays, even though Shia scholars historically were against such depictions. Still, many Muslims who take a stricter view of the supplemental traditions will sometimes challenge any depiction of Muhammad, including those created and published by non-Muslims."
      },
      {
        "title": "Martyrdom in Iran",
        "text": "The genesis of Shi\u2019a Islam is rooted in the idea that the charismatic and politico-religious authority possessed by the prophet Muhammad was transferred to his biological descendants after his death in 632 CE. The resulting claim to the rightful leadership of the Muslim community (the ummah) was thus supposed to pass, in the form of the Imamate, to the descendants of Muhammad\u2019s daughter Fatima (606\u2013632) and her husband Ali b. Abi Talib (600\u2013661). Yet the political reality in the decades after the Prophet\u2019s death diverged from that vision. After the death of the prophet Mohammad in the year 632, a disagreement arose between the followers of Mohammad as to who should be appointed as the prophet's successor. The Muslims were split between two groups, those who supported Abu Bakr, a companion of the prophet, and those who supported Ali, the prophet's cousin and son-in law. Ultimately, Abu Bakr became the first caliph, and his followers are today known as Sunni Muslims. The followers of Ali are known as Shia Muslims. Abu Bakr served for two years, and appointed Umar as his successor in 634. Umar served as caliph for ten years, during which he was responsible for the rapid spread of Islam through military and territorial gains. Upon his death in 644, a council of Islamic leaders elected a new Caliph, Uthman ibn Affan, of the Umayyad family. However, in 656 supporters of Ali, who believed that a descendant of the prophet should lead the Muslim community, assassinated Uthman and installed Ali as the fourth caliph. Ali's reign was marred by numerous violent struggles between his supporters and the supporters of Muawiyah I, a relative of Uthman and the governor of Syria. When Ali was murdered in the year 661 by a supporter of Muawiyah, he became the first martyr of the Shia faith. Ali had two sons, Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn, who the Shia believe continued their father's struggle in different ways. Hasan renounced his right to the caliphate in a compromise with Mu'awiya, which the Shi'a view as Hasan's rational recognition of his own constraints at the time, but Husayn sought to restore the caliphate to the family of Ali by military means. When Muawiyah died in the 680 and his son Yazid I assumed the caliphate, Husayn renewed his efforts to regain the caliphate. On the advice of supporters in Kufa, a supposed stronghold of Shia support, Husayn and a small numbers of his family and supporters traveled to Kufa, camping out in nearby Karbala. However, the governor of Kufa was aware of Husayn's presence and sent close to 4000 troops to Karbala. After several days of failed negotiations, as Husayn refused to recognize Yazid as caliph, the governor's soldiers massacred Husayn and 72 of his men. This massacre, which occurred on the 10th day of the month of Muharram, elevated the martyrdom of Husayn to almost mythical levels in Shia belief."
      },
      {
        "title": "Succession to Muhammad",
        "text": "The succession to Muhammad is the central issue that split the Muslim community into several divisions in the first century of Islamic history, with the most prominent among these sects being the Shia and Sunni branches of Islam. Sunni Islam maintains that Abu Bakr was the legitimate successor to Muhammad on the basis of election. Shia Islam holds that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the designated successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Schism",
        "text": "Shia Islam is the second largest denomination of Islam. Shia Muslims believe that, similar to the appointment of prophets, Imams after Muhammad are also chosen by God. According to Shias, Ali was chosen by Allah and thus appointed by Muhammad to be the direct successor and leader of the Muslim community. They regard him as the first Shia Imam, which continued as a hereditary position through Fatimah and Ali's descendants."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Shia Islam",
        "text": "Shi\u2018a Islam, also known as Shi\u2018ite Islam or Shi\u2018ism, is the second largest branch of Islam after Sunni Islam. Shias adhere to the teachings of Muhammad and the religious guidance of his family (who are referred to as the Ahl al-Bayt) or his descendants known as Shia Imams. Muhammad's bloodline continues only through his daughter Fatima Zahra and cousin Ali who alongside Muhammad's grandsons comprise the Ahl al-Bayt. Thus, Shias consider Muhammad's descendants as the true source of guidance. Shia Islam, like Sunni Islam, has at times been divided into many branches; however, only three of these currently have a significant number of followers, and each of them has a separate trajectory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ali",
        "text": "The conflicts after the death of Muhammad are considered the roots of the current division among Muslims. Those who had accepted Abu Bakr's caliphate later became the Sunni, while the supporters of Ali's right to the caliphate eventually became the Shia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Schools of Islamic theology",
        "text": "Sunni Muslims are the largest denomination of Islam and are known as \"Ahl as-Sunnah wa\u2019l-Jam\u0101\u2018h\" or simply as \"Ahl as-Sunnah\". The word \"Sunni\" comes from the word \"sunnah\", which means the teachings and actions or examples of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Therefore, the term \"Sunni\" refers to those who follow or maintain the \"sunnah\" of the prophet Muhammad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heterodoxy",
        "text": "Sunni and Shia Muslims see each other as heterodox, differing in practice mainly on matters of jurisprudence or , splitting historically on the matter of the succession of Ali to the caliphate by Muawiyah. A third and much smaller movement is Ibadi, which differ from both of these groups on a few key points. Several ultra-orthodox groups such as the Wahhabis, in turn, see themselves as the only truly orthodox groups within Islam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caliphate",
        "text": "The Sunni branch of Islam stipulates that, as a head of the Ummah (Islamic world), a caliph was a selected or elected position. Followers of Shia Islam however, believe in an Imamate rather than a Caliphate, that is to say a caliph should be an Imam chosen by Allah from the \"Ahl al-Bayt\" (the \"Family of the House\", Muhammad's direct descendants)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Non-denominational Muslim",
        "text": "After the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, two conflicting views emerged about who should succeed him as the leader of the Muslim community. Some Muslims, who believed that Muhammad never clearly named his successor, resorted to the Arabian tradition of electing their leader by a council of influential members of the community. Others believed that Muhammad had chosen his cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib to succeed him. This disagreement eventually resulted in a civil war which pitted supporters of Ali against supporters of the founder of the Umayyad dynasty Muawiyah, and these two camps later evolved into the Sunni and Shia denominations. For the Shias, Ali and the Imams who succeeded him gradually became the embodiment of God's continuing guidance, and they tended to stress the religious functions of the caliphate and deplore its political compromises; Sunnis were more inclined to circumscribe its religious role and more readily accepted its pragmatic dimensions. As these differences became increasingly vested with religious importance, they gave rise to two distinct forms of Islam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "In the writings of many of the most prominent Sunni Islamic metaphysicians, philosophers, and mystics of the Islamic Golden Age, Muhammad, who is given the title of \"Seal of the Prophets\" in the Quran, was understood to be \"both a manifestation of the Logos and the Logos itself, he was also very kind and had prayed for his people every night, and was always very worried about his people This classical identification of Muhammad with the \"logos\" emerged from particular interpretations of specific Quranic verses, sayings of the prophet, and through the writings of the early mystics of Islam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad al-Mahdi",
        "text": "Sunnis also believe that Jesus will return around the time of the Mahdi, with the only difference being that they disagree with the Shia regarding exactly who the Mahdi is. Many other Sunnis, Ismaili and Zaidiyyah argue that Al-Askari did not have a son."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islam and democracy",
        "text": "According to the Shia understanding, Muhammad named as his successor (as leader, with Muhammad being the final prophet), his son-in-law, and cousin Ali. Therefore, the first three of the four elected \"Rightly Guided\" Caliphs recognized by Sunnis (Ali being the fourth), are considered usurpers, notwithstanding their having been \"elected\" through some sort of conciliar deliberation (which the Shia do not accept as a representative of the Muslim society of that time). The largest Shia grouping\u2014the Twelvers branch\u2014recognizes a series of Twelve Imams, the last of which (Muhammad al-Mahdi, the Hidden Imam) is still alive and the Shia are waiting for his \"reappearance\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "A study conducted by the \"Pew Research Center\" in 2010 and released January 2011 found that there are 1.62\u00a0billion Muslims around the world, and it is estimated over 85\u201390% are Sunni."
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Shia Islam",
        "text": "The question Madelung propose here is that why the family members of Muhammad should not inherit other (other than prophethood) aspects of Muhammad's character such as rule (hukm) wisdom (Hikmah), and the Imamate. Since The Sunnite concept of the \"true caliphate\" itself defines it as a \"succession of the Prophet in every respect except his prophethood\". Madelung further asks \"If God really wanted to indicate that he should not be succeeded by any of his family, why did He not let his grandsons and other kin die like his sons?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia Islam",
        "text": "Sh\u012b\u02bfa Islam is based on a \"\u1e25ad\u012bth\" report concerning Muhammad's pronouncement at Ghadir Khumm. Sh\u012b\u02bfa Muslims believe that \u02bfAl\u012b ibn Ab\u012b \u1e6c\u0101lib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, should have been the designated successor to Muhammad as Islam's spiritual and political leader. This belief later developed into the concept of Imamah, the idea that certain descendants of Muhammad, the \"Ahl al-Bayt\", are rightful rulers or Imams, whom Sh\u012b\u02bfa Muslims believe possess special spiritual and political authority over the Muslim community. Although there are many Sh\u012b\u02bfa subsects, modern Sh\u012b\u02bfa Islam has been divided into two main groupings: Twelvers and Ism\u0101\u02bf\u012bl\u012bs, with Twelver Sh\u012b\u02bfas being the largest and most influential group among Sh\u012b\u02bfa Muslims."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islam",
        "text": "Shia Islam or Shi'ism, the second-largest Muslim denomination, split with Sunnis over Muhammad's successor as leader, who the Shia believed must be from certain descendents of Muhammad's family known as the Ahl al-Bayt and those leaders, referred to as Imams, have additional spiritual authority. Some of the first Imams are revered by all Shia groups and Sunnis, such as Ali. Zaidi, the oldest branch, reject special powers of Imams and are sometimes considered a 'fifth school' of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia sect. The Twelvers, the largest Shiite branch, believe in twelve Imams, the last of whom went into occultation to return one day. The Ismailis split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have split into more groups over the status of Imams, with the largest being the Nizaris."
      },
      {
        "title": "Schools of Islamic theology",
        "text": "The Sunnis believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor to lead the Muslim \"ummah\" (community) before his death, and after an initial period of confusion, a group of his most prominent companions gathered and elected Abu Bakr, Muhammad's close friend and a father-in-law, as the first \"caliph\" of Islam. Sunni Muslims regard the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, `Umar ibn al-Khatt\u0101b, Uthman Ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abu Talib) as \"al-Khulaf\u0101\u2019ur-R\u0101shid\u016bn\" or \"The Rightly Guided Caliphs\". After the Rashidun, the position turned into a hereditary right and the caliph's role was limited to being a political symbol of Muslim strength and unity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic schools and branches",
        "text": "The Sunn\u012bs believe that Muhammad did not specifically appoint a successor to lead the Muslim community \"(Ummah)\" before his death, however they approve of the private election of the first companion, Abu Bakr. Sunn\u012b Muslims regard the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib) as \"al-Khulaf\u0101'ur-R\u0101shid\u016bn\" or \"The Rightly Guided Caliphs.\" Sunn\u012bs also believe that the position of caliph may be attained democratically, on gaining a majority of the votes, but after the Rashidun, the position turned into a hereditary dynastic rule because of the divisions started by the Umayyads and others. After the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1923, there has never been another caliph as widely recognized in the Muslim world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia Islam",
        "text": "This difference between following either the \"Ahl al-Bayt\" (Muhammad's family and descendants) or pledging allegiance to Ab\u016b Bakr has shaped the Sh\u012b\u02bfa\u2014Sunn\u012b divide on the interpretation of some Quranic verses, \"\u1e25ad\u012bth\" literature (accounts of the sayings and living habits attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad during his lifetime), and other areas of Islamic belief throughout the history of Islam. For instance, the \"\u1e25ad\u012bth\" collections venerated by Sh\u012b\u02bfa Muslims are centered on narrations by members of the \"Ahl al-Bayt\" and their supporters, while some \"\u1e25ad\u012bth\" transmitted by narrators not belonging to or supporting the \"Ahl al-Bayt\" are not included. Those of Abu Hurairah, for example, Ibn Asakir in his \"Ta\u02bfrikh Kabir\", and Muttaqi in his \"Kanzu\u02bfl-Umma\" report that \u02bfUmar ibn al-Kha\u1e6d\u1e6d\u0101b lashed him, rebuked him, and forbade him to narrate \"\u1e25ad\u012bth\" from Muhammad. \u02bfUmar is reported to have said: \"Because you narrate hadith in large numbers from the Holy Prophet, you are fit only for attributing lies to him. (That is, one expects a wicked man like you to utter only lies about the Holy Prophet.) So you must stop narrating hadith from the Prophet; otherwise, I will send you to the land of Dus.\" (An Arab clan in Yemen, to which Abu Hurairah belonged). According to Sunn\u012b Muslims, \u02bfAl\u012b was the fourth successor to Ab\u016b Bakr, while Sh\u012b\u02bfa Muslims maintain that \u02bfAl\u012b was the first divinely sanctioned \"Imam\", or successor of Muhammad. The seminal event in Sh\u012b\u02bfa history is the martyrdom at the Battle of Karbala of \u02bfAl\u012b's son, \u1e24usayn ibn \u02bfAl\u012b, and 71 of his followers in 680 CE, who led a non-allegiance movement against the defiant caliph."
      },
      {
        "title": "World Sunni Movement",
        "text": "2) Claims to be the only Imam who knows the true form of Sunni Islam called Caliphate of Humanity or Khilafat e Insaniyat while most traditional Sunnis believe that Sunni Islam is defined as following the Ash'ari and Maturidi schools of kalam, the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali madhhab of fiqh and Sufism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "The adherents of Sunni Islam are referred to in Arabic as (\"the people of the Sunnah and the community\") or for short. In English, its doctrines and practices are sometimes called \"Sunnism\", while adherents are known as Sunni Muslims, Sunnis, Sunnites and Ahlus Sunnah. Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as \"orthodox Islam\", though some scholars view this translation as inappropriate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Shia Islam",
        "text": "On the death of Muhammad, the prophet of Islam, in an assembly known as Saqifah a group of Muhajirun forced on the Ansar their wish for the acceptance of Abu Bakr as the successor to the prophet, Muhammad who was to be washed and buried. A distinguished absentee of this gathering was Ali the cousin and son-in-law of the prophet. There were some people who on view of some statement made by Muhammad in his lifetime believed that Ali should have taken the position, not only as a temporal head (Caliph) but also as spiritual head(Imam)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Non-denominational Muslim",
        "text": "One assumption is that Sunnis represent Islam as it existed before the divisions, and should be considered as normative, or the standard. This perception is partly due to the reliance on highly ideological sources that have been accepted as reliable historical works, and also because the vast majority of the population is Sunni. Both Sunnism and Shi'ism are the end products of several centuries of competition between ideologies. Both sects used each other to further cement their own identities and divisions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia view of Ali",
        "text": "This contentious issue caused Muslims to later split into two groups, Sunni and Shia. Shias believe that Muhammad explicitly named Ali as his successor at Ghadir Khumm and Muslim leadership belonged to him which had been determined by divine order."
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Shia Islam",
        "text": "In his book, \"The Origins and Early Development of Shi\u2019a Islam\", Jafri comes to the conclusion that the majority of the Muslims who became known as Sunnis afterwards \"placed the religious leadership in the totality of the community (Ahl al-Sunnah wal Jamaah), represented by the Ulama, as the custodian of religion and the exponent of the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet, while accepting state authority as binding\u2026 A minority of the Muslims, on the other hand, could not find satisfaction for their religious aspirations except in the charismatic leadership from among the people of the house of the Prophet, the Ahl al-Bayt, as the sole exponents of the Quran and the Prophetic Sunnah, although this minority too had to accept the state's authority. This group was called the Shiite.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "Confessing to the Prophets of God is also part of the Sunni faith. The first of the prophets is Adam. The original contract (\" m\u012b\u1e6f\u0101q \") that God concluded with him and his descendants according to sura 7:172-3 is a reality according to Sunni belief. God has taken Abraham as a friend (\" \u1e2bal\u012bl \") and talked to Moses directly. The last of the prophets is Mohammed from the tribe of the Quraish. The Sunnis do not differentiate between the messengers of God, (By rejecting some of them), but consider everything they have brought to be true."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muqatil ibn Sulayman",
        "text": "The accusations of anthropomorphism against Muqatil were seen as the logical opposite to those who held the negationist views of Jahm, to whom the term \"Jahmiyyah\" was used (as the opposite of \"Muqatiliyyah\"). The Sunni Muslims thus positioned themselves in the middle, between the two extremes, neither negating God's attributes nor likening them to the creation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Different usages of the term 'Shia'",
        "text": "There are two major denominations within Islam i.e. Sunni and Shia. Shia is literally applied in different meanings like a sect, party, group, adherents, followers, aides, companions, proponents, nation, colleagues, supporters, and advocates of someone. In brief, it can be said that lexically Shia is a person or a group supporting, following, advocating, and strengthening a person or a thought. Technically, Shia are those who consider Ali Bin Abi Talib the most meritorious and preferable among other companions for Imamate (religious authority) and immediate caliphate after the prophet. In the story of the prophet Musa the Quran says:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Succession to Muhammad",
        "text": "These initial conflicts after Muhammad's death are regarded as the first signs of the coming division among Muslims. Those who had accepted Abu Bakr's caliphate later became the Sunni, while the supporters of Ali's right to the caliphate eventually became the Shia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia Islam",
        "text": "Sh\u012b\u02bfa Muslims form a majority of the population in various regions of the Muslim world, including Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Iran, and Iraq, as well as a plurality in Lebanon. Sh\u012b\u02bfa Muslims constitute 36.3% of the entire population (and 38.6% of the Muslim population) of the Middle East."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia\u2013Sunni relations",
        "text": "In Shia Islam \"the Mahdi symbol has developed into a powerful and central religious idea.\" Twelvers believe the Mahdi will be Muhammad al-Mahdi, the twelfth Imam returned from the Occultation, where he has been hidden by Allah since 874. In contrast, mainstream Sunnis believe the Mahdi will be named Muhammad, be a descendant of Muhammad, and will revive the faith, and forms an important component of Sunni eschatology, his appearance being considered the last of the minor signs of the Day of Judgment before its major signs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic schools and branches",
        "text": "In addition to believing in the supreme authority of the Quran and teachings of Muhammad, Sh\u012b\u02bfa Muslims believe that Muhammad's family, the \"Ahl al-Bayt\" (\"People of the Household\"), including his descendants known as Imams, have distinguished spiritual and political authority over the community, and believe that \u02bfAl\u012b ibn Ab\u012b \u1e6c\u0101lib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was the first of these Imams and the rightful successor to Muhammad, and thus reject the legitimacy of the first three Rashidun caliphs.\n* The Twelvers believe in the twelve Sh\u012b\u02bf\u012bte Imams and are the only school to comply with the Hadith of the Twelve Successors, where Muhammad stated that he would have twelve successors. This sometimes includes the Alevi and Bektashi schools.\n* Ism\u0101\u02bf\u012bl\u012bsm, including the Niz\u0101r\u012b, Sevener, Musta\u2018l\u012b, Dawudi Bohra, Hebtiahs Bohra, Sulaymani Bohra, and Alavi Bohra sub-denominations.\n* The Zayd\u012bs historically derive from the followers of Zayd ibn \u02bfAl\u012b. In the modern era, they \"survive only in northern Yemen\". Although they are a Sh\u012b\u02bfa sect, \"in modern times\" they have \"shown a strong tendency to move towards the Sunni mainstream\".\n* The Alawites are a distinct monotheistic Abrahamic religion that developed between the 9th and 10th centuries CE. Historically, Twelver Sh\u012b\u02bf\u012bte scholars such as Shaykh Tusi didn't consider Alawites as Sh\u012b\u02bfa Muslims while condemning their beliefs, perceived as heretical. The medieval Sunn\u012b Muslim scholar Ibn Taymiyyah also pointed out that the Alawites were not Sh\u012b\u02bf\u012btes.\n* The Druze are a distinct monotheistic Abrahamic religion and ethno-religious group that developed in the 11th century CE originally as an offshoot of Ism\u0101\u02bf\u012bl\u012bsm. The Druze faith further split from Ism\u0101\u02bf\u012bl\u012bsm as it developed its own unique doctrines, and finally separated from both Ism\u0101\u02bf\u012bl\u012bsm and Islam altogether; these include the belief that the Imam Al-\u1e24\u0101kim bi-Amr All\u0101h was God incarnate. Thus, the Druze don't identify themselves as Muslims, and aren't considered as such by Muslims either (\"See\": Islam and Druze). According to the medieval Sunn\u012b Muslim scholar Ibn Taymiyyah, the Druze were not Muslims, neither \u2032Ahl al-Kit\u0101b (People of the Book), nor \"mushrikin\" (polytheists); rather, he labeled them as \"kuff\u0101r\" (infidels).\n* The Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00ed Faith is a distinct monotheistic universal Abrahamic religion that developed in 19th-century Persia, originally derived as a splinter group from B\u00e1bism, another distinct monotheistic Abrahamic religion, itself derived from Twelver Sh\u012b\u02bf\u012bsm. Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00eds believe in a utterly transcendent and inaccessible Supreme Creator of the universe, nevertheless seen as conscious of the creation, with a will and purpose that is expressed through messengers recognized in the Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00ed Faith as the Manifestations of God (all the Jewish prophets, Zoroaster, Krishna, Gautama Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad, the B\u00e1b, and ultimately Bah\u00e1\u02bcu'll\u00e1h). Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00eds believe that God communicates his will and purpose to humanity through his intermediaries, the prophets and messengers who have founded various world religions from the beginning of humankind up to the present day, and will continue to do so in the future. Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00eds and B\u00e1bis don't consider themselves as Muslims, since both of their religions have superseded Islam, and aren't considered as such by Muslims either; rather, they are seen as apostates from Islam. Since both Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00eds and B\u00e1bis reject the Islamic dogma that Muhammad is the last prophet, they have suffered religious discrimination and persecution both in Iran and elsewhere in the Muslim world due to their beliefs. (\"See\": Persecution of Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00eds)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia\u2013Sunni relations",
        "text": "The Shias accept some of the same \"hadiths\" used by Sunnis as part of the \"sunnah\" to argue their case. In addition, they consider the sayings of \"Ahl al-Bayt\" that are not attributed directly to Muhammad as hadiths. Shias do not accept many Sunni hadiths unless they are also recorded in Shia sources or the methodology can be proven of how they were recorded. Also, some Sunni-accepted hadith are less favored by Shias; one example is that because of Aisha's opposition to Ali, hadiths narrated by Aisha are not given the same authority as those by other companions. Another example is hadith narrated by Abu Hurairah, who is considered by Shias as an enemy of Ali. The Shia argument is that Abu Hurairah was only a Muslim for four years of his life before Muhammad's death. Although he accompanied Muhammad for four years only, he managed to record ten times as many hadiths as Abu Bakr and Ali each."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tabarri",
        "text": "Shia also believe that this view was held by the descendants of Muhammad. Shia hold as authentic a narration attributed to Muhammad al-Baqir. He was reported to have replied to his disciple who had sought the Imam's opinion regarding Abu Bakr and Umar:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Succession to Muhammad",
        "text": "Historically, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali are regarded by the Sunni as the most righteous of their generation, with their merit being reflected in their caliphate. The subsequent caliphates of the Umayyads and the Abbasids, while not ideal, are seen as legitimate because they complied with the requirements of the law, kept the borders safe and the community united. While the Umayyads and the Abbasids are viewed as kingships, the Sunni was more willing than others to accommodate these rulers, regardless of their legitimacy and mode of government, and in so doing the Sunni made most of Islamic history their own."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "The Mu\u02bftazilites are usually not regarded as Sunnis. Ibn Hazm, for example, contrasted them with the Sunnis as a separate group in his heresiographic work \"al-Fa\u1e63l fi-l-milal wa-l-ahw\u0101\u02be wa-n-ni\u1e25al\". In many medieval texts from the Islamic East, the \"Ahl as-Sunna\" are also differentiated to the Mu\u02bftazilites. In 2010 the Jordanian \"fatwa\" office ruled out in a fatwa that the Mu\u02bftazilites, like the Kharijites, represent a doctrine that is contrary to Sunnism. Ibn Taymiyya, however, had a different opinion in this regard. He said that the Mu\u02bftazilites belong to the Sunnis in the general sense because they recognize the caliphate of the first three caliphs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Shia Islam",
        "text": "Jafri says Islam is basically religious because Muhammad was appointed and sent by God to deliver His message, and political because of the circumstances in which it arose and grew. In the same way Shi'ism, in its inherent nature, has always been both religious and political. In one occasion, for example, when the Shura after Umar proposed that they would give him the Caliphate on condition that he acted according to Quran, Sunnah of Muhammad, and precedents established by the first two caliphs, he refused to accept the last condition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Twelver Shi'ism",
        "text": "According to Shia, the Quran, the Sunna, intellect and consensus are the bases of the jurisprudence. As Islam is considered by Shia to be the last and the most perfect religion, by ijtihad, it deduces the responses through Islamic sources. Thus ijtihad brings flexibility to Islamic system. According to Ja'fari jurisprudence, Sharia is derived from the Qur'an and the Sunnah. The difference between Sunni and Sh\u012b\u02bba Sharia results from a Sh\u012b\u02bba belief that Muhammad assigned \u02bbAl\u012b to be the first ruler and the leader after him (the \"Khalifa\" or steward). This difference resulted in the Sh\u012b\u02bba:\n# Following hadith from Mu\u0127ammad and his descendants the 12 Im\u0101ms.\n# Some of them are not accepting the \"examples\", verdicts, and \"ah\u0101d\u012bth\" of Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman ibn Affan (who are considered by Sunn\u012bs to be the first three Caliphs).\n# Attributing the concept of the \"mas\u016bm\" \"infallibility\" to the Twelve Im\u0101ms or The Fourteen Infallibles (including Muhammad and his daughter Fatimah) and accepting the examples and verdicts of this special group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Shia Islam",
        "text": "Both Shiite and Sunni are in agreement over the two functions of prophet hood: to reveal God's law to men, and to guide men toward God. However, while Sunnis believe that both have come to an end with the death of Muhammad, Shiites believe that whereas legislation ended, the function of guiding and \"explaining divine law continued through the line of Imams.\" In Shiite theology, thus, God does not guide via authoritative texts (i.e. the Qur'an and Hadith) only but also guides through some specially equipped individuals known as Imams. This constitution, Shiite says, is not limited to Islam, but each great messenger of God had two covenants, one concerning the next prophet who would eventually come, and one regarding the immediate successor, the Imam. For example, Sam was an imam for Noah, Ishmael was an Imam for Abraham, Aaron or Joshua for Moses, Simon, John and all the disciples for Jesus, and Ali and his descendants for Muhammad. It is narrated from the sixth imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq who had said \"where there to remain on the earth but two men, one of them would be the proof of God\". The different between apostles (Rasuls), the prophets(Nabi) and the Imams, thus, is described as follows: Rasul sees and hears the angel in awakness and sleep. Nabi hears the angel and sees him while asleep, but does not see him while awake though hears the speech. Imam (muhaddith) is the one who hears the angel in awakness while does not see him in awakness or sleep. According to the fifth Imam, however, this kind of revelation is not the revelation of prophethood but rather like the inspiration (ilham) which came to Mary (mother of Jesus), the mother of Moses and to the bee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "Sunni: Islam, in \"Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica Online\", by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, Asma Afsaruddin, Yamini Chauhan, Aakanksha Gaur, Gloria Lotha, Matt Stefon, Noah Tesch and Adam Zeidan"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sahaba in the Quran",
        "text": "The phrase ' () appears three times in the Quran and in relation to Abraham, Moses, and Muhammad. It refers to the family of the prophets, though Muhammad's ' is disputed among Muslims. The Shia scholars record that the ' are the ' (), which include Muhammad, Ali, Fatima, Hasan and Husayn. These traditions are also found in the early historian exegesis of al-Tabari (). The Sunni scholars Ahmad ibn Hanbal () and al-Suyuti () agree with these Shia accounts of the '. However, most Sunni scholars, including al-Waqidi () and Ibn Kathir () believe Muhammad's wives to be the '."
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Shia Islam",
        "text": "Hence the question was not only who the successor to Muhammad was, but also what the attributes of a true successor were."
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Shia Islam",
        "text": "According to the Sunni sources, Ali \"was a valued counselor of the caliphs who preceded him\"; Umar is, therefore, reported by some of the important early Sunni authors as saying: \"Had there not been Ali, 'Umar would have perished.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Succession to Muhammad",
        "text": "The contrasting opinions regarding the succession are primarily based on different interpretations of the events in early Islamic history as well as of hadiths (sayings of Muhammad). The Sunni Muslims believe that Muhammad had not appointed a successor and had instead intended for the Muslim community to choose a leader from among themselves. They accept the rule of Abu Bakr, who was elected at Saqifah, and that of his successors, who are together referred to as the Rashidun Caliphs. On the other hand, the Shia Muslims believe that Ali had previously been nominated by Muhammad as his heir, most notably during the Event of Ghadir Khumm, following the revelation of verse 5:67 of the central religious text of Islam, the Quran. The Twelver Shia view the first three rulers who followed Muhammad as illegitimate, though Zaydi Shia view them as legitimate. Instead, the rightful successors of Muhammad are believed to be Ali and the Imams of his lineage. In Twelver Shia belief, the last of these Imams, Mahdi, went into occultation in 260 AH (874 CE), compelled by the hostility of the his enemies. The advent of Mahdi is awaited by most Muslims, though different sects hold different views about him."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Shia Islam",
        "text": "Muhammad began preaching Islam at Mecca before migrating to Medina, from where he united the tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. While Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, and the rest of Muhammad's close family were washing his body for burial, the tribal leaders of Mecca and Medina held a secret gathering at Saqifah to decide who would succeed Muhammad as head of the Muslim state, disregarding what the earliest Muslims, the Muhajirun, regarded as Muhammad's appointment of Ali as his successor at Ghadir Khumm. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a companion of Muhammad and the first person to congratulate Ali on event of Ghadeer, nominated Abu Bakr. Others, after initial refusal and bickering, settled on Abu Bakr who was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by Muhammad's earliest companions, who held that Ali had been designated his successor. According to Sunni accounts, Muhammad died without having appointed a successor, and with a need for leadership, they gathered and voted for the position of caliph. Shi'a accounts differ by asserting that Muhammad had designated Ali as his successor on a number of occasions, including on his death bed. Ali was supported by Muhammad's family and the majority of the Muhajirun, the initial Muslims, and was opposed by the tribal leaders of Arabia who included Muhammad's initial enemies, including, naturally, the Banu Umayya. Abu Bakr's election was followed by a raid on Ali's house led by Umar and Khalid ibn al-Walid (see Umar at Fatimah's house)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Succession to Muhammad",
        "text": "Regarding the succession of Ali, historians and scholars of Islamic history have generally either accepted the view of the Sunnis or considered the truth of the matter undetectable. One of the historians who has distanced himself from this common belief is Wilferd Madelung. In the Encyclopedia of Islam, Madelung considers the main Shia claims, to be Ali's own view, because Ali considered himself the most worthy person for the caliphate, compared to other companions, and blamed the Muslim community for turning away from him, but, at the same time, he praised the caliphate of Abu Bakr and Umar, and condemned the destruction of their character. Madelung believes that, since in the Arab customs of the time, especially the Quraysh, hereditary succession was common, and since the Qur'an emphasized the importance of blood ties between the early prophets, especially the Ahl al-Bayt, and since the Ansar supported Ali's caliphate, Abu Bakr knew that forming a council would lead to the election of Ali, so he led the situation in a manner that insured his own election. Vaglieri, On the other hand, believes that Arabs traditionally chose their leaders from among the elders, and Ali was a little over thirty years old at the time, and did not have the necessary credibility to succeed Muhammad, according to Arab traditions. Vaglieri believes that the Shias, by inventing or interpreting the words attributed to Muhammad in the light of their beliefs, insist that the Prophet intended to choose Ali as his successor, while there is no doubt that at the time of his last illness, Muhammad did not mention this desire. Some sources name the Hadith of the pen and paper, as the last words of Muhammad, which is interpreted differently by Shias and Sunnis."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Shia Islam",
        "text": "Shia Islam and Sunnism split in the aftermath of the death of Muhammad based on the politics of the early caliphs. Due to the Shi'a belief that Ali should have been the first caliph, the three caliphs that preceded him, Abu Bakr, Umar, and Usman, were considered illegitimate usurpers. Because of this, any hadith that were narrated by these three caliphs (or any of their supporters) were not accepted by Shi'a hadith collectors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia view of Ali",
        "text": "The two groups also disagree on Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr, and the two caliphs who succeeded him: Umar and Uthman Ibn Affan. Sunnis tend to stress Ali's acceptance and support of their rule, while the Shia claim that he distanced himself from them, and that he was being kept from fulfilling the religious duty that Muhammad had assigned to him. Sunnis maintain that if Ali was the rightful successor as ordained by God Himself, then it would have been his duty as leader of the Muslim nation to make war with these people (Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman) until Ali established the decree. Shias contend that Ali did not fight Abu Bakr, Umar or Uthman, because he did not have the military strength and, if he had decided to, it would have caused a civil war amongst the Muslims. Ali also believed that he could fulfil his role of Imam'ate without fighting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni fatwas on Shias",
        "text": "Other Sunni and Salafi scholars who have declared Shiites as deviants or apostates:\n#Imam Malik - One of his most prominent students, al-Buwayti, asked if it was permissible to pray behind a Rafidi to which Malik responded in the negative. Malik defined a Rafidi as \u201cwhoever says \u2018Abu Bakr and `Umar are not Imams\u201d.\n#Ibn Hazm \u2014 \"Shia are not even Muslims\", when Christians debating him brought a Shia book as reference.\n#Ibn Taymiya \u2014 He considered Shiites more heretical than Jews, Christians and many polytheists. Noting contemporary circumstances, he considered Shiites more harmful to the Muslim community than groups such as the Crusaders and Mongols.\n#Ibn Khaldoun \u2014 \"astray people\", \"Shia are the source of all deviant groups in Islam history\".\n#Nizam al-Mulk \u2014 where he fully attacks the Rafida. However, there are reports that says that he and Malik Shah I after a debate between Sunni and Shi'a scholars which was prepared by him by the orders of Malik Shah I resulted in converting both him and the king to the Shi'a Islam. The story is reported by the son-in-law of Nizam al-Mulk, Mughatil ibn Bakri who attended the debate.\n#Manzur Nu'mani \u2014 issued a fatwa in December 1987 declaring Shia kuffar (non-believers), which was endorsed by hundreds of prominent Deobandi scholars in India and Pakistan.\n#Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz \u2014 Several of his fatwas denounced Shiites as atheists and apostates, and, among other rulings, forbade Sunni marriage to Shiites.\n#Yusuf al-Qaradawi \u2014 After saying he had previously been misguided to pursue Sunni-Shia rapprochement, Qaradawi went on to condemn Shiites as heretics in several fatwas and praised virulently anti-Shia Saudi Sunni clerics for being \u201cmore mature and far-sighted\u201d than himself in generally judging Shias.\n#Ehsan Elahi Zaheer \u2014 Denounced the Shia as infidels and Zionist agents.\n#Abdul-Rahman al-Barrak \u2014 In a \"vicious\" fatwa against the Shia he concluded with: \"the Sunni and Shia \"mathhabs\" (beliefs) are completely contradictory and cannot be reconciled; the talk of Sunni-Shia rapprochement is utterly false.\"\n#Abu Basir al-Tartusi \u2014 In his fatwa against Shia, he warned Muslims to \"Interact with the Shii Rejectionists as you would with a person whose very existence is full of betrayal, treachery, fury and hatred against Islam and Muslims!\"\n#Ali al-Khudair \u2014 In his \"Fatwa fi l-Shi'a\", he says: \"What we have today are the Rafidis [i.e., Twelvers], the Batini Isma'ilis, the Batini Nusayris, and the Batini Duruz. These four groups are the ones who deify the Al al-Bayt [i.e., the family and descendants of the Prophet Muhammed], they seek their intercession and are the worshippers of graves (quburiyyun). So these [people] are infidel polytheists (mushrikun kuffar) and are not Muslims. There is no difference [in status] between their scholars and followers (muqallidihim) or the ignorant among them (juhhalihim). They are all polytheists and are not Muslims and cannot be excused for their claim to be ignorant that they are worshipping other than God (la yu'dharan bi-l-jahl fi 'ibadati-him li-ghayr allah).\"\n#Imam Ash-Sha'bi \u2014 \"The Rafida are the Jews of this nation. They hate Islam as the Jews hate Christianity. They embraced Islam, not because they longed for it or because they feared Allah, but because they detested the Muslims and intended to overpower them.\"\n#Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab \u2014 In one of his fatwas, he accused Shiites of shirk (polytheism) because of their cult of the saints, which included the adoration of figures such as Ali and Husayn and the veneration of tombs and shrines.\n#Shah Waliullah Dehlawi \u2014 He believed that the Shia interpretation and practices of Islam should be discarded, since they greatly misguide people."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of people related to Quranic verses",
        "text": "Before Shia & Sunni Ali is the one of Alh al-Bayt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad al-Mahdi",
        "text": "Most Sunni Muslims reject that he was the Mahdi and believe that the Mahdi has not yet been born. They believe his exact identity is only known to Allah and accept the idea that he is to be from the descendants of Muhammad. Aside from the Mahdi's precise genealogy, Sunnis accept many of the same hadiths which Shias accept about the predictions regarding the Mahdi's emergence, his acts, and his universal Caliphate. Sunnis also have many hadiths about Mahdi in their Hadith collections. Muhammad ibn Al-Hasan and At-Tayyib Abu'l-Qasim ibn Al-Mansur are descendants of Muhammad who are considered by different groups of Shi'ites (respectively Twelvers and Tayyibi Isma'ili-Musta'li-Isma'ilis) to be Occulted Imams and Mahdis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "The teachings of the Sunnis also include the vision of God (\"ru\u02beyat All\u0101h\") in the hereafter, which has similarities with the \"visio beatifica\" in the Christian tradition. With this teaching the Sunnis set themselves apart from the Mu\u02bftazilites, the Zaidiyyah and the philosophers who consider the vision of God intellectually impossible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "The concept of the \"logos\" also exists in Islam, where it was definitively articulated primarily in the writings of the classical Sunni mystics and Islamic philosophers, as well as by certain Shi'a thinkers, during the Islamic Golden Age. In Sunni Islam, the concept of the \"logos\" has been given many different names by the denomination's metaphysicians, mystics, and philosophers, including \"\u02bfaql\" (\"Intellect\"), \"al-ins\u0101n al-k\u0101mil\" (\"Universal Man\"), \"kalimat All\u0101h\" (\"Word of God\"), \"haq\u012bqa mu\u1e25ammadiyya\" (\"The Muhammadan Reality\"), and \"n\u016br mu\u1e25ammad\u012b\" (\"The Muhammadan Light\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sectarian violence",
        "text": "Sectarian violence between the two major sects of Islam, Shia and Sunni, has occurred in countries like Pakistan, Iraq, Afghanistan, Bahrain, Lebanon etc. This violent conflict has roots in the political turmoil arising out of differences over the succession to Muhammad. Abu Bakr, a companion of Muhammad, was nominated by Umar and elected as the first Sunni Rightly Guided Caliph. However another group felt that Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, had been designated by Muhammad and is considered by Shia as the first Imam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Man Haron Monis",
        "text": "Monis claimed to have converted from Shia Islam to Sunni Islam. An announcement on his now-suspended website, posted a week before the Sydney siege, stated: \"I used to be a Rafidi, but not any more. Now I am a Muslim, Alhamdu Lillah.\" \"Rafidi\", which means \"one who rejects\" in Arabic, \"is typically used by Sunnis to denigrate Shias as non-Muslim.\" Monis also used his website to pledge allegiance to Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, leader of the Islamic State whose 'main enemies' are the Shi'a."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "Apparently because of doubts about the \"Salaf\u012bya\" affiliation with Sunniism, the \"Standing Committee on Scientific Investigation and Fatwa Issuing\" in Saudi Arabia issued a fatwa stating that they consider the Salafis as Sunnis. Like many Ash\u02bfarites, the Salafis believe their teachings are the only true form of Sunnism, and hence reject the Asharites and Maturidites as part of Sunnism. An example is the Saudi scholar Muhammad Ibn al-\u02bfUthaim\u012bn, who in his 2001 published commentary on \"Aq\u012bda W\u0101si\u1e6d\u012bya\" by Ibn Taimiyya expressed the opinion that Ash'arites and M\u0101tur\u012bdites would not count among the Sunnis, because their doctrine of attributes would be in contrast to the doctrine of the Prophet and his companions. For this reason, the view that three groups belong to Sunnism should also be rejected. Sunnis are only those who are \"salaf\" in terms of belief."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shia Islam",
        "text": "The five pillars of Islam to the Ja\u02bffari jurisprudence are known as \"Usul ad-Din\":\n# \"Taw\u1e25\u012bd\": unity and oneness of God;\n# \"Nubuwwah\": prophethood of Muhammad;\n# \"Mu\u02bfad\": resurrection and final judgment;\n# \"\u02bfAdl\": justice of God;\n# \"Imamah\": the rightful place of the Sh\u012b\u02bf\u012bte Imams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "The Sunnis further believe in the books of God, sent to the envoys of God. To them belong the Quran, the Torah, the Gospel and the Psalms"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of how logos is used?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Christianity, the Logos is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity, and within Sunni Islam, logos has been associated with, among other concepts, \u02bfaql (\"Intellect\") and kalimat All\u0101h (\"Word of God\"). Additionally, logos is also the name Atlas Sound's second studio album. Which of these are you interested in learning more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about how logos in the Sunni religion."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In the writings of many of the most prominent Sunni Islamic metaphysicians, philosophers, and mystics of the Islamic Golden Age, Muhammad was understood to be \"both a manifestation of the Logos and the Logos itself. At the same time, the logos concept was also intimately tied in the works of the same authors to other important Islamic cosmological concepts."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did the word logo come about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Logos is a term in Western philosophy, psychology, rhetoric, and religion derived from a Greek word variously meaning \"ground\", \"plea\", \"opinion\", \"expectation\", \"word\", \"speech\", \"account\", \"reason\", \"proportion\", and \"discourse\"."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is there a difference in how Sunni and Shia Muslims view Muhammad?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sunni Islam maintains that Abu Bakr was the legitimate successor to Muhammad on the basis of election. Shia Islam holds that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the designated successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there more Sunni or Shia Muslims?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The two largest Islamic sects are Sunni Islam (75\u201390%) and Shia Islam (10\u201320%).",
      "Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam. It is followed by 85\u201390% of the world's Muslims."
    ],
    "topic": "Logos",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Muslims:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Muslims"
        ],
        "ctx": "The two largest Islamic sects are Sunni Islam (75\u201390%) and Shia Islam (10\u201320%). About 12% of Muslims live in Indonesia, the largest Muslim-majority country; % of Muslims live in South Asia, the largest population of Muslims in the world by numbers; % in the Middle East and North Africa, where it is the dominant religion; and 15% in Sub-Saharan Africa. Muslims are the overwhelming majority in Central Asia, the majority in the Caucasus and widespread in Southeast Asia. India is the country with the largest Muslim population outside Muslim-majority countries. Sizeable Muslim communities are also found in the Americas, China, and throughout Europe. Islam is the fastest-growing major religion in the world."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Sunni Islam:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sunni Islam"
        ],
        "ctx": "Sunni Islam () is the largest branch of Islam, followed by 85\u201390% of the world's Muslims. Its name comes from the word \"Sunnah\", referring to the tradition of Muhammad. The differences between Sunni and Shia Muslims arose from a disagreement over the succession to Muhammad and subsequently acquired broader political significance, as well as theological and juridical dimensions. According to Sunni traditions, Muhammad left no successor and the participants of the Saqifah event appointed Abu Bakr as the next-in-line (the first caliph). This contrasts with the Shia view, which holds that Muhammad appointed his son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "The concept of the \"logos\" also exists in Islam, where it was definitively articulated primarily in the writings of the classical Sunni mystics and Islamic philosophers, as well as by certain Shi'a thinkers, during the Islamic Golden Age. In Sunni Islam, the concept of the \"logos\" has been given many different names by the denomination's metaphysicians, mystics, and philosophers, including \"\u02bfaql\" (\"Intellect\"), \"al-ins\u0101n al-k\u0101mil\" (\"Universal Man\"), \"kalimat All\u0101h\" (\"Word of God\"), \"haq\u012bqa mu\u1e25ammadiyya\" (\"The Muhammadan Reality\"), and \"n\u016br mu\u1e25ammad\u012b\" (\"The Muhammadan Light\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "One of the names given to a concept very much like the Christian Logos by the classical Muslim metaphysicians is \"\u02bfaql\", which is the \"Arabic equivalent to the Greek (intellect).\" In the writings of the Islamic Neoplatonist philosophers, such as al-Farabi () and Avicenna (d. 1037), the idea of the \"\u02bfaql\" was presented in a manner that both resembled \"the late Greek doctrine\" and, likewise, \"corresponded in many respects to the Logos Christology.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "One of the names given to a concept very much like the Christian Logos by the classical Muslim metaphysicians is \"\u02bfaql\", which is the \"Arabic equivalent to the Greek (intellect).\" In the writings of the Islamic neoplatonist philosophers, such as al-Farabi () and Avicenna (d. 1037), the idea of the \"\u02bfaql\" was presented in a manner that both resembled \"the late Greek doctrine\" and, likewise, \"corresponded in many respects to the Logos Christology.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity and Islam",
        "text": "Christianity developed out of Second Temple Judaism in the 1st century CE. It is founded on the life, teachings, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ, and those who follow it are called Christians. Islam developed in the 7th century CE. Islam, founded on the teachings of Muhammad as an expression of surrender to the will of God. Those who follow it are called Muslims which means \"submitter to God\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "The concept of the logos also exists in Islam, where it was definitively articulated primarily in the writings of the classical Sunni mystics and Islamic philosophers, as well as by certain Shi'a thinkers, during the Islamic Golden Age. In Sunni Islam, the concept of the \"logos\" has been given many different names by the denomination's metaphysicians, mystics, and philosophers, including \"\u02bfaql\" (\"Intellect\"), \"al-ins\u0101n al-k\u0101mil\" (\"Universal Man\"), \"kalimat All\u0101h\" (\"Word of God\"), \"haq\u012bqa mu\u1e25ammadiyya\" (\"The Muhammadan Reality\"), and \"n\u016br mu\u1e25ammad\u012b\" (\"The Muhammadan Light\"). Throughout Islamic history, there have existed several different metaphysical concepts that have been understood to correspond \"in many respects\" to the logos Christology of Christianity and to the use of the term \"logos\" in late Greek philosophy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "Ibn Arabi seems to have adopted his version of the \"logos\" concept from Neoplatonic and Christian sources, although (writing in Arabic rather than Greek) he used more than twenty different terms when discussing it. For Ibn Arabi, the \"logos\" or \"Universal Man\" was a mediating link between individual human beings and the divine essence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "In the writings of many of the most prominent Sunni Islamic metaphysicians, philosophers, and mystics of the Islamic Golden Age, Muhammad, who is given the title of \"Seal of the Prophets\" in the Quran, was understood to be \"both a manifestation of the Logos and the Logos itself, he was also very kind and had prayed for his people every night, and was always very worried about his people This classical identification of Muhammad with the \"logos\" emerged from particular interpretations of specific Quranic verses, sayings of the prophet, and through the writings of the early mystics of Islam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Logos (Christianity)\n--Bible.\n----Johannine literature.\n----Luke 1:1-2.\n----Septuagint.\n--Early Christianity.\n----Ignatius of Antioch.\n----Justin Martyr.\n----Theophilus of Antioch.\n----Athenagoras of Athens.\n----Irenaeus of Lyon.\n----Gnosticism.\n--Post-Nicene Christianity.\n--Modern references.\n--Translation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "On April 1, 2005, Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (who became Pope Benedict XVI just over two weeks later) referred to the Christian religion as the religion of the Logos:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Christianity must always remember that it is the religion of the \"Logos.\" It is faith in the \"Creator Spiritus,\" in the Creator Spirit, from which proceeds everything that exists. Today, this should be precisely its philosophical strength, in so far as the problem is whether the world comes from the irrational, and reason is not, therefore, other than a \"sub-product,\" on occasion even harmful of its development or whether the world comes from reason, and is, as a consequence, its criterion and goal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity",
        "text": "Christianity developed during the 1st century CE as a Jewish Christian sect with Hellenistic influence of Second Temple Judaism. An early Jewish Christian community was founded in Jerusalem under the leadership of the Pillars of the Church, namely James the Just, the brother of Jesus, Peter, and John."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Christianity",
        "text": "Early Christian art and architecture emerged relatively late and the first known Christian images emerge from about 200 AD, although there is some literary evidence that small domestic images were used earlier. The oldest known Christian paintings are from the Roman catacombs, dated to about 200, and the oldest Christian sculptures are from sarcophagi, dating to the beginning of the 3rd century. The early rejection of images, and the necessity to hide Christian practice from persecution, left behind few written records regarding early Christianity and its evolution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abrahamic religions",
        "text": "Christianity began in the 1st century as a sect within Judaism initially led by Jesus. His followers viewed him as the Messiah, as in the Confession of Peter; after his crucifixion and death they came to view him as God incarnate, who was resurrected and will return at the end of time to judge the living and the dead and create an eternal Kingdom of God. Within a few decades the new movement split from Judaism. Christian teaching is based on the Old and New Testaments of the Bible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Ibn Arabi seems to have adopted his version of the \"logos\" concept from neoplatonic and Christian sources, although (writing in Arabic rather than Greek) he used more than twenty different terms when discussing it. For Ibn Arabi, the \"logos\" or \"Universal Man\" was a mediating link between individual human beings and the divine essence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Following John 1, the early Christian apologist Justin Martyr (\"c\" 150) identifies Jesus as the Logos. Like Philo, Justin also identified the Logos with the Angel of the Lord, and he also identified the Logos with the many other theophanies of the Old Testament, and used this as a way of arguing for Christianity to Jews:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Abrahamic religions",
        "text": "Christianity began as a sect of Judaism in the Mediterranean Basin of the first century CE and evolved into a separate religion\u2014Christianity\u2014with distinctive beliefs and practices. Jesus is the central figure of Christianity, considered by almost all denominations to be God the Son, one person of the Trinity. (\"See God in Christianity.\") The Christian biblical canons are usually held to be the ultimate authority, alongside sacred tradition in some denominations (such as the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church). Over many centuries, Christianity divided into three main branches (Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant), dozens of significant denominations, and hundreds of smaller ones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "Other Sufi writers also show the influence of the Neoplatonic \"logos\". In the 15th century Abd al-Kar\u012bm al-J\u012bl\u012b introduced the \"Doctrine of Logos and the Perfect Man\". For al-J\u012bl\u012b, the \"perfect man\" (associated with the \"logos\" or the Prophet) has the power to assume different forms at different times and to appear in different guises."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian Church",
        "text": "Starting in the 7th century, the Islamic Caliphates rose and gradually began to conquer larger and larger areas of the Christian world. Excepting North Africa and most of Spain, northern and western Europe escaped largely unscathed by Islamic expansion, in great part because richer Constantinople and its empire acted as a magnet for the onslaught. The challenge presented by the Muslims would help to solidify the religious identity of eastern Christians even as it gradually weakened the Eastern Empire. Even in the Muslim World, the Church survived (e.g., the modern Copts, Maronites, and others) albeit at times with great difficulty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logocracy",
        "text": "Academic Yahya Michot has referred to Sunni Islam as a \"popular\" or \"laic logocracy\", in that it is government by the word of the Koran."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "The concept of Logos also appears in the Targums (Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Bible dating to the first centuries AD), where the term \"memra\" (Aramaic for \"word\") is often used instead of 'the Lord', especially when referring to a manifestation of God that could be construed as anthropomorphic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religious image",
        "text": "Religious image\n--Christianity.\n----Eastern Christianity.\n----Western Christianity.\n--Hinduism.\n--Islam.\n--Judaism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "At the same time, the \"logos\" concept was also intimately tied in the works of the same authors to other important Islamic cosmological concepts, such as \"\u02bfaql\" (\"Intellect\"), which \"resembled the late Greek doctrine of the \"logos\"\" and represented an Arabic equivalent to the Neoplatonic \"\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2\" (\"Intellect\"). Other important Islamic concepts related to the \"logos\" include the \"law\u1e25 ma\u1e25f\u016b\u1e93\" (, in Quran 85:22), \"\u1e33alam\" (\"Divine Pen\"), \"umm al-kit\u0101b\" (\"Mother of the Book,\" in Quran 3:7, 13:39, 43:4), and, perhaps most famously, the Muhammad-related ideas of \"al-ins\u0101n al-k\u0101mil\" (\"Perfect Man\" or \"Universal Man\"), \"n\u016br mu\u1e25ammad\u012b\" (\"Muhammadan Light\"), and \"al-\u1e25aq\u012bqa al-mu\u1e25ammadiyya\" (\"Muhammadan Reality\"). The \"logos\" was often presented as \"created\" in Islamic doctrine, and thus was more akin to Philo's understanding of the phrase than Nicene Christianity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Like John 1:1-5, Luke 1:1-2 also refers to \"the beginning\" and to \"the word:\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Post-apostolic Christian writers struggled with the question of the identity of Jesus and the Logos, but the Church's doctrine never changed that Jesus was the Logos. Each of the first six councils defined Jesus Christ as fully God and fully human, from the First Council of Nicea (325) to the Third Council of Constantinople (680\u2013681). Christianity did not accept the Platonic argument that the spirit is good and the flesh is evil, and that therefore the man Jesus could not be God. Neither did it accept any of the Platonic beliefs that would have made Jesus something less than fully God and fully human at the same time. The original teaching of John's gospel is, \"In the beginning was the Logos, and the Logos was with God, and the Logos was God... And the Logos became flesh and dwelt among us.\" The final Christology of Chalcedon (confirmed by Constantinople III) was that Jesus Christ is both God and man, and that these two natures are inseparable, indivisible, unconfused, and unchangeable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abrahamic religions",
        "text": "Islam arose in the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century CE with a strictly unitary view of God. Muslims hold the Quran to be the ultimate authority, as revealed and elucidated through the teachings and practices of a central, but not divine, prophet, Muhammad. The Islamic faith considers all prophets and messengers from Adam through the final messenger (Muhammad) to carry the same Islamic monotheistic principles. Soon after its founding, Islam split into two main branches (Sunni and Shia Islam), each of which now has a number of denominations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Shia Islam",
        "text": "Shiism began for the first time with a reference made to the partisans of Ali the first leader of the Ahl al-Bayt (Household of the prophet). In the early years of Islamic history there was no \"orthodox\" Sunni or \"heretical\" Shiite, but rather of two points of view that were drifting steadily until became manifest as early as the death of Muhammad the prophet of Islam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "Logos (Islam)\n--Prophet Muhammad.\n--Cosmological concepts.\n----\"\u02bfAql\".\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Shia Islam",
        "text": "It is said that one day the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid questioned the seventh Shiite Imam, Musa al-Kadhim, saying why he had permitted people to call him \"Son of Allah's Apostle,\" while he and his forefathers were Muhammad's daughter's children. And that \"the progeny belongs to the male (Ali) and not to the female (Fatimah)\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian influences on the Islamic world",
        "text": "The frescoes of Samarra, painted between 836 and 883, also suggest the Christian craft because of the Christian priests who are the subjects and the signatures of the artist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crypto-Christianity",
        "text": "In the first few centuries the Christian religion spread rapidly around the Mediterranean region with Egypt and Syria becoming especially important centers of the religion. Even as the Roman Empire disintegrated between the 5th and 7th centuries, the Christian faith only deepened in the Eastern Mediterranean. During the 7th century the Rashidun Caliphate took over what is now called the Middle East. Initially Christianity was well tolerated though preferential treatment was given to Muslims. However, often the only actual requirement for being considered a Muslim was to profess a belief in God and proclaim Mohammed as his prophet. As a result, many Egyptians, Syrians, and others in the region officially converted to Islam while still adhering to Christian practices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Shia Islam",
        "text": "https://sunnah.com/nasai/10/32"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Christianity",
        "text": "In general, Christians subject to Islamic rule were allowed to practice their religion with some notable limitations stemming from the apocryphal \"Pact of Umar\". This treaty, supposedly enacted in 717 AD, forbade Christians from publicly displaying the cross on church buildings, from summoning congregants to prayer with a bell, from re-building or repairing churches and monasteries after they had been destroyed or damaged, and imposed other restrictions relating to occupations, clothing, and weapons. The Umayyad Caliphate persecuted many Berber Christians in the 7th and 8th centuries AD, who slowly converted to Islam."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of human thought",
        "text": "Early Christianity is often divided into three different branches that differ in theology and traditions, which all appeared in the 1st century AD/CE. They include Jewish Christianity, Pauline Christianity and Gnostic Christianity. All modern Christian denominations are said to have descended from the Jewish and Pauline Christianities, with Gnostic Christianity dying, or being hunted, out of existence after the early Christian era and being largely forgotten until discoveries made in the late 19th and early twentieth centuries. There are also other theories on the origin of Christianity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "The Logos is God, begotten and therefore distinguishable from the Father, but, being God, of the same substance (essence). This was decreed at the First Council of Constantinople (381)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Some other translations, such as An American Translation (1935) and Moffatt, New Translation, render it as \"the Word was divine\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iconoclasm",
        "text": "The first act of Muslim iconoclasm dates to the beginning of Islam, in 630, when the various statues of Arabian deities housed in the Kaaba in Mecca were destroyed. There is a tradition that Muhammad spared a fresco of Mary and Jesus. This act was intended to bring an end to the idolatry which, in the Muslim view, characterized Jahiliyyah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Syriac Christianity",
        "text": "Christianity began in the Near East, in Jerusalem among Aramaic-speaking Jews. It soon spread to other Aramaic-speaking Semitic peoples along the Eastern Mediterranean coast and also to the inland parts of the Roman Empire and beyond that into the Parthian Empire and the later Sasanian Empire, including Mesopotamia, which was dominated at different times and to varying extents by these empires."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abbas (photographer)",
        "text": "When the year 2000 became a landmark in the universal calendar, Christianity was the symbol of the strength of Western civilization. \"Faces of Christianity, a photographic journey\" (2000) and a touring exhibit, explored this religion as a political, a ritual and a spiritual phenomenon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "Founded by Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari (873\u2013935). This theological school of Aqeedah was embraced by many Muslim scholars and developed in parts of the Islamic world throughout history; al-Ghazali wrote on the creed discussing it and agreeing upon some of its principles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bila Kayf",
        "text": "Al-Ash\u02bbar\u012b (c. 873\u2013936) originated the use of the term in his development of the orthodox Ash'ari theology against some of the paradoxes of the rationalist Mu\u02bftazila. Instead of explaining that God has a literal face, which would anthropomorphize God, he explained that the earliest Muslims simply accepted the verses as they stand - without asking how or why. This view was held by the vast majority of Sunni Muslims from the first generations of Islam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fred Donner",
        "text": "Donner's book \"Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam\", an account of the early years of the spiritual movement that would come to be known as Islam, was published by Harvard University Press in May 2010. Donner's main argument is that what came to be called Islam began as a monotheistic \"Believers' movement\" inaugurated by Muhammad which included righteous Christians and Jews as well as those monotheists who followed the teachings of the Qur'an. Only under the rule of Abd al-Malik (685-705) did Islam begin to separate from Christians and Jews. This argument was first presented at a \"Late Antiquity and Early Islam\" workshop in London in 1993, and published in his article \"From Believers to Muslims,\" which appeared in the journal \"Al-Abhath\" 50-51 (2002\u20132003), pp.\u00a09\u201353."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of Christianity",
        "text": "Muslim scholars have criticized Christianity, usually for its trinity concept. They argue that this doctrine is an invention, distortion of the idea about God, and presentation of the idea that there are three gods, a form of shirk, or polytheism. According to , Christians should follow one God, but they have made multiple."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jesus in Christianity",
        "text": "In Christology, the concept that Christ is the \"Logos\" (i.e., \"The Word\") has been important in establishing the doctrine of the divinity of Christ and his position as God the Son in the Trinity as set forth in the Chalcedonian Creed. This derives from the , commonly translated into English as: \"In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.\" \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 in the original Koine Greek is translated as \"Word\" and in theological discourse, this is often left in its English transliterated form, \"Logos\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hnanisho I",
        "text": "Hnanisho\u02bf provides some insight into early Christian attitudes towards Islam. Commenting on , he obliquely refers to Islam as \"some new folly\" that claims Jesus was only a prophet. Bar Hebraeus, writing the 13th century, recorded the tradition that Hnanisho\u02bf, when asked \"what do you think of the religion of the Arabs?\" responded, \"It is a religion established by the sword and not a faith confirmed by miracles, as the Christian faith and the old Law of Moses.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "One of the boldest and most radical attempts to reformulate the Neoplatonic concepts into Sufism arose with the philosopher Ibn Arabi, who traveled widely in Spain and North Africa. His concepts were expressed in two major works \"The Ringstones of Wisdom\" (\"Fusus al-Hikam\") and \"The Meccan Illuminations\" (\"Al-Fut\u016b\u1e25\u0101t al-Makkiyya\"). To Ibn Arabi, every prophet corresponds to a reality which he called a \"logos\" (\"Kalimah\"), as an aspect of the unique divine being. In his view the divine being would have for ever remained hidden, had it not been for the prophets, with \"logos\" providing the link between man and divinity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity in the 7th century",
        "text": "During the 7th century an Arabian religious leader named Muhammad began to spread the message of the Qur'an (Koran), which includes some traditions similar to those of the Christian and Jewish faith. This new faith, called \"submission\" or \"\u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\" (\"al-\u2019isl\u0101m\") in Arabic, proclaimed the worship and obedience of a purely monotheist God or Allah in Arabic as the purpose of life, and Islam would ultimately prove to be the greatest challenge that the Christian Church would face during the Middle Ages. By the 630s Muhammad had united the entire Arabian peninsula under Islam, including the formerly Christian kingdom of Yemen. Following Muhammad's death a Muslim empire, or \"caliphate\", emerged which began efforts to expand beyond Arabia. Shortly before Mohammad's death the Roman Empire and Sassanid Persian Empire had concluded decades of war, leaving both empires crippled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monotheism",
        "text": "Islam emerged in the 7th century CE in the context of both Christianity and Judaism, with some thematic elements similar to Gnosticism. Islamic belief states that Muhammad did not bring a new religion from God, but rather the same religion as practiced by Abraham, Moses, David, Jesus and all the other prophets of God. The assertion of Islam is that the message of God had been corrupted, distorted or lost over time, and the Quran was sent to Muhammad in order to correct the lost message of the Tawrat (Torah), Injil (Gospel) and Zabur."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity and other religions",
        "text": "Both religions share the belief in the virgin birth of Jesus, his miracles and healings, and they also share the belief that he ascended bodily into heaven. However, Jesus is not accepted as the son by Muslims, who strictly maintain the belief that he was a human being who was loved by God and exalted to the ranks of the most righteous by God. They believe that God is a single entity, not the first person in the Trinity as the vast majority of Christians do. Additionally, Muslims do not accept Jesus' crucifixion. Since Muslims only believe in the worship of a strictly monotheistic God who never assumed human form, they do not accept the use of icons, which they consider shirk (idolatry). Muslim influence played a part in the initiation of iconoclasm and their conquests caused the iconoclasm in the Byzantine Empire. For the same reason, they do not worship or pray to Muhammad, Jesus, or any other prophets; they only pray to God."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Islam)",
        "text": "In Ottoman Sufism, \u015eeyh G\u00e2lib (d. 1799) articulates S\u00fchan (\"logos\"-\"Kalima\") in his \"H\u00fcsn \u00fc A\u015fk\" (\"Beauty and Love\") in parallel to Ibn Arabi's Kalima. In the romance, \"S\u00fchan\" appears as an embodiment of Kalima as a reference to the Word of God, the Perfect Man, and the Reality of Muhammad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian influences on the Islamic world",
        "text": "In the late 7th and 8th centuries, Muslims encountered Levantine Christians. The cognate Syriac word \"sahedo\" may have influenced the Arabic \"shahid\" (martyr-witness). During the Abbasid dynasty, translations of the gospels from Syriac into Arabic were made, particularly by historian Bar-Hebraeus, at the request of the Arab governor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spread of Christianity",
        "text": "Christianity began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the 1st century in the Roman province of Judea, from where it spread throughout and beyond the Roman Empire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Shia Islam",
        "text": "Shia View"
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity in the ante-Nicene period",
        "text": "Christian art emerged only relatively late. According to art historian Andr\u00e9 Grabar, the first known Christian images emerge from about AD 200, though there is some literary evidence that small domestic images were used earlier. Although many Hellenised Jews seem, as at the Dura-Europos synagogue, to have had images of religious figures, the traditional Mosaic prohibition of \"graven images\" no doubt retained some effect. This early rejection of images, although never proclaimed by theologians, and the necessity to hide Christian practice in order to avoid persecution, leaves few archaeological records regarding Early Christianity and its evolution. The oldest Christian paintings are from the Roman Catacombs, dated to about 200, and the oldest Christian sculptures are from sarcophagi, dating to the beginning of the third century.("
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Shia Islam",
        "text": "In response al-Kadhim recited the verses Quran, 6:84 and Quran, 6:85 and then asked \"Who is Jesus's father, O Commander of the faithful?\". \"Jesus had no father.\" Said Harun. Al-kadhim argued that God in these verses had ascribed Jesus to the descendants of the prophets through Mary; \"similarly, we have been ascribed to the descendants of the Prophet through our mother Fatimah,\" Said al-Kadhim. It is related that Harun asked Musa to give him more evidence and proof. Al-Kadhim, thus, recited the verse of Mubahala arguing that \"None claims that the Prophet made someone enter under the cloak when he challenged the Christians to a contest of prayer to God (mubahala) except Ali, Fatimah, Hasan, and Husayn. So in the verse: \"Our sons\" refers to Hasan and Husayn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Although \"word\" is the most common translation of the noun \"logos\", other less accepted translations have been used, which have more or less fallen by the grammatical wayside as understanding of the Greek language has increased in the Western world. Gordon Clark (1902\u20131985), for instance, a Calvinist theologian and expert on pre-Socratic philosophy, famously translated \"Logos\" as \"Logic\": \"In the beginning was the Logic, and the Logic was with God and the Logic was God.\" He meant to imply by this translation that the laws of logic were derived from God and formed part of creation, and were therefore not a secular principle imposed on the Christian world view."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "In his \"Dialogue with Trypho\", Justin relates how Christians maintain that the Logos,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Role of Christianity in civilization",
        "text": "Christian influences in Islam could be traced back to the Eastern Christianity, which surrounded the origins of Islam. Islam, emerging in the context of the Middle East that was largely Christian, was first seen as a Christological heresy known as the \"heresy of the Ishmaelites\", described as such in \"Concerning Heresy\" by Saint John of Damascus, a Syriac scholar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian Beginnings",
        "text": "Justin Martyr had been a sophist and thought Plato, not understanding the Jewish scripture, had talked of three gods. He offered various proofs that Jesus was the eternal \"logos\". He accuses the Jews of murdering Christ in his Dialogue with Trypho, as did Melito of Sardis. Irenaeus of Lyons was the leading opponent of Gnosticism, challenging the dualistic Valentinus and Marcion in Against Heresies. He stressed the importance of the succession of bishops and the Eucharist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity and other religions",
        "text": "Adherents of Islam have historically referred to themselves, Jews, and Christians (among others) as People of the Book since they all base their religion on books that are considered to have a divine origin. Christians however neither recognize the Qur'an as a genuine book of divine revelation, nor agree with its assessment of Jesus as a mere prophet, on par with Muhammad, nor for that matter accept that Muhammad was a genuine prophet. In the 7th century text \"Concerning Heresy\", Saint John of Damascus named Islam as Christological heresy, referring to it as the \"heresy of the Ishmaelites\" (see \"medieval Christian views on Muhammad\"). The position has remained popular in Christian circles well into the 20th century, by theologians such as the Congregationalist cleric Frank Hugh Foster and the Roman Catholic historian Hilaire Belloc, the latter of who described it as \"the great and enduring heresy of Mohammed.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Shia Islam",
        "text": "Sunnis, on the other hand, often claim that Shiite beliefs only first formed under the scheming of Abdullah ibn Saba'; Sunnis reject the idea that Ali followed any beliefs that were contrary to the rest of the Sahaba."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "The translation of last four words of John 1:1 () has been a particular topic of debate in Western Christianity in the modern period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian influences on the Islamic world",
        "text": "Christian influences in Islam can be traced back to Eastern Christianity, which surrounded the origins of Islam. Islam, emerging in the context of the Middle East that was largely Christian, was first seen as a Christological heresy known as the \"heresy of the Ishmaelites\", described as such in \"Concerning Heresy\" by Saint John of Damascus, a Syriac scholar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Depictions of Muhammad",
        "text": "Many major religions have experienced times during their history when images of their religious figures were forbidden. In Judaism, one of the Ten Commandments states \"Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image\", while in the Christian New Testament all covetousness (greed) is defined as idolatry. In Byzantine Christianity during the periods of Iconoclasm in the 8th century, and again during the 9th century, visual representations of sacred figures were forbidden, and only the Cross could be depicted in churches. The visual representation of Jesus and other religious figures remains a concern in parts of stricter Protestant Christianity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian Church",
        "text": "The Christian Church originated in Roman Judea in the first century AD/CE, founded on the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, who first gathered disciples. Those disciples later became known as \"Christians\"; according to Scripture, Jesus commanded them to spread his teachings to all the world. For most Christians, the holiday of Pentecost (an event that occurred after Jesus' ascension to Heaven) represents the birthday of the Church, signified by the descent of the Holy Spirit on gathered disciples. The leadership of the Christian Church began with the Apostles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "In Christianity, the Logos () is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity. In the Douay\u2013Rheims, King James, New International, and other versions of the Bible, the first verse of the Gospel of John reads:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity and Islam",
        "text": "The Christian Bible is made up of the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Old Testament was written over a period of two millennia prior to the birth of Christ. The New Testament was written in the decades following the death of Christ. Historically, Christians universally believed that the entire Bible was the divinely inspired Word of God. However, the rise of higher criticism during the Enlightenment has led to a diversity of views concerning the authority and inerrancy of the Bible in different denominations. Christians consider the Quran to be a non-divine set of texts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iconoclasm",
        "text": "Islam has a much stronger tradition of opposing the depictions of figures, especially religious figures, with Sunni Islam being more opposed than Shia Islam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early Christian art and architecture",
        "text": "It is hard to know when distinctly Christian art began. Prior to 100, Christians may have been constrained by their position as a persecuted group from producing durable works of art. Since Christianity was largely a religion not well represented in the public sphere, the lack of surviving art may reflect a lack of funds for patronage, and simply small numbers of followers. The Old Testament restrictions against the production of graven (an idol or fetish carved in wood or stone) images (see also Idolatry and Christianity) may also have constrained Christians from producing art. Christians may have made or purchased art with pagan iconography, but given it Christian meanings, as they later did. If this happened, \"Christian\" art would not be immediately recognizable as such."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jacob Qirqisani",
        "text": "Qirqisani includes Christianity among the Jewish sects. In the third treatise (ch. xvi.) he says that \"the religion of the Christians, as practised at present, has nothing in common with the teachings of Jesus.\" According to Qirqisani, the Christianity of his day originated with Paul the Apostle, who ascribed divinity to Jesus and prophetic inspiration to himself. It was Paul that denied the necessity of carrying out the 613 commandments and taught that religion consisted in humility; and the First Council of Nicaea adopted precepts which do not occur in the Law, Gospels, or Acts of the Apostles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Logos\n--Origins of the term.\n--Ancient Greek philosophy.\n----Heraclitus.\n----Aristotle's rhetorical logos.\n----Pyrrhonists.\n----Stoics.\n----Isocrates' logos.\n--In Hellenistic Judaism.\n----Philo of Alexandria.\n----Targums.\n--Christianity.\n--Neoplatonism.\n--Islam.\n----\"\u02bfAql\".\n--Jung's analytical psychology.\n--Rhetoric.\n--Rhema.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of human thought",
        "text": "The religion of Islam founded by Muhammad in 7th century Arabia incorporated ideas from Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and Christianity, specifically monotheism, Last Judgment, Heaven and Hell. However, it is closer to Judaism than Christianity, since it believes in the Unity of God, and God is seen as powerful rather than loving. The doctrine of Islam is based on five pillars: \"Shahada\", faith; \"Salat\", prayer; \"Zakat\", alms-giving; \"Sawm\", fasting; and \"Hajj\", pilgrimage. Its beliefs are collected in the \"Quran\", composed in its final form by 933."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christ (title)",
        "text": "The concept of the Christ in Christianity originated from the concept of the messiah in Judaism. Christians believe that Jesus is the messiah foretold in the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament. Although the conceptions of the messiah in each religion are similar, for the most part they are distinct from one another due to the split of early Christianity and Judaism in the 1st century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity in the 7th century",
        "text": "The Muslim presence in the Holy Land began with the initial Muslim conquest of Syria in the 7th century. The Muslim armies' successes put increasing pressure on the Eastern Orthodox Byzantine Empire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity in Asia",
        "text": "Christianity further spread eastward under the Parthian Empire, which displayed a high tolerance of religious matters. According to tradition, Christian proselytism in Central Asia, starting with Mesopotamia and the Iranian plateau, was put under the responsibility of Saint Thomas the Apostle, and started in the first century AD. Saint Thomas is also credited with the establishment of Christianity in India. The Christians of Mesopotamia and Iran were organized under several bishops, and were present at the First Council of Nicaea in 325 AD."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Muslim Jesus",
        "text": "Hamza Yusuf said, \"In the Christian narrative the most central and fundamental point of Christianity is the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ but Islam basically denies that. The Quran states that it was made to appear that Jesus was crucified as when the Romans captured Jesus God organised a rescue operation.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Catholic Church and Judaism",
        "text": "Christianity started as a movement in Second Temple Judaism in the Roman province of Judea in the mid-1st century. The first Christians were Jewish and the early spread of Christianity was aided by the wide extent of the Jewish diaspora in the Roman Empire. Although Jesus was not accepted as the messiah by Jewish leaders, worshipers of the diverging religions initially co-existed within the Jewish synagogues, reading the Jewish scriptures, singing the Psalms and joining in the various rituals of the Jewish calendar. Christians moved away from Jews in subsequent centuries, but modern Catholicism has retained much of its Hebrew literary heritage, the Old Testament (Tanakh)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic schools and branches",
        "text": "In terms of religious creed (\"\u02bfaq\u012bdah\"), Sunnism contains several schools of theology:\n* the A\u1e6fhar\u012b school, a scholarly movement that emerged in the late 8th century CE;\n* the Ash\u02bfar\u012b school, founded by Ab\u016b al-\u1e24asan al-Ash\u02bfar\u012b (10th century CE);\n* the M\u0101tur\u012bd\u012b school, founded by Ab\u016b Man\u1e63\u016br al-M\u0101tur\u012bd\u012b (10th century CE)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity",
        "text": "Christianity spread to Aramaic-speaking peoples along the Mediterranean coast and also to the inland parts of the Roman Empire and beyond that into the Parthian Empire and the later Sasanian Empire, including Mesopotamia, which was dominated at different times and to varying extents by these empires. The presence of Christianity in Africa began in the middle of the 1st century in Egypt and by the end of the 2nd century in the region around Carthage. Mark the Evangelist is claimed to have started the Church of Alexandria in about 43 CE; various later churches claim this as their own legacy, including the Coptic Orthodox Church. Important Africans who influenced the early development of Christianity include Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen of Alexandria, Cyprian, Athanasius, and Augustine of Hippo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early centers of Christianity",
        "text": "Early Christianity (up to the First Council of Nicaea in 325) spread from the Levant, across the Roman Empire, and beyond. Originally, this progression was closely connected to already established Jewish centers in the Holy Land and the Jewish diaspora. The first followers of Christianity were Jews or proselytes, commonly referred to as Jewish Christians and God-fearers."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Christianity",
        "text": "According to the \u1e24anaf\u012b school of Islamic law (\"shar\u012b\u02bfa\"), the testimony of a Non-Muslim (such as a Christian or a Jew) was not considered valid against the testimony of a Muslim in legal or civil matters. Historically, in Islamic culture and traditional Islamic law Muslim women have been forbidden from marrying Christian or Jewish men, whereas Muslim men have been permitted to marry Christian or Jewish women (\"see\": Interfaith marriage in Islam). Christians under Islamic rule had the right to convert to Islam or any other religion, while conversely a \"murtad\", or an apostate from Islam, faced severe penalties or even \"hadd\", which could include the Islamic death penalty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Warith Deen Mohammed",
        "text": "This was a focus that would persist throughout his career. In 1993 he spoke at the Interfaith Roundtable National Conference of Christians, Jews and Muslims in Detroit, Michigan. \"If we look at the broad definition for Muslim, we have to say that even though a Christian may be worshipping Jesus the Christ Prophet more than he is worshipping Allah, he or she may be Muslim in their spirit. They may still be Muslim, though the orientation has now dominated their Muslim urge. The person carrying a heavy cross may be a Muslim inwardly. So it is for a Jew, or Communist, or a Buddhist, or a Hindu.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "Other Sufi writers also show the influence of the neoplatonic \"logos\". In the 15th century Abd al-Kar\u012bm al-J\u012bl\u012b introduced the \"Doctrine of Logos and the Perfect Man\". For al-J\u012bl\u012b, the \"perfect man\" (associated with the \"logos\" or the Prophet) has the power to assume different forms at different times and to appear in different guises."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Christianity",
        "text": "The history of Christianity concerns the Christian religion, Christian countries, and the Christians with their various denominations, from the 1st century to the present. Christianity originated with the ministry of Jesus, a Jewish teacher and healer who proclaimed the imminent Kingdom of God and was crucified in Jerusalem in the Roman province of Judea. His followers believe that, according to the Gospels, he was the Son of God and that he died for the forgiveness of sins and was raised from the dead and exalted by God, and will return soon at the inception of God's kingdom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity and Islam",
        "text": "Muslims and Christians both believe that Jesus was born to Mary, a virgin. They both also believe that Jesus is the Messiah. However, they differ on other key issues regarding Jesus. Christians believe that Jesus was the incarnated Son of God, divine, and sinless. Islam teaches that Jesus was one of the most important prophets of God, but not the Son of God, not divine, and not part of the Trinity. Rather, Muslims believe the creation of Jesus was similar to the creation of Adam (Adem)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Shia Islam",
        "text": "Shia Islam originated as a response to questions of Islamic religious leadership which became manifest as early as the death of Muhammad in 632 CE. The issues involved not only whom to appoint as the successor to Muhammad, but also what attributes a true successor should have. Sunnis regarded Caliphs as a secular leaders, (originally elected by general agreement, though later the hereditary principle became the norm). To the Shiite, however, the question of succession is a matter of designation of an individual (Ali) through divine command. In the same way, Shias believed that each Imam designated the next Imam by the leave of God. So within Shia Islam it makes no difference to the Imam's position whether he is chosen as a Caliph or not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Muhammad",
        "text": "The earliest documented Christian knowledge of Muhammad stems from Byzantine sources. They indicate that both Jews and Christians saw Muhammad as a false prophet. Another Greek source for Muhammad is Theophanes the Confessor, a 9th-century writer. The earliest Syriac source is the 7th-century writer John bar Penkaye."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of Islamism",
        "text": "Christianity was based within the \"massive and enduring\" Roman Empire. The Hebrews had \"ethnic bonds before becoming Jews.\" But unlike these other Abrahamic religions, \"the Muslims depended on their religion to provide them with an authority and an identity.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "David Lyle Jeffrey and Leon Morris have seen in \"the word\" a reference to Jesus Christ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mormonism and Nicene Christianity",
        "text": "In 1995, the church announced a new logo design that emphasized the words \"JESUS CHRIST\" in large capital letters. According to Bruce L. Olsen, director of public affairs for the church, \"The logo re-emphasizes the official name of the church and the central position of the Savior in its theology. It stresses our allegiance to the Lord, Jesus Christ.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Photinus denied that the Logos as the Wisdom of God had an existence of its own before the birth of Christ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos",
        "text": "One of the boldest and most radical attempts to reformulate the neoplatonic concepts into Sufism arose with the philosopher Ibn Arabi, who traveled widely in Spain and North Africa. His concepts were expressed in two major works \"The Ringstones of Wisdom\" (\"Fusus al-Hikam\") and \"The Meccan Illuminations\" (\"Al-Fut\u016b\u1e25\u0101t al-Makkiyya\"). To Ibn Arabi, every prophet corresponds to a reality which he called a \"logos\" (\"Kalimah\"), as an aspect of the unique divine being. In his view the divine being would have for ever remained hidden, had it not been for the prophets, with \"logos\" providing the link between man and divinity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spread of Christianity",
        "text": "Christianity \"emerged as a sect of Judaism in Roman Palestine\" in the syncretistic Hellenistic world of the first century AD, which was dominated by Roman law and Greek culture. It started with the ministry of Jesus, who proclaimed the coming of the Kingdom of God. After his death by crucifixion, some of his followers are said to have seen Jesus, and proclaimed him to be alive and resurrected by God. The resurrection of Jesus \"signalled for earliest believers that the days of eschatological fulfillment were at hand,\" and gave the impetus in certain Christian sects to the exaltation of Jesus to the status of divine Son and Lord of God's Kingdom and the resumption of their missionary activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islam in Turkey",
        "text": "The Sunni Islamic faith has continuously been a domineering faith since 661. The name Sunni originates from the emphasis of importance on the Sunna, which is related to the establishment of the Shari'a laws."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "Irenaeus (\"c\" 130\u2013202), a student of the Apostle John's disciple, Polycarp, identifies the Logos as Jesus, by whom all things were made, and who before his incarnation appeared to men in the theophany, conversing with the ante-Mosaic Patriarchs, with Moses at the burning bush, with Abraham at Mamre, \"et al.\", manifesting to them the unseen things of the Father. After these things, the Logos became man and suffered the death of the cross. In his \"Demonstration of the Apostolic Preaching\", Irenaeus defines the second point of the faith, after the Father, as this:The Word of God, Son of God, Christ Jesus our Lord, who was manifested to the prophets according to the form of their prophesying and according to the method of the dispensation of the Father: through whom all things were made; who also at the end of the times, to complete and gather up all things, was made man among men, visible and tangible, in order to abolish death and show forth life and produce a community of union between God and man."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Islam",
        "text": "Early Islam arose within the historical, social, political, economic, and religious context of Late Antiquity in the Middle East. The second half of the 6th century CE saw political disorder in the pre-Islamic Arabian peninsula, and communication routes were no longer secure. Religious divisions played an important role in the crisis. Judaism became the dominant religion of the Himyarite Kingdom in Yemen after about 380 CE, while Christianity took root in the Persian Gulf. There was also a yearning for a more \"spiritual form of religion\", and \"the choice of religion increasingly became an individual rather than a collective issue.\" While some Arabs were reluctant to convert to a foreign faith, those Abrahamic religions provided \"the principal intellectual and spiritual reference points\", and Jewish and Christian loanwords from Aramaic began to replace the old pagan vocabulary of Arabic throughout the peninsula. The \"Hanif\" (\"seekers\"), a group of monotheists that sought to separate themselves both from the foreign Abrahamic religions and the traditional Arab polytheism, were looking for a new religious worldview to replace the pre-Islamic Arabian religions, focusing on \"the all-encompassing father god Allah whom they freely equated with the Jewish Yahweh and the Christian Jehovah.\" In their view, Mecca was originally dedicated to this monotheistic faith that they considered to be the one true religion, established by the patriarch Abraham."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian theology",
        "text": "Christologies from above start with the Logos, the second Person of the Trinity, establish his eternality, his agency in creation, and his economic Sonship. Jesus' unity with God is established by the Incarnation as the divine Logos assumes a human nature. This approach was common in the early church\u2014e.g., St. Paul and St. John in the Gospels. The attribution of full humanity to Jesus is resolved by stating that the two natures mutually share their properties (a concept termed \"communicatio idiomatum\").\n;Anthropological approaches"
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity",
        "text": "Christianity began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the 1st century Hellenistic Judaism in the Roman province of Judea. Jesus' apostles and their followers spread around the Levant, Europe, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, the South Caucasus, Egypt, and Ethiopia, despite initial persecution. It soon attracted gentile God-fearers, which led to a departure from Jewish customs, and, after the Fall of Jerusalem, AD 70 which ended the Temple-based Judaism, Christianity slowly separated from Judaism. Emperor Constantine the Great decriminalized Christianity in the Roman Empire by the Edict of Milan (313), later convening the Council of Nicaea (325) where Early Christianity was consolidated into what would become the State church of the Roman Empire (380). The early history of Christianity's united church before major schisms is sometimes referred to as the \"Great Church\" (though divergent sects existed at the same time, including Gnostics and Jewish Christians). The Church of the East split after the Council of Ephesus (431) and Oriental Orthodoxy split after the Council of Chalcedon (451) over differences in Christology, while the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church separated in the East\u2013West Schism (1054), especially over the authority of the bishop of Rome. Protestantism split in numerous denominations from the Catholic Church in the Reformation era (16th century) over theological and ecclesiological disputes, most predominantly on the issue of justification and the primacy of the bishop of Rome. Christianity played a prominent role in the development of Western civilization, particularly in Europe from late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Following the Age of Discovery (15th\u201317th century), Christianity was spread into the Americas, Oceania, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world via missionary work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunni Islam",
        "text": "One common mistake is to assume that Sunni Islam represents a normative Islam that emerged during the period after Muhammad's death, and that Sufism and Shi'ism developed out of Sunni Islam. This perception is partly due to the reliance on highly ideological sources that have been accepted as reliable historical works, and also because the vast majority of the population is Sunni. Both Sunnism and Shiaism are the end products of several centuries of competition between ideologies. Both sects used each other to further cement their own identities and doctrines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Origin of Shia Islam",
        "text": "Historians dispute the origin of Shia Islam, with many Western scholars positing that Shiism began as a political faction rather than as a religious movement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Logos (Christianity)",
        "text": "The Greek term \"logos\" is translated in the Vulgate with the Latin \"verbum\". Both \"logos\" and \"verbum\" are used to translate \"dabar\" in the Hebrew Bible."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of how logos is used?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In Christianity, the Logos is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity, and within Sunni Islam, logos has been associated with, among other concepts, \u02bfaql (\"Intellect\") and kalimat All\u0101h (\"Word of God\"). Additionally, logos is also the name Atlas Sound's second studio album. Which of these are you interested in learning more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about how logos in the Sunni religion."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In the writings of many of the most prominent Sunni Islamic metaphysicians, philosophers, and mystics of the Islamic Golden Age, Muhammad was understood to be \"both a manifestation of the Logos and the Logos itself. At the same time, the logos concept was also intimately tied in the works of the same authors to other important Islamic cosmological concepts."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did the word logo come about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Logos is a term in Western philosophy, psychology, rhetoric, and religion derived from a Greek word variously meaning \"ground\", \"plea\", \"opinion\", \"expectation\", \"word\", \"speech\", \"account\", \"reason\", \"proportion\", and \"discourse\"."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is there a difference in how Sunni and Shia Muslims view Muhammad?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sunni Islam maintains that Abu Bakr was the legitimate successor to Muhammad on the basis of election. Shia Islam holds that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the designated successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there more Sunni or Shia Muslims?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam. It is followed by 85\u201390% of the world's Muslims."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did Christianity start?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Christianity began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the 1st century Hellenistic Judaism in the Roman province of Judea. The term \"Christian\" was first used in the city of Antioch by the non-Jewish inhabitants there and also by Ignatius of Antioch around 100 AD.",
      "Christianity developed during the 1st century AD as a Jewish Christian sect with Hellenistic influence of Second Temple Judaism. An early Jewish Christian community was founded in Jerusalem under the leadership of the Pillars of the Church, namely James the Just, the brother of Jesus, Peter, and John."
    ],
    "topic": "Logos",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Christianity:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Christianity"
        ],
        "ctx": "Christianity began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the 1st century Hellenistic Judaism in the Roman province of Judea. Jesus' apostles and their followers spread around the Levant, Europe, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, the South Caucasus, Egypt, and Ethiopia, despite initial persecution. It soon attracted gentile God-fearers, which led to a departure from Jewish customs, and, after the Fall of Jerusalem, AD 70 which ended the Temple-based Judaism, Christianity slowly separated from Judaism. Emperor Constantine the Great decriminalized Christianity in the Roman Empire by the Edict of Milan (313), later convening the Council of Nicaea (325) where Early Christianity was consolidated into what would become the State church of the Roman Empire (380). The early history of Christianity's united church before major schisms is sometimes referred to as the \"Great Church\" (though divergent sects existed at the same time, including Gnostics and Jewish Christians). The Church of the East split after the Council of Ephesus (431) and Oriental Orthodoxy split after the Council of Chalcedon (451) over differences in Christology, while the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church separated in the East\u2013West Schism (1054), especially over the authority of the bishop of Rome. Protestantism split in numerous denominations from the Catholic Church in the Reformation era (16th century) over theological and ecclesiological disputes, most predominantly on the issue of justification and the primacy of the bishop of Rome. Christianity played a prominent role in the development of Western civilization, particularly in Europe from late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Following the Age of Discovery (15th\u201317th century), Christianity was spread into the Americas, Oceania, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world via missionary work."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Christianity:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Christianity",
          "Etymology"
        ],
        "ctx": "Early Jewish Christians referred to themselves as 'The Way' (), probably coming from , \"prepare the way of the Lord.\" According to , the term \"Christian\" (, ), meaning \"followers of Christ\" in reference to Jesus's disciples, was first used in the city of Antioch by the non-Jewish inhabitants there. Another very early recorded use of the term \"Christianity\" (, ) was by Ignatius of Antioch around 100\u00a0AD."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Christianity:71",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Christianity",
          "History",
          "Early Christianity",
          "Apostolic Age"
        ],
        "ctx": "Christianity developed during the 1st century CE as a Jewish Christian sect with Hellenistic influence of Second Temple Judaism. An early Jewish Christian community was founded in Jerusalem under the leadership of the Pillars of the Church, namely James the Just, the brother of Jesus, Peter, and John."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Sport",
        "text": "According to A.T. Kearney, a consultancy, the global sporting industry is worth up to $620 billion as of 2013. The world's most accessible and practised sport is running, while association football is the most popular spectator sport."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professionalism in association football",
        "text": "Association football is the world's most popular sport, and is worth US$600\u00a0billion worldwide. By the end of the 20th century it was played by over 250 million players in over 200 countries. Around the world, the sport is played at a professional level by professional footballers, and millions of people regularly go to football stadiums to follow their favourite football teams, while billions more watch the sport on television or on the internet. Football has the highest global television audience in sport. The sport had amateur origins and evolved into the modern professional competition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Football",
        "text": "Several of the football codes are the most popular team sports in the world. Globally, association football is played by over 250 million players in over 200 nations, and has the highest television audience in sport, making it the most popular in the world. American football, with 1.1\u00a0million high school football players and nearly 70,000 college football players, is the most popular sport in the United States, with the annual Super Bowl game accounting for nine of the top ten of the most watched broadcasts in U.S. television history. The NFL has the highest average attendance (67,591) of any professional sports league in the world and has the highest revenue out of any single professional sports league. Thus, the best association football and American football players are among the highest paid athletes in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of the United States",
        "text": "Since the late nineteenth century, baseball is regarded as the national sport; American football, basketball, and ice hockey are the country's three other leading professional team sports. College football and basketball also attract large audiences. Football is now by several measures the most popular spectator sport in the United States. Soccer, though not a leading professional sport in the country, is played widely at the youth and amateur levels."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of professional sports",
        "text": "Outside of the NBA, the top professional leagues in the world are those of FIBA Europe. According to the official league rankings produced by Euroleague Basketball, the body that conducts the continent-wide Euroleague, the top five national domestic leagues on the continent (from 1 to 5) are those Liga ACB (Spain), the Russian Professional Basketball League, the Greek Basket League, Lega Basket Serie A (Italy), and the Turkish Basketball League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Podgorica",
        "text": "The most popular sports by far are football and basketball. Basketball became especially popular with the success in the late 20th and early 21st centuries of KK Budu\u0107nost, both in Regional and European competitions."
      },
      {
        "title": "American football",
        "text": "American football is the most popular sport in the United States. The most popular forms of the game are professional and college football, with the other major levels being high school and youth football. , nearly 1.1\u00a0million high school athletes and 70,000 college athletes play the sport in the United States annually. The National Football League, the most popular American professional football league, has the highest average attendance of any professional sports league in the world. Its championship game, the Super Bowl, ranks among the most-watched club sporting events in the world. The league has an annual revenue of around US$15\u00a0billion, making it the most valuable sports league in the world. Other professional leagues exist worldwide, but the sport does not have the international popularity of other American sports like baseball or basketball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports in North America",
        "text": "The major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada dominate organized men's professional team sports in those two countries: Major League Baseball (MLB), the National Basketball Association (NBA), the National Football League (NFL), the National Hockey League (NHL), Major League Soccer (MLS) and the Canadian Football League (CFL). Liga MX, the top-level Association football in Mexico is also widely popular. In the Caribbean, where cricket is popular, that region's major domestic competitions include the Regional Four Day Competition, the Regional Super50, and the Caribbean Premier League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Man's Favorite Sport?",
        "text": "Further reading"
      },
      {
        "title": "International sport",
        "text": "In the last global census undertaken by the sports governing body FIFA, it was estimated that there are 265 million people who play the sport along with more than 5 million referees, which equates to 4% of the world\u2019s population, thus cementing its place atop the list of the world\u2019s most-played sports.\n# Soccer- Be it at grassroots level, 5-a-side leagues, or at the top level, no sport rivals soccer for participation.\n# Badminton- It may come as a surprise to some people that badminton is among the world\u2019s most played sports. However, it is extremely popular and played regularly by an estimated 220 million people around the world. It is particularly popular in Asia, with many of the best players ever to grace the game hailing from the continent.\n# Field Hockey- This fast-paced sport is played by men and women in over 100 countries on 5 continents around the world.\n# Volleyball- With its origins in America, volleyball has grown to an estimated global participation figure of 998 million people. Indoor and outdoor versions of the sport are played all over the world, with over 220 affiliated national federations registered to volleyball\u2019s global governing body, the F\u00e9d\u00e9ration Internationale de Volleyball\n# Basketball- The Federation of International Basketball Associations estimates a minimum of 450 million people play the sport around the world.\n# Tennis- Widely recognised as one of the most popular individual sports in the world, tennis is played by an estimated number of 60 million men and women according to Topend Sports.\n# Cricket- The majority of participants of this sport come from Australia, India, Pakistan, South Africa, and the UK, but cricket is also on the rise in other countries all over the world. The International Cricket Council (ICC) states an incredible 125 countries around the world play the sport.\n# Table Tennis- Table tennis has become one of the most popular sports in the last decade following its integration in schools, social clubs, and sports centres around the globe. \"Topend Sports\" estimate 300 million people worldwide play table tennis.\n# Baseball- For many years, baseball was most popular in America than anywhere else, but nowadays it\u2019s one of the most played sports in the world with participation rising rapidly in countries like Japan. The sport\u2019s international governing body, World Baseball Softball Confederation (WBSC), estimates that 65 million people play either baseball or softball in over 140 countries.\u00a0 ERA (Earned Run Average) of a baseball player can be calculated by this formula ERA = \u00a0(earned runs) / (innings pitched) * (number of innings in regulation game).\n# Golf- Easily one of the most played sports in the world, 60 million people around the world regularly play golf according to \"Golf Today\" magazine."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States",
        "text": "American football is by several measures the most popular spectator sport in the United States; the National Football League (NFL) has the highest average attendance of any sports league in the world, and the Super Bowl is watched by tens of millions globally. Even on the collegiate level, college football games receive millions of viewers per television broadcast; most notably the College Football Playoff, which averages 25 million viewers. Baseball has been regarded as the U.S. national sport since the late 19th century, with Major League Baseball (MLB) being the top league. Basketball and ice hockey are the country's next two leading professional team sports, with the top leagues being the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the National Hockey League (NHL). College football and basketball attract large audiences. The NCAA Final Four is one of the most watched sporting events. In soccer (a sport that has gained a footing in the United States since the mid-1990s), the country hosted the 1994 FIFA World Cup, the men's national soccer team qualified for eleven World Cups and the women's team has won the FIFA Women's World Cup four times; Major League Soccer is the sport's highest league in the United States (featuring 23 American and three Canadian teams). The market for professional sports in the United States is roughly $69\u00a0billion, roughly 50% larger than that of all of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa combined."
      },
      {
        "title": "American football",
        "text": "\"Baseball is still called the national pastime, but football is by far the more popular sport in American society\", according to ESPN.com's Sean McAdam. In a 2014 poll conducted by Harris Interactive, professional football ranked as the most popular sport, and college football ranked third behind only professional football and baseball; 46% of participants ranked some form of the game as their favorite sport. Professional football has ranked as the most popular sport in the poll since 1985, when it surpassed baseball for the first time. Professional football is most popular among those who live in the eastern United States and rural areas, while college football is most popular in the southern United States and among people with graduate and post-graduate degrees. Football is also the most-played sport by high school and college athletes in the United States. In a 2012 study, the NCAA estimated there were around 1.1\u00a0million high school football players and nearly 70,000 college football players in the United States; in comparison, the second-most played sport, basketball, had around 1\u00a0million participants in high school and 34,000 in college. The Super Bowl is the most popular single-day sporting event in the United States, and is among the biggest club sporting events in the world in terms of TV viewership. The NFL makes approximately $10\u00a0billion annually. Super Bowl games account for seven of the top eight most-watched broadcasts in American history; Super Bowl XLIX, played on February 1, 2015, was watched by a record 114.4\u00a0million Americans."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of professional sports",
        "text": "In the middle of the nineteenth century William Clarke's All-England Eleven was a highly successful all-professional venture which did much to popularise the game. The earliest overseas tours were also all-professional affairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of professional sports",
        "text": "List of professional sports\n--American and Canadian football.\n--Australian rules football.\n--Bandy.\n--Basketball.\n--Bowling.\n--Cricket.\n--Darts.\n--Disc Golf.\n--eSports.\n--Horse Racing.\n--Ice hockey.\n--Lacrosse.\n--Rugby league.\n--Rugby union.\n--Rodeo/bull riding.\n--Ultimate Frisbee.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Man's Favorite Sport?",
        "text": "Notes"
      },
      {
        "title": "International sport",
        "text": "TOP 10 Most Played Sports Around The World"
      },
      {
        "title": "International sport",
        "text": "That means these are the most popular sports that played internationally. So what is the fittest sport? A firm favourite at the Olympic Games, field hockey is a highly technical sport, played by 10 outfield players plus a goalkeeper and its rules differ from the Ice Hockey variation of the sport."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of sports in the United States",
        "text": "Baseball has been regarded as the national sport since the late 19th century, with Major League Baseball (MLB) being the top league, while American football is now by several measures the most popular spectator sport, with the National Football League (NFL) having the highest average attendance of any sports league in the world and a Super Bowl watched by millions globally. Basketball and ice hockey are the country's leading professional team sports to be primarily played indoors, with the top leagues being the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the National Hockey League (NHL). These four major sports, when played professionally, each occupy a season at different, but overlapping, times of the year. College football and basketball attract large audiences. In soccer, the country hosted the 1994 FIFA World Cup, the men's national soccer team qualified to seven World Cups and the women's team has won the FIFA Women's World Cup four times; Major League Soccer is the sport's highest league in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports in the United States",
        "text": "Based on revenue, the major professional sports leagues in the United States are the National Football League (NFL), Major League Baseball (MLB), the National Basketball Association (NBA), the National Hockey League (NHL), and Major League Soccer (MLS). At $16 billion in revenue, the NFL is the most profitable sports league in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports leagues in the United States",
        "text": "NFL games are the most attended of domestic professional leagues in the world in terms of per-game attendance, and the most popular in the U.S. in terms of television ratings and merchandising. Its championship game, the Super Bowl, is the most watched annual event on U.S. television, with Super Bowl XLIX being the single most-watched program in U.S. television history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "Professional sports\n--History.\n----Baseball.\n----American football.\n----Basketball.\n----Cricket.\n----Ice hockey.\n----Rugby football.\n--Opposition to professionalism.\n--Sports salaries.\n----American football.\n----Association football.\n------Chinese Super League.\n------Russian Premier League.\n------Bundesliga.\n------Serie A.\n------La Liga.\n------Premier League.\n------Major League Soccer.\n----Baseball.\n----Cricket.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Quime",
        "text": "The most common sports are soccer, racquetball, football, tennis, and basketball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "The term \"major league\" is usually limited to professional team sports. Individual professional sports competitions such as PGA Tour golf and NASCAR Cup Series auto racing are also very popular and serve as those sports' most prominent competitions with levels of media coverage, competition, and fan following comparable to the major professional team sports. Amateur competitions such as college football and college basketball, at the upper echelons, also enjoy strong media coverage and fan followings but are generally recognized as inferior to the major professional leagues in level of play because of the inherent limits of the amateur sports system."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States",
        "text": "While most major U.S. sports such as baseball and American football have evolved out of European practices, basketball, volleyball, skateboarding, and snowboarding are American inventions, some of which have become popular worldwide. Lacrosse and surfing arose from Native American and Native Hawaiian activities that predate Western contact. The most-watched individual sports are golf and auto racing, particularly NASCAR and IndyCar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arrah",
        "text": "Cricket is the most popular sport, however other sports such as volleyball, basketball, and athletics are also played."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports in Japan",
        "text": "The most popular professional sports in Japan are baseball, Association football, golf, tennis and sumo wrestling. Note that most practitioners in the martial arts are not professional, but played by amateurs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports in the Western United States",
        "text": "The Pikes Peak International Hill Climb is the most famous hillclimbing race in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "MLB, NBA, NFL, and NHL are commonly referred to as the \"Big Four.\" Each of these is the wealthiest professional club competition in its sport worldwide, and along with the English Premier League they make up the top five sports leagues by revenue in the world. In addition, the sports of these four leagues were all developed in their modern forms in North America, and all except American football have become popular internationally. Because the leagues enjoy a significant place in popular culture in the U.S. and Canada, the best players from these leagues often become cultural icons in both countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Netherlands Antilles",
        "text": "Baseball is by far the most popular sport. Several players have made it to the Major Leagues, such as Xander Bogaerts, Andrelton Simmons, Hensley Meulens, Randall Simon, Andruw Jones, Kenley Jansen, Jair Jurrjens, Roger Bernadina, Sidney Ponson, Didi Gregorius, Shairon Martis, Wladimir Balentien, and Yurendell DeCaster. Xander Bogaerts competed in the 2013 World Series for the Boston Red Sox against the St. Louis Cardinals. Andruw Jones played for the Atlanta Braves in the 1996 World Series hitting two home runs in his first game against the New York Yankees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sport in Europe",
        "text": "Association football is the most popular sport in almost all countries of Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of professional sports",
        "text": "This is a list of professional sports \u2013 that is, sports (and, more broadly, non-sport games subject to organized competition) that support one or more systems of professional sports players, sportspeople by \"occupation\". Such sports also have a vibrant community of amateur players, from whom the best rise to become professionals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports in Japan",
        "text": "Sumo is considered Japan's national sport. Baseball was introduced to the country by visiting Americans in the 19th century. The Nippon Professional Baseball league has been Japan's largest professional sports competition in terms of television ratings and spectators. Martial arts such as judo, karate and modern kend\u014d are also widely practiced and enjoyed by spectators in the country. Association football has gained wide popularity since the founding of the Japan Professional Football League in 1992. Other popular sports include figure skating, rugby union, golf, table tennis and racing, especially auto racing. Some new sports were invented by changing elements of imported sports."
      },
      {
        "title": "2015 World Aquatics Championships",
        "text": "There are a lot of famous professional sport clubs like football club Rubin Kazan, ice hockey club Ak Bars Kazan, basketball club UNICS, volleyball clubs Zenit and Dynamo-Kazan."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of American and Canadian cities by number of major professional sports franchises",
        "text": "The major professional sports leagues, or simply major leagues, in the United States and Canada are the highest professional competitions of team sports in the two countries. Although individual sports such as golf, tennis, and auto racing are also very popular, the term is usually limited to team sports."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thunderstrike (video game)",
        "text": "The year is 2238 and the most popular sport in the world is the Military Olympics, in which gladiators in various combat aircraft fight robot drones and each other for victory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports in Japan",
        "text": "Professional sports, the most famous being baseball which continues even today, started in the late 1920s but persistent rumors of bribes and a general attitude that sports should be for players or as a hobby persisted. Matches between schools attracted large crowd until after World War II when airing sporting events on radio and television became common. Manga with sports-themed stories (colloquially called \"spokon\") have also played a part in attracting readers to slightly less popular sports, such as volleyball, association football, basketball, or American football, although there are also stories focusing on more popular sports like baseball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "Professional sports, as opposed to amateur sports, are sports in which athletes receive payment for their performance. Professional athleticism has come to the fore through a combination of developments. Mass media and increased leisure have brought larger audiences, so that sports organizations or teams can command large incomes. As a result, more sportspeople can afford to make athleticism their primary career, devoting the training time necessary to increase skills, physical condition, and experience to modern levels of achievement. This proficiency has also helped boost the popularity of sports. Most sports played professionally also have amateur players far outnumbering the professionals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thorar",
        "text": "Cricket is the most popular sports, volleyball is also played in some areas, Every year a big tournament of volleyball is arranged in which players from the whole country participate."
      },
      {
        "title": "2013 NFL season",
        "text": "A nationwide poll conducted by Harris Interactive in December 2013 concluded that pro football is the favorite sport of Americans. Of the respondents asked the question, \"If you had to choose, which ONE of these sports would you say is your favorite?\", 35% chose pro football. That is up by one percentage point over the results of the previous year. Football has taken the top spot in the annual poll each year since it was first conducted in 1985. Baseball finished second, with 14% naming it as their favorite, followed by college football at 11%.\n;Aaron Hernandez charged with murder"
      },
      {
        "title": "La Liga",
        "text": "La Liga is one of the most popular professional sports leagues globally, with an average attendance of 26,933 for league matches in the 2018\u201319 season. This is the eighth-highest of any domestic professional sports league in the world and the third-highest of any professional association football league in the world, behind the Bundesliga and the Premier League, and above the other two so-called \"Big Five\" European leagues, Serie A and Ligue 1. La Liga is also the sixth wealthiest professional sports league in the world by revenue, after the NFL, MLB, the NBA, the Premier League, and the NHL."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of professional sports",
        "text": "See \"American Ultimate Disc League\" and \"Major League Ultimate\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Romania",
        "text": "Popular individual sports include combat sports, martial arts, and swimming. In professional boxing, Romania has produced many world champions across the weight divisions internationally recognised by governing bodies. World champions include Lucian Bute, Leonard Dorin Doroftei, Adrian Diaconu, and Michael Loewe. Another popular combat sport is professional kickboxing, which has produced prominent practitioners including Daniel Ghi\u021b\u0103, and Benjamin Adegbuyi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of the United States",
        "text": "American football, known in the United States as simply \"football,\" now attracts more television viewers than any other sport and is considered to be the most popular sport in the United States. The 32-team National Football League (NFL) is the most popular professional American football league."
      },
      {
        "title": "Street football",
        "text": "The ease of playing these informal games on the streets and open spaces make football the most popular sport in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "21st century",
        "text": "Association football is the most popular sport worldwide with the FIFA World Cup being the most viewed football event. Other sports such as rugby, cricket, baseball, basketball, ice hockey, tennis, and golf are popular globally. In cricket, the emergence of the Twenty20 format and the creation of the Indian Premier League led to changes in the nature of the sport. American swimmer Michael Phelps won an Olympic record setting 8 Gold medals at the 2008 Summer Olympics.\n* The 2002 FIFA World Cup \u2013 host South Korea and Japan \u2013 was won by Brazil\n* The 2006 FIFA World Cup \u2013 host Germany \u2013 was won by Italy\n* The 2010 FIFA World Cup \u2013 host South Africa \u2013 was won by Spain\n* The 2014 FIFA World Cup \u2013 host Brazil \u2013 was won by Germany\n* The 2018 FIFA World Cup \u2013 host Russia \u2013 was won by France\n* Following their 1999 victory, the Australian cricket team would go on to win three out of five Cricket World Cups played between 2003 and 2019. Two of these, 2003 and 2007, were consecutive.\n*In the National Football League, the New England Patriots were the dominant franchise of the first two decades of the 21st century, winning 6 Super Bowls between 2001 and 2018 and appearing in an additional three others. Head Coach Bill Belichick and quarterback Tom Brady led the team during the stretch, with Brady also leading the Tampa Bay Buccaneers to an additional Super Bowl following the 2020 season. Other teams with multiple Super Bowl appearances over that time period include the Philadelphia Eagles, New York Giants, Kansas City Chiefs, Seattle Seahawks, and Carolina Panthers. Besides Brady, who also won three Associated Press NFL Most Valuable Player Award (MVP), other highly recognized players include quarterback Peyton Manning, who won 5 MVP awards, the most in history, and quarterback Aaron Rodgers who won three MVPs, who in 2011 set the NFL record for season passer rating. Successful offensive players at other positions include wide receiver Randy Moss, who set the record for most receiving touchdowns in a season with 23 in 2007, wide receiver Michael Thomas, who set the NFL record for most receptions in a season with 149 in 2019, tight end Rob Gronkowski, who became the first tight end to lead the league in receiving touchdowns in 2011, and running back Adrian Peterson, who set the all-time NFL record for rushing yards in a game with 296 in 2007, his rookie year. Key defensive players of the century include safety Ed Reed, who led the league in interceptions three times, linebacker Ray Lewis, who set the career tackles record when he retired in 2012, and linebacker J. J. Watt, who is the only player to record more than 20 quarterback sacks in two different seasons.\n*In American college football, the sport saw the creation of the College Football Playoff, the first playoff for NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision, the highest level of college football in the U.S. The series was dominated by two teams, the Clemson Tigers and Alabama Crimson Tide, at least one of which has played in every Playoff since its inception in 2014 and between them have won all but one of said championships. Prior to 2014, the method of determining the champion was done via the Bowl Championship Series (BCS), a single championship game that attempted to match the top two teams in the country using a series of polls and computer rankings to choose the top two teams. In the BCS era, the top teams were Alabama, which won three BCS Championships, and Florida State, LSU, and Oklahoma, which won two BCS Championships each. Nick Saban, who led both LSU and Alabama to one and seven national championships respectively, was the most dominant coach of his era, while quarterbacks dominated the Heisman Trophy, winning 16 of 20 during the first two decades of the 21st century. Several controversies over the payment of athletes dominated the sport, with Heisman Trophy winner Reggie Bush being forced to return his award over receiving improper benefits while maintaining amateur status, while officials and media continued to debate the possibility of paying athletes at all levels of college athletics.\n*In Canadian football, the league opened the 21st century facing an uncertain financial future, suffering from the failures of the experiment of trying to field Canadian football teams in the United States and having to contract a large number of teams at the end of the 20th century. The league fluctuated between 8 and 9 teams as two different Ottawa-based franchises failed during the first decade of the 21st century. The league found stability during the 2010s, and showed surprising parity between the teams, with all 9 teams appearing in at least one Grey Cup during the 2000s and 2010s, and with only the Montreal Alouettes winning back-to-back titles during those two decades, in 2009 and 2010. Quarterback Anthony Calvillo of the Alouettes was the face of the league during his career, winning three Most Outstanding Player Awards and setting several passing records in the process.\n* The 2002 Ryder Cup was won by Europe 15 and a half to USA's 12 and a half.\n* The 2004 Ryder Cup was won by Europe 18 and a half to USA's 9 and a half.\n* The 2006 Ryder Cup was won by Europe again 18 and a half to USA's 9 and a half.\n* The 2008 Ryder Cup was won by USA 16 and a half to Europe's 11 and a half.\n* The 2010 Ryder Cup was won by Europe 14 and a half to USA's 13 and a half.\n* The 2012 Ryder Cup was won by Europe 14 and a half to USA's 13 and a half.\n* The 2014 Ryder Cup was won by Europe 16 and a half to USA's 11 and a half\n* The 2016 Ryder Cup was won by USA 17 to Europe's 11.\n* Dale Earnhardt passed away after a last-lap crash during the Daytona 500 in February 2001.\n* Michael Schumacher broke many records in the first few years of the century, including the record for most races won (91), most World Championships (7), and most pole positions (68) by the time he retired in 2006. In 2010, he announced his comeback to Formula One after three years out of the sport, retiring again in 2012.\n* Sebastian Vettel broke numerous records on his way to becoming Formula One's youngest ever world champion, in 2010 at age 23, and then the youngest ever double world champion, in 2011 at age 24.\n* S\u00e9bastien Loeb became the most successful rally driver ever, winning the World Rally Championship a record 9 consecutive times between 2004 and 2012. He also set new records for the most wins, podium finishes and points scored.\n* Casey Stoner won his second MotoGP world title (2007 and 2011), and announced his retirement from the sport at just 27 years of age, citing disagreement with the direction of the sport and a desire to spend more time with his family. His retirement became effective at the end of the 2012 MotoGP season. Stoner has won every MotoGP-branded race at least once.\n* Craig Lowndes became the first driver to reach 100 race wins in the V8 Supercars Championship.\n* Lewis Hamilton broke the record for most career pole positions in Formula One in 2019, and the record for most career wins in 2020.\n* 2003 Rugby World Cup \u2013 host Australia \u2013 was won by England\n* 2007 Rugby World Cup \u2013 host France \u2013 was won by South Africa\n* 2011 Rugby World Cup \u2013 host New Zealand \u2013 was won by New Zealand\n* 2015 Rugby World Cup \u2013 host England \u2013 was won by New Zealand\n* 2019 Rugby World Cup \u2013 host Japan \u2013 was won by South Africa\n* Roger Federer won 20 Grand Slam titles (6 Australian Opens, 1 French Open, 8 Wimbledons, and 5 US Opens) to surpass Pete Sampras' record of 14.\n* Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal and Novak Djokovic each completed a Career Grand Slam, winning the singles championships in the Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon and US Open; Nadal also won the Olympic Singles gold medal in the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympics to complete a Golden Career Slam.\n* At the 2010 Wimbledon Championships, John Isner and Nicolas Mahut completed the longest tennis match ever. Isner won 6\u20134, 3\u20136, 6\u20137(7), 7\u20136(3), 70\u201368.\n* In 2019, Rafael Nadal became the first male player to win a single Grand Slam tournament (French Open) 12 times.\n* Serena Williams won 23 Grand Slam titles (7 Australian Opens, 3 French Opens, 7 Wimbledons, and 6 US Opens) in the 21st century, to add to her 1999 US Open title.\n* Maria Sharapova became the first female Russian player to reach No.1 on August 22, 2005. She also retired in 2020.\n* China's Li Na won the 2011 French Open, becoming the first player, male or female, from that country to win a Grand Slam.\n* Belarusian Victoria Azarenka won the 2012 Australian Open, becoming the first player, male or female, from that country to win a Grand Slam, and also hold the No.1 ranking (taking over from Caroline Wozniacki).\n* \"\" (2001\u20132018), a PBS series"
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of the United States",
        "text": "Boxing and horse racing were once the most watched individual sports, but they have been eclipsed by golf and auto racing, particularly NASCAR. Tennis and many outdoor sports are also popular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur sports",
        "text": "By the early 21st century the Olympic Games and all the major team sports accepted professional competitors. However, there are still some sports which maintain a distinction between amateur and professional status with separate competitive leagues. The most prominent of these are golf and boxing. In particular, only amateur boxers could compete at the Olympics up to 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Entertainment",
        "text": "Sporting competitions have always provided entertainment for crowds. To distinguish the players from the audience, the latter are often known as spectators. Developments in stadium and auditorium design, as well as in recording and broadcast technology, have allowed off-site spectators to watch sport, with the result that the size of the audience has grown ever larger and spectator sport has become increasingly popular. Two of the most popular sports with global appeal are association football and cricket. Their ultimate international competitions, the FIFA World Cup and the Cricket World Cup, are broadcast around the world. Beyond the very large numbers involved in playing these sports, they are notable for being a major source of entertainment for many millions of non-players worldwide. A comparable multi-stage, long-form sport with global appeal is the Tour de France, unusual in that it takes place outside of special stadia, being run instead in the countryside."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sport",
        "text": "Popularity in 2018 of major sports by size of fan base:\n* Outline of sports\n* List of sports\n* List of sportspeople\n* List of sports attendance figures\n* List of professional sports leagues\n* New Media and Sports"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of professional sports",
        "text": "Pro gamers compete in many leagues and tournaments throughout the world. Many favorite games for esports include League of Legends, Overwatch, and Fortnite"
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketball",
        "text": "Invented in 1891 by Canadian-American gym teacher James Naismith in Springfield, Massachusetts, United States, basketball has evolved to become one of the world's most popular and widely viewed sports. The National Basketball Association (NBA) is the most significant professional basketball league in the world in terms of popularity, salaries, talent, and level of competition. Outside North America, the top clubs from national leagues qualify to continental championships such as the EuroLeague and the Basketball Champions League Americas. The FIBA Basketball World Cup and Men's Olympic Basketball Tournament are the major international events of the sport and attract top national teams from around the world. Each continent hosts regional competitions for national teams, like EuroBasket and FIBA AmeriCup."
      },
      {
        "title": "National sports team",
        "text": "In many countries, the national team is the highest level of play available and as a result, it is often most popular with fans and spectators from that country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "Basketball mainly became popular in the early 1980's when Magic Johnson and Larry Bird joined the NBA and lead their teams to multiple NBA titles. They are considered two of the best players of all time usually underneath Michael Jordan. Michael Jordan also gained the NBA views with carrying the Chicago bulls to 6 titles in the 1990's."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the National Football League",
        "text": "While baseball is known as \"America's national pastime,\" football is the most popular spectator sport in the United States. According to the Harris Poll, professional football moved ahead of baseball as the fans' favorite in 1965, during the emergence of the NFL's challenger, the American Football League, as a major professional football league. Football has remained America's favorite sport ever since. In a Harris Poll conducted in 2008, the NFL was the favorite sport of as many people (30%) as the combined total of the next three professional sports \u2013 baseball (15%), auto racing (10%), and hockey (2%)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jann Mardenborough",
        "text": "Mardenborough's achievements and growing global profile led to Sports Pro Media naming him on their list of the 50 most marketable athletes in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports in the United States",
        "text": "The most popular team sports in the United States are American football, baseball, basketball, ice hockey, and soccer. All five of these team sports are popular with fans, are widely watched on television, have a fully professional league, are played by millions of Americans, enjoy varsity status at many Division I colleges, and are played in high schools throughout the country.\n# TV viewing record measures the game with the most TV viewers in the U.S. since 2005 for each sport: 2015 Super Bowl, 2016 NBA Finals Game 7, 2016 World Series Game 7, 2014 FIFA World Cup Final, and 2010 Winter Olympics Gold medal ice hockey game.\n# The column titled \"States (HS)\" represents the number of states that sponsor the sport at the high school level. For the purpose of this table, Washington, D.C. is counted as a state."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "Baseball became popular in the 1920s, when Babe Ruth led the New York Yankees to several World Series titles and became a national hero on the strength of his home runs (balls that cannot be played because they have been hit out of the field). One of the most noteworthy players was the Brooklyn Dodgers' Jackie Robinson, who became the first African-American player in the major leagues in 1947. Prior to Robinson, black players had been restricted to the Negro leagues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Play (activity)",
        "text": "Sportive activities are one of the most universal forms of play. Different continents have their own popular/dominant sports. For example, European, South American, and African countries enjoy soccer (also known as \u2018football\u2019 in Europe), while North American countries prefer basketball, ice hockey, baseball, or American football. In Asia, sports such as table tennis and badminton are played professionally; however soccer and basketball are played amongst common folks, with cricket popular in South Asia. Events such as The Olympic Games and FIFA World Cup showcase countries competing with each other and are broadcast all over the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports in the Western United States",
        "text": "Professional sports have existed in the United States since the late 19th century. The NFL, MLB, NBA and NHL have millions of fans across the nation and are an important part of American culture. Professional sports did not enter into the American West until the mid-twentieth century. However, the expansion of professional sports into the West has helped to increase the popularity of each of the professional leagues and has changed the landscape of professional sports in America."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of professional sports",
        "text": "Main article: Horse racing"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports team",
        "text": "Historically, sports teams and the people who play sports have been amateurs. However, by the 20th century, some sports teams and their associated leagues became extremely valuable with net worth in the millions. The Dallas Cowboys are rated by Forbes as the world's most valuable sports team at US$4.2 billion. Some individual sports have modified rules that allow them to be played by teams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Japan",
        "text": "Traditionally, sumo is considered Japan's national sport. Japanese martial arts such as judo and kendo are taught as part of the compulsory junior high school curriculum. Baseball is the most popular spectator sport in the country. Japan's top professional league, Nippon Professional Baseball, was established in 1936. Since the establishment of the Japan Professional Football League in 1992, association football has gained a wide following. The country co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea. Japan has one of the most successful football teams in Asia, winning the Asian Cup four times, and the FIFA Women's World Cup in 2011. Golf is also popular in Japan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "NFL, MLB, and NBA, have the biggest and longest contracts in the history of professional sports."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports in the United States",
        "text": "The NFL has the highest average attendance (67,591) of any professional sports league in the world and has the highest revenue out of any single professional sports league."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of professional sports",
        "text": "Professional Disc Golfers compete in Professional Disc Golf Association (PDGA) sanctioned events. Disc golf is among the fastest growing sports in the world. Its rules are similar to ball golf, with the throwing of discs replacing the hitting of balls and a specialty chain link network suspended above a basket replacing the cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sport",
        "text": "It is common for popular sports to attract large broadcast audiences, leading to rival broadcasters bidding large amounts of money for the rights to show certain fixtures. The football World Cup attracts a global television audience of hundreds of millions; the 2006 final alone attracted an estimated worldwide audience of well over 700\u00a0million and the 2011 Cricket World Cup Final attracted an estimated audience of 135\u00a0million in India alone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports in the United States",
        "text": "Of those Americans citing their favorite sport, basketball is ranked second (counting amateur levels) behind football. However, in regards to revenue the NBA is ranked third in popularity. More Americans play basketball than any other team sport, according to the National Sporting Goods Association, with over 26 million Americans playing basketball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports in the United States",
        "text": "The market for professional sports in the United States is roughly $69 billion, roughly 50% larger than that of all of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa combined. All these leagues enjoy wide-ranging domestic media coverage and, except for Major League Soccer, all are considered the preeminent leagues in their respective sports in the world. Although American football does not have a substantial following in other nations, the NFL does have the highest average attendance (67,254) of any professional sports league in the world. MLS has the second highest average attendance of any sports league in the U.S. (21,789), followed by MLB with an average of 18,900. Of these five U.S.-based leagues, all but the NFL have at least one team in Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Liga ACB",
        "text": "Liga ACB is one of the most popular professional indoor sports leagues in the world, with an average attendance of 6,236 for league matches in the 2018\u201319 season. This is the ninth-highest of any domestic professional indoor sports league in the world and the fourth-highest of any professional basketball league in the world, behind the National Basketball Association, the EuroLeague, and the Women's National Basketball Association."
      },
      {
        "title": "National sports team",
        "text": "The popularity of the international competition that a team participates in has the biggest influence on the popularity of national sports team. There is a certain amount of prestige which is associated with competing on the \"world stage\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women's professional sports",
        "text": "Women's professional sports\n--History.\n----Associations.\n--United States.\n----Association football.\n----Baseball.\n----Basketball.\n----Golf.\n----Horse racing.\n----Ice hockey.\n----Lacrosse.\n----Softball.\n----Tennis.\n----Volleyball & beach volleyball.\n----Motorsports.\n--Australia.\n----Tennis.\n----Cricket.\n--Sweden.\n----Football.\n--Canada.\n----Ice hockey.\n----Tennis.\n--Denmark.\n--England.\n----Association Football.\n----Others.\n--France.\n--Eastern Europe.\n----Tennis.\n------Belarus.\n------Croatia.\n------Czech Republic.\n------Hungary.\n------Latvia.\n------Poland.\n------Romania.\n------Russia.\n------Serbia.\n------Slovenia.\n------Ukraine.\n--Latin America.\n----Association football.\n----Basketball.\n----Rugby.\n----Tennis.\n----Volleyball.\n--Motorsports.\n--Top earning sportswomen.\n--Gender inequality across sports.\n----Gender coaching gaps.\n----Gender wage gap.\n------Coaches.\n----Coverage.\n------Basketball.\n------Ice Hockey.\n------Tennis.\n------Soccer.\n------Social media.\n----Sex testing.\n--Women's professional sports competitions.\n----Golf.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Madhumalla",
        "text": "Football is the most popular sport. Regional, local and school level games are often held."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lieke Martens",
        "text": "Martens is considered one of the most marketable athletes in the world by SportsPro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports in the United States",
        "text": "Sports are an important part of culture in the United States of America. American football is the most popular spectator sport to watch in the United States, followed by baseball, basketball, ice hockey, and soccer, which make up the \"Big Five\". Indoor American football, professional boxing, rugby union, Cricket, tennis, golf, auto racing, softball, lacrosse, field hockey, water polo, and mixed martial arts, among others, are also somewhat popular sports played in the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "Each of the top four major leagues are the premier competitions of their respective sport on the world stage. Major League Baseball is increasingly luring away the stars from the Japanese leagues, the European hockey leagues have become a major source of star talent for National Hockey League clubs, and the National Basketball Association frequently recruits talent from professional leagues in Europe, Latin America, Australia and China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pro\u2013am",
        "text": "Pro\u2013am competition is especially common in golf, and in track and field. Cue sports is another field in which pro\u2013am play is common; an example in the open, mixed-play sense is the International Pool Tour in eight-ball. And in snooker, the International Open Series was a no-pros tour and a proving ground for amateurs aspiring to official pro qualification. Minor League Baseball, and its conceptual equivalents in other sports such as the AHL in North American ice hockey and Conference National play in English football, can also been seen as a form of well-organized pro\u2013am play in the semi-professional sense. There are also a few pro-am tennis events, such as the annual Necker Cup organized by Richard Branson, where tennis pros are invited to compete against amateur enthusiasts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "The perceived lack of competition from the rest of the world has contributed to the long-standing but controversial practice of the North American media referring to the major sports league champions as \"world champions\". Today, the phrase is more popular in the United States but it retains some acceptance in Canada. However, this practice is usually mocked by non-Americans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Argentina",
        "text": "\"Pato\" is the national sport, an ancient horseback game locally originated in the early 1600s and predecessor of horseball. The most popular sport is football. Along with Brazil and France, the men's national team is the only one to have won the most important international triplet: World Cup, Confederations Cup, and the Olympic Gold Medal. It has also won 15 Copas Am\u00e9rica, 7 Pan American Gold Medals and many other trophies. Alfredo Di St\u00e9fano, Diego Maradona and Lionel Messi are among the best players in the game's history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "The top four major leagues each have revenues that can be many times greater than the payrolls of less popular sports leagues in the two nations. In terms of overall league revenue, the NFL, MLB and the NBA rank as the top three most lucrative sports leagues in the world, with the English Premier League and the NHL ranked at fourth and fifth place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of sports",
        "text": "World governing bodies of various notable sports:\n* The Olympic Games: International Olympic Committee (IOC)\n* Baseball: International Baseball Federation (IBAF), but several countries/regions have their own professional bodies with rules variations, including Cuba, US/Canada, and Japan\n* Basketball: FIBA (International Basketball Federation), but national pro leagues may diverge from its rules, as in the US\n* Cricket: International Cricket Council (ICC)\n* Cue sports: World Confederation of Billiards Sports:\n** Carom billiards: Union Mondiale de Billard (UMB)\n** Pocket billiards (pool): World Pool-Billiard Association (WPA)\n** Snooker and English billiards: World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA or World Snooker)\n* Football variants have many governing bodies, with widely divergent rules:\n** Association football (soccer): FIFA\n** Gridiron football is divided in into:\n*** American football: International Federation of American Football (IFAF) is the world governing body, but U.S. domestic leagues at professional and college levels may diverge from its rules\n*** Canadian football: Canadian Football League (CFL)\n** Rugby football is divided into two \"codes\" or sets of rules:\n*** Rugby league: Rugby League International Federation (RLIF)\n*** Rugby union: International Rugby Board (IRB)\n** Australian rules football: AFL Commission\n** Gaelic football: Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA)\n** International-rules football: A conference of the AFL and GAA\n* Golf: International Golf Federation (IGF)\n* Ice hockey: International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF)\n* Motor racing:\n** Car racing: International Federation of the Automobile (FIA)\n** Motorcycle racing: International Motorcycling Federation (FIM)\n** Motorboat racing: International Motonautical Union (UIM) and others, depending on boat type\n* Tennis: International Tennis Federation (ITF)\n* Underwater sports\n** Conf\u00e9d\u00e9ration Mondiale des Activit\u00e9s Subaquatiques (CMAS)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sport in Europe",
        "text": "Other popular individual sports include snooker, darts, and boxing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sport in Europe",
        "text": "The origins of many of the world's most popular sports today lie in the codification of many traditional games, especially in Great Britain. However, a paradoxical feature of European sport is the remarkable extent to which local, regional and national variations continue to exist, and even in some instances to predominate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women's professional sports",
        "text": "Similar semi-professionalism examples exist in women's rugby union and cricket. Common to most Europe sports, promotion and relegation is used in the leagues (a model not used by either the WNBA or NWSL). The LET (Ladies European Tour) is Europe's leading women's professional golf tour and formed as the WPGA in 1978. Over the last 33 years, the tour has developed into a truly international organization, and in 2011 operated 28 golf tournaments in 19 different countries worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sport",
        "text": "Both amateur and professional sports attract spectators, both in person at the sport venue, and through broadcast media including radio, television and internet broadcast. Both attendance in person and viewing remotely can incur a sometimes substantial charge, such as an entrance ticket, or pay-per-view television broadcast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sport in China",
        "text": "Football has always been among the more popular amateur team sports for recreation in China. High schools often have football facilities, some of which are rented on weekends to local amateur teams to organize matches. It is also the most popular sport to watch on television, with large international tournaments such as the World Cup and the European Championships, as well as major European leagues receiving widespread coverage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sport",
        "text": "In the United States, the championship game of the NFL, the Super Bowl, has become one of the most watched television broadcasts of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "Other"
      },
      {
        "title": "James Naismith",
        "text": "Today basketball is played by more than 300 million people worldwide, making it one of the most popular team sports. In North America, basketball has produced some of the most-admired athletes of the 20th century. ESPN and the Associated Press both conducted polls to name the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century. Basketball player Michael Jordan came in first in the ESPN poll and second (behind Babe Ruth) in the AP poll. Both polls featured fellow basketball players Wilt Chamberlain (of KU, like Naismith) and Bill Russell in the top 20."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sport in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "Overall, association football attracts the most viewers and money, though the nation is notable for the diversity of its sporting interests, especially at the elite level. Major individual sports include athletics, cycling, motorsport, and horse racing. Tennis is the highest profile sport for the two weeks of the Wimbledon Championships, but otherwise struggles to hold its own in the country of its birth. Snooker and darts, too, enjoy period profile boosts in line with the holding of their largest events. Many other sports are also played and followed to a lesser degree. There is much debate over which sport has the most active participants with swimming, athletics, and cycling all found to have wider active participation than association football in the 2010 Sport England Active People survey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Semi-professional sports",
        "text": "The semi-professional status is not universal throughout the world and depends on each country's labour code (labour law) and each sports organization's specific regulations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sport industry",
        "text": "The most major of industries related to sports are the professional leagues that most of the other industries in the sporting world revolve around. The major American sports leagues are the first five in the list following and include football, basketball, hockey, baseball and soccer. Most players in these leagues make money from the team they're on as well as sponsors but are among some of the top earners in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "World championship",
        "text": "See the following lists for the various sports with a world championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports in Japan",
        "text": "In addition, there are professional sports for gambling purposes; some fans enjoy them as spectator sports without betting money.\n* Horse racing - 25 races have international Grade I ratings. Arima Kinen is the world's biggest betting race.\n* Keirin - bicycle racing. Became an Olympic sport in 2000 in its modified form\n* Kyotei - powerboat racing\n* Auto Race - motorbike racing on oval tracks"
      },
      {
        "title": "Women's professional sports",
        "text": "Forbes list: 2020"
      },
      {
        "title": "Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "The major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada are the highest professional competitions of team sports in those countries. The four leagues traditionally included in the definition are Major League Baseball (MLB), the National Basketball Association (NBA), the National Football League (NFL), and the National Hockey League (NHL). Other prominent leagues include Major League Soccer (MLS) and the Canadian Football League (CFL)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sport in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "Other sports with loyal followings include snooker, which is popular with television companies as it fills their schedules at a very low cost, and also attracts good audiences. However, its popularity has waned somewhat since 1985, when nearly a third of the British population watched the conclusion of the celebrated Dennis Taylor versus Steve Davis World Championship final even though it ended after midnight. All but two events on the professional snooker tour in 2007/2008 are played in the United Kingdom, and the World Championship has been played at The Crucible Theatre, Sheffield, since 1977. There are many amateur leagues set up across the country, featuring team matches between snooker clubs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports in the United States",
        "text": "In the broadest definition of sports\u2014physical recreation of all sorts\u2014the four most popular sports among the general population of the United States are exercise walking (90 million), exercising with equipment (53 million), swimming (52 million) and camping (47 million). The most popular competitive sport (and fifth most popular recreational sport) is bowling (43 million). Other most popular sports are fishing (35 million), bicycling (37 million), weightlifting (33 million), aerobics (30 million), and hiking (28 million)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "Professional sportsmen can earn a great deal of money at the highest levels. For instance, the highest-paid team in professional baseball is New York Yankees. Per Forbes 2021 ranking, the highest-paid athletes include Cristiano Ronaldo, Lionel Messi, Naomi Osaka, Tiger Woods, Serena Williams and wrestler-turned-actor The Rock. The top ten tennis players make about $3 million a year on average. Much of the growth in income for sports and athletes has come from broadcasting rights; for example, the most recent television contract for the NFL is valued at nearly US$5 billion per year. Women in the U.S., on the other hand, make much less, for example as of 2014, the WNBA enforced a maximum salary of US$107,000 for star players (coaches could earn double that). Average in-person attendance and television viewership are both far higher for the NBA compared to the WNBA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sport in Hong Kong",
        "text": "Some of the notable current professionals includes athletes such as Tse Ying Suet/Tang Chun Man in the mixed doubles category reaching the highest world ranking of 2, and Ng Ka Long Angus in the Men\u2019s single discipline with the highest ranking of 6."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cue sports",
        "text": "In the United Kingdom, snooker is by far the most popular cue sport at the competitive level, and major national pastime along with association football and cricket. It is played in many Commonwealth countries as well, and in areas of Asia, becoming increasingly popular in China in particular. Snooker is uncommon in North America, where pool games such as eight-ball and nine-ball dominate, and Latin America and Continental Europe, where carom games dominate. The first World Snooker Championship was held in 1927, and it has been held annually since then with few exceptions. The World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA) was established in 1968 to regulate the professional game, while the International Billiards and Snooker Federation (IBSF) regulates the amateur games."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the most popular professional sport in the world?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "According to A.T. Kearney, The world's most accessible and practised sport is running, while association football is the most popular spectator sport."
    ],
    "topic": "Professional sports",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Sport:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sport"
        ],
        "ctx": "According to A.T. Kearney, a consultancy, the global sporting industry is worth up to $620 billion as of 2013. The world's most accessible and practised sport is running, while association football is the most popular spectator sport."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Football player",
        "text": "However, only a fraction of men's professional football players are paid at this level. Wages may be much more moderate in other divisions and leagues, and a significant number of players are semi-professional. For example, the average annual salary for footballers in Major League Soccer (which started in 2009) for the 2013 season was $148,693, with significant variations depending on player position (goalkeepers for example earned $85,296, whereas forwards earned $251,805)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "Players in lower divisions make significantly less money. In 2006\u201307 the average salary of a player in the Championship (the second tier of the English football pyramid) made \u00a3195,750 while the average salary for League One and League Two (tiers 3 and 4) combined were \u00a349,600."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "In the NFL average annual salaries by position in 2009 were:\n* Quarterback $1,970,982 (note that this is a mean that covers both starting quarterbacks and backups; starters regularly draw salaries of over $10,000,000 as of 2016)\n* Running back $957,360\n* Defensive tackle $1,223,925"
      },
      {
        "title": "Professionalism in association football",
        "text": "Association football is the world's most popular sport, and is worth US$600\u00a0billion worldwide. By the end of the 20th century it was played by over 250 million players in over 200 countries. Around the world, the sport is played at a professional level by professional footballers, and millions of people regularly go to football stadiums to follow their favourite football teams, while billions more watch the sport on television or on the internet. Football has the highest global television audience in sport. The sport had amateur origins and evolved into the modern professional competition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional gridiron football",
        "text": "The best American football players are among the highest paid athletes in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Football player",
        "text": "Wages in some top men's leagues are significantly higher than other jobs. Players in the Premier League earn average wages of about $1 million per year. In the wealthiest clubs in European football leagues, some players earn an average wage up to $6 to $8 million per year. The best players of those clubs can earn up to $70 million per year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sport",
        "text": "According to A.T. Kearney, a consultancy, the global sporting industry is worth up to $620 billion as of 2013. The world's most accessible and practised sport is running, while association football is the most popular spectator sport."
      },
      {
        "title": "Football",
        "text": "Several of the football codes are the most popular team sports in the world. Globally, association football is played by over 250 million players in over 200 nations, and has the highest television audience in sport, making it the most popular in the world. American football, with 1.1\u00a0million high school football players and nearly 70,000 college football players, is the most popular sport in the United States, with the annual Super Bowl game accounting for nine of the top ten of the most watched broadcasts in U.S. television history. The NFL has the highest average attendance (67,591) of any professional sports league in the world and has the highest revenue out of any single professional sports league. Thus, the best association football and American football players are among the highest paid athletes in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "Professional sportsmen can earn a great deal of money at the highest levels. For instance, the highest-paid team in professional baseball is New York Yankees. Per Forbes 2021 ranking, the highest-paid athletes include Cristiano Ronaldo, Lionel Messi, Naomi Osaka, Tiger Woods, Serena Williams and wrestler-turned-actor The Rock. The top ten tennis players make about $3 million a year on average. Much of the growth in income for sports and athletes has come from broadcasting rights; for example, the most recent television contract for the NFL is valued at nearly US$5 billion per year. Women in the U.S., on the other hand, make much less, for example as of 2014, the WNBA enforced a maximum salary of US$107,000 for star players (coaches could earn double that). Average in-person attendance and television viewership are both far higher for the NBA compared to the WNBA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Height in sports",
        "text": "A 2014 CNN survey reported the average NFL player was and weighed ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "The average salary of a player in the German Bundesliga was about \u20ac3.3 million (\u00a32.5 million) for the 2010\u201311 season, up from \u20ac2.5 million in the 2009\u20132010 Bundesliga season. The highest-paid player for the 2010\u201311 Bundesliga season was Franck Rib\u00e9ry of Bayern Munich who received a salary of \u20ac6.3 million after income tax."
      },
      {
        "title": "Football player",
        "text": "Popularity and average salaries in women's leagues are far lower. For example, players in the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) (which started in 2012) earn $15,000 to $40,000 per year as of January 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Football player",
        "text": "It has been estimated that there are 250 million association football players in the world, and many play the other forms of football."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gridiron football",
        "text": "The best NFL players are among the highest paid athletes in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doug Flutie",
        "text": "Despite his successful college achievements, whether Flutie was too small to play professional football was uncertain. When asked on television \"Can a guy who's five-foot-nine, 175 pounds make it in the pros?\", he answered \"Yes, he can. But it's a matter of ability and not size. I feel I can play; I don't know for sure, and those questions will be answered in the future.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Football player",
        "text": "Football player\n--Career.\n----Wages.\n----Post-retirement.\n--Skills and specialties.\n----Association football specialties (positions).\n----American football.\n--Psychological aspects of performance.\n--Health issues.\n----Life expectancy.\n----Head.\n----Knee.\n----Hip.\n----Muscles.\n----Sleep and psychological functioning.\n----FIFA response.\n--Longevity and factors of mortality.\n----International level.\n----North America.\n----Italy.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "The average annual salary for players in the four major leagues is about US$2.9 million in 2008, although player salaries can range from $500,000 for backup players to as much as $40 million (up to around $60 mil in the NFL and the NBA by 2021, not counting endorsements and sponsorship deals) for superstars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur sports",
        "text": "The Football Association prohibited paying players until 1885, and this is referred to as the \"legalisation\" of professionalism because it was an amendment of the \"Laws of the Game\". However, a maximum salary cap of twelve pounds a week for a player with outside employment and fifteen pounds a week for a player with no outside employment lingered until the 1960s, even as transfer fees reached over a hundred thousand pounds; again, \"boot money\" was seen as a way of topping up pay."
      },
      {
        "title": "American football",
        "text": "American football is the most popular sport in the United States. The most popular forms of the game are professional and college football, with the other major levels being high school and youth football. , nearly 1.1\u00a0million high school athletes and 70,000 college athletes play the sport in the United States annually. The National Football League, the most popular American professional football league, has the highest average attendance of any professional sports league in the world. Its championship game, the Super Bowl, ranks among the most-watched club sporting events in the world. The league has an annual revenue of around US$15\u00a0billion, making it the most valuable sports league in the world. Other professional leagues exist worldwide, but the sport does not have the international popularity of other American sports like baseball or basketball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Association football",
        "text": "Some countries' top divisions feature highly paid star players; in smaller countries, lower divisions, and most of women's clubs, players may be part-timers with a second job, or amateurs. The five top European leagues\u00a0\u2013 the Bundesliga (Germany), Premier League (England), La Liga (Spain), Serie A (Italy), and Ligue 1 (France)\u00a0\u2013 attract most of the world's best players and each of the leagues has a total wage cost in excess of \u00a3600\u00a0million/\u20ac763\u00a0million/US$1.185\u00a0billion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Football player",
        "text": "As for association football, a 2011 German study found that German national team players live 1.9 years less than the general male population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "In the Italian top league, Serie A, the average salary was about \u20ac5 million for the 2010\u20132011 Serie A season, up from \u20ac1 million in the 2005\u20132006 Serie A season. The highest-paid player for the 2010\u20132011 Serie A season was Zlatan Ibrahimovi\u0107 of A.C. Milan who received a salary of \u20ac25.9 million after income tax and which also includes Ibrahimovi\u0107's bonuses and endorsements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Football player",
        "text": "The average life expectancy or lifespan of an American football NFL player has been reported to be extremely low, only 53 to 59 years depending on playing position. However, a 2012 study reported that retired NFL players have a lower death rate than men in the general population. An oft-cited life expectancy of 58 years has been claimed by \"Sports Illustrated\" to be based on a myth. According to a 2007 study, which also claims that little supporting data is available, retired American football players had \"long and fulfilling careers with no apparent long-term detrimental effects on physical or mental health scores despite a high prevalence of arthritis\". One explanation is that \"life expectancy\" is ambiguous: it may in some contexts refer to the expected age of death of a player, and in other contexts to the expected remaining number of life years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "The average salary of a player in the English Premier League was about \u00a32.6 million in the 2017\u201318 season, compared with about \u00a31.2 million in 2007\u201308 and \u00a3676,000 in 2006\u201307. Even as early as 2010\u201311, top players such as John Terry and Steven Gerrard could make up to \u00a37 million per year with the players of Premier League club Manchester City F.C. receiving an average salary of \u00a32 million in that season. Premier League salaries have boomed in more recent years thanks to massive television deals and wealthy new investors in clubs. Terry's and Gerrard's 2010\u201311 salaries would not have placed them among the top 25 earners in 2017\u201318. In that season, more than 20 players earned more than \u00a310 million, led by Alexis S\u00e1nchez (\u00a321.5 million) and Mesut \u00d6zil (\u00a320.9 million). The Premier League's two Manchester clubs had the highest average salaries in 2017\u201318, with players for both Manchester United and Manchester City averaging over \u00a35.2 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Football player",
        "text": "An Irish 2002 study of association and Gaelic football players characterised players as \"lean and muscular with a reasonably high level of capacity in all areas of physical performance\". The opposite is the case for American football, where obesity could be the cause of grave health problems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinese Super League",
        "text": "Professional footballers in China receive relatively high salaries when compared to other Chinese sports leagues and football leagues in other countries. The average salary for CSL players is $1,016,579 in 2017, it is ranked at eleventh place among all of the professional sports leagues and the sixth-highest of any professional association football league in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wonderlic test",
        "text": "An average football player usually scores around 20 points. Quarterbacks and offensive linemen usually have higher scores. Most teams want at least 21 for a quarterback."
      },
      {
        "title": "Football player",
        "text": "A 2012 study of association football injuries found that 19% of all injuries were muscle injuries, of which 54% affected the thigh muscles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "Lionel Messi of FC Barcelona is the world's second highest-paid player receiving a salary of \u00a329.6 million (over US$45 million) a year after income taxation and which also includes the incomes of Messi's bonuses and endorsements. In the Spanish La Liga, the average salary for the players of Lionel Messi's club FC Barcelona was \u20ac6.5 million for the 2010\u20132011 La Liga season, up from \u20ac5.5 million for the 2009\u20132010 La Liga season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "The average salary of a player in the Chinese Super League was about \u00a510.7 million (\u00a31 million) for the 2011 season, up from \u00a5600,000 in the 2010 season. The highest-paid player for the 2011 Chinese Super League season was Dario Conca of Guangzhou Evergrande who received an annual salary of \u00a567.4 million ($10.5 million) after income tax, putting him among the highest-paid players in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Football player",
        "text": "In 2013, a study on 3.439 retired athletes of the National Football League s with at least 5 credited playing seasons between 1959"
      },
      {
        "title": "Association football",
        "text": "Football is played at a professional level all over the world. Millions of people regularly go to football stadiums to follow their favourite teams, while billions more watch the game on television or on the internet. A very large number of people also play football at an amateur level. According to a survey conducted by FIFA published in 2001, over 240\u00a0million people from more than 200 countries regularly play football. Football has the highest global television audience in sport."
      },
      {
        "title": "Football player",
        "text": "A football player or footballer is a sportsperson who plays one of the different types of football. The main types of football are association football, American football, Canadian football, Australian rules football, Gaelic football, rugby league and rugby union."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional gridiron football",
        "text": "Professional football is considered the highest level of competition in gridiron football. Whereas most of the other major sports leagues draw their players from the minor leagues, the NFL currently draws almost all of its players directly from college football. College football, in turn, recruits players from high school football, with most potential stars receiving athletic scholarships to play. The source for the vast majority of professional football players is the Division I Bowl Subdivision, with most coming from the five conferences with automatic bids into the College Football Playoff bowl games. Under current regulations, players must be at least three years removed from high school graduation to qualify to play in the NFL. Because of these barriers to entry, players who do not play college football have very few options for breaking into the league."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports in the United States",
        "text": "The market for professional sports in the United States is roughly $69 billion, roughly 50% larger than that of all of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa combined. All these leagues enjoy wide-ranging domestic media coverage and, except for Major League Soccer, all are considered the preeminent leagues in their respective sports in the world. Although American football does not have a substantial following in other nations, the NFL does have the highest average attendance (67,254) of any professional sports league in the world. MLS has the second highest average attendance of any sports league in the U.S. (21,789), followed by MLB with an average of 18,900. Of these five U.S.-based leagues, all but the NFL have at least one team in Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Personal finances of professional American athletes",
        "text": "the average salary for the about 500 players in Major League Baseball was slightly more than $2,000 a season ($ today). The star hitter Ty Cobb received $9,000 a season ($ today), and sold automobiles in the off season. While Cobb encouraged young men to play professionally, top pitcher Christy Mathewson\u2014who had made more money as a player than Cobb\u2014warned, \"Keep out of baseball unless you are sure of being a star!\" He stated that the average player did not make enough over a ten-year career to justify devoting those years to the sport."
      },
      {
        "title": "Football player",
        "text": "An observational study held from professional footballers -active (during career) and recently retired (post career, aged more that 45 years)- of 70 countries between 2007 and 2013, elaborated on data of the World Footballers' Union (FIFPro), recorded 214 deaths of which 25% was caused by accidents, 11% by suicides and 33% by a suspected cardiac pathology (on an overall 55% of deaths caused by a some sort of disease)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Personal finances of professional American athletes",
        "text": "\"There's a far shorter peak earnings period than in any other profession\". \"Black Enterprise\" reported in 2003 that \"the average career span for professional basketball, football, and baseball is a mere 4.5 years, 3.2 years, and under five years, respectively.\" A 2007 study found that, excluding pitchers, rookie Major League Baseball players' careers last for 5.6 years on average."
      },
      {
        "title": "Status lists of players in professional sports",
        "text": "Status lists of players in professional sports\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "John Brallier",
        "text": "John Kinport \"Sal\" Brallier (December 12, 1876 \u2013 September 17, 1960) was one of the first professional American football players. He was nationally acknowledged as the first openly paid professional football player when he was given $10 to play for the Latrobe Athletic Association for a game against the Jeanette Athletic Association in 1895."
      },
      {
        "title": "International sport",
        "text": "According to a 2011 A.T. Kearney study of sports teams, leagues and federations, the global sports industry is worth between \u20ac350 billion and \u20ac450 billion (US$480-$620 billion). This includes infrastructure construction, sporting goods, licensed products and live sports events."
      },
      {
        "title": "Football player",
        "text": "American football players are prone to head injuries such as concussions. In later life, this increases the risk of dementia and Alzheimer's. Professional American football players self-reporting concussions are at greater risk for having depressive episodes later in life compared with those retired players self-reporting no concussions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indoor American football",
        "text": "All current indoor football teams play at a minor league or semi-professional level. The average player's salary in the Arena Football League was US$1,800 per game in 2008; this is about one-quarter of the Canadian Football League (adjusted for inflation). Players in af2 were paid $250 per game and the AIFA and IFL had per-game salaries of $200 per game; the AFL paid $885 per game for most players in 2012, with that number rising to $940 per game in 2013 (although players then had to pay for their own housing, which the league previously provided); starting quarterbacks receive a $300 per game bonus. As of 2019, the IFL pays $200-$300 per game, with a $25 bonus for each win. FCF pays $400 to $750 a week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pro-Football-Reference.com",
        "text": "Pro-Football-Reference.com is a website providing a variety of statistics for American football. It is one of the few sites that provides information on both active and retired players. The site provides statistics for teams dating back to 1920. It has statistics for quarterbacks, running backs, receivers, kickers, returners, and punters, as well as some defensive statistics, and Pro Bowl rosters. It also has each team's game-by-game results."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of American football",
        "text": "The origin of professional football can be traced back to 1892, with Pudge Heffelfinger's $500 (estimated $13,246.55 in 2019 dollars) contract to play in a game for the Allegheny Athletic Association against the Pittsburgh Athletic Club. In 1920 the American Professional Football Association was formed. This league changed its name to the National Football League (NFL) two years later, and eventually became the major league of American football. Primarily a sport of Midwestern industrial towns in the United States, professional football eventually became a national phenomenon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lists of association football players",
        "text": "The following are lists of people who play men's football (soccer). For people who play women's football (soccer), see Lists of women's association football players."
      },
      {
        "title": "Football player",
        "text": "Jean-Pierre Papin has described football as a \"universal language\". Footballers across the world and at almost any level may regularly attract large crowds of spectators, and players are the focal points of widespread social phenomena such as association football culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Veikkausliiga",
        "text": "In 2010 the average annual salary with fringe benefits for a league player was 24,400 euros. Veikkausliiga is a founding member of the European Professional Football Leagues association."
      },
      {
        "title": "Football player",
        "text": "In 2015, it was conducted an analysis of 205 deaths among North American professional athletes who were registered as active at time of their decease. Data were collected by the four major sports: National Basketball Association (NBA), National Football League (NFL), National Hockey League (NHL), and Major League Baseball (MLB). The NFL and NBA active players resulted in \"a higher likelihood of dying in a car accident\" and in a significantly higher likelihood of dying from a cardiac-related illness compared to the NHL and MLB active populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Konstantinos Bouloulis",
        "text": "He became a professional football player at 17 years old with total of 162 professional appearances in all Greek categories. He also studied sociology with a degree from Panteion university of Athens."
      },
      {
        "title": "American football",
        "text": "\"Baseball is still called the national pastime, but football is by far the more popular sport in American society\", according to ESPN.com's Sean McAdam. In a 2014 poll conducted by Harris Interactive, professional football ranked as the most popular sport, and college football ranked third behind only professional football and baseball; 46% of participants ranked some form of the game as their favorite sport. Professional football has ranked as the most popular sport in the poll since 1985, when it surpassed baseball for the first time. Professional football is most popular among those who live in the eastern United States and rural areas, while college football is most popular in the southern United States and among people with graduate and post-graduate degrees. Football is also the most-played sport by high school and college athletes in the United States. In a 2012 study, the NCAA estimated there were around 1.1\u00a0million high school football players and nearly 70,000 college football players in the United States; in comparison, the second-most played sport, basketball, had around 1\u00a0million participants in high school and 34,000 in college. The Super Bowl is the most popular single-day sporting event in the United States, and is among the biggest club sporting events in the world in terms of TV viewership. The NFL makes approximately $10\u00a0billion annually. Super Bowl games account for seven of the top eight most-watched broadcasts in American history; Super Bowl XLIX, played on February 1, 2015, was watched by a record 114.4\u00a0million Americans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional football",
        "text": "Professional football may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "American football in the United States",
        "text": "Adult amateur football, also known as semi-pro football, is a level of American football. It is commonly known as \"working man's\" football, meaning the players have regular jobs and play football on the weekends. Though the players do not get paid, the leagues and the games are run in a somewhat professional manner. For most leagues, it is against the rules to pay its players to play. The rules of the game are usually a hybrid of NFL and NCAA rules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Football player",
        "text": "Although levels of depression and pain in retired football players are on par with the societal average, some players suffer from post-retirement chronic injuries. Head injuries are a particular concern."
      },
      {
        "title": "Association football",
        "text": "At a professional level, most matches produce only a few goals. For example, the 2005\u201306 season of the English Premier League produced an average of 2.48 goals per match. The Laws of the Game do not specify any player positions other than goalkeeper, but a number of specialised roles have evolved. Broadly, these include three main categories: strikers, or forwards, whose main task is to score goals; defenders, who specialise in preventing their opponents from scoring; and midfielders, who dispossess the opposition and keep possession of the ball to pass it to the forwards on their team. Players in these positions are referred to as outfield players, to distinguish them from the goalkeeper."
      },
      {
        "title": "TT Pro League",
        "text": "There is no team or individual salary cap in the TT Pro League. However, with the league's founding in 1999, the Pro League established a minimum player salary of TT$18,000 per year. As of the 2013\u201314 season, the average Pro League player wage was between TT$30,000 to TT$50,000 per year; with top players earning up to TT$90,000, which is significantly lower than average salaries in the United States' Major League Soccer (TT$1,032,671) or Football League Two, the fourth tier of English football (TT$419,182). Although individual player salaries are undisclosed, one known player's salary became available with the 4 May 2012 publication of ESPN The Magazine. The magazine stated that Shandel Samuel was the highest earning Vincentian athlete in 2011 with a salary of TT$40,000 while playing for Ma Pau."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional football",
        "text": "Professional football\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional gridiron football",
        "text": "The college football development system is a unique feature in the professional football system, stemming from the fact that the game of American football originated at the college level, unlike other sports that were products of independent clubs. Although ostensibly amateurs, college athletes are compensated with five years of free undergraduate college education (more than enough time to pursue a bachelor's degree), room and board for their time. As a result of the college system, first-time players (rookies) enter professional football older, more mature and more prepared for the professional game than players in other sports."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Perry (American football)",
        "text": "His Super Bowl ring size is the largest of any professional football player in the history of the event. His ring size is 25, while the ring size for the average adult male is between 10 and 12."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "In the Indian Premier League in 2019, players earn an average of $101,444, and a median salary of $72,450, per week. The top-paid players in international cricket in 2017 across the (at the time) 10 Test cricket nations earned anywhere from $90,000 to $1,470,000 (when looking only at contract and match fees)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Health issues in American football",
        "text": "Outside of neurodegenerative disorders, physical injuries sustained during a career can have an adverse effect on post-career life. A 1990 survey conducted jointly between the NFLPA and Ball State University found that 65% of surveyed players had suffered a major injury (defined as one that caused them to miss at least eight games): among players that played before 1959 this number was 42%, but it jumps to 72% among those who played in the 1980s. Additionally, roughly 50% of players who had played in the 1970s and 1980s reported that they retired due to injury, compared to only 32% among those who played prior to 1959. Two-thirds of players reported that injuries they had sustained limited their ability to engage in recreational activity and sports in retirement, while half said their injuries decreased their ability to perform manual labor. A follow-up survey in 1994 found that 47% of recipients reported having arthritis. These reports have been attributed to several factors, including the increase in the use of artificial turf as well as the increasing size and speed of players. Dr. James Andrews, a noted orthopedic surgeon, said that \"athletes are bigger, stronger and running faster, and they're tearing up knees from cutting, changing direction on a dime\". Andrews also noted the increase in the number of non-contact anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries, which he attributed to the size of modern players."
      },
      {
        "title": "Height in sports",
        "text": "A survey of 121 senior player for the Australian Newcastle Knights team, in 2006, found the average player was 182.1\u00a0cm (range 169.0 - 198.0\u00a0cm), with an average mass of 93.0\u00a0kg (range: 73.0 - 127.0\u00a0kg)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Cagle (American football)",
        "text": "Cagle played professional football for five seasons, including the New York Giants from 1930 to 1932. During his final year with the Giants Cagel was the highest paid member of the team, earning a handsome $500 per game \u2014 second in the entire league to the $550 per game earned by superstar halfback Red Grange of the Chicago Bears."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eugene Profit",
        "text": "At the end of his football career in 1990, Profit earned his peak NFL salary of $200,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Football player",
        "text": "Probably due to the repeated trauma associated with heading balls, professional association football has been suggested to increase the incidence of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. In a 1987 study of former Norwegian association football national team players, one third of the players were found to have central cerebral atrophy, \"i.e.\" brain damage. A 1999 study connected soccer to chronic traumatic head injury (CTHI):"
      },
      {
        "title": "1978 NFL season",
        "text": "The average salary for a player in 1978 was under $62,600, up 13.2 percent over the previous year. Fran Tarkenton was the highest-paid quarterback at $360,000 and running back O. J. Simpson was the highest paid player, at just under $733,400."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "Professional sports\n--History.\n----Baseball.\n----American football.\n----Basketball.\n----Cricket.\n----Ice hockey.\n----Rugby football.\n--Opposition to professionalism.\n--Sports salaries.\n----American football.\n----Association football.\n------Chinese Super League.\n------Russian Premier League.\n------Bundesliga.\n------Serie A.\n------La Liga.\n------Premier League.\n------Major League Soccer.\n----Baseball.\n----Cricket.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of gridiron football rules",
        "text": "The XFL paid standardized player salaries. Quarterbacks earned U.S. $5,000 per week, kickers earned $3,500, and all other uniformed players earned $4,500 per week, though a few players got around these restrictions (Los Angeles Xtreme players Noel Prefontaine, the league's lone punting specialist, and Matt Malloy, a wide receiver) by having themselves listed as backup quarterbacks. Players on a winning team received a bonus of $2,500 for the week, $7,500 for winning a playoff game. The team that won the championship game split $1,000,000 (roughly $25,000 per player). Furthermore, players did not receive any fringe benefits, meaning players had to pay for their own health insurance."
      },
      {
        "title": "American football",
        "text": "Football is a full-contact sport, and injuries are relatively common. Most injuries occur during training sessions, particularly ones that involve contact between players. To try to prevent injuries, players are required to wear a set of equipment. At a minimum players must wear a football helmet and a set of shoulder pads, but individual leagues may require additional padding such as thigh pads and guards, knee pads, chest protectors, and mouthguards. Most injuries occur in the lower extremities, particularly in the knee, but a significant number also affect the upper extremities. The most common types of injuries are strains, sprains, bruises, fractures, dislocations, and concussions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Latrobe Athletic Association",
        "text": "While Brallier was considered the first professional football player and deemed a national icon for many years, it wasn't until after his death in 1960 that evidence proved John Brallier was not in fact the first professional football player, but merely the first one to openly admit that he was being paid. William \"Pudge\" Heffelfinger of the Allegheny Athletic Association is now considered the first professional player."
      },
      {
        "title": "United Football League (2009\u20132012)",
        "text": "In 2010, players earned $6,250 per game, for a total of $50,000 in the regular season; participants in the 2010 UFL Championship Game were paid a total of $10,000 each, with an additional $10,000 going to each player on the winning team. Starting quarterbacks earned a $200,000 salary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iraqi Professional Players",
        "text": "2014- Officially recognised by the Iraq Football Association as the only source for database of Iraqi origin sportspersons in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lists of American football players",
        "text": "Lists of American football players include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Comparisons between the National Football League and NCAA football",
        "text": "The National Football League (NFL) and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) are respectively the most popular professional and amateur football organizations in the United States. The National Football League was founded in 1920 and has since become the largest and most popular sport in the United States. The NFL has the highest average attendance of any sporting league in the world, with an average attendance of 66,960 persons per game during the 2011 NFL season. While the NFL championship game, the Super Bowl, is a large sporting event in club sports it does not compare in popularity to cricket and international football (soccer), which both have billions of spectators. It is played between the champions of the National Football Conference (NFC) and the American Football Conference (AFC), and its winner is awarded the Vince Lombardi Trophy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Football player",
        "text": "Footballers generally begin as amateurs and the best players progress to become professional players. Normally they start at a youth team (any local team) and from there, based on skill and talent, scouts offer contracts. Once signed, some learn to play better football and a few advance to the senior or professional teams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Football player",
        "text": "A 2000 study documented injuries sustained by Czech [association] football players at all levels:"
      },
      {
        "title": "FA Vase",
        "text": "Until 1974, football players were either professionals or amateurs. Professionals were paid to play by their clubs, and the only cup competitions such clubs were allowed to enter were the FA Cup and, after 1969, for clubs outside the Football League, the FA Trophy. Amateurs, on the other hand, were not paid (at least not officially) by their clubs, and such clubs had their own cup competition, the FA Amateur Cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike Kelley (American football)",
        "text": "https://www.pro-football-reference.com/players/K/KellMi21.htm"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lists of American football players",
        "text": "Lists of American football players\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Football player",
        "text": "A 1983 study of rugby players found that the life expectancy of All Blacks is the same as for the general population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "The highest-paid player for the 2011\u20132012 Russian Premier League season was Samuel Eto'o of Anzhi Makhachkala, who at the end of the 2011\u201312 season was expected to receive a total salary of RUB 900.2 million (\u00a335.7 million) after income tax, making Eto'o the second highest-earning athlete in the world and the highest-paid footballer in the world followed by Lionel Messi and Zlatan Ibrahimovi\u0107."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soufiane Touzani",
        "text": "He dreamed of becoming a professional football player. But when he was sixteen years old, it turned out he had a deviation to his back. This scoliosis was the reason for putting an iron pin of 30 centimeters in his back. As a result he was only allowed to play keepy-uppy. He found out that he had some exceptional skills, while doing this."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional gridiron football",
        "text": "The first record of an American football player receiving \"pay for play\" came in 1892 with Pudge Heffelfinger's $500 contract to play in a game for the Allegheny Athletic Association against the Pittsburgh Athletic Club, with the second being Ben \"Sport\" Donnelly's $250 contract to play for the same team the next week; the sums were very large by the standards of the day, and like most payment arrangements, both players denied any payment ever took place for much of their lives. For several years afterwards, individual players and sometimes entire teams received compensation to play in \"barnstorming\" type games without rigid schedules and against a variety of opponents. John Brallier became the first open professional after accepting $10 to play for the Latrobe Athletic Association; Latrobe became the first all-professional club soon after. William Chase Temple would become the first man to directly bankroll a football team himself when he assumed \"ownership\" of the Duquesne Country and Athletic Club in either 1898 or 1899. Throughout the 1890s, the Western Pennsylvania Professional Football Circuit would act as the \"de facto\" major league (and, in fact, the \"only\" professional circuit) for football in the United States; it, like many of its successors, was not a \"league\" in the modern sense of a formalized organization, but rather an informal group of teams in free association with each other and any other team willing to play them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lists of association football players",
        "text": "Lists of association football players\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports in the United States",
        "text": "The following table shows the professional sports leagues, which average over 15,000 fans per game and that have a national TV contract that pays rights fees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Question of Sport",
        "text": "2 footballers:<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "2013 Pro Bowl",
        "text": "Players on the winning team (NFC) each earned $50,000, while players on the losing team (AFC) earned $25,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Brallier",
        "text": "While Brallier was considered the first professional football player and deemed a national icon for many years, it was not until after his death in 1960 that evidence proved John Brallier was not in fact the first professional football player, but merely the first one to openly admit he was paid. William \"Pudge\" Heffelfinger of the Allegheny Athletic Association is now considered the first professional player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bavarian Football Association",
        "text": "The \"BFV\" categorises players in three groups, amateurs, contracted players and licensed players. The Bavarian FA's definition of an amateur is a player who is not paid for its participation in a game and receives no more than \u20ac249.99 per month in compensations. It also sub-divides professionals in contracted players and licensed players. A contracted player is a player who is a member of a club who also receives payments in excess of \u20ac250 while a licensed player is a full professional."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports in the United States",
        "text": "The NFL has the highest average attendance (67,591) of any professional sports league in the world and has the highest revenue out of any single professional sports league."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim Kearney (American football)",
        "text": "Other American Football League players"
      },
      {
        "title": "College athletics in the United States",
        "text": "\"The average fair market value of top-tier college football and men's basketball players is over $100,000 each. If college sports shared their revenues the way pro sports do, the average Football Bowl Subdivision player would be worth $121,000 per year, while the average basketball player at that level would be worth $265,000. Out of 332 schools currently competing in the NCAA Division I, fewer than a dozen have athletic departments that are making a profit. 14 of the 120 programs that comprise the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) are profitable. 88% of the top football programs in the country are losing money. Most universities are unable to pay for these athletes, along with the coaches and renovations on stadiums, out of money earned from athletics. Kenny Mossman of the University of Oklahoma (OU), estimated that the cost to OU would be $3.6 million a year if stipends were $1,000 a month."
      },
      {
        "title": "PRO Rugby",
        "text": "Each team had a roster limit of 30 players, five of whom could have been foreign players. All player contracts were held by the league, not by the individual teams. Players earned salaries, on average, of around $25,000, with national team players making closer to $40,000. The top players in the competition earned up to $70,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Semi-professional sports",
        "text": "Lower-end minor leagues and more obscure sports often operate at a semi-professional level due to cost concerns. Because the cost of running a fully professional American football team is prohibitive, semi-pro football is common at the adult levels, particularly in the indoor variety, providing an outlet for players who have used up their NCAA eligibility and have no further use for maintaining amateur status; as a sport that normally plays only one game per week, American football is especially suited for semi-pro play. The National Lacrosse League, whose teams also typically play only one game per week, pays a salary that is enough to be considered fully professional, but players also are able to pursue outside employment to supplement their income. The lowest levels of organized baseball are also effectively semi-professional, as the short summer seasons and low salaries require players to hold jobs in the offseason to make ends meet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anterior cruciate ligament injury",
        "text": "Rates of re-rupture among college athletes were highest in male football players with 15 per 10,000, followed by female gymnasts with 8 per 10,000 and female soccer players with 5.2 per 10,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Concussions in American football",
        "text": "Youth athletes make up 70% of football players in the United States. Every year there are 23,000 nonfatal traumatic brain injuries stemming from playing football that required an emergency visit to the hospital. Of those visits, 90% of them are children between the ages of 5\u201318 years old."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amputee football",
        "text": "Amputee football is a disabled sport played with seven players on each team (six outfield players and one goalkeeper). Outfield players have lower extremity amputations, and goalkeepers have an upper extremity amputation. Outfield players use loftstrand (forearm) crutches, and play without their prosthesis."
      },
      {
        "title": "American football",
        "text": "The National Football League (NFL) and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) are the most popular football leagues in the United States. The National Football League was founded in 1920 and has since become the largest and most popular sport in the United States. The NFL has the highest average attendance of any sporting league in the world, with an average attendance of 66,960 during the 2011 NFL season. The NFL championship game is called the Super Bowl, and is among the biggest events in club sports worldwide. It is played between the champions of the National Football Conference (NFC) and the American Football Conference (AFC), and its winner is awarded the Vince Lombardi Trophy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major women's sport leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "The annual average salary in Women's Professional Soccer (WPS) was $32,000 in 2009. Players salaries can vary (i.e. Marta would have received a salary of $400,000 during the last three seasons 2009\u20132011)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional gridiron football",
        "text": "In North America, the top level of professional football is the National Football League, with the Canadian Football League second to the NFL in prominence and pay grade. Despite the much lower level of pay, the CFL has greater popularity in Canada because of its long history in the country, the NFL's limited presence in Canada, and a general environment of Canadian cultural protectionism."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the most popular professional sport in the world?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "According to A.T. Kearney, The world's most accessible and practised sport is running, while association football is the most popular spectator sport."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How much do professional football players make on average?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "It depends, the average wages of a premier league player are about $1 million per year, but can go up to $70 million per year for the best players. MLS players earn on average $148,693 and women in the National Women's Soccer League earn $15,000 to $40,000  a year.",
      "Players in the Premier League earn average wages of about $1 million per year. The average annual salary for footballers in Major League Soccer (which started in 2009) for the 2013 season was $148,693, while players in the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL)  earn $15,000 to $40,000 per year as of January 2017."
    ],
    "topic": "Professional sports",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Football player:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Football player",
          "Career",
          "Wages"
        ],
        "ctx": "Wages in some top men's leagues are significantly higher than other jobs. Players in the Premier League earn average wages of about $1 million per year. In the wealthiest clubs in European football leagues, some players earn an average wage up to $6 to $8 million per year. The best players of those clubs can earn up to $70 million per year."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Football player:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Football player",
          "Career",
          "Wages"
        ],
        "ctx": "However, only a fraction of men's professional football players are paid at this level. Wages may be much more moderate in other divisions and leagues, and a significant number of players are semi-professional. For example, the average annual salary for footballers in Major League Soccer (which started in 2009) for the 2013 season was $148,693, with significant variations depending on player position (goalkeepers for example earned $85,296, whereas forwards earned $251,805)."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Football player:7",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Football player",
          "Career",
          "Wages"
        ],
        "ctx": "Popularity and average salaries in women's leagues are far lower. For example, players in the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) (which started in 2012) earn $15,000 to $40,000 per year as of January 2017."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Football player:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Football player",
          "Career",
          "Wages"
        ],
        "ctx": "Wages in some top men's leagues are significantly higher than other jobs. Players in the Premier League earn average wages of about $1 million per year. In the wealthiest clubs in European football leagues, some players earn an average wage up to $6 to $8 million per year. The best players of those clubs can earn up to $70 million per year."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Football player:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Football player",
          "Career",
          "Wages"
        ],
        "ctx": "However, only a fraction of men's professional football players are paid at this level. Wages may be much more moderate in other divisions and leagues, and a significant number of players are semi-professional. For example, the average annual salary for footballers in Major League Soccer (which started in 2009) for the 2013 season was $148,693, with significant variations depending on player position (goalkeepers for example earned $85,296, whereas forwards earned $251,805)."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Football player:7",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Football player",
          "Career",
          "Wages"
        ],
        "ctx": "Popularity and average salaries in women's leagues are far lower. For example, players in the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) (which started in 2012) earn $15,000 to $40,000 per year as of January 2017."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Football player",
        "text": "Popularity and average salaries in women's leagues are far lower. For example, players in the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) (which started in 2012) earn $15,000 to $40,000 per year as of January 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trinity Rodman",
        "text": "Trinity Rodman (born May 20, 2002) is an American professional soccer player who plays as a forward for Washington Spirit of the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) and the United States women's national soccer team. At age 18, she became the youngest drafted player in NWSL history after being selected second in the 2021 NWSL College Draft. Rodman earned NWSL Rookie of the Year, NWSL Best XI, and U.S. Soccer Young Female Player of the Year honors following her first season in 2021. , she is the highest paid player in the league."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major women's sport leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "The National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) is the top level professional women's soccer league in the United States. It began play in spring 2013 with eight teams; four of them were former members of Women's Professional Soccer (WPS), which had been the top women's league in the United States soccer pyramid before its folding in 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amanda Duffy (soccer)",
        "text": "Her work with the NWSL led to AdWeek naming her one of the 35 most influential women in sports in 2017. She was promoted to president, the league's highest office, on January 15, 2019. She announced her intention to step down from the role in January 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trinity Rodman",
        "text": "On November 17, 2021, Rodman was named NWSL Rookie of the Year and to the NWSL Best XI. She earned U.S. Soccer Young Female Player of the Year honors the following month. On February 2, 2022, Rodman signed a contract extension with the Washington Spirit running until after the 2024 season, with an option for 2025. It was reported that the new contract was worth $1.1 million dollars, making Rodman the highest paid player in NWSL history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lauren Holiday",
        "text": "In 2007, she was named U.S. Soccer Young Female Athlete of the Year. She earned U.S. Soccer Female Athlete of the Year honors in 2014. She was the first player in NWSL history to have her jersey retired after retiring from the league."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women's soccer in the United States",
        "text": "High operating and travel costs, the lack of TV rights and sponsorship agreements and corresponding lack of funding for salaries and training and development facilities, and the lack of affiliation with profitable men's professional clubs have all hampered the growth of professional women's leagues in the United States. The NWSL, now the longest-lasting professional women's soccer league in the United States, pays salaries as low as $7,200 per year, an amount that falls beneath every government-recognized poverty line in the United States and is less than an equivalent Federal minimum wage job of 40 hours per week. Its highest-paid players who lack a national team affiliation face a maximum cap of $39,700 and teams are held to a salary cap of $278,000, while some players join teams under amateur agreements where the players cannot be paid even if they take the field or start the game. This is far less than the NWSL's predecessors, such as the WPS, where the average salary of $32,000 was almost double the NWSL's maximum average salary of $16,850. It is also poorly competitive with European leagues, which can readily pay salaries to players of the same talent more than $100,000 per year."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League attendance",
        "text": "The National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) is the top-tier professional women's soccer league in the United States and Canada. Founded in 2013, the 2019 season saw an average 7,337 spectators among the 9 teams, the highest average attendance in league history. Its overall attendance in 2019 was also its highest ever, with 792,409 total. The NWSL has the highest average attendance per game among all women's professional sports leagues in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League on television",
        "text": "The National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) is a professional women's soccer league owned by the teams, and under a management contract with the United States Soccer Federation. At the top of the United States league system, it represents the sport's highest level in the United States. The NWSL was established in 2012 as a successor to Women's Professional Soccer (2007\u20132012), which was itself the successor to Women's United Soccer Association (2001\u20132003). The league began play in 2013 with eight teams, four of which were former members of Women's Professional Soccer (Chicago Red Stars, Boston Breakers, Sky Blue FC, Western New York Flash)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports in the United States",
        "text": "Women's professional soccer in the United States has not seen sustained success. Following the demise of two professional leagues in the early 21st century, the Women's United Soccer Association (1999\u20132001) and Women's Professional Soccer (2009\u20132011), U.S. Soccer established a new National Women's Soccer League in 2013. The NWSL has now survived longer than both of its two professional predecessors combined. Of its current 12 teams, six share ownership with professional men's clubs\u2014three are wholly owned by MLS team owners, two are wholly owned by USL sides (one each in the USLC and USL1), and another is primarily owned by a French Ligue 1 side. However, at the lower levels of the salary scale, the NWSL was until very recently effectively semi-professional. While minimum salaries are still vastly lower than those in men's leagues (as of 2022, $35,000), players generally enjoy at least a middle-class standard of living because the salary figures do not include team-provided housing and transportation allowances."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League Players Association",
        "text": "the NWSLPA is led by executive director Meghann Burke and president Tori Huster. The executive team is advised by an advisory board and a group of player representatives of two players per each NWSL team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major women's sport leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "The overall record attendance for the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) was 27,278 and was set on August 29, 2021 when the OL Reign played the Portland Thorns FC at Lumen Field in Seattle as part of a doubleheader that also featured a Major League Soccer (MLS) match between the rivals, the Seattle Sounders FC and the Portland Timbers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major women's sport leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "The annual average salary in Women's Professional Soccer (WPS) was $32,000 in 2009. Players salaries can vary (i.e. Marta would have received a salary of $400,000 during the last three seasons 2009\u20132011)."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League",
        "text": "The National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) is a professional women's soccer league at the top of the United States league system. It is owned by the teams and, until 2020, was under a management contract with the United States Soccer Federation."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "The National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) federation players were players whose salaries for playing in the NWSL were paid for by their respective national federations from 2013 to 2021. American federation players were contracted to the United States Soccer Federation (USSF) and not to their respective NWSL clubs, whereas Canadian federation players were contracted directly to their respective NWSL clubs. Federation players were sometimes known as allocated players, allocation players, or subsidized players, which occasionally created confusion with players paid using the NWSL's \"allocation money,\" a mechanism introduced before the 2020 NWSL season."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "On August 9, Janine Beckie signed a one-year deal with Manchester City of the FA Women's Super League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Becky Sauerbrunn",
        "text": "A new professional league, the National Women's Soccer League, was announced in November 2012. On January 11, 2013, Sauerbrunn was allocated to FC Kansas City via the NWSL Player Allocation, which distributed national team players from the United States, Canada, and Mexico to teams within in the NWSL. She was one of three members of the United States women's national team that was allocated to FC Kansas City, along with Nicole Barnhart and Lauren Holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League",
        "text": "Bold indicates active NWSL players."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League Players Association",
        "text": "The NWSLPA was formed in May 2017 under the leadership of Yael Averbuch and represented by lawyer and former WPS player Meghann Burke. The NWSLPA officially unionized in November 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League Players Association",
        "text": "The National Women's Soccer League Players Association (often known as NWSL Players Association or NWSLPA) is the officially recognized union of players in the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brooke Elby",
        "text": "In 2019, Elby was elected president of the National Women's Soccer League Players Association (NWSLPA), succeeding Yael Averbuch. Following her retirement from professional soccer, Elby will assume the role of co-executive director at the NWSLPA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crystal Dunn",
        "text": "On November 11, 2021, Dunn announced that she and Soubrier were expecting their first child together in May 2022.\n* List of most expensive association football transfers\n* NWSL federation players\n* List of United States women's national soccer team hat-tricks\n* List of American and Canadian soccer champions\n* List of foreign FA Women's Super League players\n* List of University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Olympians\n* List of University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill alumni"
      },
      {
        "title": "Metropolitan Riveters",
        "text": "On May 1, 2016, the Riveters signed free agent Amanda Kessel to a one-year deal worth $26,000, making her the highest paid player in the league. At the 2016 NWHL Draft, held in Brooklyn, the Riveters held the first overall pick for the second consecutive year and selected Kelsey Koelzer from the Princeton Tigers women's ice hockey program."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women's professional sports",
        "text": "In November 2012, the US, Mexican, and Canadian soccer federations announced the establishment of the National Women's Soccer League, which began to play in 2013. The US and Canadian federations remain involved with the NWSL; the Mexican federation withdrew after establishing Liga MX Femenil in 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League",
        "text": "Active non-United States federation players, including unpaid amateur players, announced their formation of the NWSL Players Association (NWSLPA) on May 15, 2017, as the first step toward forming a union. The NWSL recognized the NWSLPA as the players' union on November 15, 2018. the NWSLPA is led by civil rights attorney and former WPS players' union organizer Meghann Burke."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sam Mewis",
        "text": "Individual\n* U.S. Soccer Female Player of the Year: 2020\n*NWSL Best XI: 2017\n*ESPN FC Women's Rank: #1 on the 2021 list of 50 best women's soccer players\n*FA WSL PFA Team of the Year: 2020\u201321\n*Honda Sports Award 2015"
      },
      {
        "title": "Women's soccer in the United States",
        "text": "The highest women's professional soccer league in the United States is the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL), which was established in 2012 as a successor to Women's Professional Soccer and is run by the United States Soccer Federation (USSF). The league began with eight teams and reached a maximum size of ten teams before contracting to nine in 2018, with the most recent expansion being the Utah Royals FC. The NWSL season runs from April to August or September, with each team scheduled for twenty-four regular season games, twelve each at home and on the road. The NWSL is the third attempt at a women's professional league in the U.S. and has been the most resilient, expanding to 10 teams in 2016 and becoming the first to play two seasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Becky Sauerbrunn",
        "text": "Rebecca Elizabeth Sauerbrunn (born June 6, 1985) is an American professional soccer player for Portland Thorns FC of the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL), the highest division of women's professional soccer in the United States. Since 2021, Sauerbrunn is the captain of the United States women's national soccer team. She previously captained Utah Royals FC and, from 2016 to 2018, co-captained the national team with Carli Lloyd."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of foreign NWSL players",
        "text": "An asterisk (*) indicates the player's NWSL salary is/was paid for by her nation's federation."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League attendance",
        "text": "The following table compares the NWSL regular season average attendance against the regular season average attendance for other professional women's sports leagues in North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heather O'Reilly",
        "text": "North Carolina Courage\n*NWSL Champions: 2018, 2019\n*NWSL Shield: 2018, 2019\n*Olympic Gold Medal: 2004, 2008, 2012\n*FIFA Women's World Cup: 2015\n*FIFA U-19 Women's World Championship: 2002\n* NWSL Second Best XI: 2014\n* FIFA Puskas Award Nominee: 2011\n* WPS All-Star Team: 2010\n* MVP, WPS Championship Game: 2009\n* WPS All-Star team selection: 2009, 2010\n* Soccer America Player of the Year Award: 2006\n* College Cup Offensive MVP: 2003, 2006\n* ACC Offensive Player of the Year: 2005\n* ESPN the Magazine All-Academic Player of the Year: 2006\n* Gatorade National High School Girls' Soccer Player of the Year: 2002\n* For their first match of March 2019, the women of the United States women's national soccer team each wore a jersey with the name of a woman they were honoring on the back; Kelley O'Hara chose the name of Heather O'Reilly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicole Barnhart",
        "text": "On January 11, 2013, Barnhart was one of three members from the United States women's national team that was allocated to the new NWSL club FC Kansas City, along with Lauren Cheney and Becky Sauerbrunn via the NWSL Player Allocation. Her 2013 regular-season record of ten scoreless \"clean sheet\" games remained until surpassed by Adrianna Franch in a longer, 2017 season. In August 2013, she was named NWSL Goalkeeper of the Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "After the Women's World Cup, many allocated players announced or discussed their plans to retire from national and club football. Shannon Boxx did not finished the season NWSL season with her club; Lauren Holiday and Karina LeBlanc did. Abby Wambach, who passed on the entire 2015 season, officially announced her retirement the day the USWNT visited the White House as part of their 2015 World Cup victory celebrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tori Huster",
        "text": "Victoria Lauren Huster (born September 23, 1989) is an American soccer midfielder currently playing for Washington Spirit of the NWSL. In 2020, she was elected president of the National Women's Soccer League Players Association."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kristen Hamilton",
        "text": "In 2012 the USL W-League was the highest tier of professional women's soccer in the US and Hamilton enjoyed a great season scoring 6 times in 10 games against some of the best players in the country. Hamilton was able to lead the Colorado Rapids to a successful Inaugural season finishing 4th of 8 teams in the Western Conference, arguably the strongest conference in the USL W-League."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL Player of the Week",
        "text": "The National Women's Soccer League Player of the Week is a weekly soccer award given to individual players in the National Women's Soccer League. The honor is awarded to the player deemed to have put in the best performances over the past week by a panel of journalists who regularly cover the league."
      },
      {
        "title": "Premier Hockey Federation",
        "text": "The National Women's Hockey League (NWHL) was formed by Dani Rylan in March 2015 with an estimated $2.5\u00a0million operating budget. It was the first women's professional hockey league to pay its players. Prior to the league's formation, the only choice for top level women's hockey in North America was the Canadian Women's Hockey League (CWHL), which at the time paid bonuses and incentives but not salaries. The league's inaugural season ran on a salary cap of US$270,000 maximum per team and a $10,000 minimum per player. The players also earn 15% of profits from any NWHL jersey sold with their name on it. The league placed its four original teams in markets where many young girls play ice hockey: the New York City area, Buffalo, and New England."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of National Women's Soccer League stadiums",
        "text": "The National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) is the highest-level professional soccer league for women in the United States. The league will have 12 teams in the 2022 NWSL season. Ten of those teams have one primary stadium for home games; the Washington Spirit split their home games between two stadiums in the Washington metropolitan area, and San Diego Wave FC will begin NWSL play in 2022 at one San Diego venue before moving within the city to its permanent home late in that season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major women's sport leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "The Portland Thorns FC averaged more than 13,000 attendance at Providence Park in each of the NWSL's first seven seasons, with an all-time high of 20,098 in the 2019 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL Player of the Month",
        "text": "The National Women's Soccer League Player of the Month is a monthly soccer award given to individual players in the National Women's Soccer League. The honor is awarded to the player deemed to have put in the best performances over the past month by a panel of journalists who regularly cover the league."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bella Bixby",
        "text": "Bixby has taken part in the NWSLPA's #NoMoreSideHustles campaign for better compensation for women's football players, revealing that she had to have a second job for Uber for a year while playing in the NWSL."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karina LeBlanc",
        "text": "For her performance in her last professional match LeBlanc was named NWSL Player of the week of week 21."
      },
      {
        "title": "Monica Abbott",
        "text": "In May 2016, the Scrap Yard Dawgs, a National Pro Fastpitch team, signed Abbott to a six-year contract, believed to be worth $1 million and the highest salary paid by a professional women's sports team in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "Heather Mitts retired before the season started, Amy LePeilbet was out with injury all summer, and Amy Rodriguez took the season off due to pregnancy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kaleigh Fratkin",
        "text": "However, when the Premier Hockey Federation\u00a0was founded that summer by Dani Rylan as the first women's hockey league to offer all players a salary, she decided to take a chance and sign with the Connecticut Whale. She was the first Canadian player to sign a contract in the new league and would be the highest paid Canadian in the league that year, with a $20,000 salary. She was named the assistant captain for the team ahead of the league's inaugural season. On December 31, she was one of three Connecticut Whale players (including Kate Buesser and Shannon Doyle) who were loaned to the Boston Pride for one day to participate in the 2016 Outdoor Women's Classic against the CWHL's Les Canadiennes de Montr\u00e9al, the first outdoor professional women's hockey game. She finished the year with 17 points in 18 games, leading all NWHL defenders in points and being named to the 1st NWHL All-Star Game, which took place on January 24, 2016, at the Harbor Center in Buffalo, New York."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major women's sport leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "Despite often claiming professional status, only a few women's leagues pay their players, such as the Premier Hockey Federation (PHF), National Women's Soccer League (NWSL), and Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). Many of the professional leagues pay less than a livable wage, while also offering other incentives in order to claim professional status."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL Players' Awards",
        "text": "The National Women's Soccer League Players Association Awards (often called the NWSLPA Awards or the NWSL Players' Awards) are annual awards voted on by the players of the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) since 2019. These awards are presented by the National Women's Soccer League Players Association (NWSLPA), the trade union representing non-allocated players in the NWSL. They are considered one of the major end-of-season awards for NWSL players alongside the league's own awards. As there are often differences between the league's own awards and the NWSL Players' Awards, many NWSL players consider the NWSL Players' Awards to be more prestigious as they are decided by only players themselves."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sport in Mexico",
        "text": "Mexico stopped allocating players to the NWSL management of the United States, having established its own women's league the Liga MX Femenil in 2017, and the numbers of allocated players and international players on each team vary each year due to trades. Maribel Dom\u00ednguez was a noted captain and leading scorer of the Mexico women's national football team. She is known internationally as \"Marigol\" for her record of 46 goals scored in 49 matches for the Mexico women's national team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emily Zurrer",
        "text": "On January 11, 2013, as part of the NWSL Player Allocation, Zurrer joined the Seattle Reign FC in the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL). She played in seven games for the Reign, tallying 583 minutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL records and statistics",
        "text": "The following is a compilation of notable records and statistics for teams and players in the National Women's Soccer League, which started in 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crystal Dunn",
        "text": "Dunn played collegiate soccer with the North Carolina Tar Heels from 2010 to 2013 and was awarded the 2012 Hermann Trophy for best college soccer player. She was a member of the team that won the 2012 FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup in Japan. Following her collegiate career, Dunn was selected first overall by the Washington Spirit in the 2014 NWSL College Draft that took place on January 17, 2014. The following year, she won the NWSL Most Valuable Player and the Golden Boot awards, becoming the youngest player to win both awards, at age 23."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yael Averbuch West",
        "text": "Averbuch was instrumental in the creation of the National Women's Soccer League Players Association in May 2017. She served as president and the NWSLPA was officially recognized as the exclusive bargaining representative of NWSL Players in November 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League attendance",
        "text": "National Women's Soccer League attendance\n--2019 season.\n--Season averages.\n--NWSL attendance vs. other leagues.\n----vs. other North American women's professional leagues.\n----vs. other North American professional soccer leagues.\n----vs. other worldwide women's top-division soccer leagues.\n--Individual game highest attendance.\n----NWSL Championship playoffs.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jennifer Nobis",
        "text": "In her first of two seasons (2006\u20132007) with the River Cities Futbol Club, Nobis was named 2006 WPSL Player of the Year and led the WPSL in scoring and total points. She scored 10 goals in 8 matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "DiDi Hara\u010di\u0107",
        "text": "Hara\u010di\u0107 started her professional career with D.C. United Women between 2011 and 2012 where she would make 7 appearances during that time. When the D.C. United Women rebranded as the Washington Spirit in 2013 to compete in the newly formed NWSL, Hara\u010di\u0107 stayed with the organization as the starting keeper for the Reserves playing all 12 matches and posting a 0.580 goals against average."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sommer West",
        "text": "In 2005-06, she led the league in points and was voted NWHL Offensive Player of the Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major women's sport leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "Major women's sport leagues in the United States and Canada\n--Overview of professional leagues.\n--Attendance.\n----National Women's Soccer League (NWSL).\n----Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA).\n----Women's Professional Soccer League (WPS).\n--Television broadcasting.\n--Player salaries.\n--Player development.\n--Women's basketball leagues.\n----Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA).\n--Women's ice hockey leagues.\n----Canadian Women's Hockey League (CWHL).\n----Premier Hockey Federation (PHF).\n--Women's soccer leagues.\n----National Women's Soccer League (NWSL).\n----Women's Premier Soccer League (WPSL).\n----United Women's Soccer (UWS).\n----United Soccer League Super League (USL Super League).\n----Defunct soccer leagues.\n------Women's Professional Soccer (WPS).\n------Women's Premier Soccer League Elite (WPSL).\n------United Soccer League Women's League (USL W-League).\n--Women's softball leagues.\n----National Pro Fastpitch (NPF).\n----Defunct softball leagues.\n--Other women's sports leagues.\n----Women's Flat Track Derby Association (WFTDA).\n----National Ringette League (NRL).\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rachel Van Hollebeke",
        "text": "National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) season. Van Hollebeke retires"
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "On July 7, 2021, Diana Matheson retired from professional soccer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women's professional sports",
        "text": "The National Women's Hockey League (NWHL), now called the Premier Hockey Federation (PHF), is a women's professional ice hockey league in the United States. The league was established in 2015 with four teams. The league has since grown to six teams: the Boston Pride, Buffalo Beauts, Connecticut Whale, Metropolitan Riveters, Minnesota Whitecaps, and the PHF's first Canadian team, the Toronto Six. The league debuted as the first women's professional ice hockey league to pay its players."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States Soccer Federation",
        "text": "The National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) is the professional, top-division league in North America and as of 2020, is composed of nine teams based in the U.S. The league has announced expansion plans for Racing Louisville FC in 2021 and Los Angeles' Angel City FC in 2022. Two professional, top-division leagues preceded the NWSL: the Women's United Soccer Association (WUSA), which featured many players from the 1999 FIFA Women's Cup-winning team (as well as other national teams), ran from 2001 to 2003 and Women's Professional Soccer (WPS) ran from 2009 to 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Best Female Football Player of the Year Award (Europe)",
        "text": "1 FA WSL 1 Players' Player of the Year award"
      },
      {
        "title": "Major women's sport leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "In 2015, the Premier Hockey Federation (PHF) was established as the National Women's Hockey League (NWHL) with the purpose of being the first professional women's ice hockey league in North America that paid its players."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League attendance",
        "text": "The following table compares the NWSL regular season average attendance against the regular season average attendance for other professional soccer leagues in North America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Dunlap-Seivold",
        "text": "In a vote conducted by Washington Youth Soccer in 2016, Dunlap-Seivold was included by the soccer community in the Top 50 Women Players ranking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Misogyny in ice hockey",
        "text": "Player salaries in professional women's hockey leagues are often extremely low even in the most elite leagues and have mostly been a recent development in the sport. The National Women's Hockey League (now renamed the Premier Hockey League) became the first league to offer a salary to all its players when it formed in 2015, but cut those salaries in half after only a year. In both the former NWHL and the now-defunct Canadian Women's Hockey League (CWHL), the highest paid players received around $10,000 per year."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League",
        "text": "The 12 NWSL teams are spread across the United States. Each club is allowed a minimum of 20 players on their roster, with a maximum of 22 players (26 including supplemental players) allowed at any time during the season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports in Seattle",
        "text": "In 2014 \u2013 the second regular season of the U.S. National Women's Soccer League \u2013 Seattle Reign FC, now known as OL Reign, attained the highest season point total of all nine league teams to receive their first NWSL Shield award. The Reign became the league's first team to repeat this achievement when they defeated the Boston Breakers at Memorial Stadium on August 26, 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major women's sport leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "The record attendance for a standalone NWSL game was 25,218 (a sellout crowd) on August 11, 2019 between the Portland Thorns FC and the North Carolina Courage at Providence Park in Portland, Oregon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rachel Daly",
        "text": "In the 2018 season, Daly was named Player of the Week for week 9, as well as Player of the Month for the month of May. Daly started all 24 games for the Dash and scored a career high 10 goals. She was voted team MVP and named to the NWSL Second XI for the 2018 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taryn Hemmings",
        "text": "On February 5, 2013, she joined Chicago Red Stars in the new National Women's Soccer League. On July 14, week 15 of the NWSL 2013 season, she injured her left knee, defending against FC Kansas City; and was out for the rest of the season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women's Premier Soccer League",
        "text": "The Women's Premier Soccer League (WPSL) is an amateur women's soccer league in the United States and Canada. It is the top amateur league for women's soccer in the United States soccer pyramid, below only National Women's Soccer League (NWSL). The WPSL is the longest-running active women's soccer league as it enters its 23rd season in 2021 \u2013 the 2020 season was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The WPSL is also the largest women's soccer league in the United States, North America and the world with 135 active teams."
      },
      {
        "title": "2013 National Women's Soccer League season",
        "text": "The 2013 National Women's Soccer League season was the inaugural season of the National Women's Soccer League, the top division of women's soccer in the United States. Including the NWSL's two professional predecessors, Women's Professional Soccer (2009\u20132011) and the Women's United Soccer Association (2001\u20132003), this was the seventh overall season of FIFA and USSF-sanctioned top division women's soccer in the United States. The league was (and is) operated by the United States Soccer Federation and receives major financial backing from that body. Further financial backing was provided by the Canadian Soccer Association and the Mexican Football Federation. All three national federations paid the league salaries of many of their respective national team members in an effort to nurture talent in those nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Whitney Engen",
        "text": "Following the folding of the WPS in 2012, the United States Soccer Federation formed a new professional soccer league, the National Women's Soccer League, which played its inaugural season in 2013. Although Engen opted to play in Liverpool for the 2013 season, Engen was allocated to NWSL expansion team Houston Dash via the 2014 NWSL Player Allocation in January 2014 She made her first appearance for the team on June 8 in a match against Sky Blue FC. Engen made a total of 11 appearances for the team in the regular season, playing a total of 978 minutes. The Dash finished last in the league and did not advance to the playoffs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cecilie Pedersen (Norwegian footballer)",
        "text": "Pedersen hails from F\u00f8rde in Sveio. She played for SK Haugar until she moved to Avaldsnes IL ahead of the 2009 season on a three-year contract that reportedly made her one of the highest paid women footballers in the country. On 6 November 2009, she won the Gullballen, the most prestigious Norwegian football prize."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jen Hoy",
        "text": "On August 18, 2013, Jen Hoy scored 2 goals in a come from behind 2\u20131 upset win over FC Kansas City; and was named NWSL Week 19 Player of the Week, and finished her rookie season with 3 goals and 1 assist in only 481 minutes in nine games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lynn Williams (soccer)",
        "text": "After a breakout 2016 NWSL season Williams received her first call-up to the United States women's national team in October 2016 for a pair of friendlies against Switzerland. She earned her first cap on October 19. Williams entered as a substitute at the beginning of the second half and scored the fastest debut goal in team history as she scored 49 seconds after entering the game. Her record was broken four days later when Kealia Ohai scored 48 seconds after entering the game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alexa Gruschow",
        "text": "Alexa Gruschow is an American-born women's ice hockey player that won the scoring title during the 2017-18 NWHL season. She was also a member of the Metropolitan Riveters franchise that won the 2018 Isobel Cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Santia Deck",
        "text": "Santia Deck (born November 19, 1991) is an American athlete. She started her career as a fitness trainer and gained a following on social media through her workouts and flag football skills. Deck is the highest paid female American football player in the Women's Football League Association after signing a deal with a new team the Los Angeles Fames in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "2014 National Women's Soccer League season",
        "text": "The 2014 National Women's Soccer League season is the second season of the National Women's Soccer League, the top division of women's soccer in the United States. Including the NWSL's two professional predecessors, Women's Professional Soccer (2009\u20132011) and the Women's United Soccer Association (2001\u20132003), this is the eighth overall season of FIFA and USSF-sanctioned top division women's soccer in the United States. The league is operated by the United States Soccer Federation and receives major financial backing from that body. Further financial backing is expected to be provided by the Canadian Soccer Association and the Mexican Football Federation. All three national federations pay the league salaries of many of their respective national team members in an effort to nurture talent in those nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major women's sport leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "The league expanded to a maximum of 10 teams in 2016 and 2017 before dropping to 9 for the 2018 season; it returned to 10 teams for 2021. It became the first women's professional league to play a fourth season in 2016. The NWSL is currently scheduled to expand to 12 teams in 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "On May 17, 2021, Rose Lavelle left Manchester City for OL Reign."
      },
      {
        "title": "FA Women's Super League",
        "text": "The FA Women's Super League currently consists of twelve clubs. Initially the league was described as professional, with the top four players on each team being paid an annual salary in excess of \u00a320,000. However, in November 2010 it was confirmed that the WSL would be semi-professional, with only a \"handful\" of top players full-time. Clubs' annual wage bills were expected to be approximately one-tenth of those in the now-defunct American Women's Professional Soccer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Canadian soccer league system",
        "text": "Some Canadian Women's National Team (CWNT) players have their salaries partially paid by the CSA and other federal government athlete funding programs to play in the National Women's Soccer League in the United States. The exact proportion of salaries paid by the CSA is negotiated with NWSL teams. Unsubsidized Canadian players can also play in the league as part of the international quota while others play in Europe. Canadian players play in the NWSL although all franchises are located in the U.S.; no Canadian franchises play in this U.S.-based league. Financial remuneration varies in the NWSL; the four-month-long league is new as of 2013 and salaries for unsubsidized players are not high enough to support them without other outside income."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League",
        "text": "The NWSL became the first U.S. professional women's soccer league to reach nine teams with the addition of Houston Dash, backed by Major League Soccer (MLS) team Houston Dynamo, in 2014; expansion interest, particularly from MLS and USL teams, has continued. The third season saw a shortened schedule and some early-season roster instability due to the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup in Canada, but the World Cup also provided exposure to the NWSL, which was credited with boosting attendance numbers across the league."
      },
      {
        "title": "Toledo Troopers",
        "text": "During the team's existence, the players were paid $25 a week. The best known player on the team was Linda Jefferson who was named womenSports magazine's Athlete of the Year in 1975. She would become the first Black woman inducted into the Semi-Pro Football Hall of Fame. She\u2019s also one of only four women in the American Association Football Hall of Fame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amy LePeilbet",
        "text": "In 2013, as part of the NWSL Player Allocation, LePeilbet joined the Chicago Red Stars in the new National Women's Soccer League (NWSL). She did not play during the 2013 season due to recovery from Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) revision surgery on her left knee. The Red Stars finished sixth during the regular season with an 8\u20138\u20136 record."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lauren Holiday",
        "text": "As of 2015, Holiday was the leading goal scorer (20) and assist leader (12) all-time in the NWSL. She retired from the NWSL at the end of the 2015 season as Kansas City repeated as champions, allowing Holiday to retire holding world and league titles. Her number 12 jersey was retired in her honour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colleen Williams (soccer)",
        "text": "In February 2013, Williams was selected in the fourth round (26th overall) of the 2013 NWSL College Draft by the Washington Spirit for the inaugural season of the National Women's Soccer League. She played in six games before suffering a knee injury on July 6 that sidelined her for the rest of the season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brianna Decker",
        "text": "Decker was awarded Most Valuable Player consecutively by the NWHL for her performance in the 2015\u201316 season and 2016\u201317 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "2016 National Women's Soccer League season",
        "text": "The 2016 National Women's Soccer League season was the fourth season of the National Women's Soccer League, the top division of women's soccer in the United States. Including the NWSL's two professional predecessors, Women's Professional Soccer (2009\u20132011) and the Women's United Soccer Association (2001\u20132003), it was the tenth overall season of FIFA and USSF-sanctioned top division women's soccer in the United States. The league is operated by the United States Soccer Federation and receives major financial backing from that body. Further financial backing is expected to be provided by the Canadian Soccer Association. Both national federations pay the league salaries of many of their respective national team members in an effort to nurture talent in those nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "2018 National Women's Soccer League season",
        "text": "The 2018 National Women's Soccer League season was the sixth season of the National Women's Soccer League, the top division of women's soccer in the United States. Including the NWSL's two professional predecessors, Women's Professional Soccer (2009\u20132011) and the Women's United Soccer Association (2001\u20132003), it was the twelfth overall season of FIFA and USSF-sanctioned top division women's soccer in the United States. The league is operated by the United States Soccer Federation and receives major financial backing from that body. Further financial backing is provided by the Canadian Soccer Association. Both national federations pay the league salaries of many of their respective national team members in an effort to nurture talent in those nations and take the financial burden off individual clubs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional Women's Hockey Players Association",
        "text": "In 2015, the National Women's Hockey League (NWHL) was launched in the United States and was the first women's ice hockey league to pay its players, although it was still not considered a livable wage. In 2017, the CWHL followed suit and began paying its players a stipend."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kristen Hamilton",
        "text": "Individual\n* 2013 MAC Hermann Trophy semifinalist\n* 2013 Senior CLASS Award finalist\n* 2019 NWSL Second XI\n* 2019\u201320 Julie Dolan Medal: Best player in the 2019\u201320 W-League"
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League",
        "text": "Former general manager of the United States women's national soccer team Cheryl Bailey was announced by US Soccer President Sunil Gulati as the first commissioner of the NWSL on November 29, 2012. On November 18, 2014, she resigned after overseeing two seasons and the launch of the new professional league in less than five months ahead of the inaugural season."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWFL Premiership",
        "text": "The NWFL Premiership (formerly Nigeria Women Premier League) is the top-level league for women's association football in Nigeria. It is the women's equivalent of the men's league, the Nigeria Professional Football League (NPFL). The Nigeria Women Football League (NWFL) organizes the Nigeria Women Premier League and the Nigeria Women Pro-league. In November 2017, Aisha Falode was elected chairperson of the league board, and was officially designated in January 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "2017 National Women's Soccer League season",
        "text": "The 2017 National Women's Soccer League season was the fifth season of the National Women's Soccer League, the top division of women's soccer in the United States. Including the NWSL's two professional predecessors, Women's Professional Soccer (2009\u20132011) and the Women's United Soccer Association (2001\u20132003), it was the eleventh overall season of FIFA- and USSF-sanctioned top-division women's soccer in the United States. The league is operated by the United States Soccer Federation and receives major financial backing from that body. Further financial backing is provided by the Canadian Soccer Association; both national federations pay the league salaries of many of their respective national team members in an effort to nurture talent in those nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Olivia Moultrie",
        "text": "Olivia Moultrie (born September 17, 2005) is an American professional soccer player for Portland Thorns FC of the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL). In 2019, she became the youngest American women's soccer player to turn professional, at age 13, and in 2021, she became the youngest player to play an NWSL regular-season game, at age 15. She was also the youngest player to commit to a college team and accept a scholarship offer, which she ultimately gave up, at age 11."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lindsey Horan",
        "text": "Horan was named Player of the Month for July 2018, she scored three goals in July, helping the Thorns to a 3\u20130\u20130 record for the month. She was named to the 2018 NWSL Best XI, and on September 21, 2018 she was named 2018 NWSL Most Valuable Player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heather O'Reilly",
        "text": "Upon her retirement from international play in September 2016, she is one of the world's most capped soccer players with over 230 international appearances to her name. She is a skilled flank player, currently tied for fifth with Julie Foudy in USWNT history for assists. She is also the eighth most capped player in USWNT history. On October 27, 2019, she played her final match for the North Carolina Courage before retiring, winning the 2019 NWSL championship."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the most popular professional sport in the world?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "According to A.T. Kearney, The world's most accessible and practised sport is running, while association football is the most popular spectator sport."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How much do professional football players make on average?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It depends, the average wages of a premier league player are about $1 million per year, but can go up to $70 million per year for the best players. MLS players earn on average $148,693 and women in the National Women's Soccer League earn $15,000 to $40,000  a year."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who is the NWSL's highest paid woman?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Trinity Rodman (born May 20, 2002) is an American professional soccer player who plays as a forward for Washington Spirit of the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) and the United States women's national soccer team.  As of February 2022, she is the highest paid player in the league.",
      "As of February 2022, Trinity Rodman is the highest paid player in the league."
    ],
    "topic": "Professional sports",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Trinity Rodman:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Trinity Rodman"
        ],
        "ctx": "Trinity Rodman (born May 20, 2002) is an American professional soccer player who plays as a forward for Washington Spirit of the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) and the United States women's national soccer team. At age 18, she became the youngest drafted player in NWSL history after being selected second in the 2021 NWSL College Draft. Rodman earned NWSL Rookie of the Year, NWSL Best XI, and U.S. Soccer Young Female Player of the Year honors following her first season in 2021. , she is the highest paid player in the league."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Trinity Rodman:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Trinity Rodman"
        ],
        "ctx": "Trinity Rodman (born May 20, 2002) is an American professional soccer player who plays as a forward for Washington Spirit of the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) and the United States women's national soccer team. At age 18, she became the youngest drafted player in NWSL history after being selected second in the 2021 NWSL College Draft. Rodman earned NWSL Rookie of the Year, NWSL Best XI, and U.S. Soccer Young Female Player of the Year honors following her first season in 2021. , she is the highest paid player in the league."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Trinity Rodman",
        "text": "On November 17, 2021, Rodman was named NWSL Rookie of the Year and to the NWSL Best XI. She earned U.S. Soccer Young Female Player of the Year honors the following month. On February 2, 2022, Rodman signed a contract extension with the Washington Spirit running until after the 2024 season, with an option for 2025. It was reported that the new contract was worth $1.1 million dollars, making Rodman the highest paid player in NWSL history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trinity Rodman",
        "text": "Trinity Rodman (born May 20, 2002) is an American professional soccer player who plays as a forward for Washington Spirit of the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) and the United States women's national soccer team. At age 18, she became the youngest drafted player in NWSL history after being selected second in the 2021 NWSL College Draft. Rodman earned NWSL Rookie of the Year, NWSL Best XI, and U.S. Soccer Young Female Player of the Year honors following her first season in 2021. , she is the highest paid player in the league."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trinity Rodman",
        "text": "Rodman decided to turn professional before ever playing a match in college. At age 18, she became the youngest player to be drafted in NWSL history when the Washington Spirit selected her as their first draft pick (second overall) at the 2021 NWSL College Draft. Prior to being drafted by the Spirit, Rodman had never been to Washington DC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trinity Rodman",
        "text": "On April 10, 2021, Rodman made her professional debut during a 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup match, scoring a goal within five minutes of being subbed on. Rodman competed in all four of the Spirit's matches during the Challenge Cup. She served an assist to the game-winning goal scored by Ashley Sanchez during the team's 1\u20130 win against Racing Louisville FC on April 15. The Spirit finished in fourth place in the East Division with a record."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trinity Rodman",
        "text": "Rodman initially committed to play collegiate soccer for the UCLA Bruins before deciding to follow her older brother to Washington State Cougars. She never played a match in college, however, as her freshman season was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "On July 7, 2021, Diana Matheson retired from professional soccer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Becky Sauerbrunn",
        "text": "A new professional league, the National Women's Soccer League, was announced in November 2012. On January 11, 2013, Sauerbrunn was allocated to FC Kansas City via the NWSL Player Allocation, which distributed national team players from the United States, Canada, and Mexico to teams within in the NWSL. She was one of three members of the United States women's national team that was allocated to FC Kansas City, along with Nicole Barnhart and Lauren Holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women's professional sports",
        "text": "In November 2012, the US, Mexican, and Canadian soccer federations announced the establishment of the National Women's Soccer League, which began to play in 2013. The US and Canadian federations remain involved with the NWSL; the Mexican federation withdrew after establishing Liga MX Femenil in 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "On August 9, Janine Beckie signed a one-year deal with Manchester City of the FA Women's Super League."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League Players Association",
        "text": "The NWSLPA was formed in May 2017 under the leadership of Yael Averbuch and represented by lawyer and former WPS player Meghann Burke. The NWSLPA officially unionized in November 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taryn Hemmings",
        "text": "On February 5, 2013, she joined Chicago Red Stars in the new National Women's Soccer League. On July 14, week 15 of the NWSL 2013 season, she injured her left knee, defending against FC Kansas City; and was out for the rest of the season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Katy Freels",
        "text": "She decided to sit out the 2016 NWSL season."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "Heather Mitts retired before the season started, Amy LePeilbet was out with injury all summer, and Amy Rodriguez took the season off due to pregnancy."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League",
        "text": "Active non-United States federation players, including unpaid amateur players, announced their formation of the NWSL Players Association (NWSLPA) on May 15, 2017, as the first step toward forming a union. The NWSL recognized the NWSLPA as the players' union on November 15, 2018. the NWSLPA is led by civil rights attorney and former WPS players' union organizer Meghann Burke."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trinity Rodman",
        "text": "United States women's national soccer team"
      },
      {
        "title": "Major women's sport leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "The National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) is the top level professional women's soccer league in the United States. It began play in spring 2013 with eight teams; four of them were former members of Women's Professional Soccer (WPS), which had been the top women's league in the United States soccer pyramid before its folding in 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "On May 17, 2021, Rose Lavelle left Manchester City for OL Reign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jenna Hellstrom",
        "text": "In December 2019, Jenna Hellstrom signed with the Washington Spirit in the NWSL. The length of the contract was not announced per league policy. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic the originally planned league was cancelled. There was later played a compressed cup and series, the 2020 Challenge Cup and the Fall Series respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Becky Sauerbrunn",
        "text": "The Washington Freedom joined the newly formed Women's Professional Soccer league for the 2009 season. On October 6, 2008, Sauerbrunn was picked third overall in the first round of the 2008 WPS General Draft, which assigned the WPS rights of international and domestic players to the teams in the WPS for the 2009 season. Sauerbrunn made her first appearance for the team on March 29, 2009 in a match against the Los Angeles Sol. She started all 20 games for the Freedom in the regular season and in the team's one playoff match. She made one goal during the season in the 54th minute of the match against the Chicago Red Stars on April 11."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League on television",
        "text": "The National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) is a professional women's soccer league owned by the teams, and under a management contract with the United States Soccer Federation. At the top of the United States league system, it represents the sport's highest level in the United States. The NWSL was established in 2012 as a successor to Women's Professional Soccer (2007\u20132012), which was itself the successor to Women's United Soccer Association (2001\u20132003). The league began play in 2013 with eight teams, four of which were former members of Women's Professional Soccer (Chicago Red Stars, Boston Breakers, Sky Blue FC, Western New York Flash)."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League Players Association",
        "text": "Until the end of the 2021 season, the NWSLPA membership excluded United States federation players because those players were contracted with the US Soccer Federation (USSF) for their play in the NWSL. In December 2021, the USSF and the union representing the U.S. national team (USWNT) agreed to end the NWSL federation players system, which means that USWNT players playing in the NWSL are now contracted directly to their NWSL teams and that those players will also be represented in their club employment by the NWSLPA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amanda Duffy (soccer)",
        "text": "Her work with the NWSL led to AdWeek naming her one of the 35 most influential women in sports in 2017. She was promoted to president, the league's highest office, on January 15, 2019. She announced her intention to step down from the role in January 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frannie Crouse",
        "text": "Coming off an injury in her senior year at Penn State, Crouse was drafted 10th overall by the North Carolina Courage in the 2018 NWSL College Draft, in which she was surprised to be drafted to begin with. She obtained her first professional cap and first professional goal on June 3, 2018, against the Houston Dash. She was released by the Courage on June 15 but would continue to train with the club. On June 22, realizing NWSL rosters were locked, Crouse said, \"I mean they are basically full, so I was hoping that maybe they would consider me, but if it doesn't and that was my last game I ever played in the NWSL I left on a good note. Something I'll always remember.\" By July, she was no longer with the team, and by January 2019, Crouse declared herself retired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Becky Sauerbrunn",
        "text": "In March 2012, following the suspension of the 2012 WPS season, Sauerbrunn signed with D.C. United Women in the W-League for the 2012 season. She helped the team finish first place in the Eastern Conference but was unable to appear in any playoff matches due to her national team obligations at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London."
      },
      {
        "title": "Julia Roddar",
        "text": "In January 2021, Roddar signed a two-year contract with the Washington Spirit competing in the NWSL."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christen Press",
        "text": "In March 2018, Press signed a three-month contract with her former club Kopparbergs/G\u00f6teborg FC, though the Dash still held her NWSL rights. After scoring four goals in three games, Press was named Damallsvenskan Player of the Month for April. In May, she scored a brace in the team's 3\u20131 win against IF Limhamn Bunkeflo. On June 19, the team announced an agreement with NWSL expansion club, Utah Royals FC, to end her contract early so she could join the Royals for the remainder of the 2018 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Becky Sauerbrunn",
        "text": "After FCKC ceased operations, her rights were transferred to Utah. Sauerbrunn was named to the NWSL Team of the Month for March, April, May and June. She was named to the NWSL Best XI for the sixth consecutive season, and was named a finalist for Defender of the Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reagan Rust",
        "text": "After graduating, Rust planned to join the nearby Worcester Blades of the Canadian Women's Hockey League (CWHL), but the league collapsed before she had the chance to sign. Instead, she joined over 150 players in the newly created Professional Women's Hockey Players Association (PWHPA), and would spend the 2019\u201320 season\u00a0as an independent affiliate of the organisation. During the season, she would also participate in the U.S. Pond Hockey Championships as part of a men's team from Nashville. In February 2020, she was inducted into the Class of 2020 Beanpot Hall of Fame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heather O'Reilly",
        "text": "On April 12, 2019, O'Reilly announced via social media that she would retire from professional soccer at the conclusion of the 2019 NWSL Season."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "After the Women's World Cup, many allocated players announced or discussed their plans to retire from national and club football. Shannon Boxx did not finished the season NWSL season with her club; Lauren Holiday and Karina LeBlanc did. Abby Wambach, who passed on the entire 2015 season, officially announced her retirement the day the USWNT visited the White House as part of their 2015 World Cup victory celebrations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major women's sport leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "The league expanded to a maximum of 10 teams in 2016 and 2017 before dropping to 9 for the 2018 season; it returned to 10 teams for 2021. It became the first women's professional league to play a fourth season in 2016. The NWSL is currently scheduled to expand to 12 teams in 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bryanna McCarthy",
        "text": "On January 11, 2013, as part of the NWSL Player Allocation, McCarthy joined the Western New York Flash. Despite this, McCarthy only played 15 minutes for the Flash and her allocation was not picked up for the following year."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "On January 16, 2021, Abby Dahlkemper left North Carolina Courage to sign with English club Manchester City."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "On August 18, 2020, defender Emily Sonnett signed with G\u00f6teborg; Orlando Pride retains her NWSL rights if she returns to the league."
      },
      {
        "title": "Desiree Scott",
        "text": "In 2013, as part of the NWSL Player Allocation, Scott joined FC Kansas City in the new National Women's Soccer League. Notts County Ladies of the English FA WSL announced that they had signed Scott in January 2014, but she was subsequently included on the list of Canadian players allocated to the NWSL for 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trinity Rodman",
        "text": "In January 2022, Rodman was named to the senior national team's camp for the first time ahead of the 2022 SheBelieves Cup. She made her national team debut on February 17, 2022 in a 0\u20130 draw with Czech Republic at the tournament, and scored her first goal on April 12, 2022 in a friendly against Uzbekistan, in her third national team appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "On June 18, the Utah Royals acquired Press's rights from Houston in a three-team trade, and she joined the team later that month, before the scheduled end of her contract with G\u00f6teborg."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL records and statistics",
        "text": "The following is a compilation of notable records and statistics for teams and players in the National Women's Soccer League, which started in 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "Several Canadian players left the NWSL during the offseason. Sabrina D'Angelo signed for Swedish club Vittsj\u00f6 GIK, Adriana Leon for English club West Ham United, and Rebecca Quinn for French club Paris FC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anna Heilferty",
        "text": "Heilferty made her professional debut on April 10, 2021, in the NWSL Challenge Cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ajara Nchout",
        "text": "In January 2015 Nchout agreed to join Western New York Flash of the NWSL. She had previously played in the Russian Top Division for FC Energy Voronezh and WFC Rossiyanka."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lois Bellman",
        "text": "Born in Chicago, Illinois, Bellman joined the league with the Chicago Colleens club in its 1949 season. She did not have individual records or some information was incomplete."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "Carli Lloyd retired from professional soccer at the end of the 2021 NWSL season."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League attendance",
        "text": "The National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) is the top-tier professional women's soccer league in the United States and Canada. Founded in 2013, the 2019 season saw an average 7,337 spectators among the 9 teams, the highest average attendance in league history. Its overall attendance in 2019 was also its highest ever, with 792,409 total. The NWSL has the highest average attendance per game among all women's professional sports leagues in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pamela Tajonar",
        "text": "On 11 January 2013 she signed for Western New York Flash as part of the NWSL Player Allocation for the inaugural season of the National Women's Soccer League. She started the season on the bench, behind Adrianna Franch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lauren Holiday",
        "text": "In 2007, she was named U.S. Soccer Young Female Athlete of the Year. She earned U.S. Soccer Female Athlete of the Year honors in 2014. She was the first player in NWSL history to have her jersey retired after retiring from the league."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "Christen Press was traded from the Chicago Red Stars to the Houston Dash during the 2018 NWSL College Draft and was subsequently allocated to the Dash, but did not report to the team. She instead signed a short-term contract with Kopparbergs/G\u00f6teborg FC and played part of the 2018 Damallsvenskan season in Sweden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catherine Zimmerman",
        "text": "Catherine Zimmerman\n--Early life and collegiate career.\n--Club career.\n----NWSL.\n----NPLW.\n----W-League.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hayley Williams (ice hockey)",
        "text": "After learning of the launch of the National Women's Hockey League, a new women's professional circuit, Williams attended free agent camps during the summer of 2015 ahead of the NWHL's inaugural season, eventually earning a contract with the Buffalo Beauts. By signing, she became the first former ACHA player to sign in the league (along with UMass alumna Paige Harrington, whose signing with the Beauts was announced at the same time), and the first in any North American women's professional league since the 2002\u201303 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kaleigh Fratkin",
        "text": "However, when the Premier Hockey Federation\u00a0was founded that summer by Dani Rylan as the first women's hockey league to offer all players a salary, she decided to take a chance and sign with the Connecticut Whale. She was the first Canadian player to sign a contract in the new league and would be the highest paid Canadian in the league that year, with a $20,000 salary. She was named the assistant captain for the team ahead of the league's inaugural season. On December 31, she was one of three Connecticut Whale players (including Kate Buesser and Shannon Doyle) who were loaned to the Boston Pride for one day to participate in the 2016 Outdoor Women's Classic against the CWHL's Les Canadiennes de Montr\u00e9al, the first outdoor professional women's hockey game. She finished the year with 17 points in 18 games, leading all NWHL defenders in points and being named to the 1st NWHL All-Star Game, which took place on January 24, 2016, at the Harbor Center in Buffalo, New York."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "Four American players \u2014 Jane Campbell, Amy Rodriguez, Taylor Smith, and Lynn Williams \u2014 were no longer federation players after the 2018 NWSL season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rose Lavelle",
        "text": "On January 12, 2017, Lavelle was selected number one overall at the 2017 NWSL College Draft by the Boston Breakers. Lavelle started her professional career by scoring two goals in eight games and was named Player of the Month for April. However, after suffering a hamstring injury in June while on international duty, Lavelle missed over two months and finished the season with only ten appearances as a rookie. The Breakers folded before the start of the 2018 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women's professional sports",
        "text": "The National Women's Hockey League (NWHL), now called the Premier Hockey Federation (PHF), is a women's professional ice hockey league in the United States. The league was established in 2015 with four teams. The league has since grown to six teams: the Boston Pride, Buffalo Beauts, Connecticut Whale, Metropolitan Riveters, Minnesota Whitecaps, and the PHF's first Canadian team, the Toronto Six. The league debuted as the first women's professional ice hockey league to pay its players."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kate Del Fava",
        "text": "Del Fava made her professional debut in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup on June 30, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alexandra Carpenter",
        "text": "Carpenter was the first player drafted in the National Women's Hockey League's (NWHL) inaugural draft in 2015, selected by the New York Riveters. She returned for her senior season with Boston College and her rights were traded to the Boston Pride in April 2016. During the summer of 2016, Carpenter signed with the Boston Pride for a one-year, $19,500 contract, making her the highest paid player of the 2015 NWHL Draft class. Playing for Team Steadman, Carpenter recorded a goal and an assist at the 2nd NWHL All-Star Game. She finished the 2016\u201317 season as the second highest scorer in the league."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordyn Listro",
        "text": "Listro entered the 2017 NWSL College Draft but was not selected. In June 2017, she signed with Spanish Primera Divisi\u00f3n team UDG Tenerife. Listro made her professional debut starting in a 1\u20131 with Rayo Vallecano on September 3, 2017. She made a total of five appearances for the team before departing in November 2017, returning to Canada for personal reasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "On February 24, 2021, Crystal Dunn and Lindsey Horan relinquished their federation player status and signed three-year contracts with Portland Thorns FC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diana Matheson",
        "text": "In early 2013, it was announced that Matheson would be joining the Washington Spirit as part of the NWSL Player Allocation, a team in the newly founded National Women's Soccer League. She made her debut during the Spirit's inaugural match on April 15, 2013 against the Boston Breakers. Her first NWSL goal came on a late penalty in the club's home opener against the Western New York Flash on April 20, 2013. At the conclusion of the 2013 season, it was announced that Matheson had been selected as a midfielder to the NWSL 2013 Best XI First Team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional Women's Hockey Players Association",
        "text": "In 2015, the National Women's Hockey League (NWHL) was launched in the United States and was the first women's ice hockey league to pay its players, although it was still not considered a livable wage. In 2017, the CWHL followed suit and began paying its players a stipend."
      },
      {
        "title": "Modern history of American football",
        "text": "In 1970, Patricia Palinkas became the first woman to ever play on a men's semipro football team when she joined the Orlando Panthers. In 1974, the National Women's Football League was founded, starting play with 7 teams. By the mid-1970s, the average NWFL franchise entry fee was $10,000. The Toledo Troopers had a record from 1971 through 1976 of 39 wins, 1 loss and 1 tie, but folded in 1980 due to financial problems. The NWFL took a year off to restructure in 1987, but by the next year the league had split in two, with the remnants of the NWFL based in Toledo and the new Women's Tackle Football Association based in Grand Rapids, Michigan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women's Premier Soccer League Elite",
        "text": "The Boston Breakers, Chicago Red Stars and Western New York Flash joined the NWSL for the 2013 season. Also, the New England Mutiny, New York Fury, and Philadelphia Fever opted to return to the WPSL."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lauren Sesselmann",
        "text": "In 2013, she joined FC Kansas City in the new National Women's Soccer League. On January 10, 2014, it was announced that Sesselmann was selected by the Houston Dash with the third pick in the 2014 NWSL Expansion Draft. However, her role with the Dash has been put into question by a statement from her agent stating it is \"in her best interest to explore options as a free agent\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jodi-Ann Robinson",
        "text": "On January 11, 2013, Robinson joined the Western New York Flash as part of the NWSL Player Allocation for the inaugural season of the National Women's Soccer League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maya Hayes",
        "text": "In 2018, it was announced that she had made the decision to sit out the 2018 NWSL season to pursue graduate studies at Auburn University. She does not consider this an official retirement."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League",
        "text": "Prior to the 2022 season, the NWSLPA membership did not include United States federation players because those players were contracted to the US Soccer Federation for their NWSL play. With the abolition of the federation player system for 2022 and beyond, the NWSLPA now represents all players in the NWSL. The league and the NWSLPA entered into their first collective bargaining agreement in advance of that season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Olivia Van der Jagt",
        "text": "Van der Jagt made her NWSL debut on April 14, 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Premier Hockey Federation",
        "text": "The National Women's Hockey League (NWHL) was formed by Dani Rylan in March 2015 with an estimated $2.5\u00a0million operating budget. It was the first women's professional hockey league to pay its players. Prior to the league's formation, the only choice for top level women's hockey in North America was the Canadian Women's Hockey League (CWHL), which at the time paid bonuses and incentives but not salaries. The league's inaugural season ran on a salary cap of US$270,000 maximum per team and a $10,000 minimum per player. The players also earn 15% of profits from any NWHL jersey sold with their name on it. The league placed its four original teams in markets where many young girls play ice hockey: the New York City area, Buffalo, and New England."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hailey Harbison",
        "text": "Harbison made her NWSL debut on September 12, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Whitney Engen",
        "text": "Following the folding of the WPS in 2012, the United States Soccer Federation formed a new professional soccer league, the National Women's Soccer League, which played its inaugural season in 2013. Although Engen opted to play in Liverpool for the 2013 season, Engen was allocated to NWSL expansion team Houston Dash via the 2014 NWSL Player Allocation in January 2014 She made her first appearance for the team on June 8 in a match against Sky Blue FC. Engen made a total of 11 appearances for the team in the regular season, playing a total of 978 minutes. The Dash finished last in the league and did not advance to the playoffs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laura Ainsworth",
        "text": "She worked at the Woman's Press shop in 1910 and was an organiser in Kent, later she left Newcastle WSPU due to split in the movement and worked for Votes for Women with National Political League. The league was started by Mary Adelaide Broadhurst and Margaret Milne Farquharson and in 1913 Ainsworth would be the NPL secretary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Manon Rh\u00e9aume",
        "text": "In 1992, Rh\u00e9aume was signed by the Atlanta Knights of the International Hockey League (IHL). Her first appearance against the Salt Lake Golden Eagles marked the first time a woman appeared in a regular season professional game. She played for seven different teams between 1992 and 1997, including Atlanta, the Knoxville Cherokees, Nashville Knights, the Las Vegas Aces, the Tallahassee Tiger Sharks, Las Vegas Thunder, and the Reno Renegades, appearing in a total of 24 games. While in Atlanta, Rh\u00e9aume wrote her autobiography, \"Manon: Alone in Front of the Net\". She initially retired from professional hockey in 1997."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natasha Dowie",
        "text": "When Boston Breakers folded in January 2018, Dowie was not selected in the 2018 NWSL Dispersal Draft which was hastily arranged to assign displaced Breakers players to other NWSL clubs. Instead she agreed to join Swedish Damallsvenskan champions Link\u00f6pings FC, on an initial six-month contract. On 26 June, it was confirmed that Dowie would be leaving Link\u00f6pings after her 6-month contract expired, as they were unable to agree on a long-term contract. Dowie rejoined Melbourne Victory for a fourth time in September 2018, signing a two-year permanent deal. She was loaned to V\u00e5lerenga of the Toppserien in March 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Martha Thomas (footballer)",
        "text": "Thomas had hoped to enter the 2018 NWSL College Draft in January 2018, but suffered an ACL injury in her final appearance for the 49ers in November 2017. Having rehabbed, Thomas belatedly began her professional career with Le Havre AC in the French Division 2, signing for the club in August 2018. She made her debut on 21 October 2018, starting in a 1\u20130 defeat to Stade de Reims. She scored 6 goals in 13 league appearances as Le Havre finished second."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports in the United States",
        "text": "Women's professional soccer in the United States has not seen sustained success. Following the demise of two professional leagues in the early 21st century, the Women's United Soccer Association (1999\u20132001) and Women's Professional Soccer (2009\u20132011), U.S. Soccer established a new National Women's Soccer League in 2013. The NWSL has now survived longer than both of its two professional predecessors combined. Of its current 12 teams, six share ownership with professional men's clubs\u2014three are wholly owned by MLS team owners, two are wholly owned by USL sides (one each in the USLC and USL1), and another is primarily owned by a French Ligue 1 side. However, at the lower levels of the salary scale, the NWSL was until very recently effectively semi-professional. While minimum salaries are still vastly lower than those in men's leagues (as of 2022, $35,000), players generally enjoy at least a middle-class standard of living because the salary figures do not include team-provided housing and transportation allowances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major women's sport leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "In 2015, the Premier Hockey Federation (PHF) was established as the National Women's Hockey League (NWHL) with the purpose of being the first professional women's ice hockey league in North America that paid its players."
      },
      {
        "title": "Julia Spetsmark",
        "text": "North Carolina Courage\n* NWSL Champions: 2019\n* NWSL Shield: 2019"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jackie Santacaterina",
        "text": "Following the 2014 NWSL season, Santacaterina announced her retirement, citing inability to recover from a soccer injury."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "On March 3, 2020, Utah Royals FC traded defender Becky Sauerbrunn to Portland Thorns FC."
      },
      {
        "title": "FA Women's Super League",
        "text": "When the 2012 WPS season was cancelled in the United States, Lincoln Ladies manager Glen Harris said that the next destination of that league's British players would be decided by \"pounds, shillings and pence.\" Ultimately Kelly Smith, Alex Scott and Gemma Davison all joined Arsenal, while Ifeoma Dieke and Anita Asante joined the Swedish Damallsvenskan in preference to the WSL."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League",
        "text": "On July 21, 2020, the NWSL announced that a Los Angeles-based team will begin play in 2022. The team's ownership group, who call themselves \"Angel City,\" is led by president and founder Julie Uhrman, a media and gaming entrepreneur; co-founders Natalie Portman, an Oscar-winning actress, and venture capitalist Kara Nortman; venture capitalist Alexis Ohanian as lead founding investor; and additional investors including fourteen former USWNT members, most with ties to Southern California; actresses Uzo Aduba, Jessica Chastain, America Ferrera, Jennifer Garner, and Eva Longoria; talk show host Lilly Singh; and Ohanian's wife, tennis great Serena Williams. In 2022, the Los Angeles NWSL team will be the first American professional sports team founded by a majority-woman ownership group to begin play, and co-founders Portman, Nortman, and Uhrman have publicly discussed their ownership stakes extensively as one way to address gender inequity in sports and to encourage additional investment by women into women's sports. On October 21, 2020, the ownership group announced that the expansion club would be called Angel City FC and announced more group members, among them tennis great Billie Jean King, WNBA star Candace Parker, alpine skiing great Lindsey Vonn and her fianc\u00e9 at the time, NHL star P. K. Subban, actress and activist Sophia Bush, Latin music pop star Becky G, actor and TV host James Corden, and former US men's soccer international Cobi Jones."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League Players Association",
        "text": "the NWSLPA is led by executive director Meghann Burke and president Tori Huster. The executive team is advised by an advisory board and a group of player representatives of two players per each NWSL team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rachel Van Hollebeke",
        "text": "National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) season. Van Hollebeke retires"
      },
      {
        "title": "2013 National Women's Soccer League season",
        "text": "Players were acquired through the 2013 Allocation of national team players announced on January 11, the 2013 NWSL College Draft on January 18, and the 2013 NWSL Supplemental Draft on February 7, along with free agency, trading and loans."
      },
      {
        "title": "DiDi Hara\u010di\u0107",
        "text": "Hara\u010di\u0107 started her professional career with D.C. United Women between 2011 and 2012 where she would make 7 appearances during that time. When the D.C. United Women rebranded as the Washington Spirit in 2013 to compete in the newly formed NWSL, Hara\u010di\u0107 stayed with the organization as the starting keeper for the Reserves playing all 12 matches and posting a 0.580 goals against average."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hannah Davison",
        "text": "Davison made her NWSL debut in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup on July 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Laura Brock",
        "text": "In January 2012, at the end of the W-League season, Alleway and Collette McCallum joined English club Lincoln Ladies for the 2012 FA WSL season. Alleway's move to Lincoln was derailed by visa problems in March 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lauren Barnes",
        "text": "On May 15, 2021, Barnes became the second player in NWSL history to play in 150 regular season matches and the first to do so playing for a single club, OL Reign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amanda Kessel",
        "text": "Kessel was never drafted by a National Women's Hockey League team; league rules stipulate that a college player must be entering her senior year to be drafted, and Kessel's junior season was completed in 2013, before the league existed. Instead, she signed as a free agent with the New York Riveters on May 1, 2016. Her contract of $26,000 was the largest NWHL contract to date. Kessel was named one of the two captains for the 2nd NWHL All-Star Game. Scoring a hat trick in the All-Star Game, the first to do so in NWHL All-Star history, she would also be recognized as the game's Most Valuable Player. After taking a season off from the NWHL due to national team commitments, she returned to the NWHL with the renamed Metropolitan Riveters for the 2018\u201319 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kim Hazlett",
        "text": "Hazlett made her NWSL debut on October 10, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Madison Hammond",
        "text": "Hammond made her NWSL debut on September 26, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League",
        "text": "The NWSL and the NWSLPA, the union representing all players in the NWSL, jointly announced on January 31, 2022 that they had entered into the league's first official collective bargaining agreement, which will run through the 2026 season. Under this agreement, the minimum player salary increased to $35,000 in the 2022 season. Free agency will formally be added; players with six seasons of NWSL service will become unrestricted free agents in 2023, with the required service time reduced to five seasons from 2024. Additionally, starting in 2024, players with three seasons of NWSL service will receive restricted free agency. Also, should the league become profitable in any season from 2024 to 2026, the players will receive 10 percent of the league's broadcast revenues in the applicable season.\n: \"All currency amounts are in United States dollars\""
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "On August 16, 2020, Washington Spirit traded midfielder Rose Lavelle to OL Reign. Lavelle signed with Manchester City two days later, but OL Reign retains her NWSL rights if she returns to the league."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "After the 2021 NWSL season, Emily Sonnett and Andi Sullivan relinquished their federation player status and signed two-year contracts with Washington Spirit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paige Nielsen",
        "text": "In February 2019, Nielsen returned to the NWSL signing with the Washington Spirit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Denna Laing",
        "text": "In 2015, Laing signed with the Boston Pride of the new NWHL professional league. On December 31, 2015, Laing participated in the 2016 Outdoor Women's Classic, the first outdoor professional women's hockey game. During the first period, Laing went into the boards head first. Removed from the ice on a stretcher, she was taken to the hospital. On January 8, 2016, Laing's family announced that she had suffered a severe spinal cord injury and that she had limited movement of her arms and no feeling in her legs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christen Press",
        "text": "On August 23, 2021, Racing Louisville traded the NWSL playing rights of Press to Angel City FC having acquired them in the 2020 NWSL Expansion Draft. In return they received Angel City's first-round pick in the 2022 NWSL Draft, $75,000 in allocation money and roster protection from Angel City in the 2021 NWSL Expansion Draft. She signed a two-year contract with an optional third year, reportedly worth a total of $700,000, making Press one of the highest-paid players in NWSL history."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League",
        "text": "Bold indicates active NWSL players."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mollie Pathman",
        "text": "Pathman was selected by the Boston Breakers as the 23rd overall pick of the 2014 NWSL College Draft. She signed with the team in April of the same year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roseli de Belo",
        "text": "When the professional Women's United Soccer Association (WUSA) started in 2001, Roseli and compatriot Pretinha were assigned to Washington Freedom in the inaugural draft. Washington performed poorly in their first season and bought out Roseli's contract after she failed to score in 11 appearances, only three of which were starts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ingrid Wells",
        "text": "Ingrid Wells\n--Early life.\n--College career.\n--Professional career.\n----Club.\n------G\u00f6teborg FC, 2012.\n------NWSL: Washington Spirit and Western New York Flash, 2013.\n------1. FFC Turbine Potsdam, 2013.\n----International.\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the most popular professional sport in the world?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "According to A.T. Kearney, The world's most accessible and practised sport is running, while association football is the most popular spectator sport."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How much do professional football players make on average?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It depends, the average wages of a premier league player are about $1 million per year, but can go up to $70 million per year for the best players. MLS players earn on average $148,693 and women in the National Women's Soccer League earn $15,000 to $40,000  a year."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who is the NWSL's highest paid woman?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "As of February 2022, Trinity Rodman is the highest paid player in the league."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did Trinity Rodman join the league?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "At age 18, she became the youngest player to be drafted in NWSL history when the Washington Spirit selected her as their first draft pick at the 2021 NWSL College Draft. On April 10, 2021, Rodman made her professional debut during a 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup match; on November 17, 2021, Rodman was named NWSL Rookie of the Year and to the NWSL Best XI.",
      "At age 18, she became the youngest player to be drafted in NWSL history when the Washington Spirit selected her as their first draft pick (second overall) at the 2021 NWSL College Draft. On April 10, 2021, Rodman made her professional debut during a 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup match, scoring a goal within five minutes of being subbed on."
    ],
    "topic": "Professional sports",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Trinity Rodman:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Trinity Rodman",
          "Club career"
        ],
        "ctx": "Rodman decided to turn professional before ever playing a match in college. At age 18, she became the youngest player to be drafted in NWSL history when the Washington Spirit selected her as their first draft pick (second overall) at the 2021 NWSL College Draft. Prior to being drafted by the Spirit, Rodman had never been to Washington DC."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Trinity Rodman:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Trinity Rodman",
          "Club career"
        ],
        "ctx": "On April 10, 2021, Rodman made her professional debut during a 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup match, scoring a goal within five minutes of being subbed on. Rodman competed in all four of the Spirit's matches during the Challenge Cup. She served an assist to the game-winning goal scored by Ashley Sanchez during the team's 1\u20130 win against Racing Louisville FC on April 15. The Spirit finished in fourth place in the East Division with a record."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Trinity Rodman:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Trinity Rodman",
          "Club career"
        ],
        "ctx": "On November 17, 2021, Rodman was named NWSL Rookie of the Year and to the NWSL Best XI. She earned U.S. Soccer Young Female Player of the Year honors the following month. On February 2, 2022, Rodman signed a contract extension with the Washington Spirit running until after the 2024 season, with an option for 2025. It was reported that the new contract was worth $1.1 million dollars, making Rodman the highest paid player in NWSL history."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Trinity Rodman:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Trinity Rodman",
          "Club career"
        ],
        "ctx": "Rodman decided to turn professional before ever playing a match in college. At age 18, she became the youngest player to be drafted in NWSL history when the Washington Spirit selected her as their first draft pick (second overall) at the 2021 NWSL College Draft. Prior to being drafted by the Spirit, Rodman had never been to Washington DC."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Trinity Rodman:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Trinity Rodman",
          "Club career"
        ],
        "ctx": "On April 10, 2021, Rodman made her professional debut during a 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup match, scoring a goal within five minutes of being subbed on. Rodman competed in all four of the Spirit's matches during the Challenge Cup. She served an assist to the game-winning goal scored by Ashley Sanchez during the team's 1\u20130 win against Racing Louisville FC on April 15. The Spirit finished in fourth place in the East Division with a record."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Trinity Rodman",
        "text": "Rodman decided to turn professional before ever playing a match in college. At age 18, she became the youngest player to be drafted in NWSL history when the Washington Spirit selected her as their first draft pick (second overall) at the 2021 NWSL College Draft. Prior to being drafted by the Spirit, Rodman had never been to Washington DC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trinity Rodman",
        "text": "On April 10, 2021, Rodman made her professional debut during a 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup match, scoring a goal within five minutes of being subbed on. Rodman competed in all four of the Spirit's matches during the Challenge Cup. She served an assist to the game-winning goal scored by Ashley Sanchez during the team's 1\u20130 win against Racing Louisville FC on April 15. The Spirit finished in fourth place in the East Division with a record."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "The 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup was a tournament during the 2020 National Women's Soccer League season to mark the league's return to action from the COVID-19 pandemic. It was the first professional team sports event to return to play in United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trinity Rodman",
        "text": "On November 17, 2021, Rodman was named NWSL Rookie of the Year and to the NWSL Best XI. She earned U.S. Soccer Young Female Player of the Year honors the following month. On February 2, 2022, Rodman signed a contract extension with the Washington Spirit running until after the 2024 season, with an option for 2025. It was reported that the new contract was worth $1.1 million dollars, making Rodman the highest paid player in NWSL history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jenna Hellstrom",
        "text": "In December 2019, Jenna Hellstrom signed with the Washington Spirit in the NWSL. The length of the contract was not announced per league policy. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic the originally planned league was cancelled. There was later played a compressed cup and series, the 2020 Challenge Cup and the Fall Series respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phoebe McClernon",
        "text": "McClernon was selected in the second round (14th overall) of the 2020 NWSL College Draft by Orlando Pride. With preseason and the ensuing NWSL schedule canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, McClernon was eventually signed to a short-term contract for the return to play 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup on June 21, 2020. However, the following day the team confirmed they would be withdrawing from the tournament following multiple positive COVID-19 tests among both players and staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "The NWSL Challenge Cup was first held in 2020 as a one-off tournament to mark the league's return to action from the COVID-19 pandemic. It was the first top-tier professional sports league in the United States to restart after COVID-19 lockdowns began. Subsequently, the NWSL announced that it would return as an annual league cup competition. The current (2021) holders are the Portland Thorns."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christen Press",
        "text": "With the 2020 season disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic, Press elected not to participate in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tobin Heath",
        "text": "With the 2020 season disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic, Heath elected not to participate in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup Championship",
        "text": "The 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup was a one-off tournament during the 2020 NWSL season to mark the league's return to action from the COVID-19 pandemic. Eight National Women's Soccer League teams participated in the tournament. The tournament, played behind closed doors in the Salt Lake City area, began on June 27 with a preliminary round, followed by a knockout round."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "Player participation for the tournament was optional. The league allowed players to opt out without being in breach of contract, keeping all contracts, housing, insurance and other benefits guaranteed regardless of participation in the tournament."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trinity Rodman",
        "text": "Trinity Rodman (born May 20, 2002) is an American professional soccer player who plays as a forward for Washington Spirit of the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) and the United States women's national soccer team. At age 18, she became the youngest drafted player in NWSL history after being selected second in the 2021 NWSL College Draft. Rodman earned NWSL Rookie of the Year, NWSL Best XI, and U.S. Soccer Young Female Player of the Year honors following her first season in 2021. , she is the highest paid player in the league."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alanna Kennedy",
        "text": "In March 2020, the impending NWSL season was postponed due to the coronavirus pandemic. An eventual restart was made through a smaller schedule 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup tournament. However, on 22 June, Orlando withdrew from the tournament following positive COVID-19 tests among both players and staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emily van Egmond",
        "text": "In March 2020, the impending NWSL season was postponed due to the coronavirus pandemic. An eventual restart was made through a smaller schedule 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup tournament. However, on 22 June, Orlando withdrew from the tournament following positive COVID-19 tests among both players and staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kaleigh Riehl",
        "text": "On January 16, 2020, Riehl took part in the NWSL College Draft. She was the 11th pick, being chosen by Sky Blue FC. Riehl made her professional debut in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup on July 4, 2020 against the Utah Royals FC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kate Del Fava",
        "text": "Del Fava made her professional debut in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup on June 30, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christen Press",
        "text": "On November 12, 2020, having left Press unprotected, Utah lost her NWSL rights to Racing Louisville FC during the 2020 NWSL Expansion Draft."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup Championship",
        "text": "The 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup Championship was a soccer match held on July 26, 2020, at the Rio Tinto Stadium in Sandy, Utah. It was the final match of the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup, a one-off competition marking the resumption of the 2020 National Women's Soccer League season following the initial wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. The match was played behind closed doors due to the pandemic and was broadcast on CBS beginning at 12:30 ET."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "The 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup was a league cup tournament that took place during the 2021 National Women's Soccer League season. It began on April 9 and ended May 8, one week before the start of the regular season. It was the second iteration of the NWSL Challenge Cup tournament, which had started in 2020 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and was announced as a regular event later in 2020. Portland Thorns FC won the 2021 final over NJ/NY Gotham FC in a penalty shootout."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League",
        "text": "In November 2020, the NWSL announced that the Challenge Cup would become a regular league competition. The 2021 edition of the cup was played in April\u2013May 2021, with the Portland Thorns emerging as victors over NJ/NY Gotham FC in the final."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League",
        "text": "The 2020 season was initially postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic and later canceled. Instead the league played the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup, a special competition hosted in the Salt Lake City region with no spectators. The cup began in late June, making the NWSL the first major U.S. team sports league to return to play. The league was the recipient of a federal loan through the Paycheck Protection Program, which it used to compensate players before the competition was able to begin. Later that year the league also played the NWSL Fall Series, a set of 18 games between teams within geographically restricted regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chelsee Washington",
        "text": "Washington was selected in the fourth round (30th overall) of the 2020 NWSL College Draft by Orlando Pride. In doing so she became the first player in program history to be drafted. With the season disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic, Washington originally signed a short-term contract with Orlando ahead of the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup before the team was forced to withdraw. In September, Washington was signed through the 2021 season and made her debut on September 19, 2020, in the first Fall Series match, entering as an 87th minute substitute in a 0\u20130 draw with North Carolina Courage. She appeared in all four Fall Series matches for a combined 191 minutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "The following suspensions were served during the tournament:"
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup\n--Format.\n----Tiebreakers.\n----Final.\n--Championship.\n--Statistics.\n----Goalscorers.\n----Discipline.\n----Awards.\n--Broadcasting.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 Orlando Pride season",
        "text": "On May 27, 2020, the NWSL announced the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup as a smaller format replacement to the league, a 25-game tournament hosted at Zions Bank Stadium in Herriman, Utah, beginning June 27, 71 days after the original planned start date of the regular season. On June 22, the team withdrew from the tournament following positive COVID-19 tests among both players and staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emily Sonnett",
        "text": "On January 8, 2020, Sonnett was traded to Orlando Pride along with the NWSL rights to Caitlin Foord and two draft picks in exchange for Orlando's No. 1 overall selection in the 2020 NWSL College Draft. In March 2020, the NWSL announced an indefinite delay on the start of the 2020 NWSL season due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The NWSL eventually began with the smaller schedule 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup tournament in June. However, on June 22, Orlando Pride withdrew from the tournament following positive COVID-19 tests among both players and staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 Washington Spirit season",
        "text": "The season was slated to begin on April 18, 2020 but was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Ultimately, the NWSL season was cancelled due to the pandemic. Th club participated in the NWSL Challenge Cup and the NWSL Fall series which were held in lieu of the regular season. The Challenge Cup was held behind closed doors at the neutral venue of Zions Bank Stadium in Herriman, Utah. The Spirit reached the Quarterfinals of the Challenge Cup and finished in third place in the Fall Series. Combined across all matches, the Spirit had the second best record of matches played during the 2020 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tegan McGrady",
        "text": "Her second NWSL season was abbreviated due to the COVID-19 pandemic however McGrady started in all five of the Spirit's 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup matches. McGrady missed the 2020 NWSL Fall Series due to a foot injury."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup Championship",
        "text": "\"Note: In all results below, the score of the finalist is given first.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Trinity Rodman",
        "text": "During the 2021 NWSL season, Rodman was the Spirit's second-highest scorer with seven goals. The team finished in third place during the regular season with a record and advanced to the Playoffs. After the Spirit defeated North Carolina Courage 1\u20130, Rodman scored in the Spirit's 2\u20131 win against OL Reign to advance to the Final where they faced Chicago Red Stars. Rodman helped lift the Spirit to their first league championship with an assist on the game-winning goal scored by Kelley O'Hara. At age 19, Rodman became the youngest player in league history to record an assist in the playoffs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sarah Luebbert",
        "text": "Luebbert made her NWSL debut in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup on July 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Becky Sauerbrunn",
        "text": "Portland Thorns FC\n* NWSL Community Shield : 2020\n* NWSL Challenge Cup: 2021\n* International Champions Cup: 2021\n* NWSL Shield: 2021"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hannah Davison",
        "text": "Davison made her NWSL debut in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup on July 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League",
        "text": "On May 27, 2020, the NWSL announced that it would return from the COVID-19 pandemic with the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup tournament. All Challenge cup matches would be live on CBS All Access subscription service in the US and Canada and would re-air on CBS Sports Network, while CBS would broadcast both opening and final matches. Fans outside the US and Canada would be able to stream all 23 live matches for free on Twitch as part of NWSL broadcasting rights package."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "The Orlando Pride withdrew from the tournament on June 22, 2020, after receiving multiple positive COVID-19 test results among the team's players and staff. One day later, the NWSL accordingly released a revised tournament schedule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Katie McClure",
        "text": "McClure made her NWSL debut in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup on July 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup Championship",
        "text": "<onlyinclude></onlyinclude>"
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "No suspensions were served during the tournament."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tziarra King",
        "text": "She made her professional debut with the club in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup in June 2020, scoring her first professional goal less than 20 minutes after entering the field as a second-half substitute in a 3\u20133 draw against the Houston Dash."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 Washington Spirit season",
        "text": "The 2020 season was the Washington Spirit's seventh season. The season was slated to begin on April 18, 2020 but was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Ultimately, the NWSL season was cancelled due to the pandemic. The club participated in the NWSL Challenge Cup and the NWSL Fall series which were held in lieu of the regular season. The Challenge Cup was held behind closed doors at the neutral venue of Zions Bank Stadium in Herriman, Utah. The Spirit reached the Quarterfinals of the Challenge Cup and finished in third place in the Fall Series. Combined across all matches, the Spirit had the second best record of matches played during the 2020 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Julia Bingham",
        "text": "Bingham made her NWSL debut in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup on July 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "To lessen the impact of fixture congestion caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, NWSL clubs were permitted to roster up to 28 players (a temporary increase by two), to have the full roster available for substitutions during a game, and to make up to five substitutions in accordance with temporary rules and regulations from the International Football Association Board. There would be no extra time; any games in the knockout round that were tied after regulation would go straight to a penalty shoot-out. Final tournament rosters had to be submitted by June 21."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "Squads were announced on June 23. OL Reign announced that United States international Megan Rapinoe had decided to opt out, while Julia Ashley and Leah Pruitt were unavailable due to long-term injuries. Two more U.S. internationals, Tobin Heath (Portland Thorns FC) and Christen Press (Utah Royals FC), announced their decisions to opt out. Sky Blue FC omitted U.S. internationals Carli Lloyd and Mallory Pugh, as well as Caprice Dydasco, all recovering from injuries. Merritt Mathias was unavailable due to a long-term injury for the North Carolina Courage, while Chicago Red Stars were missing Alyssa Mautz and Arin Wright due to a long-term injury and maternity leave respectively. All of the remaining teams \u2014 including the Orlando Pride, who withdrew from the tournament \u2014 named their full rosters."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "Statistics do not include penalty-shootout goals."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 National Women's Soccer League season",
        "text": "On May 27, 2020, the NWSL announced that the 2020 NWSL regular season and playoffs were canceled due to the pandemic, and that the 2020 Challenge Cup would mark the league's return to action. The 25-game tournament, held from June 27 to July 26, was hosted by the owner of Utah Royals FC, Dell Loy Hansen. On June 22, 2020, the NWSL announced the full rules and regulations for the 2020 Challenge Cup. The Houston Dash won the 2020 Challenge Cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "After leaving the NWSL in 2017, Canadian goalkeeper Stephanie Labb\u00e9 returned to the league prior to the 2019 season and was allocated to the North Carolina Courage. Canada had previously allocated Labb\u00e9 to the Washington Spirit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cassie Rohan",
        "text": "Rohan made her NWSL debut in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup on July 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup Championship",
        "text": "The 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup Championship, the final match of the 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup, was a soccer match held on May 8, 2021 at Providence Park in Portland, Oregon, USA. It was contested by Portland Thorns FC and NJ/NY Gotham FC, the winners of the West and East Divisions, respectively, of the Challenge Cup. The match finished drawn 1-1 after 90 minutes, with the rules specifying that the teams would not play extra time but would instead proceed to a penalty shootout. The Thorns won the shootout 6-5 after 7 rounds, thus winning the 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup Championship",
        "text": "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup Championship\n--Road to the final.\n--Match.\n----Details.\n--Broadcasting.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup Championship",
        "text": "\"Note: In all results below, the score of the finalist is given first.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "A player would be automatically suspended for the next match in the tournament for the following offenses:\n* Receiving a red card (red card suspensions may be extended for serious offenses);\n* Receiving two yellow cards in two matches, unless the second yellow card was accumulated in the final match of divisional play;\n* Only direct red card suspensions would be carried over to the NWSL regular season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carson Pickett",
        "text": "In March 2020, the impending NWSL season was postponed due to the coronavirus pandemic. An eventual restart was made through a smaller schedule 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup tournament. However, on 22 June, Orlando withdrew from the tournament following positive COVID-19 tests among both players and staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "On July 7, 2021, Diana Matheson retired from professional soccer."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "The final was hosted by the team with the best record across both divisions. The final was 90 minutes; in the event it was tied, teams would proceed directly to a penalty shootout with no overtime periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Claire Emslie",
        "text": "In March 2020, the impending NWSL season was postponed due to the coronavirus pandemic. An eventual restart was made through a smaller schedule 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup tournament. However, on 22 June, Orlando withdrew from the tournament following positive COVID-19 tests among both players and staff. Having signed permanently with English FA Women's Super League club Everton in December 2020, Orlando lost Emslie's NWSL playing rights to Angel City FC during the 2022 NWSL Expansion Draft."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "In the knockout round, if a game was level at the end of 90 minutes of normal playing time, there would be no extra time and the winners would be determined by a penalty shoot-out."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League",
        "text": "In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic prevented the regular season from starting. Instead the league played the newly announced Challenge Cup, a tournament-style competition, starting in late June, with all teams in a protective bubble in Salt Lake City. This made the NWSL the first professional team sport in the U.S. to restart during the pandemic. The Houston Dash won the inaugural Challenge Cup, topping the Chicago Red Stars in the final."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taylor Leach",
        "text": "Leach made her NWSL debut in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup on July 8, 2020, in a club called Utah Royals FC. She later changed club to Kansas City who she plays for today. Leach has before NWSL played in Sweden, in a club called Kopparbergs/G\u00f6teborg FC (now named BK H\u00e4cken)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Katy Freels",
        "text": "She decided to sit out the 2016 NWSL season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adrienne Jordan",
        "text": "After the cancellation of the WSL, Jordan joined NWSL side OL Reign for the 2020 Challenge Cup. She saw playing time in one game after recovering from an injury. Jordan became the first player from Northern Colorado to play in the NWSL and the second from the Big Sky Conference."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup Championship",
        "text": "<onlyinclude></onlyinclude>"
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "Originally planned as a one-off tournament, the NWSL announced that the Challenge Cup will return in the 2021 NWSL season as a league cup competition."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "On May 17, 2021, Rose Lavelle left Manchester City for OL Reign."
      },
      {
        "title": "2022 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "<onlyinclude></onlyinclude>"
      },
      {
        "title": "2022 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "<onlyinclude></onlyinclude>"
      },
      {
        "title": "2022 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "<onlyinclude></onlyinclude>"
      },
      {
        "title": "2022 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "<onlyinclude></onlyinclude>"
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "NWSL teams were required to submit finalized rosters to participate in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup on June 21. Roster sizes were required to be a minimum of 22 players and maximum of 28 players (24 senior players + 4 supplemental players) and contain at least three goalkeepers. Only players listed on that final roster are permitted to participate in the tournament. International players already under contract by NWSL teams but not participating in the tournament do not count towards the roster limit. Furthermore, teams could sign a maximum of 4 players they had the rights to but were not yet under contract to short-term contracts lasting the duration of the tournament. Short-term loans from teams outside the NWSL were also permissible."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "The draw for the preliminary round was held on June 1, 2020, 12:00 ET, and streamed live on CBS Sports HQ. The nine NWSL teams were drawn randomly into nine slots, which determined each team's four-game schedule for the preliminary round. After the draw concluded, the NWSL released the full schedule of the preliminary round to be played at Zions Bank Stadium."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "Adrianna Franch of the Portland Thorns was voted the MVP of the championship game. She was also named NWSL Player of the Week for her play in the championship game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brianna Pinto",
        "text": "On March 19, 2022, Pinto scored her first professional goal in a NWSL Challenge Cup match against NJ/NY Gotham FC, making the score 1-0."
      },
      {
        "title": "2022 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "The following suspensions were served during the tournament:"
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "The initial determining factor for a team's position in the standings was most points earned, with three points earned for a win, one point for a draw, and zero points for a loss. If two or more teams were equal on points after completion of the preliminary round, the following criteria were applied to determine team rankings:\n# Superior goal difference in all divisional matches.\n# Greatest number of goals scored in all divisional matches.\n# Lowest team conduct score relating to the number of yellow and red cards obtained, where only one of the below point totals shall be applied to a player in a single match:\n## yellow card: 1 point;\n## indirect red card (as a result of two yellow cards): 3 points;\n## direct red card: 4 points;\n## yellow card and direct red card: 5 points.\n# Drawing of lots by the NWSL."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 North Carolina Courage season",
        "text": "On May 27, 2020, the NWSL announced that the 2020 NWSL regular season and playoffs were canceled due to the pandemic, and that the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup would mark the league's return to action."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup\n--Format.\n----Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.\n--Squads.\n--Preliminary round.\n----Draw.\n----Standings.\n------Tiebreakers.\n----Schedule.\n--Knockout round.\n----Bracket.\n--Statistics.\n----Discipline.\n----Awards.\n--Broadcasting.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "The full schedule was released on March 9, 2021, along with tournament rules and regulations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bella Bixby",
        "text": "Bixby made her professional debut for the Thorns on June 27, 2020 in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup, a 2-1 loss to the North Carolina Courage. After posting two clean sheets in her first four games for the club, she suffered an ACL injury that forced her to miss the rest of the Challenge Cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "2022 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "\"Statistics do not include penalty-shootout goals.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "On February 24, 2021, Crystal Dunn and Lindsey Horan relinquished their federation player status and signed three-year contracts with Portland Thorns FC."
      },
      {
        "title": "2018 NPSL season",
        "text": "The Northwest Conference champions Spokane SC Shadow got a goal from Micheal Ramos in the 7th minute of their West Region Quarterfinal to take an early lead. However, Christian Thyron replied a minute later for FC Mulhouse Portland. Fred Braun gave Portland a 2\u20131 lead in the 40th minute, and the Shadow was unable to equalize, suffering its first loss of the season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zoe Redei",
        "text": "Redei made her NWSL debut in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup on July 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 National Women's Soccer League season",
        "text": "On November 18, 2020, the NWSL announced new competition formats for the 2021 season. The Challenge Cup became a league cup competition played before the start of the regular season. The Cup was followed by the 24-match regular season, which began on May 15 and concluded on October 31. The playoffs were expanded to include the six teams, with the top two seeds receiving a first-round bye. Playoffs started on November 6 and concluded with the NWSL Championship on November 20."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports in the Western United States",
        "text": "NWSL\n* OL Reign (2013\u2013present): 2013\u20132018 as Seattle Reign FC, 2019 as Reign FC\n* Portland Thorns FC (2013\u2013present)\n* Utah Royals FC (2018\u20132020)\n* Angel City FC \u2014 joining the NWSL in 2022\n* San Diego NWSL \u2014 joining the NWSL in 2022"
      },
      {
        "title": "Anna Heilferty",
        "text": "Heilferty made her professional debut on April 10, 2021, in the NWSL Challenge Cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mariah Lee",
        "text": "Lee made her NWSL debut in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup on July 8, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup squads",
        "text": "NWSL teams were required to submit finalized rosters to participate in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup on June 21. Roster sizes were required to be a minimum of 22 players and maximum of 28 players (24 senior players + 4 supplemental players) and contain at least three goalkeepers. Only players listed on that final roster will be permitted to participate in the tournament. Furthermore, teams could sign a maximum of 4 players they had the rights to but were not yet under contract to short-term contracts lasting the duration of the tournament. Short-term loans from teams outside the NWSL were also permissible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicole Baxter",
        "text": "Baxter made her NWSL debut in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup on July 4, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup Championship",
        "text": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup Championship\n--Road to the final.\n--Match.\n----Details.\n--Broadcasting.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup Championship",
        "text": "The match aired on CBS and CBS All Access in the United States and Canada, and on Twitch internationally. Jenn Hildreth and Lori Lindsey served as play-by-play announcer and analyst respectively on CBS, while Mike Watts and Jen Cooper did the same on Twitch. Marisa Pilla was the on-field reporter."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "<section begin=bracket /><section end=bracket />"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rose Lavelle",
        "text": "On January 12, 2017, Lavelle was selected number one overall at the 2017 NWSL College Draft by the Boston Breakers. Lavelle started her professional career by scoring two goals in eight games and was named Player of the Month for April. However, after suffering a hamstring injury in June while on international duty, Lavelle missed over two months and finished the season with only ten appearances as a rookie. The Breakers folded before the start of the 2018 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Schuyler DeBree",
        "text": "On March 24, 2021, after spending a year out of the game, DeBree joined the North Carolina Courage. She made her professional debut for the club on April 10, 2021 in the NWSL Challenge Cup against her former club Washington Spirit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Averie Collins",
        "text": "Collins made her professional debut in the Spirit's first game of 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup on June 27, 2020 against the Chicago Red Stars. Collins came on as a substitute for the final four minutes and came close to converting Dorian Bailey's cross but Chicago goalkeeper Alyssa Naeher pushed Collins' header over the crossbar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ella Stevens",
        "text": "Stevens made her NWSL debut in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup on July 1, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "On June 22, the NWSL announced the full rules and regulations for the tournament. Each team would play four games in a preliminary round, with eight teams advancing to a single-elimination knockout bracket. Teams would be ranked by points in the preliminary round, with three points for a win and one for a draw, and the rankings used to determine seeding in the knockout bracket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rose Lavelle",
        "text": "A dispersal draft was held by the NWSL to distribute Breakers players across the league. Lavelle was selected first overall by Washington Spirit, who acquired the first pick through a trade with Sky Blue FC. Due to injury and international duty Lavelle appeared in only eleven games for the Spirit in 2018. Despite making only six appearances the following year due to international duty, scoring one goal and recording one assist, Lavelle was named to the 2019 NWSL Best XI in the end of the season awards. With the 2020 season affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, Lavelle took part in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup, making four appearances and scoring one goal as Washington finished second in the preliminary group but were eliminated in the first knockout round by Sky Blue FC on penalties."
      },
      {
        "title": "2022 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "No matches will have extra time. In the group stage, matches may end in a tie at the end of normal playing time. In the knockout stage, if a match is tied at the end of normal playing time, the game will be decided by a penalty shoot-out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ryan Williams (women's soccer)",
        "text": "Williams was drafted by the North Carolina Courage with the 40th pick of the 2018 NWSL College Draft, becoming the first player from TCU to be drafted into the NWSL. She was added as a defender to the 2018 pre-season roster on March 5, 2018. The Courage did not sign her immediately, as the club retained Williams' NWSL rights. On May 31, Williams was signed as a national team replacement, as some active roster players were on international duty. Williams made her professional debut on June 3 against the Houston Dash, playing 11 minutes in the 1\u20131 draw. Players on international duty returned to the team on June 15, thus Williams was released as a result, and she was allowed to continue training with the Courage. Williams was signed as a replacement again on July 18, as some players were on international duty for the 2018 Tournament of Nations. On July 26, Williams participated in the 2018 Women's International Champions Cup, substituting on in the 61st minute against Paris Saint-Germain. The Courage advanced into the finals, and they faced Olympique Lyonnais three days later. She made her first start in the finals and protected the 1\u20130 lead for 80 minutes. Williams did not make another appearance during the 2018 season, and the Courage continued on to win the NWSL Shield and Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL federation players",
        "text": "After the 2021 NWSL season, Emily Sonnett and Andi Sullivan relinquished their federation player status and signed two-year contracts with Washington Spirit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cassie Miller",
        "text": "Miller made her NWSL debut in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup on July 1, 2020."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the most popular professional sport in the world?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "According to A.T. Kearney, The world's most accessible and practised sport is running, while association football is the most popular spectator sport."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How much do professional football players make on average?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It depends, the average wages of a premier league player are about $1 million per year, but can go up to $70 million per year for the best players. MLS players earn on average $148,693 and women in the National Women's Soccer League earn $15,000 to $40,000  a year."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who is the NWSL's highest paid woman?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "As of February 2022, Trinity Rodman is the highest paid player in the league."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did Trinity Rodman join the league?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "At age 18, she became the youngest player to be drafted in NWSL history when the Washington Spirit selected her as their first draft pick (second overall) at the 2021 NWSL College Draft. On April 10, 2021, Rodman made her professional debut during a 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup match, scoring a goal within five minutes of being subbed on."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the result of the 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup match?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Portland Thorns FC won the 2021 final over NJ/NY Gotham FC in a penalty shootout.",
      "Portland Thorns FC won the 2021 final over NJ/NY Gotham FC in a penalty shootout."
    ],
    "topic": "Professional sports",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup"
        ],
        "ctx": "The 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup was a league cup tournament that took place during the 2021 National Women's Soccer League season. It began on April 9 and ended May 8, one week before the start of the regular season. It was the second iteration of the NWSL Challenge Cup tournament, which had started in 2020 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and was announced as a regular event later in 2020. Portland Thorns FC won the 2021 final over NJ/NY Gotham FC in a penalty shootout."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup"
        ],
        "ctx": "The 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup was a league cup tournament that took place during the 2021 National Women's Soccer League season. It began on April 9 and ended May 8, one week before the start of the regular season. It was the second iteration of the NWSL Challenge Cup tournament, which had started in 2020 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and was announced as a regular event later in 2020. Portland Thorns FC won the 2021 final over NJ/NY Gotham FC in a penalty shootout."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Professional sports in the Western United States",
        "text": "NWSL\n* OL Reign (2013\u2013present): 2013\u20132018 as Seattle Reign FC, 2019 as Reign FC\n* Portland Thorns FC (2013\u2013present)\n* Utah Royals FC (2018\u20132020)\n* Angel City FC \u2014 joining the NWSL in 2022\n* San Diego NWSL \u2014 joining the NWSL in 2022"
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "The NWSL Challenge Cup was first held in 2020 as a one-off tournament to mark the league's return to action from the COVID-19 pandemic. It was the first top-tier professional sports league in the United States to restart after COVID-19 lockdowns began. Subsequently, the NWSL announced that it would return as an annual league cup competition. The current (2021) holders are the Portland Thorns."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup Championship",
        "text": "The 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup Championship, the final match of the 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup, was a soccer match held on May 8, 2021 at Providence Park in Portland, Oregon, USA. It was contested by Portland Thorns FC and NJ/NY Gotham FC, the winners of the West and East Divisions, respectively, of the Challenge Cup. The match finished drawn 1-1 after 90 minutes, with the rules specifying that the teams would not play extra time but would instead proceed to a penalty shootout. The Thorns won the shootout 6-5 after 7 rounds, thus winning the 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League",
        "text": "In November 2020, the NWSL announced that the Challenge Cup would become a regular league competition. The 2021 edition of the cup was played in April\u2013May 2021, with the Portland Thorns emerging as victors over NJ/NY Gotham FC in the final."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "Portland Thorns FC won the right to host the final by finishing with the best record across both divisions. The game finished in a 1-1 draw after the regulation 90 minutes, so it proceeded to a penalty shootout. Each team missed one penalty kick during the first five rounds, both hitting a shot off the crossbar. In the seventh round, Gotham FC, shooting first, had a shot saved by Portland goalkeeper Adrianna Franch, and Morgan Weaver converted Portland's try to win the tournament."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "The 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup was a league cup tournament that took place during the 2021 National Women's Soccer League season. It began on April 9 and ended May 8, one week before the start of the regular season. It was the second iteration of the NWSL Challenge Cup tournament, which had started in 2020 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and was announced as a regular event later in 2020. Portland Thorns FC won the 2021 final over NJ/NY Gotham FC in a penalty shootout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Becky Sauerbrunn",
        "text": "Portland Thorns FC\n* NWSL Community Shield : 2020\n* NWSL Challenge Cup: 2021\n* International Champions Cup: 2021\n* NWSL Shield: 2021"
      },
      {
        "title": "NWC (football club)",
        "text": "NWC's rival is SV Someren. This match is known as the \"Kanaalderby\". Each season starts with the \"Ricus Verhees Cup,\" where youth teams of NWC Asten and SV Someren compete against each other."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "Christians in the Wesleyan-Holiness movement, which adheres to the position of first-day Sabbatarianism, oppose the viewing of or participation in professional sports, believing that professional sports leagues profane the Sabbath as in the modern era, certain associations hold games on the Lord's Day (such as in the United States). They also criticize professional sports for its fostering of a commitment that competes with a Christian's primary commitment to God in opposition to , what they perceive to be a lack of modesty in the players' and cheerleaders' uniforms (which are not in conformity with the Methodistic doctrine of outward holiness), its association with violence in opposition to , what they perceive to be the extensive use of profanity among many players that contravenes , and the frequent presence of alcohol and other drugs at sporting events that go against a commitment to teetotalism. Professional sports has been criticized for the gambling that is associated with it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Djurg\u00e5rdens IF Fotboll",
        "text": "Another rivalry that has come to grow bigger and more intense is with Helsingborg IF, and that after an incident where a Djurg\u00e5rden supporter were beaten to death before the premier of the 2014 season in Helsingborg.\n* Division 2\n** Konyaspor KIF\n** H\u00e5bo FF\n* Division 3\n** IFK Liding\u00f6 FK\n** Sp\u00e5rv\u00e4gens FF\n* Division 4\n** Kista Sports Club\n** R\u00e5gsveds IF"
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NJ/NY Gotham FC season",
        "text": "As a result of their performances in the East Division of the 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup, in which Gotham FC went unbeaten, the club qualified for the championship match on May 2, 2021. However, because West Division champions Portland Thorns FC had a better overall record in the cup, Portland were selected as the home team for the final."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 National Women's Soccer League season",
        "text": "In the 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup, Portland Thorns FC and NJ/NY Gotham FC won the West and East Divisions, respectively, earning the right to play in the final. As Portland had the better record, they hosted the final, which was played on May 8 in Providence Park in Portland, Oregon. The game was a 1\u20131 draw after 90 minutes; Portland won the ensuing penalty shootout 6\u20135 to win the cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christen Press",
        "text": "With the 2020 season disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic, Press elected not to participate in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "FCSB",
        "text": "Steaua's \"Peluza Nord\" and \"Peluza Sud\" fan groups no longer support the current team, as a sign of protest. The \"Peluza Sud\" have instead started to attend the matches of CSA Steaua. However, an online poll conducted by Sport.ro in 2017 has shown that of the 120,000 voters, 95% consider FCSB to hold the real Steaua identity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radovich v. National Football League",
        "text": "Rozelle's complaint received some support in the 1990s when sports-law expert Gary Roberts testified to Congress that sports-related antitrust decisions, including many of those above, had been \"inconsistent, often unjustifiable, and generally counterproductive\". In \"Brown\", Justice Stephen Breyer's majority opinion acknowledged that \"clubs that make up a professional sports league are not completely independent economic competitors, as they depend upon a degree of cooperation for economic survival.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sport",
        "text": "Christian clerics in the Wesleyan-Holiness movement oppose the viewing of or participation in professional sports, believing that professional sports leagues profane the Sabbath as in the modern era, certain associations hold games on the Lord's Day. They also criticize professional sports for its fostering of a commitment that competes with a Christian's primary commitment to God in opposition to , what they perceive to be a lack of modesty in the players' and cheerleaders' uniforms (which are not in conformity with the Methodistic doctrine of outward holiness), its association with violence in opposition to , what they perceive to be the extensive use of profanity among many players that contravenes , and the frequent presence of gambling, as well as alcohol and other drugs at sporting events, which go against a commitment to teetotalism."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of sports rivalries",
        "text": "Lomza Vive Kielce vs. Orlen Wisla Plock"
      },
      {
        "title": "SV Someren",
        "text": "SV Someren's rival is NWC Asten. This match is known as the \"Kanaalderby.\" Each season also starts with the \"Ricus Verhees Cup,\" where the youth teams of SV Someren and NWC Asten compete against each other."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nadine Angerer",
        "text": "On 17 July 2020, Angerer was signed as an emergency replacement goalkeeper by Portland Thorns FC during the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philadelphia Union",
        "text": "The Philadelphia Union's primary rival is DC United. These rivalries exist primarily because of geographical proximity and the traditional animosities between the metropolitan areas of Philadelphia and Washington, D.C. in other professional sports leagues. The Union has a smaller rivalry with the New York Red Bulls due primarily to geographical proximity. Harrison, New Jersey, where the Red Bulls play, is roughly a 90-mile drive from Center City, Philadelphia. The Union also have a bit of a rivalry with Seattle Sounders FC despite the between Philadelphia and Seattle. The cross-country feud started when the Philadelphia Union played its inaugural MLS game in Seattle. It continued when Subaru Park's first-ever home game pitted the club against Seattle. The rivalry culminated as they were regularly compared to the 2009 expansion Sounders FC during their inaugural 2010 season as noted by defender Danny Califf, \"Last year there was all this measuring of us against Seattle in their inaugural year, so maybe it created a bit more of a rivalry. They're a good team coming in here, and after the start they had they'd really like to take it to us.\"\n* \"Figures correct as of February 8, 2020. Includes all competitive matches\""
      },
      {
        "title": "William Sudell",
        "text": "After Preston won an FA Cup match against Upton Park in 1884, the Londoners protested, seeking the result to be overturned due to professionalism in the Preston ranks. This sparked a series of events which threatened to split the FA. Under Sudell's instruction, Preston withdrew from the competition. Fellow Lancashire clubs Burnley and Great Lever followed suit. The protest gathered momentum, to the point where more than 30 clubs, predominantly from the north, announced that they would set up a rival British Football Association if the FA did not permit professionalism. At the FA conference called to discuss the issue, Sudell was a member of the committee. He argued passionately for the acceptance of professionalism, but met opposition from southern-based amateur clubs, who viewed sport solely as a pastime. Backed by figures such as the more moderate but influential William McGregor of Aston Villa, the advocates of professionalism won the day and secured its acceptance. However, each club was permitted to only pay players who had been born or who had lived within six miles of the home stadium for at least two years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Hamilton (sports executive)",
        "text": "Hamilton favoured professionals in one sport playing as amateurs in another, as it would grow amateur baseball in Saskatchewan by allowing hockey professionals to players an amateur summer sport. At the AAU of C general meeting in 1930, Hamilton unsuccessfully sought for the approval of professionals having a secondary amateur sport. He also advocated for the reinstatement of soccer players who had unknowingly played against a professional hockey player in a soccer match. Two years later, Hamilton tried again to no avail. At the general meeting for the AAU of C in 1933, Hamilton tried a third time to allow professionals in one sport to compete as an amateur in another sport. He received strong support from Western Canada, but the motion was defeated by opposition from Eastern Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major women's sport leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "The overall record attendance for the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) was 27,278 and was set on August 29, 2021 when the OL Reign played the Portland Thorns FC at Lumen Field in Seattle as part of a doubleheader that also featured a Major League Soccer (MLS) match between the rivals, the Seattle Sounders FC and the Portland Timbers."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of sports rivalries",
        "text": "ONEFA/CONADEIP (National College Association of American Football/National College Sports Commission of Private Institutions)\n* Cl\u00e1sico Estudiantil (Student Derby): Pumas Dorados de la UNAM vs \u00c1guilas Blancas del IPN\n* Cl\u00e1sico Estudiantil Regiomontano (Monterrey's Student Derby): Borregos Salvajes ITESM vs Aut\u00e9nticos Tigres\n* Panda Game: University of Ottawa Gee-Gees versus Carleton University Ravens\n* Shrum Bowl : University of British Columbia Thunderbirds versus Simon Fraser University Clan\n* Bregenz derby: Bregenz Handball vs. Alpla HC Hard\n* Minsk derbies: Dinamo Minsk vs. SKA Minsk vs. Arkatron Minsk\n* Li\u00e8ge derbies:\n** ROC Fl\u00e9malle vs. Union Beynoise\n** ROC Fl\u00e9malle vs. Jeunesse Jemeppe (previously vs. Progr\u00e8s HC Seraing).\n** Union Beynoise vs. HC Herstal.\n** JS Herstal vs. HC Herstal.\n** Union Beynoise vs. HC Vis\u00e9 BM.\n* Germanophone derby : HC Eynatten-Raeren vs. KTSV Eupen 1889\n* Limburg derbies: HB Sint-Truiden vs. Initia HC Hasselt vs. United HC Tongeren vs. Achilles Bocholt vs. Sporting Neerpelt-Lommel vs. Kreasa HB Houthalen vs. DHC Meeuwen.\n* Antwerp derbies: KV Sasja HC Hoboken vs. Olse Merksem HC vs. DHW Antwerpen vs. HV Uilenspiegel Wilrijk.\n* Hainuy\u00e9 derby: EHC Tournai vs. Entente du Centre CLH\n* Flanders derby: HC DB Gent vs. HKW Waasmunster\n* Brussels derby: HC Kraainem vs. United Brussels HC\n* Charleroi derby: SHC Mont-sur-Marchienne vs. HBC Charleroi-Ransart\n* Zagreb derbies:\n** RK Dubrava Zagreb vs. RK Medve\u0161\u010dak Zagreb\n** Zagreb vs. RK Medve\u0161\u010dak Zagreb\n** RK Dubrava Zagreb vs. Zagreb\n* Copenhagen derbies: FC Copenhagen vs. AG K\u00f8benhavn vs. KIF Kolding Copenhagen vs. Ajax Copenhagen\n* Val-de-Marne derby: US Cr\u00e9teil vs. US Ivry\n* Languedoc derby: Montpellier HB vs. USAM N\u00eemes\n* Central Hesse derby: TV H\u00fcttenberg vs. HSG Wetzlar\n* Ostderby: SC Magdeburg vs. F\u00fcchse Berlin\n* Schleswig-Holstein derbies:\n** THW Kiel vs. SG Flensburg-Handewitt\n** GWD Minden vs. TuS Nettelstedt-L\u00fcbbecke\n** Nordderby:\n*** SG Flensburg-Handewitt vs. HSV Hamburg\n*** THW Kiel vs. HSV Hamburg\n* Rishon LeZion derby: Hapoel Rishon LeZion vs. Maccabi Rishon LeZion\n* Hungarian derby: Veszpr\u00e9m vs. Szeged\n* Ferencv\u00e1ros vs. Gy\u0151ri ETO\n* Skopje derby: RK Metalurg Skopje vs. Vardar"
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NWSL Challenge Cup Championship",
        "text": "Portland struck first, with Christine Sinclair winning the ball near midfield and then scoring from just outside Gotham's penalty box in the 8th minute. Portland generated several more chances in the first half but Gotham's defense successfully kept the score 1-0 until halftime. In the 61st minute, Carli Lloyd scored a header on a cross from Imani Dorsey, evening the match at 1-1. That score held until the end of the 90 minutes of regulation time. Tournament rules specified that there would be no extra time, so the match proceeded to a penalty shootout. In the first five rounds, each team had a shot rebound back off the crossbar\u2014one by Jennifer Cudjoe for Gotham and one by Meghan Klingenberg for the Thorns. Both teams made their sixth-round shots, but in the seventh round, Nahomi Kawasumi of Gotham had her shot saved by Thorns goalkeeper Adrianna Franch. Morgan Weaver of the Thorns scored on her seventh-round attempt, winning the game and the 2021 Challenge Cup for Portland."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 Challenge Cup",
        "text": "Entry into the Cup is mandatory for the English and Welsh professional teams, but is by invitation for all other clubs, either professional or amateur. French side Toulouse declined to enter for 2020, after also declining to play in previous years. Canadian side Toronto Wolfpack rejoined the competition after declining to play in the 2019 competition and by agreement would play all their matches in away from home. Serbian club, Red Star who played in 2019 declined an invitation to enter in 2020 due to the demands the trip to England made on their players."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "The 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup was a tournament during the 2020 National Women's Soccer League season to mark the league's return to action from the COVID-19 pandemic. It was the first professional team sports event to return to play in United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Derde Divisie",
        "text": "IJsselmeervogels, one of the most successful amateur football clubs in the Netherlands, was a strong opponent of the plans; chief Arian van de Vuurst has stated that \"professional football does not fit in with our culture.\" Because of these objections, promotion to the Eerste Divisie was not mandatory for the champion of the former Topklasse. After 2016, however, promotion to the Tweede Divisie is required."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NJ/NY Gotham FC season",
        "text": "On May 2, Gotham qualified for the final of the NWSL Challenge Cup, marking the club's first appearance in a final since the 2009 Women's Professional Soccer playoffs. However, following a 1\u20131 draw with the Portland Thorns, Gotham were defeated 6\u20135 on penalties in the final."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frederick E. Betts",
        "text": "Betts was opposed to the continued postponement of the AAU of C annual meeting due to post-war economic reasons. He felt that amateur sport was in a state of disrepute by not discussing the issues, and wanted to see regulations to prevent disagreements. He was opposed to the mingling of professionals and amateurs on the same team, but supported exhibition games where amateur teams played against professional teams. He also supported the reinstatement of professionals as amateurs, but insisted on penalties for athletes who broke amateur eligibility rules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports law in the United States",
        "text": "Antitrust challenges have recently taken the form of other domestic leagues challenging Major League Soccer and the United States Soccer Federation. This occurred in 2017, when the North American Soccer League (NASL) filed a lawsuit against United States Soccer Federation (USSF) following USSF's modification of its divisional requirements and its decision not to renew NASL's status as Division 2 for the 2018 year. NASL\u2019s antitrust case was based on MLS\u2019s single-entity structure and lack of promotion and relegation, something MLS receives an exemption from FIFA for doing. This was the first time a challenge to single-entity, closed-shop structure was brought by a lower league. NASL sought preliminary injunction against USSF imposing the new requirements, but was denied again on appeal. While preliminary injunction was denied, the case remains pending and may go trial."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 National Women's Soccer League season",
        "text": "The 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup was a tournament-style competition starting on April 9 and ending with a final played on May 8, before the start of the regular NWSL season. The tournament was organized as a group stage with two five-team, geographically-chosen groups playing a round-robin, followed by a single-game final featuring the top team from each group. NJ/NY Gotham FC won the Eastern Division and the Portland Thorns won the Western one. In the final, held at Providence Park in Portland, these two teams tied 1-1 after 90 minutes and went straight to a penalty-kick shootout, with Portland prevailing 6-5 in seven rounds of penalties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lumen Field",
        "text": "OL Reign played against Portland Thorns FC at the stadium on August 29, 2021, as part of a doubleheader with the Sounders and Timbers. The Reign defeated the Thorns 2\u20131 in front of 27,248, breaking the NWSL's attendance record. The Reign later announced on December 15 that they would move into the stadium for the 2022 season, leaving their previous home, Cheney Stadium in Tacoma, as plans to build a soccer-specific stadium in the city stalled amid the COVID-19 pandemic. The stadium's capacity is reduced to 10,000 seats for most OL Reign home matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Western Soccer Alliance",
        "text": "Two of the Challenge Series' teams, F.C. Portland and F. C. Seattle were amateur teams. The other two, Victoria Riptide and San Jose Earthquakes, were barely professional although the majority of the players had prior professional experience in the NASL. However, all four teams drew their players from the ranks of ex-NASL players, local semi-pro teams, or local colleges and universities. By keeping their teams independent and amateur, Seattle and Portland could use college players without those players losing their NCAA soccer eligibility. Despite the low key nature of the teams and the loose \"alliance\" versus \"league\", the WSA would go on to attract some of the top American players of the late 1980s and early 1990s. A few of the more noteworthy alumni include Marcelo Balboa (San Diego Nomads), Paul Caligiuri (San Diego Nomads) and Kasey Keller (F.C. Portland). Others players which came through the league included John Doyle, Mike Lapper, Cle Kooiman, Hugo Perez, Dominic Kinnear, Paul Krumpe and John Stollmeyer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joe Louis vs. Max Schmeling",
        "text": "The paradox is sometimes re-stated as \"commercial sporting organizations need close competition if they are to be able to maximize their income\", as a result of Neale's further conclusion that \"demand for competition will decrease if the spectators can predict the outcome of the game\". However, this has been challenged by Roger G. Noll, who noted in the \"Oxford Review of Economic Policy\" in 2003 that \"a team that has dropped out of contentions for a championship will generally draw poorly, but it is likely to sell more tickets if it is playing a team that is at or near that top of the standings than if it is playing another weak team, even though the outcome of the latter game is more uncertain\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports in Portland, Oregon",
        "text": "In 2012, Portland Thorns FC and the National Women's Soccer League were officially formed, with both the team and the league beginning play in 2013. The Thorns won the championship in the inaugural NWSL season and again in 2017, and have led the league in attendance in each of its first seven seasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Angela Salem",
        "text": "Portland Thorns FC\n* NWSL Shield: 2021\n* NWSL Challenge Cup: 2021\n* NWSL Community Shield : 2020\n* International Champions Cup: 2021"
      },
      {
        "title": "Northwest Intercollegiate Athletic Association",
        "text": "The Association took a strong position against professionalism, declaring that only bona fide students of true amateur status should be entitled to participate in intercollegiate competition. It was hoped that this would bring to an end the use of infiltrating skilled ringers into collegiate competition, a practice already recognized to be a bane upon college sports. Sports championships were to be arranged by the governing board."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hyde United F.C.",
        "text": "Scarborough Athletic could be also considered as rivalries as Hyde United fans chant the infamous 'we all hate Scarborough' though this has only occurred in recent years following an FA Cup 4th Qualifying Round match in 2017.\n: \"Updated 1 March 2021.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Aleksander \u010ceferin",
        "text": "On 24 November 2021, the European Parliament voted to oppose breakaway sports competitions after the aborted Super League project. MEPs said they wanted European sporting culture \"to be aligned with EU values of solidarity, sustainability, inclusiveness for all, open competition, sporting merit, and fairness\". The European Parliament said breakaway competitions undermine EU values and \"endanger the stability of the overall sports ecosystem\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tulsa Athletic",
        "text": "Oklahoma City 1889 FC joined the NPSL in 2021 which resulted in another in-state rivalry, with supporters choosing the name \u201cThe War for I-44.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Transgender people in sports",
        "text": "A 2021 Gallup poll showed that 62% of Americans opposed people playing on teams that matched their gender identity rather than their birth sex. However, a 2021 PBS/NPR/Marist poll found 67% of Americans, including 66% of Republicans, oppose legislation that would prohibit transgender student athletes from joining sports teams that match their gender identity."
      },
      {
        "title": "NJ/NY Gotham FC",
        "text": "Veteran defender Caprice Dydasco, new arrival Pugh, and star midfielder Carli Lloyd were ruled out of the Challenge Cup through injury. Midfielder Madison Tiernan also picked up an injury shortly before the start of the tournament. These absences, coupled with the extensive changes that had been made to the club in a short space of time, led to Sky Blue entering the Challenge Cup as \"the true underdog\". The truncated season was seen as pushing back the club's growth, while at the same time the tournament was perceived as \"more of a development opportunity.\" Heading into the tournament, the team were perceived as least likely to reach the final."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bella Bixby",
        "text": "Bixby made her professional debut for the Thorns on June 27, 2020 in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup, a 2-1 loss to the North Carolina Courage. After posting two clean sheets in her first four games for the club, she suffered an ACL injury that forced her to miss the rest of the Challenge Cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "1936 FIRA Tournament",
        "text": "\"Substitutes\" : R. Lombarteix (AS Montferrand), Prud'homme (Lyon olympique universitaire), R. Arotca (Aviron Bayonnais), J. Dorot (Racing club de France), J. Blond (Stade Fran\u00e7ais), J. Fau (Union sportive carcassonnaise XV), F. Raynaud (Union sportive carcassonnaise XV), F. Sahuc (Stade Toulousain), M. Capendeguy (Saint-Jean-de-Luz olympique rugby)."
      },
      {
        "title": "2019 Challenge Cup",
        "text": "Entry into the Cup is mandatory for the English and Welsh professional teams, but is by invitation for all other clubs, either professional or amateur. French side Toulouse declined to enter for 2019, after also declining to play in the 2018 competition. Canadian side Toronto Wolfpack also declined to enter for 2019, after both clubs were presented with a demand by the Rugby Football League (RFL) for roughly \u00a3750,000 (\u20ac830,000; C$1,226,000 approximately) as a bond insurance against reduced ticket sales, if either team reached the final."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women's sports",
        "text": "Although several professional women's sports leagues have been established throughout the world in the post-Title IX era, they are generally behind in terms of exposure, funding, and attendance compared to the men's teams. However, there are notable exceptions. The 2015 Women's World Cup final was the most-watched soccer game ever in the United States. And in 2017, Portland Thorns FC of the NWSL had higher average attendance than several men's professional teams, including 15 NBA teams, 13 NHL teams, and 1 MLB team. The Thorns' 2019 season saw an even higher average attendance of 20,098. This was higher than all but one of the 30 NBA teams in the 2018\u201319 season, all but three of the 31 NHL teams in the 2018\u201319 season, 15 of the 24 MLS teams in the 2019 season, and 6 of the 30 MLB teams in the 2019 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "Squads were announced on June 23. OL Reign announced that United States international Megan Rapinoe had decided to opt out, while Julia Ashley and Leah Pruitt were unavailable due to long-term injuries. Two more U.S. internationals, Tobin Heath (Portland Thorns FC) and Christen Press (Utah Royals FC), announced their decisions to opt out. Sky Blue FC omitted U.S. internationals Carli Lloyd and Mallory Pugh, as well as Caprice Dydasco, all recovering from injuries. Merritt Mathias was unavailable due to a long-term injury for the North Carolina Courage, while Chicago Red Stars were missing Alyssa Mautz and Arin Wright due to a long-term injury and maternity leave respectively. All of the remaining teams \u2014 including the Orlando Pride, who withdrew from the tournament \u2014 named their full rosters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "Professional athleticism has been a traditional object of criticism by proponents of the amateur philosophy of sport, according to which the central ethos of sport is competition performed for its own sake and pure enjoyment rather than as a means of earning a living. Examples of amateur philosophy include the muscular Christianity movement that informed the promotion of sports in the English public school system, and the Olympism advocated by Pierre de Coubertin, a force behind the revival of the modern Olympic Games. The tension between the two sporting practices and ideals dates from the inception of modern organized sports in the 19th century. The high political and financial stakes involved in sport have ensured that this tension has remained strong. Professional sporting organizations have often developed as \"rebel\" organizations in relation to established national and international federation, for example the schism which created the code of rugby league."
      },
      {
        "title": "2022 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "Teams must have a minimum of 18 players and a maximum of 20 players on a matchday roster. A maximum of nine players can be named as substitutes with a maximum of five substitutions in three stoppages (excluding half-time) permitted to be used during a match. No substitutes may be made after the end of normal playing time (except if a goalkeeper is unable to continue before or during the penalty shoot-out). Two \"concussion substitutes\" may also be used in accordance with IFAB rules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cris Lewis",
        "text": "In the leadup to the first season of the National Women's Soccer League in 2013, Lewis trained with the team in preseason as an amateur. On May 30, 2013, Portland Thorns FC, playing in the first season of the National Women's Soccer League, called up Lewis as an amateur player. This was in response to missing all four of their allocated national team players, including starting goalkeeper Karina LeBlanc of the Canadian national team, to international duty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atlantic Cup (Major League Soccer)",
        "text": "Inaugurated in 2002, the Atlantic Cup has become one of the most bitter rivalries in Major League Soccer and in American soccer. The origins of the rivalry are unknown, but some claim that it developed due to the cities' relative proximity to each other, and the frequency with which the two clubs play one another in league, playoff, and Open Cup play. New York City and Washington, D.C. have had rivalries based on various other sports, such as American football (Giants\u2013Washington rivalry) and ice hockey (Capitals\u2013Rangers rivalry), so can also be argued that the rivalry that already existed between the two cities ended up being also transplanted for soccer. For United, the Red Bulls are the only opponent they have competed against in more than five occasions in both the U.S. Open Cup and the MLS Cup Playoffs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Major women's sport leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "The Portland Thorns FC averaged more than 13,000 attendance at Providence Park in each of the NWSL's first seven seasons, with an all-time high of 20,098 in the 2019 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morgan Weaver",
        "text": "Weaver made her professional debut for Portland Thorns FC on June 27, 2020, in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup, coming on as a substitute in the 54th minute for Tyler Lussi against North Carolina Courage. She scored her first professional goal on July 17, 2020 against North Carolina Courage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christine Sinclair",
        "text": "Portland Thorns FC\n* NWSL Championship: 2013, 2017\n* NWSL Shield: 2016, 2021\n* NWSL Challenge Cup: 2021\n* NWSL Community Shield: 2020\n* International Champions Cup: 2021"
      },
      {
        "title": "Major women's sport leagues in the United States and Canada",
        "text": "The record attendance for a standalone NWSL game was 25,218 (a sellout crowd) on August 11, 2019 between the Portland Thorns FC and the North Carolina Courage at Providence Park in Portland, Oregon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "Professional sports\n--History.\n----Baseball.\n----American football.\n----Basketball.\n----Cricket.\n----Ice hockey.\n----Rugby football.\n--Opposition to professionalism.\n--Sports salaries.\n----American football.\n----Association football.\n------Chinese Super League.\n------Russian Premier League.\n------Bundesliga.\n------Serie A.\n------La Liga.\n------Premier League.\n------Major League Soccer.\n----Baseball.\n----Cricket.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "2016 FA WSL",
        "text": "<onlyinclude></onlyinclude>\n* The match Millwall Lionesses vs Oxford United was initially postponed because Millwall's stadium, The Den, was being used for a men's game. The FA WSL Management Committee then decided to award the match to Oxford United."
      },
      {
        "title": "North American Soccer League (2011\u20132017)",
        "text": "Some NASL teams participated in rivalry matches. Supporters of Minnesota United FC and FC Edmonton created the Flyover Cup, a nod to the clubs' geographic location with respect to the rest of the league."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brianna Pinto",
        "text": "On March 19, 2022, Pinto scored her first professional goal in a NWSL Challenge Cup match against NJ/NY Gotham FC, making the score 1-0."
      },
      {
        "title": "International Professional Hockey League",
        "text": "In the time period around 1900, leagues in Canada fought against the professionalization of athletics. John Ross Robertson was quoted in the newspapers of the day as saying \"for self preservation, the stand of the Ontario Hockey Association (OHA) against the professionalism of Pittsburgh, Houghton, Calumet and the Soo must be uncompromisingly antagonistic ... Any player who figures on any of these teams must be banished from Ontario Hockey.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Seattle Sounders FC Community Shield",
        "text": "Seattle and Portland have one of the biggest rivalries in American sports. In July 2009, Seattle and Portland met in the 2009 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup at PGE Park in Portland, Oregon. Seattle won the game 2-1 from a goal by Roger Levesque in the first minute. The Seattle Sounders \u2013 Portland Timbers rivalry started in the North American Soccer League in 1975."
      },
      {
        "title": "Djurg\u00e5rdens IF Fotboll",
        "text": "Hammarby is the other main rival mostly because of their geographical proximity in central Stockholm, with Djurg\u00e5rden's stronghold in the \u00d6stermalm district and Hammarby's in S\u00f6dermalm. Since 2013, the two teams have shared the same home ground, the Tele2 Arena."
      },
      {
        "title": "Opposition to hunting",
        "text": "Opposition to hunting is not new. Victorian era dramatist W. S. Gilbert remarked, \"Deer-stalking would be a very fine sport if only the deer had guns.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "National Women's Soccer League",
        "text": "In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic prevented the regular season from starting. Instead the league played the newly announced Challenge Cup, a tournament-style competition, starting in late June, with all teams in a protective bubble in Salt Lake City. This made the NWSL the first professional team sport in the U.S. to restart during the pandemic. The Houston Dash won the inaugural Challenge Cup, topping the Chicago Red Stars in the final."
      },
      {
        "title": "Knattspyrnuf\u00e9lagi\u00f0 H\u00f6r\u00f0ur",
        "text": "\"Competitive matches only since 2014. Correct as of 12 March 2022.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "George Woodbridge (illustrator)",
        "text": "Although writer Koch intended the game to be completely unplayable, some colleges even attempted to form teams and play the game. The letters column to MAD #97 included several \"team photos\" and accounts from new acolytes of the sport. A student from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute issued a public challenge to Harvard, while athletes from the University of Alberta exulted that \"we happen to be the only undefeated Squamish team in Western Canada, mainly because we are the only team in Western Canada, and we haven't played a game. We can't understand why we have no opposition.\" A letter from the Athletic Committee of Marquette University reported that three of its Squamish players had been suspended for \"sportsmanlike conduct.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur sports",
        "text": "The middle and upper-class men who dominated the sporting establishment not only had a theoretical preference for amateurism, they also had a self-interest in blocking the professionalization of sport, which threatened to make it feasible for the working classes to compete against themselves with success. Working class sportsmen didn't see why they shouldn't be paid to play. Hence there were competing interests between those who wished sport to be open to all and those who feared that professionalism would destroy the 'Corinthian spirit'. This conflict played out over the course of more than one hundred years. Some sports dealt with it relatively easily, such as golf, which decided in the late 19th century to tolerate competition between amateurs and professionals, while others were traumatized by the dilemma, and took generations to fully come to terms with professionalism even to a result of causing a breakdown in the sport (as in the case of rugby union and rugby league in 1895)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tobin Heath",
        "text": "With the 2020 season disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic, Heath elected not to participate in the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sophia Smith (soccer, born 2000)",
        "text": "Portland Thorns FC\n* NWSL Challenge Cup: 2021\n* NWSL Community Shield : 2020\n* International Champions Cup: 2021"
      },
      {
        "title": "William Peirce Dix",
        "text": "When the Football Association debated whether to legalize professionalism in early 1885, Dix was one of the strongest voices opposing the change, proposing to the Football Association that \"professionalism in football is an evil, and as such should be suppressed\". After professionalism was eventually permitted in the summer of that year, Dix resigned his positions in the FA and the Sheffield Associations."
      },
      {
        "title": "2018 Portland Thorns FC season",
        "text": "on September 24, 2017, the club announced that midfielder Amandine Henry and forward Nadia Nadim will not be returning to the Portland Thorns in 2018 season. The moves were made for financial reasons, NWSL has a strict salary cap of $315,000 for each team and the Thorns could not compete with the offers made by Lyon and Manchester City."
      },
      {
        "title": "ACS Poli Timi\u0219oara",
        "text": "\"As of 1 March 2019\"\n:\"Competitive, professional matches only. Appearances, including substitutes, appear in brackets. Only pertains to 2012 onwards.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "VSI Tampa Bay FC",
        "text": "While the W-League and PDL teams had been successful in 2012, the USL Pro team struggled throughout its only season. The remote stadium in Plant City made it difficult to attract fans, and the team suffered from competition from the more successful Tampa Bay Rowdies of the North American Soccer League. The organization folded all of its teams after the 2013 season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports in the Western United States",
        "text": "MLS\n* Colorado Rapids (1996\u2013present)\n* LA Galaxy (1996\u2013present)\n* Los Angeles FC (2018\u2013present)\n* San Jose Earthquakes (1996\u20132005, 2008\u2013present): 1996\u20131998 as San Jose Clash; 1999\u20132005 and 2008\u2013present as San Jose Earthquakes.\n* Chivas USA (2005\u20132014; based in Los Angeles)\n* Real Salt Lake (2005\u2013present)\n* Seattle Sounders FC (2009\u2013present)\n* Portland Timbers (2011\u2013present)"
      },
      {
        "title": "2016 U.S. Open Cup",
        "text": "All United States Division I (MLS), Division II (NASL), and Division III (USL) teams qualified automatically, except teams that are majority owned by a higher-level outdoor professional league team. This rule prevented United Soccer League teams Bethlehem Steel FC, LA Galaxy II, New York Red Bulls II, Orlando City B, Portland Timbers 2, Real Monarchs, Seattle Sounders FC 2 and Swope Park Rangers from competing. New York Cosmos B (NPSL) also stated that they would not enter the competition. The Rio Grande Valley FC Toros were ruled ineligible at the request of the Houston Dynamo. The New York Athletic Club (NPSL) withdrew before the access list was announced on February 5.\n* $: Winner of $15,000 bonus for advancing the furthest in the competition from their respective divisions.\n* $$: Winner of $60,000 for being the runner-up in the competition.\n* $$$: Winner of $250,000 for winning the competition."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWSL records and statistics",
        "text": "Statistics for the NWSL Challenge Cup, a competition originally created in place of the 2020 season that was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, are treated separately from regular season statistics.\n* Most wins in a season (24 games): 17, North Carolina Courage (2018)\n* Fewest wins in a season (20 games): 3, Boston Breakers (2016)\n* Fewest wins in a season (24 games): 1, Sky Blue FC (2018)\n* Most consecutive wins in a season: 7, joint record:\n** FC Kansas City (2014)\n** Seattle Reign FC (2014)\n** Portland Thorns FC (2017)\n* Most consecutive games without a win: 23, Sky Blue FC (2018)\n* Most consecutive away games without a win: 19, Boston Breakers (between August 6, 2014 and July 10, 2016)\n* Most consecutive home wins in a season: 7, joint record:\n** Portland Thorns FC (between June 28, 2017 and September 30, 2017)\n** North Carolina Courage (between July 5, 2019 and October 12, 2019)\n* Most consecutive home wins: 8, Portland Thorns FC (between June 28, 2017 and April 15, 2018)\n* Most wins in total (172 games): 89, Portland Thorns FC\n* Fewest losses in a season (24 games): 1, North Carolina Courage (2018)\n* Longest unbeaten run: 16 games, Seattle Reign FC (between April 13, 2014 and July 6, 2014)\n* Most losses in total (182 games): 81, Washington Spirit\n* Fewest home losses in a season (12 games): 0, Seattle Reign FC (2014)\n* Most consecutive losses in a season: 10, Washington Spirit (2018)\n* Most consecutive home games undefeated: 22, Seattle Reign FC (between April 13, 2014 and August 29, 2015)"
      },
      {
        "title": "2017 Portland Thorns FC season",
        "text": "On January 4, 2017, Tobin Heath, Lindsey Horan and Allie Long, Emily Sonnett and goalkeeper Adrianna Franch were called up by USA for an evaluation period for the upcoming SheBelieves Cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Women's professional sports",
        "text": "In November 2012, the US, Mexican, and Canadian soccer federations announced the establishment of the National Women's Soccer League, which began to play in 2013. The US and Canadian federations remain involved with the NWSL; the Mexican federation withdrew after establishing Liga MX Femenil in 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "2018 Portland Thorns FC season",
        "text": "On February 15, 2018, Ashleigh Sykes announced her retirement from professional soccer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Knattspyrnuf\u00e9lagi\u00f0 H\u00f6r\u00f0ur",
        "text": "\"Competitive matches only since 2014. Correct as of 20 April 2022.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Doehling\u2013Heselton Memorial Trophy",
        "text": "At times the rivalry between the schools has been brutal. \"The Lawrentian\" worried in 1896 that the rivalry was so intense that football might be banned as a sport. As the columnist noted, \"Such playing will kill football. . . . If Ripon or football must die, we are sorry, but it ought to be Ripon.\" An article in the Appleton Post-Crescent noted that the Vikings would have scored more in their 23 to 6 victory in 1901, but that on two occasions, \"Lawrence men who had got clear away for a run down a clear field were tackled by spectators.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "2016 Portland Thorns FC season",
        "text": "The Thorns traveled to D.C. to take on the Washington Spirit. The team would end up drawing 0-0 with Tobin Heath acquiring two yellow cards, thus suspending her for the next match against local rivals Seattle Reign FC."
      },
      {
        "title": "C.D. Luis \u00c1ngel Firpo",
        "text": "Firpo's historical rival is Aguila. The Derby de Oriente (vs Aguila) is the most important game of the season."
      },
      {
        "title": "1880 in sports",
        "text": "Events\n* The latest National Association, a professional rival of the National League, goes out of business after its fourth season, contested by only three to four clubs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Porthleven F.C.",
        "text": "In June 2012 before the 2012\u201313 season, the club faced some bad news when the FA refused to allow them to enter any national FA competitions because they do not have toilet facilities in the home and away dressing room, and the referee's room."
      },
      {
        "title": "Goal-line technology",
        "text": "Blatter had been opposed to goal-line technology until Frank Lampard's disallowed goal in the 2010 World Cup where the ball clearly crossed the line."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States men's national soccer team",
        "text": "In recent years the United States has also begun to develop a rivalry with Costa Rica. The most notable match, and the impetus of the rivalry itself, occurred on Friday, March 22, 2013, in a 2014 World Cup qualifying match played at Dick's Sporting Goods Park in Commerce City under blizzard conditions. Costa Rica filed a protest with FIFA due to field conditions when the United States won the game 1\u20130, but the protest was denied. The game has already been dubbed in soccer lore as \"Snow Clasico\" for the conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Olivia Moultrie",
        "text": "Although she trained with the Thorns' senior team and appeared in exhibition matches, she had been prevented from signing a professional contract with the club, as the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) prohibited players under age 18, while FIFA, soccer's international governing body, generally prohibits minors from playing overseas."
      },
      {
        "title": "NWC (football club)",
        "text": "NWC (football club)\n--History.\n----20th century.\n----21st century.\n--Rivalries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports leagues in the United States",
        "text": "The National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) is a professional women's soccer league run by the United States Soccer Federation. At the top of the United States league system, it is the country's primary competition for women's soccer. The NWSL was established in 2012 as a successor to Women's Professional Soccer (2007\u20132012). The league began play in 2013 with eight teams; four of which were former members of Women's Professional Soccer. With the addition of two expansion teams in Houston and Orlando since the league's founding, it reached a peak of 10 teams based throughout the United States. Following the 2017 season, the league dropped to 9 teams following the demise of two charter members, one of which was replaced by a new franchise. The league returned to 10 teams for its most recent 2021 season. Utah Royals FC, which had inherited the roster of the defunct FC Kansas City after the 2017 season, itself folded after the 2020 season, with its roster being taken over by a new Kansas City ownership group that now fields the Kansas City Current. The completely new Racing Louisville FC also started play in 2021. The NWSL added two teams in 2022, the Los Angeles-based Angel City FC and San Diego Wave FC."
      },
      {
        "title": "South Warrnambool Football Club",
        "text": "The Western District FL countered by admitting Portland to the competition in 1930. This incurred extra travelling costs and it was noticeable that gate takings were down."
      },
      {
        "title": "Olivia Moultrie",
        "text": "On May 4, 2021, she filed an antitrust lawsuit against the NWSL in the United States District Court for the District of Oregon, alleging that the league, as the \"only acquirer of talent in the market\", violated the Sherman Antitrust Act with its age limit. The suit asked for immediate action from the court by granting a temporary restraining order against the age rule so that Moultrie can play in regular-season games during the 2021 season. On May 24, 2021, United States District Judge Karin Immergut granted a temporary restraining order, ordering the league to lift its age limit and allow Moultrie to compete for a roster spot on the Thorns, writing, the league had not \"presented any compelling procompetitive reasons to justify this anticompetitive policy, nor have they shown that eliminating the Age Rule will cause any non-speculative injury to the NWSL.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "2022 NWSL Challenge Cup",
        "text": "\"Statistics do not include penalty-shootout goals.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Portland Thorns FC",
        "text": "The Portland Thorns FC is an American professional women's soccer team based in Portland, Oregon. Established in 2012, the team began play in 2013 in the then-eight-team National Women's Soccer League (NWSL), which receives support from the United States Soccer Federation (USSF), the Canadian Soccer Association (CSA), and formerly the Mexican Football Federation (FMF). The Portland franchise is owned by Peregrine Sports LLC, which also owns the Portland Timbers. Alongside the Thorns, the Houston Dash and the Orlando Pride are other NWSL teams with Major League Soccer affiliations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Victoria Riptides",
        "text": "In 1985, four independent west coast soccer clubs joined together to create an informal challenge series. The challenge cup pitted the Riptides against F.C. Seattle, F.C. Portland and the San Jose Earthquakes in a home and away series. The cup also included games against the Canadian national soccer team which was training for the 1986 World Cup in Vancouver, BC. The national team was not included in the standings."
      },
      {
        "title": "1917\u201318 National Challenge Cup",
        "text": "Other welcome events included record attendance figures in some late-round games of the National Challenge Cup that were well promoted. One of the major topics of discussion was the pros and cons of substitutes. At the time the laws did not specifically allow nor outlaw substitutes per se, but the consensus was that eventually they would become a reality. For the 1917-18 year, the USFA reported receipts of $6,318.64 and disbursements of $3,034.39, giving the USFA a net worth of $2,784.25 in cash and one $500.00 Liberty Bond."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 NJ/NY Gotham FC season",
        "text": "The schedule for the 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup was announced on March 9, 2021. Under the rules of the competition, Gotham played four matches as part of the East Division. On April 5, the club announced a twenty-four player roster for the tournament."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gymnasium F.C.",
        "text": "The club experienced an internal power struggle during 1987, resulting in the resignation of a section of the committee and players to form spin off club , who even took gymnasiums coloursDouglas Royal, who even copied the Gymns kit of the time and to this day consider themselves rivals (despite being in the lower leagues)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Hamilton (sports executive)",
        "text": "Hamilton responded to charges of professionalism in leagues in the Maritimes by saying that a hearing would be conducted if an official complaint was received. In an effort to ensure amateurism, he announced that players taking part in provincial finals for the 1932 Allan Cup and 1932 Memorial Cup playoffs would be required to recite an oath similar to the Olympic Oath, and declare they meet all amateur requirements. Any violation of the oath would render the player's team ineligible for the remainder of the playoffs."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the most popular professional sport in the world?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "According to A.T. Kearney, The world's most accessible and practised sport is running, while association football is the most popular spectator sport."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How much do professional football players make on average?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It depends, the average wages of a premier league player are about $1 million per year, but can go up to $70 million per year for the best players. MLS players earn on average $148,693 and women in the National Women's Soccer League earn $15,000 to $40,000  a year."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who is the NWSL's highest paid woman?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "As of February 2022, Trinity Rodman is the highest paid player in the league."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did Trinity Rodman join the league?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "At age 18, she became the youngest player to be drafted in NWSL history when the Washington Spirit selected her as their first draft pick (second overall) at the 2021 NWSL College Draft. On April 10, 2021, Rodman made her professional debut during a 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup match, scoring a goal within five minutes of being subbed on."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the result of the 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup match?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Portland Thorns FC won the 2021 final over NJ/NY Gotham FC in a penalty shootout."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about the opposition to professional sports?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The opposition to professional sports include criticism by the amateur philosophy of sport, criticism by the Christians and the unacceptance by the Pietistic Lutheran tradition. Which of these oppositions do you want to know more ?"
    ],
    "topic": "Professional sports",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Professional sports:25",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Professional sports",
          "Opposition to professionalism"
        ],
        "ctx": "Professional athleticism has been a traditional object of criticism by proponents of the amateur philosophy of sport, according to which the central ethos of sport is competition performed for its own sake and pure enjoyment rather than as a means of earning a living. Examples of amateur philosophy include the muscular Christianity movement that informed the promotion of sports in the English public school system, and the Olympism advocated by Pierre de Coubertin, a force behind the revival of the modern Olympic Games. The tension between the two sporting practices and ideals dates from the inception of modern organized sports in the 19th century. The high political and financial stakes involved in sport have ensured that this tension has remained strong. Professional sporting organizations have often developed as \"rebel\" organizations in relation to established national and international federation, for example the schism which created the code of rugby league."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Professional sports:27",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Professional sports",
          "Opposition to professionalism"
        ],
        "ctx": "Christians in the Wesleyan-Holiness movement, which adheres to the position of first-day Sabbatarianism, oppose the viewing of or participation in professional sports, believing that professional sports leagues profane the Sabbath as in the modern era, certain associations hold games on the Lord's Day (such as in the United States). They also criticize professional sports for its fostering of a commitment that competes with a Christian's primary commitment to God in opposition to , what they perceive to be a lack of modesty in the players' and cheerleaders' uniforms (which are not in conformity with the Methodistic doctrine of outward holiness), its association with violence in opposition to , what they perceive to be the extensive use of profanity among many players that contravenes , and the frequent presence of alcohol and other drugs at sporting events that go against a commitment to teetotalism. Professional sports has been criticized for the gambling that is associated with it."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Professional sports:28",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Professional sports",
          "Opposition to professionalism"
        ],
        "ctx": "Laestadian Lutherans, who belong to the Pietistic Lutheran tradition, likewise teach that \"Competitive sports are not acceptable, but we should maintain fitness through various forms of exercise.\""
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "Christians in the Wesleyan-Holiness movement, which adheres to the position of first-day Sabbatarianism, oppose the viewing of or participation in professional sports, believing that professional sports leagues profane the Sabbath as in the modern era, certain associations hold games on the Lord's Day (such as in the United States). They also criticize professional sports for its fostering of a commitment that competes with a Christian's primary commitment to God in opposition to , what they perceive to be a lack of modesty in the players' and cheerleaders' uniforms (which are not in conformity with the Methodistic doctrine of outward holiness), its association with violence in opposition to , what they perceive to be the extensive use of profanity among many players that contravenes , and the frequent presence of alcohol and other drugs at sporting events that go against a commitment to teetotalism. Professional sports has been criticized for the gambling that is associated with it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "Professional athleticism has been a traditional object of criticism by proponents of the amateur philosophy of sport, according to which the central ethos of sport is competition performed for its own sake and pure enjoyment rather than as a means of earning a living. Examples of amateur philosophy include the muscular Christianity movement that informed the promotion of sports in the English public school system, and the Olympism advocated by Pierre de Coubertin, a force behind the revival of the modern Olympic Games. The tension between the two sporting practices and ideals dates from the inception of modern organized sports in the 19th century. The high political and financial stakes involved in sport have ensured that this tension has remained strong. Professional sporting organizations have often developed as \"rebel\" organizations in relation to established national and international federation, for example the schism which created the code of rugby league."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "Laestadian Lutherans, who belong to the Pietistic Lutheran tradition, likewise teach that \"Competitive sports are not acceptable, but we should maintain fitness through various forms of exercise.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sport",
        "text": "Christian clerics in the Wesleyan-Holiness movement oppose the viewing of or participation in professional sports, believing that professional sports leagues profane the Sabbath as in the modern era, certain associations hold games on the Lord's Day. They also criticize professional sports for its fostering of a commitment that competes with a Christian's primary commitment to God in opposition to , what they perceive to be a lack of modesty in the players' and cheerleaders' uniforms (which are not in conformity with the Methodistic doctrine of outward holiness), its association with violence in opposition to , what they perceive to be the extensive use of profanity among many players that contravenes , and the frequent presence of gambling, as well as alcohol and other drugs at sporting events, which go against a commitment to teetotalism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sport",
        "text": "The practice of athletic competitions has been criticised by some Christian thinkers as a form of idolatry, in which \"human beings extol themselves, adore themselves, sacrifice themselves and reward themselves.\" Sports are seen by these critics as a manifestation of \"collective pride\" and \"national self-deification\" in which feats of human power are idolized at the expense of divine worship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "Arguments against amateurism often appeal to the argument that amateurism in sport favors the classes who can afford not to be paid to play, and is thus a covert form of prejudice against lower classes. Another argument is that amateur players are often de facto professionals who retain their amateur status by earning allowances instead of salaries. For example, all Eastern bloc countries were populated with amateur players who were actually full-time athletes hired as regular workers of a company (aircraft industry, food workers, tractor industry) or organization (KGB, Red Army, Soviet Air Force) that sponsored what would be presented as an after-hours social sports society team for their workers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rodolphe Seeldrayers",
        "text": "Aware of the significance of this problem, Seeldrayers remained faithful to his view of the sport. For him, \"from a point of view strictly Olympic, sport is only possible, theoretically, when practiced by amateurs.\" His opinion didn't prevent him from respecting professional players who followed the spirit of the game with loyalty, sincerity, and fair-play. And even though he clearly saw the use of sports in communist propaganda, he understood and approved that phenomenon to a certain extent. In his opinion, sports were a key element of social organization. They must be integrated into the school curriculum on the same level that any other subject and are capital to youths' education. Seeldrayers considered the criticisms flawed, and over time, his opinion didn't improve. He believed that it was the duty of the press to teach the spectator."
      },
      {
        "title": "L\u00e9o Lagrange",
        "text": "Quotation from some of L\u00e9o Lagrange's speeches:\n* \u201c In sport, we must choose between two conceptions: - the first is summarized as sport as a spectacle and a practice restricted to a relatively small number of privileged people, - according to the second design, while not neglecting the spectacular aspect and the creation of champions, it is on the side of the great masses on which we have to carry out the main effort. We want the worker, the peasant and the unemployed person to find in leisure the joy of living and the feeling of their dignity \u201d. (L\u00e9o Lagrange, speech of 10 June 1936.)\n* \" Our simple and human goal, is to allow to the masses of French youths to find in the practice of sport, joy and health and to build an organization of leisure activities so that the workers can find relaxation and a reward to their hard labour. \" (L\u00e9o Lagrange, Under Secretary of State to Youth and at the Leisures, 1936.)\n* \" Our concern is less to create champions and to lead into the Stadium 22 players in front of 40,000 or 100,000 spectators, than to invite the youths of our country to regularly go and enter onto the pitch of the stadiums, of the playing fields, to the swimming pool \". (L\u00e9o Lagrange, discussion of the budget in the French National Assembly, 1937, quoted by J.P.Call\u00e8de, ibid)\n* \" If we have to make a joint effort in the sporting field, like in numerous others, it is a moral effort. I listened with a great interest to Mr. Temple who revealed the frightening dangers of the development of professional sport. Alas! when it is accepted that a human gesture which, by its nature has to be disinterested, becomes the source of important profits, the right measurement is very difficult to determine. I believe that the day when it has been admitted that play in the stadiums can be the source of important profits, we will have strongly destroyed the morality of sport. Also, with all my force and whatever the criticism, sometimes severe, of my action, I will oppose myself to the development of professional sport in our country. I hold in Parliament the responsibility to act in the interest of all the French youth, and not to create a new circus spectacle\" (L\u00e9o Lagrange, Under-Secretary of State for Sport, Leisure and Physical Education -i.e. Minister for the Sport-, defines and specifies his policy, 3 December 1937, in front of the French National Assembly.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sport",
        "text": "Tertullian condemns the athletic performances of his day, insisting \"the entire apparatus of the shows is based upon idolatry.\" The shows, says Tertullian, excite passions foreign to the calm temperament cultivated by the Christian:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Popular Front (France)",
        "text": "The complex situation did not stop Lagrange from holding fast to an ethical conception of sports that rejected fascist militarism and indoctrination, scientific racist theories and the professionalisation of sports, which he opposed as an elitist conception that ignored the main popular aspect of sport. He considered that sport should aim for the fulfilment of the personality of the individual. Thus, Lagrange stated, \"It cannot be a question in a democratic country of militarizing the distractions and the pleasures of the masses and of transforming the joy skillfully distributed into a means of not thinking.\" L\u00e9o Lagrange further declared in 1936:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Henning Eichberg",
        "text": "In Denmark, leaders of the Olympic sport organisation opposed the sports critique raised by Eichberg and of the Institute of Sport Research, where he was working, as \"leftism\" and \"cultural radicalism\". The Conservative minister of culture, Brian Mikkelsen, deprived the institute in 2003 of public funding, which it had received during 25 years, and entered into a sharp debate with Eichberg in the media."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sunday sporting events",
        "text": "Certain Christian denominations oppose professional sports as a whole, believing that the industry is guilty of Sabbath desecration because many participating leagues hold sporting events on the Lord's Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur sports",
        "text": "Sporting amateurism was a zealously guarded ideal in the 19th century, especially among the upper classes, but faced steady erosion throughout the 20th century with the continuing growth of pro sports and monetisation of amateur and collegiate sports, and is now strictly held as an ideal by fewer and fewer organisations governing sports, even as they maintain the word \"amateur\" in their titles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pierre de Coubertin",
        "text": "Scholars have critiqued the idea that athletic competition might lead to greater understanding between cultures and, therefore, to peace. Christopher Hill claims that modern participants in the Olympic movement may defend this particular belief, \"in a spirit similar to that in which the Church of England remains attached to the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion, which a Priest in that Church must sign.\" In other words, that they may not wholly believe it but hold to it for historical reasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean-Marie Brohm",
        "text": "Despite two older articles of Brohm the radical critique of sport really began in 1968 with number 43 (\u00abSport, culture et r\u00e9pression\u00bb [Sport, culture and repression]) of the leftist magazine \"partisans\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur sports",
        "text": "The middle and upper-class men who dominated the sporting establishment not only had a theoretical preference for amateurism, they also had a self-interest in blocking the professionalization of sport, which threatened to make it feasible for the working classes to compete against themselves with success. Working class sportsmen didn't see why they shouldn't be paid to play. Hence there were competing interests between those who wished sport to be open to all and those who feared that professionalism would destroy the 'Corinthian spirit'. This conflict played out over the course of more than one hundred years. Some sports dealt with it relatively easily, such as golf, which decided in the late 19th century to tolerate competition between amateurs and professionals, while others were traumatized by the dilemma, and took generations to fully come to terms with professionalism even to a result of causing a breakdown in the sport (as in the case of rugby union and rugby league in 1895)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sociology of sport",
        "text": "This approach has been criticized for their tendency toward raw economism, and supposing that all current social structures function to maintain the existing capitalist order. Supporting sport teams doesn't necessarily contradict the development of class consciousness and participating in the class struggle. Sport events have a number of examples of political protest. Neo Marxist analysis of sports often underestimate the aesthetic side of sport as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "Professional sports\n--History.\n----Baseball.\n----American football.\n----Basketball.\n----Cricket.\n----Ice hockey.\n----Rugby football.\n--Opposition to professionalism.\n--Sports salaries.\n----American football.\n----Association football.\n------Chinese Super League.\n------Russian Premier League.\n------Bundesliga.\n------Serie A.\n------La Liga.\n------Premier League.\n------Major League Soccer.\n----Baseball.\n----Cricket.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Nieciecza",
        "text": "Nieciecza\n--History.\n--Sports.\n--Religion.\n--References.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Third International Theory",
        "text": "The Green Book also has an original take on sports and spectacles:\n* \"Sport can only be individual, like a prayer\";\n* \"Mass sport is a social need of the human beings, so it is unacceptable from either a sporting or a democratic point of view to 'subcontract' sport to others [professionals]\";\n* \"Collective sport is the business of the masses\";\n* \"Stadiums exist in order to restrict the masses from using sports fields\";\n* \"Boxing and various kinds of wrestling suggest that humanity has not completely rid itself of the vestiges of barbarism.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Andr\u00e9 Kamperveen Stadion",
        "text": "On 25 July 1919 the Katholieke Sport Centrale (English, Catholic Sport Center) was founded on the Patronaatterrein in hopes to remedy the problem that was created in 1911. During this period a fierce fight between Catholics and Protestants had erupted in the country which was especially felt during sporting events, particularly at the newly established Katholieke Sport Centrale, where Protestant athletes felt the Catholic clubs and players were given an unfair advantage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sport",
        "text": "God has enjoined us to deal calmly, gently, quietly, and peacefully with the Holy Spirit, because these things are alone in keeping with the goodness of His nature, with His tenderness and sensitiveness. ... Well, how shall this be made to accord with the shows? For the show always leads to spiritual agitation, since where there is pleasure, there is keenness of feeling giving pleasure its zest; and where there is keenness of feeling, there is rivalry giving in turn its zest to that. Then, too, where you have rivalry, you have rage, bitterness, wrath and grief, with all bad things which flow from them\u00a0\u2013 the whole entirely out of keeping with the religion of Christ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frederick E. Betts",
        "text": "Betts was opposed to the continued postponement of the AAU of C annual meeting due to post-war economic reasons. He felt that amateur sport was in a state of disrepute by not discussing the issues, and wanted to see regulations to prevent disagreements. He was opposed to the mingling of professionals and amateurs on the same team, but supported exhibition games where amateur teams played against professional teams. He also supported the reinstatement of professionals as amateurs, but insisted on penalties for athletes who broke amateur eligibility rules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stade Fran\u00e7ais",
        "text": "In response to criticism that he was perverting rugby with such \"provocation\" and against his insistence on communication, including to those who declared they were defending the traditional spirit of the sport, Guazzini replied that if rugby was to become a genuinely popular and national sport, it needed to look beyond its natural audience: \"The communication campaign is not aimed at long-time fans. They're not the ones we're chatting up - it's the others. We need to get the attention of everyone who isn't familiar with rugby. Or only knows it a bit\u2026 Or not enough\u2026 So we need an outside perspective. [...] Rugby is no longer an amateur sport. [...] We have to be creative. (\u2026) Preaching to the converted doesn't really work for me. \u201dSpeaking of post-match reception, he took a swipe in passing at the keepers of the South West France flame: \"The eternal temple, with its fanfare, foie gras and saucisson, is a bit outdated. We can't restrict ourselves to the culture of the South West, which doesn't represent all of France. \u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Alan Rothenberg",
        "text": "He was a fan and follower of traditional American sports."
      },
      {
        "title": "S\u00e9bastien Nadot",
        "text": "On the other hand, if sport was not born with the British industrial revolution within the bourgeoisie, it calls into question its \"capitalist\" essence and questions its nature as a terrain of ideological struggles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sociology of sport",
        "text": "Despite this, athletes are still thought to ignore and attempt to overcome pain, as overcoming pain is seen as brave and heroic. The capacity of the athlete to make the body seem invincible is an integral part of sports professionalism. This ignoring of pain is often a key part of some sport subcultures. Children are also often exposed to acute pain and injuries, i.e. gymnastics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht",
        "text": "Gumbrecht acknowledges the occurrence of fights and hooliganism at sporting events, but focuses instead on the sense of communion that watching athletics can produce\u2014for example, through acts of cheering, chanting, or even doing \"the Wave.\" Though he asks how modern media technology has changed the viewing habits of sports fans, his focus is on the sensation of presence\u2014even if that presence is produced through the illusion of the screen. The energy of the crowd, in combination with the other aesthetic and emotional responses evoked by watching athletic aptitude, leads to the range of \"fascinations\" Gumbrecht incorporates into his method for describing and expressing appreciation for sport."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur sports",
        "text": "In Ireland, the Gaelic Athletic Association, or GAA, protects the amateur status of the country's national sports, including Gaelic football, hurling and camogie. Major tennis championships prohibited professionals until 1968 but the subsequent admission of professionals virtually eliminated amateurs from public visibility. Paying players was considered disreputable in baseball until 1869."
      },
      {
        "title": "L\u00e9o Lagrange",
        "text": "At the same time, Fascism was instrumentalizing sports for a militarist end, while the SFIO had denounced it as a \"bourgeois\" and \"reactionary\" activity. That is, until the Popular Front, when it began to use it as a military and patriotic preparation, in anticipation of a conflict with Nazi Germany. Some SFIO members were not immune to the scientific racism discourse of the times. Thus, Georges Barth\u00e9l\u00e9my, SFIO deputy, could declare that sport contributes to the \"improvement of relations between capital and labour, henceforth to the elimination of the concept of class struggle,\" in a perfect corporatist conception. Barth\u00e9l\u00e9my also considered sport as a \"mean to prevent the moral and physical degeneration of the race.\" In this light, as well as in the modern professionalisation and mediatization of sports, L\u00e9o Lagrange's conception takes all its sense, both in opposition to his times and in its modernity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Association football and politics",
        "text": "Some clubs have a fan base which is religious, right- or left-wing, nationalist, unionist, or autonomist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur sports",
        "text": "Amateur sports\n--Background.\n----Corinthian.\n--Present day.\n--North American collegiate athletics.\n--Olympics.\n----England.\n----Other countries.\n--Association football.\n--Sailing.\n--Figure skating.\n--Rugby football.\n----Background.\n----Organization.\n----Discrimination.\n----Scotland and Wales.\n----Open union.\n--Ultimate and disc sports (Frisbee).\n--High school sports.\n--Golf.\n--Motorsport.\n--Other sports.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean-Marie Brohm",
        "text": "3) The last point, the ideological aspect properly speaking. Sport constitutes a political body, a space of ideological investment in gestures and movements. You can see this for example with Combat sports. It\u2019s also an ideological valorisation of efforts via asceticism, training, self-sacrifice; sport is presented as an ideological model. Sport institutes a bodily order founded on the management of sexual drives and aggressive impulses; insofar as it seems that sport is a form of social appeasement, social integration, reducing violence, allowing fraternity; this type of discourse to me is a load of muddled illusions and mystifications. We have therefore scrutinized sport starting from these three viewpoints: political, economical, and ideological.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Bundesjugendspiele",
        "text": "Critics of the Bundesjugendspiele point out that through a confirmation of bad performance in written form physically weaker students are demotivated rather than motivated to do sports. The point of the sports is not the competitive character but the physical fitness paired with shared joy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur sports",
        "text": "The Scottish Rugby Union was a particular bastion of amateurism and extreme care was taken to avoid the 'taint' of professionalism: a player rejoining the national team after the end of the Second World War applied to be issued with a new shirt and was reminded that he had been \"supplied with a shirt prior to the outbreak of hostilities\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Georges H\u00e9bert",
        "text": "H\u00e9bert publicly condemned sport after the Olympic games in Paris in 1924. His view was that sport is \"corrupted, not educational and immoral because of issues such as professionalization of sport, merchandising\" and \"unnecessary public exposure...of the athletes.\" In 1925, he published a book entitled \"Le sport contre l'\u00e9ducation physique\" (\"Sport versus Physical Education\"). H\u00e9bert denounced the harms of modern sport due to its promoting specialization of movement, its \"showmanship,\" and money (instead of altruism). At this time he broke with the modern Olympic movement founder de Coubertin. H\u00e9bert was not against using sport in physical education, but he felt that any conceited or selfish behavior arising from it should be contained."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht",
        "text": "Gumbrecht's writing on sport interconnects with his concepts of presence and materiality insofar as the activity of watching takes on a communal character, offering spectators \"opportunities to immerse themselves in the realm of presence.\" Gumbrecht cites Friedrich Nietzsche's distinction between Dionysian and Apollonian attitudes, where the Dionysian spectator tends \"to revel in communion both with other spectators and with the energy that emerges from the action they are following,\" while the Apollonian spectator \"has a greater affinity with the concept of analysis than with the concept of communion.\" While Gumbrecht does not present one form as superior to the other, he notes the contemporary tendency to attach social anxiety to the frenzy of crowds, linking this to \"the nightmare of Fascism still haunting the West.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Frosinone Calcio",
        "text": "Article III of the Articles of Association stated, with a rather modern approach for the time, that the sports association abstained from any activity of a political and religious nature"
      },
      {
        "title": "Louis Biesbrouck",
        "text": "Despite offers from both national and foreign clubs, Biesbrouck always remained an amateur player, even after professionalism was introduced to Dutch football in 1954. He said that someone playing professional football is no longer a sportsman, but rather a slave."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles William Eliot",
        "text": "He also made public objections to baseball, basketball, and hockey. He was quoted as saying that rowing and tennis were the only clean sports."
      },
      {
        "title": "L\u00e9o Lagrange",
        "text": "Lagrange, who was opposed to professional sports and was against their development in France, had been:\n* Under Secretary of State for Youth and Leisure, 4 June 1936 to 22 June 1937 in the 1st L\u00e9on Blum government,\n* Under-Secretary of State for Sport, Leisure and Physical Education -i.e. Minister for Sports-, 23 June 1937 to 14 January 1938 in the 3rd Camille Chautemps government,\n* Under-Secretary of State for Sports, Leisure and Physical Education -i.e. Minister for Sports-, 14 March 1938 to 10 April 1938 in the 2nd L\u00e9on Blum government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity and association football",
        "text": "Puritan preachers Thomas Eliot and Philip Stubbs voiced their disdain for football because of the violence in matches at the time. Men were fined for playing the game on church grounds or on a Sunday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sectarianism",
        "text": "Across the United Kingdom, Scottish and Irish sectarian tendencies are often reflected in team-sports competitions. Affiliations are regarded as a latent representation of sectarianism tendencies. (Since the early 1900s, cricket teams were established via patronage of sectarian affiliated landlords. In response to the Protestant representation of the sport, many Catholic schools founded their own Cricket schools.) Modern day examples include tensions in sports such as football have led to the passing of the \"Offensive Behaviour at Football and Threatening Communications (Scotland) Act 2012\", incited by the chanting of Irish Republican Army (IRA) anthems in a match between \"Inverness Caledonian Thistle\" and \"Celtic\". Other general examples include the Gaelic sports in Ireland, established to serve as a counterweight to British traditional sports to preserve an Irish identity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Avery Brundage",
        "text": "This ideal was best realized, Brundage believed, in amateur sports. The athlete, he stated, should compete \"for the love of the game itself without thought of reward or payment of any kind,\" with professionals being part of the entertainment business. Amateurism, to Brundage, expressed the concept of the Renaissance man, with abilities in many fields, yet a specialist in none."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bruce Murray (cricketer)",
        "text": "I saw what professional cricket could do to you as a person. You became much more self-centred, much more inward-looking, much too concerned about the wrong parts of the game, watching the averages. Not so team-oriented. I found the notion of professional sport to be a contradiction in terms. It isn't sport. It hardens people, makes them selfish and narrows their view of the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity and association football",
        "text": "Several footballers have pledged themselves to become Christian monks, preachers and clergymen in their retirement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Declaration of Sports",
        "text": "On the one hand, the declaration rebuked Puritans and other \"precise persons\", and was issued to counteract the growing Puritan calls for strict abstinence on the Christian Sabbath (Sabbatarianism). On the other, it condemned Catholics and others who did not attend church services in their parish, as the declaration specified that only people who had first attended divine service were entitled to participate in recreations afterward."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Philosophers' Football Match",
        "text": "The footage opens with the banner headline \"International Philosophy\", and Palin providing the narrative. Confucius is the referee and keeps times with an hourglass. St. Thomas Aquinas and St. Augustine (sporting haloes) serve as linesmen. The German manager is Martin Luther. As play begins, the philosophers break from their proper football positions only to walk around on the pitch as if deeply pondering, and in some cases declaiming their theories. Franz Beckenbauer, the sole genuine footballer on the pitch and a \"surprise inclusion\" in the German team, is left more than a little confused."
      },
      {
        "title": "Germ\u00e1n Rieckehoff",
        "text": "Rieckehoff indicated in a speech that he feared that sports professionals were gaining more control than the partisans of the Olympics. He also believed that the salaried professionals and administrators automatically thought that they knew what was best for the Olympics, when in reality the partisans were the ones with the proper knowledge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Konstantinos Manos",
        "text": "K. Manos was an extreme supporter of amateurism. He was the author of the first rules of the game, according to which all forms of professionalism were eliminated from the field of sports. The eradication of all kinds of professionalism from sports has caused conflicts and confusion in the world of sports. The gymnasts of the time, led by Ioannis Chrysafis, reacted against Manos, because according to his regulations, all gymnasts were excluded from the Panhellenic Games and the Olympic Games, as professionals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morgnshtern",
        "text": "\"Morgnshtern\" espoused principles of socialist sporting, seeking to promote proletarian camaraderie and collective achievements, rather than individual competition. These principles had been formulated in the book \"Sport und Politik\" ('Sports and Politics') by Julius Deutsch. Initially the organisation mainly organised sports were large numbers of people could participate at the same time, such as cycling, gymnastics and hiking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pole sports",
        "text": "Scholars of sport and leisure note a process in which physical activities develop into sports. According to Allen Guttman, modern sports are characterized by secularism, equality of opportunity, specialization of roles, rationalization, bureaucratic organization, quantification and the quest for records."
      },
      {
        "title": "Donald Shebib",
        "text": "In 1970, Shebib said that his personal philosophy was influenced by television and the Canadian media theorist Marshall McLuhan. His views were also shaped by competitive sport, playing Canadian football for twenty-seven years until shoulder injuries forced him to quit in 1981, reflecting a decade later about the \"purity about athletics\", where it is not possible \"lie\" to oneself or to others and get away with it. He professes not to believe in good and evil, only actions that are either \"efficient or inefficient\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spectator sport",
        "text": "Separation of the active and the passive, the line between sport and spectator, gives rise to the paradox of the spectator\u2014described by French philosopher Jacques Ranci\u00e8re; which is to seek an opportunity to passively contemplate engaging in an activity, and in doing so, forfeit that life moment one might have used to actually engage in the activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pierre de Coubertin",
        "text": "A number of scholars have criticized Coubertin's legacy. David C. Young believes that Coubertin's assertion that ancient Olympic athletes were amateurs was incorrect. The issue is the subject of scholarly debate. Young and others argue that the athletes of the ancient Games were professional, while opponents led by Pleket argue that the earliest Olympic athletes were in fact amateur, and that the Games only became professionalized after about 480 BC. Coubertin agreed with this latter view, and saw this professionalization as undercutting the morality of the competition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur sports",
        "text": "Problems can arise for amateur sportsmen when sponsors offer to help with an amateur's playing expenses in the hope of striking lucrative endorsement deals with them in case they become professionals at a later date. This practice, dubbed \"shamateurism\", a portmanteau of \"sham\" and \"amateur\", was present as early as in the 19th century. As financial and political stakes in high-level were becoming higher, shamateurism became all the more widespread, reaching its peak in the 1970s and 1980s, when the International Olympic Committee started moving towards acceptance of professional athletes. The advent of the state-sponsored \"full-time amateur athlete\" of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full-time basis."
      },
      {
        "title": "S\u00e9bastien Nadot",
        "text": "Starting from the results of his investigation of medieval chivalric combats, S\u00e9bastien Nadot proposes a new theory of the evolution of sport. In each era, the ruling class would try through sport to impose on others its values and beyond, its superiority. Sport is therefore today the expression of neo-conservative liberalism. The idea of its birth in the early nineteenth century would be the expression of the new domination of the bourgeoisie. The belief in the birth of sport ex-nihilo in England at this time would be a confusion with a process of increased democratization, especially in its gradual opening to women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas Jeannerot",
        "text": "It's also the most interesting discipline for spectator due to the closeness of action (a few meters) and the possibility to be practiced everywhere (sport ground, stadium, urban place...)."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Sporting Spirit",
        "text": "Orwell goes on to talk about the evolution of sport from the ancient Roman times, but the notion of national rivalry as a relatively newer addition. He further calls the financial motivations in countries like the United Kingdom and the United States, as another reason for degeneration of the sport to events that can generate and arouse savage passions in the quest to attract the maximum crowds. He calls this shift in sport as being bound to the rise of nationalism, the urge to associate with the larger power units and seeing all of the actions as contributing to a nation's \"competitive prestige\". He returns to the rivalry between nation states and says that one could not do worse than organising games between traditional rivals like the Germans and Czechs, Indians and British, Russian and Poles, or Jews and Arabs, and hoping for the game to better the relations between the groups, arguing that the politically charged hyper-nationalistic events would only increase the ill-will between the groups."
      },
      {
        "title": "Popular Front (France)",
        "text": "Thus, as shown by the hierarchy of the ministers, which placed the sub-secretary of sport under the authority of the Minister of Public Health, sport was considered above all as a public health issue. From this principle, it was only one step to relating sport to the \"degeneration of the race\" and other scientific racist theories. It was done by Georges Barth\u00e9l\u00e9my, deputy of the SFIO, who declared that sports contributed to the \"improvement of relations between capital and labour, henceforth to the elimination of the concept of class struggle\" and that they were a \"means to prevent the moral and physical degeneration of the race.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ayoub Baninosrat",
        "text": "Ayoub Baninosrat\n--Education.\n--Professional sport.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "2009 Republic of Ireland v France football matches",
        "text": "French philosopher Alain Finkielkraut said on Europe 1 radio that \"We are faced with a real matter of conscience...We certainly have nothing to be proud of.\" British author Roger Scruton said \"one of the major justifications of sport in all its forms is that it teaches the virtues of fair play...Victory achieved by cheating leaves a foul taste in the mouth...and makes the whole thing as pointless to [the defeated team and its supporters] as it is to someone like me who has never quite experienced the allure of the game\". The founder of the British Philosophy of Sport Association called for \"restorative justice\", and said that players had an obligation to honesty that \"over-rides their self-serving commitments\". French economist Jacques Attali wrote \"Nous sommes tous Irlandais\", in reference to the \"Le Monde\" headline \"Nous sommes tous Americains\" (We are all Americans) in the aftermath of the 11 September attacks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tiverton Preedy",
        "text": "During his time at Theological College, Preedy had become keen on the concept of using sport to engender moral values, an idea much in vogue at the time and known as muscular Christianity. To this end, he decided to join a local sporting club, through which he hoped to come into closer contact with the local people. He initially joined a rugby football club, but resigned in protest at the team's decision to play a match on Good Friday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sport",
        "text": "Nationalism is often evident in the pursuit of sport, or in its reporting: people compete in national teams, or commentators and audiences can adopt a partisan view. On occasion, such tensions can lead to violent confrontation among players or spectators within and beyond the sporting venue, as in the Football War. These trends are seen by many as contrary to the fundamental ethos of sport being carried on for its own sake and for the enjoyment of its participants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Indirect speech",
        "text": "In longer segments of indirect speech, which, at least in written German, are as normal as they would be in Latin, only the first sentence or none of them has a \"dass\", and full-stops are put wherever they would be have been put in direct speech.\n*\"Hans gibt an, dass er t\u00e4glich Sport treibe. Er habe zuerst mit Dauerlauf begonnen. Mittlerweile ziehe er aber den Mannschaftssport vor. Er spiele Fu\u00dfball im Verein SC Oberh\u00fcgelhausen und trainiere flei\u00dfig, damit man ihn bald in die erste Mannschaft aufnehme; darauf habe er gute Chancen.\"\n*: \"Hans states he practices sport daily. At first he began with jogging, but now he prefers team sports. He has started to play football in the club SC Oberh\u00fcgelhausen and he is training hard so that they will add him to the first team soon; he has [according to him] good chances for that.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Derde Divisie",
        "text": "IJsselmeervogels, one of the most successful amateur football clubs in the Netherlands, was a strong opponent of the plans; chief Arian van de Vuurst has stated that \"professional football does not fit in with our culture.\" Because of these objections, promotion to the Eerste Divisie was not mandatory for the champion of the former Topklasse. After 2016, however, promotion to the Tweede Divisie is required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian Heritage Academy",
        "text": "The school wrote a \"Christian philosophy of athletics\" to guide students' athletic development and to reflect Christian values on the playing field and in the stands: \"Since we are ambassadors for Jesus Christ, let us conduct ourselves in word and action just as Christ would conduct himself. Therefore, all that we do, we will do with a total release of our mental and physical abilities and our emotional energies towards our performance, having in mind that Christ is our only audience. Concerning our attitude towards players and fans of the opposing team, we will strive 'to love our neighbor as ourselves' and 'do unto them as we would have them do unto us.'\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur sports",
        "text": "On English overseas tours, some of which in the 19th century were arranged and led by professional cricketer-promoters such as James Lillywhite, Alfred Shaw and Arthur Shrewsbury, a more pragmatic approach generally prevailed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Professionalism in association football",
        "text": "\"See also Professional sports#Association football\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean-Marie Brohm",
        "text": "1) Sport is not simply sport but a means of government, a means of pressure on public opinion and a mode of ideological framing of the populations and of parts of the youth, and this in all countries of the world, in totalitarian countries as well as in so called democratic countries. This was noticeable during the big political events which were the Olympic Games in Moscow, the soccer championship in Argentina and, more recently, in France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aleksander \u010ceferin",
        "text": "On 24 November 2021, the European Parliament voted to oppose breakaway sports competitions after the aborted Super League project. MEPs said they wanted European sporting culture \"to be aligned with EU values of solidarity, sustainability, inclusiveness for all, open competition, sporting merit, and fairness\". The European Parliament said breakaway competitions undermine EU values and \"endanger the stability of the overall sports ecosystem\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rodolphe Seeldrayers",
        "text": "For many years, the question of amateurism posed a problem. With the economic development of sports, the phenomenon of professionalism began to bring into question the fundamentals of the conception of the Olympic Games, as P. de Coubertin wanted them to be. Debates raged and a Commission on Amateurism was created, supported by the International Olympic Committee, which Seeldrayers took part in. In the end, the commission submitted its final report in 1947, at the session in Stockholm. It included a definition of amateurism and required future participants in the Olympic Games to sign a declaration affirming they were true amateurs, and proposed the creation of a permanent commission. This was composed of three members of the International Olympic Committee, and a delegate of each international federation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports et divertissements",
        "text": "\"For the Dried Up & Stultified I have written a Chorale which is serious & respectable. This Chorale is a sort of bitter preamble, a kind of austere & unfrivolous introduction. I have put into it everything I know about Boredom. I dedicate this Chorale to those who do not like me. I withdraw\".\" - ERIK SATIE"
      },
      {
        "title": "Question of Sport",
        "text": "John Parrott (1996\u20132002)"
      },
      {
        "title": "W. A. Fry",
        "text": "Fry remained vocal in his opposition to growing professionalism in sport. AAU of C vice-president Sydney Halter tabled a proposal in November 1937, which allowed each member sports association to accept the definition of amateurism as defined by its respective international sport governing body, in an attempt to reunite the associations under the AAU of C umbrella. Fry stated that the AAU of C should not allow payments to amateur athletes as was now allowed by the CAHA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Hamilton (sports executive)",
        "text": "Hamilton favoured professionals in one sport playing as amateurs in another, as it would grow amateur baseball in Saskatchewan by allowing hockey professionals to players an amateur summer sport. At the AAU of C general meeting in 1930, Hamilton unsuccessfully sought for the approval of professionals having a secondary amateur sport. He also advocated for the reinstatement of soccer players who had unknowingly played against a professional hockey player in a soccer match. Two years later, Hamilton tried again to no avail. At the general meeting for the AAU of C in 1933, Hamilton tried a third time to allow professionals in one sport to compete as an amateur in another sport. He received strong support from Western Canada, but the motion was defeated by opposition from Eastern Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of the United States",
        "text": "Since the late nineteenth century, baseball is regarded as the national sport; American football, basketball, and ice hockey are the country's three other leading professional team sports. College football and basketball also attract large audiences. Football is now by several measures the most popular spectator sport in the United States. Soccer, though not a leading professional sport in the country, is played widely at the youth and amateur levels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cyprus Amateur Football Federation",
        "text": "One month later, before the Cypriot track and field games in May, the Hellenic Amateur Athletic Association (SEGAS) asked the clubs to declare their \"nationalist beliefs\". Nearly all the clubs and rightist athletes signed the declaration; the only holdout was the Kinyras club in Paphos, which was then barred from the games. Leftist athletes, including GSE champions Antonis Totsis and Nikis Georgiou, refused to repudiate their ideological beliefs. the Although the GSE asked Totsis and Georgiou to apologize, they maintained that sport should be separate from politics. Leftist athletes also supported the Kinyras club in Paphos, and their clubs experienced retaliation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean-Marie Brohm",
        "text": "Jean-Marie Brohm\n--The beginnings of the radical critique of sport.\n--Books (selection).\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "1893 Butler Christians football team",
        "text": "After witnessing the DePauw\u2013Wabash game, played one week earlier, Dr. H. A. Turker, the pastor at the Crawfordsville Methodist Church, wrote at length condemning the game as a disgrace. He opened his comments as follows: \"We thought at first it was barbarous, then we concluded it would be a slander to the barbarians to compare a football game to their sports. . . . We have seen a pack of dogs fighting for a rotten bone, of which we were reminded at the football game. A football game, as now played, is a disgrace.\" He closed: \"This evil has surely gone far enough. Let every man speak who opposes this brutality.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Question of Sport",
        "text": "2 footballers:<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "William Peirce Dix",
        "text": "When the Football Association debated whether to legalize professionalism in early 1885, Dix was one of the strongest voices opposing the change, proposing to the Football Association that \"professionalism in football is an evil, and as such should be suppressed\". After professionalism was eventually permitted in the summer of that year, Dix resigned his positions in the FA and the Sheffield Associations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jorge Gerdau Johannpeter",
        "text": "Jorge Gerdau Johannpeter\n--Sports.\n--Controversies.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Professional sports",
        "text": "Professional sports, as opposed to amateur sports, are sports in which athletes receive payment for their performance. Professional athleticism has come to the fore through a combination of developments. Mass media and increased leisure have brought larger audiences, so that sports organizations or teams can command large incomes. As a result, more sportspeople can afford to make athleticism their primary career, devoting the training time necessary to increase skills, physical condition, and experience to modern levels of achievement. This proficiency has also helped boost the popularity of sports. Most sports played professionally also have amateur players far outnumbering the professionals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sociology of sport",
        "text": "Segel claimed that the cultural raise of sports reflected the wider turn of modern society toward physical expression, which revived militarism, war and fascism. Some representatives of the Frankfurt school, saw sport as a cult of the fascistic idea of the body. T\u00e4nnsj\u00f6 claimed that overly complimenting sport prowess reflects the fascistic elements in society, as it normalizes the ridicule of the weak and defeated."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Socialist League of the Reich for Physical Exercise",
        "text": "Despised by Nazis as unworthy of a true German, professionalism in sports was outlawed by the DRL in May 1938. Felix Linnemann, the German Football Association (DFB) president, was one of the greatest campaigners for amateurism in sports in Nazi Germany. In 1940, the already powerless German Football Association was finally wound up."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter Bodo",
        "text": "Bodo claims that his writing style is based on the idea that absolute objectivity is impossible. He purports to feel that each of his opinions must be defended with \"well-reasoned, if not provable or objective, 'truths.'\" He also says that he has few \"strong, personal\" feelings about players and believes that most of his readers understand the \"fun\" present in his writing. However, some readers have noted that Bodo, despite his Austrian birth, has a strong and regularly repeated bias in favor of American tennis players, in favor of an American or \"midwestern\" lifestyle, and in favor of an American style of sports, as contrasted with European tennis players, European sports, and European mores."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Windham",
        "text": "Windham was opposed to the evangelical movement and their attempt to outlaw traditional English sports: \"Few subjects agitated...Windham...more than the puritanical and Wilberforcian assault on the traditional sports of Englishmen such as boxing and bull-baiting. Windham's speeches in parliament in defense of such practices seem among his most heart-felt\". William Wilberforce wrote to Hannah More\u2014a leading evangelical moralist\u2014on 15 November 1804: \"I really think there scarcely ever were, or can be, two men more different from each other in all their ideas than Windham and myself\". Windham said that Wilberforce would delight in sending aristocrats to the guillotine."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of sports attendance figures",
        "text": "This section lists college and amateur leagues by total attendance. Remaining amateurism requirements in the majority of top-level sports were dropped in the late 20th century, and there are now only a few amateur leagues which are of interest to a wide public. In the United States, college sports are very popular and at least one significant ice hockey league retains an amateur requirement. In Ireland, the All-Ireland senior championships in Gaelic football and hurling, both operated by the Gaelic Athletic Association, which continues to prohibit professionalism, each draw over 80,000 to fill Croke Park for the respective finals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Attention \u2013 A Life in Extremes",
        "text": "The risks of the represented sports will be shown, and with the help of philosophers such as Paul Konrad Liessmann and psychologists such as Manfred Spitzer the extreme forms of sport are discussed."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Philosophers' Football Match",
        "text": "The Greek players, mostly with long grey beards and hair, play in togas, while the Germans sport a variety of period dress including Victorian frock coats and breeches. \"Nobby\" Hegel carries a grey top hat, while Beckenbauer wears the red and white of the 1972 Bayern Munich football strip."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht",
        "text": "Gumbrecht has also written on the spectatorship of sport, using philosophy and the history of athletics to present an analytical perspective on the precise ways sport is consumed and appreciated. Most notably in his book \"In Praise of Athletic Beauty\" (2006), but also in articles such as \"Epiphany of Form: On the Beauty of Team Sports\" and interviews with newspapers and academic sources, he examines the widespread cultural fascination with athletics in the 21st century and in historical contexts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Hamilton (sports executive)",
        "text": "Hamilton responded to charges of professionalism in leagues in the Maritimes by saying that a hearing would be conducted if an official complaint was received. In an effort to ensure amateurism, he announced that players taking part in provincial finals for the 1932 Allan Cup and 1932 Memorial Cup playoffs would be required to recite an oath similar to the Olympic Oath, and declare they meet all amateur requirements. Any violation of the oath would render the player's team ineligible for the remainder of the playoffs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glenn Thibeault",
        "text": "Thibeault, as the New Democrat critic for Sport, has been instrumental in raising national awareness about the very serious increase of violence in amateur sport and the ongoing concussion epidemic plaguing amateur hockey. He called for a Royal Commission to study violence in sports in February 2010; his call has been echoed by others, including Jaime Watt, a conservative strategist. In February 2011, Thibeault introduced Bill C-616, calling for a national strategy to reduce the incidence of serious injury in amateur sport."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Puritans under King James I",
        "text": "In response King James issued the \"Book of Sports\", a declaration declaring that it was lawful to play some sports on Sundays, but not others. Criticizing the opinions of \"puritans and precise people\", the Book listed archery, dancing, \"leaping, vaulting, or any other such harmless recreation\" as permissible sports for Sundays. It forbade bear-baiting, bull-baiting, \"interludes\" and bowling. The king commanded all Anglican ministers to read the \"Book of Sports\" to their congregations, but Archbishop Abbot contradicted him, and ordered his clergy not to read the \"Book of Sports\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lou Lefaive",
        "text": "In 1973, Lefaive called for amateur sport leaders in Canada to be more vocal in supporting the planned 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal. In response to the protests against the cost of Canada hosting the Olympic Games, he said that \"amateur sport was criticized on economic grounds\", which \"ignored the true value of international competition\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reactions to Executive Order 13769",
        "text": "Sami Zayn, a Syrian Canadian professional wrestler, wrote on Twitter, \"I can't articulate how truly disgusted I am right now.\" American fencer Ibtihaj Muhammad wrote, \"Our diversity makes our country strong.\" Dale Earnhardt Jr., a professional stock car racing driver, wrote, \"My family emigrated from Germany in 1700s escaping religious persecution. America is created by immigrants.\" Mixed martial artist Ronda Rousey quoted \"The New Colossus\" with the hashtag: resist. American football offensive tackle Ryan Harris said the order is \"from the playbook of hatred.\" The widow of Pat Tillman, who left his career in football to serve in the Army after the September 11 attacks, wrote on Facebook, \"This is not the country [Pat] dreamed of, not what he served for, and not what he died for.\" Lebanese Canadian ice hockey player, Nazem Kadri, called the ban \"unfortunate.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur sports",
        "text": "Later on, the nations of the Communist bloc entered teams of Olympians who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full-time basis."
      },
      {
        "title": "1912 in sports",
        "text": "Canada\n* Queen's Plate \u2013 Heresy"
      },
      {
        "title": "Milton Keynes",
        "text": "Many other sports are represented at amateur level."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the most popular professional sport in the world?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "According to A.T. Kearney, The world's most accessible and practised sport is running, while association football is the most popular spectator sport."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How much do professional football players make on average?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It depends, the average wages of a premier league player are about $1 million per year, but can go up to $70 million per year for the best players. MLS players earn on average $148,693 and women in the National Women's Soccer League earn $15,000 to $40,000  a year."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who is the NWSL's highest paid woman?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "As of February 2022, Trinity Rodman is the highest paid player in the league."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "When did Trinity Rodman join the league?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "At age 18, she became the youngest player to be drafted in NWSL history when the Washington Spirit selected her as their first draft pick (second overall) at the 2021 NWSL College Draft. On April 10, 2021, Rodman made her professional debut during a 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup match, scoring a goal within five minutes of being subbed on."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was the result of the 2021 NWSL Challenge Cup match?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Portland Thorns FC won the 2021 final over NJ/NY Gotham FC in a penalty shootout."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about the opposition to professional sports?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The opposition to professional sports include criticism by the amateur philosophy of sport, criticism by the Christians and the unacceptance by the Pietistic Lutheran tradition. Which of these oppositions do you want to know more ?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in criticism by the amateur philosophy of sport."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Professional athleticism has been a traditional object of criticism by proponents of the amateur philosophy of sport, according to which the central ethos of sport is competition performed for its own sake and pure enjoyment rather than as a means of earning a living, examples of amateur philosophy include the muscular Christianity movement that informed the promotion of sports in the English public school system, and the Olympism advocated by Pierre de Coubertin, a force behind the revival of the modern Olympic Games. Would you be interested i n more information about muscular Christianity?",
      "Arguments against amateurism often appeal to the argument that amateurism in sport favors the classes who can afford not to be paid to play, and is thus a covert form of prejudice against lower classes. Another argument is that amateur players are often de facto professionals who retain their amateur status by earning allowances instead of salaries."
    ],
    "topic": "Professional sports",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Professional sports:25",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Professional sports",
          "Opposition to professionalism"
        ],
        "ctx": "Professional athleticism has been a traditional object of criticism by proponents of the amateur philosophy of sport, according to which the central ethos of sport is competition performed for its own sake and pure enjoyment rather than as a means of earning a living. Examples of amateur philosophy include the muscular Christianity movement that informed the promotion of sports in the English public school system, and the Olympism advocated by Pierre de Coubertin, a force behind the revival of the modern Olympic Games. The tension between the two sporting practices and ideals dates from the inception of modern organized sports in the 19th century. The high political and financial stakes involved in sport have ensured that this tension has remained strong. Professional sporting organizations have often developed as \"rebel\" organizations in relation to established national and international federation, for example the schism which created the code of rugby league."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Professional sports:26",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Professional sports",
          "Opposition to professionalism"
        ],
        "ctx": "Arguments against amateurism often appeal to the argument that amateurism in sport favors the classes who can afford not to be paid to play, and is thus a covert form of prejudice against lower classes. Another argument is that amateur players are often de facto professionals who retain their amateur status by earning allowances instead of salaries. For example, all Eastern bloc countries were populated with amateur players who were actually full-time athletes hired as regular workers of a company (aircraft industry, food workers, tractor industry) or organization (KGB, Red Army, Soviet Air Force) that sponsored what would be presented as an after-hours social sports society team for their workers."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2018, Winfrey starred as Mrs. Which in the film adaptation of Madeleine L'Engle's novel \"A Wrinkle in Time\". She also lent her voice to an animated virtual-reality short film written and directed by Eric Darnell, starring John Legend, titled \"Crow: The Legend\", telling a native American origin tale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Winfrey co-starred in Steven Spielberg's \"The Color Purple\" (1985), as distraught housewife Sofia. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance. The Alice Walker novel later became a Broadway musical which opened in late 2005, with Winfrey credited as a producer. In October 1998, Winfrey produced and starred in the film \"Beloved\", based on Toni Morrison's Pulitzer Prize\u2013winning novel of the same name. To prepare for her role as Sethe, the protagonist and former slave, Winfrey experienced a 24-hour simulation of the experience of slavery, which included being tied up and blindfolded and left alone in the woods. Despite major advertising, including two episodes of her talk show dedicated solely to the film, and moderate to good critical reviews, \"Beloved\" opened to poor box-office results, losing approximately $30\u00a0million. While promoting the movie, co-star Thandie Newton described Winfrey as \"a very strong technical actress and it's because she's so smart. She's acute. She's got a mind like a razor blade.\" Harpo Productions released a film adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston's 1937 novel \"Their Eyes Were Watching God\" in 2005. The made-for-television film was based upon a teleplay by Suzan-Lori Parks and starred Halle Berry in the lead female role."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In late 2008, Winfrey's company Harpo Films signed an exclusive output pact to develop and produce scripted series, documentaries, and movies exclusively for HBO."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amy Winfrey",
        "text": "Amy Winfrey\n--Biography.\n----Career.\n----Personal life.\n--Filmography.\n----\"South Park (1995 - 1999)\".\n----Web Shows (2000 - 2009).\n------\"Muffin Films (2000)\".\n------\"Big Bunny (2001)\".\n------\"Making Fiends (2003 - 2008)\".\n------\"Squid and Frog (2008 - 2009)\".\n----\"Bojack Horseman and other works\" (2014 - 2019).\n------Episodes directed.\n----\"Hooray For Hell (2018)\".\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Amy Winfrey",
        "text": "Between 2000 and 2004, Winfrey published a trilogy of web shows, Muffin Films (2000), Big Bunny (2001) and most notably, \"Making Fiends\" (2003 - 2004)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tuesdays with Morrie (film)",
        "text": "The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes give it a 71% rating based on 7 reviews. Fred Topel from About.com says, \"Movie of the week with film caliber performances\". Common Sense Media Editors states, \"Oprah Winfrey presents a three-hanky weepfest\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hadidjah",
        "text": "During her career Hadidjah appeared in some 15 films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jill Bolte Taylor",
        "text": "Later, after Ron Howard's option expired, Winfrey optioned My Stroke of Insight and Taylor's life rights for Harpo Films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Priscilla Hojiwala",
        "text": "She has interviewed Oprah Winfrey, Kobe Bryant, Tiger Woods, Hugh Jackman, Matt Damon, Ben Affleck, Oscar Award-winning Director Danny Boyle, and President Gerald Ford."
      },
      {
        "title": "Woodrow Parfrey",
        "text": "Parfrey also appeared routinely in films directed by Don Siegel and Clint Eastwood, including noted roles in Siegel's \"Charley Varrick\" (1973) and Eastwood's \"The Outlaw Josey Wales\" (1976)."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Celine Dion appeared on the show 28 times, the most of any celebrity, besides Gayle King, Winfrey's best friend, who appeared 141 times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harriett Ball",
        "text": "Ball appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show, as well as other nationally televised programs. Footage of her also appeared in the documentary Waiting for \"Superman\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miss Representation",
        "text": "The Oprah Winfrey Network acquired broadcast rights for the film following its premiere.\n; \"Audience Award\" from\n* 2011 Palo Alto International Film Festival.\n* 2011 Sonoma Film Festival.\n; \"Official Selection\" at\n* 2011 Atlanta Film Festival.\n* 2011 Dallas Film Festival.\n* 2011 Denver Film Festival.\n* 2011 Newport Beach Film Festival.\n* 2011 New Zealand Film Festival.\n* 2011 San Francisco Film Festival.\n* 2011 Silver Docs Film Festival.\n* 2011 Sundance Film Festival.\n; Other\n* 2011 Maui Film Festival: \"Movies Matter Award\"\n* 2011: Nominated for the Grand Jury Prize, Sundance Film Festival.\n* 2012 Gracie Allen Awards: \"Outstanding Documentary\".\n* Won WFCC Award for Best Theatrically Unreleased Movie by or About Women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Selma (film)",
        "text": "In early 2014, Oprah Winfrey came on board as a producer along with Pitt, and by February 25 Paramount Pictures was in final negotiations for the US and Canadian distribution rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nitanju Bolade Casel",
        "text": "Casel appeared in the 1998 film, \"Beloved\", starring Oprah Winfrey and Danny Glover. She was also a guest artist in the Smithsonian Institution production of \"Duke Ellington's Great Ladies of Song\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ormi Hawley",
        "text": "Over her short film career she reportedly appeared in more than three hundred motion pictures, a large number of which would have been short films. She made her last film in 1919."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amy & Isabelle",
        "text": "Amy & Isabelle is a 2001 made-for-television film produced through Oprah Winfrey's Harpo Films as part of her \"Oprah Winfrey Presents\" film line. It was directed by Lloyd Kramer, who had previously directed another film under the \"Oprah Winfrey Presents\" banner, \"\". The book is based on the 1998 Elizabeth Strout book \"Amy and Isabelle\" and stars Elisabeth Shue and Hanna Hall as Isabelle and her daughter Amy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lesra Martin",
        "text": "Martin has appeared on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", \"Larry King Live\" on CNN, and has been the subject of a National Film Board production, \"The Journey of Lesra Martin\", directed by Cheryl Foggo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beloved (1998 film)",
        "text": "During promotion of the film, Thandie Newton said to \"Vogue\" magazine, \"Here we were working on this project with the heavy underbelly of political and social realism, and she managed to lighten things up ... I've worked with a lot of good actors, and I know Oprah hasn't made many films. I was stunned. She's a very strong technical actress and it's because she's so smart. She's acute. She's got a mind like a razor blade.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Nora Cecil",
        "text": "Cecil appeared in well over 100 feature films and film shorts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nina Hartley",
        "text": "Hartley acted in the 1996 Canadian film \"Bubbles Galore\" and has appeared on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\". In the 1997 film \"Boogie Nights\", she played William H. Macy's character's serially unfaithful wife, who is murdered by him. She later remarked, \"The only movie I ever died in for having sex was a mainstream movie.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Interview with the Vampire (film)",
        "text": "Oprah Winfrey walked out of an advance screening of the movie only 10 minutes in, because of the gore and dark themes. She considered cancelling an interview with Tom Cruise promoting the film, stating, \"I believe there are forces of light and darkness in the world, and I don't want to be a contributor to the force of darkness\".\n* 4th\u00a0\u2013 Sandi Davis, \"The Oklahoman\"\n* 6th\u00a0\u2013 David Stupich, \"The Milwaukee Journal\"\n* Top 10 (listed alphabetically, not ranked)\u00a0\u2013 Steve Murray, \"The Atlanta Journal-Constitution\"\n* Top 5 runners-up (not ranked)\u00a0\u2013 Scott Schuldt, \"The Oklahoman\"\n* Top 10 runner-ups (not ranked)\u00a0\u2013 Janet Maslin, \"The New York Times\"\n* Honorable mention\u00a0\u2013 Mike Clark, \"USA Today\"\n* Honorable mention\u00a0\u2013 Glenn Lovell, \"San Jose Mercury News\"\n* Honorable mention\u00a0\u2013 Betsy Pickle, \"Knoxville News-Sentinel\"\n* Honorable mention\u00a0\u2013 Dan Craft, \"The Pantagraph\"\n* 1st worst\u00a0\u2013 John Hurley, \"Staten Island Advance\"\n* 1st worst\u00a0\u2013 Jeff Simon, \"The Buffalo News\"\n* Dishonorable mention\u00a0\u2013 William Arnold, \"Seattle Post-Intelligencer\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Soad Hosny",
        "text": "She appeared in more than 80 films."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "She finished the show in tears. The finale was marked by viewing parties across the US, and the episode was also shown in movie theaters. The episode received the show's highest rating in 17 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabeth Oropesa",
        "text": "She has appeared in more than 150 movies and television shows since 1973."
      },
      {
        "title": "Florence Shirley",
        "text": "She appeared in more than 50 films throughout her film career."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yolande Palfrey",
        "text": "She also appeared in (among others) \"The Finishing Line\", \"Love in a Cold Climate\" for Thames Television, \"Dragonslayer\" for The Walt Disney Company and Paramount Pictures, and \"The Breadwinner\" for Yorkshire Television."
      },
      {
        "title": "Halle Berry",
        "text": "Her next film appearance was in the Oprah Winfrey-produced ABC television movie \"Their Eyes Were Watching God\" (2005), an adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston's novel, with Berry portraying a free-spirited woman whose unconventional sexual mores upset her 1920s contemporaries in a small community. She received her second Primetime Emmy Award nomination for her role. Also in 2005, she served as an executive producer in \"Lackawanna Blues\", and landed her voice for the character of Cappy, one of the many mechanical beings in the animated feature \"Robots\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "The show aired in 149 countries worldwide and was often renamed and dubbed into other languages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marlin Darrah",
        "text": "From 1976 through 2015, Darrah produced several dozen documentaries, travel-adventure films and feature films in more than 140 countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judge Reinhold",
        "text": "Reinhold has appeared in more than 60 films."
      },
      {
        "title": "There Are No Children Here",
        "text": "In 1993, the book was adapted into a television film of the same name starring Oprah Winfrey as LaJoe, Keith David, and Maya Angelou in a performance \"that crackles with power.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Henrietta Lacks",
        "text": "HBO announced in 2010 that Oprah Winfrey and Alan Ball were developing a film project based on Skloot's book, and in 2016 filming commenced. with Winfrey in the leading role of Deborah Lacks, Henrietta's daughter. The film \"The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks\" was released in 2017, with Ren\u00e9e Elise Goldsberry portraying Lacks. Sons David Lacks Jr. and Zakariyya Rahman and granddaughter Jeri Lacks, were consultants for the film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Netty Herawaty",
        "text": "In her thirty-seven-year acting career, Herawaty appeared in some fifty-five films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Winifred Bryson",
        "text": "Although her first film was \"Peer Gynt\" (1915), her real transition to motion pictures was in the film \"A Heart to Let\" (1921). In total, Bryson acted in 19 films, her final screen appearance being in \"Adoration\" (1928). Her career ended with the advent of talkies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joycelyn O'Brien",
        "text": "She has appeared in eight television movies, including 1990 TV film \"Rock Hudson\", \"When Time Expires\" (1997), \"Indictment: The McMartin Trial\" (1995), and \"Roseanne: An Unauthorized Biography\" (1994)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lynn Whitfield",
        "text": "In the 1990s, Whitfield played leading roles in a number of made-for-television movies and had several starring roles in theatrical films, including \"A Thin Line Between Love and Hate\" (1996), \"Gone Fishin\"' (1997), \"Eve's Bayou\" (1997), \"Stepmom\" (1998), \"Head of State\" (2003), \"Madea's Family Reunion\" (2006), and \"The Women\" (2008). Whitfield also starred in a number of movies in the 2000s and 2010s. From 2016 to 2020, she starred as Lady Mae Greenleaf in the Oprah Winfrey Network dramatic series \"Greenleaf\", for which she won critical acclaim and garnered two NAACP Image Awards and a Gracie Award. Whitfield has won a total of seven NAACP Image Awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jacqueline Schultz",
        "text": "She has also appeared in three films."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "In the 1989\u201390 season, Truddi Chase\u2014a woman who was diagnosed with dissociative identity disorder, having 92 distinct personalities\u2014appeared on the show. Chase had been violently and sexually abused beginning at the age of two and said her old self ceased to exist after that. After introducing Chase, who was there to promote her book \"When Rabbit Howls\", Winfrey unexpectedly broke down in tears while reading the teleprompter, relating her own childhood molestation to that of the guest. Unable to control herself, Winfrey repeatedly asked producers to stop filming."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joyce Compton",
        "text": "Among her over 200 films were \"Imitation of Life\", \"Magnificent Obsession\", \"The Awful Truth\", \"Mildred Pierce\", and \"The Best Years of Our Lives\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nina Hartley",
        "text": "she had appeared in more than one thousand adult films."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Secret (2006 film)",
        "text": "American TV host Oprah Winfrey is a proponent of the film and later the book. On The Larry King Show she said that the message of \"The Secret\" is the message she's been trying to share with the world on her show for the past 21 years. Author Rhonda Byrne was later invited to her show along people who vow by \"The Secret\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Winifred Allen",
        "text": "Allen acted with the Edison and Reliance studios, as well as with other film companies. She appeared in 11 films, listed by the American Film Institute, between 1915 and 1924."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reversal of Fortune (2005 film)",
        "text": "On a December 1, 2006 airing of The Oprah Winfrey Show entitled: \"Are You Ready For a Windfall?\", Ted and filmmaker Wayne Powers were on the program to promote the documentary and speak on their account of the experiment. When asked by Oprah how much of the $100,000 he still had, Ted replied \"none.\" Ted also mentioned that he is homeless again, and content with his current circumstances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silky Nutmeg Ganache",
        "text": "Ganache portrayed Oprah Winfrey for her winning performance in \"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Nominated:\n* 1999: Outstanding Lead Actress in a Motion Picture: Beloved\n* 2013: Outstanding Talk Series: Oprah's Lifeclass\n* 2013: Outstanding Talk Series: Oprah's Lifeclass\n* 2014: Outstanding News/ Information (Series or Special):\n* 2014: Outstanding Talk Series: Oprah's Lifeclass\n* 2014: Outstanding Talk Series: Oprah's Next Chapter\n* 2015: Outstanding News/ Information (Series or Special): Oprah's Lifeclass\n* 2015: Outstanding Talk Series: Oprah Prime\n* 2015: Outstanding Variety (Series or Special): Oprah's Master Class\n* 2015: Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture: Selma\n* 2016: Outstanding News/ Information (Series or Special): Oprah Prime: Celebrating Dr. King and the Selma Marches 50 Years Later\n* 2016: Outstanding News/ Information (Series or Special):\n* 2017: Outstanding Talk Series: Super Soul Sunday\n* 1995: Personal Award\n* 1988: Favorite Talk Show Host: Won\n* 1997: Favorite Female Television Performer: Won\n* 1998: Favorite Female Television Performer: Won\n* 2004: Favorite Talk Show Host: Won"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Nominated:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Woodrow Parfrey",
        "text": "His many film credits also include parts in \"Cattle King\" (1963), \"The War Lord\" (1965), \"The King's Pirate\" (1967), \"How to Save a Marriage and Ruin Your Life\" (1968), \"Madigan\" (1968), \"Sam Whiskey\" (1969), \"Cold Turkey\" (1971), \"Dirty Harry\" (1971), \"Oklahoma Crude\" (1973), \"Stay Hungry\" (1976), \"The Incredible Journey of Doctor Meg Laurel\" (1979), \"Carny\" (1980), \"Bronco Billy\" (1980), \"Used Cars\" (1980), \"The Seduction\" (1982), \"Frances\" (1982) and \"Jinxed\" (1982)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ellen Weston",
        "text": "The only feature film in which Weston has appeared was \"Dangerous Relations\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Everley Gregg",
        "text": "In addition to her stage and television roles, Gregg appeared in more than fifty films:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Noble Willingham",
        "text": "Willingham appeared in more than thirty feature films, including \"Big Bad Mama\" (1974), \"Chinatown\" (1974), \"Where Have All The People Gone?\" (1974), \"Aloha, Bobby and Rose\" (1975), \"Sheila Levine Is Dead and Living in New York \" (1975), \"Fighting Mad\" (1976), \"Greased Lightning\" (1977), \"The Boys in Company C\" (1978), \"Norma Rae\" (1979), \"Fast Charlie... the Moonbeam Rider\" (1979), \"Brubaker\" (1980), \"The Howling\" (1981), \"Harry's War\" (1981), \"Independence Day\" (1983), \"La Bamba\" (1987), \"Good Morning, Vietnam\" (1987), the HBO film \"The Heist\" (1989), \"Blind Fury\" (1989), \"City Slickers\" (1991), \"The Last Boy Scout\" (1991), \"Pastime\" (1991), \"Article 99\" (1992), \"The Distinguished Gentleman\" (1992), \"Of Mice and Men\" (1992), \"Fire In The Sky\" (1993), \"The Hudsucker Proxy\" (1994), ' (1994), ' (1994), \"Up Close & Personal\" (1996), and \"The Corndog Man\" (1999)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mare Winningham",
        "text": "She made acclaimed appearances on the series \"ER\" and \"\", as well as appearances in the 2001 television project \"Sally Hemings\" opposite Sam Neill and the short-lived David E. Kelley series \"The Brotherhood of Poland, New Hampshire\". Also in 2001, she appeared in the made-for-TV movie \"Snap Decision\" with Felicity Huffman. She also appeared in the independent film \"Dandelion\", which was a staple of film festivals worldwide between 2003 and 2004 and had a limited American release in October 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Valerie Rose",
        "text": "She has made television appearances including Oprah Winfrey's \"Greenleaf\", BET's \"The Quad\", \"Star\", \"Chicago P.D.\", HBO's \"Mogadishu Minnesota\", \"In an Instant\", \"Randy to the Rescue\", and the TV pilots, \"For Art's Sake\" and \"Brothers\". She has also appeared in films including, \"Dear White People\", \"The House of Tomorrow\", \"Blue Balloons\", \"Torpedo the Damned\" and \"Wilson\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Blackham",
        "text": "For a comprehensive list of film and television appearances (1977\u2013present) see"
      },
      {
        "title": "Farida Arriany",
        "text": "During her twenty-two-year career, Arriany appeared in more than forty films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grand L. Bush",
        "text": "More than 35 feature films in which Bush has appeared have been archived as Turner Classic Movies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maureen Teefy",
        "text": "Her last film appearances to date were in 1997 film \"Men Seeking Women,\" then 20 years later in 2017's \"Hollywood Girl: The Peg Entwistle Story.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Farrah Fawcett",
        "text": "In 1986, Fawcett appeared in the movie version of \"Extremities\", which performed well financially. For her performance she received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Performance by an Actress in a Motion Picture \u2013 Drama. She appeared in Jon Avnet's \"Between Two Women\" with Colleen Dewhurst, and took several more dramatic roles as either infamous or renowned women. She was nominated for Golden Globe awards for roles as Beate Klarsfeld in ' and troubled Woolworth heiress Barbara Hutton in ', and won a CableACE Award for her 1989 portrayal of groundbreaking \"LIFE\" magazine photojournalist Margaret Bourke-White in \"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amy and Isabelle",
        "text": "The novel was adapted into a 2001 television movie of the same name as part of the \"Oprah Winfrey Presents\" line of films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lies Noor",
        "text": "In her nine-year career, Noor appeared in thirteen films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amy and Isabelle",
        "text": "In 2000 it was announced that Oprah Winfrey had acquired the rights to the work, with the intent to make a film through Harpo Productions, under their \"Oprah Winfrey Presents\" banner. Filming took place in South Carolina and Elisabeth Shue and Hanna Hall were brought on to portray Isabelle and Amy Goodrow. The film aired on ABC on March 4, 2001. Critical reception for the film was mixed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Oprah voiced Gussie the goose in \"Charlotte's Web\" (2006) and voiced Judge Bumbleton in \"Bee Movie\" (2007), co-starring the voices of Jerry Seinfeld and Ren\u00e9e Zellweger. In 2009, Winfrey provided the voice for the character of Eudora, the mother of Princess Tiana, in Disney's \"The Princess and the Frog\" and in 2010, narrated the US version of the BBC nature program \"Life\" for Discovery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Katharine Hepburn",
        "text": "During her 66-year career, Hepburn appeared in 44 feature films, 8 television movies, and 33 plays. Her movie career covered a range of genres, including screwball comedies, period dramas, and adaptations of works by top American playwrights. She appeared on the stage in every decade from the 1920s to the 1980s, performing plays by Shakespeare and Shaw, and a Broadway musical."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harpo Productions",
        "text": "The company's origins can trace back to 1985 when Oprah appeared in \"The Color Purple\". Winfrey founded her own company in 1986."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iurie Darie",
        "text": "According to IMDB, Iurie Darie featured in 50 films and television series in his six decade-long career."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rosalie Bertell",
        "text": "Bertell appeared in at least five documentary films between 1985 and 2005. They include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jane Darwell",
        "text": "By the end of her career, she had appeared in more than 170 films, including \"Huckleberry Finn\" (1931), \"Jesse James\" (1939), \"Gone with the Wind\" (1939), \"The Devil and Daniel Webster\" (1941), \"The Ox-Bow Incident\" (1943), and \"My Darling Clementine\" (1946)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ricki Seidman",
        "text": "She appeared in the 1993 documentary film about the 1992 Clinton campaign for president, \"The War Room\", and the 2008 film \"The Return of the War Room\" documenting Barack Obama's presidential campaign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Djoewariah",
        "text": "Djoewariah is recorded as appearing in some 12 films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jane Goodall",
        "text": "Goodall is the subject of more than 40 films:"
      },
      {
        "title": "On the Record (film)",
        "text": "Following the announcement of the film, Winfrey was targeted by Simmons and his supporters including 50 Cent, and she received phone calls and text messages from Simmons directly asking her to cancel the project. Additionally, the women involved with the film were targeted on social media, which the women viewed as attempts to threaten and intimidate them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fay Compton",
        "text": "Compton's film work is not as well known as her stage appearances. She appeared in more than 40 films between 1914 and 1970. Her most popular performances in films are \"Odd Man Out\" (1947), \"Laughter in Paradise\" (1951), Orson Welles' \"Othello\" (1952), \"The Haunting\" (1963) and \"I Start Counting\" (1969)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In the mid-1980s, Winfrey briefly dated movie critic Roger Ebert, whom she credits with advising her to take her show into syndication."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jane Menelaus",
        "text": "Films in which she has appeared include \"Quills\", \"The Dish\" and \"Healing\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gwyneth Paltrow",
        "text": "In 2004, it was noted that since her Oscar win for \"Shakespeare in Love\", Paltrow's film career had been less noteworthy and critical acclaim had waned. She said she was unequipped for the pressure, leading to several bad film choices, agreeing with peers who believe the win is, in some ways, a curse. During this time, Paltrow rarely appeared in films, having taken a hiatus to raise her two children. In \"The Guardian\", she said she divided her career into movies for love and films for money: \"The Royal Tenenbaums\", \"Proof\", and \"Sylvia\" fell into the former category, while she signed on to \"View from the Top\" and \"Shallow Hal\" for the latter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "About Oprah Winfrey"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kalpana Iyer",
        "text": "Throughout her career, Iyer has appeared in over 100 films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dolores Claiborne (film)",
        "text": "\"Entertainment Weekly\", however, gave the film a negative review, awarding it a D+ rating and saying: \"This solemnly ludicrous \"psychological\" thriller is like one of Hollywood's old-hag gothics turned into a therapeutic grouse-a-thon \u2013 it's \"Hush\u2026 Hush, Sweet Charlotte\" for the Age of Oprah.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Aminah Cendrakasih",
        "text": "Cendrakasih has appeared in almost a hundred and twenty films in her fifty-year career."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maxine Audley",
        "text": "Maxine Audley appeared in more than 20 films, her first appearance being in the 1948 adaptation of \"Anna Karenina\". She then appeared in \"The Prince and the Showgirl\", \"A King in New York\" (both 1957), \"The Vikings\", \"Dunkirk\" (both 1958), \"Our Man in Havana\" (1959) and \"Peeping Tom\" (1960). Her other films include \"The Trials of Oscar Wilde\" (also 1960) as Ada Leverson, \"The Battle of the Villa Fiorita\" (1965), \"Here We Go Round the Mulberry Bush\" (1968), \"House of Cards\" (1968), \"Frankenstein Must Be Destroyed\", \"Sinful Davey\", \"The Looking Glass War\" (1970) and \"Running Scared\" (1972). Her television appearances included \"International Detective\" and \"Danger Man\" (1960), \"The Edgar Wallace Mysteries\" and \"Man at the Carlton Tower\" (1961), \"Great Expectations\" (1967), Mr. Rose (1967), \"The Adventures of Black Beauty\" (1972), ' (1976) and the television miniseries adaptations of ' (1986) and \"A Ghost in Monte Carlo\" (1990)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ellen Burstyn",
        "text": "A succession of films including \"Lovely, Still\" (2008), and \"The Loss of a Teardrop Diamond\" (2008)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Whitney Houston filmography",
        "text": "American entertainer Whitney Houston worked in four feature films, one television film, seven television episodes, and appeared in seventeen commercials."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kathleen Lockhart",
        "text": "Lockhart appeared on stage and in Hollywood films for almost forty years. Lockhart has more than 30 film credits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Travis Winfrey",
        "text": "Travis Winfrey\n--Filmography.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Afida Turner",
        "text": "Turner made appearances in three films, \"Shut Up and Shoot\" (2006), \"The Sweep\" (2008) and \"Single Black Female\" (2009)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Their Eyes Were Watching God (film)",
        "text": "Catering to Winfrey's expected TV audience, the film largely avoided the more controversial themes of race, gender, and power that Hurston explored in her novel. Karen Valby of \"Entertainment Weekly\" comments, \"While the book chews on meaty questions of race and identity, the movie largely resigns itself to the realm of sudsy romance.\" \"New York Times\" critic Virginia Heffernan said, \"[T]he film is less a literary tribute than a visual fix of Harlequin Romance: Black Southern Series\u2014 all sensual soft-core scenes and contemporary, accessible language.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Gladys Blake",
        "text": "Over her 20-year career, she appeared in over 100 films. She was noted for playing very talkative supporting roles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joanna Dunham",
        "text": "Dunham had credited roles in at least seven films:\n*\"The Breaking Point\" (1961) - Cherry Winlatter\n*\"Dangerous Afternoon\" (1961) - Freda\n*\"The Greatest Story Ever Told\" (1965) - Mary Magdalene\n*\"A Day at the Beach\" (1970) - Tonie\n*\"The House That Dripped Blood\" (1971) - Alice Hillyer\n*\"Scandal\" (1989) - Lady Bronwen Astor\n*\"The Hour of the Pig\" (1993) - Lady Catherine d/Auferre"
      },
      {
        "title": "Angelina Jolie",
        "text": "Jolie has appeared in over thirty film productions since 1982. According to the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes and infotainment website \"Screen Rant,\" her most critically acclaimed and commercially successful films are \"Playing by Heart\" (1998), \"Gia\" (1998), \"Gone in 60 Seconds\" (2000), ' (2001), ' (2003), \"Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow\" (2004), \"Alexander\" (2004), \"Mr. & Mrs. Smith\" (2005), \"Beowulf\" (2007), \"A Mighty Heart\" (2007), \"Changeling\" (2008), \"Kung Fu Panda\" (2008), \"Wanted\" (2008), \"Salt\" (2010), \"The Tourist\" (2010), \"Maleficent\" (2014), and \"\" (2019). Her television projects comprise CBS miniseries \"True Women\" and TNT's \"George Wallace\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rita Quigley",
        "text": "Quigley made her film debut in 1940 in \"Susan and God\", and appeared in more than a dozen other movies, including \"Five Little Peppers in Trouble,\" \"The Howards of Virginia\", \"Whispering Footsteps\" and \"The Human Comedy\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Long",
        "text": "Long won an AWGIE Award for each of these three films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lisa De Leeuw",
        "text": "She appeared in over 200 films and was inducted into both the X-Rated Critics' Organization Hall of Fame and the AVN Hall of Fame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ellen McElduff",
        "text": "She has featured in many movies, including Stephen King's directorial debut \"Maximum Overdrive\" (1986) (as Wanda June), Jodie Foster's directorial debut \"Little Man Tate\" (1991), \"Working Girls\" (1986), \"Desperate Hours\" (1990), \"Julian Po\" (1997), and Al Pacino's independent movie \"Chinese Coffee\" (2000)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vivian Velez",
        "text": "Velez has appeared in more than 60 movies and television shows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Woodbury",
        "text": "When Woodbury retired, she had appeared in 81 films, though a newspaper article published in 1963 reported that she had appeared in more than 300 films. Woodbury eventually settled in Desert Hot Springs, California, where she was residing at the time of her death at the age of 73."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yolande Palfrey",
        "text": "She appeared in many BBC programmes including \"Pennies from Heaven\", \"Measure for Measure\", \"Elizabeth Alone\", \"Wings\", \"Blake's 7\" (\"Pressure Point\"), \"Crime and Punishment\", \"Nanny\", and \"Doctor Who\" (in the serial \"Terror of the Vervoids\"), as well as \"The Ghosts of Motley Hall\" for Granada Television in the Christmas special \"Phantomime\" (1977)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stephen Caffrey (actor)",
        "text": "He appeared in such films as the AIDS drama \"Longtime Companion\" (1990), \"The Babe\" (1992; starring John Goodman), \"Murder of Innocence (1993), \"Buried Alive II\" (1997; starring Ally Sheedy) and \"Blowback\" (2000; with Mario Van Peebles). Also appeared as a cadet in the 1984 movie Hard Knox, starring Robert Conrad and Red West."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clara Perez",
        "text": "Clara Perez has made appearances in a total of 5 films and 2 television series, in 3 episodes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stockard Channing filmography",
        "text": "The filmography of Stockard Channing comprises both film and television roles. In a career spanning over four decades, she has appeared in overall 47 feature films, 20 television films and ten television series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grant Withers",
        "text": "In total, Withers appeared in some 200 film and television roles."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many films has Winfrey appeared in?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Are you asking about Oprah Winfrey, Amy Winfrey, Travis Winfrey or a different Winfrey?",
      "Are you asking about Amy Winfrey, Travis Winfrey or Oprah Winfrey?"
    ],
    "topic": "Oprah Winfrey",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey"
        ],
        "ctx": "Oprah Gail Winfrey (born Orpah Gail Winfrey; January 29, 1954) is an American talk show host, television producer, actress, author, and philanthropist. She is best known for her talk show, \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", broadcast from Chicago, which was the highest-rated television program of its kind in history and ran in national syndication for 25 years, from 1986 to 2011. Dubbed the \"Queen of All Media\", she was the richest African-American of the 20th century, was once the world's only black billionaire, and the greatest black philanthropist in U.S. history. By 2007, she was sometimes ranked as the most influential woman in the world."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Amy Winfrey:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Amy Winfrey"
        ],
        "ctx": "Amy Daphne Winfrey (born May 1976) is an American animator, screenwriter, songwriter, director and voice actress. She is best known for creating the web series \"Making Fiends\" that was later picked up by Nickelodeon in 2008 (Though, the network has since took claim of all rights to the show.), and for directing several episodes of \"Bojack Horseman\", including \"The View From Halfway Down\" and \"Free Churro\", which was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program at the 71st Primetime Creative Arts Emmys."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Travis Winfrey:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Travis Winfrey"
        ],
        "ctx": "Travis Winfrey is an actor, best known for playing Omar Kearse in the VH1 series \"Single Ladies\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey"
        ],
        "ctx": "Oprah Gail Winfrey (born Orpah Gail Winfrey; January 29, 1954) is an American talk show host, television producer, actress, author, and philanthropist. She is best known for her talk show, \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", broadcast from Chicago, which was the highest-rated television program of its kind in history and ran in national syndication for 25 years, from 1986 to 2011. Dubbed the \"Queen of All Media\", she was the richest African-American of the 20th century, was once the world's only black billionaire, and the greatest black philanthropist in U.S. history. By 2007, she was sometimes ranked as the most influential woman in the world."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Travis Winfrey:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Travis Winfrey"
        ],
        "ctx": "Travis Winfrey is an actor, best known for playing Omar Kearse in the VH1 series \"Single Ladies\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Amy Winfrey:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Amy Winfrey"
        ],
        "ctx": "Amy Daphne Winfrey (born May 1976) is an American animator, screenwriter, songwriter, director and voice actress. She is best known for creating the web series \"Making Fiends\" that was later picked up by Nickelodeon in 2008 (Though, the network has since took claim of all rights to the show.), and for directing several episodes of \"Bojack Horseman\", including \"The View From Halfway Down\" and \"Free Churro\", which was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program at the 71st Primetime Creative Arts Emmys."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Amy Winfrey",
        "text": "Amy Winfrey\n--Biography.\n----Career.\n----Personal life.\n--Filmography.\n----\"South Park (1995 - 1999)\".\n----Web Shows (2000 - 2009).\n------\"Muffin Films (2000)\".\n------\"Big Bunny (2001)\".\n------\"Making Fiends (2003 - 2008)\".\n------\"Squid and Frog (2008 - 2009)\".\n----\"Bojack Horseman and other works\" (2014 - 2019).\n------Episodes directed.\n----\"Hooray For Hell (2018)\".\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "About Oprah Winfrey"
      },
      {
        "title": "Priscilla Hojiwala",
        "text": "She has interviewed Oprah Winfrey, Kobe Bryant, Tiger Woods, Hugh Jackman, Matt Damon, Ben Affleck, Oscar Award-winning Director Danny Boyle, and President Gerald Ford."
      },
      {
        "title": "Travis Winfrey",
        "text": "Travis Winfrey\n--Filmography.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Amy & Isabelle",
        "text": "Amy & Isabelle is a 2001 made-for-television film produced through Oprah Winfrey's Harpo Films as part of her \"Oprah Winfrey Presents\" film line. It was directed by Lloyd Kramer, who had previously directed another film under the \"Oprah Winfrey Presents\" banner, \"\". The book is based on the 1998 Elizabeth Strout book \"Amy and Isabelle\" and stars Elisabeth Shue and Hanna Hall as Isabelle and her daughter Amy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2018, Winfrey starred as Mrs. Which in the film adaptation of Madeleine L'Engle's novel \"A Wrinkle in Time\". She also lent her voice to an animated virtual-reality short film written and directed by Eric Darnell, starring John Legend, titled \"Crow: The Legend\", telling a native American origin tale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Winfrey co-starred in Steven Spielberg's \"The Color Purple\" (1985), as distraught housewife Sofia. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance. The Alice Walker novel later became a Broadway musical which opened in late 2005, with Winfrey credited as a producer. In October 1998, Winfrey produced and starred in the film \"Beloved\", based on Toni Morrison's Pulitzer Prize\u2013winning novel of the same name. To prepare for her role as Sethe, the protagonist and former slave, Winfrey experienced a 24-hour simulation of the experience of slavery, which included being tied up and blindfolded and left alone in the woods. Despite major advertising, including two episodes of her talk show dedicated solely to the film, and moderate to good critical reviews, \"Beloved\" opened to poor box-office results, losing approximately $30\u00a0million. While promoting the movie, co-star Thandie Newton described Winfrey as \"a very strong technical actress and it's because she's so smart. She's acute. She's got a mind like a razor blade.\" Harpo Productions released a film adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston's 1937 novel \"Their Eyes Were Watching God\" in 2005. The made-for-television film was based upon a teleplay by Suzan-Lori Parks and starred Halle Berry in the lead female role."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amy Winfrey",
        "text": "Episode list"
      },
      {
        "title": "Amy Winfrey",
        "text": "Episode list"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In late 2008, Winfrey's company Harpo Films signed an exclusive output pact to develop and produce scripted series, documentaries, and movies exclusively for HBO."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jill Bolte Taylor",
        "text": "Later, after Ron Howard's option expired, Winfrey optioned My Stroke of Insight and Taylor's life rights for Harpo Films."
      },
      {
        "title": "Casey Dunmore",
        "text": "The Oprah Winfrey Show \u2022 (ABC)<BR>"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Nominated:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Interview with the Vampire (film)",
        "text": "Oprah Winfrey walked out of an advance screening of the movie only 10 minutes in, because of the gore and dark themes. She considered cancelling an interview with Tom Cruise promoting the film, stating, \"I believe there are forces of light and darkness in the world, and I don't want to be a contributor to the force of darkness\".\n* 4th\u00a0\u2013 Sandi Davis, \"The Oklahoman\"\n* 6th\u00a0\u2013 David Stupich, \"The Milwaukee Journal\"\n* Top 10 (listed alphabetically, not ranked)\u00a0\u2013 Steve Murray, \"The Atlanta Journal-Constitution\"\n* Top 5 runners-up (not ranked)\u00a0\u2013 Scott Schuldt, \"The Oklahoman\"\n* Top 10 runner-ups (not ranked)\u00a0\u2013 Janet Maslin, \"The New York Times\"\n* Honorable mention\u00a0\u2013 Mike Clark, \"USA Today\"\n* Honorable mention\u00a0\u2013 Glenn Lovell, \"San Jose Mercury News\"\n* Honorable mention\u00a0\u2013 Betsy Pickle, \"Knoxville News-Sentinel\"\n* Honorable mention\u00a0\u2013 Dan Craft, \"The Pantagraph\"\n* 1st worst\u00a0\u2013 John Hurley, \"Staten Island Advance\"\n* 1st worst\u00a0\u2013 Jeff Simon, \"The Buffalo News\"\n* Dishonorable mention\u00a0\u2013 William Arnold, \"Seattle Post-Intelligencer\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "She finished the show in tears. The finale was marked by viewing parties across the US, and the episode was also shown in movie theaters. The episode received the show's highest rating in 17 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harriett Ball",
        "text": "Ball appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show, as well as other nationally televised programs. Footage of her also appeared in the documentary Waiting for \"Superman\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Media works of Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Media works of Oprah Winfrey\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jennifer Openshaw",
        "text": "2002 \u2013 Appeared on Oprah"
      },
      {
        "title": "Amy and Isabelle",
        "text": "The novel was adapted into a 2001 television movie of the same name as part of the \"Oprah Winfrey Presents\" line of films."
      },
      {
        "title": "T. Berry Brazelton",
        "text": "Brazelton appeared several times on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" and the \"Ellen DeGeneres Show\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Big Give",
        "text": "Oprah's Big Give\n--Format.\n--People Competing.\n----Angelo.\n----Brandi.\n----Cameron.\n----Carlana.\n----Eric.\n----Kim.\n----Marlene.\n----Rachael.\n----Sheg.\n----Stephen.\n--Chronology.\n--Response.\n--Distribution.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Oprah Winfrey\n--Early life.\n--Television.\n----Celebrity interviews.\n--Other media.\n----Film.\n----Publishing and writing.\n----Online.\n----Radio.\n--Personal life.\n----Homes.\n----Romantic history.\n----Close friends.\n----Personal wealth.\n----Religious views.\n--Influence.\n----Rankings.\n----\"Oprahfication\".\n------Daytime talk show's impact on LGBT people.\n----\"The Oprah Effect\".\n----Politics.\n----Spiritual leadership.\n----Fan base.\n----Philanthropy.\n------Oprah's Angel Network.\n------South Africa.\n--Bibliography.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Amy and Isabelle",
        "text": "In 2000 it was announced that Oprah Winfrey had acquired the rights to the work, with the intent to make a film through Harpo Productions, under their \"Oprah Winfrey Presents\" banner. Filming took place in South Carolina and Elisabeth Shue and Hanna Hall were brought on to portray Isabelle and Amy Goodrow. The film aired on ABC on March 4, 2001. Critical reception for the film was mixed."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Celine Dion appeared on the show 28 times, the most of any celebrity, besides Gayle King, Winfrey's best friend, who appeared 141 times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miss Representation",
        "text": "The Oprah Winfrey Network acquired broadcast rights for the film following its premiere.\n; \"Audience Award\" from\n* 2011 Palo Alto International Film Festival.\n* 2011 Sonoma Film Festival.\n; \"Official Selection\" at\n* 2011 Atlanta Film Festival.\n* 2011 Dallas Film Festival.\n* 2011 Denver Film Festival.\n* 2011 Newport Beach Film Festival.\n* 2011 New Zealand Film Festival.\n* 2011 San Francisco Film Festival.\n* 2011 Silver Docs Film Festival.\n* 2011 Sundance Film Festival.\n; Other\n* 2011 Maui Film Festival: \"Movies Matter Award\"\n* 2011: Nominated for the Grand Jury Prize, Sundance Film Festival.\n* 2012 Gracie Allen Awards: \"Outstanding Documentary\".\n* Won WFCC Award for Best Theatrically Unreleased Movie by or About Women."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Oprah's Lifeclass episodes",
        "text": "</onlyinclude>"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Nominated:\n* 1999: Outstanding Lead Actress in a Motion Picture: Beloved\n* 2013: Outstanding Talk Series: Oprah's Lifeclass\n* 2013: Outstanding Talk Series: Oprah's Lifeclass\n* 2014: Outstanding News/ Information (Series or Special):\n* 2014: Outstanding Talk Series: Oprah's Lifeclass\n* 2014: Outstanding Talk Series: Oprah's Next Chapter\n* 2015: Outstanding News/ Information (Series or Special): Oprah's Lifeclass\n* 2015: Outstanding Talk Series: Oprah Prime\n* 2015: Outstanding Variety (Series or Special): Oprah's Master Class\n* 2015: Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture: Selma\n* 2016: Outstanding News/ Information (Series or Special): Oprah Prime: Celebrating Dr. King and the Selma Marches 50 Years Later\n* 2016: Outstanding News/ Information (Series or Special):\n* 2017: Outstanding Talk Series: Super Soul Sunday\n* 1995: Personal Award\n* 1988: Favorite Talk Show Host: Won\n* 1997: Favorite Female Television Performer: Won\n* 1998: Favorite Female Television Performer: Won\n* 2004: Favorite Talk Show Host: Won"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tuesdays with Morrie (film)",
        "text": "The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes give it a 71% rating based on 7 reviews. Fred Topel from About.com says, \"Movie of the week with film caliber performances\". Common Sense Media Editors states, \"Oprah Winfrey presents a three-hanky weepfest\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "The show aired in 149 countries worldwide and was often renamed and dubbed into other languages."
      },
      {
        "title": "14th People's Choice Awards",
        "text": "Oprah Winfrey"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2009, Winfrey was criticized for allowing actress Suzanne Somers to appear on her show to discuss hormone treatments that are not accepted by mainstream medicine. Critics have also suggested that Winfrey is not tough enough when questioning celebrity guests or politicians whom she appears to like. Lisa de Moraes, a media columnist for \"The Washington Post\", stated: \"Oprah doesn't do follow-up questions unless you're an author who's embarrassed her by fabricating portions of a supposed memoir she's plugged for her book club.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Oprah's Lifeclass episodes",
        "text": "<onlyinclude>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Amy Winfrey",
        "text": "Between 2000 and 2004, Winfrey published a trilogy of web shows, Muffin Films (2000), Big Bunny (2001) and most notably, \"Making Fiends\" (2003 - 2004)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amy Winfrey",
        "text": "\"Season Three\"\n* \"BoJack Kills\"\n* \"Brrap Brrap Pew Pew\"\n* \"Best Thing That Ever Happened\"\n* \"That Went Well\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jamie Johnson (filmmaker)",
        "text": "In 2006, he was on \"Oprah\" discussing \"The One Percent\" in an episode on \"Class in America\", along with Nicole Buffett, who was in the film. Warren Buffett's disowning of Nicole shortly after the interview garnered media attention and was included in the HBO version of documentary. In 2008, Johnson was interviewed about the film on \"The Early Show\" on CBS on the day of the film's television debut on HBO."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lesra Martin",
        "text": "Martin has appeared on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", \"Larry King Live\" on CNN, and has been the subject of a National Film Board production, \"The Journey of Lesra Martin\", directed by Cheryl Foggo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amy Winfrey",
        "text": "\"Season Two\"\n* \"Brand New Couch\"\n* \"Still Broken\"\n* \"Hank After Dark\"\n* \"Escape from L.A.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Beloved (1998 film)",
        "text": "During promotion of the film, Thandie Newton said to \"Vogue\" magazine, \"Here we were working on this project with the heavy underbelly of political and social realism, and she managed to lighten things up ... I've worked with a lot of good actors, and I know Oprah hasn't made many films. I was stunned. She's a very strong technical actress and it's because she's so smart. She's acute. She's got a mind like a razor blade.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "In the 1989\u201390 season, Truddi Chase\u2014a woman who was diagnosed with dissociative identity disorder, having 92 distinct personalities\u2014appeared on the show. Chase had been violently and sexually abused beginning at the age of two and said her old self ceased to exist after that. After introducing Chase, who was there to promote her book \"When Rabbit Howls\", Winfrey unexpectedly broke down in tears while reading the teleprompter, relating her own childhood molestation to that of the guest. Unable to control herself, Winfrey repeatedly asked producers to stop filming."
      },
      {
        "title": "Media works of Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "This article documents the professional media works of Oprah Winfrey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In the mid-1980s, Winfrey briefly dated movie critic Roger Ebert, whom she credits with advising her to take her show into syndication."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "A February 2003 series, in which Winfrey showed clips from people all over the world asking America not to go to war, was interrupted in several East Coast markets by network broadcasts of a press conference in which President George W. Bush and Colin Powell summarized the case for war."
      },
      {
        "title": "Howard Lyman",
        "text": "Howard Lyman\n--Biography.\n----\"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" appearance.\n--Publications.\n--Recognition.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kristine Carlson",
        "text": "In addition to appearances on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" on December 5, 2007, Carlson has appeared on other national talk shows, such as The Today Show and The View and local news and talk shows, such as CBS in San Francisco."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Winfrey also interviewed Chicago's \"Guardian Angels\" and Raymond Lear in 1988."
      },
      {
        "title": "Selma (film)",
        "text": "In early 2014, Oprah Winfrey came on board as a producer along with Pitt, and by February 25 Paramount Pictures was in final negotiations for the US and Canadian distribution rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amy Grant",
        "text": "Grant appeared with Gill on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" for a holiday special in December 2007. Grant has plans to appear on CMT, a Food Network special, the Gospel Music Channel, and \"The Hour of Power\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amy Winfrey",
        "text": "\"Season Four\"\n* \"See Mr. Peanutbutter Run\"\n* \"Thoughts and Prayers\"\n* \"Ruthie\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "List of awards and nominations received by Oprah Winfrey\n--NAACP Image Award.\n--People's Choice Awards.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Winfrey's interview with Tom Cruise, which was broadcast on May 23, 2005, also gained notoriety. Cruise \"jumped around the set, hopped onto a couch, fell rapturously to one knee and repeatedly professed his love for his then-girlfriend, Katie Holmes.\" This scene quickly became part of American pop-cultural discourse and was heavily parodied in media."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 1989, she was accepted into the NAACP Image Award Hall of Fame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2021, she conducted an interview with Meghan, Duchess of Sussex, and her husband Prince Harry, which was broadcast globally and received international media attention."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Oprah Prime episodes",
        "text": "<onlyinclude></onlyinclude>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Reversal of Fortune (2005 film)",
        "text": "On a December 1, 2006 airing of The Oprah Winfrey Show entitled: \"Are You Ready For a Windfall?\", Ted and filmmaker Wayne Powers were on the program to promote the documentary and speak on their account of the experiment. When asked by Oprah how much of the $100,000 he still had, Ted replied \"none.\" Ted also mentioned that he is homeless again, and content with his current circumstances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Making Oprah",
        "text": "Host Jenn White interviews several of Winfrey's associates including Phil Donahue. Winfrey appears for an interview in the last episode of the podcast. White shares the significance of the project as a Black woman in media in her forties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Oprah has stated that she is a Christian and her favorite Bible verse is ."
      },
      {
        "title": "No Phone Zone",
        "text": "Winfrey has gathered a who's who of Hollywood's elite to support her efforts to put an end to distracted driving. More than 60 celebrities have supported the program including:\n*Sandra Bullock\n*Tina Fey\n*Shaun White\n*Morgan Freeman\n*Sir Elton John\n*Jerry Seinfeld\n*the cast of TV's \"Glee\"\n*Lady Antebellum\n*Queen Rania"
      },
      {
        "title": "Harpo Productions",
        "text": "The company's origins can trace back to 1985 when Oprah appeared in \"The Color Purple\". Winfrey founded her own company in 1986."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edith Eger",
        "text": "Eger has appeared on CNN and the Oprah Winfrey Show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dolores Claiborne (film)",
        "text": "\"Entertainment Weekly\", however, gave the film a negative review, awarding it a D+ rating and saying: \"This solemnly ludicrous \"psychological\" thriller is like one of Hollywood's old-hag gothics turned into a therapeutic grouse-a-thon \u2013 it's \"Hush\u2026 Hush, Sweet Charlotte\" for the Age of Oprah.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "When They See Us",
        "text": "A companion special, titled \"Oprah Winfrey Presents When They See Us Now,\" in which the cast, the creator, and the exonerated five are interviewed, premiered on June 12, 2019, on Netflix and the Oprah Winfrey Network."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Oprah attends The Potter's House Church, Dallas service, an Evangelical church."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey Foundation",
        "text": "Oprah Winfrey Foundation\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Silky Nutmeg Ganache",
        "text": "Ganache portrayed Oprah Winfrey for her winning performance in \"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wintley Phipps",
        "text": "The Academy has garnered praise from Oprah Winfrey and former president Bill Clinton."
      },
      {
        "title": "Winfrey",
        "text": "Winfrey\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Third and Indiana",
        "text": "On one occasion staff members of Oprah Winfrey and Quincy Jones allied to option \"Third and Indiana\" for a film version; Oprah's group wanted a \"happy ending.\" Oprah's option evaporated. Jones's found another group of investors who said they raised money for a film version and never executed any plans. In 2003 Tom Bradford, a then-35-year-old Center City resident, said that he would begin plans to make a film version of \"Third and Indiana\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2008, Winfrey's show was airing in 140 countries internationally and seen by an estimated 46\u00a0million people in the US weekly. According to the Harris poll, Winfrey was America's favorite television personality in 1998, 2000, 2002\u201306, and 2009. Winfrey was especially popular among women, Democrats, political moderates, Baby Boomers, Generation X, Southern Americans, and East Coast Americans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zarah (television personality)",
        "text": "Zarah appeared as an actress in other popular television shows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deborah Joy Winans",
        "text": "In 2015, Winans was cast in a series regular role in the Oprah Winfrey Network drama series, \"Greenleaf\". She plays Charity Greenleaf-Satterlee, the youngest daughter in the family, who is also the Minister of Music. The series also stars Lynn Whitfield, Keith David, Merle Dandridge, and Kim Hawthorne."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey Network",
        "text": "On September 15, 2012, OWN premiered \"\"\u2014a reality series starring Iyanla Vanzant. It attracted critical acclaim and a large audience; its two-night premiere event was seen by 1.1 and 1.6 million total viewers respectively. The Sunday-night airing was the third-highest-rated program of the night across ad-supported cable networks, and was the highest-rated program of the night among women 18-49 and African American women 25\u201354."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Leading up to the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, Winfrey's show received criticism for allegedly having an anti-war bias. Ben Shapiro of Townhall.com wrote: \"Oprah Winfrey is the most powerful woman in America. She decides what makes \"The New York Times\" Best Seller lists. Her touchy-feely style sucks in audiences at the rate of 14 million viewers per day. But Oprah is far more than a cultural force, she's a dangerous political force as well, a woman with unpredictable and mercurial attitudes toward the major issues of the day.\" In 2006, Winfrey recalled such controversies: \"I once did a show titled \"Is War the Only Answer?\" In the history of my career, I've never received more hate mail \u2013 like 'Go back to Africa' hate mail. I was accused of being un-American for even raising the question.\" Filmmaker Michael Moore came to Winfrey's defense, praising her for showing antiwar footage no other media would show and begging her to run for president."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nitanju Bolade Casel",
        "text": "Casel appeared in the 1998 film, \"Beloved\", starring Oprah Winfrey and Danny Glover. She was also a guest artist in the Smithsonian Institution production of \"Duke Ellington's Great Ladies of Song\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "The farewell season featured several notable cast reunions, including \"The Sound of Music\", \"The Color Purple\", and \"The Way We Were\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "There Are No Children Here",
        "text": "In 1993, the book was adapted into a television film of the same name starring Oprah Winfrey as LaJoe, Keith David, and Maya Angelou in a performance \"that crackles with power.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Annie Lee Cooper",
        "text": "In the 2014 film \"Selma\", Cooper was portrayed by Oprah Winfrey. Winfrey said that she took the role \"because of the magnificence of Annie Lee Cooper and what her courage meant to an entire movement.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Lisa Shannon",
        "text": "Shannon appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show in October 2009. Her work and \"A Thousand Sisters\" have been profiled in other national media as well, including The New York Times, National Public Radio, ABC News, Time Magazine, Marie Claire, and CNN, among others.[10][11][12][13]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Daniel Edwards",
        "text": "Daniel Edwards\n--Britney Spears.\n--Hillary Clinton.\n--Suri Cruise.\n--\"Dead Prince Harry\".\n--\"Oprah Sarcophagus\".\n--Other works.\n--Documentary.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Henrietta Lacks",
        "text": "HBO announced in 2010 that Oprah Winfrey and Alan Ball were developing a film project based on Skloot's book, and in 2016 filming commenced. with Winfrey in the leading role of Deborah Lacks, Henrietta's daughter. The film \"The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks\" was released in 2017, with Ren\u00e9e Elise Goldsberry portraying Lacks. Sons David Lacks Jr. and Zakariyya Rahman and granddaughter Jeri Lacks, were consultants for the film."
      },
      {
        "title": "Woodrow Parfrey",
        "text": "Parfrey also appeared routinely in films directed by Don Siegel and Clint Eastwood, including noted roles in Siegel's \"Charley Varrick\" (1973) and Eastwood's \"The Outlaw Josey Wales\" (1976)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 1985, before Winfrey's Chicago talk show had gone national, Haitian filmmaker Reginald Chevalier claims he appeared as a guest on a look-alike segment and began a relationship with Winfrey involving romantic evenings at home, candlelit baths, and dinners with Michael Jordan and Danny Glover. Chevalier says Winfrey ended the relationship when she met Stedman Graham."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zarah Tazil",
        "text": "Zarah Tazil\n--Selected filmography.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Oprah was raised a Baptist. In her early life, she would speak at local, mostly African American congregations of the Southern Baptist Convention that were often deeply religious and familiar with such themes as evangelical Protestantism, the Black church, and being born-again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Oprah voiced Gussie the goose in \"Charlotte's Web\" (2006) and voiced Judge Bumbleton in \"Bee Movie\" (2007), co-starring the voices of Jerry Seinfeld and Ren\u00e9e Zellweger. In 2009, Winfrey provided the voice for the character of Eudora, the mother of Princess Tiana, in Disney's \"The Princess and the Frog\" and in 2010, narrated the US version of the BBC nature program \"Life\" for Discovery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amy Winfrey",
        "text": "\"Season One\"\n* \"Zo\u00ebs and Zeldas\"\n* \"The Telescope\"\n* \"Downer Ending\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Dondr\u00e9 Whitfield",
        "text": "In 2016, Whitfield was cast in the Oprah Winfrey Network drama series, \"Queen Sugar\" produced by Ava DuVernay and Oprah Winfrey."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "On January 24, 2011, Winfrey revealed that just before Thanksgiving 2010 she had discovered she has a half-sister. Winfrey decided to share the news on her show because she knew the story would eventually get out and wanted to be the first to address the matter."
      },
      {
        "title": "On the Record (film)",
        "text": "Following the announcement of the film, Winfrey was targeted by Simmons and his supporters including 50 Cent, and she received phone calls and text messages from Simmons directly asking her to cancel the project. Additionally, the women involved with the film were targeted on social media, which the women viewed as attempts to threaten and intimidate them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yolande Palfrey",
        "text": "She also appeared in (among others) \"The Finishing Line\", \"Love in a Cold Climate\" for Thames Television, \"Dragonslayer\" for The Walt Disney Company and Paramount Pictures, and \"The Breadwinner\" for Yorkshire Television."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Conversation",
        "text": "The Oprah Conversation\n--Production.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "A weekly live episode premiered in the show's 23rd season with a panel consisting of Winfrey, Gayle King, Mark Consuelos, and Ali Wentworth. The panel discussed the week's news and highlighted events in the media and on the show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Halle Berry",
        "text": "Her next film appearance was in the Oprah Winfrey-produced ABC television movie \"Their Eyes Were Watching God\" (2005), an adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston's novel, with Berry portraying a free-spirited woman whose unconventional sexual mores upset her 1920s contemporaries in a small community. She received her second Primetime Emmy Award nomination for her role. Also in 2005, she served as an executive producer in \"Lackawanna Blues\", and landed her voice for the character of Cappy, one of the many mechanical beings in the animated feature \"Robots\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "D Matt Geller",
        "text": "co-produced and narrated by Forest Whitaker. The film was purchased by Oprah Winfrey\u2019s network, OWN, airing in the Summer of 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Manju Borah",
        "text": "National Film Awards"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jacqueline Saburido",
        "text": "When Stephey was released from the Huntsville Unit in Texas on 24 June 2008, Saburido stated: \"I don't hate him, I don't feel bad because he's out, he can reconstruct his life again.\" On 20 May 2011, Saburido appeared in one of the last episodes of \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", which was dedicated to Winfrey's favorite guests. Saburido revealed that she had undergone over 120 surgeries by that date."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah After the Show",
        "text": "Oprah After the Show\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "During the 2008 presidential election campaign, Winfrey was criticized for apparently declining to invite Republican vice presidential candidate Sarah Palin to her show until after the election."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Secret (2006 film)",
        "text": "American TV host Oprah Winfrey is a proponent of the film and later the book. On The Larry King Show she said that the message of \"The Secret\" is the message she's been trying to share with the world on her show for the past 21 years. Author Rhonda Byrne was later invited to her show along people who vow by \"The Secret\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of programs broadcast by Oprah Winfrey Network",
        "text": "List of programs broadcast by Oprah Winfrey Network\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ernie Bjorkman",
        "text": "Oprah"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many films has Winfrey appeared in?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you asking about Amy Winfrey, Travis Winfrey or Oprah Winfrey?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about Oprah Winfrey."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Winfrey co-starred in Steven Spielberg's The Color Purple (1985), Oprah voiced Gussie the goose in Charlotte's Web,voiced the character of Eudora in The Princess and the Frog and starred as Mrs. Which in the film  A Wrinkle in Time.",
      "Oprah Winfrey has appeared in films: The Color Purple,  Beloved, and The Princess and the Frog. She has also voice acted  in Charlotte's Web, A Wrinkle in Time, and Crow: The Legend. Which of these would you like to know more about?"
    ],
    "topic": "Oprah Winfrey",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:25",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Other media",
          "Film"
        ],
        "ctx": "Winfrey co-starred in Steven Spielberg's \"The Color Purple\" (1985), as distraught housewife Sofia. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance. The Alice Walker novel later became a Broadway musical which opened in late 2005, with Winfrey credited as a producer. In October 1998, Winfrey produced and starred in the film \"Beloved\", based on Toni Morrison's Pulitzer Prize\u2013winning novel of the same name. To prepare for her role as Sethe, the protagonist and former slave, Winfrey experienced a 24-hour simulation of the experience of slavery, which included being tied up and blindfolded and left alone in the woods. Despite major advertising, including two episodes of her talk show dedicated solely to the film, and moderate to good critical reviews, \"Beloved\" opened to poor box-office results, losing approximately $30\u00a0million. While promoting the movie, co-star Thandie Newton described Winfrey as \"a very strong technical actress and it's because she's so smart. She's acute. She's got a mind like a razor blade.\" Harpo Productions released a film adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston's 1937 novel \"Their Eyes Were Watching God\" in 2005. The made-for-television film was based upon a teleplay by Suzan-Lori Parks and starred Halle Berry in the lead female role."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:27",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Other media",
          "Film"
        ],
        "ctx": "Oprah voiced Gussie the goose in \"Charlotte's Web\" (2006) and voiced Judge Bumbleton in \"Bee Movie\" (2007), co-starring the voices of Jerry Seinfeld and Ren\u00e9e Zellweger. In 2009, Winfrey provided the voice for the character of Eudora, the mother of Princess Tiana, in Disney's \"The Princess and the Frog\" and in 2010, narrated the US version of the BBC nature program \"Life\" for Discovery."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:28",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Other media",
          "Film"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2018, Winfrey starred as Mrs. Which in the film adaptation of Madeleine L'Engle's novel \"A Wrinkle in Time\". She also lent her voice to an animated virtual-reality short film written and directed by Eric Darnell, starring John Legend, titled \"Crow: The Legend\", telling a native American origin tale."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:25",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Other media",
          "Film"
        ],
        "ctx": "Winfrey co-starred in Steven Spielberg's \"The Color Purple\" (1985), as distraught housewife Sofia. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance. The Alice Walker novel later became a Broadway musical which opened in late 2005, with Winfrey credited as a producer. In October 1998, Winfrey produced and starred in the film \"Beloved\", based on Toni Morrison's Pulitzer Prize\u2013winning novel of the same name. To prepare for her role as Sethe, the protagonist and former slave, Winfrey experienced a 24-hour simulation of the experience of slavery, which included being tied up and blindfolded and left alone in the woods. Despite major advertising, including two episodes of her talk show dedicated solely to the film, and moderate to good critical reviews, \"Beloved\" opened to poor box-office results, losing approximately $30\u00a0million. While promoting the movie, co-star Thandie Newton described Winfrey as \"a very strong technical actress and it's because she's so smart. She's acute. She's got a mind like a razor blade.\" Harpo Productions released a film adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston's 1937 novel \"Their Eyes Were Watching God\" in 2005. The made-for-television film was based upon a teleplay by Suzan-Lori Parks and starred Halle Berry in the lead female role."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:27",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Other media",
          "Film"
        ],
        "ctx": "Oprah voiced Gussie the goose in \"Charlotte's Web\" (2006) and voiced Judge Bumbleton in \"Bee Movie\" (2007), co-starring the voices of Jerry Seinfeld and Ren\u00e9e Zellweger. In 2009, Winfrey provided the voice for the character of Eudora, the mother of Princess Tiana, in Disney's \"The Princess and the Frog\" and in 2010, narrated the US version of the BBC nature program \"Life\" for Discovery."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:28",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Other media",
          "Film"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2018, Winfrey starred as Mrs. Which in the film adaptation of Madeleine L'Engle's novel \"A Wrinkle in Time\". She also lent her voice to an animated virtual-reality short film written and directed by Eric Darnell, starring John Legend, titled \"Crow: The Legend\", telling a native American origin tale."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2018, Winfrey starred as Mrs. Which in the film adaptation of Madeleine L'Engle's novel \"A Wrinkle in Time\". She also lent her voice to an animated virtual-reality short film written and directed by Eric Darnell, starring John Legend, titled \"Crow: The Legend\", telling a native American origin tale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Winfrey co-starred in Steven Spielberg's \"The Color Purple\" (1985), as distraught housewife Sofia. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance. The Alice Walker novel later became a Broadway musical which opened in late 2005, with Winfrey credited as a producer. In October 1998, Winfrey produced and starred in the film \"Beloved\", based on Toni Morrison's Pulitzer Prize\u2013winning novel of the same name. To prepare for her role as Sethe, the protagonist and former slave, Winfrey experienced a 24-hour simulation of the experience of slavery, which included being tied up and blindfolded and left alone in the woods. Despite major advertising, including two episodes of her talk show dedicated solely to the film, and moderate to good critical reviews, \"Beloved\" opened to poor box-office results, losing approximately $30\u00a0million. While promoting the movie, co-star Thandie Newton described Winfrey as \"a very strong technical actress and it's because she's so smart. She's acute. She's got a mind like a razor blade.\" Harpo Productions released a film adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston's 1937 novel \"Their Eyes Were Watching God\" in 2005. The made-for-television film was based upon a teleplay by Suzan-Lori Parks and starred Halle Berry in the lead female role."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (musical)",
        "text": "A second national tour with a new non-Equity cast opened on March 12, 2010 at the Lyric Opera House and visited numerous US cities, making several return engagements. The role of Celie was played by Detroit native Dayna Jarae Dantzler. The role of Shug Avery was played by New Orleans native Taprena Augustine. Tour stops include Omaha, Nashville, Fort Lauderdale, Mobile, Durham, and more. Due to an overwhelming demand, the tour returned to New Orleans where it played a 5-show limited-engagement at the Mahalia Jackson Theater for the Performing Arts from February 11\u201313, 2011. In August 2010, Oprah Winfrey announced the traveling company of \"The Color Purple\" would be raising funds for the relief organization SBP along with the novel's author, Alice Walker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harpo Productions",
        "text": "The company's origins can trace back to 1985 when Oprah appeared in \"The Color Purple\". Winfrey founded her own company in 1986."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Oprah voiced Gussie the goose in \"Charlotte's Web\" (2006) and voiced Judge Bumbleton in \"Bee Movie\" (2007), co-starring the voices of Jerry Seinfeld and Ren\u00e9e Zellweger. In 2009, Winfrey provided the voice for the character of Eudora, the mother of Princess Tiana, in Disney's \"The Princess and the Frog\" and in 2010, narrated the US version of the BBC nature program \"Life\" for Discovery."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (1985 film)",
        "text": "Spielberg encouraged both Goldberg and Winfrey to ad lib during filming, including Sofia's speech at the dinner table. Quincy Jones's insistence on giving more dialogue to Winfrey sparked an apparent feud between her and Goldberg that lasted several years afterwards."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "The farewell season featured several notable cast reunions, including \"The Sound of Music\", \"The Color Purple\", and \"The Way We Were\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hida Viloria",
        "text": "In 2007, on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", Viloria likened society's lack of understanding of non-binary people, and the pressure non-binary people experience to identify as men or women, to what people of mixed African-American and Caucasian race sometimes experience, saying, \"Society pressures you to choose sides, just like they pressure mixed race people to decide, you know... 'Are you really black? Are you really white?'\" Viloria went on to say \"I have both [sides]\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple",
        "text": "On December 1, 2005, a musical adaptation of the novel and film with lyrics and music by Stephen Bray, Brenda Russell and Allee Willis, and book by Marsha Norman opened at The Broadway Theatre in New York City. The show was produced by Scott Sanders, Quincy Jones, Harvey Weinstein, and Oprah Winfrey, who was also an investor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Lips",
        "text": "The Paul Whiteman recording was featured in the Oprah Winfrey movie \"The Color Purple\" (1985), directed by Steven Spielberg."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (musical)",
        "text": "The Color Purple is a musical with a book by Marsha Norman and music and lyrics by Brenda Russell, Allee Willis, and Stephen Bray. Based on the 1982 novel of the same name by Alice Walker and its 1985 film adaptation, the show follows the journey of Celie, an African-American woman in the American South from the early to mid-20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "About Oprah Winfrey"
      },
      {
        "title": "Brenda Russell",
        "text": "In 2005, saw a Broadway musical version of Alice Walker's \"The Color Purple\". Produced by Oprah Winfrey, the show's score was written by Russell and lyricists-composers Allee Willis and Stephen Bray. Russell and her co-writers were nominated for a Tony Award (for Best Score) and a Grammy Award (in the Best Musical Show Album category)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Post\u2013civil rights era in African-American history",
        "text": "The film \"The Color Purple\" was released to box office success in December 1985. Set in the early 20th Century, \"The Color Purple\" tells the story of a young Black girl named Celie Harris who faces issues both public and socially hidden, including domestic violence, incest, pedophilia, poverty, racism, and sexism. \"The Color Purple\" has been described as \"a plea for respect for Black women.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (1985 film)",
        "text": "Margaret Avery was a veteran actress who'd previously won an NAACP Image Award for the made-for-television film \"Louis Armstrong \u2013 Chicago Style\". Spielberg had pursued singers Chaka Khan and Tina Turner for the part of Shug, but both turned it down. Patti LaBelle and Sheryl Lee Ralph also auditioned, and Phyllis Hyman was considered. Though Avery had prior musical experience, her singing voice was dubbed by T\u00e1ta Vega."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lise Funderburg",
        "text": "\"The Color Purple: A Memory Book\", with a foreword by Oprah Winfrey (Carroll & Graf, 2006)"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (musical)",
        "text": "On November 2, 2018, it was announced that a film adaptation of the musical was in development at Warner Bros. Pictures and Amblin Entertainment, the same companies that made the 1985 film adaptation of the novel, with Steven Spielberg, Quincy Jones, Scott Sanders, and Oprah Winfrey all signing on to produce. On August 24, 2020, it was announced that Marcus Gardley will write the screenplay and \"Black is King\"'s Blitz Bazawule will direct. Winfrey praised the selection of Bazawule as director, after she and the producers saw his work on \"The Burial of Kojo\", saying that \"We, were all blown away by Blitz's unique vision as a director and look forward to seeing how he brings the next evolution of this beloved story to life.\" It was also announced that Alice Walker, Rebecca Walker, Kristie Macosko Krieger, Carla Gardini, and Mara Jacobs will executive produce the film. It was announced on December 23, 2020 that the film will be released on December 20, 2023. Corey Hawkins plays the role of Harpo in the film and singer-songwriter H.E.R. will make her acting debut as Squeak. On February 1, 2022, Taraji P. Henson was announced to star in the role of Shug Avery. On February 3, 2022, the rest of the cast was announced, with Fantasia starring as Celie, Danielle Brooks reprising her role as Sofia, Colman Domingo as Mister, and Halle Bailey as Nettie. On March 22, 2022, it was announced that Ciara had joined the cast as older Nettie."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (musical)",
        "text": "The original Broadway production starred LaChanze as Celie, Brandon Victor Dixon as Harpo, Felicia P. Fields as Sofia, Ren\u00e9e Elise Goldsberry as Nettie, Kingsley Leggs as Mister, Krisha Marcano as Squeak, and Elisabeth Withers-Mendes as Shug Avery."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple",
        "text": "The novel was adapted into a film of the same name in 1985. It was directed by Steven Spielberg and stars Whoopi Goldberg as Celie, Danny Glover as Albert, and Oprah Winfrey as Sofia. Though nominated for eleven Academy Awards, it won none. This perceived snubbing ignited controversy because many critics considered it the best picture that year, including Roger Ebert."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "The Oprah Winfrey Show\n--Early history.\n--Interviews.\n----Celebrities.\n----Notable guests.\n--Regular segments and campaigns.\n----Oprah's Book Club.\n----Oprah's Favorite Things.\n----Oprah & Gayle's Big Adventures.\n----Remembering Your Spirit.\n----Change Your Life TV.\n------Iyanla Vanzant.\n------Dr. Phil.\n------Suze Orman.\n----What's The Buzz?\n----Wildest Dreams.\n----Tuesdays with Dr. Oz.\n----Fridays Live.\n----No Phone Zone.\n--Memorable moments.\n----Giveaways.\n----Controversies.\n--Final season.\n----Final episodes.\n--United States viewership.\n----Spin-offs.\n--International syndication.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (1985 film)",
        "text": "Rather than cast established stars, Walker sought out lesser-known actors to play the principal roles, since their rise from obscurity represented the experience of characters in her novels. Whoopi Goldberg was a stand-up comedian whose only prior film role was in a 1982 avant-garde film, \"\". Oprah Winfrey was a radio and television host without prior acting experience, who was hired at Jones's insistence. After lobbying producers for the part, 29-year-old Goldberg was personally-selected by Walker after she saw her stand-up. Goldberg's audition for Spielberg, where both Jones and Michael Jackson were present, saw her perform a routine involving a stoned E.T. being arrested for drug possession."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jacqueline Bobo",
        "text": "Bobo has worked on studying the response of Black women for films such as \"Daughters of the Dust\", \"The Color Purple\", \"Gone with the Wind\", \"Civil Brand\", \"To Kill a Mockingbird,\" and \"Claudine\". She interviewed a group of selected Black women and asked them how they felt about their portrayal in the 1985 film \"The Color Purple\". She has analyzed the language used in media representing Black women and how it has changed within the last century. Bobo's observations contextualize the historical aspects perceived in these media outlets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Todrick Hall",
        "text": "When Hall was twenty he auditioned for the Broadway production of \"The Color Purple\" with Oprah Winfrey and Fantasia Barrino. He was cast in the ensemble, and as understudy for the role of Harpo. Barrino rose to fame as the winner of the third season of the reality singing competition \"American Idol\", and working with her would inspire Hall to later audition for the show as well. After \"The Color Purple\" he performed in \"Memphis: The Musical\" and touring productions of \"Beauty and the Beast\", \"Radio City Christmas Spectacular\" featuring the Rockettes, and \"Hairspray\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (1985 film)",
        "text": "Filmed in Anson and Union counties in North Carolina, the film tells the story of a young African-American girl named Celie Harris and shows the problems African-American women experienced during the early 20th century, including domestic violence, incest, pedophilia, poverty, racism, and sexism. Celie is transformed as she finds her self-worth through the help of two strong female companions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 1989, she was accepted into the NAACP Image Award Hall of Fame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah with Meghan and Harry",
        "text": "In the interview, Meghan relayed second hand (comments that had allegedly been said to Harry, not to her) that there had been \"concerns and conversations about how dark [Archie's] skin might be when he's born\". In contrast to the suggestion of multiple conversations and comments, when asked about the same topic Harry stated it was a single instance: \"That conversation, I'm never going to share. But at the time, it was awkward. I was a bit shocked. That was right at the beginning when she wasn't going to get security\". Winfrey later stated that the comments were made by neither the Queen nor Prince Philip."
      },
      {
        "title": "Recy Taylor",
        "text": "At the 2018 Golden Globe Awards, while accepting the Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award, Oprah Winfrey discussed and brought awareness to Taylor's story. The Congressional Black Caucus led Democratic Caucus members in wearing red \"Recy\" pins while attending the 2018 State of the Union, where Taylor's granddaughter, Mary Joyce Owens, was a guest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Oprah Winfrey\n--Early life.\n--Television.\n----Celebrity interviews.\n--Other media.\n----Film.\n----Publishing and writing.\n----Online.\n----Radio.\n--Personal life.\n----Homes.\n----Romantic history.\n----Close friends.\n----Personal wealth.\n----Religious views.\n--Influence.\n----Rankings.\n----\"Oprahfication\".\n------Daytime talk show's impact on LGBT people.\n----\"The Oprah Effect\".\n----Politics.\n----Spiritual leadership.\n----Fan base.\n----Philanthropy.\n------Oprah's Angel Network.\n------South Africa.\n--Bibliography.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Priscilla Hojiwala",
        "text": "She has interviewed Oprah Winfrey, Kobe Bryant, Tiger Woods, Hugh Jackman, Matt Damon, Ben Affleck, Oscar Award-winning Director Danny Boyle, and President Gerald Ford."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (musical)",
        "text": "On a Sunday morning in 1909, fourteen-year-old Celie \u2013 who has had one child by her father Alphonso and is now pregnant with her second \u2013 plays a clapping game with her younger sister Nettie. While attending services with the other members of their rural Georgia community, Celie goes into labor and is dragged out of the church as the congregation quietly looks on (\"Huckleberry Pie/Mysterious Ways\"). After Celie gives birth to a son, her father takes the child away and bluntly tells her he is going to get rid of it like the last one. Celie quietly says goodbye to her newborn and asks God for a sign (\"Somebody Gonna Love You\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Interview with the Vampire (film)",
        "text": "Oprah Winfrey walked out of an advance screening of the movie only 10 minutes in, because of the gore and dark themes. She considered cancelling an interview with Tom Cruise promoting the film, stating, \"I believe there are forces of light and darkness in the world, and I don't want to be a contributor to the force of darkness\".\n* 4th\u00a0\u2013 Sandi Davis, \"The Oklahoman\"\n* 6th\u00a0\u2013 David Stupich, \"The Milwaukee Journal\"\n* Top 10 (listed alphabetically, not ranked)\u00a0\u2013 Steve Murray, \"The Atlanta Journal-Constitution\"\n* Top 5 runners-up (not ranked)\u00a0\u2013 Scott Schuldt, \"The Oklahoman\"\n* Top 10 runner-ups (not ranked)\u00a0\u2013 Janet Maslin, \"The New York Times\"\n* Honorable mention\u00a0\u2013 Mike Clark, \"USA Today\"\n* Honorable mention\u00a0\u2013 Glenn Lovell, \"San Jose Mercury News\"\n* Honorable mention\u00a0\u2013 Betsy Pickle, \"Knoxville News-Sentinel\"\n* Honorable mention\u00a0\u2013 Dan Craft, \"The Pantagraph\"\n* 1st worst\u00a0\u2013 John Hurley, \"Staten Island Advance\"\n* 1st worst\u00a0\u2013 Jeff Simon, \"The Buffalo News\"\n* Dishonorable mention\u00a0\u2013 William Arnold, \"Seattle Post-Intelligencer\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (1985 film)",
        "text": "On November 2, 2018, it was announced that a film adaptation of the 2005 stage musical version was in development. Steven Spielberg and Quincy Jones returned to co-produce this version, alongside the stage musical's producers Scott Sanders and Oprah Winfrey. On August 25, 2020, it was announced that Marcus Gardley will pen the screenplay and \"Black is King\"'s Blitz Bazawule will direct. On December 23, 2020, it was announced that the film would be released on December 20, 2023, and that Alice Walker, Rebecca Walker, Kristie Macosko Krieger, Carla Gardini, and Mara Jacobs will executive produce the film. H.E.R. and Corey Hawkins were cast in August 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scott Sanders (producer)",
        "text": "In November 2018, Warner Bros. announced the development of a film adaptation of the \"Color Purple\" musical, co-produced by Oprah Winfrey, Steven Spielberg, Quincy Jones, and Sanders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harold of Orange",
        "text": "\"How Long Have You Been Blind?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (2023 film)",
        "text": "On November 2, 2018, it was announced that a film adaptation of the musical was in development at Warner Bros. Pictures and Amblin Entertainment, the same companies that made the 1985 film adaptation of the novel, with Steven Spielberg, Quincy Jones, Scott Sanders, and Oprah Winfrey all signed on to produce. On August 24, 2020, it was announced that Marcus Gardley will pen the screenplay and \"Black Is King\"'s Blitz Bazawule will direct. Winfrey praised the selection of Bazawule as director, after she and the producers saw his work on \"The Burial of Kojo\", saying that they \"were all blown away by Blitz's unique vision as a director and look forward to seeing how he brings the next evolution of this beloved story to life.\" It was also announced that Alice Walker, Rebecca Walker, Kristie Macosko Krieger, Carla Gardini, and Mara Jacobs will executive produce the film."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (musical)",
        "text": "For the Atlanta run, LaChanze starred as Celie, Felicia P. Fields as Sofia, Saycon Sengbloh as Nettie, Adriane Lenox as Shug and Kingsley Leggs as Mister. Gary Griffin staged the work, with scenic design by John Lee Beatty, lighting by Brian MacDevitt, costumes by Paul Tazewell and sound by Jon Weston."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Oprah Gail Winfrey (born Orpah Gail Winfrey; January 29, 1954) is an American talk show host, television producer, actress, author, and philanthropist. She is best known for her talk show, \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", broadcast from Chicago, which was the highest-rated television program of its kind in history and ran in national syndication for 25 years, from 1986 to 2011. Dubbed the \"Queen of All Media\", she was the richest African-American of the 20th century, was once the world's only black billionaire, and the greatest black philanthropist in U.S. history. By 2007, she was sometimes ranked as the most influential woman in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Casey Dunmore",
        "text": "The Oprah Winfrey Show \u2022 (ABC)<BR>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey's Legends Ball",
        "text": "The 25 women were: Maya Angelou, Shirley Caesar, Diahann Carroll, Elizabeth Catlett, Ruby Dee, Katherine Dunham, Roberta Flack, Aretha Franklin, Nikki Giovanni, Dorothy Height, Lena Horne, Coretta Scott King, Gladys Knight, Patti LaBelle, Toni Morrison, Rosa Parks, Leontyne Price, Della Reese, Diana Ross, Naomi Sims, Tina Turner, Cicely Tyson, Alice Walker, Dionne Warwick, and Nancy Wilson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harpo Productions",
        "text": "Harpo Productions (or Harpo Studios) is an American multimedia production company founded by Oprah Winfrey and based in West Hollywood, California. It is the sole subsidiary of her media and entertainment company Harpo, Inc. The name \"Harpo\" is \"Oprah\" spelled backwards, and it was also the name of her on-screen husband in \"The Color Purple\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (disambiguation)",
        "text": "The Color Purple (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (2023 film)",
        "text": "In August 2021, Corey Hawkins was cast in a lead role. That same month, H.E.R. was cast in her feature acting debut. In February 2022, Taraji P. Henson, Fantasia Barrino, Danielle Brooks, Colman Domingo, and Halle Bailey joined the cast, with Barrino and Brooks reprising their roles from productions of the stage musical. In March 2022, Louis Gossett Jr., David Alan Grier, Tamela J. Mann, Phylicia Mpasi, Deon Cole, Stephen Hill, and Ciara joined the cast. In April 2022, Aunjanue Ellis, Elizabeth Marvel and Jon Batiste joined the cast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fantasia (singer)",
        "text": "On March 5, 2008 Barrino confirmed to MTV News that she had been cast by Oprah Winfrey as Celie in the film adaptation of \"The Color Purple\" musical, which was set to begin production after the release of her third album."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sister Souljah moment",
        "text": "Speaking to Jesse Jackson Sr.'s Rainbow Coalition in June 1992, Clinton responded both to that quotation and to something Souljah had said in the music video of her song \"The Final Solution: Slavery's back in Effect\" (\"If there are any good white people, I haven't met them\"). \"If you took the words 'white' and 'black,' and you reversed them, you might think David Duke was giving that speech,\" said Clinton."
      },
      {
        "title": "Raymond Obstfeld",
        "text": "2013 - NAACP Image Award for What Color Is My World"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple",
        "text": "Celie is a young poor, uneducated 14-year-old African-American teenager girl living in the Southern United States in the early 1900s. She writes letters to God because her father, Alphonso, beats and rapes her. Alphonso has already impregnated Celie once, which resulted in the birth of a girl, Olivia, whom Alphonso abducted. Celie believes that Alphonso killed Olivia. Celie then has a second child, and Celie's ailing mother dies after cursing Celie on her deathbed. The second child is a boy named Adam, whom Alphonso takes from Celie shortly after her birth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Favorite Things",
        "text": "Among the items on the 2017 Favorite Things list:\n*Pudus Classics red lumberjack plaid slipper socks\n*Amazon Echo Show\n*Sonicare DiamondClean Smart electric toothbrush, with accompanying smartphone app\n*Breville panini press\n*English muffins from The Model Bakery"
      },
      {
        "title": "Amy Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2008, Winfrey started \"Squid and Frog\", short cartoons about a red squid and an orange frog, who sing about various things, such as that you can't learn surgery from television."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Surrender All",
        "text": "Oprah Winfrey has stated that the hymn played a pivotal role in her life. While she was still a minor Chicago talk-show host, she had auditioned for the role of Sofia in the 1985 film \"The Color Purple\", and desperately wanted the part. After being told that real actresses were being considered instead, she went to a weight-loss camp to slim down in a last effort to be considered. As she ran on the track, she surrendered her desperate desire to God and sang \"I Surrender All\" until it brought her a sense of peace and release. When she went back indoors, Steven Spielberg was on the phone offering her the part. For her performance in the film, Winfrey was nominated for an Academy Award and a Golden Globe in 1986, and later that year her talk show was renamed for her, expanded to a full hour, and broadcast nationwide. In 2005, when singer Faith Hill appeared on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", during rehearsals Winfrey discovered Hill also had a passion for the hymn, and she had her sing it on her \"Oprah After the Show\" television program.\n*Mahalia Jackson, on her album \"The Forgotten Recordings\" (posthumous compilation, 2005)\n*Andra\u00e9 Crouch, on his album \"Live in London\" (1978)\n*Little Richard, on his album \"God's Beautiful City\" (1979)\n*Deniece Williams, on her album \"So Glad I Know\" (1986) (Grammy Award for Best Soul Gospel Performance, Female)\n*Glen Campbell, on his albums \"Favorite Hymns\" (1989) and \"Home at Last\" (1989)\n*Cece Winans, on her album \"Alone in His Presence\" (1995)\n*Carman, on his album \"I Surrender All: 30 Classic Hymns\" (1997)\n*The Holmes Brothers, on their album \"Promised Land\" (1997)\n*Ruben Studdard, on his album \"I Need an Angel\" (2004)\n*Amy Grant, on her album \"Rock of Ages... Hymns and Faith\" (2005)\n*Oslo Gospel Choir, on their live album \"We Lift Our Hands\" (2005)\n*Brian Littrell, on the album \"WOW Hymns\" (2007)\n*Phil Driscoll, on his album \"Songs in the Key of Worship\" (2008)\n*Michael W. Smith, with Coalo Zamorano, on his album \"A New Hallelujah\" (2008)\n*Selah, on their album \"You Deliver Me\" (2009)\n*Kathy Troccoli, on her album \"Worshipsongs: 'Tis So Sweet\" (2013)\n*Newsboys, on their album \"Hallelujah for the Cross\" (2014)\n*June Hunt, on her album \"Songs of Surrender\"\n*Carrie Underwood, on her album \"My Savior\" (2021)"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (1985 film)",
        "text": "In early 20th-century rural Hartwell, Georgia, Celie Harris is a teenage African-American girl who has lost two children, taken away by her abusive father. He gives her away as a wife to Albert \"Mister\" Johnson, who also abuses her, and his children mistreat her. Celie's loving younger sister, Nettie, runs away from the abusive father and seeks shelter with Celie. The sisters promise to write if they are separated. Mister attempts to sexually assault Nettie, and he kicks her out after she fights him off."
      },
      {
        "title": "Media works of Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Media works of Oprah Winfrey\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Theatre World Award",
        "text": "Source: Theatre World\n*Harry Connick, Jr. \u2013 \"The Pajama Game\"\n*Felicia P. Fields \u2013 \"The Color Purple\"\n*Maria Friedman \u2013 \"The Woman in White\"\n*Richard Griffiths \u2013 \"The History Boys\"\n*Mamie Gummer \u2013 \"Mr. Marmalade\"\n*Jayne Houdyshell \u2013 \"Well\"\n*Bob Martin \u2013 \"The Drowsy Chaperone\"\n*Ian McDiarmid \u2013 \"Faith Healer\"\n*Nellie McKay \u2013 \"The Threepenny Opera\"\n*David Wilmot \u2013 \"The Lieutenant of Inishmore\"\n*Elisabeth Withers-Mendes \u2013 \"The Color Purple\"\n*John Lloyd Young \u2013 \"Jersey Boys\"\n*Fantasia Barrino \u2013 \"The Color Purple\"\n*Eve Best \u2013 \"A Moon for the Misbegotten\"\n*Mary Birdsong \u2013 \"Martin Short: Fame Becomes Me\"\n*Erin Davie \u2013 \"Grey Gardens\"\n*Xanthe Elbrick \u2013 \"Coram Boy\"\n*Johnny Galecki \u2013 \"The Little Dog Laughed\"\n*Jonathan Groff \u2013 \"Spring Awakening\"\n*Gavin Lee \u2013 \"Mary Poppins\"\n*Lin-Manuel Miranda \u2013 \"In the Heights\"\n*Bill Nighy \u2013 \"The Vertical Hour\"\n*Stark Sands \u2013 \"Journey's End\"\n*Nilaja Sun \u2013 \"No Child...\"\n* Special award \u2013 Actors' Fund\n*De'Adre Aziza \u2013 \"Passing Strange\"\n*Cassie Beck \u2013 \"Drunken City\"\n*Daniel Breaker \u2013 \"Passing Strange\"\n*Ben Daniels \u2013 \"Les Liaisons Dangereuses\"\n*Deanna Dunagan \u2013 \"\"\n*Hoon Lee \u2013 \"Yellow Face\"\n*Alli Mauzey \u2013 \"Cry-Baby\"\n*Jenna Russell \u2013 \"Sunday in the Park with George\"\n*Mark Rylance \u2013 \"Boeing-Boeing\"\n*Loretta Ables Sayre \u2013 \"South Pacific\"\n*Jimmi Simpson \u2013 \"The Farnsworth Invention\"\n*Paulo Szot \u2013 \"South Pacific\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Kathe Sandler",
        "text": "Most known for her feature documentary, \"A Question of Color,\" Sandler became known for exploring prejudice, racial identity and the color caste system through the lens of the Black community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scott Sanders (producer)",
        "text": "\"The Color Purple\", which premiered at the Alliance Theatre in Atlanta and opened on the Broadway at the Broadway Theatre in December 2005, had an all-black cast and Oprah Winfrey as an investor and producer. The production was noted for its contribution to a \"redefinition of the Broadway crowd,\" a reference to its ability to attract a multi-racial audience. Later, Sanders would describe the work of producing a musical as \"wrestling an octopus, keeping all the puppies in the box,\" and the hardest thing he had ever done, \"more white-knuckle than I'd like, and the most fun I'd ever had.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (1985 film)",
        "text": "\"The Color Purple\"'s film score was written by Quincy Jones, the first feature film directed by Spielberg for which John Williams did not compose the music. The score combines elements of classical and period jazz, blues, and gospel, and features several popular songs of the era. The track Miss Celie's Blues (Sister), performed in the film by the character Shug (Avery; dubbed by T\u00e1ta Vega), later gained popularity as a concert piece."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blackface",
        "text": "In 2021, conversation around digital blackface gained further traction after Oprah Winfrey's interview with Meghan Markle and Prince Harry, where Winfrey\u2019s reactions during the interview began to circulate the internet in the form of memes. A widespread Instagram post by the Slow Factory Foundation, an activist group founded by C\u00e9line Semaan Vernon, calling attention to digital blackface led to many critiques and criticisms about whether or not it was appropriate for non-Black people to continue sharing these images of Winfrey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ophelia Clenlans",
        "text": "She was an outspoken activist for racial equality. In 1901, she wrote in the \"Omaha World-Herald\" about a debate over whether black women should be allowed to join white Women's Clubs throughout the country: \"I belong to the old slavery days. I know what it is to suffer, and I know what it is to feel grateful. I am grateful to my white sisters for their assistance in many ways, and I want them to understand that we only desire to learn of them that we may be better enabled to help ourselves and our families.[...]\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Harriett Ball",
        "text": "Ball appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show, as well as other nationally televised programs. Footage of her also appeared in the documentary Waiting for \"Superman\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Online Film Critics Society Awards 2013",
        "text": "Lupita Nyong'o \u2013 \"12 Years a Slave\"\n*Sally Hawkins \u2013 \"Blue Jasmine\"\n*Scarlett Johansson \u2013 \"Her\"\n*Jennifer Lawrence \u2013 \"American Hustle\"\n*L\u00e9a Seydoux \u2013 \"Blue Is the Warmest Colour\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (2023 film)",
        "text": "A story of the life-long struggles of an African American woman living in the south during the early 1900s."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (musical)",
        "text": "A third national tour with a non-Equity cast opened January 17, 2012 at the Francis Marion University PAC, in Florence, South Carolina, with previews in New Haven, CT at the Schubert Theater. The role of Celie is played by Washington, D.C. native Ashley L. Ware, and Taprena Augustine has reprised her role as Shug Avery alongside Dayna Marie Quincy taking the role of Nettie (later taking the role of Celie at Toby's Dinner Theatre in Columbia). Tour stops include Nevada (Las Vegas & Reno), Alabama (Mobile), Pennsylvania (Williamsport, Reading & Bloomsburg), and more."
      },
      {
        "title": "Desreta Jackson",
        "text": "Desreta Jackson (born April 19, 1971) is a Virgin Islander actress, producer and entrepreneur. She is best known for her role as Young Celie in the movie \"The Color Purple\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Making Oprah",
        "text": "Host Jenn White interviews several of Winfrey's associates including Phil Donahue. Winfrey appears for an interview in the last episode of the podcast. White shares the significance of the project as a Black woman in media in her forties."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (2023 film)",
        "text": "The Color Purple is an upcoming American musical coming-of-age period drama film directed by Blitz Bazawule and adapted for the screen by Marcus Gardley from the 2005 stage musical of the same name, which is in turn based on Alice Walker's 1982 Pulitzer Prize-winning novel of the same name. It is also the second film adaptation of the novel, following Steven Spielberg's 1985 film adaptation. Spielberg and Quincy Jones return to produce this version, along with the stage musical's producers Scott Sanders and Oprah Winfrey, the latter of whom also starred in the 1985 film as Sofia."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (musical)",
        "text": "Several years later, while hosting a Fourth of July picnic for the community, Celie hears a car horn and a familiar voice from her childhood. It is Nettie singing the clapping song they sang years ago. They both run to each other and hug with Celie's children right behind them all grown up. After learning that Mister and Shug have made the reunion possible, Celie thanks them and God for reuniting her with her sister (\"The Color Purple [Reprise]\").\n* Fantasia Barrino assumed the role of Celie in the original Broadway production from April 10, 2007, to January 6, 2008, becoming the first \"American Idol\" winner on Broadway. Fantasia reprised her performance as Celie in the 2010 National tour from June 30 to September 13, 2010.\n* Heather Headley assumed the role of Shug Avery from Jennifer Hudson in the 2015 Broadway revival on May 10, 2016.\n* Jennifer Holliday assumed the role of Shug Avery from Heather Headley in the 2015 revival on October 4, 2016.\n* Nathaniel Stampley assumed the role of Mister from Isaiah Johnson in the 2015 revival on November 15, 2016.\n;Act I\n* \"Overture\"\u2020 \u2013 Orchestra\n* \"Huckleberry Pie\" / \"Mysterious Ways\" \u2013 Young Celie and Young Nettie / Celie, Nettie and Ensemble\n* \"Somebody Gonna Love You\" \u2013 Celie\n* \"Our Prayer\" \u2013 Nettie, Celie, Mister, Doris, Darlene, Jarene and Pa\n* \"That Fine Mister\" \u2013 Doris, Darlene and Jarene\n* \"Big Dog\" \u2013 Mister, Celie, Young Harpo, Mister's Daughters and Male Ensemble\n* \"Lily of the Field\" \u2013 Celie, Nettie and Mister\n* \"Dear God - Sofia\" \u2013 Celie\n* \"A Tree Named Sofia\" \u2013 Doris, Darlene and Jarene\n* \u201cHell No!\u201d - Sofia, Celie, & Sofia's Sisters\n* \"Brown Betty\" \u2013 Harpo, Squeak, Celie and Male Ensemble\n* \"Shug Avery Comin' to Town\" \u2013 Mister, Celie and Ensemble\n* \"All We've Got to Say\" \u2013 Doris, Darlene and Jarene\n* \"Dear God - Shug\" \u2013 Celie and Shug\n* \"Too Beautiful for Words\" \u2013 Shug\n* \"Push Da Button\" \u2013 Shug, Harpo and Ensemble\n* \"Uh-Oh!\" \u2013 Sofia, Squeak, Celie, Buster and Female Ensemble\n* \"What About Love?\" \u2013 Celie and Shug\n* \"Act I Finale\"\u2020 \u2013 Orchestra, Shug, Celie and Nettie\n; Act II\n* \"African Homeland\" \u2013 Nettie, Celie, Young Adam, Young Olivia and Ensemble\n* \"The Color Purple\" \u2013 Shug and Celie\n* \"Church Ladies' Easter\"\u2020 \u2013 Doris, Darlene and Jarene\n* \"I Curse You Mister\"\u2020 \u2013 Celie and Mister\n* \"Mister's Song - Celie's Curse\" \u2013 Mister\n* \"Miss Celie's Pants\" \u2013 Celie, Shug, Sofia and Female Ensemble\n* \"Any Little Thing\" \u2013 Harpo and Sofia\n* \"What About Love? (Reprise)\" \u2013 Celie and Shug\n* \"I'm Here\" \u2013 Celie\n* \"The Color Purple (Reprise)\" \u2013 Celie and Company"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (musical)",
        "text": "On January 9, 2015, producers Scott Sanders, Roy Furman, and Oprah Winfrey announced that the Menier Chocolate Factory production would be mounted on Broadway. Jennifer Hudson would make her Broadway debut in the role of Shug, Danielle Brooks would play the role of Sofia, and Cynthia Erivo would reprise her role as Celie. Kyle Jean-Baptiste was slated to be in it as well, but he died in a fall on August 29, 2015. Previews began November 10, 2015, with the official opening being December 10 at the Bernard B. Jacobs Theatre. Erivo won the 2016 Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical, with the production taking home the 2016 Tony Award for Best Revival of a Musical. The production closed on January 8, 2017 after 33 previews and 449 performances."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (1985 film)",
        "text": "The Color Purple is a 1985 American epic coming-of-age period drama film directed by Steven Spielberg and written by Menno Meyjes, based on the Pulitzer Prize-winning 1982 novel of the same name by Alice Walker. It was Spielberg's eighth film as a director, and marked a turning point in his career, as it was a departure from the summer blockbusters for which he had become known. It was also the first feature film directed by Spielberg for which John Williams did not compose the music, instead featuring a score by Quincy Jones, who also produced. The cast stars Whoopi Goldberg in her breakthrough role, with Danny Glover, Oprah Winfrey, Margaret Avery, Rae Dawn Chong, Willard Pugh, and Adolph Caesar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Raymond Obstfeld",
        "text": "\u2022 \"What Color Is My World? The Lost History of African American Inventors\", with Kareem Abdul-Jabbar"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Winfrey's career in media would not have surprised her grandmother, who once said that ever since Winfrey could talk, she was on stage. As a child, she played games interviewing her corncob doll and the crows on the fence of her family's property. Winfrey later acknowledged her grandmother's influence, saying it was Hattie Mae who had encouraged her to speak in public and \"gave me a positive sense of myself\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amy Winfrey",
        "text": "\"Season Four\"\n* \"See Mr. Peanutbutter Run\"\n* \"Thoughts and Prayers\"\n* \"Ruthie\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Purple Jar",
        "text": "\"The Purple Jar\" was read and commented on by Princess Victoria, the actress Fanny Kemble, Theodore Roosevelt (who admired it), and Eudora Welty (who did not)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2021, she conducted an interview with Meghan, Duchess of Sussex, and her husband Prince Harry, which was broadcast globally and received international media attention."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Favorite Things",
        "text": "On the November 21, 2017 episode of \"Rachael Ray\", host Rachael Ray presented a list of Oprah's Favorite Things for 2017, with Gayle King serving as Winfrey's representative (Winfrey did not appear, and only one audience member, chosen via a drawing, actually received all 102 items on the list)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Favorite Things",
        "text": "In 2005, the audience for the taping of the Oprah\u2019s Favorite Things episode consisted of volunteers from Hurricane Katrina. The listed items were:\n* Philip Stein Teslar Diamond Watch\n* Burberry Coat\n* Burberry Purse\n* UGG Australia's Uptown Boot\n* Tin of CaramelCrisp and CheeseCorn from Garrett Popcorn Shops\n* The Apple iPod\n* \"The Oprah Sweater\" by Ralph Lauren\n* Pure Color Cords\n* Lovely by Sarah Jessica Parker\n* BlackBerry 7105T from T-Mobile\n* Brownies from Moveable Feast Geneva\n* Nike Free 5.0 iD\n* Kashwere Shawl Collar Robe\n* Croissants from Williams-Sonoma\n* Hope in a Jar from Philosophy\n* \"Grace\" Basket from Philosophy\n* Oatmeal Cookie Dough from Fox & Obel Market\n* The Oprah Winfrey Show 20th Anniversary Collection DVD\n* Sony VAIO FJ Notebook"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Oprah was raised a Baptist. In her early life, she would speak at local, mostly African American congregations of the Southern Baptist Convention that were often deeply religious and familiar with such themes as evangelical Protestantism, the Black church, and being born-again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Oprah has stated that she is a Christian and her favorite Bible verse is ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bo Welch",
        "text": "and Linda DeScenna. The four films are \"Men in Black\", \"The Birdcage\", and \"A Little Princess\" with Carasik, and \"The Color Purple\" with Riva and DeScenna."
      },
      {
        "title": "She-Ra and the Princesses of Power",
        "text": "In June 2020, Stevenson said that Catra was a woman of color, saying they discussed her \"being a brown Latina\" when designing her, although this was not \"explicitly, textually present in the show,\" Stevenson also expressed enthusiasm for fans interpreting Catra as representing Persian ethnicity."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple (1985 film)",
        "text": "Ebert's long-time television collaborator, Gene Siskel of the \"Chicago Tribune\", praised the film as \"triumphantly emotional and brave\", calling it Spielberg's \"successful attempt to enlarge his reputation as a director of youthful entertainments.\" Siskel wrote that \"The Color Purple\" was \"a plea for respect for black women.\" Although acknowledging that the film was a period drama, he praised its \"...incredibly strong stand against the way black men treat black women. Cruel is too kind a word to describe their behavior. The principal black men in \"The Color Purple\" use their womenboth wives and daughtersas sexual chattel.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Nominated:\n* 1999: Outstanding Lead Actress in a Motion Picture: Beloved\n* 2013: Outstanding Talk Series: Oprah's Lifeclass\n* 2013: Outstanding Talk Series: Oprah's Lifeclass\n* 2014: Outstanding News/ Information (Series or Special):\n* 2014: Outstanding Talk Series: Oprah's Lifeclass\n* 2014: Outstanding Talk Series: Oprah's Next Chapter\n* 2015: Outstanding News/ Information (Series or Special): Oprah's Lifeclass\n* 2015: Outstanding Talk Series: Oprah Prime\n* 2015: Outstanding Variety (Series or Special): Oprah's Master Class\n* 2015: Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture: Selma\n* 2016: Outstanding News/ Information (Series or Special): Oprah Prime: Celebrating Dr. King and the Selma Marches 50 Years Later\n* 2016: Outstanding News/ Information (Series or Special):\n* 2017: Outstanding Talk Series: Super Soul Sunday\n* 1995: Personal Award\n* 1988: Favorite Talk Show Host: Won\n* 1997: Favorite Female Television Performer: Won\n* 1998: Favorite Female Television Performer: Won\n* 2004: Favorite Talk Show Host: Won"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "List of awards and nominations received by Oprah Winfrey\n--NAACP Image Award.\n--People's Choice Awards.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Little Howard's Big Question",
        "text": "Further assistance is provided by Mother, a pink (series 1) or orange (series 2/3) anthropomorphic personal computer that wears clothes and feels emotions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Halle Berry",
        "text": "Her next film appearance was in the Oprah Winfrey-produced ABC television movie \"Their Eyes Were Watching God\" (2005), an adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston's novel, with Berry portraying a free-spirited woman whose unconventional sexual mores upset her 1920s contemporaries in a small community. She received her second Primetime Emmy Award nomination for her role. Also in 2005, she served as an executive producer in \"Lackawanna Blues\", and landed her voice for the character of Cappy, one of the many mechanical beings in the animated feature \"Robots\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "47th NAACP Image Awards",
        "text": "Outstanding Variety, Series or Special\n* Family Feud\n* \"Black Girls Rock!\"\n* \"Oprah's Master Class\"\n* \"The Daily Show with Trevor Noah\"\n* \"The Nightly Show with Larry Wilmore\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Black Girls Rock!",
        "text": "The award show has won the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Variety in the Series of Special category three times (2013, 2017, 2019) and been nominated five times.\n*Pioneer Award DJ Jazzy Joyce\n*Icon Award MC Lyte\n*Creative Visionary Award Missy Elliott\n* DJ Jazzy Joyce Award DJ Diamond Cuts\n* Corporate Award Sylvia Rhone\n* Rock Star Award Erykah Badu\n* Monument Award Nicole Paultre-Bell and Valerie Bell\n* Shot Caller Award Bethann Hardison\n* Fashionista Award June Ambrose\n* Living Legend Award Pam Grier\n* Social Humanitarian Award Iman\n* Become Legendary Award April Holmes\n* Community Service Award Dr. Mehret Mandefro\n* Fashionista Award Naomi Campbell\n* Who Got Next Award Janelle Mon\u00e1e\n* Jazzy Joyce DJ Award Spinderella\n* Young, Gifted and Black Award Raven-Symon\u00e9\n* Living Legend Award Dr. Sonia Sanchez\n* Shot Caller Award Iyanla Vanzant\n* Rock Star Award Queen Latifah\n* Icon Award Mary J. Blige\n* Young, Gifted & Black Award Raven-Symon\u00e9\n* Visionary Award Missy Elliott\n* Who Got Next? Award Keke Palmer\n* Shot Caller Award Teresa Clarke\n* Living Legend Award Ruby Dee\n* Trailblazer Award Major General Marcelite J. Harris\n* Motivator Award Rev. Dr. Iyanla Vanzant\n* Young, Black & Gifted Award Tatyana Ali\n* Star Power Award Taraji P. Henson\n* Shot Caller Award Laurel J. Richie\n* Living Legend Award Shirley Caesar\n* Icon Award Angela Davis\n* Trailblazer Awards Imani Walker and Malika Saada Saar\n* Rock Star Award Alicia Keys\n* Young Gifted and Black Award Janelle Mon\u00e1e\n* Star Power Award Kerry Washington\n* Living Legend Award Dionne Warwick\n* Inspiration Award Susan L. Taylor\n* Social Humanitarian Award Dr. Hawa Abdi, Dr. Deqo Mohamed and Dr. Amina Mohamed\n* Rock Star Award Queen Latifah\n* Young, Gifted & Black Award Misty Copeland\n* Star Power Award Venus Williams\n* Living Legend Award Patti LaBelle\n* Social Humanitarian Award Marian Wright Edelman\n* Community Activist Award Ameena Matthews\n* Rock Star Award Erykah Badu\n* Shot Caller Award Ava DuVernay\n* Star Power Award Jada Pinkett Smith\n* Living Legend Award Cicely Tyson\n* Social Humanitarian Award Dr. Helene D. Gayle\n* Change Agent Award Nadia Lopez\n* Rock Star Celebrant Rihanna\n* Shot Caller Celebrant Shonda Rhimes\n* Young, Gifted and Black Celebrant Amandla Stenberg\n* Star Power Celebrant Danai Gurira\n* Living Legend Celebrant Gladys Knight\n* Community Change Agent Celebrants Alicia Garza, Patrisse Cullors and Opal Tometi\n* Rock Star Celebrant Solange\n* Shot Caller Celebrant Suzanne Shank\n* Social Humanitarian Celebrant Maxine Waters\n* Star Power Celebrant Issa Rae\n* Living Legend Celebrant Roberta Flack\n* Community Change Agent Celebrants Natalie and Derrica Wilson\n* Young Gifted And Black Celebrant Yara Shahidi\n* Rock Star Celebrant Janet Jackson\n* Star Power Award Mary J Blige\n* Living Legend Award Judith Jamison\n* Black Girl Magic Naomi Campbell\n* Shot Caller Award Lena Waithe\n* Community Change Agent Award Tarana Burke\n* Icon Award Angela Bassett\n* Star Power Award Regina King\n* Rock Star Award Ciara\n* Young, Gifted & Black Award H.E.R.\n* Shot Caller Award Debra Martin Chase\n* Community Change Agent Award Gwenn Carr, Lucy McBath, Geneva Reed-Veal, Cleopatra Cowley-Pendleton, Maria Hamilton, Sybrina Fulton"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Favorite Things",
        "text": "The 2003 episode had 350 people in its audience. The items featured in this episode included:\n* Frontgate\u2019s Portable DVD Player\n* Ralph Lauren Black Label Cashmere Slim Fit Crewneck Sweater\n* Melted Chocolate Cake Batter\n* Greenberg Smoked Turkeys\n* Barefoot Dreams Robes, Adult throws\n* Cliff and Buster Macaroons\n* The Gingerbread Man by Philosophy\n* Pure Simplicity Pumpkin Purifying Mask\n* Davies Gates Allspice Cinnamon Powder Sugar Soak\n* O, The Oprah Magazine\n* MAC Cosmetic Carrying Case\n* Nike Dri-FIT Workout Outfit\n* FoodSaver Vac 800 by Tilia, Inc.\n* Cambio Jeans\n* BlackBerry Wireless E-mail Device\n* Frederic Fekkai Cr\u00e8me Luxeuse, Apple Cider Clean\n* Shampoo & Conditioner\n* UGG Classic Short Boots\n* Judith Ripka Two Necklace\n* Philip Stein Teslar Watch\n* Sony DCR-DVD200 Handycam\n* The Neiman Marcus Cookbook"
      },
      {
        "title": "Marshville, North Carolina",
        "text": "Parts of the 1985 Oscar-nominated movie \"The Color Purple\" were filmed in Marshville. The movie was directed by Steven Spielberg and its cast included Oprah Winfrey and Whoopi Goldberg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Big Give",
        "text": "Oprah's Big Give\n--Format.\n--People Competing.\n----Angelo.\n----Brandi.\n----Cameron.\n----Carlana.\n----Eric.\n----Kim.\n----Marlene.\n----Rachael.\n----Sheg.\n----Stephen.\n--Chronology.\n--Response.\n--Distribution.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Silky Nutmeg Ganache",
        "text": "Ganache portrayed Oprah Winfrey for her winning performance in \"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Favorite Things",
        "text": "The items presented in the 2002 episode were included in one of four categories: food favorites; beauty and body care; books, music and home; and high-tech discoveries. The items included on the list were:\n* Key lime pie\n* Heart's Desire from Jan de Luz Linens\n* Croissants from Galaxy\n* Fat Witch Baby Gift Tin\n* Good Karmal Mini Crates\n* Holiday tin from Garrett Popcorn Shops\n* MarieBelle Hot Chocolate Powder\n*Cranberry Creations Chocolates by NantucketChocolate.com\n* Piper-Heidsieck Champagne\n* Pillsbury Homebaked Classics Frozen Biscuits\n* BlissLabs Glamour Gloves and Glamour Gel\n* Origins A Perfect World White Tea Body Cream\n* Kiehl's Limited Edition Gift Box\n* What to Wear\n* DreamTime Foot Cozys\n* Velour Sweatsuit\n* Karen Neuburger Pajamas and Socks\n* Silver Ox Cuff Watch\n* Tube Readers and Case\n* Fashion Active Labs Perfect Tee\n* Books, Music and Home\n* \"Everyday Grace\" by Marianne Williamson\n* Johnny Mathis \"The Christmas Album\"\n* The Power of Now by Eckhart Tolle\n* Together Book and CD Collection\n* Jay Strongwater Picture Frames\n* O, The Oprah Magazine subscription\n* High-Tech Discoveries\n* Four-in-One Camera\n* Samsung mobile phone/camera\n* Talking Photo Album\n* Wafer-Thin CD System"
      },
      {
        "title": "Theatre World Award",
        "text": "Source: Playbill.com\n* Danielle Brooks \u2013 \"The Color Purple\"\n* Carmen Cusack \u2013 \"Bright Star\"\n* Khris Davis \u2013 \"The Royale\"\n* Daniel Durant \u2013 \"Spring Awakening\"\n* Cynthia Erivo \u2013 \"The Color Purple\"\n* John Krasinski \u2013 \"Dry Powder\"\n* Sarah Charles Lewis \u2013 \"Tuck Everlasting\"\n* Austin P. McKenzie \u2013 \"Spring Awakening\"\n* Lupita Nyong'o \u2013 \"Eclipsed\"\n* Mark Strong \u2013 \"A View From The Bridge\"\n* Ana Villafa\u00f1e \u2013 \"On Your Feet!\"\n* Ben Whishaw \u2013 \"The Crucible\"\n* Dorothy Loudon Award for Excellence in the Theater: Nicholas Barasch \u2013 \"She Loves Me\"\n* John Willis Award for Lifetime Achievement in the Theatre: Bernadette Peters"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Color Purple",
        "text": "Shortly thereafter, Nettie runs away from Alphonso and takes refuge at Celie's house, where Mister makes sexual advances toward her. Celie then advises Nettie to seek assistance from a well-dressed black woman whom she saw in the general store a while back; unbeknownst to Celie, the woman adopted Olivia, and she is the only black woman Celie has ever seen with money of her own. Nettie is forced to leave after promising to write. Celie, however, never receives any letters and concludes that her sister Nettie is dead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ann-Margret",
        "text": "In 1989, an illustration of Oprah Winfrey appeared on the cover of \"TV Guide\", and although the head was Oprah's, the body was from a 1979 publicity shot of Ann-Margret. The illustration was rendered so tightly in color pencil by freelance artist Chris Notarile that most people thought it was a composite photograph."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mathematically Gifted & Black",
        "text": "2021 Black History Month Honorees\n*Khalilah Beal-Uribe\n*Wako Tasisa Bungula\n*Robert Berry\n*Cory Colbert\n*Keisha Cook\n*Ranthony A.C. Edmonds\n*Geremias Polanco Encarnacion\n*Gloria F. Gilmer\n*Piper Harron\n*Roderick Holmes\n*Nicole Michelle Joseph\n*Lester Mackey\n*Reginald RB McGee\n*Brittany L. Mosby\n*Virginia Newell\n*Jean Pierre Mutanguha\n*Marieme Ngom\n*Dionne Price\n*Olivia Prosper\n*Annie T. Randall\n*Angela Robinson\n*James L. Solomon\n*Ashley J. Swain\n*Dionne Swift\n*Dante A. Tawfeeq\n*David S. Torain II\n*Rachel E. Vincent-Finley\n*Shanise Walker"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Purple Lady",
        "text": "The Purple Lady is a lost 1916 American silent comedy film. Directed by George A. Lessey, the film stars Ralph Herz, Irene Howley, and Alan Hale. It was released on June 26, 1916."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shades of purple",
        "text": "The color pomp and power is displayed at right."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Orpah Gail Winfrey was born on January 29, 1954; her first name was spelled \"Orpah\" on her birth certificate after the biblical figure in the Book of Ruth, but people mispronounced it regularly and \"Oprah\" stuck. She was born in Kosciusko, Mississippi, to an unmarried teenage mother. Her mother, Vernita Lee (1935\u20132018), was a housemaid. Winfrey's biological father is usually noted as Vernon Winfrey (born c. 1933), a coal miner turned barber turned city councilman who was in the Armed Forces when she was born. However, Mississippi farmer and World War II Veteran Noah Robinson Sr. (born c. 1925) has claimed to be her biological father. A genetic test in 2006 determined that her matrilineal line originated among the Kpelle ethnic group, in the area that today is Liberia. Her genetic makeup was determined to be 89% Sub-Saharan African, 8% Native American, and 3% East Asian. However, given the imprecision of genetic testing, the East Asian markers may actually be Native American."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "\"Oprah\" had its roots in \"A.M. Chicago\", a half-hour morning talk show airing on WLS-TV, an ABC owned-and-operated station in Chicago. In 1983, Dennis Swanson, the new general manager of WLS-TV, hired Swanson to replace Robb Weller, that program's former host. Winfrey took over as host on January 2, 1984, and, within a month, took it from last place to first place in local Chicago ratings. By 1985, the local \"A.M. Chicago\" program was renamed to \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\". Following Winfrey's success in\u2014and Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations for\u2014her performance as Sofia in the film \"The Color Purple\", on September 8, 1986, the talk show was relaunched under its current title and picked up nationally. For the premiere, the show's producers tried rigorously to book \"Miami Vice\"s Don Johnson as the first guest, even trying to bribe him with Dom P\u00e9rignon and a pair of rhinestone sunglasses. All attempts to book Johnson failed and Winfrey decided to \"do what we do best, and that is a show about and with everyday people\". The theme for the premiere show was \"How to Marry the Man or Woman of Your Choice\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antoinette Robertson",
        "text": "Antoinette Robertson is an American actress, known for her roles in the Oprah Winfrey Network prime time soap opera, \"The Haves and the Have Nots\" (2014\u201318), \"Hart of Dixie\" season 3 on CW network, and Netflix comedy-drama series \"Dear White People\" (2017\u20132021)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Evelyn Tooley Hunt",
        "text": "My mother taught me purple"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many films has Winfrey appeared in?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you asking about Amy Winfrey, Travis Winfrey or Oprah Winfrey?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about Oprah Winfrey."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Oprah Winfrey has appeared in films: The Color Purple,  Beloved, and The Princess and the Frog. She has also voice acted  in Charlotte's Web, A Wrinkle in Time, and Crow: The Legend. Which of these would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in The Color Purple."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Color Purple is a 1985 American epic coming-of-age period drama film directed by Steven Spielberg and written by Menno Meyjes, based on the Pulitzer Prize-winning 1982 novel of the same name by Alice Walker. The cast stars Whoopi Goldberg in her breakthrough role, with Danny Glover, Oprah Winfrey, Margaret Avery, Rae Dawn Chong, Willard Pugh, and Adolph Caesar."
    ],
    "topic": "Oprah Winfrey",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "The Color Purple (1985 film):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "The Color Purple (1985 film)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Color Purple is a 1985 American epic coming-of-age period drama film directed by Steven Spielberg and written by Menno Meyjes, based on the Pulitzer Prize-winning 1982 novel of the same name by Alice Walker. It was Spielberg's eighth film as a director, and marked a turning point in his career, as it was a departure from the summer blockbusters for which he had become known. It was also the first feature film directed by Spielberg for which John Williams did not compose the music, instead featuring a score by Quincy Jones, who also produced. The cast stars Whoopi Goldberg in her breakthrough role, with Danny Glover, Oprah Winfrey, Margaret Avery, Rae Dawn Chong, Willard Pugh, and Adolph Caesar."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Ithuteng",
        "text": "Oprah Winfrey donated $1.14 million to the cause after it appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show in February 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morehouse College",
        "text": "In 2004 Winfrey increased her donation by $5\u00a0million for a total donation of $12\u00a0million. The fund has since supported over 400 students. In 2011, several hundred Oprah Scholars surprised Winfrey by showing up at her final TV show carrying candles to thank her for her generosity. They, in turn, pledged $300,000 to help educate future Morehouse students."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2013, Winfrey donated $12 million to the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture. President Barack Obama awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom later that same year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 1998, Winfrey created the Oprah's Angel Network, a charity that supported charitable projects and provided grants to nonprofit organizations around the world. Oprah's Angel Network raised more than $80 million ($1\u00a0million of which was donated by Jon Bon Jovi). Winfrey personally covered all administrative costs associated with the charity, so 100% of all funds raised went to charity programs. In May 2010, with Oprah's show ending, the charity stopped accepting donations and was shut down."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lily Safra",
        "text": "In 2009, Safra was honored by the Elton John AIDS Foundation with its \u201cAn Enduring Vision\u201d award for her long-time support. In October 2013, Safra donated $1 million in support of the foundation's grant-making programs. That same year, Safra contributed $16 million toward Edmond and Lily Safra Children's Hospital in Tel Hashomer. She also donated $5 million toward the One Laptop Per Child project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2004, Winfrey became the first black person to rank among the 50 most generous Americans and she remained among the top 50 until 2010. By 2012, she had given away about $400 million to educational causes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morehouse College",
        "text": "In 1990, Oprah Winfrey pledged to put 100 deserving young men through Morehouse. She made a donation to establish the \"Oprah Winfrey Endowed Scholarship Fund\". The school uses the fund to select deserving students based on academic achievement and financial need. Selected students are deemed \"Oprah Scholars\" or \"Sons of Oprah\". Their financial support covers most of the costs of their education including prior student debt. Recipients must maintain their grade point average and provide additional volunteer support to the community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey Foundation",
        "text": "In 2020, the foundation donated US$10 million to COVID-19 relief efforts: money will go feed those most impacted by the coronavirus epidemic in America, including children who rely on school lunch programs, low-income families, the elderly, and individuals facing job disruptions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2004, Winfrey and her team filmed an episode of her show, \"Oprah's Christmas Kindness\", in which Winfrey travelled to South Africa to bring attention to the plight of young children affected by poverty and AIDS. During the 21-day trip, Winfrey and her crew visited schools and orphanages in poverty-stricken areas, and distributed Christmas presents to 50,000 children, with dolls for the girls and soccer balls for the boys, and school supplies. Throughout the show, Winfrey appealed to viewers to donate money to Oprah's Angel Network for poor and AIDS-affected children in Africa. From that show alone, viewers around the world donated over $7 million. Winfrey invested $40\u00a0million and some of her time establishing the Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls in Henley on Klip south of Johannesburg, South Africa. The school set over 22 acres, opened in January 2007 with an enrollment of 150 pupils (increasing to 450) and features state-of-the-art classrooms, computer and science laboratories, a library, theatre, and beauty salon. Nelson Mandela praised Winfrey for overcoming her own disadvantaged youth to become a benefactor for others. Critics considered the school elitist and unnecessarily luxurious. Winfrey rejected the claims, saying: \"If you are surrounded by beautiful things and wonderful teachers who inspire you, that beauty brings out the beauty in you.\" Winfrey, who has no surviving biological children, described maternal feelings towards the girls at Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls. Winfrey teaches a class at the school via satellite.\n* 1989 \u2013 \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" (supervising producer \u2013 8 episodes, 1989\u20132011)\n* 1989 \u2013 \"The Women of Brewster Place\" (TV miniseries) (executive producer)\n* 1992 \u2013 \"Nine\" (TV documentary) (executive producer)\n* 1992 \u2013 \"Overexposed\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 1993 \u2013 \"ABC Afterschool Special\" (TV series) (producer \u2013 1 episode \"Shades of a Single Protein\") (producer)\n* 1993 \u2013 \"Michael Jackson Talks to... Oprah Live\" (TV special) (executive producer)\n* 1997 \u2013 \"Before Women Had Wings\" (TV movie) (producer)\n* 1998 \u2013 \"The Wedding\" (TV miniseries) (executive producer)\n* 1998 \u2013 \"Beloved\" (producer)\n* 1998 \u2013 \"David and Lisa\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 1999 \u2013 \"Tuesdays with Morrie\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 2001 \u2013 \"Amy & Isabelle\" (TV movie) (executive producer, producer)\n* 2002 \u2013 \"Oprah After the Show\" (TV series) (executive producer)\n* 2005 \u2013 \"Their Eyes Were Watching God\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 2006 \u2013 \"Legends Ball\" (TV documentary) (executive producer)\n* 2007 \u2013 \"Oprah's Big Give\" (TV series) (executive producer)\n* 2007 \u2013 \"The Oprah Winfrey Oscar Special\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 2007 \u2013 \"Building a Dream: The Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy\" (TV documentary) (executive producer)\n* 2007 \u2013 \"Oprah Winfrey Presents: Mitch Albom's For One More Day\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 2007 \u2013 \"The Great Debaters\" (producer)\n* 2009 \u2013 \"The Dr. Oz Show\" (TV series) (executive producer)\n* 2009 \u2013 \"Precious\" (executive producer)\n* 2009 \u2013 \"Christmas at the White House: An Oprah Primetime Special\" (TV special) (executive producer)\n* 2010 \u2013 \"The Oprah Winfrey Oscar Special\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 2011 \u2013 \"Your OWN Show\" (TV series) (executive producer)\n* 2011 \u2013 \"Extraordinary Mom\" (TV documentary) (executive producer)\n* 2011 \u2013 \"Serving Life\" (TV documentary) (executive producer)\n* 2014 \u2013 \"The Hundred-Foot Journey \"(producer)\n* 2014 \u2013 \"Selma \"(producer)\n* 2016\u2013present \u2013 \"Queen Sugar\" (co-creator and executive producer)\n* 2016\u20132020 \u2013 \"Greenleaf\" (executive producer)\n* 2017 \u2013 \"The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 2018 \u2013 \"Love Is\" (executive producer)\n* 2019 \u2013 \"When They See Us\" (executive producer)\n* 2019 \u2013 \"Oprah Winfrey Presents: After Neverland\" (executive producer)\n* 2019 \u2013 \"David Makes Man\" (executive producer)\n* 2020 \u2013 \"The Water Man\" (executive producer)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Harold Simmons",
        "text": "In 2007, Oprah Winfrey announced that Harold and Annette Simmons, her neighbors in Montecito, California, had contributed $5 million to her Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls in South Africa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Big Give",
        "text": "In Fort Wayne, Indiana, $10,000 in seed money was received by ABC affiliate WPTA, which was then given to local trail organizations. A community celebration was held April 12, 2008, when it was revealed that the total donations had topped $1 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sara Blakely",
        "text": "Since its launch, The Sara Blakely Foundation has funded scholarships for young women at the Community and Individual Development Association City Campus in South Africa and Blakely appeared on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" in 2006, donating US$1\u00a0million to the Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls. In 2013 Blakely became the first female billionaire to join the \"Giving Pledge,\" Bill Gates and Warren Buffett's pledge, whereby the world's richest people donate at least half of their wealth to charity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital",
        "text": "In January 2004, Catherine Hamlin appeared on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" to discuss the 50 years of free reconstructive surgery that she has been providing to over 25,000 patients. After Hamlin's visit to the show, thousands of viewers were compelled to act due to her sheer selflessness. The Fistula Foundation, which supports Dr. Hamlin's hospital, received more than $3 million in donations. Oprah Winfrey was so impressed by Hamlin's actions that she visited the hospital in Ethiopia to tape the second episode in December 2005. The funding received by the hospital following this exposure led to the building a brand new facility with classrooms, examination rooms, housing for residents who travel to the hospital for treatment and a small apartment for the on-call doctors for Desta Mender."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey Foundation",
        "text": "The Oprah Winfrey Charitable Foundation (formally The Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy Foundation) is a tax-deductible charity with total assets of US$172 million. In 2006, Winfrey added US$36 million of her own money to the Foundation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Debbie Harry",
        "text": "In a 2011 interview, Harry said that \"After witnessing Elton John and his tireless efforts against HIV/AIDS\", she had been inspired to make philanthropy her top priority. She said, \"These things are important to my life now. I have the privilege of being able to get involved, so I do. I applaud people like Elton John, who have used their position to do so much good.\" Some of Harry's preferred charities include those devoted to fighting cancer and endometriosis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Big Give",
        "text": "In Orlando, Florida, over $50,000 has been donated to a mentoring program for at-risk youth, in conjunction with a charitable program from ABC affiliate WFTV, that was inspired by \"Oprah's Big Give\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Big Give",
        "text": "In Fresno, California, $10,000 was donated by the ABC affiliate KFSN on behalf of \"Oprah's Big Give\", and turned over to CalFire for installing smoke detectors in rural county homes that do not have any, to save lives. This was in a response to the death of two young girls who died in a house fire in 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "As of 2012, Winfrey had also given over 400 scholarships to Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia. Winfrey was the recipient of the first Bob Hope Humanitarian Award at the 2002 Emmy Awards for services to television and film. To celebrate two decades on national TV, and to thank her employees for their hard work, Winfrey took her staff and their families (1,065 people in total) on vacation to Hawaii in the summer of 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lily Safra",
        "text": "Safra supports the American Red Cross and helped the Hurricane Katrina victims in 2005; she is on the board of the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson's research, and is a member of the Chairman's Council of the Museum of Modern Art. Through the Edmond J. Safra Philanthropic Foundation, she helped found the Edmond J. Safra Brain Research Center for the Study of Learning Disabilities at the University of Haifa. The Foundation and Mrs. Safra also helped create the Edmond and Lily Safra Center for Brain Sciences at the Hebrew University."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aubrey O'Day",
        "text": "While attending University of California Irvine, O'Day spent a semester at sea. She worked with service organizations while touring in different countries, as well as refugee centers, orphanages, and mostly with children with AIDS. She volunteered for The Pink Project (a charity photobook supporting RAINN and the Los Angeles Breast Cancer Alliance), and helped victims of the Hurricane Katrina devastation. O'Day soon created her own organization, called F*A*N (Fighting Aids Now). The charity's goal is to give therapy and art to children in hospitals. During the 2008 presidential election campaign in the United States, O'Day supported Barack Obama for President. She is also a supporter of LGBT rights and chose GLSEN as her charity for \"Celebrity Apprentice\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In the wake of Hurricane Katrina, Oprah created the Oprah Angel Network Katrina registry which raised more than $11\u00a0million for relief efforts. Winfrey personally gave $10\u00a0million to the cause. Homes were built in Texas, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Alabama before the one-year anniversary of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jon Bon Jovi",
        "text": "During an appearance on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" in 2005, Bon Jovi (the band, not the individual) donated $1 million to the Angel Network foundation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean E. Fairfax",
        "text": "In addition to promoting educational equity through philanthropy, Jean Fairfax also developed an interest in achieving greater diversity in philanthropic giving, especially among African Americans. Writing in \"Black Philanthropy: Its Heritage and Its Future\" (1995), she admitted that she herself at first adopted the widespread misconception that \"philanthropists were white people with inherited wealth or who made big deals in their investments or in their industrial work, like the Carnegies and the Rockefellers.\" However, she and her sister were able, on modest incomes, to donate over $100,000 a year to causes they supported by living frugally. Since 1987, the endowments they created have distributed over one million dollars. With Temple University, she has worked to develop an outreach program called African American Reunions and Philanthropy, encouraging families to use the occasion of family reunions as a forum for discussing philanthropy as a family enterprise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity",
        "text": "Oprah Winfrey, 2007, for her global humanitarian efforts, and education of children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lamiez Holworthy",
        "text": "She started her own philanthropic foundation, the Lamiez Holworthy Foundation. The foundation provides aid for orphanages and safe houses for abused, abandoned HIV infected and affected children. The foundation also focusses on funding students from disadvantaged backgrounds with study materials, financial aid and sponsors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ryan Hreljac",
        "text": "In two years, he raised $61,000. The Canadian International Development Agency heard of Hreljac's efforts and matched $2 for every dollar that he raised. He told his story on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nora Roberts",
        "text": "Roberts has been included repeatedly on the Giving Back Fund's annual lists of the most philanthropic celebrities, with the bulk of her donations going to the Nora Roberts Foundation. The foundation financially supports organizations that promote literacy and the arts, assist children and engage in humanitarian efforts. The Foundation also endowed the Nora Roberts Center for American Romance at McDaniel College, which supports academic scholarship on the American romance novel, with special emphasis on the literary qualities and significance of the romance. Roberts has made other charitable efforts such as auctioning her jewelry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jennifer Aniston",
        "text": "Aniston donated $500,000 to Doctors Without Borders, Haitian health care provider Partners in Health and AmeriCares, and also participated in the Hope for Haiti Now telethon. She donated $500,000 to the Red Cross and another $500,000 to the Ricky Martin Foundation in 2017 to help victims of hurricanes Harvey, Irma and Maria."
      },
      {
        "title": "StudentsFirst",
        "text": "Appearing on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" in 2010, Rhee announced a goal of raising $1 billion and garnering one million members. In actuality, the organization reported it have raised $7.8 million in its first fiscal year and $28.5 million in its second."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ashley Collins",
        "text": "Collins is passionate about raising money for underprivileged women and children throughout the world, in part from her own homelessness and journey. Collins has raised hundreds of thousands of dollars for charity and as a result hundreds and hundreds of women and children worldwide have been lifted up by her actions: Camp Rainbow Gold, an American camp for children with cancer; Sunrise Children\u2019s Village Orphanage in Cambodia; Girls Sewing Schools in Cambodia to prevent trafficking, Girls schools in Marrakech to educate girls whose families could not otherwise afford to educate them, Educating children from the slums of Nairobi, International Medical Corp, cleft palette surgery in third world countries, Training centers for the handicapped, and Collins has a long history of giving back, even when she had virtually no money of her own, after years of homelessness, upon the very first sale of a painting for $2,500 Collins donated $1,000 to the Aids Project Los Angeles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ashley Judd",
        "text": "Judd has supported the following charities and foundations:\n* Apne Aap Women Worldwide\n*Children's Medical Research Institute\n* Committee for Children\n* Creative Coalition\n*DC Statehood\n* Defenders of Wildlife\n* Eracism Foundation\n* Equality Now\n* Five & Alive\n* Jeans for Genes\n* International Center for Research on Women (ICRW)\n* Listen Campaign\n* Malaria No More\n* Population Services International\n* SixDegrees.org\n* UNFPA"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bella Hadid",
        "text": "In 2016, Hadid donated a pair of denim jeans to Johny Dar's Jeans for Refugees project, which supported the International Rescue Committee. In November 2018, for Thanksgiving, she volunteered to help make 500 meals for the Bowery Mission on behalf of System of Service, Hashtag Lunch Bag, and Nike."
      },
      {
        "title": "YES Prep Public Schools",
        "text": "In 2010, Oprah Winfrey donated 1 million dollars each to six charter school systems, including YES Prep."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reba McEntire",
        "text": "Over the course of her career, she has been and continues to be an active supporter of various charitable organizations including Habitat for Humanity, The Salvation Army, the American Red Cross, Feeding America and Celebrity Fight Night. She has been honored with the Minnie Pearl Award, the ACM Home Depot Humanitarian Award and the Andrea Bocelli Foundation Humanitarian Award for her efforts. In 2018, she was honored with the Horatio Alger Award for Education, Charity Work. Named after the \"rags to riches\" writer, the award recognizes perseverance and giving back."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jennifer Nettles",
        "text": "Nettles has lent her time and talent to support various non-profit organizations. Nettles has been a longtime supporter of the Shalom foundation. She raised more than $120,000 for the foundation in 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jacqueline Moloney",
        "text": "The Oprah event proved significant for UMass Lowell: Moloney said it raised more than $1.5 million for student scholarships \u2014 a total that Winfrey matched. As part of the event, six UMass Lowell students were honored with the Oprah Winfrey Scholarship, given to students with a financial need who show a commitment to academic achievement. Winfrey received an honorary doctorate of humane letters from the university."
      },
      {
        "title": "Naya Rivera",
        "text": "Rivera notably supported various charities, particularly for the LGBT+ community and immigrants. She dedicated her time to organizations including GLAAD, Stand Up to Cancer, The Trevor Project, The Elephant Project, The Sunshine Foundation, I Am an Immigrant, Alliance of Moms, Point Foundation, the Thirst Project, FEED, Los Angeles Mission, Get Schooled, and Kindred Foundation. In 2009 she said: \"I feel like [...] participating in charity events or giving back to the community [...] is really important to do because I feel like I am so blessed with my job and my life right now that I would love to take time to bowl for a cause. I hope to raise money to help some other people that are in a really tough situation.\" Her publicist from her time on \"Glee\" described Rivera as \"ahead of her time\" in terms of being an advocate, saying that she \"really wanted to use her platform and her voice for good, whether it was for anti-bullying, for equal rights, for women of color, she wanted to use this role to help talk about a bigger message\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edmond Safra",
        "text": "Safra supported educational, religious, medical, cultural, and humanitarian causes and organizations around the world. The Edmond J. Safra Philanthropic Foundation carries on this work in his memory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hailee Steinfeld",
        "text": "Steinfeld endorsed a variety of charities, including numerous organizations with a focus on improving children's lives. The list of charities endorsed by her includes: \"What's Your Mission?\", a charitable initiative with mission apparel and an accessories brand, \"No Kid Hungry\", a charity working to eradicate child hunger in the United States, WE Movement, The Ryan Seacrest Foundation, Make-A-Wish Foundation, and others. On the set of \"True Grit\", Steinfeld created a \"swear jar\"; every time someone uttered the word \"fuck\", Steinfeld would collect $5 from the perpetrator; other vulgarities were worth a dollar. As a trade-off, she had to pay up 50 cents if she said \"like\". She stated she \"matched it and donated it all to an Alzheimer's foundation\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ana Khouri",
        "text": "During the Covid-19 pandemic, Khouri created several pieces including a sapphire ring along with a pair of diamond earrings and donated 100% of its proceeds to Doctors Without Borders and the CFDA Vogue Fashion Fund, respectively. She also pledged donations to Black Lives Matter, Hetrick-Martin Institute, and Campaign Zero. The designer also expanded her philanthropic efforts with her Brazilian Non-Profit, Projeto Ovo. Spearheaded by Khouri since 2014,Projeto Ovo donates 100% of all sales proceeds to 75 NGOs."
      },
      {
        "title": "MacKenzie Scott",
        "text": "In a July 2020 Medium post, Scott announced that she had donated $1.7\u00a0billion to 116 non-profit organizations, with a focus on racial equality, LGBTQ+ equality, democracy, and climate change. Her gifts to HBCUs, Hispanic-serving institutions, tribal colleges and universities, and other colleges surpass $800\u00a0million. In December 2020, less than six months later, Scott stated that she had donated a further $4.15 billion in the previous four months to 384 organizations, with a focus on providing support to people affected by the economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and addressing long-term systemic inequities. She said that after July, she wanted her advisory team to give her wealth away faster as the United States struggled with the unprecedented impact of COVID-19 while billionaires' wealth continued to climb. Her team's focus was on \"identifying organizations with strong leadership teams and results, with special attention to those operating in communities facing high projected food insecurity, high measures of racial inequity, high local poverty rates, and low access to philanthropic capital\". Scott's 2020 charitable giving totalled $5.8\u00a0billion, one of the biggest annual distributions by a private individual to working charities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doris Duke",
        "text": "Her philanthropic work in AIDS research, medicine, and child welfare continued into her old age. She also donated funds to support and educate black students in the South who were disadvantaged because of racism. Her estimated $1.3 billion fortune was largely left to charity. Duke's legacy is now administered by the Doris Duke Charitable Foundation, dedicated to medical research, prevention of cruelty to children and animals, the performing arts, wildlife and ecology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Big Give",
        "text": "Brandi Milloy is a four-time Miss America Organization title holder (Miss Sierra Vista, Miss Southeast Arizona, Miss Will County, and Miss Tarzana). who graduated from the University of Arizona. Brandi was diagnosed with scoliosis as a teenager."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barbara Meislin",
        "text": "Meislin is also known for her charitable work. She is an ardent supporter of TRUST-Emun - Womens Interfaith Network; variously founded, and donated the money to build, a hospice library, a \"Purple Playground of Friendship\" for both Jewish and Palestinian children in Neve Shalom / Wahat al-Salam near Latrun, Israel, a \"Positively Purple for the Breast Cancer\" fashion show and fundraiser, She also donated a gazebo for a local park and each year, since 2000 she has paid for hundreds of mentors and kids involved in Big Brothers Big Sisters of the North Bay to go ice skating at Snoopy's Home Ice Rink in Santa Rosa, California."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hilary Duff",
        "text": "Duff has involved herself with various philanthropic activities. For natural disasters, she donated $250,000 to help the victims of Hurricane Katrina in addition to donating over 2.5\u00a0million meals to Hurricane Katrina victims in the southern US in 2005. In August 2006, Duff traveled to a New Orleans elementary school and worked with USA Harvest to distribute meals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bita Daryabari",
        "text": "Daryabari began focusing her career on philanthropy where in 2008 she founded the Bita Daryabari Endowment for Persian Literature and Poetry with a contribution of $2.5 million. The same year, she created a $6.5 million Bita Daryabari Endowment in Persian Letters at Stanford. In 2011, she founded a community organization in California called the Pars Equality Center where she and the members of the organization assist Iranian immigrants living in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ilene Shapiro",
        "text": "In addition to the lawsuit responding to the crisis, Executive Shapiro facilitated the gifting of land that was once the Edwin Shaw rehab hospital to two nonprofits that aim to combat the opioid crisis, Restore Addiction Recovery and Hope United."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doris Buffett",
        "text": "Buffett attracted attention with the publication of a 2010 book titled, \"\"Giving It All Away: The Doris Buffett Story\",\" which was authored by Michael Zitz. The book, which she pursued at the urging of her brother Warren Buffett and the lead singer of U2 Bono, describes Doris' background and life as a philanthropist. Buffett donated $100 million of her own money, mostly to needy individuals, often taking the time to call and write to them personally and determine the best way to help. Through her \"Sunshine Lady Foundation\" she helped thousands of children get an education or attend camp, sponsored young women in Afghanistan and supported prison education programs, amongst other philanthropy work. Her goal was to give away her entire fortune, which remained substantial despite her generosity and the financial crisis of 2007\u20132008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elton Tsang",
        "text": "Tsang is involved in charity. He has donated to Mother's Choice, the Po Leung Kuk orphanage, and the Lord Grace Home for the Aged. He credits Sheen Hok Charitable Foundation founder, Alice Chiu, as being an inspiration saying \"my passion for charitable work originates from Alice Chiu ... I was deeply touched by her efforts to help the needy in the society. Earlier, I visited children with amblyopia in Handan, China. The experience taught me to be grateful for all I have, and do my best to help those in need.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Morehouse College",
        "text": "In 2019, Winfrey added $13 million to the scholarship program bringing her grand total donations to $25 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Big Give",
        "text": "Eric Klein is the founder and CEO of CAN-DO.org, a nonprofit organization that enables people who make charitable donations to actually see how their money is being spent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Athalie Richardson Irvine Clarke Prize",
        "text": "As a leading philanthropist through the Joan Irvine Smith and Athalie R. Clarke Foundation, Smith continued to champion the University of California at Irvine, funding important medical causes, including the Reeve-Irvine Research Center. She also supports NWRI, which was founded by her vision and financial support, as well as numerous other environmental, cultural, and historical endeavors. She died on 19 December 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Winfrey endorsed Hillary Clinton in the 2016 election, and referred to Republican candidate Donald Trump as a \"demagogue\". In 2018, Winfrey canvassed door-to-door for Georgia gubernatorial Democratic nominee Stacey Abrams and donated $500,000 to the March for Our Lives student demonstration in favor of gun control in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hydeia Broadbent",
        "text": "Broadbent began her activism at age 6, by speaking about living with HIV/AIDS. She initially got involved with speaking on the subject through Elizabeth Glaser, creator of the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation. The two met while Hydeia was undergoing treatment at the National Institutes of Health. Glaser asked Hydeia's mother to let Hydeia speak publicly about having HIV/AIDS, and she acquiesced. Hydeia went on to speak at many events, including AIDS benefit concerts, documentaries, college campus education events, and talk shows. She appeared on the \"Oprah Winfrey Show\" in 1996. Recently, she appeared on Oprah's \"Where Are They Now\", as she was one of the most-requested guests to be revisited. She appeared on a Nickelodeon special along with Magic Johnson. Two years after the special, she established the Hydeia L. Broadbent Foundation and received a Black Achievement Award from Jet magazine. She also appeared in \"Essence,\" and on \"The Maury Povich Show, Good Morning America,\" and at the 1996 Republican National Convention. At the Republican National Convention, she famously stated \"I am the future, and I have AIDS.\" In 2002, her family published a book entitled \"You Get Past The Tears\", and the family appeared in 2004 on \"Extreme Home Makeover.\" Broadbent currently speaks on the behalf of the Magic Johnson Foundation and other AIDS activist organizations in order to educate people about HIV/AIDS, raise awareness, and fight discrimination against those living with HIV/AIDS. She also is involved in screening drives, along with actress Jurnee Smollett-Bell. Broadbent has traveled extensively both nationally and internationally to speak to others. Broadbent currently takes three antiretroviral pills a day, and the majority of her medical payments come out of pocket. According to her, \"HIV is not a death sentence, but it's a life sentence...[y]ou'll be taking pills forever, going to the doctor and fighting for insurance forever.\" She hopes that by sharing her story, things will begin to change."
      },
      {
        "title": "Olivia Harrison",
        "text": "In late 2005, coinciding with the reissue of the album and film from the 1971 Concert for Bangladesh, she established The George Harrison Fund for UNICEF with an initial focus on programs in Bangladesh. As of July 2015, the fund had also assisted children affected by civil conflict, natural disasters or poverty in Brazil, India, Angola, Romania, the Horn of Africa, Burma and Nepal. Harrison contributed to actress Salma Hayek's UNICEF fundraising campaign in response to the September 2017 Mexican earthquakes. Through the auspices of The George Harrison Fund for UNICEF, she then pledged to double the next $200,000 donation made to the campaign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arakaza MacArthur",
        "text": "Arakaza Mac Arthur donated to and supported more than 500 vulnerable children of Jabe center housing orphans. Among the items donated included food stuffs and school materials to help these young children to be able to study and have a brilliant future."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jennie Grossinger",
        "text": "From the 1930s, Jennie Grossinger started to assign a considerable lot of her previous business-related obligations and began to commit herself to humanitarian activities. Much of her charity works were for Jewish and non-sectarian causes. She focused on doing charity activities in the Jewish homeland of Israel. There she helped with building a medical center and a convalescent home. Out of her sheer interest in education, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem benefited from her charity. She donated money to help mentally disabled children in several children's hospitals and care facilities. She also donated money to fight tuberculosis, and for the proper medication of arthritic patients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deborah Dugan",
        "text": "In 2011, Dugan started work as CEO of (RED), co-founded by Bono and Bobby Shriver after interviewing for a job that wasn't the right fit. The nonprofit aims to enlist the help of private companies and citizens in the global fight to eradicate AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa (it now tasks itself to also combat the effects of COVID-19). She rearranged her life to travel to Africa, among other things, and, under her tenure, (RED) began to partner with Coca-Cola, Salesforce, Bank of America, Vespa, Snapchat, Nickelodeon, Moschino, Jeremy Scott, Latin America's telecommunications companies Claro and Telcel, German multinational SAP, among others. Notable campaigns under Dugan also include the Super Bowl, \"Jimmy Kimmel Live\", Beats by Dre, Starbucks, and Amazon. During this time the organization, with a team of 25 in New York, reached $660 million for the Global Fund and impacted the lives of more than 110 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doris Buffett",
        "text": "She established the \"Letters Foundation\" alongside her brother Warren Buffett to provide humanitarian grants to people experiencing a crisis through no fault of their own when no other options exist. A hand-up and not hand-out was her philanthropy principle. Her brother Warren Buffett helped fund some of the foundation's early projects though later she began providing funds herself from Berkshire Hathaway stocks she owned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Rivers",
        "text": "As a philanthropist, Rivers supported causes which included HIV/AIDS activism, and in May 1985, she appeared along with Nichols and May at a Comic Relief benefit for the new AIDS Medical Foundation in New York City, where tickets at the Shubert Theatre sold for as much as $500. She supported the Elton John AIDS Foundation and God's Love We Deliver, which delivers meals to HIV/AIDS patients in New York City. In 2008, she was commended by the City of San Diego, California for her philanthropic work on behalf of HIV/AIDS, where the HIV/AIDS community called her its \"Joan of Arc\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabeth Taylor",
        "text": "Taylor began her philanthropic efforts in 1984 by helping to organize and by hosting the first AIDS fundraiser to benefit the AIDS Project Los Angeles. In August 1985, she and Michael Gottlieb founded the National AIDS Research Foundation after her friend and former co-star Rock Hudson announced that he was dying of the disease. The following month, the foundation merged with Mathilde Krim's AIDS foundation to form the American Foundation for AIDS Research (amfAR). As amfAR's focus is on research funding, Taylor founded the Elizabeth Taylor AIDS Foundation (ETAF) in 1991 to raise awareness and to provide support services for people with HIV/AIDS, paying for its overhead costs herself. Since her death, her estate has continued to fund ETAF's work, and donates 25% of royalties from the use of her image and likeness to the foundation. In addition to her work for people affected by HIV/AIDS in the United States, Taylor was instrumental in expanding amfAR's operations to other countries; ETAF also operates internationally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tererai Trent",
        "text": "In May 2011, Oprah Winfrey revealed that Trent was her all-time favorite guest, and donated $1.5 million so Trent could build her own school in her old village in Zimbabwe. The school was completed in 2014. In 2015, Trent published a children's book about her own life called \"The Girl who Buried her Dreams in a Can\", illustrated by Jan Spivey Gilchrist. Her 2017 self-help book, \"The Awakened Woman: Remembering & Igniting Our Sacred Dreams\", with a foreword by Oprah Winfrey, was named the Outstanding Literary Work, Instructional at the 49th NAACP Image Awards. She has been an adjunct professor in Monitoring & Evaluation in Global Health at Drexel University since 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rhoda Pritzker",
        "text": "Rhoda Pritzker supported a wide array of causes and organizations as a philanthropist throughout her life. Many of the causes which she championed involved animals, education and the arts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Avril Lavigne",
        "text": "On September 14, 2010, Lavigne introduced her charity, \"The Avril Lavigne Foundation\", which aims to help young people with serious illnesses and disabilities and works with leading charitable organizations. The foundation partners with the Easter Seals, Make-A-Wish foundation and Erase MS, Lavigne has worked with the latter two. Her work with the Make-A-Wish foundation was the inspiration behind her own charity, with Lavigne stating, \"I just really wanted to do more\". Lavigne said on the foundation's website, \"I have always looked for ways to give back because I think it's a responsibility we all share\". Philanthropist Trevor Neilson's 12-person firm, Global Philanthropy Group, advises Lavigne with her foundation as well as several other celebrities, including musician John Legend."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hila Oren",
        "text": "a partnership with worldwide donors (among them Bloomberg Philanthropies, Rockefeller Foundation and the Bernard Van Leer Foundation) that raised 550 million dollars and founded 600 projects, since its inception in 1977. The donations are matched by Tel Aviv"
      },
      {
        "title": "Barbra Streisand",
        "text": "Streisand has personally raised $25\u00a0million for organizations through her live performances. The Streisand Foundation, established in 1986, has contributed over $16\u00a0million through nearly 1,000 grants to \"national organizations working on preservation of the environment, voter education, the protection of civil liberties and civil rights, women's issues and nuclear disarmament\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey Foundation",
        "text": "Oprah Winfrey Foundation\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sandra Bullock",
        "text": "Bullock has been a public supporter of the American Red Cross and has donated $1\u00a0million to the organization at least five times. Her first public donation of that amount was to the Red Cross's Liberty Disaster Relief Fund. Three years later, she sent money in response to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunamis. In 2010, she donated $1\u00a0million to relief efforts in Haiti following the Haiti earthquake and again donated the same amount following the 2011 T\u014dhoku earthquake and tsunami. She donated $1\u00a0million in 2017 to support Red Cross relief efforts for Hurricane Harvey in Texas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alison Bernstein",
        "text": "At the Ford Foundation, she started a large number of initiatives that benefited historically underrepresented groups. Bernstein maintained program fellowships for minorities, and helped to create the International Fellowship Program with the largest Fond grant in history, which was $300 million for proven community leaders from marginalized communities around the world. In addition, she started The Native Arts and Cultures Fund, which makes grants available for Native artists and cultural leaders. She also supported the Women\u2019s Research and Resource Center at Spelman College, which was the first women\u2019s research center at a historically Black college."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iris Cantor",
        "text": "She has made additional donations to medical facilities and foundations:\n*UCLA Health System - Cantor established the Iris-Cantor - UCLA Women's Health Center in 1995. She has been involved with the UCLA Foundation since 1989, and has served as a Foundation Governor since 2005.\n*NewYork-Presbyterian/Weill Cornell - donated the funds for eleven birthing rooms, two operating rooms, and a waiting rooms in 1996. She donated $5 million in 2002 to form the Iris Cantor Women's Health Center, and $20 million in 2010, to launch the Iris Cantor Men's Health Center, the Iris and B. Gerald Cantor Ambulatory Surgery Center, and the Iris and B. Gerald Cantor Laboratory for Immunological Research in Diabetes.\n*Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center - funded a Senior Chair in 2007.\n*David Geffen School of Medicine - donated $8 million to improve the school's women's health curriculum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Never Again MSD",
        "text": "George and Amal Clooney donated $500,000 to the organization to help with the cost of organizing the March for Our Lives demonstration, which they also participated in. Following the Clooneys' announcement, other celebrities including Oprah Winfrey, Jeffrey Katzenberg, and Steven Spielberg pledged to match the $500,000 donation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alma Ricard",
        "text": "In 1998, Ricard made her largest philanthropic donation, giving $23 million to create the Fondation Baxter & Alma Ricard fellowship fund for French Canadian students in university graduate studies. The fund remains in operation today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caroline Phelps Stokes",
        "text": "Caroline gave money to the American College in Beirut to fund the training school for nurses. In New York she supported the African American orphanages, homes for the elderly, and low cost housing. She also had interests in nature, supporting a project to preserve wild flowers and gave money for the protection of wild birds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "By the mid-1990s, Winfrey had reinvented her show with a focus on literature, self-improvement, mindfulness, and spirituality. Though she has been criticized for unleashing a confession culture, promoting controversial self-help ideas, and having an emotion-centered approach, she has also been praised for overcoming adversity to become a benefactor to others. Winfrey had also emerged as a political force in the 2008 presidential race, with her endorsement of Barack Obama estimated to have been worth about one million votes during the 2008 Democratic primaries. In 2013, Winfrey was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Obama and received honorary doctorate degrees from Duke and Harvard. In 2008, she formed her own network, the Oprah Winfrey Network (OWN)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Connie Stevens",
        "text": "In 1987, she, Barbara Eden and Lee Greenwood toured with Bob Hope on his USO tour to the Persian Gulf. Among her charitable works, she founded the Windfeather project to award scholarships to Native Americans, and supports CancerGroup.com. In 1991 Stevens received the Lady of Humanities Award from Shriners Hospital and the Humanitarian of the Year Award by the Sons of Italy in Washington, D.C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gertrude Weil",
        "text": "Weil also financially supported philanthropist efforts within her community. She donated several thousand dollars to the Herman Weil Memorial Fund and the Medical School at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meera Gandhi",
        "text": "Both the documentary film and book are meant to demonstrate the philanthropic efforts of her friends and those who inspire her. The book also features interviews with Bono and others Alex Counts, President and CEO of Grameen Foundation, found Meera's message of \"giving back\" to ring true: \"'giving back' \u2013 when done thoughtfully and in the right spirit \u2013 does not leave the donor with less, but rather with more.\". The documentary film was sold out at the Woodstock Film Festival in 2011. One hundred percent of the proceeds from all of Meera Gandhi's Giving Back Foundation projects go to her charitable projects around the globe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nina Rosenwald",
        "text": "Max Blumenthal, writing for \"The Nation\", commented that Rosenwald has donated over $2.8 million to the following organizations since 2000: the Gatestone Institute, the Center for Security Policy, Project ijtihad, the American Islamic Forum for Democracy, the Middle East Forum, the Clarion Fund, \"Commentary\" magazine and the Hudson Institute. The Middle East Forum received $2.3 million from Rosenwald over a ten-year period ending in 2012. Rosenwald has also given money to David Horowitz and Brigitte Gabriel. Rosenwald's support of these entities led Blumenthal to label her \"The Sugar Mama of Anti-Muslim Hate\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cory Booker",
        "text": "In July 2010, Booker attended a dinner at a conference in Sun Valley, Idaho, where he was seated with Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg. Zuckerberg, who had no known ties to Newark, announced in September 2010 that he was donating $100 million to the Newark school system. According to \"The New York Times\", Booker and Zuckerberg continued their conversation about Booker's plans for Newark. The initial gift was made to start a foundation for education. The gift was formally announced when Booker, New Jersey Governor Chris Christie, and Zuckerberg appeared together on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\". Some considered the timing of Zuckerberg's donation a move for damage control to his image, as it was announced on the opening day of the movie \"The Social Network\", a film that painted an unflattering portrait of Zuckerberg. But on her show, Winfrey told the audience that Zuckerberg and Booker had been in talks for months, had planned the announcement for the month before, and that she and Booker had to force Zuckerberg to put his name on the donation, which he had wanted to make anonymously."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dorothy Douglas Robinson Kidder",
        "text": "Kidder's philanthropic efforts focused on the National Gallery of Art, the Smithsonian Institution, the Museum of Modern Art, the National Arboretum, and the Kennedy Center, especially its dance programs. She also founded the Hopeful Fund, to support services for the unhoused population in Washington, D.C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jeffrey Cheah",
        "text": "Through his eponymous foundation, Cheah has donated almost US$39 million to fund scholarships and educational causes since 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Keri Hilson",
        "text": "In June 2011, Hilson became an ambassador for MTV Staying Alive, a foundation which raises awareness and prevention of HIV and AIDS. In September 2011, she lent her support to US First Lady Michelle Obama's Let's Move! campaign, which aims to combat childhood obesity. She made T-shirts for the campaign that read \"Pretty Girls Sweat\", and exercised with the young women at The Educational Alliance's Sirovich Senior Center in New York City on September 24. During Hilson's visit in Africa in November 2011, she stopped by an orphanage to visit her young fans who had lost their families during the 2010\u20132011 Ivorian crisis. She gave each orphan a \"care\" package, which consisted of bookbags, T-shirts, sunglasses, notebooks and an electric keyboard. In April 2012, Hilson worked with DoSomething.org to encourage young people to take part in the nationwide Epic Book Drive by bringing books to local people in need. In a press release, she stated: \"Joining DoSomething.org's newest effort to provide for people in need with Epic Book Drive was the easiest decision ever!. I truly believe providing access to those who want to learn is the key to bettering lives around the country. And helping kids find healthy outlets, such as books, has always been a passion of mine. So my involvement here is a natural fit.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ed Daly",
        "text": "Daly was noted for actively trying to keep his philanthropy out of the spotlight. He donated his time and his money to causes ranging from aid to Muslims attempting the Hajj and donating money for a university's new science building. He served from 1962 to 1968 as the chairman of the board of regents at Santa Clara University and his donations helped construct the science center named in his honor. Under Presidential appointment he served as chairman of the Oakland branch of the National Alliance of Businessmen. He generously supported the Boy Scouts of America despite not having a son. He was a staunch supporter of the cerebral palsy center in Alameda California. He also served as the center's chairman for a fundraising season. The Oakland Zoo used World Airways to bring a baby elephant to their facilities. Daly used his airline to bring giraffes to the zoo in Mexico City. In 1966 Daly received the \"Man of the Hour\" award from the city of Oakland for his efforts to promote hiring of minority groups. Scholarships were set up by him for student from West Africa, Korea and Jordan. Greenpeace received $10,000 to fuel its ships."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paris Hilton",
        "text": "In 2011, Hilton supported the LGBT rights organization NOH8, and participated at the American Red Cross run to benefit relief effort in Japan, hosted by actor Josh Duhamel in Santa Monica, CA. In 2015, she raised US$100,000 for children with disabilities in Ibiza. In 2017, she donated 50 of her personal items to the Children's Hospital Los Angeles and the Starlight Children's Foundation, and visited San Gregorio Atlapulco, Mexico, where she handed out food and clothes to the affected families following the 2017 Central Mexico earthquake, donated merchandise and a sum of US$350,000 to help rebuild seven homes that were affected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sarah Michelle Gellar",
        "text": "Gellar is an active advocate for various charities, including breast cancer research, Project Angel Food, Habitat for Humanity and CARE. Of her charitable pursuits, she says, \"I started because my mother taught me a long time ago that even when you have nothing, there's ways to give back. And what you get in return for that is tenfold. But it was always hard because I couldn't do a lot. I couldn't do much more than just donate money when I was on [\"Buffy\"] because there wasn't time. And now that I have the time, it's amazing.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Michaela Mycroft",
        "text": "In 2004 Chaeli (aged 9), her sister Erin (aged 11), Tarryn Terry (aged 12), Justine Terry (aged 9), and Chelsea Terry (aged 6) founded The Chaeli Campaign in Cape Town to raise funds for Chaeli's motorized wheelchair. The organization now runs seven programs that impact the lives of more than 7,000 beneficiaries annually."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irene Gut Opdyke",
        "text": "The Irene Gut Opdyke Holocaust Rescuer Foundation was founded in 1997 by Alan Boinus and Rosalie Boinus in honor of Irene Opdyke to offer awards, grants, and scholarships to young people inspired by the heroic acts of Irene Gut Opdyke when she was young, so they may likewise stand up to racism, bigotry, and hate. It has since been disbanded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebekah Harkness",
        "text": "A philanthropist, Harkness supported the Joffrey Ballet for years, as well as the Harkness Ballet Foundation and the William Hale Harkness Foundation. Harkness later donated $2 million to the William Hale Harkness Medical Research Building at the New York Hospital and supported medical research on Parkinson's disease."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maureen Johnson",
        "text": "Funds were raised through a general call to action and the giving away of signed ARCs (advance reader copies of books) and other literary materials to donors. The prizes themselves were donated by various authors in support of the aid effort. Donors were asked to make contributions to the charity directly, while sharing a common label so that their total as a group could be tracked. The amount raised was $15,202 USD, enough to fund 16 shelters and supplies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rita Wilson",
        "text": "Wilson has credited Rosie O'Donnell as inspiration for her charitable work, particularly with cancer and children's charities. She and her husband have long supported the Shakespeare Center of Los Angeles, going back to 1989 when Wilson appeared as Celia in a production of \"As You Like It\". Their annual Simply Shakespeare event raises funds to support programs for underprivileged youth. Musicians at the fundraiser have included Paul McCartney, Paul Simon, Jackson Browne, Faith Hill, Tim McGraw, Ben Harper, Reba McEntire, and more."
      },
      {
        "title": "Susan Boyle",
        "text": "Also in June 2013 Boyle donated for auction a performance dress which she had worn on \"The Oprah Show\" on 19 October 2010, with proceeds of the auction going to Metro Radio Newcastle England's Cash For Kids Campaign, with all funds raised going to disadvantaged kids across the region. The winning bid was \u00a3400."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marion Jorgensen",
        "text": "Included among the other philanthropic endeavors that benefited from Mrs. Jorgensen's support over the years were the Los Angeles Orphanage Guild, the ARCS Foundation, the American Red Cross, Loyola Marymount University, and the Prince of Wales Foundation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carol Bernstein Ferry",
        "text": "By the time Mr. Bernstein died of leukemia in 1970, six million dollars remained in the DJB Foundation, and his widow decided that it was time to spend all the money. Ms. Bernstein Ferry says, \u201cSo, in 1970 I started trying to shovel [the money] out, with not very much success because I just didn\u2019t know what I was doing.\u201d When she discovered how little she knew about being a successful philanthropist, Ms. Bernstein brought three other people into the mix: Steve Abrams, the Bernstein's long-time personal and business accountant, Robert S. Browne, a black economist interested in the fight against AIDS and in economic recovery programs for black farmers, and W. H. \u201cPing\u201d Ferry, who had worked for the Ford Foundation and who would later become Carol Bernstein's second husband."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nelly",
        "text": "Nelly runs the non-profit organization 4Sho4Kids Foundation. The Jes Us 4 Jackie campaign began in March 2003 by Nelly and his sister Jackie Donahue after Donahue was diagnosed with leukemia. The campaign attempts to educate African Americans and other minorities about the need for bone marrow transplants, and to register more donors. Donahue died of leukemia on March 24, 2005, almost two years after the campaign began."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adele W. Paxson",
        "text": "A founding supporter, Adele Paxson donated more than $1 million to help construct the Kimmel Center for the Performing Arts in Philadelphia."
      },
      {
        "title": "SBP (nonprofit organization)",
        "text": "President Barack Obama spoke at Xavier University in August 2010 on the fifth anniversary of Hurricane Katrina. Highlighting the \"dedicated public servants\" of New Orleans, he remarked of SPB that \"this endeavor has drawn volunteers from across the country to rebuild hundreds of homes throughout St. Bernard Parish and the Lower Ninth Ward.\" The following week, Oprah Winfrey announced the traveling company of \"The Color Purple\" would be raising funds for the organization along with the novel's author, Alice Walker. Shortly thereafter, SBP and similar disaster relief organizations drew criticism for being complicit by not speaking out again the \"blood relative\" ordinance, forbidding homeowners to rent to persons who were not blood relatives, which critics asserted was an act of de facto racism against Jews and blacks. SBP denied the allegations, asserting that they were not an advocacy group and that 30 percent of the homes they had rebuilt had been those of African-Americans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kate Grant",
        "text": "In 2005, Oprah Winfrey aired a segment on Fistula Foundation's work at the time supporting the Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital. Comedian Louis CK has long been a public supporter of Fistula Foundation, choosing the charity as the recipient of his winning Power Players Jeopardy! appearance and wearing a Fistula Foundation t-shirt as host of Saturday Night Live on April 8, 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edmond de Rothschild Foundations",
        "text": "In France, Edmond de Rothschild supported the children's welfare association \"\u0152uvre pour la protection des enfants juifs\" (OPEJ), originally founded to aid children of Jewish victims of the Vichy-era deportations. He became its president in 1969, offering OPEJ the Ch\u00e2teau de Maubuisson north of Paris (Val d'Oise). Under his guidance, the OPEJ was opened to all children regardless of faith or family background in 1981. Nadine de Rothschild continued this work after her husband's death. The institution has been presided by members of his family ever since."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Winfrey co-starred in Steven Spielberg's \"The Color Purple\" (1985), as distraught housewife Sofia. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance. The Alice Walker novel later became a Broadway musical which opened in late 2005, with Winfrey credited as a producer. In October 1998, Winfrey produced and starred in the film \"Beloved\", based on Toni Morrison's Pulitzer Prize\u2013winning novel of the same name. To prepare for her role as Sethe, the protagonist and former slave, Winfrey experienced a 24-hour simulation of the experience of slavery, which included being tied up and blindfolded and left alone in the woods. Despite major advertising, including two episodes of her talk show dedicated solely to the film, and moderate to good critical reviews, \"Beloved\" opened to poor box-office results, losing approximately $30\u00a0million. While promoting the movie, co-star Thandie Newton described Winfrey as \"a very strong technical actress and it's because she's so smart. She's acute. She's got a mind like a razor blade.\" Harpo Productions released a film adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston's 1937 novel \"Their Eyes Were Watching God\" in 2005. The made-for-television film was based upon a teleplay by Suzan-Lori Parks and starred Halle Berry in the lead female role."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ruth Ann Harnisch",
        "text": "Described as a proponent of \u201ccreative philanthropy,\u201d in 1998 Harnisch created the Harnisch Foundation, becoming the organization's president. With a philanthropic focus on projects promoting gender equity, diversity, racial equality, \"social innovation,\" and \"sustainable\" journalism, one of the foundation's first grants was to a local Nashville chapter of Parents and Friends of Lesbians and Gays. Subsequent investments have included projects such as crowdfunding campaigns, social impact films, and \"convenings.\" Harnisch's unusual charitable investing through the foundation was covered on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" and \"The Today Show\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many films has Winfrey appeared in?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you asking about Amy Winfrey, Travis Winfrey or Oprah Winfrey?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about Oprah Winfrey."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Oprah Winfrey has appeared in films: The Color Purple,  Beloved, and The Princess and the Frog. She has also voice acted  in Charlotte's Web, A Wrinkle in Time, and Crow: The Legend. Which of these would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in The Color Purple."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Color Purple is a 1985 American epic coming-of-age period drama film directed by Steven Spielberg and written by Menno Meyjes, based on the Pulitzer Prize-winning 1982 novel of the same name by Alice Walker. The cast stars Whoopi Goldberg in her breakthrough role, with Danny Glover, Oprah Winfrey, Margaret Avery, Rae Dawn Chong, Willard Pugh, and Adolph Caesar."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some of the philanthropy efforts that Oprah has done?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In 2004, Winfrey became the first black person to rank among the 50 most generous Americans and she remained among the top 50 until 2010, and by 2012, she had given away about $400 million to educational causes, in 1998, Winfrey created the Oprah's Angel Network, a charity that supported charitable projects and provided grants to nonprofit organizations around the world, and in 2004, Winfrey and her team filmed an episode of her show, Oprah's Christmas Kindness, in which Winfrey travelled to South Africa to bring attention to the plight of young children affected by poverty and AIDS. Would you like to know morw about the Angel Network or her  trip to South Africa?",
      "In 1998, Winfrey created the Oprah's Angel Network, a charity that supported charitable projects and provided grants to nonprofit organizations around the world. As of 2012, Winfrey had also given over 400 scholarships to Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia, and in 2013, Winfrey donated $12 million to the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture."
    ],
    "topic": "Oprah Winfrey",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:85",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Influence",
          "Philanthropy"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2004, Winfrey became the first black person to rank among the 50 most generous Americans and she remained among the top 50 until 2010. By 2012, she had given away about $400 million to educational causes."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:88",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Influence",
          "Philanthropy",
          "Oprah's Angel Network"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 1998, Winfrey created the Oprah's Angel Network, a charity that supported charitable projects and provided grants to nonprofit organizations around the world. Oprah's Angel Network raised more than $80 million ($1\u00a0million of which was donated by Jon Bon Jovi). Winfrey personally covered all administrative costs associated with the charity, so 100% of all funds raised went to charity programs. In May 2010, with Oprah's show ending, the charity stopped accepting donations and was shut down."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:86",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Influence",
          "Philanthropy"
        ],
        "ctx": "As of 2012, Winfrey had also given over 400 scholarships to Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia. Winfrey was the recipient of the first Bob Hope Humanitarian Award at the 2002 Emmy Awards for services to television and film. To celebrate two decades on national TV, and to thank her employees for their hard work, Winfrey took her staff and their families (1,065 people in total) on vacation to Hawaii in the summer of 2006."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:87",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Influence",
          "Philanthropy"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2013, Winfrey donated $12 million to the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture. President Barack Obama awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom later that same year."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "The Oprah Winfrey Show, often referred to as The Oprah Show or simply Oprah, was an American daytime syndicated talk show that aired nationally for 25 seasons from September 8, 1986, to May 25, 2011, in Chicago, Illinois. Produced and hosted by its namesake, Oprah Winfrey, it remains the highest-rated daytime talk show in American television history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey Network",
        "text": "In November 2009, Lisa Erspamer\u2014a Harpo executive that had been a co-executive producer of \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" since 2006\u2014was named chief creative officer of OWN. Due to her history of working with Winfrey, the appointment of Erspamer was seen as having stabilized OWN's development: network CEO Christina Norman described Erspamer's arrival as being an \"injection of Oprah's DNA\" into the upcoming channel. Later on November 20, Winfrey officially announced that \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" would conclude in 2011, after its 25th and final season. With the end of her talk show, Winfrey's commitments with Discovery were revised; a commitment for Winfrey to host a talk show on OWN and appear in at least 35 hours of programming per-year, was replaced with a commitment to appear in at least 70 hours of programming per-year, including \"Oprah's Next Chapter\"\u2014a primetime interview series hosted by Winfrey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harpo Productions",
        "text": "Oprah Winfrey got her roots in 1988 when Harpo Productions had to acquire her eponymous talk show from ABC O&O WLS-TV in Chicago, and automatically renewed its deal with King World Productions, who held minority interest, which was set to expire in 1991."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "In the 2009\u201310 season, Winfrey hosted this segment on her own. Fridays Live did not return for the show's 25th season."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Winfrey interviewed a plethora of public figures and everyday people during the show's 25-year history. When celebrities and newsmakers were ready to share their most intimate secrets their first stop was Winfrey's couch and when a serious story hit, the \"Oprah\" show focused on putting a human face on the headlines."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "\"Oprah\" was one of the longest-running daytime television talk shows in history. The show received 47 Daytime Emmy Awards before Winfrey chose to stop submitting it for consideration in 2000. In 2002, \"TV Guide\" ranked it at No. 49 on \"TV Guide\"s 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time. In 2013, they ranked it as the 19th greatest TV show of all time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In addition to her talk show, Winfrey also produced and co-starred in the drama miniseries \"The Women of Brewster Place\" (1989) and its short-lived spin-off, \"Brewster Place\". As well as hosting and appearing on television shows, Winfrey co-founded the women's cable television network Oxygen which was the initial network for her \"Oprah After the Show\" program from 2002 to 2006 before moving to Oprah.com when Winfrey sold her stake in the network. She is also the president of Harpo Productions (\"Oprah\" spelled backwards), a film and TV production company behind \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", \"Dr. Phil\", \"Rachael Ray\", \"The Dr. Oz Show\" and many others. She also moderated three \"ABC Afterschool Special\"s from 1992 to 1994."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey Network",
        "text": "By July 2013, Discovery considered the network to be \"cash flow positive\". In an interview with \"People\", Winfrey revealed that in 2012, she had a nervous breakdown over the channel's performance. Jason Russell had brought up the condition during an interview they were filming, which made Winfrey realize she was experiencing similar symptoms. She explained that \"after 25 years of being number one, I had become accustomed to success. I didn't expect failure. I was tested and I had to dig deep\", and that the scenario \"forced me not to just talk the talk. Failure is a great teacher. I knew this intellectually. But it's another thing if you're living it.\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 1993, Winfrey hosted a rare prime-time interview with Michael Jackson, which became the fourth most-watched event in American television history as well as the most watched interview ever, with an audience of 36.5\u00a0million. On December 1, 2005, Winfrey appeared on the \"Late Show with David Letterman\" for the first time in 16 years, to promote the new Broadway musical, \"The Color Purple\", which she produced. The episode was hailed by some as the \"television event of the decade\" and helped Letterman attract his largest audience in more than 11 years: 13.45\u00a0million viewers. Although a much-rumored feud was said to have been the cause of the rift, both Winfrey and Letterman balked at such talk. \"I want you to know, it's really over, whatever you thought was happening,\" said Winfrey. On September 10, 2007, Letterman made his first appearance on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", as its season premiere was filmed in New York City."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "In November 2009, Winfrey announced that the show would conclude in 2011 following its 25th and final season. The series finale aired on May 25, 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 1984, Winfrey relocated to Chicago to host WLS-TV's low-rated half-hour morning talk show, \"AM Chicago\", after being hired by that station's general manager, Dennis Swanson. The first episode aired on January 2, 1984. Within months after Winfrey took over, the show went from last place in the ratings to overtaking \"Donahue\" as the highest-rated talk show in Chicago. The movie critic Roger Ebert persuaded her to sign a syndication deal with King World. Ebert predicted that she would generate 40 times as much revenue as his television show, \"At the Movies\". It was then renamed \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" and expanded to a full hour. The first episode was broadcast nationwide on September 8, 1986. Winfrey's syndicated show brought in double Donahue's national audience, displacing Donahue as the number-one daytime talk show in America. Their much-publicized contest was the subject of enormous scrutiny. According to \"Time\" magazine in August 1988:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dennis Swanson",
        "text": "By February 1985, Winfrey was pulling double the ratings of \"Donahue\"; it was Swanson who suggested that Roger King of King World Productions meet Oprah, which led to her own syndicated talk show. \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", which the ABC owned-and-operated stations carried at launch, grew into one of television's most successful syndicated programs; in 2005, \"The New York Times\" described the move as \"worth billions of dollars for ABC's stations\". When Winfrey was honored with the Cecil B. DeMille Lifetime Achievement Award at the 75th Golden Globe Awards in 2018, Swanson was the first person she thanked, for taking \"a chance on me\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "In the 1989\u201390 season, Truddi Chase\u2014a woman who was diagnosed with dissociative identity disorder, having 92 distinct personalities\u2014appeared on the show. Chase had been violently and sexually abused beginning at the age of two and said her old self ceased to exist after that. After introducing Chase, who was there to promote her book \"When Rabbit Howls\", Winfrey unexpectedly broke down in tears while reading the teleprompter, relating her own childhood molestation to that of the guest. Unable to control herself, Winfrey repeatedly asked producers to stop filming."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "The show had only been on the air for just six months when, in 1987, Winfrey traveled to Forsyth County, Georgia, a community in which, for 75 years, no black person had lived. Winfrey brought attention to racial tensions in the area. The show was set up as a town hall meeting where residents expressed their divisive opinions on the matter. The meeting was becoming heated when one woman stood up and said:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In January 2017, CBS announced that Winfrey would join \"60 Minutes\" as a special contributor on the Sunday evening news magazine program starting in September 2017. The National Museum of African American History and Culture in 2018 opened a special exhibit on Winfrey's cultural influence through television. Winfrey left \"60 Minutes\" by the end of 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Talk show",
        "text": "Current late night talk shows such as \"The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, Conan\" and \"The Late Show with Stephen Colbert\" have aired featuring celebrity guests and comedy sketches. Syndicated daily talk shows range from tabloid talk shows, such as \"Jerry Springer\" and \"Maury\" to celebrity interview shows like \"Live with Kelly and Ryan\", \"Tamron Hall\", \"The Wendy Williams Show\", \"Steve Wilkos\", \"The Ellen DeGeneres Show\" and \"The Kelly Clarkson Show\" to industry leader \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" which popularized the former genre and has been evolving towards the latter. On November 10, 2010, Oprah Winfrey invited several of the most prominent American talk show hosts - Phil Donahue, Sally Jessy Raphael, Geraldo Rivera, Ricki Lake, and Montel Williams - to join her as guests on her show. The 1990s in particular saw a spike in the number of \"tabloid\" talk shows, most of which were short-lived and are now replaced by a more universally appealing \"interview\" or \"lifestyle TV\" format."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "The viewership for \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" was highest during the 1991\u201392 season, when about 13.1 million U.S. viewers were watching each day. By 2003, ratings declined to 7.4 million daily viewers. Ratings briefly rebounded to approximately 9 million in 2005 and then declined again to around 7.3\u00a0million viewers in 2008, though it remained the highest rated talk show."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "A weekly live episode premiered in the show's 23rd season with a panel consisting of Winfrey, Gayle King, Mark Consuelos, and Ali Wentworth. The panel discussed the week's news and highlighted events in the media and on the show."
      },
      {
        "title": "NBC Talknet",
        "text": "Williams was a tentpole of the Talknet lineup and continued with the service until its demise. Raphael, however, remained as host for a total of six years, from 1981-1987. Following her departure, several other hosts filled the 10 p.m.-1 a.m. slot, dispensing personal and relationship advice. These included Myrna Lamb, Lee Mirabal, Dara Welles and Neil Myers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Oprah Gail Winfrey (born Orpah Gail Winfrey; January 29, 1954) is an American talk show host, television producer, actress, author, and philanthropist. She is best known for her talk show, \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", broadcast from Chicago, which was the highest-rated television program of its kind in history and ran in national syndication for 25 years, from 1986 to 2011. Dubbed the \"Queen of All Media\", she was the richest African-American of the 20th century, was once the world's only black billionaire, and the greatest black philanthropist in U.S. history. By 2007, she was sometimes ranked as the most influential woman in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "On November 20, 2009, Winfrey officially announced that \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" would conclude in 2011, after its 25th and final season. Winfrey explained that 25 was \"the perfect number\u2014the exact right time\", and that \"I love this show. This show has been my life. And I love it enough to know when it's time to say goodbye.\" The 25th season premiered on September 13, 2010, featuring guest John Travolta, and an audience of 300 of her \"most loyal\" fans."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "\"Oprah\" had its roots in \"A.M. Chicago\", a half-hour morning talk show airing on WLS-TV, an ABC owned-and-operated station in Chicago. In 1983, Dennis Swanson, the new general manager of WLS-TV, hired Swanson to replace Robb Weller, that program's former host. Winfrey took over as host on January 2, 1984, and, within a month, took it from last place to first place in local Chicago ratings. By 1985, the local \"A.M. Chicago\" program was renamed to \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\". Following Winfrey's success in\u2014and Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations for\u2014her performance as Sofia in the film \"The Color Purple\", on September 8, 1986, the talk show was relaunched under its current title and picked up nationally. For the premiere, the show's producers tried rigorously to book \"Miami Vice\"s Don Johnson as the first guest, even trying to bribe him with Dom P\u00e9rignon and a pair of rhinestone sunglasses. All attempts to book Johnson failed and Winfrey decided to \"do what we do best, and that is a show about and with everyday people\". The theme for the premiere show was \"How to Marry the Man or Woman of Your Choice\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah After the Show",
        "text": "The program was discontinued on-air in 2006 after Winfrey sold her interest in Oxygen to another party, but the \"After the Show\" concept continued as streaming video on the Oprah.com website until the program's May 2011 end."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mark Consuelos",
        "text": "In the 2009\u201310 season, Winfrey hosted this segment on her own. Fridays Live did not return for the show's 25th season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tamron Hall (talk show)",
        "text": "On September 8, 2020, it was announced that an encore presentation of the show would air on Oprah Winfrey Network starting on September 14."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Conversation",
        "text": "The Oprah Conversation is an interview talk show by Oprah Winfrey that premiered on Apple TV+ on July 30, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "WJZ-TV",
        "text": "In 1976, Oprah Winfrey became an anchor for the station's 6:00\u00a0p.m. newscast. She also co-hosted channel 13's local talk show, \"People Are Talking\" with Richard Sher, which premiered on August 14, 1978, until she left for Chicago in 1983."
      },
      {
        "title": "WBZ-TV",
        "text": "WBZ-TV carried \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" during its first nationally syndicated year (1986\u20131987), airing the show weekdays at 9 a.m. Despite its overnight success, channel 4 had little interest in keeping the show as a part of its schedule, in part because the station had to give priority to the upcoming Group W-distributed talk show, \"The Wil Shriner Show\", in the fall of 1987. \"Oprah\" moved to a 5:00\u00a0p.m. weekday time slot on WCVB-TV, where it became an institution (later moving to 4 p.m. in 1994) for the balance of its run, ending in 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah After the Show",
        "text": "Oprah After the Show is a program on the Oxygen cable network from 2002 to 2006, and was an extra half-hour that allowed the audience to ask questions of the guests for that day's earlier episode of \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" which aired in syndication, and for Oprah Winfrey to introduce extended segments. The program was created mainly as a make good by Winfrey, who had offered her program's archive to Oxygen upon taking an ownership interest in the network, but later changed her mind about airing her older episodes and decided to offer another contribution to the network beyond same-day repeat airings of her show, which were likely disallowed by her syndication contract with King World."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "On January 15, 2008, Discovery Communications, Harpo Productions, and Winfrey announced a joint venture to establish a new cable channel in 2009, known as the Oprah Winfrey Network (OWN). In November 2008, it was reported that, during a conference call, Discovery Communications CEO David Zaslav stated that Winfrey did not intend to renew her contracts for \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" beyond the 2010\u201311 season. Zaslav stated that \"Oprah\" could potentially move to the new channel in some form following the end of the syndicated series. However, Harpo Productions denied the report, stating that Winfrey had \"not made a final decision as to whether she will continue her show in syndication beyond [2011]\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Conversation",
        "text": "On July 27, 2020, Apple and Oprah Winfrey announced \"The Oprah Conversation\", with the first two episodes airing on July 30, 2020 on Apple TV+, and following episodes releasing on an irregular schedule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey Network",
        "text": "Winfrey would serve as the chairwoman of the channel, which was expected to deal in factual programming oriented towards her personal philosophy of \"living your best life\"; this would include topics such as health, love, parenting, and spirituality. Discovery provided $100 million in funding, and Harpo provided access to its library and Winfrey's website, Oprah.com. As it was still under contract with CBS Television Distribution through May 2011, her existing syndicated talk show \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" was not expected to air on OWN, but there was a possibility that a continuation of it (or a successor) could air on OWN in the future."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gayle King",
        "text": "King worked as a special correspondent for \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\". In 1991, King briefly co-hosted an NBC daytime talk show with Robin Wagner called \"Cover to Cover\", which was canceled after 13 weeks. In 1997, she was offered her own syndicated talk show, \"The Gayle King Show\", which was canceled after one season due to low ratings. In September 2006, King began to host \"The Gayle King Show\" on XM Satellite Radio."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "The Oprah Winfrey Show\n--Early history.\n--Interviews.\n----Celebrities.\n----Notable guests.\n--Regular segments and campaigns.\n----Oprah's Book Club.\n----Oprah's Favorite Things.\n----Oprah & Gayle's Big Adventures.\n----Remembering Your Spirit.\n----Change Your Life TV.\n------Iyanla Vanzant.\n------Dr. Phil.\n------Suze Orman.\n----What's The Buzz?\n----Wildest Dreams.\n----Tuesdays with Dr. Oz.\n----Fridays Live.\n----No Phone Zone.\n--Memorable moments.\n----Giveaways.\n----Controversies.\n--Final season.\n----Final episodes.\n--United States viewership.\n----Spin-offs.\n--International syndication.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Montel Williams",
        "text": "On November 10, 2010, Oprah Winfrey invited Williams, along with former talk show hosts Phil Donahue, Geraldo Rivera, Ricki Lake, and Sally Jessy Raphael as guests on her show. This was the first time that the fellow talkers had appeared together since their programs left the air."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Dr. Oz Show",
        "text": "In 2009, Winfrey offered to produce a syndicated series featuring Mehmet Oz through her company, Harpo Productions. \"The Dr. Oz Show\" debuted September 14, 2009. It received Daytime Emmy nominations for Outstanding Talk Show Informative and Outstanding Talk Show Informative Host in 2010, winning the latter."
      },
      {
        "title": "WEWS-TV",
        "text": "In 2011, Oprah Winfrey ended her show after a successful 25-year run. In order to fill the void, WEWS put \"The Dr. Oz Show\" (an \"Oprah\" spin-off hosted by Cleveland native Dr. Mehmet Oz), which was airing at 10 a.m., in the 4 p.m. time slot., and in subsequent years aired various other programs in that slot until settling in with a 4 p.m. newscast in fall 2018. (\"Dr. Oz\" ended up moving to WJW until the show ended its run in 2022 due to Oz's commitments to running for the United States Senate.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "In the United Kingdom, the show has been broadcast on a number of different channels. Channel 4 first broadcast the series on Monday October 3, 1988, The BBC & Sky one acquired the rights and started broadcasting the series from 9 January 1995 which meant at time during 1995 the show went out on 3 different channel. Five pick up the terrestrial rights from early 1998. Rights subsequently went to Living TV by 2002, followed by ITV2 in 2006, and then to Diva TV, until rights went to TLC for the last couple of series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "On February 9, 2006, it was announced that Winfrey had signed a three-year, $55-million contract with XM Satellite Radio to establish a new radio channel. The channel, Oprah Radio, features popular contributors to \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" and \"O, The Oprah Magazine\" including Nate Berkus, Dr. Mehmet Oz, Bob Greene, Dr. Robin Smith, and Marianne Williamson. Oprah & Friends began broadcasting at 11:00\u00a0am ET, September 25, 2006, from a new studio at Winfrey's Chicago headquarters. The channel broadcasts 24 hours a day, seven days a week on XM Radio Channel 156. Winfrey's contract requires her to be on the air 30 minutes a week, 39 weeks a year."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Letterman",
        "text": "Oprah Winfrey appeared on Letterman's show when he was hosting NBC's \"Late Night\" on May 2, 1989. After that appearance, the two had a 16-year feud that arose, as Winfrey explained to Letterman after it had been resolved, as a result of the acerbic tone of their 1989 interview, of which she said that it \"felt so uncomfortable to me that I didn't want to have that experience again\". The feud apparently ended on December 2, 2005 when Winfrey appeared on CBS's \"Late Show with David Letterman\" in an event Letterman jokingly called \"the Super Bowl of Love\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rachael Ray",
        "text": "In 2005, she signed a deal to host a syndicated daytime TV talk show. The show, \"Rachael Ray,\" premiered on September 18, 2006. Recurrent appearances on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" were used to fuel the launch, much as Dr. Phil's show was spun off based on his own frequent visits to \"Oprah\". The show tapes in New York City. In coordination with the syndication announcement, Ray said, \"People know me for my love of food, but I have so much more I want to share\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sally (talk show)",
        "text": "\"Sally Jessy Raphael\" was one of the first audience-participation, issue-driven talk shows to have a female host, predating \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" by three years. The program was an iconic part of the tabloid talk show genre that pervaded daytime television throughout much of the 1980s and 1990s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey Network",
        "text": "As of March 2014, the network's programming primarily consists of marathons, with eight-hour daytime blocks airing multiple episodes of the same series, usually a different show each day. The primetime programming varies and is repeated in late night, followed by an overnight movie and a morning block of talk shows including \"Dr. Phil\", \"Rachel Ray\", and \"The Nate Berkus Show\". The programming includes a mix of original programs, specials, documentaries, and acquired movies. The channel does not air infomercials."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 1998, Winfrey created the Oprah's Angel Network, a charity that supported charitable projects and provided grants to nonprofit organizations around the world. Oprah's Angel Network raised more than $80 million ($1\u00a0million of which was donated by Jon Bon Jovi). Winfrey personally covered all administrative costs associated with the charity, so 100% of all funds raised went to charity programs. In May 2010, with Oprah's show ending, the charity stopped accepting donations and was shut down."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Levitt (producer)",
        "text": "In late 2010 Levitt partnered with producer Mark Burnett to executive produce \"Ask Oprah's All Stars\", a primetime talk show format uniting Dr. Oz, Dr. Phil, and Suze Orman. The four two-hour specials initially ran the first four Sunday nights of 2011, and were the highest rated on Oprah Winfrey's fledgling OWN network. Two of the specials were moderated by Gayle King, and the other two by Robin Meade. Celebrity appearances included Stevie Wonder, Mario Lopez, Vanessa Williams, Nancy O'Dell, and Winfrey herself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey Network",
        "text": "In November 2008, Zaslav stated that Winfrey had planned to not renew her contract with CBS for \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" beyond the 2010\u201311 season, and that the show could move to OWN in some form following the end of the syndicated run. Harpo Productions denied the report, stating that Winfrey \"has not made a final decision as to whether she will continue her show in syndication beyond [2011]\". The development of OWN was affected by internal conflicts, as well as Winfrey's continued commitment to her talk show. Its launch was pushed back from its originally-announced target of 2009 to an unspecified date. Zaslav pressured Oprah into moving her talk show to the channel, believing that it could boost its business."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lisa Ling",
        "text": "On February 16, 2011, her show \"Our America with Lisa Ling\" premiered on OWN: The Oprah Winfrey Network. It ran for five straight seasons."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "The \"Diet Dreams Come True\" episode from November 15, 1988, has become one of the most talked-about moments in the history of show. After years of struggling to lose weight, Winfrey had finally succeeded in doing so. In July of that year, she had started the Optifast diet while weighing 212 pounds. By Fall, she weighed 145 pounds. To commemorate achieving her weight loss goals, Winfrey wheeled out a wagon full of fat to represent the 67 pounds she had lost on the diet. She showed off her slim figure in a pair of size 10 Calvin Klein jeans. However, after returning to real food she quickly gained back much of the weight she had lost. Winfrey now refers to that moment as her \"ego in a pom pom salute.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Winfrey also interviewed Chicago's \"Guardian Angels\" and Raymond Lear in 1988."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Over the years, talk show host Oprah Winfrey has won the following awards and nominations for her Media Works:\n*1999: Black Film Award for Best Actress: Beloved : Nominated\n* 2011: Chairman's Award\n* 1998: Lifetime Achievement Award\n* 2014: Outstanding Special Class Series: Super Soul Sunday\n* 1998: Outstanding Talk Show Host: The Oprah Winfrey Show\n* 1997: Outstanding Talk Show: The Oprah Winfrey Show\n* 1992: Outstanding Talk Show Host: The Oprah Winfrey Show\n* 1991: Outstanding Talk Show: The Oprah Winfrey Show\n* 1991: Outstanding Talk Show Host: The Oprah Winfrey Show\n* 1989: Outstanding Talk Show: The Oprah Winfrey Show\n* 1987: Outstanding Talk Show Host: The Oprah Winfrey Show\n* 1998: S. Roger Horchow Award for Greatest Public Service by a Private Citizen\n* 1989: Outstanding News, Talk or Information - Series or Special: Oprah Winfrey: On Location in Forsyth County\n* 1991: Entertainer of the Year\n* 1992: Outstanding News, Talk or Information - Series or Special: The Oprah Winfrey Show\n* 1992: Outstanding News, Talk or Information - Series: The Oprah Winfrey Show\n* 1993: Outstanding News, Talk or Information - Series or Special: The Oprah Winfrey Show\n* 1994: Outstanding News, Talk or Information - Series or Special: The Oprah Winfrey Show\n* 1995: Outstanding News, Talk or Information - Series or Special: The Oprah Winfrey Show\n* 1996: Outstanding News, Talk or Information - Series: The Oprah Winfrey Show\n* 1998: Outstanding News, Talk or Information - Series: The Oprah Winfrey Show\n* 1998: Outstanding News, Talk or Information - Special: Dinner With Oprah: A Lifetime Exclusive - Toni Morrison\n* 2005: Hall of Fame\n* 2012: Outstanding Talk Series: Oprah's Lifeclass"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "After the show's final episode, reruns of \"Oprah\" remained available to air until September 2011, by which point individual stations had selected other syndicated or local programs to fill the show's timeslot. Several stations that had carried the show in the 4:00\u00a0p.m. timeslot began carrying local news programs at that time, with a handful of stations debuting these newscasts the day after the final episode aired; as a result, the show's final months of reruns did not air in the normal timeslot in some areas."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "In 1996, on a discussion of Mad Cow Disease, Winfrey stated that the disease fears had \"stopped [her] cold from eating another burger!\" Texas cattle ranchers considered that quote tantamount to defamation, and promptly sued her for libel. The show was still producing new episodes at the time of the trial and could not go into reruns, so the production was forced to move to Amarillo, Texas for a period of approximately one month during the proceedings. A gag order meant Winfrey was not allowed to even mention the trial on her show. Winfrey was found not liable. The trial and move to Amarillo led to Winfrey meeting Phil McGraw; Winfrey made McGraw a regular guest on her show shortly thereafter, which eventually led to McGraw getting his own show, produced by Winfrey's Harpo Productions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Credited with creating a more intimate, confessional form of media communication, Winfrey popularized and revolutionized the tabloid talk show genre pioneered by Phil Donahue. In 1994, she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. Winfrey has won many accolades throughout her career which includes 18 Daytime Emmy Awards, including the Lifetime Achievement Award and the Chairman's Award, two Primetime Emmy Awards, including the Bob Hope Humanitarian Award, a Tony Award, a Peabody Award and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award, awarded by the Academy Awards and two additional Academy Award nominations. Winfey was elected as a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Lifeclass",
        "text": "In the second season, Winfrey took the show on the road with a panel of spiritual teachers. Season Two premiered as \"Oprah's Lifeclass: The Tour\" from its first stop at The Peabody Opera House in St. Louis, Missouri on Monday March 26, 2012 at 8/7c with a two-hour live episode with guest co-host Iyanla Vanzant. The second season aired weekly on Monday at 8/7c and features six two-hour episodes that were simultaneously televised on OWN: Oprah Winfrey Network and streamed online at \"Oprah.com\" (instead of separate telecast episodes and webcasts, as was the case with the first season). The tour concluded at the Metro Toronto Convention Centre in Toronto, Ontario; the final episode was filmed on Monday April 16, 2012 and aired on OWN on Monday April 30, 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Clemantine Wamariya and her sister Claire appeared on the show in 2006 when Wamariya was selected as one of the winners of an essay contest held by Winfrey. It was revealed that the siblings had not seen their parents in 12 years after fleeing Rwanda during the 1994 genocide. Winfrey surprised the sisters by flying their family to Chicago for one of the most emotional reunions on the show."
      },
      {
        "title": "WLS-TV",
        "text": "In 1988, WLS-TV agreed to sell production rights to \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" to her Harpo Productions company, but ABC O&Os continued to air the show until the end of its run in 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "While doing a show centered on women drug users in 1995, Winfrey opened up about her personal history with drug abuse:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Egypt Sherrod",
        "text": "Sherrod has been sought out as a speaker and moderator. She hosted the stage at Oprah's \"The Life You Want Tour.\" Sherrod has been invited as a recurring \u2018Hot Topics\u2019 guest and lifestyle pundit on programs such as \"Dish Nation\", \"Steve Harvey\", \"Showbiz Tonight\", and \"Larry Wilmore Show\". Sherrod will host the reunion special of the television soap opera series from the Oprah Winfrey Network, \"The Haves and the Have Nots\", airing as part of the program's series finale package on July 27, 2021 and August 3, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "On November 10, 1986, during a show about sexual abuse, Winfrey revealed that she was raped by a relative when she was nine years old. Since this episode, Winfrey has used the show as a platform to help catch child predators, raise awareness, and give victims a voice."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Oprah's Lifeclass episodes",
        "text": "Season Two of \"Oprah's Lifeclass\" aired weekly on OWN: Oprah Winfrey Network from Monday March 26 until Monday April 30, 2012. Winfrey hosted class discussions in various cities across North America, in an effort to better connect with the show's audience. Winfrey made tour stops in St. Louis, Missouri, New York City, New York, and Toronto, Ontario. The second season aired Mondays at 8/7c and consists of six two-hour episodes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mark Consuelos",
        "text": "A weekly live episode of the \"Oprah Winfrey Show\" premiered in the show's 23rd season with a panel consisting of Mark Consuelos, Ali Wentworth, Oprah Winfrey, and Gayle King. The panel discussed the week's news and highlighted events in the media and on the show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tabloid talk show",
        "text": "In the September 2002 issue of \"O, The Oprah Magazine\", Oprah Winfrey interviewed Phil Donahue at his Manhattan penthouse apartment in what she described as a \"full-circle\" moment. She wrote in the article's introduction, \"If there had been no Phil Donahue show, there would be no Oprah Winfrey show. He was the first to acknowledge that women are interested in more than mascara tips and cake recipes \u2013 that we're intelligent, we're concerned about the world around us, and we want the best possible lives for ourselves.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "E. Jean Carroll",
        "text": "From 1994 through 1996, NBC's \"America's Talking\"\u2014the predecessor to MSNBC\u2014aired \"Ask E. Jean\", a television series that Carroll produced. \"Entertainment Weekly\" called Carroll \"the most entertaining cable talk show host you will never see.\" Carroll and the show were nominated for a CableACE Award in 1995."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "The final episode of \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" aired on Wednesday, May 25, 2011. It was preceded by a two-part farewell special recorded at the United Center in Chicago in front of an audience of 13,000. The two-part show featured appearances by Aretha Franklin, Tom Cruise, Stevie Wonder, Patti LaBelle, Beyonc\u00e9, Tom Hanks, Maria Shriver, Will Smith, and Madonna. Several hundred graduates of Morehouse College who were the recipients of Oprah's Oprah Winfrey Scholarship also attended to thank Oprah and pledge their future support of the scholarship program. The final episode was a smaller affair, recorded in the usual recording studio. Winfrey spent most of the finale thanking the show's staff and her fans."
      },
      {
        "title": "America's Talk",
        "text": "In October 2010, Rollye James announced that Clear Channel was canceling her contract after six years of airing on XM. Clear Channel was obligated to inform her in advance, and that her show will cease broadcasting on America's Talk on March 31, 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "The series finale of \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" aired on May 25, 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Ellen DeGeneres Show",
        "text": "The show has received 171 Daytime Emmy Award nominations and has won 61 Daytime Emmy Awards as of 2021, including four for Outstanding Talk Show and seven for Outstanding Talk Show Entertainment, making 11 total awards and surpassing the record held by \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", which won nine as Outstanding Talk Show before it was divided into two categories (Informative and Entertainment) in 2008. The show also won 17 People's Choice Awards. On May 21, 2019, DeGeneres announced she had signed for three more years, renewing the show through 2022. The eighteenth season premiered on September 21, 2020. On May 12, 2021, DeGeneres announced that the nineteenth season is set to be her last. It premiered on September 13, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Haves and the Have Nots (TV series)",
        "text": "\"The Haves and the Have Nots\" premiered on May 28, 2013, and ran for 8 seasons on the Oprah Winfrey Network (OWN), for a total of 196 hour-long episodes. The series finale aired on Tuesday, July 20, 2021. As part of the show's finale, a two-part cast reunion special consisting of all \"The Have and Have Nots\" main characters in front of a live studio audience was televised, part 1 on July 27 and part 2 on August 3."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Simon",
        "text": "In the premiere show of the final season of \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" on September 10, 2010, Simon surprised Oprah and the audience with a song dedicated to her show lasting 25 years (an update of a song he did for her show's 10th anniversary)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harpo Productions",
        "text": "On January 1, 2011, the Oprah Winfrey Network (OWN) launched. It is co-owned by Harpo Studios (5%) and Discovery Communications, Inc (95%). The network replaced the Discovery Health Channel, a cable channel previously owned by Discovery Communications, Inc. The network initially had a variety of new shows, including some hosted by the stable of experts Winfrey has cultivated on her daytime talk show including: \"The Gayle King Show\", \"Our America with Lisa Ling\", \"In The Bedroom with Dr. Laura Berman\" and \"Enough Already! with Peter Walsh\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ricki Lake (1993 talk show)",
        "text": "In 1994, the show was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Talk Show Host, but \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" won the award. Other awards the show has garnered includes the Gracie Allen Award, PRISM Certificates & Commendations, and many more."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey Network",
        "text": "On September 15, 2012, OWN premiered \"\"\u2014a reality series starring Iyanla Vanzant. It attracted critical acclaim and a large audience; its two-night premiere event was seen by 1.1 and 1.6 million total viewers respectively. The Sunday-night airing was the third-highest-rated program of the night across ad-supported cable networks, and was the highest-rated program of the night among women 18-49 and African American women 25\u201354."
      },
      {
        "title": "NBC Talknet",
        "text": "Raphael focused her efforts on television, but after her TV show was canceled, relaunched her show as \"Sally JR's Open House\", originally an Internet-only effort, but later transferred to radio syndication. Raphael's last radio show aired July 7, 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "The show was number one in the talk show ratings since its debut. The show spent many years as the highest-rated program in daytime television. Even with stiff competition, \"Oprah\" still maintained a consistent lead over other talk shows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sally Jessy Raphael",
        "text": "From approximately 2005 to 2008, she hosted a daily radio show, \"Sally Jessy Raphael on Talknet\" (previously called \"Sally JR's Open House\"), on the Internet and in syndication to local radio stations. The show's flagship station was WVIE, Baltimore, Maryland and the show aired on AM stations in New England, the Mid-Atlantic and the Midwest, in addition to at least one station in Arizona. The show also aired on XM Satellite Radio's America's Talk channel from November 19, 2007 until its end. The name \"Talknet\" is a revival of the name of NBC Talknet, the now-defunct radio network that carried her previous radio show from 1981 to 1987. She abruptly ended the show July 7, 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "The show aired in 149 countries worldwide and was often renamed and dubbed into other languages."
      },
      {
        "title": "For Better or Worse (2011 TV series)",
        "text": "In 2013, Oprah Winfrey Network ordered a third season, which premiered on September 18, 2013. The show would run for three additional seasons on OWN."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "On February 10, 1993, Winfrey sat down in a prime-time special broadcast with Michael Jackson, who had performed nine days earlier in the Super Bowl XXVII halftime show, for what would become the most-watched interview in television history. Jackson, an intensely private entertainer, had not given an interview in 14 years. The event was broadcast live from Jackson's Neverland Ranch and was watched by 90 million people worldwide and, as a result, his then 14-month-old studio album \"Dangerous\" hit the top-ten on the album charts. Jackson discussed missing out on a normal childhood and his strained relationship with his father, Joe Jackson. During the interview, Jackson attempted to dispel many of the rumors surrounding him and told Winfrey he suffered from the skin-pigment disorder known as vitiligo when asked about the change in the color of his skin. While admitting to getting a nose job, he denied all other plastic surgery rumors. Later in the interview, Jackson was joined by his close friend Elizabeth Taylor, her third appearance on the show."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "On January 24, 2011, Winfrey revealed that just before Thanksgiving 2010 she had discovered she has a half-sister. Winfrey decided to share the news on her show because she knew the story would eventually get out and wanted to be the first to address the matter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kristine Carlson",
        "text": "In addition to appearances on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" on December 5, 2007, Carlson has appeared on other national talk shows, such as The Today Show and The View and local news and talk shows, such as CBS in San Francisco."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mehmet Oz",
        "text": "Oz appeared as a health expert on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" for five seasons. In 2009, Winfrey offered to produce a syndicated series hosted by him through her company, Harpo Productions. \"The Dr. Oz Show\" debuted on September 14, 2009, distributed by Sony Pictures Television."
      },
      {
        "title": "Toni Tennille",
        "text": "Following a December 1979 pilot, from September 1980 to February 1981 Tennille hosted her own syndicated television talk show, \"The Toni Tennille Show\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Angela Hill (journalist)",
        "text": "In 1989, Angela Hill created and hosted the \"Angela Show,\" a daily talk show. The \"Angela Show\" started in 1989 and ended in 1996. The \"Angela Show\" aired 1,668 shows. Hill's interviewees included notable actors, authors, fashion designers, musicians, and politicians including Danny Thomas, Oprah Winfrey, Anne Rice, Bill Clinton, Cokie Roberts, Lindy Boggs, Dave Thomas, Willie Nelson, Tommy Hilfiger, Roberta Flack, John Goodman, and Oscar de la Renta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ricki Lake",
        "text": "The show debuted in syndication on September 13, 1993, and ended first-run episodes on May 25, 2004. In 2000, Lake told Rosie O'Donnell in an interview that she had signed on for four additional years. Although Sony Pictures Television had many stations contracted through the 2004\u20132005 season, Lake decided to end the show in August 2004, citing (among other things) a desire to spend time with her family. She moved from Los Angeles to New York to tape the 11th season of the show, then returned to California when taping was complete. Lake returned to the talk show platform when she hosted a revived version of her original talk show which premiered in September 2012 and was cancelled after one season."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of programs broadcast by Oprah Winfrey Network",
        "text": "List of programs broadcast by Oprah Winfrey Network\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Seung-Hui Cho",
        "text": "During the April 24, 2007, edition of \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", NBC News president Steve Capus stated NBC decided to air 2 minutes and 20 seconds of the 25 minutes of videos it received and just 37 sentences of the 23 pages of writings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "On the season premiere of Winfrey's 13th season, Roseanne Barr told Winfrey \"you're the African Mother Goddess of us all\" inspiring much enthusiasm from the studio audience. The animated series \"Futurama\" alluded to her spiritual influence by suggesting that \"Oprahism\" is a mainstream religion in 3000\u00a0AD. Twelve days after the September 11 attacks, New York mayor Rudy Giuliani asked Winfrey to serve as host of a Prayer for America service at New York City's Yankee Stadium, which was attended by former president Bill Clinton and New York senator Hillary Clinton. Leading up to the U.S.-led 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, less than a month after the September 11 attacks, Winfrey aired a controversial show called \"Islam 101\" in which she portrayed Islam as a religion of peace, calling it \"the most misunderstood of the three major religions\". In 2002, George W. Bush invited Winfrey to join a US delegation that included adviser Karen Hughes and Condoleezza Rice, planning to go to Afghanistan to celebrate the return of Afghan girls to school. The \"Oprah strategy\" was designed to portray the War on Terror in a positive light; however, when Winfrey refused to participate, the trip was postponed."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Talk (talk show)",
        "text": "On August 26, 2011, CBS announced that comedian Sheryl Underwood would join the panel as a co-host at the start of its second season; Underwood was officially added to the program on September 6, 2011, beginning with that season's premiere episode."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Anti-war series",
        "text": "\u201cThe World Speaks Out On Iraq\u201d was considered to be the most significant installment of Winfrey\u2019s anti-war series, for being a two-day special aired on February 6, 2003, the day after Colin Powell's speech to the United Nations which was credited with shifting public opinion in favor of the war."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey Network",
        "text": "The official launch of OWN was set for January 1, 2011, so that it would occur while Oprah's talk show was still on the air. Plans now called for at least 600 hours of original programming in 2011, as well as acquired and library programming (including reruns of \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" later in the year, and \"Dr. Phil\"); although Winfrey did make appearances in some of the programming aired on-launch (such as \"Oprah's Master Class\"), her involvement was expected to increase following the end of \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\". After the launch of OWN, Discovery Health's programming was merged into another Discovery-owned channel, FitTV\u2014which rebranded as Discovery Fit & Health a month later on February 1, 2011. It was subsequently re-branded again as Discovery Life in 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Oprah's Lifeclass episodes",
        "text": "Season One of \"Oprah's Lifeclass\" aired on OWN: Oprah Winfrey Network from Monday October 10 until Friday November 11, 2011. The first season of \"Lifeclass\" aired Monday-Friday at 8/7c, following \"The Rosie Show\", and the pair was considered a reboot for the struggling network to increase viewership during its fall launch of shows. Season One consists of twenty-five hour-long episodes hosted by Winfrey, and nine 90-minute webcasts hosted by Winfrey and a guest teacher (some of which aired as \"Oprah's Lifeclass LIVE\" episodes, following \"Lifeclass\" on Friday nights)."
      },
      {
        "title": "NBC Talknet",
        "text": "Talknet premiered on 21 stations nationwide on Monday, November 2, 1981. Early affiliates included WRC Washington; WIOD Miami; KXL Portland, Oregon; WJW Cleveland; KFBK Sacramento; WLW Cincinnati; KOB Albuquerque; WDAY Fargo; WOOD Grand Rapids; WCAR Detroit; and WSTV Steubenville, Ohio. Maurice Tunick was creator and executive producer.\n:Tunick: \"I came up with the name 'Talknet' and created and developed the 'Dear Abby' format for Sally Jessy Raphael which I tested earlier that year on NBC's WRC in Washington D.C. Prior to Talknet the only radio advice shows were hosted by clinical psychologists. My idea for Sally was 'a friend.' Over the back fence advice. Someone to talk to, someone who cares (as the theme music said). A daring, revolutionary idea at the time. Sally was a well-traveled but unknown broadcaster at the time. Sally's TV show would start a couple of years later (1983), a direct result of her Talknet success. Much forgotten is that Bruce Williams originally aired at 10 PM Eastern to Midnight, and Sally Jessy Raphael aired Midnight to 3 AM Eastern time. That quickly changed, I'm not sure how long, maybe a couple of months, to 7-10 PM and 10-1 AM. The shows were a hit out of the box and stations asked for earlier feed time. Weekend programming was added a year later with Bernard Meltzer and Dr. Harvey Ruben.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Marie Osmond",
        "text": "Osmond and her brother hosted a syndicated 60-minute talk show for three seasons from September 1998 to May 2000 called \"Donny & Marie\". The show was produced by Dick Clark and featured news, commentary on current events, and guests from the world of entertainment, as well as segments highlighting the duo's talents. In 2006, she was a judge on the short-lived Fox celeb reality show competition \"Celebrity Duets\", produced by Simon Cowell. The same year it was reported by \"Entertainment Tonight\" magazine that Osmond would join the cast of \"The Bold and the Beautiful\", the long-running CBS daytime soap opera, but she never appeared."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caroline Myss",
        "text": "She was on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" several times including her 2002 appearance. In 2001 she hosted a TV series titled \"The Journey With Caroline Myss\" on the Oxygen (TV network), co-owned by Oprah Winfrey, exploring the spiritual and psychological roadblocks of life in an intimate workshop setting. The TV Specials \"Three Levels of Power & How to Use Them\" and \"Why People Don't Heal & How They Can,\" based on her work."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "In March 2010, Winfrey began a campaign to stop drivers from talking or texting on their cell phone in their vehicles while driving. This campaign was regularly noted near the beginning or at the end of episodes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Making Oprah",
        "text": "The podcast tells the story of how Oprah Winfrey became one of the best known talk show hosts and moguls in American pop culture. It follows her career from her first broadcasting job as a local TV host for a Baltimore show called \"People Are Talking\", up to present day. The show's topics include reasons behind why audiences connected to Winfrey the way they did, the development of Harpo Studios, and how Winfrey turned to spirituality, all contextualized in terms of the American TV landscape. It discusses some controversial episodes, such as her interview with skinheads, when Tom Cruise jumped on her couch, and the \"you get a car\" episode."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ellen DeGeneres",
        "text": "DeGeneres returned to television in 2001 with a new CBS sitcom, \"The Ellen Show\", which was cancelled after 13 episodes. In 2007, a former writer said she treated the writers \"like shit\" saying \"Why do you keep writing these unfunny jokes?\" After her sitcoms, DeGeneres would later re-establish herself as a successful talk show host."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Born in rural poverty, and raised by a mother dependent on government welfare payments in a poor urban neighborhood, Winfrey became a millionaire at the age of 32 when her talk show received national syndication. Winfrey negotiated ownership rights to the television program and started her own production company. At the age of 41, Winfrey had a net worth of $340\u00a0million and replaced Bill Cosby as the only African American on the \"Forbes 400\". By 2000, with a net worth of $800\u00a0million, Winfrey is believed to have been the richest African American of the 20th century. There has been a course taught at the University of Illinois focusing on Winfrey's business acumen, namely: \"History 298: Oprah Winfrey, the Tycoon\". Winfrey was the highest paid television entertainer in the United States in 2006, earning an estimated $260\u00a0million during the year, five times the sum earned by second-place music executive Simon Cowell. By 2008, her yearly income had increased to $275\u00a0million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Working in local media, Winfrey was both the youngest news anchor and the first black female news anchor at Nashville's WLAC-TV (now WTVF-TV), where she often covered the same stories as John Tesh, who worked at a competing Nashville station. In 1976, she moved to Baltimore's WJZ-TV to co-anchor the six o'clock news. In 1977, she was removed as co-anchor and worked in lower profile positions at the station. She was then recruited to join Richard Sher as co-host of WJZ's local talk show \"People Are Talking\", which premiered on August 14, 1978. She also hosted the local version of \"Dialing for Dollars\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2000, she was awarded the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP. In 2002, \"Christianity Today\" published an article called \"The Church of O\" in which they concluded that Winfrey had emerged as an influential spiritual leader. \"Since 1994, when she abandoned traditional talk-show fare for more edifying content, and 1998, when she began 'Change Your Life TV', Oprah's most significant role has become that of a spiritual leader. To her audience of more than 22 million mostly female viewers, she has become a postmodern priestess\u2014an icon of church-free spirituality.\" The sentiment was echoed by Marcia Z. Nelson in her book \"The Gospel According to Oprah\". Since the mid-1990s, Winfrey's show has emphasized uplifting and inspirational topics and themes and some viewers say the show has motivated them to perform acts of altruism such as helping Congolese women and building an orphanage. A scientific study by psychological scientists at the University of Cambridge, University of Plymouth, and University of California used an uplifting clip from The Oprah Winfrey Show in an experiment that discovered that watching the 'uplifting' clip caused subjects to become twice as helpful as subjects assigned to watch a British comedy or nature documentary."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many films has Winfrey appeared in?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you asking about Amy Winfrey, Travis Winfrey or Oprah Winfrey?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about Oprah Winfrey."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Oprah Winfrey has appeared in films: The Color Purple,  Beloved, and The Princess and the Frog. She has also voice acted  in Charlotte's Web, A Wrinkle in Time, and Crow: The Legend. Which of these would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in The Color Purple."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Color Purple is a 1985 American epic coming-of-age period drama film directed by Steven Spielberg and written by Menno Meyjes, based on the Pulitzer Prize-winning 1982 novel of the same name by Alice Walker. The cast stars Whoopi Goldberg in her breakthrough role, with Danny Glover, Oprah Winfrey, Margaret Avery, Rae Dawn Chong, Willard Pugh, and Adolph Caesar."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some of the philanthropy efforts that Oprah has done?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In 1998, Winfrey created the Oprah's Angel Network, a charity that supported charitable projects and provided grants to nonprofit organizations around the world. As of 2012, Winfrey had also given over 400 scholarships to Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia, and in 2013, Winfrey donated $12 million to the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many years did her talk show air?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Oprah Winfrey Show, often referred to as The Oprah Show or simply Oprah, was an American daytime syndicated talk show that aired nationally for 25 seasons from September 8, 1986, to May 25, 2011, in Chicago, Illinois.",
      "The Oprah Winfrey Show, often referred to as The Oprah Show or simply Oprah, was an American daytime syndicated talk show that aired nationally for 25 seasons from September 8, 1986, to May 25, 2011, in Chicago, Illinois."
    ],
    "topic": "Oprah Winfrey",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "The Oprah Winfrey Show:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "The Oprah Winfrey Show"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Oprah Winfrey Show, often referred to as The Oprah Show or simply Oprah, was an American daytime syndicated talk show that aired nationally for 25 seasons from September 8, 1986, to May 25, 2011, in Chicago, Illinois. Produced and hosted by its namesake, Oprah Winfrey, it remains the highest-rated daytime talk show in American television history."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "The Oprah Winfrey Show:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "The Oprah Winfrey Show"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Oprah Winfrey Show, often referred to as The Oprah Show or simply Oprah, was an American daytime syndicated talk show that aired nationally for 25 seasons from September 8, 1986, to May 25, 2011, in Chicago, Illinois. Produced and hosted by its namesake, Oprah Winfrey, it remains the highest-rated daytime talk show in American television history."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "The power of Winfrey's opinions and endorsement to influence public opinion, especially consumer purchasing choices, has been dubbed \"the Oprah Effect\". The effect has been documented or alleged in domains as diverse as book sales, beef markets, and election voting. Late in 1996, Winfrey introduced the Oprah's Book Club segment to her television show. The segment focused on new books and classics and often brought obscure novels to popular attention. The book club became such a powerful force that whenever Winfrey introduced a new book as her book-club selection, it instantly became a best-seller; for example, when she selected the classic John Steinbeck novel \"East of Eden\", it soared to the top of the book charts. Being recognized by Winfrey often means a million additional book sales for an author. In \"Reading with Oprah: The Book Club that Changed America\" (2005), Kathleen Rooney describes Winfrey as \"a serious American intellectual who pioneered the use of electronic media, specifically television and the Internet, to take reading \u2013 a decidedly non-technological and highly individual act \u2013 and highlight its social elements and uses in such a way to motivate millions of erstwhile non-readers to pick up books.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Columnist Maureen Dowd seems to agree with such assessments. Interviewed by \"The Guardian\" in 2006, Dowd said: \"She is the top alpha female in this country. She has more credibility than the president. Other successful women, such as Hillary Clinton and Martha Stewart, had to be publicly slapped down before they could move forward. Even Condi has had to play the prot\u00e9g\u00e9 with Bush. None of this happened to Oprah \u2013 she is a straight ahead success story.\" \"Vanity Fair\" wrote: \"Oprah Winfrey arguably has more influence on the culture than any university president, politician, or religious leader, except perhaps the Pope. Bill O'Reilly said: \"this is a woman that came from nothing to rise up to be the most powerful woman, I think, in the world. I think Oprah Winfrey is the most powerful woman in the world, not just in America. That's \u2013 anybody who goes on her program immediately benefits through the roof. I mean, she has a loyal following; she has credibility; she has talent; and she's done it on her own to become fabulously wealthy and fabulously powerful.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Early in its twelfth season, Winfrey confessed she was \"exhausted\" and considered quitting. However, while making the 1998 movie \"Beloved\", Winfrey then admitted that it brought her back to her responsibility as an admired black woman with a great deal of power and influence. She realized that being in such a position within the media industry, she could make a positive difference in people's lives. Winfrey was once again inspired to continue to help people take better control of their destinies, hence her slogan, \"Live Your Best Life\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2000, she was awarded the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP. In 2002, \"Christianity Today\" published an article called \"The Church of O\" in which they concluded that Winfrey had emerged as an influential spiritual leader. \"Since 1994, when she abandoned traditional talk-show fare for more edifying content, and 1998, when she began 'Change Your Life TV', Oprah's most significant role has become that of a spiritual leader. To her audience of more than 22 million mostly female viewers, she has become a postmodern priestess\u2014an icon of church-free spirituality.\" The sentiment was echoed by Marcia Z. Nelson in her book \"The Gospel According to Oprah\". Since the mid-1990s, Winfrey's show has emphasized uplifting and inspirational topics and themes and some viewers say the show has motivated them to perform acts of altruism such as helping Congolese women and building an orphanage. A scientific study by psychological scientists at the University of Cambridge, University of Plymouth, and University of California used an uplifting clip from The Oprah Winfrey Show in an experiment that discovered that watching the 'uplifting' clip caused subjects to become twice as helpful as subjects assigned to watch a British comedy or nature documentary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "\"The Wall Street Journal\" coined the term \"Oprahfication\", meaning public confession as a form of therapy. By confessing intimate details about her weight problems, tumultuous love life, and sexual abuse, and crying alongside her guests, Winfrey has been credited by \"Time\" magazine with creating a new form of media communication known as \"rapport talk\" as distinguished from the \"report talk\" of Phil Donahue: \"Winfrey saw television's power to blend public and private; while it links strangers and conveys information over public airwaves, TV is most often viewed in the privacy of our homes. Like a family member, it sits down to meals with us and talks to us in the lonely afternoons. Grasping this paradox, ...\u00a0She makes people care because she cares. That is Winfrey's genius, and will be her legacy, as the changes she has wrought in the talk show continue to permeate our culture and shape our lives.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "On the season premiere of Winfrey's 13th season, Roseanne Barr told Winfrey \"you're the African Mother Goddess of us all\" inspiring much enthusiasm from the studio audience. The animated series \"Futurama\" alluded to her spiritual influence by suggesting that \"Oprahism\" is a mainstream religion in 3000\u00a0AD. Twelve days after the September 11 attacks, New York mayor Rudy Giuliani asked Winfrey to serve as host of a Prayer for America service at New York City's Yankee Stadium, which was attended by former president Bill Clinton and New York senator Hillary Clinton. Leading up to the U.S.-led 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, less than a month after the September 11 attacks, Winfrey aired a controversial show called \"Islam 101\" in which she portrayed Islam as a religion of peace, calling it \"the most misunderstood of the three major religions\". In 2002, George W. Bush invited Winfrey to join a US delegation that included adviser Karen Hughes and Condoleezza Rice, planning to go to Afghanistan to celebrate the return of Afghan girls to school. The \"Oprah strategy\" was designed to portray the War on Terror in a positive light; however, when Winfrey refused to participate, the trip was postponed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "By the mid-1990s, Winfrey had reinvented her show with a focus on literature, self-improvement, mindfulness, and spirituality. Though she has been criticized for unleashing a confession culture, promoting controversial self-help ideas, and having an emotion-centered approach, she has also been praised for overcoming adversity to become a benefactor to others. Winfrey had also emerged as a political force in the 2008 presidential race, with her endorsement of Barack Obama estimated to have been worth about one million votes during the 2008 Democratic primaries. In 2013, Winfrey was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Obama and received honorary doctorate degrees from Duke and Harvard. In 2008, she formed her own network, the Oprah Winfrey Network (OWN)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Anti-war series",
        "text": "In early November 2002, Winfrey aired a show called \u201cWhat Does The World Think Of Us?\u201d The show challenged Americans to be skeptical about their government's foreign policy. For this, Winfrey was praised by anti-war activist Michael Moore for being the only mainstream media figure at the time to show footage of Donald Rumsfeld shaking Saddam Hussein's hand in the 1980s. Moore wrote:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2007, Winfrey began to endorse the self-help program \"The Secret\". \"The Secret\" claims that people can change their lives through positive thoughts or 'vibrations', which will then cause them to attract more positive vibrations that result in good things happening to them. Peter Birkenhead of \"Salon\" magazine argued that this idea is pseudoscience and psychologically damaging, as it trivializes important decisions and promotes a quick-fix material culture, and suggests Winfrey's promotion of it is irresponsible given her influence. In 2007, skeptic and magician James Randi accused Winfrey of being deliberately deceptive and uncritical in how she handles paranormal claims on her show. In 2008, Winfrey endorsed author and spiritual teacher Eckhart Tolle and his book, \"A New Earth: Awakening to Your Life's Purpose\", which sold several million extra copies after being selected for her book club. During a Webinar class, in which she promoted the book, Winfrey stated \"God is a feeling experience and not a believing experience. If your religion is a believing experience [...] then that's not truly God.\" Frank Pastore, a Christian radio talk show host on KKLA, was among the many Christian leaders who criticized Winfrey's views, saying \"if she's a Christian, she's an ignorant one because Christianity is incompatible with New Age thought\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Oprah Winfrey\n--Early life.\n--Television.\n----Celebrity interviews.\n--Other media.\n----Film.\n----Publishing and writing.\n----Online.\n----Radio.\n--Personal life.\n----Homes.\n----Romantic history.\n----Close friends.\n----Personal wealth.\n----Religious views.\n--Influence.\n----Rankings.\n----\"Oprahfication\".\n------Daytime talk show's impact on LGBT people.\n----\"The Oprah Effect\".\n----Politics.\n----Spiritual leadership.\n----Fan base.\n----Philanthropy.\n------Oprah's Angel Network.\n------South Africa.\n--Bibliography.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2004, Winfrey and her team filmed an episode of her show, \"Oprah's Christmas Kindness\", in which Winfrey travelled to South Africa to bring attention to the plight of young children affected by poverty and AIDS. During the 21-day trip, Winfrey and her crew visited schools and orphanages in poverty-stricken areas, and distributed Christmas presents to 50,000 children, with dolls for the girls and soccer balls for the boys, and school supplies. Throughout the show, Winfrey appealed to viewers to donate money to Oprah's Angel Network for poor and AIDS-affected children in Africa. From that show alone, viewers around the world donated over $7 million. Winfrey invested $40\u00a0million and some of her time establishing the Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls in Henley on Klip south of Johannesburg, South Africa. The school set over 22 acres, opened in January 2007 with an enrollment of 150 pupils (increasing to 450) and features state-of-the-art classrooms, computer and science laboratories, a library, theatre, and beauty salon. Nelson Mandela praised Winfrey for overcoming her own disadvantaged youth to become a benefactor for others. Critics considered the school elitist and unnecessarily luxurious. Winfrey rejected the claims, saying: \"If you are surrounded by beautiful things and wonderful teachers who inspire you, that beauty brings out the beauty in you.\" Winfrey, who has no surviving biological children, described maternal feelings towards the girls at Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls. Winfrey teaches a class at the school via satellite.\n* 1989 \u2013 \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" (supervising producer \u2013 8 episodes, 1989\u20132011)\n* 1989 \u2013 \"The Women of Brewster Place\" (TV miniseries) (executive producer)\n* 1992 \u2013 \"Nine\" (TV documentary) (executive producer)\n* 1992 \u2013 \"Overexposed\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 1993 \u2013 \"ABC Afterschool Special\" (TV series) (producer \u2013 1 episode \"Shades of a Single Protein\") (producer)\n* 1993 \u2013 \"Michael Jackson Talks to... Oprah Live\" (TV special) (executive producer)\n* 1997 \u2013 \"Before Women Had Wings\" (TV movie) (producer)\n* 1998 \u2013 \"The Wedding\" (TV miniseries) (executive producer)\n* 1998 \u2013 \"Beloved\" (producer)\n* 1998 \u2013 \"David and Lisa\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 1999 \u2013 \"Tuesdays with Morrie\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 2001 \u2013 \"Amy & Isabelle\" (TV movie) (executive producer, producer)\n* 2002 \u2013 \"Oprah After the Show\" (TV series) (executive producer)\n* 2005 \u2013 \"Their Eyes Were Watching God\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 2006 \u2013 \"Legends Ball\" (TV documentary) (executive producer)\n* 2007 \u2013 \"Oprah's Big Give\" (TV series) (executive producer)\n* 2007 \u2013 \"The Oprah Winfrey Oscar Special\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 2007 \u2013 \"Building a Dream: The Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy\" (TV documentary) (executive producer)\n* 2007 \u2013 \"Oprah Winfrey Presents: Mitch Albom's For One More Day\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 2007 \u2013 \"The Great Debaters\" (producer)\n* 2009 \u2013 \"The Dr. Oz Show\" (TV series) (executive producer)\n* 2009 \u2013 \"Precious\" (executive producer)\n* 2009 \u2013 \"Christmas at the White House: An Oprah Primetime Special\" (TV special) (executive producer)\n* 2010 \u2013 \"The Oprah Winfrey Oscar Special\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 2011 \u2013 \"Your OWN Show\" (TV series) (executive producer)\n* 2011 \u2013 \"Extraordinary Mom\" (TV documentary) (executive producer)\n* 2011 \u2013 \"Serving Life\" (TV documentary) (executive producer)\n* 2014 \u2013 \"The Hundred-Foot Journey \"(producer)\n* 2014 \u2013 \"Selma \"(producer)\n* 2016\u2013present \u2013 \"Queen Sugar\" (co-creator and executive producer)\n* 2016\u20132020 \u2013 \"Greenleaf\" (executive producer)\n* 2017 \u2013 \"The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 2018 \u2013 \"Love Is\" (executive producer)\n* 2019 \u2013 \"When They See Us\" (executive producer)\n* 2019 \u2013 \"Oprah Winfrey Presents: After Neverland\" (executive producer)\n* 2019 \u2013 \"David Makes Man\" (executive producer)\n* 2020 \u2013 \"The Water Man\" (executive producer)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Oprah Gail Winfrey (born Orpah Gail Winfrey; January 29, 1954) is an American talk show host, television producer, actress, author, and philanthropist. She is best known for her talk show, \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", broadcast from Chicago, which was the highest-rated television program of its kind in history and ran in national syndication for 25 years, from 1986 to 2011. Dubbed the \"Queen of All Media\", she was the richest African-American of the 20th century, was once the world's only black billionaire, and the greatest black philanthropist in U.S. history. By 2007, she was sometimes ranked as the most influential woman in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "O, The Oprah Magazine",
        "text": "In a March 2001 article entitled \"O Positive\", Noreen O'Leary argued that Winfrey was well on her way to influencing the content of women's magazines beyond her own, just as she has helped reshape daytime TV and the world of book publishing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tabloid talk show",
        "text": "While having changed with the times from her tabloid talk show roots, Winfrey continued to include gay guests by using her show and to promote openly gay personalities like her hairdresser, makeup artist, and decorator Nate Berkus, who inspired an outpouring of sympathy from middle America after grieving the loss of his partner in the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\". Winfrey's \"therapeutic\" hosting style and the tabloid talk show genre have been both praised and blamed for leading the media counterculture of the 1980s and 1990s, which some believe broke 20th century taboos, led to America's self-help obsession and created confession culture. \"The Wall Street Journal\" coined the term \"Oprahfication\" to refer to the concept of public confession as a form of therapy and \"Time\" magazine named Winfrey one of the \"100 Most Influential People\" of the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Winfrey's career in media would not have surprised her grandmother, who once said that ever since Winfrey could talk, she was on stage. As a child, she played games interviewing her corncob doll and the crows on the fence of her family's property. Winfrey later acknowledged her grandmother's influence, saying it was Hattie Mae who had encouraged her to speak in public and \"gave me a positive sense of myself\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Book Club",
        "text": "In \"Reading with Oprah: The Book Club That Changed America\", Kathleen Rooney describes Winfrey as \"a serious American intellectual who pioneered the use of electronic media, specifically television and the Internet, to take reading\u2014a decidedly non-technological and highly individual act\u2014and highlight its social elements and uses in such a way to motivate millions of erstwhile non-readers to pick up books.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Credited with creating a more intimate, confessional form of media communication, Winfrey popularized and revolutionized the tabloid talk show genre pioneered by Phil Donahue. In 1994, she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. Winfrey has won many accolades throughout her career which includes 18 Daytime Emmy Awards, including the Lifetime Achievement Award and the Chairman's Award, two Primetime Emmy Awards, including the Bob Hope Humanitarian Award, a Tony Award, a Peabody Award and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award, awarded by the Academy Awards and two additional Academy Award nominations. Winfey was elected as a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "The show was highly influential to many young stars, and many of its themes have penetrated into the American pop-cultural consciousness. Winfrey used the show as an educational platform, featuring book clubs, interviews, self-improvement segments, and philanthropic forays into world events. The show did not attempt to profit off the products it endorses; it had no licensing agreement with retailers when products were promoted, nor did the show make any money from endorsing books for its book club."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Leading up to the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, Winfrey's show received criticism for allegedly having an anti-war bias. Ben Shapiro of Townhall.com wrote: \"Oprah Winfrey is the most powerful woman in America. She decides what makes \"The New York Times\" Best Seller lists. Her touchy-feely style sucks in audiences at the rate of 14 million viewers per day. But Oprah is far more than a cultural force, she's a dangerous political force as well, a woman with unpredictable and mercurial attitudes toward the major issues of the day.\" In 2006, Winfrey recalled such controversies: \"I once did a show titled \"Is War the Only Answer?\" In the history of my career, I've never received more hate mail \u2013 like 'Go back to Africa' hate mail. I was accused of being un-American for even raising the question.\" Filmmaker Michael Moore came to Winfrey's defense, praising her for showing antiwar footage no other media would show and begging her to run for president."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Anti-war series",
        "text": "On March 6, 2003 Winfrey did a show called \u201cWhat You Should Know About Iraq,\u201d in which Middle East expert Fawaz Gerges described the suffering of the Iraqi people since Operation Desert Storm. Gerges argued that the desire of the Bush administration to overthrow Saddam Hussein would have a devastating effect on the Iraqi people. Dan Rather also talked about his interview with Hussein, in which Hussein was apparently curious about George W. Bush and the will of the American people to attack Iraq. The guests on the show explained that the United States had worked with several dictators in the past and actively aided Hussein during the administration of Ronald Reagan to keep the Islamic fundamentalist movement in Iran from spreading. On \"Oprah After The Show\" (aired on Winfrey's cable network Oxygen (now owned by NBC Universal)), Gerges urged Winfrey's audience not to believe reports linking Saddam Hussein to the September 11th attacks, reports which Winfrey condemned as \"propaganda.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "When author Jonathan Franzen's book was selected for the Book Club, he reportedly \"cringed\" and said selected books tend to be \"schmaltzy\". After James Frey's \"A Million Little Pieces\" was found to contain fabrications in 2006, Winfrey confronted him on her show over the breach of trust. In 2009, Winfrey apologized to Frey for the public confrontation. During a show about mad cow disease with Howard Lyman (aired on April 16, 1996), Winfrey said she was stopped cold from eating another burger. Texas cattlemen sued her and Lyman in early 1998 for \"false defamation of perishable food\" and \"business disparagement,\" claiming that Winfrey's remarks sent cattle prices tumbling, costing beef producers $11\u00a0million. Winfrey was represented by attorney Chip Babcock and, on February 26, after a two-month trial in an Amarillo, Texas, court, a jury found Winfrey and Lyman were not liable for damages. During the lawsuit, Winfrey hired Phil McGraw's company Courtroom Sciences, Inc. to help her analyze and read the jury. Winfrey's ability to launch other successful talk shows such as \"Dr. Phil\", \"The Dr. Oz Show\", and \"Rachael Ray\" has also been cited as examples of \"The Oprah Effect\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 1998, Winfrey created the Oprah's Angel Network, a charity that supported charitable projects and provided grants to nonprofit organizations around the world. Oprah's Angel Network raised more than $80 million ($1\u00a0million of which was donated by Jon Bon Jovi). Winfrey personally covered all administrative costs associated with the charity, so 100% of all funds raised went to charity programs. In May 2010, with Oprah's show ending, the charity stopped accepting donations and was shut down."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "As chairman of Harpo Inc., she was named the most powerful woman in entertainment by \"The Hollywood Reporter\" in 2008. She has been listed as one of the most powerful 100 women in the world by \"Forbes\", ranking 14th in 2014. In 2010, \"Life\" magazine named Winfrey one of the 100 people who changed the world, alongside Jesus Christ, Elvis Presley, and Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. Winfrey was the only living woman to make the list."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "In the 1989\u201390 season, Truddi Chase\u2014a woman who was diagnosed with dissociative identity disorder, having 92 distinct personalities\u2014appeared on the show. Chase had been violently and sexually abused beginning at the age of two and said her old self ceased to exist after that. After introducing Chase, who was there to promote her book \"When Rabbit Howls\", Winfrey unexpectedly broke down in tears while reading the teleprompter, relating her own childhood molestation to that of the guest. Unable to control herself, Winfrey repeatedly asked producers to stop filming."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Anti-war series",
        "text": "\u201cThe World Speaks Out On Iraq\u201d was considered to be the most significant installment of Winfrey\u2019s anti-war series, for being a two-day special aired on February 6, 2003, the day after Colin Powell's speech to the United Nations which was credited with shifting public opinion in favor of the war."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Observers have also noted the \"Oprahfication\" of politics such as \"Oprah-style debates\" and Bill Clinton being described as \"the man who brought Oprah-style psychobabble and misty confessions to politics\". \"Newsweek\" stated: \"Every time a politician lets his lip quiver or a cable anchor 'emotes' on TV, they nod to the cult of confession that Oprah helped create."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dennis Swanson",
        "text": "By February 1985, Winfrey was pulling double the ratings of \"Donahue\"; it was Swanson who suggested that Roger King of King World Productions meet Oprah, which led to her own syndicated talk show. \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", which the ABC owned-and-operated stations carried at launch, grew into one of television's most successful syndicated programs; in 2005, \"The New York Times\" described the move as \"worth billions of dollars for ABC's stations\". When Winfrey was honored with the Cecil B. DeMille Lifetime Achievement Award at the 75th Golden Globe Awards in 2018, Swanson was the first person she thanked, for taking \"a chance on me\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rebecca Onie",
        "text": "Onie was named to Oprah Winfrey's 2010 O Power List of women who are \"changing the world for the better.\" According to O: The Oprah Magazine, Onie and Health Leads \"blew us away\" by understanding \"the power of the big picture.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Winfrey was called \"arguably the world's most powerful woman\" by CNN and \"TIME\", \"arguably the most influential woman in the world\" by \"The American Spectator\", \"\" and \"one of the most influential people\" from 2004 to 2011 by \"TIME\". Winfrey is the only person to have appeared in the latter list on ten occasions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In addition to her talk show, Winfrey also produced and co-starred in the drama miniseries \"The Women of Brewster Place\" (1989) and its short-lived spin-off, \"Brewster Place\". As well as hosting and appearing on television shows, Winfrey co-founded the women's cable television network Oxygen which was the initial network for her \"Oprah After the Show\" program from 2002 to 2006 before moving to Oprah.com when Winfrey sold her stake in the network. She is also the president of Harpo Productions (\"Oprah\" spelled backwards), a film and TV production company behind \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", \"Dr. Phil\", \"Rachael Ray\", \"The Dr. Oz Show\" and many others. She also moderated three \"ABC Afterschool Special\"s from 1992 to 1994."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Born in rural poverty, and raised by a mother dependent on government welfare payments in a poor urban neighborhood, Winfrey became a millionaire at the age of 32 when her talk show received national syndication. Winfrey negotiated ownership rights to the television program and started her own production company. At the age of 41, Winfrey had a net worth of $340\u00a0million and replaced Bill Cosby as the only African American on the \"Forbes 400\". By 2000, with a net worth of $800\u00a0million, Winfrey is believed to have been the richest African American of the 20th century. There has been a course taught at the University of Illinois focusing on Winfrey's business acumen, namely: \"History 298: Oprah Winfrey, the Tycoon\". Winfrey was the highest paid television entertainer in the United States in 2006, earning an estimated $260\u00a0million during the year, five times the sum earned by second-place music executive Simon Cowell. By 2008, her yearly income had increased to $275\u00a0million."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Originally featured a monthly book highlight, including author interviews. Its popularity caused featured books to shoot to the top of bestseller lists, often increasing sales by as many as a million copies at its peak. It was suspended in 2002 and returned in 2003, featuring more classic works of literature, with reduced selections per season. The original format was reintroduced in September 2005, but Winfrey's selection of James Frey's \"A Million Little Pieces\" became controversial due to accusations of falsification. January 2006 saw Elie Wiesel's \"Night\" selected; Winfrey even traveled to Auschwitz with Wiesel. In 2008, Eckhart Tolle's \"A New Earth\" was selected. Modernizing the book club's platform, Winfrey and Tolle began a series of live webcast classes that were streamed on Oprah.com to discuss elements of the book with a worldwide audience."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ch\u00e9rie Carter-Scott",
        "text": "Carter-Scott has been a guest on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" with Negaholics, How to Overcome Negativity and Turn Your Life Around, which was licensed by NSG who productixes and marketed Carter Scott\u2019s concepts and materials throughout the US and Canada. Her second appearance on the Oprah Winfrey show happened with the publication of \u201dIf Life Is a Game\u201d and through \u201dChange Your Life TV\u201d. In that occasion Carter-Scott coached audience members live on camera. After experiencing media training in Los Angeles in 1989, Carter-Scott appeared on numerous international media shows that include: The Today Show, the O'Reilly Factor, The Other Half, CNN, Politically Incorrect with Bill Maher, Sally Jesse Raphael TV show, Montel Williams TV, Jenny Jones TV, Janyla van Zant TV, Leeza Live, Arabella Kiesbauer show (Germany), 7DTV with Ronnie Overgoor (Netherlands) and more than 500 radio and tv shows worldwide. She has been on worldwide media tours that followed the publication of her books to the US, China, Italy, Czech Republic, the Netherlands, Germany, and Finland. Carter-Scott has worked on 5 continents in over 30 countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In the early years of \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", the program was classified as a tabloid talk show. In the mid-1990s, Winfrey began to host shows on broader topics such as heart disease, geopolitics, spirituality, and meditation. She interviewed celebrities on social issues they were directly involved with, such as cancer, charity work, or substance abuse, and hosted televised giveaways. The later years of the show faced accusations that Winfrey was promoting junk science. This has manifested as criticisms of Winfrey for promoting particular guests whose medical commentaries (both on her show and in the wider media) frequently lack supporting science. Common targets of this criticism include Dr. Oz's promotion of various \"miracle pills\" (especially those aimed at weight loss), Dr. Phil, Jenny McCarthy's unfounded assertions about vaccines, and Suzanne Somers's promotion of bioidenticals. Multiple publications have called on Oprah to denounce medical statements made by her former proteges long after her show ended. For example, there were calls for her to denounce Dr. Oz in 2020 reaction to his comments about coronavirus and his promotion of a poorly vetted drug as a cure."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Winfrey interviewed a plethora of public figures and everyday people during the show's 25-year history. When celebrities and newsmakers were ready to share their most intimate secrets their first stop was Winfrey's couch and when a serious story hit, the \"Oprah\" show focused on putting a human face on the headlines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey's endorsement of Barack Obama",
        "text": "Winfrey was at times called \"arguably the world's most powerful woman\" by CNN and Time.com, \"arguably the most influential woman in the world\" by The American Spectator, \"\" and \"one of the most influential people\" of 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010 and 2011 by \"Time\". Winfrey is the only person in the world to have made all nine lists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nancy Ajram",
        "text": "On September 28, 2009, \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" aired an episode titled \"Fame Around the World\" that talked about the most famous celebrities around the globe in brief reports. Representing the Middle East region and Arab world, Ajram appeared in a report featured on the show and was described by Oprah as \"the Britney Spears of the Middle East\". Ajram is the first and only Middle-Eastern artist ever mentioned on the show."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "The Oprah Winfrey Show\n--Early history.\n--Interviews.\n----Celebrities.\n----Notable guests.\n--Regular segments and campaigns.\n----Oprah's Book Club.\n----Oprah's Favorite Things.\n----Oprah & Gayle's Big Adventures.\n----Remembering Your Spirit.\n----Change Your Life TV.\n------Iyanla Vanzant.\n------Dr. Phil.\n------Suze Orman.\n----What's The Buzz?\n----Wildest Dreams.\n----Tuesdays with Dr. Oz.\n----Fridays Live.\n----No Phone Zone.\n--Memorable moments.\n----Giveaways.\n----Controversies.\n--Final season.\n----Final episodes.\n--United States viewership.\n----Spin-offs.\n--International syndication.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Iyanla Vanzant is a former attorney, spiritual teacher and self-help expert who was a regular on the show in the late 1990s. She started the show in its 12th season and became known for her no-nonsense, hard-hitting, and often humorous advice. Vanzant's take on everything from cheating spouses to financial struggles connected with viewers and, at times, Winfrey sat in the audience while Vanzant led the show. Her books \"In the Meantime\" and \"One Day My Soul Just Opened Up\" became \"New York Times\" bestsellers."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "The show aired in 149 countries worldwide and was often renamed and dubbed into other languages."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Winfrey introduced up-and-coming public figures who generated industry buzz but not otherwise widely known. In what several media commentators have labelled \"The Oprah Effect\", people appearing on this segment such as Oscar-winner Jamie Foxx and singer James Blunt benefited from the extra publicity the show garnered. Blunt, in particular, saw album sales increase dramatically and landed a Top Two spot on the \"Billboard\" 200."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2008, Winfrey's show was airing in 140 countries internationally and seen by an estimated 46\u00a0million people in the US weekly. According to the Harris poll, Winfrey was America's favorite television personality in 1998, 2000, 2002\u201306, and 2009. Winfrey was especially popular among women, Democrats, political moderates, Baby Boomers, Generation X, Southern Americans, and East Coast Americans."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Jo Ann Compton's daughter Laurie Ann was stabbed to death in 1988\u2014and a decade later, the mom was tangled in her grief. \"I hope they're in the same hell I'm in.\" she said of her daughter's murderers on a 1998 show. Oprah brought in Dr. Phil to help Jo Ann. He asked her if she thought her daughter would want her to be in so much pain\u2014and Compton said no. \"Maybe the betrayal is focusing on the day of her death, rather than celebrating the event of her life.\" Phil continued. \"She lived for 18 vibrant years, and you focus on the day she died.\" After a moment, Compton uttered her breakthrough sentence: \"I never thought of it that way.\" Later, she sobbed while revealing that she had been planning to end her life after the show. When Compton returned to the show in 2011, she had a new viewpoint on the daughter she lost: \"She continues to stay alive every time I do something positive.\" Compton's surviving daughter, Cindy, said \"She went from existing to living. It was an amazing transformation.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Anti-war series",
        "text": "Winfrey told her audience that it was the most important time to speak out against the war, and that she wanted to hear not just from her studio audience but from people around the world. She showed clips from citizens of Britain, France, South Africa, Iraq, and Pakistan, all urging America not to go to war. She also showed clips of Nelson Mandela and Pope John Paul II speaking out against war, and interviewed a spokesman for Patriots for Peace. Also appearing on the show were anti-war activist Jessica Mathews and columnist Thomas Friedman, who debated whether America should go to war. Mathews pointed out that Saddam Hussein had no connections to al-Qaeda. While Friedman supported war only if America could get international support, he conceded that Hussein was not a security threat to America. At the end of the two-day show, Winfrey sided with Mathews, agreeing that the case for war was not convincing enough, considering the consequences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eva Illouz",
        "text": "In her third book, Illouz analyzes one of the most fascinating phenomena of the 1990s \u2013 television talk shows and the persona of Oprah Winfrey. The books responds to a question that perplexed sociologists as well as the public at large: How did Oprah Winfrey become such a global feminine icon?"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hida Viloria",
        "text": "In 2007, on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", Viloria likened society's lack of understanding of non-binary people, and the pressure non-binary people experience to identify as men or women, to what people of mixed African-American and Caucasian race sometimes experience, saying, \"Society pressures you to choose sides, just like they pressure mixed race people to decide, you know... 'Are you really black? Are you really white?'\" Viloria went on to say \"I have both [sides]\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "TV columnist Howard Rosenberg said: \"She's a roundhouse, a full course meal, big, brassy, loud, aggressive, hyper, laughable, lovable, soulful, tender, low-down, earthy, and hungry. And she may know the way to Phil Donahue's jugular.\" \"Newsday\"s Les Payne observed, \"Oprah Winfrey is sharper than Donahue, wittier, more genuine, and far better attuned to her audience, if not the world\" and Martha Bayles of \"The Wall Street Journal\" wrote, \"It's a relief to see a gab-monger with a fond but realistic assessment of her own cultural and religious roots.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "On using the N-word, Winfrey said, \"You cannot be my friend and use that word around me. ... I always think of the...people who heard that as their last word as they were hanging from a tree.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Mo Abudu",
        "text": "The show's success and intention to change the world's perception of the African continent has led to comparisons to Oprah Winfrey, with \"The Independent\" and \"Slate Afrique\" calling her \"Africa's Oprah\" or \"Nigerian Winfrey\", respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Anti-war series",
        "text": "Also praising the show for its \"amazing perspective\" was \"The Globe and Mail\"s television critic John Doyle, who noted that \"at a time when the consensus in American television is that everybody should pull together and support the men and women in the U.S. military, what Oprah Winfrey did was outright subversion.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Tabloid talk show",
        "text": "In the September 2002 issue of \"O, The Oprah Magazine\", Oprah Winfrey interviewed Phil Donahue at his Manhattan penthouse apartment in what she described as a \"full-circle\" moment. She wrote in the article's introduction, \"If there had been no Phil Donahue show, there would be no Oprah Winfrey show. He was the first to acknowledge that women are interested in more than mascara tips and cake recipes \u2013 that we're intelligent, we're concerned about the world around us, and we want the best possible lives for ourselves.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Financial expert Suze Orman became a viewer favorite, offering money tips, spending interventions, and her famous \"Suze smackdowns.\" She encouraged people to be honest with themselves about what they could afford and gave advice on getting rid of credit card debt. Her motivational approach to fixing finances has led to her own financial advice empire."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Items personally favored by Winfrey were featured on the show and given away to audience members. Since its launch in 1996, the \"Favorite Things\" episode quickly became the hottest ticket in television. When a product was featured, its sales skyrocketed. Select groups were sometimes chosen to receive the items. In 2004, the audience was made up of educators from across the country. Hurricane Katrina volunteer workers were invited to the 2005 show. Winfrey has said that the iPad, given away to her 2010 audience, was her all-time favorite \"Favorite Thing\". During a \"Season 25: Oprah Behind the Scenes\" episode documenting the production of the giveaway, Winfrey talked about why the event resonates with viewers:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Harpo Productions",
        "text": "Regular presenters included specialists from a variety of fields, including Dr. Maya Angelou, Marianne Williamson, Dr. Mehmet Oz, Bob Greene, Nate Berkus, Jean Chatzky, Gayle King, Rabbi Shmuley Boteach, and Holly Robinson Peete and Rodney Peete. Oprah, herself, also personally interviewed some of the most influential voices in the spiritual realm on her weekly program, \"Oprah's Soul Series\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "According to Mair, when Kramer moved to NBC in New York, Winfrey had a love affair with a married man who had no intention of leaving his wife. Winfrey would later recall: \"I'd had a relationship with a man for four years. I wasn't living with him. I'd never lived with anyone\u2014and I thought I was worthless without him. The more he rejected me, the more I wanted him. I felt depleted, powerless. At the end, I was down on the floor on my knees groveling and pleading with him\". Winfrey became so depressed that on September 8, 1981, she wrote a suicide note to best friend Gayle King instructing King to water her plants. \"That suicide note had been much overplayed\" Winfrey told \"Ms.\" magazine. \"I couldn't kill myself. I would be afraid the minute I did it, something really good would happen and I'd miss it.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Zarah (television personality)",
        "text": "Zarah was influenced by classic to modern rock bands and other popular music growing up. She worked with vocal coach Seth Riggs in Hollywood and began to write her own songs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Anti-war series",
        "text": "On October 9 2002, Oprah did a show called \"Help You Decide if You Think We should attack Iraq\", in which she gave more time and weight to those who supported the war, and cut off an audience member who questioned if WMDs existed in Iraq. According to celebrity biographer Kitty Kelly, Oprah said weapons were \"just a fact.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Million Little Pieces",
        "text": "David Carr of \"The New York Times\" wrote, \"Both Mr. Frey and Ms. Talese were snapped in two like dry winter twigs.\" \"Oprah annihilates Frey\", proclaimed Larry King. \"The New York Times\" columnist Maureen Dowd wrote, \"It was a huge relief, after our long national slide into untruth and no consequences, into swiftboating and swift bucks, into W.'s delusion and denial, to see the Empress of Empathy icily hold someone accountable for lying\", and \"The Washington Post\"'s Richard Cohen was so impressed by the confrontation that he crowned Winfrey \"Mensch of the Year\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprahization",
        "text": "Numerous episodes of \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" feature interviews with guests who have committed crimes or other delinquent behavior. Winfrey discusses the ways in which her guests have been victimized prior to their crimes, often in search of a reason why the crime was committed other than malicious intent. In one episode, titled \"How Far Would You Go?\", Winfrey interviewed Ellie Nesler, who had shot and killed a man who was on trial for sexually molesting Nesler's son William. Nesler explained that, because it did not seem likely that the trial would end in a conviction, she killed him to prevent him from sodomizing other children. William, who was also featured on the show, revealed that he had received death threats from him after the abuse, and went on to state that he felt much safer with Dryver dead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Winfrey was named as the 2008 Person of the Year by animal-rights group People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) for using her fame and listening audience to help the less fortunate, including animals. PETA praised Winfrey for using her talk show to uncover horrific cases of cruelty to animals in puppy mills and on factory farms, and Winfrey even used the show to highlight the cruelty-free vegan diet that she tried."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Winfrey attended Lincoln High School in Milwaukee, but after early success in the Upward Bound program, was transferred to the affluent suburban Nicolet High School. Upon transferring, she said she was continually reminded of her poverty as she rode the bus to school with fellow African-Americans, some of whom were servants of her classmates' families. She began to rebel and steal money from her mother in an effort to keep up with her free-spending peers. As a result, her mother once again sent her to live with Vernon in Nashville, although this time she did not take her back. Vernon was strict but encouraging, and made her education a priority. Winfrey became an honors student, was voted Most Popular Girl, and joined her high school speech team at East Nashville High School, placing second in the nation in dramatic interpretation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reality Winner",
        "text": "Her father's influence early in her life had extensively shaped Winner's world view on many topics, including politics, history, philosophy, and religion. After the September 11 attacks, Winner was encouraged by her father to seek answers about the geopolitical motivations behind the attacks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "A February 2003 series, in which Winfrey showed clips from people all over the world asking America not to go to war, was interrupted in several East Coast markets by network broadcasts of a press conference in which President George W. Bush and Colin Powell summarized the case for war."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "In 1996, on a discussion of Mad Cow Disease, Winfrey stated that the disease fears had \"stopped [her] cold from eating another burger!\" Texas cattle ranchers considered that quote tantamount to defamation, and promptly sued her for libel. The show was still producing new episodes at the time of the trial and could not go into reruns, so the production was forced to move to Amarillo, Texas for a period of approximately one month during the proceedings. A gag order meant Winfrey was not allowed to even mention the trial on her show. Winfrey was found not liable. The trial and move to Amarillo led to Winfrey meeting Phil McGraw; Winfrey made McGraw a regular guest on her show shortly thereafter, which eventually led to McGraw getting his own show, produced by Winfrey's Harpo Productions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Anti-war series",
        "text": "An anti-war website published an activist's letter objecting to Oprah's presentation: \"That show was the biggest abuse of power that I have seen on television in a long time. ... A talk show host and idol to many, you usually present an open exchange of opinions. How could you allow such an unbalanced show like that to air, when the future of the entire Planet is at stake?!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard Dominick",
        "text": "In 1991, Dominick joined \"Jerry Springer\" and became the show's executive producer three years later, following the departure of original producer Burt Dubrow. Around this time, \"Jerry Springer\" was on the verge of being cancelled, prompting Dominick to take drastic action with regards to the show's format. He turned the world of TV talk shows upside down by taking the show out of the hands of experts and allowing ordinary people to come on stage and offer a slice of their lives - something they never had a chance to do before. He demanded his producers \"make the show interesting with the sound off\" and encouraged the show's controversial themes and topics, which led to the show's success and turned Jerry Springer himself into a pop culture icon. In 1998, Springer had made it to the top, knocking \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" out of the top spot for 57 straight weeks. This led to Dominick being named one of 1998's \"Marketing 100\" by \"Advertising Age\" magazine. He was quoted in \"Newsweek\" as saying, \"If you want to save the whales, call Oprah. If you're dating a whale, call us.\" Dominick was also responsible for the sound effects that are often heard on the show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oddworld Inhabitants",
        "text": "When Lanning was young, he felt lost and overwhelmed by what he saw was wrong with the world, as consumers were fed lies through television and newspapers. He grew up being programmed with information about nuclear submarines, global thermal nuclear war, visions of napalming during the Vietnam war on new colour televisions and the possibility of a new generation of people not dying of old age, at a time when he was just discovering mythologies such as Santa Claus. He stored an enormous amount of what he wanted to say concerning what was going on in the world about which the media was not forthcoming. And he felt that entertainers like Steven Spielberg, George Lucas and Bob Dylan were helping to save the world with entertainment, which was when he discovered that the media most influential on public opinion were mass-produced and electronic. He was inspired by the influence of the media on his life: how Jim Henson and Sesame Street taught him to read where school had failed; how Dr. Seuss was able to create stories still being read to new generations that give people a better moral compass and healthier ways to look at the world; how George Orwell took his personal experiences during World War II to create stories designed to wake people up to the realities of the world around them; how George Lucas's Star Wars could succeed where religion and philosophy were failing at a time of religious deficit in America, making him \"believe in the possibilities of entertainment for change.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey Network",
        "text": "By July 2013, Discovery considered the network to be \"cash flow positive\". In an interview with \"People\", Winfrey revealed that in 2012, she had a nervous breakdown over the channel's performance. Jason Russell had brought up the condition during an interview they were filming, which made Winfrey realize she was experiencing similar symptoms. She explained that \"after 25 years of being number one, I had become accustomed to success. I didn't expect failure. I was tested and I had to dig deep\", and that the scenario \"forced me not to just talk the talk. Failure is a great teacher. I knew this intellectually. But it's another thing if you're living it.\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "On the season premiere of 2004, every person in Winfrey's show audience was given a new Pontiac G6 that was donated by General Motors, worth about $8 million in total. The giveaway was the genesis of the oft-satirized Oprah quote, \"You get a car! You get a car! Everybody gets a car!\" For the premiere of the show's farewell season, the studio audience of 300 \"ultimate fans\" were rewarded by being given a trip to Australia with Winfrey (donated by Australian tourism bodies). Other giveaway shows included the annual Oprah's Favorite Things show, in which the studio audience received products Winfrey considered good Christmas gifts."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "While doing a show centered on women drug users in 1995, Winfrey opened up about her personal history with drug abuse:"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "The \"Diet Dreams Come True\" episode from November 15, 1988, has become one of the most talked-about moments in the history of show. After years of struggling to lose weight, Winfrey had finally succeeded in doing so. In July of that year, she had started the Optifast diet while weighing 212 pounds. By Fall, she weighed 145 pounds. To commemorate achieving her weight loss goals, Winfrey wheeled out a wagon full of fat to represent the 67 pounds she had lost on the diet. She showed off her slim figure in a pair of size 10 Calvin Klein jeans. However, after returning to real food she quickly gained back much of the weight she had lost. Winfrey now refers to that moment as her \"ego in a pom pom salute.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2005, Winfrey was named the greatest woman in American history as part of a public poll as part of \"The Greatest American\". She was ranked No. 9 overall on the list of greatest Americans. However, polls estimating Winfrey's personal popularity have been inconsistent. A November 2003 Gallup poll estimated that 73% of American adults had a favorable view of Winfrey. Another Gallup poll in January 2007 estimated the figure at 74%, although it dropped to 66% when Gallup conducted the same poll in October 2007. A December 2007 \"Fox News\" poll put the figure at 55%. According to Gallup's annual most admired poll, Americans consistently rank Winfrey as one of the most admired women in the world. Her highest rating came in 2007 when she was statistically tied with Hillary Clinton for first place. In a list compiled by the British magazine \"New Statesman\" in September 2010, she was voted 38th in the list of \"The World's 50 Most Influential Figures 2010\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "After Winfrey's birth, her mother traveled north, and Winfrey spent her first six years living in rural poverty with her maternal grandmother, Hattie Mae (Presley) Lee (April 15, 1900 \u2013 February 27, 1963). Her grandmother was so poor that Winfrey often wore dresses made of potato sacks, for which other children made fun of her. Her grandmother taught her to read before the age of three and took her to the local church, where she was nicknamed \"The Preacher\" for her ability to recite Bible verses. When Winfrey was a child, her grandmother was reportedly abusive."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "The show had only been on the air for just six months when, in 1987, Winfrey traveled to Forsyth County, Georgia, a community in which, for 75 years, no black person had lived. Winfrey brought attention to racial tensions in the area. The show was set up as a town hall meeting where residents expressed their divisive opinions on the matter. The meeting was becoming heated when one woman stood up and said:"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Winfrey also interviewed Chicago's \"Guardian Angels\" and Raymond Lear in 1988."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "In 1996, Winfrey spoke with seven of the Little Rock Nine and three white former classmates who tormented the group on their first day of high school in 1957 as well as a student who had befriended them. Winfrey was grateful to have the remaining members of the Little Rock Nine on her show because she credits her success to those who have contributed to the Civil Rights Movement which paved the way for people like herself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miriam Haskell",
        "text": "The horror of World War II affected her health and emotional stability; in her fifties, she became ill, despite an adherence to health food. In 1950, she lost control of her company to her brothers. Living in an apartment on Central Park South with her widowed mother through the next decades, she became increasingly erratic in her behavior. In 1977, she moved to Cincinnati, under the care of her nephew Malcolm Dubin, and died in 1981. It was a sad ending for an exceptional life, but, as Pamfiloff writes, \"Obviously, the legacy of her dream has filtered on down through the decades. It was a man's world. Designers were men. The owners of companies were men. The staff was men. The salesmen were men. It was all men. And then you had Coco Chanel, who just jumped right out there, and a couple of other women who carved out their own niche in the world. Haskell did that, too.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Favorite Things",
        "text": "\"Oprah's Favorite Things\" was an annual segment that appeared on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" from the 1990s to 2008 and 2010, as well as on \"Rachael Ray\" in 2017. In the segment, which airs during Thanksgiving week and was inspired by the holiday song \"My Favorite Things\" from \"The Sound of Music\", Oprah Winfrey shared products with her audience that she felt were noteworthy or that would make a great gift. In addition, the audience members that were present during the taping of the episode receive items from that year's list for free."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roseanne Barr",
        "text": "On February 14, 2011, Barr and Geraldine appeared on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" where Barr admitted the word \"incest\" could have been the wrong word to use and should have waited until her therapy was over before revealing the \"darkest time\" in her life. She told Oprah Winfrey, \"I was in a very unhappy relationship and I was prescribed numerous psychiatric drugs\u00a0... to deal with the fact that I had some mental illness\u00a0... I totally lost touch with reality\u00a0... (and) I didn't know what the truth was\u00a0... I just wanted to drop a bomb on my family\". She added that not everything was \"made up\", saying, \"Nobody accuses their parents of abusing them without justification\". Geraldine said they did not speak for 12 years, but had reconciled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Anti-war series",
        "text": "In a September 2002 interview with Phil Donahue, Winfrey asked for advice on how one could do such shows without looking unpatriotic: \u201cAfter we did a show called \u2018Is War the Only Answer?\u2019 I thought, Can\u2019t you even ask the question without people attacking you\u201d. Donahue replied by saying that dissent would become easier as time passed from September 11."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Erin Kramp, a mother dying of breast cancer, appeared on the show in 1998. After realizing that her six-year-old daughter, Peyton, would have to grow up without her, Kramp began recording videotapes filled with motherly advice on everything from makeup tips to finding a husband. She also wrote letters and bought gifts for Peyton to open every Christmas and birthday she was gone. Kramp lost her battle with cancer on October 31, 1998. She had recorded over a hundred videos and audiotapes for her daughter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Clemantine Wamariya",
        "text": "Wamariya first became known on the national and international stage when she appeared on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" in 2006, while still a student at New Trier. Along with her sister Claire, she was booked to appear on the show to discuss her experience during the genocide. But unbeknownst to the sisters, Winfrey had planned a surprise reunion with their parents. Both her father and mother had survived the genocide, and she had communicated with them by phone, but had not seen them in person for twelve years. The show's producers arranged the parents' flights from Africa and their reunion was televised. Wamariya was invited as a guest on the \"Oprah\" show on three further occasions during the subsequent years, and her appearances on the show gained her international attention."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Awareness Center",
        "text": "Back on May 1, 1989, I appeared on the Oprah Show. I shared the fact that I am a survivor of ritual abuse. The truth is that Oprah originally agreed not to mention that I was Jewish, yet it slipped out. What outraged me the most was not the mistake Oprah made, yet the reaction from the Jewish world that I would speak my truth -- that I would share the fact that Jews also abuse their children at the same rate as those who are non-Jewish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprahization",
        "text": "Another usage echoed by paleoconservative pundits refers to the impact of Oprah (and similar talk-show stars) upon American subculture, particularly women. It is lamentable to them that women embrace what they perceive as glib new age fads, cultural relativism under the ambit of multiculturalism, subtle misandry masquerading behind feminism, a subculture of self-victimization and vanity, which they attribute to Oprah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Toni Morrison",
        "text": "Winfrey selected a total of four of Morrison's novels over six years, giving Morrison's novels a bigger sales boost than they got from her Nobel Prize win in 1993. The novelist also appeared three times on Winfrey's show. Winfrey said, \"For all those who asked the question 'Toni Morrison again?'...\u00a0I say with certainty there would have been no Oprah's Book Club if this woman had not chosen to share her love of words with the world.\" Morrison called the book club a \"reading revolution.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "At the end of the 20th century, \"Life\" listed Winfrey as both the most influential woman and the most influential black person of her generation, and in a cover story profile the magazine called her \"America's most powerful woman\". In 2007, \"USA Today\" ranked Winfrey as the most influential woman and most influential black person of the previous quarter-century. \"Ladies' Home Journal\" also ranked Winfrey number one in their list of the most powerful women in America and then Senator Barack Obama in 2007 said she \"may be the most influential woman in the country\". In 1998, Winfrey became the first woman and first African American to top \"Entertainment Weekly\"'s list of the 101 most powerful people in the entertainment industry. \"Forbes\" named her the world's most powerful celebrity in 2005, 2007, 2008, 2010, and 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Making Oprah",
        "text": "The podcast tells the story of how Oprah Winfrey became one of the best known talk show hosts and moguls in American pop culture. It follows her career from her first broadcasting job as a local TV host for a Baltimore show called \"People Are Talking\", up to present day. The show's topics include reasons behind why audiences connected to Winfrey the way they did, the development of Harpo Studios, and how Winfrey turned to spirituality, all contextualized in terms of the American TV landscape. It discusses some controversial episodes, such as her interview with skinheads, when Tom Cruise jumped on her couch, and the \"you get a car\" episode."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "In 2001, Winfrey met 11-year-old Mattie Stepanek, who was born with dysautonomic mitochondrial myopathy and wrote inspirational poetry he titled \"Heartsongs.\" On the show, Stepanek stated, \"A heartsong doesn't have to be a song in your heart. It doesn't have to be talking about love and peace. \u2026 It's your message, what you feel like you need to do.\" In October 2008, Winfrey spoke at the posthumous dedication of Mattie J.T Stepanek Park in Maryland."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "In May 2011, Winfrey interviewed U.S. President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama, her first-ever interview with a sitting president and First Lady. They talked about the challenges of parenting at the White House, the strength of their relationship, and their concern for the country's future. President Obama also thanked Winfrey for her contributions to the country. \"You've got a big heart, and you share it with people. Nobody knows how to connect better than you do,\" he said. \"We are just blessed and grateful to have you in our lives.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "A segment at the end of the show that featured spiritual counselors, ordinary people who had been involved in extraordinary situations. They would come on the show and share their stories of overcoming adversity with the audience, inspiring viewers to do the same in their own lives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey's endorsement of Barack Obama",
        "text": "Ladies Home Journal also ranked Winfrey number one in their list of the most powerful women in America and then senator Barack Obama has said she \"may be the most influential woman in the country\". In 1998 Winfrey became the first woman and first African American to top Entertainment Weekly's list of the 101 most powerful people in the entertainment industry. In 2003 Winfrey edged out both Superman and Elvis Presley to be named the greatest pop culture icon of all time by VH1. \"Forbes\" named her the world's most powerful celebrity in 2005, 2007, and 2008. Columnist Maureen Dowd seems to agree with such assessments:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jill Bolte Taylor",
        "text": "Subsequently, Taylor appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show on October 21, 2008. In her later commencement address at Duke University on May 10, 2009, Oprah Winfrey quoted Taylor's assertion that \"You are responsible for the energy that you bring\" in encouraging the students to assume this same responsibility in their future lives. Taylor was the first guest featured on Oprah's Soul Series webcast on Oprah.com and Satellite radio show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Book Club",
        "text": "The media feasted over the televised showdown. David Carr of the \"New York Times\" wrote: \"Both Mr. Frey and Ms. Talese were snapped in two like dry winter twigs.\" \"Oprah annihilates Frey,\" proclaimed Larry King. \"New York Times\" columnist Maureen Dowd wrote, \"It was a huge relief, after our long national slide into untruth and no consequences, into Swift boating and swift bucks, into W.'s delusion and denial, to see the Empress of Empathy icily hold someone accountable for lying,\" and the \"Washington Post\"s Richard Cohen was so impressed by the confrontation that he crowned Winfrey \"Mensch of the Year.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "A Million Little Pieces",
        "text": "On July 28, 2007, at a literary convention in Texas, Nan Talese spoke of Oprah Winfrey as having been \"mean and self-serving\" and having had a \"holier-than-thou attitude\" and \"fiercely bad manners\" during Winfrey's debate with Talese and James Frey on January 26, 2006. Talese said she and Frey were led to believe the show was going to be a panel discussion on \"Truth in America\". Just before air time, both Talese and Frey were told the topic of the show had been changed to \"The James Frey Controversy\", thus the ambush began. Talese stated that Oprah needed to apologize for her behavior on the show. However Joyce Carol Oates said \"This is an ethical issue which can be debated passionately and with convincing arguments on both sides. In the end, Oprah Winfrey had to defend her own ethical standards of truth on her television program, which was courageous of her.\" Talese was unapologetic about publishing Frey's \"A Million Little Pieces\" and commented the book has great value for anyone who must deal with a loved one who is an addict."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprahization",
        "text": "The term \"Oprahization of America\" has also been applied to the general impact that Oprah Winfrey has had on American culture, fashion and mores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2009, Winfrey filmed a series of interviews in Denmark highlighting its citizens as the happiest people in the world. In 2010, Bill O'Reilly of Fox News criticized these shows for promoting a left-wing society. Following the launch of the \"Super Soul Sunday\" and \"SuperSoul Sessions\" programs on Harpo Productions' SuperSoul TV, in 2016 Winfrey selected 100 people for the \"SuperSoul 100\" list of \"innovators and visionaries who are aligned on a mission to move humanity forward\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Winfrey was born into poverty in rural Mississippi to a single teenage mother and later raised in inner-city Milwaukee. She has stated that she was molested during her childhood and early teenage years and became pregnant at 14; her son was born prematurely and died in infancy. Winfrey was then sent to live with the man she calls her father, Vernon Winfrey, a barber in Nashville, Tennessee, and landed a job in radio while still in high school. By 19, she was a co-anchor for the local evening news. Winfrey's often emotional, extemporaneous delivery eventually led to her transfer to the daytime talk show arena, and after boosting a third-rated local Chicago talk show to first place, she launched her own production company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2009, Winfrey was criticized for allowing actress Suzanne Somers to appear on her show to discuss hormone treatments that are not accepted by mainstream medicine. Critics have also suggested that Winfrey is not tough enough when questioning celebrity guests or politicians whom she appears to like. Lisa de Moraes, a media columnist for \"The Washington Post\", stated: \"Oprah doesn't do follow-up questions unless you're an author who's embarrassed her by fabricating portions of a supposed memoir she's plugged for her book club.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Corita Kent",
        "text": "E.E. Cummings was one of Kent's earliest and strongest influences. She quotes him in her work separately more than a dozen times and was inspired by a line from one of his lectures to create an entire series of alphabet prints. In her 1966 piece \"Tame It's Not\", she uses quotes from Winnie the Pooh, Kierkegaard, and an ad slogan for men's cologne. Using everyday consumer items, like Wonderbread, she was able to bring words and thoughts about her religion to a familiar product that people saw and used every day. By creating juxtaposition between formally acknowledged or respected \"art\" and the art Corita saw in her everyday world\u2014at the supermarket, on a walk, in the classroom\u2014she elevated the banal to the holy. \"Like a priest, a shaman, a magician, she could pass her hands over the commonest of the everyday, the superficial, the oh-so-ordinary, and make it a vehicle of the luminous, the only, and the hope filled,\" noted Corita's friend, theologian Harvey Cox."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Winfrey has stated she was molested by her cousin, uncle, and a family friend, starting when she was nine years old, something she first announced on a 1986 episode of her TV show regarding sexual abuse. When Winfrey discussed the alleged abuse with family members at age 24, they reportedly refused to believe her account. Winfrey once commented that she had chosen not to be a mother because she had not been mothered well. At 13, after suffering what she described as years of abuse, Winfrey ran away from home. When she was 14, she became pregnant, but her son was born prematurely and died shortly after birth. Winfrey later stated she felt betrayed by the family member who had sold the story of her son to the \"National Enquirer\" in 1990."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many films has Winfrey appeared in?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you asking about Amy Winfrey, Travis Winfrey or Oprah Winfrey?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about Oprah Winfrey."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Oprah Winfrey has appeared in films: The Color Purple,  Beloved, and The Princess and the Frog. She has also voice acted  in Charlotte's Web, A Wrinkle in Time, and Crow: The Legend. Which of these would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in The Color Purple."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Color Purple is a 1985 American epic coming-of-age period drama film directed by Steven Spielberg and written by Menno Meyjes, based on the Pulitzer Prize-winning 1982 novel of the same name by Alice Walker. The cast stars Whoopi Goldberg in her breakthrough role, with Danny Glover, Oprah Winfrey, Margaret Avery, Rae Dawn Chong, Willard Pugh, and Adolph Caesar."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some of the philanthropy efforts that Oprah has done?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In 1998, Winfrey created the Oprah's Angel Network, a charity that supported charitable projects and provided grants to nonprofit organizations around the world. As of 2012, Winfrey had also given over 400 scholarships to Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia, and in 2013, Winfrey donated $12 million to the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many years did her talk show air?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Oprah Winfrey Show, often referred to as The Oprah Show or simply Oprah, was an American daytime syndicated talk show that aired nationally for 25 seasons from September 8, 1986, to May 25, 2011, in Chicago, Illinois."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about some of the ways Oprah has influenced the world?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Matthew Baum and Angela Jamison performed an experiment and found those who watch soft news like Oprah are 14% more likely to vote consistently than low-awareness individuals who watch hard news, she received 2008's Person of the Year by animal-rights groups for using her fame and audience to help the less fortunate, including animals. She's also created the Oprah's Angel Network, a charity supporting charitable projects and provided grants to nonprofit organizations around the world and in 2004, she visited South Africa, her visit generated donations of over 7 million dollars to help young children.",
      "Winfrey has been called the world's most powerful woman, the most influential woman in the world, and others by many sources. \nOprahfication came to mean public confession as a form of therapy, and the power of Winfrey to influence public opinion has been dubbed \"the Oprah Effect,\" which of these influences do you want to know more about?"
    ],
    "topic": "Oprah Winfrey",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:67",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Influence",
          "Politics"
        ],
        "ctx": "Matthew Baum and Angela Jamison performed an experiment testing their hypothesis, \"Politically unaware individuals who consume soft news will be more likely to vote consistently than their counterparts who do not consume soft news\". In their studies, they found that low-awareness individuals who watch soft news shows, such as \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" are 14% more likely to vote consistently than low-awareness individuals who only watch hard news."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:79",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Influence",
          "Spiritual leadership"
        ],
        "ctx": "Winfrey was named as the 2008 Person of the Year by animal-rights group People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) for using her fame and listening audience to help the less fortunate, including animals. PETA praised Winfrey for using her talk show to uncover horrific cases of cruelty to animals in puppy mills and on factory farms, and Winfrey even used the show to highlight the cruelty-free vegan diet that she tried."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:88",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Influence",
          "Philanthropy",
          "Oprah's Angel Network"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 1998, Winfrey created the Oprah's Angel Network, a charity that supported charitable projects and provided grants to nonprofit organizations around the world. Oprah's Angel Network raised more than $80 million ($1\u00a0million of which was donated by Jon Bon Jovi). Winfrey personally covered all administrative costs associated with the charity, so 100% of all funds raised went to charity programs. In May 2010, with Oprah's show ending, the charity stopped accepting donations and was shut down."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:90",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Influence",
          "Philanthropy",
          "South Africa"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2004, Winfrey and her team filmed an episode of her show, \"Oprah's Christmas Kindness\", in which Winfrey travelled to South Africa to bring attention to the plight of young children affected by poverty and AIDS. During the 21-day trip, Winfrey and her crew visited schools and orphanages in poverty-stricken areas, and distributed Christmas presents to 50,000 children, with dolls for the girls and soccer balls for the boys, and school supplies. Throughout the show, Winfrey appealed to viewers to donate money to Oprah's Angel Network for poor and AIDS-affected children in Africa. From that show alone, viewers around the world donated over $7 million. Winfrey invested $40\u00a0million and some of her time establishing the Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls in Henley on Klip south of Johannesburg, South Africa. The school set over 22 acres, opened in January 2007 with an enrollment of 150 pupils (increasing to 450) and features state-of-the-art classrooms, computer and science laboratories, a library, theatre, and beauty salon. Nelson Mandela praised Winfrey for overcoming her own disadvantaged youth to become a benefactor for others. Critics considered the school elitist and unnecessarily luxurious. Winfrey rejected the claims, saying: \"If you are surrounded by beautiful things and wonderful teachers who inspire you, that beauty brings out the beauty in you.\" Winfrey, who has no surviving biological children, described maternal feelings towards the girls at Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls. Winfrey teaches a class at the school via satellite.\n* 1989 \u2013 \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" (supervising producer \u2013 8 episodes, 1989\u20132011)\n* 1989 \u2013 \"The Women of Brewster Place\" (TV miniseries) (executive producer)\n* 1992 \u2013 \"Nine\" (TV documentary) (executive producer)\n* 1992 \u2013 \"Overexposed\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 1993 \u2013 \"ABC Afterschool Special\" (TV series) (producer \u2013 1 episode \"Shades of a Single Protein\") (producer)\n* 1993 \u2013 \"Michael Jackson Talks to... Oprah Live\" (TV special) (executive producer)\n* 1997 \u2013 \"Before Women Had Wings\" (TV movie) (producer)\n* 1998 \u2013 \"The Wedding\" (TV miniseries) (executive producer)\n* 1998 \u2013 \"Beloved\" (producer)\n* 1998 \u2013 \"David and Lisa\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 1999 \u2013 \"Tuesdays with Morrie\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 2001 \u2013 \"Amy & Isabelle\" (TV movie) (executive producer, producer)\n* 2002 \u2013 \"Oprah After the Show\" (TV series) (executive producer)\n* 2005 \u2013 \"Their Eyes Were Watching God\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 2006 \u2013 \"Legends Ball\" (TV documentary) (executive producer)\n* 2007 \u2013 \"Oprah's Big Give\" (TV series) (executive producer)\n* 2007 \u2013 \"The Oprah Winfrey Oscar Special\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 2007 \u2013 \"Building a Dream: The Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy\" (TV documentary) (executive producer)\n* 2007 \u2013 \"Oprah Winfrey Presents: Mitch Albom's For One More Day\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 2007 \u2013 \"The Great Debaters\" (producer)\n* 2009 \u2013 \"The Dr. Oz Show\" (TV series) (executive producer)\n* 2009 \u2013 \"Precious\" (executive producer)\n* 2009 \u2013 \"Christmas at the White House: An Oprah Primetime Special\" (TV special) (executive producer)\n* 2010 \u2013 \"The Oprah Winfrey Oscar Special\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 2011 \u2013 \"Your OWN Show\" (TV series) (executive producer)\n* 2011 \u2013 \"Extraordinary Mom\" (TV documentary) (executive producer)\n* 2011 \u2013 \"Serving Life\" (TV documentary) (executive producer)\n* 2014 \u2013 \"The Hundred-Foot Journey \"(producer)\n* 2014 \u2013 \"Selma \"(producer)\n* 2016\u2013present \u2013 \"Queen Sugar\" (co-creator and executive producer)\n* 2016\u20132020 \u2013 \"Greenleaf\" (executive producer)\n* 2017 \u2013 \"The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks\" (TV movie) (executive producer)\n* 2018 \u2013 \"Love Is\" (executive producer)\n* 2019 \u2013 \"When They See Us\" (executive producer)\n* 2019 \u2013 \"Oprah Winfrey Presents: After Neverland\" (executive producer)\n* 2019 \u2013 \"David Makes Man\" (executive producer)\n* 2020 \u2013 \"The Water Man\" (executive producer)"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:54",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Influence",
          "Rankings"
        ],
        "ctx": "Winfrey was called \"arguably the world's most powerful woman\" by CNN and \"TIME\", \"arguably the most influential woman in the world\" by \"The American Spectator\", \"\" and \"one of the most influential people\" from 2004 to 2011 by \"TIME\". Winfrey is the only person to have appeared in the latter list on ten occasions."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:60",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Influence",
          "\"Oprahfication\""
        ],
        "ctx": "\"The Wall Street Journal\" coined the term \"Oprahfication\", meaning public confession as a form of therapy. By confessing intimate details about her weight problems, tumultuous love life, and sexual abuse, and crying alongside her guests, Winfrey has been credited by \"Time\" magazine with creating a new form of media communication known as \"rapport talk\" as distinguished from the \"report talk\" of Phil Donahue: \"Winfrey saw television's power to blend public and private; while it links strangers and conveys information over public airwaves, TV is most often viewed in the privacy of our homes. Like a family member, it sits down to meals with us and talks to us in the lonely afternoons. Grasping this paradox, ...\u00a0She makes people care because she cares. That is Winfrey's genius, and will be her legacy, as the changes she has wrought in the talk show continue to permeate our culture and shape our lives.\""
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:65",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Influence",
          "\"The Oprah Effect\""
        ],
        "ctx": "The power of Winfrey's opinions and endorsement to influence public opinion, especially consumer purchasing choices, has been dubbed \"the Oprah Effect\". The effect has been documented or alleged in domains as diverse as book sales, beef markets, and election voting. Late in 1996, Winfrey introduced the Oprah's Book Club segment to her television show. The segment focused on new books and classics and often brought obscure novels to popular attention. The book club became such a powerful force that whenever Winfrey introduced a new book as her book-club selection, it instantly became a best-seller; for example, when she selected the classic John Steinbeck novel \"East of Eden\", it soared to the top of the book charts. Being recognized by Winfrey often means a million additional book sales for an author. In \"Reading with Oprah: The Book Club that Changed America\" (2005), Kathleen Rooney describes Winfrey as \"a serious American intellectual who pioneered the use of electronic media, specifically television and the Internet, to take reading \u2013 a decidedly non-technological and highly individual act \u2013 and highlight its social elements and uses in such a way to motivate millions of erstwhile non-readers to pick up books.\""
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Oprah Winfrey\n--Early life.\n--Television.\n----Celebrity interviews.\n--Other media.\n----Film.\n----Publishing and writing.\n----Online.\n----Radio.\n--Personal life.\n----Homes.\n----Romantic history.\n----Close friends.\n----Personal wealth.\n----Religious views.\n--Influence.\n----Rankings.\n----\"Oprahfication\".\n------Daytime talk show's impact on LGBT people.\n----\"The Oprah Effect\".\n----Politics.\n----Spiritual leadership.\n----Fan base.\n----Philanthropy.\n------Oprah's Angel Network.\n------South Africa.\n--Bibliography.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Early in its twelfth season, Winfrey confessed she was \"exhausted\" and considered quitting. However, while making the 1998 movie \"Beloved\", Winfrey then admitted that it brought her back to her responsibility as an admired black woman with a great deal of power and influence. She realized that being in such a position within the media industry, she could make a positive difference in people's lives. Winfrey was once again inspired to continue to help people take better control of their destinies, hence her slogan, \"Live Your Best Life\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Winfrey's career in media would not have surprised her grandmother, who once said that ever since Winfrey could talk, she was on stage. As a child, she played games interviewing her corncob doll and the crows on the fence of her family's property. Winfrey later acknowledged her grandmother's influence, saying it was Hattie Mae who had encouraged her to speak in public and \"gave me a positive sense of myself\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "\"The Wall Street Journal\" coined the term \"Oprahfication\", meaning public confession as a form of therapy. By confessing intimate details about her weight problems, tumultuous love life, and sexual abuse, and crying alongside her guests, Winfrey has been credited by \"Time\" magazine with creating a new form of media communication known as \"rapport talk\" as distinguished from the \"report talk\" of Phil Donahue: \"Winfrey saw television's power to blend public and private; while it links strangers and conveys information over public airwaves, TV is most often viewed in the privacy of our homes. Like a family member, it sits down to meals with us and talks to us in the lonely afternoons. Grasping this paradox, ...\u00a0She makes people care because she cares. That is Winfrey's genius, and will be her legacy, as the changes she has wrought in the talk show continue to permeate our culture and shape our lives.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "According to Mair, when Kramer moved to NBC in New York, Winfrey had a love affair with a married man who had no intention of leaving his wife. Winfrey would later recall: \"I'd had a relationship with a man for four years. I wasn't living with him. I'd never lived with anyone\u2014and I thought I was worthless without him. The more he rejected me, the more I wanted him. I felt depleted, powerless. At the end, I was down on the floor on my knees groveling and pleading with him\". Winfrey became so depressed that on September 8, 1981, she wrote a suicide note to best friend Gayle King instructing King to water her plants. \"That suicide note had been much overplayed\" Winfrey told \"Ms.\" magazine. \"I couldn't kill myself. I would be afraid the minute I did it, something really good would happen and I'd miss it.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "After Winfrey's birth, her mother traveled north, and Winfrey spent her first six years living in rural poverty with her maternal grandmother, Hattie Mae (Presley) Lee (April 15, 1900 \u2013 February 27, 1963). Her grandmother was so poor that Winfrey often wore dresses made of potato sacks, for which other children made fun of her. Her grandmother taught her to read before the age of three and took her to the local church, where she was nicknamed \"The Preacher\" for her ability to recite Bible verses. When Winfrey was a child, her grandmother was reportedly abusive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Oprah was raised a Baptist. In her early life, she would speak at local, mostly African American congregations of the Southern Baptist Convention that were often deeply religious and familiar with such themes as evangelical Protestantism, the Black church, and being born-again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Personal life of Lindsay Lohan",
        "text": "Lohan said that her first problems arose when she moved to California by herself at 15. In her interview with Oprah in 2013, Lohan speaks of her lack of financial guidance and how her early legal problems left her unfazed as she was so deep into her tendencies as an addict. In the same interview, Lohan admitted it took a period of time before she could admit to herself that she had a problem."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "While doing a show centered on women drug users in 1995, Winfrey opened up about her personal history with drug abuse:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Winfrey has stated she was molested by her cousin, uncle, and a family friend, starting when she was nine years old, something she first announced on a 1986 episode of her TV show regarding sexual abuse. When Winfrey discussed the alleged abuse with family members at age 24, they reportedly refused to believe her account. Winfrey once commented that she had chosen not to be a mother because she had not been mothered well. At 13, after suffering what she described as years of abuse, Winfrey ran away from home. When she was 14, she became pregnant, but her son was born prematurely and died shortly after birth. Winfrey later stated she felt betrayed by the family member who had sold the story of her son to the \"National Enquirer\" in 1990."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "By the mid-1990s, Winfrey had reinvented her show with a focus on literature, self-improvement, mindfulness, and spirituality. Though she has been criticized for unleashing a confession culture, promoting controversial self-help ideas, and having an emotion-centered approach, she has also been praised for overcoming adversity to become a benefactor to others. Winfrey had also emerged as a political force in the 2008 presidential race, with her endorsement of Barack Obama estimated to have been worth about one million votes during the 2008 Democratic primaries. In 2013, Winfrey was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Obama and received honorary doctorate degrees from Duke and Harvard. In 2008, she formed her own network, the Oprah Winfrey Network (OWN)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Columnist Maureen Dowd seems to agree with such assessments. Interviewed by \"The Guardian\" in 2006, Dowd said: \"She is the top alpha female in this country. She has more credibility than the president. Other successful women, such as Hillary Clinton and Martha Stewart, had to be publicly slapped down before they could move forward. Even Condi has had to play the prot\u00e9g\u00e9 with Bush. None of this happened to Oprah \u2013 she is a straight ahead success story.\" \"Vanity Fair\" wrote: \"Oprah Winfrey arguably has more influence on the culture than any university president, politician, or religious leader, except perhaps the Pope. Bill O'Reilly said: \"this is a woman that came from nothing to rise up to be the most powerful woman, I think, in the world. I think Oprah Winfrey is the most powerful woman in the world, not just in America. That's \u2013 anybody who goes on her program immediately benefits through the roof. I mean, she has a loyal following; she has credibility; she has talent; and she's done it on her own to become fabulously wealthy and fabulously powerful.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jill Collen Jefferson",
        "text": "Growing up, the first adult book Jill Collen Jefferson read was Oprah's biography, which completely changed the way she thought about life \u2013 and more specifically, how she thought about her own life. \"Before I thought I could only work at a factory or be a teacher or secretary\u2026thought I couldn't see life outside Mississippi,\" Jill Collen Jefferson said. \"It changed my life; my dreams and hopes became different.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey's endorsement of Barack Obama",
        "text": "At the end of the 20th century \"Life\" listed Winfrey as both the most influential woman and the most influential black person of her generation, and in a cover story profile the magazine called her \"America's most powerful woman\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Observers have also noted the \"Oprahfication\" of politics such as \"Oprah-style debates\" and Bill Clinton being described as \"the man who brought Oprah-style psychobabble and misty confessions to politics\". \"Newsweek\" stated: \"Every time a politician lets his lip quiver or a cable anchor 'emotes' on TV, they nod to the cult of confession that Oprah helped create."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "As chairman of Harpo Inc., she was named the most powerful woman in entertainment by \"The Hollywood Reporter\" in 2008. She has been listed as one of the most powerful 100 women in the world by \"Forbes\", ranking 14th in 2014. In 2010, \"Life\" magazine named Winfrey one of the 100 people who changed the world, alongside Jesus Christ, Elvis Presley, and Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. Winfrey was the only living woman to make the list."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "In the 1989\u201390 season, Truddi Chase\u2014a woman who was diagnosed with dissociative identity disorder, having 92 distinct personalities\u2014appeared on the show. Chase had been violently and sexually abused beginning at the age of two and said her old self ceased to exist after that. After introducing Chase, who was there to promote her book \"When Rabbit Howls\", Winfrey unexpectedly broke down in tears while reading the teleprompter, relating her own childhood molestation to that of the guest. Unable to control herself, Winfrey repeatedly asked producers to stop filming."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Winfrey was born into poverty in rural Mississippi to a single teenage mother and later raised in inner-city Milwaukee. She has stated that she was molested during her childhood and early teenage years and became pregnant at 14; her son was born prematurely and died in infancy. Winfrey was then sent to live with the man she calls her father, Vernon Winfrey, a barber in Nashville, Tennessee, and landed a job in radio while still in high school. By 19, she was a co-anchor for the local evening news. Winfrey's often emotional, extemporaneous delivery eventually led to her transfer to the daytime talk show arena, and after boosting a third-rated local Chicago talk show to first place, she launched her own production company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "At the end of the 20th century, \"Life\" listed Winfrey as both the most influential woman and the most influential black person of her generation, and in a cover story profile the magazine called her \"America's most powerful woman\". In 2007, \"USA Today\" ranked Winfrey as the most influential woman and most influential black person of the previous quarter-century. \"Ladies' Home Journal\" also ranked Winfrey number one in their list of the most powerful women in America and then Senator Barack Obama in 2007 said she \"may be the most influential woman in the country\". In 1998, Winfrey became the first woman and first African American to top \"Entertainment Weekly\"'s list of the 101 most powerful people in the entertainment industry. \"Forbes\" named her the world's most powerful celebrity in 2005, 2007, 2008, 2010, and 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Winfrey interviewed a plethora of public figures and everyday people during the show's 25-year history. When celebrities and newsmakers were ready to share their most intimate secrets their first stop was Winfrey's couch and when a serious story hit, the \"Oprah\" show focused on putting a human face on the headlines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kathryn Sansone",
        "text": "Also in 2005, Oprah published her own book, \"Live Your Best Life\", with \"all her best interviews\", which included the one with Sansone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hida Viloria",
        "text": "In 2007, on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", Viloria likened society's lack of understanding of non-binary people, and the pressure non-binary people experience to identify as men or women, to what people of mixed African-American and Caucasian race sometimes experience, saying, \"Society pressures you to choose sides, just like they pressure mixed race people to decide, you know... 'Are you really black? Are you really white?'\" Viloria went on to say \"I have both [sides]\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tabloid talk show",
        "text": "While having changed with the times from her tabloid talk show roots, Winfrey continued to include gay guests by using her show and to promote openly gay personalities like her hairdresser, makeup artist, and decorator Nate Berkus, who inspired an outpouring of sympathy from middle America after grieving the loss of his partner in the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\". Winfrey's \"therapeutic\" hosting style and the tabloid talk show genre have been both praised and blamed for leading the media counterculture of the 1980s and 1990s, which some believe broke 20th century taboos, led to America's self-help obsession and created confession culture. \"The Wall Street Journal\" coined the term \"Oprahfication\" to refer to the concept of public confession as a form of therapy and \"Time\" magazine named Winfrey one of the \"100 Most Influential People\" of the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "At age six, Winfrey moved to an inner-city neighborhood in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, with her mother, who was less supportive and encouraging than her grandmother had been, largely as a result of the long hours she worked as a maid. Around this time, Lee had given birth to another daughter, Winfrey's younger half-sister, Patricia who died of causes related to cocaine addiction in February 2003 at age 43. By 1962, Lee was having difficulty raising both daughters, so Winfrey was temporarily sent to live with Vernon in Nashville, Tennessee. While Winfrey was in Nashville, Lee gave birth to a third daughter, who was put up for adoption in the hopes of easing the financial straits that had led to Lee's being on welfare, and was later also named Patricia. Winfrey did not know that she had a second half-sister until 2010. By the time Winfrey moved back with her mother, Lee had also given birth to Winfrey's half-brother Jeffrey, who died of AIDS-related causes in 1989. At the age of 8, she was baptized in a Baptist church."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fannie Hurst",
        "text": "The great popularity of Hurst's works gave her major celebrity status. Hurst also took steps to publicize herself for purposes of promoting both her writing and the activist causes she espoused (see [[#Social activism|Social activism]]). In the 1920s, news media widely covered aspects of her personal life such as her unconventional marriage (see [[#Personal life and death|Personal life and death]]) and a diet on which she lost 40 pounds. She was frequently interviewed about her views on subjects relating to love, marriage and family. For decades, \"[[The New York Times]]\" continued to report regularly on Hurst's doings, including her walks in [[Central Park]] with her dogs, her travels abroad, her wardrobe, and the interior decoration of her apartment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2000, she was awarded the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP. In 2002, \"Christianity Today\" published an article called \"The Church of O\" in which they concluded that Winfrey had emerged as an influential spiritual leader. \"Since 1994, when she abandoned traditional talk-show fare for more edifying content, and 1998, when she began 'Change Your Life TV', Oprah's most significant role has become that of a spiritual leader. To her audience of more than 22 million mostly female viewers, she has become a postmodern priestess\u2014an icon of church-free spirituality.\" The sentiment was echoed by Marcia Z. Nelson in her book \"The Gospel According to Oprah\". Since the mid-1990s, Winfrey's show has emphasized uplifting and inspirational topics and themes and some viewers say the show has motivated them to perform acts of altruism such as helping Congolese women and building an orphanage. A scientific study by psychological scientists at the University of Cambridge, University of Plymouth, and University of California used an uplifting clip from The Oprah Winfrey Show in an experiment that discovered that watching the 'uplifting' clip caused subjects to become twice as helpful as subjects assigned to watch a British comedy or nature documentary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2009, Winfrey was criticized for allowing actress Suzanne Somers to appear on her show to discuss hormone treatments that are not accepted by mainstream medicine. Critics have also suggested that Winfrey is not tough enough when questioning celebrity guests or politicians whom she appears to like. Lisa de Moraes, a media columnist for \"The Washington Post\", stated: \"Oprah doesn't do follow-up questions unless you're an author who's embarrassed her by fabricating portions of a supposed memoir she's plugged for her book club.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "By Oprah Winfrey\n*Winfrey, Oprah (1996). \"The Uncommon Wisdom of Oprah Winfrey: A Portrait in Her Own Words\"\n*Winfrey, Oprah (1998). \"Journey to Beloved\" (Photography by Ken Regan)\n*Winfrey, Oprah (1998). \"Make the Connection: Ten Steps to a Better Body and a Better Life\" (co-authored with Bob Greene)\n*Winfrey, Oprah (2000). \"Oprah Winfrey: The Soul and Spirit of a Superstar\"\n*Winfrey, Oprah (2014). \"What I Know for Sure\"\n*Winfrey, Oprah (2016). \"Mr. or Ms. Just Right\" (co-authored with B. Grace)\n*Winfrey, Oprah (2017). \"Food, Health and Happiness\"\n*Winfrey, Oprah (2017). \"The Wisdom of Sundays: Life-Changing Insights from Super Soul Conversations\"\n**Winfrey, Oprah (2017). \"The Wisdom Journal: The Companion to The Wisdom of Sundays\"\n*Winfrey, Oprah (2019). \"The Path Made Clear: Discovering Your Life's Direction and Purpose\"\n*Winfrey, Oprah (2021). \"What Happened to You?: Conversations on Trauma, Resilience, and Healing\" (co-authored with B. Perry)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mo'Nique",
        "text": "She repeated this view later on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" when she said that, in her prior marriages, she was constantly searching for \"that extra oomph\". Mo'Nique explained,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Leading up to the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, Winfrey's show received criticism for allegedly having an anti-war bias. Ben Shapiro of Townhall.com wrote: \"Oprah Winfrey is the most powerful woman in America. She decides what makes \"The New York Times\" Best Seller lists. Her touchy-feely style sucks in audiences at the rate of 14 million viewers per day. But Oprah is far more than a cultural force, she's a dangerous political force as well, a woman with unpredictable and mercurial attitudes toward the major issues of the day.\" In 2006, Winfrey recalled such controversies: \"I once did a show titled \"Is War the Only Answer?\" In the history of my career, I've never received more hate mail \u2013 like 'Go back to Africa' hate mail. I was accused of being un-American for even raising the question.\" Filmmaker Michael Moore came to Winfrey's defense, praising her for showing antiwar footage no other media would show and begging her to run for president."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean Jennings",
        "text": "In a 2016 interview, she counted as large influences on her life a Catholic upbringing \"with a heavy emphasis on reading, Latin, and the pursuit of nothing less than perfection;\" a disruptive bent brought out by working on an underground newspaper; and a heavy desire to escape her dirt-road, middle-of-nowhere childhood, the latter facilitated by learning to drive at an early age."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Winfrey was called \"arguably the world's most powerful woman\" by CNN and \"TIME\", \"arguably the most influential woman in the world\" by \"The American Spectator\", \"\" and \"one of the most influential people\" from 2004 to 2011 by \"TIME\". Winfrey is the only person to have appeared in the latter list on ten occasions."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Winfrey interviewed Kathy Bray three weeks after her 10-year-old son, Scott, was accidentally killed by a friend who had found his father's gun. Viewers later commented that the interview changed their feelings about having guns in their homes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "According to Winfrey, her emotional turmoil gradually led to a weight problem: \"The reason I gained so much weight in the first place and the reason I had such a sorry history of abusive relationships with men was I just needed approval so much. I needed everyone to like me, because I didn't like myself much. So I'd end up with these cruel self-absorbed guys who'd tell me how selfish I was, and I'd say 'Oh thank you, you're so right' and be grateful to them. Because I had no sense that I deserved anything else. Which is also why I gained so much weight later on. It was the perfect way of cushioning myself against the world's disapproval.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "The November 1988 \"Ms.\" observed that \"in a society where fat is taboo, she made it in a medium that worships thin and celebrates a bland, white-bread prettiness of body and personality [...] But Winfrey made fat sexy, elegant\u00a0\u2013 damned near gorgeous\u00a0\u2013 with her drop-dead wardrobe, easy body language, and cheerful sensuality.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Lifeclass",
        "text": "Each episode revolves around a central topic or lesson that teaches viewers how to live their best life. Winfrey and her co-hosts share their ideas, thoughts, and reflections about the lesson, and the show features interviews with guests (and sometimes past guests and audience members from \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\") whose life experiences relate to each topic. Every episode also features segments with guests from around the world, who connect with Winfrey via Skype, Facebook, Twitter, or Oprah.com."
      },
      {
        "title": "My Beloved World",
        "text": "The memoir does not cover aspects of her later life or her appointment to the Supreme Court, aside from incidental mentions. It is apolitical and does not discuss or reveal her legal philosophy. It discusses her 1976 marriage and subsequent divorce in 1983. It reveals many details about her early life that even her closest friends and mother were not previously aware of, as well as many things she had difficulty confronting (\"I disclose every fear I've ever had in this book.\"). It also includes a candid description of the effects of affirmative action upon her at Princeton; she acknowledges that, \"I had been admitted to the Ivy League through a special door,\" but concludes that the measures served, \"to create the conditions whereby students from disadvantaged backgrounds could be brought to the starting line of a race many were unaware was even being run.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Deborah Jeane Palfrey",
        "text": "Palfrey's two handwritten notes were released to the public. In one of them, she wrote to her sister, \"You must comprehend there was no way out, I.E. 'exit strategy,' for me other than the one I have chosen here.\" In another, she described her predicament as a \"modern-day lynching\". She said she feared that, at the end of serving her sentence, she would be \"in my late 50s a broken, penniless and very much alone woman\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "TV columnist Howard Rosenberg said: \"She's a roundhouse, a full course meal, big, brassy, loud, aggressive, hyper, laughable, lovable, soulful, tender, low-down, earthy, and hungry. And she may know the way to Phil Donahue's jugular.\" \"Newsday\"s Les Payne observed, \"Oprah Winfrey is sharper than Donahue, wittier, more genuine, and far better attuned to her audience, if not the world\" and Martha Bayles of \"The Wall Street Journal\" wrote, \"It's a relief to see a gab-monger with a fond but realistic assessment of her own cultural and religious roots.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sin\u00e9ad O'Connor",
        "text": "On a 4 October 2007, broadcast of \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", O'Connor disclosed that she had been diagnosed with bipolar disorder four years earlier, and had attempted suicide on her 33rd birthday on 8 December 1999. Then, on \"\" of 9 February 2014, O'Connor said that she had received three \"second opinions\" and was told by all three that she was not bipolar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Winfrey later confessed to smoking crack cocaine with a man she was romantically involved with during the same era. She explained on her show: \"I always felt that the drug itself is not the problem but that I was addicted to the man.\" She added: \"I can't think of anything I wouldn't have done for that man.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jacqueline Saburido",
        "text": "Regarding her life after the accident, Saburido said that she never gave up: \"If a person stumbles, he must pick himself up and keep going. I believe this is very important; if not, life would not have much sense.\" She appeared on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" on 17 November 2003. She was also interviewed on the Australian \"60 Minutes\" on 14 March 2004, and was featured in a Discovery Health documentary on face transplants. Oprah Winfrey called Saburido the one person she had met who defined \"inner beauty\" and that she is \"a woman who defines survival.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Orpah Gail Winfrey was born on January 29, 1954; her first name was spelled \"Orpah\" on her birth certificate after the biblical figure in the Book of Ruth, but people mispronounced it regularly and \"Oprah\" stuck. She was born in Kosciusko, Mississippi, to an unmarried teenage mother. Her mother, Vernita Lee (1935\u20132018), was a housemaid. Winfrey's biological father is usually noted as Vernon Winfrey (born c. 1933), a coal miner turned barber turned city councilman who was in the Armed Forces when she was born. However, Mississippi farmer and World War II Veteran Noah Robinson Sr. (born c. 1925) has claimed to be her biological father. A genetic test in 2006 determined that her matrilineal line originated among the Kpelle ethnic group, in the area that today is Liberia. Her genetic makeup was determined to be 89% Sub-Saharan African, 8% Native American, and 3% East Asian. However, given the imprecision of genetic testing, the East Asian markers may actually be Native American."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Oprah Gail Winfrey (born Orpah Gail Winfrey; January 29, 1954) is an American talk show host, television producer, actress, author, and philanthropist. She is best known for her talk show, \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", broadcast from Chicago, which was the highest-rated television program of its kind in history and ran in national syndication for 25 years, from 1986 to 2011. Dubbed the \"Queen of All Media\", she was the richest African-American of the 20th century, was once the world's only black billionaire, and the greatest black philanthropist in U.S. history. By 2007, she was sometimes ranked as the most influential woman in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Oprah has stated that she is a Christian and her favorite Bible verse is ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "On using the N-word, Winfrey said, \"You cannot be my friend and use that word around me. ... I always think of the...people who heard that as their last word as they were hanging from a tree.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Media works of Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "This article documents the professional media works of Oprah Winfrey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mackenzie Phillips",
        "text": "Phillips told Oprah Winfrey of having a \"consensual\" sexual relationship with her father, describing her participation as \"sort of Stockholm syndrome, where you begin to love your captor.\" However, she has also described the initial incident as a rape, and has said, \"No matter what kind of incest, it is an abuse of power ... a betrayal of trust.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Winfrey attended Lincoln High School in Milwaukee, but after early success in the Upward Bound program, was transferred to the affluent suburban Nicolet High School. Upon transferring, she said she was continually reminded of her poverty as she rode the bus to school with fellow African-Americans, some of whom were servants of her classmates' families. She began to rebel and steal money from her mother in an effort to keep up with her free-spending peers. As a result, her mother once again sent her to live with Vernon in Nashville, although this time she did not take her back. Vernon was strict but encouraging, and made her education a priority. Winfrey became an honors student, was voted Most Popular Girl, and joined her high school speech team at East Nashville High School, placing second in the nation in dramatic interpretation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lisa Palfrey",
        "text": "Lisa Palfrey\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey's endorsement of Barack Obama",
        "text": "Ladies Home Journal also ranked Winfrey number one in their list of the most powerful women in America and then senator Barack Obama has said she \"may be the most influential woman in the country\". In 1998 Winfrey became the first woman and first African American to top Entertainment Weekly's list of the 101 most powerful people in the entertainment industry. In 2003 Winfrey edged out both Superman and Elvis Presley to be named the greatest pop culture icon of all time by VH1. \"Forbes\" named her the world's most powerful celebrity in 2005, 2007, and 2008. Columnist Maureen Dowd seems to agree with such assessments:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tabloid talk show",
        "text": "In the September 2002 issue of \"O, The Oprah Magazine\", Oprah Winfrey interviewed Phil Donahue at his Manhattan penthouse apartment in what she described as a \"full-circle\" moment. She wrote in the article's introduction, \"If there had been no Phil Donahue show, there would be no Oprah Winfrey show. He was the first to acknowledge that women are interested in more than mascara tips and cake recipes \u2013 that we're intelligent, we're concerned about the world around us, and we want the best possible lives for ourselves.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In the 1970s, Winfrey had a romantic relationship with John Tesh. Biographer Kitty Kelley claims that Tesh split with Winfrey over the pressures of an interracial relationship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2005, Winfrey was named the greatest woman in American history as part of a public poll as part of \"The Greatest American\". She was ranked No. 9 overall on the list of greatest Americans. However, polls estimating Winfrey's personal popularity have been inconsistent. A November 2003 Gallup poll estimated that 73% of American adults had a favorable view of Winfrey. Another Gallup poll in January 2007 estimated the figure at 74%, although it dropped to 66% when Gallup conducted the same poll in October 2007. A December 2007 \"Fox News\" poll put the figure at 55%. According to Gallup's annual most admired poll, Americans consistently rank Winfrey as one of the most admired women in the world. Her highest rating came in 2007 when she was statistically tied with Hillary Clinton for first place. In a list compiled by the British magazine \"New Statesman\" in September 2010, she was voted 38th in the list of \"The World's 50 Most Influential Figures 2010\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sara Nelson (editor)",
        "text": "In 2008, Nelson commented on the intersection of political candidates, books, and television celebrities such as Oprah Winfrey, not knowing that the talk show celebrity would be her employer within a year. There were several dozen books about then-candidate Obama. Nelson was interviewed on \"National Public Radio\" on Winfrey's influence, similar to that of radio personality Imus, in the publishing arena. She described Oprah:"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "The Oprah Winfrey Show\n--Early history.\n--Interviews.\n----Celebrities.\n----Notable guests.\n--Regular segments and campaigns.\n----Oprah's Book Club.\n----Oprah's Favorite Things.\n----Oprah & Gayle's Big Adventures.\n----Remembering Your Spirit.\n----Change Your Life TV.\n------Iyanla Vanzant.\n------Dr. Phil.\n------Suze Orman.\n----What's The Buzz?\n----Wildest Dreams.\n----Tuesdays with Dr. Oz.\n----Fridays Live.\n----No Phone Zone.\n--Memorable moments.\n----Giveaways.\n----Controversies.\n--Final season.\n----Final episodes.\n--United States viewership.\n----Spin-offs.\n--International syndication.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Eva Illouz",
        "text": "In her third book, Illouz analyzes one of the most fascinating phenomena of the 1990s \u2013 television talk shows and the persona of Oprah Winfrey. The books responds to a question that perplexed sociologists as well as the public at large: How did Oprah Winfrey become such a global feminine icon?"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2007, Winfrey began to endorse the self-help program \"The Secret\". \"The Secret\" claims that people can change their lives through positive thoughts or 'vibrations', which will then cause them to attract more positive vibrations that result in good things happening to them. Peter Birkenhead of \"Salon\" magazine argued that this idea is pseudoscience and psychologically damaging, as it trivializes important decisions and promotes a quick-fix material culture, and suggests Winfrey's promotion of it is irresponsible given her influence. In 2007, skeptic and magician James Randi accused Winfrey of being deliberately deceptive and uncritical in how she handles paranormal claims on her show. In 2008, Winfrey endorsed author and spiritual teacher Eckhart Tolle and his book, \"A New Earth: Awakening to Your Life's Purpose\", which sold several million extra copies after being selected for her book club. During a Webinar class, in which she promoted the book, Winfrey stated \"God is a feeling experience and not a believing experience. If your religion is a believing experience [...] then that's not truly God.\" Frank Pastore, a Christian radio talk show host on KKLA, was among the many Christian leaders who criticized Winfrey's views, saying \"if she's a Christian, she's an ignorant one because Christianity is incompatible with New Age thought\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2015, her memoir, \"The Life You Want\", was announced following on her tour of the same name, and scheduled for publication in 2017, but was \"indefinitely postponed\" in 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Jo Ann Compton's daughter Laurie Ann was stabbed to death in 1988\u2014and a decade later, the mom was tangled in her grief. \"I hope they're in the same hell I'm in.\" she said of her daughter's murderers on a 1998 show. Oprah brought in Dr. Phil to help Jo Ann. He asked her if she thought her daughter would want her to be in so much pain\u2014and Compton said no. \"Maybe the betrayal is focusing on the day of her death, rather than celebrating the event of her life.\" Phil continued. \"She lived for 18 vibrant years, and you focus on the day she died.\" After a moment, Compton uttered her breakthrough sentence: \"I never thought of it that way.\" Later, she sobbed while revealing that she had been planning to end her life after the show. When Compton returned to the show in 2011, she had a new viewpoint on the daughter she lost: \"She continues to stay alive every time I do something positive.\" Compton's surviving daughter, Cindy, said \"She went from existing to living. It was an amazing transformation.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Erin Kramp, a mother dying of breast cancer, appeared on the show in 1998. After realizing that her six-year-old daughter, Peyton, would have to grow up without her, Kramp began recording videotapes filled with motherly advice on everything from makeup tips to finding a husband. She also wrote letters and bought gifts for Peyton to open every Christmas and birthday she was gone. Kramp lost her battle with cancer on October 31, 1998. She had recorded over a hundred videos and audiotapes for her daughter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Farrah Fawcett",
        "text": "Farrah Fawcett\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n----Early career.\n----Rise to stardom.\n----Post-\"Angels\" film roles.\n----Art meets life.\n--Personal life.\n----Relationships.\n----Family.\n----Cancer.\n--Death.\n----Funeral.\n----Trust and dispute over Warhol portrait.\n----Media coverage.\n----Academy Awards' omission.\n--Cultural impact.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Zarah (television personality)",
        "text": "Zarah was influenced by classic to modern rock bands and other popular music growing up. She worked with vocal coach Seth Riggs in Hollywood and began to write her own songs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kofi Krah Mensah",
        "text": "Kofi Krah Mensah\n--Personal life.\n--Politics.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Angelina Jolie",
        "text": "Jolie's reputation began to change positively after she, at age 26, became a Goodwill Ambassador for the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, later commenting, \"In my early 20s I was fighting with myself. Now I take that punk in me to Washington, and I fight for something important.\" Owing to her extensive activism, her Q Score\u2014a marketing industry measure of celebrities' likability\u2014nearly doubled to 25 between 2000 and 2006. Her recognizability grew accordingly; by 2006, she was familiar to 81% of Americans, compared to 31% in 2000. She became noted for her ability to positively influence her public image through the media, without employing a publicist or an agent. Her Q Score remained above average even when, in 2005, she was accused of ending Brad Pitt's marriage to Jennifer Aniston, at which point her public persona became an unlikely combination of alleged homewrecker, mother, sex symbol, and humanitarian. A decade later, Jolie was found to be the most admired woman in the world in global surveys conducted by YouGov in 2015 and 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey's endorsement of Barack Obama",
        "text": "Winfrey was at times called \"arguably the world's most powerful woman\" by CNN and Time.com, \"arguably the most influential woman in the world\" by The American Spectator, \"\" and \"one of the most influential people\" of 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010 and 2011 by \"Time\". Winfrey is the only person in the world to have made all nine lists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Louella Parsons",
        "text": "In her personal histories, she expunged significant bits of her history in order to align her life with the Catholicism she began to practice in middle age. She alleged that her first husband died on a transport ship on the way home from World War I, leaving her a widow instead of a divorced single mother. Her second marriage to Jack McCaffrey and eventual divorce is omitted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Born in rural poverty, and raised by a mother dependent on government welfare payments in a poor urban neighborhood, Winfrey became a millionaire at the age of 32 when her talk show received national syndication. Winfrey negotiated ownership rights to the television program and started her own production company. At the age of 41, Winfrey had a net worth of $340\u00a0million and replaced Bill Cosby as the only African American on the \"Forbes 400\". By 2000, with a net worth of $800\u00a0million, Winfrey is believed to have been the richest African American of the 20th century. There has been a course taught at the University of Illinois focusing on Winfrey's business acumen, namely: \"History 298: Oprah Winfrey, the Tycoon\". Winfrey was the highest paid television entertainer in the United States in 2006, earning an estimated $260\u00a0million during the year, five times the sum earned by second-place music executive Simon Cowell. By 2008, her yearly income had increased to $275\u00a0million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah with Meghan and Harry",
        "text": "Allison Pearson from \"The Daily Telegraph\" also criticized the interview and the couple's attitude, saying \"The only truthful lens is their own. Anyone who comes up with facts which contradict their feelings is either frightened of the tabloids, trapped or racist \u2013 quite possibly all three\". She also believed that Winfrey's lack of knowledge on the UK and its royal family made her unable to query the couple's unclear answers. Lucy Mangan of \"The Guardian\", however, praised Winfrey for her \"patented blend of warmth, empathy and persistence [that] makes her still the best in the business\" and wrote that Winfrey's reaction of \"disbelief\" toward comments made about Archie's skin spoke \"to a fascinating level of general ignorance [...] in the way the English aristocracy operates.\" Writing for \"The Observer\", Barbara Ellen was critical of the interview, stating \"In this sprawling \"nothing off-limits\" interview, where were the questions the couple didn't want to answer? ... as race featured, why wasn't Harry directly grilled about the well-documented dismaying episodes of his youth, if only to give him the opportunity to show how far he'd come?\" She also doubted that the couple would be able to form a close relationship with the American upper class, most of whom \"are unlikely to feel true kinship with people who give explosive gut-spilling interviews, never mind leak private family conversations to showbiz journalists\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "My Own Words",
        "text": "\"Yahoo! News\" stated, \"In \"My Own Words\"... the vim and vigor that she is famous for expressing from the Supreme Court bench is just as apparent in her high school editorials.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Kitty Kelley",
        "text": "Kitty Kelley\n--Early life.\n--Books.\n----Jacqueline Onassis and Elizabeth Taylor biographies.\n----\"His Way\".\n----\"People\" magazine story.\n----Nancy Reagan biography.\n----British royal family and the Bush family.\n----Oprah Winfrey biography.\n----\"Capturing Camelot\".\n--Criticism.\n--Other work.\n--Awards and honors.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "Financial expert Suze Orman became a viewer favorite, offering money tips, spending interventions, and her famous \"Suze smackdowns.\" She encouraged people to be honest with themselves about what they could afford and gave advice on getting rid of credit card debt. Her motivational approach to fixing finances has led to her own financial advice empire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 1985, before Winfrey's Chicago talk show had gone national, Haitian filmmaker Reginald Chevalier claims he appeared as a guest on a look-alike segment and began a relationship with Winfrey involving romantic evenings at home, candlelit baths, and dinners with Michael Jordan and Danny Glover. Chevalier says Winfrey ended the relationship when she met Stedman Graham."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprahization",
        "text": "Another usage echoed by paleoconservative pundits refers to the impact of Oprah (and similar talk-show stars) upon American subculture, particularly women. It is lamentable to them that women embrace what they perceive as glib new age fads, cultural relativism under the ambit of multiculturalism, subtle misandry masquerading behind feminism, a subculture of self-victimization and vanity, which they attribute to Oprah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zarah Garde-Wilson",
        "text": "Zarah Garde-Wilson\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "In May 2011, Winfrey interviewed U.S. President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama, her first-ever interview with a sitting president and First Lady. They talked about the challenges of parenting at the White House, the strength of their relationship, and their concern for the country's future. President Obama also thanked Winfrey for her contributions to the country. \"You've got a big heart, and you share it with people. Nobody knows how to connect better than you do,\" he said. \"We are just blessed and grateful to have you in our lives.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "When WJZ-TV management criticized Winfrey for crying on air while reporting tragedies and were unhappy with her physical appearance (especially when her hair fell out as a result of a bad perm), Winfrey turned to reporter Lloyd Kramer for comfort. \"Lloyd was just the best,\" Winfrey would later recall. \"That man loved me even when I was bald! He was wonderful. He stuck with me through the whole demoralizing experience. That man was the most fun romance I ever had.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Master Class",
        "text": "Each episode features an in-depth conversation with the subject, as they explore their story with viewers. The conversation is split up into numerous lessons that each master teaches, using personal anecdotes from their life to illustrate the point. Video clips, photographs, and re-enactments illustrate a visual representation of the stories being told. The biographical sketch is interspersed with personal insights and reflections from Oprah Winfrey on each master's life lessons."
      },
      {
        "title": "O, The Oprah Magazine",
        "text": "In a March 2001 article entitled \"O Positive\", Noreen O'Leary argued that Winfrey was well on her way to influencing the content of women's magazines beyond her own, just as she has helped reshape daytime TV and the world of book publishing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Toni Frissell",
        "text": "In the early 1970s, she began to have trouble with her memory. To counteract this, she began to write a memoir, one that turned into almost a thousand-page manuscript. Her memoir recounts the times from her childhood to her later life, detailing her privileged upbringing, exploration of Europe, parties in her 20s, youth romances, and adoration for the richer way of life. This early fascination with the privileged life influenced the choice in subjects of her photographs, and the more privileged sports, such as skiing and golf, that she went on to photograph for \"Sports Illustrated.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 2008, Winfrey's show was airing in 140 countries internationally and seen by an estimated 46\u00a0million people in the US weekly. According to the Harris poll, Winfrey was America's favorite television personality in 1998, 2000, 2002\u201306, and 2009. Winfrey was especially popular among women, Democrats, political moderates, Baby Boomers, Generation X, Southern Americans, and East Coast Americans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jill Bolte Taylor",
        "text": "Oprah Winfrey names Jill Bolte Taylor as one of her favorite guests on her eponymous television show. In her later commencement address at Duke University on May 10, 2009, Oprah Winfrey quoted Taylor's assertion that \"You are responsible for the energy that you bring\" in encouraging the students to assume this same responsibility in their future lives, citing her favorite phrase from My Stroke of Insight (minute 13:40 of the Commencement Address )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Farrah Moan",
        "text": "Farrah Moan\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "In 1998, Winfrey began an ongoing conversation with Gary Zukav, an American spiritual teacher, who appeared on her television show 35 times. Winfrey has said she keeps a copy of Zukav's \"The Seat of the Soul\" at her bedside, a book that she says is one of her all-time favorites."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "The \"Diet Dreams Come True\" episode from November 15, 1988, has become one of the most talked-about moments in the history of show. After years of struggling to lose weight, Winfrey had finally succeeded in doing so. In July of that year, she had started the Optifast diet while weighing 212 pounds. By Fall, she weighed 145 pounds. To commemorate achieving her weight loss goals, Winfrey wheeled out a wagon full of fat to represent the 67 pounds she had lost on the diet. She showed off her slim figure in a pair of size 10 Calvin Klein jeans. However, after returning to real food she quickly gained back much of the weight she had lost. Winfrey now refers to that moment as her \"ego in a pom pom salute.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Zarah (television personality)",
        "text": "During her interview, she once told Charley Daniels of the Television Week Magazine, \"I think music has healed a lot of my past.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Favorite Things",
        "text": "The website \"The A.V. Club\" made fun of the uselessness and blandness of Oprah's 2007 list by posting a feature called 'Oprah's Favorite Thing or Symptom of Clinical Depression?\" The 2008 decision to use inexpensive gifts drew jokes from \"Jimmy Kimmel Live!\", including a mash-up that featured Winfrey supposedly giving away thumb tacks, to a much-dismayed audience."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roseanne Barr",
        "text": "On February 14, 2011, Barr and Geraldine appeared on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" where Barr admitted the word \"incest\" could have been the wrong word to use and should have waited until her therapy was over before revealing the \"darkest time\" in her life. She told Oprah Winfrey, \"I was in a very unhappy relationship and I was prescribed numerous psychiatric drugs\u00a0... to deal with the fact that I had some mental illness\u00a0... I totally lost touch with reality\u00a0... (and) I didn't know what the truth was\u00a0... I just wanted to drop a bomb on my family\". She added that not everything was \"made up\", saying, \"Nobody accuses their parents of abusing them without justification\". Geraldine said they did not speak for 12 years, but had reconciled."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "In 2001, Winfrey met 11-year-old Mattie Stepanek, who was born with dysautonomic mitochondrial myopathy and wrote inspirational poetry he titled \"Heartsongs.\" On the show, Stepanek stated, \"A heartsong doesn't have to be a song in your heart. It doesn't have to be talking about love and peace. \u2026 It's your message, what you feel like you need to do.\" In October 2008, Winfrey spoke at the posthumous dedication of Mattie J.T Stepanek Park in Maryland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah's Lifeclass",
        "text": "\"Oprah's Lifeclass\" is a self-help program that showcases \"all of Oprah's lessons, revelations and aha moments over the past 25 years broken down to help make your life better, happier, bigger, richer \u2013 more fulfilling.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Making Oprah",
        "text": "The podcast tells the story of how Oprah Winfrey became one of the best known talk show hosts and moguls in American pop culture. It follows her career from her first broadcasting job as a local TV host for a Baltimore show called \"People Are Talking\", up to present day. The show's topics include reasons behind why audiences connected to Winfrey the way they did, the development of Harpo Studios, and how Winfrey turned to spirituality, all contextualized in terms of the American TV landscape. It discusses some controversial episodes, such as her interview with skinheads, when Tom Cruise jumped on her couch, and the \"you get a car\" episode."
      },
      {
        "title": "My Life (Clinton autobiography)",
        "text": "White House intern Monica Lewinsky was also highly critical of the book, particularly the passages in which Clinton writes about his affair with her, saying that she had thought he would \"correct the false statements he made when he was trying to protect the presidency.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Oprah Winfrey Show",
        "text": "A segment at the end of the show that featured spiritual counselors, ordinary people who had been involved in extraordinary situations. They would come on the show and share their stories of overcoming adversity with the audience, inspiring viewers to do the same in their own lives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herman Rosenblat",
        "text": "Oprah posted a disclaimer on her website, and in February 2009 she said that she was \"disappointed\", but she denied having been duped by Rosenblat and that she was \"minding my own business.\" Gayle King, a friend of Oprah's, pointed out that a lot of other people had also been duped and that she was being scapegoated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "The power of Winfrey's opinions and endorsement to influence public opinion, especially consumer purchasing choices, has been dubbed \"the Oprah Effect\". The effect has been documented or alleged in domains as diverse as book sales, beef markets, and election voting. Late in 1996, Winfrey introduced the Oprah's Book Club segment to her television show. The segment focused on new books and classics and often brought obscure novels to popular attention. The book club became such a powerful force that whenever Winfrey introduced a new book as her book-club selection, it instantly became a best-seller; for example, when she selected the classic John Steinbeck novel \"East of Eden\", it soared to the top of the book charts. Being recognized by Winfrey often means a million additional book sales for an author. In \"Reading with Oprah: The Book Club that Changed America\" (2005), Kathleen Rooney describes Winfrey as \"a serious American intellectual who pioneered the use of electronic media, specifically television and the Internet, to take reading \u2013 a decidedly non-technological and highly individual act \u2013 and highlight its social elements and uses in such a way to motivate millions of erstwhile non-readers to pick up books.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Lauryn Hill",
        "text": "During 2000, Hill dropped out of the public eye. The pressures of fame began to overwhelm her. She disliked not being able to go out of her house to do simple errands without having to worry about her physical appearance. She fired her management team and began attending Bible study classes five days a week; she also stopped doing interviews, watching television and listening to music. She started associating with a \"spiritual advisor\" named Brother Anthony. Some familiar with Hill believe Anthony more resembled a cult leader than a spiritual advisor, and thought his guidance probably inspired much of Hill's more controversial public behavior."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cristina Ferrare",
        "text": "Cristina Ferrare\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n----Designer.\n----Oprah and OWN TV.\n----\"Home and Family Show\".\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gayle King",
        "text": "King has been a close friend of Oprah Winfrey since 1976. In a 2010 interview with Barbara Walters, Winfrey said of King, \"[s]he is the mother I never had, she is the sister everybody would want, she is the friend everybody deserves, I don't know a better person\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oprah Winfrey",
        "text": "Winfrey was allegedly involved in a second drug-related love affair. Self-proclaimed former boyfriend Randolph Cook said they lived together for several months in 1985 and did drugs. In 1997, Cook tried to sue Winfrey for $20\u00a0million for allegedly blocking a tell-all book about their alleged relationship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amelia Opie",
        "text": "Amelia Opie\n--Early life and influences.\n--Career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many films has Winfrey appeared in?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you asking about Amy Winfrey, Travis Winfrey or Oprah Winfrey?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about Oprah Winfrey."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Oprah Winfrey has appeared in films: The Color Purple,  Beloved, and The Princess and the Frog. She has also voice acted  in Charlotte's Web, A Wrinkle in Time, and Crow: The Legend. Which of these would you like to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in The Color Purple."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Color Purple is a 1985 American epic coming-of-age period drama film directed by Steven Spielberg and written by Menno Meyjes, based on the Pulitzer Prize-winning 1982 novel of the same name by Alice Walker. The cast stars Whoopi Goldberg in her breakthrough role, with Danny Glover, Oprah Winfrey, Margaret Avery, Rae Dawn Chong, Willard Pugh, and Adolph Caesar."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some of the philanthropy efforts that Oprah has done?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In 1998, Winfrey created the Oprah's Angel Network, a charity that supported charitable projects and provided grants to nonprofit organizations around the world. As of 2012, Winfrey had also given over 400 scholarships to Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia, and in 2013, Winfrey donated $12 million to the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many years did her talk show air?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Oprah Winfrey Show, often referred to as The Oprah Show or simply Oprah, was an American daytime syndicated talk show that aired nationally for 25 seasons from September 8, 1986, to May 25, 2011, in Chicago, Illinois."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about some of the ways Oprah has influenced the world?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Winfrey has been called the world's most powerful woman, the most influential woman in the world, and others by many sources. \nOprahfication came to mean public confession as a form of therapy, and the power of Winfrey to influence public opinion has been dubbed \"the Oprah Effect,\" which of these influences do you want to know more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about her personal life?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Winfrey has described herself as a political independent, a Christian, and has been with her long-time boyfriend Stedman Graham since 1986. She was raised in poverty but became a millionaire at age 32, and by 2008 was earing $275 million a year. Would you like to learn more about her views on politics, religion and spirituality, personal wealth, or past relationships and dating history?",
      "Winfrey currently lives on \"The Promised Land\", her 42-acre (17-ha) estate with ocean and mountain views in Montecito, California; Winfrey and her boyfriend Stedman Graham have been together since 1986.  Winfrey's close friends are Gayle King and  Maria Shriver."
    ],
    "topic": "Oprah Winfrey",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:68",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Influence",
          "Politics"
        ],
        "ctx": "Winfrey states she is a political independent who has \"earned the right to think for myself and to vote for myself\". She endorsed presidential candidate Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election. On September 25, 2006, Winfrey made her first endorsement of Obama for president on \"Larry King Live\", the first time she endorsed a political candidate running for office. Two economists estimate that Winfrey's endorsement was worth over a million votes in the Democratic primary race and that without it, Obama would have lost the nomination. Winfrey held a fundraiser for Obama on September 8, 2007, at her Santa Barbara estate. In December 2007, Winfrey joined Obama for a series of rallies in the early primary states of Iowa, New Hampshire, and South Carolina. The Columbia, South Carolina, event on December 9, 2007, drew a crowd of nearly 30,000, the largest for any political event of 2007. An analysis by two economists at the University of Maryland, College Park estimated that Winfrey's endorsement was responsible for between 420,000 and 1,600,000 votes for Obama in the Democratic primary alone, based on a sample of states that did not include Texas, Michigan, North Dakota, Kansas, or Alaska. The results suggest that in the sampled states, Winfrey's endorsement was responsible for the difference in the popular vote between Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton. The governor of Illinois, Rod Blagojevich, reported being so impressed by Winfrey's endorsement that he considered offering Winfrey Obama's vacant senate seat, describing Winfrey as \"the most instrumental person in electing Barack Obama president,\" with \"a voice larger than all 100 senators combined\". Winfrey responded by stating that although she was absolutely not interested, she did feel she could be a senator. The Topps trading card company memorialized Oprah's involvement in the campaign by featuring her on a card in a set commemorating Obama's road to the White House."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:52",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Personal life",
          "Religious views"
        ],
        "ctx": "Oprah has stated that she is a Christian and her favorite Bible verse is ."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:45",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Personal life",
          "Romantic history"
        ],
        "ctx": "Winfrey and her boyfriend Stedman Graham have been together since 1986. They were engaged to be married in November 1992, but the ceremony never took place."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:48",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Personal life",
          "Personal wealth"
        ],
        "ctx": "Born in rural poverty, and raised by a mother dependent on government welfare payments in a poor urban neighborhood, Winfrey became a millionaire at the age of 32 when her talk show received national syndication. Winfrey negotiated ownership rights to the television program and started her own production company. At the age of 41, Winfrey had a net worth of $340\u00a0million and replaced Bill Cosby as the only African American on the \"Forbes 400\". By 2000, with a net worth of $800\u00a0million, Winfrey is believed to have been the richest African American of the 20th century. There has been a course taught at the University of Illinois focusing on Winfrey's business acumen, namely: \"History 298: Oprah Winfrey, the Tycoon\". Winfrey was the highest paid television entertainer in the United States in 2006, earning an estimated $260\u00a0million during the year, five times the sum earned by second-place music executive Simon Cowell. By 2008, her yearly income had increased to $275\u00a0million."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:34",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Personal life",
          "Homes"
        ],
        "ctx": "Winfrey currently lives on \"The Promised Land\", her 42-acre (17-ha) estate with ocean and mountain views in Montecito, California. Winfrey also owns a house in Lavallette, New Jersey; an apartment in Chicago; an estate on Fisher Island, Florida; a ski house in Telluride, Colorado; and properties on Maui, Hawaii; Antigua; and Orcas Island, Washington State."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:45",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Personal life",
          "Romantic history"
        ],
        "ctx": "Winfrey and her boyfriend Stedman Graham have been together since 1986. They were engaged to be married in November 1992, but the ceremony never took place."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:46",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Personal life",
          "Close friends"
        ],
        "ctx": "Winfrey's best friend since their early twenties is Gayle King. King was formerly the host of \"The Gayle King Show\" and is currently an editor of \"O, the Oprah Magazine\". Since 1997, when Winfrey played the therapist on an episode of the sitcom \"Ellen\" in which Ellen DeGeneres came out of the closet, Winfrey and King have been the target of persistent rumors that they were gay. \"I understand why people think we're gay,\" Winfrey says in the August 2006 issue of \"O\" magazine. \"There isn't a definition in our culture for this kind of bond between women. So I get why people have to label it\u2014how can you be this close without it being sexual?\" \"I've told nearly everything there is to tell. All my stuff is out there. People think I'd be so ashamed of being gay that I wouldn't admit it? Oh, please.\""
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Oprah Winfrey:47",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Oprah Winfrey",
          "Personal life",
          "Close friends"
        ],
        "ctx": "Winfrey has also had a long friendship with Maria Shriver, after they met in Baltimore. Winfrey considered Maya Angelou, author of \"I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings\", her mentor and close friend; she called Angelou her \"mother-sister-friend\". Winfrey hosted a week-long Caribbean cruise for Angelou and 150 guests for Angelou's 70th birthday in 1998, and in 2008, threw her \"an extravagant 80th birthday celebration\" at Donald Trump's Mar-a-Lago club in Palm Beach, Florida."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "A former United States Senator from Minnesota, Mondale considered running for the Democratic nomination in the 1976 presidential election, but he dropped out of the race on November 21, 1974, after having built a campaign for two years. When he dropped out, he said that he felt he lacked \"the overwhelming desire to be President\" and wanted to avoid \"sleeping in Holiday Inns.\" In 1976, Jimmy Carter won the presidential election, with Mondale as his running mate. Mondale served as vice president under Carter from 1977 to 1981. In January 1981, shortly before Mondale left office as vice president, CBS News reported that he had decided to run for president in 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "When Jimmy Carter won the Democratic nomination for president in 1976, he chose Mondale as his running mate. Mondale campaigned for the ticket in various states. While campaigning in Toledo, Ohio he said that the country needed a strong president to stop inflation and added that President Gerald Ford did not have the guts to stand up to big businesses. The ticket was narrowly elected on November 2, 1976, and Mondale was inaugurated as Vice President of the United States on January 20, 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "During the general election, over a dozen political professionals doubted whether Mondale was appealing enough as a person to win the election and questioned his decision to spend considerable time campaigning in states that he had almost no chance of winning. Some of these professionals also told \"the New York Times\" that they were \"amazed\" at the sloppy preparation the campaign put into organizing events. In October 1984, shortly before the election, Mondale attempted to focus on trying to win California. That effort included spending over $3 million on television advertising there and flying Mondale in for a rally shortly thereafter. That was part of his strategy to try to win at least one big Sun Belt state."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 1976, Jimmy Carter, the Democratic presidential nominee, chose Mondale as his vice-presidential running mate. The Carter\u2013Mondale ticket defeated incumbent president Gerald Ford and his running mate, Bob Dole. Carter and Mondale's time in office was marred by a worsening economy and they lost the 1980 election to Republicans Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush. In 1984, Mondale won the Democratic presidential nomination and campaigned for a nuclear freeze, the Equal Rights Amendment, an increase in taxes, and a reduction of U.S. public debt. Mondale and Ferraro lost the election to the incumbents Reagan and Bush."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Soon after the election, Democrats offered multiple different theories for why Mondale lost in a landslide: Jesse Jackson argued that the Democrats had pandered too much to white men, and Mondale himself said in February 1985 that he lost because of his inability to appear compelling on television. William Raspberry disagreed with Mondale's self-assessment and argued, \"What cost Mondale was the perception that Reagan, while perhaps on the wrong side of a number of specific issues, generally stood for what most Americans stood for, while Mondale, though often on the right side of the specifics, didn't really stand for anything at all.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Mondale officially accepted the Democratic Party's nomination at the 1984 Democratic National Convention. He delivered his acceptance speech on the night of July 19, 1984, climaxing that year's convention. During the speech, Mondale controversially vowed to raise taxes but claimed that Reagan would also do so: \"He won't tell you. I just did.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "In 1964, Walter Mondale replaced Hubert Humphrey as a U.S. Senator, serving until 1976, when Democratic presidential candidate Jimmy Carter selected him as his running-mate in his successful bid for the Presidency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party vice presidential nomination, 1976:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 1972, Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern offered Mondale an opportunity to be his vice-presidential running mate. Mondale declined. That year, Mondale was re-elected to the Senate with over 57% of the vote, even as Republican President Richard Nixon carried Minnesota. He served in the 88th, 89th, 90th, 91st, 92nd, 93rd, and 94th congresses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1976 United States presidential election"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party vice presidential nomination, 1980:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Shortly before the 1984 Democratic National Convention, Mondale chose Bert Lance to be his campaign's general chairman, and unsuccessfully attempted to remove Charles Manatt from his position as party chairman. Mondale and his campaign stopped their effort to oust Manatt in response to protests from party leaders. On Mondale's decisions, one anonymous Democratic Party aide told \"the New York Times\": \"It's a disaster. People are gulping hard. No one knows why he did it.\" His choice of Lance proved controversial because Lance had previously left his job in the Carter administration amid charges of bank fraud (of which he was later exonerated)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Shortly before the general election, Mondale defended his choice of Ferraro as his running mate against Reagan, who had recently said that her nomination was not a major breaking point. Mondale replied that he chose Ferraro \"because she's the best,\" adding that \"She is far better prepared for her position than Mr. Reagan was when he was elected president of the United States.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party presidential nomination, 1972:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale ran for the Democratic Party presidential nomination in the Democratic presidential primaries preceding the 1984 election, and was soon the front-runner. His opposition included Reverend Jesse Jackson and Senator Gary Hart from Colorado. Hart won the New Hampshire primary in March, but Mondale had much of the party leadership behind him. To great effect, Mondale used the Wendy's slogan \"Where's the beef?\" to describe Hart's policies as lacking depth. Jackson, widely regarded as the first serious African-American candidate for president, held on longer, but Mondale gained the nomination with the majority of delegates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 2002, Democratic Senator Paul Wellstone from Minnesota, who was running for reelection, died in a plane crash 11 days before the November 5 election. Mondale replaced Wellstone on the ballot at the urging of Wellstone's relatives. The Senate seat was the one Mondale had held before resigning to become vice president in 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1984 United States presidential election:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party presidential nomination, 1980:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party presidential nomination, 1984:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Mondale picked three-term Congresswoman Geraldine Ferraro to be his running mate on July 12, 1984, making her the first woman nominated for president or vice president by a major U.S. political party. The pick was intended to energize Mondale's campaign, which it did at first. This effect proved short-lived, however, as it was soon overshadowed by a scandal involving Ferraro's and her husband's finances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Mondale clinched the nomination in June 1984 by receiving significantly more votes from superdelegates than Hart did. Lautenberg then stated, \"I believe it is time for Gary Hart to come home to the Democratic party and behind the nomination of Walter Mondale.\" Nevertheless, Hart refused to concede and instead announced his intention to challenge the results at the party's upcoming convention."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1980 United States presidential election:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1984 Democratic Party presidential primaries:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Missouri",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election",
        "text": "Mondale ran a liberal campaign, supporting a nuclear freeze and the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). He spoke against what he considered to be unfairness in Reagan's economic policies and the need to reduce federal budget deficits."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in New Mexico",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in South Carolina",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale ran a liberal campaign, supporting a nuclear freeze and the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). He spoke against Reagan's economic policies and in support of reducing federal budget deficits. But the incumbent was popular and Mondale's campaign was widely considered ineffective. Mondale was also perceived as supporting the poor at the expense of the middle class. In the first televised debate, Mondale performed unexpectedly well, which led many to question Reagan's age and capacity to endure the grueling demands of the presidency (Reagan was the oldest person to serve as president\u201473 at the time\u2014while Mondale was 56). In the next debate on October 21, 1984, Reagan deflected the issue by quipping, \"I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Notes"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Utah",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the primary campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Georgia",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois \u2013 his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Ohio",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Indiana",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois \u2013 his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Florida",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Wyoming",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "After Mondale trounced Hart in the February 20, 1984 Iowa caucuses, getting 48% of the vote to Hart's 16%, many in the media thought that the primaries were effectively over. Mondale's fate soon began to turn, however, after Hart won the New Hampshire primary, which cost Mondale his front-runner status. In an attempt to regain it, he effectively deployed the phrase \"Where's the beef?\" to cast doubt on Hart's claim that he offered \"new ideas.\" During the course of all the primaries, Mondale got about 6.8 million votes, Hart 6.5 million, and Jackson 3.3 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Walter Frederick \"Fritz\" Mondale (January 5, 1928 \u2013 April 19, 2021) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 42nd vice president of the United States from 1977 to 1981 under President Jimmy Carter. A U.S. senator from Minnesota from 1964 to 1976, he was the Democratic Party's nominee in the 1984 presidential election, but lost to incumbent Ronald Reagan in an Electoral College and popular vote landslide. Reagan won 49 states while Mondale carried his home state of Minnesota and the District of Columbia. His vice presidential nominee, U.S. Representative Geraldine Ferraro from New York, was the first female vice-presidential nominee of any major party in U.S. history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Writing in \"the Washington Post\" in March 1985, Mark Shields argued, \"The single, biggest mistake made by candidate Mondale and his campaign was the failure to endorse and to embrace the Fair Tax plan of Sen. Bill Bradley (D-N.J.) and Rep. Dick Gephardt (D-Mo.).\""
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Mississippi",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "After losing the 1980 election, Mondale returned briefly to the practice of law at Winston and Strawn, a large Chicago-based law firm, but he intended to return to politics before long."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Rhode Island",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "After working with Humphrey, Mondale went on to work on several campaigns for Orville Freeman. Mondale worked on Freeman's unsuccessful 1952 campaign for the governorship as well as his successful campaign in 1954 and his 1958 reelection campaign."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Tennessee",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Nevada",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in North Dakota",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the primary campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "When Mondale made his acceptance speech at the Democratic Convention, he said: \"By the end of my first term, I will reduce the Reagan budget deficit by two\u2011thirds. Let's tell the truth. It must be done, it must be done. Mr. Reagan will raise taxes, and so will I. He won't tell you. I just did.\" While this was meant to show that Mondale would be honest with voters, it was instead largely interpreted as a campaign pledge to raise taxes to spend on domestic programs, which was unappealing to many voters."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in South Dakota",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the primary campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Virginia",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Kansas",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the primary campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Kentucky",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Oklahoma",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois \u2013 his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the primary campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Michigan",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Louisiana",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in West Virginia",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Nebraska",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the primary campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election",
        "text": "Mondale had wanted to choose New York Governor Mario Cuomo as his running mate, but Cuomo declined and recommended Ferraro, his prot\u00e9g\u00e9e. Mondale might have named Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis as his running mate had he wanted to make a \"safe\" choice\", while others preferred Senator Lloyd Bentsen because he would appeal to more conservative Southern voters. Nomination rival Gary Hart stated before Ferraro's selection that he would accept an invitation to run with Mondale; Hart's supporters claimed he would do better than Mondale against President Reagan, an argument undercut by a June 1984 Gallup poll that showed both men nine points behind the president."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Wisconsin",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "During Lyndon Johnson's presidency, Mondale supported the Vietnam War. After Nixon became president in 1969, Mondale began to oppose the war and participated in legislation to restrict Nixon's ability to prolong it. Mondale supported abortion rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Joe Biden \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Illinois",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in South Dakota",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in South Carolina",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Hawaii",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Iowa",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in North Dakota",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "The Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign began on February 21, 1983, when Walter Mondale, a former Minnesota senator and Vice President of the United States, announced that he was running for president in a speech at the Minnesota State Capitol. Mondale won the Democratic Party's presidential nomination after convincing Frank Lautenberg, a previously unpledged party delegate, to support him. Lautenberg's vote gave Mondale the 1,967 delegate votes needed to become the Democratic Party's nominee. Mondale lost the general election, held on November 6, 1984, to incumbent Republican President Ronald Reagan in a landslide. Had Mondale been elected, he would have been the first U.S. president from Minnesota and the first non-incumbent vice president since Richard Nixon to take office as president. Ferraro would also have been the country's first female vice president, and the first person from New York since Nelson Rockefeller to become vice president, whereas her husband, John Zaccaro, would also have been the country's first second gentleman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "In the general election, Mondale was endorsed by \"The New York Times\", \"The Philadelphia Inquirer\", the \"Detroit Free Press\", and the \"Atlanta Journal-Constitution\", among other newspapers."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in New Mexico",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for what he charged was his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Mississippi",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "Out of office during Ronald Reagan's first term as president, Walter Mondale won the Democratic presidential nomination in 1984. As a prospective First Lady, Joan Mondale told Maureen Dowd of \"The New York Times\" that she would not talk about recipes or clothes during the campaign, but when her husband's political opponents took issue with this, costing him votes, she published \"The Mondale Family Cookbook\", with recipes including Fettucine \u00e0 la Pimento Mondale, and declared that she was a \"traditional wife and mother and supporter\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign\n--Background.\n--Gaining the nomination.\n----Democratic presidential primaries.\n----Democratic National Convention.\n--Campaign.\n--Results.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election",
        "text": "Reagan and Vice President George H. W. Bush faced only token opposition in their bid for re-nomination. Mondale faced a competitive field in his bid, defeating Colorado Senator Gary Hart, activist Jesse Jackson and several other candidates in the 1984 Democratic primaries. He eventually chose U.S. Representative Geraldine Ferraro of New York as his running mate, the first woman to be on a major party's presidential ticket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Walter Mondale\n--Early life.\n--Entry into politics.\n--U.S. Senator.\n----Policies.\n----Committees.\n----Apollo 1 accident (1967).\n--Vice presidency (1977\u20131981).\n----1980 election.\n--Post-vice presidency (1981\u20132021).\n----1984 presidential campaign.\n----Private citizen and ambassador.\n----2002 U.S. Senate election and beyond.\n--Family and personal life.\n--Death.\n--Records.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jimmy Carter 1976 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Walter Mondale campaigned for the ticket in various states. While campaigning in Toledo, Ohio he said that the country needs a strong president to stop inflation, and the current president didn't have the guts to stand up to big business. During a rally, Rosalynn Carter criticized President Ford for building a wall around himself by not answering questions in public. Meanwhile, Ford was also being investigated for allegations of campaign finance improprieties in his former congressional district elections. On October 1, it was concluded by a special Watergate prosecutor that there would be no criminal charges against him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0George McGovern \u2013 2 (0.06%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Utah",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for what he charged was his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0George McGovern \u2013 4 (0.10%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ted Kennedy \u2013 13 (0.43%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jim McDermott \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ted Kulongoski \u2013 8 (0.24%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Wyoming",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States presidential debates",
        "text": "In 1984, former Vice President Walter Mondale won the first debate over President Ronald Reagan, generating much-needed donations to Mondale's lagging campaign. The second presidential debate was held on October 21, 1984, where Ronald Reagan used a joke, \"I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience\", which effectively stalled Mondale's momentum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Fred R. Harris \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jerry Brown \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ed Rendell \u2013 28 (0.84%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0George Orwell \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Mario Biaggi \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0William Proxmire \u2013 10 (0.30%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "J. Peter Grace",
        "text": "Grace, a Democrat, was asked what he would say to the campaign theme of Walter Mondale, the 1984 Democratic Presidential candidate, that higher taxes would be required to ease the deficit regardless of who wins the November election."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jerry Brown \u2013 2 (0.06%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Super Tuesday",
        "text": "Mondale secured the majority of delegates from the primaries, leading the way for him to take the Democratic nomination. In the 1984 Republican Party primaries, incumbent President Ronald Reagan was the only candidate to secure delegates."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Idaho",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Gary Benoit \u2013 12 (0.40%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ron Dellums \u2013 3 (0.09%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ronald Reagan * and George H. W. Bush * (R)Popular vote: 54,455,472 (58.77%) Electoral votes: 525 (97.58%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Nebraska",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for what he charged was his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Barbara Jordan \u2013 4 (0.12%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Speeches and debates of Ronald Reagan",
        "text": "Reagan ran for reelection in 1984. The Democratic nominee was Walter Mondale. Reagan performed poorly in the first debate, but rebounded in the second debate, and confronted questions about his age, quipping, \"I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience,\" which generated applause and laughter, even from Mondale himself. Mondale later recalled that"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jim Thomas \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Many observers were surprised by Mondale's decision to call for raising taxes on millions of voters openly during a presidential election, with Reagan campaign consultant Stuart Spencer telling CBS, \"I've never heard a politician say he is going to raise taxes to 30 million, 40 million, 50 million people in a campaign.\" Some of Mondale's fellow Democrats also distanced themselves from his tax plan."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did Walter Mondale do after his presidential run?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "After his defeat, Mondale joined the Minnesota-based law firm Dorsey & Whitney and the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, and was appointed  U.S. Ambassador to Japan in 1993, retiring from that post in 1996.",
      "Mondale did a number of things, he joined Dorsey & Whitney and the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs. He was the U. S. Ambassador to Japan, and was the last minute choice for the Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party to run for Senate, before losing and returning to Dorsey & Whitney and a part time teaching job at University of Minnesota's Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs."
    ],
    "topic": "Walter Mondale",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Walter Mondale:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Walter Mondale"
        ],
        "ctx": "After his defeat, Mondale joined the Minnesota-based law firm Dorsey & Whitney and the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (1986\u20131993). President Bill Clinton appointed Mondale U.S. Ambassador to Japan in 1993; he retired from that post in 1996. In 2002, Mondale became the last-minute choice of the Minnesota Democratic\u2013Farmer\u2013Labor Party to run for Senate after Democratic Senator Paul Wellstone died in a plane crash less than two weeks before the election. Mondale narrowly lost the race to Saint Paul mayor Norm Coleman. He then returned to working at Dorsey & Whitney and remained active in the Democratic Party. Mondale later took up a part-time teaching position at the University of Minnesota's Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Walter Mondale:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Walter Mondale"
        ],
        "ctx": "After his defeat, Mondale joined the Minnesota-based law firm Dorsey & Whitney and the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (1986\u20131993). President Bill Clinton appointed Mondale U.S. Ambassador to Japan in 1993; he retired from that post in 1996. In 2002, Mondale became the last-minute choice of the Minnesota Democratic\u2013Farmer\u2013Labor Party to run for Senate after Democratic Senator Paul Wellstone died in a plane crash less than two weeks before the election. Mondale narrowly lost the race to Saint Paul mayor Norm Coleman. He then returned to working at Dorsey & Whitney and remained active in the Democratic Party. Mondale later took up a part-time teaching position at the University of Minnesota's Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "After his defeat, Mondale joined the Minnesota-based law firm Dorsey & Whitney and the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (1986\u20131993). President Bill Clinton appointed Mondale U.S. Ambassador to Japan in 1993; he retired from that post in 1996. In 2002, Mondale became the last-minute choice of the Minnesota Democratic\u2013Farmer\u2013Labor Party to run for Senate after Democratic Senator Paul Wellstone died in a plane crash less than two weeks before the election. Mondale narrowly lost the race to Saint Paul mayor Norm Coleman. He then returned to working at Dorsey & Whitney and remained active in the Democratic Party. Mondale later took up a part-time teaching position at the University of Minnesota's Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale returned to private law practice with Dorsey & Whitney in Minneapolis in 1987. From 1986 to 1993, he chaired the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs. During Bill Clinton's presidency, he was United States Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, chaired a bipartisan group to study campaign finance reform, and was Clinton's special envoy to Indonesia in 1998."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "A former United States Senator from Minnesota, Mondale considered running for the Democratic nomination in the 1976 presidential election, but he dropped out of the race on November 21, 1974, after having built a campaign for two years. When he dropped out, he said that he felt he lacked \"the overwhelming desire to be President\" and wanted to avoid \"sleeping in Holiday Inns.\" In 1976, Jimmy Carter won the presidential election, with Mondale as his running mate. Mondale served as vice president under Carter from 1977 to 1981. In January 1981, shortly before Mondale left office as vice president, CBS News reported that he had decided to run for president in 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Walter Frederick \"Fritz\" Mondale (January 5, 1928 \u2013 April 19, 2021) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 42nd vice president of the United States from 1977 to 1981 under President Jimmy Carter. A U.S. senator from Minnesota from 1964 to 1976, he was the Democratic Party's nominee in the 1984 presidential election, but lost to incumbent Ronald Reagan in an Electoral College and popular vote landslide. Reagan won 49 states while Mondale carried his home state of Minnesota and the District of Columbia. His vice presidential nominee, U.S. Representative Geraldine Ferraro from New York, was the first female vice-presidential nominee of any major party in U.S. history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 1972, Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern offered Mondale an opportunity to be his vice-presidential running mate. Mondale declined. That year, Mondale was re-elected to the Senate with over 57% of the vote, even as Republican President Richard Nixon carried Minnesota. He served in the 88th, 89th, 90th, 91st, 92nd, 93rd, and 94th congresses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party vice presidential nomination, 1980:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party vice presidential nomination, 1976:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party presidential nomination, 1980:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale became involved in national politics in the 1940s. At age 20, he was visible in Minnesota politics by helping organize Hubert Humphrey's successful Senate campaign in 1948. Humphrey's campaign assigned Mondale to cover the staunchly Republican 2nd district. Mondale, who had grown up in the region, was able to win the district for Humphrey by a comfortable margin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Carter and Mondale were renominated at the 1980 Democratic National Convention, but soundly lost to the Republican ticket of Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush. That year, Mondale opened the XIII Olympic Winter Games in Lake Placid, New York."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party presidential nomination, 1984:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "After working with Humphrey, Mondale went on to work on several campaigns for Orville Freeman. Mondale worked on Freeman's unsuccessful 1952 campaign for the governorship as well as his successful campaign in 1954 and his 1958 reelection campaign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "At the 1964 Democratic National Convention, Mondale played a major role in the proposed but ultimately unsuccessful compromise by which the national Democratic Party offered the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party two at-large seats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party presidential nomination, 1972:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Until his appointment as Ambassador to Japan, Mondale was a Distinguished University Fellow in Law and Public Affairs at the Hubert H. Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs at the University of Minnesota. In 1990, he established the Mondale Policy Forum at the Humphrey Institute. The forum has brought together leading scholars and policymakers for annual conferences on domestic and international issues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "In 1964, Walter Mondale replaced Hubert Humphrey as a U.S. Senator, serving until 1976, when Democratic presidential candidate Jimmy Carter selected him as his running-mate in his successful bid for the Presidency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "Walter Mondale lost the election, and the Mondales returned to Minnesota, where they lived until his term as U.S. Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, after which he resumed his Minneapolis-based law practice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1984 Democratic Party presidential primaries:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 1976, Jimmy Carter, the Democratic presidential nominee, chose Mondale as his vice-presidential running mate. The Carter\u2013Mondale ticket defeated incumbent president Gerald Ford and his running mate, Bob Dole. Carter and Mondale's time in office was marred by a worsening economy and they lost the 1980 election to Republicans Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush. In 1984, Mondale won the Democratic presidential nomination and campaigned for a nuclear freeze, the Equal Rights Amendment, an increase in taxes, and a reduction of U.S. public debt. Mondale and Ferraro lost the election to the incumbents Reagan and Bush."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale worked hard to build up the center of the party on economic and social issues. Unlike his father, a fervent liberal, he was not a crusader for the New Deal. Instead, he realized that the Democratic base (especially ethnic blue-collar workers) was gradually moving to the right, and he worked to keep their support. Mondale showed little or no interest in foreign policy until about 1974, when he realized that some foreign policy knowledge was necessary if he had loftier aspirations than the Senate. He developed a centrist position, avoiding alignment with either the party's hawks (such as Henry M. Jackson) or its doves (such as McGovern). Mondale took a liberal position on civil rights, which proved acceptable in Minnesota, a state with \"a minuscule black population\". Mondale was a chief sponsor of the federal Fair Housing Act, which prohibits discrimination in housing and created HUD's Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity as the primary enforcer of the law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale, who served as the 42nd vice president of the United States (1977\u20131981); as a United States senator from Minnesota (1964\u20131976), and as the 23rd attorney general of Minnesota (1960\u20131964)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Mondale officially accepted the Democratic Party's nomination at the 1984 Democratic National Convention. He delivered his acceptance speech on the night of July 19, 1984, climaxing that year's convention. During the speech, Mondale controversially vowed to raise taxes but claimed that Reagan would also do so: \"He won't tell you. I just did.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "When Jimmy Carter won the Democratic nomination for president in 1976, he chose Mondale as his running mate. Mondale campaigned for the ticket in various states. While campaigning in Toledo, Ohio he said that the country needed a strong president to stop inflation and added that President Gerald Ford did not have the guts to stand up to big businesses. The ticket was narrowly elected on November 2, 1976, and Mondale was inaugurated as Vice President of the United States on January 20, 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenwood, Minneapolis",
        "text": "Walter Mondale, Vice President of the United States, was a long time resident near Fremont Avenue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Shortly before the 1984 Democratic National Convention, Mondale chose Bert Lance to be his campaign's general chairman, and unsuccessfully attempted to remove Charles Manatt from his position as party chairman. Mondale and his campaign stopped their effort to oust Manatt in response to protests from party leaders. On Mondale's decisions, one anonymous Democratic Party aide told \"the New York Times\": \"It's a disaster. People are gulping hard. No one knows why he did it.\" His choice of Lance proved controversial because Lance had previously left his job in the Carter administration amid charges of bank fraud (of which he was later exonerated)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale died of natural causes in his sleep at his home in Minneapolis, Minnesota, on April 19, 2021, at the age of 93. The day before his death, he had several phone conversations with Jimmy Carter, Bill Clinton, Joe Biden, Kamala Harris, and Minnesota governor Tim Walz. Mondale also emailed a final message to his staff, as he and his family had come to the conclusion that \"his death was imminent\". At the time of his death, Mondale was the oldest living former U.S. vice president, his place being taken by Dick Cheney."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale also served as a member of the President's Consumer Advisory Council from 1960 to 1964."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "The Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign began on February 21, 1983, when Walter Mondale, a former Minnesota senator and Vice President of the United States, announced that he was running for president in a speech at the Minnesota State Capitol. Mondale won the Democratic Party's presidential nomination after convincing Frank Lautenberg, a previously unpledged party delegate, to support him. Lautenberg's vote gave Mondale the 1,967 delegate votes needed to become the Democratic Party's nominee. Mondale lost the general election, held on November 6, 1984, to incumbent Republican President Ronald Reagan in a landslide. Had Mondale been elected, he would have been the first U.S. president from Minnesota and the first non-incumbent vice president since Richard Nixon to take office as president. Ferraro would also have been the country's first female vice president, and the first person from New York since Nelson Rockefeller to become vice president, whereas her husband, John Zaccaro, would also have been the country's first second gentleman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Politics of Minnesota",
        "text": "Walter Mondale (January 5, 1928 \u2013 April 19, 2021) was the 42nd vice president of the United States (1977\u20131981) under President Jimmy Carter. He was also a two-term United States Senator from Minnesota and the Democratic Party nominee for president in 1984 against the incumbent, Republican Ronald Reagan. Mondale suffered a crushing defeat as Reagan was re-elected in a landslide victory in which Mondale carried only his home state of Minnesota and the District of Columbia. Mondale also quickly stepped into the 2002 U.S. Senate race against Norm Coleman, when Paul Wellstone died in a plane crash two weeks before the election. Coleman narrowly won the election, 49.5% to 47.3%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Hubert Humphrey \u2013 67 (2.22%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 2002, Democratic Senator Paul Wellstone from Minnesota, who was running for reelection, died in a plane crash 11 days before the November 5 election. Mondale replaced Wellstone on the ballot at the urging of Wellstone's relatives. The Senate seat was the one Mondale had held before resigning to become vice president in 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dorsey & Whitney",
        "text": "The firm has also endowed the Dorsey and Whitney Professor of Law at the University of Minnesota Law School.\n*Harry Blackmun, former U.S. Supreme Court justice\n*Amy Klobuchar, U.S. Senator\n*Walter Mondale, former Vice President of the United States\n*William Prosser, legal scholar.\n*Tom Vilsack, former Governor of Iowa"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Notes"
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "Back in Minnesota, Mondale continued to make her own pottery and promote the arts. She served on the boards of the Minnesota Orchestra, Walker Art Center, Macalester College and the National Portrait Gallery. In 2004, the Textile Center in Minneapolis endowed an exhibition space in her honor, the Joan Mondale Gallery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Super Tuesday",
        "text": "Mondale secured the majority of delegates from the primaries, leading the way for him to take the Democratic nomination. In the 1984 Republican Party primaries, incumbent President Ronald Reagan was the only candidate to secure delegates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale rotated on and off numerous committees, including the Aeronautical and Space Sciences Committee; the Finance Committee; the Labor and Public Welfare Committee; the Budget Committee; and the Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs Committee. He also served as chairman of the Select Committee on Equal Education Opportunity and the Intelligence Committee's Domestic Task Force. He additionally served as chairman of the Labor and Public Welfare Committee's subcommittee on Children and Youth and the Senate subcommittee on social security financing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Hugh L. Carey \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ron Dellums \u2013 20 (0.67%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mark Dayton",
        "text": "From 1975 to 1976 he was a legislative aide to Senator Walter Mondale, until Mondale's election as Vice President of the United States. From 1977 to 1978, Dayton served as an aide to Minnesota Governor Rudy Perpich. In 1978, Perpich appointed Dayton to head the Department of Economic Development and then the Department of Energy and Economic Development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Joe Biden \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Wilbur Mills \u2013 34 (1.13%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ron Dellums \u2013 3 (0.09%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ted Kennedy \u2013 13 (0.43%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Soon after the election, Democrats offered multiple different theories for why Mondale lost in a landslide: Jesse Jackson argued that the Democrats had pandered too much to white men, and Mondale himself said in February 1985 that he lost because of his inability to appear compelling on television. William Raspberry disagreed with Mondale's self-assessment and argued, \"What cost Mondale was the perception that Reagan, while perhaps on the wrong side of a number of specific issues, generally stood for what most Americans stood for, while Mondale, though often on the right side of the specifics, didn't really stand for anything at all.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Minnesota U.S. Senate election, 2002:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Minnesota U.S. Senate election, 1972DFL primary:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale was defeated in a landslide, receiving 37,577,352 votes (40.6% of the popular vote), and winning only the District of Columbia and his home state of Minnesota (even there his margin of victory was fewer than 3,800 votes), securing only 13 electoral votes to Reagan's 525. The result was the worst electoral college defeat for any Democratic Party candidate in history, and the worst for any major-party candidate since Alf Landon's loss to Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1936."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Gary Benoit \u2013 12 (0.40%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1976 United States presidential election"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1980 United States presidential election:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Minnesota U.S. Senate election, 1966DFL primary:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "The Mondales' eldest son, Ted, is an entrepreneur and the CEO of Nazca Solutions, a technology fulfillment venture. He is also a former Minnesota state senator. In 1998, Ted Mondale unsuccessfully sought the Democratic nomination for Minnesota governor, running as a fiscal moderate who had distanced himself from labor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ronald Reagan * and George H. W. Bush * (R)Popular vote: 54,455,472 (58.77%) Electoral votes: 525 (97.58%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ramsey Clark \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "During Lyndon Johnson's presidency, Mondale supported the Vietnam War. After Nixon became president in 1969, Mondale began to oppose the war and participated in legislation to restrict Nixon's ability to prolong it. Mondale supported abortion rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jerry Brown \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jerry Brown \u2013 2 (0.06%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Minnesota Attorney General election, 1962:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jim McDermott \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale\n--Attorney General of Minnesota.\n----1962.\n--United States Senate.\n----1966.\n----1972.\n----2002.\n--Presidential and vice presidential.\n----1972.\n----1976.\n----1980.\n----1984.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1984 United States presidential election:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ted Kennedy \u2013 1,151 (34.72%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale's wife, Joan Mondale, was a national advocate for the arts and was the Honorary Chairman of the Federal Council on the Arts and Humanities during the Carter Administration. On February 3, 2014, she died at a hospice in Minneapolis surrounded by family members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Frank Johnson \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Fred R. Harris \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Minnesota U.S. Senate election, 1972:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Les Aspin \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "1976 Democratic National Convention",
        "text": "In his acceptance speech, Mondale diverted from his printed text which echoed John F. Kennedy's call to \"get the country moving again;\" Mondale instead said, \"Let's get this government moving again!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 Democratic National Convention",
        "text": "New York Governor Mario Cuomo gave a well-received keynote speech. Mondale's major rivals for the presidential nomination, Senator Gary Hart and Rev. Jesse Jackson, also gave speeches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Post-presidency of Jimmy Carter",
        "text": "During the 1984 Democratic presidential primary, Carter officially endorsed Mondale. In a June 13, 1984 interview, Carter said he believed Reagan would back out of debating Mondale during the general election. On June 26, Carter announced that he would attend the 1984 Democratic National Convention and possibly speak but would hinder his remarks from taking Mondale, by then the presumptive Democratic Party presidential nominee, out of the spotlight. Carter also advocated Mondale hasten the process of selecting a running mate. On November 7, after the election had taken place, Carter stated Mondale's loss had been predictable due to the latter stating his intent to raise taxes and that he did not believe any Democrat could win against Reagan's re-election bid while speaking at a news conference."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush (R)Popular vote: 43,903,230 (50.75%) Electoral votes: 489 (90.9%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Minnesota U.S. Senate election, 1966:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Wayne Hays \u2013 5 (0.17%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0George S. Broody \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "After losing the 1980 election, Mondale returned briefly to the practice of law at Winston and Strawn, a large Chicago-based law firm, but he intended to return to politics before long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Allard Lowenstein \u2013 5 (0.17%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Mondale's opponents in the race for the Democratic nomination in 1984 included Reubin Askew, Jesse Jackson, George McGovern, and Gary Hart. In early polls, Mondale had a comfortable lead over his primary rivals, and he was considered the front-runner for the nomination by odds makers. John Glenn was considered Mondale's closest rival early in the race, but Glenn's campaign collapsed early on, as did most of the other Democratic candidates' campaigns. In 1983, Mondale was endorsed by almost all AFL-CIO leaders, as well as by the National Organization for Women, who had not endorsed a candidate since they were founded 17 years earlier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Thomas J. Steed \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jim Weaver \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in North Dakota",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the primary campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Kent Hance \u2013 2 (0.06%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Barbara Jordan \u2013 4 (0.12%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0George McGovern \u2013 4 (0.10%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0George McGovern \u2013 2 (0.06%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "Out of office during Ronald Reagan's first term as president, Walter Mondale won the Democratic presidential nomination in 1984. As a prospective First Lady, Joan Mondale told Maureen Dowd of \"The New York Times\" that she would not talk about recipes or clothes during the campaign, but when her husband's political opponents took issue with this, costing him votes, she published \"The Mondale Family Cookbook\", with recipes including Fettucine \u00e0 la Pimento Mondale, and declared that she was a \"traditional wife and mother and supporter\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale ran for the Democratic Party presidential nomination in the Democratic presidential primaries preceding the 1984 election, and was soon the front-runner. His opposition included Reverend Jesse Jackson and Senator Gary Hart from Colorado. Hart won the New Hampshire primary in March, but Mondale had much of the party leadership behind him. To great effect, Mondale used the Wendy's slogan \"Where's the beef?\" to describe Hart's policies as lacking depth. Jackson, widely regarded as the first serious African-American candidate for president, held on longer, but Mondale gained the nomination with the majority of delegates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Their younger son, William Hall Mondale, is a former assistant Attorney General of Minnesota."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jim Thomas \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election",
        "text": "Mondale gradually pulled away from Hart in the delegate count, but, as \"Time\" reported in late May, \"Mondale ... has a wide lead in total delegates (1,564 to 941) ... because of his victories in the big industrial states, his support from the Democratic Establishment and the arcane provisions of delegate-selection rules that his vanguard helped draft two years ago.\" After the final primary in California, on June 5, which Hart won, Mondale was about 40 delegates short of the total he needed for the nomination. However, at the Democratic National Convention in San Francisco on July 16, Mondale received the overwhelming support of the unelected superdelegates from the party establishment to win the nomination."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Koryne Kaneski Horbal \u2013 5 (0.15%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Evan Dobelle",
        "text": "He was the treasurer of the Democratic National Committee and National Chairman of the Carter-Mondale Presidential Committee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ed Rendell \u2013 28 (0.84%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "In the general election, Mondale was endorsed by \"The New York Times\", \"The Philadelphia Inquirer\", the \"Detroit Free Press\", and the \"Atlanta Journal-Constitution\", among other newspapers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Gaylord Nelson \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jimmy Carter * \u2013 2,123 (64.04%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0George Orwell \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale ran a liberal campaign, supporting a nuclear freeze and the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). He spoke against Reagan's economic policies and in support of reducing federal budget deficits. But the incumbent was popular and Mondale's campaign was widely considered ineffective. Mondale was also perceived as supporting the poor at the expense of the middle class. In the first televised debate, Mondale performed unexpectedly well, which led many to question Reagan's age and capacity to endure the grueling demands of the presidency (Reagan was the oldest person to serve as president\u201473 at the time\u2014while Mondale was 56). In the next debate on October 21, 1984, Reagan deflected the issue by quipping, \"I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Hunter S. Thompson \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Barbara Jordan \u2013 25 (0.84%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jim Moore (IPM) \u2013 45,139 (2.00%)"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did Walter Mondale do after his presidential run?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mondale did a number of things, he joined Dorsey & Whitney and the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs. He was the U. S. Ambassador to Japan, and was the last minute choice for the Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party to run for Senate, before losing and returning to Dorsey & Whitney and a part time teaching job at University of Minnesota's Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did Mondale do at Dorsey & Whitney?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I did not find his job specifics but he returned to working at Dorsey & Whitney after his 2002 Senate run loss and remained active in the Democratic Party.",
      "Mondale returned to private law practice with Dorsey & Whitney in Minneapolis in 1987."
    ],
    "topic": "Walter Mondale",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Walter Mondale:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Walter Mondale"
        ],
        "ctx": "After his defeat, Mondale joined the Minnesota-based law firm Dorsey & Whitney and the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (1986\u20131993). President Bill Clinton appointed Mondale U.S. Ambassador to Japan in 1993; he retired from that post in 1996. In 2002, Mondale became the last-minute choice of the Minnesota Democratic\u2013Farmer\u2013Labor Party to run for Senate after Democratic Senator Paul Wellstone died in a plane crash less than two weeks before the election. Mondale narrowly lost the race to Saint Paul mayor Norm Coleman. He then returned to working at Dorsey & Whitney and remained active in the Democratic Party. Mondale later took up a part-time teaching position at the University of Minnesota's Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Walter Mondale:39",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Walter Mondale",
          "Post-vice presidency (1981\u20132021)",
          "Private citizen and ambassador"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mondale returned to private law practice with Dorsey & Whitney in Minneapolis in 1987. From 1986 to 1993, he chaired the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs. During Bill Clinton's presidency, he was United States Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, chaired a bipartisan group to study campaign finance reform, and was Clinton's special envoy to Indonesia in 1998."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale returned to private law practice with Dorsey & Whitney in Minneapolis in 1987. From 1986 to 1993, he chaired the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs. During Bill Clinton's presidency, he was United States Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, chaired a bipartisan group to study campaign finance reform, and was Clinton's special envoy to Indonesia in 1998."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "After his defeat, Mondale joined the Minnesota-based law firm Dorsey & Whitney and the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (1986\u20131993). President Bill Clinton appointed Mondale U.S. Ambassador to Japan in 1993; he retired from that post in 1996. In 2002, Mondale became the last-minute choice of the Minnesota Democratic\u2013Farmer\u2013Labor Party to run for Senate after Democratic Senator Paul Wellstone died in a plane crash less than two weeks before the election. Mondale narrowly lost the race to Saint Paul mayor Norm Coleman. He then returned to working at Dorsey & Whitney and remained active in the Democratic Party. Mondale later took up a part-time teaching position at the University of Minnesota's Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "During his tenure as Minnesota Attorney General, the case \"Gideon v. Wainwright\" (which ultimately established the right of defendants in state courts to have a lawyer) was being heard by the U.S. Supreme Court. When those opposed to the right to counsel organized a friend of the court brief representing several state attorneys general for that position, Mondale organized a countering friend of the court brief from many more state attorneys general, arguing that defendants must be allowed a lawyer. He also continued the investigation of former Minneapolis mayor Marvin L. Kline and the mismanagement of the Sister Kenny Foundation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "After losing the 1980 election, Mondale returned briefly to the practice of law at Winston and Strawn, a large Chicago-based law firm, but he intended to return to politics before long."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "Walter Mondale lost the election, and the Mondales returned to Minnesota, where they lived until his term as U.S. Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, after which he resumed his Minneapolis-based law practice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "As Mondale could not afford to attend law school, he enlisted in the United States Army in 1951, shortly after graduating. He served at Fort Knox during the Korean War, first as an armored reconnaissance vehicle crewman, and later as an education programs specialist. He attained the rank of corporal and was discharged in 1953. Mondale enrolled at the University of Minnesota Law School, aided by the G.I. Bill, and graduated \"cum laude\" with a Bachelor of Laws in 1956. In law school, he served on the \"Minnesota Law Review\" and as a law clerk for Minnesota Supreme Court Justice Thomas F. Gallagher. In 1955, Mondale married Joan Adams, whom he met on a blind date. He then practiced law in Minneapolis for four years before entering politics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 1960, Freeman appointed Mondale Minnesota Attorney General following the resignation of Miles Lord. At the time he was appointed, Mondale was 32 years old and had been practicing law for four years. He was elected to the post in his own right in 1962."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "The University of Minnesota Law Library's Walter F. Mondale website is devoted to Mondale's senatorial career. Mondale's work is documented in full text access to selected proceedings and debates on the floor of the Senate as recorded in the \"Congressional Record\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Walter Frederick \"Fritz\" Mondale (January 5, 1928 \u2013 April 19, 2021) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 42nd vice president of the United States from 1977 to 1981 under President Jimmy Carter. A U.S. senator from Minnesota from 1964 to 1976, he was the Democratic Party's nominee in the 1984 presidential election, but lost to incumbent Ronald Reagan in an Electoral College and popular vote landslide. Reagan won 49 states while Mondale carried his home state of Minnesota and the District of Columbia. His vice presidential nominee, U.S. Representative Geraldine Ferraro from New York, was the first female vice-presidential nominee of any major party in U.S. history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Minnesota Attorney General election, 1962:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale, who served as the 42nd vice president of the United States (1977\u20131981); as a United States senator from Minnesota (1964\u20131976), and as the 23rd attorney general of Minnesota (1960\u20131964)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 1972, Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern offered Mondale an opportunity to be his vice-presidential running mate. Mondale declined. That year, Mondale was re-elected to the Senate with over 57% of the vote, even as Republican President Richard Nixon carried Minnesota. He served in the 88th, 89th, 90th, 91st, 92nd, 93rd, and 94th congresses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Their younger son, William Hall Mondale, is a former assistant Attorney General of Minnesota."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale was born in Ceylon, Minnesota, and graduated from the University of Minnesota in 1951 after attending Macalester College. He then served in the U.S. Army during the Korean War before earning a law degree in 1956. He married Joan Adams in 1955. Working as a lawyer in Minneapolis, Mondale was appointed Minnesota Attorney General in 1960 by Governor Orville Freeman and was elected to a full term as attorney general in 1962 with 60% of the vote. He was appointed to the U.S. Senate by Governor Karl Rolvaag upon the resignation of Senator Hubert Humphrey following Humphrey's election as vice president in 1964. Mondale was elected to a full Senate term in 1966 and reelected in 1972, resigning in 1976 as he prepared to succeed to the vice presidency in 1977. While in the Senate, he supported consumer protection, fair housing, tax reform and the desegregation of schools; he served on the Church Committee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dorsey & Whitney",
        "text": "The firm has also endowed the Dorsey and Whitney Professor of Law at the University of Minnesota Law School.\n*Harry Blackmun, former U.S. Supreme Court justice\n*Amy Klobuchar, U.S. Senator\n*Walter Mondale, former Vice President of the United States\n*William Prosser, legal scholar.\n*Tom Vilsack, former Governor of Iowa"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale became involved in national politics in the 1940s. At age 20, he was visible in Minnesota politics by helping organize Hubert Humphrey's successful Senate campaign in 1948. Humphrey's campaign assigned Mondale to cover the staunchly Republican 2nd district. Mondale, who had grown up in the region, was able to win the district for Humphrey by a comfortable margin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale also served as a member of the President's Consumer Advisory Council from 1960 to 1964."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "A former United States Senator from Minnesota, Mondale considered running for the Democratic nomination in the 1976 presidential election, but he dropped out of the race on November 21, 1974, after having built a campaign for two years. When he dropped out, he said that he felt he lacked \"the overwhelming desire to be President\" and wanted to avoid \"sleeping in Holiday Inns.\" In 1976, Jimmy Carter won the presidential election, with Mondale as his running mate. Mondale served as vice president under Carter from 1977 to 1981. In January 1981, shortly before Mondale left office as vice president, CBS News reported that he had decided to run for president in 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale\n--Attorney General of Minnesota.\n----1962.\n--United States Senate.\n----1966.\n----1972.\n----2002.\n--Presidential and vice presidential.\n----1972.\n----1976.\n----1980.\n----1984.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Until his appointment as Ambassador to Japan, Mondale was a Distinguished University Fellow in Law and Public Affairs at the Hubert H. Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs at the University of Minnesota. In 1990, he established the Mondale Policy Forum at the Humphrey Institute. The forum has brought together leading scholars and policymakers for annual conferences on domestic and international issues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale worked hard to build up the center of the party on economic and social issues. Unlike his father, a fervent liberal, he was not a crusader for the New Deal. Instead, he realized that the Democratic base (especially ethnic blue-collar workers) was gradually moving to the right, and he worked to keep their support. Mondale showed little or no interest in foreign policy until about 1974, when he realized that some foreign policy knowledge was necessary if he had loftier aspirations than the Senate. He developed a centrist position, avoiding alignment with either the party's hawks (such as Henry M. Jackson) or its doves (such as McGovern). Mondale took a liberal position on civil rights, which proved acceptable in Minnesota, a state with \"a minuscule black population\". Mondale was a chief sponsor of the federal Fair Housing Act, which prohibits discrimination in housing and created HUD's Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity as the primary enforcer of the law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale died of natural causes in his sleep at his home in Minneapolis, Minnesota, on April 19, 2021, at the age of 93. The day before his death, he had several phone conversations with Jimmy Carter, Bill Clinton, Joe Biden, Kamala Harris, and Minnesota governor Tim Walz. Mondale also emailed a final message to his staff, as he and his family had come to the conclusion that \"his death was imminent\". At the time of his death, Mondale was the oldest living former U.S. vice president, his place being taken by Dick Cheney."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party vice presidential nomination, 1976:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party vice presidential nomination, 1980:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale rotated on and off numerous committees, including the Aeronautical and Space Sciences Committee; the Finance Committee; the Labor and Public Welfare Committee; the Budget Committee; and the Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs Committee. He also served as chairman of the Select Committee on Equal Education Opportunity and the Intelligence Committee's Domestic Task Force. He additionally served as chairman of the Labor and Public Welfare Committee's subcommittee on Children and Youth and the Senate subcommittee on social security financing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 2002, Democratic Senator Paul Wellstone from Minnesota, who was running for reelection, died in a plane crash 11 days before the November 5 election. Mondale replaced Wellstone on the ballot at the urging of Wellstone's relatives. The Senate seat was the one Mondale had held before resigning to become vice president in 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "In 1964, Walter Mondale replaced Hubert Humphrey as a U.S. Senator, serving until 1976, when Democratic presidential candidate Jimmy Carter selected him as his running-mate in his successful bid for the Presidency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Minnesota U.S. Senate election, 1972DFL primary:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "After working with Humphrey, Mondale went on to work on several campaigns for Orville Freeman. Mondale worked on Freeman's unsuccessful 1952 campaign for the governorship as well as his successful campaign in 1954 and his 1958 reelection campaign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1976 United States presidential election"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Minnesota U.S. Senate election, 1972:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party presidential nomination, 1980:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Minnesota U.S. Senate election, 1966DFL primary:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "At the 1964 Democratic National Convention, Mondale played a major role in the proposed but ultimately unsuccessful compromise by which the national Democratic Party offered the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party two at-large seats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Minnesota U.S. Senate election, 1966:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Shortly before the 1984 Democratic National Convention, Mondale chose Bert Lance to be his campaign's general chairman, and unsuccessfully attempted to remove Charles Manatt from his position as party chairman. Mondale and his campaign stopped their effort to oust Manatt in response to protests from party leaders. On Mondale's decisions, one anonymous Democratic Party aide told \"the New York Times\": \"It's a disaster. People are gulping hard. No one knows why he did it.\" His choice of Lance proved controversial because Lance had previously left his job in the Carter administration amid charges of bank fraud (of which he was later exonerated)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Minnesota U.S. Senate election, 2002:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 2004, Mondale became co-chairman of the Constitution Project's bipartisan Right to Counsel Committee. He endorsed Senator Hillary Clinton for president in 2008. On June 3, 2008, following the final primary contests, Mondale endorsed Senator Barack Obama, who had clinched the nomination the previous evening, and won the presidency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 1975, Mondale served on the Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, chaired by Idaho Senator Frank Church, that investigated alleged abuses by the Central Intelligence Agency and the Federal Bureau of Investigation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party presidential nomination, 1972:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party presidential nomination, 1984:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Soon after the election, Democrats offered multiple different theories for why Mondale lost in a landslide: Jesse Jackson argued that the Democrats had pandered too much to white men, and Mondale himself said in February 1985 that he lost because of his inability to appear compelling on television. William Raspberry disagreed with Mondale's self-assessment and argued, \"What cost Mondale was the perception that Reagan, while perhaps on the wrong side of a number of specific issues, generally stood for what most Americans stood for, while Mondale, though often on the right side of the specifics, didn't really stand for anything at all.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1980 United States presidential election:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1984 Democratic Party presidential primaries:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Notes"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "During Lyndon Johnson's presidency, Mondale supported the Vietnam War. After Nixon became president in 1969, Mondale began to oppose the war and participated in legislation to restrict Nixon's ability to prolong it. Mondale supported abortion rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1984 United States presidential election:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Politics of Minnesota",
        "text": "Walter Mondale (January 5, 1928 \u2013 April 19, 2021) was the 42nd vice president of the United States (1977\u20131981) under President Jimmy Carter. He was also a two-term United States Senator from Minnesota and the Democratic Party nominee for president in 1984 against the incumbent, Republican Ronald Reagan. Mondale suffered a crushing defeat as Reagan was re-elected in a landslide victory in which Mondale carried only his home state of Minnesota and the District of Columbia. Mondale also quickly stepped into the 2002 U.S. Senate race against Norm Coleman, when Paul Wellstone died in a plane crash two weeks before the election. Coleman narrowly won the election, 49.5% to 47.3%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Documents declassified in 2017 show that the National Security Agency had created a file on Mondale as part of its monitoring of prominent U.S. citizens whose names appeared in Signals intelligence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Writing in \"the Washington Post\" in March 1985, Mark Shields argued, \"The single, biggest mistake made by candidate Mondale and his campaign was the failure to endorse and to embrace the Fair Tax plan of Sen. Bill Bradley (D-N.J.) and Rep. Dick Gephardt (D-Mo.).\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In the \"Walter F. Mondale Papers\" at the Minnesota Historical Society, digital content is available for research use. Contents include speech files, handwritten notes, memoranda, annotated briefings, schedules, correspondence, and visual materials. The collection includes senatorial, vice presidential, ambassadorial, political papers and campaign files, and personal papers documenting most aspects of Mondale's 60\u2011year-long career, including all of his public offices, campaigns, and Democratic Party and other non-official activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "The Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign began on February 21, 1983, when Walter Mondale, a former Minnesota senator and Vice President of the United States, announced that he was running for president in a speech at the Minnesota State Capitol. Mondale won the Democratic Party's presidential nomination after convincing Frank Lautenberg, a previously unpledged party delegate, to support him. Lautenberg's vote gave Mondale the 1,967 delegate votes needed to become the Democratic Party's nominee. Mondale lost the general election, held on November 6, 1984, to incumbent Republican President Ronald Reagan in a landslide. Had Mondale been elected, he would have been the first U.S. president from Minnesota and the first non-incumbent vice president since Richard Nixon to take office as president. Ferraro would also have been the country's first female vice president, and the first person from New York since Nelson Rockefeller to become vice president, whereas her husband, John Zaccaro, would also have been the country's first second gentleman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale's wife, Joan Mondale, was a national advocate for the arts and was the Honorary Chairman of the Federal Council on the Arts and Humanities during the Carter Administration. On February 3, 2014, she died at a hospice in Minneapolis surrounded by family members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dorsey & Whitney",
        "text": "Dorsey was founded in 1912 by William Lancaster, a director of First National Bank of Minneapolis (now part of U.S. Bank), and David Simpson, a judge on the Minnesota Supreme Court. The following year, they hired James Dorsey as their first associate. Dorsey left the firm in the 1920s to become an investment banker, but returned to the firm a few years after the 1929 stock market crash. Dorsey led the firm until his death in 1959. The name of the firm continued to change for most of its history, until it was shortened into its current, permanent name in 1981. Dorsey continues to build on its traditional strengths in corporate law and litigation through a wide range of practice groups."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Hugh L. Carey \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenwood, Minneapolis",
        "text": "Walter Mondale, Vice President of the United States, was a long time resident near Fremont Avenue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Cari Jr.",
        "text": "\u2022 Mondale for President, Associate General Counsel, 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Due to the Great Depression, Mondale grew up in poverty. His family moved from Ceylon to Blue Lake in 1934, and to Elmore in 1937. Throughout his youth, Mondale was influenced heavily by his father's religious beliefs, being in favour of the civil rights movement. In 1948, his father died of a stroke. Mondale attended public schools and then Macalester College for two years before transferring to the University of Minnesota, from which he graduated \"cum laude\" with a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science in 1951."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale had a residence near Lake of the Isles in Minneapolis. He was a Presbyterian. He enjoyed fishing, reading Shakespeare and historical accounts, barbecuing, skiing, watching \"Monty Python\", and playing tennis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert W. Mattson Sr.",
        "text": "In 1964, Mattson was appointed Attorney General by Governor Karl F. Rolvaag to fill the remaining two years of Walter F. Mondale's term upon Mondale's appointment to the U.S. Senate to fill the vacancy created by Hubert H. Humphrey's election as Vice President of the United States. He did not seek re-election and returned to the private practice of law in 1967."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale was the recipient of numerous distinctions. He was inducted into Omicron Delta Kappa as an honoris causa initiate at the University of South Carolina in 1981. Mondale also maintained strong ties to the University of Minnesota Law School. In 2002 the school renamed its building Walter F. Mondale Hall. Mondale contributed cameo appearances to the law school's annual T.O.R.T. (\"Theater of the Relatively Talentless\") productions and allowed his name to be used as the nickname of the school's hockey team: the \"Fighting Mondales\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Carter and Mondale were renominated at the 1980 Democratic National Convention, but soundly lost to the Republican ticket of Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush. That year, Mondale opened the XIII Olympic Winter Games in Lake Placid, New York."
      },
      {
        "title": "1976 Democratic National Convention",
        "text": "In his acceptance speech, Mondale diverted from his printed text which echoed John F. Kennedy's call to \"get the country moving again;\" Mondale instead said, \"Let's get this government moving again!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Maxine Isaacs",
        "text": "In the early 1980s, she ran her own public relations consulting firm, Maximum Inc., in Washington, D.C. In February 1981, she announced the formation of an exploratory committee for Mondale's possible candidacy in the 1984 presidential election. Isaacs became deputy campaign manager and press secretary for Mondale's 1984 presidential campaign. After his loss to Ronald Reagan, Mondale ended his political career and returned to practicing law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ramsey Clark \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in North Dakota",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "On December 27, 1955, Joan married Minneapolis lawyer Walter \"Fritz\" Mondale, whom she had met on a blind date."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Thomas J. Steed \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale explained his actions in a 2001 interview: \"I think that by forcing a public confrontation about these heretofore secret and deep concerns about the safety and the management of the program, it forced NASA to restructure and reorganize the program in a way that was much safer.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jim McDermott \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale ran a liberal campaign, supporting a nuclear freeze and the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). He spoke against Reagan's economic policies and in support of reducing federal budget deficits. But the incumbent was popular and Mondale's campaign was widely considered ineffective. Mondale was also perceived as supporting the poor at the expense of the middle class. In the first televised debate, Mondale performed unexpectedly well, which led many to question Reagan's age and capacity to endure the grueling demands of the presidency (Reagan was the oldest person to serve as president\u201473 at the time\u2014while Mondale was 56). In the next debate on October 21, 1984, Reagan deflected the issue by quipping, \"I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Barnett (lawyer)",
        "text": "In 1975, he was hired by Joseph A. Califano Jr. and joined the law firm of Williams, Connolly & Califano. Soon after, Mondale was chosen as Jimmy Carter's presidential running mate and Barnett took a leave of absence from his law firm and went to Atlanta to help run Carter's campaign. After Carter's win, Barnett returned to his law practice. He made a name for himself defending white-collar clients including Toyota distributor, Jim Moran and former head of Fannie Mae, Franklin Raines. In 1984, Barnett helped to prep Mondale's running mate, Geraldine Ferraro, for her debate against George H.W. Bush; and defended her from accusations about her husband's alleged Mob affiliations and questionable tax returns. He also represented David Stockman and Kitty Dukakis, helping both to secure lucrative contracts with book publishers. In 1992, he again served as a debate coach this time for Bill Clinton in his successful presidential campaign. Returning to private practice, he found many customers eager to have him represent them in securing lucrative contracts and advances for their books, including Secretary of State James Baker; former Vice President Dan Quayle and that of his wife Marilyn Quayle; and James Carville and his wife Mary Matalin. He also expanded into representing television news people in contract negotiations including his wife, Rita Braver, Susan Mercandetti, Robin Lloyd, Chris Wallace, Andrea Mitchell, Brit Hume, Wolf Blitzer, and Ann Curry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Hunter S. Thompson \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "On December 30, 1964, Minnesota Governor Karl Rolvaag appointed Mondale to the United States Senate to fill the vacancy created by Hubert Humphrey's resignation; Humphrey had stepped down after being elected Vice President of the United States. Mondale was elected to the Senate for the first time in 1966, defeating Republican candidate Robert A. Forsythe by a margin of 53.9% to 45.2%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ron Dellums \u2013 3 (0.09%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Les Aspin \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale spoke before the U.S. Senate on September 4, 2002, delivering a lecture on his service, with commentary on the transformation of the office of the vice president during the Carter administration, the Senate cloture rule for ending debate, and his view of the future of the Senate. The lecture was a part of a continuing Senate \"Leaders Lecture Series\" that ran from 1998 to 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "During the general election, over a dozen political professionals doubted whether Mondale was appealing enough as a person to win the election and questioned his decision to spend considerable time campaigning in states that he had almost no chance of winning. Some of these professionals also told \"the New York Times\" that they were \"amazed\" at the sloppy preparation the campaign put into organizing events. In October 1984, shortly before the election, Mondale attempted to focus on trying to win California. That effort included spending over $3 million on television advertising there and flying Mondale in for a rally shortly thereafter. That was part of his strategy to try to win at least one big Sun Belt state."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "When Jimmy Carter won the Democratic nomination for president in 1976, he chose Mondale as his running mate. Mondale campaigned for the ticket in various states. While campaigning in Toledo, Ohio he said that the country needed a strong president to stop inflation and added that President Gerald Ford did not have the guts to stand up to big businesses. The ticket was narrowly elected on November 2, 1976, and Mondale was inaugurated as Vice President of the United States on January 20, 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in South Dakota",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Gary Benoit \u2013 12 (0.40%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Mondale officially accepted the Democratic Party's nomination at the 1984 Democratic National Convention. He delivered his acceptance speech on the night of July 19, 1984, climaxing that year's convention. During the speech, Mondale controversially vowed to raise taxes but claimed that Reagan would also do so: \"He won't tell you. I just did.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Mark Dayton",
        "text": "From 1975 to 1976 he was a legislative aide to Senator Walter Mondale, until Mondale's election as Vice President of the United States. From 1977 to 1978, Dayton served as an aide to Minnesota Governor Rudy Perpich. In 1978, Perpich appointed Dayton to head the Department of Economic Development and then the Department of Energy and Economic Development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Fred R. Harris \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jesse Jackson",
        "text": "In May 1988 Jackson complained that he had won 21% of the popular vote but was awarded only 9% of the delegates. He afterwards stated that he had been handicapped by party rules. While Mondale (in the words of his aides) was determined to establish a precedent with his vice presidential candidate by picking a woman or visible minority, Jackson criticized the screening process as a \"p.r. parade of personalities\". He also mocked Mondale, saying that Hubert Humphrey was the \"last significant politician out of the St. Paul\u2013Minneapolis\" area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0William Proxmire \u2013 10 (0.30%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Eleanor Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale was the only daughter of Joan Mondale and former Vice President Walter Mondale. Her older brother is former Minnesota State Senator Theodore Adams \"Ted\" Mondale. Her younger brother is attorney William Hall Mondale, the former assistant Attorney General of Minnesota (1990\u20132000). For her senior year of high school, Mondale attended St. Timothy's, a boarding school outside of Baltimore. After graduating from St. Lawrence University in Canton, New York, she moved to begin a career in Hollywood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "The controversy spread to both houses of Congress and grew (through the efforts of Mondale's fellow committee member, Republican Margaret Chase Smith to include the second-guessing of NASA's original selection in 1961 of North American as the prime Apollo spacecraft contractor, which Webb became forced to defend). The House NASA oversight committee, which was conducting its own hearings and had picked up on the controversy, was ultimately given a copy of the Phillips report."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ed Rendell \u2013 28 (0.84%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Barbara Jordan \u2013 4 (0.12%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ron Dellums \u2013 20 (0.67%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Terry Sanford \u2013 78 (2.59%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "J. Willard Ragsdale",
        "text": "He studied law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Michael J. Carrington \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Frank Johnson \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Patrick Joseph Lucey \u2013 3 (0.09%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heron Lake, Minnesota",
        "text": "Walter Mondale, Vice-President of the United States under Jimmy Carter (1977\u20131981) and the Democratic Party's nominee for President in 1984, attended Heron Lake Public High School and lived in the Methodist Episcopal Church parsonage, since moved, for three years prior to 1946. His father was minister at the church during that time. At that time, Protestants were vigorously discriminated against by the majority of Catholics, including frequent 'boys-will-be-boys' raids against the parsonage where Mondale lived."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Trewhitt",
        "text": "In 1984, while he was a diplomatic correspondent for the \"Baltimore Sun\", Trewhitt was one of four panel journalists who asked questions to Ronald Reagan and Walter Mondale at their second and final presidential debate. The other three journalists on the panel were Georgie Anne Geyer, Marvin Kalb, and Morton Kondracke. At the debate, he asked Reagan a famous question about whether he thought his advanced age would impair his ability to function as president. Trewhitt had previously worked together with his \"Sun\" colleague Jack Germond for several hours to devise the question. Their aim was to frame the question so as to make it difficult for Reagan to avoid the issue of age, which they considered to be his \"greatest vulnerability\". The age question had grown more pointed after a difficult time for the president -- he \"stumbled over words, mangled his own familiar stories, repeated mind-numbing statistics, rambled through his closing statement, and seemed to lose track of the rules at one point\" -- in the first debate. The question Trewhitt asked President Reagan was as follows: Reagan replied, This answer was met with an uproar of laughter from the audience, and even Mondale himself laughed along with them. The following day, David S. Broder wrote that \"...it may well have been that the biggest barrier to Reagan's reelection was swept away in that moment.\" Since then, Reagan's response to Trewhitt's question has been praised as a \"hit out of the park\", and Mondale himself later said that he thought it effectively ended the race. Trewhitt's immediate followup to Reagan was \"Mr. President, I'd like to head for the fence and try to catch that one before it goes over, but I'll go on to another question.\" Reagan's chief of staff James A. Baker later recounted the efforts to prepare for the question and \"insist[ed the answer] ... had not been scripted ahead.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 1976, Jimmy Carter, the Democratic presidential nominee, chose Mondale as his vice-presidential running mate. The Carter\u2013Mondale ticket defeated incumbent president Gerald Ford and his running mate, Bob Dole. Carter and Mondale's time in office was marred by a worsening economy and they lost the 1980 election to Republicans Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush. In 1984, Mondale won the Democratic presidential nomination and campaigned for a nuclear freeze, the Equal Rights Amendment, an increase in taxes, and a reduction of U.S. public debt. Mondale and Ferraro lost the election to the incumbents Reagan and Bush."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jerry Brown \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did Walter Mondale do after his presidential run?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mondale did a number of things, he joined Dorsey & Whitney and the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs. He was the U. S. Ambassador to Japan, and was the last minute choice for the Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party to run for Senate, before losing and returning to Dorsey & Whitney and a part time teaching job at University of Minnesota's Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did Mondale do at Dorsey & Whitney?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mondale returned to private law practice with Dorsey & Whitney in Minneapolis in 1987."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did he do next after he finished working at Dorsey & Whitney?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "From 1986 to 1993, he chaired the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs. During Bill Clinton's presidency, he was United States Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, chaired a bipartisan group to study campaign finance reform, and was Clinton's special envoy to Indonesia in 1998."
    ],
    "topic": "Walter Mondale",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Walter Mondale:39",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Walter Mondale",
          "Post-vice presidency (1981\u20132021)",
          "Private citizen and ambassador"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mondale returned to private law practice with Dorsey & Whitney in Minneapolis in 1987. From 1986 to 1993, he chaired the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs. During Bill Clinton's presidency, he was United States Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, chaired a bipartisan group to study campaign finance reform, and was Clinton's special envoy to Indonesia in 1998."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale returned to private law practice with Dorsey & Whitney in Minneapolis in 1987. From 1986 to 1993, he chaired the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs. During Bill Clinton's presidency, he was United States Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, chaired a bipartisan group to study campaign finance reform, and was Clinton's special envoy to Indonesia in 1998."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Until his appointment as Ambassador to Japan, Mondale was a Distinguished University Fellow in Law and Public Affairs at the Hubert H. Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs at the University of Minnesota. In 1990, he established the Mondale Policy Forum at the Humphrey Institute. The forum has brought together leading scholars and policymakers for annual conferences on domestic and international issues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "Walter Mondale lost the election, and the Mondales returned to Minnesota, where they lived until his term as U.S. Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, after which he resumed his Minneapolis-based law practice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "After his defeat, Mondale joined the Minnesota-based law firm Dorsey & Whitney and the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (1986\u20131993). President Bill Clinton appointed Mondale U.S. Ambassador to Japan in 1993; he retired from that post in 1996. In 2002, Mondale became the last-minute choice of the Minnesota Democratic\u2013Farmer\u2013Labor Party to run for Senate after Democratic Senator Paul Wellstone died in a plane crash less than two weeks before the election. Mondale narrowly lost the race to Saint Paul mayor Norm Coleman. He then returned to working at Dorsey & Whitney and remained active in the Democratic Party. Mondale later took up a part-time teaching position at the University of Minnesota's Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "As the U.S. Ambassador's wife in Japan, she enthusiastically promoted inter-cultural understanding through art, redecorating the Embassy with American paintings and organising tours with a bi-lingual guide. She studied Japanese art, and impressed the Mayor of Kyoto by presenting him with a ceramic bowl she had made herself in the traditional Mashiko style."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morihiro Hosokawa",
        "text": "Walter Mondale, then the US ambassador to Japan, characterized Hosokawa as having a \"Kennedy-esque\" ability to focus on ideals; nonetheless, Hosokawa's coalition had no common ideas other than their opposition to the LDP, which undermined Hosokawa throughout his term as prime minister. He was also at odds with Japan's bureaucracy, which he sought to reform after decades of bureaucratic entrenchment under the LDP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard Holbrooke",
        "text": "In 1993, after Bill Clinton became President, Holbrooke was initially slated to be Ambassador to Japan due to his depth of knowledge and long experience in Asian affairs. However, this appointment eventually went to former Vice President Walter Mondale, and Holbrooke unexpectedly was appointed Ambassador to Germany. In 1992, Holbrooke was also a member of the Carnegie Commission on America and a Changing World and Chairman and principal author of the bipartisan Commission on Government and Renewal, sponsored by the Carnegie Foundation and the Peterson Institute. He was Chairman and principal author of the \"Memo to the President-Elect: Harnessing Process to Purpose,\" a blue-ribbon Commission report sponsored by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and the Institute for International Economics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "She was the author of \"Letters From Japan\", a collection of essays about life overseas published in 1998."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melih Esenbel",
        "text": "Esenbel's next foreign position took him to Tokyo, Japan, where he acted as ambassador from January 1, 1963 to January 1, 1966. On January 9, 1967, he was appointed the second time to the Embassy in the USA serving at this post until November 1, 1974."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rust Macpherson Deming",
        "text": "Deming joined the State Department in 1966 as a political officer in the United States Embassy in Tunis, Tunisia. He spent much of his career dealing with Japanese affairs, having served in Japan as Charg\u00e9 d'Affaires, ad interim, from December 1996 to September 1997 and as Deputy Chief of Mission under Ambassador Walter Mondale from October 1993 to December 1996. From September 1991 to August 1993, he was Director of the Office of Japanese Affairs in Washington, DC. He served as Minister Counselor for Political Affairs at the American Embassy in Tokyo from August 1987 to July 1991. From 1985 to 1986, he was detailed to the National War College in Washington, DC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale had deep connections to his ancestral Norway. Upon entering the Senate in 1964, he took over the seat of vice president Hubert Humphrey, another Norwegian-American. In later years, Mondale served on the executive committee of the Peace Prize Forum, an annual conference co-sponsored by the Norwegian Nobel Institute. On December 5, 2007, Norwegian Minister of Foreign Affairs Jonas Gahr St\u00f8re announced that Mondale would be named Honorary Consul-General of Norway, representing the Norwegian state in Minnesota."
      },
      {
        "title": "Katsuji Debuchi",
        "text": "In 1928, Debuchi was appointed ambassador to the United States, succeeding Tsuneo Matsudaira. He was due to leave his position during 1931, but remained in the position following the Mukden Incident. As an ambassador, he was well liked in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kensuke Horinouchi",
        "text": "In October 1938, Horinouchi was announced as the successor to Hiroshi Sait\u014d as ambassador to the United States. He took office in April 1939. He was recalled from the post in 1940, and was criticised for apparently failing to promote Japanese interests in relation to the trading of aviation gasoline. Despite this, he continued to be engaged in diplomatic relations between the two countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Moore Allison",
        "text": "Allison was named United States Ambassador to Japan in 1953. As Ambassador, Allison took a hard line in pressuring Japan to remilitarize. In Allison's view, Japan had no choice but to bow to U.S. demands, arguing \"they need us at least as much if not more than we need them.\" In March 1954, 16 years after the \"Allison Incident,\" Allison and the man who had apologized to him in Nanjing, Japanese Foreign Minister Okazaki, signed the U.S. and Japan Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement on behalf of their respective countries. The agreement secured U.S. military and economic aid to Japan in exchange for a vague promise from the Japanese government to remilitarize."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Richards Castle Jr.",
        "text": "He was U.S. Ambassador to Japan for five months during 1930 to negotiate the changes in warship limits that Japan requested from the five-power London Naval Conference 1930. He was named to this position on December 11, 1929, in large part because he had a private income sufficient to defray the costs of an ambassadorship while the State Department salaries and funds provided for entertainment were so low. Tokyo, with the highest cost of living of any post, had been vacant since Charles MacVeagh (1860\u20131931) resigned on December 6, 1928. Castle's appointment to Japan was only for the duration of the conference. The press called him a \"pinch hitter\". He presented credentials on January 24, 1930, and left on May 27, 1930, but in that short time had developed a sympathetic view of Japan's foreign policy. The day before departing he laid the cornerstone of a new American Embassy in Tokyo to replace the structure destroyed in the 1923 Great Kant\u014d earthquake. Japanese dignitaries attending the ceremonies included Prince Tokugawa Iesato (President of the America-Japan Society), Kij\u016br\u014d Shidehara (Japanese Foreign Minister), and industrialist Shibusawa Eiichi."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Tilley (diplomat)",
        "text": "After a long leave, his final posting, from 1926 to 1931, was as Ambassador to Japan. Appointed Special Ambassador at the funeral of the Emperor of Japan (Emperor Taisho) when he received the Grand Cordon of the Rising Sun and later, at the enthronement of the new Emperor Hirohito, he was appointed Special Ambassador and the Paulonia Leaves were added to the Grand Cordon of the Rising Sun."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Hawaii",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Menadue",
        "text": "He was Australian Ambassador to Japan from 1976 to 1980."
      },
      {
        "title": "Larz Anderson",
        "text": "According to sources cited by his biographer, Anderson's diplomatic record was an embarrassment to President William Howard Taft; the Senate Foreign Relations Committee refused to confirm him as United States Ambassador to Japan in 1913 even after he had assumed his post there. Richard W. Leopold, reviewing a volume of Anderson's letters, wrote that they contained \"little of value\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Larz Anderson",
        "text": "Anderson returned to the diplomatic corps in 1911 as United States Minister to Belgium, serving from November 18, 1911 until November 15, 1912, when he was appointed Ambassador to Japan. He held this post as a fully accredited and confirmed American ambassador for only day, March 3, 1913, though he was in Japan from December 28, 1912, until his return to the United States on March 16, 1913. He resigned when the Republican administration of William Howard Taft was replaced by the Democratic administration of Woodrow Wilson. The exact reasons for his resignation and departure from Japan are not clear. One American newspaper reported that he left his Tokyo post \"because the Japanese government had declined to receive him.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Norman Tindale",
        "text": "Tindale also played a major intelligence role in putting a halt to Japan's balloon bombing assault on the western coast of the United States. His team's forensic analysis of the debris enabled the U.S. airforce to identify and bomb the production facilities in Japan. Jones adds two other key contributions by Tindale to the war effort:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "During Lyndon Johnson's presidency, Mondale supported the Vietnam War. After Nixon became president in 1969, Mondale began to oppose the war and participated in legislation to restrict Nixon's ability to prolong it. Mondale supported abortion rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Hawaii",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Walter Frederick \"Fritz\" Mondale (January 5, 1928 \u2013 April 19, 2021) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 42nd vice president of the United States from 1977 to 1981 under President Jimmy Carter. A U.S. senator from Minnesota from 1964 to 1976, he was the Democratic Party's nominee in the 1984 presidential election, but lost to incumbent Ronald Reagan in an Electoral College and popular vote landslide. Reagan won 49 states while Mondale carried his home state of Minnesota and the District of Columbia. His vice presidential nominee, U.S. Representative Geraldine Ferraro from New York, was the first female vice-presidential nominee of any major party in U.S. history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles Page Bryan",
        "text": "On August 12, 1911 he was appointed ambassador to Japan. He presented his credentials on November 22, 1911, and left office October 1, 1912."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edwin O. Reischauer",
        "text": "On the advice of his advisors, Kennedy decided that Reischauer himself would be the best candidate for the job, and nominated Reischauer to be his first (and only) ambassador to Japan. This was a break with precedent, because previous ambassadors to Japan had been career State Department officials who had no special connection with Japan. In fact, State Department officials viewed strong connections with an ambassador's host country with suspicion and opposed Reischauer's nomination on these grounds. However, Kennedy prevailed and Reischauer became the first US ambassador to Japan who actually knew the local language."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 1972, Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern offered Mondale an opportunity to be his vice-presidential running mate. Mondale declined. That year, Mondale was re-elected to the Senate with over 57% of the vote, even as Republican President Richard Nixon carried Minnesota. He served in the 88th, 89th, 90th, 91st, 92nd, 93rd, and 94th congresses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Japan\u2013United States relations",
        "text": "Kennedy appointed sympathetic Japan expert and Harvard professor Edwin O. Reischauer as ambassador to Japan, rather than a career diplomat. Reischauer worked to repair the recent rift in US-Japan relations. Reischauer made \"equal partnership\" the watchword of his time as ambassador, and constantly pushed for more equal treatment of Japan. Reischauer also embarked on a nationwide listening tour in Japan; he visited 39 of the 47 prefectures. Reischauer's time as ambassador was seen as a success, and he stayed in the role until 1966, continuing on under the administration of Lyndon B. Johnson. However, his time as ambassador ended on a note of tragedy. Reischauer increasingly had to defend the US war in Vietnam, and increasingly felt uncomfortable doing so, ultimately leading to his resignation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Francis Oswald Lindley",
        "text": "Beginning in 1923, he succeeded Sir Mansfeldt Findlay as the Minister to Norway in Oslo. In 1929, he succeeded Sir Colville Barclay as the Ambassador to Portugal, serving until 1931. His final diplomatic post was as the Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to Japan from 1931 to 1934 during the reign of Emperor Hirohito. While in Japan, he did not live in the Ambassador's residence, which was still being reconstructed after the 1923 Great Kant\u014d earthquake, but at the embassy house in Chuzenji."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Sansom",
        "text": "As relations between Britain and Japan continued to deteriorate Sansom's reputation as a Japanophile came to be perceived as a liability. Although the Ambassador, Sir Robert Clive, continued to rely on Sansom, his successor from 1937, Robert Craigie, was less receptive to his advice. In 1935 Sansom took a leave of absence of six months, which he spent at Columbia University in New York as a lecturer. While he was on leave in London he announced his retirement from the Diplomatic Service with effect from September 1940. He agreed to return to Japan for one more mission before taking up a position waiting for him at Columbia University."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "A former United States Senator from Minnesota, Mondale considered running for the Democratic nomination in the 1976 presidential election, but he dropped out of the race on November 21, 1974, after having built a campaign for two years. When he dropped out, he said that he felt he lacked \"the overwhelming desire to be President\" and wanted to avoid \"sleeping in Holiday Inns.\" In 1976, Jimmy Carter won the presidential election, with Mondale as his running mate. Mondale served as vice president under Carter from 1977 to 1981. In January 1981, shortly before Mondale left office as vice president, CBS News reported that he had decided to run for president in 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ken Harada (diplomat)",
        "text": "Harada served as Japan's ambassador to Italy after World War II."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Mondale officially accepted the Democratic Party's nomination at the 1984 Democratic National Convention. He delivered his acceptance speech on the night of July 19, 1984, climaxing that year's convention. During the speech, Mondale controversially vowed to raise taxes but claimed that Reagan would also do so: \"He won't tell you. I just did.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Katsuji Debuchi",
        "text": "In November 1933, Debuchi left his position as ambassador to the United States, apparently due to his failure to convince them not to oppose Japanese actions in Manchukuo (Manchuria). However, he remained part of the Japanese diplomatic mission afterwards, visiting Australia in 1935 as a goodwill ambassador."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "During the general election, over a dozen political professionals doubted whether Mondale was appealing enough as a person to win the election and questioned his decision to spend considerable time campaigning in states that he had almost no chance of winning. Some of these professionals also told \"the New York Times\" that they were \"amazed\" at the sloppy preparation the campaign put into organizing events. In October 1984, shortly before the election, Mondale attempted to focus on trying to win California. That effort included spending over $3 million on television advertising there and flying Mondale in for a rally shortly thereafter. That was part of his strategy to try to win at least one big Sun Belt state."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenzo Oshima",
        "text": "Before his appointment as Ambassador to the UN, he was the Ambassador of Japan to Australia from September 2003 to December 2004. In mid-January 2001, Secretary-General Kofi Annan appointed him head of the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. Prior to this, he was Secretary-General of the Secretariat for International Peace Cooperation Headquarters in the Office of the Prime Minister of Japan, where he oversaw Japan's peacekeeping and humanitarian assistance program. During his early diplomatic career he was posted abroad to France, India, Australia, and the Permanent Mission of Japan to the United Nations headquarters in New York City."
      },
      {
        "title": "K\u014dichir\u014d Asakai",
        "text": "In June 1957, he was appointed as the Japanese ambassador to the United States. He left the position in the winter of 1963, and was succeeded by Ry\u016bji Takeuchi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mori Arinori",
        "text": "Mori was the first Japanese ambassador to the United States, from 1871-1873. During his stay in the United States, he became very interested in western methods of education and western social institutions. On his return to Japan, he organized the Meirokusha, Japan's first modern intellectual society."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edwin Dun",
        "text": "After a visit to the United States in 1883\u201384, Dun was appointed the Second Secretary of the American Legation in Tokyo. In October 1883, Mrs. Dun (Tsuru) died. Dun considered resigning but at the end of the year married again, to a woman named Yama Takahira. Dun was later promoted to First Secretary. Finally in 1892, Dun was appointed as United States envoy to Japan, arriving back in Tokyo on July 14, 1893, serving in that post until July 2, 1897. During his tenure, the First Sino-Japanese War took place, and Dun made efforts to negotiate peace, using the American diplomatic service as a conduit for the Japanese and Chinese governments to send messages and conduct negotiations."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Richards Castle Jr.",
        "text": "Castle returned to his post of Assistant Secretary of State on May 27, 1930. The position of U.S. Ambassador to Japan remained vacant until William Cameron Forbes (1870\u20131959) presented his credentials on September 25, 1930."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "President Biden gave tribute to Mondale in a public statement, calling Mondale a \"dear friend and mentor\" that had \"defined the vice presidency as a full partnership, and helped provide a model for my service.\" On April 20, 2021, Biden ordered all flags at government properties, office buildings and public grounds to be flown at half-staff until that Tuesday evening in honor of Mondale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenneth R. Weinstein",
        "text": "On March 13, 2020, President Trump announced his intent to nominate Weinstein as the next U.S. Ambassador to Japan. Given Weinstein's policy expertise, his nomination received strong bipartisan support, including from the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, former Vice Presidents Walter Mondale and Dan Quayle, former Directors of National Intelligence Dan Coats and Dennis Blair, and former UN ambassador Nikki Haley, as well as noted Asia policy experts Kurt Campbell, Michael Green, and Joseph Nye. Weinstein was introduced at his Senate Foreign Relations Committee nomination hearing by former Senator Joseph Lieberman, who noted Weinstein \"has developed not only a great knowledge of [the] U.S.-Japanese relationship, but very deep friendships and trusting relationships within Japan, both in the government and in the business community.\" Weinstein's testimony focused on the strategic convergence between the U.S. and Japan in the Abe-Trump era, and on the need for increased defense and technological cooperation to meet the challenge posed by the People's Republic of China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roland Sletor Morris",
        "text": "Roland Sletor Morris (March 11, 1874 \u2013 November 23, 1945) was a U.S. diplomat and politician. He was the American ambassador to Japan from 1917 to 1920."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of ambassadors of the United States to Japan",
        "text": "Due to the significance of the relations between the two countries in recent years on trade and defense, with Japan being described by the United States State Department as \"the cornerstone of the U.S. security interests in Asia,\" the post has been held by many significant American politicians, including Mike Mansfield, Walter Mondale, Tom Foley and Howard Baker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aimaro Sat\u014d",
        "text": "Sat\u014d was then appointed Japanese Ambassador to the United States from 1916 to 1918, replacing his brother-in-law and fellow DePauw alumnus Chinda Sutemi. Sat\u014d was recalled from his post when he proved unable to secure a deal for the export of steel plates to Japan. He then retired from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and took up a post in the Imperial Household Ministry, serving as a privy councillor attached to the household of Prince Fushimi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Under Carter, Mondale traveled extensively throughout the nation and the world advocating the administration's foreign policy. His travels also included a visit to the , which was on station at the time in the Indian Ocean, during the Iran hostage crisis. Mondale was the first vice president to have an office in the White House and established the concept of an \"activist Vice President\". He began the tradition of weekly lunches with the president, which continues to this day. More importantly, he expanded the vice president's role from figurehead to presidential advisor, full-time participant, and troubleshooter for the administration. Subsequent vice presidents have followed this model. In 1979, Twin Cities Public Television produced a documentary about his trip to Norway, titled \"Walter Mondale: There's a Fjord in Your Past\", a play on the well-known advertising slogan \"There's a Ford in Your Future\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinda Sutemi",
        "text": "From 1890 to 1894, Chinda served as Japanese Consul in San Francisco, California. In 1897 Chinda was appointed first Japanese Minister Plenipotentiary to Brazil, following the establishment of diplomatic relations between the two states in 1895. He served as Japanese Ambassador to Germany from 1908 to 1911, to the United States from 1912 to 1916 and to the United Kingdom from 1916 to 1920, during which time he also took part in the Japanese delegation to the Paris Peace Conference, 1919."
      },
      {
        "title": "A. J. Witono",
        "text": "Witono became the Ambassador of Indonesia to Japan on 17 January 1976."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 2002, Democratic Senator Paul Wellstone from Minnesota, who was running for reelection, died in a plane crash 11 days before the November 5 election. Mondale replaced Wellstone on the ballot at the urging of Wellstone's relatives. The Senate seat was the one Mondale had held before resigning to become vice president in 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hiroshi Saito (diplomat)",
        "text": "was the Japanese ambassador to the United States from 1934 till his death in 1939."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Moore Allison",
        "text": "John Moore Allison (April 7, 1905 \u2013 October 28, 1978) was an American diplomat who served as the United States Ambassador to Japan from 1953 to 1957. From 1957 to 1958, he was Ambassador to Indonesia and from 1958 to 1960 to Czechoslovakia. In the 1960s and 1970s, he was a professor at the University of Hawaii."
      },
      {
        "title": "Katsuji Debuchi",
        "text": "was a Japanese diplomat who served as ambassador to the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter J. Stoessel Jr.",
        "text": "In 1981, while ambassador to West Germany, he joined the delegation, with Walter Mondale, greeting the U.S. hostages released by Iran when they deplaned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caroline Kennedy",
        "text": "On July 24, 2013, President Obama announced Kennedy as his nominee to be United States Ambassador to Japan to succeed Ambassador John Roos. The prospective nomination was first reported in February 2013 and, in mid-July 2013, formal diplomatic agreement to the appointment was reportedly received from the Japanese government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Grew",
        "text": "Joseph Clark Grew (May 27, 1880 \u2013 May 25, 1965) was an American career diplomat and Foreign Service officer. He is best known as the ambassador to Japan from 1932 to 1941 and as a high official in the State Department in Washington from 1944 to 1945. He opposed American hardliners, sought to avoid war, and helped to ensure the soft Japanese surrender in 1945 that enabled a peaceful American occupation of Japan after the war."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Shortly before the 1984 Democratic National Convention, Mondale chose Bert Lance to be his campaign's general chairman, and unsuccessfully attempted to remove Charles Manatt from his position as party chairman. Mondale and his campaign stopped their effort to oust Manatt in response to protests from party leaders. On Mondale's decisions, one anonymous Democratic Party aide told \"the New York Times\": \"It's a disaster. People are gulping hard. No one knows why he did it.\" His choice of Lance proved controversial because Lance had previously left his job in the Carter administration amid charges of bank fraud (of which he was later exonerated)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenkichi Yoshizawa",
        "text": "From 1941\u20131944, Yoshizawa served as Japanese ambassador to French Indochina. The posting was mostly symbolic, as by then mostly under Japanese military occupation. In August 1945, he became a member of the Privy Council."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hisashi Owada",
        "text": "In 1988, Owada was appointed Japanese ambassador to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in Paris. He served for a year before returning to Japan, working first as Deputy Minister and from 1991 to 1993 as Vice-Minister."
      },
      {
        "title": "Norman Tindale",
        "text": "He was instrumental in cracking the Japanese aircraft production code system, which gave the Allies reliable information as to Japanese air power. More importantly, he and his unit deciphered the Japanese master naval code."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haruki Mori",
        "text": "Following the reestablishment of diplomatic relations between the Japanese and the Italian governments in 1952, was appointed Counsellor of the Embassy in Italy. In the late 1960s he served as Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs, and in that capacity concluded the Japanese-OECD agreement that regulated OECD activities in Japan. In 1972, he was appointed Ambassador to the United Kingdom, and in that capacity signed on behalf of Japan the Brussels Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage and the London Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals. In 1977, he served as member of the Brandt Commission that was appointed under the chairmanship of former West German Prime Minister Willy Brandt to study world economic development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "In 1964, Walter Mondale replaced Hubert Humphrey as a U.S. Senator, serving until 1976, when Democratic presidential candidate Jimmy Carter selected him as his running-mate in his successful bid for the Presidency."
      },
      {
        "title": "George W. Guthrie",
        "text": "After leaving office, Guthrie was appointed United States Ambassador to Japan on May 20, 1913. He was accredited as special Ambassador and represented the President and the people of the United States at the funeral of Empress Sh\u014dken, the Dowager Empress of Japan, on April 7, 1914, and was the personal representative of President Wilson at the coronation of Emperor Taish\u014d of Japan on September 30, 1915. He died while at that post in Tokyo in 1917, after collapsing while playing golf with an American reporter. The Japanese government sent the armored cruiser to return his body to San Francisco as a mark of respect. He was vice president and Trustee of the Dollar Savings Bank of Pittsburgh, a Trustee of the University of Pittsburgh, a member of the Board of Managers of St. Margaret's Memorial Hospital and the Kingsley House Association, a member of the Greater Pittsburgh Chamber of Commerce, and the Pittsburgh and Duquesne Golf Clubs. He was internationally known for his activities in Masonic bodies and served as Past Grand Master of Pennsylvania Masons. He is buried in Allegheny Cemetery in Lawrenceville, PA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "When Jimmy Carter won the Democratic nomination for president in 1976, he chose Mondale as his running mate. Mondale campaigned for the ticket in various states. While campaigning in Toledo, Ohio he said that the country needed a strong president to stop inflation and added that President Gerald Ford did not have the guts to stand up to big businesses. The ticket was narrowly elected on November 2, 1976, and Mondale was inaugurated as Vice President of the United States on January 20, 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edgar Bancroft",
        "text": "President Calvin Coolidge named him Ambassador to Japan during a recess of the Senate on September 23, 1924. Ambassador Bancroft presented his credentials to the Japanese government on November 19, 1924. His appointment was subsequently confirmed by the Senate on January 21, 1925."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tom Foley",
        "text": "In 1997, Foley was appointed as the 25th U.S. Ambassador to Japan by President Bill Clinton, and was part of the US government response to the deaths of Japanese schoolchildren caused by a US submarine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 2004, Mondale became co-chairman of the Constitution Project's bipartisan Right to Counsel Committee. He endorsed Senator Hillary Clinton for president in 2008. On June 3, 2008, following the final primary contests, Mondale endorsed Senator Barack Obama, who had clinched the nomination the previous evening, and won the presidency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Clive (diplomat)",
        "text": "In 1935 he was appointed British Ambassador to Japan, a post he held until 1937."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kij\u016br\u014d Shidehara",
        "text": "In 1915, Shidehara was appointed Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs and continued in this position during five consecutive administrations. In 1919, he was named ambassador to the United States and was Japan's leading negotiator during the Washington Naval Conference. His negotiations led to the return of Jiaozhou Bay concession to China. However, while he was ambassador, the United States enacted discriminatory immigration laws against Japanese, which created much ill will in Japan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Wilford (diplomat)",
        "text": "In 1975 he became the British Ambassador to Japan, a role in which he served until his retirement in 1980."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wells Japanese Garden",
        "text": "On February 12, 2012 at 12:12 the City of Newberry met with Senior Curator of The Presidential Service Museum, Martin CJ Mongiello, to accept a gift of a Matsu (pine) tree. Mongiello lived in Japan for many years and remembered visiting where President George H. W. Bush and Ulysses S. Grant each planted a Pine tree at the Tokyo famed Zojoji Temple. City officials at the meeting were Matt DeWitt and Jeff Shacker. Doctor Jerry Livingston, a local resident and former missionary in Japan of 40 years visited at 2:12 on the 12th to be introduced to the garden for the first time."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Cameron Forbes",
        "text": "Forbes was nominated by President Hoover and confirmed as United States Ambassador to Japan. He served from 1930 to 1932."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale ran a liberal campaign, supporting a nuclear freeze and the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). He spoke against Reagan's economic policies and in support of reducing federal budget deficits. But the incumbent was popular and Mondale's campaign was widely considered ineffective. Mondale was also perceived as supporting the poor at the expense of the middle class. In the first televised debate, Mondale performed unexpectedly well, which led many to question Reagan's age and capacity to endure the grueling demands of the presidency (Reagan was the oldest person to serve as president\u201473 at the time\u2014while Mondale was 56). In the next debate on October 21, 1984, Reagan deflected the issue by quipping, \"I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Nobuhiko Ushiba",
        "text": "Ushiba's term as ambassador was tumultuous. He himself believed that the fundamental relationship between Japan and the United States was changing. Although the relationship remained exceptionally strong, in the past Japan had asked the United States to do things for it. Now, Ushiba felt, Japan was in a position to do much more economically for developing nations in Southeast Asia, and was being asked to do favors for the United States economically (such as permit more imports and lower trade barriers). Ushiba also had to handle the fallout from several major American foreign policy decisions. As \"The Washington Post\" put it: Ushiba's ambassadorship \"is remembered as a tumultuous time in the two countries' relations, due to the two 'Nixon shocks' \u2014 detente with China and the devaluation of the dollar.\" A treaty ending the American military occupation of Okinawa was signed by him in June 1971. But despite an agreement to permit additional U.S.-made textiles to be sold in Japan (signed in January 1972) as well as a general Japanese willingness to lower trade barriers and assist American companies in gaining market share, the Nixon administration imposed stringent new restrictions on imports despite Ushiba's pleas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Matsui Keishir\u014d",
        "text": "During the First World War, served as Japanese Ambassador to France and was a plenipotentiary at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. On the successful completion of this mission, he was awarded with the title of baron (\"danshaku\") under the \"kazoku\" peerage system. He served as Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs from January 7 to June 11, 1924, under the administration of Kiyoura Keigo and was also appointed a member of the House of Peers in the Diet of Japan. He later served as Ambassador to the United Kingdom in 1925\u20131928. In 1938, he became a member of the Privy Council."
      },
      {
        "title": "Claude Corea",
        "text": "President Reagan made reference to this at the welcoming ceremony for President J. R. Jayewardene on the White House Lawn on 18 June 1984. He said \"understanding and appreciating your personal commitment to democratic ideals, Mr. President, it is a pleasure for us to have you as our guest. You underscored this heartfelt commitment during your first visit here in September 1951, during a gathering of the representatives of nations who had fought in the Pacific war. Some at that San Francisco conference insisted that Japan should not be given its full freedom. They argued that Japan should remain shackled as a punishment for its role in World War II. As the representative of Sri Lanka, you spoke out for the principle of freedom for all people, including the Japanese. You quoted Buddha, the great teacher, and said that \"hatred ceases not by hatred, but by love.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Katsunosuke Inoue",
        "text": "He was Japan's ambassador in Germany (1906-1908), in Chile (1910\u20131913) and in the United Kingdom in 1913-1916."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kunihiko Sait\u014d",
        "text": "He was ambassador to the United States from 1995 until 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Masatoshi Muto",
        "text": "In August 2010, Muto became the Japanese ambassador to South Korea. He was briefly recalled by the Japanese government in protest of an August 2012 visit by the South Korean president to the Liancourt Rocks, which Japan claims but South Korea controls and administers. He eventually returned to his post. Muto's successor, , was nominated in September 2012, and Muto left the post in October 2012. Muto's posting to South Korea was his last official diplomatic position; he has since retired from diplomatic work and now works as a diplomatic analyst and critic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Douglas MacArthur II",
        "text": "MacArthur was appointed as U.S. Ambassador to Japan in December 1956, and presented his credentials in February 1957."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kinjiro Matsudaira",
        "text": "In 1925, Matsudaira sent a letter to the Embassy of Japan in Washington, D.C., asking whether he was related to Tsuneo Matsudaira, the Japanese Ambassador to the United States at the time. He was elected as the mayor of Edmonston, Maryland, in the summer of 1927. Although the election was reportedly recalled due to the Immigration Act of 1924, which prohibited Japanese immigration to the United States, the election reportedly made him the first Japanese American mayor in the United States. Matsudaira was re-elected as mayor of Edmonston in 1943."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morio Yukawa",
        "text": "Yukawa served in the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs during World War II and took part in the Japanese official delegation that met US General Douglas MacArthur in Manila on August 19, 1945, in order to make arrangements for the Japanese surrender. During the 1950s, he served as head of Economic Affairs Bureau in the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and in that capacity tried to negotiate his country's accession to GATT. He represented Japan at the UNESCO General Session in 1953. Later, he served as Ambassador to the Philippines, and in that capacity concluded the Treaty of Amity of December 9, 1960. Afterwards he served as Head of Mission to the EEC in 1964\u20131968 and Ambassador to the United Kingdom in 1968-1972. In 1972\u20131979, Yukawa served as Grand Master of Ceremonies of the Imperial Household Agency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hisashi Owada",
        "text": "From 1994 to 1998, he served as Japanese ambassador to the United Nations, where he served twice as United Nations Security Council President."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mineichir\u014d Adachi",
        "text": "From 1920 to 1927, he served as Ambassador to Belgium, and in 1927\u20131930 he was Ambassador to France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neil Walter",
        "text": "Walter was New Zealand's Ambassador to Indonesia from 1990\u20131994, and served as New Zealand's Ambassador to Japan from 1997\u20131999. In 1999, Walter became Secretary of the New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs, until his retirement from the diplomatic service in 2002. He was one of three people to address the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization, 10th Meeting, June 23, 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party vice presidential nomination, 1980:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wellington Koo",
        "text": "As an young diplomat, Koo was strongly opposed to the acceptance of the Japanese demands. Koo had become close to President Woodrow Wilson, whom invited him to visit the White House, where he was given to understand that the United States would support China's demands regarding the Shandong against Japan at the Paris peace conference. Wilson asked for Koo to attend the peace conference in Paris, and moreover Koo travelled on the same ship that took Wilson and the rest of the American delegation to France in December 1918.. The Canadian historian Margaret MacMillan wrote: \"Koo, who was only thirty-two in 1919, was a forceful and distinguished personality...At Columbia University, in New York, where he earned an undergraduate and graduate degree, he had been an outstanding student...He had also been on the university debating team, as the Japanese delegates would learn to their cost\".."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caroline Kennedy",
        "text": "Kennedy resigned as the United States Ambassador to Japan shortly before Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th President of the United States. She formally left Japan as Ambassador on January 18, 2017. In recognition of her service, Kennedy was awarded Japan's Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edwin O. Reischauer",
        "text": "Reischauer became involved in helping create US policy toward East Asia during and after World War II. President John F. Kennedy appointed Reischauer as the United States Ambassador to Japan, where he served from 1961 to 1966. Reischauer founded the Japan Institute at Harvard University in 1973 and was its founding director. It was later named for him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale became involved in national politics in the 1940s. At age 20, he was visible in Minnesota politics by helping organize Hubert Humphrey's successful Senate campaign in 1948. Humphrey's campaign assigned Mondale to cover the staunchly Republican 2nd district. Mondale, who had grown up in the region, was able to win the district for Humphrey by a comfortable margin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party vice presidential nomination, 1976:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles MacVeagh",
        "text": "President Calvin Coolidge named him Ambassador to Japan. He was commissioned Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary on September 24, 1925 during a recess of the Senate. He was recommissioned after his confirmation by the Senate on December 17, 1925. Ambassador MacVeagh presented his credentials to the Japanese government on December 9, 1925 and served until December 6, 1928."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roberto Benedicto",
        "text": "Benedicto's appointment as Japanese ambassador allowed him to develop high-level contacts in Japan. He secured more than M in World War\u00a0II reparations, which he allegedly used to promote his private interests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party presidential nomination, 1984:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Kentucky",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim Jones",
        "text": "Through his connections with California politicians, Jones was also able to establish contacts with key national political figures. Jones and Moscone met privately with vice presidential candidate Walter Mondale on his campaign plane days before the 1976 election, leading Mondale to publicly praise the Temple."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hugh S. Gibson",
        "text": "As reported by Hugh Wilson, who was in on the plot, Gibson, together with the members of his delegation strode into the room with solemn faces and addressed the press \"somewhat as follows\" that \"I have a very serious communication to make to you today\" (all the journalists begin taking notes). The American delegation finds itself in a critical situation and I want to appeal to the American correspondents for that same backing and sympathy which they have heretofore shown us so abundantly. I want to appeal to the sense of fair play and justice of the correspondents of other nations who are here present. (You could have heard a pin drop.) I have just received from the Japanese Delegation a proposal. It is perhaps somewhat difficult to explain so I think that the best course for me to pursue is to treat you with the utmost frankness and to read the proposal to you."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ernest Mason Satow",
        "text": "Satow did not have the good fortune to be named the first British Ambassador to Japan - the honour was instead bestowed on his successor Sir Claude Maxwell MacDonald in 1905."
      },
      {
        "title": "1976 Democratic National Convention",
        "text": "In his acceptance speech, Mondale diverted from his printed text which echoed John F. Kennedy's call to \"get the country moving again;\" Mondale instead said, \"Let's get this government moving again!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party presidential nomination, 1972:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in North Dakota",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did Walter Mondale do after his presidential run?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mondale did a number of things, he joined Dorsey & Whitney and the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs. He was the U. S. Ambassador to Japan, and was the last minute choice for the Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party to run for Senate, before losing and returning to Dorsey & Whitney and a part time teaching job at University of Minnesota's Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did Mondale do at Dorsey & Whitney?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mondale returned to private law practice with Dorsey & Whitney in Minneapolis in 1987."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did he do next after he finished working at Dorsey & Whitney?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "From 1986 to 1993, he chaired the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs. During Bill Clinton's presidency, he was United States Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, chaired a bipartisan group to study campaign finance reform, and was Clinton's special envoy to Indonesia in 1998."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did Mondale do anything noteworthy as Ambassador to Japan?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information.",
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
    ],
    "topic": "Walter Mondale",
    "ground_truth_ctx": []
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale returned to private law practice with Dorsey & Whitney in Minneapolis in 1987. From 1986 to 1993, he chaired the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs. During Bill Clinton's presidency, he was United States Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, chaired a bipartisan group to study campaign finance reform, and was Clinton's special envoy to Indonesia in 1998."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Until his appointment as Ambassador to Japan, Mondale was a Distinguished University Fellow in Law and Public Affairs at the Hubert H. Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs at the University of Minnesota. In 1990, he established the Mondale Policy Forum at the Humphrey Institute. The forum has brought together leading scholars and policymakers for annual conferences on domestic and international issues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "Walter Mondale lost the election, and the Mondales returned to Minnesota, where they lived until his term as U.S. Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, after which he resumed his Minneapolis-based law practice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "As the U.S. Ambassador's wife in Japan, she enthusiastically promoted inter-cultural understanding through art, redecorating the Embassy with American paintings and organising tours with a bi-lingual guide. She studied Japanese art, and impressed the Mayor of Kyoto by presenting him with a ceramic bowl she had made herself in the traditional Mashiko style."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "After his defeat, Mondale joined the Minnesota-based law firm Dorsey & Whitney and the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (1986\u20131993). President Bill Clinton appointed Mondale U.S. Ambassador to Japan in 1993; he retired from that post in 1996. In 2002, Mondale became the last-minute choice of the Minnesota Democratic\u2013Farmer\u2013Labor Party to run for Senate after Democratic Senator Paul Wellstone died in a plane crash less than two weeks before the election. Mondale narrowly lost the race to Saint Paul mayor Norm Coleman. He then returned to working at Dorsey & Whitney and remained active in the Democratic Party. Mondale later took up a part-time teaching position at the University of Minnesota's Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard Holbrooke",
        "text": "In 1993, after Bill Clinton became President, Holbrooke was initially slated to be Ambassador to Japan due to his depth of knowledge and long experience in Asian affairs. However, this appointment eventually went to former Vice President Walter Mondale, and Holbrooke unexpectedly was appointed Ambassador to Germany. In 1992, Holbrooke was also a member of the Carnegie Commission on America and a Changing World and Chairman and principal author of the bipartisan Commission on Government and Renewal, sponsored by the Carnegie Foundation and the Peterson Institute. He was Chairman and principal author of the \"Memo to the President-Elect: Harnessing Process to Purpose,\" a blue-ribbon Commission report sponsored by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and the Institute for International Economics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Morihiro Hosokawa",
        "text": "Walter Mondale, then the US ambassador to Japan, characterized Hosokawa as having a \"Kennedy-esque\" ability to focus on ideals; nonetheless, Hosokawa's coalition had no common ideas other than their opposition to the LDP, which undermined Hosokawa throughout his term as prime minister. He was also at odds with Japan's bureaucracy, which he sought to reform after decades of bureaucratic entrenchment under the LDP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 1972, Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern offered Mondale an opportunity to be his vice-presidential running mate. Mondale declined. That year, Mondale was re-elected to the Senate with over 57% of the vote, even as Republican President Richard Nixon carried Minnesota. He served in the 88th, 89th, 90th, 91st, 92nd, 93rd, and 94th congresses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "When Jimmy Carter won the Democratic nomination for president in 1976, he chose Mondale as his running mate. Mondale campaigned for the ticket in various states. While campaigning in Toledo, Ohio he said that the country needed a strong president to stop inflation and added that President Gerald Ford did not have the guts to stand up to big businesses. The ticket was narrowly elected on November 2, 1976, and Mondale was inaugurated as Vice President of the United States on January 20, 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale had deep connections to his ancestral Norway. Upon entering the Senate in 1964, he took over the seat of vice president Hubert Humphrey, another Norwegian-American. In later years, Mondale served on the executive committee of the Peace Prize Forum, an annual conference co-sponsored by the Norwegian Nobel Institute. On December 5, 2007, Norwegian Minister of Foreign Affairs Jonas Gahr St\u00f8re announced that Mondale would be named Honorary Consul-General of Norway, representing the Norwegian state in Minnesota."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Walter Frederick \"Fritz\" Mondale (January 5, 1928 \u2013 April 19, 2021) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 42nd vice president of the United States from 1977 to 1981 under President Jimmy Carter. A U.S. senator from Minnesota from 1964 to 1976, he was the Democratic Party's nominee in the 1984 presidential election, but lost to incumbent Ronald Reagan in an Electoral College and popular vote landslide. Reagan won 49 states while Mondale carried his home state of Minnesota and the District of Columbia. His vice presidential nominee, U.S. Representative Geraldine Ferraro from New York, was the first female vice-presidential nominee of any major party in U.S. history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Under Carter, Mondale traveled extensively throughout the nation and the world advocating the administration's foreign policy. His travels also included a visit to the , which was on station at the time in the Indian Ocean, during the Iran hostage crisis. Mondale was the first vice president to have an office in the White House and established the concept of an \"activist Vice President\". He began the tradition of weekly lunches with the president, which continues to this day. More importantly, he expanded the vice president's role from figurehead to presidential advisor, full-time participant, and troubleshooter for the administration. Subsequent vice presidents have followed this model. In 1979, Twin Cities Public Television produced a documentary about his trip to Norway, titled \"Walter Mondale: There's a Fjord in Your Past\", a play on the well-known advertising slogan \"There's a Ford in Your Future\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter J. Stoessel Jr.",
        "text": "In 1981, while ambassador to West Germany, he joined the delegation, with Walter Mondale, greeting the U.S. hostages released by Iran when they deplaned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 2004, Mondale became co-chairman of the Constitution Project's bipartisan Right to Counsel Committee. He endorsed Senator Hillary Clinton for president in 2008. On June 3, 2008, following the final primary contests, Mondale endorsed Senator Barack Obama, who had clinched the nomination the previous evening, and won the presidency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Walter Mondale\n--Early life.\n--Entry into politics.\n--U.S. Senator.\n----Policies.\n----Committees.\n----Apollo 1 accident (1967).\n--Vice presidency (1977\u20131981).\n----1980 election.\n--Post-vice presidency (1981\u20132021).\n----1984 presidential campaign.\n----Private citizen and ambassador.\n----2002 U.S. Senate election and beyond.\n--Family and personal life.\n--Death.\n--Records.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "She was the author of \"Letters From Japan\", a collection of essays about life overseas published in 1998."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "A former United States Senator from Minnesota, Mondale considered running for the Democratic nomination in the 1976 presidential election, but he dropped out of the race on November 21, 1974, after having built a campaign for two years. When he dropped out, he said that he felt he lacked \"the overwhelming desire to be President\" and wanted to avoid \"sleeping in Holiday Inns.\" In 1976, Jimmy Carter won the presidential election, with Mondale as his running mate. Mondale served as vice president under Carter from 1977 to 1981. In January 1981, shortly before Mondale left office as vice president, CBS News reported that he had decided to run for president in 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neil Walter",
        "text": "Walter was New Zealand's Ambassador to Indonesia from 1990\u20131994, and served as New Zealand's Ambassador to Japan from 1997\u20131999. In 1999, Walter became Secretary of the New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs, until his retirement from the diplomatic service in 2002. He was one of three people to address the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization, 10th Meeting, June 23, 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "President Biden gave tribute to Mondale in a public statement, calling Mondale a \"dear friend and mentor\" that had \"defined the vice presidency as a full partnership, and helped provide a model for my service.\" On April 20, 2021, Biden ordered all flags at government properties, office buildings and public grounds to be flown at half-staff until that Tuesday evening in honor of Mondale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "During Lyndon Johnson's presidency, Mondale supported the Vietnam War. After Nixon became president in 1969, Mondale began to oppose the war and participated in legislation to restrict Nixon's ability to prolong it. Mondale supported abortion rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "During the general election, over a dozen political professionals doubted whether Mondale was appealing enough as a person to win the election and questioned his decision to spend considerable time campaigning in states that he had almost no chance of winning. Some of these professionals also told \"the New York Times\" that they were \"amazed\" at the sloppy preparation the campaign put into organizing events. In October 1984, shortly before the election, Mondale attempted to focus on trying to win California. That effort included spending over $3 million on television advertising there and flying Mondale in for a rally shortly thereafter. That was part of his strategy to try to win at least one big Sun Belt state."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 1976, Jimmy Carter, the Democratic presidential nominee, chose Mondale as his vice-presidential running mate. The Carter\u2013Mondale ticket defeated incumbent president Gerald Ford and his running mate, Bob Dole. Carter and Mondale's time in office was marred by a worsening economy and they lost the 1980 election to Republicans Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush. In 1984, Mondale won the Democratic presidential nomination and campaigned for a nuclear freeze, the Equal Rights Amendment, an increase in taxes, and a reduction of U.S. public debt. Mondale and Ferraro lost the election to the incumbents Reagan and Bush."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rust Macpherson Deming",
        "text": "Deming joined the State Department in 1966 as a political officer in the United States Embassy in Tunis, Tunisia. He spent much of his career dealing with Japanese affairs, having served in Japan as Charg\u00e9 d'Affaires, ad interim, from December 1996 to September 1997 and as Deputy Chief of Mission under Ambassador Walter Mondale from October 1993 to December 1996. From September 1991 to August 1993, he was Director of the Office of Japanese Affairs in Washington, DC. He served as Minister Counselor for Political Affairs at the American Embassy in Tokyo from August 1987 to July 1991. From 1985 to 1986, he was detailed to the National War College in Washington, DC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Mondale officially accepted the Democratic Party's nomination at the 1984 Democratic National Convention. He delivered his acceptance speech on the night of July 19, 1984, climaxing that year's convention. During the speech, Mondale controversially vowed to raise taxes but claimed that Reagan would also do so: \"He won't tell you. I just did.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Mario Cuomo",
        "text": "Cuomo actively campaigned for Walter Mondale in the 1984 presidential election, and was named on Mondale's list of vice presidential candidates. Geraldine Ferraro was ultimately nominated as his running mate, but Cuomo was chosen to give the keynote speech at the 1984 Democratic National Convention in San Francisco. He vigorously attacked Ronald Reagan's record and policies in his \"Tale of Two Cities\" speech that brought him to national attention, most memorably saying: \"There is despair, Mr. President, in the faces that you don't see, in the places that you don't visit, in your shining city.\" He was immediately considered one of the frontrunners for the Democratic nomination for president in 1988 and 1992."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "In 1964, Walter Mondale replaced Hubert Humphrey as a U.S. Senator, serving until 1976, when Democratic presidential candidate Jimmy Carter selected him as his running-mate in his successful bid for the Presidency."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Hawaii",
        "text": "Walter Mondale accepted the Democratic nomination for presidency after pulling narrowly ahead of Senator Gary Hart of Colorado and Rev. Jesse Jackson of Illinois - his main contenders during what would be a very contentious Democratic primary. During the campaign, Mondale was vocal about reduction of government spending, and, in particular, was vocal against heightened military spending on the nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union, which was reaching its peak on both sides in the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 Democratic Party vice presidential candidate selection",
        "text": "This article lists those who were potential candidates for the Democratic nomination for Vice President of the United States in the 1984 election. Former Vice President Walter Mondale won the 1984 Democratic nomination for President of the United States, and chose New York Representative Geraldine Ferraro as his running mate. Ferraro was the first woman to be a part of a national ticket for a major party. Mondale chose Ferraro in hopes of energizing the base and winning the votes of women, but also because he viewed her as a solid legislator who had won the approval of Speaker Tip O'Neill. John R. Reilly, an attorney and a senior adviser to Mondale, managed the search for a running mate. Mondale seriously considered his major rival for the 1984 presidential nomination, Senator Gary Hart, but Mondale refused to consider a second rival, Jesse Jackson, on the grounds that the differences between their policies were too great. The Mondale\u2013Ferraro ticket ultimately lost to the Reagan\u2013Bush ticket. This is the last time the Democratic vice presidential nominee was not the incumbent vice president or a Senator, and, not counting the times when the incumbent President (and by extension, the incumbent vice president) was running for re-election, the last time the Democratic vice presidential nominee was not a Senator."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election",
        "text": "Mondale had wanted to choose New York Governor Mario Cuomo as his running mate, but Cuomo declined and recommended Ferraro, his prot\u00e9g\u00e9e. Mondale might have named Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis as his running mate had he wanted to make a \"safe\" choice\", while others preferred Senator Lloyd Bentsen because he would appeal to more conservative Southern voters. Nomination rival Gary Hart stated before Ferraro's selection that he would accept an invitation to run with Mondale; Hart's supporters claimed he would do better than Mondale against President Reagan, an argument undercut by a June 1984 Gallup poll that showed both men nine points behind the president."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party vice presidential nomination, 1976:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tom Foley",
        "text": "In 1997, Foley was appointed as the 25th U.S. Ambassador to Japan by President Bill Clinton, and was part of the US government response to the deaths of Japanese schoolchildren caused by a US submarine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party vice presidential nomination, 1980:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Mondale picked three-term Congresswoman Geraldine Ferraro to be his running mate on July 12, 1984, making her the first woman nominated for president or vice president by a major U.S. political party. The pick was intended to energize Mondale's campaign, which it did at first. This effect proved short-lived, however, as it was soon overshadowed by a scandal involving Ferraro's and her husband's finances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yogi Supardi",
        "text": "After his retirement from the military, Yogi became the Indonesia ambassador to Japan on 31 August 1987. He served as ambassador for four years until he was replaced by 16 May 1991 by Poedji Koentarso."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "When Mondale made his acceptance speech at the Democratic Convention, he said: \"By the end of my first term, I will reduce the Reagan budget deficit by two\u2011thirds. Let's tell the truth. It must be done, it must be done. Mr. Reagan will raise taxes, and so will I. He won't tell you. I just did.\" While this was meant to show that Mondale would be honest with voters, it was instead largely interpreted as a campaign pledge to raise taxes to spend on domestic programs, which was unappealing to many voters."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election",
        "text": "Mondale's nomination marked the second time since the nomination of former Governor of Georgia Jimmy Carter in 1976 and the fourth time since the nomination of former Representative John W. Davis in 1924 that the Democratic Party nominated a private citizen for President (i.e., not serving in an official government role at the time of the nomination and election). Mondale was the last private citizen to be nominated for president by the Democratic Party until former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton in 2016. Mondale was also the last former vice president to be nominated for president by the Democratic Party after leaving office until Joe Biden in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Melih Esenbel",
        "text": "Esenbel's next foreign position took him to Tokyo, Japan, where he acted as ambassador from January 1, 1963 to January 1, 1966. On January 9, 1967, he was appointed the second time to the Embassy in the USA serving at this post until November 1, 1974."
      },
      {
        "title": "Douglas J. Bennet",
        "text": "He was an assistant to Ambassador to India Chester Bowles in the 1960s."
      },
      {
        "title": "A. J. Witono",
        "text": "Witono became the Ambassador of Indonesia to Japan on 17 January 1976."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Hawaii",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Cameron Monjo",
        "text": "John Cameron Monjo (born July 17, 1931) is an American diplomat who served as the United States Ambassador to Malaysia from 1987 to 1989, the United States Ambassador to Indonesia from 1989 to 1992 and the United States Ambassador to Pakistan from 1992 to 1995."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale worked hard to build up the center of the party on economic and social issues. Unlike his father, a fervent liberal, he was not a crusader for the New Deal. Instead, he realized that the Democratic base (especially ethnic blue-collar workers) was gradually moving to the right, and he worked to keep their support. Mondale showed little or no interest in foreign policy until about 1974, when he realized that some foreign policy knowledge was necessary if he had loftier aspirations than the Senate. He developed a centrist position, avoiding alignment with either the party's hawks (such as Henry M. Jackson) or its doves (such as McGovern). Mondale took a liberal position on civil rights, which proved acceptable in Minnesota, a state with \"a minuscule black population\". Mondale was a chief sponsor of the federal Fair Housing Act, which prohibits discrimination in housing and created HUD's Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity as the primary enforcer of the law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Shortly before the 1984 Democratic National Convention, Mondale chose Bert Lance to be his campaign's general chairman, and unsuccessfully attempted to remove Charles Manatt from his position as party chairman. Mondale and his campaign stopped their effort to oust Manatt in response to protests from party leaders. On Mondale's decisions, one anonymous Democratic Party aide told \"the New York Times\": \"It's a disaster. People are gulping hard. No one knows why he did it.\" His choice of Lance proved controversial because Lance had previously left his job in the Carter administration amid charges of bank fraud (of which he was later exonerated)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nancy Soderberg",
        "text": "Albright got her a job counting delegates for Walter Mondale's campaign from 1983 to 1984 ahead of the 1984 presidential election, which he lost. She served as foreign policy advisor to Senator Edward M. Kennedy in the U.S. Senate from 1985 to 1988 and 1989 to 1992. (She took a small break to work as the deputy issues director for foreign policy for the Dukakis campaign ahead of the 1988 presidential election.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party presidential nomination, 1972:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geraldine Ferraro",
        "text": "In 1984, former vice president and presidential candidate Walter Mondale, seen as an underdog, selected Ferraro to be his running mate in the upcoming election. In doing so Ferraro also became the first widely recognized Italian American to be a major-party national nominee. The positive polling the Mondale-Ferraro ticket received when she joined soon faded, as damaging questions arose about her and her businessman husband's finances and wealth and her Congressional disclosure statements. In the general election, Mondale and Ferraro were defeated in a landslide by incumbent President Ronald Reagan and Vice President George H. W. Bush."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harry Johnston (American politician)",
        "text": "In 1999 President Bill Clinton appointed him to serve as the United States Special Envoy for Sudan. A position he held until 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "J. Peter Grace",
        "text": "Grace, a Democrat, was asked what he would say to the campaign theme of Walter Mondale, the 1984 Democratic Presidential candidate, that higher taxes would be required to ease the deficit regardless of who wins the November election."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Shortly before the general election, Mondale defended his choice of Ferraro as his running mate against Reagan, who had recently said that her nomination was not a major breaking point. Mondale replied that he chose Ferraro \"because she's the best,\" adding that \"She is far better prepared for her position than Mr. Reagan was when he was elected president of the United States.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard Moe",
        "text": "He left the party in 1972 to work as an administrative assistant to Senator Walter Mondale. In 1977, Moe served as Chief of Staff to the Vice President of the United States during Walter Mondale's term. He later served on Mondale's presidential campaign team in 1984. Moe also worked on Dick Gephardt's presidential bid (1988) and the Michael Dukakis 1988 presidential campaign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party presidential nomination, 1984:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert E. Fritts",
        "text": "When nominated to be Ambassador to Rwanda, he was serving as Deputy Chief of Mission in Khartoum, Sudan, where he \u201carrived ... the day of the murder of Ambassador Noel and DCM George Curtis Moore and distinguished himself in the handling of the difficult situation there in the aftermath of the assassinations.\u201d His resume includes International Relations Officer in the Bureau of European Affairs, Economic-Commercial Officer, Luxembourg followed by Japanese Language and Area Studies at the Foreign Service Institute. He went on to posts as Economic Officer in Tokyo, Economic/Commercial Officer, Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, and Deputy Director, office of Japanese Affairs, Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs. He was assigned to Jakarta, Indonesia, as Economic/Commercial Officer and in 1973 became Deputy Chief of Mission, Khartoum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "Out of office during Ronald Reagan's first term as president, Walter Mondale won the Democratic presidential nomination in 1984. As a prospective First Lady, Joan Mondale told Maureen Dowd of \"The New York Times\" that she would not talk about recipes or clothes during the campaign, but when her husband's political opponents took issue with this, costing him votes, she published \"The Mondale Family Cookbook\", with recipes including Fettucine \u00e0 la Pimento Mondale, and declared that she was a \"traditional wife and mother and supporter\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lloyd Bentsen",
        "text": "Bentsen was on Walter Mondale's short list of seven or eight possible vice presidential candidates in 1984 and was the only southerner and one of three white males considered. In the end, Mondale chose New York U.S. Representative Geraldine Ferraro as his running mate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ronald Reagan * and George H. W. Bush * (R)Popular vote: 54,455,472 (58.77%) Electoral votes: 525 (97.58%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party presidential nomination, 1980:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 Democratic National Convention",
        "text": "New York Governor Mario Cuomo gave a well-received keynote speech. Mondale's major rivals for the presidential nomination, Senator Gary Hart and Rev. Jesse Jackson, also gave speeches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard Holbrooke",
        "text": "Richard Holbrooke\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n----Foreign Service (1962\u20131969).\n----Peace Corps and \"Foreign Policy\" (1970\u20131976).\n----Carter Administration (1977\u20131981).\n----East Timor controversy.\n----Wall Street years (1981\u20131993).\n----U.S. Ambassador to Germany (1993\u20131994).\n----Assistant Secretary of State for European and Eurasian Affairs (1994\u20131996).\n----Balkan envoy (1996\u20131999).\n----U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations (1999\u20132001).\n------GBCHealth.\n----Hillary Clinton's 2008 presidential campaign.\n----Special representative for Afghanistan and Pakistan (2009\u20132010).\n----Other activities.\n--Positions.\n--Personal life.\n--Death.\n--Legacy.\n--Recognition.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 Democratic Party presidential primaries",
        "text": "Aides later said that Mondale was determined to establish a precedent with his vice presidential candidate, considering San Francisco Mayor (Later U.S. Senator) Dianne Feinstein and Governor of Kentucky Martha Layne Collins, who were also female; Los Angeles Mayor Tom Bradley, an African American; and San Antonio Mayor Henry Cisneros, a Hispanic, as other finalists for the nomination. Unsuccessful nomination candidate Jackson derided Mondale's vice-presidential screening process as a \"P.R. parade of personalities\"; however, he praised Mondale for his choice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Super Tuesday",
        "text": "Mondale secured the majority of delegates from the primaries, leading the way for him to take the Democratic nomination. In the 1984 Republican Party primaries, incumbent President Ronald Reagan was the only candidate to secure delegates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale ran a liberal campaign, supporting a nuclear freeze and the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). He spoke against Reagan's economic policies and in support of reducing federal budget deficits. But the incumbent was popular and Mondale's campaign was widely considered ineffective. Mondale was also perceived as supporting the poor at the expense of the middle class. In the first televised debate, Mondale performed unexpectedly well, which led many to question Reagan's age and capacity to endure the grueling demands of the presidency (Reagan was the oldest person to serve as president\u201473 at the time\u2014while Mondale was 56). In the next debate on October 21, 1984, Reagan deflected the issue by quipping, \"I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Geraldine Ferraro",
        "text": "Mondale selected Ferraro to be his vice-presidential candidate on , 1984. She stated, \"I am absolutely thrilled.\" The Mondale campaign hoped that her selection would change a campaign in which he was well behind; in addition to attracting women, they hoped she could attract ethnic Democrats in the Northeast U.S. who had abandoned their party for Reagan in 1980. Her personality, variously described as blunt, feisty, spirited, and somewhat saucy, was also viewed as an asset. In turn, Mondale accepted the risk that came with her inexperience."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Writing in \"the Washington Post\" in March 1985, Mark Shields argued, \"The single, biggest mistake made by candidate Mondale and his campaign was the failure to endorse and to embrace the Fair Tax plan of Sen. Bill Bradley (D-N.J.) and Rep. Dick Gephardt (D-Mo.).\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenzo Oshima",
        "text": "Before his appointment as Ambassador to the UN, he was the Ambassador of Japan to Australia from September 2003 to December 2004. In mid-January 2001, Secretary-General Kofi Annan appointed him head of the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. Prior to this, he was Secretary-General of the Secretariat for International Peace Cooperation Headquarters in the Office of the Prime Minister of Japan, where he oversaw Japan's peacekeeping and humanitarian assistance program. During his early diplomatic career he was posted abroad to France, India, Australia, and the Permanent Mission of Japan to the United Nations headquarters in New York City."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ralph L. Boyce",
        "text": "Boyce was Deputy Assistant Secretary for East Asia and Pacific Affairs from August 1998 to July 2001. His area of responsibility included Southeast Asia, Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands. He served as United States Ambassador to Indonesia from October 2001 to October 2004."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 2002, Democratic Senator Paul Wellstone from Minnesota, who was running for reelection, died in a plane crash 11 days before the November 5 election. Mondale replaced Wellstone on the ballot at the urging of Wellstone's relatives. The Senate seat was the one Mondale had held before resigning to become vice president in 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maxine Isaacs",
        "text": "Mondale was elected as vice president in the 1976 presidential election, and Isaacs became his deputy press secretary in the White House. Isaacs often traveled with the Vice President as he went on diplomatic missions around the world. In the 1980 reelection campaign for Mondale and Carter, she served as traveling press secretary in a campaign which accumulated more than 200,000 miles (320,000 kilometers) of travel between September 1979 and November 1980. The Carter ticket lost the 1980 presidential election."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steven J. Green",
        "text": "appointee of President Bill Clinton, he stayed on as Ambassador during the early days of the"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in South Dakota",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kunihiko Sait\u014d",
        "text": "He was ambassador to the United States from 1995 until 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale, who served as the 42nd vice president of the United States (1977\u20131981); as a United States senator from Minnesota (1964\u20131976), and as the 23rd attorney general of Minnesota (1960\u20131964)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rawdon Dalrymple",
        "text": "Dalrymple joined the Department of External Affairs in 1957. He went on to appointments as Ambassador to Israel (1972\u20131975), Ambassador to Indonesia (1981\u20131985), Ambassador to the United States (1985\u20131989) and Ambassador to Japan (1989\u20131993)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 1975, Mondale served on the Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, chaired by Idaho Senator Frank Church, that investigated alleged abuses by the Central Intelligence Agency and the Federal Bureau of Investigation."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election",
        "text": "Mondale ran a liberal campaign, supporting a nuclear freeze and the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). He spoke against what he considered to be unfairness in Reagan's economic policies and the need to reduce federal budget deficits."
      },
      {
        "title": "David L. Aaron",
        "text": "Aaron was involved in the election campaigns of Walter Mondale and Bill Clinton. In Mondale's campaign, Aaron played a leading role as senior consultant on foreign policy and defense. Aaron served in Clinton's foreign policy team during his election campaign."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale rotated on and off numerous committees, including the Aeronautical and Space Sciences Committee; the Finance Committee; the Labor and Public Welfare Committee; the Budget Committee; and the Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs Committee. He also served as chairman of the Select Committee on Equal Education Opportunity and the Intelligence Committee's Domestic Task Force. He additionally served as chairman of the Labor and Public Welfare Committee's subcommittee on Children and Youth and the Senate subcommittee on social security financing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mark Dayton",
        "text": "From 1975 to 1976 he was a legislative aide to Senator Walter Mondale, until Mondale's election as Vice President of the United States. From 1977 to 1978, Dayton served as an aide to Minnesota Governor Rudy Perpich. In 1978, Perpich appointed Dayton to head the Department of Economic Development and then the Department of Energy and Economic Development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1976 United States presidential election"
      },
      {
        "title": "1988 United States presidential election",
        "text": "In the 1984 presidential election the Democrats had nominated Walter Mondale, a traditional New Deal-type liberal, who advocated for those constituencies that Franklin Roosevelt forged into a majority coalition, as their candidate. When Mondale was defeated in a landslide, party leaders became eager to find a new approach to get away from the 1980 and 1984 debacles. After Bush's image was affected by his involvement on the Iran-Contra scandal much more than Reagan's, and after the Democrats won back control of the U.S. Senate in the 1986 congressional elections following an economic downturn, the party's leaders felt optimistic about having a closer race with the GOP in 1988, although probabilities of winning the presidency were still marginal given the climate of prosperity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Larz Anderson",
        "text": "According to sources cited by his biographer, Anderson's diplomatic record was an embarrassment to President William Howard Taft; the Senate Foreign Relations Committee refused to confirm him as United States Ambassador to Japan in 1913 even after he had assumed his post there. Richard W. Leopold, reviewing a volume of Anderson's letters, wrote that they contained \"little of value\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush (R)Popular vote: 43,903,230 (50.75%) Electoral votes: 489 (90.9%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1984 United States presidential election:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Soon after the election, Democrats offered multiple different theories for why Mondale lost in a landslide: Jesse Jackson argued that the Democrats had pandered too much to white men, and Mondale himself said in February 1985 that he lost because of his inability to appear compelling on television. William Raspberry disagreed with Mondale's self-assessment and argued, \"What cost Mondale was the perception that Reagan, while perhaps on the wrong side of a number of specific issues, generally stood for what most Americans stood for, while Mondale, though often on the right side of the specifics, didn't really stand for anything at all.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Documents declassified in 2017 show that the National Security Agency had created a file on Mondale as part of its monitoring of prominent U.S. citizens whose names appeared in Signals intelligence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Todd A. Weiler",
        "text": "Weiler was a part of President Bill Clinton's Inaugural Committee and was an advanceman for future First Lady Hillary Clinton during the 1992 Presidential campaign, having previously served in the same role for presidential candidate Walter Mondale and former presidential primary candidate Paul Tsongas. After Clinton was elected, he was appointed the White House's liaison to the Department of Defense."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Mondale clinched the nomination in June 1984 by receiving significantly more votes from superdelegates than Hart did. Lautenberg then stated, \"I believe it is time for Gary Hart to come home to the Democratic party and behind the nomination of Walter Mondale.\" Nevertheless, Hart refused to concede and instead announced his intention to challenge the results at the party's upcoming convention."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glen Shortliffe",
        "text": "From 1977 to 1979, he was the Canadian Ambassador to Indonesia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1984 Democratic Party presidential primaries:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Eric J. Boswell",
        "text": "In September 1992, President of the United States George H. W. Bush nominated Boswell as Director of the Office of Foreign Missions and he became Director, with the rank of Ambassador, in May 1993. President Bill Clinton then nominated Boswell as Assistant Secretary of State for Diplomatic Security and Boswell held this office from January 5, 1996 until January 31, 1998."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election",
        "text": "Reagan and Vice President George H. W. Bush faced only token opposition in their bid for re-nomination. Mondale faced a competitive field in his bid, defeating Colorado Senator Gary Hart, activist Jesse Jackson and several other candidates in the 1984 Democratic primaries. He eventually chose U.S. Representative Geraldine Ferraro of New York as his running mate, the first woman to be on a major party's presidential ticket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "The Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign began on February 21, 1983, when Walter Mondale, a former Minnesota senator and Vice President of the United States, announced that he was running for president in a speech at the Minnesota State Capitol. Mondale won the Democratic Party's presidential nomination after convincing Frank Lautenberg, a previously unpledged party delegate, to support him. Lautenberg's vote gave Mondale the 1,967 delegate votes needed to become the Democratic Party's nominee. Mondale lost the general election, held on November 6, 1984, to incumbent Republican President Ronald Reagan in a landslide. Had Mondale been elected, he would have been the first U.S. president from Minnesota and the first non-incumbent vice president since Richard Nixon to take office as president. Ferraro would also have been the country's first female vice president, and the first person from New York since Nelson Rockefeller to become vice president, whereas her husband, John Zaccaro, would also have been the country's first second gentleman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gordon C. James",
        "text": "In 2004 James assisted in several political stops with the Bush-Cheney campaign and in 2005, he was employed as lead advance representative for President George H.W. Bush and President Bill Clinton's tour of the Tsunami-hit regions of Indonesia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1980 United States presidential election:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 Democratic National Convention",
        "text": "For the pick of Vice President of the United States, Mondale had a pick between Mayor Dianne Feinstein of San Francisco (the future 3 decade United States Senator from California) and Congresswoman Geraldine Ferraro of New York, he chose Congresswoman Ferraro to be his vice presidential running mate which established her as the first woman to be nominated for Vice President of the United States from a major American political party. As of 2020, this is the most recent time that neither a sitting nor former United States Senator was nominated for vice president by the Democratic Party."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Notes"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bambang Soegeng",
        "text": "Between 15 August 1956 and 1959, Soegeng was assigned as the Indonesian Ambassador to the Holy See. He then became the Ambassador to Japan starting in October 1960. During his time in Japan, Soegeng negotiated war reparations to Indonesia for the Japanese occupation, and later successfully persuaded the Japanese government to not allow the Dutch aircraft carrier HNLMS \"Karel Doorman\" to stop over in Yokohama, and lobbied for the Japanese to take Indonesia's side in the Western New Guinea dispute. After his tenure in Japan, Soegeng later became ambassador to Brazil until 1965."
      },
      {
        "title": "1996 United States campaign finance controversy",
        "text": "FBI agents were also denied the opportunity to ask President Clinton and Vice President Gore questions during Justice Department interviews in 1997 and 1998 and were only allowed to take notes. During the interviews, neither Clinton nor Gore were asked any questions about fund-raisers John Huang and James Riady, nor the Hsi Lai Buddhist Temple fundraising event led by Maria Hsia and attended by Huang and Ted Sioeng."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Menadue",
        "text": "He was Australian Ambassador to Japan from 1976 to 1980."
      },
      {
        "title": "Katsuji Debuchi",
        "text": "In 1928, Debuchi was appointed ambassador to the United States, succeeding Tsuneo Matsudaira. He was due to leave his position during 1931, but remained in the position following the Mukden Incident. As an ambassador, he was well liked in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenneth Lieberthal",
        "text": "For 1998 through 2000 Lieberthal took leave from his academic career to serve President Clinton as Special Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs and Senior Director for Asia on the U.S. National Security Council."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did Walter Mondale do after his presidential run?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mondale did a number of things, he joined Dorsey & Whitney and the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs. He was the U. S. Ambassador to Japan, and was the last minute choice for the Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party to run for Senate, before losing and returning to Dorsey & Whitney and a part time teaching job at University of Minnesota's Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did Mondale do at Dorsey & Whitney?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mondale returned to private law practice with Dorsey & Whitney in Minneapolis in 1987."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did he do next after he finished working at Dorsey & Whitney?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "From 1986 to 1993, he chaired the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs. During Bill Clinton's presidency, he was United States Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, chaired a bipartisan group to study campaign finance reform, and was Clinton's special envoy to Indonesia in 1998."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did Mondale do anything noteworthy as Ambassador to Japan?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Okay, how about as Clinton's special envoy to Indonesia?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information.",
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
    ],
    "topic": "Walter Mondale",
    "ground_truth_ctx": []
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale returned to private law practice with Dorsey & Whitney in Minneapolis in 1987. From 1986 to 1993, he chaired the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs. During Bill Clinton's presidency, he was United States Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, chaired a bipartisan group to study campaign finance reform, and was Clinton's special envoy to Indonesia in 1998."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Walter Mondale\n--Early life.\n--Entry into politics.\n--U.S. Senator.\n----Policies.\n----Committees.\n----Apollo 1 accident (1967).\n--Vice presidency (1977\u20131981).\n----1980 election.\n--Post-vice presidency (1981\u20132021).\n----1984 presidential campaign.\n----Private citizen and ambassador.\n----2002 U.S. Senate election and beyond.\n--Family and personal life.\n--Death.\n--Records.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "Walter Mondale lost the election, and the Mondales returned to Minnesota, where they lived until his term as U.S. Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, after which he resumed his Minneapolis-based law practice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale died of natural causes in his sleep at his home in Minneapolis, Minnesota, on April 19, 2021, at the age of 93. The day before his death, he had several phone conversations with Jimmy Carter, Bill Clinton, Joe Biden, Kamala Harris, and Minnesota governor Tim Walz. Mondale also emailed a final message to his staff, as he and his family had come to the conclusion that \"his death was imminent\". At the time of his death, Mondale was the oldest living former U.S. vice president, his place being taken by Dick Cheney."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Walter Frederick \"Fritz\" Mondale (January 5, 1928 \u2013 April 19, 2021) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 42nd vice president of the United States from 1977 to 1981 under President Jimmy Carter. A U.S. senator from Minnesota from 1964 to 1976, he was the Democratic Party's nominee in the 1984 presidential election, but lost to incumbent Ronald Reagan in an Electoral College and popular vote landslide. Reagan won 49 states while Mondale carried his home state of Minnesota and the District of Columbia. His vice presidential nominee, U.S. Representative Geraldine Ferraro from New York, was the first female vice-presidential nominee of any major party in U.S. history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "Out of office during Ronald Reagan's first term as president, Walter Mondale won the Democratic presidential nomination in 1984. As a prospective First Lady, Joan Mondale told Maureen Dowd of \"The New York Times\" that she would not talk about recipes or clothes during the campaign, but when her husband's political opponents took issue with this, costing him votes, she published \"The Mondale Family Cookbook\", with recipes including Fettucine \u00e0 la Pimento Mondale, and declared that she was a \"traditional wife and mother and supporter\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "After his defeat, Mondale joined the Minnesota-based law firm Dorsey & Whitney and the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (1986\u20131993). President Bill Clinton appointed Mondale U.S. Ambassador to Japan in 1993; he retired from that post in 1996. In 2002, Mondale became the last-minute choice of the Minnesota Democratic\u2013Farmer\u2013Labor Party to run for Senate after Democratic Senator Paul Wellstone died in a plane crash less than two weeks before the election. Mondale narrowly lost the race to Saint Paul mayor Norm Coleman. He then returned to working at Dorsey & Whitney and remained active in the Democratic Party. Mondale later took up a part-time teaching position at the University of Minnesota's Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party vice presidential nomination, 1980:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "A former United States Senator from Minnesota, Mondale considered running for the Democratic nomination in the 1976 presidential election, but he dropped out of the race on November 21, 1974, after having built a campaign for two years. When he dropped out, he said that he felt he lacked \"the overwhelming desire to be President\" and wanted to avoid \"sleeping in Holiday Inns.\" In 1976, Jimmy Carter won the presidential election, with Mondale as his running mate. Mondale served as vice president under Carter from 1977 to 1981. In January 1981, shortly before Mondale left office as vice president, CBS News reported that he had decided to run for president in 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party vice presidential nomination, 1976:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Under Carter, Mondale traveled extensively throughout the nation and the world advocating the administration's foreign policy. His travels also included a visit to the , which was on station at the time in the Indian Ocean, during the Iran hostage crisis. Mondale was the first vice president to have an office in the White House and established the concept of an \"activist Vice President\". He began the tradition of weekly lunches with the president, which continues to this day. More importantly, he expanded the vice president's role from figurehead to presidential advisor, full-time participant, and troubleshooter for the administration. Subsequent vice presidents have followed this model. In 1979, Twin Cities Public Television produced a documentary about his trip to Norway, titled \"Walter Mondale: There's a Fjord in Your Past\", a play on the well-known advertising slogan \"There's a Ford in Your Future\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Until his appointment as Ambassador to Japan, Mondale was a Distinguished University Fellow in Law and Public Affairs at the Hubert H. Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs at the University of Minnesota. In 1990, he established the Mondale Policy Forum at the Humphrey Institute. The forum has brought together leading scholars and policymakers for annual conferences on domestic and international issues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale's wife, Joan Mondale, was a national advocate for the arts and was the Honorary Chairman of the Federal Council on the Arts and Humanities during the Carter Administration. On February 3, 2014, she died at a hospice in Minneapolis surrounded by family members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "When Jimmy Carter won the Democratic nomination for president in 1976, he chose Mondale as his running mate. Mondale campaigned for the ticket in various states. While campaigning in Toledo, Ohio he said that the country needed a strong president to stop inflation and added that President Gerald Ford did not have the guts to stand up to big businesses. The ticket was narrowly elected on November 2, 1976, and Mondale was inaugurated as Vice President of the United States on January 20, 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Notes"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "President Biden gave tribute to Mondale in a public statement, calling Mondale a \"dear friend and mentor\" that had \"defined the vice presidency as a full partnership, and helped provide a model for my service.\" On April 20, 2021, Biden ordered all flags at government properties, office buildings and public grounds to be flown at half-staff until that Tuesday evening in honor of Mondale."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party presidential nomination, 1984:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 1972, Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern offered Mondale an opportunity to be his vice-presidential running mate. Mondale declined. That year, Mondale was re-elected to the Senate with over 57% of the vote, even as Republican President Richard Nixon carried Minnesota. He served in the 88th, 89th, 90th, 91st, 92nd, 93rd, and 94th congresses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Carter said in a statement: \"Today I mourn the passing of my dear friend Walter Mondale, who I consider the best vice president in our country's history [...] Rosalynn and I join all Americans in giving thanks for his exemplary life, and we extend our deepest condolences to his family.\" Carter had last seen Mondale in person at the Carter Center in June 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1976 United States presidential election"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party presidential nomination, 1980:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party presidential nomination, 1972:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1984 United States presidential election:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1980 United States presidential election:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Mondale",
        "text": "Ted Mondale\n--Career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Shortly before the 1984 Democratic National Convention, Mondale chose Bert Lance to be his campaign's general chairman, and unsuccessfully attempted to remove Charles Manatt from his position as party chairman. Mondale and his campaign stopped their effort to oust Manatt in response to protests from party leaders. On Mondale's decisions, one anonymous Democratic Party aide told \"the New York Times\": \"It's a disaster. People are gulping hard. No one knows why he did it.\" His choice of Lance proved controversial because Lance had previously left his job in the Carter administration amid charges of bank fraud (of which he was later exonerated)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ronald Reagan * and George H. W. Bush * (R)Popular vote: 54,455,472 (58.77%) Electoral votes: 525 (97.58%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 1976, Jimmy Carter, the Democratic presidential nominee, chose Mondale as his vice-presidential running mate. The Carter\u2013Mondale ticket defeated incumbent president Gerald Ford and his running mate, Bob Dole. Carter and Mondale's time in office was marred by a worsening economy and they lost the 1980 election to Republicans Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush. In 1984, Mondale won the Democratic presidential nomination and campaigned for a nuclear freeze, the Equal Rights Amendment, an increase in taxes, and a reduction of U.S. public debt. Mondale and Ferraro lost the election to the incumbents Reagan and Bush."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1984 Democratic Party presidential primaries:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ted Kennedy \u2013 13 (0.43%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "During the general election, over a dozen political professionals doubted whether Mondale was appealing enough as a person to win the election and questioned his decision to spend considerable time campaigning in states that he had almost no chance of winning. Some of these professionals also told \"the New York Times\" that they were \"amazed\" at the sloppy preparation the campaign put into organizing events. In October 1984, shortly before the election, Mondale attempted to focus on trying to win California. That effort included spending over $3 million on television advertising there and flying Mondale in for a rally shortly thereafter. That was part of his strategy to try to win at least one big Sun Belt state."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Barbara Jordan \u2013 25 (0.84%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Barbara Jordan \u2013 4 (0.12%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush (R)Popular vote: 43,903,230 (50.75%) Electoral votes: 489 (90.9%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale, who served as the 42nd vice president of the United States (1977\u20131981); as a United States senator from Minnesota (1964\u20131976), and as the 23rd attorney general of Minnesota (1960\u20131964)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale had deep connections to his ancestral Norway. Upon entering the Senate in 1964, he took over the seat of vice president Hubert Humphrey, another Norwegian-American. In later years, Mondale served on the executive committee of the Peace Prize Forum, an annual conference co-sponsored by the Norwegian Nobel Institute. On December 5, 2007, Norwegian Minister of Foreign Affairs Jonas Gahr St\u00f8re announced that Mondale would be named Honorary Consul-General of Norway, representing the Norwegian state in Minnesota."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Stockdale",
        "text": "It was terribly frustrating because I remember I started with, \"Who am I? Why am I here?\" and I never got back to that because there was never an opportunity for me to explain my life to people. It was so different from Quayle and Gore. The four years in solitary confinement in Vietnam, seven-and-a-half years in prisons, drop the first bomb that started the ... American bombing raid in the North Vietnam. We blew the oil storage tanks of them off the map. And I never\u2014I couldn't approach\u2014I don't say it just to brag, but, I mean, my sensitivities are completely different."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Due to the Great Depression, Mondale grew up in poverty. His family moved from Ceylon to Blue Lake in 1934, and to Elmore in 1937. Throughout his youth, Mondale was influenced heavily by his father's religious beliefs, being in favour of the civil rights movement. In 1948, his father died of a stroke. Mondale attended public schools and then Macalester College for two years before transferring to the University of Minnesota, from which he graduated \"cum laude\" with a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science in 1951."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Joe Biden \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Mondale picked three-term Congresswoman Geraldine Ferraro to be his running mate on July 12, 1984, making her the first woman nominated for president or vice president by a major U.S. political party. The pick was intended to energize Mondale's campaign, which it did at first. This effect proved short-lived, however, as it was soon overshadowed by a scandal involving Ferraro's and her husband's finances."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in South Dakota",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ted Kennedy \u2013 1,151 (34.72%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Shortly before the general election, Mondale defended his choice of Ferraro as his running mate against Reagan, who had recently said that her nomination was not a major breaking point. Mondale replied that he chose Ferraro \"because she's the best,\" adding that \"She is far better prepared for her position than Mr. Reagan was when he was elected president of the United States.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Peter Flaherty \u2013 11 (0.37%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Thomas Eagleton \u2013 18 (0.46%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In 2004, Mondale became co-chairman of the Constitution Project's bipartisan Right to Counsel Committee. He endorsed Senator Hillary Clinton for president in 2008. On June 3, 2008, following the final primary contests, Mondale endorsed Senator Barack Obama, who had clinched the nomination the previous evening, and won the presidency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "In 1964, Walter Mondale replaced Hubert Humphrey as a U.S. Senator, serving until 1976, when Democratic presidential candidate Jimmy Carter selected him as his running-mate in his successful bid for the Presidency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "During Lyndon Johnson's presidency, Mondale supported the Vietnam War. After Nixon became president in 1969, Mondale began to oppose the war and participated in legislation to restrict Nixon's ability to prolong it. Mondale supported abortion rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election",
        "text": "Mondale's nomination marked the second time since the nomination of former Governor of Georgia Jimmy Carter in 1976 and the fourth time since the nomination of former Representative John W. Davis in 1924 that the Democratic Party nominated a private citizen for President (i.e., not serving in an official government role at the time of the nomination and election). Mondale was the last private citizen to be nominated for president by the Democratic Party until former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton in 2016. Mondale was also the last former vice president to be nominated for president by the Democratic Party after leaving office until Joe Biden in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenwood, Minneapolis",
        "text": "Walter Mondale, Vice President of the United States, was a long time resident near Fremont Avenue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale worked hard to build up the center of the party on economic and social issues. Unlike his father, a fervent liberal, he was not a crusader for the New Deal. Instead, he realized that the Democratic base (especially ethnic blue-collar workers) was gradually moving to the right, and he worked to keep their support. Mondale showed little or no interest in foreign policy until about 1974, when he realized that some foreign policy knowledge was necessary if he had loftier aspirations than the Senate. He developed a centrist position, avoiding alignment with either the party's hawks (such as Henry M. Jackson) or its doves (such as McGovern). Mondale took a liberal position on civil rights, which proved acceptable in Minnesota, a state with \"a minuscule black population\". Mondale was a chief sponsor of the federal Fair Housing Act, which prohibits discrimination in housing and created HUD's Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity as the primary enforcer of the law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Koryne Kaneski Horbal \u2013 5 (0.15%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in North Dakota",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lloyd Bentsen",
        "text": "Bentsen was on Walter Mondale's short list of seven or eight possible vice presidential candidates in 1984 and was the only southerner and one of three white males considered. In the end, Mondale chose New York U.S. Representative Geraldine Ferraro as his running mate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carlos Monje",
        "text": "Carlos Monje\n--Early life and education.\n--Career.\n----Obama administration.\n----Hillary Clinton presidential campaign.\n----Twitter.\n----Biden administration.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0George McGovern \u2013 2 (0.06%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Hawaii",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale ran a liberal campaign, supporting a nuclear freeze and the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). He spoke against Reagan's economic policies and in support of reducing federal budget deficits. But the incumbent was popular and Mondale's campaign was widely considered ineffective. Mondale was also perceived as supporting the poor at the expense of the middle class. In the first televised debate, Mondale performed unexpectedly well, which led many to question Reagan's age and capacity to endure the grueling demands of the presidency (Reagan was the oldest person to serve as president\u201473 at the time\u2014while Mondale was 56). In the next debate on October 21, 1984, Reagan deflected the issue by quipping, \"I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Joe Lockhart",
        "text": "He was press secretary for the 1984 presidential campaign of Walter Mondale, then worked for Paul Simon in the Senate. Stints with ABC and CNN followed, then the Michael Dukakis campaign. He moved to Robinson, Lake, Lerer & Montgomery with Mike McCurry, then back to ABC when they hired his (former) wife and colleague from the Mondale campaign, Laura Logan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas E. Donilon",
        "text": "In 1983, Donilon took a leave of absence from law school to work on Walter Mondale's presidential campaign, as the national campaign coordinator and convention director. Donilon helped prepared Mondale for his presidential debates. Donilon met his wife, Catherine Russell, on the Mondale campaign. Both Russell and Donilon then worked on Joe Biden's 1988 presidential campaign. After Michael Dukakis won the Democratic nomination, Donilon prepared him for his debates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign",
        "text": "Mondale officially accepted the Democratic Party's nomination at the 1984 Democratic National Convention. He delivered his acceptance speech on the night of July 19, 1984, climaxing that year's convention. During the speech, Mondale controversially vowed to raise taxes but claimed that Reagan would also do so: \"He won't tell you. I just did.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Al Castro \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale had a residence near Lake of the Isles in Minneapolis. He was a Presbyterian. He enjoyed fishing, reading Shakespeare and historical accounts, barbecuing, skiing, watching \"Monty Python\", and playing tennis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0George McGovern \u2013 4 (0.10%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 Democratic Party vice presidential candidate selection",
        "text": "This article lists those who were potential candidates for the Democratic nomination for Vice President of the United States in the 1984 election. Former Vice President Walter Mondale won the 1984 Democratic nomination for President of the United States, and chose New York Representative Geraldine Ferraro as his running mate. Ferraro was the first woman to be a part of a national ticket for a major party. Mondale chose Ferraro in hopes of energizing the base and winning the votes of women, but also because he viewed her as a solid legislator who had won the approval of Speaker Tip O'Neill. John R. Reilly, an attorney and a senior adviser to Mondale, managed the search for a running mate. Mondale seriously considered his major rival for the 1984 presidential nomination, Senator Gary Hart, but Mondale refused to consider a second rival, Jesse Jackson, on the grounds that the differences between their policies were too great. The Mondale\u2013Ferraro ticket ultimately lost to the Reagan\u2013Bush ticket. This is the last time the Democratic vice presidential nominee was not the incumbent vice president or a Senator, and, not counting the times when the incumbent President (and by extension, the incumbent vice president) was running for re-election, the last time the Democratic vice presidential nominee was not a Senator."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ted Kulongoski \u2013 8 (0.24%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jerry Brown \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Documents declassified in 2017 show that the National Security Agency had created a file on Mondale as part of its monitoring of prominent U.S. citizens whose names appeared in Signals intelligence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jim Thomas \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Eric Tovar \u2013 2 (0.06%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ed Rendell \u2013 28 (0.84%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Barbara Mikulski \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0George McGovern \u2013 334,801 (1.85%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in New Mexico",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for what he charged was his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jerry Brown \u2013 2 (0.06%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Gary Benoit \u2013 12 (0.40%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Philip Hart \u2013 2 (0.07%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Fred R. Harris \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Nebraska",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for what he charged was his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert A. Mandell",
        "text": "Robert A. Mandell\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n--Ambassadorship.\n--Later career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Tom Griffin \u2013 11,266 (4.39%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Politics of Minnesota",
        "text": "Walter Mondale (January 5, 1928 \u2013 April 19, 2021) was the 42nd vice president of the United States (1977\u20131981) under President Jimmy Carter. He was also a two-term United States Senator from Minnesota and the Democratic Party nominee for president in 1984 against the incumbent, Republican Ronald Reagan. Mondale suffered a crushing defeat as Reagan was re-elected in a landslide victory in which Mondale carried only his home state of Minnesota and the District of Columbia. Mondale also quickly stepped into the 2002 U.S. Senate race against Norm Coleman, when Paul Wellstone died in a plane crash two weeks before the election. Coleman narrowly won the election, 49.5% to 47.3%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "As Mondale could not afford to attend law school, he enlisted in the United States Army in 1951, shortly after graduating. He served at Fort Knox during the Korean War, first as an armored reconnaissance vehicle crewman, and later as an education programs specialist. He attained the rank of corporal and was discharged in 1953. Mondale enrolled at the University of Minnesota Law School, aided by the G.I. Bill, and graduated \"cum laude\" with a Bachelor of Laws in 1956. In law school, he served on the \"Minnesota Law Review\" and as a law clerk for Minnesota Supreme Court Justice Thomas F. Gallagher. In 1955, Mondale married Joan Adams, whom he met on a blind date. He then practiced law in Minneapolis for four years before entering politics."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Indiana",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for what he charged was his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jim McDermott \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Peter Rodino \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Oklahoma",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for what he charged was his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Allard Lowenstein \u2013 5 (0.17%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Mondale",
        "text": "As the U.S. Ambassador's wife in Japan, she enthusiastically promoted inter-cultural understanding through art, redecorating the Embassy with American paintings and organising tours with a bi-lingual guide. She studied Japanese art, and impressed the Mayor of Kyoto by presenting him with a ceramic bowl she had made herself in the traditional Mashiko style."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Thomas J. Steed \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election",
        "text": "Mondale ran a liberal campaign, supporting a nuclear freeze and the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). He spoke against what he considered to be unfairness in Reagan's economic policies and the need to reduce federal budget deficits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Hugh L. Carey \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0\"Others\" \u2013 1,796 (0.08%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Fritz Efaw \u2013 11 (0.37%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "In the \"Walter F. Mondale Papers\" at the Minnesota Historical Society, digital content is available for research use. Contents include speech files, handwritten notes, memoranda, annotated briefings, schedules, correspondence, and visual materials. The collection includes senatorial, vice presidential, ambassadorial, political papers and campaign files, and personal papers documenting most aspects of Mondale's 60\u2011year-long career, including all of his public offices, campaigns, and Democratic Party and other non-official activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "1984 United States presidential election in Kansas",
        "text": "Taking a (what was becoming the traditional liberal) stance on the social issues of the day, Mondale advocated for gun control, the right to choose regarding abortion, and strongly opposed the repeal of laws regarding institutionalized prayer in public schools. He also criticized Reagan for his economic marginalization of the poor, stating that Reagan's reelection campaign was \"a happy talk campaign,\" not focused on the real issues at hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "My Life (Clinton autobiography)",
        "text": "Early in Clinton's life, he recalls listening to his family's stories of others and learning"
      },
      {
        "title": "Geraldine Ferraro",
        "text": "Mondale selected Ferraro to be his vice-presidential candidate on , 1984. She stated, \"I am absolutely thrilled.\" The Mondale campaign hoped that her selection would change a campaign in which he was well behind; in addition to attracting women, they hoped she could attract ethnic Democrats in the Northeast U.S. who had abandoned their party for Reagan in 1980. Her personality, variously described as blunt, feisty, spirited, and somewhat saucy, was also viewed as an asset. In turn, Mondale accepted the risk that came with her inexperience."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Tom Daschle \u2013 10 (0.30%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fj\u00e6rland",
        "text": "The paternal grandparents of Walter Mondale, Vice President of the United States from 1977 to 1981 and the Democratic Party's nominee for President in 1984, were born in Mundal in Fj\u00e6rland. It is common in Norway that surnames come from the name of the original home place."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did Walter Mondale do after his presidential run?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mondale did a number of things, he joined Dorsey & Whitney and the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs. He was the U. S. Ambassador to Japan, and was the last minute choice for the Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party to run for Senate, before losing and returning to Dorsey & Whitney and a part time teaching job at University of Minnesota's Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did Mondale do at Dorsey & Whitney?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mondale returned to private law practice with Dorsey & Whitney in Minneapolis in 1987."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did he do next after he finished working at Dorsey & Whitney?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "From 1986 to 1993, he chaired the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs. During Bill Clinton's presidency, he was United States Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, chaired a bipartisan group to study campaign finance reform, and was Clinton's special envoy to Indonesia in 1998."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did Mondale do anything noteworthy as Ambassador to Japan?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Okay, how about as Clinton's special envoy to Indonesia?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was Walter Mondale's personal life like?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Would you like to hear about his family, where he lived, his religious beliefs, or his hobbies?"
    ],
    "topic": "Walter Mondale",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Walter Mondale:52",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Walter Mondale",
          "Family and personal life"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mondale had a residence near Lake of the Isles in Minneapolis. He was a Presbyterian. He enjoyed fishing, reading Shakespeare and historical accounts, barbecuing, skiing, watching \"Monty Python\", and playing tennis."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Walter Mondale:48",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Walter Mondale",
          "Family and personal life"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mondale's wife, Joan Mondale, was a national advocate for the arts and was the Honorary Chairman of the Federal Council on the Arts and Humanities during the Carter Administration. On February 3, 2014, she died at a hospice in Minneapolis surrounded by family members."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale had a residence near Lake of the Isles in Minneapolis. He was a Presbyterian. He enjoyed fishing, reading Shakespeare and historical accounts, barbecuing, skiing, watching \"Monty Python\", and playing tennis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Due to the Great Depression, Mondale grew up in poverty. His family moved from Ceylon to Blue Lake in 1934, and to Elmore in 1937. Throughout his youth, Mondale was influenced heavily by his father's religious beliefs, being in favour of the civil rights movement. In 1948, his father died of a stroke. Mondale attended public schools and then Macalester College for two years before transferring to the University of Minnesota, from which he graduated \"cum laude\" with a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science in 1951."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Notes"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Peter Flaherty \u2013 11 (0.37%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1976 United States presidential election"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party vice presidential nomination, 1980:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ed Rendell \u2013 28 (0.84%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party vice presidential nomination, 1976:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Philip Hart \u2013 2 (0.07%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Reubin Askew \u2013 52,759 (0.29%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Frank Church \u2013 11 (0.37%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0\"Others\" \u2013 1,796 (0.08%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ernest Hollings \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jim McDermott \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Hugh L. Carey \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jim Thomas \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0\"Abstentions\" \u2013 724 (21.76%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Mondale's wife, Joan Mondale, was a national advocate for the arts and was the Honorary Chairman of the Federal Council on the Arts and Humanities during the Carter Administration. On February 3, 2014, she died at a hospice in Minneapolis surrounded by family members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party presidential nomination, 1980:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0George Orwell \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Mo Udall \u2013 2 (0.07%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Fred R. Harris \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Mo Udall \u2013 2 (0.06%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1980 United States presidential election:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Thomas J. Steed \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0William Proxmire \u2013 10 (0.30%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Charles Prine \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Thomas Eagleton \u2013 18 (0.46%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Walter Mondale\n--Early life.\n--Entry into politics.\n--U.S. Senator.\n----Policies.\n----Committees.\n----Apollo 1 accident (1967).\n--Vice presidency (1977\u20131981).\n----1980 election.\n--Post-vice presidency (1981\u20132021).\n----1984 presidential campaign.\n----Private citizen and ambassador.\n----2002 U.S. Senate election and beyond.\n--Family and personal life.\n--Death.\n--Records.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Les Aspin \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Kent Hance \u2013 2 (0.06%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Tom Daschle \u2013 10 (0.30%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party presidential nomination, 1984:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Democratic Party presidential nomination, 1972:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Monckton",
        "text": "Walter Monckton\n--Early years.\n--Career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1984 United States presidential election:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Michael J. Carrington \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ernest Hollings \u2013 33,684 (0.19%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Mondale",
        "text": "Ted Mondale\n--Career.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Fritz Efaw \u2013 11 (0.37%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Scott M. Matheson \u2013 5 (0.15%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Daniel Schorr \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jerry Brown \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jerry Brown \u2013 2 (0.06%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Tom Griffin \u2013 11,266 (4.39%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Patrick Joseph Lucey \u2013 3 (0.09%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ted Kulongoski \u2013 8 (0.24%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Alan Cranston \u2013 51,437 (0.28%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0\"Others\"Popular vote: 313,848 (0.39%) Electoral votes: 0"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Eric Tovar \u2013 2 (0.06%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lester Mondale",
        "text": "The Reverend Robert Lester Mondale (May 28, 1904 \u2013 August 19, 2003) was an American Unitarian minister and Humanist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Thomas E. Morgan \u2013 2 (0.07%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Gary Hart \u2013 1,201 (30.92%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Gary Hart \u2013 6,504,842 (35.85%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Hunter S. Thompson \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Richard M. Nolan \u2013 4 (0.12%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Barbara Jordan \u2013 4 (0.12%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "1984 Democratic Party presidential primaries:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0David Bergland and James A. Lewis (L)Popular vote: 228,111 (0.25%) Electoral vote: 0"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Barbara Jordan \u2013 25 (0.84%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Peter Rodino \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Mario Biaggi \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Frank Johnson \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Gary Benoit \u2013 12 (0.40%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Elly Uharis \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ray Tricomo (G) \u2013 10,119 (0.45%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0William Winpisinger \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0\"Others\"Popular vote: 252,303 (0.29%) Electoral votes: 0"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jim Weaver \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Koryne Kaneski Horbal \u2013 5 (0.15%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Joe Biden \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Dale Bumpers \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ron Dellums \u2013 3 (0.09%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Allard Lowenstein \u2013 5 (0.17%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ramsey Clark \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Joseph Johnson (SW) \u2013 5,487 (0.43%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Mondale",
        "text": "Walter Frederick Mondale was born on January 5, 1928, in Ceylon, Minnesota, to Theodore Sigvaard Mondale, a Methodist minister, and Claribel Hope (n\u00e9e Cowan), a part-time music teacher. Walter's half-brother Lester Mondale became a Unitarian minister. Mondale also has two brothers, Clarence, known as Pete (1926\u20132014), and William, known as Mort. His paternal grandparents were Norwegian immigrants, with some distant German ancestry. Mondale's paternal grandfather Frederik Mundal had emigrated from Norway with his family in 1856, eventually settling in southern Minnesota in 1864. The surname \"Mondale\" comes from \"Mundal\", a valley and town in the Fj\u00e6rland region of Norway. His mother was born in Iowa, the daughter of an immigrant father, Robert Cowan, who was born in Seaforth, Ontario; she was of Scottish and English descent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0William Braatz (IG) \u2013 5,231 (0.41%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0John Culver \u2013 2 (0.06%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0William A. Redmond \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ron Dellums \u2013 20 (0.67%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Eugene McCarthy \u2013 2 (0.07%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ted Kennedy \u2013 13 (0.43%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Thomas J. Anderson and Rufus Shackelford (A)Popular vote: 158,724 (0.19%) Electoral votes: 0"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Gaylord Nelson \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0John Glenn \u2013 2 (0.05%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Michella Kathleen Gray \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Richard Leaf \u2013 7,750 (3.02%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Patricia Stone Simon \u2013 11 (0.33%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0George S. Broody \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Barbara Mikulski \u2013 1 (0.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Alice Tripp \u2013 2 (0.06%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0\"Others\"Popular vote:392,298 (0.42%) Electoral votes: 0"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Hubert Humphrey \u2013 67 (2.22%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Warren Spannaus \u2013 2 (0.06%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Ralph E. Franklin 40,785 (9.03%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Lyndon LaRouche \u2013 123,649 (0.68%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0John Glenn \u2013 617,909 (3.41%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Jim Moore (IPM) \u2013 45,139 (2.00%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Walter Mondale",
        "text": "<br>\u00a0Paul Wellstone *\u2020 (DFL) \u2013 11,381 (0.51%)"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did Walter Mondale do after his presidential run?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mondale did a number of things, he joined Dorsey & Whitney and the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs. He was the U. S. Ambassador to Japan, and was the last minute choice for the Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party to run for Senate, before losing and returning to Dorsey & Whitney and a part time teaching job at University of Minnesota's Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did Mondale do at Dorsey & Whitney?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Mondale returned to private law practice with Dorsey & Whitney in Minneapolis in 1987."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did he do next after he finished working at Dorsey & Whitney?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "From 1986 to 1993, he chaired the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs. During Bill Clinton's presidency, he was United States Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, chaired a bipartisan group to study campaign finance reform, and was Clinton's special envoy to Indonesia in 1998."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did Mondale do anything noteworthy as Ambassador to Japan?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Okay, how about as Clinton's special envoy to Indonesia?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was Walter Mondale's personal life like?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Would you like to hear about his family, where he lived, his religious beliefs, or his hobbies?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Yes, I am interested about his religious beliefs."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "He was a Presbyterian. Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the authority of the Scriptures, and the necessity of grace through faith in Christ."
    ],
    "topic": "Walter Mondale",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Walter Mondale:52",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Walter Mondale",
          "Family and personal life"
        ],
        "ctx": "Mondale had a residence near Lake of the Isles in Minneapolis. He was a Presbyterian. He enjoyed fishing, reading Shakespeare and historical accounts, barbecuing, skiing, watching \"Monty Python\", and playing tennis."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Presbyterianism:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Presbyterianism"
        ],
        "ctx": "Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the authority of the Scriptures, and the necessity of grace through faith in Christ. Presbyterian church government was ensured in Scotland by the Acts of Union in 1707, which created the Kingdom of Great Britain. In fact, most Presbyterians found in England can trace a Scottish connection, and the Presbyterian denomination was also taken to North America, mostly by Scots and Scotch-Irish immigrants. The Presbyterian denominations in Scotland hold to the Reformed theology of John Calvin and his immediate successors, although there is a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism. Local congregations of churches which use Presbyterian polity are governed by sessions made up of representatives of the congregation (elders); a conciliar approach which is found at other levels of decision-making (presbytery, synod, and general assembly). There are roughly 75\u00a0million Presbyterians in the world."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Until You Come Back to Me (That's What I'm Gonna Do)",
        "text": "With this peak at number three, Franklin became the first artist in the history of the Hot 100 chart to have a hit song peak at each position from one to ten on the chart. To date, only four other artists have achieved this feat: Marvin Gaye in 1983, Madonna in 1996, Drake in 2013, and Taylor Swift in 2015. Aretha's version of the song was ranked by \"Billboard\" as the No. 11 song for 1974."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha (1986 album)",
        "text": "As with Franklin's previous album, \"Who's Zoomin' Who?\", \"Aretha\" was produced mainly by Narada Michael Walden and includes her duet with George Michael, \"I Knew You Were Waiting (For Me)\", which became Franklin's first #1 Pop single since \"Respect\" in 1967, and would also be her last. The album also yielded three other hit singles: \"Jimmy Lee\", \"Rock-A-Lott\" and a hard rock cover of The Rolling Stones' classic, \"Jumpin' Jack Flash\". All music videos were extremely popular on MTV, BET and other video outlets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Franklin recorded 112 charted singles on the US \"Billboard\" charts, including 73 Hot 100 entries, 17 top-ten pop singles, 100 R&B entries and 20 number-one R&B singles. Besides the foregoing, the singer's well-known hits also include \"Ain't No Way\", \"Call Me\", \"Don't Play That Song (You Lied)\", \"Spanish Harlem\", \"Rock Steady\", \"Day Dreaming\", \"Until You Come Back to Me (That's What I'm Gonna Do)\", \"Something He Can Feel\", \"Jump to It\", \"Freeway of Love\", \"Who's Zoomin' Who\" and \"I Knew You Were Waiting (For Me)\" (a duet with George Michael). Franklin won 18 Grammy Awards, including the first eight awards given for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance (1968\u20131975), a Grammy Awards Living Legend honor and Lifetime Achievement Award."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "After 1988, \"Franklin never again had huge hits\", according to \"Rolling Stone\". The 1991 album \"What You See is What You Sweat\" flopped on the charts. She returned to the charts in 1993 with the dance song \"A Deeper Love\" and returned to the top 40 with the song \"Willing to Forgive\" in 1994. That recording reached number 26 on the Hot 100 and number five on the R&B chart."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha (1986 album)",
        "text": "Franklin's vocal from \"Rock-A-Lott\" was sampled extensively in the 49ers' 1990 hit \"Touch Me\", while her version of \"Jumpin' Jack Flash\" was the title song for the comedy film of the same name starring Whoopi Goldberg. All four of the singles were shot as music videos that received extensive play."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hey Now Hey (The Other Side of the Sky)",
        "text": "Other notable songs include the No. 1 R&B and top 20 pop single \"Angel\" written by Aretha's younger sister, Carolyn Franklin, as well as a cover of \"Somewhere\" which features Franklin on piano and Phil Woods on alto saxophone. This recording was reissued on compact disc through Rhino Records in the 1990s. The song \"Master of Eyes\" was included as the tenth track on the reissue though it was not included on the first release."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "In 2014, Franklin was signed under RCA Records, controller of the Arista catalog and a sister label to Columbia via Sony Music Entertainment, and worked with Clive Davis. There were plans for her to record an album produced by Danger Mouse, who was replaced with Babyface and Don Was when Danger Mouse left the project. On September 29, 2014, Franklin performed to a standing ovation, with Cissy Houston as backup, a compilation of Adele's \"Rolling in the Deep\" and \"Ain't No Mountain High Enough\" on the \"Late Show with David Letterman\". Franklin's cover of \"Rolling in the Deep\" was featured among nine other songs in her first RCA release, \"Aretha Franklin Sings the Great Diva Classics\", released in October 2014. In doing so, she became the first woman to have 100 songs on \"Billboard\"'s Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart with the success of her cover of Adele's \"Rolling in the Deep\", which debuted at number 47 on the chart."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin discography",
        "text": "She is ranked first among female vocalists with the most \"Billboard\" chart hits during the rock era (1955\u20132012) with a total of 88 according to Joel Whitburn's Record Research."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "In 1985, inspired by a desire to have a \"younger sound\" in her music, \"Who's Zoomin' Who?\" became her first Arista album to be certified platinum. The album sold well over a million copies thanks to the hits \"Freeway of Love\", the title track, and \"Another Night\". The next year's \"Aretha\" album nearly matched this success with the hit singles \"Jumpin' Jack Flash\", \"Jimmy Lee\" and \"I Knew You Were Waiting for Me\", her international number-one duet with George Michael. During that period, Franklin provided vocals to the theme songs of the TV shows \"A Different World\" and \"Together\". In 1987, she issued her third gospel album, \"One Lord, One Faith, One Baptism\", which was recorded at her late father's New Bethel church, followed by \"Through the Storm\" in 1989."
      },
      {
        "title": "It Ain't Necessarily So",
        "text": "In 1960, Aretha Franklin recorded a cover on her debut studio album, \"\" for Columbia records."
      },
      {
        "title": "Don't Play That Song (You Lied)",
        "text": "Aretha Franklin covered the song for her nineteenth studio album, \"Spirit in the Dark\", released on Atlantic Records in 1970. Her version, performed with the Dixie Flyers, was released as a single in 1970 and peaked at number 1 for five weeks on the R&B singles chart and number 11 on the pop chart. Franklin's version was certified gold with sales over a million copies. It reached number 13 on the UK Singles Chart. This was the first of two covers Franklin did of songs made popular by King. The other was her cover of \"Spanish Harlem\" in 1971."
      },
      {
        "title": "Won't Be Long (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "The song has been recorded by numerous artists, including Dusty Springfield, Sly & the Family Stone, and Eva Cassidy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin discography",
        "text": "This discography documents the releases of albums and singles by Aretha Franklin. Widely regarded as the \"Queen of Soul\", she has sold over 75 million records worldwide, making her one of the best-selling R&B female artists of all time. Billboard ranks her as the 34th Greatest Artist of all time. Franklin has scored 73 entries on the Billboard Hot 100, the most among women for nearly 40 years until Nicki Minaj passed her in 2017. \"Billboard\" listed her as the 41st Top Gospel Artist of the 2010s. She has accumulated 20 No. 1 hits on Billboard's Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baby I Love You (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "A live recording featured on the album \"Aretha in Paris\" (1968). There have been several other famous musicians who have covered Aretha Franklin's \"Baby I Love You\", such as Lisa Marie Presley in 1989, Donny Hathaway, Roberta Flack in 1972, B.B. King, The Bar-Kays in 1971, Erma Franklin in 1969, Irma Thomas in 1988, and Otis Rush in 1969 and various other musicians. In 2012, Christine Anu covered the song on her album, \"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin Sings the Great Diva Classics",
        "text": "The first single released from the album was a cover of singer Adele's \"Rolling in the Deep\", subtitled as \"The Aretha Version\", which also includes an interpolation of the Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell hit, \"Ain't No Mountain High Enough\". The single debuted at number 47 on the \"Billboard\" Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. Aretha Franklin thus became the first woman, and fourth artist overall (following Lil Wayne, Jay-Z and James Brown), to place 100 songs on the chart (with her first entry on the chart being \"Today I Sing the Blues\" in 1960)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "According to music producer Quincy Jones, while Franklin was still young, Dinah Washington let him know that \"Aretha was the 'next one."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Aretha Louise Franklin ( ; March 25, 1942August 16, 2018) was an American singer, songwriter and pianist. Referred to as the \"Queen of Soul\", she has twice been placed ninth in \"Rolling Stone\"s \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\". With global sales of over 75 million records, Franklin is one of the world's best-selling music artists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Share Your Love with Me",
        "text": "Aretha Franklin recorded the song for her 1970 album, \"This Girl's in Love with You\". Her single spent five weeks at number-one on the Best Selling Soul Singles chart and peaked at #13 on the Billboard Hot 100 on September 13, 1969. The song earned Franklin a Grammy Award for Best R&B Vocal Performance, Female in 1970. In March 1971 Aretha recorded two live versions of the song during her three-day concert at the Fillmore West in San Francisco; one of the two version is on the 2006 deluxe edition of \"Aretha Live at Fillmore West\", and both versions are on the 2005 remastered \"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Very Best of Aretha Franklin, Vol. 1",
        "text": "The other three tracks appeared as b-sides, two of which charted on the Hot 100 independently of their hit sides. The single mixes do not appear here on every track."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "In 2010 Franklin was ranked first on \"Rolling Stone\" magazine's list of the \"100 Greatest Singers of All Time\" and ninth on their list of \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\". Following news of Franklin's surgery and recovery in February 2011, the Grammys ceremony paid tribute to the singer with a medley of her classics performed by Christina Aguilera, Florence Welch, Jennifer Hudson, Martina McBride, and Yolanda Adams. That same year she was ranked 19th among the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 All-Time top artists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Songs of Faith (Aretha Franklin album)",
        "text": "Aretha Franklin's recording career began in 1956 with the help of local record label J-V-B Records. Recording equipment was installed in the New Bethel Baptist Church and nine tracks were recorded, featuring Franklin on vocals and piano. In 1956, J-V-B released Franklin's first single, \"Never Grow Old\", backed with \"You Grow Closer\". A second single, \"Precious Lord \" backed with \"Precious Lord \" was issued in 1959. These four tracks, with the addition of \"There Is a Fountain Filled with Blood\", were released on side one of the 1956 album, \"Spirituals\" , which was reissued in 1962 under the same title by Battle Records ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Jemmott",
        "text": "With Aretha Franklin\n* \"Aretha Now\" (Atlantic Records, 1968)\n* \"Soul '69\" (Atlantic Records, 1969)\n* \"This Girl's In Love With You\" (Atlantic Records, 1970)\n* \"Hey Now Hey (The Other Side of the Sky)\" (Atlantic Records, 1973)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Betsy Cook",
        "text": "Many of Cook's songs have been covered by other artists:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha (song)",
        "text": "She was also asked why she chose Aretha Franklin:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Working with Wexler and Atlantic, Franklin had become \"the most successful singer in the nation\" by 1968. In 1968, Franklin issued the top-selling albums \"Lady Soul\" and \"Aretha Now\", which included some of her most popular hit singles, including \"Chain of Fools\", \"Ain't No Way\", \"Think\", and \"I Say a Little Prayer\". That February, Franklin earned the first two of her Grammys, including the debut category for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance. On February 16, Franklin was honored with a day named for her and was greeted by longtime friend Martin Luther King Jr., who gave her the SCLC Drum Beat Award for Musicians two months before his death. Franklin toured outside the US for the first time in May, including an appearance at the Concertgebouw, Amsterdam, where she played to a near-hysterical audience who covered the stage with flower petals. She appeared on the cover of \"Time\" magazine in June."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "In 1989, Franklin filmed a music video for a remake of \"Think\". In 1990, she sang \"I Want to Be Happy\", \"(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman\", and \"Someone Else's Eyes\" at the MDA Labor Day Telethon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "\"gospel caravan\" tours for her to perform in various churches. He also helped her sign her first recording deal with J.V.B. Records. Recording equipment was installed inside New Bethel Baptist Church and nine tracks were recorded. Franklin was featured on vocals and piano. In 1956, J.V.B. released Franklin's first single, \"Never Grow Old\", backed with \"You Grow Closer\". \"Precious Lord \" backed with \"Precious Lord \" followed in 1959. These four tracks, with the addition of \"There Is a Fountain Filled with Blood\", were released on side one of the 1956 album, \"Spirituals\". This was reissued by Battle Records in 1962, under the same title. In 1965, Checker Records released \"Songs of Faith\", featuring the five tracks from the 1956 \"Spirituals\" album, with the addition of four previously unreleased recordings. Aretha was only 14 when \"Songs of Faith\" was recorded."
      },
      {
        "title": "30 Greatest Hits (Aretha Franklin album)",
        "text": "30 Greatest Hits (Aretha Franklin album)\n--Track listing.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "When \"Rolling Stone\" listed the \"Women in Rock: 50 Essential Albums\" in 2002 and again 2012, it listed Franklin's 1967, \"I Never Loved a Man the Way I Love You\", number one. Inducted to the GMA Gospel Music Hall of Fame in 2012, Franklin was described as \"the voice of the civil rights movement, the voice of black America\". Asteroid 249516 Aretha was named in her honor in 2014. The next year, \"Billboard\" named her the greatest female R&B artist of all time. In 2018, Franklin was inducted in to the Memphis Music Hall of Fame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "In 2015, President Barack Obama wrote the following regarding Franklin:Nobody embodies more fully the connection between the African-American spiritual, the blues, R. & B., rock and roll\u2014the way that hardship and sorrow were transformed into something full of beauty and vitality and hope. American history wells up when Aretha sings. That's why, when she sits down at a piano and sings 'A Natural Woman,' she can move me to tears\u2014the same way that Ray Charles's version of 'America the Beautiful' will always be in my view the most patriotic piece of music ever performed\u2014because it captures the fullness of the American experience, the view from the bottom as well as the top, the good and the bad, and the possibility of synthesis, reconciliation, transcendence."
      },
      {
        "title": "30 Greatest Hits (Aretha Franklin album)",
        "text": "Disc 1\n#\"I Never Loved a Man (The Way I Love You)\"\n#\"Respect\"\n#\"Do Right Woman, Do Right Man\"\n#\"Dr. Feelgood\"\n#\"Save Me\"\n#\"Baby I Love You\"\n#\"(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman\"\n#\"Chain of Fools\"\n#\"(Sweet Sweet Baby) Since You've Been Gone\"\n#\"Ain't No Way\"\n#\"Think\"\n#\"I Say a Little Prayer\"\n#\"The House That Jack Built\"\n#\"See Saw\"\n#\"The Weight\"\n#\"Share Your Love with Me\"\n#\"Eleanor Rigby\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Think (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "Think (Aretha Franklin song)\n--Personnel.\n--Versions.\n--Cover versions.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "30 Greatest Hits (Aretha Franklin album)",
        "text": "Disc 2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Franklin continued to record acclaimed albums such as \"I Never Loved a Man the Way I Love You\" (1967), \"Lady Soul\" (1968), \"Spirit in the Dark\" (1970), \"Young, Gifted and Black\" (1972), \"Amazing Grace\" (1972), and \"Sparkle\" (1976), before experiencing problems with the record company. Franklin left Atlantic in 1979 and signed with Arista Records. The singer appeared in the 1980 film \"The Blues Brothers\" before releasing the successful albums \"Jump to It\" (1982), \"Who's Zoomin' Who?\" (1985) and \"Aretha\" (1986) on the Arista label. In 1998, Franklin returned to the Top 40 with the Lauryn Hill-produced song \"A Rose Is Still a Rose\"; later, she released an album with the same name."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Live at Fillmore West",
        "text": "Franklin played a Fender Rhodes piano on four cuts, including \"Eleanor Rigby\", \"Spirit in the Dark\", \"Don't Play That Song\" and \"Dr. Feelgood\". Backing Franklin was King Curtis' band, the Kingpins, featuring Cornell Dupree on guitar, Bernard Purdie on drums, and Jerry Jemmott on bass, Billy Preston on organ, Curtis on saxophone, together with the Memphis Horns. The album reached number one on the Billboard R&B album chart on June 19, 1971."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha (1980 album)",
        "text": "Franklin's first Arista single release, \"United Together\", reached number 3 on the Soul chart and crossed over to number 56 on \"Billboard\"s Hot 100. The album itself peaked at number 47 and spent 30 weeks on the \"Billboard\" album chart."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Franklin's success expanded during the early 1970s, during which she recorded the multi-week R&B number one \"Don't Play That Song (You Lied)\", as well as the top-ten singles \"Spanish Harlem\", \"Rock Steady\", and \"Day Dreaming\". Some of these releases were from the acclaimed albums \"Spirit in the Dark\" and \"Young, Gifted and Black\". In 1971, Franklin became the first R&B performer to headline Fillmore West, later that year releasing the live album \"Aretha Live at Fillmore West\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Think (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "\"Think\" is a song written by American singer Aretha Franklin and Ted White, and first recorded by Franklin. It was released as a single in 1968, from her \"Aretha Now\" album. The song reached No. 7 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, becoming Franklin's seventh top 10 hit in the United States. The song also reached number 1 on the magazine's Hot Rhythm & Blues Singles, becoming her sixth single to top the chart. The song was written by Franklin and her then husband Ted White. Franklin re-recorded the song in the Atlantic Records New York studio for the soundtrack of the 1980 film \"The Blues Brothers\" and in 1989 for the album \"Through the Storm\". \"Pitchfork\" placed it at number 15 on its list of \"The 200 Greatest Songs of the 1960s\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Didn't I (Blow Your Mind This Time)",
        "text": "The song has been extensively covered since 1970, with versions by Aretha Franklin (from \"Young, Gifted and Black\" in 1971), brothers David and Jimmy Ruffin, Lisa Fischer, Regina Belle, Jackie Jackson, the Trammps, Maxine Nightingale and Patti LaBelle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Franklin's career began to experience problems while recording the album \"Hey Now Hey\", which featured production from Quincy Jones. Despite the success of the single \"Angel\", the album bombed upon its release in 1973. Franklin continued having R&B success with songs such as \"Until You Come Back to Me\" and \"I'm in Love\", but by 1975 her albums and songs were no longer top sellers. After Jerry Wexler left Atlantic for Warner Bros. Records in 1976, Franklin worked on the soundtrack to the film \"Sparkle\" with Curtis Mayfield. The album yielded Franklin's final top-40 hit of the decade, \"Something He Can Feel\", which also peaked at number one on the R&B chart. Franklin's follow-up albums for Atlantic, including \"Sweet Passion\" (1977), \"Almighty Fire\" (1978) and \"La Diva\" (1979), bombed on the charts, and in 1979 Franklin left the company. On November 7, 1979, she guested \"The Mike Douglas Show\" with her yellow costume from her \"La Diva\" album, and sang \"Ladies Only\", \"What If I Should Ever Need You\" and \"Yesterday\" by The Beatles."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Singer Aretha Franklin has been honored with many awards and nominations. These include 18 Grammy Awards and an additional 26 Grammy nominations for her recordings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Franklin began her career as a child, singing gospel at New Bethel Baptist Church in Detroit, Michigan, where her father C. L. Franklin was a minister. At the age of 18, she embarked on a music career as a recording artist for Columbia Records. While her career did not immediately flourish, Franklin found acclaim and commercial success once she signed with Atlantic Records in 1966. Commercial hits such as \"I Never Loved a Man (The Way I Love You)\", \"Respect\", \"(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman\", \"Chain of Fools\", \"Think\", and \"I Say a Little Prayer\", propelled Franklin past her musical peers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Angel (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "\"Angel\" is a soul ballad recorded by American singer Aretha Franklin. The song was co-written by Aretha's sister, Carolyn, and Sonny Sanders. Aretha co-produced the song with Quincy Jones and it originally appeared on Aretha's 1973 album \"Hey Now Hey (The Other Side of the Sky)\". It was released as a single in June 1973 and went on to top the US R&B Singles chart for two weeks while reaching number twenty on the Pop chart. The single sold over 900,000 copies.\n*Lead and background vocals by Aretha Franklin\n*Additional background vocals by Carolyn Franklin and Erma Franklin\n*Produced and arranged by Quincy Jones and Aretha Franklin"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin Sings the Great Diva Classics",
        "text": "Aretha Franklin Sings the Great Diva Classics is the thirty-eighth and final studio album by American recording artist Aretha Franklin and was released on October 17, 2014. It features ten covers of songs made famous by female recording artists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "At the 61st Annual Grammy Awards, the ceremony was ended with a memorial tribute to the life and career of Franklin. The tribute concluded with a rendition of her 1968 hit, \"A Natural Woman (You Make Me Feel Like)\", performed by Fantasia Barrino-Taylor, Andra Day and Yolanda Adams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bridge over Troubled Water (song)",
        "text": "Aretha Franklin's gospel-inspired cover version was released in March 1971 on Atlantic 45-2796 and reached number one on the US R&B chart and number six on the pop chart. The single was certified gold by the RIAA selling two million copies and later won the Grammy Award for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance in the 1972 awards. The single is 3:18 in length. The longer studio version, 5:31 in length, that appears on numerous compilations was first released on Franklin's 1971 compilation \"Aretha's Greatest Hits\". Her version was included on \"Greatest Moments, Volume III: Various Artists\". Franklin also debuted her version at the 1971 Grammy Awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Rolling Stone called Franklin \"the greatest singer of her generation\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Won't Be Long (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "\"Won't Be Long\" is a song written by J. Leslie McFarland and performed by Aretha Franklin. The song reached number 7 on the U.S. R&B chart and number 76 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 in 1961. The song appeared on her 1961 album, \"Aretha\". The song was produced by John Hammond."
      },
      {
        "title": "Won't Be Long (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "Won't Be Long (Aretha Franklin song)\n--Other recordings.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Just after her mother's death, Franklin began singing solos at New Bethel, debuting with the hymn \"Jesus, Be a Fence Around Me\". When Franklin was 12, her father began managing her; he would take her on the road with him, during his"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin Sings the Great Diva Classics",
        "text": "Notes"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rolling in the Deep",
        "text": "In 2014, Aretha Franklin covered the song on her \"Aretha Franklin Sings the Great Diva Classics\" album. It was released 29 September 2014 as the collection's lead single. This version peaked at number one on the US dance chart, giving Aretha Franklin her sixth number one on the chart. It also debuted at number 47 on the \"Billboard\" Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. Franklin thus becomes the first female, and fourth artist overall (following Lil Wayne, Jay-Z and James Brown), to place 100 songs on the charts (with her first entry on the chart being \"Today I Sing the Blues\" in 1960). This version of \"Rolling in the Deep\" entitled \"Rolling in the Deep (The Aretha Version)\" was Franklin's final single to be released before her retirement in 2017, and her death the following year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Franklin received numerous honors throughout her career. She was awarded the National Medal of Arts and the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In 1987, she became the first female artist to be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. She also was inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005 and into the Gospel Music Hall of Fame in 2012. In 2010, \"Rolling Stone\" ranked Franklin number one on its list of the \"100 Greatest Singers of All Time\". In 2019, the Pulitzer Prize jury awarded the singer a posthumous special citation \"for her indelible contribution to American music and culture for more than five decades\". In 2020, Franklin was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Songs of Faith (Aretha Franklin album)",
        "text": "MCA reissued the original 9 track album on Compact Disc in 1991 as \"Aretha Gospel\". After Aretha's passing in 2018, UMe/Geffen Records reissued it as \"Songs of Faith: Aretha Gospel.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin discography",
        "text": "The following singles were released or re-released after Franklin left Columbia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ofra Haza",
        "text": "Covers of songs by other artists included the Carole King/James Taylor song \"You've Got a Friend\", Madonna's \"Open Your Heart\", Gary Moore's \"Separate Ways\", and Led Zeppelin's \"Kashmir\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fonzi Thornton",
        "text": "Aretha Franklin\n*\"Jump to It\" (1982)\n*\"This Christmas, Aretha\" (2008)\n*\"\" (2011)\n*\"Aretha Franklin Sings the Great Diva Classics\" (2014)"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Very Best of Aretha Franklin, Vol. 1",
        "text": "The Very Best of Aretha Franklin, Vol. 1 is a compilation album by singer Aretha Franklin, released by Rhino Records in March 1994. The album compiles 13 of her first 14 singles for Atlantic Records all of which were recorded during the 1960s. The original recordings were produced by Jerry Wexler, and this compilation was certified platinum by the RIAA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Think (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "Franklin recorded an updated 3:38 version titled \"Think (1989)\" for her 1989 album \"Through the Storm\". It was produced and arranged by Arif Mardin with his son Joe Mardin. She re-recorded the song for Mothers Against Drunk Driving as a public service announcement during the late 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "With Everything I Feel in Me",
        "text": "This recording did not do as well commercially as previous Franklin albums. The LP reached #57 on Billboard's Top Album charts and peaked at #6 on the R&B album charts. None of its singles reached the Top 40 on the Billboard Hot 100. The lead single, \"Without Love\", written by Aretha's sister Carolyn Franklin and former Motown producer Ivy Jo Hunter, charted at #45 Pop, but fared far better on the R&B charts reaching #6. The title cut also charted at #20 on the R&B charts in early 1975."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha (1986 album)",
        "text": "This marked Franklin's seventh Gold album."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Very Best of Aretha Franklin, Vol. 1",
        "text": "This compilation contains thirteen of Franklin's initial fourteen singles released in the United States on Atlantic from her debut \"I Never Loved a Man (The Way I Love You)\" of February 1967 through \"Call Me\" of January 1970. The first eight all made the top ten on the Billboard Hot 100, including her chart-topping signature song, \"Respect.\" No single included charted lower than No. 19 on the Hot 100. Missing is her eleventh single of this sequence, \"I Can't See Myself Leaving You\" of April 1969; also missing is her 1968 version of \"(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction\" released as a single in the United Kingdom only."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin Sings the Great Diva Classics",
        "text": "\"Entertainment Weekly\" critic Tim Stack found that while Franklin \"delivers a rollicking take on Adele's 'Rolling in the Deep',\" the \"covers of other lady icons \u2014 Chaka, Barbra, Etta \u2014 feel dated or ill-conceived. It all plays like the official soundtrack to Gay Pride 1977.\" Allmusic editor Andy Kellman wrote that \"if there's one positive thing that can be said about the results, it's that Aretha sounds like she had a ball. The energy she put into these versions helps make up for the vocal shortcomings and audible use of Auto-Tune. She could have played it simple and straight, yet she clearly enjoyed the recording process, from melismatic accents to an abundance of personalized touches [...] Some of the creative moves are very questionable.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Atlantic Singles Collection 1967\u20131970",
        "text": "These singles are arguably the greatest work of Franklin's career. Of the 34 tracks on this set, seven appear on the \"Billboard\" list of her ten greatest songs, 16 appear on the \"Rolling Stone\" list of Franklin's greatest 50 songs, while half of the tally for Franklin's 20 essential songs according to \"The New York Times\" appear on this set."
      },
      {
        "title": "Songs of Faith (Aretha Franklin album)",
        "text": "In 1965, Checker Records released \"Songs of Faith\", featuring the five tracks from the 1956 \"Spirituals\" album, with the addition of four previously unreleased recordings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Think (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "Musicians\n*Aretha Franklin \u2013 lead vocals, piano\n*Willie Bridges, Floyd Newman \u2013 baritone saxophone\n*Charles Chalmers, Andrew Love \u2013 tenor saxophone\n*Tommy Cogbill, Jimmy Johnson \u2013 guitar\n*Roger Hawkins \u2013 drums\n*Wayne Jackson \u2013 trumpet\n*Jerry Jemmott \u2013 bass guitar\n*Spooner Oldham \u2013 Hammond organ\n*The Sweet Inspirations \u2013 background vocals"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin Sings the Great Diva Classics",
        "text": "This was Aretha's first and only recording for RCA Records, her first studio album to be released under a major label in 11 years (since the release of her 2003 studio album, \"So Damn Happy\"), and her first album since 1998 to be executive produced by Clive Davis, her boss at Arista Records, which has since folded into RCA. It is also her last studio album of entirely original recordings created prior to her death, as the subsequent 2017 album \"A Brand New Me\" features vintage vocal performances from the 1960s and 1970s paired with newer orchestral arrangements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Erma Franklin",
        "text": "Erma Vernice Franklin (March 13, 1938 \u2013 September 7, 2002) was an American gospel and soul singer. Franklin was the elder sister of American singer/musician Aretha Franklin. Franklin's best known recording was the original version of \"Piece of My Heart\", written and produced by Bert Berns, and recorded in 1967, for which she was nominated for a Grammy Award. A cover version of the same song was recorded the following year by Big Brother and the Holding Company, with the lead vocal by Janis Joplin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "On January 20, 2009, Franklin made international headlines for performing \"My Country, 'Tis of Thee\" at President Barack Obama's inaugural ceremony with her church hat becoming a popular topic online. In 2010, Franklin accepted an honorary degree from Yale University. In 2011, under her own label, Aretha's Records, she issued the album \"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wayne Jackson (musician)",
        "text": "With Aretha Franklin\n* \"Aretha Now\" (Atlantic Records, 1968)\n* \"Young, Gifted and Black\" (Atlantic Records, 1972)\n* \"Hey Now Hey (The Other Side of the Sky)\" (Atlantic Records, 1973)\n* \"With Everything I Feel in Me\" (Atlantic Records, 1974)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Soul '69",
        "text": "Soul '69 is the fourteenth studio album by American singer Aretha Franklin released in 1969 by Atlantic Records, the album features covered material. The album charted at number 1 on \"Billboard\"s R&B albums chart and at number 15 on \"Billboard\"s Top Albums, but launched two largely unsuccessful singles, \"Tracks of My Tears\", which reached number 21 on \"Black Singles\" and number 71 on \"Pop Singles\", and \"Gentle on My Mind\", which charted at number 50 and number 76 respectively. The album was re-released on compact disc through Rhino Records in the 1990s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "In the 1960s, during a performance at the Regal Theater in Chicago, WVON radio personality Pervis Spann announced that Franklin should be crowned \"the Queen of Soul\". Spann ceremonially placed a crown on her head. By 1964, Franklin began recording more pop music, reaching the top 10 on the R&B chart with the ballad \"Runnin' Out of Fools\", in early 1965. She had two R&B charted singles in 1965 and 1966, with the songs \"One Step Ahead\" and \"Cry Like a Baby\", while also reaching the Easy Listening charts with the ballads \"You Made Me Love You\" and \"(No, No) I'm Losing You\". By the mid-1960s, Franklin was making $100,000 per year from countless performances in nightclubs and theaters. Also during that period, she appeared on rock-and-roll shows, such as \"Hollywood a Go-Go\" and \"Shindig!\" However, she struggled with commercial success while at Columbia. Label executive John H. Hammond later said he felt Columbia did not understand Franklin's early gospel background and failed to bring that aspect out further during her period there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Songs of Faith (Aretha Franklin album)",
        "text": "Songs of Faith (Aretha Franklin album)\n--Background.\n--Reissues.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "This Little Bird (album)",
        "text": "This collection consists of nine original songs along with cover versions of: Joni Mitchell's \"A Case of You\"; John Sebastian of The Lovin' Spoonful's \"Darling Be Home Soon\"; and Ronnie Shannon's \"I Never Loved a Man (The Way I Love You)\" (Aretha Franklin's break-out song in 1967)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin Sings the Great Diva Classics",
        "text": "At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, \"Aretha Franklin Sings the Great Diva Classics\" has an average score of 66 based on nine reviews, indicating \"generally favorable reviews.\" \"Rolling Stone\" journalist Will Hermes called the album a \"delightful covers set\" that showed that \"Aretha can still step into the pop world at whim with total authority.\" Steve Morse, writing for \"The Boston Globe\", noted that \"Divas are everywhere these days, but there\u2019s still only one Aretha. At age 72, Franklin can still shut down the competition with a breathtaking, gospel-trained grace and power.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "In January 1961, Columbia issued Franklin's first album, \"\". The album featured her first single to chart the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, \"Won't Be Long\", which also peaked at number 7 on the R&B chart. Mostly produced by Clyde Otis, Franklin's Columbia recordings saw her performing in diverse genres, such as standards, vocal jazz, blues, doo-wop and rhythm and blues. Before the year was out, Franklin scored her first with her hit-single rendition of the standard \"Rock-a-Bye Your Baby with a Dixie Melody\". By the end of 1961, Franklin was named as a \"new-star female vocalist\" in \"DownBeat\" magazine. In 1962, Columbia issued two more albums, \"The Electrifying Aretha Franklin\" and \"The Tender, the Moving, the Swinging Aretha Franklin\", the latter of which reached number 69 on the \"Billboard\" chart."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "According to Richie Unterberger, Franklin was \"one of the giants of soul music, and indeed of American pop as a whole. More than any other performer, she epitomized soul at its most gospel-charged\". She had often been described as a great singer and musician due to \"vocal flexibility, interpretive intelligence, skillful piano-playing, her ear, her experience\". Franklin's voice was described as being a \"powerful mezzo-soprano voice\". She was praised for her arrangements and interpretations of other artists' hit songs. According to David Remnick, what \"distinguishes her is not merely the breadth of her catalog or the cataract force of her vocal instrument; it's her musical intelligence, her way of singing behind the beat, of spraying a wash of notes over a single word or syllable, of constructing, moment by moment, the emotional power of a three-minute song. 'Respect' is as precise an artifact as a Ming vase.\" Describing Franklin's voice as that of a youngster on her first album, \"Songs of Faith\", released in 1956 when she was just 14, Jerry Wexler explained that it \"was not that of a child but rather of an ecstatic hierophant\". Critic Randy Lewis assessed her skills as a pianist as \"magic\" and \"inspirational\". Musicians and professionals alike such as Elton John, Keith Richards, Carole King, and Clive Davis were fans of her piano performances."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Franklin was nominated for a Grammy Award 44 times and was the award winner 18 times. Eleven of her albums were nominated, winning four times."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Atlantic Singles Collection 1967\u20131970",
        "text": "The Atlantic Singles Collection 1967\u20131970 is a compilation album of singer Aretha Franklin, released by Rhino Records in September 2018. The album contains her first 17 singles for Atlantic Records released in the United States from her debut for the label \"I Never Loved a Man (The Way I Love You)\" of February 1967 through \"Border Song (Holy Moses)\" of October 1970. The Amazon sales website identifies these as digitally remastered versions of the original mono issues, although that is not indicated in the set's liner notes or packaging. The original recordings were produced by Jerry Wexler, at times in collaboration with Tom Dowd and Arif Mardin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hey Now Hey (The Other Side of the Sky)",
        "text": "Hey Now Hey (The Other Side of the Sky) is the nineteenth studio album by American singer-songwriter Aretha Franklin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Think (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "Credits are adapted from the liner notes of \"Aretha Now\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Songs of Faith (Aretha Franklin album)",
        "text": "Songs of Faith is the first live album by American singer Aretha Franklin. It was released in 1965 by Checker Records. The album was recorded in 1956 by J-V-B Records at New Bethel Baptist Church in Detroit, Michigan, when Franklin was aged 14."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim Gilstrap",
        "text": "Aretha Franklin\n* Aretha (1980)\n* Who's Zoomin' Who? (1985)\n* Aretha (1986)\n* Greatest Hits: 1980-1994 (1994)\n* Knew You Were Waiting: The Best of Aretha Franklin 1980-1998 (2012)"
      },
      {
        "title": "I Never Loved a Man (The Way I Love You)",
        "text": "There are a number of renditions of this song on YouTube including Franklin performing it on the \"Lady Soul\" special from 1968. A live recording featured on the album \"Aretha in Paris\" (1968)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fefe Dobson discography",
        "text": "Commercially released cover versions or songs written by Fefe Dobson recorded by other artists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Talk to Me (Joe Seneca song)",
        "text": "Aretha Franklin recorded a version in 1968 during the sessions for her Soul '69 LP. It didn't make the album, but was released in 2007 on Rare & Unreleased Recordings from the Golden Reign of the Queen of Soul."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Never Loved a Man (The Way I Love You)",
        "text": "both pop and r&b markets.\" It rose to #9 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 and became Franklin's first #1 hit on the R&B charts. It was also the title of Franklin's first Atlantic LP. Franklin would soon become a superstar after the release of this song. The song has since been called a pivotal moment in rock and roll. It ranked #189 on Rolling Stone's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.\n:Source (album credits):\n* Aretha Franklin \u2013 piano, vocals\n* Spooner Oldham \u2013 keyboards, piano\n* Jimmy Johnson, Chips Moman \u2013 guitar\n* Tommy Cogbill \u2013 bass guitar\n* Gene Chrisman, Roger Hawkins \u2013 drums\n* Melvin Lastie \u2013 trumpet\n* Charles Chalmers, King Curtis \u2013 tenor saxophone\n* Willie Bridges \u2013 baritone saxophone\n* Carolyn Franklin \u2013 background vocals\n* Erma Franklin \u2013 background vocals\n* Cissy Houston \u2013 background vocals\n* Produced by Rick Hall (FAME Studios, Muscle Shoals, AL)\n* Tom Dowd \u2013 arranger, recording engineer\n* Arif Mardin \u2013 recording engineer"
      },
      {
        "title": "Carolyn Franklin",
        "text": "Franklin retired from the music industry in 1976, though she occasionally continued to sing with Aretha. Franklin appeared as one of Aretha's background singers in the 1980 movie \"The Blues Brothers\", and was a backing vocalist on Paul King's 1987 album \"Joy\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Aretha Franklin (1942\u20132018) was an American singer, songwriter, and pianist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha (1986 album)",
        "text": "Following Franklin's first-ever Platinum record, \"Who's Zoomin' Who?\", \"Aretha\" was certified Gold by the RIAA, after only several weeks on the market, with no additional certification added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "In 2008, Franklin issued the holiday album \"This Christmas, Aretha\" on DMI Records. On February 8, 2008, Franklin was honored as the MusiCares Person of the Year, and performed \"Never Gonna Break My Faith\", which had won her the Grammy for best Gospel performance the year before. Twelve years later, an unheard performance of \"Never Gonna Break My Faith\" was released in June 2020 to commemorate Juneteenth with a new video visualizing the American human rights movement. This caused the song to enter the \"Billboard\" gospel charts at number one, giving Franklin the distinction of having had a number one record in every decade since the 1960s. On November 18, 2008, she performed \"Respect\" and \"Chain of Fools\" at \"Dancing with the Stars\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha (1961 album)",
        "text": "The album showcases an 18 year old Franklin, covering a range of jazz and pop standards. Columbia Records couldn't clearly classify Aretha's sound, as either jazz or R&B. Aretha's subsequent albums would show her moving from the realms of both sounds, and audiences as she tries to define her \"own soulful sound\". Though rare to find an original 6-eye pressing on vinyl, Columbia Records re-released these sessions and retitled them as \"The Great Aretha Franklin: The First 12 Sides\", in 1972. The exact same recording \"The Great Aretha Franklin: The First 12 Sides\", was once more re-released on vinyl, this time in 1973 by CBS/Embassy, trademarks of Columbia Records, probably being a UK edition, which on the center label bears these identification numbers: EMB S-31006 (KC 31953). There are some minor changes in the track list for the 1973 edition as well. (See the separate track listing below the 1972 listing)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Studio albums"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rick Hall",
        "text": "Aretha Franklin recorded her hit I Never Loved a Man the Way I Love You at FAME in 1967, with the \"Swampers\" providing the accompaniment. She later publicly acknowledged Rick Hall \"for the 'turning point'\" in her career, taking her from a struggling artist\" to a major music star."
      },
      {
        "title": "Think (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "Katharine McPhee's version of the song was released as a limited single from the \"\" (2006) album. The song became a minor Internet hit for McPhee\u2014it was her first song to chart in the Pop 100, where it peaked at No. 90 due to download sales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yeah!!!",
        "text": "Yeah!!! (or Aretha Franklin in Person With Her Quartet) is the seventh studio album by American singer Aretha Franklin, Released on May 17, 1965 by Columbia Records. Contrary to the overdubbed sounds of audience murmurs, the album was not a live album, but instead was recorded live at New York's Columbia Studios and produced by Clyde Otis. This would be Franklin's last collection of jazz recordings until the release of 1969's \"Soul '69\", released during her landmark tenure at Atlantic Records. An expanded version of the album that also contains the original session tracks without audience overdubs has been released on CD in the Columbia Box Set \"Take a Look: Aretha Franklin Complete On Columbia\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yogi Horton",
        "text": "With Aretha Franklin\n* \"Jump to It\" (Arista Records, 1982)\n* \"Get It Right\" (Arista Records, 1983)\n* \"Who's Zoomin' Who?\" (Arista Records, 1985)\n* \"Aretha\" (Arista Records, 1986)\n* \"Through the Storm\" (Arista Records, 1989)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Erma Franklin",
        "text": "Franklin told an interviewer that when she first heard Janis Joplin's version on the radio, she did not recognize it because of the vocal arrangement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "In January 1967, Franklin traveled to Muscle Shoals, Alabama, to record at FAME Studios and recorded the song \"I Never Loved a Man (The Way I Love You)\", backed by the Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section. Franklin only spent one day recording at FAME, as an altercation broke out between her manager and husband Ted White, studio owner Rick Hall, and a horn player, and sessions were abandoned. The song was released the following month and reached number one on the R&B chart, while also peaking at number nine on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, giving Franklin her first top-ten pop single. The song's B-side, \"Do Right Woman, Do Right Man\", reached the R&B top 40, peaking at number 37. \"Respect\" was Otis Redding's song but Aretha modified it with a \"supercharged interlude featuring the emphatic spelling-out of the song\u2019s title\". Her frenetic version was released in April and reached number one on both the R&B and pop charts. \"Respect\" became her signature song and was later hailed as a civil rights and feminist anthem. Upon hearing her version, Otis Redding said admiringly: \"That little girl done took my song away from me.\" Franklin's debut Atlantic album, \"I Never Loved a Man the Way I Love You\", also became commercially successful, later going gold. According to \"National Geographic\", this recording \"would catapult Franklin to fame\". Franklin scored two additional top-ten singles in 1967, \"Baby I Love You\" and \"(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Love All the Hurt Away",
        "text": "Love All the Hurt Away is the twenty-seventh studio album by American singer Aretha Franklin. Released in mid-1981, this album is the singer's second release under the Arista Records label. The Arif Mardin-produced disc reached fourth place on \"Billboard\"'s R&B albums chart and #36 on the main \"Billboard\" album chart, selling roughly 250,000 copies in the US."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many of Franklin's songs have been covered by other artist?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Which do you mean, Aretha Louise Franklin or Kirk Dewayne Franklin?",
      "Are you asking about Melvin Franklin, Erma Franklin, Aretha Franklin or someone else?"
    ],
    "topic": "Aretha Franklin",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Aretha Franklin:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Aretha Franklin"
        ],
        "ctx": "Aretha Louise Franklin ( ; March 25, 1942August 16, 2018) was an American singer, songwriter and pianist. Referred to as the \"Queen of Soul\", she has twice been placed ninth in \"Rolling Stone\"s \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\". With global sales of over 75 million records, Franklin is one of the world's best-selling music artists."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Kirk Franklin:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Kirk Franklin"
        ],
        "ctx": "Kirk Dewayne Franklin (born January 26, 1970) is an American choir director, gospel singer, dancer, songwriter, and author. He is best known for leading urban contemporary gospel choirs such as The Family, God's Property, and One Nation Crew (1NC) among many others. He has won numerous awards, including 16 Grammy Awards. \"Variety\" dubbed Franklin as a \"Reigning King of Urban Gospel\", and is one of the inaugural inductees into the Black Music & Entertainment Walk of Fame."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Aretha Franklin:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Aretha Franklin"
        ],
        "ctx": "Aretha Louise Franklin ( ; March 25, 1942August 16, 2018) was an American singer, songwriter and pianist. Referred to as the \"Queen of Soul\", she has twice been placed ninth in \"Rolling Stone\"s \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\". With global sales of over 75 million records, Franklin is one of the world's best-selling music artists."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Erma Franklin:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Erma Franklin"
        ],
        "ctx": "Erma Vernice Franklin (March 13, 1938 \u2013 September 7, 2002) was an American gospel and soul singer. Franklin was the elder sister of American singer/musician Aretha Franklin. Franklin's best known recording was the original version of \"Piece of My Heart\", written and produced by Bert Berns, and recorded in 1967, for which she was nominated for a Grammy Award. A cover version of the same song was recorded the following year by Big Brother and the Holding Company, with the lead vocal by Janis Joplin."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Melvin Franklin:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Melvin Franklin"
        ],
        "ctx": "David Melvin English (October 12, 1942 \u2013 February 23, 1995) better known by the stage name Melvin Franklin, or his nickname \"Blue\", was an American bass singer. Franklin was best known for his role as a founding member of Motown singing group The Temptations from 1960 to 1994."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Aretha (1986 album)",
        "text": "As with Franklin's previous album, \"Who's Zoomin' Who?\", \"Aretha\" was produced mainly by Narada Michael Walden and includes her duet with George Michael, \"I Knew You Were Waiting (For Me)\", which became Franklin's first #1 Pop single since \"Respect\" in 1967, and would also be her last. The album also yielded three other hit singles: \"Jimmy Lee\", \"Rock-A-Lott\" and a hard rock cover of The Rolling Stones' classic, \"Jumpin' Jack Flash\". All music videos were extremely popular on MTV, BET and other video outlets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "According to music producer Quincy Jones, while Franklin was still young, Dinah Washington let him know that \"Aretha was the 'next one."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha (song)",
        "text": "She was also asked why she chose Aretha Franklin:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "After 1988, \"Franklin never again had huge hits\", according to \"Rolling Stone\". The 1991 album \"What You See is What You Sweat\" flopped on the charts. She returned to the charts in 1993 with the dance song \"A Deeper Love\" and returned to the top 40 with the song \"Willing to Forgive\" in 1994. That recording reached number 26 on the Hot 100 and number five on the R&B chart."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Aretha Franklin (1942\u20132018) was an American singer, songwriter, and pianist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha (1986 album)",
        "text": "Franklin's vocal from \"Rock-A-Lott\" was sampled extensively in the 49ers' 1990 hit \"Touch Me\", while her version of \"Jumpin' Jack Flash\" was the title song for the comedy film of the same name starring Whoopi Goldberg. All four of the singles were shot as music videos that received extensive play."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Aretha Louise Franklin ( ; March 25, 1942August 16, 2018) was an American singer, songwriter and pianist. Referred to as the \"Queen of Soul\", she has twice been placed ninth in \"Rolling Stone\"s \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\". With global sales of over 75 million records, Franklin is one of the world's best-selling music artists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Until You Come Back to Me (That's What I'm Gonna Do)",
        "text": "With this peak at number three, Franklin became the first artist in the history of the Hot 100 chart to have a hit song peak at each position from one to ten on the chart. To date, only four other artists have achieved this feat: Marvin Gaye in 1983, Madonna in 1996, Drake in 2013, and Taylor Swift in 2015. Aretha's version of the song was ranked by \"Billboard\" as the No. 11 song for 1974."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin discography",
        "text": "She is ranked first among female vocalists with the most \"Billboard\" chart hits during the rock era (1955\u20132012) with a total of 88 according to Joel Whitburn's Record Research."
      },
      {
        "title": "Think (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "Musicians\n*Aretha Franklin \u2013 lead vocals, piano\n*Willie Bridges, Floyd Newman \u2013 baritone saxophone\n*Charles Chalmers, Andrew Love \u2013 tenor saxophone\n*Tommy Cogbill, Jimmy Johnson \u2013 guitar\n*Roger Hawkins \u2013 drums\n*Wayne Jackson \u2013 trumpet\n*Jerry Jemmott \u2013 bass guitar\n*Spooner Oldham \u2013 Hammond organ\n*The Sweet Inspirations \u2013 background vocals"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Franklin recorded 112 charted singles on the US \"Billboard\" charts, including 73 Hot 100 entries, 17 top-ten pop singles, 100 R&B entries and 20 number-one R&B singles. Besides the foregoing, the singer's well-known hits also include \"Ain't No Way\", \"Call Me\", \"Don't Play That Song (You Lied)\", \"Spanish Harlem\", \"Rock Steady\", \"Day Dreaming\", \"Until You Come Back to Me (That's What I'm Gonna Do)\", \"Something He Can Feel\", \"Jump to It\", \"Freeway of Love\", \"Who's Zoomin' Who\" and \"I Knew You Were Waiting (For Me)\" (a duet with George Michael). Franklin won 18 Grammy Awards, including the first eight awards given for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance (1968\u20131975), a Grammy Awards Living Legend honor and Lifetime Achievement Award."
      },
      {
        "title": "Won't Be Long (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "The song has been recorded by numerous artists, including Dusty Springfield, Sly & the Family Stone, and Eva Cassidy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Live at Fillmore West",
        "text": "Franklin played a Fender Rhodes piano on four cuts, including \"Eleanor Rigby\", \"Spirit in the Dark\", \"Don't Play That Song\" and \"Dr. Feelgood\". Backing Franklin was King Curtis' band, the Kingpins, featuring Cornell Dupree on guitar, Bernard Purdie on drums, and Jerry Jemmott on bass, Billy Preston on organ, Curtis on saxophone, together with the Memphis Horns. The album reached number one on the Billboard R&B album chart on June 19, 1971."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerry Jemmott",
        "text": "With Aretha Franklin\n* \"Aretha Now\" (Atlantic Records, 1968)\n* \"Soul '69\" (Atlantic Records, 1969)\n* \"This Girl's In Love With You\" (Atlantic Records, 1970)\n* \"Hey Now Hey (The Other Side of the Sky)\" (Atlantic Records, 1973)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Think (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "Credits are adapted from the liner notes of \"Aretha Now\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Franklin's success expanded during the early 1970s, during which she recorded the multi-week R&B number one \"Don't Play That Song (You Lied)\", as well as the top-ten singles \"Spanish Harlem\", \"Rock Steady\", and \"Day Dreaming\". Some of these releases were from the acclaimed albums \"Spirit in the Dark\" and \"Young, Gifted and Black\". In 1971, Franklin became the first R&B performer to headline Fillmore West, later that year releasing the live album \"Aretha Live at Fillmore West\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "It Ain't Necessarily So",
        "text": "In 1960, Aretha Franklin recorded a cover on her debut studio album, \"\" for Columbia records."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin Sings the Great Diva Classics",
        "text": "Notes"
      },
      {
        "title": "Think (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "Think (Aretha Franklin song)\n--Personnel.\n--Versions.\n--Cover versions.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Very Best of Aretha Franklin, Vol. 1",
        "text": "The other three tracks appeared as b-sides, two of which charted on the Hot 100 independently of their hit sides. The single mixes do not appear here on every track."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Rolling Stone called Franklin \"the greatest singer of her generation\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Won't Be Long (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "\"Won't Be Long\" is a song written by J. Leslie McFarland and performed by Aretha Franklin. The song reached number 7 on the U.S. R&B chart and number 76 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 in 1961. The song appeared on her 1961 album, \"Aretha\". The song was produced by John Hammond."
      },
      {
        "title": "Think (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "\"Think\" is a song written by American singer Aretha Franklin and Ted White, and first recorded by Franklin. It was released as a single in 1968, from her \"Aretha Now\" album. The song reached No. 7 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, becoming Franklin's seventh top 10 hit in the United States. The song also reached number 1 on the magazine's Hot Rhythm & Blues Singles, becoming her sixth single to top the chart. The song was written by Franklin and her then husband Ted White. Franklin re-recorded the song in the Atlantic Records New York studio for the soundtrack of the 1980 film \"The Blues Brothers\" and in 1989 for the album \"Through the Storm\". \"Pitchfork\" placed it at number 15 on its list of \"The 200 Greatest Songs of the 1960s\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin discography",
        "text": "This discography documents the releases of albums and singles by Aretha Franklin. Widely regarded as the \"Queen of Soul\", she has sold over 75 million records worldwide, making her one of the best-selling R&B female artists of all time. Billboard ranks her as the 34th Greatest Artist of all time. Franklin has scored 73 entries on the Billboard Hot 100, the most among women for nearly 40 years until Nicki Minaj passed her in 2017. \"Billboard\" listed her as the 41st Top Gospel Artist of the 2010s. She has accumulated 20 No. 1 hits on Billboard's Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Studio albums"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hey Now Hey (The Other Side of the Sky)",
        "text": "Other notable songs include the No. 1 R&B and top 20 pop single \"Angel\" written by Aretha's younger sister, Carolyn Franklin, as well as a cover of \"Somewhere\" which features Franklin on piano and Phil Woods on alto saxophone. This recording was reissued on compact disc through Rhino Records in the 1990s. The song \"Master of Eyes\" was included as the tenth track on the reissue though it was not included on the first release."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "When \"Rolling Stone\" listed the \"Women in Rock: 50 Essential Albums\" in 2002 and again 2012, it listed Franklin's 1967, \"I Never Loved a Man the Way I Love You\", number one. Inducted to the GMA Gospel Music Hall of Fame in 2012, Franklin was described as \"the voice of the civil rights movement, the voice of black America\". Asteroid 249516 Aretha was named in her honor in 2014. The next year, \"Billboard\" named her the greatest female R&B artist of all time. In 2018, Franklin was inducted in to the Memphis Music Hall of Fame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "At the 61st Annual Grammy Awards, the ceremony was ended with a memorial tribute to the life and career of Franklin. The tribute concluded with a rendition of her 1968 hit, \"A Natural Woman (You Make Me Feel Like)\", performed by Fantasia Barrino-Taylor, Andra Day and Yolanda Adams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fonzi Thornton",
        "text": "Aretha Franklin\n*\"Jump to It\" (1982)\n*\"This Christmas, Aretha\" (2008)\n*\"\" (2011)\n*\"Aretha Franklin Sings the Great Diva Classics\" (2014)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "In 1985, inspired by a desire to have a \"younger sound\" in her music, \"Who's Zoomin' Who?\" became her first Arista album to be certified platinum. The album sold well over a million copies thanks to the hits \"Freeway of Love\", the title track, and \"Another Night\". The next year's \"Aretha\" album nearly matched this success with the hit singles \"Jumpin' Jack Flash\", \"Jimmy Lee\" and \"I Knew You Were Waiting for Me\", her international number-one duet with George Michael. During that period, Franklin provided vocals to the theme songs of the TV shows \"A Different World\" and \"Together\". In 1987, she issued her third gospel album, \"One Lord, One Faith, One Baptism\", which was recorded at her late father's New Bethel church, followed by \"Through the Storm\" in 1989."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "In 2010 Franklin was ranked first on \"Rolling Stone\" magazine's list of the \"100 Greatest Singers of All Time\" and ninth on their list of \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\". Following news of Franklin's surgery and recovery in February 2011, the Grammys ceremony paid tribute to the singer with a medley of her classics performed by Christina Aguilera, Florence Welch, Jennifer Hudson, Martina McBride, and Yolanda Adams. That same year she was ranked 19th among the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 All-Time top artists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Think (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "Production\n*Jerry Wexler \u2013 producer\n*Tom Dowd, Arif Mardin \u2013 arrangements\n*Tom Dowd \u2013 engineer"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "In 2014, Franklin was signed under RCA Records, controller of the Arista catalog and a sister label to Columbia via Sony Music Entertainment, and worked with Clive Davis. There were plans for her to record an album produced by Danger Mouse, who was replaced with Babyface and Don Was when Danger Mouse left the project. On September 29, 2014, Franklin performed to a standing ovation, with Cissy Houston as backup, a compilation of Adele's \"Rolling in the Deep\" and \"Ain't No Mountain High Enough\" on the \"Late Show with David Letterman\". Franklin's cover of \"Rolling in the Deep\" was featured among nine other songs in her first RCA release, \"Aretha Franklin Sings the Great Diva Classics\", released in October 2014. In doing so, she became the first woman to have 100 songs on \"Billboard\"'s Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart with the success of her cover of Adele's \"Rolling in the Deep\", which debuted at number 47 on the chart."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin discography",
        "text": "The following singles were released or re-released after Franklin left Columbia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Songs of Faith (Aretha Franklin album)",
        "text": "Aretha Franklin's recording career began in 1956 with the help of local record label J-V-B Records. Recording equipment was installed in the New Bethel Baptist Church and nine tracks were recorded, featuring Franklin on vocals and piano. In 1956, J-V-B released Franklin's first single, \"Never Grow Old\", backed with \"You Grow Closer\". A second single, \"Precious Lord \" backed with \"Precious Lord \" was issued in 1959. These four tracks, with the addition of \"There Is a Fountain Filled with Blood\", were released on side one of the 1956 album, \"Spirituals\" , which was reissued in 1962 under the same title by Battle Records ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Angel (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "\"Angel\" is a soul ballad recorded by American singer Aretha Franklin. The song was co-written by Aretha's sister, Carolyn, and Sonny Sanders. Aretha co-produced the song with Quincy Jones and it originally appeared on Aretha's 1973 album \"Hey Now Hey (The Other Side of the Sky)\". It was released as a single in June 1973 and went on to top the US R&B Singles chart for two weeks while reaching number twenty on the Pop chart. The single sold over 900,000 copies.\n*Lead and background vocals by Aretha Franklin\n*Additional background vocals by Carolyn Franklin and Erma Franklin\n*Produced and arranged by Quincy Jones and Aretha Franklin"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha (1986 album)",
        "text": "This marked Franklin's seventh Gold album."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "In 2015, President Barack Obama wrote the following regarding Franklin:Nobody embodies more fully the connection between the African-American spiritual, the blues, R. & B., rock and roll\u2014the way that hardship and sorrow were transformed into something full of beauty and vitality and hope. American history wells up when Aretha sings. That's why, when she sits down at a piano and sings 'A Natural Woman,' she can move me to tears\u2014the same way that Ray Charles's version of 'America the Beautiful' will always be in my view the most patriotic piece of music ever performed\u2014because it captures the fullness of the American experience, the view from the bottom as well as the top, the good and the bad, and the possibility of synthesis, reconciliation, transcendence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Erma Franklin",
        "text": "Erma Vernice Franklin (March 13, 1938 \u2013 September 7, 2002) was an American gospel and soul singer. Franklin was the elder sister of American singer/musician Aretha Franklin. Franklin's best known recording was the original version of \"Piece of My Heart\", written and produced by Bert Berns, and recorded in 1967, for which she was nominated for a Grammy Award. A cover version of the same song was recorded the following year by Big Brother and the Holding Company, with the lead vocal by Janis Joplin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim Gilstrap",
        "text": "Aretha Franklin\n* Aretha (1980)\n* Who's Zoomin' Who? (1985)\n* Aretha (1986)\n* Greatest Hits: 1980-1994 (1994)\n* Knew You Were Waiting: The Best of Aretha Franklin 1980-1998 (2012)"
      },
      {
        "title": "30 Greatest Hits (Aretha Franklin album)",
        "text": "Disc 2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Share Your Love with Me",
        "text": "Aretha Franklin recorded the song for her 1970 album, \"This Girl's in Love with You\". Her single spent five weeks at number-one on the Best Selling Soul Singles chart and peaked at #13 on the Billboard Hot 100 on September 13, 1969. The song earned Franklin a Grammy Award for Best R&B Vocal Performance, Female in 1970. In March 1971 Aretha recorded two live versions of the song during her three-day concert at the Fillmore West in San Francisco; one of the two version is on the 2006 deluxe edition of \"Aretha Live at Fillmore West\", and both versions are on the 2005 remastered \"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Just after her mother's death, Franklin began singing solos at New Bethel, debuting with the hymn \"Jesus, Be a Fence Around Me\". When Franklin was 12, her father began managing her; he would take her on the road with him, during his"
      },
      {
        "title": "30 Greatest Hits (Aretha Franklin album)",
        "text": "30 Greatest Hits (Aretha Franklin album)\n--Track listing.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "In 1989, Franklin filmed a music video for a remake of \"Think\". In 1990, she sang \"I Want to Be Happy\", \"(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman\", and \"Someone Else's Eyes\" at the MDA Labor Day Telethon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Won't Be Long (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "Won't Be Long (Aretha Franklin song)\n--Other recordings.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "30 Greatest Hits (Aretha Franklin album)",
        "text": "Disc 1\n#\"I Never Loved a Man (The Way I Love You)\"\n#\"Respect\"\n#\"Do Right Woman, Do Right Man\"\n#\"Dr. Feelgood\"\n#\"Save Me\"\n#\"Baby I Love You\"\n#\"(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman\"\n#\"Chain of Fools\"\n#\"(Sweet Sweet Baby) Since You've Been Gone\"\n#\"Ain't No Way\"\n#\"Think\"\n#\"I Say a Little Prayer\"\n#\"The House That Jack Built\"\n#\"See Saw\"\n#\"The Weight\"\n#\"Share Your Love with Me\"\n#\"Eleanor Rigby\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Franklin began her career as a child, singing gospel at New Bethel Baptist Church in Detroit, Michigan, where her father C. L. Franklin was a minister. At the age of 18, she embarked on a music career as a recording artist for Columbia Records. While her career did not immediately flourish, Franklin found acclaim and commercial success once she signed with Atlantic Records in 1966. Commercial hits such as \"I Never Loved a Man (The Way I Love You)\", \"Respect\", \"(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman\", \"Chain of Fools\", \"Think\", and \"I Say a Little Prayer\", propelled Franklin past her musical peers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yeah!!!",
        "text": "Yeah!!! (or Aretha Franklin in Person With Her Quartet) is the seventh studio album by American singer Aretha Franklin, Released on May 17, 1965 by Columbia Records. Contrary to the overdubbed sounds of audience murmurs, the album was not a live album, but instead was recorded live at New York's Columbia Studios and produced by Clyde Otis. This would be Franklin's last collection of jazz recordings until the release of 1969's \"Soul '69\", released during her landmark tenure at Atlantic Records. An expanded version of the album that also contains the original session tracks without audience overdubs has been released on CD in the Columbia Box Set \"Take a Look: Aretha Franklin Complete On Columbia\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha (1980 album)",
        "text": "Franklin's first Arista single release, \"United Together\", reached number 3 on the Soul chart and crossed over to number 56 on \"Billboard\"s Hot 100. The album itself peaked at number 47 and spent 30 weeks on the \"Billboard\" album chart."
      },
      {
        "title": "Call Me (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "\"Call Me\" is a song written and recorded by American singer Aretha Franklin. The song was co-produced by Jerry Wexler, Tom Dowd and Arif Mardin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin Sings the Great Diva Classics",
        "text": "The first single released from the album was a cover of singer Adele's \"Rolling in the Deep\", subtitled as \"The Aretha Version\", which also includes an interpolation of the Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell hit, \"Ain't No Mountain High Enough\". The single debuted at number 47 on the \"Billboard\" Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. Aretha Franklin thus became the first woman, and fourth artist overall (following Lil Wayne, Jay-Z and James Brown), to place 100 songs on the chart (with her first entry on the chart being \"Today I Sing the Blues\" in 1960)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Erma Franklin",
        "text": "During her childhood, Erma and her sisters Aretha and Carolyn sang at New Bethel Baptist Church. Later, when Aretha became a recording artist, Erma provided backing vocals and toured with her. Among her more notable back-up performances for her sister was on Aretha's signature tune \"Respect\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Franklin continued to record acclaimed albums such as \"I Never Loved a Man the Way I Love You\" (1967), \"Lady Soul\" (1968), \"Spirit in the Dark\" (1970), \"Young, Gifted and Black\" (1972), \"Amazing Grace\" (1972), and \"Sparkle\" (1976), before experiencing problems with the record company. Franklin left Atlantic in 1979 and signed with Arista Records. The singer appeared in the 1980 film \"The Blues Brothers\" before releasing the successful albums \"Jump to It\" (1982), \"Who's Zoomin' Who?\" (1985) and \"Aretha\" (1986) on the Arista label. In 1998, Franklin returned to the Top 40 with the Lauryn Hill-produced song \"A Rose Is Still a Rose\"; later, she released an album with the same name."
      },
      {
        "title": "Call Me (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "Main performance\n*Aretha Franklin \u2013 vocals, acoustic piano, additional keyboards\n*Brenda Bryant \u2013 background vocals\n*Cissy Houston \u2013 background vocals\n*Pat Lewis \u2013 background vocals"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Best of Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "The Best of Aretha Franklin\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Call Me (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "Production"
      },
      {
        "title": "You (Aretha Franklin album)",
        "text": "It was a commercial disappointment, stalling at #83 on \"Billboard\"s album chart. The album's only pop chart single, \"Mr. D.J.\" peaked at #53 on \"Billboard\"'s Hot 100, while climbing to only #13 R&B. The title track, issued as the follow-up, reached #15 R&B. The album brought an end to Aretha's long collaboration with Atlantic producer Jerry Wexler."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "\"gospel caravan\" tours for her to perform in various churches. He also helped her sign her first recording deal with J.V.B. Records. Recording equipment was installed inside New Bethel Baptist Church and nine tracks were recorded. Franklin was featured on vocals and piano. In 1956, J.V.B. released Franklin's first single, \"Never Grow Old\", backed with \"You Grow Closer\". \"Precious Lord \" backed with \"Precious Lord \" followed in 1959. These four tracks, with the addition of \"There Is a Fountain Filled with Blood\", were released on side one of the 1956 album, \"Spirituals\". This was reissued by Battle Records in 1962, under the same title. In 1965, Checker Records released \"Songs of Faith\", featuring the five tracks from the 1956 \"Spirituals\" album, with the addition of four previously unreleased recordings. Aretha was only 14 when \"Songs of Faith\" was recorded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Working with Wexler and Atlantic, Franklin had become \"the most successful singer in the nation\" by 1968. In 1968, Franklin issued the top-selling albums \"Lady Soul\" and \"Aretha Now\", which included some of her most popular hit singles, including \"Chain of Fools\", \"Ain't No Way\", \"Think\", and \"I Say a Little Prayer\". That February, Franklin earned the first two of her Grammys, including the debut category for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance. On February 16, Franklin was honored with a day named for her and was greeted by longtime friend Martin Luther King Jr., who gave her the SCLC Drum Beat Award for Musicians two months before his death. Franklin toured outside the US for the first time in May, including an appearance at the Concertgebouw, Amsterdam, where she played to a near-hysterical audience who covered the stage with flower petals. She appeared on the cover of \"Time\" magazine in June."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Very Best of Aretha Franklin, Vol. 1",
        "text": "The Very Best of Aretha Franklin, Vol. 1 is a compilation album by singer Aretha Franklin, released by Rhino Records in March 1994. The album compiles 13 of her first 14 singles for Atlantic Records all of which were recorded during the 1960s. The original recordings were produced by Jerry Wexler, and this compilation was certified platinum by the RIAA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Now",
        "text": "Aretha Now is the thirteenth studio album by American singer Aretha Franklin, released on June 14, 1968, by Atlantic Records. Quickly certified Gold, it eventually reached a million in US sales. It hit No. 3 on \"Billboard\"'s album chart. In 1993, it was reissued on CD through Rhino Records. The album was rated the 133rd best album of the 1960s by \"Pitchfork\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha (1986 album)",
        "text": "Following Franklin's first-ever Platinum record, \"Who's Zoomin' Who?\", \"Aretha\" was certified Gold by the RIAA, after only several weeks on the market, with no additional certification added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Soul '69",
        "text": "Soul '69 is the fourteenth studio album by American singer Aretha Franklin released in 1969 by Atlantic Records, the album features covered material. The album charted at number 1 on \"Billboard\"s R&B albums chart and at number 15 on \"Billboard\"s Top Albums, but launched two largely unsuccessful singles, \"Tracks of My Tears\", which reached number 21 on \"Black Singles\" and number 71 on \"Pop Singles\", and \"Gentle on My Mind\", which charted at number 50 and number 76 respectively. The album was re-released on compact disc through Rhino Records in the 1990s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Call Me (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "Call Me (Aretha Franklin song)\n--Background.\n--Chart performance.\n--Personnel.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Franklin received numerous honors throughout her career. She was awarded the National Medal of Arts and the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In 1987, she became the first female artist to be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. She also was inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005 and into the Gospel Music Hall of Fame in 2012. In 2010, \"Rolling Stone\" ranked Franklin number one on its list of the \"100 Greatest Singers of All Time\". In 2019, the Pulitzer Prize jury awarded the singer a posthumous special citation \"for her indelible contribution to American music and culture for more than five decades\". In 2020, Franklin was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Songs of Faith (Aretha Franklin album)",
        "text": "Songs of Faith (Aretha Franklin album)\n--Background.\n--Reissues.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Franklin's career began to experience problems while recording the album \"Hey Now Hey\", which featured production from Quincy Jones. Despite the success of the single \"Angel\", the album bombed upon its release in 1973. Franklin continued having R&B success with songs such as \"Until You Come Back to Me\" and \"I'm in Love\", but by 1975 her albums and songs were no longer top sellers. After Jerry Wexler left Atlantic for Warner Bros. Records in 1976, Franklin worked on the soundtrack to the film \"Sparkle\" with Curtis Mayfield. The album yielded Franklin's final top-40 hit of the decade, \"Something He Can Feel\", which also peaked at number one on the R&B chart. Franklin's follow-up albums for Atlantic, including \"Sweet Passion\" (1977), \"Almighty Fire\" (1978) and \"La Diva\" (1979), bombed on the charts, and in 1979 Franklin left the company. On November 7, 1979, she guested \"The Mike Douglas Show\" with her yellow costume from her \"La Diva\" album, and sang \"Ladies Only\", \"What If I Should Ever Need You\" and \"Yesterday\" by The Beatles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carolyn Franklin",
        "text": "Franklin retired from the music industry in 1976, though she occasionally continued to sing with Aretha. Franklin appeared as one of Aretha's background singers in the 1980 movie \"The Blues Brothers\", and was a backing vocalist on Paul King's 1987 album \"Joy\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin discography",
        "text": "Aretha Franklin discography\n--Singles.\n----The JVB era (1956\u20131959).\n----The Columbia era (1960\u20131966).\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Songs of Faith (Aretha Franklin album)",
        "text": "MCA reissued the original 9 track album on Compact Disc in 1991 as \"Aretha Gospel\". After Aretha's passing in 2018, UMe/Geffen Records reissued it as \"Songs of Faith: Aretha Gospel.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Don't Play That Song (You Lied)",
        "text": "Aretha Franklin covered the song for her nineteenth studio album, \"Spirit in the Dark\", released on Atlantic Records in 1970. Her version, performed with the Dixie Flyers, was released as a single in 1970 and peaked at number 1 for five weeks on the R&B singles chart and number 11 on the pop chart. Franklin's version was certified gold with sales over a million copies. It reached number 13 on the UK Singles Chart. This was the first of two covers Franklin did of songs made popular by King. The other was her cover of \"Spanish Harlem\" in 1971."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yogi Horton",
        "text": "With Aretha Franklin\n* \"Jump to It\" (Arista Records, 1982)\n* \"Get It Right\" (Arista Records, 1983)\n* \"Who's Zoomin' Who?\" (Arista Records, 1985)\n* \"Aretha\" (Arista Records, 1986)\n* \"Through the Storm\" (Arista Records, 1989)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Baby I Love You (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "A live recording featured on the album \"Aretha in Paris\" (1968). There have been several other famous musicians who have covered Aretha Franklin's \"Baby I Love You\", such as Lisa Marie Presley in 1989, Donny Hathaway, Roberta Flack in 1972, B.B. King, The Bar-Kays in 1971, Erma Franklin in 1969, Irma Thomas in 1988, and Otis Rush in 1969 and various other musicians. In 2012, Christine Anu covered the song on her album, \"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "With Everything I Feel in Me",
        "text": "This recording did not do as well commercially as previous Franklin albums. The LP reached #57 on Billboard's Top Album charts and peaked at #6 on the R&B album charts. None of its singles reached the Top 40 on the Billboard Hot 100. The lead single, \"Without Love\", written by Aretha's sister Carolyn Franklin and former Motown producer Ivy Jo Hunter, charted at #45 Pop, but fared far better on the R&B charts reaching #6. The title cut also charted at #20 on the R&B charts in early 1975."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha (1980 album)",
        "text": "The album's opening track, \"Come to Me\", appeared again on Franklin's 1989 album, \"Through the Storm\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin Sings the Great Diva Classics",
        "text": "This was Aretha's first and only recording for RCA Records, her first studio album to be released under a major label in 11 years (since the release of her 2003 studio album, \"So Damn Happy\"), and her first album since 1998 to be executive produced by Clive Davis, her boss at Arista Records, which has since folded into RCA. It is also her last studio album of entirely original recordings created prior to her death, as the subsequent 2017 album \"A Brand New Me\" features vintage vocal performances from the 1960s and 1970s paired with newer orchestral arrangements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Aretha Franklin\n--Early life.\n--Musical career.\n----1952\u20131960: Beginnings.\n----1960\u20131966: Columbia years.\n----1966\u20131979: Atlantic years.\n----1980\u20132007: Arista years.\n----2007\u20132018: Later years.\n--Music style and image.\n--Activism.\n--Personal life.\n----Health.\n----Death and funeral.\n--Legacy and honors.\n----Honorary degrees.\n----Tributes.\n----Portrayals in media.\n--Discography.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha (1961 album)",
        "text": "The album showcases an 18 year old Franklin, covering a range of jazz and pop standards. Columbia Records couldn't clearly classify Aretha's sound, as either jazz or R&B. Aretha's subsequent albums would show her moving from the realms of both sounds, and audiences as she tries to define her \"own soulful sound\". Though rare to find an original 6-eye pressing on vinyl, Columbia Records re-released these sessions and retitled them as \"The Great Aretha Franklin: The First 12 Sides\", in 1972. The exact same recording \"The Great Aretha Franklin: The First 12 Sides\", was once more re-released on vinyl, this time in 1973 by CBS/Embassy, trademarks of Columbia Records, probably being a UK edition, which on the center label bears these identification numbers: EMB S-31006 (KC 31953). There are some minor changes in the track list for the 1973 edition as well. (See the separate track listing below the 1972 listing)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Think (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "Franklin recorded an updated 3:38 version titled \"Think (1989)\" for her 1989 album \"Through the Storm\". It was produced and arranged by Arif Mardin with his son Joe Mardin. She re-recorded the song for Mothers Against Drunk Driving as a public service announcement during the late 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bizunesh Bekele",
        "text": "Bizunesh Bekele (; 1936 \u2013 25 June 1990) was an Ethiopian soul singer who was popular in the 1960s and 1970s. She was referred to as Aretha Franklin of Ethiopia due to similitude of musical style."
      },
      {
        "title": "Erma Franklin",
        "text": "Franklin told an interviewer that when she first heard Janis Joplin's version on the radio, she did not recognize it because of the vocal arrangement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha (1980 album)",
        "text": "Aretha is the twenty-sixth studio album by American singer Aretha Franklin. It was released on September 30, 1980, by Arista Records. This was the second album with this title to be released by the artist, and her first for Arista Records after a 12-year tenure with Atlantic Records."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "In November 1966, Franklin's Columbia recording contract expired; at that time, she owed the company money because record sales had not met expectations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Think (Aretha Franklin song)",
        "text": "Katharine McPhee's version of the song was released as a limited single from the \"\" (2006) album. The song became a minor Internet hit for McPhee\u2014it was her first song to chart in the Pop 100, where it peaked at No. 90 due to download sales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "During the American Music Awards on October 9, 2018, the show was closed by bringing Gladys Knight, Donnie McClurkin, Ledisi, Cece Winans, and Mary Mary together to pay tribute to Aretha Franklin. The \"all-star\" group performed gospel songs, including renditions from Franklin's 1972 album, \"Amazing Grace\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wayne Jackson (musician)",
        "text": "With Aretha Franklin\n* \"Aretha Now\" (Atlantic Records, 1968)\n* \"Young, Gifted and Black\" (Atlantic Records, 1972)\n* \"Hey Now Hey (The Other Side of the Sky)\" (Atlantic Records, 1973)\n* \"With Everything I Feel in Me\" (Atlantic Records, 1974)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Greatest Hits (Aretha Franklin album)",
        "text": "Greatest Hits (Aretha Franklin album)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Jackson Jr.",
        "text": "With Aretha Franklin\n* \"Aretha\" (Arista, 1980)\n* \"What You See Is What You Sweat\" (Arista, 1991)\n* \"This Christmas, Aretha\" (DMI, 2008)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha (1961 album)",
        "text": "\"The word is out. A magnetic new artist, Aretha Franklin, only a short while away from her father's gospel church in Detroit, has been breaking up audience in theatres and nightclubs throughout the country and on Columbia single records. Combining a completely natural and uninhibited vocal style with an irresistible rhythmic sense, Aretha Franklin has established herself as one of the hottest new performers in show business and one likely to set new standards in the entertainment industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "See Saw (Don Covay song)",
        "text": "Aretha Franklin released a version of the song that reached #9 on the U.S. R&B chart and #14 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 in 1968. The song appeared on her 1968 album, \"Aretha Now\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Franklin's sisters, Erma and Carolyn, were professional musicians and spent years performing background vocals on Franklin's recordings. Following Franklin's divorce from Ted White, her brother Cecil became her manager, and maintained that position until his death from lung cancer on December 26, 1989. Her sister Carolyn died in April 1988 from breast cancer and her eldest sister Erma died from throat cancer in September 2002. Franklin's half-brother Vaughn died in late 2002. Her half-sister, Carol Ellan Kelley (n\u00e9e Jennings; 1940\u20132019), is C. L. Franklin's daughter by Mildred Jennings, a then 12-year-old member of New Salem Baptist Church in Memphis where C. L. was pastor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha (song)",
        "text": "\"It's a very soulful ballad about a little girl who goes to school listening to Aretha Franklin on her headphones. She's having trouble at school and her mother's suffering from mental illness and she hasn't got anyone to talk to, but Aretha Franklin comes to life and encourages her and speaks to her through her imagination.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha's Best",
        "text": "Aretha's Best is a greatest hits compilation by Aretha Franklin released in 2001. This \"best of\" album contains 20 tracks which were recorded by Franklin from 1967-1987."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Griffin (musician)",
        "text": "With Aretha Franklin\n* \"\" (Columbia Records, 1964)\n* \"La Diva\" (Arista Records, 1979)"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "Singer Aretha Franklin has been honored with many awards and nominations. These include 18 Grammy Awards and an additional 26 Grammy nominations for her recordings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Live at Fillmore West",
        "text": "The recording was made at the Fillmore West concert hall, the storied rock venue in San Francisco, over three nights, March 5, 6 and 7 in 1971. The album opens with Aretha's best-known song, her version of Otis Redding's \"Respect\". The album features Aretha's take on many \"hippie\" anthems as Aretha and Atlantic Records executive/album producer Jerry Wexler wanted to reach out to the expected hippie audience in San Francisco. Covers include the Bread song \"Make it With You\", the Stephen Stills song, \"Love the One You're With\", Diana Ross' \"Reach Out and Touch (Somebody's Hand)\", the Beatles' \"Eleanor Rigby\" and Simon and Garfunkel's \"Bridge over Troubled Water\".\n;Disc 1\n#\"Intro\"\n#\"Knock on Wood\" \u2013 The Memphis Horns\n#\"Whole Lotta Love\" \u2013 King Curtis\n#\"Them Changes\" \u2013 King Curtis\n#\"A Whiter Shade of Pale\" \u2013 King Curtis\n#\"My Sweet Lord\" \u2013 Billy Preston\n#\"Ode to Billie Joe\" \u2013 King Curtis\n#\"Mr. Bojangles\" \u2013 King Curtis\n#\"Soul Serenade\" \u2013 King Curtis\n#\"Memphis Soul Stew\" \u2013 King Curtis\n#\"Signed, Sealed, Delivered I'm Yours\" \u2013 King Curtis\n#\"Respect\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Call Me\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Mixed-Up Girl\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Love the One You're With\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Bridge Over Troubled Water\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Eleanor Rigby\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Make It with You\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Don\u2019t Play that Song\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n;Disc 2\n#\"You're All I Need to Get By\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Dr. Feelgood\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Spirit in the Dark\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Spirit in the Dark\" (reprise) \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Knock on Wood\" \u2013 The Memphis Horns\n#\"Them Changes\" \u2013 King Curtis\n#\"Whole Lotta Love\" \u2013 King Curtis\n#\"A Whiter Shade of Pale\" \u2013 King Curtis\n#\"I Stand Accused\" \u2013 King Curtis\n#\"Soul Serenade\" \u2013 King Curtis\n#\"Memphis Soul Stew\" \u2013 King Curtis\n#\"Respect\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Call Me\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Love the One You\u2019re with\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Bridge Over Troubled Water\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n;Disc 3\n#\"Share Your Love with Me\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Eleanor Rigby\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Make It With You\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"You're All I Need to Get By\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Don't Play That Song\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Dr. Feelgood\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Spirit in the Dark\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Spirit in the Dark\" (reprise) \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Knock On Wood\" \u2013 The Memphis Horns\n#\"Them Changes\" \u2013 King Curtis\n#\"A Whiter Shade of Pale\" \u2013 King Curtis\n#\"Ode To Billie Joe\" \u2013 King Curtis\n#\"Soul Serenade\" \u2013 King Curtis\n#\"Memphis Soul Stew\" \u2013 King Curtis\n;Disc 4\n#\"Respect\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Call Me\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Love the One You're With\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Bridge Over Troubled Water\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Share Your Love with Me\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Eleanor Rigby\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Make It With You\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Don't Play That Song\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"You're All I Need to Get By\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Dr. Feelgood\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Spirit in the Dark\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin\n#\"Spirit in the Dark\" (reprise) \u2013 Aretha Franklin with Ray Charles\n#\"Reach Out and Touch (Somebody\u2019s Hand)\" \u2013 Aretha Franklin"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rare & Unreleased Recordings from the Golden Reign of the Queen of Soul",
        "text": "Rare & Unreleased Recordings from the Golden Reign of the Queen of Soul is a 2007 two-disc compilation album featuring unreleased and rare songs by Aretha Franklin recorded between 1966 and 1973 on Atlantic Records. The liner notes, nominated for a Grammy at the 51st Annual Grammy Awards, were co-written by Jerry Wexler, who was responsible for producing the sound which solidified Franklin as a legend, and David Ritz, who co-authored Franklin's 1999 autobiography."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aretha Franklin",
        "text": "A tribute concert, \"Aretha! A Grammy Celebration for the Queen of Soul\", was organized by CBS and The Recording Academy on January 13, 2019, at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles. The concert included performances by Smokey Robinson, Janelle Mon\u00e1e, Alicia Keys, John Legend, Kelly Clarkson, Celine Dion, Alessia Cara, Patti LaBelle, Jennifer Hudson, Chloe x Halle, H.E.R., SZA, Brandi Carlile, Yolanda Adams and Shirley Caesar, and was recorded for television, airing on March 10."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Lang (musician)",
        "text": "With Aretha Franklin\n* \"Aretha\" (Arista Records, 1980)"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many of Franklin's songs have been covered by other artist?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you asking about Melvin Franklin, Erma Franklin, Aretha Franklin or someone else?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to know about Aretha Franklin."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "Franklin covered \"I Can't Turn You Loose,\" \"Hold On, I'm Comin',\" and \"Rolling in the Deep,\" but I don't have any information on other artist covering Franklin's songs."
    ],
    "topic": "Aretha Franklin",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Aretha Franklin:26",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Aretha Franklin",
          "Musical career",
          "1980\u20132007: Arista years"
        ],
        "ctx": "Also in 1980, Franklin gave a command performance at London's Royal Albert Hall in front of Queen Elizabeth. Franklin also had an acclaimed guest role as a soul food restaurant proprietor and wife of Matt \"Guitar\" Murphy in the 1980 comedy musical \"The Blues Brothers\". Franklin's first Arista album, \"Aretha\" (1980), featured the number-three R&B hit \"United Together\" and her Grammy-nominated cover of Redding's \"I Can't Turn You Loose\". The follow-up, 1981's \"Love All the Hurt Away\", included her famed duet of the title track with George Benson, while the album also included her Grammy-winning cover of Sam & Dave's \"Hold On, I'm Comin'\". Franklin achieved a gold record\u2014for the first time in seven years\u2014with the 1982 album \"Jump to It\". The album's title track was her first top-40 single on the pop charts in six years. The following year, she released \"Get It Right\", produced by Luther Vandross."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Aretha Franklin:36",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Aretha Franklin",
          "Musical career",
          "2007\u20132018: Later years"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2014, Franklin was signed under RCA Records, controller of the Arista catalog and a sister label to Columbia via Sony Music Entertainment, and worked with Clive Davis. There were plans for her to record an album produced by Danger Mouse, who was replaced with Babyface and Don Was when Danger Mouse left the project. On September 29, 2014, Franklin performed to a standing ovation, with Cissy Houston as backup, a compilation of Adele's \"Rolling in the Deep\" and \"Ain't No Mountain High Enough\" on the \"Late Show with David Letterman\". Franklin's cover of \"Rolling in the Deep\" was featured among nine other songs in her first RCA release, \"Aretha Franklin Sings the Great Diva Classics\", released in October 2014. In doing so, she became the first woman to have 100 songs on \"Billboard\"'s Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart with the success of her cover of Adele's \"Rolling in the Deep\", which debuted at number 47 on the chart."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "The \"57\" mark arises from an advertising statement that Heinz made \"57 Varieties\" of products. When Henry J. Heinz introduced the \"57 Varieties\" slogan, however, the company already made at least 60 products. The number is simply the combination of numbers Heinz and his wife considered \"lucky\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In a recent American Customer Satisfaction Index poll of 10,644 consumers, H.J. Heinz Co. had the highest score of any food or beverage firm, higher than Kraft Foods, The Coca-Cola Company, and Nestl\u00e9."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "A majority of its ketchup is produced in Fremont, Ohio, and the rest is made in Muscatine, Iowa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "First introduced as \"Catsup\" in 1876 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Heinz Tomato Ketchup remains the best-selling brand of ketchup. From 1906 it was produced without preservatives. In 1907, Heinz started producing about 13 million bottles of ketchup per year, exporting ketchup all over the world, including India, Australia, South America, Japan, Indonesia, New Zealand, South Korea, South Africa and the United Kingdom. Heinz ketchup is often served at restaurants in the United States and Canada, as well as many other countries. As a condiment for many foods, such as french fries, chips, hamburgers and hot dogs, Heinz ketchup uses the slogan \"America's Favorite Ketchup\u201d. As of 2012, there are more than 650 million bottles of Heinz Tomato Ketchup being sold every year throughout the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup is a brand of ketchup produced by the H. J. Heinz Company, a division of the Kraft Heinz Company. Heinz Ketchup holds 80% of the market share in Europe and 60% in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup",
        "text": "U.S. Heinz tomato ketchup's ingredients (listed from highest to lowest percentage weight) are: tomato concentrate from red ripe tomatoes, distilled vinegar, high-fructose corn syrup, corn syrup, salt, spice, onion powder, and natural flavoring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Packet (container)",
        "text": "Annual production of ketchup packets by Heinz alone is 11 billion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "Heinz manufactures all of its American tomato ketchup at two plants: one in Fremont, Ohio, and another in Muscatine, Iowa. Heinz closed their plant in Leamington, Ontario in 2014. The former Canadian plant is now owned by Highbury Vancouver to produce French's ketchup in Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In April 2020, Heinz launched a 570-piece ketchup jigsaw puzzle, in which all of the pieces were identically red."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In March 2019, after the success of their Mayochup campaign, Heinz announced the release of two new portmanteau products to celebrate the company's 150th anniversary: \"Mayomust\", from \"mayonnaise\" + \"mustard\", and \"Mayocue\", from \"mayonnaise\" + \"barbecue\" sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In April 2018, Heinz announced the release of \"Mayochup\", a portmanteau of \"mayonnaise\" + \"ketchup\" that is a mixture of the two sauces, because more than 500,000 users voted \"yes\" in a Twitter poll asking Americans if they wanted to see it in stores. A number of Twitter users responded that such a mixture already existed as \"fry sauce\" and \"fancy sauce\". The sauce arrived on US retailers' shelves in September 2018. It attracted some media attention in May 2019 when the phrase was revealed to mean \"shit-face\" in the Cree language."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dip & Squeeze",
        "text": "It was designed to be easier to use one-handed inside a car. Product developers watched consumers operate the traditional ketchup packet through one-way mirrors to evaluate new ketchup packaging designs. Heinz's vice president in charge of the packaging division himself bought a used minivan and tested the company's products delivered at fast food drive-up windows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Packet (container)",
        "text": "In Collinsville, Illinois, the largest ketchup packet was created by H. J. Heinz Company for a fundraiser for the Collinsville Christian Academy. People could buy a bottle of ketchup for $1 to add to the ketchup packet. After it was filled, it weighed 1,500\u00a0lbs. and it was across and thick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "The Heinz Keystone Dispenser is a color-coded plastic dispensers, shaped to resemble the keystone part of the \"Heinz 57\" symbol, that accepts bags of condiments that include the original, low-sodium and Simply Heinz varieties of ketchup, along with several varieties of mustard, mayonnaise, ranch dressing and relish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "From 2000 to 2006, Heinz produced colored ketchup products called EZ Squirt, which were available in squeezable containers and targeted towards young children. The ketchup launched in green- and red-colored varieties, which were later joined by purple, pink, orange, teal, and blue. The Canadian version was labelled E-ZEE Squirt, most likely to reflect the difference in the way that the letter Z is pronounced in the United States and the way it is pronounced in other English-speaking countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In addition to the standard ketchup variety, Heinz offers two varieties known as \"Organic\" and \"Simply Heinz\". Both of these varieties' ingredients contain sugar instead of high fructose corn syrup. Heinz offers several flavor variations: sriracha, jalape\u00f1o, and balsamic vinegar. Dietary requirements are addressed with no-salt-added and reduced-sugar varieties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "The H. J. Heinz Company is an American food processing company headquartered at One PPG Place in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The company was founded by Henry J. Heinz in 1869. Heinz manufactures thousands of food products in plants on six continents, and markets these products in more than 200 countries and territories. The company claims to have 150 number-one or number-two brands worldwide. Heinz ranked first in ketchup in the US with a market share in excess of 50%; the Ore-Ida label held 46% of the frozen potato sector in 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "Heinz ketchup is packaged in glass and plastic bottles of various sizes, as well as individual-serving condiment packets made of foil or plastic. Larger amounts of ketchup are packaged in metal cans, rigid plastic jugs, flexible plastic bags and a bag-in-box format. The larger containers can be fitted with pumps or placed into dispensers for bulk service. A bag containing is the largest offering intended for restaurants; an IBC tote containing is sold to food manufacturers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "Globally, Heinz produces ketchup and other tomato sauces in factories across the world , including the UK and the Netherlands. Although Heinz touts \"one basic recipe\" for its mainstay ketchup, there are variations in this recipe tailored to national tastes, and dependent on the country of production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In April 2019, Heinz released yet another portmanteau product, this time combining \"ketchup\" + \"ranch\" dressing to create \"Kranch\". The new sauce received a mixed reception online, with \"Newsweek\" saying that it \"might seem as if Kranch is a flight of fancy from a drunken frat boy\" but that some consumers were nevertheless interested."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup",
        "text": "Prior to Heinz (and his fellow innovators), commercial tomato ketchups of that time were watery and thin, in part due to the use of unripe tomatoes, which were low in pectin. They had less vinegar than modern ketchups; by pickling ripe tomatoes, the need for benzoate was eliminated without spoilage or degradation in flavor. But the changes driven by the desire to eliminate benzoate also produced changes that some experts (such as Andrew F. Smith) believe were key to the establishment of tomato ketchup as the dominant American condiment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In March 2021 Heinz unveiled three new products: \"Tarchup\" combining \"tartar\" sauce + \"ketchup\", \"Wasabioli\" combining \"wasabi\" + \"aioli\", and \"Hanch\" combining \"hot sauce\" + \"ranch\" dressing. Later in March, two more were announced: \"Buffaranch\" combining \"Buffalo\" sauce + \"ranch\" dressing and \"Sweet Ketchili\" combining \"ketchup\" + \"sweet chili sauce\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In 2012, a criminal scheme that repackaged bulk standard ketchup into bottles with counterfeit \"Simply Heinz\" labels failed when the transferred ketchup began to ferment and explode."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "Heinz introduced its octagonal glass bottle for the first time in 1889; the bottle was patented in 1890. While other glass bottle designs have existed, the octagonal glass bottle is still in use and is considered an \"iconic\" example of package design. In the United States, the glass bottle commonly used by restaurants holds of ketchup. A small bottle containing about of ketchup also exists for hotel room service and other situations where it is desirable to serve individual meals with a more personal or luxurious presentation than might be perceived with the foil or plastic packets associated with fast food dining."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup",
        "text": "In October 2000, Heinz introduced colored ketchup products called EZ Squirt, which eventually included green (2000), purple (2001), mystery (pink, orange, or teal, 2002), and blue (2003). These products were made by adding food coloring to the traditional ketchup. these products were discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In January 2020, Heinz announced \"Honeyracha\" combining \"honey\" + \"sriracha\", then in February announced \"Mayoracha\" combining \"mayonnaise\" + \"sriracha\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In 2010, Heinz unveiled Dip & Squeeze, a new single-serve cup for dipping and squeezing, intended to eventually replace the original packets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harvey Washington Wiley",
        "text": "Heinz were one of the first companies to join the push for pure food and changed their recipe for tomato ketchup in 1902 to replace chemical preservatives with vinegar and introducing very hygienic practices into their factories."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup\n--History.\n--Production.\n--Varieties.\n----Edchup.\n----EZ Squirt colored ketchup.\n----Saucy Sauce product line.\n--Packaging.\n----Glass bottles.\n--Merchandising.\n--Counterfeiting scheme.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz opened a pickle factory in Holland, Michigan, in 1897, and it is the largest such facility in the world. The Heinz Portion Control subsidiary is located in Jacksonville, Florida, and produces single-serving containers of ketchup, mustard, salad dressings, jams, jellies and syrups."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In January 2009, the label design was altered, with the illustration of a gherkin pickle that had adorned the label since the 1890s was removed and replaced with an illustration of a vine-ripened tomato accompanied by the slogan \"Upgrade To Heinz\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "As ketchup has high viscosity and behaves as a pseudoplastic or thixotropic liquid, dispensing from glass bottles can be difficult. Tapping the glass bottle causes the ketchup to become thinner and easier to pour. Heinz suggests, on its website, that the best place to tap the bottle is on the \"57\" mark. The \"New York Times\" has also claimed that the tapping the \"57\" mark is the best way to cause Heinz ketchup to pour smoothly. Shaking the bottle or tapping in another place is also effective, however."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "The bottles, which were each, were limited to 5 per order. The ketchup inside was no different than ordinary Heinz tomato ketchup. The bottle itself featured a unique label in which the title was \u201cHEINZ TOMATO EDCHUP\u201d. The labels of standard Heinz ketchup bottles feature a tomato hanging from its stem. On the \u201dEdchup\u201d label the tomato is wearing glasses and has a leaf on the top of it which appears to be hair. The tomato on the label was designed to imitate Ed Sheeran."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles M. Berger",
        "text": "Berger was behind the Heinz ketchup marketing campaign that touted the ketchup as being thick and having slow pouring qualities. Advertisements included \"the ketchup race\" from 1964 and \"the slowest ketchup in the West.\" The commercials showed Heinz being poured from bottles, racing its competitors to see which was thicker. They became one of Heinz's most popular marketing campaigns and were played during Super Bowl V in 1971. The campaigns also spun into the 1970s Heinz \"Anticipation\" commercials that used a hit song by Carly Simon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In January 2020, Heinz and department store Fortnum & Mason launched tomato ketchup-filled chocolate truffles, as part of their Valentine's Day offering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "The Heinz Ketchup logo and distinctive red color have been used in numerous licensed products. This includes clothing, mugs, pin badges and tomato-flavored cosmetics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz 57",
        "text": "The relatively high viscosity and thixotropic nature of ketchup can make pouring it from a glass bottle somewhat difficult and unpredictable, and several urban legends surrounding this phenomenon have arisen. According to one popular folk remedy, repeatedly hitting the \"57\" mark on a glass Heinz ketchup bottle makes the ketchup pour out more quickly and easily. \"The New York Times\" suggests this is a matter of intentional design, with Heinz having placed the \"57\" mark on that particular spot of the bottle as a target for consumers to hit. According to the Heinz website, only 11% of people know this trick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fremont, Ohio",
        "text": "The world's largest ketchup plant, operated by Heinz is located in Fremont, producing 80% of the ketchup sold in the United States. At one time the city was home to several cutlery companies: the Christy Company, Clauss Cutlery Company, Quikut, B.A.P. Manufacturing, the Ginsu Cutlery Line, and Herbrand tools. It was also home to a Pioneer Sugar processing plant which closed in 1997, but as of 2020, remains a Michigan Sugar warehouse, despite plans in 2009 to open an ethanol refinery plant on the site.\n* Birchard Public Library (built in a park at the former site of Fort Stephenson)\n* H. J. Heinz Company ketchup factory (the world's largest ketchup factory)\n* Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center\n* Sandusky County Jail and Sheriff's House\n* Spiegel Grove\n* Fremont Speedway\n* The Strand Concert Theater"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "On June 5, 2019, which is National Ketchup Day, Heinz, along with singer-songwriter and ketchup-lover Ed Sheeran, released a limited-edition ketchup product known as Ed Sheeran X Heinz ketchup, more popularly known by its portmanteau, \u201cEdchup\u201d. Heinz announced the release in an Instagram post on the same day. The post featured Sheeran posing with a bottle of \u201cEdchup\u201d. Ed Sheeran is a long-time ketchup lover. He made this apparent when he had the Heinz ketchup logo tattooed on his left arm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "As a result of this corporate restructuring and the angry Canadian response, a rival food company, French's, began producing their own ketchup brand using Leamington produce. It marketed the brand with an appeal to Canadian patriotism. This successful campaign, combined with a Canadian grassroots effort on Facebook encouraging purchasing of the French's product, resulted in Heinz's market share in Canada dropping from 84 to 76%, a significant shift in a mature market. This undesirable development was exacerbated in 2018 when Canadian tariffs were erected against specific American exports, which includes ketchup produced in the United States, in retaliation to the US President Trump's tariffs on Canadian steel and aluminum exports. Heinz conducted a belated public relations campaign in Canada to try to counter the public anger against them, a task made more difficult by public sentiment rising to encourage a boycott of American goods in reaction of US President Trump's rhetoric against Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Packet (container)",
        "text": "In 2010, the H. J. Heinz Company designed a new ketchup packet. The new design was made with a cup and easy tear, thus making it easier to dip food without a plate along with holding three times as much ketchup. It has not been widely adopted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "The \"upside-down\" squeezable plastic bottle, consisting of an opaque red bottle with a wide white cap located at the bottom, was introduced as a food service product in 2002. It allows ketchup to be dispensed more easily than was possible with the glass bottle, and permits the use of more of the ketchup in the bottle, as the contents will settle on top of the dispensing valve. The \"upside-down\" bottle is intended to be non-refillable. A similar bottle has been introduced in several different sizes at the retail/grocery level, but without the opaque red coloring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King products",
        "text": "The H.J. Heinz Company is a significant supplier of condiments to Burger King. They have worked together on several programs such as the 2001 promotional tie-in with the movie \"Shrek\". Heinz provided an LTO Blastin' Green EZ Squirt colored ketchup and an apple flavored \"ooze\" dipping sauce for distribution with the Shrek-branded kid's meals. Heinz has become a primary supplier of ketchup in the United States, Mexico, and Great Britain, while supplying various sauces in several European countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry J. Heinz",
        "text": "Henry John Heinz (October 11, 1844 \u2013 May 14, 1919) was an American entrepreneur who, at the age of 25, co-founded a small horseradish concern in Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania. This business failed, but his second business expanded into tomato ketchup and other condiments, and ultimately became the internationally known H. J. Heinz Company of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup",
        "text": "In fast-food outlets, ketchup is often dispensed in small sachets or tubs. Diners tear the side or top and squeeze the ketchup out of the ketchup packets, or peel the foil lid off the tub for dipping. In 2011, Heinz began offering a new measured-portion package, called the \"Dip and Squeeze\" packet, which can be opened in either way, giving both options."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz pickle pin",
        "text": "For the year 2000, the Heinz company decided to try something new. For the first time, an entirely different pin was produced. Rather than a pickle, the new pin was shaped like a red Heinz ketchup bottle, complete with painted white cap and keystone-shaped label. The first batch of ketchup pins made also feature a printed \"2000\" to denote its commemorative status. A total of one million ketchup pins were produced, which is roughly the equivalent of a year's worth of pickle pins."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup",
        "text": "Tomato ketchup is made from tomatoes, sugar, and vinegar, with seasonings and spices. The spices and flavors vary, but commonly include onions, allspice, coriander, cloves, cumin, garlic, and mustard, and sometimes include celery, cinnamon, or ginger. The market leader in the United States (60% market share) and the United Kingdom (82%) is Heinz Tomato Ketchup. Tomato ketchup is most often used as a condiment to dishes that are usually served hot and are fried or greasy: french fries and other potato dishes, hamburgers, hot dogs, chicken tenders, hot sandwiches, meat pies, cooked eggs, and grilled or fried meat. Ketchup is sometimes used as the basis for, or as one ingredient in, other sauces and dressings, and the flavor may be replicated as an additive flavoring for snacks, such as potato chips."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles M. Berger",
        "text": "Heinz Chairman and CEO William R. Johnson credited Berger for Heinz success with ketchup by stating that Berger's marketing ideas allowed \"Heinz to break out of a tie and gain permanent leadership in ketchup.\" Berger worked for Heinz for 32 years and was in charge of Heinz's operations in India before leaving to become CEO at The Scotts Miracle-Gro Company in 1996."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dip & Squeeze",
        "text": "Dip & Squeeze is the brand name of a type of packaging for tomato ketchup used by Heinz Tomato Ketchup. The product was announced in 2010 and rolled out to consumers at U.S. fast food restaurants in March, 2011. Later in 2011 it was sold directly to retail consumers at Target and Wal-Mart."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz 57",
        "text": "Heinz 57 is a synecdoche of the historical advertising slogan \"57 Varieties\" by the H. J. Heinz Company located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. It was developed from the marketing campaign that told consumers about the numerous products available from the Heinz company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daddies",
        "text": "While both Heinz and Daddies remain solid competitors in the UK marketplace, with strong regional popularity in the Midlands, Wales and the West Country, Daddies Ketchup trails the dominant market leader, the better-known Heinz Tomato Ketchup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shrikant Joshi",
        "text": "He likewise worked at Heinz for a limited timeframe (2000\u20132001), where he effectively helped familiarize the well-known Heinz Tomato Ketchup across India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mad Men",
        "text": "In a case of life imitating art, in 2017 Heinz ran an advertising campaign for their ketchup that used ads created for the brand by Don Draper in a 2013 episode."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "A Heinz Ketchup cookbook was published by Absolute Press in 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "The best things come to those who wait",
        "text": "\"The best things come to those who wait\" was a slogan used in an advertising campaign launched by the H. J. Heinz Company in 1987 to promote its Heinz brand of tomato ketchup within the United States. The campaign was pitched and handled by the advertising agency Leo Burnett Worldwide, who had been responsible for the marketing of Heinz brands since 1974. The central concept of the campaign was that even people in a hurry would wait for Heinz ketchup to trickle out of its glass bottle. Advertisements with the slogan \"The best things come to those who wait\" appeared in print, on billboards, on television and in cinemas throughout the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mushroom ketchup",
        "text": "Several commercial mushroom ketchups were, and still are, produced in the United Kingdom; some of the brands included Crosse and Blackwell's Mushroom Catsup, Morton's Mushroom Ketchup, Jacky's Pantry Mushroom Ketchup and Geo Watkins Mushroom Ketchup. Some of these companies exported their product to the United States, which created competition with ketchup products manufactured in the U.S. by the H. J. Heinz Company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Kapelle",
        "text": "Heinz Kapelle\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup",
        "text": "Some ketchup in the U.S. is labeled \"Fancy\". This is a USDA grade, relating to specific gravity. Fancy ketchup has a higher tomato solid concentration than other USDA grades."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "The company went bankrupt in 1875. The following year Heinz founded another company, F & J Heinz, with his brother John Heinz and a cousin, Frederick Heinz. One of this company's first products was Heinz Tomato Ketchup. The company continued to grow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Heinz is an American food conglomerate based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz Ketchup is available in India in two varieties, the standard Tomato Ketchup and Tomato Chili Sauce. As Indian taste preferences vary among the regions, Western brands such as Heinz must work on Indian interpretations of ketchups for sale in the country. Heinz acquired the former foods division of Glaxo India, gaining the Complan, Glucon D, Glucon C, Sampriti Ghee, and Nycil products and brands. In 2019, Heinz sold a portion of the business, including Complan and Glucon-D, for $627.18 million to Zydus Wellness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Public relations of high fructose corn syrup",
        "text": "In May 2010, Hunt's removed high-fructose corn syrup from its ketchup due to buyer preference as a result of health concerns, but has since put High Fructose Corn Syrup back in their ketchup. Heinz now offers a ketchup made with sugar instead of HFCS called \"Simply Heinz.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz pickle pin",
        "text": "Heinz pickle pin\n--Description.\n--Origins.\n--The first century.\n--Year 2000 ketchup variant.\n--Spinoffs and other items.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz 57",
        "text": "Henry J. Heinz introduced the marketing slogan \"57 pickle Varieties\" in 1896. He later claimed he was inspired by an advertisement he saw while riding an elevated train in New York City (a shoe store boasting \"21 styles\"). The reason for \"57\" is unclear. Heinz said he chose \"5\" because it was his lucky number and the number \"7\" was his wife's lucky number. However, Heinz also said the number \"7\" was selected specifically because of the \"psychological influence of that figure and of its enduring significance to people of all ages\". Whatever the reasons, Heinz wanted the company to advertise the greatest number of choices of pickles. In fact by 1892, four years before the slogan was created, the Heinz company was already selling more than 60 products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup as a vegetable",
        "text": "The ketchup as a vegetable controversy refers to proposed United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) regulations, late in the Presidency of Jimmy Carter and early in the presidency of Ronald Reagan, that intended to provide more flexibility in meal planning to"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup",
        "text": "In response, entrepreneurs including Henry J. Heinz, pursued an alternative recipe that eliminated the need for that preservative. Katherine Bitting, a bacteriologist working for the U.S. Department of Agriculture, carried out research in 1909 that proved increasing the sugar and vinegar content of the product would prevent spoilage without use of artificial preservatives. She was assisted by her husband, Arvil Bitting, an official at that agency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fry sauce",
        "text": "In April 2018, Heinz announced the release of \"Mayochup\", a mixture of the two sauces, because 500,000+ users voted \"yes\" in a Twitter poll asking Americans if they wanted to see it in stores. A number of Twitter users responded that such a mixture already existed as \"fry sauce\" and \"fancy sauce\". The sauce arrived at U.S. retailers' shelves in September 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ed Sheeran",
        "text": "In June 2019, Sheeran made his debut appearance in an advertisement for Heinz Tomato Ketchup. A lifelong fan of the product \u2014 he has it with everything from fish and chips to his morning sausage \"butty\" to upmarket dinners, carries a bottle on tour, and has a Heinz Ketchup tattoo on his arm \u2014 he put forward an idea he had written for their next TV campaign, and the company responded. A representative from Heinz started that \"1/3 of @HEINZ Instagram posts include people mentioning or tagging Ed, dating all the way back to 2014.\" Poking fun at people who turn their nose up at those who ask for ketchup in fancy restaurants, the advert sees him walking into a \"super posh\" restaurant while narrating the message he had sent to the company. As the other wealthy diners look on in horror at the sight of a ketchup bottle, he flips the bottle, bangs it against his hand to budge the ketchup and smothers it all over his food. The company released a limited edition ketchup product known as Ed Sheeran X Heinz ketchup, also known as \"Heinz Edchup\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Ketchup (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Since 1896, the company has used its \"57 Varieties\" slogan; it was inspired by a sign advertising 21 styles of shoes, and Henry Heinz chose the number 57 even though the company manufactured more than 60 products at the time. Another account says the numbers were chosen because \"5\" was his lucky number and \"7\" was his wife's."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup",
        "text": "Tomato ketchup was sold locally by farmers. Jonas Yerkes is credited as the first American to sell tomato ketchup in a bottle. By 1837, he had produced and distributed the condiment nationally. Shortly thereafter, other companies followed suit. F. & J. Heinz launched their tomato ketchup in 1876. Heinz Tomato Ketchup was advertised: \"Blessed relief for Mother and the other women in the household!\", a slogan which alluded to the lengthy process required to produce tomato ketchup in the home. With industrial ketchup production and a need for better preservation there was a great increase of sugar in ketchup, leading to our modern sweet and sour formula. In Australia, it was not until the late 19th century that sugar was added to \"tomato sauce\", initially in small quantities, but today it contains just as much as American ketchup and only differed in the proportions of tomatoes, salt and vinegar in early recipes."
      },
      {
        "title": "H. J. Heinz, Wigan",
        "text": "In June 2021, Kraft Heinz announced that it would invest \u00a3140\u00a0million into the plant over the next four years, the firm's biggest expansion to a manufacturing site outside the U.S. in over two decades. Under the plan, condiments such as ketchup and mayonnaise (which have not been manufactured in the UK since 1999) shall be manufactured at Kitt Green. The planned expansion shall create 50 new jobs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup as a vegetable",
        "text": "Despite the fact that ketchup was not explicitly referenced as a vegetable substitute in the regulations, the condiment became an easy visual for skeptics to cite when criticizing the Reagan Administration and the proposed regulations. Reporter Benjamin Weinraub called the issue \"the Emperor's new condiments\", and reporter Russell Baker gave President Reagan the tongue-in-cheek \"Sore President of the Year Award\" writing \"it was given to President Reagan on the basis of reports that in spite of the ever-pleasant smile, he is secretly sore on his old botany teacher for telling him that ketchup is a vegetable.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz 57",
        "text": "Heinz 57 figures in the plot of the novel \"The Manchurian Candidate\" when antagonist Mrs. Iselin lights upon a bottle of the product and adopts the number as an easy one for husband Senator John Iselin to remember as the number of Communists he charges with being employed by the State Department. The 1962 film adaptation retains this, with a bottle of Heinz 57 sauce appearing on-screen moments before John Iselin cites the number in a speech."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz 57",
        "text": "The first product to be promoted under the new \"57 varieties\" slogan was prepared horseradish. By 1940, the term \"Heinz 57\" had become so synonymous with the company the name was used to market a steak sauce.\n# Heinz Oven-Baked Beans \u2013 Pork and Tomato Sauce\n# Heinz Oven-Baked Beans \u2013 Pork no Tomato Sauce\n# Heinz Oven-Baked Beans \u2013 Tomato Sauce no Pork\n# Heinz Oven-Baked Red Kidney Beans\n# Heinz Cream of Asparagus Soup\n# Heinz Cream of Celery Soup\n# Heinz Cream of Mushroom\n# Heinz Cream of Green Pea Soup\n# Heinz Cream of Oyster\n# Heinz Cream of Tomato Soup\n# Heinz Bean Soup\n# Heinz Beef Broth\n# Heinz Clam Chowder\n# Heinz Gumbo Creole\n# Heinz Mock Turtle Soup\n# Heinz Scotch Broth\n# Heinz Noodle Soup\n# Heinz Pepper Pot Soup\n# Heinz Vegetable Soup\n# Heinz Consomm\u00e9\n# Heinz Onion Soup\n# Heinz Mince Meat\n# Heinz Puddings\u2014Date, Fig, and Plum\n# Heinz Peanut Butter\n# Heinz Cooked Spaghetti\n# Heinz Cooked Macaroni\n# Heinz Pure Jellies\n# Heinz Apple Butter\n# Heinz Gherkins\u2014Sweet or Sour\n# Heinz Mixed Pickles\u2014Sweet or Sour\n# Heinz Chow Chow Pickle\n# Heinz Sweet Mustard Pickle\n# Heinz Dill Pickles\n# Heinz Fresh Cucumber Pickle\n# Heinz Strained Foods\n# Heinz India Relish\n# Heinz Sandwich Spread\n# Heinz Pickled Onions\u2014Sweet and Sour\n# Heinz Spanish Queen Olives\n# Heinz Stuffed Spanish Olives\n# Heinz Ripe Olives\n# Heinz Pure Spanish Olive Oil\n# Heinz Tomato Ketchup\n# Heinz Chili Sauce\n# Heinz Beefsteak Sauce*\n# Heinz Pepper Sauce\u2014Red or Green\n# Heinz Worcestershire Sauce\n# Heinz Prepared Mustard\u2014Brown or Yellow\n# Heinz Evaporated Horseradish\n# Heinz Mayonnaise\n# Heinz Pure Malt Vinegar\n# Heinz Pure Cider Vinegar\n# Heinz Distilled White Vinegar\n# Heinz Tarragon Vinegar\n# Heinz Rice Flakes\n# Heinz Breakfast Wheat\n# Heinz Tomato Juice\n*- Known today as Heinz 57 Sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Curry ketchup",
        "text": "Major brands producing curry ketchup include Zeisner, Heinz, Hela, and Knorr."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz List",
        "text": "LIST Today"
      },
      {
        "title": "Steak sauce",
        "text": "Heinz 57 steak sauce, produced by H. J. Heinz Company, is unlike other steak sauces in that it has a distinctive dark orange-yellow color and tastes more like ketchup spiced with mustard seed. Heinz once advertised the product as tasting \"like ketchup with a kick\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz 57",
        "text": "In bingo in the United Kingdom, a commonly used call for \"57\" is \"Heinz variety\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catchup",
        "text": "#REDIRECT Ketchup"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz 57",
        "text": "Heinz 57\n--Usage.\n--Bottle design.\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Steve Heinze",
        "text": "Because of his last name, Heinze requested to wear #57 (as in Heinz 57 ketchup) with the Bruins. However, the Bruins general manager Harry Sinden denied his request, stating that only Ray Bourque (#77) could wear an unorthodox number. Instead, Heinze wore #23 in Boston. He was granted #57 when he joined the Blue Jackets and he wore it for the remainder of his NHL career."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Idaho (Pocatello);"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 1888, Heinz bought out his two partners and reorganized the company as the H.\u00a0J. Heinz Company. Its slogan, \"57 varieties\", was introduced by Heinz in 1896. Inspired by an advertisement he saw while riding an elevated train in New York City (a shoe store boasting \"21 styles\"), Heinz picked the number more or less at random because he liked the sound of it, selecting \"7\" specifically because, as he put it, of the \"psychological influence of that figure and of its enduring significance to people of all ages.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup",
        "text": "Ketchup or catsup is a type of table condiment with a sweet and tangy flavor. The unmodified term (\"ketchup\") now typically refers to tomato ketchup, although original recipes used egg whites, mushrooms, oysters, grapes, mussels, or walnuts, among other ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cheese sauce",
        "text": "In July 2018, Kraft Heinz issued a voluntary nationwide product recall in the United states of around 100,000 jars of cheese dip, due to a potential for the growth of \"Clostridium botulinum\" because of ingredient separation. It was only distributed in the United States, and consumers were advised not to eat it, even if it lacked signs of spoilage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Grobat",
        "text": "Heinz Grobat\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup",
        "text": "Commercial tomato ketchup has an additive, usually xanthan gum, which gives the condiment a pseudoplastic or \"shear thinning\" property \u2013 more commonly known as thixotropic. This increases the viscosity of the ketchup considerably with a relatively small amount added\u2014usually 0.5%\u2014which can make it difficult to pour from a container. However, the shear thinning property of the gum ensures that when a force is applied to the ketchup it will lower the viscosity enabling the sauce to flow. A common method to getting ketchup out of the bottle involves inverting the bottle and shaking it or hitting the bottom with the heel of the hand, which causes the ketchup to flow rapidly. Ketchup in plastic bottles can be additionally manipulated by squeezing the bottle, which also decreases the viscosity of the ketchup inside. Another technique involves inverting the bottle and forcefully tapping its upper neck with two fingers (index and middle finger together). Specifically, with a Heinz ketchup glass bottle, one taps the 57 circle on the neck. This helps the ketchup flow by applying the correct shearing force. These techniques work because of how pseudoplastic fluids behave: their viscosity (resistance to flow) decreases with increasing shear rate. The faster the ketchup is sheared (by shaking or tapping the bottle), the more fluid it becomes. After the shear is removed the ketchup thickens to its original viscosity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup",
        "text": "As the century progressed, tomato ketchup began its ascent in popularity in the United States. Ketchup was popular long before fresh tomatoes were. People were less hesitant to eat tomatoes as part of a highly processed product that had been cooked and infused with vinegar and spices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup as a vegetable",
        "text": "A similar controversy arose in 2011, when Congress passed a bill prohibiting the USDA from increasing the amount of tomato paste required to constitute a vegetable; the bill allowed pizza with two tablespoons (30 mL) of tomato paste to qualify as a vegetable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz pickle pin",
        "text": "Besides the year 2000 ketchup pin, several similar items to the Heinz pickle pin have appeared over the years. A golden lapel pin in the shape of a pickle is a recent example, and Heinz has also made a pickle whistle, presumably as a fun item for kids too young to wear a pin (similar to the Oscar Mayer hot dog whistles distributed from the Wienermobile). In recent years, the amount of Heinz merchandise available has increased to the point that Heinz began operating its own retail store called the House of Heinz, located in Grove City, Pennsylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "H. J. Heinz, Wigan",
        "text": "The chosen site allowed easy expansion. By the 1980s, the factory employed around 3,000 people, and during the decade was converted to high-speed automation. It had taken over the production of all UK products from Harlesden except Heinz Tomato Ketchup. After Harlesden closed in 2000, ketchup production was moved to Holland. A steam plant with a capacity of 140 tonnes per hour was installed in 2005, one of the largest of these type of installations in the UK."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vecchi Ketchup Factory",
        "text": "The Vecchi Ketchup Factory in Hazlet, New Jersey produced ketchup from the early 20th century until around 1960. The factory operated in the early 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "E. C. Hazard and Company",
        "text": "Hazard had a devotion to purity of his products and is credited with marketing the first pure and unadulterated ketchup. He was founder, president and presiding officer of the Pure Food Manufactures Association at Madison Square Garden in 1892."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Iowa (Cedar Rapids, Muscatine);"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "On March 25, 2015, Kraft Foods Group Inc. announced that it would merge with the H.\u00a0J. Heinz Company, owned by 3G Capital and Berkshire Hathaway Inc., to form the world's fifth-largest food and beverage company. The companies completed the merger on July 2, 2015.\n* ABC\n* Bagel Bites\n* Bull's-Eye\n* Classico\n* Complan\n* Daddies\n* Devour\n* Delimex\n* Diana Sauce\n* Farex\n* Greenseas\n* Heinz\n* HP Sauce\n* Jack Daniel's sauces (under license)\n* Lea & Perrins\n* Ore-Ida\n* T.G.I. Friday's (under license)\n* Wattie's\n* Weight Watchers (under license)\n* Wyler's\n*Beanz\n*Italian Beanz\n*Lentil Curry\n*Mexican Beanz\n*No Added Sugar Beanz\n*No Added Sugar Beanz Snap Pots\n*Organic Beanz\n*Peri Peri Beanz\n*Pork Sausage Beanz\n*Smokey Bacon Beanz\n*Spanish Beanz\n* Balsamic With a hint of Garlic\n* Chilli & Lime\n*Raspberry Balsamic\n*Zesty Lemon\n* Alphabetti\n*Beef Ravioli\n*Hoops\n*Hoops Snap Pots\n*Macaroni Cheese\n*Micro Spaghetti Snap Pots\n*No Added Sugar Hoops\n*Numberetti\n*Peppa Pig Pasta Shapes\n*Spaghetti\n*Spaghetti Bolognese\n*Spaghetti With Sausages\n* Mayonnaise\n*Light Mayonnaise\n*Garlic & Caramelized Onion Mayonnaise\n*Truffle Mayonnaise\n*Lemon & Black Pepper Mayonnaise\n*Salad Cream\n*Salad Cream 30% Less Fat\n*Salad Cream 70% Less Fat\n*Classic Barbecue Sauce\n*Sticky Barbecue Sauce\n*Sweet & Spicy Barbecue Sauce\n*American Style Smokey Baconnaise Sauce\n*Korean Style Sticky Barbecue Sauce\n*American Style Burger Sauce\n*Thai Style Sweet Chilli Sauce\n*Thai Style Coconut Lime Sauce\n*Turkish Style Garlic Sauce\n*Mild Yellow Mustard\n*Honey Yellow Mustard\n*Piccalilli Pickle\n*Ploughman's Pickle\n*Original Sandwich Spread\n*Light Sandwich Spread\n*Saucy Sauce (Mayo & Ketchup Sauce)\n*Aromatic Herbs Ketchup\n*Balsamic Vinegar Ketchup\n*Fiery Chilli Tomato Ketchup\n*Jalape\u00f1o Chilli Tomato Ketchup\n*Organic Tomato Ketchup\n*Roasted Garlic Ketchup\n*Sweet Chilli Tomato Ketchup\n*Firecracker\n* Cream of Tomato\n*Cream of Chicken\n*Vegetable\n*Cream of Mushroom\n*Cream of Tomato with a Kick of Chilli\n*Lentil\n*Oxtail\n*Organic Cream of Tomato\n*Beef Broth\n*Carrot and Coriander\n*Cream of Chicken and Mushroom\n*Chicken and Sweetcorn\n*Chicken Noodle Soup\n*Lentil & Bacon\n*Minestrone\n*Mulligatawny\n*No Added Sugar Cream of Tomato\n*No Added Sugar Vegetable\n*Pea & Ham\n*Potato & Leek\n*Scotch Broth\n*Spring Vegetable\n*Cream of Tomato with Basil\n*Cream of Tomato Cup Soup\n*Vegetable Cup Soup\n*Cream of Tomato with a Kick of Chilli Cup Soup\n*Cream of Chicken Cup Soup\n*Cream of Mushroom Cup Soup\n*Cream of Tomato with Basil Cup Soup\n*Minestrone Cup Soup\n*Oxtail Cup Soup\n*Spiced Butternut Squash & Chickpea Eatwell Soup\n*Tomato & Cannellini Eatwell Soup\n*Tomato Spinach & Lentil Eatwell Soup\n*Cream of Chicken Pot Soup\n*Cream of Mushroom Pot Soup\n*Cream of Tomato Pot Soup\n*Smooth Vegetable Pot Soup\n*Cauliflower, Onion & Potato Soup of the Day\n*Chicken, Parsnip & Rosemary Soup of the Day\n*Green Garden Vegetables Soup of the Day\n*Mushroom & Toasted Garlic Soup of the Day\n*Potato & Leek with chives Soup of the Day\n*Spice Pumpkin, Sweet Potato & Carrot Soup of the Day\n*Tomato, Roasted Garlic & Black Pepper Soup of the Day"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Ketchup may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Las Ketchup",
        "text": "\u2013 Best New Group"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz pickle pin",
        "text": "The Heinz pickle pin is an advertising item from the H. J. Heinz Company, being a small green pin made in the shape of a pickle. Being continuously offered for more than a century, and with more than 100 million pins produced over the years, it is both one of the longest-running and most successful promotions in history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Ohio (Mason, Massillon);"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the number one ketchup in the United States?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Heinz tomato ketchup has 60% of market in the US and 82% of the market in the UK. Would you like to know more about Heniz ketchup?"
    ],
    "topic": "Heinz",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Ketchup:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Ketchup"
        ],
        "ctx": "Tomato ketchup is made from tomatoes, sugar, and vinegar, with seasonings and spices. The spices and flavors vary, but commonly include onions, allspice, coriander, cloves, cumin, garlic, and mustard, and sometimes include celery, cinnamon, or ginger. The market leader in the United States (60% market share) and the United Kingdom (82%) is Heinz Tomato Ketchup. Tomato ketchup is most often used as a condiment to dishes that are usually served hot and are fried or greasy: french fries and other potato dishes, hamburgers, hot dogs, chicken tenders, hot sandwiches, meat pies, cooked eggs, and grilled or fried meat. Ketchup is sometimes used as the basis for, or as one ingredient in, other sauces and dressings, and the flavor may be replicated as an additive flavoring for snacks, such as potato chips."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "The \"57\" mark arises from an advertising statement that Heinz made \"57 Varieties\" of products. When Henry J. Heinz introduced the \"57 Varieties\" slogan, however, the company already made at least 60 products. The number is simply the combination of numbers Heinz and his wife considered \"lucky\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "From 2000 to 2006, Heinz produced colored ketchup products called EZ Squirt, which were available in squeezable containers and targeted towards young children. The ketchup launched in green- and red-colored varieties, which were later joined by purple, pink, orange, teal, and blue. The Canadian version was labelled E-ZEE Squirt, most likely to reflect the difference in the way that the letter Z is pronounced in the United States and the way it is pronounced in other English-speaking countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harvey Washington Wiley",
        "text": "Heinz were one of the first companies to join the push for pure food and changed their recipe for tomato ketchup in 1902 to replace chemical preservatives with vinegar and introducing very hygienic practices into their factories."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup is a brand of ketchup produced by the H. J. Heinz Company, a division of the Kraft Heinz Company. Heinz Ketchup holds 80% of the market share in Europe and 60% in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup",
        "text": "Prior to Heinz (and his fellow innovators), commercial tomato ketchups of that time were watery and thin, in part due to the use of unripe tomatoes, which were low in pectin. They had less vinegar than modern ketchups; by pickling ripe tomatoes, the need for benzoate was eliminated without spoilage or degradation in flavor. But the changes driven by the desire to eliminate benzoate also produced changes that some experts (such as Andrew F. Smith) believe were key to the establishment of tomato ketchup as the dominant American condiment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry J. Heinz",
        "text": "Henry John Heinz (October 11, 1844 \u2013 May 14, 1919) was an American entrepreneur who, at the age of 25, co-founded a small horseradish concern in Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania. This business failed, but his second business expanded into tomato ketchup and other condiments, and ultimately became the internationally known H. J. Heinz Company of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup",
        "text": "In October 2000, Heinz introduced colored ketchup products called EZ Squirt, which eventually included green (2000), purple (2001), mystery (pink, orange, or teal, 2002), and blue (2003). These products were made by adding food coloring to the traditional ketchup. these products were discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In a recent American Customer Satisfaction Index poll of 10,644 consumers, H.J. Heinz Co. had the highest score of any food or beverage firm, higher than Kraft Foods, The Coca-Cola Company, and Nestl\u00e9."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "First introduced as \"Catsup\" in 1876 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Heinz Tomato Ketchup remains the best-selling brand of ketchup. From 1906 it was produced without preservatives. In 1907, Heinz started producing about 13 million bottles of ketchup per year, exporting ketchup all over the world, including India, Australia, South America, Japan, Indonesia, New Zealand, South Korea, South Africa and the United Kingdom. Heinz ketchup is often served at restaurants in the United States and Canada, as well as many other countries. As a condiment for many foods, such as french fries, chips, hamburgers and hot dogs, Heinz ketchup uses the slogan \"America's Favorite Ketchup\u201d. As of 2012, there are more than 650 million bottles of Heinz Tomato Ketchup being sold every year throughout the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "The company went bankrupt in 1875. The following year Heinz founded another company, F & J Heinz, with his brother John Heinz and a cousin, Frederick Heinz. One of this company's first products was Heinz Tomato Ketchup. The company continued to grow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In January 2009, the label design was altered, with the illustration of a gherkin pickle that had adorned the label since the 1890s was removed and replaced with an illustration of a vine-ripened tomato accompanied by the slogan \"Upgrade To Heinz\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In 2012, a criminal scheme that repackaged bulk standard ketchup into bottles with counterfeit \"Simply Heinz\" labels failed when the transferred ketchup began to ferment and explode."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "Heinz introduced its octagonal glass bottle for the first time in 1889; the bottle was patented in 1890. While other glass bottle designs have existed, the octagonal glass bottle is still in use and is considered an \"iconic\" example of package design. In the United States, the glass bottle commonly used by restaurants holds of ketchup. A small bottle containing about of ketchup also exists for hotel room service and other situations where it is desirable to serve individual meals with a more personal or luxurious presentation than might be perceived with the foil or plastic packets associated with fast food dining."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "The H. J. Heinz Company is an American food processing company headquartered at One PPG Place in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The company was founded by Henry J. Heinz in 1869. Heinz manufactures thousands of food products in plants on six continents, and markets these products in more than 200 countries and territories. The company claims to have 150 number-one or number-two brands worldwide. Heinz ranked first in ketchup in the US with a market share in excess of 50%; the Ore-Ida label held 46% of the frozen potato sector in 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "Heinz manufactures all of its American tomato ketchup at two plants: one in Fremont, Ohio, and another in Muscatine, Iowa. Heinz closed their plant in Leamington, Ontario in 2014. The former Canadian plant is now owned by Highbury Vancouver to produce French's ketchup in Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "A majority of its ketchup is produced in Fremont, Ohio, and the rest is made in Muscatine, Iowa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In April 2020, Heinz launched a 570-piece ketchup jigsaw puzzle, in which all of the pieces were identically red."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup\n--History.\n--Production.\n--Varieties.\n----Edchup.\n----EZ Squirt colored ketchup.\n----Saucy Sauce product line.\n--Packaging.\n----Glass bottles.\n--Merchandising.\n--Counterfeiting scheme.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In January 2020, Heinz announced \"Honeyracha\" combining \"honey\" + \"sriracha\", then in February announced \"Mayoracha\" combining \"mayonnaise\" + \"sriracha\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In March 2021 Heinz unveiled three new products: \"Tarchup\" combining \"tartar\" sauce + \"ketchup\", \"Wasabioli\" combining \"wasabi\" + \"aioli\", and \"Hanch\" combining \"hot sauce\" + \"ranch\" dressing. Later in March, two more were announced: \"Buffaranch\" combining \"Buffalo\" sauce + \"ranch\" dressing and \"Sweet Ketchili\" combining \"ketchup\" + \"sweet chili sauce\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "Heinz ketchup is packaged in glass and plastic bottles of various sizes, as well as individual-serving condiment packets made of foil or plastic. Larger amounts of ketchup are packaged in metal cans, rigid plastic jugs, flexible plastic bags and a bag-in-box format. The larger containers can be fitted with pumps or placed into dispensers for bulk service. A bag containing is the largest offering intended for restaurants; an IBC tote containing is sold to food manufacturers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In April 2019, Heinz released yet another portmanteau product, this time combining \"ketchup\" + \"ranch\" dressing to create \"Kranch\". The new sauce received a mixed reception online, with \"Newsweek\" saying that it \"might seem as if Kranch is a flight of fancy from a drunken frat boy\" but that some consumers were nevertheless interested."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dip & Squeeze",
        "text": "It was designed to be easier to use one-handed inside a car. Product developers watched consumers operate the traditional ketchup packet through one-way mirrors to evaluate new ketchup packaging designs. Heinz's vice president in charge of the packaging division himself bought a used minivan and tested the company's products delivered at fast food drive-up windows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shrikant Joshi",
        "text": "He likewise worked at Heinz for a limited timeframe (2000\u20132001), where he effectively helped familiarize the well-known Heinz Tomato Ketchup across India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "The bottles, which were each, were limited to 5 per order. The ketchup inside was no different than ordinary Heinz tomato ketchup. The bottle itself featured a unique label in which the title was \u201cHEINZ TOMATO EDCHUP\u201d. The labels of standard Heinz ketchup bottles feature a tomato hanging from its stem. On the \u201dEdchup\u201d label the tomato is wearing glasses and has a leaf on the top of it which appears to be hair. The tomato on the label was designed to imitate Ed Sheeran."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In March 2019, after the success of their Mayochup campaign, Heinz announced the release of two new portmanteau products to celebrate the company's 150th anniversary: \"Mayomust\", from \"mayonnaise\" + \"mustard\", and \"Mayocue\", from \"mayonnaise\" + \"barbecue\" sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Packet (container)",
        "text": "In 2010, the H. J. Heinz Company designed a new ketchup packet. The new design was made with a cup and easy tear, thus making it easier to dip food without a plate along with holding three times as much ketchup. It has not been widely adopted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In April 2018, Heinz announced the release of \"Mayochup\", a portmanteau of \"mayonnaise\" + \"ketchup\" that is a mixture of the two sauces, because more than 500,000 users voted \"yes\" in a Twitter poll asking Americans if they wanted to see it in stores. A number of Twitter users responded that such a mixture already existed as \"fry sauce\" and \"fancy sauce\". The sauce arrived on US retailers' shelves in September 2018. It attracted some media attention in May 2019 when the phrase was revealed to mean \"shit-face\" in the Cree language."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz Ketchup is available in India in two varieties, the standard Tomato Ketchup and Tomato Chili Sauce. As Indian taste preferences vary among the regions, Western brands such as Heinz must work on Indian interpretations of ketchups for sale in the country. Heinz acquired the former foods division of Glaxo India, gaining the Complan, Glucon D, Glucon C, Sampriti Ghee, and Nycil products and brands. In 2019, Heinz sold a portion of the business, including Complan and Glucon-D, for $627.18 million to Zydus Wellness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Packet (container)",
        "text": "Annual production of ketchup packets by Heinz alone is 11 billion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In addition to the standard ketchup variety, Heinz offers two varieties known as \"Organic\" and \"Simply Heinz\". Both of these varieties' ingredients contain sugar instead of high fructose corn syrup. Heinz offers several flavor variations: sriracha, jalape\u00f1o, and balsamic vinegar. Dietary requirements are addressed with no-salt-added and reduced-sugar varieties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "Globally, Heinz produces ketchup and other tomato sauces in factories across the world , including the UK and the Netherlands. Although Heinz touts \"one basic recipe\" for its mainstay ketchup, there are variations in this recipe tailored to national tastes, and dependent on the country of production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup",
        "text": "Tomato ketchup was sold locally by farmers. Jonas Yerkes is credited as the first American to sell tomato ketchup in a bottle. By 1837, he had produced and distributed the condiment nationally. Shortly thereafter, other companies followed suit. F. & J. Heinz launched their tomato ketchup in 1876. Heinz Tomato Ketchup was advertised: \"Blessed relief for Mother and the other women in the household!\", a slogan which alluded to the lengthy process required to produce tomato ketchup in the home. With industrial ketchup production and a need for better preservation there was a great increase of sugar in ketchup, leading to our modern sweet and sour formula. In Australia, it was not until the late 19th century that sugar was added to \"tomato sauce\", initially in small quantities, but today it contains just as much as American ketchup and only differed in the proportions of tomatoes, salt and vinegar in early recipes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "The Heinz Ketchup logo and distinctive red color have been used in numerous licensed products. This includes clothing, mugs, pin badges and tomato-flavored cosmetics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "The \"upside-down\" squeezable plastic bottle, consisting of an opaque red bottle with a wide white cap located at the bottom, was introduced as a food service product in 2002. It allows ketchup to be dispensed more easily than was possible with the glass bottle, and permits the use of more of the ketchup in the bottle, as the contents will settle on top of the dispensing valve. The \"upside-down\" bottle is intended to be non-refillable. A similar bottle has been introduced in several different sizes at the retail/grocery level, but without the opaque red coloring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup",
        "text": "U.S. Heinz tomato ketchup's ingredients (listed from highest to lowest percentage weight) are: tomato concentrate from red ripe tomatoes, distilled vinegar, high-fructose corn syrup, corn syrup, salt, spice, onion powder, and natural flavoring."
      },
      {
        "title": "H. J. Heinz, Wigan",
        "text": "H. J. Heinz varieties first went on sale in Fortnum & Mason in 1886. After World War I, with a headquarters established in Hayes, London, Heinz started exporting baked beans, canned spaghetti and tomato ketchup to the United Kingdom. Heinz opened its first UK production facility in Harlesden in the 1920s. By 1933 nearly all Heinz products sold in the UK were manufactured domestically. During World War II the Harlesden facility was bombed twice. To help increase food production after the war, Heinz took over a former munitions factory in 1946 at Standish near Wigan. Heinz LTD grew sixfold between 1945 and 1956, and due to this increased demand it needed a new large manufacturing plant in the UK."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "On June 5, 2019, which is National Ketchup Day, Heinz, along with singer-songwriter and ketchup-lover Ed Sheeran, released a limited-edition ketchup product known as Ed Sheeran X Heinz ketchup, more popularly known by its portmanteau, \u201cEdchup\u201d. Heinz announced the release in an Instagram post on the same day. The post featured Sheeran posing with a bottle of \u201cEdchup\u201d. Ed Sheeran is a long-time ketchup lover. He made this apparent when he had the Heinz ketchup logo tattooed on his left arm."
      },
      {
        "title": "E. C. Hazard and Company",
        "text": "Hazard had a devotion to purity of his products and is credited with marketing the first pure and unadulterated ketchup. He was founder, president and presiding officer of the Pure Food Manufactures Association at Madison Square Garden in 1892."
      },
      {
        "title": "Packet (container)",
        "text": "In Collinsville, Illinois, the largest ketchup packet was created by H. J. Heinz Company for a fundraiser for the Collinsville Christian Academy. People could buy a bottle of ketchup for $1 to add to the ketchup packet. After it was filled, it weighed 1,500\u00a0lbs. and it was across and thick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz pickle pin",
        "text": "For the year 2000, the Heinz company decided to try something new. For the first time, an entirely different pin was produced. Rather than a pickle, the new pin was shaped like a red Heinz ketchup bottle, complete with painted white cap and keystone-shaped label. The first batch of ketchup pins made also feature a printed \"2000\" to denote its commemorative status. A total of one million ketchup pins were produced, which is roughly the equivalent of a year's worth of pickle pins."
      },
      {
        "title": "H. J. Heinz, Wigan",
        "text": "The chosen site allowed easy expansion. By the 1980s, the factory employed around 3,000 people, and during the decade was converted to high-speed automation. It had taken over the production of all UK products from Harlesden except Heinz Tomato Ketchup. After Harlesden closed in 2000, ketchup production was moved to Holland. A steam plant with a capacity of 140 tonnes per hour was installed in 2005, one of the largest of these type of installations in the UK."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "As a result of this corporate restructuring and the angry Canadian response, a rival food company, French's, began producing their own ketchup brand using Leamington produce. It marketed the brand with an appeal to Canadian patriotism. This successful campaign, combined with a Canadian grassroots effort on Facebook encouraging purchasing of the French's product, resulted in Heinz's market share in Canada dropping from 84 to 76%, a significant shift in a mature market. This undesirable development was exacerbated in 2018 when Canadian tariffs were erected against specific American exports, which includes ketchup produced in the United States, in retaliation to the US President Trump's tariffs on Canadian steel and aluminum exports. Heinz conducted a belated public relations campaign in Canada to try to counter the public anger against them, a task made more difficult by public sentiment rising to encourage a boycott of American goods in reaction of US President Trump's rhetoric against Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz pickle pin",
        "text": "Heinz pickle pin\n--Description.\n--Origins.\n--The first century.\n--Year 2000 ketchup variant.\n--Spinoffs and other items.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In 2010, Heinz unveiled Dip & Squeeze, a new single-serve cup for dipping and squeezing, intended to eventually replace the original packets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ed Sheeran",
        "text": "In June 2019, Sheeran made his debut appearance in an advertisement for Heinz Tomato Ketchup. A lifelong fan of the product \u2014 he has it with everything from fish and chips to his morning sausage \"butty\" to upmarket dinners, carries a bottle on tour, and has a Heinz Ketchup tattoo on his arm \u2014 he put forward an idea he had written for their next TV campaign, and the company responded. A representative from Heinz started that \"1/3 of @HEINZ Instagram posts include people mentioning or tagging Ed, dating all the way back to 2014.\" Poking fun at people who turn their nose up at those who ask for ketchup in fancy restaurants, the advert sees him walking into a \"super posh\" restaurant while narrating the message he had sent to the company. As the other wealthy diners look on in horror at the sight of a ketchup bottle, he flips the bottle, bangs it against his hand to budge the ketchup and smothers it all over his food. The company released a limited edition ketchup product known as Ed Sheeran X Heinz ketchup, also known as \"Heinz Edchup\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "On March 25, 2015, Kraft Foods Group Inc. announced that it would merge with the H.\u00a0J. Heinz Company, owned by 3G Capital and Berkshire Hathaway Inc., to form the world's fifth-largest food and beverage company. The companies completed the merger on July 2, 2015.\n* ABC\n* Bagel Bites\n* Bull's-Eye\n* Classico\n* Complan\n* Daddies\n* Devour\n* Delimex\n* Diana Sauce\n* Farex\n* Greenseas\n* Heinz\n* HP Sauce\n* Jack Daniel's sauces (under license)\n* Lea & Perrins\n* Ore-Ida\n* T.G.I. Friday's (under license)\n* Wattie's\n* Weight Watchers (under license)\n* Wyler's\n*Beanz\n*Italian Beanz\n*Lentil Curry\n*Mexican Beanz\n*No Added Sugar Beanz\n*No Added Sugar Beanz Snap Pots\n*Organic Beanz\n*Peri Peri Beanz\n*Pork Sausage Beanz\n*Smokey Bacon Beanz\n*Spanish Beanz\n* Balsamic With a hint of Garlic\n* Chilli & Lime\n*Raspberry Balsamic\n*Zesty Lemon\n* Alphabetti\n*Beef Ravioli\n*Hoops\n*Hoops Snap Pots\n*Macaroni Cheese\n*Micro Spaghetti Snap Pots\n*No Added Sugar Hoops\n*Numberetti\n*Peppa Pig Pasta Shapes\n*Spaghetti\n*Spaghetti Bolognese\n*Spaghetti With Sausages\n* Mayonnaise\n*Light Mayonnaise\n*Garlic & Caramelized Onion Mayonnaise\n*Truffle Mayonnaise\n*Lemon & Black Pepper Mayonnaise\n*Salad Cream\n*Salad Cream 30% Less Fat\n*Salad Cream 70% Less Fat\n*Classic Barbecue Sauce\n*Sticky Barbecue Sauce\n*Sweet & Spicy Barbecue Sauce\n*American Style Smokey Baconnaise Sauce\n*Korean Style Sticky Barbecue Sauce\n*American Style Burger Sauce\n*Thai Style Sweet Chilli Sauce\n*Thai Style Coconut Lime Sauce\n*Turkish Style Garlic Sauce\n*Mild Yellow Mustard\n*Honey Yellow Mustard\n*Piccalilli Pickle\n*Ploughman's Pickle\n*Original Sandwich Spread\n*Light Sandwich Spread\n*Saucy Sauce (Mayo & Ketchup Sauce)\n*Aromatic Herbs Ketchup\n*Balsamic Vinegar Ketchup\n*Fiery Chilli Tomato Ketchup\n*Jalape\u00f1o Chilli Tomato Ketchup\n*Organic Tomato Ketchup\n*Roasted Garlic Ketchup\n*Sweet Chilli Tomato Ketchup\n*Firecracker\n* Cream of Tomato\n*Cream of Chicken\n*Vegetable\n*Cream of Mushroom\n*Cream of Tomato with a Kick of Chilli\n*Lentil\n*Oxtail\n*Organic Cream of Tomato\n*Beef Broth\n*Carrot and Coriander\n*Cream of Chicken and Mushroom\n*Chicken and Sweetcorn\n*Chicken Noodle Soup\n*Lentil & Bacon\n*Minestrone\n*Mulligatawny\n*No Added Sugar Cream of Tomato\n*No Added Sugar Vegetable\n*Pea & Ham\n*Potato & Leek\n*Scotch Broth\n*Spring Vegetable\n*Cream of Tomato with Basil\n*Cream of Tomato Cup Soup\n*Vegetable Cup Soup\n*Cream of Tomato with a Kick of Chilli Cup Soup\n*Cream of Chicken Cup Soup\n*Cream of Mushroom Cup Soup\n*Cream of Tomato with Basil Cup Soup\n*Minestrone Cup Soup\n*Oxtail Cup Soup\n*Spiced Butternut Squash & Chickpea Eatwell Soup\n*Tomato & Cannellini Eatwell Soup\n*Tomato Spinach & Lentil Eatwell Soup\n*Cream of Chicken Pot Soup\n*Cream of Mushroom Pot Soup\n*Cream of Tomato Pot Soup\n*Smooth Vegetable Pot Soup\n*Cauliflower, Onion & Potato Soup of the Day\n*Chicken, Parsnip & Rosemary Soup of the Day\n*Green Garden Vegetables Soup of the Day\n*Mushroom & Toasted Garlic Soup of the Day\n*Potato & Leek with chives Soup of the Day\n*Spice Pumpkin, Sweet Potato & Carrot Soup of the Day\n*Tomato, Roasted Garlic & Black Pepper Soup of the Day"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ray Armes",
        "text": "He was chairman of marketing agency Vibrandt, famously revamping the classic Heinz Tomato Ketchup label before later leaving the company to establish and become CEO of advertising consultancy Touch of Mojo, whose clients include Unilever and Clark's shoes. The company sponsored the Volkswagen Golf championship in 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry J. Heinz",
        "text": "The company continued to grow and, in 1888, Heinz bought out his other two partners and reorganized it as the H. J. Heinz Company, the name carried to the present day. The company's slogan, \"57 varieties,\" was introduced by Heinz in 1896; by then, the company was selling more than 60 different products. Heinz said he chose \"5\" because it was his lucky number; the number \"7\" was his wife's lucky number."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "As ketchup has high viscosity and behaves as a pseudoplastic or thixotropic liquid, dispensing from glass bottles can be difficult. Tapping the glass bottle causes the ketchup to become thinner and easier to pour. Heinz suggests, on its website, that the best place to tap the bottle is on the \"57\" mark. The \"New York Times\" has also claimed that the tapping the \"57\" mark is the best way to cause Heinz ketchup to pour smoothly. Shaking the bottle or tapping in another place is also effective, however."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In January 2020, Heinz and department store Fortnum & Mason launched tomato ketchup-filled chocolate truffles, as part of their Valentine's Day offering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz 57",
        "text": "The first product to be promoted under the new \"57 varieties\" slogan was prepared horseradish. By 1940, the term \"Heinz 57\" had become so synonymous with the company the name was used to market a steak sauce.\n# Heinz Oven-Baked Beans \u2013 Pork and Tomato Sauce\n# Heinz Oven-Baked Beans \u2013 Pork no Tomato Sauce\n# Heinz Oven-Baked Beans \u2013 Tomato Sauce no Pork\n# Heinz Oven-Baked Red Kidney Beans\n# Heinz Cream of Asparagus Soup\n# Heinz Cream of Celery Soup\n# Heinz Cream of Mushroom\n# Heinz Cream of Green Pea Soup\n# Heinz Cream of Oyster\n# Heinz Cream of Tomato Soup\n# Heinz Bean Soup\n# Heinz Beef Broth\n# Heinz Clam Chowder\n# Heinz Gumbo Creole\n# Heinz Mock Turtle Soup\n# Heinz Scotch Broth\n# Heinz Noodle Soup\n# Heinz Pepper Pot Soup\n# Heinz Vegetable Soup\n# Heinz Consomm\u00e9\n# Heinz Onion Soup\n# Heinz Mince Meat\n# Heinz Puddings\u2014Date, Fig, and Plum\n# Heinz Peanut Butter\n# Heinz Cooked Spaghetti\n# Heinz Cooked Macaroni\n# Heinz Pure Jellies\n# Heinz Apple Butter\n# Heinz Gherkins\u2014Sweet or Sour\n# Heinz Mixed Pickles\u2014Sweet or Sour\n# Heinz Chow Chow Pickle\n# Heinz Sweet Mustard Pickle\n# Heinz Dill Pickles\n# Heinz Fresh Cucumber Pickle\n# Heinz Strained Foods\n# Heinz India Relish\n# Heinz Sandwich Spread\n# Heinz Pickled Onions\u2014Sweet and Sour\n# Heinz Spanish Queen Olives\n# Heinz Stuffed Spanish Olives\n# Heinz Ripe Olives\n# Heinz Pure Spanish Olive Oil\n# Heinz Tomato Ketchup\n# Heinz Chili Sauce\n# Heinz Beefsteak Sauce*\n# Heinz Pepper Sauce\u2014Red or Green\n# Heinz Worcestershire Sauce\n# Heinz Prepared Mustard\u2014Brown or Yellow\n# Heinz Evaporated Horseradish\n# Heinz Mayonnaise\n# Heinz Pure Malt Vinegar\n# Heinz Pure Cider Vinegar\n# Heinz Distilled White Vinegar\n# Heinz Tarragon Vinegar\n# Heinz Rice Flakes\n# Heinz Breakfast Wheat\n# Heinz Tomato Juice\n*- Known today as Heinz 57 Sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mad Men",
        "text": "In a case of life imitating art, in 2017 Heinz ran an advertising campaign for their ketchup that used ads created for the brand by Don Draper in a 2013 episode."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry J. Heinz",
        "text": "Henry John Heinz began packing foodstuffs on a small scale at Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania, in 1869. There, he founded Heinz Noble & Company with a friend, L. Clarence Noble, and started marketing bottled horseradish, soon followed by sauerkraut, vinegar, and pickles. The company went bankrupt in 1875. The following year, Heinz founded another company, F & J Heinz, with his brother John Heinz and a cousin, Frederick Heinz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "A Heinz Ketchup cookbook was published by Absolute Press in 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles M. Berger",
        "text": "Heinz Chairman and CEO William R. Johnson credited Berger for Heinz success with ketchup by stating that Berger's marketing ideas allowed \"Heinz to break out of a tie and gain permanent leadership in ketchup.\" Berger worked for Heinz for 32 years and was in charge of Heinz's operations in India before leaving to become CEO at The Scotts Miracle-Gro Company in 1996."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz opened a pickle factory in Holland, Michigan, in 1897, and it is the largest such facility in the world. The Heinz Portion Control subsidiary is located in Jacksonville, Florida, and produces single-serving containers of ketchup, mustard, salad dressings, jams, jellies and syrups."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup",
        "text": "In response, entrepreneurs including Henry J. Heinz, pursued an alternative recipe that eliminated the need for that preservative. Katherine Bitting, a bacteriologist working for the U.S. Department of Agriculture, carried out research in 1909 that proved increasing the sugar and vinegar content of the product would prevent spoilage without use of artificial preservatives. She was assisted by her husband, Arvil Bitting, an official at that agency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Curry ketchup",
        "text": "Major brands producing curry ketchup include Zeisner, Heinz, Hela, and Knorr."
      },
      {
        "title": "UFC (brand)",
        "text": "Coincidentally, Magdalo V. Francisco came up with his own method of making ketchup using bananas in 1938. In 1942, he began commercial production of banana ketchup under the brand name Mafran, a portmanteau derived from the first syllables of his first name and surname. He registered Mafran as a trademark with the Bureau of Patents in the Philippines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vecchi Ketchup Factory",
        "text": "The Vecchi Ketchup Factory in Hazlet, New Jersey produced ketchup from the early 20th century until around 1960. The factory operated in the early 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Henry J. Heinz began packing foodstuffs on a small scale at Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania, in 1869. There he founded Heinz Noble & Company with a friend, L. Clarence Noble, and began marketing horseradish. The first product in Heinz and Noble's new Anchor Brand (a name selected for its biblical meaning of hope) was his mother Anna Heinz's recipe for horseradish. The young Heinz manufactured it in the basement of his father's former house."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burger King products",
        "text": "The H.J. Heinz Company is a significant supplier of condiments to Burger King. They have worked together on several programs such as the 2001 promotional tie-in with the movie \"Shrek\". Heinz provided an LTO Blastin' Green EZ Squirt colored ketchup and an apple flavored \"ooze\" dipping sauce for distribution with the Shrek-branded kid's meals. Heinz has become a primary supplier of ketchup in the United States, Mexico, and Great Britain, while supplying various sauces in several European countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dip & Squeeze",
        "text": "Dip & Squeeze is the brand name of a type of packaging for tomato ketchup used by Heinz Tomato Ketchup. The product was announced in 2010 and rolled out to consumers at U.S. fast food restaurants in March, 2011. Later in 2011 it was sold directly to retail consumers at Target and Wal-Mart."
      },
      {
        "title": "The best things come to those who wait",
        "text": "\"The best things come to those who wait\" was a slogan used in an advertising campaign launched by the H. J. Heinz Company in 1987 to promote its Heinz brand of tomato ketchup within the United States. The campaign was pitched and handled by the advertising agency Leo Burnett Worldwide, who had been responsible for the marketing of Heinz brands since 1974. The central concept of the campaign was that even people in a hurry would wait for Heinz ketchup to trickle out of its glass bottle. Advertisements with the slogan \"The best things come to those who wait\" appeared in print, on billboards, on television and in cinemas throughout the early 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daddies",
        "text": "While both Heinz and Daddies remain solid competitors in the UK marketplace, with strong regional popularity in the Midlands, Wales and the West Country, Daddies Ketchup trails the dominant market leader, the better-known Heinz Tomato Ketchup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Ketchup (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Public relations of high fructose corn syrup",
        "text": "In May 2010, Hunt's removed high-fructose corn syrup from its ketchup due to buyer preference as a result of health concerns, but has since put High Fructose Corn Syrup back in their ketchup. Heinz now offers a ketchup made with sugar instead of HFCS called \"Simply Heinz.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "David Sculley",
        "text": "From 1990-96, he ran most of Heinz\u2019s international operations, including Weight Watchers. During his 22-year career with Heinz, David is credited with leading the team to acquire Weight Watchers and the development of the plastic squeeze bottle for Heinz Ketchup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banana ketchup",
        "text": "In 1942, banana ketchup was first mass-produced commercially by Magdalo V. Francisco Sr. who founded the brand name Mafran (a portmanteau of his given name and surname) which he registered with the Bureau of Patents. Francisco sought funding from Tirso T. Reyes to expand his business and therefore the Universal Food Corporation (UFC) was formed in 1960."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz 57",
        "text": "Henry J. Heinz introduced the marketing slogan \"57 pickle Varieties\" in 1896. He later claimed he was inspired by an advertisement he saw while riding an elevated train in New York City (a shoe store boasting \"21 styles\"). The reason for \"57\" is unclear. Heinz said he chose \"5\" because it was his lucky number and the number \"7\" was his wife's lucky number. However, Heinz also said the number \"7\" was selected specifically because of the \"psychological influence of that figure and of its enduring significance to people of all ages\". Whatever the reasons, Heinz wanted the company to advertise the greatest number of choices of pickles. In fact by 1892, four years before the slogan was created, the Heinz company was already selling more than 60 products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 1905, H. J. Heinz was incorporated, and Heinz served as its first president, holding that position for the rest of his life. Under his leadership, the company pioneered processes for sanitary food preparation, and led a successful lobbying effort in favor of the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906. In 1908 he established a processing plant in Leamington, Ontario, Canada for tomatoes and other products. Heinz operated it until 2014, when it was sold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Heinz (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz was founded by and is named for Henry J. Heinz, who was born in the United States to German immigrants. His father was originally from Kallstadt (then part of the Bavarian Rhenish Palatinate, now part of Rhineland-Palatinate). His mother Anna was from Haunetal, Hesse-Kassel, and they met in Pittsburgh."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles M. Berger",
        "text": "Berger was behind the Heinz ketchup marketing campaign that touted the ketchup as being thick and having slow pouring qualities. Advertisements included \"the ketchup race\" from 1964 and \"the slowest ketchup in the West.\" The commercials showed Heinz being poured from bottles, racing its competitors to see which was thicker. They became one of Heinz's most popular marketing campaigns and were played during Super Bowl V in 1971. The campaigns also spun into the 1970s Heinz \"Anticipation\" commercials that used a hit song by Carly Simon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz List",
        "text": "In 1966, Heinz List established his own company to further develop the field of high-viscosity processing. Heinz List established the LIST Dry Processing Group based on the following:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Baked Beans",
        "text": "In 1967, Heinz launched an advertising campaign with the slogan \"Beanz Meanz Heinz\". The phrase was created by advertising executive Maurice Drake and went on to become one of the best-known advertising slogans in the United Kingdom. Drake later said the slogan was \"written over two pints of beer in The Victoria pub in Mornington Crescent\". Drake died on 22 August 2021, at the age of 93."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Heinz is an American food conglomerate based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daddies",
        "text": "The brown sauce product, known as \"Daddies Sauce\", was launched in 1904, and the ketchup was launched in 1930. The brand is now owned by the H. J. Heinz Company, having been bought as part of the acquisition of HP Foods from previous owner Groupe Danone in 2005. Production of Daddies has now been moved to Poland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Las Ketchup",
        "text": "Las Ketchup\n--History.\n----2001\u201302: Formation.\n----2002\u201305: \"Hijas del Tomate\".\n----2006: \"Un Blodymary\" and addition of Roc\u00edo.\n----2006\u2013present.\n--Awards.\n--Parodies.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "The Heinz Keystone Dispenser is a color-coded plastic dispensers, shaped to resemble the keystone part of the \"Heinz 57\" symbol, that accepts bags of condiments that include the original, low-sodium and Simply Heinz varieties of ketchup, along with several varieties of mustard, mayonnaise, ranch dressing and relish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Heise",
        "text": "\"The H\" was closed down in July 2013 for lack of a \"working business model\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup",
        "text": "Commercial tomato ketchup has an additive, usually xanthan gum, which gives the condiment a pseudoplastic or \"shear thinning\" property \u2013 more commonly known as thixotropic. This increases the viscosity of the ketchup considerably with a relatively small amount added\u2014usually 0.5%\u2014which can make it difficult to pour from a container. However, the shear thinning property of the gum ensures that when a force is applied to the ketchup it will lower the viscosity enabling the sauce to flow. A common method to getting ketchup out of the bottle involves inverting the bottle and shaking it or hitting the bottom with the heel of the hand, which causes the ketchup to flow rapidly. Ketchup in plastic bottles can be additionally manipulated by squeezing the bottle, which also decreases the viscosity of the ketchup inside. Another technique involves inverting the bottle and forcefully tapping its upper neck with two fingers (index and middle finger together). Specifically, with a Heinz ketchup glass bottle, one taps the 57 circle on the neck. This helps the ketchup flow by applying the correct shearing force. These techniques work because of how pseudoplastic fluids behave: their viscosity (resistance to flow) decreases with increasing shear rate. The faster the ketchup is sheared (by shaking or tapping the bottle), the more fluid it becomes. After the shear is removed the ketchup thickens to its original viscosity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz List",
        "text": "LIST Today"
      },
      {
        "title": "Herta Heuwer",
        "text": "Food historians such as Petra Foede believe that, as with most culinary creation myths, several rather than a single person were involved in developing this dish, sausage sellers experimenting with various spice mixes in order to replace the tomato ketchup that was unavailable during the immediate postwar years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Baked Beans",
        "text": "In 2008, \"Heinz Baked Beans\" were renamed \"Heinz Beanz\", as the original title was \"a bit of a mouthful to pronounce\", according to the company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Kapelle",
        "text": "Heinz Kapelle\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fremont, Ohio",
        "text": "The world's largest ketchup plant, operated by Heinz is located in Fremont, producing 80% of the ketchup sold in the United States. At one time the city was home to several cutlery companies: the Christy Company, Clauss Cutlery Company, Quikut, B.A.P. Manufacturing, the Ginsu Cutlery Line, and Herbrand tools. It was also home to a Pioneer Sugar processing plant which closed in 1997, but as of 2020, remains a Michigan Sugar warehouse, despite plans in 2009 to open an ethanol refinery plant on the site.\n* Birchard Public Library (built in a park at the former site of Fort Stephenson)\n* H. J. Heinz Company ketchup factory (the world's largest ketchup factory)\n* Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center\n* Sandusky County Jail and Sheriff's House\n* Spiegel Grove\n* Fremont Speedway\n* The Strand Concert Theater"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz 57",
        "text": "Heinz 57\n--Usage.\n--Bottle design.\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 1888, Heinz bought out his two partners and reorganized the company as the H.\u00a0J. Heinz Company. Its slogan, \"57 varieties\", was introduced by Heinz in 1896. Inspired by an advertisement he saw while riding an elevated train in New York City (a shoe store boasting \"21 styles\"), Heinz picked the number more or less at random because he liked the sound of it, selecting \"7\" specifically because, as he put it, of the \"psychological influence of that figure and of its enduring significance to people of all ages.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Henghes",
        "text": "Heinz Henghes\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ketchup",
        "text": "Modern ketchup emerged in the early years of the 20th century, out of a debate over the use of sodium benzoate as a preservative in condiments. Harvey W. Wiley, the \"father\" of the Food and Drug Administration in the US, challenged the safety of benzoate which was banned in the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act."
      },
      {
        "title": "H. J. Heinz, Wigan",
        "text": "In June 2021, Kraft Heinz announced that it would invest \u00a3140\u00a0million into the plant over the next four years, the firm's biggest expansion to a manufacturing site outside the U.S. in over two decades. Under the plan, condiments such as ketchup and mayonnaise (which have not been manufactured in the UK since 1999) shall be manufactured at Kitt Green. The planned expansion shall create 50 new jobs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Baked Beans",
        "text": "In 1886, Heinz Baked Beans were first sold at the Fortnum & Mason department store in London. After opening its first overseas office in London in 1896, the company opened its first UK factory in Peckham, south London, in 1905. This was followed by a second factory at Harlesden, north-west London in 1919. Production was started at a former munitions factory at Standish near Wigan in 1946. A new factory opened in Kitt Green, also near Wigan, in 1958."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "The UK headquarters moved from Hayes to the Shard in London. After opening its first overseas office in London in 1896, the company opened its first UK factory in Peckham, south London in 1905. This was followed by a factory at Harlesden, north-west London in 1919. Bombed twice in World War II, this factory remained in production until 2000. Production was started at a former munitions factory at Standish near Wigan in 1946, before the new factory at Kitt Green, near Wigan, opened in 1959. Heinz also had an infant food factory in Kendal, Cumbria. The site specialized in baby milks, previously under the brand of Farley's, but then manufactured under the name Heinz Nurture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pudliszki (company)",
        "text": "Pudliszki Sp. z o.o. is a brand and producer in the food industry of fruit and vegetables. Presently, the brand is under the American company Heinz, which holds considerable shares in the company. Pudliszki focuses on the production of tomato goods (ketchup and concentrate) and vegetables (peas, beans and corn)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Betz",
        "text": "Heinz Betz\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Las Ketchup",
        "text": "\u2013 Best New Group"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz pickle pin",
        "text": "Besides the year 2000 ketchup pin, several similar items to the Heinz pickle pin have appeared over the years. A golden lapel pin in the shape of a pickle is a recent example, and Heinz has also made a pickle whistle, presumably as a fun item for kids too young to wear a pin (similar to the Oscar Mayer hot dog whistles distributed from the Wienermobile). In recent years, the amount of Heinz merchandise available has increased to the point that Heinz began operating its own retail store called the House of Heinz, located in Grove City, Pennsylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pudliszki (company)",
        "text": "The beginning of the production plant in Pudliszki began with J\u00f3zef \u0141ubie\u0144ski, who in 1847 opened one of the first sugar refineries in Greater Poland. The proceeding owner, Kennemann liquidated the sugar refinery and opened up the more profitable distillery. In 1923, owner Stanis\u0142aw Fenrych opened up a new production plant with around 200 employees. In 1927, the company financed the research of two professors from Pozna\u0144 in London to study the technology of ketchup production. This research allowed Pudliszki to begin its own tomato goods. Although in the midst of the Great Depression, the company numbered 800 employees in the nineteenth-thirties, exporting to Germany, France and the United States of America. After the Second World War, the company was nationalised and specialised in the food industry. By 1992 and 1993, the company held its place in the five-hundred most prosperous state-owned enterprises. In 1994, the company was transformed into a joint-stock company. Since 1997, most of its shares are held by Heinz."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the number one ketchup in the United States?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Heinz tomato ketchup has 60% of market in the US and 82% of the market in the UK. Would you like to know more about Heniz ketchup?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me how the Heniz brand was established."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Heinz was founded by and is named for Henry J. Heinz who began packing foodstuffs on a small scale at Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania, in 1869, where he founded Heinz Noble & Company with a friend, L. Clarence Noble, which then went bankrupt in 1875. Heinz founded another company, F & J Heinz, with his brother and cousin the following year, later bought out the company in 1888, reorganized it as the H. J. Heinz Company and had it incorporated in 1905.",
      "Henry John Heinz (October 11, 1844 \u2013 May 14, 1919) was an American entrepreneur who, at the age of 25, co-founded a small horseradish business that went bankrupt in 1875. The following year, Heinz founded another company which continued to grow and, in 1888, Heinz bought out his other two partners and reorganized it as the H. J. Heinz Company, which was incorporated in 1905 with Heinz serving as its first president, retaining that position for the rest of his life."
    ],
    "topic": "Heinz",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Heinz:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Heinz",
          "History",
          "Foundation"
        ],
        "ctx": "Heinz was founded by and is named for Henry J. Heinz, who was born in the United States to German immigrants. His father was originally from Kallstadt (then part of the Bavarian Rhenish Palatinate, now part of Rhineland-Palatinate). His mother Anna was from Haunetal, Hesse-Kassel, and they met in Pittsburgh."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Heinz:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Heinz",
          "History",
          "Foundation"
        ],
        "ctx": "Henry J. Heinz began packing foodstuffs on a small scale at Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania, in 1869. There he founded Heinz Noble & Company with a friend, L. Clarence Noble, and began marketing horseradish. The first product in Heinz and Noble's new Anchor Brand (a name selected for its biblical meaning of hope) was his mother Anna Heinz's recipe for horseradish. The young Heinz manufactured it in the basement of his father's former house."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Heinz:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Heinz",
          "History",
          "Foundation"
        ],
        "ctx": "The company went bankrupt in 1875. The following year Heinz founded another company, F & J Heinz, with his brother John Heinz and a cousin, Frederick Heinz. One of this company's first products was Heinz Tomato Ketchup. The company continued to grow."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Heinz:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Heinz",
          "History",
          "20th century"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 1905, H. J. Heinz was incorporated, and Heinz served as its first president, holding that position for the rest of his life. Under his leadership, the company pioneered processes for sanitary food preparation, and led a successful lobbying effort in favor of the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906. In 1908 he established a processing plant in Leamington, Ontario, Canada for tomatoes and other products. Heinz operated it until 2014, when it was sold."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Henry J. Heinz:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Henry J. Heinz"
        ],
        "ctx": "Henry John Heinz (October 11, 1844 \u2013 May 14, 1919) was an American entrepreneur who, at the age of 25, co-founded a small horseradish concern in Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania. This business failed, but his second business expanded into tomato ketchup and other condiments, and ultimately became the internationally known H. J. Heinz Company of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Henry J. Heinz:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Henry J. Heinz",
          "H. J. Heinz Company"
        ],
        "ctx": "Henry John Heinz began packing foodstuffs on a small scale at Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania, in 1869. There, he founded Heinz Noble & Company with a friend, L. Clarence Noble, and started marketing bottled horseradish, soon followed by sauerkraut, vinegar, and pickles. The company went bankrupt in 1875. The following year, Heinz founded another company, F & J Heinz, with his brother John Heinz and a cousin, Frederick Heinz."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Henry J. Heinz:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Henry J. Heinz",
          "H. J. Heinz Company"
        ],
        "ctx": "The company continued to grow and, in 1888, Heinz bought out his other two partners and reorganized it as the H. J. Heinz Company, the name carried to the present day. The company's slogan, \"57 varieties,\" was introduced by Heinz in 1896; by then, the company was selling more than 60 different products. Heinz said he chose \"5\" because it was his lucky number; the number \"7\" was his wife's lucky number."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Henry J. Heinz:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Henry J. Heinz",
          "H. J. Heinz Company"
        ],
        "ctx": "The H. J. Heinz Company was incorporated in 1905 with Heinz serving as its first president, retaining that position for the rest of his life. At the time of Heinz's death in Pittsburgh at the age of 74, the H. J. Heinz Company had more than 20 food processing plants and owned seed farms and container factories."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Henry J. Heinz",
        "text": "Henry John Heinz (October 11, 1844 \u2013 May 14, 1919) was an American entrepreneur who, at the age of 25, co-founded a small horseradish concern in Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania. This business failed, but his second business expanded into tomato ketchup and other condiments, and ultimately became the internationally known H. J. Heinz Company of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry J. Heinz",
        "text": "The H. J. Heinz Company was incorporated in 1905 with Heinz serving as its first president, retaining that position for the rest of his life. At the time of Heinz's death in Pittsburgh at the age of 74, the H. J. Heinz Company had more than 20 food processing plants and owned seed farms and container factories."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Heinz",
        "text": "Henry John Heinz II (July 10, 1908 \u2013 February 23, 1987) was an American business executive and CEO of the H. J. Heinz Company based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. His grandfather Henry J. Heinz founded the company in the nineteenth century, and he worked in a variety of positions within the company before becoming CEO."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Heinz (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Henry Heinz (1844\u20131919) is the founder of H. J. Heinz Company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry J. Heinz",
        "text": "Henry John Heinz began packing foodstuffs on a small scale at Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania, in 1869. There, he founded Heinz Noble & Company with a friend, L. Clarence Noble, and started marketing bottled horseradish, soon followed by sauerkraut, vinegar, and pickles. The company went bankrupt in 1875. The following year, Heinz founded another company, F & J Heinz, with his brother John Heinz and a cousin, Frederick Heinz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry J. Heinz",
        "text": "The company continued to grow and, in 1888, Heinz bought out his other two partners and reorganized it as the H. J. Heinz Company, the name carried to the present day. The company's slogan, \"57 varieties,\" was introduced by Heinz in 1896; by then, the company was selling more than 60 different products. Heinz said he chose \"5\" because it was his lucky number; the number \"7\" was his wife's lucky number."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "The company went bankrupt in 1875. The following year Heinz founded another company, F & J Heinz, with his brother John Heinz and a cousin, Frederick Heinz. One of this company's first products was Heinz Tomato Ketchup. The company continued to grow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Heinz",
        "text": "In 1966, Heinz resigned as president and CEO. For the first time in company history, a non-family member, Robert Burt Gookin, was chosen as CEO to manage day-to-day operations. Heinz served as chairman of the board from 1966 until his death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 1959, long-time Heinz employee Frank Armour Jr. was elected president and COO of H.\u00a0J. Heinz Co., succeeding H.\u00a0J. Heinz II. He was the first non-family member to hold the job since the company started in 1869. He became vice chairman in 1966, and later became chairman and CEO of Heinz subsidiary, Ore-Ida Foods Inc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Burt Gookin",
        "text": "Robert Burt Gookin (23 June 1914 \u2013 21 December 2002) was the first CEO of the H. J. Heinz Company from outside the Heinz family. He joined the firm in 1945 and retired in 1979."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 1905, H. J. Heinz was incorporated, and Heinz served as its first president, holding that position for the rest of his life. Under his leadership, the company pioneered processes for sanitary food preparation, and led a successful lobbying effort in favor of the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906. In 1908 he established a processing plant in Leamington, Ontario, Canada for tomatoes and other products. Heinz operated it until 2014, when it was sold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 1998, Tony O'Reilly left Heinz after issues with the company's performance. He faced challenges from corporate governance groups and pension funds including CalPERS. He was succeeded by his deputy, William R. Johnson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Henry J. Heinz began packing foodstuffs on a small scale at Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania, in 1869. There he founded Heinz Noble & Company with a friend, L. Clarence Noble, and began marketing horseradish. The first product in Heinz and Noble's new Anchor Brand (a name selected for its biblical meaning of hope) was his mother Anna Heinz's recipe for horseradish. The young Heinz manufactured it in the basement of his father's former house."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In the postwar years, Jack Heinz expanded the company to develop plants in several nations overseas, greatly expanding its international presence. He also acquired Ore-Ida and Starkist Tuna."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "The H. J. Heinz Company is an American food processing company headquartered at One PPG Place in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The company was founded by Henry J. Heinz in 1869. Heinz manufactures thousands of food products in plants on six continents, and markets these products in more than 200 countries and territories. The company claims to have 150 number-one or number-two brands worldwide. Heinz ranked first in ketchup in the US with a market share in excess of 50%; the Ore-Ida label held 46% of the frozen potato sector in 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tony O'Reilly",
        "text": "He became Chairman of Heinz in 1987, succeeding HJ Heinz II, and becoming the first non-Heinz family member to hold that post. His guidance was seen as having helped transform the company into a major international competitor, its value increasing twelvefold (from $908 million to $11 billion). O'Reilly left Heinz in 1998 after several years during which analysts questioned the company's performance, and after challenges from corporate governance groups and major pension funds including CalPERS and Business Week magazine; he was succeeded by his deputy, William R. Johnson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Behold",
        "text": "William R. Johnson, now president of H.J. Heinz, was assistant brand manager for Behold at Drackett, 1974-1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry J. Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz died at his home on May 14, 1919, after contracting pneumonia. His funeral was at East Liberty Presbyterian Church. He was buried at Homewood Cemetery in Pittsburgh, in the Heinz Family Mausoleum."
      },
      {
        "title": "H. J. Heinz Company complex",
        "text": "The Heinz Company was founded in 1876 and leased several buildings until 1890. In 1884, German-American Henry J. Heinz purchased several lots on the north bank of the Allegheny River in Pittsburgh. From 1888 through 1906, approximately twenty buildings were built or purchased, mostly of wood and beam construction. From 1906 through 1930, new buildings in the complex were made of steel and concrete instead of wood. The buildings from this period reflected Henry Heinz's Romanesque Revival influence, in contrast with the modern industrial style at the time, even after his death in 1919."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paulo Basilio",
        "text": "Basilio joined then-H.J. Heinz Company in 2013 as its chief financial officer. He left that position in 2017, turning it over to 29-year old David Knopf, to serve in other positions in the company. On August 26, 2019, Kraft Heinz CEO Miguel Patricio announced that Basilio would return to the CFO position following a series of accounting errors and misstatements that caused the company to restate its financial earnings."
      },
      {
        "title": "W. C. Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz died on February 27, 2008 in Bennington, Vermont, at age 93."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Heise",
        "text": "\"The H\" was closed down in July 2013 for lack of a \"working business model\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz started work early in his grandfather's company, learning every aspect of the business. In 1941, he advanced to become president of the Heinz Company upon his father's death of a stroke."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Bernard",
        "text": "In 1981, he returned to England, where he had to restart his career. He continued to work until his death of a rare blood disease in 1994. He died four days before his 71st birthday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles M. Berger",
        "text": "Charles Martin Berger (1936\u20132008) was a business executive who created several well-known advertising campaigns for Heinz ketchup. He worked for Heinz for 32 years before moving on to become CEO of Scotts Miracle-Gro Company. Berger died in 2008 at the age of 72 after a protracted illness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Heinz",
        "text": "On 23 February 1987, Henry John Heinz II died of cancer at the family's winter home in Hobe Sound, Florida, at the age of 78."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Nixdorf",
        "text": "The national and international success of the brand started in the 70s. By 1985 the company's revenue was about four billion D-Mark and it employed 24,000 people in 44 countries. Nixdorf died of a heart attack on March 17, 1986 at the CeBIT in Hannover."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Steinitz",
        "text": "Heinz Steinitz died suddenly from a stroke on April 28, 1971, while being fully active in all positions he held at that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Heinz",
        "text": "Henry John Heinz III (October 23, 1938\u00a0\u2013 April 4, 1991) was an American businessman and Republican politician from Pennsylvania. Heinz represented the Pittsburgh suburbs in the United States House of Representatives from 1971 to 1977 and represented Pennsylvania in the United States Senate from 1977 until he was killed in a plane crash in Lower Merion Township, Pennsylvania, in 1991."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 1888, Heinz bought out his two partners and reorganized the company as the H.\u00a0J. Heinz Company. Its slogan, \"57 varieties\", was introduced by Heinz in 1896. Inspired by an advertisement he saw while riding an elevated train in New York City (a shoe store boasting \"21 styles\"), Heinz picked the number more or less at random because he liked the sound of it, selecting \"7\" specifically because, as he put it, of the \"psychological influence of that figure and of its enduring significance to people of all ages.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Patzig",
        "text": "Heinz Patzig (born 19 September 1929 in Chemnitz; died 28 March 2013 in Braunschweig) aged 83 years-old, was a German footballer and manager."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Burt",
        "text": "Crippled by motor neurone disease, Heinz died in 2000, aged 57 following a stroke. He was cremated at Eastleigh Crematorium in Hampshire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Flohe",
        "text": "On 11 May 2010, Flohe lapsed into coma, after a stroke and died on 15 June 2013, aged 65."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz List",
        "text": "Though Heinz List died in 1988, he is remembered both as a pioneering engineer \u2014 one of only 26 members of the Polymer Processing Hall of Fame at the University of Akron, Ohio, USA \u2014 and as a business leader. Under his sons J\u00f6rg and Klaus List, the company has thrived and expanded into new industries: polymers, fibers and food. Today LIST is world leader in numerous industries, including TDI, Sugar Replacer, ABS, Fiber Spinning Solutions, SAP (Super Absorbent Polymers), and EPDM."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Harnischfeger",
        "text": "Henry died unexpectedly from heart failure November 15, 1930 at 75 years old. The active management of Harnischfeger Company then went to his son, Walter Harnischfeger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 2001, Heinz acquired the pasta sauce, dry bouillon and soup business of Borden Foods. CEO William R. Johnson stated that \"They fit very well with our tomato-based expertise\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Lucas",
        "text": "He died on 18 July 2016 at the age of 95."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 1969, Tony O'Reilly joined the company's UK subsidiary, soon becoming its managing director. He moved to Pittsburgh in 1971 when he was promoted to Senior Vice President for the North America and Pacific region. By 1973, Heinz selected him as president. He became CEO in 1979 and chairman in 1987."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Unger",
        "text": "Unger died in Toronto in 1965."
      },
      {
        "title": "Farley's",
        "text": "The brand was started in the 1880s, but the company was taken over by H. J. Heinz Company in 1994 in a deal valued at \u00a394 million. The brand logo was a teddy bear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Claussen pickles",
        "text": "Claus Claussen Sr. was succeeded by his son Claus S. Claussen, who was serving as president of the company when he died following an automobile accident on December 20, 1932."
      },
      {
        "title": "F. Augustus Heinze",
        "text": "In November 1914, Heinze suffered a hemorrhage of the stomach caused by cirrhosis of the liver, and died at 44 years of age. Heinze did not leave a will. His estate was battled over by two women who both claimed to be legally married to him, but it was left to his two-year-old son Fritz Augustus Jr. who was adopted by Heinze's sister, Mrs. Lida Fleitmann."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herr's Snacks",
        "text": "Jim Herr began transferring control of the company to his sons, Ed Herr and J. M. Herr, in the 1990s, with Ed taking over as company spokesman. Jim Herr retired as company chair in favor of J. M. Herr in January 2005, but remained on the board of directors until his death. Jim Herr died on April 5, 2012, at the age of 87. Ed Herr and J. M. Herr assumed the roles of president and executive chairman respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gerd Heinz",
        "text": "In 2008, Heinz received the E. T. A.-Hoffmann-Kreisler-Preis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Berkshire Hathaway",
        "text": "On February 14, 2013, Berkshire Hathaway Inc and 3G Capital announced plans to purchase H.J. Heinz Co. for $72.50 per share or $28 billion including debt. The company became a majority owner of Heinz on June 18, 2015, after exercising a warrant to acquire 46.2 million shares of common stock for a total price of $462 million increasing its stake to 52.5%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tietjen",
        "text": "Heinz Tietjen died in 1967 in Baden-Baden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Jentzsch",
        "text": "Jentzsch died at the age of 92 on 21 April 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samuel Nordheimer",
        "text": "Nordheimer remained head of the company until his death, when the firm was taken over by his nephew Albert. Upon his retirement from the business in 1928, the firm was taken over by Heintzman & Co. His legacy included a section of Castle Frank Brook being named after him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz K\u00f6rdell",
        "text": "K\u00f6rdell died on 2 October 2020, aged 88."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Koppel",
        "text": "Koppel died suddenly on 1st December 1980, at the age of 61."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania",
        "text": "Henry J. Heinz, founder of the H. J. Heinz Company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Drue Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz died on March 30, 2018, at age 103, at Hawthornden Castle in Lasswade, Scotland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "On February 14, 2013, it was announced that Heinz would be purchased by Berkshire Hathaway and 3G Capital for $23billion. Including debt assumption the transaction was valued at $28billion. According to Heinz, the deal was the largest in food industry history. Berkshire Hathaway and 3G would each own half of Heinz, with 3G running the company. Berkshire and 3G paid $72.50 a share. The acquisition was completed in June of that year. Berkshire and 3G immediately named Bernardo Hees, former chief executive of Burger King Worldwide Inc, as the CEO."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Hennig",
        "text": "He died in Hannover on 29 January 2002."
      },
      {
        "title": "Friedrich Karl Henkel",
        "text": "After Fritz Henkel's death, his youngest son Hugo Henkel took over the sole management of the company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Golden Circle (company)",
        "text": "On 6 October 2008, Heinz launched a Golden Circle takeover bid. Phillip Cave advised that the take over bid of $1.65 per share ($288 million in total) was \"attractive\" for all shareholders, particularly given the current difficult economic conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Klevenow Jr.",
        "text": "Heinz Klevenow died on 4 March 2021 at the age of 80."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christopher Heinz",
        "text": "Chris Heinz is the youngest son of United States Senator Henry John Heinz III (d. 1991) and Teresa Heinz Kerry. He is the great-great-grandson of the industrialist and founder of the H.J. Heinz Co. He has two brothers, H. John Heinz IV (born 4 November 1966) and Andre Heinz. He and his brothers served on the board of The Heinz Endowments chaired by their mother. His father was killed in the 1991 mid-air collision of a helicopter and plane (Merion air disaster)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pernigotti",
        "text": "In 1980 comes a period of crisis that will lead to the sale of Sperlari in 1981 to the Americans of the H.J. Heinz Company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jenbach",
        "text": "The company remained a possession of the family until 1938, when the son of Julius Reitlinger, Friedrich Reitlinger, committed suicide due to the Anschluss (the merging of Germany and Austria) in 1938. Afterwards it was taken over by the state and later resold to Ernst Heinkel under the Aryanization program. After 1945 the company was not returned to its former owners, but remained under public administration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz was founded by and is named for Henry J. Heinz, who was born in the United States to German immigrants. His father was originally from Kallstadt (then part of the Bavarian Rhenish Palatinate, now part of Rhineland-Palatinate). His mother Anna was from Haunetal, Hesse-Kassel, and they met in Pittsburgh."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In February 2013, Heinz agreed to be purchased by Berkshire Hathaway and the Brazilian investment firm 3G Capital for $23billion. On March 25, 2015, Kraft announced its merger with Heinz, arranged by Berkshire Hathaway and 3G Capital. The resulting Kraft Heinz Company is the fifth largest food company in the world. Berkshire Hathaway became a majority owner of Heinz on June 18, 2015. After exercising a warrant to acquire 46 million shares of common stock for a total price of over $461million, Berkshire increased its stake to 52.5%. The merger to form Kraft Heinz was completed on July 2, 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry J. Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz is the grandfather of H. J. Heinz II (1908\u20131987) the great-grandfather of U.S. Senator H. John Heinz III (1938\u20131991) of Pennsylvania (who was later buried in the same family mausoleum), and great-great grandfather of Henry John Heinz IV, Andr\u00e9 Thierstein Heinz and Christopher Drake Heinz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Heinz",
        "text": "He led the company through the challenges of World War II. For a time the Heinz plant in Pittsburgh was converted to producing gliders for the War Department. He made five trips to England during the war: once to see about the bombed Heinz plant in Harlesden, and several times by request of the British government to assist with relieving its food shortages. He also aided the Netherlands with their food challenges."
      },
      {
        "title": "W. C. Heinz",
        "text": "Wilfred Charles Heinz (January 11, 1915February 27, 2008) was an American sportswriter, war correspondent, journalist, and author."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Billionaire Nelson Peltz initiated a proxy battle during 2006, culminating in a vote to place five of Peltz's nominees on the Board. After the final vote, two of the five nominees joined the Heinz Board. The new members of the board were Nelson Peltz and Matthew Craig Walsh."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Heinz",
        "text": "Before entering politics, Heinz served as an assistant to Pennsylvania Republican U.S. Senator Hugh Scott and played an active role as assistant campaign manager during Scott's campaign for re-election. Heinz then worked in the financial and marketing division of the H. J. Heinz Company between 1965 and 1970, after which he became a professor of business at the Carnegie Mellon University's Graduate School of Industrial Administration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Westfalen AG",
        "text": "Herbert Albert died on 20 June 1974 and Wolfgang Fritsch-Albert and August-Wilhelm Albert took over the running of the company. The latter died three years later. Wolfgang Fritsch-Albert then became the company chairman."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Heinz",
        "text": "Several institutions bear his name, including:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "On October 6, 2008, Heinz announced plans to acquire the Australian company Golden Circle which \"manufactures more than 500 products, including canned fruit and vegetables, fruit juices, drinks, cordials and jams.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Bohlen",
        "text": "Heinz P. Bohlen (26 June 1935 \u2013 2 February 2016) was a microwave electronics and communications engineer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gustav Dentzel",
        "text": "Gustav died in 1909, his sons William and Edward, took over the company and ran it until 1928, when William died."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herlitz",
        "text": "After decade-long company president and chairman of the board G\u00fcnter Herlitz (who became chairman of the supervisory board) bade farewell, a dispute in the third generation broke out in 1988 between brothers Peter and Heinz. It ended in 1992, when Heinz Herlitz resigned. But Herlitz's turnover continued to climb, reaching a record result of \u20ac885 m in 1994."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Heinz",
        "text": "As president of the Heinz Company, Jack launched subsidiaries in the Netherlands, Portugal, Venezuela, Japan, and Italy, establishing a large international network. Acquisitions of Star-Kist Foods Inc. and Ore-Ida Foods Inc. are considered the hallmarks of his tenure. He also presided over the opening of a baby food plant on mainland China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hain Celestial Group",
        "text": "The H. J. Heinz Company acquired 19.5% of the company in September 1999, but subsequently divested itself of all holdings in December 2005. On May 7, 2002, the company prior year periods had been restated by reclassifying promotional allowances and other sales incentives of $16.8 million in the third quarter of 2001. On January 13, 2014, the company acquired the rice company Tilda for $357 million. In 2015 the company acquired the non-dairy company Mona Naturprodukte Gmbh with its brand Joya."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz K\u00f6rdell",
        "text": "Heinz \"Heiner\" K\u00f6rdell (8 January 1932 \u2013 2 October 2020) was a German footballer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat",
        "text": "He died of lung failure on April 10, 1999 at the Kaiser Hospital in Oakland, at the age of eighty-eight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kraft Heinz",
        "text": "In April 2019, it was announced Miguel Patricio, former Chief Marketing Officer of InBev would replace Bernardo Hees as CEO of Kraft Heinz. Patricio took position of CEO in late June 2019 and Alex Behring remained chairman of the company. Later that year, Paulo Basilio returned to his role at Chief Financial Officer and Corrado Azzarita assumed the position of Chief Information Officer."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Sculley",
        "text": "Heinz U.S.A. (1985\u201390). In 1996, David joined his brothers to form the private investment firm, Sculley Brothers, with its head office in New York City. He is the youngest brother of John Sculley, former President & CEO of Pepsi and Apple and Arthur Sculley, former head of J.P. Morgan\u2019s Private Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz was born in Pittsburgh to Howard Covode Heinz and Elizabeth Granger (Rust) Heinz. His grandfather Henry J. Heinz had founded the H. J. Heinz Company, and his father worked for the company for decades, becoming president after the founder died."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 1930, Howard Heinz, son of Henry Heinz, helped to fight the downturn of the Great Depression by selling ready-to-serve soups and baby food. They became top sellers. During World War II, \"Jack\" Heinz led the company as president and CEO to aid the United Kingdom and offset food shortages. Its plant in Pittsburgh was converted for a time to manufacture gliders for the War Department."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henrik J. Krebs",
        "text": "Krebs died on October 7, 1929, after a long illness. After his death, his company was purchased by DuPont."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Baas",
        "text": "Heinrich \"Heinz\" Baas (13 April 1922 \u2013 6 December 1994) was a German football player and manager."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Staab",
        "text": "Staab died on 29 July 2012 at the age of 86 in Berlin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Hoppe",
        "text": "On 7 April 1993, he died at age 69 in a clinic in Mannheim following surgery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry H. Barschall",
        "text": "Henry Herman (\"Heinz\") Barschall (April 29, 1915\u00a0\u2013 February 4, 1997) was a German-American physicist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz von Foerster",
        "text": "He died on October 2, 2002 in Pescadero, California."
      },
      {
        "title": "Golden Circle (company)",
        "text": "The Heinz takeover bid was finalised successfully on 19 December 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "On October 25, 2013, fast-food chain McDonald's announced it would end its 40-year relationship with Heinz, after the former Burger King chief Hees became its CEO."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harvey Washington Wiley",
        "text": "Heinz were one of the first companies to join the push for pure food and changed their recipe for tomato ketchup in 1902 to replace chemical preservatives with vinegar and introducing very hygienic practices into their factories."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Strehl",
        "text": "Aged 48, Heinz Strehl died on 11 August 1986, of heart failure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry J. Heinz",
        "text": "He was involved in the passage of the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act. Many of his descendants are known for philanthropy and involvement in politics and public affairs. His fortune became the basis for the Heinz Foundations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Kohut",
        "text": "In the final week of his life, knowing that his time was at an end, Kohut spent as much time as he could with his family and friends. He fell into a coma on the evening of October 7, 1981, and died of cancer in Chicago on the morning of October 8."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Flohe",
        "text": "Heinz \"Flocke\" Flohe (28 January 1948 \u2013 15 June 2013) was a German footballer and manager."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elise B. Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz died on January 19, 2014, in Arlington, Virginia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Johan Rudolph Thiele",
        "text": "Thiele passed the company on to his son Hans Henrik Thiele (1787\u20131839) in c. 1913. He renamed it H. H. Thiele after his father's death."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Heinz",
        "text": "Henry John Heinz III was born on October 23, 1938, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the only child of Joan (Diehl) and H. J. \"Jack\" Heinz II, heir to the H. J. Heinz Company. His parents were divorced in 1942. Heinz moved to San Francisco, California, with his mother and stepfather, U.S. Navy Captain Clayton Chot \"Monty\" McCauley. Although he was raised and primarily resided in San Francisco throughout his childhood, Heinz often spent the summer months with his father in Pittsburgh."
      },
      {
        "title": "A. H. Heisey",
        "text": "Augustus died February 13, 1922, at Atlantic City, New Jersey, and his sons E. Wilson and T. Clarence assumed control of the company. They ran the factory successfully until it ceased production following the Christmas holiday in 1957."
      },
      {
        "title": "F. Augustus Heinze",
        "text": "But Otto overestimated how much of the company the family controlled. When he forced the borrowers to buy back stock, they were able to get it from other sources. When the market realized his 'corner' had failed, the stock price of United Copper collapsed. From there panic spread, as people pulled money out of banks associated with Heinze, and then from trust companies associated with those banks. Heinze had eventually supported his brother's ploy and due to his heavy involvement in the financial system suffered great financial and personal losses. He was barred from any further involvement in financial institutions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles M. Berger",
        "text": "Heinz Chairman and CEO William R. Johnson credited Berger for Heinz success with ketchup by stating that Berger's marketing ideas allowed \"Heinz to break out of a tie and gain permanent leadership in ketchup.\" Berger worked for Heinz for 32 years and was in charge of Heinz's operations in India before leaving to become CEO at The Scotts Miracle-Gro Company in 1996."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the number one ketchup in the United States?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Heinz tomato ketchup has 60% of market in the US and 82% of the market in the UK. Would you like to know more about Heniz ketchup?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me how the Heniz brand was established."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Henry John Heinz (October 11, 1844 \u2013 May 14, 1919) was an American entrepreneur who, at the age of 25, co-founded a small horseradish business that went bankrupt in 1875. The following year, Heinz founded another company which continued to grow and, in 1888, Heinz bought out his other two partners and reorganized it as the H. J. Heinz Company, which was incorporated in 1905 with Heinz serving as its first president, retaining that position for the rest of his life."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who took over the company when Henry John Heinz passed away?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In 1959, long-time Heinz employee Frank Armour Jr. was elected president and COO of H. J. Heinz Co., succeeding H. J. Heinz II."
    ],
    "topic": "Heinz",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Heinz:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Heinz",
          "History",
          "20th century"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 1959, long-time Heinz employee Frank Armour Jr. was elected president and COO of H.\u00a0J. Heinz Co., succeeding H.\u00a0J. Heinz II. He was the first non-family member to hold the job since the company started in 1869. He became vice chairman in 1966, and later became chairman and CEO of Heinz subsidiary, Ore-Ida Foods Inc."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 1959, long-time Heinz employee Frank Armour Jr. was elected president and COO of H.\u00a0J. Heinz Co., succeeding H.\u00a0J. Heinz II. He was the first non-family member to hold the job since the company started in 1869. He became vice chairman in 1966, and later became chairman and CEO of Heinz subsidiary, Ore-Ida Foods Inc."
      },
      {
        "title": "J. Ogden Armour",
        "text": "As his father's health declined, he took over more and more responsibility for the direction of Armour & Co. His younger brother, Philip, Jr., died in 1900. J. Ogden Armour took over as company president in 1901. During his tenure, sales increased from $200 million to $1 billion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry J. Heinz",
        "text": "The H. J. Heinz Company was incorporated in 1905 with Heinz serving as its first president, retaining that position for the rest of his life. At the time of Heinz's death in Pittsburgh at the age of 74, the H. J. Heinz Company had more than 20 food processing plants and owned seed farms and container factories."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Heinz",
        "text": "In 1966, Heinz resigned as president and CEO. For the first time in company history, a non-family member, Robert Burt Gookin, was chosen as CEO to manage day-to-day operations. Heinz served as chairman of the board from 1966 until his death."
      },
      {
        "title": "J. Ogden Armour",
        "text": "Armour was unable to reinvigorate the company, and was ousted as president in 1923. His successor was F. Edson White."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Heinz",
        "text": "Henry John Heinz II (July 10, 1908 \u2013 February 23, 1987) was an American business executive and CEO of the H. J. Heinz Company based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. His grandfather Henry J. Heinz founded the company in the nineteenth century, and he worked in a variety of positions within the company before becoming CEO."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paulo Basilio",
        "text": "Basilio joined then-H.J. Heinz Company in 2013 as its chief financial officer. He left that position in 2017, turning it over to 29-year old David Knopf, to serve in other positions in the company. On August 26, 2019, Kraft Heinz CEO Miguel Patricio announced that Basilio would return to the CFO position following a series of accounting errors and misstatements that caused the company to restate its financial earnings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 1905, H. J. Heinz was incorporated, and Heinz served as its first president, holding that position for the rest of his life. Under his leadership, the company pioneered processes for sanitary food preparation, and led a successful lobbying effort in favor of the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906. In 1908 he established a processing plant in Leamington, Ontario, Canada for tomatoes and other products. Heinz operated it until 2014, when it was sold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Behold",
        "text": "William R. Johnson, now president of H.J. Heinz, was assistant brand manager for Behold at Drackett, 1974-1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Burt Gookin",
        "text": "Robert Burt Gookin (23 June 1914 \u2013 21 December 2002) was the first CEO of the H. J. Heinz Company from outside the Heinz family. He joined the firm in 1945 and retired in 1979."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 1969, Tony O'Reilly joined the company's UK subsidiary, soon becoming its managing director. He moved to Pittsburgh in 1971 when he was promoted to Senior Vice President for the North America and Pacific region. By 1973, Heinz selected him as president. He became CEO in 1979 and chairman in 1987."
      },
      {
        "title": "William R. Johnson",
        "text": "In 1988, as president and CEO of the poorly performing Heinz Pet Products, he turned around a poorly performing operation which some analysts had proclaimed unsalvageable. In 1992, he did the same thing at the highly visible Starkist Foods. In 1993 he was named senior vice president and director, in 1996 president and COO, and in 1998, named president and CEO. In 2000, he became chairman as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Patrik Frisk",
        "text": "In 2017, Under Armour CEO Kevin Plank asked him to become president and chief operating officer; in doing so Plank relinquished his own status as president and also re-filled the COO position, which had not existed since 2015. Frisk assumed the offices effective 2017, with responsibility for go-to-market strategy and execution of its long-term growth plan. The company reorganized so that the heads of revenue, product, marketing, supply chain, and strategy reported to Frisk, who in turn reported to Plank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz started work early in his grandfather's company, learning every aspect of the business. In 1941, he advanced to become president of the Heinz Company upon his father's death of a stroke."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 1930, Howard Heinz, son of Henry Heinz, helped to fight the downturn of the Great Depression by selling ready-to-serve soups and baby food. They became top sellers. During World War II, \"Jack\" Heinz led the company as president and CEO to aid the United Kingdom and offset food shortages. Its plant in Pittsburgh was converted for a time to manufacture gliders for the War Department."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Heinz",
        "text": "Jack Heinz\n--Early life, education, early career.\n--Marriage and family.\n--Leadership of H.J. Heinz Company.\n----Resignation.\n--Philanthropy.\n--Politics.\n--Honors.\n--Death.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tony O'Reilly",
        "text": "He became Chairman of Heinz in 1987, succeeding HJ Heinz II, and becoming the first non-Heinz family member to hold that post. His guidance was seen as having helped transform the company into a major international competitor, its value increasing twelvefold (from $908 million to $11 billion). O'Reilly left Heinz in 1998 after several years during which analysts questioned the company's performance, and after challenges from corporate governance groups and major pension funds including CalPERS and Business Week magazine; he was succeeded by his deputy, William R. Johnson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 1998, Tony O'Reilly left Heinz after issues with the company's performance. He faced challenges from corporate governance groups and pension funds including CalPERS. He was succeeded by his deputy, William R. Johnson."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Sculley",
        "text": "Heinz U.S.A. (1985\u201390). In 1996, David joined his brothers to form the private investment firm, Sculley Brothers, with its head office in New York City. He is the youngest brother of John Sculley, former President & CEO of Pepsi and Apple and Arthur Sculley, former head of J.P. Morgan\u2019s Private Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Heinz",
        "text": "He led the company through the challenges of World War II. For a time the Heinz plant in Pittsburgh was converted to producing gliders for the War Department. He made five trips to England during the war: once to see about the bombed Heinz plant in Harlesden, and several times by request of the British government to assist with relieving its food shortages. He also aided the Netherlands with their food challenges."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Heinz",
        "text": "Before entering politics, Heinz served as an assistant to Pennsylvania Republican U.S. Senator Hugh Scott and played an active role as assistant campaign manager during Scott's campaign for re-election. Heinz then worked in the financial and marketing division of the H. J. Heinz Company between 1965 and 1970, after which he became a professor of business at the Carnegie Mellon University's Graduate School of Industrial Administration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Heinz (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Henry Heinz (1844\u20131919) is the founder of H. J. Heinz Company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herbert Fisk Johnson III",
        "text": "On behalf of the company, he accepted a 2006 Ron Brown Award, a presidential award for corporate leadership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tony O'Reilly",
        "text": "He moved to the company HQ in Pittsburgh in 1971 when he was promoted to Senior Vice President for the North America and Pacific region. In 1973, R. Burt Gookin and Jack Heinz made him COO and President. He became CEO in 1979 when Mr. Gookin then Vice Chairman and Chief Executive Officer retired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hans Puggaard",
        "text": "In later years the younger Hage gradually came to play a more dominant role in the company. After Alfred Hage\u2019s death, Hans Puggaard\u2019s son Rudolph took over the leadership of the company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herbert Kohler Jr.",
        "text": "In April 2015, the company announced Kohler was stepping down as CEO and relinquishing the title to his son, David Kohler, while remaining executive chairman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Ford II",
        "text": "When his father Edsel, president of Ford, died of cancer in May 1943 (during World War II), Henry Ford II was serving in the Navy and unable to take over the presidency of the family-owned business. The elderly and ailing Henry Ford I, company founder, re-assumed the presidency, though mentally inconsistent, suspicious, and considered no longer fit for the presidency position by most of the company's directors. For the previous 20 years, although he had long been without any official executive title, the elder Ford always had \"de facto\" control over the company; the board and the management had never seriously defied him, and this moment was not different. The directors elected him, and he served until the end of the war. During this period, the company began to decline, losing over $10\u00a0million a month ($ in dollars ). The administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt considered a government takeover of the company to ensure continued war production, but the idea never progressed to execution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eckrich",
        "text": "All 11 of Peter's children worked delivering meat for the company. Peter's brother Henry took over leadership of the business from Peter and was succeeded by Donald P. Eckrich, who served as president and chief operating officer of Beatrice Companies and president Eckrich. He was the grandson of the founder of the company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wyman-Gordon",
        "text": "The company grew steadily under his leadership."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Sculley",
        "text": "In 1974, David was recruited by H.J. Heinz in Pittsburgh as General Manager of Consumer Marketing. In 1982, he moved with his family to England for three years to be Deputy Managing Director of Heinz U.K. He returned to Pittsburgh to be President & CEO of H.J. Heinz U.S.A. from 1985-90."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry J. Heinz",
        "text": "Henry John Heinz (October 11, 1844 \u2013 May 14, 1919) was an American entrepreneur who, at the age of 25, co-founded a small horseradish concern in Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania. This business failed, but his second business expanded into tomato ketchup and other condiments, and ultimately became the internationally known H. J. Heinz Company of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Kissling",
        "text": "He went on to serve the company in significant leadership positions, including senior vice president of international operations, and executive vice president and chief operating officer. In 1995 he was named chief executive officer of H.B. Fuller, serving in this capacity until his retirement in 1998. He also was a 34-year member of Fuller's board of directors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Heinz",
        "text": "As president of the Heinz Company, Jack launched subsidiaries in the Netherlands, Portugal, Venezuela, Japan, and Italy, establishing a large international network. Acquisitions of Star-Kist Foods Inc. and Ore-Ida Foods Inc. are considered the hallmarks of his tenure. He also presided over the opening of a baby food plant on mainland China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karl von der Heyden",
        "text": "Karl von der Heyden was senior vice president, chief financial officer and a director of H.J. Heinz Company. He joined Heinz in 1980 as vice president of finance and treasurer. Previously, von der Heyden had worked for PepsiCo in various senior management capacities: vice president, controller from 1974 to 1977, chief financial officer of Pepsi-Cola Company from 1977\u20131979, and then vice president of manufacturing for the Pepsi-Cola Bottling Group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank P. Pellegrino",
        "text": "By the 1930s, Pellegrino served as Vice President of International Hat under George Tilles, Jr., the nephew of horse racing magnate Cap Tilles. During World War II, Pellegrino became chairman and CEO, serving until his death in 1975. He was a driving force for the production of military pith helmets for the United States Army, Navy, and Marines during World War II. Under his management, the company expanded to incorporate factories, warehouses, and sales offices throughout Missouri, Texas, New York, and Mexico."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul C. P. McIlhenny",
        "text": "Under his leadership the business experienced several consecutive years of record growth in sales, earnings and dividends to family shareholders."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Schein",
        "text": "In 1978, founder Henry Schein's son Jay Schein became CEO of the company. When Jay Schein died of cancer in 1989, Stanley Bergman took over as CEO. Bergman was born in South Africa and came to New York in 1976, where he became an accountant. In 1980, he joined Henry Schein and was promoted to CFO."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Spankn\u00f6bel",
        "text": "Back in Germany, Spankn\u00f6bel reportedly became a director of the Propaganda School for Germans Living Abroad. In 1942, a company called \"Vereinigte Leder- und Lederwarenfabriken Heinz Spankn\u00f6bel & Co.\" [United Leather and leather goods factories Heinz Spankn\u00f6bel & Co.] was founded in Hohenbruck near K\u00f6niggr\u00e4tz in then Sudetenland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz List",
        "text": "Though Heinz List died in 1988, he is remembered both as a pioneering engineer \u2014 one of only 26 members of the Polymer Processing Hall of Fame at the University of Akron, Ohio, USA \u2014 and as a business leader. Under his sons J\u00f6rg and Klaus List, the company has thrived and expanded into new industries: polymers, fibers and food. Today LIST is world leader in numerous industries, including TDI, Sugar Replacer, ABS, Fiber Spinning Solutions, SAP (Super Absorbent Polymers), and EPDM."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Keith Louden",
        "text": "In 1939 Louden had joined the National Supply Company in Pittsburgh, where he was appointed Director of Industrial Engineering. From 1942 to 1947 he was production manager at the Armstrong Cork Company, and from 1947 to 1955 he served in several management positions at the York Corporation, which became in his days a division of the BorgWarner corporation. Next, from 1957 to 1961 he served in multiple executive functions at the Lebanon Steel Foundry in Lebanon, Pennsylvania. From 1971 to 1994 he was president of Corporate Director, Inc."
      },
      {
        "title": "D. J. De Pree",
        "text": "In 1960, D. J. contracted an illness which cut short his career. He stepped down as CEO in 1961. When he recovered, there was no longer room for him as CEO. The new management team consisted of sons Hugh and Max. D. J. continued to provide input and inspiration as chairman emeritus but the sons ran the company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Renkus-Heinz",
        "text": "In May 2019, Matt Czyzewski joined Renkus-Heinz as president."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry J. Heinz",
        "text": "Henry John Heinz began packing foodstuffs on a small scale at Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania, in 1869. There, he founded Heinz Noble & Company with a friend, L. Clarence Noble, and started marketing bottled horseradish, soon followed by sauerkraut, vinegar, and pickles. The company went bankrupt in 1875. The following year, Heinz founded another company, F & J Heinz, with his brother John Heinz and a cousin, Frederick Heinz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles M. Berger",
        "text": "Heinz Chairman and CEO William R. Johnson credited Berger for Heinz success with ketchup by stating that Berger's marketing ideas allowed \"Heinz to break out of a tie and gain permanent leadership in ketchup.\" Berger worked for Heinz for 32 years and was in charge of Heinz's operations in India before leaving to become CEO at The Scotts Miracle-Gro Company in 1996."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Walther Sr.",
        "text": "All nine of Walther's sons and two of his three daughters worked for the company, in various different capacities. Walther turned the leadership company over to his first son, George Jr. in 1941."
      },
      {
        "title": "John C. Haas",
        "text": "John Haas became vice president in charge of personnel in 1953, a position in which he promoted the advancement of women and minorities. He was named vice chairman of the board in 1959. After his father's death in 1960, Haas became executive vice president, and his brother F. Otto Haas became president and chief executive officer. John Haas became chairman in 1974, and served as chairman from 1974 to 1978. After stepping down as chairman, he continued to serve on the board until 1988."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paulo Basilio",
        "text": "Paulo Luiz Araujo Basilio (born 1974 or 1975) is the chief financial officer of the Kraft Heinz Corporation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oliver Iron and Steel Corporation",
        "text": "During 1955 longtime president Theodore F. Smith moved on to the Kaiser Engineers division of the Henry J. Kaiser Company, and Paul H. Starzman was elected the new president."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Riesenhuber",
        "text": "From 1966 to 1982 he worked for Metallgesellschaft AG, Frankfurt am Main. Within the Metallgesellschaft Group, he was CEO for the subsidiary \"Erzgesellschaft mbH\" (from 1968), and from 1971 to 1982 Chief technical officer of \"Synthomer Chemie GmbH\", another subsidiary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Ford II",
        "text": "Henry Ford II immediately adopted an aggressive management style. One of his first acts as company president was to place John Bugas in charge of taking control of the company from its entrenched management and firing Harry Bennett, head of the Ford Service Department, whom his grandfather initially hired to stifle attempts at unionization. Next, acknowledging his inexperience, he hired several seasoned executives to support him. He hired former General Motors executives Ernest Breech and Lewis Crusoe away from the Bendix Corporation. Breech was to serve in the coming years as HF2's business mentor, and the Breech\u2013Crusoe team would form the core of Ford's business expertise, offering much-needed experience."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In the postwar years, Jack Heinz expanded the company to develop plants in several nations overseas, greatly expanding its international presence. He also acquired Ore-Ida and Starkist Tuna."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles M. Berger",
        "text": "While at Heinz, Berger held numerous positions. In 1970, he became the head of marketing for Heinz's British division. From 1972 to 1979, Charles ran Plasmon, Heinz\u2019s Italian division. In 1980, Berger became president of Heinz's Weight Watchers division, where he doubled revenue by expanding its supermarket offerings and turned it into Heinz's fastest-growing division."
      },
      {
        "title": "William R. Johnson",
        "text": "William R. Johnson is an American businessman and is the former president, CEO and chairman of H. J. Heinz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Armour and Company",
        "text": "In 1958, William Wood-Prince, a cousin of Frederick H. Prince, became president of Armour and Company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert F. Vagt",
        "text": "After leaving, Vagt became the president of the Heinz Endowments, leaving that position in 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "F. Augustus Heinze",
        "text": "After the hiding of the books, the directors of the United Copper Company rebelled against Heinze, but on the day before he was to be removed, he replaced the board of directors, preempting his removal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert D. Kennedy",
        "text": "In March 1986, he became chief executive officer and, in December 1986, chairman, succeeding Warren M. Anderson in both roles. Under Kennedy's tenure, \"the company trimmed its operations to focus on petrochemicals, its core operations.\" In 1990, he was succeeded as president by H. William Lichtenberger, president of Carbide's chemicals and plastics unit. Kennedy continued as chairman and chief executive."
      },
      {
        "title": "J. Ogden Armour",
        "text": "Jonathan Ogden Armour (November 11, 1863 \u2013 August 16, 1927) was an American meatpacking magnate and only surviving son of Civil War\u2013era industrialist Philip Danforth Armour. He became owner and president of Armour & Company upon the death of his father in 1901. During his tenure as president, Armour and Co. expanded nationwide and overseas, growing from a mid-sized regional meatpacker to the largest food products company in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Under Armour",
        "text": "In October 2019, Kevin Plank announced he would be stepping down by 2020, and COO Patrik Frisk would succeed him as CEO in January 2020. In July 2020, the company received Wells Notices from the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Mr. Plank the Under Armour's CEO, David Bergman. The notices are the result of its accounting revelations for the years 2015 and 2016 and \"pull forward\" sales for the same period. The same month, the company reported revenue decline of 41% for the Q2 of 2020 or $707.6\u00a0million. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, Under Armour had to close its physical stores earlier that same year. Despite the revenue decline, it still fared better than the analytic predictions, which had previously estimated profits of $541\u00a0million in sales for Q2."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Pataki",
        "text": "Pataki stood behind the leader. He held the leader's coat. He was a great assistant to the leader. But he was not a leader. Cream rises to the top, and Rudy Giuliani rose to the top."
      },
      {
        "title": "YESCO",
        "text": "In 1969 Young turned over the reins of company leadership to his son who currently serves as the chairman of the board. The company is now managed by third and fourth generations of the Young family."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank J. Nunlist",
        "text": "He became chief engineer in 1944, general sales manager in 1952 and vice president of sales in 1954."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter A. Haas Jr.",
        "text": "Walter A. Haas Jr. (January 24, 1916 \u2013 September 20, 1995) was President and CEO (1958\u20131976) and Chairman (1970\u20131981) of Levi Strauss & Co, succeeding his father Walter A. Haas (1889\u20131979). He led the company in its growth from a regional manufacturer to one of the world\u2019s leading apparel companies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry J. Heinz",
        "text": "The company continued to grow and, in 1888, Heinz bought out his other two partners and reorganized it as the H. J. Heinz Company, the name carried to the present day. The company's slogan, \"57 varieties,\" was introduced by Heinz in 1896; by then, the company was selling more than 60 different products. Heinz said he chose \"5\" because it was his lucky number; the number \"7\" was his wife's lucky number."
      },
      {
        "title": "George-Emile Eberhard",
        "text": "In 1919, Eberhard passed the company's executive leadership to his sons, Georges and Maurice."
      },
      {
        "title": "H. P. Wasson and Company",
        "text": "In September 1967, Richard L. Glasser was appointed president and CEO while Walter E. Wolf, Sr. remained chairman of the board of directors."
      },
      {
        "title": "John H. Hilldring",
        "text": "In 1950, Hilldring became foreign-operations manager of General Aniline & Film, a Swiss chemical firm that was seized by the U.S. during World War II on suspicion of Nazi domination. He was promoted to executive vice president in 1954, and became the company's president in 1955."
      },
      {
        "title": "Patrik Frisk",
        "text": "In October 2019, Plank announced that Frisk would become Under Armour's CEO in January 2020, while Plank would become executive chairman and brand chief. In addition to being Under Armour's president and CEO, Frisk joined the company's board of directors. He continues to report to Plank."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Drosdick",
        "text": "He is also chairman of the Board of Trustees of Villanova University and serves on the boards of directors of H. J. Heinz Company and U.S. Steel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Patrik Frisk",
        "text": "Patrik Frisk (born 1962/1963) is a Swedish/American businessman in the apparel industry. Since January 2020 he has been the president and CEO of Under Armour, when he succeeded the company's founder, Kevin Plank. He was previously president and chief operating officer of the company since 2017. Frisk has worked for 30 years in retail and has had senior positions at The North Face and Timberland, before joining the Aldo Group in 2014 as CEO."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arthur A. Schmon",
        "text": "In 1933 he became president of this company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mary Hegeler Carus",
        "text": "By 1903 she was Chief Executive and President of the company, although lost this role for a while after her father's death in 1910 due to family disagreements. From 1917 to 1933 she worked as company secretary and then became president for a second time between 1933 and her death in 1936. In 1924 she was involved in a buyout of the Matthiessen family, and guided the business through the Great Depression in the 1930s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "The H. J. Heinz Company is an American food processing company headquartered at One PPG Place in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The company was founded by Henry J. Heinz in 1869. Heinz manufactures thousands of food products in plants on six continents, and markets these products in more than 200 countries and territories. The company claims to have 150 number-one or number-two brands worldwide. Heinz ranked first in ketchup in the US with a market share in excess of 50%; the Ore-Ida label held 46% of the frozen potato sector in 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Ford II",
        "text": "Henry Ford II left the Navy in July 1943 and joined the company's management a few weeks later. After two years, he assumed presidency of the business on September 21, 1945. Since it had been assumed that Edsel Ford would continue in his capacity as president of the company for much longer than turned out to be the case, Henry Ford II had received little grooming for the position, and he took over the company during a chaotic period; its European factories had suffered a great deal of damage during the war, and domestic sales were also in decline."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Business Council",
        "text": "The organization is strictly nonpartisan. It is headquartered in Washington, D.C.\n*1933: Gerard Swope, General Electric\n*1934: S. Clay Williams, RJ Reynolds Tobacco Company\n*1934\u201335: Henry P. Kendall, Kendall Company\n*1936: George H. Mead, Mead Corporation\n*1937\u201339: W. Averell Harriman, Brown Brothers & Co.\n*1940\u201341: William L. Batt, War Production Board\n*1942\u201343: R. R. Deupree, Procter & Gamble\n*1944\u201345: Thomas B. McCabe, Scott Paper Company\n*1946: George M. Humphrey, National Steel Corporation\n*1947\u201348: John L. Collyer, Goodrich Corporation\n*1949\u201350: James S. Knowlson, Stewart-Warner\n*1951\u201352: Robert T. Stevens, JP Stevens & Company\n*1953: John D. Biggers, Libbey-Owens-Ford\n*1954\u201355: Harold Boeschenstein, Owens Corning\n*1956\u201357: Eugene Holman, Jersey Standard\n*1958\u201359: Stephen Bechtel, Jr., Bechtel\n*1960\u201361: Ralph J. Cordiner, General Electric\n*1961\u201362: Roger Blough, US Steel\n*1963\u201364: F. R. Kappel, AT&T\n*1965\u201366: W.B. Murphy, Campbell Soup Company\n*1967\u201368: Albert L. Nickerson, Mobil\n*1969\u201370: Fred J. Borch, General Electric\n*1971\u201372: William M. Batten, JCPenney\n*1973\u201374: David Packard, Hewlett-Packard\n*1975\u201376: Edmund W. Littlefield, General Electric\n*1977\u201378: John D. deButts, AT&T\n*1979\u201380: Reginald H. Jones, General Electric\n*1981\u201382: Walter B. Wriston, Citicorp\n*1983\u201384: Clifton C. Garvin, Jr., Exxon\n*1985\u201386: Ruben F. Mettler, TRW\n*1987\u201388: Stephen Bechtel, Jr., Bechtel\n*1989\u201390: Roger B. Smith, General Motors\n*1991\u201392: John F. Welch, Jr., General Electric\n*1993\u201394: Robert E. Allen, AT&T\n*1995\u201396: Edgar S. Woolard, Jr., DuPont\n*1997\u201398: Larry Bossidy, AlliedSignal\n*1999-00: Ralph S. Larsen, Johnson & Johnson\n*2001\u201302: William T. Esrey, Sprint Corporation\n*2003\u201304: Charles O. Holliday, Jr., Bank of America\n*2005\u201306: Jeffrey R. Immelt, General Electric\n*2007\u201308: W. James McNerney, Jr., Boeing\n*2009\u201310: James W. Owens, Caterpillar.\n*2011\u201312: Jamie Dimon, JPMorgan Chase\n*2013\u201314: Andrew Liveris, Dow Chemical Company\n*2015\u201316: Jeff Bezos, Amazon"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Hermann Thiele",
        "text": "After becoming the company's chief executive in 1987, Thiele initiated structural changes and narrowed the group's focus to braking technology. He joined the company's supervisory board in 2007. In 2018, the company went public on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange in what was considered the country's second-largest initial public offering of 2018. His family and he, as shareholders, made $3.6 billion (3 billion euros) from the public offering. Having retired from all operational positions in the company in 2016, he returned to the supervisory board as a deputy chairman in 2020 after a management crisis at the company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lawrence G. Rawl",
        "text": "He was succeeded by Lee Raymond as CEO of the company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Six Companies, Inc.",
        "text": "Leadership was split between the companies with officers:\n* W.H. Wattis of Utah Construction Company (President)\n* W.A. Bechtel of Bechtel-Kaiser (First Vice President)\n* E.O. Wattis of Utah Construction Company (2nd Vice President)\n* Charles A Shea of J.F. Shea Co (Secretary)\n* Felix Kahn of MacDonald and Kahn (Treasurer)\n* K.K. Bechtel of Bechtel-Kaiser (Assistant Secretary-Treasurer)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pierre Schlumberger",
        "text": "Schlumberger worked for Schlumberger for 25 years, rising to president and CEO in 1956 (Henri George Doll, Conrad Schlumberger's son-in-law, was the chairman), until he retired in 1965 and was succeeded by Jean Riboud. Under Pierre, the company ceased to be a family business, expanded into electronics, centralized its operations in Houston, Texas, and became a publicly traded company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Guderian",
        "text": "Guderian became the Acting Chief of the General Staff of the Army High Command with the responsibility of advising Hitler on the Eastern Front. He replaced General of the Infantry Kurt Zeitzler, who had abandoned the position on 1 July after losing faith in Hitler's judgement and suffering a nervous breakdown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward J. Heinz",
        "text": "Edward John Heinz (born August 30, 1932) is a retired lieutenant general in the United States Air Force who served as director of the intelligence community staff from 1986 to 1990. He was commissioned through ROTC at the University of Minnesota in 1954."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herbert Fisk Johnson Jr.",
        "text": "Johnson took over leadership of SC Johnson & Son from his father Herbert Fisk Johnson Sr. and served as its president. He passed it to his son, Samuel Curtis Johnson Jr.."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jost Henkel",
        "text": "From 1938, he became managing director of the company together with Carl August Bagel and Werner L\u00fcps, and on 11 July 1942, he was elected \"Betriebsf\u00fchrer der Henkel-Werke\" as successor to the late Werner L\u00fcps. In 1945, Jost Henkel was imprisoned by the Allies and returned to the company together with other family members in November 1947. In December 1947, he was appointed ordinary managing director."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sergey Anatolyevich Petrov",
        "text": "In 2004 he resigned as the President of the Company and handed control over to employed managers. He was still responsible for ROLF\u2019s long-term development strategy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kevin Plank",
        "text": "Plank announced his departure as CEO in October 2019, and was succeeded on January 1, 2020, by Under Armour COO Patrik Frisk."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alexander Rodenstock",
        "text": "At Alexander Rodenstock's death in 1953, the company had over 2,000 employees. His son Rolf Rodenstock, who had already been his stand-in when he was on trial, took over leadership after him."
      },
      {
        "title": "J. B. Lippincott & Co.",
        "text": "J. B. Lippincott & Co.\n--History.\n----1836\u20131977.\n----1978\u20131995.\n----1996\u2013present.\n--Leadership.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Fentener van Vlissingen",
        "text": "Paul led SHV as chief executive officer for three decades from the mid-1960s. Under his leadership, the company diversified into new areas ahead of the collapse of the coal market in the 1960s. The areas he became involved with included retail \u2013 through the Makro and Otto Reichelt chains of grocery supermarkets and cash & carries \u2013 and energy \u2013 through the acquisitions of LPG companies including Calor Gas in the UK and Primagaz in France. He also diversified into scrap metal, recycling, oil exploration, renewable energy and private equity. In 1995 he stepped down and then served as non-executive chairman."
      },
      {
        "title": "H. L. Vosz",
        "text": "He led the company for some 40 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Oehler",
        "text": "In 1961, Oehler was appointed as the president of the Industrial Union of Printing and Paper, also serving on the executive of the FDGB. In 1966, he returned to Fritz Heckert as its deputy director, then director in 1969. He remained involved in the printing union, and in 1967 he became the founding president of the Standing Committee of Trade Unions in the Graphic Industry. He died in 1973, still in office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karl Haniel",
        "text": "Since 1920 Haniel became company leader of German company Franz Haniel & Cie.."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania",
        "text": "Henry J. Heinz, founder of the H. J. Heinz Company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert D. Kennedy",
        "text": "He retired as chief executive in 1995 and was succeeded by William H. Joyce, chief operating officer and president since 1993. Kennedy continued as chairman until he fully retired from the company on December 31, 1995. He also served as a director of Kmart Corporation, Lion Ore Mining International Ltd., Sunoco, Inc., and Union Camp Corporation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Perdue Farms",
        "text": "In 1991, Frank's son Jim Perdue was named Chairman, becoming the third generation of leaders from the Perdue family."
      },
      {
        "title": "II-VI Incorporated",
        "text": "In 2007, Carl Johnson stepped down as CEO. He was succeeded by Francis Kramer, who was President from 1985 to 2007, and Johnson remained as Chairman of the Board until 2014. Fran Kramer served as CEO and Board Chair from 2014 to 2016, and continued as Chair when Vincent D. (Chuck) Mattera, Jr., became the company's third CEO in 2016. In November 2021, the company announced that Kramer would transition from Board Chair to Chair Emeritus, and Mattera was named Chair and CEO."
      },
      {
        "title": "George A. Hormel",
        "text": "He remained head of the company until 1929, when he passed it to his son Jay Catherwood Hormel."
      },
      {
        "title": "James A. Gray Jr.",
        "text": "In 1912, Gray's brother Bowman moved his family to Winston to take up his new position of vice-president and director of R. J. Reynolds, hand-picked by R. J. Reynolds himself to head the company's finance division. In 1924, Bowman was promoted to president of the company to succeed Reynolds' brother William Neal Reynolds, and in 1932 Bowman became the chairman of the board of directors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Baldwin Hyde",
        "text": "Hyde sought to guarantee that his son James Hazen Hyde would continue the family\u2019s control of the company after his death. The younger Hyde was appointed a vice president of the company at 22, and was 23 when he inherited a majority interest in the company. By the terms of his father's will, he was scheduled to assume the company presidency in 1906, but a concerted effort against him by the current president and several members of the board of directors led James H. Hyde to leave the company and move to France."
      },
      {
        "title": "F. Enzio Busche",
        "text": "After the war, Busche completed high school and then studied at universities in Bonn and Freiberg. He then took over a printing business from his father. Under his direction, the company grew to be one of the larger ones in Germany. It was also one of the few companies in Germany at that time that used a participatory style of leadership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heineken N.V.",
        "text": "Henry Pierre's son, Alfred Henry \"Freddy\" Heineken, started working at the company in 1940, and in 1971 was appointed Chairman of the Executive Board. He was a powerful force behind Heineken's continued global expansion, and while he retired from the Executive Board in 1989, he maintained involvement with the company until his death in 2002."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the number one ketchup in the United States?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Heinz tomato ketchup has 60% of market in the US and 82% of the market in the UK. Would you like to know more about Heniz ketchup?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me how the Heniz brand was established."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Henry John Heinz (October 11, 1844 \u2013 May 14, 1919) was an American entrepreneur who, at the age of 25, co-founded a small horseradish business that went bankrupt in 1875. The following year, Heinz founded another company which continued to grow and, in 1888, Heinz bought out his other two partners and reorganized it as the H. J. Heinz Company, which was incorporated in 1905 with Heinz serving as its first president, retaining that position for the rest of his life."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who took over the company when Henry John Heinz passed away?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In 1959, long-time Heinz employee Frank Armour Jr. was elected president and COO of H. J. Heinz Co., succeeding H. J. Heinz II."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How'd the company do under Frank Armour Jr.'s leadership?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I could not find how the company did under his tenure, but between 1981 and 1991, Heinz returned 28% annually, doubling the Standard & Poor's average annual return for those years.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I didn't find anything to note of his performance, but he was the first non-family member to hold the job since the company started."
    ],
    "topic": "Heinz",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Heinz:15",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Heinz",
          "History",
          "20th century"
        ],
        "ctx": "Between 1981 and 1991, Heinz returned 28% annually, doubling the Standard & Poor's average annual return for those years. By 2000, the consolidation of grocery store chains, the spread of retailers such as Walmart, and growth of private-label brands caused competition for shelf space, and put price pressure on the company's products. The decline was also attributed to an inadequate response to broad demographic changes in the United States, particularly the growth in population among Hispanic and increased spending power of African Americans."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Heinz:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Heinz",
          "History",
          "20th century"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 1959, long-time Heinz employee Frank Armour Jr. was elected president and COO of H.\u00a0J. Heinz Co., succeeding H.\u00a0J. Heinz II. He was the first non-family member to hold the job since the company started in 1869. He became vice chairman in 1966, and later became chairman and CEO of Heinz subsidiary, Ore-Ida Foods Inc."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz\n--History.\n----Foundation.\n----20th century.\n----21st century.\n------Heinz and Kraft merger.\n--International presence.\n----United States.\n----Australia.\n----Canada.\n----India.\n----Indonesia.\n----Netherlands.\n----United Kingdom.\n----China.\n----New Zealand.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "The H. J. Heinz Company is an American food processing company headquartered at One PPG Place in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The company was founded by Henry J. Heinz in 1869. Heinz manufactures thousands of food products in plants on six continents, and markets these products in more than 200 countries and territories. The company claims to have 150 number-one or number-two brands worldwide. Heinz ranked first in ketchup in the US with a market share in excess of 50%; the Ore-Ida label held 46% of the frozen potato sector in 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 1959, long-time Heinz employee Frank Armour Jr. was elected president and COO of H.\u00a0J. Heinz Co., succeeding H.\u00a0J. Heinz II. He was the first non-family member to hold the job since the company started in 1869. He became vice chairman in 1966, and later became chairman and CEO of Heinz subsidiary, Ore-Ida Foods Inc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "As a result of this corporate restructuring and the angry Canadian response, a rival food company, French's, began producing their own ketchup brand using Leamington produce. It marketed the brand with an appeal to Canadian patriotism. This successful campaign, combined with a Canadian grassroots effort on Facebook encouraging purchasing of the French's product, resulted in Heinz's market share in Canada dropping from 84 to 76%, a significant shift in a mature market. This undesirable development was exacerbated in 2018 when Canadian tariffs were erected against specific American exports, which includes ketchup produced in the United States, in retaliation to the US President Trump's tariffs on Canadian steel and aluminum exports. Heinz conducted a belated public relations campaign in Canada to try to counter the public anger against them, a task made more difficult by public sentiment rising to encourage a boycott of American goods in reaction of US President Trump's rhetoric against Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Between 1981 and 1991, Heinz returned 28% annually, doubling the Standard & Poor's average annual return for those years. By 2000, the consolidation of grocery store chains, the spread of retailers such as Walmart, and growth of private-label brands caused competition for shelf space, and put price pressure on the company's products. The decline was also attributed to an inadequate response to broad demographic changes in the United States, particularly the growth in population among Hispanic and increased spending power of African Americans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In the postwar years, Jack Heinz expanded the company to develop plants in several nations overseas, greatly expanding its international presence. He also acquired Ore-Ida and Starkist Tuna."
      },
      {
        "title": "H. J. Heinz, Wigan",
        "text": "H. J. Heinz varieties first went on sale in Fortnum & Mason in 1886. After World War I, with a headquarters established in Hayes, London, Heinz started exporting baked beans, canned spaghetti and tomato ketchup to the United Kingdom. Heinz opened its first UK production facility in Harlesden in the 1920s. By 1933 nearly all Heinz products sold in the UK were manufactured domestically. During World War II the Harlesden facility was bombed twice. To help increase food production after the war, Heinz took over a former munitions factory in 1946 at Standish near Wigan. Heinz LTD grew sixfold between 1945 and 1956, and due to this increased demand it needed a new large manufacturing plant in the UK."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "The UK headquarters moved from Hayes to the Shard in London. After opening its first overseas office in London in 1896, the company opened its first UK factory in Peckham, south London in 1905. This was followed by a factory at Harlesden, north-west London in 1919. Bombed twice in World War II, this factory remained in production until 2000. Production was started at a former munitions factory at Standish near Wigan in 1946, before the new factory at Kitt Green, near Wigan, opened in 1959. Heinz also had an infant food factory in Kendal, Cumbria. The site specialized in baby milks, previously under the brand of Farley's, but then manufactured under the name Heinz Nurture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Heinz is an American food conglomerate based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "H. J. Heinz, Wigan",
        "text": "The factory celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2009, with a visit by HM Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh who also opened a new packaging hall. In 2013, the factory was listed by Discovery Channel as one of the world's top five manufacturing units, alongside: Reliance's Jamnagar Refinery; Volkswagen's car plant; NASA's Kennedy Space Center; POSCO's steel plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz currently produces frozen vegetables for export for the New Zealand and Australian market. They also produce mayonnaise and other sauces for the New Zealand and Australian market. Most products sold in New Zealand are sold under the brand name \"Watties\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Heinz",
        "text": "As president of the Heinz Company, Jack launched subsidiaries in the Netherlands, Portugal, Venezuela, Japan, and Italy, establishing a large international network. Acquisitions of Star-Kist Foods Inc. and Ore-Ida Foods Inc. are considered the hallmarks of his tenure. He also presided over the opening of a baby food plant on mainland China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 1905, H. J. Heinz was incorporated, and Heinz served as its first president, holding that position for the rest of his life. Under his leadership, the company pioneered processes for sanitary food preparation, and led a successful lobbying effort in favor of the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906. In 1908 he established a processing plant in Leamington, Ontario, Canada for tomatoes and other products. Heinz operated it until 2014, when it was sold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "The Kraft Heinz company's world headquarters are in Chicago, Illinois, with the H. J. Heinz division located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where the company was founded. The company's \"keystone\" logo is based on that of Pennsylvania, the \"keystone state\". Heinz Field was named after the Heinz company in 2001."
      },
      {
        "title": "Behold",
        "text": "William R. Johnson, now president of H.J. Heinz, was assistant brand manager for Behold at Drackett, 1974-1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "ABC (food)",
        "text": "ABC is the largest Heinz's business in Asia, and one of the largest in the world; employing 3000 employees, 3 production facilities, 8 packing facilities, and extensive distribution network in Java and other parts of Indonesia. Today ABC is one of 15 brands owned by Heinz worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz opened a pickle factory in Holland, Michigan, in 1897, and it is the largest such facility in the world. The Heinz Portion Control subsidiary is located in Jacksonville, Florida, and produces single-serving containers of ketchup, mustard, salad dressings, jams, jellies and syrups."
      },
      {
        "title": "German Americans",
        "text": "Many German Americans have played a prominent role in American industry and business, including Henry J. Heinz (H. J. Heinz Company), Frank Seiberling (Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company), Walt Disney (Disney), John D. Rockefeller (Standard Oil), William Boeing (The Boeing Company and United Airlines), Walter Chrysler (Chrysler Corporation), Frederick and August Duesenberg (Duesenberg Automobile Corporation), Studebaker brothers (Studebaker Automobile Corporation), George Westinghouse (Westinghouse Electric Corporation), Levi Strauss (Levi Strauss & Co.), Charles Guth (PepsiCo Inc.), Bill Gates (Microsoft Corporation), Jawed Karim (YouTube), Elon Musk (SolarCity, SpaceX and Tesla Motors), James L. Kraft (Kraft Foods Inc.), Henry E. Steinway (Steinway & Sons), Charles Pfizer (Pfizer, Inc.), John Jacob Astor (Waldorf Astoria Hotels and Resorts), Conrad Hilton (Hilton Hotels & Resorts), Guggenheim family (Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation), (Guggenheim Partners), Marcus Goldman and Samuel Sachs (The Goldman Sachs Group, Inc.), Lehman Brothers (Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc.), Charles Diebold (Diebold Nixdorf), Bernard Kroger (Kroger), Carl Laemmle (Universal Studios), Marcus Loew (Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios Inc.), Harry Cohn (Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc.), Herman Hollerith (International Business Machines Corporation (IBM)), Steve Jobs (Apple Inc.), Michael Dell (Dell Inc.), Eric Schmidt (Google Inc. and Alphabet Inc.), Peter Thiel (PayPal Inc.), Adolph Simon Ochs and Arthur Ochs Sulzberger (\"The New York Times\"), Charles Bergstresser (\"The Wall Street Journal\"), Al Neuharth (\"USA Today\"), Eugene Meyer (\"The Washington Post\") etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "P&T Group",
        "text": "The company's fortunes have waxed and waned over the years. During the Asian financial crisis, its headcount was pruned from 800 employees down to 450. In China, business has fallen from its peak in the 2000s, when the mainland accounted for over half its revenues, to less than 30 per cent, the firm shrunk from some 2,000 employees to just over 1,600. Heinz Rust, one of the P&T directors responsible for the changes at the time, said the new company was \u201cstreamlined\u201d to suit expansion plans. The company expanded internationally since around 2000, opened new offices in Dubai(2004), Wuhan(2005), Abu Dhabi(2007), Ho Chi Minh City(2008), Chongqing(2012), Indonesia(2014) and Shenzhen(2016)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paulo Basilio",
        "text": "Basilio joined then-H.J. Heinz Company in 2013 as its chief financial officer. He left that position in 2017, turning it over to 29-year old David Knopf, to serve in other positions in the company. On August 26, 2019, Kraft Heinz CEO Miguel Patricio announced that Basilio would return to the CFO position following a series of accounting errors and misstatements that caused the company to restate its financial earnings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Barmettler",
        "text": "Heinz Barmettler\n--Club career.\n--International career.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry J. Heinz",
        "text": "The H. J. Heinz Company was incorporated in 1905 with Heinz serving as its first president, retaining that position for the rest of his life. At the time of Heinz's death in Pittsburgh at the age of 74, the H. J. Heinz Company had more than 20 food processing plants and owned seed farms and container factories."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tony O'Reilly",
        "text": "He became Chairman of Heinz in 1987, succeeding HJ Heinz II, and becoming the first non-Heinz family member to hold that post. His guidance was seen as having helped transform the company into a major international competitor, its value increasing twelvefold (from $908 million to $11 billion). O'Reilly left Heinz in 1998 after several years during which analysts questioned the company's performance, and after challenges from corporate governance groups and major pension funds including CalPERS and Business Week magazine; he was succeeded by his deputy, William R. Johnson."
      },
      {
        "title": "H. J. Heinz, Wigan",
        "text": "In June 2021, Kraft Heinz announced that it would invest \u00a3140\u00a0million into the plant over the next four years, the firm's biggest expansion to a manufacturing site outside the U.S. in over two decades. Under the plan, condiments such as ketchup and mayonnaise (which have not been manufactured in the UK since 1999) shall be manufactured at Kitt Green. The planned expansion shall create 50 new jobs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz also has factories in the following locations:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 1969, Tony O'Reilly joined the company's UK subsidiary, soon becoming its managing director. He moved to Pittsburgh in 1971 when he was promoted to Senior Vice President for the North America and Pacific region. By 1973, Heinz selected him as president. He became CEO in 1979 and chairman in 1987."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz body",
        "text": "Heinz bodies appear as small round inclusions within the red cell body, though they are not visible when stained with Romanowsky dyes. They are visualized more clearly with supravital staining (e.g., with new methylene blue, crystal violet or bromocresol green)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Serving demand from Indonesia's large population and growing economy, in the early 21st century PT. Heinz ABC Indonesia is the largest Heinz's business in Asia, and one of the largest in the world. It employs 3000 employees, has 3 production facilities, 8 packing facilities, and an extensive distribution network in Java and other parts of Indonesia. Their leading products are Syrup ABC (fruit syrup), Kecap ABC (sweet soy sauce), and Sambal ABC (hot chili sauce)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Heinz",
        "text": "He led the company through the challenges of World War II. For a time the Heinz plant in Pittsburgh was converted to producing gliders for the War Department. He made five trips to England during the war: once to see about the bombed Heinz plant in Harlesden, and several times by request of the British government to assist with relieving its food shortages. He also aided the Netherlands with their food challenges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Voigt",
        "text": "In 1951 he joined the German Foreign Office and received his first posting in 1955 as a Counsellor to the German Mission to NATO, rising to serve as Deputy Secretary-General. In November 1959 he returned to the Foreign Office, where he worked in the political department. In 1963 he was appointed a Deputy Director of the Foreign Office and in 1964 received his first high-level posting as Ambassador to Morocco in Rabat, serving until 1970."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz produces oriental foods sold under the Amoy brand, once used under license from Ajinomoto Co. Inc., Tokyo, Japan. In 2018, Amoy Food was sold to the new owners, CITIC Capital Asian Foods Holdings Ltd."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leamington, Ontario",
        "text": "The H. J. Heinz company established a factory in 1908 in Leamington. The Heinz products are shipped from the city with both English and French labels, mostly to the United States. Ketchup and baby food are the main products. In November 2013 Heinz announced that it would close the Leamington plant in 2014, meaning job losses for 740 employees at the plant and hundreds more support workers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marek Heinz",
        "text": "Marek Heinz\n--Career.\n----Early career.\n----Germany and international call-up.\n----Return to the Czech Republic and Euro 2004.\n----Back to Germany.\n----France.\n----Return to Olomouc.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz List",
        "text": "Headquartered in Switzerland, and with offices in the US and Singapore, LIST is the worldwide technology leader and forerunner in dry or concentrated processing focusing on processes that operate without the use of solvents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kraft Heinz",
        "text": "The merger of Kraft Foods and H.J. Heinz was agreed by the boards of both companies, with approval by shareholders and regulatory authorities in early 2015. The new Kraft Heinz Company became the world's fifth-largest food and beverage company and the third-largest in the United States. The Kraft Heinz co-headquarters are in Chicago at the Aon Center and in Pittsburgh at PPG Place, with other offices across the United States, Canada, South America, Europe, Asia, and Australia. The companies completed the merger on July 2, 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Vollmar",
        "text": "Vollmar belongs to those Germany international players (war-year examples include Ernest Wilimowski, Franz Binder, Max Merkel; latest examples include Ulf Kirsten, Andreas Thom, Matthias Sammer etc.) that have represented other nations in their international career as well. He was a tricky winger who mostly played in the outside left position."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Heinz",
        "text": "A lifelong Republican, Heinz chaired the U.S. arm of the International Chamber of Commerce from 1948 to 1951. He was tapped by President Dwight D. Eisenhower to head a special aid mission to assess the effectiveness of an emergency economic aid program to Pakistan. He also chaired the U.S. delegation to the Economic Commission for Europe in 1958 and 1959. He was a member of the Steering Committee of the Bilderberg Group."
      },
      {
        "title": "H. J. Heinz Company complex",
        "text": "Through the 1930s and 1940s, many surrounding houses and small commercial buildings were demolished to accommodate parking lots for the plant. In the 1950s, several of the Romanesque Revival buildings were demolished and new buildings were built in modern industrial and International style. From 1999 to 2001, Heinz built a warehouse on the east side and moved its headquarters to downtown Pittsburgh."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz List",
        "text": "Though Heinz List died in 1988, he is remembered both as a pioneering engineer \u2014 one of only 26 members of the Polymer Processing Hall of Fame at the University of Akron, Ohio, USA \u2014 and as a business leader. Under his sons J\u00f6rg and Klaus List, the company has thrived and expanded into new industries: polymers, fibers and food. Today LIST is world leader in numerous industries, including TDI, Sugar Replacer, ABS, Fiber Spinning Solutions, SAP (Super Absorbent Polymers), and EPDM."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz was established in Canada in 1908 in a former tobacco factory in Leamington, Ontario (known as the Tomato Capital of Canada). Most products shipped from Leamington have bilingual English and French labels for distribution throughout Canada, but a substantial amount of product is sent from there to the US. Ketchup is the main product produced there, and the city has been a center of tomato production. The factory also produces Canada Fancy (Grade A) tomato juice, mustard, vinegar, baby food, barbecue sauces, canned pastas, beans, pasta sauces, gravies and soups. Heinz Canada is the major supplier of single-serving and flexible-packaging condiments for most fast food chains in Canada. Leamington is the largest tomato-processing region per acreage in the world. The Leamington plant usually processes more than 250,000 tons of tomatoes per year. Heinz Canada's head office is in North York, Ontario; it also has operations in St. Marys, Ontario; Montreal, Quebec; and Calgary, Alberta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry J. Heinz",
        "text": "Henry John Heinz (October 11, 1844 \u2013 May 14, 1919) was an American entrepreneur who, at the age of 25, co-founded a small horseradish concern in Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania. This business failed, but his second business expanded into tomato ketchup and other condiments, and ultimately became the internationally known H. J. Heinz Company of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Flohe",
        "text": "Heinz Flohe\n--Career.\n--Personal life.\n--Honours.\n----Club.\n----International.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Nixdorf",
        "text": "The national and international success of the brand started in the 70s. By 1985 the company's revenue was about four billion D-Mark and it employed 24,000 people in 44 countries. Nixdorf died of a heart attack on March 17, 1986 at the CeBIT in Hannover."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Schimmelbusch",
        "text": "Schimmelbusch served as a member of the Presidency of the Federation of German Industries (BDI) and the Presidency of the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kraft Heinz",
        "text": "As of 2021, in addition to both Kraft and Heinz, many more global brands are included in the Kraft Heinz portfolio:\n* A.1. Sauce\n* ABC\n* Amoy\n* Aproten\n* Bakers Chocolate\n* B\u00e9n\u00e9dicta\n* Boca Burger\n* Breakstone's\n* Brinta\n* Capri Sun\n* Classico\n* Claussen\n* Corn Nuts\n* Cracker Barrel\n* Crystal Light\n* Daddies\n* De Ruijter\n* Greenseas\n* Grey Poupon\n* Golden Circle\n* Hemmer\n* Honig\n* HP Sauce\n* Jell-O\n* Karvan C\u00e9vitam\n* Kool-Aid\n* Lea & Perrins\n* Lunchables\n* Master Soy Sauce\n* Maxwell House\n* Mio\n* Miracle Whip\n* Mr. Yoshida's\n* Nancy's\n* Ore Ida\n* Original Juice Co.\n* Orlando\n* Oscar Mayer\n* P3\n* Philadelphia Cream Cheese\n* Plasmon\n* Primal Kitchen\n* Pudliszki\n* PurePet\n* Quero\n* Roosvicee\n* Shake 'n Bake\n* Smart Ones\n* Sure-Jeil\n* Tassimo\n* Velveeta\n* Venz\n* Wattie's\n* Weight Watchers\n* Wijko\n* Wyler's"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ziehl-Abegg",
        "text": "The headquarters are located at the Heinz-Ziehl Street in Kuenzelsau, with a subsidiary plant in the nearby W\u00fcrzburger Street. Built in 2008, the world's largest and most modern air flow and noise level test chambers for fans can be found in the main production site."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kraft Heinz",
        "text": "The Kraft Heinz Company (KHC), commonly known as Kraft Heinz, is an American multinational food company formed by the merger of Kraft Foods and Heinz co-headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Kraft Heinz is the third-largest food and beverage company in North America and the fifth-largest in the world with over $26.0 billion in annual sales as of 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "WW International",
        "text": "WW International\n--Company history.\n----Inception.\n----Launch, IPO, and sale to Heinz.\n----Private-equity acquisition and second IPO.\n----2015-18.\n--Business model.\n----Products and services.\n----Weight-loss plans and formats.\n--Reception.\n--Leadership and spokespersons.\n----Corporate governance.\n----Spokespersons.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Karl-Heinz Riedle",
        "text": "A German international for six years, Riedle represented the country in two World Cups \u2013 winning the 1990 edition \u2013 and Euro 1992."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kongsberg Gruppen",
        "text": "The rapid international growth resulted in both new opportunities and challenges. The new focus on establishing a civilian product portfolio changed the shape of the company. In 1981 civil divisions accounted for 70% of business."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 2013, the Kitt Green facility was listed as one among the world's five largest manufacturing units by the Discovery Channel (the list comprised Reliance's Jamnagar Refinery, Volkswagen's car plant, Kitt Green Foods plant, NASA's Kennedy Space Center and POSCO's steel plant). It is Europe's largest food factory and turns over more than 1 billion cans every year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Spankn\u00f6bel",
        "text": "Back in Germany, Spankn\u00f6bel reportedly became a director of the Propaganda School for Germans Living Abroad. In 1942, a company called \"Vereinigte Leder- und Lederwarenfabriken Heinz Spankn\u00f6bel & Co.\" [United Leather and leather goods factories Heinz Spankn\u00f6bel & Co.] was founded in Hohenbruck near K\u00f6niggr\u00e4tz in then Sudetenland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baby food",
        "text": "In Australia, Canada, and New Zealand, Heinz had about 90% of the market share in 1996. Heinz is also the market leader in the UK, Italy, and several eastern European countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franz Heinzer",
        "text": "A month later, Heinzer retired from international competition at age 31 with 17 World Cup victories and 45 podiums. He now runs his own sports products company in Altdorf, and since the winter of 2004, also works as the assistant coach of Swiss national downhill team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Baked Beans",
        "text": "In the United States, Heinz Baked Beans had for many years only been available as grey imports in \"British Goods\" specialty stores. As of October 2016 they are now available as official imports in many US supermarkets and specialty stores, with a label similar to the older British label, but customised for the US market (US spelling and US Nutrition Facts)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Pose",
        "text": "Heinz Pose\n--Education.\n--Career.\n----Early years.\n----In Russia.\n----In East Germany.\n--Declined defection.\n--Internal reports.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Arnold",
        "text": "Me 262 \"W.Nr.500491\" bearing his personal victory marks is now on display at the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Born Feinkost",
        "text": "In 1820 the brothers Wilhelm and Luis Born founded a factory in Erfurt-Ilversgehofen, producing mustard, vinegar and other food products. The company was owned by the family until the 1970s, when they were nationalized by the GDR government. Since 1990 it has been privately owned again. Executive Officer is Hans-Dieter B\u00fcttner. At the moment there are 50 employees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Baked Beans",
        "text": "In 1886, Heinz Baked Beans were first sold at the Fortnum & Mason department store in London. After opening its first overseas office in London in 1896, the company opened its first UK factory in Peckham, south London, in 1905. This was followed by a second factory at Harlesden, north-west London in 1919. Production was started at a former munitions factory at Standish near Wigan in 1946. A new factory opened in Kitt Green, also near Wigan, in 1958."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wilkhahn",
        "text": "In this decade Wilkhahn also became more international. Sales offices and subsidiaries were established, foreign trading and license partners were retained to work for Wilkhahn. Today, business outside Germany accounts about 50% of total sales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chocolat Frey",
        "text": "At the beginning of the 1920s, the company teetered on the brink of collapse. Production stood still for days at a time. It was not until the economy recovered around the mid-1920s, that the board of directors took heart to develop the foreign market again. However, this attempt failed due to the global economic crisis."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Heinz",
        "text": "Before entering politics, Heinz served as an assistant to Pennsylvania Republican U.S. Senator Hugh Scott and played an active role as assistant campaign manager during Scott's campaign for re-election. Heinz then worked in the financial and marketing division of the H. J. Heinz Company between 1965 and 1970, after which he became a professor of business at the Carnegie Mellon University's Graduate School of Industrial Administration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz mean",
        "text": "with\u00a00\u00a0\u2264\u00a0\"x\"\u00a0\u2264\u00a0."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Hermann",
        "text": "Hermann's first international match came in September 1978 with the 2\u20130 victory against the USA. In November 1991 he ended his international match career after a 1\u20130 loss to Romania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tony O'Reilly",
        "text": "In 1969, after discussion with the Taoiseach Jack Lynch, who offered him a post such as Minister for Agriculture if he would stay, O'Reilly joined Heinz. There he made his name in international business, becoming MD of the Heinz subsidiary in the UK, its largest non-US holding and the source of half of the group profit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hilti",
        "text": "The global expansion continued throughout the 1960s and by 1971, Hilti's global turnover was 376 million Swiss francs across 45 countries, including new production facilities in Austria and in Germany."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Burt",
        "text": "Heinz's next and biggest-selling solo hit was \"Just Like Eddie\", a tribute to Eddie Cochran. Its success coincided with the emergence of The Beatles and was the high point of commercial success for Heinz. Two successful EPs, \"Heinz\" and \"Live It Up\", followed, and 1963 he appeared in the British music-film \"Live It Up!\", with music produced by Meek, in which he acted the role of Ron and also contributed a song. Following a well-received tour with Billy J. Kramer and the Dakotas and Bobby Rydell, Heinz was seen as belonging to an era of rock and roll as the more modern Merseybeat became more popular. He covered the Bob Dylan song \"Don't Think Twice, It's Alright\", which was another commercial failure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oscar Mayer",
        "text": "On November 4, 2015, owner Kraft Heinz announced it would move the Oscar Mayer headquarters and the company's U.S. meats business from Madison to Chicago. The company also announced plans to consolidate its production facilities during the two following years, resulting in the shutdown of seven North American manufacturing facilities: Fullerton, California, San Leandro, California, Federalsburg, Maryland, St. Marys, Ontario, Campbell, New York, Lehigh Valley, Pennsylvania, and Madison."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Wewers",
        "text": "Heinz Wewers\n--Club career.\n--International career.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Fiedler",
        "text": "Fiedler was born six months before the Wall Street crash heralded worldwide economic retrenchment: he was born and grew up in , an industrial quarter of Zwickau. His father was a fitter and his mother was a weaver. On leaving primary school he embarked on a successful period of study at a commercially focused . However, war had broken out in 1939, and in 1945 he was conscripted for Labour service which, at this point in the war, meant the army. His short career as a soldier ended with a spell as an American prisoner of war."
      },
      {
        "title": "William R. Johnson",
        "text": "He worked at Drackett as an assistant product manager for Behold furniture polish, starting at $13,000 a year. He worked at Ralston Purina, Frito-Lay and Anderson-Clayton Foods before joining Heinz in 1982 as general manager of new business."
      },
      {
        "title": "H. J. Heinz, Wigan",
        "text": "The H. J. Heinz, Wigan factory is a food manufacturing plant owned by H. J. Heinz Company, based in Kitt Green, Orrell, Wigan in Greater Manchester, England. It is one of the largest food processing plants in Europe and the largest H. J. Heinz facility in the world. It produces over one billion cans of food annually and employs around 850\u00a0people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "California (Chatsworth, Escalon, Irvine, San Diego);"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Heinz",
        "text": "Henry John Heinz II (July 10, 1908 \u2013 February 23, 1987) was an American business executive and CEO of the H. J. Heinz Company based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. His grandfather Henry J. Heinz founded the company in the nineteenth century, and he worked in a variety of positions within the company before becoming CEO."
      },
      {
        "title": "WW International",
        "text": "By the late 1970s, the company and its operations and divisions had grown too large and complex for Lippert to manage, and it was sold, along with its food licensees, to the H. J. Heinz Company in 1978 for $72 million. Lippert remained chairman and signed on to remain CEO for a few years, and Nidetch remained in her role as consultant. In the late 1980s, the company's three divisions \u2013 support-group meetings division, food line, and publications and media \u2013 were still increasingly profitable year-over-year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In a recent American Customer Satisfaction Index poll of 10,644 consumers, H.J. Heinz Co. had the highest score of any food or beverage firm, higher than Kraft Foods, The Coca-Cola Company, and Nestl\u00e9."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz London",
        "text": "In 1940 Heinz was declared a civilian enemy alien and interned on the Isle of Man, but was then released to co-operate with the British nuclear program. In 1942 he obtained British citizenship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Nixdorf Programm",
        "text": "The Heinz Nixdorf Program mainly targets young professionals and graduates of business and technical majors that hold German citizenship. High potential undergraduates are also taken into consideration as long as they earn at least one academic degree prior to their departure to their host country. In general, the applicants are younger than thirty years, have at least 6 months of practical work experience and a proof of good English language skills (TOEFL, IELTS or Cambridge Certificate)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karl-Heinz Gerstner",
        "text": "France was invaded in May/June 1940. The military phase of the operation was completed much more rapidly than French military planners had expected, and in July 1940 Karl-Heinz was sent back to Paris as an \"Academic support assistant in the Economy Department\" at the German embassy in Paris. In his own later autobiographical contributions he indicated that this was more a continuation of his previous role than might appear from the job title: he was also keen to stress the difference between members of the permanent diplomatic corps hierarchy and those, such as himself, seconded to the embassy from outside the \"civil service\" talent pool. In some ways this allowed him a flexibility in interpreting and defining his role which would not have been available to a career diplomat. Reports indicate that his superiors found him to be highly competent, with a useful personal charm and excellent contacts to the local business community that enabled him to provide exceptionally reliable reports. There is an assessment from a relatively unsympathetic commentator that for many practical purposes he quickly came to replace Hans Kuntze, his somewhat \"laid-back\" head of department."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz Australia's head office is located in Melbourne. Products include canned baked beans in tomato sauce (popularized in the \"beanz meanz Heinz\" advertising campaign), spaghetti in a similar sauce, and canned soup, condensed soup, and \"ready to eat\" soups."
      },
      {
        "title": "H. J. Heinz, Wigan",
        "text": "Needing a new consolidated factory outside London, the site in Northwest England was chosen due to its ease of access to the agricultural industry, high-quality water supply, highly skilled local workforce and good transportation links. The site had good rail and road connections to the Atlantic Ocean (Liverpool Docks) and Europe via the North Sea, which allow for easy and low-cost access to both raw products and the export of manufactured processed food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 1998, Tony O'Reilly left Heinz after issues with the company's performance. He faced challenges from corporate governance groups and pension funds including CalPERS. He was succeeded by his deputy, William R. Johnson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz-Peter Th\u00fcl",
        "text": "He has also represented Germany in three Dunhill Cups, with best finish a tie for fifth in 1992, together with Bernhard Langer and Torsten Giedeon.\n*1988 Torneo dei Campioni"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gabriel Heinze",
        "text": "Heinze first represented Argentina on 30 April 2003, in a friendly away win with Libya. The following year, he won a gold medal in the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, scoring in a 6\u20130 group stage rout of Serbia and Montenegro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Barwich",
        "text": "Heinz Barwich\n--Education.\n--Career.\n----Early years.\n----In the Soviet Union.\n----Return to Germany.\n--Personal.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Heise",
        "text": "\"The H\" was closed down in July 2013 for lack of a \"working business model\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 1930, Howard Heinz, son of Henry Heinz, helped to fight the downturn of the Great Depression by selling ready-to-serve soups and baby food. They became top sellers. During World War II, \"Jack\" Heinz led the company as president and CEO to aid the United Kingdom and offset food shortages. Its plant in Pittsburgh was converted for a time to manufacture gliders for the War Department."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kraft Heinz",
        "text": "In July 2018, Kraft Heinz announced it was committing to make all of its global packaging recyclable, reusable or compostable by 2025."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "H. J. Heinz Company entered Indonesia in 1999, when it acquired 65 percent share of PT. ABC Central Food, for US$70 million, and formed PT. Heinz ABC Indonesia. The company is based in Jakarta, and manufactures sauces, condiments, juices and syrups."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kraft Heinz",
        "text": "For the fiscal year 2017, Kraft Heinz reported earnings of 11.0 billion, with an annual revenue of 26.2 billion, a decline of 0.6% over the previous fiscal cycle. Kraft Heinz's shares traded at over $61 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over 136 billion in September 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Lindner",
        "text": "Heinz Lindner\n--Club career.\n--International career.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In February 2013, Heinz agreed to be purchased by Berkshire Hathaway and the Brazilian investment firm 3G Capital for $23billion. On March 25, 2015, Kraft announced its merger with Heinz, arranged by Berkshire Hathaway and 3G Capital. The resulting Kraft Heinz Company is the fifth largest food company in the world. Berkshire Hathaway became a majority owner of Heinz on June 18, 2015. After exercising a warrant to acquire 46 million shares of common stock for a total price of over $461million, Berkshire increased its stake to 52.5%. The merger to form Kraft Heinz was completed on July 2, 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Downtown Pittsburgh",
        "text": "\u2013 headquartered in PPG Place\n* H. J. Heinz Company"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Schilcher",
        "text": "Heinz Schilcher\n--International career.\n--Coaching career.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rohde & Schwarz",
        "text": "In addition to the Munich headquarters, there are regional headquarters in the United States (Columbia, Maryland) and in Asia (Singapore). About 7,700 of the company's employees work in Germany. Worldwide the company has a total of around 13,000 employees in over 70 countries. Exports account for around 85 percent of revenues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Insu Fenkl",
        "text": "Translations:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz-Peter Th\u00fcl",
        "text": "Th\u00fcl has represented Germany in four World Cups, with best finish fifth place at the 1992 World Cup where he teamed up with Bernhard Langer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sullivan & Cromwell",
        "text": "Sullivan & Cromwell was one of the earliest U.S. firms to open overseas offices, beginning with Paris in 1911. By 1928, offices also were open in Buenos Aires and Berlin. In 1935, Allen Dulles, then a partner in the firm and later Director of Central Intelligence, visited Germany and returned somewhat disturbed by the direction of the regime. Over the sole opposition of Allen's brother and fellow partner, John Foster Dulles, the firm's partners voted in 1935 to close the Berlin office and a subsidiary in Frankfurt. However, later the firm backdated the announcement of the closing of their German offices by one year, to 1934. Under Foster Dulles, the firm had helped the regime's arms buildup effort by including the German company I.G. Farben into an international nickel cartel, which included American, Canadian, and French producers."
      },
      {
        "title": "F. Augustus Heinze",
        "text": "In 1907, Heinze moved to New York to be a major player, this time in the financial arena. He based his company, United Copper, at 42 Broadway, just around the corner from Wall Street. Heinze entered the banking business, forming a close alliance with Charles W. Morse with whom he served on the boards of at least six national banks, ten state banks, five trust companies, and four insurance companies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz 57 Center",
        "text": "It was built in 1914 for the Kaufmann & Baer Co. department store. From 1925 to 1986 the building housed a Gimbels department store. Sitting largely vacant for 15 years, the building was remodeled into office space, serving as H.J. Heinz Co. North American Headquarters from 2002 to 2013."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the number one ketchup in the United States?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Heinz tomato ketchup has 60% of market in the US and 82% of the market in the UK. Would you like to know more about Heniz ketchup?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me how the Heniz brand was established."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Henry John Heinz (October 11, 1844 \u2013 May 14, 1919) was an American entrepreneur who, at the age of 25, co-founded a small horseradish business that went bankrupt in 1875. The following year, Heinz founded another company which continued to grow and, in 1888, Heinz bought out his other two partners and reorganized it as the H. J. Heinz Company, which was incorporated in 1905 with Heinz serving as its first president, retaining that position for the rest of his life."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who took over the company when Henry John Heinz passed away?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In 1959, long-time Heinz employee Frank Armour Jr. was elected president and COO of H. J. Heinz Co., succeeding H. J. Heinz II."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How'd the company do under Frank Armour Jr.'s leadership?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I could not find how the company did under his tenure, but between 1981 and 1991, Heinz returned 28% annually, doubling the Standard & Poor's average annual return for those years."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What's their international presence look like?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Would you like to know about China, Australia, Canada, India, or somewhere else?",
      "Heinz is in many countries worldwide, would you like to know more about its presence in the US, Australia, Canada, or India?"
    ],
    "topic": "Heinz",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Heinz:57",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Heinz",
          "International presence",
          "China"
        ],
        "ctx": "On February 22, 2013, Sanquan Food, a Chinese frozen food company, signed a contract to purchase LongFong Food, a subsidiary of Heinz Company in China. With this sale, Heinz (China) will focus on infant foods and sauces in emerging markets such as China. Heinz Hong Kong Limited is the regional office serving for operations in Hong Kong, China and Taiwan."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Heinz:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Heinz",
          "History",
          "20th century"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 1905, H. J. Heinz was incorporated, and Heinz served as its first president, holding that position for the rest of his life. Under his leadership, the company pioneered processes for sanitary food preparation, and led a successful lobbying effort in favor of the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906. In 1908 he established a processing plant in Leamington, Ontario, Canada for tomatoes and other products. Heinz operated it until 2014, when it was sold."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Heinz:42",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Heinz",
          "International presence",
          "Australia"
        ],
        "ctx": "On October 6, 2008, Heinz announced plans to acquire the Australian company Golden Circle which \"manufactures more than 500 products, including canned fruit and vegetables, fruit juices, drinks, cordials and jams.\""
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Heinz:49",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Heinz",
          "International presence",
          "India"
        ],
        "ctx": "Heinz Ketchup is available in India in two varieties, the standard Tomato Ketchup and Tomato Chili Sauce. As Indian taste preferences vary among the regions, Western brands such as Heinz must work on Indian interpretations of ketchups for sale in the country. Heinz acquired the former foods division of Glaxo India, gaining the Complan, Glucon D, Glucon C, Sampriti Ghee, and Nycil products and brands. In 2019, Heinz sold a portion of the business, including Complan and Glucon-D, for $627.18 million to Zydus Wellness."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Heinz:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Heinz",
          "History",
          "Foundation"
        ],
        "ctx": "Heinz was founded by and is named for Henry J. Heinz, who was born in the United States to German immigrants. His father was originally from Kallstadt (then part of the Bavarian Rhenish Palatinate, now part of Rhineland-Palatinate). His mother Anna was from Haunetal, Hesse-Kassel, and they met in Pittsburgh."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Heinz:42",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Heinz",
          "International presence",
          "Australia"
        ],
        "ctx": "On October 6, 2008, Heinz announced plans to acquire the Australian company Golden Circle which \"manufactures more than 500 products, including canned fruit and vegetables, fruit juices, drinks, cordials and jams.\""
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Heinz:8",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Heinz",
          "History",
          "20th century"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 1905, H. J. Heinz was incorporated, and Heinz served as its first president, holding that position for the rest of his life. Under his leadership, the company pioneered processes for sanitary food preparation, and led a successful lobbying effort in favor of the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906. In 1908 he established a processing plant in Leamington, Ontario, Canada for tomatoes and other products. Heinz operated it until 2014, when it was sold."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Heinz:49",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Heinz",
          "International presence",
          "India"
        ],
        "ctx": "Heinz Ketchup is available in India in two varieties, the standard Tomato Ketchup and Tomato Chili Sauce. As Indian taste preferences vary among the regions, Western brands such as Heinz must work on Indian interpretations of ketchups for sale in the country. Heinz acquired the former foods division of Glaxo India, gaining the Complan, Glucon D, Glucon C, Sampriti Ghee, and Nycil products and brands. In 2019, Heinz sold a portion of the business, including Complan and Glucon-D, for $627.18 million to Zydus Wellness."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz\n--History.\n----Foundation.\n----20th century.\n----21st century.\n------Heinz and Kraft merger.\n--International presence.\n----United States.\n----Australia.\n----Canada.\n----India.\n----Indonesia.\n----Netherlands.\n----United Kingdom.\n----China.\n----New Zealand.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "The H. J. Heinz Company is an American food processing company headquartered at One PPG Place in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The company was founded by Henry J. Heinz in 1869. Heinz manufactures thousands of food products in plants on six continents, and markets these products in more than 200 countries and territories. The company claims to have 150 number-one or number-two brands worldwide. Heinz ranked first in ketchup in the US with a market share in excess of 50%; the Ore-Ida label held 46% of the frozen potato sector in 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Heinz is an American food conglomerate based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz currently produces frozen vegetables for export for the New Zealand and Australian market. They also produce mayonnaise and other sauces for the New Zealand and Australian market. Most products sold in New Zealand are sold under the brand name \"Watties\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz also has factories in the following locations:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Shrikant Joshi",
        "text": "He likewise worked at Heinz for a limited timeframe (2000\u20132001), where he effectively helped familiarize the well-known Heinz Tomato Ketchup across India."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "As a result of this corporate restructuring and the angry Canadian response, a rival food company, French's, began producing their own ketchup brand using Leamington produce. It marketed the brand with an appeal to Canadian patriotism. This successful campaign, combined with a Canadian grassroots effort on Facebook encouraging purchasing of the French's product, resulted in Heinz's market share in Canada dropping from 84 to 76%, a significant shift in a mature market. This undesirable development was exacerbated in 2018 when Canadian tariffs were erected against specific American exports, which includes ketchup produced in the United States, in retaliation to the US President Trump's tariffs on Canadian steel and aluminum exports. Heinz conducted a belated public relations campaign in Canada to try to counter the public anger against them, a task made more difficult by public sentiment rising to encourage a boycott of American goods in reaction of US President Trump's rhetoric against Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Heinz (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "California (Chatsworth, Escalon, Irvine, San Diego);"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz opened a pickle factory in Holland, Michigan, in 1897, and it is the largest such facility in the world. The Heinz Portion Control subsidiary is located in Jacksonville, Florida, and produces single-serving containers of ketchup, mustard, salad dressings, jams, jellies and syrups."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karl Malte von Heinz",
        "text": "After India's independence, Heinz designed the High Commission of Pakistan, New Delhi, as well as the embassies of Thailand and the Vatican."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "The Kraft Heinz company's world headquarters are in Chicago, Illinois, with the H. J. Heinz division located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where the company was founded. The company's \"keystone\" logo is based on that of Pennsylvania, the \"keystone state\". Heinz Field was named after the Heinz company in 2001."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz was established in Canada in 1908 in a former tobacco factory in Leamington, Ontario (known as the Tomato Capital of Canada). Most products shipped from Leamington have bilingual English and French labels for distribution throughout Canada, but a substantial amount of product is sent from there to the US. Ketchup is the main product produced there, and the city has been a center of tomato production. The factory also produces Canada Fancy (Grade A) tomato juice, mustard, vinegar, baby food, barbecue sauces, canned pastas, beans, pasta sauces, gravies and soups. Heinz Canada is the major supplier of single-serving and flexible-packaging condiments for most fast food chains in Canada. Leamington is the largest tomato-processing region per acreage in the world. The Leamington plant usually processes more than 250,000 tons of tomatoes per year. Heinz Canada's head office is in North York, Ontario; it also has operations in St. Marys, Ontario; Montreal, Quebec; and Calgary, Alberta."
      },
      {
        "title": "H. J. Heinz, Wigan",
        "text": "H. J. Heinz varieties first went on sale in Fortnum & Mason in 1886. After World War I, with a headquarters established in Hayes, London, Heinz started exporting baked beans, canned spaghetti and tomato ketchup to the United Kingdom. Heinz opened its first UK production facility in Harlesden in the 1920s. By 1933 nearly all Heinz products sold in the UK were manufactured domestically. During World War II the Harlesden facility was bombed twice. To help increase food production after the war, Heinz took over a former munitions factory in 1946 at Standish near Wigan. Heinz LTD grew sixfold between 1945 and 1956, and due to this increased demand it needed a new large manufacturing plant in the UK."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz Ketchup is available in India in two varieties, the standard Tomato Ketchup and Tomato Chili Sauce. As Indian taste preferences vary among the regions, Western brands such as Heinz must work on Indian interpretations of ketchups for sale in the country. Heinz acquired the former foods division of Glaxo India, gaining the Complan, Glucon D, Glucon C, Sampriti Ghee, and Nycil products and brands. In 2019, Heinz sold a portion of the business, including Complan and Glucon-D, for $627.18 million to Zydus Wellness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz List",
        "text": "Headquartered in Switzerland, and with offices in the US and Singapore, LIST is the worldwide technology leader and forerunner in dry or concentrated processing focusing on processes that operate without the use of solvents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Florida (Fort Myers);"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz mean",
        "text": "with\u00a00\u00a0\u2264\u00a0\"x\"\u00a0\u2264\u00a0."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 1905, H. J. Heinz was incorporated, and Heinz served as its first president, holding that position for the rest of his life. Under his leadership, the company pioneered processes for sanitary food preparation, and led a successful lobbying effort in favor of the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906. In 1908 he established a processing plant in Leamington, Ontario, Canada for tomatoes and other products. Heinz operated it until 2014, when it was sold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz produces oriental foods sold under the Amoy brand, once used under license from Ajinomoto Co. Inc., Tokyo, Japan. In 2018, Amoy Food was sold to the new owners, CITIC Capital Asian Foods Holdings Ltd."
      },
      {
        "title": "Federico Heinz",
        "text": "He works at Google in their UK office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Flohe",
        "text": "Germany"
      },
      {
        "title": "H. J. Heinz, Wigan",
        "text": "The factory celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2009, with a visit by HM Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh who also opened a new packaging hall. In 2013, the factory was listed by Discovery Channel as one of the world's top five manufacturing units, alongside: Reliance's Jamnagar Refinery; Volkswagen's car plant; NASA's Kennedy Space Center; POSCO's steel plant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "The UK headquarters moved from Hayes to the Shard in London. After opening its first overseas office in London in 1896, the company opened its first UK factory in Peckham, south London in 1905. This was followed by a factory at Harlesden, north-west London in 1919. Bombed twice in World War II, this factory remained in production until 2000. Production was started at a former munitions factory at Standish near Wigan in 1946, before the new factory at Kitt Green, near Wigan, opened in 1959. Heinz also had an infant food factory in Kendal, Cumbria. The site specialized in baby milks, previously under the brand of Farley's, but then manufactured under the name Heinz Nurture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baby food",
        "text": "In Australia, Canada, and New Zealand, Heinz had about 90% of the market share in 1996. Heinz is also the market leader in the UK, Italy, and several eastern European countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz aus Wien",
        "text": "Heinz aus Wien\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kraft Heinz",
        "text": "The merger of Kraft Foods and H.J. Heinz was agreed by the boards of both companies, with approval by shareholders and regulatory authorities in early 2015. The new Kraft Heinz Company became the world's fifth-largest food and beverage company and the third-largest in the United States. The Kraft Heinz co-headquarters are in Chicago at the Aon Center and in Pittsburgh at PPG Place, with other offices across the United States, Canada, South America, Europe, Asia, and Australia. The companies completed the merger on July 2, 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry J. Heinz",
        "text": "Henry John Heinz (October 11, 1844 \u2013 May 14, 1919) was an American entrepreneur who, at the age of 25, co-founded a small horseradish concern in Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania. This business failed, but his second business expanded into tomato ketchup and other condiments, and ultimately became the internationally known H. J. Heinz Company of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Girgarre, Victoria",
        "text": "A local group sought to purchase the factory and start its own production, with offers of financial assistance from investors. Heinz rejected the offer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Heinz may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles M. Berger",
        "text": "Heinz Chairman and CEO William R. Johnson credited Berger for Heinz success with ketchup by stating that Berger's marketing ideas allowed \"Heinz to break out of a tie and gain permanent leadership in ketchup.\" Berger worked for Heinz for 32 years and was in charge of Heinz's operations in India before leaving to become CEO at The Scotts Miracle-Gro Company in 1996."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Serving demand from Indonesia's large population and growing economy, in the early 21st century PT. Heinz ABC Indonesia is the largest Heinz's business in Asia, and one of the largest in the world. It employs 3000 employees, has 3 production facilities, 8 packing facilities, and an extensive distribution network in Java and other parts of Indonesia. Their leading products are Syrup ABC (fruit syrup), Kecap ABC (sweet soy sauce), and Sambal ABC (hot chili sauce)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "Heinz manufactures all of its American tomato ketchup at two plants: one in Fremont, Ohio, and another in Muscatine, Iowa. Heinz closed their plant in Leamington, Ontario in 2014. The former Canadian plant is now owned by Highbury Vancouver to produce French's ketchup in Canada."
      },
      {
        "title": "ABC (food)",
        "text": "ABC is the largest Heinz's business in Asia, and one of the largest in the world; employing 3000 employees, 3 production facilities, 8 packing facilities, and extensive distribution network in Java and other parts of Indonesia. Today ABC is one of 15 brands owned by Heinz worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Ohio (Mason, Massillon);"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 2013, the Kitt Green facility was listed as one among the world's five largest manufacturing units by the Discovery Channel (the list comprised Reliance's Jamnagar Refinery, Volkswagen's car plant, Kitt Green Foods plant, NASA's Kennedy Space Center and POSCO's steel plant). It is Europe's largest food factory and turns over more than 1 billion cans every year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karl Malte von Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz came to India as a refugee due to the crackdown on the Bahaus movement in Nazi Germany. After coming to India, he assisted Robert Tor Russel in designing the Pataudi Palace in the 1930s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Massachusetts (Newburyport);"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "First introduced as \"Catsup\" in 1876 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Heinz Tomato Ketchup remains the best-selling brand of ketchup. From 1906 it was produced without preservatives. In 1907, Heinz started producing about 13 million bottles of ketchup per year, exporting ketchup all over the world, including India, Australia, South America, Japan, Indonesia, New Zealand, South Korea, South Africa and the United Kingdom. Heinz ketchup is often served at restaurants in the United States and Canada, as well as many other countries. As a condiment for many foods, such as french fries, chips, hamburgers and hot dogs, Heinz ketchup uses the slogan \"America's Favorite Ketchup\u201d. As of 2012, there are more than 650 million bottles of Heinz Tomato Ketchup being sold every year throughout the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Oregon (Ontario), and"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz Australia's head office is located in Melbourne. Products include canned baked beans in tomato sauce (popularized in the \"beanz meanz Heinz\" advertising campaign), spaghetti in a similar sauce, and canned soup, condensed soup, and \"ready to eat\" soups."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz List",
        "text": "LIST Today"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Iowa (Cedar Rapids, Muscatine);"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "South Carolina (Florence)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz B\u00e4ni",
        "text": "Heinz B\u00e4ni\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ziehl-Abegg",
        "text": "The headquarters are located at the Heinz-Ziehl Street in Kuenzelsau, with a subsidiary plant in the nearby W\u00fcrzburger Street. Built in 2008, the world's largest and most modern air flow and noise level test chambers for fans can be found in the main production site."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Arizona (Phoenix);"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In the postwar years, Jack Heinz expanded the company to develop plants in several nations overseas, greatly expanding its international presence. He also acquired Ore-Ida and Starkist Tuna."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leamington, Ontario",
        "text": "The H. J. Heinz company established a factory in 1908 in Leamington. The Heinz products are shipped from the city with both English and French labels, mostly to the United States. Ketchup and baby food are the main products. In November 2013 Heinz announced that it would close the Leamington plant in 2014, meaning job losses for 740 employees at the plant and hundreds more support workers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz was founded by and is named for Henry J. Heinz, who was born in the United States to German immigrants. His father was originally from Kallstadt (then part of the Bavarian Rhenish Palatinate, now part of Rhineland-Palatinate). His mother Anna was from Haunetal, Hesse-Kassel, and they met in Pittsburgh."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz body",
        "text": "Heinz bodies appear as small round inclusions within the red cell body, though they are not visible when stained with Romanowsky dyes. They are visualized more clearly with supravital staining (e.g., with new methylene blue, crystal violet or bromocresol green)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In 1969, Tony O'Reilly joined the company's UK subsidiary, soon becoming its managing director. He moved to Pittsburgh in 1971 when he was promoted to Senior Vice President for the North America and Pacific region. By 1973, Heinz selected him as president. He became CEO in 1979 and chairman in 1987."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Pose",
        "text": "Heinz Pose\n--Education.\n--Career.\n----Early years.\n----In Russia.\n----In East Germany.\n--Declined defection.\n--Internal reports.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Harvey Washington Wiley",
        "text": "Heinz were one of the first companies to join the push for pure food and changed their recipe for tomato ketchup in 1902 to replace chemical preservatives with vinegar and introducing very hygienic practices into their factories."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry J. Heinz",
        "text": "The H. J. Heinz Company was incorporated in 1905 with Heinz serving as its first president, retaining that position for the rest of his life. At the time of Heinz's death in Pittsburgh at the age of 74, the H. J. Heinz Company had more than 20 food processing plants and owned seed farms and container factories."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Flohe",
        "text": "Heinz Flohe\n--Career.\n--Personal life.\n--Honours.\n----Club.\n----International.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "H. J. Heinz, Wigan",
        "text": "The H. J. Heinz, Wigan factory is a food manufacturing plant owned by H. J. Heinz Company, based in Kitt Green, Orrell, Wigan in Greater Manchester, England. It is one of the largest food processing plants in Europe and the largest H. J. Heinz facility in the world. It produces over one billion cans of food annually and employs around 850\u00a0people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Heinz",
        "text": "As president of the Heinz Company, Jack launched subsidiaries in the Netherlands, Portugal, Venezuela, Japan, and Italy, establishing a large international network. Acquisitions of Star-Kist Foods Inc. and Ore-Ida Foods Inc. are considered the hallmarks of his tenure. He also presided over the opening of a baby food plant on mainland China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Heinz",
        "text": "He led the company through the challenges of World War II. For a time the Heinz plant in Pittsburgh was converted to producing gliders for the War Department. He made five trips to England during the war: once to see about the bombed Heinz plant in Harlesden, and several times by request of the British government to assist with relieving its food shortages. He also aided the Netherlands with their food challenges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kraft Heinz",
        "text": "As of 2021, in addition to both Kraft and Heinz, many more global brands are included in the Kraft Heinz portfolio:\n* A.1. Sauce\n* ABC\n* Amoy\n* Aproten\n* Bakers Chocolate\n* B\u00e9n\u00e9dicta\n* Boca Burger\n* Breakstone's\n* Brinta\n* Capri Sun\n* Classico\n* Claussen\n* Corn Nuts\n* Cracker Barrel\n* Crystal Light\n* Daddies\n* De Ruijter\n* Greenseas\n* Grey Poupon\n* Golden Circle\n* Hemmer\n* Honig\n* HP Sauce\n* Jell-O\n* Karvan C\u00e9vitam\n* Kool-Aid\n* Lea & Perrins\n* Lunchables\n* Master Soy Sauce\n* Maxwell House\n* Mio\n* Miracle Whip\n* Mr. Yoshida's\n* Nancy's\n* Ore Ida\n* Original Juice Co.\n* Orlando\n* Oscar Mayer\n* P3\n* Philadelphia Cream Cheese\n* Plasmon\n* Primal Kitchen\n* Pudliszki\n* PurePet\n* Quero\n* Roosvicee\n* Shake 'n Bake\n* Smart Ones\n* Sure-Jeil\n* Tassimo\n* Velveeta\n* Venz\n* Wattie's\n* Weight Watchers\n* Wijko\n* Wyler's"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Dathe",
        "text": "Heinz Dathe\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz dilemma",
        "text": "Heinz dilemma\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "On October 6, 2008, Heinz announced plans to acquire the Australian company Golden Circle which \"manufactures more than 500 products, including canned fruit and vegetables, fruit juices, drinks, cordials and jams.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz mean",
        "text": "The Heinz means appear naturally when symmetrizing"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Insu Fenkl",
        "text": "Translations:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz London",
        "text": "This connection also gave Heinz the opportunity to leave Nazi Germany. Frederick Lindemann invited Francis Simon to join the Clarendon Laboratory at the University of Oxford in 1933 supported by money obtained from chemical company ICI. When Francis Simon did he brought Heinz London as his assistant as well as Nicholas Kurti."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz London",
        "text": "London studied at multiple institutions as was customary at the time in Germany. He was at the University of Bonn in 1926/27. After that he interned for six months at a chemical plant for Heraeus in Hanau, Germany. In 1929 he spent a year of study at the Technical University Berlin-Charlottenburg (now the Technical University of Berlin) and then he was at the University of Munich until 1931. In late 1933, he obtained his PhD under the low temperature physicist Franz Simon at the University of Breslau, with a thesis \"on the possibility of the occurrence of high frequency residual resistance in superconductors\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Heinz manufactures \"Big Red\" tomato sauce, and a number of flavored baked bean varieties, as well as canned meals. Heinz also markets the Wattie's brand of canned foods, which are made in New Zealand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz mean",
        "text": "Heinz mean\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "On May 27, 2011, Heinz announced it would close its factory in Girgarre, Victoria, and downsize its factories in Northgate (Brisbane), and Wagga Wagga, with loss of more than 300 jobs. Heinz has other factories in Echuca and Mill Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "H. J. Heinz, Wigan",
        "text": "In June 2021, Kraft Heinz announced that it would invest \u00a3140\u00a0million into the plant over the next four years, the firm's biggest expansion to a manufacturing site outside the U.S. in over two decades. Under the plan, condiments such as ketchup and mayonnaise (which have not been manufactured in the UK since 1999) shall be manufactured at Kitt Green. The planned expansion shall create 50 new jobs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "H. J. Heinz Company entered Indonesia in 1999, when it acquired 65 percent share of PT. ABC Central Food, for US$70 million, and formed PT. Heinz ABC Indonesia. The company is based in Jakarta, and manufactures sauces, condiments, juices and syrups."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz mean",
        "text": "formula_3-divergences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "A majority of its ketchup is produced in Fremont, Ohio, and the rest is made in Muscatine, Iowa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kraft Heinz",
        "text": "The Kraft Heinz Company (KHC), commonly known as Kraft Heinz, is an American multinational food company formed by the merger of Kraft Foods and Heinz co-headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Kraft Heinz is the third-largest food and beverage company in North America and the fifth-largest in the world with over $26.0 billion in annual sales as of 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Felfe",
        "text": "In the end, the target of \"Panoptikum\" would turn out to be Heinz Felfe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz (surname)",
        "text": "Heinz (surname)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "On February 14, 2013, it was announced that Heinz would be purchased by Berkshire Hathaway and 3G Capital for $23billion. Including debt assumption the transaction was valued at $28billion. According to Heinz, the deal was the largest in food industry history. Berkshire Hathaway and 3G would each own half of Heinz, with 3G running the company. Berkshire and 3G paid $72.50 a share. The acquisition was completed in June of that year. Berkshire and 3G immediately named Bernardo Hees, former chief executive of Burger King Worldwide Inc, as the CEO."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz List",
        "text": "Though Heinz List died in 1988, he is remembered both as a pioneering engineer \u2014 one of only 26 members of the Polymer Processing Hall of Fame at the University of Akron, Ohio, USA \u2014 and as a business leader. Under his sons J\u00f6rg and Klaus List, the company has thrived and expanded into new industries: polymers, fibers and food. Today LIST is world leader in numerous industries, including TDI, Sugar Replacer, ABS, Fiber Spinning Solutions, SAP (Super Absorbent Polymers), and EPDM."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinze",
        "text": "Heinze\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "On January 6, 2012, Heinz closed its tomato sauce factory in Girgarre as announced in the previous May. 146 workers lost their jobs. A local group was seeking to purchase the factory and start its own production, with offers of financial assistance from investors. The group's first offer for the site was rejected by Heinz. Girgarre was the second to last tomato sauce factory in Australia, and its closing brought an end to Heinz's 70 years of tomato processing operations in Australia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "On February 22, 2013, Sanquan Food, a Chinese frozen food company, signed a contract to purchase LongFong Food, a subsidiary of Heinz Company in China. With this sale, Heinz (China) will focus on infant foods and sauces in emerging markets such as China. Heinz Hong Kong Limited is the regional office serving for operations in Hong Kong, China and Taiwan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "Globally, Heinz produces ketchup and other tomato sauces in factories across the world , including the UK and the Netherlands. Although Heinz touts \"one basic recipe\" for its mainstay ketchup, there are variations in this recipe tailored to national tastes, and dependent on the country of production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Born",
        "text": "Heinz Born\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Federico Heinz",
        "text": "He speaks fluent Spanish, English, and German."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz (surname)",
        "text": "Heinz is a German surname and cognate of Henry. People with this surname name include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Tomato Ketchup",
        "text": "In a recent American Customer Satisfaction Index poll of 10,644 consumers, H.J. Heinz Co. had the highest score of any food or beverage firm, higher than Kraft Foods, The Coca-Cola Company, and Nestl\u00e9."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz 57",
        "text": "Heinz 57 is a synecdoche of the historical advertising slogan \"57 Varieties\" by the H. J. Heinz Company located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. It was developed from the marketing campaign that told consumers about the numerous products available from the Heinz company."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "On March 25, 2015, Kraft Foods Group Inc. announced that it would merge with the H.\u00a0J. Heinz Company, owned by 3G Capital and Berkshire Hathaway Inc., to form the world's fifth-largest food and beverage company. The companies completed the merger on July 2, 2015.\n* ABC\n* Bagel Bites\n* Bull's-Eye\n* Classico\n* Complan\n* Daddies\n* Devour\n* Delimex\n* Diana Sauce\n* Farex\n* Greenseas\n* Heinz\n* HP Sauce\n* Jack Daniel's sauces (under license)\n* Lea & Perrins\n* Ore-Ida\n* T.G.I. Friday's (under license)\n* Wattie's\n* Weight Watchers (under license)\n* Wyler's\n*Beanz\n*Italian Beanz\n*Lentil Curry\n*Mexican Beanz\n*No Added Sugar Beanz\n*No Added Sugar Beanz Snap Pots\n*Organic Beanz\n*Peri Peri Beanz\n*Pork Sausage Beanz\n*Smokey Bacon Beanz\n*Spanish Beanz\n* Balsamic With a hint of Garlic\n* Chilli & Lime\n*Raspberry Balsamic\n*Zesty Lemon\n* Alphabetti\n*Beef Ravioli\n*Hoops\n*Hoops Snap Pots\n*Macaroni Cheese\n*Micro Spaghetti Snap Pots\n*No Added Sugar Hoops\n*Numberetti\n*Peppa Pig Pasta Shapes\n*Spaghetti\n*Spaghetti Bolognese\n*Spaghetti With Sausages\n* Mayonnaise\n*Light Mayonnaise\n*Garlic & Caramelized Onion Mayonnaise\n*Truffle Mayonnaise\n*Lemon & Black Pepper Mayonnaise\n*Salad Cream\n*Salad Cream 30% Less Fat\n*Salad Cream 70% Less Fat\n*Classic Barbecue Sauce\n*Sticky Barbecue Sauce\n*Sweet & Spicy Barbecue Sauce\n*American Style Smokey Baconnaise Sauce\n*Korean Style Sticky Barbecue Sauce\n*American Style Burger Sauce\n*Thai Style Sweet Chilli Sauce\n*Thai Style Coconut Lime Sauce\n*Turkish Style Garlic Sauce\n*Mild Yellow Mustard\n*Honey Yellow Mustard\n*Piccalilli Pickle\n*Ploughman's Pickle\n*Original Sandwich Spread\n*Light Sandwich Spread\n*Saucy Sauce (Mayo & Ketchup Sauce)\n*Aromatic Herbs Ketchup\n*Balsamic Vinegar Ketchup\n*Fiery Chilli Tomato Ketchup\n*Jalape\u00f1o Chilli Tomato Ketchup\n*Organic Tomato Ketchup\n*Roasted Garlic Ketchup\n*Sweet Chilli Tomato Ketchup\n*Firecracker\n* Cream of Tomato\n*Cream of Chicken\n*Vegetable\n*Cream of Mushroom\n*Cream of Tomato with a Kick of Chilli\n*Lentil\n*Oxtail\n*Organic Cream of Tomato\n*Beef Broth\n*Carrot and Coriander\n*Cream of Chicken and Mushroom\n*Chicken and Sweetcorn\n*Chicken Noodle Soup\n*Lentil & Bacon\n*Minestrone\n*Mulligatawny\n*No Added Sugar Cream of Tomato\n*No Added Sugar Vegetable\n*Pea & Ham\n*Potato & Leek\n*Scotch Broth\n*Spring Vegetable\n*Cream of Tomato with Basil\n*Cream of Tomato Cup Soup\n*Vegetable Cup Soup\n*Cream of Tomato with a Kick of Chilli Cup Soup\n*Cream of Chicken Cup Soup\n*Cream of Mushroom Cup Soup\n*Cream of Tomato with Basil Cup Soup\n*Minestrone Cup Soup\n*Oxtail Cup Soup\n*Spiced Butternut Squash & Chickpea Eatwell Soup\n*Tomato & Cannellini Eatwell Soup\n*Tomato Spinach & Lentil Eatwell Soup\n*Cream of Chicken Pot Soup\n*Cream of Mushroom Pot Soup\n*Cream of Tomato Pot Soup\n*Smooth Vegetable Pot Soup\n*Cauliflower, Onion & Potato Soup of the Day\n*Chicken, Parsnip & Rosemary Soup of the Day\n*Green Garden Vegetables Soup of the Day\n*Mushroom & Toasted Garlic Soup of the Day\n*Potato & Leek with chives Soup of the Day\n*Spice Pumpkin, Sweet Potato & Carrot Soup of the Day\n*Tomato, Roasted Garlic & Black Pepper Soup of the Day"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Schimmelbusch",
        "text": "Schimmelbusch served as a member of the Presidency of the Federation of German Industries (BDI) and the Presidency of the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz 57",
        "text": "The first product to be promoted under the new \"57 varieties\" slogan was prepared horseradish. By 1940, the term \"Heinz 57\" had become so synonymous with the company the name was used to market a steak sauce.\n# Heinz Oven-Baked Beans \u2013 Pork and Tomato Sauce\n# Heinz Oven-Baked Beans \u2013 Pork no Tomato Sauce\n# Heinz Oven-Baked Beans \u2013 Tomato Sauce no Pork\n# Heinz Oven-Baked Red Kidney Beans\n# Heinz Cream of Asparagus Soup\n# Heinz Cream of Celery Soup\n# Heinz Cream of Mushroom\n# Heinz Cream of Green Pea Soup\n# Heinz Cream of Oyster\n# Heinz Cream of Tomato Soup\n# Heinz Bean Soup\n# Heinz Beef Broth\n# Heinz Clam Chowder\n# Heinz Gumbo Creole\n# Heinz Mock Turtle Soup\n# Heinz Scotch Broth\n# Heinz Noodle Soup\n# Heinz Pepper Pot Soup\n# Heinz Vegetable Soup\n# Heinz Consomm\u00e9\n# Heinz Onion Soup\n# Heinz Mince Meat\n# Heinz Puddings\u2014Date, Fig, and Plum\n# Heinz Peanut Butter\n# Heinz Cooked Spaghetti\n# Heinz Cooked Macaroni\n# Heinz Pure Jellies\n# Heinz Apple Butter\n# Heinz Gherkins\u2014Sweet or Sour\n# Heinz Mixed Pickles\u2014Sweet or Sour\n# Heinz Chow Chow Pickle\n# Heinz Sweet Mustard Pickle\n# Heinz Dill Pickles\n# Heinz Fresh Cucumber Pickle\n# Heinz Strained Foods\n# Heinz India Relish\n# Heinz Sandwich Spread\n# Heinz Pickled Onions\u2014Sweet and Sour\n# Heinz Spanish Queen Olives\n# Heinz Stuffed Spanish Olives\n# Heinz Ripe Olives\n# Heinz Pure Spanish Olive Oil\n# Heinz Tomato Ketchup\n# Heinz Chili Sauce\n# Heinz Beefsteak Sauce*\n# Heinz Pepper Sauce\u2014Red or Green\n# Heinz Worcestershire Sauce\n# Heinz Prepared Mustard\u2014Brown or Yellow\n# Heinz Evaporated Horseradish\n# Heinz Mayonnaise\n# Heinz Pure Malt Vinegar\n# Heinz Pure Cider Vinegar\n# Heinz Distilled White Vinegar\n# Heinz Tarragon Vinegar\n# Heinz Rice Flakes\n# Heinz Breakfast Wheat\n# Heinz Tomato Juice\n*- Known today as Heinz 57 Sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Kohut",
        "text": "According to Kohut,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz London",
        "text": "Heinz London\n--Biography.\n--Education.\n--Career.\n--Honours and awards.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz 57",
        "text": "Heinz 57\n--Usage.\n--Bottle design.\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Unger",
        "text": "Heinz Unger\n--Early career.\n--In Britain.\n--In Canada.\n--Heinz Unger Award.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "In February 2013, Heinz agreed to be purchased by Berkshire Hathaway and the Brazilian investment firm 3G Capital for $23billion. On March 25, 2015, Kraft announced its merger with Heinz, arranged by Berkshire Hathaway and 3G Capital. The resulting Kraft Heinz Company is the fifth largest food company in the world. Berkshire Hathaway became a majority owner of Heinz on June 18, 2015. After exercising a warrant to acquire 46 million shares of common stock for a total price of over $461million, Berkshire increased its stake to 52.5%. The merger to form Kraft Heinz was completed on July 2, 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Emmerich",
        "text": "Heinz Emmerich\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz Gappmayr",
        "text": "Heinz Gappmayr\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "H. J. Heinz, Wigan",
        "text": "As of 2019, the factory employs 850 people. It makes 1.5\u20133 million cans of Heinz Baked Beans per day and more than 1.3 billion cans of food a year, which is around annually. It is one of the largest food processing plants in Europe and the largest of Heinz's factories around the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heinz",
        "text": "Idaho (Pocatello);"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the number one ketchup in the United States?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Heinz tomato ketchup has 60% of market in the US and 82% of the market in the UK. Would you like to know more about Heniz ketchup?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me how the Heniz brand was established."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Henry John Heinz (October 11, 1844 \u2013 May 14, 1919) was an American entrepreneur who, at the age of 25, co-founded a small horseradish business that went bankrupt in 1875. The following year, Heinz founded another company which continued to grow and, in 1888, Heinz bought out his other two partners and reorganized it as the H. J. Heinz Company, which was incorporated in 1905 with Heinz serving as its first president, retaining that position for the rest of his life."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who took over the company when Henry John Heinz passed away?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In 1959, long-time Heinz employee Frank Armour Jr. was elected president and COO of H. J. Heinz Co., succeeding H. J. Heinz II."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How'd the company do under Frank Armour Jr.'s leadership?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I could not find how the company did under his tenure, but between 1981 and 1991, Heinz returned 28% annually, doubling the Standard & Poor's average annual return for those years."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What's their international presence look like?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Heinz is in many countries worldwide, would you like to know more about its presence in the US, Australia, Canada, or India?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Please tell me about their presence in India."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In India, there's two varieties available, the standard Tomato Ketchup and the Tomato Chili Sauce. Heinz acquired former food division Glaxo India which they sold a part of to Zydus Wellness in 2019.",
      "Heinz Ketchup is available in India in two varieties, the standard Tomato Ketchup and Tomato Chili Sauce. As Indian taste preferences vary among the regions, Western brands such as Heinz must work on Indian interpretations of ketchups for sale in the country."
    ],
    "topic": "Heinz",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Heinz:49",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Heinz",
          "International presence",
          "India"
        ],
        "ctx": "Heinz Ketchup is available in India in two varieties, the standard Tomato Ketchup and Tomato Chili Sauce. As Indian taste preferences vary among the regions, Western brands such as Heinz must work on Indian interpretations of ketchups for sale in the country. Heinz acquired the former foods division of Glaxo India, gaining the Complan, Glucon D, Glucon C, Sampriti Ghee, and Nycil products and brands. In 2019, Heinz sold a portion of the business, including Complan and Glucon-D, for $627.18 million to Zydus Wellness."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Heinz:49",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Heinz",
          "International presence",
          "India"
        ],
        "ctx": "Heinz Ketchup is available in India in two varieties, the standard Tomato Ketchup and Tomato Chili Sauce. As Indian taste preferences vary among the regions, Western brands such as Heinz must work on Indian interpretations of ketchups for sale in the country. Heinz acquired the former foods division of Glaxo India, gaining the Complan, Glucon D, Glucon C, Sampriti Ghee, and Nycil products and brands. In 2019, Heinz sold a portion of the business, including Complan and Glucon-D, for $627.18 million to Zydus Wellness."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "After lamination, the dough is formed into its famous crescent shape. First, the laminated dough is cut into triangles of the desired size. The triangles are then rolled with three-and-a-half to four full turns, and finally, the ends of the roll are curved inwards to form a crescent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The second step is the lamination process. Lamination is necessary to produce multilayered dough with alternating layers of predough and fat. Generally, there are two methods for folding fat into the dough: the English method and the French method. In the English method, one fold results in two fat layers and three dough layers. After spreading out predough, roll-in fat is flattened to a similar thickness as the predough and spread over two-thirds of the surface of the laminated predough. The exposed third of predough is then folded over half of the roll-in fat, while the other end (one predough and one fat layer) is folded on top. In the French method, one fold results in one fat layer and two dough layers. After spreading out the predough and putting a layer of roll-in fat over the center surface of the dough, the corners of the predough are folded toward the middle of the fat. Croissant dough is typically laminated until 16\u201350 fat layers are obtained. The optimal number of layers can be determined by balancing certain crumb properties with specific volume. On one hand, a low number of layers yields large specific heights as well as irregular crumb structure with large voids. On the other hand, a large number of relatively thin layers leads to interconnections between different dough layers as well as less dough lift."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The fourth step is the baking process. Also known as \"pastry lift\" or \"dough lift\", the dough expands as water is converted to steam, thus increasing the pressure between each dough layer. As a result, the croissant dough rises up to yield its characteristic flaky texture. Depending on the type of oven used and specific size of the croissant, the baking time can range from 10 to 20 minutes and the oven temperature can be set anywhere from 165\u00a0\u00b0C to 205\u00a0\u00b0C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Water is converted to steam during the baking process, which is the main factor behind the leavening of the dough. The water for steam production comes from both the dough layers and the roll-in fat. As the fat melts, the continuous oil phase is no longer able to stabilize the water droplets, which are then released and converted to steam. Although the exact mechanism of steam entrapment is still unclear, it is likely a result of both steam expanding inside each dough layer and steam migrating to oil layers, where it inflates gas bubbles. The steam migration to oil phase is likely due to the smaller pressure differential required to inflate a bubble of steam in liquid fat than in solid dough. As the concentration of steam increases between dough layers, the increased pressure causes the dough to lift. It is important to note that during the entire baking process, only half of the water vapor contributes to dough lift, as the other half is lost through micropores and capillaries of interconnected dough layers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "During baking, the transient gluten network turns into a permanent network. At higher temperatures, intermolecular disulfide bonds form between glutenin molecules, as well as between gliadin and glutenin. With more bonds being made, the gluten network becomes more rigid, strengthening the croissant\u2019s crumb texture. Additionally, the baking process significantly stretches the dough layers due to the large macroscopic deformation that occurred during fermentation\u2019s dough lift."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The first step of manufacturing croissants is the \"predough\" formation. To prepare predough, flour, water, in-dough fat, yeast, salt, and sugar are mixed together in a single step. Typically, croissant predough is mixed in a relatively cool environment, for a longer time than other pastries. The ideal temperature of the dough should be around 19\u00a0\u00b0C, to best hydrate the ingredients. In comparison to the mixing of bread dough ingredients, pastry predough is considered underdeveloped in that mixing is stopped as soon as the dough appears homogeneous, to allow for further dough development in the next step."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "A croissant (, , ) is a buttery, flaky, viennoiserie pastry of Austrian origin, but mostly associated with France. Croissants are named for their historical crescent shape and, like other viennoiseries, are made of a layered yeast-leavened dough. The dough is layered with butter, rolled and folded several times in succession, then rolled into a thin sheet, in a technique called laminating. The process results in a layered, flaky texture, similar to a puff pastry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Roll-in fat gradually melts as the temperature in the oven increases. Some of the melting fat can migrate into the dough, which could then interfere with gluten protein crosslinking. The fat phase also contributes to dough lift through gas inflation, which will be described next."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "In laminated croissant dough, the gluten network is not continuous. Instead, the gluten proteins are separated as thin gluten films between dough layers. The formation of thin, well-defined layers affects the height of dough lift. Generally, laminated croissant dough contains fewer layers than other puff pastry doughs that do not contain yeast, due to the presence of small bubbles in the gluten sheets. Upon proofing, these bubbles expand and destroy the integrity of the dough layers. The resulting interconnections between different dough layers would over-increase dough strength and allow water vapor to escape through micropores during baking, consequently decreasing dough lift. The role of fat also influences the separation of layers, as will be discussed next."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "In order to ensure the flaky texture of the croissant, it is important to balance the yeast activity with steam production. If the yeast overproduces CO2, then the well-defined layers may collapse. During the baking process, this would cause steam to escape too early from the bread, reducing dough lift and flakiness of the final product. Thus, to offset the negative effects of yeast on layer integrity and dough lift, croissants usually contain fewer layers than other puff pastries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Uncooked croissant dough can also be wrapped around any praline, almond paste, or chocolate before it is baked (in the last case, it becomes like \"pain au chocolat\", which has a different, non-crescent, shape), or sliced to include sweet or savoury fillings. It may be flavored with dried fruit such as sultanas or raisins, or other fruits such as apples. In France and Spain, croissants are generally sold without filling and eaten without added butter, but sometimes with almond filling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "In-dough fat affects the texture and lift of predough. Although higher levels of dough fat may lower dough lift during baking, it also correlates with a softer end product. As such, the main function of in-dough fat is to produce a desirable softness in the final croissant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The third step is the fermentation process. Croissants are different from other puff pastries in that they include yeast, which, during proofing, increases the dough volume. Ideally, the optimum croissant quality is achieved at a yeast level of 7.5%, with a proof time of 60 minutes at 31\u00a0\u00b0C. The croissants are finished proofing when the dough has expanded two-and-a-half times its original volume."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's croissant",
        "text": "This tradition dates back to pagan times, when during the autumn feast the gods were offered sacrifices of oxen or, as a substitute, of dough rolled up in oxen horns. The Latin Church has taken over this custom and linked it to the figure of St Martin. The shape of the dough was interpreted as a reference to the horseshoe that the holy horse was to lose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Croissants contain yeast, \"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\", which is incorporated during predough formation. When oxygen is abundant, the yeast breaks down sugar into carbon dioxide and water through the process of respiration. This process releases energy that is used by the yeast for growth. After consuming all of the oxygen, the yeast switches to anaerobic fermentation. At this point, the yeast partially breaks down sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide. Once CO2 saturates the dough\u2019s aqueous phase, the gas begins to leaven the dough by diffusing to preexisting gas cells that were incorporated into the predough during mixing. Yeast action does not produce new gas cells, as the immense pressure required for a single CO2 molecule to create a new gas bubble is not physically attainable"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Roll-in fat affects the flakiness and flavor of the croissant. In laminated dough, fat layers alternate with dough layers. As such, the most important function of roll-in fat is to form and maintain a barrier between the different dough layers during sheeting and folding. As previously stated, the ability for fat to maintain separation between folded dough layers ensures proper dough lift."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Gluten proteins affect the water absorption and viscoelastic properties of the predough. The role of proteins can be divided into two stages of dough formation: hydration and deformation. In the hydration stage, gluten proteins absorb water up to two times their own weight. In the deformation or kneading stage, the action of mixing causes the gluten to undergo a series of polymerization and depolymerization reactions, forming a viscoelastic network. Hydrated glutenin proteins in particular help form a polymeric protein network that makes the dough more cohesive. On the other hand, hydrated gliadin proteins do not directly form the network, but do act as plasticizers of the glutenin network, thus imparting fluidity to the dough\u2019s viscosity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Fat also affects the quality of croissants in storage. On one hand, an increased amount of in-dough fat has been found to correspond to a reduction in crumb hardness immediately after baking. This is likely attributed to the high-fat content of croissants, as increased fat levels decrease moisture diffusion. On the other hand, although roll-in fat softens the croissant\u2019s initial crumb, its effect on croissant hardness during storage is still unclear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The puff pastry technique that now characterizes the croissant was already mentioned in the late 17th century, when La Varenne's \"Le Cuisinier fran\u00e7ois\" gave a recipe for it in the 1680 - and possibly earlier - edition. It was typically used not on its own but for shells holding other ingredients (as in a vol-au-vent). It does not appear to be mentioned in relation to the croissant until the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Crescent-shaped breads have been made since the Renaissance, and crescent-shaped cakes possibly since antiquity. Croissants have long been a staple of Austrian, Italian, and French bakeries and p\u00e2tisseries. The modern croissant was developed in the early 20th century. In the late 1970s, the development of factory-made, frozen, preformed but unbaked dough made them into a fast food that could be freshly baked by unskilled labor. The croissant bakery, notably the \"La Croissanterie\" chain, was a French response to American-style fast food, and as of 2008, 30\u201340% of the croissants sold in French bakeries and patisseries were baked from frozen dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain au chocolat",
        "text": "Originally, croissants and pains au chocolat were made from a brioche base but later evolved to incorporate a buttery flaky dough (\"p\u00e2te feuillet\u00e9e\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kifli",
        "text": "The kifli likely inspired the similarly shaped French croissant, which is made from a laminated pastry dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cronut",
        "text": "In 2013, bakery owner Dominique Ansel created the pastry out of dough similar to that of a croissant (a pastry that he had been more familiar with) with flavored cream inside."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dough",
        "text": "Dough\n--Types of dough.\n--Techniques.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Spe\u0137rau\u0161i",
        "text": "The day of baking, the cook makes the dough. This is a fairly standard white bread dough, with a varying amount of fat in it, depending on the particular family's recipe. Allowing the dough to proof and rise takes several hours, during which time the meat from the previous day is sauteed over a very low flame for a few minutes to ensure that the flavours in the filling meld a bit. When the dough has finished rising for bread bacon patties, or the dough has chilled for bullion bacon patties, the cook usually uses one of two methods to make the individual \"bacon patties\":\n# The cook takes a few cups of dough and rolls out the whole lump using a rolling pin, or just the edge of the lump using a glass. The cook takes a tablespoon of filling and places it on the dough about 3 centimetres (about 1.5\u00a0inches) from one of the edges. The cook folds the edge of the dough over the filling, puts a glass over the dough and filling pile and cuts through both layers of dough on one side with the glass so that a half-moon-shaped pastry is created. The pressure from the glass cutting through the dough pinches the two dough layers together on the one open side. The pastry is re-shaped slightly to form an oblong or crescent shape.\n#The cook takes a walnut-sized lump of dough and flattens it with a rolling pin or with fingers into a round dough disk. The cook then places a tablespoon of filling into the middle of the dough disk and folds two sides together to make a half-moon shape, pinching the two sides together. The resulting edges are then folded under and re-shaped to make a more oblong or crescent shape."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dough",
        "text": "Techniques used in dough production depend on the type of dough and final product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cronut",
        "text": "The Cronut is a croissant-doughnut pastry. It resembles a doughnut and is made from croissant-like dough which is filled with flavored cream and fried in grapeseed oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Starch undergoes gelatinization as a result of baking. Prior to baking, starch granules absorb a small amount of water at room temperature as it is mixed with water to form predough. As long as the dough\u2019s temperature stays under the gelatinization temperature, this granule swelling is limited and reversible. However, once the baking process begins and the dough is exposed to temperatures above the gelatinization temperature, amylopectin crystallites become more disordered inside the starch granules and cause an irreversible destruction of molecular order. At the same time, starch gelatinization actively draws water from the gluten network, further decreasing the flexibility of the gluten. Currently, the extent of amylose leaching and granular structure distortion during the baking of croissants is still unknown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Water content affects the mechanical behavior of predough. As previously discussed, water is absorbed by gluten and starch granules to increase the viscosity of the dough. The temperature of the water is also important as it determines the temperature of the predough. In order to facilitate processing, cold water should be used for two main reasons. First, chilled water provides a desirable environment for gluten development, as the temperature at which mixing occurs impacts the dough\u2019s hydration time, consistency, and required amount of mixing energy. Secondly, cold water is comparable to the temperature of the roll-in fat to be added later, which better facilitates the latter\u2019s incorporation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crispbread",
        "text": "Another method is to knead the dough under pressure in an extruder. The sudden drop in pressure then causes water to evaporate, creating bubbles in the dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cruller",
        "text": "A French cruller is a fluted, ring-shaped doughnut made from choux pastry with a light airy texture. The German is very similar, while the Dutch and Belgian is baked instead of being fried."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The type of roll-in fat used is typically butter or margarine. Butter and margarine are both water-in-oil emulsions, composed of stabilized water droplets dispersed in oil. While butter is appealing due to its high consumer acceptance, its low melting point, 32\u00a0\u00b0C, actually makes it undesirable for production purposes. The use of butter as roll-in fat during the lamination step will cause problems of oiling out during sheeting and fermentation if the temperature is not tightly controlled, thus disrupting the integrity of the layers. On the other hand, kinds of margarine are commonly used as roll-in fat because they facilitate dough handling. Generally, roll-in margarine should have a melting point between 40\u00a0\u00b0C and 44\u00a0\u00b0C, at least 3\u00a0\u00b0C higher than the fermentation temperature to prevent oiling out prior to baking. It is also important to consider the plasticity and firmness of the roll-in fat, which is largely determined by its solid fat content. Generally, a greater proportion of solid fat coincides with larger croissant lift. At the same time, the roll-in fat should have plasticity comparable to that of the dough, such that the fat layers do not break during sheeting and folding. If the fat is firmer than the dough, then the dough can rupture. If the fat is softer than the dough, then it will succumb to the mechanical stress of sheeting and potentially migrate into the dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chopin alveograph",
        "text": "10. When the dough arrives at the level of the notches, cut the dough and flatten it with the rolling mill."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dough sheeting",
        "text": "Croissants and puff pastry were first products to have been produced with dough sheeting technology. Nowadays the bakery industry sees a trend that also includes the production of bread, flatbread and pizza products being produced with sheeting technology.\n* Massey University on Bread dough sheeting\n* Biscuit sheeting technology"
      },
      {
        "title": "Quetschentaart",
        "text": "In the Ketty Thull recipe, the dough for the shortcrust base consists of flour, butter and sugar (unusual for French-style shortcrust, but to balance the sourness, which is key) only. The base is placed in a tart-baking dish, and covered with halved plums (no stones) arranged in overlapping circles. It is baked at - for 45-40 minutes or until ready."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain au chocolat",
        "text": "Pain au chocolat is made of the same layered doughs as a croissant. Often sold still hot or warm from the oven, they are commonly sold alongside croissants in French bakeries and supermarkets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The final steps are the cooling and storage of the croissant. Croissants are generally not stored for very long and are typically consumed soon after baking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rugelach",
        "text": "Traditional rugelach are made in the form of a crescent by rolling a triangle of dough around a filling. Some sources state that the rugelach and the French croissant share a common Viennese ancestor, crescent-shaped pastries commemorating the lifting of the Turkish siege, possibly a reference to the Battle of Vienna in 1683. This appears to be an urban legend however, as both the rugelach and its supposed ancestor, the Kipferl, pre-date the Early Modern era, while the croissant in its modern form did not originate earlier than the 19th century (see viennoiserie). This leads many to believe that the croissant is simply a descendant of one of these two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Starch also affects the viscosity of predough. At room temperature and in a sufficient amount of water, intact starch granules can absorb water up to 50% of their own dry weight, causing them to swell to a limited extent. The slightly swollen granules are found in the spaces between the gluten network, thus contributing to the consistency of the dough. The granules may not be intact, as the process of milling wheat into flour damages some of the starch granules. Given that damaged starch granules have the capacity to absorb around three times as much water as undamaged starch, the use of flour with higher levels of damaged starch requires the addition of more water to achieve optimal dough development and consistency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Water migration influences the quality of stored croissants through two mechanisms. First, as previously stated, water redistributes from gluten to starch as a result of starch retrogradation. Secondly, during the baking process, a moisture gradient was introduced as a result of heat transfer from the oven to the croissant. In fresh croissants, there is high moisture content on the inside and low moisture content on the outside. During storage, this moisture gradient induces water migration from the inside to the outer crust. On a molecular level, water is lost from the amorphous starch fraction and gluten network. At the same time, water diffuses from the outer crust to the environment, which has less moisture. The result of this redistribution of water is a firming up of the croissant, caused by a decrease in starch plasticity and an increase in gluten network rigidity. Due to the presence of large pores in croissants, moisture is lost to the environment at a faster rate than bread products. As such, croissants generally become harder in texture at a faster rate than breads."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hujiao bing",
        "text": "The outer dough shell is prepared with flour, water, and a leavening agent such as yeast or baking powder. Lard, butter or oil is sometime added to the dough to make the bun extra crunchy and flaky like a croissant when cooked. The outer shell dough is then individually rolled to a thin circular shape, similar to a dumpling wrapping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zimtstern",
        "text": "According to old cookbooks, the egg white is whipped to loosen it and lifted under the dough. The egg white and sugar (meringue) glaze is also whipped. This procedure is no longer in widespread use today."
      },
      {
        "title": "P\u00e3o de queijo",
        "text": "contributing to the elastic texture of the dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kifli",
        "text": "Traditionally, kifli are made by cutting sheets of soft yeast dough into triangular wedges, rolling them into crescent shapes and baking them. Unlike the French croissant (crescent), Kifli is made from a plain, bread-like dough and is more akin to a roll than to pastry. Kifli is also thinner and longer than the croissant. Kifli are made in various sizes; some of them weigh as much as small bread loaf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain au chocolat",
        "text": "Legend has it that Marie-Antoinette introduced the croissant to France, but croissants and pains au chocolat are a relatively modern invention. The word croissant, which refers to a plain form of pain au chocolat shaped like a half-moon or \"crescent\", made its entry in the French dictionary in 1863. The type of pastry, called \"viennoiserie\" in French, was introduced in the early 19th century, when August Zang, an Austrian officer, and Ernest Schwarzer, an Austrian aristocrat, founded a Viennese bakery in Paris located at 92, rue de Richelieu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain de campagne",
        "text": "Today pain de campagne is still made in France, and is enjoying a growing appreciation in the United States and the UK. When made traditionally, the dough is allowed to ferment for several hours, allowing the yeasts to grow and develop the flavors. The dough is then rounded and placed in linen-lined baskets called \"bannetons\". After the dough has risen, it is dumped out of the basket and onto peel, and slid into the oven where it bakes at around 240\u00a0\u00b0C (450\u00a0\u00b0F) for about one hour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Alan Davidson, editor of the \"Oxford Companion to Food\", found no printed recipe for the present-day croissant in any French recipe book before the early 20th century; the earliest French reference to a croissant he found was among the \"fantasy or luxury breads\" in Payen's \"Des substances alimentaires\", 1853. However, early recipes for non-laminated croissants can be found in the 19th century and at least one reference to croissants as an established French bread appeared as early as 1850."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chopin alveograph",
        "text": "9. Remove the first centimeter of the emerging dough"
      },
      {
        "title": "Palmier",
        "text": "Palmiers are made from puff pastry, a laminated dough similar to the dough used for croissant, but without yeast. The puff pastry is rolled out, coated with sugar, and then the two sides are rolled up together so that they meet in the middle, making a roll that is then cut into about slices and baked. Usually it is rolled in sugar before baking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain aux raisins",
        "text": "In France, it is typically a variant of the croissant or \"pain au chocolat\", made with a leavened butter pastry with raisins added and shaped in a spiral with a \"cr\u00e8me p\u00e2tissi\u00e8re\" filling. However, in many areas of Northern Europe and North America, it is generally made with sweetened bread dough or brioche dough, rather than pastry. It is often consumed for breakfast as part of a continental breakfast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "A remote similarity of the croissant shape is the Turkish \"ay \u00e7\u00f6re\u011fi\". It is filled with cinnamon, walnut, hazelnut, cacao and raisin. Its rectangular shape variant is known as \"pasti\u00e7\" or \"\u0130zmir \u00e7\u00f6re\u011fi\". It is generally eaten during breakfast or with tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roland Dor\u00e9 (sculptor)",
        "text": "The photograph below shows how the \"gisants\" are positioned in the cloister. Dor\u00e9 also executed two \"gisant\" for the Br\u00e9hant family which are in the cathedral."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kreplach",
        "text": "Some cooks use a square of dough that is filled and folded into triangles. Others use rounds of dough resulting in a crescent shape, or two squares of dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "G\u00e2teau Basque",
        "text": "The type of dough used may vary a little. If butter is warmed before mixing with flour the dough will be called \"p\u00e2te sucr\u00e9e\". If it is cold the mixing process will require more work and the dough is called \"p\u00e2te sabl\u00e9e\" (it is crumblier). The resulting textures are a little different but mostly for the initiated taster. The flour used is a soft wheat flour with little mineral content (that is, a refined flour, common pastry/cake flour) The proportion of sugar used also varies. But the principle of this cake is having a soft shortbread-type dough 3 to 6\u00a0mm thick filled with an almond pastry cream, also called frangipane, and with a shiny egg-coating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pashti",
        "text": "The dough is then rolled out with rolling pins, and circles are cut out by pressing a plate or jar top onto the dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cruffin",
        "text": "A cruffin is a hybrid of a croissant and a muffin. The pastry is made by proofing (also called proving) and baking laminated dough in a muffin mould. The cruffin is then filled with a variety of creams, jams, cr\u00e8me p\u00e2tissi\u00e8res or curds, and then garnished."
      },
      {
        "title": "Himbasha",
        "text": "The dough is given a decorative touch before baking. The design varies in detail, but in general, is given the shape of a wheel with indentations to create several spokes (see picture)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The birth of the croissant itself\u2014that is, its adaptation from the plainer form of kipferl, before the invention of viennoiseries\u2014can be dated to at least 1839 (some say 1838) when an Austrian artillery officer, August Zang, founded a Viennese bakery (\"Boulangerie Viennoise\") at 92, rue de Richelieu in Paris. This bakery, which served Viennese specialties including the kipferl and the Vienna loaf, quickly became popular and inspired French imitators (and the concept, if not the term, of \"viennoiserie\", a 20th-century term for supposedly Vienna-style pastries). The French version of the kipferl was named for its crescent (\"croissant\") shape and has become a universally identifiable shape across the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dominique Ansel",
        "text": "Dominique Ansel (born 1978) is a French pastry chef and owner of Dominique Ansel Bakery in New York City. He is best known for his invention of the Cronut, a croissant-donut hybrid that became a phenomenon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chin chin",
        "text": "The dough is usually kneaded and cut into small one-inch (or so) squares, about a quarter of an inch thick, before frying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Croissant\n--Origin and history.\n----Culinary legends.\n--Variants.\n----Argentina and Uruguay.\n----Italy.\n----Poland.\n----Portugal.\n----Spain.\n----Turkey.\n--Overview of manufacturing.\n--Ingredient functionality during processing.\n----Predough.\n----Lamination.\n----Fermentation.\n----Baking.\n----Storage.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dough",
        "text": "Making and shaping dough begins the preparation of a wide variety of foodstuffs, particularly breads and bread-based items, but also including biscuits, cakes, cookies, dumplings, flatbreads, noodles, pasta, pastry, pizza, piecrusts, and similar items. Dough can be made from a wide variety of flour, commonly wheat and rye but also maize, rice, legumes, almonds, and other cereals or crops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brioche",
        "text": "\"Brioche \u00e0 t\u00eate\" or \"parisienne\" is perhaps the most classically recognized form: it is formed and baked in a fluted round, flared tin; a large ball of dough is placed on the bottom and topped with a smaller ball of dough to form the head (\"t\u00eate\"). \"Brioche de Nanterre\" is a loaf of brioche made in a standard loaf pan. Instead of shaping two pieces of dough and baking them together, two rows of small pieces of dough are placed in the pan. Loaves are then proofed (allowed to rise) in the pan, fusing the pieces together. During the baking process the balls of dough rise further and form an attractive pattern."
      },
      {
        "title": "Filo",
        "text": "When using filo to make pastries, the thin layers are made by first rolling out the sheets of dough to the final thickness, then brushing them with oil, or melted butter for some desserts, and stacking them. This contrasts with puff pastry and croissant doughs, where the layers are stacked into a thick layer of dough, then folded and rolled out multiple times to produce a laminated dough containing thin layers of dough and fat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chopin alveograph",
        "text": "16. Center the dough, place the two covers, tighten the lock screw and remove the two covers"
      },
      {
        "title": "Brioche",
        "text": "The normal method of preparation is to make the dough, let it rise to double its volume at room temperature and then punch it down and let it rise again in the refrigerator for varying periods (according to the recipe), retarding the dough to develop the flavor. Refrigeration also stiffens the dough, which still rises, albeit slowly, making it easier to form. The dough is then shaped, placed in containers for the final proofing, and generally brushed on top with an egg wash before being baked at until the crust browns and the interior reaches at least . The first rise time for small rolls is 1 to 1\u00bd hours, for larger brioche the time is lengthened until the loaves double."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chopin alveograph",
        "text": "13. At the last dough, press the red button first and the arrow"
      },
      {
        "title": "The American Baking Competition",
        "text": "For the signature bake, the bakers had three hours to make a free-form loaf of bread. The bread had to be yeast bread, and hand shaped. In the technical bake, the bakers were given one hour and 45 minutes to make eight large soft pretzels using Paul's recipe. Immediately following the technical challenge, the bakers went on to make the showstopper, which was two types of croissants, one plain and one filled. They were given two hours the first day, allowed the dough to rise overnight in the fridge, and then three hours the next day to finish the bake."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dough (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Dough (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Marquesote",
        "text": "For the preparation of Marquesote, it is important to make the dough mixture correctly. First, the egg whites are beaten, afterwards adding the yolks, sugar, baking powder, and cold melted butter until there is a homogenous mixture free of lumps. When the initial volume of the mixture doubles, mostly rectangular molds are filled. These molds have previously been greased and are covered with a brown paper surface."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chopin alveograph",
        "text": "11. Re-oil the tray between every dough pieces"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tortelli cremaschi",
        "text": "To prepare the dough, one adds all the flour to lightly salted hot water and kneads until an elastic ball is formed; at the end of the kneading the colour should be a light grey. If desired one could use a pasta maker adding only one egg for each kilo of flour, and a spoonful of oil to give more elasticity to the mixture. Any recipe that uses more than one egg per kilo of flour is not considered traditional and does not work well.\n* Amaretto biscuits crumbed (the \"Gallina\" brand is the only one favored by the \"cremaschi\")\n* Breadcrumbs, but only for drying an excessively moist filling.\n* Candied citrus peel\n* Nutmeg\n* Mostaccino, spicy biscuit, typical of Crema\n* Egg yolks\n* Salt\n* Grated Grana Padano cheese\n* Grated lemon skin\n* Marsala\n* Mint candies (no more than four for each kilo of flour)\n* Raisin, soaked to soften"
      },
      {
        "title": "Petrissage",
        "text": "It is also a term used in French professional bread baking describing a particular stage during dough development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Casatiello",
        "text": "The dough is worked into the shape of a doughnut, placed in a mould and left to rise for a long time, at least 12 hours; if made with quick leaven, about two hours are enough. The bread is then baked, traditionally in a wood-fired oven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Krotekake",
        "text": "A handful of dough approximately 1.5\u00a0inches (3.8\u00a0cm) in diameter is pulled from the whole. This is formed by turning the edges of the dough-ball down and tucking them into the middle of the bottom of the ball. If the ball feels sticky, the maker adds a dusting of flour. A ball is formed which has been pulled smooth on top and has a dimple on the bottom. The ball is then placed on the floured surface\u00a0\u2013 dimple down. The biscuit maker should have one or two of these finished balls ready so that they have a minute or two to rest before they are rolled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dough",
        "text": "Dough is a thick, malleable, sometimes elastic paste made from grains or from leguminous or chestnut crops. Dough is typically made by mixing flour with a small amount of water or other liquid and sometimes includes yeast or other leavening agents, as well as ingredients such as fats or flavorings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cronut",
        "text": "Dominique Ansel released an at-home Cronut recipe in his cookbook, \"Dominique Ansel: The Secret Recipes\", in 2015, for bakers to attempt in their own homes. Like the original pastry made at Ansel's bakeries, the process also takes three days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The kipferl, the origin of croissant, can be dated back to at least the 13th century in Austria, and came in various shapes. The kipferl can be made plain or with nuts or other fillings (some consider the rugelach a form of kipferl)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shortcrust pastry",
        "text": "Shortcrust pastry\n--Techniques.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Battle of Vienna",
        "text": "One legend is that the \"croissant\" was invented in Vienna, either in 1683 or during the earlier siege in 1529, to celebrate the defeat of the Ottoman attack on the city, with the shape referring to the crescents on the Ottoman flags. This version of the origin of the croissant is supported by the fact that croissants in France are a variant of \"Viennoiserie\", and by the French popular belief that Vienna-born Marie Antoinette introduced the pastry to France in 1770."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kifli",
        "text": "It is a common type of bread roll throughout much of central Europe and nearby countries, where it is called by different names. It is thought to be the inspiration for the French croissant, which has a very similar shape but is made with a different type of dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread",
        "text": "Methods of processing dough into bread include the straight dough process, the sourdough process, the Chorleywood bread process and the sponge and dough process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barazek",
        "text": "The following recipe does not include milk but does include egg yolk. With your hands, mix 250 g of flour with 150 g of butter (cold) sliced into pieces. It is crumbled until it is a sandy texture and then the icing sugar, the yolks of two eggs and the vanilla extract are added. The dough is compacted, wrapped in film and left to rest in the fridge. This dough is very similar to French shortbread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles Desvergnes",
        "text": "Desvergnes was born in Bellegarde in Loiret, the son of a working-class family; his father was a baker. At his father's bakery, Desvergnes often used the dough to make models and his prowess came to the attention of the local Lord of the Manor, Charles Galopin, who introduced the young Desvergnes to the Paris sculptor Chapu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Torpedo dessert",
        "text": "A torpedo dessert (, , , , ) is a buttery, flaky viennoiserie bread roll, filled with pastry cream, named for its well-known torpedo shape. Croissants and other viennoiserie are made of a layered yeast-leavened dough. The dough is layered with butter, rolled and folded several times in succession, then rolled into a sheet, in a technique called laminating. The process results in a layered, flaky texture, similar to a puff pastry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "The Croissant\u2019s territory is shaped like a tapered crescent, joining the Tardoire valley in Charente to the west, to Monts de la Madeleine in Allier to the east. The crescent is very narrow between its westernmost point and Le Dorat (between 10 and 15\u00a0km wide), and widens towards the east: between 30\u00a0km (at Gu\u00e9ret) and 45\u00a0km (at Culan)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sponge and dough",
        "text": "The sponge and dough method is a two-step bread making process: in the first step a \"sponge\" is made and allowed to ferment for a period of time, and in the second step the \"sponge\" is added to the \"final dough's\" ingredients, creating the \"total formula\". In this usage, synonyms for \"sponge\" are \"yeast starter\" or \"yeast pre-ferment\". In French baking the \"sponge and dough\" method is known as \"levain-levure\". The method is reminiscent of the sourdough or \"levain\" methods; however, the sponge is made from all fresh ingredients prior to being used in the final dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kneading",
        "text": "Similar to kneading is knocking back or punching down, which is done to the dough after proving. The dough is punched once or twice, after which it is kneaded gently for a short time. The aim of this is to remove any large gas pockets which have formed in the dough, create an even texture in the bread, and redistribute the nutrients for the yeast, thus allowing fermentation to continue. The dough can then be proofed a second time. Another method of knocking back (also known as \"folding\") is to gently stretch and pat out the proved dough before folding the sides in towards the centre."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shortcrust pastry",
        "text": "Shortcrust pastry recipes usually call for twice as much flour as fat by weight. Fat (lard, shortening, butter or full-fat margarine) is rubbed into plain flour to create a loose mixture that is then bound using a small amount of ice water, rolled out, then shaped and placed to create the top or bottom of a pie. Often, equal amounts of butter and lard are used to make the pastry, ensuring that the combined weight of the two fat products is still half that of the flour. The butter is employed to give the pastry a rich flavor, while the lard ensures optimum texture.\n*\"P\u00e2te \u00e0 foncer\" is French shortcrust pastry that includes egg. Egg and butter are worked together with a small quantity of sugar and salt before the flour is drawn into the mixture and cold water added to bind it.\n*\"P\u00e2te bris\u00e9e\" is similar to p\u00e2te \u00e0 foncer, but is lighter and more delicate due to an increased quantity of butter \u2014 up to three-fifths the quantity of flour. Very often is made with no sugar, as a savoury crust for pies.\n*\"P\u00e2te sucr\u00e9e\" (sweetcrust pastry, sweet dough, or sweet paste) is made with more sugar, which sweetens the mix and impedes the gluten strands, creating a pastry that breaks up easily in the mouth. An alternative is gluten-free pastry.\n*\"P\u00e2te sabl\u00e9e\" has the same ingredients as \"p\u00e2te sucr\u00e9e\", but the butter is creamed with the sugar and the eggs before the flour is folded in. This mixes the butter more evenly, which makes the dough puff much less, creating a more \"snappy\" and dry pastry, instead of the crumbly texture of the previous doughs. \"Sabl\u00e9e\" works better for sweet tarts, tea biscuits, and piped shapes than other short doughs, as they hold their shape much more efficiently, and are the basis for gingerbread and sandwich biscuits. No water is needed, neither is the dough particularly temperature-sensitive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cruller",
        "text": "In 2003, the Dunkin' Donuts chain of doughnut shops stopped carrying traditional crullers, claiming that the hand-shaped rectangular treats were too labor-intensive, and couldn't be simulated with new machines for mixing doughnut batter. The company still sells \"French crullers\" which can be formed by a kind of extruding nozzle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Banitsa",
        "text": "An alternative method of preparation is taking each sheet of dough, laying it out flat, and sprinkling some of the fillings on it. Then, the sheet is rolled up into a tight roll with the filling on the inside of the roll. The long roll is then taken and rolled up in a circle. This first sheet of dough is then placed in the baking pan. The process is repeated with the remaining sheets of dough and each consecutive roll is placed around the first one in the pan. The resulting shape resembles a spiral (see photo). The banitsa is then sprinkled with sunflower oil or melted butter and baked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dough",
        "text": "For yeast-based and sponge (such as sourdough) breads, a common production technique is the dough is mixed, kneaded, and then left to rise. Many bread doughs call for a second stage, where the dough is kneaded again, shaped into the final form, and left to rise a final time (or proofed) before baking. Kneading is the process of working a dough to produce a smooth, elastic dough by developing gluten. This process is both temperature and time-dependent; temperatures that are either too hot or too cold will cause the yeast to not develop, and rising times that are either too short or too long will affect the final product."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The above mentioned Alan Davidson proposed that the Islamic origin story originated with 20th-century writer Alfred Gottschalk, who gave two versions, one in the \"Larousse Gastronomique\" and the other in his \"History of Food and Gastronomy\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lamian",
        "text": "This dough is then pulled to about an arm span's length. The puller then makes a loop with the dough, joining the two ends into one clump of dough and inserts his fingers into the loop to keep the strand from sticking to itself. Doing this, the pull has doubled the length of the dough while fractioning its thickness. This process is repeated several times until the desired thickness and quantity is achieved. Some pullers dip the strands into flour between stretching phases to keep them separated. When flour is used, there generally is a final slap of noodles against the prep board to remove excess flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Straight dough",
        "text": "Straight dough is a single-mix process of making bread. The dough is made from all fresh ingredients, and they are all placed together and combined in one kneading or mixing session. After mixing, a bulk fermentation rest of about 1 hour or longer occurs before division. It is also called the direct dough method."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Croissants are a common part of a continental breakfast in many European countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chopin alveograph",
        "text": "The Chopin alveograph is composed of two inseparable elements:\n* a kneading-machine equipped of an extraction passage which enables the development of the dough and the extraction of it for the preparation of the dough pieces in order to realise the alveographic test.\n* the alveograph in itself which measures the three-dimensional extension of the piece of dough, which is deformed like a bubble. That extension mode reproduces the deformation of the dough under the influence of the pushing of gas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Petit p\u00e2t\u00e9 de P\u00e9zenas",
        "text": "Method:\n#Mince the mutton, fat, sugar, lemon peel, salt and pepper.\n#Mix together the lard, flour, a pinch of salt and a little water.\n#Knead to a smooth dough, roll out and make small cylindrical pots.\n#Fill with the stuffing.\n#Leave to rest for 24 hours.\n#Cook in a hot oven for 35\u201340 minutes.\n#Serve warm."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's croissant",
        "text": "In Pozna\u0144, the tradition of baking 'rogal \u015bwi\u0119tomarci\u0144ski' on 11 November certainly existed in 1860, when the oldest known advertisement for the 'rogal \u015bwi\u0119tomarci\u0144ski' was published in Dziennik Pozna\u0144ski."
      },
      {
        "title": "Proofing (baking technique)",
        "text": "Alternatively, a \"couche\" (pronounced \"koosh\"), bakery couche, or proofing cloth, can be used on which to proof dough. They are used for longer loaves, such as baguettes. Couches are typically made of linen. Flour collects in the weave creating a less-sticky surface. The couche is dusted lightly with flour, then shaped doughs are laid on top of it and folds are placed to separate and support them while proofing."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the technique in making the dough for croissants?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Typically, croissant predough is mixed in a relatively cool environment; flour, water, in-dough fat, yeast, salt, and sugar are mixed together in a single step. The second step is the lamination process, after lamination, the dough is formed into its famous crescent shape, followed by the baking process.",
      "The dough of the croissant is layered with butter, rolled and folded several times in succession, then rolled into a thin sheet, in a technique called laminating."
    ],
    "topic": "Croissant",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Croissant:22",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Croissant",
          "Overview of manufacturing"
        ],
        "ctx": "The first step of manufacturing croissants is the \"predough\" formation. To prepare predough, flour, water, in-dough fat, yeast, salt, and sugar are mixed together in a single step. Typically, croissant predough is mixed in a relatively cool environment, for a longer time than other pastries. The ideal temperature of the dough should be around 19\u00a0\u00b0C, to best hydrate the ingredients. In comparison to the mixing of bread dough ingredients, pastry predough is considered underdeveloped in that mixing is stopped as soon as the dough appears homogeneous, to allow for further dough development in the next step."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Croissant:23",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Croissant",
          "Overview of manufacturing"
        ],
        "ctx": "The second step is the lamination process. Lamination is necessary to produce multilayered dough with alternating layers of predough and fat. Generally, there are two methods for folding fat into the dough: the English method and the French method. In the English method, one fold results in two fat layers and three dough layers. After spreading out predough, roll-in fat is flattened to a similar thickness as the predough and spread over two-thirds of the surface of the laminated predough. The exposed third of predough is then folded over half of the roll-in fat, while the other end (one predough and one fat layer) is folded on top. In the French method, one fold results in one fat layer and two dough layers. After spreading out the predough and putting a layer of roll-in fat over the center surface of the dough, the corners of the predough are folded toward the middle of the fat. Croissant dough is typically laminated until 16\u201350 fat layers are obtained. The optimal number of layers can be determined by balancing certain crumb properties with specific volume. On one hand, a low number of layers yields large specific heights as well as irregular crumb structure with large voids. On the other hand, a large number of relatively thin layers leads to interconnections between different dough layers as well as less dough lift."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Croissant:24",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Croissant",
          "Overview of manufacturing"
        ],
        "ctx": "After lamination, the dough is formed into its famous crescent shape. First, the laminated dough is cut into triangles of the desired size. The triangles are then rolled with three-and-a-half to four full turns, and finally, the ends of the roll are curved inwards to form a crescent."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Croissant:26",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Croissant",
          "Overview of manufacturing"
        ],
        "ctx": "The fourth step is the baking process. Also known as \"pastry lift\" or \"dough lift\", the dough expands as water is converted to steam, thus increasing the pressure between each dough layer. As a result, the croissant dough rises up to yield its characteristic flaky texture. Depending on the type of oven used and specific size of the croissant, the baking time can range from 10 to 20 minutes and the oven temperature can be set anywhere from 165\u00a0\u00b0C to 205\u00a0\u00b0C."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Croissant:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Croissant"
        ],
        "ctx": "A croissant (, , ) is a buttery, flaky, viennoiserie pastry of Austrian origin, but mostly associated with France. Croissants are named for their historical crescent shape and, like other viennoiseries, are made of a layered yeast-leavened dough. The dough is layered with butter, rolled and folded several times in succession, then rolled into a thin sheet, in a technique called laminating. The process results in a layered, flaky texture, similar to a puff pastry."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The final steps are the cooling and storage of the croissant. Croissants are generally not stored for very long and are typically consumed soon after baking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Fat also affects the quality of croissants in storage. On one hand, an increased amount of in-dough fat has been found to correspond to a reduction in crumb hardness immediately after baking. This is likely attributed to the high-fat content of croissants, as increased fat levels decrease moisture diffusion. On the other hand, although roll-in fat softens the croissant\u2019s initial crumb, its effect on croissant hardness during storage is still unclear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The second step is the lamination process. Lamination is necessary to produce multilayered dough with alternating layers of predough and fat. Generally, there are two methods for folding fat into the dough: the English method and the French method. In the English method, one fold results in two fat layers and three dough layers. After spreading out predough, roll-in fat is flattened to a similar thickness as the predough and spread over two-thirds of the surface of the laminated predough. The exposed third of predough is then folded over half of the roll-in fat, while the other end (one predough and one fat layer) is folded on top. In the French method, one fold results in one fat layer and two dough layers. After spreading out the predough and putting a layer of roll-in fat over the center surface of the dough, the corners of the predough are folded toward the middle of the fat. Croissant dough is typically laminated until 16\u201350 fat layers are obtained. The optimal number of layers can be determined by balancing certain crumb properties with specific volume. On one hand, a low number of layers yields large specific heights as well as irregular crumb structure with large voids. On the other hand, a large number of relatively thin layers leads to interconnections between different dough layers as well as less dough lift."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "After lamination, the dough is formed into its famous crescent shape. First, the laminated dough is cut into triangles of the desired size. The triangles are then rolled with three-and-a-half to four full turns, and finally, the ends of the roll are curved inwards to form a crescent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The first step of manufacturing croissants is the \"predough\" formation. To prepare predough, flour, water, in-dough fat, yeast, salt, and sugar are mixed together in a single step. Typically, croissant predough is mixed in a relatively cool environment, for a longer time than other pastries. The ideal temperature of the dough should be around 19\u00a0\u00b0C, to best hydrate the ingredients. In comparison to the mixing of bread dough ingredients, pastry predough is considered underdeveloped in that mixing is stopped as soon as the dough appears homogeneous, to allow for further dough development in the next step."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Uncooked croissant dough can also be wrapped around any praline, almond paste, or chocolate before it is baked (in the last case, it becomes like \"pain au chocolat\", which has a different, non-crescent, shape), or sliced to include sweet or savoury fillings. It may be flavored with dried fruit such as sultanas or raisins, or other fruits such as apples. In France and Spain, croissants are generally sold without filling and eaten without added butter, but sometimes with almond filling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "During baking, the transient gluten network turns into a permanent network. At higher temperatures, intermolecular disulfide bonds form between glutenin molecules, as well as between gliadin and glutenin. With more bonds being made, the gluten network becomes more rigid, strengthening the croissant\u2019s crumb texture. Additionally, the baking process significantly stretches the dough layers due to the large macroscopic deformation that occurred during fermentation\u2019s dough lift."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Croissants contain yeast, \"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\", which is incorporated during predough formation. When oxygen is abundant, the yeast breaks down sugar into carbon dioxide and water through the process of respiration. This process releases energy that is used by the yeast for growth. After consuming all of the oxygen, the yeast switches to anaerobic fermentation. At this point, the yeast partially breaks down sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide. Once CO2 saturates the dough\u2019s aqueous phase, the gas begins to leaven the dough by diffusing to preexisting gas cells that were incorporated into the predough during mixing. Yeast action does not produce new gas cells, as the immense pressure required for a single CO2 molecule to create a new gas bubble is not physically attainable"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "In laminated croissant dough, the gluten network is not continuous. Instead, the gluten proteins are separated as thin gluten films between dough layers. The formation of thin, well-defined layers affects the height of dough lift. Generally, laminated croissant dough contains fewer layers than other puff pastry doughs that do not contain yeast, due to the presence of small bubbles in the gluten sheets. Upon proofing, these bubbles expand and destroy the integrity of the dough layers. The resulting interconnections between different dough layers would over-increase dough strength and allow water vapor to escape through micropores during baking, consequently decreasing dough lift. The role of fat also influences the separation of layers, as will be discussed next."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "In order to ensure the flaky texture of the croissant, it is important to balance the yeast activity with steam production. If the yeast overproduces CO2, then the well-defined layers may collapse. During the baking process, this would cause steam to escape too early from the bread, reducing dough lift and flakiness of the final product. Thus, to offset the negative effects of yeast on layer integrity and dough lift, croissants usually contain fewer layers than other puff pastries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "A croissant (, , ) is a buttery, flaky, viennoiserie pastry of Austrian origin, but mostly associated with France. Croissants are named for their historical crescent shape and, like other viennoiseries, are made of a layered yeast-leavened dough. The dough is layered with butter, rolled and folded several times in succession, then rolled into a thin sheet, in a technique called laminating. The process results in a layered, flaky texture, similar to a puff pastry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Water migration influences the quality of stored croissants through two mechanisms. First, as previously stated, water redistributes from gluten to starch as a result of starch retrogradation. Secondly, during the baking process, a moisture gradient was introduced as a result of heat transfer from the oven to the croissant. In fresh croissants, there is high moisture content on the inside and low moisture content on the outside. During storage, this moisture gradient induces water migration from the inside to the outer crust. On a molecular level, water is lost from the amorphous starch fraction and gluten network. At the same time, water diffuses from the outer crust to the environment, which has less moisture. The result of this redistribution of water is a firming up of the croissant, caused by a decrease in starch plasticity and an increase in gluten network rigidity. Due to the presence of large pores in croissants, moisture is lost to the environment at a faster rate than bread products. As such, croissants generally become harder in texture at a faster rate than breads."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The effect of gluten proteins during cooling and storage is still unclear. It is possible that gluten proteins influence croissant firming through the loss of plasticizing water, which increases the stiffness of the gluten network."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The third step is the fermentation process. Croissants are different from other puff pastries in that they include yeast, which, during proofing, increases the dough volume. Ideally, the optimum croissant quality is achieved at a yeast level of 7.5%, with a proof time of 60 minutes at 31\u00a0\u00b0C. The croissants are finished proofing when the dough has expanded two-and-a-half times its original volume."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "In-dough fat affects the texture and lift of predough. Although higher levels of dough fat may lower dough lift during baking, it also correlates with a softer end product. As such, the main function of in-dough fat is to produce a desirable softness in the final croissant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Water is converted to steam during the baking process, which is the main factor behind the leavening of the dough. The water for steam production comes from both the dough layers and the roll-in fat. As the fat melts, the continuous oil phase is no longer able to stabilize the water droplets, which are then released and converted to steam. Although the exact mechanism of steam entrapment is still unclear, it is likely a result of both steam expanding inside each dough layer and steam migrating to oil layers, where it inflates gas bubbles. The steam migration to oil phase is likely due to the smaller pressure differential required to inflate a bubble of steam in liquid fat than in solid dough. As the concentration of steam increases between dough layers, the increased pressure causes the dough to lift. It is important to note that during the entire baking process, only half of the water vapor contributes to dough lift, as the other half is lost through micropores and capillaries of interconnected dough layers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Roll-in fat affects the flakiness and flavor of the croissant. In laminated dough, fat layers alternate with dough layers. As such, the most important function of roll-in fat is to form and maintain a barrier between the different dough layers during sheeting and folding. As previously stated, the ability for fat to maintain separation between folded dough layers ensures proper dough lift."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The fourth step is the baking process. Also known as \"pastry lift\" or \"dough lift\", the dough expands as water is converted to steam, thus increasing the pressure between each dough layer. As a result, the croissant dough rises up to yield its characteristic flaky texture. Depending on the type of oven used and specific size of the croissant, the baking time can range from 10 to 20 minutes and the oven temperature can be set anywhere from 165\u00a0\u00b0C to 205\u00a0\u00b0C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Roll-in fat gradually melts as the temperature in the oven increases. Some of the melting fat can migrate into the dough, which could then interfere with gluten protein crosslinking. The fat phase also contributes to dough lift through gas inflation, which will be described next."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Starch plays a major role in the degradation of croissants during storage. Amylopectin retrogradation occurs over several days to weeks, as amorphous amylopectin chains are realigned into a more crystalline structure. The transformation of the starch causes undesirable firmness in the croissant. Additionally, the formation of the crystal structure of amylopectin requires the incorporation of water. Starch retrogradation actively draws water from the amorphous gluten network and some of the amorphous starch fraction, which reduces the plasticity of both."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Starch also affects the viscosity of predough. At room temperature and in a sufficient amount of water, intact starch granules can absorb water up to 50% of their own dry weight, causing them to swell to a limited extent. The slightly swollen granules are found in the spaces between the gluten network, thus contributing to the consistency of the dough. The granules may not be intact, as the process of milling wheat into flour damages some of the starch granules. Given that damaged starch granules have the capacity to absorb around three times as much water as undamaged starch, the use of flour with higher levels of damaged starch requires the addition of more water to achieve optimal dough development and consistency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Starch undergoes gelatinization as a result of baking. Prior to baking, starch granules absorb a small amount of water at room temperature as it is mixed with water to form predough. As long as the dough\u2019s temperature stays under the gelatinization temperature, this granule swelling is limited and reversible. However, once the baking process begins and the dough is exposed to temperatures above the gelatinization temperature, amylopectin crystallites become more disordered inside the starch granules and cause an irreversible destruction of molecular order. At the same time, starch gelatinization actively draws water from the gluten network, further decreasing the flexibility of the gluten. Currently, the extent of amylose leaching and granular structure distortion during the baking of croissants is still unknown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Croissant\n--Origin and history.\n----Culinary legends.\n--Variants.\n----Argentina and Uruguay.\n----Italy.\n----Poland.\n----Portugal.\n----Spain.\n----Turkey.\n--Overview of manufacturing.\n--Ingredient functionality during processing.\n----Predough.\n----Lamination.\n----Fermentation.\n----Baking.\n----Storage.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Gluten proteins affect the water absorption and viscoelastic properties of the predough. The role of proteins can be divided into two stages of dough formation: hydration and deformation. In the hydration stage, gluten proteins absorb water up to two times their own weight. In the deformation or kneading stage, the action of mixing causes the gluten to undergo a series of polymerization and depolymerization reactions, forming a viscoelastic network. Hydrated glutenin proteins in particular help form a polymeric protein network that makes the dough more cohesive. On the other hand, hydrated gliadin proteins do not directly form the network, but do act as plasticizers of the glutenin network, thus imparting fluidity to the dough\u2019s viscosity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Crescent-shaped breads have been made since the Renaissance, and crescent-shaped cakes possibly since antiquity. Croissants have long been a staple of Austrian, Italian, and French bakeries and p\u00e2tisseries. The modern croissant was developed in the early 20th century. In the late 1970s, the development of factory-made, frozen, preformed but unbaked dough made them into a fast food that could be freshly baked by unskilled labor. The croissant bakery, notably the \"La Croissanterie\" chain, was a French response to American-style fast food, and as of 2008, 30\u201340% of the croissants sold in French bakeries and patisseries were baked from frozen dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Water content affects the mechanical behavior of predough. As previously discussed, water is absorbed by gluten and starch granules to increase the viscosity of the dough. The temperature of the water is also important as it determines the temperature of the predough. In order to facilitate processing, cold water should be used for two main reasons. First, chilled water provides a desirable environment for gluten development, as the temperature at which mixing occurs impacts the dough\u2019s hydration time, consistency, and required amount of mixing energy. Secondly, cold water is comparable to the temperature of the roll-in fat to be added later, which better facilitates the latter\u2019s incorporation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "A remote similarity of the croissant shape is the Turkish \"ay \u00e7\u00f6re\u011fi\". It is filled with cinnamon, walnut, hazelnut, cacao and raisin. Its rectangular shape variant is known as \"pasti\u00e7\" or \"\u0130zmir \u00e7\u00f6re\u011fi\". It is generally eaten during breakfast or with tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caf\u00e9 du Croissant",
        "text": "Caf\u00e9 du Croissant\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Alan Davidson, editor of the \"Oxford Companion to Food\", found no printed recipe for the present-day croissant in any French recipe book before the early 20th century; the earliest French reference to a croissant he found was among the \"fantasy or luxury breads\" in Payen's \"Des substances alimentaires\", 1853. However, early recipes for non-laminated croissants can be found in the 19th century and at least one reference to croissants as an established French bread appeared as early as 1850."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "The Croissant\u2019s territory is shaped like a tapered crescent, joining the Tardoire valley in Charente to the west, to Monts de la Madeleine in Allier to the east. The crescent is very narrow between its westernmost point and Le Dorat (between 10 and 15\u00a0km wide), and widens towards the east: between 30\u00a0km (at Gu\u00e9ret) and 45\u00a0km (at Culan)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The puff pastry technique that now characterizes the croissant was already mentioned in the late 17th century, when La Varenne's \"Le Cuisinier fran\u00e7ois\" gave a recipe for it in the 1680 - and possibly earlier - edition. It was typically used not on its own but for shells holding other ingredients (as in a vol-au-vent). It does not appear to be mentioned in relation to the croissant until the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croquette",
        "text": "Croquettes are available frozen or refrigerated in most supermarkets, typically with potato filling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kifli",
        "text": "The kifli likely inspired the similarly shaped French croissant, which is made from a laminated pastry dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain au chocolat",
        "text": "Originally, croissants and pains au chocolat were made from a brioche base but later evolved to incorporate a buttery flaky dough (\"p\u00e2te feuillet\u00e9e\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The type of roll-in fat used is typically butter or margarine. Butter and margarine are both water-in-oil emulsions, composed of stabilized water droplets dispersed in oil. While butter is appealing due to its high consumer acceptance, its low melting point, 32\u00a0\u00b0C, actually makes it undesirable for production purposes. The use of butter as roll-in fat during the lamination step will cause problems of oiling out during sheeting and fermentation if the temperature is not tightly controlled, thus disrupting the integrity of the layers. On the other hand, kinds of margarine are commonly used as roll-in fat because they facilitate dough handling. Generally, roll-in margarine should have a melting point between 40\u00a0\u00b0C and 44\u00a0\u00b0C, at least 3\u00a0\u00b0C higher than the fermentation temperature to prevent oiling out prior to baking. It is also important to consider the plasticity and firmness of the roll-in fat, which is largely determined by its solid fat content. Generally, a greater proportion of solid fat coincides with larger croissant lift. At the same time, the roll-in fat should have plasticity comparable to that of the dough, such that the fat layers do not break during sheeting and folding. If the fat is firmer than the dough, then the dough can rupture. If the fat is softer than the dough, then it will succumb to the mechanical stress of sheeting and potentially migrate into the dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chocolats+Croisier",
        "text": "Chocolats+Croisier\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cronut",
        "text": "The Cronut is a croissant-doughnut pastry. It resembles a doughnut and is made from croissant-like dough which is filled with flavored cream and fried in grapeseed oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roland Dor\u00e9 (sculptor)",
        "text": "The photograph below shows how the \"gisants\" are positioned in the cloister. Dor\u00e9 also executed two \"gisant\" for the Br\u00e9hant family which are in the cathedral."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain au chocolat",
        "text": "Pain au chocolat is made of the same layered doughs as a croissant. Often sold still hot or warm from the oven, they are commonly sold alongside croissants in French bakeries and supermarkets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Butter Braid",
        "text": "The pastries are kept frozen until they are ready to be baked. The freezing process preserves the yeast. When set out to thaw, the pastry rises significantly. This causes the braided profile to expand the layers of dough to separate and become flaky when baked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cronut",
        "text": "In 2013, bakery owner Dominique Ansel created the pastry out of dough similar to that of a croissant (a pastry that he had been more familiar with) with flavored cream inside."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (magazine)",
        "text": "Croissant (magazine)\n--History and profile.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Francis Croissant",
        "text": "Francis Croissant\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croisilles",
        "text": "Croisilles\n--France.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's croissant",
        "text": "This tradition dates back to pagan times, when during the autumn feast the gods were offered sacrifices of oxen or, as a substitute, of dough rolled up in oxen horns. The Latin Church has taken over this custom and linked it to the figure of St Martin. The shape of the dough was interpreted as a reference to the horseshoe that the holy horse was to lose."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's croissant",
        "text": "St. Martin's croissant\n--History.\n--Ingredients.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croisilles",
        "text": "Croisilles may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Klaus Croissant",
        "text": "Klaus Croissant\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "In the United States, sweet fillings or toppings are sometimes used, and warm croissants may be filled with ham and cheese, or feta cheese and spinach. In the Levant, croissants are sold plain or filled with chocolate, cheese, almonds, or zaatar. In Germany, croissants are sometimes filled with Nutella or persipan; in southern Germany, there is also a popular variety of a croissant glazed with lye (\"Laugencroissant\"). In the German-speaking part of Switzerland, the croissant is typically called a \"Gipfeli\"; this usually has a crisper crust and is less buttery than the French-style croissant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rugelach",
        "text": "Traditional rugelach are made in the form of a crescent by rolling a triangle of dough around a filling. Some sources state that the rugelach and the French croissant share a common Viennese ancestor, crescent-shaped pastries commemorating the lifting of the Turkish siege, possibly a reference to the Battle of Vienna in 1683. This appears to be an urban legend however, as both the rugelach and its supposed ancestor, the Kipferl, pre-date the Early Modern era, while the croissant in its modern form did not originate earlier than the 19th century (see viennoiserie). This leads many to believe that the croissant is simply a descendant of one of these two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chocolats+Croisier",
        "text": "In 1950, Chocolats+Croisier closed due to poor economic conditions worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Croissants are a common part of a continental breakfast in many European countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croisilles, Orne",
        "text": "Croisilles, Orne\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caf\u00e9 du Croissant",
        "text": "On February 20, 1938, the owner Albert Wiedmer donated the marble plaque of the table on which Jaur\u00e8s was assassinated to the municipality of Champigny-sur-Marne at the request of the city's mayor Albert Thomas, a friend of Jaur\u00e8s. It was classified as a Historic Monument object in 1988. Yet the waiters still have the patrons believe the caf\u00e9 has kept the original table with a dark stain on a brighter wood that is said to be Jaur\u00e8s's blood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palmier",
        "text": "Palmiers are made from puff pastry, a laminated dough similar to the dough used for croissant, but without yeast. The puff pastry is rolled out, coated with sugar, and then the two sides are rolled up together so that they meet in the middle, making a roll that is then cut into about slices and baked. Usually it is rolled in sugar before baking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ouvrage Croupe du Reservoir",
        "text": "The \"ouvrage\" is privately occupied and has been kept in an excellent state of preservation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croquette",
        "text": "Plain potato croquettes are available frozen or refrigerated in most supermarkets. They are also homemade, usually with the addition of chopped onion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chambois, Orne",
        "text": "Chambois, Orne\n--Norman keep.\n--Closure of the Falaise Pocket.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The birth of the croissant itself\u2014that is, its adaptation from the plainer form of kipferl, before the invention of viennoiseries\u2014can be dated to at least 1839 (some say 1838) when an Austrian artillery officer, August Zang, founded a Viennese bakery (\"Boulangerie Viennoise\") at 92, rue de Richelieu in Paris. This bakery, which served Viennese specialties including the kipferl and the Vienna loaf, quickly became popular and inspired French imitators (and the concept, if not the term, of \"viennoiserie\", a 20th-century term for supposedly Vienna-style pastries). The French version of the kipferl was named for its crescent (\"croissant\") shape and has become a universally identifiable shape across the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caf\u00e9 du Croissant",
        "text": "The assassination is still remembered in the caf\u00e9: in 1923, a commemorative plaque was added to the fa\u00e7ade by the Human Rights League; a red and golden floor mosaic shows the date of Jaur\u00e8s's death and the exact place where he fell. Additionally, a window shelters a part of Jaur\u00e8s's chair, his hat with a bullet inside, and the two front pages of the newspaper \"L'Humanit\u00e9\" of July 31 and August 1, 1914."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The kipferl, the origin of croissant, can be dated back to at least the 13th century in Austria, and came in various shapes. The kipferl can be made plain or with nuts or other fillings (some consider the rugelach a form of kipferl)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croquette",
        "text": "A 17th-century recipe for croquettes (\"croquets\") by Fran\u00e7ois Massialot binds a filling of meat, truffles, marrow, bread crumbs, and cheese with egg, then breads and fries them in lard. They may be as large as an egg or as small as a walnut, and can be served as an hors-d'\u0153uvre or as a garnish. They are mentioned in a 1706 English dictionary. One 18th-century recipe uses just a batter, not a b\u00e9chamel binder. Croquettes of the modern type, with a thick binder, are documented in an 1822 English cookbook by the French cook Louis Eustache Ude."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quetschentaart",
        "text": "In the Ketty Thull recipe, the dough for the shortcrust base consists of flour, butter and sugar (unusual for French-style shortcrust, but to balance the sourness, which is key) only. The base is placed in a tart-baking dish, and covered with halved plums (no stones) arranged in overlapping circles. It is baked at - for 45-40 minutes or until ready."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coffee bean storage",
        "text": "After the cherries are put through the pulper and the seeds have been soaked, they are set out to sun-dry for a period of one week. The beans are periodically raked to ensure even drying. Once dried, the beans will form a thin, paper-like shell called parchment. Once formed, the parchment will increase the beans\u2019 storage life considerably."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ordre du Croissant",
        "text": "Ordre du Croissant\n--Provence.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caf\u00e9 li\u00e9geois",
        "text": "Refrigerate a large glass filled with the required amount of sweetened coffee, and add the ice cream and chantilly just prior to serving. Often crushed roasted coffee beans are put on top of the chantilly as decoration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crainquebille",
        "text": "Crainquebille\n--Plot.\n--Preservation status.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cruller",
        "text": "A French cruller is a fluted, ring-shaped doughnut made from choux pastry with a light airy texture. The German is very similar, while the Dutch and Belgian is baked instead of being fried."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain aux raisins",
        "text": "In France, it is typically a variant of the croissant or \"pain au chocolat\", made with a leavened butter pastry with raisins added and shaped in a spiral with a \"cr\u00e8me p\u00e2tissi\u00e8re\" filling. However, in many areas of Northern Europe and North America, it is generally made with sweetened bread dough or brioche dough, rather than pastry. It is often consumed for breakfast as part of a continental breakfast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain de campagne",
        "text": "Today pain de campagne is still made in France, and is enjoying a growing appreciation in the United States and the UK. When made traditionally, the dough is allowed to ferment for several hours, allowing the yeasts to grow and develop the flavors. The dough is then rounded and placed in linen-lined baskets called \"bannetons\". After the dough has risen, it is dumped out of the basket and onto peel, and slid into the oven where it bakes at around 240\u00a0\u00b0C (450\u00a0\u00b0F) for about one hour."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croisances",
        "text": "Croisances\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "French butter dish",
        "text": "A French butter dish is a container used to maintain the freshness and spreadable consistency of butter without refrigeration. This late 19th-century French-designed pottery crock has two parts: a base that holds water, and a cup to hold the packed butter which also serves as a lid. The cup containing butter is placed into the base, where water creates an airtight seal that keeps the air (and thus oxygen) away from the butter so that refrigeration is not needed, and the butter can be used in its soft form. This method will keep butter for around a month provided it is kept at temperatures below and the water is changed regularly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aiguille du Croissant",
        "text": "Aiguille du Croissant\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Zang himself returned to Austria in 1848 to become a press magnate, but the bakery remained popular for some time afterwards, and was mentioned in several works of the time: \"This same M. Zank ...founded around 1830 [sic], in Paris, the famous Boulangerie viennoise\". Several sources praise this bakery's products: \"Paris is of exquisite delicacy; and, in particular, the succulent products of the Boulangerie Viennoise\"; \"which seemed to us as fine as if it came from the Viennese bakery on the rue de Richelieu\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Masson",
        "text": "His personal library, his papers, his collection of paintings and objects about Napol\u00e9on are conserved now in the Fondation Dosne-Thiers, 27 place Saint-Georges, 75009 Paris (France)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Confit",
        "text": "For meat, this method requires the meat to be salted as part of the preservation process. After salting and cooking in fat, confit can last for several months or years when sealed and stored in a cool, dark place. Confit is a specialty of southwestern France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caf\u00e9 du Croissant",
        "text": "The Caf\u00e9 du Croissant or Crosse du Croisant (today the Taverne du Croissant) is a caf\u00e9 in the 2nd arrondissement of Paris, France. It is famous for having been the place of the assassination of Jean Jaur\u00e8s by Raoul Villain on July 31, 1914."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cr\u00e9v\u00e9champs",
        "text": "Cr\u00e9v\u00e9champs\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sacr\u00e9e croissance!",
        "text": "Sacr\u00e9e croissance!\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's croissant",
        "text": "The filling must consist of white poppy seeds, vanilla, crushed dates or figs, raisins and cream. Rogal \u015bwi\u0119tomarci\u0144ski is coated with a sugar icing and sprinkled with ground nuts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croquette",
        "text": "The binder is typically a thick b\u00e9chamel or brown sauce, mashed potatoes, wheat flour or wheat bread. The binder may be mixed with or stuffed with a filling; this mixture is called a \"salpicon\". Typical fillings include finely chopped meat, seafood, cheese, rice, pasta, mushrooms, and various vegetables as well as seasonings such as herbs and spices. Sweet croquettes may use a pastry cream binder and be filled with fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Duitse Huis",
        "text": "The well-preserved archive is open to researchers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Plaster",
        "text": "Plaster of Paris is stored in moisture-proof containers, because the presence of moisture can cause slow setting of plaster of Paris by bringing about its hydration, which will make it useless after some time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cantharellus",
        "text": "Fresh chanterelles can generally be stored up to ten days in a refrigerator."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (magazine)",
        "text": "In 1980 the circulation of \"Croissant\" was 450,000 copies."
      },
      {
        "title": "La Croisille",
        "text": "La Croisille\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cresseveuille",
        "text": "Cresseveuille\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sauerkraut",
        "text": "Many other vegetables are preserved by a similar process:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Battle of Vienna",
        "text": "One legend is that the \"croissant\" was invented in Vienna, either in 1683 or during the earlier siege in 1529, to celebrate the defeat of the Ottoman attack on the city, with the shape referring to the crescents on the Ottoman flags. This version of the origin of the croissant is supported by the fact that croissants in France are a variant of \"Viennoiserie\", and by the French popular belief that Vienna-born Marie Antoinette introduced the pastry to France in 1770."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baguette",
        "text": "The \"baguette de tradition fran\u00e7aise\" is made from wheat flour, water, yeast, and common salt. It may contain up to 2% broad bean flour, up to 0.5% soya flour, and up to 0.3% wheat malt flour."
      },
      {
        "title": "An Cosant\u00f3ir",
        "text": "An Cosant\u00f3ir\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Creux du Van",
        "text": "The underground of the Creux du Van remains frozen to this day. In technical terms, this is called permafrost, a scenario where there is permanent frost at a given place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lieu-Croissant Abbey",
        "text": "Lieu-Croissant Abbey () was a Cistercian abbey in Mancenans, a commune of Doubs in France. It was first built in 1134 and it was destroyed during the French Revolution in 1791."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fonds national d'art contemporain",
        "text": "FNAC stores its collection in a facility under the Esplanade de la D\u00e9fense."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "The Croissant (Occitan: \"lo Creissent\"; French: \"le Croissant\") is a linguistic transitional zone between the Langue d'oc (also referred to as Occitan) dialects and the Langue d'o\u00efl dialects, situated in the centre of France where Occitan dialects are spoken (Limousin and Auvergnat) that have transitional traits toward French (Langue d'o\u00efl). The name derives from the contours of the zone that resemble a \"croissant\", or crescent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "The spread of French (Langue d\u2019o\u00efl) towards the Croissant has been a long and progressive process, in contrast to the quite rapid \"d\u00e9soccitanisation\" of Poitou, Saintonge and Angoumois which took place between the 12th and 15th centuries, due principally to the ravages of the Hundred Years War causing the area to be consecutively repopulated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Le Croisic",
        "text": "Le Croisic\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fran\u00e7oise Graton",
        "text": "The archives of Fran\u00e7oise Graton are kept in the Montreal archives of the Biblioth\u00e8que et Archives nationales du Qu\u00e9bec (BAnQ)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chopin alveograph",
        "text": "11. Re-oil the tray between every dough pieces"
      },
      {
        "title": "Janou Saint-Denis",
        "text": "The archives of Janou Saint-Denis are preserved in the Montreal archives centre of the Biblioth\u00e8que et Archives nationales du Qu\u00e9bec (BAnQ)."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the technique in making the dough for croissants?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Typically, croissant predough is mixed in a relatively cool environment; flour, water, in-dough fat, yeast, salt, and sugar are mixed together in a single step. The second step is the lamination process, after lamination, the dough is formed into its famous crescent shape, followed by the baking process."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How are croissants stored after they are completed?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Croissants are generally not stored for very long and are typically consumed soon after baking."
    ],
    "topic": "Croissant",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Croissant:27",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Croissant",
          "Overview of manufacturing"
        ],
        "ctx": "The final steps are the cooling and storage of the croissant. Croissants are generally not stored for very long and are typically consumed soon after baking."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The final steps are the cooling and storage of the croissant. Croissants are generally not stored for very long and are typically consumed soon after baking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Alan Davidson, editor of the \"Oxford Companion to Food\", found no printed recipe for the present-day croissant in any French recipe book before the early 20th century; the earliest French reference to a croissant he found was among the \"fantasy or luxury breads\" in Payen's \"Des substances alimentaires\", 1853. However, early recipes for non-laminated croissants can be found in the 19th century and at least one reference to croissants as an established French bread appeared as early as 1850."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast",
        "text": "The croissant appears to have originated in Vienna, Austria, in 1683."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Crescent-shaped breads have been made since the Renaissance, and crescent-shaped cakes possibly since antiquity. Croissants have long been a staple of Austrian, Italian, and French bakeries and p\u00e2tisseries. The modern croissant was developed in the early 20th century. In the late 1970s, the development of factory-made, frozen, preformed but unbaked dough made them into a fast food that could be freshly baked by unskilled labor. The croissant bakery, notably the \"La Croissanterie\" chain, was a French response to American-style fast food, and as of 2008, 30\u201340% of the croissants sold in French bakeries and patisseries were baked from frozen dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Croissant\n--Origin and history.\n----Culinary legends.\n--Variants.\n----Argentina and Uruguay.\n----Italy.\n----Poland.\n----Portugal.\n----Spain.\n----Turkey.\n--Overview of manufacturing.\n--Ingredient functionality during processing.\n----Predough.\n----Lamination.\n----Fermentation.\n----Baking.\n----Storage.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "A croissant (, , ) is a buttery, flaky, viennoiserie pastry of Austrian origin, but mostly associated with France. Croissants are named for their historical crescent shape and, like other viennoiseries, are made of a layered yeast-leavened dough. The dough is layered with butter, rolled and folded several times in succession, then rolled into a thin sheet, in a technique called laminating. The process results in a layered, flaky texture, similar to a puff pastry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Fat also affects the quality of croissants in storage. On one hand, an increased amount of in-dough fat has been found to correspond to a reduction in crumb hardness immediately after baking. This is likely attributed to the high-fat content of croissants, as increased fat levels decrease moisture diffusion. On the other hand, although roll-in fat softens the croissant\u2019s initial crumb, its effect on croissant hardness during storage is still unclear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The puff pastry technique that now characterizes the croissant was already mentioned in the late 17th century, when La Varenne's \"Le Cuisinier fran\u00e7ois\" gave a recipe for it in the 1680 - and possibly earlier - edition. It was typically used not on its own but for shells holding other ingredients (as in a vol-au-vent). It does not appear to be mentioned in relation to the croissant until the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The kipferl, the origin of croissant, can be dated back to at least the 13th century in Austria, and came in various shapes. The kipferl can be made plain or with nuts or other fillings (some consider the rugelach a form of kipferl)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The first step of manufacturing croissants is the \"predough\" formation. To prepare predough, flour, water, in-dough fat, yeast, salt, and sugar are mixed together in a single step. Typically, croissant predough is mixed in a relatively cool environment, for a longer time than other pastries. The ideal temperature of the dough should be around 19\u00a0\u00b0C, to best hydrate the ingredients. In comparison to the mixing of bread dough ingredients, pastry predough is considered underdeveloped in that mixing is stopped as soon as the dough appears homogeneous, to allow for further dough development in the next step."
      },
      {
        "title": "Battle of Vienna",
        "text": "One legend is that the \"croissant\" was invented in Vienna, either in 1683 or during the earlier siege in 1529, to celebrate the defeat of the Ottoman attack on the city, with the shape referring to the crescents on the Ottoman flags. This version of the origin of the croissant is supported by the fact that croissants in France are a variant of \"Viennoiserie\", and by the French popular belief that Vienna-born Marie Antoinette introduced the pastry to France in 1770."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The birth of the croissant itself\u2014that is, its adaptation from the plainer form of kipferl, before the invention of viennoiseries\u2014can be dated to at least 1839 (some say 1838) when an Austrian artillery officer, August Zang, founded a Viennese bakery (\"Boulangerie Viennoise\") at 92, rue de Richelieu in Paris. This bakery, which served Viennese specialties including the kipferl and the Vienna loaf, quickly became popular and inspired French imitators (and the concept, if not the term, of \"viennoiserie\", a 20th-century term for supposedly Vienna-style pastries). The French version of the kipferl was named for its crescent (\"croissant\") shape and has become a universally identifiable shape across the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "By 1869, the croissant was well established enough to be mentioned as a breakfast staple, and in 1872, Charles Dickens wrote (in his periodical \"All the Year Round\") of \"the workman's \"pain de m\u00e9nage\" and the soldier's \"pain de munition\", to the dainty croissant on the boudoir table\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Viennese cuisine",
        "text": "The croissant is also thought to have originated in Vienna after the defeat of the Turks in the Siege of Vienna."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The above mentioned Alan Davidson proposed that the Islamic origin story originated with 20th-century writer Alfred Gottschalk, who gave two versions, one in the \"Larousse Gastronomique\" and the other in his \"History of Food and Gastronomy\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chocolats+Croisier",
        "text": "Chocolats+Croisier\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Water migration influences the quality of stored croissants through two mechanisms. First, as previously stated, water redistributes from gluten to starch as a result of starch retrogradation. Secondly, during the baking process, a moisture gradient was introduced as a result of heat transfer from the oven to the croissant. In fresh croissants, there is high moisture content on the inside and low moisture content on the outside. During storage, this moisture gradient induces water migration from the inside to the outer crust. On a molecular level, water is lost from the amorphous starch fraction and gluten network. At the same time, water diffuses from the outer crust to the environment, which has less moisture. The result of this redistribution of water is a firming up of the croissant, caused by a decrease in starch plasticity and an increase in gluten network rigidity. Due to the presence of large pores in croissants, moisture is lost to the environment at a faster rate than bread products. As such, croissants generally become harder in texture at a faster rate than breads."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Uncooked croissant dough can also be wrapped around any praline, almond paste, or chocolate before it is baked (in the last case, it becomes like \"pain au chocolat\", which has a different, non-crescent, shape), or sliced to include sweet or savoury fillings. It may be flavored with dried fruit such as sultanas or raisins, or other fruits such as apples. In France and Spain, croissants are generally sold without filling and eaten without added butter, but sometimes with almond filling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Stories of how the Kipferl \u2014 and so, ultimately, the croissant \u2014 was created are widespread and persistent culinary legends, going back to the 19th century. However, there are no contemporary sources for any of these stories, and an aristocratic writer, writing in 1799, does not mention the Kipferl in a long and extensive list of breakfast foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Le Creuset",
        "text": "Le Creuset was founded in Fresnoy-le-Grand, Aisne, Picardy at the crossroads of transportation routes for iron, coke, and sand. Armand De Saegher (a Belgian casting specialist) and Octave Aubecq (a Belgian enamelling specialist) opened the foundry in 1925. That same year, the first (or French oven) was produced, laying the foundation for what is now an extensive range of cookware and kitchen utensils. Flame (orange), was used for the first piece."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kifli",
        "text": "The kifli likely inspired the similarly shaped French croissant, which is made from a laminated pastry dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croisilles",
        "text": "Croisilles\n--France.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rugelach",
        "text": "Traditional rugelach are made in the form of a crescent by rolling a triangle of dough around a filling. Some sources state that the rugelach and the French croissant share a common Viennese ancestor, crescent-shaped pastries commemorating the lifting of the Turkish siege, possibly a reference to the Battle of Vienna in 1683. This appears to be an urban legend however, as both the rugelach and its supposed ancestor, the Kipferl, pre-date the Early Modern era, while the croissant in its modern form did not originate earlier than the 19th century (see viennoiserie). This leads many to believe that the croissant is simply a descendant of one of these two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (magazine)",
        "text": "Croissant (magazine)\n--History and profile.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Croissants are a common part of a continental breakfast in many European countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's croissant",
        "text": "St. Martin's croissant\n--History.\n--Ingredients.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain au chocolat",
        "text": "Legend has it that Marie-Antoinette introduced the croissant to France, but croissants and pains au chocolat are a relatively modern invention. The word croissant, which refers to a plain form of pain au chocolat shaped like a half-moon or \"crescent\", made its entry in the French dictionary in 1863. The type of pastry, called \"viennoiserie\" in French, was introduced in the early 19th century, when August Zang, an Austrian officer, and Ernest Schwarzer, an Austrian aristocrat, founded a Viennese bakery in Paris located at 92, rue de Richelieu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain au chocolat",
        "text": "Originally, croissants and pains au chocolat were made from a brioche base but later evolved to incorporate a buttery flaky dough (\"p\u00e2te feuillet\u00e9e\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Zang himself returned to Austria in 1848 to become a press magnate, but the bakery remained popular for some time afterwards, and was mentioned in several works of the time: \"This same M. Zank ...founded around 1830 [sic], in Paris, the famous Boulangerie viennoise\". Several sources praise this bakery's products: \"Paris is of exquisite delicacy; and, in particular, the succulent products of the Boulangerie Viennoise\"; \"which seemed to us as fine as if it came from the Viennese bakery on the rue de Richelieu\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "The Croissant\u2019s territory is shaped like a tapered crescent, joining the Tardoire valley in Charente to the west, to Monts de la Madeleine in Allier to the east. The crescent is very narrow between its westernmost point and Le Dorat (between 10 and 15\u00a0km wide), and widens towards the east: between 30\u00a0km (at Gu\u00e9ret) and 45\u00a0km (at Culan)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The legends include tales that it was invented in Europe to celebrate the defeat of the Umayyad forces by the Franks at the Battle of Tours in 732, with the shape representing the Islamic crescent; that it was invented in Buda; or, according to other sources, in Vienna in 1683 to celebrate the defeat of the Ottomans by Christian forces in the siege of the city, as a reference to the crescents on the Ottoman flags, when bakers staying up all night heard the tunneling operation and gave the alarm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "After lamination, the dough is formed into its famous crescent shape. First, the laminated dough is cut into triangles of the desired size. The triangles are then rolled with three-and-a-half to four full turns, and finally, the ends of the roll are curved inwards to form a crescent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caf\u00e9 du Croissant",
        "text": "Caf\u00e9 du Croissant\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "The first author to use the term \"Croissant\" was the linguist, Jules Ronjat, in his 1913 thesis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "During baking, the transient gluten network turns into a permanent network. At higher temperatures, intermolecular disulfide bonds form between glutenin molecules, as well as between gliadin and glutenin. With more bonds being made, the gluten network becomes more rigid, strengthening the croissant\u2019s crumb texture. Additionally, the baking process significantly stretches the dough layers due to the large macroscopic deformation that occurred during fermentation\u2019s dough lift."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "The spread of French (Langue d\u2019o\u00efl) towards the Croissant has been a long and progressive process, in contrast to the quite rapid \"d\u00e9soccitanisation\" of Poitou, Saintonge and Angoumois which took place between the 12th and 15th centuries, due principally to the ravages of the Hundred Years War causing the area to be consecutively repopulated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roland Dor\u00e9 (sculptor)",
        "text": "The photograph below shows how the \"gisants\" are positioned in the cloister. Dor\u00e9 also executed two \"gisant\" for the Br\u00e9hant family which are in the cathedral."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chocolats+Croisier",
        "text": "In 1950, Chocolats+Croisier closed due to poor economic conditions worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croisances",
        "text": "Croisances\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The third step is the fermentation process. Croissants are different from other puff pastries in that they include yeast, which, during proofing, increases the dough volume. Ideally, the optimum croissant quality is achieved at a yeast level of 7.5%, with a proof time of 60 minutes at 31\u00a0\u00b0C. The croissants are finished proofing when the dough has expanded two-and-a-half times its original volume."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "A remote similarity of the croissant shape is the Turkish \"ay \u00e7\u00f6re\u011fi\". It is filled with cinnamon, walnut, hazelnut, cacao and raisin. Its rectangular shape variant is known as \"pasti\u00e7\" or \"\u0130zmir \u00e7\u00f6re\u011fi\". It is generally eaten during breakfast or with tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cruet",
        "text": "A few cruets dating from the Medieval ages still exist today. Its culinary use, however, was first introduced in the late 17th century. Cardinal Mazarin had a pair of salad cruets on his dining table at his home in France, one for olive oil and the other for vinegar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croisilles, Orne",
        "text": "Croisilles, Orne\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (magazine)",
        "text": "The first issue of the magazine is dated 1 May 1977; the magazine is published twice a month, generally on the 10th and the 25th. \"Croissant\" is published by Magazine House (\u30de\u30ac\u30b8\u30f3\u30cf\u30a6\u30b9, \"Magajin hausu\"), based in Tokyo. The company, which is also the founder of the magazine, was formerly named Heibun Shuppan. The target audience is middle-aged and married women. The frequent topics covered include home decoration, cooking, health, and beauty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caf\u00e9 du Croissant",
        "text": "On February 20, 1938, the owner Albert Wiedmer donated the marble plaque of the table on which Jaur\u00e8s was assassinated to the municipality of Champigny-sur-Marne at the request of the city's mayor Albert Thomas, a friend of Jaur\u00e8s. It was classified as a Historic Monument object in 1988. Yet the waiters still have the patrons believe the caf\u00e9 has kept the original table with a dark stain on a brighter wood that is said to be Jaur\u00e8s's blood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lieu-Croissant Abbey",
        "text": "Lieu-Croissant Abbey () was a Cistercian abbey in Mancenans, a commune of Doubs in France. It was first built in 1134 and it was destroyed during the French Revolution in 1791."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caf\u00e9 du Croissant",
        "text": "The Caf\u00e9 du Croissant or Crosse du Croisant (today the Taverne du Croissant) is a caf\u00e9 in the 2nd arrondissement of Paris, France. It is famous for having been the place of the assassination of Jean Jaur\u00e8s by Raoul Villain on July 31, 1914."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croisilles",
        "text": "Croisilles may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ordre du Croissant",
        "text": "Ordre du Croissant\n--Provence.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "In order to ensure the flaky texture of the croissant, it is important to balance the yeast activity with steam production. If the yeast overproduces CO2, then the well-defined layers may collapse. During the baking process, this would cause steam to escape too early from the bread, reducing dough lift and flakiness of the final product. Thus, to offset the negative effects of yeast on layer integrity and dough lift, croissants usually contain fewer layers than other puff pastries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Francis Croissant",
        "text": "Francis Croissant\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (magazine)",
        "text": "In 1980 the circulation of \"Croissant\" was 450,000 copies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croquette",
        "text": "A 17th-century recipe for croquettes (\"croquets\") by Fran\u00e7ois Massialot binds a filling of meat, truffles, marrow, bread crumbs, and cheese with egg, then breads and fries them in lard. They may be as large as an egg or as small as a walnut, and can be served as an hors-d'\u0153uvre or as a garnish. They are mentioned in a 1706 English dictionary. One 18th-century recipe uses just a batter, not a b\u00e9chamel binder. Croquettes of the modern type, with a thick binder, are documented in an 1822 English cookbook by the French cook Louis Eustache Ude."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caf\u00e9 du Croissant",
        "text": "The assassination is still remembered in the caf\u00e9: in 1923, a commemorative plaque was added to the fa\u00e7ade by the Human Rights League; a red and golden floor mosaic shows the date of Jaur\u00e8s's death and the exact place where he fell. Additionally, a window shelters a part of Jaur\u00e8s's chair, his hat with a bullet inside, and the two front pages of the newspaper \"L'Humanit\u00e9\" of July 31 and August 1, 1914."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The second step is the lamination process. Lamination is necessary to produce multilayered dough with alternating layers of predough and fat. Generally, there are two methods for folding fat into the dough: the English method and the French method. In the English method, one fold results in two fat layers and three dough layers. After spreading out predough, roll-in fat is flattened to a similar thickness as the predough and spread over two-thirds of the surface of the laminated predough. The exposed third of predough is then folded over half of the roll-in fat, while the other end (one predough and one fat layer) is folded on top. In the French method, one fold results in one fat layer and two dough layers. After spreading out the predough and putting a layer of roll-in fat over the center surface of the dough, the corners of the predough are folded toward the middle of the fat. Croissant dough is typically laminated until 16\u201350 fat layers are obtained. The optimal number of layers can be determined by balancing certain crumb properties with specific volume. On one hand, a low number of layers yields large specific heights as well as irregular crumb structure with large voids. On the other hand, a large number of relatively thin layers leads to interconnections between different dough layers as well as less dough lift."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's croissant",
        "text": "This tradition dates back to pagan times, when during the autumn feast the gods were offered sacrifices of oxen or, as a substitute, of dough rolled up in oxen horns. The Latin Church has taken over this custom and linked it to the figure of St Martin. The shape of the dough was interpreted as a reference to the horseshoe that the holy horse was to lose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "Likewise, the writer, Valery Larbaud (1881-1957), who originated from Vichy, in the Croissant zone, expressed his support for the idea of a union of Langue d\u2019oc-speaking regions in his work \"Jaune bleu blanc\" \"(Yellow blue white)\" (1927)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The effect of gluten proteins during cooling and storage is still unclear. It is possible that gluten proteins influence croissant firming through the loss of plasticizing water, which increases the stiffness of the gluten network."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cr\u00e9v\u00e9champs",
        "text": "Cr\u00e9v\u00e9champs\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Francis Croissant",
        "text": "He was a ma\u00eetre de conf\u00e9rences at the University of Nancy, and later a professor of Greek archaeology at Paris I."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The fourth step is the baking process. Also known as \"pastry lift\" or \"dough lift\", the dough expands as water is converted to steam, thus increasing the pressure between each dough layer. As a result, the croissant dough rises up to yield its characteristic flaky texture. Depending on the type of oven used and specific size of the croissant, the baking time can range from 10 to 20 minutes and the oven temperature can be set anywhere from 165\u00a0\u00b0C to 205\u00a0\u00b0C."
      },
      {
        "title": "August Zang",
        "text": "The son of Christophe Boniface Zang, a Vienna surgeon, August Zang became an artillery officer before he went to Paris, probably in 1837, to found a bakery, Boulangerie Viennoise, which opened in 1838 or 1839. The bakery was quickly imitated, and its Austrian kipfel became the French croissant. Baking historians, who often qualify Zang as \"Baron\", \"Count\" or \"Royal Chamberlain\" though he did not hold those titles, sometimes claim he introduced the baguette, but that is not supported by any period source. However, he introduced the Viennese steam oven, which became standard in France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aiguille du Croissant",
        "text": "Aiguille du Croissant\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "In the United States, sweet fillings or toppings are sometimes used, and warm croissants may be filled with ham and cheese, or feta cheese and spinach. In the Levant, croissants are sold plain or filled with chocolate, cheese, almonds, or zaatar. In Germany, croissants are sometimes filled with Nutella or persipan; in southern Germany, there is also a popular variety of a croissant glazed with lye (\"Laugencroissant\"). In the German-speaking part of Switzerland, the croissant is typically called a \"Gipfeli\"; this usually has a crisper crust and is less buttery than the French-style croissant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Le Creuset",
        "text": "Le Creuset\n--History.\n--Production.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c9poisses",
        "text": "At the start of the sixteenth century, the village was home to a community of Cistercians at C\u00eeteaux Abbey that, according to oral legend, began production of the cheese. Two hundred years later, when the community left, local farmers inherited the recipe, which developed over the next century. Napoleon was particularly fond of the cheese, and the famous epicure Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin classed it as the \"king of all cheeses\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franzbr\u00f6tchen",
        "text": "The Franzbr\u00f6tchen was probably named in the style of the French (German 'franz\u00f6sisch') model, the croissant, which is also made of pastry and became popular in Germany after Napoleon's troops had occupied Hamburg between 1806 and 1814. According to a different historical tradition, they produced a longish Franzbrot (German for 'French bread') which resembled the baguette. Legend has it, a baker in Hamburg had once seared such a Franzbrot in a pan of fat, which is considered the origin of the contemporary Franzbr\u00f6tchen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "Within the Auvergnat area, there is a distinct zone influenced by Francoproven\u00e7al in the south-east of Bourbonnais (the south-eastern part of Allier), towards the Bourbonnais Mountains. There, since ancient times, the intervocalic \"d\" is dropped, in particular in \"-aa\" endings (for \"-ada\"), as is also the case in Vivaro-Alpin (where the loss of the \"d\" can also be explained by its proximity to Francoproven\u00e7al)."
      },
      {
        "title": "La Bou",
        "text": "In 1981, the first La Bou store opened its doors offering owner Trong Nguyen's handmade croissants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Creysseilles",
        "text": "Creysseilles\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cronut",
        "text": "In 2013, bakery owner Dominique Ansel created the pastry out of dough similar to that of a croissant (a pastry that he had been more familiar with) with flavored cream inside."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cresseveuille",
        "text": "Cresseveuille\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Klaus Croissant",
        "text": "Klaus Croissant\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chocolats+Croisier",
        "text": "The production of chocolate was arduous work in 1815: a chocolatier could only produce only 5\u20136\u00a0kg of chocolate per day. In 1844, Crozier's son took over management of Croisier-Chaulmontet. In 1850, the company began mechanizing its production. By 1884, Croisier-Chaulmontet had ordered two water wheels that were driven by the River Rhone to power its production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Starch plays a major role in the degradation of croissants during storage. Amylopectin retrogradation occurs over several days to weeks, as amorphous amylopectin chains are realigned into a more crystalline structure. The transformation of the starch causes undesirable firmness in the croissant. Additionally, the formation of the crystal structure of amylopectin requires the incorporation of water. Starch retrogradation actively draws water from the amorphous gluten network and some of the amorphous starch fraction, which reduces the plasticity of both."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marron glac\u00e9",
        "text": "The earliest known records of a recipe for marron glac\u00e9s were written during the 16th century by an Italian cook that worked for Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy 1580, and by the French at the end of the 17th century in Louis XIV's Versailles court. In 1667, Fran\u00e7ois Pierre La Varenne, ten years' chef de cuisine to Nicolas Chalon du Bl\u00e9, Marquis of Uxelles (near Lyon and a chestnut-producing area), and foremost figure of the nouvelle cuisine movement of the time, published his best-selling book \"Le parfaict confiturier\". In it he describes \"la fa\u00e7on de faire marron pour tirer au sec\" (\"the way to make (a) chestnut (so as) to 'pull it dry'\"); this may well be the first record of the recipe for marrons glac\u00e9s. \"Tirer au sec\" means, in a confectionery context, \"to remove (what's being candied) from the syrup\". La Varenne's book was edited thirty times over seventy-five years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croquette",
        "text": "The ragout-filled dish was regarded as a French delicacy, first described in a recipe from 1691 by the chef of the French king Louis XIV, using ingredients such as truffles, sweetbreads, and cream cheese. From the 1800s onwards, it became a way to use up leftover stewed meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croquette",
        "text": "Croquettes are available frozen or refrigerated in most supermarkets, typically with potato filling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cr\u00e8vec\u0153ur chicken",
        "text": "Cr\u00e8vec\u0153ur chicken\n--History.\n--Characteristics.\n--Use.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Flixecourt",
        "text": "Towards the end of the French Revolution, the ch\u00e2teau belonged to the Croquoison family."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tr\u00e9guier Cathedral",
        "text": "Three of the gisant given to the cathedral by the Mus\u0117e arch\u0117oloogique of Saint Brieuc are described in Emmanuelle Le Seac'h's book \"Sculpteurs sur Pierre en Basse-Bretagne. Les Ateliers du XVe and XVIIe si\u00e8cle\" () These are two gisants for members of the Br\u00e9hant family and another for a member of the Bois-Boissel family. These gisant came from the old \u0116glise Saint-Michel in Saint-Brieuc. In earlier times the cloisters were opened up for use by local merchants as a market place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Le Creuset",
        "text": "In 1957, Le Creuset purchased a competitor, Les Hauts Fourneaux de Cousances, and began producing items such as a grill and a fondue set."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "The eastern part of the Croissant from Montmarault, where the Averno-Bourbonnais dialect is found, is linked to Auvergnat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cognac Croizet",
        "text": "Cognac Croizet\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "The Croissant (Occitan: \"lo Creissent\"; French: \"le Croissant\") is a linguistic transitional zone between the Langue d'oc (also referred to as Occitan) dialects and the Langue d'o\u00efl dialects, situated in the centre of France where Occitan dialects are spoken (Limousin and Auvergnat) that have transitional traits toward French (Langue d'o\u00efl). The name derives from the contours of the zone that resemble a \"croissant\", or crescent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Champmesl\u00e9",
        "text": "His \"\u0152uvres\" were collected in 1696."
      },
      {
        "title": "La Croisille",
        "text": "La Croisille\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chocolats+Croisier",
        "text": "Chocolats+Croisier (1815-1950) was a Swiss manufacturer of luxury chocolates. At one time, it was the oldest manufacturer of these products in Switzerland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chardon de Croisilles",
        "text": "Chardon de Croisilles\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Crouseilles",
        "text": "Crouseilles\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chocolats+Croisier",
        "text": "In 1927, the company opened a chocolate powders plant in Lausanne. That same year, the company was incorporated as Charles Croisier SA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Francis Croissant",
        "text": "A student at the \u00c9cole normale sup\u00e9rieure (class 1957 L), he has been a member of the French School at Athens and former general secretary of this institution (1968-1974)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caf\u00e9 du Croissant",
        "text": "The establishment was re-opened in 2011 as the \"Taverne du Croissant\". On July 31, 2014, President Fran\u00e7ois Hollande and Germany's Vice-Chancellor Sigmar Gabriel visited the caf\u00e9 upon the centenary of the assassination of Jaur\u00e8s. The restaurant offered a special dinner menu for the centenary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Roll-in fat gradually melts as the temperature in the oven increases. Some of the melting fat can migrate into the dough, which could then interfere with gluten protein crosslinking. The fat phase also contributes to dough lift through gas inflation, which will be described next."
      },
      {
        "title": "Baguette (bag)",
        "text": "Baguette (bag)\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croisilles, Eure-et-Loir",
        "text": "Croisilles, Eure-et-Loir\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Santes Creus",
        "text": "The original cloister was a Romanesque structure, dating to the late 12th-early 13th century. All that remains of the first cloister is a hexagonal central shrine, containing the laundry"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cronut",
        "text": "The Cronut in its current form was invented in 2013 by French-American pastry chef Dominique Ansel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "The influence of French in the Croissant zone goes back a long way. Due to the presence of French-speaking nobility and administrators, from the second half of the 13th century administrative and legal documents were written in French and not in the local dialects, as well as in Marche County (Limousin-speaking territory) and in Bourbonnais (Auvergnat-speaking territory). In Bourbonnais, the earliest known documents written in the local vernacular are deeds in French with some Occitan forms inserted from 1245. Therefore, the Croissant has been a Langue d\u2019oc-Langue d\u2019o\u00efl diglossia since that time, long before French spread through the rest of the Langue d\u2019oc linguistic area. The border between Langue d\u2019oc and Langue d\u2019o\u00efl was once located further to the north and has moved backwards over the centuries. The French dialects situated at the north of the Croissant (the southern part of Berry and the northern part of Bourbonnais) still contain traces of the Langue d\u2019oc substrate."
      },
      {
        "title": "C\u00e9leste Albaret",
        "text": "Apart from making coffee and serving the croissants, one task that Albaret was not called upon to perform was cooking her employer's meals. Cooking did not take place at home. She was, however, mandated to telephone meal orders to the fine city restaurants: these were dispatched with minimal delay to the address at 102 Boulevard Haussmann. Permanently ill by this time, Proust ate little by the (middle-and upper class) standards of Paris at those times, and he hardly drank. A meal might consist of a little of the white meat from a chicken or a filet of sole, washed down, on rare occasions, with a little flute of Champagne or of Bordeaux, which would suffice. The only meal which he really revered was the coffee and croissants, which he consumed as his tea-time \"breakfast\". Sources speculate that a more varied diet might have buttressed his failing health more effectively. It would, however, be wrong to think that he was wholly inflexible in his \"breakfast\" routine. Towards the end of the war, in 1917, croissants disappeared from the bakeries and he developed a taste for Sabl\u00e9 biscuits that replaced the croissants on his breakfast tray. Proust's celebrity status meant that many suppliers were willing to adapt to his unconventional timetable. The kitchens at the Hotel Ritz remained open longer than those of most establishments, but even here the kitchens were not, for most of his purposes, staffed and accessible through the night. Albaret held her own key, however, in order that she might be able to access the hotel kitchens at any point during the night, should her employer require a chilled beer."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the technique in making the dough for croissants?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Typically, croissant predough is mixed in a relatively cool environment; flour, water, in-dough fat, yeast, salt, and sugar are mixed together in a single step. The second step is the lamination process, after lamination, the dough is formed into its famous crescent shape, followed by the baking process."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How are croissants stored after they are completed?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Croissants are generally not stored for very long and are typically consumed soon after baking."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where were croissants first made?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Croissants were first made in a Viennese bakery (\"Boulangerie Viennoise\") at 92, rue de Richelieu in Paris.",
      "The birth of the croissant itself\u2014that is, its adaptation from the plainer form of kipferl, before the invention of viennoiseries\u2014can be dated to at least 1839 when an Austrian artillery officer, August Zang, founded a Viennese bakery (\"Boulangerie Viennoise\") at 92, rue de Richelieu in Paris. The modern croissant was developed in the early 20th century when French bakers replaced the brioche dough of the kipferl by a yeast-leavened laminated dough."
    ],
    "topic": "Croissant",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Croissant:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Croissant",
          "Origin and history"
        ],
        "ctx": "The birth of the croissant itself\u2014that is, its adaptation from the plainer form of kipferl, before the invention of viennoiseries\u2014can be dated to at least 1839 (some say 1838) when an Austrian artillery officer, August Zang, founded a Viennese bakery (\"Boulangerie Viennoise\") at 92, rue de Richelieu in Paris. This bakery, which served Viennese specialties including the kipferl and the Vienna loaf, quickly became popular and inspired French imitators (and the concept, if not the term, of \"viennoiserie\", a 20th-century term for supposedly Vienna-style pastries). The French version of the kipferl was named for its crescent (\"croissant\") shape and has become a universally identifiable shape across the world."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Croissant:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Croissant",
          "Origin and history"
        ],
        "ctx": "The birth of the croissant itself\u2014that is, its adaptation from the plainer form of kipferl, before the invention of viennoiseries\u2014can be dated to at least 1839 (some say 1838) when an Austrian artillery officer, August Zang, founded a Viennese bakery (\"Boulangerie Viennoise\") at 92, rue de Richelieu in Paris. This bakery, which served Viennese specialties including the kipferl and the Vienna loaf, quickly became popular and inspired French imitators (and the concept, if not the term, of \"viennoiserie\", a 20th-century term for supposedly Vienna-style pastries). The French version of the kipferl was named for its crescent (\"croissant\") shape and has become a universally identifiable shape across the world."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Croissant:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Croissant"
        ],
        "ctx": "Crescent-shaped breads have been made since the Renaissance, and crescent-shaped cakes possibly since antiquity. Croissants have long been a staple of Austrian, Italian, and French bakeries and p\u00e2tisseries. The modern croissant was developed in the early 20th century. In the late 1970s, the development of factory-made, frozen, preformed but unbaked dough made them into a fast food that could be freshly baked by unskilled labor. The croissant bakery, notably the \"La Croissanterie\" chain, was a French response to American-style fast food, and as of 2008, 30\u201340% of the croissants sold in French bakeries and patisseries were baked from frozen dough."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The birth of the croissant itself\u2014that is, its adaptation from the plainer form of kipferl, before the invention of viennoiseries\u2014can be dated to at least 1839 (some say 1838) when an Austrian artillery officer, August Zang, founded a Viennese bakery (\"Boulangerie Viennoise\") at 92, rue de Richelieu in Paris. This bakery, which served Viennese specialties including the kipferl and the Vienna loaf, quickly became popular and inspired French imitators (and the concept, if not the term, of \"viennoiserie\", a 20th-century term for supposedly Vienna-style pastries). The French version of the kipferl was named for its crescent (\"croissant\") shape and has become a universally identifiable shape across the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "A croissant (, , ) is a buttery, flaky, viennoiserie pastry of Austrian origin, but mostly associated with France. Croissants are named for their historical crescent shape and, like other viennoiseries, are made of a layered yeast-leavened dough. The dough is layered with butter, rolled and folded several times in succession, then rolled into a thin sheet, in a technique called laminating. The process results in a layered, flaky texture, similar to a puff pastry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Battle of Vienna",
        "text": "One legend is that the \"croissant\" was invented in Vienna, either in 1683 or during the earlier siege in 1529, to celebrate the defeat of the Ottoman attack on the city, with the shape referring to the crescents on the Ottoman flags. This version of the origin of the croissant is supported by the fact that croissants in France are a variant of \"Viennoiserie\", and by the French popular belief that Vienna-born Marie Antoinette introduced the pastry to France in 1770."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Crescent-shaped breads have been made since the Renaissance, and crescent-shaped cakes possibly since antiquity. Croissants have long been a staple of Austrian, Italian, and French bakeries and p\u00e2tisseries. The modern croissant was developed in the early 20th century. In the late 1970s, the development of factory-made, frozen, preformed but unbaked dough made them into a fast food that could be freshly baked by unskilled labor. The croissant bakery, notably the \"La Croissanterie\" chain, was a French response to American-style fast food, and as of 2008, 30\u201340% of the croissants sold in French bakeries and patisseries were baked from frozen dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Alan Davidson, editor of the \"Oxford Companion to Food\", found no printed recipe for the present-day croissant in any French recipe book before the early 20th century; the earliest French reference to a croissant he found was among the \"fantasy or luxury breads\" in Payen's \"Des substances alimentaires\", 1853. However, early recipes for non-laminated croissants can be found in the 19th century and at least one reference to croissants as an established French bread appeared as early as 1850."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rugelach",
        "text": "Traditional rugelach are made in the form of a crescent by rolling a triangle of dough around a filling. Some sources state that the rugelach and the French croissant share a common Viennese ancestor, crescent-shaped pastries commemorating the lifting of the Turkish siege, possibly a reference to the Battle of Vienna in 1683. This appears to be an urban legend however, as both the rugelach and its supposed ancestor, the Kipferl, pre-date the Early Modern era, while the croissant in its modern form did not originate earlier than the 19th century (see viennoiserie). This leads many to believe that the croissant is simply a descendant of one of these two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Croissant\n--Origin and history.\n----Culinary legends.\n--Variants.\n----Argentina and Uruguay.\n----Italy.\n----Poland.\n----Portugal.\n----Spain.\n----Turkey.\n--Overview of manufacturing.\n--Ingredient functionality during processing.\n----Predough.\n----Lamination.\n----Fermentation.\n----Baking.\n----Storage.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The kipferl, the origin of croissant, can be dated back to at least the 13th century in Austria, and came in various shapes. The kipferl can be made plain or with nuts or other fillings (some consider the rugelach a form of kipferl)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Uncooked croissant dough can also be wrapped around any praline, almond paste, or chocolate before it is baked (in the last case, it becomes like \"pain au chocolat\", which has a different, non-crescent, shape), or sliced to include sweet or savoury fillings. It may be flavored with dried fruit such as sultanas or raisins, or other fruits such as apples. In France and Spain, croissants are generally sold without filling and eaten without added butter, but sometimes with almond filling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain au chocolat",
        "text": "Legend has it that Marie-Antoinette introduced the croissant to France, but croissants and pains au chocolat are a relatively modern invention. The word croissant, which refers to a plain form of pain au chocolat shaped like a half-moon or \"crescent\", made its entry in the French dictionary in 1863. The type of pastry, called \"viennoiserie\" in French, was introduced in the early 19th century, when August Zang, an Austrian officer, and Ernest Schwarzer, an Austrian aristocrat, founded a Viennese bakery in Paris located at 92, rue de Richelieu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain aux raisins",
        "text": "In France, it is typically a variant of the croissant or \"pain au chocolat\", made with a leavened butter pastry with raisins added and shaped in a spiral with a \"cr\u00e8me p\u00e2tissi\u00e8re\" filling. However, in many areas of Northern Europe and North America, it is generally made with sweetened bread dough or brioche dough, rather than pastry. It is often consumed for breakfast as part of a continental breakfast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "A cousin of the croissant is the Italian \"cornetto\" (in the Center and South) or \"brioche\" (in the North). These variants are often considered to be the same, but that is not completely true: the French version tends to be crispy and contains a lot of butter, whereas an Italian cornetto or brioche is usually softer. Furthermore, the \"cornetto vuoto\" (Italian: \"empty cornetto\") is commonly accompanied by variants with filling, which include \"crema pasticciera\" (custard), apricot jam or chocolate cream. They often come covered with powdered sugar or other toppings. \"Cornetto\" with cappuccino at the bar is one of the most common breakfasts in Italy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Besides of the regular croissant, a variation called \"cuerno\" (meaning \"horn\") is sold. It is half of a croissant stuffed usually with cream. Also called Xuixos ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The puff pastry technique that now characterizes the croissant was already mentioned in the late 17th century, when La Varenne's \"Le Cuisinier fran\u00e7ois\" gave a recipe for it in the 1680 - and possibly earlier - edition. It was typically used not on its own but for shells holding other ingredients (as in a vol-au-vent). It does not appear to be mentioned in relation to the croissant until the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kifli",
        "text": "The kifli likely inspired the similarly shaped French croissant, which is made from a laminated pastry dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "A remote similarity of the croissant shape is the Turkish \"ay \u00e7\u00f6re\u011fi\". It is filled with cinnamon, walnut, hazelnut, cacao and raisin. Its rectangular shape variant is known as \"pasti\u00e7\" or \"\u0130zmir \u00e7\u00f6re\u011fi\". It is generally eaten during breakfast or with tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croque monsieur",
        "text": "Variants of the sandwich with substitutions or additional ingredients are given names modelled on the original \"croque-monsieur\", for example:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "In the United States, sweet fillings or toppings are sometimes used, and warm croissants may be filled with ham and cheese, or feta cheese and spinach. In the Levant, croissants are sold plain or filled with chocolate, cheese, almonds, or zaatar. In Germany, croissants are sometimes filled with Nutella or persipan; in southern Germany, there is also a popular variety of a croissant glazed with lye (\"Laugencroissant\"). In the German-speaking part of Switzerland, the croissant is typically called a \"Gipfeli\"; this usually has a crisper crust and is less buttery than the French-style croissant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Croissants are a common part of a continental breakfast in many European countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Zang himself returned to Austria in 1848 to become a press magnate, but the bakery remained popular for some time afterwards, and was mentioned in several works of the time: \"This same M. Zank ...founded around 1830 [sic], in Paris, the famous Boulangerie viennoise\". Several sources praise this bakery's products: \"Paris is of exquisite delicacy; and, in particular, the succulent products of the Boulangerie Viennoise\"; \"which seemed to us as fine as if it came from the Viennese bakery on the rue de Richelieu\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franzbr\u00f6tchen",
        "text": "The Franzbr\u00f6tchen was probably named in the style of the French (German 'franz\u00f6sisch') model, the croissant, which is also made of pastry and became popular in Germany after Napoleon's troops had occupied Hamburg between 1806 and 1814. According to a different historical tradition, they produced a longish Franzbrot (German for 'French bread') which resembled the baguette. Legend has it, a baker in Hamburg had once seared such a Franzbrot in a pan of fat, which is considered the origin of the contemporary Franzbr\u00f6tchen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "By 1869, the croissant was well established enough to be mentioned as a breakfast staple, and in 1872, Charles Dickens wrote (in his periodical \"All the Year Round\") of \"the workman's \"pain de m\u00e9nage\" and the soldier's \"pain de munition\", to the dainty croissant on the boudoir table\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain au chocolat",
        "text": "Originally, croissants and pains au chocolat were made from a brioche base but later evolved to incorporate a buttery flaky dough (\"p\u00e2te feuillet\u00e9e\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The above mentioned Alan Davidson proposed that the Islamic origin story originated with 20th-century writer Alfred Gottschalk, who gave two versions, one in the \"Larousse Gastronomique\" and the other in his \"History of Food and Gastronomy\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Viennese cuisine",
        "text": "The croissant is also thought to have originated in Vienna after the defeat of the Turks in the Siege of Vienna."
      },
      {
        "title": "Viennoiserie",
        "text": "Examples include: croissants; Vienna bread and its French equivalent, \"pain viennois\", often shaped into baguettes; brioche; \"pain au chocolat\"; \"pain au lait\"; \"pain aux raisins\"; \"chouquettes\"; Danish pastries; xuixo; \"bugnes\"; and \"chausson aux pommes\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Stories of how the Kipferl \u2014 and so, ultimately, the croissant \u2014 was created are widespread and persistent culinary legends, going back to the 19th century. However, there are no contemporary sources for any of these stories, and an aristocratic writer, writing in 1799, does not mention the Kipferl in a long and extensive list of breakfast foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croque monsieur",
        "text": "Croque monsieur\n--Preparation.\n--Variations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caf\u00e9 du Croissant",
        "text": "Caf\u00e9 du Croissant\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "G\u00e2teau nantais",
        "text": "Since it became popular again in the 20th century, pastry chefs and cooks in Nantes have served it in its most classic version, or have been inspired to create variants including additional ingredients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast",
        "text": "The croissant appears to have originated in Vienna, Austria, in 1683."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "After lamination, the dough is formed into its famous crescent shape. First, the laminated dough is cut into triangles of the desired size. The triangles are then rolled with three-and-a-half to four full turns, and finally, the ends of the roll are curved inwards to form a crescent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (magazine)",
        "text": "In 1980 the circulation of \"Croissant\" was 450,000 copies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "During baking, the transient gluten network turns into a permanent network. At higher temperatures, intermolecular disulfide bonds form between glutenin molecules, as well as between gliadin and glutenin. With more bonds being made, the gluten network becomes more rigid, strengthening the croissant\u2019s crumb texture. Additionally, the baking process significantly stretches the dough layers due to the large macroscopic deformation that occurred during fermentation\u2019s dough lift."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "In order to ensure the flaky texture of the croissant, it is important to balance the yeast activity with steam production. If the yeast overproduces CO2, then the well-defined layers may collapse. During the baking process, this would cause steam to escape too early from the bread, reducing dough lift and flakiness of the final product. Thus, to offset the negative effects of yeast on layer integrity and dough lift, croissants usually contain fewer layers than other puff pastries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The legends include tales that it was invented in Europe to celebrate the defeat of the Umayyad forces by the Franks at the Battle of Tours in 732, with the shape representing the Islamic crescent; that it was invented in Buda; or, according to other sources, in Vienna in 1683 to celebrate the defeat of the Ottomans by Christian forces in the siege of the city, as a reference to the crescents on the Ottoman flags, when bakers staying up all night heard the tunneling operation and gave the alarm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Croissants are commonly served alongside coffee for breakfast, \"aperitivo\" (a light mid-morning meal), or \"merienda\" (a mid-afternoon meal). They are referred to as \"medialunas\" (\"half moons\") because of their shape and are typically coated with a sweet glaze (\"medialunas de manteca\", \"half moons of butter\"). Another variant is a \"medialuna de grasa\" (\"half moon of lard\"), which is not always sweet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kifli",
        "text": "It is a common type of bread roll throughout much of central Europe and nearby countries, where it is called by different names. It is thought to be the inspiration for the French croissant, which has a very similar shape but is made with a different type of dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Fat also affects the quality of croissants in storage. On one hand, an increased amount of in-dough fat has been found to correspond to a reduction in crumb hardness immediately after baking. This is likely attributed to the high-fat content of croissants, as increased fat levels decrease moisture diffusion. On the other hand, although roll-in fat softens the croissant\u2019s initial crumb, its effect on croissant hardness during storage is still unclear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cr\u00e8vec\u0153ur chicken",
        "text": "Bantam versions were separately developed in the United States from about 1960, and in Germany towards 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "French cuisine",
        "text": "Another variation called \"le petit d\u00e9jeuner chasseur\", meant to be very hearty, is served with \"p\u00e2t\u00e9\" and other \"charcuterie\" products. A more classy version is called \"le petit d\u00e9jeuner du voyageur\", where delicatessens serve gizzard, bacon, salmon, omelet, or \"croque monsieur\", with or without soft-boiled egg and always with the traditional coffee/tea/chocolate along fruits or fruit juice. When the egg is cooked sunny-side over the \"croque-monsieur\", it is called a \"croque-madame\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The fourth step is the baking process. Also known as \"pastry lift\" or \"dough lift\", the dough expands as water is converted to steam, thus increasing the pressure between each dough layer. As a result, the croissant dough rises up to yield its characteristic flaky texture. Depending on the type of oven used and specific size of the croissant, the baking time can range from 10 to 20 minutes and the oven temperature can be set anywhere from 165\u00a0\u00b0C to 205\u00a0\u00b0C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "Whilst the Croissant dialects are quite heterogenous (according to Ronjat), the following characteristics are commonly found:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "The eastern part of the Croissant from Montmarault, where the Averno-Bourbonnais dialect is found, is linked to Auvergnat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caf\u00e9 du Croissant",
        "text": "The Caf\u00e9 du Croissant or Crosse du Croisant (today the Taverne du Croissant) is a caf\u00e9 in the 2nd arrondissement of Paris, France. It is famous for having been the place of the assassination of Jean Jaur\u00e8s by Raoul Villain on July 31, 1914."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croque monsieur",
        "text": "A croque monsieur served with a poached or lightly fried egg on top is known as a \"croque madame\" (or, in parts of Normandy, as a \"croque-\u00e0-cheval\"). According to the \"Petit Robert\" dictionary, the name dates to around 1960. The name \"croque-mademoiselle\" is associated with its lighter, vegetarian version: made of the same bread, but with ordinary melting cheese, accompanied with chives, cucumber and lettuce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "In the Croissant dialects, the spread of Gallicisms has increased, weakening the local Occitan variants. During the last few centuries, it seems that this progression had been more rapid in Marche County (Limousin-speaking territory) than in Bourbonnais (Auvergnat-speaking territory). But since the 20th century, in all cases, the spread of French has resulted in a diglossia, and linguistic substitutions similar to those across all of the Langue d\u2019oc-speaking regions. That puts into perspective the \"gallicised\" aspects of the Croissant dialects today, since nearly all Occitan dialects are undergoing a process of gallicization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cruller",
        "text": "A French cruller is a fluted, ring-shaped doughnut made from choux pastry with a light airy texture. The German is very similar, while the Dutch and Belgian is baked instead of being fried."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "Since the 1970\u2019s, edited maps include nearly all of the Croissant in the Langue d\u2019oc-speaking region. Guylaine Brun-Trigaud even includes the Langue d\u2019o\u00efl dialects with Occitan features."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Roll-in fat gradually melts as the temperature in the oven increases. Some of the melting fat can migrate into the dough, which could then interfere with gluten protein crosslinking. The fat phase also contributes to dough lift through gas inflation, which will be described next."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The third step is the fermentation process. Croissants are different from other puff pastries in that they include yeast, which, during proofing, increases the dough volume. Ideally, the optimum croissant quality is achieved at a yeast level of 7.5%, with a proof time of 60 minutes at 31\u00a0\u00b0C. The croissants are finished proofing when the dough has expanded two-and-a-half times its original volume."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biscotti",
        "text": "In France, a similar biscuit is known as croquant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburg",
        "text": "There is the curious regional dessert pastry called Franzbr\u00f6tchen. Looking rather like a flattened croissant, it is similar in preparation but includes a cinnamon and sugar filling, often with raisins or brown sugar streusel. The name may also reflect to the roll's croissant-like appearance \u2013 \"franz\" appears to be a shortening of \"franz\u00f6sisch\", meaning \"French\", which would make a \"Franzbr\u00f6tchen\" a \"French roll\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "Within the Auvergnat area, there is a distinct zone influenced by Francoproven\u00e7al in the south-east of Bourbonnais (the south-eastern part of Allier), towards the Bourbonnais Mountains. There, since ancient times, the intervocalic \"d\" is dropped, in particular in \"-aa\" endings (for \"-ada\"), as is also the case in Vivaro-Alpin (where the loss of the \"d\" can also be explained by its proximity to Francoproven\u00e7al)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croisilles",
        "text": "Croisilles\n--France.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain de campagne",
        "text": "With the rise of commercial yeast at the turn of the 20th century, pain de campagne fell out of favor in French cities, where it was replaced by the baguette. However, with the rise of artisan breads in the 1970s, pain de campagne has been growing in popularity, both in Europe and the US."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The second step is the lamination process. Lamination is necessary to produce multilayered dough with alternating layers of predough and fat. Generally, there are two methods for folding fat into the dough: the English method and the French method. In the English method, one fold results in two fat layers and three dough layers. After spreading out predough, roll-in fat is flattened to a similar thickness as the predough and spread over two-thirds of the surface of the laminated predough. The exposed third of predough is then folded over half of the roll-in fat, while the other end (one predough and one fat layer) is folded on top. In the French method, one fold results in one fat layer and two dough layers. After spreading out the predough and putting a layer of roll-in fat over the center surface of the dough, the corners of the predough are folded toward the middle of the fat. Croissant dough is typically laminated until 16\u201350 fat layers are obtained. The optimal number of layers can be determined by balancing certain crumb properties with specific volume. On one hand, a low number of layers yields large specific heights as well as irregular crumb structure with large voids. On the other hand, a large number of relatively thin layers leads to interconnections between different dough layers as well as less dough lift."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain au chocolat",
        "text": "Pain au chocolat is made of the same layered doughs as a croissant. Often sold still hot or warm from the oven, they are commonly sold alongside croissants in French bakeries and supermarkets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Roll-in fat affects the flakiness and flavor of the croissant. In laminated dough, fat layers alternate with dough layers. As such, the most important function of roll-in fat is to form and maintain a barrier between the different dough layers during sheeting and folding. As previously stated, the ability for fat to maintain separation between folded dough layers ensures proper dough lift."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tres leches cake",
        "text": "Tres leches cake\n--Popularity and origins.\n--Variations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "August Zang",
        "text": "The son of Christophe Boniface Zang, a Vienna surgeon, August Zang became an artillery officer before he went to Paris, probably in 1837, to found a bakery, Boulangerie Viennoise, which opened in 1838 or 1839. The bakery was quickly imitated, and its Austrian kipfel became the French croissant. Baking historians, who often qualify Zang as \"Baron\", \"Count\" or \"Royal Chamberlain\" though he did not hold those titles, sometimes claim he introduced the baguette, but that is not supported by any period source. However, he introduced the Viennese steam oven, which became standard in France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thieboudienne",
        "text": "Thieboudienne\n--Recipe.\n--Variations.\n----By country.\n----By ethnicity.\n--Other renderings.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croquette",
        "text": "\"\", a croquette on a bread roll, is sold in restaurants, snack shops, and by street vendors. The popularity of the \"kroket\" in the Netherlands is such that even McDonald's sells their version on a bun as \"McKroket\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (magazine)",
        "text": "Croissant (magazine)\n--History and profile.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cr\u00e8me br\u00fbl\u00e9e",
        "text": "\"Cr\u00e8me br\u00fbl\u00e9e\" was generally uncommon in both French and English cookbooks of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It became extremely popular in the 1980s, \"a symbol of that decade's self-indulgence and the darling of the restaurant boom\", probably popularized by Sirio Maccioni at his New York restaurant \"Le Cirque\". He claimed to have made it \"the most famous and by far the most popular dessert in restaurants from Paris to Peoria\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's croissant",
        "text": "This tradition dates back to pagan times, when during the autumn feast the gods were offered sacrifices of oxen or, as a substitute, of dough rolled up in oxen horns. The Latin Church has taken over this custom and linked it to the figure of St Martin. The shape of the dough was interpreted as a reference to the horseshoe that the holy horse was to lose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "In laminated croissant dough, the gluten network is not continuous. Instead, the gluten proteins are separated as thin gluten films between dough layers. The formation of thin, well-defined layers affects the height of dough lift. Generally, laminated croissant dough contains fewer layers than other puff pastry doughs that do not contain yeast, due to the presence of small bubbles in the gluten sheets. Upon proofing, these bubbles expand and destroy the integrity of the dough layers. The resulting interconnections between different dough layers would over-increase dough strength and allow water vapor to escape through micropores during baking, consequently decreasing dough lift. The role of fat also influences the separation of layers, as will be discussed next."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cr\u00eape bretonne",
        "text": "Cr\u00eape bretonne\n--History.\n--Making.\n--Wheat and buckwheat versions.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cremeschnitte",
        "text": "In Croatia, the two most popular variants are Samoborska krem\u0161nita from the town of Samobor and Zagreba\u010dka krem\u0161nita from the capital, Zagreb. The extremely popular Samoborska krem\u0161nita is characterized by having a puff pastry top, predominantly custard cream filling (less whipped cream) with meringue and is finished with powdered sugar. Zagreba\u010dka krem\u0161nita has a characteristic chocolate icing instead of the puff pastry top, while maintaining the puff pastry base. The classic recipe for Samoborska krem\u0161nita is considered to be designed by \u0110uro Luka\u010di\u0107 in the early 1950s, based on different earlier variants found in patisseries of Zagreb."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "The majority of linguists specializing in the Croissant dialects confirm it is a predominantly Occitan-speaking zone. (Tourtoulon & Bringuier, Dahmen, Escoffier, Chambon & Olivier, Quint). Only Jules Ronjat expresses a more cautious opinion, refusing to explicitly say if the Croissant comes under Langue d\u2019Oc or Langue d\u2019O\u00efl (French). Following Ronjat\u2019s hesitation, some books by Occitan scholars (Pierre Bec, Robert Lafont) have been reluctant to present the Croissant as a completely Langue d\u2019oc-speaking zone. However, cultural studies conducted in the Croissant from the 1970\u2019s (Quint, Merle) prove that linguistic and cultural awareness of Langue d\u2019oc is widespread there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Austrian Crescent",
        "text": "It is also known as 'Kipfel' the German name for \"croissant\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "The Croissant (Occitan: \"lo Creissent\"; French: \"le Croissant\") is a linguistic transitional zone between the Langue d'oc (also referred to as Occitan) dialects and the Langue d'o\u00efl dialects, situated in the centre of France where Occitan dialects are spoken (Limousin and Auvergnat) that have transitional traits toward French (Langue d'o\u00efl). The name derives from the contours of the zone that resemble a \"croissant\", or crescent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Viennese whirls",
        "text": "The most common UK version was popularised by Mr Kipling, consisting of two biscuits sandwiched with buttercream and jam. In this sense they resemble the older Empire biscuit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Custard",
        "text": "French cuisine has several named variations on custard:\n* \"Cr\u00e8me anglaise\" is light custard made with eggs, sugar, milk and vanilla (with the possible addition of starch), with other flavoring agents as desired\n** With cream instead of milk, and more sugar, it is the basis of \"cr\u00e8me br\u00fbl\u00e9e\"\n** With egg yolks and heavy cream, it is the basis of ice cream\n** With egg yolks and whipped cream, and stabilized with gelatin, it is the basis of Bavarian cream\n** Thickened with butter, chocolate or gelatin, it is a popular basis for a \"cr\u00e9meux\"\n* \"Cr\u00e8me p\u00e2tissi\u00e8re\" (pastry cream) is similar to \"cr\u00e8me anglaise\", but thickened with flour\n** With added flavoring or fresh fruit, it is the basis of \"cr\u00e8me plombi\u00e8res\"\n* \"Cr\u00e8me Saint-Honor\u00e9\" is \"cr\u00e8me p\u00e2tissi\u00e8re\" enriched with whipped egg whites\n* \"Cr\u00e8me chiboust\" is similar to \"cr\u00e8me Saint-Honor\u00e9\", but stabilized with gelatin\n* \"Cr\u00e8me diplomat\" and \"cr\u00e8me l\u00e9g\u00e8re\" are variations of \"cr\u00e8me p\u00e2tissi\u00e8re\" enriched with whipped cream\n* \"Cr\u00e8me mousseline\" is a variation of \"cr\u00e8me p\u00e2tissi\u00e8re\" enriched with butter\n* \"Frangipane\" is \"cr\u00e8me p\u00e2tissi\u00e8re\" mixed with powdered macarons or almond powder"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "The Croissant\u2019s territory is shaped like a tapered crescent, joining the Tardoire valley in Charente to the west, to Monts de la Madeleine in Allier to the east. The crescent is very narrow between its westernmost point and Le Dorat (between 10 and 15\u00a0km wide), and widens towards the east: between 30\u00a0km (at Gu\u00e9ret) and 45\u00a0km (at Culan)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (magazine)",
        "text": "\"Croissant\" has sister publications, including \"an an\", \"Brutus\" and \"Popeye\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cronut",
        "text": "The Cronut is a croissant-doughnut pastry. It resembles a doughnut and is made from croissant-like dough which is filled with flavored cream and fried in grapeseed oil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cronut",
        "text": "In 2013, bakery owner Dominique Ansel created the pastry out of dough similar to that of a croissant (a pastry that he had been more familiar with) with flavored cream inside."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The first type of Portuguese croissant is similar to the French, and can be plain or filled with custard, chocolate, fruit jam, or a typical Portuguese cream made of egg yolk and sugar, \"doce de ovo\". It is customary for these to also have powdered sugar on top. The second version has a similar consistency to brioche and is commonly eaten with ham and cheese. Sometimes this type is also served like toast, with a spread of butter. While the first type of croissant is considered sweet and is eaten during breakfast or tea, the second type is a more filling meal and is usually considered a sandwich and often prepared for picnics or as travel food. Both types share the same name (French/Portuguese: \"croissant\") but are typically found in different bakeries: the sweet croissant is more commonly found in Portuguese p\u00e2tisseries and the brioche croissant is usually found in coffeehouses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parisine",
        "text": "It is a variant with alternate designs. It includes extra ligatures over the respective classic designs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bouillabaisse",
        "text": "Recipes for bouillabaisse vary from family to family in Marseille, and local restaurants dispute which versions are the most authentic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croisilles, Orne",
        "text": "Croisilles, Orne\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gibassier",
        "text": "As a traditional dish, there is significant variation between preparations (compare bouillabaisse). A more unusual variation is to prepare it as a hard biscuit (cookie), rather than as a cake, but with the same pierced shape. This is a specialty of Lourmarin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crokinole",
        "text": "The name \"crokinole\" derives from , a French word today designating:\n#in France, a kind of cookie (or biscuit in British English), similar to a \"biscotto\";\n#in French Canada, a pastry somewhat similar to a doughnut (except for the shape)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croquette",
        "text": "The success of the croquette led to a whole series of food products resembling the croquette, but with other types of fillings, such as noodles, rice and kidney, and with names like \"bamibal\", \"nasibal\", and \"nierbroodje\". Variants of the croquette which specify the kind of meat can also be found, like \"rundvleeskroket\" (made with beef) and \"kalfsvleeskroket\" (made with veal). Also popular in Dutch snack bars are the \"sat\u00e9kroket\" (where the filling consists of a peanut satay sauce and shredded meat in a ragout) and the \"goulashkroket\". A smaller round version of the standard beef or veal croquette, the \"bitterbal\", is often served with mustard as a snack in bars and at receptions. Potato croquettes and potato balls (similar to potato croquettes, but small and round) can be bought frozen in most food stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salade ni\u00e7oise",
        "text": "A 1979 variation by Pierre Franey is called \"Salade Ni\u00e7oise aux Poires d'Avocat\". Franey wrote, \"I am convinced that had avocados been native to Provence they would have been an inevitable ingredient in the celebrated salad of that region, the salad ni\u00e7oise.\" This version also included mushrooms and both black and green olives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arab cuisine",
        "text": "Caf\u00e9s often serve croissants for breakfast. Breakfast is often a quick meal, consisting of bread and dairy products, with tea and sometimes jam. The most common breakfast items are \"labneh\" and cream (, made of cow's milk)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cronut",
        "text": "The Cronut in its current form was invented in 2013 by French-American pastry chef Dominique Ansel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croquette",
        "text": "A 17th-century recipe for croquettes (\"croquets\") by Fran\u00e7ois Massialot binds a filling of meat, truffles, marrow, bread crumbs, and cheese with egg, then breads and fries them in lard. They may be as large as an egg or as small as a walnut, and can be served as an hors-d'\u0153uvre or as a garnish. They are mentioned in a 1706 English dictionary. One 18th-century recipe uses just a batter, not a b\u00e9chamel binder. Croquettes of the modern type, with a thick binder, are documented in an 1822 English cookbook by the French cook Louis Eustache Ude."
      },
      {
        "title": "C\u00e9leste Albaret",
        "text": "Apart from making coffee and serving the croissants, one task that Albaret was not called upon to perform was cooking her employer's meals. Cooking did not take place at home. She was, however, mandated to telephone meal orders to the fine city restaurants: these were dispatched with minimal delay to the address at 102 Boulevard Haussmann. Permanently ill by this time, Proust ate little by the (middle-and upper class) standards of Paris at those times, and he hardly drank. A meal might consist of a little of the white meat from a chicken or a filet of sole, washed down, on rare occasions, with a little flute of Champagne or of Bordeaux, which would suffice. The only meal which he really revered was the coffee and croissants, which he consumed as his tea-time \"breakfast\". Sources speculate that a more varied diet might have buttressed his failing health more effectively. It would, however, be wrong to think that he was wholly inflexible in his \"breakfast\" routine. Towards the end of the war, in 1917, croissants disappeared from the bakeries and he developed a taste for Sabl\u00e9 biscuits that replaced the croissants on his breakfast tray. Proust's celebrity status meant that many suppliers were willing to adapt to his unconventional timetable. The kitchens at the Hotel Ritz remained open longer than those of most establishments, but even here the kitchens were not, for most of his purposes, staffed and accessible through the night. Albaret held her own key, however, in order that she might be able to access the hotel kitchens at any point during the night, should her employer require a chilled beer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ordre du Croissant",
        "text": "Ordre du Croissant\n--Provence.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Klaus Croissant",
        "text": "Klaus Croissant\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "P\u00e2t\u00e9 chinois",
        "text": "Another hypothesis suggests that this dish originated from the city of South China in Maine. Many French Canadians had emigrated there to find work during the industrial revolution. The \u201cChina pie\u201d, a local specialty, would have become popular among the French Canadians and been translated into \"p\u00e2t\u00e9 chinois\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "The spread of French (Langue d\u2019o\u00efl) towards the Croissant has been a long and progressive process, in contrast to the quite rapid \"d\u00e9soccitanisation\" of Poitou, Saintonge and Angoumois which took place between the 12th and 15th centuries, due principally to the ravages of the Hundred Years War causing the area to be consecutively repopulated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Couque de Dinant",
        "text": "A variant, the couque de Rins also adds sugar to the dough. It is sweeter and softer as a result."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cordon bleu (dish)",
        "text": "Other common variations include omitting the bread crumbs, wrapping the ham around the chicken, or using bacon in place of ham."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paris Baguette",
        "text": "Other franchises of Paris Croissant include LINA's and Tamati (sandwich), Passion5 (upscale dessert gallery), L\u2019atelier (caf\u00e9 restaurant). It also handles the Korean branch of Jamba Juice (smoothie)."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's croissant",
        "text": "St. Martin's croissant\n--History.\n--Ingredients.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Schnitzel",
        "text": "Other variants of the schnitzel, not all necessarily made with a bread crumb crust, include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Quiche",
        "text": "There are many variants of quiche, using a wide variety of ingredients. Variants may be named descriptively, often in French, e.g. ' (quiche with cheese) and ' (quiche with mushrooms) or conventionally, e.g. ' (spinach) and ' (tomatoes)."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the technique in making the dough for croissants?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Typically, croissant predough is mixed in a relatively cool environment; flour, water, in-dough fat, yeast, salt, and sugar are mixed together in a single step. The second step is the lamination process, after lamination, the dough is formed into its famous crescent shape, followed by the baking process."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How are croissants stored after they are completed?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Croissants are generally not stored for very long and are typically consumed soon after baking."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where were croissants first made?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The birth of the croissant itself\u2014that is, its adaptation from the plainer form of kipferl, before the invention of viennoiseries\u2014can be dated to at least 1839 when an Austrian artillery officer, August Zang, founded a Viennese bakery (\"Boulangerie Viennoise\") at 92, rue de Richelieu in Paris. The modern croissant was developed in the early 20th century when French bakers replaced the brioche dough of the kipferl by a yeast-leavened laminated dough."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any popular croissant variants?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "There are many!  Would you like to know about the varieties in Italy, Argentina and Uruguay, Poland, or Portugal?",
      "In the United States, croissants may have sweet fillings, while in Levant they may be filled with chocolate or cheese, or filled with Nutella in Germany. In Switzerland Gipfeli croissants are crisper and less buttery, while Italian croissants are often softer and have fillings, and in Poland there exists \"St. Martin's croissants\", which are made with white poppy seed, raisin, and nut filling. There are other variations that exist still (such as a deep-fried, sugar-coated variant from Spain called the Xuixo), and I can tell you about them, or give you more information on any previously mentioned variant if you'd like?"
    ],
    "topic": "Croissant",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Croissant:16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Croissant",
          "Variants",
          "Argentina and Uruguay"
        ],
        "ctx": "Croissants are commonly served alongside coffee for breakfast, \"aperitivo\" (a light mid-morning meal), or \"merienda\" (a mid-afternoon meal). They are referred to as \"medialunas\" (\"half moons\") because of their shape and are typically coated with a sweet glaze (\"medialunas de manteca\", \"half moons of butter\"). Another variant is a \"medialuna de grasa\" (\"half moon of lard\"), which is not always sweet."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Croissant:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Croissant",
          "Variants",
          "Italy"
        ],
        "ctx": "A cousin of the croissant is the Italian \"cornetto\" (in the Center and South) or \"brioche\" (in the North). These variants are often considered to be the same, but that is not completely true: the French version tends to be crispy and contains a lot of butter, whereas an Italian cornetto or brioche is usually softer. Furthermore, the \"cornetto vuoto\" (Italian: \"empty cornetto\") is commonly accompanied by variants with filling, which include \"crema pasticciera\" (custard), apricot jam or chocolate cream. They often come covered with powdered sugar or other toppings. \"Cornetto\" with cappuccino at the bar is one of the most common breakfasts in Italy."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Croissant:18",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Croissant",
          "Variants",
          "Poland"
        ],
        "ctx": "On 11 November, St. Martin's Day is celebrated in the Polish region of Greater Poland, mainly in its capital city Pozna\u0144. On this day, the people of Pozna\u0144 purchase and eat considerable amounts of sweet, crescent-shaped pastries called \"rogale \u015bwi\u0119tomarci\u0144skie\" (\"St. Martin's croissants\"). They are made specially for this occasion from puff pastry with a filling made of ground white poppy seeds, almonds, raisins, and nuts."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Croissant:19",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Croissant",
          "Variants",
          "Portugal"
        ],
        "ctx": "The first type of Portuguese croissant is similar to the French, and can be plain or filled with custard, chocolate, fruit jam, or a typical Portuguese cream made of egg yolk and sugar, \"doce de ovo\". It is customary for these to also have powdered sugar on top. The second version has a similar consistency to brioche and is commonly eaten with ham and cheese. Sometimes this type is also served like toast, with a spread of butter. While the first type of croissant is considered sweet and is eaten during breakfast or tea, the second type is a more filling meal and is usually considered a sandwich and often prepared for picnics or as travel food. Both types share the same name (French/Portuguese: \"croissant\") but are typically found in different bakeries: the sweet croissant is more commonly found in Portuguese p\u00e2tisseries and the brioche croissant is usually found in coffeehouses."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Croissant:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Croissant",
          "Variants"
        ],
        "ctx": "Uncooked croissant dough can also be wrapped around any praline, almond paste, or chocolate before it is baked (in the last case, it becomes like \"pain au chocolat\", which has a different, non-crescent, shape), or sliced to include sweet or savoury fillings. It may be flavored with dried fruit such as sultanas or raisins, or other fruits such as apples. In France and Spain, croissants are generally sold without filling and eaten without added butter, but sometimes with almond filling."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Croissant:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Croissant",
          "Variants",
          "Italy"
        ],
        "ctx": "A cousin of the croissant is the Italian \"cornetto\" (in the Center and South) or \"brioche\" (in the North). These variants are often considered to be the same, but that is not completely true: the French version tends to be crispy and contains a lot of butter, whereas an Italian cornetto or brioche is usually softer. Furthermore, the \"cornetto vuoto\" (Italian: \"empty cornetto\") is commonly accompanied by variants with filling, which include \"crema pasticciera\" (custard), apricot jam or chocolate cream. They often come covered with powdered sugar or other toppings. \"Cornetto\" with cappuccino at the bar is one of the most common breakfasts in Italy."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Croissant:18",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Croissant",
          "Variants",
          "Poland"
        ],
        "ctx": "On 11 November, St. Martin's Day is celebrated in the Polish region of Greater Poland, mainly in its capital city Pozna\u0144. On this day, the people of Pozna\u0144 purchase and eat considerable amounts of sweet, crescent-shaped pastries called \"rogale \u015bwi\u0119tomarci\u0144skie\" (\"St. Martin's croissants\"). They are made specially for this occasion from puff pastry with a filling made of ground white poppy seeds, almonds, raisins, and nuts."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Xuixo:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Xuixo"
        ],
        "ctx": "Xuixo (; also known as \"xuxo\"; ) is a viennoiserie pastry from the city of Girona in Catalonia, Spain. It is a deep-fried, sugar-coated cylindrical pastry filled with crema catalana."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Croissant\n--Origin and history.\n----Culinary legends.\n--Variants.\n----Argentina and Uruguay.\n----Italy.\n----Poland.\n----Portugal.\n----Spain.\n----Turkey.\n--Overview of manufacturing.\n--Ingredient functionality during processing.\n----Predough.\n----Lamination.\n----Fermentation.\n----Baking.\n----Storage.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "A cousin of the croissant is the Italian \"cornetto\" (in the Center and South) or \"brioche\" (in the North). These variants are often considered to be the same, but that is not completely true: the French version tends to be crispy and contains a lot of butter, whereas an Italian cornetto or brioche is usually softer. Furthermore, the \"cornetto vuoto\" (Italian: \"empty cornetto\") is commonly accompanied by variants with filling, which include \"crema pasticciera\" (custard), apricot jam or chocolate cream. They often come covered with powdered sugar or other toppings. \"Cornetto\" with cappuccino at the bar is one of the most common breakfasts in Italy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Besides of the regular croissant, a variation called \"cuerno\" (meaning \"horn\") is sold. It is half of a croissant stuffed usually with cream. Also called Xuixos ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "In the United States, sweet fillings or toppings are sometimes used, and warm croissants may be filled with ham and cheese, or feta cheese and spinach. In the Levant, croissants are sold plain or filled with chocolate, cheese, almonds, or zaatar. In Germany, croissants are sometimes filled with Nutella or persipan; in southern Germany, there is also a popular variety of a croissant glazed with lye (\"Laugencroissant\"). In the German-speaking part of Switzerland, the croissant is typically called a \"Gipfeli\"; this usually has a crisper crust and is less buttery than the French-style croissant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Crescent-shaped breads have been made since the Renaissance, and crescent-shaped cakes possibly since antiquity. Croissants have long been a staple of Austrian, Italian, and French bakeries and p\u00e2tisseries. The modern croissant was developed in the early 20th century. In the late 1970s, the development of factory-made, frozen, preformed but unbaked dough made them into a fast food that could be freshly baked by unskilled labor. The croissant bakery, notably the \"La Croissanterie\" chain, was a French response to American-style fast food, and as of 2008, 30\u201340% of the croissants sold in French bakeries and patisseries were baked from frozen dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "A croissant (, , ) is a buttery, flaky, viennoiserie pastry of Austrian origin, but mostly associated with France. Croissants are named for their historical crescent shape and, like other viennoiseries, are made of a layered yeast-leavened dough. The dough is layered with butter, rolled and folded several times in succession, then rolled into a thin sheet, in a technique called laminating. The process results in a layered, flaky texture, similar to a puff pastry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "A remote similarity of the croissant shape is the Turkish \"ay \u00e7\u00f6re\u011fi\". It is filled with cinnamon, walnut, hazelnut, cacao and raisin. Its rectangular shape variant is known as \"pasti\u00e7\" or \"\u0130zmir \u00e7\u00f6re\u011fi\". It is generally eaten during breakfast or with tea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Croissants are a common part of a continental breakfast in many European countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Uncooked croissant dough can also be wrapped around any praline, almond paste, or chocolate before it is baked (in the last case, it becomes like \"pain au chocolat\", which has a different, non-crescent, shape), or sliced to include sweet or savoury fillings. It may be flavored with dried fruit such as sultanas or raisins, or other fruits such as apples. In France and Spain, croissants are generally sold without filling and eaten without added butter, but sometimes with almond filling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Croissants are commonly served alongside coffee for breakfast, \"aperitivo\" (a light mid-morning meal), or \"merienda\" (a mid-afternoon meal). They are referred to as \"medialunas\" (\"half moons\") because of their shape and are typically coated with a sweet glaze (\"medialunas de manteca\", \"half moons of butter\"). Another variant is a \"medialuna de grasa\" (\"half moon of lard\"), which is not always sweet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Battle of Vienna",
        "text": "One legend is that the \"croissant\" was invented in Vienna, either in 1683 or during the earlier siege in 1529, to celebrate the defeat of the Ottoman attack on the city, with the shape referring to the crescents on the Ottoman flags. This version of the origin of the croissant is supported by the fact that croissants in France are a variant of \"Viennoiserie\", and by the French popular belief that Vienna-born Marie Antoinette introduced the pastry to France in 1770."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The kipferl, the origin of croissant, can be dated back to at least the 13th century in Austria, and came in various shapes. The kipferl can be made plain or with nuts or other fillings (some consider the rugelach a form of kipferl)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain au chocolat",
        "text": "They are often sold in packages at supermarkets and convenience stores, or made fresh in pastry shops.\n* In Morocco, Lebanon, Tunisia, Algeria, the Netherlands, Belgium, Norway, Ireland, Denmark and the United Kingdom, they are sold in most bakeries, supermarkets and caf\u00e9s.\n* In Germany, they are sold less frequently than chocolate croissants, but both are referred to as .\n* In the United States and sometimes in English Canada, they are commonly known as \"chocolate croissants\".\n* In the Netherlands, they are sold at most caf\u00e9s, supermarkets and bakeries and are commonly known as a .\n* In Belgium's Flanders region, they are sold in most bakeries, and referred to as or .\n* In Portugal and Spain, they are sold in bakeries and supermarkets, as (i.e., \"Neapolitans\").\n* In Mexico, they are also most commonly found in bakeries and supermarkets, and are known as \"chocolatines\".\n* In El Salvador and Brazil, they are referred to .\n* In Australia and New Zealand, they are commonly referred to as \"chocolate croissants\", and are sold freshly baked in most bakeries and supermarkets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biscotti",
        "text": "In France, a similar biscuit is known as croquant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breakfast",
        "text": "The croissant appears to have originated in Vienna, Austria, in 1683."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Alan Davidson, editor of the \"Oxford Companion to Food\", found no printed recipe for the present-day croissant in any French recipe book before the early 20th century; the earliest French reference to a croissant he found was among the \"fantasy or luxury breads\" in Payen's \"Des substances alimentaires\", 1853. However, early recipes for non-laminated croissants can be found in the 19th century and at least one reference to croissants as an established French bread appeared as early as 1850."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rugelach",
        "text": "Traditional rugelach are made in the form of a crescent by rolling a triangle of dough around a filling. Some sources state that the rugelach and the French croissant share a common Viennese ancestor, crescent-shaped pastries commemorating the lifting of the Turkish siege, possibly a reference to the Battle of Vienna in 1683. This appears to be an urban legend however, as both the rugelach and its supposed ancestor, the Kipferl, pre-date the Early Modern era, while the croissant in its modern form did not originate earlier than the 19th century (see viennoiserie). This leads many to believe that the croissant is simply a descendant of one of these two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The birth of the croissant itself\u2014that is, its adaptation from the plainer form of kipferl, before the invention of viennoiseries\u2014can be dated to at least 1839 (some say 1838) when an Austrian artillery officer, August Zang, founded a Viennese bakery (\"Boulangerie Viennoise\") at 92, rue de Richelieu in Paris. This bakery, which served Viennese specialties including the kipferl and the Vienna loaf, quickly became popular and inspired French imitators (and the concept, if not the term, of \"viennoiserie\", a 20th-century term for supposedly Vienna-style pastries). The French version of the kipferl was named for its crescent (\"croissant\") shape and has become a universally identifiable shape across the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The puff pastry technique that now characterizes the croissant was already mentioned in the late 17th century, when La Varenne's \"Le Cuisinier fran\u00e7ois\" gave a recipe for it in the 1680 - and possibly earlier - edition. It was typically used not on its own but for shells holding other ingredients (as in a vol-au-vent). It does not appear to be mentioned in relation to the croissant until the 20th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain aux raisins",
        "text": "In France, it is typically a variant of the croissant or \"pain au chocolat\", made with a leavened butter pastry with raisins added and shaped in a spiral with a \"cr\u00e8me p\u00e2tissi\u00e8re\" filling. However, in many areas of Northern Europe and North America, it is generally made with sweetened bread dough or brioche dough, rather than pastry. It is often consumed for breakfast as part of a continental breakfast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Viennoiserie",
        "text": "Examples include: croissants; Vienna bread and its French equivalent, \"pain viennois\", often shaped into baguettes; brioche; \"pain au chocolat\"; \"pain au lait\"; \"pain aux raisins\"; \"chouquettes\"; Danish pastries; xuixo; \"bugnes\"; and \"chausson aux pommes\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "The eastern part of the Croissant from Montmarault, where the Averno-Bourbonnais dialect is found, is linked to Auvergnat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cailletier",
        "text": "The Cailletier is particularly common in the Alpes-Maritimes region of southern France, where it is the main variety, and also in nearby Liguria in Italy. It can also be found as far away as Japan, Australia and the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain au chocolat",
        "text": "Legend has it that Marie-Antoinette introduced the croissant to France, but croissants and pains au chocolat are a relatively modern invention. The word croissant, which refers to a plain form of pain au chocolat shaped like a half-moon or \"crescent\", made its entry in the French dictionary in 1863. The type of pastry, called \"viennoiserie\" in French, was introduced in the early 19th century, when August Zang, an Austrian officer, and Ernest Schwarzer, an Austrian aristocrat, founded a Viennese bakery in Paris located at 92, rue de Richelieu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chipita",
        "text": "Molto Croissants"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chipita",
        "text": "Molto Croissants"
      },
      {
        "title": "Viennese cuisine",
        "text": "The croissant is also thought to have originated in Vienna after the defeat of the Turks in the Siege of Vienna."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croisilles",
        "text": "Croisilles\n--France.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kifli",
        "text": "The kifli likely inspired the similarly shaped French croissant, which is made from a laminated pastry dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The above mentioned Alan Davidson proposed that the Islamic origin story originated with 20th-century writer Alfred Gottschalk, who gave two versions, one in the \"Larousse Gastronomique\" and the other in his \"History of Food and Gastronomy\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The first type of Portuguese croissant is similar to the French, and can be plain or filled with custard, chocolate, fruit jam, or a typical Portuguese cream made of egg yolk and sugar, \"doce de ovo\". It is customary for these to also have powdered sugar on top. The second version has a similar consistency to brioche and is commonly eaten with ham and cheese. Sometimes this type is also served like toast, with a spread of butter. While the first type of croissant is considered sweet and is eaten during breakfast or tea, the second type is a more filling meal and is usually considered a sandwich and often prepared for picnics or as travel food. Both types share the same name (French/Portuguese: \"croissant\") but are typically found in different bakeries: the sweet croissant is more commonly found in Portuguese p\u00e2tisseries and the brioche croissant is usually found in coffeehouses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chistorra",
        "text": "Other common dishes include \"croissant pre\u00f1ado\", a croissant with \"chistorra\" filler, and \"tortilla con chistorra\", a potato or egg omelet with \"chistorra\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croquette",
        "text": "In southern Mexico, a variety is made with fresh cheese, plantain, and black beans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Francesinha",
        "text": "Francesinha\n--History.\n--Variations.\n----Sauce.\n----Regional variants.\n--Reception.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Corzetti",
        "text": "Corzetti or Croxetti ( or ) are a kind of pasta typical of the Ligurian cuisine of north-west Italy, and traditional also in the area of Novi Ligure just across the border with Piedmont in the Province of Alessandria. Corzetti originated in Liguria, in Northern Italy along the border with France, during the middle ages. The name itself derives from a 14th century Genoan coin, the \"corzetto\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Franzbr\u00f6tchen",
        "text": "The Franzbr\u00f6tchen was probably named in the style of the French (German 'franz\u00f6sisch') model, the croissant, which is also made of pastry and became popular in Germany after Napoleon's troops had occupied Hamburg between 1806 and 1814. According to a different historical tradition, they produced a longish Franzbrot (German for 'French bread') which resembled the baguette. Legend has it, a baker in Hamburg had once seared such a Franzbrot in a pan of fat, which is considered the origin of the contemporary Franzbr\u00f6tchen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "Since the 1970\u2019s, edited maps include nearly all of the Croissant in the Langue d\u2019oc-speaking region. Guylaine Brun-Trigaud even includes the Langue d\u2019o\u00efl dialects with Occitan features."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "The Croissant (Occitan: \"lo Creissent\"; French: \"le Croissant\") is a linguistic transitional zone between the Langue d'oc (also referred to as Occitan) dialects and the Langue d'o\u00efl dialects, situated in the centre of France where Occitan dialects are spoken (Limousin and Auvergnat) that have transitional traits toward French (Langue d'o\u00efl). The name derives from the contours of the zone that resemble a \"croissant\", or crescent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caf\u00e9 du Croissant",
        "text": "Caf\u00e9 du Croissant\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "Whilst the Croissant dialects are quite heterogenous (according to Ronjat), the following characteristics are commonly found:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "Within the Auvergnat area, there is a distinct zone influenced by Francoproven\u00e7al in the south-east of Bourbonnais (the south-eastern part of Allier), towards the Bourbonnais Mountains. There, since ancient times, the intervocalic \"d\" is dropped, in particular in \"-aa\" endings (for \"-ada\"), as is also the case in Vivaro-Alpin (where the loss of the \"d\" can also be explained by its proximity to Francoproven\u00e7al)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croquette",
        "text": "In Italy, \"crocchette\" (known in the South as \"crocch\u00e8\") are made mainly with crushed potatoes or vegetables such as aubergines (\"crocchette di melanzane\"). Rice arancini (typical of Sicily), suppl\u00ec (Roman cuisine) and Milanese rice and saffron croquettes are particularly well known in Italian cuisine. In Emilia Romagna and Piemonte, croquettes are usually filled with chicken, while in Calabria \"polpette di riso\" are stuffed with rice and cheese (usually Parmesan or Pecorino)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barquillo",
        "text": "Similar recipes to barquillos also exist in other countries in Europe, like the \"parizske pecivo\" of Czechoslovakia, the \"pirouettes\" of France, and \"krumkake\" of Norway. Flat versions are known as \"wafle\" in Poland, \"goro\" in Norway, and \"pizzelle\" in Italy, among others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cresseveuille",
        "text": "Cresseveuille\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain au chocolat",
        "text": "Originally, croissants and pains au chocolat were made from a brioche base but later evolved to incorporate a buttery flaky dough (\"p\u00e2te feuillet\u00e9e\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "By 1869, the croissant was well established enough to be mentioned as a breakfast staple, and in 1872, Charles Dickens wrote (in his periodical \"All the Year Round\") of \"the workman's \"pain de m\u00e9nage\" and the soldier's \"pain de munition\", to the dainty croissant on the boudoir table\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Croque monsieur",
        "text": "Variants of the sandwich with substitutions or additional ingredients are given names modelled on the original \"croque-monsieur\", for example:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cornetto (pastry)",
        "text": "A cornetto (), meaning \"little horn\", is an Italian variation of the Austrian kipferl. It differs from a croissant in being softer and containing less butter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biscotti",
        "text": "Biscotti\n--Name.\n--History.\n----Italy.\n----The rest of Europe.\n----North America.\n--Recipe.\n----Modern variations.\n--Use.\n--Culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's croissant",
        "text": "St. Martin's croissant\n--History.\n--Ingredients.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The final steps are the cooling and storage of the croissant. Croissants are generally not stored for very long and are typically consumed soon after baking."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (magazine)",
        "text": "Croissant (magazine)\n--History and profile.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caprese salad",
        "text": "Caprese salad\n--Variants.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "The majority of linguists specializing in the Croissant dialects confirm it is a predominantly Occitan-speaking zone. (Tourtoulon & Bringuier, Dahmen, Escoffier, Chambon & Olivier, Quint). Only Jules Ronjat expresses a more cautious opinion, refusing to explicitly say if the Croissant comes under Langue d\u2019Oc or Langue d\u2019O\u00efl (French). Following Ronjat\u2019s hesitation, some books by Occitan scholars (Pierre Bec, Robert Lafont) have been reluctant to present the Croissant as a completely Langue d\u2019oc-speaking zone. However, cultural studies conducted in the Croissant from the 1970\u2019s (Quint, Merle) prove that linguistic and cultural awareness of Langue d\u2019oc is widespread there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cordon bleu (dish)",
        "text": "A common variant in Uruguay and Argentina is the \"Milanesa Rellena\". It consists of two beef or chicken fillets passed through beaten egg, later, stuffed with cooked ham and mozzarella cheese and superimposed like a sandwich. Once this is done, they are again passed through beaten eggs and breadcrumbs, to be fried or baked. It is usually served with papas fritas (French fries) as a garnish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Zang himself returned to Austria in 1848 to become a press magnate, but the bakery remained popular for some time afterwards, and was mentioned in several works of the time: \"This same M. Zank ...founded around 1830 [sic], in Paris, the famous Boulangerie viennoise\". Several sources praise this bakery's products: \"Paris is of exquisite delicacy; and, in particular, the succulent products of the Boulangerie Viennoise\"; \"which seemed to us as fine as if it came from the Viennese bakery on the rue de Richelieu\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "The legends include tales that it was invented in Europe to celebrate the defeat of the Umayyad forces by the Franks at the Battle of Tours in 732, with the shape representing the Islamic crescent; that it was invented in Buda; or, according to other sources, in Vienna in 1683 to celebrate the defeat of the Ottomans by Christian forces in the siege of the city, as a reference to the crescents on the Ottoman flags, when bakers staying up all night heard the tunneling operation and gave the alarm."
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's croissant",
        "text": "This tradition dates back to pagan times, when during the autumn feast the gods were offered sacrifices of oxen or, as a substitute, of dough rolled up in oxen horns. The Latin Church has taken over this custom and linked it to the figure of St Martin. The shape of the dough was interpreted as a reference to the horseshoe that the holy horse was to lose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croque monsieur",
        "text": "Croque monsieur\n--Preparation.\n--Variations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kifli",
        "text": "It is a common type of bread roll throughout much of central Europe and nearby countries, where it is called by different names. It is thought to be the inspiration for the French croissant, which has a very similar shape but is made with a different type of dough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dolce Gusto",
        "text": "The variety of flavors varies by territory. The following list provides information on the varieties available as of November 2021, listed by territory (AE = UAE, AR = Argentina, AT = Austria, AU = Australia, BE = Belgium, BG = Bulgaria, BR = Brazil, CA = Canada, CH = Switzerland, CL = Chile, CN = China, CO = Colombia, CR = Costa Rica, CZ = Czech Republic, DE = Germany, DK = Denmark, DO = Dominican Republic, EC = Ecuador, EE = Estonia, ES = Spain, FI = Finland, FR = France, GR = Greece, GT = Guatemala, HK = Hong Kong, HN = Honduras, HR = Croatia, HU = Hungary, ID = Indonesia, IE = Ireland, IL = Israel, IT = Italy, JO = Jordan, JP = Japan, KR = South Korea, KW = Kuwait, KZ = Kazakhstan, LB = Lebanon, LT = Lithuania, LV = Latvia, MA = Morocco, MT = Malta, MX = Mexico, MY = Malaysia, NI = Nicaragua, NL = Netherlands, NO = Norway, NZ = New Zealand, PA = Panama, PE = Peru, PH = Philippines, PK = Pakistan, PL = Poland, PT = Portugal, PY = Paraguay, QA = Qatar, RO = Romania, RS = Serbia, RU = Russia, SA = Saudi Arabia, SE = Sweden, SG = Singapore, SI = Slovenia, SK = Slovakia, TH = Thailand, TR = Turkey, TW = Taiwan, UA = Ukraine, UK = United Kingdom, US = USA, UY = Uruguay, VE = Venezuela, VN = Vietnam, ZA = South Africa):"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "In the Croissant dialects, the spread of Gallicisms has increased, weakening the local Occitan variants. During the last few centuries, it seems that this progression had been more rapid in Marche County (Limousin-speaking territory) than in Bourbonnais (Auvergnat-speaking territory). But since the 20th century, in all cases, the spread of French has resulted in a diglossia, and linguistic substitutions similar to those across all of the Langue d\u2019oc-speaking regions. That puts into perspective the \"gallicised\" aspects of the Croissant dialects today, since nearly all Occitan dialects are undergoing a process of gallicization."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mille-feuille",
        "text": "Mille-feuille\n--History.\n--Composition.\n--Variations.\n----Australia.\n----Balkan countries.\n----Belgium and the Netherlands.\n----Canada.\n----German varieties.\n----Greece.\n----Hong Kong.\n----Hungary.\n----Italy.\n----Iran.\n----Lithuania.\n----North Africa.\n----Philippines.\n----Poland.\n----Russia.\n----South Africa.\n----Spain.\n----The Nordics.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n--Other.\n--References.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (magazine)",
        "text": "\"Croissant\" has sister publications, including \"an an\", \"Brutus\" and \"Popeye\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mucenici",
        "text": "Mucenici\n--Food.\n----Variants.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cr\u00e9v\u00e9champs",
        "text": "Cr\u00e9v\u00e9champs\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croisilles, Orne",
        "text": "Croisilles, Orne\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ciabatta",
        "text": "Many regions have their own variations on the original recipe or a bread that closely resembles ciabatta and has become accepted as a variety of ciabatta; the ciabatta from the area encompassing Lake Como has a crisp crust, a somewhat soft, porous texture, and is light to the touch. The ciabatta found in Tuscany, Umbria, and Marche varies from bread that has a firm crust and dense crumb to bread that has a crisper crust and more open texture, and in Rome, it is often seasoned with marjoram."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croisilles, Calvados",
        "text": "Croisilles, Calvados\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Angel wings",
        "text": "French \"bugnes\" varieties include crunchy \"bugnes\" and soft \"bugnes\". The crunchy variety, known as \"bugnes lyonnaises\" (\"Lyon \"bugnes\"\"), are cooked in very hot oil with the dough spread out thinly and knotted once or twice. The soft variety, sometimes known as \"pillows\", are made with a thicker dough, which is rarely knotted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cailletier",
        "text": "In Italy the cultivar is known under the name of Taggiasca, which derives from the town of Taggia. Locally it is known under a number of different synonyms, including Cayet or Cayon, Grassenc, Olivier de Grasse, Pendoulier and Pleureur. The name Ni\u00e7oise is not a synonym, but the name of the olive after a particular processing (see below)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fragaria vesca",
        "text": "Forms with runners are still found in old gardens.\n* \"\", France; commercially important before World War I, but now almost extinct; maybe identical to the variety \"Erig\u00e9e de Poitou\" which was still offered around 1960.\n* \"Blanc Am\u00e9lior\u00e9\", Great Britain; white-fruited; it is doubtful if the clone in circulation today is identical to the historical variety from around 1900 because of its non-everbearing habit; nevertheless a good variety with rather large, sometimes monstruous fruit of the Fressant type.\n* \"Illa Martin\", Germany; sold as an ornamental, white-fruited. Red achenes have been reported but have not been found. Most plants in circulation not true to name.\n* \"Gartenfreude\", Germany; large-fruited form, sometimes very large monstrous fruit of the Fressant type."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "During baking, the transient gluten network turns into a permanent network. At higher temperatures, intermolecular disulfide bonds form between glutenin molecules, as well as between gliadin and glutenin. With more bonds being made, the gluten network becomes more rigid, strengthening the croissant\u2019s crumb texture. Additionally, the baking process significantly stretches the dough layers due to the large macroscopic deformation that occurred during fermentation\u2019s dough lift."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crema, Lombardy",
        "text": "The tortelli cremaschi (dialect of Crema: \"turt\u00e8i cremasch\") represents the main dish of the local culinary tradition. This is a kind of tortelli that doesn't exist elsewhere in Italy as the filling is sweet, consisting of parmesan cheese, Amaretti di Saronno (an Italian almond biscuit), raisins, candied citron, spices and the mostaccino (a typical spiced biscuit)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croquette",
        "text": "\"Krokett\" is a small cylindrical croquette similar to the Czech variety: potatoes, eggs, flour, and butter, seasoned with nutmeg and salt and deep-fried in oil. This variety can be ordered in most restaurants as a side dish, and also bought frozen. When made with cottage cheese, they are called \"t\u00far\u00f3krokett\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cratosilis denticollis",
        "text": "This species is present in Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Ukraine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Fat also affects the quality of croissants in storage. On one hand, an increased amount of in-dough fat has been found to correspond to a reduction in crumb hardness immediately after baking. This is likely attributed to the high-fat content of croissants, as increased fat levels decrease moisture diffusion. On the other hand, although roll-in fat softens the croissant\u2019s initial crumb, its effect on croissant hardness during storage is still unclear."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (linguistic zone)",
        "text": "The Croissant\u2019s territory is shaped like a tapered crescent, joining the Tardoire valley in Charente to the west, to Monts de la Madeleine in Allier to the east. The crescent is very narrow between its westernmost point and Le Dorat (between 10 and 15\u00a0km wide), and widens towards the east: between 30\u00a0km (at Gu\u00e9ret) and 45\u00a0km (at Culan)."
      },
      {
        "title": "S\u00e1ndwich de milanesa",
        "text": "S\u00e1ndwich de milanesa\n--Variations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cresp\u00e9ou",
        "text": "Its name comes from \"cresp\u00e8u\", the Occitan form of the French word \"cr\u00eape\". Similarly to a fougasse, an Occitan \"cresp\u00e8u\" has many variations. This dish is also known as \"trouchia\" or \"omelette \u00e0 la moissonneuse\". The latter name suggests that it originated as a dish traditionally prepared for field work and specifically for the harvest season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cr\u00e8vec\u0153ur chicken",
        "text": "Bantam versions were separately developed in the United States from about 1960, and in Germany towards 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant (magazine)",
        "text": "In 1980 the circulation of \"Croissant\" was 450,000 copies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Klaus Croissant",
        "text": "Klaus Croissant\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "St. Martin's croissant",
        "text": "By EC regulation No 1070/2008 of 30 October 2008, the name \"rogal \u015bwi\u0119tomarci\u0144ski\" was entered in the register of protected designations of origin and protected geographical indications in the European Union."
      },
      {
        "title": "Regional street food",
        "text": "In the Romagna subregion, and especially in the Forl\u00ec-Cesena province, a flatbread called \"piadina\" is available. It is sold in kiosks, usually as a sandwich filled with mixed cold cut meats, cheese, and/or vegetables. A common variant is the \"crescione\", a piadina cooked like a turnover; in this version the most common filling are tomato sauce with mozzarella, and pumpkin with boiled potato and sausage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crescia",
        "text": "The crescia of Pesaro, often called \"\"piadina\", is widespread in the Pesaro area, in the Fano area and in the surrounding countryside, does not require the use of yeast, is rolled high with a rolling pin, and contains a high quantity of lard. There are two variants: the \"crescia vonta\" and \"crescia sfojeta\". The \"crescia vonta\" is quite thick and after cooking it is greased on both sides with pork lard, then passed over the grill; sometimes it is stuffed with saut\u00e9ed cabbage. The \"crescia sfojeta\" is also thick, rectangular in shape; it is rolled out for the first time, then folded and rolled out again with a rolling pin; in this way many distinct layers are obtained. Originally these very nutritious grows were intended for farmers and were useful to them to recover from the hard labors of the fields."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croquette",
        "text": "Croquette\n--Etymology.\n--Origins.\n--Asia.\n----India.\n----Sri Lanka.\n----China and Taiwan.\n----Indonesia.\n----Japan.\n----South Korea.\n--Europe.\n----Belgium.\n----France.\n----Germany, Austria, and Switzerland.\n----Hungary.\n----Italy.\n----Ireland.\n----The Netherlands.\n----Poland.\n----Portugal.\n----Russia.\n----Spain.\n----United Kingdom.\n--Caribbean.\n----Puerto Rico.\n----Cuba.\n----Dominican Republic.\n----Aruba.\n--North America.\n----Mexico.\n----United States.\n--South America.\n----Brazil.\n----Ecuador.\n----Uruguay.\n----Colombia.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Stories of how the Kipferl \u2014 and so, ultimately, the croissant \u2014 was created are widespread and persistent culinary legends, going back to the 19th century. However, there are no contemporary sources for any of these stories, and an aristocratic writer, writing in 1799, does not mention the Kipferl in a long and extensive list of breakfast foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "SPC Group",
        "text": "Paris Croissant is a South Korean franchise bakery that utilizes authentic French baking. In 1988, Paris Croissant launched Paris Baguette, which grew into a top bakery caf\u00e9 franchise brand in Korea. With the expansion into the Chinese market in 2004, the company began going global and now has local subsidiaries in the US, Vietnam, and Singapore. Other F&B brands include Paris Croissant Caf\u00e9 (premium bakery caf\u00e9), Pascucci (Italian espresso caf\u00e9), LINA\u2019s and Tamati (sandwich), Passion5 (upscale dessert gallery), L\u2019atelier (caf\u00e9 restaurant), and Jamba Juice (smoothie). The company is also rapidly gaining traction in the restaurant industry with brands such as Queens Park (organic), LaGrilla (Italian), The World Vine (wine), Parlour (European casual cuisine)and Vera Napoli. 2013 Revenue of USD $1.51 Billion. In the United States, Paris Baguette is named as Paris Baguette Caf\u00e9. Most of Paris Baguette Caf\u00e9's chains are located near the Los Angeles metropolitan area and is substantially increasing ever since 2008. It has stores in California, New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts and Pennsylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frappuccino",
        "text": "The following is a list of the typical versions available of each type of Frappuccino."
      },
      {
        "title": "Petit Verdot",
        "text": "In Italy it is sometimes cultivated in Maremma (Tuscany) and Lazio."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cotechino",
        "text": "Cotechino\n--Varieties of cotechino.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Thieboudienne",
        "text": "Thieboudienne\n--Recipe.\n--Variations.\n----By country.\n----By ethnicity.\n--Other renderings.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of desserts",
        "text": "C\n* Caf\u00e9 li\u00e9geois\n* Cendol\n* Creme de papaya"
      },
      {
        "title": "Crocus ligusticus",
        "text": "\"Crocus ligusticus\" is a native species of Liguria and the southern Maritime Alps in France and Italy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ordre du Croissant",
        "text": "Ordre du Croissant\n--Provence.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gnocchi",
        "text": "Gnocchi\n--Origin.\n--Manufacturing and packaging.\n----Storing and packaging.\n--Regional varieties.\n----Austria.\n----Croatia.\n----Slovenia.\n----Poland.\n----France.\n----South America.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Francis Croissant",
        "text": "Francis Croissant\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pabell\u00f3n criollo",
        "text": "Pabell\u00f3n criollo\n--Variants.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bauernfr\u00fchst\u00fcck",
        "text": "Similar dishes are found in other countries, too. In France, for example, as omelette \u00e0 la paysanne (with sorrel), in Spain as a tortilla de patatas or in Sweden as pyttipanna."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the technique in making the dough for croissants?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Typically, croissant predough is mixed in a relatively cool environment; flour, water, in-dough fat, yeast, salt, and sugar are mixed together in a single step. The second step is the lamination process, after lamination, the dough is formed into its famous crescent shape, followed by the baking process."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How are croissants stored after they are completed?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Croissants are generally not stored for very long and are typically consumed soon after baking."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where were croissants first made?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The birth of the croissant itself\u2014that is, its adaptation from the plainer form of kipferl, before the invention of viennoiseries\u2014can be dated to at least 1839 when an Austrian artillery officer, August Zang, founded a Viennese bakery (\"Boulangerie Viennoise\") at 92, rue de Richelieu in Paris. The modern croissant was developed in the early 20th century when French bakers replaced the brioche dough of the kipferl by a yeast-leavened laminated dough."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any popular croissant variants?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are many!  Would you like to know about the varieties in Italy, Argentina and Uruguay, Poland, or Portugal?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I want to know about the varieties in Italy."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "A cousin of the croissant is the Italian cornetto (in the Center and South) or brioche (in the North). These variants are often considered to be the same, but that is not completely true: the French version tends to be crispy and contains a lot of butter, whereas an Italian cornetto or brioche is usually softer.",
      "A cousin of the croissant is the Italian cornetto (in the Center and South) or brioche (in the North). These variants are often considered to be the same, but that is not completely true: the French version tends to be crispy and contains a lot of butter, whereas an Italian cornetto or brioche is usually softer."
    ],
    "topic": "Croissant",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Croissant:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Croissant",
          "Variants",
          "Italy"
        ],
        "ctx": "A cousin of the croissant is the Italian \"cornetto\" (in the Center and South) or \"brioche\" (in the North). These variants are often considered to be the same, but that is not completely true: the French version tends to be crispy and contains a lot of butter, whereas an Italian cornetto or brioche is usually softer. Furthermore, the \"cornetto vuoto\" (Italian: \"empty cornetto\") is commonly accompanied by variants with filling, which include \"crema pasticciera\" (custard), apricot jam or chocolate cream. They often come covered with powdered sugar or other toppings. \"Cornetto\" with cappuccino at the bar is one of the most common breakfasts in Italy."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Croissant:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Croissant",
          "Variants",
          "Italy"
        ],
        "ctx": "A cousin of the croissant is the Italian \"cornetto\" (in the Center and South) or \"brioche\" (in the North). These variants are often considered to be the same, but that is not completely true: the French version tends to be crispy and contains a lot of butter, whereas an Italian cornetto or brioche is usually softer. Furthermore, the \"cornetto vuoto\" (Italian: \"empty cornetto\") is commonly accompanied by variants with filling, which include \"crema pasticciera\" (custard), apricot jam or chocolate cream. They often come covered with powdered sugar or other toppings. \"Cornetto\" with cappuccino at the bar is one of the most common breakfasts in Italy."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "It consists of a thin, round chickpea flour baked crepe paste than can be ordered as \"fain\u00e1 de orilla\" (fain\u00e1 from the border) when is the thinnest part of the border. that is desired or \"fain\u00e1 del medio\" (faina from the middle) when it is referred to the taller middle part of a fain\u00e1."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "A cousin of the croissant is the Italian \"cornetto\" (in the Center and South) or \"brioche\" (in the North). These variants are often considered to be the same, but that is not completely true: the French version tends to be crispy and contains a lot of butter, whereas an Italian cornetto or brioche is usually softer. Furthermore, the \"cornetto vuoto\" (Italian: \"empty cornetto\") is commonly accompanied by variants with filling, which include \"crema pasticciera\" (custard), apricot jam or chocolate cream. They often come covered with powdered sugar or other toppings. \"Cornetto\" with cappuccino at the bar is one of the most common breakfasts in Italy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Croissant\n--Origin and history.\n----Culinary legends.\n--Variants.\n----Argentina and Uruguay.\n----Italy.\n----Poland.\n----Portugal.\n----Spain.\n----Turkey.\n--Overview of manufacturing.\n--Ingredient functionality during processing.\n----Predough.\n----Lamination.\n----Fermentation.\n----Baking.\n----Storage.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Croquetas are croquettes made with potato and ham, rice and ham, b\u00e9chamel and ham."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Variants from chivito are, as milanesa en dos panes, chivito en dos panes, chivito canadiense (added with Canadian bacon), chivito canadiense al plato and chivito al plato (platted chivito)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguay",
        "text": "Other typical desserts include the Pastafrola (a type of cake filled with quince jelly), Chaj\u00e1 (meringue, sponge cake, whipped cream and fruits, typically peaches and strawberries are added)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marraqueta",
        "text": "The Marseille bread called \"pan marsell\u00e9s\" in Uruguay is different from the Brazilian \"p\u00e3o franc\u00eas\". The Brazilian type is less dense and lighter and crispier, meanwhile the Uruguayan version is made with a denser bread dough, resulting in a harder bread (similar to Italian bread)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croquette",
        "text": "In southern Mexico, a variety is made with fresh cheese, plantain, and black beans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Notable types of \"refuerzos\" are chivito, chorip\u00e1n and milanesa al pan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cordon bleu (dish)",
        "text": "A common variant in Uruguay and Argentina is the \"Milanesa Rellena\". It consists of two beef or chicken fillets passed through beaten egg, later, stuffed with cooked ham and mozzarella cheese and superimposed like a sandwich. Once this is done, they are again passed through beaten eggs and breadcrumbs, to be fried or baked. It is usually served with papas fritas (French fries) as a garnish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Also note that the Spanish distinction between \"refuerzo\" and \"s\u00e1ndwich\" which is also present in Mexico with torta and s\u00e1ndwich, which differentiates common bread sandwich from others similar to the British train sandwich, is not so pronounced on the Argentinian dialect where difference is simply made by adding \"de miga\" (crumby) to the latter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Chimichurri is between a vinaigrette and a pesto variant, made with chopped garlic, oregano, paprika, oil, vinegar, and salt. Along with salsa criolla it is preferred for asado."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguay",
        "text": "One of the most consumed spreadables in Uruguay is Dulce de leche (a caramel confection from Latin America prepared by slowly heating sugar and milk). And the most typical sweet is Alfajor, which is a small cake, filled with Dulce de leche and covered with chocolate or meringue, it comes in various types, fillings, sizes and brands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "\"S\u00e1ndwich caliente\" (hot sandwich) or \"tostado\" (toasted) as it is called in Argentina is a variant of the croqu\u00e9 monsieur made with two slices of \"pan de s\u00e1nguche\" filled ham and cheese and toasted."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Uruguayan breads",
        "text": "This is a comprehensive list of types of breads of Uruguay:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Food was rudimentary and based on Spanish tradition until immigration at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century when the first families came mostly from Italy and Spain. Immigration increased following World War I and World War II, when people from all over Europe and the Middle East came to Uruguay, including people from Germany, Russia, Italy, and Armenia. Such immigration enriched the importation of dishes, as there is now pasta, Russian salad and innumerable types of pastries from France and Germany, resulting in chaj\u00e1 and alfajores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguay",
        "text": "Typical dishes include: \"Asado uruguayo\" (big grill or barbecue of all types of meat), roasted lamb, Chivito (sandwich containing thin grilled beef, lettuce, tomatoes, fried egg, ham, olives and others, and served with French fries), Milanesa (a kind of fried breaded beef), tortellini, spaghetti, gnocchi, ravioli, rice and vegetables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "There is a wide variety of sandwiches in Uruguay which are locally classified into two types called \"refuerzo\" (reinforcement) and s\u00e1ndwich (sandwich) respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Popular sweets are membrillo quince jam and dulce de leche, which is made from carmelized milk. A sweet paste, dulce de leche, is used to fill cookies, cakes, pancakes, milhojas, and alfajores. The alfajores are shortbread cookies sandwiched together with \"dulce de leche\" or a fruit paste. Dulce de leche is used also in \"flan con dulce de leche\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Latin American cuisine",
        "text": "The cuisine of Uruguay is traditionally based on its European roots, especially from Italy, Spain, France, Portugal, Germany and Britain. Many foods from those countries such as pasta, sausages, and desserts are common in the nation's diet. The Uruguayan barbecue, asado, is one of the most exquisite and famous in the world. A sweet paste, Dulce de Leche is the national obsession, used to fill cookies, cakes, pancakes, milhojas, and alfajores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Besides of the regular croissant, a variation called \"cuerno\" (meaning \"horn\") is sold. It is half of a croissant stuffed usually with cream. Also called Xuixos ()."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "As for everyday food, Milanesas are being replaced for panchos, croquetas are being replaced for pizza, and guiso de lentejas is becoming more common than puchero or feijoada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "\"Porte\u00f1o\" is called after the eponym of the inhabitants of Buenos Aires and is similar to Felipe but with a smaller crumb.\n* Marsell\u00e9s"
      },
      {
        "title": "Italian cuisine",
        "text": "The conspicuous Italian immigration in Uruguay has strongly influenced Uruguayan cuisine, with a vast number of dishes deriving from Italian cuisine, with dishes from all Italian regions. In addition to the extensive use of pasta, including (Italian \"tagliatelle\"), (Italian \"ravioli\"), (Italian \"cappelletti\") and (Italian \"tortellini\"), they are part of the Uruguayan cuisine the (Italian \"bagna cauda\"), (Italian \"rag\u00f9\"), (Italian \"trippa alla milanese\"), \"pesto\" and (Italian \"gnocco fritto\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "With slight variants, it is common for a family of salads that are widespread over the southern south cone region; most variants as in the Chilean salad always include onion and lettuce. The salad common to Uruguay contains tomato along with lettuce and onion and is served with a single vinaigrette made of oil, vinegar, salt, garlic, and oregano. As it is a basic form of salad, it is an ideal accompaniment for asado."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "A milanesa a la napolitana, not original from Naples, consists of a milanesa garnished with tomato sauce, ham and mozzarella cheese slices (on that order) that is finely grated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Polenta comes from Northern Italy and is very common throughout Uruguay. Unlike Italy, this cornmeal is eaten as a main dish, with tuco (meat sauce) and melted cheese and or ham."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Pasteles (pastries) are triangular-shaped empanadas that are made from a batter identical to such of tortas fritas with the addition of being puffed using cow fat. As tortas fritas they are also flourished with sugar after frying. Pasteles are filled only with quince jam or dulce de leche.\n* Tortas fritas and pasteles are commonly sold on streets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "A typical puchero may contain all type of cuts with bones, skirt steak, ossobucco, bacon, cabbage, sweet corn, rape, onions, celery, carrot, sweet potato, squash, and potatoes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "More similar to the polish sa\u0142atka jarzynowa than the typical olivier salad, it contains potatoes, carrots, and peas with mayonnaise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Common sidings can be fried eggs, croquetas, french fries, pur\u00e9e, and salads."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bread in culture",
        "text": "In the Rio de la Plata region sopaipillas are called torta frita and are fried in cow fat, other type of bread that is commonly found is \"galleta de campa\u00f1a\", a grease dough made of layers, \"roscas\" are a type of bread in Uruguay that is commonly eaten on \"semana santa\" (Easter), they are usually filled either with \"chicharrones\" or quince cheese. \"Pan de miga\" is a bread that is specially made for making sandwiches de miga and mostly is not consumed on another way, same as pebetes that are commonly filled with ham and cheese. A type of croissant commonly found in Rio de la plata is \"Medialuna\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Made with finely chopped tomatoes and onions, oil and salt, salsa criolla is used for garment of asado, choripan and sometimes panchos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Nieve variant is called due to its white snowy aspect conferred by the meringue covering."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Made from poultry or cow meat, it is called estofado de pollo when made with poultry and estofado de carne when it has cow meat. It is a dish that contains meat and chorizo or chicken, stewed in tomato sauce, and sometimes served with a side of boiled potatoes or pasta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Popular fonts can assure that it is a delicious straw containing potato, sweet potato, noodles, squash, onion, tomato, beans, and the best meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Tortas fritas (fried cakes) are a simple pastry, typical from Uruguay and Argentina and which has many variants along South America. The recipe for the sopaipilla, from which it descends, is argued to be from what is now Germany but they were introduced to Spain by the Arabs at the times of the invasion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Milanesa (from Italian cotoletta alla milanese) is a thin breaded cutlet that can be veal, chicken or fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Uruguayan cuisine has adopted if not blended a considerable amount of salads, the most typical being the 'Ensalada Criolla'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sweet potato",
        "text": "Dulce de batata is a traditional Argentine, Paraguayan and Uruguayan dessert, which is made of sweet potatoes. It is a sweet jelly, which resembles a marmalade because of its color and sweetness but it has a harder texture, and it has to be sliced in thin portions with a knife as if it was a pie. It is commonly served with a portion of the same size of soft cheese on top of it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quince cheese",
        "text": "The pastafrola, a sweet tart common in Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay, is usually filled with quince paste. In Argentina and Uruguay, a slice of quince cheese (\"dulce de membrillo\") eaten with a slice of soft cheese is considered the national dessert. In Argentina it is referred to as \"vigilante\". In Uruguay it is known as \"Mart\u00edn Fierro\" in reference to the folk character from the epic poem Mart\u00edn Fierro by Argentinian author Jos\u00e9 Hern\u00e1ndez."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "From asado to pasta, Uruguayan cuisine offers a widely variant of sauces\u2014most remarkable are chimichurri, salsa criolla and salsa Carusso."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Milanesa al pan consists of a sandwich made with milanesa, felipe bread (a type of bread roll), tomato slices, lettuce, mayonnaise, bacon, ham, cheese and olives, when a milanesa al pan is mayor in size it is cut in half and called milanesa en dos panes (double bread), home made and street versions of this dish are called refuerzo de milanesa and it differs in that it is made with baguette besides felipe bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Literally meaning rind bread, also \"rosca de chicharrones\", is a leavened bread made of cow lard and added with small rinds made of cow fat, commonly found on local bakeries among with sweet variations without rinds such as rosca de membrillo, (quince (cheese-filled) bread) and rosca de dulce de leche (dulce de leche (filled) bread).\n* Flauta"
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "\"Pan flauta\" (flute bread) is an elongated bread that is a variant of baguette.\n* Tortuga"
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Uruguayan cuisine\n--History.\n--Appetizers, entrees and snacks.\n----Aperitif.\n----Entrees.\n------Picada.\n------Matambre relleno.\n------Lengua a la vinagreta.\n------Pescado en escabeche.\n--Side dishes.\n--Sauces.\n----Picantina.\n----Mojo.\n----Chimichurri.\n----Salsa criolla.\n----Mostaza La pasiva.\n----Salsa Carusso, estofado and tuco.\n--Barbecue and salads.\n----Salads.\n------Ensalada criolla.\n------Ensalada rusa.\n------Ensalada de papa y huevo.\n------Ropa vieja.\n------Salpicon de ave.\n------Palmitos con salsa golf.\n------Watercress salad.\n--Asado.\n----Ingredients.\n----Preparation.\n----Variants - Asado con cuero.\n--Beverages.\n----Grappa.\n----Uvita.\n----Medio y medio.\n----Mate.\n----Grapa con limon.\n----Ca\u00f1a.\n--Stews and puchero.\n----Puchero.\n----Ensopado.\n----Guiso carrero.\n----Buseca.\n----Feijoada.\n----Bacalao.\n----Italian style stews.\n------Ni\u00f1os envueltos.\n------Estofado.\n------Albondigas con papas.\n--Minutas.\n----Choripan.\n----Hungaras.\n----Milanesas.\n----Postas de pescado a la marinera.\n----Panchos.\n----Croquetas.\n----Empanadas.\n----Bu\u00f1uelos.\n--Pizzas, pastas and breads.\n----Pizza.\n----Fain\u00e1.\n----Figazza.\n----Fideos con tuco.\n----Fideos con estofado.\n----\u00d1oquis.\n----Capeletis a la Caruso.\n----Breads.\n--Sandwiches.\n----Chivito.\n----Chorip\u00e1n.\n----S\u00e1ndwich Ol\u00edmpico.\n----S\u00e1ndwich caliente.\n----Jesuitas.\n--Confectioneries for mate.\n----Tortas fritas.\n----Bizcochos.\n----Pasteles.\n----Alfajores.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Mustards of the brand Savora and also La pasiva are used for garnishing puchero meat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "This is a potato and egg salad or onion and potato salad or simply potato mayonnaise and parsley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Alfajores consist of two round sweet spongy doughs poured together filled with dulce de leche and covered onto two variants: \u2033chocolate\u2033 and \u2033nieve\u2033 (snow)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chivito (sandwich)",
        "text": "Chivito is the national dish of Uruguay. It is a thin slice of tender cooked beef steak (\"churrasco\"), with mozzarella, tomatoes, mayonnaise, black or green olives, and commonly also bacon, fried or hard-boiled eggs and ham, served as a sandwich in a bun, often accompanied by French fried potatoes. Other ingredients, such as red beets, peas, grilled or pan-fried red peppers, and slices of cucumber, may be added."
      },
      {
        "title": "Schnitzel",
        "text": "In Argentina and Uruguay, this dish, called \"milanesa\", consists of a thin slice of beef, chicken, veal, or sometimes pork, and even eggplant or soy. Each slice is dipped into beaten eggs, seasoned with salt, and other ingredients according to the cook's taste (like parsley and garlic). Each slice is then dipped in bread crumbs (or occasionally flour) and shallow-fried in oil, one at a time. Some people prefer to use very little oil and then bake them in the oven as a healthier alternative."
      },
      {
        "title": "Breaded cutlet",
        "text": "In Argentina, Uruguay, and Venezuela the \"milanesa\", a dish similar to the schnitzel, is a typical dish. Its name means 'from Milan'. The \"milanesa\" is made of beef or veal, dipped in egg, and then breadcrumbs, and fried. In Argentina and Uruguay, a \"milanesa napolitana\" is topped with ham, melted mozzarella cheese and tomato slices or tomato sauce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Its vegetable composition is reduced due is pretended to not ferment on hot days, so it only has few onions and squash."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cr\u00e8me caramel",
        "text": "In Argentina and Uruguay, cr\u00e8me caramel is usually eaten with \"dulce de leche\", whipped cream, or both (\"flan mixto\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Most notable minutas are milanesas, refuerzos such as choripanes, chivitos and pizza and faina, also bauru is common along the Brazilian border."
      },
      {
        "title": "Culture of Uruguay",
        "text": "Uruguayans rival only neighboring Argentina in their consumption of beef, primarily at gatherings known in the continent as the \"asado\". The \"parrillada\" (beef platter), \"chivito\" (a substantial steak sandwich), and pasta are the national dishes. The latter is due to Uruguay's many Italian immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Other Uruguayan dishes include \"morcilla dulce\" (a type of blood sausage cooked with ground orange fruit, orange peel, and walnuts) and \"milanesa\" (a veal breaded cutlet similar to the German Wienerschnitzel). Snacks include \"ol\u00edmpicos\" (club sandwiches), \"h\u00fangaras\" (spicy sausage in a hot dog roll), and \"masas surtidas\" (bite-sized pastries). Typical drinks include mate, tea, \"cleric\u00f3\" (a mixture of white wine and fruit juice), and \"medio y medio\" (part sparkling wine and part white wine)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Uruguayan cuisine is a fusion of cuisines from several European countries, especially from Mediterranean foods from Spain, Italy, Portugal and France. Other influences on the cuisine resulted from immigration from countries such as Germany and Scotland. Uruguayan gastronomy is a result of immigration, rather than local Amerindian cuisine, because the new colonies did not trust the native Charr\u00faa people. Spanish influences are very abundant: desserts like churros (cylinders of pastry, usually fried, sometimes filled with dulce de leche), flan, \"ensaimadas\" yoo"
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Pescado en escabeche (escabeche fish) is a cold dish often made from Argentine hake that is buttered as in pescado a la marinera."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pastafrola",
        "text": "The name of the dish comes from (\"lit.\" 'friable pastry'), Italian for shortcrust pastry, and is similar to the Italian crostata. Italian immigrants brought it to Argentina and Uruguay. Similar dishes include the Austrian Linzer torte and Swiss tarts with a spiced-fruit filling. In Greek, the word \"frolla\" was misinterpreted as the Italian word \"flora\" 'flower'."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of pizza varieties by country",
        "text": "Pizza has been wholly included in Uruguayan cuisine, a country with a significant italian population. Typical Uruguayan pizzas are characterised by their rectangular shape and their cooking method within a clay oven."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Bu\u00f1uelos are fried dough balls of different types, the most common one are bu\u00f1uelos de acelga, bu\u00f1uelos de sesos (doughs that contains brain), bu\u00f1uelos de manzana (apple dough) and bu\u00f1uelos de banana (banana dough)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "After being separately fried, it is parboiled on a vinaigrette made of oil and vinegar that is added to sliced onions and carrots and whole garlic cloves and black pepper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Relleu",
        "text": "\"Faseura\" with corn cakes. Plus the various \"coques\" (sweet or savoury bread based cakes) named \"Farcida\", \"Escald\u00e0\", or \"a la Paleta\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dulce de batata",
        "text": "Dulce de batata (in , or: sweet potato jam) or doce de batata doce (Portuguese expression with the same meaning) is a traditional Argentine, Paraguayan, Uruguayan and Brazilian dessert, which is made of sweet potatoes. It is a sweet jelly, which resembles a marmalade because of its hard texture. In Brazil it is known as marrom glac\u00ea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criscia",
        "text": "The only known species is \"Criscia stricta\", native to Uruguay, Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul, Paran\u00e1), and Argentina (Buenos Aires, Misiones, Corrientes, Entre R\u00edos)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "\"Pan de s\u00e1ndwich\" is a soft crumb mold bread specially made for making sandwiches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Simply heart of palm sometimes rolled in ham slices and served with salsa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Bizcochos come in various kinds, like corazanes, \"margaritas\" and \"pan con grasa\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Uruguayan breads",
        "text": "List of Uruguayan breads\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Croissant",
        "text": "Croissants are commonly served alongside coffee for breakfast, \"aperitivo\" (a light mid-morning meal), or \"merienda\" (a mid-afternoon meal). They are referred to as \"medialunas\" (\"half moons\") because of their shape and are typically coated with a sweet glaze (\"medialunas de manteca\", \"half moons of butter\"). Another variant is a \"medialuna de grasa\" (\"half moon of lard\"), which is not always sweet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "The first group of immigrants came from poor families from Buenos Aires and the Canary Islands, along with their empanadas and cocidos. Everything was sold from pulperias that were both stores and saloons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marraqueta",
        "text": "Marraqueta\n--Regional varieties.\n----Bolivia.\n----Brazil.\n----Chile.\n----Hong Kong and Macau.\n----Uruguay.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Buseca from Italian tradition also known as cazuela de mondongo in Spain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Patois",
        "text": "Other examples of Patois include Trasianka, Sheng and Tsotsitaal. Patois has also been spoken by some Uruguay citizens, generally immigrants located in the south of Uruguay, mainly arriving from Italy and France, coming from Piedmont."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "\"Pan tortuga\" it is a small round-shaped bread with a soft crust, thus its name \"tortuga\" (Spanish for turtle).\n* Felipe"
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Canelones con tuco are covered with bechamel and later covered with tuco."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "A complete chivito is served with french fries and when is dished is also sided with ensalada rusa and ensalada criolla."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fragaria vesca",
        "text": "Forms with runners are still found in old gardens.\n* \"\", France; commercially important before World War I, but now almost extinct; maybe identical to the variety \"Erig\u00e9e de Poitou\" which was still offered around 1960.\n* \"Blanc Am\u00e9lior\u00e9\", Great Britain; white-fruited; it is doubtful if the clone in circulation today is identical to the historical variety from around 1900 because of its non-everbearing habit; nevertheless a good variety with rather large, sometimes monstruous fruit of the Fressant type.\n* \"Illa Martin\", Germany; sold as an ornamental, white-fruited. Red achenes have been reported but have not been found. Most plants in circulation not true to name.\n* \"Gartenfreude\", Germany; large-fruited form, sometimes very large monstrous fruit of the Fressant type."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "(Catalan sweet bread), and alfajores were all brought from Spain. There are also all kinds of stews known as guisos or estofados, arroces (rice dishes such as paella), and fabada (Asturian bean stew). All of the guisos and traditional \"pucheros\" (stews) are also of Spanish origin. Uruguayan preparations of fish, such as dried salt cod (bacalao), calamari, and octopus, originate from the Basque and Galician regions, and also Portugal. Due to its strong Italian tradition, all of the famous Italian pasta dishes are present in Uruguay including ravioli, lasagne, tortellini, fettuccine, and the traditional gnocchi. Although the pasta can be served with many sauces, there is one special sauce that was created by Uruguayans. Caruso sauce is a pasta sauce made from double cream, meat, onions, ham and mushrooms. It is very popular with sorrentinos and agnolotti. Additionally, there is Germanic influence in Uruguayan cuisine as well, particularly in sweet dishes. The pastries known as bizcochos are Germanic in origin: croissants, known as \"medialunas\", are the most popular of these, and can be found in two varieties: butter- and lard-based. Also German in origin are the \"Berlinese\" known as \"bolas de fraile\" (\"friar's balls\"), and the rolls called piononos. The facturas were re-christened with local names given the difficult German phonology, and usually Uruguayanized by the addition of a dulce de leche filling. Even dishes like \"chucrut\" (sauerkraut) have also made it into mainstream Uruguayan dishes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "\"Marsell\u00e9s\" is named after the city of Marseille and resembles a pair of twin Vienna bread with harder crust and covered with maize flour.\n* Pan de s\u00e1ndwich"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chistorra",
        "text": "Other common dishes include \"croissant pre\u00f1ado\", a croissant with \"chistorra\" filler, and \"tortilla con chistorra\", a potato or egg omelet with \"chistorra\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "\"Jesuitas\" are made with two layers of puff pastry filled with ham and cheese and covered with meringue icing This is a sweet and salty taste."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Ingredients of a complete Uruguayan asado include: chorizo, morcilla, pulpon, entra\u00f1a, tira de asado, cow gizzards, chinchulines, chotos, and kidneys. Poultry may also be included."
      },
      {
        "title": "Papa rellena",
        "text": "Papas rellenas (English: stuffed potatoes) are the most popular type of croquettes in Latin American regions such as Ecuador, Bolivia, Mexico, Chile, Colombia, & the Caribbean (more so the Dominican Republic, Cuba & Puerto Rico). The first recorded Latin American recipes were printed in the late 19th century, during a time when French cuisine (among others, e.g. Italian) was influencing those of Latin America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguay",
        "text": "Uruguayan food culture comes mostly from the European cuisine culture. Most of the Uruguayan dishes are from Spain, France, Italy and Brazil, the result of immigration caused by past wars in Europe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trupanea daphne",
        "text": "Uruguay, Argentina."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "All these ingredients cut in big pieces are cooked and served, with the broth are made different soups containing small noodles, rice or any cereal of predilection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juventud Uruguaya de Pie",
        "text": "Juventud Uruguaya de Pie\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Another derivative salpicon, chicken salpicon is made with chicken, eggs, and potatoes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Farinata",
        "text": "In Uruguay, \"el fain\u00e1\" (called \"la fain\u00e1\" in Argentina) is considered a traditional Uruguayan dish, brought by immigrants in 1915, so much so that 27 August has been called \"Fain\u00e1 Day\". Olive oil, which is expensive, is not necessarily used; other vegetable oils may be used, which affects the flavour to some extent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Empanadas are a kind of pastry that originated in Spain. In Uruguay, empanadas are more commonly baked and usually include a filling of choice. Empanadas de carne are filled with ground meat, chopped boiled eggs, garlic and onions, Empanadas de carne may also be \"dulces\" (sweet, filled with raisins) or \"saladas\" (salty, filled with olives). Empanadas de pollo are made with grounded poultry meat. Empanadas de jamon y choclo or humitas are filled with ham and corn. Empanadas de queso y cebolla are filled with onion and cheese. Empandas de dulce, or empanadas de membrillo are filled with quince cheese."
      },
      {
        "title": "Croquette",
        "text": "\"Krokett\" is a small cylindrical croquette similar to the Czech variety: potatoes, eggs, flour, and butter, seasoned with nutmeg and salt and deep-fried in oil. This variety can be ordered in most restaurants as a side dish, and also bought frozen. When made with cottage cheese, they are called \"t\u00far\u00f3krokett\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Picada can be described as the main entr\u00e9e of a typical asado (barbecue) and is consumed with aperitifs. It is constituted by cheese (typically Colonia, of Uruguayan origin), olives, longaniza, salami, chips and salted peanuts; peanuts and other snacks are served on small pots and all of the other ingredients are served on a wood table with slices of bread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ethnic groups of Argentina",
        "text": "Germans are one of the largest ethnic groups of Argentina and have had one of the biggest impacts in the Argentine culture. The influence of their culture has also impacted Argentine cuisine; this trend is especially apparent in the field of desserts. The pastries known as facturas are Germanic in origin: croissants, known as medialunas (\"half-moons\", from German \"Halbmond\"), are the most popular of these, and can be found in two varieties: butter- and lard-based. Also German in origin are the \"Berliner\" known as bolas de Fraile (\"friar's balls\"), and the rolls called piononos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bizcocho",
        "text": "Some of the most usual types of bizcochos are:\n*Bizcochito: A cookie flavored with anise and cinnamon developed in the Spanish colonial province of Santa Fe de Nuevo M\u00e9xico, roughly corresponding to the US state New Mexico in the present day.\n*Bizcocho de soletilla: is the name given in Spain to ladyfinger biscuits.\n*Croasanes or Croissants: Croissants are called \"bizcocho\" in Uruguay. Sweet croasanes can be filled with chocolate, pastry cream, dulce de membrillo (a sweet quince paste), or dulce de leche, savoury with cheese, ham or salami.\n*Galletas dulces or , a descendant of the pastry known as galleta, galleta de campa\u00f1a or galleta con grasa. Galletas dulces have a layer of caramel and sugar on top and are known as bizcochos in Uruguay\n*Margaritas: They are a variation of croissants found both in Uruguay and Argentina. The ends are joined together, leaving some space in the middle for a sweet filling (pastry cream, dulce de membrillo or dulce de leche). They have sugar on top of the pastry and the filling. Margaritas get their name from the flower they resemble (a daisy, known in Spanish as \"margarita\").\n*Ojitos : A kind of round cookie with a space in the middle filled with dulce de membrillo, also from Uruguay.\n*Pan con grasa, another kind of bizcocho found in Uruguay, is a type of bread, also known as the ca\u00f1\u00f3n.\n*Polvorones : Another kind of cookie that can be plain, flavoured with cocoa, or made with half plain dough and half cocoa flavoured. Polvorones originated in Spain.\n*Sponge Cake: sponge cake is called bizcocho in Spain. It may be made with chocolate, lemon, yoghurt, etc.\n*Vigilantes : Another sweet variation of croissants. They are long and thin, with sugar on top."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cruciata pedemontana",
        "text": "Two varieties are recognized (as of May 2014):"
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "A dish for summer days and popular on rural areas, consisted on broth, noodles and gross slices of meat, chorizo sausage. and tocino bacon boiled together."
      },
      {
        "title": "Southern Cone",
        "text": "A DNA study from 2009, published in the American Journal of Human Biology, showed the genetical composition of Uruguay to be mainly European, but with Native American (which varies from 1% to 20% in different parts of the country) and also SSA (7% to 15% in different parts of the country)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Sandwiches in Rio de la Plata are particular and different of those from other parts of the world because of the bread with which are made that is \"pan de s\u00e1ndwich\", this type of sandwiches are simply called \"s\u00e1ndwiches\" and are commonly sold on local bakeries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uruguayan cuisine",
        "text": "Basically watercress, olive oil and lemon juice."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the technique in making the dough for croissants?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Typically, croissant predough is mixed in a relatively cool environment; flour, water, in-dough fat, yeast, salt, and sugar are mixed together in a single step. The second step is the lamination process, after lamination, the dough is formed into its famous crescent shape, followed by the baking process."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How are croissants stored after they are completed?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Croissants are generally not stored for very long and are typically consumed soon after baking."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where were croissants first made?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The birth of the croissant itself\u2014that is, its adaptation from the plainer form of kipferl, before the invention of viennoiseries\u2014can be dated to at least 1839 when an Austrian artillery officer, August Zang, founded a Viennese bakery (\"Boulangerie Viennoise\") at 92, rue de Richelieu in Paris. The modern croissant was developed in the early 20th century when French bakers replaced the brioche dough of the kipferl by a yeast-leavened laminated dough."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any popular croissant variants?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There are many!  Would you like to know about the varieties in Italy, Argentina and Uruguay, Poland, or Portugal?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I want to know about the varieties in Italy."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A cousin of the croissant is the Italian cornetto (in the Center and South) or brioche (in the North). These variants are often considered to be the same, but that is not completely true: the French version tends to be crispy and contains a lot of butter, whereas an Italian cornetto or brioche is usually softer."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are the varieties in Uruguay?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Croissants are commonly served alongside coffee for breakfast, aperitivo (a light mid-morning meal), or merienda (a mid-afternoon meal). They are referred to as medialunas (\"half moons\") because of their shape and are typically coated with a sweet glaze (medialunas de manteca, \"half moons of butter\"), and another variant is a medialuna de grasa (\"half moon of lard\"), which is not always sweet.",
      "Croissants are commonly served alongside coffee for breakfast, aperitivo (a light mid-morning meal), or merienda (a mid-afternoon meal). They are referred to as medialunas (\"half moons\") because of their shape and are typically coated with a sweet glaze (medialunas de manteca, \"half moons of butter\"). Another variant is a medialuna de grasa (\"half moon of lard\"), which is not always sweet."
    ],
    "topic": "Croissant",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Croissant:16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Croissant",
          "Variants",
          "Argentina and Uruguay"
        ],
        "ctx": "Croissants are commonly served alongside coffee for breakfast, \"aperitivo\" (a light mid-morning meal), or \"merienda\" (a mid-afternoon meal). They are referred to as \"medialunas\" (\"half moons\") because of their shape and are typically coated with a sweet glaze (\"medialunas de manteca\", \"half moons of butter\"). Another variant is a \"medialuna de grasa\" (\"half moon of lard\"), which is not always sweet."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Croissant:16",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Croissant",
          "Variants",
          "Argentina and Uruguay"
        ],
        "ctx": "Croissants are commonly served alongside coffee for breakfast, \"aperitivo\" (a light mid-morning meal), or \"merienda\" (a mid-afternoon meal). They are referred to as \"medialunas\" (\"half moons\") because of their shape and are typically coated with a sweet glaze (\"medialunas de manteca\", \"half moons of butter\"). Another variant is a \"medialuna de grasa\" (\"half moon of lard\"), which is not always sweet."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew development can include software made using unofficial, community maintained toolchains or games developed using official development kits such as Net Yaroze, Linux for PlayStation 2, or Microsoft XNA. Some targets for homebrew games include the Wii, Dreamcast, Game Boy Advance, PlayStation Portable, Nintendo Entertainment System, and Atari 2600."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "One of the more common type of homebrew games for the Xbox are ports of PC games whose source has been publicly released or leaked. Many classic PC games have been released for Xbox, but most are created with the XDK which limits their availability. The only places to find these ports are through IRC or peer-to-peer browsers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew, when applied to video games, refers to games produced by hobbyists for proprietary video game consoles which are not intended to be user-programmable. The official documentation is often only available to licensed developers, and these systems may use storage formats that make distribution difficult, such as ROM cartridges or encrypted CD-ROMs. Many consoles have hardware restrictions to prevent unauthorized development. A non-professional developer for a system intended to be user-programmable, like the Commodore 64, is simply called a \"hobbyist\" (rather than a \"homebrew developer\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The Nintendo 64 homebrew scene is small, but homebrew can still be played and developed through the use of a Doctor V64, (Acclaim used a Doctor V64 to help develop Turok,) the Everdrive 64 or 64drive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "A handful of games have been programmed for the Fairchild Channel F, the first console to use ROM cartridges. The first known release is Sean Riddle's clone of \"Lights Out\" which included instructions on how to modify the SABA#20 Chess game into a Multi-Cartridge. There is also a version of \"Tetris\" and in 2008 \"Videocart 27: \"Pac-Man\" became the first full production game for the system since it was discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew was originally promoted by Sony with the Net Yaroze, which had a large scene for quite some time. However, the official Net Yaroze site was shut down in mid-2009, and Sony stopped supporting the system as well as the users who still owned the console."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "In South Korea, many video game consumers exploit illegal copies of video games, including for the Nintendo DS. In 2007, 500,000 copies of DS games were sold, while the sales of the DS hardware units was 800,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew emulators of older computer and gaming systems have been developed for the PS2."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The popularity of homebrew development for the Game Boy Advance system since its release in 2001 is due to the availability of C compilers and ready-made, high-quality code libraries, and debugging features for Game Boy Advance emulators like the VisualBoyAdvance-M, the mgba, the No$gba GBA Emulator, John GBA and My Boy. Also contributing to the success is both the nostalgia for the system in general, the Pok\u00e9mon Romhacking community, and the wide availability of Flash ROM cartridges and cartridge writers in online shops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "In May 2008, a vulnerability was found in the PlayStation 3 allowing users to install a partial debug firmware on a regular console. However, the debug functionality is disabled, so neither homebrew applications nor backup games can be run yet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Since emulation of the console is still limited, coding uses a real console through either the Skunkboard development cartridge, using a BJL modified Jaguar, or the official Alpine Development Kit. The commercial game \"BattleSphere Gold\", also contains the JUGS (Jaguar Unmodified Game Server) aid to development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "There are a number of cards which either have built-in flash memory, or a slot which can accept an SD, or MicroSD (like the DSTT, R4, AceKard and ez-flash V/Vi) cards. These cards typically enable DS console gamers to use their console to play MP3s and videos, and other non-gaming functions traditionally reserved for separate devices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Due to the Xbox using standard PC libraries, writing homebrew games is relatively easy and the vast majority of libraries available for a PC programmer are available to an Xbox homebrew programmer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Several compilers are available for the Nintendo Entertainment System, but like the Atari 2600, most development is done in 6502 assembly language. One impediment to NES homebrew development is the relative difficulty involved with producing physical cartridges, although third-party flash carts do exist, making homebrew possible on original NES hardware. Several varieties of custom processors are used within NES cartridges to expand system capabilities; most are difficult to replicate except by scavenging old cartridges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The console is especially notable for its commercial homebrew scene. One notable project was the Bleemcast! emulator, which was a series of bootdisks made to play PlayStation games on the system, featuring visual enhancements over the original console. Newer independent releases include \"Last Hope\", released by RedSpotGames in 2007, and \"DUX\", both Shoot 'em up style games. These releases were written using the KallistiOS development system. A port of the freeware high-level development language Fenix and BennuGD is available for use in game development; many DIV Games Studio games have been ported and others were originally written for the system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew software for the Nintendo GameCube mainly consists of emulators for other systems, as well as several popular homebrew utilities. Swiss is an \u201call-in-one homebrew utility\u201d, including a file browser, and the ability to force software to use different video modes that aren't officially supported, such as progressive scan or 16:9 widescreen. The Game Boy Interface is a homebrew software frontend for the Game Boy Player peripheral, and is often used for capturing high-quality footage from Game Boy, Game Boy Color, and Game Boy Advance games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "New games for older systems are typically developed using emulators. Development for newer systems usually involves actual hardware, given the lack of accurate emulators. Efforts have been made to use actual console hardware for many older systems, though. Atari 2600 programmers may burn an EEPROM to plug into a custom cartridge board or use audio transfer via the Starpath Supercharger. Game Boy Advance developers have several ways to use GBA flash cartridges in this regard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "As of August 2019, the most common method is to use an Action Replay in conjunction with an SD card adapter inserted into the memory card slot, allowing the user to run homebrew from the SD card, or over Ethernet. Another method involves using a modchip to allow the GameCube to run homebrew from a MiniDVD-R via the disc drive. Another method uses a save game exploit which involves transferring modified game save files to a GameCube memory card that triggers arbitrary code execution when loaded by an official game, allowing custom software to be run from a memory card, SD card, or other media. As the Nintendo GameCube's case does not fit a full-size DVD-R, third party replacement cases are available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "A softmod, which uses a commercial game such as \"\", \"Mech Assault\", or \"Splinter Cell\", had been created to execute a persistent softmod installer without modification of the hardware. This method utilizes modified font and sound files to cause the Xbox to cause a stack buffer overflow and load a homebrew dashboard. Once in this condition, the Xbox is able to execute homebrew games and applications upon boot up."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Atari 2600 homebrew is a term describing hobbyist-developed games for the Atari 2600 video game console. The first such game was written in 1995, and more than 100 have been released since then. The majority of games are unlicensed clones of games for other platforms, and many were written for the technical challenge. There are also ROM hacks and some original games. Several games have received attention outside the hobbyist community. Some have been included in a game anthology by Activision."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Originally, graphics support was limited to framebuffer access only (no access to the PlayStation 3's graphics chip RSX), yet some access to the RSX graphics processor was achieved (but Sony blocked this with firmware release 2.10)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Since the release of the Nintendo DS, a great deal of hacking has occurred involving the DS's fully rewritable firmware, Wi-Fi connection, game cards that allow SD storage, and software use. There are now many emulators for the DS, as well as the NES, SNES, Sega Master System, Sega Mega Drive, Neo-Geo Pocket, Neo-Geo MVS (arcade), and older handheld consoles like the Game Boy Color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew development on the Nintendo GameCube tended to be difficult, since it uses a proprietary MiniDVD-based drive and media as opposed to the standard DVD drives of the PS2 and Xbox for piracy protection. Also, its connectivity is limited, as it does not feature a USB port or an HDD port like the PlayStation 2."
      },
      {
        "title": "GP32",
        "text": "Through this strategy, the GP32 was the host of multiple homebrew applications and games. The various applications made for it ranged from alternative firmware, file managers, games, emulators, game generators (such as RPG Maker), a DivX player and image slideshows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Nintendo's Virtual Boy has no region lock, but it wasn't until the flash carts FlashBoy and FlashBoy+ were released that the homebrew scene began to grow. Two previously unreleased games, \"Bound High!\" and \"Niko-Chan Battle\" (the Japanese version of \"Faceball\") have been released."
      },
      {
        "title": "CD-i",
        "text": "Some homebrew developers have released video games on the CD-i format in later years, such as \"Frog Feast\" (2005) and \"Super Quartet\" (2018)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew was since re-enabled on any Xbox 360 with dash 2.0.7371.0 or lower via an exploit referred to as the JTAG / SMC hack but was promptly patched again by Microsoft with the 2.0.8495.0 update."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "As of firmware release 3.21, consumers are no longer able to access the 'Other OS' due to Sony removing the facility from the software in an update. Sony said this was in response to several 'security concerns'."
      },
      {
        "title": "HyperScan",
        "text": "Though not much development for homebrew games was done on the console, several programmers have created demos and proofs-of-concepts. Some of the programs include a CD-Door demo, 3D wireframe demo, and a Bluescale demo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Another exploit was found on August 14, 2008, allowing users to boot some backup games from the PlayStation 3's HDD, although the exact instructions on how to do this were not released at that time. However, a different person posted instructions 10 days later, which explained the exploit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The run and gun game, \"Alisha's Adventure\", used original Super Famicom development hardware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "A group independent of Microsoft is working on the means to run homebrew code, as part of the Free60 project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "On February 13, 2019, TheFloW released a downgrader tool that can downgrade any Vita console to an older firmware down to its factory firmware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew has now become available on most Xbox 360 consoles due to the Reset Glitch Hack (excluding the late Winchester revision, which fixed this exploit with mitigations in hardware). It works on all current dashboards. As the Reset Glitch Hack requires a modchip, soldering skills are a necessity when attempting to use this exploit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Another way of starting homebrew on the PlayStation is 'UniROM', which is a Softmod. UniROM works by being installed onto a cheat-device, which is connected via the parallel-port (on old consoles) and allows loading of custom code via burned CDs and the serial port."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "An alternative device is the Super Flash, by Tototek, which allows multiple games to be burned onto a flash memory chip in a cartridge. This allows games as large as 48 megabits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew",
        "text": "Homebrew or home brew may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew",
        "text": "Homebrewing mainly refers to small-scale, non-commercial manufacture of a drink, typically beer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The Xbox console uses several measures, including cryptographically signed code to obfuscate firmware. The primary method of executing homebrew code required installing a mod chip which could be flashed with a modified Microsoft BIOS. This BIOS allowed the system to boot unsigned executables (XBEs) and control several hardware variables, such as region coding and video mode. With the leak of Microsoft's official development kit (XDK), homebrew coders were able to write replacement Xbox GUIs (known as dashboards), games and applications for the Xbox."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew computer",
        "text": "Homebrew computer\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Flash cartridge",
        "text": "These cartridges remain the best-known way to create and distribute homebrew games for many consoles, such as the Game Boy Advance. (another option in this case being the GBA Movie Player, which can run specially designed homebrew programs but cannot run illicit copies of commercial GBA Game cartridges due to the lack of onboard RAM for fast data access)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Games that have received attention outside the hobbyist development community include \"Halo 2600\", \"Duck Attack!\", and \"A-VCS-tec Challenge\" by Simon Quernhorst (2006), an unofficial port of the 1981 Atari 8-bit family game \"Aztec Challenge\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew computer",
        "text": "Homebrew computer may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "On January 6, 2009 a hacking ring known as the \"Sh4d0ws\" leaked the jig files needed to launch the PlayStation 3 into service mode. Although the PlayStation 3 can be triggered into service mode, it is not yet of any use because the files needed to make changes to the console have not been leaked."
      },
      {
        "title": "WiiBrew",
        "text": "#REDIRECT Homebrew (video games)#Wii"
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew",
        "text": "Homebrew\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Early versions of the PlayStation 2 have a buffer overflow bug in the part of the BIOS that handles PS1 game compatibility; hackers found a way to turn this into a loophole called the PS2 Independence Exploit, allowing the use of homebrew software. Another option for homebrew development is the use of a modchip. Also, it is possible for developers to utilize a PS2 hard drive and HD Loader. In Europe and Australia, the PS2 came with a free Yabasic interpreter on the bundled demo disc for some time. This allows simple programs to be created for the PS2 by the end-user. This was included in a failed attempt to circumvent a UK tax by defining the console as a \"computer\" if it contained certain software. A port of the NetBSD project and BlackRhino GNU/Linux, an alternative Debian-based distribution, are also available for the PS2."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "With the DSi, it too has some homebrew exploits, some of which use DSiWare apps such as Flipnote (aka ugopwn), sudokuhax, using a game called Sudoku by EA Games, grtpwn, exidiahax, fieldrunhax, 4swordhax, UNO*hax, and an exploit using Petit Computer called petit-compwner. There is also systemflaaw, which uses the DSi-exclusive game System Flaw,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The Xbox system is also very adept at running emulators which have been ported from PC, given its high processing power. The Xbox is able to emulate systems up to the previous generation, including the Nintendo 64 and the PlayStation. For this reason, many different emulators have been created for or ported to the Xbox."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The first public homebrew exploit for the Nintendo 3DS, ninjhax, allowed the user to scan a QR Code to exploit the game Cubic Ninja. Other ways to run The Homebrew Launcher have been discovered since then, including freakyhax, an exploit in the Deluxe edition of , Doodlebomb, an exploit in the 1.1.1 and older versions of Swapdoodle, and smashbroshax, a New 3DS exclusive exploit for the 3DS version of Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (package manager)",
        "text": "Homebrew has spawned several sub-projects such as Linuxbrew, a Linux port now officially merged into Homebrew; Homebrew Cask, which builds upon Homebrew and focuses on the installation of GUI applications; and \"taps\" dedicated to specific areas or programming languages like PHP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Another modification device called Action Replay, manufactured by the company Datel, is a device which allows the user to input cheat codes that allows it to hack games, granting the player infinite health, power-ups, access to any part of the game, infinite in game currency, the ability to walk through walls, and various other abilities depending on the game and code used."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Dreamcast homebrew games",
        "text": "The indie games are various \u2013 some have Genesis-style 16-bit graphics, whereas others look more like Dreamcast-era games. However, the SDKs allowed to use are not as optimized for the hardware as their Sega licensed counterparts. The 16-bit games usually have also been released as homebrew for the Neo Geo AES console, and others may also have had releases for PC, mobile, or as downloadable indie titles for newer consoles, like Flashback for both Nintendo Switch and Sega Dreamcast. The first commercial unlicensed games in 2001 were three emulated and enhanced PlayStation games developed by Bleemcast!."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Making games on the PlayStation is possible with any model of the system through the use of a modchip or the double 'Swap Trick'. Requirements consist of a PC, SDK, and a 'Comms Link' device to upload and download files to and from the console."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "In 1995\u2014three years after Atari's withdrawal of the 2600 from the marketplace\u2014enthusiast Ed Federmeyer released \"SoundX\", a cartridge to demonstrate the sound capabilities of the system. Federmeyer used the term \"homebrew\" to describe hobbyist-driven development, inspired by the California Homebrew Computer Club of the 1970s. After designing the cartridge for his own use, Federmeyer advertised it on Usenet, followed by an unlicensed port of \"Tetris\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew developers do have access to the Cell microprocessor, including 6 of its 7 active Synergistic Processing Elements (SPEs). The Game OS resides under a hypervisor and prevents users from taking full control of the PlayStation 3's hardware. This is a security measure which helps Sony feel secure enough to allow users to install other operating systems on the PS3."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The Xbox One has a Dev Mode which, though intended to be used for retail game development, can be used to run unsigned homebrew software. It can be enabled on any retail Xbox One console. Dev Mode disables retail games and software while enabled. Homebrew software can be developed as Universal Windows Platform applications, allowing many programs designed to run on desktop editions of Windows 10 to run on the console including console emulators. In order to activate developer mode, one has first register for an app developer account, which has a fee of $19."
      },
      {
        "title": "PlayStation Portable homebrew",
        "text": "\"I think that is something that is in the works. We certainly see some of the stuff that has been done via homebrew, and it's incredibly creative. And I think we'd like to try and tap into that a little bit more.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "PlayStation Portable homebrew",
        "text": "However, Sony has also said that, when questioned about homebrew game support, Jack Tretton replied with,"
      },
      {
        "title": "PlayStation Portable homebrew",
        "text": "Homebrew emulators were created for NES, SNES, Game Boy Color, Game Boy Advance, Sega Genesis and N64 console systems among others. Numerous different emulators were created for the most popular consoles. PlayStation 1 emulation was native, made by Sony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "On August 31, 2010, PSGroove, an exploit for the PS3 through the USB port, was released and made open source. This exploit works on all of the PS3 models released up until then. A guide for the creation of the PSGroove is available through several online sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The cc65 C compiler is compatible with the console, although there is no development library support for it."
      },
      {
        "title": "ColecoVision",
        "text": "In 1996, the first homebrew ColecoVision game was released: a \"Tetris\" clone titled \"Kevtris\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wii",
        "text": "The Wii has become a popular target for homebrewing new functionality and video games since its discontinuation. For example, homebrew projects have been able to add DVD playback to unmodified Wii consoles. The Wii also can be hacked to enable an owner to use the console for activities unintended by the manufacturer. Several brands of modchips are available for the Wii."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Using homebrew programs (e.g. 'SMS Media Player') it is possible to listen to various audio file formats (MP3, OMA, Ogg Vorbis, AAC, FLAC, AC3), and watch various video formats (DivX/XviD, MPEG1, MPEG2, MPEG4-ASP in AVI Container) using the console. Media can be played from any device connected to the console i.e. external USB/FireWire/thumb drive/hard disk drive (FAT32 only), the internal hard disk on early revision consoles, optical CD-R(W)/DVD\u00b1R(W) disks (modded systems or patched disks), or network shares (Windows Network or PS2 host: protocol)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Game backup device",
        "text": "The copier devices and dissemination of hardware information through BBSes made it possible to start developing software on the video game consoles. The software evolved from crack intros to demos, and finally to home-made games. The homebrew software development scene is still active on multiple contemporary platforms."
      },
      {
        "title": "PlayStation Portable homebrew",
        "text": "PlayStation Portable homebrew\n--Applications.\n----Emulation.\n----Demoscene.\n--History.\n----Dark_AleX.\n----Half Byte Loader.\n--Statements.\n----Motivation for homebrew.\n----Sony's position.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur radio homebrew",
        "text": "Homebrew is an amateur radio slang term for home-built, noncommercial radio equipment. Design and construction of equipment from first principles is valued by amateur radio hobbyists, known as \"hams\", for educational value, and to allow experimentation and development of techniques or levels of performance not readily available as commercial products. Some items can be home-brewed at similar or lower cost than purchased equivalents."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Dreamcast homebrew games",
        "text": "Nevertheless, the games for Dreamcast in store shelves as of today and the years after 2007\u20132008 \u2013 2020 are far from 'homebrew' and what has been released since 2007 are nothing more or less than indie productions from smaller sized studios for other platforms and are often multi-platform releases by serious companies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "So far, several Linux flavors have been successfully installed to the PlayStation 3, such as Fedora Core 5, Fedora Core 6, Gentoo, Ubuntu and Yellow Dog Linux (YDL). The latter comes installed with the Cell SDK by default, allowing programmers a low cost entry into Cell programming. See also: Linux for PlayStation 3"
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "While the original Famicom and its clones can play unlicensed games, the 10NES hardware lock-out mechanism of the NES complicates the production of physical cartridges. The 10NES chip can be permanently disabled by performing a minor change to the hardware. Nintendo's New-Style NES lacks the 10NES chip."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Note: The hypervisor vulnerability in the Xbox 360 kernel versions 4532 and 4548 was addressed by Microsoft with the release of the NXE system and dashboard update in 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Despite its short commercial lifespan of less than two years in North America, the Dreamcast benefits from an active homebrew scene even ten years after its discontinuation. Due to a flaw in the Dreamcast BIOS, which was intended for use with MIL-CD's, the console can run software from CD-R without the use of a modchip. Sega reacted by removing MIL-CD support from the BIOS of the later produced Dreamcast consoles manufactured from November 2000 onwards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The Sixaxis controller has also been exposed to Linux and Windows, but no driver seems to have been successfully created yet that exposes its accelerometer functionality, except for Motioninjoy. However other drivers have successfully used it as a controller for gaming and other applications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrewing",
        "text": "Homebrewing is the brewing of beer, mead, and ciders on a small scale for personal, non-commercial purposes. Supplies such as kits and fermentation tanks, can be purchased locally at specialty stores or online. Alcohol was brewed domestically for thousands of years before its commercial production, although its legality has varied according to local regulation. Homebrewing is closely related to the hobby of \"home distillation\", the production of alcoholic spirits for personal consumption; however home distillation is generally more tightly regulated."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Dreamcast homebrew games",
        "text": "So the restart of console and hardware production although at very limited runs at least made profit at one point, that is, in the year of 2007, when Sega made over 1000 million \u00a5 in profit and has now partnered with Retro-bit to create new wireless controllers as well as new, cabled ones, already in store shelves as of March 2020, while its whole library of online games brought back thanks to the Dcserv-project probably also had an impact, as few other consoles have had the same happen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (package manager)",
        "text": "Homebrew has made extensive use of GitHub to expand the support of several packages through user contributions. In 2010, Homebrew was the third-most-forked repository on GitHub. In 2012, Homebrew had the largest number of new contributors on GitHub. In 2013, Homebrew had both the largest number of contributors and issues closed of any project on GitHub."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Dreamcast homebrew games",
        "text": "There has recently been an increasing number of games being developed, since Sega of Japan officially ended production of Dreamcast consoles, albeit limited to Japan, by the end of year 2007, posting a fiscal profit of 1748 million \u00a5, and that was mostly because of \"Consumer business\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Video game accessory",
        "text": "Most software accessories for a video game system are simply the games designed by professional game companies. With some of the recent systems, homemade games called homebrew are being designed and released publicly. The Xbox 360 system has official released tools called the XNA so that users can design and proliferate their own content. It was announce by Microsoft after their announcement of the Xbox Live Marketplace. Another type of homebrew is popular on the Nintendo DS portable gaming system. Through an outside hardware device, the internal software that is used to run games, the BIOS, is overwritten. Replacing the default BIOS with an unofficial BIOS allows for user generated content to be playable. These games are anything from simple ports of older games to truly new ideas and games. Sony also allowed for homebrew content on their new PlayStation 3 by allowing for Linux to be installed. Linux allows for many different types of content to be playable. Because of Linux\u2019s open source methods of utilizing the hardware as long as users write the necessary software, anything can be playable on the PS3."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The TurboGrafx-16/PC Engine has a comparatively small homebrew scene. The first homebrew title released on CD was MindRec's \"Implode\" in 2002, a few years after the system's last official release (\"Dead Of The Brain I & II\" for the PC Engine in 1999). Two years later, MindRec released \"Meteor Blaster DX\" on CD-R. Official word was that it was unable to be pressed to CD proper due to the glass mastering software suddenly unable to handle the unorthodox style of CD layout that the system expects. Five years later, Aetherbyte Studios released \"Insanity\", a Berzerk clone, on pressed CD, quelling the notion of unpressable CDs. Aetherbyte later went on to prototype and produce a new HuCard design called \"AbCARD\"\", which was fully compatible with the console."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Dreamcast homebrew games",
        "text": "But even before then, there were non-GD-ROM-based discs around in the form of CodeBreaker, GameShark, Action Replay CDX and the VCD player, which never was licensed either."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electronika BK",
        "text": "Homebrew developers quickly filled this niche, porting several programming tools from DVK and UKNC. This led to an explosion of homebrew software, from text editors and databases to operating systems and video games. Most BK owners expanded the built-in RAM to at least 64 KiB, which allowed easier software porting from more \"grownup\" systems, and as these upgrades often included floppy drive controllers, individuals creating disk operating systems became something of a competitive sport in the BK scene. Games and demoscene communities also flourished, as its anemic graphics were offset by a powerful CPU."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew (video games)\n--Development.\n--First generation consoles.\n----Odyssey.\n--Second generation consoles.\n----Channel F.\n--Third and fourth generation consoles.\n----NES.\n----Genesis.\n----TurboGrafx-16/PC Engine.\n----SNES.\n----Neo-Geo MVS, AES, and CD.\n--Fifth generation consoles.\n----Jaguar.\n----PlayStation.\n----Saturn.\n----Virtual Boy.\n----Nintendo 64.\n--Sixth generation consoles.\n----Dreamcast.\n----PlayStation 2.\n----GameCube.\n----Xbox.\n----Game Boy Advance.\n--Seventh generation consoles.\n----Nintendo DS.\n----Xbox 360.\n----PlayStation 3.\n----Wii.\n--Eighth generation consoles.\n----3DS.\n----PlayStation Vita.\n----Wii U.\n----Switch.\n----Xbox One.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dance pad",
        "text": "Homebrew pads use a variety of technologies for designing the arrows that the player is supposed to step on. The most common design uses metal contacts that sandwich together when the player steps on the pad or arcade button switches but some novel ideas have been proposed such as the use of optical, pressure, vibration, or proximity sensors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "There is one C compiler for the console known as HuC. It has not been officially updated since 2005. The MagicKit assembler is generally considered the de facto assembler for the console, and comes included with HuC. Additional libraries for HuC/MagicKit include Squirrel, a sound engine developed by Aetherbyte Studios, and the SGX/ACD library, developed by Tomatheous, that gives the developer easy access to the SuperGrafx video hardware as well as the Arcade Card."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Unsigned software can be launched from the SD card without having to install custom firmware on the device by using an exploit to run The Homebrew Launcher. The Homebrew Launcher itself can be launched on system versions 9.0-11.13 on any 3DS system. However, without installing custom firmware, the user will need to run the exploit each time they want to access The Homebrew Launcher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "On March 20, 2007, it was announced that a hack using the previously discovered hypervisor vulnerability in the Xbox 360 kernel versions 4532 and 4548 had been developed to allow users to run XeLL, a Linux bootloader. The initial hack was beyond the average user and required an Xbox serial cable to be installed and a flashed DVD Drive firmware. Felix Domke, the programmer behind XeLL, has since announced a live bootable Linux CD suitable for novice users, with the capabilities to be installed to the SATA hard drive of the Xbox 360. Despite the availability of such a distribution, the Xbox 360 still isn't considered a popular platform for homebrew development, given the dependence of the exploit on the DVD-ROM being able to load a burnt DVD game, a modified version of the game \"King Kong\", and two older kernel revisions of the console itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The Nintendo Switch got its first exploit with PegaSwitch on March 14, 2017; just 11 days after the console's release. It was developed by a team called ReSwitched, and it can be run through the browser included when connecting to a Wi-Fi network with a login page. Luca Todesco used the same exploit to jailbreak iOS 9 devices in 2016. It did not allow true homebrew to run on the system at the time, but it let developers look for other security bugs in the system. On October 1, 2017, ReSwitched announced many new exploits and tools allowing developers to start working on homebrew programs for the system even before they could be launched. At the 34c3 event, hackers Plutoo, Derrek, and Naehrwert announced a kernel exploit for the system (which they said would not be released) and said that a homebrew launcher was coming soon. On January 7, 2018, fail0verflow posted a video to Twitter showing a simple side-scrolling text program before booting the system, which shows that there is a way to run code before boot, opening up possibilities for new programs focused on development. A homebrew launcher application has been released as well, and a custom firmware called Atmosphere, has also been released. Access to a Japanese copy of Puyo Puyo Tetris is initially required to install a Fake News exploit to launch the CFW on 1.0.0. For later system versions, the ability to install depends on the age of the console, as new consoles first appearing in June 2018 and shipping with system version 4.1.0 have their boot ROMs patched against the TrustZone (full control) exploit that allows CFW to be installed. As long as the system does not have the patches (which can only be installed at the factory during console assembly), the exploit can be used to install CFW."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "In May 2018 it was announced that the Retron 77, a clone of the Atari 2600 console, would include four homebrew pack in-games: \"Astronomer\", \"Baby\", \"Muncher 77\", and \"Nexion 3D\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Running homebrew on the Model 2 can be accomplished by bridging two points on the modchip, soldering a wire from the modchip to the Saturn power supply, and inserting it where the CD-ROM ribbon cable inserts. The swap trick is more difficult to pull off on this Model due to the lack of an access light."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dance pad",
        "text": "While some homebrew pads use custom electronics built from scratch, most homebrew pads make use a circuit board from a standard controller to simplify the process of interfacing the pad with a gaming system. The controller used depends on the system that the pad is intended to be played with (GameCube, PlayStation, Xbox, or PC)."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Nintendo DS and 3DS flash cartridges",
        "text": "The first method of storing homebrew applications for the Nintendo DS was the use of flash cartridges designed for the Game Boy Advance. These were effective in finding exploits, since they are a 32 MiB block of rewritable flash memory directly accessible by both CPUs of the Nintendo DS. Users of GBA homebrew tended to use GBA methods for DS homebrew as well; however, the limited storage space, variety and price of GBA flash cartridges make them unsuitable for new users. Since there were many types of flash cartridges (each with its own method for writing to the flash ROM), most homebrew programs only supported saving to the included 64 KiB of SRAM intended for game-saving."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nuon (DVD technology)",
        "text": "During late 2001, VM Labs released a homebrew SDK which allowed people to be able to program apps/games for their Nuon system. Only the Samsung DVD-N501/DVDN504/DVDN505 and RCA DRC300N/DRC480N can load homebrew games."
      },
      {
        "title": "PlayStation 3 homebrew",
        "text": "Some enthusiasts participate in homebrew for the PlayStation 3 video game console. Homebrew software was first run on the PS3 by a group of hackers under the name \"Team Ice\" by exploiting a vulnerability in the game . Following various other hacks executed from Linux, Sony removed the ability to install another operating system in the 3.21 firmware update. This event caused backlash among the hacker communities, and eventually the group Fail0verflow found a flaw in the generation of encryption keys which they leveraged to restore the ability to install Linux. George Hotz (Geohot), often misattributed as the genesis of homebrew on the PS3, later created the first homebrew signed using the private \"metldr\" encryption key which he leaked onto the internet. The action of leaking the key led to Hotz being sued by Sony. The court case was settled out of court, with the result of George Hotz not being able to further reverse engineer the PS3."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrewing",
        "text": "Beer has been brewed domestically throughout its 7,000-year history, beginning in the Neolithic period in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), Egypt and China. It seems to have first developed as thick beers; during this time meads, fruit wines and rice wines were also developed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Games are released in either cartridge, CD\u2013or both\u2013formats. Most developers have published their works either online on forums or in cartridge via independent publishers. Since both systems do not have regional locking, all of the titles are region free. Some of the earliest CD releases were not encrypted, requiring either B&C's Jaguar CD Bypass Cartridge or Reboot's Jagtopia (Freeboot) program burned into a CD in order to run unencrypted CD games, but Curt Vendel of Atari Museum released the binaries and encryption keys for both the cartridge and CD format, making it possible to run games without the need of development hardware. A cracked BIOS of the Jaguar CD can be soldered inside the system."
      },
      {
        "title": "ZX Spectrum",
        "text": "A homebrew community continues into the present day, with several games being released commercially from new software houses such as Cronosoft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "George Hotz, better known under his nickname \"geohot\", appeared on \"Attack of the Show\" because he released the PlayStation 3's encryption keys, therefore any homebrew or custom firmware can be signed. Once signed, homebrew can be natively run. It would be difficult for Sony to fix this because it would most likely require a voluntary recall and the most expensive parts would have to be replaced. In 2011, Sony, with help from law firm Kilpatrick Stockton, sued Hotz and associates of the group fail0verflow for their jailbreaking activities. Charges included violating the DMCA, CFAA, copyright law, and California's CCDAFA, and for breach of contract (related to the PlayStation Network User Agreement), tortious interference, misappropriation, and trespass."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrewing",
        "text": "The principles behind the process of homebrewing beer are similar to commercial brewing. A hopped wort is produced and yeast pitched into the wort to stimulate fermentation. The complexity of the process is mostly determined by the approach used to manufacture the wort; by far the simplest method is kit brewing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (package manager)",
        "text": "Homebrew was written by Max Howell in 2009. In March 2013, Homebrew successfully completed a Kickstarter campaign to raise funds for servers to test and build formulae and managed to raise . On December 13, 2013, the Homebrew repository migrated from Howell's GitHub account to its own project account. In February 2015, due to downtime at SourceForge which resulted in binaries being unavailable, Homebrew moved their hosting to Bintray. On September 21, 2016, Homebrew version 1.0.0 was released. As of February 2021, Homebrew is maintained by a team of 34 people. In January 2019, Linuxbrew was merged back into Homebrew, adding beta support for Linux and the Windows Subsystem for Linux to the Homebrew feature set. On February 2, 2019, Homebrew version 2.0.0 was released. On September 21, 2020, Homebrew version 2.5.2 was released with support for bottle taps (binary package repositories) via GitHub Releases. Version 3.0.0 was released almost exactly two years after 2.0.0, on February 5, 2021, and added official support for Macs with Apple silicon. On April 12, 2021, Homebrew version 3.1.0 was released completing their migration of bottles (binary packages) to GitHub Packages before the May 1, 2021 shutdown of Bintray as previously announced by JFrog."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of when homebrew has been used?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Homebrew has meanings within the fields of video games, software, and alcohol production. Which context are you looking to learn more about?"
    ],
    "topic": "Homebrew (video games)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Homebrew (video games):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Homebrew (video games)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Homebrew, when applied to video games, refers to games produced by hobbyists for proprietary video game consoles which are not intended to be user-programmable. The official documentation is often only available to licensed developers, and these systems may use storage formats that make distribution difficult, such as ROM cartridges or encrypted CD-ROMs. Many consoles have hardware restrictions to prevent unauthorized development. A non-professional developer for a system intended to be user-programmable, like the Commodore 64, is simply called a \"hobbyist\" (rather than a \"homebrew developer\")."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Homebrew (package manager):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Homebrew (package manager)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Homebrew is a free and open-source software package management system that simplifies the installation of software on Apple's operating system, macOS, as well as Linux. The name is intended to suggest the idea of building software on the Mac depending on the user's taste. Originally written by Max Howell, the package manager has gained popularity in the Ruby on Rails community and earned praise for its extensibility. Homebrew has been recommended for its ease of use as well as its integration into the command line interface. Homebrew is a non-profit project member of the Software Freedom Conservancy, and is run entirely by unpaid volunteers."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Homebrewing:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Homebrewing"
        ],
        "ctx": "Homebrewing is the brewing of beer, mead, and ciders on a small scale for personal, non-commercial purposes. Supplies such as kits and fermentation tanks, can be purchased locally at specialty stores or online. Alcohol was brewed domestically for thousands of years before its commercial production, although its legality has varied according to local regulation. Homebrewing is closely related to the hobby of \"home distillation\", the production of alcoholic spirits for personal consumption; however home distillation is generally more tightly regulated."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew development can include software made using unofficial, community maintained toolchains or games developed using official development kits such as Net Yaroze, Linux for PlayStation 2, or Microsoft XNA. Some targets for homebrew games include the Wii, Dreamcast, Game Boy Advance, PlayStation Portable, Nintendo Entertainment System, and Atari 2600."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew, when applied to video games, refers to games produced by hobbyists for proprietary video game consoles which are not intended to be user-programmable. The official documentation is often only available to licensed developers, and these systems may use storage formats that make distribution difficult, such as ROM cartridges or encrypted CD-ROMs. Many consoles have hardware restrictions to prevent unauthorized development. A non-professional developer for a system intended to be user-programmable, like the Commodore 64, is simply called a \"hobbyist\" (rather than a \"homebrew developer\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "One of the more common type of homebrew games for the Xbox are ports of PC games whose source has been publicly released or leaked. Many classic PC games have been released for Xbox, but most are created with the XDK which limits their availability. The only places to find these ports are through IRC or peer-to-peer browsers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "In South Korea, many video game consumers exploit illegal copies of video games, including for the Nintendo DS. In 2007, 500,000 copies of DS games were sold, while the sales of the DS hardware units was 800,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew was originally promoted by Sony with the Net Yaroze, which had a large scene for quite some time. However, the official Net Yaroze site was shut down in mid-2009, and Sony stopped supporting the system as well as the users who still owned the console."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The Nintendo 64 homebrew scene is small, but homebrew can still be played and developed through the use of a Doctor V64, (Acclaim used a Doctor V64 to help develop Turok,) the Everdrive 64 or 64drive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "There are a number of cards which either have built-in flash memory, or a slot which can accept an SD, or MicroSD (like the DSTT, R4, AceKard and ez-flash V/Vi) cards. These cards typically enable DS console gamers to use their console to play MP3s and videos, and other non-gaming functions traditionally reserved for separate devices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew software for the Nintendo GameCube mainly consists of emulators for other systems, as well as several popular homebrew utilities. Swiss is an \u201call-in-one homebrew utility\u201d, including a file browser, and the ability to force software to use different video modes that aren't officially supported, such as progressive scan or 16:9 widescreen. The Game Boy Interface is a homebrew software frontend for the Game Boy Player peripheral, and is often used for capturing high-quality footage from Game Boy, Game Boy Color, and Game Boy Advance games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Since emulation of the console is still limited, coding uses a real console through either the Skunkboard development cartridge, using a BJL modified Jaguar, or the official Alpine Development Kit. The commercial game \"BattleSphere Gold\", also contains the JUGS (Jaguar Unmodified Game Server) aid to development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew emulators of older computer and gaming systems have been developed for the PS2."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Due to the Xbox using standard PC libraries, writing homebrew games is relatively easy and the vast majority of libraries available for a PC programmer are available to an Xbox homebrew programmer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew development on the Nintendo GameCube tended to be difficult, since it uses a proprietary MiniDVD-based drive and media as opposed to the standard DVD drives of the PS2 and Xbox for piracy protection. Also, its connectivity is limited, as it does not feature a USB port or an HDD port like the PlayStation 2."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Originally, graphics support was limited to framebuffer access only (no access to the PlayStation 3's graphics chip RSX), yet some access to the RSX graphics processor was achieved (but Sony blocked this with firmware release 2.10)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "As of August 2019, the most common method is to use an Action Replay in conjunction with an SD card adapter inserted into the memory card slot, allowing the user to run homebrew from the SD card, or over Ethernet. Another method involves using a modchip to allow the GameCube to run homebrew from a MiniDVD-R via the disc drive. Another method uses a save game exploit which involves transferring modified game save files to a GameCube memory card that triggers arbitrary code execution when loaded by an official game, allowing custom software to be run from a memory card, SD card, or other media. As the Nintendo GameCube's case does not fit a full-size DVD-R, third party replacement cases are available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Several compilers are available for the Nintendo Entertainment System, but like the Atari 2600, most development is done in 6502 assembly language. One impediment to NES homebrew development is the relative difficulty involved with producing physical cartridges, although third-party flash carts do exist, making homebrew possible on original NES hardware. Several varieties of custom processors are used within NES cartridges to expand system capabilities; most are difficult to replicate except by scavenging old cartridges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The popularity of homebrew development for the Game Boy Advance system since its release in 2001 is due to the availability of C compilers and ready-made, high-quality code libraries, and debugging features for Game Boy Advance emulators like the VisualBoyAdvance-M, the mgba, the No$gba GBA Emulator, John GBA and My Boy. Also contributing to the success is both the nostalgia for the system in general, the Pok\u00e9mon Romhacking community, and the wide availability of Flash ROM cartridges and cartridge writers in online shops."
      },
      {
        "title": "WiiBrew",
        "text": "#REDIRECT Homebrew (video games)#Wii"
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "A handful of games have been programmed for the Fairchild Channel F, the first console to use ROM cartridges. The first known release is Sean Riddle's clone of \"Lights Out\" which included instructions on how to modify the SABA#20 Chess game into a Multi-Cartridge. There is also a version of \"Tetris\" and in 2008 \"Videocart 27: \"Pac-Man\" became the first full production game for the system since it was discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "In May 2008, a vulnerability was found in the PlayStation 3 allowing users to install a partial debug firmware on a regular console. However, the debug functionality is disabled, so neither homebrew applications nor backup games can be run yet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew computer",
        "text": "Homebrew computer\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "As of firmware release 3.21, consumers are no longer able to access the 'Other OS' due to Sony removing the facility from the software in an update. Sony said this was in response to several 'security concerns'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew",
        "text": "Homebrew or home brew may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "New games for older systems are typically developed using emulators. Development for newer systems usually involves actual hardware, given the lack of accurate emulators. Efforts have been made to use actual console hardware for many older systems, though. Atari 2600 programmers may burn an EEPROM to plug into a custom cartridge board or use audio transfer via the Starpath Supercharger. Game Boy Advance developers have several ways to use GBA flash cartridges in this regard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew computer",
        "text": "Homebrew computer may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "A softmod, which uses a commercial game such as \"\", \"Mech Assault\", or \"Splinter Cell\", had been created to execute a persistent softmod installer without modification of the hardware. This method utilizes modified font and sound files to cause the Xbox to cause a stack buffer overflow and load a homebrew dashboard. Once in this condition, the Xbox is able to execute homebrew games and applications upon boot up."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "A group independent of Microsoft is working on the means to run homebrew code, as part of the Free60 project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The console is especially notable for its commercial homebrew scene. One notable project was the Bleemcast! emulator, which was a series of bootdisks made to play PlayStation games on the system, featuring visual enhancements over the original console. Newer independent releases include \"Last Hope\", released by RedSpotGames in 2007, and \"DUX\", both Shoot 'em up style games. These releases were written using the KallistiOS development system. A port of the freeware high-level development language Fenix and BennuGD is available for use in game development; many DIV Games Studio games have been ported and others were originally written for the system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "An alternative device is the Super Flash, by Tototek, which allows multiple games to be burned onto a flash memory chip in a cartridge. This allows games as large as 48 megabits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew",
        "text": "Homebrewing mainly refers to small-scale, non-commercial manufacture of a drink, typically beer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew",
        "text": "Homebrew\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "GP32",
        "text": "Through this strategy, the GP32 was the host of multiple homebrew applications and games. The various applications made for it ranged from alternative firmware, file managers, games, emulators, game generators (such as RPG Maker), a DivX player and image slideshows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew was since re-enabled on any Xbox 360 with dash 2.0.7371.0 or lower via an exploit referred to as the JTAG / SMC hack but was promptly patched again by Microsoft with the 2.0.8495.0 update."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Using homebrew programs (e.g. 'SMS Media Player') it is possible to listen to various audio file formats (MP3, OMA, Ogg Vorbis, AAC, FLAC, AC3), and watch various video formats (DivX/XviD, MPEG1, MPEG2, MPEG4-ASP in AVI Container) using the console. Media can be played from any device connected to the console i.e. external USB/FireWire/thumb drive/hard disk drive (FAT32 only), the internal hard disk on early revision consoles, optical CD-R(W)/DVD\u00b1R(W) disks (modded systems or patched disks), or network shares (Windows Network or PS2 host: protocol)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flash cartridge",
        "text": "These cartridges remain the best-known way to create and distribute homebrew games for many consoles, such as the Game Boy Advance. (another option in this case being the GBA Movie Player, which can run specially designed homebrew programs but cannot run illicit copies of commercial GBA Game cartridges due to the lack of onboard RAM for fast data access)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Atari 2600 homebrew is a term describing hobbyist-developed games for the Atari 2600 video game console. The first such game was written in 1995, and more than 100 have been released since then. The majority of games are unlicensed clones of games for other platforms, and many were written for the technical challenge. There are also ROM hacks and some original games. Several games have received attention outside the hobbyist community. Some have been included in a game anthology by Activision."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "On February 13, 2019, TheFloW released a downgrader tool that can downgrade any Vita console to an older firmware down to its factory firmware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew has now become available on most Xbox 360 consoles due to the Reset Glitch Hack (excluding the late Winchester revision, which fixed this exploit with mitigations in hardware). It works on all current dashboards. As the Reset Glitch Hack requires a modchip, soldering skills are a necessity when attempting to use this exploit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Since the release of the Nintendo DS, a great deal of hacking has occurred involving the DS's fully rewritable firmware, Wi-Fi connection, game cards that allow SD storage, and software use. There are now many emulators for the DS, as well as the NES, SNES, Sega Master System, Sega Mega Drive, Neo-Geo Pocket, Neo-Geo MVS (arcade), and older handheld consoles like the Game Boy Color."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Another way of starting homebrew on the PlayStation is 'UniROM', which is a Softmod. UniROM works by being installed onto a cheat-device, which is connected via the parallel-port (on old consoles) and allows loading of custom code via burned CDs and the serial port."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The cc65 C compiler is compatible with the console, although there is no development library support for it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Nintendo's Virtual Boy has no region lock, but it wasn't until the flash carts FlashBoy and FlashBoy+ were released that the homebrew scene began to grow. Two previously unreleased games, \"Bound High!\" and \"Niko-Chan Battle\" (the Japanese version of \"Faceball\") have been released."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Early versions of the PlayStation 2 have a buffer overflow bug in the part of the BIOS that handles PS1 game compatibility; hackers found a way to turn this into a loophole called the PS2 Independence Exploit, allowing the use of homebrew software. Another option for homebrew development is the use of a modchip. Also, it is possible for developers to utilize a PS2 hard drive and HD Loader. In Europe and Australia, the PS2 came with a free Yabasic interpreter on the bundled demo disc for some time. This allows simple programs to be created for the PS2 by the end-user. This was included in a failed attempt to circumvent a UK tax by defining the console as a \"computer\" if it contained certain software. A port of the NetBSD project and BlackRhino GNU/Linux, an alternative Debian-based distribution, are also available for the PS2."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew developers do have access to the Cell microprocessor, including 6 of its 7 active Synergistic Processing Elements (SPEs). The Game OS resides under a hypervisor and prevents users from taking full control of the PlayStation 3's hardware. This is a security measure which helps Sony feel secure enough to allow users to install other operating systems on the PS3."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The run and gun game, \"Alisha's Adventure\", used original Super Famicom development hardware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The Xbox console uses several measures, including cryptographically signed code to obfuscate firmware. The primary method of executing homebrew code required installing a mod chip which could be flashed with a modified Microsoft BIOS. This BIOS allowed the system to boot unsigned executables (XBEs) and control several hardware variables, such as region coding and video mode. With the leak of Microsoft's official development kit (XDK), homebrew coders were able to write replacement Xbox GUIs (known as dashboards), games and applications for the Xbox."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Games that have received attention outside the hobbyist development community include \"Halo 2600\", \"Duck Attack!\", and \"A-VCS-tec Challenge\" by Simon Quernhorst (2006), an unofficial port of the 1981 Atari 8-bit family game \"Aztec Challenge\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "CD-i",
        "text": "Some homebrew developers have released video games on the CD-i format in later years, such as \"Frog Feast\" (2005) and \"Super Quartet\" (2018)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Making games on the PlayStation is possible with any model of the system through the use of a modchip or the double 'Swap Trick'. Requirements consist of a PC, SDK, and a 'Comms Link' device to upload and download files to and from the console."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Another exploit was found on August 14, 2008, allowing users to boot some backup games from the PlayStation 3's HDD, although the exact instructions on how to do this were not released at that time. However, a different person posted instructions 10 days later, which explained the exploit."
      },
      {
        "title": "HyperScan",
        "text": "Though not much development for homebrew games was done on the console, several programmers have created demos and proofs-of-concepts. Some of the programs include a CD-Door demo, 3D wireframe demo, and a Bluescale demo."
      },
      {
        "title": "WiiBrew",
        "text": "WiiBrew is simply a wiki about Wii homebrew. Therefore, if you are seeing this page, you should click the redirect link above."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The Xbox One has a Dev Mode which, though intended to be used for retail game development, can be used to run unsigned homebrew software. It can be enabled on any retail Xbox One console. Dev Mode disables retail games and software while enabled. Homebrew software can be developed as Universal Windows Platform applications, allowing many programs designed to run on desktop editions of Windows 10 to run on the console including console emulators. In order to activate developer mode, one has first register for an app developer account, which has a fee of $19."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dance pad",
        "text": "Homebrew pads use a variety of technologies for designing the arrows that the player is supposed to step on. The most common design uses metal contacts that sandwich together when the player steps on the pad or arcade button switches but some novel ideas have been proposed such as the use of optical, pressure, vibration, or proximity sensors."
      },
      {
        "title": "PlayStation Portable homebrew",
        "text": "However, Sony has also said that, when questioned about homebrew game support, Jack Tretton replied with,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Amateur radio homebrew",
        "text": "Homebrew is an amateur radio slang term for home-built, noncommercial radio equipment. Design and construction of equipment from first principles is valued by amateur radio hobbyists, known as \"hams\", for educational value, and to allow experimentation and development of techniques or levels of performance not readily available as commercial products. Some items can be home-brewed at similar or lower cost than purchased equivalents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (package manager)",
        "text": "Homebrew has spawned several sub-projects such as Linuxbrew, a Linux port now officially merged into Homebrew; Homebrew Cask, which builds upon Homebrew and focuses on the installation of GUI applications; and \"taps\" dedicated to specific areas or programming languages like PHP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Game backup device",
        "text": "The copier devices and dissemination of hardware information through BBSes made it possible to start developing software on the video game consoles. The software evolved from crack intros to demos, and finally to home-made games. The homebrew software development scene is still active on multiple contemporary platforms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "With the DSi, it too has some homebrew exploits, some of which use DSiWare apps such as Flipnote (aka ugopwn), sudokuhax, using a game called Sudoku by EA Games, grtpwn, exidiahax, fieldrunhax, 4swordhax, UNO*hax, and an exploit using Petit Computer called petit-compwner. There is also systemflaaw, which uses the DSi-exclusive game System Flaw,"
      },
      {
        "title": "PlayStation Portable homebrew",
        "text": "\"I think that is something that is in the works. We certainly see some of the stuff that has been done via homebrew, and it's incredibly creative. And I think we'd like to try and tap into that a little bit more.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "PlayStation Portable homebrew",
        "text": "PlayStation Portable homebrew\n--Applications.\n----Emulation.\n----Demoscene.\n--History.\n----Dark_AleX.\n----Half Byte Loader.\n--Statements.\n----Motivation for homebrew.\n----Sony's position.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrewing",
        "text": "Homebrewing\n--History.\n--Brewing culture.\n--Homebrewing kits.\n----All-grain.\n----Malt extract.\n----Pre-hopped malt extract.\n----Brewing in a bag.\n----Ingredients outside the kits.\n------Water.\n------Sucrose.\n--Brewing process.\n----Mashing.\n------Beginners.\n------Intermediate Brewers.\n------Advanced brewers.\n--------Boiling the wort.\n--------Cooling the wort.\n--------Fermentation.\n--------Carbonation.\n--Kegs.\n--Environmental impact.\n--Brewing software and technology.\n--Homebrewing competitions.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The first public homebrew exploit for the Nintendo 3DS, ninjhax, allowed the user to scan a QR Code to exploit the game Cubic Ninja. Other ways to run The Homebrew Launcher have been discovered since then, including freakyhax, an exploit in the Deluxe edition of , Doodlebomb, an exploit in the 1.1.1 and older versions of Swapdoodle, and smashbroshax, a New 3DS exclusive exploit for the 3DS version of Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "On January 6, 2009 a hacking ring known as the \"Sh4d0ws\" leaked the jig files needed to launch the PlayStation 3 into service mode. Although the PlayStation 3 can be triggered into service mode, it is not yet of any use because the files needed to make changes to the console have not been leaked."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The Xbox system is also very adept at running emulators which have been ported from PC, given its high processing power. The Xbox is able to emulate systems up to the previous generation, including the Nintendo 64 and the PlayStation. For this reason, many different emulators have been created for or ported to the Xbox."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "In 1995\u2014three years after Atari's withdrawal of the 2600 from the marketplace\u2014enthusiast Ed Federmeyer released \"SoundX\", a cartridge to demonstrate the sound capabilities of the system. Federmeyer used the term \"homebrew\" to describe hobbyist-driven development, inspired by the California Homebrew Computer Club of the 1970s. After designing the cartridge for his own use, Federmeyer advertised it on Usenet, followed by an unlicensed port of \"Tetris\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Note: The hypervisor vulnerability in the Xbox 360 kernel versions 4532 and 4548 was addressed by Microsoft with the release of the NXE system and dashboard update in 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "On August 31, 2010, PSGroove, an exploit for the PS3 through the USB port, was released and made open source. This exploit works on all of the PS3 models released up until then. A guide for the creation of the PSGroove is available through several online sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew (video games)\n--Development.\n--First generation consoles.\n----Odyssey.\n--Second generation consoles.\n----Channel F.\n--Third and fourth generation consoles.\n----NES.\n----Genesis.\n----TurboGrafx-16/PC Engine.\n----SNES.\n----Neo-Geo MVS, AES, and CD.\n--Fifth generation consoles.\n----Jaguar.\n----PlayStation.\n----Saturn.\n----Virtual Boy.\n----Nintendo 64.\n--Sixth generation consoles.\n----Dreamcast.\n----PlayStation 2.\n----GameCube.\n----Xbox.\n----Game Boy Advance.\n--Seventh generation consoles.\n----Nintendo DS.\n----Xbox 360.\n----PlayStation 3.\n----Wii.\n--Eighth generation consoles.\n----3DS.\n----PlayStation Vita.\n----Wii U.\n----Switch.\n----Xbox One.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Another modification device called Action Replay, manufactured by the company Datel, is a device which allows the user to input cheat codes that allows it to hack games, granting the player infinite health, power-ups, access to any part of the game, infinite in game currency, the ability to walk through walls, and various other abilities depending on the game and code used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrewing",
        "text": "Homebrewing is the brewing of beer, mead, and ciders on a small scale for personal, non-commercial purposes. Supplies such as kits and fermentation tanks, can be purchased locally at specialty stores or online. Alcohol was brewed domestically for thousands of years before its commercial production, although its legality has varied according to local regulation. Homebrewing is closely related to the hobby of \"home distillation\", the production of alcoholic spirits for personal consumption; however home distillation is generally more tightly regulated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "While the original Famicom and its clones can play unlicensed games, the 10NES hardware lock-out mechanism of the NES complicates the production of physical cartridges. The 10NES chip can be permanently disabled by performing a minor change to the hardware. Nintendo's New-Style NES lacks the 10NES chip."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Unsigned software can be launched from the SD card without having to install custom firmware on the device by using an exploit to run The Homebrew Launcher. The Homebrew Launcher itself can be launched on system versions 9.0-11.13 on any 3DS system. However, without installing custom firmware, the user will need to run the exploit each time they want to access The Homebrew Launcher."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Running homebrew on the Model 2 can be accomplished by bridging two points on the modchip, soldering a wire from the modchip to the Saturn power supply, and inserting it where the CD-ROM ribbon cable inserts. The swap trick is more difficult to pull off on this Model due to the lack of an access light."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dance pad",
        "text": "While some homebrew pads use custom electronics built from scratch, most homebrew pads make use a circuit board from a standard controller to simplify the process of interfacing the pad with a gaming system. The controller used depends on the system that the pad is intended to be played with (GameCube, PlayStation, Xbox, or PC)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The Sixaxis controller has also been exposed to Linux and Windows, but no driver seems to have been successfully created yet that exposes its accelerometer functionality, except for Motioninjoy. However other drivers have successfully used it as a controller for gaming and other applications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electronika BK",
        "text": "Homebrew developers quickly filled this niche, porting several programming tools from DVK and UKNC. This led to an explosion of homebrew software, from text editors and databases to operating systems and video games. Most BK owners expanded the built-in RAM to at least 64 KiB, which allowed easier software porting from more \"grownup\" systems, and as these upgrades often included floppy drive controllers, individuals creating disk operating systems became something of a competitive sport in the BK scene. Games and demoscene communities also flourished, as its anemic graphics were offset by a powerful CPU."
      },
      {
        "title": "ColecoVision",
        "text": "In 1996, the first homebrew ColecoVision game was released: a \"Tetris\" clone titled \"Kevtris\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrewing",
        "text": "The principles behind the process of homebrewing beer are similar to commercial brewing. A hopped wort is produced and yeast pitched into the wort to stimulate fermentation. The complexity of the process is mostly determined by the approach used to manufacture the wort; by far the simplest method is kit brewing."
      },
      {
        "title": "PlayStation Portable homebrew",
        "text": "Homebrew emulators were created for NES, SNES, Game Boy Color, Game Boy Advance, Sega Genesis and N64 console systems among others. Numerous different emulators were created for the most popular consoles. PlayStation 1 emulation was native, made by Sony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Despite its short commercial lifespan of less than two years in North America, the Dreamcast benefits from an active homebrew scene even ten years after its discontinuation. Due to a flaw in the Dreamcast BIOS, which was intended for use with MIL-CD's, the console can run software from CD-R without the use of a modchip. Sega reacted by removing MIL-CD support from the BIOS of the later produced Dreamcast consoles manufactured from November 2000 onwards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "There is one C compiler for the console known as HuC. It has not been officially updated since 2005. The MagicKit assembler is generally considered the de facto assembler for the console, and comes included with HuC. Additional libraries for HuC/MagicKit include Squirrel, a sound engine developed by Aetherbyte Studios, and the SGX/ACD library, developed by Tomatheous, that gives the developer easy access to the SuperGrafx video hardware as well as the Arcade Card."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Dreamcast homebrew games",
        "text": "List of Dreamcast homebrew games\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Dreamcast homebrew games",
        "text": "The indie games are various \u2013 some have Genesis-style 16-bit graphics, whereas others look more like Dreamcast-era games. However, the SDKs allowed to use are not as optimized for the hardware as their Sega licensed counterparts. The 16-bit games usually have also been released as homebrew for the Neo Geo AES console, and others may also have had releases for PC, mobile, or as downloadable indie titles for newer consoles, like Flashback for both Nintendo Switch and Sega Dreamcast. The first commercial unlicensed games in 2001 were three emulated and enhanced PlayStation games developed by Bleemcast!."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (package manager)",
        "text": "Homebrew has made extensive use of GitHub to expand the support of several packages through user contributions. In 2010, Homebrew was the third-most-forked repository on GitHub. In 2012, Homebrew had the largest number of new contributors on GitHub. In 2013, Homebrew had both the largest number of contributors and issues closed of any project on GitHub."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dreamcast homebrew",
        "text": "Dreamcast homebrew\n--Community.\n--Games.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew 2",
        "text": "Homebrew 2\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Nintendo DS and 3DS flash cartridges",
        "text": "The first method of storing homebrew applications for the Nintendo DS was the use of flash cartridges designed for the Game Boy Advance. These were effective in finding exploits, since they are a 32 MiB block of rewritable flash memory directly accessible by both CPUs of the Nintendo DS. Users of GBA homebrew tended to use GBA methods for DS homebrew as well; however, the limited storage space, variety and price of GBA flash cartridges make them unsuitable for new users. Since there were many types of flash cartridges (each with its own method for writing to the flash ROM), most homebrew programs only supported saving to the included 64 KiB of SRAM intended for game-saving."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew Computer Club",
        "text": "Homebrew Computer Club\n--History.\n--Members.\n--Newsletter.\n--In popular culture.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Dreamcast homebrew games",
        "text": "But even before then, there were non-GD-ROM-based discs around in the form of CodeBreaker, GameShark, Action Replay CDX and the VCD player, which never was licensed either."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nuon (DVD technology)",
        "text": "During late 2001, VM Labs released a homebrew SDK which allowed people to be able to program apps/games for their Nuon system. Only the Samsung DVD-N501/DVDN504/DVDN505 and RCA DRC300N/DRC480N can load homebrew games."
      },
      {
        "title": "HyperScan",
        "text": "HyperScan\n--Games.\n----Homebrew.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dreamcast homebrew",
        "text": "\"This is a partial list of games. For a more complete list, see List of Dreamcast homebrew games\""
      },
      {
        "title": "ZX Spectrum",
        "text": "A homebrew community continues into the present day, with several games being released commercially from new software houses such as Cronosoft."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Atari 2600 homebrew\n--History.\n--Types of projects.\n--Games.\n--Development.\n----Batari Basic.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Video game accessory",
        "text": "Most software accessories for a video game system are simply the games designed by professional game companies. With some of the recent systems, homemade games called homebrew are being designed and released publicly. The Xbox 360 system has official released tools called the XNA so that users can design and proliferate their own content. It was announce by Microsoft after their announcement of the Xbox Live Marketplace. Another type of homebrew is popular on the Nintendo DS portable gaming system. Through an outside hardware device, the internal software that is used to run games, the BIOS, is overwritten. Replacing the default BIOS with an unofficial BIOS allows for user generated content to be playable. These games are anything from simple ports of older games to truly new ideas and games. Sony also allowed for homebrew content on their new PlayStation 3 by allowing for Linux to be installed. Linux allows for many different types of content to be playable. Because of Linux\u2019s open source methods of utilizing the hardware as long as users write the necessary software, anything can be playable on the PS3."
      },
      {
        "title": "Junk box",
        "text": "Junk box\n--Description and uses.\n--Use in homebrewing.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Wii",
        "text": "The Wii has become a popular target for homebrewing new functionality and video games since its discontinuation. For example, homebrew projects have been able to add DVD playback to unmodified Wii consoles. The Wii also can be hacked to enable an owner to use the console for activities unintended by the manufacturer. Several brands of modchips are available for the Wii."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Dreamcast homebrew games",
        "text": "Nevertheless, the games for Dreamcast in store shelves as of today and the years after 2007\u20132008 \u2013 2020 are far from 'homebrew' and what has been released since 2007 are nothing more or less than indie productions from smaller sized studios for other platforms and are often multi-platform releases by serious companies."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Dreamcast homebrew games",
        "text": "There has recently been an increasing number of games being developed, since Sega of Japan officially ended production of Dreamcast consoles, albeit limited to Japan, by the end of year 2007, posting a fiscal profit of 1748 million \u00a5, and that was mostly because of \"Consumer business\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Sony released a Linux-based operating system for the PS2 in a package that also includes a keyboard, mouse, Ethernet adapter and HDD. Currently, Sony's online store states that the Linux kit is no longer for sale in North America. However, as of July 2005, the European version was still available. The kit boots by installing a proprietary interface, the run-time environment, which is on a region-coded DVD, so the European and North America kits only work with a PS2 from their respective regions."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of when homebrew has been used?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Homebrew has meanings within the fields of video games, software, and alcohol production. Which context are you looking to learn more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in homebrew usage within the fields of video games."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Homebrew, when applied to video games, refers to games produced by hobbyists for proprietary video game consoles which are not intended to be user-programmable. Would you like to know more about first or second generation consoles?",
      "Homebrew, when applied to video games, refers to games produced by hobbyists for proprietary video game consoles which are not intended to be user-programmable."
    ],
    "topic": "Homebrew (video games)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Homebrew (video games):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Homebrew (video games)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Homebrew, when applied to video games, refers to games produced by hobbyists for proprietary video game consoles which are not intended to be user-programmable. The official documentation is often only available to licensed developers, and these systems may use storage formats that make distribution difficult, such as ROM cartridges or encrypted CD-ROMs. Many consoles have hardware restrictions to prevent unauthorized development. A non-professional developer for a system intended to be user-programmable, like the Commodore 64, is simply called a \"hobbyist\" (rather than a \"homebrew developer\")."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Homebrew (video games):4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Homebrew (video games)",
          "First generation consoles",
          "Odyssey"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2009, \"Odball\" became the first game for the Magnavox Odyssey since 1973. It was produced by Robert Vinciguerra who has since written several other Odyssey games. On July 11, 2011, \"Dodgeball\" was published by Chris Read."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Homebrew (video games):5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Homebrew (video games)",
          "Second generation consoles",
          "Channel F"
        ],
        "ctx": "A handful of games have been programmed for the Fairchild Channel F, the first console to use ROM cartridges. The first known release is Sean Riddle's clone of \"Lights Out\" which included instructions on how to modify the SABA#20 Chess game into a Multi-Cartridge. There is also a version of \"Tetris\" and in 2008 \"Videocart 27: \"Pac-Man\" became the first full production game for the system since it was discontinued."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Homebrew (video games):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Homebrew (video games)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Homebrew, when applied to video games, refers to games produced by hobbyists for proprietary video game consoles which are not intended to be user-programmable. The official documentation is often only available to licensed developers, and these systems may use storage formats that make distribution difficult, such as ROM cartridges or encrypted CD-ROMs. Many consoles have hardware restrictions to prevent unauthorized development. A non-professional developer for a system intended to be user-programmable, like the Commodore 64, is simply called a \"hobbyist\" (rather than a \"homebrew developer\")."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew (video games)\n--Development.\n--First generation consoles.\n----Odyssey.\n--Second generation consoles.\n----Channel F.\n--Third and fourth generation consoles.\n----NES.\n----Genesis.\n----TurboGrafx-16/PC Engine.\n----SNES.\n----Neo-Geo MVS, AES, and CD.\n--Fifth generation consoles.\n----Jaguar.\n----PlayStation.\n----Saturn.\n----Virtual Boy.\n----Nintendo 64.\n--Sixth generation consoles.\n----Dreamcast.\n----PlayStation 2.\n----GameCube.\n----Xbox.\n----Game Boy Advance.\n--Seventh generation consoles.\n----Nintendo DS.\n----Xbox 360.\n----PlayStation 3.\n----Wii.\n--Eighth generation consoles.\n----3DS.\n----PlayStation Vita.\n----Wii U.\n----Switch.\n----Xbox One.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew, when applied to video games, refers to games produced by hobbyists for proprietary video game consoles which are not intended to be user-programmable. The official documentation is often only available to licensed developers, and these systems may use storage formats that make distribution difficult, such as ROM cartridges or encrypted CD-ROMs. Many consoles have hardware restrictions to prevent unauthorized development. A non-professional developer for a system intended to be user-programmable, like the Commodore 64, is simply called a \"hobbyist\" (rather than a \"homebrew developer\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of first generation home video game consoles",
        "text": "While these consoles mostly disappeared from America in 1978, in other regions of the world\u2014most notably Europe and Japan\u2014these consoles were thriving because second generation consoles did not have a strong presence. This led to a family of clone consoles that had their CPUs in individual cartridges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew emulators of older computer and gaming systems have been developed for the PS2."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of first generation home video game consoles",
        "text": "For a list of home consoles after the first generation, see List of home video game consoles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Several compilers are available for the Nintendo Entertainment System, but like the Atari 2600, most development is done in 6502 assembly language. One impediment to NES homebrew development is the relative difficulty involved with producing physical cartridges, although third-party flash carts do exist, making homebrew possible on original NES hardware. Several varieties of custom processors are used within NES cartridges to expand system capabilities; most are difficult to replicate except by scavenging old cartridges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console generations",
        "text": "Frequently called the \"8-bit generation\", the third generation's consoles used 8-bit processors, which allowed up to five bits of color (25 or 32 colors), five audio channels, and more advanced graphics capability including sprites and tiles rather than block-based graphics of the second generation. Further, the third console saw the market dominance shift from the United States to Japan as a result of the 1983 crash."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of first generation home video game consoles",
        "text": "For comparison, there are home platforms starting with the second generation, and handheld consoles, totaling ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew development can include software made using unofficial, community maintained toolchains or games developed using official development kits such as Net Yaroze, Linux for PlayStation 2, or Microsoft XNA. Some targets for homebrew games include the Wii, Dreamcast, Game Boy Advance, PlayStation Portable, Nintendo Entertainment System, and Atari 2600."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew development on the Nintendo GameCube tended to be difficult, since it uses a proprietary MiniDVD-based drive and media as opposed to the standard DVD drives of the PS2 and Xbox for piracy protection. Also, its connectivity is limited, as it does not feature a USB port or an HDD port like the PlayStation 2."
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console",
        "text": "This list only counts the first iteration of each console's hardware, because several systems have had slim, enhanced or other hardware revisions, but they aren't individually listed here. The list also includes unreleased systems. If a series of home video game consoles begins in a generation and lasts to another generation, it is listed in the generation the series began. This list does not claim to be complete."
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console generations",
        "text": "Home video game console generations\n--Background and origins.\n----Console generation timeline.\n--Console generation overview.\n--History.\n----First generation (1972\u20131980).\n----Second generation (1976\u20131992).\n----Third generation (1983\u20132003).\n----Fourth generation (1987\u20132004).\n----Fifth generation (1993\u20132006).\n----Sixth generation (1998\u20132013).\n----Seventh generation (2005\u20132017).\n----Eighth generation (2012\u2013present).\n----Ninth generation (2020\u2013current).\n--Sales comparison.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "In South Korea, many video game consumers exploit illegal copies of video games, including for the Nintendo DS. In 2007, 500,000 copies of DS games were sold, while the sales of the DS hardware units was 800,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Since emulation of the console is still limited, coding uses a real console through either the Skunkboard development cartridge, using a BJL modified Jaguar, or the official Alpine Development Kit. The commercial game \"BattleSphere Gold\", also contains the JUGS (Jaguar Unmodified Game Server) aid to development."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of first generation home video game consoles",
        "text": "Manufacturers placed emphasis on what the console was and what it could do to differentiate the console. The most common elements were usually:\n* TV - Indicating the device utilized television to display its output.\n* Color - Indicating the machine was capable of outputting color.\n* Game - Indicating a game that could be played.\n* Sport(s) - Indicating a sports genre game could be played.\n* A number - Usually indicating the quantity of games available on the system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "New games for older systems are typically developed using emulators. Development for newer systems usually involves actual hardware, given the lack of accurate emulators. Efforts have been made to use actual console hardware for many older systems, though. Atari 2600 programmers may burn an EEPROM to plug into a custom cartridge board or use audio transfer via the Starpath Supercharger. Game Boy Advance developers have several ways to use GBA flash cartridges in this regard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console",
        "text": "There are more than 1000 home video game consoles known to exist, the vast majority of which were released during the first generation: only ' home video game consoles were released between the second and current generation, ' were canceled. This list is divided into console generations which are named based on the dominant console type of the era, though not all consoles of those eras are of the same type. Some eras are referred to based on how many bits a major console could process. The \"128-bit era\" (sixth generation) was the final era in which this practice was widespread."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "In May 2008, a vulnerability was found in the PlayStation 3 allowing users to install a partial debug firmware on a regular console. However, the debug functionality is disabled, so neither homebrew applications nor backup games can be run yet."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of first generation home video game consoles",
        "text": "There are first-generation home video game consoles in this list but a lot more are known to exist."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of first generation home video game consoles",
        "text": "The following is a list in alphabetical order of the manufacturers, followed by the name of the console, release year, integrated chip if it had one, and whether it came with a light gun or the option to buy one separately."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of first generation home video game consoles",
        "text": "\u03a3 items."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Originally, graphics support was limited to framebuffer access only (no access to the PlayStation 3's graphics chip RSX), yet some access to the RSX graphics processor was achieved (but Sony blocked this with firmware release 2.10)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console generations",
        "text": "The following table provides an overview of the major hardware technical specifications of the consoles of each major generations by central processor unit (CPU), graphics processor unit (GPU), memory, game media, and other features."
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console generations",
        "text": "Later console generations are based on groupings of release dates rather than common hardware as base hardware configurations between consoles have greatly diverged, generally following trends in generation definition given by video game and mainstream journalism. Handheld consoles and other gaming systems and innovations are frequently grouped within the release years associated with the home console generations; for example the growth of digital distribution is associated with the seventh generation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console generations",
        "text": "<section begin=\"generations graph\"/>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console generations",
        "text": "<section end=\"generations graph\"/>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console generations",
        "text": "The fourth generation of consoles, also known as the \"16-bit generation\", further advanced core console technology with 16-bit processors, improving the available graphics and audio capabilities of games."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of first generation home video game consoles",
        "text": "For a list of handheld game consoles, see List of handheld game consoles."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of first generation home video game consoles",
        "text": "There were only manufacturers to create consoles past the first generation. The rest no longer partook in the video game industry. When counting only those who took part in the second generation, meaning companies that released a new platform after the first generation, there were only 12."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of first generation home video game consoles",
        "text": "List of first generation home video game consoles\n--Repetition and similarities.\n----Naming.\n----Identical consoles.\n----Clone consoles.\n----Light Gun Functionality.\n--Market saturation.\n----Video game crash of 1977.\n----Permanence in the market.\n--List.\n----Released systems.\n----Canceled Systems.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "A handful of games have been programmed for the Fairchild Channel F, the first console to use ROM cartridges. The first known release is Sean Riddle's clone of \"Lights Out\" which included instructions on how to modify the SABA#20 Chess game into a Multi-Cartridge. There is also a version of \"Tetris\" and in 2008 \"Videocart 27: \"Pac-Man\" became the first full production game for the system since it was discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "Second generation of video game consoles\n--Background.\n--Home systems.\n----Fairchild Channel F.\n----Atari 2600 & 5200.\n----Bally Astrocade.\n----Magnavox Odyssey 2.\n----Intellivision.\n----ColecoVision.\n----Vectrex.\n----Comparison.\n------Sales standings.\n--Handheld systems.\n----Microvision.\n----Entex Select-A-Game & Adventure Vision.\n----Palmtex Super Micro.\n----Epoch Game Pocket Computer.\n----Nintendo Game & Watch.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Third generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "Third generation of video game consoles\n--Overview.\n----1983\u20131984.\n----1984\u20131986.\n----1986\u2013present.\n--Home systems.\n----SG-1000.\n----Famicom/Nintendo Entertainment System.\n----Sega Master System.\n----Atari 7800.\n----Sales comparison.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "One of the more common type of homebrew games for the Xbox are ports of PC games whose source has been publicly released or leaked. Many classic PC games have been released for Xbox, but most are created with the XDK which limits their availability. The only places to find these ports are through IRC or peer-to-peer browsers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew was originally promoted by Sony with the Net Yaroze, which had a large scene for quite some time. However, the official Net Yaroze site was shut down in mid-2009, and Sony stopped supporting the system as well as the users who still owned the console."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of first generation home video game consoles",
        "text": "This list is in no way complete, as there are hundreds of consoles, some with color, name, or hardware variations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console generations",
        "text": "In the video game industry, the market for home video game consoles has frequently been segmented into generations, grouping consoles that are considered to have shared in a competitive marketspace. Since the first home consoles in 1972, there have been nine defined home console generations."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of first generation home video game consoles",
        "text": "The first generation of video game consoles lasted from 1972 to 1983. The first console of this generation was the 1972 Magnavox Odyssey. The final console available for sale was the 1978 Elwro Television Game 10 (TVG-10), later sold by PPZ Ameprod from 1981 until 1984. The last new console release of the generation was most likely the Compu-Vision 440 by radio manufacturer Bentley in 1983, although other systems were also released in that year. The first console generation overlaps with the second (1976 to 1992) and third generations (1983\u20132003), which comprise more advanced consoles than the first."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The Nintendo 64 homebrew scene is small, but homebrew can still be played and developed through the use of a Doctor V64, (Acclaim used a Doctor V64 to help develop Turok,) the Everdrive 64 or 64drive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "An alternative device is the Super Flash, by Tototek, which allows multiple games to be burned onto a flash memory chip in a cartridge. This allows games as large as 48 megabits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "In the history of video games, the second-generation era refers to computer and video games, video game consoles, and handheld video game consoles available from 1976 to 1992. Notable \"platforms\" of the second generation include the Fairchild Channel F, Atari 2600, Intellivision, Odyssey 2, and ColecoVision. The generation began in November 1976 with the release of the Fairchild Channel F. This was followed by the Atari 2600 in 1977, Magnavox Odyssey\u00b2 in 1978, Intellivision in 1980 and then the Emerson Arcadia 2001, ColecoVision, Atari 5200, and Vectrex, all in 1982. By the end of the era, there were over 15 different consoles. It coincided with, and was partly fuelled by, the golden age of arcade video games. This peak era of popularity and innovation for the medium resulted in many games for second generation home consoles being ports of arcade games. \"Space Invaders\", the first \"killer app\" arcade game to be ported, was released in 1980 for the Atari 2600, though earlier Atari-published arcade games were ported to the 2600 previously.\"\" Coleco packaged Nintendo's \"Donkey Kong\" with the ColecoVision when it was released in August 1982."
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console generations",
        "text": "Below is a timeline of each generation with the top three home video consoles of each generation based on worldwide sales. For a complete list of home video consoles released in each generation please see the respective article of each generation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The console is especially notable for its commercial homebrew scene. One notable project was the Bleemcast! emulator, which was a series of bootdisks made to play PlayStation games on the system, featuring visual enhancements over the original console. Newer independent releases include \"Last Hope\", released by RedSpotGames in 2007, and \"DUX\", both Shoot 'em up style games. These releases were written using the KallistiOS development system. A port of the freeware high-level development language Fenix and BennuGD is available for use in game development; many DIV Games Studio games have been ported and others were originally written for the system."
      },
      {
        "title": "First generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "In the history of video games, the first-generation era refers to the video games, video game consoles, and handheld video game consoles available from 1972 to 1983. Notable consoles of the first generation include the Odyssey series (excluding the Magnavox Odyssey 2), the Atari Home Pong, the Coleco Telstar series and the Color TV-Game series. The generation ended with the Computer TV-Game in 1980, but many manufacturers had left the market prior due to the market decline in 1977 and the start of the second generation of video game consoles."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of dedicated video game consoles",
        "text": "There are home video game consoles known to have been released in the first generation of video game consoles. They can be found in the List of first generation home video game consoles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seventh generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "Seventh generation of video game consoles\n--Home video game consoles.\n----Xbox 360.\n----PlayStation 3.\n----Wii.\n----Comparison.\n------Sales standings.\n------Backward compatibility.\n------HDTV-capable video support and service.\n------Reliability.\n--Handheld systems.\n--Other systems.\n----Handhelds.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console generations",
        "text": "The development of video game consoles primarily follows the history of video gaming in the North American and Japanese markets. Few other markets saw any significant console development on their own, such as in Europe where personal computers tended to be favored alongside imports of video game consoles. The clones of video game consoles in less-developed markets like China and Russia are not considered here."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "There are a number of cards which either have built-in flash memory, or a slot which can accept an SD, or MicroSD (like the DSTT, R4, AceKard and ez-flash V/Vi) cards. These cards typically enable DS console gamers to use their console to play MP3s and videos, and other non-gaming functions traditionally reserved for separate devices."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of first generation home video game consoles",
        "text": "More than 200 different companies were involved in the first generation, and while more than half only released one console, it was still a large number of companies compared to the 20 that partook in the second generation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console generations",
        "text": "A new console generation typically has occurred approximately every five years, in keeping pace with Moore's law for technology, though more recent generations have had extended periods due to the use of console revisions rather than completely new designs. Not all home consoles are defined as part of these generations; only those considered to be significant competitive consoles are classed into generations, and systems such as microconsoles are often omitted from these generations."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of first generation home video game consoles",
        "text": "Atari considered creating a second cartridge console to implement their surplus of processors from their dedicated line of consoles, which took the form of the Atari Game Brain to be released in 1978. However, the plan ultimately fell through and the Game Brain was canceled, as it would create confusion with their more successful console."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fifth generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "By 1997, 40% to 60% of American homes played on video game consoles. 30% to 40% of these homes owned a console, while an additional 10% to 20% rented or shared a console."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fourth generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "Fourth generation of video game consoles\n--Differences from third generation consoles.\n--Home systems.\n----TurboGrafx-16.\n----Mega Drive/Genesis.\n----Super NES.\n----Compact Disc Interactive (CD-i).\n----Neo Geo.\n----Add-ons.\n----European and Australian importing.\n--Handheld systems.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console",
        "text": "There have been numerous home video game consoles since the first commercial unit, the Magnavox Odyssey in 1972. Historically these consoles have been grouped into generations lasting each about six years based on common technical specifications. As of 2021, there have been nine console generations, with the current leading manufactures being Sony, Microsoft, and Nintendo; past console manufacturers have included Atari, Fairchild, Intellivision Entertainment, Coleco, Sega, NEC, 3DO, and SNK."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "As the second generation of consoles coincided with the golden age of arcade video games, a common trend that emerged during the generation was licensing arcade video games for consoles. Many of them were increasingly licensed from Japanese video game companies by 1980, which led to Jonathan Greenberg of \"Forbes\" predicting in early 1981 that Japanese companies would eventually dominate the North American video game industry later in the decade."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of first generation home video game consoles",
        "text": "Nintendo is the only company that participated in the first generation and still presently manufactures video game consoles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console generations",
        "text": "The first generation of home consoles were generally limited to dedicated consoles with just one or two games pre-built into the console hardware, with a limited means to alter gameplay factors. In the case of the Odyssey, while it did ship with \"game cards\", these did not have any programmed games on them but instead acted as jumpers to alter the existing circuitry pathway, and did not extend the capabilities of the console. Unlike most other future console generations, the first generation of consoles were typically built in limited runs rather than as an ongoing product line."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of first generation home video game consoles",
        "text": "Other examples include:\n*Montiverdi TV Sport 825, same as Lloyds TV Sports 812\n*Prinztronic Tournament IV, same as Magnavox Atomic TV-Player 1"
      },
      {
        "title": "1980s in video games",
        "text": "Starting in 1983 the third generation began with the Japanese release of the Family Computer (or \"Famicom\"; later known as the Nintendo Entertainment System in the rest of the world) by Nintendo. Although the previous generation of consoles had also used 8-bit processors, it was at the end of this generation that home consoles were first labeled by their \"bits\". This also came into fashion as 16-bit systems like Sega's Genesis were marketed to differentiate between the generations of consoles. In the United States, this generation in gaming was primarily dominated by the NES/Famicom. Other notable consoles included Sega's Mark III, also known as the Master System."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fifth generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "The fifth-generation era (also known as the 32-bit era, the 64-bit era, or the 3D era) refers to computer and video games, video game consoles, and handheld gaming consoles dating from approximately October 4, 1993 to March 23, 2006. For home consoles, the best-selling console was the Sony PlayStation, followed by the Nintendo 64, and then the Sega Saturn. The PlayStation also had a redesigned version, the PSone, which was launched on July 7, 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Making games on the PlayStation is possible with any model of the system through the use of a modchip or the double 'Swap Trick'. Requirements consist of a PC, SDK, and a 'Comms Link' device to upload and download files to and from the console."
      },
      {
        "title": "Video game console",
        "text": "Since the 1970s, both home and handheld consoles became more advanced following global changes in technology, including improved electronic and computer chip manufacturing to increase computational power at lower costs and size, the introduction of 3D graphics and hardware-based graphic processors for real-time rendering, digital communications such as the Internet, wireless networking and Bluetooth, and larger and denser media formats as well as digital distribution. Following the same type of Moore's law progression, home consoles were grouped into generations, each lasting approximately five years, with consoles within each sharing similar technology specifications and features such as processor word size. While there is no standard definition or breakdown of home consoles by generation, the definition of these generations used by Wikipedia including representative consoles is shown below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Early versions of the PlayStation 2 have a buffer overflow bug in the part of the BIOS that handles PS1 game compatibility; hackers found a way to turn this into a loophole called the PS2 Independence Exploit, allowing the use of homebrew software. Another option for homebrew development is the use of a modchip. Also, it is possible for developers to utilize a PS2 hard drive and HD Loader. In Europe and Australia, the PS2 came with a free Yabasic interpreter on the bundled demo disc for some time. This allows simple programs to be created for the PS2 by the end-user. This was included in a failed attempt to circumvent a UK tax by defining the console as a \"computer\" if it contained certain software. A port of the NetBSD project and BlackRhino GNU/Linux, an alternative Debian-based distribution, are also available for the PS2."
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console generations",
        "text": "Because of the industry dynamics, many console manufacturers release their new consoles in roughly the same time period, with their consoles typically offering similar processing power and capabilities as their competitors. This systematic market has created the nature of console generations, categorizing the primary consoles into these segmented time periods that represent consoles with similar capabilities and which shared the same competitive space. Like consoles, these generations typically start five years after its prior one, though may have long tails as popular consoles remain viable well beyond five years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sixth generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "Sixth generation of video game consoles\n--Home systems.\n----Dreamcast.\n----PlayStation 2.\n----GameCube.\n----Xbox.\n----Other consoles.\n--Bits and system power.\n--Handheld systems.\n--Trends.\n----Market convergence.\n----Controversial games.\n----Emulation and retro gaming.\n----Rise of online gaming.\n----Mergers.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Atari 2600 homebrew is a term describing hobbyist-developed games for the Atari 2600 video game console. The first such game was written in 1995, and more than 100 have been released since then. The majority of games are unlicensed clones of games for other platforms, and many were written for the technical challenge. There are also ROM hacks and some original games. Several games have received attention outside the hobbyist community. Some have been included in a game anthology by Activision."
      },
      {
        "title": "1970s in video games",
        "text": "Typical characteristics of the first generation of consoles:\n* Discrete transistor-based digital game logic.\n* Games were native components of consoles rather than based on external or removable media.\n* Entire game playfield occupies only one screen.\n* Players and objects consist of very basic lines, dots or blocks.\n* Colour graphics are basic (mostly black and white or other dichromatic combination; later games may display three or more colors).\n* Either single-channel or no audio.\n* Lacked features of second generation consoles, such as microprocessor logic, ROM cartridges, flip-screen playfields, sprite-based graphics, and multi-color graphics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console generations",
        "text": "As with the transition from the fourth to fifth generation, the fifth generation has a long overlap with the sixth console generation, with the PlayStation remaining in production until 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Since the release of the Nintendo DS, a great deal of hacking has occurred involving the DS's fully rewritable firmware, Wi-Fi connection, game cards that allow SD storage, and software use. There are now many emulators for the DS, as well as the NES, SNES, Sega Master System, Sega Mega Drive, Neo-Geo Pocket, Neo-Geo MVS (arcade), and older handheld consoles like the Game Boy Color."
      },
      {
        "title": "First generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "Home video games achieved widespread popularity with the release of a home version of \"Pong\" and its success sparked hundreds of clones, including the Coleco Telstar, which went on to be a success in its own right with over a dozen models, and the \"Binatone TV Master\" by British company Binatone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Due to the Xbox using standard PC libraries, writing homebrew games is relatively easy and the vast majority of libraries available for a PC programmer are available to an Xbox homebrew programmer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The cc65 C compiler is compatible with the console, although there is no development library support for it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console generations",
        "text": "For purposes of organization, the generations described here and subsequent pages maintain the Wikipedia breakdown of generation, generally breaking consoles apart by technology features whenever possible and with other consoles released in that same period incorporated within that same generation, and starting with the Odyssey and \"Pong\"-style home consoles as the first generation, an approach that has generally been adopted and extended by video game journalism. In this approach the generation \"starts\" with the release of the first console considered to have those features, and considered to end with the known last discontinuation of a console in that generation. For example, the third generation is considered to end in 2003 with the formal discontinuation of the Nintendo Entertainment System that year. This can create years with overlaps between multiple generations, as shown."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of first generation home video game consoles",
        "text": "This led to many consoles being nearly identical in name, possibly leading to market confusion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Third generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "In the history of video games, the third generation of game consoles, commonly referred to as the 8-bit era, began on July 15, 1983 with the Japanese release of two systems: Nintendo's Family Computer (commonly abbreviated to \"Famicom\") and Sega's SG-1000. When the Famicom was released outside of Japan it was remodelled and marketed as the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). This generation marked the end of the video game crash of 1983, and a shift in the dominance of home video game manufacturers from the United States to Japan. Handheld consoles were not a major part of this generation, although the Game & Watch line from Nintendo (which started in 1980) and the Milton Bradley Microvision (which came out in 1979) were sold at the time. However, both are considered second generation hardware."
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console generations",
        "text": "The second generation of home consoles was distinguished by the introduction of the game cartridge, where the game's code is stored in read-only memory (ROM) within the cartridge. When the cartridge is slotted into the console, the electrical connections allow the main console's processors to read the game's code from the ROM. While ROM cartridges had been used in other computer applications prior, the ROM game cartridge was first implemented in the Fairchild Video Entertainment System (VES) in November 1976. Additional consoles during this generation, all which used cartridge-based systems, included the Atari 2600 (known as the Atari Video Computer System (VCS) at launch), the Magnavox Odyssey 2, Mattel Electronics' Intellivision, and the ColecoVision. In addition to consoles, newer processor technology allowed games to support up to 8 colors and up to 3-channel audio effects."
      },
      {
        "title": "First generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "First generation of video game consoles\n--Overview.\n----History.\n----Technology.\n----Market saturation and the end of the generation.\n--Home systems.\n----Odyssey series.\n----TV Tennis Electrotennis.\n----Atari Home Pong.\n----Coleco Telstar series.\n----Color TV-Game series.\n--Handheld systems.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Using homebrew programs (e.g. 'SMS Media Player') it is possible to listen to various audio file formats (MP3, OMA, Ogg Vorbis, AAC, FLAC, AC3), and watch various video formats (DivX/XviD, MPEG1, MPEG2, MPEG4-ASP in AVI Container) using the console. Media can be played from any device connected to the console i.e. external USB/FireWire/thumb drive/hard disk drive (FAT32 only), the internal hard disk on early revision consoles, optical CD-R(W)/DVD\u00b1R(W) disks (modded systems or patched disks), or network shares (Windows Network or PS2 host: protocol)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "As of firmware release 3.21, consumers are no longer able to access the 'Other OS' due to Sony removing the facility from the software in an update. Sony said this was in response to several 'security concerns'."
      },
      {
        "title": "1970s in video games",
        "text": "Typical characteristics of the second generation of consoles:\n* Microprocessor-based game logic.\n* AI simulation of computer-based opponents, allowing for single-player gaming.\n* ROM cartridges for storing games, allowing any number of different games to be played on one console.\n* Game playfields able to span multiple flip-screen areas.\n* Blocky and simplistic-looking sprites, with a screen resolution of around 160 \u00d7 192 pixels.\n* Basic color graphics, generally between 2-color (1-bit) and 16-color (4-bit).\n* Up to three channel audio.\n* Lacked features of third-generation consoles, such as scrolling tile-based playfields."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of first generation home video game consoles",
        "text": "There are known first-generation home video game consoles that were never released."
      },
      {
        "title": "Circular reporting",
        "text": "Separately, Wikipedia is known to have contributed to the current popular naming of the home video game console generations. Home consoles were known to progress by technology generations by the time of Wikipedia's inception, but no formal system or means of classifying them had been proposed outside of broad terms such as \"8-bit\" or \"16-bit\" (related to the word length used by the consoles' processors). Wikipedia editors created their own system based on ordinal numbers (\"First generation\", etc.) around the same time that academics were starting to publish their own assessments of console generations. The video game community took to Wikipedia's system as the industry default, which propagated back to Wikipedia as future console generations were released, overriding the academic analysis of console generations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Flash cartridge",
        "text": "These cartridges remain the best-known way to create and distribute homebrew games for many consoles, such as the Game Boy Advance. (another option in this case being the GBA Movie Player, which can run specially designed homebrew programs but cannot run illicit copies of commercial GBA Game cartridges due to the lack of onboard RAM for fast data access)."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of first generation home video game consoles",
        "text": "Some guns, like the one on the Coleco Telstar Marksman, came with stock and barrel parts that could be removed or re-attached depending on playstyle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew was since re-enabled on any Xbox 360 with dash 2.0.7371.0 or lower via an exploit referred to as the JTAG / SMC hack but was promptly patched again by Microsoft with the 2.0.8495.0 update."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The Xbox system is also very adept at running emulators which have been ported from PC, given its high processing power. The Xbox is able to emulate systems up to the previous generation, including the Nintendo 64 and the PlayStation. For this reason, many different emulators have been created for or ported to the Xbox."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The popularity of homebrew development for the Game Boy Advance system since its release in 2001 is due to the availability of C compilers and ready-made, high-quality code libraries, and debugging features for Game Boy Advance emulators like the VisualBoyAdvance-M, the mgba, the No$gba GBA Emulator, John GBA and My Boy. Also contributing to the success is both the nostalgia for the system in general, the Pok\u00e9mon Romhacking community, and the wide availability of Flash ROM cartridges and cartridge writers in online shops."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of video game consoles",
        "text": "Later console generations are based on groupings of release dates rather than common hardware as base hardware configurations between consoles have greatly diverged, generally following trends in generation definition given by video game and mainstream journalism. Handheld consoles and other gaming systems and innovations are frequently grouped within the release years associated with the home console generations; for example the growth of digital distribution is associated with the seventh generation."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of video game consoles",
        "text": "History of video game consoles\n--Origins.\n----Home consoles.\n----Handheld consoles.\n--Console generations.\n----Console generation timeline.\n--Console history timeline by generation.\n----First generation (1972\u20131980).\n----Second generation (1976\u20131992).\n------Handhelds of the second generation.\n----Third generation (1983\u20132003).\n----Fourth generation (1987\u20132004).\n------Handhelds of the fourth generation.\n----Fifth generation (1993\u20132006).\n------Handhelds of the fifth generation.\n----Sixth generation (1998\u20132013).\n------Handhelds of the sixth generation.\n----Seventh generation (2005\u20132017).\n------Handhelds of the seventh generation.\n------Other seventh generation hardware.\n----Eighth generation (2012\u2013present).\n------Handhelds of the eighth generation.\n------Other eighth generation hardware.\n----Ninth generation (2020\u2013present).\n--Console sales.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "First generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "There were hundreds of home video game consoles known to have existed in the first generation of video games. This section lists the most notable."
      },
      {
        "title": "WiiBrew",
        "text": "#REDIRECT Homebrew (video games)#Wii"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of video game consoles",
        "text": "Below is a timeline of each generation with the top three home video consoles of each generation based on worldwide sales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sixth generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "Because of the increased computing power of video game consoles and the widespread usage of emulators, the sixth generation saw the rise of console emulation and retro gaming on a vast scale. Many games for older systems were updated with superior graphics or sound and re-released for current consoles. Commonly emulated games included those released for the Nintendo Entertainment System, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, the Mega Drive/Genesis, the PlayStation (the PS2 can play PS1 games natively), and the Nintendo 64."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "As of August 2019, the most common method is to use an Action Replay in conjunction with an SD card adapter inserted into the memory card slot, allowing the user to run homebrew from the SD card, or over Ethernet. Another method involves using a modchip to allow the GameCube to run homebrew from a MiniDVD-R via the disc drive. Another method uses a save game exploit which involves transferring modified game save files to a GameCube memory card that triggers arbitrary code execution when loaded by an official game, allowing custom software to be run from a memory card, SD card, or other media. As the Nintendo GameCube's case does not fit a full-size DVD-R, third party replacement cases are available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Another way of starting homebrew on the PlayStation is 'UniROM', which is a Softmod. UniROM works by being installed onto a cheat-device, which is connected via the parallel-port (on old consoles) and allows loading of custom code via burned CDs and the serial port."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "Homebrew has now become available on most Xbox 360 consoles due to the Reset Glitch Hack (excluding the late Winchester revision, which fixed this exploit with mitigations in hardware). It works on all current dashboards. As the Reset Glitch Hack requires a modchip, soldering skills are a necessity when attempting to use this exploit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console generations",
        "text": "By the sixth generation, console technology began to catch up to performance of personal computers of the time, and the use of bits as their selling point fell by the wayside. The console manufactures focused on the individual strengths of their game libraries as marketing instead. The consoles of the sixth generation saw further adoption of optical media, expanding into the DVD format for even greater data storage capacity, additional internal storage solutions to function as memory cards, as well as adding support either directly or through add-ons to connect to the Internet for online gameplay. Consoles began to move towards a convergence of features of other electronic living room devices and moving away from single-feature systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console",
        "text": "The list omits the more than 900 home video game consoles known to have been released in the first generation of video game consoles - those that were generally game consoles for a single dedicated game, such as home \"Pong\" consoles. Documented consoles of this generation can be found at list of first generation home video game consoles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "Developed and manufactured by Palmtex, the Super Micro was released in 1984 and discontinued later that year. Due to financial problems between Palmtex and Home Computer Software, only three games were released for the system despite more being planned. It was criticized for its poor build quality and how easily it would break, and sold fewer than 37,000 units."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "A group independent of Microsoft is working on the means to run homebrew code, as part of the Free60 project."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of when homebrew has been used?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Homebrew has meanings within the fields of video games, software, and alcohol production. Which context are you looking to learn more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in homebrew usage within the fields of video games."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Homebrew, when applied to video games, refers to games produced by hobbyists for proprietary video game consoles which are not intended to be user-programmable. Would you like to know more about first or second generation consoles?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the second generation."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The second generation of video game consoles featured systems such as the Intellivision, Odyssey 2, ColecoVision, Fairchild Channel F, and Atari 2600. The Channel F has had a handful of homebrew games developed for it, while more than one hundred Atari 2600 homebrew titles have been released since 1995, several of which were later included in the GameBoy Advance game \"Activision Anthology\" in 2003.",
      "The first known release is Sean Riddle's clone of Lights Out which included instructions on how to modify the SABA#20 Chess game into a Multi-Cartridge. There is also a version of Tetris and in 2008 \"Videocart 27: Pac-Man\" became the first full production game for the system since it was discontinued."
    ],
    "topic": "Homebrew (video games)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Homebrew (video games):5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Homebrew (video games)",
          "Second generation consoles",
          "Channel F"
        ],
        "ctx": "A handful of games have been programmed for the Fairchild Channel F, the first console to use ROM cartridges. The first known release is Sean Riddle's clone of \"Lights Out\" which included instructions on how to modify the SABA#20 Chess game into a Multi-Cartridge. There is also a version of \"Tetris\" and in 2008 \"Videocart 27: \"Pac-Man\" became the first full production game for the system since it was discontinued."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Atari 2600 homebrew:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Atari 2600 homebrew"
        ],
        "ctx": "Atari 2600 homebrew is a term describing hobbyist-developed games for the Atari 2600 video game console. The first such game was written in 1995, and more than 100 have been released since then. The majority of games are unlicensed clones of games for other platforms, and many were written for the technical challenge. There are also ROM hacks and some original games. Several games have received attention outside the hobbyist community. Some have been included in a game anthology by Activision."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Atari 2600 homebrew:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Atari 2600 homebrew"
        ],
        "ctx": "With severe resource limitations such as only 128 bytes of RAM and no video frame buffer, the 2600 is a difficult machine to program. Emulators, the Batari Basic language, and freely available documentation, can help the hobbyist developer. There is an active community of Atari 2600 developers\u2014the largest among classic systems."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Atari 2600 homebrew:12",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Atari 2600 homebrew",
          "Games"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2003, Activision selected several homebrew 2600 games for inclusion in the Game Boy Advance version of its \"Activision Anthology\": \"Climber 5\" by Dennis Debro (2004), \"Okie Dokie\" by Bob Colbert (1996), \"Skeleton+\" by Eric Ball (2003), \"Space Treat Deluxe\" by Fabrizio Zavagli (2003), \"Vault Assault\" by Brian Prescott (2001), \"Video Euchre\" by Erik Eid (2002), and \"Oystron\". In 2005, \"SCSIcide\", \"Oystron\", \"Warring Worms\", \"Skeleton+\", and \"Marble Craze\" by Paul Slocum (2002) were listed as the \"Best 2600 Homebrew Games\" in the book \"Gaming Hacks: 100 Industrial-Strength Tips & Tools\" by Simon Carless."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Homebrew (video games):5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Homebrew (video games)",
          "Second generation consoles",
          "Channel F"
        ],
        "ctx": "A handful of games have been programmed for the Fairchild Channel F, the first console to use ROM cartridges. The first known release is Sean Riddle's clone of \"Lights Out\" which included instructions on how to modify the SABA#20 Chess game into a Multi-Cartridge. There is also a version of \"Tetris\" and in 2008 \"Videocart 27: \"Pac-Man\" became the first full production game for the system since it was discontinued."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "The Atari 2600 game console was introduced to the market by Atari, Inc. in 1977 as the Atari Video Computer System or Atari VCS for short. Hundreds of games from dozens of companies have been released for the system, with some selling millions of copies, such as \"Missile Command\" and \"Pitfall!\". The 2600 continued to be manufactured throughout the 1980s, long past its peak years, until Atari Corporation dropped support in January 1992."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The Atari 2600, branded as the Atari Video Computer System (Atari VCS) until November 1982, is a home video game console developed and produced by Atari, Inc. Released in September 1977, it popularized microprocessor-based hardware and games stored on swappable ROM cartridges, a format first used with the Fairchild Channel F in 1976. The VCS was bundled with two joystick controllers, a conjoined pair of paddle controllers, and a game cartridgeinitially \"Combat\" and later \"Pac-Man\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Since then, over 100 games have been released, many published by AtariAge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "In 1995\u2014three years after Atari's withdrawal of the 2600 from the marketplace\u2014enthusiast Ed Federmeyer released \"SoundX\", a cartridge to demonstrate the sound capabilities of the system. Federmeyer used the term \"homebrew\" to describe hobbyist-driven development, inspired by the California Homebrew Computer Club of the 1970s. After designing the cartridge for his own use, Federmeyer advertised it on Usenet, followed by an unlicensed port of \"Tetris\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Atari 2600 homebrew is a term describing hobbyist-developed games for the Atari 2600 video game console. The first such game was written in 1995, and more than 100 have been released since then. The majority of games are unlicensed clones of games for other platforms, and many were written for the technical challenge. There are also ROM hacks and some original games. Several games have received attention outside the hobbyist community. Some have been included in a game anthology by Activision."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "In May 2018 it was announced that the Retron 77, a clone of the Atari 2600 console, would include four homebrew pack in-games: \"Astronomer\", \"Baby\", \"Muncher 77\", and \"Nexion 3D\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Games that have received attention outside the hobbyist development community include \"Halo 2600\", \"Duck Attack!\", and \"A-VCS-tec Challenge\" by Simon Quernhorst (2006), an unofficial port of the 1981 Atari 8-bit family game \"Aztec Challenge\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari 2600 games",
        "text": "The Atari VCS was first released in North America on September 11, 1977 with nine cartridges: \"Air-Sea Battle\", \"Basic Math\", \"Blackjack\", \"Combat\", \"Indy 500\", \"Star Ship\", \"Street Racer\", \"Surround\" and \"Video Olympics\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The North American video game market did not recover until about 1986, after Nintendo's 1985 launch of the Nintendo Entertainment System in North America. Atari Corporation released a redesigned model of the 2600 in 1986, supported by an ad campaign touting a price of \"under 50 bucks\". With a large library of cartridges and a low price point, the 2600 continued to sell into the late 1980s. Atari released the last batch of games in 1989\u201390 including \"Secret Quest\" and \"Fatal Run\". By 1986, over Atari VCS units had been sold worldwide. The final Atari-licensed release is the PAL-only version of the arcade game \"KLAX\" in 1990."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "It was this aspect of the system that enabled third-party companies such as Activision and Imagic to develop Atari 2600 games without Atari's consent in the 1980s. This led Atari to incorporate authentication features in its later console, the Atari 7800, to prevent other companies from creating and selling their own 7800 games without Atari's permission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Home Entertainment Suppliers",
        "text": "HES released quite a few titles and multi game packs for the Atari 2600 Video Computer System. The cartridges are virtually identical to the Activision cartridges, but the Activision logo on the underside is blacked out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "In 1977, nine games were released on cartridge to accompany the launch of the console: \"Air-Sea Battle\", \"Basic Math\", \"Blackjack\", \"Combat\", \"Indy 500\", \"Star Ship\", \"Street Racer\", \"Surround\", and \"Video Olympics\". \"Indy 500\" shipped with special \"driving controllers\", which are like paddles but rotate freely. \"Street Racer\" and \"Video Olympics\" use the standard paddle controllers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "In 2003, Activision selected several homebrew 2600 games for inclusion in the Game Boy Advance version of its \"Activision Anthology\": \"Climber 5\" by Dennis Debro (2004), \"Okie Dokie\" by Bob Colbert (1996), \"Skeleton+\" by Eric Ball (2003), \"Space Treat Deluxe\" by Fabrizio Zavagli (2003), \"Vault Assault\" by Brian Prescott (2001), \"Video Euchre\" by Erik Eid (2002), and \"Oystron\". In 2005, \"SCSIcide\", \"Oystron\", \"Warring Worms\", \"Skeleton+\", and \"Marble Craze\" by Paul Slocum (2002) were listed as the \"Best 2600 Homebrew Games\" in the book \"Gaming Hacks: 100 Industrial-Strength Tips & Tools\" by Simon Carless."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "In November 2021, the current incarnation of Atari announced three 2600 games to be published under \"Atari XP\" label: \"Yars' Return\", \"Aquaventure\", and \"Saboteur\". These were previously included in Atari Flashback consoles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Video game crash of 1983",
        "text": "The Atari Video Computer System (renamed the Atari 2600 in late 1982) was not the first home system with swappable game cartridges, but by the early 1980s it was the most popular second-generation console by a wide margin. Launched in 1977 just ahead of the collapse of the market for home \"Pong\" console clones, the Atari VCS experienced modest sales for its first few years. In 1980, Atari's licensed version of \"Space Invaders\" from Taito became the console's killer application; sales of the VCS quadrupled, and the game was the first title to sell more than a million copies. Spurred by the success of the Atari VCS, other consoles were introduced, both from Atari and other companies: Odyssey\u00b2, Intellivision, ColecoVision, Atari 5200, and Vectrex. Notably, Coleco sold an add-on allowing Atari VCS games to be played on its ColecoVision, as well as bundling the console with a licensed home version of Nintendo's arcade hit \"Donkey Kong\". In 1982, the ColecoVision held roughly 17% of the hardware market, compared to Atari VCS's 58%. This was the first real threat to Atari's dominance of the home console market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "An Atari VCS port of the \"Breakout\" arcade game appeared in 1978. The original is in black and white with a colored overlay, and the home version is in color. In 1980, Atari released \"Adventure\", the first action-adventure game, and the first home game with a hidden \"Easter egg\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari, Inc.",
        "text": "Atari launched its second major programmable console, the Atari 5200, in late 1982. The unit was based on the same design features that had gone into the Atari 800 and Atari 400 computers, but repackaged as a home console. Alongside the 5200's release, Atari announced it was rebranding the Atari VCS as the Atari 2600 to create a more consist product naming system. The Atari 5200 did not do well on the market as it lacked backward compatibility with Atari VCS/2600 cartridges, a feature offered by the Colecovision. The Atari 5200 only sold about one million units before it was discontinued in 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "The first hobbyist-developed Atari Jaguar game was released in 1995: a version of \"Tetris\" called \"JSTetris\". It was written using a hacked version of the Alpine Development Kit, one of the pieces of hardware used to program official Jaguar games. After purchasing all the intellectual property assets of Atari Corporation from JTS in 1998, Hasbro Interactive, on May 14, 1999, announced that they have released all rights to the Jaguar, declaring the console an open platform. Following the announcement, a few developers and publishers, such as AtariAge, B&C Computervisions, Piko Interactive, Songbird Productions, Telegames, and Video61, have released both previously unfinished games from the Jaguar's past as well as several brand new games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The 1986 model has a smaller, cost-reduced form factor with an Atari 7800-like appearance. It was advertised as a budget gaming system (under ) with the ability to run a large collection of games. Released after the video game crash of 1983, and after the North American launch of the Nintendo Entertainment System, the 2600 was supported with new games and television commercials promoting \"The fun is back!\". Atari released several minor stylistic variations: the \"large rainbow\" (shown), \"short rainbow\", and an all-black version sold only in Ireland. Later European versions include a joypad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "With severe resource limitations such as only 128 bytes of RAM and no video frame buffer, the 2600 is a difficult machine to program. Emulators, the Batari Basic language, and freely available documentation, can help the hobbyist developer. There is an active community of Atari 2600 developers\u2014the largest among classic systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "With third-party hardware such as the Cuttle Cart and Harmony Cartridge, developers could load in-progress games onto a physical Atari console to test. The Cuttle Cart, developed by Chad Schell in the early 2000s, was designed to be compatible with the Starpath Supercharger, and allows ROM images to be loaded via an 1/8\" minijack audio interface such as a cassette tape or CD player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Retronym",
        "text": "The Atari Video Computer System platform was rebranded the \"Atari 2600\" (after its product code, CX-2600) in 1982 following the launch of its successor, the Atari 5200, and all hardware and software related to the platform were released under this new branding from that point on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The Atari 2800 is the Japanese version of the 2600 released in October 1983. It is the first Japan-specific release of a 2600, though companies like Epoch had distributed the 2600 in Japan previously. The 2800 was released a short time after Nintendo's Family Computer (which became the dominant console in Japan), and it did not gain a significant share of the market. Sears released the 2800 in the US in 1983 as the Sears Video Arcade II packaged with two controllers and \"Space Invaders\". Around 30 specially branded games were released for the 2800."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari 2600 games",
        "text": "The final licensed Atari 2600 games released in North America were \"Ikari Warriors\", \"MotoRodeo\", \"Sentinel\", and \"Xenophobe\" in early 1991, and the final licensed games released in Europe were \"Klax\" and \"Acid Drop\" in 1990 and 1992 respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Atari obtained a license from Taito to develop a VCS conversion of its 1978 arcade hit \"Space Invaders\". This is the first officially licensed arcade conversion for a home console. Its release in March 1980 doubled the console's sales for the year to more than 2 million units, and was considered the Atari 2600's killer application. Sales then doubled again for the next two years; by 1982, 10 million consoles had been sold in the United States, while its best-selling game was \"Pac-Man\" at over copies sold by 1990. \"Pac-Man\" propelled worldwide Atari VCS sales to units during 1982, eventually selling consoles worldwide by the end of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari 2600 games",
        "text": "In 2003, Activision selected several games for inclusion in the Game Boy Advance version of their \"Activision Anthology\", as indicated below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Several releases have expanded upon earlier games. \"Warring Worms\", by Billy Eno (2002), takes the core design of \"Surround\" and adds new gameplay modes, such as the ability to fire shots at the opponent. \"Medieval Mayhem\" by, Darrell Spice Jr., is a version of the 1980 arcade game \"Warlords\" which includes elements omitted from Atari's official port."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Warner sold Atari's home division to former Commodore CEO Jack Tramiel in 1984. In 1986, the new Atari Corporation under Tramiel released a lower-cost version of the 2600 and the backward-compatible Atari 7800, but it was Nintendo that led the recovery of the industry with its 1985 launch of the Nintendo Entertainment System. Production of the Atari 2600 ended on January 1, 1992, with an estimated 30 million units sold across its lifetime."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "The Atari 2600 is generally considered to be a very demanding programming environment, with a mere 128 bytes of RAM and no video frame buffer at all. The programmer must prepare each line of video output as it is being sent to the television. The only sprite capabilities are one-dimensional 1-bit and 8-bit patterns; creating a two-dimensional object requires changing the pattern between each line of video. Games are often developed using Atari 2600 emulators such as \"Stella\" and \"Z26\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The unit was showcased on June 4, 1977, at the Summer Consumer Electronics Show with plans for retail release in October. The announcement was purportedly delayed to wait out the terms of the Magnavox patent lawsuit settlement, which would have given Magnavox all technical information on any of Atari's products announced between June 1, 1976, and June 1, 1977. However, Atari encountered production problems during its first batch, and its testing was complicated by the use of cartridges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 hardware",
        "text": "In 1986, a new version of the 2600 was released (although it was planned for release two years earlier). The new redesigned version of the 2600, unofficially referred to as the 2600 Jr., features a smaller, cost-reduced, form factor with a modernized Atari 7800-like appearance. The redesigned 2600 was advertised as a budget gaming system (under $50) that has the ability to run a large collection of classic games. There are several minor stylistic variations of the 2600 Jr. design, including the \"large rainbow\" (shown at right), \"small rainbow\", and the rare all-black \"Irish\" version (made in Ireland)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 5200",
        "text": "The Atari 5200 SuperSystem or simply Atari 5200 is a home video game console introduced in 1982 by Atari, Inc. as a higher-end complement for the popular Atari Video Computer System. The VCS was renamed to the Atari 2600 at the time of the 5200's launch. Created to compete with Intellivision, the 5200 wound up a direct competitor of ColecoVision shortly after its release. While the Coleco system shipped with the first home version of Nintendo's \"Donkey Kong\", the 5200 included the 1978 arcade game \"Super Breakout\" which had already appeared on the Atari 8-bit family and Atari VCS in 1979 and 1981 respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari",
        "text": "The development of a successor to the 2600 started as soon as it shipped. The original team estimated the 2600 had a lifespan of about three years; it then set forth to build the most powerful machine possible within that time frame. Mid-way into their effort the home computer revolution took off, leading to the addition of a keyboard and features to produce the Atari 800 and its smaller sibling, the 400. The new machines had some success when they finally became available in quantity in 1980. From this platform Atari released their next-generation game console in 1982, the Atari 5200. It was unsuccessful due to incompatibility with the 2600 game library, a small quantity of dedicated games, and notoriously unreliable controllers. Porting arcade games to home systems with inferior hardware was difficult. The ported version of \"Pac-Man\" for Atari 2600 omitted many of the visual features of the original to compensate for the lack of ROM space and the hardware struggled when multiple ghosts appeared on the screen creating a flickering effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 5200",
        "text": "In 1987, Atari Corporation released the XE Game System console, which is a repackaged 65XE (from 1985) with a detachable keyboard that can run home computer titles directly, unlike the 5200. Anderson wrote in 1984 that Atari could have released a console compatible with computer software in 1981."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari, Inc.",
        "text": "To try to remain competitive against Mattel's Intellivision, Atari requested all of its distributors to commit to orders for home console games in 1982 in October 1981, as to allow Atari to anticipate production numbers and meet the expected demand. Distributors expected Atari's games to do well and ordered in large volumes, placing more orders than expected given Atari's past failures to meet demand. By the middle of 1982, a new home console marketplace had appeared, which one distributor called \"a totally different business\". In addition to Mattel, Coleco had introduced the Colecovision, which shipped in August 1982 with an arcade conversion of the popular \"Donkey Kong\" as a pack-in game and add-ons that could play Atari 2600 games. Further, Activision, Imagic, and other third-party game developers like Parker Brothers had started releasing Atari 2600 titles that rivaled Atari's own games, reducing Atari's market share of games to 40%. Distributors started to cancel the Atari orders they had placed the prior year, which Gerard said they were \"blind-sided\" by, having never faced this type of competition before."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Atari 2600 homebrew\n--History.\n--Types of projects.\n--Games.\n--Development.\n----Batari Basic.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The Atari VCS microconsole was released by Atari Interactive in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "As the 2600 uses the 6507, a variant of the MOS Technology 6502 processor, most games are written in 6502 assembly language. In 2007, developer Fred X. Quimby released the Batari Basic compiler allowing developers to write games in BASIC, a high-level programming language. Game designer and Georgia Institute of Technology associate professor Ian Bogost has used Batari Basic in his classes to teach students video game concepts and history. An integrated development environment for Microsoft Windows, Visual Batari Basic, is also available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "After more than 14 years on the market, the 2600 line was formally discontinued on January 1, 1992, along with the Atari 7800 and Atari 8-bit family of home computers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "In 1982, Atari launched its second programmable console, the Atari 5200. To standardize naming, the VCS was renamed to the \"Atari 2600 Video Computer System\", or \"Atari 2600\", derived from the manufacture part number CX2600. By 1982, the 2600 cost Atari about $40 to make and was sold for an average of . The company spent $4.50 to $6 to manufacture each cartridge, plus $1 to $2 for advertising, wholesaling for ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The Atari VCS was launched in September 1977 at , with two joysticks and a \"Combat\" cartridge; eight additional games were sold separately. Most of the launch games were based on arcade games developed by Atari or its subsidiary Kee Games; for example, \"Combat\" was based on Kee's \"Tank\" (1974) and Atari's \"Jet Fighter\" (1975). Atari sold between 350,000 and 400,000 Atari VCS units during 1977, attributed to the delay in shipping the units and consumers' unfamiliarity with a swappable-cartridge console that is not dedicated to only one game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "In 1977, Atari released its CPU-based console called the Video Computer System (VCS), later called the Atari 2600. Nine games were designed and released for the holiday season. Atari held exclusive rights to most of the popular arcade game conversions of the day. They used this key segment to support their older hardware in the market. This game advantage and the difference in price between the machines meant that each year, Atari sold more units than Intellivision, lengthening its lead despite inferior graphics. The Atari 2600 sold over 30 million units over its lifetime, considerably more than any other console of the second generation. In 1982, Atari released the Atari 5200 in an attempt to compete with the Intellivision. While superior to the 2600, poor sales and lack of new games meant Atari only supported it for two years before it was discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signetics 2650",
        "text": "At least five coin-operated video games were released in the 1970s which used the 2650 CPU Atari \"Quiz Show\", Meadows Games \"3D Bowling\", Meadows Games \"Gypsy Juggler\", Cinematronics \"Embargo\", and a clone of Space Invaders by Zaccaria called \"The Invaders\" (1978) (original by Taito used an Intel 8080 CPU)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "The next year, Harry Dodgson released the first hobbyist-produced cartridge: \"7800/2600 Monitor Cartridge\". It is a development tool that, after attempting to get Atari interested Dodgson decided to manufacture on his own. He purchased a batch of Atari 7800 \"Hat Trick\" games at Big Lots for a dollar or less each and cannibalized the parts. He advertised the cartridge on Usenet and in a catalog for game seller Video 61, ultimately selling around 25 copies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2700",
        "text": "The Atari 2700 (also known the Atari Remote Control VCS) was a prototype home video game console that was developed by Atari, Inc. to be a wirelessly controlled version of Atari's popular Atari 2600 system. Intended for release in 1981, the 2700 was one of several planned follow-ups to the 2600, but the system was never put into full production. While It is unclear how many of these systems exist, former Atari employee Dan Kramer has stated that at least 12 consoles were made (one is owned by The National Videogame Museum), plus extra controllers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Most hobbyist-developed Atari 2600 games were created for the technical challenge, not as exercises in game design, and are unlicensed clones of arcade and computer games that were popular during the 1980s. \"Lady Bug\", released by John W. Champeau in 2006, is an implementation of the 1981 Universal arcade game. \"Juno First\", released by Chris Walton in 2009, borrows the name and design of the 1983 Konami arcade game; and \"Thrust\", released by Thomas Jentzsch in 2000, is a clone of the BBC Micro game of the same name. Other programmers have implemented \"Sea Wolf\" (as \"Seawolf\"), \"Tetris\" (as \"Edtris 2600\"), and \"Caverns of Mars\" (as \"Conquest of Mars\"). The 2600 version of \"Star Castle\" was undertaken because it had previously been said that \"a decent version couldn\u2019t be done.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Third generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "The Atari 7800 was released in May 1986 and was the successor to the Atari 5200. it was the first console to be backwards compatible without additional hardware. It was originally due for launch on May 21, 1984, but due to the sale of the company the launch did not happen until two years later and coupled with a small library of games the console did not sell as well as the Master System or NES."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Warner Communications reported weaker results than expected in December 1982 to its shareholders, having expected a 50% year-to-year growth but only obtaining 10\u201315% due to declining sales at Atari. Coupled with the oversaturated home game market, Atari's weakened position led investors to start pulling funds out of video games, beginning a cascade of disastrous effects known as the video game crash of 1983. Many of the third-party developers formed prior to 1983 were closed, and Mattel and Coleco left the video game market by 1985."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Activision, formed by Crane, Whitehead, and Miller in 1979, started developing third-party VCS games using their knowledge of VCS design and programming tricks, and began releasing games in 1980. \"Kaboom!\" (1981) and \"Pitfall!\" (1982) are among the most successful with at least one and four million copies sold, respectively. In 1980, Atari attempted to block the sale of the Activision cartridges, accusing the four of intellectual property infringement. The two companies settled out of court, with Activision agreeing to pay Atari a licensing fee for their games. This made Activision the first third-party video game developer and established the licensing model that continues to be used by console manufacturers for game development."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari, Inc. games (1972\u20131984)",
        "text": "In 1975 Atari released Home Pong, its first of several \"Pong\"-based dedicated video game consoles, and in 1977 released its first home video game console, the Atari Video Computer System (later renamed the Atari 2600). From that point onward Atari developed both arcade games and console games, and in 1979 added games for their first home computers, the Atari 400 and 800. Atari produced a second home video game console in 1982, the Atari 5200, and four more home computer versions. Beginning in Summer 1981, Atari published the Atari Program Exchange, a quarterly mail-order catalog of software written for Atari computers by external developers which Atari then distributed to customers. In May 1983, Atari started the Atarisoft division, which produced ports of games by Atari and others for non-Atari home computers. In July 1984, as a result of falling sales due to the video game crash of 1983, Atari, Inc. was split apart by Warner Communications; the arcade division continued as a subsidiary of Warner under the name Atari Games, while the console and computer games divisions were sold off as Atari Corporation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The Atari VCS launched in 1977 with nine simple, low-resolution games in 2 KB cartridges. The system's first killer app was the home conversion of Taito's arcade game \"Space Invaders\" in 1980. The VCS became widely successful, leading to the founding of Activision and other third-party game developers and to competition from console manufacturers Mattel and Coleco. By the end of its primary lifecycle in 1983\u201384, games for the 2600 were using more than four times the storage size of the launch games with significantly more advanced visuals and gameplay than the system was designed for, such as Activision's \"Pitfall!\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari 2600 games",
        "text": "The Atari 2600 has been a popular platform for homebrew projects, with games publicly released. Unlike later systems, the Atari 2600 does not require a modchip to run cartridges. Many games are clones of existing games written as programming challenges, often borrowing the name of the original."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari 2600 games",
        "text": "List of Atari 2600 games\n--Games published by Atari and Sears.\n--Games published by third parties.\n--Homebrew games.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tigervision",
        "text": "The following games were released for the Atari 2600:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1983 in video games",
        "text": "Console\n* December 12 \u2013 Nintendo publishes \"Donkey Kong Jr. Math\", for the Famicom.\n* Mattel Electronics publishes \"World Series Baseball\" for the Intellivision, one of the first video games to use multiple camera angles.\n* Activision's final big year of Atari 2600 releases includes \"Enduro\", \"Decathlon\", \"Keystone Kapers\", \"Robot Tank\", and \"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Video game conversion",
        "text": "With the beginning of the video game era, Atari released their Atari 2600 console for which they licensed and produced a number of home conversions of popular arcade titles, including \"Pac-Man\" by Namco, \"Space Invaders\" and \"Defender.\" Later, other third-party developers and publishers such as Activision and Coleco produced games like \"Donkey Kong\" for the Atari 2600."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "In Europe, the Atari VCS sold 125,000 units in the United Kingdom during 1980, and 450,000 in West Germany by 1984. In France, where the VCS released in 1982, the system sold 600,000 units by 1989."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Unlike later consoles, the 2600 will run any properly configured cartridge without checking for a digital signature or performing any other type of authentication."
      },
      {
        "title": "Threshold (video game)",
        "text": "Ports to other systems were all released on ROM cartridge: Atari 8-bit family and Commodore VIC-20 in 1981, Commodore 64 in 1983, and ColecoVision, Thomson computers in 1984. An Atari 2600 adaptation was published by Tigervision in 1982."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 7800",
        "text": "The Atari 7800 ProSystem, or simply the Atari 7800, is a home video game console officially released by Atari Corporation in 1986 as the successor to both the Atari 2600 and Atari 5200. It can run almost all Atari 2600 cartridges, making it one of the first consoles with backward compatibility. It shipped with a different model of joystick from the 2600-standard CX40 and \"Pole Position II\" as the pack-in game. Most of the announced titles at launch were ports of 1980\u201383 arcade games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nolan Bushnell",
        "text": "As Atari faced more competition in both arcade and home consoles from 1975 onward, Bushnell recognized that the costs in developing both types of systems with only limited shelf life were too high, and directed Atari's engineers at Cyan Engineering towards a programmable home console. This console eventually was released in 1977 as the Atari Video Computer System or Atari VCS and later known as the Atari 2600. However, before Atari had completed its design, the Fairchild Channel F, the first home console to use game cartridges, was released in November 1976. Bushnell realized they needed to speed up the Atari VCS's development. After initially considering become a public company, he instead sought a buyer. Warner Communications, looking to boost their own failing media properties, agreed to acquire Atari for , with Bushnell personally receiving , in November 1976. Warner provided a large investment into the Atari VCS to allow it to be completed early the next year and released in September 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "While the majority of the hobbyist development community uses designs from existing games, there are also original titles. In \"SCSIcide\", released by Joe Grand in 2001, the player acts as a hard drive read head picking up color-coded data bits as they fly past. \"Oystron\", released by Piero Cavina in 1997, is an action game in which \"space oysters\" are opened and pearls collected to earn ammunition. \"Duck Attack!\" allows the player to battle giant, fire-breathing ducks in a quest to save the world from a mad scientist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pitfall!",
        "text": "\"Pitfall!\" for the Atari 2600 was the best-selling home video game from late 1982 to the first quarter of 1983. By mid-January 1983, it had been the top-selling game on the \"Billboard\" chart for seven weeks\u2014much more successful than \"E.T.\", which Atari had paid $21 million to license\u2014and remained in the number one position for 64 weeks in a row. The game sold units in five months, and went on to sell over units by 1984. It is one of the best-selling games on the Atari 2600, with over four million copies sold . All versions of the game sold over copies worldwide, ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Modern Atari 2600 clones remain on the market. The Atari Classics 10-in-1 TV Game, manufactured by Jakks Pacific, emulates the 2600 with ten games inside a Atari-style joystick with composite-video output. The TV Boy includes 127 games in an enlarged joypad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Atari was still recovering from its 1974 financial woes and needed additional capital to fully enter the home console market, though Bushnell was wary of being beholden to outside financial sources. Atari obtained smaller investments through 1975, but not at the scale it needed, and began considering a sale to a larger firm by early 1976. Atari was introduced to Warner Communications, which saw the potential for the growing video game industry to help offset declining profits from its film and music divisions. Negotiations took place during 1976, during which Atari cleared itself of liabilities, including settling a patent infringement lawsuit with Magnavox over Ralph H. Baer's patents that were the basis for the Magnavox Odyssey. In mid-1976, Fairchild announced the Channel F, planned for release later that year, beating Atari to the market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Halo 2600",
        "text": "The game was released in July 2010 at the Classic Gaming Expo. At the exposition, a limited number of physical copies of the game were on sale. It was one of four new Atari 2600 titles released by AtariAge at the 2010 Classic Gaming Expo in Las Vegas, along with \"Duck Attack!\", \"K.O. Cruiser\" (a boxing game) and a port of Sega's 1981 arcade game \"Turbo\". The game was also made available for play on modern computers via an emulator."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 5200",
        "text": "David H. Ahl of \"Creative Computing Video & Arcade Games\" said in 1983 that the \"Atari 5200 is, dare I say it, Atari's answer to Intellivision, Colecovision, and the Astrocade\", describing the console as a \"true mass market\" version of the Atari 8-bit computers despite the software incompatibility. He criticized the joystick's imprecise control but said that \"it is at least as good as many other controllers\", and wondered why \"Super Breakout\" was the pack-in game when it did not use the 5200's improved graphics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 hardware",
        "text": "This model was introduced in 1982 and was the first to use \"2600\" in its name (the previous models all being officially named the \"Video Computer System\"). Besides containing a different logo than earlier models, this model does not have woodgrain on the front and is primarily black, resulting in the nickname of \"Darth Vader\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari joystick port",
        "text": "The 2600 was released in 1977, shipping with both the paddle controllers and a single joystick. The port allowed the 2600 to more easily support a wider variety of games, not just specific games but entire genres. Most game consoles before the Atari had paddle controllers, even detachable ones in the case of the Fairchild Channel F and Magnavox Odyssey. But the joystick was new, and quickly garnered praise as it allowed direct input into a number of games that would otherwise be difficult to control using a paddle. The joystick has been called \"the pinnacle of home entertainment controllers in its day\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "AtariAge",
        "text": "Taking its name from the 1982\u201384 \"Atari Age\" magazine, the site also houses a comprehensive, searchable database of Atari video games, including manuals, packaging art, estimated rarity, screenshots, reviews, and other details, as well as an \"Atari Age\" magazine archive. The site is also home to a community of homebrew developers for Atari and other classic video game systems. Some of the homebrew games originally published by AtariAge have been included in official video game compilations such as \"Activision Anthology\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jungle Hunt",
        "text": "Atari published home ports in 1983 under their own brand for the Atari 2600, Atari 5200, and Atari 8-bit family. Ports for other platforms were released under the Atarisoft label: Apple II, ColecoVision, Commodore 64, VIC-20, IBM PC compatibles, and Texas Instruments TI-99/4A. In the Atari-ported versions the hero is named Sir Dudley, and the girl, married to Sir Dudley, is Lady Penelope."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari joystick port",
        "text": "Development of the 2600 was strictly a paper project until September 1975, when the MOS Technology 6502 processor was released. The 6502 offered the right combinations of features, performance and price that made a console using ROM cartridges for program storage practical for the first time. Now that such a machine seemed like a real possibility, the design team at Cyan Engineering began serious development."
      },
      {
        "title": "RetroN",
        "text": "In 2017, Hyperkin announced the RetroN 77, a clone of the Atari 2600 video game console. Unlike recent clones in the Atari Flashback series, the RetroN 77 will play original cartridges as opposed to containing pre-installed games. The console was expected to launch during the 2017 holiday season. The RetroN 77 comes with four pack in homebrew games; Astronomer, Baby, Muncher 77 and Nexion 3D."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Atari continued its OEM relationship with Sears under the latter's Tele-Games brand, which started in 1975 with the original \"Pong\". This is unrelated to the company Telegames, which later produced 2600 cartridges. Sears released several models of the VCS as the Sears Video Arcade series starting in 1977. In 1983, the previously Japan-only Atari 2800 was rebranded as the Sears Video Arcade II."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 7800",
        "text": "Several new Atari 7800 games such as \"Beef Drop\", \"B*nQ\", \"Combat 1990\", \"CrazyBrix\", \"Failsafe\", and \"Santa Simon\" have been released.."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of video games",
        "text": "The Fairchild Channel F by Fairchild Camera and Instrument was released in 1976. It is the first home console to use programmable ROM cartridges - allowing players to swap games - as well as being the first home console to use a microprocessor which read instructions from the ROM cartridge. Atari and Magnavox followed suit in 1977 with the release of the Atari Video Computer System (VCS, later known as the Atari 2600) and the Magnavox Odyssey 2, both systems also introducing the use of cartridges. As to complete the Atari VCS quickly, Bushnell sold Atari to Warner Communications , providing the necessary cash infusion to complete the system's design by the end of 1977. The initial market for these new consoles were initially modest as consumers were still wary after the saturation of dedicated home consoles. However, there was still newfound interest in video games, and new players were drawn to the market, such as Mattel Electronics with the Intellivision. In contrast to the dedicated home \"Pong\" consoles, programmable cartridge-based consoles had a higher barrier of entry with the costs of research & development and large-scale production, and fewer manufacturers entered the market during this period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "In the history of video games, the second-generation era refers to computer and video games, video game consoles, and handheld video game consoles available from 1976 to 1992. Notable \"platforms\" of the second generation include the Fairchild Channel F, Atari 2600, Intellivision, Odyssey 2, and ColecoVision. The generation began in November 1976 with the release of the Fairchild Channel F. This was followed by the Atari 2600 in 1977, Magnavox Odyssey\u00b2 in 1978, Intellivision in 1980 and then the Emerson Arcadia 2001, ColecoVision, Atari 5200, and Vectrex, all in 1982. By the end of the era, there were over 15 different consoles. It coincided with, and was partly fuelled by, the golden age of arcade video games. This peak era of popularity and innovation for the medium resulted in many games for second generation home consoles being ports of arcade games. \"Space Invaders\", the first \"killer app\" arcade game to be ported, was released in 1980 for the Atari 2600, though earlier Atari-published arcade games were ported to the 2600 previously.\"\" Coleco packaged Nintendo's \"Donkey Kong\" with the ColecoVision when it was released in August 1982."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari, Inc.",
        "text": "During Atari's negotiations with Warner, Fairchild Camera and Instrument announced the Fairchild Channel F for release in November 1976. The Channel F was the first programmable home console that used cartridges to play different games. Following Warner's acquisition, they provided into Stella's development, allowing Atari to complete the console by early 1977. Its announcement on June 4, 1977, may have been delayed until after June 1, 1977, to wait out the terms of the Magnavox settlement from the earlier \"Pong\" patent lawsuit so they would not have to disclose information on it. The Atari VCS was released in September 1977. Most of the launch titles for the console were games based on Atari's success arcade games, such as \"Combat\" that incorporated elements of both \"Tank\" and \"Jet Fighter\". The company made around 400,000 Atari VCS units for the 1977 holiday season, most which were sold but the company had lost around due to production problems that caused some units to be delivered late to retailers."
      },
      {
        "title": "TV Boy",
        "text": "All 127 are original Atari 2600 games by companies such as Atari, Activision, and Mattel, hacked to remove copyright notices and other assets demonstrating ownership. The colored bars to the left of the \"A\" in the Activision logo remain in some games but the company name is excised. False and ambiguous names \u2013 such as \"Mad Kong\" (\"Donkey Kong\") and \"The Flying Man\" (\"Superman\") \u2013 are printed on the packing box and in the instruction manual."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Atari was successful at creating arcade video games, but their development cost and limited lifespan drove CEO Nolan Bushnell to seek a programmable home system. The first inexpensive microprocessors from MOS Technology in late 1975 made this feasible. The console was prototyped as codename Stella, by Atari subsidiary Cyan Engineering. Lacking funding to complete the project, Bushnell sold Atari to Warner Communications in 1976."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 hardware",
        "text": "These models were introduced in 1978 and stayed in production for about two years. The thick molding on the sides and curved molding on the front gave way to thinner and more sharply angled molding reducing the weight of the system. The front right and left molding are angular and overlap the woodgrain. The thick RF shielding remained until the four switch models came out. Atari also produced a version of the \"Light Sixer\" for Sears, which had some minor aesthetic differences to the Atari-branded console."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "In 2017, Hyperkin announced the RetroN 77, a clone of the Atari 2600 that plays original cartridges instead of preinstalled games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Home video game console generations",
        "text": "With the introduction of cartridge-based consoles came the need to develop a wide array of games for them. Atari was one of the forefronts in development for its Atari 2600. Atari marketed the console across multiple regions including into Japan, and retained control of all development aspects of the games. Game developments coincided with the Golden age of arcade video games that started in 1978\u20131979 with the releases of \"Space Invaders\" and \"Asteroids\", and home versions of these arcade games were ideal targets. The Atari 2600 version of \"Space Invaders\", released in 1980, was considered the killer app for home video game consoles, helping to quadruple the console's sales that year. Similarly, Coleco had beaten Atari to a key licensing deal with Nintendo to bring \"Donkey Kong\" as a pack-in game for the Colecovision, helping to drive its sales."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The 2600 was so successful in the late 1970s and early 1980s that \"Atari\" was a synonym for the console in mainstream media and for video games in general. Jay Miner directed the creation of the successors to the 2600's TIA chip\u2014CTIA and ANTIC\u2014which are central to the Atari 8-bit computers released in 1979 and later the Atari 5200 console."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari 5200 games",
        "text": "This is a list of all officially released games for the Atari 5200 Super System, organized alphabetically by name. This list excludes any homebrew games made by 3rd parties. See Lists of video games for related lists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fifth generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "On May 14, 1999, Hasbro Interactive announced that all rights to the Atari Jaguar were released into the public domain, thus declaring the platform open; this allowed anyone to freely create and publish games for the Jaguar without endorsement or licensing from Hasbro Interactive. Since then, homebrew developers began to release uncompleted Jaguar games as well as several brand new titles to satisfy the system's cult following."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Two Atari-published games, both from the system's peak in 1982, \"E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial\" and \"Pac-Man\", are cited as factors in the video game crash of 1983."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Atari 2600\n--History.\n----MOS Technology 6502/6507.\n----Building the system.\n----Launch and success.\n----Third-party development.\n----Decline and redesign.\n--Hardware.\n----Console.\n----Graphics.\n----Controllers.\n--Console models.\n----Minor revisions.\n----Sears Video Arcade.\n----Atari 2800.\n----Atari 2600 Jr..\n--Games.\n--Legacy.\n----Clones and reissues.\n--Unreleased prototypes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Atarisoft",
        "text": "All released in 1985."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "A handful of games have been programmed for the Fairchild Channel F, the first console to use ROM cartridges. The first known release is Sean Riddle's clone of \"Lights Out\" which included instructions on how to modify the SABA#20 Chess game into a Multi-Cartridge. There is also a version of \"Tetris\" and in 2008 \"Videocart 27: \"Pac-Man\" became the first full production game for the system since it was discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari Jaguar homebrew games",
        "text": "Homebrew games for the Atari Jaguar are released in either cartridge, CD or both formats to satisfy system owners. Titles released in the CD format are either glass mastered, or burned on regular CD-Rs however, since the add-on was released in very limited quantities, most homebrew developers publish their works either online on forums or on cartridge via independent publishers. Many of the cartridge releases are styled as retail Jaguar titles from the era. As both systems do not enforce regional locking all titles are region free but some titles, such as \"Gorf Classic\" and the initial release of \"Black Out!\" do not work correctly on PAL systems. Some of the earliest CD releases were not encrypted, requiring either B&C's Jaguar CD Bypass Cartridge or Reboot's Jagtopia (Freeboot) program burned into a CD in order to run unencrypted CD games, however Curt Vendel of Atari Museum released the binaries and encryption keys for both cartridge and CD formats, making it possible to run games without the need for development hardware. The first homebrew title programmed for the Jaguar dates back to 1995, which was a Jaguar version of \"Tetris\" called \"JSTetris\" (often referred as \"Jaguar Tetris\" or \"JagTris\") developed using a hacked Jaguar (BJL, ROM replaced by custom software)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "Following the release of the Atari 2600, the Channel F's popularity waned quickly as the more action-driven games of the Atari 2600 drew more attention than the more educational and slow-paced games on the Channel F. By 1979, only an additional 100,000 units of the Channel F were sold for lifetime sales of 350,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 hardware",
        "text": "This model was introduced in 1980. Some early examples of this console used the same lower case mold as the light sixers, with a piece of thin plastic adhered over several now-unneeded holes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oystron",
        "text": "In 2003, \"Oystron\" was one of several Atari 2600 homebrew titles selected by Activision for inclusion in the Game Boy Advance version of their \"Activision Anthology\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari Jaguar homebrew games",
        "text": "The following list includes all of the post-release titles as of 2018, as well as homebrew games and demos made by the community. There has been an increase in the number of homebrew games being released for the Jaguar in recent years, which started in 2016 and 2017 saw the highest number of new titles released for the system since 1998."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The Atari Flashback 2 console, released in 2005, contains 40 games, with four additional programs unlocked by a cheat code. The console implements the original 2600 architecture and can be modified to play original 2600 cartridges by adding a cartridge port; it is also compatible with original 2600 controllers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ballblazer",
        "text": "Both games were developed with the Atari 8-bit computers and the Atari 5200 console in mind. The games were ready by March 1984 and were first publicly revealed on a Lucasfilm press conference on May 8, 1984. Cartridge versions for the Atari computers and the 5200 were planned to be the released first in the third quarter of 1984, with disk versions for the Commodore 64, IBM PC and Apple IIc and IIe coming under the Atarisoft label in the fourth quarter of that year. On May 21, 1984 Atari also announced that \"Ballblazer\" and \"Rescue on Fractalus!\" would be also released for the upcoming Atari 7800 console."
      },
      {
        "title": "ColecoVision",
        "text": "In 1996, the first homebrew ColecoVision game was released: a \"Tetris\" clone titled \"Kevtris\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of best-selling Atari 2600 video games",
        "text": "</onlyinclude>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "In 1980, the difficulty switches were moved to the back of the console, leaving four switches on the front. Otherwise, these four-switch consoles look nearly identical to the earlier six-switch models. In 1982 Atari rebranded the console as the \"Atari 2600\", a name first used on a version of the four-switch model without woodgrain, giving it an all-black appearance."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of when homebrew has been used?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Homebrew has meanings within the fields of video games, software, and alcohol production. Which context are you looking to learn more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in homebrew usage within the fields of video games."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Homebrew, when applied to video games, refers to games produced by hobbyists for proprietary video game consoles which are not intended to be user-programmable. Would you like to know more about first or second generation consoles?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the second generation."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The second generation of video game consoles featured systems such as the Intellivision, Odyssey 2, ColecoVision, Fairchild Channel F, and Atari 2600. The Channel F has had a handful of homebrew games developed for it, while more than one hundred Atari 2600 homebrew titles have been released since 1995, several of which were later included in the GameBoy Advance game \"Activision Anthology\" in 2003."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me when the Atari 2600 was released?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Atari 2600 was released in September 1977.",
      "It was released in September 1977."
    ],
    "topic": "Homebrew (video games)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Atari 2600:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Atari 2600"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Atari 2600, branded as the Atari Video Computer System (Atari VCS) until November 1982, is a home video game console developed and produced by Atari, Inc. Released in September 1977, it popularized microprocessor-based hardware and games stored on swappable ROM cartridges, a format first used with the Fairchild Channel F in 1976. The VCS was bundled with two joystick controllers, a conjoined pair of paddle controllers, and a game cartridgeinitially \"Combat\" and later \"Pac-Man\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Atari 2600:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Atari 2600"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Atari 2600, branded as the Atari Video Computer System (Atari VCS) until November 1982, is a home video game console developed and produced by Atari, Inc. Released in September 1977, it popularized microprocessor-based hardware and games stored on swappable ROM cartridges, a format first used with the Fairchild Channel F in 1976. The VCS was bundled with two joystick controllers, a conjoined pair of paddle controllers, and a game cartridgeinitially \"Combat\" and later \"Pac-Man\"."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "The Atari 2600 game console was introduced to the market by Atari, Inc. in 1977 as the Atari Video Computer System or Atari VCS for short. Hundreds of games from dozens of companies have been released for the system, with some selling millions of copies, such as \"Missile Command\" and \"Pitfall!\". The 2600 continued to be manufactured throughout the 1980s, long past its peak years, until Atari Corporation dropped support in January 1992."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The Atari 2600, branded as the Atari Video Computer System (Atari VCS) until November 1982, is a home video game console developed and produced by Atari, Inc. Released in September 1977, it popularized microprocessor-based hardware and games stored on swappable ROM cartridges, a format first used with the Fairchild Channel F in 1976. The VCS was bundled with two joystick controllers, a conjoined pair of paddle controllers, and a game cartridgeinitially \"Combat\" and later \"Pac-Man\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Games that have received attention outside the hobbyist development community include \"Halo 2600\", \"Duck Attack!\", and \"A-VCS-tec Challenge\" by Simon Quernhorst (2006), an unofficial port of the 1981 Atari 8-bit family game \"Aztec Challenge\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Atari 2600 homebrew is a term describing hobbyist-developed games for the Atari 2600 video game console. The first such game was written in 1995, and more than 100 have been released since then. The majority of games are unlicensed clones of games for other platforms, and many were written for the technical challenge. There are also ROM hacks and some original games. Several games have received attention outside the hobbyist community. Some have been included in a game anthology by Activision."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari 2600 games",
        "text": "The Atari VCS was first released in North America on September 11, 1977 with nine cartridges: \"Air-Sea Battle\", \"Basic Math\", \"Blackjack\", \"Combat\", \"Indy 500\", \"Star Ship\", \"Street Racer\", \"Surround\" and \"Video Olympics\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "An Atari VCS port of the \"Breakout\" arcade game appeared in 1978. The original is in black and white with a colored overlay, and the home version is in color. In 1980, Atari released \"Adventure\", the first action-adventure game, and the first home game with a hidden \"Easter egg\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The North American video game market did not recover until about 1986, after Nintendo's 1985 launch of the Nintendo Entertainment System in North America. Atari Corporation released a redesigned model of the 2600 in 1986, supported by an ad campaign touting a price of \"under 50 bucks\". With a large library of cartridges and a low price point, the 2600 continued to sell into the late 1980s. Atari released the last batch of games in 1989\u201390 including \"Secret Quest\" and \"Fatal Run\". By 1986, over Atari VCS units had been sold worldwide. The final Atari-licensed release is the PAL-only version of the arcade game \"KLAX\" in 1990."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The 1986 model has a smaller, cost-reduced form factor with an Atari 7800-like appearance. It was advertised as a budget gaming system (under ) with the ability to run a large collection of games. Released after the video game crash of 1983, and after the North American launch of the Nintendo Entertainment System, the 2600 was supported with new games and television commercials promoting \"The fun is back!\". Atari released several minor stylistic variations: the \"large rainbow\" (shown), \"short rainbow\", and an all-black version sold only in Ireland. Later European versions include a joypad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "With severe resource limitations such as only 128 bytes of RAM and no video frame buffer, the 2600 is a difficult machine to program. Emulators, the Batari Basic language, and freely available documentation, can help the hobbyist developer. There is an active community of Atari 2600 developers\u2014the largest among classic systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "The Atari 2600 is generally considered to be a very demanding programming environment, with a mere 128 bytes of RAM and no video frame buffer at all. The programmer must prepare each line of video output as it is being sent to the television. The only sprite capabilities are one-dimensional 1-bit and 8-bit patterns; creating a two-dimensional object requires changing the pattern between each line of video. Games are often developed using Atari 2600 emulators such as \"Stella\" and \"Z26\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "In 1995\u2014three years after Atari's withdrawal of the 2600 from the marketplace\u2014enthusiast Ed Federmeyer released \"SoundX\", a cartridge to demonstrate the sound capabilities of the system. Federmeyer used the term \"homebrew\" to describe hobbyist-driven development, inspired by the California Homebrew Computer Club of the 1970s. After designing the cartridge for his own use, Federmeyer advertised it on Usenet, followed by an unlicensed port of \"Tetris\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Since then, over 100 games have been released, many published by AtariAge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Several releases have expanded upon earlier games. \"Warring Worms\", by Billy Eno (2002), takes the core design of \"Surround\" and adds new gameplay modes, such as the ability to fire shots at the opponent. \"Medieval Mayhem\" by, Darrell Spice Jr., is a version of the 1980 arcade game \"Warlords\" which includes elements omitted from Atari's official port."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 hardware",
        "text": "In 1986, a new version of the 2600 was released (although it was planned for release two years earlier). The new redesigned version of the 2600, unofficially referred to as the 2600 Jr., features a smaller, cost-reduced, form factor with a modernized Atari 7800-like appearance. The redesigned 2600 was advertised as a budget gaming system (under $50) that has the ability to run a large collection of classic games. There are several minor stylistic variations of the 2600 Jr. design, including the \"large rainbow\" (shown at right), \"small rainbow\", and the rare all-black \"Irish\" version (made in Ireland)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "After more than 14 years on the market, the 2600 line was formally discontinued on January 1, 1992, along with the Atari 7800 and Atari 8-bit family of home computers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "It was this aspect of the system that enabled third-party companies such as Activision and Imagic to develop Atari 2600 games without Atari's consent in the 1980s. This led Atari to incorporate authentication features in its later console, the Atari 7800, to prevent other companies from creating and selling their own 7800 games without Atari's permission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Retronym",
        "text": "The Atari Video Computer System platform was rebranded the \"Atari 2600\" (after its product code, CX-2600) in 1982 following the launch of its successor, the Atari 5200, and all hardware and software related to the platform were released under this new branding from that point on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "In 1977, nine games were released on cartridge to accompany the launch of the console: \"Air-Sea Battle\", \"Basic Math\", \"Blackjack\", \"Combat\", \"Indy 500\", \"Star Ship\", \"Street Racer\", \"Surround\", and \"Video Olympics\". \"Indy 500\" shipped with special \"driving controllers\", which are like paddles but rotate freely. \"Street Racer\" and \"Video Olympics\" use the standard paddle controllers."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari 2600 games",
        "text": "The Atari 2600 has been a popular platform for homebrew projects, with games publicly released. Unlike later systems, the Atari 2600 does not require a modchip to run cartridges. Many games are clones of existing games written as programming challenges, often borrowing the name of the original."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari 2600 games",
        "text": "The list contains"
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The Atari 2800 is the Japanese version of the 2600 released in October 1983. It is the first Japan-specific release of a 2600, though companies like Epoch had distributed the 2600 in Japan previously. The 2800 was released a short time after Nintendo's Family Computer (which became the dominant console in Japan), and it did not gain a significant share of the market. Sears released the 2800 in the US in 1983 as the Sears Video Arcade II packaged with two controllers and \"Space Invaders\". Around 30 specially branded games were released for the 2800."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Atari 2600 homebrew\n--History.\n--Types of projects.\n--Games.\n--Development.\n----Batari Basic.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The 2600 was so successful in the late 1970s and early 1980s that \"Atari\" was a synonym for the console in mainstream media and for video games in general. Jay Miner directed the creation of the successors to the 2600's TIA chip\u2014CTIA and ANTIC\u2014which are central to the Atari 8-bit computers released in 1979 and later the Atari 5200 console."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The Atari VCS was launched in September 1977 at , with two joysticks and a \"Combat\" cartridge; eight additional games were sold separately. Most of the launch games were based on arcade games developed by Atari or its subsidiary Kee Games; for example, \"Combat\" was based on Kee's \"Tank\" (1974) and Atari's \"Jet Fighter\" (1975). Atari sold between 350,000 and 400,000 Atari VCS units during 1977, attributed to the delay in shipping the units and consumers' unfamiliarity with a swappable-cartridge console that is not dedicated to only one game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 hardware",
        "text": "This model was introduced in 1982 and was the first to use \"2600\" in its name (the previous models all being officially named the \"Video Computer System\"). Besides containing a different logo than earlier models, this model does not have woodgrain on the front and is primarily black, resulting in the nickname of \"Darth Vader\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari 2600 games",
        "text": "List of Atari 2600 games\n--Games published by Atari and Sears.\n--Games published by third parties.\n--Homebrew games.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "In May 2018 it was announced that the Retron 77, a clone of the Atari 2600 console, would include four homebrew pack in-games: \"Astronomer\", \"Baby\", \"Muncher 77\", and \"Nexion 3D\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "In 1982, Atari launched its second programmable console, the Atari 5200. To standardize naming, the VCS was renamed to the \"Atari 2600 Video Computer System\", or \"Atari 2600\", derived from the manufacture part number CX2600. By 1982, the 2600 cost Atari about $40 to make and was sold for an average of . The company spent $4.50 to $6 to manufacture each cartridge, plus $1 to $2 for advertising, wholesaling for ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2700",
        "text": "The Atari 2700 (also known the Atari Remote Control VCS) was a prototype home video game console that was developed by Atari, Inc. to be a wirelessly controlled version of Atari's popular Atari 2600 system. Intended for release in 1981, the 2700 was one of several planned follow-ups to the 2600, but the system was never put into full production. While It is unclear how many of these systems exist, former Atari employee Dan Kramer has stated that at least 12 consoles were made (one is owned by The National Videogame Museum), plus extra controllers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "The next year, Harry Dodgson released the first hobbyist-produced cartridge: \"7800/2600 Monitor Cartridge\". It is a development tool that, after attempting to get Atari interested Dodgson decided to manufacture on his own. He purchased a batch of Atari 7800 \"Hat Trick\" games at Big Lots for a dollar or less each and cannibalized the parts. He advertised the cartridge on Usenet and in a catalog for game seller Video 61, ultimately selling around 25 copies."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of best-selling Atari 2600 video games",
        "text": "</onlyinclude>"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari 2600 games",
        "text": "The final licensed Atari 2600 games released in North America were \"Ikari Warriors\", \"MotoRodeo\", \"Sentinel\", and \"Xenophobe\" in early 1991, and the final licensed games released in Europe were \"Klax\" and \"Acid Drop\" in 1990 and 1992 respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "As the 2600 uses the 6507, a variant of the MOS Technology 6502 processor, most games are written in 6502 assembly language. In 2007, developer Fred X. Quimby released the Batari Basic compiler allowing developers to write games in BASIC, a high-level programming language. Game designer and Georgia Institute of Technology associate professor Ian Bogost has used Batari Basic in his classes to teach students video game concepts and history. An integrated development environment for Microsoft Windows, Visual Batari Basic, is also available."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari 2600 games",
        "text": "This is a list of games for the Atari Video Computer System, a console renamed to the Atari 2600 in November 1982. Sears licensed the console and many games from Atari, Inc., selling them under different names. A few cartridges were Sears exclusives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Most hobbyist-developed Atari 2600 games were created for the technical challenge, not as exercises in game design, and are unlicensed clones of arcade and computer games that were popular during the 1980s. \"Lady Bug\", released by John W. Champeau in 2006, is an implementation of the 1981 Universal arcade game. \"Juno First\", released by Chris Walton in 2009, borrows the name and design of the 1983 Konami arcade game; and \"Thrust\", released by Thomas Jentzsch in 2000, is a clone of the BBC Micro game of the same name. Other programmers have implemented \"Sea Wolf\" (as \"Seawolf\"), \"Tetris\" (as \"Edtris 2600\"), and \"Caverns of Mars\" (as \"Conquest of Mars\"). The 2600 version of \"Star Castle\" was undertaken because it had previously been said that \"a decent version couldn\u2019t be done.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 5200",
        "text": "The Atari 5200 SuperSystem or simply Atari 5200 is a home video game console introduced in 1982 by Atari, Inc. as a higher-end complement for the popular Atari Video Computer System. The VCS was renamed to the Atari 2600 at the time of the 5200's launch. Created to compete with Intellivision, the 5200 wound up a direct competitor of ColecoVision shortly after its release. While the Coleco system shipped with the first home version of Nintendo's \"Donkey Kong\", the 5200 included the 1978 arcade game \"Super Breakout\" which had already appeared on the Atari 8-bit family and Atari VCS in 1979 and 1981 respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of best-selling Atari 2600 video games",
        "text": "<onlyinclude>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "With third-party hardware such as the Cuttle Cart and Harmony Cartridge, developers could load in-progress games onto a physical Atari console to test. The Cuttle Cart, developed by Chad Schell in the early 2000s, was designed to be compatible with the Starpath Supercharger, and allows ROM images to be loaded via an 1/8\" minijack audio interface such as a cassette tape or CD player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "In November 2021, the current incarnation of Atari announced three 2600 games to be published under \"Atari XP\" label: \"Yars' Return\", \"Aquaventure\", and \"Saboteur\". These were previously included in Atari Flashback consoles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Unlike later consoles, the 2600 will run any properly configured cartridge without checking for a digital signature or performing any other type of authentication."
      },
      {
        "title": "Signetics 2650",
        "text": "At least five coin-operated video games were released in the 1970s which used the 2650 CPU Atari \"Quiz Show\", Meadows Games \"3D Bowling\", Meadows Games \"Gypsy Juggler\", Cinematronics \"Embargo\", and a clone of Space Invaders by Zaccaria called \"The Invaders\" (1978) (original by Taito used an Intel 8080 CPU)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Modern Atari 2600 clones remain on the market. The Atari Classics 10-in-1 TV Game, manufactured by Jakks Pacific, emulates the 2600 with ten games inside a Atari-style joystick with composite-video output. The TV Boy includes 127 games in an enlarged joypad."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari 2600 games",
        "text": "games, divided into three sections:\n#Games published by Atari and Sears\n#Games published by third parties\n#Hobbyist-developed games after the system was discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 hardware",
        "text": "This model was introduced in 1980. Some early examples of this console used the same lower case mold as the light sixers, with a piece of thin plastic adhered over several now-unneeded holes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pitfall!",
        "text": "\"Pitfall!\" for the Atari 2600 was the best-selling home video game from late 1982 to the first quarter of 1983. By mid-January 1983, it had been the top-selling game on the \"Billboard\" chart for seven weeks\u2014much more successful than \"E.T.\", which Atari had paid $21 million to license\u2014and remained in the number one position for 64 weeks in a row. The game sold units in five months, and went on to sell over units by 1984. It is one of the best-selling games on the Atari 2600, with over four million copies sold . All versions of the game sold over copies worldwide, ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Atari was successful at creating arcade video games, but their development cost and limited lifespan drove CEO Nolan Bushnell to seek a programmable home system. The first inexpensive microprocessors from MOS Technology in late 1975 made this feasible. The console was prototyped as codename Stella, by Atari subsidiary Cyan Engineering. Lacking funding to complete the project, Bushnell sold Atari to Warner Communications in 1976."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "In 1980, the difficulty switches were moved to the back of the console, leaving four switches on the front. Otherwise, these four-switch consoles look nearly identical to the earlier six-switch models. In 1982 Atari rebranded the console as the \"Atari 2600\", a name first used on a version of the four-switch model without woodgrain, giving it an all-black appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari",
        "text": "The development of a successor to the 2600 started as soon as it shipped. The original team estimated the 2600 had a lifespan of about three years; it then set forth to build the most powerful machine possible within that time frame. Mid-way into their effort the home computer revolution took off, leading to the addition of a keyboard and features to produce the Atari 800 and its smaller sibling, the 400. The new machines had some success when they finally became available in quantity in 1980. From this platform Atari released their next-generation game console in 1982, the Atari 5200. It was unsuccessful due to incompatibility with the 2600 game library, a small quantity of dedicated games, and notoriously unreliable controllers. Porting arcade games to home systems with inferior hardware was difficult. The ported version of \"Pac-Man\" for Atari 2600 omitted many of the visual features of the original to compensate for the lack of ROM space and the hardware struggled when multiple ghosts appeared on the screen creating a flickering effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Atari, Inc. was the only developer for the first few years, releasing dozens of games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 5200",
        "text": "David H. Ahl of \"Creative Computing Video & Arcade Games\" said in 1983 that the \"Atari 5200 is, dare I say it, Atari's answer to Intellivision, Colecovision, and the Astrocade\", describing the console as a \"true mass market\" version of the Atari 8-bit computers despite the software incompatibility. He criticized the joystick's imprecise control but said that \"it is at least as good as many other controllers\", and wondered why \"Super Breakout\" was the pack-in game when it did not use the 5200's improved graphics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Atari continued its OEM relationship with Sears under the latter's Tele-Games brand, which started in 1975 with the original \"Pong\". This is unrelated to the company Telegames, which later produced 2600 cartridges. Sears released several models of the VCS as the Sears Video Arcade series starting in 1977. In 1983, the previously Japan-only Atari 2800 was rebranded as the Sears Video Arcade II."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tigervision",
        "text": "The following games were released for the Atari 2600:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The Atari VCS launched in 1977 with nine simple, low-resolution games in 2 KB cartridges. The system's first killer app was the home conversion of Taito's arcade game \"Space Invaders\" in 1980. The VCS became widely successful, leading to the founding of Activision and other third-party game developers and to competition from console manufacturers Mattel and Coleco. By the end of its primary lifecycle in 1983\u201384, games for the 2600 were using more than four times the storage size of the launch games with significantly more advanced visuals and gameplay than the system was designed for, such as Activision's \"Pitfall!\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari 2600 games",
        "text": "As the Atari 2600 console grew in popularity, in 1980 other game developers, such as Activision and Imagic, entered the market and published more than 380 of their own cartridges for the Atari 2600. Many of the most popular Atari 2600 games, such as \"Pitfall!\" and \"Demon Attack\", are third-party games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Warner Communications reported weaker results than expected in December 1982 to its shareholders, having expected a 50% year-to-year growth but only obtaining 10\u201315% due to declining sales at Atari. Coupled with the oversaturated home game market, Atari's weakened position led investors to start pulling funds out of video games, beginning a cascade of disastrous effects known as the video game crash of 1983. Many of the third-party developers formed prior to 1983 were closed, and Mattel and Coleco left the video game market by 1985."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Atari obtained a license from Taito to develop a VCS conversion of its 1978 arcade hit \"Space Invaders\". This is the first officially licensed arcade conversion for a home console. Its release in March 1980 doubled the console's sales for the year to more than 2 million units, and was considered the Atari 2600's killer application. Sales then doubled again for the next two years; by 1982, 10 million consoles had been sold in the United States, while its best-selling game was \"Pac-Man\" at over copies sold by 1990. \"Pac-Man\" propelled worldwide Atari VCS sales to units during 1982, eventually selling consoles worldwide by the end of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 5200",
        "text": "In 1987, Atari Corporation released the XE Game System console, which is a repackaged 65XE (from 1985) with a detachable keyboard that can run home computer titles directly, unlike the 5200. Anderson wrote in 1984 that Atari could have released a console compatible with computer software in 1981."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari 2600 games",
        "text": "In 2003, Activision selected several games for inclusion in the Game Boy Advance version of their \"Activision Anthology\", as indicated below."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 7800",
        "text": "The Atari 7800 ProSystem, or simply the Atari 7800, is a home video game console officially released by Atari Corporation in 1986 as the successor to both the Atari 2600 and Atari 5200. It can run almost all Atari 2600 cartridges, making it one of the first consoles with backward compatibility. It shipped with a different model of joystick from the 2600-standard CX40 and \"Pole Position II\" as the pack-in game. Most of the announced titles at launch were ports of 1980\u201383 arcade games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "While the majority of the hobbyist development community uses designs from existing games, there are also original titles. In \"SCSIcide\", released by Joe Grand in 2001, the player acts as a hard drive read head picking up color-coded data bits as they fly past. \"Oystron\", released by Piero Cavina in 1997, is an action game in which \"space oysters\" are opened and pearls collected to earn ammunition. \"Duck Attack!\" allows the player to battle giant, fire-breathing ducks in a quest to save the world from a mad scientist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Two Atari-published games, both from the system's peak in 1982, \"E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial\" and \"Pac-Man\", are cited as factors in the video game crash of 1983."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "An Atari 2600 variant, known by its production code \"CX2000\" and nickname \"Val\", was found as two 1982 prototypes at the New York and Sunnyvale Atari facilities, respectively. It is a redesign of the aging 2600. Its design, with two integrated joystick controllers, is the result of human factor analysis by Henry Dreyfuss Associates. The project never reached market production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Atari 2600\n--History.\n----MOS Technology 6502/6507.\n----Building the system.\n----Launch and success.\n----Third-party development.\n----Decline and redesign.\n--Hardware.\n----Console.\n----Graphics.\n----Controllers.\n--Console models.\n----Minor revisions.\n----Sears Video Arcade.\n----Atari 2800.\n----Atari 2600 Jr..\n--Games.\n--Legacy.\n----Clones and reissues.\n--Unreleased prototypes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari, Inc.",
        "text": "Atari launched its second major programmable console, the Atari 5200, in late 1982. The unit was based on the same design features that had gone into the Atari 800 and Atari 400 computers, but repackaged as a home console. Alongside the 5200's release, Atari announced it was rebranding the Atari VCS as the Atari 2600 to create a more consist product naming system. The Atari 5200 did not do well on the market as it lacked backward compatibility with Atari VCS/2600 cartridges, a feature offered by the Colecovision. The Atari 5200 only sold about one million units before it was discontinued in 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The Atari 2600 was designed to be compatible with the cathode-ray tube television sets produced in the late 1970s and early 1980s, which commonly lack auxiliary video inputs to receive audio and video from another device. Therefore, to connect to a TV, the console generates a radio frequency signal compatible with the regional television standards (NTSC, PAL, or SECAM), using a special switch box to act as the television's antenna."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Warner sold Atari's home division to former Commodore CEO Jack Tramiel in 1984. In 1986, the new Atari Corporation under Tramiel released a lower-cost version of the 2600 and the backward-compatible Atari 7800, but it was Nintendo that led the recovery of the industry with its 1985 launch of the Nintendo Entertainment System. Production of the Atari 2600 ended on January 1, 1992, with an estimated 30 million units sold across its lifetime."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The Atari VCS microconsole was released by Atari Interactive in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 hardware",
        "text": "The Atari 2500 is a prototype created in 1981. It was intended as a replacement for the existing 2600, but never saw release. The technical specifications are no different from the Atari 2600, except for combination joystick/paddle controllers installed in the system itself (though normal controllers were usable). It is light grey, and appears sleeker than current model 2600s."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of best-selling Atari 2600 video games",
        "text": "The best-selling video game of all-time on the Atari 2600 console (previously known as the Atari VCS) is \"Pac-Man\", a port of the arcade game of the same name programmed by Tod Frye. Originally created by Toru Iwatani and released in 1980, \"Pac-Man\" was later ported to many home video game consoles, beginning with the Atari 2600 in 1982. Within months it became the best-selling home video game of all-time, with more than 1.5 million units pre-ordered by customers before its release. \"Pac-Man\" went on to sell over 8 million units worldwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari joystick port",
        "text": "Development of the 2600 was strictly a paper project until September 1975, when the MOS Technology 6502 processor was released. The 6502 offered the right combinations of features, performance and price that made a console using ROM cartridges for program storage practical for the first time. Now that such a machine seemed like a real possibility, the design team at Cyan Engineering began serious development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The unit was showcased on June 4, 1977, at the Summer Consumer Electronics Show with plans for retail release in October. The announcement was purportedly delayed to wait out the terms of the Magnavox patent lawsuit settlement, which would have given Magnavox all technical information on any of Atari's products announced between June 1, 1976, and June 1, 1977. However, Atari encountered production problems during its first batch, and its testing was complicated by the use of cartridges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Larry Kaplan",
        "text": "Kaplan wrote the following Atari 2600 games:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Second generation of video game consoles",
        "text": "In 1977, Atari released its CPU-based console called the Video Computer System (VCS), later called the Atari 2600. Nine games were designed and released for the holiday season. Atari held exclusive rights to most of the popular arcade game conversions of the day. They used this key segment to support their older hardware in the market. This game advantage and the difference in price between the machines meant that each year, Atari sold more units than Intellivision, lengthening its lead despite inferior graphics. The Atari 2600 sold over 30 million units over its lifetime, considerably more than any other console of the second generation. In 1982, Atari released the Atari 5200 in an attempt to compete with the Intellivision. While superior to the 2600, poor sales and lack of new games meant Atari only supported it for two years before it was discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari 2600 games",
        "text": "All 136 of the initial era of Atari 2600 games were developed and manufactured by Atari, Inc. These games were published by Atari, and many were also licensed to Sears, which released these games under its Tele-Games brand, often with different titles. Sears's Tele-Games brand was unrelated to the company Telegames, which also produced cartridges for the Atari 2600 (mostly re-issues of M Network games.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Video game crash of 1983",
        "text": "The Atari Video Computer System (renamed the Atari 2600 in late 1982) was not the first home system with swappable game cartridges, but by the early 1980s it was the most popular second-generation console by a wide margin. Launched in 1977 just ahead of the collapse of the market for home \"Pong\" console clones, the Atari VCS experienced modest sales for its first few years. In 1980, Atari's licensed version of \"Space Invaders\" from Taito became the console's killer application; sales of the VCS quadrupled, and the game was the first title to sell more than a million copies. Spurred by the success of the Atari VCS, other consoles were introduced, both from Atari and other companies: Odyssey\u00b2, Intellivision, ColecoVision, Atari 5200, and Vectrex. Notably, Coleco sold an add-on allowing Atari VCS games to be played on its ColecoVision, as well as bundling the console with a licensed home version of Nintendo's arcade hit \"Donkey Kong\". In 1982, the ColecoVision held roughly 17% of the hardware market, compared to Atari VCS's 58%. This was the first real threat to Atari's dominance of the home console market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The Atari Flashback 2 console, released in 2005, contains 40 games, with four additional programs unlocked by a cheat code. The console implements the original 2600 architecture and can be modified to play original 2600 cartridges by adding a cartridge port; it is also compatible with original 2600 controllers."
      },
      {
        "title": "TV Boy",
        "text": "All 127 are original Atari 2600 games by companies such as Atari, Activision, and Mattel, hacked to remove copyright notices and other assets demonstrating ownership. The colored bars to the left of the \"A\" in the Activision logo remain in some games but the company name is excised. False and ambiguous names \u2013 such as \"Mad Kong\" (\"Donkey Kong\") and \"The Flying Man\" (\"Superman\") \u2013 are printed on the packing box and in the instruction manual."
      },
      {
        "title": "Home Entertainment Suppliers",
        "text": "HES released quite a few titles and multi game packs for the Atari 2600 Video Computer System. The cartridges are virtually identical to the Activision cartridges, but the Activision logo on the underside is blacked out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Video game conversion",
        "text": "With the beginning of the video game era, Atari released their Atari 2600 console for which they licensed and produced a number of home conversions of popular arcade titles, including \"Pac-Man\" by Namco, \"Space Invaders\" and \"Defender.\" Later, other third-party developers and publishers such as Activision and Coleco produced games like \"Donkey Kong\" for the Atari 2600."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The Atari 2700 is a version of the 2600 using wireless controllers."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari, Inc. games (1972\u20131984)",
        "text": "In 1975 Atari released Home Pong, its first of several \"Pong\"-based dedicated video game consoles, and in 1977 released its first home video game console, the Atari Video Computer System (later renamed the Atari 2600). From that point onward Atari developed both arcade games and console games, and in 1979 added games for their first home computers, the Atari 400 and 800. Atari produced a second home video game console in 1982, the Atari 5200, and four more home computer versions. Beginning in Summer 1981, Atari published the Atari Program Exchange, a quarterly mail-order catalog of software written for Atari computers by external developers which Atari then distributed to customers. In May 1983, Atari started the Atarisoft division, which produced ports of games by Atari and others for non-Atari home computers. In July 1984, as a result of falling sales due to the video game crash of 1983, Atari, Inc. was split apart by Warner Communications; the arcade division continued as a subsidiary of Warner under the name Atari Games, while the console and computer games divisions were sold off as Atari Corporation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Halo 2600",
        "text": "The game was released in July 2010 at the Classic Gaming Expo. At the exposition, a limited number of physical copies of the game were on sale. It was one of four new Atari 2600 titles released by AtariAge at the 2010 Classic Gaming Expo in Las Vegas, along with \"Duck Attack!\", \"K.O. Cruiser\" (a boxing game) and a port of Sega's 1981 arcade game \"Turbo\". The game was also made available for play on modern computers via an emulator."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The top bezel of the console originally had six switches: power, TV type selection (color or black-and-white), game selection, player difficulty, and game reset. The difficulty switches were moved to the back of the bezel in later versions of the console. The back bezel also included the controller ports, TV output, and power input."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 7800",
        "text": "Atari had been facing pressure from Coleco and its ColecoVision console, which supported graphics that more closely mirrored arcade games of the time than either the Atari 2600 or 5200. The Atari 5200 (released as a successor to the Atari 2600) was criticized for not being able to play 2600 games without an adapter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "In 2003, Activision selected several homebrew 2600 games for inclusion in the Game Boy Advance version of its \"Activision Anthology\": \"Climber 5\" by Dennis Debro (2004), \"Okie Dokie\" by Bob Colbert (1996), \"Skeleton+\" by Eric Ball (2003), \"Space Treat Deluxe\" by Fabrizio Zavagli (2003), \"Vault Assault\" by Brian Prescott (2001), \"Video Euchre\" by Erik Eid (2002), and \"Oystron\". In 2005, \"SCSIcide\", \"Oystron\", \"Warring Worms\", \"Skeleton+\", and \"Marble Craze\" by Paul Slocum (2002) were listed as the \"Best 2600 Homebrew Games\" in the book \"Gaming Hacks: 100 Industrial-Strength Tips & Tools\" by Simon Carless."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "There were two attempts to turn the Atari 2600 into a keyboard-equipped home computer: Atari's never-released CX3000 \"Graduate\" keyboard, and the CompuMate keyboard by Spectravideo which was released in 1983."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Atari started work on a 2600 successor called the \"Atari 3200\". It was to be compatible with 2600 cartridges, and was rumored to be based on a 10-bit processor, although design documents show it was to be based on the 8-bit 6502. It was still unfinished when preliminary game developers discovered that it was difficult to program. Atari cloned the Atari 3200 into the Sears Super Arcade II, but this was never released."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The Atari 2600's CPU is the MOS Technology 6507, a version of the 6502, running at 1.19 MHz in the 2600. Though their internal silicon was identical, the 6507 was cheaper than the 6502 because its package included fewer memory-address pins\u201413 instead of 16. The designers of the Atari 2600 selected an inexpensive cartridge interface that has one fewer address than the 13 allowed by the 6507, further reducing the already limited addressable memory to 4 KB (212 = 4096). This was believed to be sufficient as \"Combat\" is itself only 2 KB. Later games circumvented this limitation with bank switching."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "In 2017, Hyperkin announced the RetroN 77, a clone of the Atari 2600 that plays original cartridges instead of preinstalled games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "In Europe, the Atari VCS sold 125,000 units in the United Kingdom during 1980, and 450,000 in West Germany by 1984. In France, where the VCS released in 1982, the system sold 600,000 units by 1989."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of commercial failures in video games",
        "text": "Based on Steven Spielberg's popular 1982 movie of the same name and reportedly coded in just five weeks, this Atari 2600 game was rushed to the market for the 1982 holiday season."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of best-selling Atari 2600 video games",
        "text": "List of best-selling Atari 2600 video games\n--Video games.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "By October 1976, Warner and Atari agreed to the purchase of Atari for . Warner provided an estimated which allowed Stella to be fast-tracked. By 1977, development had advanced enough to brand it the \"Atari Video Computer System\" (VCS) and start developing games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 7800",
        "text": "On January 1, 1992, Atari Corporation announced the end of production and support for the 7800, 2600, and the 8-bit computer family including the Atari XEGS. At least one game, an unreleased port of \"Toki\", was worked on past this date. By the time of the discontinuation, the Nintendo Entertainment System controlled 80% of the North American market while Atari had 12%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 7800",
        "text": "While the system can play the over 400 games for the Atari 2600, there were only 59 official releases for the 7800. The lineup emphasized high-quality versions of games from the golden age of arcade video games like \"Joust\", \"Centipede\", and \"Asteroids\", which at the time of the 1986 launch were four, six, and seven years old, respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Each early VCS game is in a 2K ROM. Later games like \"Space Invaders\", have 4K. The VCS port of \"Asteroids\" (1981) is the first game for the system to use 8K via a bank switching technique between two 4K segments. Some later releases, including Atari's ports of \"Dig Dug\" and \"Crystal Castles\", are 16K cartridges. One of the final games, \"Fatal Run\" (1990), doubled this to 32K."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari joystick port",
        "text": "The 2600 was released in 1977, shipping with both the paddle controllers and a single joystick. The port allowed the 2600 to more easily support a wider variety of games, not just specific games but entire genres. Most game consoles before the Atari had paddle controllers, even detachable ones in the case of the Fairchild Channel F and Magnavox Odyssey. But the joystick was new, and quickly garnered praise as it allowed direct input into a number of games that would otherwise be difficult to control using a paddle. The joystick has been called \"the pinnacle of home entertainment controllers in its day\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "A demake is a port from a system generations past the 2600. \"Halo 2600\" is a 4\u00a0KB game inspired by the \"Halo\" series of games. It was written by former Microsoft vice-president Ed Fries, who was involved in Microsoft's acquisition of \"Halo\" creator Bungie. Other 2600 demakes include the \"Portal\"-inspired \"Super 3D Portals 6\" and a demo based on the Mega Man franchise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 5200",
        "text": "The Atari 5200 did not fare well commercially compared to its predecessor, the Atari 2600. While it touted superior graphics to the 2600 and Mattel's Intellivision, the system was initially incompatible with the 2600's expansive library of games, and some market analysts have speculated that this hurt its sales, especially since an Atari 2600 cartridge adapter had been released for the Intellivision II. (A revised two-port model was released in 1983, along with a game adapter that allowed gamers to play all 2600 games.) This lack of new games was due in part to a lack of funding, with Atari continuing to develop most of its games for the saturated 2600 market."
      },
      {
        "title": "1983 in video games",
        "text": "Console\n* December 12 \u2013 Nintendo publishes \"Donkey Kong Jr. Math\", for the Famicom.\n* Mattel Electronics publishes \"World Series Baseball\" for the Intellivision, one of the first video games to use multiple camera angles.\n* Activision's final big year of Atari 2600 releases includes \"Enduro\", \"Decathlon\", \"Keystone Kapers\", \"Robot Tank\", and \"\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of when homebrew has been used?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Homebrew has meanings within the fields of video games, software, and alcohol production. Which context are you looking to learn more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in homebrew usage within the fields of video games."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Homebrew, when applied to video games, refers to games produced by hobbyists for proprietary video game consoles which are not intended to be user-programmable. Would you like to know more about first or second generation consoles?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the second generation."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The second generation of video game consoles featured systems such as the Intellivision, Odyssey 2, ColecoVision, Fairchild Channel F, and Atari 2600. The Channel F has had a handful of homebrew games developed for it, while more than one hundred Atari 2600 homebrew titles have been released since 1995, several of which were later included in the GameBoy Advance game \"Activision Anthology\" in 2003."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me when the Atari 2600 was released?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Atari 2600 was released in September 1977."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What kind of game was Atari 2600?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "It was not a game, it was a home video game console.",
      "The Atari 2600, branded as the Atari Video Computer System (Atari VCS) until November 1982, is a home video game console developed and produced by Atari, Inc. Released in September 1977, it popularized microprocessor-based hardware and games stored on swappable ROM cartridges, a format first used with the Fairchild Channel F in 1976."
    ],
    "topic": "Homebrew (video games)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Atari 2600:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Atari 2600"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Atari 2600, branded as the Atari Video Computer System (Atari VCS) until November 1982, is a home video game console developed and produced by Atari, Inc. Released in September 1977, it popularized microprocessor-based hardware and games stored on swappable ROM cartridges, a format first used with the Fairchild Channel F in 1976. The VCS was bundled with two joystick controllers, a conjoined pair of paddle controllers, and a game cartridgeinitially \"Combat\" and later \"Pac-Man\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Atari 2600:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Atari 2600"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Atari 2600, branded as the Atari Video Computer System (Atari VCS) until November 1982, is a home video game console developed and produced by Atari, Inc. Released in September 1977, it popularized microprocessor-based hardware and games stored on swappable ROM cartridges, a format first used with the Fairchild Channel F in 1976. The VCS was bundled with two joystick controllers, a conjoined pair of paddle controllers, and a game cartridgeinitially \"Combat\" and later \"Pac-Man\"."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Q*bert",
        "text": "Other home versions were well-received, with some exceptions. Of the ColecoVision version, \"Electronic Fun with Computers & Games\" noted that \"\"Q*bert\" aficionados will not be disappointed.\" Brownstein called it one of the best of the authorized versions. Warren Davis also considered the ColecoVision version the most accurate port of the arcade. \"Computer and Video Games\" gave the ColecoVision version a 72% score. Brownstein judged the Atari 5200 version inferior to that for the ColecoVision because of the imprecision of the Atari 5200 controller, but noted that \"it does tend to grow on you.\" \"Video Games\" identified the Intellivision version as the worst of the available ports, criticizing the system's controller as inadequate for the game. \"Antic\" magazine's David Duberman called the Atari 8-bit version \"one of the finest translations of an arcade game for the home computer format\", and Arthur Leyenberger of \"Creative Computing\" listed it as a runner-up for Best Arcade Adaptation to the system, praising its faithful graphics, sound, movement and playability. \"Softline\" was more critical, criticizing the Atari version's controls and lack of swearing. The magazine concluded that \"the home computer game doesn't have the sense of style of the one in the arcades ... the execution just isn't there.\" In 1984, the magazine's readers named the game the fifth-worst Atari program of 1983. \"Computer Games\" called the C64 version an \"absolutely terrific translation\" that \"almost totally duplicates the arcade game,\" aside from its lack of synthesized speech. The standalone tabletop was awarded Stand-Alone Game of the Year in \"Electronic Games\". \"Electronic Gaming Monthly\" reviewed the NES version in 1989, with four critics scoring it 7, 3, 4 and 4 out of 10."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The Atari 2600, branded as the Atari Video Computer System (Atari VCS) until November 1982, is a home video game console developed and produced by Atari, Inc. Released in September 1977, it popularized microprocessor-based hardware and games stored on swappable ROM cartridges, a format first used with the Fairchild Channel F in 1976. The VCS was bundled with two joystick controllers, a conjoined pair of paddle controllers, and a game cartridgeinitially \"Combat\" and later \"Pac-Man\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "The Atari 2600 game console was introduced to the market by Atari, Inc. in 1977 as the Atari Video Computer System or Atari VCS for short. Hundreds of games from dozens of companies have been released for the system, with some selling millions of copies, such as \"Missile Command\" and \"Pitfall!\". The 2600 continued to be manufactured throughout the 1980s, long past its peak years, until Atari Corporation dropped support in January 1992."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 hardware",
        "text": "In 1986, a new version of the 2600 was released (although it was planned for release two years earlier). The new redesigned version of the 2600, unofficially referred to as the 2600 Jr., features a smaller, cost-reduced, form factor with a modernized Atari 7800-like appearance. The redesigned 2600 was advertised as a budget gaming system (under $50) that has the ability to run a large collection of classic games. There are several minor stylistic variations of the 2600 Jr. design, including the \"large rainbow\" (shown at right), \"small rainbow\", and the rare all-black \"Irish\" version (made in Ireland)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Modern Atari 2600 clones remain on the market. The Atari Classics 10-in-1 TV Game, manufactured by Jakks Pacific, emulates the 2600 with ten games inside a Atari-style joystick with composite-video output. The TV Boy includes 127 games in an enlarged joypad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The 1986 model has a smaller, cost-reduced form factor with an Atari 7800-like appearance. It was advertised as a budget gaming system (under ) with the ability to run a large collection of games. Released after the video game crash of 1983, and after the North American launch of the Nintendo Entertainment System, the 2600 was supported with new games and television commercials promoting \"The fun is back!\". Atari released several minor stylistic variations: the \"large rainbow\" (shown), \"short rainbow\", and an all-black version sold only in Ireland. Later European versions include a joypad."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 8-bit family",
        "text": "What they ended up with was essentially a greatly updated version of the VCS, fixing its major limitations but sharing a similar design philosophy. The newer design would be faster and with better graphics and sound hardware. Work on the chips for the new system continued throughout 1978 and focused on much-improved video coprocessor known as the CTIA (the VCS version was the TIA)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "In May 2018 it was announced that the Retron 77, a clone of the Atari 2600 console, would include four homebrew pack in-games: \"Astronomer\", \"Baby\", \"Muncher 77\", and \"Nexion 3D\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Several releases have expanded upon earlier games. \"Warring Worms\", by Billy Eno (2002), takes the core design of \"Surround\" and adds new gameplay modes, such as the ability to fire shots at the opponent. \"Medieval Mayhem\" by, Darrell Spice Jr., is a version of the 1980 arcade game \"Warlords\" which includes elements omitted from Atari's official port."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 7800",
        "text": "In 2004, the Infogrames-owned version of Atari released the Atari Flashback console. It resembles a miniature Atari 7800 and has five 7800 and fifteen 2600 games built-in. Built using the NES-On-A-Chip hardware instead of recreating the Atari 7800 hardware, it was criticized for failing to properly replicate the actual gaming experience. A subsequent 7800 project was cancelled after prototypes were made."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari 2600 games",
        "text": "The Atari VCS was first released in North America on September 11, 1977 with nine cartridges: \"Air-Sea Battle\", \"Basic Math\", \"Blackjack\", \"Combat\", \"Indy 500\", \"Star Ship\", \"Street Racer\", \"Surround\" and \"Video Olympics\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "An Atari 2600 variant, known by its production code \"CX2000\" and nickname \"Val\", was found as two 1982 prototypes at the New York and Sunnyvale Atari facilities, respectively. It is a redesign of the aging 2600. Its design, with two integrated joystick controllers, is the result of human factor analysis by Henry Dreyfuss Associates. The project never reached market production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Most hobbyist-developed Atari 2600 games were created for the technical challenge, not as exercises in game design, and are unlicensed clones of arcade and computer games that were popular during the 1980s. \"Lady Bug\", released by John W. Champeau in 2006, is an implementation of the 1981 Universal arcade game. \"Juno First\", released by Chris Walton in 2009, borrows the name and design of the 1983 Konami arcade game; and \"Thrust\", released by Thomas Jentzsch in 2000, is a clone of the BBC Micro game of the same name. Other programmers have implemented \"Sea Wolf\" (as \"Seawolf\"), \"Tetris\" (as \"Edtris 2600\"), and \"Caverns of Mars\" (as \"Conquest of Mars\"). The 2600 version of \"Star Castle\" was undertaken because it had previously been said that \"a decent version couldn\u2019t be done.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The North American video game market did not recover until about 1986, after Nintendo's 1985 launch of the Nintendo Entertainment System in North America. Atari Corporation released a redesigned model of the 2600 in 1986, supported by an ad campaign touting a price of \"under 50 bucks\". With a large library of cartridges and a low price point, the 2600 continued to sell into the late 1980s. Atari released the last batch of games in 1989\u201390 including \"Secret Quest\" and \"Fatal Run\". By 1986, over Atari VCS units had been sold worldwide. The final Atari-licensed release is the PAL-only version of the arcade game \"KLAX\" in 1990."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "An Atari VCS port of the \"Breakout\" arcade game appeared in 1978. The original is in black and white with a colored overlay, and the home version is in color. In 1980, Atari released \"Adventure\", the first action-adventure game, and the first home game with a hidden \"Easter egg\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shepardson Microsystems",
        "text": "Atari, Inc. planned to follow up its successful Atari VCS console with a more powerful home computer (the Atari 400 and 800), to be introduced at the January 1979 Consumer Electronics Show. This required a BASIC interpreter. A version of Microsoft BASIC for the MOS 6502 had been licensed for this purpose, but the task of retrofitting the code into an 8k cartridge proved too difficult."
      },
      {
        "title": "TV Boy",
        "text": "All 127 are original Atari 2600 games by companies such as Atari, Activision, and Mattel, hacked to remove copyright notices and other assets demonstrating ownership. The colored bars to the left of the \"A\" in the Activision logo remain in some games but the company name is excised. False and ambiguous names \u2013 such as \"Mad Kong\" (\"Donkey Kong\") and \"The Flying Man\" (\"Superman\") \u2013 are printed on the packing box and in the instruction manual."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Games that have received attention outside the hobbyist development community include \"Halo 2600\", \"Duck Attack!\", and \"A-VCS-tec Challenge\" by Simon Quernhorst (2006), an unofficial port of the 1981 Atari 8-bit family game \"Aztec Challenge\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pac-Man (Atari 2600)",
        "text": "In 1983, \"Creative Computing Video & Arcade Games\" reviewer Danny Goodman commented that the game fails as a replica of its arcade form: \"Atari stated clearly in it description of the cartridge that Atari's Pac-Man 'differs slightly from the original'. That, perhaps, was an understatement.\" Conversely, he stated that such criticism was unfair because the hardware could not properly emulate the arcade game. Goodman further said that the port is a challenging maze game in its own right, and it would have been a success if fans had not expected to play a game closer to the original. That year Phil Wiswell of \"Video Games\" criticized the game's poor graphics, mockingly referring to it as \"Flickerman\", while \"Softline\" questioned why Atari opposed \"Pac-Man\" clones when the 2600 version was less like the original \"than any of the pack of imitators\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari Flashback series",
        "text": "AtGames also released several alternate versions, including the Atari Flashback 4: 40th Anniversary Deluxe Edition. This included a set of replica Atari 2600 paddles, five collectible posters, and a copy of the original Atari joystick patent signed by Nolan Bushnell. AtGames also developed the Atari Flashback 64, a Walmart exclusive version with wired controllers and only 64 games, including \"Space Invaders\". Some versions of the Flashback 4 include a 76th \"bonus\" game, \"Millipede\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "It was this aspect of the system that enabled third-party companies such as Activision and Imagic to develop Atari 2600 games without Atari's consent in the 1980s. This led Atari to incorporate authentication features in its later console, the Atari 7800, to prevent other companies from creating and selling their own 7800 games without Atari's permission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 5200",
        "text": "David H. Ahl of \"Creative Computing Video & Arcade Games\" said in 1983 that the \"Atari 5200 is, dare I say it, Atari's answer to Intellivision, Colecovision, and the Astrocade\", describing the console as a \"true mass market\" version of the Atari 8-bit computers despite the software incompatibility. He criticized the joystick's imprecise control but said that \"it is at least as good as many other controllers\", and wondered why \"Super Breakout\" was the pack-in game when it did not use the 5200's improved graphics."
      },
      {
        "title": "H.E.R.O. (video game)",
        "text": "\"Computer and Video Games\" rated the Atari VCS version 93% and the ColecoVision version 94% in 1989."
      },
      {
        "title": "Congo Bongo",
        "text": "The home conversions received a mixed reception. The ColecoVision, Atari 5200 and Intellivision versions were awarded \"Best Videogame Audio-Visual Effects\" at the 1984 Arkie Awards. \"Ahoy!\" in 1984 stated that \"Congo Bongo\" for the Commodore 64 and VIC-20 \"is fraught with problems; gameplay is repetitive, frustrating, tedious, inconsistent, and at times confusing, and the music not only got on my nerves but stomped on them. Plus, the whole thing is derivative\". \"Computer Games\" magazine gave the Atari VCS version a C\u2212 rating, calling the \"VCS version of\" the arcade game, \"for the most part, a disappointment.\" \"ST. Game\" readers named the Atari version of the game the worst Atari program of 1983, even worse than the notorious \"E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari, Inc. games (1972\u20131984)",
        "text": "Atari's dedicated consoles and many of their early console games were licensed for sale through Sears, which often sold them under a different name, on some occasions months prior to the Atari-branded version. When different, these variant names are listed in the table below. When the same arcade game was released with minor variations by Atari and Kee Games, the two games are listed together."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2700",
        "text": "The Atari 2700 (also known the Atari Remote Control VCS) was a prototype home video game console that was developed by Atari, Inc. to be a wirelessly controlled version of Atari's popular Atari 2600 system. Intended for release in 1981, the 2700 was one of several planned follow-ups to the 2600, but the system was never put into full production. While It is unclear how many of these systems exist, former Atari employee Dan Kramer has stated that at least 12 consoles were made (one is owned by The National Videogame Museum), plus extra controllers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The Atari 2600's CPU is the MOS Technology 6507, a version of the 6502, running at 1.19 MHz in the 2600. Though their internal silicon was identical, the 6507 was cheaper than the 6502 because its package included fewer memory-address pins\u201413 instead of 16. The designers of the Atari 2600 selected an inexpensive cartridge interface that has one fewer address than the 13 allowed by the 6507, further reducing the already limited addressable memory to 4 KB (212 = 4096). This was believed to be sufficient as \"Combat\" is itself only 2 KB. Later games circumvented this limitation with bank switching."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 7800",
        "text": "Several new Atari 7800 games such as \"Beef Drop\", \"B*nQ\", \"Combat 1990\", \"CrazyBrix\", \"Failsafe\", and \"Santa Simon\" have been released.."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari TT030",
        "text": "The (at least) two versions of the TT can be distinguished by:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Atari 2600 homebrew\n--History.\n--Types of projects.\n--Games.\n--Development.\n----Batari Basic.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 hardware",
        "text": "These models were introduced in 1978 and stayed in production for about two years. The thick molding on the sides and curved molding on the front gave way to thinner and more sharply angled molding reducing the weight of the system. The front right and left molding are angular and overlap the woodgrain. The thick RF shielding remained until the four switch models came out. Atari also produced a version of the \"Light Sixer\" for Sears, which had some minor aesthetic differences to the Atari-branded console."
      },
      {
        "title": "Track & Field (video game)",
        "text": "Reviews for the home conversions varied depending on the platforms. \"Computer Entertainer\" reviewed the Atari 2600 version in 1984, scoring it 7 out of 8 stars. David M. Wilson and Johnny L. Wilson reviewed the home computer conversions for \"Computer Gaming World\", and stated that \"the game is primarily a joystick buster\". Stuart Campbell, writing in \"Your Sinclair\" in 1992, considered the Spectrum version to be one of the worst games ever released for the machine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Since then, over 100 games have been released, many published by AtariAge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Video game crash of 1983",
        "text": "The Atari Video Computer System (renamed the Atari 2600 in late 1982) was not the first home system with swappable game cartridges, but by the early 1980s it was the most popular second-generation console by a wide margin. Launched in 1977 just ahead of the collapse of the market for home \"Pong\" console clones, the Atari VCS experienced modest sales for its first few years. In 1980, Atari's licensed version of \"Space Invaders\" from Taito became the console's killer application; sales of the VCS quadrupled, and the game was the first title to sell more than a million copies. Spurred by the success of the Atari VCS, other consoles were introduced, both from Atari and other companies: Odyssey\u00b2, Intellivision, ColecoVision, Atari 5200, and Vectrex. Notably, Coleco sold an add-on allowing Atari VCS games to be played on its ColecoVision, as well as bundling the console with a licensed home version of Nintendo's arcade hit \"Donkey Kong\". In 1982, the ColecoVision held roughly 17% of the hardware market, compared to Atari VCS's 58%. This was the first real threat to Atari's dominance of the home console market."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari ST",
        "text": "The 130ST was intended to be a 128\u00a0KB variant. It was announced at the 1985 CES alongside the 520ST but never produced. The 4160STE was a 1040STE, but with 4\u00a0MB of RAM. A small quantity of development units were produced, but the system was never officially released. Atari did produce a quantity of 4160STE metallic case badges which found their way to dealers, so it's not uncommon to find one attached to systems which were originally 520/1040STE. No such labels were produced for the base of the systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Atari 2600\n--History.\n----MOS Technology 6502/6507.\n----Building the system.\n----Launch and success.\n----Third-party development.\n----Decline and redesign.\n--Hardware.\n----Console.\n----Graphics.\n----Controllers.\n--Console models.\n----Minor revisions.\n----Sears Video Arcade.\n----Atari 2800.\n----Atari 2600 Jr..\n--Games.\n--Legacy.\n----Clones and reissues.\n--Unreleased prototypes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gremlins",
        "text": "Atari, Inc. released a completely different (and more technically advanced) game\u2014also called \"Gremlins\"\u2014for the Atari 5200 console and the Apple II, Commodore 64, and IBM PC computers. Although the Atari 5200 version went to manufacturing in 1984, the turmoil surrounding Jack Tramiel's takeover of Atari's consumer business resulted in it not being released until 1986."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari VCS (2021 console)",
        "text": "The Atari VCS is not compatible with any game for legacy Atari consoles. Atari announced on October 15, 2021, under their new series called 'Flashback Fridays' that emulated versions of selected Atari 7800 games will become available for purchase via Atari VCS Store for $3 each. The first two Atari 7800 titles to be announced were Basketbrawl 7800 and Desert Falcon 7800."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Sears released versions of Atari's games with Tele-Games branding, usually with different titles. Three games were produced by Atari for Sears as exclusive releases: \"Steeplechase\", \"Stellar Track\", and \"Submarine Commander\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atarisoft",
        "text": "These were published during 1983\u201384. Most were released by Atari, Inc., but some of these were released by Atari, Corp. later in 1984.\n* \"Battlezone\" (Apple II, C64, VIC-20, IBM PC, VIC-20)\n* \"Centipede\" (Apple II, ColecoVision, C64, VIC-20, IBM PC, Intellivision, TI-99/4A, BBC Micro)\n* \"Crystal Castles\" (Apple II, C64)\n* \"Defender\" (Apple II, ColecoVision, C64, VIC-20, IBM PC, Intellivision, TI-99/4A)\n* \"Dig Dug\" (Apple II, C64, VIC-20, IBM PC, TI-99/4A, Intellivision)\n* \"Donkey Kong\" (Apple II, C64, VIC-20, IBM PC, TI-99/4A)\n* \"Galaxian\" (Apple II, ColecoVision, C64, VIC-20, IBM PC, ZX Spectrum)\n* \"Gremlins\" (Apple II, C64, IBM PC)\n* \"Joust\" (Apple II, IBM PC)\n* \"Jungle Hunt\" (Apple II, ColecoVision, C64, VIC-20, IBM PC, TI-99/4A)\n* \"Mario Bros.\" (Apple II, C64)\n* \"Moon Patrol\" (Apple II, C64, VIC-20, IBM PC, TI-99/4A)\n* \"Ms. Pac-Man\" (Apple II, C64, VIC-20, IBM PC, TI-99/4A, ZX Spectrum)\n* \"Pac-Man\" (Apple II, C64, VIC-20, IBM PC, Intellivision, TI-99/4A, ZX Spectrum)\n* \"Picnic Paranoia\" (TI-99/4A)\n* \"Pole Position\" (BBC Micro, C64, VIC-20, TI-99/4A, ZX Spectrum)\n* \"Protector II\" (TI-99/4A)\n* \"\" (Apple II, BBC Micro/Acorn Electron, C64, VIC-20, IBM PC)\n* \"Shamus\" (TI-99/4A)\n* \"Stargate\" (Apple II, C64)\n* \"Track & Field \" (Apple II, C64)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari",
        "text": "The development of a successor to the 2600 started as soon as it shipped. The original team estimated the 2600 had a lifespan of about three years; it then set forth to build the most powerful machine possible within that time frame. Mid-way into their effort the home computer revolution took off, leading to the addition of a keyboard and features to produce the Atari 800 and its smaller sibling, the 400. The new machines had some success when they finally became available in quantity in 1980. From this platform Atari released their next-generation game console in 1982, the Atari 5200. It was unsuccessful due to incompatibility with the 2600 game library, a small quantity of dedicated games, and notoriously unreliable controllers. Porting arcade games to home systems with inferior hardware was difficult. The ported version of \"Pac-Man\" for Atari 2600 omitted many of the visual features of the original to compensate for the lack of ROM space and the hardware struggled when multiple ghosts appeared on the screen creating a flickering effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Each early VCS game is in a 2K ROM. Later games like \"Space Invaders\", have 4K. The VCS port of \"Asteroids\" (1981) is the first game for the system to use 8K via a bank switching technique between two 4K segments. Some later releases, including Atari's ports of \"Dig Dug\" and \"Crystal Castles\", are 16K cartridges. One of the final games, \"Fatal Run\" (1990), doubled this to 32K."
      },
      {
        "title": "Q*bert",
        "text": "The initial home port for the Atari 2600, the most widespread system at the time, was met with mixed reactions. \"Video Games\" warned that buyers of the Atari 2600 version \"may find themselves just a little disappointed.\" They criticized the lack of music, the removal of the characters Ugg and Wrongway, and the system's troubles handling the character sprites at a steady performance. Later, Mark Brownstein of the same magazine was more in favor of the game, but still cited the presence of fewer cubes in the game's pyramidal layout and \"pretty poor control\" as negatives. Will Richardson of \"Electronic Games\" noted a lack in audiovisual qualities and counter-intuitive controls, but commended the gameplay, stating that the game \"comes much closer to its source of inspiration than a surface evaluation indicates.\" Randi Hacker of \"Electronic Fun with Computers & Games\" called it a \"sterling adaption\" \"Computer and Video Games\" scored the Atari VCS version 70% in 1989. In 2008, IGN's Levi Buchanan rated it the fourth-worst arcade port for the Atari 2600, mostly because of a lack of jumping animations for enemies, which instead appear instantly on the adjacent cube, making it impossible to know in which direction they are traveling before they land. \"Entertainment Weekly\" called \"Q*Bert\" one of the top ten games for the Atari 2600 in 2013, saying the port \"lost the cool isometric perspective but none of the addictive gameplay.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Super Breakout",
        "text": "\"Super Breakout\" appeared as a cartridge for the Atari 8-bit family in 1979 with support for up to 8 players taking turns. A port for the Atari VCS (later renamed the Atari 2600) was available at the end of 1981, initially as a Sears exclusive release under the Tele-Games branding. An Atari branded version was then released in January of 1982. The VCS port includes two \"Children's Version\" games that require less skill to play. Four years after release, \"Super Breakout\" became the pack-in game for the then-new Atari 5200 console in 1982. Prior home versions use paddle controllers; the 5200 port uses the system's analog joysticks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari Anniversary Edition",
        "text": "This version contains the same games as Volume 1 of \"Atari Arcade Hits\", but \"Pong\" is replaced with \"Battlezone\". It also includes an after-market level replacement hack of \"Tempest\" titled \"Tempest Tubes\", as well as a \"Trivia Challenge\", which consists of questions about Atari and its 1980s video games."
      },
      {
        "title": "RealSports Tennis",
        "text": "The 2600 version's programmer is unknown, while the 5200 and Atari 8-bit family versions were coded by W Sean Hennessy. Atari's Director of Software George Kiss assigned the project to Hennessey knowing that he's a tennis fan. He did the 5200 version first and then ported the game to the Atari 8-bit family of home computers later. The game was so well received that Hennessey could chose his next project, which was uncommon among new Atari employees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Night Driver (video game)",
        "text": "Atari released a port for the Atari VCS (Atari 2600) in 1980. It was programmed by Rob Fulop, who added color and additional features such as additional vehicles the player must avoid, as well as showing houses and trees along the sides of the road. The player pushes the fire button to accelerate the car forward and uses the paddle to steer the vehicle. It is not possible to shift gears in this version. The game offers eight variations. Some are timed and the player tries to score as much as they can in 90 seconds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "With severe resource limitations such as only 128 bytes of RAM and no video frame buffer, the 2600 is a difficult machine to program. Emulators, the Batari Basic language, and freely available documentation, can help the hobbyist developer. There is an active community of Atari 2600 developers\u2014the largest among classic systems."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Atari continued its OEM relationship with Sears under the latter's Tele-Games brand, which started in 1975 with the original \"Pong\". This is unrelated to the company Telegames, which later produced 2600 cartridges. Sears released several models of the VCS as the Sears Video Arcade series starting in 1977. In 1983, the previously Japan-only Atari 2800 was rebranded as the Sears Video Arcade II."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari BASIC",
        "text": "The version can be determined by typing codice_4 at the READY prompt. The result is codice_5 for Revision A, codice_6 for Revision B, and codice_7 for Revision C."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari Jaguar homebrew games",
        "text": "Homebrew games for the Atari Jaguar are released in either cartridge, CD or both formats to satisfy system owners. Titles released in the CD format are either glass mastered, or burned on regular CD-Rs however, since the add-on was released in very limited quantities, most homebrew developers publish their works either online on forums or on cartridge via independent publishers. Many of the cartridge releases are styled as retail Jaguar titles from the era. As both systems do not enforce regional locking all titles are region free but some titles, such as \"Gorf Classic\" and the initial release of \"Black Out!\" do not work correctly on PAL systems. Some of the earliest CD releases were not encrypted, requiring either B&C's Jaguar CD Bypass Cartridge or Reboot's Jagtopia (Freeboot) program burned into a CD in order to run unencrypted CD games, however Curt Vendel of Atari Museum released the binaries and encryption keys for both cartridge and CD formats, making it possible to run games without the need for development hardware. The first homebrew title programmed for the Jaguar dates back to 1995, which was a Jaguar version of \"Tetris\" called \"JSTetris\" (often referred as \"Jaguar Tetris\" or \"JagTris\") developed using a hacked Jaguar (BJL, ROM replaced by custom software)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Missile Command",
        "text": "Atari brought the game to its home systems beginning with the 1981 Atari VCS port by Rob Fulop which sold over 2.5 million copies. Numerous contemporaneous clones and modern remakes followed. \"Missile Command\" is built into the Atari XEGS released in 1987, an Atari 8-bit family computer repackaged as a game console."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pac-Man",
        "text": "\"Pac-Man\" was ported to a plethora of home video game systems and personal computers; the most infamous of these is the 1982 Atari 2600 conversion, designed by Tod Frye and published by Atari. This version of the game was widely criticized for its inaccurate portrayal of the arcade version and for its peculiar design choices, most notably the flickering effect of the ghosts. However, it was a commercial success, having sold over seven million copies. Atari also released versions for the Intellivision, Commodore VIC-20, Commodore 64, Apple II, IBM PC, Texas Instruments TI-99/4A, ZX Spectrum, and the Atari 8-bit family of computers. A port for the Atari 5200 was released in 1983, a version that many have seen as a significant improvement over the Atari 2600 version."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "With third-party hardware such as the Cuttle Cart and Harmony Cartridge, developers could load in-progress games onto a physical Atari console to test. The Cuttle Cart, developed by Chad Schell in the early 2000s, was designed to be compatible with the Starpath Supercharger, and allows ROM images to be loaded via an 1/8\" minijack audio interface such as a cassette tape or CD player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nolan Bushnell",
        "text": "As Atari faced more competition in both arcade and home consoles from 1975 onward, Bushnell recognized that the costs in developing both types of systems with only limited shelf life were too high, and directed Atari's engineers at Cyan Engineering towards a programmable home console. This console eventually was released in 1977 as the Atari Video Computer System or Atari VCS and later known as the Atari 2600. However, before Atari had completed its design, the Fairchild Channel F, the first home console to use game cartridges, was released in November 1976. Bushnell realized they needed to speed up the Atari VCS's development. After initially considering become a public company, he instead sought a buyer. Warner Communications, looking to boost their own failing media properties, agreed to acquire Atari for , with Bushnell personally receiving , in November 1976. Warner provided a large investment into the Atari VCS to allow it to be completed early the next year and released in September 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 7800",
        "text": "A final batch of games was released by Atari in 1990: \"Alien Brigade\", \"Basketbrawl\", \"Fatal Run\", \"Meltdown\", \"Midnight Mutants\", \"MotorPsycho\", \"Ninja Golf\", \"Planet Smashers\", and \"Scrapyard Dog\". \"Scrapyard Dog\" was later released for the Atari Lynx."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Atari developed the Television Interface Adaptor (TIA) chip in the VCS to handle the graphics and conversion to a television signal. It provides a single-color, 20-bit background register that covers the left half of the screen (each bit represents 4 adjacent pixels) and is either repeated or reflected on the right side. There are 5 single-color sprites: two 8-pixel wide \"players\"; two 1 bit \"missiles\", which share the same colors as the players; and a 1-pixel \"ball\", which shares the background color. The 1-bit sprites all can be controlled to stretch to 1, 2, 4, or 8 pixels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari Microsoft BASIC",
        "text": "The Atari Microsoft BASIC and Atari Microsoft BASIC II variants of the 6502-version of Microsoft BASIC ported to the Atari 8-bit machines. The first version, released 1981, required 32\u00a0kB of RAM and was supplied on floppy disk. The second version, released the next year, had most of the code on a ROM cartridge with additional functions on an optional floppy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 7800",
        "text": "The Atari 7800 ProSystem, or simply the Atari 7800, is a home video game console officially released by Atari Corporation in 1986 as the successor to both the Atari 2600 and Atari 5200. It can run almost all Atari 2600 cartridges, making it one of the first consoles with backward compatibility. It shipped with a different model of joystick from the 2600-standard CX40 and \"Pole Position II\" as the pack-in game. Most of the announced titles at launch were ports of 1980\u201383 arcade games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari Flashback series",
        "text": "The Flashback sold approximately 500,000 units. Craig Harris of IGN was critical of the game conversions and opined that original copies of these games were superior, writing \"it's just horrifying to see Atari, a company that outright owns these games and the original hardware, produce such shoddy renditions of the classic 2600 and 7800 games.\" Harris complained of problems such as flicker, poor collision detection, and missing sound. He praised the controllers for their reduced size, finding them more comfortable to use, but he was disappointed that they are incompatible with the original 7800."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 hardware",
        "text": "Only the Television Interface Adapter (TIA) IC chip (part number CO10444 in NTSC flavor) was different for NTSC and PAL markets. SECAM units used a daughterboard adapter to convert the output. The CPU chip CO10745, and combination Ram+I/O chip CO10750 were the same used throughout the 2600's production for all regions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari Program Recorder",
        "text": "The original 400 and 800 models, released in 1979, were housed in robust beige colored plastic cases and a series of computer peripherals were released to match this design. The original 410 used a Japanese mechanism by Bigston. It was a relatively large unit and was unique among the line in that it featured a metal carrying handle that slid out from the front of the unit. This was replaced by a somewhat smaller and more rounded unit around 1981 using a new mechanism from Transtek or Chelco Sound in Hong Kong."
      },
      {
        "title": "Threshold (video game)",
        "text": "Ports to other systems were all released on ROM cartridge: Atari 8-bit family and Commodore VIC-20 in 1981, Commodore 64 in 1983, and ColecoVision, Thomson computers in 1984. An Atari 2600 adaptation was published by Tigervision in 1982."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dedicated console",
        "text": "In 2004, a miniaturized version of the Atari 7800 home consoles was released with 20 built-in games and no cartridge support called Atari Flashback. The dedicated console is actually based on a clone of the NES hardware, but running Atari software. A newer version, Atari Flashback 2, is based on actual Atari hardware, and includes some new built-in games developed by modern hobbyist Atari 2600 programmers, as well as old favorite games. While the new console has no cartridge slot, it is designed so that one can be added, and multiple online tutorials exist detailing this process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "The Atari VCS was launched in September 1977 at , with two joysticks and a \"Combat\" cartridge; eight additional games were sold separately. Most of the launch games were based on arcade games developed by Atari or its subsidiary Kee Games; for example, \"Combat\" was based on Kee's \"Tank\" (1974) and Atari's \"Jet Fighter\" (1975). Atari sold between 350,000 and 400,000 Atari VCS units during 1977, attributed to the delay in shipping the units and consumers' unfamiliarity with a swappable-cartridge console that is not dedicated to only one game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 hardware",
        "text": "In addition to the Atari-branded Heavy Sixer, Atari also produced a version of the console for Sears called \"Video Arcade\". The Sears Video Arcade sports aluminium trim, the brand \"Tele-Games\" printed in green capital letters above the cartridge slot, the brand \"Video Arcade\" printed in chrome letters on the front right hand corner, and faux marbleized wood, but is otherwise identical to the Atari-branded console. These models can also be identified by the white paper label located underneath the console itself, which identifies the unit as being manufactured by Atari for \"Sears Roebuck and Co.\" Sears also sold their own \"Sears\" branded paddle controllers for the Heavy Sixer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "In 2003, Activision selected several homebrew 2600 games for inclusion in the Game Boy Advance version of its \"Activision Anthology\": \"Climber 5\" by Dennis Debro (2004), \"Okie Dokie\" by Bob Colbert (1996), \"Skeleton+\" by Eric Ball (2003), \"Space Treat Deluxe\" by Fabrizio Zavagli (2003), \"Vault Assault\" by Brian Prescott (2001), \"Video Euchre\" by Erik Eid (2002), and \"Oystron\". In 2005, \"SCSIcide\", \"Oystron\", \"Warring Worms\", \"Skeleton+\", and \"Marble Craze\" by Paul Slocum (2002) were listed as the \"Best 2600 Homebrew Games\" in the book \"Gaming Hacks: 100 Industrial-Strength Tips & Tools\" by Simon Carless."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 7800",
        "text": "Atari had been facing pressure from Coleco and its ColecoVision console, which supported graphics that more closely mirrored arcade games of the time than either the Atari 2600 or 5200. The Atari 5200 (released as a successor to the Atari 2600) was criticized for not being able to play 2600 games without an adapter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari, Inc. (publisher)",
        "text": "The same year that the Paddle Games were released, Atari released a TV game of their own which they called the Atari Flashback Console. The device was designed and produced by Atari consultant Curt Vendel through his engineering firm Legacy Engineering. With only a 10-week development window, what they produced looked like a minute version of the Atari 7800 console originally released in 1984, 20 years prior. The two controllers were small as well, having a joystick and two red buttons on each side. Twenty titles were built into the system. Unlike most plug-and-plays, the Flashback was not powered by batteries, but an (included) AC adaptor instead. The Flashback did fairly well in sales. Since the games were all recreated on hardware more closely resembling the Nintendo Entertainment System than the 7800, some of the aspects of certain games concerning the sound, graphics, or gameplay were either changed or omitted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Regional releases of the Atari 2600 use modified TIA chips for each region's television formats, which require games to be developed and published separately for each region. All modes are 160 pixels wide. NSTC mode provides 192 visible lines per screen, drawn at 60\u00a0Hz, with 16 colors, each at 8 levels of brightness. PAL mode provides more vertical scanlines, with 228 visible lines per screen, but drawn at 50\u00a0Hz and only 13 colors. SECAM mode, also a 50\u00a0Hz format, is limited to 8 colors, each with only a single brightness level."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari, Inc.",
        "text": "Atari launched its second major programmable console, the Atari 5200, in late 1982. The unit was based on the same design features that had gone into the Atari 800 and Atari 400 computers, but repackaged as a home console. Alongside the 5200's release, Atari announced it was rebranding the Atari VCS as the Atari 2600 to create a more consist product naming system. The Atari 5200 did not do well on the market as it lacked backward compatibility with Atari VCS/2600 cartridges, a feature offered by the Colecovision. The Atari 5200 only sold about one million units before it was discontinued in 1984."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "Atari 2600 homebrew is a term describing hobbyist-developed games for the Atari 2600 video game console. The first such game was written in 1995, and more than 100 have been released since then. The majority of games are unlicensed clones of games for other platforms, and many were written for the technical challenge. There are also ROM hacks and some original games. Several games have received attention outside the hobbyist community. Some have been included in a game anthology by Activision."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jawbreaker (video game)",
        "text": "Because of technical limitations, Atari 2600 \"Jawbreaker\" is not a \"Pac-Man\" clone and is different than the Atari 8-bit game. A rough sketch of the 2600 game was used as the basis for new computer versions from programmers other than Harris. The new game was, confusingly, sold as both \"Jawbreaker\" and \"Jawbreaker II\" and was not as successful as the original."
      },
      {
        "title": "Berzerk (video game)",
        "text": "\"Berzerk\" was officially ported to the Atari 2600, Atari 5200, and Vectrex. The Atari 2600 version features an option in which Evil Otto can be temporarily killed, though he always returns. The Atari 5200 version is the only home version to include digitized speech, though the 2600 version was hacked in 2002 to include speech. A port for the Atari 8-bit family of computers, identical to the Atari 5200 version, was ready in 1983, but was not published. An unofficial port for the NES was released by Parisoft in July 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 5200",
        "text": "The Atari 5200 SuperSystem or simply Atari 5200 is a home video game console introduced in 1982 by Atari, Inc. as a higher-end complement for the popular Atari Video Computer System. The VCS was renamed to the Atari 2600 at the time of the 5200's launch. Created to compete with Intellivision, the 5200 wound up a direct competitor of ColecoVision shortly after its release. While the Coleco system shipped with the first home version of Nintendo's \"Donkey Kong\", the 5200 included the 1978 arcade game \"Super Breakout\" which had already appeared on the Atari 8-bit family and Atari VCS in 1979 and 1981 respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "In 1995\u2014three years after Atari's withdrawal of the 2600 from the marketplace\u2014enthusiast Ed Federmeyer released \"SoundX\", a cartridge to demonstrate the sound capabilities of the system. Federmeyer used the term \"homebrew\" to describe hobbyist-driven development, inspired by the California Homebrew Computer Club of the 1970s. After designing the cartridge for his own use, Federmeyer advertised it on Usenet, followed by an unlicensed port of \"Tetris\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 homebrew",
        "text": "The Atari 2600 is generally considered to be a very demanding programming environment, with a mere 128 bytes of RAM and no video frame buffer at all. The programmer must prepare each line of video output as it is being sent to the television. The only sprite capabilities are one-dimensional 1-bit and 8-bit patterns; creating a two-dimensional object requires changing the pattern between each line of video. Games are often developed using Atari 2600 emulators such as \"Stella\" and \"Z26\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari, Inc.",
        "text": "Under Tramiel, the Atari Corporation initially focused heavily on home computers before it revisited game consoles, including a revised design of the Atari 2600, the Atari 2600 Jr., but eventually dropped out of the hardware market by 1996. Eventually, by 1998, Hasbro Interactive acquired the Atari Corporation properties, which was subsequently acquired by Infogrames in 2001, with Infogrames rebranding itself as Atari SA and holding most of the intellectual property rights to the console games developed by Atari, Inc. Atari Games were eventually sold to WMS Industries in 1996 and briefly renamed as Midway Games West, developing games for home computers and consoles until it was disbanded in 2003. The resulting properties were sold and are retained under Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment.\n*\"Home Pong\" (1975)\n*\"Stunt Cycle\" (1976)\n*Atari Video Music (1977)\n*\"Video Pinball\" (1977)\n*Atari 2600 (1977)\n*Atari 8-bit family (1979)\n*Atari 2700 (cancelled)\n*Atari Cosmos (cancelled)\n*Atari 5200 (1982)\n;Arcade games\n*\"Anti-Aircraft\"\n*\"Asteroids\"\n*\"Asteroids Deluxe\"\n*\"Atari Baseball\"\n*\"Atari Basketball\"\n*\"Atari Football\"\n*\"Atari Soccer\"\n*\"Avalanche\"\n*\"Battlezone\"\n*\"Black Widow\"\n*\"Breakout\"\n*\"Canyon Bomber\"\n*\"Centipede\"\n*\"Cloak & Dagger\"\n*\"Cops N Robbers\"\n*\"Crash 'N Score\"\n*\"Crystal Castles\"\n*\"Destroyer\"\n*\"Dominos\"\n*\"Drag Race\"\n*\"Fire Truck\"\n*\"Firefox\"\n*\"Flyball\"\n*\"Food Fight\"\n*\"Goal IV\"\n*\"Gotcha\"\n*\"Gran Trak 10\"\n*\"Gran Trak 20\"\n*\"Gravitar\"\n*\"Hi-way\"\n*\"I, Robot\"\n*\"Indy 4\"\n*\"Indy 800\"\n*\"Jet Fighter\"\n*\"LeMans\"\n*\"Liberator\"\n*\"Lunar Lander\"\n*\"Major Havoc\"\n*\"Millipede\"\n*\"Missile Command\"\n*\"Monte Carlo\"\n*\"Night Driver\"\n*\"Orbit\"\n*\"Outlaw\"\n*\"Pin-Pong\"\n*\"Pong\"\n*\"Pong Doubles\"\n*\"Pool Shark\"\n*\"Pursuit\"\n*\"Quadrapong\"\n*\"Quantum\"\n*\"Quiz Show\"\n*\"Qwak!\"\n*\"Rebound\"\n*\"Red Baron\"\n*\"Shark Jaws\"\n*\"Sky Diver\"\n*\"Sky Raider\"\n*\"Space Duel\"\n*\"Space Race\"\n*\"Sprint 1\"\n*\"Sprint 2\"\n*\"Sprint 4\"\n*\"Sprint 8\"\n*\"Star Wars\"\n*\"Starship 1\"\n*\"Steeplechase\"\n*\"Stunt Cycle\"\n*\"Subs\"\n*\"Super Breakout\"\n*\"Super Bug\"\n*\"Super Pong\"\n*\"Tank\"\n*\"Tank II\"\n*\"Tank 8\"\n*\"Tempest\"\n*\"Tournament Table\"\n*\"Triple Hunt\"\n*\"Tunnel Hunt\"\n*\"Ultra Tank\"\n*\"Video Pinball\"\n*\"Warlords\"\n;Unreleased arcade prototypes\n*\"Akka Arrh\"\n*\"Atari Mini Golf\"\n*\"Cannonball\"\n*\"Cloud 9\"\n*\"Firebeast\"\n*\"Maze Invaders\"\n*\"Missile Command 2\"\n*\"Runaway\"\n*\"Sebring\"\n*\"Solar War\"\n*\"Wolf Pack\"\n;Pinball machines\n*\"Airborne Avenger\"\n*\"The Atarians\"\n*\"Hercules\"\n*\"Middle Earth\"\n*\"Road Runner\"\n*\"Space Riders\"\n*\"Superman\"\n*\"Time 2000\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari 2600 games",
        "text": "All 136 of the initial era of Atari 2600 games were developed and manufactured by Atari, Inc. These games were published by Atari, and many were also licensed to Sears, which released these games under its Tele-Games brand, often with different titles. Sears's Tele-Games brand was unrelated to the company Telegames, which also produced cartridges for the Atari 2600 (mostly re-issues of M Network games.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 5200",
        "text": "The 1983 revision of the Atari 5200 has two controller ports instead of four, and a change back to the more conventional separate power supply and standard non-autoswitching RF switch. It also has changes in the cartridge port address lines to allow for the Atari 2600 adapter released that year. While the adapter was only made to work on the two-port version, modifications can be made to the four-port to make it line-compatible. In fact, towards the end of the four-port model's production run, there were a limited number of consoles produced which included these modifications. These consoles can be identified by an asterisk in their serial numbers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari, Inc.",
        "text": "During Atari's negotiations with Warner, Fairchild Camera and Instrument announced the Fairchild Channel F for release in November 1976. The Channel F was the first programmable home console that used cartridges to play different games. Following Warner's acquisition, they provided into Stella's development, allowing Atari to complete the console by early 1977. Its announcement on June 4, 1977, may have been delayed until after June 1, 1977, to wait out the terms of the Magnavox settlement from the earlier \"Pong\" patent lawsuit so they would not have to disclose information on it. The Atari VCS was released in September 1977. Most of the launch titles for the console were games based on Atari's success arcade games, such as \"Combat\" that incorporated elements of both \"Tank\" and \"Jet Fighter\". The company made around 400,000 Atari VCS units for the 1977 holiday season, most which were sold but the company had lost around due to production problems that caused some units to be delivered late to retailers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "In 2017, Hyperkin announced the RetroN 77, a clone of the Atari 2600 that plays original cartridges instead of preinstalled games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 hardware",
        "text": "This model was introduced in 1982 and was the first to use \"2600\" in its name (the previous models all being officially named the \"Video Computer System\"). Besides containing a different logo than earlier models, this model does not have woodgrain on the front and is primarily black, resulting in the nickname of \"Darth Vader\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ms. Pac-Man",
        "text": "Atari, Inc. released versions for the Atari 2600, Atari 5200, Atari 7800, and Atari 8-bit family. There were also versions for the VIC-20, Commodore 64, ZX Spectrum, IBM PC, Apple II, and Texas Instruments TI-99/4A released under the Atarisoft label. Unlike \"Pac-Man\", most home versions of \"Ms. Pac-Man\" include all three intermission screens from the arcade game. The Atari 2600 rendition of \"Pac-Man\" was infamous for its flashing ghosts, while the 2600 port of \"Ms. Pac-Man\" had minimal flicker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jr. Pac-Man",
        "text": "An Atari 2600 version developed by General Computer Corporation (the designers of the arcade version) was released by Atari Corporation in 1986 with mazes that scroll vertically rather than horizontally, but is otherwise a faithful adaptation. \"Jr. Pac-Man\" was later ported to the Commodore 64 and IBM PC compatibles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 5200",
        "text": "The Atari 5200 did not fare well commercially compared to its predecessor, the Atari 2600. While it touted superior graphics to the 2600 and Mattel's Intellivision, the system was initially incompatible with the 2600's expansive library of games, and some market analysts have speculated that this hurt its sales, especially since an Atari 2600 cartridge adapter had been released for the Intellivision II. (A revised two-port model was released in 1983, along with a game adapter that allowed gamers to play all 2600 games.) This lack of new games was due in part to a lack of funding, with Atari continuing to develop most of its games for the saturated 2600 market."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Atari, Inc. games (1972\u20131984)",
        "text": "In 1975 Atari released Home Pong, its first of several \"Pong\"-based dedicated video game consoles, and in 1977 released its first home video game console, the Atari Video Computer System (later renamed the Atari 2600). From that point onward Atari developed both arcade games and console games, and in 1979 added games for their first home computers, the Atari 400 and 800. Atari produced a second home video game console in 1982, the Atari 5200, and four more home computer versions. Beginning in Summer 1981, Atari published the Atari Program Exchange, a quarterly mail-order catalog of software written for Atari computers by external developers which Atari then distributed to customers. In May 1983, Atari started the Atarisoft division, which produced ports of games by Atari and others for non-Atari home computers. In July 1984, as a result of falling sales due to the video game crash of 1983, Atari, Inc. was split apart by Warner Communications; the arcade division continued as a subsidiary of Warner under the name Atari Games, while the console and computer games divisions were sold off as Atari Corporation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 hardware",
        "text": "The Atari 2600 VCS Domestic Field Service Manual describes the differences as follows:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "Warner sold Atari's home division to former Commodore CEO Jack Tramiel in 1984. In 1986, the new Atari Corporation under Tramiel released a lower-cost version of the 2600 and the backward-compatible Atari 7800, but it was Nintendo that led the recovery of the industry with its 1985 launch of the Nintendo Entertainment System. Production of the Atari 2600 ended on January 1, 1992, with an estimated 30 million units sold across its lifetime."
      },
      {
        "title": "Night Driver (video game)",
        "text": "The Atari VCS version sold 161,352 copies in 1980, becoming one of the top five best-selling Atari VCS games that year, and went on to sell over copies by 1983. \"Video Games Player\" magazine reviewed the Atari VCS version, rating the graphics and sound a B, while giving the game an overall A\u2212 rating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari Flashback series",
        "text": "The original Atari Flashback was released in November 2004, with a retail price of $45. The console resembles a smaller version of the Atari 7800, and its controllers are also smaller versions of the 7800's joystick controllers, but with the addition of \"pause\" and \"select\" buttons. The controllers are not compatible with the original 7800 console. It was designed by Atari veteran Curt Vendel and his company Legacy Engineering Group, which designs other home video game and video arcade products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basketbrawl",
        "text": "Atari released another sports/fighting combo for the Atari 7800 in 1990 as \"Ninja Golf\". Both were in the final 11 games published by Atari for that system in 1990-91 before dropping support."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homebrew (video games)",
        "text": "A handful of games have been programmed for the Fairchild Channel F, the first console to use ROM cartridges. The first known release is Sean Riddle's clone of \"Lights Out\" which included instructions on how to modify the SABA#20 Chess game into a Multi-Cartridge. There is also a version of \"Tetris\" and in 2008 \"Videocart 27: \"Pac-Man\" became the first full production game for the system since it was discontinued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stampede (video game)",
        "text": "In 1983, \"Video Games\" stated that the Intellivision version of \"Stampede\" was easier than the difficult Atari 2600 original with identical graphics. Danny Goodman of \"Creative Computing Video & Arcade Games\" was surprised that the Intellivision version's graphics \"were scarcely more detailed than their Atari ancestors\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari DOS",
        "text": "There were several versions of Atari DOS available, with the first version released in 1979. Atari was using a cross assembler with Data General AOS."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 hardware",
        "text": "There were two different designs for the six switch models, so named for the six prominent aluminium switch levers present on the control panel. Both designs incorporated a switch board and a motherboard which were connected by a 12-pin ribbon cable. Both designs were originally sold in North America with or without an additional switch accessible via a hole in the bottom which can toggle the console's TV output to either channel 2 or channel 3. Those without the switch can output only on channel 3, which was the VHF channel originally least used in the most populous broadcast regions. In addition to the traditional \"Atari\" branded consoles, Sears, Roebuck and Co. purchased the rights to sell Atari consoles in their stores under their Tele-Games store brand, with the console itself labeled as the Sears \"Video Arcade.\" Sears released several versions of the 2600 as the Sears Video Arcade series from to . These include the \"Heavy Sixer\" model in 1977, the \"Light Sixer\" model in 1978, the \"4 switch\" model in 1980, and an analog to the \"Atari 2600 Junior\" model."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600 hardware",
        "text": "The Atari 2600 used different color palettes depending on the television signal format used. With the NTSC format, a 128-color palette was available, while in PAL, only 104 colors were available. Additionally, the SECAM palette consisted of only 8 colors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 7800",
        "text": "\"Retro Gamer\" magazine issue 132 reported that according to Atari UK Marketing Manager Darryl Still, \"it was very well stocked by European retail; although it never got the consumer traction that the 2600 did, I remember we used to sell a lot of units through mail order catalogues and in the less affluent areas\".\n* CPU: Atari SALLY (custom variant of the 6502)\n** 1.79\u00a0MHz, which drops to 1.19\u00a0MHz when the TIA Television Interface Adaptor or RIOT (6532 RAM-I/O-Timer) chips are accessed\n** Unlike a standard 6502, \"SALLY\" can be halted in a known state with a single pin to let other devices control the bus.\n** Sometimes referred to by Atari as \"6502C\", but not the same as the official MOS Technology 6502C.\n* RAM: 4 KB (2 6116 2Kx8 RAM ICs)\n* ROM: built in 4 KB BIOS ROM, 48 KB Cartridge ROM space without bank switching\n* Graphics: MARIA custom chip\n** Resolution: 160\u00d7240 (160\u00d7288 PAL) or 320\u00d7240 (320\u00d7288 PAL)\n** Color palette: 256 (16 hues * 16 luma), different graphics modes restricted the number of usable colors and the number of colors per sprite\n** Direct Memory Access (DMA)\n** Graphics clock: 7.15\u00a0MHz\n** Line buffer: 200 bytes (double buffering), 160 sprite pixels per scanline, up to 30 sprites per scanline (without background), up to 100 sprites on screen\n** Sprite/zone sizes: 4 to 160 width, height of 4, 8 or 16 pixels\n** Colors per sprite: 1 to 12 (1 to 8 visible colors, 1 to 4 transparency bits)\n* I/O: Joystick and console switch IO handled by 6532 RIOT and TIA\n* Ports\n**2 joystick ports\n**cartridge port\n**expansion connector\n**power in\n**RF output\n* Sound: TIA as used in the 2600 for video and sound. In 7800 mode it is only used for sound.\n** At least two games include a POKEY sound chip for improved audio."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "In 1977, nine games were released on cartridge to accompany the launch of the console: \"Air-Sea Battle\", \"Basic Math\", \"Blackjack\", \"Combat\", \"Indy 500\", \"Star Ship\", \"Street Racer\", \"Surround\", and \"Video Olympics\". \"Indy 500\" shipped with special \"driving controllers\", which are like paddles but rotate freely. \"Street Racer\" and \"Video Olympics\" use the standard paddle controllers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atari 2600",
        "text": "In 1980, the difficulty switches were moved to the back of the console, leaving four switches on the front. Otherwise, these four-switch consoles look nearly identical to the earlier six-switch models. In 1982 Atari rebranded the console as the \"Atari 2600\", a name first used on a version of the four-switch model without woodgrain, giving it an all-black appearance."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some examples of when homebrew has been used?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Homebrew has meanings within the fields of video games, software, and alcohol production. Which context are you looking to learn more about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in homebrew usage within the fields of video games."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Homebrew, when applied to video games, refers to games produced by hobbyists for proprietary video game consoles which are not intended to be user-programmable. Would you like to know more about first or second generation consoles?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about the second generation."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The second generation of video game consoles featured systems such as the Intellivision, Odyssey 2, ColecoVision, Fairchild Channel F, and Atari 2600. The Channel F has had a handful of homebrew games developed for it, while more than one hundred Atari 2600 homebrew titles have been released since 1995, several of which were later included in the GameBoy Advance game \"Activision Anthology\" in 2003."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me when the Atari 2600 was released?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Atari 2600 was released in September 1977."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What kind of game was Atari 2600?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Atari 2600, branded as the Atari Video Computer System (Atari VCS) until November 1982, is a home video game console developed and produced by Atari, Inc. Released in September 1977, it popularized microprocessor-based hardware and games stored on swappable ROM cartridges, a format first used with the Fairchild Channel F in 1976."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Were there different versions of the Atari?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In 1982, Atari launched its second programmable console, the Atari 5200. The Atari 7800 ProSystem, or simply the Atari 7800, is a home video game console officially released by Atari Corporation in 1986 as the successor to both the Atari 2600 and Atari 5200 and in 1986, the new Atari Corporation under Tramiel released a lower-cost version of the 2600 and the backward-compatible Atari 7800."
    ],
    "topic": "Homebrew (video games)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Atari 2600:21",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Atari 2600",
          "History",
          "Launch and success"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 1982, Atari launched its second programmable console, the Atari 5200. To standardize naming, the VCS was renamed to the \"Atari 2600 Video Computer System\", or \"Atari 2600\", derived from the manufacture part number CX2600. By 1982, the 2600 cost Atari about $40 to make and was sold for an average of . The company spent $4.50 to $6 to manufacture each cartridge, plus $1 to $2 for advertising, wholesaling for ."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Atari 2600:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Atari 2600"
        ],
        "ctx": "Warner sold Atari's home division to former Commodore CEO Jack Tramiel in 1984. In 1986, the new Atari Corporation under Tramiel released a lower-cost version of the 2600 and the backward-compatible Atari 7800, but it was Nintendo that led the recovery of the industry with its 1985 launch of the Nintendo Entertainment System. Production of the Atari 2600 ended on January 1, 1992, with an estimated 30 million units sold across its lifetime."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Atari 7800:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Atari 7800"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Atari 7800 ProSystem, or simply the Atari 7800, is a home video game console officially released by Atari Corporation in 1986 as the successor to both the Atari 2600 and Atari 5200. It can run almost all Atari 2600 cartridges, making it one of the first consoles with backward compatibility. It shipped with a different model of joystick from the 2600-standard CX40 and \"Pole Position II\" as the pack-in game. Most of the announced titles at launch were ports of 1980\u201383 arcade games."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "The event was introduced during WWE's first brand extension period, and the events in 2010 and 2011 featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands. The first brand split then ended in August 2011. In mid-2016, the brand extension was reintroduced and the 2017 event was held exclusively for SmackDown. However, following WrestleMania 34 in April 2018, brand-exclusive pay-per-views were discontinued. While the eponymous match was originally only for male wrestlers, the 2017 event featured the first-ever women's version and the events since have featured two matches, one each for the men and women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "The card composed twelve matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\", \"SmackDown Live\", and the cruiserweight-exclusive \"205 Live\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "The event comprised seven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"Friday Night SmackDown.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The show comprised eight matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"Friday Night SmackDown.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "The event will include matches that resulte from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portray heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that build tension and culminate in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results are predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines are produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"Friday Night SmackDown.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. While the briefcases at the 2018 event contained contracts that guaranteed the winners a match for a world championship of their respective brand at any time within the next year, the 2019 contracts allowed the winners the choice of either brands' world championships. Since the 2017 event, each year's show has featured a men's and a women's ladder match, and beginning with 2018, each features eight wrestlers, evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands. Male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract. The 2019 event was the 10th event in the Money in the Bank chronology and featured wrestlers from the Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brands\u2014the only to feature the 205 Live brand. The 2019 event also moved Money in the Bank to the May slot of WWE's pay-per-view calendar, taking place on May 19, 2019, at the XL Center in Hartford, Connecticut."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "The 2017 event would be the only Money in the Bank PPV to be brand-exclusive, as following WrestleMania 34 in April 2018, brand-exclusive pay-per-views were discontinued, thus the events since have involved both the Raw and SmackDown brands. Beginning with the 2018 event, the ladder matches have eight participants evenly divided between the brands. The 2018 contracts granted the winners a championship match for their respective brand's world championship: the Universal Championship or WWE Championship, and the Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship. Beginning with the 2019 event, the winners can choose either brand's championship. The 2019 event also moved Money in the Bank to the May slot in WWE's pay-per-view calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "The card included seven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers on the SmackDown brand. Storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television show \"SmackDown Live\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank comprised professional wrestling matches involving professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE's weekly television shows \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\" with the Raw and SmackDown brands\u2014storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. Following the reintroduction of the brand extension in July 2016, in which WWE again divided its roster between the Raw and SmackDown brands where wrestlers exclusively perform, the 2017 event was made a SmackDown-exclusive pay-per-view; it would in turn be the only Money in the Bank event to be brand-exclusive during the second brand split as following WrestleMania 34 the following year, brand-exclusive pay-per-views were discontinued. For the first time in the event's history, the 2017 event featured a women's Money in the Bank ladder match, which is now featured at every year's event. As the 2017 event was a SmackDown-exclusive show, the respective male and female winners received title match contracts for SmackDown's world championships at the time: the WWE Championship and the SmackDown Women's Championship. The 2017 event was the eighth event in the Money in the Bank chronology and took place on June 18, 2017, at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis, Missouri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between May and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship of their choosing at any time within the next year. The 2021 event featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands; male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract. While the previous year's event had featured a \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick, which took place at WWE's Titan Towers headquarters and had only six competitors in each match due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2021 event reverted to the standard version of the titular ladder match as well as returning to having eight competitors for both matches, evenly divided between the two brands. It was the 12th event in the Money in the Bank chronology and the first to be held in July since the 2013 event. It was also the first Money in the Bank to air on Peacock after the American version of the WWE Network merged under Peacock in March."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "The card consisted of eleven matches, including two on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers. Storylines between the characters played out on WWE's primary television programs, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "SmackDown (WWE brand)",
        "text": "After the return of the brand split, most pay-per-views became exclusive to one brand, (with SmackDown producing Backlash (2016 and 2017), No Mercy (2016), , Elimination Chamber (2017), Money in the Bank (2017), Battleground (2017), Hell in a Cell (2017), Clash of Champions (2017) and Fastlane (2018)). From WrestleMania 34 onwards, all pay-per-views became dual-branded again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The 2020 Money in the Bank was the 11th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network on May 10, 2020. While the majority of the event aired live from the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida, the show's eponymous ladder matches were pre-recorded on April 15 at WWE's Titan Towers global headquarters building in Stamford, Connecticut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2011)",
        "text": "The professional wrestling matches at Money in the Bank featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, WWE. Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE's weekly television shows \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\" with the Raw and SmackDown brands\u2014storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs. These storylines provided the background to the 2011 event, which continued the storylines from the previous event in WWE's 2011 pay-per-view schedule, Capitol Punishment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "The card consisted of seven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers. Storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick event, produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between May and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship of their choosing at any time within the next year. The 2022 event will feature wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands; male wrestlers will compete for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship, while female wrestlers will compete for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The professional wrestling matches at Money in the Bank featured professional wrestlers performing as either heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by the hosting promotion, WWE, on the Raw and SmackDown brands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2014)",
        "text": "The card consisted of eight matches that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers. Storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. While the 2017 event was a SmackDown-exclusive pay-per-view, 2018 featured both the Raw and SmackDown brands as WWE discontinued brand-exclusive pay-per-views after WrestleMania 34 in April. The 2017 event also introduced the first women's Money in the Bank ladder match. The 2018 event in turn also had a men's and a women's match, which is now standard. For 2018, the contracts in the briefcases granted the winners a world championship match of their respective brand. Each match featured eight wrestlers, evenly divided between the two brands. Male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract. The 2018 event was the ninth event in the Money in the Bank chronology. It took place on June 17, 2018, at the Allstate Arena in Rosemont, Illinois. Tickets went online on March 5, 2018 through Ticketmaster."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The event card comprised eleven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from the scripted storylines which were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"SmackDown Live\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The brand split returned shortly after the 2016 event along with a new world title, but the 2017 event was SmackDown-exclusive and the contract was a match for its world championship, the WWE Championship (formerly WWE World Heavyweight Championship). The 2017 event also included the first-ever women's Money in the Bank ladder match, with the winner receiving a contract for a SmackDown Women's Championship match. Due to the controversy surrounding the ending of that match, the first non-pay-per-view Money in the Bank ladder match occurred on the June 27 episode of \"SmackDown Live\". The event became dual branded beginning with the 2018 event, involving both the Raw and SmackDown brands with one men's match and one women's match with participants evenly divided between the brands; the respective contracts guaranteed the winner a championship match for the top title of their respective brand, allowing Raw wrestlers (should they win) to cash-in on the Universal Championship or Raw Women's Championship, though in 2019, it was made so that the respective winners could challenge either brand's champion. In 2020, while the rules of the match remained the same, a \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick was added on top of the match; both the men's and women's matches, which were held at the same time, took place at WWE's Global Headquarters in Stamford, Connecticut in which the participants began on the ground floor of the building and fought their way to the roof where a ring and ladders were located with the briefcases suspended above the ring \u2014 this change was brought about due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The matches returned to their regular format for the 2021 event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The 2018 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on June 17, 2018, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. For the first time since 2011 with a brand split in effect, the event became dual-branded, involving both the Raw and SmackDown brands. The event included one male match and one female match with eight participants each, evenly divided between the brands. The contracts granted the winners a match for the world championship of their respective brand. The men's contract granted the winner a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while the women's contract granted the winner a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Th 2019 Money in the Bank was the 10th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network and took place on May 19, 2019, at the XL Center in Hartford, Connecticut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "Beginning with the inaugural Money in the Bank pay-per-view in 2010, the event included two ladder matches, one for the Raw brand and one for SmackDown; Raw's ladder match was for a contract for a match for its top title at the time, the WWE Championship, while SmackDown's contract was for a match for its top title at the time, the World Heavyweight Championship. Although the brand split ended after the 2011 event, a ladder match dedicated to each championship continued through the 2013 event. In December 2013, the titles were unified as the WWE World Heavyweight Championship. The next three years' events included a sole ladder match with a contract guaranteeing a match for the unified title. The brand split returned after the 2016 event. The WWE World Heavyweight Championship (renamed to WWE Championship) was made exclusive to SmackDown, while Raw established the WWE Universal Championship as their top title. Despite this, the 2017 event was SmackDown-exclusive and the contract was for a match for its world title. The 2017 event also saw the first women's Money in the Bank match with its contract for a SmackDown Women's Championship match. The event became dual branded beginning with the 2018 event, involving both the Raw and SmackDown brands. It now features two ladder matches, one for males and one for females, and each has eight participants evenly divided between the brands. This was the first year that the winners could challenge for the Universal Championship and Raw Women's Championship, respectively. For 2018, the winners received a contract for a match for their respective brand's world championship, but in 2019, it was changed so that the winners could choose either brand's top championship. The 2020 event saw a variation to the match due to the COVID-19 pandemic; the men's and women's matches, featuring only six competitors each but still evenly divided between the brands, were moved to WWE's headquarters in Stamford, Connecticut and occurred at the same time, with all competitors beginning on the ground floor and fighting their way to the roof where the briefcases were suspended above a ring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The event was originally scheduled to take place at the Royal Farms Arena in Baltimore, Maryland, but the venue cancelled all shows that were to be held due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In response, WWE took advantage of the situation and moved the two titular ladder matches to their global headquarters building in Stamford with a new \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick where the match's titular briefcases were suspended above a ring on the building's roof. The wrestlers began on the ground floor and fought their way to the roof. The eponymous matches were produced as cinematic matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between May and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship of their choosing at any time within the next year. The 2020 event featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands; male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract\u2014though the day after the event, it was revealed that the women's match was actually for the Raw Women's Championship instead of a title match contract due to the unexpected circumstances that forced the then-Raw Women's Champion to go on hiatus. The 2020 show was the 11th event in the Money in the Bank chronology."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "In 2010 and 2011, the annual pay-per-views included two Money in the Bank ladder matches. To coincide with the brand extension, one ladder match was for wrestlers from the Raw brand with a match contract for its WWE Championship, while the other ladder match was for the SmackDown brand with a match contract for its World Heavyweight Championship. In April 2011, WWE ceased using its full name with the WWE abbreviation becoming an orphaned initialism. The brand split then ended in August 2011, after which, the Money in the Bank pay-per-views continued to have two ladder matches for match contracts for the respective titles. After the two titles were unified in , a championship match contract for the unified WWE World Heavyweight Championship became the prize of a single Money in the Bank ladder match. Also in 2014, the event moved to the June slot and it was also the first Money in the Bank event to air on WWE's online streaming service, the WWE Network, in addition to traditional PPV outlets. The brand split returned after the 2016 event, but the 2017 pay-per-view was SmackDown-exclusive. The championship match contract in the ladder match was for SmackDown's WWE Championship (formerly WWE World Heavyweight Championship). The 2017 event also featured the first-ever women's Money in the Bank ladder match with its contract being for a SmackDown Women's Championship match; each event since has featured a men's and women's match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The 2018 Money in the Bank was the ninth annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network and it took place on June 17, 2018, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "WWE initially did not announce whether the event would still go on from a different location (such as the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida where most WWE shows for Raw and SmackDown had been held since March 13), but on the April 17 episode of \"SmackDown\", it was announced that the two Money in the Bank ladder matches would take place at WWE's global headquarters in Stamford, Connecticut. A new \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick was also added to the matches, in which the participants had to travel from the ground floor of the building to the roof in order to locate the briefcases, which were suspended above a ring on the roof. It was also announced that the men's and women's matches would take place at the same time. With the changes in format, the number of participants in each match was also reduced to six; since the 2018 event, both the men's and women's ladder matches featured eight wrestlers that were evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands. While the ladder matches were pre-recorded on April 15 as cinematic matches, it was confirmed on the day of the event that all of the other matches would take place live from the WWE Performance Center with no fans in attendance."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "In August 2020, WWE began holding Raw and SmackDown's shows in a bio-secure bubble called the WWE ThunderDome. In May 2021, the company announced that they would be leaving the ThunderDome and returning to live touring, starting with a 25-city tour beginning with the July 16 episode of \"SmackDown\" in Houston, Texas. The 2021 Money in the Bank was in turn announced to take place at Dickies Arena in Fort Worth, Texas on July 18\u2014returning the event to its original July slot\u2014thus it was the first WWE pay-per-view held outside of Florida since Elimination Chamber on March 8, 2020 and the first pay-per-view held following the end of the ThunderDome Era. The 2021 event also reverted to the standard version of the titular ladder matches as well as returning to having eight competitors for both matches, evenly divided between the two brands. The 2021 event was also the first Money in the Bank to air on Peacock's WWE Network channel, following the merger of the American version of the WWE Network under Peacock in March that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "3"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2011)",
        "text": "In 2010, WWE established Money in the Bank as a gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and it was held in July\u2014in April 2011, the promotion ceased going by its full name of World Wrestling Entertainment, with \"WWE\" becoming an orphaned initialism. The concept of the show came from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match that was originally held at WrestleMania from 2005 to 2010. The match features multiple wrestlers using ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. For 2011, two Money in the Bank ladder matches occurred. One was exclusive to wrestlers from the Raw brand while the other was exclusive to those from SmackDown. Raw's match granted a contract for a WWE Championship match while SmackDown's granted a World Heavyweight Championship match contract. The event took place on July 17, 2011, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. It was the second event under the Money in the Bank chronology and the last to occur under the first brand split, which ended in August. Tickets went on sale in May 2011 through Ticketmaster with prices ranging from US$25 to $300."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE brand extension",
        "text": "On May 25, 2016, WWE announced a relaunch of the brand extension as part of what was billed as \"The New Era\". The second brand extension went into effect on July 19, 2016. In addition to Raw and SmackDown, WWE has operated three other brands during this second split: NXT, which had been first established in 2010, as well as NXT UK and 205 Live, which were both launched in 2018. In 2022, the 205 Live brand was dissolved."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "4"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. For 2016, the winner received a contract for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match, later renamed to WWE Championship when the promotion reintroduced the brand extension in July, where they again split their roster between the Raw and SmackDown brands where wrestlers are exclusively assigned to perform. The 2016 event was the seventh event in the Money in the Bank chronology and it took place on June 19, 2016, at the T-Mobile Arena in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "5"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "On the same show, Executive Vice President Stephanie McMahon announced the participants competing in the Money in the Bank ladder match for a WWE Championship contract, which included CM Punk, Sheamus, Randy Orton, Daniel Bryan, Christian, Kane, and the returning Rob Van Dam. Unusually, all of these participants were faces at the time. On the July 8 episode of \"Raw\", Kane was removed from the match after being injured by the debuting Wyatt Family (Bray Wyatt, Luke Harper, and Erick Rowan)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The actual pay-per-view opened with The New Day (Big E and Kofi Kingston) defending the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The Miz and John Morrison, Lucha House Party (Lince Dorado and Gran Metalik), and The Forgotten Sons (Steve Cutler and Wesley Blake) (accompanied by Jaxson Ryker). During the match, Ryker was ejected from ringside for interference. In the climax, Big E performed the Big Ending on Metalik to retain the title."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "The 2021 Money in the Bank was the 12th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) worldwide and was available to stream through Peacock in the United States and the WWE Network internationally, which made it the first Money in the Bank to air on Peacock. It took place on July 18, 2021, at Dickies Arena in Fort Worth, Texas. It was the first Money in the Bank event to take place in the state of Texas."
      },
      {
        "title": "SmackDown (WWE brand)",
        "text": "In March 2002, WWF underwent the \"brand extension\", a process in which WWE divided itself into two branches with separate rosters, storylines and authority figures. The two divisions, hosted by and named after \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown!\", would compete against each other. The split resulted from WWE purchasing its two biggest competitors, World Championship Wrestling (WCW) and Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW); and the subsequent doubling of its roster and championships. The brand extension was made public during a telecast of \"Raw\" on March 18, initiated with the first draft a week later on the March 25 episode of \"Raw\" and became official on the April 1 episode of \"Raw\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Raw (WWE brand)",
        "text": "In early-to-mid-2002, then World Wrestling Federation (WWF) underwent a process they called the \"brand extension\". The WWF divided itself into two \"de facto\" wrestling promotions with separate rosters, storylines and authority figures. \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown!\" would host each division, give its name to the division and essentially compete against each other. The split came about as a result of the WWF purchasing their two biggest competitors, World Championship Wrestling (WCW) and Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW); and the subsequent doubling of its roster and championships. The brand extension was publicly announced by Linda McMahon during a telecast of \"Raw\" on March 25 and became official the next day."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "The 2010 Money in the Bank was the inaugural Money in the Bank professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event took place on July 18, 2010, at the Sprint Center in Kansas City, Missouri. The event included two Money in the Bank ladder matches, one for each brand. The eponymous ladder match was previously held at WrestleMania from 2005 to 2010. Following WrestleMania XXVI in March, the match concept was spun off into its own PPV event. The event received 169,000 pay-per-view buys."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The Money in the Bank idea was revived by Carlito on a February 2006 episode of \"Raw\". Mr. McMahon approved the suggestion and set up qualifying matches for the match that would take place at WrestleMania 22. It was later announced that the match was to be interpromotional, and SmackDown! general manager Theodore Long also set up qualifying matches to select three members of his roster to compete. In the Raw brand qualifying matches, Rob Van Dam defeated Trevor Murdoch, Shelton Benjamin defeated Chavo Guerrero, and Ric Flair defeated Carlito. On \"SmackDown!\", Finlay defeated Bobby Lashley, Matt Hardy defeated Road Warrior Animal, and Bobby Lashley won a \"last chance battle royal\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "The 2017 Money in the Bank was the eighth annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held exclusively for wrestlers from the promotion's SmackDown brand division. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network and took place on June 18, 2017, at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis, Missouri. It was the first event to feature a Women's Money in the Bank ladder match, and was also the only brand-exclusive Money in the Bank event to be held during either of WWE's brand extension periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "In February 2010, WWE announced that \"Money in the Bank\" would be the title to their July 18 pay-per-view event at the Sprint Center in Kansas City, Missouri. The event included two Money in the Bank ladder matches, one for each brand. Unlike previous iterations of the match, the winners could only challenge for their own brand's World Championship. All eight competitors for the Raw brand's match were announced on the June 28 episode of \"Raw\" by guest host Rob Zombie. The eight competitors were Randy Orton, The Miz, R-Truth, Chris Jericho, Evan Bourne, Ted DiBiase, John Morrison and Edge. On the July 5th episode of \"Raw\", R-Truth was involved in an injury storyline with The Miz and was subsequently removed from the match and replaced by Mark Henry. Two days later, WWE announced six of the competitors for the SmackDown brand's match through its official website: Matt Hardy, Kane, Cody Rhodes, Christian, Kofi Kingston and Big Show. On the July 9 episode of \"SmackDown\", Drew McIntyre and Dolph Ziggler both competed in qualifying matches and were added to the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "2016 WWE draft",
        "text": "In 2002, following the acquisition of the remains of World Championship Wrestling and Extreme Championship Wrestling, the then-World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) introduced the brand split, dividing its roster among two brands, Raw and SmackDown, represented by the shows of the same name. The brand split would continue until 2011, with a draft held every year (except 2003) to refresh the brands' rosters. In August 2011, the brand split ended, allowing all WWE wrestlers to appear on both shows."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Seven matches were contested at the event, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, Roman Reigns defeated Edge to retain the Universal Championship. Additionally, Big E and Nikki A.S.H. won their respective men's and women's Money in the Bank ladder matches. In other prominent matches, Bobby Lashley defeated Kofi Kingston to retain the WWE Championship and Charlotte Flair defeated Rhea Ripley to win her record-tying fifth Raw Women's Championship and 13th overall singles championship in the women's division. The event also saw the surprise return of John Cena, appearing for the first time since WrestleMania 36 in April 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2011)",
        "text": "The 2011 Money in the Bank was the second annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling pay-per-view event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. It took place on July 17, 2011, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. This was the last Money in the Bank held under the first brand extension, which ended in August, but was reinstated in July 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "The 2022 Money in the Bank is the upcoming 13th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling live event produced by WWE. It will be held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event will air on pay-per-view (PPV) worldwide and will be available to stream through Peacock in the United States and the WWE Network internationally. It is scheduled to take place on July 2, 2022, at Allegiant Stadium in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada. It will be the first time the event will be held in a National Football League stadium, thus becoming one of WWE's five biggest events of the year, alongside the Royal Rumble, WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "The professional wrestling matches at Money in the Bank featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, WWE. Storylines between the characters played out on WWE's primary television programs, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "At Super ShowDown, \"The Fiend\" Bray Wyatt lost the Universal Championship to Goldberg, who in turn lost the title to Braun Strowman during WrestleMania 36 Part 1. On the following episode of \"SmackDown\", Wyatt interrupted Strowman after his match and reminded Strowman that it was he who brought him to the WWE with his old Wyatt Family stable. He then stated he wanted his title back and Strowman accepted the challenge, which was scheduled for Money in the Bank, though against Wyatt's normal self instead of The Fiend."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE brand extension",
        "text": "WWE currently promotes four brands. The two main brands, also referred to as the main roster, are Raw and SmackDown. The NXT brand serves as the promotion's developmental territory for the main roster, though was briefly promoted as a main brand from 2019 to 2021. NXT UK is a subsidiary brand under the NXT banner for WWE's United Kingdom-based wrestlers."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE brand extension",
        "text": "The brand extension, also referred to as the brand split, is the separation of the American professional wrestling promotion WWE's roster of wrestlers (and, at various times, creative staff) into distinct divisions, or \"brands\". The promotion's wrestlers are assigned to a brand via the annual WWE Draft and exclusively perform on that brand's weekly television show, with some exceptions. Throughout its history, WWE has utilized the brand extension twice. The first brand split occurred from 2002 to 2011, while the ongoing second began in 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2012)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) produced by WWE since 2010, held in July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. For 2012, two Money in the Bank ladder matches occurred; one granted a contract for a WWE Championship match while the other contained a World Heavyweight Championship match contract. The 2012 event was the third event under the Money in the Bank chronology and the first since the end of the first brand split in August 2011. It took place on July 15, 2012, at the US Airways Center in Phoenix, Arizona."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The Money in the Bank ladder match can involve anywhere from 5\u201310 participants, with the objective being to retrieve a briefcase that is suspended 20 feet above the ring. The match was originally only for male wrestlers until 2017 when women began to have their own ladder match. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees a match for a world championship, and beginning in 2017, a women's championship. The original match at WrestleMania 21 was exclusive to the Raw brand, with the contract guaranteeing a match for Raw's top title at the time, the World Heavyweight Championship. After this, wrestlers had the option between the WWE Championship and the World Heavyweight Championship, regardless of the brand the wrestler belonged to. In 2006, ECW's world title, the ECW Championship, became a third option until 2010 as in February that year, the ECW brand along with the title was deactivated (despite being an option, no contract holder cashed in on the ECW Championship)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "The event had 57,000 buys (excluding WWE Network views), down from the previous year's 122,000 buys."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "In 2005, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) established the Money in the Bank ladder match as an annual match at their marquee event, WrestleMania, debuting at WrestleMania 21. The match features multiple wrestlers using ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. Following WrestleMania XXVI in March 2010, WWE established a separate Money in the Bank event as a gimmick pay-per-view (PPV); the match subsequently ceased being held at WrestleMania. The inaugural event was held on July 18, 2010, at the Sprint Center in Kansas City, Missouri. Unlike WrestleMania, the Money in the Bank event included two ladder matches. One was exclusive to wrestlers from the Raw brand while the other was exclusive to those from SmackDown. Raw's match granted a contract for a WWE Championship match while SmackDown's granted a World Heavyweight Championship match contract."
      },
      {
        "title": "ECW (WWE brand)",
        "text": "In early-to-mid-2002, then World Wrestling Federation (WWF) underwent a process they called the \"brand extension\". The WWF divided itself into two \"de facto\" wrestling promotions with separate rosters, storylines and authority figures. \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown!\" would host each division, give its name to the division and essentially compete against each other. The split came about as a result of the WWF purchasing their two biggest competitors, World Championship Wrestling (WCW) and Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW); and the subsequent doubling of its roster and championships. The brand extension was publicly announced by Linda McMahon during a telecast of \"Raw\" on March 25 and became official the next day. WWE acquired the rights to ECW's trademarks and video library in 2003."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2012)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank featured seven professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre-existing feuds or and storylines that played out on WWE's primary television programs. Wrestlers portrayed villains or heroes as they followed a series of events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE",
        "text": "In March 2002, WWE decided to create two separate rosters, with each group of wrestlers appearing on one of their main programs, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown!\", due to the overabundance of talent left over from the Invasion storyline. This was dubbed as the \"brand extension\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extreme Rules (2018)",
        "text": "At Money in the Bank, AJ Styles retained the WWE Championship against Shinsuke Nakamura in a Last Man Standing match. On the following episode of \"SmackDown\", Rusev won a gauntlet match to earn a title opportunity at Extreme Rules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "At Fatal 4-Way, the Money in the Bank ladder match was scheduled for a namesake pay-per-view. On the June 25 episode of \"SmackDown\", it was revealed that two Money in the Bank ladder matches would be held at the event for the Raw and SmackDown brands respectively, with the winners of the matches given a title match for the WWE Championship and World Heavyweight Championship respectively at a time of their choosing within the next 12 months. Three days later, \"Raw\" guest host Rob Zombie named his brand's eight competitors: Randy Orton, The Miz, R-Truth, Chris Jericho, Evan Bourne, Ted DiBiase, John Morrison, and Edge. On the July 5 episode of \"Raw\", The Miz attacked and injured R-Truth; he was taken out of the Money in the Bank match and replaced with Mark Henry the following week."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "The 2022 event was announced during the 2021 SummerSlam, which was held at the Allegiant Stadium in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada. Money in the Bank was announced to be held at the same venue on July 2, 2022, marking the first time for a Money in the Bank event to be held in a National Football League stadium. While Money in the Bank had been established as one of WWE's monthly PPVs held between their \"Big Four\" shows (Royal Rumble, WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series), in October 2021, WWE President and Chief Revenue Officer Nick Khan referred to Money in the Bank as one of the company's \"five annual tentpoles\", thus elevating the event's status as one of WWE's five biggest events of the year, referred to as the \"Big Five\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Raw",
        "text": "In March 2002, as a result of the overabundance of talent left over from the Invasion storyline, WWF instituted a process known as the \"brand extension\", under which \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown!\" would be treated as two distinct divisions, each with their own rosters and championships. Shortly thereafter, the WWF was legally required to change the name of the company to World Wrestling Entertainment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank (2021)\n--Production.\n----Background.\n----Storylines.\n------Cancelled match.\n--Event.\n----Pre-show.\n----Preliminary matches.\n----Main event.\n--Reception.\n--Aftermath.\n----Raw.\n----SmackDown.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "On the April 17 episode of \"SmackDown\", The New Day's Big E defeated Jey Uso (representing The Usos) and defending co-champion The Miz (representing himself and John Morrison) in a triple threat match to win the SmackDown Tag Team Championship for The New Day. The following week, Lucha House Party (Lince Dorado and Gran Metalik) came out to challenge New Day but were interrupted by Miz and John Morrison, who also challenged The New Day. The Forgotten Sons (Steve Cutler, Jaxson Ryker, and Wesley Blake) then made their SmackDown debut, stating they would be taking over the brand's tag team division before attacking New Day. The following week, The Forgotten Sons (Cutler and Blake) defeated The New Day (Big E and Kofi Kingston) in a non-title match where Miz and Morrison were on commentary. The New Day were then scheduled to defend the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The Forgotten Sons, Miz and Morrison, and Lucha House Party in a fatal four-way tag team match at Money in the Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "After that, The Hart Dynasty defended the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship against The Usos. Smith forced Jimmy to submit to the sharpshooter to retain the title."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "During the May 15 episode, SmackDown General Manager Paige interrupted SmackDown Women's Champion Carmella's celebration of her reign and scheduled a title match between her and Asuka for Money in the Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "At WrestleMania 34, A.J. Styles won against Shinsuke Nakamura to retain the WWE Championship. After their bout, Nakamura attacked Styles with a \"low blow\", turning heel in the process. The two continued to feud through Greatest Royal Rumble and Backlash with their matches ending in draws. On May 14, SmackDown commissioner Shane McMahon announced a rematch between them for the fourth time at Money in the Bank, stating that every wrestling fan was \"looking for a definitive winner\". Nakamura was granted the right to choose the stipulation for the match after defeating Styles on \"SmackDown\"s May 15 episode by using a \"kinshasa\". The following week, Nakamura attacked Styles by dropping him onto the announcer's table and striking him with a \"kinshasa\"; Nakamura then chose a Last Man Standing match as his stipulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "The 2022 event was announced during the 2021 SummerSlam, which was held at the Allegiant Stadium in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada. Money in the Bank was announced to be held at the same venue on July 2, 2022, marking the first time that a Money in the Bank event will be held in a National Football League stadium. In addition to airing on traditional pay-per-view (PPV), it will air on Peacock in the United States and the WWE Network in international markets. While Money in the Bank had been established as one of WWE's monthly PPVs held between their \"Big Four\" shows (Royal Rumble, WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series), in October 2021, WWE President and Chief Revenue Officer Nick Khan referred to Money in the Bank as one of the company's \"five annual tentpoles\", thus elevating its status as one of WWE's five biggest events of the year, colloquially referred to as the \"Big Five\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "In 2005, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) established the Money in the Bank ladder match as an annual match at their marquee event, WrestleMania, debuting at WrestleMania 21. The idea for the match was conceptualized by then-WWE wrestler Chris Jericho. Following WrestleMania XXVI in March 2010, WWE established a separate Money in the Bank event as a gimmick PPV; the match subsequently ceased being held at WrestleMania. The inaugural event was held on July 18, 2010, at the Sprint Center in Kansas City, Missouri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "During the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show, The Bludgeon Brothers (Harper and Rowan) defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson. In the climax, both Gallows and Anderson proceeded to apply the \"magic killer\" on Harper when Rowan speared Anderson and isolated Gallows. Harper and Rowan then performed \"the reckoning\" on Gallows to retain the titles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "On the July 13 episode of Raw Stephanie McMahon confronted Team Bella with Paige and announced a \"Divas revolution\" by introducing the NXT wrestlers Charlotte, Becky Lynch and NXT Women's champion Sasha Banks into the roster, where McMahon had Charlotte and Lynch team with Paige to become Team PCB and Sasha Banks team with Naomi and Tamina to become Team B.A.D. The two teams then brawled with Team Bella. At Battleground, Charlotte (who was representing Team PCB) defeated Brie Bella of Team Bella and Sasha Banks of Team B.A.D in a triple threat match."
      },
      {
        "title": "The New Era (WWE)",
        "text": "The service would receive further negative backlash for technical issues during their stream of that year's Money in the Bank event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The event featured eleven matches, including one match on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event matches, the Money in the Bank ladder matches for men and women were won by Braun Strowman and Alexa Bliss respectively. Bliss cashed in her contract later in the night to win the WWE Raw Women's Championship from Nia Jax after causing a disqualification in the previous title match between Ronda Rousey and Jax. In other prominent matches, AJ Styles retained the WWE Championship against Shinsuke Nakamura in a Last Man Standing match and Carmella retained the WWE SmackDown Women's Championship against Asuka with help from the returning James Ellsworth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Eight matches were contested at the event, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, Otis and Asuka won their respective Money in the Bank ladder matches, which were contested at the same time. In the penultimate match, Drew McIntyre defeated Seth Rollins to retain the WWE Championship. Other prominent matches included Braun Strowman defeating Bray Wyatt to retain the Universal Championship, and Bayley defeating Tamina to retain the SmackDown Women's Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of WWE personnel",
        "text": "A third brand \u2013 NXT \u2013 had originally been designated as a developmental brand for the main roster. In 2019 it was elevated to the third main roster brand. But in 2021, the brand's weekly television show was rebooted as \"NXT 2.0\", and was the brand was reinstated to its original status as the developmental division for the main roster (Raw and SmackDown). Some developmental performers may be assigned to NXT's United Kingdom-based subsidiary brand NXT UK."
      },
      {
        "title": "Theodore Long",
        "text": "After the announcement of the restored WWE brand extension, on the June 6, 2016 episode of \"Raw\", Long returned in the opening segment between the Money in the Bank participants, requesting another run as general manager of SmackDown, only to be turned away by Stephanie McMahon. He would make several other appearances throughout the course of the night including his attempt of making a tag team match between The Golden Truth and Breezango before being escorted out of the building by security."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "From 2010 to 2013, the event occupied the July slot of WWE's pay-per-view calendar before moving to June from 2014 to 2018, after which, it was held in May before returning to its original July slot in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE brand extension",
        "text": "In the mid-2000s, New Japan Pro-Wrestling introduced a brand extension which divided their roster into two sub-brands: Wrestle Land and Lock Up; around the same period fellow Japanese promotion Kaientai Dojo promoted two sub-brands for their roster, Get and Rave. In 2013, AAA launched a brand extension that split their roster into two sub-brands, \"Evoluci\u00f3n\" and \"Fusi\u00f3n\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "205 Live (WWE brand)",
        "text": "By June 2021, the brand's roster had shrunk significantly due to several wrestlers being released; including Ariya Daivari, The Bollywood Boyz (Samir Singh and Sunil Singh), Ever-Rise (Jeff Parker and Matt Lee), August Grey, Curt Stallion, and former Cruiserweight Champion Tony Nese. In August 2021, Jake Atlas, Asher Hale, and Ari Sterling were also released."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "On February 24, 2022, WWE announced a partnership with On Location, a company known for providing premium hospitality experiences for marquee events. Through the partnership, spectators will have access to hospitality packages for WWE's five biggest events, including WrestleMania, SummerSlam, Royal Rumble, Survivor Series, and Money in the Bank. The 2022 Money in the Bank will be WWE's first event to offer the premium hospitality packages. These ticket and travel packages include premier seating, premium hospitality offerings, and meet-and-greets with current WWE wrestlers and legends."
      },
      {
        "title": "2000s",
        "text": "The WWE made a split in 2002 for the brands Raw and Smackdown!, also known as the WWE Brand Extension. This resulted in the WWE's purchase of their two biggest competitors, WCW and ECW. The brand extension would last until 2011. It also saw the rise of popular wrestlers like John Cena, Randy Orton, Dave Bautista, Jeff Hardy, CM Punk, Chris Jericho, Edge and Brock Lesnar. The match between veteran wrestlers Ric Flair and Shawn Michaels at WrestleMania 24 in 2008 was named as the \"match of the decade\" by popular professional wrestling magazine Pro Wrestling Illustrated. Pro Wrestling Illustrated would also name veteran Triple H as the wrestler of the decade."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "On December 15, 2013, at , the WWE and World Heavyweight Championships were unified into the WWE World Heavyweight Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "A second Money in the Bank event occurred the following year, thus establishing the show as an annual pay-per-view for the promotion, which became simply known as \"WWE\" in April 2011. While originally only for men, a women's version of the Money in the Bank ladder match was introduced at the 2017 event, and each year's show now features a men's and women's match. While Money in the Bank had been established as one of WWE's monthly PPVs held between their \"Big Four\" shows (Royal Rumble, WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series), in October 2021, WWE President and Chief Revenue Officer Nick Khan referred to Money in the Bank as one of the company's \"five annual tentpoles\", thus elevating the event's status as one of WWE's five biggest events of the year, referred to as the \"Big Five\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE brand extension",
        "text": "Two other brands would also be established during the second split. After the second brand extension began, WWE revived the cruiserweight division. The cruiserweight wrestlers were originally exclusive to Raw but had a supplementary show called \"205 Live\" that premiered that November on the WWE Network. Following WrestleMania 34 in April 2018, the 205 Live brand was split from Raw, with the promotion's cruiserweight wrestlers becoming exclusive to the new brand. Additionally, in December 2016, WWE announced that they would be establishing a United Kingdom-based brand that would be produced exclusively in the country. In June 2018, the brand was officially established as NXT UK, a sub-brand of the American-based NXT. In September 2019, NXT itself became promoted as WWE's third main brand, and then in October, 205 Live became a sub-brand of NXT. However, in September 2021, NXT was rebranded as NXT 2.0 and reverted to being WWE's developmental territory, and then in February 2022, the 205 Live brand was dissolved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Also on \"SmackDown\", Jimmy Uso defeated Dominik Mysterio in a singles match, thanks to Jey assisting Jimmy during the pin, similar to the pin during Money in the Bank Kickoff that won The Usos the SmackDown Tag Team Championship from Dominik and Rey Mysterio."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Next, Tony Nese defended the WWE Cruiserweight Championship against Ariya Daivari. In the end, Nese performed a Running Nese on Daivari to retain."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of WWE SmackDown",
        "text": "In March 2002, WWE underwent the \"brand extension\", a process in which WWE divided itself into two branches. The two divisions, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown!\", would compete against each other. The brand extension was made public during a telecast of \"Raw\" on March 18, 2002, and became official on the April 1, 2002, episode of \"Raw\". Michael Cole was joined in commentary by Tazz on April 4, 2002, until June 9, 2006. Cole and Tazz also appeared as the commentators on February 22, 2001, through June 28, 2001, and August 2, 2001, through November 15, 2001."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE",
        "text": "WWE\n--Company history.\n----Before Titan Sports (1953\u20131980).\n----Titan Sports, Inc. (1980\u20131999).\n------Early years (1980\u20131982).\n------Boom period (1982\u20131992).\n------New Generation (1992\u20131997).\n------Start of the Attitude Era (1997\u20131999).\n----World Wrestling Federation Entertainment, Inc. (1999\u20132002).\n------Initial public offering (1999).\n------Victory in the Monday Night Wars and aftermath (1999\u20132002).\n----World Wrestling Entertainment, Inc. (2002\u2013present).\n------Lawsuit and renaming (2002).\n------First brand split (2002\u20132011).\n------Brand reunification (2011\u20132016).\n------Launch of second brand split (2016\u20132020).\n------COVID-19 pandemic and return to touring (2020\u2013present).\n--Championships and accomplishments.\n----Current championships.\n------Main roster.\n--Contracts.\n--Stock and corporate governance.\n--Legal disputes and controversies.\n----1990s drug scandal.\n----Disputes with rival companies.\n----Owen Hart's death.\n----Dispute with USA Network.\n----WWF name dispute.\n----Harry Slash and the Slashtones lawsuit.\n----Ultimate Warrior-related disputes.\n----Morals clause violations.\n----Concussion lawsuit.\n----Relationship with Saudi Arabia.\n--Terminology.\n--WWE Network and distribution deals.\n--Expansion beyond wrestling.\n----Relationship with Tapout.\n--Partnerships.\n--Talent wellness program.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank (2018)\n--Production.\n----Background.\n----Storylines.\n------Raw.\n------SmackDown.\n--Event.\n----Pre-show.\n----Preliminary matches.\n----Main event.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, that year's event saw the number of competitors in both matches decreased to six. Additionally, while the rules of the match itself remained the same, a new \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick was also added to the matches, in which the participants had to travel from the ground floor of WWE Global Headquarters to the roof in order to reach the briefcases, which were suspended above a ring on the roof. Additionally for 2020, both the men's and women's matches took place at the same time. While the ladder matches were pre-recorded as cinematic matches, all of the other matches took place live from the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida with no fans in attendance. Additionally, the 2020 event was the first event to directly award a championship for winning the Money in the Bank ladder match; on the following night's episode of \"Raw\", it was revealed that the women's ladder match had actually been for the Raw Women's Championship due to reigning champion Becky Lynch going on maternity leave."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, WWE had presented their shows for Raw and SmackDown from a bio-secure bubble called the WWE ThunderDome since August 2020, with the exception of WrestleMania 37 in April 2021, which was the company's first major event to have live ticketed fans since the pandemic began in mid-March 2020. With the decline of cases and the development of vaccines, WWE announced that they would be leaving the ThunderDome and returning to a live touring schedule in mid-July 2021 on a 25-city tour. Money in the Bank was the first WWE pay-per-view with a full crowd. The first pay-per-view held outside of the state of Florida since Elimination Chamber in March 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank (2020)\n--Production.\n----Background.\n------Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.\n----Storylines.\n--Event.\n----Pre-show.\n----Preliminarily matches.\n----Main event.\n--Aftermath.\n----Raw.\n----SmackDown.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 WWE Draft",
        "text": "The WWE Draft is an annual process used by the American professional wrestling promotion WWE while a brand extension, or brand split, is in effect. The original brand extension occurred from 2002 to 2011, while the second and current brand split began in 2016. During a brand extension, the company divides its roster into brands where the wrestlers exclusively perform for each brand's respective television show, and the draft is used to refresh the rosters of the brand divisions, typically between the Raw and SmackDown brands."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE brand extension",
        "text": "The first brand split began in March 2002, following the company's acquisition of talent from the former World Championship Wrestling (WCW) and Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) promotions, and after the conclusion of The Invasion storyline. WWE's roster had doubled in size, and the company no longer had a major competitor in the professional wrestling industry. The brand extension was enacted to alleviate the issues of an overcrowded roster and to imitate competition the company no longer had from the former promotions. The first two brands established were Raw and SmackDown, named after the weekly shows, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\". A third brand was established as ECW, which was a revival of the former promotion, and existed from 2006 to 2010. The first brand extension then ended on August 29, 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "On June 30, six of the competitors for the SmackDown brand's match were named: Matt Hardy, Kane, Cody Rhodes, Christian, Kofi Kingston, and Big Show. On the July 9 episode of \"SmackDown\", Dolph Ziggler defeated Montel Vontavious Porter and Chavo Guerrero in a triple threat match to qualify for SmackDown's ladder match. On the same night, Drew McIntyre earned the final spot by pinning Kofi Kingston."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many brand divisions does the WWE have?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In the WWE, there are currently four promoted distinct divisions or \"brands\". The two main ones are Raw and SmackDown, the other two are NXT and NXT UK.",
      "They currently have four brands, main two brands, also referred to as the main roster, are Raw and SmackDown, and NXT and NXTUK serves as the promotion's developmental territory. Would you like to know more about one of these brands?"
    ],
    "topic": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "WWE brand extension:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "WWE brand extension"
        ],
        "ctx": "The brand extension, also referred to as the brand split, is the separation of the American professional wrestling promotion WWE's roster of wrestlers (and, at various times, creative staff) into distinct divisions, or \"brands\". The promotion's wrestlers are assigned to a brand via the annual WWE Draft and exclusively perform on that brand's weekly television show, with some exceptions. Throughout its history, WWE has utilized the brand extension twice. The first brand split occurred from 2002 to 2011, while the ongoing second began in 2016."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "WWE brand extension:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "WWE brand extension"
        ],
        "ctx": "WWE currently promotes four brands. The two main brands, also referred to as the main roster, are Raw and SmackDown. The NXT brand serves as the promotion's developmental territory for the main roster, though was briefly promoted as a main brand from 2019 to 2021. NXT UK is a subsidiary brand under the NXT banner for WWE's United Kingdom-based wrestlers."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "WWE brand extension:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "WWE brand extension"
        ],
        "ctx": "WWE currently promotes four brands. The two main brands, also referred to as the main roster, are Raw and SmackDown. The NXT brand serves as the promotion's developmental territory for the main roster, though was briefly promoted as a main brand from 2019 to 2021. NXT UK is a subsidiary brand under the NXT banner for WWE's United Kingdom-based wrestlers."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "The event will include matches that resulte from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portray heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that build tension and culminate in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results are predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines are produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"Friday Night SmackDown.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick event, produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between May and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship of their choosing at any time within the next year. The 2022 event will feature wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands; male wrestlers will compete for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship, while female wrestlers will compete for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Dave Meltzer of the \"Wrestling Observer Newsletter\" said, \"The WWE Universal Championship match was the rare WWE PPV match that would fit in on an NXT show\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. While the briefcases at the 2018 event contained contracts that guaranteed the winners a match for a world championship of their respective brand at any time within the next year, the 2019 contracts allowed the winners the choice of either brands' world championships. Since the 2017 event, each year's show has featured a men's and a women's ladder match, and beginning with 2018, each features eight wrestlers, evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands. Male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract. The 2019 event was the 10th event in the Money in the Bank chronology and featured wrestlers from the Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brands\u2014the only to feature the 205 Live brand. The 2019 event also moved Money in the Bank to the May slot of WWE's pay-per-view calendar, taking place on May 19, 2019, at the XL Center in Hartford, Connecticut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "The card composed twelve matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\", \"SmackDown Live\", and the cruiserweight-exclusive \"205 Live\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The show comprised eight matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"Friday Night SmackDown.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "On the same show, Executive Vice President Stephanie McMahon announced the participants competing in the Money in the Bank ladder match for a WWE Championship contract, which included CM Punk, Sheamus, Randy Orton, Daniel Bryan, Christian, Kane, and the returning Rob Van Dam. Unusually, all of these participants were faces at the time. On the July 8 episode of \"Raw\", Kane was removed from the match after being injured by the debuting Wyatt Family (Bray Wyatt, Luke Harper, and Erick Rowan)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "After losing the SmackDown Tag Team Championship to The Hardy Boyz (Jeff Hardy and Matt Hardy), The Usos (Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso) were drafted to Raw in the Superstar Shake-up. Two weeks later, The Hardys relinquished the title after Jeff suffered a knee injury. On the May 7 episode of \"SmackDown\", The Usos appeared via the Wild Card Rule to challenge Daniel Bryan and Rowan for the vacant title in a losing effort. The following week, a non-title match between the two teams was scheduled for the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "On the July 13 episode of Raw Stephanie McMahon confronted Team Bella with Paige and announced a \"Divas revolution\" by introducing the NXT wrestlers Charlotte, Becky Lynch and NXT Women's champion Sasha Banks into the roster, where McMahon had Charlotte and Lynch team with Paige to become Team PCB and Sasha Banks team with Naomi and Tamina to become Team B.A.D. The two teams then brawled with Team Bella. At Battleground, Charlotte (who was representing Team PCB) defeated Brie Bella of Team Bella and Sasha Banks of Team B.A.D in a triple threat match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "The event comprised seven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"Friday Night SmackDown.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "The 2017 event would be the only Money in the Bank PPV to be brand-exclusive, as following WrestleMania 34 in April 2018, brand-exclusive pay-per-views were discontinued, thus the events since have involved both the Raw and SmackDown brands. Beginning with the 2018 event, the ladder matches have eight participants evenly divided between the brands. The 2018 contracts granted the winners a championship match for their respective brand's world championship: the Universal Championship or WWE Championship, and the Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship. Beginning with the 2019 event, the winners can choose either brand's championship. The 2019 event also moved Money in the Bank to the May slot in WWE's pay-per-view calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank comprised professional wrestling matches involving professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE's weekly television shows \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\" with the Raw and SmackDown brands\u2014storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "The event was introduced during WWE's first brand extension period, and the events in 2010 and 2011 featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands. The first brand split then ended in August 2011. In mid-2016, the brand extension was reintroduced and the 2017 event was held exclusively for SmackDown. However, following WrestleMania 34 in April 2018, brand-exclusive pay-per-views were discontinued. While the eponymous match was originally only for male wrestlers, the 2017 event featured the first-ever women's version and the events since have featured two matches, one each for the men and women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "The main rivalry from the Raw brand heading into Money in the Bank was between WWE Champion Sheamus and John Cena. Sheamus won the title at the Fatal 4-Way event after interference from seven of the contestants from the first season of \"NXT\", collectively known as \"The Nexus\". The next night on \"Raw\", John Cena invoked his rematch clause, but The Nexus interrupted the match. The following week on \"Raw\", Raw's anonymous general manager scheduled a steel cage match between Sheamus and Cena to ensure no outside interference from The Nexus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The 2020 Money in the Bank was the 11th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network on May 10, 2020. While the majority of the event aired live from the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida, the show's eponymous ladder matches were pre-recorded on April 15 at WWE's Titan Towers global headquarters building in Stamford, Connecticut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. Following the reintroduction of the brand extension in July 2016, in which WWE again divided its roster between the Raw and SmackDown brands where wrestlers exclusively perform, the 2017 event was made a SmackDown-exclusive pay-per-view; it would in turn be the only Money in the Bank event to be brand-exclusive during the second brand split as following WrestleMania 34 the following year, brand-exclusive pay-per-views were discontinued. For the first time in the event's history, the 2017 event featured a women's Money in the Bank ladder match, which is now featured at every year's event. As the 2017 event was a SmackDown-exclusive show, the respective male and female winners received title match contracts for SmackDown's world championships at the time: the WWE Championship and the SmackDown Women's Championship. The 2017 event was the eighth event in the Money in the Bank chronology and took place on June 18, 2017, at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis, Missouri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between May and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship of their choosing at any time within the next year. The 2021 event featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands; male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract. While the previous year's event had featured a \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick, which took place at WWE's Titan Towers headquarters and had only six competitors in each match due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2021 event reverted to the standard version of the titular ladder match as well as returning to having eight competitors for both matches, evenly divided between the two brands. It was the 12th event in the Money in the Bank chronology and the first to be held in July since the 2013 event. It was also the first Money in the Bank to air on Peacock after the American version of the WWE Network merged under Peacock in March."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between May and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship of their choosing at any time within the next year. The 2020 event featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands; male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract\u2014though the day after the event, it was revealed that the women's match was actually for the Raw Women's Championship instead of a title match contract due to the unexpected circumstances that forced the then-Raw Women's Champion to go on hiatus. The 2020 show was the 11th event in the Money in the Bank chronology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "The card included seven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers on the SmackDown brand. Storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television show \"SmackDown Live\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The event card comprised eleven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from the scripted storylines which were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"SmackDown Live\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Th 2019 Money in the Bank was the 10th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network and took place on May 19, 2019, at the XL Center in Hartford, Connecticut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2011)",
        "text": "The Raw Money in the Bank competitors were announced on the June 27 episode of \"Raw\" with no qualifying matches; these were Alberto Del Rio, Alex Riley, Evan Bourne, Jack Swagger, Kofi Kingston, Rey Mysterio, R-Truth, and The Miz. The SmackDown Money in the Bank competitors were announced on the July 1 \"SmackDown\" as Cody Rhodes, Daniel Bryan, Heath Slater, Justin Gabriel, Kane, Sheamus, Sin Cara, and Wade Barrett."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2011)",
        "text": "The professional wrestling matches at Money in the Bank featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, WWE. Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE's weekly television shows \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\" with the Raw and SmackDown brands\u2014storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs. These storylines provided the background to the 2011 event, which continued the storylines from the previous event in WWE's 2011 pay-per-view schedule, Capitol Punishment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "Seven matches were contested at the event, including one match on the Kickoff pre-show. The titular ladder match for the Money in the Bank contract was won by Sheamus. In the main event, Seth Rollins retained the WWE World Heavyweight Championship in a ladder match against Dean Ambrose. In other prominent matches, United States Champion John Cena defeated NXT Champion Kevin Owens and The Prime Time Players (Darren Young and Titus O'Neil) defeated The New Day (Big E and Xavier Woods) to win the WWE Tag Team Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The Money in the Bank idea was revived by Carlito on a February 2006 episode of \"Raw\". Mr. McMahon approved the suggestion and set up qualifying matches for the match that would take place at WrestleMania 22. It was later announced that the match was to be interpromotional, and SmackDown! general manager Theodore Long also set up qualifying matches to select three members of his roster to compete. In the Raw brand qualifying matches, Rob Van Dam defeated Trevor Murdoch, Shelton Benjamin defeated Chavo Guerrero, and Ric Flair defeated Carlito. On \"SmackDown!\", Finlay defeated Bobby Lashley, Matt Hardy defeated Road Warrior Animal, and Bobby Lashley won a \"last chance battle royal\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. For 2016, the winner received a contract for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match, later renamed to WWE Championship when the promotion reintroduced the brand extension in July, where they again split their roster between the Raw and SmackDown brands where wrestlers are exclusively assigned to perform. The 2016 event was the seventh event in the Money in the Bank chronology and it took place on June 19, 2016, at the T-Mobile Arena in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "The card consisted of eleven matches, including two on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers. Storylines between the characters played out on WWE's primary television programs, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. While the 2017 event was a SmackDown-exclusive pay-per-view, 2018 featured both the Raw and SmackDown brands as WWE discontinued brand-exclusive pay-per-views after WrestleMania 34 in April. The 2017 event also introduced the first women's Money in the Bank ladder match. The 2018 event in turn also had a men's and a women's match, which is now standard. For 2018, the contracts in the briefcases granted the winners a world championship match of their respective brand. Each match featured eight wrestlers, evenly divided between the two brands. Male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract. The 2018 event was the ninth event in the Money in the Bank chronology. It took place on June 17, 2018, at the Allstate Arena in Rosemont, Illinois. Tickets went online on March 5, 2018 through Ticketmaster."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The actual pay-per-view opened with The New Day (Big E and Kofi Kingston) defending the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The Miz and John Morrison, Lucha House Party (Lince Dorado and Gran Metalik), and The Forgotten Sons (Steve Cutler and Wesley Blake) (accompanied by Jaxson Ryker). During the match, Ryker was ejected from ringside for interference. In the climax, Big E performed the Big Ending on Metalik to retain the title."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank (2021)\n--Production.\n----Background.\n----Storylines.\n------Cancelled match.\n--Event.\n----Pre-show.\n----Preliminary matches.\n----Main event.\n--Reception.\n--Aftermath.\n----Raw.\n----SmackDown.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "At Payback in June, a promo announced the return of Rob Van Dam, who last competed for WWE in the 2009 Royal Rumble match, for Money in the Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The professional wrestling matches at Money in the Bank featured professional wrestlers performing as either heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by the hosting promotion, WWE, on the Raw and SmackDown brands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "The 2022 Money in the Bank is the upcoming 13th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling live event produced by WWE. It will be held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event will air on pay-per-view (PPV) worldwide and will be available to stream through Peacock in the United States and the WWE Network internationally. It is scheduled to take place on July 2, 2022, at Allegiant Stadium in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada. It will be the first time the event will be held in a National Football League stadium, thus becoming one of WWE's five biggest events of the year, alongside the Royal Rumble, WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "On the June 4th episode of \"SmackDown\", The Prime Time Players defeated The Ascension and The Lucha Dragons in a triple threat tag team match to become the #1 contenders to face The New Day for the WWE Tag Team Championship at the event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "On the June 28 episode of \"SmackDown\", Senior Advisor Theodore Long introduced the participants in the Money in the Bank ladder match for a contract to wrestle for the World Heavyweight Championship: United States Champion Dean Ambrose, Cody Rhodes, Damien Sandow, Fandango, Antonio Cesaro, Jack Swagger, and Wade Barrett. In contrast with the WWE Championship contract match, all of these participants were heels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "The professional wrestling matches at Money in the Bank featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, WWE. Storylines between the characters played out on WWE's primary television programs, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "The card consisted of seven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers. Storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "The main event was the men's Money in the Bank ladder match, which began with seven of the eight scheduled participants: Baron Corbin, Drew McIntyre and Ricochet from Raw, and Ali, Andrade, Finn B\u00e1lor and Randy Orton from SmackDown \u2013 a replacement was not immediately announced for Sami Zayn. The finish saw Ali about to retrieve the briefcase, when Brock Lesnar (along with Paul Heyman) made a surprise return \u2013 making him Raw's unannounced fourth participant in place of Zayn. Lesnar ran to the ring, knocked Ali off the ladder, and then climbed the ladder to retrieve the briefcase to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "The 2017 Money in the Bank was the eighth annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held exclusively for wrestlers from the promotion's SmackDown brand division. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network and took place on June 18, 2017, at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis, Missouri. It was the first event to feature a Women's Money in the Bank ladder match, and was also the only brand-exclusive Money in the Bank event to be held during either of WWE's brand extension periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "The winner of the Money in the Bank ladder match will win a contract for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match at any time within the next year. On the May 23 episode of \"Raw\", Sami Zayn, Cesaro, Chris Jericho, Dean Ambrose, and Kevin Owens all qualified for the match by defeating Sheamus, The Miz, Apollo Crews, Dolph Ziggler, and AJ Styles, respectively. On the May 26 episode of \"SmackDown\", Alberto Del Rio defeated Zack Ryder to qualify for the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "At Fatal 4-Way, the Money in the Bank ladder match was scheduled for a namesake pay-per-view. On the June 25 episode of \"SmackDown\", it was revealed that two Money in the Bank ladder matches would be held at the event for the Raw and SmackDown brands respectively, with the winners of the matches given a title match for the WWE Championship and World Heavyweight Championship respectively at a time of their choosing within the next 12 months. Three days later, \"Raw\" guest host Rob Zombie named his brand's eight competitors: Randy Orton, The Miz, R-Truth, Chris Jericho, Evan Bourne, Ted DiBiase, John Morrison, and Edge. On the July 5 episode of \"Raw\", The Miz attacked and injured R-Truth; he was taken out of the Money in the Bank match and replaced with Mark Henry the following week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2014)",
        "text": "The card consisted of eight matches that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers. Storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The 2018 Money in the Bank was the ninth annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network and it took place on June 17, 2018, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "During the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show, Rey Mysterio and Dominik Mysterio defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The Usos (Jey and Jimmy). During the match, Jey caught Rey with a Superkick in mid-air and then performed the Uso Splash on Rey for a nearfall. In the end, as Rey attempted a 619 on Jey, Jimmy protected Jey with Jimmy receiving the 619 instead. Jey then performed a roll-up on Rey with an assist from Jimmy to win the title for the fifth time, and their seventh overall tag team championship in WWE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "The 2021 Money in the Bank was the 12th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) worldwide and was available to stream through Peacock in the United States and the WWE Network internationally, which made it the first Money in the Bank to air on Peacock. It took place on July 18, 2021, at Dickies Arena in Fort Worth, Texas. It was the first Money in the Bank event to take place in the state of Texas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "After this, NXT Champion Kevin Owens wrestled WWE United States Champion John Cena. The match went back and forth with a lot of counters and finishers. Owens mocked Cena with his \"you can't see me\" gesture, but Cena responded with the same move. Owens executed a pop-up powerbomb for a two count while Cena responded with an \"Attitude Adjustment\" (AA) for a two count. Cena executed another \"AA\" for another two count. Cena eventually executed a third AA for the decisive pin. After the match, Owens powerbombed Cena on the ring apron and walked off."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Also on \"SmackDown\", Jimmy Uso defeated Dominik Mysterio in a singles match, thanks to Jey assisting Jimmy during the pin, similar to the pin during Money in the Bank Kickoff that won The Usos the SmackDown Tag Team Championship from Dominik and Rey Mysterio."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank (2018)\n--Production.\n----Background.\n----Storylines.\n------Raw.\n------SmackDown.\n--Event.\n----Pre-show.\n----Preliminary matches.\n----Main event.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Eight matches were contested at the event, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, Otis and Asuka won their respective Money in the Bank ladder matches, which were contested at the same time. In the penultimate match, Drew McIntyre defeated Seth Rollins to retain the WWE Championship. Other prominent matches included Braun Strowman defeating Bray Wyatt to retain the Universal Championship, and Bayley defeating Tamina to retain the SmackDown Women's Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "In 2005, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) established the Money in the Bank ladder match as an annual match at their marquee event, WrestleMania, debuting at WrestleMania 21. The match features multiple wrestlers using ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. Following WrestleMania XXVI in March 2010, WWE established a separate Money in the Bank event as a gimmick pay-per-view (PPV); the match subsequently ceased being held at WrestleMania. The inaugural event was held on July 18, 2010, at the Sprint Center in Kansas City, Missouri. Unlike WrestleMania, the Money in the Bank event included two ladder matches. One was exclusive to wrestlers from the Raw brand while the other was exclusive to those from SmackDown. Raw's match granted a contract for a WWE Championship match while SmackDown's granted a World Heavyweight Championship match contract."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "At Super ShowDown, \"The Fiend\" Bray Wyatt lost the Universal Championship to Goldberg, who in turn lost the title to Braun Strowman during WrestleMania 36 Part 1. On the following episode of \"SmackDown\", Wyatt interrupted Strowman after his match and reminded Strowman that it was he who brought him to the WWE with his old Wyatt Family stable. He then stated he wanted his title back and Strowman accepted the challenge, which was scheduled for Money in the Bank, though against Wyatt's normal self instead of The Fiend."
      },
      {
        "title": "NXT (WWE brand)",
        "text": "NXT (also promoted as NXT 2.0) is a brand of the American professional wrestling promotion WWE that was introduced on February 23, 2010. Brands are divisions of WWE's roster where wrestlers are assigned to perform on a weekly basis when a brand extension is in effect. Wrestlers assigned to NXT primarily appear on the brand's weekly television program, \"NXT\", also referred to as \"NXT 2.0\". The brand serves as a developmental territory for WWE's two main brands, Raw and SmackDown, which are referred to as the main roster. Due to its status as the company's developmental territory, NXT operates regardless if there is a brand extension in effect or not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "In February 2010, WWE announced that \"Money in the Bank\" would be the title to their July 18 pay-per-view event at the Sprint Center in Kansas City, Missouri. The event included two Money in the Bank ladder matches, one for each brand. Unlike previous iterations of the match, the winners could only challenge for their own brand's World Championship. All eight competitors for the Raw brand's match were announced on the June 28 episode of \"Raw\" by guest host Rob Zombie. The eight competitors were Randy Orton, The Miz, R-Truth, Chris Jericho, Evan Bourne, Ted DiBiase, John Morrison and Edge. On the July 5th episode of \"Raw\", R-Truth was involved in an injury storyline with The Miz and was subsequently removed from the match and replaced by Mark Henry. Two days later, WWE announced six of the competitors for the SmackDown brand's match through its official website: Matt Hardy, Kane, Cody Rhodes, Christian, Kofi Kingston and Big Show. On the July 9 episode of \"SmackDown\", Drew McIntyre and Dolph Ziggler both competed in qualifying matches and were added to the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The event featured eleven matches, including one match on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event matches, the Money in the Bank ladder matches for men and women were won by Braun Strowman and Alexa Bliss respectively. Bliss cashed in her contract later in the night to win the WWE Raw Women's Championship from Nia Jax after causing a disqualification in the previous title match between Ronda Rousey and Jax. In other prominent matches, AJ Styles retained the WWE Championship against Shinsuke Nakamura in a Last Man Standing match and Carmella retained the WWE SmackDown Women's Championship against Asuka with help from the returning James Ellsworth."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The event was originally scheduled to take place at the Royal Farms Arena in Baltimore, Maryland, but the venue cancelled all shows that were to be held due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In response, WWE took advantage of the situation and moved the two titular ladder matches to their global headquarters building in Stamford with a new \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick where the match's titular briefcases were suspended above a ring on the building's roof. The wrestlers began on the ground floor and fought their way to the roof. The eponymous matches were produced as cinematic matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "During the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show, The Bludgeon Brothers (Harper and Rowan) defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson. In the climax, both Gallows and Anderson proceeded to apply the \"magic killer\" on Harper when Rowan speared Anderson and isolated Gallows. Harper and Rowan then performed \"the reckoning\" on Gallows to retain the titles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "After feeling humiliated following his loss to John Cena, Kevin Owens challenged Cena to a match for the WWE United States Championship at Battleground, which Cena accepted on the June 22 episode of Raw. At The Beast in the East, Owens lost the NXT Championship to Finn B\u00e1lor. At Battleground, Cena retained the United States Championship to end their feud."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "The 2010 Money in the Bank was the inaugural Money in the Bank professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event took place on July 18, 2010, at the Sprint Center in Kansas City, Missouri. The event included two Money in the Bank ladder matches, one for each brand. The eponymous ladder match was previously held at WrestleMania from 2005 to 2010. Following WrestleMania XXVI in March, the match concept was spun off into its own PPV event. The event received 169,000 pay-per-view buys."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "On the July 1 episode of \"Raw\", Curtis Axel was scheduled to defend the Intercontinental Championship against The Miz, and that Kaitlyn would challenge AJ Lee for the Divas Championship, which AJ won from Kaitlyn at Payback."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "On June 30, six of the competitors for the SmackDown brand's match were named: Matt Hardy, Kane, Cody Rhodes, Christian, Kofi Kingston, and Big Show. On the July 9 episode of \"SmackDown\", Dolph Ziggler defeated Montel Vontavious Porter and Chavo Guerrero in a triple threat match to qualify for SmackDown's ladder match. On the same night, Drew McIntyre earned the final spot by pinning Kofi Kingston."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE brand extension",
        "text": "WWE currently promotes four brands. The two main brands, also referred to as the main roster, are Raw and SmackDown. The NXT brand serves as the promotion's developmental territory for the main roster, though was briefly promoted as a main brand from 2019 to 2021. NXT UK is a subsidiary brand under the NXT banner for WWE's United Kingdom-based wrestlers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Twelve matches were contested at the event including one on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, unannounced entrant Brock Lesnar won the men's Money in the Bank ladder match. Bayley won the women's ladder match in the opening match, and later cashed in the contract to win the SmackDown Women's Championship from Charlotte Flair, who herself had just won the title from Becky Lynch. In her other title defense, Lynch retained the Raw Women's Championship against Lacey Evans. In other prominent matches, Kofi Kingston defeated Kevin Owens to retain the WWE Championship, while Seth Rollins defeated AJ Styles to retain the Universal Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2014)",
        "text": "Eight matches took place at the event, with no match aired on the Kickoff pre-show. The titular ladder match for the Money in the Bank contract was won by Seth Rollins. The main event was a ladder match for the vacant WWE World Heavyweight Championship, which was won by John Cena. The event received 122,000 buys (excluding WWE Network views), down from the previous year's 199,000 buys."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "3"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "During the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show, The Usos (Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso) faced SmackDown Tag Team Champions Daniel Bryan and Rowan in a non-title match. In the end, The Usos performed a double \"Uso Splash\" on Bryan to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "In the main event, both the men's and women's Money in the Bank ladder matches were contested simultaneously at WWE Global Headquarters. The women's match featured Asuka, Shayna Baszler, Nia Jax, Lacey Evans, Carmella, and Dana Brooke, while the men's match featured AJ Styles, Rey Mysterio, Aleister Black, King Corbin, Daniel Bryan, and Otis. The women began in the lobby, where Asuka performed a splash off the mezzanine onto the other competitors before escaping in an elevator. The men, meanwhile, began in the gym, where Otis pinned Styles under a barbell. After leaving the gym, Mysterio ran past a restroom where he encountered Brother Love."
      },
      {
        "title": "NXT (WWE brand)",
        "text": "On October 31, 2019, it was announced that NXT would take part in that year's Survivor Series, competing directly against Raw and SmackDown. In 2020, after winning that year's women's Royal Rumble match, Charlotte Flair chose to challenge Rhea Ripley for the NXT Women's Championship at WrestleMania 36, establishing that NXT Championships are now also options for Rumble winners to choose as they are guaranteed a championship match of their choice at WrestleMania. Despite the brand's newly established status within WWE some independent journalists still referred to NXT as a developmental, with Raw and SmackDown viewed as WWE's \"main roster.\" WWE wrestler Matt Riddle called NXT a \"small ocean\", while \"when you get to the main roster you are in the ocean\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Next, Tony Nese defended the WWE Cruiserweight Championship against Ariya Daivari. In the end, Nese performed a Running Nese on Daivari to retain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2011)",
        "text": "In 2010, WWE established Money in the Bank as a gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and it was held in July\u2014in April 2011, the promotion ceased going by its full name of World Wrestling Entertainment, with \"WWE\" becoming an orphaned initialism. The concept of the show came from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match that was originally held at WrestleMania from 2005 to 2010. The match features multiple wrestlers using ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. For 2011, two Money in the Bank ladder matches occurred. One was exclusive to wrestlers from the Raw brand while the other was exclusive to those from SmackDown. Raw's match granted a contract for a WWE Championship match while SmackDown's granted a World Heavyweight Championship match contract. The event took place on July 17, 2011, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. It was the second event under the Money in the Bank chronology and the last to occur under the first brand split, which ended in August. Tickets went on sale in May 2011 through Ticketmaster with prices ranging from US$25 to $300."
      },
      {
        "title": "Backlash (2017)",
        "text": "Shane McMahon also announced the five participants for the Money in the Bank ladder match at Money in the Bank with the contract being for a WWE Championship match: AJ Styles, Baron Corbin, Sami Zayn, Dolph Ziggler, and Shinsuke Nakamura. United States Champion Kevin Owens complained that he should also be in the match since he defeated Styles at Backlash. Shane then decided to add Owens to the Money in the Bank match. A rematch between Corbin and Zayn was then scheduled that Zayn won, as well as a tag team match where Styles and Nakamura defeated Owens and Ziggler."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "4"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank (2020)\n--Production.\n----Background.\n------Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.\n----Storylines.\n--Event.\n----Pre-show.\n----Preliminarily matches.\n----Main event.\n--Aftermath.\n----Raw.\n----SmackDown.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Seven matches were contested at the event, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, Roman Reigns defeated Edge to retain the Universal Championship. Additionally, Big E and Nikki A.S.H. won their respective men's and women's Money in the Bank ladder matches. In other prominent matches, Bobby Lashley defeated Kofi Kingston to retain the WWE Championship and Charlotte Flair defeated Rhea Ripley to win her record-tying fifth Raw Women's Championship and 13th overall singles championship in the women's division. The event also saw the surprise return of John Cena, appearing for the first time since WrestleMania 36 in April 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "5"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The 2018 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on June 17, 2018, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. For the first time since 2011 with a brand split in effect, the event became dual-branded, involving both the Raw and SmackDown brands. The event included one male match and one female match with eight participants each, evenly divided between the brands. The contracts granted the winners a match for the world championship of their respective brand. The men's contract granted the winner a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while the women's contract granted the winner a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "On February 24, 2022, WWE announced a partnership with On Location, a company known for providing premium hospitality experiences for marquee events. Through the partnership, spectators will have access to hospitality packages for WWE's five biggest events, including WrestleMania, SummerSlam, Royal Rumble, Survivor Series, and Money in the Bank. The 2022 Money in the Bank will be WWE's first event to offer the premium hospitality packages. These ticket and travel packages include premier seating, premium hospitality offerings, and meet-and-greets with current WWE wrestlers and legends."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extreme Rules (2018)",
        "text": "At Money in the Bank, AJ Styles retained the WWE Championship against Shinsuke Nakamura in a Last Man Standing match. On the following episode of \"SmackDown\", Rusev won a gauntlet match to earn a title opportunity at Extreme Rules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "At WrestleMania 35, Becky Lynch defeated Ronda Rousey and Charlotte Flair in a winner takes all triple threat match to win both the Raw and SmackDown Women's Championships. She was then double-booked to defend both championships at Money in the Bank. For the Raw Women's Championship, NXT call-up Lacey Evans attacked the double champion on both \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\" following WrestleMania. Evans was subsequently drafted to Raw during the Superstar Shake-up and defeated Natalya to earn a Raw Women's Championship match. For the SmackDown Women's Championship, former champion Charlotte Flair took offense that she lost her title despite not being the one who was pinned at WrestleMania. Lynch exclaimed that she would not freely give Flair a rematch and demanded new challengers. Among the named challengers was new SmackDown draftee Bayley. Flair then defeated Bayley to earn a SmackDown Women's Championship match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "WWE initially did not announce whether the event would still go on from a different location (such as the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida where most WWE shows for Raw and SmackDown had been held since March 13), but on the April 17 episode of \"SmackDown\", it was announced that the two Money in the Bank ladder matches would take place at WWE's global headquarters in Stamford, Connecticut. A new \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick was also added to the matches, in which the participants had to travel from the ground floor of the building to the roof in order to locate the briefcases, which were suspended above a ring on the roof. It was also announced that the men's and women's matches would take place at the same time. With the changes in format, the number of participants in each match was also reduced to six; since the 2018 event, both the men's and women's ladder matches featured eight wrestlers that were evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands. While the ladder matches were pre-recorded on April 15 as cinematic matches, it was confirmed on the day of the event that all of the other matches would take place live from the WWE Performance Center with no fans in attendance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "In the penultimate match, The New Day (Big E and Xavier Woods) defended the WWE Tag Team Championship against The Prime Time Players (Titus O'Neil and Darren Young). O'Neil won the match for his team by pinning Woods after a \"Clash of the Titus\" to win the titles."
      },
      {
        "title": "NXT (WWE brand)",
        "text": "WWE would officially promote NXT as its third main brand in September 2019, when its eponymous weekly series was expanded to a two-hour format and moved to USA Network. The brand faced direct Nielsen ratings competition from All Elite Wrestling's flagship show, \"Dynamite\", during this period as part of the \"Wednesday Night Wars\". In April 2021, NXT's television series moved to Tuesday nights, and the brand would relaunch under the \"NXT 2.0\" banner later that September, reinstituting its original function as a developmental territory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The 2019 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on May 19, 2019, at the XL Center in Hartford, Connecticut. Like the 2018 event, there was one male ladder match and one female ladder match with eight participants each, evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands. Unlike 2018, however, the contracts granted the winners a match for the world championship of their choice. The men's contract granted the winner a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while the women's contract granted the winner a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The brand split returned shortly after the 2016 event along with a new world title, but the 2017 event was SmackDown-exclusive and the contract was a match for its world championship, the WWE Championship (formerly WWE World Heavyweight Championship). The 2017 event also included the first-ever women's Money in the Bank ladder match, with the winner receiving a contract for a SmackDown Women's Championship match. Due to the controversy surrounding the ending of that match, the first non-pay-per-view Money in the Bank ladder match occurred on the June 27 episode of \"SmackDown Live\". The event became dual branded beginning with the 2018 event, involving both the Raw and SmackDown brands with one men's match and one women's match with participants evenly divided between the brands; the respective contracts guaranteed the winner a championship match for the top title of their respective brand, allowing Raw wrestlers (should they win) to cash-in on the Universal Championship or Raw Women's Championship, though in 2019, it was made so that the respective winners could challenge either brand's champion. In 2020, while the rules of the match remained the same, a \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick was added on top of the match; both the men's and women's matches, which were held at the same time, took place at WWE's Global Headquarters in Stamford, Connecticut in which the participants began on the ground floor of the building and fought their way to the roof where a ring and ladders were located with the briefcases suspended above the ring \u2014 this change was brought about due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The matches returned to their regular format for the 2021 event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2011)",
        "text": "The 2011 Money in the Bank was the second annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling pay-per-view event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. It took place on July 17, 2011, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. This was the last Money in the Bank held under the first brand extension, which ended in August, but was reinstated in July 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The Money in the Bank ladder match can involve anywhere from 5\u201310 participants, with the objective being to retrieve a briefcase that is suspended 20 feet above the ring. The match was originally only for male wrestlers until 2017 when women began to have their own ladder match. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees a match for a world championship, and beginning in 2017, a women's championship. The original match at WrestleMania 21 was exclusive to the Raw brand, with the contract guaranteeing a match for Raw's top title at the time, the World Heavyweight Championship. After this, wrestlers had the option between the WWE Championship and the World Heavyweight Championship, regardless of the brand the wrestler belonged to. In 2006, ECW's world title, the ECW Championship, became a third option until 2010 as in February that year, the ECW brand along with the title was deactivated (despite being an option, no contract holder cashed in on the ECW Championship)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "On the following night's \"Raw\", men's Money in the Bank ladder match winner Brock Lesnar along with Paul Heyman put out a warning to Universal Champion Seth Rollins and WWE Champion Kofi Kingston, who appeared via the wild card rule, and later teased cashing in on them. On \"SmackDown\", WWE Champion Kofi Kingston and Xavier Woods had a welcome back celebration for Big E, returning from his injury. Kevin Owens interrupted but The New Day berated him about losing. The following week, Kingston and Owens had a non-title rematch that Kingston also won. AJ Styles was interviewed on \"Raw\" about his loss to Universal Champion Seth Rollins, but was interrupted by Baron Corbin. The following week, Styles was scheduled to compete in a fatal four-way match for another opportunity to challenge Rollins at Super ShowDown, but was still ailing from injuries sustained from Money in the Bank and was replaced by Corbin."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "In August 2020, WWE began holding Raw and SmackDown's shows in a bio-secure bubble called the WWE ThunderDome. In May 2021, the company announced that they would be leaving the ThunderDome and returning to live touring, starting with a 25-city tour beginning with the July 16 episode of \"SmackDown\" in Houston, Texas. The 2021 Money in the Bank was in turn announced to take place at Dickies Arena in Fort Worth, Texas on July 18\u2014returning the event to its original July slot\u2014thus it was the first WWE pay-per-view held outside of Florida since Elimination Chamber on March 8, 2020 and the first pay-per-view held following the end of the ThunderDome Era. The 2021 event also reverted to the standard version of the titular ladder matches as well as returning to having eight competitors for both matches, evenly divided between the two brands. The 2021 event was also the first Money in the Bank to air on Peacock's WWE Network channel, following the merger of the American version of the WWE Network under Peacock in March that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "In 2005, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) established the Money in the Bank ladder match as an annual match at their marquee event, WrestleMania, debuting at WrestleMania 21. The idea for the match was conceptualized by then-WWE wrestler Chris Jericho. Following WrestleMania XXVI in March 2010, WWE established a separate Money in the Bank event as a gimmick PPV; the match subsequently ceased being held at WrestleMania. The inaugural event was held on July 18, 2010, at the Sprint Center in Kansas City, Missouri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "During \"A Moment of Bliss\" on the April 29 episode of \"Raw\", Alexa Bliss revealed Raw's four participants for the men's Money in the Bank ladder match: Braun Strowman, new draftee Ricochet, Drew McIntyre, and Baron Corbin. On \"SmackDown\" the next night, SmackDown's four participants were revealed: Ali, new draftee Finn B\u00e1lor, Andrade, and Randy Orton. On \"Raw\" the following week, Robert Roode (formerly Bobby Roode) had the chance to replace Ricochet in the ladder match if he could defeat Ricochet, but was unsuccessful. Sami Zayn then defeated Strowman in a falls count anywhere match on the May 13 episode of \"Raw\" after interference from Corbin and McIntyre, taking Strowman's spot."
      },
      {
        "title": "NXT (WWE brand)",
        "text": "In addition to NXT's main television program, the brand's wrestlers also appear on the supplementary show, \"Level Up\". From 2014 to 2021, the brand held its major events under the NXT TakeOver series, but this event series was discontinued with the rebranding to NXT 2.0. WWE also operates a subsidiary brand under NXT called NXT UK, which is based in and produced for wrestlers in the United Kingdom. Another subsidiary brand, 205 Live, existed under NXT from 2019 until 205 Live was dissolved in 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "The \"Money in the Bank\" pay-per-view (PPV) centers around a ladder match, the prize of which is a briefcase containing a contract for a world championship match. The winner can then cash in the contract at a time and place of their choosing anytime within the next year \u2013 beginning the night they win the briefcase. If the contract is not used within that year, it is voided, but this has yet to happen. Only the holder of the Money in the Bank contract can be the one to cash-in the contract."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "In 2010 and 2011, the annual pay-per-views included two Money in the Bank ladder matches. To coincide with the brand extension, one ladder match was for wrestlers from the Raw brand with a match contract for its WWE Championship, while the other ladder match was for the SmackDown brand with a match contract for its World Heavyweight Championship. In April 2011, WWE ceased using its full name with the WWE abbreviation becoming an orphaned initialism. The brand split then ended in August 2011, after which, the Money in the Bank pay-per-views continued to have two ladder matches for match contracts for the respective titles. After the two titles were unified in , a championship match contract for the unified WWE World Heavyweight Championship became the prize of a single Money in the Bank ladder match. Also in 2014, the event moved to the June slot and it was also the first Money in the Bank event to air on WWE's online streaming service, the WWE Network, in addition to traditional PPV outlets. The brand split returned after the 2016 event, but the 2017 pay-per-view was SmackDown-exclusive. The championship match contract in the ladder match was for SmackDown's WWE Championship (formerly WWE World Heavyweight Championship). The 2017 event also featured the first-ever women's Money in the Bank ladder match with its contract being for a SmackDown Women's Championship match; each event since has featured a men's and women's match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The third Money in the Bank ladder match was held at WrestleMania 23, and was the first to involve eight participants from Raw, SmackDown!, and ECW. Qualifying matches began on the February 19 episode of \"Raw\". On the February 19 episode of \"Raw\", two former Money in the Bank winners (Edge and Rob Van Dam) faced off, with Edge earning a pinfall win to earn the first spot in the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Next, AJ Styles and Omos defended the Raw Tag Team Championship against The Viking Raiders (Erik and Ivar). In the end, Erik and Ivar performed The Viking Experience on Styles, however, Omos stood on the ring apron and shoved Erik into Ivar to void the pin attempt. Omos then delivered a Two-Handed Chokeslam on Erik to retain the title."
      },
      {
        "title": "Farm team",
        "text": "In 2012, WWE would relaunch and repurpose \"NXT\", the name of a weekly series that used Florida Championship Wrestling talent, for a new, in-house, developmental brand. By 2019, NXT would be recognized by WWE as the promotion's \"third\" main brand; with its eponymous weekly series moving to USA Network that year; and the NXT UK and former 205 Live brands reorganized under the NXT umbrella. The brand was later relaunched under the \"NXT 2.0\" banner in Fall 2021, as part of a larger revamp that saw it return to its \"developmental\" roots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "During the May 15 episode, SmackDown General Manager Paige interrupted SmackDown Women's Champion Carmella's celebration of her reign and scheduled a title match between her and Asuka for Money in the Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "On the April 22 episode of \"Raw\", Chief Operating Officer Triple H scheduled two triple threat matches with the winners facing each other to determine Seth Rollins' next challenger for the Universal Championship. New Raw draftee AJ Styles defeated fellow draftees Rey Mysterio and Samoa Joe in the first triple threat match, while Baron Corbin defeated Drew McIntyre and new draftee The Miz in the second. Styles then defeated Corbin to earn a Universal Championship match against Rollins at Money in the Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "On the December 13, 2016, episode of \"SmackDown\", The Hype Bros (Mojo Rawley and Zack Ryder) won a battle royal to become the number one contenders for the SmackDown Tag Team Championship, but a knee injury sustained during the match took Ryder out for an estimated six to nine months. On the June 13 episode of \"SmackDown\", Ryder appeared backstage and was greeted by Rawley where the two declared that The Hype Bros were back. Afterwards on \"Talking Smack\", the two said that they felt that they should still be the number one contenders for the tag titles since they won that spot, but never got to have their championship match. Three days later, the two were scheduled to face The Col\u00f3ns (Primo and Epico) on the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many brand divisions does the WWE have?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They currently have four brands, main two brands, also referred to as the main roster, are Raw and SmackDown, and NXT and NXTUK serves as the promotion's developmental territory. Would you like to know more about one of these brands?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about NXT, please."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "NXT (also promoted as NXT 2.0) is a brand of the American professional wrestling promotion WWE that was introduced on February 23, 2010. The brand serves as a developmental territory for WWE's two main brands, Raw and SmackDown, which are referred to as the main roster, although in its original incarnation, NXT was a reality-based television show in which rookies competed to become a star in WWE before being relaunched as a separate brand in 2012."
    ],
    "topic": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "NXT (WWE brand):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "NXT (WWE brand)"
        ],
        "ctx": "NXT (also promoted as NXT 2.0) is a brand of the American professional wrestling promotion WWE that was introduced on February 23, 2010. Brands are divisions of WWE's roster where wrestlers are assigned to perform on a weekly basis when a brand extension is in effect. Wrestlers assigned to NXT primarily appear on the brand's weekly television program, \"NXT\", also referred to as \"NXT 2.0\". The brand serves as a developmental territory for WWE's two main brands, Raw and SmackDown, which are referred to as the main roster. Due to its status as the company's developmental territory, NXT operates regardless if there is a brand extension in effect or not."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "NXT (WWE brand):2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "NXT (WWE brand)"
        ],
        "ctx": "In its original incarnation, \"NXT\" was a reality-based television show in which rookies competed to become a star in WWE. In 2012, NXT was relaunched as a separate brand and replaced the now-defunct Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW) as WWE's developmental territory. Primarily holding its events in the Orlando, Florida area since its relaunch, the brand would be expanded upon over time, having embarked on national and international tours. Wrestling critics and fans came to view NXT as its own distinct entity during this period, with the brand's shows being praised for their high quality matches and storylines."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "After losing the SmackDown Tag Team Championship to The Hardy Boyz (Jeff Hardy and Matt Hardy), The Usos (Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso) were drafted to Raw in the Superstar Shake-up. Two weeks later, The Hardys relinquished the title after Jeff suffered a knee injury. On the May 7 episode of \"SmackDown\", The Usos appeared via the Wild Card Rule to challenge Daniel Bryan and Rowan for the vacant title in a losing effort. The following week, a non-title match between the two teams was scheduled for the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick event, produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between May and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship of their choosing at any time within the next year. The 2022 event will feature wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands; male wrestlers will compete for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship, while female wrestlers will compete for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "The event will include matches that resulte from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portray heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that build tension and culminate in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results are predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines are produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"Friday Night SmackDown.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between May and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship of their choosing at any time within the next year. The 2020 event featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands; male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract\u2014though the day after the event, it was revealed that the women's match was actually for the Raw Women's Championship instead of a title match contract due to the unexpected circumstances that forced the then-Raw Women's Champion to go on hiatus. The 2020 show was the 11th event in the Money in the Bank chronology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2011)",
        "text": "The Raw Money in the Bank competitors were announced on the June 27 episode of \"Raw\" with no qualifying matches; these were Alberto Del Rio, Alex Riley, Evan Bourne, Jack Swagger, Kofi Kingston, Rey Mysterio, R-Truth, and The Miz. The SmackDown Money in the Bank competitors were announced on the July 1 \"SmackDown\" as Cody Rhodes, Daniel Bryan, Heath Slater, Justin Gabriel, Kane, Sheamus, Sin Cara, and Wade Barrett."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. While the briefcases at the 2018 event contained contracts that guaranteed the winners a match for a world championship of their respective brand at any time within the next year, the 2019 contracts allowed the winners the choice of either brands' world championships. Since the 2017 event, each year's show has featured a men's and a women's ladder match, and beginning with 2018, each features eight wrestlers, evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands. Male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract. The 2019 event was the 10th event in the Money in the Bank chronology and featured wrestlers from the Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brands\u2014the only to feature the 205 Live brand. The 2019 event also moved Money in the Bank to the May slot of WWE's pay-per-view calendar, taking place on May 19, 2019, at the XL Center in Hartford, Connecticut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "The event comprised seven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"Friday Night SmackDown.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The show comprised eight matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"Friday Night SmackDown.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "The card composed twelve matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\", \"SmackDown Live\", and the cruiserweight-exclusive \"205 Live\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank comprised professional wrestling matches involving professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE's weekly television shows \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\" with the Raw and SmackDown brands\u2014storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2011)",
        "text": "The professional wrestling matches at Money in the Bank featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, WWE. Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE's weekly television shows \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\" with the Raw and SmackDown brands\u2014storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs. These storylines provided the background to the 2011 event, which continued the storylines from the previous event in WWE's 2011 pay-per-view schedule, Capitol Punishment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "The card included seven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers on the SmackDown brand. Storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television show \"SmackDown Live\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank (2021)\n--Production.\n----Background.\n----Storylines.\n------Cancelled match.\n--Event.\n----Pre-show.\n----Preliminary matches.\n----Main event.\n--Reception.\n--Aftermath.\n----Raw.\n----SmackDown.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "On the July 13 episode of Raw Stephanie McMahon confronted Team Bella with Paige and announced a \"Divas revolution\" by introducing the NXT wrestlers Charlotte, Becky Lynch and NXT Women's champion Sasha Banks into the roster, where McMahon had Charlotte and Lynch team with Paige to become Team PCB and Sasha Banks team with Naomi and Tamina to become Team B.A.D. The two teams then brawled with Team Bella. At Battleground, Charlotte (who was representing Team PCB) defeated Brie Bella of Team Bella and Sasha Banks of Team B.A.D in a triple threat match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between May and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship of their choosing at any time within the next year. The 2021 event featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands; male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract. While the previous year's event had featured a \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick, which took place at WWE's Titan Towers headquarters and had only six competitors in each match due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2021 event reverted to the standard version of the titular ladder match as well as returning to having eight competitors for both matches, evenly divided between the two brands. It was the 12th event in the Money in the Bank chronology and the first to be held in July since the 2013 event. It was also the first Money in the Bank to air on Peacock after the American version of the WWE Network merged under Peacock in March."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The Money in the Bank idea was revived by Carlito on a February 2006 episode of \"Raw\". Mr. McMahon approved the suggestion and set up qualifying matches for the match that would take place at WrestleMania 22. It was later announced that the match was to be interpromotional, and SmackDown! general manager Theodore Long also set up qualifying matches to select three members of his roster to compete. In the Raw brand qualifying matches, Rob Van Dam defeated Trevor Murdoch, Shelton Benjamin defeated Chavo Guerrero, and Ric Flair defeated Carlito. On \"SmackDown!\", Finlay defeated Bobby Lashley, Matt Hardy defeated Road Warrior Animal, and Bobby Lashley won a \"last chance battle royal\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "At Fatal 4-Way, the Money in the Bank ladder match was scheduled for a namesake pay-per-view. On the June 25 episode of \"SmackDown\", it was revealed that two Money in the Bank ladder matches would be held at the event for the Raw and SmackDown brands respectively, with the winners of the matches given a title match for the WWE Championship and World Heavyweight Championship respectively at a time of their choosing within the next 12 months. Three days later, \"Raw\" guest host Rob Zombie named his brand's eight competitors: Randy Orton, The Miz, R-Truth, Chris Jericho, Evan Bourne, Ted DiBiase, John Morrison, and Edge. On the July 5 episode of \"Raw\", The Miz attacked and injured R-Truth; he was taken out of the Money in the Bank match and replaced with Mark Henry the following week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Also on \"SmackDown\", Jimmy Uso defeated Dominik Mysterio in a singles match, thanks to Jey assisting Jimmy during the pin, similar to the pin during Money in the Bank Kickoff that won The Usos the SmackDown Tag Team Championship from Dominik and Rey Mysterio."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. Following the reintroduction of the brand extension in July 2016, in which WWE again divided its roster between the Raw and SmackDown brands where wrestlers exclusively perform, the 2017 event was made a SmackDown-exclusive pay-per-view; it would in turn be the only Money in the Bank event to be brand-exclusive during the second brand split as following WrestleMania 34 the following year, brand-exclusive pay-per-views were discontinued. For the first time in the event's history, the 2017 event featured a women's Money in the Bank ladder match, which is now featured at every year's event. As the 2017 event was a SmackDown-exclusive show, the respective male and female winners received title match contracts for SmackDown's world championships at the time: the WWE Championship and the SmackDown Women's Championship. The 2017 event was the eighth event in the Money in the Bank chronology and took place on June 18, 2017, at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis, Missouri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "The main rivalry from the Raw brand heading into Money in the Bank was between WWE Champion Sheamus and John Cena. Sheamus won the title at the Fatal 4-Way event after interference from seven of the contestants from the first season of \"NXT\", collectively known as \"The Nexus\". The next night on \"Raw\", John Cena invoked his rematch clause, but The Nexus interrupted the match. The following week on \"Raw\", Raw's anonymous general manager scheduled a steel cage match between Sheamus and Cena to ensure no outside interference from The Nexus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. While the 2017 event was a SmackDown-exclusive pay-per-view, 2018 featured both the Raw and SmackDown brands as WWE discontinued brand-exclusive pay-per-views after WrestleMania 34 in April. The 2017 event also introduced the first women's Money in the Bank ladder match. The 2018 event in turn also had a men's and a women's match, which is now standard. For 2018, the contracts in the briefcases granted the winners a world championship match of their respective brand. Each match featured eight wrestlers, evenly divided between the two brands. Male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract. The 2018 event was the ninth event in the Money in the Bank chronology. It took place on June 17, 2018, at the Allstate Arena in Rosemont, Illinois. Tickets went online on March 5, 2018 through Ticketmaster."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "On the June 4th episode of \"SmackDown\", The Prime Time Players defeated The Ascension and The Lucha Dragons in a triple threat tag team match to become the #1 contenders to face The New Day for the WWE Tag Team Championship at the event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank (2018)\n--Production.\n----Background.\n----Storylines.\n------Raw.\n------SmackDown.\n--Event.\n----Pre-show.\n----Preliminary matches.\n----Main event.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The event card comprised eleven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from the scripted storylines which were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"SmackDown Live\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "On the same show, Executive Vice President Stephanie McMahon announced the participants competing in the Money in the Bank ladder match for a WWE Championship contract, which included CM Punk, Sheamus, Randy Orton, Daniel Bryan, Christian, Kane, and the returning Rob Van Dam. Unusually, all of these participants were faces at the time. On the July 8 episode of \"Raw\", Kane was removed from the match after being injured by the debuting Wyatt Family (Bray Wyatt, Luke Harper, and Erick Rowan)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "On the July 1 episode of \"Raw\", Curtis Axel was scheduled to defend the Intercontinental Championship against The Miz, and that Kaitlyn would challenge AJ Lee for the Divas Championship, which AJ won from Kaitlyn at Payback."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "The professional wrestling matches at Money in the Bank featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, WWE. Storylines between the characters played out on WWE's primary television programs, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The actual pay-per-view opened with The New Day (Big E and Kofi Kingston) defending the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The Miz and John Morrison, Lucha House Party (Lince Dorado and Gran Metalik), and The Forgotten Sons (Steve Cutler and Wesley Blake) (accompanied by Jaxson Ryker). During the match, Ryker was ejected from ringside for interference. In the climax, Big E performed the Big Ending on Metalik to retain the title."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2011)",
        "text": "In 2010, WWE established Money in the Bank as a gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and it was held in July\u2014in April 2011, the promotion ceased going by its full name of World Wrestling Entertainment, with \"WWE\" becoming an orphaned initialism. The concept of the show came from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match that was originally held at WrestleMania from 2005 to 2010. The match features multiple wrestlers using ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. For 2011, two Money in the Bank ladder matches occurred. One was exclusive to wrestlers from the Raw brand while the other was exclusive to those from SmackDown. Raw's match granted a contract for a WWE Championship match while SmackDown's granted a World Heavyweight Championship match contract. The event took place on July 17, 2011, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. It was the second event under the Money in the Bank chronology and the last to occur under the first brand split, which ended in August. Tickets went on sale in May 2011 through Ticketmaster with prices ranging from US$25 to $300."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "The card consisted of eleven matches, including two on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers. Storylines between the characters played out on WWE's primary television programs, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The 2020 Money in the Bank was the 11th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network on May 10, 2020. While the majority of the event aired live from the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida, the show's eponymous ladder matches were pre-recorded on April 15 at WWE's Titan Towers global headquarters building in Stamford, Connecticut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "During \"A Moment of Bliss\" on the April 29 episode of \"Raw\", Alexa Bliss revealed Raw's four participants for the men's Money in the Bank ladder match: Braun Strowman, new draftee Ricochet, Drew McIntyre, and Baron Corbin. On \"SmackDown\" the next night, SmackDown's four participants were revealed: Ali, new draftee Finn B\u00e1lor, Andrade, and Randy Orton. On \"Raw\" the following week, Robert Roode (formerly Bobby Roode) had the chance to replace Ricochet in the ladder match if he could defeat Ricochet, but was unsuccessful. Sami Zayn then defeated Strowman in a falls count anywhere match on the May 13 episode of \"Raw\" after interference from Corbin and McIntyre, taking Strowman's spot."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "In August 2020, WWE began holding Raw and SmackDown's shows in a bio-secure bubble called the WWE ThunderDome. In May 2021, the company announced that they would be leaving the ThunderDome and returning to live touring, starting with a 25-city tour beginning with the July 16 episode of \"SmackDown\" in Houston, Texas. The 2021 Money in the Bank was in turn announced to take place at Dickies Arena in Fort Worth, Texas on July 18\u2014returning the event to its original July slot\u2014thus it was the first WWE pay-per-view held outside of Florida since Elimination Chamber on March 8, 2020 and the first pay-per-view held following the end of the ThunderDome Era. The 2021 event also reverted to the standard version of the titular ladder matches as well as returning to having eight competitors for both matches, evenly divided between the two brands. The 2021 event was also the first Money in the Bank to air on Peacock's WWE Network channel, following the merger of the American version of the WWE Network under Peacock in March that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "On the May 26 episode of \"SmackDown\", after WWE United States Champion Rusev defeated Kalisto to retain the title, Titus O'Neil came out to help Kalisto when Rusev refused to break his \"Accolade\" submission hold. On the May 30 episode of \"Raw\", after defeating Zack Ryder, Rusev started to insult the crowd and declared himself a \"true American hero\", leading to O'Neil coming out and punching Rusev. On June 8, a match between O'Neil and Rusev for the United States Championship was scheduled for Money in the Bank. On the June 13 episode of \"Raw\", Titus O'Neil walked out for his match when Rusev attacked him on the stage and applied the \"Accolade\", as WWE officials tried to pull Rusev off of O'Neil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "On June 30, six of the competitors for the SmackDown brand's match were named: Matt Hardy, Kane, Cody Rhodes, Christian, Kofi Kingston, and Big Show. On the July 9 episode of \"SmackDown\", Dolph Ziggler defeated Montel Vontavious Porter and Chavo Guerrero in a triple threat match to qualify for SmackDown's ladder match. On the same night, Drew McIntyre earned the final spot by pinning Kofi Kingston."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "The event was introduced during WWE's first brand extension period, and the events in 2010 and 2011 featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands. The first brand split then ended in August 2011. In mid-2016, the brand extension was reintroduced and the 2017 event was held exclusively for SmackDown. However, following WrestleMania 34 in April 2018, brand-exclusive pay-per-views were discontinued. While the eponymous match was originally only for male wrestlers, the 2017 event featured the first-ever women's version and the events since have featured two matches, one each for the men and women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "In February 2010, WWE announced that \"Money in the Bank\" would be the title to their July 18 pay-per-view event at the Sprint Center in Kansas City, Missouri. The event included two Money in the Bank ladder matches, one for each brand. Unlike previous iterations of the match, the winners could only challenge for their own brand's World Championship. All eight competitors for the Raw brand's match were announced on the June 28 episode of \"Raw\" by guest host Rob Zombie. The eight competitors were Randy Orton, The Miz, R-Truth, Chris Jericho, Evan Bourne, Ted DiBiase, John Morrison and Edge. On the July 5th episode of \"Raw\", R-Truth was involved in an injury storyline with The Miz and was subsequently removed from the match and replaced by Mark Henry. Two days later, WWE announced six of the competitors for the SmackDown brand's match through its official website: Matt Hardy, Kane, Cody Rhodes, Christian, Kofi Kingston and Big Show. On the July 9 episode of \"SmackDown\", Drew McIntyre and Dolph Ziggler both competed in qualifying matches and were added to the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Heavy Machinery (professional wrestling)",
        "text": "They started to work together while they were trained in NXT, WWE's farm territory as Otis Dozovic and Tucker Knight. They stayed in NXT until 2019, when they were promoted to the main roster and shortly after, their ringnames were shortened to Otis and Tucker. They competed several times for the Smackdown Tag Team Championships, but they never won it. Despite this, Otis won the Money in the Bank briefcase in 2020. Months later, the team was split when Tucker was drafted to Raw and Otis stayed on SmackDown. At Hell in a Cell, Tucker betrayed Otis, signalling the end of the team."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Raw",
        "text": "In September 2021, the ropes would turn white from red permanently which would also apply the same to SmackDown. Meaning all WWE programming except NXT UK use white ropes once again just like December 2012 \u2013 July 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extreme Rules (2018)",
        "text": "At Money in the Bank, AJ Styles retained the WWE Championship against Shinsuke Nakamura in a Last Man Standing match. On the following episode of \"SmackDown\", Rusev won a gauntlet match to earn a title opportunity at Extreme Rules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The professional wrestling matches at Money in the Bank featured professional wrestlers performing as either heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by the hosting promotion, WWE, on the Raw and SmackDown brands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "The card consisted of seven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers. Storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "The winner of the Money in the Bank ladder match will win a contract for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match at any time within the next year. On the May 23 episode of \"Raw\", Sami Zayn, Cesaro, Chris Jericho, Dean Ambrose, and Kevin Owens all qualified for the match by defeating Sheamus, The Miz, Apollo Crews, Dolph Ziggler, and AJ Styles, respectively. On the May 26 episode of \"SmackDown\", Alberto Del Rio defeated Zack Ryder to qualify for the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Qualifying matches for the men's Money in the Bank ladder match began on the June 21 episode of \"Raw\". Ricochet, John Morrison, and Riddle qualified by defeating AJ Styles, Randy Orton, and Drew McIntyre, respectively. Raw's final spot was determined in a triple threat match the following week, which was originally scheduled to be between Styles, Orton, and McIntyre; however, Orton was unable to compete for unknown reasons. A battle royal was held to fill Orton's spot in the triple threat match. Orton's RKBro tag team partner Riddle convinced WWE officials Adam Pearce and Sonya Deville to allow him to compete in the battle royal where if he won, he would represent Orton in the triple threat match. Although Riddle won the battle royal, McIntyre won the triple threat match to earn Raw's final spot in the Money in the Bank ladder match. SmackDown's first spot was filled by Big E, who qualified by defeating Intercontinental Champion Apollo Crews on the June 25 episode of \"SmackDown\". The following week, Kevin Owens qualified by defeating Sami Zayn in a Last Man Standing match, which was a rematch from Hell in a Cell that Zayn had won. SmackDown's last two spots were filled on the July 9 episode: Seth Rollins defeated Cesaro, which was another rematch from Hell in a Cell that Rollins had also won, and King Nakamura defeated Baron Corbin, previously King Corbin before he lost his King of the Ring crown to Shinsuke Nakamura, who took on the king moniker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "With the changes in format, the participants in each match were reduced from eight to six, but still evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands. For the women's match, Asuka, Shayna Baszler, and the returning Nia Jax qualified from Raw by defeating Ruby Riott, Sarah Logan, and Kairi Sane, respectively, while Dana Brooke, Lacey Evans, and Carmella filled out the SmackDown spots by defeating Naomi, Sasha Banks, and Mandy Rose, respectively. For the men's match, Aleister Black, Apollo Crews, and Rey Mysterio qualified from Raw by defeating Austin Theory, Montel Vontavious Porter, and Murphy, respectively, while Daniel Bryan, King Corbin, and Otis qualified from SmackDown by defeating Cesaro, Drew Gulak, and Dolph Ziggler, respectively. Crews, however, was injured by Andrade and was pulled from the match. A returning AJ Styles won Raw's vacant spot by winning a last chance gauntlet match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "On the December 13, 2016, episode of \"SmackDown\", The Hype Bros (Mojo Rawley and Zack Ryder) won a battle royal to become the number one contenders for the SmackDown Tag Team Championship, but a knee injury sustained during the match took Ryder out for an estimated six to nine months. On the June 13 episode of \"SmackDown\", Ryder appeared backstage and was greeted by Rawley where the two declared that The Hype Bros were back. Afterwards on \"Talking Smack\", the two said that they felt that they should still be the number one contenders for the tag titles since they won that spot, but never got to have their championship match. Three days later, the two were scheduled to face The Col\u00f3ns (Primo and Epico) on the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "On the June 21 episode of \"Raw\", as WWE Champion Bobby Lashley and his manager MVP were celebrating Lashley's win over Drew McIntyre at Hell in a Cell the previous night, they were interrupted by The New Day (Kofi Kingston and Xavier Woods). Kingston reminded Lashley that he had defeated him in a non-title match on the May 17 episode of \"Raw\" and that he had also never received a rematch for the title after he lost the championship to Brock Lesnar at SmackDown's 20th Anniversary in October 2019. Kingston then challenged Lashley for the title. Lashley accepted and the match was scheduled for Money in the Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "The main event was the men's Money in the Bank ladder match, which began with seven of the eight scheduled participants: Baron Corbin, Drew McIntyre and Ricochet from Raw, and Ali, Andrade, Finn B\u00e1lor and Randy Orton from SmackDown \u2013 a replacement was not immediately announced for Sami Zayn. The finish saw Ali about to retrieve the briefcase, when Brock Lesnar (along with Paul Heyman) made a surprise return \u2013 making him Raw's unannounced fourth participant in place of Zayn. Lesnar ran to the ring, knocked Ali off the ladder, and then climbed the ladder to retrieve the briefcase to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2014)",
        "text": "The card consisted of eight matches that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers. Storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The 2019 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on May 19, 2019, at the XL Center in Hartford, Connecticut. Like the 2018 event, there was one male ladder match and one female ladder match with eight participants each, evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands. Unlike 2018, however, the contracts granted the winners a match for the world championship of their choice. The men's contract granted the winner a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while the women's contract granted the winner a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "The 2017 event would be the only Money in the Bank PPV to be brand-exclusive, as following WrestleMania 34 in April 2018, brand-exclusive pay-per-views were discontinued, thus the events since have involved both the Raw and SmackDown brands. Beginning with the 2018 event, the ladder matches have eight participants evenly divided between the brands. The 2018 contracts granted the winners a championship match for their respective brand's world championship: the Universal Championship or WWE Championship, and the Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship. Beginning with the 2019 event, the winners can choose either brand's championship. The 2019 event also moved Money in the Bank to the May slot in WWE's pay-per-view calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The Money in the Bank ladder match can involve anywhere from 5\u201310 participants, with the objective being to retrieve a briefcase that is suspended 20 feet above the ring. The match was originally only for male wrestlers until 2017 when women began to have their own ladder match. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees a match for a world championship, and beginning in 2017, a women's championship. The original match at WrestleMania 21 was exclusive to the Raw brand, with the contract guaranteeing a match for Raw's top title at the time, the World Heavyweight Championship. After this, wrestlers had the option between the WWE Championship and the World Heavyweight Championship, regardless of the brand the wrestler belonged to. In 2006, ECW's world title, the ECW Championship, became a third option until 2010 as in February that year, the ECW brand along with the title was deactivated (despite being an option, no contract holder cashed in on the ECW Championship)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The 2017 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on June 18, 2017, at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis, Missouri as an exclusive event for the SmackDown brand. For the traditional ladder match, which had a contract for a match for SmackDown's WWE Championship (formerly WWE World Heavyweight Championship), SmackDown Commissioner Shane McMahon announced AJ Styles, Shinsuke Nakamura, Dolph Ziggler, Sami Zayn, and Baron Corbin as the original five participants. United States Champion Kevin Owens was added after he convinced Shane to make him the sixth participant. Mojo Rawley had the opportunity to make it a seven-man match if he could defeat WWE Champion Jinder Mahal, but failed to do so. At the event, Baron Corbin won the match and received a WWE Championship match contract. On the August 15, 2017 episode of \"SmackDown Live\", John Cena had a non-title match against WWE Champion Jinder Mahal. As Cena was pinning Mahal, Corbin attacked him, causing a disqualification. Corbin then cashed in his Money in the Bank contract on Mahal, but as soon as the bell rung, he attacked Cena, who was on the apron, allowing Mahal to quickly roll-up Corbin for the win. This made Corbin the third wrestler to unsuccessfully cash in the contract and the second to lose a cash-in match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "WWE initially did not announce whether the event would still go on from a different location (such as the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida where most WWE shows for Raw and SmackDown had been held since March 13), but on the April 17 episode of \"SmackDown\", it was announced that the two Money in the Bank ladder matches would take place at WWE's global headquarters in Stamford, Connecticut. A new \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick was also added to the matches, in which the participants had to travel from the ground floor of the building to the roof in order to locate the briefcases, which were suspended above a ring on the roof. It was also announced that the men's and women's matches would take place at the same time. With the changes in format, the number of participants in each match was also reduced to six; since the 2018 event, both the men's and women's ladder matches featured eight wrestlers that were evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands. While the ladder matches were pre-recorded on April 15 as cinematic matches, it was confirmed on the day of the event that all of the other matches would take place live from the WWE Performance Center with no fans in attendance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "At Super ShowDown, \"The Fiend\" Bray Wyatt lost the Universal Championship to Goldberg, who in turn lost the title to Braun Strowman during WrestleMania 36 Part 1. On the following episode of \"SmackDown\", Wyatt interrupted Strowman after his match and reminded Strowman that it was he who brought him to the WWE with his old Wyatt Family stable. He then stated he wanted his title back and Strowman accepted the challenge, which was scheduled for Money in the Bank, though against Wyatt's normal self instead of The Fiend."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "During the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show, Rey Mysterio and Dominik Mysterio defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The Usos (Jey and Jimmy). During the match, Jey caught Rey with a Superkick in mid-air and then performed the Uso Splash on Rey for a nearfall. In the end, as Rey attempted a 619 on Jey, Jimmy protected Jey with Jimmy receiving the 619 instead. Jey then performed a roll-up on Rey with an assist from Jimmy to win the title for the fifth time, and their seventh overall tag team championship in WWE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "On the following night's \"Raw\", men's Money in the Bank ladder match winner Brock Lesnar along with Paul Heyman put out a warning to Universal Champion Seth Rollins and WWE Champion Kofi Kingston, who appeared via the wild card rule, and later teased cashing in on them. On \"SmackDown\", WWE Champion Kofi Kingston and Xavier Woods had a welcome back celebration for Big E, returning from his injury. Kevin Owens interrupted but The New Day berated him about losing. The following week, Kingston and Owens had a non-title rematch that Kingston also won. AJ Styles was interviewed on \"Raw\" about his loss to Universal Champion Seth Rollins, but was interrupted by Baron Corbin. The following week, Styles was scheduled to compete in a fatal four-way match for another opportunity to challenge Rollins at Super ShowDown, but was still ailing from injuries sustained from Money in the Bank and was replaced by Corbin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The brand split returned shortly after the 2016 event along with a new world title, but the 2017 event was SmackDown-exclusive and the contract was a match for its world championship, the WWE Championship (formerly WWE World Heavyweight Championship). The 2017 event also included the first-ever women's Money in the Bank ladder match, with the winner receiving a contract for a SmackDown Women's Championship match. Due to the controversy surrounding the ending of that match, the first non-pay-per-view Money in the Bank ladder match occurred on the June 27 episode of \"SmackDown Live\". The event became dual branded beginning with the 2018 event, involving both the Raw and SmackDown brands with one men's match and one women's match with participants evenly divided between the brands; the respective contracts guaranteed the winner a championship match for the top title of their respective brand, allowing Raw wrestlers (should they win) to cash-in on the Universal Championship or Raw Women's Championship, though in 2019, it was made so that the respective winners could challenge either brand's champion. In 2020, while the rules of the match remained the same, a \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick was added on top of the match; both the men's and women's matches, which were held at the same time, took place at WWE's Global Headquarters in Stamford, Connecticut in which the participants began on the ground floor of the building and fought their way to the roof where a ring and ladders were located with the briefcases suspended above the ring \u2014 this change was brought about due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The matches returned to their regular format for the 2021 event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "In 2005, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) established the Money in the Bank ladder match as an annual match at their marquee event, WrestleMania, debuting at WrestleMania 21. The match features multiple wrestlers using ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. Following WrestleMania XXVI in March 2010, WWE established a separate Money in the Bank event as a gimmick pay-per-view (PPV); the match subsequently ceased being held at WrestleMania. The inaugural event was held on July 18, 2010, at the Sprint Center in Kansas City, Missouri. Unlike WrestleMania, the Money in the Bank event included two ladder matches. One was exclusive to wrestlers from the Raw brand while the other was exclusive to those from SmackDown. Raw's match granted a contract for a WWE Championship match while SmackDown's granted a World Heavyweight Championship match contract."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "At WrestleMania 35, Becky Lynch defeated Ronda Rousey and Charlotte Flair in a winner takes all triple threat match to win both the Raw and SmackDown Women's Championships. She was then double-booked to defend both championships at Money in the Bank. For the Raw Women's Championship, NXT call-up Lacey Evans attacked the double champion on both \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\" following WrestleMania. Evans was subsequently drafted to Raw during the Superstar Shake-up and defeated Natalya to earn a Raw Women's Championship match. For the SmackDown Women's Championship, former champion Charlotte Flair took offense that she lost her title despite not being the one who was pinned at WrestleMania. Lynch exclaimed that she would not freely give Flair a rematch and demanded new challengers. Among the named challengers was new SmackDown draftee Bayley. Flair then defeated Bayley to earn a SmackDown Women's Championship match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The 2018 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on June 17, 2018, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. For the first time since 2011 with a brand split in effect, the event became dual-branded, involving both the Raw and SmackDown brands. The event included one male match and one female match with eight participants each, evenly divided between the brands. The contracts granted the winners a match for the world championship of their respective brand. The men's contract granted the winner a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while the women's contract granted the winner a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "The 2021 event was initially scheduled for May 16, however, it switched dates with WrestleMania Backlash and was to take place on June 20 until Hell in a Cell was announced for that date with Money in the Bank pushed back to July 18, which had originally been reported as the date for Extreme Rules. It was also reported that Money in the Bank would be held with live ticketed fans in attendance. Since August 2020, WWE had presented Raw and SmackDown's shows from a bio-secure bubble called the WWE ThunderDome due to the COVID-19 pandemic. With cases declining and vaccines available to most American citizens, the company announced that they would be leaving the ThunderDome and returning to live touring, starting with a 25-city tour beginning with the July 16, 2021, episode of \"SmackDown\" in Houston, Texas. Money in the Bank was in turn announced to take place at Dickies Arena in Fort Worth, Texas on July 18, thus it was the first WWE pay-per-view held outside of Florida since Elimination Chamber on March 8, 2020, and the first pay-per-view held following the end of the ThunderDome Era."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson defeated The Usos (Jey and Jimmy Uso) on the May 22 episode, therefore becoming the number one contenders to face The Bludgeon Brothers (Luke Harper and Erick Rowan) for the WWE SmackDown Tag Team Championship at Money in the Bank. Their bout was later scheduled for the Kickoff pre-show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The event featured eleven matches, including one match on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event matches, the Money in the Bank ladder matches for men and women were won by Braun Strowman and Alexa Bliss respectively. Bliss cashed in her contract later in the night to win the WWE Raw Women's Championship from Nia Jax after causing a disqualification in the previous title match between Ronda Rousey and Jax. In other prominent matches, AJ Styles retained the WWE Championship against Shinsuke Nakamura in a Last Man Standing match and Carmella retained the WWE SmackDown Women's Championship against Asuka with help from the returning James Ellsworth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank (2020)\n--Production.\n----Background.\n------Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.\n----Storylines.\n--Event.\n----Pre-show.\n----Preliminarily matches.\n----Main event.\n--Aftermath.\n----Raw.\n----SmackDown.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Th 2019 Money in the Bank was the 10th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network and took place on May 19, 2019, at the XL Center in Hartford, Connecticut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. For 2016, the winner received a contract for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match, later renamed to WWE Championship when the promotion reintroduced the brand extension in July, where they again split their roster between the Raw and SmackDown brands where wrestlers are exclusively assigned to perform. The 2016 event was the seventh event in the Money in the Bank chronology and it took place on June 19, 2016, at the T-Mobile Arena in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "The 2021 Money in the Bank was the 12th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) worldwide and was available to stream through Peacock in the United States and the WWE Network internationally, which made it the first Money in the Bank to air on Peacock. It took place on July 18, 2021, at Dickies Arena in Fort Worth, Texas. It was the first Money in the Bank event to take place in the state of Texas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Dave Meltzer of the \"Wrestling Observer Newsletter\" said, \"The WWE Universal Championship match was the rare WWE PPV match that would fit in on an NXT show\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "On the June 28 episode of \"SmackDown\", Senior Advisor Theodore Long introduced the participants in the Money in the Bank ladder match for a contract to wrestle for the World Heavyweight Championship: United States Champion Dean Ambrose, Cody Rhodes, Damien Sandow, Fandango, Antonio Cesaro, Jack Swagger, and Wade Barrett. In contrast with the WWE Championship contract match, all of these participants were heels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "At the tapings for \"SmackDown\" on June 25 (aired June 28), \"SmackDown\" Senior Advisor Theodore Long announced that the participants in the World Heavyweight Championship contract match would be WWE United States Champion Dean Ambrose, Fandango, Antonio Cesaro, Jack Swagger, Wade Barrett, Cody Rhodes and Damien Sandow. Sandow won the contract at the PPV. On the October 28, 2013, episode of \"Raw\", Sandow cashed in his contract on World Heavyweight Champion John Cena. Cena defeated Sandow, making Sandow the second wrestler to unsuccessfully cash in the contract and the first to lose a cash-in match via pinfall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Twelve matches were contested at the event including one on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, unannounced entrant Brock Lesnar won the men's Money in the Bank ladder match. Bayley won the women's ladder match in the opening match, and later cashed in the contract to win the SmackDown Women's Championship from Charlotte Flair, who herself had just won the title from Becky Lynch. In her other title defense, Lynch retained the Raw Women's Championship against Lacey Evans. In other prominent matches, Kofi Kingston defeated Kevin Owens to retain the WWE Championship, while Seth Rollins defeated AJ Styles to retain the Universal Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "In 2010 and 2011, the annual pay-per-views included two Money in the Bank ladder matches. To coincide with the brand extension, one ladder match was for wrestlers from the Raw brand with a match contract for its WWE Championship, while the other ladder match was for the SmackDown brand with a match contract for its World Heavyweight Championship. In April 2011, WWE ceased using its full name with the WWE abbreviation becoming an orphaned initialism. The brand split then ended in August 2011, after which, the Money in the Bank pay-per-views continued to have two ladder matches for match contracts for the respective titles. After the two titles were unified in , a championship match contract for the unified WWE World Heavyweight Championship became the prize of a single Money in the Bank ladder match. Also in 2014, the event moved to the June slot and it was also the first Money in the Bank event to air on WWE's online streaming service, the WWE Network, in addition to traditional PPV outlets. The brand split returned after the 2016 event, but the 2017 pay-per-view was SmackDown-exclusive. The championship match contract in the ladder match was for SmackDown's WWE Championship (formerly WWE World Heavyweight Championship). The 2017 event also featured the first-ever women's Money in the Bank ladder match with its contract being for a SmackDown Women's Championship match; each event since has featured a men's and women's match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "The four participants from Raw in the women's Money in the Bank ladder match were also revealed by Alexa Bliss during a separate \"A Moment of Bliss\" segment on the April 29 episode of \"Raw\": Natalya, Dana Brooke, new draftee Naomi, and Bliss herself. SmackDown's four participants were revealed on the following night's episode of \"SmackDown\": Bayley, Mandy Rose, new draftee Ember Moon, and Carmella. On the May 13 episode of \"Raw\", Bliss, who had lost her luggage, was replaced by new draftee Nikki Cross in a fatal four-way match between Raw's four participants. Cross won the match and later replaced Bliss in the ladder match as Bliss was not medically cleared to compete."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "During the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show, The Bludgeon Brothers (Harper and Rowan) defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson. In the climax, both Gallows and Anderson proceeded to apply the \"magic killer\" on Harper when Rowan speared Anderson and isolated Gallows. Harper and Rowan then performed \"the reckoning\" on Gallows to retain the titles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "The following night on \"Raw\", Cody Rhodes turned face by attacking Damien Sandow, ending Team Rhodes Scholars. On the July 26th 2013 edition of \"SmackDown\", Rhodes stole the briefcase while Sandow was facing (and was defeated by) Randy Orton and threw it into the Gulf of Mexico. Sandow couldn't retrieve it because he couldn't swim. On the August 5th 2013 edition of \"Raw\", Rhodes would throw the briefcase to Sandow and a match between the two was scheduled for SummerSlam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "The 2022 Money in the Bank is the upcoming 13th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling live event produced by WWE. It will be held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event will air on pay-per-view (PPV) worldwide and will be available to stream through Peacock in the United States and the WWE Network internationally. It is scheduled to take place on July 2, 2022, at Allegiant Stadium in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada. It will be the first time the event will be held in a National Football League stadium, thus becoming one of WWE's five biggest events of the year, alongside the Royal Rumble, WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "On the May 30 episode of \"Raw\", John Cena returned after recovering from a shoulder injury that left him out of action for five months. AJ Styles then came out to welcome him back until Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson, Styles' former teammates in The Club (which had broken up the previous week on Raw) appeared looking for a fight. Cena and Styles prepared to brawl with them, until Styles attacked Cena alongside Gallows and Anderson, turning heel and reforming The Club in the process. On June 3, a match between Cena and Styles was scheduled for Money in the Bank which WWE labeled as a \"WrestleMania Dream Match\". On the June 13 episode of \"Raw\", Cena presented Styles with two contracts: one allowing Gallows and Anderson to be in his corner, the other banning them so they could fight uninterrupted, and Styles chose the latter."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Raw",
        "text": "In February 2022, \"Raw\" and \"NXT\" temporarily moved to Syfy in the United States, due to USA Network broadcasting coverage of the 2022 Winter Olympics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The third Money in the Bank ladder match was held at WrestleMania 23, and was the first to involve eight participants from Raw, SmackDown!, and ECW. Qualifying matches began on the February 19 episode of \"Raw\". On the February 19 episode of \"Raw\", two former Money in the Bank winners (Edge and Rob Van Dam) faced off, with Edge earning a pinfall win to earn the first spot in the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Qualifying matches for the men's Money in the Bank ladder match began on the April 17 episode of \"SmackDown\" where Daniel Bryan defeated Cesaro to qualify. On the following \"Raw\", Aleister Black, Apollo Crews, and Rey Mysterio qualified for the match by defeating Austin Theory, Montel Vontavious Porter (MVP), and Murphy, respectively. King Corbin then qualified by defeating Drew Gulak on the April 24 episode of \"SmackDown\". On the April 27 episode of \"Raw\", Crews injured his left knee during his United States Championship match against Andrade, pulling him from the ladder match. Otis was the next to qualify by defeating Dolph Ziggler on the May 1 episode of \"SmackDown\". On the May 4 episode of \"Raw\", AJ Styles\u2014in his first appearance since being buried alive by The Undertaker at WrestleMania\u2014won a Last Chance gauntlet match to take the final spot vacated by Crews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "At WrestleMania 35, Shane McMahon defeated The Miz in a falls count anywhere match; during the match, Shane attacked Miz's father. Miz was then drafted to Raw during the Superstar Shake-up and attacked Shane as retribution. On the April 29 episode of \"Raw\", during Miz's match against Bobby Lashley, Shane distracted Miz, causing him to lose, leading to a brawl. Later, Miz challenged Shane to a steel cage match at Money in the Bank and Shane accepted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "Qualification matches for both ladder matches began on the June 21 episode of \"Raw\". For the men's match, Ricochet, John Morrison, Riddle, and Drew McIntyre qualified from Raw, while Big E, Kevin Owens, King Nakamura, and Seth Rollins qualified from SmackDown. Big E would go on to win the men's ladder match, granting him a guaranteed match of his choice for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship. Big E would then announce via Twitter that he would cash in his contract on the September 13 edition of Raw, becoming the fourth person to announce their cash-in match ahead of time, and would proceed to do so on WWE Champion Bobby Lashley after Lashley had just retained the title against Randy Orton, defeating Lashley to win the title."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Instead of waiting until \"SmackDown\", John Cena first appeared on \"Raw\" to explain his appearance at Money in the Bank. He stated that he wanted to put Reigns in his place and officially challenged Reigns for the Universal Championship at SummerSlam. On \"SmackDown\", however, Reigns rejected Cena's challenge and instead accepted a challenge from Finn B\u00e1lor, who had returned to SmackDown the previous week. An altercation occurred during the contract signing the following week, which ultimately led to Cena signing the match contract, officially scheduling Reigns to defend the title against Cena at SummerSlam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "The main rivalry from the SmackDown brand heading into the Money in the Bank event was between Rey Mysterio and Jack Swagger over the World Heavyweight Championship. Mysterio replaced The Undertaker, who was found in a vegetative state by his brother Kane, in a fatal four-way match, which also involved defending Champion Swagger, CM Punk and Big Show, to become a two-time World Heavyweight Champion. On the June 25 episode of \"SmackDown\", a rematch between Swagger and Mysterio was scheduled for Money in the Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "On the April 22 episode of \"Raw\", Chief Operating Officer Triple H scheduled two triple threat matches with the winners facing each other to determine Seth Rollins' next challenger for the Universal Championship. New Raw draftee AJ Styles defeated fellow draftees Rey Mysterio and Samoa Joe in the first triple threat match, while Baron Corbin defeated Drew McIntyre and new draftee The Miz in the second. Styles then defeated Corbin to earn a Universal Championship match against Rollins at Money in the Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "Beginning with the inaugural Money in the Bank pay-per-view in 2010, the event included two ladder matches, one for the Raw brand and one for SmackDown; Raw's ladder match was for a contract for a match for its top title at the time, the WWE Championship, while SmackDown's contract was for a match for its top title at the time, the World Heavyweight Championship. Although the brand split ended after the 2011 event, a ladder match dedicated to each championship continued through the 2013 event. In December 2013, the titles were unified as the WWE World Heavyweight Championship. The next three years' events included a sole ladder match with a contract guaranteeing a match for the unified title. The brand split returned after the 2016 event. The WWE World Heavyweight Championship (renamed to WWE Championship) was made exclusive to SmackDown, while Raw established the WWE Universal Championship as their top title. Despite this, the 2017 event was SmackDown-exclusive and the contract was for a match for its world title. The 2017 event also saw the first women's Money in the Bank match with its contract for a SmackDown Women's Championship match. The event became dual branded beginning with the 2018 event, involving both the Raw and SmackDown brands. It now features two ladder matches, one for males and one for females, and each has eight participants evenly divided between the brands. This was the first year that the winners could challenge for the Universal Championship and Raw Women's Championship, respectively. For 2018, the winners received a contract for a match for their respective brand's world championship, but in 2019, it was changed so that the winners could choose either brand's top championship. The 2020 event saw a variation to the match due to the COVID-19 pandemic; the men's and women's matches, featuring only six competitors each but still evenly divided between the brands, were moved to WWE's headquarters in Stamford, Connecticut and occurred at the same time, with all competitors beginning on the ground floor and fighting their way to the roof where the briefcases were suspended above a ring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "The penultimate match was the men's Money in the Bank ladder match, featuring Drew McIntyre, John Morrison, Ricochet, and Riddle from Raw and Big E, Kevin Owens, King Nakamura, and Seth Rollins from SmackDown. During the match, as McIntyre ascended the ladder, he was attacked by Jinder Mahal with a steel chair and was carried off by Mahal's henchmen Shanky and Veer\u2014continuing a rivalry that had recently begun on \"Raw\". As Ricochet ascended the ladder, Riddle tipped the ladder over and Ricochet jumped onto the other competitors, who were outside the ring. Riddle and Owens performed the RKO and Stunner, respectively, on the remaining competitors. As Owens ascended the ladder, Rollins pulled Owens off, performing a Powerbomb on Owens through a ladder that was wedged between the apron and announce table. As Rollins ascended the ladder, Big E stopped him and performed the Big Ending on Rollins off the ladder. Big E then ascended the ladder and unhooked the briefcase to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "2"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2014)",
        "text": "On the June 2 episode of \"Raw\", Alberto Del Rio qualified for the Money in the Bank ladder match by defeating Dolph Ziggler. The following week, following Daniel Bryan being stripped of his WWE World Heavyweight Championship due to injury, Stephanie McMahon changed the match into a ladder match for the vacant title. The same night, Triple H placed Randy Orton into the match, while United States Champion Sheamus and Cesaro defeated Intercontinental Champion Bad News Barrett and Rob Van Dam respectively to qualify. On the June 13 episode of \"SmackDown\", Bray Wyatt qualified for the match after defeating Dean Ambrose (with interference from Seth Rollins). On the June 16 episode of \"Raw\", John Cena won a spot in the match by defeating Kane in a Stretcher match, and Roman Reigns qualified for the match by winning a 19-man battle royal. On the June 23 episode of \"Raw\", Kane was added to the match by Triple H."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2012)",
        "text": "On the June 29 episode of \"SmackDown\", qualifying matches were held for the Money in the Bank Ladder Match for the World Heavyweight Championship contract. In those matches, Damien Sandow defeated Zack Ryder, Tyson Kidd defeated Jack Swagger, Santino Marella and Christian defeated Cody Rhodes and David Otunga in a tag team match and Tensai defeated Justin Gabriel. On the July 3 \"Great American Bash\" edition of \"SmackDown\", Rhodes defeated Christian and Dolph Ziggler defeated Alex Riley in two additional qualifying matches. The final qualifying match took place on the July 9 episode of Raw in which Sin Cara defeated Heath Slater."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "After feeling humiliated following his loss to John Cena, Kevin Owens challenged Cena to a match for the WWE United States Championship at Battleground, which Cena accepted on the June 22 episode of Raw. At The Beast in the East, Owens lost the NXT Championship to Finn B\u00e1lor. At Battleground, Cena retained the United States Championship to end their feud."
      },
      {
        "title": "Backlash (2018)",
        "text": "Following Backlash, there were also numerous Money in the Bank qualifying matches scheduled for the May 8 episode of \"SmackDown\", including Jeff Hardy vs. The Miz, Daniel Bryan vs. Rusev, and Charlotte Flair vs. Peyton Royce. Miz and Rusev won their respective matches for the males, while Charlotte won hers for the females."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "During the May 15 episode, SmackDown General Manager Paige interrupted SmackDown Women's Champion Carmella's celebration of her reign and scheduled a title match between her and Asuka for Money in the Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Qualifying matches for the women's Money in the Bank ladder match began on the April 13 episode of \"Raw\". Asuka, Shayna Baszler, and the returning Nia Jax qualified for the match by defeating Ruby Riott, Sarah Logan, and Kairi Sane, respectively. Dana Brooke then qualified by defeating Naomi on the April 17 episode of \"SmackDown\". On the following week's \"SmackDown\", Lacey Evans defeated Sasha Banks to qualify for the match. Carmella won the final spot by defeating Mandy Rose on the May 1 episode of \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "2019 WWE Superstar Shake-up",
        "text": "On Raw, new draftee Lacey Evans defeated Natalya to earn a Raw Women's Championship match against Becky Lynch at Money in the Bank. Natalya was subsequently entered into the women's Money in the Bank ladder match, along with Dana Brooke, Alexa Bliss, and new draftee Naomi; due to medical reasons, Bliss was subsequently replaced by new draftee Nikki Cross. New draftee AJ Styles earned a Universal Championship match against Seth Rollins at the event, while new draftees Samoa Joe and Rey Mysterio continued their feud from SmackDown, leading to a United States Championship match at Money in the Bank that Mysterio won. Bobby Roode, now a singles competitor, turned heel and changed his ring name to Robert Roode and became the second holder of WWE's 24/7 Championship that was introduced in May. New draftee The Miz continued his feud from SmackDown with authority figure Shane McMahon, leading to a steel cage match at Money in the Bank that Shane won. New draftee Ricochet was entered into the men's Money in the Bank ladder match, along with Braun Strowman, Drew McIntyre, and Baron Corbin, though Strowman was replaced by Sami Zayn. New draftees The Usos (Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso) began a feud with The Revival (Scott Dawson and Dash Wilder). After Eric Young's transfer to Raw, Alexander Wolfe moved to the NXT UK brand and Killian Dain moved to the NXT brand. In May 2019, Raw wrestler Tyler Breeze began appearing on \"NXT\" and unsuccessfully challenged Velveteen Dream for the NXT North American Championship at on June 1. Following that match, Breeze confirmed that he was back on NXT."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "During the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show, The Usos (Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso) faced SmackDown Tag Team Champions Daniel Bryan and Rowan in a non-title match. In the end, The Usos performed a double \"Uso Splash\" on Bryan to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Raw (WWE brand)",
        "text": "Beginning in December 2021, talents from Raw begin to appear on \"NXT 2.0\". Dave Meltzer of the \"Wrestling Observer Radio\" reported that a Raw-NXT crossover between their talents as a way to help boost NXT 2.0 ratings as both shows air on the USA Network."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "On the May 23 episode of \"SmackDown\", Commissioner Shane McMahon introduced AJ Styles, Shinsuke Nakamura, Dolph Ziggler, Sami Zayn, and Baron Corbin as the 2017 participants of the titular Money in the Bank ladder match. United States Champion Kevin Owens argued that he deserved to be in the match since he retained his title against Styles at Backlash. Shane agreed and added Owens to the match. Zayn then defeated Corbin in a rematch from Backlash, while Styles and Nakamura teamed up and defeated Owens and Ziggler. The following week, Owens and Corbin attacked Nakamura, who had been a guest on Owens' \"Highlight Reel\" segment, until Zayn came to the rescue. In the resulting tag team match, Nakamura and Zayn defeated Owens and Corbin. Later in the show, Ziggler defeated Styles, but lost a rematch a week later. On the same show, Corbin first attacked Zayn backstage and later assaulted Nakamura, who had just won a match against Owens. Mojo Rawley also had the opportunity to be added to the ladder match if he could defeat former rival and WWE Champion Jinder Mahal, but failed to do so. On the final \"SmackDown\" before Money in the Bank, Styles, Nakamura, and Zayn teamed up and defeated Owens, Ziggler, and Corbin. After the match, a brawl broke out between all six men that ended with Nakamura standing tall atop the ladder with the Money in the Bank briefcase."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many brand divisions does the WWE have?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They currently have four brands, main two brands, also referred to as the main roster, are Raw and SmackDown, and NXT and NXTUK serves as the promotion's developmental territory. Would you like to know more about one of these brands?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about NXT, please."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "NXT (also promoted as NXT 2.0) is a brand of the American professional wrestling promotion WWE that was introduced on February 23, 2010. The brand serves as a developmental territory for WWE's two main brands, Raw and SmackDown, which are referred to as the main roster, although in its original incarnation, NXT was a reality-based television show in which rookies competed to become a star in WWE before being relaunched as a separate brand in 2012."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me what Raw and SmackDown is about?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Raw and SmackDown are WWE's two main brands referred to as the main roster.",
      "As in other professional wrestling promotions, WWE shows are not legitimate contests but entertainment-based performance theater, featuring storyline-driven, scripted, and partially-choreographed matches."
    ],
    "topic": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "NXT (WWE brand):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "NXT (WWE brand)"
        ],
        "ctx": "NXT (also promoted as NXT 2.0) is a brand of the American professional wrestling promotion WWE that was introduced on February 23, 2010. Brands are divisions of WWE's roster where wrestlers are assigned to perform on a weekly basis when a brand extension is in effect. Wrestlers assigned to NXT primarily appear on the brand's weekly television program, \"NXT\", also referred to as \"NXT 2.0\". The brand serves as a developmental territory for WWE's two main brands, Raw and SmackDown, which are referred to as the main roster. Due to its status as the company's developmental territory, NXT operates regardless if there is a brand extension in effect or not."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "WWE:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "WWE"
        ],
        "ctx": "As in other professional wrestling promotions, WWE shows are not legitimate contests but entertainment-based performance theater, featuring storyline-driven, scripted, and partially-choreographed matches; however, matches often include moves that can put performers at risk of injury, even death, if not performed correctly. The pre-determined aspect of professional wrestling was publicly acknowledged by WWE's owner Vince McMahon in 1989 in order to avoid taxes from athletic commissions. WWE brands its product as sports entertainment, acknowledging wrestling's roots in competitive sport and dramatic theater."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "The event will include matches that resulte from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portray heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that build tension and culminate in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results are predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines are produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"Friday Night SmackDown.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The actual pay-per-view opened with The New Day (Big E and Kofi Kingston) defending the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The Miz and John Morrison, Lucha House Party (Lince Dorado and Gran Metalik), and The Forgotten Sons (Steve Cutler and Wesley Blake) (accompanied by Jaxson Ryker). During the match, Ryker was ejected from ringside for interference. In the climax, Big E performed the Big Ending on Metalik to retain the title."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "The event comprised seven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"Friday Night SmackDown.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The show comprised eight matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"Friday Night SmackDown.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between May and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship of their choosing at any time within the next year. The 2020 event featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands; male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract\u2014though the day after the event, it was revealed that the women's match was actually for the Raw Women's Championship instead of a title match contract due to the unexpected circumstances that forced the then-Raw Women's Champion to go on hiatus. The 2020 show was the 11th event in the Money in the Bank chronology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. Following the reintroduction of the brand extension in July 2016, in which WWE again divided its roster between the Raw and SmackDown brands where wrestlers exclusively perform, the 2017 event was made a SmackDown-exclusive pay-per-view; it would in turn be the only Money in the Bank event to be brand-exclusive during the second brand split as following WrestleMania 34 the following year, brand-exclusive pay-per-views were discontinued. For the first time in the event's history, the 2017 event featured a women's Money in the Bank ladder match, which is now featured at every year's event. As the 2017 event was a SmackDown-exclusive show, the respective male and female winners received title match contracts for SmackDown's world championships at the time: the WWE Championship and the SmackDown Women's Championship. The 2017 event was the eighth event in the Money in the Bank chronology and took place on June 18, 2017, at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis, Missouri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank (2021)\n--Production.\n----Background.\n----Storylines.\n------Cancelled match.\n--Event.\n----Pre-show.\n----Preliminary matches.\n----Main event.\n--Reception.\n--Aftermath.\n----Raw.\n----SmackDown.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "The 2017 event would be the only Money in the Bank PPV to be brand-exclusive, as following WrestleMania 34 in April 2018, brand-exclusive pay-per-views were discontinued, thus the events since have involved both the Raw and SmackDown brands. Beginning with the 2018 event, the ladder matches have eight participants evenly divided between the brands. The 2018 contracts granted the winners a championship match for their respective brand's world championship: the Universal Championship or WWE Championship, and the Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship. Beginning with the 2019 event, the winners can choose either brand's championship. The 2019 event also moved Money in the Bank to the May slot in WWE's pay-per-view calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick event, produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between May and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship of their choosing at any time within the next year. The 2022 event will feature wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands; male wrestlers will compete for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship, while female wrestlers will compete for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "The event was introduced during WWE's first brand extension period, and the events in 2010 and 2011 featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands. The first brand split then ended in August 2011. In mid-2016, the brand extension was reintroduced and the 2017 event was held exclusively for SmackDown. However, following WrestleMania 34 in April 2018, brand-exclusive pay-per-views were discontinued. While the eponymous match was originally only for male wrestlers, the 2017 event featured the first-ever women's version and the events since have featured two matches, one each for the men and women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. While the briefcases at the 2018 event contained contracts that guaranteed the winners a match for a world championship of their respective brand at any time within the next year, the 2019 contracts allowed the winners the choice of either brands' world championships. Since the 2017 event, each year's show has featured a men's and a women's ladder match, and beginning with 2018, each features eight wrestlers, evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands. Male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract. The 2019 event was the 10th event in the Money in the Bank chronology and featured wrestlers from the Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brands\u2014the only to feature the 205 Live brand. The 2019 event also moved Money in the Bank to the May slot of WWE's pay-per-view calendar, taking place on May 19, 2019, at the XL Center in Hartford, Connecticut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "The card composed twelve matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\", \"SmackDown Live\", and the cruiserweight-exclusive \"205 Live\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "After losing the SmackDown Tag Team Championship to The Hardy Boyz (Jeff Hardy and Matt Hardy), The Usos (Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso) were drafted to Raw in the Superstar Shake-up. Two weeks later, The Hardys relinquished the title after Jeff suffered a knee injury. On the May 7 episode of \"SmackDown\", The Usos appeared via the Wild Card Rule to challenge Daniel Bryan and Rowan for the vacant title in a losing effort. The following week, a non-title match between the two teams was scheduled for the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "The card included seven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers on the SmackDown brand. Storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television show \"SmackDown Live\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank (2018)\n--Production.\n----Background.\n----Storylines.\n------Raw.\n------SmackDown.\n--Event.\n----Pre-show.\n----Preliminary matches.\n----Main event.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between May and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship of their choosing at any time within the next year. The 2021 event featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands; male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract. While the previous year's event had featured a \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick, which took place at WWE's Titan Towers headquarters and had only six competitors in each match due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2021 event reverted to the standard version of the titular ladder match as well as returning to having eight competitors for both matches, evenly divided between the two brands. It was the 12th event in the Money in the Bank chronology and the first to be held in July since the 2013 event. It was also the first Money in the Bank to air on Peacock after the American version of the WWE Network merged under Peacock in March."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The event card comprised eleven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from the scripted storylines which were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"SmackDown Live\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. While the 2017 event was a SmackDown-exclusive pay-per-view, 2018 featured both the Raw and SmackDown brands as WWE discontinued brand-exclusive pay-per-views after WrestleMania 34 in April. The 2017 event also introduced the first women's Money in the Bank ladder match. The 2018 event in turn also had a men's and a women's match, which is now standard. For 2018, the contracts in the briefcases granted the winners a world championship match of their respective brand. Each match featured eight wrestlers, evenly divided between the two brands. Male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract. The 2018 event was the ninth event in the Money in the Bank chronology. It took place on June 17, 2018, at the Allstate Arena in Rosemont, Illinois. Tickets went online on March 5, 2018 through Ticketmaster."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "In August 2020, WWE began holding Raw and SmackDown's shows in a bio-secure bubble called the WWE ThunderDome. In May 2021, the company announced that they would be leaving the ThunderDome and returning to live touring, starting with a 25-city tour beginning with the July 16 episode of \"SmackDown\" in Houston, Texas. The 2021 Money in the Bank was in turn announced to take place at Dickies Arena in Fort Worth, Texas on July 18\u2014returning the event to its original July slot\u2014thus it was the first WWE pay-per-view held outside of Florida since Elimination Chamber on March 8, 2020 and the first pay-per-view held following the end of the ThunderDome Era. The 2021 event also reverted to the standard version of the titular ladder matches as well as returning to having eight competitors for both matches, evenly divided between the two brands. The 2021 event was also the first Money in the Bank to air on Peacock's WWE Network channel, following the merger of the American version of the WWE Network under Peacock in March that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank (2020)\n--Production.\n----Background.\n------Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.\n----Storylines.\n--Event.\n----Pre-show.\n----Preliminarily matches.\n----Main event.\n--Aftermath.\n----Raw.\n----SmackDown.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "On the same show, Executive Vice President Stephanie McMahon announced the participants competing in the Money in the Bank ladder match for a WWE Championship contract, which included CM Punk, Sheamus, Randy Orton, Daniel Bryan, Christian, Kane, and the returning Rob Van Dam. Unusually, all of these participants were faces at the time. On the July 8 episode of \"Raw\", Kane was removed from the match after being injured by the debuting Wyatt Family (Bray Wyatt, Luke Harper, and Erick Rowan)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "At Fatal 4-Way, the Money in the Bank ladder match was scheduled for a namesake pay-per-view. On the June 25 episode of \"SmackDown\", it was revealed that two Money in the Bank ladder matches would be held at the event for the Raw and SmackDown brands respectively, with the winners of the matches given a title match for the WWE Championship and World Heavyweight Championship respectively at a time of their choosing within the next 12 months. Three days later, \"Raw\" guest host Rob Zombie named his brand's eight competitors: Randy Orton, The Miz, R-Truth, Chris Jericho, Evan Bourne, Ted DiBiase, John Morrison, and Edge. On the July 5 episode of \"Raw\", The Miz attacked and injured R-Truth; he was taken out of the Money in the Bank match and replaced with Mark Henry the following week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "On the June 4th episode of \"SmackDown\", The Prime Time Players defeated The Ascension and The Lucha Dragons in a triple threat tag team match to become the #1 contenders to face The New Day for the WWE Tag Team Championship at the event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2011)",
        "text": "The professional wrestling matches at Money in the Bank featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, WWE. Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE's weekly television shows \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\" with the Raw and SmackDown brands\u2014storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs. These storylines provided the background to the 2011 event, which continued the storylines from the previous event in WWE's 2011 pay-per-view schedule, Capitol Punishment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "WWE initially did not announce whether the event would still go on from a different location (such as the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida where most WWE shows for Raw and SmackDown had been held since March 13), but on the April 17 episode of \"SmackDown\", it was announced that the two Money in the Bank ladder matches would take place at WWE's global headquarters in Stamford, Connecticut. A new \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick was also added to the matches, in which the participants had to travel from the ground floor of the building to the roof in order to locate the briefcases, which were suspended above a ring on the roof. It was also announced that the men's and women's matches would take place at the same time. With the changes in format, the number of participants in each match was also reduced to six; since the 2018 event, both the men's and women's ladder matches featured eight wrestlers that were evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands. While the ladder matches were pre-recorded on April 15 as cinematic matches, it was confirmed on the day of the event that all of the other matches would take place live from the WWE Performance Center with no fans in attendance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "The card consisted of eleven matches, including two on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers. Storylines between the characters played out on WWE's primary television programs, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The 2017 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on June 18, 2017, at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis, Missouri as an exclusive event for the SmackDown brand. For the traditional ladder match, which had a contract for a match for SmackDown's WWE Championship (formerly WWE World Heavyweight Championship), SmackDown Commissioner Shane McMahon announced AJ Styles, Shinsuke Nakamura, Dolph Ziggler, Sami Zayn, and Baron Corbin as the original five participants. United States Champion Kevin Owens was added after he convinced Shane to make him the sixth participant. Mojo Rawley had the opportunity to make it a seven-man match if he could defeat WWE Champion Jinder Mahal, but failed to do so. At the event, Baron Corbin won the match and received a WWE Championship match contract. On the August 15, 2017 episode of \"SmackDown Live\", John Cena had a non-title match against WWE Champion Jinder Mahal. As Cena was pinning Mahal, Corbin attacked him, causing a disqualification. Corbin then cashed in his Money in the Bank contract on Mahal, but as soon as the bell rung, he attacked Cena, who was on the apron, allowing Mahal to quickly roll-up Corbin for the win. This made Corbin the third wrestler to unsuccessfully cash in the contract and the second to lose a cash-in match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The 2020 Money in the Bank was the 11th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network on May 10, 2020. While the majority of the event aired live from the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida, the show's eponymous ladder matches were pre-recorded on April 15 at WWE's Titan Towers global headquarters building in Stamford, Connecticut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The 2018 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on June 17, 2018, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. For the first time since 2011 with a brand split in effect, the event became dual-branded, involving both the Raw and SmackDown brands. The event included one male match and one female match with eight participants each, evenly divided between the brands. The contracts granted the winners a match for the world championship of their respective brand. The men's contract granted the winner a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while the women's contract granted the winner a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2011)",
        "text": "The Raw Money in the Bank competitors were announced on the June 27 episode of \"Raw\" with no qualifying matches; these were Alberto Del Rio, Alex Riley, Evan Bourne, Jack Swagger, Kofi Kingston, Rey Mysterio, R-Truth, and The Miz. The SmackDown Money in the Bank competitors were announced on the July 1 \"SmackDown\" as Cody Rhodes, Daniel Bryan, Heath Slater, Justin Gabriel, Kane, Sheamus, Sin Cara, and Wade Barrett."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "The main event was the men's Money in the Bank ladder match, which began with seven of the eight scheduled participants: Baron Corbin, Drew McIntyre and Ricochet from Raw, and Ali, Andrade, Finn B\u00e1lor and Randy Orton from SmackDown \u2013 a replacement was not immediately announced for Sami Zayn. The finish saw Ali about to retrieve the briefcase, when Brock Lesnar (along with Paul Heyman) made a surprise return \u2013 making him Raw's unannounced fourth participant in place of Zayn. Lesnar ran to the ring, knocked Ali off the ladder, and then climbed the ladder to retrieve the briefcase to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The 2019 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on May 19, 2019, at the XL Center in Hartford, Connecticut. Like the 2018 event, there was one male ladder match and one female ladder match with eight participants each, evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands. Unlike 2018, however, the contracts granted the winners a match for the world championship of their choice. The men's contract granted the winner a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while the women's contract granted the winner a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, WWE had presented their shows for Raw and SmackDown from a bio-secure bubble called the WWE ThunderDome since August 2020, with the exception of WrestleMania 37 in April 2021, which was the company's first major event to have live ticketed fans since the pandemic began in mid-March 2020. With the decline of cases and the development of vaccines, WWE announced that they would be leaving the ThunderDome and returning to a live touring schedule in mid-July 2021 on a 25-city tour. Money in the Bank was the first WWE pay-per-view with a full crowd. The first pay-per-view held outside of the state of Florida since Elimination Chamber in March 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The 2021 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on July 18, 2021, at the Dickies Arena in Fort Worth, Texas, which was the first time that the event was held in Texas. This year's Money in the Bank was only WWE's second pay-per-view to have a ticketed live audience during the COVID-19 pandemic\u2014after WrestleMania 37 in April\u2014as since August 2020, the company presented shows from a bio-secure bubble called the WWE ThunderDome, after moving from a fanless set at the WWE Performance Center where the previous year's Money in the Bank event was held. The 2021 event was also WWE's first pay-per-view held following their resumption of live touring that began with the July 16 episode of \"SmackDown\". With the event back in front of a live audience, the Money in the Bank ladder matches returned to their regular format with each having eight participants evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "In February 2010, WWE announced that \"Money in the Bank\" would be the title to their July 18 pay-per-view event at the Sprint Center in Kansas City, Missouri. The event included two Money in the Bank ladder matches, one for each brand. Unlike previous iterations of the match, the winners could only challenge for their own brand's World Championship. All eight competitors for the Raw brand's match were announced on the June 28 episode of \"Raw\" by guest host Rob Zombie. The eight competitors were Randy Orton, The Miz, R-Truth, Chris Jericho, Evan Bourne, Ted DiBiase, John Morrison and Edge. On the July 5th episode of \"Raw\", R-Truth was involved in an injury storyline with The Miz and was subsequently removed from the match and replaced by Mark Henry. Two days later, WWE announced six of the competitors for the SmackDown brand's match through its official website: Matt Hardy, Kane, Cody Rhodes, Christian, Kofi Kingston and Big Show. On the July 9 episode of \"SmackDown\", Drew McIntyre and Dolph Ziggler both competed in qualifying matches and were added to the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "The 2021 event was initially scheduled for May 16, however, it switched dates with WrestleMania Backlash and was to take place on June 20 until Hell in a Cell was announced for that date with Money in the Bank pushed back to July 18, which had originally been reported as the date for Extreme Rules. It was also reported that Money in the Bank would be held with live ticketed fans in attendance. Since August 2020, WWE had presented Raw and SmackDown's shows from a bio-secure bubble called the WWE ThunderDome due to the COVID-19 pandemic. With cases declining and vaccines available to most American citizens, the company announced that they would be leaving the ThunderDome and returning to live touring, starting with a 25-city tour beginning with the July 16, 2021, episode of \"SmackDown\" in Houston, Texas. Money in the Bank was in turn announced to take place at Dickies Arena in Fort Worth, Texas on July 18, thus it was the first WWE pay-per-view held outside of Florida since Elimination Chamber on March 8, 2020, and the first pay-per-view held following the end of the ThunderDome Era."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "On the December 13, 2016, episode of \"SmackDown\", The Hype Bros (Mojo Rawley and Zack Ryder) won a battle royal to become the number one contenders for the SmackDown Tag Team Championship, but a knee injury sustained during the match took Ryder out for an estimated six to nine months. On the June 13 episode of \"SmackDown\", Ryder appeared backstage and was greeted by Rawley where the two declared that The Hype Bros were back. Afterwards on \"Talking Smack\", the two said that they felt that they should still be the number one contenders for the tag titles since they won that spot, but never got to have their championship match. Three days later, the two were scheduled to face The Col\u00f3ns (Primo and Epico) on the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "The 2022 Money in the Bank is the upcoming 13th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling live event produced by WWE. It will be held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event will air on pay-per-view (PPV) worldwide and will be available to stream through Peacock in the United States and the WWE Network internationally. It is scheduled to take place on July 2, 2022, at Allegiant Stadium in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada. It will be the first time the event will be held in a National Football League stadium, thus becoming one of WWE's five biggest events of the year, alongside the Royal Rumble, WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The brand split returned shortly after the 2016 event along with a new world title, but the 2017 event was SmackDown-exclusive and the contract was a match for its world championship, the WWE Championship (formerly WWE World Heavyweight Championship). The 2017 event also included the first-ever women's Money in the Bank ladder match, with the winner receiving a contract for a SmackDown Women's Championship match. Due to the controversy surrounding the ending of that match, the first non-pay-per-view Money in the Bank ladder match occurred on the June 27 episode of \"SmackDown Live\". The event became dual branded beginning with the 2018 event, involving both the Raw and SmackDown brands with one men's match and one women's match with participants evenly divided between the brands; the respective contracts guaranteed the winner a championship match for the top title of their respective brand, allowing Raw wrestlers (should they win) to cash-in on the Universal Championship or Raw Women's Championship, though in 2019, it was made so that the respective winners could challenge either brand's champion. In 2020, while the rules of the match remained the same, a \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick was added on top of the match; both the men's and women's matches, which were held at the same time, took place at WWE's Global Headquarters in Stamford, Connecticut in which the participants began on the ground floor of the building and fought their way to the roof where a ring and ladders were located with the briefcases suspended above the ring \u2014 this change was brought about due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The matches returned to their regular format for the 2021 event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "On the May 26 episode of \"SmackDown\", after WWE United States Champion Rusev defeated Kalisto to retain the title, Titus O'Neil came out to help Kalisto when Rusev refused to break his \"Accolade\" submission hold. On the May 30 episode of \"Raw\", after defeating Zack Ryder, Rusev started to insult the crowd and declared himself a \"true American hero\", leading to O'Neil coming out and punching Rusev. On June 8, a match between O'Neil and Rusev for the United States Championship was scheduled for Money in the Bank. On the June 13 episode of \"Raw\", Titus O'Neil walked out for his match when Rusev attacked him on the stage and applied the \"Accolade\", as WWE officials tried to pull Rusev off of O'Neil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Backlash (2018)",
        "text": "Following Backlash, there were also numerous Money in the Bank qualifying matches scheduled for the May 8 episode of \"SmackDown\", including Jeff Hardy vs. The Miz, Daniel Bryan vs. Rusev, and Charlotte Flair vs. Peyton Royce. Miz and Rusev won their respective matches for the males, while Charlotte won hers for the females."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The Money in the Bank idea was revived by Carlito on a February 2006 episode of \"Raw\". Mr. McMahon approved the suggestion and set up qualifying matches for the match that would take place at WrestleMania 22. It was later announced that the match was to be interpromotional, and SmackDown! general manager Theodore Long also set up qualifying matches to select three members of his roster to compete. In the Raw brand qualifying matches, Rob Van Dam defeated Trevor Murdoch, Shelton Benjamin defeated Chavo Guerrero, and Ric Flair defeated Carlito. On \"SmackDown!\", Finlay defeated Bobby Lashley, Matt Hardy defeated Road Warrior Animal, and Bobby Lashley won a \"last chance battle royal\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Also on \"SmackDown\", Jimmy Uso defeated Dominik Mysterio in a singles match, thanks to Jey assisting Jimmy during the pin, similar to the pin during Money in the Bank Kickoff that won The Usos the SmackDown Tag Team Championship from Dominik and Rey Mysterio."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "During \"A Moment of Bliss\" on the April 29 episode of \"Raw\", Alexa Bliss revealed Raw's four participants for the men's Money in the Bank ladder match: Braun Strowman, new draftee Ricochet, Drew McIntyre, and Baron Corbin. On \"SmackDown\" the next night, SmackDown's four participants were revealed: Ali, new draftee Finn B\u00e1lor, Andrade, and Randy Orton. On \"Raw\" the following week, Robert Roode (formerly Bobby Roode) had the chance to replace Ricochet in the ladder match if he could defeat Ricochet, but was unsuccessful. Sami Zayn then defeated Strowman in a falls count anywhere match on the May 13 episode of \"Raw\" after interference from Corbin and McIntyre, taking Strowman's spot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank comprised professional wrestling matches involving professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE's weekly television shows \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\" with the Raw and SmackDown brands\u2014storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "The card consisted of seven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers. Storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "The 2021 Money in the Bank was the 12th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) worldwide and was available to stream through Peacock in the United States and the WWE Network internationally, which made it the first Money in the Bank to air on Peacock. It took place on July 18, 2021, at Dickies Arena in Fort Worth, Texas. It was the first Money in the Bank event to take place in the state of Texas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "The professional wrestling matches at Money in the Bank featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, WWE. Storylines between the characters played out on WWE's primary television programs, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "During the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show, Rey Mysterio and Dominik Mysterio defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The Usos (Jey and Jimmy). During the match, Jey caught Rey with a Superkick in mid-air and then performed the Uso Splash on Rey for a nearfall. In the end, as Rey attempted a 619 on Jey, Jimmy protected Jey with Jimmy receiving the 619 instead. Jey then performed a roll-up on Rey with an assist from Jimmy to win the title for the fifth time, and their seventh overall tag team championship in WWE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "At Super ShowDown, \"The Fiend\" Bray Wyatt lost the Universal Championship to Goldberg, who in turn lost the title to Braun Strowman during WrestleMania 36 Part 1. On the following episode of \"SmackDown\", Wyatt interrupted Strowman after his match and reminded Strowman that it was he who brought him to the WWE with his old Wyatt Family stable. He then stated he wanted his title back and Strowman accepted the challenge, which was scheduled for Money in the Bank, though against Wyatt's normal self instead of The Fiend."
      },
      {
        "title": "SmackDown (WWE brand)",
        "text": "After the return of the brand split, most pay-per-views became exclusive to one brand, (with SmackDown producing Backlash (2016 and 2017), No Mercy (2016), , Elimination Chamber (2017), Money in the Bank (2017), Battleground (2017), Hell in a Cell (2017), Clash of Champions (2017) and Fastlane (2018)). From WrestleMania 34 onwards, all pay-per-views became dual-branded again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The professional wrestling matches at Money in the Bank featured professional wrestlers performing as either heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by the hosting promotion, WWE, on the Raw and SmackDown brands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "On the June 28 episode of \"SmackDown\", Senior Advisor Theodore Long introduced the participants in the Money in the Bank ladder match for a contract to wrestle for the World Heavyweight Championship: United States Champion Dean Ambrose, Cody Rhodes, Damien Sandow, Fandango, Antonio Cesaro, Jack Swagger, and Wade Barrett. In contrast with the WWE Championship contract match, all of these participants were heels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "During the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show, The Usos (Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso) faced SmackDown Tag Team Champions Daniel Bryan and Rowan in a non-title match. In the end, The Usos performed a double \"Uso Splash\" on Bryan to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Twelve matches were contested at the event including one on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, unannounced entrant Brock Lesnar won the men's Money in the Bank ladder match. Bayley won the women's ladder match in the opening match, and later cashed in the contract to win the SmackDown Women's Championship from Charlotte Flair, who herself had just won the title from Becky Lynch. In her other title defense, Lynch retained the Raw Women's Championship against Lacey Evans. In other prominent matches, Kofi Kingston defeated Kevin Owens to retain the WWE Championship, while Seth Rollins defeated AJ Styles to retain the Universal Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extreme Rules (2018)",
        "text": "At Money in the Bank, AJ Styles retained the WWE Championship against Shinsuke Nakamura in a Last Man Standing match. On the following episode of \"SmackDown\", Rusev won a gauntlet match to earn a title opportunity at Extreme Rules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "On June 30, six of the competitors for the SmackDown brand's match were named: Matt Hardy, Kane, Cody Rhodes, Christian, Kofi Kingston, and Big Show. On the July 9 episode of \"SmackDown\", Dolph Ziggler defeated Montel Vontavious Porter and Chavo Guerrero in a triple threat match to qualify for SmackDown's ladder match. On the same night, Drew McIntyre earned the final spot by pinning Kofi Kingston."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2011)",
        "text": "In 2010, WWE established Money in the Bank as a gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and it was held in July\u2014in April 2011, the promotion ceased going by its full name of World Wrestling Entertainment, with \"WWE\" becoming an orphaned initialism. The concept of the show came from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match that was originally held at WrestleMania from 2005 to 2010. The match features multiple wrestlers using ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. For 2011, two Money in the Bank ladder matches occurred. One was exclusive to wrestlers from the Raw brand while the other was exclusive to those from SmackDown. Raw's match granted a contract for a WWE Championship match while SmackDown's granted a World Heavyweight Championship match contract. The event took place on July 17, 2011, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. It was the second event under the Money in the Bank chronology and the last to occur under the first brand split, which ended in August. Tickets went on sale in May 2011 through Ticketmaster with prices ranging from US$25 to $300."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "During the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show, The Bludgeon Brothers (Harper and Rowan) defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson. In the climax, both Gallows and Anderson proceeded to apply the \"magic killer\" on Harper when Rowan speared Anderson and isolated Gallows. Harper and Rowan then performed \"the reckoning\" on Gallows to retain the titles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. For 2016, the winner received a contract for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match, later renamed to WWE Championship when the promotion reintroduced the brand extension in July, where they again split their roster between the Raw and SmackDown brands where wrestlers are exclusively assigned to perform. The 2016 event was the seventh event in the Money in the Bank chronology and it took place on June 19, 2016, at the T-Mobile Arena in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Th 2019 Money in the Bank was the 10th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network and took place on May 19, 2019, at the XL Center in Hartford, Connecticut."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, that year's event saw the number of competitors in both matches decreased to six. Additionally, while the rules of the match itself remained the same, a new \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick was also added to the matches, in which the participants had to travel from the ground floor of WWE Global Headquarters to the roof in order to reach the briefcases, which were suspended above a ring on the roof. Additionally for 2020, both the men's and women's matches took place at the same time. While the ladder matches were pre-recorded as cinematic matches, all of the other matches took place live from the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida with no fans in attendance. Additionally, the 2020 event was the first event to directly award a championship for winning the Money in the Bank ladder match; on the following night's episode of \"Raw\", it was revealed that the women's ladder match had actually been for the Raw Women's Championship due to reigning champion Becky Lynch going on maternity leave."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2014)",
        "text": "The card consisted of eight matches that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers. Storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "The winner of the Money in the Bank ladder match will win a contract for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match at any time within the next year. On the May 23 episode of \"Raw\", Sami Zayn, Cesaro, Chris Jericho, Dean Ambrose, and Kevin Owens all qualified for the match by defeating Sheamus, The Miz, Apollo Crews, Dolph Ziggler, and AJ Styles, respectively. On the May 26 episode of \"SmackDown\", Alberto Del Rio defeated Zack Ryder to qualify for the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE SmackDown",
        "text": "In January 2015, \"SmackDown\" returned to a Thursday time slot. The return to Thursday nights was expected to help attract a younger audience to Syfy, as well as more premium advertising dollars from marketers, who tend to spend more to promote their products, especially film releases, on the night as consumers head into the weekend. The last \"SmackDown\" airing on a Friday night had 2.43 million viewers with a 0.7 share. On January 7, 2016, \"SmackDown\" moved to USA Network, remaining on Thursday nights. With the move, all top three WWE programs\u2014\"Raw\", \"SmackDown\" and \"Tough Enough\"\u2014would air on the same network for the first time ever."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "In 2010 and 2011, the annual pay-per-views included two Money in the Bank ladder matches. To coincide with the brand extension, one ladder match was for wrestlers from the Raw brand with a match contract for its WWE Championship, while the other ladder match was for the SmackDown brand with a match contract for its World Heavyweight Championship. In April 2011, WWE ceased using its full name with the WWE abbreviation becoming an orphaned initialism. The brand split then ended in August 2011, after which, the Money in the Bank pay-per-views continued to have two ladder matches for match contracts for the respective titles. After the two titles were unified in , a championship match contract for the unified WWE World Heavyweight Championship became the prize of a single Money in the Bank ladder match. Also in 2014, the event moved to the June slot and it was also the first Money in the Bank event to air on WWE's online streaming service, the WWE Network, in addition to traditional PPV outlets. The brand split returned after the 2016 event, but the 2017 pay-per-view was SmackDown-exclusive. The championship match contract in the ladder match was for SmackDown's WWE Championship (formerly WWE World Heavyweight Championship). The 2017 event also featured the first-ever women's Money in the Bank ladder match with its contract being for a SmackDown Women's Championship match; each event since has featured a men's and women's match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "With the changes in format, the participants in each match were reduced from eight to six, but still evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands. For the women's match, Asuka, Shayna Baszler, and the returning Nia Jax qualified from Raw by defeating Ruby Riott, Sarah Logan, and Kairi Sane, respectively, while Dana Brooke, Lacey Evans, and Carmella filled out the SmackDown spots by defeating Naomi, Sasha Banks, and Mandy Rose, respectively. For the men's match, Aleister Black, Apollo Crews, and Rey Mysterio qualified from Raw by defeating Austin Theory, Montel Vontavious Porter, and Murphy, respectively, while Daniel Bryan, King Corbin, and Otis qualified from SmackDown by defeating Cesaro, Drew Gulak, and Dolph Ziggler, respectively. Crews, however, was injured by Andrade and was pulled from the match. A returning AJ Styles won Raw's vacant spot by winning a last chance gauntlet match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The event featured eleven matches, including one match on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event matches, the Money in the Bank ladder matches for men and women were won by Braun Strowman and Alexa Bliss respectively. Bliss cashed in her contract later in the night to win the WWE Raw Women's Championship from Nia Jax after causing a disqualification in the previous title match between Ronda Rousey and Jax. In other prominent matches, AJ Styles retained the WWE Championship against Shinsuke Nakamura in a Last Man Standing match and Carmella retained the WWE SmackDown Women's Championship against Asuka with help from the returning James Ellsworth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "Beginning with the inaugural Money in the Bank pay-per-view in 2010, the event included two ladder matches, one for the Raw brand and one for SmackDown; Raw's ladder match was for a contract for a match for its top title at the time, the WWE Championship, while SmackDown's contract was for a match for its top title at the time, the World Heavyweight Championship. Although the brand split ended after the 2011 event, a ladder match dedicated to each championship continued through the 2013 event. In December 2013, the titles were unified as the WWE World Heavyweight Championship. The next three years' events included a sole ladder match with a contract guaranteeing a match for the unified title. The brand split returned after the 2016 event. The WWE World Heavyweight Championship (renamed to WWE Championship) was made exclusive to SmackDown, while Raw established the WWE Universal Championship as their top title. Despite this, the 2017 event was SmackDown-exclusive and the contract was for a match for its world title. The 2017 event also saw the first women's Money in the Bank match with its contract for a SmackDown Women's Championship match. The event became dual branded beginning with the 2018 event, involving both the Raw and SmackDown brands. It now features two ladder matches, one for males and one for females, and each has eight participants evenly divided between the brands. This was the first year that the winners could challenge for the Universal Championship and Raw Women's Championship, respectively. For 2018, the winners received a contract for a match for their respective brand's world championship, but in 2019, it was changed so that the winners could choose either brand's top championship. The 2020 event saw a variation to the match due to the COVID-19 pandemic; the men's and women's matches, featuring only six competitors each but still evenly divided between the brands, were moved to WWE's headquarters in Stamford, Connecticut and occurred at the same time, with all competitors beginning on the ground floor and fighting their way to the roof where the briefcases were suspended above a ring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "On the July 1 episode of \"Raw\", Curtis Axel was scheduled to defend the Intercontinental Championship against The Miz, and that Kaitlyn would challenge AJ Lee for the Divas Championship, which AJ won from Kaitlyn at Payback."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "Next, The Usos defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The New Day's Big E and Kofi Kingston. In the end, Big E and Kingston performed the \"Midnight Hour\" on Jey. Kingston pinned Jey, only for Jimmy to pull Jey out of the ring to void the pinfall and the two were intentionally counted out. Thus, The New Day won, but The Usos retained the titles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The event was originally scheduled to take place at the Royal Farms Arena in Baltimore, Maryland, but the venue cancelled all shows that were to be held due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In response, WWE took advantage of the situation and moved the two titular ladder matches to their global headquarters building in Stamford with a new \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick where the match's titular briefcases were suspended above a ring on the building's roof. The wrestlers began on the ground floor and fought their way to the roof. The eponymous matches were produced as cinematic matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "On the June 21 episode of \"Raw\", as WWE Champion Bobby Lashley and his manager MVP were celebrating Lashley's win over Drew McIntyre at Hell in a Cell the previous night, they were interrupted by The New Day (Kofi Kingston and Xavier Woods). Kingston reminded Lashley that he had defeated him in a non-title match on the May 17 episode of \"Raw\" and that he had also never received a rematch for the title after he lost the championship to Brock Lesnar at SmackDown's 20th Anniversary in October 2019. Kingston then challenged Lashley for the title. Lashley accepted and the match was scheduled for Money in the Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of WWE SmackDown",
        "text": "From June 24, 2019, WWE implemented an order from Vince McMahon that there would be no wrestling during commercial breaks to \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\". An exception was during split screen viewing of both the match and commercials. This led to matches having breaks and restarts, and best of three falls matches with relatively quick falls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "During the May 15 episode, SmackDown General Manager Paige interrupted SmackDown Women's Champion Carmella's celebration of her reign and scheduled a title match between her and Asuka for Money in the Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The event received a mixed to positive reception from critics, with the ladder matches, WWE Championship, Raw Women's Championship and the Intercontinental Championship matches garnering the most praise. However, the remaining matches from the card, as well as the finish of the SmackDown Women's Championship match were negatively received."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "In 2005, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) established the Money in the Bank ladder match as an annual match at their marquee event, WrestleMania, debuting at WrestleMania 21. The match features multiple wrestlers using ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. Following WrestleMania XXVI in March 2010, WWE established a separate Money in the Bank event as a gimmick pay-per-view (PPV); the match subsequently ceased being held at WrestleMania. The inaugural event was held on July 18, 2010, at the Sprint Center in Kansas City, Missouri. Unlike WrestleMania, the Money in the Bank event included two ladder matches. One was exclusive to wrestlers from the Raw brand while the other was exclusive to those from SmackDown. Raw's match granted a contract for a WWE Championship match while SmackDown's granted a World Heavyweight Championship match contract."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Eight matches were contested at the event, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, Otis and Asuka won their respective Money in the Bank ladder matches, which were contested at the same time. In the penultimate match, Drew McIntyre defeated Seth Rollins to retain the WWE Championship. Other prominent matches included Braun Strowman defeating Bray Wyatt to retain the Universal Championship, and Bayley defeating Tamina to retain the SmackDown Women's Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson defeated The Usos (Jey and Jimmy Uso) on the May 22 episode, therefore becoming the number one contenders to face The Bludgeon Brothers (Luke Harper and Erick Rowan) for the WWE SmackDown Tag Team Championship at Money in the Bank. Their bout was later scheduled for the Kickoff pre-show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "On the following night's \"Raw\", men's Money in the Bank ladder match winner Brock Lesnar along with Paul Heyman put out a warning to Universal Champion Seth Rollins and WWE Champion Kofi Kingston, who appeared via the wild card rule, and later teased cashing in on them. On \"SmackDown\", WWE Champion Kofi Kingston and Xavier Woods had a welcome back celebration for Big E, returning from his injury. Kevin Owens interrupted but The New Day berated him about losing. The following week, Kingston and Owens had a non-title rematch that Kingston also won. AJ Styles was interviewed on \"Raw\" about his loss to Universal Champion Seth Rollins, but was interrupted by Baron Corbin. The following week, Styles was scheduled to compete in a fatal four-way match for another opportunity to challenge Rollins at Super ShowDown, but was still ailing from injuries sustained from Money in the Bank and was replaced by Corbin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "At Backlash, The Usos (Jey and Jimmy Uso) retained the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against Breezango (Fandango and Tyler Breeze) and again in a rematch on the following episode of \"SmackDown\". On the May 30 episode, The Usos declared that no team could defeat them. They were then interrupted by The New Day (Big E, Kofi Kingston, and Xavier Woods), making their first appearance on \"SmackDown\" since they were moved to the brand during the Superstar Shake-up. A match was then scheduled between the two teams for the titles at Money in the Bank. The following week, after The New Day defeated The Col\u00f3ns (Primo and Epico), The Usos came out and taunted them, calling The New Day old news. The New Day and Breezango then teamed up and defeated The Usos and The Col\u00f3ns on the final \"SmackDown\" before Money in the Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "At the tapings for \"SmackDown\" on June 25 (aired June 28), \"SmackDown\" Senior Advisor Theodore Long announced that the participants in the World Heavyweight Championship contract match would be WWE United States Champion Dean Ambrose, Fandango, Antonio Cesaro, Jack Swagger, Wade Barrett, Cody Rhodes and Damien Sandow. Sandow won the contract at the PPV. On the October 28, 2013, episode of \"Raw\", Sandow cashed in his contract on World Heavyweight Champion John Cena. Cena defeated Sandow, making Sandow the second wrestler to unsuccessfully cash in the contract and the first to lose a cash-in match via pinfall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "The four participants from Raw in the women's Money in the Bank ladder match were also revealed by Alexa Bliss during a separate \"A Moment of Bliss\" segment on the April 29 episode of \"Raw\": Natalya, Dana Brooke, new draftee Naomi, and Bliss herself. SmackDown's four participants were revealed on the following night's episode of \"SmackDown\": Bayley, Mandy Rose, new draftee Ember Moon, and Carmella. On the May 13 episode of \"Raw\", Bliss, who had lost her luggage, was replaced by new draftee Nikki Cross in a fatal four-way match between Raw's four participants. Cross won the match and later replaced Bliss in the ladder match as Bliss was not medically cleared to compete."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Instead of waiting until \"SmackDown\", John Cena first appeared on \"Raw\" to explain his appearance at Money in the Bank. He stated that he wanted to put Reigns in his place and officially challenged Reigns for the Universal Championship at SummerSlam. On \"SmackDown\", however, Reigns rejected Cena's challenge and instead accepted a challenge from Finn B\u00e1lor, who had returned to SmackDown the previous week. An altercation occurred during the contract signing the following week, which ultimately led to Cena signing the match contract, officially scheduling Reigns to defend the title against Cena at SummerSlam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The 2018 Money in the Bank was the ninth annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network and it took place on June 17, 2018, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "The 2017 Money in the Bank was the eighth annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held exclusively for wrestlers from the promotion's SmackDown brand division. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network and took place on June 18, 2017, at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis, Missouri. It was the first event to feature a Women's Money in the Bank ladder match, and was also the only brand-exclusive Money in the Bank event to be held during either of WWE's brand extension periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2012)",
        "text": "On the June 25 episode of \"Raw\", Vickie Guerrero announced that only previous WWE Champions may participate in the Money in the Bank Ladder Match for the WWE Championship contract. The four participants announced were Kane, Chris Jericho, Big Show and John Cena. Earlier, during the pay-per-view, The Miz would return from filming The Marine 3: Homefront and announced that he would insert himself in the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "The following night on \"Raw\", Cody Rhodes turned face by attacking Damien Sandow, ending Team Rhodes Scholars. On the July 26th 2013 edition of \"SmackDown\", Rhodes stole the briefcase while Sandow was facing (and was defeated by) Randy Orton and threw it into the Gulf of Mexico. Sandow couldn't retrieve it because he couldn't swim. On the August 5th 2013 edition of \"Raw\", Rhodes would throw the briefcase to Sandow and a match between the two was scheduled for SummerSlam."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Four Horsewomen",
        "text": "brand, while Bayley, Lynch, and Banks all perform on the Smackdown brand. On October 1st edition of Smackdown, the WWE draft took place. The current RAW Women's Champion, Charlotte Flair was drafted to Smackdown, along with Sasha Banks on the following RAW. Becky Lynch, the current Smackdown Women's Champion was drafted to RAW on the same night. Bayley is currently injured and out of competition due to a torn ACL. She was not drafted in the 2021 draft, making her a free agent. None of these draft results will tale effect until after the Crown Jewel pay-per-view, WWE's only show in Saudi Arabia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "On the May 23 episode of \"SmackDown\", Commissioner Shane McMahon introduced AJ Styles, Shinsuke Nakamura, Dolph Ziggler, Sami Zayn, and Baron Corbin as the 2017 participants of the titular Money in the Bank ladder match. United States Champion Kevin Owens argued that he deserved to be in the match since he retained his title against Styles at Backlash. Shane agreed and added Owens to the match. Zayn then defeated Corbin in a rematch from Backlash, while Styles and Nakamura teamed up and defeated Owens and Ziggler. The following week, Owens and Corbin attacked Nakamura, who had been a guest on Owens' \"Highlight Reel\" segment, until Zayn came to the rescue. In the resulting tag team match, Nakamura and Zayn defeated Owens and Corbin. Later in the show, Ziggler defeated Styles, but lost a rematch a week later. On the same show, Corbin first attacked Zayn backstage and later assaulted Nakamura, who had just won a match against Owens. Mojo Rawley also had the opportunity to be added to the ladder match if he could defeat former rival and WWE Champion Jinder Mahal, but failed to do so. On the final \"SmackDown\" before Money in the Bank, Styles, Nakamura, and Zayn teamed up and defeated Owens, Ziggler, and Corbin. After the match, a brawl broke out between all six men that ended with Nakamura standing tall atop the ladder with the Money in the Bank briefcase."
      },
      {
        "title": "Theodore Long",
        "text": "After the announcement of the restored WWE brand extension, on the June 6, 2016 episode of \"Raw\", Long returned in the opening segment between the Money in the Bank participants, requesting another run as general manager of SmackDown, only to be turned away by Stephanie McMahon. He would make several other appearances throughout the course of the night including his attempt of making a tag team match between The Golden Truth and Breezango before being escorted out of the building by security."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of WWE Raw",
        "text": "From June 24, 2019, WWE implemented an order from Vince McMahon that there would be no wrestling during commercial breaks to \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\". An exception was during split screen viewing of both the match and commercials. This led to matches having breaks and restarts, and best of three falls matches with relatively quick falls. This measure was discontinued after the March 9, 2020 episode of \"Raw\" as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, with all future episodes of the program being recorded at the WWE Performance Center beginning with the following week's episode."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE",
        "text": "On May 25, 2016, WWE announced a relaunch of the brand extension, billed as the \"New Era\". Following that announcement, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\" now each feature their unique rosters, announcers, ring sets/ropes, and championships. A draft took place to determine which wrestlers would appear on what show. \"SmackDown\" also moved from Thursdays to Tuesday nights, which began on July 19 (the night of the aforementioned draft), and airs live instead of the previous pre-recorded format."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "On \"Raw\", Sami Zayn was scheduled to face Braun Strowman. Zayn attempted to get help from Bobby Lashley, who was scheduled to face Strowman at Super ShowDown. Lashley, however, refused to help Zayn who lost to Strowman. Also on \"Raw\", as Lars Sullivan was about to be interviewed in regard to his attack on Lucha House Party (Kalisto, Lince Dorado, and Gran Metalik), he was interrupted by the team. The trio attacked Sullivan, however, Sullivan fended them off. A 3-on-1 handicap match pitting Sullivan against Lucha House Party was scheduled for Super ShowDown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2012)",
        "text": "On the June 29 episode of \"SmackDown\", qualifying matches were held for the Money in the Bank Ladder Match for the World Heavyweight Championship contract. In those matches, Damien Sandow defeated Zack Ryder, Tyson Kidd defeated Jack Swagger, Santino Marella and Christian defeated Cody Rhodes and David Otunga in a tag team match and Tensai defeated Justin Gabriel. On the July 3 \"Great American Bash\" edition of \"SmackDown\", Rhodes defeated Christian and Dolph Ziggler defeated Alex Riley in two additional qualifying matches. The final qualifying match took place on the July 9 episode of Raw in which Sin Cara defeated Heath Slater."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Qualifying matches for the men's Money in the Bank ladder match began on the June 21 episode of \"Raw\". Ricochet, John Morrison, and Riddle qualified by defeating AJ Styles, Randy Orton, and Drew McIntyre, respectively. Raw's final spot was determined in a triple threat match the following week, which was originally scheduled to be between Styles, Orton, and McIntyre; however, Orton was unable to compete for unknown reasons. A battle royal was held to fill Orton's spot in the triple threat match. Orton's RKBro tag team partner Riddle convinced WWE officials Adam Pearce and Sonya Deville to allow him to compete in the battle royal where if he won, he would represent Orton in the triple threat match. Although Riddle won the battle royal, McIntyre won the triple threat match to earn Raw's final spot in the Money in the Bank ladder match. SmackDown's first spot was filled by Big E, who qualified by defeating Intercontinental Champion Apollo Crews on the June 25 episode of \"SmackDown\". The following week, Kevin Owens qualified by defeating Sami Zayn in a Last Man Standing match, which was a rematch from Hell in a Cell that Zayn had won. SmackDown's last two spots were filled on the July 9 episode: Seth Rollins defeated Cesaro, which was another rematch from Hell in a Cell that Rollins had also won, and King Nakamura defeated Baron Corbin, previously King Corbin before he lost his King of the Ring crown to Shinsuke Nakamura, who took on the king moniker."
      },
      {
        "title": "SmackDown (WWE brand)",
        "text": "On the August 29, 2011 episode of \"Raw\", it was announced that performers from Raw and SmackDown were no longer exclusive to their respective brand. Subsequently, championships previously exclusive to one show or the other were available for wrestlers from any show to compete for\u2014this would mark the end of the brand extension as all programming and live events featured the full WWE roster. In a 2013 interview with \"Advertising Age\", Stephanie McMahon explained that WWE's decision to end the brand extension was due to wanting their content to flow across television and online platforms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Qualifying matches for the men's Money in the Bank ladder match began on the April 17 episode of \"SmackDown\" where Daniel Bryan defeated Cesaro to qualify. On the following \"Raw\", Aleister Black, Apollo Crews, and Rey Mysterio qualified for the match by defeating Austin Theory, Montel Vontavious Porter (MVP), and Murphy, respectively. King Corbin then qualified by defeating Drew Gulak on the April 24 episode of \"SmackDown\". On the April 27 episode of \"Raw\", Crews injured his left knee during his United States Championship match against Andrade, pulling him from the ladder match. Otis was the next to qualify by defeating Dolph Ziggler on the May 1 episode of \"SmackDown\". On the May 4 episode of \"Raw\", AJ Styles\u2014in his first appearance since being buried alive by The Undertaker at WrestleMania\u2014won a Last Chance gauntlet match to take the final spot vacated by Crews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Seven matches were contested at the event, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, Roman Reigns defeated Edge to retain the Universal Championship. Additionally, Big E and Nikki A.S.H. won their respective men's and women's Money in the Bank ladder matches. In other prominent matches, Bobby Lashley defeated Kofi Kingston to retain the WWE Championship and Charlotte Flair defeated Rhea Ripley to win her record-tying fifth Raw Women's Championship and 13th overall singles championship in the women's division. The event also saw the surprise return of John Cena, appearing for the first time since WrestleMania 36 in April 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2014)",
        "text": "The actual pay-per-view opened with The Usos defending the WWE Tag Team Championship against The Wyatt Family's Luke Harper and Erick Rowan. In the end, Jimmy and Jey executed a double Superplex on Rowan. Jey performed a Samoan Splash on Rowan, which was followed by Jimmy performing a Samoan Splash on Rowan to retain the title."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many brand divisions does the WWE have?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They currently have four brands, main two brands, also referred to as the main roster, are Raw and SmackDown, and NXT and NXTUK serves as the promotion's developmental territory. Would you like to know more about one of these brands?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about NXT, please."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "NXT (also promoted as NXT 2.0) is a brand of the American professional wrestling promotion WWE that was introduced on February 23, 2010. The brand serves as a developmental territory for WWE's two main brands, Raw and SmackDown, which are referred to as the main roster, although in its original incarnation, NXT was a reality-based television show in which rookies competed to become a star in WWE before being relaunched as a separate brand in 2012."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me what Raw and SmackDown is about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Raw and SmackDown are WWE's two main brands referred to as the main roster."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which event had more viewers from the latest Raw and Smackdown?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information.",
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
    ],
    "topic": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": []
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The 2020 Money in the Bank was the 11th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network on May 10, 2020. While the majority of the event aired live from the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida, the show's eponymous ladder matches were pre-recorded on April 15 at WWE's Titan Towers global headquarters building in Stamford, Connecticut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "The 2022 Money in the Bank is the upcoming 13th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling live event produced by WWE. It will be held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event will air on pay-per-view (PPV) worldwide and will be available to stream through Peacock in the United States and the WWE Network internationally. It is scheduled to take place on July 2, 2022, at Allegiant Stadium in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada. It will be the first time the event will be held in a National Football League stadium, thus becoming one of WWE's five biggest events of the year, alongside the Royal Rumble, WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "The 2021 Money in the Bank was the 12th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) worldwide and was available to stream through Peacock in the United States and the WWE Network internationally, which made it the first Money in the Bank to air on Peacock. It took place on July 18, 2021, at Dickies Arena in Fort Worth, Texas. It was the first Money in the Bank event to take place in the state of Texas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "The event will include matches that resulte from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portray heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that build tension and culminate in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results are predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines are produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"Friday Night SmackDown.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick event, produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between May and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship of their choosing at any time within the next year. The 2022 event will feature wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands; male wrestlers will compete for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship, while female wrestlers will compete for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "The event comprised seven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"Friday Night SmackDown.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The show comprised eight matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"Friday Night SmackDown.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank (2021)\n--Production.\n----Background.\n----Storylines.\n------Cancelled match.\n--Event.\n----Pre-show.\n----Preliminary matches.\n----Main event.\n--Reception.\n--Aftermath.\n----Raw.\n----SmackDown.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank (2020)\n--Production.\n----Background.\n------Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.\n----Storylines.\n--Event.\n----Pre-show.\n----Preliminarily matches.\n----Main event.\n--Aftermath.\n----Raw.\n----SmackDown.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between May and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship of their choosing at any time within the next year. The 2020 event featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands; male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract\u2014though the day after the event, it was revealed that the women's match was actually for the Raw Women's Championship instead of a title match contract due to the unexpected circumstances that forced the then-Raw Women's Champion to go on hiatus. The 2020 show was the 11th event in the Money in the Bank chronology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Th 2019 Money in the Bank was the 10th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network and took place on May 19, 2019, at the XL Center in Hartford, Connecticut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between May and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship of their choosing at any time within the next year. The 2021 event featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands; male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract. While the previous year's event had featured a \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick, which took place at WWE's Titan Towers headquarters and had only six competitors in each match due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2021 event reverted to the standard version of the titular ladder match as well as returning to having eight competitors for both matches, evenly divided between the two brands. It was the 12th event in the Money in the Bank chronology and the first to be held in July since the 2013 event. It was also the first Money in the Bank to air on Peacock after the American version of the WWE Network merged under Peacock in March."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "In August 2020, WWE began holding Raw and SmackDown's shows in a bio-secure bubble called the WWE ThunderDome. In May 2021, the company announced that they would be leaving the ThunderDome and returning to live touring, starting with a 25-city tour beginning with the July 16 episode of \"SmackDown\" in Houston, Texas. The 2021 Money in the Bank was in turn announced to take place at Dickies Arena in Fort Worth, Texas on July 18\u2014returning the event to its original July slot\u2014thus it was the first WWE pay-per-view held outside of Florida since Elimination Chamber on March 8, 2020 and the first pay-per-view held following the end of the ThunderDome Era. The 2021 event also reverted to the standard version of the titular ladder matches as well as returning to having eight competitors for both matches, evenly divided between the two brands. The 2021 event was also the first Money in the Bank to air on Peacock's WWE Network channel, following the merger of the American version of the WWE Network under Peacock in March that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The event card comprised eleven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from the scripted storylines which were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"SmackDown Live\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "As with WWE's other programming since March 13, 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic necessitated changes to the PPV; Money in the Bank was originally announced to be held on May 10, 2020, at the Royal Farms Arena in Baltimore, Maryland. However, on March 30, one week before WrestleMania 36, Maryland Governor Larry Hogan issued a stay at home order. An advertisement promoting Money in the Bank for May 10 aired during WrestleMania 36 Part 2 on April 5, but with no reference to a city or venue. Subsequently, Royal Farms Arena cancelled all events due to the pandemic and began issuing refunds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. While the briefcases at the 2018 event contained contracts that guaranteed the winners a match for a world championship of their respective brand at any time within the next year, the 2019 contracts allowed the winners the choice of either brands' world championships. Since the 2017 event, each year's show has featured a men's and a women's ladder match, and beginning with 2018, each features eight wrestlers, evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands. Male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract. The 2019 event was the 10th event in the Money in the Bank chronology and featured wrestlers from the Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brands\u2014the only to feature the 205 Live brand. The 2019 event also moved Money in the Bank to the May slot of WWE's pay-per-view calendar, taking place on May 19, 2019, at the XL Center in Hartford, Connecticut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The 2018 Money in the Bank was the ninth annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network and it took place on June 17, 2018, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "The card composed twelve matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\", \"SmackDown Live\", and the cruiserweight-exclusive \"205 Live\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "The main event was the men's Money in the Bank ladder match, which began with seven of the eight scheduled participants: Baron Corbin, Drew McIntyre and Ricochet from Raw, and Ali, Andrade, Finn B\u00e1lor and Randy Orton from SmackDown \u2013 a replacement was not immediately announced for Sami Zayn. The finish saw Ali about to retrieve the briefcase, when Brock Lesnar (along with Paul Heyman) made a surprise return \u2013 making him Raw's unannounced fourth participant in place of Zayn. Lesnar ran to the ring, knocked Ali off the ladder, and then climbed the ladder to retrieve the briefcase to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "The 2021 event was initially scheduled for May 16, however, it switched dates with WrestleMania Backlash and was to take place on June 20 until Hell in a Cell was announced for that date with Money in the Bank pushed back to July 18, which had originally been reported as the date for Extreme Rules. It was also reported that Money in the Bank would be held with live ticketed fans in attendance. Since August 2020, WWE had presented Raw and SmackDown's shows from a bio-secure bubble called the WWE ThunderDome due to the COVID-19 pandemic. With cases declining and vaccines available to most American citizens, the company announced that they would be leaving the ThunderDome and returning to live touring, starting with a 25-city tour beginning with the July 16, 2021, episode of \"SmackDown\" in Houston, Texas. Money in the Bank was in turn announced to take place at Dickies Arena in Fort Worth, Texas on July 18, thus it was the first WWE pay-per-view held outside of Florida since Elimination Chamber on March 8, 2020, and the first pay-per-view held following the end of the ThunderDome Era."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "On the same show, Executive Vice President Stephanie McMahon announced the participants competing in the Money in the Bank ladder match for a WWE Championship contract, which included CM Punk, Sheamus, Randy Orton, Daniel Bryan, Christian, Kane, and the returning Rob Van Dam. Unusually, all of these participants were faces at the time. On the July 8 episode of \"Raw\", Kane was removed from the match after being injured by the debuting Wyatt Family (Bray Wyatt, Luke Harper, and Erick Rowan)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "During the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show, The Bludgeon Brothers (Harper and Rowan) defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson. In the climax, both Gallows and Anderson proceeded to apply the \"magic killer\" on Harper when Rowan speared Anderson and isolated Gallows. Harper and Rowan then performed \"the reckoning\" on Gallows to retain the titles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "At Super ShowDown, \"The Fiend\" Bray Wyatt lost the Universal Championship to Goldberg, who in turn lost the title to Braun Strowman during WrestleMania 36 Part 1. On the following episode of \"SmackDown\", Wyatt interrupted Strowman after his match and reminded Strowman that it was he who brought him to the WWE with his old Wyatt Family stable. He then stated he wanted his title back and Strowman accepted the challenge, which was scheduled for Money in the Bank, though against Wyatt's normal self instead of The Fiend."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The actual pay-per-view opened with The New Day (Big E and Kofi Kingston) defending the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The Miz and John Morrison, Lucha House Party (Lince Dorado and Gran Metalik), and The Forgotten Sons (Steve Cutler and Wesley Blake) (accompanied by Jaxson Ryker). During the match, Ryker was ejected from ringside for interference. In the climax, Big E performed the Big Ending on Metalik to retain the title."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "The 2022 event was announced during the 2021 SummerSlam, which was held at the Allegiant Stadium in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada. Money in the Bank was announced to be held at the same venue on July 2, 2022, marking the first time that a Money in the Bank event will be held in a National Football League stadium. In addition to airing on traditional pay-per-view (PPV), it will air on Peacock in the United States and the WWE Network in international markets. While Money in the Bank had been established as one of WWE's monthly PPVs held between their \"Big Four\" shows (Royal Rumble, WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series), in October 2021, WWE President and Chief Revenue Officer Nick Khan referred to Money in the Bank as one of the company's \"five annual tentpoles\", thus elevating its status as one of WWE's five biggest events of the year, colloquially referred to as the \"Big Five\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The event was originally scheduled to take place at the Royal Farms Arena in Baltimore, Maryland, but the venue cancelled all shows that were to be held due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In response, WWE took advantage of the situation and moved the two titular ladder matches to their global headquarters building in Stamford with a new \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick where the match's titular briefcases were suspended above a ring on the building's roof. The wrestlers began on the ground floor and fought their way to the roof. The eponymous matches were produced as cinematic matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "After losing the SmackDown Tag Team Championship to The Hardy Boyz (Jeff Hardy and Matt Hardy), The Usos (Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso) were drafted to Raw in the Superstar Shake-up. Two weeks later, The Hardys relinquished the title after Jeff suffered a knee injury. On the May 7 episode of \"SmackDown\", The Usos appeared via the Wild Card Rule to challenge Daniel Bryan and Rowan for the vacant title in a losing effort. The following week, a non-title match between the two teams was scheduled for the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "The card included seven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers on the SmackDown brand. Storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television show \"SmackDown Live\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank (2018)\n--Production.\n----Background.\n----Storylines.\n------Raw.\n------SmackDown.\n--Event.\n----Pre-show.\n----Preliminary matches.\n----Main event.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "The 2017 Money in the Bank was the eighth annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held exclusively for wrestlers from the promotion's SmackDown brand division. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network and took place on June 18, 2017, at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis, Missouri. It was the first event to feature a Women's Money in the Bank ladder match, and was also the only brand-exclusive Money in the Bank event to be held during either of WWE's brand extension periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "During the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show, The Usos (Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso) faced SmackDown Tag Team Champions Daniel Bryan and Rowan in a non-title match. In the end, The Usos performed a double \"Uso Splash\" on Bryan to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. Following the reintroduction of the brand extension in July 2016, in which WWE again divided its roster between the Raw and SmackDown brands where wrestlers exclusively perform, the 2017 event was made a SmackDown-exclusive pay-per-view; it would in turn be the only Money in the Bank event to be brand-exclusive during the second brand split as following WrestleMania 34 the following year, brand-exclusive pay-per-views were discontinued. For the first time in the event's history, the 2017 event featured a women's Money in the Bank ladder match, which is now featured at every year's event. As the 2017 event was a SmackDown-exclusive show, the respective male and female winners received title match contracts for SmackDown's world championships at the time: the WWE Championship and the SmackDown Women's Championship. The 2017 event was the eighth event in the Money in the Bank chronology and took place on June 18, 2017, at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis, Missouri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "During the May 15 episode, SmackDown General Manager Paige interrupted SmackDown Women's Champion Carmella's celebration of her reign and scheduled a title match between her and Asuka for Money in the Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "During the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show, Rey Mysterio and Dominik Mysterio defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The Usos (Jey and Jimmy). During the match, Jey caught Rey with a Superkick in mid-air and then performed the Uso Splash on Rey for a nearfall. In the end, as Rey attempted a 619 on Jey, Jimmy protected Jey with Jimmy receiving the 619 instead. Jey then performed a roll-up on Rey with an assist from Jimmy to win the title for the fifth time, and their seventh overall tag team championship in WWE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. While the 2017 event was a SmackDown-exclusive pay-per-view, 2018 featured both the Raw and SmackDown brands as WWE discontinued brand-exclusive pay-per-views after WrestleMania 34 in April. The 2017 event also introduced the first women's Money in the Bank ladder match. The 2018 event in turn also had a men's and a women's match, which is now standard. For 2018, the contracts in the briefcases granted the winners a world championship match of their respective brand. Each match featured eight wrestlers, evenly divided between the two brands. Male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract. The 2018 event was the ninth event in the Money in the Bank chronology. It took place on June 17, 2018, at the Allstate Arena in Rosemont, Illinois. Tickets went online on March 5, 2018 through Ticketmaster."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "The 2016 Money in the Bank was the seventh annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network. It took place on June 19, 2016, at the T-Mobile Arena in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Also on \"SmackDown\", Jimmy Uso defeated Dominik Mysterio in a singles match, thanks to Jey assisting Jimmy during the pin, similar to the pin during Money in the Bank Kickoff that won The Usos the SmackDown Tag Team Championship from Dominik and Rey Mysterio."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2014)",
        "text": "The 2014 Money in the Bank was the fifth annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. In addition to airing on pay-per-view (PPV), the event was available through WWE's online streaming service, the WWE Network, which made it the first Money in the Bank event to air on the WWE Network. The event took place on June 29, 2014, at the TD Garden in Boston, Massachusetts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. For 2016, the winner received a contract for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match, later renamed to WWE Championship when the promotion reintroduced the brand extension in July, where they again split their roster between the Raw and SmackDown brands where wrestlers are exclusively assigned to perform. The 2016 event was the seventh event in the Money in the Bank chronology and it took place on June 19, 2016, at the T-Mobile Arena in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "The card consisted of eleven matches, including two on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers. Storylines between the characters played out on WWE's primary television programs, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2011)",
        "text": "The professional wrestling matches at Money in the Bank featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, WWE. Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE's weekly television shows \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\" with the Raw and SmackDown brands\u2014storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs. These storylines provided the background to the 2011 event, which continued the storylines from the previous event in WWE's 2011 pay-per-view schedule, Capitol Punishment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The 2021 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on July 18, 2021, at the Dickies Arena in Fort Worth, Texas, which was the first time that the event was held in Texas. This year's Money in the Bank was only WWE's second pay-per-view to have a ticketed live audience during the COVID-19 pandemic\u2014after WrestleMania 37 in April\u2014as since August 2020, the company presented shows from a bio-secure bubble called the WWE ThunderDome, after moving from a fanless set at the WWE Performance Center where the previous year's Money in the Bank event was held. The 2021 event was also WWE's first pay-per-view held following their resumption of live touring that began with the July 16 episode of \"SmackDown\". With the event back in front of a live audience, the Money in the Bank ladder matches returned to their regular format with each having eight participants evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson defeated The Usos (Jey and Jimmy Uso) on the May 22 episode, therefore becoming the number one contenders to face The Bludgeon Brothers (Luke Harper and Erick Rowan) for the WWE SmackDown Tag Team Championship at Money in the Bank. Their bout was later scheduled for the Kickoff pre-show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Twelve matches were contested at the event including one on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, unannounced entrant Brock Lesnar won the men's Money in the Bank ladder match. Bayley won the women's ladder match in the opening match, and later cashed in the contract to win the SmackDown Women's Championship from Charlotte Flair, who herself had just won the title from Becky Lynch. In her other title defense, Lynch retained the Raw Women's Championship against Lacey Evans. In other prominent matches, Kofi Kingston defeated Kevin Owens to retain the WWE Championship, while Seth Rollins defeated AJ Styles to retain the Universal Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The professional wrestling matches at Money in the Bank featured professional wrestlers performing as either heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by the hosting promotion, WWE, on the Raw and SmackDown brands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, WWE had presented their shows for Raw and SmackDown from a bio-secure bubble called the WWE ThunderDome since August 2020, with the exception of WrestleMania 37 in April 2021, which was the company's first major event to have live ticketed fans since the pandemic began in mid-March 2020. With the decline of cases and the development of vaccines, WWE announced that they would be leaving the ThunderDome and returning to a live touring schedule in mid-July 2021 on a 25-city tour. Money in the Bank was the first WWE pay-per-view with a full crowd. The first pay-per-view held outside of the state of Florida since Elimination Chamber in March 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank comprised professional wrestling matches involving professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE's weekly television shows \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\" with the Raw and SmackDown brands\u2014storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Bray Wyatt made his return on the June 19 episode of \"SmackDown\" in a \"Firefly Fun House\" segment and stated that his rivalry with Braun Strowman was just getting started before appearing as his old cult leader persona of The Wyatt Family. Wyatt stated that since he created Strowman, it was his job to destroy him. The following week, Strowman responded by challenging Wyatt to a non-title match at a swamp called the Wyatt Swamp Fight which was scheduled for The Horror Show at Extreme Rules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "The 2015 Money in the Bank was the sixth annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network and took place on June 14, 2015, at the Nationwide Arena in Columbus, Ohio. It was the first WWE pay-per-view event that was held in Columbus since 2004's Bad Blood. Money in the Bank was available for free to new subscribers as part of a free-trial to WWE's monthly subscription service of the WWE Network in over 140 countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Seven matches were contested at the event, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, Roman Reigns defeated Edge to retain the Universal Championship. Additionally, Big E and Nikki A.S.H. won their respective men's and women's Money in the Bank ladder matches. In other prominent matches, Bobby Lashley defeated Kofi Kingston to retain the WWE Championship and Charlotte Flair defeated Rhea Ripley to win her record-tying fifth Raw Women's Championship and 13th overall singles championship in the women's division. The event also saw the surprise return of John Cena, appearing for the first time since WrestleMania 36 in April 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Instead of waiting until \"SmackDown\", John Cena first appeared on \"Raw\" to explain his appearance at Money in the Bank. He stated that he wanted to put Reigns in his place and officially challenged Reigns for the Universal Championship at SummerSlam. On \"SmackDown\", however, Reigns rejected Cena's challenge and instead accepted a challenge from Finn B\u00e1lor, who had returned to SmackDown the previous week. An altercation occurred during the contract signing the following week, which ultimately led to Cena signing the match contract, officially scheduling Reigns to defend the title against Cena at SummerSlam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Roman Reigns had a rematch with Elias on \"SmackDown\" that Reigns also won, but was attacked by Drew McIntyre, who appeared via the wild card rule. Reigns was also scheduled to face Shane McMahon at Super ShowDown. Miz confronted Shane backstage on \"Raw\", but was intervened by McIntyre, who defeated Miz in a match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "The professional wrestling matches at Money in the Bank featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, WWE. Storylines between the characters played out on WWE's primary television programs, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "On the July 1 episode of \"Raw\", Curtis Axel was scheduled to defend the Intercontinental Championship against The Miz, and that Kaitlyn would challenge AJ Lee for the Divas Championship, which AJ won from Kaitlyn at Payback."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2011)",
        "text": "The 2011 Money in the Bank was the second annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling pay-per-view event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. It took place on July 17, 2011, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. This was the last Money in the Bank held under the first brand extension, which ended in August, but was reinstated in July 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2011)",
        "text": "The Raw Money in the Bank competitors were announced on the June 27 episode of \"Raw\" with no qualifying matches; these were Alberto Del Rio, Alex Riley, Evan Bourne, Jack Swagger, Kofi Kingston, Rey Mysterio, R-Truth, and The Miz. The SmackDown Money in the Bank competitors were announced on the July 1 \"SmackDown\" as Cody Rhodes, Daniel Bryan, Heath Slater, Justin Gabriel, Kane, Sheamus, Sin Cara, and Wade Barrett."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "On the May 26 episode of \"SmackDown\", after WWE United States Champion Rusev defeated Kalisto to retain the title, Titus O'Neil came out to help Kalisto when Rusev refused to break his \"Accolade\" submission hold. On the May 30 episode of \"Raw\", after defeating Zack Ryder, Rusev started to insult the crowd and declared himself a \"true American hero\", leading to O'Neil coming out and punching Rusev. On June 8, a match between O'Neil and Rusev for the United States Championship was scheduled for Money in the Bank. On the June 13 episode of \"Raw\", Titus O'Neil walked out for his match when Rusev attacked him on the stage and applied the \"Accolade\", as WWE officials tried to pull Rusev off of O'Neil."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "The winner of the Money in the Bank ladder match will win a contract for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match at any time within the next year. On the May 23 episode of \"Raw\", Sami Zayn, Cesaro, Chris Jericho, Dean Ambrose, and Kevin Owens all qualified for the match by defeating Sheamus, The Miz, Apollo Crews, Dolph Ziggler, and AJ Styles, respectively. On the May 26 episode of \"SmackDown\", Alberto Del Rio defeated Zack Ryder to qualify for the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "On the April 23 episode of \"205 Live\", Ariya Daivari defeated Oney Lorcan. General Manager Drake Maverick then scheduled Tony Nese to defend the WWE Cruiserweight Championship against Daivari at Money in the Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "On \"Raw\", Sami Zayn was scheduled to face Braun Strowman. Zayn attempted to get help from Bobby Lashley, who was scheduled to face Strowman at Super ShowDown. Lashley, however, refused to help Zayn who lost to Strowman. Also on \"Raw\", as Lars Sullivan was about to be interviewed in regard to his attack on Lucha House Party (Kalisto, Lince Dorado, and Gran Metalik), he was interrupted by the team. The trio attacked Sullivan, however, Sullivan fended them off. A 3-on-1 handicap match pitting Sullivan against Lucha House Party was scheduled for Super ShowDown."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "WWE initially did not announce whether the event would still go on from a different location (such as the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida where most WWE shows for Raw and SmackDown had been held since March 13), but on the April 17 episode of \"SmackDown\", it was announced that the two Money in the Bank ladder matches would take place at WWE's global headquarters in Stamford, Connecticut. A new \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick was also added to the matches, in which the participants had to travel from the ground floor of the building to the roof in order to locate the briefcases, which were suspended above a ring on the roof. It was also announced that the men's and women's matches would take place at the same time. With the changes in format, the number of participants in each match was also reduced to six; since the 2018 event, both the men's and women's ladder matches featured eight wrestlers that were evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands. While the ladder matches were pre-recorded on April 15 as cinematic matches, it was confirmed on the day of the event that all of the other matches would take place live from the WWE Performance Center with no fans in attendance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "The card consisted of seven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers. Storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Eight matches were contested at the event, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, Otis and Asuka won their respective Money in the Bank ladder matches, which were contested at the same time. In the penultimate match, Drew McIntyre defeated Seth Rollins to retain the WWE Championship. Other prominent matches included Braun Strowman defeating Bray Wyatt to retain the Universal Championship, and Bayley defeating Tamina to retain the SmackDown Women's Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Qualifying matches for the women's Money in the Bank ladder match began on the April 13 episode of \"Raw\". Asuka, Shayna Baszler, and the returning Nia Jax qualified for the match by defeating Ruby Riott, Sarah Logan, and Kairi Sane, respectively. Dana Brooke then qualified by defeating Naomi on the April 17 episode of \"SmackDown\". On the following week's \"SmackDown\", Lacey Evans defeated Sasha Banks to qualify for the match. Carmella won the final spot by defeating Mandy Rose on the May 1 episode of \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "The 2013 Money in the Bank was the fourth annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by WWE. The event took place on July 14, 2013, at the Wells Fargo Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was final Money in the Bank event to be held in July until the 2021 event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "During the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show, Jeff Hardy faced Cesaro. In the end, Hardy performed a Swanton Bomb on Cesaro to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "During \"A Moment of Bliss\" on the April 29 episode of \"Raw\", Alexa Bliss revealed Raw's four participants for the men's Money in the Bank ladder match: Braun Strowman, new draftee Ricochet, Drew McIntyre, and Baron Corbin. On \"SmackDown\" the next night, SmackDown's four participants were revealed: Ali, new draftee Finn B\u00e1lor, Andrade, and Randy Orton. On \"Raw\" the following week, Robert Roode (formerly Bobby Roode) had the chance to replace Ricochet in the ladder match if he could defeat Ricochet, but was unsuccessful. Sami Zayn then defeated Strowman in a falls count anywhere match on the May 13 episode of \"Raw\" after interference from Corbin and McIntyre, taking Strowman's spot."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "After that, Breezango (Fandango and Tyler Breeze) made their entrance to the ring. Earlier backstage, they received a video of two unidentifiable people who claimed credit for attacking Breeze on \"SmackDown\". They told Breezango to come to the ring to find out who they were, which was revealed to be The Ascension (Konnor and Viktor). Breezango won the impromptu match after Fandango pinned Viktor with a small package."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "On the June 28 episode of \"SmackDown\", Senior Advisor Theodore Long introduced the participants in the Money in the Bank ladder match for a contract to wrestle for the World Heavyweight Championship: United States Champion Dean Ambrose, Cody Rhodes, Damien Sandow, Fandango, Antonio Cesaro, Jack Swagger, and Wade Barrett. In contrast with the WWE Championship contract match, all of these participants were heels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "In the main event, both the men's and women's Money in the Bank ladder matches were contested simultaneously at WWE Global Headquarters. The women's match featured Asuka, Shayna Baszler, Nia Jax, Lacey Evans, Carmella, and Dana Brooke, while the men's match featured AJ Styles, Rey Mysterio, Aleister Black, King Corbin, Daniel Bryan, and Otis. The women began in the lobby, where Asuka performed a splash off the mezzanine onto the other competitors before escaping in an elevator. The men, meanwhile, began in the gym, where Otis pinned Styles under a barbell. After leaving the gym, Mysterio ran past a restroom where he encountered Brother Love."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "On the June 4th episode of \"SmackDown\", The Prime Time Players defeated The Ascension and The Lucha Dragons in a triple threat tag team match to become the #1 contenders to face The New Day for the WWE Tag Team Championship at the event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The 2019 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on May 19, 2019, at the XL Center in Hartford, Connecticut. Like the 2018 event, there was one male ladder match and one female ladder match with eight participants each, evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands. Unlike 2018, however, the contracts granted the winners a match for the world championship of their choice. The men's contract granted the winner a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while the women's contract granted the winner a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "At Fatal 4-Way, the Money in the Bank ladder match was scheduled for a namesake pay-per-view. On the June 25 episode of \"SmackDown\", it was revealed that two Money in the Bank ladder matches would be held at the event for the Raw and SmackDown brands respectively, with the winners of the matches given a title match for the WWE Championship and World Heavyweight Championship respectively at a time of their choosing within the next 12 months. Three days later, \"Raw\" guest host Rob Zombie named his brand's eight competitors: Randy Orton, The Miz, R-Truth, Chris Jericho, Evan Bourne, Ted DiBiase, John Morrison, and Edge. On the July 5 episode of \"Raw\", The Miz attacked and injured R-Truth; he was taken out of the Money in the Bank match and replaced with Mark Henry the following week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The 2017 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on June 18, 2017, at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis, Missouri as an exclusive event for the SmackDown brand. For the traditional ladder match, which had a contract for a match for SmackDown's WWE Championship (formerly WWE World Heavyweight Championship), SmackDown Commissioner Shane McMahon announced AJ Styles, Shinsuke Nakamura, Dolph Ziggler, Sami Zayn, and Baron Corbin as the original five participants. United States Champion Kevin Owens was added after he convinced Shane to make him the sixth participant. Mojo Rawley had the opportunity to make it a seven-man match if he could defeat WWE Champion Jinder Mahal, but failed to do so. At the event, Baron Corbin won the match and received a WWE Championship match contract. On the August 15, 2017 episode of \"SmackDown Live\", John Cena had a non-title match against WWE Champion Jinder Mahal. As Cena was pinning Mahal, Corbin attacked him, causing a disqualification. Corbin then cashed in his Money in the Bank contract on Mahal, but as soon as the bell rung, he attacked Cena, who was on the apron, allowing Mahal to quickly roll-up Corbin for the win. This made Corbin the third wrestler to unsuccessfully cash in the contract and the second to lose a cash-in match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The 2020 Money in the Bank pay-per-view aired on May 10, 2020. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was not held at its originally announced venue of Royal Farms Arena in Baltimore. The event's eponymous ladder matches were moved to WWE's global headquarters in Stamford, Connecticut with an added \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick for the matches; the participants in each match began on the ground floor and fought their way to the roof, where the briefcases were suspended above a ring on the roof. The ladder matches were pre-recorded on April 15 as cinematic matches, but the rest of the event's matches occurred live at the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2014)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by WWE since 2010. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. For 2014, only one Money in the Bank ladder match occurred and the winner received a contract for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match, following the unification of the WWE Championship and World Heavyweight Championship at in December 2013. The 2014 event was the fifth event in the Money in the Bank chronology. The event was previously held in July, but for 2014, the event was moved to June and was held on June 29, 2014, at the TD Garden in Boston, Massachusetts. In addition to traditional pay-per-view outlets, the 2014 event was the first Money in the Bank to air on the WWE Network, which launched in February."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, that year's event saw the number of competitors in both matches decreased to six. Additionally, while the rules of the match itself remained the same, a new \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick was also added to the matches, in which the participants had to travel from the ground floor of WWE Global Headquarters to the roof in order to reach the briefcases, which were suspended above a ring on the roof. Additionally for 2020, both the men's and women's matches took place at the same time. While the ladder matches were pre-recorded as cinematic matches, all of the other matches took place live from the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida with no fans in attendance. Additionally, the 2020 event was the first event to directly award a championship for winning the Money in the Bank ladder match; on the following night's episode of \"Raw\", it was revealed that the women's ladder match had actually been for the Raw Women's Championship due to reigning champion Becky Lynch going on maternity leave."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "The 2010 Money in the Bank was the inaugural Money in the Bank professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event took place on July 18, 2010, at the Sprint Center in Kansas City, Missouri. The event included two Money in the Bank ladder matches, one for each brand. The eponymous ladder match was previously held at WrestleMania from 2005 to 2010. Following WrestleMania XXVI in March, the match concept was spun off into its own PPV event. The event received 169,000 pay-per-view buys."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Qualifying matches for the men's Money in the Bank ladder match began on the April 17 episode of \"SmackDown\" where Daniel Bryan defeated Cesaro to qualify. On the following \"Raw\", Aleister Black, Apollo Crews, and Rey Mysterio qualified for the match by defeating Austin Theory, Montel Vontavious Porter (MVP), and Murphy, respectively. King Corbin then qualified by defeating Drew Gulak on the April 24 episode of \"SmackDown\". On the April 27 episode of \"Raw\", Crews injured his left knee during his United States Championship match against Andrade, pulling him from the ladder match. Otis was the next to qualify by defeating Dolph Ziggler on the May 1 episode of \"SmackDown\". On the May 4 episode of \"Raw\", AJ Styles\u2014in his first appearance since being buried alive by The Undertaker at WrestleMania\u2014won a Last Chance gauntlet match to take the final spot vacated by Crews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The event featured eleven matches, including one match on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event matches, the Money in the Bank ladder matches for men and women were won by Braun Strowman and Alexa Bliss respectively. Bliss cashed in her contract later in the night to win the WWE Raw Women's Championship from Nia Jax after causing a disqualification in the previous title match between Ronda Rousey and Jax. In other prominent matches, AJ Styles retained the WWE Championship against Shinsuke Nakamura in a Last Man Standing match and Carmella retained the WWE SmackDown Women's Championship against Asuka with help from the returning James Ellsworth."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "The 2022 event was announced during the 2021 SummerSlam, which was held at the Allegiant Stadium in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada. Money in the Bank was announced to be held at the same venue on July 2, 2022, marking the first time for a Money in the Bank event to be held in a National Football League stadium. While Money in the Bank had been established as one of WWE's monthly PPVs held between their \"Big Four\" shows (Royal Rumble, WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series), in October 2021, WWE President and Chief Revenue Officer Nick Khan referred to Money in the Bank as one of the company's \"five annual tentpoles\", thus elevating the event's status as one of WWE's five biggest events of the year, referred to as the \"Big Five\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "On the June 21 episode of \"Raw\", as WWE Champion Bobby Lashley and his manager MVP were celebrating Lashley's win over Drew McIntyre at Hell in a Cell the previous night, they were interrupted by The New Day (Kofi Kingston and Xavier Woods). Kingston reminded Lashley that he had defeated him in a non-title match on the May 17 episode of \"Raw\" and that he had also never received a rematch for the title after he lost the championship to Brock Lesnar at SmackDown's 20th Anniversary in October 2019. Kingston then challenged Lashley for the title. Lashley accepted and the match was scheduled for Money in the Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The event received a mixed to positive reception from critics, with the ladder matches, WWE Championship, Raw Women's Championship and the Intercontinental Championship matches garnering the most praise. However, the remaining matches from the card, as well as the finish of the SmackDown Women's Championship match were negatively received."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2014)",
        "text": "Eight matches took place at the event, with no match aired on the Kickoff pre-show. The titular ladder match for the Money in the Bank contract was won by Seth Rollins. The main event was a ladder match for the vacant WWE World Heavyweight Championship, which was won by John Cena. The event received 122,000 buys (excluding WWE Network views), down from the previous year's 199,000 buys."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "United States Champion Kevin Owens felt that the other five participants of the Money in the Bank ladder match conspired against him, and that was why he did not win. He then issued a U.S. Championship open challenge to any local competitor. AJ Styles came out to accept the challenge, but Owens denied him since Styles was not from Dayton, Ohio. American Alpha's Chad Gable then answered the challenge, saying that he had moved to Dayton \"[that] morning\", but Owens retained in the ensuing match. Also on the show, Baron Corbin teased cashing in his Money in the Bank contract during WWE Champion Jinder Mahal's non-title match against Luke Harper, and General Manager Daniel Bryan, who praised Sami Zayn's efforts in the ladder match, scheduled Zayn to face Corbin the following week, where Corbin won. Corbin cashed in his Money in the Bank contract on the August 15 episode of \"SmackDown\", but as soon as the match started, he attacked John Cena instead, allowing Mahal to roll him up for the victory, making Corbin the third wrestler to fail to win a title upon cash-in."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "At WrestleMania 35, Shane McMahon defeated The Miz in a falls count anywhere match; during the match, Shane attacked Miz's father. Miz was then drafted to Raw during the Superstar Shake-up and attacked Shane as retribution. On the April 29 episode of \"Raw\", during Miz's match against Bobby Lashley, Shane distracted Miz, causing him to lose, leading to a brawl. Later, Miz challenged Shane to a steel cage match at Money in the Bank and Shane accepted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "On the following night's \"Raw\", men's Money in the Bank ladder match winner Brock Lesnar along with Paul Heyman put out a warning to Universal Champion Seth Rollins and WWE Champion Kofi Kingston, who appeared via the wild card rule, and later teased cashing in on them. On \"SmackDown\", WWE Champion Kofi Kingston and Xavier Woods had a welcome back celebration for Big E, returning from his injury. Kevin Owens interrupted but The New Day berated him about losing. The following week, Kingston and Owens had a non-title rematch that Kingston also won. AJ Styles was interviewed on \"Raw\" about his loss to Universal Champion Seth Rollins, but was interrupted by Baron Corbin. The following week, Styles was scheduled to compete in a fatal four-way match for another opportunity to challenge Rollins at Super ShowDown, but was still ailing from injuries sustained from Money in the Bank and was replaced by Corbin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Dave Meltzer of the \"Wrestling Observer Newsletter\" said, \"The WWE Universal Championship match was the rare WWE PPV match that would fit in on an NXT show\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The Money in the Bank idea was revived by Carlito on a February 2006 episode of \"Raw\". Mr. McMahon approved the suggestion and set up qualifying matches for the match that would take place at WrestleMania 22. It was later announced that the match was to be interpromotional, and SmackDown! general manager Theodore Long also set up qualifying matches to select three members of his roster to compete. In the Raw brand qualifying matches, Rob Van Dam defeated Trevor Murdoch, Shelton Benjamin defeated Chavo Guerrero, and Ric Flair defeated Carlito. On \"SmackDown!\", Finlay defeated Bobby Lashley, Matt Hardy defeated Road Warrior Animal, and Bobby Lashley won a \"last chance battle royal\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Backlash (2018)",
        "text": "Following Backlash, there were also numerous Money in the Bank qualifying matches scheduled for the May 8 episode of \"SmackDown\", including Jeff Hardy vs. The Miz, Daniel Bryan vs. Rusev, and Charlotte Flair vs. Peyton Royce. Miz and Rusev won their respective matches for the males, while Charlotte won hers for the females."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2012)",
        "text": "On the June 29 episode of \"SmackDown\", qualifying matches were held for the Money in the Bank Ladder Match for the World Heavyweight Championship contract. In those matches, Damien Sandow defeated Zack Ryder, Tyson Kidd defeated Jack Swagger, Santino Marella and Christian defeated Cody Rhodes and David Otunga in a tag team match and Tensai defeated Justin Gabriel. On the July 3 \"Great American Bash\" edition of \"SmackDown\", Rhodes defeated Christian and Dolph Ziggler defeated Alex Riley in two additional qualifying matches. The final qualifying match took place on the July 9 episode of Raw in which Sin Cara defeated Heath Slater."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "At Elimination Chamber, Dolph Ziggler, Neville, Roman Reigns, Randy Orton, Kofi Kingston and Sheamus were revealed at the contestants in the Money in the Bank ladder match, in which the winner wins a contract for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match at any time within the next year. On the June 4th episode of \"SmackDown\", Kane was added to the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The 2018 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on June 17, 2018, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. For the first time since 2011 with a brand split in effect, the event became dual-branded, involving both the Raw and SmackDown brands. The event included one male match and one female match with eight participants each, evenly divided between the brands. The contracts granted the winners a match for the world championship of their respective brand. The men's contract granted the winner a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while the women's contract granted the winner a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "The event was introduced during WWE's first brand extension period, and the events in 2010 and 2011 featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands. The first brand split then ended in August 2011. In mid-2016, the brand extension was reintroduced and the 2017 event was held exclusively for SmackDown. However, following WrestleMania 34 in April 2018, brand-exclusive pay-per-views were discontinued. While the eponymous match was originally only for male wrestlers, the 2017 event featured the first-ever women's version and the events since have featured two matches, one each for the men and women."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "Qualifications for the men's ladder match continued during \"SmackDown\"s May 8 episode. The Miz and Rusev qualified for the match by beating Jeff Hardy and Daniel Bryan, respectively. The Miz countered a cover by Hardy after the latter performed a \"swanton bomb\" into a pinfall to win while Rusev qualified by landing a \"machka kick\" on Bryan. The following week, Big E and Xavier Woods of The New Day won against Cesaro and Sheamus in a tag team match, allowing one member of The New Day to qualify. Samoa Joe secured the final spot by defeating Bryan and Big Cass in a triple threat match on the May 29 episode, winning by making Bryan submit to the \"coquina clutch\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "Qualification for the Money in the Bank men's ladder match began on the May 7 episode of \"Raw\". The first fixture involved Braun Strowman defeating Kevin Owens using a \"running powerslam\" to qualify. The second was a triple threat match involving Finn B\u00e1lor, Sami Zayn and Roman Reigns. During the bout, Jinder Mahal interfered and attacked Reigns, allowing Zayn to perform a \"helluva kick\". B\u00e1lor then immediately dropkicked Zayn and qualified by landing a \"coup de gr\u00e2ce\" to win the match. The following week, two more triple threat matches were conducted. The first bout had Bobby Roode winning against Baron Corbin and No Way Jose after Roode cleared Corbin from the ring and pinned Jose with a \"glorious DDT\". The second one featured Owens, Elias and Bobby Lashley, where Owens qualified by performing a \"frog splash\" on Elias after Zayn interfered and attacked Lashley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "On the December 13, 2016, episode of \"SmackDown\", The Hype Bros (Mojo Rawley and Zack Ryder) won a battle royal to become the number one contenders for the SmackDown Tag Team Championship, but a knee injury sustained during the match took Ryder out for an estimated six to nine months. On the June 13 episode of \"SmackDown\", Ryder appeared backstage and was greeted by Rawley where the two declared that The Hype Bros were back. Afterwards on \"Talking Smack\", the two said that they felt that they should still be the number one contenders for the tag titles since they won that spot, but never got to have their championship match. Three days later, the two were scheduled to face The Col\u00f3ns (Primo and Epico) on the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. For 2015, the winner received a contract for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match. The 2015 event was the sixth event in the Money in the Bank chronology and it took place on June 14, 2015, at the Nationwide Arena in Columbus, Ohio. It was also the first WWE pay-per-view event that was held in Columbus since 2004's Bad Blood. To promote the WWE Network, Money in the Bank was available for free to new subscribers in over 140 countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Also on the following episode of \"SmackDown\", Edge claimed that he would have won the Universal Championship had it not been for Seth Rollins' actions. He stated that their issues date back to December 2014 when Rollins had attempted to injure Edge's surgically repaired neck and definitively put an end to his career. Rollins then came out and said he despised older wrestlers like Edge and John Cena for coming back and taking opportunities from the current wrestlers who earned them. A brawl then ensued with Edge performing the Edgecution on Rollins. As Edge attempted a Spear, Rollins retreated. On the August 6 episode, Edge challenged Rollins to a match at SummerSlam that Rollins accepted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "On the June 1 episode of \"Raw\", Nikki Bella retained the Divas Championship against Paige after Brie Bella switched with Nikki during the match and pinned Paige. On June 8, a rematch was scheduled for Money In The Bank."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many brand divisions does the WWE have?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They currently have four brands, main two brands, also referred to as the main roster, are Raw and SmackDown, and NXT and NXTUK serves as the promotion's developmental territory. Would you like to know more about one of these brands?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about NXT, please."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "NXT (also promoted as NXT 2.0) is a brand of the American professional wrestling promotion WWE that was introduced on February 23, 2010. The brand serves as a developmental territory for WWE's two main brands, Raw and SmackDown, which are referred to as the main roster, although in its original incarnation, NXT was a reality-based television show in which rookies competed to become a star in WWE before being relaunched as a separate brand in 2012."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me what Raw and SmackDown is about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Raw and SmackDown are WWE's two main brands referred to as the main roster."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which event had more viewers from the latest Raw and Smackdown?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What network did Money in the Bank 2022 air on?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The event will air on pay-per-view (PPV) worldwide and will be available to stream through Peacock in the United States and the WWE Network internationally.",
      "Scheduled to take place on July 2, 2022, Money in the Bank 2022 will be aired on the WWE Network internationally ."
    ],
    "topic": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Money in the Bank (2022):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Money in the Bank (2022)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The 2022 Money in the Bank is the upcoming 13th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling live event produced by WWE. It will be held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event will air on pay-per-view (PPV) worldwide and will be available to stream through Peacock in the United States and the WWE Network internationally. It is scheduled to take place on July 2, 2022, at Allegiant Stadium in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada. It will be the first time the event will be held in a National Football League stadium, thus becoming one of WWE's five biggest events of the year, alongside the Royal Rumble, WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Money in the Bank (2022):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Money in the Bank (2022)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The 2022 Money in the Bank is the upcoming 13th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling live event produced by WWE. It will be held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event will air on pay-per-view (PPV) worldwide and will be available to stream through Peacock in the United States and the WWE Network internationally. It is scheduled to take place on July 2, 2022, at Allegiant Stadium in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada. It will be the first time the event will be held in a National Football League stadium, thus becoming one of WWE's five biggest events of the year, alongside the Royal Rumble, WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "The 2022 Money in the Bank is the upcoming 13th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling live event produced by WWE. It will be held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event will air on pay-per-view (PPV) worldwide and will be available to stream through Peacock in the United States and the WWE Network internationally. It is scheduled to take place on July 2, 2022, at Allegiant Stadium in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada. It will be the first time the event will be held in a National Football League stadium, thus becoming one of WWE's five biggest events of the year, alongside the Royal Rumble, WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "The event will include matches that resulte from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portray heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that build tension and culminate in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results are predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines are produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"Friday Night SmackDown.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick event, produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between May and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship of their choosing at any time within the next year. The 2022 event will feature wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands; male wrestlers will compete for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship, while female wrestlers will compete for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "The 2021 Money in the Bank was the 12th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) worldwide and was available to stream through Peacock in the United States and the WWE Network internationally, which made it the first Money in the Bank to air on Peacock. It took place on July 18, 2021, at Dickies Arena in Fort Worth, Texas. It was the first Money in the Bank event to take place in the state of Texas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between May and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship of their choosing at any time within the next year. The 2021 event featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands; male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract. While the previous year's event had featured a \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick, which took place at WWE's Titan Towers headquarters and had only six competitors in each match due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2021 event reverted to the standard version of the titular ladder match as well as returning to having eight competitors for both matches, evenly divided between the two brands. It was the 12th event in the Money in the Bank chronology and the first to be held in July since the 2013 event. It was also the first Money in the Bank to air on Peacock after the American version of the WWE Network merged under Peacock in March."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "The event comprised seven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"Friday Night SmackDown.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The 2020 Money in the Bank was the 11th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network on May 10, 2020. While the majority of the event aired live from the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida, the show's eponymous ladder matches were pre-recorded on April 15 at WWE's Titan Towers global headquarters building in Stamford, Connecticut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between May and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship of their choosing at any time within the next year. The 2020 event featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands; male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract\u2014though the day after the event, it was revealed that the women's match was actually for the Raw Women's Championship instead of a title match contract due to the unexpected circumstances that forced the then-Raw Women's Champion to go on hiatus. The 2020 show was the 11th event in the Money in the Bank chronology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The show comprised eight matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"Friday Night SmackDown.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2022)",
        "text": "The 2022 event was announced during the 2021 SummerSlam, which was held at the Allegiant Stadium in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada. Money in the Bank was announced to be held at the same venue on July 2, 2022, marking the first time that a Money in the Bank event will be held in a National Football League stadium. In addition to airing on traditional pay-per-view (PPV), it will air on Peacock in the United States and the WWE Network in international markets. While Money in the Bank had been established as one of WWE's monthly PPVs held between their \"Big Four\" shows (Royal Rumble, WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series), in October 2021, WWE President and Chief Revenue Officer Nick Khan referred to Money in the Bank as one of the company's \"five annual tentpoles\", thus elevating its status as one of WWE's five biggest events of the year, colloquially referred to as the \"Big Five\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "The \"Money in the Bank\" pay-per-view (PPV) centers around a ladder match, the prize of which is a briefcase containing a contract for a world championship match. The winner can then cash in the contract at a time and place of their choosing anytime within the next year \u2013 beginning the night they win the briefcase. If the contract is not used within that year, it is voided, but this has yet to happen. Only the holder of the Money in the Bank contract can be the one to cash-in the contract."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The actual pay-per-view opened with The New Day (Big E and Kofi Kingston) defending the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The Miz and John Morrison, Lucha House Party (Lince Dorado and Gran Metalik), and The Forgotten Sons (Steve Cutler and Wesley Blake) (accompanied by Jaxson Ryker). During the match, Ryker was ejected from ringside for interference. In the climax, Big E performed the Big Ending on Metalik to retain the title."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "The card composed twelve matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\", \"SmackDown Live\", and the cruiserweight-exclusive \"205 Live\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. While the briefcases at the 2018 event contained contracts that guaranteed the winners a match for a world championship of their respective brand at any time within the next year, the 2019 contracts allowed the winners the choice of either brands' world championships. Since the 2017 event, each year's show has featured a men's and a women's ladder match, and beginning with 2018, each features eight wrestlers, evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands. Male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract. The 2019 event was the 10th event in the Money in the Bank chronology and featured wrestlers from the Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brands\u2014the only to feature the 205 Live brand. The 2019 event also moved Money in the Bank to the May slot of WWE's pay-per-view calendar, taking place on May 19, 2019, at the XL Center in Hartford, Connecticut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "Two matches were contested during the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show. In the first match, The Golden Truth (Goldust and R-Truth) faced Breezango (Tyler Breeze and Fandango). Breezango suffered from major cases of sunburn, which their opponents exploited throughout the match. The end came when Goldust executed a Final Cut on Fandango to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2012)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) produced by WWE since 2010, held in July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. For 2012, two Money in the Bank ladder matches occurred; one granted a contract for a WWE Championship match while the other contained a World Heavyweight Championship match contract. The 2012 event was the third event under the Money in the Bank chronology and the first since the end of the first brand split in August 2011. It took place on July 15, 2012, at the US Airways Center in Phoenix, Arizona."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. For 2016, the winner received a contract for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match, later renamed to WWE Championship when the promotion reintroduced the brand extension in July, where they again split their roster between the Raw and SmackDown brands where wrestlers are exclusively assigned to perform. The 2016 event was the seventh event in the Money in the Bank chronology and it took place on June 19, 2016, at the T-Mobile Arena in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "The event was originally scheduled to take place at the Royal Farms Arena in Baltimore, Maryland, but the venue cancelled all shows that were to be held due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In response, WWE took advantage of the situation and moved the two titular ladder matches to their global headquarters building in Stamford with a new \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick where the match's titular briefcases were suspended above a ring on the building's roof. The wrestlers began on the ground floor and fought their way to the roof. The eponymous matches were produced as cinematic matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "In the main event, both the men's and women's Money in the Bank ladder matches were contested simultaneously at WWE Global Headquarters. The women's match featured Asuka, Shayna Baszler, Nia Jax, Lacey Evans, Carmella, and Dana Brooke, while the men's match featured AJ Styles, Rey Mysterio, Aleister Black, King Corbin, Daniel Bryan, and Otis. The women began in the lobby, where Asuka performed a splash off the mezzanine onto the other competitors before escaping in an elevator. The men, meanwhile, began in the gym, where Otis pinned Styles under a barbell. After leaving the gym, Mysterio ran past a restroom where he encountered Brother Love."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "The first match was the Money in the Bank ladder match involving Roman Reigns, Sheamus, Randy Orton, Dolph Ziggler (with Lana), Neville, Kofi Kingston, and Kane. Near the climax of the match, it seemed that Reigns was going to claim the briefcase until Bray Wyatt emerged and attacked him, preventing him from retrieving the briefcase. The end of the match saw Sheamus throwing Neville off the ladder and retrieving the briefcase thus winning the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "The 2013 Money in the Bank was the fourth annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by WWE. The event took place on July 14, 2013, at the Wells Fargo Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was final Money in the Bank event to be held in July until the 2021 event."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. While the 2017 event was a SmackDown-exclusive pay-per-view, 2018 featured both the Raw and SmackDown brands as WWE discontinued brand-exclusive pay-per-views after WrestleMania 34 in April. The 2017 event also introduced the first women's Money in the Bank ladder match. The 2018 event in turn also had a men's and a women's match, which is now standard. For 2018, the contracts in the briefcases granted the winners a world championship match of their respective brand. Each match featured eight wrestlers, evenly divided between the two brands. Male wrestlers competed for a contract to grant them a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while female wrestlers competed for a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match contract. The 2018 event was the ninth event in the Money in the Bank chronology. It took place on June 17, 2018, at the Allstate Arena in Rosemont, Illinois. Tickets went online on March 5, 2018 through Ticketmaster."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "On the same show, Executive Vice President Stephanie McMahon announced the participants competing in the Money in the Bank ladder match for a WWE Championship contract, which included CM Punk, Sheamus, Randy Orton, Daniel Bryan, Christian, Kane, and the returning Rob Van Dam. Unusually, all of these participants were faces at the time. On the July 8 episode of \"Raw\", Kane was removed from the match after being injured by the debuting Wyatt Family (Bray Wyatt, Luke Harper, and Erick Rowan)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "The 2010 Money in the Bank was the inaugural Money in the Bank professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event took place on July 18, 2010, at the Sprint Center in Kansas City, Missouri. The event included two Money in the Bank ladder matches, one for each brand. The eponymous ladder match was previously held at WrestleMania from 2005 to 2010. Following WrestleMania XXVI in March, the match concept was spun off into its own PPV event. The event received 169,000 pay-per-view buys."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) produced by WWE since 2010, held in July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. For 2013, two Money in the Bank ladder matches occurred; one granted a contract for a WWE Championship match while the other contained a World Heavyweight Championship match contract\u20142013 was the final Money in the Bank event to feature the World Heavyweight Championship as it was unified with the WWE Championship at December's event to become the WWE World Heavyweight Championship. The 2013 event was the fourth event in the Money in the Bank chronology and it took place on July 14, 2013, at the Wells Fargo Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Th 2019 Money in the Bank was the 10th annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network and took place on May 19, 2019, at the XL Center in Hartford, Connecticut."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2014)",
        "text": "Eight matches took place at the event, with no match aired on the Kickoff pre-show. The titular ladder match for the Money in the Bank contract was won by Seth Rollins. The main event was a ladder match for the vacant WWE World Heavyweight Championship, which was won by John Cena. The event received 122,000 buys (excluding WWE Network views), down from the previous year's 199,000 buys."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Dave Meltzer of the \"Wrestling Observer Newsletter\" said, \"The WWE Universal Championship match was the rare WWE PPV match that would fit in on an NXT show\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "The 2016 Money in the Bank was the seventh annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network. It took place on June 19, 2016, at the T-Mobile Arena in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The 2018 Money in the Bank was the ninth annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network and it took place on June 17, 2018, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2014)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by WWE since 2010. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. For 2014, only one Money in the Bank ladder match occurred and the winner received a contract for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match, following the unification of the WWE Championship and World Heavyweight Championship at in December 2013. The 2014 event was the fifth event in the Money in the Bank chronology. The event was previously held in July, but for 2014, the event was moved to June and was held on June 29, 2014, at the TD Garden in Boston, Massachusetts. In addition to traditional pay-per-view outlets, the 2014 event was the first Money in the Bank to air on the WWE Network, which launched in February."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "The 2017 Money in the Bank was the eighth annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held exclusively for wrestlers from the promotion's SmackDown brand division. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network and took place on June 18, 2017, at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis, Missouri. It was the first event to feature a Women's Money in the Bank ladder match, and was also the only brand-exclusive Money in the Bank event to be held during either of WWE's brand extension periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "In 2005, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) established the Money in the Bank ladder match as an annual match at their marquee event, WrestleMania, debuting at WrestleMania 21. The idea for the match was conceptualized by then-WWE wrestler Chris Jericho. Following WrestleMania XXVI in March 2010, WWE established a separate Money in the Bank event as a gimmick PPV; the match subsequently ceased being held at WrestleMania. The inaugural event was held on July 18, 2010, at the Sprint Center in Kansas City, Missouri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The 2020 Money in the Bank pay-per-view aired on May 10, 2020. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was not held at its originally announced venue of Royal Farms Arena in Baltimore. The event's eponymous ladder matches were moved to WWE's global headquarters in Stamford, Connecticut with an added \"Corporate Ladder\" gimmick for the matches; the participants in each match began on the ground floor and fought their way to the roof, where the briefcases were suspended above a ring on the roof. The ladder matches were pre-recorded on April 15 as cinematic matches, but the rest of the event's matches occurred live at the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "The main event was the men's Money in the Bank ladder match, which began with seven of the eight scheduled participants: Baron Corbin, Drew McIntyre and Ricochet from Raw, and Ali, Andrade, Finn B\u00e1lor and Randy Orton from SmackDown \u2013 a replacement was not immediately announced for Sami Zayn. The finish saw Ali about to retrieve the briefcase, when Brock Lesnar (along with Paul Heyman) made a surprise return \u2013 making him Raw's unannounced fourth participant in place of Zayn. Lesnar ran to the ring, knocked Ali off the ladder, and then climbed the ladder to retrieve the briefcase to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "The card included seven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers on the SmackDown brand. Storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television show \"SmackDown Live\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank (2021)\n--Production.\n----Background.\n----Storylines.\n------Cancelled match.\n--Event.\n----Pre-show.\n----Preliminary matches.\n----Main event.\n--Reception.\n--Aftermath.\n----Raw.\n----SmackDown.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "The actual pay-per-view opened with the women's Money in the Bank ladder match, featuring Dana Brooke, Naomi, Natalya, and Nikki Cross from Raw, and Bayley, Carmella, Ember Moon, and Mandy Rose from SmackDown. The climax occurred when Carmella, whose knee had been inadvertently injured by Rose earlier, returned and climbed the ladder, but Rose's tag team partner Sonya Deville pulled Carmella off the ladder and performed a spear on her. Deville then lifted Rose up on her shoulders and ascended the ladder. As Rose was about to retrieve the briefcase, however, Bayley ascended the ladder from the other side, pushed Rose and Deville off, and unhooked the briefcase to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Seven matches were contested at the event, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, Roman Reigns defeated Edge to retain the Universal Championship. Additionally, Big E and Nikki A.S.H. won their respective men's and women's Money in the Bank ladder matches. In other prominent matches, Bobby Lashley defeated Kofi Kingston to retain the WWE Championship and Charlotte Flair defeated Rhea Ripley to win her record-tying fifth Raw Women's Championship and 13th overall singles championship in the women's division. The event also saw the surprise return of John Cena, appearing for the first time since WrestleMania 36 in April 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "The actual pay-per-view opened with the Money in the Bank ladder match for a World Heavyweight Championship match contract, which involved Big Show, Matt Hardy, Christian, Kane, Kofi Kingston, Cody Rhodes, Drew McIntyre and Dolph Ziggler. Midway through the match, Kingston performed a Boom Drop off a ladder on McIntyre through a broadcast table. Big Show climbed a super-sized ladder he had set up, but Kane pushed the ladder over and Christian and Rhodes buried Big Show under multiple ladders. In the end, McIntyre attempted to retrieve the briefcase, but Kane performed a chokeslam off the ladder on McIntyre and retrieved the briefcase to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The professional wrestling matches at Money in the Bank featured professional wrestlers performing as either heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by the hosting promotion, WWE, on the Raw and SmackDown brands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. Following the reintroduction of the brand extension in July 2016, in which WWE again divided its roster between the Raw and SmackDown brands where wrestlers exclusively perform, the 2017 event was made a SmackDown-exclusive pay-per-view; it would in turn be the only Money in the Bank event to be brand-exclusive during the second brand split as following WrestleMania 34 the following year, brand-exclusive pay-per-views were discontinued. For the first time in the event's history, the 2017 event featured a women's Money in the Bank ladder match, which is now featured at every year's event. As the 2017 event was a SmackDown-exclusive show, the respective male and female winners received title match contracts for SmackDown's world championships at the time: the WWE Championship and the SmackDown Women's Championship. The 2017 event was the eighth event in the Money in the Bank chronology and took place on June 18, 2017, at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis, Missouri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "In 2005, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) established the Money in the Bank ladder match as an annual match at their marquee event, WrestleMania, debuting at WrestleMania 21. The match features multiple wrestlers using ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. Following WrestleMania XXVI in March 2010, WWE established a separate Money in the Bank event as a gimmick pay-per-view (PPV); the match subsequently ceased being held at WrestleMania. The inaugural event was held on July 18, 2010, at the Sprint Center in Kansas City, Missouri. Unlike WrestleMania, the Money in the Bank event included two ladder matches. One was exclusive to wrestlers from the Raw brand while the other was exclusive to those from SmackDown. Raw's match granted a contract for a WWE Championship match while SmackDown's granted a World Heavyweight Championship match contract."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "The card consisted of eleven matches, including two on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers. Storylines between the characters played out on WWE's primary television programs, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "During the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show, Jeff Hardy faced Cesaro. In the end, Hardy performed a Swanton Bomb on Cesaro to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "In August 2020, WWE began holding Raw and SmackDown's shows in a bio-secure bubble called the WWE ThunderDome. In May 2021, the company announced that they would be leaving the ThunderDome and returning to live touring, starting with a 25-city tour beginning with the July 16 episode of \"SmackDown\" in Houston, Texas. The 2021 Money in the Bank was in turn announced to take place at Dickies Arena in Fort Worth, Texas on July 18\u2014returning the event to its original July slot\u2014thus it was the first WWE pay-per-view held outside of Florida since Elimination Chamber on March 8, 2020 and the first pay-per-view held following the end of the ThunderDome Era. The 2021 event also reverted to the standard version of the titular ladder matches as well as returning to having eight competitors for both matches, evenly divided between the two brands. The 2021 event was also the first Money in the Bank to air on Peacock's WWE Network channel, following the merger of the American version of the WWE Network under Peacock in March that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2014)",
        "text": "The 2014 Money in the Bank was the fifth annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling event produced by WWE. In addition to airing on pay-per-view (PPV), the event was available through WWE's online streaming service, the WWE Network, which made it the first Money in the Bank event to air on the WWE Network. The event took place on June 29, 2014, at the TD Garden in Boston, Massachusetts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "At Super ShowDown, \"The Fiend\" Bray Wyatt lost the Universal Championship to Goldberg, who in turn lost the title to Braun Strowman during WrestleMania 36 Part 1. On the following episode of \"SmackDown\", Wyatt interrupted Strowman after his match and reminded Strowman that it was he who brought him to the WWE with his old Wyatt Family stable. He then stated he wanted his title back and Strowman accepted the challenge, which was scheduled for Money in the Bank, though against Wyatt's normal self instead of The Fiend."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "The professional wrestling matches at Money in the Bank featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, WWE. Storylines between the characters played out on WWE's primary television programs, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "During the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show, The Usos (Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso) faced SmackDown Tag Team Champions Daniel Bryan and Rowan in a non-title match. In the end, The Usos performed a double \"Uso Splash\" on Bryan to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Eight matches were contested at the event, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, Otis and Asuka won their respective Money in the Bank ladder matches, which were contested at the same time. In the penultimate match, Drew McIntyre defeated Seth Rollins to retain the WWE Championship. Other prominent matches included Braun Strowman defeating Bray Wyatt to retain the Universal Championship, and Bayley defeating Tamina to retain the SmackDown Women's Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The event card comprised eleven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from the scripted storylines which were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Monday Night Raw\" and \"SmackDown Live\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2010)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank comprised professional wrestling matches involving professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE's weekly television shows \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\" with the Raw and SmackDown brands\u2014storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "WWE Money in the Bank is a professional wrestling live event, produced annually since 2010 by WWE, the world's largest professional wrestling promotion. The event is named after the Money in the Bank ladder match, which had originally only took place at WrestleMania. The Money in the Bank ladder match debuted at WrestleMania 21 in April 2005 and was featured at the next five WrestleMania events. Following WrestleMania XXVI in March 2010, the match concept was spun off into its own pay-per-view (PPV) beginning in July that year, with the match no longer occurring at WrestleMania. In addition to PPV, the event has aired on the WWE Network since 2014 and Peacock since 2021. In October 2021, the event became recognized as one of the company's five biggest events of the year, along with the Royal Rumble, WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, referred to as the \"Big Five\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "Eleven matches were contested at the event, with two matches contested on the Kickoff pre-show. The main event saw Seth Rollins defeat Roman Reigns to win the WWE World Heavyweight Championship, only to lose it minutes later to Dean Ambrose, who cashed in the Money in the Bank contract that he won earlier in the event to defeat Rollins for the title. Also on the card, AJ Styles defeated John Cena. Two days after Money in the Bank, former champion Reigns was suspended for violating WWE's Wellness Program."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "On June 17, a match pitting The Lucha Dragons against The Dudley Boyz was scheduled for the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2012)",
        "text": "The actual pay-per-view opened with the Money in the Bank Ladder Match for a World Heavyweight Championship contract involving Damien Sandow, Tensai, Intercontinental Champion Christian, United States Champion Santino Marella, Tyson Kidd, Dolph Ziggler, Cody Rhodes and Sin Cara. In the end, Christian attempted to retrieve the briefcase, but Ziggler struck Christian with a ladder, causing Christian to fall off the ladder, and retrieved the briefcase."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The 2017 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on June 18, 2017, at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis, Missouri as an exclusive event for the SmackDown brand. For the traditional ladder match, which had a contract for a match for SmackDown's WWE Championship (formerly WWE World Heavyweight Championship), SmackDown Commissioner Shane McMahon announced AJ Styles, Shinsuke Nakamura, Dolph Ziggler, Sami Zayn, and Baron Corbin as the original five participants. United States Champion Kevin Owens was added after he convinced Shane to make him the sixth participant. Mojo Rawley had the opportunity to make it a seven-man match if he could defeat WWE Champion Jinder Mahal, but failed to do so. At the event, Baron Corbin won the match and received a WWE Championship match contract. On the August 15, 2017 episode of \"SmackDown Live\", John Cena had a non-title match against WWE Champion Jinder Mahal. As Cena was pinning Mahal, Corbin attacked him, causing a disqualification. Corbin then cashed in his Money in the Bank contract on Mahal, but as soon as the bell rung, he attacked Cena, who was on the apron, allowing Mahal to quickly roll-up Corbin for the win. This made Corbin the third wrestler to unsuccessfully cash in the contract and the second to lose a cash-in match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "As with WWE's other programming since March 13, 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic necessitated changes to the PPV; Money in the Bank was originally announced to be held on May 10, 2020, at the Royal Farms Arena in Baltimore, Maryland. However, on March 30, one week before WrestleMania 36, Maryland Governor Larry Hogan issued a stay at home order. An advertisement promoting Money in the Bank for May 10 aired during WrestleMania 36 Part 2 on April 5, but with no reference to a city or venue. Subsequently, Royal Farms Arena cancelled all events due to the pandemic and began issuing refunds."
      },
      {
        "title": "WrestleMania XXVI",
        "text": "The annual Money in the Bank ladder match took place next. It started off with every superstar trying to incapacitate each other long enough to climb and retrieve the briefcase. In between Jack Swagger was stuck in between a ladder with Christian and Matt Hardy hitting him with two ladders of their own. Another instance was when Evan Bourne performed a shooting star press, known as 'Air Bourne' on Christian from a vertically placed ladder wedged between another and the middle rope. The match came to an end when Swagger hit Christian with the Money in the Bank briefcase and unhooked it to become the new Mr. Money in the Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "At WrestleMania 35, Shane McMahon defeated The Miz in a falls count anywhere match; during the match, Shane attacked Miz's father. Miz was then drafted to Raw during the Superstar Shake-up and attacked Shane as retribution. On the April 29 episode of \"Raw\", during Miz's match against Bobby Lashley, Shane distracted Miz, causing him to lose, leading to a brawl. Later, Miz challenged Shane to a steel cage match at Money in the Bank and Shane accepted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2012)",
        "text": "The 2012 Money in the Bank was the third annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by WWE. The event took place on July 15, 2012, at the US Airways Center in Phoenix, Arizona. It was the first Money in the Bank event held following the discontinuation of the first brand extension in August 2011. The event had 188,000 buys, slightly down on the 2011 Money in the Bank figure of 195,000 buys."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The 2019 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on May 19, 2019, at the XL Center in Hartford, Connecticut. Like the 2018 event, there was one male ladder match and one female ladder match with eight participants each, evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands. Unlike 2018, however, the contracts granted the winners a match for the world championship of their choice. The men's contract granted the winner a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while the women's contract granted the winner a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "The actual pay per-view opened with the first Women's Money in the Bank ladder match. In the climax, as Becky Lynch attempted to retrieve the briefcase, Carmella's manager James Ellsworth pushed the ladder over. Ellsworth retrieved the briefcase for Carmella and dropped it to her, thus Carmella won the match. Two of the three referees did not agree with the decision and General Manager Daniel Bryan said that the controversy would be dealt with on the following episode of \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2011)",
        "text": "In 2010, WWE established Money in the Bank as a gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and it was held in July\u2014in April 2011, the promotion ceased going by its full name of World Wrestling Entertainment, with \"WWE\" becoming an orphaned initialism. The concept of the show came from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match that was originally held at WrestleMania from 2005 to 2010. The match features multiple wrestlers using ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. For 2011, two Money in the Bank ladder matches occurred. One was exclusive to wrestlers from the Raw brand while the other was exclusive to those from SmackDown. Raw's match granted a contract for a WWE Championship match while SmackDown's granted a World Heavyweight Championship match contract. The event took place on July 17, 2011, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. It was the second event under the Money in the Bank chronology and the last to occur under the first brand split, which ended in August. Tickets went on sale in May 2011 through Ticketmaster with prices ranging from US$25 to $300."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "The main event was the Money in the Bank ladder match between Baron Corbin, United States Champion Kevin Owens, Sami Zayn, AJ Styles, Shinsuke Nakamura, and Dolph Ziggler. As Nakamura made his entrance, Corbin attacked him with a ladder, taking Nakamura out for a majority of the match. In the end, after Nakamura returned, he and Styles fought at the top of the ladder. Corbin pushed the ladder over and retrieved the briefcase to win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Bryan, Black, Otis, and Corbin brawled into an elevator, spilling out onto another floor where they briefly encountered Evans, Baszler, and Carmella. Bryan performed Yes Kicks on Corbin with encouragement from Otis, after which, Bryan attacked Otis. A Doink The Clown impersonator then briefly appeared from behind a chair. Baszler, Brooke, Jax, and Carmella then fought into the Money in the Bank Conference Room. After knocking Jax out with a steel chair, Brooke unhooked a prop Money in the Bank briefcase hanging from the ceiling and celebrated, thinking she had won, but Stephanie McMahon appeared and reminded Brooke that the actual briefcase was still on the roof. Carmella then unhooked a large poster off the wall (depicting herself winning the first women's Money in the Bank ladder match) and smashed it over Brooke's head. After Carmella exited the room, Evans performed the Women's Right on Carmella. Searching for Mysterio, Styles encountered a large poster of The Undertaker and then stumbled upon an Undertaker-themed room. This caused him to have flashbacks of his WrestleMania 36 loss to The Undertaker. Black then attacked Styles and closed the door, locking him in the room."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "On the June 28 episode of \"SmackDown\", Senior Advisor Theodore Long introduced the participants in the Money in the Bank ladder match for a contract to wrestle for the World Heavyweight Championship: United States Champion Dean Ambrose, Cody Rhodes, Damien Sandow, Fandango, Antonio Cesaro, Jack Swagger, and Wade Barrett. In contrast with the WWE Championship contract match, all of these participants were heels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "The winner of the Money in the Bank ladder match will win a contract for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match at any time within the next year. On the May 23 episode of \"Raw\", Sami Zayn, Cesaro, Chris Jericho, Dean Ambrose, and Kevin Owens all qualified for the match by defeating Sheamus, The Miz, Apollo Crews, Dolph Ziggler, and AJ Styles, respectively. On the May 26 episode of \"SmackDown\", Alberto Del Rio defeated Zack Ryder to qualify for the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The third Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on July 15, 2012, at the US Airways Center in Phoenix, Arizona. There were the usual two Money in the Bank ladder matches; however, the matches were no longer separated by brands (as both \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\" by this time had become full roster \"Supershows\"). Instead, they were separated by Championship (WWE and World Heavyweight)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank (2020)\n--Production.\n----Background.\n------Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.\n----Storylines.\n--Event.\n----Pre-show.\n----Preliminarily matches.\n----Main event.\n--Aftermath.\n----Raw.\n----SmackDown.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "Money in the Bank is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2010, generally held between June and July. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match, in which multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. For 2015, the winner received a contract for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match. The 2015 event was the sixth event in the Money in the Bank chronology and it took place on June 14, 2015, at the Nationwide Arena in Columbus, Ohio. It was also the first WWE pay-per-view event that was held in Columbus since 2004's Bad Blood. To promote the WWE Network, Money in the Bank was available for free to new subscribers in over 140 countries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2011)",
        "text": "The professional wrestling matches at Money in the Bank featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, WWE. Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE's weekly television shows \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\" with the Raw and SmackDown brands\u2014storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs. These storylines provided the background to the 2011 event, which continued the storylines from the previous event in WWE's 2011 pay-per-view schedule, Capitol Punishment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "A fifth Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on Sunday, June 29, 2014, at the TD Garden in Boston, Massachusetts. The original plan for the event was that the winner of the ladder match would receive a contract for a match for the now unified title as normal. However, on June 9, defending WWE World Heavyweight Champion Daniel Bryan was forced to vacate the title due to a neck injury, and so the already announced ladder match (consisting of John Cena, Randy Orton, Alberto Del Rio, Bray Wyatt, Cesaro, Sheamus, Kane and Roman Reigns) became for the vacant championship instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "During the May 15 episode, SmackDown General Manager Paige interrupted SmackDown Women's Champion Carmella's celebration of her reign and scheduled a title match between her and Asuka for Money in the Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The 2018 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on June 17, 2018, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. For the first time since 2011 with a brand split in effect, the event became dual-branded, involving both the Raw and SmackDown brands. The event included one male match and one female match with eight participants each, evenly divided between the brands. The contracts granted the winners a match for the world championship of their respective brand. The men's contract granted the winner a match for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while the women's contract granted the winner a Raw Women's Championship or SmackDown Women's Championship match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "Twelve matches were contested at the event including one on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, unannounced entrant Brock Lesnar won the men's Money in the Bank ladder match. Bayley won the women's ladder match in the opening match, and later cashed in the contract to win the SmackDown Women's Championship from Charlotte Flair, who herself had just won the title from Becky Lynch. In her other title defense, Lynch retained the Raw Women's Championship against Lacey Evans. In other prominent matches, Kofi Kingston defeated Kevin Owens to retain the WWE Championship, while Seth Rollins defeated AJ Styles to retain the Universal Championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "Though the event itself was well-received, Peacock's streaming of the event in the United States was poorly received due to technical issues occurring throughout, particularly during the Men's Money in the Bank ladder match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2012)",
        "text": "Eight matches were contested at the event, with one match on the pre-show. In the main event, John Cena won the Money in the Bank ladder match for a WWE Championship match contract, while in the opening bout, Dolph Ziggler won the other Money in the Bank ladder match for a World Heavyweight Championship match contract. In other prominent matches, Sheamus defeated Alberto Del Rio to retain the World Heavyweight Championship and CM Punk defeated Daniel Bryan to retain the WWE Championship in a no disqualification match with AJ Lee as the special guest referee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The second match of the event featured Bobby Lashley and Sami Zayn. Lashley decisively secured a win by executing a \"fallaway slam\" and a \"spinebuster\" before performing three \"vertical suplexes\" on Zayn for the pinfall."
      },
      {
        "title": "WWE Money in the Bank",
        "text": "The 2022 event was announced during the 2021 SummerSlam, which was held at the Allegiant Stadium in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada. Money in the Bank was announced to be held at the same venue on July 2, 2022, marking the first time for a Money in the Bank event to be held in a National Football League stadium. While Money in the Bank had been established as one of WWE's monthly PPVs held between their \"Big Four\" shows (Royal Rumble, WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series), in October 2021, WWE President and Chief Revenue Officer Nick Khan referred to Money in the Bank as one of the company's \"five annual tentpoles\", thus elevating the event's status as one of WWE's five biggest events of the year, referred to as the \"Big Five\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "After losing the SmackDown Tag Team Championship to The Hardy Boyz (Jeff Hardy and Matt Hardy), The Usos (Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso) were drafted to Raw in the Superstar Shake-up. Two weeks later, The Hardys relinquished the title after Jeff suffered a knee injury. On the May 7 episode of \"SmackDown\", The Usos appeared via the Wild Card Rule to challenge Daniel Bryan and Rowan for the vacant title in a losing effort. The following week, a non-title match between the two teams was scheduled for the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "After the match, Dean Ambrose's entrance theme began to play, Rollins anticipated that he would appear at on the entrance stage but instead Ambrose appeared behind Rollins and struck him with the Money in the Bank briefcase. Ambrose then cashed in his Money in the Bank contract and executed Dirty Deeds on Rollins to win the title."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The 2021 Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on July 18, 2021, at the Dickies Arena in Fort Worth, Texas, which was the first time that the event was held in Texas. This year's Money in the Bank was only WWE's second pay-per-view to have a ticketed live audience during the COVID-19 pandemic\u2014after WrestleMania 37 in April\u2014as since August 2020, the company presented shows from a bio-secure bubble called the WWE ThunderDome, after moving from a fanless set at the WWE Performance Center where the previous year's Money in the Bank event was held. The 2021 event was also WWE's first pay-per-view held following their resumption of live touring that began with the July 16 episode of \"SmackDown\". With the event back in front of a live audience, the Money in the Bank ladder matches returned to their regular format with each having eight participants evenly divided between the Raw and SmackDown brands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The main event was the men's Money in the Bank ladder match involving Braun Strowman, Finn B\u00e1lor, The Miz, Rusev, Bobby Roode, Kevin Owens, Samoa Joe, and one member of The New Day, revealed to be Kofi Kingston. All of the participants immediately attacked Strowman at the start of the fixture, and buried him underneath a pile of ladders. Each one vied for the ladder with The Miz going first before Kingston landed a \"trouble in paradise\" on him. Owens performed a \"superkick\" on Kingston only to be knocked out by a \"double foot stomp\" from B\u00e1lor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "During the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show, The Bludgeon Brothers (Harper and Rowan) defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson. In the climax, both Gallows and Anderson proceeded to apply the \"magic killer\" on Harper when Rowan speared Anderson and isolated Gallows. Harper and Rowan then performed \"the reckoning\" on Gallows to retain the titles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2020)",
        "text": "Qualifying matches for the women's Money in the Bank ladder match began on the April 13 episode of \"Raw\". Asuka, Shayna Baszler, and the returning Nia Jax qualified for the match by defeating Ruby Riott, Sarah Logan, and Kairi Sane, respectively. Dana Brooke then qualified by defeating Naomi on the April 17 episode of \"SmackDown\". On the following week's \"SmackDown\", Lacey Evans defeated Sasha Banks to qualify for the match. Carmella won the final spot by defeating Mandy Rose on the May 1 episode of \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "A fourth Money in the Bank pay-per-view took place on July 14, 2013, at the Wells Fargo Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. There was the traditional two Money in the Bank ladder matches \u2013 one for a WWE Championship match contract, and the other for a World Heavyweight Championship match contract."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "The Women's Money in the Bank ladder match was the event's fourth fixture. Ember Moon, Charlotte Flair, Alexa Bliss, Becky Lynch, Natalya, Naomi, Lana, and Sasha Banks competed in it. At the beginning of the match, Moon landed a \"somersault senton\" on Becky Lynch and slammed Sasha Banks through a ladder with a \"springboard dive\". Soon after chopping Natalya, Charlotte Flair tried to use a ladder to get the briefcase but was interrupted by Lynch who fought over possession of the ladder. Naomi then dropkicked the ladder to take down both the wrestlers. During the middle of the bout, Lana placed another ladder adjacent to another one occupied by Lynch and Banks to get the briefcase. Moon and Natalya interfere, with Natalya pulling Banks off the ladder and executes a \"slingshot powerbomb\" on her through the ladder, knocking it off along with Lynch on it in the process. Flair also grabs hold off Moon and powerbombs her onto the ladder knocked off by Natalya. Bliss intervened and performed a \"code red\" on Flair. In the end, Lynch attempted to get the briefcase after using an \"exploder suplex\" on Flair only for Bliss to push the ladder causing Lynch to fall. Bliss ascended the ladder to retrieve the briefcase and win the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "Qualification for the Money in the Bank men's ladder match began on the May 7 episode of \"Raw\". The first fixture involved Braun Strowman defeating Kevin Owens using a \"running powerslam\" to qualify. The second was a triple threat match involving Finn B\u00e1lor, Sami Zayn and Roman Reigns. During the bout, Jinder Mahal interfered and attacked Reigns, allowing Zayn to perform a \"helluva kick\". B\u00e1lor then immediately dropkicked Zayn and qualified by landing a \"coup de gr\u00e2ce\" to win the match. The following week, two more triple threat matches were conducted. The first bout had Bobby Roode winning against Baron Corbin and No Way Jose after Roode cleared Corbin from the ring and pinned Jose with a \"glorious DDT\". The second one featured Owens, Elias and Bobby Lashley, where Owens qualified by performing a \"frog splash\" on Elias after Zayn interfered and attacked Lashley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "The same night, after both had complained about being left off the pay-per-view, Ryback and Chris Jericho were booked in a match against each other at Money in the Bank by then-Raw Managing Supervisor Vickie Guerrero."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2017)",
        "text": "After that, Breezango (Fandango and Tyler Breeze) made their entrance to the ring. Earlier backstage, they received a video of two unidentifiable people who claimed credit for attacking Breeze on \"SmackDown\". They told Breezango to come to the ring to find out who they were, which was revealed to be The Ascension (Konnor and Viktor). Breezango won the impromptu match after Fandango pinned Viktor with a small package."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2019)",
        "text": "On the April 23 episode of \"205 Live\", Ariya Daivari defeated Oney Lorcan. General Manager Drake Maverick then scheduled Tony Nese to defend the WWE Cruiserweight Championship against Daivari at Money in the Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2015)",
        "text": "The card consisted of seven matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers. Storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2016)",
        "text": "The actual pay-per-view opened with The New Day (Big E and Kofi Kingston) (with Xavier Woods) defending the Tag Team Championship against Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson, Enzo and Cass, and The Vaudevillains (Aiden English and Simon Gotch) in a Fatal 4-Way Tag Team match. The match ended with Big E and Kingston executing the Midnight Hour on Anderson and pinned English to retain the title."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2013)",
        "text": "At Payback in June, a promo announced the return of Rob Van Dam, who last competed for WWE in the 2009 Royal Rumble match, for Money in the Bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "On the June 17 episode of \"Main Event\", Seth Rollins announced that in addition to the ladder match for the title, there would be a traditional Money in the Bank ladder match for a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match contract at the PPV, and that Rollins would be the first entrant. Further entrants were Bad News Barrett, Dolph Ziggler, Rob Van Dam, Jack Swagger, Kofi Kingston and Dean Ambrose. The latter, who had threatened to disrupt the match, was added to the match on Rollins' request. Bad News Barrett was later removed from the match due to an injury."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
        "text": "During the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show, Rey Mysterio and Dominik Mysterio defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The Usos (Jey and Jimmy). During the match, Jey caught Rey with a Superkick in mid-air and then performed the Uso Splash on Rey for a nearfall. In the end, as Rey attempted a 619 on Jey, Jimmy protected Jey with Jimmy receiving the 619 instead. Jey then performed a roll-up on Rey with an assist from Jimmy to win the title for the fifth time, and their seventh overall tag team championship in WWE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank ladder match",
        "text": "The Money in the Bank idea was revived by Carlito on a February 2006 episode of \"Raw\". Mr. McMahon approved the suggestion and set up qualifying matches for the match that would take place at WrestleMania 22. It was later announced that the match was to be interpromotional, and SmackDown! general manager Theodore Long also set up qualifying matches to select three members of his roster to compete. In the Raw brand qualifying matches, Rob Van Dam defeated Trevor Murdoch, Shelton Benjamin defeated Chavo Guerrero, and Ric Flair defeated Carlito. On \"SmackDown!\", Finlay defeated Bobby Lashley, Matt Hardy defeated Road Warrior Animal, and Bobby Lashley won a \"last chance battle royal\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money in the Bank (2018)",
        "text": "After Mahal cost Reigns a chance to qualify for the Money in the Bank ladder match, Reigns attacked him backstage the following week resulting in a brawl which culminated with Reigns landing a \"superman punch\" on Mahal. On the May 21 episode, after Reigns and Seth Rollins defeated Mahal and Owens in a tag team match, Mahal attacked Reigns with a chair. A match between the two was then scheduled for Money in the Bank."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How many brand divisions does the WWE have?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "They currently have four brands, main two brands, also referred to as the main roster, are Raw and SmackDown, and NXT and NXTUK serves as the promotion's developmental territory. Would you like to know more about one of these brands?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about NXT, please."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "NXT (also promoted as NXT 2.0) is a brand of the American professional wrestling promotion WWE that was introduced on February 23, 2010. The brand serves as a developmental territory for WWE's two main brands, Raw and SmackDown, which are referred to as the main roster, although in its original incarnation, NXT was a reality-based television show in which rookies competed to become a star in WWE before being relaunched as a separate brand in 2012."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me what Raw and SmackDown is about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Raw and SmackDown are WWE's two main brands referred to as the main roster."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which event had more viewers from the latest Raw and Smackdown?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What network did Money in the Bank 2022 air on?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The event will air on pay-per-view (PPV) worldwide and will be available to stream through Peacock in the United States and the WWE Network internationally."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What happens in an actual Money in the Bank match?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Money in the Bank ladder match is a multi-person ladder match held by the professional wrestling promotion WWE. The prize in the match is a briefcase containing a contract for a championship match, which can be \"cashed in\" by the holder of the briefcase at any point in the year following their victory.",
      "The prize in the match is a briefcase containing a contract for a championship match, which can be \"cashed in\" by the holder of the briefcase at any point in the year following their victory. If the contract is not used within a year of winning it, it will be invalid, but this has yet to happen."
    ],
    "topic": "Money in the Bank (2021)",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Money in the Bank ladder match:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Money in the Bank ladder match"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Money in the Bank ladder match is a multi-person ladder match held by the professional wrestling promotion WWE. First contested at WWE's annual WrestleMania event beginning in 2005, a separate Money in the Bank pay-per-view was established in 2010. The prize in the match is a briefcase containing a contract for a championship match, which can be \"cashed in\" by the holder of the briefcase at any point in the year following their victory. If the contract is not used within a year of winning it, it will be invalid, but this has yet to happen. From its inception until 2017, ladder matches only involved male wrestlers, with the contract being for a world championship match. Beginning with the 2017 event, women also have the opportunity to compete in such a match, with their prize being a contract for a women's championship match."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Money in the Bank ladder match:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Money in the Bank ladder match"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Money in the Bank ladder match is a multi-person ladder match held by the professional wrestling promotion WWE. First contested at WWE's annual WrestleMania event beginning in 2005, a separate Money in the Bank pay-per-view was established in 2010. The prize in the match is a briefcase containing a contract for a championship match, which can be \"cashed in\" by the holder of the briefcase at any point in the year following their victory. If the contract is not used within a year of winning it, it will be invalid, but this has yet to happen. From its inception until 2017, ladder matches only involved male wrestlers, with the contract being for a world championship match. Beginning with the 2017 event, women also have the opportunity to compete in such a match, with their prize being a contract for a women's championship match."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "As the biological cousin of Superman, Power Girl exhibits all of the classic Kryptonian powers: super strength; flight; super speed; invulnerability; x-ray, telescopic, microscopic and heat vision; freeze breath; and super-hearing. Over the years various writers have given Power Girl's Kryptonian power differing levels, reflecting the lower powers of the Earth-Two Superman Kal-L. For example, Power Girl can fly through space, but has to breathe, so before she leaves a planet, she must take a deep breath and hold it for several hours until she needs a new oxygen source. Power Girl needs to sleep or she will experience disorientation due to fatigue. However, as recently shown in \"Brightest Day\", she now draws her superpowers from yellow sunlight, just like Superman. The reason for this change has not yet been explained."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Since she is from an alternative universe (pre-Crisis Earth Two), kryptonite has no effect on her, but she is still vulnerable to magic. As Karen Starr, she is an accomplished business woman and is regarded by Mr. Terrific as a first rate scientist. Even though Power Girl is from an alternative universe, her biology is still similar to Superman's. As one of a handful of characters who survived the \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\", DC editorial was initially uncertain how to portray the character and attempted to portray Power Girl with a non-Kryptonian origin for a number of years. Power Girl's abilities have fluctuated since 1986. For some time, Power Girl believed she was an Atlantean. At one point, Power Girl possessed telekinesis; at another she was vulnerable to attacks by certain natural elements (for example, wooden weapons). After sustaining severe injuries from a magic attack Power Girl retained only a degree of super strength, speed and durability. However, she later recovered her ability to fly, and writers have gradually restored her superpowers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Soon after this revelation, Power Girl is confronted by Superboy-Prime, who renders her unconscious. She is attached to a \u201dtuning fork\u201d, a device controlled by Alex Luthor whose purpose is to bring back the multiple Earths. Alex Luthor and Psycho Pirate coerce Black Adam (who is also attached to the machine) into saying \"SHAZAM!\", and use the now-raw magical energy to power the tower. After the reappearance of the created Earth-Two, everyone associated with that Earth is transported onto it (although Power Girl remains on New Earth because of her proximity to the tower)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freak Show (TV series)",
        "text": "Her super power is \"Acidic Bitch Juice\", an extremely potent form of saliva capable of eating through most kinds of metal, that she can project from her mouth. She also possesses the ability to transform herself into a liquid state, which can then absorb other super-powered individuals and draw upon their abilities to shape shift."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "While attempting to save her teammate Ted Grant from the new female Crimson Avenger, Power Girl is severely wounded by supernatural bullets fired from the vigilante's cursed handguns. Despite being saved by Doctor Mid-Nite, Power Girl comments that her near-death experience has shown her that she needs to make more personal connections outside of the superhero community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Night Girl",
        "text": "Night Girl has the powers of superstrength equivalent to that of Superboy or Mon-El and durability (though not quite at Kryptonian levels), but only in darkness or deep shadow. Her powers fade immediately in the presence of direct sunlight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl, also known as Kara Zor-L and Karen Starr, is a DC Comics superheroine, making her first appearance in \"All Star Comics\" #58 (January/February 1976). Power Girl is the cousin of DC's flagship hero Superman, but from an alternate universe in the fictional multiverse in which DC Comics stories are set. Originally hailing from the world of Earth-Two, first envisioned as the home of DC's wartime heroes as published in 1940s comic books, Power Girl becomes stranded in the main universe where DC stories are set, and becomes acquainted with that world's Superman and her own counterpart, Supergirl."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "In common with Supergirl's origin story, she is the daughter of Superman's aunt and uncle and a native of the planet Krypton. The infant Power Girl's parents enabled her to escape the destruction of her home planet by placing her in a rocket ship. Although she left the planet at the same time that Superman did, her ship took much longer to reach Earth-Two. On Earth, as with other Kryptonians, Power Girl discovered she possessed abilities like super strength, flight, and heat vision, using which she became a protector of innocents and a hero for humanity. Though the specifics of how vary over subsequent retellings, Power Girl is later stranded on another Earth when a cosmic crisis affects her home of Earth-Two, and later carves out a separate identity for herself from her dimensional counterpart Supergirl once they are forced to coexist."
      },
      {
        "title": "My Super Ex-Girlfriend",
        "text": "Soon after, Jenny reveals to him that she is in fact the voluptuous blonde superheroine G-Girl, who received the powers of flight, superhuman strength, speed, heightened senses, invulnerability, super breath, and heat vision after being exposed to radiation from a crashed meteorite as a teenager. She becomes more controlling after revealing her powers and Matt is overwhelmed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl was at one time portrayed as having a highly athletic but slender physique. Artists Bart Sears (in the \"Justice League Europe\" series), and later Alex Ross (in the limited series \"Kingdom Come\") restored Power Girl's well-endowed shape. Ross rendered her as a heavily muscled \"Power Woman\" (as if she was an ardent bodybuilder)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl is freed by Wonder Girl and Kon-El, and joins them in fighting Superboy-Prime and Alex Luthor. During a savage battle on Mogo, Superboy-Prime beats Kal-L to death and is later subdued by Kal-El. Power Girl is brought to Mogo by the Green Lantern Corps just in time to bid a tearful farewell to her dying cousin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rainbow Girl",
        "text": "Rainbow Girl wields the powers of the mysterious emotional spectrum resulting in unpredictable mood swings. She was able to tap red (anger), blue (hope) and green (willpower) when she and other substitutes came to the aid of Superman and the Legion of Super-Heroes in their battle against the xenophobic Justice League of Earth. During the Blackest Night event, Geoff Johns states that she does not fully understand her powers and uses them more for fun."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Powers Girl",
        "text": "The Powers Girl\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Girl Power (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Girl Power (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Thunder Girl",
        "text": "Molly Wilson is a superheroine who is powered by Nature herself. The primary power that she possesses is the ability to transform into her superpowered alter ego by saying the word \"Alakazam\" loudly. In her transformed state, Molly is incredibly strong and is able to lift skyscrapers. She is also able to fly and run at subsonic speeds. She is mostly invulnerable to damage, and possesses potent magical abilities. This allows her to retain her youth and beauty. She also possesses the \"Wisdom of the Owl\" which grants her a form of enhanced intellect, presumably heightening her memory and ability to process information. In addition, Molly is capable of using her transformative lightning bolts as unconventional weapons to strike opponents."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of The Powerpuff Girls characters",
        "text": "As depicted in the opening sequence of each episode, the Powerpuff Girls, Blossom, Bubbles, and Buttercup, were created by Professor Utonium in an attempt to create the \"perfect little girl\" using a mixture of \"sugar, spice, and everything nice\" (shown in respective fields of sky blue, lime green, and bright pink). However, he accidentally spilled a mysterious substance called \"Chemical X\" into the mixture, creating, instead of the \"perfect little girl\", three girls (each possessing one of the above elements dominating her personality), and granting all three superpowers including flight, superhuman strength, super speed, limited invulnerability, x-ray vision, super senses, heat vision, and energy projection. In the original pilot, the accidental substance was a can of \"Whoopass\", which was replaced by \"Chemical X\" in the aired version."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of The Powerpuff Girls characters",
        "text": "Ms. Sara Bellum (voiced by Jennifer Martin in the series) is the Mayor's secretary, who often handles issues that the Mayor cannot (and in a way is the one really in charge of Townsville). She has long, curly red hair, wears a red business suit and red high heel shoes for a secretary look. Her face is never fully shown onscreen, although \"The Powerpuff Girls Rule!!!\" revealed part of it. Running gags include other onscreen characters often finding her attractive, the camera focusing on her chest, and her face always being obscured. Her name is a pun on the word cerebellum presumably due to her intelligent and wise nature. She also proved to be a capable fighter, battling the villain Sedusa by herself when the girls were disabled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Satan Girl",
        "text": "The first Satan Girl had all of Supergirl's powers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Though they are biologically the same person, Power Girl behaves as an older, more mature, and more level-headed version of Supergirl, with a more aggressive fighting style. She also adopts a different secret identity from her counterpart. These changes are reflected in their differing costumes and superhero names as well; Power Girl sports a bob of blond hair; wears a distinctive white, red, and blue costume with a cleavage-displaying cutout. The name Power Girl reflects that she chooses not to be seen as a derivative of Superman, but rather her own hero and this choice is reflected in the strong independent attitude of the character. Over various decades, Power Girl has been depicted as a member of superhero teams such as the Justice Society of America, Infinity, Inc., Justice League Europe, and the Birds of Prey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "In the \"One Year Later\" storyline in \"Supergirl\", Kara takes up the mantle of Nightwing in an attempt to free the natives of Kandor. Ultraman, masquerading as Kal-El and working in concert with the Saturn Queen, has taken control of the bottle city. Kara Zor-El is the city's Flamebird; she prevents Ultraman's forces from executing the captured Power Girl. Power Girl is forced to leave Kandor with Kara (against her better judgment) after Saturn Queen reveals to Supergirl information about Supergirl's past and purpose. This causes another rift to grow between the two women, as Power Girl feels Supergirl left an entire city of people to suffer, all because of her own selfish desires. This animosity is still on display when she next encounters Supergirl."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Powerpuff Girls",
        "text": "As depicted in the opening sequence of each episode, the Powerpuff Girls Blossom, Bubbles, and Buttercup were created by Professor Utonium in an attempt to create the \"perfect little girl\" using a mixture of \"sugar, spice, and everything nice\". However, he accidentally spilled a mysterious substance called \"Chemical X\" into the mixture, creating three girls and granting all three superpowers including flight, superhuman strength, superhuman speed, superhuman senses, nigh-invulnerability, x-ray vision, red heat vision, energy projection, space survivability, and thermal resistance. In the original pilot, the accidental substance was a can of \"Whoopass\", which was replaced by \"Chemical X\" in the aired version."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "During the events of \"\", Power Girl assists her fellow heroes in a global manhunt to track down Maxwell Lord, the former head of Justice League International and the murderer of Ted Kord, who had been restored to life at the end of \"Blackest Night\". Lord uses his powers to erase his existence from the minds of everyone on the planet, including Power Girl. She subsequently helps Booster Gold find proof of Lord's existence. Through the course of their search, during which Power Girl encounters Divine, a raven-haired clone of herself, she manages to regain her memory of Lord. As she attempts to inform the Justice Society of this, Lord uses his powers to take control of her and attack the Justice League International, but manages to convince the others of his existence through the exhumation of Ted Kord's corpse."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of The Powerpuff Girls characters",
        "text": "In the reboot voiced by Natalie Palamides, the 2016 version of Buttercup's appearance is almost exactly like her original counterpart except she has a cowlick on the back of her head. She is depicted as a tomboy who loves to get into action and likes to play sports, hanging out with boys and having fun like her 1998 counterpart, She has a fear of spiders like her 1998 counterpart as well. She has a temper that can usually get out of control. She is also the main archenemy of Manboy, who called her \"princess\", which she hates the most, Blossom and Bubbles attempt to stop her. Her trail is green with little triangles. Unlike her two sisters, she does not possess any special abilities of her own. However, she, like her sisters, can project bright green energy and manipulate it into various weaponry; an ability her 1998 counterpart and her sisters in the original show does not possess. She also excels at mathematics in \"Buttercup vs. Math\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ultimate Girls",
        "text": "The monsters of the series are born by green alien slime fusing to human beings with the monsters representing their personalities. If the opal-like cores are destroyed or separated the monster will disintegrate into gold particles of light.\n*Gullmark: Appears in episode 1. Its only known power is having a highly articulate body. It is a homage to Gomess from \"Ultra Q\".\n*Shupo: Appears in episodes 2 and 3. Its only known power is morphing into a steam engine train. It is a homage to King Joe from \"Ultra Seven\".\n*Ochuusha: Appears in episode 4. Powers include a syringe on arms, super speed, and stethoscope on the pelvis. It is a homage to Baltan Seijin from the original \"Ultraman\" with characteristics of Zetton (also from Ultraman) and Metrojn Seijin (from Ultra Seven).\n*Megami Mask: Appears in episode 5. Powers include a pair of glue bazookas on the back, wrestling skills, and summonable steel armor. He is a reference to the editor of Megami Magazine, the magazine that publishes the Ultimate Girls manga and his mask is arguably a reference to \"Ultimate Muscle\".\n*Hachiro: Appears in episode 6. His only known power is a boxing glove on him main pair of tentacles.\n*Mahler: Appears in episode 7. Powers include burrowing, emitting hypnotic waves from the giant metronome on its face, and a maestro wand. It is a homage to Mochiron from \"Ultraman Taro\".\n*Dainioh: Appears in episodes 8 and 9. Powers include a club, a constricting bead necklace, a spare body, burrowing by spinning, swimming, and six extra arms in its body. It is a homage Majin from \"Daimajin\".\n*Mushuusaa: Appears in episode 10. Powers include a pair of scythe arms and a whip tail. It is a homage to \"Gyaos\" and \"Gigan\".\n*Giant Makato: Appears in episodes 11 and 12. He is a homage to super robots such as \"Mazinger Z\" and the guyver units from \"Bio Booster Armor Guyver\".\n;Opening Theme: \"White Heat\" by Yozuca*\n;Ending Theme: \"3 Sentimental\" by Misato Fukuen"
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl's existence is not revealed to the general public until much later; her cousin Clark and his wife Lois Lane provide her a family environment to assist her transition towards real life relationships. In her first recorded adventure, Kara assists Justice Society members Flash and Wildcat with containing an artificially induced volcanic eruption in China. She then joins Robin and Star-Spangled Kid to form a Super Squad to assist the Justice Society in defeating Brainwave and Per Degaton, who were causing disasters around the world. She pushes their base towards the Sun, the heat causing the villains to fall unconscious. Later, she becomes a full member of the Society when Superman retires from active membership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "The Psycho-Pirate shows Kara multiple versions of her origin in an effort to drive her insane. Eventually, he reveals the truth: Power Girl is a survivor of Krypton from the dimension which contained the pre-\"Crisis\" Earth-Two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)",
        "text": "Power Girl is the Earth-Two counterpart of Supergirl and the first cousin of Kal-L, Superman of the pre-\"Crisis\" Earth-Two. The infant Power Girl's parents enabled her to escape the destruction of Krypton. Although she left the planet at the same time that Superman did, her ship took much longer to reach Earth-Two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Linda Danvers)",
        "text": "Original powers: Linda was originally a normal human, with no superhuman abilities. Upon fusing with the Matrix Supergirl, Linda gained her psychokinetic abilities. This granted her an incredible level of superhuman strength and speed, near invulnerability to harm, and the power to fly at high speeds. Linda was also able to produce concussive blasts of telekinetic energy, typically referred to as \"psi blasts.\" Linda was also able to change from her normal, Linda Danvers persona into her \"Supergirl\" form which was taller, had blonde hair, and a larger bust. The transformation was purely cosmetic, as Linda retained her powers in either form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atsuko Natsume",
        "text": "In DASH, Nuku Nuku's abilities are downgraded for a more cybergirl archetype. Early on her Powers are only active during her transformation into 'Super Dynamite Girl'. Her superhuman endurance is still present, but reduced in its effectiveness, as she has been seen cut and bleeding, indicating that in DASH, she actually has some approximation of organs aside from her brain, as something must send blood through her body. She can create claws of energy from her hands. She also disperses blasts of heat and energy. According to the official insert for the 2003 release of DASH on DVD, these powers are explained as a weapon called 'Blast Breakers'. This is what causes her to be able to shoot what the insert describes as 'high vibration, high heat' bursts of energy and can use these breakers to literally claw right through various materials. These breakers also allow her to lift a heavy tank or punch through a one-meter thick steel plate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Girl Power (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Girl Power may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vartox",
        "text": "The latest incarnation of Vartox from the \"Power Girl\" series described his powers as \"...freeze breath, the ability of flight, invulnerability, super strength and senses, telekinesis, telepathy and energy projection, astral projection, and the ability to transfer these powers to others\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "The 1985 \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\" limited series erased the existence of the Earth-Two Superman, and Power Girl's continuity was thus substantially disrupted. Initially she believed herself to be Superman's cousin, as she had been before the reboot. However, her background was retconned; she was told that she was the descendant of the Atlantean sorcerer Arion, and was frozen in suspended animation for millennia until the present day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "After the Justice Society disbands, Power Girl would join the Justice League. Later, while a member of Justice League Europe, she suffers a near fatal injury while battling a mystical being. Superman must assist in her medical treatment, using his heat-vision to perform surgery on her otherwise-invulnerable tissues. Although she recovers, Power Girl is significantly weaker, as she lost her vision powers and could not fly for a time. However, she regained them all as time went on. Power Girl adopts a one-eyed mangy cat, an animal which would affect much of the team. One aspect of this is her beloved cat is used to spy on the group by intelligence gathering criminals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl's original Wally Wood artwork (1976) showed her as relatively busty but otherwise her figure and build conformed in appearance to other contemporary comic book women. However, in \"Wonder Woman\" #34 (2009), written by Gail Simone, Dinah Lance, the Black Canary, mentions Power Girl as having the top bosom of DCU, comparing her assets with a \"national treasure\". Her most common outfit is a leg-baring, figure-hugging, long-sleeved white leotard with a keyhole cut-out opening in the chest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl's origin has gone through revisions, but over time has reverted to her original conception as the Supergirl of Earth-Two. The 1985 limited series \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\" eliminated Earth-Two from history, causing her to be retconned as the granddaughter of an Atlantean sorcerer known as Arion. This was an unpopular change and writers depicted the revised Power Girl inconsistently. The 2005\u20132006 \"Infinite Crisis\" limited series then restored her status as a refugee from the Krypton of the destroyed Pre-Crisis Earth-Two universe. Following DC's 2011 \"Flashpoint\" storyline and New 52 reboot, Power Girl's origin was retold as the Supergirl of \"Earth 2\", cousin and adopted daughter of Superman, who during evil Fourth World New God Darkseid's invasion of Earth 2 becomes stranded in the main continuity of Earth 0, subsequently adopting the name Power Girl to hide her true identity. She returned to her source Earth in the story \"Earth 2: World's End\" (2014\u20132015)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Girl Power (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Girl power is a term of female empowerment."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of The Powerpuff Girls characters",
        "text": "In \"Powerpuff Girls Z\", (voiced by Youko Kawanami and Nicole Oliver) has blonde hair compared to the original's red hair. Usually, Sara Bellum covers her face with a tablet computer, which has lipstick imprinted on it. While the mayor is different from his original counterpart and is more competent, Sara Bellum in the anime still does most of the mayor's work for him in a manner similar to the original Sara Bellum, and still appears to be the brains of the operation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "As part of DC's 2011 reboot of its continuity, The New 52, Power Girl was reintroduced into the DC Universe as first being the Earth-2 Supergirl, where she wears a variation of the traditional Supergirl costume designed by Kevin Maguire that features red gloves and belt, and a new S-shield, identical to the new Earth 2 Superman's, and has a cape that attaches directly to the shield. However, some aspects of her continuity were retained: she was still adopted by Clark Kent and Lois Lane, married on Earth 2 before their deaths and still uses the secret identity of software entrepreneur Karen Starr. After some time passes, she decides to take on a new identity as she is now trapped on the mainstream DC Earth. Here she adopts the identity Power Girl, where she wears a white one piece body suit that covers her legs, and a red cape that attaches to a new P-shield symbol over her left breast. In \"Supergirl\" #19, she returns to her classic costume, complete with the opening on her chest, after her then-current costume is badly damaged. Later, when back in her home world, she discovers her cousin and adopted father Superman has been resurrected by Darkseid, but Superman sacrifices himself to help stave off Darkseid's attack on Earth. After his second death, Power Girl's adoptive mother Lois Lane (Red Tornado) gives her the S-shaped hope symbol from Superman's chest, which then becomes a part of Power Girl's costume."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of The Powerpuff Girls characters",
        "text": "Blisstina \"Bliss\" (voiced by Olivia Olson, Toya Delazy, Wengie and Alesha Dixon) is the original Powerpuff Girl in the 2016 series, and is referred to as the fourth one because she is the fourth Powerpuff Girl to be shown in the reboot. She first appears in the five-part special, \"The Power of Four\". Her hair color is electric blue, and she often wears a pastel blue hairband with a pink heart adorned upon it. In two flashbacks depicting events that occur ten years prior to the main events of the series, Professor Utonium attempts to create the perfect little girl in response to his rival Newtronium creating the perfect little boy; Utonium uses sugar, spice, and everything nice. However, he accidentally adds Chemical W to the concoction, thus creating Bliss. Mojo Jojo also considered himself Bliss' childhood friend when he was the Professor's lab assistant. Bliss possesses superhuman strength, supersonic flight, superhuman hearing, laser vision, and limited invulnerability. However, unlike Blossom, Bubbles and Buttercup and their original 1998 counterparts, Bliss also possesses psionic abilities, but her powers are uncontrollable due to her emotions. As such, in a flashback scene, Bliss' powers caused the destruction of the Professor's residence after she throws a temper tantrum, and the Professor ends up unconscious. Bliss then flies off to Bird Poop Island to keep everyone safe from her superpowers (Mojo himself was saddened to see Bliss run away) and meets her pet elephant, Mee. After spending several years on Bird Poop Island, Bliss moves back to Townsville; after saving the girls from being beaten by the Gnat, she is considered a hero and gets some training to control her powers. But the Professor dismisses her from ever using her powers again, as he insists that she is not ready yet. However, Mee convinces Bliss to prove him wrong as the girls invite her to defeat Chipmunk Commando. Her anger gets the best of her, as she almost hurts the girls, and Mee reveals that he is in fact Him in disguise. He manipulates her into fusing with him, and causes mayhem in Townsville within Bliss's body. But she then breaks free from Him's body thanks to Mojo Jojo, who tries to get her to notice him but fails. Bliss, Blossom, Bubbles, and Buttercup then combine together by the power of sisterhood to defeat Him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "She can be seen talking with Blue Beetle on the background alongside Supergirl."
      },
      {
        "title": "One Hour of Girl Power",
        "text": "Notes"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yankee Girl",
        "text": "In the 1990s, her magic words are \"Karma Madre Tolon\". This instantly changes her clothing into her heroic costume and gives her super powers. In this form she can lift 9000 pounds, is almost impervious to harm, and can fly. She can also survive in outer space unprotected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ultimate Girls",
        "text": "During one of the many monster attacks on the city where the story takes place, Silk Koharuno and her two friends attempt to get closer to the monster to get a better view. Unfortunately, the city's protector, UFO-man, comes to the rescue but inadvertently steps on them and crushes the girls to death. Feeling sorry for what he had done, UFO-man blames their deaths on the monster and promises to bring them back to life by lending them his power. However, now they must become the city's protectors as well.\n:\n: The main heroine of the trio. Although very shy and reserved about her new duty, she is the first of the three to demonstrate their new powers as UFO-man's successor, growing into a giant heroine. Only minutes after the transformation, she discovers her unusual battle suit is deteriorating little by little, until she is totally nude. After she goes back to normal size in the first episode, Silk wears a costume of Yui's Element Suit from \"Corrector Yui\" which she borrows from Tsubomi. She has a crush on Tsubomi's older brother Makoto, her senior classmate and school photographer. She is referred to by the crowd as Hinnyu (Little Boobs).\n:\n: One of Silk's best friends. She along with Silk and Tsubomi were accidentally crushed and resurrected by UFO-man. Nervous about indecent exposure, she does not try her powers as an Ultimate Girl until Tsubomi fails in her first transformation and Silk refuses to do so again. Left no choice, she offers to go, being dubbed Ultimate Girl Kyony\u016b (Big Boobs) by spectators. When attempting to avoid exposing herself when her suit deteriorates, Vivienne is the first to learn how their powers are supposed to work, by being embarrassed, they generate an energy which can be projected as a weapon against the giant monsters. She has a secret crush on Silk. In a flashback showing her mother, it is revealed that she is a hafu, as her mother is White, possibly Russian.\n:\n: Silk and Vivienne's friend and classmate. Tsubomi is a cosplayer by hobby, so when she realized that she too was a giant heroine, she took the idea without feeling any shame or embarrassment. However, because of this attitude, she was basically useless, since the source of their strength comes from being thoroughly embarrassed and projecting that emotion into an energy that can defeat their giant adversaries. Even after learning this, Tsubomi is not fazed and enjoys her new profession as a heroine and still manages to hold back the many giant monsters they encounter by tricking them instead of using brute power. It was Tsubomi's idea to go by the name \"Ultimate Girl.\" She is called \"Loli\" by the press, due to her underdeveloped chest.\n:\n: The giant hero who has always been fighting innumerous giant extraterrestrial monsters that rampage throughout Japan, until he accidentally steps on Silk, Vivienne, and Tsubomi. Out of sympathy for the girls (while also blaming the monster for their deaths), he sacrifices much of his power and energy to resurrect the three of them. In doing so, his body shrinks considerably, forcing him to rely on a UFO-like craft to levitate. By giving the girls his power, they are forcibly pressed into serving as giant heroines in his stead, by changing his hover craft into a wand which they must grab in order to invoke the transformation process.\n: \"Voiced by:\" Takashi Matsuyama\n: A journalist who follows the UFO-man and Ultimate Girls story. He offered a reward for photos showing who the Ultimate Girls really were. He originally nicknamed the first Ultimate Girl, Silk, \"UFO-man P\" (in the DVD release and in the manga, the nickname was , which is a play on words with the Japanese word , meaning vagina). Okamura is obsessed with the bodies of the Ultimate Girls.\n:\n: Tsubomi's older brother and a member of the high school press club as a photographer. He is always looking for photos of UFO-man, and is pursuing the reward offered for taking photos of the Ultimate Girls.\n:\n: Silk's older sister and a reporter working with Okamura"
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "In \"Justice League: Generation Lost\" #16, she sports a variation of her traditional costume that includes pants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "In the post-\"DC Rebirth\" \"DC Universe\", Power Girl (Karen Starr) appears to be trapped in some sort of interdimensional void between earths. Tanya Spears tries to get Karen Starr out by using an etheric transponder that allows her to travel there in an incorporeal state, but her physical body was disconnected from the machine by an unaware Kid Flash (Wallace West), so both women remain trapped as a result."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl is a key member of the Justice Society, which she joined when it was reformed in the late 1990s. During an adventure with the JSA, she meets Arion, who reveals her Atlantean heritage to be a lie he concocted at the behest of Power Girl's \"mother\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of The Powerpuff Girls characters",
        "text": "In \"Powerpuff Girls Z\" the anime version of Blossom is named / Hyper Blossom (\u30cf\u30a4\u30d1\u30fc\u30fb\u30d6\u30ed\u30c3\u30b5\u30e0 \"Haip\u0101 Burossamu\") in the original Japanese version while being called Blossom in the English dubbed version. She is depicted as the first member of the Powerpuff Girls Z. She uses a yo-yo as her signature weapon, but she can use her bow as a weapon if she doesn't have her yo-yo. Like the original, she's the self-proclaimed leader of the team. However, she is extremely ditzy, a bit boy-crazy, given to crushes and romantic fantasies. She is very familiar with the mahou shojo genre, along with some typical anime/super sentai concepts and is regarded as a \"hero maniac\" in school, especially by Buttercup. Blossom also has a strong appetite for sugary foods. Blossom was the first to encounter Mojo Jojo at the park after buying candy. If she doesn't eat sweets for a long time she can get very cranky. But she is getting used to it. Although often distracted and has been known to whine, Blossom tries her best to protect New Townsville, lead the girls, and help her friends regardless of her situation. (In one instance, when Blossom is unable to transform, she tries to fight alongside Bubbles and Buttercup wearing a sentai hero mask). Often she can be very clever and crafty when needed, usually being the first to come up with a plan to trick or defeat a monster that the girls are having trouble with. She has a younger sister named Kasey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cybergirl",
        "text": "Her powers include super-human strength, super-human speed, and the ability to interface directly with electronic devices and computers; she is also able to physically change her appearance between that of the blue-haired, ethereal-looking Cybergirl and the less conspicuous, mousy-haired Ashley, and can alter her clothing at will."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miracle Girl Limit-chan",
        "text": "Limit's Miracle Powers can be activated with a click of the dial on her special pendant. She has Miracle Power, which gives her superhuman strength; Miracle Jump, which allows her to jump unusually high; and Miracle Run, with which she can outrun a car at full speed. With her pendant, she can also transform into whatever she wants by saying the phrase \"Change Face\" and transforms back to her normal self by saying \"Change back!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Powerpuff Girls",
        "text": "The Powerpuff Girls is an American superhero animated television series created by animator Craig McCracken and produced by Hanna-Barbera (later Cartoon Network Studios) for Cartoon Network. The show centers on Blossom, Bubbles, and Buttercup, three kindergarten-aged girls with superpowers. The girls all live in the fictional city of Townsville with their father and creator, a scientist named Professor Utonium, and are frequently called upon by the city's mayor to help fight nearby criminals and other enemies using their powers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Violet Parr",
        "text": "Violet is born with the superhuman abilities to render herself invisible and create force fields, the latter of which she is still attempting to master at the beginning of \"The Incredibles\". Her superpowers mirror the personality of an awkward teenager who dislikes attention and would rather avoid being looked at, as well as her insulated, protective nature. According to \"The New York Times\" film critic A. O. Scott, Violet's powers \"serve mainly as metaphors for her shyness and disconnection.\" Several journalists agree that Violet's abilities resemble the desires of most teenage girls. Vowell herself explained that her character's powers \"reflect a female teen's occasional desires to protect herself, block out the world and avoid scrutiny or surveillance.\" Violet uses her powers both in battle and to hide during uncomfortable situations, such as when she encounters Tony Rydinger, a schoolmate on whom she harbors a crush. This behavior establishes the character as a social outcast. \"Las Vegas Weekly\"'s Josh Bell identified Violet's invisibility as \"the physical manifestation of the effects of peer pressure.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "The character is consistently depicted as a large breasted young woman, and her physique is one of her most recognizable attributes \u2013 to the extent that various writers have acknowledged it in both serious and humorous ways."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "After deciding to once again use the Karen Starr identity, she moves to New York City and begins rebuilding Starr Enterprises while continuing solo superheroics. She eventually takes teenaged hero-in-training Terra as her sidekick following the horrific events depicted in the \"Terror Titans\" mini-series. After the duo fight off a robot invasion of the city, Power Girl is kidnapped by the new Ultra-Humanite, who plans to transplant his brain into her body. Using her ice breath to destroy her gravity enhanced shackles and gag, Power Girl easily defeats the villain and saves New York. She also helps a trio of lost alien princesses and their bodyguard adjust to life on Earth, buying them a home in South America to stay until they can get back to their home planet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Having been raised by the Symbioship with artificial Kryptonian life experiences, Power Girl finds it difficult to adapt to life on Earth. However, with the help of reporter Andrew Vinson, she adopts the secret identity of computer programmer Karen Starr (she obtains her knowledge in this field from exposure to Wonder Woman's Purple Ray on Paradise Island). On the pre-\"Crisis\" Earth-Two, Power Girl's closest friend is the Huntress, the daughter of the Earth-Two Batman and Catwoman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Following the New 52 reboot of 2011, Power Girl appears as a refugee from Earth 2 in Worlds' Finest along with Huntress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Pro Kun Pocket",
        "text": "The only way to obtain the Super Abilities is playing in Success Mode. In \"Outer-Success\", players can obtain Super Abilities by finishing the girl's endings, which each of them keep two (one each for pitcher and fielder) Super Abilities. However, in each of the series there exist a wild-card girl character, who can give any Super Abilities by players' choice, but usually it needs tougher requirements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blossom (The Powerpuff Girls)",
        "text": "As depicted in the opening sequence of each episode, the Powerpuff Girls Blossom, Bubbles, and Buttercup were created by Professor Utonium in an attempt to create the \"perfect little girl\" using a mixture of \"sugar, spice, and everything nice\". However, he accidentally spilled a mysterious substance called \"Chemical X\" into the mixture, creating three girls and granting all three superpowers including flight, superhuman strength, superhuman speed, superhuman senses, nigh-invulnerability, x-ray vision, red heat vision, energy projection, space survivability, and thermal resistance. In the original pilot, the accidental substance was a can of \"Whoopass\", which was replaced by \"Chemical X\" in the aired version."
      },
      {
        "title": "Powerpuff Girls Z",
        "text": "Three ordinary 13-year-old girls, Momoko Akatsutsumi, Miyako G\u014dtokuji, and Kaoru Matsubara, are engulfed in white light, which transforms them into Hyper Blossom, Rolling Bubbles, and Powered Buttercup, the Powerpuff Girls Z. Peach is also engulfed in white light, transforming into a toy dog who can talk and call the girls to transform. Numerous rays of black light engulf people, animals, and objects to transform them into evil monsters who want to take over Tokyo City, such as Mojo Jojo, Fuzzy Lumpkins, Princess Himeko, Sedusa, the Gangreen Gang and the Amoeba Boys. The Powerpuff Girls Z must protect Tokyo City with the help from the Professor, Ken, Mayor Mayer and his assistant, Ms. Bellum, and use their respective weapons, including Blossom's yo-yo, Bubbles' bubble rod and Buttercup's hammer from evil monsters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bliss (The Powerpuff Girls)",
        "text": "As a response to a rival's creation of the perfect little boy, Professor Utonium created Bliss out of sugar, spice, and everything nice; however, he accidentally used Chemical W (as opposed to the other Powerpuff Girls who were created with Chemical X) which gave Bliss unique psionic powers (telekinesis, short-range teleportation, and energy) that neither her sisters nor their original counterparts possess. Her unique abilities are difficult for her to control and she sometimes loses control of them when she feels any form of emotion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "The Power Girl of New Earth faces off against the Power Girl and Justice Society Infinity of the new Earth-2, due to the Earth-2 Power Girl's grief and rage over the loss of her cousin prompting her to believe that the 'other' Power Girl is an impostor with some role in Superman's absence. Power Girl returns to New Earth with the help of the Earth-2 Michael Holt, until the Justice Society Infinity follow her and take her back to Earth-2, where it is revealed that the recreation of the Multiverse created a new Earth-2 and duplicates of its heroes, including its own Power Girl. The Power Girl of New Earth then returns home with the JSA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supertorpe",
        "text": "She is actually \"Super T\", (Super Truper), but, being too clumsy, people call her \"Super Clumsy\" and it annoys her that people call her like that. Poli knows the possibilities that her powers could give her, but fails to dominate them. Thus, her clumsiness will unleash several disasters, as freezing all her school classmates wanting to stop time in a happy moment, getting caught on the wall with half body inside and half body outside when she tries to teleport from one room to another, or leave the school principal deaf for a few minutes when she sings a song with her super squeaky voice. Fortunately, her brother Filo \u2013 whose only super power is to be unbearably clever \u2013 is always responsible for covering the destructions that Poli produces with her bungling and avoid that her secret gift is discovered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl briefly appears in the \"Final Crisis\" crossover event, battling the forces of Darkseid after he conquers the Earth using the Anti-Life Equation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ultra-Humanite",
        "text": "Later, Ultra-Humanite is seen aiding the Reach in their plans to conquer Earth; he is defeated by Blue Beetle and Guy Gardner. Ultra appears in the first arc of \"Power Girl\" (vol. 2), using an anti-gravity mechanism to raise New York City into the air, holding the city hostage in exchange for being able to transfer his mind into Power Girl's body. The attempt fails, and Power Girl accidentally scars his whole body with acid burns, maiming his form permanently."
      },
      {
        "title": "Super Women",
        "text": "According to the entry in the International Catalogue of Heroes, Super Women's real name is Kristine, and her powers include incredible intellect and hypnotic powers, gained after willingly submitting herself to an experiment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Katie Power",
        "text": "Katie began her superhero career as Energizer. She could disintegrate any kind of matter, including water and air molecules, store the energy and expel it in balls of explosive energy. Katie's Energizer power was highly destructive, potentially lethal, and in various issues, was able to destroy buildings and bring down supervillains such as Kurse. Katie initially had little control over her power, and tended to use it when she was frightened or angry, but as the series progressed, she gained control over her abilities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Following the events of \"Infinite Crisis\", a new Multiverse is created. Among them is an Earth-2 from which its Power Girl and Superman are both missing. The Power Girl of this Earth returns to Earth-2 after failing to find her cousin. The Power Girl of New Earth is accidentally sent to the pre-\"Crisis\" Earth-2 by the \"Third World\" god Gog."
      },
      {
        "title": "Girl Power (TV series)",
        "text": "\"November 14, 2014\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl\n--Publication history.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----Journey from Krypton-Two.\n----Debut.\n----Atlantean.\n----\"Infinite Crisis\".\n------\"JSA Classified: Power Trip\".\n------The other survivors.\n----\"One Year Later\".\n----Solo series and \"All-Stars\".\n----\"Brightest Day\".\n----New 52.\n----\"DC Universe\".\n--Powers and abilities.\n--Physical appearance and costumes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl's costume design has varied greatly over the years. Her classic costume design from \"All-Star Comics\" #58 is that which is in use today: a red cape and belt, blue gloves and boots, and a white bodysuit sporting a circular cleavage-exposing cut-out on her chest (its variable size and shape determined by the artist depicting her). According to Gerry Conway, \"The true, dumb reason for the circle? At the time, it was a convention for hero costumes to have a chest symbol. I thought a giant 'P' looked silly. The circle was intended as a nod to convention without being conventional. Not a sexy thing at all, until Wally Wood\u2019s inks.\" This window was closed for the first time in \"All-Star Comics\" #64, pencilled by Wood. According to Conway, it was dictated by publisher Jenette Kahn, because \"she felt it was sexist\". During her time with Justice League Europe/America, she wears a capeless yellow and white spandex unitard, and later a blue and white spandex unitard with a short mini-cape, headband, and a diamond shaped opening on her chest, once again exposing her cleavage. She has also worn a headband, as had Supergirl prior to her death in \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\". In a guest appearance in \"Green Lantern\", Kara is seen in her large wardrobe closet with every costume design she has ever worn in DC continuity, deciding which costume to wear for that mission. Her original costume returned when Johns and David Goyer had her rejoin the JSA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blossom (The Powerpuff Girls)",
        "text": "In \"Powerpuff Girls Z\", the magical girl version of Blossom is named / Hyper Blossom (\u30cf\u30a4\u30d1\u30fc\u30fb\u30d6\u30ed\u30c3\u30b5\u30e0 \"Haip\u0101 Burossamu\") in the original Japanese version while being called Blossom in the English dubbed version. She is depicted as the first member of the Powerpuff Girls Z. She uses a yo-yo as her signature weapon, but she can use her bow as a weapon if she doesn't have her yo-yo. Like the original, she's the self-proclaimed leader of the team. However, she is extremely ditzy, a bit boy-crazy, given to crushes and romantic fantasies. She is very familiar with the mahou shojo genre, along with some typical anime/Super Sentai concepts and is regarded as a \"hero maniac\" in school, especially by Buttercup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "During the 2011 relaunch of DC Comics' entire superhero line known as \"The New 52\", Karen Starr appears in the \"Mister Terrific\" series as a friend of the titular hero. In the series, Starr is still the head of Starr Enterprises, which was financed by her comrade in arms Helena Wayne (Huntress) after the latter hacked into Wayne Enterprises accounts. From a software design and development corporation, Starr Enterprises now purchases intellectual property and technology with possible interdimensional access capabilities so that the two women can return home. Power Girl subsequently stars in a new ongoing series, \"Worlds' Finest\", which premiered in May 2012. In the new continuity both she and Huntress, with whom she is partnered, are from Earth-2 but were flung into the Prime Earth's universe by an interdimensional vortex of unknown origin during the closing stages of an invasion from Apokolips-2 which took the life of Earth-2's Wonder Woman, Batman, and Superman. It is also revealed that prior to adopting the alias of Power Girl, she functioned as Earth-2's Supergirl and, in stark contrast to the Supergirl of Prime Earth, Karen loves her adopted Earth with a passion and was accepted with open arms by an adoring public. Power Girl eventually returned to her source Earth in the \"Earth-2: World's End\" weekly mini-series to team up with the new Earth-2 Superman Val-Zod. A temporarily amnesiac Power Girl from a seemingly alternative reality (not Earth-2, but more reminiscent of the pre-New 52 Power Girl) crashes in Harley Quinn's reality as shown in the \"Harley Quinn\" (2013-) storyline \"Power Outage\" (Issues #10-13). Some of the missing time from this joint encounter was explored in the 6-issue mini-series \"Harley Quinn and Power Girl\" (2015). Due to an attack by some evil aliens she got knocked back to Earth and landed at Harley Quinn's feet, devoid of memories. Harley temporarily took her on as a partner and they fought crime together before being sent across the universe on a quest to return home. When Power Girl got her memories back and realized that Harley had lied to her, she was less than amused, but forgave her. However when Harley hit on her, Power Girl left her atop the Eiffel Tower. Power Girl has reappeared in Harley Quinn's ongoing series several times since and has recently taken Terra/Altee on as her sidekick/partner."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl remains a core member of the Justice Society. Power Girl is selected as the chairwoman of the team after Mr. Terrific steps down."
      },
      {
        "title": "Satan Girl",
        "text": "The second Satan Girl had various magical abilities, such as the power to cast spells and switch souls. Her trident fires blue flames that can burn through almost any substance and is strong enough to pierce invulnerable skin, such as Supergirl's."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shego",
        "text": "Shego is endowed with a unique superpower: the ability to generate green, flame-like bolts of glowing energy from her hands. This energy can be used to heat or melt anything she touches, or fired as a directed energy attack ranging from laser precision to a destructive blast. Originally, Disney described Shego's green flames as being purely concussive in nature, although in later episodes she was shown using her flames to burn or melt things. These powers were first stated by Disney as being generated by her gloves, making them a weapon rather than a superpower. However, this fact was retroactively changed during the show's second season, when these abilities were revealed to be a true superpower resulting from exposure to a rainbow-hued comet which also empowered her four brothers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supernormal",
        "text": "Buzz Girl - a sarcastic four-armed girl who possesses a multitude of powers from the insect world... and a weakness for porch lights!"
      },
      {
        "title": "Girl Power (TV series)",
        "text": "\"February 9, 2018\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)",
        "text": "Like the original Kara's Streaky, Power Girl has a cat, featured in a story by Amanda Conner in \"Wonder Woman\" #600."
      },
      {
        "title": "Girl Power (TV series)",
        "text": "\"February 10, 2017\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Giganta",
        "text": "Though strength and durability are not at superhuman level until she grows, she is still a formidable foe possessing some training in personal combat. As a giant, she is one of the strongest beings in DC; she has overpowered Wonder Woman, Wonder Girl and Power Girl with one hand while not at her maximum height. In fact she is able to crush the bones of all those characters while in her virtually unescapable grip."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of The Powerpuff Girls characters",
        "text": "Blossom (voiced by Cathy Cavadini in the \"What a Cartoon!\" episodes and the series) is the tactician and self-proclaimed leader of the Powerpuff Girls. Her personality ingredient is \"everything nice\", her signature color is bright pink, and she has long red-orange waist-length hair with bangs in a triangular part with a red bow and a pink hair clip with a red heart. She was named for having spoken freely and honestly to the Professor shortly after her creation as shown in \"The Powerpuff Girls Movie\". She is often seen as the most level-headed, intelligent, and composed member of the group and also strong and determined. She is also a master strategist and apt planner. Her unique power is freezing objects with her breath as seen in the episode \"Ice Sore\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)",
        "text": "In the rare instances that Kara is harmed by someone matching her strength or by the use of one of her weaknesses, she can heal almost instantaneously. Her power surpasses most other beings, though she can be overpowered by those who rival her strength such as Black Adam, Darkseid, Despero, Doomsday, Bizarro, Wonder Woman, and Superman."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Powerpuff Girls",
        "text": "(archive)"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of The Powerpuff Girls characters",
        "text": "Sedusa (voiced by Jennifer Hale in the series) is a young, beautiful Gorgon-like mistress of disguise and seductress who uses her feminine wiles to influence men to do her bidding, such as Professor Utonium, the Mayor, and the Gangreen Gang. When her identity is revealed, she typically doffs down to her leotard battle suit and fights with her prehensile hair. Her eyes also change color depending on her mood. When she is acting benevolent her eye color is green, but when she is angry, revealing her true villainous nature, her eyes turn red. Similar to Ms. Bellum, Sedusa is absent from the reboot due to female modifications."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saturn Girl",
        "text": "Saturn Girl's powers in her initial Silver Age appearances appeared to be great; she could summon distant people; probe human, electronic and animal minds; \"push\" weakened minds and even directly control others' thoughts and emotions. In later years, her abilities were portrayed more conservatively; her telepathy was used most often for communication or sensing surface thoughts, while her ability to influence and probe minds was usually limited to minds that had already been weakened in some way, such as by fatigue or a villain's mind control."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Powerpuff Girls",
        "text": "The show revolves around the adventures of three kindergarten-aged girls with an array of various superpowers: Blossom (pink), Bubbles (blue), and Buttercup (green). The plot of an episode is usually some humorous variation of standard superhero and tokusatsu shows, with the girls using their powers to defend their town from villains and giant monsters. In addition, the girls have to deal with the normal issues that young children face, such as sibling rivalries, loose teeth, personal hygiene, going to school, bed wetting, or dependence on a security blanket. Episodes often contain hidden references to older pop culture (especially noticeable in the episode \"Meet the Beat Alls\", which is a homage to the Beatles). The cartoon always tries to keep different ideas within each episode with some small tributes and parodies thrown in."
      },
      {
        "title": "Girl Power (TV series)",
        "text": "\"June 29, 2018\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Katie Power",
        "text": "After Queen Mother Maraud briefly gained the abilities of Power Pack in \"Power Pack\" #52, Katie ended up with the gravity powers previously held by her brothers Alex and Jack. She took the same code name Jack had used, Counterweight. She was able to float, \"gravitize\" to any surface, and cancel the gravity of any object she touched. She was also able to increase her own gravity to deliver \"Super-G\" powerful punches and make herself extremely heavy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Girl Power (film)",
        "text": "Girl Power (film)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Girl Power (TV series)",
        "text": "\"October 19, 2018\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of The Powerpuff Girls characters",
        "text": "(voiced by Tomoko Kaneda and Matt Hill (ep 1-37a), Simon Hill (ep 37b-52)) is Ken's pet robot dog who was also affected by a white Chemical Z ray, gaining the ability to talk, as well as a considerable boost in intelligence. Peach's shout prompts the girls to transform either in person or through a long-distance communication device, although a modification to the girls' compacts allows them to transform on their own. Additionally, Peach can re-summon the girls' powers, even when their powers are drained. Peach is also capable of sniffing out those who are affected by the black rays, white rays, and Him's black particles. The black ray monsters/villains that have been sniffed by Peach are stored in his data banks for later reference. This ability, however, is hindered if his target is wearing heavy cosmetics (as was the case with Sedusa). Peach is also capable of sniffing and identifying others more clearly than other dogs, even when someone's appearance has been completely changed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Girl Power (TV series)",
        "text": "\"June 23, 2017\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Supernormal",
        "text": "Buzz Girl has all the powers of an insect, that is, she can climb walls, fly and stretch her tongue. She can also spin webs, a trait that belongs to arachnids, not insects. She speaks with sarcastic comments and snide remarks, but means well. Buzz Girl rarely smiles in most of the episodes and frowns or sulks more often. She has four arms and wings, and wears a black and purple bathing suit. She is voiced by Tara Sands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Girl Power (TV series)",
        "text": "\"October 13, 2017\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Girl Power (TV series)",
        "text": "\"June 7, 2019\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Powerhouse (comics)",
        "text": "Powerhouse has the ability to drain energy of other living things to increase her own power. She can absorb energy through contact with a victim, even brief contact like a punch. She has demonstrated the ability to fly, shoot destructive energy blasts, and superhuman strength to an unknown degree. However, it is unknown if she has any of these powers unless she has absorbed sufficient amounts of energy or whether they are independent within her. It is also unknown if she requires this energy to survive and if so, how often she needs to feed."
      },
      {
        "title": "When Supernatural Battles Became Commonplace",
        "text": "The story focuses on Senk\u014d High School's Literature Club, whose five members; Jurai, Tomoyo, Hatoko, Sayumi, and Chifuyu, have all somehow developed superpowers. Their superpowers have now become a part of their everyday lives as they battle against others wielding similar powers while struggling through growing up.\n:\n:The main protagonist, who has a notable case of 'chunibyo' (eighth grader syndrome), which he maintains even after getting actual superpowers. As such, he is the one who has given names to everyone's powers, which are each spelled with kanji characters but have English readings. His power is , which is a seemingly useless black flame.\n:\n:A red-haired girl who is constantly bemused by Jurai's antics and has feelings for him. Her power is , which lets her speed up, slow down, or stop time, though she cannot rewind it. It is later revealed that she is trying to become a light-novelist but this is only known to Jurai where he accidentally found out.\n:\n:A polite airheaded girl who often takes Jurai's chuunibyou antics seriously. She is also Jurai's childhood best friend and has feelings for him as well. Her power is , giving her the ability to manipulate five main elements; earth, water, fire, wind, and light. She can use these elements simultaneously to create a variety of effects (i.e combining earth and fire to create magma).\n:\n:The literature club's president. She is normally seen reading books and appears to have hints of feelings for Ando. Her power is , in which anyone or anything she touches returns to its original state, although the exact nature of this remains vague. Later on, she \"awakens\" to the ability of returning people and possibly objects to places they have been before.\n:\n:A fourth year elementary school student who is the adviser's niece. Her power is , allowing her to create matter and space itself. She can also tap into the earth's memory to create matter she has never seen before. She once had a fight with her best friend, Madoka, before she requested Shiharu to help her to make up with her best friend. Also has romantic feelings for Ando.\n:\n:The student council president who develops her own ability. Her ability is , which allows her to steal any ability she witnesses being activated. She initially mistook a letter from Jurai to be a love confession (due to robber and lover having the pronunciation \"rab\u0101\") and falls for him. Even after getting rejected, she remains friends with Jurai.\n:\n:Tomoyo's older half-brother who left home a year ago. Like Jurai, he is also quite into 'chunibyo'. His ability is \"Pinpoint Abyss\" which allows him to open up black holes that sucks his opponents in and returning them into their previous location before the meeting without any memories of what has transpired, prior to being a power user, he used to attend college and even has a job.\n:\n:The second-in-command for Hajime's gang.\n:\n:She is a fairy assigned to Kiryu's clique, who advises them with all matters pertaining to the fairy wars. Though, small in size, she can be quite a handful when arguing with anyone within the group.\n:\n:A boy at school who constantly gets dumped by his girls due to his otaku behavior. Despite both enjoying anime, he and Jurai do not get along. It is suggested that he too is a power user who also belongs to Kiryu's clique. However, Kiryu dislikes him for his usurping nature.\n:\n:Chifuyu's best friend and classmate in elementary school, who she nicknames \"Cookie\". Madoka once got into a fight with Chifuyu, before Chifuyu requested Shiharu to help her win Madoka as a gift to make up with her.\n:\n:The literary club's advisor and Chifuyu's aunt, who often brings Chifuyu to the club due to her busy schedule.\n:\n:Sayumi's younger sister."
      },
      {
        "title": "Night Girl",
        "text": "Since her superpowers are often unavailable, she has trained extensively and is a very capable hand-to-hand combatant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Princess",
        "text": "In addition to similar physical abilities she shares with Hyperion, such as supersonic flight, super-strength, greatly enhanced reflexes, superhuman senses and nigh-invulnerability, this Zarda has the ability to drain the life-force of others to rejuvenate herself. She uses a similar life force transfer to heal Hyperion when he receives life-threatening injuries. While it is possible to hurt her, she apparently even survived a direct nuclear explosion through a combination of her nigh-invulnerability and her life-force transference capabilities. Like Hyperion, she is able to survive the vacuum of space unaided for a considerable amount of time, enabling at least interplanetary travel via her flight capabilities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Linda Danvers)",
        "text": "Restored powers: After encountering Twilight as the new Earth-Born Angel of Fire, Linda regained all of the powers that she'd possessed while initially merged with Matrix, sans her ability to assume her \"Supergirl\" form. Her strength and durability returned to their original levels and she was able to fly and produce psionic blasts of force once more."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supertorpe",
        "text": "Poli Truper (Candela Vetrano) is a 16-year-old girl. She is a seemingly ordinary teenager but with a special gift: she is super powerful and equally clumsy. Poli has the misfortune of losing control of her powers whenever she gets nervous or gives vent to her feelings, which gets her in trouble constantly, especially at school."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some of Power Girl's super powers?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "As the biological cousin of Superman, Power Girl exhibits all of the classic Kryptonian powers: super strength; flight; super speed; invulnerability; x-ray, telescopic, microscopic and heat vision; freeze breath; and super-hearing. Also, Since she is from an alternative universe (pre-Crisis Earth Two), kryptonite has no effect on her, but she is still vulnerable to magic.",
      "As the biological cousin of Superman, Power Girl exhibits all of the classic Kryptonian powers: super strength; flight; super speed; invulnerability; x-ray, telescopic, microscopic and heat vision; freeze breath; and super-hearing."
    ],
    "topic": "Power Girl",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Power Girl:46",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Power Girl",
          "Powers and abilities"
        ],
        "ctx": "As the biological cousin of Superman, Power Girl exhibits all of the classic Kryptonian powers: super strength; flight; super speed; invulnerability; x-ray, telescopic, microscopic and heat vision; freeze breath; and super-hearing. Over the years various writers have given Power Girl's Kryptonian power differing levels, reflecting the lower powers of the Earth-Two Superman Kal-L. For example, Power Girl can fly through space, but has to breathe, so before she leaves a planet, she must take a deep breath and hold it for several hours until she needs a new oxygen source. Power Girl needs to sleep or she will experience disorientation due to fatigue. However, as recently shown in \"Brightest Day\", she now draws her superpowers from yellow sunlight, just like Superman. The reason for this change has not yet been explained."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Power Girl:47",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Power Girl",
          "Powers and abilities"
        ],
        "ctx": "Since she is from an alternative universe (pre-Crisis Earth Two), kryptonite has no effect on her, but she is still vulnerable to magic. As Karen Starr, she is an accomplished business woman and is regarded by Mr. Terrific as a first rate scientist. Even though Power Girl is from an alternative universe, her biology is still similar to Superman's. As one of a handful of characters who survived the \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\", DC editorial was initially uncertain how to portray the character and attempted to portray Power Girl with a non-Kryptonian origin for a number of years. Power Girl's abilities have fluctuated since 1986. For some time, Power Girl believed she was an Atlantean. At one point, Power Girl possessed telekinesis; at another she was vulnerable to attacks by certain natural elements (for example, wooden weapons). After sustaining severe injuries from a magic attack Power Girl retained only a degree of super strength, speed and durability. However, she later recovered her ability to fly, and writers have gradually restored her superpowers."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Power Girl:46",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Power Girl",
          "Powers and abilities"
        ],
        "ctx": "As the biological cousin of Superman, Power Girl exhibits all of the classic Kryptonian powers: super strength; flight; super speed; invulnerability; x-ray, telescopic, microscopic and heat vision; freeze breath; and super-hearing. Over the years various writers have given Power Girl's Kryptonian power differing levels, reflecting the lower powers of the Earth-Two Superman Kal-L. For example, Power Girl can fly through space, but has to breathe, so before she leaves a planet, she must take a deep breath and hold it for several hours until she needs a new oxygen source. Power Girl needs to sleep or she will experience disorientation due to fatigue. However, as recently shown in \"Brightest Day\", she now draws her superpowers from yellow sunlight, just like Superman. The reason for this change has not yet been explained."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "As the biological cousin of Superman, Power Girl exhibits all of the classic Kryptonian powers: super strength; flight; super speed; invulnerability; x-ray, telescopic, microscopic and heat vision; freeze breath; and super-hearing. Over the years various writers have given Power Girl's Kryptonian power differing levels, reflecting the lower powers of the Earth-Two Superman Kal-L. For example, Power Girl can fly through space, but has to breathe, so before she leaves a planet, she must take a deep breath and hold it for several hours until she needs a new oxygen source. Power Girl needs to sleep or she will experience disorientation due to fatigue. However, as recently shown in \"Brightest Day\", she now draws her superpowers from yellow sunlight, just like Superman. The reason for this change has not yet been explained."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Since she is from an alternative universe (pre-Crisis Earth Two), kryptonite has no effect on her, but she is still vulnerable to magic. As Karen Starr, she is an accomplished business woman and is regarded by Mr. Terrific as a first rate scientist. Even though Power Girl is from an alternative universe, her biology is still similar to Superman's. As one of a handful of characters who survived the \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\", DC editorial was initially uncertain how to portray the character and attempted to portray Power Girl with a non-Kryptonian origin for a number of years. Power Girl's abilities have fluctuated since 1986. For some time, Power Girl believed she was an Atlantean. At one point, Power Girl possessed telekinesis; at another she was vulnerable to attacks by certain natural elements (for example, wooden weapons). After sustaining severe injuries from a magic attack Power Girl retained only a degree of super strength, speed and durability. However, she later recovered her ability to fly, and writers have gradually restored her superpowers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "In common with Supergirl's origin story, she is the daughter of Superman's aunt and uncle and a native of the planet Krypton. The infant Power Girl's parents enabled her to escape the destruction of her home planet by placing her in a rocket ship. Although she left the planet at the same time that Superman did, her ship took much longer to reach Earth-Two. On Earth, as with other Kryptonians, Power Girl discovered she possessed abilities like super strength, flight, and heat vision, using which she became a protector of innocents and a hero for humanity. Though the specifics of how vary over subsequent retellings, Power Girl is later stranded on another Earth when a cosmic crisis affects her home of Earth-Two, and later carves out a separate identity for herself from her dimensional counterpart Supergirl once they are forced to coexist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Though they are biologically the same person, Power Girl behaves as an older, more mature, and more level-headed version of Supergirl, with a more aggressive fighting style. She also adopts a different secret identity from her counterpart. These changes are reflected in their differing costumes and superhero names as well; Power Girl sports a bob of blond hair; wears a distinctive white, red, and blue costume with a cleavage-displaying cutout. The name Power Girl reflects that she chooses not to be seen as a derivative of Superman, but rather her own hero and this choice is reflected in the strong independent attitude of the character. Over various decades, Power Girl has been depicted as a member of superhero teams such as the Justice Society of America, Infinity, Inc., Justice League Europe, and the Birds of Prey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl, also known as Kara Zor-L and Karen Starr, is a DC Comics superheroine, making her first appearance in \"All Star Comics\" #58 (January/February 1976). Power Girl is the cousin of DC's flagship hero Superman, but from an alternate universe in the fictional multiverse in which DC Comics stories are set. Originally hailing from the world of Earth-Two, first envisioned as the home of DC's wartime heroes as published in 1940s comic books, Power Girl becomes stranded in the main universe where DC stories are set, and becomes acquainted with that world's Superman and her own counterpart, Supergirl."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)",
        "text": "Power Girl is the Earth-Two counterpart of Supergirl and the first cousin of Kal-L, Superman of the pre-\"Crisis\" Earth-Two. The infant Power Girl's parents enabled her to escape the destruction of Krypton. Although she left the planet at the same time that Superman did, her ship took much longer to reach Earth-Two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "The 1985 \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\" limited series erased the existence of the Earth-Two Superman, and Power Girl's continuity was thus substantially disrupted. Initially she believed herself to be Superman's cousin, as she had been before the reboot. However, her background was retconned; she was told that she was the descendant of the Atlantean sorcerer Arion, and was frozen in suspended animation for millennia until the present day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "In the \"One Year Later\" storyline in \"Supergirl\", Kara takes up the mantle of Nightwing in an attempt to free the natives of Kandor. Ultraman, masquerading as Kal-El and working in concert with the Saturn Queen, has taken control of the bottle city. Kara Zor-El is the city's Flamebird; she prevents Ultraman's forces from executing the captured Power Girl. Power Girl is forced to leave Kandor with Kara (against her better judgment) after Saturn Queen reveals to Supergirl information about Supergirl's past and purpose. This causes another rift to grow between the two women, as Power Girl feels Supergirl left an entire city of people to suffer, all because of her own selfish desires. This animosity is still on display when she next encounters Supergirl."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "After the Justice Society disbands, Power Girl would join the Justice League. Later, while a member of Justice League Europe, she suffers a near fatal injury while battling a mystical being. Superman must assist in her medical treatment, using his heat-vision to perform surgery on her otherwise-invulnerable tissues. Although she recovers, Power Girl is significantly weaker, as she lost her vision powers and could not fly for a time. However, she regained them all as time went on. Power Girl adopts a one-eyed mangy cat, an animal which would affect much of the team. One aspect of this is her beloved cat is used to spy on the group by intelligence gathering criminals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl's existence is not revealed to the general public until much later; her cousin Clark and his wife Lois Lane provide her a family environment to assist her transition towards real life relationships. In her first recorded adventure, Kara assists Justice Society members Flash and Wildcat with containing an artificially induced volcanic eruption in China. She then joins Robin and Star-Spangled Kid to form a Super Squad to assist the Justice Society in defeating Brainwave and Per Degaton, who were causing disasters around the world. She pushes their base towards the Sun, the heat causing the villains to fall unconscious. Later, she becomes a full member of the Society when Superman retires from active membership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "The Psycho-Pirate shows Kara multiple versions of her origin in an effort to drive her insane. Eventually, he reveals the truth: Power Girl is a survivor of Krypton from the dimension which contained the pre-\"Crisis\" Earth-Two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl's origin has gone through revisions, but over time has reverted to her original conception as the Supergirl of Earth-Two. The 1985 limited series \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\" eliminated Earth-Two from history, causing her to be retconned as the granddaughter of an Atlantean sorcerer known as Arion. This was an unpopular change and writers depicted the revised Power Girl inconsistently. The 2005\u20132006 \"Infinite Crisis\" limited series then restored her status as a refugee from the Krypton of the destroyed Pre-Crisis Earth-Two universe. Following DC's 2011 \"Flashpoint\" storyline and New 52 reboot, Power Girl's origin was retold as the Supergirl of \"Earth 2\", cousin and adopted daughter of Superman, who during evil Fourth World New God Darkseid's invasion of Earth 2 becomes stranded in the main continuity of Earth 0, subsequently adopting the name Power Girl to hide her true identity. She returned to her source Earth in the story \"Earth 2: World's End\" (2014\u20132015)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "As part of DC's 2011 reboot of its continuity, The New 52, Power Girl was reintroduced into the DC Universe as first being the Earth-2 Supergirl, where she wears a variation of the traditional Supergirl costume designed by Kevin Maguire that features red gloves and belt, and a new S-shield, identical to the new Earth 2 Superman's, and has a cape that attaches directly to the shield. However, some aspects of her continuity were retained: she was still adopted by Clark Kent and Lois Lane, married on Earth 2 before their deaths and still uses the secret identity of software entrepreneur Karen Starr. After some time passes, she decides to take on a new identity as she is now trapped on the mainstream DC Earth. Here she adopts the identity Power Girl, where she wears a white one piece body suit that covers her legs, and a red cape that attaches to a new P-shield symbol over her left breast. In \"Supergirl\" #19, she returns to her classic costume, complete with the opening on her chest, after her then-current costume is badly damaged. Later, when back in her home world, she discovers her cousin and adopted father Superman has been resurrected by Darkseid, but Superman sacrifices himself to help stave off Darkseid's attack on Earth. After his second death, Power Girl's adoptive mother Lois Lane (Red Tornado) gives her the S-shaped hope symbol from Superman's chest, which then becomes a part of Power Girl's costume."
      },
      {
        "title": "Night Girl",
        "text": "Night Girl has the powers of superstrength equivalent to that of Superboy or Mon-El and durability (though not quite at Kryptonian levels), but only in darkness or deep shadow. Her powers fade immediately in the presence of direct sunlight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Having been raised by the Symbioship with artificial Kryptonian life experiences, Power Girl finds it difficult to adapt to life on Earth. However, with the help of reporter Andrew Vinson, she adopts the secret identity of computer programmer Karen Starr (she obtains her knowledge in this field from exposure to Wonder Woman's Purple Ray on Paradise Island). On the pre-\"Crisis\" Earth-Two, Power Girl's closest friend is the Huntress, the daughter of the Earth-Two Batman and Catwoman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl is freed by Wonder Girl and Kon-El, and joins them in fighting Superboy-Prime and Alex Luthor. During a savage battle on Mogo, Superboy-Prime beats Kal-L to death and is later subdued by Kal-El. Power Girl is brought to Mogo by the Green Lantern Corps just in time to bid a tearful farewell to her dying cousin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Conversely, in \"JSA: Classified\" #2 (2005), writer Geoff Johns has Power Girl explain her cleavage-window to Superman, revealing that \"the first time I made this costume, I wanted to have a symbol, like you. I just\u2026I couldn\u2019t think of anything. I thought eventually, I\u2019d figure it out. And close the hole. But I haven\u2019t.\" A similar treatment of the character can be seen in \"Superman/Batman\" #4 (written by Jeph Loeb), in which the heroes need to distract the Toyman while Batman and Superman battle Captain Marvel and Hawkman. Batman suggests that Power Girl's endowments would be likely to distract Toyman, a 13-year-old boy. Toyman later attempts to make a reference to the size of her chest before being cut off by Superman. A variant of this joke is included in the ' movie."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "In the post-\"DC Rebirth\" \"DC Universe\", Power Girl (Karen Starr) appears to be trapped in some sort of interdimensional void between earths. Tanya Spears tries to get Karen Starr out by using an etheric transponder that allows her to travel there in an incorporeal state, but her physical body was disconnected from the machine by an unaware Kid Flash (Wallace West), so both women remain trapped as a result."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Super Girl",
        "text": "Despite the superficial similarities, \"Supergirl\" is vastly different from \"Playgirl\". Featuring far more serious plots and less comic relief, as well as highly eroticised situations wherein the characters wore a variety of revealing and fetish outfits, including bikinis and schoolgirl uniforms, these elements of the series were a deliberate attempt by its producer Toei to create a more \"adult\" series. This can even be seen in the episode titles, such as episode one, \"Seven Sexy Cats Make Their Explosive Debut\", or episode nineteen, \"Nude Battle Against the Wolf Pack\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "While attempting to save her teammate Ted Grant from the new female Crimson Avenger, Power Girl is severely wounded by supernatural bullets fired from the vigilante's cursed handguns. Despite being saved by Doctor Mid-Nite, Power Girl comments that her near-death experience has shown her that she needs to make more personal connections outside of the superhero community."
      },
      {
        "title": "My Super Ex-Girlfriend",
        "text": "Soon after, Jenny reveals to him that she is in fact the voluptuous blonde superheroine G-Girl, who received the powers of flight, superhuman strength, speed, heightened senses, invulnerability, super breath, and heat vision after being exposed to radiation from a crashed meteorite as a teenager. She becomes more controlling after revealing her powers and Matt is overwhelmed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)",
        "text": "Continued exposure to a yellow Sun will slowly increase abilities. Many characters in the DC Universe have noted that Supergirl appears, at times, to be even more powerful than Superman himself. In answer to this, Superman states that this is because he has spent his entire life subconsciously suppressing his full powers in order to avoid hurting others, having been absorbing solar radiation since his infancy. Kara, not having such practice or experience, simply uses the full magnitude of her powers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl is a key member of the Justice Society, which she joined when it was reformed in the late 1990s. During an adventure with the JSA, she meets Arion, who reveals her Atlantean heritage to be a lie he concocted at the behest of Power Girl's \"mother\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl\n--Publication history.\n--Fictional character biography.\n----Journey from Krypton-Two.\n----Debut.\n----Atlantean.\n----\"Infinite Crisis\".\n------\"JSA Classified: Power Trip\".\n------The other survivors.\n----\"One Year Later\".\n----Solo series and \"All-Stars\".\n----\"Brightest Day\".\n----New 52.\n----\"DC Universe\".\n--Powers and abilities.\n--Physical appearance and costumes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Cir-El)",
        "text": "Cir-El's outfit appeared to be a legless black leotard, not unlike Power Girl's classic white leotard, but with short sleeves instead of long. Also similar to Power Girl, Cir-El wore gloves and boots, both black. Her uniform was topped off with a dark blue, knee-length cape. Instead of the traditional S-Shield, Cir-El instead sported a simple large red letter S that went down the length of her upper torso.\n*In \"Action Comics\" #994, an alternate timeline appears where Krypton was never destroyed. In this timeline, Kal-El's younger sister sports short black hair and a black costume with a blue cape.\n*In \"\" volume three, Superman's great granddaughter Lara has short black hair and a very similar uniform (black leotard with blue cape)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "During the 2011 relaunch of DC Comics' entire superhero line known as \"The New 52\", Karen Starr appears in the \"Mister Terrific\" series as a friend of the titular hero. In the series, Starr is still the head of Starr Enterprises, which was financed by her comrade in arms Helena Wayne (Huntress) after the latter hacked into Wayne Enterprises accounts. From a software design and development corporation, Starr Enterprises now purchases intellectual property and technology with possible interdimensional access capabilities so that the two women can return home. Power Girl subsequently stars in a new ongoing series, \"Worlds' Finest\", which premiered in May 2012. In the new continuity both she and Huntress, with whom she is partnered, are from Earth-2 but were flung into the Prime Earth's universe by an interdimensional vortex of unknown origin during the closing stages of an invasion from Apokolips-2 which took the life of Earth-2's Wonder Woman, Batman, and Superman. It is also revealed that prior to adopting the alias of Power Girl, she functioned as Earth-2's Supergirl and, in stark contrast to the Supergirl of Prime Earth, Karen loves her adopted Earth with a passion and was accepted with open arms by an adoring public. Power Girl eventually returned to her source Earth in the \"Earth-2: World's End\" weekly mini-series to team up with the new Earth-2 Superman Val-Zod. A temporarily amnesiac Power Girl from a seemingly alternative reality (not Earth-2, but more reminiscent of the pre-New 52 Power Girl) crashes in Harley Quinn's reality as shown in the \"Harley Quinn\" (2013-) storyline \"Power Outage\" (Issues #10-13). Some of the missing time from this joint encounter was explored in the 6-issue mini-series \"Harley Quinn and Power Girl\" (2015). Due to an attack by some evil aliens she got knocked back to Earth and landed at Harley Quinn's feet, devoid of memories. Harley temporarily took her on as a partner and they fought crime together before being sent across the universe on a quest to return home. When Power Girl got her memories back and realized that Harley had lied to her, she was less than amused, but forgave her. However when Harley hit on her, Power Girl left her atop the Eiffel Tower. Power Girl has reappeared in Harley Quinn's ongoing series several times since and has recently taken Terra/Altee on as her sidekick/partner."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)",
        "text": "In reality, Kara is actually older than her cousin, Clark, and spent time on Krypton before its destruction. As such (unlike Superman), she possesses memories of Kryptonian culture as well as her cousin's parents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl's costume design has varied greatly over the years. Her classic costume design from \"All-Star Comics\" #58 is that which is in use today: a red cape and belt, blue gloves and boots, and a white bodysuit sporting a circular cleavage-exposing cut-out on her chest (its variable size and shape determined by the artist depicting her). According to Gerry Conway, \"The true, dumb reason for the circle? At the time, it was a convention for hero costumes to have a chest symbol. I thought a giant 'P' looked silly. The circle was intended as a nod to convention without being conventional. Not a sexy thing at all, until Wally Wood\u2019s inks.\" This window was closed for the first time in \"All-Star Comics\" #64, pencilled by Wood. According to Conway, it was dictated by publisher Jenette Kahn, because \"she felt it was sexist\". During her time with Justice League Europe/America, she wears a capeless yellow and white spandex unitard, and later a blue and white spandex unitard with a short mini-cape, headband, and a diamond shaped opening on her chest, once again exposing her cleavage. She has also worn a headband, as had Supergirl prior to her death in \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\". In a guest appearance in \"Green Lantern\", Kara is seen in her large wardrobe closet with every costume design she has ever worn in DC continuity, deciding which costume to wear for that mission. Her original costume returned when Johns and David Goyer had her rejoin the JSA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "She can be seen talking with Blue Beetle on the background alongside Supergirl."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Cir-El)",
        "text": "A hybrid of human/Kryptonian origin, Cir-El absorbs yellow sunlight to gain superhuman strength and speed, super-hearing, and invulnerability. Originally, instead of flying, Cir-El could leap vast distances, although she is later seen flying in \"Superman/Batman\" #5, and again in issue 24. Her \"trademark\" power is the ability to release her stored solar energy from her hands as \"Red Sunbursts\", blasts of red solar radiation (the very wavelength of sunlight that Superman loses his powers under) that strike an enemy with intense heat and force. Like Superman, she is vulnerable to Kryptonite."
      },
      {
        "title": "Satan Girl",
        "text": "The first Satan Girl had all of Supergirl's powers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)",
        "text": "In 2004, Jeph Loeb reintroduced Kara Zor-El into post-\"\" (Birthright timeline) continuity during a storyline in the series \"Superman/Batman\". She is the biological cousin of Superman, and although chronologically older than him, the ship in which she traveled to Earth was caught in a large green Kryptonite meteorite which held her in a state of suspended animation for much of the journey, making her have the appearance of a 16-year-old girl. Still, Supergirl sometimes saw Superman as a child, due to last carrying him as a baby. DC Comics relaunched the \"Supergirl\", the first story arc of which was written by Loeb. showcases Supergirl on a journey of self-discovery. Along her journey, she encounters Power Girl (Kara Zor-El's counterpart from another universe), the Teen Titans, the Outsiders, the Justice League of America, and arch-villain Lex Luthor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "The Power Girl of New Earth faces off against the Power Girl and Justice Society Infinity of the new Earth-2, due to the Earth-2 Power Girl's grief and rage over the loss of her cousin prompting her to believe that the 'other' Power Girl is an impostor with some role in Superman's absence. Power Girl returns to New Earth with the help of the Earth-2 Michael Holt, until the Justice Society Infinity follow her and take her back to Earth-2, where it is revealed that the recreation of the Multiverse created a new Earth-2 and duplicates of its heroes, including its own Power Girl. The Power Girl of New Earth then returns home with the JSA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Soon after this revelation, Power Girl is confronted by Superboy-Prime, who renders her unconscious. She is attached to a \u201dtuning fork\u201d, a device controlled by Alex Luthor whose purpose is to bring back the multiple Earths. Alex Luthor and Psycho Pirate coerce Black Adam (who is also attached to the machine) into saying \"SHAZAM!\", and use the now-raw magical energy to power the tower. After the reappearance of the created Earth-Two, everyone associated with that Earth is transported onto it (although Power Girl remains on New Earth because of her proximity to the tower)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "The appearance of the Earth-22 Superman (and his resemblance to Kal-L) upsets Kara greatly when he first arrives on New Earth. However, they adopt each other as family after a period of time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "In \"Justice League: Generation Lost\" #16, she sports a variation of her traditional costume that includes pants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)",
        "text": "Like the original Kara's Streaky, Power Girl has a cat, featured in a story by Amanda Conner in \"Wonder Woman\" #600."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)",
        "text": "She has superhuman strength and the ability to fly and is the first chairwoman of the Justice Society of America. She sports a bob of blond hair; wears a distinctive white, red, and blue costume; and has an aggressive fighting style. Throughout her early appearances in \"All Star Comics\", she is often at odds with Wildcat because his penchant for talking to her as if she were an ordinary human female rather than a superpowered Kryptonian annoys her."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Linda Danvers)",
        "text": "Original powers: Linda was originally a normal human, with no superhuman abilities. Upon fusing with the Matrix Supergirl, Linda gained her psychokinetic abilities. This granted her an incredible level of superhuman strength and speed, near invulnerability to harm, and the power to fly at high speeds. Linda was also able to produce concussive blasts of telekinetic energy, typically referred to as \"psi blasts.\" Linda was also able to change from her normal, Linda Danvers persona into her \"Supergirl\" form which was taller, had blonde hair, and a larger bust. The transformation was purely cosmetic, as Linda retained her powers in either form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl's original Wally Wood artwork (1976) showed her as relatively busty but otherwise her figure and build conformed in appearance to other contemporary comic book women. However, in \"Wonder Woman\" #34 (2009), written by Gail Simone, Dinah Lance, the Black Canary, mentions Power Girl as having the top bosom of DCU, comparing her assets with a \"national treasure\". Her most common outfit is a leg-baring, figure-hugging, long-sleeved white leotard with a keyhole cut-out opening in the chest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl remains a core member of the Justice Society. Power Girl is selected as the chairwoman of the team after Mr. Terrific steps down."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl was at one time portrayed as having a highly athletic but slender physique. Artists Bart Sears (in the \"Justice League Europe\" series), and later Alex Ross (in the limited series \"Kingdom Come\") restored Power Girl's well-endowed shape. Ross rendered her as a heavily muscled \"Power Woman\" (as if she was an ardent bodybuilder)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rainbow Girl",
        "text": "Rainbow Girl wields the powers of the mysterious emotional spectrum resulting in unpredictable mood swings. She was able to tap red (anger), blue (hope) and green (willpower) when she and other substitutes came to the aid of Superman and the Legion of Super-Heroes in their battle against the xenophobic Justice League of Earth. During the Blackest Night event, Geoff Johns states that she does not fully understand her powers and uses them more for fun."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Following the events of \"Infinite Crisis\", a new Multiverse is created. Among them is an Earth-2 from which its Power Girl and Superman are both missing. The Power Girl of this Earth returns to Earth-2 after failing to find her cousin. The Power Girl of New Earth is accidentally sent to the pre-\"Crisis\" Earth-2 by the \"Third World\" god Gog."
      },
      {
        "title": "Girl Power (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Girl Power may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Cir-El)",
        "text": "Thanks to the time-traveling efforts of Bizarro in \"Superman/Batman\" #24, Cir-El is able to join Linda Danvers, Kara Zor-El (both Modern Age and Pre-Crisis versions) and Power Girl to rescue Superman from the Source Wall. The girls are successful, but Superman only recognizes Kara, Power Girl, and Linda, due to Cir-El and pre-Crisis Kara Zor-El coming from previously erased timelines."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of The Powerpuff Girls characters",
        "text": "In the reboot voiced by Natalie Palamides, the 2016 version of Buttercup's appearance is almost exactly like her original counterpart except she has a cowlick on the back of her head. She is depicted as a tomboy who loves to get into action and likes to play sports, hanging out with boys and having fun like her 1998 counterpart, She has a fear of spiders like her 1998 counterpart as well. She has a temper that can usually get out of control. She is also the main archenemy of Manboy, who called her \"princess\", which she hates the most, Blossom and Bubbles attempt to stop her. Her trail is green with little triangles. Unlike her two sisters, she does not possess any special abilities of her own. However, she, like her sisters, can project bright green energy and manipulate it into various weaponry; an ability her 1998 counterpart and her sisters in the original show does not possess. She also excels at mathematics in \"Buttercup vs. Math\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Superman (Kingdom Come)",
        "text": "Power Girl, unable to ignore the strong resemblance between the newly arrived Superman and her dead cousin Kal-L, the Superman of Earth-2, starts to form a bond with this version of Kal-El, who in turn is reminded of his fallen cousin, Kara Zor-El of Earth-22. The Kingdom Come Superman asks if it would be all right if they think of each other as family. Power Girl accepts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "The first contact between Power Girl and Earth-One's universe was on the crossover \"Justice League of America\" #147, written by Paul Levitz & Martin Pasko, where the character shows her attraction to that reality saying, \"It has a much nicer brand of Superman, y'know?\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Girl Power (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Girl Power (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of The Powerpuff Girls characters",
        "text": "In \"Powerpuff Girls Z\", (voiced by Youko Kawanami and Nicole Oliver) has blonde hair compared to the original's red hair. Usually, Sara Bellum covers her face with a tablet computer, which has lipstick imprinted on it. While the mayor is different from his original counterpart and is more competent, Sara Bellum in the anime still does most of the mayor's work for him in a manner similar to the original Sara Bellum, and still appears to be the brains of the operation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "In the \"Watchmen\" sequel \"Doomsday Clock,\" Power Girl returns to the DC Universe when Doctor Manhattan, inspired by Superman, undoes the changes that he made to the timeline that erase the Justice Society and the Legion of Super-Heroes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "After deciding to once again use the Karen Starr identity, she moves to New York City and begins rebuilding Starr Enterprises while continuing solo superheroics. She eventually takes teenaged hero-in-training Terra as her sidekick following the horrific events depicted in the \"Terror Titans\" mini-series. After the duo fight off a robot invasion of the city, Power Girl is kidnapped by the new Ultra-Humanite, who plans to transplant his brain into her body. Using her ice breath to destroy her gravity enhanced shackles and gag, Power Girl easily defeats the villain and saves New York. She also helps a trio of lost alien princesses and their bodyguard adjust to life on Earth, buying them a home in South America to stay until they can get back to their home planet."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phantom Girl",
        "text": "In the original pre-Crisis continuity, Phantom Girl is the fifth member to join the Legion and is a native of Bgztl, a planet that exists in the 4th Dimension. Like other Bgztlians, Phantom Girl has the ability to phase out of reality to become intangible. Initially appearing along with Triplicate Girl and Saturn Girl in \"Action Comics\" #276 in the story \"Supergirl's Three Super Girl-Friends\", her first costume consisted of white tights and a white cape with a stylized \"P\" on the chest. Phantom Girl's powers serve her well as member of the Legion's Espionage Squad, and she is involved romantically with fellow Legionnaire Ultra Boy for many years. In this continuity, she has a brother, Gmya Wazzo."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Powers Girl",
        "text": "The Powers Girl\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Girl Power (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Girl power is a term of female empowerment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Kara's father discovers that Krypton is about to explode, and places her in a spacecraft directed towards the Earth. Although this occurs at the same time that Kal-L's ship is launched, Kara's ship travels more slowly, and she arrives on Earth decades after her cousin has landed. Kara's Symbioship is designed to keep her in stasis during the journey and provide her with life experiences and education in the form of virtual reality. The Symbioship allows her to interact with virtual copies of her parents and fellow Kryptonians. Originally, by the time she arrives on Earth, Kara is shown to be in her early twenties. However, as mentioned in \"JSA Classified\" #1, her age at arrival has now been retconned to about eighteen in post-\"Crisis\" continuity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)",
        "text": "In the \"Superboy\" #78 story entitled \"Claire Kent, Alias Super-Sister\", Superboy saves the life of an alien woman named Shar-La, who turns Superboy into a girl, in retaliation for his disparaging thoughts about women drivers which she picked up telepathically. In Smallville, Clark claims to be Claire Kent, an out-of-town relative who is staying with the Kents. When in costume, he appears as Superboy's sister, Super-Sister, and claims the two have exchanged places. Once Superboy has learned his lesson about feeling more respect for women, Shar-La reveals the episode to be a dream which she projected into Superboy's mind."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl",
        "text": "Several different versions of Supergirl have appeared in continuity.\n* Power Girl (Kara Zor-L)\u00a0\u2013 A version of Kara Zor-El from the parallel world Earth-Two, the cousin of Superman (Kal-L). As part of the New 52, the reintroduced Power Girl is now from Earth 2, and had used the name Supergirl in that universe.\n* Laurel Gand (Andromeda)\u00a0\u2013 Laurel Gand was the post-\"Crisis\"/Glorithverse replacement for the pre-\"Crisis\" Supergirl in the Legion of Super-Heroes after the latter was removed from the continuity following \"The Man of Steel\" reboot of Superman. Originally, Laurel is simply known by her given name. A younger version of Laurel takes the superhero codename \"Andromeda\" shortly before the Zero Hour reboot of the Legion; post-reboot, Laurel remains Andromeda.\n* Ariella Kent\u00a0\u2013 Supergirl of the 853rd century, later revealed to be the daughter of post-\"Crisis\" Linda Danvers and Silver Age style Superman from the Many Happy Returns story arc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "After being brought to the barren created Earth-Two by Kal-L, Lois Lane Kent collapses and dies. A violent confrontation between the two Supermen ensues, at the end of which Kal-L comes to the realization that this created Earth-Two had not been a perfect world, since \"a perfect earth doesn't need a Superman.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)",
        "text": "In \"Superman\" #123 (August 1958), Jimmy Olsen uses a magic totem to wish a \"Super-Girl\" into existence as a companion and aid to Superman; however, the two frequently get in each other's way until she is fatally injured protecting Superman from a Kryptonite meteor. At her insistence, Jimmy wishes the dying girl out of existence. DC used this story to gauge public response to the concept of a completely new super-powered female counterpart to Superman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl",
        "text": "On Earth, Kara acquires powers identical to Superman's and adopts the secret identity of Linda Lee, a resident of Midvale Orphanage. She conceals her blonde hair beneath a brunette wig and functions as Supergirl only in secret, at Superman's request, until she can gain, in his opinion, sufficient control of her powers \u2014 and the wisdom to properly use them. Her debut was delayed by her powers being stolen by a Kandorian villainess; during this period, she is adopted by Fred and Edna Danvers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Krypton (comics)",
        "text": "After the emergence of Earth-Two as a differentiated alternate universe within the DC Multiverse, Power Girl (Kara Zor-L) was introduced as Krypton-Two's alternate Supergirl in 1976. Kal-L and Kara Zor-L were the only known survivors of Krypton-Two, unlike the Silver Age analogue. Earth-Two's universe lacked its own Brainiac, so its Kandor was never abducted from Krypton Two before its destruction, nor did Kal-L have his own version of Krypto as an infant and toddler on this world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "For example, \"Justice League Europe\" #37 (1992) attempts to explain Power Girl's revealing costume by having Crimson Fox question her about it; she receives the reply that the costume \"shows what I am: female, healthy. If men want to degrade themselves by staring, that's their problem, I'm not going to apologize for it.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "During the events of \"\", Power Girl assists her fellow heroes in a global manhunt to track down Maxwell Lord, the former head of Justice League International and the murderer of Ted Kord, who had been restored to life at the end of \"Blackest Night\". Lord uses his powers to erase his existence from the minds of everyone on the planet, including Power Girl. She subsequently helps Booster Gold find proof of Lord's existence. Through the course of their search, during which Power Girl encounters Divine, a raven-haired clone of herself, she manages to regain her memory of Lord. As she attempts to inform the Justice Society of this, Lord uses his powers to take control of her and attack the Justice League International, but manages to convince the others of his existence through the exhumation of Ted Kord's corpse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl",
        "text": "After the Post-\"Crisis\" reboot in the late 1980s, Supergirl's origin was completely rewritten. No longer was she Superman's cousin or even Kryptonian. In \"Superman\" (vol. 2) #16 (April 1988), a new Supergirl debuted as a man-made lifeform made of synthetic protoplasm created by a heroic Lex Luthor of a \"pocket continuum\". Lex implants her with Lana Lang's memories and she can shapeshift to resemble Lana. Matrix even believes herself to \"be\" Lana for a time. She wears a miniskirted version of Superman's costume, but does not have Superman's exact powers. While she can fly and possesses super-strength (like Superman), she also has psychokinetic, shapeshifting, and cloaking/invisibility powers (the last makes her undetectable, even to Superman)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl briefly appears in the \"Final Crisis\" crossover event, battling the forces of Darkseid after he conquers the Earth using the Anti-Life Equation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "In the 2010\u20132011 storyline \"Brightest Day\", Power Girl attacks her comrades, and after being subdued, is discovered to have been possessed by the Starheart (the cosmic entity that gave Alan Scott and Jade their powers) to which she was vulnerable because of her Kryptonian heritage, as Kryptonians draw their abilities from the sun. Staying out of action in order avoid another possession, she helps Mr. Terrific work on a machine that may be able to dampen the Starheart's power. Nonetheless, the Starheart takes control of Miss Martian's body and transforms into her White Martian form, causing her to attack her comrades again. Batman ultimately tells her to stay on Earth and try to fight the other metahumans being controlled by the Starheart, explaining that bringing her along would jeopardize the mission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "The character is consistently depicted as a large breasted young woman, and her physique is one of her most recognizable attributes \u2013 to the extent that various writers have acknowledged it in both serious and humorous ways."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl",
        "text": "Issue #8 of the \"Superman/Batman\" series originally published in 2004 re-introduced Kara Zor-El into the DC continuity. Like the pre-\"Crisis\" version, this Kara claims to be the daughter of Superman's uncle Zor-El and aunt Alura In-Ze. Unlike the traditional Supergirl, Kara is born before Superman; she is a teenager when he is a baby. She is sent in a rocket in suspended animation to look after the infant Kal-El; however, her rocket is caught in the explosion of Krypton and becomes encased in a Kryptonite asteroid. She arrives on Earth years after Kal-El, who has grown and become known as Superman. Owing to this extended period of suspended animation, she is \"younger\" than her cousin. At the end of \"The Supergirl from Krypton\" arc, Superman officially introduces her to all the heroes of the . She adopts the Supergirl costume and accepts the name."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl in other media",
        "text": "The actual Supergirl character appears in the program's seventh season, beginning with the season premiere. She is played by actress Laura Vandervoort. Kara was sent from Krypton at the same time as was Kal-El to look after him, but was trapped under a dam during the first meteor shower and was in suspended animation for the past 18 years. After the dam is broken, Kara Zor-El is freed. As the daughter of Zor-El, she is Clark's Kryptonian cousin, and hence possesses the same powers. Though she has also mastered flight, she, like her comic book counterpart, lacks the control Clark has developed over his years of dealing with humans. For example, she is unaware of the more subtle super-hearing until taught to use it by Clark. Though chronologically older than Clark (she was sixteen years old at the time of Clark's birth), her time in suspended animation leaves her with the appearance of a girl in her mid-to-late teens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wonder Woman",
        "text": "In the show \"DC Super Hero Girls\", Wonder Woman is a student. She is a friend of Batgirl, Killer Frost, Hawkgirl, Big Barda, Miss Martian, Beast Boy, Supergirl, Harley Quinn, Poison Ivy, Katana, and is the best friend of Bumblebee. She is an enemy of Cheetah, Lena Luthor, and Giganta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Ariella Kent)",
        "text": "A hybrid of metahuman/Kryptonian heritage, Ariella possesses vast powers for her young age. She has incredible superhuman strength and speed. She can fly, travel through time at will, move objects via telekinesis, and teleport anywhere she wishes. She is invulnerable, and ages at an extremely slow rate, energy blasts, energy absorption and also duplication. She also has X-ray vision and heat vision. Due to her high level of power and young age, Ariella can be highly destructive, as she has not learned to hold back her abilities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl",
        "text": "A Supergirl named Cir-El appeared in 2003's \"Superman: The 10 Cent Adventure\" #1, claiming to be the future daughter of Superman and Lois Lane. Although she has super-strength, speed and hearing like Superman, she can only leap great distances. She also possesses the ability to fire blasts of red solar energy. Her alter ego is a street person named Mia. She is later found to be a human girl who was altered by Brainiac on a genetic level to appear Kryptonian; she dies thwarting a plot involving Brainiac 13. \"Superman\" (vol. 2) #200 implies that when the timeline realigned itself, Cir-El was erased from existence."
      },
      {
        "title": "One Hour of Girl Power",
        "text": "Notes"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Powerpuff Girls",
        "text": "The Powerpuff Girls is an American superhero animated television series created by animator Craig McCracken and produced by Hanna-Barbera (later Cartoon Network Studios) for Cartoon Network. The show centers on Blossom, Bubbles, and Buttercup, three kindergarten-aged girls with superpowers. The girls all live in the fictional city of Townsville with their father and creator, a scientist named Professor Utonium, and are frequently called upon by the city's mayor to help fight nearby criminals and other enemies using their powers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kryptonian",
        "text": "In Batman's story mode ending, Superman is defeated by Batman after Kara leads him to the Batcave. Batman apologizes to Kara for not being able to save her cousin. Superman is taken prisoner and Batman decides to imprison him in the Phantom Zone. Superman vows to escape and is hurt by Supergirl's betrayal. Supergirl reveals to Batman the House of El's S symbol is supposed to be a symbol of hope; though her cousin turned it into a symbol of fear, Batman, however, states that its meaning is determined by the one who wears it and tells her of how he and Superman used to fight for justice as members of the Justice League, before offering her a chance to do the same, having earned Batman's trust. In Supergirl's character ending, she joins Batman's Justice League, working with them to restore Kandor and cities collected by Brainiac. Supergirl notes that while she could not save her cousin, it will not stop her from trying to bring people hope. She is last shown flying with other Kryptonian survivors in the sky of a restored Kryptonian city. In Sub-Zero's ending, Superman joins forces with Kryptonian criminals General Zod, Ursa and Non after escaping the Phantom Zone through a portal accidentally created by the Batman's Justice League while trying to create a portal to Earthrealm. Sub-Zero confronts Superman, while Supergirl faces General Zod, and Batman battles Ursa and Non. In \"Injustice: Gods Among Us\", General Zod appears as a DLC character, though he plays no role in the game's story. In \"Injustice 2\", Power Girl appears as an alternate character skin for Supergirl, though she does not appear in the main story and originates from Earth-2."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)",
        "text": "There are numerous alternate versions of Supergirl. The most notable is Power Girl (real name Kara Zor-L, also known as Karen Starr) who first appeared in \"All Star Comics\" #58 (January/February 1976)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)",
        "text": "Like all Kryptonians under a yellow sun, the current version of Kara Zor-El possesses virtually unlimited strength, stamina, and durability. She is able to fly and with super speed that she can also use on foot, similar to Superman and The Flash. Also like Superman, Supergirl possesses super senses, super-breath, and freeze breathe, as well as multiple forms of supervision (including X-Ray, Infrared, Telescopic, and Microscopic). Kara also has a bio-electric aura that enhances her near invulnerability and also protects her skin and her costume from dirt and tear; as such, Kara is perpetually clean. The Sun also provides Kara with a longer lifespan than that of a human being, to the point that she is effectively a biological immortal. Kara doesn't require food, water, or sleep to survive. She is also immune to most diseases, mental and physical, and would require a very strong strain to have a chance at affecting her."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl in other media",
        "text": "Molly C. Quinn voices Supergirl in \"\", an adaptation of \"Superman: Brainiac\". Kara and her parents narrowly escaped Kandor before it was shrunken and abducted by Brainiac, leaving her with PTSD. She arrived on Earth a few months before the film's beginning and is still adjusting to life on Earth and her baby cousin being older than her due to the difference in how long their rockets spent in space. Kara prefers to use her powers to save people from dictators rather than fight ordinary criminals. Kara is greatly reluctant to face Brainiac again, even with super powers, but eventually summons the courage to help her cousin fight him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Cir-El)",
        "text": "When a crazed villain named Radion attacks Metropolis, a young girl in a costume leaps into battle and throws the villain into a nuclear reactor (in front of a TV news crew and Lois Lane). The girl identifies later herself as Supergirl, Superman's daughter. Upset, Lois confronts Superman, accusing him of having an affair (even listing Wonder Woman and Zatanna as possible lovers), and refusing to believe his claim of innocence, since \"Supergirl\" looks just like him. However, after a cup of the new \"Yes\" coffee, Lois suddenly calms down and dismisses \"Supergirl\" as a villain's hoax, until she lands in front of Lois and calls her \"Mommy\". Superman confronts the girl, who argues that she is his daughter with Lois, and that her name is \"Cir-El\". Cir-El says that she is from the future, brought to the past by the Futuresmiths. When Superman encounters the Futuresmiths, they show him a horrific future, with robotic monsters attacking civilians, and he sees himself as a cybernetic Superman attacking civilians as well. The Futuresmiths tell him that Cir-El's death will prevent this future, and as they turn to attack her, Superman flies her to safety. S.T.A.R. Labs confirms that she is his daughter, but that Lois is not her mother. Regardless of her identity, Superman comes to regard Cir-El as family."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl appeared in later issues of the \"Sovereign Seven\" series, Chris Claremont's creator-owned comic book for DC. However, the final issue revealed that the entire series had been a story appearing in a comic book, and events in the book have had no bearing upon DC continuity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Courtney Whitmore",
        "text": "Following a massive supervillain attack, the JSA is split in two. Power Girl convinces Courtney to join the JSA All-Stars splinter group. She later expresses a deep feeling of regret over siding with the All-Stars, claiming that she feels more at home with the original roster. Karen talks her through these doubts, telling her that she needed Courtney on the team because all the other teen members of the JSA look up to her."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Cir-El)",
        "text": "Superman has a shock when, while talking to Cir-El, she changes into an angry young woman named Mia, who hates her Cir-El persona. Superman's Kryptonian robot Kelex subsequently confirms that Cir-El is not the Man of Steel's biological daughter (despite the evidence from S.T.A.R. Labs). While the girl's D.N.A. has some Kryptonian attributes, she is primarily human."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cybergirl",
        "text": "Her powers include super-human strength, super-human speed, and the ability to interface directly with electronic devices and computers; she is also able to physically change her appearance between that of the blue-haired, ethereal-looking Cybergirl and the less conspicuous, mousy-haired Ashley, and can alter her clothing at will."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of The Powerpuff Girls characters",
        "text": "Ms. Sara Bellum (voiced by Jennifer Martin in the series) is the Mayor's secretary, who often handles issues that the Mayor cannot (and in a way is the one really in charge of Townsville). She has long, curly red hair, wears a red business suit and red high heel shoes for a secretary look. Her face is never fully shown onscreen, although \"The Powerpuff Girls Rule!!!\" revealed part of it. Running gags include other onscreen characters often finding her attractive, the camera focusing on her chest, and her face always being obscured. Her name is a pun on the word cerebellum presumably due to her intelligent and wise nature. She also proved to be a capable fighter, battling the villain Sedusa by herself when the girls were disabled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Supergirl or Super Girl may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Following the New 52 reboot of 2011, Power Girl appears as a refugee from Earth 2 in Worlds' Finest along with Huntress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Earth-Two",
        "text": "This separation between the pre-\"Crisis\" Earth-Two and post-\"Crisis\" Earth-2 is formally established in \"Justice Society of America\" (vol. 3) Annual #1 (2008), with a story titled \"Earth 2 Chapter One: Golden Age\", in which the New Earth Power Girl arrives on post-\"Crisis\" Earth-2. Thinking that she has returned home to her long destroyed pre-\"Crisis\" Earth-Two. Power Girl crash lands and unconscious, on the closest parallel of the 52 Multiverse, the post-\"Crisis\" Earth-2, which appears similar to the pre-\"Crisis\" Earth-Two. She is found by the post-\"Crisis\" Earth-2 Huntress, who thinks she is her long-missing best friend, the Power Girl native to this world. In this new reality, the Justice Society of America has merged with Infinity, Inc. and is now known as Justice Society Infinity. Initially, Power Girl believes she has returned home, until the missing post-\"Crisis\" Earth-2 Power Girl reappears and declares that the other Power Girl is an impostor, and has caused the disappearance of the post-\"Crisis\" Earth-2 Superman. This turn of events results in the post-\"Crisis\" Earth-2 Power Girl and the Justice Society Infinity to go after the New Earth Power Girl."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "In \"Showcase\" #97, Kara is reclaimed by the sentient Symbioship and reimmersed into Kandorian society for a time. Several years of virtual time elapse, in which Kara is married and has a child. She is freed with the assistance of newspaper reporter Andrew Vinson, at which point she disables the ship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Cir-El)",
        "text": "Supergirl (also known as Cir-El or Mia) is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character is best known as one of the characters to have assumed the mantle of Supergirl. Created by writer Steven Seagle and artist Scott McDaniel, she first appeared in \"Superman: The 10\u00a2 Adventure\" #1 (2003) as the alleged daughter of Superman. She is later found to be a human girl who was genetically altered by the villain Brainiac to appear Kryptonian. The character dies thwarting a plot involving Brainiac 13. \"Superman\" (vol. 2) #200 implies that when the timeline realigned itself, Cir-El was erased from existence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phantom Girl",
        "text": "In \"DC Rebirth\", Phantom Girl still retains the same powers as her Post-Crisis self. She also displays new powers in \"Rebirth\", created by an explosion she is caught in from a machine in the Dark Multiverse. In addition to her phasing powers, and ability to fly when intangible, she can now\u2014while in solid form\u2014cause things to explode (i.e., combustible manipulation). She can make things blow up by the touch of her hand (\"dark matter touch\") or by shooting combustion blasts at things to make them explode, but it seems that she cannot control these new powers and can only stop them by going into her \"phantom form\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "In the \"Infinite Crisis\" storyline, Kal-L himself returns to the post-\"Crisis\" DC Universe after breaking down the walls of the paradise dimension in which he, Lois Lane Kent (of Earth-Two), Alexander Luthor, Jr. (of Earth-Three), and Superboy-Prime (of Earth-Prime) had been living since the end of \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\". Appalled by the rapidly deteriorating state of affairs on the contemporary Earth, their goal is to replace the post-\"Crisis\" Earth with a recreated Earth-Two. Kal-L's first order of business is to track down Power Girl and explain the events of the original Crisis to her. Kal-L also reiterates her pre-\"Crisis\" history as his cousin. A touch from the ailing Lois of Earth-Two inexplicably restores Power Girl's memories of pre-\"Crisis\" Earth-Two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl",
        "text": "Since her initial comic book appearances, the character later branched out into animation, film, television, and merchandising. In May 2011, Supergirl placed 94th on IGN's list of the Top 100 Comic Book Heroes of All Time. In November 2013, the character placed 17th on IGN's list of the Top 25 Heroes of DC Comics.\n*Superwoman\u00a0\u2013 The first comic ever to feature a female counterpart to Superman is \"Lois Lane\u00a0\u2013 Superwoman\", a story published in \"Action Comics\" #60 (May 1943), in which a hospitalized Lois dreams she has gained Kryptonesque superpowers thanks to a blood transfusion from the Man of Steel. She begins her own career as Superwoman, complete with copycat costume. Similar stories with Lois Lane acquiring such powers and adopting the name \"Superwoman\" periodically appeared later. One such story is in \"Action Comics\" #156 (May 1951), in which Lois accidentally gains those powers through an invention of Superman's arch-foe, Lex Luthor. In the story, Lois wears a short blond wig in her crime-fighting identity, giving her an appearance almost identical to the later version of Supergirl after the latter's real name was specified as Kara Zor-El.\n*Supergirl\u00a0\u2013 In \"Superboy\" #5 (November\u2013December 1949) in a story titled \"Superboy Meets Supergirl\", Superboy meets Queen Lucy of the fictional Latin American nation of Borgonia. She is a stellar athlete and scholar. Tired of her duties and wanting to enjoy a normal life, Queen Lucy travels to Smallville, where she meets Superboy and soon wins his heart. Superboy puts on a show with her where he uses his powers to make her seem superhuman; during this contest, she is called Supergirl. As Supergirl, Queen Lucy wears a tan dress with a brown cape and Superboy's \"S\" symbol. Superboy later saves her from a scheming minister. She returns to her throne, leaving Superboy to wonder if she ever thinks of him.\n*Super-Sister\u00a0\u2013 In the \"Superboy\" #78 story titled \"Claire Kent, Alias Super-Sister\", Superboy saves an alien woman named Shar-La from a life-threatening crash. After he ridicules her driving, Shar-La turns Superboy into a girl. In Smallville, Clark Kent (Superboy's alter ego) claims to be Claire Kent, an out-of-town relative who is staying with the Kents. When in costume, he plays Superboy's sister, Super-Sister, and claims the two have exchanged places. As a girl ridiculed and scorned by men, he wants to prove he is as good as he always was. In the end, it is revealed that the transformation is just an illusion created by Shar-La. Superboy learns not to ridicule women.\n*Super-Girl\u00a0\u2013 In \"Superman\" #123 (August 1958), Jimmy Olsen uses a magic totem to wish a \"Super-Girl\" into existence as a companion and helper for Superman; however, the two frequently get in each other's way until she is fatally injured protecting Superman from a Kryptonite meteor that a criminal has dropped towards him. At her insistence, Jimmy wishes the dying girl out of existence. DC used this story to gauge public response to the concept of a completely new female counterpart to Superman. In the original issue, she has blond hair and her costume is blue and red like Superman's; indeed, it closely resembles the uniform that actress Helen Slater would later wear in the 1984 movie. Early reprints of this story show her with red hair and an orange and green costume to prevent readers from confusing her with the then current Supergirl character. Much later, the story was again reprinted in its original form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)",
        "text": "In the rare instances that Kara is harmed by someone matching her strength or by the use of one of her weaknesses, she can heal almost instantaneously. Her power surpasses most other beings, though she can be overpowered by those who rival her strength such as Black Adam, Darkseid, Despero, Doomsday, Bizarro, Wonder Woman, and Superman."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "During the 2009\u20132010 \"Blackest Night\" storyline, both JSA teams gather in Manhattan to stave off the invading Black Lantern Corps. Several of the team members examine the corpses of Kal-L and Psycho Pirate, both of whom had been reanimated as Black Lanterns only to be killed again during a battle with Superboy and Superman. Karen breaks down in tears upon seeing the twisted corpse of Kal-L, and swears vengeance upon whoever is behind the creation of the Black Lanterns. While on her way to the streets of Manhattan to assist her teammates, Karen hears Ma Hunkel screaming. She rushes to her side, only to see Ma being attacked by the Black Lantern Lois Lane-Kent of pre-Crisis Earth-Two. Black Lantern Lois sacrifices herself by removing her ring and giving it to Kal-L to reanimate him. During the battle between Kal-L and Power Girl, Mr. Terrific invents a machine to destroy the Black Lanterns. He activates the machine and it wipes out the Black Lantern ring connection and Kal-L and completely dissolves Kal-L's corpse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl played a significant role in the continuity-changing events of \"Infinite Crisis\" (2005), which tied into her starring role in the first \"JSA Classified\" story arc \"Power Trip\" in 2005 (issues #1\u20134 of the series). These stories heavily featured the revelation that Power Girl was in fact the Earth-Two Power Girl and a Kryptonian, who survived \"Crisis\", and that her Atlantean backstory had been a lie. Starting in July 2009, Power Girl received her first ongoing series, simply titled \"Power Girl\" (vol. 2), with the first twelve issues written by Jimmy Palmiotti and Justin Gray, drawn by Amanda Conner, and colored by Paul Mounts. According to Comic Book Resources, the series has been \"wildly praised for its fresh and fun approach.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Girl Power (TV series)",
        "text": "\"November 14, 2014\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Satan Girl",
        "text": "The storyline in \"Supergirl\" vol. 5, #3\u20136 (Dec. 2005\u2013Mar. 2006) is inspired by the original Satan Girl story, with black kryptonite producing a duplicate \"Dark Supergirl\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "The trade paperback \"Power Girl\" () collects \"Showcase\" issues #97\u201399, \"Secret Origins\" (vol. 2) issue #11, \"JSA\" issues 32 and 39, and \"JSA Classified\" issues #1\u20134. \"Power Girl: A New Beginning\" () collects the first six issues of the 2009 series. \"Power Girl: Aliens & Apes\" () collects issues 7 through 12, and \"Power Girl: Bomb Squad\" () covers 13 to 18, and \"Power Girl: Old Friends\" collecting issues 19-27."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some of Power Girl's super powers?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "As the biological cousin of Superman, Power Girl exhibits all of the classic Kryptonian powers: super strength; flight; super speed; invulnerability; x-ray, telescopic, microscopic and heat vision; freeze breath; and super-hearing."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the difference between Supergirl and Power Girl?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Power Girl, also known as Kara Zor-L and the original Supergirl are the same character, cousin of DC's flagship hero Superman, but from an alternate universe in the fictional multiverse in which DC Comics stories are set. But the 2004 re-introduced Kara Zor-El is born before Superman; she is a teenager when he is a baby.",
      "Though they are biologically the same person, Power Girl behaves as an older, more mature, and more level-headed version of Supergirl, with a more aggressive fighting style."
    ],
    "topic": "Power Girl",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Power Girl:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Power Girl"
        ],
        "ctx": "Power Girl, also known as Kara Zor-L and Karen Starr, is a DC Comics superheroine, making her first appearance in \"All Star Comics\" #58 (January/February 1976). Power Girl is the cousin of DC's flagship hero Superman, but from an alternate universe in the fictional multiverse in which DC Comics stories are set. Originally hailing from the world of Earth-Two, first envisioned as the home of DC's wartime heroes as published in 1940s comic books, Power Girl becomes stranded in the main universe where DC stories are set, and becomes acquainted with that world's Superman and her own counterpart, Supergirl."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Supergirl:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Supergirl"
        ],
        "ctx": "Supergirl is the name of several fictional superheroines appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The original and most well known Supergirl is Kara Zor-El, the cousin of the superhero Superman. The character made her first appearance in \"Action Comics\" #252 (May 1959) and was created by Otto Binder and Al Plastino."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Supergirl:7",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Supergirl",
          "Original character: Kara",
          "Debut"
        ],
        "ctx": "Issue #8 of the \"Superman/Batman\" series originally published in 2004 re-introduced Kara Zor-El into the DC continuity. Like the pre-\"Crisis\" version, this Kara claims to be the daughter of Superman's uncle Zor-El and aunt Alura In-Ze. Unlike the traditional Supergirl, Kara is born before Superman; she is a teenager when he is a baby. She is sent in a rocket in suspended animation to look after the infant Kal-El; however, her rocket is caught in the explosion of Krypton and becomes encased in a Kryptonite asteroid. She arrives on Earth years after Kal-El, who has grown and become known as Superman. Owing to this extended period of suspended animation, she is \"younger\" than her cousin. At the end of \"The Supergirl from Krypton\" arc, Superman officially introduces her to all the heroes of the . She adopts the Supergirl costume and accepts the name."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Power Girl:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Power Girl"
        ],
        "ctx": "Though they are biologically the same person, Power Girl behaves as an older, more mature, and more level-headed version of Supergirl, with a more aggressive fighting style. She also adopts a different secret identity from her counterpart. These changes are reflected in their differing costumes and superhero names as well; Power Girl sports a bob of blond hair; wears a distinctive white, red, and blue costume with a cleavage-displaying cutout. The name Power Girl reflects that she chooses not to be seen as a derivative of Superman, but rather her own hero and this choice is reflected in the strong independent attitude of the character. Over various decades, Power Girl has been depicted as a member of superhero teams such as the Justice Society of America, Infinity, Inc., Justice League Europe, and the Birds of Prey."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Supergirl in other media",
        "text": "Kristen Bell parodies Supergirl in a comedy segment of \"Movie 43\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Conversely, in \"JSA: Classified\" #2 (2005), writer Geoff Johns has Power Girl explain her cleavage-window to Superman, revealing that \"the first time I made this costume, I wanted to have a symbol, like you. I just\u2026I couldn\u2019t think of anything. I thought eventually, I\u2019d figure it out. And close the hole. But I haven\u2019t.\" A similar treatment of the character can be seen in \"Superman/Batman\" #4 (written by Jeph Loeb), in which the heroes need to distract the Toyman while Batman and Superman battle Captain Marvel and Hawkman. Batman suggests that Power Girl's endowments would be likely to distract Toyman, a 13-year-old boy. Toyman later attempts to make a reference to the size of her chest before being cut off by Superman. A variant of this joke is included in the ' movie."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stay Tuned (film)",
        "text": "Some film and television series parodies include:\n* \"Three's Company\", in which John Ritter had starred as Jack Tripper between 1977 and 1984.\n* \"Wayne's World\" \u2013 \"Duane's Underworld\" in a twisted zombie sketch show \"Saturday Night Dead\" (a parody of \"Saturday Night Live\")\n* \"The Silence of the Lambs\" \u2013 \"Silencer of the Lambs\" commercial, a couple binds and gags their kids to keep them quiet during a car trip\n* \"Three Men and a Baby\", \"Rosemary's Baby\" \u2013 \"Three Men and Rosemary's Baby\"\n* \"The Dukes of Hazzard\" \u2013 \"David Dukes of Hazzard\"\n* \"Driving Miss Daisy\" \u2013 \"Driving Over Miss Daisy\"\n* \"Northern Exposure\" \u2013 \"Northern Overexposure\"\n* \"Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous\" \u2013 \"Autopsies of the Rich and Famous\"\n* \"The Exorcist\" \u2013 \"The Exorcisist\"\n* \"Murder, She Wrote\" \u2013 \"Murder, She Likes\"\n* \"Leave It to Beaver\" \u2013 \"Meet the Mansons\"\n* \"thirtysomething\" \u2013 \"thirtysomething-to-life\" (in prison)\n* \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" \u2013 \"Beverly Hills, 90666\"\n* \"I Love Lucy\" \u2013 \"I Love Lucifer\"\n* \"The Golden Girls\" \u2013 \"The Golden Ghouls\"\n* \"Married... with Children\" \u2013 \"Unmarried with Children\"\n* \"Fresh Prince of Bel-Air\" \u2013 \"Fresh Prince of Darkness\"\n* \"The Facts of Life\" \u2013 \"Facts of Life Support\"\n* \"My Three Sons\" \u2013 \"My Three Sons of Bitches\"\n* \"Diff'rent Strokes\" \u2013 \"Different Strokes\" (about two elderly men literally having strokes)\n* \"World Wrestling Federation\" \u2013 \"Underworld Wrestling Foundation\" (includes a cameo by former professional wrestler/manager Lou Albano)\n* ' \u2013 \"Death Trek: The Next Generation\" (additional minor reference to William Shatner of the original ' series)\n* \"Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb\" \u2013 This reference is made during a scene in Spike's control center. The center is modeled after the War Room and also features a Dr. Strangelove impersonator.\n* \"Looney Tunes\" \u2013 \"Rooney Tunes\", a cartoon, animated by Walt Disney Feature Animation, depicting Roy and Helen as mice trying to evade a mechanical cat\n* \"Home Shopping Club\" \u2013 \"Home Shoplifting Channel\"\n* \"Yogi Bear\" \u2013 \"Yogi Beer\" commercial, a kid drinks a beer that has no alcohol, but makes him sound just like his father\n* \"The Good, the Bad and the Ugly\" - \"Channel 1: Gunslinger Scene\"\n* \"MTV\" - \"HTV\" music video segment featuring a cameo appearance of Salt-N-Pepa\n* \"Crash Test Dummies-Demonstration"
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "The 1985 \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\" limited series erased the existence of the Earth-Two Superman, and Power Girl's continuity was thus substantially disrupted. Initially she believed herself to be Superman's cousin, as she had been before the reboot. However, her background was retconned; she was told that she was the descendant of the Atlantean sorcerer Arion, and was frozen in suspended animation for millennia until the present day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parody",
        "text": "More recently, parodies have taken on whole film genres at once. One of the first was \"Don't Be a Menace to South Central While Drinking Your Juice in the Hood\" and the \"Scary Movie\" franchise. Other recent genre parodies include. \"Shriek If You Know What I Did Last Friday The 13th\", \"Not Another Teen Movie\", \"Date Movie\", \"Epic Movie\", \"Meet the Spartans\", \"Superhero Movie\", \"Disaster Movie\", \"Vampires Suck\", and \"The 41-Year-Old Virgin Who Knocked Up Sarah Marshall and Felt Superbad About It\", all of which have been critically panned."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Powerpuff Girls",
        "text": "A crossover parody of \"The Powerpuff Girls\" and \"2 Broke Girls\" was done in the second season of Cartoon Network's TV series \"MAD\", known as \"2 Broke Powerpuff Girls\". The episode, which aired on January 30, 2012, is of Bubbles and Buttercup, who are broke and work for \"Him\" in a diner after the show got placed on permanent hiatus. Tara Strong (Bubbles) and Tom Kane (\"Him\") reprised their roles here. The \"MAD\" episode with the parody ranked #26/30 for the week with 1.903\u00a0million viewers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "In \"Justice League: Generation Lost\" #16, she sports a variation of her traditional costume that includes pants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Since she is from an alternative universe (pre-Crisis Earth Two), kryptonite has no effect on her, but she is still vulnerable to magic. As Karen Starr, she is an accomplished business woman and is regarded by Mr. Terrific as a first rate scientist. Even though Power Girl is from an alternative universe, her biology is still similar to Superman's. As one of a handful of characters who survived the \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\", DC editorial was initially uncertain how to portray the character and attempted to portray Power Girl with a non-Kryptonian origin for a number of years. Power Girl's abilities have fluctuated since 1986. For some time, Power Girl believed she was an Atlantean. At one point, Power Girl possessed telekinesis; at another she was vulnerable to attacks by certain natural elements (for example, wooden weapons). After sustaining severe injuries from a magic attack Power Girl retained only a degree of super strength, speed and durability. However, she later recovered her ability to fly, and writers have gradually restored her superpowers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl, also known as Kara Zor-L and Karen Starr, is a DC Comics superheroine, making her first appearance in \"All Star Comics\" #58 (January/February 1976). Power Girl is the cousin of DC's flagship hero Superman, but from an alternate universe in the fictional multiverse in which DC Comics stories are set. Originally hailing from the world of Earth-Two, first envisioned as the home of DC's wartime heroes as published in 1940s comic books, Power Girl becomes stranded in the main universe where DC stories are set, and becomes acquainted with that world's Superman and her own counterpart, Supergirl."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ralphs",
        "text": "In \"The Powerpuff Girls\", there is a parody grocery store called \"Malph's\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shit Girls Say",
        "text": "Becoming an Internet meme, the series itself has been parodied on YouTube as a snowclone for other demographics, both for humorous effect and non-humorous, political effect. Some materials suggest that at least 700 imitation videos were created, while other reports suggest over 1000. Among them are \"S--- Liz Lemon Says\", the favourite imitator of the creators."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl in other media",
        "text": "It is revealed that scientists from Project Cadmus create Galatea, an evil clone of the program's Supergirl (Kara) for nefarious purposes. The clone is a more mature version of Kara, and in appearance and costume is a homage to Power Girl. Kara, accompanied by Green Arrow and Question travel to S.T.A.R. Labs to investigate. From this episode on, Green Arrow becomes a sort of father figure to Kara and frequently discusses her with Superman. In the episode \"Far From Home\", Green Arrow tells Superman that he and Black Canary planned on bringing Supergirl out to celebrate her twenty-first birthday. With the re-introduction of Kara Zor-El to regular DC continuity, she is also referred to once again as Superman's cousin, but as an adoptive one."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eul-yong Ta",
        "text": "Gradually, the parodies grew more complex over time as they were altered to resemble movie posters, and statues. Examples of parodies include pictures of Lee holding an electric saw before the Chinese, driving a crane towards Li, and Lee in Goku's costume in his Super Saiyan form. As of June 2006, the number of parodies have exceeded 200. Less frequently, the Chinese athlete (Yang Chen) in the background has been the subject of photoshopping."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of The Boys characters",
        "text": "Darick Robertson acknowledged the parody, but made it clear that this is not the DC universe: \"I didn't have any problem parodying them, because what I saw very clearly is how the Homelander isn't Superman, how Queen Maeve isn't Wonder Woman. What's really important to me is that anybody can put on a superhero costume, but that doesn't make you Superman.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Superl\u00f3pez",
        "text": "Jan conceived his parody of Superman in the manner of an ordinary Spaniard, \"in the key of a tacky marriage\" because it seemed to him to be the closest thing to the public at the time. This character, faced with the daily difficulties that he cannot solve and which frustrate him, adopts as an escape valve the tactic of imagining that he is a superhero. The jokes corresponding to this volume, traced with Rotring lines on sheets of folio paper and with an extension of up to four vignettes, have a simple and expressive line drawing, and present -despite the limitations of the format and the fact that they maintain little connection or continuity between them- effect gags on Superman, rather \"domestic\" mute jokes, which have little to do with the character later developed in the Superl\u00f3pez comics of Ediciones B."
      },
      {
        "title": "Magical girl",
        "text": "In addition to late-night magical girl series, media exploring the idea of male characters as magical girls (colloquially known as \"magical boys\") were introduced, most of them as comedic parodies. \"Kimagure Orange Road\" (1985) introduced audiences to the idea of a \"magical boy\" character. \"Cute High Earth Defense Club Love!\" (2015) features a cast of male characters parodying the magical girl concepts combined with growing interest in shows aimed at a audience. Other magical boy parodies include \"Is This a Zombie?\" (2011) and \"Magical Girl Ore\" (2018)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Superl\u00f3pez",
        "text": "Often Superl\u00f3pez not only parodies Superman but also popular literature. This is the case in \"El Se\u00f1or de los Chupetes\" (\"Lord of the Pacifiers\", a parody for Lord of the Rings) or \"Al centro de la Tierra\" (after Jules Verne's A Journey to the Center of the Earth)"
      },
      {
        "title": "2 minutes du peuple",
        "text": "The TV show parodies are also different:"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Powerpuff Girls",
        "text": "The show revolves around the adventures of three kindergarten-aged girls with an array of various superpowers: Blossom (pink), Bubbles (blue), and Buttercup (green). The plot of an episode is usually some humorous variation of standard superhero and tokusatsu shows, with the girls using their powers to defend their town from villains and giant monsters. In addition, the girls have to deal with the normal issues that young children face, such as sibling rivalries, loose teeth, personal hygiene, going to school, bed wetting, or dependence on a security blanket. Episodes often contain hidden references to older pop culture (especially noticeable in the episode \"Meet the Beat Alls\", which is a homage to the Beatles). The cartoon always tries to keep different ideas within each episode with some small tributes and parodies thrown in."
      },
      {
        "title": "2006 FIFA World Cup Final",
        "text": "The incident was extensively lampooned on the Internet and in popular culture. \"Family Guy\" parodied it in the episode \"Saving Private Brian\", in which Zidane headbutts an old lady while delivering her a birthday cake. \"The Simpsons\" parodied it in the episode \"Marge Gamer\", in which Homer Simpson shouts \"Zidane!\", when headbutting the linesman. In addition to becoming a staple of parody via numerous online videos and GIFs, a novelty song titled \"Coup de Boule\" (\"Headbutt\") reached the top of the French charts. A sculpture of the incident was unveiled in 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl was at one time portrayed as having a highly athletic but slender physique. Artists Bart Sears (in the \"Justice League Europe\" series), and later Alex Ross (in the limited series \"Kingdom Come\") restored Power Girl's well-endowed shape. Ross rendered her as a heavily muscled \"Power Woman\" (as if she was an ardent bodybuilder)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl's costume design has varied greatly over the years. Her classic costume design from \"All-Star Comics\" #58 is that which is in use today: a red cape and belt, blue gloves and boots, and a white bodysuit sporting a circular cleavage-exposing cut-out on her chest (its variable size and shape determined by the artist depicting her). According to Gerry Conway, \"The true, dumb reason for the circle? At the time, it was a convention for hero costumes to have a chest symbol. I thought a giant 'P' looked silly. The circle was intended as a nod to convention without being conventional. Not a sexy thing at all, until Wally Wood\u2019s inks.\" This window was closed for the first time in \"All-Star Comics\" #64, pencilled by Wood. According to Conway, it was dictated by publisher Jenette Kahn, because \"she felt it was sexist\". During her time with Justice League Europe/America, she wears a capeless yellow and white spandex unitard, and later a blue and white spandex unitard with a short mini-cape, headband, and a diamond shaped opening on her chest, once again exposing her cleavage. She has also worn a headband, as had Supergirl prior to her death in \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\". In a guest appearance in \"Green Lantern\", Kara is seen in her large wardrobe closet with every costume design she has ever worn in DC continuity, deciding which costume to wear for that mission. Her original costume returned when Johns and David Goyer had her rejoin the JSA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reckless Tortuga",
        "text": "\"Extra Butter, Please\" creates parodies of movies, sometimes revamping its ideas and other times mocking it. Films such as \"The Avengers\", \"The Dark Knight Rises\", and \"Prometheus\" have been featured in several episodes. One of the sub series in these sketches is \"Cops\", which is the law enforcement counterpart to Henchmen while drawing from other films. The series started on August 11, 2011.\n;\"Neurotica\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Kit Kittredge",
        "text": "Kittredge was also parodied in an episode of the animated comedy show \"Mad\", where she was portrayed as having a daughter who participated in a parody of \"Toddlers and Tiaras\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)",
        "text": "Like the original Kara's Streaky, Power Girl has a cat, featured in a story by Amanda Conner in \"Wonder Woman\" #600."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl",
        "text": "Several different versions of Supergirl have appeared in continuity.\n* Power Girl (Kara Zor-L)\u00a0\u2013 A version of Kara Zor-El from the parallel world Earth-Two, the cousin of Superman (Kal-L). As part of the New 52, the reintroduced Power Girl is now from Earth 2, and had used the name Supergirl in that universe.\n* Laurel Gand (Andromeda)\u00a0\u2013 Laurel Gand was the post-\"Crisis\"/Glorithverse replacement for the pre-\"Crisis\" Supergirl in the Legion of Super-Heroes after the latter was removed from the continuity following \"The Man of Steel\" reboot of Superman. Originally, Laurel is simply known by her given name. A younger version of Laurel takes the superhero codename \"Andromeda\" shortly before the Zero Hour reboot of the Legion; post-reboot, Laurel remains Andromeda.\n* Ariella Kent\u00a0\u2013 Supergirl of the 853rd century, later revealed to be the daughter of post-\"Crisis\" Linda Danvers and Silver Age style Superman from the Many Happy Returns story arc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)",
        "text": "Power Girl is the Earth-Two counterpart of Supergirl and the first cousin of Kal-L, Superman of the pre-\"Crisis\" Earth-Two. The infant Power Girl's parents enabled her to escape the destruction of Krypton. Although she left the planet at the same time that Superman did, her ship took much longer to reach Earth-Two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Though they are biologically the same person, Power Girl behaves as an older, more mature, and more level-headed version of Supergirl, with a more aggressive fighting style. She also adopts a different secret identity from her counterpart. These changes are reflected in their differing costumes and superhero names as well; Power Girl sports a bob of blond hair; wears a distinctive white, red, and blue costume with a cleavage-displaying cutout. The name Power Girl reflects that she chooses not to be seen as a derivative of Superman, but rather her own hero and this choice is reflected in the strong independent attitude of the character. Over various decades, Power Girl has been depicted as a member of superhero teams such as the Justice Society of America, Infinity, Inc., Justice League Europe, and the Birds of Prey."
      },
      {
        "title": "ADHD Shorts",
        "text": "In this parody of schoolgirl-themed anime like \"Revolutionary Girl Utena\", \"Project A-ko\", \"Oniisama e...\", \"Sailor Moon\", \"My Bride Is a Mermaid\", \"My-HiME\", \"Kill la Kill\", \"Ouran High School Host Club\", \"\", and \"Sakura Trick\", Kim Kimiko (voiced by Heather Anne Campbell) is a poor transfer student who discovers the real meaning of power when she battles an Austrian rich girl named Lucia Goch (voiced by Angela Trimbur) as they each discover that schoolgirls get their powers from kissing each other by using military robots in order to defeat an evil teacher that uses his students as guinea pigs by using an virtual reality game. The series ran from January 22, 2014 to December 21, 2015. It concluded after five episodes."
      },
      {
        "title": "That Girl",
        "text": "The series' theme song and opening visuals have been parodied in pop culture several times. They appeared as a series of T-shirts, then as a \"Saturday Night Live\" skit featuring Danitra Vance in an African American remake \"That Black Girl\", and as a sequence on episodes of \"Animaniacs\", \"The Simpsons\", \"Family Guy\", \"Clarissa Explains It All\", \"Arthur\", \"Friends\" and \"Roseanne\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gag Concert",
        "text": "The title of the skit is a parody of 2013 crime movie \"New World\" (\uc2e0\uc138\uacc4). In the year 2094, due to the exhaustion of food, the human race is about to die off. The survivors made their own underground world with their own rules; being fat means power, authority, honor and wealth, only fat people rule this world. All comedians starring in this corner are overweight, and they compete on who weigh more by showing off their characteristics and eating ability. On 7 September 2014, SISTAR appeared as guests for the Chuseok special.\n* The Blame Game (27 May 2012 \u2013 1 July 2012)"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Super Girl",
        "text": "Despite the superficial similarities, \"Supergirl\" is vastly different from \"Playgirl\". Featuring far more serious plots and less comic relief, as well as highly eroticised situations wherein the characters wore a variety of revealing and fetish outfits, including bikinis and schoolgirl uniforms, these elements of the series were a deliberate attempt by its producer Toei to create a more \"adult\" series. This can even be seen in the episode titles, such as episode one, \"Seven Sexy Cats Make Their Explosive Debut\", or episode nineteen, \"Nude Battle Against the Wolf Pack\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fatal Bazooka",
        "text": "In another sequence of the clip, the men rub themselves and each other and use power-tools in the same suggestive manner as the girls in Benny Benassi's \"Satisfaction\". Yet another sequence parodies Eric Prydz's \"Call on Me\", which features a sexy gym class of all girls \u2013 but in this parody all the participants are men."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Steve Harvey Show",
        "text": "Occasional gags referenced Bullethead's trailer park lifestyle, and Romeo's full name (he has used his full name Romeo Miguel Jesus Pele Rojas Alejandro Santana). In one episode, he wrote all of his names on paper but not prepared his assignment, resulting in an \"F\". Lydia almost always displayed an obsession for her classmate (and alleged lover), Arthur Rabinowitz (whom Steve referred to as \"that polite Jewish boy that does his taxes\"), and for her favorite entertainer, Barbra Streisand; however, she had total disdain for classmates \"Heather the cheerleader\" and \"Jennifer the cheerleader\". One other gag was that teachers would explain to a student (amongst themselves) because of a condition or appearance (\"Helmet Boy\" for wearing a special helmet in gym class; \"Au Natural Girl\" for having a strong body odor, and \"Firestarter\" for one kid who kept setting items on fire)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Superman (Kingdom Come)",
        "text": "Power Girl, unable to ignore the strong resemblance between the newly arrived Superman and her dead cousin Kal-L, the Superman of Earth-2, starts to form a bond with this version of Kal-El, who in turn is reminded of his fallen cousin, Kara Zor-El of Earth-22. The Kingdom Come Superman asks if it would be all right if they think of each other as family. Power Girl accepts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Challenge of the Superfriends",
        "text": "Cartoon Network produced a couple of commercials spoofing \"Challenge of the Superfriends\".\n* One dealt with the idiosyncratic nature of the Legion of Doom and Brainiac's odd manner of dress (\"Brainiac\": \"Look, I just want some pants...a decent pair of pants!\" \"Solomon Grundy\": \"Solomon Grundy want pants, too!\").\n* The second, co-starring the Powerpuff Girls, dealt with Aquaman's powers (\"Aquaman\": \"My ability to talk to fish is of no use to us, Wonder Woman!\") as well as the level of violence compared to today's cartoons, as Wonder Woman and Aquaman look away while the Powerpuff Girls beat up the Legion of Doom, going so far as to set the Scarecrow on fire. Most notably was Bubbles' double entendre reply to Wonder Woman's compliment on how they were developing as superheroes. \"Someday we'll be as developed as you.\" Lex Luthor, since he was a villain, began laughing. His allies understood the joke and all of them laughed as well. When a piece of the Hall of Doom's ceiling fell on Luthor's head, everyone laughed."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of The Powerpuff Girls episodes",
        "text": "List of The Powerpuff Girls episodes\n--Series overview.\n--Episodes.\n----Whoopass Stew.\n----Specials.\n------The Powerpuff Girls Rule!!!\n------Dance Pantsed.\n--Home media.\n----VHS.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of James Bond parodies and spin-offs",
        "text": "List of James Bond parodies and spin-offs\n--Premise.\n--Films.\n----Unofficial parodies.\n------Matt Helm.\n------\"Austin Powers\".\n------Daniel Craig cameo in \"Star Wars\".\n------Other Parodies.\n----Imitative films.\n--Television.\n----Television episodes and arcs.\n------\"American Dad!\": \"For Black Eyes Only\".\n------\"BoJack Horseman\": \"Later\".\n------\"MADtv\": \"For Your Files Only\".\n------\"Sabrina: The Animated Series\": \"La Femme Sabrina\".\n------\"SpongeBob SquarePants\": \"Spy Buddies\".\n------\"The Backyardigans\": \"International Super Spy\".\n------\"The Office\": \"Threat Level Midnight\".\n------\"The Simpsons\": \"You Only Move Twice\".\n------Adventures of Captain Wrongel.\n--Notes and references.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl in other media",
        "text": "Although not appearing in the show, she did appear in some of the related comics with the show."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "For example, \"Justice League Europe\" #37 (1992) attempts to explain Power Girl's revealing costume by having Crimson Fox question her about it; she receives the reply that the costume \"shows what I am: female, healthy. If men want to degrade themselves by staring, that's their problem, I'm not going to apologize for it.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "The character is consistently depicted as a large breasted young woman, and her physique is one of her most recognizable attributes \u2013 to the extent that various writers have acknowledged it in both serious and humorous ways."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uncle Croc's Block",
        "text": "Each episode contained a \"Star Time\" segment in which parodies of popular characters appeared, usually making denigrating remarks about the show and/or its staff, and demonstrating their abilities (or lack thereof). Guests included:\n* Captain Klangeroo is a parody of Captain Kangaroo.\n** Mr. Mean Jeans (played by Huntz Hall) is a parody of Mr. Greenjeans.\n* Sherlock Domes (played by Carl Ballantine) is a parody of Sherlock Holmes.\n** Dr. Watkins (played by Stanley Adams) is the sidekick of Sherlock Domes. He is a parody of Dr. Watson.\n* Witchie Goo Goo (played by Phyllis Diller) is a witch whose prince-conjuring spell always summons a never-willing Basil to her. She is a parody of Witchiepoo from \"H.R. Pufnstuf\".\n* Junie the Genie (played by Alice Ghostley) is an allegedly teenaged genie. She is a parody of Jeannie from \"I Dream of Jeannie\" with a bit of Sabrina the Teenage Witch.\n* Billy Bratson (played by Marvin Kaplan as Captain Marbles) says \"Shazowie\" to turn into the superhero Captain Marbles, in the same way Billy Batson transformed into Captain Marvel by saying \"Shazam!\".\n* Steve Exhaustion, The $6.95 Man (played by Robert Ridgely) is a cyborg that always falls apart. He is a parody of Steve Austin, \"The Six Million Dollar Man\".\n* Old Fogey Bear is a manic-depressive bear. He is a parody of Yogi Bear.\n* Miss Invis is a woman who falsely claims to be able to make herself invisible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Superman vs. Spider-Man XXX",
        "text": "Alexandre Hervaud commented for French language \"Slate\" that some comic book aficionados might take umbrage at the crossing of universes between Superman from DC Comics and Spider-Man from Marvel Comics. He wrote therefore that viewers might criticize the writing style due to the two characters inability to fight in the same universe. Hervaud pointed out that the two characters had previously interacted before in 1976, in a comic book, \" Superman vs The Amazing Spider-Man\". University of Toronto Cinema Studies Institute professor Dru Jeffries analyzed the film in a case study published in 2016 in the academic journal \"Porn Studies\". He commented, \"Contemporary superhero porn parodies, particularly those directed by Axel Braun, eschew the goofy puns and tacked-on themes that had previously defined the pornographic parody genre. These films present a unique point of intersection between Hollywood, the porn industry, and fandom.\" Jeffries observed, \"Braun\u2019s parodies appropriate transformative textual practices usually associated with female fan productivity in order to seduce male fans, while also exploiting the industrial limitations of the mainstream superhero genre, and capitalizing on the legal freedoms afforded by their parody status.\" The 2020 book \"Supersex: Sexuality, Fantasy, and the Superhero\" discussed the film as evidence of a common trope in similar parody films within the genre, where female characters are unable to avoid succumbing to the seduction of the male hero protagonists. \"Supersex\" observed, \"Braun and the fans of his parodies want to see ... traditional (read: patriarchal) gender roles and hierarchies.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "She can be seen talking with Blue Beetle on the background alongside Supergirl."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dash Parr",
        "text": "In the 2004 film \"The Incredibles\", Dash complains that his mother, Helen, will not allow him to play school sports, because she thinks that he would use his super-speed and blow the family's civilian cover. She is also upset when he uses his power to play a prank on his teacher, Bernie Kropp, which can also threaten their cover."
      },
      {
        "title": "References and parodies of Indiana Jones",
        "text": "Some of the most parodied scenes include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Moyles",
        "text": "Another two of Moyles' recent parodies are \"Lorry Driver\" which is a cover of Britney Spears' song \"Womanizer\" and \"The Boy Does Plenty\" by \"Adrian Dixon\", originally a song by Alesha Dixon, both of which are written by 'Comedy Dave' Vitty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gun barrel sequence",
        "text": "As with any cultural icon, the gun barrel sequence has inspired numerous parodies and takeoffs since its first appearance in 1962. The sequence has been spoofed in films, sitcoms, cartoons and in advertisements, including: \"Bons Baisers de Hong Kong\", \"Dave Allen at Large\", \"Teen Titans Go!\", \"The Simpsons\", \"SpongeBob SquarePants\", \"Family Guy\", \"American Dad!\", \"Monty Python's Flying Circus\", \"Logorama\", \"Garfield and Friends\", \"Yogi's Treasure Hunt\", and \". WWE wrestler Cesaro's entrance was also similar at one point to that of the James Bond gun barrel sequence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Attack of the 50 Foot Woman",
        "text": "Television\n*1978 \u2013 Various animated television series have referenced the film, usually in episodes which involve a female character becoming giant-sized. For example, \"Challenge of the Super Friends\" from 1978 features the origins of superhero Apache Chief and supervillainess Giganta.\n*1989 \u2013 The \"Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles\" episode \"Attack of the 50 Foot Irma\" has a similar plot, where April O'Neil's friend Irma is hit by a beam created by a meteorite crashing to Earth. She grows to a massive size and ends up being chased by authorities.\n*1997 \u2013 In the \"Johnny Bravo\" episode \"Jumbo Johnny\", a poster for the film was seen, with two men complaining about the movie.\n*1998 \u2013 \"Toonsylvania\" had a segment called \"Attack of the Fifty Footed Woman\".\n*1999 \u2013 \"Archie's Weird Mysteries\" episode \"Attack of the 50 Ft. Veronica\" has Veronica Lodge as a giantess.\n*2001 \u2013 In \"Smallville\", the poster for the film is displayed in the offices of the school newspaper throughout the early series.\n*2007 \u2013 The \"Totally Spies!\" episode \"Attack of the 50 Ft. Mandy\" has Mandy as a giantess.\n*2009 \u2013 \"Phineas and Ferb\" has Candace become a giant in \"Attack of the Fifty Foot Sister\".\n*2019 \u2013 Episode 9 of the Netflix original series \"Raising Dion\" features the film's movie poster in Pat's condo after it is revealed that Pat shapeshifts into a 50-foot, human thunderstorm.\n*2020 \u2013 The twelfth episode of the first season of the animated series \"Harley Quinn\" features Poison Ivy making herself a giant to take on man-eating trees terrorizing the Gotham City Central Park and taking the pose featured on the film's poster."
      },
      {
        "title": "My Fair Princess",
        "text": "Other parodies include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Parody",
        "text": "In more recent times, the television sitcom \"'Allo 'Allo!\" is perhaps better known than the drama \"Secret Army\" which it parodies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "The Psycho-Pirate shows Kara multiple versions of her origin in an effort to drive her insane. Eventually, he reveals the truth: Power Girl is a survivor of Krypton from the dimension which contained the pre-\"Crisis\" Earth-Two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cross-dressing in film and television",
        "text": "Him from \"The Powerpuff Girls\" series is shown every time, wearing a typical skirt, fishnet stockings, and high-heeled boots."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of film spoofs in Mad",
        "text": "Many parodies end with the abrupt deus ex machina appearance of outside characters or pop culture figures who are similar in nature to the film or TV series being parodied, or who comment satirically on the theme. For example, Dr. Phil arrives to counsel the \"Desperate Housewives\", or the cast of \"Sex and the City\" show up as the new hookers on \"Deadwood\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tennis Girl",
        "text": "Over the years, the picture has been parodied by various people as diverse as former tennis star Pat Cash, singer and actress Kylie Minogue and comedian Alan Carr with actor Keith Lemon featuring his parody in his 2012 calendar."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of The Powerpuff Girls episodes",
        "text": "<onlyinclude></onlyinclude>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "Power Girl's origin has gone through revisions, but over time has reverted to her original conception as the Supergirl of Earth-Two. The 1985 limited series \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\" eliminated Earth-Two from history, causing her to be retconned as the granddaughter of an Atlantean sorcerer known as Arion. This was an unpopular change and writers depicted the revised Power Girl inconsistently. The 2005\u20132006 \"Infinite Crisis\" limited series then restored her status as a refugee from the Krypton of the destroyed Pre-Crisis Earth-Two universe. Following DC's 2011 \"Flashpoint\" storyline and New 52 reboot, Power Girl's origin was retold as the Supergirl of \"Earth 2\", cousin and adopted daughter of Superman, who during evil Fourth World New God Darkseid's invasion of Earth 2 becomes stranded in the main continuity of Earth 0, subsequently adopting the name Power Girl to hide her true identity. She returned to her source Earth in the story \"Earth 2: World's End\" (2014\u20132015)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saturday Night Live parodies of Sarah Palin",
        "text": "Palin appeared on the \"Saturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special\", where Jerry Seinfeld jokingly mistook her for Tina Fey."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Girl Code",
        "text": "When Marge notices that Homer forgot his lunch and panics over the effect fasting would have on his work (a moot point since Homer has several frozen pizzas on hand for sustenance), she rushes to the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant to get it to him and after Marge distracts Smithers from putting Homer on overtime, the two end up having fun hanging out together. Marge posts a picture on Facelook (a parody of Facebook) of Homer eating an ice cream outside the plant with the caption of \"Meltdown at the Nuclear Plant\". Mr. Burns, furious at the wordplay and ignoring Smithers' view that it was simply a joke, fires Homer immediately."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)",
        "text": "In reality, Kara is actually older than her cousin, Clark, and spent time on Krypton before its destruction. As such (unlike Superman), she possesses memories of Kryptonian culture as well as her cousin's parents."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Powerpuff Girls",
        "text": "The Powerpuff Girls\n--Premise.\n--Characters.\n--Production.\n----Tenth anniversary special.\n----2014 special.\n--Reception.\n----Critical reception.\n--Merchandise and media.\n----Anime/Manga.\n----Comics and books.\n----Film.\n----Live-action.\n----Music.\n----Parodies.\n----Toys.\n----Video games.\n--External links.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kamen Rider",
        "text": "The Kamen Rider franchise has been parodied in and outside Japan. One parody is of the Kamen Rider \"henshin\" (metamorphosis) pose. In video games, Skullomania (from \"Street Fighter EX\") and May Lee (from \"The King of Fighters\") are examples of Kamen Rider parodies. In anime, examples include \"Fair, then Partly Piggy\", \"My-HiME\" (and its sequel, \"My Otome\"), \"Dragon Ball Z\", and \"Franken Fran\". In the \"Crayon Shin-chan\" series, the title character interacts with Kamen Riders in crossover specials. \"Detective Conan\" has a recurring TV series the detective boys like to watch, \"Kamen Yaiba\". In One Punch Man, the C Class Hero Mumen Rider is a parody, being an ordinary man in a world of superhuman beings, riding a bicycle rather than a motorcycle. However, despite his weakness, he is extremely heroic and his actions form a counterpoint to his parodic character conception."
      },
      {
        "title": "Super Hard PCness",
        "text": "The episode parodies sexual harassment in the workplace in the United States, the rise in Netflix original shows, cancel culture, and the threat of nuclear war."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reverse Cowgirl (South Park)",
        "text": "Ryan McGee of The A.V. Club gave the episode an \"A-\", having enjoyed its satire of government encroachment onto American civil liberties, and the replacement of personal responsibility on the part of some Americans with superfluous litigation. While McGee felt that the \"\" scenes dragged somewhat, he felt that Cartman's reaction to the TSA was a worthwhile payoff, and that the show's use of \"non-sequitur weirdness\" provided strong final moments."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of James Bond parodies and spin-offs",
        "text": "In an episode of the 1999 of Sabrina the Teenage Witch, \"La Femme Sabrina\", the video release of 's favorite spy film, \"On Her Majesty's Expense Account\" (a parody of \"On Her Majesty's Secret Service\") was postponed. So Sabrina uses magic to get him a copy of the spy film that he wanted, but backfired the world into an actual spy flick. The episode parodies numerous James Bond references including the gun barrel sequence, Furfinger portrayed by Salem Saberhagen (a parody of Goldfinger), and numerous James Bond film titles including:\n*\"On Her Majesty's Expense Account\" (a parody of \"On Her Majesty's Secret Service\")\n*\"From East Bayonne with Love\" (a parody of \"From Russia with Love\")\n*\"Dr. Indecisive\" (a parody of \"Dr. No\")\n*\"The Spy Who Sorta Had A Crush on Me\" (a parody of \"The Spy Who Loved Me\")\n*\"Thundernuggets\" (a parody of \"Thunderball\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Watchmensch",
        "text": "Valerie D'Orazio, of Occasional Superheroine, expands on this description, observing that while she usually cringes at comic book parodies, \"Watchmensch\" is different in that it is actually an \"allegory about the rift between \"Watchmen\" creator Alan Moore and DC Comics - and, by extension, a meditation on the issue of creator's rights\" further calling it a \"comic book industry fable\". She further commends Swedish artist Simon Rohrmuller on having nailed Dave Gibbons' artistic style: \"the reader can momentarily forget that he or she is reading a parody...at least until Dan Dreiberg shows up in a female nurse's outfit\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Cir-El)",
        "text": "Cir-El's outfit appeared to be a legless black leotard, not unlike Power Girl's classic white leotard, but with short sleeves instead of long. Also similar to Power Girl, Cir-El wore gloves and boots, both black. Her uniform was topped off with a dark blue, knee-length cape. Instead of the traditional S-Shield, Cir-El instead sported a simple large red letter S that went down the length of her upper torso.\n*In \"Action Comics\" #994, an alternate timeline appears where Krypton was never destroyed. In this timeline, Kal-El's younger sister sports short black hair and a black costume with a blue cape.\n*In \"\" volume three, Superman's great granddaughter Lara has short black hair and a very similar uniform (black leotard with blue cape)."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Supergirl episodes",
        "text": "General references"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sherry Vine",
        "text": "Vine performs a wide variety of parodies. She has parodied Madonna, Britney Spears, Rihanna, Adele, and Lady Gaga, including the songs \"Poker Face\" and \"Paparazzi\". Vine has filmed videos of many of her parodies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Super Junior-T",
        "text": "Super Junior-T is well known for their parodies, such as the short miniseries \"Palace T\", a parody of the popular Korean drama \"Princess Hours\", which aired on the channel M.NET, as a part of \"Idol World\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Lampoon 1964 High School Yearbook Parody",
        "text": "The parody is closely based on the Toledo, Ohio's DeVilbiss High School yearbook, called the \"Pot O' Gold\". O'Rourke attended DHS for a couple of years and graduated from there in 1965. According to P. J. \"We chose 1964 (Doug's graduation class) partly because we published the Parody in 1974 but mostly because that was the last year before the culture and the country came to pieces with sex, drugs, rock and roll, the Vietnam War, the assassination of MLK, etc., etc.\u2026 Doug and I\u2026 used DeVilbiss because Ohio and Toledo and DHS just seemed so perfectly 1964 American prelapsarian \"typical\"\u2026 Also, since Doug had gone to an all-boys Catholic prep school (and a pretty fancy one too), his yearbook was no good as a model.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Potpisani",
        "text": "In addition, targets of this parody are also many famous hollywood movies like Star Wars, The Matrix, Superman III, Home Alone, Charlie Chaplin's and Bruce Lee's films and also a lot of famous Serbian movies and series like The Marathon Family, Balkan Spy, Nacionalna klasa, Vratice se rode etc."
      },
      {
        "title": ""Weird Al" Yankovic in 3-D",
        "text": "The next parodies to be recorded were \"Theme from Rocky XIII (The Rye or the Kaiser)\", a parody of Survivor's \"Eye of the Tiger\" about a washed-up Rocky Balboa, who now runs a deli and occasionally beats up on the liverwurst; and \"King of Suede\", a parody of the Police's \"King of Pain\", about a clothing store owner who claims the titular title. In order to research information for the latter, Yankovic would walk around in fabric stores taking notes. He later remarked, \"I got a lot of nasty stares from store managers.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Sesame Street recurring segments",
        "text": "Super Morphin Mega Monsters was a recurring segment in the 1990s written as a parody of \"Power Rangers\". The characters Elmo-saurus, Zoe-ceratops, Telly-dactyl, and Rosita-raptor would \"morph\" into caped and helmeted outfits when trouble arose. In contrast to the fight scenes on the real \"Power Rangers\", the Mega Monsters would run around and wave their arms in vaguely martial arts-style motions, but would only reason with others instead of attacking."
      },
      {
        "title": "For the Girl Who Has Everything (Supergirl)",
        "text": "Cliff Wheatley of IGN gave the episode a 7.7/10: \"\u201cFor the Girl Who Has Everything\u201d isn\u2019t quite the emotional gut-punch that its source material inspires, but it\u2019s a solid episode on its own merits. Surprisingly, the bits dealing with the Black Mercy are the least interesting, but it does inspire a host of other choices that are some of the most compelling the show has offered to date. Plus, there\u2019s some great comedic relief thanks to Cat Grant and J\u2019onn trying (and failing) to impersonate Kara at work. \""
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "As part of DC's 2011 reboot of its continuity, The New 52, Power Girl was reintroduced into the DC Universe as first being the Earth-2 Supergirl, where she wears a variation of the traditional Supergirl costume designed by Kevin Maguire that features red gloves and belt, and a new S-shield, identical to the new Earth 2 Superman's, and has a cape that attaches directly to the shield. However, some aspects of her continuity were retained: she was still adopted by Clark Kent and Lois Lane, married on Earth 2 before their deaths and still uses the secret identity of software entrepreneur Karen Starr. After some time passes, she decides to take on a new identity as she is now trapped on the mainstream DC Earth. Here she adopts the identity Power Girl, where she wears a white one piece body suit that covers her legs, and a red cape that attaches to a new P-shield symbol over her left breast. In \"Supergirl\" #19, she returns to her classic costume, complete with the opening on her chest, after her then-current costume is badly damaged. Later, when back in her home world, she discovers her cousin and adopted father Superman has been resurrected by Darkseid, but Superman sacrifices himself to help stave off Darkseid's attack on Earth. After his second death, Power Girl's adoptive mother Lois Lane (Red Tornado) gives her the S-shaped hope symbol from Superman's chest, which then becomes a part of Power Girl's costume."
      },
      {
        "title": "Round the Bend",
        "text": "Other non-regular cast members were often satirical parodies of real-life celebrities and existing television programmes, including:\n*The Oddbod Family: Original animation about a family of five, focusing on their three children (Bouncing Benny, Loud Lucy and Nancy's Nose) who all had abnormal abilities.\n*Transformaloids and Transformabots: Animated parodies of \"Transformers\", the first of which featured \"Octopus Slime\", an octopus-headed transforming robot (whose name is a pun on Optimus Prime), who on at least one occasion went up against his arch-enemy, \"Armadillotron\" (whose name is a pun on Megatron).\n*Pzycho the Magnificent (Series 1\u20132): Original stop-motion cardboard animation about a psychotic German magician who attempted to use magic for his own personal gain, but got caught by the police every time and sent to jail. For the third series, Pzycho was presumed to be dead as a gravestone reading \"RIP PZYCHO\" was seen in one of the Woolly the Wonder Sheep sketches (but in the last episode's Kenny McTickle sketch, he reappeared when Kenny conjured up everything he had from under his kilt).\n*Doc Croc's Nursery Spot (Series 1): Animated take-offs of \"The Care Bears\" (\"The Couldn't-Care-Less Bears\"), \"Mr. Men\" (\"Masters and Missuses\"), \"Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends\" (\"Clarence the Crank Engine\"), \"Rupert the Bear\" (\"Poopert the Bear\"), and \"Noddy\" (\"The Adventures of Nuddy\"). Replaced in the second series by Nursery Crimes (an animated parody of \"Jackanory\", which spoofed well-known nursery rhymes), which in turn was replaced in the third series by Fairytales of the Unexpected (an animated parody of \"Tales of the Unexpected\", which, as its name suggested, spoofed fairy tales).\n*John Potato's Newsround: A parody of \"John Craven's Newsround\", but presented by a potato (the eponymous \"John Potato\", who had eyes, a nose and a moustache from a Mr. Potato Head). The sports section was presented by \"David Colemole\", a puppet mole who wore a pair of round glasses and had a voice very similar to David Coleman (1926-2013). In three episodes, David Colemole became \"Timmy Molett\" (a parody of Timmy Mallett) when \"The Rattles\" took the world by storm, \"John Colemole\" (a parody of John Cole, 1927\u20132013) when Doc Croc had started the \"Greedy Party\", and \"Sir Patrick Mole\" (a parody of Sir Patrick Moore, 1923\u20132012).\n*Ricky, Spambo, Arizona Jones, and Special Agent James Bomb (Series 1): Animated take-offs of Rocky, Rambo, Indiana Jones, and James Bond.\n*Rubbish Rock Spot: A music video segment that had the puppets \"Dross\", \"Kylie Manure\", \"Paul Muckartney\", \"Swill Collins\", \"Rick Ashtray\", \"Muddonna\", \"Sneezy Wonder\", \"Binanarama\", \"Stink\", \"Elton the John\", \"Jason Dungovan\", \"Michael Jackdung\", \"Jon Pong Jovi\", \"WC Splash and the Sucker MCs\", \"Kate Brush\" and \"Bin Lids on the Block\", parodies (in name only) of Bros, Kylie Minogue, Paul McCartney, Phil Collins, Rick Astley, Madonna, Stevie Wonder, Bananarama, Sting, Elton John, Jason Donovan, Michael Jackson (1958-2009), Jon Bon Jovi, MC Hammer, Kate Bush and New Kids on the Block. Each had a mouth that would sing along to parodied versions of pop songs (and for one episode, the rats also formed their own rock band named \"The Rattles\", a pun on The Beatles).\n*False Teeth from Beyond the Stars (Series 1), Attack of the Atomic Banana (Series 2), and False Teeth from Beyond the Stars Meet Atom Banana (Series 3): A trio of clay-animated B-movie parody serials, fictionally produced by \"Unidental\" (a pun on Universal), \"Stubby Broccoli\" and \"Samuel J. Greengrocer\" (a pun on Cubby Broccoli, 1909\u20131996, and Samuel J. Briskin, 1896\u20131968), and \"Incredibly Cheap Productions\" in association with \"We Could Use This Set For Something Else P.L.C.\". The first featured Roger Prentice, an apprentice dentist, and his assistant Lily O'Lovely trying to stop an invasion of intergalactic false teeth from eating the whole world, while the second featured a fifty-foot banana rampaging through New York City and three teenagers who enlisted the help of Marshal Marshal Marshal and Professor Brainsley Noggin to solve the \"banana problem\" in a style similar to \"Scooby-Doo\" by calling in King Kong to eat him. However, the third was a crossover between both of the first two, as the False Teeth had returned to try and eat the world again and only Atom Banana could stop them. These sketches were animated by Dave Alex Riddett of Aardman Animations.\n*True Romance (Series 1): Original animation parodying romantic fiction stories. Every sketch would end with a punchline which was a reference to the last line of dialogue.\n*Cosmic Comprehensive (Series 1): A stop-motion cardboard animation parodying \"The Bash Street Kids\" and \"Grange Hill\" about an intergalactic academy of aliens.\n*Wee-Man and the Masters of the Looniverse and O.A.P.-Man: Animated parodies of \"He-Man and the Masters of the Universe\". Based in the mystical land of \"Hernia\" (a pun on Eternia), Wee-Man fought against \"Skeleton Face\" (a spoof of Skeletor), while O.A.P.-Man (his father) fought against Skeleton Face's father \"Grandad Skullface\".\n*Thunderpants: An animated parody of \"ThunderCats\", which featured \"Y-Fronto\" (a spoof of Lion-O) leading their fights against \"Bumm-Ra\" (a spoof of Mumm-Ra).\n*Karate Kiddie (Series 2): An animated parody of \"The Karate Kid\", who returned to his ex-master's house and accidentally destroyed it with his overpowering strength.\n*Vegetables (Series 2): A live-action parody of \"Neighbours\", for which all the characters were vegetables with Mr. Potato Head pieces and Australian accents.\n*Botman and Fatman (Series 2): Animated parodies of \"Batman\" (the eponymous character in the first of which, as his name implied, had abnormally huge buttocks).\n*Tommy's Magic Time Trousers (Series 2): Original animation about a boy who could travel back in time to witness the causes of great historical events whenever he pulled on his talking trousers. Many trouser-related puns were used, such as Tommy saying in the time-travelling sequence, \"Tally-ho and away we go! The fly's the limit!\" with the trousers replying \"Brace yourself, Tommy!\". Every sketch ended with Tommy returning to 1990 A.D. (then the present day), his teacher asking him something to determine if he had been paying attention, Tommy answering it based on what he had just witnessed, the teacher correcting him, and the trousers saying \"If only he knew, Tommy! If only he knew!\".\n*Starry Trek (Series 2): An animated parody of \"\", set aboard the \"Starship Rent-A-Prize\" under the command of \"Captain James T. Burke\".\n*Kenny McTickle and his Magic Kilt (Series 3): Original stop-motion cardboard animation about a Scottish boy who could conjure up anything from underneath his kilt. Kenny's catchphrase, \"Oh, crivvens, jings and help ma bob!\", was a reference to \"The Broons\" from \"The Sunday Post\", as they were using those exclamations long before he did.\n*Woolly the Wonder Sheep (Series 3): A stop-motion cardboard animation parodying \"Champion the Wonder Horse\" and the heroic dog Rin Tin Tin, the eponymous main character of which was voiced by Enn Reitel (impersonating Dustin Hoffman). Although Woolly proclaimed himself to be an \"excellent sheep\", he would often inadvertently enrage the people he had been trying to save by ruining their livelihoods, and they would chase him away while threatening to make kebabs out of him.\n*Old-Age Useless Nitwit Tortoises and Teenage Mutant Ninja Toilets (Series 3): Animated parodies of the 1987 \"Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles\" series, the eponymous main characters in the first of which fought against \"Bottom Brain\" (a spoof of Krang, who faced backwards out of his android)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chinpokomon",
        "text": "DVD Verdict described it as \"perhaps the most devastating parody of the seemingly endless pop culture craziness of forced Japan fads\", adding: \"Beginning with the title and moving through awkward, amateur anime, video games that cause seizures, and parental confusion over what their kids see in the little crappy toys, the episode smacks of too much truth and contains many moments of ultra-high comedy...This particular episode is why South Park is sometimes begrudgingly called genius, even amongst those who consider it a peek inside the Antichrist's subconscious. It proves that, on occasion, Parker can take the envelope, fill it full of outrageous sentiments and blatant stereotyping, mix in a whole lot of social realities, and filter it through his own sense of tasteless humor and end up with yet another brilliant installment of his show.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Linda Danvers)",
        "text": "According to Peter David, if his run on \"Supergirl\" had not ended, he would have had the series being a sort of \"Birds of Prey\" type comic, featuring the trio of Linda Danvers as Superwoman, Pre-Crisis Kara Zor-El as the current Supergirl, and Power Girl."
      },
      {
        "title": "VenetianPrincess",
        "text": "She has also made parodies about the Jonas Brothers."
      },
      {
        "title": "High School USA!",
        "text": "The art style and basic character setup are a parody of Archie Comics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Just Another Day in Parodies",
        "text": "All parody lyrics written by Cledus T. Judd and Chris Clark, except where noted.\n#\"My Cellmate Thinks I'm Sexy\"\n#*parody of \"She Thinks My Tractor's Sexy\" by Kenny Chesney (Paul Overstreet, Jim Collins)\n#\"Goodbye Squirrel\"\n#*parody of \"Goodbye Earl\" by the Dixie Chicks (Dennis Linde)\n#\"What the *$@# Did You Say\"\n#*parody of \"Whatever You Say\" by Martina McBride (Ed Hill, Tony Martin)\n#\"More Beaver\" (Judd, Clark, Darin Gardner)\n#*parody of \"Me Neither\" by Brad Paisley (Brad Paisley, Frank Rogers, Chris DuBois)\n#\"The Record Deal\" (Judd, Clark, Lewis Anderson)\n#*original song\n#\"How Do You Milk a Cow\"\n#*parody of \"How Do You Like Me Now?!\" by Toby Keith (Toby Keith, Chuck Cannon)\n#\"A Night I Can't Remember\" (Judd, Clark, Jeff Carter)\n#*parody of \"A Night to Remember\" by Joe Diffie (Max T. Barnes, T.W. Hale)\n#\"Momma's Boy\" (Judd, Clark)\n#*original song\n#*feat. John Anderson\n#\"Wife Naggin'\"\n#*parody of \"Sin Wagon\" by the Dixie Chicks (Natalie Maines, Emily Robison, Stephony Smith)\n#\"Plowboy\"\n#*parody of \"Cowboy\" by Kid Rock (Kid Rock, John Travis, Uncle Kracker, James K. Trombly)\n#\"Merry Christmas from the Whole Fam Damily\" (Judd, Clark)\n#*original song"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Supergirl episodes",
        "text": "<onlyinclude></onlyinclude>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Superheroes in animation",
        "text": "In 1998, Cartoon Network began airing \"The Powerpuff Girls\", a superhero parody designed to appeal to both children and adults. The show spoofed both specific superheroes (like Wonder Woman, Sailor Moon and Spawn, among many others) as well as general conventions of the genre (like how violence is often presented as the best/only solution to problems in superhero stories, for example). In the 2000s, the Nickelodeon series, \"Danny Phantom\", earned its own appreciative following with its intelligent humor and appealing character story arc narrative structure. This was complemented in the Cartoon Network's ongoing \"Ben 10\" franchise. In 2013 Mattel released a superhero influenced reboot version of Max Steel (2013 TV series) which aired on Disney XD."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reverse Cowgirl (South Park)",
        "text": "Jacob Kleinman of \"International Business Times\" felt the funniest jokes of the episode were those featuring Cartman and Randy, while Eve Conte of \"Geeks of Doom\" commented, \"Everything about this episode is pure awesomeness\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "The Power Girl of New Earth faces off against the Power Girl and Justice Society Infinity of the new Earth-2, due to the Earth-2 Power Girl's grief and rage over the loss of her cousin prompting her to believe that the 'other' Power Girl is an impostor with some role in Superman's absence. Power Girl returns to New Earth with the help of the Earth-2 Michael Holt, until the Justice Society Infinity follow her and take her back to Earth-2, where it is revealed that the recreation of the Multiverse created a new Earth-2 and duplicates of its heroes, including its own Power Girl. The Power Girl of New Earth then returns home with the JSA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Twisted Kaiju Theater",
        "text": "The Kaiju Girls have been drawn into a few \"TKT\" episodes, and models were created by NToonz for other episodes. But when it comes to overall \"continuity\", any comics which depict them are not considered canon. There are a few fanfics dedicated to the Kaiju Girls \u2014 McGuinness ultimately decides if each is to be considered \"official\" to the overall mythos of the kaiju girls or not."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Power (Regular Show)",
        "text": "Rigby notes that the hole from their wrestling match is still there (a circle of drywall surrounds it). When he asks if Benson will notice it, Mordecai covers it with a poster, proclaiming that \"he won't now\". Rigby calls him a genius, and they pair high-five."
      },
      {
        "title": "WordGirl",
        "text": "During the four-part episode, \"The Rise of Miss Power\", a four-segment \"Pretty Princess Power Hour\" sketch is shown between acts, filling in for the average two-segment \"May I Have a Word?\" sketch, presumably to fill the double-length (52 minutes) time slot."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Powerpuff Girls",
        "text": "(archive)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Girl Power (TV series)",
        "text": "\"November 14, 2014\""
      },
      {
        "title": "300 (film)",
        "text": "\"300\" has been spoofed in film, television, and other media, and spawned the \"This is Sparta!\" internet meme. Skits based upon the film have appeared on \"Saturday Night Live\" and \"Robot Chicken\", the latter of which mimicked the visual style of \"300\" in a parody set during the American Revolutionary War, titled \"1776\". Other parodies include an episode of \"South Park\" named \"D-Yikes!\", the short film \"United 300\" which won the 2007 MTV Movie Spoof Award, and \"BOO!\" by \"Mad\" magazine in its September 2007 issue #481, written by Desmond Devlin and illustrated by Mort Drucker. 20th Century Fox released \"Meet the Spartans\", a spoof directed by Jason Friedberg and Aaron Seltzer. Universal Pictures once planned a similar parody, titled \"National Lampoon's 301: The Legend of Awesomest Maximus Wallace Leonidas\". \"Samurai Jack\", an American animated series by Genndy Tartakovsky, also paid homage to the Battle of Thermopylae in the 12th episode of its second season, but instead used minotaur robots as the antagonists."
      },
      {
        "title": "ItsJustSomeRandomGuy",
        "text": "ItsJustSomeRandomGuy\n--Background.\n--Marvel/DC parodies.\n--Reception and popularity.\n--Music.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Power Girl",
        "text": "As the biological cousin of Superman, Power Girl exhibits all of the classic Kryptonian powers: super strength; flight; super speed; invulnerability; x-ray, telescopic, microscopic and heat vision; freeze breath; and super-hearing. Over the years various writers have given Power Girl's Kryptonian power differing levels, reflecting the lower powers of the Earth-Two Superman Kal-L. For example, Power Girl can fly through space, but has to breathe, so before she leaves a planet, she must take a deep breath and hold it for several hours until she needs a new oxygen source. Power Girl needs to sleep or she will experience disorientation due to fatigue. However, as recently shown in \"Brightest Day\", she now draws her superpowers from yellow sunlight, just like Superman. The reason for this change has not yet been explained."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nevertheless, She Persisted (Supergirl)",
        "text": "Supergirl fights Superman, who hallucinates that she is General Zod due to Rhea's silver Kryptonite. Supergirl knocks Superman unconscious and carries him to the Fortress of Solitude. She and a recovered Superman research the Daxamites. They return to National City and Supergirl challenges Rhea to single combat, a sacred Daxamite tradition. Superman affirms that Supergirl defeated him and is Earth's champion. M'gann telepathically wakens J'onn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)",
        "text": "In 2004, Jeph Loeb reintroduced Kara Zor-El into post-\"\" (Birthright timeline) continuity during a storyline in the series \"Superman/Batman\". She is the biological cousin of Superman, and although chronologically older than him, the ship in which she traveled to Earth was caught in a large green Kryptonite meteorite which held her in a state of suspended animation for much of the journey, making her have the appearance of a 16-year-old girl. Still, Supergirl sometimes saw Superman as a child, due to last carrying him as a baby. DC Comics relaunched the \"Supergirl\", the first story arc of which was written by Loeb. showcases Supergirl on a journey of self-discovery. Along her journey, she encounters Power Girl (Kara Zor-El's counterpart from another universe), the Teen Titans, the Outsiders, the Justice League of America, and arch-villain Lex Luthor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harvard Law School Parody",
        "text": "Lady Gaga's \"Poker Face\" (as \"Posner Case\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Squirrel Girl",
        "text": "Squirrel Girl makes an appearance in a bonus story of \"Avengers vs. X-Men: Versus\" #6. Here she is depicted competing against Pixie in a game resembling HeroClix where the toys are based on various superheroes. Thing walks in, stopping the game to reveal that the figurines actually belong to the Puppet Master and are made out of his \"Mind Control Clay\". The next day, Squirrel Girl and Pixie read in the Daily Bugle that the clash between the Avengers and X-Men has occurred and have been mirroring the results from their game, implying that they were the cause of the feud."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supergirl (Kara Zor-El)",
        "text": "There are numerous alternate versions of Supergirl. The most notable is Power Girl (real name Kara Zor-L, also known as Karen Starr) who first appeared in \"All Star Comics\" #58 (January/February 1976)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Portrayal of women in American comics",
        "text": "Although female characters would develop and become cornerstones of the Marvel Universe, their early treatment would show a struggle to be recognized as equals. Supergirl of DC Comics went through such a struggle as she fights against the title of \"Superman's kid cousin\" to earn her own title as Power Girl."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some of Power Girl's super powers?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "As the biological cousin of Superman, Power Girl exhibits all of the classic Kryptonian powers: super strength; flight; super speed; invulnerability; x-ray, telescopic, microscopic and heat vision; freeze breath; and super-hearing."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the difference between Supergirl and Power Girl?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Though they are biologically the same person, Power Girl behaves as an older, more mature, and more level-headed version of Supergirl, with a more aggressive fighting style."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has Power Girl been featured in parodies or comedy skits?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Power Girl has been featured in several comedy skits aired beginning in 2010 on G4TV's Attack of the Show. The skits, which also feature parody versions of Superman and Aquaman, feature AOTS guest host Carrie Keagan as a physically accurate recreation of the character, although the skits cast Power Girl in the stereotypical \"dumb blonde\" role.",
      "Power Girl appears in episode 46 of Mad, joining other superheroes in a musical number that involves Superman, Batman, and Wonder Woman."
    ],
    "topic": "Power Girl",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Power Girl:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Power Girl",
          "Publication history"
        ],
        "ctx": "Power Girl was introduced in \"All Star Comics\" #58 in 1976, and was a member of the superhero team the Justice Society of America through the remainder of the 1970s and 1980s period known as the Bronze Age of Comics. Marvel Comics' then-publisher Stan Lee said in 1978 that when DC Comics created Power Girl after Marvel had introduced Power Man, \"I'm pretty annoyed about that. ...I've got to ask the Marvel lawyer \u2013 she's supposed to be starting a lawsuit about that and I haven't heard anything. I don't like the idea. ... You know, years ago we brought out Wonder Man, and [DC Comics] sued us because they had Wonder Woman, and ... I said okay, I'll discontinue Wonder Man. And all of a sudden they've got Power Girl. Oh, boy. How unfair.\" Ironically, Marvel had previously published \"Thor\" #207, written by Power Girl co-creator Gerry Conway, in which Len Wein's character says, \"Whoever heard of Powergirl, anyhow?\""
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Power Girl:20",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Power Girl",
          "Fictional character biography",
          "Atlantean"
        ],
        "ctx": "Power Girl appeared in later issues of the \"Sovereign Seven\" series, Chris Claremont's creator-owned comic book for DC. However, the final issue revealed that the entire series had been a story appearing in a comic book, and events in the book have had no bearing upon DC continuity."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli (; born 13 May 1993) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Chelsea and the Belgium national team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku was born in Antwerp, Belgium to Congolese parents. His father, Roger Lukaku, played professional football and was capped at international level by Zaire. He has a younger brother named Jordan, who has progressed through the youth academy at Anderlecht and currently plays for Royal Antwerp in Belgium. His cousin Boli Bolingoli-Mbombo plays as a left-sided winger or defender for Celtic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku has spoken out against racism he suffered while playing football, particularly the 2019\u201320 Serie A season, his first year playing in Italy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku was a member of the Belgium under-21 team and scored a goal on his debut against Slovenia. On 24 February 2010, Lukaku was named for the first time in the Belgium senior squad for a friendly against Croatia. On 17 November 2010, he scored his first two international goals in a friendly against Russia. Lukaku scored his first goal in almost two years for the national team, netting the winner in a 4\u20132 friendly victory over rivals the Netherlands on 15 August 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Belgium\n*FIFA World Cup third place: 2018"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In 2020, Lukaku honoured George Floyd by kneeling and keeping one fist high in support of Black Lives Matter when he scored in a game with Inter against Sampdoria. This symbolic action was inspired by American football player Colin Kaepernick who kneeled during the national anthem before every game in 2016 as a peaceful manner of protest against police brutality towards people of colour. Since then, Lukaku and many other players in Europe has taken an active role to take a knee on the pitches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku made his 100th Belgium appearance on 5 September 2021 against the Czech Republic, scoring his 67th goal in the process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 18 June, Lukaku scored twice in a 3\u20130 win over Panama in their opening group game at the 2018 FIFA World Cup. In the next group game on 23 June 2018, he scored twice again in a 5\u20132 win over Tunisia. In doing so, Lukaku became the first player since Diego Maradona in 1986 to score two goals or more in consecutive World Cup matches. He eventually ended the tournament with four goals and one assist, which earned him the Bronze Boot award, as Belgium finished the tournament in third place."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of international goals scored by Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "List of international goals scored by Romelu Lukaku\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 29 March 2016, Lukaku headed a consolation in a 2\u20131 loss away to Portugal, assisted by his brother, Jordan Lukaku. At UEFA Euro 2016, Lukaku scored twice in Belgium's 3\u20130 second group stage match win on 18 June 2016 over the Republic of Ireland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "He began the new year on 6 January by scoring a brace in a 3\u20131 win against Napoli, giving Inter the first league win at Stadio San Paolo since October 1997; he earned praise from the media for his first goal scored in the 14th minute, which came from an individual effort. On 9 February, Lukaku scored the final goal of the 4\u20132 home win over cross-town rivals Milan, sending Inter to the top of the table and giving them another double over Milan; it was also his 17th league goal of the season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku joined his local team Rupel Boom at age five. After four seasons at Rupel Boom, Lukaku was discovered by scouts of Lierse, a Belgian Pro League club with an established youth academy. He played for Lierse from 2004 until 2006, scoring 121 goals in 68 matches. After Lierse were relegated from the Belgian Pro League, Anderlecht purchased 13 youth players from Lierse in the 2006 mid-season, including Lukaku. He played three more years as a youth player with Anderlecht, scoring 131 goals in 93 matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Inter Milan\n*Serie A: 2020\u201321\n*UEFA Europa League runner-up: 2019\u201320"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Chelsea\n*FIFA Club World Cup: 2021\n*EFL Cup runner-up: 2021\u201322"
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger Lukaku",
        "text": "Roger Menama Lukaku (born 6 June 1967) is a Congolese former footballer who played as a forward. Throughout his career, he played for KV Oostende, KV Mechelen and Germinal Ekeren. He is the father of footballers Romelu Lukaku and Jordan Lukaku."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Anderlecht\n*Belgian Pro League: 2009\u201310"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 8 October 2021, Lukaku was one of five Chelsea players included in the final 30-man shortlist for the 2021 Ballon d'Or, eventually finishing 12th."
      },
      {
        "title": "Niko Markkula",
        "text": "Markkula was called up to the men's national team in September 2019. He was an unused substitute in a home match against Greece."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 10 October 2019, Lukaku scored his 50th and 51st international goals in a 9\u20130 home win over San Marino, in a Euro 2020 qualifier. On 12 June 2021, Lukaku scored twice in Belgium's opening group match of UEFA Euro 2020, a 3\u20130 win over Russia. On 21 June, he scored the last goal in a 2\u20130 win over Finland in his team's final group match. On 2 July, he scored Belgium's only goal of the match from a penalty late in the first half in a 2\u20131 defeat to Italy in the quarter-finals of the competition. Two days after the final Lukaku was awarded as sole Belgian player with a selection for the UEFA Euro 2020 Team of the Tournament. He got the striker position."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 21 October 2020, Lukaku scored a brace in a 2\u20132 draw against Borussia M\u00f6nchengladbach in the first match of the 2020\u201321 UEFA Champions League. On 1 December, he scored another brace against Borussia M\u00f6nchengladbach to secure a 3\u20132 away win. However, Inter drew their last match against Shakhtar Donetsk, to finish last in their group and to be eliminated from all European competitions."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of international goals scored by Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "As of October 2021, Lukaku has scored two hat-tricks during his international career, including the treble against Luxembourg, with the other coming in a 9\u20130 win against Gibraltar in a 2018 World Cup qualifier in August 2017. Lukaku has scored more goals in friendlies than in any other format, with 22. He has scored eighteen goals in qualifying for the FIFA World Cup, five in FIFA World Cup finals, seven in qualifying for the UEFA European Championship, six in the European Championship finals and ten in the UEFA Nations League. Lukaku scored his most recent goal in a 2\u20133 UEFA Nations League Finals loss against France in October 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Belgium's all-time top goalscorer, Lukaku made his senior international debut in 2010, and has represented his country at four major tournaments: the 2016 and 2020 UEFA European Championships and the 2014 and 2018 FIFA World Cups; he finished as joint second-highest goalscorer won the Bronze Boot in the latter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 11 October 2013, Lukaku scored two goals as Belgium defeated Croatia 2\u20131 to secure a place in the World Cup finals. In May 2014, Lukaku was named in Belgium's squad for the 2014 World Cup. On 26 May, he scored his first international hat-trick in a pre-tournament friendly against neighbouring Luxembourg. However, as Belgium made seven substitutions during this match instead of the permitted six, it was not recognised as an official match by FIFA. On 1 June, he scored first of Belgium's two goals in the 2\u20130 victory in a friendly against Sweden. In Belgium's first match of the tournament, a 2\u20131 win against Algeria in Belo Horizonte, Lukaku started and played 58 minutes before being replaced by Divock Origi. In the round of 16, Lukaku came on as a substitute prior to extra time and assisted Kevin De Bruyne's opening goal three minutes later. In the 105th minute, he scored his first goal of the tournament as Belgium defeated the United States 2\u20131."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In the first months since his arrival, Lukaku formed an attacking partnership with Argentine youngster Lautaro Mart\u00ednez, dubbed \"Lu-La\" by Italian media. This became after the duo scored a brace each in the 4\u20133 away win against Sassuolo in October, giving Inter the first triumph since 2016. On 2 November, Lukaku scored a brace in a 2\u20131 away win over Bologna in Serie A, which saw him match Ronaldo's record of nine goals in his first 11 league appearances for the club. On 27 November, Lukaku scored his first UEFA Champions League goal for Inter in a 3\u20131 away win against Slavia Prague in the group stage; in addition to that, he also assisted the two other goals scored by Lautaro Mart\u00ednez and had two goals disallowed himself. In the final match home against Barcelona, Lukaku scored his side's only goal in a 2\u20131 defeat, meaning that Inter was transferred to Europa League for the second season in a row."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Crediting the former Brazilian striker as his major influence as a kid, Lukaku added, \"He changed the dimension of a striker. He was fast, he can dribble like a winger, run like a sprinter, he was as strong as an ox\". When mentioned that he shares certain characteristics with the Brazilian, Lukaku responded, \"Be like Ronaldo? There is only one Ronaldo\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of international goals scored by Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Romelu Lukaku is a Belgian professional footballer who represents the Belgium national football team as a striker. He made his debut for his country in a 1\u20130 defeat to Croatia in Brussels in March 2010. His first and second international goals came on his eighth appearance for Belgium, in a 2\u20130 friendly victory over Russia. , Lukaku is his country's top scorer with 68 goals in 101 appearances, ahead of Bernard Voorhoof and Paul Van Himst (30 goals). The Belgian Football Association confirmed that he had broken the national record when Lukaku scored his 31st international goal in a match against Japan in November 2017. FIFA, however, did not initially recognise the record as three goals had been scored against Luxembourg in a friendly in May 2014 later declared by the organisation as an unofficial friendly due to too many substitutions being made. He scored twice against Tunisia in the group stages of the 2018 FIFA World Cup, a game after which football journalist Nick Ames praised him for a \"laudable act of sportsmanship\" as he had indicated to the referee that he had not been fouled in the penalty area, denying himself the chance of a hat-trick. The two goals took his overall tally in the 2018 World Cup to four and made him Belgium's highest scorer in a single World Cup tournament, and made him the first player since Diego Maradona in the 1986 FIFA World Cup to score back-to-back braces (two goals in a single game)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ansyari Lubis",
        "text": "He formerly played for the Indonesia national football team in the 1990s. He participated in international events with Senior National Team at the Pre Olympic, Kemerdekaan Cup and the Sea Games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Tiodorovi\u0107",
        "text": "Luka Tiodorovi\u0107\n--Club career.\n--National team.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 3 January 2021, Lukaku scored a goal in a 6\u20132 win over Crotone, to reach his 50th goal across all competitions in only 70 matches, breaking the previous record of Ronaldo who scored 50 goals in 77 matches. On 26 January, Lukaku was involved in a confrontation with former Manchester United teammate Zlatan Ibrahimovi\u0107 in Inter's Coppa Italia quarter-final match against Milan. Following a foul committed by Lukaku late in the first half, he and Ibrahimovi\u0107 could be heard exchanging insults as the pair clashed heads and had to be restrained by their respective teammates. Both players were booked as their arguments continued into the tunnel at half-time. Ibrahimovi\u0107 would be sent off during the second half following a second yellow for a foul on Aleksandar Kolarov, as Inter went on to record a 2\u20131 victory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordan Lukaku",
        "text": "Jordan Zacharie Lukaku Menama Mokelenge (born 25 July 1994) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a left back for Serie B club Vicenza, on loan from Lazio. His older brother, Romelu, is also a footballer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boli Bolingoli-Mbombo",
        "text": "His younger brother, Emeraude and his two cousins, Romelu and Jordan Lukaku are also footballers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku is a practising Roman Catholic, praying frequently before or after matches. He made the pilgrimage to Lourdes in 2014. He is teetotal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 22 August 2021, Lukaku scored on his return debut in the 15th minute, converting Reece James' cross, in a 2\u20130 away win over Arsenal. On 12 September, Lukaku scored twice at home against Aston Villa, the first time he had scored at Stamford Bridge. Two days later, Lukaku scored his first European goal for Chelsea, against Zenit in the Champions League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 14 February, he scored a brace and got an assist against Lazio in a 3\u20131 victory, bringing his Serie A tally to 16 goals for the season and equalling Cristiano Ronaldo as the league's top scorer. Lukaku's second goal was also the 300th of his professional career. Inter won the 2020\u201321 Serie A for the first time since the 2009\u201310 season. Lukaku finished the season 2020\u201321 with 24 league goals, 11 assists. Making him the highest scorer on the title-winning team and the second highest-scorer in the league, behind Ronaldo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lubo\u0161 Kol\u00e1\u0159",
        "text": "Lubo\u0161 Kol\u00e1\u0159\n--National team career.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Romelu Lukaku\n--Club career.\n----Early career.\n----Anderlecht.\n----Chelsea.\n------Transfer.\n------2011\u201312: Debut season.\n------2012\u201313 season: Loan to West Bromwich Albion.\n------2013\u201314 season: Loan to Everton.\n----Everton.\n------2014\u201316: Rise to stardom.\n------2016\u201317: Sustained individual success.\n----Manchester United.\n------Transfer.\n------2017\u201318 season: Debut season and loss in form.\n------2018\u201319 season: Final season in Manchester.\n----Inter Milan.\n------2019\u201320 season: Club record transfer.\n------2020\u201321 season: Serie A champion.\n----Return to Chelsea.\n------2021\u201322 season.\n--International career.\n--Style of play.\n----Influences.\n--Personal life.\n----Media and endorsements.\n----Activism.\n--Honours.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bihter Dumano\u011flu",
        "text": "Bihter Dumano\u011flu\n--Career.\n----Club.\n----National team.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 25 July, Lukaku scored a brace in a 3\u20130 win at Genoa; in doing so, he became the first Inter player since Istv\u00e1n Nyers in 1949\u201350 season to score 15 away goals in a Serie A season, and the first do to so in his debut season. He concluded his first Serie A season with 23 goals, as Inter finished runner-up by just one point to Juventus in the standings; only Ronaldo (25) and Nyers (26) have scored more than him in their debut season at Inter. On 5 August, Lukaku scored in a 2\u20130 win over Getafe in the Europa League's round of 16, helping his side reach the quarter-finals of a European competition for the first time since 2011. It was his 30th goal in all competitions, a new personal best, and he had also scored for the 8th consecutive Europa League match, equalling the all-time record set by Alan Shearer in 2004\u201305. In the quarter-finals on 10 August, he broke the record, scoring in his ninth consecutive match in the competition in a 2\u20131 victory over Bayer Leverkusen in D\u00fcsseldorf, to send Inter into the semi-finals. On 17 August, Lukaku scored a brace in a 5\u20130 win against Shakhtar Donetsk\u2014his tenth consecutive match in the competition\u2014as Inter reached the final. In the final, he earned and scored a penalty in the 5th minute, but also scored an own goal in the 74th minute, which was eventually the winning goal for Sevilla in a 3\u20132 defeat. Lukaku equalled Ronaldo's record in 1997\u201398 season, by scoring 34 goals in all competitions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 6 June 2018, Lukaku officially became Belgium's all-time leading scorer with 31 goals after scoring a goal in a 3\u20130 win over Egypt. He also broke a three-way tie with the previous record goalscorers, Bernard Voorhoof and Paul Van Himst."
      },
      {
        "title": "Malakai Rakula",
        "text": "Malakai Rakula\n--Club career.\n--National team.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Vuniuci Tikomaimereke",
        "text": "Vuniuci Tikomaimereke\n--Club career.\n--National team.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "OFK Kikinda",
        "text": "Players that played for national teams:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordan Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku was born in Antwerp. His father is Roger Lukaku, who played professional football and was capped at international level by Zaire. He has an older brother, Romelu Lukaku, who also progressed through the youth academy at Anderlecht. Their cousin Boli Bolingoli-Mbombo plays for Celtic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Dr\u010da",
        "text": "Luka Dr\u010da\n--National team career.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku joined Italian club Inter Milan on 8 August 2019, signing a five-year contract for a fee reported to be a club record \u20ac80\u00a0million. He later mentioned the reasons for leaving Manchester United, by claiming that he was made a scapegoat alongside other players such as Paul Pogba and Alexis S\u00e1nchez, in addition to club's failure to protect him against rumours about his future. Lukaku made his debut for Inter Milan on 26 August in the opening Serie A matchday against Lecce, netting his side's third goal with his first shot in a 4\u20130 home win. The goal meant that Lukaku has found the net in his first league game for five of the six clubs he has represented; Anderlecht, West Brom, Everton, Manchester United, and Inter; he also become only the third Belgian to score for Inter in Serie A, after Enzo Scifo and Radja Nainggolan. In the club's second league game of the season at Cagliari on 1 September, Lukaku scored the match-winning goal from the penalty spot to give Inter a 2\u20131 victory away from home; however, he was subject to racial abuse from some of the Cagliari fans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kaiava Salusalu",
        "text": "His last international cap was during the match against Samoa, at Nausori, on 23 June 1990."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku made his debut at Stamford Bridge in a 3\u20131 victory over Norwich City in the 83rd minute, coming on as a substitute for Fernando Torres. Lukaku made his first start for Chelsea in the League Cup against Fulham. Chelsea went on to win the match on penalties. He spent the majority of the season playing for the reserves and started his first Premier League match on 13 May 2012, against Blackburn Rovers, and turned in a man of the match performance, providing an assist for John Terry's opener. However, Lukaku stressed he was disappointed with his involvement at the end of his debut season, revealing that, after his side's UEFA Champions League win in the final on 19 May, he refused to hold the trophy, explaining \"it wasn't me, but my team that won\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Josep Romeu",
        "text": "At the 2016 Summer Olympics, he competed for the national team in the men's tournament. He played club hockey in Belgium for KHC Leuven and currently plays for Club Egara"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku joined Manchester United on 10 July 2017, signing a five-year contract with the option of a further year. Although the fee was officially undisclosed, it was reported to be worth an initial \u00a375\u00a0million, plus \u00a315\u00a0million in add-ons. Thus, he became a teammate with his French-speaking close friend Paul Pogba. Lukaku's signing came a day after former Manchester United captain Wayne Rooney left the club to return to Everton, Rooney's boyhood club."
      },
      {
        "title": "Josateki Tamudu",
        "text": "Josateki Tamudu\n--Club career.\n--National team.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "D\u0103nu\u021b Lupu",
        "text": "D\u0103nu\u021b Lupu played 14 matches without scoring for Romania, making his debut on 11 October 1989 when coach Emerich Jenei sent him on the field in the 64th minute in order to replace Ioan Sab\u0103u in a 1990 World Cup qualifiers match which ended with a 3\u20130 loss against Denmark, also appearing in the second leg which ended with a 3\u20131 victory. He appeared in two games at the 1990 World Cup, a 1\u20131 in the group stage against Argentina and a 0\u20130 (5\u20134, after penalty kicks) loss against Ireland in the sixteenths-finals. Lupu played four games at the successful Euro 1996 qualifiers, but was not part of the national team's squad at the final tournament, making his last appearance for the national team on 18 March 1998 in a friendly which ended with a 1\u20130 loss against Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luk\u00e1cs B\u0151le",
        "text": "After playing all his career for Kaposv\u00e1r, B\u0151le moved to Romanian club Politehnica Ia\u0219i. On 26 June 2014 he signed a one-year contract with the Liga I club. On 7 April 2015 Luk\u00e1cs scored a very important goal against Dinamo Bucure\u0219ti to help his team to a 1\u20130 victory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ko\u00e7o Kasapo\u011flu",
        "text": "He capped for Turkey for once on 25 November 1956 in Praha in a 1-1 tie against Czechoslovakia. He also played for Turkey B national football team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Olli-Pekka Ojansivu",
        "text": "Olli-Pekka Ojansivu\n--Career.\n--National team.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku began his senior club career playing for Anderlecht, where he won a Belgian Pro League title and finished as the league's top goalscorer. In 2011, he joined Chelsea in a transfer worth \u00a310 million (\u20ac12 million), but limited playing time resulted in loans to West Bromwich Albion and Everton; in 2014, Lukaku signed with Everton in a then club-record transfer worth \u00a328 million (\u20ac32 million), going on to finish as the league's second-top goalscorer. He subsequently signed with Manchester United in a transfer worth \u00a375 million (\u20ac88 million), but after a breakdown in relations with the club, Lukaku departed for Inter Milan in 2019 in a club-record deal worth \u20ac80 million (\u00a368.1 million), and won a Serie A title and Serie A Most Valuable Player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abdulkarim Lukman",
        "text": "National team"
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku played for the Zaire national football team in the 1994 FIFA World Cup qualifying rounds. He also participated at the 1994 and 1996 African Cup of Nations finals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku was the first Premier League player to join Jay-Z's management agency Roc Nation Sports. In 2018, he signed a record sponsorship deal with German sportswear company Puma, the company's largest endorsement deal ever."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sanl\u0131 Sar\u0131alio\u011flu",
        "text": "Sanl\u0131 Sar\u0131alio\u011flu\n--National team.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Corneliu Robe",
        "text": "Corneliu Robe played for the Romania national football team between 1930 and 1935. In 1930, despite not having any appearance for the national team, he was picked up for Romania's squad for the 1930 FIFA World Cup in Uruguay. He played his first match for the national team at the 1930 FIFA World Cup, a defeat against the winners of the competition, Uruguay. He gained fourteen caps for Romania, but he did not score a goal. His last match for the national team was a defeat against Yugoslavia, on 1 January 1935."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jani Sullanmaa",
        "text": "Sullanmaa would then join Markku Uusipaavalniemi's team. He first played as the team's alternate and moved to second position after the 2006 Winter Olympics. At the Olympics, Sullanmaa won a silver medal as a member of the team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luyolo Nomandela",
        "text": "He made his first national team appearance under Gordon Igesund in the summer of 2013 scoring on debut against Burkina Faso."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mindaugas Lukauskis",
        "text": "Lukauskis was a member of the senior Lithuanian national team at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. On August 16, 2008, when Lithuania played against Croatia in the Olympics, Lukauskis helped Lithuania to win the game, by scoring 20 points."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ekeroma Luaiufi",
        "text": "He started to play for Samoa during a test match against Fiji, at Suva, on August 22, 1987. His last match for Samoa was during a test match against Fiji, at Apia, on June 4, 1988. Two years later, Luaiufi started to play for Japan in the match against Fiji, at Tokyo, on March 4, 1990. He was part of the Japan team at 1991 Rugby World Cup, where he played three matches and scored a try in the match against Zimbabwe, at Belfast, on October 14. He retired after the World Cup. In his club career, he played for Canterbury in New Zealand and for NikoNikoDo, a team managed by Youme Mart, based in Kumamoto in Japan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Tudor",
        "text": "Luka Nicola Tudor Bakulic (born 21 February 1969) is a retired Chilean footballer. He played as a forward during his career. He played for the U-20 side at the 1987 FIFA World Youth Championship in Chile and was a member of the senior squad at the 1989 Copa Am\u00e9rica. He holds the Chilean record for most goals scored in one game: playing for CD Universidad Cat\u00f3lica, in November 1993 he netted seven times in the 8\u20133 win over CD Antofagasta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Og\u00fcn Temizkano\u011flu",
        "text": "He played for Turkey national football team and was a participant at the 1996 and 2000 UEFA European Championship.\n*Og\u00fcn Temizkano\u011flu: \"Harika bir jenerasyon geliyor\" \u2013 an extensive interview with Temizkano\u011flu"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku signed a five-year contract with Everton in July 2014 for a club record fee of \u00a328\u00a0million. He scored his first goal as a permanent player on 13 September, against his former club West Brom. Lukaku did not celebrate the goal, and was applauded by the West Brom fans for his sign of respect. On 19 February 2015, Lukaku scored his first Everton hat-trick in a 4\u20131 win for Everton against BSC Young Boys in the UEFA Europa League last 32; he struck with a header, a right-foot shot and a left-foot shot. He added another two goals in a 3\u20131 win in the second leg a week later. With eight goals, he was the tournament's joint highest scorer that season, alongside Alan of Red Bull Salzburg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordan Lukaku",
        "text": "Following his impressive performance at Oostende, Lukaku was called by the senior team for the first team. On 10 October 2015, Lukaku made his senior debut for the national team in a 4\u20131 win in a Euro 2016 qualification match against Andorra; the victory qualified his team to the finals. In his next game on the following 29 March, he replaced Guillaume Gillet in the 59th minute of a friendly away to Portugal in Leiria, and sent in the cross that was headed in by his brother as consolation in a 2\u20131 loss."
      },
      {
        "title": "Divock Origi",
        "text": "Origi came on as a substitute for Romelu Lukaku in the 58th minute of the opening Group H game against Algeria in Belo Horizonte on 17 June. In Belgium's second match, again after coming on as a substitute for Lukaku, he scored his first senior international goal in the 88th minute of a 1\u20130 win over Russia to qualify the \"Red Devils\" for the knockout stage. In so doing, at 19 years, 2 months and 4 days, he became the youngest goalscorer of the tournament (until American winger Julian Green scored against Belgium during their round of 16 match), the youngest goalscorer in Belgian World Cup history, and the first player of Kenyan origin to score at a World Cup finals. For his performances, he was named the Young Talent of the 2014 Belgian Sportsman of the year awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Menalo",
        "text": "Luka Menalo (; born 22 July 1996) is a Bosnian professional footballer who plays as a winger for Croatian club Dinamo Zagreb and the Bosnia and Herzegovina national team."
      },
      {
        "title": "FK TSC Ba\u010dka Topola",
        "text": "The following players played for national teams:\n* Slobodan Batri\u010devi\u0107\n* Jen\u0151 Kalm\u00e1r\n* Andrija Kalu\u0111erovi\u0107\n* Nikica Klin\u010darski\n* Norbert K\u00f6nyves\n* Zlatko Krmpoti\u0107\n* Savo Pavi\u0107evi\u0107\n* Du\u0161an Tadi\u0107\n* Janko Tumbasevi\u0107\n* Nikola \u017digi\u0107"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 10 November 2017, Lukaku equalled the all-time Belgium goalscoring record set by Bernard Voorhoof and Paul Van Himst after scoring twice against Mexico in a 3\u20133 draw. Four days after he equalled the record, Lukaku became Belgium's all-time record goalscorer with 31 international goals at the age of 24 after he scored the only goal in a 1\u20130 win over Japan. Although this record was counted by the Royal Belgian Football Association, FIFA only officially recognised 28 goals after a nullified international friendly against Luxembourg on 26 May 2014 which he netted a hat trick in a 5\u20131 win because the former Belgium coach, Marc Wilmots made seven substitutions during the match instead of the permitted six which are not in accordance to the Laws of the Game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In a 2016 interview with ESPN, Lukaku named Didier Drogba and Nicolas Anelka as the two strikers who made him want to play for Chelsea, but it was the mention of a third striker during the interview, his idol Ronaldo, that lit him up with excitement, with Lukaku stating,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In August 2011, Lukaku joined Premier League club Chelsea on a five-year contract for a fee reported to be around \u20ac12\u00a0million (\u00a310\u00a0million), rising to \u20ac20\u00a0million (\u00a317\u00a0million) in add-ons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tevita Vonolagi",
        "text": "His last international cap was against Tonga, in Nuku'alofa, on 17 July 1993, won by 15-10."
      },
      {
        "title": "Benjamin Mokulu",
        "text": "He also has a cap in DR Congo national team having made his debut against Gabon in 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vai Lutu",
        "text": "Vai Lutu\n--Club career.\n--National team.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Luciano Mutasi",
        "text": "Luciano Mutasi\n--National team.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gediminas Paulauskas",
        "text": "National Team"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku made his debut against Real Madrid on 8 August in the 2017 UEFA Super Cup, and scored his first competitive goal for the club in a 2\u20131 defeat. His league debut came five days later at home to West Ham. Lukaku scored twice in a 4\u20130 win, becoming the fourth Manchester United player to score two goals on his Premier League debut for the club. On 12 September, he scored his first UEFA Champions League goal in a 3\u20130 win over FC Basel. On 17 September, Lukaku scored United's third goal in a 4\u20130 win over his former club Everton, with Lukaku running over towards Everton fans and cupping his ears during his goal celebration in response to being booed throughout the game. On 27 September, Lukaku scored twice in a 4\u20131 win over CSKA Moscow, taking his tally to 10 goals in his first nine appearances. In doing so, he broke the record set by Bobby Charlton who had scored nine goals in his first nine appearances for the club. In a 2\u20131 win over his former club Chelsea on 25 February 2018, Lukaku scored the equaliser and then assisted Jesse Lingard's game-winning goal. He scored his 200th goal for club and country on 13 March in a 2\u20131 away defeat to Sevilla that eliminated Manchester United from the Champions League in the round of 16. On 31 March 2018, Lukaku scored to open a 2\u20130 home win over Swansea. It was his 100th Premier League goal in his 216th game, and made him the fifth youngest of the 28 players to reach the tally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tevita Waranaivalu",
        "text": "Waranaivalu made his debut for the Fiji national football team in a 5\u20130 victory against Tonga on August 19, 2015. He was also part of the Fijian team at the 2016 OFC Nations Cup. On 16 July 2016, Waranaivalu was named in Fiji's 18-man squad for the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jakub Luka",
        "text": "Luka made his Fortuna Liga debut for Ru\u017eomberok against Zempl\u00edn Michalovce on 1 May 2021 in a 1:2 away loss. He played the entire match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Individual"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku is a left-footed player, who in 2014 was named by \"The Guardian\" as one of the ten most promising young players in Europe. A large and physically powerful striker from an early age, with an eye for goal, Lukaku has been known to use his physicality to get around defenders. However, despite his size, strength, physical build, and ability to hold-up play with his back to goal, his favoured role is not as a target-man in the centre, but as an out-and-out striker or poacher; due to his tactical versatility, he is also capable of playing as a winger. A well-rounded forward, who is also strong in the air, beyond his physical qualities and goalscoring ability, he possesses pace, athleticism, awareness, good link-up play, technical attributes, and vision, as well as an ability to get into good attacking positions or create space for teammates with his intelligent runs off the ball. Although he was once criticised by pundits for his limited defensive contribution, he has since been praised by his managers for his work-rate off the ball. However, despite his ability, he has also come into criticism in the media at times over his movement and first touch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kaanu Olaniyi",
        "text": "Kaanu Olaniyi\n--Career.\n--National team career.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Livai Kididromo",
        "text": "His first international cap was during the 1987 Rugby World Cup pool match against New Zealand national rugby union team at Christchurch on 27 May 1987. He played two matches during the tournament. His last cap for Fiji was during the match against Tonga at Nuku'alofa on 2 July 1988."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sinan Kalo\u011flu",
        "text": "Kalo\u011flu made his first appearance Turkey national team on 12 April 2006 against Azerbaijan in Tofik Bakhramov Stadium."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ariza Makukula",
        "text": "Makukula earned four caps for the Portugal national team, during three and a half months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Koleta Likuculacula",
        "text": "Koleta Maramanitavuto Likuculacula (born 17 August 2000) is a Fijian footballer who plays as a forward for Ba FC and the Fiji women's national team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger Lukaku",
        "text": "After the relegation of the club in 1999 the 32-year-old stopped playing professional football. He continued to play in lower divisions for Aat, KFC Wintam and in 2006 for KGR Katelijne where he finished his playing career."
      },
      {
        "title": "Epeli Naituivau",
        "text": "Naituivau debuted for Fiji against Tonga, at Nuku'alofa, on 24 March 1990. He called in the 1991 Rugby World Cup squad, where he played against Romania and Canada, as well in the 1999 Rugby World Cup squad, where he played against Namibia and England, the latter being his last international cap."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joeli Lutumailagi",
        "text": "He started his career playing in the local 7's competition. His impressive performance saw him getting drafted into the Nadroga 15's team for the Digicel Cup playing wing and then into"
      },
      {
        "title": "Epeli Rakai",
        "text": "with the quarter-final lost to France being his last international cap. Rakai was also part of the South Pacific Barbarians, a team made up of Fijian, Tongan and Samoan players who played a rebel tour in South Africa, among which were present his teammates who played in Suva, such as Severo Koroduadua, Paulo Nawalu and Sairusi Naituku."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ioan Lupescu",
        "text": "Lupescu made 74 appearances for the Romania national team, and scored six goals. He debuted on 3 February 1988, in a 2\u20130 win over Israel. He participated in the FIFA World Cup 1990 in Italy and in the 1994 FIFA World Cup in the US and reached the quarter-finals, he also participated at the UEFA Euro 1996 in England, and UEFA Euro 2000 in Belgium and the Netherlands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Josua Tuisova",
        "text": "Josua Tuisova Ratulevu (born 4 February 1994) is a Fijian rugby union player. A wing or centre, he currently plays for Lyon in France's Top 14. He won a gold medal in sevens as part of the Fiji team at the 2016 Rio Olympics. Known for his strong running and physical play, he is nicknamed \"Human Bulldozer\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sanl\u0131 Sar\u0131alio\u011flu",
        "text": "Sarialio\u011flu played once for U-18 national team on 6 November 1963, in a friend game up against Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku was the subject of a television documentary series called (Lukaku's School) shown on the Dutch-speaking E\u00e9n network. The reality show followed the teenage Lukaku and his classmates during the course of a year at the Saint-Guidon Institute, a school in Brussels, where the footballer was based while with the Anderlecht youth team. In 2009, the series followed the school as it made a field trip to London, visiting Chelsea's Stamford Bridge ground. Lukaku said at the time, \"What a stadium. If one day in my life I will cry, it will be the day I play here. I love Chelsea.\" In addition to his native French and Dutch, Lukaku can speak fluent English, Portuguese, Italian, Spanish and a Congolese Swahili dialect, and can also understand German. Lukaku has stated his biggest idol was Didier Drogba."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paulius Jank\u016bnas",
        "text": "Paulius Jank\u016bnas\n--Early years.\n--Professional career.\n----\u017dalgiris Kaunas.\n----Khimki Moscow Region.\n----Return to \u017dalgiris Kaunas.\n--National team career.\n----Lithuanian junior national team.\n----Lithuanian senior national team.\n--Player profile.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Malakai Rakula",
        "text": "Rakula was called up by coach Christophe Gamel in 2019 for the national football team. He made his debut on March 18, 2019, in a 3\u20130 win against New Caledonia. He started the game and was subbed after 75 minutes by Josateki Tamudu"
      },
      {
        "title": "Victor Luis",
        "text": "The player has Lithuanian ancestry, so Brazilian media site spread rumors that he could choose to play for the Lithuanian national football team, then coached by Edgaras Jankauskas. The media claimed that the coach had already contacted the player about this option."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which national team did Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli play for?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli, born 13 May 1993,  is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Chelsea and the Belgium national team. Would you like to know more about Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli, born 13 May 1993,  is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Chelsea and the Belgium national team?",
      "Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a striker for the Belgium national team."
    ],
    "topic": "Romelu Lukaku",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Romelu Lukaku:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Romelu Lukaku"
        ],
        "ctx": "Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli (; born 13 May 1993) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Chelsea and the Belgium national team."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Romelu Lukaku:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Romelu Lukaku"
        ],
        "ctx": "Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli (; born 13 May 1993) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Chelsea and the Belgium national team."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli (; born 13 May 1993) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Chelsea and the Belgium national team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku was born in Antwerp, Belgium to Congolese parents. His father, Roger Lukaku, played professional football and was capped at international level by Zaire. He has a younger brother named Jordan, who has progressed through the youth academy at Anderlecht and currently plays for Royal Antwerp in Belgium. His cousin Boli Bolingoli-Mbombo plays as a left-sided winger or defender for Celtic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku made his 100th Belgium appearance on 5 September 2021 against the Czech Republic, scoring his 67th goal in the process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku joined his local team Rupel Boom at age five. After four seasons at Rupel Boom, Lukaku was discovered by scouts of Lierse, a Belgian Pro League club with an established youth academy. He played for Lierse from 2004 until 2006, scoring 121 goals in 68 matches. After Lierse were relegated from the Belgian Pro League, Anderlecht purchased 13 youth players from Lierse in the 2006 mid-season, including Lukaku. He played three more years as a youth player with Anderlecht, scoring 131 goals in 93 matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger Lukaku",
        "text": "After the relegation of the club in 1999 the 32-year-old stopped playing professional football. He continued to play in lower divisions for Aat, KFC Wintam and in 2006 for KGR Katelijne where he finished his playing career."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kennedy Bakircioglu",
        "text": "In his later years, Bakircioglu repositioned himself as a central midfielder, dictating the game as a playmaker. He agreed to a new one year-deal on 22 October 2017, and simultaneously announced that he would retire from football when it expired. On 1 October 2018, at the end of his last season, he scored from a spectacular free kick to make it 3\u20130 in the league fixture against IFK G\u00f6teborg, and proceeded to celebrate the goal in front of the home fans by catching and drinking from a cup of beer that was thrown towards him from the stands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radja Nainggolan",
        "text": "On 26 August 2017, aged 29, Nainggolan announced that he would be retiring from international football after not being selected for Belgium's upcoming World Cup qualifiers, and stated that he would be focusing on his club career with Roma. However, he was selected by new manager Roberto Mart\u00ednez for friendlies against Mexico and Japan in November, only to pull out due to injury."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hora\u0163iu Nicolau",
        "text": "After retiring as a player he coached teams in Belgium."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marni Djurhuus",
        "text": "The player announced his retirement from the national team before the match between Faroe Islands and France, on 13 October 2007, due to undisclosed personal issues. It is not known if this is a permanent retirement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Senad Luli\u0107",
        "text": "He retired from international football on 29 December 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Armend Dallku",
        "text": "He retired from international football on 6 March 2014 with 64 senior international caps and one goal. Dallku announced that he will play one last game against Kosovo, which was played on 13 November in Pristina. However, Dallku didn't play but was mentioned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Armend Dallku",
        "text": "On 1 May 2016, Dallku announced his retirement from professional football at the end of the season via a Facebook status. Fourteen, Dallku played his final match as a professional footballer in a 1\u20130 home loss to Oleksandriya in the final day of the season, ending thus his 13-year career, 11 of them with Vorskla Poltava."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Milivojevi\u0107",
        "text": "In March 2021, he retired from international duty at the age of 29."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bhanuka Rajapaksa",
        "text": "On 5 January 2022, Rajapaksa announced his international retirement at the age of 30 in a letter written to the SLC which cited:. \"I have very carefully considered my position as a player, husband and am taking this decision looking forward to fatherhood and associated familial obligations,\". However, on 13 January 2022, he withdrew retirement letter at a request of sports minister."
      },
      {
        "title": "J\u00e1kup \u00e1 Borg",
        "text": "He announced his retirement from International football in July 2010 and had final appearance in a Faroese shirt against Estonia in August 2010. However, in early 2012 he made himself available for a possible selection again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lubo\u0161 Kalouda",
        "text": "Lubo\u0161 Kalouda (born 20 May 1987) is a Czech former footballer. He retired in 2018 at age 31 because of injury."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mads Laudrup",
        "text": "After his time at Herf\u00f8lge Boldklub, his career would bring him to three more clubs: Stjarnan, Hobro IK and FC Helsing\u00f8r. It was at FC Helsing\u00f8r, that he would eventually decide to immediately retire from professional football, at the age of 26, in December 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc Re\u00e7ber",
        "text": "In the aftermath of the 3\u20132 semi-final loss to Germany, a game in which he was captain, he announced his retirement from the national team. However, he was since called up against Spain for a 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifying match. He was called up for the last time for Turkey in a game against Finland on 26 May 2012, the last of his 120 caps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ilie Dumitrescu",
        "text": "After two years in Mexico, Dumitrescu returned to Steaua Bucure\u0219ti in 1998. Halfway through the season he announced his retirement as a professional player aged only 29."
      },
      {
        "title": "L\u00e1szl\u00f3 B\u00f6l\u00f6ni",
        "text": "B\u00f6l\u00f6ni remained at Steaua until 1987. In 1988, aged 35, B\u00f6l\u00f6ni left the country to play in Belgium at Racing Jet Bruxelles and then in France at US Cr\u00e9teil. He retired from professional football in 1992. On 25 March 2008 he was decorated by the president of Romania, Traian B\u0103sescu with Ordinul \"Meritul Sportiv\" \u2014 (The Order \"The Sportive Merit\") class II for his part in winning the 1986 European Cup Final."
      },
      {
        "title": "Florin R\u0103ducioiu",
        "text": "R\u0103ducioiu retired in 2004, after a short stint with modest French side US Cr\u00e9teil-Lusitanos. He had a short spell as a sports agent and as sporting director at Dinamo Bucharest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hedo T\u00fcrko\u011flu",
        "text": "In March 2014, T\u00fcrko\u011flu retired from international basketball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vilimoni Delasau",
        "text": "In February 2012, he retired from International rugby."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Belgium's all-time top goalscorer, Lukaku made his senior international debut in 2010, and has represented his country at four major tournaments: the 2016 and 2020 UEFA European Championships and the 2014 and 2018 FIFA World Cups; he finished as joint second-highest goalscorer won the Bronze Boot in the latter."
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u00f3bert Ily\u00e9s",
        "text": "After one last Liga I season at FCM T\u00e2rgu Mure\u0219, he decided to retire as a player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nedim Jusufbegovi\u0107",
        "text": "His final season as a football player expired at \u017deljezni\u010dar, and he retired from the game in the transfer season of 2005, during July."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marcel R\u0103ducanu",
        "text": "R\u0103ducanu retired from football in 1990. Since 1994, he has run a football school in Dortmund. Mario G\u00f6tze trained at his academy when he was 10 years old."
      },
      {
        "title": "Claude Kalisa",
        "text": "Kalisa began playing professional football in China with Yanbian Century, and spent the last six seasons of his career in Belgium with K. Sint-Truidense V.V. He retired due to a knee injury in 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "Naipolioni Kuricibi",
        "text": "He returned to Fiji and retired due a knee reconstruction and calf and ankle injuries.\n: \"Statistics are correct to the end of the 2001 season\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Edward Kalungi",
        "text": "Kalungi played club football for Express FC (Uganda), Shinas F.C. (Oman), Hue F.C. (Vietnam), Look E San F.C. (Thailand), Al-Wasl F.C. (U.A.E), and Sulut United F.C. (Indonesia). He retired in 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luk\u00e1cs Korn\u00e9l",
        "text": "Ret = Retired"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku was a member of the Belgium under-21 team and scored a goal on his debut against Slovenia. On 24 February 2010, Lukaku was named for the first time in the Belgium senior squad for a friendly against Croatia. On 17 November 2010, he scored his first two international goals in a friendly against Russia. Lukaku scored his first goal in almost two years for the national team, netting the winner in a 4\u20132 friendly victory over rivals the Netherlands on 15 August 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xhulio Jaupi",
        "text": "Xhulio Jaupi (born 30 September 1992) is a former Albanian professional footballer. He announced his retirement on 19 May 2020 at the age of 27, as he decided to move to Italy to be with his family."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jussi J\u00e4\u00e4skel\u00e4inen",
        "text": "On 29 October 2009, J\u00e4\u00e4skel\u00e4inen announced his retirement from international football having collected 55 caps for his country. In explaining his decision J\u00e4\u00e4skel\u00e4inen stated that he hoped that it would allow him to prolong his club career. However, on 6 October 2010 J\u00e4\u00e4skel\u00e4inen announced his comeback to national team in a match against Hungary as Otto Fredrikson was unable to play because of an injury but confirmed that this was just a one-off."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boban Babunski",
        "text": "Babunski retired professionally in 2001 at the age of 33, after stints with AEK Athens FC, CD Logro\u00f1\u00e9s, K. Sint-Truidense V.V. and Chemnitzer FC \u2013 he left Germany in December 2000, signing with native FK Rabotnichki \u2013 the second and the last teams two also in the respective countries' second level."
      },
      {
        "title": "L\u00ea Ph\u01b0\u1edbc T\u1ee9",
        "text": "On 12 November 2014, he announced his retirement from international football after the 2014 AFF Championship semi-final loss to Malaysia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mehmet \u00d6zdilek",
        "text": "Following season proved to be the last one for \u00d6zdilek and he retired from football after playing 14 years for Be\u015fikta\u015f. He wore the black and white colours for the last time on the pitch in a testimonial honouring his services for his club against the Italian giants, AC Milan. Gathered money was donated to a charity which grants free education to the children in need."
      },
      {
        "title": "Silviu Lung Jr.",
        "text": "He played his first match for Romania in 2010, being used by coach R\u0103zvan Lucescu to replace Bogdan Lobon\u021b in the last 7 minutes of a friendly match against Honduras which ended with a 3\u20130 victory. His second game was a 1\u20131 against Albania at the Euro 2012 qualifiers and his last game was 2\u20131 loss against Algeria in a friendly. He was an unused member at Euro 2016. In 2020 he announced his international retirement, after having no caps in the last 6 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "B\u00fclent \u00dc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc",
        "text": "\u00dc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc retired from professional football in December 2005 at the age of 31, re-joining Stade Quimp\u00e9rois in the French amateur-level Division d'Honneur. He had started his senior career at the club."
      },
      {
        "title": "Germ\u00e1n Legu\u00eda",
        "text": "After he retired from playing, became a football coach. He managed former club Universitario during 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roman Maksymyuk",
        "text": "In December 2011, he announced his retirement from playing football."
      },
      {
        "title": "Polizoi Arb\u00ebri",
        "text": "On 14 July 2017, with his knee not getting healed, Arb\u00ebri decided to retire from football at the age of 28, thus ending his 10-year career. In an interview, he said that not winning the title with Kuk\u00ebsi was his biggest regret in football, also adding that he felt like home at Vllaznia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 10 October 2019, Lukaku scored his 50th and 51st international goals in a 9\u20130 home win over San Marino, in a Euro 2020 qualifier. On 12 June 2021, Lukaku scored twice in Belgium's opening group match of UEFA Euro 2020, a 3\u20130 win over Russia. On 21 June, he scored the last goal in a 2\u20130 win over Finland in his team's final group match. On 2 July, he scored Belgium's only goal of the match from a penalty late in the first half in a 2\u20131 defeat to Italy in the quarter-finals of the competition. Two days after the final Lukaku was awarded as sole Belgian player with a selection for the UEFA Euro 2020 Team of the Tournament. He got the striker position."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yusuf Tunao\u011flu",
        "text": "Yusuf Tunao\u011flu started to play football at the age of 8. Tunao\u011flu started to play club football at Be\u015fikta\u015f J.K in 1958, where he was promoted to senior team at the age of 17 in 1962\u201363 season. In June 1970, Tunao\u011flu was linked with Belgian side Anderlecht. Tunao\u011flu retired from professional football in 1976."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiki Musampa",
        "text": "He eventually announced his retirement from professional football."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nikica Jelavi\u0107",
        "text": "On 11 October 2014, dissatisfied with the status he had within the national team, Jelavi\u0107 announced his retirement from international football."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bogdan Lobon\u021b",
        "text": "He retired from professional football on 5 June 2018, earning his final cap for Romania in a 2\u20130 friendly win against Finland at the Ilie Oan\u0103 Stadium in Ploie\u0219ti."
      },
      {
        "title": "J\u00e1kup Mikkelsen",
        "text": "Having made 118 league appearances for the club, Mikkelsen retired from playing football in November 2014 aged 44, stating that his advanced age had made it impossible for him to continue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Belgium\n*FIFA World Cup third place: 2018"
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger Lukaku",
        "text": "Roger Menama Lukaku (born 6 June 1967) is a Congolese former footballer who played as a forward. Throughout his career, he played for KV Oostende, KV Mechelen and Germinal Ekeren. He is the father of footballers Romelu Lukaku and Jordan Lukaku."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mile Jedinak",
        "text": "Jedinak retired from international football in October 2018. His 79 caps made him the ninth-most capped player for the country, and his 20 goals put him seventh amongst their all-time goalscorers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aleksandar Lukovi\u0107",
        "text": "In March 2011, two weeks before a crucial Euro 2012 qualifier against Northern Ireland, Lukovi\u0107 surprised everyone by deciding to retire from the national team at the age of 28, choosing to focus on his club Zenit. On the same occasion, his teammate Danko Lazovi\u0107 also made the same announcement.\n:Source:\n:Source:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ludovic Obraniak",
        "text": "On 4 October 2018, he announced his retirement as a player from football."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jan Ko\u0161ek",
        "text": "1913 was Ko\u0161ek's final full year at Slavia Prague as a player. On March 29 he announced that he was to retire from football at the age of just 29."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pio Bosco Tikoisuva",
        "text": "Tikoisuva retired from international rugby in 1979, playing his last match for Fiji against England in Suva, but continued to play for club rugby for the St John Marist team until the mid-1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Usaia Sotutu",
        "text": "It is not known when he retired, but he was ushered into the Fiji Sports Hall of Fame in 1993."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mutiu Adepoju",
        "text": "After two more weak years, in Turkey and Cyprus, Adepoju retired in 2006 in Spain's lower leagues. He subsequently returned to his first team Shooting Stars FC, as general manager."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku has spoken out against racism he suffered while playing football, particularly the 2019\u201320 Serie A season, his first year playing in Italy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Olivier Karekezi",
        "text": "After 13 years with the national team, he announced his retirement from international football in late August 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wout Wijsmans",
        "text": "In 2015, he returned to Noliko Maaseik wanting to win the championship again. At the end of the season he announced his retirement, his goal not reached. But in the following season he had to play again due to injuries from several players. He retired after that season with only one prize won, the belgian supercup. He became technical director of Noliko Maaseik."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rabiu Afolabi",
        "text": "After leaving Denmark, he announced his retirement and the intent to pursue a career in football management and scouting, having earned a certificate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sargis Hovsepyan",
        "text": "Sargis Hovsepyan retired as a football player in 2012. On this occasion, the former captain of Pyunik and the national team made a special appeal to the entire football community, in which he stated that, in his opinion, it is time to hang up his boots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Severo Koroduadua",
        "text": "He retired from his player career in 1994."
      },
      {
        "title": "Huub Loeffen",
        "text": "In 2001, Loeffen retired from professional football due to injuries at age 29. He had appeared in 216 league matches for TOP Oss, SBV Vitesse, FC Zwolle and Willem II Tilburg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Crediting the former Brazilian striker as his major influence as a kid, Lukaku added, \"He changed the dimension of a striker. He was fast, he can dribble like a winger, run like a sprinter, he was as strong as an ox\". When mentioned that he shares certain characteristics with the Brazilian, Lukaku responded, \"Be like Ronaldo? There is only one Ronaldo\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mario Kelentri\u0107",
        "text": "He finally retired in 2013 in RK Zagreb."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Anderlecht\n*Belgian Pro League: 2009\u201310"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "When Lukaku turned 16 on 13 May 2009, he signed a professional contract with Anderlecht lasting until 2012. Eleven days later, he made his Belgian First Division debut on 24 May 2009 in the championship play-off match against Standard Li\u00e8ge as a 69th-minute substitute for defender V\u00edctor Bern\u00e1rdez. Anderlecht lost the match 1\u20130. Lukaku became a regular member of Anderlecht's first team during the 2009\u201310 season, scoring his first goal at senior level against Zulte Waregem in the 89th minute after coming on as substitute for Kanu on 28 August 2009. \"After scoring I dived into a sea of happiness,\" he told Berend Scholten from UEFA.com. \"You think you are flying and can take on the whole world.\" He ended the season as the top goalscorer in the Pro League with 15 goals as Anderlecht won its 30th Belgian title. He also scored four goals during the club's run to the last 16 of the 2009\u201310 UEFA Europa League. During the 2010\u201311 season, Lukaku scored 20 goals in all competitions, but Anderlecht failed to retain their league title despite finishing top of the table during the regular season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romeu Silva",
        "text": "Aged 29, Romeu joined the last of the Big Three, Sporting Clube de Portugal. Except for his debut campaign, he would not be more than a fringe player as the team came totally empty on silverware, and finally retired in 1988 after one-year spells with modest S.C. Salgueiros and Amora FC (the latter in division two)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tugay Kerimo\u011flu",
        "text": "Tugay has represented Turkey at Euro 1996, Euro 2000 and the 2002 FIFA World Cup, where Turkey finished in the quarter finals of Euro 2000 and third place in the 2002 World Cup. He retired from international football in 2003 after Turkey failed to qualify for Euro 2004. His last match was on 5 June 2007 in a friendly against Brazil in Dortmund, Germany. He wore number 94 to commemorate his 94 caps for his country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marek Jankulovski",
        "text": "He made his first appearance in eleven years against Hradec Kr\u00e1lov\u00e9 on 15 October 2011 but managed to play just eight minutes after coming on as a substitute before suffering a knee injury and leaving the pitch, in what turns out to be his last professional football match. On 20 February 2012, Jankulovski announced his retirement due to not being able to recover from his knee injury. A year later, he was given a farewell match, arranged by the club, and participated in the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 8 October 2021, Lukaku was one of five Chelsea players included in the final 30-man shortlist for the 2021 Ballon d'Or, eventually finishing 12th."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jonas Junkka",
        "text": "At the age of 29 he played his last season in Lule\u00e5 Hockey (Sweden) but had to retire at that age due to knee and hip injuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taulant Xhaka",
        "text": "On 15 November 2021, Xhaka announced his retirement from international football, citing his injuries and personal stuff as the reasons behind his decision. He played his last match for Albania on 7 September, exactly five years after his debut. He totaled 31 appearances and one goal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 29 March 2016, Lukaku headed a consolation in a 2\u20131 loss away to Portugal, assisted by his brother, Jordan Lukaku. At UEFA Euro 2016, Lukaku scored twice in Belgium's 3\u20130 second group stage match win on 18 June 2016 over the Republic of Ireland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ferdi Vierklau",
        "text": "Vierklau also played one and a half seasons with CD Tenerife in Spain, being relegated in his second year in La Liga and subsequently signing with Ajax. He retired at the age of 29."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mousa Demb\u00e9l\u00e9 (Belgian footballer)",
        "text": "Demb\u00e9l\u00e9 announced his retirement from international football on 7 March 2019, after 82 caps for Belgium."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jan Koller",
        "text": "In July 2009, he announced that he would rejoin the national team because of poor results in the 2010 World Cup qualification. He played in the match against Slovakia, but on 6 September 2009, he again announced his retirement from international football."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alpesh Vadher",
        "text": "He retired for a second and final time following the close of the World Cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "J\u00e1kup Mikkelsen",
        "text": "Although having retired after the 2010 World Cup qualification, he was called up out of retirement for the Euro 2012 qualifying matches against Slovenia and Northern Ireland in October 2010, because of an injury to Gunnar Nielsen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luk\u00e1cs Korn\u00e9l",
        "text": "Ret = Retired\n* Season still in progress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bo\u017eo Bakota",
        "text": "His retirement was short lived as he played at the regional levels with FC F\u00fcrstenfeld, and SV Wildon. In 1988, he played abroad in the National Soccer League with Toronto Croatia."
      },
      {
        "title": "C\u00e9dric Bakambu",
        "text": "On 1 April 2022, following DR Congo's elimination from 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification at the hands of Morocco, Bakambu announced his retirement from the national team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kaiava Salusalu",
        "text": "His last international cap was during the match against Samoa, at Nausori, on 23 June 1990."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taulima Tautai",
        "text": "On 30 June 2019, he announced that he would be retiring from rugby league."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cornel Lup\u0103u",
        "text": "After retirement he was for many years a football coach in the youth academy of Bihor Oradea."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u0110uka Lovri\u0107",
        "text": "In the autumn of 1954 he became terminally ill and soon after had to retire from professional football at the age of 27. He played his last match for FK Sarajevo on 5 June 1955 against NK Zagreb."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sika Manu",
        "text": "In 2018 he announced his retirement from international rugby league."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fredrik Oduya",
        "text": "In 2000, he retired due to a back injury. He came out of retirement in 2004 to play in Sweden and Great Britain, before retiring again in 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "Slavi\u0161a Jokanovi\u0107",
        "text": "He subsequently retired from professional football after playing just three months in the Spanish second division with Ciudad de Murcia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jos\u00e9 Mar\u00eda Lumbreras",
        "text": "Lumbreras retired as a footballer at the end of 1995\u201396 at the age of 35, after seven seasons at San Sebasti\u00e1n-based Real Sociedad and 157 competitive games. He scored twice in the UEFA Cup with his last club, in a 3\u20132 defeat at FC Lausanne-Sport in 1990 and a 2\u20130 home victory over Vit\u00f3ria S.C. of Portugal two years later."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aleksei Berezutski",
        "text": "On 7 March 2018, he officially retired from international football."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ufuk Sar\u0131ca",
        "text": "After Siena, Sarica returned to Turkey and played at P\u0131nar Kar\u015f\u0131yaka, Dar\u00fc\u015f\u015fafaka, and Be\u015fikta\u015f Cola Turka, each for a single season, after which he retired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nihat Kahveci",
        "text": "After a six months without a club, on 12 January 2012; Nihat announced his retirement from football with immediate effect, saying: \"I would like to share my decision to put an end to my professional career as a footballer,\". After some days, Nihat told NTV Spor that his retirement was prompted by his age limiting his ability on the pitch and admitted that returning to Besiktas was a mistake and ill-judged, although stated there were some beautiful moments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cristiano Lupatelli",
        "text": "He retired from football after his contract with Fiorentina expired on 1 July 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "S\u00fcleyman Seba",
        "text": "In 1954, he was forced to retire from his career as a footballer due to a meniscus injury. During his entire professional career he played only for Be\u015fikta\u015f J.K."
      },
      {
        "title": "Uli Stielike",
        "text": "Stielike retired from his playing career in 1988. He appeared for M\u00f6nchengladbach, Real Madrid and Xamax in 83 matches in the European cup competitions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yuji Nakazawa",
        "text": "He also played in the 2006 World Cup in Germany but the team failed to proceed to the knockout stage. After the tournament, he announced his retirement from the international football at the age of 28. However, six months later, he withdrew his decision and Ivica Osim played him in a friendly against Peru on 24 March 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gheorghe \u0218oarece",
        "text": "He retired in 1990 after some health problems, of respiratory nature. After retirement \u0218oarece moved back in Osica de Sus and was occasionally the manager of the local team, Olte\u021bul, at amateur level."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mustapha Anane",
        "text": "In 1980, Anane played his last game for JSK against AS Vita Club in the 1978 African Cup of Champions Clubs. He decided to retire after that due to an injury he had picked up during a friendly in France. He continued playing in the local amateur league with AS Tizi Ouzou, which he would also go on to coach."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which national team did Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli play for?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a striker for the Belgium national team."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does Romelu Lukaku still play, or did he retire?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Romelu Lukaku currently plays as a striker for Premier League club Chelsea and the Belgium national team.",
      "Romelu Lukaku still plays in the Premier League and for the Belgium national team. In fact, in 2021 he returned to Chelsea in a club-record transfer worth \u00a397.5 million."
    ],
    "topic": "Romelu Lukaku",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Romelu Lukaku:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Romelu Lukaku"
        ],
        "ctx": "Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli (; born 13 May 1993) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Chelsea and the Belgium national team."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Romelu Lukaku:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Romelu Lukaku"
        ],
        "ctx": "Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli (; born 13 May 1993) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Chelsea and the Belgium national team."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Romelu Lukaku:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Romelu Lukaku"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2021, Lukaku returned to Chelsea in a club-record transfer worth \u00a397.5 million (\u20ac115 million), becoming the seventh-most expensive player, the most expensive Belgian player, and the most expensive player with reference to cumulative transfer fees."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli (; born 13 May 1993) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Chelsea and the Belgium national team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku was born in Antwerp, Belgium to Congolese parents. His father, Roger Lukaku, played professional football and was capped at international level by Zaire. He has a younger brother named Jordan, who has progressed through the youth academy at Anderlecht and currently plays for Royal Antwerp in Belgium. His cousin Boli Bolingoli-Mbombo plays as a left-sided winger or defender for Celtic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku joined his local team Rupel Boom at age five. After four seasons at Rupel Boom, Lukaku was discovered by scouts of Lierse, a Belgian Pro League club with an established youth academy. He played for Lierse from 2004 until 2006, scoring 121 goals in 68 matches. After Lierse were relegated from the Belgian Pro League, Anderlecht purchased 13 youth players from Lierse in the 2006 mid-season, including Lukaku. He played three more years as a youth player with Anderlecht, scoring 131 goals in 93 matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In 2021, Lukaku returned to Chelsea in a club-record transfer worth \u00a397.5 million (\u20ac115 million), becoming the seventh-most expensive player, the most expensive Belgian player, and the most expensive player with reference to cumulative transfer fees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In August 2011, Lukaku joined Premier League club Chelsea on a five-year contract for a fee reported to be around \u20ac12\u00a0million (\u00a310\u00a0million), rising to \u20ac20\u00a0million (\u00a317\u00a0million) in add-ons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 8 October 2021, Lukaku was one of five Chelsea players included in the final 30-man shortlist for the 2021 Ballon d'Or, eventually finishing 12th."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku was a member of the Belgium under-21 team and scored a goal on his debut against Slovenia. On 24 February 2010, Lukaku was named for the first time in the Belgium senior squad for a friendly against Croatia. On 17 November 2010, he scored his first two international goals in a friendly against Russia. Lukaku scored his first goal in almost two years for the national team, netting the winner in a 4\u20132 friendly victory over rivals the Netherlands on 15 August 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku made his 100th Belgium appearance on 5 September 2021 against the Czech Republic, scoring his 67th goal in the process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger Lukaku",
        "text": "After the relegation of the club in 1999 the 32-year-old stopped playing professional football. He continued to play in lower divisions for Aat, KFC Wintam and in 2006 for KGR Katelijne where he finished his playing career."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku began his senior club career playing for Anderlecht, where he won a Belgian Pro League title and finished as the league's top goalscorer. In 2011, he joined Chelsea in a transfer worth \u00a310 million (\u20ac12 million), but limited playing time resulted in loans to West Bromwich Albion and Everton; in 2014, Lukaku signed with Everton in a then club-record transfer worth \u00a328 million (\u20ac32 million), going on to finish as the league's second-top goalscorer. He subsequently signed with Manchester United in a transfer worth \u00a375 million (\u20ac88 million), but after a breakdown in relations with the club, Lukaku departed for Inter Milan in 2019 in a club-record deal worth \u20ac80 million (\u00a368.1 million), and won a Serie A title and Serie A Most Valuable Player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Belgium's all-time top goalscorer, Lukaku made his senior international debut in 2010, and has represented his country at four major tournaments: the 2016 and 2020 UEFA European Championships and the 2014 and 2018 FIFA World Cups; he finished as joint second-highest goalscorer won the Bronze Boot in the latter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Chelsea\n*FIFA Club World Cup: 2021\n*EFL Cup runner-up: 2021\u201322"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Romelu Lukaku\n--Club career.\n----Early career.\n----Anderlecht.\n----Chelsea.\n------Transfer.\n------2011\u201312: Debut season.\n------2012\u201313 season: Loan to West Bromwich Albion.\n------2013\u201314 season: Loan to Everton.\n----Everton.\n------2014\u201316: Rise to stardom.\n------2016\u201317: Sustained individual success.\n----Manchester United.\n------Transfer.\n------2017\u201318 season: Debut season and loss in form.\n------2018\u201319 season: Final season in Manchester.\n----Inter Milan.\n------2019\u201320 season: Club record transfer.\n------2020\u201321 season: Serie A champion.\n----Return to Chelsea.\n------2021\u201322 season.\n--International career.\n--Style of play.\n----Influences.\n--Personal life.\n----Media and endorsements.\n----Activism.\n--Honours.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 29 March 2016, Lukaku headed a consolation in a 2\u20131 loss away to Portugal, assisted by his brother, Jordan Lukaku. At UEFA Euro 2016, Lukaku scored twice in Belgium's 3\u20130 second group stage match win on 18 June 2016 over the Republic of Ireland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Crediting the former Brazilian striker as his major influence as a kid, Lukaku added, \"He changed the dimension of a striker. He was fast, he can dribble like a winger, run like a sprinter, he was as strong as an ox\". When mentioned that he shares certain characteristics with the Brazilian, Lukaku responded, \"Be like Ronaldo? There is only one Ronaldo\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordan Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku was born in Antwerp. His father is Roger Lukaku, who played professional football and was capped at international level by Zaire. He has an older brother, Romelu Lukaku, who also progressed through the youth academy at Anderlecht. Their cousin Boli Bolingoli-Mbombo plays for Celtic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordan Lukaku",
        "text": "Jordan Zacharie Lukaku Menama Mokelenge (born 25 July 1994) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a left back for Serie B club Vicenza, on loan from Lazio. His older brother, Romelu, is also a footballer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "When Lukaku turned 16 on 13 May 2009, he signed a professional contract with Anderlecht lasting until 2012. Eleven days later, he made his Belgian First Division debut on 24 May 2009 in the championship play-off match against Standard Li\u00e8ge as a 69th-minute substitute for defender V\u00edctor Bern\u00e1rdez. Anderlecht lost the match 1\u20130. Lukaku became a regular member of Anderlecht's first team during the 2009\u201310 season, scoring his first goal at senior level against Zulte Waregem in the 89th minute after coming on as substitute for Kanu on 28 August 2009. \"After scoring I dived into a sea of happiness,\" he told Berend Scholten from UEFA.com. \"You think you are flying and can take on the whole world.\" He ended the season as the top goalscorer in the Pro League with 15 goals as Anderlecht won its 30th Belgian title. He also scored four goals during the club's run to the last 16 of the 2009\u201310 UEFA Europa League. During the 2010\u201311 season, Lukaku scored 20 goals in all competitions, but Anderlecht failed to retain their league title despite finishing top of the table during the regular season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku was the subject of a television documentary series called (Lukaku's School) shown on the Dutch-speaking E\u00e9n network. The reality show followed the teenage Lukaku and his classmates during the course of a year at the Saint-Guidon Institute, a school in Brussels, where the footballer was based while with the Anderlecht youth team. In 2009, the series followed the school as it made a field trip to London, visiting Chelsea's Stamford Bridge ground. Lukaku said at the time, \"What a stadium. If one day in my life I will cry, it will be the day I play here. I love Chelsea.\" In addition to his native French and Dutch, Lukaku can speak fluent English, Portuguese, Italian, Spanish and a Congolese Swahili dialect, and can also understand German. Lukaku has stated his biggest idol was Didier Drogba."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku joined Manchester United on 10 July 2017, signing a five-year contract with the option of a further year. Although the fee was officially undisclosed, it was reported to be worth an initial \u00a375\u00a0million, plus \u00a315\u00a0million in add-ons. Thus, he became a teammate with his French-speaking close friend Paul Pogba. Lukaku's signing came a day after former Manchester United captain Wayne Rooney left the club to return to Everton, Rooney's boyhood club."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 22 August 2021, Lukaku scored on his return debut in the 15th minute, converting Reece James' cross, in a 2\u20130 away win over Arsenal. On 12 September, Lukaku scored twice at home against Aston Villa, the first time he had scored at Stamford Bridge. Two days later, Lukaku scored his first European goal for Chelsea, against Zenit in the Champions League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 12 August 2021, Lukaku returned to his former club Chelsea, a decade after he had originally joined the club, for a reported club record fee of \u00a397.5 million. In making the move, Lukaku became the most expensive player of all time with cumulative transfer fees of almost \u00a3285 million, surpassing Neymar. Lukaku admitted in an interview that he did request Inter Milan to reach to an agreement with Chelsea stating, \"I didn't want to go behind Inter's back. They got me out of the shit. I was in a deep hole at Manchester United. After training I went to [head coach Simone] Inzaghi's office. I didn't want to ruin the atmosphere because I was no longer with my head in Milan. So I asked him: Please find an agreement.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Inter Milan\n*Serie A: 2020\u201321\n*UEFA Europa League runner-up: 2019\u201320"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In a 2016 interview with ESPN, Lukaku named Didier Drogba and Nicolas Anelka as the two strikers who made him want to play for Chelsea, but it was the mention of a third striker during the interview, his idol Ronaldo, that lit him up with excitement, with Lukaku stating,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Belgium\n*FIFA World Cup third place: 2018"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku has spoken out against racism he suffered while playing football, particularly the 2019\u201320 Serie A season, his first year playing in Italy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku is a left-footed player, who in 2014 was named by \"The Guardian\" as one of the ten most promising young players in Europe. A large and physically powerful striker from an early age, with an eye for goal, Lukaku has been known to use his physicality to get around defenders. However, despite his size, strength, physical build, and ability to hold-up play with his back to goal, his favoured role is not as a target-man in the centre, but as an out-and-out striker or poacher; due to his tactical versatility, he is also capable of playing as a winger. A well-rounded forward, who is also strong in the air, beyond his physical qualities and goalscoring ability, he possesses pace, athleticism, awareness, good link-up play, technical attributes, and vision, as well as an ability to get into good attacking positions or create space for teammates with his intelligent runs off the ball. Although he was once criticised by pundits for his limited defensive contribution, he has since been praised by his managers for his work-rate off the ball. However, despite his ability, he has also come into criticism in the media at times over his movement and first touch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku made his debut at Stamford Bridge in a 3\u20131 victory over Norwich City in the 83rd minute, coming on as a substitute for Fernando Torres. Lukaku made his first start for Chelsea in the League Cup against Fulham. Chelsea went on to win the match on penalties. He spent the majority of the season playing for the reserves and started his first Premier League match on 13 May 2012, against Blackburn Rovers, and turned in a man of the match performance, providing an assist for John Terry's opener. However, Lukaku stressed he was disappointed with his involvement at the end of his debut season, revealing that, after his side's UEFA Champions League win in the final on 19 May, he refused to hold the trophy, explaining \"it wasn't me, but my team that won\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In March 2017, Lukaku turned down a new five-year contract worth a reported \u00a3140,000 a week amidst rumours of a return to Chelsea. In an interview, he questioned the club's ambition to make big transfers and chase Champions League qualification, offending his manager Ronald Koeman. A goal in a 3\u20131 win for Everton against Burnley on 15 April meant Lukaku was the first Everton player since Bob Latchford to score 25 goals in two consecutive seasons in all competitions, and the first player since the legendary Dixie Dean to score in nine consecutive matches at Goodison Park. On 20 April 2017, Lukaku was named in the PFA Team of the Year for the first time. He was also included in the six player shortlists for the PFA Players' Player of the Year and PFA Young Player of the Year awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Anderlecht\n*Belgian Pro League: 2009\u201310"
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger Lukaku",
        "text": "As a 23-year-old, Roger Lukaku began his career in Belgium. His first club was Belgian Second Division club FC Boom. With this club he achieved promotion to the Belgian First Division in 1992. The club was relegated in 1993 and Lukaku moved to RFC Seraing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 6 June 2018, Lukaku officially became Belgium's all-time leading scorer with 31 goals after scoring a goal in a 3\u20130 win over Egypt. He also broke a three-way tie with the previous record goalscorers, Bernard Voorhoof and Paul Van Himst."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In January 2014, Lukaku was named by \"The Guardian\" as one of the ten most promising young players in Europe, but later in the month was taken off on a stretcher with an ankle ligament injury after Gareth Barry slipped and slid into the striker as he attempted to block Steven Gerrard's opening goal in the Merseyside derby against Liverpool. Lukaku made his return from injury against West Ham in March 2014, scoring the only goal of the match on the 81st minute after coming on as a second-half substitute. On 6 April, he scored one goal and assisted another as Everton beat Arsenal 3\u20130 at Goodison Park to record a sixth consecutive Premier League win. His final goal for the loan period came on the last day of the season as he scored the second in a 2\u20130 win over Hull City. Lukaku found the net 15 times in 31 league matches to help Everton to fifth place with a club record of 72 Premier League points."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku made his debut against Real Madrid on 8 August in the 2017 UEFA Super Cup, and scored his first competitive goal for the club in a 2\u20131 defeat. His league debut came five days later at home to West Ham. Lukaku scored twice in a 4\u20130 win, becoming the fourth Manchester United player to score two goals on his Premier League debut for the club. On 12 September, he scored his first UEFA Champions League goal in a 3\u20130 win over FC Basel. On 17 September, Lukaku scored United's third goal in a 4\u20130 win over his former club Everton, with Lukaku running over towards Everton fans and cupping his ears during his goal celebration in response to being booed throughout the game. On 27 September, Lukaku scored twice in a 4\u20131 win over CSKA Moscow, taking his tally to 10 goals in his first nine appearances. In doing so, he broke the record set by Bobby Charlton who had scored nine goals in his first nine appearances for the club. In a 2\u20131 win over his former club Chelsea on 25 February 2018, Lukaku scored the equaliser and then assisted Jesse Lingard's game-winning goal. He scored his 200th goal for club and country on 13 March in a 2\u20131 away defeat to Sevilla that eliminated Manchester United from the Champions League in the round of 16. On 31 March 2018, Lukaku scored to open a 2\u20130 home win over Swansea. It was his 100th Premier League goal in his 216th game, and made him the fifth youngest of the 28 players to reach the tally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 10 November 2017, Lukaku equalled the all-time Belgium goalscoring record set by Bernard Voorhoof and Paul Van Himst after scoring twice against Mexico in a 3\u20133 draw. Four days after he equalled the record, Lukaku became Belgium's all-time record goalscorer with 31 international goals at the age of 24 after he scored the only goal in a 1\u20130 win over Japan. Although this record was counted by the Royal Belgian Football Association, FIFA only officially recognised 28 goals after a nullified international friendly against Luxembourg on 26 May 2014 which he netted a hat trick in a 5\u20131 win because the former Belgium coach, Marc Wilmots made seven substitutions during the match instead of the permitted six which are not in accordance to the Laws of the Game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In the second game of the 2015\u201316 Premier League season, Lukaku scored a first-half double in Everton's 3\u20130 win at Southampton on 15 August 2015 with his first two shots on target. Before the match, he presented a T-shirt to a home fan whom he had accidentally struck with the ball during shooting practice. On 26 August, he scored another brace in a 5\u20133 extra-time win over League One side Barnsley in the League Cup. On 28 September, Lukaku scored twice and assisted the other against West Brom as he managed to guide his team from losing 2\u20130 to winning 2\u20133. He scored against Liverpool the following week in a 1\u20131 draw at Goodison Park. On 21 November, Lukaku scored twice in a 4\u20130 win over Aston Villa, becoming the fifth player under 23 years of age to score at least 50 Premier League goals, after Robbie Fowler, Michael Owen, Wayne Rooney and Cristiano Ronaldo. On 7 December, Lukaku scored a close-range goal in a 1\u20131 draw against Crystal Palace, his 50th in 100 appearances in all competitions for Everton. On 12 December, Lukaku became the first Everton player to score in six consecutive Premier League matches, and the first to score in seven consecutive matches in all competitions since Bob Latchford 40 years previously, when he opened the scoring in the \"Toffees\"' 1\u20131 draw with Norwich City at Carrow Road. In his next match, a 3\u20132 defeat to Leicester City, Lukaku became the first Everton player since Dave Hickson in 1954 to score in eight consecutive matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of international goals scored by Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "As of October 2021, Lukaku has scored two hat-tricks during his international career, including the treble against Luxembourg, with the other coming in a 9\u20130 win against Gibraltar in a 2018 World Cup qualifier in August 2017. Lukaku has scored more goals in friendlies than in any other format, with 22. He has scored eighteen goals in qualifying for the FIFA World Cup, five in FIFA World Cup finals, seven in qualifying for the UEFA European Championship, six in the European Championship finals and ten in the UEFA Nations League. Lukaku scored his most recent goal in a 2\u20133 UEFA Nations League Finals loss against France in October 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 21 October 2020, Lukaku scored a brace in a 2\u20132 draw against Borussia M\u00f6nchengladbach in the first match of the 2020\u201321 UEFA Champions League. On 1 December, he scored another brace against Borussia M\u00f6nchengladbach to secure a 3\u20132 away win. However, Inter drew their last match against Shakhtar Donetsk, to finish last in their group and to be eliminated from all European competitions."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of international goals scored by Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Romelu Lukaku is a Belgian professional footballer who represents the Belgium national football team as a striker. He made his debut for his country in a 1\u20130 defeat to Croatia in Brussels in March 2010. His first and second international goals came on his eighth appearance for Belgium, in a 2\u20130 friendly victory over Russia. , Lukaku is his country's top scorer with 68 goals in 101 appearances, ahead of Bernard Voorhoof and Paul Van Himst (30 goals). The Belgian Football Association confirmed that he had broken the national record when Lukaku scored his 31st international goal in a match against Japan in November 2017. FIFA, however, did not initially recognise the record as three goals had been scored against Luxembourg in a friendly in May 2014 later declared by the organisation as an unofficial friendly due to too many substitutions being made. He scored twice against Tunisia in the group stages of the 2018 FIFA World Cup, a game after which football journalist Nick Ames praised him for a \"laudable act of sportsmanship\" as he had indicated to the referee that he had not been fouled in the penalty area, denying himself the chance of a hat-trick. The two goals took his overall tally in the 2018 World Cup to four and made him Belgium's highest scorer in a single World Cup tournament, and made him the first player since Diego Maradona in the 1986 FIFA World Cup to score back-to-back braces (two goals in a single game)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku signed a five-year contract with Everton in July 2014 for a club record fee of \u00a328\u00a0million. He scored his first goal as a permanent player on 13 September, against his former club West Brom. Lukaku did not celebrate the goal, and was applauded by the West Brom fans for his sign of respect. On 19 February 2015, Lukaku scored his first Everton hat-trick in a 4\u20131 win for Everton against BSC Young Boys in the UEFA Europa League last 32; he struck with a header, a right-foot shot and a left-foot shot. He added another two goals in a 3\u20131 win in the second leg a week later. With eight goals, he was the tournament's joint highest scorer that season, alongside Alan of Red Bull Salzburg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 18 June, Lukaku scored twice in a 3\u20130 win over Panama in their opening group game at the 2018 FIFA World Cup. In the next group game on 23 June 2018, he scored twice again in a 5\u20132 win over Tunisia. In doing so, Lukaku became the first player since Diego Maradona in 1986 to score two goals or more in consecutive World Cup matches. He eventually ended the tournament with four goals and one assist, which earned him the Bronze Boot award, as Belgium finished the tournament in third place."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of most expensive association football transfers",
        "text": "Romelu Lukaku appears on this list three times for moves to Manchester United, Internazionale and Chelsea. Two players appear on the list twice: \u00c1ngel Di Mar\u00eda and Cristiano Ronaldo. All of the players on the list are of European (UEFA), South American (CONMEBOL), North America (CONCACAF) and African (CAF) origin. Following the transfer of American Christian Pulisic of the CONCACAF confederation in 2019, there are currently no players on the list from the remaining regions; Asia (AFC) and Oceania (OFC)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger Lukaku",
        "text": "Roger Menama Lukaku (born 6 June 1967) is a Congolese former footballer who played as a forward. Throughout his career, he played for KV Oostende, KV Mechelen and Germinal Ekeren. He is the father of footballers Romelu Lukaku and Jordan Lukaku."
      },
      {
        "title": "Niklas Jokelainen",
        "text": "He senior career began in 2015, after 14-year old Jokelainen signed a professional pre-contract in December 2014. At the age of 15 and one month, Jokelainen became the youngest player to play in the AC Oulu shirt when he made his debut in February 2015. He played in six Ykk\u00f6nen matches during the 2015 and 2016 seasons, before moving to the Academy of Stoke City in the summer 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of international goals scored by Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "List of international goals scored by Romelu Lukaku\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Elvir Balji\u0107",
        "text": "Balji\u0107 turned just 28 years of age when he began his Galatasaray stint, but it soon became clear his best days were far behind him. His form was average at best and his overall interest in football seemed to be decreasing by the day. He said that he would retire on several occasions, but every time he would come back."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 10 October 2019, Lukaku scored his 50th and 51st international goals in a 9\u20130 home win over San Marino, in a Euro 2020 qualifier. On 12 June 2021, Lukaku scored twice in Belgium's opening group match of UEFA Euro 2020, a 3\u20130 win over Russia. On 21 June, he scored the last goal in a 2\u20130 win over Finland in his team's final group match. On 2 July, he scored Belgium's only goal of the match from a penalty late in the first half in a 2\u20131 defeat to Italy in the quarter-finals of the competition. Two days after the final Lukaku was awarded as sole Belgian player with a selection for the UEFA Euro 2020 Team of the Tournament. He got the striker position."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adekunle Lukmon",
        "text": "Lukmon played as 20\u2013year\u2013old in the 2004\u201305 First League of Serbia and Montenegro with FK Borac \u010ca\u010dak and moved one year later to FK V\u00ebllaz\u00ebrimi Ki\u010devo in Macedonia. From June 2006 to December 2008, he was under contract by FK Rabotni\u010dki where he contributed a lot to the success of the team, playing a big part in the Qualifiers to the UEFA Champions League 2008\u201309."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "After speculation linking Lukaku to a loan move to Fulham, on 10 August 2012, he joined West Bromwich Albion on a season-long loan deal. He scored his first league goal eight days later, coming on as a substitute in the 77th minute in a 3\u20130 win against Liverpool. He made his full debut in a win against Reading at The Hawthorns, scoring the match's only goal. On 24 November, Lukaku came on as a 70th-minute substitute for Shane Long and netted a penalty and provided an assist to Marc-Antoine Fortun\u00e9, as West Brom defeated Sunderland 4\u20132 away at the Stadium of Light. The win proved to be West Brom's fourth consecutive win in the top flight for the first time since 1980. On 12 January 2013, Lukaku had his first multi-goal game in the Premier League, giving West Brom a 2\u20130 lead against Reading, before a late comeback gave the Berkshire club a 3\u20132 victory at the Madejski Stadium. In the face of claims he wanted to stay with West Brom for another year, Lukaku confirmed to the press he still wished to become a legend at Stamford Bridge. On 11 February, Lukaku came on as a substitute and scored his tenth Premier League goal of the season against Liverpool in a match that ended 2\u20130."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Tudor",
        "text": "Luka Nicola Tudor Bakulic (born 21 February 1969) is a retired Chilean footballer. He played as a forward during his career. He played for the U-20 side at the 1987 FIFA World Youth Championship in Chile and was a member of the senior squad at the 1989 Copa Am\u00e9rica. He holds the Chilean record for most goals scored in one game: playing for CD Universidad Cat\u00f3lica, in November 1993 he netted seven times in the 8\u20133 win over CD Antofagasta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku joined Italian club Inter Milan on 8 August 2019, signing a five-year contract for a fee reported to be a club record \u20ac80\u00a0million. He later mentioned the reasons for leaving Manchester United, by claiming that he was made a scapegoat alongside other players such as Paul Pogba and Alexis S\u00e1nchez, in addition to club's failure to protect him against rumours about his future. Lukaku made his debut for Inter Milan on 26 August in the opening Serie A matchday against Lecce, netting his side's third goal with his first shot in a 4\u20130 home win. The goal meant that Lukaku has found the net in his first league game for five of the six clubs he has represented; Anderlecht, West Brom, Everton, Manchester United, and Inter; he also become only the third Belgian to score for Inter in Serie A, after Enzo Scifo and Radja Nainggolan. In the club's second league game of the season at Cagliari on 1 September, Lukaku scored the match-winning goal from the penalty spot to give Inter a 2\u20131 victory away from home; however, he was subject to racial abuse from some of the Cagliari fans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tiham\u00e9r Luk\u00e1cs",
        "text": "Tiham\u00e9r Luk\u00e1cs (born 18 July 1980 in Miercurea Ciuc) is a Romanian-born Hungarian footballer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jakub Luka",
        "text": "Jakub Luka (born 18 August 2003) is a professional Slovak footballer who currently plays for Fortuna Liga club Ru\u017eomberok as a defender."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foto Strakosha",
        "text": "On the day of his first international game, he was already 25 years and 62 days old. The reason for such a late debut on the international stage was a surplus of qualified keepers in the Albanian international squads like the veteran Perlat Musta and the very promising youngster Blendi Nallbani"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 12 September 2016, Lukaku scored his first goals of the 2016\u201317 season with all three goals in a 3\u20130 against Sunderland at the Stadium of Light. His goals were scored in 11 minutes and 37 seconds, making it the 12th-fastest hat-trick in Premier League history. On 4 February 2017, Lukaku scored four goals, the first of which was Everton's fastest ever Premier League goal, against Bournemouth in a 6\u20133 victory at Goodison Park. It was also the 300th hat-trick scored in the Premier League. On 25 February 2017, he equalled Duncan Ferguson's club record for Premier League goals, scoring his 60th EPL goal for the Toffees in a 2\u20130 victory over Sunderland at Goodison Park. On 5 March, he surpassed Ferguson to become the outright record holder, scoring in a 3\u20132 loss against Tottenham Hotspur away at White Hart Lane. In the next match, a 3\u20130 home win against West Brom, Lukaku scored to become the first Everton player since Bob Latchford to score 20 or more goals in all competitions for three consecutive seasons. A week later, during a 4\u20130 victory over Hull City, he scored twice to take his league goals tally to 21 for the season, thereby becoming the first Everton player since Gary Lineker 31 years previously to surpass 20 league goals in a season, as well as being the fourth player and first foreign player to score 80 Premier League goals before the age of 24."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku was the first Premier League player to join Jay-Z's management agency Roc Nation Sports. In 2018, he signed a record sponsorship deal with German sportswear company Puma, the company's largest endorsement deal ever."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aleksandar Lukovi\u0107",
        "text": "In March 2011, two weeks before a crucial Euro 2012 qualifier against Northern Ireland, Lukovi\u0107 surprised everyone by deciding to retire from the national team at the age of 28, choosing to focus on his club Zenit. On the same occasion, his teammate Danko Lazovi\u0107 also made the same announcement.\n:Source:\n:Source:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lubo\u0161 Kalouda",
        "text": "Lubo\u0161 Kalouda (born 20 May 1987) is a Czech former footballer. He retired in 2018 at age 31 because of injury."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 25 July, Lukaku scored a brace in a 3\u20130 win at Genoa; in doing so, he became the first Inter player since Istv\u00e1n Nyers in 1949\u201350 season to score 15 away goals in a Serie A season, and the first do to so in his debut season. He concluded his first Serie A season with 23 goals, as Inter finished runner-up by just one point to Juventus in the standings; only Ronaldo (25) and Nyers (26) have scored more than him in their debut season at Inter. On 5 August, Lukaku scored in a 2\u20130 win over Getafe in the Europa League's round of 16, helping his side reach the quarter-finals of a European competition for the first time since 2011. It was his 30th goal in all competitions, a new personal best, and he had also scored for the 8th consecutive Europa League match, equalling the all-time record set by Alan Shearer in 2004\u201305. In the quarter-finals on 10 August, he broke the record, scoring in his ninth consecutive match in the competition in a 2\u20131 victory over Bayer Leverkusen in D\u00fcsseldorf, to send Inter into the semi-finals. On 17 August, Lukaku scored a brace in a 5\u20130 win against Shakhtar Donetsk\u2014his tenth consecutive match in the competition\u2014as Inter reached the final. In the final, he earned and scored a penalty in the 5th minute, but also scored an own goal in the 74th minute, which was eventually the winning goal for Sevilla in a 3\u20132 defeat. Lukaku equalled Ronaldo's record in 1997\u201398 season, by scoring 34 goals in all competitions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Divock Origi",
        "text": "Origi came on as a substitute for Romelu Lukaku in the 58th minute of the opening Group H game against Algeria in Belo Horizonte on 17 June. In Belgium's second match, again after coming on as a substitute for Lukaku, he scored his first senior international goal in the 88th minute of a 1\u20130 win over Russia to qualify the \"Red Devils\" for the knockout stage. In so doing, at 19 years, 2 months and 4 days, he became the youngest goalscorer of the tournament (until American winger Julian Green scored against Belgium during their round of 16 match), the youngest goalscorer in Belgian World Cup history, and the first player of Kenyan origin to score at a World Cup finals. For his performances, he was named the Young Talent of the 2014 Belgian Sportsman of the year awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boli Bolingoli-Mbombo",
        "text": "His younger brother, Emeraude and his two cousins, Romelu and Jordan Lukaku are also footballers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Stepan\u010di\u0107",
        "text": "According to HandNews' selection of 2012, Stepan\u010di\u0107 was one of the ten best young players under 22 in the Champions League in 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Volkan K\u00fcr\u015fat Bekiro\u011flu",
        "text": "Volkan K\u00fcr\u015fat Bekiro\u011flu (born December 30, 1977 in Kadirli, Turkey) is a Turkish retired footballer who last played for Adanaspor. He is playing leftback and left midfield. Standing at 175\u00a0cm, he wears the number 47 jersey. His brother Serkan Bekiro\u011flu is also footballer and currently plays for Kar\u015f\u0131yaka S.K."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abd\u00fclkadir Kayal\u0131",
        "text": "He was in the eyes of two English teams: Chelsea F.C. and Manchester City, and also had a trial with the latter club in the year 2007 and impressed, but due to being under 16 at the time a deal was not done. In Ankarag\u00fcc\u00fc, he was taken out of the squad because he said he wouldn't extend his contract until he turned 18."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In the first months since his arrival, Lukaku formed an attacking partnership with Argentine youngster Lautaro Mart\u00ednez, dubbed \"Lu-La\" by Italian media. This became after the duo scored a brace each in the 4\u20133 away win against Sassuolo in October, giving Inter the first triumph since 2016. On 2 November, Lukaku scored a brace in a 2\u20131 away win over Bologna in Serie A, which saw him match Ronaldo's record of nine goals in his first 11 league appearances for the club. On 27 November, Lukaku scored his first UEFA Champions League goal for Inter in a 3\u20131 away win against Slavia Prague in the group stage; in addition to that, he also assisted the two other goals scored by Lautaro Mart\u00ednez and had two goals disallowed himself. In the final match home against Barcelona, Lukaku scored his side's only goal in a 2\u20131 defeat, meaning that Inter was transferred to Europa League for the second season in a row."
      },
      {
        "title": "Efkan Eren",
        "text": "In 2008 when Efkan was 17 years old, he signed with Ye\u015filyurt Spor Kul\u00fcb\u00fc, a pro club that was in TBL. After turning back from the United States in 2013, he was injured and was not able to sign with any team for a year. Next season he got a chance to play for Ac\u0131badem Universitesi Spor Kul\u00fcb\u00fc, competing in TBL. In 2015, he signed with Sakarya B\u00fcy\u00fck\u015fehir Belediyesi Spor Kul\u00fcb\u00fc in the same league."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordan Lukaku",
        "text": "Having previously trained with the first team in the 2010\u201311 season, along with his brother (who then left the club for Chelsea at the time), Lukaku was first included in a senior matchday squad on 1 December 2011, remaining an unused substitute in Anderlecht's 2\u20131 win at AEK Athens in the group stage of the season's UEFA Europa League. His debut came the following on 21 March 2012 against Zulte Waregem, which saw Anderlecht win 2\u20131; Lukaku later said after the match: \"it was the best day of his life\". Then on 6 April when he started in a goalless Pro League game at Standard Li\u00e8ge; he totalled six appearances as his team won the league that season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger Lukaku",
        "text": "He is the father of professional footballers Romelu Lukaku and Jordan Tafara Lukaku."
      },
      {
        "title": "Inter Milan",
        "text": "On 8 August 2021, Romelu Lukaku was sold to Chelsea F.C. for 115 million euros, representing the most expensive association football transfer by an Italian football club ever."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alexandru Pelici",
        "text": "He started the player career in his hometown, Timi\u0219oara, at Progresul, then he moved at Electrica, eventually reaching in 1994 the most important team from Timi\u0219oara, Politehnica. He played for Poli until 1999 (93 matches and scored 3 goals) when he moved to another team from Banat, CSM Re\u0219i\u021ba. Pelici ended his career in 2002 at only 28 years old due to repeated knee injuries, his last club as a football player was Unirea Alba Iulia, at that time known as \"Apulum\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Filip Sachpekidis",
        "text": "He is the youngest goalscorer in the Allsvenskan history \u2013 on 3 August 2013 he scored a goal in a 1\u20130 win against Syrianska FC at the age of 16 years and 1 month."
      },
      {
        "title": "J\u00e1kup Mikkelsen",
        "text": "Having made 118 league appearances for the club, Mikkelsen retired from playing football in November 2014 aged 44, stating that his advanced age had made it impossible for him to continue."
      },
      {
        "title": "J\u00e1kup Mikkelsen",
        "text": "A regular member of the Faroe Islands national football team between 1995 and 2013, Mikkelsen won 73 caps, and in playing against Iceland on 16 August 2012 aged 42 years and one day, became the oldest goalkeeper ever to play an international match, the record that has since been surpassed by Colombian Faryd Mondragon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "He scored his second brace of the campaign, scoring both goals for West Brom in their 2\u20131 home defeat of Sunderland on 23 February. On 9 March, in a league match against Swansea City, Lukaku scored the equalising goal before having a penalty kick saved; West Brom eventually won the game courtesy of a Jonathan de Guzm\u00e1n own goal. On 19 May, coming on as a second-half substitute, Lukaku scored a remarkable second-half perfect hat-trick, as West Brom came from three goals down to draw 5\u20135 in the season's final home match against Manchester United. The match was Alex Ferguson's 1,500th and last match in charge of United, and the highest-scoring draw in the history of the Premier League. Despite being loaned out by the club, Lukaku outscored all of his Chelsea teammates in the Premier League that season, being the sixth-highest goal scorer of the 2012\u201313 season with 17 goals. Lukaku played two Premier League matches for Chelsea at the beginning of the 2013\u201314 season. He also came on as a substitute in the 2013 UEFA Super Cup, ultimately missing the deciding penalty in the shootout as Manuel Neuer saved his shot and Chelsea lost to Bayern Munich."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 3 January 2021, Lukaku scored a goal in a 6\u20132 win over Crotone, to reach his 50th goal across all competitions in only 70 matches, breaking the previous record of Ronaldo who scored 50 goals in 77 matches. On 26 January, Lukaku was involved in a confrontation with former Manchester United teammate Zlatan Ibrahimovi\u0107 in Inter's Coppa Italia quarter-final match against Milan. Following a foul committed by Lukaku late in the first half, he and Ibrahimovi\u0107 could be heard exchanging insults as the pair clashed heads and had to be restrained by their respective teammates. Both players were booked as their arguments continued into the tunnel at half-time. Ibrahimovi\u0107 would be sent off during the second half following a second yellow for a foul on Aleksandar Kolarov, as Inter went on to record a 2\u20131 victory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "He began the new year on 6 January by scoring a brace in a 3\u20131 win against Napoli, giving Inter the first league win at Stadio San Paolo since October 1997; he earned praise from the media for his first goal scored in the 14th minute, which came from an individual effort. On 9 February, Lukaku scored the final goal of the 4\u20132 home win over cross-town rivals Milan, sending Inter to the top of the table and giving them another double over Milan; it was also his 17th league goal of the season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ali Lukunku",
        "text": "Born in Kinshasa, Lukunku moved with his family to Italy at an early age before they settled in Grenoble, France. He had success playing in the Belgian Pro League with Standard de Li\u00e8ge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mile Jedinak",
        "text": "Jedinak retired from international football in October 2018. His 79 caps made him the ninth-most capped player for the country, and his 20 goals put him seventh amongst their all-time goalscorers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordan Lukaku",
        "text": "Starting his professional career at R.S.C. Anderlecht, he made nine appearances for the first team, before joining Oostende in 2013, where he became a regular player. He was signed by Lazio in 2016. Lukaku made his senior international debut for Belgium in 2015 and was part of their squad at UEFA Euro 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aleksandar Petrovi\u0107 (footballer, born 1914)",
        "text": "After retiring from football, he continued living in Subotica where he eventually died in summer of 1987 with 73 years of age."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jos\u00e9 Juan Luque",
        "text": "In January 2011, after 325 games and 75 goals in the two major levels of Spanish football (but only 49/3 in the top level), 33-year-old Luque had his first abroad experience, signing for Di\u00f3sgy\u0151ri VTK from Hungary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Olcay Senoglu",
        "text": "At the age of 18, Senoglu scored on his Danish Superliga debut for Nordsj\u00e6lland against OB, but he soon left due to pressure to play from his family, a decision he later regretted. After playing for Koge, he signed for Turkish club Gencerbirligi. However, he could not adapt to the professional environment, and was seen as a foreigner despite speaking Turkish fluently. By age 24, Senoglu finished his high school education to prepare for his retirement. From early 2009 to summer 2010, he had transferred five times. While playing in the Danish lower leagues, he worked as a teacher and set up a business - Olsen Sports Travel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Senad Luli\u0107",
        "text": "He retired from international football on 29 December 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u00c7a\u011flar S\u00f6y\u00fcnc\u00fc",
        "text": "S\u00f6y\u00fcnc\u00fc began his senior professional career with Alt\u0131nordu in the TFF First League, the second level of the Turkish football league system. During the 2015\u201316 season with Alt\u0131nordu, S\u00f6y\u00fcnc\u00fc was linked with Be\u015fikta\u015f J.K., Galatasaray S.K. and Sevilla FC but the 20 year old Turkish national player selected the Bundesliga because he thought it was better choice for his career and his improvement"
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter Utaka",
        "text": "Born in Enugu, Nigeria, Utaka moved to Croatia as a 16-year-old to play in Dinamo Zagreb after trying his luck at Ismaily where his older brother John was a cult figure and in the United Arab Emirates. In 2003, he moved to Belgium from Dinamo and signed for K. Patro Eisden Maasmechelen of the 2nd division. KVC Westerlo moved to sign him the following season, and in his first season in the top flight and the transfer was worth \u20ac250,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Jaga\u010di\u0107",
        "text": "Luka Jaga\u010di\u0107 (born 26 October 1990) is a Croatian football midfielder who currently plays for Icelandic team Reynir."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mladen Romi\u0107",
        "text": "As a player, he spent much of his career, nine seasons in total, with HNK Rijeka. In 1992, he had three caps for the Croatian national team during the tour of Australia. While playing for NK Pomorac in 2002, at the age of 39, he became the oldest player to have played in Prva HNL. Since then, he has been overtaken by Davor Vugrinec and Jakov Sura\u0107. Between 2003, and his premature death in 2006, he was sporting director of HNK Rijeka. Rijeka's fans, Armada Rijeka, created a mural near Stadion Kantrida in his honour to commemorate his contribution to the club."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yusuf Tunao\u011flu",
        "text": "Yusuf Tunao\u011flu started to play football at the age of 8. Tunao\u011flu started to play club football at Be\u015fikta\u015f J.K in 1958, where he was promoted to senior team at the age of 17 in 1962\u201363 season. In June 1970, Tunao\u011flu was linked with Belgian side Anderlecht. Tunao\u011flu retired from professional football in 1976."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 11 October 2013, Lukaku scored two goals as Belgium defeated Croatia 2\u20131 to secure a place in the World Cup finals. In May 2014, Lukaku was named in Belgium's squad for the 2014 World Cup. On 26 May, he scored his first international hat-trick in a pre-tournament friendly against neighbouring Luxembourg. However, as Belgium made seven substitutions during this match instead of the permitted six, it was not recognised as an official match by FIFA. On 1 June, he scored first of Belgium's two goals in the 2\u20130 victory in a friendly against Sweden. In Belgium's first match of the tournament, a 2\u20131 win against Algeria in Belo Horizonte, Lukaku started and played 58 minutes before being replaced by Divock Origi. In the round of 16, Lukaku came on as a substitute prior to extra time and assisted Kevin De Bruyne's opening goal three minutes later. In the 105th minute, he scored his first goal of the tournament as Belgium defeated the United States 2\u20131."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Pejovi\u0107 (footballer, born 1994)",
        "text": "Luka Pejovi\u0107 (born 27 July 1994) is a Croatian footballer who plays as a midfielder."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Everton F.C. records and statistics",
        "text": "March 2017: Romelu Lukaku"
      },
      {
        "title": "Junior Malanda",
        "text": "Notable footballers including Thibaut Courtois, Ivan Peri\u0161i\u0107, Nicklas Bendtner, Benedikt H\u00f6wedes, Kevin De Bruyne, Mario G\u00f6tze, and others, paid tribute to him on social media. Fellow Belgian Romelu Lukaku dedicated his next goal to him after scoring for Everton in the FA Cup on 13 January. Bundesliga club Bayern Munich observed a minute's silence for Malanda at their training camp in Qatar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boban Babunski",
        "text": "Babunski retired professionally in 2001 at the age of 33, after stints with AEK Athens FC, CD Logro\u00f1\u00e9s, K. Sint-Truidense V.V. and Chemnitzer FC \u2013 he left Germany in December 2000, signing with native FK Rabotnichki \u2013 the second and the last teams two also in the respective countries' second level."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mads Laudrup",
        "text": "After his time at Herf\u00f8lge Boldklub, his career would bring him to three more clubs: Stjarnan, Hobro IK and FC Helsing\u00f8r. It was at FC Helsing\u00f8r, that he would eventually decide to immediately retire from professional football, at the age of 26, in December 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of FK Genclerbirliyi Sumqayit records and statistics",
        "text": "\"Players played over 50 competitive, professional matches only. Appearances as substitute (goals in parentheses) included in total.\"<ref name=\"2004/05 Stats\"></ref><ref name=\"2005/06 Stats\"></ref><ref name=\"2006/07 Stats\"></ref><ref name=\"2007/08 Stats\"></ref>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In 2020, Lukaku honoured George Floyd by kneeling and keeping one fist high in support of Black Lives Matter when he scored in a game with Inter against Sampdoria. This symbolic action was inspired by American football player Colin Kaepernick who kneeled during the national anthem before every game in 2016 as a peaceful manner of protest against police brutality towards people of colour. Since then, Lukaku and many other players in Europe has taken an active role to take a knee on the pitches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Erbim Fagu",
        "text": "Erbim Fagu (born 15 April 1987) is a retired Albanian professional footballer who played as a defender. He retired from football in an early age of 27 due to numerous of injuries. Erbim Fagu now is a football coach at Football Republic Redi Jupi academy ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Attila Dobos",
        "text": "He played two more season for Fels\u0151t\u00e1rk\u00e1ny SC and Kazincbarcikai SC in the third tier, then retired from professional football in the summer of 2016, aged 38."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Milivojevi\u0107",
        "text": "In March 2021, he retired from international duty at the age of 29."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aleksandar Vasilev (footballer, born 1995)",
        "text": "Aleksandar Vasilev (footballer, born 1995)\n--Club career.\n----Early career.\n----Ludogorets Razgrad.\n------Loan to Beroe.\n------Return to Ludogorets.\n----Beroe.\n--International career.\n----Senior level.\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which national team did Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli play for?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a striker for the Belgium national team."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does Romelu Lukaku still play, or did he retire?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Romelu Lukaku still plays in the Premier League and for the Belgium national team. In fact, in 2021 he returned to Chelsea in a club-record transfer worth \u00a397.5 million."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Lukaku older than the average Premier League football player?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I cannot find the answer to that, but I can tell you he's 28 currently."
    ],
    "topic": "Romelu Lukaku",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Romelu Lukaku:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Romelu Lukaku"
        ],
        "ctx": "Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli (; born 13 May 1993) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Chelsea and the Belgium national team."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli (; born 13 May 1993) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Chelsea and the Belgium national team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Chelsea\n*FIFA Club World Cup: 2021\n*EFL Cup runner-up: 2021\u201322"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Inter Milan\n*Serie A: 2020\u201321\n*UEFA Europa League runner-up: 2019\u201320"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 21 October 2020, Lukaku scored a brace in a 2\u20132 draw against Borussia M\u00f6nchengladbach in the first match of the 2020\u201321 UEFA Champions League. On 1 December, he scored another brace against Borussia M\u00f6nchengladbach to secure a 3\u20132 away win. However, Inter drew their last match against Shakhtar Donetsk, to finish last in their group and to be eliminated from all European competitions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Belgium\n*FIFA World Cup third place: 2018"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku was born in Antwerp, Belgium to Congolese parents. His father, Roger Lukaku, played professional football and was capped at international level by Zaire. He has a younger brother named Jordan, who has progressed through the youth academy at Anderlecht and currently plays for Royal Antwerp in Belgium. His cousin Boli Bolingoli-Mbombo plays as a left-sided winger or defender for Celtic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 29 March 2016, Lukaku headed a consolation in a 2\u20131 loss away to Portugal, assisted by his brother, Jordan Lukaku. At UEFA Euro 2016, Lukaku scored twice in Belgium's 3\u20130 second group stage match win on 18 June 2016 over the Republic of Ireland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku joined his local team Rupel Boom at age five. After four seasons at Rupel Boom, Lukaku was discovered by scouts of Lierse, a Belgian Pro League club with an established youth academy. He played for Lierse from 2004 until 2006, scoring 121 goals in 68 matches. After Lierse were relegated from the Belgian Pro League, Anderlecht purchased 13 youth players from Lierse in the 2006 mid-season, including Lukaku. He played three more years as a youth player with Anderlecht, scoring 131 goals in 93 matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Anderlecht\n*Belgian Pro League: 2009\u201310"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku made his 100th Belgium appearance on 5 September 2021 against the Czech Republic, scoring his 67th goal in the process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "He began the new year on 6 January by scoring a brace in a 3\u20131 win against Napoli, giving Inter the first league win at Stadio San Paolo since October 1997; he earned praise from the media for his first goal scored in the 14th minute, which came from an individual effort. On 9 February, Lukaku scored the final goal of the 4\u20132 home win over cross-town rivals Milan, sending Inter to the top of the table and giving them another double over Milan; it was also his 17th league goal of the season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 14 February, he scored a brace and got an assist against Lazio in a 3\u20131 victory, bringing his Serie A tally to 16 goals for the season and equalling Cristiano Ronaldo as the league's top scorer. Lukaku's second goal was also the 300th of his professional career. Inter won the 2020\u201321 Serie A for the first time since the 2009\u201310 season. Lukaku finished the season 2020\u201321 with 24 league goals, 11 assists. Making him the highest scorer on the title-winning team and the second highest-scorer in the league, behind Ronaldo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku made his debut at Stamford Bridge in a 3\u20131 victory over Norwich City in the 83rd minute, coming on as a substitute for Fernando Torres. Lukaku made his first start for Chelsea in the League Cup against Fulham. Chelsea went on to win the match on penalties. He spent the majority of the season playing for the reserves and started his first Premier League match on 13 May 2012, against Blackburn Rovers, and turned in a man of the match performance, providing an assist for John Terry's opener. However, Lukaku stressed he was disappointed with his involvement at the end of his debut season, revealing that, after his side's UEFA Champions League win in the final on 19 May, he refused to hold the trophy, explaining \"it wasn't me, but my team that won\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Belgium's all-time top goalscorer, Lukaku made his senior international debut in 2010, and has represented his country at four major tournaments: the 2016 and 2020 UEFA European Championships and the 2014 and 2018 FIFA World Cups; he finished as joint second-highest goalscorer won the Bronze Boot in the latter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 18 June, Lukaku scored twice in a 3\u20130 win over Panama in their opening group game at the 2018 FIFA World Cup. In the next group game on 23 June 2018, he scored twice again in a 5\u20132 win over Tunisia. In doing so, Lukaku became the first player since Diego Maradona in 1986 to score two goals or more in consecutive World Cup matches. He eventually ended the tournament with four goals and one assist, which earned him the Bronze Boot award, as Belgium finished the tournament in third place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 22 August 2021, Lukaku scored on his return debut in the 15th minute, converting Reece James' cross, in a 2\u20130 away win over Arsenal. On 12 September, Lukaku scored twice at home against Aston Villa, the first time he had scored at Stamford Bridge. Two days later, Lukaku scored his first European goal for Chelsea, against Zenit in the Champions League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 8 October 2021, Lukaku was one of five Chelsea players included in the final 30-man shortlist for the 2021 Ballon d'Or, eventually finishing 12th."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Romelu Lukaku\n--Club career.\n----Early career.\n----Anderlecht.\n----Chelsea.\n------Transfer.\n------2011\u201312: Debut season.\n------2012\u201313 season: Loan to West Bromwich Albion.\n------2013\u201314 season: Loan to Everton.\n----Everton.\n------2014\u201316: Rise to stardom.\n------2016\u201317: Sustained individual success.\n----Manchester United.\n------Transfer.\n------2017\u201318 season: Debut season and loss in form.\n------2018\u201319 season: Final season in Manchester.\n----Inter Milan.\n------2019\u201320 season: Club record transfer.\n------2020\u201321 season: Serie A champion.\n----Return to Chelsea.\n------2021\u201322 season.\n--International career.\n--Style of play.\n----Influences.\n--Personal life.\n----Media and endorsements.\n----Activism.\n--Honours.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku was a member of the Belgium under-21 team and scored a goal on his debut against Slovenia. On 24 February 2010, Lukaku was named for the first time in the Belgium senior squad for a friendly against Croatia. On 17 November 2010, he scored his first two international goals in a friendly against Russia. Lukaku scored his first goal in almost two years for the national team, netting the winner in a 4\u20132 friendly victory over rivals the Netherlands on 15 August 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luk\u00e1cs B\u0151le",
        "text": "On 16 June 2020, he became champion with Ferencv\u00e1ros by beating Budapest Honv\u00e9d FC at the Hidegkuti N\u00e1ndor Stadion on the 30th match day of the 2019\u201320 Nemzeti Bajnoks\u00e1g I season."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of international goals scored by Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "As of October 2021, Lukaku has scored two hat-tricks during his international career, including the treble against Luxembourg, with the other coming in a 9\u20130 win against Gibraltar in a 2018 World Cup qualifier in August 2017. Lukaku has scored more goals in friendlies than in any other format, with 22. He has scored eighteen goals in qualifying for the FIFA World Cup, five in FIFA World Cup finals, seven in qualifying for the UEFA European Championship, six in the European Championship finals and ten in the UEFA Nations League. Lukaku scored his most recent goal in a 2\u20133 UEFA Nations League Finals loss against France in October 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku has spoken out against racism he suffered while playing football, particularly the 2019\u201320 Serie A season, his first year playing in Italy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 25 July, Lukaku scored a brace in a 3\u20130 win at Genoa; in doing so, he became the first Inter player since Istv\u00e1n Nyers in 1949\u201350 season to score 15 away goals in a Serie A season, and the first do to so in his debut season. He concluded his first Serie A season with 23 goals, as Inter finished runner-up by just one point to Juventus in the standings; only Ronaldo (25) and Nyers (26) have scored more than him in their debut season at Inter. On 5 August, Lukaku scored in a 2\u20130 win over Getafe in the Europa League's round of 16, helping his side reach the quarter-finals of a European competition for the first time since 2011. It was his 30th goal in all competitions, a new personal best, and he had also scored for the 8th consecutive Europa League match, equalling the all-time record set by Alan Shearer in 2004\u201305. In the quarter-finals on 10 August, he broke the record, scoring in his ninth consecutive match in the competition in a 2\u20131 victory over Bayer Leverkusen in D\u00fcsseldorf, to send Inter into the semi-finals. On 17 August, Lukaku scored a brace in a 5\u20130 win against Shakhtar Donetsk\u2014his tenth consecutive match in the competition\u2014as Inter reached the final. In the final, he earned and scored a penalty in the 5th minute, but also scored an own goal in the 74th minute, which was eventually the winning goal for Sevilla in a 3\u20132 defeat. Lukaku equalled Ronaldo's record in 1997\u201398 season, by scoring 34 goals in all competitions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In the first months since his arrival, Lukaku formed an attacking partnership with Argentine youngster Lautaro Mart\u00ednez, dubbed \"Lu-La\" by Italian media. This became after the duo scored a brace each in the 4\u20133 away win against Sassuolo in October, giving Inter the first triumph since 2016. On 2 November, Lukaku scored a brace in a 2\u20131 away win over Bologna in Serie A, which saw him match Ronaldo's record of nine goals in his first 11 league appearances for the club. On 27 November, Lukaku scored his first UEFA Champions League goal for Inter in a 3\u20131 away win against Slavia Prague in the group stage; in addition to that, he also assisted the two other goals scored by Lautaro Mart\u00ednez and had two goals disallowed himself. In the final match home against Barcelona, Lukaku scored his side's only goal in a 2\u20131 defeat, meaning that Inter was transferred to Europa League for the second season in a row."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 3 January 2021, Lukaku scored a goal in a 6\u20132 win over Crotone, to reach his 50th goal across all competitions in only 70 matches, breaking the previous record of Ronaldo who scored 50 goals in 77 matches. On 26 January, Lukaku was involved in a confrontation with former Manchester United teammate Zlatan Ibrahimovi\u0107 in Inter's Coppa Italia quarter-final match against Milan. Following a foul committed by Lukaku late in the first half, he and Ibrahimovi\u0107 could be heard exchanging insults as the pair clashed heads and had to be restrained by their respective teammates. Both players were booked as their arguments continued into the tunnel at half-time. Ibrahimovi\u0107 would be sent off during the second half following a second yellow for a foul on Aleksandar Kolarov, as Inter went on to record a 2\u20131 victory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger Lukaku",
        "text": "After the relegation of the club in 1999 the 32-year-old stopped playing professional football. He continued to play in lower divisions for Aat, KFC Wintam and in 2006 for KGR Katelijne where he finished his playing career."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 6 June 2018, Lukaku officially became Belgium's all-time leading scorer with 31 goals after scoring a goal in a 3\u20130 win over Egypt. He also broke a three-way tie with the previous record goalscorers, Bernard Voorhoof and Paul Van Himst."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stavri Lubonja",
        "text": "He spent his six-year football-playing career with capital club Dinamo Tirana, winning three national championships."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku made his debut against Real Madrid on 8 August in the 2017 UEFA Super Cup, and scored his first competitive goal for the club in a 2\u20131 defeat. His league debut came five days later at home to West Ham. Lukaku scored twice in a 4\u20130 win, becoming the fourth Manchester United player to score two goals on his Premier League debut for the club. On 12 September, he scored his first UEFA Champions League goal in a 3\u20130 win over FC Basel. On 17 September, Lukaku scored United's third goal in a 4\u20130 win over his former club Everton, with Lukaku running over towards Everton fans and cupping his ears during his goal celebration in response to being booed throughout the game. On 27 September, Lukaku scored twice in a 4\u20131 win over CSKA Moscow, taking his tally to 10 goals in his first nine appearances. In doing so, he broke the record set by Bobby Charlton who had scored nine goals in his first nine appearances for the club. In a 2\u20131 win over his former club Chelsea on 25 February 2018, Lukaku scored the equaliser and then assisted Jesse Lingard's game-winning goal. He scored his 200th goal for club and country on 13 March in a 2\u20131 away defeat to Sevilla that eliminated Manchester United from the Champions League in the round of 16. On 31 March 2018, Lukaku scored to open a 2\u20130 home win over Swansea. It was his 100th Premier League goal in his 216th game, and made him the fifth youngest of the 28 players to reach the tally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordan Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku was born in Antwerp. His father is Roger Lukaku, who played professional football and was capped at international level by Zaire. He has an older brother, Romelu Lukaku, who also progressed through the youth academy at Anderlecht. Their cousin Boli Bolingoli-Mbombo plays for Celtic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku began his senior club career playing for Anderlecht, where he won a Belgian Pro League title and finished as the league's top goalscorer. In 2011, he joined Chelsea in a transfer worth \u00a310 million (\u20ac12 million), but limited playing time resulted in loans to West Bromwich Albion and Everton; in 2014, Lukaku signed with Everton in a then club-record transfer worth \u00a328 million (\u20ac32 million), going on to finish as the league's second-top goalscorer. He subsequently signed with Manchester United in a transfer worth \u00a375 million (\u20ac88 million), but after a breakdown in relations with the club, Lukaku departed for Inter Milan in 2019 in a club-record deal worth \u20ac80 million (\u00a368.1 million), and won a Serie A title and Serie A Most Valuable Player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "When Lukaku turned 16 on 13 May 2009, he signed a professional contract with Anderlecht lasting until 2012. Eleven days later, he made his Belgian First Division debut on 24 May 2009 in the championship play-off match against Standard Li\u00e8ge as a 69th-minute substitute for defender V\u00edctor Bern\u00e1rdez. Anderlecht lost the match 1\u20130. Lukaku became a regular member of Anderlecht's first team during the 2009\u201310 season, scoring his first goal at senior level against Zulte Waregem in the 89th minute after coming on as substitute for Kanu on 28 August 2009. \"After scoring I dived into a sea of happiness,\" he told Berend Scholten from UEFA.com. \"You think you are flying and can take on the whole world.\" He ended the season as the top goalscorer in the Pro League with 15 goals as Anderlecht won its 30th Belgian title. He also scored four goals during the club's run to the last 16 of the 2009\u201310 UEFA Europa League. During the 2010\u201311 season, Lukaku scored 20 goals in all competitions, but Anderlecht failed to retain their league title despite finishing top of the table during the regular season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Majcen",
        "text": "Churchill Brothers\n*I-League runner-up: 2020\u201321"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of international goals scored by Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "List of international goals scored by Romelu Lukaku\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "After speculation linking Lukaku to a loan move to Fulham, on 10 August 2012, he joined West Bromwich Albion on a season-long loan deal. He scored his first league goal eight days later, coming on as a substitute in the 77th minute in a 3\u20130 win against Liverpool. He made his full debut in a win against Reading at The Hawthorns, scoring the match's only goal. On 24 November, Lukaku came on as a 70th-minute substitute for Shane Long and netted a penalty and provided an assist to Marc-Antoine Fortun\u00e9, as West Brom defeated Sunderland 4\u20132 away at the Stadium of Light. The win proved to be West Brom's fourth consecutive win in the top flight for the first time since 1980. On 12 January 2013, Lukaku had his first multi-goal game in the Premier League, giving West Brom a 2\u20130 lead against Reading, before a late comeback gave the Berkshire club a 3\u20132 victory at the Madejski Stadium. In the face of claims he wanted to stay with West Brom for another year, Lukaku confirmed to the press he still wished to become a legend at Stamford Bridge. On 11 February, Lukaku came on as a substitute and scored his tenth Premier League goal of the season against Liverpool in a match that ended 2\u20130."
      },
      {
        "title": "K\u00e9vin Boli",
        "text": "Viitorul Constan\u021ba\n*Liga I: 2016\u201317\n*Supercupa Rom\u00e2niei: runner-up 2017"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 10 October 2019, Lukaku scored his 50th and 51st international goals in a 9\u20130 home win over San Marino, in a Euro 2020 qualifier. On 12 June 2021, Lukaku scored twice in Belgium's opening group match of UEFA Euro 2020, a 3\u20130 win over Russia. On 21 June, he scored the last goal in a 2\u20130 win over Finland in his team's final group match. On 2 July, he scored Belgium's only goal of the match from a penalty late in the first half in a 2\u20131 defeat to Italy in the quarter-finals of the competition. Two days after the final Lukaku was awarded as sole Belgian player with a selection for the UEFA Euro 2020 Team of the Tournament. He got the striker position."
      },
      {
        "title": "Claudiu Ke\u0219er\u00fc",
        "text": "Ludogorets Razgrad\n*Bulgarian First League (6): 2015\u201316, 2016\u201317, 2017\u201318, 2018\u201319, 2019\u201320, 2020\u201321\n*Bulgarian Supercup: 2018, 2019"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In August 2011, Lukaku joined Premier League club Chelsea on a five-year contract for a fee reported to be around \u20ac12\u00a0million (\u00a310\u00a0million), rising to \u20ac20\u00a0million (\u00a317\u00a0million) in add-ons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jakub \u015awierczok",
        "text": "Ludogorets\n* Bulgarian League: 2017\u201318, 2018\u201319, 2019\u201320\n* Bulgarian Supercup: 2018, 2019"
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Jaga\u010di\u0107",
        "text": "Internationally, Luka Jaga\u010di\u0107 earned 15 Croatia national under-15/16/18/19 football team caps in 2005-2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luk\u00e1cs B\u0151le",
        "text": "After playing all his career for Kaposv\u00e1r, B\u0151le moved to Romanian club Politehnica Ia\u0219i. On 26 June 2014 he signed a one-year contract with the Liga I club. On 7 April 2015 Luk\u00e1cs scored a very important goal against Dinamo Bucure\u0219ti to help his team to a 1\u20130 victory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boli Bolingoli-Mbombo",
        "text": "His younger brother, Emeraude and his two cousins, Romelu and Jordan Lukaku are also footballers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lubom\u00edr Vlk",
        "text": "He spent three seasons in FC Porto winning two league titles but he was plagued by injuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 11 October 2013, Lukaku scored two goals as Belgium defeated Croatia 2\u20131 to secure a place in the World Cup finals. In May 2014, Lukaku was named in Belgium's squad for the 2014 World Cup. On 26 May, he scored his first international hat-trick in a pre-tournament friendly against neighbouring Luxembourg. However, as Belgium made seven substitutions during this match instead of the permitted six, it was not recognised as an official match by FIFA. On 1 June, he scored first of Belgium's two goals in the 2\u20130 victory in a friendly against Sweden. In Belgium's first match of the tournament, a 2\u20131 win against Algeria in Belo Horizonte, Lukaku started and played 58 minutes before being replaced by Divock Origi. In the round of 16, Lukaku came on as a substitute prior to extra time and assisted Kevin De Bruyne's opening goal three minutes later. In the 105th minute, he scored his first goal of the tournament as Belgium defeated the United States 2\u20131."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In the second game of the 2015\u201316 Premier League season, Lukaku scored a first-half double in Everton's 3\u20130 win at Southampton on 15 August 2015 with his first two shots on target. Before the match, he presented a T-shirt to a home fan whom he had accidentally struck with the ball during shooting practice. On 26 August, he scored another brace in a 5\u20133 extra-time win over League One side Barnsley in the League Cup. On 28 September, Lukaku scored twice and assisted the other against West Brom as he managed to guide his team from losing 2\u20130 to winning 2\u20133. He scored against Liverpool the following week in a 1\u20131 draw at Goodison Park. On 21 November, Lukaku scored twice in a 4\u20130 win over Aston Villa, becoming the fifth player under 23 years of age to score at least 50 Premier League goals, after Robbie Fowler, Michael Owen, Wayne Rooney and Cristiano Ronaldo. On 7 December, Lukaku scored a close-range goal in a 1\u20131 draw against Crystal Palace, his 50th in 100 appearances in all competitions for Everton. On 12 December, Lukaku became the first Everton player to score in six consecutive Premier League matches, and the first to score in seven consecutive matches in all competitions since Bob Latchford 40 years previously, when he opened the scoring in the \"Toffees\"' 1\u20131 draw with Norwich City at Carrow Road. In his next match, a 3\u20132 defeat to Leicester City, Lukaku became the first Everton player since Dave Hickson in 1954 to score in eight consecutive matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Stepan\u010di\u0107",
        "text": "In his club career he won everything in Croatia with RK Zagreb, and everything in France with PSG. Stepan\u010di\u0107 wasn't able to win the Champions League with PSG, losing the 2017 final to Vardar and the 2018 semifinal to Nantes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In January 2014, Lukaku was named by \"The Guardian\" as one of the ten most promising young players in Europe, but later in the month was taken off on a stretcher with an ankle ligament injury after Gareth Barry slipped and slid into the striker as he attempted to block Steven Gerrard's opening goal in the Merseyside derby against Liverpool. Lukaku made his return from injury against West Ham in March 2014, scoring the only goal of the match on the 81st minute after coming on as a second-half substitute. On 6 April, he scored one goal and assisted another as Everton beat Arsenal 3\u20130 at Goodison Park to record a sixth consecutive Premier League win. His final goal for the loan period came on the last day of the season as he scored the second in a 2\u20130 win over Hull City. Lukaku found the net 15 times in 31 league matches to help Everton to fifth place with a club record of 72 Premier League points."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u013dubo\u0161 Kamen\u00e1r",
        "text": "He won the domestic league again in 2007\u201308."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anka Spor Kul\u00fcb\u00fc",
        "text": "The men's team finished the league as following:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 10 November 2017, Lukaku equalled the all-time Belgium goalscoring record set by Bernard Voorhoof and Paul Van Himst after scoring twice against Mexico in a 3\u20133 draw. Four days after he equalled the record, Lukaku became Belgium's all-time record goalscorer with 31 international goals at the age of 24 after he scored the only goal in a 1\u20130 win over Japan. Although this record was counted by the Royal Belgian Football Association, FIFA only officially recognised 28 goals after a nullified international friendly against Luxembourg on 26 May 2014 which he netted a hat trick in a 5\u20131 win because the former Belgium coach, Marc Wilmots made seven substitutions during the match instead of the permitted six which are not in accordance to the Laws of the Game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "He scored his second brace of the campaign, scoring both goals for West Brom in their 2\u20131 home defeat of Sunderland on 23 February. On 9 March, in a league match against Swansea City, Lukaku scored the equalising goal before having a penalty kick saved; West Brom eventually won the game courtesy of a Jonathan de Guzm\u00e1n own goal. On 19 May, coming on as a second-half substitute, Lukaku scored a remarkable second-half perfect hat-trick, as West Brom came from three goals down to draw 5\u20135 in the season's final home match against Manchester United. The match was Alex Ferguson's 1,500th and last match in charge of United, and the highest-scoring draw in the history of the Premier League. Despite being loaned out by the club, Lukaku outscored all of his Chelsea teammates in the Premier League that season, being the sixth-highest goal scorer of the 2012\u201313 season with 17 goals. Lukaku played two Premier League matches for Chelsea at the beginning of the 2013\u201314 season. He also came on as a substitute in the 2013 UEFA Super Cup, ultimately missing the deciding penalty in the shootout as Manuel Neuer saved his shot and Chelsea lost to Bayern Munich."
      },
      {
        "title": "Irakli Dzaria",
        "text": "Later on 13 May, he scored a first-half brace in the eventual 2\u20132 draw versus Luft\u00ebtari Gjirokast\u00ebr which lifted his tally up to 4 goals. He ended the second part of 2017\u201318 season by making 16 league appearances, all of them as starter, collecting 1320 minutes as Kuk\u00ebsi finished runner-up in the championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In 2020, Lukaku honoured George Floyd by kneeling and keeping one fist high in support of Black Lives Matter when he scored in a game with Inter against Sampdoria. This symbolic action was inspired by American football player Colin Kaepernick who kneeled during the national anthem before every game in 2016 as a peaceful manner of protest against police brutality towards people of colour. Since then, Lukaku and many other players in Europe has taken an active role to take a knee on the pitches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Rakovi\u0107",
        "text": "RK Zagreb\n*Premier League: 2009\u201310, 2014\u201315, 2015\u201316\n*Croatian Cup: 2010, 2015, 2016"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kiril Lazarov",
        "text": "Lazarov has won 15 national championships and the same number of national cup tournaments for five different clubs. In international club tournaments, his best results are two runners-up.\n*RK Pelister\n**Macedonian League: (1997\u201398 and 1999-00)\n**Macedonian Cup: (1998 and 1999)\n*RK Zagreb\n**Croatian League: (2000, 2001, 2002, 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010)\n**Croatian Cup: (2000, 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010)\n*MKB Veszprem KC\n**Hungarian League: (2002, 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006)\n**Hungarian Cup: (2002, 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2007)\n*BM Ciudad Real\n**Copa del Rey: (2010\u201311)\n**ASOBAL Cup: (2010\u201311)\n**ASOBAL Supercup: (2010\u201311)\n**EHF Champions League runner-up: (2010\u201311)\n**IHF Super Globe: (2011)\n*BM Atl\u00e9tico Madrid\n**ASOBAL Supercup: (2011\u201312)\n**Copa del Rey: (2011\u201312) and (2012\u201313)\n**ASOBAL Cup: (2012\u20132013)\n**IHF Super Globe: (2012)\n*FC Barcelona Handbol\n**EHF Champions League: (2014\u201315)\n**ASOBAL League: (2013\u201314), (2014\u201315) and (2015\u201316)\n**IHF Super Globe: (2013), (2014)\n**ASOBAL Supercup: (2013\u201314), (2014\u201315) and (2015\u201316)\n**Copa del Rey: (2013\u201314), (2014\u201315) and (2015\u201316)\n**ASOBAL Cup: (2013\u201314), (2014\u201315) and (2015\u201316)\n*HBC Nantes\n**EHF Champions League runner-up: (2017\u201318)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pavllo Bukoviku",
        "text": "His older brother Teofili won two league titles playing under the name Tafil Baci."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku is a practising Roman Catholic, praying frequently before or after matches. He made the pilgrimage to Lourdes in 2014. He is teetotal."
      },
      {
        "title": "B\u00fcy\u00fck\u015fehir Belediyesi Ankara Spor Kul\u00fcb\u00fc",
        "text": "The men\u2019s club has won a record seven league championships, winning its first in the league\u2019s inaugural season, 1992\u201393."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vule Trivunovi\u0107",
        "text": "After retiring, Trivunovi\u0107 became a professional football manager. So far, he has managed BSK Banja Luka, Sloboda Mrkonji\u0107 Grad, Borac, with whom he won the 2016\u201317 First League of RS, Kozara Gradi\u0161ka and most recently GO\u0160K Gabela."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger Lukaku",
        "text": "As a 23-year-old, Roger Lukaku began his career in Belgium. His first club was Belgian Second Division club FC Boom. With this club he achieved promotion to the Belgian First Division in 1992. The club was relegated in 1993 and Lukaku moved to RFC Seraing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 12 September 2016, Lukaku scored his first goals of the 2016\u201317 season with all three goals in a 3\u20130 against Sunderland at the Stadium of Light. His goals were scored in 11 minutes and 37 seconds, making it the 12th-fastest hat-trick in Premier League history. On 4 February 2017, Lukaku scored four goals, the first of which was Everton's fastest ever Premier League goal, against Bournemouth in a 6\u20133 victory at Goodison Park. It was also the 300th hat-trick scored in the Premier League. On 25 February 2017, he equalled Duncan Ferguson's club record for Premier League goals, scoring his 60th EPL goal for the Toffees in a 2\u20130 victory over Sunderland at Goodison Park. On 5 March, he surpassed Ferguson to become the outright record holder, scoring in a 3\u20132 loss against Tottenham Hotspur away at White Hart Lane. In the next match, a 3\u20130 home win against West Brom, Lukaku scored to become the first Everton player since Bob Latchford to score 20 or more goals in all competitions for three consecutive seasons. A week later, during a 4\u20130 victory over Hull City, he scored twice to take his league goals tally to 21 for the season, thereby becoming the first Everton player since Gary Lineker 31 years previously to surpass 20 league goals in a season, as well as being the fourth player and first foreign player to score 80 Premier League goals before the age of 24."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jakub Luka",
        "text": "Luka made his Fortuna Liga debut for Ru\u017eomberok against Zempl\u00edn Michalovce on 1 May 2021 in a 1:2 away loss. He played the entire match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jakub Luka",
        "text": "Luka had listed Milan \u0160kriniar and Virgil van Dijk as his footballing idols."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicolae Lupescu",
        "text": "Lupescu was born in Bucharest and debuted in Divizia A with Rapid Bucure\u0219ti in 1962. He remained with Rapid for ten seasons, winning the league title in 1967 and the cup title in 1972. He played five seasons in Austria before retiring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Modri\u0107",
        "text": "Real Madrid\n*La Liga: 2016\u201317, 2019\u201320\n*Copa del Rey: 2013\u201314\n*Supercopa de Espa\u00f1a: 2012, 2017, 2019\u201320, 2021\u201322\n*UEFA Champions League: 2013\u201314, 2015\u201316, 2016\u201317, 2017\u201318\n*UEFA Super Cup: 2014, 2016, 2017\n*FIFA Club World Cup: 2016, 2017, 2018"
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Tudor",
        "text": "Luka Nicola Tudor Bakulic (born 21 February 1969) is a retired Chilean footballer. He played as a forward during his career. He played for the U-20 side at the 1987 FIFA World Youth Championship in Chile and was a member of the senior squad at the 1989 Copa Am\u00e9rica. He holds the Chilean record for most goals scored in one game: playing for CD Universidad Cat\u00f3lica, in November 1993 he netted seven times in the 8\u20133 win over CD Antofagasta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kazenga LuaLua",
        "text": "On 7 August 2015, LuaLua scored the opening goal of the 2015\u201316 Football League Championship, which eventually was the winning goal against Nottingham Forest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Majcen",
        "text": "With Bengaluru United, he won the 2021\u201322 Bangalore Super Division title, in which he emerged as the league's top scorer with thirteen goals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In late December 2021, Lukaku stoked controversy when during an interview with Sky Italia, he reported being \"not happy\" with the situation at Chelsea after head coach Thomas Tuchel had changed the system. In the same interview, he went on to express his wish to return to Inter \"in the near future\". Consequently, Tuchel dropped him from the squad altogether for a match against title challengers Liverpool, which ended 2\u20132. After then holding talks with Tuchel, Lukaku issued an apology, saying \"I'm sorry for the upset I have caused\" and stated that he \"wanted to move forward\". He was restored to the first team and started in the first leg of the EFL Cup semi-final win against Tottenham Hotspur, but was fined for his comments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Me\u0111uop\u0161tinska fudbalska liga Doboj",
        "text": "The league champions since 2010:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Milan Luka\u010d",
        "text": "On 10 May 2018, Luka\u010d helped Akhisar Belediyespor win their first professional trophy, the 2017\u201318 Turkish Cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Lu\u010di\u0107",
        "text": "Hajduk Split\n*Croatian Cup: 2012\u201313"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In March 2017, Lukaku turned down a new five-year contract worth a reported \u00a3140,000 a week amidst rumours of a return to Chelsea. In an interview, he questioned the club's ambition to make big transfers and chase Champions League qualification, offending his manager Ronald Koeman. A goal in a 3\u20131 win for Everton against Burnley on 15 April meant Lukaku was the first Everton player since Bob Latchford to score 25 goals in two consecutive seasons in all competitions, and the first player since the legendary Dixie Dean to score in nine consecutive matches at Goodison Park. On 20 April 2017, Lukaku was named in the PFA Team of the Year for the first time. He was also included in the six player shortlists for the PFA Players' Player of the Year and PFA Young Player of the Year awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku started the 2018\u201319 season with four goals in his first five appearances, including a brace against Burnley, before a 12-game drought lasting from 19 September to 27 November 2018. Goals against Southampton and Fulham followed before the sacking of manager Jos\u00e9 Mourinho, only for Mourinho's replacement \u2013 former United striker Ole Gunnar Solskj\u00e6r \u2013 to leave Lukaku out of the squad entirely for his first two games in charge against Cardiff City and Huddersfield Town. Lukaku made substitute appearances in United's next two games against Bournemouth and Newcastle United, scoring in both matches within two minutes of coming on. He then played the full 90 minutes of the FA Cup third round tie against Reading, scoring the second goal in a 2\u20130 win. However, Solskj\u00e6r continued to prefer to start Marcus Rashford up front and Lukaku started just five of the next nine games, playing the full 90 minutes in just two and failing to score in any of them. His goalscoring form returned for the next three games, as he scored braces against each of Crystal Palace, Southampton and Paris Saint-Germain. The goals against PSG were part of a 3\u20131 win that saw United through to the Champions League quarter-finals on the away goals rule, the first time any team had progressed after losing at home in the first leg by two goals or more. However, United were eliminated by Barcelona in the quarterfinals 4\u20130 on aggregate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tur\u00f3w Zgorzelec",
        "text": "In 2014, Tur\u00f3w won the Tauron Basket Liga championship, after they defeated Zielona G\u00f3ra in the Finals 4\u20132. J.P. Prince led the team the whole season, and was rewarded with the PLK Most Valuable Player award. The 34-year-old veteran Filip Dylewicz was chosen as the 2014 PLK Finals MVP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Crediting the former Brazilian striker as his major influence as a kid, Lukaku added, \"He changed the dimension of a striker. He was fast, he can dribble like a winger, run like a sprinter, he was as strong as an ox\". When mentioned that he shares certain characteristics with the Brazilian, Lukaku responded, \"Be like Ronaldo? There is only one Ronaldo\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku joined Italian club Inter Milan on 8 August 2019, signing a five-year contract for a fee reported to be a club record \u20ac80\u00a0million. He later mentioned the reasons for leaving Manchester United, by claiming that he was made a scapegoat alongside other players such as Paul Pogba and Alexis S\u00e1nchez, in addition to club's failure to protect him against rumours about his future. Lukaku made his debut for Inter Milan on 26 August in the opening Serie A matchday against Lecce, netting his side's third goal with his first shot in a 4\u20130 home win. The goal meant that Lukaku has found the net in his first league game for five of the six clubs he has represented; Anderlecht, West Brom, Everton, Manchester United, and Inter; he also become only the third Belgian to score for Inter in Serie A, after Enzo Scifo and Radja Nainggolan. In the club's second league game of the season at Cagliari on 1 September, Lukaku scored the match-winning goal from the penalty spot to give Inter a 2\u20131 victory away from home; however, he was subject to racial abuse from some of the Cagliari fans."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of international goals scored by Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Romelu Lukaku is a Belgian professional footballer who represents the Belgium national football team as a striker. He made his debut for his country in a 1\u20130 defeat to Croatia in Brussels in March 2010. His first and second international goals came on his eighth appearance for Belgium, in a 2\u20130 friendly victory over Russia. , Lukaku is his country's top scorer with 68 goals in 101 appearances, ahead of Bernard Voorhoof and Paul Van Himst (30 goals). The Belgian Football Association confirmed that he had broken the national record when Lukaku scored his 31st international goal in a match against Japan in November 2017. FIFA, however, did not initially recognise the record as three goals had been scored against Luxembourg in a friendly in May 2014 later declared by the organisation as an unofficial friendly due to too many substitutions being made. He scored twice against Tunisia in the group stages of the 2018 FIFA World Cup, a game after which football journalist Nick Ames praised him for a \"laudable act of sportsmanship\" as he had indicated to the referee that he had not been fouled in the penalty area, denying himself the chance of a hat-trick. The two goals took his overall tally in the 2018 World Cup to four and made him Belgium's highest scorer in a single World Cup tournament, and made him the first player since Diego Maradona in the 1986 FIFA World Cup to score back-to-back braces (two goals in a single game)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vule Trivunovi\u0107",
        "text": "Borac Banja Luka\n*Bosnian Cup: 2009\u201310"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jakub B\u0142aszczykowski",
        "text": "Borussia Dortmund\n* Bundesliga: 2010\u201311, 2011\u201312\n* DFB-Pokal: 2011\u201312\n* DFL-Supercup: 2008, 2013, 2014\n* UEFA Champions League runner-up: 2012\u201313"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordan Lukaku",
        "text": "In the 2017 Supercoppa Italiana, Lukaku came on as a late substitute in a 3\u20132 win over Juventus at the Stadio Olimpico. On 23 December that year, he scored his first goal for the club, finishing from a Ciro Immobile pass to open a 4\u20130 home win over Crotone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenan Topolovi\u0107",
        "text": "Borac Banja Luka\n*First League of RS: 2018\u201319\n*Kenan Topolovi\u0107 at Sofascore\n*Kenan Topolovi\u0107 profile at footballdatabase.eu"
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Stepan\u010di\u0107",
        "text": "According to HandNews' selection of 2012, Stepan\u010di\u0107 was one of the ten best young players under 22 in the Champions League in 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Menalo",
        "text": "Menalo scored a hat-trick in the 2020\u201321 Croatian Cup win over Ferdinandovac on 26 September 2020, which were his first goals for Dinamo Zagreb."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central European Football League",
        "text": "CEFL Bowl IX was played in Ivan\u010dna Gorica on 20 July, where Vukovi won the title beating Silverhawks 27\u201317."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vasif Bi\u00e7aku",
        "text": "He was born in Tiran\u00eb into a noble family from Elbasan and began his football career in the late 1930s with Sportklub Tiran\u00eb. He moved to Partizani Tirana in 1948 where he won two National Championships. Towards the end of his playing career he moved to Apolonia Fier and played in the Albanian second tier until his retirement in the mid 1950s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku signed a five-year contract with Everton in July 2014 for a club record fee of \u00a328\u00a0million. He scored his first goal as a permanent player on 13 September, against his former club West Brom. Lukaku did not celebrate the goal, and was applauded by the West Brom fans for his sign of respect. On 19 February 2015, Lukaku scored his first Everton hat-trick in a 4\u20131 win for Everton against BSC Young Boys in the UEFA Europa League last 32; he struck with a header, a right-foot shot and a left-foot shot. He added another two goals in a 3\u20131 win in the second leg a week later. With eight goals, he was the tournament's joint highest scorer that season, alongside Alan of Red Bull Salzburg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Modri\u0107",
        "text": "Croatia\n* FIFA World Cup runner-up: 2018"
      },
      {
        "title": "CS Minerul Lupeni",
        "text": "Liga I\n*Runners-up (1): 1927\u201328"
      },
      {
        "title": "R\u0103zvan Lucescu",
        "text": "Na\u021bional Bucure\u0219ti\n*Cupa Rom\u00e2niei runner-up: 1996\u201397"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ivan Radulov",
        "text": "International tournament victories came at Torremolinos 1971 (shared with Miguel Quinteros), Helsinki 1972, Montilla 1974 (ahead of a strong field including Lubomir Kavalek, Helmut Pfleger, Miguel Quinteros, Florin Gheorghiu and Ulf Andersson), Bajmok 1975 (shared with Milan Matulovi\u0107 and Milan Vuki\u0107), Montilla 1975 (shared with Lev Polugaevsky) and Kikinda 1976. Second places at Varna 1968, Debrecen 1968 and Silkeborg 1983 were also noteworthy achievements and his third place at Albena in 1975, contributed to a busy and successful year. In 2013 in Plovdiv he won the European Senior Rapid Championships."
      },
      {
        "title": "Okan Buruk",
        "text": "Galatasaray\n*UEFA Super Cup: 2000\n*UEFA Cup: 1999\u20132000\n*S\u00fcper Lig: 1992\u201393, 1993\u201394, 1996\u201397, 1997\u201398, 1998\u201399, 1999\u20132000, 2007\u201308"
      },
      {
        "title": "Central European Football League",
        "text": "The final game was named CEFL Bowl II and took place on the Ada Ciganlija stadium in Belgrade on 27 October, with the title won by Vukovi after beating Wolves 28\u201327 in a dramatic fashion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nurhan S\u00fcleymano\u011flu",
        "text": "S\u00fcleymano\u011flu won silver medals in the same division at the 1995 World Championships and the 1996 European Championships, as well as a gold medal at the 1993 European Championships."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger Lukaku",
        "text": "Roger Menama Lukaku (born 6 June 1967) is a Congolese former footballer who played as a forward. Throughout his career, he played for KV Oostende, KV Mechelen and Germinal Ekeren. He is the father of footballers Romelu Lukaku and Jordan Lukaku."
      },
      {
        "title": "Resul Hoja\u00fdew",
        "text": "He has won seven Turkmenistan \u00ddokary Liga titles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ladislau Vlad",
        "text": "CCA Bucure\u0219ti\n*Cupa Rom\u00e2niei: runner-up 1953"
      },
      {
        "title": "RK Borac Banja Luka",
        "text": "In addition, RK Borac Banja Luka had won the Cup of Republika Srpska twelve times between 1993 and 2013. The Cup competition did not take place in 1995 because of war activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bal\u00e1zs Nikolov",
        "text": "On 12 May 2012 Nikolov won the Hungarian League title with Debrecen after beating P\u00e9cs in the 28th round of the Hungarian League by 4\u20130 at the Ol\u00e1h G\u00e1bor \u00fat Stadium which resulted the sixth Hungarian League title for the Hajd\u00fas."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which national team did Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli play for?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a striker for the Belgium national team."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does Romelu Lukaku still play, or did he retire?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Romelu Lukaku still plays in the Premier League and for the Belgium national team. In fact, in 2021 he returned to Chelsea in a club-record transfer worth \u00a397.5 million."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Lukaku older than the average Premier League football player?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I cannot find the answer to that, but I can tell you he's 28 currently."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli won any championships?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "Sorry, I didn't find the answer, but I found that he represented his country at four major tournaments: the 2016 and 2020 UEFA European Championships and the 2014 and 2018 FIFA World Cups."
    ],
    "topic": "Romelu Lukaku",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Romelu Lukaku:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Romelu Lukaku"
        ],
        "ctx": "Belgium's all-time top goalscorer, Lukaku made his senior international debut in 2010, and has represented his country at four major tournaments: the 2016 and 2020 UEFA European Championships and the 2014 and 2018 FIFA World Cups; he finished as joint second-highest goalscorer won the Bronze Boot in the latter."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli (; born 13 May 1993) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Chelsea and the Belgium national team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku was born in Antwerp, Belgium to Congolese parents. His father, Roger Lukaku, played professional football and was capped at international level by Zaire. He has a younger brother named Jordan, who has progressed through the youth academy at Anderlecht and currently plays for Royal Antwerp in Belgium. His cousin Boli Bolingoli-Mbombo plays as a left-sided winger or defender for Celtic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 18 June, Lukaku scored twice in a 3\u20130 win over Panama in their opening group game at the 2018 FIFA World Cup. In the next group game on 23 June 2018, he scored twice again in a 5\u20132 win over Tunisia. In doing so, Lukaku became the first player since Diego Maradona in 1986 to score two goals or more in consecutive World Cup matches. He eventually ended the tournament with four goals and one assist, which earned him the Bronze Boot award, as Belgium finished the tournament in third place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Crediting the former Brazilian striker as his major influence as a kid, Lukaku added, \"He changed the dimension of a striker. He was fast, he can dribble like a winger, run like a sprinter, he was as strong as an ox\". When mentioned that he shares certain characteristics with the Brazilian, Lukaku responded, \"Be like Ronaldo? There is only one Ronaldo\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku is a left-footed player, who in 2014 was named by \"The Guardian\" as one of the ten most promising young players in Europe. A large and physically powerful striker from an early age, with an eye for goal, Lukaku has been known to use his physicality to get around defenders. However, despite his size, strength, physical build, and ability to hold-up play with his back to goal, his favoured role is not as a target-man in the centre, but as an out-and-out striker or poacher; due to his tactical versatility, he is also capable of playing as a winger. A well-rounded forward, who is also strong in the air, beyond his physical qualities and goalscoring ability, he possesses pace, athleticism, awareness, good link-up play, technical attributes, and vision, as well as an ability to get into good attacking positions or create space for teammates with his intelligent runs off the ball. Although he was once criticised by pundits for his limited defensive contribution, he has since been praised by his managers for his work-rate off the ball. However, despite his ability, he has also come into criticism in the media at times over his movement and first touch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 29 March 2016, Lukaku headed a consolation in a 2\u20131 loss away to Portugal, assisted by his brother, Jordan Lukaku. At UEFA Euro 2016, Lukaku scored twice in Belgium's 3\u20130 second group stage match win on 18 June 2016 over the Republic of Ireland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku has spoken out against racism he suffered while playing football, particularly the 2019\u201320 Serie A season, his first year playing in Italy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku made his 100th Belgium appearance on 5 September 2021 against the Czech Republic, scoring his 67th goal in the process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 21 October 2020, Lukaku scored a brace in a 2\u20132 draw against Borussia M\u00f6nchengladbach in the first match of the 2020\u201321 UEFA Champions League. On 1 December, he scored another brace against Borussia M\u00f6nchengladbach to secure a 3\u20132 away win. However, Inter drew their last match against Shakhtar Donetsk, to finish last in their group and to be eliminated from all European competitions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Belgium\n*FIFA World Cup third place: 2018"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku joined his local team Rupel Boom at age five. After four seasons at Rupel Boom, Lukaku was discovered by scouts of Lierse, a Belgian Pro League club with an established youth academy. He played for Lierse from 2004 until 2006, scoring 121 goals in 68 matches. After Lierse were relegated from the Belgian Pro League, Anderlecht purchased 13 youth players from Lierse in the 2006 mid-season, including Lukaku. He played three more years as a youth player with Anderlecht, scoring 131 goals in 93 matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 10 October 2019, Lukaku scored his 50th and 51st international goals in a 9\u20130 home win over San Marino, in a Euro 2020 qualifier. On 12 June 2021, Lukaku scored twice in Belgium's opening group match of UEFA Euro 2020, a 3\u20130 win over Russia. On 21 June, he scored the last goal in a 2\u20130 win over Finland in his team's final group match. On 2 July, he scored Belgium's only goal of the match from a penalty late in the first half in a 2\u20131 defeat to Italy in the quarter-finals of the competition. Two days after the final Lukaku was awarded as sole Belgian player with a selection for the UEFA Euro 2020 Team of the Tournament. He got the striker position."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of international goals scored by Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "As of October 2021, Lukaku has scored two hat-tricks during his international career, including the treble against Luxembourg, with the other coming in a 9\u20130 win against Gibraltar in a 2018 World Cup qualifier in August 2017. Lukaku has scored more goals in friendlies than in any other format, with 22. He has scored eighteen goals in qualifying for the FIFA World Cup, five in FIFA World Cup finals, seven in qualifying for the UEFA European Championship, six in the European Championship finals and ten in the UEFA Nations League. Lukaku scored his most recent goal in a 2\u20133 UEFA Nations League Finals loss against France in October 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Justin Shaibu",
        "text": "Shaibu stated that he likes \"to think I play like Romelu Lukaku. I have got great pace, a lot of energy, a lot of power and I am a great finisher\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku was a member of the Belgium under-21 team and scored a goal on his debut against Slovenia. On 24 February 2010, Lukaku was named for the first time in the Belgium senior squad for a friendly against Croatia. On 17 November 2010, he scored his first two international goals in a friendly against Russia. Lukaku scored his first goal in almost two years for the national team, netting the winner in a 4\u20132 friendly victory over rivals the Netherlands on 15 August 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hakan \u00c7alhano\u011flu",
        "text": "A set-piece specialist, he is known for scoring from free kicks, and models his set-piece technique on the \"knuckleball\" free kicks of Cristiano Ronaldo and especially Juninho Pernambucano. In addition to his ability to score with power and accuracy from direct free kicks with his right foot, he is also known for his ability to bend the ball, and his set-piece delivery. In December 2013, Talksport called him \"a playmaker destined for the top\", praising his dedication and passing ability. Former England international Owen Hargreaves said on BT Sport in August 2015 that \u00c7alhano\u011flu's style of play would fit Liverpool or Tottenham Hotspur."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 8 October 2021, Lukaku was one of five Chelsea players included in the final 30-man shortlist for the 2021 Ballon d'Or, eventually finishing 12th."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In 2020, Lukaku honoured George Floyd by kneeling and keeping one fist high in support of Black Lives Matter when he scored in a game with Inter against Sampdoria. This symbolic action was inspired by American football player Colin Kaepernick who kneeled during the national anthem before every game in 2016 as a peaceful manner of protest against police brutality towards people of colour. Since then, Lukaku and many other players in Europe has taken an active role to take a knee on the pitches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 3 January 2021, Lukaku scored a goal in a 6\u20132 win over Crotone, to reach his 50th goal across all competitions in only 70 matches, breaking the previous record of Ronaldo who scored 50 goals in 77 matches. On 26 January, Lukaku was involved in a confrontation with former Manchester United teammate Zlatan Ibrahimovi\u0107 in Inter's Coppa Italia quarter-final match against Milan. Following a foul committed by Lukaku late in the first half, he and Ibrahimovi\u0107 could be heard exchanging insults as the pair clashed heads and had to be restrained by their respective teammates. Both players were booked as their arguments continued into the tunnel at half-time. Ibrahimovi\u0107 would be sent off during the second half following a second yellow for a foul on Aleksandar Kolarov, as Inter went on to record a 2\u20131 victory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In the first months since his arrival, Lukaku formed an attacking partnership with Argentine youngster Lautaro Mart\u00ednez, dubbed \"Lu-La\" by Italian media. This became after the duo scored a brace each in the 4\u20133 away win against Sassuolo in October, giving Inter the first triumph since 2016. On 2 November, Lukaku scored a brace in a 2\u20131 away win over Bologna in Serie A, which saw him match Ronaldo's record of nine goals in his first 11 league appearances for the club. On 27 November, Lukaku scored his first UEFA Champions League goal for Inter in a 3\u20131 away win against Slavia Prague in the group stage; in addition to that, he also assisted the two other goals scored by Lautaro Mart\u00ednez and had two goals disallowed himself. In the final match home against Barcelona, Lukaku scored his side's only goal in a 2\u20131 defeat, meaning that Inter was transferred to Europa League for the second season in a row."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku was the subject of a television documentary series called (Lukaku's School) shown on the Dutch-speaking E\u00e9n network. The reality show followed the teenage Lukaku and his classmates during the course of a year at the Saint-Guidon Institute, a school in Brussels, where the footballer was based while with the Anderlecht youth team. In 2009, the series followed the school as it made a field trip to London, visiting Chelsea's Stamford Bridge ground. Lukaku said at the time, \"What a stadium. If one day in my life I will cry, it will be the day I play here. I love Chelsea.\" In addition to his native French and Dutch, Lukaku can speak fluent English, Portuguese, Italian, Spanish and a Congolese Swahili dialect, and can also understand German. Lukaku has stated his biggest idol was Didier Drogba."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Chelsea\n*FIFA Club World Cup: 2021\n*EFL Cup runner-up: 2021\u201322"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Belgium's all-time top goalscorer, Lukaku made his senior international debut in 2010, and has represented his country at four major tournaments: the 2016 and 2020 UEFA European Championships and the 2014 and 2018 FIFA World Cups; he finished as joint second-highest goalscorer won the Bronze Boot in the latter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 22 August 2021, Lukaku scored on his return debut in the 15th minute, converting Reece James' cross, in a 2\u20130 away win over Arsenal. On 12 September, Lukaku scored twice at home against Aston Villa, the first time he had scored at Stamford Bridge. Two days later, Lukaku scored his first European goal for Chelsea, against Zenit in the Champions League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku is a practising Roman Catholic, praying frequently before or after matches. He made the pilgrimage to Lourdes in 2014. He is teetotal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka \u0160amani\u0107",
        "text": "Aside from Croatian, \u0160amani\u0107 speaks English and Spanish. Off of the basketball court, he likes to play soccer and table tennis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "He began the new year on 6 January by scoring a brace in a 3\u20131 win against Napoli, giving Inter the first league win at Stadio San Paolo since October 1997; he earned praise from the media for his first goal scored in the 14th minute, which came from an individual effort. On 9 February, Lukaku scored the final goal of the 4\u20132 home win over cross-town rivals Milan, sending Inter to the top of the table and giving them another double over Milan; it was also his 17th league goal of the season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Inter Milan\n*Serie A: 2020\u201321\n*UEFA Europa League runner-up: 2019\u201320"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 11 October 2013, Lukaku scored two goals as Belgium defeated Croatia 2\u20131 to secure a place in the World Cup finals. In May 2014, Lukaku was named in Belgium's squad for the 2014 World Cup. On 26 May, he scored his first international hat-trick in a pre-tournament friendly against neighbouring Luxembourg. However, as Belgium made seven substitutions during this match instead of the permitted six, it was not recognised as an official match by FIFA. On 1 June, he scored first of Belgium's two goals in the 2\u20130 victory in a friendly against Sweden. In Belgium's first match of the tournament, a 2\u20131 win against Algeria in Belo Horizonte, Lukaku started and played 58 minutes before being replaced by Divock Origi. In the round of 16, Lukaku came on as a substitute prior to extra time and assisted Kevin De Bruyne's opening goal three minutes later. In the 105th minute, he scored his first goal of the tournament as Belgium defeated the United States 2\u20131."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of international goals scored by Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Romelu Lukaku is a Belgian professional footballer who represents the Belgium national football team as a striker. He made his debut for his country in a 1\u20130 defeat to Croatia in Brussels in March 2010. His first and second international goals came on his eighth appearance for Belgium, in a 2\u20130 friendly victory over Russia. , Lukaku is his country's top scorer with 68 goals in 101 appearances, ahead of Bernard Voorhoof and Paul Van Himst (30 goals). The Belgian Football Association confirmed that he had broken the national record when Lukaku scored his 31st international goal in a match against Japan in November 2017. FIFA, however, did not initially recognise the record as three goals had been scored against Luxembourg in a friendly in May 2014 later declared by the organisation as an unofficial friendly due to too many substitutions being made. He scored twice against Tunisia in the group stages of the 2018 FIFA World Cup, a game after which football journalist Nick Ames praised him for a \"laudable act of sportsmanship\" as he had indicated to the referee that he had not been fouled in the penalty area, denying himself the chance of a hat-trick. The two goals took his overall tally in the 2018 World Cup to four and made him Belgium's highest scorer in a single World Cup tournament, and made him the first player since Diego Maradona in the 1986 FIFA World Cup to score back-to-back braces (two goals in a single game)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dejan Savi\u0107evi\u0107",
        "text": "Talking in October 2015 about Savi\u0107evi\u0107's playing days, the 1985-2001 Red Star Belgrade general-secretary Vladimir Cvetkovi\u0107 said: \"He really was a genius. When he felt like playing, that is. The problem is he frequently didn't feel like playing. But the things he did and the moves he pulled off [for us], for example in Munich and Manchester, are a thing of beauty\u2014truly unbelievable stuff. Kind of like what Messi is doing today, only with even more flair and style. Yes, Savi\u0107evi\u0107 had more flair and style than Messi does today\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mersudin Ahmetovi\u0107",
        "text": "Ahmetovi\u0107's look bears a strong resemblance to that of famous Swedish forward Zlatan Ibrahimovi\u0107 who is also of Bosnian descent himself, they also share a similar style of play."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 25 July, Lukaku scored a brace in a 3\u20130 win at Genoa; in doing so, he became the first Inter player since Istv\u00e1n Nyers in 1949\u201350 season to score 15 away goals in a Serie A season, and the first do to so in his debut season. He concluded his first Serie A season with 23 goals, as Inter finished runner-up by just one point to Juventus in the standings; only Ronaldo (25) and Nyers (26) have scored more than him in their debut season at Inter. On 5 August, Lukaku scored in a 2\u20130 win over Getafe in the Europa League's round of 16, helping his side reach the quarter-finals of a European competition for the first time since 2011. It was his 30th goal in all competitions, a new personal best, and he had also scored for the 8th consecutive Europa League match, equalling the all-time record set by Alan Shearer in 2004\u201305. In the quarter-finals on 10 August, he broke the record, scoring in his ninth consecutive match in the competition in a 2\u20131 victory over Bayer Leverkusen in D\u00fcsseldorf, to send Inter into the semi-finals. On 17 August, Lukaku scored a brace in a 5\u20130 win against Shakhtar Donetsk\u2014his tenth consecutive match in the competition\u2014as Inter reached the final. In the final, he earned and scored a penalty in the 5th minute, but also scored an own goal in the 74th minute, which was eventually the winning goal for Sevilla in a 3\u20132 defeat. Lukaku equalled Ronaldo's record in 1997\u201398 season, by scoring 34 goals in all competitions."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of international goals scored by Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "List of international goals scored by Romelu Lukaku\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In a 2016 interview with ESPN, Lukaku named Didier Drogba and Nicolas Anelka as the two strikers who made him want to play for Chelsea, but it was the mention of a third striker during the interview, his idol Ronaldo, that lit him up with excitement, with Lukaku stating,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Krajnc",
        "text": "Krajnc, who is left footed, primarily plays in central defence and is praised for his pace, strength, passing and ability on the ball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Julius Aghahowa",
        "text": "Aghahowa played in Ukraine, England and Turkey during his career. Famous for his acrobatic goal celebrations, he performed six consecutive perfect backflips after scoring a goal against Sweden at the 2002 World Cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roger Lukaku",
        "text": "Roger Menama Lukaku (born 6 June 1967) is a Congolese former footballer who played as a forward. Throughout his career, he played for KV Oostende, KV Mechelen and Germinal Ekeren. He is the father of footballers Romelu Lukaku and Jordan Lukaku."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordan Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku was born in Antwerp. His father is Roger Lukaku, who played professional football and was capped at international level by Zaire. He has an older brother, Romelu Lukaku, who also progressed through the youth academy at Anderlecht. Their cousin Boli Bolingoli-Mbombo plays for Celtic."
      },
      {
        "title": "O\u011fuzhan \u00d6zyakup",
        "text": "In 2015, former Croatian international and Be\u015fikta\u015f manager Slaven Bili\u0107 praised dribbling and passing abilities of \u00d6zyakup, likening him to a \"snake\" due to his slalom-alike opponent-passing dribbling style."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bora Ivkov",
        "text": "Ivkov's style is classical, and he opened regularly with both 1.e4 and 1.d4 during his peak years, making him problematic to prepare for. As Black, he replied to 1.e4 with the Sicilian Defence, the French Defence, and 1...e5, showing a wide repertoire which he handled well. While usually tending toward solid positional play, Ivkov could switch to fierce tactics when given the opportunity. During his peak years, he played in many high-class tournaments, and was almost always near the top of the table."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Anderlecht\n*Belgian Pro League: 2009\u201310"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku made his debut at Stamford Bridge in a 3\u20131 victory over Norwich City in the 83rd minute, coming on as a substitute for Fernando Torres. Lukaku made his first start for Chelsea in the League Cup against Fulham. Chelsea went on to win the match on penalties. He spent the majority of the season playing for the reserves and started his first Premier League match on 13 May 2012, against Blackburn Rovers, and turned in a man of the match performance, providing an assist for John Terry's opener. However, Lukaku stressed he was disappointed with his involvement at the end of his debut season, revealing that, after his side's UEFA Champions League win in the final on 19 May, he refused to hold the trophy, explaining \"it wasn't me, but my team that won\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 14 February, he scored a brace and got an assist against Lazio in a 3\u20131 victory, bringing his Serie A tally to 16 goals for the season and equalling Cristiano Ronaldo as the league's top scorer. Lukaku's second goal was also the 300th of his professional career. Inter won the 2020\u201321 Serie A for the first time since the 2009\u201310 season. Lukaku finished the season 2020\u201321 with 24 league goals, 11 assists. Making him the highest scorer on the title-winning team and the second highest-scorer in the league, behind Ronaldo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emre Bel\u00f6zo\u011flu",
        "text": "He is fluent in Turkish, English, Italian and Spanish.\n;Post-match brawl (2005)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fabijan Komljenovi\u0107",
        "text": "While playing for Rijeka, he was nicknamed the \"Caniggia from Kantrida\" due to his style of play and physical appearance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordan Lukaku",
        "text": "Jordan Zacharie Lukaku Menama Mokelenge (born 25 July 1994) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a left back for Serie B club Vicenza, on loan from Lazio. His older brother, Romelu, is also a footballer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hami Mand\u0131ral\u0131",
        "text": "Mand\u0131ral\u0131 was particularly famous for his free-kicks, from which he scored many times in his career. He did not try and curl the ball, like most of his more illustrious colleagues in the art of scoring free-kicks. Instead, he would unleash thunderous shots that would fly past or through walls and leave the goalkeeper standing motionless. In this manner his style is similar with Roberto Carlos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 6 June 2018, Lukaku officially became Belgium's all-time leading scorer with 31 goals after scoring a goal in a 3\u20130 win over Egypt. He also broke a three-way tie with the previous record goalscorers, Bernard Voorhoof and Paul Van Himst."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dejan Kulusevski",
        "text": "Regarded as a promising and hard-working player in the media, his manager at Parma, Roberto D'Aversa, has compared Kulusevski to Mohamed Salah. He noted how the player \"is always among the players who cover the most distance in every game\", and \"has the right mentality\". Kulusevski himself named compatriot Zlatan Ibrahimovi\u0107 as an influence. Regarding his own playing style, he commented in a 2019 interview with \"Sportbladet\": \"I like to have the ball at my feet. I used to dribble a lot when I was a kid but I have got better at moving the ball more quickly. I have developed my defensive game, that was a weakness before, and that has made me a more complete player.\" He has also cited Belgian footballers Kevin De Bruyne and Eden Hazard as players he admires and seeks to emulate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yusuf Tunao\u011flu",
        "text": "Yusuf Tunao\u011flu is regarded as an \"unforgettable player\" by Be\u015fikta\u015f J.K. His former teammate Sanl\u0131 Sar\u0131alio\u011flu described his style \"magical\" whereas his other former teammate Vedat Okyar once expressed about him: \"While playing alongside \"[him]\", sometimes I was stopping to play for a moment and ruminating as watching him play. This great football talent \"[Tunao\u011flu]\" astonished everybody\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jakub Luka",
        "text": "Luka made his Fortuna Liga debut for Ru\u017eomberok against Zempl\u00edn Michalovce on 1 May 2021 in a 1:2 away loss. He played the entire match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku made his debut against Real Madrid on 8 August in the 2017 UEFA Super Cup, and scored his first competitive goal for the club in a 2\u20131 defeat. His league debut came five days later at home to West Ham. Lukaku scored twice in a 4\u20130 win, becoming the fourth Manchester United player to score two goals on his Premier League debut for the club. On 12 September, he scored his first UEFA Champions League goal in a 3\u20130 win over FC Basel. On 17 September, Lukaku scored United's third goal in a 4\u20130 win over his former club Everton, with Lukaku running over towards Everton fans and cupping his ears during his goal celebration in response to being booed throughout the game. On 27 September, Lukaku scored twice in a 4\u20131 win over CSKA Moscow, taking his tally to 10 goals in his first nine appearances. In doing so, he broke the record set by Bobby Charlton who had scored nine goals in his first nine appearances for the club. In a 2\u20131 win over his former club Chelsea on 25 February 2018, Lukaku scored the equaliser and then assisted Jesse Lingard's game-winning goal. He scored his 200th goal for club and country on 13 March in a 2\u20131 away defeat to Sevilla that eliminated Manchester United from the Champions League in the round of 16. On 31 March 2018, Lukaku scored to open a 2\u20130 home win over Swansea. It was his 100th Premier League goal in his 216th game, and made him the fifth youngest of the 28 players to reach the tally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mateo Pellegrino",
        "text": "Before becoming a centre-forward, Pellegrino played as a left-back and as a winger. He cites Romelu Lukaku and Lucas Pratto as players who he shapes his game on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hakan \u00c7alhano\u011flu",
        "text": "Hakan \u00c7alhano\u011flu\n--Club career.\n----Karlsruher SC.\n----Hamburger SV.\n----Bayer Leverkusen.\n----Milan.\n----Inter Milan.\n--International career.\n--Style of play.\n--Personal life.\n--Honours.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Romelu Lukaku\n--Club career.\n----Early career.\n----Anderlecht.\n----Chelsea.\n------Transfer.\n------2011\u201312: Debut season.\n------2012\u201313 season: Loan to West Bromwich Albion.\n------2013\u201314 season: Loan to Everton.\n----Everton.\n------2014\u201316: Rise to stardom.\n------2016\u201317: Sustained individual success.\n----Manchester United.\n------Transfer.\n------2017\u201318 season: Debut season and loss in form.\n------2018\u201319 season: Final season in Manchester.\n----Inter Milan.\n------2019\u201320 season: Club record transfer.\n------2020\u201321 season: Serie A champion.\n----Return to Chelsea.\n------2021\u201322 season.\n--International career.\n--Style of play.\n----Influences.\n--Personal life.\n----Media and endorsements.\n----Activism.\n--Honours.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Emre Bel\u00f6zo\u011flu",
        "text": "A versatile midfielder, Bel\u00f6zo\u011flu was capable of playing in the middle of the pitch as a central midfielder, as an advanced playmaker, or even on the left. He was mainly known for his technical ability and tactical sense."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frank Klopas",
        "text": "After the lack of scoring chances created against Romania, Milutinovic's decision not to play Klopas was brought into question the day before the Knockout Round match, to which the Serbian manager said, \"\"He can score, but what else?\". Klopas responded to Milutinovic's assessment of his play saying, \"He said that? I don't know why he would feel that way. I can play wherever he needs me to play. This is the only time I've actually played striker. My five years in Greece, I played midfield and attacker. I'll play any position the team needs me to play. Where I am now, it's not my duty to defend.\"\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Stankovski",
        "text": "Luka Stankovski\n--Club career.\n----Rabotni\u010dki.\n----Gaziantep.\n--International career.\n--Style of play.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ilija Lupulesku",
        "text": "Ilija Lupulesku (; born October 30, 1967) is a former Serbian and later American table tennis player who competed in the 1988, 1992, 1996, 2000 and in the 2004 Summer Olympics. He became a naturalized American citizen in 2002 and competed for the United States from 2004 to 2006 including 2004 Summer Olympics. Ilija Lupulesku played his first game of table tennis at age nine in his small hometown of Uzdin, Yugoslavia. After seeing other children playing at his local school, he picked up a paddle and began what would become his life's ambition. Despite his love and talent for soccer, Lupulesku, under the watchful eye of first coach Jon Bosika, committed himself to training and by age 14 was the top player on the Yugoslavian Junior National Table Tennis Team. Over the next 12 years, he would rise through the ranks of the world's best players and become one of the largest sport celebrities in his native Yugoslavia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antun Stipan\u010di\u0107",
        "text": "The following year, at the 1980 European Championships in Bern Tova won two medals playing doubles, but sportswriters pointed out that he showed his true sport greatness in the fifth set. At 19:19 he gave up the ball in favor of the English player Paul Day, although the referee decided the opposite. For that sport gesture he got \"The Fair Play Trophy R. Bergmann\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Ili\u0107",
        "text": "As a left-footed player, Ili\u0107 performed at all position in midfield through the youth career. In early years of playing football, he usually performed more offensive as a second striker or attacking midfielder. Joining the youth team of Red Star Belgrade, Ili\u0107 converted his position, playing as right-side central midfielder, and later as a defensive midfielder with a box-to-box role, being paired with his brother. He characterized by lucidity and great performances face to face game against the opponent. Ili\u0107 is also free-kick taker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vedran Ro\u017ei\u0107",
        "text": "Later in his career he played as a sweeper. He played the Backenbauer role perfectly. He was known for his elegance in front of the keeper. He could easily jump in the 11 meter box and return the ball to the keeper. Many defenders in Yugoslavia would try to copy that style."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ilir Biturku",
        "text": "Biturku played most of his career as defender for Besa Kavaj\u00eb and Partizani Tirana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Einar Gausel",
        "text": "Gausel's playing style is mostly positional and strategic. With White he usually opens with 1.d4, 1.c4 or 1.Nf3. With Black against 1.e4 he often plays solid openings like the Caro-Kann Defence, but has also played more adventurous lines such as the Center Counter Defence. Against 1.d4 Gausel often plays the Slav or Semi-Slav Defense."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Tudor",
        "text": "Luka Nicola Tudor Bakulic (born 21 February 1969) is a retired Chilean footballer. He played as a forward during his career. He played for the U-20 side at the 1987 FIFA World Youth Championship in Chile and was a member of the senior squad at the 1989 Copa Am\u00e9rica. He holds the Chilean record for most goals scored in one game: playing for CD Universidad Cat\u00f3lica, in November 1993 he netted seven times in the 8\u20133 win over CD Antofagasta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hakan \u00c7alhano\u011flu",
        "text": "Despite mostly positive reception in his late teens and early twenties, in recent years, however, he has drawn some criticism as well; his pace was deemed insufficient for a winger, a position he adopted due to absence of his natural classic \"number 10\" attacking midfield role in the preferred formations of his teams, particularly A.C. Milan. He has also been criticized in the media for his lack of physical attributes and overall inconsistency of his performances. However, his dribbling, technique, passing (both short and long), crossing, and vision, as well as his eye for goal and striking ability from distance, have been referred to as his strengths. \u00c7alhano\u011flu has also been used in deeper midfield positions throughout his career, including in a holding role, in which he usually operates as a deep-lying playmaker, as an offensive\u2013minded central midfielder, known as the \"mezzala\" role in Italian football jargon, or even in more offensive roles on occasion, as a second striker, for example."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kubilay T\u00fcrkyilmaz",
        "text": "He missed the 1994 FIFA World Cup with serious injury, but appeared at Euro 1996, scoring Switzerland's equaliser against England in the opening match of the tournament, a 1\u20131 draw at Wembley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ilija Lupulesku",
        "text": "Lupulesku has a message for young players who have a desire to one day compete at a world-class level: \"Young players need to practice hard, as many as four hours a day and also do something for physical conditioning, for speed\" Lupulesku says. \"After one year of training, young players need to compete somewhere in tournaments. It doesn't matter where. You need to face many different players because if you do not face players with different styles, it is very hard to become a good player yourself.\" \"When I was young, just starting, I played all the tournaments I could. When you play tournaments you will lose in the beginning, but that's ok. After a time you will gain important experience from those tournaments and you will start to beat some good players. If you only practice and do not play tournaments, you will never know how good you really are.\"\n*Four-time US Men's Singles Champion (2002, 2003, 2005, 2007)\n*Five-time US Men's Doubles Champion (2003, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2010)\n*2003 US Mixed Doubles Champion\n*2001 & 2002 North American Team Champion\n*1990 European Men's Doubles Champion, three-time Runner-up\n*1988 Olympic Silver Medalist, Men's Doubles\n*1987 World Championships Men's Doubles Finalist\n*Two-time European Mixed Doubles Champion, two-time Runner-up\n*Four-time Yugoslavian Men's Singles Champion\n*Ten-time Men's Doubles and ten-time Mixed Doubles Champion"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ilija Bozoljac",
        "text": "Bozoljac is known for his unique style of play. He often changes the way he performs forehands and backhands, hitting double-handed forehands and single-handed backhands. He also has a strong serve, but he has to limit the strength of his serve due to a back injury. Nevertheless, he still serves well over 200\u00a0km/h."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka \u0160amani\u0107",
        "text": "\u0160amani\u0107 grew up playing a variety of sports, including football, handball, and tennis, and was also involved in breakdancing. He did not start playing basketball, the last sport he attempted, until he was 11 years old. He credits his football experience for improving his coordination as a basketball player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alessandro Sersanti",
        "text": "He can play as mezz'ala and full back with a good technique. He has also been compared to Paul Pogba."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Milunovi\u0107",
        "text": "After only 6 months in Belgium he returned to Serbia to play for Red Star Belgrade. On 21 March 2012, he scored a goal against Red Star's arch rivals Partizan in the Eternal derby."
      },
      {
        "title": "Volkan K\u00fcr\u015fat Bekiro\u011flu",
        "text": "Volkan K\u00fcr\u015fat Bekiro\u011flu (born December 30, 1977 in Kadirli, Turkey) is a Turkish retired footballer who last played for Adanaspor. He is playing leftback and left midfield. Standing at 175\u00a0cm, he wears the number 47 jersey. His brother Serkan Bekiro\u011flu is also footballer and currently plays for Kar\u015f\u0131yaka S.K."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miloslav Me\u010d\u00ed\u0159",
        "text": "By this time, Me\u010d\u00ed\u0159's sedate playing style was known to frustrate a lot of the more-powerful top ranked players. The Swedish players, in particular, were said to dislike playing against him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Krajnc",
        "text": "Luka Krajnc\n--Club career.\n--International career.\n--Style of play.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sorin Vlaicu",
        "text": "He started his career in 1987 in Politehnica Timi\u0219oara, where he spent most of his career. Soon he began to show himself as a very strong offensive midfielder. After becoming an international player, he was brought in 1992 by the 1991 European Champions Red Star Belgrade from Yugoslavia. In 1993, he returned to Timi\u0219oara where he continued playing until January 1995, when he moved to Hungary to play with B\u00e9k\u00e9scsaba El\u00f6re, where he played until January 1996. Since then, he has been the pillar of the Politehnica Timi\u0219oara team, having, in total, played an impressive 288 games, and scored 29 goals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ludibrium",
        "text": "Similarly, the melancholic Jaques in \"As You Like It\" (1599\u20131600) asserts, after the fashion of Heraclitus, that \"All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Alperen \u015eeng\u00fcn",
        "text": "His skillset has been compared to other European big men such as Nikola Joki\u0107, Domantis Sabonis, and Nikola Vu\u010devi\u0107, and other players such as Kevin Love, Bobby Portis, and Tom Gugliotta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku joined Italian club Inter Milan on 8 August 2019, signing a five-year contract for a fee reported to be a club record \u20ac80\u00a0million. He later mentioned the reasons for leaving Manchester United, by claiming that he was made a scapegoat alongside other players such as Paul Pogba and Alexis S\u00e1nchez, in addition to club's failure to protect him against rumours about his future. Lukaku made his debut for Inter Milan on 26 August in the opening Serie A matchday against Lecce, netting his side's third goal with his first shot in a 4\u20130 home win. The goal meant that Lukaku has found the net in his first league game for five of the six clubs he has represented; Anderlecht, West Brom, Everton, Manchester United, and Inter; he also become only the third Belgian to score for Inter in Serie A, after Enzo Scifo and Radja Nainggolan. In the club's second league game of the season at Cagliari on 1 September, Lukaku scored the match-winning goal from the penalty spot to give Inter a 2\u20131 victory away from home; however, he was subject to racial abuse from some of the Cagliari fans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jan Rajnoch",
        "text": "Jan Rajnoch\n--Club career.\n----Switch to Germany.\n----Turkey.\n--International career.\n--Style of play.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Said Maulid",
        "text": "Kalukula is a player with pace and ball controlling ability, when playing, he is very threat to the opponents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ilija Lupulesku",
        "text": "In 1988 he won the Seoul Olympic silver medal in the men's doubles together with Croatian Zoran Primorac. In 1991 regarded as one of the best players in the sport and also made up one-half of what many at the time called the greatest doubles team ever. Between 1989 and 1991, Lupulesku and doubles mate Primorac reached the semifinals or finals of every major tournament in the world. But by the end of 1991, war ripped through the region and the Croatian Primorac and Yugoslavian Lupulesku were no longer permitted to play together. While Primorac moved on to live and play in Belgium, Lupulesku remained in FR Yugoslavia and joined the military, where he continued to train."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oktay Derelio\u011flu",
        "text": "Derelio\u011flu played as a forward and is notable for his goal against Belgium during the qualifying rounds of the 1998 FIFA World Cup. The goal started at midfield before Derelio\u011flu jinked past six Belgian defenders, one of them twice, mimicking Diego Maradona's \"Goal of the Century\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luk\u00e1cs B\u0151le",
        "text": "Luk\u00e1cs B\u0151le\n--Club career.\n----Politehnica Ia\u0219i.\n----Ferencv\u00e1ros.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Nemanja Vu\u010di\u0107",
        "text": "Nemanja Vu\u010di\u0107\n--Club career.\n----Early years.\n----Zemun.\n--International career.\n--Style of play.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Uro\u0161 Filipovi\u0107",
        "text": "Uro\u0161 Filipovi\u0107\n--Club career.\n----Radni\u010dki Pirot.\n--Style of play.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jakub Klepi\u0161",
        "text": "Jakub Klepi\u0161\n--Playing career.\n--International play.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mehmet Ek\u015fi",
        "text": "Mehmet Ek\u015fi\n--Style of play.\n--Honours.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Leandro Romagnoli",
        "text": "His thin build, short stature and playing style were reminiscent of compatriot Osvaldo Ardiles. What the player \u2013 nicknamed \"Pipi\" \u2013 lacked in physical strength, he made up for with dribbling ability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Milunovi\u0107",
        "text": "Luka Milunovi\u0107 (; born 21 December 1992) is a Serbian footballer who plays as a midfielder for Albanian club FK Kuk\u00ebsi in Kategoria Superiore. In international competition he has played for the Serbia national under-21 football team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "When Lukaku turned 16 on 13 May 2009, he signed a professional contract with Anderlecht lasting until 2012. Eleven days later, he made his Belgian First Division debut on 24 May 2009 in the championship play-off match against Standard Li\u00e8ge as a 69th-minute substitute for defender V\u00edctor Bern\u00e1rdez. Anderlecht lost the match 1\u20130. Lukaku became a regular member of Anderlecht's first team during the 2009\u201310 season, scoring his first goal at senior level against Zulte Waregem in the 89th minute after coming on as substitute for Kanu on 28 August 2009. \"After scoring I dived into a sea of happiness,\" he told Berend Scholten from UEFA.com. \"You think you are flying and can take on the whole world.\" He ended the season as the top goalscorer in the Pro League with 15 goals as Anderlecht won its 30th Belgian title. He also scored four goals during the club's run to the last 16 of the 2009\u201310 UEFA Europa League. During the 2010\u201311 season, Lukaku scored 20 goals in all competitions, but Anderlecht failed to retain their league title despite finishing top of the table during the regular season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ali Lukunku",
        "text": "Born in Kinshasa, Lukunku moved with his family to Italy at an early age before they settled in Grenoble, France. He had success playing in the Belgian Pro League with Standard de Li\u00e8ge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hrvoje Peri\u0107",
        "text": "Since then he has progressed slowly but surely into a player lauded for his professionalism, becoming an all-around player who can play both forward positions and match up against any opponent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Josep Romeu",
        "text": "At the 2016 Summer Olympics, he competed for the national team in the men's tournament. He played club hockey in Belgium for KHC Leuven and currently plays for Club Egara"
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Modri\u0107",
        "text": "Modri\u0107 has been integral to the success of both Real Madrid and the Croatia national team, having won numerous individual honours for his contributions to club and country. His playstyle has earned him several nicknames as dubbed by the media and fandom, including \u201cthe midfield Maestro\u201d, \u201cthe magician\u201d, \"the puppet master\" among others. He has also been compared to an orchestra conductor for his capacity to control his team\u2019s gameplan or dictate the tempo of the match."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ilija Lupulesku",
        "text": "He is one of seven table tennis players to have competed at the first five Olympics since the sport was introduced to the Games in 1988. The others are Swede J\u00f6rgen Persson, Croatian Zoran Primorac, Belgian Jean-Michel Saive, Hungarian Csilla B\u00e1torfi, Swede Jan-Ove Waldner, and German J\u00f6rg Ro\u00dfkopf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yusuf Tunao\u011flu",
        "text": "Yusuf Tunao\u011flu\n--Career.\n--Style of play and reception.\n--Death and legacy.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Don\u010di\u0107",
        "text": "Don\u010di\u0107 was set to play at the Division B tournament of the 2014 FIBA Europe Under-16 Championship but was forced to withdraw from the tournament with a knee injury. In December 2014, he took part in a friendly tournament in Sz\u00e9kesfeh\u00e9rv\u00e1r, Hungary, averaging 35.3 points and 7.6 rebounds per game, while shooting 81 percent on two-pointers and 57 percent on three-pointers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boli Bolingoli-Mbombo",
        "text": "His younger brother, Emeraude and his two cousins, Romelu and Jordan Lukaku are also footballers."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which national team did Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli play for?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a striker for the Belgium national team."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does Romelu Lukaku still play, or did he retire?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Romelu Lukaku still plays in the Premier League and for the Belgium national team. In fact, in 2021 he returned to Chelsea in a club-record transfer worth \u00a397.5 million."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Lukaku older than the average Premier League football player?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I cannot find the answer to that, but I can tell you he's 28 currently."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli won any championships?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I didn't find the answer, but I found that he represented his country at four major tournaments: the 2016 and 2020 UEFA European Championships and the 2014 and 2018 FIFA World Cups."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What's his style of play supposed to be like?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Lukaku is a left-footed player that was a large and physically powerful striker from an early age, with an eye for goal, Lukaku has been known to use his physicality to get around defenders. However, despite his size, strength, physical build, and ability to hold-up play with his back to goal, his favored role is not as a target-man in the center, but as an out-and-out striker or poacher; due to his tactical versatility, he is also capable of playing as a winger.",
      "He's a left-footed player, he uses his physicality to get around defenders but likes to play as an out-and-out striker or poacher. He can also play as the winger."
    ],
    "topic": "Romelu Lukaku",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Romelu Lukaku:40",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Romelu Lukaku",
          "Style of play"
        ],
        "ctx": "Lukaku is a left-footed player, who in 2014 was named by \"The Guardian\" as one of the ten most promising young players in Europe. A large and physically powerful striker from an early age, with an eye for goal, Lukaku has been known to use his physicality to get around defenders. However, despite his size, strength, physical build, and ability to hold-up play with his back to goal, his favoured role is not as a target-man in the centre, but as an out-and-out striker or poacher; due to his tactical versatility, he is also capable of playing as a winger. A well-rounded forward, who is also strong in the air, beyond his physical qualities and goalscoring ability, he possesses pace, athleticism, awareness, good link-up play, technical attributes, and vision, as well as an ability to get into good attacking positions or create space for teammates with his intelligent runs off the ball. Although he was once criticised by pundits for his limited defensive contribution, he has since been praised by his managers for his work-rate off the ball. However, despite his ability, he has also come into criticism in the media at times over his movement and first touch."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Romelu Lukaku:40",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Romelu Lukaku",
          "Style of play"
        ],
        "ctx": "Lukaku is a left-footed player, who in 2014 was named by \"The Guardian\" as one of the ten most promising young players in Europe. A large and physically powerful striker from an early age, with an eye for goal, Lukaku has been known to use his physicality to get around defenders. However, despite his size, strength, physical build, and ability to hold-up play with his back to goal, his favoured role is not as a target-man in the centre, but as an out-and-out striker or poacher; due to his tactical versatility, he is also capable of playing as a winger. A well-rounded forward, who is also strong in the air, beyond his physical qualities and goalscoring ability, he possesses pace, athleticism, awareness, good link-up play, technical attributes, and vision, as well as an ability to get into good attacking positions or create space for teammates with his intelligent runs off the ball. Although he was once criticised by pundits for his limited defensive contribution, he has since been praised by his managers for his work-rate off the ball. However, despite his ability, he has also come into criticism in the media at times over his movement and first touch."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku is a left-footed player, who in 2014 was named by \"The Guardian\" as one of the ten most promising young players in Europe. A large and physically powerful striker from an early age, with an eye for goal, Lukaku has been known to use his physicality to get around defenders. However, despite his size, strength, physical build, and ability to hold-up play with his back to goal, his favoured role is not as a target-man in the centre, but as an out-and-out striker or poacher; due to his tactical versatility, he is also capable of playing as a winger. A well-rounded forward, who is also strong in the air, beyond his physical qualities and goalscoring ability, he possesses pace, athleticism, awareness, good link-up play, technical attributes, and vision, as well as an ability to get into good attacking positions or create space for teammates with his intelligent runs off the ball. Although he was once criticised by pundits for his limited defensive contribution, he has since been praised by his managers for his work-rate off the ball. However, despite his ability, he has also come into criticism in the media at times over his movement and first touch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Crediting the former Brazilian striker as his major influence as a kid, Lukaku added, \"He changed the dimension of a striker. He was fast, he can dribble like a winger, run like a sprinter, he was as strong as an ox\". When mentioned that he shares certain characteristics with the Brazilian, Lukaku responded, \"Be like Ronaldo? There is only one Ronaldo\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 18 June, Lukaku scored twice in a 3\u20130 win over Panama in their opening group game at the 2018 FIFA World Cup. In the next group game on 23 June 2018, he scored twice again in a 5\u20132 win over Tunisia. In doing so, Lukaku became the first player since Diego Maradona in 1986 to score two goals or more in consecutive World Cup matches. He eventually ended the tournament with four goals and one assist, which earned him the Bronze Boot award, as Belgium finished the tournament in third place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli (; born 13 May 1993) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Chelsea and the Belgium national team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku joined his local team Rupel Boom at age five. After four seasons at Rupel Boom, Lukaku was discovered by scouts of Lierse, a Belgian Pro League club with an established youth academy. He played for Lierse from 2004 until 2006, scoring 121 goals in 68 matches. After Lierse were relegated from the Belgian Pro League, Anderlecht purchased 13 youth players from Lierse in the 2006 mid-season, including Lukaku. He played three more years as a youth player with Anderlecht, scoring 131 goals in 93 matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 14 February, he scored a brace and got an assist against Lazio in a 3\u20131 victory, bringing his Serie A tally to 16 goals for the season and equalling Cristiano Ronaldo as the league's top scorer. Lukaku's second goal was also the 300th of his professional career. Inter won the 2020\u201321 Serie A for the first time since the 2009\u201310 season. Lukaku finished the season 2020\u201321 with 24 league goals, 11 assists. Making him the highest scorer on the title-winning team and the second highest-scorer in the league, behind Ronaldo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "He began the new year on 6 January by scoring a brace in a 3\u20131 win against Napoli, giving Inter the first league win at Stadio San Paolo since October 1997; he earned praise from the media for his first goal scored in the 14th minute, which came from an individual effort. On 9 February, Lukaku scored the final goal of the 4\u20132 home win over cross-town rivals Milan, sending Inter to the top of the table and giving them another double over Milan; it was also his 17th league goal of the season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 25 July, Lukaku scored a brace in a 3\u20130 win at Genoa; in doing so, he became the first Inter player since Istv\u00e1n Nyers in 1949\u201350 season to score 15 away goals in a Serie A season, and the first do to so in his debut season. He concluded his first Serie A season with 23 goals, as Inter finished runner-up by just one point to Juventus in the standings; only Ronaldo (25) and Nyers (26) have scored more than him in their debut season at Inter. On 5 August, Lukaku scored in a 2\u20130 win over Getafe in the Europa League's round of 16, helping his side reach the quarter-finals of a European competition for the first time since 2011. It was his 30th goal in all competitions, a new personal best, and he had also scored for the 8th consecutive Europa League match, equalling the all-time record set by Alan Shearer in 2004\u201305. In the quarter-finals on 10 August, he broke the record, scoring in his ninth consecutive match in the competition in a 2\u20131 victory over Bayer Leverkusen in D\u00fcsseldorf, to send Inter into the semi-finals. On 17 August, Lukaku scored a brace in a 5\u20130 win against Shakhtar Donetsk\u2014his tenth consecutive match in the competition\u2014as Inter reached the final. In the final, he earned and scored a penalty in the 5th minute, but also scored an own goal in the 74th minute, which was eventually the winning goal for Sevilla in a 3\u20132 defeat. Lukaku equalled Ronaldo's record in 1997\u201398 season, by scoring 34 goals in all competitions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku was born in Antwerp, Belgium to Congolese parents. His father, Roger Lukaku, played professional football and was capped at international level by Zaire. He has a younger brother named Jordan, who has progressed through the youth academy at Anderlecht and currently plays for Royal Antwerp in Belgium. His cousin Boli Bolingoli-Mbombo plays as a left-sided winger or defender for Celtic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku was a member of the Belgium under-21 team and scored a goal on his debut against Slovenia. On 24 February 2010, Lukaku was named for the first time in the Belgium senior squad for a friendly against Croatia. On 17 November 2010, he scored his first two international goals in a friendly against Russia. Lukaku scored his first goal in almost two years for the national team, netting the winner in a 4\u20132 friendly victory over rivals the Netherlands on 15 August 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku made his 100th Belgium appearance on 5 September 2021 against the Czech Republic, scoring his 67th goal in the process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 29 March 2016, Lukaku headed a consolation in a 2\u20131 loss away to Portugal, assisted by his brother, Jordan Lukaku. At UEFA Euro 2016, Lukaku scored twice in Belgium's 3\u20130 second group stage match win on 18 June 2016 over the Republic of Ireland."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku made his debut at Stamford Bridge in a 3\u20131 victory over Norwich City in the 83rd minute, coming on as a substitute for Fernando Torres. Lukaku made his first start for Chelsea in the League Cup against Fulham. Chelsea went on to win the match on penalties. He spent the majority of the season playing for the reserves and started his first Premier League match on 13 May 2012, against Blackburn Rovers, and turned in a man of the match performance, providing an assist for John Terry's opener. However, Lukaku stressed he was disappointed with his involvement at the end of his debut season, revealing that, after his side's UEFA Champions League win in the final on 19 May, he refused to hold the trophy, explaining \"it wasn't me, but my team that won\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of international goals scored by Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "As of October 2021, Lukaku has scored two hat-tricks during his international career, including the treble against Luxembourg, with the other coming in a 9\u20130 win against Gibraltar in a 2018 World Cup qualifier in August 2017. Lukaku has scored more goals in friendlies than in any other format, with 22. He has scored eighteen goals in qualifying for the FIFA World Cup, five in FIFA World Cup finals, seven in qualifying for the UEFA European Championship, six in the European Championship finals and ten in the UEFA Nations League. Lukaku scored his most recent goal in a 2\u20133 UEFA Nations League Finals loss against France in October 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 21 October 2020, Lukaku scored a brace in a 2\u20132 draw against Borussia M\u00f6nchengladbach in the first match of the 2020\u201321 UEFA Champions League. On 1 December, he scored another brace against Borussia M\u00f6nchengladbach to secure a 3\u20132 away win. However, Inter drew their last match against Shakhtar Donetsk, to finish last in their group and to be eliminated from all European competitions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 8 October 2021, Lukaku was one of five Chelsea players included in the final 30-man shortlist for the 2021 Ballon d'Or, eventually finishing 12th."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In the first months since his arrival, Lukaku formed an attacking partnership with Argentine youngster Lautaro Mart\u00ednez, dubbed \"Lu-La\" by Italian media. This became after the duo scored a brace each in the 4\u20133 away win against Sassuolo in October, giving Inter the first triumph since 2016. On 2 November, Lukaku scored a brace in a 2\u20131 away win over Bologna in Serie A, which saw him match Ronaldo's record of nine goals in his first 11 league appearances for the club. On 27 November, Lukaku scored his first UEFA Champions League goal for Inter in a 3\u20131 away win against Slavia Prague in the group stage; in addition to that, he also assisted the two other goals scored by Lautaro Mart\u00ednez and had two goals disallowed himself. In the final match home against Barcelona, Lukaku scored his side's only goal in a 2\u20131 defeat, meaning that Inter was transferred to Europa League for the second season in a row."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku has spoken out against racism he suffered while playing football, particularly the 2019\u201320 Serie A season, his first year playing in Italy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Belgium's all-time top goalscorer, Lukaku made his senior international debut in 2010, and has represented his country at four major tournaments: the 2016 and 2020 UEFA European Championships and the 2014 and 2018 FIFA World Cups; he finished as joint second-highest goalscorer won the Bronze Boot in the latter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Y\u00fcksel Yavuz",
        "text": "He has won a number of awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Romelu Lukaku\n--Club career.\n----Early career.\n----Anderlecht.\n----Chelsea.\n------Transfer.\n------2011\u201312: Debut season.\n------2012\u201313 season: Loan to West Bromwich Albion.\n------2013\u201314 season: Loan to Everton.\n----Everton.\n------2014\u201316: Rise to stardom.\n------2016\u201317: Sustained individual success.\n----Manchester United.\n------Transfer.\n------2017\u201318 season: Debut season and loss in form.\n------2018\u201319 season: Final season in Manchester.\n----Inter Milan.\n------2019\u201320 season: Club record transfer.\n------2020\u201321 season: Serie A champion.\n----Return to Chelsea.\n------2021\u201322 season.\n--International career.\n--Style of play.\n----Influences.\n--Personal life.\n----Media and endorsements.\n----Activism.\n--Honours.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In 2020, Lukaku honoured George Floyd by kneeling and keeping one fist high in support of Black Lives Matter when he scored in a game with Inter against Sampdoria. This symbolic action was inspired by American football player Colin Kaepernick who kneeled during the national anthem before every game in 2016 as a peaceful manner of protest against police brutality towards people of colour. Since then, Lukaku and many other players in Europe has taken an active role to take a knee on the pitches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Chelsea\n*FIFA Club World Cup: 2021\n*EFL Cup runner-up: 2021\u201322"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 10 October 2019, Lukaku scored his 50th and 51st international goals in a 9\u20130 home win over San Marino, in a Euro 2020 qualifier. On 12 June 2021, Lukaku scored twice in Belgium's opening group match of UEFA Euro 2020, a 3\u20130 win over Russia. On 21 June, he scored the last goal in a 2\u20130 win over Finland in his team's final group match. On 2 July, he scored Belgium's only goal of the match from a penalty late in the first half in a 2\u20131 defeat to Italy in the quarter-finals of the competition. Two days after the final Lukaku was awarded as sole Belgian player with a selection for the UEFA Euro 2020 Team of the Tournament. He got the striker position."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 6 June 2018, Lukaku officially became Belgium's all-time leading scorer with 31 goals after scoring a goal in a 3\u20130 win over Egypt. He also broke a three-way tie with the previous record goalscorers, Bernard Voorhoof and Paul Van Himst."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 22 August 2021, Lukaku scored on his return debut in the 15th minute, converting Reece James' cross, in a 2\u20130 away win over Arsenal. On 12 September, Lukaku scored twice at home against Aston Villa, the first time he had scored at Stamford Bridge. Two days later, Lukaku scored his first European goal for Chelsea, against Zenit in the Champions League."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In March 2017, Lukaku turned down a new five-year contract worth a reported \u00a3140,000 a week amidst rumours of a return to Chelsea. In an interview, he questioned the club's ambition to make big transfers and chase Champions League qualification, offending his manager Ronald Koeman. A goal in a 3\u20131 win for Everton against Burnley on 15 April meant Lukaku was the first Everton player since Bob Latchford to score 25 goals in two consecutive seasons in all competitions, and the first player since the legendary Dixie Dean to score in nine consecutive matches at Goodison Park. On 20 April 2017, Lukaku was named in the PFA Team of the Year for the first time. He was also included in the six player shortlists for the PFA Players' Player of the Year and PFA Young Player of the Year awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Inter Milan\n*Serie A: 2020\u201321\n*UEFA Europa League runner-up: 2019\u201320"
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicolae Lupescu",
        "text": "Lupescu earned 20 caps and scored two goals for the Romania national team. He represented his country at the 1970 FIFA World Cup and for the participation in that tournament he was decorated by President of Romania Traian B\u0103sescu on 25 March 2008 with the Ordinul \u201eMeritul Sportiv\u201d \u2014 (The Medal \"The Sportive Merit\") class III."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku began his senior club career playing for Anderlecht, where he won a Belgian Pro League title and finished as the league's top goalscorer. In 2011, he joined Chelsea in a transfer worth \u00a310 million (\u20ac12 million), but limited playing time resulted in loans to West Bromwich Albion and Everton; in 2014, Lukaku signed with Everton in a then club-record transfer worth \u00a328 million (\u20ac32 million), going on to finish as the league's second-top goalscorer. He subsequently signed with Manchester United in a transfer worth \u00a375 million (\u20ac88 million), but after a breakdown in relations with the club, Lukaku departed for Inter Milan in 2019 in a club-record deal worth \u20ac80 million (\u00a368.1 million), and won a Serie A title and Serie A Most Valuable Player."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In a 2016 interview with ESPN, Lukaku named Didier Drogba and Nicolas Anelka as the two strikers who made him want to play for Chelsea, but it was the mention of a third striker during the interview, his idol Ronaldo, that lit him up with excitement, with Lukaku stating,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In January 2014, Lukaku was named by \"The Guardian\" as one of the ten most promising young players in Europe, but later in the month was taken off on a stretcher with an ankle ligament injury after Gareth Barry slipped and slid into the striker as he attempted to block Steven Gerrard's opening goal in the Merseyside derby against Liverpool. Lukaku made his return from injury against West Ham in March 2014, scoring the only goal of the match on the 81st minute after coming on as a second-half substitute. On 6 April, he scored one goal and assisted another as Everton beat Arsenal 3\u20130 at Goodison Park to record a sixth consecutive Premier League win. His final goal for the loan period came on the last day of the season as he scored the second in a 2\u20130 win over Hull City. Lukaku found the net 15 times in 31 league matches to help Everton to fifth place with a club record of 72 Premier League points."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Belgium\n*FIFA World Cup third place: 2018"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kushtrim Munishi",
        "text": "After 2000, while playing in Kosovo, he was awarded as Best Soccer Player in Kosovo and Best Sportsman and won Best Goal Scoring Award three times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stavri Lubonja",
        "text": "He spent his six-year football-playing career with capital club Dinamo Tirana, winning three national championships."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku made his debut against Real Madrid on 8 August in the 2017 UEFA Super Cup, and scored his first competitive goal for the club in a 2\u20131 defeat. His league debut came five days later at home to West Ham. Lukaku scored twice in a 4\u20130 win, becoming the fourth Manchester United player to score two goals on his Premier League debut for the club. On 12 September, he scored his first UEFA Champions League goal in a 3\u20130 win over FC Basel. On 17 September, Lukaku scored United's third goal in a 4\u20130 win over his former club Everton, with Lukaku running over towards Everton fans and cupping his ears during his goal celebration in response to being booed throughout the game. On 27 September, Lukaku scored twice in a 4\u20131 win over CSKA Moscow, taking his tally to 10 goals in his first nine appearances. In doing so, he broke the record set by Bobby Charlton who had scored nine goals in his first nine appearances for the club. In a 2\u20131 win over his former club Chelsea on 25 February 2018, Lukaku scored the equaliser and then assisted Jesse Lingard's game-winning goal. He scored his 200th goal for club and country on 13 March in a 2\u20131 away defeat to Sevilla that eliminated Manchester United from the Champions League in the round of 16. On 31 March 2018, Lukaku scored to open a 2\u20130 home win over Swansea. It was his 100th Premier League goal in his 216th game, and made him the fifth youngest of the 28 players to reach the tally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Enver Lugu\u0161i\u0107",
        "text": "He started his career in FK Lokomotiva Br\u010dko in 1979. Two years later, he moved to FK Jedinstvo Br\u010dko where he played until 1986. Then he left to play in FK Sarajevo where he spent four seasons before eventually leaving for Turkish Konyaspor. In Konyaspor, he was proclaimed the best goalkeeper of Turkish S\u00fcper Lig twice and won Gold Gloves British Petrol twice. In 1992, he left for Kayserispor where he played successfully until 1995."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On 3 January 2021, Lukaku scored a goal in a 6\u20132 win over Crotone, to reach his 50th goal across all competitions in only 70 matches, breaking the previous record of Ronaldo who scored 50 goals in 77 matches. On 26 January, Lukaku was involved in a confrontation with former Manchester United teammate Zlatan Ibrahimovi\u0107 in Inter's Coppa Italia quarter-final match against Milan. Following a foul committed by Lukaku late in the first half, he and Ibrahimovi\u0107 could be heard exchanging insults as the pair clashed heads and had to be restrained by their respective teammates. Both players were booked as their arguments continued into the tunnel at half-time. Ibrahimovi\u0107 would be sent off during the second half following a second yellow for a foul on Aleksandar Kolarov, as Inter went on to record a 2\u20131 victory."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of international goals scored by Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Romelu Lukaku is a Belgian professional footballer who represents the Belgium national football team as a striker. He made his debut for his country in a 1\u20130 defeat to Croatia in Brussels in March 2010. His first and second international goals came on his eighth appearance for Belgium, in a 2\u20130 friendly victory over Russia. , Lukaku is his country's top scorer with 68 goals in 101 appearances, ahead of Bernard Voorhoof and Paul Van Himst (30 goals). The Belgian Football Association confirmed that he had broken the national record when Lukaku scored his 31st international goal in a match against Japan in November 2017. FIFA, however, did not initially recognise the record as three goals had been scored against Luxembourg in a friendly in May 2014 later declared by the organisation as an unofficial friendly due to too many substitutions being made. He scored twice against Tunisia in the group stages of the 2018 FIFA World Cup, a game after which football journalist Nick Ames praised him for a \"laudable act of sportsmanship\" as he had indicated to the referee that he had not been fouled in the penalty area, denying himself the chance of a hat-trick. The two goals took his overall tally in the 2018 World Cup to four and made him Belgium's highest scorer in a single World Cup tournament, and made him the first player since Diego Maradona in the 1986 FIFA World Cup to score back-to-back braces (two goals in a single game)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vasile Atanasiu",
        "text": "During his career, Atanasiu received the following awards and medals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sportske novosti Yellow Shirt award",
        "text": "As of 2010 only three players have won the award on more than occasion, with each of them winning two awards:\n*Vladica Kova\u010devi\u0107 (1963, 1965)\n*Rudolf Belin (1964, 1969)\n*Jurica Jerkovi\u0107 (1971, 1976)\n*Igor Cvitanovi\u0107 (1996, 1997)\n*Ivica Oli\u0107 (2002, 2003)\n*Eduardo (2006, 2007)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku signed a five-year contract with Everton in July 2014 for a club record fee of \u00a328\u00a0million. He scored his first goal as a permanent player on 13 September, against his former club West Brom. Lukaku did not celebrate the goal, and was applauded by the West Brom fans for his sign of respect. On 19 February 2015, Lukaku scored his first Everton hat-trick in a 4\u20131 win for Everton against BSC Young Boys in the UEFA Europa League last 32; he struck with a header, a right-foot shot and a left-foot shot. He added another two goals in a 3\u20131 win in the second leg a week later. With eight goals, he was the tournament's joint highest scorer that season, alongside Alan of Red Bull Salzburg."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of international goals scored by Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "List of international goals scored by Romelu Lukaku\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Radu Voina",
        "text": "Four years later, he won the silver medal as part of the Romanian team. He played all five matches and scored five goals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aleksei Berezutski",
        "text": "He began his professional career in 1999 at the age of 17 at Torpedo Moscow, graduating from the club's famed academy. He is now playing for CSKA Moscow. He tends to play as a central defender but he can play as fullback, wingback, defensive midfielder or even as a winger. He is a defender who can join attacks from the wing. He scored CSKA Moscow's first goal as they came from behind to win the 2005 UEFA Cup Final."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gheorghe Mih\u0103ilescu",
        "text": "He received the following awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Slovak Footballer of the Year",
        "text": "It was first awarded during the 2012 award ceremony, for the fan favourite of 2011. Fans vote online and select one of ten shortlisted nominees for the J\u00e1n Popluh\u00e1r Award."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Tudor",
        "text": "Luka Nicola Tudor Bakulic (born 21 February 1969) is a retired Chilean footballer. He played as a forward during his career. He played for the U-20 side at the 1987 FIFA World Youth Championship in Chile and was a member of the senior squad at the 1989 Copa Am\u00e9rica. He holds the Chilean record for most goals scored in one game: playing for CD Universidad Cat\u00f3lica, in November 1993 he netted seven times in the 8\u20133 win over CD Antofagasta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edl Schamiloglu",
        "text": "Other awards he has received include:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Xhevahir Sukaj",
        "text": "On his first match back he was able to get a hat-trick in the match against Besa Kavaj\u00eb, helping the team to win the match 4\u20131. In the other 14 matches that season he scored another 7 goals.\n;Orduspor"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "When Lukaku turned 16 on 13 May 2009, he signed a professional contract with Anderlecht lasting until 2012. Eleven days later, he made his Belgian First Division debut on 24 May 2009 in the championship play-off match against Standard Li\u00e8ge as a 69th-minute substitute for defender V\u00edctor Bern\u00e1rdez. Anderlecht lost the match 1\u20130. Lukaku became a regular member of Anderlecht's first team during the 2009\u201310 season, scoring his first goal at senior level against Zulte Waregem in the 89th minute after coming on as substitute for Kanu on 28 August 2009. \"After scoring I dived into a sea of happiness,\" he told Berend Scholten from UEFA.com. \"You think you are flying and can take on the whole world.\" He ended the season as the top goalscorer in the Pro League with 15 goals as Anderlecht won its 30th Belgian title. He also scored four goals during the club's run to the last 16 of the 2009\u201310 UEFA Europa League. During the 2010\u201311 season, Lukaku scored 20 goals in all competitions, but Anderlecht failed to retain their league title despite finishing top of the table during the regular season."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juozas Gru\u0161as",
        "text": "He received awards for \"Herkus Mantas\" in 1957, and for \"\u0160vitrigaila\", \"Barbora Radvilait\u0117\" and \"Pijus nebuvo protingas\" in 1976."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shyqyri Rreli",
        "text": "A relatively successful forward for KF Erzeni, Puna Tirana, and Dinamo Tirana in the 1950s, he won four league titles with Dinamo Tirana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Constantin L\u0103c\u0103tu\u0219u",
        "text": "Sports awards:\n* 1994: \u201cFair-Play\u201d award by Romanian Olympic and Sports Committee for his role in a rescue attempt in Everest.\n* 1999: \u201eSportsman of the year\u201d (with Gabriela Szabo)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Julius Aghahowa",
        "text": "Aghahowa played in Ukraine, England and Turkey during his career. Famous for his acrobatic goal celebrations, he performed six consecutive perfect backflips after scoring a goal against Sweden at the 2002 World Cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Divock Origi",
        "text": "Origi came on as a substitute for Romelu Lukaku in the 58th minute of the opening Group H game against Algeria in Belo Horizonte on 17 June. In Belgium's second match, again after coming on as a substitute for Lukaku, he scored his first senior international goal in the 88th minute of a 1\u20130 win over Russia to qualify the \"Red Devils\" for the knockout stage. In so doing, at 19 years, 2 months and 4 days, he became the youngest goalscorer of the tournament (until American winger Julian Green scored against Belgium during their round of 16 match), the youngest goalscorer in Belgian World Cup history, and the first player of Kenyan origin to score at a World Cup finals. For his performances, he was named the Young Talent of the 2014 Belgian Sportsman of the year awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jordan Lukaku",
        "text": "Regarded as a promising player in his youth, Lukaku is a quick, hard-working, and powerful left-footed attacking full-back. He primarily plays as a left-back, but has demonstrated he is capable of playing anywhere along the left side of the pitch as a wing-back, as a wide midfielder, or even as a winger in an attacking trident. He is particularly well known for his outstanding pace, as well as his technique, crossing ability, physical strength, and stamina, which enables him to cover the flank effectively, get forward, exploit spaces, take on opponents, retain possession, and create chances for his teammates. He has drawn criticism at times from pundits over his tactical sense and the defensive aspect of this game, which have been cited as areas which have room for improvement. He has also struggled with injuries which have limited his playing time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sebino Plaku",
        "text": "In the matchday 10 against Kuk\u00ebsi, Plaku scored a brace, including a first-half spectacular long-range strike to rescue his side a point. He bagged 4 goals in 5 matches in November to earn Albanian Superliga Player of the Month award, becoming the first Kamza player to win it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Resul Hoja\u00fdew",
        "text": "He has won seven Turkmenistan \u00ddokary Liga titles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cornel Dinu",
        "text": "Dinu won three times (1970, 1972, 1974) the Romanian Footballer of the Year award, also in 1970 along with Dinamo teammate Florea Dumitrache he was nominated for the Ballon d'Or. In 1979, Dinu had an offer from Bayern Munich which he refused, choosing to stay in Romania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vladimir Lukari\u0107",
        "text": "Born in Rijeka (back then still named Fiume and part of the Kingdom of Italy) as a player, he was HNK Rijeka's first player to be capped for the Yugoslav national team in 1961. He spent much of his career in Rijeka, collecting over 200 league caps and scoring 42 goals. He also had a two-year spell with AC Bellinzona in Switzerland before returning to HNK Rijeka as assistant manager. He has had six appearances for the Yugoslav national team, scoring his only goal against Ethiopia in 1962."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lud\u011bk Zelenka",
        "text": "Zelenka played for various top Gambrinus liga clubs during his career and was a prolific goalscorer. In the 2004-2005 season he scored 12 goals, becoming the second best goalscorer of the season. At the end of 2009 he ended his professional career."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicolae Lupescu",
        "text": "Lupescu was born in Bucharest and debuted in Divizia A with Rapid Bucure\u0219ti in 1962. He remained with Rapid for ten seasons, winning the league title in 1967 and the cup title in 1972. He played five seasons in Austria before retiring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rajko Ljubi\u010d",
        "text": "In 2006, he won Antu\u0161 Award for special merits.\n*\"Balint Vujkov\", documentary film, 1993\n*\"Ivan Antunovi\u0107\", documentary film, 1993\n*\"Uskrs u Subotici\", documentary film, 1994\n*\"Du\u017eijanca\", documentary film, 1994\n*\"Suboti\u010dki tambura\u0161ki orkestar: Kao kap vode na dlanu\", \"musical videotape\", 1995\n*\"Suboti\u010dki tambura\u0161ki orkestar: Prvih 25 godina\", documentary film, 2001\n*\"Sinagoga u Subotici\", documentary film, 2002\n*\"Du\u017eijanca 2002.\", documentary film, 2002\n*\"\u0110uga\", short movie, 2002\n*\"Tri slamarke, tri divojke\", documentary film, 2002\n*\"Pjesnik Jakov Kopilovi\u0107\", documentary film, 2002\n*\"Kruv na\u0161 svagdanji\", documentary film, 2003\n*\"Slikar Stipan \u0160abi\u0107\", documentary film, 2003\n*\"Vrep\u010dije gnjizdo\", short movie, 2003\n*\"Knji\u017eevnik Matija Poljakovi\u0107\", documentary film, 2003\n*\"Pripovitka o dijalektu\", documentary film, 2003\n*\"Sto godina Karmeli\u0107anskog samostana u Somboru\", documentary film, 2004\n*\"Jeka mog ditinjstva\", short movie, 2004\n*\"Sala\u0161i u Ba\u010dkoj \u2013 njihov nestanak\", documentary film, 2005 (co-author is Alojzije Stanti\u0107)\n*\"Bo\u017ei\u0107 na sala\u0161u\", documentary film, 2005\n*\"Ana Be\u0161li\u0107\", documentary film, 2005\n*\"Prof. Bela Gabri\u0107\", documentary film, 2005\n*\"Sudija i slikar Ivan Tikvicki\u2013Pudar\", documentary film, 2005\n*\"Proslava stogodi\u0161njice Karmela u Somboru\", documentary film, 2005\n*\"Pivaj Ba\u010dka veselo\", monodrama, short movie, 2006. (as scenario was used the work of Milivoj Pr\u0107i\u0107, dedicated to football squad NK Ba\u010dka 1901),\n*\"Tkanje i vezovi\", documentary film, 2006\n*\"Pere Tumbas Hajo-muzika je bila njegov govor\", documentary and portrait-movie, 2006\n*\"Tkanje i vezovi\", etnografical documentary film, 2006\n*\"\u010cukundidino zrno ora\", animirani film, 2006"
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "On the final day of the summer 2013 transfer window, Lukaku joined Everton on a season-long loan. The striker made his d\u00e9but for the Toffees away to West Ham United on 21 September 2013, scoring the winning goal in a 3\u20132 victory for Everton. During the header, he had a collision with a West Ham defender and was taken off the pitch for some treatment. The physio had to tell him he had scored the winner. He scored twice on his home debut nine days later in a 3\u20132 win against Newcastle United, as well assisting Ross Barkley's goal. He then opened the scoring in a 3\u20131 defeat to Manchester City in the following match. He continued his impressive start at the club by netting the opening goal in a 2\u20130 win over Aston Villa, and then scored twice in the first Merseyside derby of the season as Everton drew 3\u20133 against Liverpool, with Lukaku stating afterwards it was the best experience he had had in his short career."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mladen Ko\u0161\u010dak",
        "text": "Internationally, he was capped 4 times for the Yugoslavia national football team and was member of the national squad which won the silver medal at the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne. Although he was considered a huge talent, his career was hampered by a serious injury and he effectively stopped playing by 1960, appearing in only a single match in his last three years with the club before retiring in 1963."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "After speculation linking Lukaku to a loan move to Fulham, on 10 August 2012, he joined West Bromwich Albion on a season-long loan deal. He scored his first league goal eight days later, coming on as a substitute in the 77th minute in a 3\u20130 win against Liverpool. He made his full debut in a win against Reading at The Hawthorns, scoring the match's only goal. On 24 November, Lukaku came on as a 70th-minute substitute for Shane Long and netted a penalty and provided an assist to Marc-Antoine Fortun\u00e9, as West Brom defeated Sunderland 4\u20132 away at the Stadium of Light. The win proved to be West Brom's fourth consecutive win in the top flight for the first time since 1980. On 12 January 2013, Lukaku had his first multi-goal game in the Premier League, giving West Brom a 2\u20130 lead against Reading, before a late comeback gave the Berkshire club a 3\u20132 victory at the Madejski Stadium. In the face of claims he wanted to stay with West Brom for another year, Lukaku confirmed to the press he still wished to become a legend at Stamford Bridge. On 11 February, Lukaku came on as a substitute and scored his tenth Premier League goal of the season against Liverpool in a match that ended 2\u20130."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xhevahir Kapllani",
        "text": "Kapllani played the majority of is career for hometown club Teuta, with whom he won the 1993\u201394 Albanian Superliga title, but also had spells with capital clubs Dinamo Tirana and Partizani as well as with Macedonian side Bashkimi. In his title winning season with Teuta, he recorded a 824-minute period of not conceding a league goal, putting him in the world's 148th place in the list of goalkeepers keeping the longest clean sheets by 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "Lukaku joined Italian club Inter Milan on 8 August 2019, signing a five-year contract for a fee reported to be a club record \u20ac80\u00a0million. He later mentioned the reasons for leaving Manchester United, by claiming that he was made a scapegoat alongside other players such as Paul Pogba and Alexis S\u00e1nchez, in addition to club's failure to protect him against rumours about his future. Lukaku made his debut for Inter Milan on 26 August in the opening Serie A matchday against Lecce, netting his side's third goal with his first shot in a 4\u20130 home win. The goal meant that Lukaku has found the net in his first league game for five of the six clubs he has represented; Anderlecht, West Brom, Everton, Manchester United, and Inter; he also become only the third Belgian to score for Inter in Serie A, after Enzo Scifo and Radja Nainggolan. In the club's second league game of the season at Cagliari on 1 September, Lukaku scored the match-winning goal from the penalty spot to give Inter a 2\u20131 victory away from home; however, he was subject to racial abuse from some of the Cagliari fans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Refik Erduran",
        "text": "In 1986, he became president of the International Theatre Institute's (ITI) Turkey branch. He was elected chair of the \"Authors Committee\" of the same organization's World Congress held at Helsinki, Finland in 1989. Upon an invitation of the Iowa Writers' Workshop, he went to the United States, where he worked nearly one year. He stayed in California some seven or eight years to adapt some of his works into television. During this period, he continued his journalist career serving as the chief of the Western America News Office of \"Milliyet\". In 1985, he was named \"The Most Successful Columnist\" by the Turkish Journalists' Association, and in 1991 \"The Most Successful Playwright\" by the Ministry of Culture. His play \"Ramiz ile J\u00fclide\" (\"Ramiz and J\u00fclide\") brought him the \"Yunus Emre Contest Award\" in 1995."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mihailo Janketi\u0107",
        "text": "He received awards and recognitions such as the Dobri\u010din prsten, Pavle Vuisi\u0107 Award, Nu\u0161i\u0107 Lifetime Achievement Award, Statuette of Joakim Vuji\u0107, four Sterija Awards, October Award of the City of Belgrade, \u0106uran Statuette, Ra\u0161a Plaovi\u0107 Award and two annual Yugoslav Drama Theatre awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Romelu Lukaku",
        "text": "In the second game of the 2015\u201316 Premier League season, Lukaku scored a first-half double in Everton's 3\u20130 win at Southampton on 15 August 2015 with his first two shots on target. Before the match, he presented a T-shirt to a home fan whom he had accidentally struck with the ball during shooting practice. On 26 August, he scored another brace in a 5\u20133 extra-time win over League One side Barnsley in the League Cup. On 28 September, Lukaku scored twice and assisted the other against West Brom as he managed to guide his team from losing 2\u20130 to winning 2\u20133. He scored against Liverpool the following week in a 1\u20131 draw at Goodison Park. On 21 November, Lukaku scored twice in a 4\u20130 win over Aston Villa, becoming the fifth player under 23 years of age to score at least 50 Premier League goals, after Robbie Fowler, Michael Owen, Wayne Rooney and Cristiano Ronaldo. On 7 December, Lukaku scored a close-range goal in a 1\u20131 draw against Crystal Palace, his 50th in 100 appearances in all competitions for Everton. On 12 December, Lukaku became the first Everton player to score in six consecutive Premier League matches, and the first to score in seven consecutive matches in all competitions since Bob Latchford 40 years previously, when he opened the scoring in the \"Toffees\"' 1\u20131 draw with Norwich City at Carrow Road. In his next match, a 3\u20132 defeat to Leicester City, Lukaku became the first Everton player since Dave Hickson in 1954 to score in eight consecutive matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jakub Klepi\u0161",
        "text": "He won the Gagarin Cup in 2012 with Dynamo Moscow, scoring the series-winning goal in the seventh game."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ilir Luarasi",
        "text": "Luarasi spent 11 years between the posts of Dinamo, playing alongside fellow internationals Muhedin Targaj and Ilir P\u00ebrnaska among others. He won three league titles and two domestic cups with the club and played in the 1985\u201386 UEFA Cup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mutlu Dervi\u015fo\u011flu",
        "text": "He played either as an attacking midfielder or as a striker. He played in Turkish Super League several seasons with Erzurumspor, Adanaspor, and Yimpa\u015f Yozgatspor. His best season was his debut season as a professional player, when he scored amazing 28 goals in 32 games in TFF Third League for G\u00fcm\u00fc\u015fhanespor. That was a huge achievement given the fact that he started playing football only when he was 17 years old. Until then, he was a basketball player playing for the local \u0130dmanoca\u011f\u0131 basketball team. In 1994, he shifted to amateur football team of \u0130dmanoca\u011f\u0131. Without doubt his jumping and timing skills as a basketball player helped him to become a powerhouse forward in football. He is a native of Ak\u00e7aabat and speaks English besides his native language."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maksim Antoniuk",
        "text": "Antoniuk received the following awards:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lubom\u00edr Vlk",
        "text": "He spent three seasons in FC Porto winning two league titles but he was plagued by injuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "J\u00e1nos Luk\u00e1cs",
        "text": "Luk\u00e1cs played in 145 top-flight matches and scored 3 goals in the \"red-white-blues\" kits of FC Bihor (as Cri\u0219ul was renamed in 1972). During the 1960s and 1970s, he was considered one of the most powerful defenders in the Romanian league and was part of the FC Bihor's golden team, together with players such as: Attila Kun, \u00c1rp\u00e1d Sz\u0171cs, Paul Popovici, Cornel Georgescu, Nicolae Florescu, Alexandru Nagy, Cornel Lup\u0103u or Alexandru Gergely, among many others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Ili\u0107",
        "text": "As a left-footed player, Ili\u0107 performed at all position in midfield through the youth career. In early years of playing football, he usually performed more offensive as a second striker or attacking midfielder. Joining the youth team of Red Star Belgrade, Ili\u0107 converted his position, playing as right-side central midfielder, and later as a defensive midfielder with a box-to-box role, being paired with his brother. He characterized by lucidity and great performances face to face game against the opponent. Ili\u0107 is also free-kick taker."
      },
      {
        "title": "Josip Ku\u017ee",
        "text": "He was a professional football player with Dinamo Zagreb, winning 11 Yugoslavian U-21 caps. He played a minor role among the great players who still have their huge amount of respect today. During his playing years with Dinamo as a defender from 1971 to 1981 he played in 384 games scoring 14 goals. Ku\u017ee scored only 1 goal in 1975/1976 season. During his career he played alongside Balkan footballing greats such as Zlatko Kranj\u010dar, Snje\u0161ko Cerin, Sre\u0107ko Bogdan, Velimir Zajec, Ivica Senzen, Marko Mlinari\u0107, Ismet Had\u017ei\u0107, Boro Cvetkovi\u0107 and Stjepan Deveri\u0107."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sorin Vlaicu",
        "text": "He started his career in 1987 in Politehnica Timi\u0219oara, where he spent most of his career. Soon he began to show himself as a very strong offensive midfielder. After becoming an international player, he was brought in 1992 by the 1991 European Champions Red Star Belgrade from Yugoslavia. In 1993, he returned to Timi\u0219oara where he continued playing until January 1995, when he moved to Hungary to play with B\u00e9k\u00e9scsaba El\u00f6re, where he played until January 1996. Since then, he has been the pillar of the Politehnica Timi\u0219oara team, having, in total, played an impressive 288 games, and scored 29 goals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roman Chytilek",
        "text": "He has won Interzonal team tournament with team Europe 1 (2000-2003), picked up bronze with Czech Rep. in the European Team championship (1999-2004), behind Germany and Lithuania) and Silver in 12th Olympiad (2004-2009, behind Germany). Chytilek achieved his highest rating of 2693 in 2010, currently rated 2685 = 1st place on ICCF rankings (since January 2015). He has played 127 ICCF games since 1999, won 56, drew 67, lost 4 (overall performance 70,5%)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vasif Bi\u00e7aku",
        "text": "He was born in Tiran\u00eb into a noble family from Elbasan and began his football career in the late 1930s with Sportklub Tiran\u00eb. He moved to Partizani Tirana in 1948 where he won two National Championships. Towards the end of his playing career he moved to Apolonia Fier and played in the Albanian second tier until his retirement in the mid 1950s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marek Ham\u0161\u00edk",
        "text": "For his performances, Ham\u0161\u00edk has also won several individual awards: he is an eight-time winner of the Slovak Footballer of the Year Award, and he was named Serie A Young Footballer of the Year in 2008. In 2011, 2016 and 2017, he was named to the Serie A Team of the Year, and in 2015, he was included in the UEFA Europa League Squad of the season. In 2013, Ham\u0161\u00edk was ranked as the eighth best footballer in Europe by Bloomberg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egidijus Ju\u0161ka",
        "text": "Ju\u0161ka won two Kazakhstan Super League titles while playing for Irtysh Pavlodar and one Estonian Mesitriliiga title during his second spell at TVMK Tallinn. He plays the position of midfielder and is 1.81 m tall and weighs 78\u00a0kg."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Krajnc",
        "text": "Krajnc, who is left footed, primarily plays in central defence and is praised for his pace, strength, passing and ability on the ball."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aleksei Gubarev",
        "text": "His awards includes the Gagarin Gold Medal, which was bestowed upon him twice. He was an honorary citizen of Kaluga, Arkalyk, Tselinograd, and Prague."
      },
      {
        "title": "Farkas Paneth",
        "text": "As a player, he won two Romanian Cup titles, nine national champion titles in the doubles and mixed competitions, and several runner-up prizes in the individual competition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Josef Jakob",
        "text": "With Steaua Bucharest he won the national championship six times. In the 1960s he was considered to be the best right wing player in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Constantin Tudosie",
        "text": "Four years later he won the silver medal as part of the Romanian team. He played all five matches and scored four goals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doru Tureanu",
        "text": "At the 1976 Olympics, Tureanu scored 6 goals, and added 6 assists, in only six games. At the 1980 Olympics, he scored 5 goals and added 2 assists in five games, including a hat trick against West Germany."
      },
      {
        "title": "Radu Voina",
        "text": "In 1972, he won the bronze medal with the Romanian team. He played four matches."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vladan Luki\u0107",
        "text": "Vladan Luki\u0107\n--Playing career.\n--Administrative career.\n----Red Star Belgrade president.\n--Honours.\n----Player.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Nazmi Avluca",
        "text": "Born in the Central Anatolian town Karg\u0131 of \u00c7orum Province, he began early sport wrestling at the Wrestling Training Center in Bolu in 1987. Admitted to the national Greco-Roman team in 1991, he won his first international gold in the 60\u00a0kg division at the 1992 World Cadets Championships held in Istanbul."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gabriel Kicsid",
        "text": "Four years later he won the silver medal as part of the Romanian team. He played four matches including the final and scored four goals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marek Jankulovski",
        "text": "A quick, tenacious, and hardworking player, Jankulovski was well known for his versatility, being able to play anywhere on the left side, and was used as a full-back, as a wing-back, and as a winger throughout his career. He was also known for his ability to cross the ball, as well as his considerable technical ability and energetic attacking runs down the left flank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Constantin \u021au\u021bu",
        "text": "As of August 2014, \u021au\u021bu was widely considered the best sportsman in the country. In 2013, he won the Sportsman of the Year award."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ionu\u021b Radu",
        "text": "Radu was nominated for \"Gazeta Sporturilor\"'s 2018 Romanian Footballer of the Year award in late November. On 22 December, he saved one of the two penalty kicks awarded to Atalanta in a 3\u20131 home victory at the Stadio Luigi Ferraris. In January 2019, he was included by \"UEFA.com\" in a list of the 50 Best Young Footballers to watch for that year. In spite of being coached by three different managers throughout the season, Radu maintained his place as first-choice goalkeeper and amassed 33 league appearances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tomas Kan\u010delskis",
        "text": "A central defender, Kan\u010delskis started his career with Romar Ma\u017eeikiai, where he tasted success before his twentieth birthday, as Romar won the 1993-94 A Lyga title. He joined his hometown side Kareda \u0160iauliai in 1994, and continued to prosper, winning both the A Lyga (1997 and 1998) and the Lithuanian Cup (1996 and 1999) twice with his new team. He also developed into an international player with Kareda, making his first appearance for Lithuania in 1995."
      },
      {
        "title": "Luka Modri\u0107",
        "text": "Due to his club, and national team performance at the 2018 FIFA World Cup, where also received the Golden Ball, in August and September Modri\u0107 won the UEFA Men's Player of the Year Award and The Best FIFA Men's Player Award, while in December, he added the Ballon d'Or to his personal tally, marking the first time since 2007 that the award was not won by Lionel Messi or Cristiano Ronaldo, which polarized the people involved in the sport into two camps about the credibility of the award. Furthermore, besides becoming the first Croatian player to win these awards, Modri\u0107 was the first player to win both the World Cup Golden Ball and the UEFA Men's Player of the Year Award in the same year since Ronaldo in 1998, and the World Cup Golden Ball and the Best FIFA Men's Player of the Year Award after Rom\u00e1rio in 1994. Additionally, he is the first player to win the awards from the former Yugoslavia territory, the first footballer from Eastern Europe to win a Ballon d'Or after Andriy Shevchenko in 2004, and the tenth player from Real Madrid to capture the trophy. Furthermore, winning the trophy triggered a clause in his contract, ensuring his stay at the club until 2021. He was also included in the FIFA FIFPro World XI for the fourth time, and won the IFFHS World's Best Playmaker award."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Which national team did Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli play for?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a striker for the Belgium national team."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Does Romelu Lukaku still play, or did he retire?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Romelu Lukaku still plays in the Premier League and for the Belgium national team. In fact, in 2021 he returned to Chelsea in a club-record transfer worth \u00a397.5 million."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Is Lukaku older than the average Premier League football player?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I cannot find the answer to that, but I can tell you he's 28 currently."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli won any championships?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I didn't find the answer, but I found that he represented his country at four major tournaments: the 2016 and 2020 UEFA European Championships and the 2014 and 2018 FIFA World Cups."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What's his style of play supposed to be like?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "He's a left-footed player, he uses his physicality to get around defenders but likes to play as an out-and-out striker or poacher. He can also play as the winger."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has he won any awards or special recognitions during his career?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Are you asking about honors he has revived with his teams Chelsea or Belgium, or individual honors he has received?",
      "On 20 April 2017, Lukaku was named in the PFA Team of the Year for the first time. He was also included in the six player shortlists for the PFA Players' Player of the Year and PFA Young Player of the Year awards."
    ],
    "topic": "Romelu Lukaku",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Romelu Lukaku:0",
        "passage_titles": [],
        "ctx": "Romelu Lukaku\n--Club career.\n----Early career.\n----Anderlecht.\n----Chelsea.\n------Transfer.\n------2011\u201312: Debut season.\n------2012\u201313 season: Loan to West Bromwich Albion.\n------2013\u201314 season: Loan to Everton.\n----Everton.\n------2014\u201316: Rise to stardom.\n------2016\u201317: Sustained individual success.\n----Manchester United.\n------Transfer.\n------2017\u201318 season: Debut season and loss in form.\n------2018\u201319 season: Final season in Manchester.\n----Inter Milan.\n------2019\u201320 season: Club record transfer.\n------2020\u201321 season: Serie A champion.\n----Return to Chelsea.\n------2021\u201322 season.\n--International career.\n--Style of play.\n----Influences.\n--Personal life.\n----Media and endorsements.\n----Activism.\n--Honours.\n"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Romelu Lukaku:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Romelu Lukaku"
        ],
        "ctx": "Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli (; born 13 May 1993) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Chelsea and the Belgium national team."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Romelu Lukaku:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Romelu Lukaku"
        ],
        "ctx": "Romelu Menama Lukaku Bolingoli (; born 13 May 1993) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Chelsea and the Belgium national team."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Romelu Lukaku:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Romelu Lukaku",
          "Club career",
          "Everton",
          "2016\u201317: Sustained individual success"
        ],
        "ctx": "In March 2017, Lukaku turned down a new five-year contract worth a reported \u00a3140,000 a week amidst rumours of a return to Chelsea. In an interview, he questioned the club's ambition to make big transfers and chase Champions League qualification, offending his manager Ronald Koeman. A goal in a 3\u20131 win for Everton against Burnley on 15 April meant Lukaku was the first Everton player since Bob Latchford to score 25 goals in two consecutive seasons in all competitions, and the first player since the legendary Dixie Dean to score in nine consecutive matches at Goodison Park. On 20 April 2017, Lukaku was named in the PFA Team of the Year for the first time. He was also included in the six player shortlists for the PFA Players' Player of the Year and PFA Young Player of the Year awards."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "During the 2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis, Israel said that Hamas had been developing an electronic system to jam Iron Dome; Israeli aircraft destroyed a building said to have been used for this purpose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 15 May 2021, Israel destroyed the twelve-storey Jala tower building, which housed the Gaza offices of Associated Press (AP) and Al Jazeera, with an air strike, giving one hour's notice for evacuation. Israel said that Hamas was carrying out signals intelligence (SIGINT), electronic signals intelligence (ELINT), and electronic warfare (EW) operations, including the development of an electronic system to jam the Iron Dome, from within the building."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 25 March 2019 a J-80 rocket fired from Gaza hit a house in Mishmeret, Israel. According to Hamas the J-80 travels on a nonlinear path and cannot be intercepted by Iron Dome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 21 January 2019, the IDF released footage online of a Syrian Arab Army rocket attack on the Golan Heights being intercepted by Iron Dome. The video was shot by skiers at Mount Hermon ski resort; Israeli authorities announced that the resort was closed until further notice. The attack was in response to Israel's launching of nine rockets at SAA targets in western Damascus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 10 May 2018, the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps of Iran allegedly launched 20 rockets from Syria toward Israel in retaliation for recent Israeli airstrikes against IRGC facilities. According to an IDF spokesperson, 16 of the rockets fell short of the Israeli border, and Iron Dome intercepted the other four. Israel reported no casualties or damage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Iron Dome () is a mobile all-weather air defense system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems and Israel Aerospace Industries. The system is designed to intercept and destroy short-range rockets and artillery shells fired from distances of to away and whose trajectory would take them to an Israeli populated area. From 2011 to 2021, the United States contributed a total of US$ 1.6 billion to the Iron Dome defense system, with another US$ 1 billion approved by the US Congress in 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil defense in Israel",
        "text": "Iron Dome (Hebrew: \u05db\u05d9\u05e4\u05ea \u05d1\u05e8\u05d6\u05dc) is a mobile system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Ltd. designed to intercept short-range rockets with a range less than 70\u00a0km."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Prior to its deployment, the Iron Dome was criticized as ineffective in countering the Qassam threat for the southern city of Sderot, given the short distance\u2014840m, half a mile, from the closest point in Sderot to Gaza\u2014and flight time between the much-attacked city and the rocket launching pads in the Gaza Strip. Israeli defense officials insisted in 2008 that with recent improvements to Iron Dome, the system was fully able to intercept Qassams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "According to Ronen Bergman, in 2012, during Operation Pillar of Defense, Israel agreed to an early cease-fire \"for a reason that has remained a closely guarded secret: The Iron Dome anti-missile defense system... had run out of ammunition.\" Bergman says that as a result of the experience, Israel had tried to prepare larger stocks of interceptors for future rounds of fighting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In February 2007, Defense Minister Amir Peretz selected Iron Dome as Israel's defense against this short-range rocket threat. Since then, the $210\u00a0million system has been developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems working jointly with the IDF."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In a 2012 op-ed in \"Haaretz\", Jamie Levin suggested that the success of the Iron Dome system was likely to increase demands to field additional systems across Israel. Budget shortfalls meant that Israel would be forced to weigh spending on missile defenses against other expenditures. Such funds, he argued, would probably come from programs intended to help the most vulnerable sectors of society, such as social welfare."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In November 2012, during Operation Pillar of Defense, the Iron Dome's effectiveness was estimated by Israeli officials at between 75 and 95 percent. According to Israeli officials, of the approximately 1,000 missiles and rockets fired into Israel by Hamas from the beginning of Operation Pillar of Defense up to 17 November 2012, Iron Dome identified two-thirds as not posing a threat and intercepted 90 percent of the remaining 300. During this period the only Israeli casualties were three individuals killed in missile attacks after a malfunction of the Iron Dome system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "After the IDF killing of Zohair al-Qaisi, the secretary general of the Popular Resistance Committees in Gaza on 9 March 2012, more than 300 rockets were fired on Israel. Some 177 fell on Israeli territory. The Iron Dome system had successfully intercepted at least 56 rockets (directed at population centers) in 71 attempts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Hezbollah, based in Lebanon, fired rockets into northern Israeli population centers in the 1990s, posing a security challenge for the Israel Defense Forces. Israel had floated the idea of its own short-range antimissile system, but U.S. defense officials cautioned that it would be \"doomed to fail\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The Iron Dome system intercepted 100 rockets that were launched from the Gaza Strip in mid-November 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 17 May 2012, when Israeli Defense Minister Ehud Barak met with U.S. Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta, the Pentagon issued a statement from the Secretary saying in part, \"I was pleased to inform Minister Barak that the President supports Israel's Iron Dome system and directed me to fill the $70 million in assistance for Iron Dome that Minister Barak indicated to me Israel needs this fiscal year.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In exchange for the second tranche of deployment funding, the United States asked Israel for access to, and a stake in, elements of the system's technology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In 2010, before the system was declared operational, Iron Dome was criticized by Reuven Pedatzur, a military analyst, former fighter pilot and professor of political science at Tel Aviv University for costing too much compared to the cost of a Qassam rocket (fired by Palestinian forces), so that launching very large numbers of Qassams could essentially attack Israel's financial means. Rafael responded that the cost issue was exaggerated since Iron Dome intercepts only rockets determined to constitute a threat, and that the lives saved and the strategic impact are worth the cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "By contrast, Iron Dome apparently intercepted less than 32 percent of threatening rockets during Pillar of Defense, perhaps much less. The prevented at most two deaths, 110 injuries and US$7\u00a0million in damage. The research also implies the number of rocket hits on populated areas was understated. Conversely, the number of threatening rockets seems overstated. The effective interception rate for Pillar of Defense therefore may have been markedly less than reported."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counter rocket, artillery, and mortar",
        "text": "Iron Dome is an Israeli missile system featuring multiple-target tracking and self-guided missile interceptors. Due to the ongoing increase of its engagement range and new missile and interception improvements, plus surface-to-air missile capability, it has developed into a fully-fledged air defence system. By November 2012, the system had intercepted over 400 rockets fired into Israel by Gaza Strip militants. Based on operational success, defense reporter Mark Thompson estimates that Iron Dome is currently the most-effective and most-tested counter missile system in existence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The Israeli Institute of National Security Studies published a detailed rebuttal to Postol's claims, labeling it \"dubious research without access to credible data\". The rebuttal stated:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 18 August 2011, four rockets were fired from Gaza at Ashkelon. The system determined that two were a threat and intercepted them, ignoring the other two which were directed at non-populated areas. No injuries or damage were reported. Defense officials said that Iron Dome would be re-deployed in Beersheba."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The Iron Dome system began operating in early 2011, initially deployed at air force bases in southern Israel. It was designated to be set up in other areas, such as the town of Sderot, during significant escalations along the Gaza border."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "According to the Israeli Air Force, during operation \"Pillar of Defense\" (14\u201321 November 2012) Iron Dome made 421 interceptions. On 17 November, after two rockets targeted Tel Aviv during the operation, a battery was deployed in the area. Within hours, a third rocket was intercepted by the system. This fifth battery had not been scheduled to come into service until early 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On the same day, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that Defense Minister Ehud Barak announced that a third Iron Dome battery would be installed in the region \"within weeks\", and estimated that nine more batteries would be positioned within the next two years. In attacks shortly before, the Iron Dome system had successfully intercepted about 85% of the rockets identified as threats to populated areas by the Battle Management Control (BMC) system launched at Israel from Gaza."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The initial funding and development of the Iron Dome system was provided and undertaken by Israel. This allowed for the deployment of the first two Iron Dome systems. Subsequently, funding for additional Iron Dome systems \u2014 along with repeated funding for the supply of the interception missiles \u2014 has been provided by the United States. From 2011 to 2021, the US contributed a total of US$1.6 billion to the Iron Dome defense system, with another US$ 1 billion approved by the US Congress in 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 20 August 2011, while engaging with a volley of seven rockets fired almost simultaneously at Be'er Sheva from Gaza, one was not intercepted by the defense system, exploding in a residential area and killing one person. Brig. Gen. Doron Gavish, commander of the IAF's Air Defense Corps, said on the following day that \"we said in advance that this wasn't a hermetic system,\" adding that the air defense units were learning on the fly and improving the performance of Iron Dome while operating it. \"This is the first system of its kind anywhere in the world; it is in its first operational test; and we've already intercepted a large number of rockets targeting Israeli communities, saving many civilian lives,\" Gavish said."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In May 2021 it was estimated that Palestinian militant groups had an arsenal of about 30,000 rockets and mortar bombs in Gaza, potential targets, when fired, for Iron Dome. Range varies widely, and guidance systems are lacking, but accuracy has improved over the years. There are estimates of the numbers and types of rockets, and their range and payload."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel",
        "text": "Iron Dome () is a mobile system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems designed to intercept short-range rockets with a range less than 70\u00a0km. In February 2007, the system was selected by Israeli Defense Minister Ehud Barak as the Israeli Defense Force's defense system against short range rockets. On 7 July 2008, the first test of the system was completed successfully, and the first operational test was expected to take place at the end of 2009. The system was scheduled to be operational in 2010, but was temporarily delayed. In March, the system was deployed in several strategic sites near major Israeli southern cities. On 7 April 2011, the system successfully intercepted a Grad rocket launched from Gaza for the first time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "CNN relayed an estimate that Iron Dome's success rate in Pillar of Defense was about 85%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Following the system's deployment in April 2011, Iron Dome was used to successfully intercept Katyusha rockets fired by Palestinian militants. In August that year, Iron Dome intercepted 20 missiles and rockets fired into Israel. However, in one instance the system destroyed four rockets fired at the city of Beersheba but failed to stop a fifth, which killed one man and injured several others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In June 2016, it was revealed that the Iron Dome had been tested to successfully intercept salvos of artillery shells, which are typically difficult to destroy because of the need to penetrate the thickness of their metal casings to get to the warhead, and \"multiple\" air-to-ground precision guided munitions (PGMs) similar to the Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 4 April 2012, Reuters reported that a senior Israeli official, during a briefing to a small group of journalists on condition of anonymity, predicted an increased interception range of up to 250\u00a0km, as well as more flexible aiming of Iron Dome units, thus lowering the number of batteries needed for full deployment in Israel. That would help Israel to cope with the prospect of reduced funding from the United States, while a \"new round\" of talks about missile-defense funding would be completed in two to three months, he anticipated. While praising American largess, the official said US planners have asked Israel to \"point out honestly where the upper limit is in terms of what can be implemented\" with the Iron Dome. He said the US is \"deep in (fiscal) challenges itself\", so it does not want to \"give money for the sake of it\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 7 April 2011, after deployment as an \"operational experiment\" on 3 April, the Iron Dome system in the area of Ashkelon successfully intercepted a Grad rocket fired at the city, the first time a short-range rocket fired from Gaza had been intercepted. According to reports from the area, the interception could be seen in Israeli towns near northern Gaza. Immediately afterwards an IAF aircraft successfully attacked the squad that had fired the rocket. Later that day the IDF stressed that the system, though operational, was still under evaluation. On 8 April the system successfully intercepted another four rockets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "According to the leading developers of Iron Dome, due to schedule and low-cost settings constraints, some of the missile components have been taken from a toy car sold by Toys \"R\" Us.\n* July 2008: the Tamir interceptor missile underwent successful testing.\n* March 2009: Israel successfully tested the missile defense system, though without yet actually intercepting an actual projectile.\n* July 2009: the system successfully intercepted a number of rockets mimicking Qassam and short-range Katyusha rockets in a Defense Ministry test.\n* August 2009: the IDF completed the establishment of a new battalion that will operate the Iron Dome system. The battalion is a part of the Israel Air Force's Air Defense Division. The system was to be first deployed along the Gaza border and then along the border with Lebanon. The system was slated to start operating in mid-2010.\n* January 2010: Iron Dome successfully intercepted multiple rocket barrages mimicking Qassams and Katyushas. Defense Ministry Director-General Pinhas Buchris stated that the system would ultimately \"transform\" security for the residents of southern and northern Israel.\n* July 2010: The system successfully intercepted multiple rocket barrages mimicking Qassams and Katyushas. During the test, Iron Dome successfully distinguished rockets which were threats from those that would not land in designated areas and did not need to be intercepted.\n* March 2011: Iron Dome was declared operational by the IDF, and Defense Minister Ehud Barak authorized deployment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Yoav Fromer, writing in \"The Washington Post\", thanked Iron Dome for the lack of fatalities and the relatively low casualty rate among Israeli civilians, and said that the technology appears to provide \"both a physical and a psychological solace that enables Israelis to go about their business.\" However, in his view, over time, Iron Dome may do the Israeli public more harm than good because despite the fact it is a \"tactical miracle\" it may help create a serious strategic problem to Israelis' long-term security because, by temporarily minimizing the dangers posed by rocket attacks, it distracts Israelis from seeking a broader regional political solution that could finally make systems such as Iron Dome unnecessary. In Fromer's view, the Israeli government is \"not exactly brimming with creative ideas to reignite the peace process with the Palestinians. And with Iron Dome, why would it? As long as the Israeli public believes it is safe, for now, under the soothing embrace of technology, it will not demand that its political leaders wage diplomacy to end violence that mandated Iron Dome in the first place. Since Iron Dome has transformed a grim reality into a rather bearable ordeal, Israelis have lost the sense of urgency and outrage that might have pushed their government\" to make necessary concessions in exchange for peace. In Fromer's view, Israelis risk confusing the short-term military advantage provided by Iron Dome with the long term need for an original and comprehensive diplomatic solution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 18 May 2012, the United States House of Representatives passed the Fiscal Year 2013 National Defense Authorization Act, H.R. 4310, with $680\u00a0million for Iron Dome in Section 227. The report accompanying the bill, 112\u2013479, also calls for technology sharing as well as co-production of Iron Dome in the United States in light of the nearly $900\u00a0million invested in the system since 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 17 January 2014, President Barack Obama signed the fiscal year 2014 Consolidated Appropriations Act. The bill provides $235\u00a0million for Israel to procure the Iron Dome system. The Israeli government has also agreed to spend more than half the funds the United States provides for the Iron Dome system in the United States. Funds going to U.S. contractors will increase to 30 percent in 2014 and 55 percent in 2015 from 3 percent previously, according to a U.S. Missile Defense Agency report to Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In 2004, the idea for Iron Dome gained momentum with the installation of Brig. Gen. Daniel Gold as the head of the research and development bureau of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). Gold was a strong backer of the antimissile project, even skirting army contracting regulations to secure financing. He also helped persuade key politicians to support the project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 5 August 2011, the IDF redeployed the Iron Dome system near Ashkelon following days of heightened rocket fire from Gaza into Israel. The deployment came a day after Ashkelon mayor Benny Vaknin sent Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Defense Minister Ehud Barak a letter asking them to redeploy the system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Defense reporter Mark Thompson wrote that, the \"lack of Israeli casualties suggests Iron Dome is the most-effective, most-tested missile shield the world has ever seen.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Some Iron Dome systems have been exported. A weakness for most potential markets is that each Iron Dome system protects no more than ; this is effective in a small country like Israel, but not for larger states. Even in Israel, the batteries have to be moved around according to perceived risk of attack. Singapore, a sovereign island city-state, is reported to have purchased the Iron Dome, and the US Army has bought two batteries to protect overseas bases.\n:On 17 December 2016, Azerbaijan Defense Industry Minister Yavar Jamalov told reporters that Azerbaijan had reached an agreement with Israel to purchase Iron Dome batteries in the first confirmed foreign sale of the system. The country's acquisition of the system is believed to be related to neighboring Armenia's purchase of Russian Iskander short-range ballistic missiles.\n:On 23 November 2012, \"The Economic Times\" reported that Indian Defense planners were considering the possibility of India acquiring an indigenous version of Iron Dome, keeping a close watch on the performance of Iron Dome during the 2012 Operation Pillar of Defense. Several months earlier, the military scientists in the Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) had suggested that India look at a joint development program with Israeli firms to develop an Indian version of Iron Dome. They believed Israel's short range missile defense requirements have several parallels to the Indian threat from Pakistan, which includes a \"battlefield range\" quasi-tactical ballistic nuclear weapon delivery system, called Nasr, which some Indian defense sources say the Iron Dome might be an effective deterrent against, as well as the vulnerability of its cities to attacks from militants.\n:\"The Israeli team comes and works in our laboratories. Our team goes and works in their laboratories and industries. There is a learning that is taking place which was not there when we buy things and integrate with existing products... we have started discussions about Iron Dome for co-development (in India),\" W. Selvamurthy, Chief Controller looking after international cooperation said.\n:On 8 February 2013, Marshal Norman Anil Kumar Browne, commander of the Indian Air Force, told reporters that Iron Dome is not suitable for the service. The announcement came after two years of discussions. In August 2013, India resumed attempting to acquire the Iron Dome system after Israel agreed to transfer system technology. Iron Dome could complement the domestic long-range Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme air defense system.\n:In 2017, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and his Indian counterpart Narendra Modi signed a series of agreements on defense and technology worth around $2\u00a0billion, including a deal to buy the \"Iron Dome\" system.\n:In May 2018, Romania's Romaero signed a deal to purchase the Iron Dome system.\n:On 16 August 2011, Raytheon Company announced that it had teamed with Rafael to lead marketing in the United States for the Iron Dome system. \"Iron Dome complements other Raytheon weapons that provide intercept capabilities to the US Army's Counter Rocket, Artillery, and Mortar initiative at forward operating bases,\" said Mike Booen, vice president of Raytheon Missile Systems' Advanced Security and Directed Energy Systems product line. \"Iron Dome can be seamlessly integrated with Raytheon's C-RAM systems to complete the layered defense.\"\n:On 10 November 2011, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the US Army had expressed interest in acquiring the system, to be deployed outside forward bases in Iraq and Afghanistan that could potentially be targeted by artillery rockets. The US military had discovered 107\u00a0mm rockets in Iraq in the past. Yossi Druker, head of Rafael's Air-to-Air Directorate, said that the initial deal was valued at $100\u00a0million, but could reach several hundred million dollars over a number of years. In April 2016, Iron Dome's Tamir interceptor successfully shot down a UAV during a test firing in the United States, the system's first trial on foreign soil.\n: In January 2019 it was reported that the United States would purchase two Iron Dome batteries for 373 million dollars. The batteries were to be deployed to protect US armed forces in hostile areas of operation. The order was for two command posts and radars, 12 launchers, and 480 missiles and was finalized in August 2019. Rafael announced the first battery's delivery on 30 September 2020. On 13 November 2020, Iron Dome was activated at Fort Bliss to test if it could be connected into the Army's air and missile defense network, to serve as an interim capability to intercept cruise missiles.\n: In 2020, the service decided against purchasing any more Iron Dome systems, ostensibly over issues integrating it with the new Integrated Battle Command System (IBCS) network architecture. The Israeli MOD announced the delivery of the second battery on 3 January 2021.\n: The Army conducted a live-fire test in August 2021, successfully engaging eight cruise missile surrogates.\n: On 8 October 2021, it was reported by \"The War Zone\" magazine that the 94th Army Air and Missile Defense Command announced that week that it was following the 2019 National Defense Authorization Act, which required the deployment of an Iron Dome system to an operational theater by the end of 2021, by the temporary and experimental deployment of a system to Andersen Air Force Base in Guam. The battery was to be operated by the 2nd Battalion of the 43rd Air Defense Artillery Regiment. It also stated that there was no plan to conduct a live fire test there. \"The War Zone\" added that the Army's 38th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, then forward-based in Japan, was also to support this deployment. On 9 November 2021, the \"Wall Street Journal\" reported that the system was being tested in Guam, and speculated that it would likely be part of an array designed to protect the area against possible attacks by China.\n:On 10 March 2010, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the Israeli Ministry of Defense was in talks with a number of European countries about the possible sale of the system to protect NATO forces deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq.\n:During a visit to Israel in the summer of 2011, Kwon Oh-bong, vice commissioner of the Defense Acquisition Program Administration in Seoul, expressed interest in purchasing the system to counter the threat posed by North Korean artillery, rockets, and missiles. South Korea was considered unlikely to buy the Iron Dome system due to the number of artillery pieces it would face, the coverage it would need to provide (around Seoul), and the high cost of interceptors; effort is being focused on disrupting the \"Kill Chain\" to immediately detect and destroy artillery and missile units. In August 2014, South Korea once again emerged as interested in buying the Iron Dome system for protection against rocket attacks. In October 2017, South Korea announced it would develop its own Iron Dome-type C-RAM system using hit-to-kill interceptors. Although they had considered buying Iron Dome, they determined the system had been developed primarily to counter mortar shells, and so was unsuited against the more powerful artillery rockets they would have to defend against.\n:On 14 September 2021, it was revealed by Breaking Defense that Saudi Arabia is considering adding the Iron Dome missile defense system to its inventory after the US withdrew the THAAD and the MIM-104 Patriot out of Prince Sultan Air Base."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In November 2012, official statements indicated that it had intercepted over 400 rockets. By late October 2014, the Iron Dome systems had intercepted over 1,200 rockets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 30 December 2011, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that a performance analysis it had obtained shows that Iron Dome was successful in downing rockets from Gaza 75% of the times it fired. It said two interceptors are usually fired at each rocket. In April 2011, for example, the system succeeded in intercepting eight of 10\u00a0rockets. Following the October violence, the IDF conducted an inquiry into the Iron Dome's performance and discovered that a radar failure caused some of the interceptors to miss their targets, a problem since corrected. An officer told the \"Post\" that \"seventy-five percent is impressive, but we would still like to see it perform better.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Iron Dome can potentially be overcome by swarms of many missiles that exceed its capability to intercept them, and by sheer numbers of attacking missiles during a campaign if not enough interceptors are available to counter them. Also, the cost of each interception is high, while attacking rockets can be relatively inexpensive. These are among the reasons encouraging the development of the Iron Beam energy weapon to complement Iron Dome, which is cheap to fire, has unlimited \"ammunition\", and is effective at short range. Iron Dome is also significantly less effective against very short-distance saturation strikes. Hamas is aware of these vulnerabilities. In addition to having very large numbers of rockets and using saturation strikes, they consistently fire rockets at low trajectories to make them harder to intercept."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Those estimates suggest Iron Dome intercepted 59 to 75 percent of all threatening rockets during Protective Edge. \"Threatening\" means the rockets struck populated areas or were intercepted beforehand. The interceptions likely prevented $42 to $86\u00a0million in property damage, three to six deaths, and 120 to 250 injuries. Since those percentages include rockets anywhere in Israel, the high interception rates claimed for only the areas that batteries were defending seem plausible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 22 August 2011, \"Haaretz\" reported that according to Israeli security sources, Palestinian militants changed their rocket-launching tactics in an attempt to evade the two Iron Dome batteries deployed in southern Israel. The new tactics included aiming more frequently at areas beyond the Iron Dome protection range. After the Palestinian launch teams realized that the systems deployed in the previous two weeks around Ashkelon and Be'er Sheva provided near-perfect protection from rockets, they began firing more frequently at Ashdod and Ofakim. When they did aim at Beersheba on 21 August, they did not fire one or two rockets, as in the past, but rather a volley of seven rockets almost simultaneously. Iron Dome intercepted five of them successfully, but one penetrated the defense system, exploding in a residential area and killing a man."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In December 2014, former Israeli Air Force chief and head of Boeing Israel David Ivry showed interest in the American Laser Weapon System (LaWS). Earlier that month, the U.S. Navy had revealed that the LaWS had been mounted on the and locked onto and destroyed designated targets with near-instantaneous lethality, with each laser shot costing less than $1."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Amir Pertz, the 2006\u20132007 Israeli Defense Minister who pushed through the implementation of Iron Dome, told \"The Washington Post\" that the system is no more than a stopgap measure, and that \"In the end, the only thing that will bring true quiet is a diplomatic solution.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The committee is aware that National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2011 (Public Law 111-383) included $205.0\u00a0million for the Iron Dome short-range rocket defense system for the State of Israel. The committee notes that the Iron Dome system has proven very effective at defeating threat rockets launched at protected targets. The committee also notes that if the full $680.0\u00a0million is used on the program, the total U.S. taxpayer investment in this system will amount to nearly $900.0\u00a0million since fiscal year 2011, yet the United States has no rights to the technology involved. The committee believes the Director should ensure, prior to disbursing the authorized $680\u00a0million for Iron Dome, that the United States has appropriate rights to this technology for United States defense purposes, subject to an agreement with the Israeli Missile Defense Organization, and in a manner consistent with prior U.S.\u2013Israeli missile defense cooperation on the Arrow and David's Sling suite of systems. The committee also believes that the Director should explore any opportunity to enter into co-production of the Iron Dome system with Israel, in light of the significant U.S. investment in this system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Maf'at, decided to start the program that would include the system's research and a demonstration of the intercepting system. In 2007, Israel commissioned the development of Iron Dome, choosing Israeli contractor Rafael over the American giant Lockheed Martin. Israeli company mPrest Systems was put in charge of programming the core of Iron Dome's battle management system. Iron Dome went from the drawing board to combat readiness within less than four years, a remarkably short period of time for a weapons system designed from scratch, according to military experts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "During the first stage of Iron Dome's operational duty, the Israeli Air Force included many soldiers from Sderot, citing high motivation among the city's pre-army youth to be part of the project. The 947th\u00a0\"Marksmen\" Stinger Battalion of the Israeli Air Defense Network was chosen as the first unit to become familiar with and operate Iron Dome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 4 June 2012, the U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee included $210\u00a0million for Iron Dome, in its version of the National Defense Authorization Act for 2013, S.3254. The bill has been reported out of committee and is waiting to be assigned a date for consideration by the full Senate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In its petition, the Eshkol Regional Council argued that the government should be ordered to deploy the Iron Dome to protect communities between 4.5 and 7\u00a0kilometers from Gaza from rocket fire. Government-funded rocket-roof protection is in place for homes in communities within 4.5\u00a0km of Gaza, but not for structures further from the border."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 1 August 2014, Congress approved a measure to deliver an additional $225\u00a0million in aid to Israel, with the aim of replenishing funds for the Iron Dome system in the midst of the conflict between Israel and Hamas. Following the signing of bill, for which \"the Senate and House of Representatives as well as Republicans and Democrats set[ting] aside differences to advance Israel's emergency request,\" the White House stated that \"The United States has been clear since the start of this conflict that no country can abide rocket attacks against its civilians\" and that it \"supports Israel's right to defend itself against such attacks.\" Senate Report 113-211 from the U.S. Government Publishing Office, which accompanied text H.R. 4870, recommended an increase in funding for the program for FY2015. The report calculates \"U.S. investment in Iron Dome production since fiscal year 2011\" to be over $1\u00a0billion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "At the 2014 Singapore Air Show, Rafael unveiled its Iron Beam laser air-defense system. Iron Beam is a directed-energy weapon made to complement the Iron Dome system by using a high-energy laser to destroy rockets, mortar bombs, and other airborne threats. Development of the system began some time after the joint United States and Israel Nautilus laser development program ended."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Iron Dome was declared operational and initially deployed on 27 March 2011 near Beersheba. On 7 April 2011, the system successfully intercepted a rocket launched from Gaza for the first time. On 10 March 2012, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the system shot down 90% of rockets launched from Gaza that would have landed in populated areas. In late 2012 Israel said that it hoped to increase the range of Iron Dome's interceptions, from a maximum of to and make it more versatile so that it could intercept rockets coming from two directions simultaneously."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "During a military exercise in February 2022, an advanced model of the Iron Dome installed on the Sa'ar-6 corvettes was able to shot down rockets, drones and cruise missiles at sea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "To the south, more than 8,000 projectiles (estimated at 4,000 rockets and 4,000 mortar bombs) were fired indiscriminately into Israeli population centers from Gaza between 2000 and 2008, principally by Hamas. Almost all of the rockets fired were Qassams launched by 122 mm Grad launchers smuggled into the Gaza Strip, giving longer range than other launch methods. Nearly a million Israelis living in the south were within rocket range, posing a serious security threat to the country and its citizens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Sec. 237, Availability of Funds for Iron Dome Short Range Rocket Defense Program, said that of the amounts authorized to be appropriated for fiscal year 2013 by section 201 for research, development, test, and evaluation, defense-wide, and available for the Missile Defense Agency, $210,000,000 may be provided to the Government of Israel for the Iron Dome short-range rocket defense program as specified in the funding table in section 4201."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 27 March 2011, \"Al Jazeera English\" reported that Iron Dome has been deployed for the first time. Brigadier-General Doron Gavish, commander of Israel's air defense corps, said Iron Dome had passed a series of tests and reached its \"evaluation phase\" in the field. It was stationed near Beersheba, following two rocket attacks on the area that month."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "During Operation Protective Edge Iron Dome's interceptors were claimed to have struck down 87\u201390% of their targets, totaling 735 successful interceptions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The study further estimated that improvements in Israeli civil defenses, such as warning sirens and hardened shelters, were at least as good as Iron Dome at reducing civilian deaths and injuries from rockets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Until the 2021 war in Gaza, the US had contributed a total of US$1.6 billion to the Iron Dome defense system. After the end of the 2021 conflict, Israel asked the US for another US$ 1 billion for replenishing the Iron Dome batteries, which was approved by the US Congress in 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In comparison with other air defense systems, the effectiveness rate of Iron Dome is very high. Defense consultant Steven Zaloga stated that Iron Dome's destruction of 90 percent of missiles it targeted is \"an extremely high level\", above that usually expected for air defense systems. \"Slate\" reported that the effectiveness rate is \"unprecedented\" in comparison with earlier systems such as the Patriot missile defence system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian political violence",
        "text": "Defenses constructed specifically to deal with the weapons include fortifications for schools and bus stops as well as an alarm system named Red Color. Iron Dome, a system to intercept short-range rockets, was developed by Israel and first deployed in the spring of 2011 to protect Beersheba and Ashkelon, but officials and experts warned that it would not be completely effective. Shortly thereafter, it intercepted a Palestinian Grad rocket for the first time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Also according to \"Haaretz\", the IDF was to finalize its long-term Iron Dome acquisition program\u2014nicknamed \"Halamish\"\u2014within a few months (from April 2011), which would indicate the final number of systems to be introduced into the military. Israel Air Force officials estimated the number of Iron Dome systems needed to cover threatened areas as thirteen. According to Meir Elran, a scholar at the Institute of National Security Studies in Tel Aviv, Israel would need a total of 20\u00a0batteries to provide adequate defense for its borders with Gaza and Lebanon. Such a deployment would require financial assistance from the United States, but he said that even in the original limited form, officially designated a trial period, the system was important."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Although Iron Dome has proven its effectiveness against rocket attacks, Defense Ministry officials are concerned it will not be able to handle more massive arsenals possessed by Hezbollah in Lebanon should a conflict arise. Although in Operation Protective Edge it had a 90 percent hit rate against only rockets determined to be headed for populated areas, 735 intercepts were made at a cost of $70,000\u2013100,000 per interceptor; with an estimated 100,000 rockets possessed by Hezbollah, Iron Dome systems could be fiscally and physically overwhelmed by dozens of incoming salvos. In 2014 Directed-energy weapons were being investigated as a complement to Iron Dome, with lower system cost and lower cost per shot. Solid-state lasers worldwide have power levels ranging from 10\u201340\u00a0kW; to destroy a rocket safely from away, several low-power beams could coordinate and converge on one spot to burn through its outer shell and destroy it. Because laser beams become distorted and ineffective in foggy or heavy cloud conditions, any laser weapon would need to be complemented by Iron Dome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel",
        "text": "The Iron dome has successfully intercepted around 100 of the 370 rockets that have been fired. After the attacks, the IDF announced that it had struck over 100 targets in the Gaza Strip including a weapons factory, munitions warehouse and Hamas' Public Security offices. Hamas responded to the air strikes by making additional threats against Be'er Sheva and Ashdod. The attacks had a significant effect on businesses in southern Israel as restaurant patrons cancelled their reservations. The finance minister announced that Israeli businesses in certain regions would be compensated for losses. All schools within 40\u00a0km of Gaza were closed; the Israel Tax Authority has promised compensation to parents who were unable to go to work because they had to stay home with their children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 8 August 2011, the Israeli High Court of Justice rejected a petition asking that the government be ordered to deploy the system in Gaza border communities. In rejecting the petition, Supreme Court President Dorit Beinisch and Justices Salim Joubran and Uzi Fogelman ruled that in balancing all relevant considerations including budgets, changing security realities and operational matters, the government's decision not to deploy the Iron Dome in the area was reasonable. The panel of justices also said that the court had no reason to intervene in operational decisions regarding where to deploy the Iron Dome system. \"We believe the [government] will make the necessary decisions in accordance with the time and place requirements,\" they said."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Iron Dome has three central components:\n* Detection & Tracking Radar: the radar system is built by Elta, an Israeli defense company and subsidiary of Israel Aerospace Industries, and by the IDF.\n* Battle Management & Weapon Control (BMC): the control center is built for Rafael by mPrest Systems, an Israeli software company.\n* Missile Firing Unit: the unit launches the \"Tamir\" interceptor missile, equipped with electro-optic sensors and several steering fins for high maneuverability. The missile is built by Rafael. A typical Iron Dome battery has 3\u20134 launchers (20 missiles per launcher)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 26 December 2011, an accident occurred during a maintenance drill involving one of the systems. While loading missiles into a launcher vehicle from a bunker at the Air Defense Network's school near kibbutz Mashabei Sadeh in the Negev, two soldiers caused twenty Tamir interceptors to fall from a height of four meters near soldiers and officers without detonating, causing no injury, but making them unserviceable. \"Ynetnews\" reported that the soldiers were never in danger because the interceptor missiles are equipped with a security mechanism that prevents premature explosions. The IDF Spokesperson's Unit said that the Air Force commander, Maj. Gen. Ido Nehushtan, appointed a committee to examine the accident and ordered an immediate stop to all Air Defense Network maintenance work until a preliminary investigation was concluded. It also said that during the following week actions would be taken to \"improve skills and safety awareness\". A security official told \"Reshet Bet\" that the failure was twofold in that the soldiers and their commander deviated from severely strict safety protocols, and 20 costly interceptors were lost. \"Walla!\" website reported that the soldiers made a mistake in loading the missiles and they fell backwards. The website calculated the damage at US$1\u00a0million (at $50,000 per missile). The missiles were transferred back to Rafael to determine whether they could be repaired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The state said that the High Court should not intervene in the \"military decision\" regarding how and where to deploy the anti-rocket system. It also argued that if the court were to order it to deploy Iron Dome in a specific area, budgetary limitations would result in other communities not receiving protection, particularly as the range of Palestinian rockets had grown in recent years and therefore it was not possible to deploy Iron Dome to protect every community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The Iron Dome has been pitched to the IDF as a more cost-effective anti-aircraft system to intercept unmanned aerial vehicles. Some estimates of the cost of a Tamir interceptor are around $100,000, but it is still 95 percent cheaper than using a MIM-104 Patriot, the primary Israeli interceptor, costing $2\u20133\u00a0million. Although the Patriot has broader coverage, the low cost of UAVs and operational scenarios they would be encountered in would make Iron Dome equally effective against them. No material upgrades would be needed to optimize the system for drone-killing missions, as this role and capability has been publicized from its inception."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "With the United States on track to greatly increase funding for Iron Dome, there have been calls for technology transfer and co-production of Iron Dome in the United States. Just as the US and Israel share co-production of the Arrow III missile system, with Boeing manufacturing 40\u201350 percent of the production content, there has been support in the U.S. Congress, media and think tanks in favor of co-production. The U.S. House of Representatives included report language in its FY-2013 Defense Authorization Act supporting Iron Dome with $680\u00a0million but also instructing that the Director of the U.S. Missile Defense Agency, Lt. Gen. Patrick O'Reilly, \"should explore any opportunity to enter into co-production of the Iron Dome system with Israel, in light of the significant U.S. investment in this system.\" There were media reports that the Pentagon was requesting similar language in the Senate Defense Authorization Act as well as the respective House and Senate defense appropriations bills for 2013. Adding Iron Dome to the list of high-tech military programs built jointly by both nations would help further strengthen ties between Israel and the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In the 2006 war with Hezbollah, prior to Iron Dome's development, during 34 days of fighting, 4,000 rockets landed and 53 Israelis were killed. However, in the 2014 war with Gaza, the 50-day conflict and 3,360 rockets resulted in just two rocket-related deaths. In 2006, about 30,000 insurance claims for rocket-related damage were filed while in 2014, there were just 2,400."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 21 August 2011, \"Ynetnews\" reported that the success of the Iron Dome system against Gazan rocket fire had southern city mayors battling over the right to be the next to have it deployed in their area. The IDF stressed that \"no system can offer airtight protection\" and that the system positioned in Ashkelon was incapable of extending its defense to Ashdod, but this did not stop the mayors from pressuring the Defense Ministry and the IDF to position Iron Dome batteries within their city limits. Ashdod, Ofakim, Netivot, Beersheba, and Ashkelon have all pursued the system, but the IDF had only two batteries available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Uzi Rubin writes: \"So how did Postol reach such a radical conclusion? He made a series of assumptions on Iron Dome performance, most of them very wrong, and examined public domain video clips shot from smartphones and media cameras that showed the wind-sheared smoke trails of Iron Dome interceptors, but in which the engaged rockets remained invisible. From this half-blind sky picture, he guessed interception geometries that, when matched with his own gross underestimation of Iron Dome performance, yielded an intuitive estimate of a 5 percent to 10 percent success rate... Postol's estimates are simply wrong.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "An unpublished 2013 report by Theodore Postol, Mordechai Shefer and Richard Lloyd, argued that the official effectiveness figures for Iron Dome during Operation Pillar of Defense were incorrect. Although Postol had earlier lauded Iron Dome's effectiveness, after studying YouTube videos of the warhead interceptions as well as police reports and other data, he argued that \"Iron Dome's intercept rate, defined as destruction of the rocket's warhead was relatively low, perhaps as low as 5%, but could well be lower.\" Postol reached this conclusion mainly from an analysis of non-official footage of interceptions taken by civilians and published on YouTube."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The system was employed during operation \"Protective Edge\", intercepting rockets launched from Gaza towards southern, central and northern parts of Israel. As of August 2014, ten Iron Dome batteries had been deployed throughout Israel. During the 50 days of the conflict 4,594 rockets and mortars were fired at Israeli targets; Iron Dome systems intercepted 735 projectiles that it determined were threatening, achieving an intercept success rate of 90 percent. Only 70 rockets fired at Israel from Gaza failed to be intercepted. One civilian was killed and three others and nine servicemen were wounded by mortar bombs, but they were not in areas protected by Iron Dome. Only 25 percent of rockets fired were determined to be threatening due to the low accuracy and unstable trajectory of the poor-quality rockets fired. Six systems had been deployed prior to hostilities, and three more were rushed into service for a total of nine batteries used during the conflict; a tenth system was delivered, but not deployed due to a shortage of staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Conversely, Iron Dome is built to deploy in a scattered pattern. Each launcher, containing 20 interceptors, is independently deployed and operated remotely via a secure wireless connection. Reportedly, each Iron Dome battery is capable of protecting an urban area of approximately 150 square kilometers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In July 2015, Rafael released video footage of Iron Dome interceptors destroying several low and high-flying UAVs in a test. Although some targets were destroyed by proximity-operated warheads, in others the interceptor achieved a kinetic hit. The company says the system is capable of destroying armed UAVs before they can get close enough to release their munitions, and most medium-altitude reconnaissance UAVs before they are close enough to survey an area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 23 August 2011, \"Globes\" reported that Rafael would invest tens of millions of shekels in the following months to open a second production line for the Iron Dome's Tamir interceptor missiles. Future operational needs, as well as the plan to build two more Iron Dome batteries by the end of the year, necessitated the increase of missile production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dick Grayson",
        "text": "Despite the relief of the dome coming down, Barbara Gordon must now worry about the possibility that her city could be invaded by killers from another city. Even now, the Hawkman and Hawkwoman of another world have sent armed spy drones called Absorbascons to monitor the city. All the while, drones belonging to whatever entity trapped both factions in the domes in the first place are ensuring that the battle occurs, at the command of some unseen mastermind."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Funding for the production and deployment of these additional Iron Dome batteries and interceptor missiles was approved by the United States Congress, after being requested by President Obama in 2010. In May 2010, the White House announced that U.S. President Barack Obama would seek $205\u00a0million from U.S. Congress in his 2011 budget, to spur the production and deployment of additional Iron Dome batteries. White House spokesman Tommy Vietor stated, \"The president recognizes the threat missiles and rockets fired by Hamas and Hezbollah pose to Israelis, and has therefore decided to seek funding from Congress to support the production of Israel's short range rocket defense system called Iron Dome.\" This would be the first direct U.S. investment in the project. Such financial assistance could expedite the completion of the defensive system, which has long been delayed by budgetary shortfalls. A few days later, on 20 May 2010, the U.S. House of Representatives approved the funding in a 410\u20134 vote. The bill, the United States\u2013Israel Missile Defense Cooperation and Support Act (H.R. 5327), was sponsored by Representative Glenn C. Nye of Virginia. This money was expected to be included in the 2011 budget. Once the money was received in 2011, it still took a further 18 months before the additional batteries were delivered to the air force."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In 2005, Brig. Gen. Danny Gold, then head of"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 9 May 2011, \"Haaretz\" published that Defense Ministry director general Maj. Gen. (res.) Udi Shani said that Israel plans to invest nearly $1\u00a0billion in the coming years for the development and production of Iron Dome batteries. \"We are no longer approaching this in terms of initial operational capabilities but are defining the final target for absorbing the systems, in terms of schedule and funds. We are talking about [having] 10\u201315 Iron Dome batteries. We will invest nearly $1\u00a0billion on this. This is the goal, in addition to the $205\u00a0million that the U.S. government has authorized,\" Shani said."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Iron Dome\n--Background.\n--Name.\n--Specifications.\n----Comparison to a typical battery.\n--Funding.\n--Plans for co-production with the United States.\n--Development.\n----Design.\n----Testing.\n----Energy weapons.\n----C-Dome.\n----Counter-UAV.\n----Other uses.\n--Deployment.\n----2011.\n------Response by Palestinian militants.\n------August 2011 Supreme Court decision.\n------December 2011 accident.\n----2012.\n------March 2012 intensive attacks.\n------July 2012 first Eilat deployment.\n------November 2012 Operation Pillar of Defense.\n----2014.\n------July 2014 Operation Protective Edge.\n----2018.\n------May 2018 Israel\u2013Iran incidents.\n------Gaza-Israel clashes.\n----2019.\n------Mount Hermon video.\n----2021.\n------2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis.\n--Deployment at sea.\n--Foreign sales.\n--Effectiveness.\n----Cost.\n----Vulnerabilities.\n--Criticism.\n----Effectiveness.\n------Prior to deployment.\n------Analysis based on YouTube video footage.\n------Analysis of damage reports.\n------Analysis of losses per rocket.\n----Effects on Israeli society.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "March 2012 Gaza\u2013Israel clashes",
        "text": "The result, according to Leor Sapir, brought five strategic benefits to Israel: (1) it enabled a new weapon system to be tested in an authentic operational setting: (2) it provided crucial data to check if Iron Dome's technology met its original expectations. (3) It inspired both confidence in the system's capabilities and set realistic expectations: (4) It enabled, in a controlled conflict to get the Gaza terrorist infrastructure to waste a significant number of rockets: (5) Above all, activating Iron Dome has a deterrent effect by sending with its 76% hit-rate a powerful message to Iran and Hezbollah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Project leader Colonel S. and his team in the Administration for the Development of Weapons and Technological Infrastructure (\"Maf'at\") needed an appropriate name for the system. According to Colonel S., \"The first name I thought of was 'Anti-Qassam', but when the project started to move forward I realized it was problematic... I sat down with my wife, and together we thought of suitable names. She suggested the name 'Tamir' (Hebrew acronym for \u05d8\u05d9\u05dc \u05de\u05d9\u05d9\u05e8\u05d8, \"Til Meyaret\", 'interceptor missile') for the missile, and for the system itself we thought of 'Golden Dome'. The following Sunday, 'Tamir' was immediately approved, but there was a problem with 'Golden Dome'\u2014it could be perceived as ostentatious. So it was changed to 'Iron Dome'.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "2014 Israel\u2013Gaza conflict in video games",
        "text": "\"Iron Dome Missile Defense\" was released by Simon Rosenzweig on 30 July to Apple's App Store, and involves the player using Israel's Iron Dome to defend a city from an unnamed \"enemy\". Rosenzweig did not name this \"enemy\" deliberately, stating \"I wish not to see apps that support hate in any way\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "These results partly support critics (like Theodore Postol) of Iron Dome's effectiveness during Pillar of Defense. However, they also partly support proponents (like Uzi Rubin) of the system's effectiveness during Protective Edge."
      },
      {
        "title": "2014 Gaza War",
        "text": "The performance of the Iron Dome defense system was considered effective, achieving an almost 90% success rate. Israel's early warning sirens and extensive shelters have been an effective defense against Gazan rocketry. They are less effective against short-range mortars because the residents have less time to react."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natural gas in the Gaza Strip",
        "text": "The Iron Dome system, developed in part to stop Hezbollah rockets aimed at Israel's northern gas fields, was put in place near the border with Gaza and was tested during Operation Returning Echo, the fourth Israeli military attempt to weaken Hamas and eliminate any Palestinian \"capability to bomb Israel's strategic gas and electricity installations.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "During the 2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis, over 4,300 rockets were fired at Israel by Hamas from Gaza from 11 to 21 May. In the first 24 hours of the conflict 470 rockets were fired, a much higher rate than had been attained in previous conflicts. Of the rockets, 17% were long-range attacks on Tel Aviv, again more than previously. About 680 of the rockets fired during hostilities fell short and landed in Gaza; the Iron Dome system intercepted about 90% of the rockets heading to populated areas within Israel. During the operation Iron Dome shot down a bomb-laden drone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Spade",
        "text": "Iron Spade is the codename given to Israel's latest attempt to use technology in an effort to prevent offensive tunnels being built from Gaza into Israel. It is reported to be based in part on the Iron Dome project. The primary developer of the project is Elbit Systems, with Rafael, developers of Iron Dome also involved in the project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The estimated cost of each Tamir interceptor missile was cited in 2014 as from US$20,000 to 50,000; a 2020 analysis estimated a total cost of $100,000 to $150,000 for each interception. In contrast, a crudely manufactured Qassam rocket costs around $800 and the Hamas Grad rocket costs only several thousand dollars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In October 2014, Rafael unveiled a naval version of the Iron Dome called C-Dome. It is designed to protect vessels in blue and littoral waters from ballistic trajectory and direct attack weapons fired in saturation attacks. C-Dome includes a 10-round canister loaded with vertically-launched Tamir interceptors for 360-degree coverage, a feature not supported by the land-based Iron Dome system; the ship's own surveillance radar is used to negate the need for a dedicated fire control radar. The system has a small footprint to enable installation on small ships like offshore patrol vessels, corvettes, and even stationary oil rigs. Though in the very early stages of concept development, Rafael estimated that it could take less than a year to build a prototype C-Dome system. Preliminary discussions with potential users have already been launched. The C-Dome will be used on the Israeli Navy's Sa'ar 6-class corvettes. On 18 May 2016 Col. Ariel Shir, head of Israeli Naval operation systems announced that the system had successfully intercepted and destroyed a salvo of short range missiles while deployed on a naval vessel at sea. On 27 November 2017, the Israeli military declared initial operational capability for the C-Dome, completing more than 18 months of integration and design work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Beam",
        "text": "In April 2022, the Israeli Ministry of Defense and Rafael announced the completion of successful interception experiments for a variety of threats, for the first time in the world, using a powerful laser system developed in Israel. It is estimated that within a year or two the system will be declared operational and complementary to the Iron Dome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 6 December 2011, Matan Vilnai, the Israeli Minister of Home Front Defense, said that the Defense Ministry was considering a permanent deployment of an Iron Dome battery in the Haifa Port to protect the oil refineries there against future Hezbollah rocket attacks. \"The continued work of the oil refineries is critical for the Israeli economy during a time of war,\" he said. During the Second Lebanon War in 2006, a number of Katyusha rockets struck Haifa but did not hit the refineries. Officials were concerned that a direct hit on one of the refineries could cause numerous casualties as a result of leakage of dangerous chemical substances. The port was also the site of a chemical terminal that included containers of ammonia and ethylene gas."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has the Iron Dome been the target of cyber attacks by foreign entities?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I don't know if it was ever cyber-attacked over networks, but during the 2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis, Israel said that Hamas had been developing an electronic system to jam Iron Dome, and they destroyed a building said to have been used for this purpose."
    ],
    "topic": "Iron Dome",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Iron Dome:94",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iron Dome",
          "Effectiveness",
          "Vulnerabilities"
        ],
        "ctx": "During the 2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis, Israel said that Hamas had been developing an electronic system to jam Iron Dome; Israeli aircraft destroyed a building said to have been used for this purpose."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "During the 2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis, Israel said that Hamas had been developing an electronic system to jam Iron Dome; Israeli aircraft destroyed a building said to have been used for this purpose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 15 May 2021, Israel destroyed the twelve-storey Jala tower building, which housed the Gaza offices of Associated Press (AP) and Al Jazeera, with an air strike, giving one hour's notice for evacuation. Israel said that Hamas was carrying out signals intelligence (SIGINT), electronic signals intelligence (ELINT), and electronic warfare (EW) operations, including the development of an electronic system to jam the Iron Dome, from within the building."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel",
        "text": "The Iron dome has successfully intercepted around 100 of the 370 rockets that have been fired. After the attacks, the IDF announced that it had struck over 100 targets in the Gaza Strip including a weapons factory, munitions warehouse and Hamas' Public Security offices. Hamas responded to the air strikes by making additional threats against Be'er Sheva and Ashdod. The attacks had a significant effect on businesses in southern Israel as restaurant patrons cancelled their reservations. The finance minister announced that Israeli businesses in certain regions would be compensated for losses. All schools within 40\u00a0km of Gaza were closed; the Israel Tax Authority has promised compensation to parents who were unable to go to work because they had to stay home with their children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 10 May 2018, the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps of Iran allegedly launched 20 rockets from Syria toward Israel in retaliation for recent Israeli airstrikes against IRGC facilities. According to an IDF spokesperson, 16 of the rockets fell short of the Israeli border, and Iron Dome intercepted the other four. Israel reported no casualties or damage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "After the IDF killing of Zohair al-Qaisi, the secretary general of the Popular Resistance Committees in Gaza on 9 March 2012, more than 300 rockets were fired on Israel. Some 177 fell on Israeli territory. The Iron Dome system had successfully intercepted at least 56 rockets (directed at population centers) in 71 attempts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Hezbollah, based in Lebanon, fired rockets into northern Israeli population centers in the 1990s, posing a security challenge for the Israel Defense Forces. Israel had floated the idea of its own short-range antimissile system, but U.S. defense officials cautioned that it would be \"doomed to fail\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In November 2012, during Operation Pillar of Defense, the Iron Dome's effectiveness was estimated by Israeli officials at between 75 and 95 percent. According to Israeli officials, of the approximately 1,000 missiles and rockets fired into Israel by Hamas from the beginning of Operation Pillar of Defense up to 17 November 2012, Iron Dome identified two-thirds as not posing a threat and intercepted 90 percent of the remaining 300. During this period the only Israeli casualties were three individuals killed in missile attacks after a malfunction of the Iron Dome system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "During the 2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis, over 4,300 rockets were fired at Israel by Hamas from Gaza from 11 to 21 May. In the first 24 hours of the conflict 470 rockets were fired, a much higher rate than had been attained in previous conflicts. Of the rockets, 17% were long-range attacks on Tel Aviv, again more than previously. About 680 of the rockets fired during hostilities fell short and landed in Gaza; the Iron Dome system intercepted about 90% of the rockets heading to populated areas within Israel. During the operation Iron Dome shot down a bomb-laden drone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 21 January 2019, the IDF released footage online of a Syrian Arab Army rocket attack on the Golan Heights being intercepted by Iron Dome. The video was shot by skiers at Mount Hermon ski resort; Israeli authorities announced that the resort was closed until further notice. The attack was in response to Israel's launching of nine rockets at SAA targets in western Damascus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel",
        "text": "Iron Dome () is a mobile system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems designed to intercept short-range rockets with a range less than 70\u00a0km. In February 2007, the system was selected by Israeli Defense Minister Ehud Barak as the Israeli Defense Force's defense system against short range rockets. On 7 July 2008, the first test of the system was completed successfully, and the first operational test was expected to take place at the end of 2009. The system was scheduled to be operational in 2010, but was temporarily delayed. In March, the system was deployed in several strategic sites near major Israeli southern cities. On 7 April 2011, the system successfully intercepted a Grad rocket launched from Gaza for the first time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 22 August 2011, \"Haaretz\" reported that according to Israeli security sources, Palestinian militants changed their rocket-launching tactics in an attempt to evade the two Iron Dome batteries deployed in southern Israel. The new tactics included aiming more frequently at areas beyond the Iron Dome protection range. After the Palestinian launch teams realized that the systems deployed in the previous two weeks around Ashkelon and Be'er Sheva provided near-perfect protection from rockets, they began firing more frequently at Ashdod and Ofakim. When they did aim at Beersheba on 21 August, they did not fire one or two rockets, as in the past, but rather a volley of seven rockets almost simultaneously. Iron Dome intercepted five of them successfully, but one penetrated the defense system, exploding in a residential area and killing a man."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "According to the Israeli Air Force, during operation \"Pillar of Defense\" (14\u201321 November 2012) Iron Dome made 421 interceptions. On 17 November, after two rockets targeted Tel Aviv during the operation, a battery was deployed in the area. Within hours, a third rocket was intercepted by the system. This fifth battery had not been scheduled to come into service until early 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "During the 2006 Second Lebanon War, approximately 4,000 Hezbollah-fired rockets (the great majority of which were short-range Katyusha rockets) landed in northern Israel, including on Haifa, the country's third largest city. The rocket barrage killed 44 Israeli civilians and caused some 250,000 Israeli citizens to evacuate and relocate to other parts of Israel while an estimated 1 million Israelis were confined in or near bomb shelters during the conflict."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis",
        "text": "By the end of the campaign, over 4,360 rockets and mortar shells had been fired at southern and central Israel, an average of 400 per day. About 3,400 successfully crossed the border while 680 fell in Gaza and 280 fell into the sea. The Iron Dome shot down 1,428 rockets detected as heading toward populated areas, an interception rate of 95 percent. Some 60\u201370 rockets hit populated areas after the Iron Dome failed to intercept them. The attacks killed 6 Israeli civilians, among them a 5-year-old boy and two Israeli-Arabs, as well as three foreign nationals working in Israel: an Indian woman working as a caregiver in Ashkelon and two Thai workers who were killed when the packing house of a community in southern Israel close to the Gaza border took a direct hit. Three other Israeli civilians including an 87-year-old woman died from injuries sustained after they fell while running to bomb shelters during attacks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "According to Ronen Bergman, in 2012, during Operation Pillar of Defense, Israel agreed to an early cease-fire \"for a reason that has remained a closely guarded secret: The Iron Dome anti-missile defense system... had run out of ammunition.\" Bergman says that as a result of the experience, Israel had tried to prepare larger stocks of interceptors for future rounds of fighting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counterterrorism",
        "text": "As Israel is suffering from constant shelling of its cities, towns, and settlements by artillery rockets from the Gaza Strip (mainly by Hamas, but also by other Palestinian factions) and Lebanon (mainly by Hezbollah), Israel developed several defensive measures against artillery, rockets, and missiles. These include building a bomb shelter in every building and school, but also deploying active protection systems like the Arrow ABM, Iron Dome and David's Sling batteries which intercept the incoming threat in the air. Iron Dome has successfully intercepted hundreds of Qassam rockets and Grad rockets fired by Palestinians from the Gaza Strip."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel in 2020",
        "text": "On 15 September, the Iron Dome missile defense system intercepted eight of 13 rockets. At least two people were injured and several cars damaged by shrapnel near a mall in Ashdod. Six pedestrians also were injured as panicked shoppers ran for shelters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil defense in Israel",
        "text": "Iron Dome (Hebrew: \u05db\u05d9\u05e4\u05ea \u05d1\u05e8\u05d6\u05dc) is a mobile system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Ltd. designed to intercept short-range rockets with a range less than 70\u00a0km."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In a 2012 op-ed in \"Haaretz\", Jamie Levin suggested that the success of the Iron Dome system was likely to increase demands to field additional systems across Israel. Budget shortfalls meant that Israel would be forced to weigh spending on missile defenses against other expenditures. Such funds, he argued, would probably come from programs intended to help the most vulnerable sectors of society, such as social welfare."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 5 August 2011, the IDF redeployed the Iron Dome system near Ashkelon following days of heightened rocket fire from Gaza into Israel. The deployment came a day after Ashkelon mayor Benny Vaknin sent Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Defense Minister Ehud Barak a letter asking them to redeploy the system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In the 2006 war with Hezbollah, prior to Iron Dome's development, during 34 days of fighting, 4,000 rockets landed and 53 Israelis were killed. However, in the 2014 war with Gaza, the 50-day conflict and 3,360 rockets resulted in just two rocket-related deaths. In 2006, about 30,000 insurance claims for rocket-related damage were filed while in 2014, there were just 2,400."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Prior to its deployment, the Iron Dome was criticized as ineffective in countering the Qassam threat for the southern city of Sderot, given the short distance\u2014840m, half a mile, from the closest point in Sderot to Gaza\u2014and flight time between the much-attacked city and the rocket launching pads in the Gaza Strip. Israeli defense officials insisted in 2008 that with recent improvements to Iron Dome, the system was fully able to intercept Qassams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel",
        "text": "Israeli defenses constructed specifically to deal with the weapons include fortifications for schools and bus stops as well as an alarm system named Red Color. Iron Dome, a system to intercept short-range rockets, was developed by Israel and first deployed in the spring of 2011 to protect Beersheba and Ashkelon, but officials and experts warned that it would not be completely effective. Shortly thereafter, it intercepted a Palestinian Grad rocket for the first time."
      },
      {
        "title": "2011 southern Israel cross-border attacks",
        "text": "A Grad rocket exploded near the coastal city of Ashkelon in the night, though no injuries or damage were reported. It was unknown whether the rocket was intercepted by the Iron Dome, though it was confirmed that a second rocket was intercepted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "To the south, more than 8,000 projectiles (estimated at 4,000 rockets and 4,000 mortar bombs) were fired indiscriminately into Israeli population centers from Gaza between 2000 and 2008, principally by Hamas. Almost all of the rockets fired were Qassams launched by 122 mm Grad launchers smuggled into the Gaza Strip, giving longer range than other launch methods. Nearly a million Israelis living in the south were within rocket range, posing a serious security threat to the country and its citizens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 20 August 2011, while engaging with a volley of seven rockets fired almost simultaneously at Be'er Sheva from Gaza, one was not intercepted by the defense system, exploding in a residential area and killing one person. Brig. Gen. Doron Gavish, commander of the IAF's Air Defense Corps, said on the following day that \"we said in advance that this wasn't a hermetic system,\" adding that the air defense units were learning on the fly and improving the performance of Iron Dome while operating it. \"This is the first system of its kind anywhere in the world; it is in its first operational test; and we've already intercepted a large number of rockets targeting Israeli communities, saving many civilian lives,\" Gavish said."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In February 2007, Defense Minister Amir Peretz selected Iron Dome as Israel's defense against this short-range rocket threat. Since then, the $210\u00a0million system has been developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems working jointly with the IDF."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 18 August 2011, four rockets were fired from Gaza at Ashkelon. The system determined that two were a threat and intercepted them, ignoring the other two which were directed at non-populated areas. No injuries or damage were reported. Defense officials said that Iron Dome would be re-deployed in Beersheba."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The system was employed during operation \"Protective Edge\", intercepting rockets launched from Gaza towards southern, central and northern parts of Israel. As of August 2014, ten Iron Dome batteries had been deployed throughout Israel. During the 50 days of the conflict 4,594 rockets and mortars were fired at Israeli targets; Iron Dome systems intercepted 735 projectiles that it determined were threatening, achieving an intercept success rate of 90 percent. Only 70 rockets fired at Israel from Gaza failed to be intercepted. One civilian was killed and three others and nine servicemen were wounded by mortar bombs, but they were not in areas protected by Iron Dome. Only 25 percent of rockets fired were determined to be threatening due to the low accuracy and unstable trajectory of the poor-quality rockets fired. Six systems had been deployed prior to hostilities, and three more were rushed into service for a total of nine batteries used during the conflict; a tenth system was delivered, but not deployed due to a shortage of staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "2014 Gaza War",
        "text": "Hamas and other Islamist groups in Gaza fired rockets and mortars at Israeli towns and villages. Despite Israel's use of the Iron Dome missile defense systems, six civilians were killed, including an Arab Israeli and a Thai civilian worker. An Israeli teen was seriously injured in a rocket strike in the city of Ashkelon. Medical health professionals have noted that Israeli teens prone to mental health problems suffer increasingly during both short-term and long-term conflicts. Experts have identified a number of mental health symptoms which rise during conflict, including anxiety, depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, interpersonal sensitivity, phobias, and paranoia. There is some doubt whether these issues will dissipate after the conflict is resolved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of Operation Pillar of Defense",
        "text": "Gazan militants continued to fire rockets towards the Israeli cities of Beersheba, Ashdod, Ofakim and the Shaar Hanegev and Eshkol Regional Council. The Iron Dome missile defense system made 130 interceptions. About 55 rockets were launched on the evening of 14 November, including a Grad rocket fired in the direction of the Negev Nuclear Research Center near Dimona. On the night of 14 November, Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu announced that the Israeli cabinet had authorized a partial call-up of reservists in case they were needed for a large ground-based operation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 21 August 2011, \"Ynetnews\" reported that the success of the Iron Dome system against Gazan rocket fire had southern city mayors battling over the right to be the next to have it deployed in their area. The IDF stressed that \"no system can offer airtight protection\" and that the system positioned in Ashkelon was incapable of extending its defense to Ashdod, but this did not stop the mayors from pressuring the Defense Ministry and the IDF to position Iron Dome batteries within their city limits. Ashdod, Ofakim, Netivot, Beersheba, and Ashkelon have all pursued the system, but the IDF had only two batteries available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In 2010, before the system was declared operational, Iron Dome was criticized by Reuven Pedatzur, a military analyst, former fighter pilot and professor of political science at Tel Aviv University for costing too much compared to the cost of a Qassam rocket (fired by Palestinian forces), so that launching very large numbers of Qassams could essentially attack Israel's financial means. Rafael responded that the cost issue was exaggerated since Iron Dome intercepts only rockets determined to constitute a threat, and that the lives saved and the strategic impact are worth the cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On the same day, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that Defense Minister Ehud Barak announced that a third Iron Dome battery would be installed in the region \"within weeks\", and estimated that nine more batteries would be positioned within the next two years. In attacks shortly before, the Iron Dome system had successfully intercepted about 85% of the rockets identified as threats to populated areas by the Battle Management Control (BMC) system launched at Israel from Gaza."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli Air Defense Command",
        "text": "Due to increasing rocket threat from the Gaza Strip, Israeli-developed Iron Dome C-RAM system became operational in 2011. In 2011 the system scored its first interception and since then intercepted hundreds of short- and medium-ranged rockets, fired by Hamas from the Gaza Strip, gaining world acclaim for its effectiveness and success."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Also according to \"Haaretz\", the IDF was to finalize its long-term Iron Dome acquisition program\u2014nicknamed \"Halamish\"\u2014within a few months (from April 2011), which would indicate the final number of systems to be introduced into the military. Israel Air Force officials estimated the number of Iron Dome systems needed to cover threatened areas as thirteen. According to Meir Elran, a scholar at the Institute of National Security Studies in Tel Aviv, Israel would need a total of 20\u00a0batteries to provide adequate defense for its borders with Gaza and Lebanon. Such a deployment would require financial assistance from the United States, but he said that even in the original limited form, officially designated a trial period, the system was important."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 25 March 2019 a J-80 rocket fired from Gaza hit a house in Mishmeret, Israel. According to Hamas the J-80 travels on a nonlinear path and cannot be intercepted by Iron Dome."
      },
      {
        "title": "March 2012 Gaza\u2013Israel clashes",
        "text": "The result, according to Leor Sapir, brought five strategic benefits to Israel: (1) it enabled a new weapon system to be tested in an authentic operational setting: (2) it provided crucial data to check if Iron Dome's technology met its original expectations. (3) It inspired both confidence in the system's capabilities and set realistic expectations: (4) It enabled, in a controlled conflict to get the Gaza terrorist infrastructure to waste a significant number of rockets: (5) Above all, activating Iron Dome has a deterrent effect by sending with its 76% hit-rate a powerful message to Iran and Hezbollah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian political violence",
        "text": "Defenses constructed specifically to deal with the weapons include fortifications for schools and bus stops as well as an alarm system named Red Color. Iron Dome, a system to intercept short-range rockets, was developed by Israel and first deployed in the spring of 2011 to protect Beersheba and Ashkelon, but officials and experts warned that it would not be completely effective. Shortly thereafter, it intercepted a Palestinian Grad rocket for the first time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of the 2014 Gaza War",
        "text": "At about 18:30 the Iron Dome intercepted two rockets over Netivot, its first interception in over a week. Later, two rockets were shot down over Sderot and another two over Be'er Sheva, as well as several fired at Tel Aviv, which Hamas took credit for."
      },
      {
        "title": "2014 Gaza War",
        "text": "According to the IDF, of all the 4,564 projectiles fired at Israel, 224 hit built-up areas, 735 were intercepted by the Iron Dome, 875 fell inside Gaza and the rest fell in open territory or failed to launch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel",
        "text": "On 27 March, Israel first deployed the new Iron Dome missile defense system to protect Beersheba. The city, one of Israel's largest, had recently been targeted again by Palestinian missiles after being safe since the 2008-2009 Gaza War. A week later, a second battery was deployed to protect Ashkelon. On 7 April, the Ashkelon battery successfully intercepted a Palestinian Grad missile fired at the city, marking the first successful interception of a short range rocket in history. On 31 August, Israel deployed a third battery outside Ashdod before the new school year. As of that date, Iron Dome had intercepted several dozen Gazan rockets at an estimated cost of $100,000 per interception, not including the price of the system itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "2012 Israeli operation in the Gaza Strip",
        "text": "During the campaign, pro-Palestinian hackers launched a concerted effort to cripple Israeli websites. Israeli websites faced over 60 million hacking attempts, which failed to cause any significant damage. In April 2013 Anonymous attacked many Israeli websites in response to the IDF offensive in Gaza. They called the attack #OpIsrael and claimed to have taken down at least 700 sites as of 18 November 2012. The Israeli Defense Forces claimed to have deflected 44 million cyber attacks by that date. Many of the websites were replaced with messages condemning the Israeli campaign and expressing support for the citizens of Gaza. Hackers from Kuwait disrupted the website of Likud MK Danny Danon, who had posted an online petition urging the government of Israel to cease providing the Gaza Strip with electricity. The Facebook and Twitter accounts of Israeli Vice Prime Minister and Likud MK Silvan Shalom were hacked by a pro-Palestinian group called ZCompanyHackingCrew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anonymous (hacker group)",
        "text": "In response to Operation Pillar of Defense, a November 2012 Israeli military operation in the Gaza Strip, Anons took down hundreds of Israeli websites with DDoS attacks. Anons pledged another \"massive cyberassault\" against Israel in April 2013 in retaliation for its actions in Gaza, promising to \"wipe Israel off the map of the Internet\". However, its DDoS attacks caused only temporary disruptions, leading cyberwarfare experts to suggest that the group had been unable to recruit or hire botnet operators for the attack."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel in 2011",
        "text": "On 27 March, Israel first deployed the new Iron Dome missile defense system to protect Beersheba. The city, one of Israel's largest, had recently been targeted again by Palestinian missiles after being safe since the 2008-2009 Gaza War. A week later, a second battery was deployed to protect Ashkelon. On 7 April, the Ashkelon battery successfully intercepted a Palestinian Grad missile fired at the city, marking the first successful interception of a short range rocket in history. On 31 August, Israel deployed a third battery outside Ashdod before the new school year. As of that date, Iron Dome had intercepted several dozen Gazan rockets at an estimated cost of $100,000 per interception, not including the price of the system itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis",
        "text": "In three instances, Hamas attempted to launch cross-border raids into Israel to kill or kidnap soldiers and civilians, utilizing tunnels that approached but did not cross into Israeli territory to enable its fighters to get close. All of these attacks were foiled. In one instance, a group of Hamas fighters were struck before entering a tunnel and in two other instances the groups were targeted while in the tunnels. A total of 18 Hamas fighters were killed. The IDF also stated that seven Hamas drones that crossed into Israeli airspace were shot down, including at least one by an Iron Dome battery. An Israeli drone was also accidentally shot down by an Iron Dome battery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 17 May 2012, when Israeli Defense Minister Ehud Barak met with U.S. Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta, the Pentagon issued a statement from the Secretary saying in part, \"I was pleased to inform Minister Barak that the President supports Israel's Iron Dome system and directed me to fill the $70 million in assistance for Iron Dome that Minister Barak indicated to me Israel needs this fiscal year.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel in 2011",
        "text": "Palestinians fired two rockets at Ashkelon; at least one of them was intercepted by the Iron Dome defense system. The Popular Resistance Committees claimed responsibility. Later, two more rockets fired at Ashkelon were intercepted by Iron Dome.\n;August 19"
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of the 2014 Gaza War",
        "text": "In the afternoon, the Iron Dome shot down a rocket over Zichron Yaakov, 120\u00a0km (75 miles) from the Gaza border. This was immediately followed by two rockets landing in the Mount Carmel region, just short of Haifa; Hamas said they were responsible, and that Gaza had been hit 500 times in the past two days. The IDF announced that they had struck 129 targets in Gaza including Palestinian militants, rocket launchers, weapons stores, tunnels and command centers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil defense in Israel",
        "text": "The increasing danger of rocket and missile fire against the State of Israel (namely, Qassam rocket fire from Gaza, Katyusha rocket fire from South Lebanon, and Iran's ballistic missile arsenal) has led to the development of defense systems to counter this threat. In addition to the Iron Dome system, which is designed to intercept short range rockets, the David's Sling system has also been developed in order to intercept medium and long range rockets, while the Arrow missile, designed to intercept ballistic missiles, is already in use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 7 April 2011, after deployment as an \"operational experiment\" on 3 April, the Iron Dome system in the area of Ashkelon successfully intercepted a Grad rocket fired at the city, the first time a short-range rocket fired from Gaza had been intercepted. According to reports from the area, the interception could be seen in Israeli towns near northern Gaza. Immediately afterwards an IAF aircraft successfully attacked the squad that had fired the rocket. Later that day the IDF stressed that the system, though operational, was still under evaluation. On 8 April the system successfully intercepted another four rockets."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel in 2014",
        "text": "At 2am, five rockets were fired into Israel. The Iron Dome eliminated all rockets, as they would have hit Ashkelon. No injuries or damage were reported.\n;January 30"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Yoav Fromer, writing in \"The Washington Post\", thanked Iron Dome for the lack of fatalities and the relatively low casualty rate among Israeli civilians, and said that the technology appears to provide \"both a physical and a psychological solace that enables Israelis to go about their business.\" However, in his view, over time, Iron Dome may do the Israeli public more harm than good because despite the fact it is a \"tactical miracle\" it may help create a serious strategic problem to Israelis' long-term security because, by temporarily minimizing the dangers posed by rocket attacks, it distracts Israelis from seeking a broader regional political solution that could finally make systems such as Iron Dome unnecessary. In Fromer's view, the Israeli government is \"not exactly brimming with creative ideas to reignite the peace process with the Palestinians. And with Iron Dome, why would it? As long as the Israeli public believes it is safe, for now, under the soothing embrace of technology, it will not demand that its political leaders wage diplomacy to end violence that mandated Iron Dome in the first place. Since Iron Dome has transformed a grim reality into a rather bearable ordeal, Israelis have lost the sense of urgency and outrage that might have pushed their government\" to make necessary concessions in exchange for peace. In Fromer's view, Israelis risk confusing the short-term military advantage provided by Iron Dome with the long term need for an original and comprehensive diplomatic solution."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Israel",
        "text": "On 31 May 2010, an international incident broke out in the Mediterranean Sea when foreign activists trying to break the maritime blockade over Gaza, clashed with Israeli troops. During the struggle, nine Turkish activists were killed. In late September 2010 took place direct negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians without success. As a defensive countermeasure to the rocket threat against Israel's civilian population, at the end of March 2011 Israel began to operate the advanced mobile air defence system \"Iron Dome\" in the southern region of Israel and along the border with the Gaza Strip."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 6 December 2011, Matan Vilnai, the Israeli Minister of Home Front Defense, said that the Defense Ministry was considering a permanent deployment of an Iron Dome battery in the Haifa Port to protect the oil refineries there against future Hezbollah rocket attacks. \"The continued work of the oil refineries is critical for the Israeli economy during a time of war,\" he said. During the Second Lebanon War in 2006, a number of Katyusha rockets struck Haifa but did not hit the refineries. Officials were concerned that a direct hit on one of the refineries could cause numerous casualties as a result of leakage of dangerous chemical substances. The port was also the site of a chemical terminal that included containers of ammonia and ethylene gas."
      },
      {
        "title": "2016 Tel Aviv stabbings",
        "text": "Following the attack and the two other attacks, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu held security consultations with Israeli Defense Minister Moshe Ya'alon, Internal Security Minister Gilad Erdan, police chief Roni Alsheikh and IDF and Shin Bet officials. The Prime Minister's Office said it was immediately decided to close gaps in the separation barrier in the Jerusalem area, and to complete construction of the barrier in the Tarqumiyah area in the South Hebron Hills. It was also decided to close Palestinian media outlets accused of incitement. Professionals in the defense establishment will decide which Palestinian media will be closed. Further, it was decided to deny work permits for family members of assailants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Following the system's deployment in April 2011, Iron Dome was used to successfully intercept Katyusha rockets fired by Palestinian militants. In August that year, Iron Dome intercepted 20 missiles and rockets fired into Israel. However, in one instance the system destroyed four rockets fired at the city of Beersheba but failed to stop a fifth, which killed one man and injured several others."
      },
      {
        "title": "2014 Gaza War",
        "text": "The performance of the Iron Dome defense system was considered effective, achieving an almost 90% success rate. Israel's early warning sirens and extensive shelters have been an effective defense against Gazan rocketry. They are less effective against short-range mortars because the residents have less time to react."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counter rocket, artillery, and mortar",
        "text": "Iron Dome is an Israeli missile system featuring multiple-target tracking and self-guided missile interceptors. Due to the ongoing increase of its engagement range and new missile and interception improvements, plus surface-to-air missile capability, it has developed into a fully-fledged air defence system. By November 2012, the system had intercepted over 400 rockets fired into Israel by Gaza Strip militants. Based on operational success, defense reporter Mark Thompson estimates that Iron Dome is currently the most-effective and most-tested counter missile system in existence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "According to the leading developers of Iron Dome, due to schedule and low-cost settings constraints, some of the missile components have been taken from a toy car sold by Toys \"R\" Us.\n* July 2008: the Tamir interceptor missile underwent successful testing.\n* March 2009: Israel successfully tested the missile defense system, though without yet actually intercepting an actual projectile.\n* July 2009: the system successfully intercepted a number of rockets mimicking Qassam and short-range Katyusha rockets in a Defense Ministry test.\n* August 2009: the IDF completed the establishment of a new battalion that will operate the Iron Dome system. The battalion is a part of the Israel Air Force's Air Defense Division. The system was to be first deployed along the Gaza border and then along the border with Lebanon. The system was slated to start operating in mid-2010.\n* January 2010: Iron Dome successfully intercepted multiple rocket barrages mimicking Qassams and Katyushas. Defense Ministry Director-General Pinhas Buchris stated that the system would ultimately \"transform\" security for the residents of southern and northern Israel.\n* July 2010: The system successfully intercepted multiple rocket barrages mimicking Qassams and Katyushas. During the test, Iron Dome successfully distinguished rockets which were threats from those that would not land in designated areas and did not need to be intercepted.\n* March 2011: Iron Dome was declared operational by the IDF, and Defense Minister Ehud Barak authorized deployment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 30 December 2011, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that a performance analysis it had obtained shows that Iron Dome was successful in downing rockets from Gaza 75% of the times it fired. It said two interceptors are usually fired at each rocket. In April 2011, for example, the system succeeded in intercepting eight of 10\u00a0rockets. Following the October violence, the IDF conducted an inquiry into the Iron Dome's performance and discovered that a radar failure caused some of the interceptors to miss their targets, a problem since corrected. An officer told the \"Post\" that \"seventy-five percent is impressive, but we would still like to see it perform better.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel in 2012",
        "text": "Palestinians then fired 25 rockets at Ashkelon, Ashdod, Gan Yavne and other communities. The Iron Dome anti-rocket system intercepted at least one rocket aimed at Ashdod."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natural gas in the Gaza Strip",
        "text": "The Iron Dome system, developed in part to stop Hezbollah rockets aimed at Israel's northern gas fields, was put in place near the border with Gaza and was tested during Operation Returning Echo, the fourth Israeli military attempt to weaken Hamas and eliminate any Palestinian \"capability to bomb Israel's strategic gas and electricity installations.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Those estimates suggest Iron Dome intercepted 59 to 75 percent of all threatening rockets during Protective Edge. \"Threatening\" means the rockets struck populated areas or were intercepted beforehand. The interceptions likely prevented $42 to $86\u00a0million in property damage, three to six deaths, and 120 to 250 injuries. Since those percentages include rockets anywhere in Israel, the high interception rates claimed for only the areas that batteries were defending seem plausible."
      },
      {
        "title": "International reactions to 2014 Gaza War",
        "text": "Pro-Palestinian hackers carried out cyber-attacks on Israeli commercial, government, aviation and banking websites. Anonymous's 'OpIsrael' defaced or took down more than 1,000 Israeli websites, including Israeli government web domains such as those of Mossad, the Tel Aviv Police Department and the Israeli Ministry of Defense. Hackers claimed to have published over 170 emails and passwords of Israeli officials on 21 July. A report by Arbor Networks showed a direct correlation between cyber attacks and the intensity of the conflict. Iranian and Chinese hackers were blamed for some of the attacks."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis",
        "text": "On 15 May the IDF destroyed the al-Jalaa Building in Gaza, which housed the Al Jazeera Media Network and Associated Press journalists, and a number of other press offices and apartments. The building was hit by three missiles, approximately an hour after Israeli forces called the building's owner, warning of the attack and advising all occupants to evacuate. The press agencies demanded an explanation; the IDF said at the time that the building housed assets of Hamas military intelligence. On 8 June, Israel stated that a Hamas electronic warfare unit developing a system to jam the Iron Dome was based in the building. AP demanded proof of this; Hamas did not immediately make any comment. Israel said that it did not suspect that AP personnel knew of Hamas's use of the building, and offered to assist AP in rebuilding its offices and operations in Gaza. Israel stated that it provided the US government intelligence on the strike but would not make the information public. US Secretary of State Antony Blinken confirmed that Israel had sent the US information and said \"It's my understanding that we've received some further information through intelligence channels, and it's not something I can comment on.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "During the first stage of Iron Dome's operational duty, the Israeli Air Force included many soldiers from Sderot, citing high motivation among the city's pre-army youth to be part of the project. The 947th\u00a0\"Marksmen\" Stinger Battalion of the Israeli Air Defense Network was chosen as the first unit to become familiar with and operate Iron Dome."
      },
      {
        "title": "March 2012 Gaza\u2013Israel clashes",
        "text": "About 300 rockets being fired by militants from Gaza. On 10\u00a0March 2012, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported an Iron Dome success rate of shooting down 90% of rockets launched from Gaza the system engaged (rockets which will land in unpopulated areas are ignored) and there were no Israeli casualties, whether civilian or military. The success of the Iron Dome system was widely acclaimed on the Israeli side."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel in 2015",
        "text": "Around 11:00pm One rocket was intercepted over Ashkelon by Israel's Iron Dome missile defence system."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel in 2015",
        "text": "Around 11:30pm, One rocket was intercepted over Ashkelon by Israel's Iron Dome missile defence system, for the first time since Operation Protective Edge in 2014, just three hours after the rocket strike on Sderot."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel in 2014",
        "text": "Residents heard massive detonations. Three rockets were fired at Eilat, which were intercepted by the Iron Dome.\n;April 3"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Iron Dome\n--Background.\n--Name.\n--Specifications.\n----Comparison to a typical battery.\n--Funding.\n--Plans for co-production with the United States.\n--Development.\n----Design.\n----Testing.\n----Energy weapons.\n----C-Dome.\n----Counter-UAV.\n----Other uses.\n--Deployment.\n----2011.\n------Response by Palestinian militants.\n------August 2011 Supreme Court decision.\n------December 2011 accident.\n----2012.\n------March 2012 intensive attacks.\n------July 2012 first Eilat deployment.\n------November 2012 Operation Pillar of Defense.\n----2014.\n------July 2014 Operation Protective Edge.\n----2018.\n------May 2018 Israel\u2013Iran incidents.\n------Gaza-Israel clashes.\n----2019.\n------Mount Hermon video.\n----2021.\n------2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis.\n--Deployment at sea.\n--Foreign sales.\n--Effectiveness.\n----Cost.\n----Vulnerabilities.\n--Criticism.\n----Effectiveness.\n------Prior to deployment.\n------Analysis based on YouTube video footage.\n------Analysis of damage reports.\n------Analysis of losses per rocket.\n----Effects on Israeli society.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel in 2020",
        "text": "On 2 August, one rocket fired from Gaza was intercepted by Iron Dome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The Iron Dome system began operating in early 2011, initially deployed at air force bases in southern Israel. It was designated to be set up in other areas, such as the town of Sderot, during significant escalations along the Gaza border."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel in 2014",
        "text": "In the early evening Gaza Militants fired several rockets into Southern Israel. Two of the rockets were intercepted by the Iron Dome Missile Defense System, as the rockets would have hit inhabited areas. Targets have been Ashkelon and Sha\u2019ar Hanegev Regional Council. Again a rocket landed in the South, in the Sdot Negev Regional Council. There were light damage, but no injuries were reported.\n;June 27"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 26 December 2011, an accident occurred during a maintenance drill involving one of the systems. While loading missiles into a launcher vehicle from a bunker at the Air Defense Network's school near kibbutz Mashabei Sadeh in the Negev, two soldiers caused twenty Tamir interceptors to fall from a height of four meters near soldiers and officers without detonating, causing no injury, but making them unserviceable. \"Ynetnews\" reported that the soldiers were never in danger because the interceptor missiles are equipped with a security mechanism that prevents premature explosions. The IDF Spokesperson's Unit said that the Air Force commander, Maj. Gen. Ido Nehushtan, appointed a committee to examine the accident and ordered an immediate stop to all Air Defense Network maintenance work until a preliminary investigation was concluded. It also said that during the following week actions would be taken to \"improve skills and safety awareness\". A security official told \"Reshet Bet\" that the failure was twofold in that the soldiers and their commander deviated from severely strict safety protocols, and 20 costly interceptors were lost. \"Walla!\" website reported that the soldiers made a mistake in loading the missiles and they fell backwards. The website calculated the damage at US$1\u00a0million (at $50,000 per missile). The missiles were transferred back to Rafael to determine whether they could be repaired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 4 April 2012, Reuters reported that a senior Israeli official, during a briefing to a small group of journalists on condition of anonymity, predicted an increased interception range of up to 250\u00a0km, as well as more flexible aiming of Iron Dome units, thus lowering the number of batteries needed for full deployment in Israel. That would help Israel to cope with the prospect of reduced funding from the United States, while a \"new round\" of talks about missile-defense funding would be completed in two to three months, he anticipated. While praising American largess, the official said US planners have asked Israel to \"point out honestly where the upper limit is in terms of what can be implemented\" with the Iron Dome. He said the US is \"deep in (fiscal) challenges itself\", so it does not want to \"give money for the sake of it\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Amir Peretz",
        "text": "Amir Peretz was hailed during Operation Pillar of Defense in November 2012 as a defence visionary for having had the foresight while in office back in 2006\u20132007 to face down myriad sceptics and push for the development of Iron Dome, Israel's unique anti-rocket interceptor system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Missile defense systems by country",
        "text": "Apart from Arrow missile, Israel has Iron dome which is designed to intercept and destroy short-range rockets and artillery shells fired from distances of 4 to 70 kilometers away and David's Sling that is designed to intercept medium- to long-range rockets and cruise missiles, such as those possessed by Hezbollah, fired at ranges from 40\u00a0km to 300\u00a0km."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eshkol Regional Council",
        "text": "The Eshkol region has been the target of thousands of rocket attacks since 2000. Despite Iron Dome coverage in the region, usage of the system is generally limited to populated areas and allows other rockets to land in open areas. As a result, there has been widespread damage to farms, vehicles and various outlying structures. During the 2014 Israel\u2013Gaza conflict, farmers reported massive damages to their crops due to rockets landing in open fields."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 8 August 2011, the Israeli High Court of Justice rejected a petition asking that the government be ordered to deploy the system in Gaza border communities. In rejecting the petition, Supreme Court President Dorit Beinisch and Justices Salim Joubran and Uzi Fogelman ruled that in balancing all relevant considerations including budgets, changing security realities and operational matters, the government's decision not to deploy the Iron Dome in the area was reasonable. The panel of justices also said that the court had no reason to intervene in operational decisions regarding where to deploy the Iron Dome system. \"We believe the [government] will make the necessary decisions in accordance with the time and place requirements,\" they said."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel in 2013",
        "text": "The Mujahedeen Shura Council, a Palestinian Salafi group, claimed responsibility for the attack, stating that it was meant to show that Israeli air defenses could not stop attacks on the Jewish state. \"Responding to the bragging of the Roman dog and the war criminals of their so-called Iron Dome, we assert that all their military techniques will not stop God's destiny of tormenting them\", the group posted on an Islamist website."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel in 2012",
        "text": "Palestinians fired four rockets into Israel, of which two were intercepted by the Iron Dome system. A chicken coop was damaged."
      },
      {
        "title": "March 2012 Gaza\u2013Israel clashes",
        "text": "On the same day, Palestinians increased the daily rocket barrage on Israel injuring three persons and causing a traffic accident in which two were wounded. The Israeli Air Force killed 15 more militants and a civilian in retaliatory attacks. The Iron Dome successfully intercepted 90% of the rockets targeted. On March 10, attacks on Israel continued, without causing damage. Several Palestinians were killed while preparing to fire rockets. Militants fired guns in the air and crowds chanted \"Revenge, revenge!\" during funeral processions in Gaza City. Particulars of individual Palestinian rocket attacks on March 9:\n* Two mortar shells were fired into the Eshkol Regional Council.\n* In the early evening, at least four Grad missiles fired at Ashdod, Gan Yavne and Kiryat Malachi were intercepted by Iron Dome.\n* Late in the evening, several rockets were fired at Beersheba. Some landed on the outskirts of the city, and at least one was intercepted by Iron Dome.\n* Six Qassam rockets were fired on the Shaar Hanegev, Sdot Negev and Eshkol regional councils."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of Operation Pillar of Defense",
        "text": "Israel continued to bombard the Gaza Strip, and, for the first time, Israeli ships fired shells too. The IDF killed the head of Hamas' rocket program, Yahyia Byya, who according to IDF sources, had been responsible for most of the rocket attacks. Two buildings housing journalists were hit by IDF. The first housed Sky News and other international journalists. No one was injured. Another media tower was hit, with reports of 7 injured Palestinian journalists. The tower, known as the Al-Sharouk compound, contained the offices of Al-Quds TV, Sky News, ARD, Kuwait TV, RAI, and ITN, and had previously also been used by BBC. The IDF said that it targeted Hamas communications devices located on the roofs of two media buildings. It alleged Hamas was using journalists as human shields. Reporters without Borders (an international NGO focused on issues of freedom of the press) issued a strong condemnation of the attacks. Christophe Deloire, the director of RWB, described the attacks as unjustified and as a threat to freedom of information, stating that \"even though the outlets targeted are linked to Hamas, it does not legitimize the attacks.\" The attacks injured five people; one cameraman lost his leg. Lieutenant Colonel Avital Leibovich responded by urging journalists to avoid areas with any Hamas presence whatsoever, while another Israeli government official stated that the offices of both Al Quds and Al Aqsa were legitimate military targets. Sam Kiley, a correspondent for Sky News who was present during the attack, said that there was 'reason to disbelieve' Israel's official account of the incident, and that he believes the incident demonstrates that no civilian in Gaza can feel safe. The Foreign Press Association also issued a statement expressing concern over the strike, and pointing to a UN Security Council statement that condemned all attacks against journalists in combat zones."
      },
      {
        "title": "OpIsrael",
        "text": "During the day, attackers posted numerous false and grandiose claims of successes, such as \"Anonymous causes Israel to lose $5 billion\" in stock market losses and \"Tel Aviv loses all Internet connection\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Cyber Security Authority (Israel)",
        "text": "The team's main conclusion was that \"cyber-attacks should be considered as a substantial potential threat to the functional continuity of the state, its institutions and its citizens\", and that \"a central gap has been identified in the cyber defense of the civil sector at large\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel in 2015",
        "text": "Around 10:50pm One rocket was intercepted by Israel's Iron Dome missile defence system over Ashdod."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 1 August 2014, Congress approved a measure to deliver an additional $225\u00a0million in aid to Israel, with the aim of replenishing funds for the Iron Dome system in the midst of the conflict between Israel and Hamas. Following the signing of bill, for which \"the Senate and House of Representatives as well as Republicans and Democrats set[ting] aside differences to advance Israel's emergency request,\" the White House stated that \"The United States has been clear since the start of this conflict that no country can abide rocket attacks against its civilians\" and that it \"supports Israel's right to defend itself against such attacks.\" Senate Report 113-211 from the U.S. Government Publishing Office, which accompanied text H.R. 4870, recommended an increase in funding for the program for FY2015. The report calculates \"U.S. investment in Iron Dome production since fiscal year 2011\" to be over $1\u00a0billion."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis",
        "text": "On 11 May, the 13-story residential Hanadi Tower in Gaza collapsed after being hit by an Israeli airstrike. The tower housed a mix of residential apartments and commercial offices. IDF said the building contained offices used by Hamas, and said it gave \"advance warning to civilians in the building and provided sufficient time for them to evacuate the site\"; Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad fired 137 rockets at Tel Aviv in five minutes. Hamas stated that they fired their \"largest ever barrage.\" In addition, an Israeli state-owned oil pipeline was hit by a rocket."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Spade",
        "text": "Iron Spade is the codename given to Israel's latest attempt to use technology in an effort to prevent offensive tunnels being built from Gaza into Israel. It is reported to be based in part on the Iron Dome project. The primary developer of the project is Elbit Systems, with Rafael, developers of Iron Dome also involved in the project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iran\u2013Israel conflict during the Syrian civil war",
        "text": "Local Syrian media and Syrian opposition sources reported that on 20 January 2019, Israeli missiles were fired at Damascus International Airport and the town of al-Kiswah. The Syrian military claimed nine missiles were intercepted by its air defenses. IDF reported that the Iron Dome system intercepted an incoming projectile from Syria, which was heading toward the northern Golan Heights. Israel retaliated by attacking Iranian targets near Damascus and Syrian air defense batteries that fired upon the attacking Israeli jets. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said 21 people died in the strikes, including 12 Iranian fighters. On 23 January, Russian Foreign Ministry spokeswoman Maria Zakharova said Israel must stop its \"arbitrary\" air incursions into Syria. Syria's envoy to the UN Bashar Jaafari raised the prospected of retaliatory Syrian attacks on Tel Aviv airport."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In exchange for the second tranche of deployment funding, the United States asked Israel for access to, and a stake in, elements of the system's technology."
      },
      {
        "title": "2011 southern Israel cross-border attacks",
        "text": "On August 21, an additional 12 rockets were fired at Israel. Three were intercepted by the Iron Dome in Ashkelon. One of the rockets hit an empty high school building in Beersheba."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel in 2011",
        "text": "Palestinians fired over 65 projectiles at Israel. Five people were injured while running to bomb shelters. Details of some of the attacks:\n*Overnight, 15 Grads were fired into Israeli territory. The Iron Dome defense system intercepted five of them near Beersheba and Ashkelon.\n*A rocket fired at a kibbutz in the Shaar Hanegev Regional Council damaged homes and a water main.\n*After nightfall, two rocket barrages hit the Eshkol Regional Council."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yuval Diskin",
        "text": "During his tenure as Director, Diskin led the development of the Shabak's cyber capabilities. These counter-cyberterrorism capabilities are both offensive\u2014preventing terrorist and suicide attacks to the point of their termination in Israel, as well as defensive, as in protecting Israel's essential infrastructure, such as electricity, transport, telecommunications and banking. He also championed a revision in Israel's Counter Cyber Threats Authority, transforming it from a purely regulatory body to an active body, which works toward identifying and preventing cyber attacks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Research published in 2018 analyzed the numbers of deaths, injuries, and property damage claims per rocket fired for four conflicts. These were the Second Lebanon War of 2006, Operation Cast Lead in 2008\u20132009, Operation Pillar of Defense in 2012, and Operation Protective Edge in 2014. By comparing the loss rates per rocket of the latter two operations (which had Iron Dome batteries) to the first two (which did not), it estimated the interceptor batteries' overall effectiveness at reducing Israeli losses from rockets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Destruction of al-Jalaa Building",
        "text": "The IDF said it contained assets of Hamas military intelligence. The Associated Press, which had used the building for 15 years, said they had never seen Hamas in the building. On 16 May, Israel said it had shown the United States evidence that Hamas operated inside the building. Blinken said he had not personally seen any evidence that Hamas was operating out of the tower, but a senior official at the United States Department of State later said that \"any such information would be provided to others in the administration, not directly to the secretary of State\", stating that Blinken was only referring to what he had seen personally. On 18 May, Blinken said, \"It's my understanding that we've received some further information through intelligence channels, and it's not something I can comment on\". It was later publicized that the IDF believed that a Hamas intelligence unit which operated a number of advanced electronic warfare devices was based in the building with the mission of interfering with the operation of Israeli smart bombs by disrupting their GPS reception. On 1 June, Israel said it had provided intelligence to the U.S. government but said that it would not make the information public. On 7 June, Israeli ambassador to the US and representative to the UN Gilad Erdan told top AP executives that Hamas had been developing a system to electronically jam Israel's Iron Dome defenses inside the building."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel in 2012",
        "text": "Palestinians fired over 300 Grad missiles, rockets and mortars deep into Israel. Three civilians were wounded directly by the fire, one of them seriously. Additionally, 21 people suffered from shock and 11 were injured while fleeing for cover. A total of 23 Israeli civilians were injured. Israel's Iron Dome missile defense system intercepted many of the Palestinian-launched projectiles aimed at large cities, shooting down 56 rockets in 71 attempts."
      },
      {
        "title": "2011 southern Israel cross-border attacks",
        "text": "Over 80 rockets launched from Gaza hit cities in Israel, killing one Israeli and wounding over a dozen. Seven rockets were fired almost simultaneously at Beersheba. The Iron Dome rocket defense system intercepted five of them, but one hit a residential area and killed Israeli Yossi Shushan. The Lachish subdistrict was hit by 28 rockets and the Negev subdistrict was hit by nine rockets. Four Israelis from the Bnei Shimon Regional Council were injured while running for shelter in Beersheba. Three Palestinians working in Israel were injured by Grad rockets after they exploded in a field in southern Ashdod. Vehicles and homes were damaged by rockets in Israeli cities near Gaza."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has the Iron Dome been the target of cyber attacks by foreign entities?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I don't know if it was ever cyber-attacked over networks, but during the 2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis, Israel said that Hamas had been developing an electronic system to jam Iron Dome, and they destroyed a building said to have been used for this purpose."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about other cyber attacks Israel has faced?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "OpIsrael (#OpIsrael), is an annual coordinated cyber-attack where hacktivists attack Israeli government and even private websites with DDoS attacks and more.[1] The inaugural campaign was launched in 2013 by Anonymous hackers on the eve of Holocaust Remembrance Day. The campaign has since been held annually.",
      "During the 2006 Lebanon War (in which the Israel Defense Forces fought against Hezbollah forces), Israeli intelligence believed that several Middle Eastern countries used Russian hackers to operate on their behalf as part of the conflict. Additionally, since 2013 the hacker group Anonymous holds an annual cyber-attack on the Israeli government on the eve of Holocaust Reembrace Day, using DDoS attacks and more."
    ],
    "topic": "Iron Dome",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "OpIsrael:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "OpIsrael"
        ],
        "ctx": "OpIsrael (#OpIsrael), is an annual coordinated cyber-attack where hacktivists attack Israeli government and even private websites with DDoS attacks and more. The inaugural campaign was launched in 2013 by Anonymous hackers on the eve of Holocaust Remembrance Day. The campaign has since been held annually."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Cyberwarfare:99",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cyberwarfare",
          "Cyber activities by nation",
          "Middle East",
          "Israel"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the 2006 war against Hezbollah, Israel alleges that cyber-warfare was part of the conflict, where the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) intelligence estimates several countries in the Middle East used Russian hackers and scientists to operate on their behalf. As a result, Israel attached growing importance to cyber-tactics, and became, along with the U.S., France and a couple of other nations, involved in cyber-war planning. Many international high-tech companies are now locating research and development operations in Israel, where local hires are often veterans of the IDF's elite computer units. Richard A. Clarke adds that \"our Israeli friends have learned a thing or two from the programs we have been working on for more than two decades.\""
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "2006 Lebanon War:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "2006 Lebanon War"
        ],
        "ctx": "The 2006 Lebanon War, also called the 2006 Israel\u2013Hezbollah War and known in Lebanon as the July War (, \"\u1e24arb Tamm\u016bz\") and in Israel as the Second Lebanon War (, \"Milhemet Levanon HaShniya\"), was a 34-day military conflict in Lebanon, Northern Israel and the Golan Heights. The principal parties were Hezbollah paramilitary forces and the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). The conflict started on 12 July 2006, and continued until a United Nations-brokered ceasefire went into effect in the morning on 14 August 2006, though it formally ended on 8 September 2006 when Israel lifted its naval blockade of Lebanon. Due to unprecedented Iranian military support to Hezbollah before and during the war, some consider it the first round of the Iran\u2013Israel proxy conflict, rather than a continuation of the Arab\u2013Israeli conflict."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "OpIsrael:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "OpIsrael"
        ],
        "ctx": "OpIsrael (#OpIsrael), is an annual coordinated cyber-attack where hacktivists attack Israeli government and even private websites with DDoS attacks and more. The inaugural campaign was launched in 2013 by Anonymous hackers on the eve of Holocaust Remembrance Day. The campaign has since been held annually."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In a 2012 op-ed in \"Haaretz\", Jamie Levin suggested that the success of the Iron Dome system was likely to increase demands to field additional systems across Israel. Budget shortfalls meant that Israel would be forced to weigh spending on missile defenses against other expenditures. Such funds, he argued, would probably come from programs intended to help the most vulnerable sectors of society, such as social welfare."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Some Iron Dome systems have been exported. A weakness for most potential markets is that each Iron Dome system protects no more than ; this is effective in a small country like Israel, but not for larger states. Even in Israel, the batteries have to be moved around according to perceived risk of attack. Singapore, a sovereign island city-state, is reported to have purchased the Iron Dome, and the US Army has bought two batteries to protect overseas bases.\n:On 17 December 2016, Azerbaijan Defense Industry Minister Yavar Jamalov told reporters that Azerbaijan had reached an agreement with Israel to purchase Iron Dome batteries in the first confirmed foreign sale of the system. The country's acquisition of the system is believed to be related to neighboring Armenia's purchase of Russian Iskander short-range ballistic missiles.\n:On 23 November 2012, \"The Economic Times\" reported that Indian Defense planners were considering the possibility of India acquiring an indigenous version of Iron Dome, keeping a close watch on the performance of Iron Dome during the 2012 Operation Pillar of Defense. Several months earlier, the military scientists in the Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) had suggested that India look at a joint development program with Israeli firms to develop an Indian version of Iron Dome. They believed Israel's short range missile defense requirements have several parallels to the Indian threat from Pakistan, which includes a \"battlefield range\" quasi-tactical ballistic nuclear weapon delivery system, called Nasr, which some Indian defense sources say the Iron Dome might be an effective deterrent against, as well as the vulnerability of its cities to attacks from militants.\n:\"The Israeli team comes and works in our laboratories. Our team goes and works in their laboratories and industries. There is a learning that is taking place which was not there when we buy things and integrate with existing products... we have started discussions about Iron Dome for co-development (in India),\" W. Selvamurthy, Chief Controller looking after international cooperation said.\n:On 8 February 2013, Marshal Norman Anil Kumar Browne, commander of the Indian Air Force, told reporters that Iron Dome is not suitable for the service. The announcement came after two years of discussions. In August 2013, India resumed attempting to acquire the Iron Dome system after Israel agreed to transfer system technology. Iron Dome could complement the domestic long-range Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme air defense system.\n:In 2017, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and his Indian counterpart Narendra Modi signed a series of agreements on defense and technology worth around $2\u00a0billion, including a deal to buy the \"Iron Dome\" system.\n:In May 2018, Romania's Romaero signed a deal to purchase the Iron Dome system.\n:On 16 August 2011, Raytheon Company announced that it had teamed with Rafael to lead marketing in the United States for the Iron Dome system. \"Iron Dome complements other Raytheon weapons that provide intercept capabilities to the US Army's Counter Rocket, Artillery, and Mortar initiative at forward operating bases,\" said Mike Booen, vice president of Raytheon Missile Systems' Advanced Security and Directed Energy Systems product line. \"Iron Dome can be seamlessly integrated with Raytheon's C-RAM systems to complete the layered defense.\"\n:On 10 November 2011, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the US Army had expressed interest in acquiring the system, to be deployed outside forward bases in Iraq and Afghanistan that could potentially be targeted by artillery rockets. The US military had discovered 107\u00a0mm rockets in Iraq in the past. Yossi Druker, head of Rafael's Air-to-Air Directorate, said that the initial deal was valued at $100\u00a0million, but could reach several hundred million dollars over a number of years. In April 2016, Iron Dome's Tamir interceptor successfully shot down a UAV during a test firing in the United States, the system's first trial on foreign soil.\n: In January 2019 it was reported that the United States would purchase two Iron Dome batteries for 373 million dollars. The batteries were to be deployed to protect US armed forces in hostile areas of operation. The order was for two command posts and radars, 12 launchers, and 480 missiles and was finalized in August 2019. Rafael announced the first battery's delivery on 30 September 2020. On 13 November 2020, Iron Dome was activated at Fort Bliss to test if it could be connected into the Army's air and missile defense network, to serve as an interim capability to intercept cruise missiles.\n: In 2020, the service decided against purchasing any more Iron Dome systems, ostensibly over issues integrating it with the new Integrated Battle Command System (IBCS) network architecture. The Israeli MOD announced the delivery of the second battery on 3 January 2021.\n: The Army conducted a live-fire test in August 2021, successfully engaging eight cruise missile surrogates.\n: On 8 October 2021, it was reported by \"The War Zone\" magazine that the 94th Army Air and Missile Defense Command announced that week that it was following the 2019 National Defense Authorization Act, which required the deployment of an Iron Dome system to an operational theater by the end of 2021, by the temporary and experimental deployment of a system to Andersen Air Force Base in Guam. The battery was to be operated by the 2nd Battalion of the 43rd Air Defense Artillery Regiment. It also stated that there was no plan to conduct a live fire test there. \"The War Zone\" added that the Army's 38th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, then forward-based in Japan, was also to support this deployment. On 9 November 2021, the \"Wall Street Journal\" reported that the system was being tested in Guam, and speculated that it would likely be part of an array designed to protect the area against possible attacks by China.\n:On 10 March 2010, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the Israeli Ministry of Defense was in talks with a number of European countries about the possible sale of the system to protect NATO forces deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq.\n:During a visit to Israel in the summer of 2011, Kwon Oh-bong, vice commissioner of the Defense Acquisition Program Administration in Seoul, expressed interest in purchasing the system to counter the threat posed by North Korean artillery, rockets, and missiles. South Korea was considered unlikely to buy the Iron Dome system due to the number of artillery pieces it would face, the coverage it would need to provide (around Seoul), and the high cost of interceptors; effort is being focused on disrupting the \"Kill Chain\" to immediately detect and destroy artillery and missile units. In August 2014, South Korea once again emerged as interested in buying the Iron Dome system for protection against rocket attacks. In October 2017, South Korea announced it would develop its own Iron Dome-type C-RAM system using hit-to-kill interceptors. Although they had considered buying Iron Dome, they determined the system had been developed primarily to counter mortar shells, and so was unsuited against the more powerful artillery rockets they would have to defend against.\n:On 14 September 2021, it was revealed by Breaking Defense that Saudi Arabia is considering adding the Iron Dome missile defense system to its inventory after the US withdrew the THAAD and the MIM-104 Patriot out of Prince Sultan Air Base."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In November 2012, during Operation Pillar of Defense, the Iron Dome's effectiveness was estimated by Israeli officials at between 75 and 95 percent. According to Israeli officials, of the approximately 1,000 missiles and rockets fired into Israel by Hamas from the beginning of Operation Pillar of Defense up to 17 November 2012, Iron Dome identified two-thirds as not posing a threat and intercepted 90 percent of the remaining 300. During this period the only Israeli casualties were three individuals killed in missile attacks after a malfunction of the Iron Dome system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 21 January 2019, the IDF released footage online of a Syrian Arab Army rocket attack on the Golan Heights being intercepted by Iron Dome. The video was shot by skiers at Mount Hermon ski resort; Israeli authorities announced that the resort was closed until further notice. The attack was in response to Israel's launching of nine rockets at SAA targets in western Damascus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "According to the Israeli Air Force, during operation \"Pillar of Defense\" (14\u201321 November 2012) Iron Dome made 421 interceptions. On 17 November, after two rockets targeted Tel Aviv during the operation, a battery was deployed in the area. Within hours, a third rocket was intercepted by the system. This fifth battery had not been scheduled to come into service until early 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 15 May 2021, Israel destroyed the twelve-storey Jala tower building, which housed the Gaza offices of Associated Press (AP) and Al Jazeera, with an air strike, giving one hour's notice for evacuation. Israel said that Hamas was carrying out signals intelligence (SIGINT), electronic signals intelligence (ELINT), and electronic warfare (EW) operations, including the development of an electronic system to jam the Iron Dome, from within the building."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 10 May 2018, the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps of Iran allegedly launched 20 rockets from Syria toward Israel in retaliation for recent Israeli airstrikes against IRGC facilities. According to an IDF spokesperson, 16 of the rockets fell short of the Israeli border, and Iron Dome intercepted the other four. Israel reported no casualties or damage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 17 January 2014, President Barack Obama signed the fiscal year 2014 Consolidated Appropriations Act. The bill provides $235\u00a0million for Israel to procure the Iron Dome system. The Israeli government has also agreed to spend more than half the funds the United States provides for the Iron Dome system in the United States. Funds going to U.S. contractors will increase to 30 percent in 2014 and 55 percent in 2015 from 3 percent previously, according to a U.S. Missile Defense Agency report to Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "After the IDF killing of Zohair al-Qaisi, the secretary general of the Popular Resistance Committees in Gaza on 9 March 2012, more than 300 rockets were fired on Israel. Some 177 fell on Israeli territory. The Iron Dome system had successfully intercepted at least 56 rockets (directed at population centers) in 71 attempts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil defense in Israel",
        "text": "Iron Dome (Hebrew: \u05db\u05d9\u05e4\u05ea \u05d1\u05e8\u05d6\u05dc) is a mobile system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Ltd. designed to intercept short-range rockets with a range less than 70\u00a0km."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 17 May 2012, when Israeli Defense Minister Ehud Barak met with U.S. Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta, the Pentagon issued a statement from the Secretary saying in part, \"I was pleased to inform Minister Barak that the President supports Israel's Iron Dome system and directed me to fill the $70 million in assistance for Iron Dome that Minister Barak indicated to me Israel needs this fiscal year.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "During the 2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis, Israel said that Hamas had been developing an electronic system to jam Iron Dome; Israeli aircraft destroyed a building said to have been used for this purpose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "According to Ronen Bergman, in 2012, during Operation Pillar of Defense, Israel agreed to an early cease-fire \"for a reason that has remained a closely guarded secret: The Iron Dome anti-missile defense system... had run out of ammunition.\" Bergman says that as a result of the experience, Israel had tried to prepare larger stocks of interceptors for future rounds of fighting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In 2010, before the system was declared operational, Iron Dome was criticized by Reuven Pedatzur, a military analyst, former fighter pilot and professor of political science at Tel Aviv University for costing too much compared to the cost of a Qassam rocket (fired by Palestinian forces), so that launching very large numbers of Qassams could essentially attack Israel's financial means. Rafael responded that the cost issue was exaggerated since Iron Dome intercepts only rockets determined to constitute a threat, and that the lives saved and the strategic impact are worth the cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Sec. 237, Availability of Funds for Iron Dome Short Range Rocket Defense Program, said that of the amounts authorized to be appropriated for fiscal year 2013 by section 201 for research, development, test, and evaluation, defense-wide, and available for the Missile Defense Agency, $210,000,000 may be provided to the Government of Israel for the Iron Dome short-range rocket defense program as specified in the funding table in section 4201."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Hezbollah, based in Lebanon, fired rockets into northern Israeli population centers in the 1990s, posing a security challenge for the Israel Defense Forces. Israel had floated the idea of its own short-range antimissile system, but U.S. defense officials cautioned that it would be \"doomed to fail\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Iron Dome () is a mobile all-weather air defense system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems and Israel Aerospace Industries. The system is designed to intercept and destroy short-range rockets and artillery shells fired from distances of to away and whose trajectory would take them to an Israeli populated area. From 2011 to 2021, the United States contributed a total of US$ 1.6 billion to the Iron Dome defense system, with another US$ 1 billion approved by the US Congress in 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In February 2007, Defense Minister Amir Peretz selected Iron Dome as Israel's defense against this short-range rocket threat. Since then, the $210\u00a0million system has been developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems working jointly with the IDF."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Until the 2021 war in Gaza, the US had contributed a total of US$1.6 billion to the Iron Dome defense system. After the end of the 2021 conflict, Israel asked the US for another US$ 1 billion for replenishing the Iron Dome batteries, which was approved by the US Congress in 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The committee is aware that National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2011 (Public Law 111-383) included $205.0\u00a0million for the Iron Dome short-range rocket defense system for the State of Israel. The committee notes that the Iron Dome system has proven very effective at defeating threat rockets launched at protected targets. The committee also notes that if the full $680.0\u00a0million is used on the program, the total U.S. taxpayer investment in this system will amount to nearly $900.0\u00a0million since fiscal year 2011, yet the United States has no rights to the technology involved. The committee believes the Director should ensure, prior to disbursing the authorized $680\u00a0million for Iron Dome, that the United States has appropriate rights to this technology for United States defense purposes, subject to an agreement with the Israeli Missile Defense Organization, and in a manner consistent with prior U.S.\u2013Israeli missile defense cooperation on the Arrow and David's Sling suite of systems. The committee also believes that the Director should explore any opportunity to enter into co-production of the Iron Dome system with Israel, in light of the significant U.S. investment in this system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Also according to \"Haaretz\", the IDF was to finalize its long-term Iron Dome acquisition program\u2014nicknamed \"Halamish\"\u2014within a few months (from April 2011), which would indicate the final number of systems to be introduced into the military. Israel Air Force officials estimated the number of Iron Dome systems needed to cover threatened areas as thirteen. According to Meir Elran, a scholar at the Institute of National Security Studies in Tel Aviv, Israel would need a total of 20\u00a0batteries to provide adequate defense for its borders with Gaza and Lebanon. Such a deployment would require financial assistance from the United States, but he said that even in the original limited form, officially designated a trial period, the system was important."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The Israeli Institute of National Security Studies published a detailed rebuttal to Postol's claims, labeling it \"dubious research without access to credible data\". The rebuttal stated:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 9 May 2011, \"Haaretz\" published that Defense Ministry director general Maj. Gen. (res.) Udi Shani said that Israel plans to invest nearly $1\u00a0billion in the coming years for the development and production of Iron Dome batteries. \"We are no longer approaching this in terms of initial operational capabilities but are defining the final target for absorbing the systems, in terms of schedule and funds. We are talking about [having] 10\u201315 Iron Dome batteries. We will invest nearly $1\u00a0billion on this. This is the goal, in addition to the $205\u00a0million that the U.S. government has authorized,\" Shani said."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In exchange for the second tranche of deployment funding, the United States asked Israel for access to, and a stake in, elements of the system's technology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 6 December 2011, Matan Vilnai, the Israeli Minister of Home Front Defense, said that the Defense Ministry was considering a permanent deployment of an Iron Dome battery in the Haifa Port to protect the oil refineries there against future Hezbollah rocket attacks. \"The continued work of the oil refineries is critical for the Israeli economy during a time of war,\" he said. During the Second Lebanon War in 2006, a number of Katyusha rockets struck Haifa but did not hit the refineries. Officials were concerned that a direct hit on one of the refineries could cause numerous casualties as a result of leakage of dangerous chemical substances. The port was also the site of a chemical terminal that included containers of ammonia and ethylene gas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 25 March 2019 a J-80 rocket fired from Gaza hit a house in Mishmeret, Israel. According to Hamas the J-80 travels on a nonlinear path and cannot be intercepted by Iron Dome."
      },
      {
        "title": "War reserve stock",
        "text": "Additionally in August 2014, during Operation Protective Edge the US passed \"The Iron Dome Bill\" to allow $225 million in addition funding to allow Israel to increase their war reserves for the Iron Dome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Prior to its deployment, the Iron Dome was criticized as ineffective in countering the Qassam threat for the southern city of Sderot, given the short distance\u2014840m, half a mile, from the closest point in Sderot to Gaza\u2014and flight time between the much-attacked city and the rocket launching pads in the Gaza Strip. Israeli defense officials insisted in 2008 that with recent improvements to Iron Dome, the system was fully able to intercept Qassams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In the 2006 war with Hezbollah, prior to Iron Dome's development, during 34 days of fighting, 4,000 rockets landed and 53 Israelis were killed. However, in the 2014 war with Gaza, the 50-day conflict and 3,360 rockets resulted in just two rocket-related deaths. In 2006, about 30,000 insurance claims for rocket-related damage were filed while in 2014, there were just 2,400."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In December 2014, former Israeli Air Force chief and head of Boeing Israel David Ivry showed interest in the American Laser Weapon System (LaWS). Earlier that month, the U.S. Navy had revealed that the LaWS had been mounted on the and locked onto and destroyed designated targets with near-instantaneous lethality, with each laser shot costing less than $1."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Iron Dome\n--Background.\n--Name.\n--Specifications.\n----Comparison to a typical battery.\n--Funding.\n--Plans for co-production with the United States.\n--Development.\n----Design.\n----Testing.\n----Energy weapons.\n----C-Dome.\n----Counter-UAV.\n----Other uses.\n--Deployment.\n----2011.\n------Response by Palestinian militants.\n------August 2011 Supreme Court decision.\n------December 2011 accident.\n----2012.\n------March 2012 intensive attacks.\n------July 2012 first Eilat deployment.\n------November 2012 Operation Pillar of Defense.\n----2014.\n------July 2014 Operation Protective Edge.\n----2018.\n------May 2018 Israel\u2013Iran incidents.\n------Gaza-Israel clashes.\n----2019.\n------Mount Hermon video.\n----2021.\n------2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis.\n--Deployment at sea.\n--Foreign sales.\n--Effectiveness.\n----Cost.\n----Vulnerabilities.\n--Criticism.\n----Effectiveness.\n------Prior to deployment.\n------Analysis based on YouTube video footage.\n------Analysis of damage reports.\n------Analysis of losses per rocket.\n----Effects on Israeli society.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 1 August 2014, Congress approved a measure to deliver an additional $225\u00a0million in aid to Israel, with the aim of replenishing funds for the Iron Dome system in the midst of the conflict between Israel and Hamas. Following the signing of bill, for which \"the Senate and House of Representatives as well as Republicans and Democrats set[ting] aside differences to advance Israel's emergency request,\" the White House stated that \"The United States has been clear since the start of this conflict that no country can abide rocket attacks against its civilians\" and that it \"supports Israel's right to defend itself against such attacks.\" Senate Report 113-211 from the U.S. Government Publishing Office, which accompanied text H.R. 4870, recommended an increase in funding for the program for FY2015. The report calculates \"U.S. investment in Iron Dome production since fiscal year 2011\" to be over $1\u00a0billion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 23 August 2011, \"Globes\" reported that Rafael would invest tens of millions of shekels in the following months to open a second production line for the Iron Dome's Tamir interceptor missiles. Future operational needs, as well as the plan to build two more Iron Dome batteries by the end of the year, necessitated the increase of missile production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel",
        "text": "Iron Dome () is a mobile system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems designed to intercept short-range rockets with a range less than 70\u00a0km. In February 2007, the system was selected by Israeli Defense Minister Ehud Barak as the Israeli Defense Force's defense system against short range rockets. On 7 July 2008, the first test of the system was completed successfully, and the first operational test was expected to take place at the end of 2009. The system was scheduled to be operational in 2010, but was temporarily delayed. In March, the system was deployed in several strategic sites near major Israeli southern cities. On 7 April 2011, the system successfully intercepted a Grad rocket launched from Gaza for the first time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "To the south, more than 8,000 projectiles (estimated at 4,000 rockets and 4,000 mortar bombs) were fired indiscriminately into Israeli population centers from Gaza between 2000 and 2008, principally by Hamas. Almost all of the rockets fired were Qassams launched by 122 mm Grad launchers smuggled into the Gaza Strip, giving longer range than other launch methods. Nearly a million Israelis living in the south were within rocket range, posing a serious security threat to the country and its citizens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 5 August 2011, the IDF redeployed the Iron Dome system near Ashkelon following days of heightened rocket fire from Gaza into Israel. The deployment came a day after Ashkelon mayor Benny Vaknin sent Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Defense Minister Ehud Barak a letter asking them to redeploy the system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On the same day, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that Defense Minister Ehud Barak announced that a third Iron Dome battery would be installed in the region \"within weeks\", and estimated that nine more batteries would be positioned within the next two years. In attacks shortly before, the Iron Dome system had successfully intercepted about 85% of the rockets identified as threats to populated areas by the Battle Management Control (BMC) system launched at Israel from Gaza."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Yoav Fromer, writing in \"The Washington Post\", thanked Iron Dome for the lack of fatalities and the relatively low casualty rate among Israeli civilians, and said that the technology appears to provide \"both a physical and a psychological solace that enables Israelis to go about their business.\" However, in his view, over time, Iron Dome may do the Israeli public more harm than good because despite the fact it is a \"tactical miracle\" it may help create a serious strategic problem to Israelis' long-term security because, by temporarily minimizing the dangers posed by rocket attacks, it distracts Israelis from seeking a broader regional political solution that could finally make systems such as Iron Dome unnecessary. In Fromer's view, the Israeli government is \"not exactly brimming with creative ideas to reignite the peace process with the Palestinians. And with Iron Dome, why would it? As long as the Israeli public believes it is safe, for now, under the soothing embrace of technology, it will not demand that its political leaders wage diplomacy to end violence that mandated Iron Dome in the first place. Since Iron Dome has transformed a grim reality into a rather bearable ordeal, Israelis have lost the sense of urgency and outrage that might have pushed their government\" to make necessary concessions in exchange for peace. In Fromer's view, Israelis risk confusing the short-term military advantage provided by Iron Dome with the long term need for an original and comprehensive diplomatic solution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of Operation Pillar of Defense",
        "text": "Gazan militants continued to fire rockets towards the Israeli cities of Beersheba, Ashdod, Ofakim and the Shaar Hanegev and Eshkol Regional Council. The Iron Dome missile defense system made 130 interceptions. About 55 rockets were launched on the evening of 14 November, including a Grad rocket fired in the direction of the Negev Nuclear Research Center near Dimona. On the night of 14 November, Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu announced that the Israeli cabinet had authorized a partial call-up of reservists in case they were needed for a large ground-based operation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "During the 2006 Second Lebanon War, approximately 4,000 Hezbollah-fired rockets (the great majority of which were short-range Katyusha rockets) landed in northern Israel, including on Haifa, the country's third largest city. The rocket barrage killed 44 Israeli civilians and caused some 250,000 Israeli citizens to evacuate and relocate to other parts of Israel while an estimated 1 million Israelis were confined in or near bomb shelters during the conflict."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 18 August 2011, four rockets were fired from Gaza at Ashkelon. The system determined that two were a threat and intercepted them, ignoring the other two which were directed at non-populated areas. No injuries or damage were reported. Defense officials said that Iron Dome would be re-deployed in Beersheba."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 4 April 2012, Reuters reported that a senior Israeli official, during a briefing to a small group of journalists on condition of anonymity, predicted an increased interception range of up to 250\u00a0km, as well as more flexible aiming of Iron Dome units, thus lowering the number of batteries needed for full deployment in Israel. That would help Israel to cope with the prospect of reduced funding from the United States, while a \"new round\" of talks about missile-defense funding would be completed in two to three months, he anticipated. While praising American largess, the official said US planners have asked Israel to \"point out honestly where the upper limit is in terms of what can be implemented\" with the Iron Dome. He said the US is \"deep in (fiscal) challenges itself\", so it does not want to \"give money for the sake of it\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "During the first stage of Iron Dome's operational duty, the Israeli Air Force included many soldiers from Sderot, citing high motivation among the city's pre-army youth to be part of the project. The 947th\u00a0\"Marksmen\" Stinger Battalion of the Israeli Air Defense Network was chosen as the first unit to become familiar with and operate Iron Dome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "According to the leading developers of Iron Dome, due to schedule and low-cost settings constraints, some of the missile components have been taken from a toy car sold by Toys \"R\" Us.\n* July 2008: the Tamir interceptor missile underwent successful testing.\n* March 2009: Israel successfully tested the missile defense system, though without yet actually intercepting an actual projectile.\n* July 2009: the system successfully intercepted a number of rockets mimicking Qassam and short-range Katyusha rockets in a Defense Ministry test.\n* August 2009: the IDF completed the establishment of a new battalion that will operate the Iron Dome system. The battalion is a part of the Israel Air Force's Air Defense Division. The system was to be first deployed along the Gaza border and then along the border with Lebanon. The system was slated to start operating in mid-2010.\n* January 2010: Iron Dome successfully intercepted multiple rocket barrages mimicking Qassams and Katyushas. Defense Ministry Director-General Pinhas Buchris stated that the system would ultimately \"transform\" security for the residents of southern and northern Israel.\n* July 2010: The system successfully intercepted multiple rocket barrages mimicking Qassams and Katyushas. During the test, Iron Dome successfully distinguished rockets which were threats from those that would not land in designated areas and did not need to be intercepted.\n* March 2011: Iron Dome was declared operational by the IDF, and Defense Minister Ehud Barak authorized deployment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel",
        "text": "The Iron dome has successfully intercepted around 100 of the 370 rockets that have been fired. After the attacks, the IDF announced that it had struck over 100 targets in the Gaza Strip including a weapons factory, munitions warehouse and Hamas' Public Security offices. Hamas responded to the air strikes by making additional threats against Be'er Sheva and Ashdod. The attacks had a significant effect on businesses in southern Israel as restaurant patrons cancelled their reservations. The finance minister announced that Israeli businesses in certain regions would be compensated for losses. All schools within 40\u00a0km of Gaza were closed; the Israel Tax Authority has promised compensation to parents who were unable to go to work because they had to stay home with their children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Those estimates suggest Iron Dome intercepted 59 to 75 percent of all threatening rockets during Protective Edge. \"Threatening\" means the rockets struck populated areas or were intercepted beforehand. The interceptions likely prevented $42 to $86\u00a0million in property damage, three to six deaths, and 120 to 250 injuries. Since those percentages include rockets anywhere in Israel, the high interception rates claimed for only the areas that batteries were defending seem plausible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "With the United States on track to greatly increase funding for Iron Dome, there have been calls for technology transfer and co-production of Iron Dome in the United States. Just as the US and Israel share co-production of the Arrow III missile system, with Boeing manufacturing 40\u201350 percent of the production content, there has been support in the U.S. Congress, media and think tanks in favor of co-production. The U.S. House of Representatives included report language in its FY-2013 Defense Authorization Act supporting Iron Dome with $680\u00a0million but also instructing that the Director of the U.S. Missile Defense Agency, Lt. Gen. Patrick O'Reilly, \"should explore any opportunity to enter into co-production of the Iron Dome system with Israel, in light of the significant U.S. investment in this system.\" There were media reports that the Pentagon was requesting similar language in the Senate Defense Authorization Act as well as the respective House and Senate defense appropriations bills for 2013. Adding Iron Dome to the list of high-tech military programs built jointly by both nations would help further strengthen ties between Israel and the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013South Korea relations",
        "text": "Israel has sold drones to South Korea, including the Harpy UAV. South Korea was competing with Italy's Alenia Aermacchi M-346 Master in a tender to supply training aircraft to the Israeli Defense Forces. The Korean Airforce had accused Israel of giving Italy preferred treatment since negotiations began. In January 2012, the South Korean government offered its final industrial cooperation package in a bid to get the Israeli Defense Ministry to select Korean Aerospace Industries\u2019 T-50 Golden Eagle as its next fighter trainer. Israeli Defense Ministry Chief of Staff Udi Shani flew to South Korea for talks about the purchase. The deal was reported worth over $1 billion. The Italians were the eventual winners, in a decision likely to upset South Korea. South Korea has also expressed interest in purchasing Israel's Iron Dome system, but that sale was now seen as under threat. On August 15, 2014, South Korea again expressed their interest in the Iron Dome System."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The study further estimated that improvements in Israeli civil defenses, such as warning sirens and hardened shelters, were at least as good as Iron Dome at reducing civilian deaths and injuries from rockets."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel in 2020",
        "text": "On 15 September, the Iron Dome missile defense system intercepted eight of 13 rockets. At least two people were injured and several cars damaged by shrapnel near a mall in Ashdod. Six pedestrians also were injured as panicked shoppers ran for shelters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The Iron Dome system began operating in early 2011, initially deployed at air force bases in southern Israel. It was designated to be set up in other areas, such as the town of Sderot, during significant escalations along the Gaza border."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The initial funding and development of the Iron Dome system was provided and undertaken by Israel. This allowed for the deployment of the first two Iron Dome systems. Subsequently, funding for additional Iron Dome systems \u2014 along with repeated funding for the supply of the interception missiles \u2014 has been provided by the United States. From 2011 to 2021, the US contributed a total of US$1.6 billion to the Iron Dome defense system, with another US$ 1 billion approved by the US Congress in 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Research published in 2018 analyzed the numbers of deaths, injuries, and property damage claims per rocket fired for four conflicts. These were the Second Lebanon War of 2006, Operation Cast Lead in 2008\u20132009, Operation Pillar of Defense in 2012, and Operation Protective Edge in 2014. By comparing the loss rates per rocket of the latter two operations (which had Iron Dome batteries) to the first two (which did not), it estimated the interceptor batteries' overall effectiveness at reducing Israeli losses from rockets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Defense reporter Mark Thompson wrote that, the \"lack of Israeli casualties suggests Iron Dome is the most-effective, most-tested missile shield the world has ever seen.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "2011 southern Israel cross-border attacks",
        "text": "A Grad rocket exploded near the coastal city of Ashkelon in the night, though no injuries or damage were reported. It was unknown whether the rocket was intercepted by the Iron Dome, though it was confirmed that a second rocket was intercepted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In its petition, the Eshkol Regional Council argued that the government should be ordered to deploy the Iron Dome to protect communities between 4.5 and 7\u00a0kilometers from Gaza from rocket fire. Government-funded rocket-roof protection is in place for homes in communities within 4.5\u00a0km of Gaza, but not for structures further from the border."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In 2004, the idea for Iron Dome gained momentum with the installation of Brig. Gen. Daniel Gold as the head of the research and development bureau of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). Gold was a strong backer of the antimissile project, even skirting army contracting regulations to secure financing. He also helped persuade key politicians to support the project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 30 December 2011, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that a performance analysis it had obtained shows that Iron Dome was successful in downing rockets from Gaza 75% of the times it fired. It said two interceptors are usually fired at each rocket. In April 2011, for example, the system succeeded in intercepting eight of 10\u00a0rockets. Following the October violence, the IDF conducted an inquiry into the Iron Dome's performance and discovered that a radar failure caused some of the interceptors to miss their targets, a problem since corrected. An officer told the \"Post\" that \"seventy-five percent is impressive, but we would still like to see it perform better.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Counter rocket, artillery, and mortar",
        "text": "Iron Dome is an Israeli missile system featuring multiple-target tracking and self-guided missile interceptors. Due to the ongoing increase of its engagement range and new missile and interception improvements, plus surface-to-air missile capability, it has developed into a fully-fledged air defence system. By November 2012, the system had intercepted over 400 rockets fired into Israel by Gaza Strip militants. Based on operational success, defense reporter Mark Thompson estimates that Iron Dome is currently the most-effective and most-tested counter missile system in existence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Postol additionally used the amount of claims filed by the Property Tax Authority and the number of Israeli Police Reports (taken from the Israeli Police website) relating to rockets to support his argument. In relation to Postol's argument based on the number of reports the Israeli Police received, Israeli Institute of National Security Studies wrote: \"However, Israel Police reports on calls from citizens, and these include reports on falling fragments, rocket parts, and duds.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Natural gas in the Gaza Strip",
        "text": "The Iron Dome system, developed in part to stop Hezbollah rockets aimed at Israel's northern gas fields, was put in place near the border with Gaza and was tested during Operation Returning Echo, the fourth Israeli military attempt to weaken Hamas and eliminate any Palestinian \"capability to bomb Israel's strategic gas and electricity installations.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 21 August 2011, \"Ynetnews\" reported that the success of the Iron Dome system against Gazan rocket fire had southern city mayors battling over the right to be the next to have it deployed in their area. The IDF stressed that \"no system can offer airtight protection\" and that the system positioned in Ashkelon was incapable of extending its defense to Ashdod, but this did not stop the mayors from pressuring the Defense Ministry and the IDF to position Iron Dome batteries within their city limits. Ashdod, Ofakim, Netivot, Beersheba, and Ashkelon have all pursued the system, but the IDF had only two batteries available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 20 August 2011, while engaging with a volley of seven rockets fired almost simultaneously at Be'er Sheva from Gaza, one was not intercepted by the defense system, exploding in a residential area and killing one person. Brig. Gen. Doron Gavish, commander of the IAF's Air Defense Corps, said on the following day that \"we said in advance that this wasn't a hermetic system,\" adding that the air defense units were learning on the fly and improving the performance of Iron Dome while operating it. \"This is the first system of its kind anywhere in the world; it is in its first operational test; and we've already intercepted a large number of rockets targeting Israeli communities, saving many civilian lives,\" Gavish said."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Following the system's deployment in April 2011, Iron Dome was used to successfully intercept Katyusha rockets fired by Palestinian militants. In August that year, Iron Dome intercepted 20 missiles and rockets fired into Israel. However, in one instance the system destroyed four rockets fired at the city of Beersheba but failed to stop a fifth, which killed one man and injured several others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 8 August 2011, the Israeli High Court of Justice rejected a petition asking that the government be ordered to deploy the system in Gaza border communities. In rejecting the petition, Supreme Court President Dorit Beinisch and Justices Salim Joubran and Uzi Fogelman ruled that in balancing all relevant considerations including budgets, changing security realities and operational matters, the government's decision not to deploy the Iron Dome in the area was reasonable. The panel of justices also said that the court had no reason to intervene in operational decisions regarding where to deploy the Iron Dome system. \"We believe the [government] will make the necessary decisions in accordance with the time and place requirements,\" they said."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "CNN relayed an estimate that Iron Dome's success rate in Pillar of Defense was about 85%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Funding for the production and deployment of these additional Iron Dome batteries and interceptor missiles was approved by the United States Congress, after being requested by President Obama in 2010. In May 2010, the White House announced that U.S. President Barack Obama would seek $205\u00a0million from U.S. Congress in his 2011 budget, to spur the production and deployment of additional Iron Dome batteries. White House spokesman Tommy Vietor stated, \"The president recognizes the threat missiles and rockets fired by Hamas and Hezbollah pose to Israelis, and has therefore decided to seek funding from Congress to support the production of Israel's short range rocket defense system called Iron Dome.\" This would be the first direct U.S. investment in the project. Such financial assistance could expedite the completion of the defensive system, which has long been delayed by budgetary shortfalls. A few days later, on 20 May 2010, the U.S. House of Representatives approved the funding in a 410\u20134 vote. The bill, the United States\u2013Israel Missile Defense Cooperation and Support Act (H.R. 5327), was sponsored by Representative Glenn C. Nye of Virginia. This money was expected to be included in the 2011 budget. Once the money was received in 2011, it still took a further 18 months before the additional batteries were delivered to the air force."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter Roskam",
        "text": "In April 2018, Roskam and [[Grace Meng]] (D-NY) wrote a letter requesting $500 million for U.S.-Israeli defense cooperation, including $70 million for the [[Iron Dome|Iron Dome missile defense system]]. Roskam said that \"US-Israel missile defense cooperation is a critical investment in the safety and security of Israel and stability in the Middle East.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "During the 2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis, over 4,300 rockets were fired at Israel by Hamas from Gaza from 11 to 21 May. In the first 24 hours of the conflict 470 rockets were fired, a much higher rate than had been attained in previous conflicts. Of the rockets, 17% were long-range attacks on Tel Aviv, again more than previously. About 680 of the rockets fired during hostilities fell short and landed in Gaza; the Iron Dome system intercepted about 90% of the rockets heading to populated areas within Israel. During the operation Iron Dome shot down a bomb-laden drone."
      },
      {
        "title": "2014 Gaza War",
        "text": "The performance of the Iron Dome defense system was considered effective, achieving an almost 90% success rate. Israel's early warning sirens and extensive shelters have been an effective defense against Gazan rocketry. They are less effective against short-range mortars because the residents have less time to react."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Iron Dome has three central components:\n* Detection & Tracking Radar: the radar system is built by Elta, an Israeli defense company and subsidiary of Israel Aerospace Industries, and by the IDF.\n* Battle Management & Weapon Control (BMC): the control center is built for Rafael by mPrest Systems, an Israeli software company.\n* Missile Firing Unit: the unit launches the \"Tamir\" interceptor missile, equipped with electro-optic sensors and several steering fins for high maneuverability. The missile is built by Rafael. A typical Iron Dome battery has 3\u20134 launchers (20 missiles per launcher)."
      },
      {
        "title": "OpIsrael",
        "text": "The inaugural OpIsrael was reported to have no physical damage and was assessed by the Israeli Government's National Cyber Bureau and by all security experts and journalists to have been a failure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 27 March 2011, \"Al Jazeera English\" reported that Iron Dome has been deployed for the first time. Brigadier-General Doron Gavish, commander of Israel's air defense corps, said Iron Dome had passed a series of tests and reached its \"evaluation phase\" in the field. It was stationed near Beersheba, following two rocket attacks on the area that month."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Although Iron Dome has proven its effectiveness against rocket attacks, Defense Ministry officials are concerned it will not be able to handle more massive arsenals possessed by Hezbollah in Lebanon should a conflict arise. Although in Operation Protective Edge it had a 90 percent hit rate against only rockets determined to be headed for populated areas, 735 intercepts were made at a cost of $70,000\u2013100,000 per interceptor; with an estimated 100,000 rockets possessed by Hezbollah, Iron Dome systems could be fiscally and physically overwhelmed by dozens of incoming salvos. In 2014 Directed-energy weapons were being investigated as a complement to Iron Dome, with lower system cost and lower cost per shot. Solid-state lasers worldwide have power levels ranging from 10\u201340\u00a0kW; to destroy a rocket safely from away, several low-power beams could coordinate and converge on one spot to burn through its outer shell and destroy it. Because laser beams become distorted and ineffective in foggy or heavy cloud conditions, any laser weapon would need to be complemented by Iron Dome."
      },
      {
        "title": "2014 Israel\u2013Gaza conflict in video games",
        "text": "\"Iron Dome Missile Defense\" was released by Simon Rosenzweig on 30 July to Apple's App Store, and involves the player using Israel's Iron Dome to defend a city from an unnamed \"enemy\". Rosenzweig did not name this \"enemy\" deliberately, stating \"I wish not to see apps that support hate in any way\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Amir Pertz, the 2006\u20132007 Israeli Defense Minister who pushed through the implementation of Iron Dome, told \"The Washington Post\" that the system is no more than a stopgap measure, and that \"In the end, the only thing that will bring true quiet is a diplomatic solution.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 7 April 2011, after deployment as an \"operational experiment\" on 3 April, the Iron Dome system in the area of Ashkelon successfully intercepted a Grad rocket fired at the city, the first time a short-range rocket fired from Gaza had been intercepted. According to reports from the area, the interception could be seen in Israeli towns near northern Gaza. Immediately afterwards an IAF aircraft successfully attacked the squad that had fired the rocket. Later that day the IDF stressed that the system, though operational, was still under evaluation. On 8 April the system successfully intercepted another four rockets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 22 August 2011, \"Haaretz\" reported that according to Israeli security sources, Palestinian militants changed their rocket-launching tactics in an attempt to evade the two Iron Dome batteries deployed in southern Israel. The new tactics included aiming more frequently at areas beyond the Iron Dome protection range. After the Palestinian launch teams realized that the systems deployed in the previous two weeks around Ashkelon and Be'er Sheva provided near-perfect protection from rockets, they began firing more frequently at Ashdod and Ofakim. When they did aim at Beersheba on 21 August, they did not fire one or two rockets, as in the past, but rather a volley of seven rockets almost simultaneously. Iron Dome intercepted five of them successfully, but one penetrated the defense system, exploding in a residential area and killing a man."
      },
      {
        "title": "March 2012 Gaza\u2013Israel clashes",
        "text": "The result, according to Leor Sapir, brought five strategic benefits to Israel: (1) it enabled a new weapon system to be tested in an authentic operational setting: (2) it provided crucial data to check if Iron Dome's technology met its original expectations. (3) It inspired both confidence in the system's capabilities and set realistic expectations: (4) It enabled, in a controlled conflict to get the Gaza terrorist infrastructure to waste a significant number of rockets: (5) Above all, activating Iron Dome has a deterrent effect by sending with its 76% hit-rate a powerful message to Iran and Hezbollah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 18 May 2012, the United States House of Representatives passed the Fiscal Year 2013 National Defense Authorization Act, H.R. 4310, with $680\u00a0million for Iron Dome in Section 227. The report accompanying the bill, 112\u2013479, also calls for technology sharing as well as co-production of Iron Dome in the United States in light of the nearly $900\u00a0million invested in the system since 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Missile defense systems by country",
        "text": "Apart from Arrow missile, Israel has Iron dome which is designed to intercept and destroy short-range rockets and artillery shells fired from distances of 4 to 70 kilometers away and David's Sling that is designed to intercept medium- to long-range rockets and cruise missiles, such as those possessed by Hezbollah, fired at ranges from 40\u00a0km to 300\u00a0km."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel",
        "text": "Israeli defenses constructed specifically to deal with the weapons include fortifications for schools and bus stops as well as an alarm system named Red Color. Iron Dome, a system to intercept short-range rockets, was developed by Israel and first deployed in the spring of 2011 to protect Beersheba and Ashkelon, but officials and experts warned that it would not be completely effective. Shortly thereafter, it intercepted a Palestinian Grad rocket for the first time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The estimated cost of each Tamir interceptor missile was cited in 2014 as from US$20,000 to 50,000; a 2020 analysis estimated a total cost of $100,000 to $150,000 for each interception. In contrast, a crudely manufactured Qassam rocket costs around $800 and the Hamas Grad rocket costs only several thousand dollars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The Iron Dome has been pitched to the IDF as a more cost-effective anti-aircraft system to intercept unmanned aerial vehicles. Some estimates of the cost of a Tamir interceptor are around $100,000, but it is still 95 percent cheaper than using a MIM-104 Patriot, the primary Israeli interceptor, costing $2\u20133\u00a0million. Although the Patriot has broader coverage, the low cost of UAVs and operational scenarios they would be encountered in would make Iron Dome equally effective against them. No material upgrades would be needed to optimize the system for drone-killing missions, as this role and capability has been publicized from its inception."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Iron Dome was declared operational and initially deployed on 27 March 2011 near Beersheba. On 7 April 2011, the system successfully intercepted a rocket launched from Gaza for the first time. On 10 March 2012, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the system shot down 90% of rockets launched from Gaza that would have landed in populated areas. In late 2012 Israel said that it hoped to increase the range of Iron Dome's interceptions, from a maximum of to and make it more versatile so that it could intercept rockets coming from two directions simultaneously."
      },
      {
        "title": "2014 Gaza War",
        "text": "According to the IDF, of all the 4,564 projectiles fired at Israel, 224 hit built-up areas, 735 were intercepted by the Iron Dome, 875 fell inside Gaza and the rest fell in open territory or failed to launch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian political violence",
        "text": "Defenses constructed specifically to deal with the weapons include fortifications for schools and bus stops as well as an alarm system named Red Color. Iron Dome, a system to intercept short-range rockets, was developed by Israel and first deployed in the spring of 2011 to protect Beersheba and Ashkelon, but officials and experts warned that it would not be completely effective. Shortly thereafter, it intercepted a Palestinian Grad rocket for the first time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 26 December 2011, an accident occurred during a maintenance drill involving one of the systems. While loading missiles into a launcher vehicle from a bunker at the Air Defense Network's school near kibbutz Mashabei Sadeh in the Negev, two soldiers caused twenty Tamir interceptors to fall from a height of four meters near soldiers and officers without detonating, causing no injury, but making them unserviceable. \"Ynetnews\" reported that the soldiers were never in danger because the interceptor missiles are equipped with a security mechanism that prevents premature explosions. The IDF Spokesperson's Unit said that the Air Force commander, Maj. Gen. Ido Nehushtan, appointed a committee to examine the accident and ordered an immediate stop to all Air Defense Network maintenance work until a preliminary investigation was concluded. It also said that during the following week actions would be taken to \"improve skills and safety awareness\". A security official told \"Reshet Bet\" that the failure was twofold in that the soldiers and their commander deviated from severely strict safety protocols, and 20 costly interceptors were lost. \"Walla!\" website reported that the soldiers made a mistake in loading the missiles and they fell backwards. The website calculated the damage at US$1\u00a0million (at $50,000 per missile). The missiles were transferred back to Rafael to determine whether they could be repaired."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis",
        "text": "By the end of the campaign, over 4,360 rockets and mortar shells had been fired at southern and central Israel, an average of 400 per day. About 3,400 successfully crossed the border while 680 fell in Gaza and 280 fell into the sea. The Iron Dome shot down 1,428 rockets detected as heading toward populated areas, an interception rate of 95 percent. Some 60\u201370 rockets hit populated areas after the Iron Dome failed to intercept them. The attacks killed 6 Israeli civilians, among them a 5-year-old boy and two Israeli-Arabs, as well as three foreign nationals working in Israel: an Indian woman working as a caregiver in Ashkelon and two Thai workers who were killed when the packing house of a community in southern Israel close to the Gaza border took a direct hit. Three other Israeli civilians including an 87-year-old woman died from injuries sustained after they fell while running to bomb shelters during attacks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Beam",
        "text": "In April 2022, the Israeli Ministry of Defense and Rafael announced the completion of successful interception experiments for a variety of threats, for the first time in the world, using a powerful laser system developed in Israel. It is estimated that within a year or two the system will be declared operational and complementary to the Iron Dome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Iron Dome can potentially be overcome by swarms of many missiles that exceed its capability to intercept them, and by sheer numbers of attacking missiles during a campaign if not enough interceptors are available to counter them. Also, the cost of each interception is high, while attacking rockets can be relatively inexpensive. These are among the reasons encouraging the development of the Iron Beam energy weapon to complement Iron Dome, which is cheap to fire, has unlimited \"ammunition\", and is effective at short range. Iron Dome is also significantly less effective against very short-distance saturation strikes. Hamas is aware of these vulnerabilities. In addition to having very large numbers of rockets and using saturation strikes, they consistently fire rockets at low trajectories to make them harder to intercept."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In May 2021 it was estimated that Palestinian militant groups had an arsenal of about 30,000 rockets and mortar bombs in Gaza, potential targets, when fired, for Iron Dome. Range varies widely, and guidance systems are lacking, but accuracy has improved over the years. There are estimates of the numbers and types of rockets, and their range and payload."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli Air Defense Command",
        "text": "Due to increasing rocket threat from the Gaza Strip, Israeli-developed Iron Dome C-RAM system became operational in 2011. In 2011 the system scored its first interception and since then intercepted hundreds of short- and medium-ranged rockets, fired by Hamas from the Gaza Strip, gaining world acclaim for its effectiveness and success."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steve Rothman",
        "text": "In 2010, Rothman worked with his congressional colleagues and the White House to obtain funding for Israel's Iron Dome defensive missile system and David\u2019s Sling, Arrow 2 and Arrow 3. The Iron Dome system was purchased by the US military in 2019 and Arrow 3 was successfully tested by the US and Israel in Alaska in July of that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The system was employed during operation \"Protective Edge\", intercepting rockets launched from Gaza towards southern, central and northern parts of Israel. As of August 2014, ten Iron Dome batteries had been deployed throughout Israel. During the 50 days of the conflict 4,594 rockets and mortars were fired at Israeli targets; Iron Dome systems intercepted 735 projectiles that it determined were threatening, achieving an intercept success rate of 90 percent. Only 70 rockets fired at Israel from Gaza failed to be intercepted. One civilian was killed and three others and nine servicemen were wounded by mortar bombs, but they were not in areas protected by Iron Dome. Only 25 percent of rockets fired were determined to be threatening due to the low accuracy and unstable trajectory of the poor-quality rockets fired. Six systems had been deployed prior to hostilities, and three more were rushed into service for a total of nine batteries used during the conflict; a tenth system was delivered, but not deployed due to a shortage of staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2014",
        "text": "The bill would provide appropriations for the Department of Defense (DOD) to assist the government of Israel with procurement of the Iron Dome defense system to counter short-range rocket threats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kipat Barzel",
        "text": "Kipat Barzel (, Iron Dome) is an Israeli television drama series aired in 2017, focusing on the lives of Haredi Jewish military recruits. The show has run for two seasons and includes 16 episodes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Panhard AML",
        "text": "An order of 29 AML-90s placed by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) in 1960 marked the first sale of AMLs to a foreign power, ushered in a new era of French arms sales to Tel-Aviv, and helped cement Panhard's success on the export market. The IDF armoured cars had been received by the end of 1963 and were first displayed publicly on the eve of Yom Ha'atzmaut, 1966. Israeli units were primarily impressed by their high mobility and ergonomic nature, which was deemed ideal for airborne operations. Nevertheless, the AML-90's envisaged deployment by new A\u00e9rospatiale SA 321 Super Frelons also purchased from France did not materialise, as the helicopters could not handle its 5,500\u00a0kg combat weight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ibziq",
        "text": "The village has 49 children of school age. The European Union provided the town with two prefabricated classrooms to cater to their needs from grades 1 to 6. The Israeli Defense Forces dismantled the structures down in October 2018 and it was announced in May of the following year that Israel intended to sell off the confiscated materials at auction in June 2019. The EU recognizes that the structures are illegal under Israeli law, but defends their infraction of that local legislation in terms of what is permissible in international law. The EU was also concerned that at auction the building materials would be bought by settlers. It also stated that the Israeli measure worked out as financial damage to donors amounting to 15,320 euros, and demanded either a restitution of the materials to the beneficiaries, or compensation. Israel offered to restore the materials before auction if the EU agreed not to erect them in violation of its laws again, a proposal rejected by the EU."
      },
      {
        "title": "OpIsrael",
        "text": "During the day, attackers posted numerous false and grandiose claims of successes, such as \"Anonymous causes Israel to lose $5 billion\" in stock market losses and \"Tel Aviv loses all Internet connection\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has the Iron Dome been the target of cyber attacks by foreign entities?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I don't know if it was ever cyber-attacked over networks, but during the 2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis, Israel said that Hamas had been developing an electronic system to jam Iron Dome, and they destroyed a building said to have been used for this purpose."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about other cyber attacks Israel has faced?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "OpIsrael (#OpIsrael), is an annual coordinated cyber-attack where hacktivists attack Israeli government and even private websites with DDoS attacks and more.[1] The inaugural campaign was launched in 2013 by Anonymous hackers on the eve of Holocaust Remembrance Day. The campaign has since been held annually."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some possible foreign sales of the Iron Dome?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I do not know who, in 2022, is considering purchase, but I can tell you that Singapore, The United States, Azerbaijan,  India, and Romania have purchased Iron Dome systems.",
      "NATO, South Korea, and Saudi Arabia have all reportedly expressed interest in purchasing the Iron Dome system."
    ],
    "topic": "Iron Dome",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Iron Dome:79",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iron Dome",
          "Foreign sales"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some Iron Dome systems have been exported. A weakness for most potential markets is that each Iron Dome system protects no more than ; this is effective in a small country like Israel, but not for larger states. Even in Israel, the batteries have to be moved around according to perceived risk of attack. Singapore, a sovereign island city-state, is reported to have purchased the Iron Dome, and the US Army has bought two batteries to protect overseas bases.\n:On 17 December 2016, Azerbaijan Defense Industry Minister Yavar Jamalov told reporters that Azerbaijan had reached an agreement with Israel to purchase Iron Dome batteries in the first confirmed foreign sale of the system. The country's acquisition of the system is believed to be related to neighboring Armenia's purchase of Russian Iskander short-range ballistic missiles.\n:On 23 November 2012, \"The Economic Times\" reported that Indian Defense planners were considering the possibility of India acquiring an indigenous version of Iron Dome, keeping a close watch on the performance of Iron Dome during the 2012 Operation Pillar of Defense. Several months earlier, the military scientists in the Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) had suggested that India look at a joint development program with Israeli firms to develop an Indian version of Iron Dome. They believed Israel's short range missile defense requirements have several parallels to the Indian threat from Pakistan, which includes a \"battlefield range\" quasi-tactical ballistic nuclear weapon delivery system, called Nasr, which some Indian defense sources say the Iron Dome might be an effective deterrent against, as well as the vulnerability of its cities to attacks from militants.\n:\"The Israeli team comes and works in our laboratories. Our team goes and works in their laboratories and industries. There is a learning that is taking place which was not there when we buy things and integrate with existing products... we have started discussions about Iron Dome for co-development (in India),\" W. Selvamurthy, Chief Controller looking after international cooperation said.\n:On 8 February 2013, Marshal Norman Anil Kumar Browne, commander of the Indian Air Force, told reporters that Iron Dome is not suitable for the service. The announcement came after two years of discussions. In August 2013, India resumed attempting to acquire the Iron Dome system after Israel agreed to transfer system technology. Iron Dome could complement the domestic long-range Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme air defense system.\n:In 2017, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and his Indian counterpart Narendra Modi signed a series of agreements on defense and technology worth around $2\u00a0billion, including a deal to buy the \"Iron Dome\" system.\n:In May 2018, Romania's Romaero signed a deal to purchase the Iron Dome system.\n:On 16 August 2011, Raytheon Company announced that it had teamed with Rafael to lead marketing in the United States for the Iron Dome system. \"Iron Dome complements other Raytheon weapons that provide intercept capabilities to the US Army's Counter Rocket, Artillery, and Mortar initiative at forward operating bases,\" said Mike Booen, vice president of Raytheon Missile Systems' Advanced Security and Directed Energy Systems product line. \"Iron Dome can be seamlessly integrated with Raytheon's C-RAM systems to complete the layered defense.\"\n:On 10 November 2011, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the US Army had expressed interest in acquiring the system, to be deployed outside forward bases in Iraq and Afghanistan that could potentially be targeted by artillery rockets. The US military had discovered 107\u00a0mm rockets in Iraq in the past. Yossi Druker, head of Rafael's Air-to-Air Directorate, said that the initial deal was valued at $100\u00a0million, but could reach several hundred million dollars over a number of years. In April 2016, Iron Dome's Tamir interceptor successfully shot down a UAV during a test firing in the United States, the system's first trial on foreign soil.\n: In January 2019 it was reported that the United States would purchase two Iron Dome batteries for 373 million dollars. The batteries were to be deployed to protect US armed forces in hostile areas of operation. The order was for two command posts and radars, 12 launchers, and 480 missiles and was finalized in August 2019. Rafael announced the first battery's delivery on 30 September 2020. On 13 November 2020, Iron Dome was activated at Fort Bliss to test if it could be connected into the Army's air and missile defense network, to serve as an interim capability to intercept cruise missiles.\n: In 2020, the service decided against purchasing any more Iron Dome systems, ostensibly over issues integrating it with the new Integrated Battle Command System (IBCS) network architecture. The Israeli MOD announced the delivery of the second battery on 3 January 2021.\n: The Army conducted a live-fire test in August 2021, successfully engaging eight cruise missile surrogates.\n: On 8 October 2021, it was reported by \"The War Zone\" magazine that the 94th Army Air and Missile Defense Command announced that week that it was following the 2019 National Defense Authorization Act, which required the deployment of an Iron Dome system to an operational theater by the end of 2021, by the temporary and experimental deployment of a system to Andersen Air Force Base in Guam. The battery was to be operated by the 2nd Battalion of the 43rd Air Defense Artillery Regiment. It also stated that there was no plan to conduct a live fire test there. \"The War Zone\" added that the Army's 38th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, then forward-based in Japan, was also to support this deployment. On 9 November 2021, the \"Wall Street Journal\" reported that the system was being tested in Guam, and speculated that it would likely be part of an array designed to protect the area against possible attacks by China.\n:On 10 March 2010, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the Israeli Ministry of Defense was in talks with a number of European countries about the possible sale of the system to protect NATO forces deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq.\n:During a visit to Israel in the summer of 2011, Kwon Oh-bong, vice commissioner of the Defense Acquisition Program Administration in Seoul, expressed interest in purchasing the system to counter the threat posed by North Korean artillery, rockets, and missiles. South Korea was considered unlikely to buy the Iron Dome system due to the number of artillery pieces it would face, the coverage it would need to provide (around Seoul), and the high cost of interceptors; effort is being focused on disrupting the \"Kill Chain\" to immediately detect and destroy artillery and missile units. In August 2014, South Korea once again emerged as interested in buying the Iron Dome system for protection against rocket attacks. In October 2017, South Korea announced it would develop its own Iron Dome-type C-RAM system using hit-to-kill interceptors. Although they had considered buying Iron Dome, they determined the system had been developed primarily to counter mortar shells, and so was unsuited against the more powerful artillery rockets they would have to defend against.\n:On 14 September 2021, it was revealed by Breaking Defense that Saudi Arabia is considering adding the Iron Dome missile defense system to its inventory after the US withdrew the THAAD and the MIM-104 Patriot out of Prince Sultan Air Base."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Iron Dome:79",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iron Dome",
          "Foreign sales"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some Iron Dome systems have been exported. A weakness for most potential markets is that each Iron Dome system protects no more than ; this is effective in a small country like Israel, but not for larger states. Even in Israel, the batteries have to be moved around according to perceived risk of attack. Singapore, a sovereign island city-state, is reported to have purchased the Iron Dome, and the US Army has bought two batteries to protect overseas bases.\n:On 17 December 2016, Azerbaijan Defense Industry Minister Yavar Jamalov told reporters that Azerbaijan had reached an agreement with Israel to purchase Iron Dome batteries in the first confirmed foreign sale of the system. The country's acquisition of the system is believed to be related to neighboring Armenia's purchase of Russian Iskander short-range ballistic missiles.\n:On 23 November 2012, \"The Economic Times\" reported that Indian Defense planners were considering the possibility of India acquiring an indigenous version of Iron Dome, keeping a close watch on the performance of Iron Dome during the 2012 Operation Pillar of Defense. Several months earlier, the military scientists in the Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) had suggested that India look at a joint development program with Israeli firms to develop an Indian version of Iron Dome. They believed Israel's short range missile defense requirements have several parallels to the Indian threat from Pakistan, which includes a \"battlefield range\" quasi-tactical ballistic nuclear weapon delivery system, called Nasr, which some Indian defense sources say the Iron Dome might be an effective deterrent against, as well as the vulnerability of its cities to attacks from militants.\n:\"The Israeli team comes and works in our laboratories. Our team goes and works in their laboratories and industries. There is a learning that is taking place which was not there when we buy things and integrate with existing products... we have started discussions about Iron Dome for co-development (in India),\" W. Selvamurthy, Chief Controller looking after international cooperation said.\n:On 8 February 2013, Marshal Norman Anil Kumar Browne, commander of the Indian Air Force, told reporters that Iron Dome is not suitable for the service. The announcement came after two years of discussions. In August 2013, India resumed attempting to acquire the Iron Dome system after Israel agreed to transfer system technology. Iron Dome could complement the domestic long-range Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme air defense system.\n:In 2017, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and his Indian counterpart Narendra Modi signed a series of agreements on defense and technology worth around $2\u00a0billion, including a deal to buy the \"Iron Dome\" system.\n:In May 2018, Romania's Romaero signed a deal to purchase the Iron Dome system.\n:On 16 August 2011, Raytheon Company announced that it had teamed with Rafael to lead marketing in the United States for the Iron Dome system. \"Iron Dome complements other Raytheon weapons that provide intercept capabilities to the US Army's Counter Rocket, Artillery, and Mortar initiative at forward operating bases,\" said Mike Booen, vice president of Raytheon Missile Systems' Advanced Security and Directed Energy Systems product line. \"Iron Dome can be seamlessly integrated with Raytheon's C-RAM systems to complete the layered defense.\"\n:On 10 November 2011, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the US Army had expressed interest in acquiring the system, to be deployed outside forward bases in Iraq and Afghanistan that could potentially be targeted by artillery rockets. The US military had discovered 107\u00a0mm rockets in Iraq in the past. Yossi Druker, head of Rafael's Air-to-Air Directorate, said that the initial deal was valued at $100\u00a0million, but could reach several hundred million dollars over a number of years. In April 2016, Iron Dome's Tamir interceptor successfully shot down a UAV during a test firing in the United States, the system's first trial on foreign soil.\n: In January 2019 it was reported that the United States would purchase two Iron Dome batteries for 373 million dollars. The batteries were to be deployed to protect US armed forces in hostile areas of operation. The order was for two command posts and radars, 12 launchers, and 480 missiles and was finalized in August 2019. Rafael announced the first battery's delivery on 30 September 2020. On 13 November 2020, Iron Dome was activated at Fort Bliss to test if it could be connected into the Army's air and missile defense network, to serve as an interim capability to intercept cruise missiles.\n: In 2020, the service decided against purchasing any more Iron Dome systems, ostensibly over issues integrating it with the new Integrated Battle Command System (IBCS) network architecture. The Israeli MOD announced the delivery of the second battery on 3 January 2021.\n: The Army conducted a live-fire test in August 2021, successfully engaging eight cruise missile surrogates.\n: On 8 October 2021, it was reported by \"The War Zone\" magazine that the 94th Army Air and Missile Defense Command announced that week that it was following the 2019 National Defense Authorization Act, which required the deployment of an Iron Dome system to an operational theater by the end of 2021, by the temporary and experimental deployment of a system to Andersen Air Force Base in Guam. The battery was to be operated by the 2nd Battalion of the 43rd Air Defense Artillery Regiment. It also stated that there was no plan to conduct a live fire test there. \"The War Zone\" added that the Army's 38th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, then forward-based in Japan, was also to support this deployment. On 9 November 2021, the \"Wall Street Journal\" reported that the system was being tested in Guam, and speculated that it would likely be part of an array designed to protect the area against possible attacks by China.\n:On 10 March 2010, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the Israeli Ministry of Defense was in talks with a number of European countries about the possible sale of the system to protect NATO forces deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq.\n:During a visit to Israel in the summer of 2011, Kwon Oh-bong, vice commissioner of the Defense Acquisition Program Administration in Seoul, expressed interest in purchasing the system to counter the threat posed by North Korean artillery, rockets, and missiles. South Korea was considered unlikely to buy the Iron Dome system due to the number of artillery pieces it would face, the coverage it would need to provide (around Seoul), and the high cost of interceptors; effort is being focused on disrupting the \"Kill Chain\" to immediately detect and destroy artillery and missile units. In August 2014, South Korea once again emerged as interested in buying the Iron Dome system for protection against rocket attacks. In October 2017, South Korea announced it would develop its own Iron Dome-type C-RAM system using hit-to-kill interceptors. Although they had considered buying Iron Dome, they determined the system had been developed primarily to counter mortar shells, and so was unsuited against the more powerful artillery rockets they would have to defend against.\n:On 14 September 2021, it was revealed by Breaking Defense that Saudi Arabia is considering adding the Iron Dome missile defense system to its inventory after the US withdrew the THAAD and the MIM-104 Patriot out of Prince Sultan Air Base."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Iron Dome:79",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iron Dome",
          "Foreign sales"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some Iron Dome systems have been exported. A weakness for most potential markets is that each Iron Dome system protects no more than ; this is effective in a small country like Israel, but not for larger states. Even in Israel, the batteries have to be moved around according to perceived risk of attack. Singapore, a sovereign island city-state, is reported to have purchased the Iron Dome, and the US Army has bought two batteries to protect overseas bases.\n:On 17 December 2016, Azerbaijan Defense Industry Minister Yavar Jamalov told reporters that Azerbaijan had reached an agreement with Israel to purchase Iron Dome batteries in the first confirmed foreign sale of the system. The country's acquisition of the system is believed to be related to neighboring Armenia's purchase of Russian Iskander short-range ballistic missiles.\n:On 23 November 2012, \"The Economic Times\" reported that Indian Defense planners were considering the possibility of India acquiring an indigenous version of Iron Dome, keeping a close watch on the performance of Iron Dome during the 2012 Operation Pillar of Defense. Several months earlier, the military scientists in the Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) had suggested that India look at a joint development program with Israeli firms to develop an Indian version of Iron Dome. They believed Israel's short range missile defense requirements have several parallels to the Indian threat from Pakistan, which includes a \"battlefield range\" quasi-tactical ballistic nuclear weapon delivery system, called Nasr, which some Indian defense sources say the Iron Dome might be an effective deterrent against, as well as the vulnerability of its cities to attacks from militants.\n:\"The Israeli team comes and works in our laboratories. Our team goes and works in their laboratories and industries. There is a learning that is taking place which was not there when we buy things and integrate with existing products... we have started discussions about Iron Dome for co-development (in India),\" W. Selvamurthy, Chief Controller looking after international cooperation said.\n:On 8 February 2013, Marshal Norman Anil Kumar Browne, commander of the Indian Air Force, told reporters that Iron Dome is not suitable for the service. The announcement came after two years of discussions. In August 2013, India resumed attempting to acquire the Iron Dome system after Israel agreed to transfer system technology. Iron Dome could complement the domestic long-range Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme air defense system.\n:In 2017, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and his Indian counterpart Narendra Modi signed a series of agreements on defense and technology worth around $2\u00a0billion, including a deal to buy the \"Iron Dome\" system.\n:In May 2018, Romania's Romaero signed a deal to purchase the Iron Dome system.\n:On 16 August 2011, Raytheon Company announced that it had teamed with Rafael to lead marketing in the United States for the Iron Dome system. \"Iron Dome complements other Raytheon weapons that provide intercept capabilities to the US Army's Counter Rocket, Artillery, and Mortar initiative at forward operating bases,\" said Mike Booen, vice president of Raytheon Missile Systems' Advanced Security and Directed Energy Systems product line. \"Iron Dome can be seamlessly integrated with Raytheon's C-RAM systems to complete the layered defense.\"\n:On 10 November 2011, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the US Army had expressed interest in acquiring the system, to be deployed outside forward bases in Iraq and Afghanistan that could potentially be targeted by artillery rockets. The US military had discovered 107\u00a0mm rockets in Iraq in the past. Yossi Druker, head of Rafael's Air-to-Air Directorate, said that the initial deal was valued at $100\u00a0million, but could reach several hundred million dollars over a number of years. In April 2016, Iron Dome's Tamir interceptor successfully shot down a UAV during a test firing in the United States, the system's first trial on foreign soil.\n: In January 2019 it was reported that the United States would purchase two Iron Dome batteries for 373 million dollars. The batteries were to be deployed to protect US armed forces in hostile areas of operation. The order was for two command posts and radars, 12 launchers, and 480 missiles and was finalized in August 2019. Rafael announced the first battery's delivery on 30 September 2020. On 13 November 2020, Iron Dome was activated at Fort Bliss to test if it could be connected into the Army's air and missile defense network, to serve as an interim capability to intercept cruise missiles.\n: In 2020, the service decided against purchasing any more Iron Dome systems, ostensibly over issues integrating it with the new Integrated Battle Command System (IBCS) network architecture. The Israeli MOD announced the delivery of the second battery on 3 January 2021.\n: The Army conducted a live-fire test in August 2021, successfully engaging eight cruise missile surrogates.\n: On 8 October 2021, it was reported by \"The War Zone\" magazine that the 94th Army Air and Missile Defense Command announced that week that it was following the 2019 National Defense Authorization Act, which required the deployment of an Iron Dome system to an operational theater by the end of 2021, by the temporary and experimental deployment of a system to Andersen Air Force Base in Guam. The battery was to be operated by the 2nd Battalion of the 43rd Air Defense Artillery Regiment. It also stated that there was no plan to conduct a live fire test there. \"The War Zone\" added that the Army's 38th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, then forward-based in Japan, was also to support this deployment. On 9 November 2021, the \"Wall Street Journal\" reported that the system was being tested in Guam, and speculated that it would likely be part of an array designed to protect the area against possible attacks by China.\n:On 10 March 2010, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the Israeli Ministry of Defense was in talks with a number of European countries about the possible sale of the system to protect NATO forces deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq.\n:During a visit to Israel in the summer of 2011, Kwon Oh-bong, vice commissioner of the Defense Acquisition Program Administration in Seoul, expressed interest in purchasing the system to counter the threat posed by North Korean artillery, rockets, and missiles. South Korea was considered unlikely to buy the Iron Dome system due to the number of artillery pieces it would face, the coverage it would need to provide (around Seoul), and the high cost of interceptors; effort is being focused on disrupting the \"Kill Chain\" to immediately detect and destroy artillery and missile units. In August 2014, South Korea once again emerged as interested in buying the Iron Dome system for protection against rocket attacks. In October 2017, South Korea announced it would develop its own Iron Dome-type C-RAM system using hit-to-kill interceptors. Although they had considered buying Iron Dome, they determined the system had been developed primarily to counter mortar shells, and so was unsuited against the more powerful artillery rockets they would have to defend against.\n:On 14 September 2021, it was revealed by Breaking Defense that Saudi Arabia is considering adding the Iron Dome missile defense system to its inventory after the US withdrew the THAAD and the MIM-104 Patriot out of Prince Sultan Air Base."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Iron Dome:79",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iron Dome",
          "Foreign sales"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some Iron Dome systems have been exported. A weakness for most potential markets is that each Iron Dome system protects no more than ; this is effective in a small country like Israel, but not for larger states. Even in Israel, the batteries have to be moved around according to perceived risk of attack. Singapore, a sovereign island city-state, is reported to have purchased the Iron Dome, and the US Army has bought two batteries to protect overseas bases.\n:On 17 December 2016, Azerbaijan Defense Industry Minister Yavar Jamalov told reporters that Azerbaijan had reached an agreement with Israel to purchase Iron Dome batteries in the first confirmed foreign sale of the system. The country's acquisition of the system is believed to be related to neighboring Armenia's purchase of Russian Iskander short-range ballistic missiles.\n:On 23 November 2012, \"The Economic Times\" reported that Indian Defense planners were considering the possibility of India acquiring an indigenous version of Iron Dome, keeping a close watch on the performance of Iron Dome during the 2012 Operation Pillar of Defense. Several months earlier, the military scientists in the Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) had suggested that India look at a joint development program with Israeli firms to develop an Indian version of Iron Dome. They believed Israel's short range missile defense requirements have several parallels to the Indian threat from Pakistan, which includes a \"battlefield range\" quasi-tactical ballistic nuclear weapon delivery system, called Nasr, which some Indian defense sources say the Iron Dome might be an effective deterrent against, as well as the vulnerability of its cities to attacks from militants.\n:\"The Israeli team comes and works in our laboratories. Our team goes and works in their laboratories and industries. There is a learning that is taking place which was not there when we buy things and integrate with existing products... we have started discussions about Iron Dome for co-development (in India),\" W. Selvamurthy, Chief Controller looking after international cooperation said.\n:On 8 February 2013, Marshal Norman Anil Kumar Browne, commander of the Indian Air Force, told reporters that Iron Dome is not suitable for the service. The announcement came after two years of discussions. In August 2013, India resumed attempting to acquire the Iron Dome system after Israel agreed to transfer system technology. Iron Dome could complement the domestic long-range Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme air defense system.\n:In 2017, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and his Indian counterpart Narendra Modi signed a series of agreements on defense and technology worth around $2\u00a0billion, including a deal to buy the \"Iron Dome\" system.\n:In May 2018, Romania's Romaero signed a deal to purchase the Iron Dome system.\n:On 16 August 2011, Raytheon Company announced that it had teamed with Rafael to lead marketing in the United States for the Iron Dome system. \"Iron Dome complements other Raytheon weapons that provide intercept capabilities to the US Army's Counter Rocket, Artillery, and Mortar initiative at forward operating bases,\" said Mike Booen, vice president of Raytheon Missile Systems' Advanced Security and Directed Energy Systems product line. \"Iron Dome can be seamlessly integrated with Raytheon's C-RAM systems to complete the layered defense.\"\n:On 10 November 2011, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the US Army had expressed interest in acquiring the system, to be deployed outside forward bases in Iraq and Afghanistan that could potentially be targeted by artillery rockets. The US military had discovered 107\u00a0mm rockets in Iraq in the past. Yossi Druker, head of Rafael's Air-to-Air Directorate, said that the initial deal was valued at $100\u00a0million, but could reach several hundred million dollars over a number of years. In April 2016, Iron Dome's Tamir interceptor successfully shot down a UAV during a test firing in the United States, the system's first trial on foreign soil.\n: In January 2019 it was reported that the United States would purchase two Iron Dome batteries for 373 million dollars. The batteries were to be deployed to protect US armed forces in hostile areas of operation. The order was for two command posts and radars, 12 launchers, and 480 missiles and was finalized in August 2019. Rafael announced the first battery's delivery on 30 September 2020. On 13 November 2020, Iron Dome was activated at Fort Bliss to test if it could be connected into the Army's air and missile defense network, to serve as an interim capability to intercept cruise missiles.\n: In 2020, the service decided against purchasing any more Iron Dome systems, ostensibly over issues integrating it with the new Integrated Battle Command System (IBCS) network architecture. The Israeli MOD announced the delivery of the second battery on 3 January 2021.\n: The Army conducted a live-fire test in August 2021, successfully engaging eight cruise missile surrogates.\n: On 8 October 2021, it was reported by \"The War Zone\" magazine that the 94th Army Air and Missile Defense Command announced that week that it was following the 2019 National Defense Authorization Act, which required the deployment of an Iron Dome system to an operational theater by the end of 2021, by the temporary and experimental deployment of a system to Andersen Air Force Base in Guam. The battery was to be operated by the 2nd Battalion of the 43rd Air Defense Artillery Regiment. It also stated that there was no plan to conduct a live fire test there. \"The War Zone\" added that the Army's 38th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, then forward-based in Japan, was also to support this deployment. On 9 November 2021, the \"Wall Street Journal\" reported that the system was being tested in Guam, and speculated that it would likely be part of an array designed to protect the area against possible attacks by China.\n:On 10 March 2010, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the Israeli Ministry of Defense was in talks with a number of European countries about the possible sale of the system to protect NATO forces deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq.\n:During a visit to Israel in the summer of 2011, Kwon Oh-bong, vice commissioner of the Defense Acquisition Program Administration in Seoul, expressed interest in purchasing the system to counter the threat posed by North Korean artillery, rockets, and missiles. South Korea was considered unlikely to buy the Iron Dome system due to the number of artillery pieces it would face, the coverage it would need to provide (around Seoul), and the high cost of interceptors; effort is being focused on disrupting the \"Kill Chain\" to immediately detect and destroy artillery and missile units. In August 2014, South Korea once again emerged as interested in buying the Iron Dome system for protection against rocket attacks. In October 2017, South Korea announced it would develop its own Iron Dome-type C-RAM system using hit-to-kill interceptors. Although they had considered buying Iron Dome, they determined the system had been developed primarily to counter mortar shells, and so was unsuited against the more powerful artillery rockets they would have to defend against.\n:On 14 September 2021, it was revealed by Breaking Defense that Saudi Arabia is considering adding the Iron Dome missile defense system to its inventory after the US withdrew the THAAD and the MIM-104 Patriot out of Prince Sultan Air Base."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Iron Dome:79",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iron Dome",
          "Foreign sales"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some Iron Dome systems have been exported. A weakness for most potential markets is that each Iron Dome system protects no more than ; this is effective in a small country like Israel, but not for larger states. Even in Israel, the batteries have to be moved around according to perceived risk of attack. Singapore, a sovereign island city-state, is reported to have purchased the Iron Dome, and the US Army has bought two batteries to protect overseas bases.\n:On 17 December 2016, Azerbaijan Defense Industry Minister Yavar Jamalov told reporters that Azerbaijan had reached an agreement with Israel to purchase Iron Dome batteries in the first confirmed foreign sale of the system. The country's acquisition of the system is believed to be related to neighboring Armenia's purchase of Russian Iskander short-range ballistic missiles.\n:On 23 November 2012, \"The Economic Times\" reported that Indian Defense planners were considering the possibility of India acquiring an indigenous version of Iron Dome, keeping a close watch on the performance of Iron Dome during the 2012 Operation Pillar of Defense. Several months earlier, the military scientists in the Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) had suggested that India look at a joint development program with Israeli firms to develop an Indian version of Iron Dome. They believed Israel's short range missile defense requirements have several parallels to the Indian threat from Pakistan, which includes a \"battlefield range\" quasi-tactical ballistic nuclear weapon delivery system, called Nasr, which some Indian defense sources say the Iron Dome might be an effective deterrent against, as well as the vulnerability of its cities to attacks from militants.\n:\"The Israeli team comes and works in our laboratories. Our team goes and works in their laboratories and industries. There is a learning that is taking place which was not there when we buy things and integrate with existing products... we have started discussions about Iron Dome for co-development (in India),\" W. Selvamurthy, Chief Controller looking after international cooperation said.\n:On 8 February 2013, Marshal Norman Anil Kumar Browne, commander of the Indian Air Force, told reporters that Iron Dome is not suitable for the service. The announcement came after two years of discussions. In August 2013, India resumed attempting to acquire the Iron Dome system after Israel agreed to transfer system technology. Iron Dome could complement the domestic long-range Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme air defense system.\n:In 2017, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and his Indian counterpart Narendra Modi signed a series of agreements on defense and technology worth around $2\u00a0billion, including a deal to buy the \"Iron Dome\" system.\n:In May 2018, Romania's Romaero signed a deal to purchase the Iron Dome system.\n:On 16 August 2011, Raytheon Company announced that it had teamed with Rafael to lead marketing in the United States for the Iron Dome system. \"Iron Dome complements other Raytheon weapons that provide intercept capabilities to the US Army's Counter Rocket, Artillery, and Mortar initiative at forward operating bases,\" said Mike Booen, vice president of Raytheon Missile Systems' Advanced Security and Directed Energy Systems product line. \"Iron Dome can be seamlessly integrated with Raytheon's C-RAM systems to complete the layered defense.\"\n:On 10 November 2011, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the US Army had expressed interest in acquiring the system, to be deployed outside forward bases in Iraq and Afghanistan that could potentially be targeted by artillery rockets. The US military had discovered 107\u00a0mm rockets in Iraq in the past. Yossi Druker, head of Rafael's Air-to-Air Directorate, said that the initial deal was valued at $100\u00a0million, but could reach several hundred million dollars over a number of years. In April 2016, Iron Dome's Tamir interceptor successfully shot down a UAV during a test firing in the United States, the system's first trial on foreign soil.\n: In January 2019 it was reported that the United States would purchase two Iron Dome batteries for 373 million dollars. The batteries were to be deployed to protect US armed forces in hostile areas of operation. The order was for two command posts and radars, 12 launchers, and 480 missiles and was finalized in August 2019. Rafael announced the first battery's delivery on 30 September 2020. On 13 November 2020, Iron Dome was activated at Fort Bliss to test if it could be connected into the Army's air and missile defense network, to serve as an interim capability to intercept cruise missiles.\n: In 2020, the service decided against purchasing any more Iron Dome systems, ostensibly over issues integrating it with the new Integrated Battle Command System (IBCS) network architecture. The Israeli MOD announced the delivery of the second battery on 3 January 2021.\n: The Army conducted a live-fire test in August 2021, successfully engaging eight cruise missile surrogates.\n: On 8 October 2021, it was reported by \"The War Zone\" magazine that the 94th Army Air and Missile Defense Command announced that week that it was following the 2019 National Defense Authorization Act, which required the deployment of an Iron Dome system to an operational theater by the end of 2021, by the temporary and experimental deployment of a system to Andersen Air Force Base in Guam. The battery was to be operated by the 2nd Battalion of the 43rd Air Defense Artillery Regiment. It also stated that there was no plan to conduct a live fire test there. \"The War Zone\" added that the Army's 38th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, then forward-based in Japan, was also to support this deployment. On 9 November 2021, the \"Wall Street Journal\" reported that the system was being tested in Guam, and speculated that it would likely be part of an array designed to protect the area against possible attacks by China.\n:On 10 March 2010, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the Israeli Ministry of Defense was in talks with a number of European countries about the possible sale of the system to protect NATO forces deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq.\n:During a visit to Israel in the summer of 2011, Kwon Oh-bong, vice commissioner of the Defense Acquisition Program Administration in Seoul, expressed interest in purchasing the system to counter the threat posed by North Korean artillery, rockets, and missiles. South Korea was considered unlikely to buy the Iron Dome system due to the number of artillery pieces it would face, the coverage it would need to provide (around Seoul), and the high cost of interceptors; effort is being focused on disrupting the \"Kill Chain\" to immediately detect and destroy artillery and missile units. In August 2014, South Korea once again emerged as interested in buying the Iron Dome system for protection against rocket attacks. In October 2017, South Korea announced it would develop its own Iron Dome-type C-RAM system using hit-to-kill interceptors. Although they had considered buying Iron Dome, they determined the system had been developed primarily to counter mortar shells, and so was unsuited against the more powerful artillery rockets they would have to defend against.\n:On 14 September 2021, it was revealed by Breaking Defense that Saudi Arabia is considering adding the Iron Dome missile defense system to its inventory after the US withdrew the THAAD and the MIM-104 Patriot out of Prince Sultan Air Base."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Iron Dome:79",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iron Dome",
          "Foreign sales"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some Iron Dome systems have been exported. A weakness for most potential markets is that each Iron Dome system protects no more than ; this is effective in a small country like Israel, but not for larger states. Even in Israel, the batteries have to be moved around according to perceived risk of attack. Singapore, a sovereign island city-state, is reported to have purchased the Iron Dome, and the US Army has bought two batteries to protect overseas bases.\n:On 17 December 2016, Azerbaijan Defense Industry Minister Yavar Jamalov told reporters that Azerbaijan had reached an agreement with Israel to purchase Iron Dome batteries in the first confirmed foreign sale of the system. The country's acquisition of the system is believed to be related to neighboring Armenia's purchase of Russian Iskander short-range ballistic missiles.\n:On 23 November 2012, \"The Economic Times\" reported that Indian Defense planners were considering the possibility of India acquiring an indigenous version of Iron Dome, keeping a close watch on the performance of Iron Dome during the 2012 Operation Pillar of Defense. Several months earlier, the military scientists in the Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) had suggested that India look at a joint development program with Israeli firms to develop an Indian version of Iron Dome. They believed Israel's short range missile defense requirements have several parallels to the Indian threat from Pakistan, which includes a \"battlefield range\" quasi-tactical ballistic nuclear weapon delivery system, called Nasr, which some Indian defense sources say the Iron Dome might be an effective deterrent against, as well as the vulnerability of its cities to attacks from militants.\n:\"The Israeli team comes and works in our laboratories. Our team goes and works in their laboratories and industries. There is a learning that is taking place which was not there when we buy things and integrate with existing products... we have started discussions about Iron Dome for co-development (in India),\" W. Selvamurthy, Chief Controller looking after international cooperation said.\n:On 8 February 2013, Marshal Norman Anil Kumar Browne, commander of the Indian Air Force, told reporters that Iron Dome is not suitable for the service. The announcement came after two years of discussions. In August 2013, India resumed attempting to acquire the Iron Dome system after Israel agreed to transfer system technology. Iron Dome could complement the domestic long-range Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme air defense system.\n:In 2017, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and his Indian counterpart Narendra Modi signed a series of agreements on defense and technology worth around $2\u00a0billion, including a deal to buy the \"Iron Dome\" system.\n:In May 2018, Romania's Romaero signed a deal to purchase the Iron Dome system.\n:On 16 August 2011, Raytheon Company announced that it had teamed with Rafael to lead marketing in the United States for the Iron Dome system. \"Iron Dome complements other Raytheon weapons that provide intercept capabilities to the US Army's Counter Rocket, Artillery, and Mortar initiative at forward operating bases,\" said Mike Booen, vice president of Raytheon Missile Systems' Advanced Security and Directed Energy Systems product line. \"Iron Dome can be seamlessly integrated with Raytheon's C-RAM systems to complete the layered defense.\"\n:On 10 November 2011, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the US Army had expressed interest in acquiring the system, to be deployed outside forward bases in Iraq and Afghanistan that could potentially be targeted by artillery rockets. The US military had discovered 107\u00a0mm rockets in Iraq in the past. Yossi Druker, head of Rafael's Air-to-Air Directorate, said that the initial deal was valued at $100\u00a0million, but could reach several hundred million dollars over a number of years. In April 2016, Iron Dome's Tamir interceptor successfully shot down a UAV during a test firing in the United States, the system's first trial on foreign soil.\n: In January 2019 it was reported that the United States would purchase two Iron Dome batteries for 373 million dollars. The batteries were to be deployed to protect US armed forces in hostile areas of operation. The order was for two command posts and radars, 12 launchers, and 480 missiles and was finalized in August 2019. Rafael announced the first battery's delivery on 30 September 2020. On 13 November 2020, Iron Dome was activated at Fort Bliss to test if it could be connected into the Army's air and missile defense network, to serve as an interim capability to intercept cruise missiles.\n: In 2020, the service decided against purchasing any more Iron Dome systems, ostensibly over issues integrating it with the new Integrated Battle Command System (IBCS) network architecture. The Israeli MOD announced the delivery of the second battery on 3 January 2021.\n: The Army conducted a live-fire test in August 2021, successfully engaging eight cruise missile surrogates.\n: On 8 October 2021, it was reported by \"The War Zone\" magazine that the 94th Army Air and Missile Defense Command announced that week that it was following the 2019 National Defense Authorization Act, which required the deployment of an Iron Dome system to an operational theater by the end of 2021, by the temporary and experimental deployment of a system to Andersen Air Force Base in Guam. The battery was to be operated by the 2nd Battalion of the 43rd Air Defense Artillery Regiment. It also stated that there was no plan to conduct a live fire test there. \"The War Zone\" added that the Army's 38th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, then forward-based in Japan, was also to support this deployment. On 9 November 2021, the \"Wall Street Journal\" reported that the system was being tested in Guam, and speculated that it would likely be part of an array designed to protect the area against possible attacks by China.\n:On 10 March 2010, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the Israeli Ministry of Defense was in talks with a number of European countries about the possible sale of the system to protect NATO forces deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq.\n:During a visit to Israel in the summer of 2011, Kwon Oh-bong, vice commissioner of the Defense Acquisition Program Administration in Seoul, expressed interest in purchasing the system to counter the threat posed by North Korean artillery, rockets, and missiles. South Korea was considered unlikely to buy the Iron Dome system due to the number of artillery pieces it would face, the coverage it would need to provide (around Seoul), and the high cost of interceptors; effort is being focused on disrupting the \"Kill Chain\" to immediately detect and destroy artillery and missile units. In August 2014, South Korea once again emerged as interested in buying the Iron Dome system for protection against rocket attacks. In October 2017, South Korea announced it would develop its own Iron Dome-type C-RAM system using hit-to-kill interceptors. Although they had considered buying Iron Dome, they determined the system had been developed primarily to counter mortar shells, and so was unsuited against the more powerful artillery rockets they would have to defend against.\n:On 14 September 2021, it was revealed by Breaking Defense that Saudi Arabia is considering adding the Iron Dome missile defense system to its inventory after the US withdrew the THAAD and the MIM-104 Patriot out of Prince Sultan Air Base."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Iron Dome:79",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iron Dome",
          "Foreign sales"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some Iron Dome systems have been exported. A weakness for most potential markets is that each Iron Dome system protects no more than ; this is effective in a small country like Israel, but not for larger states. Even in Israel, the batteries have to be moved around according to perceived risk of attack. Singapore, a sovereign island city-state, is reported to have purchased the Iron Dome, and the US Army has bought two batteries to protect overseas bases.\n:On 17 December 2016, Azerbaijan Defense Industry Minister Yavar Jamalov told reporters that Azerbaijan had reached an agreement with Israel to purchase Iron Dome batteries in the first confirmed foreign sale of the system. The country's acquisition of the system is believed to be related to neighboring Armenia's purchase of Russian Iskander short-range ballistic missiles.\n:On 23 November 2012, \"The Economic Times\" reported that Indian Defense planners were considering the possibility of India acquiring an indigenous version of Iron Dome, keeping a close watch on the performance of Iron Dome during the 2012 Operation Pillar of Defense. Several months earlier, the military scientists in the Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) had suggested that India look at a joint development program with Israeli firms to develop an Indian version of Iron Dome. They believed Israel's short range missile defense requirements have several parallels to the Indian threat from Pakistan, which includes a \"battlefield range\" quasi-tactical ballistic nuclear weapon delivery system, called Nasr, which some Indian defense sources say the Iron Dome might be an effective deterrent against, as well as the vulnerability of its cities to attacks from militants.\n:\"The Israeli team comes and works in our laboratories. Our team goes and works in their laboratories and industries. There is a learning that is taking place which was not there when we buy things and integrate with existing products... we have started discussions about Iron Dome for co-development (in India),\" W. Selvamurthy, Chief Controller looking after international cooperation said.\n:On 8 February 2013, Marshal Norman Anil Kumar Browne, commander of the Indian Air Force, told reporters that Iron Dome is not suitable for the service. The announcement came after two years of discussions. In August 2013, India resumed attempting to acquire the Iron Dome system after Israel agreed to transfer system technology. Iron Dome could complement the domestic long-range Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme air defense system.\n:In 2017, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and his Indian counterpart Narendra Modi signed a series of agreements on defense and technology worth around $2\u00a0billion, including a deal to buy the \"Iron Dome\" system.\n:In May 2018, Romania's Romaero signed a deal to purchase the Iron Dome system.\n:On 16 August 2011, Raytheon Company announced that it had teamed with Rafael to lead marketing in the United States for the Iron Dome system. \"Iron Dome complements other Raytheon weapons that provide intercept capabilities to the US Army's Counter Rocket, Artillery, and Mortar initiative at forward operating bases,\" said Mike Booen, vice president of Raytheon Missile Systems' Advanced Security and Directed Energy Systems product line. \"Iron Dome can be seamlessly integrated with Raytheon's C-RAM systems to complete the layered defense.\"\n:On 10 November 2011, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the US Army had expressed interest in acquiring the system, to be deployed outside forward bases in Iraq and Afghanistan that could potentially be targeted by artillery rockets. The US military had discovered 107\u00a0mm rockets in Iraq in the past. Yossi Druker, head of Rafael's Air-to-Air Directorate, said that the initial deal was valued at $100\u00a0million, but could reach several hundred million dollars over a number of years. In April 2016, Iron Dome's Tamir interceptor successfully shot down a UAV during a test firing in the United States, the system's first trial on foreign soil.\n: In January 2019 it was reported that the United States would purchase two Iron Dome batteries for 373 million dollars. The batteries were to be deployed to protect US armed forces in hostile areas of operation. The order was for two command posts and radars, 12 launchers, and 480 missiles and was finalized in August 2019. Rafael announced the first battery's delivery on 30 September 2020. On 13 November 2020, Iron Dome was activated at Fort Bliss to test if it could be connected into the Army's air and missile defense network, to serve as an interim capability to intercept cruise missiles.\n: In 2020, the service decided against purchasing any more Iron Dome systems, ostensibly over issues integrating it with the new Integrated Battle Command System (IBCS) network architecture. The Israeli MOD announced the delivery of the second battery on 3 January 2021.\n: The Army conducted a live-fire test in August 2021, successfully engaging eight cruise missile surrogates.\n: On 8 October 2021, it was reported by \"The War Zone\" magazine that the 94th Army Air and Missile Defense Command announced that week that it was following the 2019 National Defense Authorization Act, which required the deployment of an Iron Dome system to an operational theater by the end of 2021, by the temporary and experimental deployment of a system to Andersen Air Force Base in Guam. The battery was to be operated by the 2nd Battalion of the 43rd Air Defense Artillery Regiment. It also stated that there was no plan to conduct a live fire test there. \"The War Zone\" added that the Army's 38th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, then forward-based in Japan, was also to support this deployment. On 9 November 2021, the \"Wall Street Journal\" reported that the system was being tested in Guam, and speculated that it would likely be part of an array designed to protect the area against possible attacks by China.\n:On 10 March 2010, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the Israeli Ministry of Defense was in talks with a number of European countries about the possible sale of the system to protect NATO forces deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq.\n:During a visit to Israel in the summer of 2011, Kwon Oh-bong, vice commissioner of the Defense Acquisition Program Administration in Seoul, expressed interest in purchasing the system to counter the threat posed by North Korean artillery, rockets, and missiles. South Korea was considered unlikely to buy the Iron Dome system due to the number of artillery pieces it would face, the coverage it would need to provide (around Seoul), and the high cost of interceptors; effort is being focused on disrupting the \"Kill Chain\" to immediately detect and destroy artillery and missile units. In August 2014, South Korea once again emerged as interested in buying the Iron Dome system for protection against rocket attacks. In October 2017, South Korea announced it would develop its own Iron Dome-type C-RAM system using hit-to-kill interceptors. Although they had considered buying Iron Dome, they determined the system had been developed primarily to counter mortar shells, and so was unsuited against the more powerful artillery rockets they would have to defend against.\n:On 14 September 2021, it was revealed by Breaking Defense that Saudi Arabia is considering adding the Iron Dome missile defense system to its inventory after the US withdrew the THAAD and the MIM-104 Patriot out of Prince Sultan Air Base."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In a 2012 op-ed in \"Haaretz\", Jamie Levin suggested that the success of the Iron Dome system was likely to increase demands to field additional systems across Israel. Budget shortfalls meant that Israel would be forced to weigh spending on missile defenses against other expenditures. Such funds, he argued, would probably come from programs intended to help the most vulnerable sectors of society, such as social welfare."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 17 January 2014, President Barack Obama signed the fiscal year 2014 Consolidated Appropriations Act. The bill provides $235\u00a0million for Israel to procure the Iron Dome system. The Israeli government has also agreed to spend more than half the funds the United States provides for the Iron Dome system in the United States. Funds going to U.S. contractors will increase to 30 percent in 2014 and 55 percent in 2015 from 3 percent previously, according to a U.S. Missile Defense Agency report to Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In exchange for the second tranche of deployment funding, the United States asked Israel for access to, and a stake in, elements of the system's technology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The initial funding and development of the Iron Dome system was provided and undertaken by Israel. This allowed for the deployment of the first two Iron Dome systems. Subsequently, funding for additional Iron Dome systems \u2014 along with repeated funding for the supply of the interception missiles \u2014 has been provided by the United States. From 2011 to 2021, the US contributed a total of US$1.6 billion to the Iron Dome defense system, with another US$ 1 billion approved by the US Congress in 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 18 May 2012, the United States House of Representatives passed the Fiscal Year 2013 National Defense Authorization Act, H.R. 4310, with $680\u00a0million for Iron Dome in Section 227. The report accompanying the bill, 112\u2013479, also calls for technology sharing as well as co-production of Iron Dome in the United States in light of the nearly $900\u00a0million invested in the system since 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Sec. 237, Availability of Funds for Iron Dome Short Range Rocket Defense Program, said that of the amounts authorized to be appropriated for fiscal year 2013 by section 201 for research, development, test, and evaluation, defense-wide, and available for the Missile Defense Agency, $210,000,000 may be provided to the Government of Israel for the Iron Dome short-range rocket defense program as specified in the funding table in section 4201."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Until the 2021 war in Gaza, the US had contributed a total of US$1.6 billion to the Iron Dome defense system. After the end of the 2021 conflict, Israel asked the US for another US$ 1 billion for replenishing the Iron Dome batteries, which was approved by the US Congress in 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 17 May 2012, when Israeli Defense Minister Ehud Barak met with U.S. Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta, the Pentagon issued a statement from the Secretary saying in part, \"I was pleased to inform Minister Barak that the President supports Israel's Iron Dome system and directed me to fill the $70 million in assistance for Iron Dome that Minister Barak indicated to me Israel needs this fiscal year.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 4 June 2012, the U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee included $210\u00a0million for Iron Dome, in its version of the National Defense Authorization Act for 2013, S.3254. The bill has been reported out of committee and is waiting to be assigned a date for consideration by the full Senate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Voyage from Yesteryear",
        "text": "In 1989, Hogan attended a convention in Krak\u00f3w before travelling to Warsaw to meet the publishers of the magazine serial and draw out the money he had been paid. However, inflation following the collapse of the communist regime had reduced the value of the money in the account to just $8.43. Hogan concluded: \"So after the U.S. had spent trillions on its B-52s, Trident submarines, NSA, CIA, and the rest, that was my tab for toppling the Soviet empire. There's always an easy way if you just look.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "War reserve stock",
        "text": "Additionally in August 2014, during Operation Protective Edge the US passed \"The Iron Dome Bill\" to allow $225 million in addition funding to allow Israel to increase their war reserves for the Iron Dome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Funding for the production and deployment of these additional Iron Dome batteries and interceptor missiles was approved by the United States Congress, after being requested by President Obama in 2010. In May 2010, the White House announced that U.S. President Barack Obama would seek $205\u00a0million from U.S. Congress in his 2011 budget, to spur the production and deployment of additional Iron Dome batteries. White House spokesman Tommy Vietor stated, \"The president recognizes the threat missiles and rockets fired by Hamas and Hezbollah pose to Israelis, and has therefore decided to seek funding from Congress to support the production of Israel's short range rocket defense system called Iron Dome.\" This would be the first direct U.S. investment in the project. Such financial assistance could expedite the completion of the defensive system, which has long been delayed by budgetary shortfalls. A few days later, on 20 May 2010, the U.S. House of Representatives approved the funding in a 410\u20134 vote. The bill, the United States\u2013Israel Missile Defense Cooperation and Support Act (H.R. 5327), was sponsored by Representative Glenn C. Nye of Virginia. This money was expected to be included in the 2011 budget. Once the money was received in 2011, it still took a further 18 months before the additional batteries were delivered to the air force."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The committee is aware that National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2011 (Public Law 111-383) included $205.0\u00a0million for the Iron Dome short-range rocket defense system for the State of Israel. The committee notes that the Iron Dome system has proven very effective at defeating threat rockets launched at protected targets. The committee also notes that if the full $680.0\u00a0million is used on the program, the total U.S. taxpayer investment in this system will amount to nearly $900.0\u00a0million since fiscal year 2011, yet the United States has no rights to the technology involved. The committee believes the Director should ensure, prior to disbursing the authorized $680\u00a0million for Iron Dome, that the United States has appropriate rights to this technology for United States defense purposes, subject to an agreement with the Israeli Missile Defense Organization, and in a manner consistent with prior U.S.\u2013Israeli missile defense cooperation on the Arrow and David's Sling suite of systems. The committee also believes that the Director should explore any opportunity to enter into co-production of the Iron Dome system with Israel, in light of the significant U.S. investment in this system."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States Capitol dome",
        "text": "Some of iron were ultimately used in the construction that ran virtually 11 years. Inside, the interior dome rises to over the rotunda floor, and outside, the exterior dome ascends to including the height of the \"Statue of Freedom\". The total cost of the dome was valued at $1,047,291 (equivalent to $ in )."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dome of the Rock",
        "text": "The Dome of the Rock has been depicted on the Obverse and reverse of several Middle East currencies:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In 2010, before the system was declared operational, Iron Dome was criticized by Reuven Pedatzur, a military analyst, former fighter pilot and professor of political science at Tel Aviv University for costing too much compared to the cost of a Qassam rocket (fired by Palestinian forces), so that launching very large numbers of Qassams could essentially attack Israel's financial means. Rafael responded that the cost issue was exaggerated since Iron Dome intercepts only rockets determined to constitute a threat, and that the lives saved and the strategic impact are worth the cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Iron Dome () is a mobile all-weather air defense system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems and Israel Aerospace Industries. The system is designed to intercept and destroy short-range rockets and artillery shells fired from distances of to away and whose trajectory would take them to an Israeli populated area. From 2011 to 2021, the United States contributed a total of US$ 1.6 billion to the Iron Dome defense system, with another US$ 1 billion approved by the US Congress in 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 23 August 2011, \"Globes\" reported that Rafael would invest tens of millions of shekels in the following months to open a second production line for the Iron Dome's Tamir interceptor missiles. Future operational needs, as well as the plan to build two more Iron Dome batteries by the end of the year, necessitated the increase of missile production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "With the United States on track to greatly increase funding for Iron Dome, there have been calls for technology transfer and co-production of Iron Dome in the United States. Just as the US and Israel share co-production of the Arrow III missile system, with Boeing manufacturing 40\u201350 percent of the production content, there has been support in the U.S. Congress, media and think tanks in favor of co-production. The U.S. House of Representatives included report language in its FY-2013 Defense Authorization Act supporting Iron Dome with $680\u00a0million but also instructing that the Director of the U.S. Missile Defense Agency, Lt. Gen. Patrick O'Reilly, \"should explore any opportunity to enter into co-production of the Iron Dome system with Israel, in light of the significant U.S. investment in this system.\" There were media reports that the Pentagon was requesting similar language in the Senate Defense Authorization Act as well as the respective House and Senate defense appropriations bills for 2013. Adding Iron Dome to the list of high-tech military programs built jointly by both nations would help further strengthen ties between Israel and the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rakhat Aliyev",
        "text": "Aliyev's money was allegedly fed into two offshore companies, A.V. Maximus SA and Argocom Ltd, both based in the British Virgin Islands. From here, the money went into A.V. Maximus Holding AG, their parent company. Reportedly, A.V Maximus SA's British Virgin Island's affiliate received \u20ac24.8 million and US$91.4 million, while Agrocom received \u20ac15.6 million. The money was the directed into Armoreal Trading GmbH and S.T.A.R.T Management consulting GmbH, among other subsidiaries. Loans between these subsidiaries were then sent to Metallwerke Bender Rhineland, some of it via ITR Information Technology GmbH. Metallwerke Bender Rhineland (MBR) then paid it back through Armoreal trading, ultimately going to A.V. Maximus SA. Money was returned to A.V. Maximus SA as a return on investments, which enabled the money to be legally wired to A&P Power Ltd via A.V. Maximus Holding AG. A&A Poweris owned by A&P Power Holdings Ltd, which is housed in Nevis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Halle aux bl\u00e9s (Paris)",
        "text": "The iron dome was copied in later buildings in England such as the London Coal Exchange (1846\u201349) by James Bunstone Bunning and the Leeds Corn Exchange (1861\u201363) by Cuthbert Brodrick."
      },
      {
        "title": "International Centre for Theatre Research",
        "text": "Money also came from the government of Iran in the form of a commission for a work at the Shiraz/Persepolis festival in 1971. Work was begun even though the full three-year budget was not secured at the outset."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In February 2007, Defense Minister Amir Peretz selected Iron Dome as Israel's defense against this short-range rocket threat. Since then, the $210\u00a0million system has been developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems working jointly with the IDF."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "During the 2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis, Israel said that Hamas had been developing an electronic system to jam Iron Dome; Israeli aircraft destroyed a building said to have been used for this purpose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 9 May 2011, \"Haaretz\" published that Defense Ministry director general Maj. Gen. (res.) Udi Shani said that Israel plans to invest nearly $1\u00a0billion in the coming years for the development and production of Iron Dome batteries. \"We are no longer approaching this in terms of initial operational capabilities but are defining the final target for absorbing the systems, in terms of schedule and funds. We are talking about [having] 10\u201315 Iron Dome batteries. We will invest nearly $1\u00a0billion on this. This is the goal, in addition to the $205\u00a0million that the U.S. government has authorized,\" Shani said."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In 2004, the idea for Iron Dome gained momentum with the installation of Brig. Gen. Daniel Gold as the head of the research and development bureau of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). Gold was a strong backer of the antimissile project, even skirting army contracting regulations to secure financing. He also helped persuade key politicians to support the project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Foundation for Defense of Democracies",
        "text": "According to former U.S. ambassador Dennis Jett, FDD \"offers hardly any information on where its money comes from and where it goes\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The estimated cost of each Tamir interceptor missile was cited in 2014 as from US$20,000 to 50,000; a 2020 analysis estimated a total cost of $100,000 to $150,000 for each interception. In contrast, a crudely manufactured Qassam rocket costs around $800 and the Hamas Grad rocket costs only several thousand dollars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Section 227, Iron Dome Short-range Rocket Defense Program, would authorize $680.0\u00a0million for the Iron Dome system in fiscal years 2012\u201315 in PE 63913C for procurement of additional batteries and interceptors, and for operations and sustainment expenses. This section would also require the Director, Missile Defense Agency to establish within MDA a program office for cooperative missile defense efforts on the Iron Dome system to ensure long-term cooperation on this program."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 1 August 2014, Congress approved a measure to deliver an additional $225\u00a0million in aid to Israel, with the aim of replenishing funds for the Iron Dome system in the midst of the conflict between Israel and Hamas. Following the signing of bill, for which \"the Senate and House of Representatives as well as Republicans and Democrats set[ting] aside differences to advance Israel's emergency request,\" the White House stated that \"The United States has been clear since the start of this conflict that no country can abide rocket attacks against its civilians\" and that it \"supports Israel's right to defend itself against such attacks.\" Senate Report 113-211 from the U.S. Government Publishing Office, which accompanied text H.R. 4870, recommended an increase in funding for the program for FY2015. The report calculates \"U.S. investment in Iron Dome production since fiscal year 2011\" to be over $1\u00a0billion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron currency",
        "text": "Julius Caesar's, \"Gallic Wars\", mentions iron currency in Britain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The Israeli Institute of National Security Studies published a detailed rebuttal to Postol's claims, labeling it \"dubious research without access to credible data\". The rebuttal stated:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Some Iron Dome systems have been exported. A weakness for most potential markets is that each Iron Dome system protects no more than ; this is effective in a small country like Israel, but not for larger states. Even in Israel, the batteries have to be moved around according to perceived risk of attack. Singapore, a sovereign island city-state, is reported to have purchased the Iron Dome, and the US Army has bought two batteries to protect overseas bases.\n:On 17 December 2016, Azerbaijan Defense Industry Minister Yavar Jamalov told reporters that Azerbaijan had reached an agreement with Israel to purchase Iron Dome batteries in the first confirmed foreign sale of the system. The country's acquisition of the system is believed to be related to neighboring Armenia's purchase of Russian Iskander short-range ballistic missiles.\n:On 23 November 2012, \"The Economic Times\" reported that Indian Defense planners were considering the possibility of India acquiring an indigenous version of Iron Dome, keeping a close watch on the performance of Iron Dome during the 2012 Operation Pillar of Defense. Several months earlier, the military scientists in the Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) had suggested that India look at a joint development program with Israeli firms to develop an Indian version of Iron Dome. They believed Israel's short range missile defense requirements have several parallels to the Indian threat from Pakistan, which includes a \"battlefield range\" quasi-tactical ballistic nuclear weapon delivery system, called Nasr, which some Indian defense sources say the Iron Dome might be an effective deterrent against, as well as the vulnerability of its cities to attacks from militants.\n:\"The Israeli team comes and works in our laboratories. Our team goes and works in their laboratories and industries. There is a learning that is taking place which was not there when we buy things and integrate with existing products... we have started discussions about Iron Dome for co-development (in India),\" W. Selvamurthy, Chief Controller looking after international cooperation said.\n:On 8 February 2013, Marshal Norman Anil Kumar Browne, commander of the Indian Air Force, told reporters that Iron Dome is not suitable for the service. The announcement came after two years of discussions. In August 2013, India resumed attempting to acquire the Iron Dome system after Israel agreed to transfer system technology. Iron Dome could complement the domestic long-range Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme air defense system.\n:In 2017, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and his Indian counterpart Narendra Modi signed a series of agreements on defense and technology worth around $2\u00a0billion, including a deal to buy the \"Iron Dome\" system.\n:In May 2018, Romania's Romaero signed a deal to purchase the Iron Dome system.\n:On 16 August 2011, Raytheon Company announced that it had teamed with Rafael to lead marketing in the United States for the Iron Dome system. \"Iron Dome complements other Raytheon weapons that provide intercept capabilities to the US Army's Counter Rocket, Artillery, and Mortar initiative at forward operating bases,\" said Mike Booen, vice president of Raytheon Missile Systems' Advanced Security and Directed Energy Systems product line. \"Iron Dome can be seamlessly integrated with Raytheon's C-RAM systems to complete the layered defense.\"\n:On 10 November 2011, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the US Army had expressed interest in acquiring the system, to be deployed outside forward bases in Iraq and Afghanistan that could potentially be targeted by artillery rockets. The US military had discovered 107\u00a0mm rockets in Iraq in the past. Yossi Druker, head of Rafael's Air-to-Air Directorate, said that the initial deal was valued at $100\u00a0million, but could reach several hundred million dollars over a number of years. In April 2016, Iron Dome's Tamir interceptor successfully shot down a UAV during a test firing in the United States, the system's first trial on foreign soil.\n: In January 2019 it was reported that the United States would purchase two Iron Dome batteries for 373 million dollars. The batteries were to be deployed to protect US armed forces in hostile areas of operation. The order was for two command posts and radars, 12 launchers, and 480 missiles and was finalized in August 2019. Rafael announced the first battery's delivery on 30 September 2020. On 13 November 2020, Iron Dome was activated at Fort Bliss to test if it could be connected into the Army's air and missile defense network, to serve as an interim capability to intercept cruise missiles.\n: In 2020, the service decided against purchasing any more Iron Dome systems, ostensibly over issues integrating it with the new Integrated Battle Command System (IBCS) network architecture. The Israeli MOD announced the delivery of the second battery on 3 January 2021.\n: The Army conducted a live-fire test in August 2021, successfully engaging eight cruise missile surrogates.\n: On 8 October 2021, it was reported by \"The War Zone\" magazine that the 94th Army Air and Missile Defense Command announced that week that it was following the 2019 National Defense Authorization Act, which required the deployment of an Iron Dome system to an operational theater by the end of 2021, by the temporary and experimental deployment of a system to Andersen Air Force Base in Guam. The battery was to be operated by the 2nd Battalion of the 43rd Air Defense Artillery Regiment. It also stated that there was no plan to conduct a live fire test there. \"The War Zone\" added that the Army's 38th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, then forward-based in Japan, was also to support this deployment. On 9 November 2021, the \"Wall Street Journal\" reported that the system was being tested in Guam, and speculated that it would likely be part of an array designed to protect the area against possible attacks by China.\n:On 10 March 2010, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the Israeli Ministry of Defense was in talks with a number of European countries about the possible sale of the system to protect NATO forces deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq.\n:During a visit to Israel in the summer of 2011, Kwon Oh-bong, vice commissioner of the Defense Acquisition Program Administration in Seoul, expressed interest in purchasing the system to counter the threat posed by North Korean artillery, rockets, and missiles. South Korea was considered unlikely to buy the Iron Dome system due to the number of artillery pieces it would face, the coverage it would need to provide (around Seoul), and the high cost of interceptors; effort is being focused on disrupting the \"Kill Chain\" to immediately detect and destroy artillery and missile units. In August 2014, South Korea once again emerged as interested in buying the Iron Dome system for protection against rocket attacks. In October 2017, South Korea announced it would develop its own Iron Dome-type C-RAM system using hit-to-kill interceptors. Although they had considered buying Iron Dome, they determined the system had been developed primarily to counter mortar shells, and so was unsuited against the more powerful artillery rockets they would have to defend against.\n:On 14 September 2021, it was revealed by Breaking Defense that Saudi Arabia is considering adding the Iron Dome missile defense system to its inventory after the US withdrew the THAAD and the MIM-104 Patriot out of Prince Sultan Air Base."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ismaila Gwarzo",
        "text": "An estimated $1.4 billion in cash was delivered in this way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron currency",
        "text": "Iron currency\n--Materials.\n--Usage history.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter Roskam",
        "text": "In April 2018, Roskam and [[Grace Meng]] (D-NY) wrote a letter requesting $500 million for U.S.-Israeli defense cooperation, including $70 million for the [[Iron Dome|Iron Dome missile defense system]]. Roskam said that \"US-Israel missile defense cooperation is a critical investment in the safety and security of Israel and stability in the Middle East.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 25 March 2019 a J-80 rocket fired from Gaza hit a house in Mishmeret, Israel. According to Hamas the J-80 travels on a nonlinear path and cannot be intercepted by Iron Dome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 4 April 2012, Reuters reported that a senior Israeli official, during a briefing to a small group of journalists on condition of anonymity, predicted an increased interception range of up to 250\u00a0km, as well as more flexible aiming of Iron Dome units, thus lowering the number of batteries needed for full deployment in Israel. That would help Israel to cope with the prospect of reduced funding from the United States, while a \"new round\" of talks about missile-defense funding would be completed in two to three months, he anticipated. While praising American largess, the official said US planners have asked Israel to \"point out honestly where the upper limit is in terms of what can be implemented\" with the Iron Dome. He said the US is \"deep in (fiscal) challenges itself\", so it does not want to \"give money for the sake of it\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In December 2014, former Israeli Air Force chief and head of Boeing Israel David Ivry showed interest in the American Laser Weapon System (LaWS). Earlier that month, the U.S. Navy had revealed that the LaWS had been mounted on the and locked onto and destroyed designated targets with near-instantaneous lethality, with each laser shot costing less than $1."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oleksiy Honcharenko",
        "text": "In 2010, in an interview with journalist Roman Skrypin, Honcharenko explained the origin of the 700 thousand dollars indicated in the 2010 declaration. He said that he borrowed the money from his father-in-law who worked at \"Gazprom\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "According to Ronen Bergman, in 2012, during Operation Pillar of Defense, Israel agreed to an early cease-fire \"for a reason that has remained a closely guarded secret: The Iron Dome anti-missile defense system... had run out of ammunition.\" Bergman says that as a result of the experience, Israel had tried to prepare larger stocks of interceptors for future rounds of fighting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Maf'at, decided to start the program that would include the system's research and a demonstration of the intercepting system. In 2007, Israel commissioned the development of Iron Dome, choosing Israeli contractor Rafael over the American giant Lockheed Martin. Israeli company mPrest Systems was put in charge of programming the core of Iron Dome's battle management system. Iron Dome went from the drawing board to combat readiness within less than four years, a remarkably short period of time for a weapons system designed from scratch, according to military experts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "CNN relayed an estimate that Iron Dome's success rate in Pillar of Defense was about 85%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black pepper",
        "text": "He does not state whether the 50 million was the actual amount of money which found its way to India or the total retail cost of the items in Rome, and, elsewhere, he cites a figure of 100 million sesterces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 10 May 2018, the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps of Iran allegedly launched 20 rockets from Syria toward Israel in retaliation for recent Israeli airstrikes against IRGC facilities. According to an IDF spokesperson, 16 of the rockets fell short of the Israeli border, and Iron Dome intercepted the other four. Israel reported no casualties or damage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sanqu",
        "text": "The money used to buy them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ilfracombe Iron Company",
        "text": "The company constructed a blast furnace alongside a tributary of Middle Arm Creek. It originally intended to power the blast machinery from a large water wheel. Despite several design iterations, the blast machinery was severely under-sized. Before this situation could be rectified, by raising more capital, the Oriental Bank foreclosed. The assets were sold cheaply; possibly, the new owner intended to restart operations. However, a large fall in the price of iron seems to have ended that possibility."
      },
      {
        "title": "Euro Generals scandal",
        "text": "Based on their findings however, investigators said the amount came from \u201cprivate funds.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic finance products, services and contracts",
        "text": "An example of this would be a customer wishing to borrow $900 in cash having their bank buy $1000 worth of some commodity (such as iron) from a supplier, and then buying the iron from the bank with an agreement that they will be given 12 months to pay the $1000 back. The customer then immediately sells the metal back to the bank for $900 cash to be paid on the spot, and the bank then resells the iron. (This would be the equivalent of borrowing $900 for a year at an interest rate of 11 percent.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Iron cash coins were produced during the Han dynasty, Three Kingdoms period, Northern and Southern dynasties period, Five dynasties and Ten kingdoms period, Song dynasty, Jin dynasty (1115\u20131234), Western Xia dynasty, Ming dynasty, and Qing dynasty, but not during the Zhou dynasty, Jin dynasty (266\u2013420), Sui dynasty, Tang dynasty, Liao dynasty, and Yuan dynasty periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "ASM Headquarters and Geodesic Dome",
        "text": "A 1953-commissioned seven-panel brushed aluminum mural created by metals artist Nikos Bel-Jon (1911\u20131966) called the \u201cHistory of Iron,\u201d once used at ASM trade shows, now hangs throughout the headquarters building."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vulture fund",
        "text": "In this process, much debt was repurchased and converted into local currency by the sovereign country issuers in official debt conversion programs designed to attract investment, and in severely indebted countries through World Bank funded buy-backs. The result is that the old syndicates were broken up and many unreconstructed syndicate \"tails\" were available for purchase at discounts exceeding 80% of the principal face value. That pricing encouraged funds to invest in recovery actions, which would not otherwise make financial sense due to their length and cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron currency",
        "text": "\"For money they use bronze or gold coins, or iron bars of fixed weights.\" \u2014 Julius Caesar, 54 BC"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Skyguard would use laser beams to intercept rockets, with each beam discharge costing an estimated $1,000\u2013$2,000. With an investment of $180\u00a0million, Northrop Grumman claimed it could possibly deploy the system within 18\u00a0months. Israeli defense officials rejected the proposal, citing the extended timeline and additional costs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Iron cash coins were not exclusively produced by the Chinese, as other cash coin producing countries would also issue them under similar circumstances or by private mints. In Japan iron \"Kan'ei Ts\u016bh\u014d\" (\u5bdb\u6c38\u901a\u5bf3) cash coins were produced by the Kamedo mint in the 1760s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Toronto Computer Leasing Inquiry",
        "text": "A forensic review of Jakobek's financial statements found that only a portion of the money actually came from Morrish, and the remainder in fact came from several family accounts Jakobek controlled, all of which had unexplained patterns of deposits in denominations of $100. This also included $11,000 from Jakobek's grandmother, who has a declared income of less than $15,000 per year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The Iron Dome system began operating in early 2011, initially deployed at air force bases in southern Israel. It was designated to be set up in other areas, such as the town of Sderot, during significant escalations along the Gaza border."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alexander Parvus",
        "text": "It is still debated whether the money with which this financial network operated was actually of German origin. The evidence published by Alexander Kerensky's Government in preparation for a trial scheduled for October (November) 1917 was recently reexamined and found to be either inconclusive or outright forgery. (\"See also Sisson Documents\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pandora Papers",
        "text": "Estimates by the ICIJ of money held offshore (outside the country where the money was made) range from US$5.6 trillion to US$32 trillion."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States Capitol dome",
        "text": "The dome is not stone, but rather cast iron carefully painted to appear to be made of the same stone as the main capitol building. It is actually two domes, one inside the other, and the total weight is . The dome's cast iron frame was supplied and constructed by the iron foundry Janes, Fowler, Kirtland & Co. in the Bronx, New York. The dome marks the origin on street maps of Washington, D.C. A detailed look at the dome and its recent restoration can be found here."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron currency",
        "text": "They were expensive objects, as it would take 25 man-days to produce 1 kilogram of a finished bar, consuming 100\u00a0kg of charcoal, usually shaped with a small socket at one end."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of modern period domes",
        "text": "New production techniques allowed for cast iron and wrought iron to be produced both in larger quantities and at relatively low prices during the Industrial Revolution. Most iron domes were built with curved iron ribs arranged radially from the top of the dome to a ring at the base. The material of choice for domes changed over the course of the 19th century from cast iron to wrought iron to steel. Excluding domes that simply imitated multi-shell masonry, the century's chief development of the simple domed form may be metal framed domes such as the circular dome of Halle au Bl\u00e9 in Paris and the elliptical dome of Royal Albert Hall in London."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cistophorus",
        "text": "In any case, the result was a closed monetary system similar to that in the Ptolemaic Kingdom. It is likely that this was a deliberate policy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry McKee Minton",
        "text": "This was still a very large amount of money at the time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Martin Roth (museum director)",
        "text": "An article in \"The Guardian\" in September 2017 revealed that Azerbaijan's ruling elite had operated a secret $2.9bn (\u00a32.2bn) scheme to pay prominent Europeans, buy luxury goods and launder money through a network of opaque British companies. Its intention was to deflect criticism of Aliyev and to promote a positive image of his oil-rich country. However, the newspaper also points out that the money arrived via a disguised route and that not all recipients were aware of its original source. Roth is not mentioned in the article."
      },
      {
        "title": "Batsakis v. Demotsis",
        "text": "I state by my present (letter) that I received today from you the amount of two thousand dollars ($2,000.00) of United States of America money, which I borrowed from you for the support of my family during these difficult days and because it is impossible for me to transfer dollars of my own from America."
      },
      {
        "title": "Enio Iommi",
        "text": "Once more, the materials were found and obtained from dollar stores."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rob Lake",
        "text": "On March 29, 2013, Rob Lake made an armored truck containing $1,000,000 cash magically appear outside of the FedEx Forum in Memphis TN in front of over 15,000 audience members. Rob Lake created this illusion for Caesars Entertainment Corporation with less than 3 weeks notice as part of the summer promotion Millionaire Maker. Caesars was so impressed that they bought airtime and played video of the feat in Times Square and on the Las Vegas Strip."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dome",
        "text": "The historicism of the 19th century led to many domes being re-translations of the great domes of the past, rather than further stylistic developments, especially in sacred architecture. New production techniques allowed for cast iron and wrought iron to be produced both in larger quantities and at relatively low prices during the Industrial Revolution. Russia, which had large supplies of iron, has some of the earliest examples of iron's architectural use. Excluding those that simply imitated multi-shell masonry, metal framed domes such as the elliptical dome of Royal Albert Hall in London (57 to 67 meters in diameter) and the circular dome of the Halle au Bl\u00e9 in Paris may represent the century's chief development of the simple domed form. Cast-iron domes were particularly popular in France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Martin Schlaff",
        "text": "When the parliament of Germany investigated public funds that disappeared after the Fall of the Berlin Wall, it found out that East Germany (GDR) had transferred large amounts of money to Schlaff through accounts in Vaduz, the capital of Liechtenstein, in return for goods \"under Western embargo\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cash Dome",
        "text": "Cash Dome\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 15 May 2021, Israel destroyed the twelve-storey Jala tower building, which housed the Gaza offices of Associated Press (AP) and Al Jazeera, with an air strike, giving one hour's notice for evacuation. Israel said that Hamas was carrying out signals intelligence (SIGINT), electronic signals intelligence (ELINT), and electronic warfare (EW) operations, including the development of an electronic system to jam the Iron Dome, from within the building."
      },
      {
        "title": "Avibras",
        "text": "Iron Dome"
      },
      {
        "title": "Riba",
        "text": "\"Many businessmen who had borrowed large amounts of money over long periods of time seized the opportunity of Islamicization to do away with accumulated interest of their debt, by repaying only the principal \u2014 usually a puny sum when years of double-digit inflation were taken into consideration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diepreye Alamieyeseigha",
        "text": "Later they found a total of \u00a31.8m ($3.2m) in cash and bank accounts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil defense in Israel",
        "text": "Iron Dome (Hebrew: \u05db\u05d9\u05e4\u05ea \u05d1\u05e8\u05d6\u05dc) is a mobile system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Ltd. designed to intercept short-range rockets with a range less than 70\u00a0km."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Hezbollah, based in Lebanon, fired rockets into northern Israeli population centers in the 1990s, posing a security challenge for the Israel Defense Forces. Israel had floated the idea of its own short-range antimissile system, but U.S. defense officials cautioned that it would be \"doomed to fail\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "While initially iron cash coins were mainly minted by the Ministry of Revenue mint and Ministry of Public Works mint in Beijing, afterwards the government of the Qing dynasty established a specific iron cash coins mint, known as the iron cash office (\u9435\u9322\u5c40). The iron cash office also stored the iron cash coins. While the actual production numbers of iron cash coins remains unclear because of the limited entries about them in the records maintained by the Qing treasury, Peng Xinwei estimated, based on information he had gathered from Qing government memorials, that there had been an average annual production of 1,808,160 strings of iron cash coins between the year 1854 and 1855 and an annual production of 1,360,920 strings of iron cash coins during the years 1856 until 1859."
      },
      {
        "title": "Money of Kievan Rus'",
        "text": "And one more find attracted the attention of scientists: Cypraea's shell - the cowry coin. These beautiful porcelain shells were mined only around the Maldives and Laccadives in the Indian Ocean. From ancient times they were exported to India, from where they spread throughout the world. Shells have been used for thousands of years in Africa and Asia as small money. In Russia, cowry has been known under the name of \"snake heads\". In Russian trade in Siberia, they retained their product value until the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "$2 billion arms deal",
        "text": "I did not know the source of the money into our CBN Account. The foreign currencies that I collected from the CBN were delivered to the NSA in his house, No. 13, John Kadiya Street, Asokoro.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Tieqian",
        "text": "Iron cash coins (; Vietnamese: \"Thi\u1ebft ti\u1ec1n\") are a type of Chinese cash coin that were produced at various times during the monetary history of imperial China as well as in Japan and Vietnam. Iron cash coins were often produced in regions where the supply of copper was insufficient, or as a method of paying for high military expenditures at times of war, as well as for exports at times of trade deficits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic banking and finance",
        "text": "An example of this would be a customer wishing to borrow $1000 in cash having their bank buy $1,100 worth of a commodity such as iron from a supplier, buying the iron from the bank on credit with 12 months to pay the $1100 back, immediately selling the metal back to the bank for $1000 cash to be paid on the spot. The bank resells the iron to the supplier. (This would be the equivalent of borrowing $1000 for a year at an interest rate of 11 per cent.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The Iron Dome system intercepted 100 rockets that were launched from the Gaza Strip in mid-November 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ladd & Co.",
        "text": "Brinsmade stayed in Europe trying to collect, but the investors were now wary. Meanwhile, Ladd & Co. was borrowing heavily to finance new facilities for its expected expansion. Some of this money came from the King himself. The U.S. State Department replaced Brinsmade as Consul during his absence in January 1845 by Alexander G. Abell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mohammed Abacha",
        "text": "An estimated $1.4 billion in cash was delivered in this way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Structural adjustment",
        "text": "SAL initially financed the loan by selling gold held in trust funds and accepting donations from donor countries. Subsequent loans are based on the repayment of trust funds and interest earned. The SDR is the accounting unit of the loan, and the disbursement and repayment of the loan are in US dollars. The amount of SALs issued to a country is usually proportional to its quota in the International Monetary Fund."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dome of the Chain",
        "text": "Mujir ad-Din offers an explanation to why the chain is no more there: A man refused to return 100 golden dinars to the rightful owner. He melted down the coins, pouring the gold into his walking-stick. Before swearing that he has repaid his due, he asked the owner to hold his stick, and the chain allowed him to touch it. After giving back the stick to the liar, the money's owner swore that the gold had not been returned to him, while also holding the chain. With people present at the trial baffled over how both testimonies could have been true, the chain withdrew to heaven in disgust."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dowlais Ironworks",
        "text": "In 1863, the Company had recovered from a business slump but had no cash to invest for a new blast furnace, despite having made a profit. To explain why there were no funds to invest, the manager made a new financial statement that was called a \"comparison balance sheet\", which showed that the company was holding too much inventory. This new financial statement was the genesis of Cash Flow Statement that is used today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kemaman Port",
        "text": "The Gunawan venture was affected by the Asian currency crisis in the late 1990s. The project was to construct a blast furnace based iron and steel works from used equipment sourced from Europe. The blast furnace came from the Netherlands (IJmuiden), the steelplant from Austria (Linz), and various other items came from Scotland, England, and Italy. The raw materials handling equipment was a mixture of new and used items from the UK and Malaysia. Approximately 50% of the construction costs were to be spent on imported items, and when the currency crisis hit, it became impossible to obtain the foreign funds needed to complete the project. Malaysia was effectively cut off from access to foreign currency by the international banks, and the completion of the project was rendered impossible. It was to have been the first blast furnace based iron and steel making fully integrated works in South East Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron currency",
        "text": "Iron hoes circulated as money in India, Africa, and Indochina, and were the smallest monetary unit of the Bahnar people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geodesic dome",
        "text": "The 1958 Gold Dome in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, utilized Fuller's design for use as a bank building. Another early example was the Stepan Center at the University of Notre Dame, built in 1962."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iran\u2013Russia relations",
        "text": "7. Iron and steel derivatives: $6.5 billion (2.7%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Figure 1",
        "text": "This brings the total round to $9 million (USD)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tax haven",
        "text": "Henry used mainly global banking data from various regulatory sources to estimate that:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lost Trillion Case",
        "text": "The Treasury requested the return of the financial aid worth around one trillion lira, i.e. one million in today's currency (around 477,000) from the then-closed RP. The party executives declared that the funds were spent on party activities. However, an investigation found that the amount was converted into 10\u00a0million Deutsche Mark and was then deposited in Yap\u0131 ve Kredi Bankas\u0131. Early in 1997, the amount was withdrawn from the bank."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anschluss",
        "text": "Germany, which had a shortage of steel and a weak balance of payments, gained iron ore mines in the Erzberg and 748 million RM in the reserves of Austria's central bank Oesterreichische Nationalbank, more than twice its own cash. In the years that followed, some bank accounts were transferred from Austria to Germany as \"enemy property accounts\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Experi-Metal v. Comerica",
        "text": "In a six-and-a-half-hour period between 7:30\u00a0am and 2:02\u00a0pm, 93 fraudulent transfers were made from Experi-Metal's accounts totaling US$1,901,269.00. The majority of the transfers were directed to bank accounts in Russia, Estonia and China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chia Teck Leng",
        "text": "The foreign authorities also yielded some money amounting to $11 million and $230 million from both Chia Teck Leng's casino and bank accounts in Australia and Switzerland respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Auguste Dreyfus",
        "text": "The money mainly went to paying Dreyfus and refinancing debts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dome Cinema, Worthing",
        "text": "The Heritage Lottery Fund eventually released the money to the Worthing Dome and Regeneration Trust in October 2003."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has the Iron Dome been the target of cyber attacks by foreign entities?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I don't know if it was ever cyber-attacked over networks, but during the 2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis, Israel said that Hamas had been developing an electronic system to jam Iron Dome, and they destroyed a building said to have been used for this purpose."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about other cyber attacks Israel has faced?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "OpIsrael (#OpIsrael), is an annual coordinated cyber-attack where hacktivists attack Israeli government and even private websites with DDoS attacks and more.[1] The inaugural campaign was launched in 2013 by Anonymous hackers on the eve of Holocaust Remembrance Day. The campaign has since been held annually."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some possible foreign sales of the Iron Dome?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "NATO, South Korea, and Saudi Arabia have all reportedly expressed interest in purchasing the Iron Dome system."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where did the money come from to create the Iron Dome?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The initial funding and development of the Iron Dome system was provided and undertaken by Israel. Subsequently, funding for additional Iron Dome systems \u2014 along with repeated funding for the supply of the interception missiles \u2014 has been provided by the United States.",
      "The initial funding and development of the Iron Dome system was provided and undertaken by Israel; funding for the production and deployment of these additional Iron Dome batteries and interceptor missiles was approved by the United States Congress in 2010. Until the 2021 war in Gaza, the US had contributed a total of US$1.6 billion to the Iron Dome defense system; after the end of the 2021 conflict, Israel asked the US for another US$ 1 billion for replenishing the Iron Dome batteries, which was approved by the US Congress in 2022."
    ],
    "topic": "Iron Dome",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Iron Dome:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iron Dome",
          "Funding"
        ],
        "ctx": "The initial funding and development of the Iron Dome system was provided and undertaken by Israel. This allowed for the deployment of the first two Iron Dome systems. Subsequently, funding for additional Iron Dome systems \u2014 along with repeated funding for the supply of the interception missiles \u2014 has been provided by the United States. From 2011 to 2021, the US contributed a total of US$1.6 billion to the Iron Dome defense system, with another US$ 1 billion approved by the US Congress in 2022."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Iron Dome:17",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iron Dome",
          "Funding"
        ],
        "ctx": "The initial funding and development of the Iron Dome system was provided and undertaken by Israel. This allowed for the deployment of the first two Iron Dome systems. Subsequently, funding for additional Iron Dome systems \u2014 along with repeated funding for the supply of the interception missiles \u2014 has been provided by the United States. From 2011 to 2021, the US contributed a total of US$1.6 billion to the Iron Dome defense system, with another US$ 1 billion approved by the US Congress in 2022."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Iron Dome:18",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iron Dome",
          "Funding"
        ],
        "ctx": "Funding for the production and deployment of these additional Iron Dome batteries and interceptor missiles was approved by the United States Congress, after being requested by President Obama in 2010. In May 2010, the White House announced that U.S. President Barack Obama would seek $205\u00a0million from U.S. Congress in his 2011 budget, to spur the production and deployment of additional Iron Dome batteries. White House spokesman Tommy Vietor stated, \"The president recognizes the threat missiles and rockets fired by Hamas and Hezbollah pose to Israelis, and has therefore decided to seek funding from Congress to support the production of Israel's short range rocket defense system called Iron Dome.\" This would be the first direct U.S. investment in the project. Such financial assistance could expedite the completion of the defensive system, which has long been delayed by budgetary shortfalls. A few days later, on 20 May 2010, the U.S. House of Representatives approved the funding in a 410\u20134 vote. The bill, the United States\u2013Israel Missile Defense Cooperation and Support Act (H.R. 5327), was sponsored by Representative Glenn C. Nye of Virginia. This money was expected to be included in the 2011 budget. Once the money was received in 2011, it still took a further 18 months before the additional batteries were delivered to the air force."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Iron Dome:30",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iron Dome",
          "Funding"
        ],
        "ctx": "Until the 2021 war in Gaza, the US had contributed a total of US$1.6 billion to the Iron Dome defense system. After the end of the 2021 conflict, Israel asked the US for another US$ 1 billion for replenishing the Iron Dome batteries, which was approved by the US Congress in 2022."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 17 January 2014, President Barack Obama signed the fiscal year 2014 Consolidated Appropriations Act. The bill provides $235\u00a0million for Israel to procure the Iron Dome system. The Israeli government has also agreed to spend more than half the funds the United States provides for the Iron Dome system in the United States. Funds going to U.S. contractors will increase to 30 percent in 2014 and 55 percent in 2015 from 3 percent previously, according to a U.S. Missile Defense Agency report to Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In exchange for the second tranche of deployment funding, the United States asked Israel for access to, and a stake in, elements of the system's technology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Until the 2021 war in Gaza, the US had contributed a total of US$1.6 billion to the Iron Dome defense system. After the end of the 2021 conflict, Israel asked the US for another US$ 1 billion for replenishing the Iron Dome batteries, which was approved by the US Congress in 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In a 2012 op-ed in \"Haaretz\", Jamie Levin suggested that the success of the Iron Dome system was likely to increase demands to field additional systems across Israel. Budget shortfalls meant that Israel would be forced to weigh spending on missile defenses against other expenditures. Such funds, he argued, would probably come from programs intended to help the most vulnerable sectors of society, such as social welfare."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The committee is aware that National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2011 (Public Law 111-383) included $205.0\u00a0million for the Iron Dome short-range rocket defense system for the State of Israel. The committee notes that the Iron Dome system has proven very effective at defeating threat rockets launched at protected targets. The committee also notes that if the full $680.0\u00a0million is used on the program, the total U.S. taxpayer investment in this system will amount to nearly $900.0\u00a0million since fiscal year 2011, yet the United States has no rights to the technology involved. The committee believes the Director should ensure, prior to disbursing the authorized $680\u00a0million for Iron Dome, that the United States has appropriate rights to this technology for United States defense purposes, subject to an agreement with the Israeli Missile Defense Organization, and in a manner consistent with prior U.S.\u2013Israeli missile defense cooperation on the Arrow and David's Sling suite of systems. The committee also believes that the Director should explore any opportunity to enter into co-production of the Iron Dome system with Israel, in light of the significant U.S. investment in this system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter Roskam",
        "text": "In April 2018, Roskam and [[Grace Meng]] (D-NY) wrote a letter requesting $500 million for U.S.-Israeli defense cooperation, including $70 million for the [[Iron Dome|Iron Dome missile defense system]]. Roskam said that \"US-Israel missile defense cooperation is a critical investment in the safety and security of Israel and stability in the Middle East.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The initial funding and development of the Iron Dome system was provided and undertaken by Israel. This allowed for the deployment of the first two Iron Dome systems. Subsequently, funding for additional Iron Dome systems \u2014 along with repeated funding for the supply of the interception missiles \u2014 has been provided by the United States. From 2011 to 2021, the US contributed a total of US$1.6 billion to the Iron Dome defense system, with another US$ 1 billion approved by the US Congress in 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 17 May 2012, when Israeli Defense Minister Ehud Barak met with U.S. Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta, the Pentagon issued a statement from the Secretary saying in part, \"I was pleased to inform Minister Barak that the President supports Israel's Iron Dome system and directed me to fill the $70 million in assistance for Iron Dome that Minister Barak indicated to me Israel needs this fiscal year.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 1 August 2014, Congress approved a measure to deliver an additional $225\u00a0million in aid to Israel, with the aim of replenishing funds for the Iron Dome system in the midst of the conflict between Israel and Hamas. Following the signing of bill, for which \"the Senate and House of Representatives as well as Republicans and Democrats set[ting] aside differences to advance Israel's emergency request,\" the White House stated that \"The United States has been clear since the start of this conflict that no country can abide rocket attacks against its civilians\" and that it \"supports Israel's right to defend itself against such attacks.\" Senate Report 113-211 from the U.S. Government Publishing Office, which accompanied text H.R. 4870, recommended an increase in funding for the program for FY2015. The report calculates \"U.S. investment in Iron Dome production since fiscal year 2011\" to be over $1\u00a0billion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 4 April 2012, Reuters reported that a senior Israeli official, during a briefing to a small group of journalists on condition of anonymity, predicted an increased interception range of up to 250\u00a0km, as well as more flexible aiming of Iron Dome units, thus lowering the number of batteries needed for full deployment in Israel. That would help Israel to cope with the prospect of reduced funding from the United States, while a \"new round\" of talks about missile-defense funding would be completed in two to three months, he anticipated. While praising American largess, the official said US planners have asked Israel to \"point out honestly where the upper limit is in terms of what can be implemented\" with the Iron Dome. He said the US is \"deep in (fiscal) challenges itself\", so it does not want to \"give money for the sake of it\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Iron Dome () is a mobile all-weather air defense system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems and Israel Aerospace Industries. The system is designed to intercept and destroy short-range rockets and artillery shells fired from distances of to away and whose trajectory would take them to an Israeli populated area. From 2011 to 2021, the United States contributed a total of US$ 1.6 billion to the Iron Dome defense system, with another US$ 1 billion approved by the US Congress in 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In 2010, before the system was declared operational, Iron Dome was criticized by Reuven Pedatzur, a military analyst, former fighter pilot and professor of political science at Tel Aviv University for costing too much compared to the cost of a Qassam rocket (fired by Palestinian forces), so that launching very large numbers of Qassams could essentially attack Israel's financial means. Rafael responded that the cost issue was exaggerated since Iron Dome intercepts only rockets determined to constitute a threat, and that the lives saved and the strategic impact are worth the cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Funding for the production and deployment of these additional Iron Dome batteries and interceptor missiles was approved by the United States Congress, after being requested by President Obama in 2010. In May 2010, the White House announced that U.S. President Barack Obama would seek $205\u00a0million from U.S. Congress in his 2011 budget, to spur the production and deployment of additional Iron Dome batteries. White House spokesman Tommy Vietor stated, \"The president recognizes the threat missiles and rockets fired by Hamas and Hezbollah pose to Israelis, and has therefore decided to seek funding from Congress to support the production of Israel's short range rocket defense system called Iron Dome.\" This would be the first direct U.S. investment in the project. Such financial assistance could expedite the completion of the defensive system, which has long been delayed by budgetary shortfalls. A few days later, on 20 May 2010, the U.S. House of Representatives approved the funding in a 410\u20134 vote. The bill, the United States\u2013Israel Missile Defense Cooperation and Support Act (H.R. 5327), was sponsored by Representative Glenn C. Nye of Virginia. This money was expected to be included in the 2011 budget. Once the money was received in 2011, it still took a further 18 months before the additional batteries were delivered to the air force."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "With the United States on track to greatly increase funding for Iron Dome, there have been calls for technology transfer and co-production of Iron Dome in the United States. Just as the US and Israel share co-production of the Arrow III missile system, with Boeing manufacturing 40\u201350 percent of the production content, there has been support in the U.S. Congress, media and think tanks in favor of co-production. The U.S. House of Representatives included report language in its FY-2013 Defense Authorization Act supporting Iron Dome with $680\u00a0million but also instructing that the Director of the U.S. Missile Defense Agency, Lt. Gen. Patrick O'Reilly, \"should explore any opportunity to enter into co-production of the Iron Dome system with Israel, in light of the significant U.S. investment in this system.\" There were media reports that the Pentagon was requesting similar language in the Senate Defense Authorization Act as well as the respective House and Senate defense appropriations bills for 2013. Adding Iron Dome to the list of high-tech military programs built jointly by both nations would help further strengthen ties between Israel and the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In December 2014, former Israeli Air Force chief and head of Boeing Israel David Ivry showed interest in the American Laser Weapon System (LaWS). Earlier that month, the U.S. Navy had revealed that the LaWS had been mounted on the and locked onto and destroyed designated targets with near-instantaneous lethality, with each laser shot costing less than $1."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Also according to \"Haaretz\", the IDF was to finalize its long-term Iron Dome acquisition program\u2014nicknamed \"Halamish\"\u2014within a few months (from April 2011), which would indicate the final number of systems to be introduced into the military. Israel Air Force officials estimated the number of Iron Dome systems needed to cover threatened areas as thirteen. According to Meir Elran, a scholar at the Institute of National Security Studies in Tel Aviv, Israel would need a total of 20\u00a0batteries to provide adequate defense for its borders with Gaza and Lebanon. Such a deployment would require financial assistance from the United States, but he said that even in the original limited form, officially designated a trial period, the system was important."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 9 May 2011, \"Haaretz\" published that Defense Ministry director general Maj. Gen. (res.) Udi Shani said that Israel plans to invest nearly $1\u00a0billion in the coming years for the development and production of Iron Dome batteries. \"We are no longer approaching this in terms of initial operational capabilities but are defining the final target for absorbing the systems, in terms of schedule and funds. We are talking about [having] 10\u201315 Iron Dome batteries. We will invest nearly $1\u00a0billion on this. This is the goal, in addition to the $205\u00a0million that the U.S. government has authorized,\" Shani said."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Hezbollah, based in Lebanon, fired rockets into northern Israeli population centers in the 1990s, posing a security challenge for the Israel Defense Forces. Israel had floated the idea of its own short-range antimissile system, but U.S. defense officials cautioned that it would be \"doomed to fail\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013United States relations",
        "text": "Since the 1970s, Israel has been one of the top recipients of United States foreign aid. In the past, a portion was dedicated to economic assistance, but all economic aid to Israel ended in 2007 due to Israel's growing economy. Currently, Israel receives $3 billion annually in US assistance through Foreign Military Financing (FMF). Seventy-four percent of these funds must be spent on the acquisition of US defense equipment, services, and training. Thus, \"United States military aid to Israel is seen by many as a subsidy for U.S. industries\", according to Kenneth M. Pollack."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013United States relations",
        "text": "In February 2011, the Obama administration vetoed a UN resolution declaring Israeli settlements in the West Bank illegal. Since 2011, the Obama administration paved the way for the development and production of the Iron Dome missile defense system for Israel, contributing $235 million to its funding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Sec. 237, Availability of Funds for Iron Dome Short Range Rocket Defense Program, said that of the amounts authorized to be appropriated for fiscal year 2013 by section 201 for research, development, test, and evaluation, defense-wide, and available for the Missile Defense Agency, $210,000,000 may be provided to the Government of Israel for the Iron Dome short-range rocket defense program as specified in the funding table in section 4201."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In February 2007, Defense Minister Amir Peretz selected Iron Dome as Israel's defense against this short-range rocket threat. Since then, the $210\u00a0million system has been developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems working jointly with the IDF."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "According to Ronen Bergman, in 2012, during Operation Pillar of Defense, Israel agreed to an early cease-fire \"for a reason that has remained a closely guarded secret: The Iron Dome anti-missile defense system... had run out of ammunition.\" Bergman says that as a result of the experience, Israel had tried to prepare larger stocks of interceptors for future rounds of fighting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013United States military relations",
        "text": "This is not a comprehensive list. In addition to indigenously developed military equipment, Israel has made a number of procurements from the United States in recent years, including systems procured directly from U.S. manufacturers and ex-U.S. Forces equipment. The Israel Defense Forces also makes use of U.S. military systems not necessarily procured directly from the U.S. The list below includes U.S.-made weapon systems paid for from funding provided by the US, by Israel alone, or by a combination of funding from both nations. All data is from Jane's \"Sentinel Eastern Mediterranean 2007\" unless otherwise stated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Yoav Fromer, writing in \"The Washington Post\", thanked Iron Dome for the lack of fatalities and the relatively low casualty rate among Israeli civilians, and said that the technology appears to provide \"both a physical and a psychological solace that enables Israelis to go about their business.\" However, in his view, over time, Iron Dome may do the Israeli public more harm than good because despite the fact it is a \"tactical miracle\" it may help create a serious strategic problem to Israelis' long-term security because, by temporarily minimizing the dangers posed by rocket attacks, it distracts Israelis from seeking a broader regional political solution that could finally make systems such as Iron Dome unnecessary. In Fromer's view, the Israeli government is \"not exactly brimming with creative ideas to reignite the peace process with the Palestinians. And with Iron Dome, why would it? As long as the Israeli public believes it is safe, for now, under the soothing embrace of technology, it will not demand that its political leaders wage diplomacy to end violence that mandated Iron Dome in the first place. Since Iron Dome has transformed a grim reality into a rather bearable ordeal, Israelis have lost the sense of urgency and outrage that might have pushed their government\" to make necessary concessions in exchange for peace. In Fromer's view, Israelis risk confusing the short-term military advantage provided by Iron Dome with the long term need for an original and comprehensive diplomatic solution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steve Rothman",
        "text": "In 2010, Rothman worked with his congressional colleagues and the White House to obtain funding for Israel's Iron Dome defensive missile system and David\u2019s Sling, Arrow 2 and Arrow 3. The Iron Dome system was purchased by the US military in 2019 and Arrow 3 was successfully tested by the US and Israel in Alaska in July of that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tanks of the Israel Defense Forces",
        "text": "Since 1976, Israel had been the largest annual recipient of U.S. foreign assistance. In 2009, Israel received $2.55 billion in Foreign Military Financing (FMF) grants from the Department of Defense. All but 26% of this military aid is for the purchase of military hardware from American companies only."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013United States relations",
        "text": "One facet of the US\u2013Israel strategic relationship is the joint development of the Arrow Anti-Ballistic Missile Program, designed to intercept and destroy ballistic missiles. This development is funded by both Israel and the United States. The Arrow has also provided the US with the research and experience necessary to develop additional weapons systems. So far, the development cost has been between $2.4 and $3.6 billion, with the United States picking up 50 percent of the final costs. The US also provides some funding for Israel's Iron Dome short-range missile defense system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 5 August 2011, the IDF redeployed the Iron Dome system near Ashkelon following days of heightened rocket fire from Gaza into Israel. The deployment came a day after Ashkelon mayor Benny Vaknin sent Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Defense Minister Ehud Barak a letter asking them to redeploy the system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Following the system's deployment in April 2011, Iron Dome was used to successfully intercept Katyusha rockets fired by Palestinian militants. In August that year, Iron Dome intercepted 20 missiles and rockets fired into Israel. However, in one instance the system destroyed four rockets fired at the city of Beersheba but failed to stop a fifth, which killed one man and injured several others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "During the 2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis, Israel said that Hamas had been developing an electronic system to jam Iron Dome; Israeli aircraft destroyed a building said to have been used for this purpose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barack Obama",
        "text": "During the initial years of the Obama administration, the U.S. increased military cooperation with Israel, including increased military aid, re-establishment of the U.S.-Israeli Joint Political Military Group and the Defense Policy Advisory Group, and an increase in visits among high-level military officials of both countries. The Obama administration asked Congress to allocate money toward funding the Iron Dome program in response to the waves of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel. In March 2010, Obama took a public stance against plans by the government of Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu to continue building Jewish housing projects in predominantly Arab neighborhoods of East Jerusalem. In 2011, the United States vetoed a Security Council resolution condemning Israeli settlements, with the United States being the only nation to do so. Obama supports the two-state solution to the Arab\u2013Israeli conflict based on the 1967 borders with land swaps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 8 August 2011, the Israeli High Court of Justice rejected a petition asking that the government be ordered to deploy the system in Gaza border communities. In rejecting the petition, Supreme Court President Dorit Beinisch and Justices Salim Joubran and Uzi Fogelman ruled that in balancing all relevant considerations including budgets, changing security realities and operational matters, the government's decision not to deploy the Iron Dome in the area was reasonable. The panel of justices also said that the court had no reason to intervene in operational decisions regarding where to deploy the Iron Dome system. \"We believe the [government] will make the necessary decisions in accordance with the time and place requirements,\" they said."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel Defense Forces",
        "text": "Israel is the only country in the world with an operational anti-ballistic missile defense system on the national level \u2013 the Arrow system, jointly funded and produced by Israel and the United States. The Iron Dome system against short-range rockets is operational and proved to be successful, intercepting hundreds of Qassam, 122 mm Grad and Fajr-5 artillery rockets fire by Palestinian militants from the Gaza Strip. David's Sling, an anti-missile system designed to counter medium range rockets, became operational in 2017. Israel has also worked with the US on development of a tactical high energy laser system against medium range rockets (called Nautilus or THEL)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel Defense Forces",
        "text": "Since 1976, Israel had been the largest annual recipient of U.S. foreign assistance. In 2009, Israel received $2.55\u00a0billion in Foreign Military Financing (FMF) grants from the Department of Defense. All but 26% of this military aid is for the purchase of military hardware from American companies only."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013United States military relations",
        "text": "The United States is the largest single supplier of military equipment to Israel. According to the U.S. Congressional Research Service, between 1998\u20132005 the U.S. accounted for the vast majority of Israel's arms transfer agreements, accounting for $9.1 billion out of $9.5 billion worth of agreements. Israel deals directly with U.S. companies for the vast majority of its military purchases from the United States, though it requires permission from the U.S. government for specific purchases. Permission is not always automatic; for instance, in March 2000 it became known that the Israeli government had been refused permission to purchase BGM-109 Tomahawk missiles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Skyguard would use laser beams to intercept rockets, with each beam discharge costing an estimated $1,000\u2013$2,000. With an investment of $180\u00a0million, Northrop Grumman claimed it could possibly deploy the system within 18\u00a0months. Israeli defense officials rejected the proposal, citing the extended timeline and additional costs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel",
        "text": "Iron Dome () is a mobile system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems designed to intercept short-range rockets with a range less than 70\u00a0km. In February 2007, the system was selected by Israeli Defense Minister Ehud Barak as the Israeli Defense Force's defense system against short range rockets. On 7 July 2008, the first test of the system was completed successfully, and the first operational test was expected to take place at the end of 2009. The system was scheduled to be operational in 2010, but was temporarily delayed. In March, the system was deployed in several strategic sites near major Israeli southern cities. On 7 April 2011, the system successfully intercepted a Grad rocket launched from Gaza for the first time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil defense in Israel",
        "text": "Iron Dome (Hebrew: \u05db\u05d9\u05e4\u05ea \u05d1\u05e8\u05d6\u05dc) is a mobile system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Ltd. designed to intercept short-range rockets with a range less than 70\u00a0km."
      },
      {
        "title": "War reserve stock",
        "text": "Additionally in August 2014, during Operation Protective Edge the US passed \"The Iron Dome Bill\" to allow $225 million in addition funding to allow Israel to increase their war reserves for the Iron Dome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The Iron Dome system began operating in early 2011, initially deployed at air force bases in southern Israel. It was designated to be set up in other areas, such as the town of Sderot, during significant escalations along the Gaza border."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nuclear weapons and Israel",
        "text": "The exact costs for the construction of the Israeli nuclear program are unknown, though Peres later said that the reactor cost $80 million in 1960, half of which was raised by foreign Jewish donors, including many American Jews. Some of these donors were given a tour of the Dimona complex in 1968."
      },
      {
        "title": "Missile defense systems by country",
        "text": "Apart from Arrow missile, Israel has Iron dome which is designed to intercept and destroy short-range rockets and artillery shells fired from distances of 4 to 70 kilometers away and David's Sling that is designed to intercept medium- to long-range rockets and cruise missiles, such as those possessed by Hezbollah, fired at ranges from 40\u00a0km to 300\u00a0km."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The Iron Dome has been pitched to the IDF as a more cost-effective anti-aircraft system to intercept unmanned aerial vehicles. Some estimates of the cost of a Tamir interceptor are around $100,000, but it is still 95 percent cheaper than using a MIM-104 Patriot, the primary Israeli interceptor, costing $2\u20133\u00a0million. Although the Patriot has broader coverage, the low cost of UAVs and operational scenarios they would be encountered in would make Iron Dome equally effective against them. No material upgrades would be needed to optimize the system for drone-killing missions, as this role and capability has been publicized from its inception."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013United States relations",
        "text": "Since 1985, the United States has provided nearly in annual grants to Israel, which has been the largest recipient of annual American aid from 1976 to 2004 and the largest cumulative recipient of aid (, not inflation-adjusted) since World War II; approximately 74 percent of these funds are spent on the purchases of American goods and services. More recently, in fiscal year 2019, the United States provided Israel with in military aid. Israel also benefits from around in American loan guarantees. While the United States has disbursed significant financial aid for Israel in the past, the primary form of American aid for Israel at present is military-oriented (see Israel\u2013United States military relations) rather than economic. Moreover, the United States is Israel's largest trading partner, and Israel is the United States' 25th-largest trading partner; two-way trade totaled some $36\u00a0billion in 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Some Iron Dome systems have been exported. A weakness for most potential markets is that each Iron Dome system protects no more than ; this is effective in a small country like Israel, but not for larger states. Even in Israel, the batteries have to be moved around according to perceived risk of attack. Singapore, a sovereign island city-state, is reported to have purchased the Iron Dome, and the US Army has bought two batteries to protect overseas bases.\n:On 17 December 2016, Azerbaijan Defense Industry Minister Yavar Jamalov told reporters that Azerbaijan had reached an agreement with Israel to purchase Iron Dome batteries in the first confirmed foreign sale of the system. The country's acquisition of the system is believed to be related to neighboring Armenia's purchase of Russian Iskander short-range ballistic missiles.\n:On 23 November 2012, \"The Economic Times\" reported that Indian Defense planners were considering the possibility of India acquiring an indigenous version of Iron Dome, keeping a close watch on the performance of Iron Dome during the 2012 Operation Pillar of Defense. Several months earlier, the military scientists in the Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) had suggested that India look at a joint development program with Israeli firms to develop an Indian version of Iron Dome. They believed Israel's short range missile defense requirements have several parallels to the Indian threat from Pakistan, which includes a \"battlefield range\" quasi-tactical ballistic nuclear weapon delivery system, called Nasr, which some Indian defense sources say the Iron Dome might be an effective deterrent against, as well as the vulnerability of its cities to attacks from militants.\n:\"The Israeli team comes and works in our laboratories. Our team goes and works in their laboratories and industries. There is a learning that is taking place which was not there when we buy things and integrate with existing products... we have started discussions about Iron Dome for co-development (in India),\" W. Selvamurthy, Chief Controller looking after international cooperation said.\n:On 8 February 2013, Marshal Norman Anil Kumar Browne, commander of the Indian Air Force, told reporters that Iron Dome is not suitable for the service. The announcement came after two years of discussions. In August 2013, India resumed attempting to acquire the Iron Dome system after Israel agreed to transfer system technology. Iron Dome could complement the domestic long-range Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme air defense system.\n:In 2017, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and his Indian counterpart Narendra Modi signed a series of agreements on defense and technology worth around $2\u00a0billion, including a deal to buy the \"Iron Dome\" system.\n:In May 2018, Romania's Romaero signed a deal to purchase the Iron Dome system.\n:On 16 August 2011, Raytheon Company announced that it had teamed with Rafael to lead marketing in the United States for the Iron Dome system. \"Iron Dome complements other Raytheon weapons that provide intercept capabilities to the US Army's Counter Rocket, Artillery, and Mortar initiative at forward operating bases,\" said Mike Booen, vice president of Raytheon Missile Systems' Advanced Security and Directed Energy Systems product line. \"Iron Dome can be seamlessly integrated with Raytheon's C-RAM systems to complete the layered defense.\"\n:On 10 November 2011, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the US Army had expressed interest in acquiring the system, to be deployed outside forward bases in Iraq and Afghanistan that could potentially be targeted by artillery rockets. The US military had discovered 107\u00a0mm rockets in Iraq in the past. Yossi Druker, head of Rafael's Air-to-Air Directorate, said that the initial deal was valued at $100\u00a0million, but could reach several hundred million dollars over a number of years. In April 2016, Iron Dome's Tamir interceptor successfully shot down a UAV during a test firing in the United States, the system's first trial on foreign soil.\n: In January 2019 it was reported that the United States would purchase two Iron Dome batteries for 373 million dollars. The batteries were to be deployed to protect US armed forces in hostile areas of operation. The order was for two command posts and radars, 12 launchers, and 480 missiles and was finalized in August 2019. Rafael announced the first battery's delivery on 30 September 2020. On 13 November 2020, Iron Dome was activated at Fort Bliss to test if it could be connected into the Army's air and missile defense network, to serve as an interim capability to intercept cruise missiles.\n: In 2020, the service decided against purchasing any more Iron Dome systems, ostensibly over issues integrating it with the new Integrated Battle Command System (IBCS) network architecture. The Israeli MOD announced the delivery of the second battery on 3 January 2021.\n: The Army conducted a live-fire test in August 2021, successfully engaging eight cruise missile surrogates.\n: On 8 October 2021, it was reported by \"The War Zone\" magazine that the 94th Army Air and Missile Defense Command announced that week that it was following the 2019 National Defense Authorization Act, which required the deployment of an Iron Dome system to an operational theater by the end of 2021, by the temporary and experimental deployment of a system to Andersen Air Force Base in Guam. The battery was to be operated by the 2nd Battalion of the 43rd Air Defense Artillery Regiment. It also stated that there was no plan to conduct a live fire test there. \"The War Zone\" added that the Army's 38th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, then forward-based in Japan, was also to support this deployment. On 9 November 2021, the \"Wall Street Journal\" reported that the system was being tested in Guam, and speculated that it would likely be part of an array designed to protect the area against possible attacks by China.\n:On 10 March 2010, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the Israeli Ministry of Defense was in talks with a number of European countries about the possible sale of the system to protect NATO forces deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq.\n:During a visit to Israel in the summer of 2011, Kwon Oh-bong, vice commissioner of the Defense Acquisition Program Administration in Seoul, expressed interest in purchasing the system to counter the threat posed by North Korean artillery, rockets, and missiles. South Korea was considered unlikely to buy the Iron Dome system due to the number of artillery pieces it would face, the coverage it would need to provide (around Seoul), and the high cost of interceptors; effort is being focused on disrupting the \"Kill Chain\" to immediately detect and destroy artillery and missile units. In August 2014, South Korea once again emerged as interested in buying the Iron Dome system for protection against rocket attacks. In October 2017, South Korea announced it would develop its own Iron Dome-type C-RAM system using hit-to-kill interceptors. Although they had considered buying Iron Dome, they determined the system had been developed primarily to counter mortar shells, and so was unsuited against the more powerful artillery rockets they would have to defend against.\n:On 14 September 2021, it was revealed by Breaking Defense that Saudi Arabia is considering adding the Iron Dome missile defense system to its inventory after the US withdrew the THAAD and the MIM-104 Patriot out of Prince Sultan Air Base."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013United States relations",
        "text": "In fiscal year 2013, the automatic U.S. budget sequestration process took effect as required by the Budget Control Act of 2011. The process cut appropriations for certain discretionary spending, which reduced foreign military aid to Israel by $157 million, and also reduced funding for Israeli and U.S.-Israeli missile defense programs by $32.7 million."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli Air Defense Command",
        "text": "Due to increasing rocket threat from the Gaza Strip, Israeli-developed Iron Dome C-RAM system became operational in 2011. In 2011 the system scored its first interception and since then intercepted hundreds of short- and medium-ranged rockets, fired by Hamas from the Gaza Strip, gaining world acclaim for its effectiveness and success."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy",
        "text": "Zbigniew Brzezinski, former national security advisor to U.S. President Jimmy Carter, wrote: \"Mearsheimer and Walt adduce a great deal of factual evidence that over the years Israel has been the beneficiary of privileged \u2014 indeed, highly preferential \u2014 financial assistance, out of all proportion to what the United States extends to any other country. The massive aid to Israel is in effect a huge entitlement that enriches the relatively prosperous Israelis at the cost of the American taxpayer. Money being fungible, that aid also pays for the very settlements that America opposes and that impede the peace process.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Amir Pertz, the 2006\u20132007 Israeli Defense Minister who pushed through the implementation of Iron Dome, told \"The Washington Post\" that the system is no more than a stopgap measure, and that \"In the end, the only thing that will bring true quiet is a diplomatic solution.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Heather Nauert",
        "text": "When the United States withdrew from Unesco, Nauert was quoted by the New York Times as saying, \"We were in arrears to the tune of $550 million or so, and so the question is, do we want to pay that money? With this anti-Israel bias that's long documented on the part of Unesco, that needs to come to an end.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Reparations Agreement between Israel and the Federal Republic of Germany",
        "text": "The reparations were paid directly to the headquarters of the Israeli purchase delegation in Cologne, which received the money from the German government in annual installments. The delegation then bought goods and shipped them to Israel, receiving its orders from a Tel Aviv-based company that had been set up to decide what to purchase and for whom. A great part of the reparations money went into purchasing equipment and raw materials for companies that were owned by the government, the Jewish Agency, and the Histadrut labor union. Notably, much of that money went into purchasing equipment for about 1,300 industrial plants; two-thirds of this money was given to 36 factories, most of them owned by the Histadrut. At the same time, hundreds of other plants, mostly privately owned ones, received minimal assistance with reparations money. From 1953 to 1963, the reparations money funded around one-third of investment in Israel's electrical system, helping it to triple its capacity, and nearly half the total investment in Israel Railways, which obtained German-made rolling stock, tracks, and signaling equipment with reparations money. The reparations were also used to purchase German-made machinery for developing the water supply, oil drilling, mining equipment for use in extracting copper from the Timna Valley mines, and heavy equipment for agriculture and construction such as combines, tractors, and trucks. About 30% of the reparations money went into buying fuel, while 17% was used to purchase ships for the Israeli merchant fleet; some fifty ships including two passenger liners were purchased, and by 1961, these vessels constituted two-thirds of the Israeli merchant marine. Funds from the reparations were also used for port development; the Port of Haifa was able to obtain new cranes, including a floating crane that was named \"Bar Kokhba\". The Bank of Israel credited the reparations for about 15% of Israel's GNP growth and the creation of 45,000 jobs during the 12-year period they had been in effect, though the BoI report also noted that the funds received were not crucial in that Israel would have secured the funds in any case from other sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013United States military relations",
        "text": "The U.S. underwrites some of Israel's research and development of weapons, and has contributed significant amounts of money to Israeli defense projects such as the Merkava main battle tank and the IAI Lavi ground-attack aircraft. Israel is a participant in the F-35 Lightning II fighter development program and was offered access to the F-22 Raptor program, though it turned this down due to the high costs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez",
        "text": "On September 23, 2021, Ocasio-Cortez abruptly changed her vote from \"no\" to \"present\" on a bill providing $1 billion for Israel's Iron Dome missile defense system, citing the \"hateful targeting\" she had received surrounding the bill. She apologized for her vote after receiving criticism on social media from some supporters of Israel and of Palestine, but maintained her opposition to the bill due to Israel's \"persistent human rights abuses against the Palestinian people\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "War reserve stock",
        "text": "Within their war reserves, Israel keeps ammunition, spare parts and replacement equipment needed for at least a month of intense combat. The majority of the Israeli reserves are purchased from the US, due to their $3 billion in military aid from the US that requires 75% of the money to be spent on equipment purchased from the US. In total, including the period since 1949 up to the present day the US has granted almost $84 billion in foreign aid to Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Maf'at, decided to start the program that would include the system's research and a demonstration of the intercepting system. In 2007, Israel commissioned the development of Iron Dome, choosing Israeli contractor Rafael over the American giant Lockheed Martin. Israeli company mPrest Systems was put in charge of programming the core of Iron Dome's battle management system. Iron Dome went from the drawing board to combat readiness within less than four years, a remarkably short period of time for a weapons system designed from scratch, according to military experts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beto O'Rourke",
        "text": "O'Rourke was one of six members of Congress who took a six-day trip to Israel that included meetings with Israeli and Palestinian peace negotiators, political leaders and residents. O'Rourke's previous decisions to vote against U.S. funding for Israel's Iron Dome missile defense system and not attend Israel's prime minister's address to Congress had been controversial; the bill was easily passed in the House, with a 395\u20138 vote. While saying he was not against funding the project, he was reluctant to support sending $225 million to Israel without any debate or discussion, and said that the US's policy of \"unequivocal support at times has been damaging to Israel.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli Ground Forces",
        "text": "The Ground Forces uses several technologies developed in Israel such as the Merkava main battle tank, Achzarit armoured personnel carrier, the Iron Dome missile defense system, Trophy active protection system for vehicles, and the Galil and Tavor assault rifles. The Uzi submachine gun was invented in Israel and used by the Ground Forces until December 2003, ending a service that began in 1954. Since 1967, the IDF has had close military relations with the United States, including development cooperation, such as on the THEL laser defense system, and the Arrow missile defense system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel lobby in the United States",
        "text": "A summary of pro-Israel campaign donations for the period of 1990\u20132008 collected by OpenSecrets indicates current totals and a general increase in proportional donations to the US Republican party since 1996. OpenSecrets' 1990\u20132006 data shows that \"pro-Israel interests have contributed $56.8 million in individual, group and soft money donations to federal candidates and party committees since 1990.\" In contrast, Arab-Americans and Muslim PACs contributed slightly less than $800,000 during the same (1990\u20132006) period. In 2006, 60% of the Democratic Party's fundraising and 25% of that for the Republican Party's fundraising came from Jewish-funded PACs. According to a Washington Post estimate, Democratic presidential candidates depend on Jewish sources for as much as 60% of money raised from private sources."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern foreign policy of the Barack Obama administration",
        "text": "In June 2011, Obama said the bond between the United States and Israel is \"unbreakable.\" During the initial years of the Obama administration, the U.S. increased military cooperation with Israel, including increased military aid, re-establishment of the U.S.-Israeli Joint Political Military Group and the Defense Policy Advisory Group, and an increase in visits among high-level military officials of both countries. The Obama administration asked Congress to allocate money toward funding the Iron Dome program in response to the waves of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013United States military relations",
        "text": "Under the Bill Clinton administration in the 1990s, the US government made efforts to bolster the Israeli government's military edge by allowing it to purchase $700m of the latest U.S. military equipment, including advanced fighters, attack helicopters and the Joint Direct Attack Munition system. A series of major joint military technology development projects was also instituted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2014",
        "text": "The bill would provide appropriations for the Department of Defense (DOD) to assist the government of Israel with procurement of the Iron Dome defense system to counter short-range rocket threats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The system was employed during operation \"Protective Edge\", intercepting rockets launched from Gaza towards southern, central and northern parts of Israel. As of August 2014, ten Iron Dome batteries had been deployed throughout Israel. During the 50 days of the conflict 4,594 rockets and mortars were fired at Israeli targets; Iron Dome systems intercepted 735 projectiles that it determined were threatening, achieving an intercept success rate of 90 percent. Only 70 rockets fired at Israel from Gaza failed to be intercepted. One civilian was killed and three others and nine servicemen were wounded by mortar bombs, but they were not in areas protected by Iron Dome. Only 25 percent of rockets fired were determined to be threatening due to the low accuracy and unstable trajectory of the poor-quality rockets fired. Six systems had been deployed prior to hostilities, and three more were rushed into service for a total of nine batteries used during the conflict; a tenth system was delivered, but not deployed due to a shortage of staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013United States military relations",
        "text": "Since 1987, the U.S. has provided an average of $1.8 billion annually in the form of Foreign Military Sales (FMS), Foreign Military Financing (FMF) and funds to support research and development. A bilateral memorandum of understanding was signed in January 2001, at the end of the Clinton administration, under which defense aid was increased to $2.4 billion annually from $1.8 billion, while the $1.2 billion of economic aid would be eliminated. This was predicated on the basis of the defense aid being increased by $60 million per year until the full amount was reached in 2008, while the economic aid is decreased by $120 million per year until eliminated. In 2007, the United States increased its military aid to Israel by over 25%, to an average of $3 billion per year for the following ten-year period (starting at $2.550 billion for 2008, growing by $150 million each year). The package started in October 2008, when regular aid to Israel's economy ended. Officials have insisted the aid is not tied, or meant to balance, simultaneous American plans to sell $20 billion worth of sophisticated arms to its Arab allies in the region, including Egypt and Saudi Arabia. Former U.S. President George W. Bush assured Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert that the U.S. would help keep a \"qualitative advantage\" to Israel over other nations in the region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In 2004, the idea for Iron Dome gained momentum with the installation of Brig. Gen. Daniel Gold as the head of the research and development bureau of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). Gold was a strong backer of the antimissile project, even skirting army contracting regulations to secure financing. He also helped persuade key politicians to support the project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel Museum",
        "text": "The Israel Museum receives only 10% to 12% of its operating budget from state and municipal sources. The Israeli government provides varying amounts of funds each year. The institution must raise 88% of its yearly operating budget, all of its $200 million endowment and $100 million for its recent capital project, while paying 17.5% VAT as well as real-estate taxes on the campus property."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013United States military relations",
        "text": "In terms of total money received, Israel is the largest cumulative recipient of military assistance from the United States since World War II, followed by Vietnam, Egypt, Afghanistan, and Turkey. About three quarters of the aid is earmarked for purchases of military equipment from U.S. companies and the rest is spent on domestic equipment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "After the IDF killing of Zohair al-Qaisi, the secretary general of the Popular Resistance Committees in Gaza on 9 March 2012, more than 300 rockets were fired on Israel. Some 177 fell on Israeli territory. The Iron Dome system had successfully intercepted at least 56 rockets (directed at population centers) in 71 attempts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Economy of Israel",
        "text": "In 1952, Israel and West Germany signed an agreement stipulating that West Germany was to pay Israel for the persecution of Jews during the Holocaust, and compensate for Jewish property stolen by the Nazis. Over the next 14 years, West Germany paid Israel 3 billion marks (equivalent to US$111.5bn in modern currency). The reparations became a decisive part of Israel's income, comprising as high as 87.5% of Israel's income in 1956. In 1950, the Israeli government launched Israel Bonds for American and Canadian Jews to buy. In 1951, the final results of the bonds program exceeded $52 million. Additionally, many American Jews made private donations to Israel, which in 1956 were thought to amount to $100 million a year. In 1957, bond sales amounted to 35% of Israel's special development budget. Later in the century, Israel became significantly reliant on economic aid from the United States, a country that also became Israel's most important source of political support internationally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Iron Dome has three central components:\n* Detection & Tracking Radar: the radar system is built by Elta, an Israeli defense company and subsidiary of Israel Aerospace Industries, and by the IDF.\n* Battle Management & Weapon Control (BMC): the control center is built for Rafael by mPrest Systems, an Israeli software company.\n* Missile Firing Unit: the unit launches the \"Tamir\" interceptor missile, equipped with electro-optic sensors and several steering fins for high maneuverability. The missile is built by Rafael. A typical Iron Dome battery has 3\u20134 launchers (20 missiles per launcher)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013United States relations",
        "text": "The United States has played a special role in assisting Israel with the complex task of absorbing and assimilating masses of immigrants in short periods of time. Soon after Israel's establishment, President Truman offered $135 million in loans to help Israel cope with the arrival of thousands of refugees from the Holocaust. Within the first three years of Israel's establishment, the number of immigrants more than doubled the Jewish population of the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In November 2012, during Operation Pillar of Defense, the Iron Dome's effectiveness was estimated by Israeli officials at between 75 and 95 percent. According to Israeli officials, of the approximately 1,000 missiles and rockets fired into Israel by Hamas from the beginning of Operation Pillar of Defense up to 17 November 2012, Iron Dome identified two-thirds as not posing a threat and intercepted 90 percent of the remaining 300. During this period the only Israeli casualties were three individuals killed in missile attacks after a malfunction of the Iron Dome system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "According to the leading developers of Iron Dome, due to schedule and low-cost settings constraints, some of the missile components have been taken from a toy car sold by Toys \"R\" Us.\n* July 2008: the Tamir interceptor missile underwent successful testing.\n* March 2009: Israel successfully tested the missile defense system, though without yet actually intercepting an actual projectile.\n* July 2009: the system successfully intercepted a number of rockets mimicking Qassam and short-range Katyusha rockets in a Defense Ministry test.\n* August 2009: the IDF completed the establishment of a new battalion that will operate the Iron Dome system. The battalion is a part of the Israel Air Force's Air Defense Division. The system was to be first deployed along the Gaza border and then along the border with Lebanon. The system was slated to start operating in mid-2010.\n* January 2010: Iron Dome successfully intercepted multiple rocket barrages mimicking Qassams and Katyushas. Defense Ministry Director-General Pinhas Buchris stated that the system would ultimately \"transform\" security for the residents of southern and northern Israel.\n* July 2010: The system successfully intercepted multiple rocket barrages mimicking Qassams and Katyushas. During the test, Iron Dome successfully distinguished rockets which were threats from those that would not land in designated areas and did not need to be intercepted.\n* March 2011: Iron Dome was declared operational by the IDF, and Defense Minister Ehud Barak authorized deployment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013United States relations",
        "text": "In 1998, Israeli, congressional, and Administration officials agreed to reduce US$1.2 billion in Economic Support Funds (ESF) to zero over ten years, while increasing FMF from $1.8 billion to $2.4 billion. Separate from the scheduled cuts, there was an extra $200 million in anti-terror assistance, $1.2 billion to implement the Wye agreement, and the supplemental appropriations bill assisted for another $1 billion in FMF for the 2003 fiscal year. For the 2005 fiscal year, Israel received $2.202 billion in FMF, $357 million in ESF, and migration settlement assistance of $50 million. For 2006, the Administration has requested $240 million in ESF and $2.28 billion in FMF. H.R. 3057, passed in the House on June 28, 2005, and in the Senate on July 20, approved these amounts. House and Senate measures also supported $40 million for the settlement of immigrants from the former Soviet Union and plans to bring the remaining Ethiopian Jews to Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In 1996, the Israelis developed the Nautilus prototype and later deployed it in Kiryat Shmona, Israel's northernmost city along the Lebanese border. It used a collection of components from other systems and succeeded in keeping a beam on the same point for two continuous seconds using an early prototype of the Green Pine radar. Nautilus succeeded in its goal to prove the concept was feasible, but it was never deployed operationally, as the government believed that sending in ground troops to stop rocket fire at source was more cost-effective."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013United States relations",
        "text": "The United States maintains six War Reserve Stocks inside Israel, at Airwing 7 air base and maintains some $300 million in military equipment at these sites. The equipment is owned by the United States and is for use by American forces in the Middle East, but can also be transferred to Israeli use during a time of crisis. The United States is also alleged to keep fighter and bomber aircraft at these sites, and one of the bases is thought to contain a 500-bed hospital for US Marines and Special Forces. According to the American military journalist and commentator William Arkin in his book \"Code Names\", the US has prepositioned in at least six sites in Israel, munitions, vehicles, and military equipment, and even a 500-bed hospital, for use by US Marines, Special Forces, and Air Force fighter and bomber aircraft in a wartime contingency in the Middle East. Arkin in his book writes that some of the sites are located at Ben Gurion Airport, Nevatim, Ovda air base, and in Herzliya Pituah. The sites are numbered as \"site 51,\" \"site 53,\" \"site 54,\" \"site 55\" and \"site 56.\" Some of the depots are underground, others were built as open hangars. According to Arkin, site 51 holds ammunition and equipment in underground depots. Site 53 is munitions storage and war reserve vehicles at Israeli Air Force bases, site 54 is an emergency military hospital near Tel Aviv with 500 beds, and sites 55 and 56 are ammunition depots. However, Israel is not the only country in the Middle East to host US military bases; there are American facilities in Turkey, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia (mostly withdrawn from in 2003), Oman, and the Persian Gulf states of Kuwait, Bahrain (headquarters of the United States Fifth Fleet), Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates. The Bahrain headquarters of the United States Fifth Fleet is meant to act as a watchdog and deterrent to potential Iranian aggression in the Persian Gulf region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In February 2022, Israeli Prime Minister Naftali Bennett announced that a ground-based laser system would begin deployment within a year, first as a trial and then operationally. The system will first be deployed to the south of the country to areas most under threat from rockets fired from the Gaza Strip; the ultimate goal is for Israel to be surrounded by a \"laser wall\" to protect from rockets, missiles, and UAVs. While lasers are cheaper to fire per shot, they can be impacted by weather, have a slow rate of fire, and have less range. Therefore they will be used in conjunction with Iron Dome in situations where they can reduce overall interception costs. A procurement contract for the Iron Beam system was signed the next month, however the schedule for fielding was revealed to be delayed for several years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Offset agreement",
        "text": "Ministry of Industry, Trade and Labor is in charge of the offset policy and implementation. Threshold is US$100,000. Minimum offset request is 35%, multipliers are either 1 or 2. The main point about Israel and its offset policy is the fact that Israel has been for a long time the largest beneficiary of United States Foreign Military Financing (FMF), getting more than 50% of the entire available U.S. FMF budget. This condition sets a limit to Israeli offsets request to U.S."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel lobby in the United States",
        "text": "In a 2008 editorial, Israeli-American historian and author Michael B. Oren wrote that Israel and the United States are natural allies, despite what the opposition from \"much of American academia and influential segments of the media.\" Oren claimed this was because Israel and the United States shared similar values such as \"respect for civic rights and the rule of law\" and democracy. Israel and the United States share military intelligence in order to fight terrorism. Oren also noted that \"more than 70% of [Americans], according to recent polls, favor robust ties with the Jewish state.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian political violence",
        "text": "Defenses constructed specifically to deal with the weapons include fortifications for schools and bus stops as well as an alarm system named Red Color. Iron Dome, a system to intercept short-range rockets, was developed by Israel and first deployed in the spring of 2011 to protect Beersheba and Ashkelon, but officials and experts warned that it would not be completely effective. Shortly thereafter, it intercepted a Palestinian Grad rocket for the first time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Fist (countermeasure)",
        "text": "In November 2010, the Israeli ministry of defense announced the end of funding of the system development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 10 May 2018, the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps of Iran allegedly launched 20 rockets from Syria toward Israel in retaliation for recent Israeli airstrikes against IRGC facilities. According to an IDF spokesperson, 16 of the rockets fell short of the Israeli border, and Iron Dome intercepted the other four. Israel reported no casualties or damage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Science and technology in Israel",
        "text": "The new budgeting scheme described above is mainly concerned with the human and research infrastructure in universities. Most of the physical development (e.g. buildings) and scientific infrastructure (e.g. laboratories and expensive equipment) of universities comes from philanthropic donations, primarily from the American Jewish community (CHE, 2014). This latter source of funding has greatly compensated for the lack of sufficient government funding for universities up until now but it is expected to diminish significantly in the years to come. Unless the government invests more in research infrastructure, Israel's universities will be ill-equipped and insufficiently funded to meet the challenges of the 21st century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013United States military relations",
        "text": "American use of its military aid for political pressure on Israel, as well as the economic and strategic restrictions attached to it, has made some Israelis question the value of American military aid. Israeli columnist Caroline Glick has argued that Israel's interests may be best served by ending the military assistance, and urged her government to initiate a conversation on cutting back on the assistance package. Former Israeli Defense Minister Moshe Arens also opposes continued US aid, arguing that Israel no longer needs it. Several Israeli political parties, including National Union, oppose the aid and propose a gradual reduction in dependency on it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013United States military relations",
        "text": "The United States stipulates that U.S. military equipment provided through the FMS program can be used only for internal security or defensive purposes. Consequently, after allegations were made that Israel had used cluster bombs for offensive purposes during the 1982 Lebanon War, the United States suspended shipments of cluster bombs to Israel. Similar allegations were made regarding Israeli use of weapons supplied by the U.S. in the course of the 2006 Lebanon War and the Palestinian s."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Israel Public Affairs Committee",
        "text": "AIPAC has also supported the funding of a number of Israeli military projects that have resulted in new additions to the arsenal of the United States Armed Forces. One such outcome is the production of Israel's Arrow anti-missile system at a Boeing plant in Huntsville, Alabama for use by both the United States and Israel. Additionally, the U.S. military has purchased Israeli-made tank armor, unmanned aerial vehicles, and other technologies for use in its operations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natural gas in the Gaza Strip",
        "text": "The Iron Dome system, developed in part to stop Hezbollah rockets aimed at Israel's northern gas fields, was put in place near the border with Gaza and was tested during Operation Returning Echo, the fourth Israeli military attempt to weaken Hamas and eliminate any Palestinian \"capability to bomb Israel's strategic gas and electricity installations.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Yerida",
        "text": "According to demographer Pini Herman, this circular migration has been an economic boon to Israel. Israel does not have the technological, academic, and other infrastructural resources to absorb its disproportionate number of highly trained and skilled population, second only to the United States. As a result, many Israelis have worked overseas for extended periods of time. Upon their return, they have often attracted or repatriated with them to Israel new infrastructure, such as that provided by companies like as Intel, Google, Microsoft, and IBM."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel Defense Forces",
        "text": "The IDF is unique amongst the militaries of the world due to its regulated conscription of women since its formation. It is one of the most prominent institutions in Israeli society due to its influence on the country's economy, culture and political scene. The IDF uses several technologies developed within Israel, with many of them made specifically to cater to the IDF's needs in its operational environment in the Levant, such as the Merkava main battle tank, the Achzarit armored personnel carrier, the Iron Dome air defense system, the Trophy active protection system for vehicles, and the Galil and Tavor assault rifles. The Uzi submachine gun is an Israeli invention and was used by the IDF until December 2003, ending a service that began in 1954. Since 1967, the IDF has had close military relations with the United States, including in development cooperation, such as on the F-15I jet, the THEL laser defense system, and the Arrow missile defense system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel",
        "text": "Israeli defenses constructed specifically to deal with the weapons include fortifications for schools and bus stops as well as an alarm system named Red Color. Iron Dome, a system to intercept short-range rockets, was developed by Israel and first deployed in the spring of 2011 to protect Beersheba and Ashkelon, but officials and experts warned that it would not be completely effective. Shortly thereafter, it intercepted a Palestinian Grad rocket for the first time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel lobby in the United States",
        "text": "American Jews recognize the importance of support for Israel because of the dire consequences that could follow from the alternative. Despite the fact that Israel is often referred to now as the fourth most powerful country in the world, the perceived threat to Israel is not military defeat, it is annihilation. At the same time, American Jews are frightened of what might happen in the United States if they do not have political power."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 11 July 2012, \"Ynetnews\" reported that on that day the Iron Dome system was deployed in the greater Eilat area as a part of an IDF survey meant to test it in various areas across Israel. The IDF published on its website that the Iron Dome battery will be temporarily stationed there as part of an effort to test and prepare different sites across the country for the possibility of permanently stationing there additional batteries. \"Since the system continues to grow and improve, it is important to test potential sites,\" said a commander from the Air Defense Formation. \"After stationing Iron Dome batteries in numerous regions in southern Israel, including Ashkelon, Ashdod, Netivot and Gush Dan\u2014it is time to test the southernmost region in the country, Eilat.\" \"Haaretz\" reported that an official, speaking on condition of anonymity, said the interceptors were set up on 9 July. Three weeks beforehand, two Katyhusha rockets were fired into southern Israel, and according to \"The Jerusalem Post\" the IDF believes that they originated from the Sinai. According to the report, IDF assessments are that they were either fired by a Palestinian rocket cell from Gaza\u2014affiliated either with Hamas or Islamic Jihad\u2014or by Bedouin freelancers who work for them. The launches followed an earlier one in April 2012, when at least one Katyusha rocket was fired from the Sinai to Eilat. \"Ynetnews\" reported that according to a military source, following these rocket attacks, the IDF decided not to take any chances and calibrated the system to the region's topography, before finally deploying it. The system's deployment was coordinated with local communities and the City of Eilat, to prevent public panic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel lobby in the United States",
        "text": "In 2011, the Washington Institute for Near East Policy (a think tank founded by \"a small group of visionary Americans committed to advancing U.S. interests in the Middle East\") argued that the U.S.-Israel relationship is \"A Strategic Asset for the United States.\" In discussing their report, Walter B. Slocombe said that while in the popular imagination, the U.S.-Israel relationship is only good for Israel, Israel provides enormous assistance to the United States, including military expertise which has saved American lives in Iraq and Afghanistan. Robert D. Blackwill countered the claim that the U.S.-Israel relationship significantly damages the relationship between the United States and the Arab world. He asked rhetorically:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013United States military relations",
        "text": "During the first twenty years following Israel's independence, United States policy in the Middle East was driven by two major policy concerns: The prevention of an arms race in the Near East, and the prevention of the spread of Soviet influence. The Truman Administration promulgated the Tripartite Declaration of 1950 for these reasons, as well as to guarantee the territorial \"status quo\" determined by 1949 Armistice Agreements. Israel's main military patron at the time was France, which supported Israel by providing it with advanced military equipment and technology, such as the Dassault Myst\u00e8re fighter-bomber aircraft. Initially, the U.S. government resisted pressure by Israel and Arab countries in the region to sell them advanced weapons. In response to the supply of advanced fighter aircraft by the USSR to Iraq and the United Arab Republic, the U.S. government agreed to sell MIM-23 Hawk anti-aircraft missiles to Israel in 1962, as a \"specific action designed to meet a specific situation\" which \"by no means constitutes change in U.S. policy in area.\". The Hawk system was approved on the grounds that it was a \"purely defensive\" weapon. Later, when Jordan threatened to turn to the USSR for weapons, the U.S. agreed to sell tanks and jet aircraft to Jordan in order to prevent the spread of Soviet influence, and in return, agreed to sell similar systems to Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Associated Press",
        "text": "On June 8, Israeli Ambassador to the US Gilad Erdan met with AP CEO Gary Pruitt and vice president for foreign news, Ian Phillips, to discuss the operation. In coordination with the IDF, Erdan said the site was used by Hamas intelligence officials to develop and carry out SIGINT and electronic warfare operations, targeting both IDF and civilian systems in Israel, including devices to disrupt the Iron Dome. Erdan also said the Israeli government does not believe the AP was aware of the Hamas presence because it was a secret unit. He said the Israeli government was willing to help rebuild the AP's offices and ensure they will be able to bring equipment into Gaza."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel",
        "text": "On 27 March, Israel first deployed the new Iron Dome missile defense system to protect Beersheba. The city, one of Israel's largest, had recently been targeted again by Palestinian missiles after being safe since the 2008-2009 Gaza War. A week later, a second battery was deployed to protect Ashkelon. On 7 April, the Ashkelon battery successfully intercepted a Palestinian Grad missile fired at the city, marking the first successful interception of a short range rocket in history. On 31 August, Israel deployed a third battery outside Ashdod before the new school year. As of that date, Iron Dome had intercepted several dozen Gazan rockets at an estimated cost of $100,000 per interception, not including the price of the system itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Military operations of the 2006 Lebanon War",
        "text": "The U.S. is Israel's main foreign arms supplier. According to the Congressional Research Service, $8.4 billion of arms deliveries went to Israel in the 1997-2004 period, with $7.1 billion coming from the United States. U.S. Foreign Military Financing, U.S. grants to Israel, totals about 2.3 billion dollars a year. Israel has purchased from the US a total of over 378 F-16s, and 117 F-15s, 94 A-4 Skyhawk, 110 F-4 Phantoms. On July 21, 2006, it was reported that the U.S. was rushing a delivery of 5,000 pound GBU-28 bunker busting bombs to Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Israel Public Affairs Committee",
        "text": "AIPAC also lobbies for financial aid from the United States to Israel, helping to procure up to $3 billion in aid yearly, making Israel \"the largest cumulative recipient of U.S. foreign assistance since World War II.\" According to the Congressional Research Service (CRS), these include providing aid \"as all grant cash transfers, not designated for particular projects, and...transferred as a lump sum in the first month of the fiscal year, instead of in periodic increments. Israel is allowed to spend about one quarter of the military aid for the procurement in Israel of defense articles and services, including research and development, rather than in the United States.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013United States relations",
        "text": "President Obama's Fiscal Year 2010 budget proposes $53.8 billion for appropriated international affairs' programs. From that budget, $5.7 billion is appropriated for foreign military financing, military education, and peacekeeping operations. From that $5.7 billion, $2.8 billion, almost 50% is appropriated for Israel. Israel also has available roughly $3 billion of conditional loan guarantees, with additional funds coming available if Israel meets conditions negotiated at the U.S.-Israel Joint Economic Development Group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Livets Ord",
        "text": "In conjunction with the Christian Zionists in the United States, the Livets Ord operate a fund to supply money to Russian Jews who want to move to Israel. The fund, named \"Operation Jabotinsky\", is named after Russian Vladimir Jabotinsky."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has the Iron Dome been the target of cyber attacks by foreign entities?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I don't know if it was ever cyber-attacked over networks, but during the 2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis, Israel said that Hamas had been developing an electronic system to jam Iron Dome, and they destroyed a building said to have been used for this purpose."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about other cyber attacks Israel has faced?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "OpIsrael (#OpIsrael), is an annual coordinated cyber-attack where hacktivists attack Israeli government and even private websites with DDoS attacks and more.[1] The inaugural campaign was launched in 2013 by Anonymous hackers on the eve of Holocaust Remembrance Day. The campaign has since been held annually."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some possible foreign sales of the Iron Dome?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "NATO, South Korea, and Saudi Arabia have all reportedly expressed interest in purchasing the Iron Dome system."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where did the money come from to create the Iron Dome?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The initial funding and development of the Iron Dome system was provided and undertaken by Israel. Subsequently, funding for additional Iron Dome systems \u2014 along with repeated funding for the supply of the interception missiles \u2014 has been provided by the United States."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why does the U.S. pay for a system used by Israel?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "White House spokesman Tommy Vietor stated, \"The president recognizes the threat missiles and rockets fired by Hamas and Hezbollah pose to Israelis, and has therefore decided to seek funding from Congress to support the production of Israel's short range rocket defense system called Iron Dome.\" In exchange for the second tranche of deployment funding, the United States asked Israel for access to, and a stake in, elements of the system's technology.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "Obama recognized the threat missiles and rockets fired by Hamas and Hezbollah pose to Israelis, and has therefore decided to seek funding from Congress to support the production of Iron Dome. But I don't have specific reasons why the US pays for the system used by Israel."
    ],
    "topic": "Iron Dome",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Iron Dome:18",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iron Dome",
          "Funding"
        ],
        "ctx": "Funding for the production and deployment of these additional Iron Dome batteries and interceptor missiles was approved by the United States Congress, after being requested by President Obama in 2010. In May 2010, the White House announced that U.S. President Barack Obama would seek $205\u00a0million from U.S. Congress in his 2011 budget, to spur the production and deployment of additional Iron Dome batteries. White House spokesman Tommy Vietor stated, \"The president recognizes the threat missiles and rockets fired by Hamas and Hezbollah pose to Israelis, and has therefore decided to seek funding from Congress to support the production of Israel's short range rocket defense system called Iron Dome.\" This would be the first direct U.S. investment in the project. Such financial assistance could expedite the completion of the defensive system, which has long been delayed by budgetary shortfalls. A few days later, on 20 May 2010, the U.S. House of Representatives approved the funding in a 410\u20134 vote. The bill, the United States\u2013Israel Missile Defense Cooperation and Support Act (H.R. 5327), was sponsored by Representative Glenn C. Nye of Virginia. This money was expected to be included in the 2011 budget. Once the money was received in 2011, it still took a further 18 months before the additional batteries were delivered to the air force."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Iron Dome:21",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iron Dome",
          "Funding"
        ],
        "ctx": "In exchange for the second tranche of deployment funding, the United States asked Israel for access to, and a stake in, elements of the system's technology."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Iron Dome:18",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iron Dome",
          "Funding"
        ],
        "ctx": "Funding for the production and deployment of these additional Iron Dome batteries and interceptor missiles was approved by the United States Congress, after being requested by President Obama in 2010. In May 2010, the White House announced that U.S. President Barack Obama would seek $205\u00a0million from U.S. Congress in his 2011 budget, to spur the production and deployment of additional Iron Dome batteries. White House spokesman Tommy Vietor stated, \"The president recognizes the threat missiles and rockets fired by Hamas and Hezbollah pose to Israelis, and has therefore decided to seek funding from Congress to support the production of Israel's short range rocket defense system called Iron Dome.\" This would be the first direct U.S. investment in the project. Such financial assistance could expedite the completion of the defensive system, which has long been delayed by budgetary shortfalls. A few days later, on 20 May 2010, the U.S. House of Representatives approved the funding in a 410\u20134 vote. The bill, the United States\u2013Israel Missile Defense Cooperation and Support Act (H.R. 5327), was sponsored by Representative Glenn C. Nye of Virginia. This money was expected to be included in the 2011 budget. Once the money was received in 2011, it still took a further 18 months before the additional batteries were delivered to the air force."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Hezbollah, based in Lebanon, fired rockets into northern Israeli population centers in the 1990s, posing a security challenge for the Israel Defense Forces. Israel had floated the idea of its own short-range antimissile system, but U.S. defense officials cautioned that it would be \"doomed to fail\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The committee is aware that National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2011 (Public Law 111-383) included $205.0\u00a0million for the Iron Dome short-range rocket defense system for the State of Israel. The committee notes that the Iron Dome system has proven very effective at defeating threat rockets launched at protected targets. The committee also notes that if the full $680.0\u00a0million is used on the program, the total U.S. taxpayer investment in this system will amount to nearly $900.0\u00a0million since fiscal year 2011, yet the United States has no rights to the technology involved. The committee believes the Director should ensure, prior to disbursing the authorized $680\u00a0million for Iron Dome, that the United States has appropriate rights to this technology for United States defense purposes, subject to an agreement with the Israeli Missile Defense Organization, and in a manner consistent with prior U.S.\u2013Israeli missile defense cooperation on the Arrow and David's Sling suite of systems. The committee also believes that the Director should explore any opportunity to enter into co-production of the Iron Dome system with Israel, in light of the significant U.S. investment in this system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 17 January 2014, President Barack Obama signed the fiscal year 2014 Consolidated Appropriations Act. The bill provides $235\u00a0million for Israel to procure the Iron Dome system. The Israeli government has also agreed to spend more than half the funds the United States provides for the Iron Dome system in the United States. Funds going to U.S. contractors will increase to 30 percent in 2014 and 55 percent in 2015 from 3 percent previously, according to a U.S. Missile Defense Agency report to Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In a 2012 op-ed in \"Haaretz\", Jamie Levin suggested that the success of the Iron Dome system was likely to increase demands to field additional systems across Israel. Budget shortfalls meant that Israel would be forced to weigh spending on missile defenses against other expenditures. Such funds, he argued, would probably come from programs intended to help the most vulnerable sectors of society, such as social welfare."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 10 May 2018, the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps of Iran allegedly launched 20 rockets from Syria toward Israel in retaliation for recent Israeli airstrikes against IRGC facilities. According to an IDF spokesperson, 16 of the rockets fell short of the Israeli border, and Iron Dome intercepted the other four. Israel reported no casualties or damage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 1 August 2014, Congress approved a measure to deliver an additional $225\u00a0million in aid to Israel, with the aim of replenishing funds for the Iron Dome system in the midst of the conflict between Israel and Hamas. Following the signing of bill, for which \"the Senate and House of Representatives as well as Republicans and Democrats set[ting] aside differences to advance Israel's emergency request,\" the White House stated that \"The United States has been clear since the start of this conflict that no country can abide rocket attacks against its civilians\" and that it \"supports Israel's right to defend itself against such attacks.\" Senate Report 113-211 from the U.S. Government Publishing Office, which accompanied text H.R. 4870, recommended an increase in funding for the program for FY2015. The report calculates \"U.S. investment in Iron Dome production since fiscal year 2011\" to be over $1\u00a0billion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Some Iron Dome systems have been exported. A weakness for most potential markets is that each Iron Dome system protects no more than ; this is effective in a small country like Israel, but not for larger states. Even in Israel, the batteries have to be moved around according to perceived risk of attack. Singapore, a sovereign island city-state, is reported to have purchased the Iron Dome, and the US Army has bought two batteries to protect overseas bases.\n:On 17 December 2016, Azerbaijan Defense Industry Minister Yavar Jamalov told reporters that Azerbaijan had reached an agreement with Israel to purchase Iron Dome batteries in the first confirmed foreign sale of the system. The country's acquisition of the system is believed to be related to neighboring Armenia's purchase of Russian Iskander short-range ballistic missiles.\n:On 23 November 2012, \"The Economic Times\" reported that Indian Defense planners were considering the possibility of India acquiring an indigenous version of Iron Dome, keeping a close watch on the performance of Iron Dome during the 2012 Operation Pillar of Defense. Several months earlier, the military scientists in the Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) had suggested that India look at a joint development program with Israeli firms to develop an Indian version of Iron Dome. They believed Israel's short range missile defense requirements have several parallels to the Indian threat from Pakistan, which includes a \"battlefield range\" quasi-tactical ballistic nuclear weapon delivery system, called Nasr, which some Indian defense sources say the Iron Dome might be an effective deterrent against, as well as the vulnerability of its cities to attacks from militants.\n:\"The Israeli team comes and works in our laboratories. Our team goes and works in their laboratories and industries. There is a learning that is taking place which was not there when we buy things and integrate with existing products... we have started discussions about Iron Dome for co-development (in India),\" W. Selvamurthy, Chief Controller looking after international cooperation said.\n:On 8 February 2013, Marshal Norman Anil Kumar Browne, commander of the Indian Air Force, told reporters that Iron Dome is not suitable for the service. The announcement came after two years of discussions. In August 2013, India resumed attempting to acquire the Iron Dome system after Israel agreed to transfer system technology. Iron Dome could complement the domestic long-range Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme air defense system.\n:In 2017, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and his Indian counterpart Narendra Modi signed a series of agreements on defense and technology worth around $2\u00a0billion, including a deal to buy the \"Iron Dome\" system.\n:In May 2018, Romania's Romaero signed a deal to purchase the Iron Dome system.\n:On 16 August 2011, Raytheon Company announced that it had teamed with Rafael to lead marketing in the United States for the Iron Dome system. \"Iron Dome complements other Raytheon weapons that provide intercept capabilities to the US Army's Counter Rocket, Artillery, and Mortar initiative at forward operating bases,\" said Mike Booen, vice president of Raytheon Missile Systems' Advanced Security and Directed Energy Systems product line. \"Iron Dome can be seamlessly integrated with Raytheon's C-RAM systems to complete the layered defense.\"\n:On 10 November 2011, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the US Army had expressed interest in acquiring the system, to be deployed outside forward bases in Iraq and Afghanistan that could potentially be targeted by artillery rockets. The US military had discovered 107\u00a0mm rockets in Iraq in the past. Yossi Druker, head of Rafael's Air-to-Air Directorate, said that the initial deal was valued at $100\u00a0million, but could reach several hundred million dollars over a number of years. In April 2016, Iron Dome's Tamir interceptor successfully shot down a UAV during a test firing in the United States, the system's first trial on foreign soil.\n: In January 2019 it was reported that the United States would purchase two Iron Dome batteries for 373 million dollars. The batteries were to be deployed to protect US armed forces in hostile areas of operation. The order was for two command posts and radars, 12 launchers, and 480 missiles and was finalized in August 2019. Rafael announced the first battery's delivery on 30 September 2020. On 13 November 2020, Iron Dome was activated at Fort Bliss to test if it could be connected into the Army's air and missile defense network, to serve as an interim capability to intercept cruise missiles.\n: In 2020, the service decided against purchasing any more Iron Dome systems, ostensibly over issues integrating it with the new Integrated Battle Command System (IBCS) network architecture. The Israeli MOD announced the delivery of the second battery on 3 January 2021.\n: The Army conducted a live-fire test in August 2021, successfully engaging eight cruise missile surrogates.\n: On 8 October 2021, it was reported by \"The War Zone\" magazine that the 94th Army Air and Missile Defense Command announced that week that it was following the 2019 National Defense Authorization Act, which required the deployment of an Iron Dome system to an operational theater by the end of 2021, by the temporary and experimental deployment of a system to Andersen Air Force Base in Guam. The battery was to be operated by the 2nd Battalion of the 43rd Air Defense Artillery Regiment. It also stated that there was no plan to conduct a live fire test there. \"The War Zone\" added that the Army's 38th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, then forward-based in Japan, was also to support this deployment. On 9 November 2021, the \"Wall Street Journal\" reported that the system was being tested in Guam, and speculated that it would likely be part of an array designed to protect the area against possible attacks by China.\n:On 10 March 2010, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the Israeli Ministry of Defense was in talks with a number of European countries about the possible sale of the system to protect NATO forces deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq.\n:During a visit to Israel in the summer of 2011, Kwon Oh-bong, vice commissioner of the Defense Acquisition Program Administration in Seoul, expressed interest in purchasing the system to counter the threat posed by North Korean artillery, rockets, and missiles. South Korea was considered unlikely to buy the Iron Dome system due to the number of artillery pieces it would face, the coverage it would need to provide (around Seoul), and the high cost of interceptors; effort is being focused on disrupting the \"Kill Chain\" to immediately detect and destroy artillery and missile units. In August 2014, South Korea once again emerged as interested in buying the Iron Dome system for protection against rocket attacks. In October 2017, South Korea announced it would develop its own Iron Dome-type C-RAM system using hit-to-kill interceptors. Although they had considered buying Iron Dome, they determined the system had been developed primarily to counter mortar shells, and so was unsuited against the more powerful artillery rockets they would have to defend against.\n:On 14 September 2021, it was revealed by Breaking Defense that Saudi Arabia is considering adding the Iron Dome missile defense system to its inventory after the US withdrew the THAAD and the MIM-104 Patriot out of Prince Sultan Air Base."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In exchange for the second tranche of deployment funding, the United States asked Israel for access to, and a stake in, elements of the system's technology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 15 May 2021, Israel destroyed the twelve-storey Jala tower building, which housed the Gaza offices of Associated Press (AP) and Al Jazeera, with an air strike, giving one hour's notice for evacuation. Israel said that Hamas was carrying out signals intelligence (SIGINT), electronic signals intelligence (ELINT), and electronic warfare (EW) operations, including the development of an electronic system to jam the Iron Dome, from within the building."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In November 2012, during Operation Pillar of Defense, the Iron Dome's effectiveness was estimated by Israeli officials at between 75 and 95 percent. According to Israeli officials, of the approximately 1,000 missiles and rockets fired into Israel by Hamas from the beginning of Operation Pillar of Defense up to 17 November 2012, Iron Dome identified two-thirds as not posing a threat and intercepted 90 percent of the remaining 300. During this period the only Israeli casualties were three individuals killed in missile attacks after a malfunction of the Iron Dome system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 17 May 2012, when Israeli Defense Minister Ehud Barak met with U.S. Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta, the Pentagon issued a statement from the Secretary saying in part, \"I was pleased to inform Minister Barak that the President supports Israel's Iron Dome system and directed me to fill the $70 million in assistance for Iron Dome that Minister Barak indicated to me Israel needs this fiscal year.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "During the 2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis, Israel said that Hamas had been developing an electronic system to jam Iron Dome; Israeli aircraft destroyed a building said to have been used for this purpose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Iron Dome () is a mobile all-weather air defense system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems and Israel Aerospace Industries. The system is designed to intercept and destroy short-range rockets and artillery shells fired from distances of to away and whose trajectory would take them to an Israeli populated area. From 2011 to 2021, the United States contributed a total of US$ 1.6 billion to the Iron Dome defense system, with another US$ 1 billion approved by the US Congress in 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "With the United States on track to greatly increase funding for Iron Dome, there have been calls for technology transfer and co-production of Iron Dome in the United States. Just as the US and Israel share co-production of the Arrow III missile system, with Boeing manufacturing 40\u201350 percent of the production content, there has been support in the U.S. Congress, media and think tanks in favor of co-production. The U.S. House of Representatives included report language in its FY-2013 Defense Authorization Act supporting Iron Dome with $680\u00a0million but also instructing that the Director of the U.S. Missile Defense Agency, Lt. Gen. Patrick O'Reilly, \"should explore any opportunity to enter into co-production of the Iron Dome system with Israel, in light of the significant U.S. investment in this system.\" There were media reports that the Pentagon was requesting similar language in the Senate Defense Authorization Act as well as the respective House and Senate defense appropriations bills for 2013. Adding Iron Dome to the list of high-tech military programs built jointly by both nations would help further strengthen ties between Israel and the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In February 2007, Defense Minister Amir Peretz selected Iron Dome as Israel's defense against this short-range rocket threat. Since then, the $210\u00a0million system has been developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems working jointly with the IDF."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 25 March 2019 a J-80 rocket fired from Gaza hit a house in Mishmeret, Israel. According to Hamas the J-80 travels on a nonlinear path and cannot be intercepted by Iron Dome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "After the IDF killing of Zohair al-Qaisi, the secretary general of the Popular Resistance Committees in Gaza on 9 March 2012, more than 300 rockets were fired on Israel. Some 177 fell on Israeli territory. The Iron Dome system had successfully intercepted at least 56 rockets (directed at population centers) in 71 attempts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil defense in Israel",
        "text": "Iron Dome (Hebrew: \u05db\u05d9\u05e4\u05ea \u05d1\u05e8\u05d6\u05dc) is a mobile system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Ltd. designed to intercept short-range rockets with a range less than 70\u00a0km."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In December 2014, former Israeli Air Force chief and head of Boeing Israel David Ivry showed interest in the American Laser Weapon System (LaWS). Earlier that month, the U.S. Navy had revealed that the LaWS had been mounted on the and locked onto and destroyed designated targets with near-instantaneous lethality, with each laser shot costing less than $1."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Until the 2021 war in Gaza, the US had contributed a total of US$1.6 billion to the Iron Dome defense system. After the end of the 2021 conflict, Israel asked the US for another US$ 1 billion for replenishing the Iron Dome batteries, which was approved by the US Congress in 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Sec. 237, Availability of Funds for Iron Dome Short Range Rocket Defense Program, said that of the amounts authorized to be appropriated for fiscal year 2013 by section 201 for research, development, test, and evaluation, defense-wide, and available for the Missile Defense Agency, $210,000,000 may be provided to the Government of Israel for the Iron Dome short-range rocket defense program as specified in the funding table in section 4201."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Also according to \"Haaretz\", the IDF was to finalize its long-term Iron Dome acquisition program\u2014nicknamed \"Halamish\"\u2014within a few months (from April 2011), which would indicate the final number of systems to be introduced into the military. Israel Air Force officials estimated the number of Iron Dome systems needed to cover threatened areas as thirteen. According to Meir Elran, a scholar at the Institute of National Security Studies in Tel Aviv, Israel would need a total of 20\u00a0batteries to provide adequate defense for its borders with Gaza and Lebanon. Such a deployment would require financial assistance from the United States, but he said that even in the original limited form, officially designated a trial period, the system was important."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Funding for the production and deployment of these additional Iron Dome batteries and interceptor missiles was approved by the United States Congress, after being requested by President Obama in 2010. In May 2010, the White House announced that U.S. President Barack Obama would seek $205\u00a0million from U.S. Congress in his 2011 budget, to spur the production and deployment of additional Iron Dome batteries. White House spokesman Tommy Vietor stated, \"The president recognizes the threat missiles and rockets fired by Hamas and Hezbollah pose to Israelis, and has therefore decided to seek funding from Congress to support the production of Israel's short range rocket defense system called Iron Dome.\" This would be the first direct U.S. investment in the project. Such financial assistance could expedite the completion of the defensive system, which has long been delayed by budgetary shortfalls. A few days later, on 20 May 2010, the U.S. House of Representatives approved the funding in a 410\u20134 vote. The bill, the United States\u2013Israel Missile Defense Cooperation and Support Act (H.R. 5327), was sponsored by Representative Glenn C. Nye of Virginia. This money was expected to be included in the 2011 budget. Once the money was received in 2011, it still took a further 18 months before the additional batteries were delivered to the air force."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 6 December 2011, Matan Vilnai, the Israeli Minister of Home Front Defense, said that the Defense Ministry was considering a permanent deployment of an Iron Dome battery in the Haifa Port to protect the oil refineries there against future Hezbollah rocket attacks. \"The continued work of the oil refineries is critical for the Israeli economy during a time of war,\" he said. During the Second Lebanon War in 2006, a number of Katyusha rockets struck Haifa but did not hit the refineries. Officials were concerned that a direct hit on one of the refineries could cause numerous casualties as a result of leakage of dangerous chemical substances. The port was also the site of a chemical terminal that included containers of ammonia and ethylene gas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In 2010, before the system was declared operational, Iron Dome was criticized by Reuven Pedatzur, a military analyst, former fighter pilot and professor of political science at Tel Aviv University for costing too much compared to the cost of a Qassam rocket (fired by Palestinian forces), so that launching very large numbers of Qassams could essentially attack Israel's financial means. Rafael responded that the cost issue was exaggerated since Iron Dome intercepts only rockets determined to constitute a threat, and that the lives saved and the strategic impact are worth the cost."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Yoav Fromer, writing in \"The Washington Post\", thanked Iron Dome for the lack of fatalities and the relatively low casualty rate among Israeli civilians, and said that the technology appears to provide \"both a physical and a psychological solace that enables Israelis to go about their business.\" However, in his view, over time, Iron Dome may do the Israeli public more harm than good because despite the fact it is a \"tactical miracle\" it may help create a serious strategic problem to Israelis' long-term security because, by temporarily minimizing the dangers posed by rocket attacks, it distracts Israelis from seeking a broader regional political solution that could finally make systems such as Iron Dome unnecessary. In Fromer's view, the Israeli government is \"not exactly brimming with creative ideas to reignite the peace process with the Palestinians. And with Iron Dome, why would it? As long as the Israeli public believes it is safe, for now, under the soothing embrace of technology, it will not demand that its political leaders wage diplomacy to end violence that mandated Iron Dome in the first place. Since Iron Dome has transformed a grim reality into a rather bearable ordeal, Israelis have lost the sense of urgency and outrage that might have pushed their government\" to make necessary concessions in exchange for peace. In Fromer's view, Israelis risk confusing the short-term military advantage provided by Iron Dome with the long term need for an original and comprehensive diplomatic solution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "According to Ronen Bergman, in 2012, during Operation Pillar of Defense, Israel agreed to an early cease-fire \"for a reason that has remained a closely guarded secret: The Iron Dome anti-missile defense system... had run out of ammunition.\" Bergman says that as a result of the experience, Israel had tried to prepare larger stocks of interceptors for future rounds of fighting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 9 May 2011, \"Haaretz\" published that Defense Ministry director general Maj. Gen. (res.) Udi Shani said that Israel plans to invest nearly $1\u00a0billion in the coming years for the development and production of Iron Dome batteries. \"We are no longer approaching this in terms of initial operational capabilities but are defining the final target for absorbing the systems, in terms of schedule and funds. We are talking about [having] 10\u201315 Iron Dome batteries. We will invest nearly $1\u00a0billion on this. This is the goal, in addition to the $205\u00a0million that the U.S. government has authorized,\" Shani said."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 4 April 2012, Reuters reported that a senior Israeli official, during a briefing to a small group of journalists on condition of anonymity, predicted an increased interception range of up to 250\u00a0km, as well as more flexible aiming of Iron Dome units, thus lowering the number of batteries needed for full deployment in Israel. That would help Israel to cope with the prospect of reduced funding from the United States, while a \"new round\" of talks about missile-defense funding would be completed in two to three months, he anticipated. While praising American largess, the official said US planners have asked Israel to \"point out honestly where the upper limit is in terms of what can be implemented\" with the Iron Dome. He said the US is \"deep in (fiscal) challenges itself\", so it does not want to \"give money for the sake of it\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Those estimates suggest Iron Dome intercepted 59 to 75 percent of all threatening rockets during Protective Edge. \"Threatening\" means the rockets struck populated areas or were intercepted beforehand. The interceptions likely prevented $42 to $86\u00a0million in property damage, three to six deaths, and 120 to 250 injuries. Since those percentages include rockets anywhere in Israel, the high interception rates claimed for only the areas that batteries were defending seem plausible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In the 2006 war with Hezbollah, prior to Iron Dome's development, during 34 days of fighting, 4,000 rockets landed and 53 Israelis were killed. However, in the 2014 war with Gaza, the 50-day conflict and 3,360 rockets resulted in just two rocket-related deaths. In 2006, about 30,000 insurance claims for rocket-related damage were filed while in 2014, there were just 2,400."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natural gas in the Gaza Strip",
        "text": "The Iron Dome system, developed in part to stop Hezbollah rockets aimed at Israel's northern gas fields, was put in place near the border with Gaza and was tested during Operation Returning Echo, the fourth Israeli military attempt to weaken Hamas and eliminate any Palestinian \"capability to bomb Israel's strategic gas and electricity installations.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Prior to its deployment, the Iron Dome was criticized as ineffective in countering the Qassam threat for the southern city of Sderot, given the short distance\u2014840m, half a mile, from the closest point in Sderot to Gaza\u2014and flight time between the much-attacked city and the rocket launching pads in the Gaza Strip. Israeli defense officials insisted in 2008 that with recent improvements to Iron Dome, the system was fully able to intercept Qassams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "To the south, more than 8,000 projectiles (estimated at 4,000 rockets and 4,000 mortar bombs) were fired indiscriminately into Israeli population centers from Gaza between 2000 and 2008, principally by Hamas. Almost all of the rockets fired were Qassams launched by 122 mm Grad launchers smuggled into the Gaza Strip, giving longer range than other launch methods. Nearly a million Israelis living in the south were within rocket range, posing a serious security threat to the country and its citizens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "During the 2006 Second Lebanon War, approximately 4,000 Hezbollah-fired rockets (the great majority of which were short-range Katyusha rockets) landed in northern Israel, including on Haifa, the country's third largest city. The rocket barrage killed 44 Israeli civilians and caused some 250,000 Israeli citizens to evacuate and relocate to other parts of Israel while an estimated 1 million Israelis were confined in or near bomb shelters during the conflict."
      },
      {
        "title": "Steve Rothman",
        "text": "In 2010, Rothman worked with his congressional colleagues and the White House to obtain funding for Israel's Iron Dome defensive missile system and David\u2019s Sling, Arrow 2 and Arrow 3. The Iron Dome system was purchased by the US military in 2019 and Arrow 3 was successfully tested by the US and Israel in Alaska in July of that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel",
        "text": "Iron Dome () is a mobile system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems designed to intercept short-range rockets with a range less than 70\u00a0km. In February 2007, the system was selected by Israeli Defense Minister Ehud Barak as the Israeli Defense Force's defense system against short range rockets. On 7 July 2008, the first test of the system was completed successfully, and the first operational test was expected to take place at the end of 2009. The system was scheduled to be operational in 2010, but was temporarily delayed. In March, the system was deployed in several strategic sites near major Israeli southern cities. On 7 April 2011, the system successfully intercepted a Grad rocket launched from Gaza for the first time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On the same day, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that Defense Minister Ehud Barak announced that a third Iron Dome battery would be installed in the region \"within weeks\", and estimated that nine more batteries would be positioned within the next two years. In attacks shortly before, the Iron Dome system had successfully intercepted about 85% of the rockets identified as threats to populated areas by the Battle Management Control (BMC) system launched at Israel from Gaza."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "According to the Israeli Air Force, during operation \"Pillar of Defense\" (14\u201321 November 2012) Iron Dome made 421 interceptions. On 17 November, after two rockets targeted Tel Aviv during the operation, a battery was deployed in the area. Within hours, a third rocket was intercepted by the system. This fifth battery had not been scheduled to come into service until early 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel",
        "text": "The Iron dome has successfully intercepted around 100 of the 370 rockets that have been fired. After the attacks, the IDF announced that it had struck over 100 targets in the Gaza Strip including a weapons factory, munitions warehouse and Hamas' Public Security offices. Hamas responded to the air strikes by making additional threats against Be'er Sheva and Ashdod. The attacks had a significant effect on businesses in southern Israel as restaurant patrons cancelled their reservations. The finance minister announced that Israeli businesses in certain regions would be compensated for losses. All schools within 40\u00a0km of Gaza were closed; the Israel Tax Authority has promised compensation to parents who were unable to go to work because they had to stay home with their children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 18 August 2011, four rockets were fired from Gaza at Ashkelon. The system determined that two were a threat and intercepted them, ignoring the other two which were directed at non-populated areas. No injuries or damage were reported. Defense officials said that Iron Dome would be re-deployed in Beersheba."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counter rocket, artillery, and mortar",
        "text": "Iron Dome is an Israeli missile system featuring multiple-target tracking and self-guided missile interceptors. Due to the ongoing increase of its engagement range and new missile and interception improvements, plus surface-to-air missile capability, it has developed into a fully-fledged air defence system. By November 2012, the system had intercepted over 400 rockets fired into Israel by Gaza Strip militants. Based on operational success, defense reporter Mark Thompson estimates that Iron Dome is currently the most-effective and most-tested counter missile system in existence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Missile defense systems by country",
        "text": "Apart from Arrow missile, Israel has Iron dome which is designed to intercept and destroy short-range rockets and artillery shells fired from distances of 4 to 70 kilometers away and David's Sling that is designed to intercept medium- to long-range rockets and cruise missiles, such as those possessed by Hezbollah, fired at ranges from 40\u00a0km to 300\u00a0km."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013South Korea relations",
        "text": "Israel has sold drones to South Korea, including the Harpy UAV. South Korea was competing with Italy's Alenia Aermacchi M-346 Master in a tender to supply training aircraft to the Israeli Defense Forces. The Korean Airforce had accused Israel of giving Italy preferred treatment since negotiations began. In January 2012, the South Korean government offered its final industrial cooperation package in a bid to get the Israeli Defense Ministry to select Korean Aerospace Industries\u2019 T-50 Golden Eagle as its next fighter trainer. Israeli Defense Ministry Chief of Staff Udi Shani flew to South Korea for talks about the purchase. The deal was reported worth over $1 billion. The Italians were the eventual winners, in a decision likely to upset South Korea. South Korea has also expressed interest in purchasing Israel's Iron Dome system, but that sale was now seen as under threat. On August 15, 2014, South Korea again expressed their interest in the Iron Dome System."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 5 August 2011, the IDF redeployed the Iron Dome system near Ashkelon following days of heightened rocket fire from Gaza into Israel. The deployment came a day after Ashkelon mayor Benny Vaknin sent Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Defense Minister Ehud Barak a letter asking them to redeploy the system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "According to the leading developers of Iron Dome, due to schedule and low-cost settings constraints, some of the missile components have been taken from a toy car sold by Toys \"R\" Us.\n* July 2008: the Tamir interceptor missile underwent successful testing.\n* March 2009: Israel successfully tested the missile defense system, though without yet actually intercepting an actual projectile.\n* July 2009: the system successfully intercepted a number of rockets mimicking Qassam and short-range Katyusha rockets in a Defense Ministry test.\n* August 2009: the IDF completed the establishment of a new battalion that will operate the Iron Dome system. The battalion is a part of the Israel Air Force's Air Defense Division. The system was to be first deployed along the Gaza border and then along the border with Lebanon. The system was slated to start operating in mid-2010.\n* January 2010: Iron Dome successfully intercepted multiple rocket barrages mimicking Qassams and Katyushas. Defense Ministry Director-General Pinhas Buchris stated that the system would ultimately \"transform\" security for the residents of southern and northern Israel.\n* July 2010: The system successfully intercepted multiple rocket barrages mimicking Qassams and Katyushas. During the test, Iron Dome successfully distinguished rockets which were threats from those that would not land in designated areas and did not need to be intercepted.\n* March 2011: Iron Dome was declared operational by the IDF, and Defense Minister Ehud Barak authorized deployment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 21 January 2019, the IDF released footage online of a Syrian Arab Army rocket attack on the Golan Heights being intercepted by Iron Dome. The video was shot by skiers at Mount Hermon ski resort; Israeli authorities announced that the resort was closed until further notice. The attack was in response to Israel's launching of nine rockets at SAA targets in western Damascus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 23 August 2011, \"Globes\" reported that Rafael would invest tens of millions of shekels in the following months to open a second production line for the Iron Dome's Tamir interceptor missiles. Future operational needs, as well as the plan to build two more Iron Dome batteries by the end of the year, necessitated the increase of missile production."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Following the system's deployment in April 2011, Iron Dome was used to successfully intercept Katyusha rockets fired by Palestinian militants. In August that year, Iron Dome intercepted 20 missiles and rockets fired into Israel. However, in one instance the system destroyed four rockets fired at the city of Beersheba but failed to stop a fifth, which killed one man and injured several others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Although Iron Dome has proven its effectiveness against rocket attacks, Defense Ministry officials are concerned it will not be able to handle more massive arsenals possessed by Hezbollah in Lebanon should a conflict arise. Although in Operation Protective Edge it had a 90 percent hit rate against only rockets determined to be headed for populated areas, 735 intercepts were made at a cost of $70,000\u2013100,000 per interceptor; with an estimated 100,000 rockets possessed by Hezbollah, Iron Dome systems could be fiscally and physically overwhelmed by dozens of incoming salvos. In 2014 Directed-energy weapons were being investigated as a complement to Iron Dome, with lower system cost and lower cost per shot. Solid-state lasers worldwide have power levels ranging from 10\u201340\u00a0kW; to destroy a rocket safely from away, several low-power beams could coordinate and converge on one spot to burn through its outer shell and destroy it. Because laser beams become distorted and ineffective in foggy or heavy cloud conditions, any laser weapon would need to be complemented by Iron Dome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "During the 2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis, over 4,300 rockets were fired at Israel by Hamas from Gaza from 11 to 21 May. In the first 24 hours of the conflict 470 rockets were fired, a much higher rate than had been attained in previous conflicts. Of the rockets, 17% were long-range attacks on Tel Aviv, again more than previously. About 680 of the rockets fired during hostilities fell short and landed in Gaza; the Iron Dome system intercepted about 90% of the rockets heading to populated areas within Israel. During the operation Iron Dome shot down a bomb-laden drone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 22 August 2011, \"Haaretz\" reported that according to Israeli security sources, Palestinian militants changed their rocket-launching tactics in an attempt to evade the two Iron Dome batteries deployed in southern Israel. The new tactics included aiming more frequently at areas beyond the Iron Dome protection range. After the Palestinian launch teams realized that the systems deployed in the previous two weeks around Ashkelon and Be'er Sheva provided near-perfect protection from rockets, they began firing more frequently at Ashdod and Ofakim. When they did aim at Beersheba on 21 August, they did not fire one or two rockets, as in the past, but rather a volley of seven rockets almost simultaneously. Iron Dome intercepted five of them successfully, but one penetrated the defense system, exploding in a residential area and killing a man."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The initial funding and development of the Iron Dome system was provided and undertaken by Israel. This allowed for the deployment of the first two Iron Dome systems. Subsequently, funding for additional Iron Dome systems \u2014 along with repeated funding for the supply of the interception missiles \u2014 has been provided by the United States. From 2011 to 2021, the US contributed a total of US$1.6 billion to the Iron Dome defense system, with another US$ 1 billion approved by the US Congress in 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter Roskam",
        "text": "In April 2018, Roskam and [[Grace Meng]] (D-NY) wrote a letter requesting $500 million for U.S.-Israeli defense cooperation, including $70 million for the [[Iron Dome|Iron Dome missile defense system]]. Roskam said that \"US-Israel missile defense cooperation is a critical investment in the safety and security of Israel and stability in the Middle East.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Foreign policy of the Barack Obama administration",
        "text": "Israel announced it was pushing ahead with building 1,600 new homes in a Jewish area in East Jerusalem in March 2010, as Vice-president Joe Biden was visiting. It was described as \"one of the most serious rows between the two allies in recent decades\". Secretary of State Hillary Clinton said Israel's move was \"deeply negative\" for US-Israeli relations. However Obama was the first United States president to supply Israel with modern bunker buster bombs. And under Obama, United States Foreign Military Financing for Israel increased to $3 billion for the first time in history. Obama pledged support for Israeli military superiority in the region and described his allegiance with Israel as being \"sacrosanct\". Under President Obama, the United States increased aid for Israel's Iron Dome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Amir Pertz, the 2006\u20132007 Israeli Defense Minister who pushed through the implementation of Iron Dome, told \"The Washington Post\" that the system is no more than a stopgap measure, and that \"In the end, the only thing that will bring true quiet is a diplomatic solution.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of Operation Pillar of Defense",
        "text": "Gazan militants continued to fire rockets towards the Israeli cities of Beersheba, Ashdod, Ofakim and the Shaar Hanegev and Eshkol Regional Council. The Iron Dome missile defense system made 130 interceptions. About 55 rockets were launched on the evening of 14 November, including a Grad rocket fired in the direction of the Negev Nuclear Research Center near Dimona. On the night of 14 November, Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu announced that the Israeli cabinet had authorized a partial call-up of reservists in case they were needed for a large ground-based operation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013United States relations",
        "text": "In February 2011, the Obama administration vetoed a UN resolution declaring Israeli settlements in the West Bank illegal. Since 2011, the Obama administration paved the way for the development and production of the Iron Dome missile defense system for Israel, contributing $235 million to its funding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 8 August 2011, the Israeli High Court of Justice rejected a petition asking that the government be ordered to deploy the system in Gaza border communities. In rejecting the petition, Supreme Court President Dorit Beinisch and Justices Salim Joubran and Uzi Fogelman ruled that in balancing all relevant considerations including budgets, changing security realities and operational matters, the government's decision not to deploy the Iron Dome in the area was reasonable. The panel of justices also said that the court had no reason to intervene in operational decisions regarding where to deploy the Iron Dome system. \"We believe the [government] will make the necessary decisions in accordance with the time and place requirements,\" they said."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 30 December 2011, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that a performance analysis it had obtained shows that Iron Dome was successful in downing rockets from Gaza 75% of the times it fired. It said two interceptors are usually fired at each rocket. In April 2011, for example, the system succeeded in intercepting eight of 10\u00a0rockets. Following the October violence, the IDF conducted an inquiry into the Iron Dome's performance and discovered that a radar failure caused some of the interceptors to miss their targets, a problem since corrected. An officer told the \"Post\" that \"seventy-five percent is impressive, but we would still like to see it perform better.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Research published in 2018 analyzed the numbers of deaths, injuries, and property damage claims per rocket fired for four conflicts. These were the Second Lebanon War of 2006, Operation Cast Lead in 2008\u20132009, Operation Pillar of Defense in 2012, and Operation Protective Edge in 2014. By comparing the loss rates per rocket of the latter two operations (which had Iron Dome batteries) to the first two (which did not), it estimated the interceptor batteries' overall effectiveness at reducing Israeli losses from rockets."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of United States foreign policy",
        "text": "There were also major arms sales to build up allies as well. The most notable came in 1981, a $8.5 billion sale to Saudi Arabia involving aircraft, tanks, and Airborne Warning and Control Systems (AWACS). Israel protested, since the AWACS would undermine its strategic attack capabilities. To mollify Israel and its powerful lobby in Washington, the United States promised to supply it with an additional F-15 squadron, a $600 million loan, and permission to export Israeli-made Kfir fighting aircraft to Latin American armies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 21 August 2011, \"Ynetnews\" reported that the success of the Iron Dome system against Gazan rocket fire had southern city mayors battling over the right to be the next to have it deployed in their area. The IDF stressed that \"no system can offer airtight protection\" and that the system positioned in Ashkelon was incapable of extending its defense to Ashdod, but this did not stop the mayors from pressuring the Defense Ministry and the IDF to position Iron Dome batteries within their city limits. Ashdod, Ofakim, Netivot, Beersheba, and Ashkelon have all pursued the system, but the IDF had only two batteries available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Iron Dome has three central components:\n* Detection & Tracking Radar: the radar system is built by Elta, an Israeli defense company and subsidiary of Israel Aerospace Industries, and by the IDF.\n* Battle Management & Weapon Control (BMC): the control center is built for Rafael by mPrest Systems, an Israeli software company.\n* Missile Firing Unit: the unit launches the \"Tamir\" interceptor missile, equipped with electro-optic sensors and several steering fins for high maneuverability. The missile is built by Rafael. A typical Iron Dome battery has 3\u20134 launchers (20 missiles per launcher)."
      },
      {
        "title": "War reserve stock",
        "text": "Additionally in August 2014, during Operation Protective Edge the US passed \"The Iron Dome Bill\" to allow $225 million in addition funding to allow Israel to increase their war reserves for the Iron Dome."
      },
      {
        "title": "2011 southern Israel cross-border attacks",
        "text": "A Grad rocket exploded near the coastal city of Ashkelon in the night, though no injuries or damage were reported. It was unknown whether the rocket was intercepted by the Iron Dome, though it was confirmed that a second rocket was intercepted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The system was employed during operation \"Protective Edge\", intercepting rockets launched from Gaza towards southern, central and northern parts of Israel. As of August 2014, ten Iron Dome batteries had been deployed throughout Israel. During the 50 days of the conflict 4,594 rockets and mortars were fired at Israeli targets; Iron Dome systems intercepted 735 projectiles that it determined were threatening, achieving an intercept success rate of 90 percent. Only 70 rockets fired at Israel from Gaza failed to be intercepted. One civilian was killed and three others and nine servicemen were wounded by mortar bombs, but they were not in areas protected by Iron Dome. Only 25 percent of rockets fired were determined to be threatening due to the low accuracy and unstable trajectory of the poor-quality rockets fired. Six systems had been deployed prior to hostilities, and three more were rushed into service for a total of nine batteries used during the conflict; a tenth system was delivered, but not deployed due to a shortage of staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Iron Dome\n--Background.\n--Name.\n--Specifications.\n----Comparison to a typical battery.\n--Funding.\n--Plans for co-production with the United States.\n--Development.\n----Design.\n----Testing.\n----Energy weapons.\n----C-Dome.\n----Counter-UAV.\n----Other uses.\n--Deployment.\n----2011.\n------Response by Palestinian militants.\n------August 2011 Supreme Court decision.\n------December 2011 accident.\n----2012.\n------March 2012 intensive attacks.\n------July 2012 first Eilat deployment.\n------November 2012 Operation Pillar of Defense.\n----2014.\n------July 2014 Operation Protective Edge.\n----2018.\n------May 2018 Israel\u2013Iran incidents.\n------Gaza-Israel clashes.\n----2019.\n------Mount Hermon video.\n----2021.\n------2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis.\n--Deployment at sea.\n--Foreign sales.\n--Effectiveness.\n----Cost.\n----Vulnerabilities.\n--Criticism.\n----Effectiveness.\n------Prior to deployment.\n------Analysis based on YouTube video footage.\n------Analysis of damage reports.\n------Analysis of losses per rocket.\n----Effects on Israeli society.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In its petition, the Eshkol Regional Council argued that the government should be ordered to deploy the Iron Dome to protect communities between 4.5 and 7\u00a0kilometers from Gaza from rocket fire. Government-funded rocket-roof protection is in place for homes in communities within 4.5\u00a0km of Gaza, but not for structures further from the border."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The Iron Dome system began operating in early 2011, initially deployed at air force bases in southern Israel. It was designated to be set up in other areas, such as the town of Sderot, during significant escalations along the Gaza border."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel in 2020",
        "text": "On 15 September, the Iron Dome missile defense system intercepted eight of 13 rockets. At least two people were injured and several cars damaged by shrapnel near a mall in Ashdod. Six pedestrians also were injured as panicked shoppers ran for shelters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Postol additionally used the amount of claims filed by the Property Tax Authority and the number of Israeli Police Reports (taken from the Israeli Police website) relating to rockets to support his argument. In relation to Postol's argument based on the number of reports the Israeli Police received, Israeli Institute of National Security Studies wrote: \"However, Israel Police reports on calls from citizens, and these include reports on falling fragments, rocket parts, and duds.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Defense reporter Mark Thompson wrote that, the \"lack of Israeli casualties suggests Iron Dome is the most-effective, most-tested missile shield the world has ever seen.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Gaza imports",
        "text": "In the past Israel expressed concerns about Hamas using building materials for military means."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The Israeli Institute of National Security Studies published a detailed rebuttal to Postol's claims, labeling it \"dubious research without access to credible data\". The rebuttal stated:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian political violence",
        "text": "Defenses constructed specifically to deal with the weapons include fortifications for schools and bus stops as well as an alarm system named Red Color. Iron Dome, a system to intercept short-range rockets, was developed by Israel and first deployed in the spring of 2011 to protect Beersheba and Ashkelon, but officials and experts warned that it would not be completely effective. Shortly thereafter, it intercepted a Palestinian Grad rocket for the first time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The study further estimated that improvements in Israeli civil defenses, such as warning sirens and hardened shelters, were at least as good as Iron Dome at reducing civilian deaths and injuries from rockets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "Skyguard would use laser beams to intercept rockets, with each beam discharge costing an estimated $1,000\u2013$2,000. With an investment of $180\u00a0million, Northrop Grumman claimed it could possibly deploy the system within 18\u00a0months. Israeli defense officials rejected the proposal, citing the extended timeline and additional costs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iran\u2013Israel relations",
        "text": "Israeli sales also included spare parts for U.S.-made F-4 Phantom jets. Ariel Sharon believed it was important to \"leave a small window open\" to the possibility of good relations with Iran in the future."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counter rocket, artillery, and mortar",
        "text": "Iron Beam is an air defense system in development by Israeli defense contractor Rafael Advanced Defense Systems. Unveiled at the 2014 Singapore Air Show on 11 February, the system is designed to destroy short-range rockets, artillery, and mortars with a range of up to , too small for the Iron Dome system to intercept effectively. In addition, the system could also intercept unmanned aerial vehicles. Iron Beam will use a \"directed high energy laser beam\" to destroy hostile targets with ranges of up to . Iron Beam will constitute the fifth element of Israel's integrated air defense system, in addition to Arrow 2, Arrow 3, David's Sling, and Iron Dome. However, Iron Beam is also a stand-alone system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In May 2021 it was estimated that Palestinian militant groups had an arsenal of about 30,000 rockets and mortar bombs in Gaza, potential targets, when fired, for Iron Dome. Range varies widely, and guidance systems are lacking, but accuracy has improved over the years. There are estimates of the numbers and types of rockets, and their range and payload."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "During the first stage of Iron Dome's operational duty, the Israeli Air Force included many soldiers from Sderot, citing high motivation among the city's pre-army youth to be part of the project. The 947th\u00a0\"Marksmen\" Stinger Battalion of the Israeli Air Defense Network was chosen as the first unit to become familiar with and operate Iron Dome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli Air Defense Command",
        "text": "Due to increasing rocket threat from the Gaza Strip, Israeli-developed Iron Dome C-RAM system became operational in 2011. In 2011 the system scored its first interception and since then intercepted hundreds of short- and medium-ranged rockets, fired by Hamas from the Gaza Strip, gaining world acclaim for its effectiveness and success."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 20 August 2011, while engaging with a volley of seven rockets fired almost simultaneously at Be'er Sheva from Gaza, one was not intercepted by the defense system, exploding in a residential area and killing one person. Brig. Gen. Doron Gavish, commander of the IAF's Air Defense Corps, said on the following day that \"we said in advance that this wasn't a hermetic system,\" adding that the air defense units were learning on the fly and improving the performance of Iron Dome while operating it. \"This is the first system of its kind anywhere in the world; it is in its first operational test; and we've already intercepted a large number of rockets targeting Israeli communities, saving many civilian lives,\" Gavish said."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In 2004, the idea for Iron Dome gained momentum with the installation of Brig. Gen. Daniel Gold as the head of the research and development bureau of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). Gold was a strong backer of the antimissile project, even skirting army contracting regulations to secure financing. He also helped persuade key politicians to support the project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel",
        "text": "Israeli defenses constructed specifically to deal with the weapons include fortifications for schools and bus stops as well as an alarm system named Red Color. Iron Dome, a system to intercept short-range rockets, was developed by Israel and first deployed in the spring of 2011 to protect Beersheba and Ashkelon, but officials and experts warned that it would not be completely effective. Shortly thereafter, it intercepted a Palestinian Grad rocket for the first time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "The state said that the High Court should not intervene in the \"military decision\" regarding how and where to deploy the anti-rocket system. It also argued that if the court were to order it to deploy Iron Dome in a specific area, budgetary limitations would result in other communities not receiving protection, particularly as the range of Palestinian rockets had grown in recent years and therefore it was not possible to deploy Iron Dome to protect every community."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2014",
        "text": "The bill would provide appropriations for the Department of Defense (DOD) to assist the government of Israel with procurement of the Iron Dome defense system to counter short-range rocket threats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle Eastern foreign policy of the Barack Obama administration",
        "text": "In June 2011, Obama said the bond between the United States and Israel is \"unbreakable.\" During the initial years of the Obama administration, the U.S. increased military cooperation with Israel, including increased military aid, re-establishment of the U.S.-Israeli Joint Political Military Group and the Defense Policy Advisory Group, and an increase in visits among high-level military officials of both countries. The Obama administration asked Congress to allocate money toward funding the Iron Dome program in response to the waves of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "2014 Gaza War",
        "text": "The performance of the Iron Dome defense system was considered effective, achieving an almost 90% success rate. Israel's early warning sirens and extensive shelters have been an effective defense against Gazan rocketry. They are less effective against short-range mortars because the residents have less time to react."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "In February 2022, Israeli Prime Minister Naftali Bennett announced that a ground-based laser system would begin deployment within a year, first as a trial and then operationally. The system will first be deployed to the south of the country to areas most under threat from rockets fired from the Gaza Strip; the ultimate goal is for Israel to be surrounded by a \"laser wall\" to protect from rockets, missiles, and UAVs. While lasers are cheaper to fire per shot, they can be impacted by weather, have a slow rate of fire, and have less range. Therefore they will be used in conjunction with Iron Dome in situations where they can reduce overall interception costs. A procurement contract for the Iron Beam system was signed the next month, however the schedule for fielding was revealed to be delayed for several years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013Italy relations",
        "text": "In summer 2014, the USA, Canada, Netherlands, Germany, United Kingdom, Poland, Italy and Greece sent their top air force commanders to Israel to learn about the air defense technologies behind the Iron Dome\u2019s high rocket-interception rate. The conference was about the instability in Middle East."
      },
      {
        "title": "Civil defense in Israel",
        "text": "The increasing danger of rocket and missile fire against the State of Israel (namely, Qassam rocket fire from Gaza, Katyusha rocket fire from South Lebanon, and Iran's ballistic missile arsenal) has led to the development of defense systems to counter this threat. In addition to the Iron Dome system, which is designed to intercept short range rockets, the David's Sling system has also been developed in order to intercept medium and long range rockets, while the Arrow missile, designed to intercept ballistic missiles, is already in use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Northrop F-20 Tigershark",
        "text": "Numerous exceptions were made; Israel and Egypt could buy advanced designs under the Camp David Agreements, Israel was even allowed to buy McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagles, a key component in U.S. air-defense technology. Iran was already receiving the Grumman F-14 Tomcat, and this demonstrated the problem with advanced exports in February 1979 when reports emerged that Iran had sold an AIM-54 Phoenix missile to the Soviets. South Korea's F-16 order was initially blocked under this policy, but later allowed in the context of strengthening relations. Despite exceptions, the export policy was implemented, covering many potential and current customers. As the F-5G was a relatively modest upgrade to the F-5E, the F-5G appeared to be in a strong position for sales given the limitations placed on rival designs; nonetheless, President Carter personally blocked the sales of the F-5G to Taiwan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Destruction of al-Jalaa Building",
        "text": "The IDF said it contained assets of Hamas military intelligence. The Associated Press, which had used the building for 15 years, said they had never seen Hamas in the building. On 16 May, Israel said it had shown the United States evidence that Hamas operated inside the building. Blinken said he had not personally seen any evidence that Hamas was operating out of the tower, but a senior official at the United States Department of State later said that \"any such information would be provided to others in the administration, not directly to the secretary of State\", stating that Blinken was only referring to what he had seen personally. On 18 May, Blinken said, \"It's my understanding that we've received some further information through intelligence channels, and it's not something I can comment on\". It was later publicized that the IDF believed that a Hamas intelligence unit which operated a number of advanced electronic warfare devices was based in the building with the mission of interfering with the operation of Israeli smart bombs by disrupting their GPS reception. On 1 June, Israel said it had provided intelligence to the U.S. government but said that it would not make the information public. On 7 June, Israeli ambassador to the US and representative to the UN Gilad Erdan told top AP executives that Hamas had been developing a system to electronically jam Israel's Iron Dome defenses inside the building."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel\u2013Saudi Arabia relations",
        "text": "According to a May 2015 article by \"The Times of Israel\", the London-based Arab paper \"Rai al-Youm\" reported that Israel had offered to provide Saudi Arabia with Iron Dome technology against rockets from bordering Yemen. The proposal was reportedly sent via American diplomats during a meeting in Amman, Jordan, and subsequently refused. Official sources have not confirmed the report."
      },
      {
        "title": "Iron Dome",
        "text": "On 18 May 2012, the United States House of Representatives passed the Fiscal Year 2013 National Defense Authorization Act, H.R. 4310, with $680\u00a0million for Iron Dome in Section 227. The report accompanying the bill, 112\u2013479, also calls for technology sharing as well as co-production of Iron Dome in the United States in light of the nearly $900\u00a0million invested in the system since 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gaza imports",
        "text": "Items whose entry into the PA Areas is controlled based on Israeli legislation: i.e. materials and equipment liable to be used for terror attacks and technology that could be used by terrorists - as defined in the Control of Exports Security Order (Controlled Dual Use Equipment Transferred to the PA Areas) 5768-2008 and in Orders of the OC Central Command."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gaza imports",
        "text": "1. Arms and Munitions: forbidden transfer under all circumstances across Israel's frontiers without specific permits - as defined in the Control of Exports Security Order (Arms and Munitions) 5768-2008, and in the Control of Exports Security Order (Missile Equipment) 5768-2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "March 2012 Gaza\u2013Israel clashes",
        "text": "The result, according to Leor Sapir, brought five strategic benefits to Israel: (1) it enabled a new weapon system to be tested in an authentic operational setting: (2) it provided crucial data to check if Iron Dome's technology met its original expectations. (3) It inspired both confidence in the system's capabilities and set realistic expectations: (4) It enabled, in a controlled conflict to get the Gaza terrorist infrastructure to waste a significant number of rockets: (5) Above all, activating Iron Dome has a deterrent effect by sending with its 76% hit-rate a powerful message to Iran and Hezbollah."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has the Iron Dome been the target of cyber attacks by foreign entities?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I don't know if it was ever cyber-attacked over networks, but during the 2021 Israel\u2013Palestine crisis, Israel said that Hamas had been developing an electronic system to jam Iron Dome, and they destroyed a building said to have been used for this purpose."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about other cyber attacks Israel has faced?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "OpIsrael (#OpIsrael), is an annual coordinated cyber-attack where hacktivists attack Israeli government and even private websites with DDoS attacks and more.[1] The inaugural campaign was launched in 2013 by Anonymous hackers on the eve of Holocaust Remembrance Day. The campaign has since been held annually."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What are some possible foreign sales of the Iron Dome?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "NATO, South Korea, and Saudi Arabia have all reportedly expressed interest in purchasing the Iron Dome system."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Where did the money come from to create the Iron Dome?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The initial funding and development of the Iron Dome system was provided and undertaken by Israel. Subsequently, funding for additional Iron Dome systems \u2014 along with repeated funding for the supply of the interception missiles \u2014 has been provided by the United States."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why does the U.S. pay for a system used by Israel?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "White House spokesman Tommy Vietor stated, \"The president recognizes the threat missiles and rockets fired by Hamas and Hezbollah pose to Israelis, and has therefore decided to seek funding from Congress to support the production of Israel's short range rocket defense system called Iron Dome.\" In exchange for the second tranche of deployment funding, the United States asked Israel for access to, and a stake in, elements of the system's technology."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about possible foreign sales involving the Iron Dome?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "On 10 March 2010, The Jerusalem Post reported that the Israeli Ministry of Defense was in talks with a number of European countries about the possible sale of the system to protect NATO forces deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq, during a visit to Israel in the summer of 2011, Kwon Oh-bong, vice commissioner of the Defense Acquisition Program Administration in Seoul, expressed interest in purchasing the system, and on 14 September 2021, it was revealed by Breaking Defense that Saudi Arabia is considering adding the Iron Dome missile defense system to its inventory after the US withdrew the THAAD."
    ],
    "topic": "Iron Dome",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Iron Dome:79",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iron Dome",
          "Foreign sales"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some Iron Dome systems have been exported. A weakness for most potential markets is that each Iron Dome system protects no more than ; this is effective in a small country like Israel, but not for larger states. Even in Israel, the batteries have to be moved around according to perceived risk of attack. Singapore, a sovereign island city-state, is reported to have purchased the Iron Dome, and the US Army has bought two batteries to protect overseas bases.\n:On 17 December 2016, Azerbaijan Defense Industry Minister Yavar Jamalov told reporters that Azerbaijan had reached an agreement with Israel to purchase Iron Dome batteries in the first confirmed foreign sale of the system. The country's acquisition of the system is believed to be related to neighboring Armenia's purchase of Russian Iskander short-range ballistic missiles.\n:On 23 November 2012, \"The Economic Times\" reported that Indian Defense planners were considering the possibility of India acquiring an indigenous version of Iron Dome, keeping a close watch on the performance of Iron Dome during the 2012 Operation Pillar of Defense. Several months earlier, the military scientists in the Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) had suggested that India look at a joint development program with Israeli firms to develop an Indian version of Iron Dome. They believed Israel's short range missile defense requirements have several parallels to the Indian threat from Pakistan, which includes a \"battlefield range\" quasi-tactical ballistic nuclear weapon delivery system, called Nasr, which some Indian defense sources say the Iron Dome might be an effective deterrent against, as well as the vulnerability of its cities to attacks from militants.\n:\"The Israeli team comes and works in our laboratories. Our team goes and works in their laboratories and industries. There is a learning that is taking place which was not there when we buy things and integrate with existing products... we have started discussions about Iron Dome for co-development (in India),\" W. Selvamurthy, Chief Controller looking after international cooperation said.\n:On 8 February 2013, Marshal Norman Anil Kumar Browne, commander of the Indian Air Force, told reporters that Iron Dome is not suitable for the service. The announcement came after two years of discussions. In August 2013, India resumed attempting to acquire the Iron Dome system after Israel agreed to transfer system technology. Iron Dome could complement the domestic long-range Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme air defense system.\n:In 2017, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and his Indian counterpart Narendra Modi signed a series of agreements on defense and technology worth around $2\u00a0billion, including a deal to buy the \"Iron Dome\" system.\n:In May 2018, Romania's Romaero signed a deal to purchase the Iron Dome system.\n:On 16 August 2011, Raytheon Company announced that it had teamed with Rafael to lead marketing in the United States for the Iron Dome system. \"Iron Dome complements other Raytheon weapons that provide intercept capabilities to the US Army's Counter Rocket, Artillery, and Mortar initiative at forward operating bases,\" said Mike Booen, vice president of Raytheon Missile Systems' Advanced Security and Directed Energy Systems product line. \"Iron Dome can be seamlessly integrated with Raytheon's C-RAM systems to complete the layered defense.\"\n:On 10 November 2011, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the US Army had expressed interest in acquiring the system, to be deployed outside forward bases in Iraq and Afghanistan that could potentially be targeted by artillery rockets. The US military had discovered 107\u00a0mm rockets in Iraq in the past. Yossi Druker, head of Rafael's Air-to-Air Directorate, said that the initial deal was valued at $100\u00a0million, but could reach several hundred million dollars over a number of years. In April 2016, Iron Dome's Tamir interceptor successfully shot down a UAV during a test firing in the United States, the system's first trial on foreign soil.\n: In January 2019 it was reported that the United States would purchase two Iron Dome batteries for 373 million dollars. The batteries were to be deployed to protect US armed forces in hostile areas of operation. The order was for two command posts and radars, 12 launchers, and 480 missiles and was finalized in August 2019. Rafael announced the first battery's delivery on 30 September 2020. On 13 November 2020, Iron Dome was activated at Fort Bliss to test if it could be connected into the Army's air and missile defense network, to serve as an interim capability to intercept cruise missiles.\n: In 2020, the service decided against purchasing any more Iron Dome systems, ostensibly over issues integrating it with the new Integrated Battle Command System (IBCS) network architecture. The Israeli MOD announced the delivery of the second battery on 3 January 2021.\n: The Army conducted a live-fire test in August 2021, successfully engaging eight cruise missile surrogates.\n: On 8 October 2021, it was reported by \"The War Zone\" magazine that the 94th Army Air and Missile Defense Command announced that week that it was following the 2019 National Defense Authorization Act, which required the deployment of an Iron Dome system to an operational theater by the end of 2021, by the temporary and experimental deployment of a system to Andersen Air Force Base in Guam. The battery was to be operated by the 2nd Battalion of the 43rd Air Defense Artillery Regiment. It also stated that there was no plan to conduct a live fire test there. \"The War Zone\" added that the Army's 38th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, then forward-based in Japan, was also to support this deployment. On 9 November 2021, the \"Wall Street Journal\" reported that the system was being tested in Guam, and speculated that it would likely be part of an array designed to protect the area against possible attacks by China.\n:On 10 March 2010, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the Israeli Ministry of Defense was in talks with a number of European countries about the possible sale of the system to protect NATO forces deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq.\n:During a visit to Israel in the summer of 2011, Kwon Oh-bong, vice commissioner of the Defense Acquisition Program Administration in Seoul, expressed interest in purchasing the system to counter the threat posed by North Korean artillery, rockets, and missiles. South Korea was considered unlikely to buy the Iron Dome system due to the number of artillery pieces it would face, the coverage it would need to provide (around Seoul), and the high cost of interceptors; effort is being focused on disrupting the \"Kill Chain\" to immediately detect and destroy artillery and missile units. In August 2014, South Korea once again emerged as interested in buying the Iron Dome system for protection against rocket attacks. In October 2017, South Korea announced it would develop its own Iron Dome-type C-RAM system using hit-to-kill interceptors. Although they had considered buying Iron Dome, they determined the system had been developed primarily to counter mortar shells, and so was unsuited against the more powerful artillery rockets they would have to defend against.\n:On 14 September 2021, it was revealed by Breaking Defense that Saudi Arabia is considering adding the Iron Dome missile defense system to its inventory after the US withdrew the THAAD and the MIM-104 Patriot out of Prince Sultan Air Base."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Iron Dome:79",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Iron Dome",
          "Foreign sales"
        ],
        "ctx": "Some Iron Dome systems have been exported. A weakness for most potential markets is that each Iron Dome system protects no more than ; this is effective in a small country like Israel, but not for larger states. Even in Israel, the batteries have to be moved around according to perceived risk of attack. Singapore, a sovereign island city-state, is reported to have purchased the Iron Dome, and the US Army has bought two batteries to protect overseas bases.\n:On 17 December 2016, Azerbaijan Defense Industry Minister Yavar Jamalov told reporters that Azerbaijan had reached an agreement with Israel to purchase Iron Dome batteries in the first confirmed foreign sale of the system. The country's acquisition of the system is believed to be related to neighboring Armenia's purchase of Russian Iskander short-range ballistic missiles.\n:On 23 November 2012, \"The Economic Times\" reported that Indian Defense planners were considering the possibility of India acquiring an indigenous version of Iron Dome, keeping a close watch on the performance of Iron Dome during the 2012 Operation Pillar of Defense. Several months earlier, the military scientists in the Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) had suggested that India look at a joint development program with Israeli firms to develop an Indian version of Iron Dome. They believed Israel's short range missile defense requirements have several parallels to the Indian threat from Pakistan, which includes a \"battlefield range\" quasi-tactical ballistic nuclear weapon delivery system, called Nasr, which some Indian defense sources say the Iron Dome might be an effective deterrent against, as well as the vulnerability of its cities to attacks from militants.\n:\"The Israeli team comes and works in our laboratories. Our team goes and works in their laboratories and industries. There is a learning that is taking place which was not there when we buy things and integrate with existing products... we have started discussions about Iron Dome for co-development (in India),\" W. Selvamurthy, Chief Controller looking after international cooperation said.\n:On 8 February 2013, Marshal Norman Anil Kumar Browne, commander of the Indian Air Force, told reporters that Iron Dome is not suitable for the service. The announcement came after two years of discussions. In August 2013, India resumed attempting to acquire the Iron Dome system after Israel agreed to transfer system technology. Iron Dome could complement the domestic long-range Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme air defense system.\n:In 2017, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and his Indian counterpart Narendra Modi signed a series of agreements on defense and technology worth around $2\u00a0billion, including a deal to buy the \"Iron Dome\" system.\n:In May 2018, Romania's Romaero signed a deal to purchase the Iron Dome system.\n:On 16 August 2011, Raytheon Company announced that it had teamed with Rafael to lead marketing in the United States for the Iron Dome system. \"Iron Dome complements other Raytheon weapons that provide intercept capabilities to the US Army's Counter Rocket, Artillery, and Mortar initiative at forward operating bases,\" said Mike Booen, vice president of Raytheon Missile Systems' Advanced Security and Directed Energy Systems product line. \"Iron Dome can be seamlessly integrated with Raytheon's C-RAM systems to complete the layered defense.\"\n:On 10 November 2011, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the US Army had expressed interest in acquiring the system, to be deployed outside forward bases in Iraq and Afghanistan that could potentially be targeted by artillery rockets. The US military had discovered 107\u00a0mm rockets in Iraq in the past. Yossi Druker, head of Rafael's Air-to-Air Directorate, said that the initial deal was valued at $100\u00a0million, but could reach several hundred million dollars over a number of years. In April 2016, Iron Dome's Tamir interceptor successfully shot down a UAV during a test firing in the United States, the system's first trial on foreign soil.\n: In January 2019 it was reported that the United States would purchase two Iron Dome batteries for 373 million dollars. The batteries were to be deployed to protect US armed forces in hostile areas of operation. The order was for two command posts and radars, 12 launchers, and 480 missiles and was finalized in August 2019. Rafael announced the first battery's delivery on 30 September 2020. On 13 November 2020, Iron Dome was activated at Fort Bliss to test if it could be connected into the Army's air and missile defense network, to serve as an interim capability to intercept cruise missiles.\n: In 2020, the service decided against purchasing any more Iron Dome systems, ostensibly over issues integrating it with the new Integrated Battle Command System (IBCS) network architecture. The Israeli MOD announced the delivery of the second battery on 3 January 2021.\n: The Army conducted a live-fire test in August 2021, successfully engaging eight cruise missile surrogates.\n: On 8 October 2021, it was reported by \"The War Zone\" magazine that the 94th Army Air and Missile Defense Command announced that week that it was following the 2019 National Defense Authorization Act, which required the deployment of an Iron Dome system to an operational theater by the end of 2021, by the temporary and experimental deployment of a system to Andersen Air Force Base in Guam. The battery was to be operated by the 2nd Battalion of the 43rd Air Defense Artillery Regiment. It also stated that there was no plan to conduct a live fire test there. \"The War Zone\" added that the Army's 38th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, then forward-based in Japan, was also to support this deployment. On 9 November 2021, the \"Wall Street Journal\" reported that the system was being tested in Guam, and speculated that it would likely be part of an array designed to protect the area against possible attacks by China.\n:On 10 March 2010, \"The Jerusalem Post\" reported that the Israeli Ministry of Defense was in talks with a number of European countries about the possible sale of the system to protect NATO forces deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq.\n:During a visit to Israel in the summer of 2011, Kwon Oh-bong, vice commissioner of the Defense Acquisition Program Administration in Seoul, expressed interest in purchasing the system to counter the threat posed by North Korean artillery, rockets, and missiles. South Korea was considered unlikely to buy the Iron Dome system due to the number of artillery pieces it would face, the coverage it would need to provide (around Seoul), and the high cost of interceptors; effort is being focused on disrupting the \"Kill Chain\" to immediately detect and destroy artillery and missile units. In August 2014, South Korea once again emerged as interested in buying the Iron Dome system for protection against rocket attacks. In October 2017, South Korea announced it would develop its own Iron Dome-type C-RAM system using hit-to-kill interceptors. Although they had considered buying Iron Dome, they determined the system had been developed primarily to counter mortar shells, and so was unsuited against the more powerful artillery rockets they would have to defend against.\n:On 14 September 2021, it was revealed by Breaking Defense that Saudi Arabia is considering adding the Iron Dome missile defense system to its inventory after the US withdrew the THAAD and the MIM-104 Patriot out of Prince Sultan Air Base."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Date of Easter",
        "text": "A modified 84-year cycle was adopted in Rome during the first half of the 4th century. Victorius of Aquitaine tried to adapt the Alexandrian method to Roman rules in 457 in the form of a 532-year table, but he introduced serious errors. These Victorian tables were used in Gaul (now France) and Spain until they were displaced by Dionysian tables at the end of the 8th\u00a0century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary",
        "text": "Defenders of the traditional site have argued that the site of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was only brought within the city limits by Herod Agrippa (41\u201344), who built the so-called Third Wall around a newly settled northern district, while at the time of Jesus' crucifixion around AD 30 it would still have been just outside the city."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dionysius Exiguus",
        "text": "Ultimately, Dionysius Exiguus' Easter table, meanwhile extended from the years 532\u2013626 to the years 532\u2013721, must have been adopted at Rome and also have arrived in Britain and Ireland, where, however in both cases certainly not before the second quarter of the seventh century, Victorius of Aquitaine\u2019s lunar limits 16\u201322 were gradually replaced with Dionysius\u2019 lunar limits 15\u201321; only then the discord between the churches of Rome and Alexandria regarding the correct date for the celebration of Easter came to an end, and only from then both these authoritative churches used identical tables and hence observed Easter on the same day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary",
        "text": "Its traditional site, identified by Queen Mother Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, in 325, is at the site of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. A 19th-century suggestion places it at the site now known as 'The Garden Tomb' on Skull Hill, some to the north, and north of the Damascus Gate. Historian Joan E. Taylor bases a location c. south-southeast of the traditional site on her reading of textual evidence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvi\u00e0",
        "text": "The Roman era lasted from 123 BCE until the 4th century CE, but left no significant vestiges. Among the few archaeological remnants of this era are the remains of a Roman villa in Santa Ponsa known as \"Sa Mesquida\", which has an oven that was used to make ceramics, the horse-shoe shaped \"Naveta Alemany\" and the \"Tur\u00f3 de Ses Abelles\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary",
        "text": "In Naz\u00e9nie Garibian de Vartavan's doctoral thesis, now published as \"La J\u00e9rusalem Nouvelle et les premiers sanctuaires chr\u00e9tiens de l\u2019Arm\u00e9nie. M\u00e9thode pour l\u2019\u00e9tude de l\u2019\u00e9glise comme temple de Dieu,\" she concluded, through multiple arguments (mainly theological and archaeological), that the true site of Golgotha was precisely at the vertical of the now buried Constantinian basilica's altar and away from where the traditional rock of Golgotha is situated. The plans published in the book indicate the location of the Golgotha within a precision of less than two meters, below the circular passage situated a metre away from where the blood stained shirt of Christ was traditionally recovered and immediately before the stairs leading down to St. Helena's Chapel (the above-mentioned mother of Emperor Constantine), alternatively called St. Vartan's Chapel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary",
        "text": "Only a few steps away (within ), Helena also identified the location of the tomb of Jesus and claimed to have discovered the True Cross; her son, Constantine, then built the Church of the Holy Sepulchre around the whole site. In 333, the author of the \"Itinerarium Burdigalense\", entering from the east, described the result:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Columbanus",
        "text": "During his twenty years in Gaul (in present-day France), Columbanus became involved in a dispute with the Frankish bishops who may have feared his growing influence. During the first half of the sixth century, the councils of Gaul had given to bishops absolute authority over religious communities. As heirs to the Irish monastic tradition, Columbanus and his monks used the Irish Easter calculation, a version of Bishop Augustalis's 84-year \"computus\" for determining the date of Easter (Quartodecimanism), whereas the Franks had adopted the Victorian cycle of 532 years. The bishops objected to the newcomers' continued observance of their own dating, which \u2014 among other issues \u2014 caused the end of Lent to differ. They also complained about the distinct Irish tonsure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gell\u00e9rt Hill",
        "text": "A small calvary was built on the top of the hill which was rebuilt around 1820. On Easter Mondays a procession climbed the steep road leading to the calvary to celebrate the resurrection of Christ. Many tents and vendors were erected on the nearby meadow. \"Emmausj\u00e1r\u00e1s\" (En: \"Emmaus-walk\") or \"toj\u00e1sb\u00facs\u00fa\" (En: Egg Feast) was one of the most popular Catholic holidays of the year during the 18th\u201319th centuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter controversy",
        "text": "The Roman missionaries coming to Britain in the time of Pope Gregory I (590\u2013604) found the British Christians adhering to a different system of Easter computation from that used in the Mediterranean basin. This system, on the evidence of Bede, fixed Easter to the Sunday falling in the seven-day period from the 14th to the 20th of its lunar month, according to an 84-year cycle. The limits of Nisan 14 \u2013 Nisan 20 are corroborated by Columbanus. The method used by the Roman Church was Nisan 15 \u2013 Nisan 21. The 84-year cycle, the lunar limits, and an equinox of March 25 also receive support from McCarthy's analysis of Padua, Biblioteca Antoniana, MS I.27. Any of these features alone could have led to occasional discrepancies from the date of Easter as computed by the Alexandrian method."
      },
      {
        "title": "Feast of the Cross",
        "text": "Under Emperor Constantine, around AD 327, Bishop Macarius of Jerusalem caused excavations to be made in order to ascertain the location of Calvary as well as that of the Holy Sepulchre. It was in the course of these excavations that the wood of the cross was recovered. It was determined by Macarius to be authentic (the crosses of the two thieves were also recovered) and for it Constantine built the Basilica of the Holy Sepulchre."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aperlae",
        "text": "Aperlae was founded sometime between the late 4th and early 3rd century BCE and sustained a long lifespan of about 1,300 years until the end of the 7th century AD."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary (sanctuary)",
        "text": "The Mount of Calvary was the site outside the gates of Jerusalem where the crucifixion of Christ took place. The scene was replicated around the world in numerous \"calvary hills\" after the Counter-Reformation and they are used by Roman Catholics in particular as part of their worship and veneration of God."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary",
        "text": "Archaeological excavations under the Church of the Holy Sepulchre have revealed Christian pilgrims' graffiti, dating from the period that the Temple of Aphrodite was still present, of a ship, a common early Christian symbol and the etching \"DOMINVS IVIMVS\", meaning \"Lord, we went\", lending possible support to the statement by Melito of Sardis' asserting that early Christians identified Golgotha as being in the middle of Hadrian's city, rather than outside."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oswiu",
        "text": "In 664 at the synod of Whitby, Oswiu accepted the usages of the Roman Church, which led to the departure of Bishop Colm\u00e1n of Lindisfarne. Bede writes that the dispute was brought to a head by Oswiu's son Ealhfrith, who had adopted Roman usages at the urging of Wilfrid. Ealhfrith had been brought up with Irish-Northumbrian usages, and his rejection of these, along with the expulsion of the future saints Cuthbert of Lindisfarne and Eata of Hexham from Ripon, is considered to have had a strong political component. Equally, 665 would be a year, as Bede writes, \"that Easter was kept twice in one year, so that when the King had ended Lent and was keeping Easter, the Queen and her attendants were still fasting and keeping Palm Sunday\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dionysius Exiguus",
        "text": "Dionysius ignored the existing table used by the Patriarchate of Rome, which was prepared in 457 by Victorius of Aquitaine, complaining that it did not obey Alexandrian principles, without actually acknowledging their existence. To be sure that his own table was correct, he simply extended a table prepared in Alexandria that had circulated in the west in Latin, but was never used in the west to determine the date of Easter (however, a variant of it was used in the Byzantine Empire, in Greek). The Latin table was prepared by a subordinate of Bishop Cyril of Alexandria shortly before Cyril's death in 444. It covered a period of 95 years or five decennovenal (19-year) cycles with years dated in the Diocletian Era, whose first year was 285 (the modern historical year in progress at Easter). Diocletian years were advantageous because their division by 19 yielded a remainder equal to the year of the decennovenal cycle"
      },
      {
        "title": "Celtic Christianity",
        "text": "The Easter question was settled at various times in different places. The following dates are derived from Haddan and Stubbs: southern Ireland, 626\u2013628; northern Ireland, 692; Northumbria (converted by Irish missions), 664; East Devon and Somerset, the Britons under Wessex, 705; the Picts, 710; Iona, 716\u2013718; Strathclyde, 721; North Wales, 768; South Wales, 777. Cornwall held out the longest of any, perhaps even, in parts, to the time of Bishop Aedwulf of Crediton (909)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "Early Christians in Britain and Ireland also used an 84-year cycle. From the 5th century onward this cycle set its equinox to 25 March and fixed Easter to the Sunday falling in the 14th to the 20th of the lunar month inclusive. This 84-year cycle was replaced by the Alexandrian method in the course of the 7th and 8th centuries. Churches in western continental Europe used a late Roman method until the late 8th century during the reign of Charlemagne, when they finally adopted the Alexandrian method. Since 1582, when the Roman Catholic Church adopted the Gregorian calendar while most of Europe used the Julian calendar, the date on which Easter is celebrated has again differed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Date of Easter",
        "text": "The Alexandrian computus was converted from the Alexandrian calendar into the Julian calendar in Alexandria around 440, which resulted in a Paschal table (attributed to pope Cyril of Alexandria) covering the years 437 to 531. This Paschal table was the source which inspired Dionysius Exiguus, who worked in Rome from about 500 to about 540, to construct a continuation of it in the form of his famous Paschal table covering the years 532 to 616. Dionysius introduced the Christian Era (counting years from the Incarnation of Christ) by publishing this new Easter table in 525."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary",
        "text": "Nearby is an ancient rock-cut tomb known today as the Garden Tomb, which Gordon proposed as the tomb of Jesus. The Garden Tomb contains several ancient burial places, although the archaeologist Gabriel Barkay has proposed that the tomb dates to the 7th century BCE and that the site may have been abandoned by the 1st century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter controversy",
        "text": "This 84-year cycle (called the \"latercus\") gave way to the Alexandrian computus in stages. The Alexandrian computus may have been adopted in parts of the south of Ireland in the first half of the 7th century. Among the northern English, the use of the Alexandrian computus over the Brittano-Irish cycle was decided at the Synod of Whitby in 664. The Alexandrian computus was finally adopted by the Irish colonies in northern Britain in the early 8th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barbentane",
        "text": "This came at the time of the Pax Romana which lasted for four centuries and of which many vestiges remain (sarcophagi and foundations in the upper village, etc.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chronology of Jesus",
        "text": "In AD 525 Dionysius Exiguus devised an Easter table to calculate the dates of Easter at a time when Julian calendar years were still being identified by naming the consuls who held office that year \u2014 Dionysius himself stated that the \"present year\" was \"the consulship of Probus Junior\", which was 525 years \"since the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ\". Thus Dionysius implied that Jesus' incarnation occurred 525 years earlier."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dionysius Exiguus",
        "text": "Dionysius copied the last decennovenal cycle of the Cyrillian table ending with Diocletian 247, and then added a new 95-year table with numbered \"Anni Domini Nostri Jesu Christi\" (\"Years of our Lord Jesus Christ\") because, as he explained to Petronius, he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians. The only reason he gave for beginning his new 95-year table with the year 532 was that six years were still left in the Cyrillian table after the year during which he wrote. For the current year he only stated that it was 525 years after the Incarnation of Christ, without stating when this event occurred in any other calendar. He did \"not\" realise that the dates of the Alexandrian Easter repeated after 532 years, despite his apparent knowledge of the Victorian 532-year 'cycle', indicating only that Easter did not repeat after 95 years. He knew that Victorian Easters did not agree with Alexandrian Easters, thus he no doubt assumed that they had no bearing on any Alexandrian cycle. Furthermore, he obviously did not realise that simply multiplying 19 by 4 by 7 (decennovenal cycle \u00d7 cycle of leap years \u00d7 days in a week) fixed the Alexandrian cycle at 532 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caloian",
        "text": "\"Caloian\" had a spring version, which often occurred on the \"third Tuesday after Easter\", and concluded on the following Thursday. Folklorists Ion H. Ciubotaru an Silvia Ciubotaru write that having fixed days for \"Caloian\" during Easter was \"wholly exceptional\" in a Moldavian context; they also indicate one other variant in which \"Caloian\" coincided with the first Thursday after Easter. As noted by ethnologist Anca Ceau\u0219escu, this variant was specifically a fertility rite, which was mostly tied to spring and renewal, rather than to the celebration of Easter itself. She records instances where \"Caloian\" was performed on the sixth week after Easter, on Thomas Sunday, or \"always around May 8\". Children up to the age of 12 were preferred for performing the ritual, owing to their \"ritual purity\", and in some cases only selected to fit into an odd number. Performers are most often described as young girls, and sometimes boys, though folklorist Teodor Burada, who speaks from a Western Moldavian perspective, also records the occasional involvement of married women. According to Ciubotaru and Ciubotaru, a situation idealized in the more traditional forms of the \"Caloian\" was that in which the people involved were girls around the age of nine, or adolescent virgins, who were either sisters or first cousins. Men remained strictly prohibited for most of \"Caloian\"s history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beda Venerabilis' Easter cycle",
        "text": "In the year 616 an anonymous scholar extended Dionysius Exiguus' Easter table to an Easter table covering the years 532 up to and including 721. Dionysius' table was published in 525 and only a century later accepted by the church of Rome, which from the third century up till then had given preference to go on using her own, relatively inadequate, Easter tables. From about the middle of the seventh century all controversy between Alexandria and Rome as to the correct date of Easter ceased, as both churches were now using identical tables."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary",
        "text": "During 1973\u20131978 restoration works and excavations inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and under the nearby Muristan, it was found that the area was originally a quarry, from which white Meleke limestone was struck; surviving parts of the quarry to the north-east of the chapel of St. Helena are now accessible from within the chapel (by permission). Inside the church is a rock, about 7\u00a0m long by 3\u00a0m wide by 4.8\u00a0m high, that is traditionally believed to be all that now remains visible of \"Golgotha\"; the design of the church means that the \"Calvary Chapel\" contains the upper foot or so of the rock, while the remainder is in the chapel beneath it (known as the \"tomb of Adam\"). Virgilio Corbo, a Franciscan priest and archaeologist, present at the excavations, suggested that from the city the little hill (which still exists) could have looked like a skull."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary",
        "text": "There is certainly evidence that circa 160, at least as early as 30 years after Hadrian's temple had been built, Christians associated it with the site of \"Golgotha\"; Melito of Sardis, an influential mid-2nd century bishop in the region, described the location as \"in the middle of the street, in the middle of the city\", which matches the position of Hadrian's temple within the mid-2nd century city."
      },
      {
        "title": "S\u00e9g\u00e9ne",
        "text": "At this time the Irish Church was preoccupied with the Paschal cycle Question, i.e. how to compute the date of Easter and Christ\u2019s death. The southern part of Ireland accepted the Dionysian computation - which was now being used at Rome - at the Synod of Magh Lene in 630 AD. However, the Northern clergy were followers of the method proposed by Iona and its affiliate churches, known as the Irish Computation. In order to settle the matter T\u00f3mm\u00e9ne, the Bishop of Armagh, with some other Ulster bishops and clergy, sent a letter in the first half of 640 to Pope Severinus, setting out both sides of the argument and requesting his advice. However, Pope Severinus died on 2 August 640 without having opened the letter. The future Pope John IV and others in the Vatican hierarchy replied to the letter sometime between August and Christmas 640, beginning as follows: \"Our most beloved and most holy Thomian, Columbanus, Croman, Diman, and Baithan bishops\u2014to Croman, Hernian, Laistran, Scellan, and Segenus, presbyters\u2014to Saran, and the rest of the Irish doctors or abbots.\" Rome was worried that the doctrine of Pelagianism was taking root in Ireland and advised against it in this letter. The \"\"Segenus, presbyter\" (Segeno presbyteris) mentioned in the letter was probably Saint S\u00e9g\u00e9ne, which means he was a priest in 640, probably ministering in Armagh."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wild Hunt",
        "text": "Reliable witnesses were said to have given the number of huntsmen as twenty or thirty, and it is said, in effect, that this went on for nine weeks, ending at Easter. Orderic Vitalis (1075\u2013c. 1142), an English monk cloistered at St Evroul-en-Ouche, in Normandy, reported a similar cavalcade seen in January 1091, which he said were \"Herlechin's troop\" (\"familia Herlechini\"; cf. Harlequin)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary",
        "text": "The Romans typically built a city according to a Hippodamian grid plan\u00a0\u2013 a north\u2013south arterial road, the Cardo (which is now the Suq Khan-ez-Zeit), and an east\u2013west arterial road, the Decumanus Maximus (which is now the Via Dolorosa). The forum would traditionally be located on the intersection of the two roads, with the main temples adjacent. However, due to the obstruction posed by the Temple Mount, as well as the Tenth Legion encampment on the Western Hill, Hadrian's city had two \"Cardo\", two \"Decumanus Maximus\", two forums, and several temples. The Western Forum (now the Muristan) is located on the crossroads of the West Cardo and what is now El-Bazar/David Street, with the Temple of Aphrodite adjacent, on the intersection of the Western Cardo and the Via Dolorosa. The Northern Forum is located north of the Temple Mount, on the junction of the Via Dolorosa and the Eastern Cardo (the Tyropoeon), adjacent to the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, intentionally built atop the Temple Mount. Another popular holy site that Hadrian converted to a pagan temple was the Pool of Bethesda, possibly referenced to in the fifth chapter of the Gospel of John, on which was built the Temple of Asclepius and Serapis. While the positioning of the Temple of Aphrodite may be, in light of the common Colonia layout, entirely unintentional, Hadrian is known to have concurrently built pagan temples on top of other holy sites in Jerusalem as part of an overall \"Romanization\" policy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Archiepiscopal Museum, Ravenna",
        "text": "The marble rosette on the facing wall is a Paschal calendar of the 6th century. Its purpose was to fix the movable feast of Easter in such a way that it might be celebrated everywhere in Christendom on the same day - no easy matter when East and West were using different calendars: the Eastern Church used the Hebrew lunar calendar, while the Western church followed the sun's cycle. Despite the decrees of the Council of Nicea in 325 AD and the tables of Theophilus, in this, as in all matters of faith, people followed their own loyalties. This calendar follows the eastern lunar cycle: LV on the outer rim, followed by AN indicates the phase of its 19-year cycle; the date then for Easter is written in each recurring phase from 532 AD to 626 AD."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary",
        "text": "Christian tradition since the fourth century has favoured a location now within the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. This places it well within today's walls of Jerusalem, which surround the Old City and were rebuilt in the 16th century by the Ottoman Empire. Proponents of the traditional Holy Sepulchre location point out at the fact that first-century Jerusalem had a different shape and size from the 16th-century city, leaving the church's site outside the pre-AD 70 city walls. Those opposing it doubt this."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wilfrid",
        "text": "The Roman churches and those in Britain and Ireland (often called \"Celtic\" churches) used different methods to calculate the date of Easter. The church in Northumbria had traditionally used the Celtic method, and that was the date observed by King Oswiu. His wife Eanfl\u00e6d and a son, Alhfrith, celebrated Easter on the Roman date, which meant that while one part of the royal court was still observing the Lenten fast, another would be celebrating with feasting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles-Michel-Ange Challe",
        "text": "He remains in Rome for seven years while the normal length of a stay was not supposed to exceed three years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synod of Whitby",
        "text": "In the 660s, Ionan adherents chose to continue using the 84-year Latercus cycle invented by Sulpicius Severus c. 410. Meanwhile, the Papal Curia had commissioned Victorius of Aquitaine (AD 457) and later Dionysius Exiguus (525) to produce a new reckoning, in order to resolve the differences between the Roman method and the more scientific method of the Alexandrian Church. The three reckonings often resulted in different dates for the celebration of Easter. Neither the Victorian or Dionysian reckonings were without problems. Dionysius had simply translated the Alexandrian system into Latin without understanding it. The Victorian system, confusingly, produced double dates, relying on the pope to choose which date to use. Nevertheless, the Victorian table was accepted widely outside the area of Irish influence. Around 602, the Irish missionary St\u00a0Columbanus had already been condemned by a synod of French clerics for ignoring their authority and following his homeland's Easter calculations (the Victorian table was declared official in Gaul in 541). About AD 600 Columbanus wrote to Pope Gregory I: \"You should know that Victorius has not been accepted by our teachers and by the old Irish experts and by the mathematicians most skilled in the calculation of the computus, but was considered more worthy of ridicule and pity than of authority.\" But in Ireland also, debate raged over the best option for calculating the date of Easter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy",
        "text": "The model of the calvary or \"holy mountain\" is a Christian creation dating from the late fifteenth century, that during the Counter-Reformation spread from Italy to Europe and the New World. A calvary is a devotional complex standing on the slopes of a mountain, with a series of chapels or kiosks containing scenes from the life of Christ, the Virgin Mary or the Saints, in the form of painting or sculptures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary Chapel Association",
        "text": "the generation that was living in May 1948 shall not pass until the second coming of Jesus Christ takes place and the kingdom of God be established upon the earth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gallican Rite",
        "text": "Both books also have Commons of Martyrs and Confessors, the Luxeuil has Commons of bishops and deacons for a number of other Masses, and \"Gothicum\" has six Sunday Masses. \"Gallicanum\" has a Mass for the feast of Germanus of Auxerre before the two Advent Masses. In both \"Gothicum\" and \"Gallicanum\" a large space is given to the services of the two days before Easter, and in the latter the \"expositio symboli\" and \"traditio symboli\" are given at great length. The moveable feasts depended, of course, on Easter. When the Roman Church altered the Easter computation from the old 84-year-cycle to the new Victorius Aquitaine 532-year-cycle in 457, the Gallican Church, unlike the Celts, did the same; but when, in 525, the Roman Church adopted the Dionysius Exiguus 19-year-cycle, the Gallican Church continued to use the 532-year-cycle, until the end of the 8th or beginning of the 9th century. Lent began with the first Sunday, not with Ash Wednesday. There is a not very intelligible passage in the canons of the Council of Tours to the effect that all through August there were \"festivitates et missae sanctorum\", but this is not borne out by the existing sacramentaries or the Lectionary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Annales Sancti Quintini Viromandensis",
        "text": "Vatican 645 contains a copy of Bede's Easter table based on the Metonic cycle down to the year 1025. In the margins one hand has added the names of the Roman emperors down to Charlemagne (800\u201314). Another hand of the ninth century added two brief notices for the years 793 and 844. In the eleventh century, four more monks added notices in the margins of the Easter table. Most of these annals were not, therefore, contemporary. Several of the annals are cut off partially or entirely by poor subsequent bookbinding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Date of Easter",
        "text": "The earliest known Roman tables were devised in 222 by Hippolytus of Rome based on eight-year cycles. Then 84-year tables were introduced in Rome by Augustalis near the end of the 3rd\u00a0century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary Chapel Association",
        "text": "I believe that the generation of 1948 is the last generation. Since a generation of judgment is forty years and the Tribulation period lasts seven years, I believe the Lord could come back for His Church any time before the Tribulation starts, which would mean any time before 1981."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary",
        "text": "In 2007 Dan Bahat, the former City Archaeologist of Jerusalem and Professor of Land of Israel Studies at Bar-Ilan University, stated that \"Six graves from the first century were found on the area of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. That means, this place [was] outside of the city, without any doubt\u2026\", thus maintaining that there are no scientific, archaeological grounds for rejecting the traditional location for Calvary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roland Dor\u00e9 (sculptor)",
        "text": "This calvary erected in 1550, was restored by Dor\u00e9 in 1630 and is located by the Chapelle Notre-Dame in Tr\u00e9varn, Saint-Urbain. It has depictions both of Christ on the Cross and \"Christ aux liens\" (Christ sitting awaiting his crucifixion). Many calvaries in Brittany were erected to celebrate the end of an outbreak of plague and the shaft of the Tr\u00e9varn Calvary is decorated with small extrusions or bumps intended to mimic the boils which were a sign of the bubonic plague (\"bubons\"\"). Another calvary near Saint Urbain was restored by Dor\u00e9 in 1630 and that is the calvary at Quinquis. Erected in 1518 and having a height of 5 metres, the depiction of Christ on the Cross is backed by a Piet\u00e0."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cedd",
        "text": "According to Bede, Cedd accepted the Roman dating of the observance of Easter. He returned to his work as bishop, abandoning the practices of the Irish of D\u00e1l Riata."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "Dionysius Exiguus, and others following him, maintained that the 318 bishops assembled at Nicaea had specified a particular method of determining the date of Easter; subsequent scholarship has refuted this tradition. In any case, in the years following the council, the computational system that was worked out by the church of Alexandria came to be normative. The Alexandrian system, however, was not immediately adopted throughout Christian Europe. Following Augustalis' treatise \"De ratione Paschae\" (On the Measurement of Easter), Rome retired the earlier 8-year cycle in favor of Augustalis' 84-year lunisolar calendar cycle, which it used until 457. It then switched to Victorius of Aquitaine's adaptation of the Alexandrian system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Church of the Holy Sepulchre",
        "text": "After allegedly seeing a vision of a cross in the sky in 312, Constantine the Great converted to Christianity, signed the Edict of Milan legalising the religion, and sent his mother, Helena, to Jerusalem to look for Christ's tomb. With the help of Bishop of Caesarea Eusebius and Bishop of Jerusalem Macarius, three crosses were found near a tomb; one which allegedly cured people of death was presumed to be the True Cross Jesus was crucified on, leading the Romans to believe that they had found Calvary. Constantine ordered in about 326 that the temple to Jupiter/Venus be replaced by a church. After the temple was torn down and its ruins removed, the soil was removed from the cave, revealing a rock-cut tomb that Helena and Macarius identified as the burial site of Jesus. A shrine was built, enclosing the rock tomb walls within its own."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paschal Triduum",
        "text": "In the Roman Rite, after the Gloria in excelsis Deo at the Mass of the Lord's Supper, all church bells are silenced and the organ is not used. The period that lasted from Thursday morning to before Easter Sunday began was once, in Anglo-Saxon times, referred to as \"the still days\". In the Catholic Church, weddings, which were once prohibited throughout the entire season of Lent and during certain other periods as well, are prohibited during the Triduum. Lutherans still discourage weddings during the entirety of Holy Week and the Easter Triduum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pope Victor I",
        "text": "The churches in Asia Minor celebrated Easter on the 14th of the Jewish month of Nisan, the day before Jewish Passover, regardless of what day of the week it fell on, as the Crucifixion had occurred on the Friday before Passover, justifying this as the custom they had learned from the apostles; for this the Latins called them \"Quartodecimans\". Synods were held on the subject in various parts\u2014in Judea under Theophilus of Caesarea and Narcissus of Jerusalem, in Pontus under Palmas, in Gaul under Irenaeus, in Corinth under its bishop, Bachillus, at Osrhoene in Mesopotamia, and elsewhere\u2014all of which disapproved of this practice and consequently issued by synodical letters declaring that \"on the Lord's Day only the mystery of the resurrection of the Lord from the dead was accomplished, and that on that day only we keep the close of the paschal fast\" (Eusebius H. E. v. 23)."
      },
      {
        "title": "D\u00e1ibh\u00ed \u00d3 Cr\u00f3in\u00edn",
        "text": "While wandering around Padua in the mid-1980s \u00d3 Cr\u00f3in\u00edn happened upon an example of the Irish 84-year Easter table in a manuscript there - this Easter table, so central to the Easter controversy, had until that time been presumed lost but \u00d3 Cr\u00f3in\u00edn had found one covering the period AD 438\u2013521. For this he received his Ph.D. from University College Galway in 1985; the Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies at the University of Toronto published \u00d3 Cr\u00f3in\u00edn's work on that seventh-century Hiberno-Latin computistical tract which he had discovered. Alongside Daniel McCarthy, \u00d3 Cr\u00f3in\u00edn published \"The 'Lost' Irish 84-Year Easter Table Rediscovered\" in the journal \"Peritia\" in the late 1980s, explaining the implications of his discovery for our understanding of the period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary at Trono\u00ebn",
        "text": "The calvary dates to between 1450 and 1460 and stands on the grass verge (\"placitre\") in front of Saint-Jean-Trolimon's Notre-Dame Chapel. It is the oldest of Finist\u00e8re's six \"grands calvaires\" and is thought to be the work of several workshops operating in Sca\u00ebr, mainly that of the \"Ma\u00eetre de Trono\u00ebn\". Several points emerge when this calvary is compared with the others in this region. Firstly there are two scenes devoted to Jesus' baptism. Then in the nativity scene, the statue of the baby Jesus shows him standing and aged about seven rather than as a new-born child. There are three crosses depicted, with those bearing the two robbers being a part of the composition. The calvary also depicts two angels collecting Jesus' blood. A \"mise au tombeau\", the scene showing Jesus being prepared for burial, a standard feature of other such calvaries, is not included and neither is the \"Flight into Egypt\", nor Jesus' entry into Jerusalem and his arrest. Conversely the subjects of the Last judgement and Garden of Eden are covered. The Notre-Dame Chapel dates to the 15th century. It replaced an ancient Romano-Gallic temple dedicated to the goddess Venus (mythology) and was thought to have been commissioned by the Pont barons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blutritt",
        "text": "An alternate account states that the early Christian prosecution of Longinus came to an end in Cappadocia. The relic and his mortal remains were sent as a counter-present from Constantinople to the city of Mantua. When Mantua was under siege by the Lombards for one year in 580, the relic was hidden in a secret place and found again in 804. Thereupon, Pope Leo III (795-816) and Charlemagne (768-814) had it examined. The relic was disassembled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paschal Triduum",
        "text": "The Paschal Triduum or Easter Triduum (Latin: \"Triduum Paschale\"), Holy Triduum (Latin: \"Triduum Sacrum\"), or the Three Days, is the period of three days that begins with the liturgy on the evening of Maundy Thursday, reaches its high point in the Easter Vigil, and closes with evening prayer on Easter Sunday. It is a moveable observance recalling the Passion, Crucifixion, Death, burial, and Resurrection of Jesus, as portrayed in the canonical Gospels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tourinnes-la-Grosse",
        "text": "In 1938, a calvary was erected next to the presbytery.\n*J\u00e9r\u00f4me Colin\n*Julos Beaucarne, a Belgian artist (storyteller, poet, actor, writer, singer), singing in French and Walloon, lives there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Calasanz",
        "text": "In 1592, at 35, Calasanz moved to Rome. He hoped to further his ecclesiastical career and secure some kind of benefice. He lived there for most of his remaining 56 years. In Rome, Calasanz found a protector in Cardinal Marcoantonio Colonna, who chose him as his theologian and charged him with the spiritual direction of the staff, once he managed to express himself in Italian. The city offered a splendid field for works of charity, especially for the instruction of neglected and homeless children, many of whom had lost their parents. He joined the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine and gathered the boys from the streets and brought them to school. The teachers, however, being poorly paid, refused to accept the additional labor without remuneration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary",
        "text": "or alternatively as the site where the skull of Adam was said to be buried (Origenes), or from the skulls of those executed there (Jerome, \"locum decollatorum\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vercingetorix",
        "text": "Afterwards, in a reprisal for 25 days of hunger and of laboring over the siegeworks required to breach Avaricum's defenses, the Romans slaughtered nearly the entire population, some 40,000 people, leaving only about 800 alive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary (sanctuary)",
        "text": "Calvaries were especially popular with the Franciscan and Jesuit orders, and are most common in Italy and Habsburg Central Europe. They were usually placed in parks near a church or a monastery, typically on a hill which the visitor gradually ascends. Italian ones are usually called a \"sacro monte\" (\"holy mountain\" or \"hill\"); there are a group of nine Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy that are especially notable; their dates of foundation vary between 1486 and 1712. Devotions would be most popular in Passion Week, before Easter, when large processions around the stations would be held, and mystery plays might be acted. If a calvary was established in an inhabited place, it might result in a location of a new village or town. Several villages and towns are named after such a complex."
      },
      {
        "title": "Columbanus",
        "text": "that he and his monks could follow the rites of their ancestors. Before Boniface responded, Columbanus moved outside the jurisdiction of the Frankish bishops. As the Easter issue appears to end around that time, Columbanus may have stopped celebrating Irish date of Easter after moving to Italy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ovius and Novius Calavius",
        "text": "After five years' peace, the war was resumed. In 314 BC a number of plots against the Romans were suspected and investigated. These may have been encouraged by the harsh treatment of Luceria, whose inhabitants had given up the Roman garrison to the Samnites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gell\u00e9rt Hill Calvary",
        "text": "The first calvary on Gell\u00e9rt Hill was built in 1715 by a citizen of Buda on the initiative of the Jesuit Order. The simple structure was made up of two stone sculptures and a wood crucifix. In 1795 F\u00fcll (or F\u00fchl) Mih\u00e1ly started a public fundraising to build a new group instead of the old one which was already decaying. The magistrate of Buda supported the effort but it took decades to realize. In 1822 the calvary was described as \"recentius a Cive Michaele F\u00fchl exstructa\" (recently built by F\u00fchl Mih\u00e1ly). The road to the new group was lined by stations whose paintings depicted the sufferings of Christ. On Easter Mondays a procession climbed the steep road leading to the calvary to celebrate the resurrection. Tents and vendors were erected on a nearby meadow. The \"emmausj\u00e1r\u00e1s\" (Emmaus-walk) or \"toj\u00e1sb\u00facs\u00fa\" (egg feast) was one of the most popular Catholic holidays of the year during the 18-19th centuries. In 1873 the citizens of the Tab\u00e1n district repaired a few stations and decorated them with new paintings, painted on wood by \u201eC. Sauer\u201d. Many stations were demolished in the 1920s. Only three of them were still standing in the 1930s. The last photo about the building was made in 1943. The calvary was demolished around 1950."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caloian",
        "text": "Caloian (also Calian(i), Caloi\u021b\u0103, Scaloian, Gherman, or Iene) was a rainmaking and fertility rite in Romania, similar in some ways to \"Dodola\". Its namesake is a clay effigy, whose sculpting, funeral, exhumation, and eventual destruction are centerpieces of the display. The source of this ritual, as is the case with those of many other local popular beliefs and practices, precedes the introduction of Christianity, although it came in time to be associated with Orthodox Easter or with the Feast of the Ascension. In some variants it was performed on a precisely calculated day two to three weeks after Easter, though local communities could also revive it at other times of the year, specifically during drought. The figurine was generally made from clay and most often by girls, though sometimes also by boys or married women; the ceremony itself would draw in the whole village community as spectators, and, in isolated cases, also had active participation from the Romanian Orthodox clergy. The mimicry of Christian funerals was widespread, but absent from the more established forms of the ritual."
      },
      {
        "title": "Veronese Easter",
        "text": "Two days later 200 men entered Brescia and, with the aid of Brescian Jacobins, put down what little resistance was offered. Their first act after gaining the city was to hunt down Battaia, who had fled to Verona. Although lacking the support of the population, with French help the Jacobins succeeded in democratising the countryside and (on 28 March) the town of Crema."
      },
      {
        "title": "Celtic Christianity",
        "text": "Easter was originally dated according to Hebrew calendar, which tried to place Passover on the first full moon following the Spring equinox but did not always succeed. In his \"Life of Constantine\", Eusebius records that the First Council of Nicaea (325) decided that all Christians should observe a common date for Easter separate from the Jewish calculations, according to the practice of the bishops of Rome and Alexandria. Calculating the proper date of Easter (\"computus\") then became a complicated process involving a lunisolar calendar, finding the first Sunday after an idealized Passover on the first full moon after the equinox."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Garden Tomb",
        "text": "After the Reformation there were increasing doubts regarding the traditional holy places. In 1639 Quaresmius speaks of \"western heretics\" who argue that the traditional site could not possibly be the true tomb of Christ. The first extant publication which argues a case against the traditional location was written by the German pilgrim Jonas Korte in 1741, a few years after his pilgrimage to Jerusalem. His book contained a chapter titled \"On Mount Calvary, which now lies in the middle of the town and cannot therefore be the true Calvary\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Date of Easter",
        "text": "The claim by the Catholic Church in the 1582 papal bull \"Inter gravissimas\", which promulgated the Gregorian calendar, that it restored \"the celebration of Easter according to the rules fixed by ... the great ecumenical council of Nicaea\" was based on a false claim by Dionysius Exiguus (525) that \"we determine the date of Easter Day ... in accordance with the proposal agreed upon by the 318 Fathers of the Church at the Council in Nicaea.\" The First Council of Nicaea (325) did not, however, provide any explicit rules to determine that date, but only wrote \u201call our brethren in the East who formerly followed the custom of the Jews are henceforth to celebrate the said most sacred feast of Easter at the same time with the Romans and yourselves [the Church of Alexandria] and all those who have observed Easter from the beginning.\u201d The medieval computus was based on the Alexandrian computus, which was developed by the Church of Alexandria during the first decade of the 4th century using the Alexandrian calendar. The eastern Roman Empire accepted it shortly after 380 after converting the computus to the Julian calendar. Rome accepted it sometime between the sixth and ninth centuries. The British Isles accepted it during the eighth century except for a few monasteries. Francia (all of western Europe except Scandinavia (pagan), the British Isles, the Iberian peninsula, and southern Italy) accepted it during the last quarter of the eighth century. The last Celtic monastery to accept it, Iona, did so in 716, whereas the last English monastery to accept it did so in 931. Before these dates, other methods produced Easter Sunday dates that could differ by up to five weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Catanzaro-Squillace",
        "text": "Pope Calixtus II (Guy of Burgundy), Archbishop of Vienne since 1088, was elected pope at Cluny on 2 February 1119. He spent more than a year fortifying France and Germany against the excommunicated Emperor Henry V through synods and councils, and dealing with affairs as co-regent in Castile for his nephew Alfonso VII of Le\u00f3n and Castile, who had become heir to the throne in 1109, and then king in 1116. In the spring of 1120, Calixtus turned his attention to Italy, arriving in Rome on 3 July."
      },
      {
        "title": "T\u00f3mm\u00e9ne",
        "text": "At this time the Irish Church was preoccupied with the Paschal Question, i.e. how to compute the date of Easter and Christ\u2019s death. St. T\u00f3mm\u00e9ne was interested in this dispute even before he was made Bishop of Armagh. A letter, written c. 610 by Archbishop Laurence of Canterbury and countersigned by Mellitus, the Bishop of London and Justus, Bishop of Rochester, was sent to the Irish bishops urging them to adopt the Roman method of calculating Easter. According to John of Tinmouth and Capgrave (who mistakenly refer to T\u00f3mm\u00e9ne as Terenannus rather than Thomianus), T\u00f3mm\u00e9ne heard St. Laurence speaking on the matter and- \"He thus laid hold of the truth, and afterwards took a great deal of pains, referable to those matters, in reforming his own people\". The southern part of Ireland accepted the Vatican computation at the Synod of Magh Lene in 630 A.D. However the Northern clergy were followers of the method proposed by Iona and its affiliate churches, known as the Irish Computation. In order to settle the matter T\u00f3mm\u00e9ne, with some other Ulster bishops and clergy, sent a letter in the first half of 640 to Pope Severinus setting out both sides of the argument and requesting his advice. However Pope Severinus died on 2 August 640 without having opened the letter. The future Pope John IV and others in the Vatican hierarchy replied to the letter sometime between August and Christmas 640, beginning as follows- \"\"Our most beloved and most holy Thomian, Columbanus, Croman, Diman, and Baithan bishops\u2014to Croman, Hernian, Laistran, Scellan, and Segenus, presbyters\u2014to Saran, and the rest of the Irish doctors or abbots\".\" The Vatican was worried that the doctrine of Pelagianism was taking root in Ireland and advised against it in this letter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvaire de la Rivi\u00e8re-\u00e0-Veillet",
        "text": "The Calvary was probably built in 1827 as a Stations of the Cross station on a hill in the village of Sainte-Genevi\u00e8ve-de-Bastiscan. The sculpture of Christ on the cross is perhaps older. The author of the sculpture is unknown, although it is sometimes attributed to Fran\u00e7ois Baillairg\u00e9 (1759-1830). It would be one of the oldest surviving calvaries in Quebec."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gerald of Mayo",
        "text": "Colm\u00e1n of Lindisfarne to Iona and then to Ireland. This occurred after the Synod of Whitby 664AD which decided against the Irish method of calculating the date for Easter. Colman was an ardent supporter of the Irish traditions; after the synod decided to adopt the Roman computation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Calasanz",
        "text": "Calasanz always remained faithful to the Church and died August 25, 1648, at the age of 90, admired for his holiness and courage by his students, their families, his fellow Piarists, and the people of Rome. He was buried in the Church of San Pantaleo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Congregation of Our Lady of Calvary",
        "text": "They were finally approved by the Holy See, 17 January 1827. The congregation succumbed to the French Revolution, but was restored afterwards and in 1860 had twenty houses in France."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary",
        "text": "The adoption of the Latin form has a long tradition in English Bible translations, going back to at least the late 10th century (Wessex Gospels), and is retained in Wycliffe's Bible and Tyndale's Bible as well as in the King James Version."
      },
      {
        "title": "Veronese Easter",
        "text": "In the afternoon Neipperg and his soldiers left Verona, given that the truce between France and Austria was only due to last a week. In compensation he warned the population that if they resisted him while the truce was still in force he would return to help them. Meanwhile, a French scouting party approached porta San Zeno, which withdrew immediately when fired on by cannon mounted on the city walls. In the same instant, however, they met the column of soldiers under Maffei which was guarding the Chievo line at Santa Lucia. In this line were positioned around 6,000 men under Chabran, while the men under Victor and Miollis were still marching for Verona."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary",
        "text": "The Itinerarium Burdigalense speaks of Golgotha in 333: \"... On the left hand is the little hill of Golgotha where the Lord was crucified. About a stone's throw from thence is a vault (crypta) wherein His body was laid, and rose again on the third day. There, at present, by the command of the Emperor Constantine, has been built a basilica, that is to say, a church of wondrous beauty,\" Cyril of Jerusalem, a distinguished theologian of the early Church, and eyewitness to the early days of Constantine's edifice, speaks of Golgotha in eight separate passages, sometimes as near to the church where he and his listeners assembled: \"Golgotha, the holy hill standing above us here, bears witness to our sight: the Holy Sepulchre bears witness, and the stone which lies there to this day.\" And just in such a way the pilgrim Egeria often reported in 383: \"\u2026 the church, built by Constantine, which is situated in Golgotha \u2026\" and also bishop Eucherius of Lyon wrote to the island presbyter Faustus in 440: \"Golgotha is in the middle between the Anastasis and the Martyrium, the place of the Lord's passion, in which still appears that rock which once endured the very cross on which the Lord was.\", and Breviarius de Hierosolyma reports in 530: \"From there (the middle of the basilica), you enter into Golgotha, where there is a large court. Here the Lord was crucified. All around that hill, there are silver screens.\" (See also: Eusebius in 338.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mary Potter",
        "text": "In 1878, Potter underwent two mastectomies within six months. One of the operations was performed on the kitchen table of the convent on 8 December. She went to Rome in 1882 to gain approval for the Constitutions of her new Congregation and, while there, established Calvary Hospital on the Via S Stefano Rotondo, not far from St. John Lateran. It was there, in 1908, that the first Catholic Training School for nurses commenced in Italy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary at Trono\u00ebn",
        "text": "The scenes on this face of the calvary are in granite and in high relief and deal with Original sin, the Resurrection and the Last Judgement.\n* In the resurrection scene Jesus emerges from the tomb whilst two soldiers are shown sleeping and another two have fallen to the ground. A fifth soldier stands leaning on his lance.\n* The scenes covering the \"Last Judgement\" and the area of \"original sin\" are complex compositions and the depiction of the Temptation of Christ shows the devil and a snake is shown wrapped around the tree of life. In a reference to the apocalypse, Jesus is shown on an arc in the sky surrounded by the Chosen people. The Virgin Mary prays at a misericord.\n* In the scene depicting the Last Supper we see John the Evangelist, Jesus and just four of his apostles. On the table is the pascal lamb. It is thought that part of this last supper scene is missing, that which would have shown the other disciples at the table."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synod of Whitby",
        "text": "In seventh-century Britain there were several differences between Roman and Celtic Christianity. One of these was the method of calculating the date of Easter. The Celtic practice was that of the Gaelic monks associated with the isle of Iona and its extensive network of daughter-houses, where the monks still observed an 84-year Easter cycle (as had earlier been the rule in Gaul and in Rome), whereas the newer tradition which was kept in Rome by this time was a 19-year cycle which had been adopted from the church of Alexandria. In the kingdom of Northumbria, these two traditions coexisted, and each had been encouraged by different royal houses. Edwin of Northumbria had converted to Christianity under the influence of missionaries sent from Rome by Pope Gregory the Great and thus had established the 19-year Easter cycle in his realm. However, following his death and a year of political instability, Oswald of Northumbria gained the throne. He had learned Christian practice from the monks of Iona during his stay there (while a political exile in his youth), and had encouraged Ionan missionaries to further the Christianization of Northumbria, especially the famous Bishop Aidan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "Controversy arose when Victor, bishop of Rome a generation after Anicetus, attempted to excommunicate Polycrates of Ephesus and all other bishops of Asia for their Quartodecimanism. According to Eusebius, a number of synods were convened to deal with the controversy, which he regarded as all ruling in support of Easter on Sunday. Polycrates (\"circa\" 190), however, wrote to Victor defending the antiquity of Asian Quartodecimanism. Victor's attempted excommunication was apparently rescinded, and the two sides reconciled upon the intervention of bishop Irenaeus and others, who reminded Victor of the tolerant precedent of Anicetus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antichrist",
        "text": "Seventh-day Adventists view the length of time the apostate church's unbridled power was permitted to rule as shown in Daniel 7:25: \"The little horn would rule a time and times and half a time\" - or 1,260 years. They regard papal rule as supreme in Europe from 538 (when the Arian Ostrogoths retreated from Rome into temporary oblivion) until 1798 (when the French general Louis-Alexandre Berthier took Pope Pius VI captive)\u2014a period of 1,260 years - including the 67 years of the Avignon Captivity (1309-1376)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Veronese Easter",
        "text": "Of the three thousand French soldiers garrisoned, five hundred were left dead, and approximately one thousand wounded; five hundred soldiers and nineteen hundred members of their families had been captured."
      },
      {
        "title": "First Day of the Easter Rising",
        "text": "Daly's men, erecting barricades at the Four Courts, were the first to see action. A troop of the 5th and 12th Lancers, part of the 6th Cavalry Reserve Regiment, was escorting an ammunition convoy along the north Quays when it came under fire from the rebels. Unable to break through, they took refuge in nearby buildings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synod of Whitby",
        "text": "However, Wilfrid's method of calculating the date of Easter was the one used in Alexandria, not in Rome. Bede presented the synod as a victory for the Roman party even though he had doubts whether the method was used in Rome. He produced his own version based on the Alexandrian tables, as amended by Dionysius, for his own calculations in his \"De Temporibus\" (703) and in more detail in his \"De Temporum Ratione\" (716-25). The Bedan tables came to be accepted in the British Isles and the Carolingian Empire in the ninth century and in Rome in the tenth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Calvary is the hill in Jerusalem where Jesus was crucified."
      },
      {
        "title": "Week",
        "text": "The seven-day weekly cycle has remained unbroken in Christendom, and hence in Western history, for almost two millennia, despite changes to the Coptic, Julian, and Gregorian calendars, demonstrated by the date of Easter Sunday having been traced back through numerous computistic tables to an Ethiopic copy of an early Alexandrian table beginning with the Easter of AD 311."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary at Plougonven",
        "text": "Larhantec was commissioned to carry out a restoration in July 1897. He created three new crosses. He repaired the horses and their riders, restored all the statuary and, under strict instruction from the clergy, he changed the order of the statues bringing them into line with the text of the gospel."
      },
      {
        "title": "L'Escala",
        "text": "Roman remains dating from 580 BC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Date of Easter",
        "text": "So for a given date of the ecclesiastical full moon, there are seven possible Easter dates. The cycle of Sunday letters, however, does not repeat in seven years: because of the interruptions of the leap day every four years, the full cycle in which weekdays recur in the calendar in the same way, is years, the so-called solar cycle. So the Easter dates repeated in the same order after years. This paschal cycle is also called the Victorian cycle, after Victorius of Aquitaine, who introduced it in Rome in 457. It is first known to have been used by Annianus of Alexandria at the beginning of the 5th century. It has also sometimes erroneously been called the Dionysian cycle, after Dionysius Exiguus, who prepared Easter tables that started in 532; but he apparently did not realize that the Alexandrian computus he described had a 532-year cycle, although he did realize that his 95-year table was not a true cycle. Venerable Bede (7th century) seems to have been the first to identify the solar cycle and explain the paschal cycle from the Metonic cycle and the solar cycle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Campo di Giove",
        "text": "A temple dedicated to the father of the gods, the origin of which remains a mystery, was built around 300BC at the beginning of the Via di Coccia (between l\u2019Ara and Il Tescino). Legend has it that, following a bitter feud between the Paeligni and the Romans, the Paeligni had won the day when a huge storm turned the outcome of the battle on its head, and the Romans celebrated their success brought about by the rain by constructing a temple to Jupiter on the site where the Sant\u2019Eustachio church can now be found. One thing we know for sure is that the entire area, turned into a military encampment during the summer (remember that 300BC falls between the Second and Third Samnite Wars), was called Campus Jovis. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, not even those living among the mountains were spared the arrival of the barbarians. The \u201cpagi\u201d were too close to the Via Numicia and disappeared. The sheep-migration roads were no longer safe and the flocks were diminishing. Rather than the \u201cpagi\u201d, the shepherds preferred huts that could be transported from one field to the next; the grazing was now done not by large migrating flocks but by the few non-migratory sheep remaining that were needed to sustain life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary (2014 film)",
        "text": "Filming began on 24 September 2012. The production spent three weeks shooting in and around County Sligo primarily in the town of Easkey where the film is set and also on the Streedagh beach in north county Sligo, with some shooting in Ardgillan Castle Balbriggan Dublin followed by two weeks of filming in Rush, Dublin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calucones",
        "text": "The Calucones were a Gallic or Rhaetian tribe dwelling around present-day Chur (eastern Switzerland) during the Roman period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Caedite eos. Novit enim Dominus qui sunt eius.",
        "text": "While discussions were still going on with the barons about the release of those in the city who were deemed to be Catholics, the servants and other persons of low rank and unarmed attacked the city without waiting for orders from their leaders. To our amazement, crying \"to arms, to arms!\", within the space of two or three hours they crossed the ditches and the walls and B\u00e9ziers was taken. Our men spared no one, irrespective of rank, sex or age, and put to the sword almost 20,000 people. After this great slaughter the whole city was despoiled and burnt\u00a0..."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yverdon-les-Bains",
        "text": "The Barbarians invaded Italy in the 5th century, and threatened to assault Rome. In a last desperate effort to save the city, all troops stationed North of the Alps were ordered back to Italy. The garrison and the Roman administration had to abandon the Yverdon camp. The inhabitants of Eburodunum, up to then assigned to live beyond the ramparts, immediately took possession of the \"Castrum\", using it for their own safety. Like this, Eburodunum-Yverdon survived the hard times, until the 15th century. The Castrum was noted in the \"Notitia Dignitatum\" (dated c. 420 CE)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Liturgical year",
        "text": "During these weeks the faithful meditate over the 40 days fast of Jesus and the culmination of his public life in passion, death and burial. The season begins 50 days before Easter on Peturta Sunday and comprises the whole period of Great Lent and culminates on Resurrection Sunday. Word Peturta in Syriac means \"looking back\" or \"reconciliation\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crucifixion of Jesus",
        "text": "The traditional site, inside what is now occupied by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in the Christian Quarter of the Old City, has been attested since the 4th century. A second site (commonly referred to as Gordon's Calvary ), located further north of the Old City near a place popularly called the Garden Tomb, has been promoted since the 19th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Date of Easter",
        "text": "The tables of Dionysius and Victorius conflicted with those traditionally used in the British Isles. The British tables used an 84-year cycle, but an error made the full moons fall progressively too early. The discrepancy led to a report that Queen Eanfled, on the Dionysian system fasted on her Palm Sunday while her husband Oswy, king of Northumbria, feasted on his Easter Sunday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pope Anicetus",
        "text": "According to Irenaeus, it was during his pontificate that the aged Polycarp of Smyrna, a disciple of John the Evangelist, visited Rome to discuss the celebration of Easter with Anicetus. Polycarp and his Church of Smyrna celebrated the crucifixion on the fourteenth day of Nisan, which coincides with Pesach (or Passover) regardless of which day of the week upon this date fell, while the Roman Church celebrated Easter on Sunday\u2014the weekday of Jesus's resurrection. The two did not agree on a common date, but Anicetus conceded to Polycarp and the Church of Smyrna the ability to retain the date to which they were accustomed. The controversy was to grow heated in the following centuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aichardus",
        "text": "He spent 39 years at this monastery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary (monument)",
        "text": "The oldest surviving \"calvaire\", dating to between 1450 and 1460, is at the Chapelle Notre-Dame-de-Trono\u00ebn in the town of Saint-Jean-Trolimon, in south Finist\u00e8re, near the Pointe de la Torche. This is raised on a large base which also includes carved representations of the Last Supper and scenes from the passion. Calvaires played an important role in Breton pilgrimages known as Pardons, forming a focal point for public festivals. In some instances the Calvary forms part of an outdoor pulpit or throne."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antichrist",
        "text": "Seventh-day Adventists understand the 1260 years as lasting AD 538 to 1798 as the (supposed) duration of the papacy's domination over Rome. This period is seen as starting from one of the defeats of the Ostrogoths by the general Belisarius and as ending with the successes of French general Napoleon Bonaparte, specifically, with the capture of Pope Pius VI by general Louis Alexandre Berthier in 1798."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How long did the Romans live in Calvary?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "Rather than a place where people lived, Calvary (also known as Golgotha) was a site immediately outside Jerusalem's walls. Christian tradition, since at least the 6th century, has described the location as a \"mountain\" or \"hill\".",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I did not find the answer, but I did find that Calvary is believed to be a site Outside of Jerusalem and Mount Zion is a site associated before the Roman destruction of Jerusalem."
    ],
    "topic": "Easter",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Calvary:12",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Calvary",
          "Biblical references and etymology"
        ],
        "ctx": "While the Gospels merely identify Calvary as a \"place\" (), Christian tradition since at least the 6th century has described the location as a \"mountain\" or \"hill\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Calvary:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Calvary"
        ],
        "ctx": "Calvary, or Golgotha ( , traditionally interpreted as reflecting , as it were Hebrew 'skull' (); ), was, according to the canonical Gospels, a site immediately outside Jerusalem's walls where Jesus was crucified."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Calvary:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Calvary"
        ],
        "ctx": "Calvary, or Golgotha ( , traditionally interpreted as reflecting , as it were Hebrew 'skull' (); ), was, according to the canonical Gospels, a site immediately outside Jerusalem's walls where Jesus was crucified."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Calvary:35",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Calvary",
          "Gordon's Calvary"
        ],
        "ctx": "Eusebius comments that Golgotha was in his day (the 4th century) pointed out \"north of Mount Zion\". While \"Mount Zion\" was used previously in reference to the Temple Mount itself, Josephus, the first-century AD historian who knew the city as it was before the Roman destruction of Jerusalem, identified Mount Zion as being the Western Hill (the current Mount Zion), which is south of both the Garden Tomb and the Holy Sepulchre. Eusebius' comment therefore offers no additional argument for either location."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)",
        "text": "Josephus goes on to say that the Jews then attacked the Romans on the east, near the Mount of Olives, but Titus drove them back to the valley. Zealots set the north-west colonnade on fire (v. 165). The Romans set the next one on fire, and the Jews wanted it to burn (v. 166), and they also trapped some Roman soldiers when they wanted to climb over the wall. They had burned wood under the wall when Romans were trapped on it (v.178\u2013183)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Syria Palaestina",
        "text": "The Romans destroyed the Jewish community of the Church in Jerusalem, which had existed since the time of Jesus. Traditionally it is believed the Jerusalem Christians waited out the Jewish\u2013Roman wars in Pella in the Decapolis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)",
        "text": "According to Josephus, when the Romans reached Antonia they tried to destroy the wall which protected it. They removed four stones only, but during the night the wall collapsed. \"That night the wall was so shaken by the battering rams in that place where John had used his stratagem before, and had undermined their banks, that the ground then gave way, and the wall fell down suddenly.\" (v. 28)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)",
        "text": "As the legions charged in, neither persuasion nor threat could check their impetuosity: passion alone was in command. Crowded together around the entrances many were trampled by their friends, many fell among the still hot and smoking ruins of the colonnades and died as miserably as the defeated. As they neared the Sanctuary they pretended not even to hear Caesar's commands and urged the men in front to throw in more firebrands. The partisans were no longer in a position to help; everywhere was slaughter and flight. Most of the victims were peaceful citizens, weak and unarmed, butchered wherever they were caught. Round the Altar the heaps of corpses grew higher and higher, while down the Sanctuary steps poured a river of blood and the bodies of those killed at the top slithered to the bottom.Josephus's account absolves Titus of any culpability for the destruction of the Temple, but this may merely reflect his desire to procure favor with the Flavian dynasty.The Roman legions quickly crushed the remaining Jewish resistance. Some of the remaining Jews escaped through hidden tunnels and sewers, while others made a final stand in the Upper City. This defense halted the Roman advance as they had to construct siege towers to assail the remaining Jews. Herod's Palace fell on 7 September, and the city was completely under Roman control by 8 September. The Romans continued to pursue those who had fled the city."
      },
      {
        "title": "Battle of Beth Horon (66)",
        "text": "Withdrawing towards the coast from Jerusalem, the Romans were closely pursued by rebel scouts. As they neared the pass of Beth Horon, they were ambushed and came under attack from massed missile fire and arrows. They were then suddenly rushed by a large force of rebel Judean infantry. The Romans could not get into formation within the narrow confines of the pass and lost cohesion under the fierce assault. The equivalent of an entire legion was destroyed, with 6,000 troops killed, many wounded, and the rest fleeing in disarray. Gallus succeeded in escaping with a fraction of his troops to Antioch by sacrificing the greater part of his army and a large amount of materiel."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of antisemitism",
        "text": "The Romans refused to permit the Jews to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem after its destruction by Titus in 70 CE, imposed a tax on the Jews (Fiscus Judaicus) at the same time, ostensibly to finance the construction of the Temple of Jupiter in Rome, and renamed Judaea Syria Palestina. The Jerusalem Talmud relates that, following the Bar Kokhba revolt (132\u2013136 CE), the Romans killed many Jews, \"killing until their horses were submerged in blood to their nostrils\". However, some historians argue that Rome brutally suppressed revolts in all of its conquered territories and they also point out that Tiberius expelled all adherents of foreign religions from Rome, not just the Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Titus",
        "text": "The Romans finally captured the Antonia Fortress and began a frontal assault on the gates of the Second Temple. As they breached the gate, the Romans set the upper and lower city aflame, culminating with the destruction of the Temple. When the fires subsided, Titus gave the order to destroy the remainder of the city, allegedly intending that no one would remember the name Jerusalem. The Temple was demolished, Titus's soldiers proclaimed him \"imperator\" in honour of the victory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sicarii",
        "text": "The Zealots, Sicarii and other prominent rebels finally joined forces to attack and temporarily take Jerusalem from Rome in 66 AD, where they took control of the Temple in Jerusalem, executing anyone who tried to oppose their power. The local populace resisted their control and launched a series of sieges and raids to remove the rebel factions. The rebels eventually silenced the uprising and Jerusalem stayed in their hands for the duration of the war. The Romans finally came to take back the city, and they led counter-attacks and sieges to starve the rebels inside. The rebels held for some time, but the constant bickering and the lack of leadership led the groups to disintegrate. The leader of the Sicarii, Menahem, was killed by rival factions during an altercation. Soon, the Romans regained control, and finally destroyed the whole city in 70 AD."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)",
        "text": "The destruction was an important point in the separation of Christianity from its Jewish roots: many Christians responded by distancing themselves from the rest of Judaism, as reflected in the Gospels, which portray Jesus as anti-Temple and view the destruction of the temple as punishment for rejection of Jesus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walls of Jerusalem",
        "text": "In 70 CE, as a result of the Roman siege during the First Jewish\u2013Roman War, the walls were almost completely destroyed. Jerusalem would remain in ruins for some six decades and without protective walls for over two centuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Jerusalem",
        "text": "What is today known as the \"Old City\" was laid out by the Roman Emperor Hadrian in the 2nd century, when he began to rebuild Jerusalem as a pagan city. In 130, Hadrian visited the ruins of Jerusalem remaining after the First Jewish-Roman War of 66\u201373. He rebuilt the city, renaming it Aelia Capitolina in 135\u00a0CE. Hadrian placed the city's main Roman Forum at the junction of the main Cardo and Decumanus, now the location of the (smaller) Muristan. Hadrian built a large temple to Jupiter Capitolinus, which later became the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. He placed restrictions on some Jewish practices, which caused a revolt led by Simon Bar Kokhba. Hadrian responded with overwhelming force, putting down the rebellion, killing as many as a half million Jews, and resettling the city as a Roman \"colonia\". Jews were forbidden to enter the city but for a single day of the year, Tisha B'Av (the Ninth of Av), the fast day on which Jews mourn the destruction of both Temples. For the next two centuries, the city remained a relatively unimportant pagan Roman town."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)",
        "text": "Overlooking the Temple compound, the fortress provided a perfect point from which to attack the Temple itself. Battering rams made little progress, but the fighting itself eventually set the walls on fire; a Roman soldier threw a burning stick onto one of the Temple's walls. Destroying the Temple was not among Titus's goals, possibly due in large part to the massive expansions done by Herod the Great mere decades earlier. Titus had wanted to seize it and transform it into a temple dedicated to the Roman Emperor and the Roman pantheon. However, the fire spread quickly and was soon out of control. The Temple was captured and destroyed on 9/10 Tisha B'Av, sometime in August 70 CE, and the flames spread into the residential sections of the city. Josephus described the scene:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)",
        "text": "The siege lasted for about five months; it ended in August 70 CE on Tisha B'Av with the burning and destruction of the Second Temple. The Romans then entered and sacked the Lower City. The Arch of Titus, celebrating the Roman sack of Jerusalem and the Temple, still stands in Rome. The conquest of the city was complete on approximately 8 September 70 CE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem",
        "text": "In the Siege of Jerusalem of 614, after 21 days of relentless siege warfare, Jerusalem was captured. Byzantine chronicles relate that the Sassanids and Jews slaughtered tens of thousands of Christians in the city, many at the Mamilla Pool, and destroyed their monuments and churches, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. This episode has been the subject of much debate between historians. The conquered city would remain in Sassanid hands for some fifteen years until the Byzantine emperor Heraclius reconquered it in 629."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kingdom of David The Saga of the Israelites",
        "text": "Rome had to act and General Vespasian was dispatched with three legions of 60,000 soldiers to the troubled area. The Jewish countryside fled to the walls of Jerusalem upon seeing the advancing Roman army. The historian Josephus estimated that 100,000 were trapped inside the city walls where anarchy reigned. Six rebel groups vied with one another, destroying their entire food supply. The zealots threatened death to anyone who wished to leave the city. If one did manage to escape, they faced the Roman army and their mercenaries who would either eviscerate them, looking for swallowed gold or jewels, or crucify them. The hills around Jerusalem were deforested due to the number of crosses being erected for crucifixion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Syon Abbey",
        "text": "There are numerous references to \"Sion\" in the Latin Bible, called \"Zion\" in the English Authorised Version, almost all of which are in the Old Testament. Mount Zion was the citadel of Jerusalem, which David captured from the Jebusites c. 1000 BC, as is clear from II Samuel, 5:7 \"David took the stronghold of Zion: the same is the city of David\". It was there that David, 2nd King of Israel, established the capital of his kingdom of Israel, and upon which citadel it was that his son Solomon built the Temple, in which he was the dwelling place of God (II Samuel 7:6). It is thus the holiest site of Judaism and highly revered by Christians. Psalm 87:2 states \"The Lord loveth the gates of Zion\"; Joel 3:17 states \"I am the Lord your God dwelling in Zion my holy mountain\". The Romans razed the Jewish Temple to the ground in 70 AD and following the rise of Islam from 622, and the Muslim capture of the Holy Land in 636, the Muslims built on Mount Zion their Muslim shrine \"The Dome of the Rock\", which still stands today. The Crusaders recaptured Jerusalem for the Christians in 1099 and the Knights Templar built a round church near the site of the old Jewish Temple. Following the Muslim recapture of Jerusalem a century later, the site has been unavailable for formal Jewish or Christian prayer."
      },
      {
        "title": "First Jewish\u2013Roman War",
        "text": "The siege of Jerusalem, the fortified capital city of the province, quickly turned into a stalemate. Unable to breach the city's defenses, the Roman armies established a permanent camp just outside the city, digging a trench around the circumference of its walls and building a wall as high as the city walls themselves around Jerusalem. Anyone caught in the trench attempting to flee the city would be captured and crucified in lines on top of the dirt wall facing into Jerusalem, with as many as five hundred crucifixions occurring in a day. The two Zealot leaders, John of Gischala and Simon Bar Giora, only ceased hostilities and joined forces to defend the city when the Romans began to construct ramparts for the siege."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abomination of desolation",
        "text": "In 63 BCE, the Romans captured Jerusalem and Judea became an outpost of the Roman Empire, but in 66 CE the Jews rose in revolt against the Romans as their ancestors had once done against Antiochus. The resulting First Jewish\u2013Roman War ended in 70 CE when the legions of the Roman general Titus surrounded and eventually captured Jerusalem; the city and the temple were razed to the ground, and the only habitation on the site until the first third of the next century was a Roman military camp. It was against this background that the gospels were written, Mark around 70 AD and Matthew and Luke around 80\u201385. It is almost certain that none of the authors were eyewitnesses to the life of Jesus, and Mark was the source used by the authors of Matthew and Luke for their \"abomination of desolation\" passages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem",
        "text": "Roman rule over Jerusalem and Judea was challenged in the First Jewish\u2013Roman War (66-73 CE), which ended with a Roman victory. Early on, the city was devastated by a brutal civil war between several Jewish factions fighting for control of the city. In 70 CE, the Romans destroyed Jerusalem and the Second Temple. The contemporary Jewish historian Josephus wrote that the city \"was so thoroughly razed to the ground by those that demolished it to its foundations, that nothing was left that could ever persuade visitors that it had once been a place of habitation.\" Of the 600,000 (Tacitus) or 1,000,000 (Josephus) Jews of Jerusalem, all of them either died of starvation, were killed or were sold into slavery. Roman rule was again challenged during the Bar Kokhba revolt, beginning in 132 CE and suppressed by the Romans in 135 CE. More recent research indicates that the Romans had founded Aelia Capitolina before the outbreak of the revolt, and found no evidence for Bar Kokhba ever managing to hold the city."
      },
      {
        "title": "Via Dolorosa",
        "text": "During the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholics of Jerusalem split into two factions, one controlling the churches on the western hill, the other the churches on the eastern hill; they each supported the route which took pilgrims past the churches the faction in question controlled, one arguing that the Roman governor's mansion (\"Praetorium\") was on Mount Zion (where they had churches), the other that it was near the Antonia Fortress (where they had churches)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)",
        "text": "Despite early successes in repelling the Roman sieges, the Zealots fought amongst themselves, and they lacked proper leadership, resulting in poor discipline, training, and preparation for the battles that were to follow. At one point they destroyed the food stocks in the city, a drastic measure thought to have been undertaken perhaps in order to enlist a merciful God's intervention on behalf of the besieged Jews, or as a stratagem to make the defenders more desperate, supposing that was necessary in order to repel the Roman army."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ancient Rome",
        "text": "The most significant military campaign undertaken during the Flavian period was the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 by Titus. The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in Judea following the Jewish uprising of 66. The Second Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus' soldiers proclaimed him \"imperator\" in honor of the victory. Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of whom a majority were Jewish. 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon bar Giora and John of Giscala. Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean. Titus reportedly refused to accept a wreath of victory, as there was \"no merit in vanquishing people forsaken by their own God\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early centers of Christianity",
        "text": "In 66, the Jews revolted against Rome. Rome besieged Jerusalem for four years, and the city fell in 70. The city, including the Temple, was destroyed and the population was mostly killed or removed. According to a tradition recorded by Eusebius and Epiphanius of Salamis, the Jerusalem church fled to Pella at the outbreak of the First Jewish Revolt. According to Epiphanius of Salamis, the Cenacle survived at least to Hadrian's visit in 130. A scattered population survived. The Sanhedrin relocated to Jamnia. Prophecies of the Second Temple's destruction are found in the synoptics, specifically in the Olivet Discourse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siege of Jerusalem (636\u2013637)",
        "text": "Jerusalem was an important city of the Byzantine province of Palaestina Prima. Just 23 years prior to the Muslim conquest, in 614, it fell to an invading Sassanid army under Shahrbaraz during the last of the Byzantine\u2013Sasanian Wars. The Persians looted the city, and are said to have massacred its 90,000 Christian inhabitants. As part of the looting, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was destroyed and the True Cross captured and taken to Ctesiphon as a battle-captured holy relic. The Cross was later returned to Jerusalem by Emperor Heraclius after his final victory against the Persians in 628. The Jews, who were persecuted in their Christian-controlled homeland, initially aided the Persian conquerors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christodulus of Jerusalem",
        "text": "Further destruction occurred in Ashkelon where Muslims and Jews attacked and burned a church known as '\u201cMary the Green\u201d. When the Bishop of Ashkelon attempted to obtain the permission of the caliph in Baghdad to rebuild the church, the Muslim partisans objected seriously, and he never received permission from the caliph."
      },
      {
        "title": "Titus",
        "text": "Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, most of whom were Jewish. Josephus's death toll assumptions are rejected as impossible by modern scholarship since about a million people then lived in the Land of Israel, half of them Jewish, and sizable Jewish populations remained in the area after the war was over, even in the hard-hit region of Judea. However, 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon Bar-Giora and John of Gischala. Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean Sea. Titus reportedly refused to accept a wreath of victory, as he claimed that he had not won the victory on his own but had been the vehicle through which their God had manifested his wrath against his people."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legend of Destruction",
        "text": "AD 66, Jerusalem. The Romans ruled Judea with an iron fist and the sophistication worthy of the empire. They like the rich strata of society and corrupt them as a result. Even the high priests responsible for administering the temple and its works are tainted with deep corruption. In contrast, the impoverishment and oppression of the Jewish masses incites many young people to join secret groups of religious zealots, becoming freedom fighters in the name of God. They not only despise the Roman conquerors, but also the wealthy Jews who cooperate with them in oppressing their own people. As tension builds underground, a small spark triggers a rebellion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second Temple",
        "text": "Historical accounts relate that not only the Jewish Temple was destroyed, but also the entire Lower city of Jerusalem. Even so, according to Josephus, Titus did not totally raze the towers (such as the \"Tower of Phasael\", now erroneously called the Tower of David), keeping them as a memorial of the city's strength. The Midrash Rabba (\"Eikha Rabba\" 1:32) recounts a similar episode related to the destruction of the city, according to which Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai, during the Roman siege of Jerusalem, requested of Vespasian that he spare the westernmost gates of the city () that lead to Lydda (Lod). When the city was eventually taken, the Arab auxiliaries who had fought alongside the Romans under their general, Fanjar, also spared that westernmost wall from destruction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Temple in Jerusalem",
        "text": "In 363 CE, the Roman emperor Julian had ordered Alypius of Antioch to rebuild the Temple as part of his campaign to strengthen non-Christian religions. The attempt failed, perhaps due to sabotage, an accidental fire, or an earthquake in Galilee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre",
        "text": "On 29 September 1009, Al-Hakim ordered a governor of Ramla called Yarukh to demolish the area around Constantine's original Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Yarukh, along with his son Yusuf, Al-Husayn ibn Zahir al-Wazzan and Abu'l-Farawis Al-Dayf were among those who started destroying various buildings. Christians believe the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is built on the site of the Calvary or Golgotha where Jesus was believed by Christians to have been crucified, over a rock-cut room that Helena and Macarius identified as the location of the resurrection. The destruction was chronicled by Yahya ibn Sa'id of Antioch who noted it \"cast down as far as the foundations\" and the rock cut tomb was demolished in the attempt to \"cause all trace of it to disappear\". All sacred remains and holy relics were \"completely annihilated\". Iron hammers were ineffectual against the bedrock foundations of the tomb, so they resorted to burning it with fire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Church of the Holy Sepulchre",
        "text": "Following the siege of Jerusalem in AD 70 during the First Jewish\u2013Roman War, Jerusalem had been reduced to ruins. In AD\u00a0130, the Roman emperor Hadrian began the building of a Roman colony, the new city of \"Aelia Capitolina\", on the site. Circa AD\u00a0135, he ordered that a cave containing a rock-cut tomb be filled in to create a flat foundation for a temple dedicated to Jupiter or Venus. The temple remained until the early 4th century."
      },
      {
        "title": "First Jewish\u2013Roman War",
        "text": "In the summer of 70, following a seven-month siege, Titus eventually used the collapse of several of the city walls to breach Jerusalem, ransacking and burning nearly the entire city. The Romans began by attacking the weakest spot: the third wall. It was built shortly before the siege so it did not have as much time invested in its protection. They succeeded towards the end of May and shortly afterwards broke through the more important second wall. During the final stages of the Roman attack, Zealots under John of Giscala still held the Temple, while the Sicarii, led by Simon Bar Giora, held the upper city. The Second Temple (the renovated Herod's Temple), one of the last fortified bastions of the rebellion, was destroyed on Tisha B'Av (29 or 30 July 70)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Persecution of Christians",
        "text": "The Judeo-Persian reaction was ruthless \u2013 Persian Sasanian general Xorheam assembled Judeo-Persian troops and went and encamped around Jerusalem and besieged it for 19 days. Eventually, digging beneath the foundations of the Jerusalem, they destroyed the wall and on the 19th day of the siege, the Judeo-Persian forces took Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem",
        "text": "In 1244, Jerusalem was sacked by the Khwarezmian Tatars, who decimated the city's Christian population and drove out the Jews. The Khwarezmian Tatars were driven out by the Ayyubids in 1247."
      },
      {
        "title": "Historical background of the New Testament",
        "text": "The siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE included a major fire at the Temple which destroyed all except the Western Wall; what remained (including the altar tablet) was taken by Titus to Rome as trophies. The destruction of Jerusalem, and the loss of significant portions of Jewish cultural records were significant, with Flavius Josephus writing (about 5 years later c. 75 AD) in \"The Jewish War\" (Book VII 1.1) that Jerusalem had been flattened to the point that \"there was left nothing to make those that came thither believe it had ever been inhabited.\" And once what was left of the ruins of Jerusalem had been turned into the Roman settlement of Aelia Capitolina, no Jews were allowed to set foot in it; and almost no direct records survive about the history of Judaism from the last part of the first century through the second century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)",
        "text": "The thrust of the siege began in the west at the Third Wall, north of the Jaffa Gate. By May, this was breached and the Second Wall also was taken shortly afterwards, leaving the defenders in possession of the Temple and the upper and lower city. The Jewish defenders were split into factions: John of Gischala's group murdered another faction leader, Eleazar ben Simon, whose men were entrenched in the forecourts of the Temple. The enmities between John of Gischala and Simon bar Giora were papered over only when the Roman siege engineers began to erect ramparts. Titus then had a wall built to girdle the city in order to starve out the population more effectively. After several failed attempts to breach or scale the walls of the Fortress of Antonia, the Romans finally launched a secret attack."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legio X Fretensis",
        "text": "By 70, the rebellion in all of Judaea had been crushed, except for Jerusalem and a few fortresses, including Masada. In that year X \"Fretensis\", in conjunction with V \"Macedonica\", XII \"Fulminata\", and XV \"Apollinaris\", began the siege of Jerusalem, stronghold of the rebellion. The Xth camped on the Mount of Olives. During the siege, Legio X gained fame in the effective use of their various war machines. It was noted that they were able to hurl stones that weighted a talent (about 25\u00a0kg) a distance of two furlongs (400 m) or further. The projectiles of their ballistae caused heavy damage to the ramparts. According to Josephus (vol. III of his history of the Judaean war), Larcius Lepidus was the commanding officer of the X Legion. The siege of Jerusalem lasted five months and the besieged population experienced all the terrible rigors of starvation. Finally, the combined assaults of the legions succeeded in taking the city, which was then subjected to destruction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish revolt against Heraclius",
        "text": "Following the outburst of violence in Jerusalem, the surviving Jews fled to Shahrbaraz's encampment at Caesarea. Christians were able to briefly retake the city before the walls were breached by Shahrbaraz's forces who lay siege to the city. Sources vary on how long the siege lasted. Depending on the source it lasted 19, 20 or 21 days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siebenberg House",
        "text": "The original Siebenberg home here, said to be a Hasmonean Palace, was destroyed two millennia ago by the Romans. Flavius Josephus tells the story of the conquest of Jerusalem. \"Pouring into the alleys [of the Upper City], sword in hand, they massacred indiscriminately all whom they met, and burnt the houses with all who had taken refuge within.\u2026.running everyone through who fell in their way, they choked the alleys with corpses and deluged the whole city with blood, insomuch that many of the fires were extinguished by the gory stream.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Israel",
        "text": "The Jewish Menorah, which the Romans took when the temple was destroyed, was reportedly taken to Carthage by the Vandals after the sacking of Rome in 455. According to the Byzantine historian, Procopius, the Byzantine army recovered it in 533 and brought it to Constantinople."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mount Zion",
        "text": "In the second half of the First Temple period, the city expanded westward and its defensive walls were extended to include the entire Western Hill behind them. Nebuchadnezzar II destroyed the city almost completely around 586 BCE, severing the continuity of historical memory. A long period of rebuilding followed, ending with Jerusalem's second total destruction at the hands of the Romans in 70 CE. Josephus, the first-century CE historian who knew the city as it was before this second catastrophic event, identified Mount Zion as being the Western Hill, separated from the lower, Eastern Hill, by what he calls the \"Tyropoeon Valley\". It must however be said that Josephus never used the name \"Mount Zion\" in any of his writings, but described the \"Citadel\" of King David as being situated on the higher and longer hill, thus pointing at the Western Hill as what the Bible calls Mount Zion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sasanian conquest of Jerusalem",
        "text": "Following the outburst of violence in Jerusalem the surviving Jews fled to Shahrbaraz\u2019s encampment at Caesarea. Christians were able to briefly retake the city before the walls were breached by Shahrbaraz\u2019s forces who lay siege to the city. According to Antiochus Strategos, the abbot Modestos set out to Jericho where he mustered a force from the Byzantine troops which were garrisoned there. However, once the Byzantine troops caught sight of the overwhelming Persian army encamped outside the city walls, they fled, fearing a suicidal battle. Sources vary on how long the siege lasted. Depending on the source it lasted 19, 20 or 21 days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)",
        "text": "The account of Josephus described Titus as moderate in his approach and, after conferring with others, ordering that the 500-year-old Temple be spared. According to Josephus, it was the Jews who first used fire in the Northwest approach to the Temple to try and stop Roman advances. Only then did Roman soldiers set fire to an apartment adjacent to the Temple, starting a conflagration which the Jews subsequently made worse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)",
        "text": "Now as soon as the army had no more people to slay or to plunder, because there remained none to be the objects of their fury (for they would not have spared any, had there remained any other work to be done), [Titus] Caesar gave orders that they should now demolish the entire city and Temple, but should leave as many of the towers standing as they were of the greatest eminence; that is, Phasaelus, and Hippicus, and Mariamne; and so much of the wall enclosed the city on the west side. This wall was spared, in order to afford a camp for such as were to lie in garrison [in the Upper City], as were the towers [the three forts] also spared, in order to demonstrate to posterity what kind of city it was, and how well fortified, which the Roman valor had subdued; but for all the rest of the wall [surrounding Jerusalem], it was so thoroughly laid even with the ground by those that dug it up to the foundation, that there was left nothing to make those that came thither believe it [Jerusalem] had ever been inhabited. This was the end which Jerusalem came to by the madness of those that were for innovations; a city otherwise of great magnificence, and of mighty fame among all mankind.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)",
        "text": "The siege of Jerusalem in the year 70 CE was the decisive event of the First Jewish\u2013Roman War, in which the Roman army captured the city of Jerusalem and destroyed both the city and its Temple. The Roman army, led by the future Emperor Titus, with Tiberius Julius Alexander as his second-in-command, besieged and conquered the city of Jerusalem, which had been controlled by Judean rebel factions since 66 CE, following the Jerusalem riots of 66, when the Judean provisional government was formed in Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Jerusalem",
        "text": "The Bible records that shortly after this battle, Jerusalem was sacked by Philistines, Arabs and Ethiopians, who looted King Jehoram's house, and carried off all of his family except for his youngest son Jehoahaz."
      },
      {
        "title": "Temple Mount",
        "text": "Constantine's nephew Emperor Julian granted permission in the year 363 for the Jews to rebuild the Temple. In a letter attributed to Julian he wrote to the Jews that \"This you ought to do, in order that, when I have successfully concluded the war in Persia, I may rebuild by my own efforts the sacred city of Jerusalem, which for so many years you have longed to see inhabited, and may bring settlers there, and, together with you, may glorify the Most High God therein.\" Julian saw the Jewish God as a fitting member of the pantheon of gods he believed in, and he was also a strong opponent of Christianity. Church historians wrote that the Jews began to clear away the structures and rubble on the Temple Mount but were thwarted, first by a great earthquake, and then by miracles that included fire springing from the earth. However, no contemporary Jewish sources mention this episode directly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tiberius Julius Alexander",
        "text": "Vespasian moved rapidly to Egypt, leaving the Jewish war under the command of Titus. At the same time Alexander, as a proven commander with experience of Jewish affairs, was sent by Vespasian to join Titus as his chief of staff and adviser, second only to Titus himself. The siege of Jerusalem was conducted by four legions, and even after the city walls were overcome, the defenders held out in the Temple. Alexander participated in an initial decision not to destroy the Temple, which would remain an ornament, but to quench the fire. Two subsequent assaults by Jewish forces were repelled, and the survivors retreated to the inner temple. In a sortie, according to Josephus they clashed with the Roman troops tasked with putting the flames out, and one enraged Roman soldier threw a brand into the sanctum, destroying it. Josephus's accounts of the sequence of events, and of who was responsible, is highly contradictory, though, as in rabbinic tradition, both this and the earlier destruction of the Temple were due to God's will, Nebuchadnezzer and the Romans being but his instruments. He makes Titus willing and unwilling to destroy the Temple, depending on what passage of his works one relies on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tarichaea",
        "text": "Another difficulty has been pointed out by archaeologist Mordechai Aviam, who admits that during the archaeological excavations conducted at the site \"no remains of fortifications or a destructionlayer were found\", against what Josephus says of Tarichaea. Nevertheless, the same Aviam maintains that could be due to the fact that the walls \"had been built with no deep foundations and in a very simple way\" and therefore they \"were taken apart either at the commandof the Romans or when the towns and cities grew many years after the war\", and therefore he maintains the identification of Magdala and Tarichaea"
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary",
        "text": "The Romans typically built a city according to a Hippodamian grid plan\u00a0\u2013 a north\u2013south arterial road, the Cardo (which is now the Suq Khan-ez-Zeit), and an east\u2013west arterial road, the Decumanus Maximus (which is now the Via Dolorosa). The forum would traditionally be located on the intersection of the two roads, with the main temples adjacent. However, due to the obstruction posed by the Temple Mount, as well as the Tenth Legion encampment on the Western Hill, Hadrian's city had two \"Cardo\", two \"Decumanus Maximus\", two forums, and several temples. The Western Forum (now the Muristan) is located on the crossroads of the West Cardo and what is now El-Bazar/David Street, with the Temple of Aphrodite adjacent, on the intersection of the Western Cardo and the Via Dolorosa. The Northern Forum is located north of the Temple Mount, on the junction of the Via Dolorosa and the Eastern Cardo (the Tyropoeon), adjacent to the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, intentionally built atop the Temple Mount. Another popular holy site that Hadrian converted to a pagan temple was the Pool of Bethesda, possibly referenced to in the fifth chapter of the Gospel of John, on which was built the Temple of Asclepius and Serapis. While the positioning of the Temple of Aphrodite may be, in light of the common Colonia layout, entirely unintentional, Hadrian is known to have concurrently built pagan temples on top of other holy sites in Jerusalem as part of an overall \"Romanization\" policy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gaius Cestius Gallus (governor of Syria)",
        "text": "With his force reduced by detachments sent to occupy Galilee and the Judean coast, Gallus turned inland to subdue Jerusalem. After suffering losses amongst his baggage train and rearguard, Gallus reached Mount Scopus and penetrated the outer city, but was apparently unable to take The Temple Mount. After a siege of nine days, Gallus decided to fall back to the coast. His decision appears to have been based on the loss of siege equipment by ambush and the threatened cutting of his supply lines as the October rains began."
      },
      {
        "title": "Macarius of Jerusalem",
        "text": "The huge mound and stonework with the temple of Venus on the top, which in the time of Hadrian had been piled up over the Holy Sepulchre, were demolished, and \"when the original surface of the ground appeared, forthwith, contrary to all expectation, the hallowed monument of our Saviour's Resurrection was discovered\". On hearing the news Constantine wrote to Macarius giving lavish orders for the erection of a church on the site. Later on, he wrote another letter \"To Macarius and the rest of the Bishops of Palestine\" ordering a church to be built at Mambre, which also had been defiled by a pagan shrine. Eusebius, though he gives the superscription as above, speaks of this letter as \"addressed to me\", thinking, perhaps of his metropolitan dignity (Vit. Const., III, 51-53). Churches were also built on the sites of the Nativity and Ascension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Burnt House",
        "text": "The Burnt House is believed to have been set on fire during the Roman destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE. According to Josephus, Jerusalem's Upper City was known for its wealth. It was located close to the Temple and inhabited by priestly families who served in the temple. The house was destroyed one month after the Temple and Lower City. When the Romans stormed the Upper City, they found little resistance: Much of the population was near death from disease and starvation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Battle of Beth Horon (66)",
        "text": "Cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, marched on Jerusalem with Legio XII Fulminata and auxiliary troops, with an aim of crushing the rebels and restoring order. Such had been the standard Roman reaction to uprisings at the time. All available troops were mustered, formed into a column and sent to confront its perceived centre. Ideally, such a show of force would have allowed the Romans to regain the initiative and prevent the rebellion from developing and growing stronger. Gallus conquered Bezetha, in the Jezreel Valley, soon to be the seat of the Great Sanhedrin (Jewish supreme religious court), but was unable to take the Temple Mount; he now decided to withdraw and wait for reinforcements."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Jerusalem",
        "text": "In 66\u00a0CE, the Jewish population rebelled against the Roman Empire in what is now known as the First Jewish\u2013Roman War or \"Great Revolt\". Roman legions under future emperor Titus reconquered and subsequently destroyed much of Jerusalem in 70\u00a0CE. Also the Second Temple was burnt and all that remained was the great external (retaining) walls supporting the esplanade on which the Temple had stood, a portion of which has become known as the Western Wall. Titus' victory is commemorated by the Arch of Titus in Rome. Agrippa\u00a0II died c. 94\u00a0CE, which brought the Herodian dynasty to an end almost thirty years after the destruction of the Second Temple. After the end of this revolt, Jews continued to live in Jerusalem in significant numbers, and were allowed to practice their religion, only if they paid the Jewish Tax."
      },
      {
        "title": "Triumphal entry into Jerusalem",
        "text": "Brent Kinman also argues that the Romans may not have noted Jesus's entry at all: the entrance took place on the Mount of Olives, outside the city, while Roman troops were at the Antonia Fortress, about 300 meters away: it is unlikely that the legionaries were able to see, hear and understand what was happening on the Mount of Olives in the midst of the huge crowd of pilgrims."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kingdom of David The Saga of the Israelites",
        "text": "But many Jews were not ready to make peace with a foreign occupier. Giddy over their success at evicting the Roman garrison, the Zealots openly declared war on Rome. Convinced that they were mad, other groups decided to physically challenge them. House-to-house combat that lasted a week resulted in the city of Jerusalem being severely damaged by fire and looting. The conflict quickly spread throughout Judea. Romans, Greeks and Syrians attacked the Jews, the Jews made reprisals against them as well as each other. Anarchy had replaced social order."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period",
        "text": "A revolt erupted following the appointment of prefect Gessius Florus in 64 CE and his demand to receive the Temple funds. It began in Jerusalem where it was led by local zealots who murdered and set fire to the house of the moderate high priest and a bonds archive in order to mobilize the masses. From Jerusalem the revolt then spread to the rest of the country, especially the mixed cities of Caesarea, Beit She'an and the Galilee. Roman suppression of the revolt begun in the north, with an expeditionary force led by the Roman legate of Syria, Cestius Gallus, making its way to Jerusalem. Gallus failed to take the city and decided to withdraw. Pursued by rebel scouts, the Roman troops were ambushed in the Pass of Beth-Horon, losing the equivalent of an entire legion. Gallus managed to escape but died shortly after."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem riots of 66",
        "text": "Shortly, outraged Judean nationalist factions took up arms and the Roman military garrison of Jerusalem was quickly overrun by rebels. In September 66, the Romans in Jerusalem surrendered and were lynched. Meanwhile, the Greek inhabitants of the capital of Judaea, Caesarea, attacked their Jewish neighbors; the Jews replied in kind, expelling many Greeks from Judaea, Galilee and the Golan heights. Fearing the worst, the pro-Roman king Agrippa II and his sister Berenice fled Jerusalem to Galilee. Judean militias later moved upon Roman citizens of Judaea and pro-Roman officials, cleansing the country of any Roman symbols."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herod's Palace (Jerusalem)",
        "text": "At the creation of the Roman province of Judaea in the year 6 CE, its governors\u2014holding the rank of a prefect until the year 41 and that of a procurator after that\u2014took up residence in Herod's palace. In 66 CE, the Roman governor Gessius Florus set up a mass crucifixion of Jews, sparking the First Jewish Rebellion. Rebelling Jews entered and burnt the palace. Only the three towers remained partially standing. When the future Roman emperor Titus destroyed most of Jerusalem in 70 CE, he spared these and set up the camp of the Tenth Legion Fretensis in the area of the palace ruins, a camp which covered the entire Western Hill. One of the towers\u2014a rebuilt Hippicus (or Phasael) Tower on its intact base\u2014became known as the \"Tower of David\". This was due to the fact that during the Byzantine Period, the Western Hill had been mistakenly identified as Mount Zion and the remains of the one surviving Herodian tower were presumed to be King David's palace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem in Christianity",
        "text": "The fourth-century church fathers Eusebius and Epiphanius of Salamis cite a tradition that before the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 the Jerusalem Jewish Christians had been warned to flee to Pella in the region of the Decapolis across the Jordan River. After the destruction of Jerusalem they came back to the city. James and his successors were the focus for Jewish Christians until the destruction of the city by Emperor Hadrian in 135."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem",
        "text": "Following the Bar Kokhba revolt, Emperor Hadrian combined Iudaea Province with neighboring provinces under the new name of \"Syria Palaestina\", replacing the name of Judea. The city was renamed Aelia Capitolina, and rebuilt it in the style of a typical Roman town. Jews were prohibited from entering the city on pain of death, except for one day each year, during the holiday of Tisha B'Av. Taken together, these measures (which also affected Jewish Christians) essentially \"secularized\" the city. The ban was maintained until the 7th century, though Christians would soon be granted an exemption: during the 4th century, the Roman emperor Constantine I ordered the construction of Christian holy sites in the city, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Burial remains from the Byzantine period are exclusively Christian, suggesting that the population of Jerusalem in Byzantine times probably consisted only of Christians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)",
        "text": "After the Fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of the city and its Temple, there were still a few Judean strongholds in which the rebels continued holding out, at Herodium, Machaerus, and Masada. Both Herodium and Machaerus fell to the Roman army within the next two years, with Masada remaining as the final stronghold of the Judean rebels. In 73 CE, the Romans breached the walls of Masada and captured the fortress, with Josephus claiming that nearly all of the Jewish defenders had committed mass suicide prior to the entry of the Romans. With the fall of Masada, the First Jewish\u2013Roman War came to an end.\n* Judaea Capta coinage: Judaea Capta coins were a series of commemorative coins originally issued by the Roman Emperor Vespasian to celebrate the capture of Judaea and the destruction of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem by his son Titus in 70 CE during the First Jewish-Roman War.\n* Temple of Peace: In 75 CE, the Temple of Peace, also known as the Forum of Vespasian, was built under Emperor Vespasian in Rome. The monument was built to celebrate the conquest of Jerusalem and it is said to have housed the Menorah from Herod's Temple.\n* Flavian Amphitheater: Otherwise known as the Colosseum built from 70 to 80. Archaeological discoveries have found a block of travertine that bears dowel holes that show the Jewish Wars financed the building of the Flavian Amphitheatre.\n* Arch of Titus: 82 CE, Roman Emperor Domitian constructed the Arch of Titus on Via Sacra, Rome, to commemorate the capture and siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE, which effectively ended the First Jewish\u2013Roman War, although the Romans did not achieve complete victory until the fall of Masada in 73 CE.\n*Tisha B'Av, which was already an annual remembrance day for the destruction of the first temple in 586 BC."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish\u2013Roman wars",
        "text": "Hadrian (emperor 117\u2013138 CE) attempted to completely root out Judaism, which he saw as the cause of continuous rebellions. He prohibited the Torah and the Hebrew calendar and executed Judaic scholars. The sacred scroll was ceremonially burned on the Temple Mount. At the former Temple sanctuary he installed two statues, one of Jupiter, another of himself. In an attempt to erase any memory of Judea or Ancient Israel, he wiped the name off the map and replaced it with Syria Palaestina, supplanting earlier terms, such as Judaea. Similarly, he re-established Jerusalem, this time as the Roman polis of Aelia Capitolina, and Jews were barred from entering the city, except on the fast day of Tisha B'Av."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aelia Capitolina",
        "text": "Jerusalem was renamed \"Aelia Capitolina\" and rebuilt in the style of its original Hippodamian plan although adapted to Roman use. Jews were prohibited from entering the city on pain of death, except for one day each year, during the holiday of Tisha B'Av. Taken together, these measures (which also affected Jewish Christians) essentially secularized the city. The ban was maintained until the 7th century, though Christians would soon be granted an exemption: during the 4th century, the Roman emperor Constantine I ordered the construction of Christian holy sites in the city, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Burial remains from the Byzantine period are exclusively Christian, suggesting that the population of Jerusalem in Byzantine times probably consisted only of Christians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaizers",
        "text": "The influence of the Judaizers in the church diminished significantly after the destruction of Jerusalem, when the Jewish-Christian community at Jerusalem was dispersed by the Romans during the First Jewish\u2013Roman War. The Romans also dispersed the Jewish leadership in Jerusalem in 135 during the Bar Kokhba Revolt. Traditionally it is believed the Jerusalem Christians waited out the Jewish\u2013Roman wars in Pella in the Decapolis. These setbacks however didn't necessarily mean an end to Jewish Christianity, any more than Valerian's Massacre of 258, (when he killed all Christian bishops, presbyters, and deacons, including Pope Sixtus II and Antipope Novatian and Cyprian of Carthage), meant an end to Roman Christianity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)",
        "text": "Josephus claims that 1.1 million people were killed during the siege, of which a majority were Jewish. Josephus attributes this to the celebration of Passover which he uses as rationale for the vast number of people present among the death toll. The revolt had not deterred pilgrims from Jewish diaspora communities from trekking to Jerusalem to visit the Temple at Passover, and a large number became trapped in the city and perished during the siege. Armed rebels, as well as the frail citizens, were put to death. All of Jerusalem's remaining citizens became Roman prisoners. After the Romans killed the armed and elder people, 97,000 were still enslaved, including Simon bar Giora and John of Giscala. Of the 97,000, thousands were forced to become gladiators and eventually expired in the arena. Many others were forced to assist in the building of the Forum of Peace and the Colosseum. Those under 17 years of age were sold into servitude. Josephus' death toll assumptions were rejected as impossible by Seth Schwartz (1984), as according to his estimates at that time about a million people lived in Palestine, about half of whom were Jews, and sizable Jewish populations remained in the area after the war was over, even in the hard-hit region of Judea. Titus and his soldiers celebrated victory upon their return to Rome by parading the Menorah and Table of the Bread of God's Presence through the streets. Up until this parading, these items had only ever been seen by the High Priest of the Temple. This event was memorialized in the Arch of Titus. Some 700 Judean prisoners were paraded through the streets of Rome in chains during the triumph, among them John of Giscala, who was sentenced to life imprisonment, and Simon bar Giora, who was executed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Publius Petronius",
        "text": "The destruction of an altar for his own worship was apparently taken as a personal insult by Caligula who was already beset by strife between Jews and Greeks in Alexandria, both of whom had delegations in Rome seeking his adjudication. The emperor struck a counter-blow by instructing Petronius that the temple at Jerusalem should be converted into an imperial shrine with an enormous statue of the emperor in the guise of the Romans' supreme god Jupiter. The Governor was to use two of his available four legions to enforce this decree."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robinson's Arch",
        "text": "The destruction of Robinson's Arch occurred during the events surrounding the Roman sacking of Jerusalem in 70\u00a0CE. It has traditionally been blamed on the Roman legions which destroyed the Temple Mount enclosure and eventually set fire to the entire city. More recently, this has been attributed to the Zealot factions which had wrested control of the Temple Mount and fortified it prior to its fall. Some of these continued to hold out in Jerusalem's Upper City for a month after the city had been breached by the Romans. By wrecking the overpass, as well as the viaduct at Wilson's Arch to the north, the defenders made access to the Temple platform much more difficult for besieging forces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre",
        "text": "The Destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre refers to the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, churches, synagogues, torah scrolls and other religious artifacts and buildings in and around Jerusalem, which was ordered on 28 September 1009 by the Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, known by his critics as the \"mad Caliph\" or \"Nero of Islam\". His son, the Fatimid Caliph Ali az-Zahir, permitted reconstruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in 1027\u201328. The Church was fully rebuilt by 1048."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beit Ur al-Fauqa",
        "text": "In 66 CE, It was in the ravines near Bethoron were the 12th Roman Legion under Cestius Gallus was destroyed at the start of the First Jewish\u2013Roman War. After the subjugation of the revolt in 70 CE, the Romans built a fortress in the town to guard the road to Jerusalem. During the later Roman period and under the Byzantines, Upper Bethoron lost its importance, becoming a small village by the 5th century CE."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Israel",
        "text": "Early in the 4th century, the Emperor Constantine made Constantinople the capital of the East Roman Empire and made Christianity an accepted religion. His mother, Helena made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem (326\u2013328) and led the construction of the Church of the Nativity (birthplace of Jesus in Bethlehem), the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (burial site of Jesus in Jerusalem) and other key churches that still exist. The name Jerusalem was restored to Aelia Capitolina and it became a Christian city. Jews were still banned from living in Jerusalem, but were allowed to visit and worship at the site of the ruined temple. Over the course of the next century Christians worked to eradicate \"paganism\", leading to the destruction of the classical Roman traditions and eradication of its temples. By the end of the 4th Century, anyone caught worshipping \"pagan\" gods was executed and their property confiscated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire",
        "text": "Using the same vocabulary of restoration he had used for the Aelia Capitolina, Constantine acquired sites of Christian significance in the Holy Land for the purpose of constructing churches, destroying the temples in those places. For example, Constantine destroyed the Temple of Aphrodite in Lebanon. However, archaeology indicates this type of destruction did not happen as often as the literature claims. For example, at the sacred oak and spring at Mamre, a site venerated and occupied by both Jews and pagans alike, the literature says Constantine ordered the burning of the idols, the destruction of the altar, and erection of a church. The archaeology of the site, however, demonstrates that Constantine\u2019s church along with its attendant buildings, only occupied a peripheral sector of the precinct, leaving the rest unhindered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish\u2013Roman wars",
        "text": "After a lull in the military operations, owing to civil war and political turmoil in Rome, Vespasian returned to Rome and was accepted as the new Emperor in 69 CE. With Vespasian's departure, Titus besieged the center of rebel resistance in Jerusalem in early 70 CE. While the first two walls of Jerusalem were breached within three weeks, a stubborn stand prevented the Roman Army from breaking the third and thickest wall. Following a brutal seven-month siege, in which Zealot infighting resulted in the burning of the entire food supply of the city to enhance \"fighting to the end\", the Romans finally succeeded in breaching the weakened Jewish forces in the summer of 70 CE. Following the fall of Jerusalem, Titus left for Rome, while Legion X \"Fretensis\" defeated the remaining Jewish strongholds later on, finalizing the Roman campaign in Masada in 73/74 CE."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Jerusalem",
        "text": "The Emperor Constantine, however, rebuilt Jerusalem as a Christian center of worship, building the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in 335. Jerusalem had received special recognition in Canon\u00a0VII of the First Council of Nicaea in 325. Constantine's mother, Helena, made a pilgrimage to the city and claimed to have recovered the \"cross of Christ\". Jews were still banned from the city throughout the remainder of its time as a Roman province, except during a brief period of Persian rule from 614 to 629."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aelia Capitolina",
        "text": "In the fifth century, the eastern continuation of the Roman Empire that was ruled from Constantinople, maintained control of the city. At the beginning of the fifth century, within the span of a few decades, the city shifted from Byzantine to Persian rule, then back to Roman-Byzantine dominion. Following Sassanid Khosrau II's early seventh century push through Syria, his generals Shahrbaraz and Shahin attacked Jerusalem (\"\") aided by the Jews of Palaestina Prima, who had risen up against the Byzantines. In the Siege of Jerusalem of 614 AD, after 21 days of relentless siege warfare, Jerusalem was captured. Byzantine chronicles relate that the Sassanids and Jews slaughtered tens of thousands of Christians in the city, many at the Mamilla Pool, and destroyed their monuments and churches, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The conquered city would remain in Sassanid hands for some fifteen years until the Byzantine emperor Heraclius reconquered it in 629."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calvary",
        "text": "There is no consensus as to the location of the site. John () describes the crucifixion site as being \"near the city\". According to Hebrews (), it was \"outside the city gate\". and both note that the location would have been accessible to \"passers-by\". Thus, locating the crucifixion site involves identifying a site that, in the city of Jerusalem some four decades before its destruction in AD 70, would have been outside a major gate near enough to the city that the passers-by could not only see him, but also read the inscription 'Jesus the Nazarene, King of the Jews'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Church of the Holy Sepulchre",
        "text": "After allegedly seeing a vision of a cross in the sky in 312, Constantine the Great converted to Christianity, signed the Edict of Milan legalising the religion, and sent his mother, Helena, to Jerusalem to look for Christ's tomb. With the help of Bishop of Caesarea Eusebius and Bishop of Jerusalem Macarius, three crosses were found near a tomb; one which allegedly cured people of death was presumed to be the True Cross Jesus was crucified on, leading the Romans to believe that they had found Calvary. Constantine ordered in about 326 that the temple to Jupiter/Venus be replaced by a church. After the temple was torn down and its ruins removed, the soil was removed from the cave, revealing a rock-cut tomb that Helena and Macarius identified as the burial site of Jesus. A shrine was built, enclosing the rock tomb walls within its own."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legio X Fretensis",
        "text": "After the conclusion of the Jewish revolt, Legio X was garrisoned at Jerusalem. Their main camp was positioned on the Western Hill, located in the southern half of what is now the Old City, which had been levelled of all former buildings. The camp of the Tenth was built using the surviving portions of the walls of Herod's royal palace, demolished by order of Titus. Once the Romans rebuilt parts of the destroyed city as the pagan city of \"Aelia Capitolina\", the camp found itself at the end of the \"cardo maximus\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Betar (ancient village)",
        "text": "According to the Jerusalem Talmud, the city was besieged for three and a half years before it finally fell (Jerusalem Talmud, \"Taanit\" 4:5 [13]). According to Jewish tradition, the fortress was breached and destroyed on the fast of Tisha B'Av, in the year 135, on the ninth day of the lunar month Av, a day of mourning for the destruction of the First and the Second Jewish Temple. Earlier, when the Roman army had circumvallated the city (from Latin, \"circum-\" + \"vallum\", round-about + rampart), some sixty men of Israel went down and tried to make a breach in the Roman rampart, but to no avail. When they had not returned and were assumed as dead, the \u1e24azal permitted their wives to remarry, even though their husbands' bodies had not been retrieved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Legend of Destruction",
        "text": "As the Roman war machine approaches Judea to quell the revolt, Jerusalem is torn apart by bloody civil unrest: poor zealots slaughter the aristocracy non-stop and a zealous terrorist regime rules the city. Heavy street fights are waged by rival fanatical gangs, and one battle ends with the burning of food silos in Jerusalem. A terrible famine breaks out. Gangs roam the city robbing the hungry residents of their last loaves of bread. Life in Jerusalem is a total hell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Helena, mother of Constantine I",
        "text": "Jerusalem was still being rebuilt following the destruction caused by Titus in 70 AD. Emperor Hadrian had built during the 130s a temple to Venus over the supposed site of Jesus' tomb near Calvary, and renamed the city Aelia Capitolina. Accounts differ concerning whether the temple was dedicated to Venus or Jupiter. According to Eusebius, \"[t]here was a temple of Venus on the spot. This the queen (Helena) had destroyed.\" According to tradition, Helena ordered the temple torn down and, according to the legend that arose at the end of the 4th century, chose a site to begin excavating, which led to the recovery of three different crosses. The legend is recounted in Ambrose, \"On the Death of Theodosius\" (died 395) and at length in Rufinus' chapters appended to his translation into Latin of Eusebius's \"Ecclesiastical History\", the main body of which does not mention the event. Then, Rufinus relates, the empress refused to be swayed by anything short of solid proof and performed a test. Possibly through Bishop Macarius of Jerusalem, she had a woman who was near death brought from the city. When the woman touched the first and second crosses, her condition did not change, but when she touched the third and final cross she suddenly recovered, and Helena declared the cross with which the woman had been touched to be the True Cross."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siege of Jerusalem (1187)",
        "text": "After the surrender of the city, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was ordered to be closed for three days by Saladin while he considered what to do with it. Some of his advisers told him to destroy the Church in order to end all Christian interest in Jerusalem. Most of his advisers, however, told him to spare the Church, saying that Christian pilgrimages would continue anyway because of the sanctity of the place and also reminded him of the Caliph Umar, who allowed the Church to remain in Christian hands after conquering the city. Saladin ultimately decided not to destroy the church, saying that he had no intention to discourage Christian pilgrimages to the site; it was reopened after three days on his orders. The Frankish pilgrims were allowed to enter the church upon paying a fee. To solidify Muslim claims to Jerusalem, many holy sites, including the shrine known as Al-Aqsa Mosque, were ritually purified with rose water. Christian furnishings were removed from the mosque and it was fitted with oriental carpets. Its walls were illuminated with candelabras and text from the Quran. The Orthodox Christians and Syriacs were allowed to remain and to worship as they chose. The Copts, who were barred from entering Jerusalem by the Crusader kingdom of Jerusalem as they were considered heretics and atheists, were allowed to enter the city without paying any fees by Saladin as he considered them his subjects. The Coptic places of worship that were earlier taken over by the Crusaders were returned to the Coptic priests. The Copts were also allowed to visit the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and other Christian sites. The Abyssinian Christians were allowed to visit the holy places of Jerusalem without paying any fees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Destruction of Jerusalem (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Destruction of Jerusalem (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus",
        "text": "In 351 or 352, Gallus sent his \"magister equitum\" Ursicinus to forcefully put down the revolt. Tiberias and Diospolis, two of the cities conquered by the rebels, were almost destroyed, while Diocaesarea was razed to the ground. Ursicinus also ordered several thousand rebels killed. According to Jerome, Gallus slew many thousands of people, including even those who were too young to fight. Sozomen, when recalling these events, wrote: \"The Jews of Dioc\u00e6sarea (Sepphoris) also took up arms and invaded the Roman garrisons in Palestine and the neighboring territories, with the design of shaking off the Roman yoke. On hearing of their insurrection, Gallus Caesar, who was then in Antioch, sent troops against them, defeated them, and destroyed Dioc\u00e6sarea.\" A midrash suggests that Patricius was killed in the battle."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Jews in the Roman Empire",
        "text": "Julian, the only emperor to reject Christianity after the conversion of Constantine, allowed the Jews to return to \"holy Jerusalem which you have for many years longed to see rebuilt\" and to rebuild the Temple. However Julian was killed in battle on 26 June 363 in his failed campaign against the Sassanid Empire, and the Third Temple was not rebuilt at that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Jerusalem during the Kingdom of Jerusalem",
        "text": "The Ayyubid ruler of Syria, Al-Mu'azzam decided to systematically destroy the fortifications in Jerusalem, worried the Crusaders would retake the heavily fortified city. The Sultan's command to raze much of the town to the ground seemed so implausible that it took his personal presence in Jerusalem to carry it out. The city suffered severe destruction, with all fortifications destroyed except the Tower of David, and many buildings destroyed as well. Much of the population fled the city due to the fear of living in a city without fortifications from invasion. The brother of Al-Mu'azzam, al-Malik al-K\u00e2mil, later referred to Jerusalem post-destruction as merely \"some churches and some ruined houses\". The marketplace, government buildings and holy sites survived, but little else did."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Hyrcanus",
        "text": "This enforced absence probably caused a loss of support for the inexperienced Hyrcanus among the Judean population. Judeans in the countryside were especially disillusioned with Hyrcanus after Antiochus\u2019 army plundered their land. Furthermore, John Hyrcanus's driving out the non-military population of Jerusalem during the siege also probably caused resentment against him. The action of looting the Tomb of David violated his obligations as High Priest, which would have offended the religious leadership."
      },
      {
        "title": "First Jewish\u2013Roman War",
        "text": "All three walls of Jerusalem were eventually destroyed as well as the Temple and the citadels; the city was then put to the torch, with most survivors taken into slavery; some of those overturned stones and their place of impact can still be seen. John of Giscala surrendered at Agrippa II's fortress of Jotapata while Simon Bar Giora surrendered at the site where the Temple once stood. The Temple of Jerusalem's treasures, including the Menorah and the Table of the Bread of God's Presence, which had previously only ever been seen by the High Priest of the Temple, were paraded through the streets of Rome during Titus' triumphal procession, along with some 700 Judean prisoners who were paraded in chains, among them John of Giscala and Simon Bar Giora. John of Giscala was sentenced to life imprisonment while Simon Bar Giora was executed. The triumph was commemorated with the Arch of Titus, which depicts the Temple's treasures being paraded. With the fall of Jerusalem, some insurrection still continued in isolated locations in Judea, lasting as long as 73."
      },
      {
        "title": "Persecution of Christians",
        "text": "According to the account of the Armenian ecclesiastic and historian Sebeos, the siege resulted in a total Christian death toll of 17,000, the earliest and thus most commonly accepted figure. Per Antiochus, 4,518 prisoners alone were massacred near Mamilla reservoir. A cave containing hundreds of skeletons near the Jaffa Gate, 200 metres east of the large Roman-era pool in Mamilla, correlates with the massacre of Christians at hands of the Persians mentioned in the writings of the abbot Antiochus of Palestine (Antiochus Strategius). While reinforcing the evidence of massacre of Christians, the archaeological evidence seem less conclusive on the destruction of Christian churches and monasteries in Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tomb of the Virgin Mary",
        "text": "A small upper church on an octagonal footing was built by Patriarch Juvenal (during Marcian's rule) over the location in the 5th century; this was destroyed in the Persian invasion of 614. During the following centuries the church was destroyed and rebuilt many times, but the crypt was left untouched, as for Muslims it is the burial place of the mother of prophet Isa (Jesus). It was rebuilt then in 1130 by the Crusaders, who installed a walled Benedictine monastery, the Abbey of St. Mary of the Valley of Jehoshaphat; the church is sometimes mentioned as the Shrine of Our Lady of Josaphat. The monastic complex included early Gothic columns, red-on-green frescoes, and three towers for protection. The staircase and entrance were also part of the Crusaders' church. This church was destroyed by Saladin in 1187, but the crypt was still respected; all that was left was the south entrance and staircase, the masonry of the upper church being used to build the walls of Jerusalem. In the second half of the 14th century Franciscan friars rebuilt the church once more. The Greek Orthodox clergy launched a Palm Sunday takeover of various Holy Land sites, including this one, in 1757 and expelled the Franciscans. The Ottomans supported this \"status quo\" in the courts. Since then, the tomb has been owned by the Greek Orthodox Church and the Armenian Apostolic Church of Jerusalem, while the grotto of Gethsemane remained in the possession of the Franciscans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Destruction of Jerusalem (disambiguation)",
        "text": "(The) Destruction of Jerusalem may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Early centers of Christianity",
        "text": "In the 2nd century, Hadrian rebuilt Jerusalem as a pagan city called Aelia Capitolina, erecting statues of Jupiter and himself on the site of the former Jewish Temple, the Temple Mount. Bar Cochba led an unsuccessful revolt as a Messiah, but Christians refused to acknowledge him as such. When Bar Cochba was defeated, Hadrian barred Jews from the city, except for the day of Tisha B'Av, thus the subsequent Jerusalem bishops were gentiles (\"uncircumcised\") for the first time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sasanian conquest of Jerusalem",
        "text": "\"The Romans have been defeated in the land nearby, and they, after their defeat, will be victorious. In a few years -- Allah's is the command before and after that -- and on that day the believers will rejoice, with the Help of Allah. He helps whom He pleases; and He is the Mighty, the Merciful.\" Qur'an 30:1-6"
      },
      {
        "title": "Palaestina Prima",
        "text": "In 602, the final war between the Byzantine Empire and its eastern rival the Sasanid Empire (Persian Empire) broke out. In 613 the Persians invaded the Levant and the Jews revolted against the Byzantines, hoping to secure autonomy for Jerusalem. The following year Persian-Jewish forces captured Caesarea and Jerusalem, destroying its churches, massacring its Christian population, and taking the True Cross and other relics as trophies to the Persian capital Ctesiphon. The event sent shock-waves through the Christian world. Since the days of Constantine the Great, Jerusalem had been the emblematic capital of Christianity and the symbolic center of the world. The Jews gained dominance over Jerusalem, but the Persians found it more expedient to side with the Christians who constituted the overwhelming majority of the population and in 617 the Persians returned the city to them. Meanwhile, the Roman emperor Heraclius began a successful counter-offensive. By 627/8 he was advancing into the Persian heartland. The Persians sued for peace and had to return the Roman provinces they had captured and the stolen relics. In March 629, Heraclius triumphantly returned the True Cross to Jerusalem. Heraclius had promised the Jews pardon for their revolt. However, at the prompting of the Christian leadership, Heraclius went back on his promise. The Jews were expelled from Jerusalem and thousands were massacred."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mevaseret Zion",
        "text": "Due to its strategic location, settlement in the area of Mevasseret Zion goes back to antiquity. The Romans built a fortress there, known as Castellum. On the ruins of this fortress, the Crusaders built a castle, Castellum Belveer, of which no trace remains. Belveer is mentioned in a letter from Eraclius, Patriarch of Jerusalem, dated September 1187, in which he describes the slaughter of Christians \"by the sword of Mafumetus the Unbeliever and his evil worshipper Saladin\" and the Arab conquest of the town, which was renamed al-Qastal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period",
        "text": "In the summer of 69 CE, Vespasian departed Judea for Rome and in December became Emperor. Command of the Roman legions passed to his son Titus, who now managed the siege of Jerusalem. In the spring of 70 CE, Roman forces breached the \"third wall\", then the \"second wall\" and by summer had taken control of the Antonia. The Zealots still maintained control of the temple compound and the upper city, but on Tisha B'Av (August 10) 70 CE, Roman forces overwhelmed the defenders and set fire to the temple. Jewish resistance continued but a month later the upper city was taken as well and the entire city burnt to the ground, save for the three towers of the Herodian citadel which Titus spared as testimony to the city's former might. According to Josephus, over a million people had died in the siege and subsequent fighting.\n*Aelia Capitolina\n*Burnt House\n*Jerusalem during the Crusader period\n*Jerusalem during the Ottoman period\n*Jerusalem in the Mamluk period\n*Stone of Claims"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pharisees",
        "text": "Romans forbade Jews to enter Jerusalem (except for the day of Tisha B'Av), and forbade any plan to rebuild the Temple. Instead, it took over the Province of Judea directly, renaming it Syria Palaestina, and renaming Jerusalem Aelia Capitolina. Romans did eventually reconstitute the Sanhedrin under the leadership of Judah haNasi (who claimed to be a descendant of King David). They conferred the title of \"Nasi\" as hereditary, and Judah's sons served both as Patriarch and as heads of the Sanhedrin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sasanian conquest of Jerusalem",
        "text": "Antiochus Strategos was a 7th-century Byzantine Greek monk living in Palestine. Again dates for the start of the siege vary. Dates given are April 13 614, April 15 614, May 3 614 or May 5 614. On the twentieth day or according to the Georgian text the twenty-first day the walls were breached. Ballistae were used to bring down the walls. According to Antiochus, shortly after the Persian army entered Jerusalem, an \"unprecedented looting and sacrilege\" took place. In his words \"church after church was burned down alongside the innumerable Christian artifacts, which were stolen or damaged by the ensuing arson\". Antiochus Strategos further claimed that captive Christians were gathered near Mamilla reservoir and the Jews offered to help them escape death if they \"become Jews and deny Christ\". The Christian captives refused, and the Jews in anger purchased the Christians from the Persians and massacred them on the spot. Antiochus wrote:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Eschatology",
        "text": "Preterists believe that prophecies\u2014such as the Second Coming, the desecration of the Jewish Temple, the destruction of Jerusalem, the rise of the Antichrist, the Great Tribulation, the advent of The Day of the Lord, and a Final Judgment\u2014had been fulfilled when the Romans sacked Jerusalem and completely destroyed its Temple."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How long did the Romans live in Calvary?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find the answer, but I did find that Calvary is believed to be a site Outside of Jerusalem and Mount Zion is a site associated before the Roman destruction of Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did the Romans destroy Jerusalem?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Are you asking about Roman destruction at the Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE) or The First Jewish\u2013Roman War (66\u201373 CE)?",
      "The Roman army, led by the future Emperor Titus, with Tiberius Julius Alexander as his second-in-command, besieged and conquered the city of Jerusalem in 70 CE, which had been controlled by Judean rebel factions since 66 CE, following the Jerusalem riots of 66, when the Judean provisional government was formed in Jerusalem."
    ],
    "topic": "Easter",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The siege of Jerusalem in the year 70 CE was the decisive event of the First Jewish\u2013Roman War, in which the Roman army captured the city of Jerusalem and destroyed both the city and its Temple. The Roman army, led by the future Emperor Titus, with Tiberius Julius Alexander as his second-in-command, besieged and conquered the city of Jerusalem, which had been controlled by Judean rebel factions since 66 CE, following the Jerusalem riots of 66, when the Judean provisional government was formed in Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "First Jewish\u2013Roman War:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "First Jewish\u2013Roman War"
        ],
        "ctx": "The First Jewish\u2013Roman War (66\u201373 CE), sometimes called the Great Jewish Revolt ( '), or The Jewish War, was the first of three major rebellions by the Jews against the Roman Empire, fought in Roman-controlled Judea, resulting in the destruction of Jewish towns, the displacement of its people and the appropriation of land for Roman military use, as well as the destruction of the Jewish Temple and polity."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE):1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)"
        ],
        "ctx": "The siege of Jerusalem in the year 70 CE was the decisive event of the First Jewish\u2013Roman War, in which the Roman army captured the city of Jerusalem and destroyed both the city and its Temple. The Roman army, led by the future Emperor Titus, with Tiberius Julius Alexander as his second-in-command, besieged and conquered the city of Jerusalem, which had been controlled by Judean rebel factions since 66 CE, following the Jerusalem riots of 66, when the Judean provisional government was formed in Jerusalem."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Judean provisional government (66\u201368)",
        "text": "Jerusalem mostly remained under the control of the Zealots until the year 70 CE, when it was sacked by Roman forces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judean provisional government (66\u201368)",
        "text": "After freeing the Zealots from the Temple, the Edomites and Zealots massacred the common people. Remnants of the rebel government summoned the peasant faction headed by Simon bar Giora to Jerusalem, in order to stand against the rampaging Zealots. While the charismatic Bar Giora took over much of the city, he did not attempt to restore the government, rather ruling by himself in a despotic manner. Bitter fighting between Zealot factions and Bar Giora continued until the Roman siege of 70 CE."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judean provisional government (66\u201368)",
        "text": "The provisional government became obsolete in the year 68, when inter-rebel strife led to the killing of most of its members. According to the historian Josephus, Ananus incited the people to rise up against the Zealots who were in control of the Temple. The forces of Ananus besieged the Zealots who held the Temple. When John of Giscala led the Zealots to believe that Ananus had contacted the Roman General Vespasian for assistance in retaking control of all Jerusalem, the Zealots, driven to desperation, asked the Edomites (Idumeans) for assistance in preventing the delivery of the city to the Romans. When the Edomites arrived, the Zealots opened the gates of Jerusalem to them, and the Edomites slaughtered ben Hanan's (Ananus ben Ananus) forces, killing him as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abbas Government",
        "text": "3. Jerusalem"
      },
      {
        "title": "Safra Square",
        "text": "The British Mandate-period Town Hall was built in 1930. Today it forms the eastern tip of the compound. As the city grew, along with the need to provide more modern and diverse services to an expanding and equally diverse population, the city government's offices expanded as well, and were spread throughout the city. The decentralized municipal government decreased in efficiency, and it was decided that a single building was needed to house Jerusalem's local government. After lengthy deliberations, the current location was selected, despite the challenge of preserving the large number of historic and culturally significant 19th-century buildings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaization of Jerusalem",
        "text": "The Israeli government is attempting to Judaise East Jerusalem, and maintain a Jewish majority against the demographic threat of a higher Palestinian birth rate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem Day",
        "text": "In 1977, the government advanced the date of Jerusalem Day by a week to avoid it clashing with Election Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mayoral elections in Jerusalem",
        "text": "Prior to a 1975 national law change, mayors were chosen by the city council (which was elected in a closed list proportional representation system)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Knesset",
        "text": "The Knesset passes all laws, elects the president and prime minister (although the latter is ceremonially appointed by the President), approves the cabinet, and supervises the work of the government, among other things. In addition, the Knesset elects the state comptroller. It also has the power to waive the immunity of its members, remove the president and the state comptroller from office, dissolve the government in a constructive vote of no confidence, and to dissolve itself and call new elections. The prime minister may also dissolve the Knesset. However, until an election is completed, the Knesset maintains authority in its current composition. The Knesset meets in Givat Ram, Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem",
        "text": "On 5 December 1949, Israel's first Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion, proclaimed Jerusalem as Israel's \"eternal\" and \"sacred\" capital, and eight days later specified that only the war had \"compelled\" the Israeli leadership \"to establish the seat of Government in Tel Aviv\", while \"for the State of Israel there has always been and always will be one capital only \u2013 Jerusalem the Eternal\", and that after the war, efforts had been ongoing for creating the conditions for \"the Knesset... returning to Jerusalem.\" This indeed took place, and since the beginning of 1950 all branches of the Israeli government\u2014legislative, judicial, and executive\u2014have resided there, except for the Ministry of Defense, which is located at HaKirya in Tel Aviv. At the time of Ben Gurion's proclamations and the ensuing Knesset vote of 24 January 1950, Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan, and thus the proclamation only applied to West Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem",
        "text": "Apart from the mayor and his deputies, City Council members receive no salaries and work on a voluntary basis. The longest-serving Jerusalem mayor was Teddy Kollek, who spent 28 years\u2014six consecutive terms\u2014in office. Most of the meetings of the Jerusalem City Council are private, but each month, it holds a session that is open to the public. Within the city council, religious political parties form an especially powerful faction, accounting for the majority of its seats. The headquarters of the Jerusalem Municipality and the mayor's office are at Safra Square (\"Kikar Safra\") on Jaffa Road. The municipal complex, comprising two modern buildings and ten renovated historic buildings surrounding a large plaza, opened in 1993 when it moved from the old town hall building built by the Mandate authorities. The city falls under the Jerusalem District, with Jerusalem as the district's capital. 37% of the population is Palestinian, but in 2014 not more than 10% of tax revenues were allocated for them. In East Jerusalem, 52% of the land was excluded from development, 35% designated for Jewish settlements, and 13% for Palestinian use, almost all of which was already built on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mayor of Jerusalem",
        "text": "The Mayor of the City of Jerusalem is head of the executive branch of the political system in Jerusalem. The mayor's office administers all city services, public property, most public agencies, and enforces all city and state laws within Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem",
        "text": "The Jerusalem City Council is a body of 31 elected members headed by the mayor, who serves a five-year term and appoints eight deputies. The former mayor of Jerusalem, Uri Lupolianski, was elected in 2003. In the November 2008 city elections, Nir Barkat was elected. In November 2018, Moshe Lion was elected mayor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judean provisional government (66\u201368)",
        "text": "Following the defeat of Gallus in Beth Horon in , the People's Assembly was called under the spiritual guidance of Simeon ben Gamliel and thus the Judean provisional government was formed in Jerusalem. Ananus ben Ananus, the former High Priest of Israel, was appointed one of the heads of the government and began reinforcing the city, with Joshua ben Gamla also taking a leading role. Yosef ben Matityahu was appointed the commander in Galilee and Golan, while Yosef ben Shimon was appointed commander of Jericho. John the Issene was appointed commander of Jaffa, Lydda, Ammeus-Nikopolis and the whole Tamna area. Eliezar ben Hananiya was appointed the joint commander in Edom together with Joshua ben Zafia, with Niger the Perean, a hero during the Gallus campaign, under their command. Menasseh was appointed to cover Perea and Yohanan ben Hananiya allocated Gophna and Acrabetta."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem",
        "text": "Following the Bar Kokhba revolt, Emperor Hadrian combined Iudaea Province with neighboring provinces under the new name of \"Syria Palaestina\", replacing the name of Judea. The city was renamed Aelia Capitolina, and rebuilt it in the style of a typical Roman town. Jews were prohibited from entering the city on pain of death, except for one day each year, during the holiday of Tisha B'Av. Taken together, these measures (which also affected Jewish Christians) essentially \"secularized\" the city. The ban was maintained until the 7th century, though Christians would soon be granted an exemption: during the 4th century, the Roman emperor Constantine I ordered the construction of Christian holy sites in the city, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Burial remains from the Byzantine period are exclusively Christian, suggesting that the population of Jerusalem in Byzantine times probably consisted only of Christians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem Law",
        "text": "Seat of the President, the Knesset, the Government and the Supreme Court:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity in Israel",
        "text": "As of 2013, the Government - Christians Forum was formed in Jerusalem, under the umbrella of the Ministry of Public Security, to address the concerns of the Christian leaders and representatives in Israel, and in order to empower the relations between the government and Christian leaders and representatives in Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem Law",
        "text": "\"2. Jerusalem is the seat of the President of the State, the Knesset, the Government and the Supreme Court.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Status of Jerusalem",
        "text": "Positions on the final status of Jerusalem have varied with different Israeli governments."
      },
      {
        "title": "2018 Jerusalem mayoral election",
        "text": "Under a new national law, the 30 October election day was made a holiday. However, the day of the 13 November runoff election day was not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem Law",
        "text": "\"(c) The Government shall set up a special body or special bodies for the implementation of this section.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Via Dolorosa",
        "text": "During the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholics of Jerusalem split into two factions, one controlling the churches on the western hill, the other the churches on the eastern hill; they each supported the route which took pilgrims past the churches the faction in question controlled, one arguing that the Roman governor's mansion (\"Praetorium\") was on Mount Zion (where they had churches), the other that it was near the Antonia Fortress (where they had churches)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mayoral elections in Jerusalem",
        "text": "Elections are held in Jerusalem to elect the city's mayor. Currently, such elections are regularly scheduled to elect mayors to five-year terms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period",
        "text": "A popular assembly was then convened in Jerusalem to formulate policy and decide upon a subsequent course of action. Dominated by the moderate Pharisees, including Shimon ben Gamliel, president of the Sanhedrin, it appointed military commanders to oversee the defence of the city and its fortifications. Leadership of the revolt was thus taken from the Zealots and given to the more moderate and traditional leadership of the Pharisses and Sadducees. Lacking sufficient military or administrative skills, these were not military leaders but rather the men deemed able to conclude a negotiated settlement with the Romans. During a brief period of renewed independence, indications are that Jerusalem enjoyed a sense of hope and prosperity. It minted its own coins and a new year count, beginning with its recent liberation, was initiated. This short-lived independence, however, was soon challenged by the Romans. In early 68 CE, Roman General Vespasian landed at Ptolemais and began suppression of the revolt with operations in the Galilee. By July 69 all of Judea but Jerusalem had been pacified and the city, now hosting rebel leaders from all over the country, came under Roman siege. A fortified stronghold, it may have held for a significant amount of time, if not for the intense civil war that then broke out between moderates and Zealots."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mayor of Jerusalem",
        "text": "The Jerusalem City Council was established in 1863 during the rule of the Ottoman Empire. From 1948 to 1967 two municipalities operated in the city: an Israeli municipality provided services to the western neighborhoods of the city and a Jordanian municipality to its eastern parts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early bishops of Jerusalem",
        "text": "The early Christian community of Jerusalem was led by a Council of Elders, and considered itself part of the wider Jewish community. This collegiate system of government in Jerusalem is seen in and ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem",
        "text": "Today, the status of Jerusalem remains one of the core issues of the Israeli\u2013Palestinian conflict and its peace process. During the 1948 Arab\u2013Israeli War, West Jerusalem was among the areas captured and later annexed by Israel while East Jerusalem, including the Old City, was captured and later annexed by Jordan. However, during the 1967 Six-Day War, East Jerusalem was captured from Jordan by Israel, after which it was effectively annexed and incorporated into the other Israeli-held parts of the city, together with additional surrounding territory. One of Israel's Basic Laws, the Jerusalem Law of 1980, refers to \"complete and undivided\" Jerusalem as the country's capital. All of the institutions of the Israeli government are located within Jerusalem, including the Knesset, the residences of the Prime Minister (\"Beit Aghion\") and President (\"Beit HaNassi\"), and the Supreme Court. While Israel's claim to sovereignty over West Jerusalem is more widely accepted by the international community, its claim to sovereignty over East Jerusalem is regarded as illegitimate, and East Jerusalem is consequently recognized by the United Nations as Palestinian territory that is occupied by Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "2018 Israeli municipal elections",
        "text": "The following parties gained seats in the city council. The parties that failed to gain seats are: I'm Jerusalem (Avi Salman), Elders and Pensioners of Jerusalem, Jerusalem on the Road to the Summit (Nehemia Assaf), Jerusalem Our Home (Ilya Liptzker), Jerusalem My City (Ramadan Dabash), Our Jerusalem (Moshe Lion), For the Neighborhoods (Avi Shalom), Me'orav Yerushalmi (Evyatar Elbaz), Pisgat Ze'ev on the Map (Ya'el Antebi), and Youth of Jerusalem (Yakir Jarasi)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaization of Jerusalem",
        "text": "Despite the rapid growth of the Jewish population since 1967, its relative size has decreased due to a higher growth rate among the Arab population. The Jewish percentage of the population dropped from 74% in 1967 to 66% in 2005. Researchers at the Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies called this \"a contradiction between the reality in Jerusalem and the declared government policy of maintaining the Jewish majority in Jerusalem since the city's re-unification\". To reverse this trend, they suggested expanding Jerusalem's border to the west (meaning the addition of Jewish population centres), or removing Arab neighborhoods from the city's municipal area."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Jerusalem",
        "text": "As a result of the Maccabean Revolt, Jerusalem became the capital of the autonomous and eventually independent Hasmonean Kingdom. The kingdom lasted for over a century. It was ruled by Simon Maccabaeus, the son of Mattathias; then by his son Yochanan, known as John Hyrcanus, who started minting his own Hasmonean coins; then by his son Yehuda Aristobulus; then by his wife Salome Alexandra; then by his brother Alexander Yannai; then by his sons Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II. When the brothers Hyrcanus and Aristobulus each asked for Rome to intervene on their behalf, Judea fell under the greater rule of Rome as an autonomous province but still with a significant amount of independence. The last Hasmonean king was Aristobulus' son, Antigonus II Matityahu."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem",
        "text": "Jerusalem (; ; ) is a city in Western Asia. Situated on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea, it is one of the oldest cities in the world, and is considered holy for the three major Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The city straddles the Green Line between Israel and the West Bank; both Israelis and Palestinians claim Jerusalem as their capital, as Israel controls the entire city and maintains its primary governmental institutions there while the Palestinian National Authority and Palestine Liberation Organization ultimately foresee it as the seat of power for the State of Palestine. Due to this long-running dispute, neither claim is widely recognized internationally."
      },
      {
        "title": "2018 Israeli municipal elections",
        "text": "The results of the second round of voting in Jerusalem are as follows. The voter turnout was 35%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem Law",
        "text": "\"Prime Minister\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Aelia Capitolina",
        "text": "Jerusalem was renamed \"Aelia Capitolina\" and rebuilt in the style of its original Hippodamian plan although adapted to Roman use. Jews were prohibited from entering the city on pain of death, except for one day each year, during the holiday of Tisha B'Av. Taken together, these measures (which also affected Jewish Christians) essentially secularized the city. The ban was maintained until the 7th century, though Christians would soon be granted an exemption: during the 4th century, the Roman emperor Constantine I ordered the construction of Christian holy sites in the city, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Burial remains from the Byzantine period are exclusively Christian, suggesting that the population of Jerusalem in Byzantine times probably consisted only of Christians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Status of Jerusalem",
        "text": "From 1517 until the First World War, Jerusalem was part of the Ottoman Empire. It was part of the Damascus eyalet (province) until, as a result of widespread administrative reform in the mid 1800s, it became an independent sanjak (district) in 1872. Since the 1860s, Jews have formed the largest religious group in the city and since around 1887, with the beginning of expansion outside the old city walls, Jews have been in the majority."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of the Kingdom of Jerusalem",
        "text": "1108\n* The new papal legate, Archbishop Ghibbelin of Arles, deposes Evremar at a church council. Ghibbelin is elected as the Latin patriarch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)",
        "text": "The siege of Jerusalem in the year 70 CE was the decisive event of the First Jewish\u2013Roman War, in which the Roman army captured the city of Jerusalem and destroyed both the city and its Temple. The Roman army, led by the future Emperor Titus, with Tiberius Julius Alexander as his second-in-command, besieged and conquered the city of Jerusalem, which had been controlled by Judean rebel factions since 66 CE, following the Jerusalem riots of 66, when the Judean provisional government was formed in Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mayoral elections in Jerusalem",
        "text": "The results of the second round of voting in Jerusalem are as follows. The voter turnout was 35%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ramallah",
        "text": "Munir Hamdan, a member of Fatah and a Ramallah businessman, discussed the concentration of government offices with a journalist. He said, \"The president and prime minister have their offices here. So do the parliament and all the government ministries\", representing a \"collusion\" between the Palestinian Authority and Israel to turn Ramallah into the political as well as the financial capital of the Palestinians. He is particularly worried by the construction of a large new governmental complex by the PA. Hatem Abdel Kader, a Jerusalem resident, Fatah legislator and former Minister for Jerusalem Affairs, complained that \"If they are building a new government compound here, that means they have no plans to be based in Jerusalem... Unfortunately, the Palestinian government of Salam Fayyad has abandoned Jerusalem in favor of Ramallah.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Haredim and Zionism",
        "text": "Meanwhile, the Edah HaChareidis Rabbinical Council of Jerusalem and its associated communities, including Satmar, Dushinsky, Toldos Aharon, and Toldos Avrohom Yitzchok, do not vote, and do not accept government money. Around election days, posters by the Edah HaChareidis are posted throughout Haredi neighborhoods of Jerusalem, proclaiming that it is forbidden to vote in the elections, and that doing so is a grave sin. The Edah HaChareidis and its affiliated movements have permitted co-operating with the Israeli police under extenuating circumstances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of the Israeli government",
        "text": "The term \"Judaization of Jerusalem\" refers to the view that Israel has sought to transform the physical and demographic landscape of Jerusalem to correspond with a vision of a united and fundamentally Jewish Jerusalem under Israeli sovereignty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Timeline of Jerusalem",
        "text": "Events from the New Testament (Canonical Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, Epistles -Pauline and Catholic- and the Book of Revelation) offer a narrative regarded by most Christians as Holy Scripture. Much of the narrative lacks historical anchors and Christian apologists have tried to calculate a historical chronology of events without reaching consensual conclusions. All such events and dates listed here are presented under this reservation, and are generally lacking non-sectarian scholarly recognition. They are marked in the list with a cross [\u2020].\n* 63 BCE: Roman Republic under Pompey the Great besieges and takes the city. Pompey enters the temple but leaves treasure. Hyrcanus II is appointed High Priest and Antipater the Idumaean is appointed governor.\n* 57\u201355 BCE: Aulus Gabinius, proconsul of Syria, split the former Hasmonean Kingdom into five districts of legal and religious councils known as sanhedrin based at Jerusalem, Sepphoris (Galilee), Jericho, Amathus (Perea) and Gadara.\n* 54 BCE: Crassus loots the temple, confiscating all its gold, after failing to receive the required tribute.\n* 45 BCE: Antipater the Idumaean is appointed Procurator of Judaea by Julius Caesar, after Julius Caesar is appointed dictator of the Roman Republic following Caesar's Civil War.\n* 43 BCE: Antipater the Idumaean is killed by poison, and is succeeded by his sons Phasael and Herod.\n* 40 BCE: Antigonus, son of Hasmonean Aristobulus II and nephew of Hyrcanus II, offers money to the Parthian army to help him recapture the Hasmonean realm from the Romans. Jerusalem is captured by Barzapharnes, Pacorus I of Parthia and Roman deserter Quintus Labienus. Antigonus is placed as King of Judea. Hyracanus is mutilated, Phasael commits suicide, and Herod escapes to Rome.\n* 40\u201337 BCE: The Roman Senate appoints Herod \"King of the Jews\" and provides him with an army. Following Roman General Publius Ventidius Bassus' defeat of the Parthians in Northern Syria, Herod and Roman General Gaius Sosius wrest Judea from Antigonus II Mattathias, culminating in the siege of the city.\n* 37\u201335 BCE: Herod the Great builds the Antonia Fortress, named after Mark Anthony, on the site of the earlier Hasmonean Baris.\n* 19 BCE: Herod expands the Temple Mount, whose retaining walls include the Western Wall, and rebuilds the Temple (Herod's Temple).\n* 15 BCE: Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, son-in-law of Emperor Augustus visits Jerusalem and offers a hecatomb in the temple.\n* c. 6 BCE [\u2020]: John the Baptist is born in Ein Kerem to Zechariah and Elizabeth.\n* c. 6-4 BCE [\u2020]: Presentation of Jesus at the Temple, 40 days after his birth in Bethlehem.\n* 6 CE: End of Herodian governorate in Jerusalem.\n:* Herod Archelaus deposed as the ethnarch of the Tetrarchy of Judea. Herodian Dynasty replaced in the newly created Iudaea province by Roman prefects and after 44 by procurators, beginning with Coponius (Herodians continued to rule elsewhere and Agrippa I and Agrippa II later served as Kings).\n:* Senator Quirinius appointed Legate of the Roman province of Syria (to which Judea had been \"added\" according to Josephus though Ben-Sasson claims it was a \"satellite of Syria\" and not \"legally part of Syria\") carries out a tax census of both Syria and Judea known as the Census of Quirinius.\n:* Both events spark the failed revolt of Judas the Galilean and the founding of the Zealot movement, according to Josephus.\n:* Jerusalem loses its place as the administrative capital to Caesarea Palaestina.\n*7\u201326 CE: Brief period of peace, relatively free of revolt and bloodshed in Judea and Galilee.\n* c. 28\u201330 CE [\u2020]: Three-year Ministry of Jesus, during which a number of key events took place in Jerusalem, including:\n:* Temptation of Christ.\n:* Cleansing of the Temple \u2013 Jesus drives the merchants and moneylenders from Herod's Temple.\n:* Meeting with Nicodemus.\n:* Healing the man blind from birth.\n* c. 30 CE [\u2020]: Key events in the martyrdom of Jesus which took place in Jerusalem.\n:* Palm Sunday (Jesus enters Jerusalem as the Messiah, while riding on a donkey).\n:* Last Supper.\n:* The Passion and Crucifixion.\n:* Resurrection of Jesus.\n:* Ascension of Jesus.\n* c. 12\u201338 CE: According to the Haran Gawaita, Nasoraean Mandaean disciples of John the Baptist flee persecution in Jerusalem during the reign of a Parthian king identified as Artabanus II who ruled between 12 and 38 CE.\n* c. 30-36 CE [\u2020]: The first Christian martyr (Protomartyr) Saint Stephen stoned to death following Sanhedrin trial.\n* 37\u201340 CE: \"Crisis under Gaius Caligula\" \u2013 a financial crisis throughout the empire results in the \"first open break\" between Jews and Romans even though problems were already evident during the Census of Quirinius in 6 CE and under Sejanus before 31 CE.\n* 45\u201346 CE [\u2020]: After a famine in Judea, Paul and Barnabas provide support to the Jerusalem poor from Antioch.\n* 50 CE [\u2020]: The Apostles thought to have held the Council of Jerusalem, the first Christian council. May mark the first formal schism between Christianity and Judaism at which it was agreed that Christians did not need to be circumcised or alternately may represent a form of early Noahide Law.\n* 57 CE [\u2020]: Paul of Tarsus is arrested in Jerusalem after he is attacked by a mob in the Temple () and defends his actions before a sanhedrin.\n* 64\u201368 CE: Nero persecutes Jews and Christians throughout the Roman Empire.\n* 66 CE: James the Just, the brother of Jesus and first Bishop of Jerusalem, is killed in Jerusalem at the instigation of the high priest Ananus ben Ananus according to Eusebius of Caesarea.\n* 66\u201373 CE: First Jewish-Roman War, with the Judean rebellion led by Simon Bar Giora\n* 70 CE: Siege of Jerusalem (70) Titus, eldest son of Emperor Vespasian, ends the major portion of First Jewish\u2013Roman War and destroys Herod's Temple on Tisha B'Av. The Roman legion Legio X Fretensis is garrisoned in the city.\n:* The Sanhedrin is relocated to Yavne. Pharisees become dominant, and their form of Judaism evolves into modern day Rabbinic Judaism (whereas Sadducees and Essenes are no longer recorded as groups in history\u2014see Origins of Rabbinic Judaism).\n:* The city's leading Christians relocate to Pella.\n* c. 90\u201396 CE: Jews and Christians heavily persecuted throughout the Roman Empire towards the end of the reign of Domitian.\n* 115\u2013117 CE: Jews revolt against the Romans throughout the empire, including Jerusalem, in the Kitos War.\n* 117 CE: Saint Simeon of Jerusalem, second Bishop of Jerusalem, was crucified under Trajan by the proconsul Atticus in Jerusalem or the vicinity according to Eusebius of Caesarea (260/265 \u2013 339/340).\n* 130: Emperor Hadrian visits the ruins of Jerusalem and decides to rebuild it as a city dedicated to Jupiter called Aelia Capitolina\n* 131: An additional legion, Legio VI Ferrata, was stationed in the city to maintain order, as the Roman governor performed the foundation ceremony of Aelia Capitolina. Hadrian abolished circumcision (\"brit milah\"), which he viewed as mutilation.\n* 132\u2013135: Bar Kokhba's revolt \u2013 Simon Bar Kokhba leads a revolt against the Roman Empire, controlling the city for three years. He is proclaimed as the Messiah by Rabbi Akiva. Hadrian sends Sextus Julius Severus to the region, who brutally crushes the revolt and retakes the city.\n* 136: Hadrian formally reestablishes the city as Aelia Capitolina, and forbids Jewish and Christian presence in the city.\n* c. 136\u2013140: A Temple to Jupiter is built on the Temple Mount and a temple to Venus is built on Calvary.\n* 138: Restrictions over Christian presence in the city are relaxed after Hadrian dies and Antoninus Pius becomes emperor.\n* 195: Saint Narcissus of Jerusalem presides over a council held by the bishops of Palestine in Caesarea, and decrees that Easter is to be always kept on a Sunday, and not with the Jewish Passover.\n* 251: Bishop Alexander of Jerusalem is killed during Roman Emperor Decius' persecution of Christians.\n* 259: Jerusalem falls under the rule of Odaenathus as King of the Palmyrene Empire after the capture of Emperor Valerian by Shapur I at the Battle of Edessa causes the Roman Empire to splinter.\n* 272: Jerusalem becomes part of the Roman Empire again after Aurelian defeats the Palmyrene Empire at the Battle of Emesa (Homs).\n* 303: Saint Procopius of Scythopolis is born in Jerusalem.\n* 312: Macarius becomes the last Bishop of Aelia Capitolina.\n* 313: Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre founded in Jerusalem after Constantine I issued the Edict of Milan, legalizing Christianity throughout the Roman Empire following his own conversion the previous year.\n* 324\u2013325: Emperor Constantine wins the Civil Wars of the Tetrarchy and reunites the empire. Within a few months, the First Council of Nicaea (first worldwide Christian council) confirms status of Aelia Capitolina as a patriarchate. A significant wave of Christian immigration to the city begins. This is the date on which the city is generally taken to have been renamed Jerusalem.\n* c. 325: The ban on Jews entering the city remains in force, but they are allowed to enter once a year to pray on Tisha B'Av.\n* 326: Constantine's mother Helena visits Jerusalem and orders the destruction of Hadrian's temple to Venus which had been built on Calvary. Accompanied by Macarius of Jerusalem, the excavation reportedly discovers the True Cross, the Holy Tunic and the Holy Nails.\n* 333: The Eleona Basilica is built on the Mount of Olives, marking the site of the Ascension of Jesus.\n* 335: First Church of the Holy Sepulchre built on Calvary.\n* 347: Saint Cyril of Jerusalem delivers his Mystagogical Catecheses, instructions on the principal topics of Christian faith and practice.\n* 361: Neoplatonist Julian the Apostate becomes Roman Emperor and attempts to reverse the growing influence of Christianity by encouraging other religions. As a result, Alypius of Antioch is commissioned to rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem and Jews are allowed to return to the city.\n* 363: The Galilee earthquake of 363 together with the re-establishment of Christianity's dominance following the death of Julian the Apostate at the Battle of Samarra ends attempts to build a third Temple in Jerusalem.\n* 380: Theodosius I declares Nicene Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire later loses its western provinces, with Jerusalem continuing under the jurisdiction of the Eastern Empire (commonly known as the Byzantine Empire).\n* c. 380: Tyrannius Rufinus and Melania the Elder found the first monastery in Jerusalem on the Mount of Olives.\n* 386: Saint Jerome moves to Jerusalem in order to commence work on the Vulgate, commissioned by Pope Damasus I and instrumental in the fixation of the Biblical canon in the West. He later moves to Bethlehem.\n* 394: John II, Bishop of Jerusalem, consecrates the Church of the Holy Zion built on the site of the Cenacle.\n* 403: Euthymius the Great founds the Pharan lavra, six miles east of Jerusalem.\n* 438: Empress Aelia Eudocia Augusta, wife of Theodosius II, visits Jerusalem after being encouraged by Melania the Younger.\n* 451: The Council of Chalcedon confirms Jerusalem's status as a Patriarchate as one of the Pentarchy. Juvenal of Jerusalem becomes the first Patriarch of Jerusalem.\n* 443\u201360: Empress Aelia Eudocia Augusta moves to Jerusalem where she dies in 460, after being banished by Theodosius II for adultery.\n* 483: Sabbas the Sanctified founds the Great Lavra, also known as Mar Saba, in the Kidron Valley.\n* 540\u2013550: Emperor Justinian I undertakes a number of building works, including the once magnificent Nea Ekklesia of the Theotokos (\"the Nea\") and the extension of the Cardo thoroughfare.\n* c. 600: Latin Pope Gregory I commissions Abbot Probus of Ravenna to build a hospital in Jerusalem to treat Latin pilgrims to the Holy Land.\n* 610: The Temple Mount in Jerusalem becomes the focal point for Muslim salat (prayers), known as the First Qibla, following Muhammad's initial revelations (Wahy). (Islamic sources)\n* 610: Jewish revolt against Heraclius begins in Antioch and spreads to other cities including Jerusalem.\n* 614: Siege of Jerusalem (614) \u2013 Jerusalem falls to Khosrau II's Sassanid Empire led by General Shahrbaraz, during the Byzantine\u2013Sassanid War of 602\u2013628. Jewish leader Nehemiah ben Hushiel allied with Shahrbaraz in the battle, as part of the Jewish revolt against Heraclius, and was made governor of the city. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is burned, Patriarch Zacharias is taken prisoner, the True Cross and other relics are taken to Ctesiphon, and much of the Christian population is massacred. Most of the city is destroyed.\n* 617: Jewish governor Nehemiah ben Hushiel is killed by a mob of Christian citizens, three years after he is appointed. The Sassanids quell the uprising and appoint a Christian governor to replace him.\n* 620: Muhammad's night journey (Isra and Mi'raj) to Jerusalem, according to Islamic \"hadith\".\n* 624: Jerusalem loses its place as the focal point for Muslim prayers to Mecca, 18 months after the Hijra (Muhammad's migration to Medina).\n* c. 625: According to Sahih al-Bukhari, Muhammad ordained the Al-Aqsa Mosque as one of the three holy mosques of Islam.\n* 629: Byzantine emperor Heraclius retakes Jerusalem, after the decisive defeat of the Sassanid Empire at the Battle of Nineveh (627). Heraclius personally returns the True Cross to the city.\n* 636\u2013637: Siege of Jerusalem (637) Arabian Caliph Umar the Great conquers Jerusalem and at the request of Jerusalem's Christian Patriarch, enters the city on foot, following the decisive defeat of the Byzantine Empire at the Battle of Yarmouk a few months earlier. Patriarch Sophronius and Umar are reported to have agreed the Covenant of Umar I, which guaranteed non-Muslims freedom of religion, and under Islamic rule, for the first time since the Roman period, Jews were once again allowed to live and worship freely in Jerusalem. Jerusalem becomes part of the Jund Filastin province of the Arab Caliphate.\n* 638: The Armenian Apostolic Church began appointing its own bishop in Jerusalem.\n* 661: Muawiyah I is ordained as Caliph of the Islamic world in Jerusalem following the assassination of Ali in Kufa, ending the First Fitna and marking the beginning of the Umayyad Empire.\n* 677: According to interpretations of Maronite historian Theophilus of Edessa, Mardaites (possibly ancestors of today's Maronites) took over a swathe of land including Jerusalem on behalf of the Byzantine Emperor, who was simultaneously repelling the Umayyads in the Siege of Constantinople (674\u2013678). However, this has been contested as a mistranslation of the words \"Holy City\".\n* 687\u2013691: The Dome of the Rock is built by Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan during the Second Fitna, becoming the world's first great work of Islamic architecture.\n* 692: Orthodox Council in Trullo formally makes Jerusalem one of the Pentarchy (disputed by Roman Catholicism).\n* 705: The Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I builds the Masjid al-Aqsa.\n* 730\u2013749: John of Damascus, previously chief adviser to Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, moves to the monastery Mar Saba outside Jerusalem and becomes the major opponent of the First Iconoclasm through his theological writings.\n* 744\u2013750: Riots in Jerusalem and other major Syrian cities during the reign of Marwan II, quelled in 745\u201346. The Umayyad army is subsequently defeated in 750 at the Battle of the Zab by the Abbasids, who take control of the entire empire including Jerusalem. Marwan II flees via Jerusalem but is assassinated in Egypt.\n* 793\u2013796: Qaysi\u2013Yamani war (793\u201396).\n* 797: First embassy sent from Charlemagne to Caliph Harun al-Rashid as part of the attempted Abbasid\u2013Carolingian alliance.\n* 799: Charlemagne sent another mission to Patriarch George of Jerusalem\n* 801: Sufi saint Rabia Al-Adawiyya dies in Jerusalem.\n* 813: Caliph Al-Ma'mun visits Jerusalem and undertakes extensive renovations to the Dome of the Rock.\n* 878: Ahmad ibn Tulun, ruler of Egypt and founder of the Tulunid dynasty, conquers Jerusalem and most of Syria, four years after declaring Egypt's independence from the Abbasid court in Baghdad.\n* 881: Patriarch Elias III of Jerusalem corresponded with European rulers asking for financial donations, including Holy Roman Emperor and King of West Francia Charles the Fat and Alfred the Great of England.\n* 904: The Abbasids regain control of Jerusalem after invading Syria, and the army of Tulunid Emir Harun retreats to Egypt where the Tulunids were defeated the following year.\n* 939/944: Muhammad ibn Tughj al-Ikhshid, governor of Abbasid Egypt and Palestine, is given the title al-Ikhshid by Abbasid Caliph Ar-Radi, and in 944 is named hereditary governor of his lands.\n* 946: Muhammad ibn Tughj al-Ikhshid dies. Abu al-Misk Kafur becomes de facto ruler of the Ikhshidid lands.\n* 951\u2013978: Estakhri, \"Traditions of Countries\" and Ibn Hawqal, \"The Face of the Earth\" write of Jund Filistin: \"Its capital and largest town is Ramla, but the Holy City of Jerusalem comes very near this last in size\", and of Jerusalem: \"It is a city perched high on the hills: and you have to go up to it from all sides. In all Jerusalem there is no running water, excepting what comes from springs, that can be used to irrigate the fields, and yet it is the most fertile portion of Filastin.\"\n* 966: Al-Muqaddasi leaves Jerusalem to begin his 20-year geographical study, writing in detail about Jerusalem in his \"Description of Syria, Including Palestine\"\n* 968: Abu al-Misk Kafur dies and is also buried in Jerusalem. The Ikhshidid government divides and the Fatimids prepare for invasion of Egypt and Palestine.\n* 969: The Ismaili Shia Fatimids under General Jawhar al-Siqilli conquer the Ikhshidid domains of the Abbasid empire including Jerusalem, following a treaty guaranteeing the local Sunnis freedom of religion.\n* 975: Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimiskes's second Syrian campaign takes Emesa, Baalbek, Damascus, Tiberias, Nazareth, Caesarea, Sidon, Beirut, Byblos and Tripoli, but is defeated en route to Jerusalem. The emperor dies suddenly in 976 on his return from the campaign.\n* 1009: Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim orders destruction of churches and synagogues in the empire, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.\n* 1021: Caliph Ali az-Zahir undertakes extensive renovations to the Dome of the Rock.\n* 1023\u20131041: Anushtakin al-Dizbari is the governor of Palestine and Syria, and defeats the Bedouin revolt of 1024\u201329. Fifteen years later, in 1057, his body was ceremonially transferred to Jerusalem by Caliph al-Mustansir for reburial.\n* 1030: Caliph Ali az-Zahir authorizes the rebuilding of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and other Christian churches in a treaty with Byzantine Emperor Romanos III Argyros.\n* 1042: Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos pays for the restoration of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, authorized by Caliph Ma'ad al-Mustansir Billah. Al-Mustansir authorizes a number of other Christian buildings, including the Muristan hospital, church and monastery built by a group of Amalfian merchants in c. 1050.\n* 1054: Great Schism \u2013 the Patriarch of Jerusalem joined the Eastern Orthodox Church, under the jurisdiction of Constantinople. All Christians in the Holy Land came under the jurisdiction of the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, setting in place a key cause of the Crusades.\n* 1073: Jerusalem is captured by under Turcoman Emir Atsiz ibn Uwaq, who was advancing south into the weakening Fatimid Empire following the decisive defeat of the Byzantine army at the Battle of Manzikert fought against the Great Seljuk Empire two years previously and a devastating six-year famine in Egypt between 1067 and 1072.\n* 1077: Jerusalem revolts against the rule of Atsiz while he is fighting the Fatimid Empire in Egypt. On his return to Jerusalem, Atsiz retakes the city and massacres the local population. Not long after, Atsiz is executed by Tutush I, governor of Syria under his brother, Seljuk leader Malik-Shah I. Tutush I appoints Artuq bin Ekseb, later founder of the Artuqid dynasty, as governor.\n* 1091\u20131095: Artuq bin Ekseb dies in 1091, and is succeeded as governor by his sons Ilghazi and Sokmen. Malik Shah dies in 1092, and the Seljuk Empire splits into smaller warring states. Control of Jerusalem is disputed between Duqaq and Radwan after the death of their father Tutush I in 1095. The ongoing rivalry weakens Syria.\n* 1095\u20131096: Al-Ghazali lives in Jerusalem.\n* 1095: At the Council of Clermont Pope Urban II calls for the First Crusade.\n* 1098: Fatimid regent Al-Afdal Shahanshah reconquers Jerusalem from Artuq bin Ekseb's sons Ilghazi and Sokmen.\n* 1099: Siege of Jerusalem (1099) \u2013 First Crusaders capture Jerusalem and slaughter most of the city's Muslim and Jewish inhabitants. The Dome of the Rock is converted into a Christian church. Godfrey of Bouillon becomes Protector of the Holy Sepulchre.\n* 1100: Dagobert of Pisa becomes Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem. Godfrey of Bouillon promises to turn over the rule of Jerusalem to the Papacy once the crusaders capture Egypt. The invasion of Egypt did not occur as Godfrey died shortly thereafter. Baldwin I was proclaimed the first King of Jerusalem after politically outmanoeuvering Dagobert.\n* 1104: The Al-Aqsa Mosque becomes the Royal Palace of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.\n* 1112: Arnulf of Chocques becomes Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem for the second time and prohibits non-Catholic worship at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.\n* 1113: The foundation of the Knights Hospitaller by Gerard Thom at the Muristan Christian hospice in Jerusalem is confirmed by a Papal Bull from Pope Paschal II.\n* 1119: Hugues de Payens and Godfrey de Saint-Omer found the Knights Templar in the Al Aqsa Mosque.\n* 1123: Pactum Warmundi alliance established between the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Republic of Venice.\n* 1131: Melisende became Queen of Jerusalem, later acting as regent for her son between 1153 and 1161 while he was on campaign. She was the eldest daughter of King Baldwin II of Jerusalem, and the Armenian princess Morphia of Melitene.\n* 1137: Zengi defeats Fulk of Jerusalem at the Battle of Ba'rin. Fulk was trapped in Ba'rin Castle, but released by Zengi on payment of a ransom.\n* 1138: St Anne's Church is built by Arda of Armenia, widow of Baldwin I of Jerusalem.\n* 1149: New Church of the Holy Sepulchre built.\n* 1141\u20131173: Jerusalem is visited by Yehuda Halevi (1141), Maimonides (1165), Benjamin of Tudela (1173).\n* 1160: According to Benjamin of Tudela, messianic claimant David Alroy called his followers in Baghdad to join him on a mission to Jerusalem.\n* 1170\u20131184: William of Tyre writes his magnum opus Historia Hierosolymitana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem Law",
        "text": "\"President of the State\"\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaization of Jerusalem",
        "text": "Moshe Ma'oz describes the policy of Israeli governments since 1967 as aimed at \"maintain[ing] a unified Jerusalem; to Judaize or Israelize it, demographically and politically.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Jerusalem",
        "text": "What is today known as the \"Old City\" was laid out by the Roman Emperor Hadrian in the 2nd century, when he began to rebuild Jerusalem as a pagan city. In 130, Hadrian visited the ruins of Jerusalem remaining after the First Jewish-Roman War of 66\u201373. He rebuilt the city, renaming it Aelia Capitolina in 135\u00a0CE. Hadrian placed the city's main Roman Forum at the junction of the main Cardo and Decumanus, now the location of the (smaller) Muristan. Hadrian built a large temple to Jupiter Capitolinus, which later became the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. He placed restrictions on some Jewish practices, which caused a revolt led by Simon Bar Kokhba. Hadrian responded with overwhelming force, putting down the rebellion, killing as many as a half million Jews, and resettling the city as a Roman \"colonia\". Jews were forbidden to enter the city but for a single day of the year, Tisha B'Av (the Ninth of Av), the fast day on which Jews mourn the destruction of both Temples. For the next two centuries, the city remained a relatively unimportant pagan Roman town."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaization of Jerusalem",
        "text": "Drawing on the scholarship of Ian Lustick, Cecilia Alban writes of how the Israeli government has succeeded in establishing \"new powerful, concepts, images, and icons\" to explain and legitimise its policies in Jerusalem. The government's use of the term \"reunification\" to describe its occupation of East Jerusalem in 1967 is cited as one such example, which in Alban's view, falsely implies that this area belonged to Israel in the past. Noting the reality of the fear among Israelis that Jerusalem would become redivided under dual sovereignty or internationalization proposals, Alban's writes that such fears were \"exploited politically to justify the forced retention and Judaization of East Jerusalem.\" Steve Niva writes that Israeli policies calling for the Judaization of Jerusalem and the rest of historic Palestine in the 1970s, augmented Muslim fears that Israel was an extension of Western imperialism in the region."
      },
      {
        "title": "Status of Jerusalem",
        "text": "These statements seem to closely reflect Israeli public opinion. According to a 2012 poll by the right-wing Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, 78% of Jewish voters who responded said that they would reconsider voting for any politician that wants to relinquish Israel's control over the Old City and East Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period",
        "text": "In the early 2nd century BCE, therefore, a rift existed in Jerusalem between an economically weak, observant majority lacking civic rights, and a small Hellenized minority closely linked to the Seleucid authorities and in control of the economy, trade, local administration and even the Temple itself. Tensions were exacerbated by Antiochus' edicts against the Jewish faith, especially those introducing idol worship in the Temple and banning circumcision, and in 167 BCE a rural priest, Mattathias of Modiin, led a rebellion against the Seleucid Empire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mayor of Jerusalem",
        "text": "By 1840, the Jewish community constituted the largest single religious group in the city. From the 1880s onward, the Jews constituted the majority within the city. However, it was only in 1937, under the British Mandate, that the first Jewish mayor was appointed. Since 1948 every mayor has been Jewish."
      },
      {
        "title": "2018 Israeli municipal elections",
        "text": "The results of the first round of voting in Jerusalem, with 254,326 voters participating of 638,065 eligible (a 39.86% turnout), are as follows. Of the 254,326 votes, 248,585 were valid."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Jerusalem",
        "text": "In 66\u00a0CE, the Jewish population rebelled against the Roman Empire in what is now known as the First Jewish\u2013Roman War or \"Great Revolt\". Roman legions under future emperor Titus reconquered and subsequently destroyed much of Jerusalem in 70\u00a0CE. Also the Second Temple was burnt and all that remained was the great external (retaining) walls supporting the esplanade on which the Temple had stood, a portion of which has become known as the Western Wall. Titus' victory is commemorated by the Arch of Titus in Rome. Agrippa\u00a0II died c. 94\u00a0CE, which brought the Herodian dynasty to an end almost thirty years after the destruction of the Second Temple. After the end of this revolt, Jews continued to live in Jerusalem in significant numbers, and were allowed to practice their religion, only if they paid the Jewish Tax."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presbyter",
        "text": "The earliest organization of the Church in Jerusalem was according to most scholars similar to that of Jewish synagogues, but it had a council or college of ordained presbyters ( \"elders\"). In Acts 11:30 and , we see a collegiate system of government in Jerusalem though headed by James, according to tradition the first bishop of the city. In , the Apostle Paul ordains presbyters in the churches he founded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mayoral elections in Jerusalem",
        "text": "Barkat was seen as receiving the support of the city's secular majority, which had been regarded as declining in its share of the electorate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Status of Jerusalem",
        "text": "Prime Minister (and former Jerusalem mayor) Ehud Olmert vowed to keep Jerusalem the \"undivided, eternal capital of the Jewish people\", but later supported the detachment of several Arab neighborhoods from Israeli sovereignty and the introduction of an international trust to run the Temple Mount."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herod's Palace (Jerusalem)",
        "text": "At the creation of the Roman province of Judaea in the year 6 CE, its governors\u2014holding the rank of a prefect until the year 41 and that of a procurator after that\u2014took up residence in Herod's palace. In 66 CE, the Roman governor Gessius Florus set up a mass crucifixion of Jews, sparking the First Jewish Rebellion. Rebelling Jews entered and burnt the palace. Only the three towers remained partially standing. When the future Roman emperor Titus destroyed most of Jerusalem in 70 CE, he spared these and set up the camp of the Tenth Legion Fretensis in the area of the palace ruins, a camp which covered the entire Western Hill. One of the towers\u2014a rebuilt Hippicus (or Phasael) Tower on its intact base\u2014became known as the \"Tower of David\". This was due to the fact that during the Byzantine Period, the Western Hill had been mistakenly identified as Mount Zion and the remains of the one surviving Herodian tower were presumed to be King David's palace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pharisees",
        "text": "Romans forbade Jews to enter Jerusalem (except for the day of Tisha B'Av), and forbade any plan to rebuild the Temple. Instead, it took over the Province of Judea directly, renaming it Syria Palaestina, and renaming Jerusalem Aelia Capitolina. Romans did eventually reconstitute the Sanhedrin under the leadership of Judah haNasi (who claimed to be a descendant of King David). They conferred the title of \"Nasi\" as hereditary, and Judah's sons served both as Patriarch and as heads of the Sanhedrin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judean provisional government (66\u201368)",
        "text": "The rebel Judean government was not recognized at any time by the Roman Empire and in fact enjoyed limited recognition amongst the rebel factions. The Jerusalem-based rebel government had little authority in the Galilee, where locals were not satisfied with the fact that a non-local, Joseph ben Matityahu, was appointed a regional commander, marginalizing John of Gischala and Justus of Tiberias, who rejected his authority. Furthermore, the Judean-based Zealots, the peasantry and most Idumean factions were never under the direct control of the government. Kingdom of Adiebene however did provide direct support to it, dispatching significant supplies and some 500 armed men in support."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basil IV (Coptic archbishop of Jerusalem)",
        "text": "During the Easter Vigil in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher on April 25, 1970, the Israeli government sent military forces to change the locks of the monastery to enable the Ethiopian monks to take control of it. Afterwards, the Israeli Supreme Court unanimously approved the restoration of the monastery to the Copts on March 16, 1971, yet the Israeli government refused to implement the Supreme Court ruling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Council of Jerusalem",
        "text": "The \"Catholic Encyclopedia\" article on Judaizers states:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Scholarly interpretation of Gospel-elements",
        "text": "In the time of Jesus' adulthood Judea was under Roman imperial rule. Roman prefects were appointed to the territory to maintain order and collect taxes, and to control Jerusalem through a political appointee, the High Priest. The imposition of a Roman system of taxation, and conflict between the Jews' demand for religious independence and Rome's efforts to impose a common system of governance meant there was continuous underlying tension in the area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period",
        "text": "After Herod's death in 4 BCE and a brief period of rule under Herod Archelaus as a tetrarchy, Judea was made into a Roman province called Iudaea in 6 CE, which was first governed by prefects till 41, then briefly by Agrippa I, and after 44 by procurators."
      },
      {
        "title": "Old City (Jerusalem)",
        "text": "During the 1948 Arab\u2013Israeli War, the Old City was captured by Jordan and all its Jewish residents were evicted. During the Six-Day War in 1967, which saw hand-to-hand fighting on the Temple Mount, Israeli forces captured the Old City along with the rest of East Jerusalem, subsequently annexing them as Israeli territory and reuniting them with the western part of the city. Today, the Israeli government controls the entire area, which it considers part of its national capital. However, the Jerusalem Law of 1980, which effectively annexed East Jerusalem to Israel, was declared null and void by United Nations Security Council Resolution 478. East Jerusalem is now regarded by the international community as part of occupied Palestinian territory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Theocratic Government",
        "text": "Bishop Tomlinson taught, as \"The Church of God (Jerusalem Acres)\" continues to teach, that James -rather than Peter- was the Anointed Leader of the first century church following the ascension of Christ. He based this concept on the fact that at the end of the Council of Jerusalem (Acts chapter 15), it was James who rendered the final verdict; noting that he only did so after hearing all sides of the argument from Peter, Paul and others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thirty-sixth government of Israel",
        "text": "The following are the current ministers in government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Government - Christians Forum",
        "text": "The Israeli Government-Christians Forum is an organization established in Jerusalem in 2013 by Mordechai Zaken, head of the Minorities Affairs Desk at the Ministry of Public Security, to address the concerns of Christians as a minority group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC)",
        "text": "Judea remained autonomous but was obliged to pay tribute and became dependent on the Roman administration in Syria. The kingdom was dismembered and was forced to relinquish the coastal plain, depriving it of access to the Mediterranean, as well as parts of Idumea and Samaria. Several Hellenistic cities were granted autonomy to form the Decapolis, leaving the state greatly diminished."
      },
      {
        "title": "2018 Jerusalem mayoral election",
        "text": "The results of the second round of voting in Jerusalem are as follows. The voter turnout was 35%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Status of Jerusalem",
        "text": "On 2 January 2018 Israel passed into law new legislation that requires the two-thirds majority support of the Knesset for any section of Jerusalem to be transferred to a foreign government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corpus separatum (Jerusalem)",
        "text": "All the residents would automatically become \"citizens of the City of Jerusalem\", unless they would opt for citizenship of the Arab or Jewish State."
      },
      {
        "title": "First Jewish\u2013Roman War",
        "text": "The Great Revolt began in the year 66 CE, during the twelfth year of the reign of Nero, originating in Roman and Jewish religious tensions. The crisis escalated due to anti-taxation protests and attacks upon Roman citizens by the Jews. The Roman governor, Gessius Florus, responded by plundering the Second Temple, claiming the money was for the Emperor, and the next day launching a raid on the city, arresting numerous senior Jewish figures. This prompted a wider, large-scale rebellion and the Roman military garrison of Judaea was quickly overrun by the rebels, while the pro-Roman king Herod Agrippa II, together with Roman officials, fled Jerusalem. As it became clear the rebellion was getting out of control, Cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, brought in the Syrian army, based on Legion XII \"Fulminata\" and reinforced by auxiliary troops, to restore order and quell the revolt. Despite initial advances and the conquest of Jaffa, the Syrian Legion was ambushed and defeated by Jewish rebels at the Battle of Beth Horon with 6,000 Romans massacred and the Legion's aquila lost. During 66, the Judean provisional government was formed in Jerusalem including former High Priest Ananus ben Ananus, Joseph ben Gurion and Joshua ben Gamla elected as leaders. Yosef ben Matityahu (Josephus) was appointed the rebel commander in Galilee and Eleazar ben Hanania as the commander in Edom. Later, in Jerusalem, an attempt by Menahem ben Yehuda, leader of the Sicarii, to take control of the city failed. He was executed and the remaining Sicarii were ejected from the city. Simon bar Giora, a peasant leader, was also expelled by the new government."
      },
      {
        "title": "FTL Newsfeed",
        "text": "Israel's government remains as it is today, with the parliamentary structure altered by the tremendous power reserved by the head of the military. There is a possibility that a dramatic gesture by the Israeli premier towards the HIF could lead to peace."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mayor of Jerusalem",
        "text": "The mayor's office is located in Safra Square; it has jurisdiction over all the city's neighborhoods. The mayor appoints many officials, including Directors who head city departments, and his or her deputy mayors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image",
        "text": "After Antiochus IV Epiphanes recaptured Jerusalem in 167 BC, he forbade Torah and introduced worship of foreign gods into the Second Temple, and many Jews were martyred because they refused to acknowledge the claims of Seleucid deities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Islamic leadership in Jerusalem",
        "text": "Shortly after the 1917 Battle of Jerusalem, newly appointed British Military Governor Ronald Storrs met with Hussein al-Husayni, who explained that the majority of Jerusalem's 11,000 Muslim residents were followers of the official Ottoman Hanafi rite, with a minority following the Shafi\u2019i school which had been predominant prior to the Ottoman conquest. At the time there was a Hanafi mufti and a Shari'a mufti of Jerusalem. Storrs advised the British government to declare that there would only be a single recognized post of mufti going forward."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mayoral elections in Jerusalem",
        "text": "The 2018 Jerusalem mayoral election was held on 30 October and 13 November 2018 to elect the mayor of Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judean provisional government (66\u201368)",
        "text": "The Judean provisional government was a short-lived de facto governing entity of Judea, which was established in the year 66 CE by Judean rebel forces of the Pharisee and Saduccee parties, and aimed to govern the Judean state. The government functioned until the Zealot Temple Siege in the year 68 CE, when most of its leaders were massacred in the inter-rebel struggle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mayoral elections in Jerusalem",
        "text": "Olmert had been predicted to win a convincing reelection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Capital city",
        "text": "Some historical examples of similar arrangements, where the recognized capital was not the official seat of government:\n* Kingdom of England: The traditional capital was the City of London, while Westminster, outside of the boundaries of the City of London, was the seat of government. They are both today part of the urban core of Greater London.\n* Kingdom of France: The traditional capital was Paris, though from 1682 to 1789 the seat of government was at the Palace of Versailles, located in a rural area southwest of Paris.\n* Cyprus and Northern Cyprus: Nicosia, \"the last divided capital\", is divided in two by the United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus (Green Line). Both the Republic of Cyprus, which has \"de facto\" control of the south, and the largely unrecognized Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, which has \"de facto\" control of North Nicosia, claim the entire city as their capital.\n* Israel and Palestine: Both the Government of Israel and the Palestinian Authority claim Jerusalem as their capital. Jerusalem serves as Israel's capital, with the presidential residence, government offices, supreme court and parliament (Knesset) located there, while the Palestinian Authority has no \"de facto\" or \"de jure\" control over any of Jerusalem. Many countries, with the notable exception of the United States, which recognizes Jerusalem as the capital of Israel, take the position that the final status of Jerusalem is unsettled pending future negotiations. Most countries maintain their diplomatic missions to Israel in Tel Aviv, while diplomatic missions to Palestine are in various places such as Ramallah, Gaza City, Cairo and Damascus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem Day",
        "text": "On 12 May 1968, the government proclaimed a new holiday \u2013 Jerusalem Day \u2013 to be celebrated on the 28th of Iyar, the Hebrew date on which the divided city of Jerusalem became one. On 23 March 1998, the Knesset passed the Jerusalem Day Law, making the day a national holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaization of Jerusalem",
        "text": "Some scholars like Oren Yiftachel, Moshe Ma'oz and Jeremy Salt write that it has been the policy of successive Israeli governments since 1967. Others, like Justus Weiner and Dan Diker, have objected to the entire notion, writing that the lack of any significant change to the demographic balance of the city undermines suggestions that it is government policy and renders any such discussions moot. Marc H. Ellis argues that while politicians from Simon Peres and Yitzhack Rabin to Binjamin Netanyahu stress a unified Jerusalem under Israel's sovereignty is open to all, the 'judaization of Jerusalem' and its corollary, the loss of Palestinian population and culture which he argues is being politically implemented, is never touched on."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mayor of Jerusalem",
        "text": "This is a \"list of mayors of Jerusalem\" in chronological order."
      },
      {
        "title": "Siege of Yodfat",
        "text": "Judaea had been a troubled region throughout the 1st century CE, torn between different religious sects, struggling to fit into the Roman system and subject to Roman procurators who were often corrupt and repressive. A major rebellion finally erupted in 66 CE and a rebel government established in Jerusalem. When Cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, failed to take Jerusalem and was then ambushed at Beth Horon, the rebellion spread into the kingdom of Agrippa II, including the Galilee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mayoral elections in Jerusalem",
        "text": "The results of the first round of voting in Jerusalem, with 254,326 voters participating of 638,065 eligible (a 39.86% turnout), are as follows. Of the 254,326 votes, 248,585 were valid.\n;Runoff"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem Law",
        "text": "\"4. (a) The Government shall provide for the development and prosperity of Jerusalem and the well-being of its inhabitants by allocating special funds, including a special annual grant to the Municipality of Jerusalem (Capital City Grant) with the approval of the Finance Committee of the Knesset.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Waiting period (Six-Day War)",
        "text": "Calls were growing in Jerusalem for unity government, with the National Religious Party calling for an emergency government. Old rivals David Ben-Gurion and Menachem Begin met in Sde Boker, where Begin asked Ben-Gurion to join Eshkol's government. Although Eshkol's Mapai party initially opposed the widening of its government, it eventually changed its mind."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mayoral elections in Jerusalem",
        "text": "Ahead of the election, Kollek was heavily favored for reelection, as a result of his personal popularity. However, the coinciding election for Council of Jerusalem was competitive, and it was seen as uncertain whether the \"One Jersusalem\" party list which Kollek fielded, would retain the majority it held. Orthodox and right wing political parties, in opposition of the mayor, were vying to flip control of the council. The \"One Jerusalem\" slate, ultimately, narrowly retained its majority on the council, winning 17 of 31 seats."
      },
      {
        "title": "2009 Temple Mount clashes",
        "text": "The Israelis want to divide al-Aqsa Mosque, and this is not all. They want to hold their religious ceremonies in the mosque... in preparation for demolishing it and building their temple there... Jerusalem is all of Jerusalem, not only Abu-Dis. The Arabs and Muslims are [the city's] residents, and the Zionists have no claim over it... I call for angry protests in Palestine and in the Arab world. Today, protests began in [the] Gaza [Strip], and we hope they will spread to the West Bank. It is important for there to be a united Palestinian position. We must send a message to the world: In light of the settlements and actions in Jerusalem, there are no negotiations and we must rethink our steps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mayoral elections in Jerusalem",
        "text": "Since 1975 law change, mayors have been directly elected in a two round system. Under this system, if no candidate receives at least 40% of the vote in the first round, a runoff election is held between the top-two finishers. The first municipal election to be held under the new law of direct elections for mayor was held in 1978."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem",
        "text": "From 1949 until 1967, West Jerusalem served as Israel's capital, but was not recognized as such internationally because UN General Assembly Resolution 194 envisaged Jerusalem as an international city. As a result of the Six-Day War in 1967, the whole of Jerusalem came under Israeli control. On 27 June 1967, the government of Levi Eshkol extended Israeli law and jurisdiction to East Jerusalem, but agreed that administration of the Temple Mount compound would be maintained by the Jordanian waqf, under the Jordanian Ministry of Religious Endowments."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Israel",
        "text": "Early in the 4th century, the Emperor Constantine made Constantinople the capital of the East Roman Empire and made Christianity an accepted religion. His mother, Helena made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem (326\u2013328) and led the construction of the Church of the Nativity (birthplace of Jesus in Bethlehem), the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (burial site of Jesus in Jerusalem) and other key churches that still exist. The name Jerusalem was restored to Aelia Capitolina and it became a Christian city. Jews were still banned from living in Jerusalem, but were allowed to visit and worship at the site of the ruined temple. Over the course of the next century Christians worked to eradicate \"paganism\", leading to the destruction of the classical Roman traditions and eradication of its temples. By the end of the 4th Century, anyone caught worshipping \"pagan\" gods was executed and their property confiscated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaization of Jerusalem",
        "text": "The Israeli Government has sought to increase the Jewish population by establishing Jewish neighborhoods, viewed by International Community, and Left-Wing Parties and NGOs within Israel as illegal Israeli settlements, in and around Jerusalem. Redrawing Jerusalem's municipal boundaries has incorporated such neighborhoods. In peace negotiations, Israel has consistently demanded their legalisation and proposed Israeli annexation of settlements outside Jerusalem to include them in the municipality. In a speech on 8 November 2000, Prime Minister Ehud Barak said:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Andrew Scheer",
        "text": "In December 2017, when U.S. President Donald Trump announced his decision to recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital, Scheer did not take a public position. However, on February 26, 2018, Scheer stated that a Conservative government \u2013 if elected in 2019 \u2013 would recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period",
        "text": "A revolt erupted following the appointment of prefect Gessius Florus in 64 CE and his demand to receive the Temple funds. It began in Jerusalem where it was led by local zealots who murdered and set fire to the house of the moderate high priest and a bonds archive in order to mobilize the masses. From Jerusalem the revolt then spread to the rest of the country, especially the mixed cities of Caesarea, Beit She'an and the Galilee. Roman suppression of the revolt begun in the north, with an expeditionary force led by the Roman legate of Syria, Cestius Gallus, making its way to Jerusalem. Gallus failed to take the city and decided to withdraw. Pursued by rebel scouts, the Roman troops were ambushed in the Pass of Beth-Horon, losing the equivalent of an entire legion. Gallus managed to escape but died shortly after."
      },
      {
        "title": "Annapolis Conference",
        "text": "On 27 November 2007, Ovadia Yosef, the spiritual leader of the Shas party, announced that his party would leave the government coalition, thereby ending the coalition's majority in the Knesset, if Ehud Olmert agreed to divide Jerusalem. Shas minister Eli Yishai explained: \"Jerusalem is above all political considerations. I will not help enable concessions on Jerusalem.\" Olmert's ability to follow through on his earlier comments about concessions in East Jerusalem is therefore in question."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem Bread Foundation",
        "text": "However, the party received just nine votes and failed to win a seat. It was speculated that the party might run again in the 2011 elections, but it did not put forward any candidates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem in Christianity",
        "text": "After the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, and the passing of the Old City into Israeli hands, the Knesset passed a law protecting the holy places. Five Christian communities currently have rights in the Holy Sepulchre: the Greek Patriarchate, Latins (Western Rite Roman Catholics), Armenians, Copts and Syriac Orthodox."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of Jerusalem during the Kingdom of Jerusalem",
        "text": "The Crusaders had been driven from the city, but local Christians belonging to the Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodox Churches, remained in the city as dhimmis by paying a poll tax (Arabic: Jizz'ya \u062c\u0632\u064a\u0629), and in return were allowed to stay in the city."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mayoral elections in Jerusalem",
        "text": "The election took place among increasing tension between religious and nonreligious Jews in the city. Kollek spoke strongly against what he alleged were intolerant Orthodox factions that were seeking to enforce their lifestyle beliefs upon all Jerusalem. Kollek was assaulted by militantly religious youth ten days prior to the election. Turnout among Arab voters was over 25%. It is believed that many of the Arabs who opted to vote were municipal employees."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli annexation of East Jerusalem",
        "text": "Under Jordanian rule no Jews were permitted to live in the city, which was governed as part of the Jordanian rule West Bank, and the Christian population plummeted, falling from 25,000 to 9,000. Reunification ended the programmatic Islamization of Jerusalem by the government of Jordan, a policy that had included the destruction of dozens of synagogues; the imposition of Arabic-language, government-issued textbooks in Christian schools; a ban on the purchase of property by churches; a ban on church funding of social and medical services, including hospitals; and a complete ban on visits to Jewish holy places by Jewish pilgrims."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaizers",
        "text": "The Council of Jerusalem is generally dated to 48 AD, roughly 15 to 25 years after the crucifixion of Jesus, between 26 and 36 AD. Acts and Galatians both suggest that the meeting was called to debate whether or not male Gentiles who were converting to become followers of Jesus were required to become circumcised; the rite of circumcision was considered execrable and repulsive during the period of Hellenization of the Eastern Mediterranean, and was especially adversed in Classical civilization both from ancient Greeks and Romans, which instead valued the foreskin positively."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How long did the Romans live in Calvary?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find the answer, but I did find that Calvary is believed to be a site Outside of Jerusalem and Mount Zion is a site associated before the Roman destruction of Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did the Romans destroy Jerusalem?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Roman army, led by the future Emperor Titus, with Tiberius Julius Alexander as his second-in-command, besieged and conquered the city of Jerusalem in 70 CE, which had been controlled by Judean rebel factions since 66 CE, following the Jerusalem riots of 66, when the Judean provisional government was formed in Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What type of government is in Jerusalem today?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Jerusalem adopts the mayor\u2013council government system which is a system of organization of local government that has an executive mayor who is directly elected by the voters, and a separately elected legislative city council.",
      "Are you interested in Jerusalem's local government, or the Israeli system of government?"
    ],
    "topic": "Easter",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Mayor\u2013council government:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Mayor\u2013council government"
        ],
        "ctx": "The mayor\u2013council government system is a system of organization of local government that has an executive mayor who is directly elected by the voters, and a separately elected legislative city council. It is one of the two most common forms of local government in the United States, and is also used in Brazil, Canada, Italy, Israel, New Zealand, and Turkey. It is the one most frequently adopted in large cities, although the other form, council\u2013manager government, is the local government form of more municipalities."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Jerusalem:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Jerusalem"
        ],
        "ctx": "Jerusalem (; ; ) is a city in Western Asia. Situated on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea, it is one of the oldest cities in the world, and is considered holy for the three major Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The city straddles the Green Line between Israel and the West Bank; both Israelis and Palestinians claim Jerusalem as their capital, as Israel controls the entire city and maintains its primary governmental institutions there while the Palestinian National Authority and Palestine Liberation Organization ultimately foresee it as the seat of power for the State of Palestine. Due to this long-running dispute, neither claim is widely recognized internationally."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Israeli system of government:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Israeli system of government"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Israeli system of government is based on parliamentary democracy. The Prime Minister of Israel is the head of government and leader of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government (also known as the cabinet). Legislative power is vested in the Knesset. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The political system of the State of Israel and its main principles are set out in 11 Basic Laws. Israel does not have a written constitution."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Council of Jerusalem",
        "text": "\"The Jewish Encyclopedia\" states:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Council of Jerusalem",
        "text": "\"The Jewish Encyclopedia\" also states:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaization of Jerusalem",
        "text": "Despite the rapid growth of the Jewish population since 1967, its relative size has decreased due to a higher growth rate among the Arab population. The Jewish percentage of the population dropped from 74% in 1967 to 66% in 2005. Researchers at the Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies called this \"a contradiction between the reality in Jerusalem and the declared government policy of maintaining the Jewish majority in Jerusalem since the city's re-unification\". To reverse this trend, they suggested expanding Jerusalem's border to the west (meaning the addition of Jewish population centres), or removing Arab neighborhoods from the city's municipal area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mayor of Jerusalem",
        "text": "By 1840, the Jewish community constituted the largest single religious group in the city. From the 1880s onward, the Jews constituted the majority within the city. However, it was only in 1937, under the British Mandate, that the first Jewish mayor was appointed. Since 1948 every mayor has been Jewish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haredim and Zionism",
        "text": "Meanwhile, the Edah HaChareidis Rabbinical Council of Jerusalem and its associated communities, including Satmar, Dushinsky, Toldos Aharon, and Toldos Avrohom Yitzchok, do not vote, and do not accept government money. Around election days, posters by the Edah HaChareidis are posted throughout Haredi neighborhoods of Jerusalem, proclaiming that it is forbidden to vote in the elections, and that doing so is a grave sin. The Edah HaChareidis and its affiliated movements have permitted co-operating with the Israeli police under extenuating circumstances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem",
        "text": "Jerusalem's Jewish population is overwhelmingly religious. Only 21% of Jewish residents are secular. In addition, Haredi Jews comprise 30% of the city's adult Jewish population. In a phenomenon seen rarely around the world, the percentage of Jewish men who work, 47%, is exceeded by the percentage of Jewish women who work, 50%. The young and less religious continue to leave according to a 2016 Central Bureau of Statistics report which noted 6,740 people left. The opening of high speed rail transit to Tel Aviv in 2018 and the New Jerusalem Gateway Business District currently under construction is designed to alter business, tourism, and hopefully reverse the population exodus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freedom of religion",
        "text": "The State of Israel was established for the Jewish diaspora after World War II. While the Israel Declaration of Independence stresses religious freedom as a fundamental principle, in practice the current government, dominated by the ultra-Orthodox segment of the population has instituted legal barriers for those who do not practice Orthodox Judaism as Jews. However, as a nation state, Israel is very open towards other religions and religious practices, including public Muslim call to prayer chants and Christian prayer bells ringing in Jerusalem. Israel has been evaluated in research by the Pew organization as having \"high\" government restrictions on religion. The government recognizes only Orthodox Judaism in certain matters of personal status, and marriages can only be performed by religious authorities. The government provides the greatest funding to Orthodox Judaism, even though adherents represent a minority of citizens. Jewish women, including Anat Hoffman, have been arrested at the Western Wall for praying and singing while wearing religious garments the Orthodox feel should be reserved for men. Women of the Wall have organized to promote religious freedom at the Wall. In November 2014, a group of 60 non-Orthodox rabbinical students were told they would not be allowed to pray in the Knesset synagogue because it is reserved for Orthodox. Rabbi Joel Levy, director of the Conservative Yeshiva in Jerusalem, said that he had submitted the request on behalf of the students and saw their shock when the request was denied. He noted: \"paradoxically, this decision served as an appropriate end to our conversation about religion and state in Israel.\" MK Dov Lipman expressed the concern that many Knesset workers are unfamiliar with non-Orthodox and American practices and would view \"an egalitarian service in the synagogue as an affront.\" The non-Orthodox forms of Jewish practice function independently in Israel, except for these issues of praying at the Western Wall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Naim Ateek",
        "text": "In his 2001 Easter message Ateek stated, in part: As we approach Holy Week and Easter, the suffering of Jesus Christ at the hands of evil political and religious powers two thousand years ago is lived out again in Palestine. The number of innocent Palestinians and Israelis that have fallen victim to Israeli state policy is increasing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaization of Jerusalem",
        "text": "The Israeli government is attempting to Judaise East Jerusalem, and maintain a Jewish majority against the demographic threat of a higher Palestinian birth rate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaization of Jerusalem",
        "text": "\"Judaization\" can be defined as either the conversion of persons to the Jewish religion and the acquisition of Jewish cultural and religious beliefs and values, or the process of transforming an area to give it a predominant Jewish character, primarily by creating the largest possible Jewish majority. The creation of a Jewish majority in Jerusalem has always been a high priority of the Israeli government, after 1947 in West Jerusalem and after 1967 in East Jerusalem. The rejection of the \"Right of return\" is motivated in part by the intention to maintain a Jewish majority, in Israel as well as in Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel",
        "text": "Early in the 4th century, Roman Empire split and Constantinople became the capital of the East Roman Empire known as the Byzantine Empire. Under the Byzantines, Christianity, dominated by the (Greek) Eastern Orthodox Church, was adopted as the official religion. Jerusalem became a Christian city and Jews were still banned from living there."
      },
      {
        "title": "First Council of Nicaea",
        "text": "The feast of Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread, as Christians believe that the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus occurred at the time of those observances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem in Judaism",
        "text": "Jerusalem in the 21st century is perceived by Israeli Jews in different ways, depending on their religious beliefs. In the summer of 2009, riots by Haredi Jews broke out in Jerusalem over the opening of a parking lot near the Old City on Saturdays. However, secular groups counter-protested, claiming that Jerusalem should be a city for all people, religious and non-religious. The call for an \"open\" Jerusalem has received support from Rabbi Dr. Donniel Hartman an Orthodox Rabbi and President of the Shalom Hartman Institute, in Jerusalem. He wrote: \"As a religious Jew who is also a Zionist I believe Jerusalem is not simply important as the city of God, but as the capital of the State of Israel, a state which, as distinct from you, I value as a part of my religious life. As a committed Zionist, I believe the citizens of our country need unifying symbols around which to construct our shared collective life. Jerusalem, one of the few remaining unifying concepts in our deeply divided Jewish world, may serve as precisely such as symbol. The meaning of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel is that it is a city which belongs to all citizens of the State of Israel. While you and I may observe Shabbat in similar ways, my fellow citizens of Israel observe it very differently. While you want to preserve the city, I want to preserve our people\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli\u2013Palestinian conflict",
        "text": "The control of Jerusalem is a particularly delicate issue, with each side asserting claims over the city. The three largest Abrahamic religions\u2014Judaism, Christianity, and Islam\u2014hold Jerusalem as an important setting for their religious and historical narratives. Jerusalem is the holiest city for Judaism, being the former location of the Jewish temples on the Temple Mount and the capital of the ancient Israelite kingdom. For Muslims, Jerusalem is the third holiest site, being the location of Isra and Mi'raj event, and the Al-Aqsa mosque. For Christians, Jerusalem is the site of Jesus' crucifixion and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre."
      },
      {
        "title": "Six-Day War",
        "text": "The aftermath of the war is also of religious significance. Under Jordanian rule, Jews were expelled from Jerusalem and were effectively barred from visiting the Western Wall, despite Article VIII of the 1949 Armistice Agreement demanded Israeli Jewish access to the Western Wall. Jewish holy sites were not maintained, and Jewish cemeteries had been desecrated. After the annexation to Israel, each religious group was granted administration over its holy sites. For the first time since 1948, Jews could visit the Old City of Jerusalem and pray at the Western Wall, the holiest site where Jews are permitted to pray, an event celebrated every year during Yom Yerushalayim. Despite the Temple Mount being the most important holy site in Jewish tradition, the al-Aqsa Mosque has been under sole administration of the Jordanian Muslim Waqf, and Jews are barred from praying on the Temple Mount, although they are allowed to visit it. In Hebron, Jews gained access to the Cave of the Patriarchs \u2013 the second-most holy site in Judaism, after the Temple Mount \u2013 for the first time since the 14th century (previously Jews were allowed to pray only at the entrance). Other Jewish holy sites, such as Rachel's Tomb in Bethlehem and Joseph's Tomb in Nablus, also became accessible."
      },
      {
        "title": "East Jerusalem",
        "text": "Under Israeli rule, members of all religions are largely granted access to their holy sites, with the Muslim Waqf maintaining control of the Temple Mount and the Muslim holy sites there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hashkafa",
        "text": "Religious Zionists and Modern Orthodox Jews view the State of Israel as the first step in the process of redemption; \"Torat Eretz Yisrael\" is a body of writing devoted to this topic. Certain Hasidic groups, Satmar is the best known, believe that an autonomous Jewish state in the Land of Israel is forbidden by Jewish law, and label Zionists as heretics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem",
        "text": "Jerusalem (; ; ) is a city in Western Asia. Situated on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea, it is one of the oldest cities in the world, and is considered holy for the three major Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The city straddles the Green Line between Israel and the West Bank; both Israelis and Palestinians claim Jerusalem as their capital, as Israel controls the entire city and maintains its primary governmental institutions there while the Palestinian National Authority and Palestine Liberation Organization ultimately foresee it as the seat of power for the State of Palestine. Due to this long-running dispute, neither claim is widely recognized internationally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Council of Jerusalem",
        "text": "At the time, most followers of Jesus (which historians refer to as Jewish Christians) were Jewish by birth and even converts would have considered the early Christians as a part of Judaism. According to scholars, the Jewish Christians affirmed every aspect of the then contemporary Second Temple Judaism with the addition of the belief that Jesus was the Messiah. Unless males were circumcised, they could not be God's People. The meeting was called to decide whether circumcision for gentile converts was requisite for community membership since certain individuals were teaching that you are circumcised according to the custom of Moses, you cannot be saved\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem",
        "text": "On 5 December 1949, Israel's first Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion, proclaimed Jerusalem as Israel's \"eternal\" and \"sacred\" capital, and eight days later specified that only the war had \"compelled\" the Israeli leadership \"to establish the seat of Government in Tel Aviv\", while \"for the State of Israel there has always been and always will be one capital only \u2013 Jerusalem the Eternal\", and that after the war, efforts had been ongoing for creating the conditions for \"the Knesset... returning to Jerusalem.\" This indeed took place, and since the beginning of 1950 all branches of the Israeli government\u2014legislative, judicial, and executive\u2014have resided there, except for the Ministry of Defense, which is located at HaKirya in Tel Aviv. At the time of Ben Gurion's proclamations and the ensuing Knesset vote of 24 January 1950, Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan, and thus the proclamation only applied to West Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catholic Church and Judaism",
        "text": "There is generally freedom of religion in Israel, but there are limitations. Marriages can only be performed by recognized religious entities. There is some discrimination against religious minorities. Particularly in Jerusalem there have been repeated incidents of Jews spitting on Catholics and other Christians wearing or carrying Christian symbols such as a cross. Shmuel Evyatar, a former advisor to Jerusalem's mayor, says the anti-Christian attacks represent \"a huge disgrace\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Armenian Quarter",
        "text": "Aram I, the head of the Holy See of Cilicia, one of the sees of the Armenian Apostolic Church (based in Lebanon), stated in a 2017 meeting with Lebanese President Michel Aoun that Jerusalem should be an \"open city for the three monotheistic religions: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim, and that the religious rights of these peoples should be protected within Jerusalem.\" Aram I also rejected the United States recognition of Jerusalem as capital of Israel."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leonard Feeney",
        "text": "A single year, 1957, saw the following article titles:\n:January: \"Jewish Invasion of Our Country\u2014Our Culture Under Siege\"\n:February: \"When Everyone Was Catholic\u2014The Courage of the Faith in the Thirteenth Century\"\n:March: \"Dublin's Briscoe Comes to Boston\"\n:April: \"The Fight for the Holy City\u2014Efforts of the Jews to Control Jerusalem\"\n:May: \"Our Lady of Fatima Warned Us\"\n:June: \"The Rejected People of Holy Scripture: Why the Jews Fear the Bible\"\n:July: \"The Judaising of Christians by Jews\u2014Tactics of the Church's Leading Enemies\"\n:August: \"A Sure Defence Against the Jews\u2014What Our Catholic Bishops Can Do for Us\"\n:September: \"An Unholy People in the Holy Land\u2014The Actions of the Jews\"\n:October: \"The Jewish Lie About Brotherhood\u2014the Catholic Answer\u2014Israeli Brotherhood\"\n:November: \"Six Pointers on the Jews\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Demographic history of Jerusalem",
        "text": "The Jewish population of Jerusalem, as for wider Palestine, increased further during the Third Aliyah of 1919\u201323 following the Balfour Declaration. Prior to this, a British survey in 1919 noted that most Jews in Jerusalem were largely Orthodox and that a minority were Zionists."
      },
      {
        "title": "Basil IV (Coptic archbishop of Jerusalem)",
        "text": "During the Easter Vigil in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher on April 25, 1970, the Israeli government sent military forces to change the locks of the monastery to enable the Ethiopian monks to take control of it. Afterwards, the Israeli Supreme Court unanimously approved the restoration of the monastery to the Copts on March 16, 1971, yet the Israeli government refused to implement the Supreme Court ruling."
      },
      {
        "title": "First Council of Nicaea",
        "text": "Nor did the Council decree that Easter must never coincide with Nisan 14 (the first Day of Unleavened Bread, now commonly called \"Passover\") in the Hebrew calendar. By endorsing the move to independent computations, the Council had separated the Easter computation from all dependence, positive or negative, on the Jewish calendar. The \"Zonaras proviso\", the claim that Easter must always follow Nisan 14 in the Hebrew calendar, was not formulated until after some centuries. By that time, the accumulation of errors in the Julian solar and lunar calendars had made it the \"de facto\" state of affairs that Julian Easter always followed Hebrew Nisan 14."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaism",
        "text": "Rabbinical Judaism maintains that a Jew, whether by birth or conversion, is a Jew forever. Thus a Jew who claims to be an atheist or converts to another religion is still considered by traditional Judaism to be Jewish. According to some sources, the Reform movement has maintained that a Jew who has converted to another religion is no longer a Jew, and the Israeli Government has also taken that stance after Supreme Court cases and statutes. However, the Reform movement has indicated that this is not so cut and dried, and different situations call for consideration and differing actions. For example, Jews who have converted under duress may be permitted to return to Judaism \"without any action on their part but their desire to rejoin the Jewish community\" and \"A proselyte who has become an apostate remains, nevertheless, a Jew\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religious Zionism",
        "text": "Religious Zionists believe that \"Eretz Israel\" (the Land of Israel) was promised to the ancient Israelites by God. Furthermore, modern Jews have the obligation to possess and defend the land in ways that comport with the Torah's high standards of justice. To generations of diaspora Jews, Jerusalem has been a symbol of the Holy Land and of their return to it, as promised by God in numerous Biblical prophecies. Despite this, many Jews did not embrace Zionism before the 1930s, and certain religious groups opposed it then, as some groups still do now, on the grounds that an attempt to re-establish Jewish rule in Israel by human agency was blasphemous. Hastening salvation and the coming of the Messiah was considered religiously forbidden, and Zionism was seen as a sign of disbelief in God's power, and therefore, a rebellion against God."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religious significance of Jerusalem",
        "text": "The city of Jerusalem is given special status in Jewish religious law. In particular, Jews outside Jerusalem pray facing its direction, and the maaser sheni, revai and First Fruits must be eaten in Jerusalem. Any expansion of the city for these purposes must be approved by the Sanhedrin. Also, when the Temple in Jerusalem was standing, Jerusalem observed special laws regarding the Four Species on Sukkot, and the Shofar on Rosh Hashanah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaization of Jerusalem",
        "text": "Judaization of Jerusalem (, \"tahweed il-quds\"; , \"yehud yerushalaim\") is the view that Israel has sought to transform the physical and demographic landscape of Jerusalem to enhance its Jewish character at the expense of its Muslim and Christian ones. This also often involves the increasing Jewish presence in Jerusalem in the modern era, referring to the Jewish Old Yishuv becoming increasingly dominant since the Ottoman era; this process continued until it became the largest ethno-religious group in Jerusalem since the mid-19th century and until the 1948 War, when Jordan cleansed Eastern Jerusalem from its Jewish presence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish holidays",
        "text": "Between the creation of the State of Israel in 1948 and the aftermath of the Six-Day War, the Knesset, generally in consultation with the Chief Rabbinate of Israel, established four national holidays or days of remembrance:\n* \"Yom HaShoah:\" Holocaust Remembrance Day\n* \"Yom Hazikaron:\" Memorial Day\n* \"Yom Ha'atzmaut:\" Israel Independence Day\n* \"Yom Yerushalayim:\" Jerusalem Day"
      },
      {
        "title": "Criticism of the Israeli government",
        "text": "The term \"Judaization of Jerusalem\" refers to the view that Israel has sought to transform the physical and demographic landscape of Jerusalem to correspond with a vision of a united and fundamentally Jewish Jerusalem under Israeli sovereignty."
      },
      {
        "title": "East Jerusalem",
        "text": "David Ben-Gurion presented his party's assertion that \"Jewish Jerusalem is an organic, inseparable part of the State of Israel\" in December 1949, and Jordan annexed East Jerusalem the following year. These decisions were confirmed respectively in the Israeli Knesset in January 1950 and the Jordanian Parliament in April 1950."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corporate election",
        "text": "Paul's thought here is consistent with many ancient Israelite traditions which portray the reality of individual and sub-group apostasies within the elect community while at the same time maintaining the continuity of that community as a whole. In every episode of Israel's tradition history, a faithful remnant survives after apostasy and judgment/expulsion occur (e.g., Deuteronomy 4:23-31). Paul habitually cites or echoes the Jewish traditions for authoritative support of his arguments, and for him, there is an analogy between Israel and Christians in relation to election (Romans 11; 1 Corinthians 10). It seems implausible that he would have divorced himself so completely from the presuppositions of his Jewish heritage that he now teaches that individuals which make up the elect body are each unconditionally preserved so as to never be able to completely fall away."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem Day",
        "text": "In 1977, the government advanced the date of Jerusalem Day by a week to avoid it clashing with Election Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religious antisemitism",
        "text": "During a discussion on the celebration of Easter during the First Council of Nicaea in 325 CE, Roman emperor Constantine said, ... it appeared an unworthy thing that in the celebration of this most holy feast we should follow the practice of the Jews, who have impiously defiled their hands with enormous sin, and are, therefore, deservedly afflicted with blindness of soul. ... Let us then have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd; for we have received from our Saviour a different way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem Day",
        "text": "Some Haredim (strictly Orthodox), who do not recognise the religious significance of the State of Israel, do not observe Yom Yerushalayim. Rabbi Moshe Feinstein maintained that adding holidays to the Jewish calendar was itself problematic."
      },
      {
        "title": "2013 Israeli legislative election",
        "text": "By 5 March, Shas and UTJ had reportedly been informed they would not be joining the government. Yesh Atid began demanding more policy changes for the next government: public transportation on the Sabbath, an easier process for conversion to Judaism, and changes to the Chief Rabbinate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Status of Jerusalem",
        "text": "These statements seem to closely reflect Israeli public opinion. According to a 2012 poll by the right-wing Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, 78% of Jewish voters who responded said that they would reconsider voting for any politician that wants to relinquish Israel's control over the Old City and East Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter L'Huillier",
        "text": "The author of several books, L'Huillier's final volume spurred some disagreements in Orthodox circles. Published by St. Vladimir's Press, it urged the Orthodox Churches to adopt the Western Christian calculation of Easter, aka \"Paschalion\". This has been a controversial topic for some time in Eastern Orthodox discourse. Some critics of the book emphasized that only the Eastern Paschalion holds to the Nicene Council's 4th century prohibition on celebrating the resurrection before the Jewish Passover. Some argued that abandonment of that stipulation could even imply a subtle subtext of antisemitism, since it would further decouple the connection between Christianity and Judaism. This criticism is made on both historical and contemporary grounds, the latter because Western Christianity annually ignores contemporary Jews' calculation of Passover."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian Church",
        "text": "Springing out of Second Temple Judaism, from Christianity's earliest days, Christians accepted non-Jews (Gentiles) without requiring full adoption of Jewish customs (such as circumcision). The parallels in the Jewish faith are the Proselytes, Godfearers, and Noahide Law; see also Biblical law in Christianity. Some think that conflict with Jewish religious authorities quickly led to the expulsion of Christians from the synagogues in Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "Because of this dissatisfaction with reliance on the Jewish calendar, some Christians began to experiment with independent computations. Others, however, believed that the customary practice of consulting Jews should continue, even if the Jewish computations were in error."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem in Judaism",
        "text": "Jerusalem in Judaism\n--Early traditions in the Hebrew Bible.\n--In the Hebrew Bible.\n--In Rabbinic literature.\n--In Jewish Law and custom.\n----Temple in Jerusalem.\n----In commemoration.\n--In prayer.\n--Customs in remembrance of Jerusalem.\n--Western Wall in Jerusalem.\n--Rabbis and Jerusalem.\n--Creation of the State of Israel.\n--Jerusalem in modern Israel.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Status of Jerusalem",
        "text": "Positions on the final status of Jerusalem have varied with different Israeli governments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem in Judaism",
        "text": "According to Jewish law, as an expression of mourning for Jerusalem, it is forbidden to listen to any form of music, other than on holidays and at celebrations such as weddings and inaugurations of new Torah scrolls. This prohibition, however, while codified in the Shulchan Aruch, is not followed by the vast majority of Orthodox and even Haredi Jews nowadays."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abrahamic religions",
        "text": "Jerusalem is considered Judaism's holiest city. Its origins can be dated to 1004 BCE when according to Biblical tradition David established it as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel, and his son Solomon built the First Temple on Mount Moriah. Since the Hebrew Bible relates that Isaac's sacrifice took place there, Mount Moriah's importance for Jews predates even these prominent events. Jews thrice daily pray in its direction, including in their prayers pleas for the restoration and the rebuilding of the Holy Temple (the Third Temple) on mount Moriah, close the Passover service with the wistful statement \"Next year in built Jerusalem,\" and recall the city in the blessing at the end of each meal. Jerusalem has served as the only capital for the five Jewish states that have existed in Israel since 1400 BCE (the United Kingdom of Israel, the Kingdom of Judah, Yehud Medinata, the Hasmonean Kingdom, and modern Israel). It has been majority Jewish since about 1852 and continues through today."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of Jewish history\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Religious significance of Jerusalem\u00a0\u00b7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity in Israel",
        "text": "According to Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, since the reunification of Jerusalem, the Christian as well as Jewish and Islamic holy sites were opened for multinational pilgrims by the Israeli authorities, for the first time since 1948, when the Kingdom of Jordan took over the Eastern half of the city."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israel",
        "text": "The city of Jerusalem is of special importance to Jews, Muslims, and Christians, as it is the home of sites that are pivotal to their religious beliefs, such as the Old City that incorporates the Western Wall and the Temple Mount, the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Other locations of religious importance in Israel are Nazareth (holy in Christianity as the site of the Annunciation of Mary), Tiberias and Safed (two of the Four Holy Cities in Judaism), the White Mosque in Ramla (holy in Islam as the shrine of the prophet Saleh), and the Church of Saint George in Lod (holy in Christianity and Islam as the tomb of Saint George or Al Khidr). A number of other religious landmarks are located in the West Bank, among them Joseph's Tomb in Nablus, the birthplace of Jesus and Rachel's Tomb in Bethlehem, and the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron. The administrative center of the Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00ed Faith and the Shrine of the B\u00e1b are located at the Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00ed World Centre in Haifa; the leader of the faith is buried in Acre. A few kilometres south of the Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00ed World Centre is Mahmood Mosque affiliated with the reformist Ahmadiyya movement. Kababir, Haifa's mixed neighbourhood of Jews and Ahmadi Arabs is one of a few of its kind in the country, others being Jaffa, Acre, other Haifa neighborhoods, Harish and Upper Nazareth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Status quo (Israel)",
        "text": "In the letter, Ben-Gurion stated that neither the Jewish Agency Executive nor any other body in the country is authorized to determine in advance the constitution of the emerging Jewish state, and its secular character. One precondition from the U.N, for the establishment of the Jewish state was freedom of thought and freedom of speech to all its citizens. It was considered that the letter would satisfy the concerns of religious parties. The letter stipulated policy principles in four main areas that are considered fundamental to Orthodox Judaism:\n*\"Shabbat\" (the Sabbath of Judaism) \u2014 the Jewish state's day of rest would be that of Judaism, between sunset on Friday and sunset on Saturday.\n*\"Kashrut\" (religious Jewish kosher laws regarding food) \u2014 kitchens in the Jewish state's official institutions would keep kosher, as defined by the authorities of Orthodox Judaism, but privately, each individual would be free to choose whether to observe these rules.\n*Family laws (marriage, etc.) \u2014 a single judicial system would be preserved for the purpose of marriage and divorce, with these being conducted in rabbinical courts for Jews and by the relevant religious authorities for people of other faiths, as was the case before; there would be no civil marriage.\n*Education \u2014 full autonomy to the different Jewish denominations, while stipulating the minimum standards in fields such as the Hebrew language, Jewish history, science, etc."
      },
      {
        "title": "Council of Jerusalem",
        "text": "The \"Catholic Encyclopedia\" article on Judaizers states:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Abbas Government",
        "text": "3. Jerusalem"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem",
        "text": "The status of the city, and especially its holy places, remains a core issue in the Israeli\u2013Palestinian conflict. The Israeli government has approved building plans in the Muslim Quarter of the Old City in order to expand the Jewish presence in East Jerusalem, while some Islamic leaders have made claims that Jews have no historical connection to Jerusalem, alleging that the 2,500-year-old Western Wall was constructed as part of a mosque. Palestinians regard Jerusalem as the capital of the State of Palestine, and the city's borders have been the subject of bilateral talks. A team of experts assembled by the then Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak in 2000 concluded that the city must be divided, since Israel had failed to achieve any of its national aims there. However, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said in 2014 that \"Jerusalem will never be divided\". A poll conducted in June 2013 found that 74% of Israeli Jews reject the idea of a Palestinian capital in any portion of Jerusalem, though 72% of the public regarded it as a divided city. A poll conducted by Palestinian Center for Public Opinion and American Pechter Middle East Polls for the Council on Foreign Relations, among East Jerusalem Arab residents in 2011 revealed that 39% of East Jerusalem Arab residents would prefer Israeli citizenship contrary to 31% who opted for Palestinian citizenship. According to the poll, 40% of Palestinian residents would prefer to leave their neighborhoods if they would be placed under Palestinian rule."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem in Judaism",
        "text": "Jewish religious writings contain thousands of references to Jerusalem, some of which are included in the following:\n*If one is praying in the Land of Israel, he should direct his heart towards Jerusalem; If he is standing in Jerusalem, he should face towards the Holy Temple \u2014\n*Why are the fruits of Ginosar not found in Jerusalem? So that the pilgrims should not say \"were it only incumbent on us to eat the fruits of Ginosar in Jerusalem, it would be enough\" \u2014\n*In the future the Holy One will expand Jerusalem to the extent that a horse will flee and its owner will be able to recover it [while still being within the city\u2019s limits] \u2014\n*Jerusalem was not divided among the tribes \u2014\n*A snake or scorpion never injured anyone in Jerusalem \u2014\n*Whoever did not see Jerusalem in her glory has never seen a beautiful city \u2014\n*Ten measures of beauty descended to the world, Jerusalem took nine \u2014\n*Jerusalem is the light of the world \u2014\n*Jerusalem will not be rebuilt until the ingathering of the exiles has occurred \u2014\n*The Land of Israel sits at the centre of the world and Jerusalem sits at the centre of the Land of Israel \u2014\n*Why did the omnipresent not create warm springs in Jerusalem, like those of Tiberias? So a person should not say \u201cLet us ascend to Jerusalem in order to bathe\u201d \u2014\n*There is no beauty like that of Jerusalem \u2014\n*Ten miracles occurred for our forefathers in Jerusalem \u2014\n*\u201dFrom all your tribes\u201d \u2013 This refers to Jerusalem because all Israel are partners in her \u2014\n*In the future all the nations and kingdoms will be gathered unto Jerusalem \u2014\n*All who pray in Jerusalem - it is as if he prayed before the throne of glory, because the gate of heaven is situated there \u2014\n*In the merit of Jerusalem I split the sea for them \u2014\n*In the future the suburbs of Jerusalem will be filled with precious stones and jewels and all of Israel will come and take them \u2014\n*From the day Jerusalem was destroyed, God has no joy, until He rebuilds Jerusalem and returns Israel to it \u2014"
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in Israel",
        "text": "Today the secular Israeli Jews claim that they aren't religious and don't observe Jewish law, and that Israel as a democratic modern country should not force the observance thereof upon its citizens against their will. The Orthodox Israeli Jews claim that the separation between state and religion will contribute to the end of Israel's Jewish identity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish holidays",
        "text": "At the present time, observance of this day appears to be secular in nature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter controversy",
        "text": "The Council of Nicaea ruled that all churches should follow a single rule for Easter, which should be computed independently of the Jewish calendar, as at Alexandria. However, it did not make any explicit ruling about the details of the computation, and it was several decades before the Alexandrine computations stabilized into their final form, and several centuries beyond that before they became normative throughout Christendom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of Jewish history\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Jerusalem Law\u00a0\u00b7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish holidays",
        "text": "The three-week period starting on 17 Tammuz and concluding after Tisha B'Av has traditionally been observed as a period of mourning for the destruction of Jerusalem and the Holy Temple there.\n* Shiva Asar B'Tammuz: 17 Tammuz"
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli system of government",
        "text": "The other major religious communities in Israel, such as Muslims and Christians, have their own religious courts. These courts have similar jurisdiction over their followers as Jewish religious courts, although Muslim religious courts have more control over family affairs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem in Judaism",
        "text": "The British Mandate of Palestine authorities created the new offices of \"Chief Rabbi\" in 1921 for both Ashkenazi Jews and Sephardic Jews with central offices in Jerusalem. Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook (d. 1935) moved to Jerusalem to set up this office, associated with the \"Religious Zionist\" \"Mafdal\" group, becoming the first modern Chief Rabbi together with Sephardic Chief Rabbi Yaakov Meir. The official structure housing the Chief Rabbinate was completed in 1958 and is known as \"Heichal Shlomo\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of Jewish history\u2013related articles",
        "text": "Jerusalem\u00a0\u00b7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem Institute of Justice",
        "text": "In 2012 the Jerusalem Institute of Justice petitioned the Israeli High Court of Justice to overturn Amendment 17, a law passed in 2010 granting synagogues a 100% exemption on municipal property taxes on the grounds that the exclusive application of the amendment to synagogues was undemocratic. Due to JIJ's petition, on August 2, 2012, the Knesset officially extended Amendment 17 to include all houses of worship and religious studies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity and Judaism",
        "text": "In Jewish liturgy there is significant prayer and talk of a \"book of life\" that one is written into, indicating that God judges each person each year even after death. This annual judgment process begins on Rosh Hashanah and ends with Yom Kippur. Additionally, God sits daily in judgment concerning a person's daily activities. Upon the anticipated arrival of the Messiah, God will judge the nations for their persecution of Israel during the exile. Later, God will also judge the Jews over their observance of the Torah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem in Christianity",
        "text": "After the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, and the passing of the Old City into Israeli hands, the Knesset passed a law protecting the holy places. Five Christian communities currently have rights in the Holy Sepulchre: the Greek Patriarchate, Latins (Western Rite Roman Catholics), Armenians, Copts and Syriac Orthodox."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in Israel",
        "text": "Most Christians in Israel belong primarily to branches of the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches that oversee a variety of church buildings, monasteries, seminaries, and religious institutions all over the land, particularly in Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish holidays",
        "text": "Finally, the Israeli government also recognizes several ethnic Jewish observances with holiday status.\n* Yom HaShoah: (nominally) 27 Nisan"
      },
      {
        "title": "Amram Aburbeh",
        "text": "An official publication Reshumot (Portofolio of Notifications 130) announcement on the election to Jerusalem municipality council, that were held on 14 November 1950, states that among the approved candidates Rabbi Amram Aburbeh was candidate number 7 to honor the Yichud Shevet Yehudah party candidates list, representing the religious Sephardi Jews."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tisha B'Av",
        "text": "As the main focus of the day recalls the destruction of the two Temples in Jerusalem and the subsequent Jewish diaspora, the modern day re-establishment of a Jewish state in the Holy Land has raised various attitudes within Judaism about the appropriateness of fasting and other mourning customs associated with the day. Some observant Jews outside of Orthodoxy curtail some of the mourning customs in recognition of the miracle of the reestablishment of Jewish sovereignty after nearly two thousand years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mordechai Kedar",
        "text": "Kedar said in June 2008, on Al Jazeera, that, \"Jerusalem belongs to the Jews, period\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beta Israel",
        "text": "Many Ethiopian Jews whose ancestors converted to Christianity have been returning to the practice of Judaism. The Israeli government can thus set quotas on their immigration and make citizenship dependent on their conversion to Orthodox Judaism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in Israel",
        "text": "In 2010 a report released by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics showed that 8% of Israel's Jewish population defines itself as ultra-Orthodox, 12% as Orthodox, 13% as traditional-religious, 25% as traditional, and 42% as secular, on a descending scale of religiosity. Among the Arab population it showed that 8% define themselves as very religious, 47% as religious, 27% as not very religious, and 18% as not religious."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem in Judaism",
        "text": "At the conclusion of the Yom Kippur service and the Passover Seder outside of Jerusalem the words \"Next Year in Jerusalem\" are recited. When consoling a mourner, Jews recite \"May God comfort you among all the mourners of Zion and Jerusalem\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaization of Jerusalem",
        "text": "Speaking before the United Nations General Assembly in 2011, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said, \"I often hear them accuse Israel of Judaizing Jerusalem. That's like accusing America of Americanizing Washington, or the British of Anglicizing London. You know why we're called \"Jews\"? Because we come from Judea.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in Israel",
        "text": "According to historical and traditional sources, Jesus lived in the Land of Israel, and died and was buried on the site of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, making the land a Holy Land for Christianity. However, few Christians now live in the area, compared to Muslims and Jews. This is because Islam displaced Christianity in almost all of the Middle East, and the rise of modern Zionism and the establishment of the State of Israel has seen millions of Jews migrate to Israel. Recently, the Christian population in Israel has increased with the immigration of foreign workers from a number of countries, and the immigration of accompanying non-Jewish spouses in mixed marriages. Numerous churches have opened in Tel Aviv."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity in Israel",
        "text": "A 2016 study by Pew research points to the convergence of political views of both Muslims and Christians over issues like\u00a0\u2013 Israel cannot be a Jewish state and a democracy at the same time (Christians: 72%; Muslims: 63%), US being too supportive of Israel (Christians: 86%; Muslims: 75%), Israeli government not making enough efforts to make peace with Palestine (Christians: 80%; Muslims: 72%)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synagogues of Jerusalem",
        "text": "Synagogues of Jerusalem\n--Former synagogues.\n--Active synagogues.\n----New City \u2013 Jewish Quarter.\n------Orthodox Judaism.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem Embassy Act",
        "text": "The Act asserted that every country has a right to designate the capital of its choice, and that Israel has designated Jerusalem. The act notes that \"the city of Jerusalem is the seat of Israel's President, Parliament, and Supreme Court, and the site of numerous government ministries and social and cultural institutions.\" Jerusalem is defined as the spiritual center of Judaism. Furthermore, it stipulates that since the reunification of Jerusalem in 1967, religious freedom has been guaranteed to all."
      },
      {
        "title": "Edah HaChareidis",
        "text": "The anti-Zionist stance of the Edah HaChareidis is ideologically derived from the book \"Vayoel Moshe\", written by its former President and Chief Rabbi, Joel Teitelbaum, which is regarded as the standard, and by which all issues relating to the modern State of Israel are determined. For example, the Congregation forbids voting in the elections for the Knesset, and forbids accepting any funding from the Israeli government (such as subsidies for schools and unemployment benefits), and also does not accept Israeli citizenship through the Law of Return. According to Ynetnews, \"It [the Edah] has declared an ideological war against the 'heretic Zionist government'.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Antisemitism in Greece",
        "text": "In some cases, leftist and mainstream forums made no pretense of their traditional antisemitic sentiments. The standoff at the Church of the Nativity and the Greek Orthodox Easter season generated many analogies between the role of Jews (Israelis) in the Crucifixions of Christ (Arafat) and the Prophets (Palestinians)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judaization of Jerusalem",
        "text": "The Israeli Government has sought to increase the Jewish population by establishing Jewish neighborhoods, viewed by International Community, and Left-Wing Parties and NGOs within Israel as illegal Israeli settlements, in and around Jerusalem. Redrawing Jerusalem's municipal boundaries has incorporated such neighborhoods. In peace negotiations, Israel has consistently demanded their legalisation and proposed Israeli annexation of settlements outside Jerusalem to include them in the municipality. In a speech on 8 November 2000, Prime Minister Ehud Barak said:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Status of Jerusalem",
        "text": "Prime Minister (and former Jerusalem mayor) Ehud Olmert vowed to keep Jerusalem the \"undivided, eternal capital of the Jewish people\", but later supported the detachment of several Arab neighborhoods from Israeli sovereignty and the introduction of an international trust to run the Temple Mount."
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli Jews",
        "text": "In 2011, roughly 9% of Israeli Jews defined as \"haredim\" (ultra-orthodox religious); an additional 10% are \"religious\"; 15% consider themselves \"religious traditionalists\", not strictly adhering to religion; further 23% are self-defined \"'not very religious' traditionalists\" and 43% are \"secular\" (\"hiloni\"). However, 78% of all Israelis (virtually all Israeli Jews) participate in a Passover seder, and 63% fast on Yom Kippur."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aljama",
        "text": "The bishops of the various districts assumed immediate authority over them, and, in conjunction with Jewish representatives, formed rules which were henceforth to govern the communities. The elections of rabbis and judges were to be held at stated intervals, and the names of these dignitaries submitted to the bishop for approval; there was to be a \"Rabino mayor\" (\"Rab de la corte\"; \"court rabbi\") for the presentation of communal questions before the proper authorities; and the heads of the congregation were made answerable for the conduct of the community. In all government action, whether local or general, the unit considered was in most cases the community, not the individual Jew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem",
        "text": "In 2005, the total population grew by 13,000 (1.8%)\u2014similar to the Israeli national average, but the religious and ethnic composition is shifting. While 31% of the Jewish population is made up of children below the age fifteen, the figure for the Arab population is 42%. This would seem to corroborate the observation that the percentage of Jews in Jerusalem has declined over the past four decades. In 1967, Jews accounted for 74 percent of the population, while the figure for 2006 is down nine percent. Possible factors are the high cost of housing, fewer job opportunities and the increasingly religious character of the city, although proportionally, young Haredim are leaving in higher numbers. The percentage of secular Jews, or those who 'wear their faith lightly' is dropping, with some 20,000 leaving the city over the past seven years (2012). They now number 31% of the population, the same percentage as the rising Haredi population. Many move to the suburbs and coastal cities in search of cheaper housing and a more secular lifestyle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries",
        "text": "The official position of the Israeli government is that Jews from Arab countries are considered refugees, and it considers their rights to property left in countries of origin as valid and existent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "This controversy between those who advocated independent computations, and those who wished to continue the custom of relying on the Jewish calendar, was formally resolved by the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which endorsed changing to an independent computation by the Christian community in order to celebrate in common. This effectively required the abandonment of the old custom of consulting the Jewish community in those places where it was still used. Epiphanius of Salamis wrote in the mid-4th century:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Israeli system of government",
        "text": "Jewish religious courts are under control of the Prime Minister's Office and the Chief Rabbinate of Israel. These courts have jurisdiction in only five areas: Kashrut, Sabbath, Jewish burial, marital issues (especially divorce), and Jewish status of immigrants. However, except for determining a person's marital status, all other marital issues may also be taken to secular Family Courts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in Israel",
        "text": "The religious affiliation of the Israeli population was 74.2% Jewish, 17.8% Muslim, 2.0% Christian, and 1.6% Druze. The remaining 4.4% included faiths such as Samaritanism and Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00ed as well as \"religiously unclassified\", the category for all who do not belong to one of the recognized communities. While Jewish Israelis are all technically under the jurisdiction of the state rabbinate, personal attitudes vary immensely, from extreme Orthodoxy to irreligion and atheism. Jews in Israel mainly classify themselves along a fourfold axis, from least to most observant, of \"hiloni\" (), 40\u201350% of the Jewish Israeli population; \"masorti\" (), 30\u201340%; \"dati\" (), 10%; and \"haredi\" (), 10%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter controversy",
        "text": "The Syriac Christians always held their Easter festival on the Sunday after the Jews kept their Pesach. On the other hand, at Alexandria, and seemingly throughout the rest of the Roman Empire, the Christians calculated the time of Easter for themselves, paying no attention to the Jews. In this way the date of Easter as kept at Alexandria and Antioch did not always agree. The Jewish communities in some places, possibly including Antioch, used methods of fixing their month of Nisan that sometimes put the 14th day of Nisan before the spring equinox. The Alexandrians, on the other hand, accepted it as a first principle that the Sunday to be kept as Easter Day must necessarily occur after the equinox."
      },
      {
        "title": "World Jewish Congress",
        "text": "In 1946, in a memorandum to the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry on Palestine drafted by WJC Political Secretary Alexander L. Easterman, the WJC declared that \"the only hope of reviving the life and culture of the Jewish people lies in the establishment of a fully self-governing Jewish Homeland, recognised as such throughout the world; that is, a Jewish Commonwealth in Palestine.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish holidays",
        "text": "Jerusalem Day () marks the 1967 reunification of Jerusalem under Israeli control during the Six-Day War. This marked the first time in 19 years that the Temple Mount was accessible to Jews, and the first time since the destruction of the Second Temple 1897 years earlier that the Temple Mount was under Jewish political control."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hiddush",
        "text": "The polling additionally found that 54% of Jewish voters think that the next government coalition should not include the ultra-Orthodox parties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in Israel",
        "text": "Jerusalem plays an important role in three monotheistic religions \u2014 Judaism, Christianity, and Islam \u2014 and Haifa and Acre play a role in a fourth, Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00ed. Mount Gerizim is a holy site to what can be considered a fifth, Samaritanism. The 2000 Statistical Yearbook of Jerusalem lists 1204 synagogues, 158 churches, and 73 mosques within the city. Despite efforts to maintain peaceful religious coexistence, some sites, such as the Temple Mount, have been a continuous source of friction and controversy. Jerusalem has been sacred to the Jews since the 10th century BC. The Western Wall, a remnant of the Second Temple, is a holy site for Jews, second only to the Temple Mount itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of Jewish history\u2013related articles",
        "text": "History of Jerusalem\u00a0\u00b7"
      },
      {
        "title": "Religion in Israel",
        "text": "Most citizens in the State of Israel are Jewish. As of 2019, Jews made up 74.2% percent of the population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish holidays",
        "text": "The status of these days as \"religious\" events is not uniform within the Jewish world. Non-Orthodox, Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox Jewish religious movements accept these days as \"religious\" as well as \"national\" in nature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Humani generis unitas",
        "text": "But the text hedges with an anti-Judaic theme. \u201cThis unjust and pitiless campaign against the Jews has at least this advantage\u201d, according to the draft, \"because the true nature, the authentic basis of the social separation of the Jews from the rest of humanity \u2026 is religious in character. \u2026Essentially, the so-called Jewish question \u2026 is a question of religion and, since the coming of Christ, a question of Christianity.\" The encyclical blames the Jews of the time of Christ for having brought their own Messiah Jesus Christ to death: \"The very act by which the Jewish people put to death their Savior and King was, in the strong language of Saint Paul, the salvation of the world.\" The draft continues by accusing Jews of blind materialism.\n* \"Blinded by a vision of material domination and gain, the Israelites lost what they themselves had sought. A few chosen souls, among whom were the disciples and followers of Our Lord, the early Jewish Christians, and, through the centuries, a few members of the Jewish people, were an exception to this general rule. By their acceptance of Christ's teaching and their incorporation into His Church, they shared in the inheritance of His glory, but they remained and still remain an exception. \"What Israel was seeking after, that it has not obtained; but the chosen have obtained it, and the rest have been blinded\" (Romans 11:7).\" The text argues that\n* \"By a mysterious Providence of God, this unhappy people, destroyers of their own nation, whose misguided leaders had called down upon their own heads a Divine malediction, doomed, as it were, to perpetually wander over the face of the earth, were nonetheless never allowed to perish, but have been preserved through the ages into our own time. No natural reason appears to be forthcoming to explain this age-long persistence, this indestructible coherence of the Jewish people.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerusalem Day",
        "text": "While the day is not widely celebrated outside Israel, and has lost its significance for most secular Israelis, the day is still very much celebrated by Israel's Religious Zionist community with parades and additional prayers in the synagogue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joel Teitelbaum",
        "text": "Teitelbaum saw his opposition to Zionism as a way of protecting Jews and preventing bloodshed. Apart from his opposition to the founding and existence of the State as being violations of the Three Oaths, and his opposition to Zionism/Nationalism as an idolatrous replacement or addition to Judaism, Teitelbaum held that participating in the Israeli government, especially voting in the elections, should not be done, because it makes one a \"partner\" in all of the state's anti-Torah policies. He felt that any participation in the Israeli government, even voting in elections, was a grave sin, because it contributes to the spiritual and physical destruction of innocent people. Although many Haredi rabbis agree with the first two ideas, the general view of Agudath Israel and other Haredi rabbis is that the third idea, participating in the Israeli government, is permitted in order to rescue whatever is possible (\"saving from the mouth of the lion.\") Teitelbaum, however was openly opposed to the views of Agudath Israel, and until the present time, Satmar refuses to become a member of the Agudath Israel organization or party. The Satmar view is that only the Jewish Messiah can bring about a new Jewish government in the Land of Israel. Even if a government declaring itself religious would be formed before the Messiah, it would be illegitimate due to its \"improper arrogation of power\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How long did the Romans live in Calvary?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find the answer, but I did find that Calvary is believed to be a site Outside of Jerusalem and Mount Zion is a site associated before the Roman destruction of Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did the Romans destroy Jerusalem?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Roman army, led by the future Emperor Titus, with Tiberius Julius Alexander as his second-in-command, besieged and conquered the city of Jerusalem in 70 CE, which had been controlled by Judean rebel factions since 66 CE, following the Jerusalem riots of 66, when the Judean provisional government was formed in Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What type of government is in Jerusalem today?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Jerusalem adopts the mayor\u2013council government system which is a system of organization of local government that has an executive mayor who is directly elected by the voters, and a separately elected legislative city council."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the general consensus about Easter in the Jewish religion?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information.",
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
    ],
    "topic": "Easter",
    "ground_truth_ctx": []
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "Because of this dissatisfaction with reliance on the Jewish calendar, some Christians began to experiment with independent computations. Others, however, believed that the customary practice of consulting Jews should continue, even if the Jewish computations were in error."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter controversy",
        "text": "In 325 an ecumenical council, the First Council of Nicaea, established two rules: independence from the Jewish calendar, and worldwide uniformity. However, it did not provide any explicit rules to determine that date, writing only \u201call our brethren in the East who formerly followed the custom of the Jews are henceforth to celebrate the said most sacred feast of Easter at the same time with the Romans and yourselves [the Church of Alexandria] and all those who have observed Easter from the beginning.\u201d Shortly before the Nicean Council, in 314, the Provincial Council of Arles in Gaul had maintained that the Lord's \"Pasch\" should be observed on the same day throughout the world and that each year the Bishop of Rome should send out letters setting the date of Easter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "The egg is an ancient symbol of new life and rebirth. In Christianity it became associated with Jesus's crucifixion and resurrection. The custom of the Easter egg originated in the early Christian community of Mesopotamia, who stained eggs red in memory of the blood of Christ, shed at his crucifixion. As such, for Christians, the Easter egg is a symbol of the empty tomb. The oldest tradition is to use dyed chicken eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastertide",
        "text": "Easter Sunday and Pentecost correspond to pre-existing Jewish feasts: The first day of Pesach (\u05e4\u05e1\u05d7) and the holiday of Shavu'ot (\u05e9\u05d1\u05d5\u05e2\u05d5\u05ea). In the Jewish tradition, the 49 days between these holidays are known as Counting of the Omer (\u05e1\u05e4\u05d9\u05e8\u05ea \u05d4\u05e2\u05d5\u05de\u05e8)\u200e."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter controversy",
        "text": "The Council of Nicaea ruled that all churches should follow a single rule for Easter, which should be computed independently of the Jewish calendar, as at Alexandria. However, it did not make any explicit ruling about the details of the computation, and it was several decades before the Alexandrine computations stabilized into their final form, and several centuries beyond that before they became normative throughout Christendom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Sociology professor Kenneth Thompson discusses the spread of the Easter egg throughout Christendom, writing that \"use of eggs at Easter seems to have come from Persia into the Greek Christian Churches of Mesopotamia, thence to Russia and Siberia through the medium of Orthodox Christianity. From the Greek Church the custom was adopted by either the Roman Catholics or the Protestants and then spread through Europe.\" Both Thompson, as well as British orientalist Thomas Hyde state that in addition to dyeing the eggs red, the early Christians of Mesopotamia also stained Easter eggs green and yellow."
      },
      {
        "title": "First Council of Nicaea",
        "text": "The feast of Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread, as Christians believe that the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus occurred at the time of those observances."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "Easter is linked to Passover and the Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper, sufferings, and crucifixion of Jesus that preceded the resurrection. According to the three Synoptic Gospels, Jesus gave the Passover meal a new meaning, as in the upper room during the Last Supper he prepared himself and his disciples for his death. He identified the bread and cup of wine as his body, soon to be sacrificed, and his blood, soon to be shed. The Apostle Paul states, in his First Epistle to the Corinthians, \"Get rid of the old yeast that you may be a new batch without yeast\u2014as you really are. For Christ, our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed. This refers to the requirement in Jewish law that Jews eliminate all \"chametz\", or leavening, from their homes in advance of Passover, and to the allegory of Jesus as the Paschal lamb."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religious antisemitism",
        "text": "During a discussion on the celebration of Easter during the First Council of Nicaea in 325 CE, Roman emperor Constantine said, ... it appeared an unworthy thing that in the celebration of this most holy feast we should follow the practice of the Jews, who have impiously defiled their hands with enormous sin, and are, therefore, deservedly afflicted with blindness of soul. ... Let us then have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd; for we have received from our Saviour a different way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "In the Orthodox churches, Easter eggs are blessed by the priest at the end of the Paschal Vigil (which is equivalent to Holy Saturday), and distributed to the faithful. The egg is seen by followers of Christianity as a symbol of resurrection: while being dormant it contains a new life sealed within it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Coincidentally, every Passover, Jews place a hard-boiled egg on the Passover ceremonial plate, and the celebrants also eat hard-boiled eggs dipped in salt water as part of the ceremony."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "In Judaism, a hard-boiled egg is an element of the Passover Seder, representing festival sacrifice. The children's game of hunting for the afikomen (a half-piece of matzo) has similarities to the Easter egg hunt tradition, by which the child who finds the hidden matzah will be awarded a prize. In other homes, the children hide the afikoman and a parent must look for it; when the parents give up, the children demand a prize for revealing its location."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter controversy",
        "text": "The Syriac Christians always held their Easter festival on the Sunday after the Jews kept their Pesach. On the other hand, at Alexandria, and seemingly throughout the rest of the Roman Empire, the Christians calculated the time of Easter for themselves, paying no attention to the Jews. In this way the date of Easter as kept at Alexandria and Antioch did not always agree. The Jewish communities in some places, possibly including Antioch, used methods of fixing their month of Nisan that sometimes put the 14th day of Nisan before the spring equinox. The Alexandrians, on the other hand, accepted it as a first principle that the Sunday to be kept as Easter Day must necessarily occur after the equinox."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "This controversy between those who advocated independent computations, and those who wished to continue the custom of relying on the Jewish calendar, was formally resolved by the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which endorsed changing to an independent computation by the Christian community in order to celebrate in common. This effectively required the abandonment of the old custom of consulting the Jewish community in those places where it was still used. Epiphanius of Salamis wrote in the mid-4th century:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Although eggs, in general, were a traditional symbol of fertility and rebirth, in Christianity, for the celebration of Eastertide, Easter eggs symbolize the empty tomb of Jesus, from which Jesus was resurrected. In addition, one ancient tradition was the staining of Easter eggs with the colour red \"in memory of the blood of Christ, shed as at that time of his crucifixion.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "The first Christians, Jewish and Gentile alike, were certainly aware of the Hebrew calendar. Jewish Christians, the first to celebrate the resurrection of Jesus, timed the observance in relation to Passover."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "Easter\n--Etymology.\n--Theological significance.\n--Early Christianity.\n--Date.\n----Computations.\n----Controversies over the date.\n----First Council of Nicaea (325 AD).\n----Reform of the date.\n----Table of the dates of Easter by Gregorian and Julian calendars.\n--Position in the church year.\n----Western Christianity.\n----Eastern Christianity.\n--Liturgical observance.\n----Western Christianity.\n----Eastern Christianity.\n----Non-observing Christian groups.\n--Easter celebrations around the world.\n----Easter eggs.\n------Traditional customs.\n------Modern customs.\n--------Easter Bunny.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "This custom of the Easter egg, according to many sources, can be traced to early Christians of Mesopotamia, and from there it spread into Eastern Europe and Siberia through the Orthodox Churches, and later into Europe through the Catholic and Protestant Churches. Mediaevalist scholars normally conclude that the custom of Easter eggs has its roots in the prohibition of eggs during Lent after which, on Easter, they have been blessed for the occasion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "The precise date of Easter has at times been a matter of contention. By the later 2nd century, it was widely accepted that the celebration of the holiday was a practice of the disciples and an undisputed tradition. The Quartodeciman controversy, the first of several Easter controversies, arose concerning the date on which the holiday should be celebrated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Eggs in Christianity carry a Trinitarian symbolism as shell, yolk, and albumen are three parts of one egg. According to many sources, the Christian custom of Easter eggs was adopted from Persian tradition into the early Christians of Mesopotamia, who stained them with red colouring \"in memory of the blood of Christ, shed at His crucifixion\". The Christian Church officially adopted the custom, regarding the eggs as a symbol of the resurrection of Jesus, with the Roman Ritual, the first edition of which was published in 1610 but which has texts of much older date, containing among the Easter Blessings of Food, one for eggs, along with those for lamb, bread, and new produce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kieran Conry",
        "text": "Conry has argued against changing the date of Easter in a sense that would separate it from its Jewish roots of Passover, adding that it would be difficult to have all the different ecclesial communities to agree on a same date."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "The Easter egg tradition may also have merged into the celebration of the end of the privations of Lent. Traditionally, eggs are among the foods forbidden fast days, including all of Lent, an observance which continues among the Eastern Christian Churches but has fallen into disuse in Western Christianity (although recently revived by a few as the \"Daniel Fast\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "In the Eastern Orthodox Church Easter eggs are blessed by a priest both in families' baskets together with other foods forbidden during Great Lent and alone for distribution or in church or elsewhere."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg rolling",
        "text": "In Christianity, for the celebration of Eastertide, Easter eggs symbolize the empty tomb of Jesus, from which he was resurrected. Additionally, eggs carry a Trinitarian significance, with shell, yolk, and albumen being three parts of one egg. During Lent, the season of repentance that precedes Easter, eggs along with meat, lacticinia, and wine are foods that are traditionally abstained from, a practice that continues in Eastern Christianity and among certain Western Christian congregations that do the Daniel Fast. After the forty-day Lenten season concludes and Eastertide begins, eggs may be consumed again, giving rise to various traditions such as egg rolling, which also symbolizes the angel rolling away the stone at the entrance of the tomb."
      },
      {
        "title": "Papal primacy",
        "text": "The Quartodeciman controversy arose because Christians in the Roman province of Asia (Western Anatolia) celebrated Easter at the spring full moon, like the Jewish Passover, while the churches in the West observed the practice of celebrating it on the following Sunday (\"the day of the resurrection of our Saviour\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pope Victor I",
        "text": "The churches in Asia Minor celebrated Easter on the 14th of the Jewish month of Nisan, the day before Jewish Passover, regardless of what day of the week it fell on, as the Crucifixion had occurred on the Friday before Passover, justifying this as the custom they had learned from the apostles; for this the Latins called them \"Quartodecimans\". Synods were held on the subject in various parts\u2014in Judea under Theophilus of Caesarea and Narcissus of Jerusalem, in Pontus under Palmas, in Gaul under Irenaeus, in Corinth under its bishop, Bachillus, at Osrhoene in Mesopotamia, and elsewhere\u2014all of which disapproved of this practice and consequently issued by synodical letters declaring that \"on the Lord's Day only the mystery of the resurrection of the Lord from the dead was accomplished, and that on that day only we keep the close of the paschal fast\" (Eusebius H. E. v. 23)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter food",
        "text": "The holiday of Easter is associated with various Easter customs and foodways (food traditions that vary regionally). Preparing, coloring, and decorating Easter eggs is one such popular tradition. Lamb is eaten in many countries, mirroring the Jewish Passover meal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "In the Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches, Easter eggs are dyed red to represent the blood of Christ, with further symbolism being found in the hard shell of the egg symbolizing the sealed Tomb of Christ \u2014 the cracking of which symbolized his resurrection from the dead. The tradition of red easter eggs was used by the Russian Orthodox Church. The tradition to dyeing the easter eggs in an Onion tone exists in the cultures of Armenia, Georgia, Belarus, Russia, Czechia, Romania, Slovenia, and Israel. The colour is made by boiling onion peel in water."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "While martyrs' days (usually the individual dates of martyrdom) were celebrated on fixed dates in the local solar calendar, the date of Easter was fixed by means of the local Jewish lunisolar calendar. This is consistent with the celebration of Easter having entered Christianity during its earliest, Jewish, period, but does not leave the question free of doubt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Some Christians symbolically link the cracking open of Easter eggs with the empty tomb of Jesus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "In some Mediterranean countries, especially in Lebanon, chicken eggs are boiled and decorated by dye and/or painting and used as decoration around the house. Then, on Easter Day, young kids would duel with them saying 'Christ is resurrected, Indeed, He is', breaking and eating them. This also happens in Georgia, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Greece, Macedonia, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Ukraine. In Easter Sunday friends and family hit each other's egg with their own. The one whose egg does not break is believed to be in for good luck in the future."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spring (season)",
        "text": "Christians believe that Jesus was resurrected from the dead on the \"third day\" (two days \"after\" his crucifixion), and celebrate this resurrection on Easter Day, two days after Good Friday. Since the Last Supper was a Passover Seder, the date of Easter can be calculated as the first Sunday after the start of Passover. This is usually (see Passover below) the first Sunday after the first full moon following the spring equinox. The date of Easter varies between 22 March and 25 April (which corresponds to between 4 April and 8 May in the Gregorian Calendar for the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Churches using the Julian Calendar). In this celebration, the children do an easter egg hunt."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Peter Gainsford maintains that the association between eggs and Easter most likely arose in western Europe during the Middle Ages as a result of the fact that Catholic Christians were prohibited from eating eggs during Lent, but were allowed to eat them when Easter arrived."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "While the origin of Easter eggs can be explained in the symbolic terms described above, among followers of Eastern Christianity the legend says that Mary Magdalene was bringing cooked eggs to share with the other women at the tomb of Jesus, and the eggs in her basket miraculously turned bright red when she saw the risen Christ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "Canons and sermons condemning the custom of computing Easter's date based on the Jewish calendar indicate that this custom (called \"protopaschite\" by historians) did not die out at once, but persisted for a time after the Council of Nicaea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Easter eggs, also called Paschal eggs, are eggs that are decorated for the Christian feast of Easter, which celebrates the resurrection of Jesus. As such, Easter eggs are common during the season of Eastertide (Easter season). The oldest tradition, which continues to be used in Central and Eastern Europe, is to use dyed and painted chicken eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Audianism",
        "text": "In 325 at the First Council of Nicaea, it was decreed that all Christians should follow the Roman tradition of celebrating Pascha (Easter) on Easter Sunday, and no longer on the date of 14 Nisan (the Jewish Passover), as the so-called Quartodecimans used to do. The Audians, however, continued the Quartodeciman practice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter L'Huillier",
        "text": "The author of several books, L'Huillier's final volume spurred some disagreements in Orthodox circles. Published by St. Vladimir's Press, it urged the Orthodox Churches to adopt the Western Christian calculation of Easter, aka \"Paschalion\". This has been a controversial topic for some time in Eastern Orthodox discourse. Some critics of the book emphasized that only the Eastern Paschalion holds to the Nicene Council's 4th century prohibition on celebrating the resurrection before the Jewish Passover. Some argued that abandonment of that stipulation could even imply a subtle subtext of antisemitism, since it would further decouple the connection between Christianity and Judaism. This criticism is made on both historical and contemporary grounds, the latter because Western Christianity annually ignores contemporary Jews' calculation of Passover."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "Easter and the holidays that are related to it are \"moveable feasts\", in that they do not fall on a fixed date in the Gregorian or Julian calendars (both of which follow the cycle of the sun and the seasons). Instead, the date for Easter is determined on a lunisolar calendar similar to the Hebrew calendar. The First Council of Nicaea (325) established two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, which were the only rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the Council. No details for the computation were specified; these were worked out in practice, a process that took centuries and generated a number of controversies. (See also Computus and Reform of the date of Easter.) In particular, the Council did not decree that Easter must fall on Sunday, but this was already the practice almost everywhere."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "Members of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), as part of their historic \"testimony against times and seasons\", do not celebrate or observe Easter or any traditional feast days of the established Church, believing instead that \"every day is the Lord's Day,\" and that elevation of one day above others suggests that it is acceptable to do un-Christian acts on other days. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Quakers were persecuted for this non-observance of Holy Days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of religion-related articles",
        "text": "Easter -"
      },
      {
        "title": "East\u2013West Schism",
        "text": "Towards the end of the 2nd century, Victor, the Bishop of Rome, attempted to resolve the Quartodeciman controversy. The question was whether to celebrate Easter concurrently with the Jewish Passover, as Christians in the Roman province of Asia did, or to wait until the following Sunday, as was decreed by synods held in other Eastern provinces, such as those of Palestine and Pontus, the acts of which were still extant at the time of Eusebius, and in Rome. The pope attempted to excommunicate the churches in Asia, which refused to accept the observance on Sunday. Other bishops rebuked him for doing so. Laurent Cleenewerck comments:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "A different, but not necessarily conflicting legend concerns Mary Magdalene's efforts to spread the Gospel. According to this tradition, after the Ascension of Jesus, Mary went to the Emperor of Rome and greeted him with \"Christ has risen,\" whereupon he pointed to an egg on his table and stated, \"Christ has no more risen than that egg is red.\" After making this statement it is said the egg immediately turned blood red."
      },
      {
        "title": "Names of Easter",
        "text": "The festival that early Christians celebrated was called in Greek \u03a0\u03ac\u03c3\u03c7\u03b1 (\"Pascha\"), a transliteration of the Aramaic word \u05e4\u05e1\u05d7\u05d0, cognate to Hebrew \u05e4\u05b6\u05bc\u05e1\u05b7\u05d7 (\"Pesach\"). The word originally designated the Passover feast of . Paul writes from Ephesus that \"Christ our Pascha (Passover) has been sacrificed for us\", doubtless not the first interpretation of Exodus 12 as referring to the crucifixion of Jesus. In the Roman province of Asia, second-century Christians known as Quartodecimans continued to celebrate this feast in coincidence with the Jewish feast, but by then Christians elsewhere celebrated it on the following Sunday, the day on which in every week the resurrection of Christ was celebrated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg donation",
        "text": "In the Orthodox Jewish community there is no consensus as to whether an egg donor needs to be Jewish in order for the child to be considered Jewish from birth. In the 1990s religious authorities said that if the birth mother was Jewish that the child would be Jewish as well, but in the past few years rabbis in Israel have begun to reconsider, which in turn is causing more debate around the world. Conservative Rabbi Elliot Dorff has suggested that there are arguments for both sides (birth mother or genetic mother) in religious scripture. Dean of the Center for the Jewish Future at Yeshiva University believes that any child where the birth mother or the genetic mother isn't Jewish should go through a conversion process in infancy, to be sure that their Judaism isn't questioned later in life. This is not an issue in the reform community for two reasons. First, only one parent must be Jewish for the child to be considered Jewish; thus, if the father is Jewish, the mother's religion is irrelevant. Second, if the mother who carries the pregnancy and gives birth is Jewish, reform Jews will generally consider that child to be Jewish from birth because it was born of a Jewish mother."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kosher foods",
        "text": "According to the rabbinical writers, eggs from ritually pure animals would always be prolate (\"pointy\") at one end and oblate (\"rounded\") at the other, helping to reduce uncertainty about whether consumption was permitted or not."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Although one of the Christian traditions are to use dyed or painted chicken eggs, a modern custom is to substitute chocolate eggs, or plastic eggs filled with candy such as jelly beans; as many people give up sweets as their Lenten sacrifice, individuals enjoy them at Easter after having abstained from them during the preceding forty days of Lent. These eggs can be hidden for children to find on Easter morning, which may be left by the Easter Bunny. They may also be put in a basket filled with real or artificial straw to resemble a bird's nest."
      },
      {
        "title": "\u0112ostre",
        "text": "But if we admit, goddesses, then, in addition to Nerthus, has the strongest claim to consideration. To what we said on p.\u2009290 I can add some significant facts. The heathen Easter had much in common with May-feast and the reception of spring, particularly in the matter of bonfires. Then, through long ages there seem to have lingered among the people \"Easter-games\" so-called, which the church itself had to tolerate\u2009: I allude especially to the custom of \"Easter eggs\", and to the \"Easter tale\" which preachers told from the pulpit for the people's amusement, connecting it with Christian reminiscences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas of Monmouth",
        "text": "Thomas heard from a converted Jew named Theobald of Cambridge that every year there is an international council of Jews at which they choose the country in which a child will be killed during Easter. This is because a Jewish prophecy says that the killing of a Christian child each year will ensure that the Jews will be restored to the Holy Land. Monmouth claimed that in 1144 England was chosen, and the leaders of the Jewish community delegated the Jews of Norwich to perform the killing. They then abducted and crucified William."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "Groups such as the Restored Church of God reject the celebration of Easter, seeing it as originating in a pagan spring festival adopted by the Roman Catholic Church."
      },
      {
        "title": "Passover",
        "text": "In Christianity, the celebration of Easter (not to be confused with the pre-Christian Saxon festival from which it derives its English name) and its date in the calendar finds its roots in the Jewish feast of Passover, when, according to Christian interpretation, Jesus was crucified as the Passover Lamb. The coincidence of Jesus' crucifixion with the Jewish Passover led some early Christians to make a false etymological association between Hebrew \"Pesach\" and Greek \"pascho\" (\"suffer\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Quartodecimanism",
        "text": "The quartodeciman controversy arose because Christians in the churches of Jerusalem and Asia Minor observed Passover on the 14th of the first month (Nisan), no matter the day of the week on which it occurred, while the churches in and around Rome changed to the practice of celebrating Easter always on the Sunday following first Full Moon following the vernal equinox, calling it \"the day of the resurrection of our Saviour\". The difference was turned into an ecclesiastical controversy when the practice was condemned by synods of bishops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "The term \"Quartodeciman\" refers to the practice of ending the Lenten fast on Nisan 14 of the Hebrew calendar, \"the 's passover\". According to the church historian Eusebius, the Quartodeciman Polycarp (bishop of Smyrna, by tradition a disciple of John the Apostle) debated the question with Anicetus (bishop of Rome). The Roman province of Asia was Quartodeciman, while the Roman and Alexandrian churches continued the fast until the Sunday following (the Sunday of Unleavened Bread), wishing to associate Easter with Sunday. Neither Polycarp nor Anicetus persuaded the other, but they did not consider the matter schismatic either, parting in peace and leaving the question unsettled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Synod of Whitby",
        "text": "The Synod of Whitby was convened to settle a controversy about the correct method of calculating the date of Easter. Early Christians had probably originally celebrated Easter concurrent with the Jewish Passover (see Passover, Christian holiday), which was held on the fourteenth day of the first lunar month of the Jewish year, called \"Nisan\", the day of the crucifixion according to John 19:14. However, the First Council of Nicaea in 325 decreed that Christians should no longer use the Jewish calendar but should universally celebrate Easter on a Sunday, the day of the resurrection, as had come to be the custom in Rome and Alexandria. Calculating the proper date (\"computus\") was a complex process (involving a lunisolar calendar), and different calculation tables developed which resulted in different dates for the celebration of Easter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Historically, it has been traditional to use up all of the household's eggs before Lent began."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "During Paschaltide, in some traditions the Pascal greeting with the Easter egg is even extended to the deceased. On either the second Monday or Tuesday of Pascha, after a memorial service people bring blessed eggs to the cemetery and bring the joyous paschal greeting, \"Christ has risen\", to their beloved departed (see Radonitza)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Influential 19th century folklorist and philologist Jacob Grimm speculates, in the second volume of his \"Deutsche Mythologie\", that the folk custom of Easter eggs among the continental Germanic peoples may have stemmed from springtime festivities of a Germanic goddess known in Old English as \u0112ostre (namesake of modern English \"Easter\") and possibly known in Old High German as *\"Ostara\" (and thus namesake of Modern German \"Ostern\" 'Easter'). However, despite Grimm's speculation, there is no evidence to connect eggs with Ostara. The use of eggs as favors or treats at Easter originated when they were prohibited during Lent. A common practice in England in the medieval period was for children to go door-to-door begging for eggs on the Saturday before Lent began. People handed out eggs as special treats for children prior to their fast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Date of Easter",
        "text": "Easter commemorates the resurrection of Jesus, which is believed to have occurred on the third day (inclusive) after Passover. In the Hebrew calendar, Passover occurs on the 14th day of Nisan. Nisan is the first month of spring in the northern hemisphere, with the 14th corresponding to a full moon. Additionally, by the 2nd century, many Christians had chosen to observe Easter only on a Sunday. The Hebrew calendar is a lunisolar one and does not have a simple relationship with the Christian calendars: it resynchronises with the solar year by intercalating a leap month every two or three years, before the lunar new year on 1\u00a0Nisan. Later the Jews adopted the Metonic cycle to predict future intercalations."
      },
      {
        "title": "First Council of Nicaea",
        "text": "Nor did the Council decree that Easter must never coincide with Nisan 14 (the first Day of Unleavened Bread, now commonly called \"Passover\") in the Hebrew calendar. By endorsing the move to independent computations, the Council had separated the Easter computation from all dependence, positive or negative, on the Jewish calendar. The \"Zonaras proviso\", the claim that Easter must always follow Nisan 14 in the Hebrew calendar, was not formulated until after some centuries. By that time, the accumulation of errors in the Julian solar and lunar calendars had made it the \"de facto\" state of affairs that Julian Easter always followed Hebrew Nisan 14."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian observances of Jewish holidays",
        "text": "The traditional Christian holiday of Pentecost is based on the Jewish holiday of \"Shavuot\" celebrated seven weeks after the start of Passover. Pentecost is part of the Movable Cycle of the ecclesiastical year. Pentecost is always seven weeks after the day after the Sabbath day which always occurs during the feast of unleavened bread. Rabbinic Jews avoid celebration of Shavuot on the day after the Sabbath (the first day of the week). However, Karaite Jews celebrate this holy day according to Scriptural mandate on the day after the Sabbath. This Sunday celebration, in Christian tradition, is calculated as 50 days after Easter (inclusive of Easter Day). In other words, it falls on the eighth Sunday, counting Easter Day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Red Easter eggs, known as \"kokkina avga\" (\u03ba\u03cc\u03ba\u03ba\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1 \u03b1\u03c5\u03b3\u03ac) in Greece and \"krashanki\" in Ukraine, are an Easter tradition and a distinct type of Easter egg prepared by various Orthodox Christian peoples. The red eggs are part of Easter custom in many areas and often accompany other traditional Easter foods. Passover haminados are prepared with similar methods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Antisemitism in Christianity",
        "text": "In Iceland, one of the hymns repeated in the days leading up to Easter includes the lines,\n:The righteous Law of Moses\n:The Jews here misapplied,\n:Which their deceit exposes,\n:Their hatred and their pride.\n:The judgement is the Lord's.\n:When by falsification\n:The foe makes accusation,\n:It's His to make awards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Bunny",
        "text": "Eggs have been used as fertility symbols since antiquity. Eggs became a symbol in Christianity associated with rebirth as early as the 1st century AD, via the iconography of the Phoenix egg, and they became associated with Easter specifically in medieval Europe, when eating them was prohibited during the fast of Lent. A common practice in England at that time was for children to go door-to-door begging for eggs on the Saturday before Lent began. People handed out eggs as special treats for children prior to their fast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jewish holidays",
        "text": "At the present time, observance of this day appears to be secular in nature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "the emperor\u00a0... convened a council of 318 bishops\u00a0... in the city of Nicaea\u00a0... They passed certain ecclesiastical canons at the council besides, and at the same time decreed in regard to the Passover [i.e., Easter] that there must be one unanimous concord on the celebration of God's holy and supremely excellent day. For it was variously observed by people; some kept it early, some between [the disputed dates], but others late. And in a word, there was a great deal of controversy at that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "The English term is derived from the Saxon spring festival \"\u0112ostre\"; Easter is also linked to the Jewish Passover by its name (Hebrew: \"pesach\", Aramaic: \"pascha\" are the basis of the term Pascha), by its origin (according to the synoptic Gospels, both the crucifixion and the resurrection took place during the Passover) and by much of its symbolism, as well as by its position in the calendar. In most European languages the feast is called by the words for passover in those languages; and in the older English versions of the Bible the term Easter was the term used to translate Passover. Easter customs vary across the Christian world, and include sunrise services, midnight vigils, exclamations and exchanges of Paschal greetings, clipping the church (England), decoration and the communal breaking of Easter eggs (a symbol of the empty tomb). The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection in Western Christianity, traditionally decorates the chancel area of churches on this day and for the rest of Eastertide. Additional customs that have become associated with Easter and are observed by both Christians and some non-Christians include Easter parades, communal dancing (Eastern Europe), the Easter Bunny and egg hunting. There are also traditional Easter foods that vary by region and culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Naim Ateek",
        "text": "In his 2001 Easter message Ateek stated, in part: As we approach Holy Week and Easter, the suffering of Jesus Christ at the hands of evil political and religious powers two thousand years ago is lived out again in Palestine. The number of innocent Palestinians and Israelis that have fallen victim to Israeli state policy is increasing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter traditions",
        "text": "In Ethiopian-Eritrean Orthodox Christianity or the \"Tewahedo\" faith, it is believed the near-sacrifice of Abraham's loved son Isaac (Genesis 22), which was a test of faith from God to Abraham, was interrupted by a voice of an angel from the heavens, and the sending of a Lamb for the sacrifice instead. This Old Testament story is said to be a prophetic foreshadowing of God sending his only beloved son for the world as a sacrifice and the fulfilling of Abraham's promise."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Two Babylons",
        "text": "As well, various viral image posts have appeared on the internet, usually in neopagan or atheist spaces, citing Hislop's theory of Easter being etymologically derived from Ishtar, as well as adding in more misleading pieces such as claiming Ishtar's symbols were the \"bunny\" and the \"egg\". This view has been echoed by the Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science, who has since redacted the claim."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "In the Greek Orthodox tradition, red eggs are also cracked together when people exchange Easter greetings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pope",
        "text": "In the late 2nd century AD, there were more manifestations of Roman authority over other churches. In 189, assertion of the primacy of the Church of Rome may be indicated in Irenaeus's \"Against Heresies\" (3:3:2): \"With [the Church of Rome], because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree ... and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition.\" In AD 195, Pope Victor I, in what is seen as an exercise of Roman authority over other churches, excommunicated the Quartodecimans for observing Easter on the 14th of Nisan, the date of the Jewish Passover, a tradition handed down by John the Evangelist (see Easter controversy). Celebration of Easter on a Sunday, as insisted on by the pope, is the system that has prevailed (see computus)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "In Greece, superstitions of the past included the custom of placing the first-dyed red egg at the home's iconostasis (place where icons are displayed) to ward off evil. The heads and backs of small lambs were also marked with the red dye to protect them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "In the Orthodox Church, Great Lent begins on Clean Monday, rather than Wednesday, so the household's dairy products would be used up in the preceding week, called Cheesefare Week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "In Latin and Greek, the Christian celebration was, and still is, called \"Pascha\" (Greek: \u03a0\u03ac\u03c3\u03c7\u03b1), a word derived from Aramaic \u05e4\u05e1\u05d7\u05d0 (\"Paskha\"), cognate to Hebrew \u05e4\u05b6\u05bc\u05e1\u05b7\u05d7 (\"Pesach\"). The word originally denoted the Jewish festival known in English as Passover, commemorating the Jewish Exodus from slavery in Egypt. As early as the 50s of the 1st century, Paul the Apostle, writing from Ephesus to the Christians in Corinth, applied the term to Christ, and it is unlikely that the Ephesian and Corinthian Christians were the first to hear Exodus 12 interpreted as speaking about the death of Jesus, not just about the Jewish Passover ritual. In most languages, Germanic languages such as English being exceptions, the feast is known by names derived from Greek and Latin \"Pascha\". Pascha is also a name by which Jesus himself is remembered in the Orthodox Church, especially in connection with his resurrection and with the season of its celebration. Others call the holiday \"Resurrection Sunday\" or \"Resurrection Day,\" after the day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter controversy",
        "text": "Some see this first phase as mainly concerned with whether Christians should follow Old Testament practice; see also Christian views on the Old Covenant and Judaizers. Eusebius of Caesarea (\"Church History\", V, xxiii) wrote:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "Easter eggs are a widely popular symbol of new life among the Eastern Orthodox but also in folk traditions in Slavic countries and elsewhere. A batik-like decorating process known as pisanka produces intricate, brilliantly colored eggs. The celebrated House of Faberg\u00e9 workshops created exquisite jewelled Easter eggs for the Russian Imperial family from 1885 to 1916."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Dark red eggs are a tradition in Greece and represent the blood of Christ shed on the cross. The practice dates to the early Christian church in Mesopotamia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Celtic Christianity",
        "text": "Easter was originally dated according to Hebrew calendar, which tried to place Passover on the first full moon following the Spring equinox but did not always succeed. In his \"Life of Constantine\", Eusebius records that the First Council of Nicaea (325) decided that all Christians should observe a common date for Easter separate from the Jewish calculations, according to the practice of the bishops of Rome and Alexandria. Calculating the proper date of Easter (\"computus\") then became a complicated process involving a lunisolar calendar, finding the first Sunday after an idealized Passover on the first full moon after the equinox."
      },
      {
        "title": "Resurrection of Jesus",
        "text": "Easter (or Easter Sunday) is the preeminent Christian feast that celebrates the resurrection of Jesus, and, according to Susan J. White, \"is clearly the earliest Christian festival.\" According to James Dunn, \"In Easter we celebrate man become God [...] that in the death and resurrection of Christ God has broken the stranglehold of human selfishness, has proved the enduring and conquering strength of divine love.\" According to Thorwald Lorenzen, the first Easter led to a shift in emphasis from faith \"in God\" to faith \"in Christ\". According to Raymond Harfgus Taylor, \"focuses upon the consumation of the redemptive act of God in the death/resurrection of Jesus Christ.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Date of Easter",
        "text": "As a moveable feast, the date of Easter is determined in each year through a calculation known as computus (Latin for 'computation'). Easter is celebrated on the first Sunday after the Paschal full moon, which is the first full moon on or after 21\u00a0March (a fixed approximation of the March equinox). Determining this date in advance requires a correlation between the lunar months and the solar year, while also accounting for the month, date, and weekday of the Julian or Gregorian calendar. The complexity of the algorithm arises because of the desire to associate the date of Easter with the date of the Jewish feast of Passover which, Christians believe, is when Jesus was crucified."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity in the ante-Nicene period",
        "text": "Eastern and Western Mediterranean Christians had a history of differences and disagreements dating back to the second century. Among the most significant early disagreements is the Quartodecimanism controversy. Until the late second century there was a difference in dating the celebration of the Christian Passover/Easter between Western churches and those of Asia Minor. The churches in Asia Minor celebrated it on the 14th of the Jewish month of Nisan, the day before Jewish Passover, regardless of what day of the week it fell on, as the Crucifixion had occurred on the day before Passover according to the Gospel of John. The Latins called them \"Quartodecimans\", literally meaning \"14'ers\". At the time, the West celebrated Easter on the Sunday following the Jewish 14th of Nisan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gnomon of Saint-Sulpice",
        "text": "The dating of Easter was modeled on that of the Jewish Passover, which marks the liberation of the Jews from Egypt and which traditionally falls in the Jewish lunar calendar on the 14th of the month of Nisan, the day of the first full moon after the vernal (spring) equinox. Roman Christians however had a twelve-month calendar, first the Julian calendar until 1582, and then the Gregorian calendar. Since the Council of Nicaea in 325, the Western Church had required that Easter be celebrated on the Sunday on or after the full moon following March 21, which at that time corresponded indeed to the vernal equinox. The Julian calendar being imprecise however, by the 16th century March 21 fell about 10 days \"after\" the vernal equinox, a problem that was solved by the introduction of the Gregorian calendar. (The Eastern Christian Church continues to date Easter by the Julian calendar.) Languet de Gergy, however, wished to verify independently the exact date of the vernal equinox through the gnomon in order to ascertain the date of Easter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood libel",
        "text": "The earliest versions of the accusations involving Jews supposedly crucifying Christian children on Easter/Passover is said to be because of a prophecy. There is no reference to the use of blood in unleavened matzo bread, which evolves later as a major motivation for the crime."
      },
      {
        "title": "Date of Easter",
        "text": "The calculations produce different results depending on whether the Julian calendar or the Gregorian calendar is used. For this reason, the Catholic Church and Protestant churches (which follow the Gregorian calendar) celebrate Easter on a different date from that of the Eastern Orthodox Churches (which follow the Julian calendar). It was the drift of 21\u00a0March from the observed equinox that led to the Gregorian reform of the calendar, to bring them back into line."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter traditions",
        "text": "Since its origins, Easter has been a time of celebration and feasting and many traditional Easter games and customs developed, such as egg rolling, egg tapping, pace egging, cascarones or confetti eggs and egg decorating. Today Easter is commercially important, seeing wide sales of greeting cards and confectionery such as chocolate Easter eggs as well as other Easter food such as turkey. Even many non-Christians celebrate these features of the holiday while ignoring the religious aspects."
      },
      {
        "title": "First Council of Nicaea",
        "text": "These two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, were the only rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the Council. No details for the computation were specified; these were worked out in practice, a process that took centuries and generated a number of controversies (see also Computus and Reform of the date of Easter). In particular, the Council did not seem to decree that Easter must fall on Sunday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Constantine the Great and Judaism",
        "text": "Under Constantine the Great Jewish clergy were given the same exemptions as Christian clergy. Constantine, however, supported the separation of the date of Easter from the Jewish Passover (see also Quartodecimanism), stating in his letter after the First Council of Nicaea (which had already decided the matter):"
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian media",
        "text": "The Resurrection of Jesus is a common motif in works of art, and other themes are explored in Easter films and television episodes. The Easter Bunny, Easter eggs, and Easter baskets are universal icons of the holiday, due in large part to Christian media."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian observances of Jewish holidays",
        "text": "Many of these Christians believe that the intended purpose of all of the biblical holy days is to foreshadow or point to the identity of the Messiah, citing that Paul the Apostle confirms this view by linking Jesus' sacrifice to the fulfilment of the Jewish feast of Passover. Jesus was not only declared the \"Lamb of God\" by John the Baptist, a reference to the Passover lamb, but was also presented as the Lamb in Jerusalem on 10 Nisan, then four days later crucified on precisely the day Jews brought the Passover sacrifice, 14 Nisan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aleppo Easter dating method",
        "text": "The proposal is not without controversy. Some Orthodox Christians tend not to look favorably upon the roughly one-in-five occurrence of Easter on or before the first day of Passover in the Aleppo method because, if Easter is not the Sunday after Passover, there is a conflict with the Gospels (despite the Orthodox practice often not having Easter on the Sunday after the first day of Passover in the majority of years when there is more than seven days' difference between the first day of Passover and Easter Sunday), though others note it was the intention of the Nicene formula to separate the date of the Christian feast of Easter from the date for the Jewish feast of Passover."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter controversy",
        "text": "Several attempts have sought to achieve a common method for computing the date of Easter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter Freudenthaler",
        "text": "In an interview with Jesus.de, Freudenthaler also commented that he always thought it silly when people who do not attend church for an entire year celebrate Christmas and Easter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian culture",
        "text": "Easter or \"Resurrection Sunday\", is a festival and holiday commemorating the resurrection of Jesus from the dead, described in the New Testament as having occurred on the third day after his burial following his crucifixion by the Romans at Calvary 30 AD. Easter customs vary across the Christian world, and include sunrise services, exclaiming the Paschal greeting, clipping the church, and decorating Easter eggs (symbols of the empty tomb). The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection, traditionally decorates the chancel area of churches on this day and for the rest of Eastertide. Additional customs that have become associated with Easter and are observed by both Christians and some non-Christians include egg hunting, the Easter Bunny, and Easter parades. There are also various traditional Easter foods that vary regionally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Norken",
        "text": "At Easter, the traditional \"Eierschibbeln\" \u2013 a kind of Easter egg roll \u2013 is celebrated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Easter egg\n--History.\n--Traditions and customs.\n----Lenten tradition.\n----Symbolism and related customs.\n----Colouring.\n----Patterning.\n----Use of Easter eggs in decorations.\n--Easter egg games.\n----Egg hunts.\n----Egg rolling.\n----Egg tapping.\n----Egg dance.\n----Pace egg plays.\n--Variants.\n----Chocolate eggs.\n----Marzipan eggs.\n----Artificial eggs.\n--Legends.\n----Christian traditions.\n----Parallels in other faiths.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Seah (unit)",
        "text": "Those dissenting and who hold the view that eggs today are the same size as the eggs used in measurement by the Sages are Rabbi Yechiel Michel Epstein (1829\u20131908), author of the \"Aruch HaShulchan\", and Rabbi Shelomo Qorah, the late Chief Rabbi of Bnei Brak, among others, who having tested the trigonometric calculations for the volume of flour needed to separate the dough-portion (= the volume of 43.2 eggs), and which, according to Maimonides, can be measured by filling-up a space 10 fingerbreadths x 10 fingerbreadths square (the finger's breadth being the width of one's thumb, appx. 2.5 cm), with a depth of 3 fingerbreadths and 1/10 of another fingerbreadth, along with a little more than 1/100 of another fingerbreadth, found that medium-sized eggs of our modern age have not diminished in size."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of religion-related articles",
        "text": "Jewish holidays -"
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "The ecclesiastical historian Socrates Scholasticus attributes the observance of Easter by the church to the perpetuation of pre-Christian custom, \"just as many other customs have been established\", stating that neither Jesus nor his Apostles enjoined the keeping of this or any other festival. Although he describes the details of the Easter celebration as deriving from local custom, he insists the feast itself is universally observed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter controversy",
        "text": "saw in my early youth, for he tarried [on earth] a very long time, and, when a very old man, gloriously and most nobly suffering martyrdom,(1) departed this life, having always taught the things which he had learned from the apostles, and which the Church has handed down, and which alone are true. To these things all the Asiatic Churches testify, as do also those men who have succeeded Polycarp down to the present time.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter controversy",
        "text": "The controversy over the correct date for Easter began in Early Christianity as early as the 2nd century AD. Discussion and disagreement over the best method of computing the date of Easter Sunday has been ongoing ever since and remain unresolved. Different Christian denominations continue to celebrate Easter on different dates, with Eastern and Western Christian churches being a notable example."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How long did the Romans live in Calvary?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find the answer, but I did find that Calvary is believed to be a site Outside of Jerusalem and Mount Zion is a site associated before the Roman destruction of Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did the Romans destroy Jerusalem?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Roman army, led by the future Emperor Titus, with Tiberius Julius Alexander as his second-in-command, besieged and conquered the city of Jerusalem in 70 CE, which had been controlled by Judean rebel factions since 66 CE, following the Jerusalem riots of 66, when the Judean provisional government was formed in Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What type of government is in Jerusalem today?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Jerusalem adopts the mayor\u2013council government system which is a system of organization of local government that has an executive mayor who is directly elected by the voters, and a separately elected legislative city council."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the general consensus about Easter in the Jewish religion?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why is Easter celebrated using Easter eggs?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In Christianity, Easter eggs symbolize the empty tomb of Jesus, from which Jesus was resurrected. In addition, one ancient tradition was the staining of Easter eggs with the colour red \"in memory of the blood of Christ, shed as at that time of his crucifixion.\"",
      "Although eggs, in general, were a traditional symbol of fertility and rebirth, in Christianity, for the celebration of Eastertide, Easter eggs symbolize the empty tomb of Jesus, from which Jesus was resurrected. In addition, one ancient tradition was the staining of Easter eggs with the colour red \"in memory of the blood of Christ, shed as at that time of his crucifixion.\""
    ],
    "topic": "Easter",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Easter egg:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Easter egg"
        ],
        "ctx": "Although eggs, in general, were a traditional symbol of fertility and rebirth, in Christianity, for the celebration of Eastertide, Easter eggs symbolize the empty tomb of Jesus, from which Jesus was resurrected. In addition, one ancient tradition was the staining of Easter eggs with the colour red \"in memory of the blood of Christ, shed as at that time of his crucifixion.\""
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Easter egg:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Easter egg"
        ],
        "ctx": "Although eggs, in general, were a traditional symbol of fertility and rebirth, in Christianity, for the celebration of Eastertide, Easter eggs symbolize the empty tomb of Jesus, from which Jesus was resurrected. In addition, one ancient tradition was the staining of Easter eggs with the colour red \"in memory of the blood of Christ, shed as at that time of his crucifixion.\""
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Easter Bunny",
        "text": "The Easter Bunny (also called the Easter Rabbit or Easter Hare) is a folkloric figure and symbol of Easter, depicted as a rabbit\u2014sometimes dressed with clothes\u2014bringing Easter eggs. Originating among German Lutherans, the \"Easter Hare\" originally played the role of a judge, evaluating whether children were good or disobedient in behavior at the start of the season of Eastertide, similar to the \"naughty or nice\" list made by Santa Claus. As part of the legend, the creature carries colored eggs in its basket, as well as candy, and sometimes toys, to the homes of children. As such, the Easter Bunny again shows similarities to Santa (or the Christkind) and Christmas by bringing gifts to children on the night before a holiday. The custom was first mentioned in Georg Franck von Franckenau's \"De ovis paschalibus\" ('About Easter eggs') in 1682, referring to a German tradition of an Easter Hare bringing eggs for the children."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Yeggs",
        "text": "Bugs Bunny finds the Easter Bunny (also called the \"Easter Rabbit\" throughout this cartoon) sitting on a rock, crying. The Easter Bunny tells Bugs that his feet are sore, so he cannot deliver the Easter eggs. Bugs takes up the job, not knowing that, every year, the Easter Bunny gets some \"dumb bunny\" to do his work for him. (The Easter Bunny characterization is taken from Mel Blanc's \"Happy Postman\" radio character, including the ironic catch phrase \"Keep Smiling!\")"
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Bunny",
        "text": "The Oxford \"Dictionary of English Folklore\" however states \"... there is no shred of evidence\" that hares were sacred to \u0112ostre, noting that Bede does not associate her with any animal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Bunny",
        "text": "The idea of an egg-giving hare went to the U.S. in the 18th century. Protestant German immigrants in the Pennsylvania Dutch area told their children about the \"Osterhase\" (sometimes spelled \"Oschter Haws\"). \"Hase\" means \"hare\", not rabbit, and in Northwest European folklore the \"Easter Bunny\" indeed is a hare. According to the legend, only good children received gifts of colored eggs in the nests that they made in their caps and bonnets before Easter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Bunny",
        "text": "Easter Bunny\n--Symbols.\n----Rabbits and hares.\n----Eggs.\n--Alleged association with \u0112ostre.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Alsace",
        "text": "The Easter Bunny was first mentioned in Georg Franck von Franckenau's \"De ovis paschalibus\" (About Easter eggs) in 1682 referring to an Alsace tradition of an Easter Hare bringing Easter eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Easter Bunny Is Comin' to Town",
        "text": "The following year, Sunny, Hallelujah, and Herbert the Baker make the first Easter jelly beans. However, upon their way to Town to deliver them, Gadzooks, still angered by Sunny's lie and thinking his eggs are colored stones again, flings them far, far away. All hope seems lost until all the other children hunt the eggs up in bushes and trees and Sunny decides that he'll always hide them."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Easter Bunny Is Comin' to Town",
        "text": "Saddened by this, Sunny heads back to Kidville and explains the problem. Hallelujah and the children dip the eggs in various bowls of paint as a way of tricking Gadzooks. He lies to the bear, saying he is on his way to sell colored stones as paperweights. Gadzooks, befuddled by Sunny's lie, lets him go, demanding he bring him eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "In some traditions the children put out their empty baskets for the Easter bunny to fill while they sleep. They wake to find their baskets filled with candy eggs and other treats. A custom originating in Germany, the Easter Bunny is a popular legendary anthropomorphic Easter gift-giving character analogous to Santa Claus in American culture. Many children around the world follow the tradition of coloring hard-boiled eggs and giving baskets of candy. Historically, foxes, cranes and storks were also sometimes named as the mystical creatures. Since the rabbit is a pest in Australia, the Easter Bilby is available as an alternative."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lindt",
        "text": "The Lindt group also produces the \"Gold Bunny\", a hollow milk chocolate rabbit in a variety of sizes available every Easter since 1952. Each bunny wears a small colored ribbon bow around its neck identifying the type of chocolate contained within. The milk chocolate bunny wears a red ribbon, the dark chocolate bunny wears a dark brown ribbon, the hazelnut bunny wears a green ribbon, and the white chocolate bunny wears a white ribbon. Other chocolates are wrapped to look like carrots, chicks, or lambs. The lambs are packaged with four white lambs and one black lamb."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Bunny",
        "text": "In his 1835 \"Deutsche Mythologie\", Jacob Grimm states \"The Easter Hare is unintelligible to me, but probably the hare was the sacred animal of Ostara\". This proposed association was repeated by other authors including Charles Isaac Elton and Charles J. Billson. In 1961 Christina Hole wrote, \"The hare was the sacred beast of Eastre (or \u0112ostre), a Saxon goddess of Spring and of the dawn.\" The belief that \u0112ostre had a hare companion who became the Easter Bunny was popularized when it was presented as fact in the BBC documentary \"Shadow of the Hare\" (1993)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Here Comes Peter Cottontail",
        "text": "Peter Cottontail is a young Easter Bunny who lives in April Valley where all the other Easter bunnies live and work, making Easter candy, sewing bonnets, and of course, decorating and delivering Easter eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Easter Bunny Is Comin' to Town",
        "text": "Sunny makes it into Town again, passing out his eggs to all the townspeople, including King Bruce who crowns him the Easter Bunny, Royal Knight of the Rainbow Eggs. He and Sunny initiate a traditional ritual of eating the eggs. However, Lily, disappointed in her nephew, chases Sunny out, outlaws eggs, and sends him to bed without supper. After Bruce tells Sunny that he knew his supper would be more beans, Sunny promises to bring him very special beans next Easter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chocolate bunny",
        "text": "The notable Easter Bunny was introduced to Christians by German folklore in the early 13th century. Stories of an egg-laying white hare fostered the popular egg and rabbit Easter theme and traditions. In the Bible, rabbits are known for being a sign of fertility and new life in which the chocolate bunny now denotes to. Chocolate bunny molds are believed to have been first introduced in Germany and later brought to America. By the early 1920s chocolate bunnies became a household tradition in the United States to commemorate the holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sing-a-ma-jigs",
        "text": "In March 2011, the third holiday-themed doll was released for Easter. This Sing-a-ma-jig is a white Easter rabbit with more detailed bunny ears. It sings \"Here Comes Peter Cottontail\", and rather than saying \"Goodbye\" or \"See you later\", signs off by saying, \"Happy Easter!\" His shirt is covered in a colorful Easter Egg pattern. He has a baritone vocal range."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Easter Bunny Is Comin' to Town",
        "text": "The Easter Bunny is Comin' to Town is a 1977 musical Easter television special produced by Rankin/Bass Productions, using their \"Animagic\" stop motion animation. It reunites the writer Romeo Muller. designer Paul Coker Jr., and narrator Fred Astaire, and stars the voices of Skip Hinnant, Bob McFadden, Meg Sargent, James Spies, and Allen Swift. The special originally premiered on ABC in the United States on April 6, 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "The First Easter Rabbit",
        "text": "Stuffy is a stuffed rabbit, given to a little girl named Glinda as a Christmas present. But when she comes down sick with scarlet fever, her old toys are thrown away to be burned in order to disinfect the playroom. Stuffy is rescued by a sprite named Calliope, who brings him to life and sends him to Easter Valley at the North Pole where he befriends Santa Claus and three other rabbits named Spats, Flops, and Whiskers to help him with the Easter traditions. However, an ice wizard named Zero wants to freeze the valley by stealing the Golden Easter Lily with the help of his reluctant partner, a living snowball named Bruce. In order to stop Zero, Stuffy must become the Easter Bunny, retrieve the Golden Lily, and save Easter Valley.\n* Burl Ives as G.B.\n* Robert Morse as Stuffy\n* Stan Freberg as Flops\n* Paul Frees as Santa Claus, Zero, Spats\n* Joan Gardner as Elizabeth, Calliope\n* Dina Lynn as Glinda\n* Don Messick as Jonathan, Whiskers, Bruce the Snowball\n* Christine Winter as Vocalist\n* Producers/Directors - Jules Bass, Arthur Rankin, Jr.\n* Writer - Julian P. Gardner\n* Songs - There's That Rabbit, Easter Parade\n** Music and Lyrics - Jules Bass, Irving Berlin, Maury Laws\n* Sound - John Curcio, Don Hahn, Dave Iveland, Tom Clack\n* Post Production Editing - Irwin Goldress\n* Overseas Animation Production - Topcraft (uncredited)\n** Animation - Toru Hara, Tsuguyuki Kubo\n** Animation Directors - Kazuyuki Kobayashi, Hidemi Kubo (uncredited)\n** Backgrounds - Minoru Nishida (uncredited)\n** Key Animation - Yoshiko Sasaki, Tadakatsu Yoshida (uncredited)\n* Design - Paul Coker, Jr.\n* Music Arranger and Conductor - Maury Laws"
      },
      {
        "title": "Trey Spruance",
        "text": "Mr. Bungle\n* \"The Raging Wrath of the Easter Bunny\" (1986)\n* \"Bowel of Chiley\" (1987)\n* \"Goddammit I Love America!\" (1988)\n* \"OU818\" (1989)\n* \"Mr. Bungle\" (1991)\n* \"Disco Volante\" (1995)\n* \"California\" (1999)\n* \"The Raging Wrath of the Easter Bunny Demo\" (2020)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chocolate bunny",
        "text": "Chocolate is one of the most commonly sold treats around the national Easter Holiday; in some years, chocolate sales can surpass $400 million a few weeks before the holiday. Chocolate bunnies can be found for sale in many drugstores and grocery stores in America a few months or weeks leading up to Easter. The religious holiday comes in second place, after Halloween, for selling the most candy during a holiday season. Today, the chocolate bunny is a staple for many Easter baskets around the world. More than 50% of people in the United States prefer chocolate bunnies and eggs over other candies as their choice of an Easter treat. Due to their overwhelming popularity, over 90 million chocolate bunnies are produced yearly for consumers in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter",
        "text": "The egg is an ancient symbol of new life and rebirth. In Christianity it became associated with Jesus's crucifixion and resurrection. The custom of the Easter egg originated in the early Christian community of Mesopotamia, who stained eggs red in memory of the blood of Christ, shed at his crucifixion. As such, for Christians, the Easter egg is a symbol of the empty tomb. The oldest tradition is to use dyed chicken eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Easter Bunny Is Comin' to Town",
        "text": "One Easter morning, they find an orphaned baby rabbit, raise him as their own, and name him Sunny when they notice how much he likes the warm sun. Sunny, now one year old, makes plans with the children to sell what they make in exchange for what they need, including their eggs, with help from three chickens called the Hendrew Sisters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rabbits and hares in art",
        "text": "The idea of rabbits as a symbol of vitality, rebirth and resurrection derives from antiquity. This explains their role in connection with Easter, the resurrection of Christ. The unusual presentation in Christian iconography of a Madonna with the Infant Jesus playing with a white rabbit in Titian's Parisian painting, can thus be interpreted christologically. Together with the basket of bread and wine, a symbol of the sacrificial death of Christ, the picture may be interpreted as the resurrection of Christ after death."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Easter Bunny Is Comin' to Town",
        "text": "Sunny sets off to deliver his eggs. Along the way, he meets a friendly hobo named Hallelujah Jones, who suggests to him that he could sell his eggs in a town that's just called Town. However, upon climbing Big Rock Mountain, Sunny runs into Gadzooks who steals his eggs. After escaping, Sunny makes it to Town which is a dreary, dismal place. There, nobody laughs, everyone dresses in dark clothing, and if any children are born, the whole family has to move away, and beans are eaten for every meal by order of the ruthless Dowager Duchess Lily Longtooth who wants her seven-year-old nephew King Bruce the Frail to follow in her footsteps. Bruce complains about wanting to be a normal child instead of being a king, despite his aunt's objections."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Yeggs",
        "text": "The first house the \"joyous bunny\" visits bears a name by the door: Dead End Kid, the mean little red-haired kid who lives inside throws the egg (still raw) at Bugs' face, bites him in the leg and beats Bugs up before body-slamming him on the floor - all the while demanding, \"I wanna Easter egg! I wanna Easter egg! I wanna Easter egg!\" Bugs loses his cool and grabs the kid's arm. Unfortunately, Dead End Kid screams that Bugs has broken his arm and three huge thugs (one of them female) rush in, aiming guns at Bugs. Bugs barely escapes the hail of bullets (some of which spell the message \"And stay out\"). When Bugs rushes back to the Easter Bunny telling him he quits, the Easter Bunny gets him to \"try once more\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Although one of the Christian traditions are to use dyed or painted chicken eggs, a modern custom is to substitute chocolate eggs, or plastic eggs filled with candy such as jelly beans; as many people give up sweets as their Lenten sacrifice, individuals enjoy them at Easter after having abstained from them during the preceding forty days of Lent. These eggs can be hidden for children to find on Easter morning, which may be left by the Easter Bunny. They may also be put in a basket filled with real or artificial straw to resemble a bird's nest."
      },
      {
        "title": "The First Easter Rabbit",
        "text": "The First Easter Rabbit is an animated Easter television special that premiered April 9, 1976 on NBC and later aired on CBS. Created by Rankin/Bass Productions, it tells the story of the Easter Bunny's origin. The special is loosely based on the 1922 children's book \"The Velveteen Rabbit\" by Margery Williams. Burl Ives narrated the special which also featured the Irving Berlin song \"Easter Parade\"; it marked Ives's return to a Rankin/Bass special for the first time since the company's 1964 stop motion television special \"Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer\" twelve years prior."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Yeggs",
        "text": "Unfortunately, the next house is that of Elmer Fudd, the veteran wabbit hunter. Intent on making \"Easter Rabbit Stew\" out of the bunny, Fudd sets up an elaborate welcome and, disguised as a baby, hides his gun in a bassinet and climbs in. Just then Bugs arrives, but this time he's prepared for toddler resistance: he cracks the egg in Elmer's hands. Thus commences the classic chase and gags until Bugs manages to dump the Dead End Kid with Elmer (who beats Elmer on the head repeatedly with a hammer after Bugs paints Elmer's head to look like an Easter egg). Finally, Bugs plants a bomb painted like an Easter egg and leaves it for the Easter Bunny. When the Easter Bunny picks it up to finish his job, Bugs lights the fuse, proclaiming to the audience \"it's the suspense that gets me,\" and the bomb explodes on the Easter Bunny, leaving the hapless hen-fruit handler hanging high up in a tree. Bugs' parting shot: \"Remember, Doc, keep smiling!\" (in reference to Mel Blanc's Happy Postman from the radio version of \"The George Burns and Gracie Allen Show\"). The cartoon irises out as Bugs starts laughing hysterically."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Bunny",
        "text": "Eggs have been used as fertility symbols since antiquity. Eggs became a symbol in Christianity associated with rebirth as early as the 1st century AD, via the iconography of the Phoenix egg, and they became associated with Easter specifically in medieval Europe, when eating them was prohibited during the fast of Lent. A common practice in England at that time was for children to go door-to-door begging for eggs on the Saturday before Lent began. People handed out eggs as special treats for children prior to their fast."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Easter Bunny Is Comin' to Town",
        "text": "Meanwhile, Lily orders her guards to do anything they can to stop the train from getting to Town. They spread melted butter on the rails, causing Chugs to slip, but Hallelujah pours jelly beans on the butter, providing extra traction and allowing them to climb the hill, thus foiling Lily's plan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Although eggs, in general, were a traditional symbol of fertility and rebirth, in Christianity, for the celebration of Eastertide, Easter eggs symbolize the empty tomb of Jesus, from which Jesus was resurrected. In addition, one ancient tradition was the staining of Easter eggs with the colour red \"in memory of the blood of Christ, shed as at that time of his crucifixion.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Jack Rabbit Story (Easter Fever)",
        "text": "In the special, Jack Rabbit (voiced by \"Saturday Night Live\" cast member Garrett Morris) leaves his job as the Easter Bunny and is treated to a celebrity roast until an aardvark convinced him not to retire with \"the last Easter egg\" (Maurice LaMarche providing impressions of Steve Martin and Don Rickles and \"SCTV\"s Catherine O'Hara providing the voice of Jack's wife Scarlett O'Hare). It also features songs by John Sebastian of The Lovin' Spoonful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Bunny",
        "text": "The hare was a popular motif in medieval church art. In ancient times, it was widely believed (as by Pliny, Plutarch, Philostratus, and Aelian) that the hare was a hermaphrodite. The idea that a hare could reproduce without loss of virginity led to an association with the Virgin Mary, with hares sometimes occurring in illuminated manuscripts and Northern European paintings of the Virgin and Christ Child. It may also have been associated with the Holy Trinity, as in the three hares motif."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fantastic Easter Special",
        "text": "The Marsh family colors eggs for Easter and Stan questions what it has to do with Jesus. Due to Randy's vague response, Stan asks the same question to a mall Easter Bunny. The mall bunny brushes him off and then makes a mysterious phone call."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Yeggs",
        "text": "Easter Yeggs is a 1947 \"Looney Tunes\" theatrical animated short. The cartoon was released on June 28, 1947, and features Bugs Bunny and Elmer Fudd. The title is a play on \"Easter eggs\" and on \"yegg\", a slang term for a burglar or safecracker."
      },
      {
        "title": "The First Easter Rabbit",
        "text": "The First Easter Rabbit\n--Plot.\n--Home media releases.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bugs Bunny's Easter Special",
        "text": "In the end, Bugs offers to serve as the bunny's replacement if the work can be delayed until a week after Easter; Granny considers this unacceptable, but the Easter Bunny, apparently well, arrives, and thus Bugs's services are no longer needed. In the end, the supposed Easter Bunny reveals himself to be Daffy in an Easter bunny suit (finally getting it right), which neither surprises nor disappoints Bugs or Granny, having known all along it was Daffy.\n* Mel Blanc as Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck/the Easter Bunny, Porky Pig, Tweety, Sylvester, Pep\u00e9 Le Pew, Yosemite Sam, and Foghorn Leghorn,\n* June Foray as Granny\n* \"Knighty Knight Bugs\" (Friz Freleng; August 23, 1958)\n* \"Hillbilly Hare\" (Robert McKimson; August 12, 1950)\n* \"Bully For Bugs\" (Chuck Jones; August 8, 1953)\n* \"Tweety's Circus\" (Friz Freleng; June 4, 1955)\n* \"Birds Anonymous\" (Friz Freleng; August 10, 1957)\n* \"For Scent-imental Reasons\" (Chuck Jones; November 12, 1949)\n* \"Rabbit of Seville\" (Chuck Jones; December 16, 1950)\n* \"Little Boy Boo\" (Robert McKimson; June 5, 1954)\n* \"Robin Hood Daffy\" (Chuck Jones; March 8, 1958)\n* \"Sahara Hare\" (Friz Freleng; March 26, 1955)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "In the Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches, Easter eggs are dyed red to represent the blood of Christ, with further symbolism being found in the hard shell of the egg symbolizing the sealed Tomb of Christ \u2014 the cracking of which symbolized his resurrection from the dead. The tradition of red easter eggs was used by the Russian Orthodox Church. The tradition to dyeing the easter eggs in an Onion tone exists in the cultures of Armenia, Georgia, Belarus, Russia, Czechia, Romania, Slovenia, and Israel. The colour is made by boiling onion peel in water."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Easter Bunny Is Comin' to Town",
        "text": "The story begins in the small town of Kidville, run by all orphaned children (including S.D. Kluger when he was a child) and located on the other side of Big Rock Mountain. The children enjoy the simple life, despite being bothered by Gadzooks the Bear who hates everything to do with the holidays."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "There are good grounds for the association between hares (later termed Easter bunnies) and bird eggs, through folklore confusion between hares' forms (where they raise their young) and plovers' nests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dumb Bunnies",
        "text": "The Dumb Bunnies made their second appearance in the book \"The Dumb Bunnies Easter\". The Dumb Bunnies are preparing for Easter (which appears to be more related to Christmas) and set up the decorations (including putting an \"Easter Tree\" upside down). After preparing, they spray-paint fried eggs (claimed to be \"painting Easter Eggs\") and watch a small football on top of their television. They go to hang up their stockings before they realize that they are wearing them and they are sleeping upside down in front of the fireplace. The Easter Bunny soon arrives and drops all the eggs down the chimney. The next morning, the Dumb Bunnies are thrilled to see the eggs (although they are completely cracked with shells lying everywhere)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Bilby",
        "text": "The Easter Bilby is an Australian alternative to the Easter Bunny."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Easter Bunny Is Comin' to Town",
        "text": "Next Easter, Sunny sets out, only to get caught by Gadzooks who chases him to Kidville, where everybody has all pitched in to make him a brand new Easter outfit made by the Kidville tailors. Touched by their gesture of kindness, Gadzooks becomes their friend. Meanwhile back in Town, the townspeople become interested in the Easter eggs Sunny hides, King Bruce and his servants enjoy eating the jelly beans and the children are loved by all the townspeople. But Lily, outraged, sends her guards out to arrest them. Sunny and the children leave just in time, and promise to return next year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chocolate bunny",
        "text": "A chocolate bunny or chocolate rabbit is a piece of chocolate in the shape of a rabbit, usually stylized, and generally hollow. The cocoa confection is related to the religious Easter holiday that occurs annually around the months of March and April. The chocolate shaped bunny can be wrapped in a colorful tin-foil, a decorated box, or simply the chocolate itself."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bunny Ahearne",
        "text": "Ahearne was born on 19 November 1900 in County Wexford, Ireland. He spent the majority of his life residing in England working as a travel agent, and never played ice hockey."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Tale of the Bunny Picnic",
        "text": "The Tale of the Bunny Picnic is a 1986 Easter TV special directed by Jim Henson and David G. Hillier. In the United States it was shown annually on HBO in the spring, usually during Easter time. It was later released on VHS in 1993. The film focuses on the Muppet character Bean Bunny (Steve Whitmire), who makes his first appearance in this special, and would later appear on additional projects featuring Jim Henson's Muppets. It was screened twice in the United Kingdom, first on March 29, 1986 on BBC One, then again on December 13, 1986."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cadbury Creme Egg",
        "text": "In North America, Creme Eggs are advertised on television with a small white rabbit called the Cadbury Bunny (alluding to the Easter Bunny) which clucks like a chicken. Other animals dressed with bunny ears have also been used in the television ads, and in 2021, out of over 12,000 submissions in the Hershey Company's third annual tryouts, an Australian tree frog named Betty was named the newest Cadbury Bunny. Ads for caramel eggs use a larger gold-coloured rabbit which also clucks, and chocolate eggs use a large brown rabbit which clucks in a deep voice. The advertisements use the slogan \"Nobunny knows Easter better than him\", spoken by TV personality Mason Adams. The adverts have continued to air nearly unchanged into the high definition era, though currently the ad image is slightly zoomed to fill the screen. The majority of rabbits used in the Cadbury commercials are Flemish Giants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Egg hunt",
        "text": "The egg was a symbol of the rebirth of the earth in pre-Christian celebrations of spring. However, the Easter egg itself was defined by early Christians as an Easter symbol of the resurrection of Jesus: the egg symbol was likened to the tomb from which Christ arose. Lizette Larson-Miller, a professor with the Graduate Theological Union of Berkeley, traces the specific custom of the Easter egg hunt to the Protestant Christian Reformer Martin Luther, stating \"We know that Martin Luther had Easter egg hunts where the men hid the eggs for the women and children, and it probably has this connection back to this idea of eggs being the tomb.\" At least since the 17th century the idea of the Easter Bunny to bring the Easter eggs has been known. The novelty of the introduction of Easter egg hunts into England is evidenced by A. E. Housman's inaugural lecture as Professor of Latin at University College, London in 1892, in which he said, \"In Germany at Easter time they hide coloured eggs about the house and garden that the children may amuse themselves in discovering them.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Holidays (2016 film)",
        "text": "While being tucked into bed at night, a little girl becomes frightened by the coming of the Easter Bunny. The mother attempts to calm her and tries her best to explain the holiday mascot's connection to Jesus before managing to tuck her in. She also tells her she has to be asleep when the Easter Bunny comes because no child has ever seen him. Later, the girl gets up to get a drink of water and discovers a Crucified Jesus/Easter Bunny-like creature leaving chicks and candies in the living room. She attempts to sneak back to her room but is caught. The Bunny explains that now she has seen him, she must take his place and that she will never see her mother again, but will see wonderful magical things. He feeds her an egg that transforms her into another bunny creature. The mother is heard calling for her daughter as the back door locks itself.\n* Written and directed by Sarah Adina Smith\n* Starring Sophie Traub, Aleksa Palladino, Sheila Vand, Jennifer Lafleur, Sonja Kinski"
      },
      {
        "title": "The First Easter Rabbit",
        "text": "\"The First Easter Rabbit\" was first released on VHS by ABC Video Enterprises and Golden Book Video in 1986. The second release, by Warner Home Video, to VHS occurred in 1993, and a remastered \"Deluxe Edition\" was issued on DVD in 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Dark red eggs are a tradition in Greece and represent the blood of Christ shed on the cross. The practice dates to the early Christian church in Mesopotamia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Bunny",
        "text": "As a special dish, eggs would probably have been decorated as part of the Easter celebrations. Later, German Protestants retained the custom of eating colored eggs for Easter, though they did not continue the tradition of fasting. Eggs boiled with some flowers change their color, bringing the spring into the homes, and some over time added the custom of decorating the eggs. Many Christians of the Eastern Orthodox Church to this day typically dye their Easter eggs red, the color of blood, in recognition of the blood of the sacrificed Christ (and, of the renewal of life in springtime). Some also use the color green, in honor of the new foliage emerging after the long-dead time of winter. The Ukrainian art of decorating eggs for Easter, known as \"pysanky\", dates to ancient, pre-Christian times. Similar variants of this form of artwork are seen amongst other eastern and central European cultures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter postcard",
        "text": "Circa 1910, the cards were mainly monochrome pictures which were sometimes colored with children in the context with lambs, poultry, and eggs. Young girls were a symbol for luck and hope. The Easter bunny which was a personified symbol of fruitfulness, was often portrayed with eggs. German publishers were leading in the production of Easter postcards before the First World War."
      },
      {
        "title": "VeggieTales discography",
        "text": "A Very Veggie Easter is a 2006 album released by EMI and Big Idea] as a tie-in with the release of the \"VeggieTales\" episode \"An Easter Carol\".\n# \"Hosanna Lord Hosanna\"\n# \"All Around the World\"\n# \"Christ The Lord Is Risen Today\"\n# \"The Easter Bunny Hop\"\n# \"The Easter Song\"\n# \"How Now Easter Cow\"\n# \"Count Your Eggs\"\n# \"An Empty Egg\"\n# \"Hope's Song (re-recording from An Easter Carol)\"\n# \"First Things First\"\n# \"Christ The Lord Is Risen Today\"\n# \"I Know That My Redeemer Liveth\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Springtime with Roo",
        "text": "Rabbit then wakes up the next morning and finds himself back in the present, overjoyed to see the Easter supplies are still there and that he still has a chance to change the future. Now \"giddy as a jackrabbit\", Rabbit immediately begins to plan the grandest Easter the Hundred Acre Wood has ever had. At the same time, Roo, unaware that Rabbit has changed, comes up with an idea in hopes of cheering Rabbit up. He picks up Pooh, Piglet, Eeyore, and Tigger with a wheelbarrow, but loses control of it and crashes into his house. While they are busy working, Rabbit arrives, pretending to still be grumpy, but their fears fade when he surprises them with their Easter decorations, along with a cotton tail for Eeyore. Rabbit shows them the celebration he has prepared and reveals his change of heart, which everyone is very happy to see, especially Roo, who returns Rabbit his Easter Bunny hat, which has been repaired, giving Rabbit back his favorite Easter role. The spirit of Easter is now restored, and Roo pops out of the book and says, \"B.B.F.N., Bye-bye for now!\", ending the film.\n* Jimmy Bennett as Roo\n* Ken Sansom as Rabbit\n* Jim Cummings as Winnie the Pooh and Tigger\n* Narrated by David Ogden Stiers\n* Kath Soucie as Kanga\n* John Fiedler as Piglet\n** Jeff Bennett does Piglet's singing voice\n* Peter Cullen as Eeyore"
      },
      {
        "title": "\u0112ostre",
        "text": "The earliest evidence for the Easter Hare (\"Osterhase\") was recorded in south-west Germany in 1678 by the professor of medicine Georg Franck von Franckenau, but it remained unknown in other parts of Germany until the 18th century. Scholar Richard Sermon writes that \"hares were frequently seen in gardens in spring, and thus may have served as a convenient explanation for the origin of the colored eggs hidden there for children. Alternatively, there is a European tradition that hares laid eggs, since a hare's scratch or form and a lapwing's nest look very similar, and both occur on grassland and are first seen in the spring. In the nineteenth century the influence of Easter cards, toys, and books was to make the Easter Hare/Rabbit popular throughout Europe. German immigrants then exported the custom to Britain and America where it evolved into the Easter Bunny.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Black Easter Bunny",
        "text": "Black Easter Bunny (born 1949) was a Quarter Horse racehorse who raced during the early 1950s, winning many races against some of the giants of the breed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rush in Rio (video)",
        "text": "The first Easter egg is the cartoon that plays during \"By-Tor and the Snow Dog.\" If you are using a remote control, the Easter egg is accessed by pressing \"enter\" on a remote control at 26:40 in the disc-2 documentary, \"The Boys in Brazil,\" while Alex Lifeson is discussing the song. Or, if you are at a keyboard, you can press the [Enter] key once (also known as the 'Return' key) at any point between 26:40 and 27:39."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Easter eggs, also called Paschal eggs, are eggs that are decorated for the Christian feast of Easter, which celebrates the resurrection of Jesus. As such, Easter eggs are common during the season of Eastertide (Easter season). The oldest tradition, which continues to be used in Central and Eastern Europe, is to use dyed and painted chicken eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christianity in Australia",
        "text": "Traditional Easter foods commonly consumed in Australia include Hot Cross Buns, recalling the cross of the Crucifixion, and chocolate Easter Eggs \u2013 symbolic of the promise of \"New Life\" offered by the Resurrection. Although chocolate eggs are now eaten throughout the period, eggs were traditionally exchanged on Easter Sunday and, as in other nations, young children believe their eggs to be delivered by the Easter Bunny. A local variant on this tradition is the story of the Easter Bilby, which seeks to raise the profile of an endangered Australian native, the Bilby whose existence is threatened by the imported European rabbit population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chocolate bunny",
        "text": "There have been cases of choking and illness from the decorated foil the bunnies are often wrapped in, as well as concern regarding child exploitation marketing and exposure to early obesity linked to the popular chocolate. The Easter Bunny character is similar to the famous Santa Claus figure used during the Christmas season, particularly in the United States and Europe, to market products and signify the holiday. Some studies claim the Easter Bunny figure, which is a staple for the Easter chocolate and candy, is another example of child exploitation in holiday marketing techniques. Cases of choking related to foil wrappings used by chocolate bunnies and eggs have been reported and are another concern for some regarding the confection."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Google Easter eggs",
        "text": "List of Google Easter eggs\n--Google Search.\n----General.\n----Did you mean.\n----Knowledge Graph.\n------Friends characters.\n----Embedded tools.\n------Google birthday surprise spinner.\n------Calculator.\n--Google homepage.\n----Google languages.\n--YouTube.\n----YouTube search.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Claymation Easter",
        "text": "During the end credits, one of the rats from Wilshire's lab playfully scurries around one of the bunny guards from the amphitheater, before biting the guard's leg, and the guard's scream can be heard off camera as the Will Vinton Productions logo is shown."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Egg Cracker Suite",
        "text": "Oswald leads a line of rabbits, anchored by a small brown bunny, into Bunnyville, where they are to ready Easter baskets for the holiday. He enters one tree, which is a hen house dubbed \"Egg Plant No. 1\", and conducts them in a symphony to get them to lay eggs. Outside, each rabbit in the line gets an egg. Oswald finishes the symphony getting the lone ostrich to lay her huge egg, which as luck would have it, the small brown bunny winds up with."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Easter eggs in Microsoft products",
        "text": "Windows 95 has an animated presentation of its developers, complete with music. This page is accessed by renaming a folder on the desktop to \"and now, the moment you've all been waiting for\", then \"we proudly present for your viewing pleasure\", and finally \"The Microsoft Windows 95 Product Team!\"\". Additionally, during the development of Windows 95, the shell developers had several stuffed animals as mascots. In addition to the Microsoft Bear, there were two bunnies as well - the smaller \"16-bit Bunny\" and the larger \"32-bit Bunny\". The bunnies' names referred to the fact that Windows 95 was the transitional OS. The Microsoft Bunny has an exported function named after him, codice_4 in codice_5. Also, the Bunny is the icon for the Microsoft Party Line (codice_6) in some pre-release versions of Windows 95. In the internet mail app, there is a hidden credits list that can be accessed by clicking Help, About, comctl32.dll, and typing MORTIMER."
      },
      {
        "title": "Argent\u00e9 rabbit",
        "text": "The Argent\u00e9 St Hubert weighs approximately . Its under colour is dark blue at the base with an orange intermediate band with narrow top chestnut band. Body colour is creamy white interspersed with black guard hairs to give a creamy chestnut shade."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Google Easter eggs",
        "text": "A YouTube search for:"
      },
      {
        "title": "A Claymation Easter",
        "text": "Wilshire makes it to Phase Two of the Easter Race, which involves delivering eggs to cardboard cutouts of children. While the other rabbits start up their mopeds, Wilshire uses a modified lowrider with mechanical arms and legs, crushing any competitors that get in the way and injuring others. Wilshire wins again only because he is the last contestant left standing, much to the dismay of the crowd."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trevor Dunn",
        "text": "With Mr. Bungle\n*1991 \u2212 \"Mr. Bungle\" (Warner Bros.)\n*1995 \u2212 \"Disco Volante\" (Warner Bros.)\n*1999 \u2212 \"California\" (Warner Bros.)\n*2020 \u2212 \"The Raging Wrath of the Easter Bunny Demo\" (Ipecac)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "While the origin of Easter eggs can be explained in the symbolic terms described above, among followers of Eastern Christianity the legend says that Mary Magdalene was bringing cooked eggs to share with the other women at the tomb of Jesus, and the eggs in her basket miraculously turned bright red when she saw the risen Christ."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Jack Rabbit Story (Easter Fever)",
        "text": "The Jack Rabbit Story (Easter Fever) is an 1980 Canadian-American animated Easter themed television special that premiered in syndication in the United States and on CBC on March 30, 1980."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Museum of Ethnography",
        "text": "- 35 Easter-eggs (from: \u010cadca, Ve\u013ek\u00e1 \u010causa, Martin, Levo\u010da, Ve\u013ek\u00fd Grob, Poprad, Domani\u017ea regions)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hare",
        "text": "The hare was once regarded as an animal sacred to Aphrodite and Eros because of its high libido. Live hares were often presented as a gift of love. Now, the hare is commonly associated with the Anglo-Saxon goddess \u0112ostre, and therefore pagan symbols like the Easter Bunny have been appropriated into the Christian tradition. However, no primary sources support this belief, which seems to be a modern invention."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black Easter Bunny",
        "text": "Black Easter Bunny\n--Life.\n--Racing career.\n--Breeding record.\n--Death and honors.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Acraea esebria",
        "text": "The eggs are oval in shape."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orange County, Indiana",
        "text": "Easter Bunny Express"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Jack Rabbit Story (Easter Fever)",
        "text": "It is the five out of the six television specials in the 1977 to 1980 series of specials by Nelvana. It was also one of the last television specials from the company, concluding the series with \"Take Me Up to the Ball Game\", which premiered on September 18 of the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Easter Bunny Is Comin' to Town",
        "text": "The Easter Bunny Is Comin' to Town\n--Plot.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Easter eggs in Tesla products",
        "text": "Tesla vehicles may be assigned a name within the settings available on the touchscreen. Naming the car either \"Patsy\", \"Rabbit of Caerbannog\", \"Mr. Creosote\" (with or without the period), \"Flying Circus\", \"Biggus Dickus\" or \"Unladen Swallow\" will activate the Monty Python easter egg. Once this is done, The Foot of Cupid will immediately drop down the length of the screen. The Foot of Cupid is a trademarked recurring gag in the Monty Python series, Monty Python's Flying Circus. The foot is accompanied by the sound of flatulence. The foot will disappear and upon opening Theater Mode, a new Monty Python option will appear. This option is essentially the same as YouTube except that it opens directly to the Monty Python channel. The first to discover the Easter egg was Iwan Eberhart, a Model 3 owner in Switzerland who named his Model 3, \"The Rabbit of Caerbannog\" with no foreknowledge of the Easter egg. This is not the first time that Monty Python has been purposefully added to Tesla vehicles."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Google Easter eggs",
        "text": "The result of multiple Easter eggs may be calculated; for example: \"\" will return \"43\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "Easter egg\n--History.\n--Traditions and customs.\n----Lenten tradition.\n----Symbolism and related customs.\n----Colouring.\n----Patterning.\n----Use of Easter eggs in decorations.\n--Easter egg games.\n----Egg hunts.\n----Egg rolling.\n----Egg tapping.\n----Egg dance.\n----Pace egg plays.\n--Variants.\n----Chocolate eggs.\n----Marzipan eggs.\n----Artificial eggs.\n--Legends.\n----Christian traditions.\n----Parallels in other faiths.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bugs Bunny's Easter Special",
        "text": "Bugs Bunny's Easter Special (also known as \"The Bugs Bunny Easter Special\" and \"Bugs Bunny's Easter Funnies\") is a 1977 Easter-themed \"Looney Tunes\" television special directed by Friz Freleng and features clips from 10 Warner Bros. cartoons. It originally aired on the CBS network April 7, 1977."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter Egg (virtual)",
        "text": "#REDIRECT Easter egg (media)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter basket",
        "text": "An Easter tradition involves the Easter Bunny dropping off a basket of candy for good children overnight. Children leave a basket out overnight which the Easter bunny fills with candy, toys, and gifts on the night before Easter, and children wake up to find their Easter basket. Easter baskets are also used in Easter egg hunts, in which children try filling their basket with Easter eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eriochilus dilatatus subsp. magnus",
        "text": "Eriochilus dilatatus\" subsp. \"magnus, commonly known as the Easter bunny orchid, is a plant in the orchid family Orchidaceae and is endemic to Western Australia. It has a single large, smooth, flattened leaf and up to twenty five dull green, red and white flowers. It is found in high rainfall areas between Perth and Albany."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Easter Bunny Is Comin' to Town",
        "text": "S.D. Kluger returns as a train engineer, but still a mailman to answer questions about the Easter Bunny in the children's letters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Springtime with Roo",
        "text": "In the flashback, the gang prepares for Easter, painting eggs and making decorations. As it is Roo's first Easter in the Hundred Acre Wood, Rabbit wants everything to be as organized and orderly as possible to the point that he treats Easter as a professional occasion rather than a fun holiday. The others grow tired of Rabbit's bossiness and, under Tigger's suggestion, sneak off with the Easter eggs. Rabbit goes after them and finds them having the egg hunt without him, with the gang agreeing that Tigger is \"the best Easter Bunny ever,\" upsetting Rabbit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian culture",
        "text": "Easter or \"Resurrection Sunday\", is a festival and holiday commemorating the resurrection of Jesus from the dead, described in the New Testament as having occurred on the third day after his burial following his crucifixion by the Romans at Calvary 30 AD. Easter customs vary across the Christian world, and include sunrise services, exclaiming the Paschal greeting, clipping the church, and decorating Easter eggs (symbols of the empty tomb). The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection, traditionally decorates the chancel area of churches on this day and for the rest of Eastertide. Additional customs that have become associated with Easter and are observed by both Christians and some non-Christians include egg hunting, the Easter Bunny, and Easter parades. There are also various traditional Easter foods that vary regionally."
      },
      {
        "title": "Powelliphanta rossiana",
        "text": "The eggs are oval and seldom constant in dimensions 8 \u00d7 6.75, 6.5 \u00d7 5.75, 8.25 \u00d7 6.75\u00a0mm."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hot Cross Bunny",
        "text": "Bugs is \"Experimental Rabbit #46\" in the Eureka Hospital Experimental Laboratory, Paul Revere Foundation (which sports the unencouraging slogan 'Hardly a man is now alive' in punning allusion to Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's \"Paul Revere's Ride\"). Bugs lives a pampered life, oblivious to the fact that a scientist plans on switching his brain (or at least his personality, since no surgery is involved) with that of a chicken."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bugs Bunny's Easter Special",
        "text": "Bugs Bunny's Easter Special\n--Plot.\n--Home media.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "St Mary's Church, Bunny",
        "text": "St Mary's Church, Bunny\n--History.\n--Organ.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Black Easter Bunny",
        "text": "Black Easter Bunny was foaled in 1949 and was a black Quarter Horse mare. She was sired by Hysition, a Thoroughbred stallion, and her dam was a Quarter Horse mare named Flicka. Her dam traced back to Chicaro, a Thoroughbred, as well as tracing three times to Little Joe, a son of Traveler."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bunny, Nottinghamshire",
        "text": "Bunny is a village and civil parish located in the Rushcliffe borough of Nottinghamshire, England. The parish has a population of around 600, measured at 689 in the 2011 Census. It is on the A60 south of Nottingham, south of Bradmore and north of Costock."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rabbit pie",
        "text": "Two huge rabbit pies are part of traditional Easter celebrations in the English village of Hallaton, Leicestershire."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bugs Bunny's Easter Special",
        "text": "This special was released on DVD on February 16, 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "Easter egg",
        "text": "An egg hunt is a game in which decorated eggs, which may be hard-boiled chicken eggs, chocolate eggs, or artificial eggs containing candies, are hidden for children to find. The eggs often vary in size, and may be hidden both indoors and outdoors. When the hunt is over, prizes may be given for the largest number of eggs collected, or for the largest or the smallest egg."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of Easter eggs in Tesla products",
        "text": "Voice commands \"open butthole\" and \"close butthole\" open and close the charge port, but may open the trunk instead in some cases. \u201cOpen bunghole\u201d and \u201cclose bunghole\u201d also work and may be a reference to Beavis and Butthead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Let Sleeping Corpses Lie",
        "text": "This DVD contains a few easter eggs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Domestic rabbit",
        "text": "Rabbits are especially popular as pets in the United States during the Easter season, due to their association with the holiday. However, animal shelters that accept rabbits often complain that during the weeks and months following Easter, there is a rise in unwanted and neglected rabbits that were bought as Easter gifts, especially for children. Similar problems arise in rural areas after county fairs and the like, in jurisdictions where rabbits are legal prizes in fairground games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Argent\u00e9 rabbit",
        "text": "The Cr\u00e8me d'Argent (much larger than the Argent\u00e9 Cr\u00e8me) weighs . Its coat is \"creamy-white in color with an orange cast carried throughout the fur of the body. The undercoat is bright orange and this color carries to the skin. The entire coat is interspersed with orange guard hairs.\""
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How long did the Romans live in Calvary?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I did not find the answer, but I did find that Calvary is believed to be a site Outside of Jerusalem and Mount Zion is a site associated before the Roman destruction of Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did the Romans destroy Jerusalem?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Roman army, led by the future Emperor Titus, with Tiberius Julius Alexander as his second-in-command, besieged and conquered the city of Jerusalem in 70 CE, which had been controlled by Judean rebel factions since 66 CE, following the Jerusalem riots of 66, when the Judean provisional government was formed in Jerusalem."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What type of government is in Jerusalem today?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Jerusalem adopts the mayor\u2013council government system which is a system of organization of local government that has an executive mayor who is directly elected by the voters, and a separately elected legislative city council."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What is the general consensus about Easter in the Jewish religion?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why is Easter celebrated using Easter eggs?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Although eggs, in general, were a traditional symbol of fertility and rebirth, in Christianity, for the celebration of Eastertide, Easter eggs symbolize the empty tomb of Jesus, from which Jesus was resurrected. In addition, one ancient tradition was the staining of Easter eggs with the colour red \"in memory of the blood of Christ, shed as at that time of his crucifixion.\""
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What can you tell me about the Easter Bunny?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Easter Bunny (also called the Easter Rabbit or Easter Hare) is a folkloric figure and symbol of Easter, depicted as a rabbit\u2014sometimes dressed with clothes\u2014bringing Easter eggs. Originating among German Lutherans, the \"Easter Hare\" originally played the role of a judge, evaluating whether children were good or disobedient in behavior at the start of the season of Eastertide, similar to the \"naughty or nice\" list made by Santa Claus.",
      "The Easter Bunny  is a folkloric figure and symbol of Easter, depicted as a rabbit\u2014sometimes dressed with clothes\u2014bringing Easter eggs; the hare was a popular motif in medieval church art. The idea of an egg-giving hare went to the U.S. in the 18th century."
    ],
    "topic": "Easter",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Easter Bunny:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Easter Bunny"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Easter Bunny (also called the Easter Rabbit or Easter Hare) is a folkloric figure and symbol of Easter, depicted as a rabbit\u2014sometimes dressed with clothes\u2014bringing Easter eggs. Originating among German Lutherans, the \"Easter Hare\" originally played the role of a judge, evaluating whether children were good or disobedient in behavior at the start of the season of Eastertide, similar to the \"naughty or nice\" list made by Santa Claus. As part of the legend, the creature carries colored eggs in its basket, as well as candy, and sometimes toys, to the homes of children. As such, the Easter Bunny again shows similarities to Santa (or the Christkind) and Christmas by bringing gifts to children on the night before a holiday. The custom was first mentioned in Georg Franck von Franckenau's \"De ovis paschalibus\" ('About Easter eggs') in 1682, referring to a German tradition of an Easter Hare bringing eggs for the children."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Easter Bunny:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Easter Bunny"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Easter Bunny (also called the Easter Rabbit or Easter Hare) is a folkloric figure and symbol of Easter, depicted as a rabbit\u2014sometimes dressed with clothes\u2014bringing Easter eggs. Originating among German Lutherans, the \"Easter Hare\" originally played the role of a judge, evaluating whether children were good or disobedient in behavior at the start of the season of Eastertide, similar to the \"naughty or nice\" list made by Santa Claus. As part of the legend, the creature carries colored eggs in its basket, as well as candy, and sometimes toys, to the homes of children. As such, the Easter Bunny again shows similarities to Santa (or the Christkind) and Christmas by bringing gifts to children on the night before a holiday. The custom was first mentioned in Georg Franck von Franckenau's \"De ovis paschalibus\" ('About Easter eggs') in 1682, referring to a German tradition of an Easter Hare bringing eggs for the children."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Easter Bunny:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Easter Bunny",
          "Symbols",
          "Rabbits and hares"
        ],
        "ctx": "The hare was a popular motif in medieval church art. In ancient times, it was widely believed (as by Pliny, Plutarch, Philostratus, and Aelian) that the hare was a hermaphrodite. The idea that a hare could reproduce without loss of virginity led to an association with the Virgin Mary, with hares sometimes occurring in illuminated manuscripts and Northern European paintings of the Virgin and Christ Child. It may also have been associated with the Holy Trinity, as in the three hares motif."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Easter Bunny:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Easter Bunny",
          "Symbols",
          "Eggs"
        ],
        "ctx": "The idea of an egg-giving hare went to the U.S. in the 18th century. Protestant German immigrants in the Pennsylvania Dutch area told their children about the \"Osterhase\" (sometimes spelled \"Oschter Haws\"). \"Hase\" means \"hare\", not rabbit, and in Northwest European folklore the \"Easter Bunny\" indeed is a hare. According to the legend, only good children received gifts of colored eggs in the nests that they made in their caps and bonnets before Easter."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Article One of the United States Constitution",
        "text": "This power, which is analogous to the bringing of criminal charges by a grand jury, has been used only rarely. The House has begun impeachment proceedings 62 times since 1789, and twenty federal officials have been formally impeached as a result, including: three presidents (Andrew Johnson, Bill Clinton, and Donald Trump), one Cabinet secretary (William W. Belknap), one senator (William Blount), one Supreme Court associate justice (Samuel Chase), and fourteen federal judges. Also, notably, impeachment proceedings compelled the resignation of President Richard Nixon."
      },
      {
        "title": "New Hampshire Supreme Court",
        "text": "The state constitution does not provide for the level of evidence required to determine whether such conduct is impeachable, or the number of votes required to convict, unlike the U.S. Constitution. The Senate conducted a three-week trial and ultimately acquitted Brock of all charges, finding the charges were not serious enough to warrant impeachment or that the evidence presented at trial was not persuasive. The Senate chose to require a two-thirds vote to convict, but let each senator to decide for themselves if the evidence rose to the level of finding Brock was \"guilty\" of the articles of impeachment. Fifteen senators were needed for a conviction, only seven voted to convict and fifteen voted to acquit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "To convict an accused, \"the concurrence of two thirds of the [senators] present\" for at least one article is required. If there is no single charge commanding a \"guilty\" vote from two-thirds of the senators present, the defendant is acquitted and no punishment is imposed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "Senate trial: A hearing for the complainant and the accused convenes within 48 hours of notification from deliberation, from which a trial is scheduled by the president of the Supreme Court no less than ten days after the hearing. The senators sit as judges, while witnesses are interrogated and cross-examined; all questions must be presented to the president of the Supreme Court, who, as prescribed in the Constitution, presides over the trial. The president of the Supreme Court allots time for debate and rebuttal, after which time the parties leave the chamber and the senators deliberate on the indictment. The President of the Supreme Court reads the summary of the grounds, the charges, the defense and the evidence to the Senate. The senators in turn issue their judgement. On conviction by a supermajority of two thirds, the president of the Supreme Court pronounces the sentence and the accused is immediately notified. If there is no supermajority for conviction, the accused is acquitted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "Almost all state constitutions set forth parallel impeachment procedures for state governments, allowing the state legislature to impeach officials of the state government. From 1789 through 2008, 14 governors have been impeached (including two who were impeached twice), of whom seven governors were convicted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment inquiry against Bill Clinton",
        "text": "An impeachment trial was held in the Senate between January 7 and February 12, 1999, concluding with an acquittal after both articles of impeachment failed to receive the requisite two-thirds threshold of \u201cguilty\u201d votes to convict."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "The House of Representatives has initiated impeachment proceedings 63 times since 1789."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "The process starts in the Senate of the Czech Republic which has the right to only impeach the president. After the approval by the Chamber of Deputies, the case is passed to the Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic, which has to decide the verdict against the president. If the Court finds the President guilty, then the President is removed from office and is permanently barred from being elected President of the Czech Republic again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harry E. Claiborne",
        "text": "On October 9, 1986, the United States Senate voted on whether to convict Claiborne on all four articles of impeachment. During a typical senate vote, senators answer \"aye\" or \"no,\" but during the conviction hearings senators were told to stand and say \"guilty,\" \"not guilty,\" or \"present.\" Senate President Pro Tempore Strom Thurmond put the question before each roll call: \"Senators, how say you: Is the respondent, Harry E. Claiborne, guilty or not guilty?\" Even John Stennis, who had lost a leg to cancer two years earlier, pulled himself to a standing position each time his name was called.-"
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "Senate plenary deliberation: The committee interrogates the accused or their counsel, from which they have a right to abstain, and also a probative session which guarantees the accused rights to contradiction, or \"audiatur et altera pars,\" allowing access to the courts and due process of law under Article 5 of the constitution. The accused has 15 days to present written arguments in defense and answer to the evidence gathered, and then the committee shall issue an opinion on the merits within ten days. The entire package is published for each senator before a single plenary session issues a call-out vote, which shall proceed to trial on a simple majority and close the case otherwise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert T. Bushnell",
        "text": "In 1941, Bushnell and state representative Benjamin Priest conducted the prosecution during the impeachment trial of Massachusetts Governor's Councilor Daniel H. Coakley. On October 2, 1941, the Massachusetts Senate found Coakley guilty on 10 of the 14 articles on impeachment. The Senate voted 28 to 10 to remove Coakley from office and 23 to 15 to bar him for life from holding a place of \"profit or honor or trust\" in the Commonwealth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in New Hampshire",
        "text": "The House may conduct its investigation in any manner it chooses. At the conclusion of its investigation the House votes on the \"articles of impeachment\" specifying the grounds on which the official's impeachment is based. The House determines the level of evidence required to impeach and the number of votes necessary to pass the \"articles of impeachment.\" Upon the passage of the articles of impeachment the Senate then acts as a court to conduct an impeachment trial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "On May 16, the Senate convened to vote on its verdict. A motion was made, and successfully adopted, to vote first on the eleventh article of impeachment. The eleventh article was widely viewed as being the article most likely to result in a vote to convict."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of law articles",
        "text": "Impeachment\u00a0\u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of impeachment investigations of United States federal judges",
        "text": "Impeachment is the procedure in which a legislative body, like the United States Congress, can punish or remove government officials from their positions. This is a way for the legislative branch to check and balance the executive and judicial branches and police itself as well. As of December 2019, there have been 66 federal judges or Supreme Court Justices investigated for impeachment. Usually, misbehavior is brought to the attention of a legislator, who may call upon the United States House Committee on the Judiciary to investigate. After a review of its findings, the Committee acts as a sheriff or prosecutor and may bring charges against the individual, in which case, the entire House takes on the role of jury and votes as to his guilt or innocence of \"high crimes and misdemeanors\". If a majority of the members of the United States House of Representatives vote to impeach, the impeachment is referred to the United States Senate for trial. A conviction requires a two-thirds vote in the Senate. The individual may or may not then stand trial in a criminal court as well, before a jury of his peers. Often the two procedures occur together. In the criminal trial he may be punished with fines and/or incarceration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "After the vote on the eleventh article resulted in acquittal, in hopes of persuading at least one senator who voted \"not guilty\" to vote \"guilty\" on the remaining articles, the Senate voted 32\u201321 to adjourn for 10 days before continuing voting on the other articles. During the hiatus, under Benjamin Butler's leadership, the House put through a resolution to investigate alleged \"improper or corrupt means used to influence the determination of the Senate\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "A main difference from U.S. proceedings however is that only one third of House members are required to approve the motion to impeach the president (as opposed to a simple majority of those present and voting in their U.S. counterpart). In the Senate, selected members of the House of Representatives act as the prosecutors and the senators act as judges with the Senate president presiding over the proceedings (the chief justice jointly presides with the Senate president if the president is on trial). Like the United States, to convict the official in question requires that a minimum of two thirds (i.e. 16 of 24 members) of all the members of the Senate vote in favor of conviction. If an impeachment attempt is unsuccessful or the official is acquitted, no new cases can be filed against that impeachable official for at least one full year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "Members of government, representatives of the national assembly (Stortinget) and Supreme Court judges can be impeached for criminal offenses tied to their duties and committed in office, according to the Constitution of 1814, \u00a7\u00a7 86 and 87. The procedural rules were modeled after the U.S. rules and are quite similar to them. Impeachment has been used eight times since 1814, last in 1927. Many argue that impeachment has fallen into desuetude. In cases of impeachment, an appointed court (Riksrett) takes effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of impeachments of heads of state",
        "text": "This is a list of formal impeachments, impeachment attempts or impeachment inquiries of presidents, or holders of other offices equivalent to a head of state."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of impeachments of heads of state",
        "text": "List of impeachments of heads of state\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "The trial resulted in an acquittal. The Senate voted identically on three of the eleven articles of impeachment, failing each time by a single vote to reach the supermajority needed to convict Johnson. On each of the three articles voted upon, thirty-five Republican senators voted to convict, while ten Republican senators and all nine Democratic senators voted to acquit. After the votes on three articles of impeachment, the Senate then adjourned the trial without voting on the remaining eight articles of impeachment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Bill Clinton",
        "text": "The managers presented their case over three days, from January 14 to 16, with discussion of the facts and background of the case; detailed cases for both articles of impeachment (including excerpts from videotaped grand jury testimony that Clinton had made the previous August); matters of interpretation and application of the laws governing perjury and obstruction of justice; and argument that the evidence and precedents justified removal of the President from office by virtue of \"willful, premeditated, deliberate corruption of the nation's system of justice through perjury and obstruction of justice\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Bill Clinton",
        "text": "On January 8, during a closed-door meeting, the Senate unanimously passed a resolution on rules and procedure for the trial. However, senators tabled the question of whether to call witnesses in the trial. The resolution allotted the House impeachment managers and the president's defense team, each, 24 hours, spread out over several days, to present their cases. It also allotted senators 16 hours to present questions to both the house impeachment managers and the president's defense team. After this, the senate would be able to hold a vote on whether to dismiss the case or to continue with it and call witnesses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Politics of the Philippines",
        "text": "Under the 1987 constitution, the House of Representatives has the power to impeach the president through a vote of one-third of its members, and the Senate decides upon the case. Impeachment proceedings against an individual can not occur more than once per year, which can be abused through the filing cases with weak impeachment claims to forestall the filing of stronger cases. President Joseph Estrada was the first Asian head of state to be tried following impeachment, although he was not ousted by the Senate. No president has ever been ousted through impeachment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "State legislatures can impeach state officials, including governors and judicial officers, in every state except Oregon. The court for the trial of impeachments may differ somewhat from the federal model\u2014in New York, for instance, the Assembly (lower house) impeaches, and the State Senate tries the case, but the members of the seven-judge New York State Court of Appeals (the state's highest, constitutional court) sit with the senators as jurors as well. Impeachment and removal of governors has happened occasionally throughout the history of the United States, usually for corruption charges. At least eleven U.S. state governors have faced an impeachment trial; a twelfth, Governor Lee Cruce of Oklahoma, escaped impeachment by one vote in 1912. Several others, including Missouri's Eric Greitens in 2018, have resigned rather than face impeachment, when events seemed to make it inevitable. The most recent impeachment of a state governor occurred on January 14, 2009, when the Illinois House of Representatives voted 117\u20131 to impeach Rod Blagojevich on corruption charges; he was subsequently removed from office and barred from holding future office by the Illinois Senate on January 29. He was the eighth U.S. state governor to be removed from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andrew Cuomo sexual harassment allegations",
        "text": "The first step in impeaching a sitting New York governor after the drafting of the articles of impeachment is a simple majority vote in the State Assembly to approve the articles. 76 out of the 150 members would need to vote to approve the articles. The trial in the State Senate would occur next. 62 out of the 63 members would act as jurors (Majority Leader Andrea Stewart-Cousins would have to recuse herself because she is in the line of succession as the Temporary President of the State Senate, which coincides with the position of Majority Leader). The 7 judges of the New York Court of Appeals, New York's highest court, would also be jurors in the trial. There would need to be a 2/3 majority of those 69 jurors to convict which would be 46."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment of Donald Trump",
        "text": "Impeachment begins in the House of Representatives, where articles of impeachment are drawn up. These articles are then voted on by House members. Each article is voted on separately and requires a simple majority to pass. Once an article has been passed in the House, the president has been impeached. The articles are then sent to the Senate for adjudication with an impeachment trial. After views have been laid out in the trial, the Senate moves to vote on conviction. Each article requires a two-thirds majority of Senators present to pass. If an article passes in the Senate, the president has been convicted and is removed from office. Once the president is convicted, a further vote may then be held which determines whether the (now-former) president is barred from holding future office; this vote passes with a simple majority in the Senate."
      },
      {
        "title": "First impeachment trial of Donald Trump",
        "text": "Sixteen hours of questions and answers began on January 29. Senators had to write questions on a sheet of paper addressing the defense, the prosecution or both, which Chief Justice Roberts read out loud for the relevant team to answer. The first day contained questions of both procedural and evidentiary topics, as well as questions Roberts declined to allow, such as one speculating about the identity of the whistleblower. Senator Rand Paul was seen and heard expressing his frustration at the ruling during a break."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "The Senate: The process in the Senate had been historically lacking in procedural guidance until 1992, when the Senate published in the Official Diary of the Union the step-by-step procedure of the Senate's impeachment process, which involves the formation of another special committee and closely resembles the lower house process, with time constraints imposed on the steps taken. The committee's opinion must be presented within 10 days, after which it is put to a call-out vote at the next session. The vote must proceed within a single session; the vote on President Rousseff took over 20 hours. A simple majority vote in the Senate begins formal deliberation on the complaint, immediately suspends the President from office, installs the Vice President as acting president, and begins a 20-day period for written defense as well as up to 180-days for the trial. In the event the trial proceeds slowly and exceeds 180 days, the Brazilian Constitution determines that the President is entitled to return and stay provisionally in office until the trial comes to its decision."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "In the United States' federal impeachment trials, if an incumbent officeholder is convicted by a vote of two-thirds of the Senate, they are automatically removed for office. The Senate can, after convicting, vote by a simple majority to bar the convicted individual from holding federal office in the future."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "At the federal level, the impeachment process is a three-step procedure.\n* First, the Congress investigates. This investigation typically begins in the House Judiciary Committee, but may begin elsewhere. For example, the Nixon impeachment inquiry began in the Senate Judiciary Committee. The facts that led to impeachment of Bill Clinton were first discovered in the course of an investigation by Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr. This step was skipped during the second impeachment of Donald Trump.\n* Second, the House of Representatives must pass, by a simple majority of those present and voting, articles of impeachment, which constitute the formal allegation or allegations. Upon passage, the defendant has been \"impeached\".\n* Third, the Senate tries the accused. In the case of the impeachment of a president, the chief justice of the United States presides over the proceedings. For the impeachment of any other official, the Constitution is silent on who shall preside, suggesting that this role falls to the Senate's usual presiding officer, the president of the Senate, who is also the vice president of the United States. Conviction in the Senate requires the concurrence of a two-thirds supermajority of those present. The result of conviction is removal from office and (optionally, in a separate vote) disqualification from holding any federal office in the future, which requires a concurrence of only a majority of senators present."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States House Judiciary Task Force on Judicial Impeachment",
        "text": "The trial process had lasted nearly a year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "In Europe and Latin America impeachment tends to be confined to ministerial officials as the unique nature of their positions may place ministers beyond the reach of the law to prosecute, or their misconduct is not codified into law as an offense except through the unique expectations of their high office. Both \"peers and commoners\" have been subject to the process however. From 1990 to 2020 there have been at least 272 impeachment charges against 132 different heads of state in 63 countries. Most democracies (with the notable exception of the United States) involve the courts (often a national constitutional court) in some way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "In December 2011, in what was described as \"blitzkrieg fashion\", 188 of the 285 members of the House of Representatives voted to transmit the 56-page Articles of Impeachment against Supreme Court chief justice Renato Corona."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "The proceedings take the form of a trial, with the Senate having the right to call witnesses and each side having the right to perform cross-examinations. The House members, who are given the collective title of managers during the trial, present the prosecution case, and the impeached official has the right to mount a defense with his or her own attorneys as well. Senators must also take an oath or affirmation that they will perform their duties honestly and with due diligence. After hearing the charges, the Senate usually deliberates in private. The Constitution requires a two-thirds supermajority to convict a person being impeached. The Senate enters judgment on its decision, whether that be to convict or acquit, and a copy of the judgment is filed with the Secretary of State."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States Congress",
        "text": "The House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before an impeached person can be removed from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in New Hampshire",
        "text": "Unlike at the Federal level where an impeachment conviction requires 2/3 of the United States Senators present to vote in the affirmative, the New Hampshire Constitution does not mention the burden of proof needed to impeach or convict an official, thus each house is left to decide the standard it will use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "Upon conviction, the officeholder has his or her political rights revoked for eight years, which bars them from running for any office during that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Constitution of New Jersey",
        "text": "A state officer may be impeached while in office or for two years after leaving office. The impeachment process is similar to that of the Federal level: an absolute majority in the lower house (the General Assembly) against the employee causes a trial to take place in the upper house (the State Senate) with the Chief Justice presiding. Unlike the Federal process, the oath necessary to participate in the impeachment sessions is specified and requires the senators to \"truly and impartially\" address the charge as a reminder that they are exercising more judicial functions. \u2154 of the votes, or 27 votes, are needed to convict, but the President of the Senate is excluded from the trial, so the required percentage is slightly higher than \u2154 of 40. The maximum penalty is removal from office with disqualification to hold further state office. However, the impeachment does not count towards the restriction on double jeopardy; after being convicted by the senate, a person could then be tried by the judiciary and punished further. If this crime was listed according to Article II, Section I, Item 7, the offender can be disenfranchised."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Warren Hastings",
        "text": "The trial did not sit continuously and the case dragged on for seven years. When the eventual verdict was given Hastings was overwhelmingly acquitted. It has been described as \"probably the British Isles' most famous, certainly the longest, political trial\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Bill Clinton",
        "text": "On February 12, the Senate emerged from its closed deliberations and voted on the articles of impeachment. A two-thirds vote, 67 votes, would have been necessary to convict on either charge and remove the President from office. The perjury charge was defeated with 45 votes for conviction and 55 against, and the obstruction of justice charge was defeated with 50 for conviction and 50 against. Senator Arlen Specter voted \"not proved\" for both charges, which was considered by Chief Justice Rehnquist to constitute a vote of \"not guilty\". All 45 Democrats in the Senate voted \"not guilty\" on both charges, as did five Republicans; they were joined by five additional Republicans in voting \"not guilty\" on the perjury charge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of law articles",
        "text": "Articles of impeachment\u00a0\u2013"
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "The most recent cases of impeachment were of Warren Hastings, Governor-General of India between 1773 and 1786 (impeached in 1788; found not guilty by the Lords in 1795), and Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville, First Lord of the Admiralty, in 1806 (also acquitted). The last attempted impeachment occurred in 1848, when David Urquhart accused Lord Palmerston of having signed a secret treaty with Imperial Russia and of receiving monies from the Tsar. Palmerston survived a vote in the Commons which meant that the Lords did not need to hear the case."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "In 2016, the Chamber of Deputies initiated an impeachment case against President Dilma Rousseff on allegations of budgetary mismanagement, a crime of responsibility under the Constitution. On 12 May 2016, after 20 hours of deliberation, the admissibility of the accusation was approved by the Senate with 55 votes in favor and 22 against (an absolute majority would have been sufficient for this step) and Vice President Michel Temer was notified to assume the duties of the President pending trial. On August 31, 61 senators voted in favor of impeachment and 20 voted against it, thus achieving the majority needed for Rousseff's definitive removal. A vote to disqualify her for five years was taken and failed (in spite of the Constitution not separating disqualification from removal) having less than two thirds in favor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia",
        "text": "The impeachment trial for Justice Loughry was set for November 12. However, the reconstituted Supreme Court of Appeals ruled on October 25 that the injunction blocking Justice Workman's trial also retroactively applied to Justice Davis' and Justice Loughry's trial. Delegate Andrew Byrd of Kanawha County, who is serving as one of the impeachment managers, is asking Gov. Jim Justice to call the House of Delegates into special session on November 11-13 to draft new impeachment articles against Loughry based solely on his federal criminal convictions (see below)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Upon conviction in the Senate, the official is automatically removed from office and may by a separate vote also be barred from holding future office. The Senate trial is not an actual criminal proceeding and more closely resembles a civil service termination appeal in terms of the contemplated deprivation. Therefore, the removed official may still be liable to criminal prosecution under a subsequent criminal proceeding. The president may not grant a pardon in the impeachment case, but may in any resulting federal criminal case (unless it is the president who is convicted and thus loses the pardon power). However, whether the president can self-pardon for criminal offenses is an open question, which has never been reviewed by a court."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "In the case of impeachment of the president, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presides over the trial. During the second impeachment trial of Donald Trump, some Senate Republicans argued that the Chief Justice was required to preside, even though Trump was no longer the President when the trial began. However, by a 55\u201345 vote, the Senate rejected a motion asserting that the trial was unconstitutional. The trial was presided over by President pro tempore Patrick Leahy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "To date, three officials had been successfully impeached by the House of Representatives, and two were not convicted. The latter, Chief Justice Renato C. Corona, was convicted on 29 May 2012, by the Senate under Article II of the Articles of Impeachment (for betraying public trust), with 20\u20133 votes from the Senator Judges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Senate rules call for an impeachment trial to begin at 1 pm on the day after articles of impeachment are delivered to the Senate, except for Sundays. There is no timeframe requirement for when the managers must actually deliver the articles of impeachment to the Senate. On the set date, senators are sworn in for the impeachment trial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "Chamber of Deputies: The Chamber issues a call-out vote to accept the opinion of the Committee, requiring either a supermajority of two thirds in favor of an impeachment opinion (or a supermajority of two thirds against a dismissal opinion) of the Committee, in order to authorize the Senate impeachment proceedings. The President is suspended (provisionally removed) from office as soon as the Senate receives and accepts from the Chamber of Deputies the impeachment charges and decides to proceed with a trial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Impeachment proceedings may be requested by a member of the House of Representatives, either by presenting a list of the charges under oath or by asking for referral to the appropriate committee. The impeachment process may be requested by non-members. For example, when the Judicial Conference of the United States suggests a federal judge be impeached, a charge of actions constituting grounds for impeachment may come from a special prosecutor, the president, or state or territorial legislature, grand jury, or by petition. An impeachment proceeding formally begins with a resolution adopted by the full House of Representatives, which typically includes a referral to a House committee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "National legislations differ regarding both the consequences and definition of impeachment, but the intent is nearly always to expeditiously vacate the office. In most nations the process begins in the lower house of a bicameral assembly who bring charges of misconduct, then the upper house administers a trial and sentencing. Most commonly, an official is considered impeached after the house votes to accept the charges, and impeachment itself does not remove the official from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judicial Conference of the United States",
        "text": "On very rare occasions, the Conference has authorized investigations of Federal Judges accused of criminal malfeasance. Those deemed guilty have been referred to the House Judiciary committee for impeachment. This has happened three times during the 21st century."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Where the Committee finds grounds for impeachment, it will set forth specific allegations of misconduct in one or more articles of impeachment. The Impeachment Resolution, or Articles of Impeachment, are then reported to the full House with the committee's recommendations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "a simple majority is required to impeach."
      },
      {
        "title": "Niel Tupas Jr.",
        "text": "He has been assigned to be lead prosecutor for the impeachment of Supreme Court Chief Justice Renato Corona. Trial started on January 16, 2012, and ended May 29, 2012. Despite his poor performance as lead prosecutor and constant fishing of evidence, an overwhelming majority of the senators voting 20\u20133, impeaching the former Chief Justice for when he was found guilty of \"committing culpable violation of the Constitution and betraying the public trust.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of impeachment investigations of United States federal judges",
        "text": "An ad hoc Senate committee heard evidence in September and October 2010; a vote by the full Senate took place on December 8, 2010. Article 1 was passed unanimously, Articles 2 was passed by a vote of 69\u201327, Article 3 was passed by a vote of 88\u20138, and Article 4 was passed by a vote of 90\u20136. An order to forever disqualify the former judge from holding any federal office was passed by a vote of 94\u20132."
      },
      {
        "title": "First impeachment trial of Donald Trump",
        "text": "The prosecution made its opening arguments on January 22\u201324, and the defense made its arguments on January 25\u201328. This was followed by a period of questions, answers, and debate on January 29\u201331. On January 31, a majority of 51 senators (all Republicans) voted against allowing subpoenas to call witnesses or documents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "The U.S. House of Representatives has impeached an official 21 times since 1789: four times for presidents, 15 times for federal judges, once for a Cabinet secretary, and once for a senator. Of the 21, the Senate voted to remove 8 (all federal judges) from office. The four impeachments of presidents were: Andrew Johnson in 1868, Bill Clinton in 1998, and Donald Trump twice: first in 2019, and a second time in 2021. All four impeachments were followed by acquittal in the Senate. An impeachment process was also commenced against Richard Nixon, but he resigned in 1974 to avoid likely removal from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "The House has approved articles of impeachment 21 times for 20 federal officers. Of these:\n* Fifteen were federal judges: thirteen district court judges, one court of appeals judge (who also sat on the Commerce Court), and one associate justice of the Supreme Court\n* Three were sitting presidents: Andrew Johnson, Bill Clinton, and Donald Trump (impeached twice).\n* One was a Cabinet secretary\n* One was a U.S. Senator."
      },
      {
        "title": "Daniel H. Coakley",
        "text": "Coakley's impeachment trial was the first in Massachusetts since 1821. Attorney General Robert T. Bushnell and state representative Benjamin Priest conducted the prosecution. Senator Joseph B. Harrington and attorney William H. Lewis served as defense counsel. The trial lasted six weeks. On October 2, 1941, the Massachusetts Senate found Coakley guilty on 10 of the 14 articles on impeachment. The Senate voted 28 to 10 to remove Coakley from office and 23 to 15 to bar him for life from holding a place of \"profit or honor or trust\" in the Commonwealth."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of impeachment investigations of United States federal judges",
        "text": "On 16 July, the United States Senate began Archbald's trial. The Senate convicted him of five of the thirteen Articles on 13 January 1913. The Senate then voted to remove him from office and disqualify him from further office by a vote of 39 to 35."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Of the 21 impeachments by the House, eight defendants were convicted and removed from office, four cases did not come to trial because the individuals had left office and the Senate did not pursue the case, and nine ended in acquittal. To date, every convicted official was a federal judge. Of the eight to have been convicted and removed, three were disqualified from ever holding federal office again by the Senate. One of the remaining five is former congressman Alcee Hastings (D-Florida), who was convicted and removed from office as a federal judge in 1989, but was not barred from holding federal office, only to be elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1992, a seat he held until his death on April 6, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in Russia",
        "text": "The impeachment procedure was carried out three times. All three times were against President Boris Yeltsin, and all three attempts failed."
      },
      {
        "title": "January 6 commission",
        "text": "A few days after the January 6 attack on the Capitol, the US House of Representatives filed one article of impeachment against Donald Trump, \"incitement of insurrection\". At the Senate impeachment trial on February 13, Trump was acquitted, the required two-thirds majority not being met."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abuse of power",
        "text": "In the United States, abuse of power has been cited in the impeachment of at least five federal officials. Two of these (Judge George English and President Richard Nixon) resigned before their trial in the Senate could take place, and two others were acquitted by the Senate. The two Senate impeachment trials of President Donald Trump concluded with the president being found not guilty both times. At the state level, Governor Rod Blagojevich of Illinois was impeached and unanimously removed from office by the Illinois Senate in 2009 for offenses including abuse of power."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment trial of Donald Trump",
        "text": "Law professor Ronald Krotoszynski wrote that the Senate could speed up impeachment proceedings (completing the process in a few days, rather than a few weeks) through a process akin to civil summary judgment. This would be permissible under the Constitution, which specifies that the Senate must \"try\" articles of impeachment and vote to convict (remove) by a two-thirds majority, but allows the Senate to set its own trial rules or procedures, as reaffirmed by the U.S. Supreme Court in \"Nixon v. United States\" (1993)."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States Congress",
        "text": "The Constitution concentrates removal powers in the Congress by empowering and obligating the House of Representatives to impeach both executive and judicial officials for \"Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors\". Impeachment is a \"formal accusation\" of unlawful activity by a civil officer or government official. The Senate is constitutionally empowered and obligated to try all impeachments. A simple majority in the House is required to impeach an official; however, a two-thirds majority in the Senate is required for conviction. A convicted official is automatically removed from office; in addition, the Senate may stipulate that the defendant be banned from holding office in the future. Impeachment proceedings may not inflict more than this; however, a convicted party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law. In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. Another resigned before the Senate could complete the trial. Only three presidents have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868, Bill Clinton in 1999, Donald Trump in 2019 and 2021. The trials of Johnson, Clinton, and the 2019 trial of Trump all ended in acquittal; in Johnson's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two-thirds majority required for conviction. In 1974, Richard Nixon resigned from office after impeachment proceedings in the House Judiciary Committee indicated he would eventually be removed from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oklahoma Senate",
        "text": "Impeachment charges may only be brought against the governor, other statewide elected state officials and justices of the Oklahoma Supreme Court for willful neglect of duty, corruption in office, habitual drunkenness, incompetency, or any offense involving moral turpitude committed while in office. Impeached officials are immediately suspended in discharging their duties. Should the impeachment fail, the official returns to their duties. If the impeachment is successful and the defendant found guilty, the official is removed from office.\n:\u2020Elected in a special election"
      },
      {
        "title": "Article Two of the United States Constitution",
        "text": "While no other punishments may be inflicted pursuant to the impeachment proceeding, the convicted party remains liable to trial and punishment in the courts for civil and criminal charges."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of impeachment investigations of United States federal judges",
        "text": "Just prior to the trial of Harry Claiborne (see below), the Senate changed the rules for how to conduct impeachment trials. Instead of having the Senate sit for the entire proceeding, which would consume months of time, a special committee would conduct a trial and report its findings to the full Senate along with final summations by House Managers and the designated defense attorney. This has been challenged in court by several removed judges in the 1980s, and the Supreme court has found this non-justicable."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States House Judiciary Task Force on Judicial Impeachment",
        "text": "Trials take a long time to organize, and after an organizational meeting on April 13, 2010, The first sessions of the trial didn't begin until August 2. The Managers and defense attorney Jonathan Turley, had to what was to all a typical trial. it lasted until September 21. A report finding Porteous provisionally guilty was sent to the Senate floor on December 1, and Turley and Schiff gave their closing statements to the full Senate on December 7 and the judge was removed from office the following day by a near-unanimous vote."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Bill Clinton",
        "text": "On February 9, 1999 after voting against a public deliberation on the verdict, the Senate began closed-door deliberations instead. On February 12, 1999, the Senate emerged from its closed deliberations and voted on the articles of impeachment. A two-thirds vote, equal to 67 votes if all Senators voted, would have been necessary to convict on either charge and remove the President from office. The perjury charge was defeated with 45 votes for conviction and 55 against, and the obstruction of justice charge was defeated with 50 for conviction and 50 against. Senator Arlen Specter voted \"not proved\" for both charges, which was considered by Chief Justice Rehnquist to constitute a vote of \"not guilty\". All 45 Democrats in the Senate voted \"not guilty\" on both charges, as did five Republicans; they were joined by five additional Republicans in voting \"not guilty\" on the perjury charge."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States Congress in relation to the president and Supreme Court",
        "text": "Impeachment proceedings may not inflict more than this; however, the party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law. In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. (Another resigned before the Senate could complete the trial). Only three Presidents of the United States have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868, Bill Clinton in 1999, and Donald Trump in 2019 and 2021. All trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two-thirds majority required for conviction. In 1974, Richard Nixon resigned from office after impeachment proceedings in the House Judiciary Committee indicated he would eventually be removed from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Government of Oklahoma",
        "text": "Impeachment charges may only be brought against the governor and other statewide officials (including justices) for willful neglect of duty, corruption in office, habitual drunkenness, incompetency, or any offense involving moral turpitude committed while in office. If impeached, officials are immediately suspended in discharging their duties. Should the impeachment fails, the officer in question returns to their duties. However, if the impeachment is successful and the defendant found guilty, the person is removed from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judiciary of Oklahoma",
        "text": "Impeachment charges may only be brought against the Governor and all other statewide elected state officials (including the Oklahoma Supreme Court Justices) for willful neglect of duty, corruption in office, habitual drunkenness, incompetency, or any offense involving moral turpitude committed while in office. An impeached official is suspended from duty until the conclusion of the impeachment process. Should the impeachment fail, the officer in question returns to his duties. However, if the impeachment is successful and the defendant found guilty, he is removed from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "The hearing resembles an ordinary trial: both sides may call witnesses and present evidence. At the end of the hearing the lords vote on the verdict, which is decided by a simple majority, one charge at a time. Upon being called, a peer must rise and declare \"guilty, upon my honour\" or \"not guilty, upon my honour\". After voting on all of the articles has taken place, and if the Lords find the defendant guilty, the Commons may move for judgment; the Lords may not declare the punishment until the Commons have so moved. The Lords may then decide whatever punishment they find fit, within the law. A royal pardon cannot excuse the defendant from trial, but a pardon may reprieve a convicted defendant. However, a pardon cannot override a decision to remove the defendant from the public office they hold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in New Hampshire",
        "text": "For the purposes of judging the articles of impeachment, the Senate is a court and has the authority to \"issue summons, or compulsory process, for convening witnesses before them.\" Prior to the impeachment trial, the members of the senate are required to be \"sworn truly and impartially to try and determine the charge in question, according to evidence.\" The standard of the evidence required to convict nor a percentage of the members voting is stated in the Constitution nor in the Senate Rules."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "Because impeachment involves a departure from the normal constitutional procedures by which individuals achieve high office (election, ratification, or appointment) and because it generally requires a supermajority, they are usually reserved for those deemed to have committed serious abuses of their office. In the United States, for example, impeachment at the federal level is limited to those who may have committed \"Treason, Bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors\"\u2014the latter phrase referring to offenses against the government or the constitution, grave abuses of power, violations of the public trust, or other political crimes, even if not indictable criminal offenses. Under the United States Constitution, the House of Representatives has the sole power of impeachments while the Senate has the sole power to try impeachments (\"i.e.\", to acquit or convict); the validity of an impeachment trial is a political question that is nonjusticiable (\"i.e.\"., is not reviewable by the courts). In the United States, impeachment is a remedial rather than penal process, intended to \"effectively 'maintain constitutional government' by removing individuals unfit for office\"; persons subject to impeachment and removal remain \"liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment of Donald Trump",
        "text": "The House impeachment managers formally triggered the start of the impeachment trial on January\u00a025 by delivering to the Senate the charge against Trump. The nine managers walked into the Senate chamber led by the lead impeachment manager, Representative Jamie Raskin, who read the article of impeachment. The trial in the Senate was scheduled to start on February\u00a09. The trial was the first of its kind for a departed U.S. president, with Andrew Johnson, Bill Clinton, and Trump having each been the incumbent in prior impeachment trials; as a result, Chief Justice John Roberts chose not to preside as he had done for Trump's first impeachment trial (the president pro tempore of the Senate, Vermont senator Patrick Leahy, presided instead), and arguments favoring the conviction of Trump cited the Senate's 1876 conviction of Ulysses S. Grant's Secretary of War William W. Belknap, who was impeached and convicted after leaving office. At the trial, 57 senators voted \"guilty\", which was less than the two-thirds majority needed (67) to convict Trump, and 43 senators voted \"not guilty\", resulting in Trump being acquitted of the charges on February 13, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Article One of the United States Constitution",
        "text": "Clause Six grants to the Senate the sole power to try impeachments and spells out the basic procedures for impeachment trials. The Supreme Court has interpreted this clause to mean that the Senate has exclusive and unreviewable authority to determine what constitutes an adequate impeachment trial. Of the nineteen federal officials formally impeached by the House of Representatives, four resigned (so that proceedings were dismissed), seven were acquitted, and eight (all judges) were convicted by the Senate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Most impeachments have concerned alleged crimes committed while in office, though there is no requirement for the misconduct to be an indictable crime. There have been a few cases in which officials have been impeached and subsequently convicted for crimes committed prior to taking office. There have also been cases where a former official was tried after leaving office. The impeached official may continue to serve their term until a trial yields a judgement that directs their removal from office or until they leave office through some other means. Federally, a two-thirds majority of the senators present at the trial is required for conviction under ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Renato Corona",
        "text": "While the defense submitted its memorandum regarding Article II, the prosecution failed to submit theirs before the trial began; Presiding Officer Juan Ponce Enrile ordered the prosecution to pass it before the trial starts on the next day. Senator Miriam Defensor Santiago, who has been absent at the trial up to this point, asked both the prosecution and the defense how many witness will they present for the entire trial. When Tupas could not give an answer, Santiago scolded the prosecution, saying that they should \"not waste the time of this court.\" Cuevas stated that they have 15 witnesses and over 20 documents to present."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Dilma Rousseff",
        "text": "The proceedings resumed on 30 August with final arguments of the prosecution and defense, followed by speeches from the senatorsthe speeches lasted twelve hours, ending about 02:30am on the 31st."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment process against Richard Nixon",
        "text": "The House Judiciary Committee on May 9, 1974, began formal hearings on the impeachment of President Nixon. The initial 20 minutes of that day's proceedings were broadcast on the major U.S. television networks, after which the committee met for 10 weeks in closed sessions to receive evidence, including the confidential report from the Watergate grand jury, and to hear witnesses out of the public eye. During an interview several days later with columnist James J. Kilpatrick, President Nixon stated unequivocally that he would not resign. Doing so, he said, \"knowing that I am not guilty of any offense under the Constitution that is called an impeachable offense,\" would set a bad precedent for future presidents."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of impeachment investigations of United States federal officials",
        "text": "The resolution was referred to the House Judiciary committee, who held hearings on the matter on May 23 and June 22, 2016. The House leadership decided not to proceed any further which led to a discharge petition, which was supposed to be acted upon in September but was delayed until after the election. On December 6, 2016, the House voted to send the question back to the Judiciary Committee, after which it was too late to do anything about it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Article One of the United States Constitution",
        "text": "The Constitution does not specify how impeachment proceedings are to be initiated. Until the early 20th century, a House member could rise and propose an impeachment, which would then be assigned to a committee for investigation upon a formal resolution vote of the judicial committee. Presently, it is the House Judiciary Committee that initiates the process and then, after investigating the allegations, prepares recommendations for the whole House's consideration. If the House votes to adopt an impeachment resolution, the Chairman of the Judiciary Committee recommends a slate of \"managers,\" whom the House subsequently approves by resolution. These representatives subsequently become the prosecution team in the impeachment trial in the Senate (see Section 3, Clause 6 below)."
      },
      {
        "title": "New York Court for the Trial of Impeachments",
        "text": "The Court for the Trial of Impeachments, in the newspapers often referred to as the Impeachment Court or sometimes as the High Court of Impeachment, still exists. Since 1847, it consists of the Lieutenant Governor, the Chief Judge of the New York Court of Appeals, the associate judges of the Court of Appeals, and the members of the State Senate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Bill Clinton",
        "text": "On January 25, Senator Robert Byrd (a Democrat) moved for dismissals of both articles of impeachment. This motion would only require a majority vote to pass. That day, senators heard arguments from the managers against dismissal, and from the president's defense team in support of dismissal, before then deliberating behind closed-doors."
      },
      {
        "title": "New York Court for the Trial of Impeachments",
        "text": "Governor William Sulzer (Dem.), convicted - Chief Judge Edgar M. Cullen (Dem.) presided and voted against conviction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Conviction does not extend to further punishment, for example, loss of pension. After conviction by the Senate, \"the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law\" in the regular federal or state courts. However, the Former Presidents Act of 1958, which provides a pension and other benefits, does not extend to presidents who were removed from office following an impeachment conviction. Because of an amendment to that law in 2013, a former president who has been removed from office due to impeachment and conviction is still guaranteed lifetime Secret Service protection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in New Hampshire",
        "text": "The article also requires that every officer impeached \"shall be served with an attested copy of the impeachment, and order of the senate thereon with such citation as the senate may direct, setting forth the time and place of their sitting to try the impeachment.\" This service is required to be made by \"the sheriff, or such other sworn officer as the senate may appoint, at least fourteen days previous to the time of trial.\" After the \"citation being duly served and returned\" the Senate may proceed in the hearing of the impeachment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Bill Clinton",
        "text": "Impeachment trial of Bill Clinton\n--Background.\n----Planning for the trial.\n--Officers of the trial.\n----Presiding officer.\n----House managers.\n--Pretrial.\n--Testimony and deliberations.\n----Impeachment managers' presentation (January 14\u201316).\n----Defense's presentation (January 19\u201321).\n----Questioning by members of the Senate (January 22\u201323).\n----House impeachment managers' interview of Monica Lewinsky (January 24).\n----Debate and votes on motion to dismiss and motion to call witnesses (January 25\u201327).\n----Depositions.\n------Votes on procedures for witnesses (January 28).\n------Taping of closed-door depositions (February 1\u20133).\n------Motions on presentation of evidence (February 4).\n------Showing of excerpts from closed-door depositions (February 6).\n----Closing arguments (February 8).\n----Failed motion for unanimous consent to investigate possible perjury by Sidney Blumenthal (February 9).\n----Closed door deliberations (February 9\u201312).\n--Verdict.\n--Public opinion.\n--Subsequent events.\n----Contempt of court citation.\n----Political ramifications.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "2020s in United States political history",
        "text": "Three House committees began their impeachment inquiry on September 24, 2019, and in December the House Judiciary Committee heard hearings leading to Trump's impeachment on two counts on December 18, 2019. The impeachment trial of Donald Trump took up most of the month of January and early February 2020. On February 5, 2020, the Senate voted to acquit Trump of all charges. All 45 Democrats and the two independents voted for conviction; all 52 Republican Senators voted for acquittal, except for Mitt Romney (R-UT) who voted for conviction on the charge of abuse of power."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of impeachment investigations of United States federal judges",
        "text": "The case was never heard of again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Bill Clinton",
        "text": "January 22 and 23 were devoted to questions from members of the Senate to the House managers and Clinton's defense counsel. Under the rules, all questions (over 150) were to be written down and given to Rehnquist to read to the party being questioned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "In Italy, according to Article 90 of the Constitution, the President of Italy can be impeached through a majority vote of the Parliament in joint session for high treason and for attempting to overthrow the Constitution. If impeached, the president of the Republic is then tried by the Constitutional Court integrated with sixteen citizens older than forty chosen by lot from a list compiled by the Parliament every nine years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Conviction immediately removes the defendant from office. Following the vote on conviction, the Senate may by a separate vote also bar the individual from holding future federal office, elected or appointed. As the threshold for disqualification is not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, the Senate has taken the position that disqualification votes only require a simple majority rather than a two-thirds supermajority. The Senate has used disqualification sparingly, as only three individuals have been disqualified from holding future office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Constitution of New Hampshire",
        "text": "Articles 38\u201340 describe how state officers may be impeached and be punished for bribery, corruption, malpractice or maladministration, in office. The House of Representatives is given the authority to impeach state officers, while the Senate hears, tries, and determines all impeachments made by the House. The articles also state the rules for the Senate's impeachment hearings and provide for the Chief Justice of the New Hampshire Supreme Court to preside over the impeachment hearings involving the Governor, but not have a vote."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harry E. Claiborne",
        "text": "The vote on the third article of impeachment held particular significance for the history of impeachment trials. Article 3 essentially stated that Claiborne's conviction by a jury trial in the district court proved that he was guilty of \"misbehavior\" and \"high crimes.\" With a vote of 46 to 17 (35 voted \"present\"), Article 3 was the only article not to achieve the required two-thirds majority for conviction. In voting down this article, senators expressed concern that adoption might set a troublesome precedent: by declaring that a court conviction was automatic grounds for conviction in an impeachment trial, the reverse situation \u2013 an acquittal in a court trial \u2013 might require an automatic acquittal in an impeachment trial."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How often do impeachment proceedings lead to guilty verdicts for heads of state?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "While I can't find any statistics about how often impeachments lead to guilty verdicts on the whole, I did find that in Latin America (which includes almost 40% of all presidential systems in the world) 10 presidents from 6 countries were removed from office between 1978 and 2019. Republic of Lithuania President Rolandas Paksas was also removed from office via impeached on April 6, 2004, and was the first European head of state to ever be impeached.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I couldn't find any statistics on head of state impeachments but Lithuania's President Rolandas Paksas was removed from office and was the first European head of state to be impeached. In addition, the Philippines had three officials successfully impeached, South Korea has had two presidents impeached, and 14 U.S. governors have been impeached from 1789 to 2008."
    ],
    "topic": "Impeachment",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Impeachment:42",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Impeachment",
          "In various jurisdictions",
          "Lithuania"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the Republic of Lithuania, the president may be impeached by a three-fifths majority in the Seimas. President Rolandas Paksas was removed from office by impeachment on 6 April 2004 after the Constitutional Court of Lithuania found him guilty of having violated his oath and the constitution. He was the first European head of state to have been impeached."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Impeachment:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Impeachment"
        ],
        "ctx": "In Latin America, which includes almost 40% of the world's presidential systems, ten presidents from six countries were removed from office by their national legislatures via impeachments or declarations of incapacity between 1978 and 2019."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Impeachment:42",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Impeachment",
          "In various jurisdictions",
          "Lithuania"
        ],
        "ctx": "In the Republic of Lithuania, the president may be impeached by a three-fifths majority in the Seimas. President Rolandas Paksas was removed from office by impeachment on 6 April 2004 after the Constitutional Court of Lithuania found him guilty of having violated his oath and the constitution. He was the first European head of state to have been impeached."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Impeachment:50",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Impeachment",
          "In various jurisdictions",
          "Philippines",
          "Impeachment proceedings and attempts"
        ],
        "ctx": "To date, three officials had been successfully impeached by the House of Representatives, and two were not convicted. The latter, Chief Justice Renato C. Corona, was convicted on 29 May 2012, by the Senate under Article II of the Articles of Impeachment (for betraying public trust), with 20\u20133 votes from the Senator Judges."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Impeachment:57",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Impeachment",
          "In various jurisdictions",
          "South Korea"
        ],
        "ctx": "Two presidents have been impeached since the establishing of the Republic of Korea in 1948. Roh Moo-hyun in 2004 was impeached by the National Assembly but was overturned by the Constitutional Court. Park Geun-hye in 2016 was impeached by the National Assembly, and the impeachment was confirmed by the Constitutional Court on March 10, 2017."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Impeachment:69",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Impeachment",
          "In various jurisdictions",
          "United States"
        ],
        "ctx": "Almost all state constitutions set forth parallel impeachment procedures for state governments, allowing the state legislature to impeach officials of the state government. From 1789 through 2008, 14 governors have been impeached (including two who were impeached twice), of whom seven governors were convicted."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "In the Republic of Lithuania, the president may be impeached by a three-fifths majority in the Seimas. President Rolandas Paksas was removed from office by impeachment on 6 April 2004 after the Constitutional Court of Lithuania found him guilty of having violated his oath and the constitution. He was the first European head of state to have been impeached."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rolandas Paksas",
        "text": "Paksas expressed an intent to run in the June presidential election that was to replace him. In response, on 4 May the Seimas passed a constitutional amendment barring impeached persons from standing for the presidency for five years following impeachment. Following an appeal by Paksas supporters, the Constitutional Court of Lithuania ruled the amendment unconstitutional, holding instead that persons who had violated the constitution or failed to uphold their oaths of office could never again hold public offices that required an oath."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rolandas Paksas",
        "text": "In September 2018 Paksas suspended his membership in the Order and Justice party. But he will not be allowed to run for president or become the speaker of the Parliament citing that he does not want to be associated with party decisions anymore as his reason for leaving."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rolandas Paksas",
        "text": "In 2002, Paksas founded the Liberal Democratic Party, and ran for the presidency, winning the run-off against incumbent Valdas Adamkus in January 2003. It emerged that he had granted citizenship to a major campaign donor, leading to his impeachment and removal from office in April 2004. He was the first European head of state to have been impeached. Barred from the Seimas, Paksas was elected to the European Parliament in 2009, while leading his party, now called Order and Justice (TT). His lifetime ban from the parliament was ruled to be disproportionate measure by the European Court of Human Rights in 2011. In 2018 the amendment which would allow for Paksas to run for parliamentary seat is to be submitted. But he will not be allowed to run for president or become the speaker of the Parliament. He is considered to be the worst President of Lithuania in modern history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rolandas Paksas",
        "text": "On 26 February 2003 his term as a President began. During his term, concerns arose that he had ties to the Russian mafia. Yuri Borisov, president of the aviation company Avia Baltika, had donated $400,000 to his campaign, and was given Lithuanian citizenship by Paksas' decree. This decree was later ruled to be unconstitutional by Constitutional Court of Lithuania. Paksas' connections were investigated by the State Security Department of Lithuania. In early 2004, the Seimas started impeachment proceedings against him. On 31 March 2004 the Constitutional Court of Lithuania found him guilty of violating the constitution and his oath of office. On 6 April 2004, the Parliament (Seimas) voted on three charges: that he had leaked classified information about his investigation to Borisov; that he had improperly restored Borisov's citizenship; and that he had interfered in a privatization transaction. The vote passed, effectively removing Paksas from the presidency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Politics of Lithuania",
        "text": "Former President Rolandas Paksas, who had defeated Adamkus in 2003, was impeached in April 2004 for leaking classified information."
      },
      {
        "title": "Order and Justice",
        "text": "Paksas alleged that the parliamentary commission set up to investigate the claims was set up for political reasons, and refused to cooperate. In response, the four other parties (Social Democratic Party of Lithuania, New Union (Social Liberals), Liberal and Centre Union and Homeland Union) initiated impeachment proceedings. In December, the Constitutional Court ruled that granting citizenship to Borisovas was illegal and impeachable. Despite this, Paksas remained popular with the public. On 6 April 2004, the Seimas voted to impeach him and remove him from office on three counts with 86, 86, and 89 MPs voting to impeach, with 85 required. Nonetheless, after his impeachment, he was tried in the criminal courts, and acquitted on all charges. The Constitutional Court found that Paksas shall be precluded for life from being elected as President, as a member of the Seimas and some other high ranking official positions. Paksas complained against the lifetime duration of the impeachment and filed a complaint with the European Court of Human Rights (Strasbourg). In January 2011 the Court rendered his judgement in favor of Paksas. In spite of the Conventual obligation to fulfill Judgements of the Court and in spite of enforcement proceedings by the Council of Europe the Judgement of the European Court of Human Rights has not been fulfilled. In 2012 Paksas complained to the United Nations Human Rights Committee. In March 2014 the Committee found that the lifelong disqualification from political office violates the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. As of 2018 the violations of Human Rights as found by the European Court of Human Rights and the UN Committee on Human Rights still persist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elections in Lithuania",
        "text": "Rolandas Paksas was subsequently impeached and removed from office, prompting early election in 2004. Valdas Adamkus became the first President of Lithuania to be elected for a second term, leading the first round with 30.2% of the vote and defeating Kazimiera Prunskien\u0117 in the second round with 51.8%."
      },
      {
        "title": "2004 Lithuanian presidential election",
        "text": "Paksas was impeached for allegedly leaking classified material, and granting citizenship to Russian businessman Jurij Borisov in exchange for financial support. The Constitutional Court of Lithuania ruled that Paksas could not seek re-election as president. In accordance with the constitution, the speaker of parliament, Art\u016bras Paulauskas, became acting president pending new elections."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rolandas Paksas",
        "text": "In June 1999, he became Prime Minister, heading the ninth Government after independence. Five months later, he resigned because of a disagreement over the sale of Ma\u017eeiki\u0173 Nafta, a major Lithuanian oil refining company, to a US oil company. He then served as Special Assignments envoy to Adamkus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Order and Justice",
        "text": "Another presidential election was scheduled to elect a replacement for Paksas. The LDP nominated Paksas, giving the people a referendum on his impeachment. Whilst his nomination was initially accepted, it was then thrown out by the Constitutional Court, leaving the LDP without a nominee in the election. In the first election to the European Parliament, the LDP won 6.8% of the vote, and one seat. The member of the European Parliament from the Lithuanian Liberal Democratic party was Rolandas Pavilionis, a former rector of Vilnius University. He joined the Union for Europe of the Nations."
      },
      {
        "title": "2004 Lithuanian parliamentary election",
        "text": "In May 2004, the Constitutional Court of Lithuania decided that a person removed from office through impeachement for breaching the oath of office can not stand in parliamentary or presidential elections, or serve on the government, disqualifying Paksas from the elections.\n* Ram\u016bnas Karbauskis (VNDPS)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Constitutional Court of Lithuania",
        "text": "On March 31, 2004, it issued a ruling acknowledging the breach of the oath of office by the President Rolandas Paksas. He was removed from office by Seimas following the impeachment on April 6, 2004; this has been the first successful case of impeachment of the head of state in the history of Europe. The ruling interpreted the Constitution as precluding a person, who was pleaded guilty for the breach of oath, from assuming any future position in public service, which requires taking an oath."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rolandas Paksas",
        "text": "The District Court of Vilnius found Paksas not guilty of disclosing classified information (state secrets). This decision was reversed in 2005 by the Court of Appeals of the Republic of Lithuania, on the basis that the District Court had not linked all the supporting evidence. The Appeals Court, while finding Paksas guilty of a criminal act, did not impose a penalty, stating that Paksas's departure from public service meant that he no longer posed a threat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rolandas Paksas",
        "text": "Rolandas Paksas\n--Early life, education and non-political career.\n--Political career.\n----Mayor of Vilnius and Prime Minister.\n----President of Lithuania.\n--Post-impeachment legal proceedings.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rolandas Paksas",
        "text": "In 2011, the European Court of Human Rights found the lifetime prohibition for Paksas to be elected to the parliament to be disproportionate and thus in violation of the European Convention on Human Rights."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shirani Bandaranayake",
        "text": "Due to an error on the part of the government, instead of an address of parliament to the president empowering him to remove the Chief Justice, Parliament on 11 January 2013, voted on a motion of impeachment, that sought to set up a Parliamentary Select Committee to investigate 14 charges that had been brought against her, the problem was, that motion had already been voted upon on 6 November 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "2012 Lithuanian parliamentary election",
        "text": "Order and Justice was led by another controversial politician, Rolandas Paksas. Paksas, who was elected the President of Lithuania in 2003 and impeached in 2004. The lifetime ban preventing Paksas from running for office was deemed in violation of European Convention on Human Rights in 2011, creating the prospect of him heading the electoral list of Order and Justice. Nevertheless, the constitutional court ruled that amendments to the constitution were required to implement the decision, and Paksas was prevented from running. Order and Justice campaigned on an anti-corruption platform, also promising to reduce inequality and reduce unemployment by distributing state land to farmers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Visvaldas Ma\u017eonas",
        "text": "Before plunging into politics, Ma\u017eonas held various jobs as a policeman, driver, security guard, and construction worker. He entered the political scene after the impeachment of Rolandas Paksas, former President of Lithuania. During the impeachment, Ma\u017eonas supported Paksas, attended various protest meetings, and vowed to \"maintain order\". During one incident, when he attempted to \"keep order\", Ma\u017eonas hit a high school student, who opposed Paksas. The event attracted media attention and Ma\u017eonas faced criminal charges (eventually reduced to misdemeanor). Paksas did not immediately distance himself from Ma\u017eonas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in South Africa",
        "text": "\"1997-date\" : the president may remove a judge from office if (a) the Judicial Service Commission finds that the judge \"suffers from an incapacity, is grossly incompetent or is guilty of gross misconduct\", and (b) the National Assembly resolves, by a two-thirds majority, that the judge be removed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in South Africa",
        "text": "\"1961-1980\" : the Senate and House of Assembly could remove the state president from office for \"misconduct or inability to perform efficiently the duties of his office\". The procedure required (a) at least thirty members of the House to petition the Speaker to appoint a joint committee; (b) the House to resolve to appoint the committee; (c) the Senate to concur with the resolution, (d) the committee to submit a report; and (e) each House to resolve, in the same session of parliament, to remove the state president from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Art\u016bras Paulauskas",
        "text": "Following the impeachment of President Rolandas Paksas on 6 April 2004, Paulauskas served as acting President of Lithuania until early elections were held and a new President, Valdas Adamkus, was sworn on 12 July 2004."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hery Rajaonarimampianina",
        "text": "On 26 May 2015, the Parliament of Madagascar voted to remove the president from office, due to \"alleged constitutional violations and general incompetence\". The constitutional court disallowed the motion under the grounds the accusations were unfounded and then inadmissible."
      },
      {
        "title": "N\u00e9stor Kirchner",
        "text": "The Argentine judiciary had been unpopular since the presidency of Carlos Menem, most of whose judicial appointments were based on loyalty; his judiciary was known as the \"automatic majority\". Kirchner sought to remove the most controversial judges and organized the impeachment of Supreme Court president Julio Nazareno, who chose to resign. Judge Adolfo V\u00e1zquez also resigned before impeachment, citing personal reasons. Judges Eduardo Moline O'Connor and Guillermo L\u00f3pez also resigned under similar circumstances. The vacancies were well received by the public, boosting Kirchner's popularity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in South Africa",
        "text": "\"1994-1997\" : the president could remove a judge from office for \"misbehaviour, incapacity or incompetence\", if both the National Assembly and the Senate requested him to do so, after considering a report from the Judicial Service Commission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Removal of Mart\u00edn Vizcarra",
        "text": "As of 2020, there was no procedure that clearly established the conditions in which the \"moral incapacity\" clause in impeachment can be applied, which is why the Constitutional Court Judgment No. 0006- 2003-AI / TC established as a criterion that the removal of the president of the republic could only be approved with a qualified vote of at least two thirds of the legal number of congressmen, urging Congress to legislate on the matter in order to fill the legal void then existing. In response to this, by means of Legislative Resolution of Congress No. 030-2003-CR, article 89-A was introduced in the Congress Regulations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Christos Sartzetakis",
        "text": "Sartzetakis was expelled from the judiciary along with 29 magistrates with the Constitutional Act of 28 May 1968, allegedly because \"in the exercise of his functions, he acted in a discriminatory manner, motivated by his political convictions in favor of a political party, in a way that violated the confidence of the citizens in his impartiality\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Shirani Bandaranayake",
        "text": "Bandaranayake was removed from office on 13 January 2013 after President Mahinda Rajapaksa ratified the impeachment motion passed by Parliament. According to some reports Rajapaksa had offered to allow Bandaranayake to retire but she had refused."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in South Africa",
        "text": "\"1994-1997\" : the National Assembly and the Senate, sitting jointly, could remove the president from office by impeaching him or her for \"a serious violation of this Constitution or the other laws of the Republic, or of misconduct or inability rendering him or her unfit to exercise and perform his or her powers and functions\". A two-thirds majority was required. A similar procedure applied to the removal of any of the executive deputy presidents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rep\u00fablica Croma\u00f1\u00f3n nightclub fire",
        "text": "On 14 November 2005, an impeachment jury formed by the Buenos Aires Legislature suspended Mayor Ibarra for four months, pending an investigation of his performance that could lead to his removal. He accused the opposition of manipulating the families of Rep\u00fablica Croma\u00f1\u00f3n's victims in order to ruin his career. On 7 March 2006, after four months of deliberations, the impeachment jury voted to remove Ibarra from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Remigijus \u017demaitaitis",
        "text": "In elections in 2016, \u017demaitaitis headed the electoral list of Order and Justice. After these elections, party's leader Rolandas Paksas resigned. \u017demaitaitis became the interim leader of the party."
      },
      {
        "title": "Order and Justice",
        "text": "Throughout Paksas's scandal and impeachment, the Liberal Democrats presented soft opposition to the governing centre-left coalition, alongside the united Liberal and Centre Union and Homeland Union. In the parliamentary election in October, the LDP formed a coalition called \"Coalition for Rolandas Paksas 'For Order and Justice' \", which was successful in winning 11 seats. However, the centre-left coalition managed to hold on to power, thanks to a failure of the centre-right parties to agree to cooperate."
      },
      {
        "title": "President of the Czech Republic",
        "text": "Aside from death, there are only three things that can effect a president's removal from office:\n#A president can resign by notifying the President of the Senate.\n#The president may be deemed unable to execute his duties for \"serious reasons\" by a joint resolution of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputiesalthough the president may appeal to the Constitutional Court to have this resolution overturned.\n#The president may be impeached by the Senate for high treason and convicted by the Constitutional Court."
      },
      {
        "title": "Viktor Yanukovych",
        "text": "Although the legislative removal by an impeachment procedure would have lacked the number of votes required by Ukraine's constitution, the resolution did not follow the impeachment procedure but instead established that Yanukovych \"withdrew from his duties in an unconstitutional manner\" and cited \"circumstances of extreme urgency\", a situation for which there was no stipulation in the then-current Ukrainian constitution."
      },
      {
        "title": "First impeachment process against Pedro Pablo Kuczynski",
        "text": "Upon the initiation of impeachment proceedings Congress president Luis Galarreta stated that he expected Kuczynski to be removed from office \u2033within a week\u2033, as Kuczynski's Peruvians for Change party occupies only 18 of the 130 seats in Congress, while the opposition right-wing Popular Force (which is chaired by Keiko Fujimori) and left-wing Broad Front (headed by a former priest and environmental activist called Marco Arana), both in favor of Kuczynski's removal, together command 81 of the necessary two-thirds congressional majority (87 seats) needed to remove a president from office. According to reports by the Reuters news agency, Kuczynski had also lost the support of his own cabinet members, who had begun to urge him to resign as well. On 14 December 2017 he was also given an ultimatum by the congressional opposition to resign by the end of the day or face impeachment in Congress, to which he responded by saying: \"It cost us a lot to get our democracy back. We're not going to lose it again. I'm not going to give up my honour, nor my values, nor my responsibilities as president of all Peruvians.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in South Africa",
        "text": "\"1984-1994\" : an electoral college, consisting of delegates from the House of Assembly and the new House of Representatives and House of Delegates, could remove the state president from office for \"misconduct or inability to perform efficiently the duties of his office\". The procedure required (a) at least half the members of each of the three houses to petition the Speaker of Parliament to appoint a committee; (b) each house to resolve to appoint the committee; (c) the committee to submit a report; and (d) the electoral college to resolve to adopt the report and declare the state president removed from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hilari\u00f3n Daza",
        "text": "In 1894, the ex-president decided to return from exile in France and Italy to Bolivia and explain himself, confident that he would be absolved of any wrongdoing, whether illegal act or incompetency. Historian Jos\u00e9 Mesa, Teresa Gisbert, and Carlos Mesa Gisbert wrote that he was killed in order that he could not testify in the La Paz Parliament."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rolandas Paksas",
        "text": "On 5 January 2003, he was elected President of Lithuania, after a surprise win over the incumbent Valdas Adamkus in a runoff. In the first round of elections, Paksas finished second with 19.7% of vote but, in the runoff, he gathered 54.9%. His platform included pledges to reduce poverty and income disparities, fight corruption, introduce the death penalty for drug traffickers, and move Lithuania towards a more market-based economy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mahmoud Ahmadinejad",
        "text": "In November 2008, Ahmadinejad announced that he was against impeachment of Kordan by Iranian parliament. He refused to attend the parliament on the impeachment day. Kordan was expelled from office by Iranian parliament on 4 November 2008. 188 MPs voted against him. An impeachment of Kordan would push Ahmadinejad close to having to submit his entire cabinet for review by parliament, which was led by one of his chief political opponents. Iran's constitution requires that step if more than half the cabinet ministers are replaced, and Ahmadinejad replaced nine of 21 until that date."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in South Africa",
        "text": "\"1994-1997\" : the president could remove him or her from office for \"misbehaviour, incapacity or incompetence\", if both the Assembly and the Senate requested him to do so, after considering a report from a joint committee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roland Ratsiraka",
        "text": "President Ravalomanana was forced to resign amidst a political crisis in March 2009, and opposition leader Andry Rajoelina took power. Rajoelina set up the High Transitional Authority (HAT) as the ruling body, and Ratsiraka was appointed as one of the 44 members of HAT on March 31, 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shirani Bandaranayake",
        "text": "However, in accordance with Article 107[2] of the constitution of Sri Lanka, if a judge is found guilty, Parliament must present an address to the President, requesting him to remove the judge. On the contrary what Parliament sent President Rajapakse was the motion of impeachment calling for the setting up of a second PSC and it did not empower President Rajapaksa to remove Dr. Bandaranayake according to the terms of the constitution. In essence, President Mahinda Rajapaksa acted without legal authority to remove Bandaranayake, eroding the sacking of its legal validity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Order and Justice",
        "text": "In June, 2003, Paksas set about fighting political corruption that saw 700 public officials under the old administration acquire land illegally. However, this was soon overshadowed by revelations in October that Paksas gave citizenship to, and heard requests for political favours from, Jurijus Borisovas, a Russian businessman that had donated $400,000 to Paksas's campaign, and that high-ranking members of Paksas's staff had connections to Russian criminal groups. Although Paksas was found not to have been influenced by the criminals, his staff had been; Paksas offered that his six close advisers named in the report resign, but calls for Paksas himself to resign mounted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Order and Justice",
        "text": "By the end of 2018, Rolandas Paksas left the party. By this Order and Justice lost its representative in the European Parliament. In 2019 and 2020 the party lost many notorious members (e. g. Petras Gra\u017eulis, K\u0119stas Komskis) by expulsions or resignations. On September 25, 2019, Remigijus \u017demaitaitis proposed formation of new party called \"Sovereign Lithuania\" or \"United Lithuania \u2013 Sovereign Lithuania\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Albert Zafy",
        "text": "Zafy's time in office was widely seen as being marked by economic decline, which negatively impacted his popularity, and amid accusations of corruption and abuse of power, he was impeached by the National Assembly on 26 July 1996. The impeachment was backed by more than the necessary two-thirds majority; out of 134 deputies present, 99 voted in favor of the motion, 32 against it, and there were three null votes. On 4 September, the High Constitutional Court upheld the impeachment. On 5 September, Zafy announced that he would leave office on 10 October, and he described his impeachment as a \"constitutional \"coup d'\u00e9tat\"\" that occurred as a result of his criticism of the National Assembly. Although he could not delay his departure from office, he was able to stand as a candidate in the late 1996 presidential election called as a result of his impeachment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jean Lahiniriko",
        "text": "In April 2006, Lahiniriko visited Iran and while there commented positively on Iran's nuclear programme. At home, his comments led to accusations of treason from members of parliament; Lahiniriko said the comments had only represented his personal views and were not intended as a statement of official policy. On May 8, the National Assembly voted Lahiniriko out of his position as its president, with 119 out of 160 legislators in favor of his removal. He was also expelled from TIM a week before he was voted out of his position. Two days after being removed from office, he announced that he would run for president in the December 2006 presidential election. According to official results, he placed second, with 11.65% of the vote, behind Ravalomanana, who received a majority in the first round. Lahiniriko received his strongest support in his home province of Toliara, where he won 45.95% of the vote, ten points more than Ravalomanana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rolandas Paksas",
        "text": "Rolandas Paksas (; born 10 June 1956) is a Lithuanian politician who was President of Lithuania from 2003 to 2004. He was previously Prime Minister of Lithuania in 1999 and again from 2000 to 2001, and he also served as Mayor of Vilnius from 1997 to 1999 and again from 2000 to 2001. He led Order and Justice from 2004 to 2016 and was a Member of the European Parliament from 2009 to 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ra\u00fal Cubas Grau",
        "text": "Cubas' support virtually collapsed. The day after the assassination, the Chamber of Deputies voted overwhelmingly to impeach Cubas. Facing certain conviction and removal from office by the Senate, Cubas resigned on March 28, 1999 and fled to Brazil. (A court later ordered Oviedo back to prison.) He returned to Paraguay in 2002 and was immediately arrested and tried for conspiracy to murder Arga\u00f1a."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lalith Athulathmudali",
        "text": "Athulathmudali became disenchanted with Premadasa's leadership. Soon Athulathmudali ran into conflict with Premadasa. Premadasa tried to have Athulathmudali removed from his UNP party positions. He was accused by Premadasa as being one of the cabinet ministers behind the Burning of Jaffna library in 1981. Athulathmudali resigned from his cabinet position in August 1991 and in September 1991 he and several UNP MPs brought forth a motion to impeach Premadasa. The impeachment which was supported by members of the UNP and other parties in the opposition failed as Premadasa adjourned Parliament and the Speaker Mohamed dismissed the impeachment stating a lack of signatures. Premadasa expelled Athulathmudali and Gamini Dissanayake from the UNP."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roland Burris",
        "text": "On May 28, 2009, Democratic Illinois Rep. Jack Franks and Republican Rep. Jim Durkin, the ranking Republican on the impeachment panel who had questioned Burris during his January 8 testimony, claimed that Burris committed perjury and called for him to be removed from office. In 2009, Senator Burris was named one of the 15 Most Corrupt Members of Congress by the watchdog group Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trial of Joseph Estrada",
        "text": "a) the legal possibility of removing a sitting president is by impeachment."
      },
      {
        "title": "2012 Malawian constitutional crisis",
        "text": "President Bingu wa Mutharika had increasingly begun to consolidate his power during his second term. He groomed his brother, Peter Mutharika, a lawyer and the Minister of Foreign Affairs as his successor. This meant that he by-passed his sitting Vice President, Joyce Banda but expected her to support this bid. Instead, wa Mutharika caused factions within his Democratic Progressive Party and fired Banda and Second Vice President Khumbo Kachali from their positions in the government and the party in 2010. According to the Constitution of Malawi, however, a vice president has to be removed through an impeachment process requiring a majority of the National Assembly. Therefore, the Malawi court declared this act unconstitutional. The court declared that he could fire Banda from his party but not from the government because the removal process for these positions were different. A party vice president can be removed in accordance with that party's internal process. However, a vice president, who is voted in with the presidential position, can only be removed through a legally sanctioned impeachment process. As such, Banda was regarded as the legal vice president even though she was also not vice president of the DPP party. Mutharika knew that he would not garner the majority in parliament due to factions within the party over the succession of the presidency and therefore he proceeded to frustrate Banda in order to force her to resign as Vice President. She refused to resign and continued in her capacity as vice president of the country, although under constant duress and harassment. Her security detail was changed and several of her privileges were redirected to Mutharika's brother Peter. Banda then formed a new political party, the People's Party, in 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Maraga",
        "text": "The tribunal's work was delayed when the Judge challenged its constitutionality in the High Court, but was finally able to complete its work in September 2016. The tribunal submitted a report in September 2016, recommending to the president that Justice Mutava be removed from office for improperly allocating himself the Kamlesh Pattni file when it did not fall under his docket, and proceeding to write a judgment in the case even though the Judicial Service Commission was investigating his conduct."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shirani Bandaranayake",
        "text": "The impeachment motion against Bandaranayake was debated by Parliament on 10 and 11 January 2013. The motion was passed by Parliament with 155 MPs voting for and 49 MPs voting against it. Bandaranayake was removed from office on 13 January 2013 after President Mahinda Rajapaksa ratified the impeachment motion passed by Parliament. Bandaranayake was replaced as chief justice by former Attorney General Mohan Peiris. and later on 28 January 2015"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yasna Provoste",
        "text": "After the impeachment, Provoste was immediately removed from her position and was disqualified from office for the next five years. Meanwhile, Franka Grez received an eleven-year prison sentence for having illegally transferred public funds for four years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paksas Cabinet I",
        "text": "Rolandas Paksas would later lead the another short-lived government between 2000 and 2001."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in South Africa",
        "text": "\"1997-date\" : the president must remove a member of the South African Human Rights Commission, the Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Communities, the Commission for Gender Equality or the Electoral Commission from office if a committee of the National Assembly finds him or her guilty of \"misconduct, incapacity or incompetence\", and the Assembly resolves that he or she be removed. A simple majority is required."
      },
      {
        "title": "Campanha da Legalidade",
        "text": "At first Goulart thought of resigning so that new elections could be held, but upon learning of the military ministers' coup, he judged that resignation would be his \"self-emasculation\" and that \"The accusations they make against me prevent me from resigning.\" From Singapore, he arrived on the 28th in Paris, passing through Zurich. In Europe he spoke to the international press and maintained telephone contact \u2013 tapped by the military ministers' government \u2013 with Brazil. suggested he resign. Goulart refused, but authorized Congress to declare his impeachment if this was the only way to avoid bloodshed. His return to the country was delayed to allow time for political negotiations. On August 29 he went to New York. From there, with stopovers in Miami, Panam\u00e1 and Lima, he arrived on the 31st in Buenos Aires. Argentine president Arturo Frondizi was the victim of several coups and feared the repercussions of Goulart's presence, isolating him with soldiers from contact with journalists and politicians. On the same day he went to Montevideo, where he was even received by the Uruguayan Foreign Minister."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "Article 13 of Hungary's Fundamental Law (constitution) provides for the process of impeaching and removing the president. The president enjoys immunity from criminal prosecution while in office, but may be charged with crimes committed during his term afterwards. Should the president violate the constitution while discharging his duties or commit a willful criminal offense, he may be removed from office. Removal proceedings may be proposed by the concurring recommendation of one-fifth of the 199 members of the country's unicameral Parliament. Parliament votes on the proposal by secret ballot, and if two thirds of all representatives agree, the president is impeached. Once impeached, the president's powers are suspended, and the Constitutional Court decides whether or not the President should be removed from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abolhassan Banisadr",
        "text": "Following his impeachment, Banisadr fled Iran and found political asylum in France. Banisadr later focused on political writings about his activities during the Iranian revolution and his critiques of the Iranian government. He became a critic of Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei and the country's handling of its 2009 elections."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "In the wake of the president's departure, Parliament convened on 22 February; it reinstated the 2004 Constitution, which reduced presidential authority, and voted impeachment of President Yanukovych as \"de facto\" recognition of his departure from office as President of an integrated Ukraine. The president riposted that Parliament's acts were illegal as they could pass into law only by presidential signature."
      },
      {
        "title": "President of Armenia",
        "text": "The president may be impeached for treason or other grave crimes. In order to obtain a conclusion on impeaching the president of the Republic, the National Assembly appeals to the Constitutional Court by a resolution adopted by the majority of the total number of deputies. The resolution to remove the president of the Republic from office is passed by the National Assembly by a two-thirds majority vote of the total number of deputies, based on the conclusion of the Constitutional Court. If the Constitutional Court concludes that there are no grounds for impeaching the president of the Republic the impeachment is removed from the agenda of the National Assembly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Homeland Union",
        "text": "Yet another split was caused by the resignation of Rolandas Paksas (he replaced Gediminas Vagnorius as the Prime Minister and party's Board chairman), although most of the Rolandas Paksas' supporters moved to the Liberal Union of Lithuania in 1999 and 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Removal of Mart\u00edn Vizcarra",
        "text": "After hearing the President's defense, Congress debated and approved the removal of Vizcarra due to moral incapacity with 105 votes in favor, surpassing the 87 out of 130 vote supermajority threshold required to convict a political official. Vizcarra became the third president to have been successfully impeached and removed from office, along with Guillermo Billinghurst (1914) and Alberto Fujimori (2000). Along with his predecessor Pedro Pablo Kuczynski and former U.S. President Donald Trump, he is one of three heads of state to be impeached twice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Removal of Mart\u00edn Vizcarra",
        "text": "Removal of Mart\u00edn Vizcarra\n--Background.\n----Legal.\n----First impeachment process.\n--Events.\n----Impeachment vote.\n----Vacancy vote.\n------Vizcarra appears in Congress.\n------Vizcarra loses support.\n------Voting results.\n--Response.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Valdas Adamkus",
        "text": "He returned to politics after the presidential scandal of 2003 and 2004, when his former rival Paksas was impeached and removed from office. In the first round of the 2004 election, held on 13 June 2004, Adamkus securing 30% of the vote \u2013 more than any other candidate. Paksas could not run for office again, because a ruling from Lithuania's Constitutional Court disallowed him from running for public office and he was, therefore, unable to register as a candidate. A runoff election was held on 27 June 2004, which Adamkus won with about 52% of the votes against Kazimira Prunskien\u0117. By 2009 he had served the two presidential terms permitted by the Constitution of Lithuania and was succeeded as president by Dalia Grybauskaite."
      },
      {
        "title": "2007 Romanian presidential impeachment referendum",
        "text": "B\u0103sescu and his supporters in the Democratic Party also suggested that his political opponents would try to modify the electoral law in order to obstruct a previously suspended president to run in the elections again, following a Rolandas Paksas scenario."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abolhassan Banisadr",
        "text": "In Banisadr's view, this impeachment was a \"coup d'\u00e9tat\" against democracy in Iran. In order to settle the political differences in the country, President Banisadr had asked for a referendum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "In 1995 the former Minister of Justice Erik Ninn-Hansen from the Conservative People's Party was impeached in connection with the Tamil Case. The case was centered around the illegal processing of family reunification applications. From September 1987 to January 1989 applications for family reunification of Tamil refugees from civil war-torn Sri Lanka were put on hold in violation of Danish and International law. On 22 June 1995, Ninn-Hansen was found guilty of violating paragraph five subsection one of the Danish Ministerial Responsibility Act which says: A minister is punished if he intentionally or through gross negligence neglects the duties incumbent on him under the constitution or legislation in general or according to the nature of his post. A majority of the judges in that impeachment case voted for former Minister of Justice Erik Ninn-Hansen to receive a suspended sentence of four months with one year of probation. The reason why the sentence was made suspended was especially in relation to Ninn-Hansen's personal circumstances, in particular, his health and age - Ninn-Hansen was 73 years old when the sentence was handed down. After the verdict, Ninn-Hansen complained to the European Court of Human Rights and complained, among other things, that the Court of Impeachment was not impartial. The European Court of Human Rights dismissed the complaint on 18 May 1999. As a direct result and consequence of this case, the Conservative-led government and Prime Minister at that time Poul Schl\u00fcter was forced to step down from power."
      },
      {
        "title": "Walter Martos",
        "text": "Into three months in office, Martos resigned alongside his cabinet following the impeachment and removal of President Vizcarra, on 9 November 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alberto Gonzales",
        "text": "In August 2009, White House documents released showed that Rove raised concerns directly with Gonzales and that Domenici or an intermediary may have contacted the Justice Department as early as 2005 to complain. In contrast, Gonzales told the Senate Judiciary Committee in 2007: \"I don't recall\u00a0... Senator Domenici ever requesting that Mr. Iglesias be removed.\" In July 2010, Department of Justice prosecutors closed the two-year investigation without filing charges after determining that the firings were not criminal, saying \"Evidence did not demonstrate that any prosecutable criminal offense was committed with regard to the removal of David Iglesias. The investigative team also determined that the evidence did not warrant expanding the scope of the investigation beyond the removal of Iglesias.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Shirani Bandaranayake",
        "text": "On 6 November 2013, 116 members of Parliament tabled a motion that sought to set up a Parliamentary Select Committee to investigate on 14 charges that had been brought against her. Accordingly, the PSC was set up and had several sittings. They concluded their inquiry, finding her guilty of 3 of the 14 charges and reported to the Speaker recommending the removal of Dr. Bandaranayake from the Office of the Chief Justice. The Parliament debated the findings on 9 and 10 January 2013 and decided to vote for the impeachment on 11 January 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidency of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad",
        "text": "In November 2008, President Ahmadinejad announced that he was against impeachment of Ali Kordan by Iranian parliament. He refused to attend the parliament on the impeachment day. Ali Kordan was expelled from Iranian interior ministry by Iranian parliament on 4 November 2008. 188 MPs voted against Ali Kordan. An impeachment of Kordan would push Ahmadinejad close to having to submit his entire cabinet for review by parliament, which is led by one of his chief political opponents. Iran's constitution requires that step if more than half the cabinet ministers are replaced, and Ahmadinejad has replaced nine of 21."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abolhassan Banisadr",
        "text": "The Majlis (Iran's Parliament) impeached Banisadr in his absence on 21 June 1981, allegedly because of his moves against the clerics in power, in particular Mohammad Beheshti, then head of the judicial system. Khomeini himself appears to have instigated the impeachment, which he signed the next day. According to Kenneth Katzman, Banisadr believed the clerics should not directly govern Iran and was perceived as supporting the People's Mujahedin of Iran. Only one deputy, Salaheddin Bayani, spoke in favor of Banisadr during his impeachment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rolandas Paksas",
        "text": "Paksas, a former member of Communist Party of Lithuania (LKP) and its successor leftist Democratic Labour Party (LDDP) in 1995 switched his political orientation in favour of conservative right Homeland Union (Lithuanian Conservatives). In 1997 Paksas was elected to Vilnius City Council and became the Mayor of the Vilnius city municipality. Paksas also served as chairman of the Vilnius branch of the Homeland Union (Lithuanian Conservatives)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in South Africa",
        "text": "\"1997-date\" : the National Assembly (alone) may remove a president, for \" a serious violation of the Constitution or the law\", \"serious misconduct\" or \"inability to perform the functions of office\". A two-thirds majority is required. A president who is removed may not receive any benefits of that office, and may not serve in any public office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alberto Gonzales",
        "text": "The report also concluded Todd Graves was removed to settle a political dispute in Missouri, which was motivated by politics. The report found that it could not conclude that David Iglesias was removed for an improper reason. Because the IG had no authority to investigate Congress or the White House, the IG asked Attorney General Mukasey to appoint a special prosecutor to investigate the Iglesias removal. This special prosecutor found no wrongdoing in the removal of David Iglesias. The DOJ IG found no criminal wrongdoing in the records. As the Wall Street Journal reported \"the Justice Department informed Congress on Wednesday that a special investigator in the case found no evidence of wrongdoing\u00a0... the investigator's final word is that no Administration official gave 'false statements' to Congress or to the DOJ Inspector General, which carried out their own investigation.\" In particular, the report found no evidence that Gonzales made false or misleading statements to Congress, thus clearing him of accusations of perjury."
      },
      {
        "title": "Removal of Mart\u00edn Vizcarra",
        "text": "During the first impeachment due to \"permanent moral incapacity\", the congressmen promoting Vizcarra's removal alleged that Vizcarra had denied on several occasions the fact of knowing the singer Richard Swing, with supposed audio of Vizcarra presented by UPP congressman Edgar Alarc\u00f3n alleging the obstruction of the investigations, and for violating the principles of good administration and budget justice by hiring Richard Swing in the Ministry of Culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Albert Zafy",
        "text": "Zafy led an attempt to impeach Ratsiraka in early 1998, accusing him of various charges, including perjury and nepotism; he also accused Ratsiraka of violating the constitution in his moves toward decentralization and the strengthening of the presidency at the expense of the National Assembly's power. The impeachment motion failed in the National Assembly on 4 February 1998 when only 60 deputies voted in favor of it, well short of the necessary 92. Zafy subsequently won a seat in the May 1998 parliamentary election, becoming the oldest deputy in the National Assembly. He also unsuccessfully sought the secession of Antsiranana Province from Madagascar at around the same time."
      },
      {
        "title": "K. Sripavan",
        "text": "In January 2013 43rd Chief Justice Shirani Bandaranayake was controversially impeached by the Parliament of Sri Lanka. Bandaranayake was subsequently removed from office by President Mahinda Rajapaksa. Attorney General Mohan Peiris was appointed chief justice by Rajapaksa. Rajapaksa lost the 2015 presidential election after which the government led by newly elected President Maithripala Sirisena ruled that Bandaranayake's removal was \"null and void\" as it had not followed proper procedure. Peiris was sent a letter stating that his appointment had been illegal and then Bandaranayake was re-instated as chief justice on 28 January 2015. Peiris however claims that his removal from office is unconstitutional, saying that he neither retired, resigned or vacated office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supreme Court of Argentina",
        "text": "In the 2000s, since the interim presidency of Eduardo Duhalde and especially during the term of N\u00e9stor Kirchner which started in 2003, all members of Menem's \"majority\" have either been removed or resigned. Dr. Antonio Boggiano, the last of these, was removed on 29 September 2005. Not all justices were replaced, so there were still two vacancies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jure Bili\u0107",
        "text": "A party committee vote removed him from office in 1986."
      },
      {
        "title": "Order and Justice",
        "text": "After being defeated in the leadership election for the Liberal Union, Rolandas Paksas founded the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) in 2002, taking with him 13 of his supporters from Liberal parliamentary group in the Seimas, making the party the fourth-largest party. Paksas finished second in the first round of the presidential election on 22 December, with 19.7%: qualifying him for a run-off against incumbent President Valdas Adamkus. For the run-off, Paksas represented a youthful alternative to the ageing candidate, adopting the slogan 'Vote for Change'; despite all the parties except the LDP backing Adamkus, he won across almost all of the country, with 54.7%. The campaign was likened to the previous spring's French presidential election and Paksas to Jean-Marie Le Pen for his populism. However, unlike Le Pen, the Paksas immediately announced his support for Lithuania's ongoing process of accession to the European Union and NATO."
      },
      {
        "title": "Partido Demokratiko Sosyalista ng Pilipinas",
        "text": "In the year 2000, the PDSP mobilized with civil society organizations and groups in support of the impeachment, which led to eventual removal of former President Joseph E. Estrada from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "J. B. Jeyaretnam",
        "text": "After the JCPC's judgement, Jeyaretnam requested President Wee Kim Wee to remove his convictions. However, the President, constitutionally bound to act in accordance with the Cabinet's advice, denied the request, so Jeyaretnam remained disqualified from participating in parliamentary elections until 1991."
      },
      {
        "title": "Miguel Reale J\u00fanior",
        "text": "In 2015, along with the jurists H\u00e9lio Bicudo and Jana\u00edna Paschoal, Reale filed an impeachment request against president Dilma Rousseff. The social movement pro-impeachment decided to join the request, which had the support of congressmen and part of the civil society, who filed a petition supporting the impeachment against the president. The request was voted on 17 April 2016 in an extraordinary session in the floor of the Chamber of Deputies, being approved with 367 votes of support, 137 against, 7 abstentions and 2 absences. On 31 August 2016, after three days of trial, the request was approved with 61 votes of support and 20 against, removing Rousseff from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Simeon V. Marcelo",
        "text": "As fate would have it, the impeachment proceeding was not completed and there was no resolution of the charges against then President Estrada. During the 16 January 2001 session, a closed envelope that the pro-Estrada Senators (who composed the majority of the Senate) refused to open prompted the prosecution to walk out of the halls of the Senate. The walk-out triggered, within minutes that it was announced in the media, massive protest rallies nationwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Juozas Purickis",
        "text": "Immediately after his resignation, Purickis left for Germany. He was subject to widespread criticism and ridicule in the opposition press, particularly by Augustinas Voldemaras. The Constituent Assembly of Lithuania launched an investigation into the finances of the Lithuanian legations in Berlin and Moscow. The state auditor found several large bank accounts in Purickis' name. He explained that he did not keep very good records due to the post-war chaos and commingled personal and state funds because some funds raised for charitable causes were transferred to his personal accounts due to bureaucratic obstacles. In the end, Purickis transferred more than 12 million Lithuanian auksinas to Lithuania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Wowo",
        "text": "He was removed from the office by then President Yahaya Jammeh and convicted after being allegedly caught on tape soliciting a bribe of 500,000 Dalasi from a Dutch businessman in order to alter the course of justice in a land dispute matter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roland Kun",
        "text": "As part of the move against opposition members, on 17 June 2015, the Government cancelled Kun's passport and had him forcibly removed from a flight to New Zealand where he had been living with his wife and children since being suspended from Parliament in 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guillermo Moreno Garc\u00eda",
        "text": "He was removed a year after the constant pressure he received from the National Palace to vary the course of cases of administrative corruption that reached his office. The trigger for his dismissal was the corruption file in the National Lottery, for which officials from the administration of former President Joaqu\u00edn Balaguer, businessmen and technicians of that institution were kept in prison."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jo\u017ee P. Damijan",
        "text": "Damijan resigned from his ministerial post in March 2006 - only 3 months after assuming the position - citing personal reasons. Damijan later revealed that he resigned because he grew disillusioned by what he saw as a kleptocratic administration, using their official functions as a \"smokescreen\" for personal enrichment with the aim of \"never having to work again in their lives\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Raul Roco",
        "text": "He was given the Bantay Katarungan award by Kilosbayan for playing an integral role in the Senate impeachment trial of then-president Joseph Estrada who was impeached by the House of Representatives on 2000 for graft and corruption, bribery, betrayal of public trust, and culpable violation of the 1987 Philippine Constitution. Unfortunately, the impeachment trial was not concluded and in 2001, Estrada was ousted from power by another People Power uprising."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salamat Azimi",
        "text": "In November 2016, the Wolesi Jirga dismissed seven cabinet members over four days during impeachment hearings. Azimi obtained a vote of confidence, with 71 votes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rolandas Paksas",
        "text": "In May 1999, Vagnorius stepped down and President Valdas Adamkus asked Paksas to become the Prime Minister. The Conservatives had 68 of the Seimas' 138 seats and were part of an 81-member coalition with the Lithuanian Christian Democratic Party."
      },
      {
        "title": "2014 Brazilian general election",
        "text": "On 12 May 2016, with 55 favorable votes, 22 contrary and 2 absences, the Federal Senate authorized the opening of the impeachment process, and determined her suspension from the Presidency of the Republic for up to 180 days. On 31 August, the Federal Senate, with a voting of 61 to 20, removed Rousseff from office of President, but kept her political rights. With the impeachment, Michel Temer, who was Vice President of Brazil and Acting President until that moment, took office as President until the end of the term."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Renato Corona",
        "text": "Defense counsel Cuevas asked the Senate to remove the second article of the complaint. Cuevas said that \"The fact alone that there is SALN is proof enough that he has filed and complied with the rules and regulation on the matter, that resolves the problem.\" Senate president Ponce Enrile clarified that such release of the SALNs is response to the subpoena given to the clerk and doesn't overrule the said article."
      },
      {
        "title": "Resignation of Ratu Mara",
        "text": "After the coup had been quashed, the High Court ruled on 15 October 2000 that Mara's replacement was unconstitutional and ordered his reinstatement, but Mara decided to spare the country further constitutional trauma by resigning officially, with his resignation retroactive to May 29, 2000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Efforts to impeach Rodrigo Duterte",
        "text": "The controversial and politically motivated ouster of the Chief Justice Maria Lourdes Sereno may provide further grounds for Duterte's removal. On May 16, Duterte said, \"if there's one congresswoman or congressman or a single justice who will say I talked to them (regarding Sereno's removal), I can guarantee you, I will resign.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Christian von Wernich",
        "text": "The country struggled to restore democratic institutions and rule of law. In 1991, President Carlos Sa\u00fal Menem pardoned Ram\u00f3n Camps and other high-ranking leaders who had been convicted in the 1985 trial, setting off waves of protest. In 2003 Congress repealed the 1986 Ley de Punto Final. (In a court challenge, the Argentine Supreme Court ruled in 2005 that the law was unconstitutional.)"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How often do impeachment proceedings lead to guilty verdicts for heads of state?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "While I can't find any statistics about how often impeachments lead to guilty verdicts on the whole, I did find that in Latin America (which includes almost 40% of all presidential systems in the world) 10 presidents from 6 countries were removed from office between 1978 and 2019. Republic of Lithuania President Rolandas Paksas was also removed from office via impeached on April 6, 2004, and was the first European head of state to ever be impeached."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did Rolandas Paksas do to cause his removal from office?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "It emerged that he had granted citizenship to a major campaign donor, leading to his impeachment and removal from office in April 2004.",
      "During his term, concerns arose that he had ties to the Russian mafia, and his connections were investigated by the State Security Department of Lithuania.  On 31 March 2004 the Constitutional Court of Lithuania found him guilty of violating the constitution and his oath of office, and on 6 April 2004, the Parliament (Seimas) voted on three charges: that he had leaked classified information about his investigation to Borisov; that he had improperly restored Borisov's citizenship; and that he had interfered in a privatization transaction."
    ],
    "topic": "Impeachment",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Rolandas Paksas:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Rolandas Paksas"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2002, Paksas founded the Liberal Democratic Party, and ran for the presidency, winning the run-off against incumbent Valdas Adamkus in January 2003. It emerged that he had granted citizenship to a major campaign donor, leading to his impeachment and removal from office in April 2004. He was the first European head of state to have been impeached. Barred from the Seimas, Paksas was elected to the European Parliament in 2009, while leading his party, now called Order and Justice (TT). His lifetime ban from the parliament was ruled to be disproportionate measure by the European Court of Human Rights in 2011. In 2018 the amendment which would allow for Paksas to run for parliamentary seat is to be submitted. But he will not be allowed to run for president or become the speaker of the Parliament. He is considered to be the worst President of Lithuania in modern history."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Rolandas Paksas:11",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Rolandas Paksas",
          "Political career",
          "President of Lithuania"
        ],
        "ctx": "On 26 February 2003 his term as a President began. During his term, concerns arose that he had ties to the Russian mafia. Yuri Borisov, president of the aviation company Avia Baltika, had donated $400,000 to his campaign, and was given Lithuanian citizenship by Paksas' decree. This decree was later ruled to be unconstitutional by Constitutional Court of Lithuania. Paksas' connections were investigated by the State Security Department of Lithuania. In early 2004, the Seimas started impeachment proceedings against him. On 31 March 2004 the Constitutional Court of Lithuania found him guilty of violating the constitution and his oath of office. On 6 April 2004, the Parliament (Seimas) voted on three charges: that he had leaked classified information about his investigation to Borisov; that he had improperly restored Borisov's citizenship; and that he had interfered in a privatization transaction. The vote passed, effectively removing Paksas from the presidency."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Donald Tsang",
        "text": "Tsang was later summoned to answer questions from an open inquiry by the Legislative Council. This unprecedented revelations and move to impeach him launched by a pro-Beijing legislator Paul Tse shook the confidence in integrity of the city's officials. Tsang also set up an Independent Review Committee for the Prevention and Handling of Potential Conflicts of Interests chaired by former Chief Justice of the Court of Final Appeal Andrew Li on 26 February 2012 to review the existing frameworks and procedures for preventing and handling of potential conflicts of interests concerning the Chief Executive and other top officials."
      },
      {
        "title": "Efforts to impeach Rodrigo Duterte",
        "text": "In response, Duterte claimed to the press that Chinese President Xi Jinping swore to protect him from moves that will result in his removal from office. \"The assurances of Xi Jinping were very encouraging...'We will not allow you to be taken out from your office, and we will not allow the Philippines to go to the dogs,'\" Duterte said."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carrie Lam",
        "text": "In December, 25 pro-democrat legislators tabled an impeachment motion to form an independent investigative committee to examine claims that Lam's conduct constituted a \"serious breach of the law and dereliction of duty\". Despite the motion being defeated, with 36 voted \"no\" and 26 voted yes, Lam received criticism from both pro-democracy and pro-Beijing legislators for mishandling the extradition bill and the protests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nikol Pashinyan",
        "text": "On 9 May 2007, three days before the election, the Impeachment Union, along with the Hanrapetutyun Party and the New Times party, organized a march to the National Security Service building to demand the release of ex-foreign minister Alexander Arzumanyan, whom they considered a political prisoner. It led to clashes, where policemen beat members of the opposition with batons and used tear gas to disperse the crowd. Pashinyan told the crowd: \"Victory is not achieved at once. Victory is achieved step by step. Today we took a very important step towards our victory. Well done.\" Ararat Mahtesyan, deputy chief of police, blamed Pashinyan for the violence: \"Several participants led by Nikol Pashinyan provoked an incident with police, dashed to the National Security Service entrance, and when police tried to stop their movement, scuffles broke out.\" The police's actions were condemned by other opposition parties. Members of the opposition later moved to Freedom Square where they held a demonstration. Impeachment garnered 17,475 votes and came in 13th, with 1.28% of the overall vote, far below the threshold. Following the election, Pashinyan held a two-day sit-in at Freedom Square to denounce the election results as rigged and demand the invalidation of its results. Pashinyan left the Constitutional Court in protest on 7 June, claiming judicial farce and prejudgment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Su Jia-chyuan",
        "text": "Su was impeached by the Control Yuan on 3 September 2012, for illegally constructing a luxury farmhouse on agricultural land without engaging in any agriculture. Su's villa, built on agricultural land, was a controversial issue in the 2012 presidential elections."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deng Yujiao incident",
        "text": "This case came to national prominence through internet forums and chatrooms, where netizens were enraged by her treatment. The case resonated with the public anger over the corruption and immorality of officials, and garnered over four million forum posts across the country. Chinese authorities attempted to downplay the incident by limiting its presence on Chinese web portals, and a large number of discussion threads were censored. Following a groundswell of public protests and online petitions, prosecutors dropped murder charges, granted her bail, and charged her with a lesser offense of \"intentional assault\". She was found guilty but did not receive a sentence due to her mental state. The two surviving officials involved in the incident were removed, also ostensibly in response to public pressure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marquis of Haihun",
        "text": "As part of the articles of impeachment, the officials asked that Empress Dowager Shangguan to exile Prince He to a remote location. However, she did not do so, but rather returned him to Changyi without any titles, although he was given a small fief of 2,000 families who would pay tribute to him. His four sisters were also awarded smaller fiefs of 1,000 families respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yingluck Shinawatra",
        "text": "On 28 November, Thailand's National Legislative Assembly (NLA) denied the addition of 72 pieces of evidence to her rice-pledging case. The first hearing of her impeachment case was also scheduled to be on 9 January 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shirani Bandaranayake",
        "text": "Due to an error on the part of the government, instead of an address of parliament to the president empowering him to remove the Chief Justice, Parliament on 11 January 2013, voted on a motion of impeachment, that sought to set up a Parliamentary Select Committee to investigate 14 charges that had been brought against her, the problem was, that motion had already been voted upon on 6 November 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deng Yujiao incident",
        "text": "On approximately 22 May, Beijing censors ordered websites to stop reporting the case. The State Council Information Office issued directives to all Chinese websites to remove all the recommended news stories and commentaries on Deng Yujiao. No posts about Deng Yujiao must be placed at the top of the page. Later on, the Beijing Information Office telephoned portals instructing them to use only official government statements and not report or comment on Deng Yujiao. The State Information Office ordered media and web portals to 'dilute the Deng Yujiao case with other news', delete any 'open letters and pleadings', and bar any web based opinion poll or petition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Liu Cheng-hung",
        "text": "Liu Cheng-hung\n--Controversies.\n----Shoe throwing incident.\n----Impeachment.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Republic of China",
        "text": "That incident might also have given president Chen the ability of declaring martial emergency, which allegedly prevented the police and military, which were strongly Pan-Blue, from voting. Lien refused to concede, alleging voting irregularities. Kuomintang and PFP supporters held mass protests throughout the following weeks. Subsequently, Kuomintang and PFP took the case to the court. The High Court ordered a recount and found no evidence to support the accusation made by Kuomintang and PFP. The Court decided that the election result was legitimate and valid."
      },
      {
        "title": "MIEA v Guo",
        "text": "The Tribunal found that nothing that occurred to Guo after he was deported to the PRC in 1992, was politically motivated. It found that his detention in China had merely been a consequence of penalties for illegal departure, and not because of his political activities. Charges for illegal departure were found to be unrelated to convention grounds; as they were applied to the Chinese population in general."
      },
      {
        "title": "Park Geun-hye",
        "text": "The National Assembly instead filed a motion for impeachment, which was put to a vote on 9 December 2016 and passed with 234 supporters. Due to the ratification of her impeachment proposal, her presidential powers and duties were suspended, and Prime Minister Hwang Kyo-ahn assumed those powers and duties as acting president."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wang Lijun incident",
        "text": "In the aftermath of the event, political commentators speculated Wang's actions might imperil Bo Xilai's further political advancement. China analyst Willy Wo-Lap Lam suggested that the Wang Lijun incident would doom Bo's chances of further advancement to the Politburo Standing Committee: \"When they do the horse-trading in Beijing, his enemies will definitely use this to shoot down his candidacy,\" said Lam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the Philippines",
        "text": "To date, Corona's removal as Chief Justice and disqualification from public office is the only completion of the impeachment process. Estrada's impeachment trial ended prematurely, while Gutierrez and Bautista resigned before the Senate convened as an impeachment court."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ma\u2013Xi meeting",
        "text": "Others such as a number of intellectuals and legal experts in Taiwan published articles calling on the Legislative Yuan to initiate impeachment proceedings against Ma, as they argue the handling of the meeting has violated the requirements of the due Constitutional procedures. Some scholars also asked for the intervention of the legislative body and the Constitutional Court to prevent Ma from attending the meeting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wang Lijun incident",
        "text": "In mid-March 2012, allegations of a coup d'\u00e9tat led by Bo and Zhou Yongkang, Bo's strongest supporter in the Politburo Standing Committee, spread across the internet, via overseas Chinese-language websites. There were also allegations that gunshots were heard in Beijing. However, the rumors of a coup were proven false, although the allegations underscored the tensions between the economic reformist and Maoist traditionalist factions of the Communist Party regarding the political crisis. The Chinese government later arrested six people and shut down sixteen websites for allegedly spreading rumors of the coup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nuhu Aliyu Labbo",
        "text": "Some members of the House of Representatives then threatened to impeach the president. Aliyu remarked that he had investigated some of the supporters of the impeachment plan for alleged fraud during his career in the police."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Dilma Rousseff",
        "text": "The South American countries of Ecuador, Bolivia and Venezuela reacted to the impeachment of the President by recalling their ambassadors. The government of Argentina declared neutrality, viewing the impeachment as an internal Brazilian affair; the Argentine Ministry of Foreign Affairs said that they recognized \"the institutional process\" that had taken place. Representatives from Bolivia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, Nicaragua and Venezuela walked out during Temer's speech at the UN General Assembly on 20 September 2016. Temer defended the impeachment, and said that it occurred with \"absolute respect for the constitutional order\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wang Lijun incident",
        "text": "As the chain of events unfolded Chinese government censors began blocking keywords on an \"ad hoc\" basis, such as \"U.S. Consulate\", \"political asylum\", \"Governor Bo\" etc. Many of the keywords were unblocked and re-blocked intermittently. \"Wang Lijun\" was blocked on 4 February, but was unblocked four days later. Microblogs were inundated with references to the Wang story with no significant interference from censors. The mixed reactions from the authorities led to speculation that the government was unsure about how to deal with the events, or that they were letting word spread deliberately to weaken Bo's political base."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tian Mingjian incident",
        "text": "The Tian Mingjian incident (also known in Chinese as the Jian'guo Gate mass shooting) was an act of mass murder that occurred in Beijing, China on 20 September 1994, when People's Liberation Army officer First Lieutenant Tian Mingjian (Chinese: \u7530\u660e\u5efa) first killed his officer and several other soldiers at his military base in Tongxian County and afterwards drove towards Jianguomen, where he continued his shooting spree and indiscriminately fired at people in the streets. 17 civilians, including an Iranian diplomat and his son, along with up to 11 soldiers and policemen were killed before Tian was finally shot dead by a police sniper."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "However, the Legislative Council does not have the power to actually remove the chief executive from office, as the chief executive is appointed by the Central People's Government (State Council of China). The council can only report the result to the Central People's Government for its decision."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yingluck Shinawatra",
        "text": "A few weeks after Yingluck was impeached, the military coup of 2014 occurred."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yang Jianli",
        "text": "On April 26, 2004, Members of Congress held Press Conference to commemorate the second anniversary of Yang's detention. 67 legislators issued the warning in a letter to Hu as they marked the second year in detention of Yang Jianli. The US embassy in Beijing meanwhile has spoken directly with the Chinese government about Yang's case, Republican Party lawmaker Christopher Cox said, citing Vice President Dick Cheney."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roh Moo-hyun",
        "text": "The National Assembly's attempt to impeach Roh was largely opposed by the public. From 12 March 2004, to 27 March, protest against the impeachment motion was led by 'citizen's movement for eradicating corruption'. According to the police, 50,000 people gathered to protest on 13 March alone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Control Yuan",
        "text": "The Control Yuan is responsible to investigate possible violations on laws and regulations of public servants and raise impeachments if needed. Investigations are initiated by at least two members, and investigation committees must consist of at least nine members of the Control Yuan. The impeachment cases would be determined by a majority vote by members of investigation committee. Successful impeachment cases will then be forwarded to the Disciplinary Court () under the Judicial Yuan for adjudication. However, the impeachment of the President or Vice President shall be initiated by Legislative Yuan (parliament) and adjudicate by the Constitutional Court under the Judicial Yuan. Details regarding impeachment proceedings are stipulated in the Enforcement Rules of the Control Act.\n* On 19 February 2020, the Control Yuan impeached five military personnel which it deemed responsible for a F-16 Fighter aircraft crash on June 4, 2018 that killed all on board. The case was forwarded to the Public Functionary Disciplinary Sanction Commission in the Judicial Yuan to determine the punishment.\n* On 4 June 2019, Hsieh Kung-ping (\u8b1d\u516c\u79c9), a top aide of former Hualien County commissioner Fu Kun-chi, Lin Chin-hu (\u6797\u91d1\u864e), a county government employee, and media section chief Huang Wei-jun (\u9ec3\u5fae\u921e), were impeached for bribery using $5.26 million in public funds. Both were found guilty on 18 February 2020; Hsieh was given two demerits and fined $100,000 NTD, Lin was handed a 10% pay reduction for a year, and Huang was given one demerit and fined $100,000 NTD.\n* On 15 January 2019, Kuan Chung-ming, the president of National Taiwan University, was impeached for violating a law prohibiting public servants from working other jobs. The case was forwarded to the Public Functionary Disciplinary Sanction Commission in the Judicial Yuan to determine whether he was guilty and the appropriate punishment. Kuan was found guilty on 2 September 2019 and officially reprimanded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "In the Republic of Lithuania, the president may be impeached by a three-fifths majority in the Seimas. President Rolandas Paksas was removed from office by impeachment on 6 April 2004 after the Constitutional Court of Lithuania found him guilty of having violated his oath and the constitution. He was the first European head of state to have been impeached."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jaime Ma\u00f1alich",
        "text": "The widespread eye injuries were one of the topics addressed during the impeachment of Minister of the Interior and Public Security Andr\u00e9s Chadwick in November 2019. On November 20 Ma\u00f1alich declared to the Chamber of Deputies that there was twelve persons with the loss of one eye and about thirty with serious injuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Republic of China",
        "text": "Recent allegations about corruption inside the First Family had led to three recall motions votes in the Legislative Yuan aimed at ousting President Chen Shui-bian. All of them had failed, because legislators voted according to political lines and the Pan-Blue Coalition lacked the two-thirds majority required to complete the process. The First Lady, Wu Shu-chen, was prosecuted for corruption, namely illegally using state funds for personal purposes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tiananmen Incident",
        "text": "By 6:00 pm, most of the crowd had dispersed, but a small group remained until 10:00 pm, when a security force entered Tiananmen Square and arrested them. Many of those arrested were later sentenced to \"people's trial\" at Peking University, or were sentenced to prison work camps. Incidents similar to those which occurred in Beijing on 4 and 5 April occurred in Zhengzhou, Kunming, Taiyuan, Changchun, Shanghai, Wuhan, and Guangzhou. Possibly because of his close association with Zhou, Deng Xiaoping was formally stripped of all positions \"inside and outside the Party\" on 7 April."
      },
      {
        "title": "Politics of the Philippines",
        "text": "Under the 1987 constitution, the House of Representatives has the power to impeach the president through a vote of one-third of its members, and the Senate decides upon the case. Impeachment proceedings against an individual can not occur more than once per year, which can be abused through the filing cases with weak impeachment claims to forestall the filing of stronger cases. President Joseph Estrada was the first Asian head of state to be tried following impeachment, although he was not ousted by the Senate. No president has ever been ousted through impeachment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Patrick Chinamasa",
        "text": "In September 2006, Chinamasa was cleared by a judge of trying to pervert the course of justice. Chinamasa was accused of trying to stop a prosecution witness, James Kaunye, from testifying in a case against the Minister of State for National Security, Didymus Mutasa, who had been accused of inciting public violence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tian Mingjian incident",
        "text": "Due to the investigation the commander of the Beijing Military Region, Lieutenant General Li Laizhu, and its political commissar, Lieutenant General Gu Shanqing, were given serious warnings as a disciplinary sanction and serious demerits within the party. It also resulted in the dismissal and demeriting of BGC commander Major General Liu Fengjun and BGC political commissar Major General Yang Huichuan, who were then replaced by He Daoquan and Zhang Baokang. Additionally the commander and political commissar of the Third Guards Division, as well as the commander of the 12th Regiment and all battalion commanders and instructors under his command, were dismissed while several military officials of the Political Department of the Beijing Military Region, and the Beijing Garrison Headquarters and Political Department were punished. In total, about 60 military officials were punished, demerited, or dismissed as a consequence of the shooting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mensal\u00e3o scandal",
        "text": "Members of the opposition also wanted a fourth CPI to investigate off-book accounts held by all parties during the most recent elections. Due to serial allegations of this kind of operation in many campaigns in 2002, including President Lula's, many believed this CPI could result in a legal and concrete reason to start his impeachment process. However this process was aborted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Qin Jianxiao",
        "text": "On September 25, 2014, he was being investigated by the Party's internal disciplinary body for \"serious violations of laws and regulations\". In November 2014, he was removed from office and expelled from the party. His case has been moved to judicial organs for criminal proceedings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Xia Junfeng",
        "text": "Teng Biao, a lawyer who represented Mr. Xia, suggested the sentence was intended to send the message that any challenges to the government would not be tolerated. \"The authorities wanted to show off their muscle,\" he said. Teng said the court refused testimony from six witnesses making it clear that Mr. Xia had acted in self-defense \u2013 with the judge relying on testimony from the \"chengguan\", who are low-level officials. The impunity of the \"chengguan\" has become notorious across the nation. Teng noted that a conviction of intentional homicide requires proof of a premeditated crime \u2013 and that was an example of \"extreme unfairness under the law\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deng Yujiao incident",
        "text": "As a result of the national outcry, police released her on bail and put her under house arrest; prosecutors charged her with a lesser offense of \"intentional assault\" instead of murder. The two surviving officials were sacked on 31 May. \"Xinhua\" reported that Badong County Communist Party Discipline Inspection Committee removed Huang Dezhi from the post of vice director of the office of business delegations of Yesanguan Township, and stripped of his CPC membership, as he had \"pushed and shoved and verbally insulted a waitress who refused to accompany them to take a bath\" in a bathhouse on 10 May in Badong, the authorities said. Huang has been \"detained in connection with public order offences.\" Deng Zhongjia, 45, another vice director of the same office who was present at the time of the incident, was also fired, ostensibly because the incident had caused a \"bad social effect\" although he had not broken any laws or regulations."
      },
      {
        "title": "School attacks in China",
        "text": "An attacker named Wu Huanming (\u5434\u73af\u660e), 48, killed seven children and two adults and injured 11 other persons with a cleaver at a kindergarten in Hanzhong, Shaanxi on May 12, 2010; early reports were removed from the internet in China, for fear that mass coverage of such violence could provoke copycat attacks. The attacker later committed suicide at his house; he was the landlord of the school, Shengshui Temple private kindergarten, and had been involved in an ongoing dispute with the school administrator about when the school would move out of the building."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lee Fu-tien",
        "text": "Lee was later appointed to the Control Yuan and began a formal examination of corruption charges against Chen Shui-bian. In 2009, the agency found that two Special Investigation Panel investigators had contacted Chen Shui-bian as the corruption probe continued. The first vote to impeach State Public Prosecutor-General Chen Tsung-ming in relation to the Chen Shui-bian case was held in January 2010, and failed. Three weeks later, a second vote on the impeachment of Chen Tsung-ming passed, and Chen subsequently resigned his post."
      },
      {
        "title": "Efforts to impeach Rodrigo Duterte",
        "text": "Following an incident at the Reed Bank in June 2019 wherein the \"F/B Gem-Ver\", a boat carrying 22 Filipino fishermen sank after being rammed by a Chinese vessel, the wife of its captain opined that she was in favor of impeaching Duterte for continuing to allow Chinese boats to fish in the area. Similarly, fisherfolk group Pamalakaya also filed an impeachment case against Duterte."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marquis of Haihun",
        "text": "Huo and the top officials then offered their articles of impeachment against Prince He, and these articles were read out loud to the Empress Dowager. Empress Dowager Shangguan verbally rebuked Prince He. The articles of impeachment listed as the main offences (in a total of 1127 examples of misconduct) that Prince He committed during his 27-day reign as an emperor:\n* Refusal to abstain from meat and sex during the period of mourning\n* Failure to keep the imperial safe secure\n* Improperly promoting and rewarding his Changyi subordinates during the period of mourning\n* Engaging in feasts and games during the period of mourning\n* Offering sacrifices to his father during the period of mourning for his uncle"
      },
      {
        "title": "February 28 incident",
        "text": "The government hoped that the execution of Governor Chen Yi and financial compensation for the victims had quelled resentment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Efforts to impeach Rodrigo Duterte",
        "text": "In May 2018, former Solicitor General Florin Hilbay asserted that Duterte may be impeached if he fails to protect the country's territory in the South China Sea. This comment followed reports that the Chinese Army had installed anti-ship and air-to-air defenses on outposts also claimed by Vietnam and the Philippines over the previous last 30 days. Duterte has been under harsh criticism for its ineffectual policy of appeasement with the Chinese government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Simeon V. Marcelo",
        "text": "As fate would have it, the impeachment proceeding was not completed and there was no resolution of the charges against then President Estrada. During the 16 January 2001 session, a closed envelope that the pro-Estrada Senators (who composed the majority of the Senate) refused to open prompted the prosecution to walk out of the halls of the Senate. The walk-out triggered, within minutes that it was announced in the media, massive protest rallies nationwide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "Two presidents have been impeached since the establishing of the Republic of Korea in 1948. Roh Moo-hyun in 2004 was impeached by the National Assembly but was overturned by the Constitutional Court. Park Geun-hye in 2016 was impeached by the National Assembly, and the impeachment was confirmed by the Constitutional Court on March 10, 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Politics of the Republic of China",
        "text": "In 2006, due to the Pacific Sogo Department Store scandal, the pro-KMT Pan-Blue Coalition moved to impeach the President but failed to obtain the requisite number of votes in the legislature. This failure led to a \"Down Ah-Bian\" campaign, which sought to pressure the president to resign from office. The campaign began on 1 September 2006. Campaign organizers claimed that the first day of the strike attracted 300,000 people in Taipei, while the police estimated the number to be closer to 90,000. The \"Down Ah-Bian\" event was being led by activist and politician Shih Ming-te (\u65bd\u660e\u5fb7) as a peaceful sit-in around the capital, besieging the presidential residence. While the protests have been largely peaceful, there have been isolated incidences of violence associated with the campaign, including fist fights between Pan-Blue and Pan-Green (pro-DPP) legislatures. The \"Up Ah-Bian\" event was organized to counteract the \"Down Ah-Bian\" campaign. On 13 October 2006, the Pan-Blue Coalition attempted again to pass a recall motion against the ROC President Chen Shui-bian, which also failed to garner sufficient votes in the legislature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Huang Songyou",
        "text": "On or about October 16, 2008, Huang was reportedly detained by Communist Party discipline officials in connection with a corruption scandal. He was removed from the office of the Supreme Court vice presidency on October 28, 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "There has never been an impeachment against the President so far. Constructive votes of no confidence against the chancellor occurred in 1972 and 1982, with only the second one being successful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the Philippines",
        "text": "In 1964, President Diosdado Macapagal was accused of illegally importing rice to build public support in an election, illegally dismissing officials, using the military to intimidate the political opposition, and ordering the deportation of an American businessman who was in the custody of Congress in violation of the separation of governmental powers. A Congressional committee dismissed all the charges."
      },
      {
        "title": "September 2009 Xinjiang unrest",
        "text": "Hong Kong politicians were united in their outrage over the incident, and the apparent violation of press freedom, which was a core value enshrined in the Basic Law. Chief Executive Donald Tsang said that he had written to the Xinjiang government, the State Council and the Hong Kong and Macao Affairs Office of the State Council. Seven local National People's Congress deputies wrote to NPC chairman Wu Bangguo to express their concern. Legislators from the Establishment camp as well as the pan-democrats regarded the incitement allegations \"unpersuasive\", and said Beijing must launch a full and detailed inquiry into the beatings."
      },
      {
        "title": "First impeachment process against Mart\u00edn Vizcarra",
        "text": "Since early 2020, investigations began surrounding a contract for a little-known singer by the name of Richard Cisneros to perform speeches for the Ministry of Culture. It was alleged that an inexperienced Cisneros was able to receive payments totaling US$50,000 due to contacts in the Government Palace. Investigators searched offices in the Government Palace on 1 June 2020 regarding the alleged irregularities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Renato Corona",
        "text": "At the conclusion of the majority bloc's caucus, Committee on Justice chairman Niel Tupas, Jr. presented the impeachment complaint; after the presentation, only two representatives asked for more questions, while an overwhelming majority asked to sign the complaint. He said that there were no instructions from the Palace to impeach Corona, nor was the pork barrel of representatives who did not sign would be held back, but he said that he informed the president of their decision to impeach Corona, and that the president supported it. The House of Representatives then voted in session to endorse the complaint, getting 188 votes, well above the one-third (95) of the members required by the Constitution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the Philippines",
        "text": "In 2017 and 2019, impeachment complaints have been filed against both President Rodrigo Duterte and Vice President Leni Robredo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salamat Azimi",
        "text": "In November 2016, the Wolesi Jirga dismissed seven cabinet members over four days during impeachment hearings. Azimi obtained a vote of confidence, with 71 votes."
      },
      {
        "title": "2016 South Korean political scandal",
        "text": "On March 10, the court issued a unanimous ruling, confirming the impeachment proposal and removing President Park from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tang Jitian",
        "text": "Due to the politically sensitive nature of Tang's cases, he has met with reprisals from Chinese authorities. In 2010, he was permanently disbarred, though he has continued his rights advocacy. He has been placed under house arrest, and detained on several occasions. In 2014, Tang and three other lawyers were detained for investigating the detention of several members of Falun Gong. Tang claimed to have been tortured and suffering multiple fractures during his 15-day detention. In 2017 he was turned back by border guards at Lo Wu Control Point when attempting to visit Hong Kong for medical treatment, and advised that he was prohibited from leaving mainland China due to national security reasons. In December 2021, Tang vanished before arriving in Beijing for a human rights event hosted by the European Union and remained missing at the start of the 2022 Winter Olympics; his relatives believed him to be held in a form of secret detention commonly applied to dissidents in China."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zhou Enlai",
        "text": "By 6:00 pm, most of the crowd had dispersed, but a small group remained until 10:00 pm, when a security force entered Tiananmen Square and arrested them. (The reported figure of those arrested was 388 people, but was rumored to be far higher.) Many of those arrested were later sentenced to \"people's trial\" at Peking University, or were sentenced to prison work camps. Incidents similar to those which occurred in Beijing on 4 and 5 April occurred in Zhengzhou, Kunming, Taiyuan, Changchun, Shanghai, Wuhan, and Guangzhou. Possibly because of his close association with Zhou, Deng Xiaoping was formally stripped of all positions \"inside and outside the Party\" on 7 April, following this \"Tiananmen Incident\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Removal of Mart\u00edn Vizcarra",
        "text": "As of 2020, there was no procedure that clearly established the conditions in which the \"moral incapacity\" clause in impeachment can be applied, which is why the Constitutional Court Judgment No. 0006- 2003-AI / TC established as a criterion that the removal of the president of the republic could only be approved with a qualified vote of at least two thirds of the legal number of congressmen, urging Congress to legislate on the matter in order to fill the legal void then existing. In response to this, by means of Legislative Resolution of Congress No. 030-2003-CR, article 89-A was introduced in the Congress Regulations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Control Yuan",
        "text": "On 18 July 1997, by the 4th constitutional amendment, the procedure to impeach the President and Vice President of the Republic was transferred out from the Control Yuan. In this amendment, presidential impeachment shall be initiated by Legislative Yuan and voted by the National Assembly. However, the later political developments in Taiwan has inclined to simplify the parliament to one chamber. The Legislative Yuan was the surviving chamber and the National Assembly was then abolished. Since 25 April 2000, confirmation of leaders and members of the Control Yuan are transferred to Legislative Yuan, together with the confirmation of similar officials of Judicial Yuan and Examination Yuan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wang Lijun incident",
        "text": "In early March 2012, party general secretary Hu Jintao denounced Wang as a traitor to the Communist Party and the nation in an internal briefing relayed to members of the Communist Party's Political Consultative Conference. The government later publicly described Wang's decision to seek refuge in an American consulate as a \"serious political incident\". The incident is seen by Hu Shuli as bearing consequences for Sino-American relations, especially on top of the death of British national Neil Heywood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diepreye Alamieyeseigha",
        "text": "Alamieyeseigha was impeached on allegations of corruption on 9 December 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cao Jianliao",
        "text": "On July 11, 2014, Cao was removed from office and dismissed from the Party for serious corruption-related offenses; his case was forwarded to prosecution authorities for a criminal investigation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Zuo Guangdou",
        "text": "When Wei Zhongxian started to become a dictator in June of the same year, Yang Lian exposed Wei's twenty-four crimes and said that Wei should be put to death by Lingchi. Zuo Guangdou as well as more than seventy others supported Wei's impeachment. Along with them came another thirty-two crimes that were exposed. However, the Tianqi Emperor dismissed the accusations."
      },
      {
        "title": "2007 Chinese export recalls",
        "text": "A court in early July 2007 had handed down a suspended death sentence to one of Zheng's subordinates on the same charges, the paper added. And a third official at the agency was imprisoned after being convicted of taking bribes and illegally possessing a firearm. \"The nest of corruption in the food and drug administration has done incalculable harm to the state and people,\" \"China Daily\" quoted the \"Procuratorial Daily\" as saying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Politics of the Republic of China",
        "text": "In the 2004 presidential election, the day after being shot while campaigning, Chen was reelected by a narrow margin of 0.2%. The KMT filed lawsuits to demand a recount, alleged voting fraud and staged huge rallies to demand a new election. The courts ruled that the election was accurate and valid."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jiang Lijun",
        "text": "Other cases involving political prisoners in the People's Republic of China where information had been provided by Yahoo! are Shi Tao, Li Zhi, and Wang Xiaoning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yasna Provoste",
        "text": "After the impeachment, Provoste was immediately removed from her position and was disqualified from office for the next five years. Meanwhile, Franka Grez received an eleven-year prison sentence for having illegally transferred public funds for four years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Park Geun-hye",
        "text": "As a result of the motion's passage, President Park's powers and duties were suspended for up to 180 days while the Constitutional Court of Korea considered the validity of the impeachment motion. It was necessary for six of the nine judges on that court to agree with the impeachment for the removal to take effect."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tian Mingjian incident",
        "text": "When Canadian television began to report live about the shooting at the embassy district, satellite transmission was immediately turned off by the Chinese government and further reporting, including on-site interviews, were prohibited."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dong Xian",
        "text": "Wang Mang then ordered the palace secretary to issue an article of impeachment against Dong, accusing Dong of failing to attend to Emperor Ai when he had been ill. Dong was prohibited from entering the palace, and was relieved of his post the next day. That night, he and his wife committed suicide, and were buried quickly. Wang Mang disinterred him to make sure that he was in fact dead, and then had him reburied within a prison. The entire Dong clan was exiled to Hepu (\u5408\u6d66, in modern Zhanjiang, Guangdong) and their assets forfeited to the imperial treasury."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tiananmen Square self-immolation incident",
        "text": "Questions were also raised over where the footage of the event came from, and the speed with which camera crews appeared on scene. Chinese government media reported that the close-up shots in its video footage came from confiscated CNN tapes. CNN representatives argued that this was impossible, however, as their reporters were detained shortly after the event began and were not allowed to film the rest. Pan was also suspicious of the positioning of the cameras, and the fact that the close-up shots shown on Chinese television were taken without police interference. \"In some, the camera is clearly behind police barricades\", the \"Washington Post\" article says. In addition, overhead surveillance camera footage seemed to show a man filming the scene using a small hand-held camera, rather than a large camera of the type used for TV news reporting."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Republic of China",
        "text": "The president faced similar accusations as his wife, but was protected from prosecution by presidential immunity. He had promised to resign if his wife was found guilty. However, after his wife fainted in the preparation hearing, she had sought and obtained absence of leave from the Court 16 times citing health concerns before the end of Chen's term."
      },
      {
        "title": "March 19 shooting incident",
        "text": "These speculations were considered highly offensive by both camps and were not condoned by the leaderships of the two sides until after Chen had already won the election."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hua Guofeng",
        "text": "During the Tiananmen Incident of 1976, thousands of people protested at the militia's removal of wreaths honoring Zhou in front of the Monument to the People's Heroes. Vehicles were burned, offices ransacked and there were reports of many injuries and deaths. In the aftermath, Deng Xiaoping was blamed for inciting the protests and stripped of all his party and government posts, though his party membership was retained at Mao's behest. Shortly thereafter, Hua was elevated to First Vice Chairman of the CCP Central Committee and Premier of the State Council."
      },
      {
        "title": "Liu Wei (lieutenant general)",
        "text": "Zeng Zixiang's (\u66fe\u54a8\u7fd4) comments in the \"Liu Ziran Incident Revisited\" written after his in-depth research may be used to draw a fairly objective conclusion about the May 24 incident and the background of Liu Wei's removal. Zeng said, \u201cIntegrate the above doubts: mobilizing students, Chiang Ching-kuo\u2019s political responsibility and Vice-President Chen Cheng\u2019s inaction. It is too far-fetched to claim President Chiang\u2019s ignorance of the incident under the authoritarian system. Zeng stated that perhaps it could be explained that the original plan could be just Chiang Ching-kuo\u2019s intention to initiate a protest at the U.S. Embassy. Chiang did not expect the incident of to have gotten out of hand and ended up with smashing the embassy. Zeng concluded that although no direct evidence was found, it can be glimpsed through relevant corroboration that Chiang Ching-kuo could well play a key role in planning and organizing the mass protest in the Liu Tianran incident. Zeng concluded that had it not been the case, then,Chiang Ching-kuo would not have been \u201cdemoted\u201d and in fact, had stayed from the political core power center albeit temporarily, right after the incident."
      },
      {
        "title": "Movement to impeach Pervez Musharraf",
        "text": "On August 7, 2008, the Pakistan Peoples Party and the Pakistan Muslim League (N) agreed to ask Musharraf to get the Vote of Confidence from the National and Provisional Assemblies or step down, and began his impeachment. Asif Ali Zardari and Nawaz Sharif announced that the two parties would be sending a joint request asking that Musharraf step down, and that they would impeach him through the parliamentary process if he refused. Musharraf, however, said, \"I will defeat those who try to push me to the wall. If they use their right to oust me, I have the right to defend myself.\" Upon hearing the news, Musharraf delayed his departure for the Beijing Olympics by a day, and it was later announced that he would be replaced at the opening ceremonies by Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gilani. The government summoned the National Assembly for a session on August 11 to begin the impeachment proceedings. Capt. Wasif Syed, spokesman for the Pakistan People's Party, confirmed the announcement, saying, \"A decision has been made that he has to go now, and all the parties have agreed on this point.\" To impeach Musharraf, the ruling coalition would have needed a two-thirds majority in the National Assembly, and it was not certain that they control the required number of votes. Musharraf had the option to fight his impeachment by dissolving parliament, although doing so could cause a backlash, and he would likely need the support of Pakistan's army to be successful."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the People's Republic of China (2002\u2013present)",
        "text": "The mainstream CCP leadership, wary of anything reminiscent of a return to Cultural Revolution-era chaos, decided to act against Bo, and in 2012, he and his wife were tried on corruption and embezzlement charges. Ultimately, he was stripped of all his positions and expelled from the party. The episode exposed an ugly power struggle within the CCP, and was thought to be connected with the upcoming leadership transition from Hu Jintao to Xi Jinping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lan Jun",
        "text": "On May 25, 2015, he was expelled from the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and removed from public office. On September 8, he was indicted on suspicion of accepting bribes and corruption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Renato Corona",
        "text": "On the morning of January 16, the first day the Senate was set to receive the prosecution and defense teams, Corona stated in a speech that \"there is no turning back\" on the impeachment trial. Corona stated that he did nothing wrong to the president or to the people, that he did not steal from anyone, and that the 45 properties included double entries, properties belonging to his wife and in-laws, and denied the accusation that the World Bank loan was not his responsibility. Corona added that there are people acting in a conspiracy to remove him from office: those who want to prevent the distribution of Hacienda Luisita, a hacienda owned by the family of President Aquino, to its farmer-beneficiaries, a vice presidential candidate who lost the 2010 vice presidential election, and an associate justice who wants to succeed him as chief justice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death of Yu Qiyi",
        "text": "The six men were jailed, in a rare public prosecution for such cases. The men claimed they were acting on \"orders from above\" and complained that they had been made scapegoats for the Party's own established procedures. Eventually they were sentenced to between 4 and 14 years in prison."
      },
      {
        "title": "Efforts to impeach Rodrigo Duterte",
        "text": "Later, Alejano added changes about his relations with China, saying: \"He utterly failed and/or refused to assert the country's exclusive sovereign rights and maritime rights and territorial claims over Benham Rise and Panatag Shoal and the rest of the West Philippine Sea.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Renato Corona",
        "text": "On May 29, 2012, he was found guilty by the Senate of Article II of the Articles of Impeachment filed against him for his failure to disclose to the public his statement of assets, liabilities, and net worth. Twenty out of twenty-three senators voted to convict him. A two-thirds majority, or 16 votes, was necessary to convict and remove Corona from office. Corona responded by declaring that \"ugly politics prevailed\" and his \"conscience is clear.\" This marked the first time that a high-level Philippine official has been impeached and convicted. Senator Joker Arroyo denounced the verdict, ending his statement with \"I cannot imagine removing a Chief Justice on account of a SALN. Today, we are one step from violating the constitution and passing a bill of attainder. No one can stop us if we do not stop ourselves. This is not justice \u2013 political or legal. This is certainly not law, for sure it is not the law of the constitution. It is only naked power as it was in 1972. I haven't thought that I would see it again so brazenly performed but for what it is worth, I cast my vote. If not for innocence falsely accused, of offenses yet to exist, and if not for the law and the constitution, that we were privileged to restore under Cory Aquino, then because it is dangerous not to do what is right. When soon we stand before the Lord, I vote to acquit\". Senator Pia Cayetano explained her vote by stating that \"the failure to declare $2.4 million and some 80 million pesos is not minor.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jos\u00e9 Patricio Guggiari",
        "text": "It was the first case of impeachment brought to term in the history of the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Park Geun-hye",
        "text": "The 300-member National Assembly was scheduled to vote on an impeachment bill on 9 December, at the end of the legislative session. As impeachment against president requires a two-thirds supermajority, at least 200 members would have to vote to impeach, in which case Park would be impeached and immediately suspended from her office. There were up to 172 opposition and independent lawmakers, which meant at least 28 of the 128 MPs from the ruling Saenuri Party needed to cross the floor and join the opposition in supporting the impeachment measure for the vote to pass."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gao Zhisheng",
        "text": "On 22 September 2007, after writing open letters to vice-president of the European Parliament, Edward McMillan-Scott, and then to US Congress calling for a boycott of the Olympics, Gao was once again taken away from his home, where he had been under house arrest, by Chinese secret police. A letter from Gao claimed that he endured ten days of torture that involved appalling beatings, abuse with electric batons, and the insertion of toothpicks into his genitalia, followed by weeks of emotional torture. Gao wrote that his torturers said his case had become personal with 'uncles' in the state security apparatus after he had repeatedly publicised previous mistreatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Politics of the Republic of China",
        "text": "The second National Assembly, elected in 1991, was composed of 325 members. The majority was elected directly; 100 were chosen from party slates in proportion to the popular vote. This National Assembly amended the constitution in 1994, paving the way for the direct election of the president and vice president that was held in March, 1996. The National Assembly retained the authority to amend the constitution, to recall or to impeach the president or vice president, and to ratify select senior-level presidential appointments. In April 2000, the members of the National Assembly voted to permit their terms of office to expire without holding new elections. They also determined that such an election would be called in the event the National Assembly is needed to decide a presidential recall or a constitutional amendment. In recent years, the National Assembly has handed most of its powers to the Legislative Yuan, including the power of impeachment. In 2005, the National Assembly permanently abolished itself by ratifying a constitution amendment passed by the Legislative Yuan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Dilma Rousseff",
        "text": "A total of 37 requests for the impeachment of Rousseff had been presented to the Chamber of Deputies from 2012 till her actual impeachment. Of these 23 were archived and did not proceed. The remaining 14 proceeded, but only one was accepted by Cunha. Submitted by former congressman and attorney H\u00e9lio Bicudo and attorneys Miguel Reale J\u00fanior and Jana\u00edna Paschoal, it was based on allegations of omission concerning the Petrobras controversy, fiscal responsibility crimes, and budgetary mismanagement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the Philippines",
        "text": "President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo was accused in 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2008 impeachment complaints for different imputations, specially attempting lying, cheating and stealing during 2004 presidential election against opposition candidate Fernando Poe, Jr. However all impeachment cases were failed due to absence of one third vote from the members of Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wu'erkaixi",
        "text": "Wu\u2019erkaixi claimed that he was present at the square when the soldiers arrived after martial law was declared and that he had personally seen around 200 student protesters cut down by gunfire in Tiananmen square. However, according to the Columbia Journalism Review, all verified eyewitness accounts had attested that the students who remained in the square when troops arrived to clear them, had all been allowed to leave the square peacefully. It was later \"proven\" that Wu\u2019erkaixi himself had already left the square several hours before the massacre inside the square that he claimed allegedly occurred. US embassy cables obtained and released by Wikileaks in 2011 claim that while there were killings in the larger Beijing area, there were, in fact, no killings in Tiananmen Square."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Fernando Lugo",
        "text": "The Chamber cited the 15 June incident as well as insecurity, nepotism and a controversial land purchase to vote 76 to 1 to impeach Lugo on 21 June 2012. The Senate took up the case the next day. The impeachment was attended by a delegation of Foreign Affairs ministers from the other nations of the Union of South American Nations. The vote ended with 39 votes for Lugo's removal and four for his continuity, which removed Lugo from office and made Vice President Federico Franco (who had broken with Lugo earlier) the new president of Paraguay. Lugo announced that he would denounce the case to the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, stating that the time to prepare a legal defence, just two hours, may be unconstitutional."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marquis of Haihun",
        "text": "Empress Dowager Shangguan approved the articles of impeachment and ordered Prince He deposed. He was then transported under heavy guard back to the Changyi mission. Both Prince He and Huo offered personal apologies to each other."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the Philippines",
        "text": "In December 2011, 188 of the 285 members of the House of Representatives voted to transmit the 56-page Articles of Impeachment against Supreme Court Chief Justice Renato Corona."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abolhassan Banisadr",
        "text": "In Banisadr's view, this impeachment was a \"coup d'\u00e9tat\" against democracy in Iran. In order to settle the political differences in the country, President Banisadr had asked for a referendum."
      },
      {
        "title": "March 19 shooting incident",
        "text": "Some pan-Blue supporters painted the incident as a sham staged to boost sympathy for Chen and win the election, arguing that the wounds inflicted upon the President and Vice President were improbably light and citing various perceived irregularities in the chronology of events and the physical and photographic evidence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rolandas Paksas",
        "text": "Paksas expressed an intent to run in the June presidential election that was to replace him. In response, on 4 May the Seimas passed a constitutional amendment barring impeached persons from standing for the presidency for five years following impeachment. Following an appeal by Paksas supporters, the Constitutional Court of Lithuania ruled the amendment unconstitutional, holding instead that persons who had violated the constitution or failed to uphold their oaths of office could never again hold public offices that required an oath."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "Impeachment is provided for in the constitutional laws of many countries including Brazil, France, India, Ireland, the Philippines, Russia, South Korea, and the United States. It is distinct from the motion of no confidence procedure available some countries whereby a motion of censure can be used to remove a government and its ministers from office. Such a procedure is not applicable in countries with presidential forms of government like the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Janaina Paschoal",
        "text": "On 30 March 2016, in a statement to the special chamber committee analyzing the impeachment petition, Janaina Paschoal alleged that through BNDES the government sent money to countries such as Angola, Cuba, and others, which the bank contested in an official statement, saying it did not send funds abroad, nor did it carry out any confidential operations, countering the lawyer's charge that shipments would have been made in secrecy."
      },
      {
        "title": "March 19 shooting incident",
        "text": "The next day's election was not postponed, as Taiwanese law only allows for suspension of an election on the death of a candidate. Chen's opponent, Lien Chan, and Lien's campaign manager Wang Jin-pyng tried to visit Chen on the night of the incident, but were unable to see the president because he was resting. Chen appeared in public the next day when he turned out to cast his vote."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yuhuazhai Subdistrict",
        "text": "However, the United States government's news agency Radio Free Asia reported later in 2018 that over 1,000 demonstrators held protests in opposition to the demolition on December 2 and December 3. Alleged videos of the protests show riot police firing tear gas and attacking protesting villages, and Radio Free Asia reported that two protestors were injured in the confrontation and eight more were arrested. Protestors interviewed by Radio Free Asia also reported various government workers harassing and attacking residents who continued to occupy undemolished buildings in the weeks prior."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How often do impeachment proceedings lead to guilty verdicts for heads of state?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "While I can't find any statistics about how often impeachments lead to guilty verdicts on the whole, I did find that in Latin America (which includes almost 40% of all presidential systems in the world) 10 presidents from 6 countries were removed from office between 1978 and 2019. Republic of Lithuania President Rolandas Paksas was also removed from office via impeached on April 6, 2004, and was the first European head of state to ever be impeached."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did Rolandas Paksas do to cause his removal from office?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It emerged that he had granted citizenship to a major campaign donor, leading to his impeachment and removal from office in April 2004."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has there been any impeachment incident in China?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information.",
      "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
    ],
    "topic": "Impeachment",
    "ground_truth_ctx": []
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Upon conviction in the Senate, the official is automatically removed from office and may by a separate vote also be barred from holding future office. The Senate trial is not an actual criminal proceeding and more closely resembles a civil service termination appeal in terms of the contemplated deprivation. Therefore, the removed official may still be liable to criminal prosecution under a subsequent criminal proceeding. The president may not grant a pardon in the impeachment case, but may in any resulting federal criminal case (unless it is the president who is convicted and thus loses the pardon power). However, whether the president can self-pardon for criminal offenses is an open question, which has never been reviewed by a court."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ma Ying-jeou",
        "text": "Ma was eligible for a second term as president and ran for re-election."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of former United States presidents who ran for office",
        "text": "This list only includes \"former\" presidents who ran again for president."
      },
      {
        "title": "Efforts to impeach Donald Trump",
        "text": "\"Axios\" interviewed legal and political experts who concluded that if Trump won a second term after being impeached and acquitted, it might be politically impossible to impeach Trump again because of the political blowback."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tan Cheng Bock",
        "text": "In March 2016, Tan declared his intention to run again for President in the next election, which had to be held within the next 17 months."
      },
      {
        "title": "Article One of the United States Constitution",
        "text": "If any officer or the President or the Vice President is convicted on impeachment, that person is immediately removed from office and may be barred from holding any federal office in the future. This is purely a political remedy which \"touches neither his person, nor his property; but simply divests him of his political capacity,\" however the convicted person remains liable to trial and punishment in the courts for civil and criminal charges. The President can not reinstate an impeached officer with his Article II appointment power if such officers have been disqualified to hold any future federal office as part of their conviction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment trial of Donald Trump",
        "text": "In an unprecedented maneuver in American history, the Trump defense team declared that Trump would, if convicted by the Senate, attempt to overturn the verdict. Trump's lawyers say the conviction would be \"unauthorized\" and \"non-binding\"and that if Trump runs for president again, it \"would be challenged in a court of law\". Given \"Nixon v. United States\", it is unclear whether or to what extent a challenge to a Senate impeachment conviction would be justiciable. The Supreme Court case had unanimously determined that the question of whether the Senate had properly tried an impeachment was a political question and could not be resolved in the judicial branch."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "The constitutional text is silent on whether an officer can be tried after the officer resigns or his/her term ends. However, when the issue has arisen, the House has been willing to impeach after resignation, and the Senate has been willing to try the official after resignation. As noted, in 1797, the Senate continued impeachment proceedings against William Blount even after he had been expelled from office, dismissing the proceedings only after determining that a Senator is not a \"civil officer of the United States\". In 1876, William W. Belknap was impeached by the House of Representatives hours after resigning as United States Secretary of War. The Senate held by a 37\u201329 vote that it had jurisdiction to try Belknap notwithstanding his resignation, but ultimately acquitted him after trial. The permissibility of trying a former official was a major issue in the second impeachment trial of Donald Trump, which commenced 20 days after Trump's term in office expired, although Trump's impeachment itself occurred while he was President. By a 55\u201345 vote, the Senate rejected a motion asserting that the trial was unconstitutional."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of presidential qualifications by country",
        "text": "No person can be elected as president of the United States more than twice, and a person who has served as president for more than two years of a term to which another person was elected president (i.e. due to the elected president's death, resignation, or removal by impeachment) cannot be elected president more than once in their own right."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment of Donald Trump",
        "text": "Yoni Appelbaum (\"The Atlantic\"), David French (\"Time\"), Austin Sarat, David Frum (\"The Atlantic\"), Tom Nichols (\"USA Today\"), David Landau, Rosalind Dixon, and Bret Stephens (\"The New York Times\") called for the impeachment of Trump the second time and for him to be disqualified from public office. Mary L. Trump, the President's niece, said she thought her uncle should be barred from ever running for office again."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unsuccessful efforts to impeach United States federal officials",
        "text": "On May 8, the Judiciary Committee submitted a report, H.R. Rep. No. 60-1626, to the House recommending against impeachment, but by the time Wilfley got back to Shanghai, the situation was so poisoned, he resigned and returned to the U.S. for good."
      },
      {
        "title": "2008 United States House of Representatives elections in Ohio",
        "text": "Kucinich previously stated that he would run again for Congress in 2008 if his bid for President were unsuccessful."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "Upon conviction, the officeholder has his or her political rights revoked for eight years, which bars them from running for any office during that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of former United States presidents who ran for office",
        "text": "Some presidents have been recruited, requested, or drafted to run again. This list, however, only includes those presidents who actively campaigned."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unsuccessful efforts to impeach United States federal officials",
        "text": "The case was never heard of again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Of the 21 impeachments by the House, eight defendants were convicted and removed from office, four cases did not come to trial because the individuals had left office and the Senate did not pursue the case, and nine ended in acquittal. To date, every convicted official was a federal judge. Of the eight to have been convicted and removed, three were disqualified from ever holding federal office again by the Senate. One of the remaining five is former congressman Alcee Hastings (D-Florida), who was convicted and removed from office as a federal judge in 1989, but was not barred from holding federal office, only to be elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1992, a seat he held until his death on April 6, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Conviction does not extend to further punishment, for example, loss of pension. After conviction by the Senate, \"the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law\" in the regular federal or state courts. However, the Former Presidents Act of 1958, which provides a pension and other benefits, does not extend to presidents who were removed from office following an impeachment conviction. Because of an amendment to that law in 2013, a former president who has been removed from office due to impeachment and conviction is still guaranteed lifetime Secret Service protection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "The Constitution does not limit the number of times an individual may be impeached. As of 2022, Donald Trump is the only federal officer to have been impeached more than once."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of former United States presidents who ran for office",
        "text": "This is a list of former presidents of the United States who ran for office (the presidency, a seat in Congress, or governor) after leaving office as president. It does not include presidents who sought reelection to a consecutive term while still in office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "The impeachment proceedings are remedial rather than punitive in nature, and the remedy is limited to removal from office. Because all officers in the federal government are confirmed in the Senate, officers appointed under the Appointments Clause of the Constitution may also be disqualified from holding any other appointed office under the United States in the future. Because the process is not punitive, a party may also be subject to criminal or civil trial, prosecution, and conviction under the law after removal from office. Also because the conviction is not a punishment, the president is constitutionally precluded from granting a pardon to impeached and convicted persons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Politics of the Philippines",
        "text": "Under the 1987 constitution, the House of Representatives has the power to impeach the president through a vote of one-third of its members, and the Senate decides upon the case. Impeachment proceedings against an individual can not occur more than once per year, which can be abused through the filing cases with weak impeachment claims to forestall the filing of stronger cases. President Joseph Estrada was the first Asian head of state to be tried following impeachment, although he was not ousted by the Senate. No president has ever been ousted through impeachment."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unsuccessful candidates for President of the Republic of China",
        "text": "List of unsuccessful candidates for President of the Republic of China\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment of Donald Trump",
        "text": "The day of the attack, many House Democrats, including Seth Moulton, Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, and Katherine Clark, called for Trump's immediate impeachment and removal by Congress, or via the 25th Amendment. Speaker of the United States House of Representatives Nancy Pelosi, a Democrat, urged the removal of Trump via the 25th Amendment, and announced she was prepared to vote on articles of impeachment if this does not happen. Pelosi said Trump is \"a very dangerous person who should not continue in office\". In vowing to impeach Trump again if his cabinet does not remove him themselves, Pelosi said Trump \"incited an armed insurrection against America\" and that \"the gleeful desecration of the U.S. Capitol, which is the temple of our American democracy, and the violence targeting Congress are horrors that will forever stain our nation's historyinstigated by the president.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Yang Jianli",
        "text": "In 2020, Yang applied for United States citizenship but was rejected due to his former membership in the Communist Party of China. In response, Yang sued the federal government, which agreed to make him eligible to apply for citizenship again in four years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment of Donald Trump",
        "text": "On January 26, eight senators spoke out against impeachment. Senator James Lankford (R-OK) said \"This is not a trial; this is political theater. You cannot remove someone from the office who is already out of office. In this trial, there is no current President, no Chief Justice, and no possibility someone could be removed from office because they are not in any office. In a moment when our nation needs to unite, this trial will only create even deeper divisions.\" Senator Jim Inhofe (R-OK) tweeted \"Given that the penalty for impeachment shall be removed from office, my reading of the Constitution leads me to believe that the Founders did not intend for us to impeach former federal officeholders. I agree with @RandPaul that it's not constitutional to try a former president.\" Senator John Kennedy (R-LA) said \"Today, I voted to affirm that these impeachment proceedings are unconstitutional. Based on the information I have right now, I voted today and will vote again later in the impeachment trial to dismiss the impeachment proceedings against former President Trump.\" Senator Rand Paul (R-KY) tweeted \"This impeachment is nothing more than a partisan exercise designed to further divide the country. Democrats claim to want to unify the country but impeaching a former president, a private citizen, is the antithesis of unity.\" Senator Richard Shelby (R-AL) told reporters he has \"deep reservations whether they should be trying him at all.\" Senator Roy Blunt (R-MO) tweeted that \"I believe the constitutional purpose for presidential impeachment is to remove a president from office, not to punish a person after they have left office.\" Senator Shelley Moore Capito (R-WV) said \"My vote today to dismiss the article of impeachment is based on the fact that impeachment was designed to remove an officeholder from public office. The Constitution does not give Congress the power to impeach a private citizen. This charge is directed at an individual who no longer holds public office. I believe it is time we focus our attention and energies on the numerous challenges our country presently faces. Instead of taking a path of divisiveness, let us heed the call to unity that we have heard spoken so often over the past few weeks.\" Senator Thom Tillis (R-NC) said \"On January 6, I said voting to reject the states' electors was a dangerous precedent we should not set. Likewise, impeaching a former President who is now a private citizen would be equally unwise.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Daniel H. Coakley",
        "text": "Following his impeachment, Coakley ran for the United States Senate. In the Democratic primary, he finished fourth out of four candidates with 7% of the vote."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidential elections in the Philippines",
        "text": "Every president who is eligible to run for president ran again, except in 1992 where Corazon Aquino did not run."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aman Tuleyev",
        "text": "Tuleyev ran for president again in the 2000 election."
      },
      {
        "title": "2020 United States presidential election",
        "text": "This is the second time a president has been impeached during his first term while running for a second term. Trump continued to hold campaign rallies during the impeachment. This is also the first time since the modern presidential primaries were established in 1911 that a president has been subjected to impeachment while the primary season was underway. The impeachment process overlapped with the primary campaigns, forcing senators running for the Democratic nomination to remain in Washington for the trial in the days before and after the Iowa caucuses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Article Two of the United States Constitution",
        "text": "A person who meets the above qualifications, however, may still be constitutionally barred from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions:\n* , gives the U.S. Senate the option of forever disqualifying anyone convicted in an impeachment case from holding any federal office.\n* Section 3 of the 14th Amendment prohibits anyone who swore an oath to support the Constitution, and later rebelled against the United States, from becoming president. However, this disqualification can be lifted by a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress.\n* The 22nd Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected to the presidency more than twice (or once if the person serves as president or acting president for more than two years of a presidential term to which someone else was originally elected)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment trial of Donald Trump",
        "text": "Under the U.S. Constitution, the House has the sole power of impeachment (), and after that action has been taken, the Senate has \"the sole Power to try all Impeachments\" (). Trump was the third U.S. president to face a Senate impeachment trial, after Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton. Trump is the only federal official to be impeached twice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Most impeachments have concerned alleged crimes committed while in office, though there is no requirement for the misconduct to be an indictable crime. There have been a few cases in which officials have been impeached and subsequently convicted for crimes committed prior to taking office. There have also been cases where a former official was tried after leaving office. The impeached official may continue to serve their term until a trial yields a judgement that directs their removal from office or until they leave office through some other means. Federally, a two-thirds majority of the senators present at the trial is required for conviction under ."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States presidential election",
        "text": "Upon conviction at impeachment, the Senate may vote to disqualify that person from holding any \u201cpublic office... under the United States\u201d in the future. Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits the election to any federal office of any person who engaged in insurrection after having held any federal or state office, rebellion or treason; this disqualification can be waived if such an individual gains the consent of two-thirds of both houses of Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mary L. Trump",
        "text": "After the 2021 United States Capitol attack, Trump said her uncle should be \"barred from ever running for public office again.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Federalism and Rodrigo Duterte",
        "text": "Later however, Teehankee stated that he \"misspoke\" during the interview, saying that the president and vice president are barred from running, and assured that their terms will not be extended, referring to Section 16 of the draft charter, which was not yet available to the public at that time. In contrast, Concom member and former senator Aquilino Pimentel Jr. said, \"Theoretically it is true (Duterte can seek re-election), but in Digong's case, I am convinced that he does not want to run again. He has been saying that once it is approved, he will resign.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "No president impeached by the House has been convicted by the Senate. In two cases, a Senate majority voted to convict an impeached president, but the vote fell short of the required two-thirds majority and therefore the impeached president was not convicted. The two instances where this happened were the Senate trial of Andrew Johnson in 1868 (where Johnson escaped conviction by one vote), and the second Senate trial of Donald Trump in 2021, where Trump missed conviction by 10 votes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment of Donald Trump",
        "text": "Impeachment begins in the House of Representatives, where articles of impeachment are drawn up. These articles are then voted on by House members. Each article is voted on separately and requires a simple majority to pass. Once an article has been passed in the House, the president has been impeached. The articles are then sent to the Senate for adjudication with an impeachment trial. After views have been laid out in the trial, the Senate moves to vote on conviction. Each article requires a two-thirds majority of Senators present to pass. If an article passes in the Senate, the president has been convicted and is removed from office. Once the president is convicted, a further vote may then be held which determines whether the (now-former) president is barred from holding future office; this vote passes with a simple majority in the Senate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "In the United States' federal impeachment trials, if an incumbent officeholder is convicted by a vote of two-thirds of the Senate, they are automatically removed for office. The Senate can, after convicting, vote by a simple majority to bar the convicted individual from holding federal office in the future."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment trial of Donald Trump",
        "text": "A Congressional Research Service report concluded \"that while the matter is open to debate, the weight of scholarly authority agrees that former officials may be impeached and tried.\" Ahead of the trial, 150 legal scholars from across the political spectrum published a letter affirming \"that the Constitution permits the impeachment, conviction, and disqualification of former officers, including presidents.\" Law professors Laurence H. Tribe and Stephen I. Vladeck argued that because removal from office is only one of the two possible consequences of a conviction (the other being disqualification from holding public office), the purpose of the trial is not nullified if the impeached person no longer holds public office. Gregg Nunziata, a former Republican lawyer for the Senate Judiciary Committee, similarly noted that because impeachment power includes the power to disqualify the person from federal office for life, allowing officeholders to evade this by resigning would render \"this important punishment ... a nullity.\" Leading conservative lawyer Charles J. Cooper agreed, writing in the \"Wall Street Journal\" the weekend before the trial that there is no Constitutional prohibition against a post-presidency trial. Cardozo School of Law constitutional law professor Kate Shaw argued that \"drafting history, impeachment practice, and basic constitutional design all point clearly in favor of the constitutionality of trying an ex-president.\" Legal scholar Brian C. Kalt, who has published research about late impeachments, stated, \"In multiple cases, the House and Senate have proceeded as though they can impeach and try people who have already left office, and in one case the Senate took a specific vote to that effect.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the Republican Party (United States)",
        "text": "Donald Trump is the first president in US history to be impeached twice. The first impeachment was in December 2019 but he was acquitted by the Senate in February 2020. The second impeachment was in January 2021 where he again was acquitted after he left office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment trial of Donald Trump",
        "text": "Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution disqualifies from federal or state office anyone who has taken an oath to support the Constitution and either \"engaged in insurrection or rebellion\" against the Constitution, or \"given aid to the enemies\" of the US. Although the section's text does not explicitly describe how it is invoked, by congressional precedent, disqualification is invoked by a simple majority of both chambers, and can be removed by a supermajority of both chambers. During the second impeachment of Donald Trump, Section 3 was cited in the Article of Impeachment as part of the basis for barring Trump from holding future office. It is disputed whether Section 3 can be used as a potential \"alternate path to disqualification [from office]\" if the Senate votes to acquit Trump of the impeachment charge. Democrats such as Richard Blumenthal, Chris Murphy, Dick Durbin, and Ben Cardin, have considered invoking Section 3 to bar Trump from holding office again, though such a move would enter uncharted constitutional and legal territory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Transition Integrity Project",
        "text": "In response, Nancy Pelosi, The Speaker of the House, and many Democrats called for one article of Impeachment against Donald J. Trump for, \"Incitement of Insurrection\". Donald Trump was impeached by the House of Representatives for a second time on January 13, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hung Pham",
        "text": "In January, 2008, Hung Pham announced that he would not seek re-election."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of the United States (2008\u2013present)",
        "text": "On December 18, 2019, the Democratic-controlled House of Representatives, for the third time in U.S. history, voted to pass articles of impeachment against a sitting president. President Donald Trump was impeached due to allegations of abuse of power and obstruction of Congress. On February 5, 2020, he was acquitted by the Republican-controlled U.S. Senate. Every Democrat voted to convict while every Republican, with the exception of Senator Mitt Romney of Utah, voted to acquit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "There have been several unsuccessful attempts to initiate impeachment proceedings against presidents, including John Tyler (impeachment defeated in the House, 83\u2013127), George W. Bush, and Barack Obama."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States Congress in relation to the president and Supreme Court",
        "text": "Impeachment proceedings may not inflict more than this; however, the party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law. In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. (Another resigned before the Senate could complete the trial). Only three Presidents of the United States have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868, Bill Clinton in 1999, and Donald Trump in 2019 and 2021. All trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two-thirds majority required for conviction. In 1974, Richard Nixon resigned from office after impeachment proceedings in the House Judiciary Committee indicated he would eventually be removed from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Article One of the United States Constitution",
        "text": "This power, which is analogous to the bringing of criminal charges by a grand jury, has been used only rarely. The House has begun impeachment proceedings 62 times since 1789, and twenty federal officials have been formally impeached as a result, including: three presidents (Andrew Johnson, Bill Clinton, and Donald Trump), one Cabinet secretary (William W. Belknap), one senator (William Blount), one Supreme Court associate justice (Samuel Chase), and fourteen federal judges. Also, notably, impeachment proceedings compelled the resignation of President Richard Nixon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hung Hsiu-chu",
        "text": "She was again elected as the non-partisan legislature in the seventh election term on 12 January 2008. In August 2008, she revealed secret accounts held abroad by former President Chen Shui-bian to the public which infuriated Chen's supporters. Hung won the election again in the eighth election term on 14 January 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry S. Johnston",
        "text": "Nationwide, it would be nearly 60 years before another U.S. governor was impeached\u2014Governor Evan Mecham of Arizona in 1988."
      },
      {
        "title": "Corruption scandals in the Paris region",
        "text": "On 10 October 2001, the Court of Cassation ruled that, while the president cannot be prosecuted by normal judicial means during his mandate, such an impossibility suspends the delays of prescription (statute of limitation). If Chirac does not run for office again in 2007 or is not re-elected, he may then be prosecuted on the several affairs he is involved in. This might explain why in 2003 some in the presidential entourage floated around the idea of Chirac running for a third term."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pan Men-an",
        "text": "He was reelected again to the office after winning the 2012 Republic of China legislative election held on 14 January 2012 and served from 1 February 2012 until 25 December 2014."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of former United States presidents who ran for office",
        "text": "List of former United States presidents who ran for office\n--Presidency.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Park Joo-sun",
        "text": "On 14 March 2017, just 4 days after the president Park Geun-hye was impeached from the office, he declared to run for the president. He became one of the candidates for the party's primary, but defeated by Ahn Cheol-soo."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of former presidents of the Philippines who pursued public office",
        "text": "This list only includes \"former\" presidents (those who are not in position anymore and seeking for a comeback) who ran again for president."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States Congress",
        "text": "The Constitution concentrates removal powers in the Congress by empowering and obligating the House of Representatives to impeach both executive and judicial officials for \"Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors\". Impeachment is a \"formal accusation\" of unlawful activity by a civil officer or government official. The Senate is constitutionally empowered and obligated to try all impeachments. A simple majority in the House is required to impeach an official; however, a two-thirds majority in the Senate is required for conviction. A convicted official is automatically removed from office; in addition, the Senate may stipulate that the defendant be banned from holding office in the future. Impeachment proceedings may not inflict more than this; however, a convicted party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law. In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. Another resigned before the Senate could complete the trial. Only three presidents have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868, Bill Clinton in 1999, Donald Trump in 2019 and 2021. The trials of Johnson, Clinton, and the 2019 trial of Trump all ended in acquittal; in Johnson's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two-thirds majority required for conviction. In 1974, Richard Nixon resigned from office after impeachment proceedings in the House Judiciary Committee indicated he would eventually be removed from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment trial of Donald Trump",
        "text": "The impeachment managers argued that the expiration of Trump's term, and his new status as a private citizen, did not present a bar to Senate trial and conviction, writing: \"There is no 'January exception' to impeachment or any other provision of the Constitution. A president must answer comprehensively for his conduct in office from his first day in office through his last. and that it was \"unthinkable\" that the Framers of the Constitution would have left the country \"virtually defenseless against a president's treachery in his final days, allowing him to misuse power, violate his Oath, and incite insurrection against Congress and our electoral institutions simply because he is a lame duck.\" The House brief stated that \"if provoking an insurrectionary riot against a Joint Session of Congress after losing an election is not an impeachable offense, it is hard to imagine what would be.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Bakili Muluzi",
        "text": "In early March 2007, with many prominent members of the UDF calling for Muluzi to run for president in 2009, the party said that he would have until March 11 to declare whether he intended to run. Accordingly, on that date Muluzi announced that he would seek the party's nomination as its presidential candidate. The question of whether Muluzi is eligible to run again has raised some controversy. Because the constitution refers to a limit of two consecutive terms, this could be regarded as enabling Muluzi to run again after being out of office for a term."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "An impeachment process against Richard Nixon was commenced, but not completed, as he resigned from office before the full House voted on the articles of impeachment. To date, no president or vice president has been removed from office by impeachment and conviction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "The president, about whom an investigation has been initiated, may not call for an election. The president, who is convicted by the Court, would be removed from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "The president can be impeached by Parliament and is then suspended. A referendum then follows to determine whether the suspended President should be removed from office. President Traian B\u0103sescu was impeached twice by the Parliament: in 2007 and then again in July 2012. A referendum was held on 19 May 2007 and a large majority of the electorate voted against removing the president from office. For the most recent suspension a referendum was held on July 29, 2012; the results were heavily against the president, but the referendum was invalidated due to low turnout."
      },
      {
        "title": "Donald Trump",
        "text": "On January 11, 2021, an article of impeachment charging Trump with incitement of insurrection against the U.S. government was introduced to the House. The House voted 232\u2013197 to impeach Trump on January 13, making him the first U.S. officeholder to be impeached twice. The impeachment, which was the most rapid in history, followed an unsuccessful bipartisan effort to strip Trump of his powers and duties via Section 4 of the 25th Amendment. Ten Republicans voted for impeachment\u2014the most members of a party ever to vote to impeach a president of their own party."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ben Shenton",
        "text": "Despite deciding not to stand for re-election and his term of office ended 14 November 2011, Shenton has said that he hopes to return to the political arena in the future."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eric Chu",
        "text": "Chu ran for re-election in the 2005 Republic of China local election on 3 December 2005 and defeated DPP challenger Cheng Pao-ching, CEO of Taiwan Salt Company. He then took office for his second term as magistrate on 20 December 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of presidents who did not win reelection",
        "text": "This is a list of incumbent presidents in any country who ran for another term in office but were not reelected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chiu Ching-chun",
        "text": "In 2014, Chiu ran for reelection. He faced independent candidate Cheng Yung-chin, who had served as magistrate from 2001 to 2009. Chiu won the election."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Liu",
        "text": "In a December 1985 speech, Chiang Hsiao-wu's father Chiang Ching-kuo declared \u2033If someone asks me whether anyone in my family would run for the next presidential term, my reply is, \u2032It can't be and it won't be.\u2032\u2033 Prior to the Henry Liu murder, Chiang Hsiao-wu was the only one of Chiang Ching-kuo's sons mentioned as a potential successor to his father; the younger Chiang later served on the trade mission to Singapore, a move seen as soft exile."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of impeachment investigations of United States federal judges",
        "text": "The case was never heard of again."
      },
      {
        "title": "President of the People's Republic of China",
        "text": "Article 84 of the Constitution of China. If the office of president falls vacant, then the vice-president succeeds to the office. If both offices fall vacant, then the chairman of the NPC Standing Committee temporarily acts as president until the NPC can elect a new president and vice-president."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of impeachments of heads of state",
        "text": "List of impeachments of heads of state\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment of Donald Trump",
        "text": "On January 25, three senators spoke out against impeachment. Senator Joni Ernst (R-IA) said \"My concern right now is that the president is no longer in office. Congress would be opening itself to a dangerous standard of using impeachment as a tool for political revenge against a private citizen, and the only remedy at this point is to strip the convicted of their ability to run for future office \u2013 a move that would undoubtedly strip millions of voters of their ability to choose a candidate in the next election.\" Senator Rand Paul (R-KY) tweeted \"I object to this unconstitutional sham of an 'impeachment' trial and I will force a vote on whether the Senate can hold a trial of a private citizen.\" Senator Richard Burr (R-NC) said \"A charge like this should go to the Justice Department and be referred for prosecution. Unfortunately, that's not what they're doing,\" However, Burr ended up voting to convict Trump for the charges on incitement of insurrection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aman Tuleyev",
        "text": "Tuleyev ran for president again in the 1996 election. However, he ultimately dropped out before the day of the election."
      },
      {
        "title": "2024 United States presidential election",
        "text": "Donald Trump was defeated by Joe Biden in 2020 and is currently eligible to run again in 2024. If he decides to run, he would be seeking to become the second president, after Grover Cleveland, to serve two non-consecutive terms. Trump is considered likely to receive the Republican presidential nomination if he does run. The last president to run after leaving office was Theodore Roosevelt, who came in second in the 1912 election as the presidential nominee of the Progressive Party, although Herbert Hoover did briefly seek the Republican presidential nomination at national conventions subsequent to his leaving office in 1933."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hardline",
        "text": "He later ran again for President in 2021 and won the election by 61.9% of the popular vote, succeeding Rouhani, who was term-limited."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yao Lifa",
        "text": "Yao, who has a vocational school education and works at an elementary school, began competing for a seat in the local people\u2019s congress in 1987, when the election law was first promulgated. The law allows for self-nominated candidates, and Yao used this provision to run for office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oleg Khorzhan",
        "text": "He ran for president again in the 2016 presidential election, this time as a PCP candidate. He placed third with 3.17% of the vote."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of efforts to impeach presidents of the United States",
        "text": "Three United States presidents have been impeached, although none were convicted: Andrew Johnson was in 1868, Bill Clinton was in 1998, and Donald Trump twice, in 2019 and 2021. Richard Nixon resigned as a result of the Watergate Scandal in 1974, after the House Judiciary Committee passed articles of impeachment but before the House could vote to impeach."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Case for Impeachment",
        "text": "CBC News interviewed academics including constitutional law expert and resource for the U.S. House Judiciary Committee in the impeachment of Bill Clinton, Susan Low Bloch, who were skeptical of some of the book's arguments. Bloch opined that impeachment was not as easy as was thought: \"You are undoing a national election, and I can't think of anything more serious politically than undoing an election. Whether you like Trump or not, he's now the president until he's done something impeachable \u2013 which he hasn't, so far as we know.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "United States House Select Committee on the January 6 Attack",
        "text": "A conviction, in turn, may be used to bar individuals from running for office in the future, as insurrectionists are constitutionally ineligible to hold public office. It is, however, unclear who enforces that. In January 2022, lawyers challenged Representative Madison Cawthorn's eligibility to run for reelection, and, in March 2022, Representative Marjorie Taylor Greene's eligibility was similarly challenged."
      },
      {
        "title": "A. James Manchin",
        "text": "Though he initially vowed to stay in office, conviction by the Senate would have meant losing his eligibility to run for office again, and could have cost him his pension. He resigned before his trial by the State Senate was completed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lim Ban Hong",
        "text": "In November 2021 state election, he get to be re-elected again after regaining the Kelebang seat back by defeating the incumbent Gue Teck."
      },
      {
        "title": "Su Jia-chyuan",
        "text": "Su was impeached by the Control Yuan on 3 September 2012, for illegally constructing a luxury farmhouse on agricultural land without engaging in any agriculture. Su's villa, built on agricultural land, was a controversial issue in the 2012 presidential elections."
      },
      {
        "title": "Keith Ellison",
        "text": "In 2017 Ellison declared that he is open to demands to start an impeachment process against President Donald Trump, saying \"Donald Trump has already done a number of things which legitimately raise the question of impeachment.\" By the December 2019 Impeachment of Donald Trump, Ellison was no longer serving in the U.S. House of Representatives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nomination and confirmation to the Supreme Court of the United States",
        "text": "It is also possible that a vacancy could arise if a justice were removed from office following impeachment. of the Constitution grants to the House of Representatives \"the sole power of impeachment\", and grants to the Senate \"the sole Power to try all Impeachments\". The only justice to ever be impeached was Samuel Chase, in 1804; he was found not guilty by the Senate the following year, and remained in office until his death in 1811. Less substantial efforts towards impeachment of a sitting justice, not reaching a House vote, have occurred more recently: William O. Douglas was twice the subject of hearings, first in 1953 and again in 1970. No mechanism presently exists for removing a justice who is permanently incapacitated by illness or injury, both unable to resign and unable to resume service."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leonid Chernovetskyi",
        "text": "In February 2012 Chernovetskyi stated he will not run for re-election."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment trial of Donald Trump",
        "text": "Hear ye! Hear ye! Hear ye! All persons are commanded to keep silent, on pain of imprisonment, while the House of Representatives is exhibiting to the Senate of the United States articles of impeachment against Donald John Trump, \"the now former\" President of the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Case for Impeachment",
        "text": "On November 11, 2016, three days after Trump won the 2016 US presidential election, Lichtman reiterated to \"The Washington Post\" another prediction he had made in September 2016 \u2013 that Trump would be impeached as president. He predicted this reasoning that a Republican controlled US Congress would rather have a more stable Mike Pence elevated from Vice President of the United States to the presidency. He explained to \"The Washington Post\": \"They don't want Trump as president, because they can't control him. He's unpredictable. They'd love to have Pence \u2013 an absolutely down-the-line, conservative, controllable Republican.\" Lichtman elaborated on the likelihood of his impeachment assessment: \"I'm quite certain Trump will give someone grounds for impeachment, either by doing something that endangers national security or because it helps his pocketbook.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "provides:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "provides:"
      },
      {
        "title": "President of the United States",
        "text": "A person who meets the above qualifications would, however, still be disqualified from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions:\n* Under , having been impeached, convicted and disqualified from holding further public office, although there is some legal debate as to whether the disqualification clause also includes the presidential office: the only previous persons so punished were three federal judges.\n* Under Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment, no person who swore an oath to support the Constitution, and later rebelled against the United States, is eligible to hold any office. However, this disqualification can be lifted by a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress. There is, again, some debate as to whether the clause as written allows disqualification from the presidential position, or whether it would first require litigation outside of Congress, although there is precedent for use of this amendment outside of the original intended purpose of excluding Confederates from public office after the Civil War.\n* Under the Twenty-second Amendment, no person can be elected president more than twice. The amendment also specifies that if any eligible person serves as president or acting president for more than two years of a term for which some other eligible person was elected president, the former can only be elected president once."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unsuccessful efforts to impeach United States federal officials",
        "text": "Hanford resigned."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ted Hsu",
        "text": "In August 2014, Hsu announced that he would not run for re-election in the upcoming 2015 federal election, citing the burdens of political life on his young family."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of impeachment investigations of United States federal judges",
        "text": "The Senate had the option to forbid Hastings from ever seeking federal office again, but did not do so. Alleged co-conspirator, attorney William Borders went to jail again for refusing to testify in the impeachment proceedings, but was later given a full pardon by President Bill Clinton on his last day in office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Conviction immediately removes the defendant from office. Following the vote on conviction, the Senate may by a separate vote also bar the individual from holding future federal office, elected or appointed. As the threshold for disqualification is not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, the Senate has taken the position that disqualification votes only require a simple majority rather than a two-thirds supermajority. The Senate has used disqualification sparingly, as only three individuals have been disqualified from holding future office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "The U.S. House of Representatives has impeached an official 21 times since 1789: four times for presidents, 15 times for federal judges, once for a Cabinet secretary, and once for a senator. Of the 21, the Senate voted to remove 8 (all federal judges) from office. The four impeachments of presidents were: Andrew Johnson in 1868, Bill Clinton in 1998, and Donald Trump twice: first in 2019, and a second time in 2021. All four impeachments were followed by acquittal in the Senate. An impeachment process was also commenced against Richard Nixon, but he resigned in 1974 to avoid likely removal from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Kemp",
        "text": "In March 2021, Kemp said he would back a campaign by Trump to run for the presidency again in 2024."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Dilma Rousseff",
        "text": "The Senate found President Dilma Rousseff guilty of responsibility crimes and administrative misconduct regarding the federal budget and removed her from office after a vote of 61\u201320 on 31 August 2016. In a separate vote on whether she should be barred from public office for eight years, senators voted 42\u201336 in favor. A two-thirds majority of the votes (54 of 81 senators) would have been needed, so she will be able to run for any public office again in the near future. She has vowed to do so."
      },
      {
        "title": "Politics of the Republic of China",
        "text": "In a hotly contested election on 20 March 2004, President Chen Shui-bian was re-elected by 50.1% of the popular vote to a second term. The election was marred by a shooting incident the day before the election during which President Chen and his running mate Vice President Annette Lu were slightly wounded. While the opposition contested the results and suggested the shooting was staged to win sympathy (as President Chen had previously been slated to lose narrowly), it was the first time that the DPP has won an outright majority in an island-wide election."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gus Bilirakis",
        "text": "As a result of the 2021 United States Capitol attack, the House of Representatives impeached Trump a second time. Bilirakis voted against impeachment, calling it \"politically motivated\" and a \"highly polarizing ruse that will only further divide Americans\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Abdurrahman Wahid",
        "text": "Because there were no candidates who met the requirements to get votes, that is, out of half the number of legislative members present, a third round of elections was held. In this third round Hamzah Haz was elected vice president after winning 340 votes out of 610 total votes. Meanwhile, Akbar Tandjung received 237 votes, leaving only 29 abstain and 4 invalid votes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment of Donald Trump",
        "text": "Because the Senate was not scheduled to reconvene until January 19, 2021, members of Congress discussed holding the trial after Trump had left office. A former president had never been tried by the Senate; however, Secretary of War William W. Belknap was impeached by the House and tried by the Senate after he had resigned."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How often do impeachment proceedings lead to guilty verdicts for heads of state?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "While I can't find any statistics about how often impeachments lead to guilty verdicts on the whole, I did find that in Latin America (which includes almost 40% of all presidential systems in the world) 10 presidents from 6 countries were removed from office between 1978 and 2019. Republic of Lithuania President Rolandas Paksas was also removed from office via impeached on April 6, 2004, and was the first European head of state to ever be impeached."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did Rolandas Paksas do to cause his removal from office?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It emerged that he had granted citizenship to a major campaign donor, leading to his impeachment and removal from office in April 2004."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has there been any impeachment incident in China?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can someone who is impeached run for office again in the United States?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Conviction immediately removes the defendant from office. Following the vote on conviction, the Senate may by a separate vote also bar the individual from holding future federal office, elected or appointed.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "It depends. Following the vote on conviction, the Senate may by a separate vote, also bar the individual from holding future federal office, elected or appointed."
    ],
    "topic": "Impeachment",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Impeachment in the United States:52",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Impeachment in the United States",
          "Federal impeachment",
          "Procedure",
          "Removal and disqualification"
        ],
        "ctx": "Conviction immediately removes the defendant from office. Following the vote on conviction, the Senate may by a separate vote also bar the individual from holding future federal office, elected or appointed. As the threshold for disqualification is not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, the Senate has taken the position that disqualification votes only require a simple majority rather than a two-thirds supermajority. The Senate has used disqualification sparingly, as only three individuals have been disqualified from holding future office."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Impeachment in the United States:52",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Impeachment in the United States",
          "Federal impeachment",
          "Procedure",
          "Removal and disqualification"
        ],
        "ctx": "Conviction immediately removes the defendant from office. Following the vote on conviction, the Senate may by a separate vote also bar the individual from holding future federal office, elected or appointed. As the threshold for disqualification is not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, the Senate has taken the position that disqualification votes only require a simple majority rather than a two-thirds supermajority. The Senate has used disqualification sparingly, as only three individuals have been disqualified from holding future office."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Conviction immediately removes the defendant from office. Following the vote on conviction, the Senate may by a separate vote also bar the individual from holding future federal office, elected or appointed. As the threshold for disqualification is not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, the Senate has taken the position that disqualification votes only require a simple majority rather than a two-thirds supermajority. The Senate has used disqualification sparingly, as only three individuals have been disqualified from holding future office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Upon conviction in the Senate, the official is automatically removed from office and may by a separate vote also be barred from holding future office. The Senate trial is not an actual criminal proceeding and more closely resembles a civil service termination appeal in terms of the contemplated deprivation. Therefore, the removed official may still be liable to criminal prosecution under a subsequent criminal proceeding. The president may not grant a pardon in the impeachment case, but may in any resulting federal criminal case (unless it is the president who is convicted and thus loses the pardon power). However, whether the president can self-pardon for criminal offenses is an open question, which has never been reviewed by a court."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "In the United States' federal impeachment trials, if an incumbent officeholder is convicted by a vote of two-thirds of the Senate, they are automatically removed for office. The Senate can, after convicting, vote by a simple majority to bar the convicted individual from holding federal office in the future."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scire facias",
        "text": "Some American legal scholars have suggested that impeachment may not be the sole method to remove a federal judge from office, pointing to \"scire facias\" as an alternative. The actual writ of \"scire facias\" has been suspended in the federal district courts by Rule 81(b) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, but the rule still allows for granting relief formerly available through \"scire facias\" by prosecuting a civil action."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States presidential election",
        "text": "Upon conviction at impeachment, the Senate may vote to disqualify that person from holding any \u201cpublic office... under the United States\u201d in the future. Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits the election to any federal office of any person who engaged in insurrection after having held any federal or state office, rebellion or treason; this disqualification can be waived if such an individual gains the consent of two-thirds of both houses of Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Article One of the United States Constitution",
        "text": "If any officer or the President or the Vice President is convicted on impeachment, that person is immediately removed from office and may be barred from holding any federal office in the future. This is purely a political remedy which \"touches neither his person, nor his property; but simply divests him of his political capacity,\" however the convicted person remains liable to trial and punishment in the courts for civil and criminal charges. The President can not reinstate an impeached officer with his Article II appointment power if such officers have been disqualified to hold any future federal office as part of their conviction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment trial of Donald Trump",
        "text": "A Congressional Research Service report concluded \"that while the matter is open to debate, the weight of scholarly authority agrees that former officials may be impeached and tried.\" Ahead of the trial, 150 legal scholars from across the political spectrum published a letter affirming \"that the Constitution permits the impeachment, conviction, and disqualification of former officers, including presidents.\" Law professors Laurence H. Tribe and Stephen I. Vladeck argued that because removal from office is only one of the two possible consequences of a conviction (the other being disqualification from holding public office), the purpose of the trial is not nullified if the impeached person no longer holds public office. Gregg Nunziata, a former Republican lawyer for the Senate Judiciary Committee, similarly noted that because impeachment power includes the power to disqualify the person from federal office for life, allowing officeholders to evade this by resigning would render \"this important punishment ... a nullity.\" Leading conservative lawyer Charles J. Cooper agreed, writing in the \"Wall Street Journal\" the weekend before the trial that there is no Constitutional prohibition against a post-presidency trial. Cardozo School of Law constitutional law professor Kate Shaw argued that \"drafting history, impeachment practice, and basic constitutional design all point clearly in favor of the constitutionality of trying an ex-president.\" Legal scholar Brian C. Kalt, who has published research about late impeachments, stated, \"In multiple cases, the House and Senate have proceeded as though they can impeach and try people who have already left office, and in one case the Senate took a specific vote to that effect.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "The impeachment proceedings are remedial rather than punitive in nature, and the remedy is limited to removal from office. Because all officers in the federal government are confirmed in the Senate, officers appointed under the Appointments Clause of the Constitution may also be disqualified from holding any other appointed office under the United States in the future. Because the process is not punitive, a party may also be subject to criminal or civil trial, prosecution, and conviction under the law after removal from office. Also because the conviction is not a punishment, the president is constitutionally precluded from granting a pardon to impeached and convicted persons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Torcaso v. Watkins",
        "text": "Rebuffing the judgment of the Maryland Court of Appeals, Justice Black added: \"The fact, however, that a person is not compelled to hold public office cannot possibly be an excuse for barring him from office by state-imposed criteria forbidden by the Constitution.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Of the 21 impeachments by the House, eight defendants were convicted and removed from office, four cases did not come to trial because the individuals had left office and the Senate did not pursue the case, and nine ended in acquittal. To date, every convicted official was a federal judge. Of the eight to have been convicted and removed, three were disqualified from ever holding federal office again by the Senate. One of the remaining five is former congressman Alcee Hastings (D-Florida), who was convicted and removed from office as a federal judge in 1989, but was not barred from holding federal office, only to be elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1992, a seat he held until his death on April 6, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment of Donald Trump",
        "text": "On January 26, eight senators spoke out against impeachment. Senator James Lankford (R-OK) said \"This is not a trial; this is political theater. You cannot remove someone from the office who is already out of office. In this trial, there is no current President, no Chief Justice, and no possibility someone could be removed from office because they are not in any office. In a moment when our nation needs to unite, this trial will only create even deeper divisions.\" Senator Jim Inhofe (R-OK) tweeted \"Given that the penalty for impeachment shall be removed from office, my reading of the Constitution leads me to believe that the Founders did not intend for us to impeach former federal officeholders. I agree with @RandPaul that it's not constitutional to try a former president.\" Senator John Kennedy (R-LA) said \"Today, I voted to affirm that these impeachment proceedings are unconstitutional. Based on the information I have right now, I voted today and will vote again later in the impeachment trial to dismiss the impeachment proceedings against former President Trump.\" Senator Rand Paul (R-KY) tweeted \"This impeachment is nothing more than a partisan exercise designed to further divide the country. Democrats claim to want to unify the country but impeaching a former president, a private citizen, is the antithesis of unity.\" Senator Richard Shelby (R-AL) told reporters he has \"deep reservations whether they should be trying him at all.\" Senator Roy Blunt (R-MO) tweeted that \"I believe the constitutional purpose for presidential impeachment is to remove a president from office, not to punish a person after they have left office.\" Senator Shelley Moore Capito (R-WV) said \"My vote today to dismiss the article of impeachment is based on the fact that impeachment was designed to remove an officeholder from public office. The Constitution does not give Congress the power to impeach a private citizen. This charge is directed at an individual who no longer holds public office. I believe it is time we focus our attention and energies on the numerous challenges our country presently faces. Instead of taking a path of divisiveness, let us heed the call to unity that we have heard spoken so often over the past few weeks.\" Senator Thom Tillis (R-NC) said \"On January 6, I said voting to reject the states' electors was a dangerous precedent we should not set. Likewise, impeaching a former President who is now a private citizen would be equally unwise.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Office of profit",
        "text": "First, a person who is convicted upon impeachment faces two restrictions: 1) Removal from office; and 2) Disqualification to hold an office honor, trust or profit. Specifically, Article I, section 3, clause 7 provides:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Constitution of Texas",
        "text": "No person may be convicted save by the consent of two-thirds of the Senators present, who have taken an oath or affirmation to impartially try the impeached. Judgement in impeachment cases does not extend beyond removal from office and disqualification from public office. The convicted remains subject to trial, indictment and punishment according to law."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unsuccessful efforts to impeach United States federal officials",
        "text": "Only one Cabinet member, William W. Belknap, has ever been impeached. He was not convicted in his impeachment trial. However, there have been several unsuccessful efforts at impeaching Cabinet members."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment of Donald Trump",
        "text": "On January 25, three senators spoke out against impeachment. Senator Joni Ernst (R-IA) said \"My concern right now is that the president is no longer in office. Congress would be opening itself to a dangerous standard of using impeachment as a tool for political revenge against a private citizen, and the only remedy at this point is to strip the convicted of their ability to run for future office \u2013 a move that would undoubtedly strip millions of voters of their ability to choose a candidate in the next election.\" Senator Rand Paul (R-KY) tweeted \"I object to this unconstitutional sham of an 'impeachment' trial and I will force a vote on whether the Senate can hold a trial of a private citizen.\" Senator Richard Burr (R-NC) said \"A charge like this should go to the Justice Department and be referred for prosecution. Unfortunately, that's not what they're doing,\" However, Burr ended up voting to convict Trump for the charges on incitement of insurrection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mensal\u00e3o scandal",
        "text": "To expel a deputy, 257 votes out of 513 are needed. Expelled deputies lose their seats and also their parliamentary privileges and immunity. Members can also be barred from holding public office for eight years. Jefferson for example cannot run for office again until 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States House Select Committee on the January 6 Attack",
        "text": "A conviction, in turn, may be used to bar individuals from running for office in the future, as insurrectionists are constitutionally ineligible to hold public office. It is, however, unclear who enforces that. In January 2022, lawyers challenged Representative Madison Cawthorn's eligibility to run for reelection, and, in March 2022, Representative Marjorie Taylor Greene's eligibility was similarly challenged."
      },
      {
        "title": "U.S. state",
        "text": "The constitutions of 19 states allow for citizens to remove and replace an elected public official before the end of their term of office through a recall election. Each state follows its own procedures for recall elections, and sets its own restrictions on how often, and how soon after a general election, they may be held. In all states, the legislatures can remove state executive branch officials, including governors, who have committed serious abuses of their power from office. The process of doing so includes impeachment (the bringing of specific charges), and a trial, in which legislators act as a jury."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unsuccessful efforts to impeach United States federal officials",
        "text": "Ultimately, Barr was not impeached."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unsuccessful efforts to impeach United States federal officials",
        "text": "On June 30, 2020, Tennessee Democratic Representative Steve Cohen and 35 cosponsors introduced a resolution (H.Res.1032) on the House floor calling for the impeachment of Attorney General William Barr for many instances of alleged malfeasance. Hearings on the topic on a more general fashion had already taken place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "None of the Republican senators who voted for acquittal ever again served in an elected office. Although they were under intense pressure to change their votes to conviction during the trial, afterward public opinion rapidly shifted around to their viewpoint. Some senators who voted for conviction, such as John Sherman and even Charles Sumner, later changed their minds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Constitution of New Jersey",
        "text": "A state officer may be impeached while in office or for two years after leaving office. The impeachment process is similar to that of the Federal level: an absolute majority in the lower house (the General Assembly) against the employee causes a trial to take place in the upper house (the State Senate) with the Chief Justice presiding. Unlike the Federal process, the oath necessary to participate in the impeachment sessions is specified and requires the senators to \"truly and impartially\" address the charge as a reminder that they are exercising more judicial functions. \u2154 of the votes, or 27 votes, are needed to convict, but the President of the Senate is excluded from the trial, so the required percentage is slightly higher than \u2154 of 40. The maximum penalty is removal from office with disqualification to hold further state office. However, the impeachment does not count towards the restriction on double jeopardy; after being convicted by the senate, a person could then be tried by the judiciary and punished further. If this crime was listed according to Article II, Section I, Item 7, the offender can be disenfranchised."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the Philippines",
        "text": "Impeachment followed by conviction is often the only way to forcibly remove a sitting official. While \"impeachment\" is often used to refer to the entire process of removing an official from office, it only formally refers to the indictment stage in the House of Representatives, not the trial stage in the Senate. Under the current Constitution, an official can be impeached if one third of the House of Representatives votes in favor. Since it takes only a simple majority to set the agenda or to adjourn the House, it can be difficult for a minority of one third to bring a vote and impeach an official."
      },
      {
        "title": "Article Two of the United States Constitution",
        "text": "A person who meets the above qualifications, however, may still be constitutionally barred from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions:\n* , gives the U.S. Senate the option of forever disqualifying anyone convicted in an impeachment case from holding any federal office.\n* Section 3 of the 14th Amendment prohibits anyone who swore an oath to support the Constitution, and later rebelled against the United States, from becoming president. However, this disqualification can be lifted by a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress.\n* The 22nd Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected to the presidency more than twice (or once if the person serves as president or acting president for more than two years of a presidential term to which someone else was originally elected)."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of impeachment investigations of United States federal judges",
        "text": "The Senate had the option to forbid Hastings from ever seeking federal office again, but did not do so. Alleged co-conspirator, attorney William Borders went to jail again for refusing to testify in the impeachment proceedings, but was later given a full pardon by President Bill Clinton on his last day in office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kellyanne Conway",
        "text": "The Hatch Act of 1939 states that federal government employees must not advocate their political beliefs while representing a public office. Violating such a law can result in such an employee being removed from public office, but not jailed. Conway has been accused of breaching the act on several occasions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Dilma Rousseff",
        "text": "The Senate found President Dilma Rousseff guilty of responsibility crimes and administrative misconduct regarding the federal budget and removed her from office after a vote of 61\u201320 on 31 August 2016. In a separate vote on whether she should be barred from public office for eight years, senators voted 42\u201336 in favor. A two-thirds majority of the votes (54 of 81 senators) would have been needed, so she will be able to run for any public office again in the near future. She has vowed to do so."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Conviction does not extend to further punishment, for example, loss of pension. After conviction by the Senate, \"the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law\" in the regular federal or state courts. However, the Former Presidents Act of 1958, which provides a pension and other benefits, does not extend to presidents who were removed from office following an impeachment conviction. Because of an amendment to that law in 2013, a former president who has been removed from office due to impeachment and conviction is still guaranteed lifetime Secret Service protection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Article Two of the United States Constitution",
        "text": "Any official convicted by the Senate is immediately removed from office, and to prevent the President's Article II appointment power from being used as a de facto pardon the Senate may also vote by a simple majority that the removed official be forever disqualified from holding any future office under the United States. Constitutional law expert Senator Matthew Carpenter reported that without the permanent disqualification clause impeachment would have no effect, because the President could simply reinstate his impeached officers \"the next morning\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Capps (politician)",
        "text": "Responding to a petition from Sedgwick County District Attorney Marc Bennett, Schmidt responded that he lacks the authority to remove Capps. per state law, which allows only four methods for removal of a state representative: Defeat in an election; expiration of the official's term of office; recall election; or expulsion by a vote of the state House of Representatives. He noted that state law forbids recall elections in the last 200 days of a representative's term. He also noted that, because the legislature would not meet before the election, the Legislature could not oust Capps, either."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "Upon conviction, the officeholder has his or her political rights revoked for eight years, which bars them from running for any office during that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States Congress",
        "text": "The Constitution concentrates removal powers in the Congress by empowering and obligating the House of Representatives to impeach both executive and judicial officials for \"Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors\". Impeachment is a \"formal accusation\" of unlawful activity by a civil officer or government official. The Senate is constitutionally empowered and obligated to try all impeachments. A simple majority in the House is required to impeach an official; however, a two-thirds majority in the Senate is required for conviction. A convicted official is automatically removed from office; in addition, the Senate may stipulate that the defendant be banned from holding office in the future. Impeachment proceedings may not inflict more than this; however, a convicted party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law. In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. Another resigned before the Senate could complete the trial. Only three presidents have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868, Bill Clinton in 1999, Donald Trump in 2019 and 2021. The trials of Johnson, Clinton, and the 2019 trial of Trump all ended in acquittal; in Johnson's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two-thirds majority required for conviction. In 1974, Richard Nixon resigned from office after impeachment proceedings in the House Judiciary Committee indicated he would eventually be removed from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unsuccessful efforts to impeach United States federal officials",
        "text": "When it became clear that the impeachment proceedings would be unsuccessful, they were brought to a close, and no public vote on the matter was taken."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beppe Grillo",
        "text": "Grillo has proposed that members of the Italian Parliament who have a criminal record should be banned from public office. Because Grillo was found guilty of involuntary manslaughter caused by a car accident, he cannot run for public office as a member of his own party, which prohibits those who have a criminal record from being candidates. He says he is not interested in becoming a member of the Italian Parliament. Despite this, in July 2009 he announced his intention to present himself as a candidate for the PD's primary elections, which does not imply automatic presence in the Italian parliament. He also proposed that MPs should be limited to two government terms of office, after which they may not stand again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ostracism",
        "text": "A similar modern practice is the recall election, in which the electoral body removes its representation from an elected officer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Most impeachments have concerned alleged crimes committed while in office, though there is no requirement for the misconduct to be an indictable crime. There have been a few cases in which officials have been impeached and subsequently convicted for crimes committed prior to taking office. There have also been cases where a former official was tried after leaving office. The impeached official may continue to serve their term until a trial yields a judgement that directs their removal from office or until they leave office through some other means. Federally, a two-thirds majority of the senators present at the trial is required for conviction under ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ficha Limpa",
        "text": "The Supreme Federal Court ruled in 2010 that the Clean Record law applies to that year's elections and applied to resigning the political office to escape impeachment process, even in situations that occurred before the law. The trial on the case of Congressman Jader Barbalho, again ended in a draw. Ricardo Lewandowski, Carmen L\u00facia, Ellen Gracie, Joaquim Barbosa and Ayres Britto again manifest by the immediate application of the law. Were against Marcus Aurelius, Dias Toffoli, Gilmar Mendes, Celso de Mello and Cezar Peluso. As a tiebreaker, by seven votes to three, it was decided that they would use Article 205 of the by-laws of the Supreme Court which says that \"having all justices voted, unless prevented or licensed by the remaining period exceeding three months, the impugned act shall prevail. \"well worth the decision of the Superior Electoral Court applicability in the elections of 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of efforts to impeach presidents of the United States",
        "text": "The Constitution of the United States gives Congress the authority to remove the president of the United States from office in two separate proceedings. The first one takes place in the House of Representatives, which impeaches the president of The United States of America by approving articles of impeachment through a simple majority vote. The second proceeding, the impeachment trial, takes place in the Senate. There, conviction on any of the articles requires a two-thirds majority vote and would result in the removal from office (if currently sitting), and possible debarment from holding future office."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unsuccessful efforts to impeach United States federal officials",
        "text": "\"In-camera\" hearings were due to begin in July 2020, and Barr did indeed testify before the HJC on July 28. After Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, died on September 18, 2020, several Democratic congressmembers talked about reviving proceedings as a tactic to prevent Trump from nominating a conservative successor to replace the liberal Ginsburg, slowing down the Senate's confirmation process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stella Tremblay",
        "text": "In 2013 Tremblay co-sponsored legislation maintaining that the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1871 unlawfully abrogated the United States Constitution by removing the Titles of Nobility Amendment, a proposed but unratified amendment which would have prevented people with titles of nobility from holding public office, so that the Constitution as accepted has been fraudulent since then, and seeking to correct this. This claim is frequently used by members of the alt-right to claim that lawyers, through the use of the title esquire, are barred from holding public office."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unsuccessful efforts to impeach United States federal officials",
        "text": "On July 17, 2006, U.S. Representative Jim Sensenbrenner (R-WI), Chairman of the House Judiciary Committee, introduced H.RES.916, calling for an investigation of Judge Manuel Real and consider impeaching him. The House Judiciary Committee's Subcommittee on Courts, the Internet and Intellectual Property subsequently held a hearing on Real's conduct on September 21."
      },
      {
        "title": "Federal pardons in the United States",
        "text": "A presidential pardon restores various rights lost as a result of the pardoned offense and may lessen to some extent the stigma arising from a conviction, but does not erase or expunge the record of the conviction itself. Therefore, a person who is granted a pardon must still disclose their conviction(s) on any form where such information is required, although the person may also disclose the fact that they received a pardon. Also, as most civil disabilities arising from a criminal conviction, such as loss of the right to vote and hold state public office, are imposed by state rather than federal law, they may be removed only by state action."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "Not one of the Republican senators who voted for acquittal ever again served in an elected office. Although they were under intense pressure to change their votes to conviction during the trial, afterward public opinion rapidly shifted around to their viewpoint. Some senators who voted for conviction, such as John Sherman and even Charles Sumner, later changed their minds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "Because impeachment involves a departure from the normal constitutional procedures by which individuals achieve high office (election, ratification, or appointment) and because it generally requires a supermajority, they are usually reserved for those deemed to have committed serious abuses of their office. In the United States, for example, impeachment at the federal level is limited to those who may have committed \"Treason, Bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors\"\u2014the latter phrase referring to offenses against the government or the constitution, grave abuses of power, violations of the public trust, or other political crimes, even if not indictable criminal offenses. Under the United States Constitution, the House of Representatives has the sole power of impeachments while the Senate has the sole power to try impeachments (\"i.e.\", to acquit or convict); the validity of an impeachment trial is a political question that is nonjusticiable (\"i.e.\"., is not reviewable by the courts). In the United States, impeachment is a remedial rather than penal process, intended to \"effectively 'maintain constitutional government' by removing individuals unfit for office\"; persons subject to impeachment and removal remain \"liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "1994 Massachusetts elections",
        "text": "Law Proposed by Initiative Petition - This initiative sought to prevent the name of a person from being printed on a state primary ballot as a candidate for one of a number of specified state and federal offices, if the person has already served a certain number of consecutive terms in that office within a fixed period preceding the end of the then-current term of office. If such a person were still elected by write-in vote to one of the state offices (except for the office of Governor), the person would serve without a salary, and in some of the state offices, without payment for certain expenses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "While the order of voting to impeach before voting on articles of impeachment may seem an unusual departure when contrasted to more recent United States federal impeachments, this appears to have been standard procedure for nineteenth century impeachments in the United States, as each of the five previous impeachments of federal officials that had led to a Senate trial had been conducted this same way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fernando Collor de Mello",
        "text": "However, after the inauguration of Franco, the Senate resumed sitting as a court of impeachment with the president of the Supreme Court presiding. Collor's attorneys argued that with Collor's resignation, the impeachment trial could not proceed and should close without ruling on the merits. The attorneys arguing for Collor's removal, however, argued that the trial should continue, to determine whether or not the defendant should face the constitutional penalty of suspension of political rights for eight years. The Senate voted to continue the trial. It ruled that, although the possible penalty of removal from office had been rendered moot, the determination of the former President's guilt or innocence was still relevant because a conviction on charges of impeachment would carry with it a disqualification from holding public office for eight years. The Senate found that, since the trial had already begun, the defendant could not use his right to resign the presidency as a means to avoid a ruling."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nomination and confirmation to the Supreme Court of the United States",
        "text": "It is also possible that a vacancy could arise if a justice were removed from office following impeachment. of the Constitution grants to the House of Representatives \"the sole power of impeachment\", and grants to the Senate \"the sole Power to try all Impeachments\". The only justice to ever be impeached was Samuel Chase, in 1804; he was found not guilty by the Senate the following year, and remained in office until his death in 1811. Less substantial efforts towards impeachment of a sitting justice, not reaching a House vote, have occurred more recently: William O. Douglas was twice the subject of hearings, first in 1953 and again in 1970. No mechanism presently exists for removing a justice who is permanently incapacitated by illness or injury, both unable to resign and unable to resume service."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harry E. Claiborne",
        "text": "On October 9, 1986, the United States Senate voted on whether to convict Claiborne on all four articles of impeachment. During a typical senate vote, senators answer \"aye\" or \"no,\" but during the conviction hearings senators were told to stand and say \"guilty,\" \"not guilty,\" or \"present.\" Senate President Pro Tempore Strom Thurmond put the question before each roll call: \"Senators, how say you: Is the respondent, Harry E. Claiborne, guilty or not guilty?\" Even John Stennis, who had lost a leg to cancer two years earlier, pulled himself to a standing position each time his name was called.-"
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas Porteous",
        "text": "The following day, the Senate voted unanimously to convict Porteous on the first of four impeachment charges, removing him from the bench, before subsequently convicting him on the remaining three articles. In a separate vote, per a motion by Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid, the Senate disqualified Porteous from ever holding \"any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States\" again. He is one of only three former federal officers to be permanently banned from holding federal office after being impeached and removed.\n:Article I \u2013 engaging in a pattern of conduct that is incompatible with the trust and confidence placed in him as a Federal judge \u2013 Convicted in the Senate by a vote of 96\u20130.\n:Article II \u2013 engaged in a longstanding pattern of corrupt conduct that demonstrates his unfitness to serve as a United States District Court Judge \u2013 Convicted in the Senate by a vote of 69\u201327.\n:Article III \u2013 knowingly and intentionally making false statements, under penalty of perjury, related to his personal bankruptcy filing and violating a bankruptcy court order \u2013 Convicted in the Senate by a vote of 88\u20138.\n:Article IV \u2013 knowingly made material false statements about his past to both the United States Senate and to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in order to obtain the office of United States District Court Judge \u2013 Convicted in the Senate by a vote of 90\u20136.\n:Disqualification \u2013 Forever disqualified to hold any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States \u2013 Disqualified by the Senate by a vote of 94\u20132."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unsuccessful efforts to impeach United States federal officials",
        "text": "On January 24, 1978, U.S. Representative John M. Ashbrook introduced an impeachment resolution, H.R. Res. 966, against Judge Battisti. The resolution was referred to the Judiciary Committee., where given the judge's sterling record, it died in committee. However, he tried again on January 5, 1981 with H.RES.12, where it died in committee, again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Constitutional Convention (United States)",
        "text": "The Convention decided that the method of removing an unfit president would be legislative impeachment. At the time, impeachment was used by the British Parliament to depose the king's ministers (see Impeachment in the United Kingdom)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Voting methods in deliberative assemblies",
        "text": "Repeated balloting is done when no candidate achieves a majority vote. In this case, no candidates are involuntarily eliminated. \"Mason's Manual\" states, \"In the absence of a special rule, a majority vote is necessary to elect officers and a plurality is not sufficient. A vote for the election of officers, when no candidate receives a majority vote, is of no effect, and the situation remains exactly as though no vote had been taken.\" \"Demeter's Manual\" states, \"The fact that a majority (or a plurality) of the votes are cast for an ineligible candidate does not entitle the candidate receiving the next highest number of votes to be declared elected. In such a case, the voters have failed to make a choice, and they proceed to vote again.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unsuccessful efforts to impeach United States federal officials",
        "text": "After the Justice Department notified Congress in October 2015 that there would be no charges against Lois Lerner or anyone else in the IRS, 19 Republican members of the House Oversight and Government Reform Committee led by the committee's chairman, Jason Chaffetz (R-Utah), filed a resolution to impeach Koskinen. Those sponsoring the impeachment resolution to remove Koskinen from office accused him of failing to prevent the destruction of evidence in allowing the erasure of back-up tapes containing thousands of e-mails written by Lois Lerner, and of making false statements under oath to Congress. In a statement released by the Committee, Chaffetz said Koskinen \"failed to comply with a congressionally issued subpoena, documents were destroyed on his watch, and the public was consistently misled. Impeachment is the appropriate tool to restore public confidence in the IRS and to protect the institutional interests of Congress.\" The IRS said on October 27 that it did not have an immediate comment on the impeachment resolution. Representative Elijah Cummings (D-Maryland), the committee's top Democrat, said in a statement: \"This ridiculous resolution will demonstrate nothing but the Republican obsession with diving into investigative rabbit holes that waste tens of millions of taxpayer dollars while having absolutely no positive impact on a single American. Calling this resolution a 'stunt' or a 'joke' would be insulting to stunts and jokes.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "No president impeached by the House has been convicted by the Senate. In two cases, a Senate majority voted to convict an impeached president, but the vote fell short of the required two-thirds majority and therefore the impeached president was not convicted. The two instances where this happened were the Senate trial of Andrew Johnson in 1868 (where Johnson escaped conviction by one vote), and the second Senate trial of Donald Trump in 2021, where Trump missed conviction by 10 votes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samuel Rivera",
        "text": "After appearing in front of a magistrate in Trenton and posting bail, Rivera resumed his duties the following day, Friday, September 7. State law permits elected officials to retain their offices even after they are convicted and sentenced; they can only be removed if they are formally impeached. Rivera had stated that he did not intend to resign. Nevertheless, he pleaded guilty to attempted extortion and resigned on May 9, 2008. In 2008, Rivera was sentenced to 21 months in prison."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Koskinen",
        "text": "Those sponsoring the impeachment resolution to remove Koskinen from office accused him of failing to prevent the destruction of evidence in allowing the erasure of backup tapes containing thousands of e-mails written by Lerner, and of making false statements under oath to Congress. In a statement released by the committee, Chaffetz said Koskinen \"failed to comply with a congressionally issued subpoena, documents were destroyed on his watch, and the public was consistently misled. Impeachment is the appropriate tool to restore public confidence in the IRS and to protect the institutional interests of Congress.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Loss of rights due to criminal conviction",
        "text": "There is one exception to this general principle. The Supreme Court has held that if a person is convicted of corrupt electoral practices, they can be evicted from the legislature, barred from being nominated for election for a set period, and denied the right to vote for a set period. These restrictions are acceptable because they are a sanction aimed at the very offence committed by the individual, rather than being a general disenfranchisement. The restrictions are aimed at healing the corrupted electoral process, which itself is a constitutional value, and therefore can be justified for limited periods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trader post scandal",
        "text": "On March 3, 1876, a committee of five from the House of Representatives, headed by Clymer, presented Belknap's articles of impeachment to the Senate. After much debate, on May 29, the Senate finally voted 37 to 29 that Belknap, as a private citizen, could not be barred from trial and impeachment. Belknap's lengthy Senate trial, which took place in July, was very popular and the Senate gallery was filled with onlookers. Unable to achieve the required two-thirds majority for conviction on any of the five impeachment articles, Belknap was finally acquitted by the Senate on August 1, 1876. Many of the Senators voting against conviction expressed the belief that a private citizen could not be impeached by the House or put on trial by the Senate. Grant's timely acceptance of Belknap's resignation had unquestionably saved Belknap from conviction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jason C. Gallion",
        "text": "During a debate on legislation that would ban people from simultaneously running for elected public offices and political party offices and from holding both offices at the same time, Gallion proposed amending the bill to allow an individual to run for both offices at the same time so long as they can't simultaneously hold both offices."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wayne Mixson",
        "text": "In 1973, an impeachment trial was held for Lieutenant Governor Thomas Burton Adams Jr. for using public employees for personal financial gain during his service as Secretary of Commerce. On May 17, the House of Representatives voted 61 to 55, with Mixson voting against, in favor of impeaching Adams, but needed a two-thirds majority of 78 to impeach him. After failing to impeach Adams the House of Representatives voted 88 to 26, with Mixson voting in favor, in favor of censuring Adams for using the office for personal gain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dorothy Dixer",
        "text": "While it is rare, it would be possible for a backbencher on the Government side of the house to ask a member of the Government a question without it being regarded as a Dorothy Dixer. Such a question would be one that the Minister had not planted and was not aware of in advance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "Lyman Trumbull of Illinois, one of the 10 Republican senators whose refusal to vote for conviction prevented Johnson's removal from office, noted, in the speech he gave explaining his vote for acquittal, that had Johnson been convicted, the main source of the president's political power\u2014the freedom to disagree with the Congress without consequences\u2014would have been destroyed, and the Constitution's system of checks and balances along with it:"
      },
      {
        "title": "High crimes and misdemeanors",
        "text": "The process of impeaching someone in the House of Representatives and convicting in the Senate is difficult, made so to be the balance against efforts to easily remove people from office for minor reasons that could easily be determined by the standard of \"high crimes and misdemeanors\". It was George Mason who offered up the term \"high crimes and misdemeanors\" as one of the criteria to remove public officials who abuse their office. Their original intentions can be gleaned by the phrases and words that were proposed before, such as \"high misdemeanor,\" \"maladministration,\" or \"other crime.\" Edmund Randolph said impeachment should be reserved for those who \"misbehave.\" Charles Cotesworth Pinckney said, It should be reserved \"for those who behave amiss, or betray their public trust.\" As can be seen from all these references to \"high crimes and misdemeanors,\" the definition or its rationale does not relate to specific offences. This gives a lot of freedom of interpretation to the House of Representatives and the Senate. The constitutional law by nature is not concerned with being specific. The courts through precedence and the legislature through lawmaking make constitutional provisions specific. In this case the legislature (the House of Representatives and the Senate) acts as a court and can create a precedent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)",
        "text": "Several courts have ruled that private citizens do not have standing to challenge the eligibility of candidates to appear on a presidential election ballot. Alternatively, there is a statutory method by which the eligibility of the president-elect of the United States to take office may be challenged in Congress. Some legal scholars assert that, even if eligibility challenges are nonjusticiable in federal courts, and are not undertaken in Congress, there are other avenues for adjudication, such as an action in state court in regard to ballot access."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Dilma Rousseff",
        "text": "Belluzo said that removal of an elected official should require very special care and could only be done in extreme situations, and that the trial wasn't facing one."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jos\u00e9 A. Cabranes",
        "text": "\"In re United States (Coppa)\", 267 F.3d 132 (2d Cir. 2001): Cabranes, writing for the panel and granting the government's petition for mandamus, held that the district court misapplied the teachings of \"Brady v. Maryland\", 373 U.S. 83 (1963) and its progeny in holding that the government was required, as a matter of constitutional law, to disclose all impeachment evidence immediately, pursuant to defendants' request for such, without regard to its materiality and far in advance of trial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chris Thieneman",
        "text": "Despite numerous attempts, Thieneman has never won election to any public office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "The impeachment procedure has not been used in modern times, and some legal authorities, such as \"Halsbury's Laws of England\", consider it now to be probably obsolete. The principles of \"responsible government\" require that the Prime Minister and other executive officers answer to parliament, rather than to the Sovereign. Thus the Commons can remove such an officer through a motion of no confidence without a long, drawn-out impeachment (though if such officer refuses to stand down in such a case, it remains to be seen what other devices can be used to remove them from office other than impeachment). However, it is argued by some that the remedy of impeachment remains as part of British constitutional law, and that legislation would be required to abolish it. Furthermore, impeachment as a means of punishment for wrongdoing, as distinct from being a means of removing a minister, remains a valid reason for accepting that it continues to be available, at least in theory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roscoe Conkling",
        "text": "In Johnson's impeachment trial for the removal of Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, Conkling did not serve as a manager or make any public speech but was active in the prosecution of the case. He voted guilty on several articles before the Senate adjourned. Conkling fell ill while the Senate remained in recess, but declared that if he were unable to walk or speak, he would still be carried to the chamber with the word \u201cGuilty\u201d pinned to his coat."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unsuccessful efforts to impeach United States federal officials",
        "text": "The case was never heard of again."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States constitutional criminal procedure",
        "text": "This principle does not prevent the government from appealing a pre-trial motion to dismiss or other non-merits dismissal, or a directed verdict after a jury conviction, Nor does it prevent the trial judge from entertaining a motion for reconsideration of a directed verdict, if the jurisdiction has so provided by rule or statute. Nor does it prevent the government from retrying the defendant after a deadlocked jury, an appellate reversal other than for sufficiency, including habeas, or \"thirteenth juror\" appellate reversals notwithstanding sufficiency on the principle that jeopardy has not \"terminated.\" There may also be an exception for judicial bribery, but not jury bribery.\n;Multiple punishment, including prosecution after conviction"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unsuccessful efforts to impeach United States federal officials",
        "text": "On March 22, 1867, three resolutions were introduced calling for various types of action against the allegedly corrupt Henry A. Smythe. Rep. Hulburd introduced a resolution calling for the President to remove Smythe from office. Mr. Stevens offered an impeachment resolution against Smythe and called upon the Committee on Public Expenditures to draft articles of impeachment. Finally, Rep.Samuel Shellabarger of Ohio introduced a resolution requesting the Committee on Public Expenditures investigate Smythe's conduct."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment trial of Donald Trump",
        "text": "Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution disqualifies from federal or state office anyone who has taken an oath to support the Constitution and either \"engaged in insurrection or rebellion\" against the Constitution, or \"given aid to the enemies\" of the US. Although the section's text does not explicitly describe how it is invoked, by congressional precedent, disqualification is invoked by a simple majority of both chambers, and can be removed by a supermajority of both chambers. During the second impeachment of Donald Trump, Section 3 was cited in the Article of Impeachment as part of the basis for barring Trump from holding future office. It is disputed whether Section 3 can be used as a potential \"alternate path to disqualification [from office]\" if the Senate votes to acquit Trump of the impeachment charge. Democrats such as Richard Blumenthal, Chris Murphy, Dick Durbin, and Ben Cardin, have considered invoking Section 3 to bar Trump from holding office again, though such a move would enter uncharted constitutional and legal territory."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unsuccessful efforts to impeach United States federal officials",
        "text": "Martha Bradstreet sent a petition to Congress requesting an investigation of Judge Conkling. The petition was referred to the Judiciary Committee to conduct the investigation. On April 3, 1830, the Judiciary Committee submitted its report to the House."
      },
      {
        "title": "William P. Fessenden",
        "text": "During President Andrew Johnson's impeachment trial in 1868, Fessenden broke party ranks, along with six other Republican senators, and voted for acquittal. These seven Republican senators were disturbed by how the proceedings had been manipulated in order to give a one-sided presentation of the evidence. He, Joseph S. Fowler, James W. Grimes, John B. Henderson, Lyman Trumbull, Peter G. Van Winkle, and Edmund G. Ross defied their party and public opinion and voted against conviction. They were joined by three other Republican senators (James Dixon, James Rood Doolittle, Daniel Sheldon Norton) and all nine Democrats in voting against conviction. As a result, a 35\u201319 vote in favor of removing the President from office failed by a single vote of reaching a 2/3 majority. After the trial, Congressman Benjamin Butler of Massachusetts conducted hearings on the widespread reports that Republican senators had been bribed to vote for Johnson's acquittal. In Butler's hearings, and in subsequent inquiries, there was increasing evidence that some acquittal votes were acquired by promises of patronage jobs and cash cards. This included Kansas senator Edmund G. Ross, who was actively embroiled in patronage corruption."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nowatske v. Osterloh",
        "text": "The Wisconsin Court of Appeals then determined that the questions asked during impeachment were improper, but that this was harmless error. Allowing the defendant to demonstrate the use of an ophthalmoscope in the courtroom was within the trial court's discretion, and although the appeals court did \"not approve of the involvement of jurors in such a demonstration,\" this had no effect on the outcome of the case and therefore was not reversible error."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unsuccessful efforts to impeach United States federal officials",
        "text": "On Sept.18, 1998 Rep. Alcee Hastings, who himself had been impeached and removed as a federal judge, introduced H.RES.545 impeaching Kenneth Starr, whose investigation was leading to the impeachment of President Bill Clinton. Two days later, the House voted to table the bill, 340\u201371."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mary Ha\u02bbaheo Atcherley",
        "text": "be qualified to vote for senators in the district from which he is elected.The women were therefore legally allowed to remain on the ballot, but if they had been elected, would not have been able to hold office. The Attorney General suggested another citizen propose a test case for submission to the Supreme Court. Atcherley's name remained on the ticket, but she did not get elected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Presidential Advisory Commission on Election Integrity",
        "text": "Voter impersonation (also sometimes called in-person voter fraud) is a form of electoral fraud in which a person who is eligible to vote in an election votes more than once, or a person who is not eligible to vote does so by voting under the name of an eligible voter. In the United States, voter ID laws have been enacted in a number of states since 2010 with the aim of preventing voter impersonation. Research has shown that voter impersonation is extremely rare. There is no evidence that in-person voter fraud has changed the result of any election."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unsuccessful efforts to impeach United States federal officials",
        "text": "He resigned from the Court on May 15, 1969. William J. Brennan, Jr. later said, \"We were just stunned.\" Fortas later said he \"resigned to save Douglas,\" another justice who was being investigated for a similar scandal at the same time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "According to the House practice manual, \"Impeachment is a constitutional remedy to address serious offenses against the system of government. It is the first step in a remedial process\u2014that of removal from public office and possible disqualification from holding further office. The purpose of impeachment is not punishment; rather, its function is primarily to maintain constitutional government.\" Impeachment may be understood as a unique process involving both political and legal elements. The Constitution provides that \"Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law.\" It is generally accepted that \"a former President may be prosecuted for crimes of which he was acquitted by the Senate\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joy Padgett",
        "text": "Some argued that Padgett was subject to another law\u2014a provision put into the state's budget bill in 2005 by Republicans. That provision (ORC section 3513.052(B)) prevents someone from running for office \"if that person, for the same election, has already filed a declaration of candidacy, a declaration of intent to be a write-in candidate, or a nominating petition, or has become a candidate through party nomination at a primary election or by the filling of a vacancy.\" Petro's office was not asked for an opinion on that matter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alcee Hastings",
        "text": "In 1988, the Democratic-controlled United States House of Representatives took up the case, and Hastings was impeached for bribery and perjury by a vote of 413\u20133. He was then convicted on October 20, 1989, by the United States Senate, which, at the time, was also controlled by Democrats. Hastings became the sixth federal judge in the history of the United States to be removed from office by the Senate. The Senate, in two hours of roll calls, voted on 11 of the 17 articles of impeachment. It convicted Hastings of eight of the 11 articles. The vote on the first article was 69 for and 26 opposed. He was removed from the bench, but the Senate did not preclude him from holding office in the future."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "The Senate has concluded that members of Congress (representatives and senators) are not \"civil officers\" for purposes of impeachment. As a practical matter, expulsion is effected by the simpler procedures of Article I, Section 5, which provides \"Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members... Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behavior, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member\" (see List of United States senators expelled or censured and List of United States representatives expelled, censured, or reprimanded). This allows each House to expel its own members without involving the other chamber. In 1797, the House of Representatives impeached Senator William Blount of Tennessee. The Senate expelled Senator Blount under Article I, Section 5, on the same day. However, the impeachment proceeding remained pending (expulsion only removes the individual from office, but conviction after impeachment may also bar the individual from holding future office, so the question of further punishment remained to be decided). After four days of debate, the Senate concluded that a Senator is not a \"civil officer of the United States\" for purposes of the Impeachment Clause, and dismissed for lack of jurisdiction. The House has not impeached a Member of Congress since."
      },
      {
        "title": "President of the United States",
        "text": "A person who meets the above qualifications would, however, still be disqualified from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions:\n* Under , having been impeached, convicted and disqualified from holding further public office, although there is some legal debate as to whether the disqualification clause also includes the presidential office: the only previous persons so punished were three federal judges.\n* Under Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment, no person who swore an oath to support the Constitution, and later rebelled against the United States, is eligible to hold any office. However, this disqualification can be lifted by a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress. There is, again, some debate as to whether the clause as written allows disqualification from the presidential position, or whether it would first require litigation outside of Congress, although there is precedent for use of this amendment outside of the original intended purpose of excluding Confederates from public office after the Civil War.\n* Under the Twenty-second Amendment, no person can be elected president more than twice. The amendment also specifies that if any eligible person serves as president or acting president for more than two years of a term for which some other eligible person was elected president, the former can only be elected president once."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herbert Macaulay",
        "text": "Macaulay was barred from running for public office because of legal problems - he was convicted twice by the colonial government in Lagos; the first time for fraud, and the second time for sedition."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States House Judiciary Task Force on Judicial Impeachment",
        "text": "thus concealing \"cash and things of value that he solicited and received from lawyers appearing in litigation before him.\" In a specific case, \"he denied a motion to recuse based on his relationship with lawyers in the case . . . and failed to disclose that the lawyers in question had often provided him with cash. Thereafter, while a bench verdict (that is, a verdict by a judge sitting without a jury) was pending, he solicited and received from the lawyers appearing before him illegal gratuities in the form of cash and other things of value\"\" thus depriving \"the public of its right to his honest services\". The certificate concluded that this conduct \"constituted an abuse of his judicial office\" in violation of the Canons of the Code of Conduct for United States Judges\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Federal pardons in the United States",
        "text": "One limitation to the president's power to grant pardons is \"in cases of impeachment.\" This means that the president cannot use a pardon to stop an officeholder from being impeached, or to undo the effects of an impeachment and conviction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "The constitutional text is silent on whether an officer can be tried after the officer resigns or his/her term ends. However, when the issue has arisen, the House has been willing to impeach after resignation, and the Senate has been willing to try the official after resignation. As noted, in 1797, the Senate continued impeachment proceedings against William Blount even after he had been expelled from office, dismissing the proceedings only after determining that a Senator is not a \"civil officer of the United States\". In 1876, William W. Belknap was impeached by the House of Representatives hours after resigning as United States Secretary of War. The Senate held by a 37\u201329 vote that it had jurisdiction to try Belknap notwithstanding his resignation, but ultimately acquitted him after trial. The permissibility of trying a former official was a major issue in the second impeachment trial of Donald Trump, which commenced 20 days after Trump's term in office expired, although Trump's impeachment itself occurred while he was President. By a 55\u201345 vote, the Senate rejected a motion asserting that the trial was unconstitutional."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert W. Archbald",
        "text": "Archbald was convicted on Articles I, III, IV, V and XIII and was accordingly removed from office (Article II gained a majority of votes, but not the two-thirds necessary under the U.S. Constitution to convict), and the Senate subsequently voted, by 39 to 35, to order that Archbald be forever disqualified from holding any office under the United States. Pennsylvania's two Republican Senators, Boies Penrose of Philadelphia, and George T. Oliver of Pittsburgh, had voted against impeachment and lifetime disqualification."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trial of Joseph Estrada",
        "text": "a) the legal possibility of removing a sitting president is by impeachment."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States Senate",
        "text": "The Constitution empowers the House of Representatives to impeach federal officials for \"Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors\" and empowers the Senate to try such impeachments. If the sitting president of the United States is being tried, the chief justice of the United States presides over the trial. During an impeachment trial, senators are constitutionally required to sit on oath or affirmation. Conviction requires a two-thirds majority of the senators present. A convicted official is automatically removed from office; in addition, the Senate may stipulate that the defendant be banned from holding office. No further punishment is permitted during the impeachment proceedings; however, the party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of unsuccessful efforts to impeach United States federal officials",
        "text": "On Feb 19, 1981, U.S. Representative Lawrence P. McDonald introduced an impeachment resolution, H.R. Res. 61. against Judge Scott, over the issue of court mandated busing. The bill was referred to the House Judiciary committee, where it died."
      },
      {
        "title": "House of Representatives (Thailand)",
        "text": "Those specifically barred from being candidates were those: addicted to drugs, declared bankrupt, unable to vote (see voter eligibility below), former convicted felons (the individual had to wait for five years after release to become eligible), removed from public service for being corrupt or incompetent, had assets confiscated due to embezzlement and finally, the individual had not been a member of the government or civil service, Senate, local administrations, member of the judiciary or other independent agencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "The procedure for impeachment, or removal, of local officials varies widely. For instance, in New York a mayor is removed directly by the governor \"upon being heard\" on charges\u2014the law makes no further specification of what charges are necessary or what the governor must find in order to remove a mayor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Plain meaning rule",
        "text": "However, use of the literal rule may defeat the intention of Parliament. For instance, in the case of \"Whiteley v. Chappel\", the court came to the reluctant conclusion that Whiteley could not be convicted of impersonating \"any person entitled to vote\" at an election, because the person he impersonated was dead. Using a literal construction of the relevant statutory provision, the deceased was not \"a person entitled to vote\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Federal government of the United States",
        "text": "Congress has the power to remove the president, federal judges, and other federal officers from office. The House of Representatives and Senate have separate roles in this process. The House must first vote to \"impeach\" the official. Then, a trial is held in the Senate to decide whether the official should be removed from office. , three presidents have been impeached by the House of Representatives: Andrew Johnson, Bill Clinton, and Donald Trump (twice). None of the three were removed from office following trial in the Senate."
      },
      {
        "title": "95th New York State Legislature",
        "text": "On August 19, Barnard was convicted by the Impeachment Court, was removed from office, and barred from ever holding public office again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supermajority",
        "text": "The House may, by a simple majority vote, impeach a federal official (such as, but not limited to, the president, vice president, or a federal judge). Removal from office (and optional disqualification from any federal, state or local office) requires a two-thirds supermajority of the Senate. In 1842, the House failed to impeach president John Tyler. In 1868, the Senate fell one vote short of removing president Andrew Johnson following his impeachment. In 1999, efforts to remove Bill Clinton following his impeachment in 1998 fell just short of a simple majority, and 17 votes short of the two-thirds supermajority. The impeachment procedure was last used in 2021, when former president Donald Trump was impeached for a second time and subsequently acquitted. Each chamber may expel one of its own members by a two-thirds supermajority vote; this last happened when the House expelled James Traficant in 2002."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How often do impeachment proceedings lead to guilty verdicts for heads of state?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "While I can't find any statistics about how often impeachments lead to guilty verdicts on the whole, I did find that in Latin America (which includes almost 40% of all presidential systems in the world) 10 presidents from 6 countries were removed from office between 1978 and 2019. Republic of Lithuania President Rolandas Paksas was also removed from office via impeached on April 6, 2004, and was the first European head of state to ever be impeached."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did Rolandas Paksas do to cause his removal from office?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It emerged that he had granted citizenship to a major campaign donor, leading to his impeachment and removal from office in April 2004."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has there been any impeachment incident in China?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can someone who is impeached run for office again in the United States?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Conviction immediately removes the defendant from office. Following the vote on conviction, the Senate may by a separate vote also bar the individual from holding future federal office, elected or appointed."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has anyone been barred from holding public office via the method you described?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Senate has used disqualification sparingly, as only three individuals have been disqualified from holding future office. Those who were disqualified were West Hughes Humphreys, Robert W. Archbald, and Thomas Porteous."
    ],
    "topic": "Impeachment",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Impeachment in the United States:52",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Impeachment in the United States",
          "Federal impeachment",
          "Procedure",
          "Removal and disqualification"
        ],
        "ctx": "Conviction immediately removes the defendant from office. Following the vote on conviction, the Senate may by a separate vote also bar the individual from holding future federal office, elected or appointed. As the threshold for disqualification is not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, the Senate has taken the position that disqualification votes only require a simple majority rather than a two-thirds supermajority. The Senate has used disqualification sparingly, as only three individuals have been disqualified from holding future office."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "West Hughes Humphreys:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "West Hughes Humphreys"
        ],
        "ctx": "West Hughes Humphreys (August 26, 1806 \u2013 October 16, 1882) was the 3rd Attorney General of Tennessee and a United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Tennessee, the United States District Court for the Middle District of Tennessee and the United States District Court for the Western District of Tennessee. He was ultimately impeached by the United States House of Representatives and convicted and removed from office by the United States Senate for supporting the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Robert W. Archbald:9",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Robert W. Archbald",
          "Federal judge",
          "Impeachment"
        ],
        "ctx": "Archbald was convicted on Articles I, III, IV, V and XIII and was accordingly removed from office (Article II gained a majority of votes, but not the two-thirds necessary under the U.S. Constitution to convict), and the Senate subsequently voted, by 39 to 35, to order that Archbald be forever disqualified from holding any office under the United States. Pennsylvania's two Republican Senators, Boies Penrose of Philadelphia, and George T. Oliver of Pittsburgh, had voted against impeachment and lifetime disqualification."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Thomas Porteous:18",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Thomas Porteous",
          "Impeachment proceedings",
          "Trial"
        ],
        "ctx": "The following day, the Senate voted unanimously to convict Porteous on the first of four impeachment charges, removing him from the bench, before subsequently convicting him on the remaining three articles. In a separate vote, per a motion by Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid, the Senate disqualified Porteous from ever holding \"any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States\" again. He is one of only three former federal officers to be permanently banned from holding federal office after being impeached and removed.\n:Article I \u2013 engaging in a pattern of conduct that is incompatible with the trust and confidence placed in him as a Federal judge \u2013 Convicted in the Senate by a vote of 96\u20130.\n:Article II \u2013 engaged in a longstanding pattern of corrupt conduct that demonstrates his unfitness to serve as a United States District Court Judge \u2013 Convicted in the Senate by a vote of 69\u201327.\n:Article III \u2013 knowingly and intentionally making false statements, under penalty of perjury, related to his personal bankruptcy filing and violating a bankruptcy court order \u2013 Convicted in the Senate by a vote of 88\u20138.\n:Article IV \u2013 knowingly made material false statements about his past to both the United States Senate and to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in order to obtain the office of United States District Court Judge \u2013 Convicted in the Senate by a vote of 90\u20136.\n:Disqualification \u2013 Forever disqualified to hold any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States \u2013 Disqualified by the Senate by a vote of 94\u20132."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Robert W. Archbald",
        "text": "Archbald was convicted on Articles I, III, IV, V and XIII and was accordingly removed from office (Article II gained a majority of votes, but not the two-thirds necessary under the U.S. Constitution to convict), and the Senate subsequently voted, by 39 to 35, to order that Archbald be forever disqualified from holding any office under the United States. Pennsylvania's two Republican Senators, Boies Penrose of Philadelphia, and George T. Oliver of Pittsburgh, had voted against impeachment and lifetime disqualification."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Conviction immediately removes the defendant from office. Following the vote on conviction, the Senate may by a separate vote also bar the individual from holding future federal office, elected or appointed. As the threshold for disqualification is not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, the Senate has taken the position that disqualification votes only require a simple majority rather than a two-thirds supermajority. The Senate has used disqualification sparingly, as only three individuals have been disqualified from holding future office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas Porteous",
        "text": "The following day, the Senate voted unanimously to convict Porteous on the first of four impeachment charges, removing him from the bench, before subsequently convicting him on the remaining three articles. In a separate vote, per a motion by Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid, the Senate disqualified Porteous from ever holding \"any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States\" again. He is one of only three former federal officers to be permanently banned from holding federal office after being impeached and removed.\n:Article I \u2013 engaging in a pattern of conduct that is incompatible with the trust and confidence placed in him as a Federal judge \u2013 Convicted in the Senate by a vote of 96\u20130.\n:Article II \u2013 engaged in a longstanding pattern of corrupt conduct that demonstrates his unfitness to serve as a United States District Court Judge \u2013 Convicted in the Senate by a vote of 69\u201327.\n:Article III \u2013 knowingly and intentionally making false statements, under penalty of perjury, related to his personal bankruptcy filing and violating a bankruptcy court order \u2013 Convicted in the Senate by a vote of 88\u20138.\n:Article IV \u2013 knowingly made material false statements about his past to both the United States Senate and to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in order to obtain the office of United States District Court Judge \u2013 Convicted in the Senate by a vote of 90\u20136.\n:Disqualification \u2013 Forever disqualified to hold any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States \u2013 Disqualified by the Senate by a vote of 94\u20132."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States presidential election",
        "text": "Upon conviction at impeachment, the Senate may vote to disqualify that person from holding any \u201cpublic office... under the United States\u201d in the future. Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits the election to any federal office of any person who engaged in insurrection after having held any federal or state office, rebellion or treason; this disqualification can be waived if such an individual gains the consent of two-thirds of both houses of Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry Coyle (politician)",
        "text": "Coyle remains the only TD to have been disqualified in this way."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Of the 21 impeachments by the House, eight defendants were convicted and removed from office, four cases did not come to trial because the individuals had left office and the Senate did not pursue the case, and nine ended in acquittal. To date, every convicted official was a federal judge. Of the eight to have been convicted and removed, three were disqualified from ever holding federal office again by the Senate. One of the remaining five is former congressman Alcee Hastings (D-Florida), who was convicted and removed from office as a federal judge in 1989, but was not barred from holding federal office, only to be elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1992, a seat he held until his death on April 6, 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "Senate of Thailand",
        "text": "All other disqualifications were similar to that of the House, the individual must not have been: addicted to drugs, been bankrupt, a convicted felon, a member of a local administration, a civil servant, a member of the judiciary or any other government agency. Being disenfranchised (being a member of the clergy, felon, or mentally infirm). If the candidate was a member of a local administration or a Minister he must have left his post for a period of at least five years before being eligible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Article Two of the United States Constitution",
        "text": "Any official convicted by the Senate is immediately removed from office, and to prevent the President's Article II appointment power from being used as a de facto pardon the Senate may also vote by a simple majority that the removed official be forever disqualified from holding any future office under the United States. Constitutional law expert Senator Matthew Carpenter reported that without the permanent disqualification clause impeachment would have no effect, because the President could simply reinstate his impeached officers \"the next morning\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment trial of Donald Trump",
        "text": "Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution disqualifies from federal or state office anyone who has taken an oath to support the Constitution and either \"engaged in insurrection or rebellion\" against the Constitution, or \"given aid to the enemies\" of the US. Although the section's text does not explicitly describe how it is invoked, by congressional precedent, disqualification is invoked by a simple majority of both chambers, and can be removed by a supermajority of both chambers. During the second impeachment of Donald Trump, Section 3 was cited in the Article of Impeachment as part of the basis for barring Trump from holding future office. It is disputed whether Section 3 can be used as a potential \"alternate path to disqualification [from office]\" if the Senate votes to acquit Trump of the impeachment charge. Democrats such as Richard Blumenthal, Chris Murphy, Dick Durbin, and Ben Cardin, have considered invoking Section 3 to bar Trump from holding office again, though such a move would enter uncharted constitutional and legal territory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Abdurrahman Wahid",
        "text": "Because there were no candidates who met the requirements to get votes, that is, out of half the number of legislative members present, a third round of elections was held. In this third round Hamzah Haz was elected vice president after winning 340 votes out of 610 total votes. Meanwhile, Akbar Tandjung received 237 votes, leaving only 29 abstain and 4 invalid votes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Wood (Australian politician)",
        "text": "The High Court, Brennan, Deane and Toohey JJ, dismissed the petition in December 1987 on technical grounds. The brief judgment made a number of observations about section 44 of the Constitution\n* The disqualification is not simply for the conviction of an offence, but the person must be serving a sentence of imprisonment for one year or more or \"subject to be sentenced\" for that offence. Thus a person is not disqualified after the sentence has been served.\n* the person must have been adjudged to be an \"undischarged insolvent\"\n* the allegation of allegiance to a foreign power did not identify the foreign power nor the acknowledgement of that allegiance."
      },
      {
        "title": "House of Representatives (Thailand)",
        "text": "Those specifically barred from being candidates were those: addicted to drugs, declared bankrupt, unable to vote (see voter eligibility below), former convicted felons (the individual had to wait for five years after release to become eligible), removed from public service for being corrupt or incompetent, had assets confiscated due to embezzlement and finally, the individual had not been a member of the government or civil service, Senate, local administrations, member of the judiciary or other independent agencies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Re Culleton (No 2)",
        "text": "Under section 44(ii) of the Constitution, any person who \"has been convicted and is under sentence, or subject to be sentenced, for any offence punishable under the law of the Commonwealth or of a State by imprisonment for one year or longer\" shall (section 44 continues) \"be incapable of being chosen or of sitting as a senator or a member of the House of Representatives\". Previous time in prison was not a disqualification and there have been numerous politicians who had spent time in prison before their election. The High Court had previously observed that the disqualification is not simply for the conviction for an offence, nor serving time in prison. The disqualification required both conviction and that the person was imprisoned at the time or awaiting sentence. The WA larceny charge did not give rise to any question of disqualification as Culleton had only been charged and had not been convicted. At the time of Culleton's nomination and election, he had been convicted for the New South Wales offence but had not been sentenced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harry E. Claiborne",
        "text": "On October 9, 1986, the United States Senate voted on whether to convict Claiborne on all four articles of impeachment. During a typical senate vote, senators answer \"aye\" or \"no,\" but during the conviction hearings senators were told to stand and say \"guilty,\" \"not guilty,\" or \"present.\" Senate President Pro Tempore Strom Thurmond put the question before each roll call: \"Senators, how say you: Is the respondent, Harry E. Claiborne, guilty or not guilty?\" Even John Stennis, who had lost a leg to cancer two years earlier, pulled himself to a standing position each time his name was called.-"
      },
      {
        "title": "President of the United States",
        "text": "A person who meets the above qualifications would, however, still be disqualified from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions:\n* Under , having been impeached, convicted and disqualified from holding further public office, although there is some legal debate as to whether the disqualification clause also includes the presidential office: the only previous persons so punished were three federal judges.\n* Under Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment, no person who swore an oath to support the Constitution, and later rebelled against the United States, is eligible to hold any office. However, this disqualification can be lifted by a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress. There is, again, some debate as to whether the clause as written allows disqualification from the presidential position, or whether it would first require litigation outside of Congress, although there is precedent for use of this amendment outside of the original intended purpose of excluding Confederates from public office after the Civil War.\n* Under the Twenty-second Amendment, no person can be elected president more than twice. The amendment also specifies that if any eligible person serves as president or acting president for more than two years of a term for which some other eligible person was elected president, the former can only be elected president once."
      },
      {
        "title": "House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975",
        "text": "The election to the Commons of a disqualified person is invalid, and the seat of an MP who becomes disqualified is vacated immediately (triggering a by-election). The Privy Council has jurisdiction to determine whether a purported MP is disqualified; the issue may be tried in the High Court, Court of Session or High Court of Northern Ireland as appropriate for the constituency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rod Culleton",
        "text": "Under section 44(ii) of the Constitution, any person who \"has been convicted and is under sentence, or subject to be sentenced, for any offence punishable under the law of the Commonwealth or of a State by imprisonment for one year or longer\" is \"incapable of being chosen or of sitting\" in either house of Parliament. Previous time in prison was not a disqualification and there have been numerous politicians who had spent time in prison before their election. The High Court had previously observed that the disqualification is not simply for the conviction for an offence, nor serving time in prison. The disqualification required both conviction and that the person was imprisoned at the time or awaiting sentence. The WA larceny charge did not give rise to any question of disqualification as Culleton had only been charged and had not been convicted. At the time of Culleton's nomination and election, he had been convicted for the New South Wales offence but had not been sentenced. A former colleague lodged a petition with the High Court (sitting as the Court of Disputed Returns), claiming that Culleton was not able to nominate for the election as he was convicted and awaiting sentence in New South Wales at the time of the election. Subsequently, the Australian Government asked the Senate to also refer the matter to the High Court; the reference included a request to determine what should be done if Culleton's seat were found to be vacant. The primary issues before the High Court concerned the effect of the subsequent annulment of Culleton's conviction and whether Culleton was subject to be sentenced to a term of imprisonment for one year or longer."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 Macanese legislative election",
        "text": "The Electoral Affairs Commission for this legislative election unprecedentedly disqualified some 21 candidates who intended to contest in the direct elections. As a result of those 21 hopefuls having been barred from running, five candidate lists consequently became unqualified due to the electoral requirement of a minimum of 4 contenders in each list."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of impeachment investigations of United States federal judges",
        "text": "On 16 July, the United States Senate began Archbald's trial. The Senate convicted him of five of the thirteen Articles on 13 January 1913. The Senate then voted to remove him from office and disqualify him from further office by a vote of 39 to 35."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jimmy Sham",
        "text": "On 3 August, HK01 reported that Sham and other four others had also been disqualified. Sham said that he was not afraid of disqualification and that he would continue his protests against the national security law. He also received a letter from the electoral commission telling him his nomination was being reviewed."
      },
      {
        "title": "House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975",
        "text": "The groups disqualified from all constituencies are:\n* Lords Spiritual\n* judges\n* civil servants\n* serving regular members of the armed forces, except Admirals of the Fleet, Field Marshals and Marshals of the Royal Air Force\n* full-time police constables\n* members of legislatures of non-Commonwealth countries, other than Ireland\n* holders of certain administrative and diplomatic offices\n* all members of certain bodies, such as tribunals and government departments, plus some statutory corporations such as Channel 4"
      },
      {
        "title": "Article Two of the United States Constitution",
        "text": "A person who meets the above qualifications, however, may still be constitutionally barred from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions:\n* , gives the U.S. Senate the option of forever disqualifying anyone convicted in an impeachment case from holding any federal office.\n* Section 3 of the 14th Amendment prohibits anyone who swore an oath to support the Constitution, and later rebelled against the United States, from becoming president. However, this disqualification can be lifted by a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress.\n* The 22nd Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected to the presidency more than twice (or once if the person serves as president or acting president for more than two years of a presidential term to which someone else was originally elected)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "Seven Republican senators were concerned that the proceedings had been manipulated to give a one-sided presentation of the evidence. Senators William P. Fessenden, Joseph S. Fowler, James W. Grimes, John B. Henderson, Lyman Trumbull, Peter G. Van Winkle, and Edmund G. Ross, who provided the decisive vote, defied their party by voting against conviction. In addition to the aforementioned seven, three more Republicans James Dixon, James Rood Doolittle, Daniel Sheldon Norton, and all nine Democratic senators voted not guilty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "Seven Republican senators were concerned that the proceedings had been manipulated to give a one-sided presentation of the evidence. Senators William P. Fessenden, Joseph S. Fowler, James W. Grimes, John B. Henderson, Lyman Trumbull, Peter G. Van Winkle, and Edmund G. Ross, who provided the decisive vote, defied their party by voting against conviction. In addition to the aforementioned seven, three more Republicans James Dixon, James Rood Doolittle, Daniel Sheldon Norton, and all nine Democratic senators voted not guilty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pat Buchanan 2000 presidential campaign",
        "text": "During the same period, Buchanan and Choate were publicly considering a suit to qualify for inclusion in the general election debates. In March, Buchanan filed a petition with the FEC, arguing that the Commission on Presidential Debates' 15 percent polling threshold for debate qualification effectively disqualified third-party candidates from appearance in the debates. After the commission's 120-day window to take action on the petition had passed, Buchanan filed suit against the FEC. In September, a federal district judge ruled that the 15 percent threshold \"was reasonable and objective\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Office of profit",
        "text": "First, a person who is convicted upon impeachment faces two restrictions: 1) Removal from office; and 2) Disqualification to hold an office honor, trust or profit. Specifically, Article I, section 3, clause 7 provides:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas Rusden",
        "text": "The district of New England and Macleay was abolished in 1859, partly replaced by New England and Rusden was a candidate at the 1859 election, defeated by Hart by a mere two votes. Four people were charged with impersonating electors and a petition was lodged against the election. The Elections and Qualifications Committee conducted a re-count. This was not a secret ballot and the 4 votes by the impersonators were identified as being for Hart and were rejected. The committee also rejected 3 votes for Rusden, but allowed 2 votes for Hart that had previously been considered invalid, with the result that it upheld the election of Hart, with a margin of 3 votes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lester Shum",
        "text": "On 30 July, the government stated that Shum was among a dozen pro-democracy candidates whose nominations were 'invalid'. Shum's disqualification was determined by an opaque process in which civil servants, who served as returning officers, assessed whether candidates objected to the enactment of the national security law, or expressed sincerity in statements made disavowing separatism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grace Folashade Bent",
        "text": "While the question was being reviewed, a judge ordered the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) to remove Barata's name from the list of candidates and replace it with Bent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vice President of the United States",
        "text": "A person who meets the above qualifications is still disqualified from holding the office of vice president under the following conditions:\n* Under , upon conviction in impeachment cases, the Senate has the option of disqualifying convicted individuals from holding federal office, including that of vice president;\n* Under Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment, no person who has sworn an oath to support the Constitution, who has later gone to war against the United States, or given aid and comfort to the nation's enemies can serve in a state or federal office\u2014including as vice president. This disqualification, originally aimed at former supporters of the Confederacy, may be removed by a two-thirds vote of each house of the Congress.\n* Under the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution, \"...no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice President of the United States.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment of Donald Trump",
        "text": "Yoni Appelbaum (\"The Atlantic\"), David French (\"Time\"), Austin Sarat, David Frum (\"The Atlantic\"), Tom Nichols (\"USA Today\"), David Landau, Rosalind Dixon, and Bret Stephens (\"The New York Times\") called for the impeachment of Trump the second time and for him to be disqualified from public office. Mary L. Trump, the President's niece, said she thought her uncle should be barred from ever running for office again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Herbert Macaulay",
        "text": "Macaulay was barred from running for public office because of legal problems - he was convicted twice by the colonial government in Lagos; the first time for fraud, and the second time for sedition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Second impeachment trial of Donald Trump",
        "text": "A Congressional Research Service report concluded \"that while the matter is open to debate, the weight of scholarly authority agrees that former officials may be impeached and tried.\" Ahead of the trial, 150 legal scholars from across the political spectrum published a letter affirming \"that the Constitution permits the impeachment, conviction, and disqualification of former officers, including presidents.\" Law professors Laurence H. Tribe and Stephen I. Vladeck argued that because removal from office is only one of the two possible consequences of a conviction (the other being disqualification from holding public office), the purpose of the trial is not nullified if the impeached person no longer holds public office. Gregg Nunziata, a former Republican lawyer for the Senate Judiciary Committee, similarly noted that because impeachment power includes the power to disqualify the person from federal office for life, allowing officeholders to evade this by resigning would render \"this important punishment ... a nullity.\" Leading conservative lawyer Charles J. Cooper agreed, writing in the \"Wall Street Journal\" the weekend before the trial that there is no Constitutional prohibition against a post-presidency trial. Cardozo School of Law constitutional law professor Kate Shaw argued that \"drafting history, impeachment practice, and basic constitutional design all point clearly in favor of the constitutionality of trying an ex-president.\" Legal scholar Brian C. Kalt, who has published research about late impeachments, stated, \"In multiple cases, the House and Senate have proceeded as though they can impeach and try people who have already left office, and in one case the Senate took a specific vote to that effect.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Chanter v Blackwood",
        "text": "The question considered by the Court was whether a candidate guilty of an illegal practice as defined in the \"Commonwealth Electoral Act\" was disqualified from being elected. Griffith CJ held that Parliament had prescribed the remedies for illegal practices and that did not include automatic disqualification from sitting. Barton J held that a single act of bribery did not disqualify a candidate, unless the corrupt practices might have affected the result of the election. O'Connor J held that there was no power under the \"Commonwealth Electoral Act\" to disqualify a candidate on the ground of misconduct, no matter how great. Both Griffith CJ and O'Connor J expressed the view, obiter dicta, that conviction for an offence punishable by imprisonment for one year was sufficient to disqualify a person from sitting under Section 44 of the Constitution even if the person was not ultimately sentenced to imprisonment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "In the United States' federal impeachment trials, if an incumbent officeholder is convicted by a vote of two-thirds of the Senate, they are automatically removed for office. The Senate can, after convicting, vote by a simple majority to bar the convicted individual from holding federal office in the future."
      },
      {
        "title": "Niagara (electoral district)",
        "text": "Mr. Hughes was disqualified; subsequently the Court struck off four votes from Mr. Hughes' list for bribery, thus giving the seat to Mr. Plumb by a majority of two."
      },
      {
        "title": "First impeachment of Donald Trump",
        "text": "Three representatives pending retirement did not vote: Republican Duncan D. Hunter, who was banned from voting under the House's rules after pleading guilty to illegally using campaign funds; Democrat Jos\u00e9 E. Serrano, who had a health setback after being diagnosed with Parkinson's disease earlier in the year; and Republican John Shimkus, who was visiting his son in Tanzania."
      },
      {
        "title": "Political question",
        "text": "Article I, section 2 of the Constitution states that the House \"shall have the sole power of Impeachment\", and Article I, section 3 provides that the \"Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments\". Since the Constitution placed the sole power of impeachment in two political bodies, it is qualified as a political question. As a result, neither the decision of the House to impeach, nor of the Senate to remove a President or any other official, can be appealed to any court."
      },
      {
        "title": "House of Commons of the United Kingdom",
        "text": "Anyone found guilty of high treason may not sit in Parliament until she or he has either completed the term of imprisonment or received a full pardon from the Crown. Moreover, anyone serving a prison sentence of one year or more is ineligible, per Representation of the People Act 1981. Finally, members of the Senedd, formerly the National Assembly for Wales until May 2020, and Northern Ireland Assembly are disqualified since 2014, and sitting MPs are expelled from Parliament if sentenced to a one-year imprisonment or greater. Article 159, Section 2 of the Representation of the People Act 1983 formerly disqualified for ten years those found guilty of certain election-related offences, until this section was repealed in 2001. Several other disqualifications are codified in the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975: holders of high judicial offices, civil servants, members of the regular armed forces, members of foreign legislatures (excluding the Republic of Ireland and Commonwealth countries), and holders of several Crown offices. Ministers, even though they are paid officers of the Crown, are not disqualified."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution",
        "text": "Unlike impeachment, which requires a supermajority to convict, disqualification under Section 3 would only require a simple majority of each house of Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "James To",
        "text": "On 29 September 2021, To was disqualified along with 10 other district councillors for his invalid oath-taking after he was involved with participating in the last year pro-democracy primaries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Giuseppe Drago",
        "text": "In May 2009 he was disqualified from holding public office due to misappropriating funds. As a result, he lost his seat in the Chamber of Deputies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "Lyman Trumbull of Illinois, one of the 10 Republican senators whose refusal to vote for conviction prevented Johnson's removal from office, noted, in the speech he gave explaining his vote for acquittal, that had Johnson been convicted, the main source of the president's political power\u2014the freedom to disagree with the Congress without consequences\u2014would have been destroyed, and the Constitution's system of checks and balances along with it:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Malcolm Roberts (politician)",
        "text": "In September 2017, before the High Court ruling on Roberts's eligibility, blogger Tony Magrathea initiated a High Court action alleging that Roberts had sat in the Senate while disqualified, contrary to the Common Informers (Parliamentary Disqualifications) Act 1975. On 24 June 2019, the High Court found the allegation proved and ordered Roberts to pay a penalty of $6,000 to Magrathea."
      },
      {
        "title": "Constitution of Texas",
        "text": "No person may be convicted save by the consent of two-thirds of the Senators present, who have taken an oath or affirmation to impartially try the impeached. Judgement in impeachment cases does not extend beyond removal from office and disqualification from public office. The convicted remains subject to trial, indictment and punishment according to law."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of impeachment investigations of United States federal judges",
        "text": "Archbald was convicted on Articles I, III, IV, V and XIII and was accordingly removed from office. Article II gained a majority of votes, but not the two thirds necessary under the U.S. Constitution for conviction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Refusal to serve in a public office",
        "text": "Members of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom or candidates for election are exempt from the requirement to accept public office where it would cause them to be disqualified from being MPs, although this exemption does not extend to requirements to serve in the armed forces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Dilma Rousseff",
        "text": "On the other hand, the parties PSDB, DEM and PPS also decided to file a \"mandamus\" at the Supreme Court against the Senate's decision to vote separately on the loss of political rights during the impeachment trial, thereby allowing the former president to later run for public office, as opposed to the laws defining crimes of responsibility and regulating the respective trial process (\"impeachment law\"), that determines a concommitance of penalties."
      },
      {
        "title": "1992 Iranian legislative election",
        "text": "Some 3,150 candidates registered to run for a seat, but the Guardian Council disqualified about one-third of them, approving only some 2,050. Among the disqualified candidates, 39 were incumbent MPs either belonged to or had sympathized with the Association of Combatant Clerics, including Sadegh Khalkhali, Ateghe Sediqi, Hossein Mousavi Tabrizi, Asadollah Bayat-Zanjani and Ebrahim Asgharzadeh. Behzad Nabavi and Mohammad Khatami, Iran's next president were also disqualified to run.\n;Baktiari (1996)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Constitution of Tennessee",
        "text": "Article V of the Tennessee Constitution states that only the House of Representatives has the power to impeach (Section 1). Impeachment is when an office holder's actions are called into question, so therefore they face the chances of being removed from office. The process of impeachment it is tried in the Senate and all senator must be sworn under oath. The chief justice of the Supreme Court presides overall all trials of impeachment, unless he is on trial, then the senior associate judge will rule over the court. The office holder cannot be convicted without a two-thirds or majority rule from the Senate (Section 2). The House of Representatives must choose three members to prosecute impeachments. Impeachments cannot be tried until the Legislature has adjourned \"sine die,\" then the Senate can try the impeachment (Section 3). The governor, Supreme Court Judges, inferior court judges, chancellors, attorneys of the state, treasurer, comptroller, and secretary of state are all liable to impeachment if the House of Representative believe they have committed a crime that calls for disqualification or removal from office, but judgement can only be removal of office and disqualification to hold any office after impeachment. The party must be prosecuted to the full extent of the law and the Legislature has the power to remove penalties imposed on anyone disqualified from filling office by impeachment (Section 4). Justices of the peace, and other civil officers are also liable for indictments in such courts as the Legislature may direct, and if convicted of impeachment they must be removed from office by said court, and will be subject to other punishment as asserted by law (Section 5)."
      },
      {
        "title": "William P. Fessenden",
        "text": "During President Andrew Johnson's impeachment trial in 1868, Fessenden broke party ranks, along with six other Republican senators, and voted for acquittal. These seven Republican senators were disturbed by how the proceedings had been manipulated in order to give a one-sided presentation of the evidence. He, Joseph S. Fowler, James W. Grimes, John B. Henderson, Lyman Trumbull, Peter G. Van Winkle, and Edmund G. Ross defied their party and public opinion and voted against conviction. They were joined by three other Republican senators (James Dixon, James Rood Doolittle, Daniel Sheldon Norton) and all nine Democrats in voting against conviction. As a result, a 35\u201319 vote in favor of removing the President from office failed by a single vote of reaching a 2/3 majority. After the trial, Congressman Benjamin Butler of Massachusetts conducted hearings on the widespread reports that Republican senators had been bribed to vote for Johnson's acquittal. In Butler's hearings, and in subsequent inquiries, there was increasing evidence that some acquittal votes were acquired by promises of patronage jobs and cash cards. This included Kansas senator Edmund G. Ross, who was actively embroiled in patronage corruption."
      },
      {
        "title": "House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975",
        "text": "Section 4 effectively adds the Crown Stewards and Bailiffs of the Chiltern Hundreds and of the Manor of Northstead to Part III to Schedule 1, thus naming them as offices whose holders are disqualified. These offices are sinecures, used in modern times to effect resignation from the House of Commons. Prior to 1926, this disqualification was due to them being \"offices of profit under the Crown\", but that disqualification was abolished in 1926 and by s. 1(4) of this Act."
      },
      {
        "title": "Judicial disqualification",
        "text": "A notable case was the 2001 death penalty appeal by Napoleon Beazley, convicted of a 1994 murder, in which a full three justices recused themselves due to personal ties to the victim's son, federal appeals court judge J. Michael Luttig. Luttig had previously clerked for Justice Scalia, and had led the confirmation efforts on behalf of both David Souter and Clarence Thomas. The death sentence was upheld all the same."
      },
      {
        "title": "West Hughes Humphreys",
        "text": "On June 26, 1862, the United States Senate began the trial of the impeachment in his absence and later that day unanimously convicted him of all charges presented, except that of confiscating the property of Andrew Johnson. He was removed from office and barred from holding office under the United States for life. He held his Confederate judgeship until the end of the Civil War."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yousaf Raza Gillani",
        "text": "The disqualification petition was put to rest by the ruling of the Speaker of the National Assembly Dr. Fehmida Mirza, that the petition does not hold ground."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mary Ha\u02bbaheo Atcherley",
        "text": "be qualified to vote for senators in the district from which he is elected.The women were therefore legally allowed to remain on the ballot, but if they had been elected, would not have been able to hold office. The Attorney General suggested another citizen propose a test case for submission to the Supreme Court. Atcherley's name remained on the ticket, but she did not get elected."
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles Beattie",
        "text": "The Select Committee found that Beattie was indeed disqualified by his membership of the three appeal tribunals for which expenses could be paid, and ruled his election invalid. They recommended a Bill be brought in to indemnify him from the consequences of having acted as a Member of Parliament while disqualified (he was potentially liable for fines of \u00a39,500) but found it difficult to determine whether to validate his election and allow him to continue as an MP. By the time he had been nominated as a candidate in the August by-election, three other MPs had been discovered to have held similar offices and a Select Committee had found them to be disqualified. The Select Committee noted that the issue of disqualification was a very prominent issue in the by-election as it was prompted by the disqualification of Mitchell, and it was known that in the event of his return an election petition would be presented to disqualify him again. Therefore, the Committee recommended that no legislation to validate his election and preserve his membership should be brought in."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Of the 21 impeachments voted by the House:\n* No official has been charged with treason.\n* Three officials have been charged with bribery:\n**Robert W. Archbald \u2013 tried, removed\n**Alcee Hastings \u2013 tried, removed\n**William W. Belknap \u2013 resigned prior to impeachment, later acquitted\n* The remaining charges against all the other officials fall under the category of \"high Crimes and Misdemeanors\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "None of the Republican senators who voted for acquittal ever again served in an elected office. Although they were under intense pressure to change their votes to conviction during the trial, afterward public opinion rapidly shifted around to their viewpoint. Some senators who voted for conviction, such as John Sherman and even Charles Sumner, later changed their minds."
      },
      {
        "title": "1993 Iranian presidential election",
        "text": "The Guardian Council disqualified some candidates who enrolled to run for president, including:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "The impeachment proceedings are remedial rather than punitive in nature, and the remedy is limited to removal from office. Because all officers in the federal government are confirmed in the Senate, officers appointed under the Appointments Clause of the Constitution may also be disqualified from holding any other appointed office under the United States in the future. Because the process is not punitive, a party may also be subject to criminal or civil trial, prosecution, and conviction under the law after removal from office. Also because the conviction is not a punishment, the president is constitutionally precluded from granting a pardon to impeached and convicted persons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Election petition",
        "text": "In 1961, Tony Benn was disqualified from taking up his seat after a by-election by an election court because he held a peerage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert W. Archbald",
        "text": "Archbald was nominated by President William Howard Taft on December 12, 1910, to the United States Commerce Court, the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit and the United States Circuit Courts for the Third Circuit, to a new joint seat authorized by 36 Stat. 539. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on January 31, 1911, and received his commission the same day. On December 31, 1911, the Circuit Courts were abolished and he thereafter served on the Commerce Court and Court of Appeals. His service terminated on January 13, 1913, due to his impeachment, conviction and removal from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roland Jennings",
        "text": "The matter was referred by the House of Commons to a Select Committee which reported that Jennings was indeed disqualified under the law as it stood. The government rushed through Parliament a Bill changing the law, and another bill indemnifying Jennings from the consequences of acting as an MP while disqualified and validating his election. Several other MPs were similarly found to have been unknowingly disqualified in an ensuing investigation."
      },
      {
        "title": "New York Court for the Trial of Impeachments",
        "text": "Canal Commissioner John C. Mather (Dem.), acquitted - Lt. Gov. Sanford E. Church presided.\n*Canal Commissioner Robert C. Dorn (Rep.), acquitted - Chief Judge Ward Hunt presided and voted against conviction.\n**Votes for conviction: Judges Martin Grover (Dem.) and Theodore Miller (Dem.); State Senators Beach, Cauldwell, Crowley, Hall, Morris and Nichols - 8\n**Votes against conviction: Judges Ward Hunt (Rep.), Lewis B. Woodruff (Rep.), Charles Mason (Rep.), William J. Bacon (Rep.), Thomas W. Clerke and Charles C. Dwight; State Senators Chapman, Banks, Campbell, Hubbard, Humphrey, Kennedy, Mattoon, Morgan, Wicks, Palmer, Parker, Thayer, Van Patten - 19"
      },
      {
        "title": "1920 United States presidential election",
        "text": "Prohibition candidates:\n* William Jennings Bryan, Former Secretary of State. Former Member of the U.S. House of Representatives. Democratic Nominee for President 1896, 1900, 1908 from Nebraska\n* Robert H. Patton, Politician from Illinois\n* Daniel A. Poling, clergyman from Pennsylvania\n* Charles Hiram Randall, Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California\n*Aaron S. Watkins, Professor and Methodist Minister from Ohio"
      },
      {
        "title": "P. Thomas Thornbrugh",
        "text": "Thornbrugh filed for retention in the 2010 election. He was automatically returned to the bench because no one ran against him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ricky Or",
        "text": "Or was disqualified on 8 October 2021 after his oath-taking was invalid due to his involvement of the last year pro-democracy primaries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Office of profit",
        "text": "The rule survives in the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975 which specifies a number of state positions that make an individual ineligible to serve as a Member of Parliament."
      },
      {
        "title": "Philip P. Barbour",
        "text": "Barbour also refused nominations for judge of the court of appeals, for Governor, and for United States Senator."
      },
      {
        "title": "Re Canavan",
        "text": "Replacements of three of the four disqualified Senators were announced on 10 November. Ludlam was replaced by Jordan Steele-John; Waters by Andrew Bartlett and Roberts by Fraser Anning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yasna Provoste",
        "text": "After the impeachment, Provoste was immediately removed from her position and was disqualified from office for the next five years. Meanwhile, Franka Grez received an eleven-year prison sentence for having illegally transferred public funds for four years."
      },
      {
        "title": "House of Assembly of the British Virgin Islands",
        "text": "A person is disqualified from being elected as a member of the House if:\n# they hold any public office;\n# they are declared bankrupt in any country;\n# they are adjudged to be of unsound mind in any country;\n# a sentence of death has been imposed upon them, or if they have served a term of imprisonment of at least 12 months within the previous five years;\n# they are disqualified or suspended under the laws of the British Virgin Islands relating to elections offences; or\n# they are a party to, or a partner in a firm, or director or manager of company, with any contract with the Government for a public service (unless they have published a notice in the \"Gazette\" or other British Virgin Islands newspaper disclosing the nature of the contract and their interest)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parliament of Singapore",
        "text": "A person's disqualification for having failed to properly lodge a return of election expenses or having been convicted of an offence may be removed by the president. If the president has not done so, the disqualification ceases at the end of five years from the date when the return was required to be lodged or, as the case may be, the date when the person convicted was released from custody or the date when the fine was imposed. In addition, a person is not disqualified for acquiring or exercising rights of foreign citizenship or declared allegiance to a foreign country if he or she did so before becoming a Singapore citizen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Section 44 of the Constitution of Australia",
        "text": "However, Culleton's bankruptcy ceased to determine his eligibility when, later on the same day but in a separate case, the High Court declared that he had been ineligible for election to the Senate owing to his conviction of an offence punishable with a sentence of one year or more, under subsection 44(ii)."
      },
      {
        "title": "House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975",
        "text": "Lords Lieutenant, High Sheriffs and the Governor of the Isle of Wight are also disqualified from seats for constituencies within their area."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Barber (Ontario politician)",
        "text": "Following the 1875 election, he was disqualified for having induced a voter to stay home, and a byelection was held on November 15, 1875 which was won by William Durie Lyon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "Lyman Trumbull of Illinois, one of the 10 Republican senators whose refusal to vote for conviction prevented Johnson's removal from office, noted, in the speech he gave explaining his vote for acquittal, that had Johnson been convicted, the main source of the president's political power\u2014the freedom to disagree with the Congress without consequences\u2014would have been destroyed, and the Constitution's system of checks and balances along with it:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cornelius Homan",
        "text": "However, he was disqualified in 1928 after being declared bankrupt. The resulting by-election on 28 October was won by the Labour Party candidate Albert Bellamy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Unsuccessful nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States",
        "text": "By the tradition of Senatorial courtesy, other Senators generally deferred to a nominee's home state senators when evaluating a presidential nomination. The Senators from New York were Edward Murphy Jr. and David B. Hill; Hill objected to Cleveland's nominations, and most other Senators supported Hill. Hill was a rival of Cleveland's who had lost the Democratic nomination for President to him in 1892."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Marty",
        "text": "the race without filing for office. Eventually the party nominated state Attorney General Hubert H. \"Skip\" Humphrey III. In an upset, the Reform Party nominee, former professional wrestler Jesse Ventura, won the election."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "Upon conviction, the officeholder has his or her political rights revoked for eight years, which bars them from running for any office during that time."
      },
      {
        "title": "1989 Iranian presidential election",
        "text": "The Guardian Council disqualified some candidates who enrolled to run for president, including:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Elections in the British Virgin Islands",
        "text": "A person is disqualified from being elected as a member of the House if:\n# they hold any public office;\n# they are declared bankrupt in any country;\n# they are adjudged to be of unsound mind in any country;\n# a sentence of death has been imposed upon them, or if they have served a term of imprisonment of at least 12 months within the previous five years;\n# they are disqualified or suspended under the laws of the British Virgin Islands relating to elections offences; or\n# they are a party to, or a partner in a firm, or director or manager of company, with any contract with the Government for a public service (unless they have published a notice in the \"Gazette\" or other British Virgin Islands newspaper disclosing the nature of the contract and their interest)."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 Macanese legislative election",
        "text": "All pro-democracy candidates, except Jos\u00e9 Pereira Coutinho's candidate list, were barred from running in the election. The mass disqualification created shock as Macau has been seen as \"obedient\" to the Beijing Government, while disqualifying election candidates, which had happened in Hong Kong before, was believed to be unlikely in Macau."
      },
      {
        "title": "2017\u201318 Australian parliamentary eligibility crisis",
        "text": "At the hearing, the Attorney-General for Australia had argued that five of the seven parliamentarians should be exempt from disqualification, excluding Ludlam and Roberts, since they were entirely unaware of their dual citizenship. This argument was not accepted by the High Court, meaning the five parliamentarians found to have held a foreign citizenship were ineligible for election. Canavan and Xenophon were the only two of the seven not found to have held a foreign citizenship."
      },
      {
        "title": "1970 United States Senate elections",
        "text": "Incumbent Democrat Eugene McCarthy retired instead of seeking a third term. Former Democratic U.S. senator, Vice President and 1968 presidential nominee Hubert Humphrey defeated Republican U.S. Representative Clark MacGregor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "The trial resulted in an acquittal. The Senate voted identically on three of the eleven articles of impeachment, failing each time by a single vote to reach the supermajority needed to convict Johnson. On each of the three articles voted upon, thirty-five Republican senators voted to convict, while ten Republican senators and all nine Democratic senators voted to acquit. After the votes on three articles of impeachment, the Senate then adjourned the trial without voting on the remaining eight articles of impeachment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment",
        "text": "To date, three officials had been successfully impeached by the House of Representatives, and two were not convicted. The latter, Chief Justice Renato C. Corona, was convicted on 29 May 2012, by the Senate under Article II of the Articles of Impeachment (for betraying public trust), with 20\u20133 votes from the Senator Judges."
      },
      {
        "title": "1985 Iranian presidential election",
        "text": "The following candidates were disqualified by the Guardian Council:"
      },
      {
        "title": "2016 Iranian Assembly of Experts election",
        "text": "Other famous disqualified candidates include:\n* Mehdi Ghoreishi\n* Rasoul Montajabnia\n* Kazem Seddiqi\n* Morteza Agha-Tehrani\n* Majid Ansari\n* Mostafa Pourmohammadi"
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment in the United States",
        "text": "Upon conviction in the Senate, the official is automatically removed from office and may by a separate vote also be barred from holding future office. The Senate trial is not an actual criminal proceeding and more closely resembles a civil service termination appeal in terms of the contemplated deprivation. Therefore, the removed official may still be liable to criminal prosecution under a subsequent criminal proceeding. The president may not grant a pardon in the impeachment case, but may in any resulting federal criminal case (unless it is the president who is convicted and thus loses the pardon power). However, whether the president can self-pardon for criminal offenses is an open question, which has never been reviewed by a court."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sykes v Cleary",
        "text": "Sykes claimed that Cleary was disqualified by Constitution s 44(iv) and the others by s 44(i). The Court upheld Sykes's claims and declared the election void. No by-election was held, owing to the imminence of a general election. In the general election of 1993, Cleary and Kardamitsis stood again for Wills and Cleary was elected."
      },
      {
        "title": "John B. Henderson",
        "text": "During President Andrew Johnson's impeachment trial, Henderson broke party ranks, along with nine other Republican senators and voted for acquittal. Among them, seven Republican senators were disturbed by how the proceedings had been manipulated in order to give a one-sided presentation of the evidence. In addition to Henderson, the other senators expressing those concerns were Senators William Pitt Fessenden, Joseph S. Fowler, James W. Grimes, Lyman Trumbull, Peter G. Van Winkle, and Edmund G. Ross of Kansas, who provided the decisive vote, defied their party and public opinion and voted against conviction. The other three Republican senators to vote against convicting Johnson were James Dixon, James Rood Doolittle, Daniel Sheldon Norton After the trial, Congressman Benjamin Butler conducted hearings on the widespread reports that Republican senators had been bribed to vote for Johnson's acquittal. In Butler's hearings, and in subsequent inquiries, there was increasing evidence that some acquittal votes were acquired by promises of patronage jobs and cash cards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Section 44 of the Constitution of Australia",
        "text": "The office of Ministers of State are one category exempted from disqualification under subsection (iv). This exemption is necessary because Constitution s 64 requires a federal Minister (at least after three months from appointment) to be a senator or a member of the House of Representatives. The position of ministers assisting, parliamentary secretaries and for ministers without portfolio is problematic."
      },
      {
        "title": "2014 Nevada elections",
        "text": "Incumbent Democratic Controller Kim Wallin was prevented from running for re-election to a third term in office due to constitutional lifetime term limits.\n;Declared\n* Andrew Martin, state assemblyman\n;Disqualified\n* Michael Schaefer, perennial candidate and former San Diego, California City Councilman (disqualified by the Nevada Supreme Court because he did not meet the residency requirements)\n* Cort Arlint, licensed tax attorney, CPA and university accounting professor\n* Barry Herr, CPA, former adjunct professor at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas and nominee for Controller in 2010\n* Ron Knecht, Regent of the University of Nevada, Reno and former state assemblyman\n* Tom Jones"
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "Not one of the Republican senators who voted for acquittal ever again served in an elected office. Although they were under intense pressure to change their votes to conviction during the trial, afterward public opinion rapidly shifted around to their viewpoint. Some senators who voted for conviction, such as John Sherman and even Charles Sumner, later changed their minds."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Brooks (American politician)",
        "text": "Brooks was one of eight Democrats to vote for all five articles of impeachment brought before the Judiciary Committee. The others were Robert Kastenmeier, Don Edwards, John Conyers, Barbara Jordan, Charles Rangel, Elizabeth Holtzman and Edward Mezvinsky."
      },
      {
        "title": "Team Chu Hoi-dick of New Territories West",
        "text": "On 30 July 2020, the government stated that group member Lester Shum was among a dozen pro-democracy candidates whose nominations were invalid. Shum's disqualification was determined by a process which assesses whether candidates object to the enactment of national security laws or are willing to disavow separatism."
      },
      {
        "title": "J. G. MacManaway",
        "text": "Modern scholars have questioned the rationale of this decision but, nonetheless, the House of Commons resolved on 19 October 1950 that MacManaway was disqualified from sitting. The House did, however, indemnify him (by the Reverend J. G. MacManaway's Indemnity Act 1951) from the \u00a3500-a-time fines that he had incurred for voting in parliamentary divisions while ineligible. MacManaway had voted on five occasions."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How often do impeachment proceedings lead to guilty verdicts for heads of state?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "While I can't find any statistics about how often impeachments lead to guilty verdicts on the whole, I did find that in Latin America (which includes almost 40% of all presidential systems in the world) 10 presidents from 6 countries were removed from office between 1978 and 2019. Republic of Lithuania President Rolandas Paksas was also removed from office via impeached on April 6, 2004, and was the first European head of state to ever be impeached."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did Rolandas Paksas do to cause his removal from office?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It emerged that he had granted citizenship to a major campaign donor, leading to his impeachment and removal from office in April 2004."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has there been any impeachment incident in China?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can someone who is impeached run for office again in the United States?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Conviction immediately removes the defendant from office. Following the vote on conviction, the Senate may by a separate vote also bar the individual from holding future federal office, elected or appointed."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has anyone been barred from holding public office via the method you described?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Senate has used disqualification sparingly, as only three individuals have been disqualified from holding future office. Those who were disqualified were West Hughes Humphreys, Robert W. Archbald, and Thomas Porteous."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What where the three of them disqualified for?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "West Hughes Humphreys, Robert W. Archbald, and Thomas Porteous were disqualified by the convictions after the impeachments. If you want to know more about the individual crimes, whose crime do you wish to know?"
    ],
    "topic": "Impeachment",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "West Hughes Humphreys:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "West Hughes Humphreys"
        ],
        "ctx": "West Hughes Humphreys (August 26, 1806 \u2013 October 16, 1882) was the 3rd Attorney General of Tennessee and a United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Tennessee, the United States District Court for the Middle District of Tennessee and the United States District Court for the Western District of Tennessee. He was ultimately impeached by the United States House of Representatives and convicted and removed from office by the United States Senate for supporting the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Robert W. Archbald:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Robert W. Archbald"
        ],
        "ctx": "Robert Wodrow Archbald (September 10, 1848 \u2013 August 19, 1926), frequently known as R. W. Archbald, was a United States Circuit Judge of the United States Commerce Court, the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit and the United States Circuit Courts for the Third Circuit and previously was a United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the Middle District of Pennsylvania. He was the ninth federal official on whom Articles of Impeachment were served, and only the third to be convicted and removed from office."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Thomas Porteous:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Thomas Porteous"
        ],
        "ctx": "Gabriel Thomas Porteous Jr. (December 15, 1946 \u2013 November 14, 2021) was a United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana. He served for sixteen years before being impeached and removed from office in December 2010. He died on November 14, 2021, aged 74."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "West Hughes Humphreys",
        "text": "On June 26, 1862, the United States Senate began the trial of the impeachment in his absence and later that day unanimously convicted him of all charges presented, except that of confiscating the property of Andrew Johnson. He was removed from office and barred from holding office under the United States for life. He held his Confederate judgeship until the end of the Civil War."
      },
      {
        "title": "West Hughes Humphreys",
        "text": "West Hughes Humphreys (August 26, 1806 \u2013 October 16, 1882) was the 3rd Attorney General of Tennessee and a United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Tennessee, the United States District Court for the Middle District of Tennessee and the United States District Court for the Western District of Tennessee. He was ultimately impeached by the United States House of Representatives and convicted and removed from office by the United States Senate for supporting the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War."
      },
      {
        "title": "West Hughes Humphreys",
        "text": "On May 19, 1862, the United States House of Representatives voted to impeach Humphreys on the following charges: publicly calling for secession; giving aid to an armed rebellion; conspiring with Jefferson Davis; serving as a Confederate judge; confiscating the property of Military Governor Andrew Johnson and United States Supreme Court Justice John Catron; and imprisoning a Union sympathizer with \"intent to injure him.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "West Hughes Humphreys",
        "text": "West Hughes Humphreys\n--Education and career.\n--Federal judicial service.\n----Impeachment, conviction and removal from office.\n--Later career and death.\n--Family.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "West Hughes Humphreys",
        "text": "Humphreys was nominated by President Franklin Pierce on March 24, 1853, to a joint seat on the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Tennessee, the United States District Court for the Middle District of Tennessee and the United States District Court for the Western District of Tennessee vacated by Judge Morgan Welles Brown. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on March 26, 1853, and received his commission the same day. His service terminated on June 26, 1862, due to impeachment, conviction, and removal from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "George W. Dunlap",
        "text": "He was one of the managers appointed by the House of Representatives in 1862 to conduct the impeachment proceedings against West H. Humphreys, United States judge for the several districts of Tennessee."
      },
      {
        "title": "West Hughes Humphreys",
        "text": "Humphreys served as a Judge of the Confederate District Court for the District of Tennessee from 1861 to 1865."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Tod (judge)",
        "text": "George Tod (judge)\n--Early life.\n--The West.\n--Impeachment.\n--Post Impeachment.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Andrew Humphreys",
        "text": "Humphreys was the first of the defendants from the Indianapolis treason trials to turn to the civilian courts seeking damages from his arrest, trial, and confinement. On February 1, 1866, he filed a complaint in a circuit court in Sullivan County, Indiana, against Samuel McCormick, the U.S. Army captain who arrested him. Humphrey won the suit and was awarded $25,000 in damages, but the case bogged down during its appeal and he never collected the funds. After Congress amended the Habeas Corpus Suspension Act of March 3, 1863, ending further suits in the civil courts from those who had been arbitrarily arrested during the war, Humphreys returned to a career in politics. Although he lost his bid to win a seat in the Indiana General Assembly by a narrow margin in 1868, Humphreys remained active in politics. He served as a delegate to the Democratic National Convention in 1872 and 1888."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia",
        "text": "The impeachment trial for Justice Loughry was set for November 12. However, the reconstituted Supreme Court of Appeals ruled on October 25 that the injunction blocking Justice Workman's trial also retroactively applied to Justice Davis' and Justice Loughry's trial. Delegate Andrew Byrd of Kanawha County, who is serving as one of the impeachment managers, is asking Gov. Jim Justice to call the House of Delegates into special session on November 11-13 to draft new impeachment articles against Loughry based solely on his federal criminal convictions (see below)."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of impeachment investigations of United States federal judges",
        "text": "The Senate began the impeachment trial on June 26, 1862, and later that day voted to convict and remove Judge Humphreys from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Senator Humphreys (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Senator Humphreys (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles R. Train",
        "text": "He was one of the managers appointed by the House of Representatives in 1862 to conduct the impeachment proceedings against West H. Humphreys, United States judge for the several districts of Tennessee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Justice Humphreys",
        "text": "Justice Humphreys may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "In re Kenneth Humphrey",
        "text": "In re Kenneth Humphrey is a case decided by the California Supreme Court that concerns whether it is a violation of due process and equal protection to imprison defendants prior to trial solely because they cannot afford to pay bail."
      },
      {
        "title": "Humphrey Marshall (politician)",
        "text": "Tensions between Marshall and Innes continued during Marshall's tenure in the legislature. When Innes, acting on a recommendation from an advisory jury, dismissed an unrelated fraud case brought by Marshall in Innes' district court, Marshall retaliated by convincing Congressman John Rowan to file an impeachment petition against Innes in the House of Representatives. Innes countered by having his son-in-law, Thomas Bodley, pursue a censure of Marshall in the state House. Rowan's petition against Innes failed, but Bodley's against Marshall succeeded, and Marshall was expelled from the House in 1808, only to be re-elected the following year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Salusbury Pryce Humphreys",
        "text": "c. Ratford, the only British citizen of the four, was executed. The remaining three were American citizens and were sentenced to 500 lashes each, though this was later commuted."
      },
      {
        "title": "William A. Bowles",
        "text": "The commission's decision on December 10, 1864, found the men guilty on all charges. Bowles, Milligan, and Horsey were sentenced to hang on May 19, 1865; Humphreys was found guilty and sentenced to hard labor for the remainder of the war. The sentence for Humphreys was soon modified, allowing his release, but he was required to remain within two specific townships in Greene County, Indiana, and could not participate in any acts that opposed the war. Efforts were made to secure pardons for Bowles, Milligan, and Horsey, with the decision passing to President Andrew Johnson following Abraham Lincoln's assassination. On May 16, 1865, three days before their execution, the executions of Bowles and Milligan were postponed to June 2, and Horsey's sentenced was commuted to life imprisonment. President Andrew Johnson commuted the sentences for Bowles and Milligan to live imprisonment on May 30, 1865."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parry Wayne Humphreys",
        "text": "Humphreys had a son, West Hughes Humphreys, who served as a Confederate judge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parry Wayne Humphreys",
        "text": "Elected as a Democratic-Republican to the Thirteenth Congress, Humphreys served from March 4, 1813 to March 3, 1815. In 1817 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the United States Senate. He again served as a judge on the State judicial circuit from 1818 to 1836. Humphreys County, Tennessee is named for him."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Y. Humphreys",
        "text": "Humphreys served as prosecuting attorney of Washington County from 1928 to 1933."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of impeachment investigations of United States federal judges",
        "text": "On 16 July, the United States Senate began Archbald's trial. The Senate convicted him of five of the thirteen Articles on 13 January 1913. The Senate then voted to remove him from office and disqualify him from further office by a vote of 39 to 35."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "Seven Republican senators were concerned that the proceedings had been manipulated to give a one-sided presentation of the evidence. Senators William P. Fessenden, Joseph S. Fowler, James W. Grimes, John B. Henderson, Lyman Trumbull, Peter G. Van Winkle, and Edmund G. Ross, who provided the decisive vote, defied their party by voting against conviction. In addition to the aforementioned seven, three more Republicans James Dixon, James Rood Doolittle, Daniel Sheldon Norton, and all nine Democratic senators voted not guilty."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert W. Archbald",
        "text": "Archbald was convicted on Articles I, III, IV, V and XIII and was accordingly removed from office (Article II gained a majority of votes, but not the two-thirds necessary under the U.S. Constitution to convict), and the Senate subsequently voted, by 39 to 35, to order that Archbald be forever disqualified from holding any office under the United States. Pennsylvania's two Republican Senators, Boies Penrose of Philadelphia, and George T. Oliver of Pittsburgh, had voted against impeachment and lifetime disqualification."
      },
      {
        "title": "Justice Humphreys",
        "text": "Justice Humphreys\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "John Hickman (Pennsylvania politician)",
        "text": "He declined to be a candidate for renomination in 1862. He was one of the managers appointed by the House of Representatives in 1862 to conduct the impeachment proceedings against West H. Humphreys, United States judge for the several districts of Tennessee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "Johnson's was only the sixth federal impeachment trial in American history, after the impeachment trials of William Blount, John Pickering, Samuel Chase, James H. Peck, and West Hughes Humphreys. Only in two of the previous impeachment trials had the Senate voted to convict. It was the first impeachment trial of an United States president."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Y. Humphreys",
        "text": "Humphreys was elected as a Democrat to the Sixty-eighth Congress to fill the vacancy caused by the death of his father, Benjamin G. Humphreys II, and served from November 27, 1923, to March 3, 1925. He was not a candidate for renomination in 1924. He resumed the practice of law in Greenville, Mississippi."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ex parte Milligan",
        "text": "The military commission's decision on December 10, 1864, found Milligan, Bowles, and Horsey guilty. The men were sentenced to hang on May 19, 1865. Humphreys was found guilty and sentenced to hard labor for the remainder of the war. With President Lincoln's support, General Hovey modified the sentence for Humphreys, allowing his release, but Humphreys was required to remain within two specific townships in Greene County, Indiana, and could not participate in any acts that opposed the war. Efforts were made to secure pardons for Milligan, Bowles, and Horsey, with the decision passing to President Johnson following Lincoln's assassination."
      },
      {
        "title": "West Hughes Humphreys",
        "text": "Born on August 26, 1806, in Montgomery County, Tennessee, Humphreys attended the law department of Transylvania University, failing to graduate due to ill health, and read law in 1828. He entered private practice in Clarksville, Tennessee from 1828 to 1829. He continued private practice in Somerville, Tennessee from 1829 to 1839. He was a member of the Tennessee House of Representatives from 1835 to 1838. He was the 3rd Attorney General of Tennessee from 1839 to 1851. He was reporter for the Tennessee Supreme Court from 1839 to 1851. He resumed private practice in Nashville, Tennessee from 1851 to 1853."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "Seven Republican senators were concerned that the proceedings had been manipulated to give a one-sided presentation of the evidence. Senators William P. Fessenden, Joseph S. Fowler, James W. Grimes, John B. Henderson, Lyman Trumbull, Peter G. Van Winkle, and Edmund G. Ross, who provided the decisive vote, defied their party by voting against conviction. In addition to the aforementioned seven, three more Republicans James Dixon, James Rood Doolittle, Daniel Sheldon Norton, and all nine Democratic senators voted not guilty."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of impeachment investigations of United States federal judges",
        "text": "Judge Thomas Porteous was not convicted of a crime, but was recommended for removal by the Judicial Council of the Fifth Circuit for egregious misconduct that included receiving gifts from attorneys who came before him, filing false statements in his personal bankruptcy case, and engaging in fraudulent and deceptive conduct concerning his debts and gambling losses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wolcott J. Humphrey",
        "text": "State Senator Lester H. Humphrey (1850\u20131902) was his nephew."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of impeachment investigations of United States federal judges",
        "text": "List of impeachment investigations of United States federal judges\n--18th century.\n----George Turner.\n--19th century.\n----John Pickering.\n----Samuel Chase \u2013 United States Supreme Court.\n----Richard Peters.\n----Harry Innis.\n----Peter Bruin.\n----Harry Toulmin.\n----Van Ness and Tallmadge.\n----William Stephens.\n----Charles Tait \u2013 Circuit Court, Alabama.\n----Joseph L. Smith \u2013 Supreme Court, Territory of Florida.\n----Buckner Thruston \u2013 Circuit Court, DC.\n----Alfred Conkling \u2013 Northern District of New York.\n----James H. Peck \u2013 District of Missouri.\n----Benjamin Johnson \u2013 Arkansas Territory Superior Court.\n----Philip K. Lawrence \u2013 Eastern District of Louisiana.\n----John C. Watrous \u2013 District of Texas.\n----Thomas Irwin \u2013 Western District of Pennsylvania.\n----West H. Humphreys \u2013 Eastern, Middle and Western Districts of Tennessee.\n----Mark W. Delahay \u2013 District of Kansas.\n----Charles T. Sherman \u2013 Northern District of Ohio.\n----Richard Busteed \u2013 District of Alabama.\n----Edward Durell \u2013 District of Louisiana.\n----William F. Story \u2013 Western District of Arkansas.\n----Henry W. Blodgett \u2013 Northern District of West Virginia.\n----Samuel B. Axtell \u2013 New Mexico Territory Supreme Court.\n----Alexander \"Aleck\" Boarman \u2013 Western District of Louisiana.\n----James G. Jenkins \u2013 Seventh Circuit.\n----Augustus Ricks \u2013 Northern District of Ohio.\n------Incomplete information.\n--20th century.\n----Charles H. Swayne \u2013 Northern District of Florida.\n----Lebbeus R. Wilfley \u2013 U.S. Court for China.\n----Cornelius H. Hanford \u2013 U.S. Circuit Judge, Western District of Washington.\n----Robert W. Archbald \u2013 Third Circuit, Commerce Court.\n----Emory Speer \u2013 Southern District of Georgia.\n----Daniel Thew Wright \u2013 Supreme Court of the District of Columbia.\n----Alston G. Dayton \u2013 Northern District of West Virginia.\n----Kenesaw Mountain Landis \u2013 Northern District of Illinois.\n----William E. Baker \u2013 Northern District of West Virginia.\n----George W. English \u2013 Eastern District of Illinois.\n----Frank Cooper \u2013 Northern District of New York.\n----Grover Moscowitz \u2013 U.S. District Judge, Eastern District of New York.\n----Francis A. Winslow \u2013 Southern District of New York.\n----Harry Anderson \u2013 Western District of Tennessee.\n----Harold Louderback \u2013 Northern District of California.\n----James Lowell \u2013 District of Massachusetts.\n----Judge Lindley, James Wilkerson, and Judge Woodward \u2013 Northern District of Illinois.\n----Joseph Molyneaux \u2013 District of Minnesota.\n----Samuel Alschuler \u2013 Seventh Circuit.\n----Halsted L. Ritter \u2013 Southern District of Florida.\n----Albert Johnson \u2013 Middle District of Pennsylvania.\n----Albert L. Watson \u2013 Middle District of Pennsylvania.\n----William O. Douglas \u2013 United States Supreme Court.\n------1953 attempt.\n------1970 attempt.\n----Alfred Murrah, Stephen Chandler, and Luther Bohanon.\n----Abe Fortas \u2013 United States Supreme Court.\n----Otto Kerner \u2013 Seventh Circuit.\n----Frank J. Battisti \u2013 Northern District of Ohio.\n----Nauman Scott \u2013 Western District of Louisiana.\n----William Wayne Justice \u2013 Eastern District of Texas.\n----140 federal judges.\n----Rule 11: Changing the rules in impeachment trials.\n----Harry E. Claiborne \u2013 District of Nevada.\n----Alcee L. Hastings \u2013 Southern District of Florida.\n----Walter L. Nixon, Jr. \u2013 Southern District of Mississippi.\n----Robert P. Aguilar \u2013 Northern District of California.\n----Robert F. Collins \u2013 Eastern District of Louisiana.\n--21st century.\n----Manuel L. Real \u2013 Central District of California.\n----G. Thomas Porteous Jr. \u2013 Eastern District of Louisiana.\n----Samuel Kent \u2013 Southern District of Texas.\n----Jay Bybee \u2013 Ninth Circuit.\n----Mark Fuller \u2013 Middle District of Alabama.\n----Brett Kavanaugh \u2013 United States Supreme Court.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "T. H. Humphreys",
        "text": "Thomas Hadden Humphreys (September 20, 1865 \u2013 November 7, 1951) was an American politician. He was a member of the Arkansas House of Representatives, serving from 1899 to 1903. He was a member of the Democratic party."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "Bingham served as chairman of the House Committee of Impeachment Managers. He had past experience serving in such a role, having previously served as the chairman of impeachment managers for the impeachment of West Hughes Humphreys. Boutwell had originally been chosen as the chairman of impeachment managers for Johnson's impeachment trial, but, before the trial, resigned this position in favor of having Bingham serve in it. At the selection of managers, Speaker Schuyler Colfax had decided that the committee itself would choose who would serve as its chairman, rather than the full House deciding."
      },
      {
        "title": "James M. Humphrey",
        "text": "Humphrey was elected as a Democrat to the 39th and 40th United States Congresses, holding office from March 4, 1865, to March 3, 1869. He was appointed to the Superior court of Buffalo, New York, in 1871 and served until January 1, 1873. Afterwards he resumed the practice of law until 1894, when he retired."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andrew Humphreys",
        "text": "On December 10, 1864, the commission found Humphreys, Milligan, Horsey, and Bowles guilty on all charges. Humphreys was sentenced to hard labor for the remainder of the war. Compared to the others accused as co-conspirators, the case against Humphreys was weaker and his sentence was less severe. (Milligan, Bowles, and Horsey were sentenced to hang, but the sentences were commuted to life imprisonment in May, 1865.) Three weeks after his conviction, and with President Lincoln's support, General Hovey modified Humphreys's sentence, allowing his release. Humphreys was required to remain within two specific townships in Greene County and could not participate in any acts that opposed the war. After the U.S. Supreme Court handed down their ruling in \"Ex parte Milligan\" on April 3, 1866, the men were released from custody."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jos\u00e9 A. Cabranes",
        "text": "\"In re United States (Coppa)\", 267 F.3d 132 (2d Cir. 2001): Cabranes, writing for the panel and granting the government's petition for mandamus, held that the district court misapplied the teachings of \"Brady v. Maryland\", 373 U.S. 83 (1963) and its progeny in holding that the government was required, as a matter of constitutional law, to disclose all impeachment evidence immediately, pursuant to defendants' request for such, without regard to its materiality and far in advance of trial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alexander Pope Humphrey",
        "text": "Humphrey was a chancellor of the Louisville, Kentucky chancery court (a court of equity), having been appointed at age 32 to fill the unexpired term of Judge Horatio Washington Bruce, who had resigned on 10 March 1880 to accept a position as attorney for the Louisville and Nashville Railroad. A journal, The \"Virginia Law Review\", published Humphrey's record in the \"Virginia Law Register\" on the impeachment of Samuel Chase."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert W. Archbald",
        "text": "Robert W. Archbald\n--Education and career.\n--Federal judge.\n----Impeachment.\n--Death.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "David Campbell Humphreys",
        "text": "Humphreys was nominated by President Ulysses S. Grant on April 22, 1870, to an Associate Justice seat on the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia (now the United States District Court for the District of Columbia) vacated by Associate Justice George P. Fisher. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on May 10, 1870, and received his commission on May 13, 1870. His service terminated on July 2, 1879, due to his death in Fairfax County, Virginia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hughes Inquiry",
        "text": "There was insufficient evidence to charge church and government officials with obstructing justice. Eleven Christian Brothers were eventually convicted and sentenced to between 4 months and 11 years in prison."
      },
      {
        "title": "First impeachment inquiry against Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "New congressman Benjamin Butler requested to be added to the Judiciary Committee, but John Bingham strongly objected to this."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Warren Hastings",
        "text": "Hastings was granted bail in spite of Burke's suggestion that he might flee the country with the wealth he had allegedly stolen from India. Further speeches were made over the coming weeks by other leading Whigs such as Richard Brinsley Sheridan and Charles James Fox. In total there were nineteen members of the Impeachment Committee."
      },
      {
        "title": "New York Court for the Trial of Impeachments",
        "text": "Canal Commissioner John C. Mather (Dem.), acquitted - Lt. Gov. Sanford E. Church presided.\n*Canal Commissioner Robert C. Dorn (Rep.), acquitted - Chief Judge Ward Hunt presided and voted against conviction.\n**Votes for conviction: Judges Martin Grover (Dem.) and Theodore Miller (Dem.); State Senators Beach, Cauldwell, Crowley, Hall, Morris and Nichols - 8\n**Votes against conviction: Judges Ward Hunt (Rep.), Lewis B. Woodruff (Rep.), Charles Mason (Rep.), William J. Bacon (Rep.), Thomas W. Clerke and Charles C. Dwight; State Senators Chapman, Banks, Campbell, Hubbard, Humphrey, Kennedy, Mattoon, Morgan, Wicks, Palmer, Parker, Thayer, Van Patten - 19"
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "Unlike the rest of the trial, conducted in open session before packed galleries, deliberations were held in closed session. On May 6, George F. Edmunds motioned that the doors be closed, and the Senate voted in the affirmative. The Senate deliberated in closed session on May 6, 7, 11, and 12."
      },
      {
        "title": "George M. Humphrey (Nebraska politician)",
        "text": "After the war, he was admitted to the bar and moved to Pawnee City, Nebraska, where he began a legal practice. He was active with the Republican Party in Nebraska, and was elected to the Nebraska House of Representatives, serving as speaker during the 1883 session. He was nominated for election to the Nebraska Supreme Court, but withdrew from the race before the election."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Humphrey (New York politician)",
        "text": "He was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1860 to the Thirty-seventh Congress and for election in 1862 to the Thirty-eighth Congress."
      },
      {
        "title": "J. Otis Humphrey",
        "text": "On March 7, 1901, Humphrey was nominated by President William McKinley to a seat on the United States District Court for the Southern District of Illinois vacated by Judge William J. Allen. Humphrey was confirmed by the United States Senate on March 8, 1901, and received his commission the same day. Humphrey served in that capacity until his death on June 14, 1918."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of Wilson Witzel",
        "text": "The impeachment request enumerate the following suspects:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Harry E. Claiborne",
        "text": "On October 9, 1986, the United States Senate voted on whether to convict Claiborne on all four articles of impeachment. During a typical senate vote, senators answer \"aye\" or \"no,\" but during the conviction hearings senators were told to stand and say \"guilty,\" \"not guilty,\" or \"present.\" Senate President Pro Tempore Strom Thurmond put the question before each roll call: \"Senators, how say you: Is the respondent, Harry E. Claiborne, guilty or not guilty?\" Even John Stennis, who had lost a leg to cancer two years earlier, pulled himself to a standing position each time his name was called.-"
      },
      {
        "title": "John Marty",
        "text": "the race without filing for office. Eventually the party nominated state Attorney General Hubert H. \"Skip\" Humphrey III. In an upset, the Reform Party nominee, former professional wrestler Jesse Ventura, won the election."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aberaman (electoral ward)",
        "text": "In 1900, Thomas Humphreys was again returned unopposed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Theodore A. Hurd",
        "text": "He only served the court a few months until the election of William Agnew Johnston."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Humphreys (politician)",
        "text": "Robert Humphreys (politician)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "Bingham and Stevens delivered a message reading,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Christmas Humphreys",
        "text": "In 1962 Humphreys became a Commissioner at the Old Bailey. He became an Additional Judge there in 1968 and served on the bench until his retirement in 1976. Increasingly he became willing to court controversy by his judicial pronouncements. In 1975, he passed a six-month suspended jail sentence on an 18-year-old man convicted of raping two women at knife-point. The leniency of the sentence created a public outcry. His sentence of a man to eighteen months in jail for a fraud shortly afterwards added to the controversy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Hubert Humphrey",
        "text": "1952 Democratic National Convention (1st Presidential tally):\n* Estes Kefauver \u2013 340\n* Adlai Stevenson II \u2013 273\n* Richard B. Russell, Jr. \u2013 268\n* W. Averell Harriman \u2013 123.5\n* Robert S. Kerr \u2013 65\n* Alben W. Barkely \u2013 48.5\n* Paul A. Dever \u2013 37.5\n* Scattering \u2013 26.5\n* Hubert Humphrey \u2013 26\n* J. William Fulbright \u2013 22"
      },
      {
        "title": "Andrew Humphreys",
        "text": "Andrew Humphreys (March 30, 1821 \u2013 June 14, 1904) was a U.S. Representative from Bloomfield, Greene County, Indiana, who served in the Forty-fourth Congress. Prior to the American Civil War, Humphreys was as a member of the Indiana House of Representatives (1849 to 1852, and January 8 to March 9, 1857), and an Indian agent for Utah. In 1864 Humphreys was a defendant in a controversial trial by a military commission that convened on October 21 at Indianapolis, where he and three others were convicted of treason. Humphreys was sentenced to hard labor for the remainder of the war, but the sentence was modified three weeks later to allow for his release. (Humphreys was required to remain within two specific townships in Greene County, and could not participate in any acts that opposed the war.) At the end of the war, Humphreys resumed a career in politics, which included terms in Forty-fourth Congress (December 5, 1876 to March 3, 1877) and the Indiana Senate (1874 to 1876, 1878 to 1882, and 1896 to 1900)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "On March 5, 1868, the impeachment trial began in the Senate and lasted almost three months; Congressmen George S. Boutwell, Benjamin Butler and Thaddeus Stevens acted as managers for the House, or prosecutors, and William M. Evarts, Benjamin R. Curtis and former Attorney General Stanbery were Johnson's counsel; Chief Justice Chase served as presiding judge."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Hubert Humphrey",
        "text": "1956 Democratic National Convention (Vice Presidential tally):"
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas Porteous",
        "text": "The following day, the Senate voted unanimously to convict Porteous on the first of four impeachment charges, removing him from the bench, before subsequently convicting him on the remaining three articles. In a separate vote, per a motion by Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid, the Senate disqualified Porteous from ever holding \"any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States\" again. He is one of only three former federal officers to be permanently banned from holding federal office after being impeached and removed.\n:Article I \u2013 engaging in a pattern of conduct that is incompatible with the trust and confidence placed in him as a Federal judge \u2013 Convicted in the Senate by a vote of 96\u20130.\n:Article II \u2013 engaged in a longstanding pattern of corrupt conduct that demonstrates his unfitness to serve as a United States District Court Judge \u2013 Convicted in the Senate by a vote of 69\u201327.\n:Article III \u2013 knowingly and intentionally making false statements, under penalty of perjury, related to his personal bankruptcy filing and violating a bankruptcy court order \u2013 Convicted in the Senate by a vote of 88\u20138.\n:Article IV \u2013 knowingly made material false statements about his past to both the United States Senate and to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in order to obtain the office of United States District Court Judge \u2013 Convicted in the Senate by a vote of 90\u20136.\n:Disqualification \u2013 Forever disqualified to hold any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States \u2013 Disqualified by the Senate by a vote of 94\u20132."
      },
      {
        "title": "Travers Humphreys",
        "text": "He was appointed a [[Knight Bachelor]] in 1925 and a [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Counsellor]] in 1946. He retired in 1951 as the senior and oldest [[King's Bench Division|King's Bench]] judge. He was a member of the [[Garrick Club]] and was a keen yachtsman On his wife's death in 1953 Humphreys sold his [[Ealing]] home and moved into the Onslow Court Hotel, in [[Queen's Gate]], [[South Kensington]], which specialised in providing accommodation for retired people. Coincidentally, this was the hotel occupied about four years before by [[John George Haigh]] and his victim Mrs Durand-Deacon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia",
        "text": "On June 20, 2018 (West Virginia Day), Michael B. Stuart, the United States Attorney for the Southern District of West Virginia, announced a 22 count indictment against Loughry. He faces nearly 24 months in prison."
      },
      {
        "title": "Skip Humphrey",
        "text": "A Democrat, Humphrey is the son of Vice President Hubert Humphrey and the U.S. Senator Muriel Humphrey Brown. He was the Democratic nominee for governor in the hotly contested three-way election of 1998."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "The prosecution's closing arguments included hyperbolic speech. Thaddeus Stevens painted Johnson as a, \"wretched man, standing at bay, surrounded by a cordon of living men, each with the axe of an executioner uplifted for his just punishment\". John Bingham's remarks brought immense applause from the crowd in the Senate gallery. Bingham painted there to be a fundamental need for the, \"legislative power of the people to triumph over the usurpations of an apostate President,\" warning that a failure for this to occur (if the Senate acquitted the president), future historians would regard the impeachment proceedings to have been the moment that, \"the fabric of American empire fell and perished from the Earth.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas Porteous",
        "text": "On December 7, 2010, the full Senate began hearing the impeachment trial. Senate President pro tempore Daniel Inouye presided over the trial. Jonathan Turley, acting in Judge Porteous's defense, announced that Judge Porteous had decided to leave the federal bench in 2011 were he not removed from office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joshua Dariye",
        "text": "Joshua Dariye\n--Background.\n--Political life.\n----Governor.\n----Impeachment.\n----Senator.\n--Criminal trial.\n----Trial resumes.\n----Conviction.\n----Reduction of jail term.\n----Pardon.\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Niagara (electoral district)",
        "text": "Mr. Hughes was disqualified; subsequently the Court struck off four votes from Mr. Hughes' list for bribery, thus giving the seat to Mr. Plumb by a majority of two."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard Humphreys (judge)",
        "text": "Richard Humphreys (judge)\n--Early life.\n--Legal career.\n--Political career.\n--Judicial career.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "James Humphrey (convict)",
        "text": "James Humphrey (convict)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Harry E. Claiborne",
        "text": "Whether or not tax fraud rose to the level of \"high crimes and misdemeanors,\" or whether a convicted felon could be allowed to remain on the federal bench, were not questions discussed at great length. After only a few hours of debate, the House Judiciary Committee reported the articles of impeachment."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of impeachment investigations of United States federal judges",
        "text": "On March 4, 1862, Rep. Bingham introduced a report from the Judiciary Committee recommending impeachment of Judge Humphreys (D), for publicly calling for secession, giving aid to an armed rebellion, conspiring with Jefferson Davis, serving as a Confederate judge, confiscating the property of Military Governor Andrew Johnson and U.S. Supreme Court Justice John Catron, and imprisoning a Union sympathizer with \"intent to injure him. The report was recommitted to the Judiciary Committee. On May 6, 1862, the report was resubmitted to the House. This time the House adopted the committee report and impeached the Judge. On May 14, 1862, the House appointed a select committee to draft the articles of impeachment, and on May 19 the articles were adopted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Travers Humphreys",
        "text": "In 1927 he prosecuted [[Browne and Kennedy]] for their murder of PC Gutteridge."
      },
      {
        "title": "First impeachment inquiry against Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "In the 40th Congress, the committee consisted of seven Republicans and two Democrats. Committee member Francis Thomas (a member of the Unconditional Union Party in the previous congress) was now a member of the Republican Party. Democrat Sydenham Elnathan Ancona and Republican Daniel Morris had departed, while Democrats Charles A. Eldredge and Samuel S. Marshall and Republican John C. Churchill joined the committee."
      },
      {
        "title": "Henry C. Connelly",
        "text": "Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes was his nephew."
      },
      {
        "title": "Senator Humphrey",
        "text": "Senator Humphrey\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "Then, Bingham read the articles of impeachment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allison B. Humphreys",
        "text": "Humphreys was solicitor general of Tennessee from 1952 to 1960. In that capacity, Humphreys asserted in one high-profile case that it was illegal for an executive branch agency of the state to employ a state legislator. On January 22, 1960, Humphreys was appointed by Governor Buford Ellington to a seat on the Tennessee Court of Appeals. On April 27, 1967, Ellington elevated Humphreys to a seat on the Tennessee Supreme Court vacated by the death of Justice W. G. White. Humphreys was elected to a full term in 1968, defeating his challenger, Domestic Relations Judge Benton Trimble, by a vote of 200,852 to 111,387. Humphreys served until his retirement from the court in 1974."
      },
      {
        "title": "George M. Humphrey (Nebraska politician)",
        "text": "He died at his home in Pawnee City in November 1894 after a long illness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Louis Humphreys",
        "text": "He was the second mayor of South Bend. He was a Republican."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of impeachment investigations of United States federal judges",
        "text": "Archbald was convicted on Articles I, III, IV, V and XIII and was accordingly removed from office. Article II gained a majority of votes, but not the two thirds necessary under the U.S. Constitution for conviction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andrew Humphreys",
        "text": "Democrats charged that the arrests and trials by military commission were politically motivated amid a climate of bitter political disputes between Democrats and Republicans about the conduct of the war. Scholars who studied the trials, which were highly publicized in the press, have proposed that they were prompted by partisan politics, convened before commission of biased military officers, failed to follow the rules of evidence, and used questionable informers as witnesses. The controversial proceedings led to the landmark U.S. Supreme Court case known as \"Ex parte Milligan\". The Court ruled the application of military tribunals to citizens when civilian courts are still operating is unconstitutional."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson",
        "text": "Lyman Trumbull of Illinois, one of the 10 Republican senators whose refusal to vote for conviction prevented Johnson's removal from office, noted, in the speech he gave explaining his vote for acquittal, that had Johnson been convicted, the main source of the president's political power\u2014the freedom to disagree with the Congress without consequences\u2014would have been destroyed, and the Constitution's system of checks and balances along with it:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Herbert Croft (bishop)",
        "text": "three bishops who voted for the impeachment of Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon in 1667: for this he gained much credit at Court, but was accused by Clarendon himself of \"signal ingratitude\" , as Clarendon had been a good friend to him. Becoming disillusioned with court life he returned to his Hereford see."
      },
      {
        "title": "Governor Humphreys",
        "text": "Governor Humphreys\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Governor Humphreys",
        "text": "Governor Humphreys may refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hatton W. Sumners",
        "text": "Sumners served on the powerful Judiciary Committee of the House of Representatives and was appointed regularly to investigate allegations of corruption among federal judges. He served on the impeachment committees for three federal judges: George W. English, Harold Louderback, and Halsted L. Ritter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia",
        "text": "Justice Loughry\u2019s federal criminal trial began on October 2. This trial concluded on October 12 with Loughry being convicted of seven counts of wire fraud, one count of mail fraud, one count of witness tampering and two counts of lying to the FBI. The jury found Loughry not guilty on nine counts of wire fraud and two counts of mail fraud while they deadlocked on one count of wire fraud. Loughry, who remained on the court until resigning on November 12, 2018, was scheduled be sentenced on January 16, 2019, however those proceedings are now on hold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia",
        "text": "Justice Walker's impeachment trial began on October 1. The trial concluded on October 2 with the Senate voting 32-1 to acquit her, with only Senator Stephen Baldwin of Greenbrier County voting for conviction and Senator Ryan Weld of Brooke County absent. The Senate followed by agreeing, by voice vote, to publicly \"reprimand and censure\" Justice Walker for her actions in the scandal."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Humphreys (pornographer)",
        "text": "In July 1977 the case against Drury, Detective Inspector Alistair Ingram and Inspector John Legge opened; all three were accused of \"corruptly accepting cash and other favours\" from Humphreys. He initially refused to appear in court for the prosecution, but was persuaded to change his mind by a journalist from \"The Sunday People\" who told him that his conviction for the attack on Garfath was being investigated. Drury and Ingram were found guilty; the judge instructed the jury to find Legge not guilty. Drury was sentenced to eight years; Ingram to four years' imprisonment. Their convictions meant twelve policemen had been sent to prison as a result of Humphreys's evidence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andrew Humphreys",
        "text": "On September 17, 1864, General Alvin Peterson Hovey, commander of the Military District of Indiana, authorized a military commission to meet on September 19 at Indianapolis, Indiana, to begin trials of Dodd and others placed under military arrest. On October 7, 1864, Humphreys was arrested and imprisoned in the Federal Building at Indianapolis, where he became one of the defendants in the Indianapolis treason trials before the military commission. Among the other men accused of treason were Democrats Lambdin P. Milligan, a lawyer living in Huntington, Indiana; William A. Bowles of French Lick, Indiana; and Stephen Horsey of Martin County, Indiana."
      },
      {
        "title": "Benjamin G. Humphreys",
        "text": "Humphreys was born in Claiborne County in the Territory of Mississippi, on the Bayou Pierre. He was educated in New Jersey and enrolled at West Point in the same class as Robert E. Lee and Joseph E. Johnston. However, he was expelled in 1826 when he participated in a \"Christmas frolic\" that ended up turning into the Eggnog Riot."
      },
      {
        "title": "West Hughes Humphreys",
        "text": "Humphreys' father, Parry Wayne Humphreys, was a United States Representative from Tennessee. Humphreys was a member of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. He had a daughter, Annie Humphreys, who married John W. Morton, a captain in the Confederate States Army during the Civil War and later the founder of the Nashville chapter of the Ku Klux Klan."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Humphrey Small",
        "text": "He declined to be a candidate for renomination in 1920 and retired from political office. Staying in Washington, D.C., he revived his legal practice there until 1931."
      },
      {
        "title": "Electoral history of Hubert Humphrey",
        "text": "1952 Democratic presidential primaries:\n* Estes Kefauver \u2013 3,169,448 (65.04%)\n* Pat Brown \u2013 485,578 (9.97%)\n* Richard B. Russell, Jr. \u2013 371,179 (7.62%)\n* Matthew M. Neely \u2013 191,471 (3.93%)\n* Robert J. Bulkley \u2013 184,880 (3.79%)\n* Hubert Humphrey \u2013 102,527 (2.10%)\n* Adlai Stevenson II \u2013 81,096 (1.66%)\n* Dwight D. Eisenhower \u2013 64,911 (1.33%)\n* Harry S. Truman (inc.) \u2013 62,345 (1.28%)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Impeachment of the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia",
        "text": "In accordance with Chapter 3, Section 10 of the West Virginia Code, any further vacancies were filled by interim justices appointed by Governor Justice. Barring any changes by the Legislature, these interim justices served until the primary election in May 2020, when a special election was held. This became the case with Loughry's resignation, as on December 12, 2018, Justice appointed John A. Hutchison, a lifelong friend and circuit judge in Raleigh County, to Loughry's vacated seat."
      },
      {
        "title": "T. C. Humphrey",
        "text": "Thomas Chauncey Humphrey (December 20, 1846 \u2013 December 3, 1937) was an American politician. He was a member of the Arkansas House of Representatives, serving from 1875 to 1876 and from 1893 to 1895. He was a member of the Democratic party."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harry E. Claiborne",
        "text": "Harry E. Claiborne\n--Early life and education.\n--Pre-judicial career.\n--1964 United States Senate campaign.\n--Federal judicial service.\n--Allegations of impropriety.\n--Impeachment and removal.\n----U.S. House proceedings.\n------Impeachment articles.\n------Moving for impeachment.\n------Impeachment vote.\n----Senate proceedings.\n------Senate procedures.\n------Special senate committee.\n------Claiborne's defense.\n------Trial and conviction.\n----Impeachment legacy.\n--Life after impeachment.\n--Personal life.\n"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How often do impeachment proceedings lead to guilty verdicts for heads of state?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "While I can't find any statistics about how often impeachments lead to guilty verdicts on the whole, I did find that in Latin America (which includes almost 40% of all presidential systems in the world) 10 presidents from 6 countries were removed from office between 1978 and 2019. Republic of Lithuania President Rolandas Paksas was also removed from office via impeached on April 6, 2004, and was the first European head of state to ever be impeached."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What did Rolandas Paksas do to cause his removal from office?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "It emerged that he had granted citizenship to a major campaign donor, leading to his impeachment and removal from office in April 2004."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has there been any impeachment incident in China?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Sorry, I did not find any useful information."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can someone who is impeached run for office again in the United States?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Conviction immediately removes the defendant from office. Following the vote on conviction, the Senate may by a separate vote also bar the individual from holding future federal office, elected or appointed."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Has anyone been barred from holding public office via the method you described?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Senate has used disqualification sparingly, as only three individuals have been disqualified from holding future office. Those who were disqualified were West Hughes Humphreys, Robert W. Archbald, and Thomas Porteous."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What where the three of them disqualified for?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "West Hughes Humphreys, Robert W. Archbald, and Thomas Porteous were disqualified by the convictions after the impeachments. If you want to know more about the individual crimes, whose crime do you wish to know?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me about West Hughes Humphreys."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "West Hughes Humphreys (August 26, 1806 \u2013 October 16, 1882) was the 3rd Attorney General of Tennessee and a United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Tennessee, the United States District Court for the Middle District of Tennessee, and the United States District Court for the Western District of Tennessee.",
      "The United States House of Representatives voted to impeach Humphreys on the following charges: publicly calling for secession; giving aid to an armed rebellion; conspiring with Jefferson Davis; serving as a Confederate judge; confiscating the property of Military Governor Andrew Johnson and United States Supreme Court Justice John Catron; and imprisoning a Union sympathizer with \"intent to injure him.\" The United States Senate unanimously convicted him of all charges presented, except that of confiscating the property of Andrew Johnson."
    ],
    "topic": "Impeachment",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "West Hughes Humphreys:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "West Hughes Humphreys"
        ],
        "ctx": "West Hughes Humphreys (August 26, 1806 \u2013 October 16, 1882) was the 3rd Attorney General of Tennessee and a United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Tennessee, the United States District Court for the Middle District of Tennessee and the United States District Court for the Western District of Tennessee. He was ultimately impeached by the United States House of Representatives and convicted and removed from office by the United States Senate for supporting the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "West Hughes Humphreys:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "West Hughes Humphreys",
          "Federal judicial service",
          "Impeachment, conviction and removal from office"
        ],
        "ctx": "On May 19, 1862, the United States House of Representatives voted to impeach Humphreys on the following charges: publicly calling for secession; giving aid to an armed rebellion; conspiring with Jefferson Davis; serving as a Confederate judge; confiscating the property of Military Governor Andrew Johnson and United States Supreme Court Justice John Catron; and imprisoning a Union sympathizer with \"intent to injure him.\""
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "West Hughes Humphreys:6",
        "passage_titles": [
          "West Hughes Humphreys",
          "Federal judicial service",
          "Impeachment, conviction and removal from office"
        ],
        "ctx": "On June 26, 1862, the United States Senate began the trial of the impeachment in his absence and later that day unanimously convicted him of all charges presented, except that of confiscating the property of Andrew Johnson. He was removed from office and barred from holding office under the United States for life. He held his Confederate judgeship until the end of the Civil War."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "La Palmyre Zoo",
        "text": "The orangutans are threatened with extinction because of the disappearance of their natural habitat, the tropical forests of Sumatra and Borneo. It is estimated that 30 to 50% of the wild populations of orangutans were decimated in the last ten years. Today, the last wild populations remain mainly out of the protected reserves, in degraded zones subjected to human exploitation (deforestation, and agriculture). To date, the populations of orangutans in their natural habitat were never studied and it is generally believed that they are heading towards a fast extinction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "There are numerous conservation sites and not-for-profit organisations that have been created in an effort to prevent further decline of the orangutan population, however, in 2016, it was predicted by experts that unless drastic changes are made to the current deforestation laws, orangutans face extinction within the next ten years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Scientists have researched and estimated that the only way of reducing the high rate of population decline is by ceasing deforestation in orangutan habitats, and putting extensive protection methods of current populations in place. However, due to the high demand of the palm oil product and lack of funding from the government, it is extremely unlikely the rapid decline and eventual extinction of orangutans can be prevented."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "This view is also supported by the United Nations Environment Programme, which states in its report that due to deforestation by illegal logging, fire and the extensive development of oil palm plantations (see Social and environmental impact of palm oil), orangutans are threatened with extinction, and if the current trend continues, they will become extinct.\n# Orangutan reintroduction, through the rescue, rehabilitation, and release of ex-captive orangutans\n#Orangutan and sun bear (\"Helarctos malayanus\") life-long sanctuary care, for individuals with physical or behavioural handicaps that prevent reintroduction\n# Orangutan ecosystem conservation, through the protection of existing forest landscapes and rehabilitation of degraded areas\n# Sustainable community development and education, through outreach, community capacity-building, community empowerment, and public awareness-raising"
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan was up-listed to the status of Critically Endangered in 2016 according to the IUCN Red List of mammals, and is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The total number of Bornean orangutans is estimated to be less than 20 percent of what it was 50 years ago (from a population of about 288,500 in 1973 to a population of about 57,350 in 2016) and this sharp decline has occurred mostly over the past few decades due to human activities and development. Their habitat is so much reduced that they are now only to be found in pockets of remaining rainforest. According to the IUCN, it is expected that in 10 to 30 years orangutans will be extinct if there is no serious effort to overcome the threats that they are facing."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Disenchanted Forest",
        "text": "With the impending extinction of orangutans, opportunities to observe and interact [with] them in their natural setting are reduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "The primary reason for population decline is habitat loss as a result of the unsustainable practice of timber extraction for the production of palm oil in areas in which orangutans habituate, notably Indonesia and Malaysia. Orangutans cannot survive without forests as they are both a home and food source, they build nests in trees for sleeping and survive off tree fruits. Additionally, orangutans are killed by poaching, where often mothers are killed and infants are seized and sold on the black market as pets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "It is predicted that the current rate of forest loss, poaching and illegal pet trading in Borneo will continue, therefore it is presumed that in the next 35 years the population of orangutans will continue to decline an additional 45,000 individuals. By 2025, it is estimated that there will be 47,000 Bornean orangutans left in the wild."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Endangerment of orangutans\n--Population decline.\n--Reasons for endangerment.\n----Deforestation.\n----Poaching.\n----Illegal pet trading.\n--History of endangerment.\n----Decline of population.\n----Future predictions.\n--Conservation.\n----Conservation actions required to prevent extinction.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "All three orangutan species are considered critically endangered. Human activities have caused severe declines in populations and ranges. Threats to wild orangutan populations include poaching (for bushmeat and retaliation for consuming crops), habitat destruction and deforestation (for palm oil cultivation and logging), and the illegal pet trade. Several conservation and rehabilitation organisations are dedicated to the survival of orangutans in the wild."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "The orangutan genome has many unique features. Structural evolution of the orangutan genome has proceeded much more slowly than other great apes, evidenced by fewer rearrangements, less segmental duplication, and a lower rate of gene family turnover. Diversity among the orangutan populations may not be maintained with continued habitat loss and population fragmentation. Evolutionary evidence from other species suggests fragmentation will not halt diversity, but their slow reproduction rate and arboreal lifestyle may leave the orangutan species especially vulnerable to rapid dramatic environmental change."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ah Meng",
        "text": "She belonged to the Sumatran orangutan species, a rarer breed of orangutan now critically endangered due to illegal logging and poaching. There are about only 7,500 Sumatran orangutans left in the wild in the rainforests of Sumatra, Indonesia. Ah Meng died on 8 February 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Due to the dramatic decrease of the orangutan population, a number of conservation sites and not-for-profit organisations have been developed in an effort to prevent the extinction of orangutans. There are two main strategies that have been put in place to prevent this; rehabilitation of abandoned individuals or those that were previously being held illegally, and the protection of forest areas and prevention of deforestation in orangutan habitats. Through a Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis, it was discovered that neither strategy was highly effective, however the cost of preventing deforestation is one twelfth of the cost of reintroducing individuals. It was concluded that for long term protection, it is more efficient to prevent logging than attempting to maintain current populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pongo weidenreichi",
        "text": "Pongo weidenreichi is an extinct species of orangutan from the Early Pleistocene of South China. It is known from fossil teeth found in the Sanhe Cave, and Baikong, Juyuan and Queque Caves in Chongzuo, Guangxi. Dental dimensions of that species is 20% bigger than those of living orangutans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "Estimates between 2000 and 2003 found 7,300\u00a0Sumatran orangutans and between 45,000 and 69,000\u00a0Bornean orangutans remain in the wild. A 2016 study estimates a population of 14,613 Sumatran orangutans in the wild, doubling previous population estimates. Fewer than 800 Tapanuli orangutan are estimated to still exist, which puts the species among the most endangered of the great apes. The table below shows a breakdown of the species and subspecies and their estimated populations from this or (in the case of \"P. tapanuliensis\") a 2017 report:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Over the past 60 years, the population of all three species has been steeply declining. The current population of orangutans cannot be accurately calculated, however it is estimated that the number of individuals remaining is: 104,000 Bornean orangutans, 14,000 Sumatran orangutans, and 800 Tapanuli orangutans. The number of Bornean orangutans has decreased by more than 60% in 60 years, and the population of the Sumatran orangutan has decreased by 80% in the last 75 years. It is estimated that between 1999 and 2015, the population of Bornean orangutans has decreased by over 100,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Due to an expanding global demand for timber in the 1980s, this rate then increased; according to a satellite study, 56% or 2.9 million hectares of tropical rainforests in Kalimantan, Borneo were extracted between 1985 and 2001, with a rapid increase in deforestation rates in the late 1990s. The rate of deforestation during this time directly correlates with the decrease in orangutan population, as the species cannot survive in other areas. It is estimated that since 1950, the orangutan population has declined by 60%. Between 1999 and 2015, the population of Bornean orangutans decreased by 100,000 individuals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan is critically endangered according to the IUCN Red List of mammals, and is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The total number of Bornean orangutans is estimated to be less than 14% of what it was in the recent past (from around 10,000 years ago until the middle of the 20th century), and this sharp decline has occurred mostly over the past few decades due to human activities and development. Species distribution is now highly patchy throughout Borneo; it is apparently absent or uncommon in the southeast of the island, as well as in the forest between the Rajang River in central Sarawak and the Padas River in western Sabah (including the Sultanate of Brunei). A population of around 6,900 is found in Sabangau National Park, but this environment is at risk. According to an anthropologist at Harvard University, in 10 to 20 years, orangutans are expected to be extinct in the wild if no serious effort is made to overcome the threats they are facing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gigantopithecus",
        "text": "In 2019, peptide sequencing of dentine and enamel proteins of a \"Gigantopithecus\" molar from Chuifeng Cave indicates that \"Gigantopithecus\" was indeed closely allied with orangutans, and, assuming the current mutation rate in orangutans has remained constant, shared a common ancestor about 12\u201310 million years ago in the Middle to Late Miocene. Their last common ancestor would have been a part of the Miocene radiation of apes. The same study calculated a divergence time between the Ponginae and African great apes about 26\u201317.7 million years ago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Although the current population of orangutans is not precisely known, it is estimated that currently there are about 104,000 Bornean orangutans, 14,000 Sumatran orangutans, and 800 Tapanuli orangutans remaining in the wild, and 1,000 are being held in conservation sites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "The three orangutan species are the only extant members of the subfamily Ponginae. This subfamily also included the extinct genera \"Lufengpithecus\", which lived in southern China and Thailand 8\u20132\u00a0mya, \"Indopithecus\", which lived in India from 9.2 to 8.6 mya; and \"Sivapithecus\", which lived in India and Pakistan from 12.5\u00a0mya until 8.5\u00a0mya. These apes likely lived in drier and cooler environments than orangutans do today. \"Khoratpithecus piriyai\", which lived in Thailand 5\u20137\u00a0mya, is believed to be the closest known relative of the orangutans. The largest known primate, \"Gigantopithecus\", was also a member of Ponginae and lived in China, from 2\u00a0mya to 300,000\u00a0years ago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "Various genera of dryopithecines have been identified and are classified as an extinct sister clade of the Homininae."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tapanuli orangutan",
        "text": "With fewer than 800 individuals restricted to an area of about , the Tapanuli orangutan is the rarest great ape. It is listed as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) because of hunting, conflict with humans, the illegal wildlife trade, rampant habitat destruction for small scale agriculture, mining and a proposed hydroelectric dam, the Batang Toru hydropower project, in the area with the highest density of orangutans, which could impact up to 10% of its already dwindling habitat and degrade important wildlife corridors. Conservationists predict an 83% decline in three generations (75 years) if the necessary conservation measures and practices are not implemented. Inbreeding depression is likely due to the small population size and fragmented range. This is supported by the genomes of the two Tapanuli orangutan individuals, which show signs of inbreeding. In August 2019 Swiss environmental group PanEco, which is a partner in the Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme, dropped its previous opposition to the dam, several months after firing several researchers who opposed the new strategy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "This view is also supported by the United Nations Environment Programme, which stated in its 2007 report that, due to illegal logging, fire and the extensive development of palm oil plantations, orangutans are critically endangered, and if the current trend continues, they will become extinct. When forest is burned down to clear room for palm oil plantations, not only does the Bornean orangutan suffer from habitat loss, but several individuals have been burned and killed in fires. Palm oil accounts for over one tenth of Indonesia's export earnings. It is in high demand because it is used in several packaged foods, deodorants, shampoos, soaps, candies, and baked goods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "Plant fossils reveal that forests use to once extend \"from southern Europe, through Central Asia, and into China prior to the formation of the Himalayas\". This suggests that the ancestral hominoid once lived throughout a vast area and as the Earth's climate and ecosystems changed, the ancestral hominoids ultimately became geographically isolated from one another."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Orangutan (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Deforestation is also occurring as a result of fires that wipe out large amounts of land and subsequently orangutan populations. Fires are set on purpose by palm oil companies in peat swamp forests. As a result of these fires, orangutans in these habitats will often die amidst the fire. If they survive, they will either be left to starve without a habitat, or flee, leaving them without a habitat and at risk of capture from residents, who will either kill them for meat, keep them as pets or sell them on the black market to wealthier counties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pongo hooijeri",
        "text": "The Vietnamese orangutan (\"Pongo hooijeri\") is an extinct species of orangutan from the Pleistocene of Vietnam. It was named in honor of paleontologist Dirk Albert Hooijer. Fossils of the ape were found in the Tham Hai Cave. It is unclear whether \"Pongo hooijeri\" is truly a distinct species or merely a Vietnamese population of one of the extant orangutan species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "During the later Miocene, the climate in Europe started to change as the Himalayas were rising, and Europe became cooler and drier. About 9.5\u00a0million years ago, tropical forest in Europe was replaced by woodlands which were less suitable for great apes, and European Homininae (close to the Dryopithecini-Hominini split) appear to have migrated back to Africa where they would have diverged into Gorillini and Hominini."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "The orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor was tailless and had a broad flat rib cage, a larger body size, larger brain, and in females, the canine teeth had started to shrink like their descendants. Great apes have sweat glands in the armpits versus in the chest like lesser monkeys."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "According to the IUCN Redlist, there are many conservation actions in place that have been somewhat successful, however there are numerous actions that are required in order to prevent the further endangerment and eventual extinction of orangutans. These include more area protection, species recovery, habitat and natural process restoration, resource protection and legislation. Additionally, IUCN suggests that more research is required, surrounding areas such as taxonomy, population size, distribution and trends, threats to orangutans, and area-based management plans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yeti",
        "text": "Some speculate these reported creatures could be present-day specimens of the extinct giant ape \"Gigantopithecus\". However, the Yeti is generally described as bipedal, and most scientists believe \"Gigantopithecus\" to have been quadrupedal, and so massive that, unless it evolved specifically as a bipedal ape (like the hominids), walking upright would have been even more difficult for the now extinct primate than it is for its extant quadrupedal relative, the orangutan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "Orangutans have anterior lingual glands and sparse terminal hair like the hominines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Great Apes Survival Partnership",
        "text": "Non-human Great ape populations are declining worldwide. The continuing destruction of habitat, in combination with the growth in the commercial bushmeat trade in Africa and increased logging activities in Indonesia, have led scientists to suggest that the majority of great ape populations may be extinct in our lifetime. Even if isolated populations were to survive, the long-term viability of these great apes is in doubt due to their limited numbers and the fragmentation of their habitat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "Birut\u0117 Galdikas wrote that orangutans were already threatened by poaching and deforestation when she began studying them in 1971. From the 1970s to the 2000s, orangutan habitats decreased rapidly because of logging, mining and fragmentation by roads. A major factor has been the conversion of vast areas of tropical forest to palm oil plantations in response to international demand. Hunting is also a major problem, as is the illegal pet trade. Orangutans may be killed for the bushmeat trade and bones are secretly traded in souvenir shops in several cities in Indonesian Borneo. Conflicts between locals and orangutans also pose a threat. Orangutans that have lost their homes often raid agricultural areas and end up being killed by villagers. Locals may also be motivated to kill orangutans for food or because of fear and self-defense. Mother orangutans are killed so their infants can be sold as pets, and many of these infants die without the help of their mother. Since 2012, the Indonesian authorities, with the aid of the Orangutan Information Center, confiscated 114 orangutans, 39 of which were pets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orang Asli",
        "text": "There is a threat of extinction of certain Orang Asli languages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Island",
        "text": "After spending a few months in the wild, Mogok contracted a massive threadworm infection, and trackers found him very weak. He was evacuated back to Nyaru Menteng in late August 2013. Despite 24-hour veterinary treatment, he died on September 12, 2013. Ms. Nielsen said, \"It is extremely sad to lose an orangutan that we worked so hard to rehabilitate and return to the wild, but we were always realistic from the start that not all of our orangutans would make it\u00a0\u2013 even wild orangutans die in the forest to illness or injuries.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "Orangutan\n--Etymology.\n--Taxonomy and phylogeny.\n----Fossil record.\n--Characteristics.\n--Ecology and behaviour.\n----Diet and feeding.\n----Social life.\n----Communication.\n----Reproduction and development.\n----Nesting.\n--Intelligence and cognition.\n----Tool use and culture.\n----Personhood.\n--Orangutans and humans.\n----In fiction.\n----In captivity.\n--Conservation.\n----Status and threats.\n----Conservation centres and organisations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Island",
        "text": "Some orangutans shown on the program have died since the series concluded, before they could be released to the wild. According to Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen's Facebook page, these orangutans have died:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Gigantopithecus",
        "text": "\"Gigantopithecus\" is now classified in the subfamily Ponginae, closely allied with \"Sivapithecus\" and \"Indopithecus\". This would make its closest living relatives the orangutans. However, there are few similar traits (synapomorphies) linking \"Gigantopithecus\" and orangutans due to fragmentary remains, with the main morphological argument being its close affinities to \"Sivapithecus\", which is better established as a pongine based on skull features. In 2017, Chinese palaeoanthropologist Yingqi Zhang and American anthropologist Terry Harrison suggested that \"Gigantopithecus\" is most closely allied to the Chinese \"Lufengpithecus\", which went extinct 4 million years prior to \"Gigantopithecus\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "The phylogenetic split of Hominidae into the subfamilies Homininae and Ponginae is dated to the middle Miocene, roughly 18 to 14 million years ago. This split is also referenced as the \"orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor\" by Jeffrey H. Schwartz, professor of anthropology at the University of Pittsburgh School of Arts and Sciences, and John Grehan, director of science at the Buffalo Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "The phylogenetic split of Hominidae into the subfamilies Homininae and Ponginae is dated to the middle Miocene, roughly 18 to 14 million years ago. This split is also referenced as the \"orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor\" by Jeffrey H. Schwartz, professor of anthropology at the University of Pittsburgh School of Arts and Sciences, and John Grehan, director of science at the Buffalo Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "Orangutans are great apes native to the rainforests of Indonesia and Malaysia. They are now found only in parts of Borneo and Sumatra, but during the Pleistocene they ranged throughout Southeast Asia and South China. Classified in the genus Pongo, orangutans were originally considered to be one species. From 1996, they were divided into two species: the Bornean orangutan (\"P. pygmaeus\", with three subspecies) and the Sumatran orangutan (\"P. abelii\"). A third species, the Tapanuli orangutan (\"P. tapanuliensis\"), was identified definitively in 2017. The orangutans are the only surviving species of the subfamily Ponginae, which diverged genetically from the other hominids (gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans) between 19.3 and 15.7 million years ago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "Dryopithecines was first uncovered in France, and it had a large frontal sinus which ties it to the African great apes. Orangutans which are only found in Asia do not. They did have thick dental enamel another ape-like characteristic. Orangutans do not have a large frontal sinus. The study of Dryopithecini as an outgroup to Hominidae suggests a date earlier than 8 million years ago for the Homininae-Ponginae split. It also suggests that the Homininae group evolved in Africa or Western Eurasia, against the theory that Homininae was originally an Asian line which later recolonized Africa after the Great Apes went extinct in Africa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan is a Critically Endangered species, with deforestation, palm oil plantations, and hunting posing a serious threat to its continued existence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan is more common than the Sumatran, with about 104,700 individuals in the wild, whereas just under 14,000 Sumatran orangutans are left in the wild. Orangutans are becoming increasingly endangered due to habitat destruction and the bushmeat trade, and young orangutans are captured to be sold as pets, usually entailing the killing of their mothers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor\n--Phylogeny.\n--Appearance and ecology.\n--Genomes and ecology.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Willie Smits",
        "text": "\"Thinkers of the Jungle - The Orangutan Report: Pictures, Facts, Background\" gives an account of the life, behaviour and fate of orangutans. Alongside a wealth of information about this endangered species based on the latest research, authors Willie Smits and Gerd Schuster outline the threat to the orangutan's survival: economical and political interests, exploitation of nature and human ignorance and greed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan (disambiguation)",
        "text": "The orangutan is a species of great ape."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extinct or Alive",
        "text": "While shooting footage for Season 2 in Madagascar in 2019, the team, along with primatologist and biologist Cortni Borgerson, found a non-fossilized skull and tusk that were conclusively identified as belonging to a Malagasy hippopotamus, an animal that was believed to have gone extinct 1,000 years ago. However, the skull was dated to less than 200 years old, confirming that the species survived much later than previously believed and may have even survived into the present day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bigfoot",
        "text": "Bernard G. Campbell writes: \"That \"Gigantopithecus\" is in fact extinct has been questioned by those who believe it survives as the Yeti of the Himalayas and the Sasquatch of the north-west American coast. But the evidence for these creatures is not convincing.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Disenchanted Forest",
        "text": "Dr Carl Van Schaik, primatologist, discusses the rapidly diminishing opportunity to learn about human evolution as the number of wild orangutans dwindles precariously. He believes questions such as, 'where does our culture come from?' can be answered through the study of orangutan culture and in this context discusses the incredibly fragile culture of the solitary orangutan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extinct or Alive",
        "text": "Extinct or Alive is an American wildlife documentary television programme produced for Animal Planet by Hot Snakes Media of New York City, the United States. It is hosted by conservationist and television personality Forrest Galante, who travels to different locations around the globe to learn about possibly extinct animals and whether or not there is a chance that they may still be extant. The series has been involved in the possible rediscovery of eleven animals, namely the Zanzibar leopard, the Pondicherry shark, the Fernandina Island Gal\u00e1pagos tortoise, the Miller's grizzled langur, the Cape lion, the Malagasy hippopotamus, the Yangtze giant softshell turtle, Rio Apaporis caiman, Whitetip weasel shark, Ornate sleeper-ray and the Flapnose houndshark.\n* Forrest Galante \u2013 Host and team leader"
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "The illegal trade of orangutans as pets contributes to the severe decline of population, as often mothers are killed for the sole reason of selling the infant. Additionally, the orphans regularly do not survive the conditions they are kept in as pets, especially during transportation to other countries. It has been estimated that for every infant sold, between 1 and 6 adult orangutans are killed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extinct or Alive",
        "text": "In July 2017, Forrest and his crew explore in the island of Java discovered a cat caught on the thermal drone which may believe to be the extinct Javan tiger but remains not yet confirmed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Orangutan may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Forrest Galante",
        "text": "On June 10, 2018, Galante's docu-series, \"Extinct or Alive\" premiered on Animal Planet. The show sought to reveal whether animals believed to be extinct can potentially still be found. In each episode, Galante explored the habitats of these animals, often seeking protection to help preserve the species and encourage their continued survival. Destinations have included Taiwan (to search for the Formosan clouded leopard), Newfoundland (to explore the White Wolf), and Madagascar (to search for traces of the giant \"Pachylemur\"). Galante has stated that he is committed to uncovering the Thylacine and, after two expeditions, will continue searching."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pongo hooijeri",
        "text": "Orangutans are invulnerable to most arboreal predators due to their large size and strength. However, if Vietnamese orangutans traveled across the forest floor similar to modern Bornean orangutans, they would have become possible prey for the ancestors of Indochinese leopards, tigers and packs of dholes. Both the sun bear and Asiatic black bear may have been potential threats to young, infirm or weakened individuals. Orangutans near large, continuous bodies of water would be vulnerable to saltwater and Siamese crocodiles as well as reticulated pythons. Fossil and subfossil evidence from human \"trash piles\" suggests orangutans were targeted by human hunter-gatherers as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "Near the tip of the tongue on the underside are the submandibular glands, which secrete amylase. These are only found in the great apes so it is understood that the last common ancestor would also have these."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karen (orangutan)",
        "text": "Wild Sumatran orangutans are critically endangered. In the 1970s, UC San Diego Health (UCSD) pathologist Kurt Benirschke, persuaded zoo trustees to establish a research department, at the zoo's Center for the Reproduction of Endangered Species, which he subsequently led, providing the collaboration between the University and the zoo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "In late 2014, Nyaru Menteng veterinarians failed to rescue the life of a female orangutan. An operation was performed in which 40 air-rifle pellets were removed from her body. The orangutan was found at a palm oil plantation in Indonesian Borneo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "Nonja, thought to be the world's oldest orangutan in captivity or the wild at the time of her death, died at the Miami MetroZoo at the age of 55. Inji, a female orangutan who was born in the wild, was estimated to be one year of age at the time she was surrendered to a zoo in 1961. At the time of her death at the Oregon Zoo in 2021, Inji was believed to be 61 years old."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Borneo Orangutan Survival\n--History.\n--Orangutan Conservation Status.\n--Orangutan Rescue and Rehabilitation Centres.\n----Wanariset.\n----Nyaru Menteng.\n----Samboja Lestari.\n--Forest Conservation, Reforestation and Research.\n----Samboja Lestari.\n----Mawas.\n----Kehje Sewen.\n--Documentaries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "The great apes other than humans and orangutans have brow ridges."
      },
      {
        "title": "New World oriole",
        "text": "One extinct species, the Talara troupial (\"Icterus turmalis\"), is known from fossil remains recovered from the Talara Tar Seeps of northwestern Peru, and likely went extinct during the late Quaternary. It may have been a close associate of Pleistocene megafauna communities, and may have gone extinct following their collapse in populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pawan River",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan, also found in the forest along the Pawan river in West Kalimantan, are facing severe habitat loss due to logging and clearing land for palm oil and related agriculture activities. Consequently, their population is declining. The orangutans in this region are from the sub-species \"Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii.\" They are different from the species found in Sumatra."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "According to molecular evidence, within apes (superfamily Hominoidea), the gibbons diverged during the early Miocene between 24.1 and 19.7 million years ago\u00a0(mya), and the orangutans diverged from the African great ape lineage between 19.3 and 15.7\u00a0mya. Israfil and colleagues (2011) estimated based on mitochondrial, Y-linked, and X-linked loci that the Sumatran and Bornean species diverged 4.9 to 2.9\u00a0mya. By contrast, the 2011 genome study suggested that these two species diverged around 400,000\u00a0years ago, more recently than was previously thought. Also, the orangutan genome was found to have evolved much more slowly than chimpanzee and human DNA. A 2017 genome study found that the Bornean and Tapanuli orangutans diverged from Sumatran orangutans about 3.4\u00a0mya, and from each other around 2.4\u00a0mya. Orangutans travelled from Sumatra to Borneo as the islands were connected by land bridges as parts of Sundaland during recent glacial periods when sea levels were much lower. The present range of Tapanuli orangutans is thought to be close to where ancestral orangutans first entered what is now Indonesia from mainland Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "All three species are critically endangered according to the IUCN Red List of mammals. They are legally protected from capture, harm or killing in both Malaysia and Indonesia, and are listed under Appendix I by CITES, which prohibits their unlicensed trade under international law. The Bornean orangutan range has become patchy, being largely extirpated from several parts of the island, including the southeast. The largest remaining population is found in the forest around the Sabangau River, but this environment is at risk. The Sumatran orangutan is found only in the northern part of Sumatra, most of the population inhabiting the Leuser Ecosystem. The Tapanuli orangutan is found only in the Batang Toru forest of Sumatra."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pongo hooijeri",
        "text": "The mainland orangutan appears to have been sympatric to numerous species that are found in Southeast Asia today or were present in the region during the Holocene epoch as conditions within the region are similar to today and therefore would have supported a similar biologically rich ecosystem that existed in the region in the pre-industrial and pre-colonial era. Orangutans of mainland Southeast Asia may have shared their forests with the now extinct giant tapir along with northern hairy rhinoceros, Javan rhinoceros, gaur, Asian elephant along with representatives of \"Cervus\" and \"Sus\". Orangutans of Vietnam and other regions of mainland Asia would have likely lived alongside a vast array of primates including various ancestral langurs, \"Rhinopithecus\" and lesser apes. Although it is unknown whether orangutans within the region preyed upon prosimians, lorises have been present in the fossil records of South East Asia since the Miocene and would have likely encountered the great apes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extinct in the wild",
        "text": "Another successful example is the Arabian Oryx, now considered vulnerable but not EW."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wonambi",
        "text": "Tim Flannery claims that this animal, along with other Australian megafauna, became extinct (partly) as a result of activities of Aboriginal Australians (for example, hunting and firestick farming)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "There are three species of orangutan. The Bornean orangutan, the most common, can be found in Kalimantan, Indonesia and Sarawak and Sabah in Malaysia. The Sumatran orangutan and the Tapanuli orangutan are both only found in Sumatra, Indonesia The conservation status of all three of these species is critically endangered, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List."
      },
      {
        "title": "Living Fossil (short story)",
        "text": "In the far future (perhaps five to ten million years from now), humans and much of the world's fauna have gone extinct, and new creatures have evolved from the remaining species to take their places. \"Jmu\", intelligent primates evolved from capuchin monkeys, now fill the niche left by humans, giant agoutis that of horses, giant tapirs that of elephants. There are also giant rabbits. Other animals, like bears, lions, deer, geese, ducks, snakes, dragonflies, grasshoppers, fleas and mayflies, continue to survive in their previous ecological roles. It is a world of depleted resources, much of these having been used up by humans, but the \"Jmu\" have developed to a fairly high level their own technology, including aeronautical balloons, rifles, binoculars and cameras."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jalmenus eubulus",
        "text": "In 2021, it was considered likely to be extinct by 2040 with a 42% probability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meratus Mountains",
        "text": "In the 1990s the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation reintroduced 350 orangutans into the protected Meratus and Sungai Wain forests. Due to extensive deforestation the ecosystem of the mountains, including many flora and fauna species are endangered. Traditional Dayak villages are also disappearing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Deforestation in Sumatra and Borneo is the primary reason for the endangerment of all species of orangutans. Timber is extracted from these areas for the production of palm oil, paper, and pulp. Majority of the logging is illegal, and with the rapid expansion of the palm oil industry, extraction rates have exponentially increased over the past 40 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Val d'Aran",
        "text": "Many native animals of Aran are in danger of extinction. There are programs to reintroduce and/or protect:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jackson Zoo",
        "text": "In 2017, orangutans on loan from other facilities were removed to new properties due to the age of their enclosure and lack of funding to renovate in a timely fashion."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of recently extinct mammals",
        "text": "All species listed as \"Extinct\" are classified as being extinct (no known remaining individuals left) by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). All species listed as Extinct in the wild are classified as being extinct in the wild, meaning that all remaining individuals of the species reside in captivity. All species listed as \"Possibly extinct\" are classified as being critically endangered, as it is unknown whether or not these species are extinct. Extinct subspecies such as the Javan tiger (\"Panthera tigris sondaica\") are not listed here as the species, in this case \"Panthera tigris\", is still extant. The IUCN Redlist classification for each species serves as a citation, and the superscripted \"IUCN\" by the date is a link to that species' page. A range map is provided wherever available, and a description of their former or current range is given if a range map is not available."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extinct (2006 TV series)",
        "text": "In the first four episodes, two celebrities presented the case for their animal. A short video documentary was shown, where the celebrity was seen travelling to the land of the animal, explained why the animal is in danger and what can be done to help save. The eight celebrities were;\n*Anneka Rice, television presenter - polar bear\n*David Suchet, actor - giant panda\n*Sadie Frost, actress and fashion designer - orangutan\n*Michael Portillo, former MP - hyacinth macaw\n*Graeme Le Saux, footballer - mountain gorilla\n*Miranda Richardson, actress - Asian elephant\n*Dermot O'Leary, television presenter - leatherback sea turtle\n*Pauline Collins, actress - Bengal tiger"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "The species has been assessed as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List since 2000. From 2000-2008 it was considered one of \"The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Holocene extinction",
        "text": "Various species are predicted to become extinct in the near future, among them the rhinoceros, nonhuman primates, pangolins, and giraffes. Hunting alone threatens bird and mammalian populations around the world. The direct killing of megafauna for meat and body parts is the primary driver of their destruction, with 70% of the 362 megafauna species in decline as of 2019. Mammals in particular have suffered such severe losses as the result of human activity that it could take several million years for them to recover. 189 countries, which are signatory to the Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio Accord), have committed to preparing a Biodiversity Action Plan, a first step at identifying specific endangered species and habitats, country by country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan has been linked to the fact that it has gone through a deep divergence in relation to its relatives and ancestors. During the Middle Pleistocene, there were low levels of gene flow, which was determined through the analysis of Y-chromosomal data. One reason as to why this may have occurred is because of the Sunda shelf, which is where the island of Borneo is located. During this time, this event's dry climate during the Late Pleistocene attributed to a more abundant genetic exchange. As a result, there were many early divergences of gene pools between the Bornean orangutans, as well as the Sumatran orangutans. Relating back to the Middle Pleistocene, the Bornean orangutan lineage went through a dramatic population decline. This is likely attributed to the fact that they had been isolated from their ancestral populations. Therefore, natural geographic barriers are attributed to be the reason as to why the Bornean orangutans were eventually isolated and ended up colonizing other regions. In addition, this geographic isolation also indicates that the Bornean orangutans did not undergo a severe genetic bottleneck. With the Borneo orangutan, selection was found to have been found through physiological adaptations \u2013 most of which has to do with being able to adapt to the ever-changing climate on the Borneo island."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "In addition to the above extant wild populations, a new population is being established in the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park (Jambi and Riau Provinces) via the re-introduction of confiscated illegal pets. This population currently numbers around 70 individuals and is reproducing. However it has been concluded that forest conservation costs twelve times less than reintroducing orangutans into the wild, and conserves more biological diversity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aratinga",
        "text": "Aratinga\n--Taxonomy.\n--Hypothetical extinct species.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rhinocolinae",
        "text": "Note: = extinct"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "The oldest known record of \"Pongo\" is from the Early Pleistocene of Chongzuo, consisting of teeth ascribed to extinct species \"P. weidenreichi\". \"Pongo\" is found as part of the faunal complex in the Pleistocene cave assemblage in Vietnam, alongside \"Giganopithecus\", though it is known only from teeth. Some fossils described under the name \"P.\u00a0hooijeri\" have been found in Vietnam, and multiple fossil subspecies have been described from several parts of southeastern Asia. It is unclear if these belong to \"P.\u00a0pygmaeus\" or \"P.\u00a0abelii\" or, in fact, represent distinct species. During the Pleistocene, \"Pongo\" had a far more extensive range than at present, extending throughout Sundaland and mainland Southeast Asia and South China. Teeth of orangutans are known from Peninsular Malaysia that date to 60,000 years ago. The range of orangutans had contracted significantly by the end of the Pleistocene, most likely because of the reduction of forest habitat during the Last Glacial Maximum.Though they may have survived into the Holocene in Cambodia and Vietnam."
      },
      {
        "title": "Safari Club International",
        "text": "The scimitar-horned oryx is extinct in the wild across its range in North Africa, having been last seen in Niger and Chad in the mid-1980s. The dama gazelle and addax are rumored to exist in only a few small and highly fragmented populations in the most remote parts of the Sahara Desert. According to SCI, however, healthy populations of all three species still exist in the United States."
      },
      {
        "title": "Argonaut (animal)",
        "text": "With the species regarded as valid extinct taxa are"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of biodiversity articles",
        "text": "Extinct in the Wild \u2014"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "Hominoidea (commonly known as apes) are thought to have evolved in Africa by about 18 million years ago. Among the genera thought to be in the ape lineage leading up to the emergence of the great apes (Hominidae) about 13\u00a0million years ago are \"Proconsul\", \"Rangwapithecus\", \"Dendropithecus\", \"Nacholapithecus\", \"Equatorius\", \"Afropithecus\" and \"Kenyapithecus,\" all from East Africa. During the early Miocene, Europe and Africa were connected by land bridges over the Tethys Sea. Apes showed up in Europe in the fossil record beginning 17 million years ago. Great apes show up in the fossil record in Europe and Asia beginning about 12\u00a0million years ago. The only living great ape in Asia is the orangutan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "Several organisations are working for the rescue, rehabilitation and reintroduction of orangutans. The largest of these is the Borneo Orangutan Survival (BOS) Foundation, founded by conservationist Willie Smits and which operates projects such as the Nyaru Menteng Rehabilitation Program founded by conservationist Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen. A female orangutan was rescued from a village brothel in Kareng Pangi village, Central Kalimantan, in 2003. The orangutan was shaved and chained for sexual purposes. Since being freed, the orangutan, named Pony, has been living with the BOS. She has been re-socialised to live with other orangutans. In May 2017, the BOS rescued an albino orangutan from captivity. The rare primate was being held captive in a remote village in Kapuas Hulu, on the island of Kalimantan in Indonesian Borneo. According to volunteers at BOS, albino orangutans are extremely rare (one in ten thousand). This is the first albino orangutan the organisation has seen in 25 years of activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "Orangutans represent an older lineage of great apes dating from 12\u201316\u00a0million years ago. Though orangutans are the most phylogenetically distant great apes from humans, they nonetheless share significant similarities: equally large brains, high intelligence, slow lives, hunting, meat-eating, reliance on technology, culture, and language capacity. Experts often argue that orangutans resemble humans the most closely, showing greater bipedalism, subtle intellectual advantages, and the longest childhood growth and period of dependency."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biodiversity of Borneo",
        "text": "It is unknown if the Bornean tiger became extinct in recent times or prehistoric times."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of extinct animals of Oceania",
        "text": "Possibly extinct"
      },
      {
        "title": "List of extinct animals of Oceania",
        "text": "Possibly extinct"
      },
      {
        "title": "Extinct animals from the Isle of Man",
        "text": "It continues ..."
      },
      {
        "title": "Extinct animals from the Isle of Man",
        "text": "It continues ..."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "Sumatran orangutan\n--Description.\n--Behaviour and ecology.\n----Life cycle.\n----Diet.\n------Meat-eating.\n--Genomics.\n--Conservation.\n----Threats.\n----Conservation status.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Extinct or Alive",
        "text": "During filming for the show in 2018, a camera trap caught apparent footage of a Zanzibar leopard on Unguja Island. The animal appeared smaller than specimens from the mainland, and seemed to have smaller, more solid spots than normally seen on African leopards. Further investigations are planned in order to confirm whether or not this is a Zanzibar leopard, and whether a viable population still exists."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are Orangutans going extinct?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Are you interested in the Sumatran, Tapanuli, Bornean, or some other orangutan species?",
      "Are you asking about the Bornean orangutan, Tapanuli orangutan, or Sumatran orangutan?"
    ],
    "topic": "Orangutan",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Sumatran orangutan:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sumatran orangutan"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Sumatran orangutan (\"Pongo abelii\") is one of the three species of orangutans. Critically Endangered, and found only in the north of the Indonesian island of Sumatra, it is rarer than the Bornean orangutan but more common than the recently identified Tapanuli orangutan, also found in Sumatra. Its common name is based on two separate local words, \"orang\" (\"people\" or \"person\") and \"hutan\" (\"forest\"), derived from Malay, and translates as 'person of the forest'."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Tapanuli orangutan:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tapanuli orangutan"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Tapanuli orangutan (\"Pongo tapanuliensis\") is a species of orangutan restricted to South Tapanuli in the island of Sumatra in Indonesia. It is one of three known species of orangutan, alongside the Sumatran orangutan (\"P. abelii\"), found farther northwest on the island, and the Bornean orangutan (\"P. pygmaeus\"). It was described as a distinct species in 2017. , there are roughly 800 individuals of this species and it is currently on the critically endangered species list."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Bornean orangutan:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Bornean orangutan"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Bornean orangutan (\"Pongo pygmaeus\") is a species of orangutan endemic to the island of Borneo. Together with the Sumatran orangutan (\"Pongo abelii\") and Tapanuli orangutan (\"Pongo tapanuliensis\"), it belongs to the only genus of great apes native to Asia. Like the other great apes, orangutans are highly intelligent, displaying tool use and distinct cultural patterns in the wild. Orangutans share approximately 97% of their DNA with humans."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Bornean orangutan:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Bornean orangutan"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Bornean orangutan (\"Pongo pygmaeus\") is a species of orangutan endemic to the island of Borneo. Together with the Sumatran orangutan (\"Pongo abelii\") and Tapanuli orangutan (\"Pongo tapanuliensis\"), it belongs to the only genus of great apes native to Asia. Like the other great apes, orangutans are highly intelligent, displaying tool use and distinct cultural patterns in the wild. Orangutans share approximately 97% of their DNA with humans."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Tapanuli orangutan:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Tapanuli orangutan"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Tapanuli orangutan (\"Pongo tapanuliensis\") is a species of orangutan restricted to South Tapanuli in the island of Sumatra in Indonesia. It is one of three known species of orangutan, alongside the Sumatran orangutan (\"P. abelii\"), found farther northwest on the island, and the Bornean orangutan (\"P. pygmaeus\"). It was described as a distinct species in 2017. , there are roughly 800 individuals of this species and it is currently on the critically endangered species list."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Sumatran orangutan:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Sumatran orangutan"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Sumatran orangutan (\"Pongo abelii\") is one of the three species of orangutans. Critically Endangered, and found only in the north of the Indonesian island of Sumatra, it is rarer than the Bornean orangutan but more common than the recently identified Tapanuli orangutan, also found in Sumatra. Its common name is based on two separate local words, \"orang\" (\"people\" or \"person\") and \"hutan\" (\"forest\"), derived from Malay, and translates as 'person of the forest'."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "Estimates between 2000 and 2003 found 7,300\u00a0Sumatran orangutans and between 45,000 and 69,000\u00a0Bornean orangutans remain in the wild. A 2016 study estimates a population of 14,613 Sumatran orangutans in the wild, doubling previous population estimates. Fewer than 800 Tapanuli orangutan are estimated to still exist, which puts the species among the most endangered of the great apes. The table below shows a breakdown of the species and subspecies and their estimated populations from this or (in the case of \"P. tapanuliensis\") a 2017 report:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Although the current population of orangutans is not precisely known, it is estimated that currently there are about 104,000 Bornean orangutans, 14,000 Sumatran orangutans, and 800 Tapanuli orangutans remaining in the wild, and 1,000 are being held in conservation sites."
      },
      {
        "title": "La Palmyre Zoo",
        "text": "The orangutans are threatened with extinction because of the disappearance of their natural habitat, the tropical forests of Sumatra and Borneo. It is estimated that 30 to 50% of the wild populations of orangutans were decimated in the last ten years. Today, the last wild populations remain mainly out of the protected reserves, in degraded zones subjected to human exploitation (deforestation, and agriculture). To date, the populations of orangutans in their natural habitat were never studied and it is generally believed that they are heading towards a fast extinction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Over the past 60 years, the population of all three species has been steeply declining. The current population of orangutans cannot be accurately calculated, however it is estimated that the number of individuals remaining is: 104,000 Bornean orangutans, 14,000 Sumatran orangutans, and 800 Tapanuli orangutans. The number of Bornean orangutans has decreased by more than 60% in 60 years, and the population of the Sumatran orangutan has decreased by 80% in the last 75 years. It is estimated that between 1999 and 2015, the population of Bornean orangutans has decreased by over 100,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan and the Sumatran orangutan diverged about 400,000 years ago, with a continued low level of gene flow between them since then. The two orangutan species were considered merely subspecies until 1996; they were elevated to species following sequencing of their mitochondrial DNA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan is more common than the Sumatran, with about 104,700 individuals in the wild, whereas just under 14,000 Sumatran orangutans are left in the wild. Orangutans are becoming increasingly endangered due to habitat destruction and the bushmeat trade, and young orangutans are captured to be sold as pets, usually entailing the killing of their mothers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan is a Critically Endangered species, with deforestation, palm oil plantations, and hunting posing a serious threat to its continued existence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan was up-listed to the status of Critically Endangered in 2016 according to the IUCN Red List of mammals, and is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The total number of Bornean orangutans is estimated to be less than 20 percent of what it was 50 years ago (from a population of about 288,500 in 1973 to a population of about 57,350 in 2016) and this sharp decline has occurred mostly over the past few decades due to human activities and development. Their habitat is so much reduced that they are now only to be found in pockets of remaining rainforest. According to the IUCN, it is expected that in 10 to 30 years orangutans will be extinct if there is no serious effort to overcome the threats that they are facing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan (\"Pongo pygmaeus\") is a species of orangutan endemic to the island of Borneo. Together with the Sumatran orangutan (\"Pongo abelii\") and Tapanuli orangutan (\"Pongo tapanuliensis\"), it belongs to the only genus of great apes native to Asia. Like the other great apes, orangutans are highly intelligent, displaying tool use and distinct cultural patterns in the wild. Orangutans share approximately 97% of their DNA with humans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "Orangutans are great apes native to the rainforests of Indonesia and Malaysia. They are now found only in parts of Borneo and Sumatra, but during the Pleistocene they ranged throughout Southeast Asia and South China. Classified in the genus Pongo, orangutans were originally considered to be one species. From 1996, they were divided into two species: the Bornean orangutan (\"P. pygmaeus\", with three subspecies) and the Sumatran orangutan (\"P. abelii\"). A third species, the Tapanuli orangutan (\"P. tapanuliensis\"), was identified definitively in 2017. The orangutans are the only surviving species of the subfamily Ponginae, which diverged genetically from the other hominids (gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans) between 19.3 and 15.7 million years ago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "There are three species of orangutan. The Bornean orangutan, the most common, can be found in Kalimantan, Indonesia and Sarawak and Sabah in Malaysia. The Sumatran orangutan and the Tapanuli orangutan are both only found in Sumatra, Indonesia The conservation status of all three of these species is critically endangered, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "All three species are critically endangered according to the IUCN Red List of mammals. They are legally protected from capture, harm or killing in both Malaysia and Indonesia, and are listed under Appendix I by CITES, which prohibits their unlicensed trade under international law. The Bornean orangutan range has become patchy, being largely extirpated from several parts of the island, including the southeast. The largest remaining population is found in the forest around the Sabangau River, but this environment is at risk. The Sumatran orangutan is found only in the northern part of Sumatra, most of the population inhabiting the Leuser Ecosystem. The Tapanuli orangutan is found only in the Batang Toru forest of Sumatra."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan is critically endangered according to the IUCN Red List of mammals, and is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The total number of Bornean orangutans is estimated to be less than 14% of what it was in the recent past (from around 10,000 years ago until the middle of the 20th century), and this sharp decline has occurred mostly over the past few decades due to human activities and development. Species distribution is now highly patchy throughout Borneo; it is apparently absent or uncommon in the southeast of the island, as well as in the forest between the Rajang River in central Sarawak and the Padas River in western Sabah (including the Sultanate of Brunei). A population of around 6,900 is found in Sabangau National Park, but this environment is at risk. According to an anthropologist at Harvard University, in 10 to 20 years, orangutans are expected to be extinct in the wild if no serious effort is made to overcome the threats they are facing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Due to an expanding global demand for timber in the 1980s, this rate then increased; according to a satellite study, 56% or 2.9 million hectares of tropical rainforests in Kalimantan, Borneo were extracted between 1985 and 2001, with a rapid increase in deforestation rates in the late 1990s. The rate of deforestation during this time directly correlates with the decrease in orangutan population, as the species cannot survive in other areas. It is estimated that since 1950, the orangutan population has declined by 60%. Between 1999 and 2015, the population of Bornean orangutans decreased by 100,000 individuals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tapanuli orangutan",
        "text": "With fewer than 800 individuals restricted to an area of about , the Tapanuli orangutan is the rarest great ape. It is listed as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) because of hunting, conflict with humans, the illegal wildlife trade, rampant habitat destruction for small scale agriculture, mining and a proposed hydroelectric dam, the Batang Toru hydropower project, in the area with the highest density of orangutans, which could impact up to 10% of its already dwindling habitat and degrade important wildlife corridors. Conservationists predict an 83% decline in three generations (75 years) if the necessary conservation measures and practices are not implemented. Inbreeding depression is likely due to the small population size and fragmented range. This is supported by the genomes of the two Tapanuli orangutan individuals, which show signs of inbreeding. In August 2019 Swiss environmental group PanEco, which is a partner in the Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme, dropped its previous opposition to the dam, several months after firing several researchers who opposed the new strategy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "In history, orangutans ranged throughout Southeast Asia and into southern China, as well as on the island of Java and in southern Sumatra. They primarily inhabit peat swamp forest, tropical heath forest, and mixed dipterocarp forest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pawan River",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan, also found in the forest along the Pawan river in West Kalimantan, are facing severe habitat loss due to logging and clearing land for palm oil and related agriculture activities. Consequently, their population is declining. The orangutans in this region are from the sub-species \"Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii.\" They are different from the species found in Sumatra."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ah Meng",
        "text": "She belonged to the Sumatran orangutan species, a rarer breed of orangutan now critically endangered due to illegal logging and poaching. There are about only 7,500 Sumatran orangutans left in the wild in the rainforests of Sumatra, Indonesia. Ah Meng died on 8 February 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "This view is also supported by the United Nations Environment Programme, which stated in its 2007 report that, due to illegal logging, fire and the extensive development of palm oil plantations, orangutans are critically endangered, and if the current trend continues, they will become extinct. When forest is burned down to clear room for palm oil plantations, not only does the Bornean orangutan suffer from habitat loss, but several individuals have been burned and killed in fires. Palm oil accounts for over one tenth of Indonesia's export earnings. It is in high demand because it is used in several packaged foods, deodorants, shampoos, soaps, candies, and baked goods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "The Sumatran orangutan (\"Pongo abelii\") is one of the three species of orangutans. Critically Endangered, and found only in the north of the Indonesian island of Sumatra, it is rarer than the Bornean orangutan but more common than the recently identified Tapanuli orangutan, also found in Sumatra. Its common name is based on two separate local words, \"orang\" (\"people\" or \"person\") and \"hutan\" (\"forest\"), derived from Malay, and translates as 'person of the forest'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "Compared to their relatives in Borneo, Sumatran orangutans are thinner with paler and longer hair and a longer face. Tapanuli orangutans resemble Sumatran orangutans more than Bornean orangutans in body build and fur colour. They have frizzier hair, smaller heads, and have flatter and wider faces than the other two orangutan species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tapanuli orangutan",
        "text": "The Tapanuli orangutan (\"Pongo tapanuliensis\") is a species of orangutan restricted to South Tapanuli in the island of Sumatra in Indonesia. It is one of three known species of orangutan, alongside the Sumatran orangutan (\"P. abelii\"), found farther northwest on the island, and the Bornean orangutan (\"P. pygmaeus\"). It was described as a distinct species in 2017. , there are roughly 800 individuals of this species and it is currently on the critically endangered species list."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "Bornean orangutan\n--Taxonomy.\n--Physical description.\n--Habitat and distribution.\n--Behavior and ecology.\n----Diet.\n----Reproduction.\n--Conservation status.\n----Rescue and rehabilitation centers.\n--Genome and Demographic History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "This view is also supported by the United Nations Environment Programme, which states in its report that due to deforestation by illegal logging, fire and the extensive development of oil palm plantations (see Social and environmental impact of palm oil), orangutans are threatened with extinction, and if the current trend continues, they will become extinct.\n# Orangutan reintroduction, through the rescue, rehabilitation, and release of ex-captive orangutans\n#Orangutan and sun bear (\"Helarctos malayanus\") life-long sanctuary care, for individuals with physical or behavioural handicaps that prevent reintroduction\n# Orangutan ecosystem conservation, through the protection of existing forest landscapes and rehabilitation of degraded areas\n# Sustainable community development and education, through outreach, community capacity-building, community empowerment, and public awareness-raising"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "In late 2014, Nyaru Menteng veterinarians failed to rescue the life of a female orangutan. An operation was performed in which 40 air-rifle pellets were removed from her body. The orangutan was found at a palm oil plantation in Indonesian Borneo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Orangutan (disambiguation)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "It is found in the two Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, and four of the five Indonesian Provinces of Kalimantan. Due to habitat destruction, the species distribution is now highly patchy throughout the island, the species has become rare in the southeast of the island, as well as in the forest between the Rajang River in central Sarawak and the Padas River in western Sabah. Its presence in Brunei is uncertain and unconfirmed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tapanuli orangutan",
        "text": "Genetic comparisons show that Tapanuli orangutans diverged from Sumatran orangutans about 3.4 million years ago, and became more isolated after the Lake Toba eruption that occurred about 75,000 years ago. They had continued sporadic contact that stopped between 10,000 and 20,000 years ago. Tapanuli orangutans diverged from Bornean orangutans about 674,000 years ago. Orangutans were able to travel from Sumatra to Borneo because the islands were connected by land bridges as parts of Sundaland during recent glacial periods when sea levels were much lower. The present range of Tapanuli orangutans is thought to be close to the area where ancestral orangutans first entered what is now Indonesia from mainland Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "The researchers also published less complete copies from ten wild orangutans, five from Borneo and five from Sumatra. The genetic diversity was found to be lower in Bornean orangutans (\"Pongo pygmaeus\") than in Sumatran ones (\"Pongo abelii\"), despite the fact that Borneo is home to six or seven times as many orangutans as Sumatra. The comparison has shown these two species diverged around 400,000 years ago, more recently than was previously thought. The orangutan genome also has fewer rearrangements than the chimpanzee/human lineage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "Various genera of dryopithecines have been identified and are classified as an extinct sister clade of the Homininae."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "According to molecular evidence, within apes (superfamily Hominoidea), the gibbons diverged during the early Miocene between 24.1 and 19.7 million years ago\u00a0(mya), and the orangutans diverged from the African great ape lineage between 19.3 and 15.7\u00a0mya. Israfil and colleagues (2011) estimated based on mitochondrial, Y-linked, and X-linked loci that the Sumatran and Bornean species diverged 4.9 to 2.9\u00a0mya. By contrast, the 2011 genome study suggested that these two species diverged around 400,000\u00a0years ago, more recently than was previously thought. Also, the orangutan genome was found to have evolved much more slowly than chimpanzee and human DNA. A 2017 genome study found that the Bornean and Tapanuli orangutans diverged from Sumatran orangutans about 3.4\u00a0mya, and from each other around 2.4\u00a0mya. Orangutans travelled from Sumatra to Borneo as the islands were connected by land bridges as parts of Sundaland during recent glacial periods when sea levels were much lower. The present range of Tapanuli orangutans is thought to be close to where ancestral orangutans first entered what is now Indonesia from mainland Asia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "Despite being arboreal, the Bornean orangutan travels on the ground more than its Sumatran counterpart. This may be in part because no large terrestrial predators could threaten an orangutan in Borneo. In Sumatra, orangutans must face predation by the fierce Sumatran tiger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "Sumatran orangutan\n--Description.\n--Behaviour and ecology.\n----Life cycle.\n----Diet.\n------Meat-eating.\n--Genomics.\n--Conservation.\n----Threats.\n----Conservation status.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan has been linked to the fact that it has gone through a deep divergence in relation to its relatives and ancestors. During the Middle Pleistocene, there were low levels of gene flow, which was determined through the analysis of Y-chromosomal data. One reason as to why this may have occurred is because of the Sunda shelf, which is where the island of Borneo is located. During this time, this event's dry climate during the Late Pleistocene attributed to a more abundant genetic exchange. As a result, there were many early divergences of gene pools between the Bornean orangutans, as well as the Sumatran orangutans. Relating back to the Middle Pleistocene, the Bornean orangutan lineage went through a dramatic population decline. This is likely attributed to the fact that they had been isolated from their ancestral populations. Therefore, natural geographic barriers are attributed to be the reason as to why the Bornean orangutans were eventually isolated and ended up colonizing other regions. In addition, this geographic isolation also indicates that the Bornean orangutans did not undergo a severe genetic bottleneck. With the Borneo orangutan, selection was found to have been found through physiological adaptations \u2013 most of which has to do with being able to adapt to the ever-changing climate on the Borneo island."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "It is predicted that the current rate of forest loss, poaching and illegal pet trading in Borneo will continue, therefore it is presumed that in the next 35 years the population of orangutans will continue to decline an additional 45,000 individuals. By 2025, it is estimated that there will be 47,000 Bornean orangutans left in the wild."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "There are numerous conservation sites and not-for-profit organisations that have been created in an effort to prevent further decline of the orangutan population, however, in 2016, it was predicted by experts that unless drastic changes are made to the current deforestation laws, orangutans face extinction within the next ten years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "This species was originally discovered by native Malaysians. There are several mentions of orangutans in Malaysian folklore. However, this species was originally named and described by the notable zoologist Carl Linneus in 1799. Its original name was \"Simia satyrus\", meaning \"satyr monkey\", but was changed when scientists discovered that not all orangutans are one species. The holotype of this organism is located in the British Museum in London."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "The Sumatran orangutan is endemic to the north of Sumatra. In the wild, Sumatran orangutans only survive in the province of Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam (NAD), the northernmost tip of the island. The primate was once more widespread, as they were found farther to the south in the 19th century, such as in Jambi and Padang."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "The Sumatran orangutan is also more arboreal than its Bornean cousin; this could be because of the presence of large predators, like the Sumatran tiger. It moves through the trees by quadrumanous locomotion and semibrachiation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "Orangutan Foundation International, founded by Dr Birut\u0117 Galdikas, rescues and rehabilitates orangutans, preparing them for release back into protected areas of the Indonesian rain forest. In addition, it promotes the preservation of the rain forest for them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan (disambiguation)",
        "text": "The orangutan is a species of great ape."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "A number of orangutan rescue and rehabilitation projects operate in Borneo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Borneo Orangutan Survival\n--History.\n--Orangutan Conservation Status.\n--Orangutan Rescue and Rehabilitation Centres.\n----Wanariset.\n----Nyaru Menteng.\n----Samboja Lestari.\n--Forest Conservation, Reforestation and Research.\n----Samboja Lestari.\n----Mawas.\n----Kehje Sewen.\n--Documentaries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "As a member of the family Hominidae, Bornean orangutans are one of the closest extant relatives to \"Homo sapiens\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "In early October 2014, researchers from domestic and foreign countries found about 50 orangutans in several groups in South Kalimantan Province, although previously there is no record that the province has orangutans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tapanuli orangutan",
        "text": "An isolated population of orangutans in the Batang Toru area of South Tapanuli was reported in 1939. The population was rediscovered by an expedition to the area in 1997, but it was not recognized as a distinct species then. \"Pongo tapanuliensis\" was identified as a distinct species, following a detailed phylogenetic study in 2017. The study analyzed the genetic samples of 37 wild orangutans from populations across Sumatra and Borneo and conducted a morphological analysis of the skeletons of 34 adult males. The holotype of the species is the complete skeleton of an adult male from Batang Toru who died after being wounded by locals in November 2013. The holotype is stored in the Zoological Museum of Bogor. The skull and teeth of the Batang Toru male differ significantly from those of the other two orangutan species. Comparisons of the genomes of all 37 orangutans using principal component analysis and population genetic models also indicated that the Batang Toru population is a separate species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "In addition to the above extant wild populations, a new population is being established in the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park (Jambi and Riau Provinces) via the re-introduction of confiscated illegal pets. This population currently numbers around 70 individuals and is reproducing. However it has been concluded that forest conservation costs twelve times less than reintroducing orangutans into the wild, and conserves more biological diversity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The first complete orangutan skeleton that was discovered was in the Hoa Binh province in Vietnam and thought to be from the late Pleistocene epoch. It differed from modern orangutans only in that its body was proportionately smaller compared to its head. This fossil and others confirm that orangutans once inhabited continental Southeast Asia even though currently, Bornean orangutans are only found in Malaysia and Indonesia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan (disambiguation)",
        "text": "Orangutan may also refer to:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "Orangutans have anterior lingual glands and sparse terminal hair like the hominines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor\n--Phylogeny.\n--Appearance and ecology.\n--Genomes and ecology.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "The species has been assessed as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List since 2000. From 2000-2008 it was considered one of \"The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Scientists have researched and estimated that the only way of reducing the high rate of population decline is by ceasing deforestation in orangutan habitats, and putting extensive protection methods of current populations in place. However, due to the high demand of the palm oil product and lack of funding from the government, it is extremely unlikely the rapid decline and eventual extinction of orangutans can be prevented."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "The orangutan genome has many unique features. Structural evolution of the orangutan genome has proceeded much more slowly than other great apes, evidenced by fewer rearrangements, less segmental duplication, and a lower rate of gene family turnover. Diversity among the orangutan populations may not be maintained with continued habitat loss and population fragmentation. Evolutionary evidence from other species suggests fragmentation will not halt diversity, but their slow reproduction rate and arboreal lifestyle may leave the orangutan species especially vulnerable to rapid dramatic environmental change."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "Orangutan\n--Etymology.\n--Taxonomy and phylogeny.\n----Fossil record.\n--Characteristics.\n--Ecology and behaviour.\n----Diet and feeding.\n----Social life.\n----Communication.\n----Reproduction and development.\n----Nesting.\n--Intelligence and cognition.\n----Tool use and culture.\n----Personhood.\n--Orangutans and humans.\n----In fiction.\n----In captivity.\n--Conservation.\n----Status and threats.\n----Conservation centres and organisations.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "The Sumatran orangutan genome was sequenced in January 2011. Following humans and chimpanzees, the Sumatran orangutan became the third species of great ape to have its genome sequenced. Subsequently, the Bornean species had its genome sequenced. Genetic diversity was found to be lower in Bornean orangutans (\"P.\u00a0pygmaeus\") than in Sumatran ones (\"P.\u00a0abelii\"), despite the fact that Borneo is home to six or seven times as many orangutans as Sumatra. The researchers hope these data may help conservationists save the endangered ape, and also prove useful in further understanding of human genetic diseases. Similarly to gorillas and chimpanzees, orangutans have 48\u00a0diploid chromosomes, in contrast to humans, which have 46."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "Climate change is another threat to Bornean orangutan conservation. The effects that human activity have had on Indonesian rainfall have made food less abundant and so Bornean orangutans are less likely to receive full nutrients so that they can be sufficiently healthy to breed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "During the later Miocene, the climate in Europe started to change as the Himalayas were rising, and Europe became cooler and drier. About 9.5\u00a0million years ago, tropical forest in Europe was replaced by woodlands which were less suitable for great apes, and European Homininae (close to the Dryopithecini-Hominini split) appear to have migrated back to Africa where they would have diverged into Gorillini and Hominini."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "All three orangutan species are considered critically endangered. Human activities have caused severe declines in populations and ranges. Threats to wild orangutan populations include poaching (for bushmeat and retaliation for consuming crops), habitat destruction and deforestation (for palm oil cultivation and logging), and the illegal pet trade. Several conservation and rehabilitation organisations are dedicated to the survival of orangutans in the wild."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Endangerment of orangutans\n--Population decline.\n--Reasons for endangerment.\n----Deforestation.\n----Poaching.\n----Illegal pet trading.\n--History of endangerment.\n----Decline of population.\n----Future predictions.\n--Conservation.\n----Conservation actions required to prevent extinction.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation (BOS) founded by Dr Willie Smits has rescue and rehabilitation centres at Wanariset and Samboja Lestari in East Kalimantan and Nyaru Menteng, in Central Kalimantan founded and managed by Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen. BOS also works to conserve and recreate the fast-disappearing rainforest habitat of the orangutan, at Samboja Lestari and Mawas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "Orangutans and humans diverged lineages approximately 14-18 million years ago. About 17,000 years ago, there was a migration of the Bornean orangutans as they eventually went to Sumatra, effectively trading places with the Sumatra orangutans that were there at the time. These two species of orangutans have been closely related throughout their evolutionary history due to the fact that they were so close in physical proximity. Therefore, their genomes and demographic history are similar. The two species themselves are estimated to have split about 3.5 million years ago. Although these two species have officially diverged, it is speculated that the reason as to why they are genetically similar is because the males of each respective species tend to migrate between the two islands and breed with the females from their sister species. As a result, both the Bornean orangutans and the Sumatran orangutans have been studied closely as a pair, and thus much genome findings attribute evolutionary changes to this relationship. In addition, the Bornean orangutans, as compared to the Sumatran orangutans, have lower autosomal gene diversity. This is attributed to the fact that they have a much smaller population size. Also, the Bornean orangutans have lower nucleotide diversity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "A survey published in March 2016 estimates a population of 14,613 Sumatran orangutans in the wild, doubling previous population estimates. A survey in 2004 estimated that around 7,300 Sumatran orangutans still live in the wild. The same study estimates a 20,552\u00a0km2 occupied area for the Sumatran orangutans, of which only an approximate area range of 8,992\u00a0km2 harbors permanent populations. Some of them are being protected in five areas in Gunung Leuser National Park; others live in unprotected areas: northwest and northeast Aceh block, West Batang Toru river, East Sarulla and Sidiangkat. A successful breeding program has been established in Bukit Tiga Puluh National Park in Jambi and Riau provinces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "The three orangutan species are the only extant members of the subfamily Ponginae. This subfamily also included the extinct genera \"Lufengpithecus\", which lived in southern China and Thailand 8\u20132\u00a0mya, \"Indopithecus\", which lived in India from 9.2 to 8.6 mya; and \"Sivapithecus\", which lived in India and Pakistan from 12.5\u00a0mya until 8.5\u00a0mya. These apes likely lived in drier and cooler environments than orangutans do today. \"Khoratpithecus piriyai\", which lived in Thailand 5\u20137\u00a0mya, is believed to be the closest known relative of the orangutans. The largest known primate, \"Gigantopithecus\", was also a member of Ponginae and lived in China, from 2\u00a0mya to 300,000\u00a0years ago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "As the Bornean orangutans and Sumatra orangutans both exist within the same species, they exhibit similar cultural behaviors that have been found to exist amongst most orangutan populations. The fact that orangutans tend to showcase similar cultural traditions is due to the fact that they typically live in similar environments and are adept at learning from one another from their early stages of life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "Bornean orangutan are more solitary than their Sumatran relatives. Two or three orangutans with overlapping territories may interact, but only for short periods of time. Although orangutans are not territorial, adult males will display threatening behaviors upon meeting other males, and only socialize with females to mate. Males are considered the most solitary of the orangutans. The Bornean orangutan has a lifespan of 35\u201345 years in the wild; in captivity it can live to be about 60."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "The primary reason for population decline is habitat loss as a result of the unsustainable practice of timber extraction for the production of palm oil in areas in which orangutans habituate, notably Indonesia and Malaysia. Orangutans cannot survive without forests as they are both a home and food source, they build nests in trees for sleeping and survive off tree fruits. Additionally, orangutans are killed by poaching, where often mothers are killed and infants are seized and sold on the black market as pets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karen (orangutan)",
        "text": "Wild Sumatran orangutans are critically endangered. In the 1970s, UC San Diego Health (UCSD) pathologist Kurt Benirschke, persuaded zoo trustees to establish a research department, at the zoo's Center for the Reproduction of Endangered Species, which he subsequently led, providing the collaboration between the University and the zoo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pongo hooijeri",
        "text": "The Vietnamese orangutan (\"Pongo hooijeri\") is an extinct species of orangutan from the Pleistocene of Vietnam. It was named in honor of paleontologist Dirk Albert Hooijer. Fossils of the ape were found in the Tham Hai Cave. It is unclear whether \"Pongo hooijeri\" is truly a distinct species or merely a Vietnamese population of one of the extant orangutan species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "Nonja, thought to be the world's oldest orangutan in captivity or the wild at the time of her death, died at the Miami MetroZoo at the age of 55. Inji, a female orangutan who was born in the wild, was estimated to be one year of age at the time she was surrendered to a zoo in 1961. At the time of her death at the Oregon Zoo in 2021, Inji was believed to be 61 years old."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "Plant fossils reveal that forests use to once extend \"from southern Europe, through Central Asia, and into China prior to the formation of the Himalayas\". This suggests that the ancestral hominoid once lived throughout a vast area and as the Earth's climate and ecosystems changed, the ancestral hominoids ultimately became geographically isolated from one another."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "The orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor was tailless and had a broad flat rib cage, a larger body size, larger brain, and in females, the canine teeth had started to shrink like their descendants. Great apes have sweat glands in the armpits versus in the chest like lesser monkeys."
      },
      {
        "title": "Biodiversity of Borneo",
        "text": "It is unknown if the Bornean tiger became extinct in recent times or prehistoric times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hybrid orangutan",
        "text": "From 1971 to 1985, 90 orphaned or displaced orangutans rescued from illegal wildlife trade were released into Tanjung Puting National Park in Central Kalimantan. A subsequent genetic survey determined that at least two orangutans, captured in a different region and therefore not native to the park, had prolifically interbred with the local native apes, and produced at least 22 hybridized descendants. Their offspring contributes to fears that interbreeding of subspecies leads to \"hybrid vigor\", in which \"offspring reap the benefits of their parents' individual qualities\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "Orangutans have large home ranges and low population densities, which complicates conservation efforts. Population densities depend to a large degree on the abundance of fruits with soft pulp. Sumatran orangutan will commute seasonally between lowland, intermediate, and highland regions, following fruit availability. Undisturbed forests with broader altitudinal range can thus sustain larger orangutan populations; conversely, the fragmentation and extensive clearance of forest ranges breaks up this seasonal movement. Sumatra currently has one of the highest deforestation rates in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan has three subspecies:\n*Northwest Bornean orangutan \"Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus\" \u2013 Sarawak (Malaysia) and northern West Kalimantan (Indonesia).\n*Central Bornean orangutan \"P. p. wurmbii\" \u2013 Southern West Kalimantan and Central Kalimantan (Indonesia).\n*Northeast Bornean orangutan \"P. p. morio\" \u2013 East Kalimantan (Indonesia) and Sabah (Malaysia)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tapanuli orangutan",
        "text": "The loud, long-distance call or 'long call' of male Tapanuli orangutans has a higher maximum frequency than that of Sumatran orangutans, and lasts much longer and has more pulses than that of Bornean orangutans. Their diet is also unique, containing unusual items like caterpillars and conifer cones. Tapanuli orangutans are thought to be exclusively arboreal as scientists have not seen them descend to the ground in over 3,000 hours of observation. This is probably due to the presence of Sumatran tigers in the area. Their other main predators are clouded leopards, Sumatran dholes and crocodiles. Tapanuli orangutans have slow reproductive rates causing a problem in increasing population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen",
        "text": "From 1996 until 2010, Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen lived in Borneo to help save the Bornean orangutan from extinction due to loss of its natural habitat due to logging and oil palm plantations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "Orangutans have 48 chromosomes. The Sumatran orangutan genome was sequenced in , based on a captive female named Susie. Following humans and chimpanzees, the Sumatran orangutan has become the third extant hominid species to have its genome sequenced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pongo hooijeri",
        "text": "Orangutans are invulnerable to most arboreal predators due to their large size and strength. However, if Vietnamese orangutans traveled across the forest floor similar to modern Bornean orangutans, they would have become possible prey for the ancestors of Indochinese leopards, tigers and packs of dholes. Both the sun bear and Asiatic black bear may have been potential threats to young, infirm or weakened individuals. Orangutans near large, continuous bodies of water would be vulnerable to saltwater and Siamese crocodiles as well as reticulated pythons. Fossil and subfossil evidence from human \"trash piles\" suggests orangutans were targeted by human hunter-gatherers as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "A November 2011 survey, based on interviews with 6,983 respondents in 687 villages across Kalimantan in 2008 to 2009, gave estimated orangutan killing rates of between 750 and 1800 in the year leading up to April 2008. These killing rates were higher than previously thought and confirm that the continued existence of the orangutan in Kalimantan is under serious threat. The survey did not quantify the additional threat to the species due to habitat loss from deforestation and expanding palm-oil plantations. The survey found that 73% of respondents knew orangutans were protected by Indonesian law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "The phylogenetic split of Hominidae into the subfamilies Homininae and Ponginae is dated to the middle Miocene, roughly 18 to 14 million years ago. This split is also referenced as the \"orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor\" by Jeffrey H. Schwartz, professor of anthropology at the University of Pittsburgh School of Arts and Sciences, and John Grehan, director of science at the Buffalo Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "The phylogenetic split of Hominidae into the subfamilies Homininae and Ponginae is dated to the middle Miocene, roughly 18 to 14 million years ago. This split is also referenced as the \"orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor\" by Jeffrey H. Schwartz, professor of anthropology at the University of Pittsburgh School of Arts and Sciences, and John Grehan, director of science at the Buffalo Museum."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "Orangutan Foundation, founded by Ashley Leiman, operates programmes in Central Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo. The Foundation rescues orphaned orangutans and enters them into their soft-release programme, allowing them to develop the skills necessary to survive in the wild. When old enough, orangutans are released into the protected Lamandau Wildlife Reserve. Orangutan Foundation works to protect orangutans by focusing on habitat protection and capacity building, especially in local communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tapanuli orangutan",
        "text": "As with other two orangutan species, males are larger than females; males are in height and in weight, females are in height and in weight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Due to the dramatic decrease of the orangutan population, a number of conservation sites and not-for-profit organisations have been developed in an effort to prevent the extinction of orangutans. There are two main strategies that have been put in place to prevent this; rehabilitation of abandoned individuals or those that were previously being held illegally, and the protection of forest areas and prevention of deforestation in orangutan habitats. Through a Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis, it was discovered that neither strategy was highly effective, however the cost of preventing deforestation is one twelfth of the cost of reintroducing individuals. It was concluded that for long term protection, it is more efficient to prevent logging than attempting to maintain current populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Disenchanted Forest",
        "text": "Dr Carl Van Schaik, primatologist, discusses the rapidly diminishing opportunity to learn about human evolution as the number of wild orangutans dwindles precariously. He believes questions such as, 'where does our culture come from?' can be answered through the study of orangutan culture and in this context discusses the incredibly fragile culture of the solitary orangutan."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Disenchanted Forest",
        "text": "With the impending extinction of orangutans, opportunities to observe and interact [with] them in their natural setting are reduced."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hybrid orangutan",
        "text": "A hybrid orangutan or cocktail orangutan is a usually captive-born orangutan derived from interbreeding between Bornean (\"Pongo pygmaeus\") and Sumatran (\"Pongo abelii\") orangutans. The topic of orangutan speciation was poorly understood until the 1980s, when genetics revealed that orangutans actually comprise three genetically distinct species. Before this was known, orangutans from differing subspecies were paired in captivity, and in some cases produced hybrid offspring. Subsequently, the government of Indonesia and the organization that oversees zoo programs in the United States suggested to stop interbreeding of Sumatran and Bornean orangutans and called for disallowing hybrids to reproduce."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pongo weidenreichi",
        "text": "Pongo weidenreichi is an extinct species of orangutan from the Early Pleistocene of South China. It is known from fossil teeth found in the Sanhe Cave, and Baikong, Juyuan and Queque Caves in Chongzuo, Guangxi. Dental dimensions of that species is 20% bigger than those of living orangutans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Deforestation is also occurring as a result of fires that wipe out large amounts of land and subsequently orangutan populations. Fires are set on purpose by palm oil companies in peat swamp forests. As a result of these fires, orangutans in these habitats will often die amidst the fire. If they survive, they will either be left to starve without a habitat, or flee, leaving them without a habitat and at risk of capture from residents, who will either kill them for meat, keep them as pets or sell them on the black market to wealthier counties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan lives in tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest in the Bornean lowlands, as well as mountainous areas up to above sea level. This species lives throughout the canopy of primary and secondary forest, and moves large distances to find trees bearing fruit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Deforestation in Sumatra and Borneo is the primary reason for the endangerment of all species of orangutans. Timber is extracted from these areas for the production of palm oil, paper, and pulp. Majority of the logging is illegal, and with the rapid expansion of the palm oil industry, extraction rates have exponentially increased over the past 40 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran rhinoceros",
        "text": "The Bornean rhino in Sabah was confirmed to be extinct in the wild in April 2015, with only 3 individuals left in captivity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatra",
        "text": "The Sumatran tiger, Sumatran rhinoceros, Sumatran elephant, Sumatran ground cuckoo, Sumatran orangutan and Tapanuli Orangutan are all critically endangered, indicating the highest level of threat to their survival. In October 2008, the Indonesian government announced a plan to protect Sumatra's remaining forests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "Birut\u0117 Galdikas wrote that orangutans were already threatened by poaching and deforestation when she began studying them in 1971. From the 1970s to the 2000s, orangutan habitats decreased rapidly because of logging, mining and fragmentation by roads. A major factor has been the conversion of vast areas of tropical forest to palm oil plantations in response to international demand. Hunting is also a major problem, as is the illegal pet trade. Orangutans may be killed for the bushmeat trade and bones are secretly traded in souvenir shops in several cities in Indonesian Borneo. Conflicts between locals and orangutans also pose a threat. Orangutans that have lost their homes often raid agricultural areas and end up being killed by villagers. Locals may also be motivated to kill orangutans for food or because of fear and self-defense. Mother orangutans are killed so their infants can be sold as pets, and many of these infants die without the help of their mother. Since 2012, the Indonesian authorities, with the aid of the Orangutan Information Center, confiscated 114 orangutans, 39 of which were pets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "Males exhibit bimaturism, whereby fully flanged adult males and the smaller unflanged males are both capable of reproducing, but employ differing mating strategies to do so."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan is the third-largest ape after the eastern gorilla and western gorilla, and the largest truly arboreal (or tree-dwelling) extant animal. Body weights broadly overlap with the considerably taller \"Homo sapiens\", but the latter is considerably more variable in size. By comparison, the Sumatran orangutan is similar in size but, on average, is marginally lighter in weight. A survey of wild orangutans found that males weigh on average , ranging from , and long; females average , ranging from , and long. While in captivity, orangutans can grow considerably overweight, up to more than . The heaviest known male orangutan in captivity was an obese male named \"Andy\", who weighed in 1959 when he was 13 years old."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "Two strategies that are recently being considered to conserve this species are 1) rehabilitation and reintroduction of ex-captive or displaced individuals and 2) the protection of their forest habitat by preventing threats such as deforestation and hunting. The former was determined to be more cost efficient for maintaining the wild orangutan populations, but comes with longer time scale of 10\u201320 years. The latter approach has better prospects for ensuring long-term stability of populations. This type of habitat conservation approach has been pursued by the World Wide Fund for Nature, who joined forces with several other organizations to stop the clearing of the biggest part of remaining natural forest close to the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan\u2013human last common ancestor",
        "text": "Dryopithecines was first uncovered in France, and it had a large frontal sinus which ties it to the African great apes. Orangutans which are only found in Asia do not. They did have thick dental enamel another ape-like characteristic. Orangutans do not have a large frontal sinus. The study of Dryopithecini as an outgroup to Hominidae suggests a date earlier than 8 million years ago for the Homininae-Ponginae split. It also suggests that the Homininae group evolved in Africa or Western Eurasia, against the theory that Homininae was originally an Asian line which later recolonized Africa after the Great Apes went extinct in Africa."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are Orangutans going extinct?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you asking about the Bornean orangutan, Tapanuli orangutan, or Sumatran orangutan?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in Bornean orangutan."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Bornean orangutan is a Critically Endangered species (less than 14% of total number of orangutans than in the recent past), with deforestation, palm oil plantations, and hunting posing a serious threat to its continued existence. Climate change is another threat to Bornean orangutan conservation.",
      "It is a critically endangered species, with deforestation, palm oil plantations, and hunting all posing serious threats."
    ],
    "topic": "Orangutan",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Bornean orangutan:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Bornean orangutan"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Bornean orangutan is a Critically Endangered species, with deforestation, palm oil plantations, and hunting posing a serious threat to its continued existence."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Bornean orangutan:26",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Bornean orangutan",
          "Conservation status"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Bornean orangutan is critically endangered according to the IUCN Red List of mammals, and is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The total number of Bornean orangutans is estimated to be less than 14% of what it was in the recent past (from around 10,000 years ago until the middle of the 20th century), and this sharp decline has occurred mostly over the past few decades due to human activities and development. Species distribution is now highly patchy throughout Borneo; it is apparently absent or uncommon in the southeast of the island, as well as in the forest between the Rajang River in central Sarawak and the Padas River in western Sabah (including the Sultanate of Brunei). A population of around 6,900 is found in Sabangau National Park, but this environment is at risk. According to an anthropologist at Harvard University, in 10 to 20 years, orangutans are expected to be extinct in the wild if no serious effort is made to overcome the threats they are facing."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Bornean orangutan:28",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Bornean orangutan",
          "Conservation status"
        ],
        "ctx": "Climate change is another threat to Bornean orangutan conservation. The effects that human activity have had on Indonesian rainfall have made food less abundant and so Bornean orangutans are less likely to receive full nutrients so that they can be sufficiently healthy to breed."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Bornean orangutan:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Bornean orangutan"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Bornean orangutan is a Critically Endangered species, with deforestation, palm oil plantations, and hunting posing a serious threat to its continued existence."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan is a Critically Endangered species, with deforestation, palm oil plantations, and hunting posing a serious threat to its continued existence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "All three species are critically endangered according to the IUCN Red List of mammals. They are legally protected from capture, harm or killing in both Malaysia and Indonesia, and are listed under Appendix I by CITES, which prohibits their unlicensed trade under international law. The Bornean orangutan range has become patchy, being largely extirpated from several parts of the island, including the southeast. The largest remaining population is found in the forest around the Sabangau River, but this environment is at risk. The Sumatran orangutan is found only in the northern part of Sumatra, most of the population inhabiting the Leuser Ecosystem. The Tapanuli orangutan is found only in the Batang Toru forest of Sumatra."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "All three orangutan species are considered critically endangered. Human activities have caused severe declines in populations and ranges. Threats to wild orangutan populations include poaching (for bushmeat and retaliation for consuming crops), habitat destruction and deforestation (for palm oil cultivation and logging), and the illegal pet trade. Several conservation and rehabilitation organisations are dedicated to the survival of orangutans in the wild."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan was up-listed to the status of Critically Endangered in 2016 according to the IUCN Red List of mammals, and is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The total number of Bornean orangutans is estimated to be less than 20 percent of what it was 50 years ago (from a population of about 288,500 in 1973 to a population of about 57,350 in 2016) and this sharp decline has occurred mostly over the past few decades due to human activities and development. Their habitat is so much reduced that they are now only to be found in pockets of remaining rainforest. According to the IUCN, it is expected that in 10 to 30 years orangutans will be extinct if there is no serious effort to overcome the threats that they are facing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan is critically endangered according to the IUCN Red List of mammals, and is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The total number of Bornean orangutans is estimated to be less than 14% of what it was in the recent past (from around 10,000 years ago until the middle of the 20th century), and this sharp decline has occurred mostly over the past few decades due to human activities and development. Species distribution is now highly patchy throughout Borneo; it is apparently absent or uncommon in the southeast of the island, as well as in the forest between the Rajang River in central Sarawak and the Padas River in western Sabah (including the Sultanate of Brunei). A population of around 6,900 is found in Sabangau National Park, but this environment is at risk. According to an anthropologist at Harvard University, in 10 to 20 years, orangutans are expected to be extinct in the wild if no serious effort is made to overcome the threats they are facing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Due to an expanding global demand for timber in the 1980s, this rate then increased; according to a satellite study, 56% or 2.9 million hectares of tropical rainforests in Kalimantan, Borneo were extracted between 1985 and 2001, with a rapid increase in deforestation rates in the late 1990s. The rate of deforestation during this time directly correlates with the decrease in orangutan population, as the species cannot survive in other areas. It is estimated that since 1950, the orangutan population has declined by 60%. Between 1999 and 2015, the population of Bornean orangutans decreased by 100,000 individuals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tapanuli orangutan",
        "text": "With fewer than 800 individuals restricted to an area of about , the Tapanuli orangutan is the rarest great ape. It is listed as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) because of hunting, conflict with humans, the illegal wildlife trade, rampant habitat destruction for small scale agriculture, mining and a proposed hydroelectric dam, the Batang Toru hydropower project, in the area with the highest density of orangutans, which could impact up to 10% of its already dwindling habitat and degrade important wildlife corridors. Conservationists predict an 83% decline in three generations (75 years) if the necessary conservation measures and practices are not implemented. Inbreeding depression is likely due to the small population size and fragmented range. This is supported by the genomes of the two Tapanuli orangutan individuals, which show signs of inbreeding. In August 2019 Swiss environmental group PanEco, which is a partner in the Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme, dropped its previous opposition to the dam, several months after firing several researchers who opposed the new strategy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "This view is also supported by the United Nations Environment Programme, which stated in its 2007 report that, due to illegal logging, fire and the extensive development of palm oil plantations, orangutans are critically endangered, and if the current trend continues, they will become extinct. When forest is burned down to clear room for palm oil plantations, not only does the Bornean orangutan suffer from habitat loss, but several individuals have been burned and killed in fires. Palm oil accounts for over one tenth of Indonesia's export earnings. It is in high demand because it is used in several packaged foods, deodorants, shampoos, soaps, candies, and baked goods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "There are three species of orangutan. The Bornean orangutan, the most common, can be found in Kalimantan, Indonesia and Sarawak and Sabah in Malaysia. The Sumatran orangutan and the Tapanuli orangutan are both only found in Sumatra, Indonesia The conservation status of all three of these species is critically endangered, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karen (orangutan)",
        "text": "Wild Sumatran orangutans are critically endangered. In the 1970s, UC San Diego Health (UCSD) pathologist Kurt Benirschke, persuaded zoo trustees to establish a research department, at the zoo's Center for the Reproduction of Endangered Species, which he subsequently led, providing the collaboration between the University and the zoo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Although the current population of orangutans is not precisely known, it is estimated that currently there are about 104,000 Bornean orangutans, 14,000 Sumatran orangutans, and 800 Tapanuli orangutans remaining in the wild, and 1,000 are being held in conservation sites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "The species has been assessed as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List since 2000. From 2000-2008 it was considered one of \"The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "La Palmyre Zoo",
        "text": "The orangutans are threatened with extinction because of the disappearance of their natural habitat, the tropical forests of Sumatra and Borneo. It is estimated that 30 to 50% of the wild populations of orangutans were decimated in the last ten years. Today, the last wild populations remain mainly out of the protected reserves, in degraded zones subjected to human exploitation (deforestation, and agriculture). To date, the populations of orangutans in their natural habitat were never studied and it is generally believed that they are heading towards a fast extinction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "Climate change is another threat to Bornean orangutan conservation. The effects that human activity have had on Indonesian rainfall have made food less abundant and so Bornean orangutans are less likely to receive full nutrients so that they can be sufficiently healthy to breed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan is more common than the Sumatran, with about 104,700 individuals in the wild, whereas just under 14,000 Sumatran orangutans are left in the wild. Orangutans are becoming increasingly endangered due to habitat destruction and the bushmeat trade, and young orangutans are captured to be sold as pets, usually entailing the killing of their mothers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "A November 2011 survey, based on interviews with 6,983 respondents in 687 villages across Kalimantan in 2008 to 2009, gave estimated orangutan killing rates of between 750 and 1800 in the year leading up to April 2008. These killing rates were higher than previously thought and confirm that the continued existence of the orangutan in Kalimantan is under serious threat. The survey did not quantify the additional threat to the species due to habitat loss from deforestation and expanding palm-oil plantations. The survey found that 73% of respondents knew orangutans were protected by Indonesian law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Over the past 60 years, the population of all three species has been steeply declining. The current population of orangutans cannot be accurately calculated, however it is estimated that the number of individuals remaining is: 104,000 Bornean orangutans, 14,000 Sumatran orangutans, and 800 Tapanuli orangutans. The number of Bornean orangutans has decreased by more than 60% in 60 years, and the population of the Sumatran orangutan has decreased by 80% in the last 75 years. It is estimated that between 1999 and 2015, the population of Bornean orangutans has decreased by over 100,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "This view is also supported by the United Nations Environment Programme, which states in its report that due to deforestation by illegal logging, fire and the extensive development of oil palm plantations (see Social and environmental impact of palm oil), orangutans are threatened with extinction, and if the current trend continues, they will become extinct.\n# Orangutan reintroduction, through the rescue, rehabilitation, and release of ex-captive orangutans\n#Orangutan and sun bear (\"Helarctos malayanus\") life-long sanctuary care, for individuals with physical or behavioural handicaps that prevent reintroduction\n# Orangutan ecosystem conservation, through the protection of existing forest landscapes and rehabilitation of degraded areas\n# Sustainable community development and education, through outreach, community capacity-building, community empowerment, and public awareness-raising"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "Orangutan Foundation International, founded by Dr Birut\u0117 Galdikas, rescues and rehabilitates orangutans, preparing them for release back into protected areas of the Indonesian rain forest. In addition, it promotes the preservation of the rain forest for them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ah Meng",
        "text": "She belonged to the Sumatran orangutan species, a rarer breed of orangutan now critically endangered due to illegal logging and poaching. There are about only 7,500 Sumatran orangutans left in the wild in the rainforests of Sumatra, Indonesia. Ah Meng died on 8 February 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "In late 2014, Nyaru Menteng veterinarians failed to rescue the life of a female orangutan. An operation was performed in which 40 air-rifle pellets were removed from her body. The orangutan was found at a palm oil plantation in Indonesian Borneo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "It is predicted that the current rate of forest loss, poaching and illegal pet trading in Borneo will continue, therefore it is presumed that in the next 35 years the population of orangutans will continue to decline an additional 45,000 individuals. By 2025, it is estimated that there will be 47,000 Bornean orangutans left in the wild."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatra",
        "text": "The Sumatran tiger, Sumatran rhinoceros, Sumatran elephant, Sumatran ground cuckoo, Sumatran orangutan and Tapanuli Orangutan are all critically endangered, indicating the highest level of threat to their survival. In October 2008, the Indonesian government announced a plan to protect Sumatra's remaining forests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "A number of orangutan rescue and rehabilitation projects operate in Borneo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "Birut\u0117 Galdikas wrote that orangutans were already threatened by poaching and deforestation when she began studying them in 1971. From the 1970s to the 2000s, orangutan habitats decreased rapidly because of logging, mining and fragmentation by roads. A major factor has been the conversion of vast areas of tropical forest to palm oil plantations in response to international demand. Hunting is also a major problem, as is the illegal pet trade. Orangutans may be killed for the bushmeat trade and bones are secretly traded in souvenir shops in several cities in Indonesian Borneo. Conflicts between locals and orangutans also pose a threat. Orangutans that have lost their homes often raid agricultural areas and end up being killed by villagers. Locals may also be motivated to kill orangutans for food or because of fear and self-defense. Mother orangutans are killed so their infants can be sold as pets, and many of these infants die without the help of their mother. Since 2012, the Indonesian authorities, with the aid of the Orangutan Information Center, confiscated 114 orangutans, 39 of which were pets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pawan River",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan, also found in the forest along the Pawan river in West Kalimantan, are facing severe habitat loss due to logging and clearing land for palm oil and related agriculture activities. Consequently, their population is declining. The orangutans in this region are from the sub-species \"Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii.\" They are different from the species found in Sumatra."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "Estimates between 2000 and 2003 found 7,300\u00a0Sumatran orangutans and between 45,000 and 69,000\u00a0Bornean orangutans remain in the wild. A 2016 study estimates a population of 14,613 Sumatran orangutans in the wild, doubling previous population estimates. Fewer than 800 Tapanuli orangutan are estimated to still exist, which puts the species among the most endangered of the great apes. The table below shows a breakdown of the species and subspecies and their estimated populations from this or (in the case of \"P. tapanuliensis\") a 2017 report:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Scientists have researched and estimated that the only way of reducing the high rate of population decline is by ceasing deforestation in orangutan habitats, and putting extensive protection methods of current populations in place. However, due to the high demand of the palm oil product and lack of funding from the government, it is extremely unlikely the rapid decline and eventual extinction of orangutans can be prevented."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation (BOS) founded by Dr Willie Smits has rescue and rehabilitation centres at Wanariset and Samboja Lestari in East Kalimantan and Nyaru Menteng, in Central Kalimantan founded and managed by Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen. BOS also works to conserve and recreate the fast-disappearing rainforest habitat of the orangutan, at Samboja Lestari and Mawas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Deforestation in Sumatra and Borneo is the primary reason for the endangerment of all species of orangutans. Timber is extracted from these areas for the production of palm oil, paper, and pulp. Majority of the logging is illegal, and with the rapid expansion of the palm oil industry, extraction rates have exponentially increased over the past 40 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "There are numerous conservation sites and not-for-profit organisations that have been created in an effort to prevent further decline of the orangutan population, however, in 2016, it was predicted by experts that unless drastic changes are made to the current deforestation laws, orangutans face extinction within the next ten years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "The Sumatran orangutan (\"Pongo abelii\") is one of the three species of orangutans. Critically Endangered, and found only in the north of the Indonesian island of Sumatra, it is rarer than the Bornean orangutan but more common than the recently identified Tapanuli orangutan, also found in Sumatra. Its common name is based on two separate local words, \"orang\" (\"people\" or \"person\") and \"hutan\" (\"forest\"), derived from Malay, and translates as 'person of the forest'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "Sumatrans encounter threats such as logging (both legal and illegal), wholesale conversion of forest to agricultural land and oil palm plantations, and fragmentation by roads. Oil companies use a method of deforestation to re-use land for palm oil. This land is taken from the forest in which Sumatran orangutans live. An assessment of forest loss in the 1990s concluded that forests supporting at least 1,000 orangutans were lost each year within the Leuser Ecosystem alone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hybrid orangutan",
        "text": "From 1971 to 1985, 90 orphaned or displaced orangutans rescued from illegal wildlife trade were released into Tanjung Puting National Park in Central Kalimantan. A subsequent genetic survey determined that at least two orangutans, captured in a different region and therefore not native to the park, had prolifically interbred with the local native apes, and produced at least 22 hybridized descendants. Their offspring contributes to fears that interbreeding of subspecies leads to \"hybrid vigor\", in which \"offspring reap the benefits of their parents' individual qualities\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "By 1985, the annual rate of deforestation in Kalimantan, where majority of the orangutan population habituates, was 180,000 hectares. This rate of deforestation then further increased between the late 1980s and 2000, with the amount of land being logged annually increasing by 44% between 1997 and 2000 alone. In the 2000s, the rate decreased slightly, however by 2007, the annual deforestation rate had reached 1.3 million hectares. In 2006, Indonesia overtook Malaysia as the world\u2019s largest palm oil exporter, having exported over 20.9 million tonnes of palm oil. Presently, only 50% of the original forest cover remains in Borneo. It is expected that by 2020, this forest cover will reduce to 24% if production rates continue. As orangutans cannot survive outside forest areas, the extremely high rate of deforestation has caused the population to decrease significantly, resulting in the conservation status of critically endangered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "It is found in the two Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, and four of the five Indonesian Provinces of Kalimantan. Due to habitat destruction, the species distribution is now highly patchy throughout the island, the species has become rare in the southeast of the island, as well as in the forest between the Rajang River in central Sarawak and the Padas River in western Sabah. Its presence in Brunei is uncertain and unconfirmed."
      },
      {
        "title": "IUCN Red List",
        "text": "On 12 September 2007, the World Conservation Union (IUCN) released the 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. In this release, they have raised their classification of both the western lowland gorilla (\"Gorilla gorilla gorilla\") and the Cross River gorilla (\"Gorilla gorilla diehli\") from endangered to critically endangered, which is the last category before extinct in the wild, due to Ebola virus and poaching, along with other factors. Russ Mittermeier, chief of Swiss-based IUCN's Primate Specialist Group, stated that 16,306 species are endangered with extinction, 188 more than in 2006 (total of 41,415 species on the Red List). The Red List includes the Sumatran orangutan (\"Pongo abelii\") in the Critically Endangered category and the Bornean orangutan (\"Pongo pygmaeus\") in the Endangered category."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Deforestation is also occurring as a result of fires that wipe out large amounts of land and subsequently orangutan populations. Fires are set on purpose by palm oil companies in peat swamp forests. As a result of these fires, orangutans in these habitats will often die amidst the fire. If they survive, they will either be left to starve without a habitat, or flee, leaving them without a habitat and at risk of capture from residents, who will either kill them for meat, keep them as pets or sell them on the black market to wealthier counties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme",
        "text": "The SOCP deals with all aspects of the conservation of the Critically Endangered Sumatran orangutan (\"Pongo abelii\") and the 2017 newly identified species of orangutan, the Tapanuli orangutan (\"Pongo tapanuliensis\"), including: a. the confiscation of illegal captive orangutans, their quarantine and reintroduction to form new wild populations, b. education and awareness raising, c. behavioral and ecological research on wild orangutans, d. surveys and monitoring of remaining wild orangutan populations and habitat, and e. habitat protection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Borneo Orangutan Survival\n--History.\n--Orangutan Conservation Status.\n--Orangutan Rescue and Rehabilitation Centres.\n----Wanariset.\n----Nyaru Menteng.\n----Samboja Lestari.\n--Forest Conservation, Reforestation and Research.\n----Samboja Lestari.\n----Mawas.\n----Kehje Sewen.\n--Documentaries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Batang Toru hydropower project",
        "text": "Scientists and environmentalists say that, in addition to impacting 10% of the critically endangered Tapanuli orangutan's already dwindling habitat, infrastructure for the dam (roads and high-voltage power lines) will fragment the orangutan population below viable levels by degrading important wildlife corridors, and increase the likelihood of even further development. The"
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "According to the IUCN Redlist, there are many conservation actions in place that have been somewhat successful, however there are numerous actions that are required in order to prevent the further endangerment and eventual extinction of orangutans. These include more area protection, species recovery, habitat and natural process restoration, resource protection and legislation. Additionally, IUCN suggests that more research is required, surrounding areas such as taxonomy, population size, distribution and trends, threats to orangutans, and area-based management plans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "There are other methods that have been put in place to conserve the current orangutan population, these include research and monitoring, land and water protection, species management, education to create awareness, international legislation, and international management and trade controls. Additionally, some organisations that work to conserve the population of orangutans have put in efforts to work alongside palm oil companies and local governments to prevent further habitat loss. For example in 2011 a tri-party agreement was signed by one of the world\u2019s largest palm oil producers Wilmar International, Central Kalimantan government, and Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation (BOSF). The agreement was formed with the aim to provide long-term protection for Bornean orangutans, including monitoring palm oil plantation methods, establishing areas where orangutans can be protected, relocating abandoned individuals and providing training to plantation workers on how to manage orangutans and avoid conflict."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tapanuli orangutan",
        "text": "The Tapanuli orangutan (\"Pongo tapanuliensis\") is a species of orangutan restricted to South Tapanuli in the island of Sumatra in Indonesia. It is one of three known species of orangutan, alongside the Sumatran orangutan (\"P. abelii\"), found farther northwest on the island, and the Bornean orangutan (\"P. pygmaeus\"). It was described as a distinct species in 2017. , there are roughly 800 individuals of this species and it is currently on the critically endangered species list."
      },
      {
        "title": "Willie Smits",
        "text": "\"Thinkers of the Jungle - The Orangutan Report: Pictures, Facts, Background\" gives an account of the life, behaviour and fate of orangutans. Alongside a wealth of information about this endangered species based on the latest research, authors Willie Smits and Gerd Schuster outline the threat to the orangutan's survival: economical and political interests, exploitation of nature and human ignorance and greed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "In early October 2014, researchers from domestic and foreign countries found about 50 orangutans in several groups in South Kalimantan Province, although previously there is no record that the province has orangutans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Many of these orangutans are only weeks old when they arrive, and all of them are psychologically traumatized. The sanctuary not only saves the orphaned baby orangutans from captivity in human homes and from wildlife tourism, but has developed a process for their gradual re-introduction to the remaining Bornean rainforest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan (\"Pongo pygmaeus\") is a species of orangutan endemic to the island of Borneo. Together with the Sumatran orangutan (\"Pongo abelii\") and Tapanuli orangutan (\"Pongo tapanuliensis\"), it belongs to the only genus of great apes native to Asia. Like the other great apes, orangutans are highly intelligent, displaying tool use and distinct cultural patterns in the wild. Orangutans share approximately 97% of their DNA with humans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "Despite being arboreal, the Bornean orangutan travels on the ground more than its Sumatran counterpart. This may be in part because no large terrestrial predators could threaten an orangutan in Borneo. In Sumatra, orangutans must face predation by the fierce Sumatran tiger."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Land Trust",
        "text": "Borneo Orangutan Survival is one of the Indonesian NGOs seeking ways of reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation (REDD). It has acquired from the Department of Forestry and Ecosystem Restoration Concession with the intention of using the forest area as a release site for rehabilitated orangutans from its Samboja Lestari and Wanariset projects in East Kalimantan (over 200 individuals). The concession is 86,000 hectares of the ex-PT Mugi Triman International (MGI) timber concession. Releases begin in May 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Due to the dramatic decrease of the orangutan population, a number of conservation sites and not-for-profit organisations have been developed in an effort to prevent the extinction of orangutans. There are two main strategies that have been put in place to prevent this; rehabilitation of abandoned individuals or those that were previously being held illegally, and the protection of forest areas and prevention of deforestation in orangutan habitats. Through a Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis, it was discovered that neither strategy was highly effective, however the cost of preventing deforestation is one twelfth of the cost of reintroducing individuals. It was concluded that for long term protection, it is more efficient to prevent logging than attempting to maintain current populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme",
        "text": "Built in 2001, the SOCP maintains the only centre in Sumatra that quarantines and cares for orangutans confiscated from the illegal pet trade. To date, the SOCP has rescued over 340 illegal pet orangutans of which more than 260 have been rehabilitated and reintroduced back to a life in the wild, 180 at its reintroduction centre next to the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park in Jambi province and an additional 88 since 2011 at its centre in the Jantho Pine Forest Nature Reserve in Aceh province. The goal at both locations is to establish entirely new, self-sustaining and genetically viable populations of this Critically Endangered species in forests within their historical range, as a 'safety net' should catastrophe befall the remaining truly wild Sumatran orangutan populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "Orangutan Foundation, founded by Ashley Leiman, operates programmes in Central Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo. The Foundation rescues orphaned orangutans and enters them into their soft-release programme, allowing them to develop the skills necessary to survive in the wild. When old enough, orangutans are released into the protected Lamandau Wildlife Reserve. Orangutan Foundation works to protect orangutans by focusing on habitat protection and capacity building, especially in local communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "The primary reason for population decline is habitat loss as a result of the unsustainable practice of timber extraction for the production of palm oil in areas in which orangutans habituate, notably Indonesia and Malaysia. Orangutans cannot survive without forests as they are both a home and food source, they build nests in trees for sleeping and survive off tree fruits. Additionally, orangutans are killed by poaching, where often mothers are killed and infants are seized and sold on the black market as pets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "Bornean orangutan\n--Taxonomy.\n--Physical description.\n--Habitat and distribution.\n--Behavior and ecology.\n----Diet.\n----Reproduction.\n--Conservation status.\n----Rescue and rehabilitation centers.\n--Genome and Demographic History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "However, the Indonesian government rarely prosecutes or punishes perpetrators. In a rare prosecution in November 2011, two men were arrested for killing at least 20 orangutans and a number of long-nosed proboscis monkeys. They were ordered to conduct the killings by the supervisor of a palm oil plantation, to protect the crop, with a payment of $100 for a dead orangutan and $22 for a monkey."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen",
        "text": "From 1996 until 2010, Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen lived in Borneo to help save the Bornean orangutan from extinction due to loss of its natural habitat due to logging and oil palm plantations."
      },
      {
        "title": "International Animal Rescue",
        "text": "In Indonesian Borneo, IAR rescues and cares for critically endangered orangutans at its conservation centre in Ketapang, West Kalimantan, from orphaned infants to fully grown adults that have spent years in captivity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Betung Kerihun National Park",
        "text": "Significant threats towards the integrity of Betung Kerihun are deforestation by illegal logging and wildlife poaching. WWF data collected in 2002 found that about 31,000 trees were illegally logged in the Park. Reports suggest poaching of the most endangered primate orangutan is reaching alarming levels. About 10-15 orangutans were traded every month from West and Central Kalimantan forests to supply markets in Indonesia's large cities, including Jakarta and Denpasar."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of critically endangered mammals",
        "text": "Subspecies\n*Sumatran elephant"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "Several organisations are working for the rescue, rehabilitation and reintroduction of orangutans. The largest of these is the Borneo Orangutan Survival (BOS) Foundation, founded by conservationist Willie Smits and which operates projects such as the Nyaru Menteng Rehabilitation Program founded by conservationist Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen. A female orangutan was rescued from a village brothel in Kareng Pangi village, Central Kalimantan, in 2003. The orangutan was shaved and chained for sexual purposes. Since being freed, the orangutan, named Pony, has been living with the BOS. She has been re-socialised to live with other orangutans. In May 2017, the BOS rescued an albino orangutan from captivity. The rare primate was being held captive in a remote village in Kapuas Hulu, on the island of Kalimantan in Indonesian Borneo. According to volunteers at BOS, albino orangutans are extremely rare (one in ten thousand). This is the first albino orangutan the organisation has seen in 25 years of activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "South Tapanuli Regency",
        "text": "The critically endangered Tapanuli orangutan lives in the region. It was described as a distinct species in 2017 and represents the first extant species of great ape to be described since the bonobo in 1929."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "Two strategies that are recently being considered to conserve this species are 1) rehabilitation and reintroduction of ex-captive or displaced individuals and 2) the protection of their forest habitat by preventing threats such as deforestation and hunting. The former was determined to be more cost efficient for maintaining the wild orangutan populations, but comes with longer time scale of 10\u201320 years. The latter approach has better prospects for ensuring long-term stability of populations. This type of habitat conservation approach has been pursued by the World Wide Fund for Nature, who joined forces with several other organizations to stop the clearing of the biggest part of remaining natural forest close to the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Foundation International",
        "text": "An article from \"Nature\" on PBS says \"Galdikas\u2019s rehabilitation efforts, however, have brought controversy. The orphaned apes were often psychologically damaged and difficult to control. Some even attacked guests and staffers. Researchers questioned the value of observing the orphaned apes, wondering whether their behavior was representative of orangutans in the wild. Others were concerned that the released rehabilitated apes would spread diseases to local wild orangutan populations. Government officials began to challenge the work, even to withdraw permits. ... At the same time, Galdikas was becoming an increasingly active conservationist. Concerned by the rapid clearing of orangutan habitat, she lobbied the Indonesian government to set aside parks and curb illegal logging and orangutan trading \u2014 with some success. But her efforts came at a cost; she was threatened, harassed, and even kidnapped by those who opposed her work.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Samboja Lestari",
        "text": "With a large population of orangutans at Samboja Lestari unable to be reintroduced into the wild due to physical disability, chronic illness, abnormal behaviours, or a lack of survival skills, the BOS Foundation has also developed facilities specifically to provide lifelong sanctuary care for these individuals. These facilities vary from sanctuary islands for orangutans who are not severely disabled and capable of living in almost natural conditions with minimal human support, to a Special Care Unit for those who need frequently and regular veterinary support."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pongo hooijeri",
        "text": "Orangutans are invulnerable to most arboreal predators due to their large size and strength. However, if Vietnamese orangutans traveled across the forest floor similar to modern Bornean orangutans, they would have become possible prey for the ancestors of Indochinese leopards, tigers and packs of dholes. Both the sun bear and Asiatic black bear may have been potential threats to young, infirm or weakened individuals. Orangutans near large, continuous bodies of water would be vulnerable to saltwater and Siamese crocodiles as well as reticulated pythons. Fossil and subfossil evidence from human \"trash piles\" suggests orangutans were targeted by human hunter-gatherers as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "The illegal poaching of orangutans is the second largest factor contributing towards population decline. Sumatran, Tapanuli and Bornean orangutans are killed at a high rate for many reasons, the most common being the trade of meat or because farmers believe they are a threat to their crops. A survey conducted by experts in the field reported that orangutans were killed for both conflict and non-conflict related reasons. According to the survey, 56% of people who had reported to have previously killed an orangutan did so to eat it. Out of the reasons related to conflict, the most common was killing orangutans out of fear or in an act of self defence. This research article states that other reasons for the poaching of orangutans include being paid to kill, traditional medicine, being killed to take infants to sell on the black market, sport hunting, or being killed accidentally as the hunters had the intention of poaching other animals. A national geographic survey revealed that \u201cbetween 750 and 1,790 Bornean orangutans are killed each year in Kalimantan\u201d, which largely outnumbers the annual birth rate. The poaching of orangutans is directly related to rates of deforestation. Those who grow and maintain palm oil plantations kill orangutans at a high rate if they habituate within their crops, therefore as deforestation rates rise, poaching rates subsequently grow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "In addition to the above extant wild populations, a new population is being established in the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park (Jambi and Riau Provinces) via the re-introduction of confiscated illegal pets. This population currently numbers around 70 individuals and is reproducing. However it has been concluded that forest conservation costs twelve times less than reintroducing orangutans into the wild, and conserves more biological diversity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kahayan River",
        "text": "Hutan Kahaylan () is a peat swamp forest of about 150,000 hectares between the Kastingen and Kahayan rivers that so far has suffered least from the Mega Rice Project, although it has been badly damaged. Because it is close to the regional capital Palangkaraya it is still at risk. Vulnerable bird species include the large green pigeon (\"Treron capellei\") and possibly Storm's stork (\"Ciconia stormi\") and lesser adjutant (\"Leptoptilus javanicus\"). The Sabangau Forest is centered on the blackwater Sabangau River. There is no longer any continuous forest cover where orangutans may cross this river. The forest has been badly damaged by legal and illegal forestry, but the western part is now protected as either National Park or National Laboratory Research Area. With a relatively small human population, there is some hope that this area of the forest may recover. The more badly damaged eastern part, between the Sabangau and the Kayahan, is still officially designated for agriculture, although no further efforts are being made to make it suitable for this purpose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "Sumatran orangutans have developed a highly functioning cardiovascular system. However, with this development of hugely improved air sacs in their lungs, air sacculitis has become more prevalent among orangutans in this species. Air sacculitis is similar to streptococcal infection, e.g. strep throat in \"Homo sapiens\". The bacterial infection is becoming increasing common in captive orangutans, due to the fact that they are exposed to the human strain of \"Streptococcus\" in captivity. At first, both strains are treated and cured with antibiotics along with rest. Yet, in 2014, a Sumatran orangutan, ten years in captivity, was the first of its species to die from \"Streptococcus anginosus\". This remains the only known case, but raises the question of why the known human cure for \"Streptococcus\" was ineffective in this case."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan has been linked to the fact that it has gone through a deep divergence in relation to its relatives and ancestors. During the Middle Pleistocene, there were low levels of gene flow, which was determined through the analysis of Y-chromosomal data. One reason as to why this may have occurred is because of the Sunda shelf, which is where the island of Borneo is located. During this time, this event's dry climate during the Late Pleistocene attributed to a more abundant genetic exchange. As a result, there were many early divergences of gene pools between the Bornean orangutans, as well as the Sumatran orangutans. Relating back to the Middle Pleistocene, the Bornean orangutan lineage went through a dramatic population decline. This is likely attributed to the fact that they had been isolated from their ancestral populations. Therefore, natural geographic barriers are attributed to be the reason as to why the Bornean orangutans were eventually isolated and ended up colonizing other regions. In addition, this geographic isolation also indicates that the Bornean orangutans did not undergo a severe genetic bottleneck. With the Borneo orangutan, selection was found to have been found through physiological adaptations \u2013 most of which has to do with being able to adapt to the ever-changing climate on the Borneo island."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rimba Raya Biodiversity Reserve",
        "text": "The Rimba Raya REDD+ project aims to eliminate the destruction of the forests and peatlands of Central Kalimantan which houses more than 75% of Indonesia\u2019s greenhouse gas emissions. Along with eradicating local deforestation, Rimba Raya works to preserve the endangered species population within the reserve. Rimba Rayahas partnered with renowned Primatologist and Conservationist Dr. Birut\u00e9 Mary Galdikas to provide natural habitats for endangered orangutans in Borneo. The reserve also funds the Orangutan Foundation International and their Orangutan care center, which aims to reintroduce 300 wild born, rehabilitated orphaned orangutans in its care, back into the wild with the safe confines of the Rimba Raya Reserve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Following the establishment of PT RHOI by BOS Foundation in 2009 and the acquisition of the Kehje Sewen ERC in 2010, which finally ensured a secure release site for orangutans, Samboja Lestari started releasing orangutans back to the forest in April 2012. They have released 121 orangutans in the Kehje Sewen ERC (per July 2021)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Francine Neago",
        "text": "In 2006 she co-authored a 48-page children's book describing how an orphaned orangutan she raised in her home behaved like a human child. In 2007 she set up the Bali Endangered Animal Rescue (BEAR) center in Bali. She founded the wildlife sanctuary \"Noah and his Ark\", now located 3 kilometres from Bukit Lawang, Indonesia. In 2011 she travelled to Malaysia, intending to set up an orangutan language centre in Sarawak. In 2015, she proposed that Indonesia should establish additional orangutan rehabilitation centres, since all the existing ones were full, and some orangutans made homeless by deforestation in Sumatra had to be kept in small cages. She planned to rehabilitate about 50 animals for release in the Mount Leuser National Park and the Tigapulu mountainous area, calling for support."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Island",
        "text": "After spending a few months in the wild, Mogok contracted a massive threadworm infection, and trackers found him very weak. He was evacuated back to Nyaru Menteng in late August 2013. Despite 24-hour veterinary treatment, he died on September 12, 2013. Ms. Nielsen said, \"It is extremely sad to lose an orangutan that we worked so hard to rehabilitate and return to the wild, but we were always realistic from the start that not all of our orangutans would make it\u00a0\u2013 even wild orangutans die in the forest to illness or injuries.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean rhinoceros",
        "text": "The Bornean rhinoceros (\"Dicerorhinus sumatrensis harrissoni\"), also known as the eastern Sumatran rhinoceros or eastern hairy rhinoceros, is one of three subspecies of Sumatran rhinoceros. The subspecies may be functionally extinct, with only one individual, a female named Pahu, surviving in captivity, and held in the state of Sabah. In April 2015, the Malaysian government declared the Bornean rhinoceros to be extinct in the wild in the Malaysian portion of Borneo. However, in March 2016, a young female rhino was captured in East Kalimantan (in the Indonesian portion of Borneo), providing evidence of their continued existence. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies the subspecies as critically endangered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Crotalus catalinensis",
        "text": "This species is classified as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List with the following criteria: B1ab(v) (v3.1, 2001). This means that the best available evidence indicates it is considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild because its geographic range is estimated to be less than 100\u00a0km2, it exists at only a single location, and a continuing decline has been observed, inferred, or projected in the number of mature individuals. It was assessed in 2007."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cornelia Frances",
        "text": "In 2011, Frances joined the Australian Orangutan Project (AOP) as its first Ambassador in an effort to raise awareness about critically endangered orangutans. Frances travelled to the island of Borneo, Indonesia, on 16 October 2011 to see first-hand the effect of the widespread deforestation of orangutan habitat, and how orangutans are being rehabilitated. In June 2016, Frances made a sizable donation to the National Health Organisation in order to bring awareness to female reproductive health."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orang National Park",
        "text": "The pygmy hog, a small wild pig, is critically endangered, C2a(ii) ver 3.1 as per IUCN listing, and is limited to about 75 animals in captivity, confined to a very few locations in and around north-western Assam, including the Orang National Park where it has been introduced. Other mammals reported are the blind Gangetic dolphin, Indian pangolin, hog deer (\"Axis porcinus\"), rhesus macaque, Bengal porcupine, Indian fox, small Indian civet, otter, leopard cat (\"Prionailurus bengalensis\"), fishing cat (\"Prionailurus viverrinus\") and jungle cat (\"Felis chaus\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Endangerment of orangutans\n--Population decline.\n--Reasons for endangerment.\n----Deforestation.\n----Poaching.\n----Illegal pet trading.\n--History of endangerment.\n----Decline of population.\n----Future predictions.\n--Conservation.\n----Conservation actions required to prevent extinction.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Saving Planet Earth",
        "text": "TV presenter Nick Knowles reports from Borneo, where orangutan numbers are being decimated due to the deforestation of the island and the growth of palm plantations. He visits a sanctuary where more than 600 orphaned young apes are cared for. Their mothers are usually killed by plantation workers, because the orangutans are attracted to the palms for food and can damage the crops. Their young are taken for the pet trade or are simply left to die, but those lucky enough to be rescued are brought to the sanctuary. Now, it simply can't cope with the number of apes being brought in and desperately needs extra funds. This programme was incorporated into the live fundraising broadcast (see below)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Land Trust",
        "text": "Orangutan Land Trust are working with the Green Line Corporation in Indonesia to secure 80,000 hectares of mostly degraded and deforested peat forest in Central Kalimantan as an Ecosystem Restoration Concession, in order to provide sanctuary for at least 200 orangutans rescued and rehabilitated by the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation's Nyaru Menteng Project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ornithogalum gabrielianiae",
        "text": "It is classified as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan has three subspecies:\n*Northwest Bornean orangutan \"Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus\" \u2013 Sarawak (Malaysia) and northern West Kalimantan (Indonesia).\n*Central Bornean orangutan \"P. p. wurmbii\" \u2013 Southern West Kalimantan and Central Kalimantan (Indonesia).\n*Northeast Bornean orangutan \"P. p. morio\" \u2013 East Kalimantan (Indonesia) and Sabah (Malaysia)."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Disenchanted Forest",
        "text": "In the Bornean rainforest Dr. Anne Russon, primate psychologist, broaches new territory in the attempt to understand orangutan intelligence and psychology. Orangutans, like humans, have \"culture.\" They do not rely solely on animal instinct for survival. Instead a rich and complex society of elders and peers provides the young with critical knowledge that is necessary for their survival in the rainforest. The destruction of the orangutan's habitat to make way for palm oil plantations and the illegal pet-trade threaten the lives of these great apes. When they are taken out of their habitat or when it is destroyed, their culture is disabled."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan and the Sumatran orangutan diverged about 400,000 years ago, with a continued low level of gene flow between them since then. The two orangutan species were considered merely subspecies until 1996; they were elevated to species following sequencing of their mitochondrial DNA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "In history, orangutans ranged throughout Southeast Asia and into southern China, as well as on the island of Java and in southern Sumatra. They primarily inhabit peat swamp forest, tropical heath forest, and mixed dipterocarp forest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "On 15 July 2010, at an international meeting on orangutan conservation in Bali, the Indonesian forestry ministry secretary general, Boen Purnama, announced that the Indonesian government will grant a permit to the BOS Foundation to reserve thousands of hectares of forest formerly used for logging for the release of around 200 orangutans in the Kutai area in East Kalimantan. In response, the BOS Foundation set up a company, PT Orangutan Habitat Restoration Indonesia (RHOI), to manage 86,450 hectares of former timber concession area in the East Kutai district, later named Kehje Sewen (home for orangutans in the local Wehea Dayak language), to be the new reintroduction site for rehabilitated orangutans. The then BOS Foundation chairman, Togu Manurung, announced the aim to start gradual releases by April 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Odd-toed ungulate",
        "text": "Present threat levels, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (2012):\n*Four species are considered critically endangered: the Javan rhinoceros, the Sumatran rhinoceros, the black rhinoceros and the African wild ass.\n*Six species are endangered: the mountain tapir, the Central American tapir, the Malayan tapir, the wild horse and Gr\u00e9vy's zebra.\n*Three species are considered vulnerable: the Indian rhinoceros, the South American tapir and the mountain zebra.\n*The onager, the plains zebra and the white rhinoceros are near-threatened; however, the northern subspecies, \"Ceratotherium simum cottoni\" (northern white rhinoceros) is close to extinction.\n*The kiang is not considered at risk (least concern).\n* Martin S. Fischer: Mesaxonia (Perissodactyla) Perissodactyla. In: Wilfried Westheide, Reinhard Rieger (eds.): Systematic Zoology. Part 2: Vortex or craniotes. Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, Heidelberg and Berlin 2004, pp 646\u2013655, .\n*Ronald M. Nowak: Walker's Mammals of the World. 6th edition. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1999, .\n*Thomas S. Kemp:. The Origin & Evolution of Mammals Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2005. .\n*AH M\u00fcller: Textbook of Paleozoology, Volume III: vertebrates, Part 3: Mammalia. 2nd edition. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena and Stuttgart 1989. .\n*Don E. Wilson, DeeAnn M. Reeder (eds.): Mammal Species of the World. 3rd edition. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2005 ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "In his 2009 TED talk, Smits claimed there had been a substantial increase in cloud cover and 30% more rainfall due to the reforestation at Samboja Lestari."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eastern dwarf galago",
        "text": "Of those whose conservation status has been evaluated by the IUCN, \"P. orinus\" is considered to be near threatened and \"P. rondoensis\" to be critically endangered, while \"P. cocos\", \"P. granti\" and \"P. zanzibaricus\" are of least concern."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The Borneo Orangutan Survival (BOS) Foundation is an Indonesian non-profit non-governmental organization founded by Dr. Willie Smits in 1991 and dedicated to the conservation of the endangered Bornean orangutan (\"Pongo pygmaeus\") and its habitat through the involvement of local people. It is audited by an external auditor company and operates under the formal agreement with the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry to conserve and rehabilitate orangutans. The BOS Foundation manages orangutan rescue, rehabilitation and re-introduction programmes in East and Central Kalimantan. With more than 400 orangutans (per July 2021) in its care and employing more than 440 people at a 10 sites BOS Foundation is the biggest non-human primate conservation non-governmental organization worldwide. Nyaru Menteng and Samboja Lestari are the BOS Foundation sites that have received most extensive media coverage. Nyaru Menteng, founded by Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen, has been the subject of a number of TV series, including \"Orangutan Diary\", \"Orangutan Island\" and the series \"Orangutan Jungle School\", airing since 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "The Sumatran orangutan genome was sequenced in January 2011. Following humans and chimpanzees, the Sumatran orangutan became the third species of great ape to have its genome sequenced. Subsequently, the Bornean species had its genome sequenced. Genetic diversity was found to be lower in Bornean orangutans (\"P.\u00a0pygmaeus\") than in Sumatran ones (\"P.\u00a0abelii\"), despite the fact that Borneo is home to six or seven times as many orangutans as Sumatra. The researchers hope these data may help conservationists save the endangered ape, and also prove useful in further understanding of human genetic diseases. Similarly to gorillas and chimpanzees, orangutans have 48\u00a0diploid chromosomes, in contrast to humans, which have 46."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gibbon",
        "text": "Most species are either endangered or critically endangered (the sole exception being \"H. leuconedys\", which is vulnerable), primarily due to degradation or loss of their forest habitats. On the island of Phuket in Thailand, a volunteer-based Gibbon Rehabilitation Center rescues gibbons that were kept in captivity, and are being released back into the wild. The Kalaweit Project also has gibbon rehabilitation centers on Borneo and Sumatra."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "The illegal trade of orangutans as pets contributes to the severe decline of population, as often mothers are killed for the sole reason of selling the infant. Additionally, the orphans regularly do not survive the conditions they are kept in as pets, especially during transportation to other countries. It has been estimated that for every infant sold, between 1 and 6 adult orangutans are killed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samboja Lestari",
        "text": "Securing the future of the Bornean orangutan was the central concern of the project. Smits' Orangutan Rehabilitation Project at Wanariset was moved to Samboja. \"Forest schools\" were established, areas that provide natural playgrounds for the orangutans in which to learn forest skills. Here the orangutans roam somewhat freely but under the supervision of human \"surrogate mothers\" and are returned to sleeping cages for the night. \"Orangutan islands\" were created where the orangutans to further hone survival skills before being released into the wild."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meratus Mountains",
        "text": "In the 1990s the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation reintroduced 350 orangutans into the protected Meratus and Sungai Wain forests. Due to extensive deforestation the ecosystem of the mountains, including many flora and fauna species are endangered. Traditional Dayak villages are also disappearing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Atelopus certus",
        "text": "The species is threatened primarily by the advancing wave of chytridiomycosis moving through Central America, and secondarily by habitat loss, although much of its range falls within the Dari\u00e9n National Park, a protected area and world heritage site. Because so many other \"Atelopus\" species are in steep declines, this amphibian is seen as a priority species for \"ex situ\" conservation. In June 2010, a team of conservation partners working under the Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Project mounted an expedition to the Darien and brought back a founding population of these frogs to begin an \"ex situ\" conservation program at Summit Municipal Park near Panama City. A documentary film about this effort was aired in 2011 on Smithsonian Networks entitled \"Mission Critical: Amphibian Rescue\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of critically endangered mammals",
        "text": "Subspecies\n*Javan slow loris"
      },
      {
        "title": "Caetetus Ecological Station",
        "text": "Other medium and large mammals threatened with extinction or vulnerable in the region include the cougar (\"Puma concolor\"), ocelot (\"Leopardus pardalis\") and oncilla (\"Leopardus tigrinus\")."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are Orangutans going extinct?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you asking about the Bornean orangutan, Tapanuli orangutan, or Sumatran orangutan?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in Bornean orangutan."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Bornean orangutan is a Critically Endangered species (less than 14% of total number of orangutans than in the recent past), with deforestation, palm oil plantations, and hunting posing a serious threat to its continued existence. Climate change is another threat to Bornean orangutan conservation."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are any other orangutans critically endangered as well?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Yes, the Sumatran orangutan and the Tapanuli orangutan are also critically endangered.",
      "All three species, the Bornean orangutan, the Sumatran orangutan, and the Tapanuli orangutan are all considered critically endangered."
    ],
    "topic": "Orangutan",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Orangutan:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orangutan"
        ],
        "ctx": "All three orangutan species are considered critically endangered. Human activities have caused severe declines in populations and ranges. Threats to wild orangutan populations include poaching (for bushmeat and retaliation for consuming crops), habitat destruction and deforestation (for palm oil cultivation and logging), and the illegal pet trade. Several conservation and rehabilitation organisations are dedicated to the survival of orangutans in the wild."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Orangutan:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orangutan"
        ],
        "ctx": "Orangutans are great apes native to the rainforests of Indonesia and Malaysia. They are now found only in parts of Borneo and Sumatra, but during the Pleistocene they ranged throughout Southeast Asia and South China. Classified in the genus Pongo, orangutans were originally considered to be one species. From 1996, they were divided into two species: the Bornean orangutan (\"P. pygmaeus\", with three subspecies) and the Sumatran orangutan (\"P. abelii\"). A third species, the Tapanuli orangutan (\"P. tapanuliensis\"), was identified definitively in 2017. The orangutans are the only surviving species of the subfamily Ponginae, which diverged genetically from the other hominids (gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans) between 19.3 and 15.7 million years ago."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Orangutan:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orangutan"
        ],
        "ctx": "All three orangutan species are considered critically endangered. Human activities have caused severe declines in populations and ranges. Threats to wild orangutan populations include poaching (for bushmeat and retaliation for consuming crops), habitat destruction and deforestation (for palm oil cultivation and logging), and the illegal pet trade. Several conservation and rehabilitation organisations are dedicated to the survival of orangutans in the wild."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Orangutan:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orangutan"
        ],
        "ctx": "Orangutans are great apes native to the rainforests of Indonesia and Malaysia. They are now found only in parts of Borneo and Sumatra, but during the Pleistocene they ranged throughout Southeast Asia and South China. Classified in the genus Pongo, orangutans were originally considered to be one species. From 1996, they were divided into two species: the Bornean orangutan (\"P. pygmaeus\", with three subspecies) and the Sumatran orangutan (\"P. abelii\"). A third species, the Tapanuli orangutan (\"P. tapanuliensis\"), was identified definitively in 2017. The orangutans are the only surviving species of the subfamily Ponginae, which diverged genetically from the other hominids (gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans) between 19.3 and 15.7 million years ago."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "Two strategies that are recently being considered to conserve this species are 1) rehabilitation and reintroduction of ex-captive or displaced individuals and 2) the protection of their forest habitat by preventing threats such as deforestation and hunting. The former was determined to be more cost efficient for maintaining the wild orangutan populations, but comes with longer time scale of 10\u201320 years. The latter approach has better prospects for ensuring long-term stability of populations. This type of habitat conservation approach has been pursued by the World Wide Fund for Nature, who joined forces with several other organizations to stop the clearing of the biggest part of remaining natural forest close to the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Due to the dramatic decrease of the orangutan population, a number of conservation sites and not-for-profit organisations have been developed in an effort to prevent the extinction of orangutans. There are two main strategies that have been put in place to prevent this; rehabilitation of abandoned individuals or those that were previously being held illegally, and the protection of forest areas and prevention of deforestation in orangutan habitats. Through a Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis, it was discovered that neither strategy was highly effective, however the cost of preventing deforestation is one twelfth of the cost of reintroducing individuals. It was concluded that for long term protection, it is more efficient to prevent logging than attempting to maintain current populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Scientists have researched and estimated that the only way of reducing the high rate of population decline is by ceasing deforestation in orangutan habitats, and putting extensive protection methods of current populations in place. However, due to the high demand of the palm oil product and lack of funding from the government, it is extremely unlikely the rapid decline and eventual extinction of orangutans can be prevented."
      },
      {
        "title": "La Palmyre Zoo",
        "text": "The orangutans are threatened with extinction because of the disappearance of their natural habitat, the tropical forests of Sumatra and Borneo. It is estimated that 30 to 50% of the wild populations of orangutans were decimated in the last ten years. Today, the last wild populations remain mainly out of the protected reserves, in degraded zones subjected to human exploitation (deforestation, and agriculture). To date, the populations of orangutans in their natural habitat were never studied and it is generally believed that they are heading towards a fast extinction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "This view is also supported by the United Nations Environment Programme, which states in its report that due to deforestation by illegal logging, fire and the extensive development of oil palm plantations (see Social and environmental impact of palm oil), orangutans are threatened with extinction, and if the current trend continues, they will become extinct.\n# Orangutan reintroduction, through the rescue, rehabilitation, and release of ex-captive orangutans\n#Orangutan and sun bear (\"Helarctos malayanus\") life-long sanctuary care, for individuals with physical or behavioural handicaps that prevent reintroduction\n# Orangutan ecosystem conservation, through the protection of existing forest landscapes and rehabilitation of degraded areas\n# Sustainable community development and education, through outreach, community capacity-building, community empowerment, and public awareness-raising"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme",
        "text": "Built in 2001, the SOCP maintains the only centre in Sumatra that quarantines and cares for orangutans confiscated from the illegal pet trade. To date, the SOCP has rescued over 340 illegal pet orangutans of which more than 260 have been rehabilitated and reintroduced back to a life in the wild, 180 at its reintroduction centre next to the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park in Jambi province and an additional 88 since 2011 at its centre in the Jantho Pine Forest Nature Reserve in Aceh province. The goal at both locations is to establish entirely new, self-sustaining and genetically viable populations of this Critically Endangered species in forests within their historical range, as a 'safety net' should catastrophe befall the remaining truly wild Sumatran orangutan populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tapanuli orangutan",
        "text": "With fewer than 800 individuals restricted to an area of about , the Tapanuli orangutan is the rarest great ape. It is listed as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) because of hunting, conflict with humans, the illegal wildlife trade, rampant habitat destruction for small scale agriculture, mining and a proposed hydroelectric dam, the Batang Toru hydropower project, in the area with the highest density of orangutans, which could impact up to 10% of its already dwindling habitat and degrade important wildlife corridors. Conservationists predict an 83% decline in three generations (75 years) if the necessary conservation measures and practices are not implemented. Inbreeding depression is likely due to the small population size and fragmented range. This is supported by the genomes of the two Tapanuli orangutan individuals, which show signs of inbreeding. In August 2019 Swiss environmental group PanEco, which is a partner in the Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme, dropped its previous opposition to the dam, several months after firing several researchers who opposed the new strategy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "Several organisations are working for the rescue, rehabilitation and reintroduction of orangutans. The largest of these is the Borneo Orangutan Survival (BOS) Foundation, founded by conservationist Willie Smits and which operates projects such as the Nyaru Menteng Rehabilitation Program founded by conservationist Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen. A female orangutan was rescued from a village brothel in Kareng Pangi village, Central Kalimantan, in 2003. The orangutan was shaved and chained for sexual purposes. Since being freed, the orangutan, named Pony, has been living with the BOS. She has been re-socialised to live with other orangutans. In May 2017, the BOS rescued an albino orangutan from captivity. The rare primate was being held captive in a remote village in Kapuas Hulu, on the island of Kalimantan in Indonesian Borneo. According to volunteers at BOS, albino orangutans are extremely rare (one in ten thousand). This is the first albino orangutan the organisation has seen in 25 years of activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "There are numerous conservation sites and not-for-profit organisations that have been created in an effort to prevent further decline of the orangutan population, however, in 2016, it was predicted by experts that unless drastic changes are made to the current deforestation laws, orangutans face extinction within the next ten years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "According to the IUCN Redlist, there are many conservation actions in place that have been somewhat successful, however there are numerous actions that are required in order to prevent the further endangerment and eventual extinction of orangutans. These include more area protection, species recovery, habitat and natural process restoration, resource protection and legislation. Additionally, IUCN suggests that more research is required, surrounding areas such as taxonomy, population size, distribution and trends, threats to orangutans, and area-based management plans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "On 15 July 2010, at an international meeting on orangutan conservation in Bali, the Indonesian forestry ministry secretary general, Boen Purnama, announced that the Indonesian government will grant a permit to the BOS Foundation to reserve thousands of hectares of forest formerly used for logging for the release of around 200 orangutans in the Kutai area in East Kalimantan. In response, the BOS Foundation set up a company, PT Orangutan Habitat Restoration Indonesia (RHOI), to manage 86,450 hectares of former timber concession area in the East Kutai district, later named Kehje Sewen (home for orangutans in the local Wehea Dayak language), to be the new reintroduction site for rehabilitated orangutans. The then BOS Foundation chairman, Togu Manurung, announced the aim to start gradual releases by April 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "There are other methods that have been put in place to conserve the current orangutan population, these include research and monitoring, land and water protection, species management, education to create awareness, international legislation, and international management and trade controls. Additionally, some organisations that work to conserve the population of orangutans have put in efforts to work alongside palm oil companies and local governments to prevent further habitat loss. For example in 2011 a tri-party agreement was signed by one of the world\u2019s largest palm oil producers Wilmar International, Central Kalimantan government, and Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation (BOSF). The agreement was formed with the aim to provide long-term protection for Bornean orangutans, including monitoring palm oil plantation methods, establishing areas where orangutans can be protected, relocating abandoned individuals and providing training to plantation workers on how to manage orangutans and avoid conflict."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "All three orangutan species are considered critically endangered. Human activities have caused severe declines in populations and ranges. Threats to wild orangutan populations include poaching (for bushmeat and retaliation for consuming crops), habitat destruction and deforestation (for palm oil cultivation and logging), and the illegal pet trade. Several conservation and rehabilitation organisations are dedicated to the survival of orangutans in the wild."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "In addition to the above extant wild populations, a new population is being established in the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park (Jambi and Riau Provinces) via the re-introduction of confiscated illegal pets. This population currently numbers around 70 individuals and is reproducing. However it has been concluded that forest conservation costs twelve times less than reintroducing orangutans into the wild, and conserves more biological diversity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Land Trust",
        "text": "Borneo Orangutan Survival is one of the Indonesian NGOs seeking ways of reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation (REDD). It has acquired from the Department of Forestry and Ecosystem Restoration Concession with the intention of using the forest area as a release site for rehabilitated orangutans from its Samboja Lestari and Wanariset projects in East Kalimantan (over 200 individuals). The concession is 86,000 hectares of the ex-PT Mugi Triman International (MGI) timber concession. Releases begin in May 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme",
        "text": "The SOCP deals with all aspects of the conservation of the Critically Endangered Sumatran orangutan (\"Pongo abelii\") and the 2017 newly identified species of orangutan, the Tapanuli orangutan (\"Pongo tapanuliensis\"), including: a. the confiscation of illegal captive orangutans, their quarantine and reintroduction to form new wild populations, b. education and awareness raising, c. behavioral and ecological research on wild orangutans, d. surveys and monitoring of remaining wild orangutan populations and habitat, and e. habitat protection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Willie Smits",
        "text": "The Orangutan Reintroduction Project at Wanariset Research Station was moved to Samboja Lestari. \"Forest Schools\" were established, areas that provide natural, educational playgrounds for the orangutans in which to learn forest skills. Here the orangutans roam freely but under supervision and are returned to sleeping cages for the night. \"Orangutan islands\" were created where the orangutans and other wildlife that cannot return to the wild are nevertheless able to live in almost completely natural conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation (BOS) founded by Dr Willie Smits has rescue and rehabilitation centres at Wanariset and Samboja Lestari in East Kalimantan and Nyaru Menteng, in Central Kalimantan founded and managed by Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen. BOS also works to conserve and recreate the fast-disappearing rainforest habitat of the orangutan, at Samboja Lestari and Mawas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Due to an expanding global demand for timber in the 1980s, this rate then increased; according to a satellite study, 56% or 2.9 million hectares of tropical rainforests in Kalimantan, Borneo were extracted between 1985 and 2001, with a rapid increase in deforestation rates in the late 1990s. The rate of deforestation during this time directly correlates with the decrease in orangutan population, as the species cannot survive in other areas. It is estimated that since 1950, the orangutan population has declined by 60%. Between 1999 and 2015, the population of Bornean orangutans decreased by 100,000 individuals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karen (orangutan)",
        "text": "Wild Sumatran orangutans are critically endangered. In the 1970s, UC San Diego Health (UCSD) pathologist Kurt Benirschke, persuaded zoo trustees to establish a research department, at the zoo's Center for the Reproduction of Endangered Species, which he subsequently led, providing the collaboration between the University and the zoo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Francine Neago",
        "text": "In 2006 she co-authored a 48-page children's book describing how an orphaned orangutan she raised in her home behaved like a human child. In 2007 she set up the Bali Endangered Animal Rescue (BEAR) center in Bali. She founded the wildlife sanctuary \"Noah and his Ark\", now located 3 kilometres from Bukit Lawang, Indonesia. In 2011 she travelled to Malaysia, intending to set up an orangutan language centre in Sarawak. In 2015, she proposed that Indonesia should establish additional orangutan rehabilitation centres, since all the existing ones were full, and some orangutans made homeless by deforestation in Sumatra had to be kept in small cages. She planned to rehabilitate about 50 animals for release in the Mount Leuser National Park and the Tigapulu mountainous area, calling for support."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "Orangutan Foundation International, founded by Dr Birut\u0117 Galdikas, rescues and rehabilitates orangutans, preparing them for release back into protected areas of the Indonesian rain forest. In addition, it promotes the preservation of the rain forest for them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saving Planet Earth",
        "text": "TV presenter Nick Knowles reports from Borneo, where orangutan numbers are being decimated due to the deforestation of the island and the growth of palm plantations. He visits a sanctuary where more than 600 orphaned young apes are cared for. Their mothers are usually killed by plantation workers, because the orangutans are attracted to the palms for food and can damage the crops. Their young are taken for the pet trade or are simply left to die, but those lucky enough to be rescued are brought to the sanctuary. Now, it simply can't cope with the number of apes being brought in and desperately needs extra funds. This programme was incorporated into the live fundraising broadcast (see below)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "There are three species of orangutan. The Bornean orangutan, the most common, can be found in Kalimantan, Indonesia and Sarawak and Sabah in Malaysia. The Sumatran orangutan and the Tapanuli orangutan are both only found in Sumatra, Indonesia The conservation status of all three of these species is critically endangered, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "All three species are critically endangered according to the IUCN Red List of mammals. They are legally protected from capture, harm or killing in both Malaysia and Indonesia, and are listed under Appendix I by CITES, which prohibits their unlicensed trade under international law. The Bornean orangutan range has become patchy, being largely extirpated from several parts of the island, including the southeast. The largest remaining population is found in the forest around the Sabangau River, but this environment is at risk. The Sumatran orangutan is found only in the northern part of Sumatra, most of the population inhabiting the Leuser Ecosystem. The Tapanuli orangutan is found only in the Batang Toru forest of Sumatra."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Borneo Orangutan Survival\n--History.\n--Orangutan Conservation Status.\n--Orangutan Rescue and Rehabilitation Centres.\n----Wanariset.\n----Nyaru Menteng.\n----Samboja Lestari.\n--Forest Conservation, Reforestation and Research.\n----Samboja Lestari.\n----Mawas.\n----Kehje Sewen.\n--Documentaries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Although the current population of orangutans is not precisely known, it is estimated that currently there are about 104,000 Bornean orangutans, 14,000 Sumatran orangutans, and 800 Tapanuli orangutans remaining in the wild, and 1,000 are being held in conservation sites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Land Trust",
        "text": "Orangutan Land Trust are working with the Green Line Corporation in Indonesia to secure 80,000 hectares of mostly degraded and deforested peat forest in Central Kalimantan as an Ecosystem Restoration Concession, in order to provide sanctuary for at least 200 orangutans rescued and rehabilitated by the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation's Nyaru Menteng Project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Samboja Lestari started as a reforestation project in 2001, but opened its doors as an orangutan rescue and rehabilitation centre in 2006, when the BOS Foundation moved their East Kalimantan operations from Wanariset. The rehabilitation centre is located about 38 kilometres northeast of Balikpapan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rimba Raya Biodiversity Reserve",
        "text": "The Rimba Raya REDD+ project aims to eliminate the destruction of the forests and peatlands of Central Kalimantan which houses more than 75% of Indonesia\u2019s greenhouse gas emissions. Along with eradicating local deforestation, Rimba Raya works to preserve the endangered species population within the reserve. Rimba Rayahas partnered with renowned Primatologist and Conservationist Dr. Birut\u00e9 Mary Galdikas to provide natural habitats for endangered orangutans in Borneo. The reserve also funds the Orangutan Foundation International and their Orangutan care center, which aims to reintroduce 300 wild born, rehabilitated orphaned orangutans in its care, back into the wild with the safe confines of the Rimba Raya Reserve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hybrid orangutan",
        "text": "From 1971 to 1985, 90 orphaned or displaced orangutans rescued from illegal wildlife trade were released into Tanjung Puting National Park in Central Kalimantan. A subsequent genetic survey determined that at least two orangutans, captured in a different region and therefore not native to the park, had prolifically interbred with the local native apes, and produced at least 22 hybridized descendants. Their offspring contributes to fears that interbreeding of subspecies leads to \"hybrid vigor\", in which \"offspring reap the benefits of their parents' individual qualities\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bukit Tigapuluh National Park",
        "text": "The first reintroduction station for orangutans close to the park was built in 2001 by the German biologist Dr. Peter Pratje, with the support of Frankfurt Zoological Society and local partners. It offers a school-like programme to train individual orangutans, which grew up in captivity, to survive the wild."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "Other major conservation centres in Indonesia include those at Tanjung Puting National Park, Sebangau National Park, Gunung Palung National Park and Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park in Borneo and the Gunung Leuser National Park and Bukit Lawang in Sumatra. In Malaysia, conservation areas include Semenggoh Wildlife Centre and Matang Wildlife Centre also in Sarawak, and the Sepilok Orang Utan Sanctuary in Sabah. Major conservation centres headquartered outside the orangutans' home countries include Frankfurt Zoological Society, Orangutan Foundation International, which was founded by Galdikas, and the Australian Orangutan Project. Conservation organisations such as the Orangutan Land Trust work with the palm oil industry to improve sustainability and encourages the industry to establish conservation areas for orangutans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The sanctuary was originally designed to hold up to 100 orphaned orangutans while they go through rehabilitation, but at its peak cared for over 600 individual orangutans. In addition to quarantine cages, medical clinic, and nursery, the sanctuary has a large area of forest in which orangutans could learn the skills needed to live in the wild. Nyaru Menteng quickly became the largest non-human primate rescue project in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "There are small populations in the North Sumatra province along the border with NAD, particularly in the Lake Toba forests. A survey in the Lake Toba region found only two inhabited areas, Bukit Lawang (defined as the animal sanctuary) and Gunung Leuser National Park. Bukit Lawang is a jungle village, 90 kilometers northwest of Medan, situated at the eastern side of Gunung Leuser National Park. An orangutan sanctuary was set up here by a Swiss organisation in the 1970s to attempt to rehabilitate orangutans captured from the logging industry. The rangers were trained to teach the orangutans vital jungle skills to enable them to reintegrate into the forest, and provided additional supplementary food from a feeding platform. However, within the last few years supplementary feeding has ceased as the orangutan rehabilitation program has been deemed a success, the orangutans having been fully rehabilitated, and the jungle (or the remaining part of) is now at saturation point, so the sanctuary no longer accepts new orphaned orangutans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frankfurt Zoological Society",
        "text": "Another major project is situated in Central Sumatra: The Bukit Tigapuluh Sanctuary for the preservation of rainforest and wildlife. This project is aiming at the resettlement and reintroduction of confiscated Orang Utans, which are prepared for their life in the wild through the local \"jungle school\". Further aspects of the work on site are conflict-prevention between humans and elephants, environmental education and initiatives supporting the local population in balancing out economical development and their traditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Following several years navigating land permissions to ensure the long-term security of potential release sites, Nyaru Menteng started releasing orangutans back to the forest in February 2012. They have released 190 orangutans in the Bukit Batikap Protection Forest and 163 orangutans in the Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park (per July 2021)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "Orangutan Foundation, founded by Ashley Leiman, operates programmes in Central Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo. The Foundation rescues orphaned orangutans and enters them into their soft-release programme, allowing them to develop the skills necessary to survive in the wild. When old enough, orangutans are released into the protected Lamandau Wildlife Reserve. Orangutan Foundation works to protect orangutans by focusing on habitat protection and capacity building, especially in local communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The Borneo Orangutan Survival (BOS) Foundation is an Indonesian non-profit non-governmental organization founded by Dr. Willie Smits in 1991 and dedicated to the conservation of the endangered Bornean orangutan (\"Pongo pygmaeus\") and its habitat through the involvement of local people. It is audited by an external auditor company and operates under the formal agreement with the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry to conserve and rehabilitate orangutans. The BOS Foundation manages orangutan rescue, rehabilitation and re-introduction programmes in East and Central Kalimantan. With more than 400 orangutans (per July 2021) in its care and employing more than 440 people at a 10 sites BOS Foundation is the biggest non-human primate conservation non-governmental organization worldwide. Nyaru Menteng and Samboja Lestari are the BOS Foundation sites that have received most extensive media coverage. Nyaru Menteng, founded by Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen, has been the subject of a number of TV series, including \"Orangutan Diary\", \"Orangutan Island\" and the series \"Orangutan Jungle School\", airing since 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan was up-listed to the status of Critically Endangered in 2016 according to the IUCN Red List of mammals, and is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The total number of Bornean orangutans is estimated to be less than 20 percent of what it was 50 years ago (from a population of about 288,500 in 1973 to a population of about 57,350 in 2016) and this sharp decline has occurred mostly over the past few decades due to human activities and development. Their habitat is so much reduced that they are now only to be found in pockets of remaining rainforest. According to the IUCN, it is expected that in 10 to 30 years orangutans will be extinct if there is no serious effort to overcome the threats that they are facing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen",
        "text": "From 1996 until 2010, Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen lived in Borneo to help save the Bornean orangutan from extinction due to loss of its natural habitat due to logging and oil palm plantations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Foundation International",
        "text": "An article from \"Nature\" on PBS says \"Galdikas\u2019s rehabilitation efforts, however, have brought controversy. The orphaned apes were often psychologically damaged and difficult to control. Some even attacked guests and staffers. Researchers questioned the value of observing the orphaned apes, wondering whether their behavior was representative of orangutans in the wild. Others were concerned that the released rehabilitated apes would spread diseases to local wild orangutan populations. Government officials began to challenge the work, even to withdraw permits. ... At the same time, Galdikas was becoming an increasingly active conservationist. Concerned by the rapid clearing of orangutan habitat, she lobbied the Indonesian government to set aside parks and curb illegal logging and orangutan trading \u2014 with some success. But her efforts came at a cost; she was threatened, harassed, and even kidnapped by those who opposed her work.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "In 2009, the BOS Foundation established the company PT Restorasi Habitat Orangutan Indonesia (PT RHOI) in order to purchase an Ecosystem Restoration Concession (ERC). An ERC license for 86,450 ha of land in Kutai, East Kalimantan, later named Kehje Sewen, was issued to PT RHOI in 2010. Following this, in 2012, the BOS Foundation began to release rehabilitated orangutans in the Kehje Sewen ERC in Easti Kalimantan and the Bukit Batikap Protection Forest in Central Kalimantan. The BOS Foundation expanded release operations in 2016, with the establishment of release points in the portion of the Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park within Central Kalimantan. The organization made global news yet again in April 2017 when it rescued the world's only known albino orangutan, later named Alba."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meratus Mountains",
        "text": "In the 1990s the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation reintroduced 350 orangutans into the protected Meratus and Sungai Wain forests. Due to extensive deforestation the ecosystem of the mountains, including many flora and fauna species are endangered. Traditional Dayak villages are also disappearing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Currently, the centre houses over 100 orangutans, a mix of individuals undergoing the rehabilitation process and individuals in lifelong sanctuary care. To accommodate the orangutan rehabilitation process, with the ultimate goal of release into natural rainforests, the centre includes quarantine cages, medical clinic, nursery, forest school area, and small man-made pre-release islands. The \"Forest Schools\" are areas that provide natural, educational playgrounds for the orangutans in which to learn forest skills. Here the orangutans roam freely but under the supervision of human surrogate mothers and are returned to sleeping cages for the night."
      },
      {
        "title": "International Animal Rescue",
        "text": "In Indonesian Borneo, IAR rescues and cares for critically endangered orangutans at its conservation centre in Ketapang, West Kalimantan, from orphaned infants to fully grown adults that have spent years in captivity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Wanariset began as a tropical forest research station near Balikpapan in the Indonesian Province of East Kalimantan and, in 1991, started to be used as an orangutan rescue and rehabilitation centre. After purchasing land in Samboja and transferring all orangutans to their new Samboja Lestari Orangutan Rehabilitation Centre, the BOS Foundation stopped rehabilitation operations at Wanariset in 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "The primary reason for population decline is habitat loss as a result of the unsustainable practice of timber extraction for the production of palm oil in areas in which orangutans habituate, notably Indonesia and Malaysia. Orangutans cannot survive without forests as they are both a home and food source, they build nests in trees for sleeping and survive off tree fruits. Additionally, orangutans are killed by poaching, where often mothers are killed and infants are seized and sold on the black market as pets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Samboja Lestari is a reforestation project on nearly of deforested, degraded and burnt land in East Kalimantan. In 2001, BOS started purchasing land near Wanariset. The area it acquired had been deforested by mechanical logging, drought and severe fires and was covered in alang-alang grass (Imperata cylindrica). The aim was to restore the rainforest and provide a safe haven for rehabilitated orangutans while at the same time providing a source of income for local people. The name Samboja Lestari roughly translates as the \"everlasting conservation of Samboja\". Reforestation and rehabilitation is the core of the project, with hundreds of indigenous species planted. By the middle of 2006 over 740 different tree species had been planted; by 2009 there were 1200 species of trees, 137 species of birds and six species of non-human primates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samboja Lestari",
        "text": "With a large population of orangutans at Samboja Lestari unable to be reintroduced into the wild due to physical disability, chronic illness, abnormal behaviours, or a lack of survival skills, the BOS Foundation has also developed facilities specifically to provide lifelong sanctuary care for these individuals. These facilities vary from sanctuary islands for orangutans who are not severely disabled and capable of living in almost natural conditions with minimal human support, to a Special Care Unit for those who need frequently and regular veterinary support."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Foundation International",
        "text": "Support protection, conservation, and understanding about orangutans and their natural habitat while caring for orphaned orangutans and helping them make the transition back into the rain forest. The OFI also educates the public and the government about orangutans, rain forest, and the issues around conservation and protection of the apes and their environment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "For orangutans unable to be released, the centre houses them on sanctuary islands, in socialisation cages, or in a special care unit, designed to aid in the care of orangutans with chronic disease that requires regular veterinary care. The sanctuary islands were created specifically for the orangutans that cannot return to the wild, but are able to live in almost natural conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Following the establishment of PT RHOI by BOS Foundation in 2009 and the acquisition of the Kehje Sewen ERC in 2010, which finally ensured a secure release site for orangutans, Samboja Lestari started releasing orangutans back to the forest in April 2012. They have released 121 orangutans in the Kehje Sewen ERC (per July 2021)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Many of these orangutans are only weeks old when they arrive, and all of them are psychologically traumatized. The sanctuary not only saves the orphaned baby orangutans from captivity in human homes and from wildlife tourism, but has developed a process for their gradual re-introduction to the remaining Bornean rainforest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Nyaru Menteng is an orangutan rescue and rehabilitation centre 28\u00a0km from Palangkaraya in Central Kalimantan. Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen sought the advice of Smits about the possibility of creating a new project in Central Kalimantan to deal with the swelling numbers of orphaned orangutans. Smits agreed to help and, with the financial backing of the Gibbon Foundation and the BOS Foundation, Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen founded Nyaru Menteng in 1998. She was able to build the facility under an agreement with the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry, and Nyaru Menteng officially opened its doors to the first dozen orangutans in 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Deforestation in Sumatra and Borneo is the primary reason for the endangerment of all species of orangutans. Timber is extracted from these areas for the production of palm oil, paper, and pulp. Majority of the logging is illegal, and with the rapid expansion of the palm oil industry, extraction rates have exponentially increased over the past 40 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "Estimates between 2000 and 2003 found 7,300\u00a0Sumatran orangutans and between 45,000 and 69,000\u00a0Bornean orangutans remain in the wild. A 2016 study estimates a population of 14,613 Sumatran orangutans in the wild, doubling previous population estimates. Fewer than 800 Tapanuli orangutan are estimated to still exist, which puts the species among the most endangered of the great apes. The table below shows a breakdown of the species and subspecies and their estimated populations from this or (in the case of \"P. tapanuliensis\") a 2017 report:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ah Meng",
        "text": "She belonged to the Sumatran orangutan species, a rarer breed of orangutan now critically endangered due to illegal logging and poaching. There are about only 7,500 Sumatran orangutans left in the wild in the rainforests of Sumatra, Indonesia. Ah Meng died on 8 February 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The work of the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation has appeared in a number of documentaries. \"The Disenchanted Forest\" was an award-winning 1999 film that follows orphan orangutans as they are rehabilitated and returned to their rainforest home. It centres on three BOS projects \u2013 Wanariset, Nyaru Menteng and Mawas. \"The Burning Season\" is a 2008 documentary about the burning of rainforests in Indonesia which featured Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen. The orangutans of Nyaru Menteng were the followed in the two series of \"Orangutan Diary\" produced by the BBC and also, as they were reintroduced to a semi-wild habitat in the form of forested pre-release islands, in the 23 programmes of the \"Orangutan Island\" series, produced by NHNZ. In 2013, Harrison Ford visited Nyaru Menteng for the filming of episode one of \"Years of Living Dangerously\" to show the devastating impacts of the global demand for palm oil and other agricultural products. BBC returned to Nyaru Menteng again in 2013 to follow the release of four orangutans into the Bukit Batikap Protection Forest for a special episode of \"Natural World\", entitled \"Orangutans: The Great Ape Escape\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen",
        "text": "The sanctuary was designed to hold up to 100 orphaned orangutans while they go through rehabilitation. In addition to quarantine cages, medical clinic, and nursery, the sanctuary had a large area of forest in which orangutans could learn the skills needed to live in the wild. Nyaru Menteng quickly became the largest primate rescue project in the world, with over 600 orphaned and displaced orangutans in its care in 2009 and a staff of 200."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Foundation International",
        "text": "Originally called the Orangutan Research and Conservation Project, OFI was founded by Galdikas and former husband Rod Brindamour in 1986. The couple started the project to study the ecology and behavior of wild orangutans. The focus later turned towards conservation, protection, rehabilitation, and education of orangutans. The OFI's research facilities are located in the Indonesian owned part of Borneo, the third largest island in the world. Camp Leakey is where the research on orangutans is conducted and also where rehabilitated orangutans are released."
      },
      {
        "title": "Willie Smits",
        "text": "Smits quickly saw that protecting orangutans in their habitat not only benefits orangutans but also the environment, biological diversity, the poor in Borneo and all the world's people. The activities of the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation expanded from rescuing, rehabilitating and releasing orangutans to monitoring, conserving and rebuilding rainforest, along with the social engagement that made this sustainable. Smits also took on an increasing campaigning and advocacy role, to make the plight of the orangutan and its habitat more widely known, along with the message that something could - and was - being done."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sepilok Orangutan Rehabilitation Centre",
        "text": "The centre opened in 1964 as the first official orangutan rehabilitation project for rescued orphaned baby orangutans from logging sites, plantations, illegal hunting or kept as pets. The orphaned orangutans are trained to survive again in the wild and are released as soon as they are ready. The sanctuary is located within the Kabili-Sepilok Forest Reserve which covers an area of , much of which is virgin rainforest. Today around 60 to 80 orangutans are living free in the reserve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen",
        "text": "Many of these orangutans are only weeks old when they arrive, and all of them are psychologically traumatized. The sanctuary not only saves the mostly orphaned baby orangutans from the local farmers and illegal pet-traders, but has developed a process for their gradual re-introduction to the remaining Borneo rainforest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian Orangutan Project",
        "text": "Donations from the public, funds from community events, AOP membership fees, orphan orangutan 'adoptions' and grants from various sources are used to support orangutan care centres, natural forest rehabilitation, forest patrols to eliminate illegal logging and protect released animals, and local community awareness initiatives. In 2005, the organisation received over $62,000 from the Australian Government's Regional Natural Heritage Program (RNHP) to develop and implement two orangutan protection units in the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park region in Sumatra and to monitor and deter illegal logging in two regions. This project contributes to the long term conservation of the largest remaining lowland rainforest block in Sumatra. In 2006, TOP won an additional $92,000 from the RNHP to extend the work of the orangutan protection units to better protect the Bukit Tigapuluh mega fauna, including the Sumatran elephant and tiger, through training, monitoring and surveillance activities. AOP also was awarded funds of A$207,500 to undertake a survey of wildlife in Borneo's forests in Malua/Segama. This includes surveys of the Ulu Segama reserve to establish wildlife baseline data and the development of a Forest Management Plan with particular focus on orangutan populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan is critically endangered according to the IUCN Red List of mammals, and is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The total number of Bornean orangutans is estimated to be less than 14% of what it was in the recent past (from around 10,000 years ago until the middle of the 20th century), and this sharp decline has occurred mostly over the past few decades due to human activities and development. Species distribution is now highly patchy throughout Borneo; it is apparently absent or uncommon in the southeast of the island, as well as in the forest between the Rajang River in central Sarawak and the Padas River in western Sabah (including the Sultanate of Brunei). A population of around 6,900 is found in Sabangau National Park, but this environment is at risk. According to an anthropologist at Harvard University, in 10 to 20 years, orangutans are expected to be extinct in the wild if no serious effort is made to overcome the threats they are facing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Deforestation is also occurring as a result of fires that wipe out large amounts of land and subsequently orangutan populations. Fires are set on purpose by palm oil companies in peat swamp forests. As a result of these fires, orangutans in these habitats will often die amidst the fire. If they survive, they will either be left to starve without a habitat, or flee, leaving them without a habitat and at risk of capture from residents, who will either kill them for meat, keep them as pets or sell them on the black market to wealthier counties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Foundation International",
        "text": "Orangutan Foundation International (OFI) has its headquarters in Los Angeles, California. Founded by Dr. Birut\u0117 Galdikas, one of three anthropologists (The Trimates) to study great apes under the guidance of Dr. Louis Leakey, OFI continues to rescue and rehabilitate orangutans, preparing them for release back into protected areas of the Indonesian rain forest. In addition, OFI promotes the preservation of rain forest habitats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Batang Toru hydropower project",
        "text": "Scientists and environmentalists say that, in addition to impacting 10% of the critically endangered Tapanuli orangutan's already dwindling habitat, infrastructure for the dam (roads and high-voltage power lines) will fragment the orangutan population below viable levels by degrading important wildlife corridors, and increase the likelihood of even further development. The"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bukit Tigapuluh National Park",
        "text": "Since then, over 190 orangutans have been treated at the quarantine centre and over 160 of these have already been transferred to Bukit Tigapuluh for reintroduction under the auspices of the Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme. At least 4 infants have also been born to reintroduced mothers, these infants being the first to be conceived and born in the forests of Jambi possibly for more than 100 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatra",
        "text": "The Sumatran tiger, Sumatran rhinoceros, Sumatran elephant, Sumatran ground cuckoo, Sumatran orangutan and Tapanuli Orangutan are all critically endangered, indicating the highest level of threat to their survival. In October 2008, the Indonesian government announced a plan to protect Sumatra's remaining forests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "Birut\u0117 Galdikas wrote that orangutans were already threatened by poaching and deforestation when she began studying them in 1971. From the 1970s to the 2000s, orangutan habitats decreased rapidly because of logging, mining and fragmentation by roads. A major factor has been the conversion of vast areas of tropical forest to palm oil plantations in response to international demand. Hunting is also a major problem, as is the illegal pet trade. Orangutans may be killed for the bushmeat trade and bones are secretly traded in souvenir shops in several cities in Indonesian Borneo. Conflicts between locals and orangutans also pose a threat. Orangutans that have lost their homes often raid agricultural areas and end up being killed by villagers. Locals may also be motivated to kill orangutans for food or because of fear and self-defense. Mother orangutans are killed so their infants can be sold as pets, and many of these infants die without the help of their mother. Since 2012, the Indonesian authorities, with the aid of the Orangutan Information Center, confiscated 114 orangutans, 39 of which were pets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Diary",
        "text": "The centre was founded in 1994, a year after Lone Dr\u00f6scher Nielsen permanently moved to Borneo. She could see what effect the palm oil plantations were having on the orangutans, so then founded the Nyaru Menteng Orangutan Reintroduction Project, which now is the largest ape rescue project in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Starting in 2007, the BOS Foundation was involved in the development of the Orangutan Conservation Strategy and Action Plan and has continued to help implementing the plan ever since. With international support and donations from companies like Weleda and Werner & Mertz, the Mawas project has grown to play an important role in the conservation of the Bornean orangutans and their habitat. It is the largest single area of land managed by the BOS Foundation. The main aim is to protect the fast-disappearing peat lands through collaboration with the Central and Local Governments and the local communities. The Mawas area is home to one of the last tracts of forest supporting wild orangutans. An estimated 2,550 wild orangutans are found in this area. Mawas is also important for its biodiversity and its geological conditions, including a double peat dome, which make it a storage house of giga-tonnes of sequestered carbon. Over a period of 8,000 years, decaying plant matter from the swamp forests has built up 13 \u2013 15 metre high domes of peat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen",
        "text": "Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen sought the advice of Dr Willie Smits of the Borneo Orangutan Survival (BOS) Foundation about the possibility of creating a new project in Central Kalimantan to deal with the swelling numbers of orphaned orangutans. Dr Smits agreed to help, and with the financial backing of the Gibbon Foundation and BOS Indonesia, Lone founded the Nyaru Menteng Orangutan Reintroduction Project in 1998. She was able to build the facility under an agreement with the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry, and Nyaru Menteng officially opened its doors to the first dozen orangutans in 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme",
        "text": "Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme\n--Activities.\n--Field conservation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The centre's running costs are about $1.1m a year. Associated with the centre are:\n*The Employee Messes which accommodate workers from outside the locality;\n*The Pre-Release Island, Juq Kehje Swen, a forested island with feeding platforms, staff housing, and veterinary clinic;\n*The Sun Bear Sanctuary, which includes over 15 ha of forested enclosures and houses about 70 sun bears;\n*The Samboja Lodge, an ecolodge which is open to all tourists and single day visitors who wish to tour the orangutans islands and sun bear sanctuary;\n*The replanting areas, which cover about 1,500 ha and is now a mix of secondary forest and new replanting sites;\n*The release site at the Kehje Sewen ERC, used to accommodate orangutans from Samboja Lestari who have finished the rehabilitation process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samboja Lestari",
        "text": "Securing the future of the Bornean orangutan was the central concern of the project. Smits' Orangutan Rehabilitation Project at Wanariset was moved to Samboja. \"Forest schools\" were established, areas that provide natural playgrounds for the orangutans in which to learn forest skills. Here the orangutans roam somewhat freely but under the supervision of human \"surrogate mothers\" and are returned to sleeping cages for the night. \"Orangutan islands\" were created where the orangutans to further hone survival skills before being released into the wild."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samboja Lestari",
        "text": "The orangutan rehabilitation program at Samboja Lestari started selecting orangutans with adequate natural behaviours to be released into the Kehje Sewen Ecosystem Restoration Concession, owned by PT Rehabilitasi Orangutan Borneo, which is also operated by the BOS Foundation. In April 2012, They released their first 3 orangutans from Samboja Lestari in the Kehje Sewen ERC. Today, 121 orangutans from Samboja Lestari have been released back into the wild (per July 2021)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "By 1985, the annual rate of deforestation in Kalimantan, where majority of the orangutan population habituates, was 180,000 hectares. This rate of deforestation then further increased between the late 1980s and 2000, with the amount of land being logged annually increasing by 44% between 1997 and 2000 alone. In the 2000s, the rate decreased slightly, however by 2007, the annual deforestation rate had reached 1.3 million hectares. In 2006, Indonesia overtook Malaysia as the world\u2019s largest palm oil exporter, having exported over 20.9 million tonnes of palm oil. Presently, only 50% of the original forest cover remains in Borneo. It is expected that by 2020, this forest cover will reduce to 24% if production rates continue. As orangutans cannot survive outside forest areas, the extremely high rate of deforestation has caused the population to decrease significantly, resulting in the conservation status of critically endangered."
      },
      {
        "title": "InfiniteEARTH",
        "text": "Rimba Raya also works to preserve the endangered species population within the reserve. Rimba Raya has partnered with Primatologist and Conservationist Dr. Birut\u00e9 Mary Galdikas to provide natural habitats for endangered orangutans in Borneo. The reserve also funds the Orangutan Foundation International and their Orangutan care center, which aims to reintroduce 300 wild born, rehabilitated orphaned orangutans in its care, back into the wild within the safe confines of the Rimba Raya Reserve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Over the past 60 years, the population of all three species has been steeply declining. The current population of orangutans cannot be accurately calculated, however it is estimated that the number of individuals remaining is: 104,000 Bornean orangutans, 14,000 Sumatran orangutans, and 800 Tapanuli orangutans. The number of Bornean orangutans has decreased by more than 60% in 60 years, and the population of the Sumatran orangutan has decreased by 80% in the last 75 years. It is estimated that between 1999 and 2015, the population of Bornean orangutans has decreased by over 100,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "A number of orangutan rescue and rehabilitation projects operate in Borneo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bukit Tigapuluh National Park",
        "text": "The orangutan reintroduction in Bukit Tigapuluh National Park is organized by the Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme (SOCP)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The centre's running costs are about $1.6m a year. There are about 170 staff: surrogate mothers, animal care technicians, veterinarians, office staff, guards and other workers. Associated with the centre are:\n*The Employee Messes which accommodate workers from outside the locality;\n*The Pre-Release Islands, Kaja, Palas, and Bangamat, all forested islands in the Rungan River with primitive feeding platforms and jetties;\n*The Pre-Release Island, Badak Besar, and the Sanctuary Island, Badak Kecil, all within the Salat Island Cluster and jointly managed with PT SSMS;\n*The Information Centre, where local schools visit and from where information campaigns regarding the ecological importance of orangutans and sustainable alternatives are started;\n*The Fruit Plantation, \"Nyaru Menteng Lestari\", 3 ha planted with fruit-bearing trees, such as mango, pineapple and rambutan;\n*The release sites at the Bukit Batikap Protection Forest and the Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park, used to accommodate orangutans from Nyaru Menteng who have finished the rehabilitation process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan is a Critically Endangered species, with deforestation, palm oil plantations, and hunting posing a serious threat to its continued existence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tomy Winata",
        "text": "Winata runs a rescue center for the critically endangered Sumatran tiger in Tambling Wildlife Nature Conservation, a park in Lampung Province, Sumatra. Here he tries to reintroduce \"conflict tigers\"\u2014tigers that have attacked or killed humans\u2014into the wild. TWNC has released five Sumatran tigers back to the TWNC forest, and was also able to release other protected wildlife and animals such as crocodiles and turtles. In addition to 45,000 hectares of forest, TWNC includes 14,500 hectares of sea conservation area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Perth Zoo",
        "text": "Since 2006, Perth Zoo has made a significant contribution to conservation projects in the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park and the surrounding forested areas which support a rich diversity of life including a new colony of orangutans. These orangutans are part of an international program to reintroduce rescued ex-pet and orphaned Sumatran orangutans into the wild to establish a new population of this critically endangered species. More than 139 orangutans have been released into the area and some have bred."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "It is predicted that the current rate of forest loss, poaching and illegal pet trading in Borneo will continue, therefore it is presumed that in the next 35 years the population of orangutans will continue to decline an additional 45,000 individuals. By 2025, it is estimated that there will be 47,000 Bornean orangutans left in the wild."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "A survey published in March 2016 estimates a population of 14,613 Sumatran orangutans in the wild, doubling previous population estimates. A survey in 2004 estimated that around 7,300 Sumatran orangutans still live in the wild. The same study estimates a 20,552\u00a0km2 occupied area for the Sumatran orangutans, of which only an approximate area range of 8,992\u00a0km2 harbors permanent populations. Some of them are being protected in five areas in Gunung Leuser National Park; others live in unprotected areas: northwest and northeast Aceh block, West Batang Toru river, East Sarulla and Sidiangkat. A successful breeding program has been established in Bukit Tiga Puluh National Park in Jambi and Riau provinces."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lamandau Nature Reserve",
        "text": "The number of endangered orangutans is currently around 500, but that number is gradually growing as the Lamandau Nature Reserve implements a program of rehabilitation and release of orangutans into the natural environment.\n*Lamandau River"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "The species has been assessed as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List since 2000. From 2000-2008 it was considered one of \"The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Its activities expanded outside of East Kalimantan and to Central Kalimantan with the establishment of its second rehabilitation centre at Nyaru Menteng, 28 kilometres outside of Palangka Raya. Their work also expanded into land management and rehabilitation when they entered an agreement with the Indonesian government in 2000 to start work in the Mawas Conservation Area and, in 2001, when they purchased a grass plot at Samboja, 38 kilometres outside of Balikpapan, which became their primary orangutan rehabilitation site in East Kalimantan when operations were transferred from Wanariset in 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mount Palung National Park",
        "text": "The Mount Palung Orangutan Project was established in 1994 by Dr. Cheryl Knott. This project integrates scientific research about orangutan biology and ecology with conservation programs aimed at the preservation of this endangered species and its habitat. Cheryl Knott is conducting scientific investigation of the factors governing orangutan reproduction and population viability, increasing awareness on the local level to encourage support for conservation of the park and community education around the park and capacity-building for National Park Office staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tanjung Puting",
        "text": "Four research centers have been established within the park for the study and rehabilitation of orangutans and other primates. Camp Leakey, founded in 1971 with assistance from the Leakey Foundation, was the first of these centers. It was here where Dr. Birute Galdikas began her career studying the behavior of rescued and orphaned orangutans that were reintroduced into the wild. Her research was highlighted as the cover article of National Geographic in October 1975. Dr. Galdikas is now considered one of the world\u2019s leading experts on orangutan behaviour and is the founder and president of the Orangutan Foundation International."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Foundation International",
        "text": "What began as two small huts is now a functional research facility. Camp Leakey is where all of the research the OFI conducts on orangutans is done. Others other than the OFI have studied and researched at Camp Leakey including graduate and undergraduate students from multiple institutions such as Universitas Nasional, a college in Indonesia, and universities in the United States. The camp now consists of about 19 miles of trails, rainforest, and swamp land for the rehabilitated orangutans and the wild orangutans that made their home there. The OFI takes in ex-captive, hurt, and orphaned orangutans. Once the ape is in the care of Galdikas and her staff, it is raised (if it is young) or treated for any diseases or injuries in the Care Center. The orangutans in the care center are taken each day by their keepers to Camp Leakey to be allowed to play in their natural habitat. This is done to slowly acclimate the orangutans back into the forest so one day they can be released. Once the orangutan is old enough and deemed suitable, it is released back into the wild. Some orangutans never learn to fend for themselves and for that reason can never leave the care center and the staff. Some orangutans do not want to leave the base of the OFI (where the staff eats and lives) and will venture back from time to time to visit the staff and volunteers."
      },
      {
        "title": "South Tapanuli Regency",
        "text": "The critically endangered Tapanuli orangutan lives in the region. It was described as a distinct species in 2017 and represents the first extant species of great ape to be described since the bonobo in 1929."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "Sumatrans encounter threats such as logging (both legal and illegal), wholesale conversion of forest to agricultural land and oil palm plantations, and fragmentation by roads. Oil companies use a method of deforestation to re-use land for palm oil. This land is taken from the forest in which Sumatran orangutans live. An assessment of forest loss in the 1990s concluded that forests supporting at least 1,000 orangutans were lost each year within the Leuser Ecosystem alone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The BOS Foundation has initiated a forest conservation project with the objectives of:\n* conserving peat swamp forest area including reforesting degraded areas;\n* preserving the bio-diversity of the area;\n* providing global greenhouse gas (GHG) benefits;\n* providing access to programs such as health and education;\n* improving incomes and building capacity and economic prosperity in local communities;\n* assisting communities in learning technical skills including aquaculture, rice cultivation, agro-forestry and farm development;\n* assisting local independence and self-sustaining livelihoods;\n* providing education to children on the environment and conservation, by visiting schools;\n* providing community awareness programs as well as co-operative conservation programs;\n*promoting long-term research of orangutan behaviour and peatland ecology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "In late 2014, Nyaru Menteng veterinarians failed to rescue the life of a female orangutan. An operation was performed in which 40 air-rifle pellets were removed from her body. The orangutan was found at a palm oil plantation in Indonesian Borneo."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are Orangutans going extinct?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you asking about the Bornean orangutan, Tapanuli orangutan, or Sumatran orangutan?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in Bornean orangutan."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Bornean orangutan is a Critically Endangered species (less than 14% of total number of orangutans than in the recent past), with deforestation, palm oil plantations, and hunting posing a serious threat to its continued existence. Climate change is another threat to Bornean orangutan conservation."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are any other orangutans critically endangered as well?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "All three species, the Bornean orangutan, the Sumatran orangutan, and the Tapanuli orangutan are all considered critically endangered."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any conservation efforts in places to save these orangutangs from extinction?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Rehabilitation centers include, but are are not limited to, The Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation (BOS) founded by Dr Willie Smits has rescue and rehabilitation centres at Wanariset and Samboja Lestari in East Kalimantan and Nyaru Menteng, in Central Kalimantan founded and managed by Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen and Orangutan Foundation International, founded by Dr Birut\u0117 Galdikas, rescues and rehabilitates orangutans, preparing them for release back into protected areas of the Indonesian rain forest. In addition, it promotes the preservation of the rain forest for them. Would you like to know more about either one of these centers?",
      "Yes, many organizations are working for the rescue, rehabilitation and reintroduction of orangutans, including the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation, many national parks in Indonesia, the Frankfurt Zoological Society, the Orangutan Foundation International, the Australian Orangutan Project, and the Orangutan Land Trust."
    ],
    "topic": "Orangutan",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Bornean orangutan:32",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Bornean orangutan",
          "Conservation status",
          "Rescue and rehabilitation centers"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation (BOS) founded by Dr Willie Smits has rescue and rehabilitation centres at Wanariset and Samboja Lestari in East Kalimantan and Nyaru Menteng, in Central Kalimantan founded and managed by Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen. BOS also works to conserve and recreate the fast-disappearing rainforest habitat of the orangutan, at Samboja Lestari and Mawas."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Bornean orangutan:33",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Bornean orangutan",
          "Conservation status",
          "Rescue and rehabilitation centers"
        ],
        "ctx": "Orangutan Foundation International, founded by Dr Birut\u0117 Galdikas, rescues and rehabilitates orangutans, preparing them for release back into protected areas of the Indonesian rain forest. In addition, it promotes the preservation of the rain forest for them."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Bornean orangutan:31",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Bornean orangutan",
          "Conservation status",
          "Rescue and rehabilitation centers"
        ],
        "ctx": "A number of orangutan rescue and rehabilitation projects operate in Borneo."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Land Trust",
        "text": "Borneo Orangutan Survival is one of the Indonesian NGOs seeking ways of reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation (REDD). It has acquired from the Department of Forestry and Ecosystem Restoration Concession with the intention of using the forest area as a release site for rehabilitated orangutans from its Samboja Lestari and Wanariset projects in East Kalimantan (over 200 individuals). The concession is 86,000 hectares of the ex-PT Mugi Triman International (MGI) timber concession. Releases begin in May 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Land Trust",
        "text": "Orangutan Land Trust are working with the Green Line Corporation in Indonesia to secure 80,000 hectares of mostly degraded and deforested peat forest in Central Kalimantan as an Ecosystem Restoration Concession, in order to provide sanctuary for at least 200 orangutans rescued and rehabilitated by the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation's Nyaru Menteng Project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Land Trust",
        "text": "The Orangutan Land Trust is a UK charity with the objective of providing sustainable solutions for the long-term survival of the orangutan in the wild by ensuring safe areas of forest for their continued existence. The organization's President and co-founder, Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen, is a prominent wildlife conservationist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "On 15 July 2010, at an international meeting on orangutan conservation in Bali, the Indonesian forestry ministry secretary general, Boen Purnama, announced that the Indonesian government will grant a permit to the BOS Foundation to reserve thousands of hectares of forest formerly used for logging for the release of around 200 orangutans in the Kutai area in East Kalimantan. In response, the BOS Foundation set up a company, PT Orangutan Habitat Restoration Indonesia (RHOI), to manage 86,450 hectares of former timber concession area in the East Kutai district, later named Kehje Sewen (home for orangutans in the local Wehea Dayak language), to be the new reintroduction site for rehabilitated orangutans. The then BOS Foundation chairman, Togu Manurung, announced the aim to start gradual releases by April 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Foundation International",
        "text": "Support protection, conservation, and understanding about orangutans and their natural habitat while caring for orphaned orangutans and helping them make the transition back into the rain forest. The OFI also educates the public and the government about orangutans, rain forest, and the issues around conservation and protection of the apes and their environment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Land Trust",
        "text": "A major objective of Orangutan Land Trust is to secure the river island known as Salat Island in Central Kalimantan to provide a habitat in which orangutans undergoing the rehabilitation process can refine their skills before being released in the wild. Additionally, a part of this island can serve as a permanent sanctuary for those rescued orangutans who can never be released, such as those with chronic disease or disabilities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Land Trust",
        "text": "Orangutan Land Trust\n--Projects under development.\n----Salat Island.\n----East Kalimantan Ecosystem Restoration Concessions.\n----Central Kalimantan Ecosystem Restoration Projects.\n----Sabah, Malaysia.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Foundation International",
        "text": "Originally called the Orangutan Research and Conservation Project, OFI was founded by Galdikas and former husband Rod Brindamour in 1986. The couple started the project to study the ecology and behavior of wild orangutans. The focus later turned towards conservation, protection, rehabilitation, and education of orangutans. The OFI's research facilities are located in the Indonesian owned part of Borneo, the third largest island in the world. Camp Leakey is where the research on orangutans is conducted and also where rehabilitated orangutans are released."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Borneo Orangutan Survival\n--History.\n--Orangutan Conservation Status.\n--Orangutan Rescue and Rehabilitation Centres.\n----Wanariset.\n----Nyaru Menteng.\n----Samboja Lestari.\n--Forest Conservation, Reforestation and Research.\n----Samboja Lestari.\n----Mawas.\n----Kehje Sewen.\n--Documentaries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Willie Smits",
        "text": "The Orangutan Reintroduction Project at Wanariset Research Station was moved to Samboja Lestari. \"Forest Schools\" were established, areas that provide natural, educational playgrounds for the orangutans in which to learn forest skills. Here the orangutans roam freely but under supervision and are returned to sleeping cages for the night. \"Orangutan islands\" were created where the orangutans and other wildlife that cannot return to the wild are nevertheless able to live in almost completely natural conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "This view is also supported by the United Nations Environment Programme, which states in its report that due to deforestation by illegal logging, fire and the extensive development of oil palm plantations (see Social and environmental impact of palm oil), orangutans are threatened with extinction, and if the current trend continues, they will become extinct.\n# Orangutan reintroduction, through the rescue, rehabilitation, and release of ex-captive orangutans\n#Orangutan and sun bear (\"Helarctos malayanus\") life-long sanctuary care, for individuals with physical or behavioural handicaps that prevent reintroduction\n# Orangutan ecosystem conservation, through the protection of existing forest landscapes and rehabilitation of degraded areas\n# Sustainable community development and education, through outreach, community capacity-building, community empowerment, and public awareness-raising"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Foundation International",
        "text": "Orangutan Foundation International (OFI) has its headquarters in Los Angeles, California. Founded by Dr. Birut\u0117 Galdikas, one of three anthropologists (The Trimates) to study great apes under the guidance of Dr. Louis Leakey, OFI continues to rescue and rehabilitate orangutans, preparing them for release back into protected areas of the Indonesian rain forest. In addition, OFI promotes the preservation of rain forest habitats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "In 2009, the BOS Foundation established the company PT Restorasi Habitat Orangutan Indonesia (PT RHOI) in order to purchase an Ecosystem Restoration Concession (ERC). An ERC license for 86,450 ha of land in Kutai, East Kalimantan, later named Kehje Sewen, was issued to PT RHOI in 2010. Following this, in 2012, the BOS Foundation began to release rehabilitated orangutans in the Kehje Sewen ERC in Easti Kalimantan and the Bukit Batikap Protection Forest in Central Kalimantan. The BOS Foundation expanded release operations in 2016, with the establishment of release points in the portion of the Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park within Central Kalimantan. The organization made global news yet again in April 2017 when it rescued the world's only known albino orangutan, later named Alba."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "Two strategies that are recently being considered to conserve this species are 1) rehabilitation and reintroduction of ex-captive or displaced individuals and 2) the protection of their forest habitat by preventing threats such as deforestation and hunting. The former was determined to be more cost efficient for maintaining the wild orangutan populations, but comes with longer time scale of 10\u201320 years. The latter approach has better prospects for ensuring long-term stability of populations. This type of habitat conservation approach has been pursued by the World Wide Fund for Nature, who joined forces with several other organizations to stop the clearing of the biggest part of remaining natural forest close to the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "Other major conservation centres in Indonesia include those at Tanjung Puting National Park, Sebangau National Park, Gunung Palung National Park and Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park in Borneo and the Gunung Leuser National Park and Bukit Lawang in Sumatra. In Malaysia, conservation areas include Semenggoh Wildlife Centre and Matang Wildlife Centre also in Sarawak, and the Sepilok Orang Utan Sanctuary in Sabah. Major conservation centres headquartered outside the orangutans' home countries include Frankfurt Zoological Society, Orangutan Foundation International, which was founded by Galdikas, and the Australian Orangutan Project. Conservation organisations such as the Orangutan Land Trust work with the palm oil industry to improve sustainability and encourages the industry to establish conservation areas for orangutans."
      },
      {
        "title": "La Palmyre Zoo",
        "text": "The orangutans are threatened with extinction because of the disappearance of their natural habitat, the tropical forests of Sumatra and Borneo. It is estimated that 30 to 50% of the wild populations of orangutans were decimated in the last ten years. Today, the last wild populations remain mainly out of the protected reserves, in degraded zones subjected to human exploitation (deforestation, and agriculture). To date, the populations of orangutans in their natural habitat were never studied and it is generally believed that they are heading towards a fast extinction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "Orangutan Foundation International, founded by Dr Birut\u0117 Galdikas, rescues and rehabilitates orangutans, preparing them for release back into protected areas of the Indonesian rain forest. In addition, it promotes the preservation of the rain forest for them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian Orangutan Project",
        "text": "The Australian Orangutan Project t/a The Orangutan Project (TOP) is a non-profit registered Australian environmental organisation established in 1998, which raises funds to support the conservation and protection of orangutans and the preservation and rehabilitation of their forest habitats, which are primarily located in Indonesia. It undertakes this work by supporting a range of other organisations working in the field, such as the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation (BOS), the Orangutan Foundation International, founded by Dr Birute Galdikas and the Orangutan Foundation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Diary",
        "text": "The centre was founded in 1994, a year after Lone Dr\u00f6scher Nielsen permanently moved to Borneo. She could see what effect the palm oil plantations were having on the orangutans, so then founded the Nyaru Menteng Orangutan Reintroduction Project, which now is the largest ape rescue project in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation (BOS) founded by Dr Willie Smits has rescue and rehabilitation centres at Wanariset and Samboja Lestari in East Kalimantan and Nyaru Menteng, in Central Kalimantan founded and managed by Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen. BOS also works to conserve and recreate the fast-disappearing rainforest habitat of the orangutan, at Samboja Lestari and Mawas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Following the establishment of PT RHOI by BOS Foundation in 2009 and the acquisition of the Kehje Sewen ERC in 2010, which finally ensured a secure release site for orangutans, Samboja Lestari started releasing orangutans back to the forest in April 2012. They have released 121 orangutans in the Kehje Sewen ERC (per July 2021)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "Several organisations are working for the rescue, rehabilitation and reintroduction of orangutans. The largest of these is the Borneo Orangutan Survival (BOS) Foundation, founded by conservationist Willie Smits and which operates projects such as the Nyaru Menteng Rehabilitation Program founded by conservationist Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen. A female orangutan was rescued from a village brothel in Kareng Pangi village, Central Kalimantan, in 2003. The orangutan was shaved and chained for sexual purposes. Since being freed, the orangutan, named Pony, has been living with the BOS. She has been re-socialised to live with other orangutans. In May 2017, the BOS rescued an albino orangutan from captivity. The rare primate was being held captive in a remote village in Kapuas Hulu, on the island of Kalimantan in Indonesian Borneo. According to volunteers at BOS, albino orangutans are extremely rare (one in ten thousand). This is the first albino orangutan the organisation has seen in 25 years of activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Due to the dramatic decrease of the orangutan population, a number of conservation sites and not-for-profit organisations have been developed in an effort to prevent the extinction of orangutans. There are two main strategies that have been put in place to prevent this; rehabilitation of abandoned individuals or those that were previously being held illegally, and the protection of forest areas and prevention of deforestation in orangutan habitats. Through a Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis, it was discovered that neither strategy was highly effective, however the cost of preventing deforestation is one twelfth of the cost of reintroducing individuals. It was concluded that for long term protection, it is more efficient to prevent logging than attempting to maintain current populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "Orangutan Foundation, founded by Ashley Leiman, operates programmes in Central Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo. The Foundation rescues orphaned orangutans and enters them into their soft-release programme, allowing them to develop the skills necessary to survive in the wild. When old enough, orangutans are released into the protected Lamandau Wildlife Reserve. Orangutan Foundation works to protect orangutans by focusing on habitat protection and capacity building, especially in local communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "There are numerous conservation sites and not-for-profit organisations that have been created in an effort to prevent further decline of the orangutan population, however, in 2016, it was predicted by experts that unless drastic changes are made to the current deforestation laws, orangutans face extinction within the next ten years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Wanariset began as a tropical forest research station near Balikpapan in the Indonesian Province of East Kalimantan and, in 1991, started to be used as an orangutan rescue and rehabilitation centre. After purchasing land in Samboja and transferring all orangutans to their new Samboja Lestari Orangutan Rehabilitation Centre, the BOS Foundation stopped rehabilitation operations at Wanariset in 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "There are small populations in the North Sumatra province along the border with NAD, particularly in the Lake Toba forests. A survey in the Lake Toba region found only two inhabited areas, Bukit Lawang (defined as the animal sanctuary) and Gunung Leuser National Park. Bukit Lawang is a jungle village, 90 kilometers northwest of Medan, situated at the eastern side of Gunung Leuser National Park. An orangutan sanctuary was set up here by a Swiss organisation in the 1970s to attempt to rehabilitate orangutans captured from the logging industry. The rangers were trained to teach the orangutans vital jungle skills to enable them to reintegrate into the forest, and provided additional supplementary food from a feeding platform. However, within the last few years supplementary feeding has ceased as the orangutan rehabilitation program has been deemed a success, the orangutans having been fully rehabilitated, and the jungle (or the remaining part of) is now at saturation point, so the sanctuary no longer accepts new orphaned orangutans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Land Trust",
        "text": "The Malua Wildlife Habitat Conservation Bank (Malua BioBank) is located next to one of the last areas of virgin rainforest in Sabah, Malaysia, on the island of Borneo. The Malua BioBank will restore and protect of critical orangutan habitat called the Malua Forest Reserve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bukit Tigapuluh National Park",
        "text": "The orangutan reintroduction in Bukit Tigapuluh National Park is organized by the Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme (SOCP)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Currently, the centre houses over 100 orangutans, a mix of individuals undergoing the rehabilitation process and individuals in lifelong sanctuary care. To accommodate the orangutan rehabilitation process, with the ultimate goal of release into natural rainforests, the centre includes quarantine cages, medical clinic, nursery, forest school area, and small man-made pre-release islands. The \"Forest Schools\" are areas that provide natural, educational playgrounds for the orangutans in which to learn forest skills. Here the orangutans roam freely but under the supervision of human surrogate mothers and are returned to sleeping cages for the night."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "There are other methods that have been put in place to conserve the current orangutan population, these include research and monitoring, land and water protection, species management, education to create awareness, international legislation, and international management and trade controls. Additionally, some organisations that work to conserve the population of orangutans have put in efforts to work alongside palm oil companies and local governments to prevent further habitat loss. For example in 2011 a tri-party agreement was signed by one of the world\u2019s largest palm oil producers Wilmar International, Central Kalimantan government, and Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation (BOSF). The agreement was formed with the aim to provide long-term protection for Bornean orangutans, including monitoring palm oil plantation methods, establishing areas where orangutans can be protected, relocating abandoned individuals and providing training to plantation workers on how to manage orangutans and avoid conflict."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The Borneo Orangutan Survival (BOS) Foundation is an Indonesian non-profit non-governmental organization founded by Dr. Willie Smits in 1991 and dedicated to the conservation of the endangered Bornean orangutan (\"Pongo pygmaeus\") and its habitat through the involvement of local people. It is audited by an external auditor company and operates under the formal agreement with the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry to conserve and rehabilitate orangutans. The BOS Foundation manages orangutan rescue, rehabilitation and re-introduction programmes in East and Central Kalimantan. With more than 400 orangutans (per July 2021) in its care and employing more than 440 people at a 10 sites BOS Foundation is the biggest non-human primate conservation non-governmental organization worldwide. Nyaru Menteng and Samboja Lestari are the BOS Foundation sites that have received most extensive media coverage. Nyaru Menteng, founded by Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen, has been the subject of a number of TV series, including \"Orangutan Diary\", \"Orangutan Island\" and the series \"Orangutan Jungle School\", airing since 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Following several years navigating land permissions to ensure the long-term security of potential release sites, Nyaru Menteng started releasing orangutans back to the forest in February 2012. They have released 190 orangutans in the Bukit Batikap Protection Forest and 163 orangutans in the Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park (per July 2021)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme",
        "text": "Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme\n--Activities.\n--Field conservation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Foundation International",
        "text": "What began as two small huts is now a functional research facility. Camp Leakey is where all of the research the OFI conducts on orangutans is done. Others other than the OFI have studied and researched at Camp Leakey including graduate and undergraduate students from multiple institutions such as Universitas Nasional, a college in Indonesia, and universities in the United States. The camp now consists of about 19 miles of trails, rainforest, and swamp land for the rehabilitated orangutans and the wild orangutans that made their home there. The OFI takes in ex-captive, hurt, and orphaned orangutans. Once the ape is in the care of Galdikas and her staff, it is raised (if it is young) or treated for any diseases or injuries in the Care Center. The orangutans in the care center are taken each day by their keepers to Camp Leakey to be allowed to play in their natural habitat. This is done to slowly acclimate the orangutans back into the forest so one day they can be released. Once the orangutan is old enough and deemed suitable, it is released back into the wild. Some orangutans never learn to fend for themselves and for that reason can never leave the care center and the staff. Some orangutans do not want to leave the base of the OFI (where the staff eats and lives) and will venture back from time to time to visit the staff and volunteers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian Orangutan Project",
        "text": "Donations from the public, funds from community events, AOP membership fees, orphan orangutan 'adoptions' and grants from various sources are used to support orangutan care centres, natural forest rehabilitation, forest patrols to eliminate illegal logging and protect released animals, and local community awareness initiatives. In 2005, the organisation received over $62,000 from the Australian Government's Regional Natural Heritage Program (RNHP) to develop and implement two orangutan protection units in the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park region in Sumatra and to monitor and deter illegal logging in two regions. This project contributes to the long term conservation of the largest remaining lowland rainforest block in Sumatra. In 2006, TOP won an additional $92,000 from the RNHP to extend the work of the orangutan protection units to better protect the Bukit Tigapuluh mega fauna, including the Sumatran elephant and tiger, through training, monitoring and surveillance activities. AOP also was awarded funds of A$207,500 to undertake a survey of wildlife in Borneo's forests in Malua/Segama. This includes surveys of the Ulu Segama reserve to establish wildlife baseline data and the development of a Forest Management Plan with particular focus on orangutan populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abdul Taib Mahmud",
        "text": "In 1992, International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) also financed the establishment of Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary which now houses about 4000 orang utan. This wildlife century also aimed to improve the livelihood of the rural population and to reduce their dependence on forests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "In addition to the above extant wild populations, a new population is being established in the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park (Jambi and Riau Provinces) via the re-introduction of confiscated illegal pets. This population currently numbers around 70 individuals and is reproducing. However it has been concluded that forest conservation costs twelve times less than reintroducing orangutans into the wild, and conserves more biological diversity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Samboja Lestari started as a reforestation project in 2001, but opened its doors as an orangutan rescue and rehabilitation centre in 2006, when the BOS Foundation moved their East Kalimantan operations from Wanariset. The rehabilitation centre is located about 38 kilometres northeast of Balikpapan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bukit Tigapuluh National Park",
        "text": "The first reintroduction station for orangutans close to the park was built in 2001 by the German biologist Dr. Peter Pratje, with the support of Frankfurt Zoological Society and local partners. It offers a school-like programme to train individual orangutans, which grew up in captivity, to survive the wild."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tapanuli orangutan",
        "text": "With fewer than 800 individuals restricted to an area of about , the Tapanuli orangutan is the rarest great ape. It is listed as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) because of hunting, conflict with humans, the illegal wildlife trade, rampant habitat destruction for small scale agriculture, mining and a proposed hydroelectric dam, the Batang Toru hydropower project, in the area with the highest density of orangutans, which could impact up to 10% of its already dwindling habitat and degrade important wildlife corridors. Conservationists predict an 83% decline in three generations (75 years) if the necessary conservation measures and practices are not implemented. Inbreeding depression is likely due to the small population size and fragmented range. This is supported by the genomes of the two Tapanuli orangutan individuals, which show signs of inbreeding. In August 2019 Swiss environmental group PanEco, which is a partner in the Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme, dropped its previous opposition to the dam, several months after firing several researchers who opposed the new strategy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "According to the IUCN Redlist, there are many conservation actions in place that have been somewhat successful, however there are numerous actions that are required in order to prevent the further endangerment and eventual extinction of orangutans. These include more area protection, species recovery, habitat and natural process restoration, resource protection and legislation. Additionally, IUCN suggests that more research is required, surrounding areas such as taxonomy, population size, distribution and trends, threats to orangutans, and area-based management plans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hybrid orangutan",
        "text": "From 1971 to 1985, 90 orphaned or displaced orangutans rescued from illegal wildlife trade were released into Tanjung Puting National Park in Central Kalimantan. A subsequent genetic survey determined that at least two orangutans, captured in a different region and therefore not native to the park, had prolifically interbred with the local native apes, and produced at least 22 hybridized descendants. Their offspring contributes to fears that interbreeding of subspecies leads to \"hybrid vigor\", in which \"offspring reap the benefits of their parents' individual qualities\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Francine Neago",
        "text": "In 2006 she co-authored a 48-page children's book describing how an orphaned orangutan she raised in her home behaved like a human child. In 2007 she set up the Bali Endangered Animal Rescue (BEAR) center in Bali. She founded the wildlife sanctuary \"Noah and his Ark\", now located 3 kilometres from Bukit Lawang, Indonesia. In 2011 she travelled to Malaysia, intending to set up an orangutan language centre in Sarawak. In 2015, she proposed that Indonesia should establish additional orangutan rehabilitation centres, since all the existing ones were full, and some orangutans made homeless by deforestation in Sumatra had to be kept in small cages. She planned to rehabilitate about 50 animals for release in the Mount Leuser National Park and the Tigapulu mountainous area, calling for support."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rimba Raya Biodiversity Reserve",
        "text": "The Rimba Raya REDD+ project aims to eliminate the destruction of the forests and peatlands of Central Kalimantan which houses more than 75% of Indonesia\u2019s greenhouse gas emissions. Along with eradicating local deforestation, Rimba Raya works to preserve the endangered species population within the reserve. Rimba Rayahas partnered with renowned Primatologist and Conservationist Dr. Birut\u00e9 Mary Galdikas to provide natural habitats for endangered orangutans in Borneo. The reserve also funds the Orangutan Foundation International and their Orangutan care center, which aims to reintroduce 300 wild born, rehabilitated orphaned orangutans in its care, back into the wild with the safe confines of the Rimba Raya Reserve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Due to an expanding global demand for timber in the 1980s, this rate then increased; according to a satellite study, 56% or 2.9 million hectares of tropical rainforests in Kalimantan, Borneo were extracted between 1985 and 2001, with a rapid increase in deforestation rates in the late 1990s. The rate of deforestation during this time directly correlates with the decrease in orangutan population, as the species cannot survive in other areas. It is estimated that since 1950, the orangutan population has declined by 60%. Between 1999 and 2015, the population of Bornean orangutans decreased by 100,000 individuals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The area has been important for research activities since the founding of the Tuanan Research Station in Kapuas in 2002 by the BOS Foundation and the University of Zurich of Switzerland. The research activities there continue through today, but is now operated through a collaboration of the BOS Foundation with Universitas Nasional (UNAS) of Indonesia and Rutgers University of the United States. The research station was established through extensive consultation with all local people and institutions and the employment of local labour. Its purpose is to provide a year-round base for scientists tracking and observing the wild orangutan population and studying peatland ecology. The BOS Foundation is involved in patrolling and monitoring the area for illegal activities via water and land and supporting law enforcement by providing guidance and legal awareness programs to the community and government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samboja Lestari",
        "text": "The orangutan rehabilitation program at Samboja Lestari started selecting orangutans with adequate natural behaviours to be released into the Kehje Sewen Ecosystem Restoration Concession, owned by PT Rehabilitasi Orangutan Borneo, which is also operated by the BOS Foundation. In April 2012, They released their first 3 orangutans from Samboja Lestari in the Kehje Sewen ERC. Today, 121 orangutans from Samboja Lestari have been released back into the wild (per July 2021)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Alongside the orangutan reintroduction work, the BOS Foundation has promoted forms of farming that do not involve burning and destroying forests, by switching to agriculture combining rattan, sugar palms and fruits and vegetables. A community has developed that can now support itself on the land. The BOS Foundation believes to achieve sustainable solutions the root social problems must be addressed by empowering local communities to take up livelihood options that are more rewarding than the extractive industries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tanjung Puting",
        "text": "Orangutan Foundation runs Pondok Ambung Tropical Forest Research Station, supporting Indonesian and international research students. This national park facility has been developed and maintained by Orangutan Foundation and provides facilities to study the park\u2019s diverse flora and fauna. Orangutan Foundation have been awarding small research grants to individual students for many years, with a focus on supporting Indonesian students."
      },
      {
        "title": "Saving Planet Earth",
        "text": "TV presenter Nick Knowles reports from Borneo, where orangutan numbers are being decimated due to the deforestation of the island and the growth of palm plantations. He visits a sanctuary where more than 600 orphaned young apes are cared for. Their mothers are usually killed by plantation workers, because the orangutans are attracted to the palms for food and can damage the crops. Their young are taken for the pet trade or are simply left to die, but those lucky enough to be rescued are brought to the sanctuary. Now, it simply can't cope with the number of apes being brought in and desperately needs extra funds. This programme was incorporated into the live fundraising broadcast (see below)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Its activities expanded outside of East Kalimantan and to Central Kalimantan with the establishment of its second rehabilitation centre at Nyaru Menteng, 28 kilometres outside of Palangka Raya. Their work also expanded into land management and rehabilitation when they entered an agreement with the Indonesian government in 2000 to start work in the Mawas Conservation Area and, in 2001, when they purchased a grass plot at Samboja, 38 kilometres outside of Balikpapan, which became their primary orangutan rehabilitation site in East Kalimantan when operations were transferred from Wanariset in 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "For orangutans unable to be released, the centre houses them on sanctuary islands, in socialisation cages, or in a special care unit, designed to aid in the care of orangutans with chronic disease that requires regular veterinary care. The sanctuary islands were created specifically for the orangutans that cannot return to the wild, but are able to live in almost natural conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Starting in 2007, the BOS Foundation was involved in the development of the Orangutan Conservation Strategy and Action Plan and has continued to help implementing the plan ever since. With international support and donations from companies like Weleda and Werner & Mertz, the Mawas project has grown to play an important role in the conservation of the Bornean orangutans and their habitat. It is the largest single area of land managed by the BOS Foundation. The main aim is to protect the fast-disappearing peat lands through collaboration with the Central and Local Governments and the local communities. The Mawas area is home to one of the last tracts of forest supporting wild orangutans. An estimated 2,550 wild orangutans are found in this area. Mawas is also important for its biodiversity and its geological conditions, including a double peat dome, which make it a storage house of giga-tonnes of sequestered carbon. Over a period of 8,000 years, decaying plant matter from the swamp forests has built up 13 \u2013 15 metre high domes of peat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The centre's running costs are about $1.1m a year. Associated with the centre are:\n*The Employee Messes which accommodate workers from outside the locality;\n*The Pre-Release Island, Juq Kehje Swen, a forested island with feeding platforms, staff housing, and veterinary clinic;\n*The Sun Bear Sanctuary, which includes over 15 ha of forested enclosures and houses about 70 sun bears;\n*The Samboja Lodge, an ecolodge which is open to all tourists and single day visitors who wish to tour the orangutans islands and sun bear sanctuary;\n*The replanting areas, which cover about 1,500 ha and is now a mix of secondary forest and new replanting sites;\n*The release site at the Kehje Sewen ERC, used to accommodate orangutans from Samboja Lestari who have finished the rehabilitation process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme",
        "text": "The SOCP deals with all aspects of the conservation of the Critically Endangered Sumatran orangutan (\"Pongo abelii\") and the 2017 newly identified species of orangutan, the Tapanuli orangutan (\"Pongo tapanuliensis\"), including: a. the confiscation of illegal captive orangutans, their quarantine and reintroduction to form new wild populations, b. education and awareness raising, c. behavioral and ecological research on wild orangutans, d. surveys and monitoring of remaining wild orangutan populations and habitat, and e. habitat protection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust",
        "text": "Elsewhere in the world the Trust is working to save the Mallorcan midwife toad in Spain, the western lowland gorilla in Cameroon, the Sumatran orangutan in Sumatra, and Livingstone's fruit bat (\"Pteropus livingstonii\") in the Comoros Islands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Scientists have researched and estimated that the only way of reducing the high rate of population decline is by ceasing deforestation in orangutan habitats, and putting extensive protection methods of current populations in place. However, due to the high demand of the palm oil product and lack of funding from the government, it is extremely unlikely the rapid decline and eventual extinction of orangutans can be prevented."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme",
        "text": "Built in 2001, the SOCP maintains the only centre in Sumatra that quarantines and cares for orangutans confiscated from the illegal pet trade. To date, the SOCP has rescued over 340 illegal pet orangutans of which more than 260 have been rehabilitated and reintroduced back to a life in the wild, 180 at its reintroduction centre next to the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park in Jambi province and an additional 88 since 2011 at its centre in the Jantho Pine Forest Nature Reserve in Aceh province. The goal at both locations is to establish entirely new, self-sustaining and genetically viable populations of this Critically Endangered species in forests within their historical range, as a 'safety net' should catastrophe befall the remaining truly wild Sumatran orangutan populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The sanctuary was originally designed to hold up to 100 orphaned orangutans while they go through rehabilitation, but at its peak cared for over 600 individual orangutans. In addition to quarantine cages, medical clinic, and nursery, the sanctuary has a large area of forest in which orangutans could learn the skills needed to live in the wild. Nyaru Menteng quickly became the largest non-human primate rescue project in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The work of the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation has appeared in a number of documentaries. \"The Disenchanted Forest\" was an award-winning 1999 film that follows orphan orangutans as they are rehabilitated and returned to their rainforest home. It centres on three BOS projects \u2013 Wanariset, Nyaru Menteng and Mawas. \"The Burning Season\" is a 2008 documentary about the burning of rainforests in Indonesia which featured Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen. The orangutans of Nyaru Menteng were the followed in the two series of \"Orangutan Diary\" produced by the BBC and also, as they were reintroduced to a semi-wild habitat in the form of forested pre-release islands, in the 23 programmes of the \"Orangutan Island\" series, produced by NHNZ. In 2013, Harrison Ford visited Nyaru Menteng for the filming of episode one of \"Years of Living Dangerously\" to show the devastating impacts of the global demand for palm oil and other agricultural products. BBC returned to Nyaru Menteng again in 2013 to follow the release of four orangutans into the Bukit Batikap Protection Forest for a special episode of \"Natural World\", entitled \"Orangutans: The Great Ape Escape\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "All three orangutan species are considered critically endangered. Human activities have caused severe declines in populations and ranges. Threats to wild orangutan populations include poaching (for bushmeat and retaliation for consuming crops), habitat destruction and deforestation (for palm oil cultivation and logging), and the illegal pet trade. Several conservation and rehabilitation organisations are dedicated to the survival of orangutans in the wild."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deforestation in Borneo",
        "text": "In the Lamandau Wildlife Reserve, Orangutan Foundation have planted over 60,000 saplings as part of their Forest Restoration Programme. These saplings were planted in order to reforest and rejuvenate areas damaged by fires."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meratus Mountains",
        "text": "In the 1990s the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation reintroduced 350 orangutans into the protected Meratus and Sungai Wain forests. Due to extensive deforestation the ecosystem of the mountains, including many flora and fauna species are endangered. Traditional Dayak villages are also disappearing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen",
        "text": "Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen sought the advice of Dr Willie Smits of the Borneo Orangutan Survival (BOS) Foundation about the possibility of creating a new project in Central Kalimantan to deal with the swelling numbers of orphaned orangutans. Dr Smits agreed to help, and with the financial backing of the Gibbon Foundation and BOS Indonesia, Lone founded the Nyaru Menteng Orangutan Reintroduction Project in 1998. She was able to build the facility under an agreement with the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry, and Nyaru Menteng officially opened its doors to the first dozen orangutans in 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Nyaru Menteng is an orangutan rescue and rehabilitation centre 28\u00a0km from Palangkaraya in Central Kalimantan. Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen sought the advice of Smits about the possibility of creating a new project in Central Kalimantan to deal with the swelling numbers of orphaned orangutans. Smits agreed to help and, with the financial backing of the Gibbon Foundation and the BOS Foundation, Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen founded Nyaru Menteng in 1998. She was able to build the facility under an agreement with the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry, and Nyaru Menteng officially opened its doors to the first dozen orangutans in 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tanjung Puting",
        "text": "Four research centers have been established within the park for the study and rehabilitation of orangutans and other primates. Camp Leakey, founded in 1971 with assistance from the Leakey Foundation, was the first of these centers. It was here where Dr. Birute Galdikas began her career studying the behavior of rescued and orphaned orangutans that were reintroduced into the wild. Her research was highlighted as the cover article of National Geographic in October 1975. Dr. Galdikas is now considered one of the world\u2019s leading experts on orangutan behaviour and is the founder and president of the Orangutan Foundation International."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Foundation International",
        "text": "An article from \"Nature\" on PBS says \"Galdikas\u2019s rehabilitation efforts, however, have brought controversy. The orphaned apes were often psychologically damaged and difficult to control. Some even attacked guests and staffers. Researchers questioned the value of observing the orphaned apes, wondering whether their behavior was representative of orangutans in the wild. Others were concerned that the released rehabilitated apes would spread diseases to local wild orangutan populations. Government officials began to challenge the work, even to withdraw permits. ... At the same time, Galdikas was becoming an increasingly active conservationist. Concerned by the rapid clearing of orangutan habitat, she lobbied the Indonesian government to set aside parks and curb illegal logging and orangutan trading \u2014 with some success. But her efforts came at a cost; she was threatened, harassed, and even kidnapped by those who opposed her work.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Samboja Lestari is a reforestation project on nearly of deforested, degraded and burnt land in East Kalimantan. In 2001, BOS started purchasing land near Wanariset. The area it acquired had been deforested by mechanical logging, drought and severe fires and was covered in alang-alang grass (Imperata cylindrica). The aim was to restore the rainforest and provide a safe haven for rehabilitated orangutans while at the same time providing a source of income for local people. The name Samboja Lestari roughly translates as the \"everlasting conservation of Samboja\". Reforestation and rehabilitation is the core of the project, with hundreds of indigenous species planted. By the middle of 2006 over 740 different tree species had been planted; by 2009 there were 1200 species of trees, 137 species of birds and six species of non-human primates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Mawas is a forest conservation, reforestation and research area in Central Kalimantan. In September 2003, the provincial parliament in Central Kalimantan approved a new land use plan that designates 309,000 hectares (1,200 sq mi) in the Mawas area to be managed by the BOS Foundation for conservation. The BOS Foundation is currently working in an area of about within the ex-Mega Rice Project area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary",
        "text": "Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary is a large protected area on the island of Borneo in Sarawak, Malaysia. It is significant for orangutan conservation. Together with Batang Ai National Park these protected areas host an estimated 1,400 orangutans. Hunting and illegal logging are only minor problems in these areas, but could become serious if not monitored, especially because the areas are contiguous with Indonesia, where illegal logging is rampant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "A number of orangutan rescue and rehabilitation projects operate in Borneo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen",
        "text": "Many of these orangutans are only weeks old when they arrive, and all of them are psychologically traumatized. The sanctuary not only saves the mostly orphaned baby orangutans from the local farmers and illegal pet-traders, but has developed a process for their gradual re-introduction to the remaining Borneo rainforest."
      },
      {
        "title": "International Animal Rescue",
        "text": "In Indonesian Borneo, IAR rescues and cares for critically endangered orangutans at its conservation centre in Ketapang, West Kalimantan, from orphaned infants to fully grown adults that have spent years in captivity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Willie Smits",
        "text": "Smits quickly saw that protecting orangutans in their habitat not only benefits orangutans but also the environment, biological diversity, the poor in Borneo and all the world's people. The activities of the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation expanded from rescuing, rehabilitating and releasing orangutans to monitoring, conserving and rebuilding rainforest, along with the social engagement that made this sustainable. Smits also took on an increasing campaigning and advocacy role, to make the plight of the orangutan and its habitat more widely known, along with the message that something could - and was - being done."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frankfurt Zoological Society",
        "text": "Another major project is situated in Central Sumatra: The Bukit Tigapuluh Sanctuary for the preservation of rainforest and wildlife. This project is aiming at the resettlement and reintroduction of confiscated Orang Utans, which are prepared for their life in the wild through the local \"jungle school\". Further aspects of the work on site are conflict-prevention between humans and elephants, environmental education and initiatives supporting the local population in balancing out economical development and their traditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Deforestation in Sumatra and Borneo is the primary reason for the endangerment of all species of orangutans. Timber is extracted from these areas for the production of palm oil, paper, and pulp. Majority of the logging is illegal, and with the rapid expansion of the palm oil industry, extraction rates have exponentially increased over the past 40 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sepilok Orangutan Rehabilitation Centre",
        "text": "The centre opened in 1964 as the first official orangutan rehabilitation project for rescued orphaned baby orangutans from logging sites, plantations, illegal hunting or kept as pets. The orphaned orangutans are trained to survive again in the wild and are released as soon as they are ready. The sanctuary is located within the Kabili-Sepilok Forest Reserve which covers an area of , much of which is virgin rainforest. Today around 60 to 80 orangutans are living free in the reserve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samboja Lestari",
        "text": "Securing the future of the Bornean orangutan was the central concern of the project. Smits' Orangutan Rehabilitation Project at Wanariset was moved to Samboja. \"Forest schools\" were established, areas that provide natural playgrounds for the orangutans in which to learn forest skills. Here the orangutans roam somewhat freely but under the supervision of human \"surrogate mothers\" and are returned to sleeping cages for the night. \"Orangutan islands\" were created where the orangutans to further hone survival skills before being released into the wild."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The BOS Foundation has initiated a forest conservation project with the objectives of:\n* conserving peat swamp forest area including reforesting degraded areas;\n* preserving the bio-diversity of the area;\n* providing global greenhouse gas (GHG) benefits;\n* providing access to programs such as health and education;\n* improving incomes and building capacity and economic prosperity in local communities;\n* assisting communities in learning technical skills including aquaculture, rice cultivation, agro-forestry and farm development;\n* assisting local independence and self-sustaining livelihoods;\n* providing education to children on the environment and conservation, by visiting schools;\n* providing community awareness programs as well as co-operative conservation programs;\n*promoting long-term research of orangutan behaviour and peatland ecology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karen (orangutan)",
        "text": "Wild Sumatran orangutans are critically endangered. In the 1970s, UC San Diego Health (UCSD) pathologist Kurt Benirschke, persuaded zoo trustees to establish a research department, at the zoo's Center for the Reproduction of Endangered Species, which he subsequently led, providing the collaboration between the University and the zoo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samboja Lestari",
        "text": "With a large population of orangutans at Samboja Lestari unable to be reintroduced into the wild due to physical disability, chronic illness, abnormal behaviours, or a lack of survival skills, the BOS Foundation has also developed facilities specifically to provide lifelong sanctuary care for these individuals. These facilities vary from sanctuary islands for orangutans who are not severely disabled and capable of living in almost natural conditions with minimal human support, to a Special Care Unit for those who need frequently and regular veterinary support."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bukit Tigapuluh National Park",
        "text": "Nowadays two orangutan reintroduction stations are operated close to the park\u2019s boundaries which focus on reintroducing the animals to the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mount Palung National Park",
        "text": "The Mount Palung Orangutan Project was established in 1994 by Dr. Cheryl Knott. This project integrates scientific research about orangutan biology and ecology with conservation programs aimed at the preservation of this endangered species and its habitat. Cheryl Knott is conducting scientific investigation of the factors governing orangutan reproduction and population viability, increasing awareness on the local level to encourage support for conservation of the park and community education around the park and capacity-building for National Park Office staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "InfiniteEARTH",
        "text": "Rimba Raya also works to preserve the endangered species population within the reserve. Rimba Raya has partnered with Primatologist and Conservationist Dr. Birut\u00e9 Mary Galdikas to provide natural habitats for endangered orangutans in Borneo. The reserve also funds the Orangutan Foundation International and their Orangutan care center, which aims to reintroduce 300 wild born, rehabilitated orphaned orangutans in its care, back into the wild within the safe confines of the Rimba Raya Reserve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Batang Toru hydropower project",
        "text": "The habitat of orangutan is spread across forests in 163,000 hectares of Batang Toru ecosystem (TFCA, 2018) \u2013 an area the size of London and larger than Jakarta. Orangutan continues to move, travels around 800-3,000 hectares of area. Survey of Kuswanda and Fitri (2017, 2018) indicates the density of nests around the project area is 0.41 per km, or one orangutan in 250 hectares. The Batang Toru Hydropower Plant occupied land of 122 hectares, smaller than the minimum area needed for a single orangutan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lamandau Nature Reserve",
        "text": "The number of endangered orangutans is currently around 500, but that number is gradually growing as the Lamandau Nature Reserve implements a program of rehabilitation and release of orangutans into the natural environment.\n*Lamandau River"
      },
      {
        "title": "Anne E. Russon",
        "text": "Russon\u2019s work has focused on conservation efforts. She is executive director of the Borneo Orangutan Society of Canada, a charitable organization which supports orangutan conservation efforts in Indonesia and Malaysia. She is also a part of the advisory boards for other orangutan support organizations, including Alchemy Films, Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation\u2013Indonesia, the Orangutan Conservancy, and Orangutan Network. She also runs \u201cOrangutan Sanctuary\u201d, a webpage meant to provide resources for professionals interested in orangutan conservation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "The primary reason for population decline is habitat loss as a result of the unsustainable practice of timber extraction for the production of palm oil in areas in which orangutans habituate, notably Indonesia and Malaysia. Orangutans cannot survive without forests as they are both a home and food source, they build nests in trees for sleeping and survive off tree fruits. Additionally, orangutans are killed by poaching, where often mothers are killed and infants are seized and sold on the black market as pets."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orana Wildlife Park",
        "text": "Asian small clawed otters arrived in 2000. A new habitat, near the meerkats, was created for them. Brown teal, a threatened native species, were added in 2004 and have become a key conservation focus. Pateke ducklings reared at Orana have regularly been released to the wild. The singing Siamang gibbons, Orana's first species of ape, were added in 2004 and three young ones have been raised."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen",
        "text": "The sanctuary was designed to hold up to 100 orphaned orangutans while they go through rehabilitation. In addition to quarantine cages, medical clinic, and nursery, the sanctuary had a large area of forest in which orangutans could learn the skills needed to live in the wild. Nyaru Menteng quickly became the largest primate rescue project in the world, with over 600 orphaned and displaced orangutans in its care in 2009 and a staff of 200."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "There are three species of orangutan. The Bornean orangutan, the most common, can be found in Kalimantan, Indonesia and Sarawak and Sabah in Malaysia. The Sumatran orangutan and the Tapanuli orangutan are both only found in Sumatra, Indonesia The conservation status of all three of these species is critically endangered, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Deforestation is also occurring as a result of fires that wipe out large amounts of land and subsequently orangutan populations. Fires are set on purpose by palm oil companies in peat swamp forests. As a result of these fires, orangutans in these habitats will often die amidst the fire. If they survive, they will either be left to starve without a habitat, or flee, leaving them without a habitat and at risk of capture from residents, who will either kill them for meat, keep them as pets or sell them on the black market to wealthier counties."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mount Palung National Park",
        "text": "The orangutan is considered the umbrella species for conservation in the National Park, and is also an important ecological agent for seed dispersal and seed predation. It is believed that orangutans at Mount Palung constitute one of the most dense and largest populations on Borneo. A census conducted in 2001, part-funded by The Orangutan Conservancy, gives an estimate of 2500 individual orangutans, about 4.5% of the estimated population in Borneo and close to 4% of the world\u2019s population."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lamandau Nature Reserve",
        "text": "McConkey, M. 2005. Bornean Orangutan, In Caldecotte, J. and Miles., eds, World Atlas of Great Apes and their conservation. Prepared at the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. University of California Press, Berkeley, USA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Louise Grossfeldt",
        "text": "Grossfeldt has served as Vice President of Borneo Orangutan Survival Australia. She has worked around the world on primate husbandry and conservation projects, with organisations including Jane Goodall Institute and the Endangered Primate Centre in the C\u00fac Ph\u01b0\u01a1ng National Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The centre's running costs are about $1.6m a year. There are about 170 staff: surrogate mothers, animal care technicians, veterinarians, office staff, guards and other workers. Associated with the centre are:\n*The Employee Messes which accommodate workers from outside the locality;\n*The Pre-Release Islands, Kaja, Palas, and Bangamat, all forested islands in the Rungan River with primitive feeding platforms and jetties;\n*The Pre-Release Island, Badak Besar, and the Sanctuary Island, Badak Kecil, all within the Salat Island Cluster and jointly managed with PT SSMS;\n*The Information Centre, where local schools visit and from where information campaigns regarding the ecological importance of orangutans and sustainable alternatives are started;\n*The Fruit Plantation, \"Nyaru Menteng Lestari\", 3 ha planted with fruit-bearing trees, such as mango, pineapple and rambutan;\n*The release sites at the Bukit Batikap Protection Forest and the Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park, used to accommodate orangutans from Nyaru Menteng who have finished the rehabilitation process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Many of these orangutans are only weeks old when they arrive, and all of them are psychologically traumatized. The sanctuary not only saves the orphaned baby orangutans from captivity in human homes and from wildlife tourism, but has developed a process for their gradual re-introduction to the remaining Bornean rainforest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Although the current population of orangutans is not precisely known, it is estimated that currently there are about 104,000 Bornean orangutans, 14,000 Sumatran orangutans, and 800 Tapanuli orangutans remaining in the wild, and 1,000 are being held in conservation sites."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme",
        "text": "The SOCP also manages several other field conservation projects across the entire species\u2019 range, with much of its work focused on the naturally remaining wild populations in the 2.6 million ha Leuser Ecosystem, and the largest natural orangutan population outside of the Leuser Ecosystem, the Tapanuli orangutans of the upland forests of the Batang Toru area in the Tapanuli region of North Sumatra. The SOCP is the number one source of data, knowledge and information regarding the conservation status of the species, reflected by its leading role in the 2012 island-wide orangutan survey initiative, the Orangutan Population Habitat and Viability Analysis process, the development of the Indonesian National Strategy and Action Plan for Orangutans 2007-17, its representation on a number of international scientific bodies (e.g. IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group - Great Apes, UNEP GRASP), along with numerous scientific publications and popular print and film media items. The SOCP also has many years\u2019 experience of community development and livelihoods programmes throughout the region, including humanitarian, health and sanitation projects, ecotourism development."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are Orangutans going extinct?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you asking about the Bornean orangutan, Tapanuli orangutan, or Sumatran orangutan?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in Bornean orangutan."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Bornean orangutan is a Critically Endangered species (less than 14% of total number of orangutans than in the recent past), with deforestation, palm oil plantations, and hunting posing a serious threat to its continued existence. Climate change is another threat to Bornean orangutan conservation."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are any other orangutans critically endangered as well?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "All three species, the Bornean orangutan, the Sumatran orangutan, and the Tapanuli orangutan are all considered critically endangered."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any conservation efforts in places to save these orangutangs from extinction?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes, many organizations are working for the rescue, rehabilitation and reintroduction of orangutans, including the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation, many national parks in Indonesia, the Frankfurt Zoological Society, the Orangutan Foundation International, the Australian Orangutan Project, and the Orangutan Land Trust."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me more about the Orangutan Land Trust."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The Orangutan Land Trust is a UK charity with the objective of providing sustainable solutions for the long-term survival of the orangutan in the wild by ensuring safe areas of forest for their continued existence.",
      "A major objective of Orangutan Land Trust is to secure the river island known as Salat Island in Central Kalimantan to provide a habitat in which orangutans undergoing the rehabilitation process can refine their skills before being released in the wild. Would you like to know more about their work in Sabah, Malaysia or  Central Kalimantan Ecosystem Restoration Projects?"
    ],
    "topic": "Orangutan",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Orangutan Land Trust:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orangutan Land Trust"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Orangutan Land Trust is a UK charity with the objective of providing sustainable solutions for the long-term survival of the orangutan in the wild by ensuring safe areas of forest for their continued existence. The organization's President and co-founder, Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen, is a prominent wildlife conservationist."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Orangutan Land Trust:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orangutan Land Trust",
          "Projects under development",
          "Salat Island"
        ],
        "ctx": "A major objective of Orangutan Land Trust is to secure the river island known as Salat Island in Central Kalimantan to provide a habitat in which orangutans undergoing the rehabilitation process can refine their skills before being released in the wild. Additionally, a part of this island can serve as a permanent sanctuary for those rescued orangutans who can never be released, such as those with chronic disease or disabilities."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Orangutan Land Trust:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orangutan Land Trust",
          "Projects under development",
          "Central Kalimantan Ecosystem Restoration Projects"
        ],
        "ctx": "Orangutan Land Trust are working with the Green Line Corporation in Indonesia to secure 80,000 hectares of mostly degraded and deforested peat forest in Central Kalimantan as an Ecosystem Restoration Concession, in order to provide sanctuary for at least 200 orangutans rescued and rehabilitated by the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation's Nyaru Menteng Project."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Orangutan Land Trust:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orangutan Land Trust",
          "Projects under development",
          "Sabah, Malaysia"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Malua Wildlife Habitat Conservation Bank (Malua BioBank) is located next to one of the last areas of virgin rainforest in Sabah, Malaysia, on the island of Borneo. The Malua BioBank will restore and protect of critical orangutan habitat called the Malua Forest Reserve."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Land Trust",
        "text": "Orangutan Land Trust\n--Projects under development.\n----Salat Island.\n----East Kalimantan Ecosystem Restoration Concessions.\n----Central Kalimantan Ecosystem Restoration Projects.\n----Sabah, Malaysia.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Land Trust",
        "text": "Orangutan Land Trust are working with the Green Line Corporation in Indonesia to secure 80,000 hectares of mostly degraded and deforested peat forest in Central Kalimantan as an Ecosystem Restoration Concession, in order to provide sanctuary for at least 200 orangutans rescued and rehabilitated by the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation's Nyaru Menteng Project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Its activities expanded outside of East Kalimantan and to Central Kalimantan with the establishment of its second rehabilitation centre at Nyaru Menteng, 28 kilometres outside of Palangka Raya. Their work also expanded into land management and rehabilitation when they entered an agreement with the Indonesian government in 2000 to start work in the Mawas Conservation Area and, in 2001, when they purchased a grass plot at Samboja, 38 kilometres outside of Balikpapan, which became their primary orangutan rehabilitation site in East Kalimantan when operations were transferred from Wanariset in 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Land Trust",
        "text": "Borneo Orangutan Survival is one of the Indonesian NGOs seeking ways of reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation (REDD). It has acquired from the Department of Forestry and Ecosystem Restoration Concession with the intention of using the forest area as a release site for rehabilitated orangutans from its Samboja Lestari and Wanariset projects in East Kalimantan (over 200 individuals). The concession is 86,000 hectares of the ex-PT Mugi Triman International (MGI) timber concession. Releases begin in May 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "On 15 July 2010, at an international meeting on orangutan conservation in Bali, the Indonesian forestry ministry secretary general, Boen Purnama, announced that the Indonesian government will grant a permit to the BOS Foundation to reserve thousands of hectares of forest formerly used for logging for the release of around 200 orangutans in the Kutai area in East Kalimantan. In response, the BOS Foundation set up a company, PT Orangutan Habitat Restoration Indonesia (RHOI), to manage 86,450 hectares of former timber concession area in the East Kutai district, later named Kehje Sewen (home for orangutans in the local Wehea Dayak language), to be the new reintroduction site for rehabilitated orangutans. The then BOS Foundation chairman, Togu Manurung, announced the aim to start gradual releases by April 2011."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Land Trust",
        "text": "A major objective of Orangutan Land Trust is to secure the river island known as Salat Island in Central Kalimantan to provide a habitat in which orangutans undergoing the rehabilitation process can refine their skills before being released in the wild. Additionally, a part of this island can serve as a permanent sanctuary for those rescued orangutans who can never be released, such as those with chronic disease or disabilities."
      },
      {
        "title": "East Kalimantan",
        "text": "The projects that supports tropical rainforest conservation includes a WWF project and Samboja Lestari lodge, one of Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation's reforestation and orangutan rehabilitation projects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Samboja Lestari started as a reforestation project in 2001, but opened its doors as an orangutan rescue and rehabilitation centre in 2006, when the BOS Foundation moved their East Kalimantan operations from Wanariset. The rehabilitation centre is located about 38 kilometres northeast of Balikpapan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deforestation in Borneo",
        "text": "Recently a reforestation project in East Kalimantan has reported some success. The Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation (BOS), founded by Dr Willie Smits, bought up nearly 2,000 ha of deforested degraded land in East Kalimantan that had suffered from mechanical logging, drought and severe fires and was covered in alang-alang grass (Imperata cylindrica). The intention was to restore the rainforest and provide a safe haven for rehabilitated orangutans while at the same time providing a source of income for local people. The project was given the name Samboja Lestari, which roughly translates as the \"everlasting conservation of Samboja\". Reforestation and rehabilitation is the core of the project, with hundreds of indigenous species planted. By the middle of 2006 more than 740 different tree species had been planted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "In 2009, the BOS Foundation established the company PT Restorasi Habitat Orangutan Indonesia (PT RHOI) in order to purchase an Ecosystem Restoration Concession (ERC). An ERC license for 86,450 ha of land in Kutai, East Kalimantan, later named Kehje Sewen, was issued to PT RHOI in 2010. Following this, in 2012, the BOS Foundation began to release rehabilitated orangutans in the Kehje Sewen ERC in Easti Kalimantan and the Bukit Batikap Protection Forest in Central Kalimantan. The BOS Foundation expanded release operations in 2016, with the establishment of release points in the portion of the Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park within Central Kalimantan. The organization made global news yet again in April 2017 when it rescued the world's only known albino orangutan, later named Alba."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Samboja Lestari is a reforestation project on nearly of deforested, degraded and burnt land in East Kalimantan. In 2001, BOS started purchasing land near Wanariset. The area it acquired had been deforested by mechanical logging, drought and severe fires and was covered in alang-alang grass (Imperata cylindrica). The aim was to restore the rainforest and provide a safe haven for rehabilitated orangutans while at the same time providing a source of income for local people. The name Samboja Lestari roughly translates as the \"everlasting conservation of Samboja\". Reforestation and rehabilitation is the core of the project, with hundreds of indigenous species planted. By the middle of 2006 over 740 different tree species had been planted; by 2009 there were 1200 species of trees, 137 species of birds and six species of non-human primates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rimba Raya Biodiversity Reserve",
        "text": "The Rimba Raya REDD+ project aims to eliminate the destruction of the forests and peatlands of Central Kalimantan which houses more than 75% of Indonesia\u2019s greenhouse gas emissions. Along with eradicating local deforestation, Rimba Raya works to preserve the endangered species population within the reserve. Rimba Rayahas partnered with renowned Primatologist and Conservationist Dr. Birut\u00e9 Mary Galdikas to provide natural habitats for endangered orangutans in Borneo. The reserve also funds the Orangutan Foundation International and their Orangutan care center, which aims to reintroduce 300 wild born, rehabilitated orphaned orangutans in its care, back into the wild with the safe confines of the Rimba Raya Reserve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Wanariset began as a tropical forest research station near Balikpapan in the Indonesian Province of East Kalimantan and, in 1991, started to be used as an orangutan rescue and rehabilitation centre. After purchasing land in Samboja and transferring all orangutans to their new Samboja Lestari Orangutan Rehabilitation Centre, the BOS Foundation stopped rehabilitation operations at Wanariset in 2006."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Mawas is a forest conservation, reforestation and research area in Central Kalimantan. In September 2003, the provincial parliament in Central Kalimantan approved a new land use plan that designates 309,000 hectares (1,200 sq mi) in the Mawas area to be managed by the BOS Foundation for conservation. The BOS Foundation is currently working in an area of about within the ex-Mega Rice Project area."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation (BOS) founded by Dr Willie Smits has rescue and rehabilitation centres at Wanariset and Samboja Lestari in East Kalimantan and Nyaru Menteng, in Central Kalimantan founded and managed by Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen. BOS also works to conserve and recreate the fast-disappearing rainforest habitat of the orangutan, at Samboja Lestari and Mawas."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Borneo Orangutan Survival\n--History.\n--Orangutan Conservation Status.\n--Orangutan Rescue and Rehabilitation Centres.\n----Wanariset.\n----Nyaru Menteng.\n----Samboja Lestari.\n--Forest Conservation, Reforestation and Research.\n----Samboja Lestari.\n----Mawas.\n----Kehje Sewen.\n--Documentaries.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen",
        "text": "Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen sought the advice of Dr Willie Smits of the Borneo Orangutan Survival (BOS) Foundation about the possibility of creating a new project in Central Kalimantan to deal with the swelling numbers of orphaned orangutans. Dr Smits agreed to help, and with the financial backing of the Gibbon Foundation and BOS Indonesia, Lone founded the Nyaru Menteng Orangutan Reintroduction Project in 1998. She was able to build the facility under an agreement with the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry, and Nyaru Menteng officially opened its doors to the first dozen orangutans in 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hybrid orangutan",
        "text": "From 1971 to 1985, 90 orphaned or displaced orangutans rescued from illegal wildlife trade were released into Tanjung Puting National Park in Central Kalimantan. A subsequent genetic survey determined that at least two orangutans, captured in a different region and therefore not native to the park, had prolifically interbred with the local native apes, and produced at least 22 hybridized descendants. Their offspring contributes to fears that interbreeding of subspecies leads to \"hybrid vigor\", in which \"offspring reap the benefits of their parents' individual qualities\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "Orangutan Foundation, founded by Ashley Leiman, operates programmes in Central Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo. The Foundation rescues orphaned orangutans and enters them into their soft-release programme, allowing them to develop the skills necessary to survive in the wild. When old enough, orangutans are released into the protected Lamandau Wildlife Reserve. Orangutan Foundation works to protect orangutans by focusing on habitat protection and capacity building, especially in local communities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central Kalimantan",
        "text": "The centre of the province is covered with tropical forest, which produces rattan, resin and valuable timber such as Ulin and Meranti. The southern lowlands are dominated by peatland swamps that intersect with many rivers. Sabangau National Park is a protected peatland area internationally acknowledged as sanctuary for the endangered Orangutan. Recently the peat swamp forests have been damaged by the Mega Rice Project, which unsuccessfully sought to turn large areas into rice paddies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samboja Lestari",
        "text": "The orangutan rehabilitation program at Samboja Lestari started selecting orangutans with adequate natural behaviours to be released into the Kehje Sewen Ecosystem Restoration Concession, owned by PT Rehabilitasi Orangutan Borneo, which is also operated by the BOS Foundation. In April 2012, They released their first 3 orangutans from Samboja Lestari in the Kehje Sewen ERC. Today, 121 orangutans from Samboja Lestari have been released back into the wild (per July 2021)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Nyaru Menteng is an orangutan rescue and rehabilitation centre 28\u00a0km from Palangkaraya in Central Kalimantan. Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen sought the advice of Smits about the possibility of creating a new project in Central Kalimantan to deal with the swelling numbers of orphaned orangutans. Smits agreed to help and, with the financial backing of the Gibbon Foundation and the BOS Foundation, Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen founded Nyaru Menteng in 1998. She was able to build the facility under an agreement with the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry, and Nyaru Menteng officially opened its doors to the first dozen orangutans in 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "This view is also supported by the United Nations Environment Programme, which states in its report that due to deforestation by illegal logging, fire and the extensive development of oil palm plantations (see Social and environmental impact of palm oil), orangutans are threatened with extinction, and if the current trend continues, they will become extinct.\n# Orangutan reintroduction, through the rescue, rehabilitation, and release of ex-captive orangutans\n#Orangutan and sun bear (\"Helarctos malayanus\") life-long sanctuary care, for individuals with physical or behavioural handicaps that prevent reintroduction\n# Orangutan ecosystem conservation, through the protection of existing forest landscapes and rehabilitation of degraded areas\n# Sustainable community development and education, through outreach, community capacity-building, community empowerment, and public awareness-raising"
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The centre's running costs are about $1.1m a year. Associated with the centre are:\n*The Employee Messes which accommodate workers from outside the locality;\n*The Pre-Release Island, Juq Kehje Swen, a forested island with feeding platforms, staff housing, and veterinary clinic;\n*The Sun Bear Sanctuary, which includes over 15 ha of forested enclosures and houses about 70 sun bears;\n*The Samboja Lodge, an ecolodge which is open to all tourists and single day visitors who wish to tour the orangutans islands and sun bear sanctuary;\n*The replanting areas, which cover about 1,500 ha and is now a mix of secondary forest and new replanting sites;\n*The release site at the Kehje Sewen ERC, used to accommodate orangutans from Samboja Lestari who have finished the rehabilitation process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Willie Smits",
        "text": "The Orangutan Reintroduction Project at Wanariset Research Station was moved to Samboja Lestari. \"Forest Schools\" were established, areas that provide natural, educational playgrounds for the orangutans in which to learn forest skills. Here the orangutans roam freely but under supervision and are returned to sleeping cages for the night. \"Orangutan islands\" were created where the orangutans and other wildlife that cannot return to the wild are nevertheless able to live in almost completely natural conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "Two strategies that are recently being considered to conserve this species are 1) rehabilitation and reintroduction of ex-captive or displaced individuals and 2) the protection of their forest habitat by preventing threats such as deforestation and hunting. The former was determined to be more cost efficient for maintaining the wild orangutan populations, but comes with longer time scale of 10\u201320 years. The latter approach has better prospects for ensuring long-term stability of populations. This type of habitat conservation approach has been pursued by the World Wide Fund for Nature, who joined forces with several other organizations to stop the clearing of the biggest part of remaining natural forest close to the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "Due to an expanding global demand for timber in the 1980s, this rate then increased; according to a satellite study, 56% or 2.9 million hectares of tropical rainforests in Kalimantan, Borneo were extracted between 1985 and 2001, with a rapid increase in deforestation rates in the late 1990s. The rate of deforestation during this time directly correlates with the decrease in orangutan population, as the species cannot survive in other areas. It is estimated that since 1950, the orangutan population has declined by 60%. Between 1999 and 2015, the population of Bornean orangutans decreased by 100,000 individuals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frankfurt Zoological Society",
        "text": "Another major project is situated in Central Sumatra: The Bukit Tigapuluh Sanctuary for the preservation of rainforest and wildlife. This project is aiming at the resettlement and reintroduction of confiscated Orang Utans, which are prepared for their life in the wild through the local \"jungle school\". Further aspects of the work on site are conflict-prevention between humans and elephants, environmental education and initiatives supporting the local population in balancing out economical development and their traditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "Orangutan Foundation International, founded by Dr Birut\u0117 Galdikas, rescues and rehabilitates orangutans, preparing them for release back into protected areas of the Indonesian rain forest. In addition, it promotes the preservation of the rain forest for them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pulang Pisau Regency",
        "text": "In 2015, the local government agreed to make Badak Besar and Badak Kecil regions on Salat Nusa Island to be a conservation area for orangutans. Central Kalimantan province has an orangutan rehabilitation area in Nyaru Menteng."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Foundation International",
        "text": "Originally called the Orangutan Research and Conservation Project, OFI was founded by Galdikas and former husband Rod Brindamour in 1986. The couple started the project to study the ecology and behavior of wild orangutans. The focus later turned towards conservation, protection, rehabilitation, and education of orangutans. The OFI's research facilities are located in the Indonesian owned part of Borneo, the third largest island in the world. Camp Leakey is where the research on orangutans is conducted and also where rehabilitated orangutans are released."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "Other major conservation centres in Indonesia include those at Tanjung Puting National Park, Sebangau National Park, Gunung Palung National Park and Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park in Borneo and the Gunung Leuser National Park and Bukit Lawang in Sumatra. In Malaysia, conservation areas include Semenggoh Wildlife Centre and Matang Wildlife Centre also in Sarawak, and the Sepilok Orang Utan Sanctuary in Sabah. Major conservation centres headquartered outside the orangutans' home countries include Frankfurt Zoological Society, Orangutan Foundation International, which was founded by Galdikas, and the Australian Orangutan Project. Conservation organisations such as the Orangutan Land Trust work with the palm oil industry to improve sustainability and encourages the industry to establish conservation areas for orangutans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Deforestation in Borneo",
        "text": "In the Lamandau Wildlife Reserve, Orangutan Foundation have planted over 60,000 saplings as part of their Forest Restoration Programme. These saplings were planted in order to reforest and rejuvenate areas damaged by fires."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bukit Tigapuluh National Park",
        "text": "The orangutan reintroduction in Bukit Tigapuluh National Park is organized by the Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme (SOCP)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Currently, the centre houses over 100 orangutans, a mix of individuals undergoing the rehabilitation process and individuals in lifelong sanctuary care. To accommodate the orangutan rehabilitation process, with the ultimate goal of release into natural rainforests, the centre includes quarantine cages, medical clinic, nursery, forest school area, and small man-made pre-release islands. The \"Forest Schools\" are areas that provide natural, educational playgrounds for the orangutans in which to learn forest skills. Here the orangutans roam freely but under the supervision of human surrogate mothers and are returned to sleeping cages for the night."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mega Rice Project",
        "text": "The peat swamp forest in the south of Kalimantan is an unusual ecoregion that is home to many unique or rare species such as orangutans, as well as to slow-growing but valuable trees. The peat swamp forest is a dual ecosystem, with diverse tropical trees standing on a 10m - 12m layer of peat - partly decayed and waterlogged plant material - which in turn covers relatively infertile soil. Peat is a major store of carbon. If broken down and burned it contributes to CO2 emissions, a source of global warming. Unlike northern forests, which regenerate in 10\u201330 years even after clear-cut felling, the peat swamp forest may take several centuries to regenerate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pawan River",
        "text": "The Bornean orangutan, also found in the forest along the Pawan river in West Kalimantan, are facing severe habitat loss due to logging and clearing land for palm oil and related agriculture activities. Consequently, their population is declining. The orangutans in this region are from the sub-species \"Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii.\" They are different from the species found in Sumatra."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan",
        "text": "Several organisations are working for the rescue, rehabilitation and reintroduction of orangutans. The largest of these is the Borneo Orangutan Survival (BOS) Foundation, founded by conservationist Willie Smits and which operates projects such as the Nyaru Menteng Rehabilitation Program founded by conservationist Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen. A female orangutan was rescued from a village brothel in Kareng Pangi village, Central Kalimantan, in 2003. The orangutan was shaved and chained for sexual purposes. Since being freed, the orangutan, named Pony, has been living with the BOS. She has been re-socialised to live with other orangutans. In May 2017, the BOS rescued an albino orangutan from captivity. The rare primate was being held captive in a remote village in Kapuas Hulu, on the island of Kalimantan in Indonesian Borneo. According to volunteers at BOS, albino orangutans are extremely rare (one in ten thousand). This is the first albino orangutan the organisation has seen in 25 years of activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samboja Lestari",
        "text": "Securing the future of the Bornean orangutan was the central concern of the project. Smits' Orangutan Rehabilitation Project at Wanariset was moved to Samboja. \"Forest schools\" were established, areas that provide natural playgrounds for the orangutans in which to learn forest skills. Here the orangutans roam somewhat freely but under the supervision of human \"surrogate mothers\" and are returned to sleeping cages for the night. \"Orangutan islands\" were created where the orangutans to further hone survival skills before being released into the wild."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The centre's running costs are about $1.6m a year. There are about 170 staff: surrogate mothers, animal care technicians, veterinarians, office staff, guards and other workers. Associated with the centre are:\n*The Employee Messes which accommodate workers from outside the locality;\n*The Pre-Release Islands, Kaja, Palas, and Bangamat, all forested islands in the Rungan River with primitive feeding platforms and jetties;\n*The Pre-Release Island, Badak Besar, and the Sanctuary Island, Badak Kecil, all within the Salat Island Cluster and jointly managed with PT SSMS;\n*The Information Centre, where local schools visit and from where information campaigns regarding the ecological importance of orangutans and sustainable alternatives are started;\n*The Fruit Plantation, \"Nyaru Menteng Lestari\", 3 ha planted with fruit-bearing trees, such as mango, pineapple and rambutan;\n*The release sites at the Bukit Batikap Protection Forest and the Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park, used to accommodate orangutans from Nyaru Menteng who have finished the rehabilitation process."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Diary",
        "text": "The centre was founded in 1994, a year after Lone Dr\u00f6scher Nielsen permanently moved to Borneo. She could see what effect the palm oil plantations were having on the orangutans, so then founded the Nyaru Menteng Orangutan Reintroduction Project, which now is the largest ape rescue project in the world."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Alongside the orangutan reintroduction work, the BOS Foundation has promoted forms of farming that do not involve burning and destroying forests, by switching to agriculture combining rattan, sugar palms and fruits and vegetables. A community has developed that can now support itself on the land. The BOS Foundation believes to achieve sustainable solutions the root social problems must be addressed by empowering local communities to take up livelihood options that are more rewarding than the extractive industries."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "A number of orangutan rescue and rehabilitation projects operate in Borneo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme",
        "text": "Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme\n--Activities.\n--Field conservation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Starting in 2007, the BOS Foundation was involved in the development of the Orangutan Conservation Strategy and Action Plan and has continued to help implementing the plan ever since. With international support and donations from companies like Weleda and Werner & Mertz, the Mawas project has grown to play an important role in the conservation of the Bornean orangutans and their habitat. It is the largest single area of land managed by the BOS Foundation. The main aim is to protect the fast-disappearing peat lands through collaboration with the Central and Local Governments and the local communities. The Mawas area is home to one of the last tracts of forest supporting wild orangutans. An estimated 2,550 wild orangutans are found in this area. Mawas is also important for its biodiversity and its geological conditions, including a double peat dome, which make it a storage house of giga-tonnes of sequestered carbon. Over a period of 8,000 years, decaying plant matter from the swamp forests has built up 13 \u2013 15 metre high domes of peat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme",
        "text": "Built in 2001, the SOCP maintains the only centre in Sumatra that quarantines and cares for orangutans confiscated from the illegal pet trade. To date, the SOCP has rescued over 340 illegal pet orangutans of which more than 260 have been rehabilitated and reintroduced back to a life in the wild, 180 at its reintroduction centre next to the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park in Jambi province and an additional 88 since 2011 at its centre in the Jantho Pine Forest Nature Reserve in Aceh province. The goal at both locations is to establish entirely new, self-sustaining and genetically viable populations of this Critically Endangered species in forests within their historical range, as a 'safety net' should catastrophe befall the remaining truly wild Sumatran orangutan populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme",
        "text": "The SOCP also manages several other field conservation projects across the entire species\u2019 range, with much of its work focused on the naturally remaining wild populations in the 2.6 million ha Leuser Ecosystem, and the largest natural orangutan population outside of the Leuser Ecosystem, the Tapanuli orangutans of the upland forests of the Batang Toru area in the Tapanuli region of North Sumatra. The SOCP is the number one source of data, knowledge and information regarding the conservation status of the species, reflected by its leading role in the 2012 island-wide orangutan survey initiative, the Orangutan Population Habitat and Viability Analysis process, the development of the Indonesian National Strategy and Action Plan for Orangutans 2007-17, its representation on a number of international scientific bodies (e.g. IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group - Great Apes, UNEP GRASP), along with numerous scientific publications and popular print and film media items. The SOCP also has many years\u2019 experience of community development and livelihoods programmes throughout the region, including humanitarian, health and sanitation projects, ecotourism development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme",
        "text": "The Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme (SOCP) is a collaborative project involving Indonesian NGO Yayasan Ekosistem Lestari (YEL) - as the main implementer in Indonesia, its Swiss partner the PanEco Foundation, and the Indonesian Ministry of Environment and Forestry\u2019s Directorate General of Natural Resource and Ecosystem Conservation (Ditjen KSDAE), under several Memoranda of Understanding (MoU) starting in 1999."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The Borneo Orangutan Survival (BOS) Foundation is an Indonesian non-profit non-governmental organization founded by Dr. Willie Smits in 1991 and dedicated to the conservation of the endangered Bornean orangutan (\"Pongo pygmaeus\") and its habitat through the involvement of local people. It is audited by an external auditor company and operates under the formal agreement with the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry to conserve and rehabilitate orangutans. The BOS Foundation manages orangutan rescue, rehabilitation and re-introduction programmes in East and Central Kalimantan. With more than 400 orangutans (per July 2021) in its care and employing more than 440 people at a 10 sites BOS Foundation is the biggest non-human primate conservation non-governmental organization worldwide. Nyaru Menteng and Samboja Lestari are the BOS Foundation sites that have received most extensive media coverage. Nyaru Menteng, founded by Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen, has been the subject of a number of TV series, including \"Orangutan Diary\", \"Orangutan Island\" and the series \"Orangutan Jungle School\", airing since 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The BOS Foundation has initiated a forest conservation project with the objectives of:\n* conserving peat swamp forest area including reforesting degraded areas;\n* preserving the bio-diversity of the area;\n* providing global greenhouse gas (GHG) benefits;\n* providing access to programs such as health and education;\n* improving incomes and building capacity and economic prosperity in local communities;\n* assisting communities in learning technical skills including aquaculture, rice cultivation, agro-forestry and farm development;\n* assisting local independence and self-sustaining livelihoods;\n* providing education to children on the environment and conservation, by visiting schools;\n* providing community awareness programs as well as co-operative conservation programs;\n*promoting long-term research of orangutan behaviour and peatland ecology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bukit Tigapuluh National Park",
        "text": "The first reintroduction station for orangutans close to the park was built in 2001 by the German biologist Dr. Peter Pratje, with the support of Frankfurt Zoological Society and local partners. It offers a school-like programme to train individual orangutans, which grew up in captivity, to survive the wild."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "There are small populations in the North Sumatra province along the border with NAD, particularly in the Lake Toba forests. A survey in the Lake Toba region found only two inhabited areas, Bukit Lawang (defined as the animal sanctuary) and Gunung Leuser National Park. Bukit Lawang is a jungle village, 90 kilometers northwest of Medan, situated at the eastern side of Gunung Leuser National Park. An orangutan sanctuary was set up here by a Swiss organisation in the 1970s to attempt to rehabilitate orangutans captured from the logging industry. The rangers were trained to teach the orangutans vital jungle skills to enable them to reintegrate into the forest, and provided additional supplementary food from a feeding platform. However, within the last few years supplementary feeding has ceased as the orangutan rehabilitation program has been deemed a success, the orangutans having been fully rehabilitated, and the jungle (or the remaining part of) is now at saturation point, so the sanctuary no longer accepts new orphaned orangutans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Following the establishment of PT RHOI by BOS Foundation in 2009 and the acquisition of the Kehje Sewen ERC in 2010, which finally ensured a secure release site for orangutans, Samboja Lestari started releasing orangutans back to the forest in April 2012. They have released 121 orangutans in the Kehje Sewen ERC (per July 2021)."
      },
      {
        "title": "International Animal Rescue",
        "text": "In Indonesian Borneo, IAR rescues and cares for critically endangered orangutans at its conservation centre in Ketapang, West Kalimantan, from orphaned infants to fully grown adults that have spent years in captivity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peat swamp forest",
        "text": "Habitat disturbance caused by logging was shown to affect orangutan density within a mixed swamp forest. The presence of a very large, self-sustaining orangutan population in this region emphasizes the urgency for greater protection of Kalimantan's peat swamp forests in light of recent and rapid habitat degradation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kalaweit Project",
        "text": "The association has two rehabilitation centers, one on Kalimantan and another on Sumatra (with more than 300 Gibbons and Siamangs)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "There are other methods that have been put in place to conserve the current orangutan population, these include research and monitoring, land and water protection, species management, education to create awareness, international legislation, and international management and trade controls. Additionally, some organisations that work to conserve the population of orangutans have put in efforts to work alongside palm oil companies and local governments to prevent further habitat loss. For example in 2011 a tri-party agreement was signed by one of the world\u2019s largest palm oil producers Wilmar International, Central Kalimantan government, and Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation (BOSF). The agreement was formed with the aim to provide long-term protection for Bornean orangutans, including monitoring palm oil plantation methods, establishing areas where orangutans can be protected, relocating abandoned individuals and providing training to plantation workers on how to manage orangutans and avoid conflict."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endangerment of orangutans",
        "text": "By 1985, the annual rate of deforestation in Kalimantan, where majority of the orangutan population habituates, was 180,000 hectares. This rate of deforestation then further increased between the late 1980s and 2000, with the amount of land being logged annually increasing by 44% between 1997 and 2000 alone. In the 2000s, the rate decreased slightly, however by 2007, the annual deforestation rate had reached 1.3 million hectares. In 2006, Indonesia overtook Malaysia as the world\u2019s largest palm oil exporter, having exported over 20.9 million tonnes of palm oil. Presently, only 50% of the original forest cover remains in Borneo. It is expected that by 2020, this forest cover will reduce to 24% if production rates continue. As orangutans cannot survive outside forest areas, the extremely high rate of deforestation has caused the population to decrease significantly, resulting in the conservation status of critically endangered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abdul Taib Mahmud",
        "text": "Other programmes include the Heart 2 Heart orangutan campaign which invites the public to get involved with orangutan conservation; orang-utan and turtle adoption; protection of the dugong and the Irrawaddy dolphin, which are both endangered species; and the Reef Ball project that will rehabilitate Sarawak's ocean ecosystem by placing artificial reef modules in the sea to form new habitats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The work of the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation has appeared in a number of documentaries. \"The Disenchanted Forest\" was an award-winning 1999 film that follows orphan orangutans as they are rehabilitated and returned to their rainforest home. It centres on three BOS projects \u2013 Wanariset, Nyaru Menteng and Mawas. \"The Burning Season\" is a 2008 documentary about the burning of rainforests in Indonesia which featured Lone Dr\u00f8scher Nielsen. The orangutans of Nyaru Menteng were the followed in the two series of \"Orangutan Diary\" produced by the BBC and also, as they were reintroduced to a semi-wild habitat in the form of forested pre-release islands, in the 23 programmes of the \"Orangutan Island\" series, produced by NHNZ. In 2013, Harrison Ford visited Nyaru Menteng for the filming of episode one of \"Years of Living Dangerously\" to show the devastating impacts of the global demand for palm oil and other agricultural products. BBC returned to Nyaru Menteng again in 2013 to follow the release of four orangutans into the Bukit Batikap Protection Forest for a special episode of \"Natural World\", entitled \"Orangutans: The Great Ape Escape\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Island",
        "text": "Releasing rehabilitated orangutans to their natural habitat is the ultimate goal of orangutan sanctuaries. On February 15, 2013, Mogok became the first of the orangutans depicted in the series to be released to the wild as part of a group of five semi-wild and 15 rehabilitated orangutans who were transported from the Central Kalimantan Orangutan Reintroduction Program at Nyaru Menteng to release points in Bukit Batikap Conservation Forest over a period of three days. The following day, Alibaba became the second orangutan from the series to be released."
      },
      {
        "title": "Riau Ecosystem Restoration",
        "text": "Riau Ecosystem Restoration (RER; ) is a multi-party project to restore and conserve an area of ecologically important peat forest in Indonesia's Sumatra island. The project consists of on the Kampar Peninsula, and another on the nearby Padang Island."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tanjung Puting",
        "text": "Four research centers have been established within the park for the study and rehabilitation of orangutans and other primates. Camp Leakey, founded in 1971 with assistance from the Leakey Foundation, was the first of these centers. It was here where Dr. Birute Galdikas began her career studying the behavior of rescued and orphaned orangutans that were reintroduced into the wild. Her research was highlighted as the cover article of National Geographic in October 1975. Dr. Galdikas is now considered one of the world\u2019s leading experts on orangutan behaviour and is the founder and president of the Orangutan Foundation International."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran orangutan",
        "text": "In addition to the above extant wild populations, a new population is being established in the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park (Jambi and Riau Provinces) via the re-introduction of confiscated illegal pets. This population currently numbers around 70 individuals and is reproducing. However it has been concluded that forest conservation costs twelve times less than reintroducing orangutans into the wild, and conserves more biological diversity."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Disenchanted Forest",
        "text": "Dr. Willie Smits, director of the Wanariset Orangutan Reintroduction Project, and his team rescue hundreds of orangutans. Dr. Smits is committed to preserving orangutan habitat and returning captives back into rainforest homes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Foundation International",
        "text": "Orangutan Foundation International (OFI) has its headquarters in Los Angeles, California. Founded by Dr. Birut\u0117 Galdikas, one of three anthropologists (The Trimates) to study great apes under the guidance of Dr. Louis Leakey, OFI continues to rescue and rehabilitate orangutans, preparing them for release back into protected areas of the Indonesian rain forest. In addition, OFI promotes the preservation of rain forest habitats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Land Trust",
        "text": "The Malua Wildlife Habitat Conservation Bank (Malua BioBank) is located next to one of the last areas of virgin rainforest in Sabah, Malaysia, on the island of Borneo. The Malua BioBank will restore and protect of critical orangutan habitat called the Malua Forest Reserve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Karen (orangutan)",
        "text": "Wild Sumatran orangutans are critically endangered. In the 1970s, UC San Diego Health (UCSD) pathologist Kurt Benirschke, persuaded zoo trustees to establish a research department, at the zoo's Center for the Reproduction of Endangered Species, which he subsequently led, providing the collaboration between the University and the zoo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kumai",
        "text": "Tanjung Puting National Park is famous primarily because of two primates: the orangutan and the proboscis monkey (endemic to Borneo). At Camp Leakey, research is conducted on orangutans, gibbons, other animals and ecological processes. Orangutans are also rehabilitated and returned to the wild from this camp. Since 1971, over 200 orangutans have been returned to the wild as part of Dr. Birute Galdika's Orangutan Research and Conservation Project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Foundation International",
        "text": "What began as two small huts is now a functional research facility. Camp Leakey is where all of the research the OFI conducts on orangutans is done. Others other than the OFI have studied and researched at Camp Leakey including graduate and undergraduate students from multiple institutions such as Universitas Nasional, a college in Indonesia, and universities in the United States. The camp now consists of about 19 miles of trails, rainforest, and swamp land for the rehabilitated orangutans and the wild orangutans that made their home there. The OFI takes in ex-captive, hurt, and orphaned orangutans. Once the ape is in the care of Galdikas and her staff, it is raised (if it is young) or treated for any diseases or injuries in the Care Center. The orangutans in the care center are taken each day by their keepers to Camp Leakey to be allowed to play in their natural habitat. This is done to slowly acclimate the orangutans back into the forest so one day they can be released. Once the orangutan is old enough and deemed suitable, it is released back into the wild. Some orangutans never learn to fend for themselves and for that reason can never leave the care center and the staff. Some orangutans do not want to leave the base of the OFI (where the staff eats and lives) and will venture back from time to time to visit the staff and volunteers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "The Sepilok Orang Utan Rehabilitation Centre near Sandakan in the state of Sabah in Malaysian Borneo opened in 1964 as the first official orangutan rehabilitation project."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wetlands International",
        "text": "In the severely degraded peat lands of Central Kalimantan (Indonesia), drainage canals and logging have had disastrous impacts in an attempt to convert the unsuitable peatswamps into rice fields. By building small dams and blocks, the drainage of the area was stopped, preventing further oxidation of the peat soil. The area was then reforested with native tree species and community fire brigades to prevent the island's huge problem of peat fires."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Foundation International",
        "text": "Support protection, conservation, and understanding about orangutans and their natural habitat while caring for orphaned orangutans and helping them make the transition back into the rain forest. The OFI also educates the public and the government about orangutans, rain forest, and the issues around conservation and protection of the apes and their environment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bornean orangutan",
        "text": "It is found in the two Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, and four of the five Indonesian Provinces of Kalimantan. Due to habitat destruction, the species distribution is now highly patchy throughout the island, the species has become rare in the southeast of the island, as well as in the forest between the Rajang River in central Sarawak and the Padas River in western Sabah. Its presence in Brunei is uncertain and unconfirmed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tanjung Puting",
        "text": "Orangutan Foundation runs Pondok Ambung Tropical Forest Research Station, supporting Indonesian and international research students. This national park facility has been developed and maintained by Orangutan Foundation and provides facilities to study the park\u2019s diverse flora and fauna. Orangutan Foundation have been awarding small research grants to individual students for many years, with a focus on supporting Indonesian students."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orangutan Foundation International",
        "text": "An article from \"Nature\" on PBS says \"Galdikas\u2019s rehabilitation efforts, however, have brought controversy. The orphaned apes were often psychologically damaged and difficult to control. Some even attacked guests and staffers. Researchers questioned the value of observing the orphaned apes, wondering whether their behavior was representative of orangutans in the wild. Others were concerned that the released rehabilitated apes would spread diseases to local wild orangutan populations. Government officials began to challenge the work, even to withdraw permits. ... At the same time, Galdikas was becoming an increasingly active conservationist. Concerned by the rapid clearing of orangutan habitat, she lobbied the Indonesian government to set aside parks and curb illegal logging and orangutan trading \u2014 with some success. But her efforts came at a cost; she was threatened, harassed, and even kidnapped by those who opposed her work.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "The area has been important for research activities since the founding of the Tuanan Research Station in Kapuas in 2002 by the BOS Foundation and the University of Zurich of Switzerland. The research activities there continue through today, but is now operated through a collaboration of the BOS Foundation with Universitas Nasional (UNAS) of Indonesia and Rutgers University of the United States. The research station was established through extensive consultation with all local people and institutions and the employment of local labour. Its purpose is to provide a year-round base for scientists tracking and observing the wild orangutan population and studying peatland ecology. The BOS Foundation is involved in patrolling and monitoring the area for illegal activities via water and land and supporting law enforcement by providing guidance and legal awareness programs to the community and government."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samboja Lestari",
        "text": "Samboja Lestari is a Bornean orangutan (\"Pongo pygmaeus\") rescue and rehabilitation centre, tropical rainforest restoration project, sun bear sanctuary, and eco-lodge located in the town of Samboja in East Kalimantan, Indonesia, owned and operated by the Borneo Orangutan Survival (BOS) Foundation. According to its founder, Willie Smits, Samboja Lestari uses the principles of People, Planet, Profit, attempting to provide incomes for local people using conservation. It is located about 38 kilometres from East Kalimantan's biggest city, Balikpapan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "Following several years navigating land permissions to ensure the long-term security of potential release sites, Nyaru Menteng started releasing orangutans back to the forest in February 2012. They have released 190 orangutans in the Bukit Batikap Protection Forest and 163 orangutans in the Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park (per July 2021)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meratus Mountains",
        "text": "In the 1990s the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation reintroduced 350 orangutans into the protected Meratus and Sungai Wain forests. Due to extensive deforestation the ecosystem of the mountains, including many flora and fauna species are endangered. Traditional Dayak villages are also disappearing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Willie Smits",
        "text": "While working as a forest researcher in East Kalimantan, Indonesia in 1989, Smits encountered a baby orangutan in a cage in a market, and later returned to find it abandoned on a rubbish heap. This was a turning-point in his career: taking the orangutan home, he nurtured it back to health. He was soon given other orangutans to look after, and the work of rescuing, rehabilitating and releasing orangutans into the wild developed into what was to become the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation. For over twenty years Smits has worked for the survival of this threatened species of ape, during which time his work has also broadened out into the related areas of sustainable farming, reforestation and remote monitoring of forests. He travels widely, raising awareness of the issues surrounding deforestation in Borneo and the plight of the orangutan, also showing how it has been possible on a relatively small scale to reverse the great damage that is being done to the orangutan and its environment. He became a senior advisor to the Ministry of Forests in Indonesia and has been knighted in the Netherlands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Birut\u00e9 Galdikas",
        "text": "Galdikas has remained in Borneo for over 40 years while becoming an outspoken advocate for orangutans and the preservation of their rainforest habitat, which is rapidly being destroyed by loggers, palm oil plantations, gold miners, and unnatural conflagrations. While campaigning actively on behalf of primate conservation and preservation of rainforest, Galdikas continues her field research, among the lengthiest continuous studies of a mammal ever conducted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme",
        "text": "The SOCP deals with all aspects of the conservation of the Critically Endangered Sumatran orangutan (\"Pongo abelii\") and the 2017 newly identified species of orangutan, the Tapanuli orangutan (\"Pongo tapanuliensis\"), including: a. the confiscation of illegal captive orangutans, their quarantine and reintroduction to form new wild populations, b. education and awareness raising, c. behavioral and ecological research on wild orangutans, d. surveys and monitoring of remaining wild orangutan populations and habitat, and e. habitat protection."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "For orangutans unable to be released, the centre houses them on sanctuary islands, in socialisation cages, or in a special care unit, designed to aid in the care of orangutans with chronic disease that requires regular veterinary care. The sanctuary islands were created specifically for the orangutans that cannot return to the wild, but are able to live in almost natural conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bukit Tigapuluh National Park",
        "text": "Nowadays two orangutan reintroduction stations are operated close to the park\u2019s boundaries which focus on reintroducing the animals to the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park."
      },
      {
        "title": "Francine Neago",
        "text": "In 2006 she co-authored a 48-page children's book describing how an orphaned orangutan she raised in her home behaved like a human child. In 2007 she set up the Bali Endangered Animal Rescue (BEAR) center in Bali. She founded the wildlife sanctuary \"Noah and his Ark\", now located 3 kilometres from Bukit Lawang, Indonesia. In 2011 she travelled to Malaysia, intending to set up an orangutan language centre in Sarawak. In 2015, she proposed that Indonesia should establish additional orangutan rehabilitation centres, since all the existing ones were full, and some orangutans made homeless by deforestation in Sumatra had to be kept in small cages. She planned to rehabilitate about 50 animals for release in the Mount Leuser National Park and the Tigapulu mountainous area, calling for support."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kahayan River",
        "text": "Hutan Kahaylan () is a peat swamp forest of about 150,000 hectares between the Kastingen and Kahayan rivers that so far has suffered least from the Mega Rice Project, although it has been badly damaged. Because it is close to the regional capital Palangkaraya it is still at risk. Vulnerable bird species include the large green pigeon (\"Treron capellei\") and possibly Storm's stork (\"Ciconia stormi\") and lesser adjutant (\"Leptoptilus javanicus\"). The Sabangau Forest is centered on the blackwater Sabangau River. There is no longer any continuous forest cover where orangutans may cross this river. The forest has been badly damaged by legal and illegal forestry, but the western part is now protected as either National Park or National Laboratory Research Area. With a relatively small human population, there is some hope that this area of the forest may recover. The more badly damaged eastern part, between the Sabangau and the Kayahan, is still officially designated for agriculture, although no further efforts are being made to make it suitable for this purpose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Willie Smits",
        "text": "In 2001, BOS started purchasing land near Wanariset Samboja(). The area it acquired had been deforested by mechanical logging, drought and severe fires and was covered in alang-alang grass (Imperata cylindrica). The aim was to restore the rainforest and provide a safe haven for rehabilitated orangutans while at the same time providing a source of income for local people. The name Samboja Lestari roughly translates as the \"everlasting conservation of Samboja\". Wilderness engineering in the form of reforestation and rehabilitation is the core of the project, with hundreds of indigenous species planted. By the middle of 2006 more than 740 different tree species had been planted."
      },
      {
        "title": "Birut\u00e9 Galdikas",
        "text": "During her graduate studies at UCLA, Galdikas met paleoanthropologist Louis Leakey, and proposed a plan aimed at studying orangutans in their natural habitats. Galdikas convinced Leakey to help orchestrate her endeavor, despite his initial reservations. Leakey found funding from the National Geographic Society which agreed to establish a research facility in Borneo. Her research became the basis of her doctoral studies, and she earned her doctorate in anthropology from UCLA in 1978."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sabah Foundation",
        "text": "Conservation and rainforest rehabilitation projects"
      },
      {
        "title": "InfiniteEARTH",
        "text": "Rimba Raya also works to preserve the endangered species population within the reserve. Rimba Raya has partnered with Primatologist and Conservationist Dr. Birut\u00e9 Mary Galdikas to provide natural habitats for endangered orangutans in Borneo. The reserve also funds the Orangutan Foundation International and their Orangutan care center, which aims to reintroduce 300 wild born, rehabilitated orphaned orangutans in its care, back into the wild within the safe confines of the Rimba Raya Reserve."
      },
      {
        "title": "Samboja Lestari",
        "text": "The tree nursery was started, including some seeds that had been recovered from orangutan faeces. Pioneer trees planted were the drought-resistant \"sungkai\" (\"Peronema canescens\") and legumes such as \"Acacia mangium\". Smits drew on his background in microbiology and his doctoral dissertation on mycorrhiza, making enormous quantities of compost for tree seedlings. Along with organic waste, he mixed in sawdust, fruit remnants from the orangutan cages, manure from cattle and chickens scavenged from his other projects in Kalimantan and a microbiological agent made from sugar and cow urine. In the years since the start of the replanting project, BOS Foundation has established hundreds of hectares of secondary forest and continues to replant on degraded and burned lands every year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sepilok Orangutan Rehabilitation Centre",
        "text": "The centre opened in 1964 as the first official orangutan rehabilitation project for rescued orphaned baby orangutans from logging sites, plantations, illegal hunting or kept as pets. The orphaned orangutans are trained to survive again in the wild and are released as soon as they are ready. The sanctuary is located within the Kabili-Sepilok Forest Reserve which covers an area of , much of which is virgin rainforest. Today around 60 to 80 orangutans are living free in the reserve."
      },
      {
        "title": "S\u00e1lim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History",
        "text": "During 2007-2008 SACON undertook 19 research projects:\n;Conservation ecology:\n:Status and ecology of the Andaman Crake;\n:Mumbai trans-harbour sea link project: Study of Flamingos and migratory birds;\n:Inventory of the biodiversity of Attappady with GIS aid;\n:Ecology and conservation of the Spot-billed Pelican in Andhra Pradesh;\n:Identification and mapping of Lesser Florican breeding sites to develop a fodder producing grassland network in western India;\n:In-situ & Ex-situ conservation of the Edible-nest Swiftlet (\"Collocalia fuciphaga\") in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands;\n:Strengthening community conservation efforts in Nagaland - A programme to impart technical support on biodiversity conservation and livelihood options to communities, Phase 1: Phek, Tuensang, Kiphere, Longleng and Mon Districts;\n:Ecology of the endangered Indian Rock Python (\"Python molurus\") in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan, India;\n:A study on the Herpetofaunal communities of the Upper Vaigai Plateau, Western Ghats, India.\n;Landscape ecology:\n:ENVIS Centre on Wetland Ecosystems, Multilevel and multiscalar analysis of wetland systems to evaluate balance in ecosystem services and sustainability concerns - Kolleru Wildlife Sanctuary, a Ramsar site in Andhra Pradesh;\n:GIS for Rajahmundry Parliamentary constituency, Pollination and seed dispersal by animals in the dry deciduous forests of southern Eastern Ghats;\n:Ecology of Indian Grey Hornbill (\"Ocyceros birostris\") with special reference to its role in seed dispersal in southern Eastern Ghats;\n:Plant-bird interactions with special reference to identification of bird-attracting plants for afforestation of Attappady valley, Kerala.\n;Ecotoxicology:\n:Impact of agricultural pesticides on the population status and breeding success of select species of fish-eating birds in Tamil Nadu\n;Environmental Impact Assessment:\n:Rapid Environmental Impact Assessment of the India-based Neutrino Observatory, Singara, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu;\n:Management Plan for the Eco-restoration of Pallikaranai Reserve Forest;\n:Status of Blewitt's Owl in Araku Valley and Environmental Management Plan in View of the Proposed Bauxite Mines."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian Orangutan Project",
        "text": "Donations from the public, funds from community events, AOP membership fees, orphan orangutan 'adoptions' and grants from various sources are used to support orangutan care centres, natural forest rehabilitation, forest patrols to eliminate illegal logging and protect released animals, and local community awareness initiatives. In 2005, the organisation received over $62,000 from the Australian Government's Regional Natural Heritage Program (RNHP) to develop and implement two orangutan protection units in the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park region in Sumatra and to monitor and deter illegal logging in two regions. This project contributes to the long term conservation of the largest remaining lowland rainforest block in Sumatra. In 2006, TOP won an additional $92,000 from the RNHP to extend the work of the orangutan protection units to better protect the Bukit Tigapuluh mega fauna, including the Sumatran elephant and tiger, through training, monitoring and surveillance activities. AOP also was awarded funds of A$207,500 to undertake a survey of wildlife in Borneo's forests in Malua/Segama. This includes surveys of the Ulu Segama reserve to establish wildlife baseline data and the development of a Forest Management Plan with particular focus on orangutan populations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dave Currey (environmentalist)",
        "text": "With his team Currey decided to focus the campaign on the destruction of Tanjung Puting National Park in Central Kalimantan and Gunung Leuser National Park in Sumatra, both vital orang-utan habitat. The high-profile species assisted in communicating the problems of commercial illegal logging. He visited both places, helped film and photograph illegal logging, as well as undercover work in Kalimantan to identify the head of the timber mafia. It was a difficult time with one staff member of Telapak and one from EIA being kidnapped while investigating the timber baron Abdul Rasyid. Currey oversaw the rescue mission devoting tens of thousands of dollars of campaign funds to get them safely out of Kalimantan."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mount Palung National Park",
        "text": "The Mount Palung Orangutan Project was established in 1994 by Dr. Cheryl Knott. This project integrates scientific research about orangutan biology and ecology with conservation programs aimed at the preservation of this endangered species and its habitat. Cheryl Knott is conducting scientific investigation of the factors governing orangutan reproduction and population viability, increasing awareness on the local level to encourage support for conservation of the park and community education around the park and capacity-building for National Park Office staff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Australian Orangutan Project",
        "text": "The Australian Orangutan Project t/a The Orangutan Project (TOP) is a non-profit registered Australian environmental organisation established in 1998, which raises funds to support the conservation and protection of orangutans and the preservation and rehabilitation of their forest habitats, which are primarily located in Indonesia. It undertakes this work by supporting a range of other organisations working in the field, such as the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation (BOS), the Orangutan Foundation International, founded by Dr Birute Galdikas and the Orangutan Foundation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Taggart Siegel",
        "text": "\"The Disenchanted Forest\" (1999) follows endangered orphan orangutans on the island of Borneo as they are rehabilitated and returned to their rainforest home. It centres on the three main Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation (BOS) projects - Wanariset, Nyaru Menteng and Mawas. It is narrated by Brooke Shields."
      },
      {
        "title": "Borneo Orangutan Survival",
        "text": "BOS Foundation (initially the \"Balikpapan Orangutan Society\") was founded in 1991 by the ecologist Dr. Willie Smits, teacher Peter Karsono, Asctha Boestani Tajudin, and Joe Cuthbertson, supported by researchers at the Tropenbos Kalimantan Program and schoolchildren of Balikpapan. Initially the organisation focused only on rescuing and rehabilitating orphaned orangutans at its first centre at Wanariset. By 1998, BOS had already rescued over 500 orangutans in East Kalimantan alone. That same year, BOS finally gained official legal status as a charity in Indonesia and, in 2003, official changed its name to the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are Orangutans going extinct?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Are you asking about the Bornean orangutan, Tapanuli orangutan, or Sumatran orangutan?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I am interested in Bornean orangutan."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The Bornean orangutan is a Critically Endangered species (less than 14% of total number of orangutans than in the recent past), with deforestation, palm oil plantations, and hunting posing a serious threat to its continued existence. Climate change is another threat to Bornean orangutan conservation."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are any other orangutans critically endangered as well?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "All three species, the Bornean orangutan, the Sumatran orangutan, and the Tapanuli orangutan are all considered critically endangered."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Are there any conservation efforts in places to save these orangutangs from extinction?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Yes, many organizations are working for the rescue, rehabilitation and reintroduction of orangutans, including the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation, many national parks in Indonesia, the Frankfurt Zoological Society, the Orangutan Foundation International, the Australian Orangutan Project, and the Orangutan Land Trust."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Tell me more about the Orangutan Land Trust."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "A major objective of Orangutan Land Trust is to secure the river island known as Salat Island in Central Kalimantan to provide a habitat in which orangutans undergoing the rehabilitation process can refine their skills before being released in the wild. Would you like to know more about their work in Sabah, Malaysia or  Central Kalimantan Ecosystem Restoration Projects?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'm interested in the Central Kalimantan Ecosystem Restoration Projects."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Orangutan Land Trust are working with the Green Line Corporation in Indonesia to secure 80,000 hectares of mostly degraded and deforested peat forest in Central Kalimantan as an Ecosystem Restoration Concession, in order to provide sanctuary for at least 200 orangutans rescued and rehabilitated by the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation's Nyaru Menteng Project.",
      "Orangutan Land Trust are working with the Green Line Corporation in Indonesia to secure 80,000 hectares of mostly degraded and deforested peat forest in Central Kalimantan as an Ecosystem Restoration Concession, in order to provide sanctuary for at least 200 orangutans rescued and rehabilitated by the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation's Nyaru Menteng Project."
    ],
    "topic": "Orangutan",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Orangutan Land Trust:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orangutan Land Trust",
          "Projects under development",
          "Central Kalimantan Ecosystem Restoration Projects"
        ],
        "ctx": "Orangutan Land Trust are working with the Green Line Corporation in Indonesia to secure 80,000 hectares of mostly degraded and deforested peat forest in Central Kalimantan as an Ecosystem Restoration Concession, in order to provide sanctuary for at least 200 orangutans rescued and rehabilitated by the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation's Nyaru Menteng Project."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Orangutan Land Trust:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Orangutan Land Trust",
          "Projects under development",
          "Central Kalimantan Ecosystem Restoration Projects"
        ],
        "ctx": "Orangutan Land Trust are working with the Green Line Corporation in Indonesia to secure 80,000 hectares of mostly degraded and deforested peat forest in Central Kalimantan as an Ecosystem Restoration Concession, in order to provide sanctuary for at least 200 orangutans rescued and rehabilitated by the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation's Nyaru Menteng Project."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Since the 1990s, Kelly has been repeatedly accused of sexual abuse, often with underage girls. He has faced multiple civil suits and has been charged by criminal courts in Chicago, New York, Illinois, and Minnesota. He repeatedly denied the charges. In June 2002, he was indicted on 21 counts of making child pornography. He was acquitted six years later in 2008. In January 2019, a widely viewed Lifetime docuseries titled \"Surviving R. Kelly\" detailed allegations of sexual abuse by multiple women, allegations that Kelly continued to deny. Facing pressure from the public using the Mute R. Kelly hashtag, RCA Records dropped Kelly."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On February 3, 2002, a video circulated that allegedly showed Kelly engaging in sex with, and urinating on, an underage girl. After the video was released by an unknown source and sent to the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", the publisher broke the story on February 8, 2002, the same day Kelly performed at the opening ceremony of the 2002 Winter Olympics. Kelly said in interviews that he was not the man in the video."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Palladino",
        "text": "In 2002, singer, songwriter, and record producer R. Kelly was charged with videotaping himself having sex with an underage teenage girl. An investigation by Palladino that lasted six years culminated in Palladino's testimony at trial challenging the principal prosecution witness, and the acquittal of Kelly in less than a day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ruth Kelly",
        "text": "On 9 January 2006, it came to light that Kelly's department had granted permission for a man who had been cautioned by police for viewing child pornography images and who was on a sex offenders register to be employed at a school, on the basis that he had not been convicted of an offence. He, and an unknown number of others on the sex offenders register, were not on the DfES prohibited list, \"List 99\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly has repeatedly faced allegations of sexual abuse that have resulted in multiple civil suits and criminal trials."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "After the jury delivered their verdict, women's rights attorney Gloria Allred, who represented several victims, stated that Kelly was the worst sexual predator she had pursued in her 47-year career of practicing law."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In December 2000, the \"Chicago Sun-Times\" first reported that police had made two investigations that Kelly was having sex with an underage female but had to drop the investigations due to lack of cooperation by the girls accusing him. A civil suit filed in 1996 by Tiffany Hawkins detailed allegations that, starting in 1991 when she was age 15, Kelly had sex with her as an underage high school student, encouraged her to recruit her school friends, and pressured her into engaging in group sex with other underage girls. In 1998, Kelly settled the lawsuit with Hawkins for $250,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In June 2002, Kelly was indicted in Chicago on 21 counts of child pornography. That same month on June 6, 2002, Kelly was arrested by the Miami Police Department on a Chicago arrest warrant at his Florida vacation home. He was released after one night in jail, the following day after posting bail of $750,000. The alleged victim refused to testify at the trial, and a Chicago jury found Kelly not guilty on all 14 counts of child pornography in June 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly was again accused of misconduct on April 17, 2018, by a former partner of his who claimed that Kelly \"intentionally\" infected her with a sexually transmitted disease. A representative for Kelly stated that he \"categorically denies all claims and allegations\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On July 11, 2019, Kelly was arrested on federal charges alleging sex crimes and obstruction of justice by U.S. Homeland Security investigators and NYPD detectives in Chicago."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On February 22, 2019, the Cook County State's Attorney's Office in Illinois charged Kelly with 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse. The charges allege that from 1998 to 2010, Kelly sexually abused four females, three of whom were teen minors at the time, with evidence including a video provided by Michael Avenatti of an alleged new crime. After Kelly turned himself in the day the charges were announced, he was arrested by the Chicago Police Department and taken into custody. The judge set bond at $1 million and ordered Kelly to have no contact with any minor under 18 or alleged victim. Kelly pleaded not guilty to all charges, which he called lies. He was released on bail after three nights in jail at Cook County."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "After a July 1996 brawl at a Lafayette, Louisiana health club involving Kelly and his entourage, Kelly was placed on a year's unsupervised probation starting August 13, 1997, after being found guilty of battery. One of the victims needed 110 facial stitches. Also that year, a 20-year-old accused Kelly in civil court of having sexual relations with her when he was 24 and she was 15. Kelly settled the lawsuit in 1998 for $250,000, according to the \"Chicago Sun-Times\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In July 2021, Federal prosecutors asked the court to include alleged evidence of bribes, recordings of threats and more allegations of sexual abuse of minors, including an underaged boy he met at McDonald's, as pattern evidence in his trial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim DeRogatis",
        "text": "DeRogatis and Abdon Pallasch reported for the \"Chicago Sun-Times\" in December 2000 that court records and interviews alleged that musician R. Kelly had used his position of fame and influence to meet and have sex with underage girls. DeRogatis and Pallasch reported in February 2002 that a videotape had surfaced allegedly featuring Kelly engaging in sex with a 14-year-old girl. As a \"Sun-Times\" music critic, DeRogatis had received the videotape and subsequently turned it over to police."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In 2019, Kelly was indicted by a Cook County grand jury in Chicago on 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse in February, followed by an additional 11 counts of sexual assault and abuse filed by the same court in May. On July 11, 2019, he was arrested on federal charges alleging sex crimes, human trafficking, child pornography, racketeering, and obstruction of justice. Kelly faced a total of 22 federal criminal charges as of January 29, 2021. A federal judge ordered Kelly jailed pending trial on the charges. On September 27, 2021, a federal jury in New York found Kelly guilty on nine counts including racketeering, sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, sex trafficking, and a violation of the Mann Act. The judge ordered that he remain in custody pending sentencing, set for May 4, 2022. Kelly faces a second trial for producing child pornography set for August 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alex Kelly (rapist)",
        "text": "On November 24, 2007, Kelly was released from prison on good behavior. He is required to serve 10 years probation, perform 200 hours of community service, pay a $10,000 fine, and register with the Connecticut sex offender registry. Kelly has claimed that, while in prison, he earned a bachelor's degree in economics and third-world development."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "The federal trial began on August 18, 2021. After weeks of testimony and two days of deliberations, on September 27, 2021, the jury found Kelly guilty on nine counts including racketeering, sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, sex trafficking, and a violation of the Mann Act. The judge ordered that Kelly remain in custody pending sentencing, which was set for May 4, 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "John William Kelley",
        "text": "Years later, in May 1995, he was arrested for rape again in Eureka. He had offered a ride to an acquaintance who needed to run some errands, but at one point, they stopped at his house, where he proceeded to rape her. For this, Kelley was jailed for six years, and was required to register as a sex offender."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On July 12, 2019, federal prosecutors from New York and Chicago indicted Kelly on 18 charges, including child sexual exploitation, child pornography production, sex trafficking, kidnapping, forced labor, racketeering, and obstruction of justice. He was first denied bail in October 2019 and denied bail release again in April 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. Superseding indictments were filed in Chicago on February 13, 2020, and in New York on March 13, 2020, raising the total number of charges to 22. He was incarcerated at Metropolitan Correctional Center, Chicago from July 11, 2019, to June 23, 2021. On June 23, 2021, Kelly was transferred to Metropolitan Detention Center, Brooklyn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ann Donnelly",
        "text": "She also tried the singer R. Kelly in his sex trafficking trial, where he was convicted of all charges and is scheduled to be sentenced on May 4, 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "While investigating the photographs reported in the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", Polk County Sheriff's Office conducted a search of Kelly's residence in Davenport, Florida. During the search, officers recovered 12 images of an alleged underage girl on a digital camera\u00a0\u2013 wrapped in a towel in a duffel bag \u2013 which allegedly depicted Kelly \"involved in sexual conduct with the female minor.\" According to the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", the girl in the images obtained from Kelly's Florida home also appears in the videotape which got Kelly indicted in Chicago. Kelly was arrested on January 22, 2003, by Police investigators from Polk County and Miami-Dade County, at Miami's Wyndham Grand Bay Hotel on those charges of 12 counts of possession of child pornography. Kelly was later released from Miami-Dade county jail hours after on a bond posted of $12,000. In March 2004, these charges were dropped due to a lack of probable cause for the search warrants."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Robert Sylvester Kelly (born January 8, 1967) is an American singer, songwriter, record producer, and convicted sex offender. He has been credited with helping to redefine R&B and hip hop, earning nicknames such as \"the King of R&B\", \"the King of Pop-Soul\", and the \"Pied Piper of R&B\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "R v Cuerrier",
        "text": "In 2003, Edward Kelly was charged, and convicted of knowingly exposing four women to HIV, and sentenced to three years in prison. In 2004, Jennifer Murphy became the first woman charged in Canada with failing to disclose her HIV status to a sexual partner. She spent one year under house arrest before the charge was withdrawn in 2007, mainly because she had insisted on condom use during the incident."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shaggy defense",
        "text": "On February 3, 2002, a video surfaced showing popular R&B musician R. Kelly statutorily raping, and urinating on, an underage girl. The story, which was released by an unknown source, was sent to the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", the newspaper that broke the story on February 8, 2002. This news surfaced as Kelly was to perform at the opening ceremony of the 2002 Winter Olympics. In interviews with WMAQ television of Chicago and MTV News, Kelly said that he was not the man in the video. In June 2002, Kelly was indicted in Chicago on 21 counts of child pornography. That same month, Kelly was apprehended by the Miami Police Department on a Chicago arrest warrant."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly said members of his household would act differently when his mother and grandparents were not home. From age eight to 14, he was sexually abused by an older female family member. Kelly's younger brother Carey stated that he suffered from years of sexual abuse at the hands of his older sister, Theresa, who was entrusted with babysitting her siblings. Carey stated that although their older brother was spared and allowed to play outside, both he and Kelly were punished at separate times indoors by Theresa, who refused to acknowledge the abuse when confronted years later. Explaining why he never told anyone, Kelly wrote in his 2012 autobiography \"Soulacoaster\" that he was \"too afraid and too ashamed\". Around age 10, Kelly was also sexually abused by an older male who was a friend of the family. In his autobiography, Kelly described being shot in the shoulder, at age 11, by boys who were attempting to steal his bike, although a family friend later stated that Kelly had shot himself while attempting suicide."
      },
      {
        "title": "XHamster",
        "text": "Following the airing of a Lifetime Network documentary-style film, \"Surviving R.Kelly\", xHamster reported a 388% increase in R.Kelly related searches since January 2019. The Lifetime film presents R.Kelly's arrest, trial, and acquittal on child pornography charges between 2002 and 2008. Censored from xHamster's website, the \"infamous\" sex tape features the hip-hop artist engaged in sexual relations with and urinating on, an underage girl. In a bid to reprimand viewers who search for the sex tape, xHamster denounced seeking the tape as both \"illegal\" and \"immoral\". xHamster emphasized in their public statement that searching for the video may even be \"re-victimizing a minor who could not consent\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Little Rascals day care sexual abuse trial",
        "text": "Kelly was convicted and sentenced to 12 consecutive life terms in prison. The trial \"included 83 prosecution witnesses and 60 defense witnesses\". The children had testified that Kelly had forced them to have different types of sex. The parents testified that the children exhibited abnormal behavior. \"Twelve children, between the ages of 4 and 7, testified, and the results of physical and psychological tests of them were presented as evidence.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On August 5, 2019, the State's Attorney Office in Hennepin County, Minnesota charged Kelly with soliciting a minor and prostitution; prosecutors alleged that in July 2001, following a concert in Minneapolis, Kelly had invited a girl up to his hotel room and paid her $200 to remove her clothing and dance with him."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Admit",
        "text": "Kelly was convicted of nine criminal counts, including racketeering (involving sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, and sex trafficking) and violations of the Mann Act, on September 28, 2021. A few fans of Kelly played \"I Admit\" beside the courthouse shortly after the judgment was issued."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "\"The Washington Post\" ran a lengthy article in May 2018, alleging that music industry executives had been aware of Kelly's sexually abusive behavior toward underage girls for years but did little or nothing about them due to his success as a performer and songwriter. As early as 1994, the newspaper reported, his tour manager had urged Jive Records' founder Clive Calder to tell Kelly he would not release the singer's records if he continued to have \"incidents\" with young women after every concert he gave. Calder told the \"Post\" that he regretted not having done more at the time, saying \"Clearly, we missed something.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Donald Ross, Lord Ross",
        "text": "He sentenced paedophile Bill Kelly, who pleaded guilty to 14 charges of indecent sexual assault on children, to a custodial sentence of 12 months as he deemed the victims to \"not have suffered long term damage\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "\"The Washington Post\" also suggested the labels were complicit in the sex-cult allegations from the previous summer's \"BuzzFeed\" piece. Employees at the studios where Kelly recorded were required to sign non-disclosure agreements and not enter certain rooms, which they said they believed were where Kelly made the young women and underage girls stay while he worked. Despite the agreements, the newspaper was able to publish screenshots of text exchanges where young women and underage girls in the rooms asked Kelly's assistants to let them out so they could go to the bathroom or get food. The newspaper also published pictures taken after Kelly had concluded a six-week session at a Los Angeles studio, paid for by his then-current label, RCA Records, showing a cup of urine sitting on a piano and urine stains on the wooden floor of another room."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly's record label, RCA Records, dropped him shortly after the docuseries aired. On February 22, 2019, R. Kelly was formally charged with 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse. On March 6, 2019, in a \"CBS This Morning\" interview with Gayle King, R. Kelly broke down crying while strongly denying all allegations and charges made against him."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On April 8, 1998, Kelly was arrested on three misdemeanor charges of disorderly conduct, including one charge on violating noise ordinance for playing his music extremely loud from his car. Prosecutors from the district attorney's office dropped the first two charges on May 7 and the noise charge on July 22 that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In a divorce court filing unsealed in 2020, R. Kelly's former wife Andrea claims that R. Kelly was accused of molesting a preteen girl in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alex Kelly (rapist)",
        "text": "Kelly faced two trials in 1997. After the first was declared a mistrial, the second resulted in his conviction for the first rape and a sentence of 10 years in prison. He pleaded no contest to the second rape and was sentenced to an additional 10 years in prison (sentence to run concurrently with the 10-year sentence)."
      },
      {
        "title": "R v O'Connor",
        "text": "The O'Connor involved in the case was Hubert Patrick O'Connor, a Catholic bishop from British Columbia who was found guilty of sex crimes in 1991."
      },
      {
        "title": "July 2010 R238 traffic collision",
        "text": "Kelly was convicted at trial. His sentence later increased on appeal as 'unduly lenient' for the \u2018worst case of dangerous driving in history of the State\u2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Patrick Kelly (former RCMP officer)",
        "text": "In November 2012, Kelly's federal parole was revoked, mainly because he had too many secretive relationships with women. He was returned to federal prison. In 2016, he was given day parole and allowed to reside in Victoria, B.C."
      },
      {
        "title": "James A. Kelly Jr.",
        "text": "Kelly's retrial began on November 15, 1982, and ended on December 22. The next day, the jury found Kelly guilty of extortion. On January 20, 1983, Judge Rya W. Zobel sentenced him to two years in prison. He was allowed to remain out of prison until the outcome of his appeal, which was rejected on December 1, 1983. Kelly then sought to have his sentence delayed until April 1984 so he could complete his studies for a master's degree in business administration at Florida International University. The request was denied and Kelly began his sentence in March 1984. He was incarcerated in Federal Prison Camp, Eglin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black women in American politics",
        "text": "On September 27, 2021, Kelly was found guilty on nine counts including racketeering, sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, sex trafficking, and a violation of the Mann Act. The judge ordered that Kelly remain in custody pending sentencing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Partner violence in hip hop",
        "text": "\"Surviving R. Kelly\", a three-part television documentary which aired in January 2019, described R. Kelly's history of sexual assault. Kelly was charged with 10 counts of sexual assault in the Chicago metropolitan area from 1998 to 2010. Three of the 10 victims were between the ages of 13 and 16. During the 1990s, Kelly was found to be married to 15-year-old Aaliyah. The marriage was annulled, and Kelly said that he thought Aaliyah was 18."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aaliyah",
        "text": "After the documentary \"Surviving R Kelly\" aired in January 2019, pressure from the public using the Mute R. Kelly hashtag escalated and RCA Records dropped Kelly from the label. In February 2019, Kelly was indicted on ten counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse. In July 2019, he was arrested on federal charges alleging sex crimes, human trafficking, child pornography, racketeering, and obstruction of justice. When his trial began in August 2021, Kelly was facing 22 federal criminal charges that involved allegedly abusing 11 girls and women between 1994 and 2018. Aaliyah\u2019s illegal marriage to Kelly was heavily featured in the court case. On September 27, 2021, a federal court jury found R. Kelly guilty on nine counts including racketeering, sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, sex trafficking, and a violation of the Mann Act. The judge ordered that Kelly remain in custody pending sentencing, which was set for May 4, 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greg Kelly",
        "text": "In January\u2013February 2012 Kelly was investigated by the Manhattan District Attorney's office upon an accusation of rape. Kelly was never arrested nor charged with a crime. After an investigation, the District Attorney issued a letter stating that under NY state criminal law, the incident did not constitute a crime. Kelly returned to work February 13, 2012. On June 9, 2014, Kelly's accuser spoke publicly for the first time about her 2012 allegations against Kelly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sexualization",
        "text": "\"Representations of black girlhood in the media and popular culture suggest that black girls face a different set of rules when it comes to sex, innocence, and blame\", the consequences of the sexualization of Black girls can be seen through the 2004 trial of R. Kelly. The immediate response from the public cleared R. Kelly of any wrongdoing while subsequently blaming the young girl for her abuse. One respondent to a \"Village Voice\" article claimed that she wasn't disturbed by the video because in her words, \"It wasn't like she was new to the act. [She--the respondent] heard she[the victim] worked it like most of [her] 30 something-year-old friends have yet to learn how to do\". This desensitization is directly linked to a music industry\u2014and subsequent fans\u2014who value the artist over their potential victims.\u201d Instead of being correctly labeled as victims these women are instead turned into \"groupies, hoochies, and chickenheads\". One of the jurors on the R. Kelly case noted that he believed the defense because her body \"appeared to developed\". Sika A. Dagbovie-Mullins acknowledged that \u00a0\"this harmful and skewed reasoning reflects a national troubling tendency to view black adolescent females as sexually savvy and therefore responsible themselves for the sexualization and exploitation of their bodies\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Kelly (criminal)",
        "text": "Kelly became a labor racketeer, providing muscle in labor disputes during the 1920s. He died of natural causes in 1936."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On March 6, 2019, Kelly was taken back to the Cook County Jail after failing to pay $161,633 in child support. On March 9, 2019, he was released after someone, who did not want to be identified, paid off the child support. His lawyer says he could not discuss the payment due to a gag order."
      },
      {
        "title": "Villisca axe murders",
        "text": "In 1914, two years after the murders, Kelly was arrested for sending obscene material through the mail (he was sexually harassing a woman who applied for a job as his secretary). He was sent to St. Elizabeth\u2019s Hospital, the national mental hospital in Washington, D.C. Investigators speculated again that Kelly could be the murderer of the Moore family."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Kelly (murderer)",
        "text": "Kelly started to develop an increasingly unpredictable and explosive temper, which eventually caused him to lose his job. Days later, on 4 June 1883, he married his girlfriend in a religious ceremony held in the San Lucas parish. The marriage was troubled, with Kelly scolding his wife frequently and displaying obsessive jealousy, accusing her of various infidelities. Among other claims, Kelly believed that she had a sexually transmitted infection."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Jim DeRogatis reported for \"BuzzFeed News\" on July 17, 2017, that Kelly was accused by three sets of parents of holding their daughters in an \"abusive cult\". Kelly and the alleged victims deny the allegations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mute R. Kelly",
        "text": "Over two decades, R. Kelly has faced allegations of sexual abuse of minors, including marrying a 15-year-old girl (which was found to be factual), R&B singer Aaliyah, by listing her age as 18 on the marriage certificate that had falsified documents which supported the false age. The singer has also been sued and accused of supposed sex with an underage girl. On one count it is apparent Kelly videotaped one of these encounters. The singer then went on to face more charges of underage sex charges, child pornography charges and sex cult claims. The singer denies all of these allegations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kelly McGillis",
        "text": "In 1982, McGillis was raped by two men in her New York apartment. Leroy Johnson who was 15 years old at the time was sentenced to three years in prison, but the other assailant had all charges dropped due to a lack of corroborative evidence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andrea Kelly",
        "text": "In 2018, Drea revealed on \"The View\" that R. Kelly emotionally and physically abused her throughout their marriage. She stated the abuse became so severe that she contemplated suicide. Drea detailed an incident where Kelly assaulted her in the back of his Hummer, and as a result she suffers from PTSD. Another time, Kelly \"hogtied\" her in bed, raped her, and fell asleep while she was still tied. She stated her motive for speaking out many years after their divorce is to help other victims of domestic violence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Shortly after the docuseries aired, Kelly's final record label, RCA Records, dissolved its working relationship with him. In February 2019, Kelly was formally charged with 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "However, during the interview, Modarressy-Tehrani quizzed Kelly about the sexual abuse allegations being levelled against him and wanted to gauge his reaction. This resulted in Kelly growing angry and defensive. He continually shouted over Modarressy-Tehrani, asked her whether she drank and threatened to leave and go to McDonalds. Kelly ultimately stormed out of the interview before it ended. This was one of the first occasions where Kelly was concretely asked about the allegations against him on a public platform."
      },
      {
        "title": "Little Rascals day care sexual abuse trial",
        "text": "In January 1994, Betsy Kelly had been in prison for two years awaiting trial. She accepted a plea of \"no contest\", and a sentence of seven years in prison. She served an additional year in prison and was released in 1995."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "During 2013, Kelly continued his \"The Single Ladies Tour\". He performed at music festivals across North America, including Bonnaroo, Pitchfork, and Macy's Music Festival. On June 30, 2013, R. Kelly performed live at BET Awards Show singing hits as well as his new track \"My Story\" featuring Atlanta rapper 2 Chainz. The song was the lead single for Kelly's twelfth studio album \"Black Panties\". released on December 10, 2013. Writing for \"New York\" magazine, David Marchese stated that Black Panties \"was like a dare to the world: After all that he\u2019d been accused of, after avoiding conviction, could R. Kelly still get away with making sex-obsessed music?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Alex Kelly (rapist)",
        "text": "Kelly was charged with committing two rapes within a four-day period in Darien, Connecticut, in February 1986. He was charged first with the rape of a 16-year-old Stamford girl, and then of a teenager in Darien. In one of the rapes, according to the police, he encountered a girl who lived near him and offered her a ride home from a party. He was later also charged with drug possession and two counts of kidnapping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ruben Patterson",
        "text": "He was accused of failing to register as a sex offender on May 15, 2007, after moving into a new house in Cincinnati and a bench warrant was issued. His agent, former NFL player Tim McGee, said Patterson's failure to register was \"an oversight\" after Patterson was ordered to pay a $1,000 fine on June 8."
      },
      {
        "title": "Day-care sex-abuse hysteria",
        "text": "Despite the severity of some of the alleged acts, parents noticed no abnormal behaviour in their children until after initial accusations were made. Bob Kelly's trial lasted eight months and on April 22, 1992, he was convicted of 99 out of 100 counts against him. In 1995, the North Carolina Court of Appeals granted new trials to two defendants, including Kelly. Charges were ultimately dismissed for both."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim DeRogatis",
        "text": "DeRogatis was named as a witness in Kelly's 2008 child pornography trial. The defense lawyers charged that DeRogatis should be charged with child pornography for allegedly making a copy of the tape and showing it to another person after turning the original over to police."
      },
      {
        "title": "William Clyde Gibson",
        "text": "During his imprisonment, where he was ordered to attend a sex offender rehabilitation program, Gibson refused to admit responsibility for his crime and was thus deemed ineligible to participate. While he was considered an obedient inmate who rarely caused trouble, even earning an associate's degree in art from the Lindsey Wilson College, several psychiatric assessments concluded that Gibson had poor judgment and often experienced conflicting feelings of loneliness and losing control. Despite these diagnostics and his refusal to complete the rehabilitation program, he was deemed unlikely to re-offend and was released on April 5, 1999, whereupon he was added to the Indiana Sex and Violent Offender Registry. After his release, he started dating Kelly Bailey, and the pair moved to an apartment in Borden, Indiana, however, Bailey left him in 2000 due to Gibson's worsening drug habits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shaggy defense",
        "text": "According to Josh Levin of \"Slate\", \"As Kelly's lawyers mentioned multiple times, the alleged victim in this case\u2014now a 23-year-old woman\u2014told a grand jury that it wasn't her. While 15 friends and relatives testified that the girl in question was indeed on the video, neither the alleged victim nor her parents showed up in court to testify for either side.\" The prosecution witness Lisa Van Allen was easily impeached as a witness due to her clearly sordid history with R. Kelly, others, and even soliciting a bribe from an investigator in the case. One juror told the \"Chicago Tribune\", \"At some point we said there was a lack of evidence.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Matthew Kelly",
        "text": "In January 2003, Kelly was arrested by police over allegations of child sex abuse, which arose as part of Operation Arundel. The following month he was cleared of all charges. In response to his public arrest, and the later media fallout that drew public criticism, his treatment was raised as a motion in Parliament to consider \"ways to protect the anonymity of those investigated until formally charged with an offence.\" This was later debated within Parliament as part of a wider response to investigations into allegations of historical crimes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moral panic",
        "text": "Also during the 1980s, inaccurate and heavily flawed data about sex offenders and their recidivism rates was published. This data led to the public believing sex offenders to have a particularly high recidivism rate; this in turn led to the creation of sex offender registries. Later information revealed that sex offenders, including child sex offenders, have a low recidivism rate. Other highly publicized cases, similar to the murder of Adam Walsh, that contributed to the creation of sex offender registries and sex offender laws include the abduction and murder of 11-year-old boy Jacob Wetterling in 1989; the rape and murder of 7-year-old girl Megan Kanka in 1994; and the rape and murder of 9-year-old girl Jessica Lunsford in 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rachel Starr",
        "text": "In an interview with Power 98.3 radio in Phoenix, Arizona, Machine Gun Kelly stated that he and Starr made a sex tape, although it was never released to the public."
      },
      {
        "title": "R v JA",
        "text": "As a result, J.A. was guilty of sexual assault."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roz Kelly",
        "text": "On October 27, 2000, she was sentenced to 120 days in jail after pleading \"no contest\" to charges stemming from an August 20, 2000, arrest for hitting a man with her cane. She was given credit for the 98 days that she had already spent in jail awaiting sentencing, thus avoiding having to spend any more time in jail."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roland Riemers",
        "text": "In 2012, Riemers' address was placed on the sex offender registry after he let a convicted sex offender move in with him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Criminal transmission of HIV",
        "text": "In February 2001 Stephen Kelly, an ex-prisoner and former IV drug user, was convicted of the Scots common law offence of \"recklessly injuring\" his former partner by infecting her with HIV. In \"HMA v Deveraux\" (2010), the HIV positive defendant pleaded guilty to reckless injury on four counts, one of which led to the victim contracting HIV."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alex Kelly (rapist)",
        "text": "In 2005, after having served eight years of his 10-year sentence, Kelly appeared before a Connecticut parole board; his bid for release was rejected. At the hearing Kelly apologized many times saying he was \"hypercompetitive\" and self-centered, and that he has finally realized that the world is bigger than him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jive Records",
        "text": "On September 27, 2021, singer R. Kelly was found guilty by a federal jury of acts including bribery and sexual exploitation of a child. Allegations of Kelly\u2019s sexual misconduct had long followed the singer since his early career with Jive in the early 1990s, as well as throughout the 2000s when a video tape surfaced allegedly showing Kelly engaging in sexual acts with a minor and when Kelly was arrested for possession of child pornography. Despite the scandals, Kelly remained signed to Jive\u2019s roster and continued to release albums with the label up to 2010. In 2018, the \"Washington Post\" ran a lengthy article alleging industry executives at Jive had been aware of Kelly's sexually abusive behavior towards young women for years, but did nothing about them due to his success as a performer and songwriter. Though the article reported Clive Calder had been warned about Kelly\u2019s behavior as early as 1994, Calder retrospectively told the \"Post\" he regretted not having done more at the time, saying \"Clearly, we missed something\u201d. Former Jive president Barry Weiss told the newspaper that during his 20 years with the label, he never concerned himself with Kelly's private life, and was unaware of two lawsuits filed against Kelly and the label by women alleging sexual misconduct, suits in which the label had successfully argued it was not liable. Larry Khan, another Jive executive who worked closely with the singer even after viewing the sex tape, similarly implied Kelly\u2019s misconduct was not the label's responsibility.\n* List of current Jive Records artists (artists at time of Jive\u2019s 2011 disestablishment)\n* List of former Jive Records artists (artists previously signed to Jive)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ken Kelley (journalist)",
        "text": "In 2005, Kelley was arrested on charges of possession of child pornography. While awaiting the outcome of an appeal, he had a heart attack in jail and died on January 13, 2008. In April 2008, federal prosecutors asked to drop charges against Kelley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vincent Michael Gaughan",
        "text": "In May and June 2008, he presided over the jury trial of the American singer and record producer, R. Kelly, in which Kelly was acquitted on all counts of child pornography charges. The men found guilty in the Brown's Chicken massacre case in 2007 and 2009, were convicted in Gaughan's courtroom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard A. Devine",
        "text": "Devine appeared in \"Surviving R. Kelly\", a 2019 Lifetime documentary series about sexual abuse allegations against musician R. Kelly. Though the 2008 trial of Kelly occurred at the end of Devine's tenure, he did not participate in the trial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Kelly (actor)",
        "text": "Mackaye denied claims in court that she had been romantically involved with Kelly before Raymond's death, but Kelly's love letters to her were introduced as evidence. She was charged with felony conspiracy for the attempted coverup, and sentenced to one to three years, but served less than 10 months. Kelly was sentenced to up to 10 years, but served only 25 months in San Quentin prison. Conditions of his release included that he must not marry for 18 months after his release, and that he would have to take a job as a clerk for $30 per week. Kelly found working as a clerk untenable, and convinced the supervisors of his parole to allow him to return to acting on Broadway, with the condition that he continued to be limited to an income of $30 per week."
      },
      {
        "title": "John William Kelley",
        "text": "In September 1986, Kelley was convicted of statutory rape in rural Santa Clara County, for which he spent 90 days behind bars and three years of probation. After he was let go, he married and settled in Ben Lomond."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard K. Allen",
        "text": "Thus Schneider will not have to register with the state as a sex offender. However, one of the conditions of his three-year probation is sex-offender treatment and monitoring. Should he violate those terms, he will serve time in jail."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard Kelly (politician)",
        "text": "Kelley was convicted of taking $25,000 in bribes. He claimed he had conducted his own undercover operation and spent part of the money to maintain that cover, but was convicted and served thirteen months of a 6 to 18 month sentence at the federal prison camp at Eglin Air Force Base. During his third term, he also divorced his wife and married his secretary. He was released from a halfway house in 1986."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stars in Their Eyes",
        "text": "In January 2003, Kelly was arrested by police over allegations of child sex abuse resulting in Davina McCall temporarily guest hosting the show for three celebrity specials that were broadcast the following month. Kelly returned after the charges were dropped."
      },
      {
        "title": "United States v. Kebodeaux",
        "text": "The respondent, Anthony Kebodeaux, was convicted by a court-martial of a federal sex offense. After dishonorable discharge from the Air Force, Kebodeaux moved to Texas, where he registered with state authorities as a sex offender. When he moved within Texas, he failed to update his registration and was prosecuted under SORNA. The District Court convicted. He later appealed to the Fifth Circuit, which overturned his conviction under the Wetterling Act, as SORNA had not been passed at the time of his conviction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Little Rascals day care sexual abuse trial",
        "text": "Each defendant was tried separately, with Robert Kelly the first to be tried. Testimony lasted nine months with 12 children providing descriptions of sexual and physical abuse: babies ritualistically killed, victims taken out on boats and thrown overboard, and inappropriate trips in hot air balloons. In April 1992, \"Robert Kelly Jr. was convicted of 99 of 100 counts of rape and related crimes against children.\" One of the mothers of the 12 children that testified against Kelly stated that she felt \"overwhelming relief\". The six other defendants, including Kelly's wife, had trials later. The jury believed the children on the witness stand. One juror stated \"the children were convincing\". Kelly and his supporters maintained that he was innocent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert A. McKee",
        "text": "McKee pleaded guilty to possession of child pornography on September 5, 2008, and was sentenced to a 37-month term, which will be followed by lifetime supervised probation. U.S. District Judge William D. Quarles Jr. also ordered McKee to register as a sex offender."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Admit",
        "text": "In \"I Admit\", Kelly admits to various acts, including dropping out of high school and not attending church. Kelly claims to be dyslexic, and asserts that his inability to read his recording contract caused him to forfeit publishing rights to his music, which contributed to Kelly's financial troubles, including his $20million tax debt to the Internal Revenue Service. In the song, Kelly confesses that he was sexually unfaithful and frequented strip clubs. Kelly reveals that he lost his virginity in his childhood when he was raped by an older female family member, elaborating on the disclosures from his 2012 autobiography, \"Soulacoaster: The Diary of Me\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "A documentary series focused on R. Kelly's history of alleged sexual abuse was green-lit by Lifetime in May 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Carney",
        "text": "On 21 January 2013, Carney sentenced 72-year-old sex offender Patrick O\u2019Brien to 12 years in jail with nine years suspended for raping and sexually assaulting his daughter. Carney then granted the convicted man bail pending an appeal, which was considered by legal commentators to be \"very unusual\" since bail is usually only granted before someone is sentenced. Three days later Carney revoked the bail, and apologised and admitted he was wrong and insensitive to the victim."
      },
      {
        "title": "Molly Shattuck",
        "text": "When the headmaster at the victim's school received information regarding the alleged inappropriate behavior, he immediately reported the allegations to authorities. After Shattuck pleaded guilty, Judge E. Scott Bradley sentenced her to serve 48 weekends in prison, register as a sex offender and undergo sexual disorder counseling, and pay for the victim's counseling, and $10,650 in restitution to the victim's family."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jerilderie Letter",
        "text": "The Jerilderie Letter has been described as both Kelly's \"manifesto\" and his \"confession\". In it, Kelly admits to crimes but claims he was forced into becoming a criminal because of police persecution of himself and his family. He also gives his version of the killing of three police officers at Stringybark Creek in Victoria in October 1878, arguing that he shot the men in self-defence: \"... this cannot be called wilful murder for I was compelled to shoot them, or lie down and let them shoot me\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "As of October 2021, following his New York conviction, Kelly's YouTube channel was terminated, but his catalogue remains available on YouTube Music."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Admit",
        "text": "R. Kelly's brother, Carey Killa Kelly, released a diss track named \"I Confess\" on YouTube on August 3, 2018. Replying to R. Kelly's claim on \"I Admit\" that Carey abandoned him, Carey echoes an April 2018 sexual misconduct allegation in which a woman accused R. Kelly of intentionally giving her a sexually transmitted infection. In \"I Confess\", Carey also implies that R. Kelly had sex with other men."
      },
      {
        "title": "It Wasn't Me",
        "text": "Levin repeated the term on NPR. The term describes a strategy of flatly denying guilt and refusing to engage with the evidence against the defendant, no matter how overwhelming. R. Kelly was ultimately found not guilty on all charges."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On March 6, 2019, Gayle King interviewed Kelly on \"CBS This Morning\", where he insisted on his innocence and blamed social media for the allegations. During the interview, Kelly had an emotional outburst where he stood up, pounded his chest, and yelled. Two women who described themselves as a Kelly's girlfriends and whose parents say are brainwashed captives, declared their love for Kelly and defended him during the broadcast."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Kelly (murderer)",
        "text": "For five years, Kelly was regarded as a model inmate. On 23 January 1888, he escaped from Broadmoor, using a key he fabricated himself by modelling a piece of metal. A fugitive arrest warrant to return him to the hospital was distributed. On 10 November 1888, the day following Mary Jane Kelly's murder, police searched the house of Sarah Brider's parents, which was Kelly's last home address before his sentencing, but Kelly was not there."
      },
      {
        "title": "MBM scandal",
        "text": "Kelly was later convicted of extorting $34,500 from a Worcester architectural firm. He was sentenced to two years in prison. After his release he spent many years living in Florida and later moved to Colorado, where he died on August 9, 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Day-care sex-abuse hysteria",
        "text": "In Edenton, North Carolina, in January 1989, a parent accused Bob Kelly of sexual abuse. During the next several months, investigations and therapy resulted in allegations against dozens of other adults in the town, culminating in the arrest of seven adults."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In March 2018, BBC World Service aired a documentary entitled \"R Kelly: Sex, Girls and Videotapes\" presented by reporter Ben Zand that explored the 2017 allegations. This was followed up in May with the BBC Three documentary \"R Kelly: The Sex Scandal Continues\" which included interviews with the parents of the Savage daughters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Patrick Kelly (former RCMP officer)",
        "text": "Kelly was given parole in May 2010."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Former Jive president Barry Weiss told the newspaper that during 20 years with the label he never concerned himself with Kelly's private life and was unaware of two lawsuits filed against Kelly and the label by young women alleging sexual misconduct while they were minors, suits in which the label had successfully argued it was not liable. Larry Khan, another Jive executive who worked closely with the singer even after viewing the sex tape, likewise implied it was not the label's responsibility, and pointed to Chuck Berry and Jerry Lee Lewis as musicians whose labels continued to release and promote their records despite public awareness that they were involved with underage girls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Little Rascals day care sexual abuse trial",
        "text": "In March 1992, \"Mr. Kelly, 43 years old, (was) facing 100 charges of sexually abusing a dozen children in 1988 and 1989 at the Little Rascals Day Care Center...Originally there were 248 charges involving 22 children, but the prosecution had withdrawn many charges while Judge D. Marsh McLelland...ha(d) dismissed others.\" \"The assistant district attorney said, \"their reactions fit the pattern of a traumatized child. They are a consistent picture that paints abuse.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Bridget Anne Kelly",
        "text": "On November 4, 2016, Kelly was convicted for her involvement in the \"Bridgegate\" affair. She was sentenced to 18 months imprisonment (later reduced to 13 months) on March 29, 2017. On May 7, 2020, the United States Supreme Court, in a rare unanimous decision, overturned her conviction."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why did R. Kelly become a sex offender?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Since the 1990s, R. Kelly has been repeatedly accused of sexual abuse, often with underage girls.  Do you want to know more about why did R. Kelly become a sex offender on early reports of sexual abuse (1990s), first criminal indictment (2002), second series of criminal charges (2019\u20132021) or criminal conviction (2021)?"
    ],
    "topic": "R. Kelly",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "R. Kelly:0",
        "passage_titles": [],
        "ctx": "R. Kelly\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n----1990\u20131996: \"Born into the 90's\", \"12 Play\" and \"R. Kelly\".\n----1997\u20132001: Basketball, \"R.\", \"TP-2.COM,\" and Rockland Records.\n------Rockland Records.\n----2002\u20132003: \"The Best of Both Worlds\" and \"Chocolate Factory\".\n----2004\u20132005: \"Unfinished Business, Happy People/U Saved Me\" and \"TP.3 Reloaded\".\n----2006\u20132009: \"Double Up\" and \"Untitled\", Africa.\n----2010\u20132012: \"Epic\", \"Love Letter\", throat surgery, and \"Write Me Back\".\n----2013\u20132016: \"Black Panties\", \"The Buffet\", and \"12 Nights of Christmas\".\n--Artistry.\n----Musical style and influences.\n----Vocal style and lyrical themes.\n--Sexual abuse allegations.\n----Early reports of sexual abuse (1990s).\n----Illegal marriage (1994).\n----Sex tape circulates (2002).\n----First criminal indictment (2002).\n----Allegations of preteen girl molestation (2009).\n----Huffington Post Live Interview (2015).\n----Alleged sex cult (2010s).\n----Boycott and industry response.\n------Allegations of music industry complicity.\n----Musical response to allegations.\n----\"Surviving R. Kelly\" (2019\u20132020).\n----Second series of criminal charges (2019\u20132021).\n----Criminal conviction (2021).\n----Other legal issues.\n--Influence.\n--Personal life.\n----Charity and donations.\n--Honors and awards.\n"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "R. Kelly:0",
        "passage_titles": [],
        "ctx": "R. Kelly\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n----1990\u20131996: \"Born into the 90's\", \"12 Play\" and \"R. Kelly\".\n----1997\u20132001: Basketball, \"R.\", \"TP-2.COM,\" and Rockland Records.\n------Rockland Records.\n----2002\u20132003: \"The Best of Both Worlds\" and \"Chocolate Factory\".\n----2004\u20132005: \"Unfinished Business, Happy People/U Saved Me\" and \"TP.3 Reloaded\".\n----2006\u20132009: \"Double Up\" and \"Untitled\", Africa.\n----2010\u20132012: \"Epic\", \"Love Letter\", throat surgery, and \"Write Me Back\".\n----2013\u20132016: \"Black Panties\", \"The Buffet\", and \"12 Nights of Christmas\".\n--Artistry.\n----Musical style and influences.\n----Vocal style and lyrical themes.\n--Sexual abuse allegations.\n----Early reports of sexual abuse (1990s).\n----Illegal marriage (1994).\n----Sex tape circulates (2002).\n----First criminal indictment (2002).\n----Allegations of preteen girl molestation (2009).\n----Huffington Post Live Interview (2015).\n----Alleged sex cult (2010s).\n----Boycott and industry response.\n------Allegations of music industry complicity.\n----Musical response to allegations.\n----\"Surviving R. Kelly\" (2019\u20132020).\n----Second series of criminal charges (2019\u20132021).\n----Criminal conviction (2021).\n----Other legal issues.\n--Influence.\n--Personal life.\n----Charity and donations.\n--Honors and awards.\n"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "R. Kelly:0",
        "passage_titles": [],
        "ctx": "R. Kelly\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n----1990\u20131996: \"Born into the 90's\", \"12 Play\" and \"R. Kelly\".\n----1997\u20132001: Basketball, \"R.\", \"TP-2.COM,\" and Rockland Records.\n------Rockland Records.\n----2002\u20132003: \"The Best of Both Worlds\" and \"Chocolate Factory\".\n----2004\u20132005: \"Unfinished Business, Happy People/U Saved Me\" and \"TP.3 Reloaded\".\n----2006\u20132009: \"Double Up\" and \"Untitled\", Africa.\n----2010\u20132012: \"Epic\", \"Love Letter\", throat surgery, and \"Write Me Back\".\n----2013\u20132016: \"Black Panties\", \"The Buffet\", and \"12 Nights of Christmas\".\n--Artistry.\n----Musical style and influences.\n----Vocal style and lyrical themes.\n--Sexual abuse allegations.\n----Early reports of sexual abuse (1990s).\n----Illegal marriage (1994).\n----Sex tape circulates (2002).\n----First criminal indictment (2002).\n----Allegations of preteen girl molestation (2009).\n----Huffington Post Live Interview (2015).\n----Alleged sex cult (2010s).\n----Boycott and industry response.\n------Allegations of music industry complicity.\n----Musical response to allegations.\n----\"Surviving R. Kelly\" (2019\u20132020).\n----Second series of criminal charges (2019\u20132021).\n----Criminal conviction (2021).\n----Other legal issues.\n--Influence.\n--Personal life.\n----Charity and donations.\n--Honors and awards.\n"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "R. Kelly:0",
        "passage_titles": [],
        "ctx": "R. Kelly\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n----1990\u20131996: \"Born into the 90's\", \"12 Play\" and \"R. Kelly\".\n----1997\u20132001: Basketball, \"R.\", \"TP-2.COM,\" and Rockland Records.\n------Rockland Records.\n----2002\u20132003: \"The Best of Both Worlds\" and \"Chocolate Factory\".\n----2004\u20132005: \"Unfinished Business, Happy People/U Saved Me\" and \"TP.3 Reloaded\".\n----2006\u20132009: \"Double Up\" and \"Untitled\", Africa.\n----2010\u20132012: \"Epic\", \"Love Letter\", throat surgery, and \"Write Me Back\".\n----2013\u20132016: \"Black Panties\", \"The Buffet\", and \"12 Nights of Christmas\".\n--Artistry.\n----Musical style and influences.\n----Vocal style and lyrical themes.\n--Sexual abuse allegations.\n----Early reports of sexual abuse (1990s).\n----Illegal marriage (1994).\n----Sex tape circulates (2002).\n----First criminal indictment (2002).\n----Allegations of preteen girl molestation (2009).\n----Huffington Post Live Interview (2015).\n----Alleged sex cult (2010s).\n----Boycott and industry response.\n------Allegations of music industry complicity.\n----Musical response to allegations.\n----\"Surviving R. Kelly\" (2019\u20132020).\n----Second series of criminal charges (2019\u20132021).\n----Criminal conviction (2021).\n----Other legal issues.\n--Influence.\n--Personal life.\n----Charity and donations.\n--Honors and awards.\n"
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Since the 1990s, Kelly has been repeatedly accused of sexual abuse, often with underage girls. He has faced multiple civil suits and has been charged by criminal courts in Chicago, New York, Illinois, and Minnesota. He repeatedly denied the charges. In June 2002, he was indicted on 21 counts of making child pornography. He was acquitted six years later in 2008. In January 2019, a widely viewed Lifetime docuseries titled \"Surviving R. Kelly\" detailed allegations of sexual abuse by multiple women, allegations that Kelly continued to deny. Facing pressure from the public using the Mute R. Kelly hashtag, RCA Records dropped Kelly."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In July 2021, Federal prosecutors asked the court to include alleged evidence of bribes, recordings of threats and more allegations of sexual abuse of minors, including an underaged boy he met at McDonald's, as pattern evidence in his trial."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly has repeatedly faced allegations of sexual abuse that have resulted in multiple civil suits and criminal trials."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In December 2000, the \"Chicago Sun-Times\" first reported that police had made two investigations that Kelly was having sex with an underage female but had to drop the investigations due to lack of cooperation by the girls accusing him. A civil suit filed in 1996 by Tiffany Hawkins detailed allegations that, starting in 1991 when she was age 15, Kelly had sex with her as an underage high school student, encouraged her to recruit her school friends, and pressured her into engaging in group sex with other underage girls. In 1998, Kelly settled the lawsuit with Hawkins for $250,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Palladino",
        "text": "In 2002, singer, songwriter, and record producer R. Kelly was charged with videotaping himself having sex with an underage teenage girl. An investigation by Palladino that lasted six years culminated in Palladino's testimony at trial challenging the principal prosecution witness, and the acquittal of Kelly in less than a day."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On February 22, 2019, the Cook County State's Attorney's Office in Illinois charged Kelly with 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse. The charges allege that from 1998 to 2010, Kelly sexually abused four females, three of whom were teen minors at the time, with evidence including a video provided by Michael Avenatti of an alleged new crime. After Kelly turned himself in the day the charges were announced, he was arrested by the Chicago Police Department and taken into custody. The judge set bond at $1 million and ordered Kelly to have no contact with any minor under 18 or alleged victim. Kelly pleaded not guilty to all charges, which he called lies. He was released on bail after three nights in jail at Cook County."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "The federal trial began on August 18, 2021. After weeks of testimony and two days of deliberations, on September 27, 2021, the jury found Kelly guilty on nine counts including racketeering, sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, sex trafficking, and a violation of the Mann Act. The judge ordered that Kelly remain in custody pending sentencing, which was set for May 4, 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On February 3, 2002, a video circulated that allegedly showed Kelly engaging in sex with, and urinating on, an underage girl. After the video was released by an unknown source and sent to the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", the publisher broke the story on February 8, 2002, the same day Kelly performed at the opening ceremony of the 2002 Winter Olympics. Kelly said in interviews that he was not the man in the video."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly was again accused of misconduct on April 17, 2018, by a former partner of his who claimed that Kelly \"intentionally\" infected her with a sexually transmitted disease. A representative for Kelly stated that he \"categorically denies all claims and allegations\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "R v Cuerrier",
        "text": "In 2003, Edward Kelly was charged, and convicted of knowingly exposing four women to HIV, and sentenced to three years in prison. In 2004, Jennifer Murphy became the first woman charged in Canada with failing to disclose her HIV status to a sexual partner. She spent one year under house arrest before the charge was withdrawn in 2007, mainly because she had insisted on condom use during the incident."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In 2019, Kelly was indicted by a Cook County grand jury in Chicago on 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse in February, followed by an additional 11 counts of sexual assault and abuse filed by the same court in May. On July 11, 2019, he was arrested on federal charges alleging sex crimes, human trafficking, child pornography, racketeering, and obstruction of justice. Kelly faced a total of 22 federal criminal charges as of January 29, 2021. A federal judge ordered Kelly jailed pending trial on the charges. On September 27, 2021, a federal jury in New York found Kelly guilty on nine counts including racketeering, sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, sex trafficking, and a violation of the Mann Act. The judge ordered that he remain in custody pending sentencing, set for May 4, 2022. Kelly faces a second trial for producing child pornography set for August 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On July 12, 2019, federal prosecutors from New York and Chicago indicted Kelly on 18 charges, including child sexual exploitation, child pornography production, sex trafficking, kidnapping, forced labor, racketeering, and obstruction of justice. He was first denied bail in October 2019 and denied bail release again in April 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. Superseding indictments were filed in Chicago on February 13, 2020, and in New York on March 13, 2020, raising the total number of charges to 22. He was incarcerated at Metropolitan Correctional Center, Chicago from July 11, 2019, to June 23, 2021. On June 23, 2021, Kelly was transferred to Metropolitan Detention Center, Brooklyn."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly's record label, RCA Records, dropped him shortly after the docuseries aired. On February 22, 2019, R. Kelly was formally charged with 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse. On March 6, 2019, in a \"CBS This Morning\" interview with Gayle King, R. Kelly broke down crying while strongly denying all allegations and charges made against him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greg Kelly",
        "text": "In January\u2013February 2012 Kelly was investigated by the Manhattan District Attorney's office upon an accusation of rape. Kelly was never arrested nor charged with a crime. After an investigation, the District Attorney issued a letter stating that under NY state criminal law, the incident did not constitute a crime. Kelly returned to work February 13, 2012. On June 9, 2014, Kelly's accuser spoke publicly for the first time about her 2012 allegations against Kelly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim DeRogatis",
        "text": "DeRogatis and Abdon Pallasch reported for the \"Chicago Sun-Times\" in December 2000 that court records and interviews alleged that musician R. Kelly had used his position of fame and influence to meet and have sex with underage girls. DeRogatis and Pallasch reported in February 2002 that a videotape had surfaced allegedly featuring Kelly engaging in sex with a 14-year-old girl. As a \"Sun-Times\" music critic, DeRogatis had received the videotape and subsequently turned it over to police."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ruth Kelly",
        "text": "On 9 January 2006, it came to light that Kelly's department had granted permission for a man who had been cautioned by police for viewing child pornography images and who was on a sex offenders register to be employed at a school, on the basis that he had not been convicted of an offence. He, and an unknown number of others on the sex offenders register, were not on the DfES prohibited list, \"List 99\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In June 2002, Kelly was indicted in Chicago on 21 counts of child pornography. That same month on June 6, 2002, Kelly was arrested by the Miami Police Department on a Chicago arrest warrant at his Florida vacation home. He was released after one night in jail, the following day after posting bail of $750,000. The alleged victim refused to testify at the trial, and a Chicago jury found Kelly not guilty on all 14 counts of child pornography in June 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shaggy defense",
        "text": "On February 3, 2002, a video surfaced showing popular R&B musician R. Kelly statutorily raping, and urinating on, an underage girl. The story, which was released by an unknown source, was sent to the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", the newspaper that broke the story on February 8, 2002. This news surfaced as Kelly was to perform at the opening ceremony of the 2002 Winter Olympics. In interviews with WMAQ television of Chicago and MTV News, Kelly said that he was not the man in the video. In June 2002, Kelly was indicted in Chicago on 21 counts of child pornography. That same month, Kelly was apprehended by the Miami Police Department on a Chicago arrest warrant."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "R. Kelly\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n----1990\u20131996: \"Born into the 90's\", \"12 Play\" and \"R. Kelly\".\n----1997\u20132001: Basketball, \"R.\", \"TP-2.COM,\" and Rockland Records.\n------Rockland Records.\n----2002\u20132003: \"The Best of Both Worlds\" and \"Chocolate Factory\".\n----2004\u20132005: \"Unfinished Business, Happy People/U Saved Me\" and \"TP.3 Reloaded\".\n----2006\u20132009: \"Double Up\" and \"Untitled\", Africa.\n----2010\u20132012: \"Epic\", \"Love Letter\", throat surgery, and \"Write Me Back\".\n----2013\u20132016: \"Black Panties\", \"The Buffet\", and \"12 Nights of Christmas\".\n--Artistry.\n----Musical style and influences.\n----Vocal style and lyrical themes.\n--Sexual abuse allegations.\n----Early reports of sexual abuse (1990s).\n----Illegal marriage (1994).\n----Sex tape circulates (2002).\n----First criminal indictment (2002).\n----Allegations of preteen girl molestation (2009).\n----Huffington Post Live Interview (2015).\n----Alleged sex cult (2010s).\n----Boycott and industry response.\n------Allegations of music industry complicity.\n----Musical response to allegations.\n----\"Surviving R. Kelly\" (2019\u20132020).\n----Second series of criminal charges (2019\u20132021).\n----Criminal conviction (2021).\n----Other legal issues.\n--Influence.\n--Personal life.\n----Charity and donations.\n--Honors and awards.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "\"The Washington Post\" also suggested the labels were complicit in the sex-cult allegations from the previous summer's \"BuzzFeed\" piece. Employees at the studios where Kelly recorded were required to sign non-disclosure agreements and not enter certain rooms, which they said they believed were where Kelly made the young women and underage girls stay while he worked. Despite the agreements, the newspaper was able to publish screenshots of text exchanges where young women and underage girls in the rooms asked Kelly's assistants to let them out so they could go to the bathroom or get food. The newspaper also published pictures taken after Kelly had concluded a six-week session at a Los Angeles studio, paid for by his then-current label, RCA Records, showing a cup of urine sitting on a piano and urine stains on the wooden floor of another room."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dream Hampton",
        "text": "Hampton was executive producer of \"Surviving R. Kelly\", a 2019 documentary series about the decades of sexual-abuse allegations against R. Kelly. Page six reported that a Homeland Security agent had watched the series and started a federal investigation into the victims' allegations. After its release, Kelly was charged with aggravated criminal sexual abuse and other crimes for an eventual total of 18 federal charges."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "While investigating the photographs reported in the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", Polk County Sheriff's Office conducted a search of Kelly's residence in Davenport, Florida. During the search, officers recovered 12 images of an alleged underage girl on a digital camera\u00a0\u2013 wrapped in a towel in a duffel bag \u2013 which allegedly depicted Kelly \"involved in sexual conduct with the female minor.\" According to the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", the girl in the images obtained from Kelly's Florida home also appears in the videotape which got Kelly indicted in Chicago. Kelly was arrested on January 22, 2003, by Police investigators from Polk County and Miami-Dade County, at Miami's Wyndham Grand Bay Hotel on those charges of 12 counts of possession of child pornography. Kelly was later released from Miami-Dade county jail hours after on a bond posted of $12,000. In March 2004, these charges were dropped due to a lack of probable cause for the search warrants."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In a divorce court filing unsealed in 2020, R. Kelly's former wife Andrea claims that R. Kelly was accused of molesting a preteen girl in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "XHamster",
        "text": "Following the airing of a Lifetime Network documentary-style film, \"Surviving R.Kelly\", xHamster reported a 388% increase in R.Kelly related searches since January 2019. The Lifetime film presents R.Kelly's arrest, trial, and acquittal on child pornography charges between 2002 and 2008. Censored from xHamster's website, the \"infamous\" sex tape features the hip-hop artist engaged in sexual relations with and urinating on, an underage girl. In a bid to reprimand viewers who search for the sex tape, xHamster denounced seeking the tape as both \"illegal\" and \"immoral\". xHamster emphasized in their public statement that searching for the video may even be \"re-victimizing a minor who could not consent\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Jim DeRogatis reported for \"BuzzFeed News\" on July 17, 2017, that Kelly was accused by three sets of parents of holding their daughters in an \"abusive cult\". Kelly and the alleged victims deny the allegations."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On March 6, 2019, Gayle King interviewed Kelly on \"CBS This Morning\", where he insisted on his innocence and blamed social media for the allegations. During the interview, Kelly had an emotional outburst where he stood up, pounded his chest, and yelled. Two women who described themselves as a Kelly's girlfriends and whose parents say are brainwashed captives, declared their love for Kelly and defended him during the broadcast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ann Donnelly",
        "text": "She also tried the singer R. Kelly in his sex trafficking trial, where he was convicted of all charges and is scheduled to be sentenced on May 4, 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In March 2018, BBC World Service aired a documentary entitled \"R Kelly: Sex, Girls and Videotapes\" presented by reporter Ben Zand that explored the 2017 allegations. This was followed up in May with the BBC Three documentary \"R Kelly: The Sex Scandal Continues\" which included interviews with the parents of the Savage daughters."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Admit",
        "text": "R. Kelly's brother, Carey Killa Kelly, released a diss track named \"I Confess\" on YouTube on August 3, 2018. Replying to R. Kelly's claim on \"I Admit\" that Carey abandoned him, Carey echoes an April 2018 sexual misconduct allegation in which a woman accused R. Kelly of intentionally giving her a sexually transmitted infection. In \"I Confess\", Carey also implies that R. Kelly had sex with other men."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "\"The Washington Post\" ran a lengthy article in May 2018, alleging that music industry executives had been aware of Kelly's sexually abusive behavior toward underage girls for years but did little or nothing about them due to his success as a performer and songwriter. As early as 1994, the newspaper reported, his tour manager had urged Jive Records' founder Clive Calder to tell Kelly he would not release the singer's records if he continued to have \"incidents\" with young women after every concert he gave. Calder told the \"Post\" that he regretted not having done more at the time, saying \"Clearly, we missed something.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On July 11, 2019, Kelly was arrested on federal charges alleging sex crimes and obstruction of justice by U.S. Homeland Security investigators and NYPD detectives in Chicago."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "After the jury delivered their verdict, women's rights attorney Gloria Allred, who represented several victims, stated that Kelly was the worst sexual predator she had pursued in her 47-year career of practicing law."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly said members of his household would act differently when his mother and grandparents were not home. From age eight to 14, he was sexually abused by an older female family member. Kelly's younger brother Carey stated that he suffered from years of sexual abuse at the hands of his older sister, Theresa, who was entrusted with babysitting her siblings. Carey stated that although their older brother was spared and allowed to play outside, both he and Kelly were punished at separate times indoors by Theresa, who refused to acknowledge the abuse when confronted years later. Explaining why he never told anyone, Kelly wrote in his 2012 autobiography \"Soulacoaster\" that he was \"too afraid and too ashamed\". Around age 10, Kelly was also sexually abused by an older male who was a friend of the family. In his autobiography, Kelly described being shot in the shoulder, at age 11, by boys who were attempting to steal his bike, although a family friend later stated that Kelly had shot himself while attempting suicide."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "After a July 1996 brawl at a Lafayette, Louisiana health club involving Kelly and his entourage, Kelly was placed on a year's unsupervised probation starting August 13, 1997, after being found guilty of battery. One of the victims needed 110 facial stitches. Also that year, a 20-year-old accused Kelly in civil court of having sexual relations with her when he was 24 and she was 15. Kelly settled the lawsuit in 1998 for $250,000, according to the \"Chicago Sun-Times\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Admit",
        "text": "Kelly was convicted of nine criminal counts, including racketeering (involving sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, and sex trafficking) and violations of the Mann Act, on September 28, 2021. A few fans of Kelly played \"I Admit\" beside the courthouse shortly after the judgment was issued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "The National Sexual Assault Hotline in the United States, operated by the Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (RAINN), experienced a 27% increase in calls during the airing of the documentary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "A documentary series focused on R. Kelly's history of alleged sexual abuse was green-lit by Lifetime in May 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aaliyah",
        "text": "After the documentary \"Surviving R Kelly\" aired in January 2019, pressure from the public using the Mute R. Kelly hashtag escalated and RCA Records dropped Kelly from the label. In February 2019, Kelly was indicted on ten counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse. In July 2019, he was arrested on federal charges alleging sex crimes, human trafficking, child pornography, racketeering, and obstruction of justice. When his trial began in August 2021, Kelly was facing 22 federal criminal charges that involved allegedly abusing 11 girls and women between 1994 and 2018. Aaliyah\u2019s illegal marriage to Kelly was heavily featured in the court case. On September 27, 2021, a federal court jury found R. Kelly guilty on nine counts including racketeering, sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, sex trafficking, and a violation of the Mann Act. The judge ordered that Kelly remain in custody pending sentencing, which was set for May 4, 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Little Rascals day care sexual abuse trial",
        "text": "In March 1992, \"Mr. Kelly, 43 years old, (was) facing 100 charges of sexually abusing a dozen children in 1988 and 1989 at the Little Rascals Day Care Center...Originally there were 248 charges involving 22 children, but the prosecution had withdrawn many charges while Judge D. Marsh McLelland...ha(d) dismissed others.\" \"The assistant district attorney said, \"their reactions fit the pattern of a traumatized child. They are a consistent picture that paints abuse.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Shaggy defense",
        "text": "According to Josh Levin of \"Slate\", \"As Kelly's lawyers mentioned multiple times, the alleged victim in this case\u2014now a 23-year-old woman\u2014told a grand jury that it wasn't her. While 15 friends and relatives testified that the girl in question was indeed on the video, neither the alleged victim nor her parents showed up in court to testify for either side.\" The prosecution witness Lisa Van Allen was easily impeached as a witness due to her clearly sordid history with R. Kelly, others, and even soliciting a bribe from an investigator in the case. One juror told the \"Chicago Tribune\", \"At some point we said there was a lack of evidence.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard A. Devine",
        "text": "Devine appeared in \"Surviving R. Kelly\", a 2019 Lifetime documentary series about sexual abuse allegations against musician R. Kelly. Though the 2008 trial of Kelly occurred at the end of Devine's tenure, he did not participate in the trial."
      },
      {
        "title": "John William Kelley",
        "text": "Years later, in May 1995, he was arrested for rape again in Eureka. He had offered a ride to an acquaintance who needed to run some errands, but at one point, they stopped at his house, where he proceeded to rape her. For this, Kelley was jailed for six years, and was required to register as a sex offender."
      },
      {
        "title": "Matthew Kelly",
        "text": "In January 2003, Kelly was arrested by police over allegations of child sex abuse, which arose as part of Operation Arundel. The following month he was cleared of all charges. In response to his public arrest, and the later media fallout that drew public criticism, his treatment was raised as a motion in Parliament to consider \"ways to protect the anonymity of those investigated until formally charged with an offence.\" This was later debated within Parliament as part of a wider response to investigations into allegations of historical crimes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Partner violence in hip hop",
        "text": "\"Surviving R. Kelly\", a three-part television documentary which aired in January 2019, described R. Kelly's history of sexual assault. Kelly was charged with 10 counts of sexual assault in the Chicago metropolitan area from 1998 to 2010. Three of the 10 victims were between the ages of 13 and 16. During the 1990s, Kelly was found to be married to 15-year-old Aaliyah. The marriage was annulled, and Kelly said that he thought Aaliyah was 18."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mute R. Kelly",
        "text": "Over two decades, R. Kelly has faced allegations of sexual abuse of minors, including marrying a 15-year-old girl (which was found to be factual), R&B singer Aaliyah, by listing her age as 18 on the marriage certificate that had falsified documents which supported the false age. The singer has also been sued and accused of supposed sex with an underage girl. On one count it is apparent Kelly videotaped one of these encounters. The singer then went on to face more charges of underage sex charges, child pornography charges and sex cult claims. The singer denies all of these allegations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Little Rascals day care sexual abuse trial",
        "text": "Each defendant was tried separately, with Robert Kelly the first to be tried. Testimony lasted nine months with 12 children providing descriptions of sexual and physical abuse: babies ritualistically killed, victims taken out on boats and thrown overboard, and inappropriate trips in hot air balloons. In April 1992, \"Robert Kelly Jr. was convicted of 99 of 100 counts of rape and related crimes against children.\" One of the mothers of the 12 children that testified against Kelly stated that she felt \"overwhelming relief\". The six other defendants, including Kelly's wife, had trials later. The jury believed the children on the witness stand. One juror stated \"the children were convincing\". Kelly and his supporters maintained that he was innocent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jessa Duggar Seewald",
        "text": "In a June 2015 interview on \"The Kelly File\", Seewald identified herself as one of the girls sexually abused by her oldest brother, Josh Duggar, when he was a teenager. She described the abuse as \u201cmild inappropriate touching,\u201d saying it occurred while she was sleeping and fully clothed. Seewald further stated she became aware of the abuse after her parents told her what had occurred following her brother's confession. While Seewald described the abuse as \u201cvery wrong,\u201d she decried those referring to her brother as a \"child molester\" or a \"pedophile\" or a \"rapist\", saying, \u201cthat is so overboard, and a lie, really.\u201d Regarding the police reports describing the abuse while she was a minor being released to the media, Seewald said, \u201cthe system that was set up to protect kids...it's greatly failed.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In January 2019, Lifetime began airing a six-part documentary series titled Surviving R. Kelly detailing sexual abuse and misconduct allegations against Kelly. Writing for the \"Los Angeles Times\", Loraine Ali observed that the series covered a range of in-depth interviews that \"paint a picture of a predator whose behavior was consistently overlooked by the industry, his peers and the public while his spiritual hit was sung in churches and schools.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Catholic Church sexual abuse cases in Europe",
        "text": "An unnamed woman going by the name of 'Irene Kelly' complains of continual physical and sexual abuse by nuns at a Dublin orphanage from the age of 6 to 11. She considers the abuse which happened during the 1960s, \"cruelty beyond belief\". 'Kelly' also witnessed babies being treated cruelly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catholic Church sex abuse cases in the United States",
        "text": "The John Jay report identified that the reported sexual abuse cases had a sharp increase in the 1960s and continued to do so until the decrease of reported sexual abuse cases in the 1980s. The decrease in allegations has continued until today. There does not appear to be a single primary cause of the abuse patterns within the Catholic clergy; however, the John Jay report suggests that many of the abusing priests were inclined to abuse victims because they themselves have experienced childhood sexual abuse first hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Day-care sex-abuse hysteria",
        "text": "Despite the severity of some of the alleged acts, parents noticed no abnormal behaviour in their children until after initial accusations were made. Bob Kelly's trial lasted eight months and on April 22, 1992, he was convicted of 99 out of 100 counts against him. In 1995, the North Carolina Court of Appeals granted new trials to two defendants, including Kelly. Charges were ultimately dismissed for both."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Clohessy",
        "text": "Clohessy has said that he was the victim of sexual abuse as a teenager (from 1969-1973) by priest Fr. John J. Whiteley, in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Jefferson City."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael David Pfeifer",
        "text": "The 2018 Pennsylvania Grand Jury Report on sexual abuse by clergy included a section on the transfer of Thomas C. Kelley, a priest from the Diocese of Erie in Pennsylvania, to the Diocese of San Angelo, despite a record of sexual abuse of young men. Five men aged 28 to 25 accused Kelley of sexual advances either at a high school or in the seminary; one man received a financial settlement from the Diocese of Erie. Kelley was sent to for psychological treatment twice; both facilities released him with recommendations that the have no contact with young parishioners."
      },
      {
        "title": "R v JA",
        "text": "As a result, J.A. was guilty of sexual assault."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "However, during the interview, Modarressy-Tehrani quizzed Kelly about the sexual abuse allegations being levelled against him and wanted to gauge his reaction. This resulted in Kelly growing angry and defensive. He continually shouted over Modarressy-Tehrani, asked her whether she drank and threatened to leave and go to McDonalds. Kelly ultimately stormed out of the interview before it ended. This was one of the first occasions where Kelly was concretely asked about the allegations against him on a public platform."
      },
      {
        "title": "Little Rascals day care sexual abuse trial",
        "text": "Kelly was convicted and sentenced to 12 consecutive life terms in prison. The trial \"included 83 prosecution witnesses and 60 defense witnesses\". The children had testified that Kelly had forced them to have different types of sex. The parents testified that the children exhibited abnormal behavior. \"Twelve children, between the ages of 4 and 7, testified, and the results of physical and psychological tests of them were presented as evidence.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sexual abuse cases in the Congregation of Christian Brothers",
        "text": "In 2016, two former Christian Brothers were sent to prison for both sexual and physical abuse. John Farrell, the former Headmaster of St Ninian's Falkland, was sentenced to five years, and Paul Kelly ten years."
      },
      {
        "title": "R v McManus and Harvey",
        "text": "A civil servant, Desmond Patrick Kelly, was subsequently charged with a breach of the Commonwealth Crimes Act, but at a pre-trial hearing in August 2005 McManus and Harvey refused to give evidence. Nevertheless, Kelly was still found guilty of leaking confidential material, but in October 2006 the Victorian Court of Appeal overturned the conviction finding there was insufficient evidence to prove that he was the person who leaked the information."
      },
      {
        "title": "Penn State child sex abuse scandal",
        "text": "Commonwealth attorney general Linda L. Kelly prepared a presentment which included credibility determinations about the testimonies received before the first grand jury for the second grand jury. This second grand jury heard testimony from Victim 3, Victim 5, and Victim 6. Kelly said that during the investigation there was an \"uncooperative atmosphere\" from some Penn State officials."
      },
      {
        "title": "R v O'Connor",
        "text": "The O'Connor involved in the case was Hubert Patrick O'Connor, a Catholic bishop from British Columbia who was found guilty of sex crimes in 1991."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Shortly after the docuseries aired, Kelly's final record label, RCA Records, dissolved its working relationship with him. In February 2019, Kelly was formally charged with 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andrea Kelly",
        "text": "In 2018, Drea revealed on \"The View\" that R. Kelly emotionally and physically abused her throughout their marriage. She stated the abuse became so severe that she contemplated suicide. Drea detailed an incident where Kelly assaulted her in the back of his Hummer, and as a result she suffers from PTSD. Another time, Kelly \"hogtied\" her in bed, raped her, and fell asleep while she was still tied. She stated her motive for speaking out many years after their divorce is to help other victims of domestic violence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Little Rascals day care sexual abuse trial",
        "text": "In January 1994, Betsy Kelly had been in prison for two years awaiting trial. She accepted a plea of \"no contest\", and a sentence of seven years in prison. She served an additional year in prison and was released in 1995."
      },
      {
        "title": "Moral panic",
        "text": "Also during the 1980s, inaccurate and heavily flawed data about sex offenders and their recidivism rates was published. This data led to the public believing sex offenders to have a particularly high recidivism rate; this in turn led to the creation of sex offender registries. Later information revealed that sex offenders, including child sex offenders, have a low recidivism rate. Other highly publicized cases, similar to the murder of Adam Walsh, that contributed to the creation of sex offender registries and sex offender laws include the abduction and murder of 11-year-old boy Jacob Wetterling in 1989; the rape and murder of 7-year-old girl Megan Kanka in 1994; and the rape and murder of 9-year-old girl Jessica Lunsford in 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "2021 Australian Parliament House sexual misconduct allegations",
        "text": "In June 2021, Frank Zumbo, a staffer of Craig Kelly, was charged with sexual offences, including allegedly sexually touching and indecently assaulting three women in their 20s, and a teenage girl on multiple occasions over a period of about six years. Kelly maintained in March 2021 that no-one had any complaints about Zumbo, despite former staffers saying they had raised specific complaints about Zumbo with Kelly in 2013. Zumbo was bailed and pled not guilty to all charges. Zumbo remains on Kelly's team."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greville Janner",
        "text": "Over the years, starting in 1991, specific allegations of sex abuse of children by Janner in the past\u2014dating ultimately from at least 1955\u2014were made to authorities. This did not lead to any official action, beyond Janner being questioned once, from the first allegations until 2015. After it was decided in 2015 that he should have been prosecuted earlier, the accusations were to be investigated in a \"trial of the facts\" in April 2016\u2014Janner was deemed to be too ill for a criminal trial\u2014but he died before this could happen, though his actions were included in a large inquiry into historical sex abuse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Kelly (journalist)",
        "text": "In November 2012, Kelly criticised the decision of the Gillard government to create the Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse, calling it \"profoundly ignorant\" and \"a depressing example of populist politics\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sexual abuse scandals in Catholic orders and societies",
        "text": "In Australia, there were allegations that during the 1970s sexual abuses took place at the junior campus of St Patricks College and St Alipius Primary School (now closed) in Ballarat, Victoria. After investigation, Brothers Robert Best, Edward Dowlan and Stephen Francis Farrell were all convicted of sex crimes. Dowlan and Best were later transferred to the senior campus, and continued to offend."
      },
      {
        "title": "Media coverage of Catholic sex abuse cases",
        "text": "The Australian transport planning academic Paul Mees wrote, \"Why did Ratzinger need to consider the request, Dawkins asks? And why didn\u2019t he report Kiesle to the police? The answer is that Kiesle had already been reported to the police, convicted and sentenced. After completing his sentence, Kiesle left the priesthood and wrote to the CDF asking to be formally defrocked. Every year, some of the church's 410,000 priests quit.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sexual abuse scandal in Phoenix diocese",
        "text": "On June 2, 2003, O'Brien and Romley reached a plea agreement, avoiding possible criminal charges in exchange for admitting that he \"allowed priests under his supervision to have contact with minors after becoming aware of allegations of criminal sexual misconduct\" and acknowledging \"transferring offending priests to situations where children could be further victimized.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On August 5, 2019, the State's Attorney Office in Hennepin County, Minnesota charged Kelly with soliciting a minor and prostitution; prosecutors alleged that in July 2001, following a concert in Minneapolis, Kelly had invited a girl up to his hotel room and paid her $200 to remove her clothing and dance with him."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Admit",
        "text": "\"I Admit\" is a 19-minute song by American singer R. Kelly. Released on SoundCloud on July 23, 2018, the song addresses the singer's sexual abuse scandals. \"I Admit\" was written by Kelly and Raphael Ramos Oliveira, and produced by Kelly and Noc. The release of \"I Admit\" followed a 2017 \"BuzzFeed News\" investigative report that alleged that Kelly operated a \"sex cult\", and a 2018 boycott of Kelly backed by Time's Up. In \"I Admit\", Kelly makes a number of confessions, including that he is dyslexic, that he has been sexually unfaithful, and that he was raped. Kelly does not make any criminal admissions, but instead denies allegations of domestic violence and pedophilia. The lyrics rebuke Jim DeRogatis for his \"BuzzFeed News\" report, and disavow the report's allegations that Kelly is in charge of a \"sex cult\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Legend",
        "text": "Legend was one of the few celebrities to appear and speak out in the Lifetime documentary \"Surviving R. Kelly\". The six-part docuseries details sex abuse allegations spread over four decades against acclaimed R&B singer R. Kelly. It focuses on women who allege that the musician and record producer used his status and influence to sexually and physically abuse women and young girls for decades. Legend lambasted R. Kelly during his interview in the final episode of the series, asserting that \"R. Kelly has brought so much pain to so many people. Time's up for R. Kelly.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sexual abuse scandal in the Catholic Archdiocese of Philadelphia",
        "text": "In August 2017, the district attorney announced that he would retry Lynn in 2017. Though Lynn, then stood un-convicted, it was first proposed that he remain in prison until early October, when a parole board had earlier ruled he could be released. In the end, however, the court decided to release him on August 4 under $250, 000 bond. He had served 33 months in prison and 18 months of house arrest. The latter did not count toward time-served."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sexual abuse scandal in the Society of Jesus",
        "text": "In 1985, Jesuit priest Norman J. Rogge pleaded guilty to sexually abusing a boy in 1984 and received a one-year prison sentence. He previously pleaded guilty to another charge of sex abuse against a minor in 1967 and received a sentence of three years probation and forced psychiatric therapy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Enda Kenny",
        "text": "On 13 July 2011, the Cloyne Report was published, detailing the investigation into allegations of child sexual abuse by 19 priests in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Cloyne. Among the report's findings were the revelation that the vast majority of allegations made in the diocese were not reported to the Garda, as required by the Church's 1996 guidelines; that the Bishop of the Diocese, John Magee, and others had withheld full co-operation with the Government's investigation and had deliberately misrepresented his own response to the allegations; and that the Vatican itself had both refused to co-operate in the investigation and counselled the Diocese that the 1996 guidelines were not binding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Day-care sex-abuse hysteria",
        "text": "In Edenton, North Carolina, in January 1989, a parent accused Bob Kelly of sexual abuse. During the next several months, investigations and therapy resulted in allegations against dozens of other adults in the town, culminating in the arrest of seven adults."
      },
      {
        "title": "Murphy Report",
        "text": "The Report states at section 1.32: \"Another consequence of the obsessive concern with secrecy and the avoidance of scandal was the failure of successive Archbishops and bishops to report complaints to the Garda\u00ed prior to 1996. The Archbishops, bishops and other officials cannot claim that they did not know that child sexual abuse was a crime. As citizens of the State, they have the same obligations as all other citizens to uphold the law and report serious crimes to the authorities.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sexual abuse cases in the Congregation of Christian Brothers",
        "text": "In Australia, there were allegations that during the 1970s sexual abuses took place at the junior campus of St Patrick's College and St Alipius Primary School in Ballarat, Victoria. After investigation, Brothers Robert Best, Edward Dowlan and Stephen Francis Farrell were all convicted of sex crimes. Dowlan and Best were later transferred to the senior campus, and continued to offend. \"Four of the school's brothers and their chaplain, Gerald Ridsdale, were accused of sexually assaulting children \u2014 all but one, who died before charges could be laid, have been convicted.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sexual abuse scandal in the Catholic diocese of Orange",
        "text": "In 1983, he received a letter detailing allegations of abuse against another priest, who was sent to counseling but the therapist who treated him never reported the case to Child Protective Services as required by law; when authorities asked for the letter, Driscoll claimed the victim's mother had asked for it to be destroyed, which the mother denied."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Omaha",
        "text": "Though the earliest incident of abuse on record was alleged to have happened in 1956, the Archdiocese of Omaha has acknowledged that it did not record reports of sexual abuse until 1978. In a written statement published together with the list of accused clergy, Omaha Archbishop George Joseph Lucas wrote,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Heather Scott",
        "text": "In 2021, Scott sought a copy of the police report accusing fellow state republican Aaron von Ehlinger of rape and asked the victim's legal representative how a person who files a false police report alleging sexual assault could be charged with a crime."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roy Moore sexual misconduct allegations",
        "text": "Kelly Harrison Thorp claimed that Moore asked her on a date in 1982, when she was 17 years of age. She declined. According to Thorp, Moore told her that he dated young women her age \"all the time\". Thorp has said that she knows Corfman and believes her allegations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Out of This Club",
        "text": "The release of \"Out Of This Club\" follows Kelly's acquittal of possessing child pornography in 2002 a couple of months earlier. In January 2019, the television documentary \"Surviving R. Kelly\" exposed new allegations of sexual misconduct and assault. In response, the Pussycat Dolls asked their former label, Interscope Records to remove the song from all digital and streaming platforms, meaning neither artist could profit from the song. Beginning April of that year, the song was also excluded from subsequent CD pressings of \"Doll Domination\". During an interview with \"Heat\" magazine member Kimberly Wyatt explained that the collaboration was out of the group's hands. \"When it came to the music, and when it came to R. Kelly, that was completely out of my hands. I had nothing to do with the song or the choice. I never met the man, I was never in the studio with him. If I had had more power I probably would have made it a bit different.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Kelly McGillis",
        "text": "In 1982, McGillis was raped by two men in her New York apartment. Leroy Johnson who was 15 years old at the time was sentenced to three years in prison, but the other assailant had all charges dropped due to a lack of corroborative evidence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jill Duggar Dillard",
        "text": "In June 2015 on \"The Kelly File\", Dillard identified herself as one of the girls whom her oldest brother Joshua Duggar had molested as a teen. Dillard reported the abuse consisted of inappropriate touching while she was asleep, saying she did not know it had occurred until her brother confessed to her parents, and her parents then told her what had occurred. Dillard stated that the release of the police reports was a \"revictimization\", and she expressed concern that the police reports detailing her abuse being made public might discourage other families experiencing abuse from seeking help."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Rogers (publisher)",
        "text": "On October 17, 2006, Rogers reported on sexual liaisons between US Senator Larry Craig (R-ID) and unnamed individuals in Washington, DC's Union Station. Rogers uncovered a news story from 1982 that tied Craig to a sex and drug scandal in the US Congress. Rogers reported on more recent activity in various places throughout the nation. Rogers's report prompted Craig to issue a denial. Nine months later, on June 11, 2007, Craig was arrested in the Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport for lewd conduct."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catholic Church sexual abuse cases in Ireland",
        "text": "The program wrongly made allegations against Fr. Kevin Reynolds, who received an apology and \"massive damages\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sexualization",
        "text": "\"Representations of black girlhood in the media and popular culture suggest that black girls face a different set of rules when it comes to sex, innocence, and blame\", the consequences of the sexualization of Black girls can be seen through the 2004 trial of R. Kelly. The immediate response from the public cleared R. Kelly of any wrongdoing while subsequently blaming the young girl for her abuse. One respondent to a \"Village Voice\" article claimed that she wasn't disturbed by the video because in her words, \"It wasn't like she was new to the act. [She--the respondent] heard she[the victim] worked it like most of [her] 30 something-year-old friends have yet to learn how to do\". This desensitization is directly linked to a music industry\u2014and subsequent fans\u2014who value the artist over their potential victims.\u201d Instead of being correctly labeled as victims these women are instead turned into \"groupies, hoochies, and chickenheads\". One of the jurors on the R. Kelly case noted that he believed the defense because her body \"appeared to developed\". Sika A. Dagbovie-Mullins acknowledged that \u00a0\"this harmful and skewed reasoning reflects a national troubling tendency to view black adolescent females as sexually savvy and therefore responsible themselves for the sexualization and exploitation of their bodies\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outcry (miniseries)",
        "text": "\"This does not feel like freedom at all,\" said Kelley who was convicted of child sexual assault in 2014 to be exonerated in 2019 though it is exceedingly rare for the state's highest criminal court to overturn a conviction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alex Kelly (rapist)",
        "text": "Kelly faced two trials in 1997. After the first was declared a mistrial, the second resulted in his conviction for the first rape and a sentence of 10 years in prison. He pleaded no contest to the second rape and was sentenced to an additional 10 years in prison (sentence to run concurrently with the 10-year sentence)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catholic Church sexual abuse cases",
        "text": "According to the John Jay Report, one in four child sex abuse allegations were made within 10 years of the incident. Half were made between 10 and 30 years after the incident and the remaining 25% were reported more than 30 years after the incident. The Report points at: failure by the RCC hierarchy in the United States to grasp the seriousness of the problem, overemphasis on the need to avoid a scandal, use of unqualified treatment centers for clergy removed for rehabilitation, a sort of misguided willingness by bishops to forgive sexual misconduct as a moral failing and not treat it a crime, allowance of recidivism upon reassignment of the priest, and insufficient accountability of the hierarchy for inaction."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Admit",
        "text": "After the January 2019 broadcast of \"Surviving R. Kelly\", Kelly appeared in a \"CBS This Morning\" interview on March 8, 2019, in which Gayle King asked him whether \"I Admit\" was his \"way of confessing\". Kelly responded, \"That question makes no sense, no offense, but what I'm saying is this: 'I Admit' was me expressing my feelings about the things I was going through. If you're listening to it, you can hear exactly what I'm admitting.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Catholic Archdiocese of Boston sex abuse scandal",
        "text": "In February 2005, Shanley was found guilty of indecent assaults and the rape of a male minor and received a sentence of 12 to 15 years in prison. Shanley's case remains controversial to some because the allegations of abuse came only after the victim (now an adult) alleged that he recovered memories of the abuse from approximately 20 years earlier. The manner in which the accusations against Shanley arose and enormous attention in the media also have given rise to questions about the validity of the convictions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenny Klein",
        "text": "During the course of his trial, testimony from both of his children revealed years of sexual abuse while they were young, verifying his actions as a criminal pedophile. It also revealed his physical abuse of his ex-wife. The court testimony is public record."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On April 8, 1998, Kelly was arrested on three misdemeanor charges of disorderly conduct, including one charge on violating noise ordinance for playing his music extremely loud from his car. Prosecutors from the district attorney's office dropped the first two charges on May 7 and the noise charge on July 22 that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Jay Report",
        "text": "In summary, over a 50-year period, out of more than 100,000 priests deacons and religious order clergy, 4,392 (~4.4%) were accused of sexual abuse, 252 (<0.26%) were convicted and 100 (<0.1%) sentenced to prison."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catholic Church sexual abuse cases in Australia",
        "text": "In February 2010, Fr Robert MacGregor Fuller began serving a 6-to-18-month sentence months after pleading guilty to sending both a sexually lurid video broadcast of himself and sexually lurid text messages to a 13-year-old girl in the summer of 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alex Kelly (rapist)",
        "text": "On November 24, 2007, Kelly was released from prison on good behavior. He is required to serve 10 years probation, perform 200 hours of community service, pay a $10,000 fine, and register with the Connecticut sex offender registry. Kelly has claimed that, while in prison, he earned a bachelor's degree in economics and third-world development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jive Records",
        "text": "On September 27, 2021, singer R. Kelly was found guilty by a federal jury of acts including bribery and sexual exploitation of a child. Allegations of Kelly\u2019s sexual misconduct had long followed the singer since his early career with Jive in the early 1990s, as well as throughout the 2000s when a video tape surfaced allegedly showing Kelly engaging in sexual acts with a minor and when Kelly was arrested for possession of child pornography. Despite the scandals, Kelly remained signed to Jive\u2019s roster and continued to release albums with the label up to 2010. In 2018, the \"Washington Post\" ran a lengthy article alleging industry executives at Jive had been aware of Kelly's sexually abusive behavior towards young women for years, but did nothing about them due to his success as a performer and songwriter. Though the article reported Clive Calder had been warned about Kelly\u2019s behavior as early as 1994, Calder retrospectively told the \"Post\" he regretted not having done more at the time, saying \"Clearly, we missed something\u201d. Former Jive president Barry Weiss told the newspaper that during his 20 years with the label, he never concerned himself with Kelly's private life, and was unaware of two lawsuits filed against Kelly and the label by women alleging sexual misconduct, suits in which the label had successfully argued it was not liable. Larry Khan, another Jive executive who worked closely with the singer even after viewing the sex tape, similarly implied Kelly\u2019s misconduct was not the label's responsibility.\n* List of current Jive Records artists (artists at time of Jive\u2019s 2011 disestablishment)\n* List of former Jive Records artists (artists previously signed to Jive)"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why did R. Kelly become a sex offender?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Since the 1990s, R. Kelly has been repeatedly accused of sexual abuse, often with underage girls.  Do you want to know more about why did R. Kelly become a sex offender on early reports of sexual abuse (1990s), first criminal indictment (2002), second series of criminal charges (2019\u20132021) or criminal conviction (2021)?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to hear about the early reports of sexual abuse."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In December 2000, the Chicago Sun-Times first reported that police had made two investigations that Kelly was having sex with an underage female but had to drop the investigations due to lack of cooperation by the girls accusing him. In the 2021 criminal trial for sex trafficking and racketeering, a witness testified that Kelly had sexual contact with Aaliyah starting when she was 13 or 14 years old.",
      "A civil suit filed in 1996 by Tiffany Hawkins detailed allegations that, starting in 1991 when she was age 15, Kelly had sex with her as an underage high school student, encouraged her to recruit her school friends, and pressured her into engaging in group sex with other underage girls and in 1998, Kelly settled the lawsuit with Hawkins for $250,000."
    ],
    "topic": "R. Kelly",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "R. Kelly:64",
        "passage_titles": [
          "R. Kelly",
          "Sexual abuse allegations",
          "Early reports of sexual abuse (1990s)"
        ],
        "ctx": "In December 2000, the \"Chicago Sun-Times\" first reported that police had made two investigations that Kelly was having sex with an underage female but had to drop the investigations due to lack of cooperation by the girls accusing him. A civil suit filed in 1996 by Tiffany Hawkins detailed allegations that, starting in 1991 when she was age 15, Kelly had sex with her as an underage high school student, encouraged her to recruit her school friends, and pressured her into engaging in group sex with other underage girls. In 1998, Kelly settled the lawsuit with Hawkins for $250,000."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "R. Kelly:65",
        "passage_titles": [
          "R. Kelly",
          "Sexual abuse allegations",
          "Illegal marriage (1994)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Kelly had been introduced to a promising young singer from Detroit named Aaliyah by her uncle, Barry Hankerson, when she was 12 years old. During Kelly's 2021 criminal trial for sex trafficking and racketeering, a witness testified that Kelly had sexual contact with Aaliyah starting when she was 13 or 14 years old. Kelly wrote and produced Aaliyah's first album, \"Age Ain't Nothing but a Number\", in 1994. On August 31, 1994, Kelly, then 27, illegally married Aaliyah, then 15, in a secret ceremony in Cook County, Illinois. Kelly's tour manager, Demetrius Smith, admitted he facilitated the wedding by obtaining falsified identification for Aaliyah which listed her as 18 years old. In 2019, a contemporaneous video surfaced showing Kelly stating\u2014less than a year before the marriage took place\u2014that Aaliyah was 14 years old. The marriage was annulled in February 1995 at the behest of Aaliyah's family by a Michigan judge. Kelly and Aaliyah, however, both denied that the marriage occurred and even denied that their relationship had ever moved beyond friendship. In May 1997, Aaliyah filed a lawsuit in Cook County to have the marriage record expunged, stating that she was underage at the time of marriage, had lied by signing the marriage certificate as an 18-year-old, and that she could not legally enter into marriage without parental consent. The expungement request was included in a lawsuit filed by Tiffany Hawkins, who sought to use the marriage documents in her case against Kelly. Hawkins later accepted a settlement of $250,000 from Kelly, subject to a confidentiality agreement, in 1998. In 2019, federal prosecutors in New York charged Kelly with bribery related to the 1994 purchase of a fake ID for Aaliyah in order to obtain a marriage license. Kelly, through his lawyers, admitted in 2021 to having had 'underage sexual contact' with Aaliyah."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "R. Kelly:64",
        "passage_titles": [
          "R. Kelly",
          "Sexual abuse allegations",
          "Early reports of sexual abuse (1990s)"
        ],
        "ctx": "In December 2000, the \"Chicago Sun-Times\" first reported that police had made two investigations that Kelly was having sex with an underage female but had to drop the investigations due to lack of cooperation by the girls accusing him. A civil suit filed in 1996 by Tiffany Hawkins detailed allegations that, starting in 1991 when she was age 15, Kelly had sex with her as an underage high school student, encouraged her to recruit her school friends, and pressured her into engaging in group sex with other underage girls. In 1998, Kelly settled the lawsuit with Hawkins for $250,000."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Surviving R. Kelly is a Lifetime documentary detailing sexual abuse allegations against American singer Robert \"R.\" Kelly (of which he was convicted after release of the documentary). It aired over three nights, from January 3 to January 5, 2019. Filmmaker and music critic Dream Hampton served as executive producer together with Joel Karsberg, Jesse Daniels and Tamra Simmons. Musicians Chance the Rapper, John Legend and Stephanie \"Sparkle\" Edwards appeared in the documentary. Its premiere episode on January 3, 2019, was Lifetime's highest-rated program in more than two years, with 1.9 million total viewers. It received critical acclaim, with a 95% positive rating on Rotten Tomatoes. The documentary also spurred several musicians who previously collaborated with Kelly on projects, including Lady Gaga and Ciara, to condemn Kelly and remove their works with him from streaming services."
      },
      {
        "title": "Partner violence in hip hop",
        "text": "\"Surviving R. Kelly\", a three-part television documentary which aired in January 2019, described R. Kelly's history of sexual assault. Kelly was charged with 10 counts of sexual assault in the Chicago metropolitan area from 1998 to 2010. Three of the 10 victims were between the ages of 13 and 16. During the 1990s, Kelly was found to be married to 15-year-old Aaliyah. The marriage was annulled, and Kelly said that he thought Aaliyah was 18."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Following the documentary, the office of Cook County, Illinois, State's Attorney Kim Foxx said on January 10, 2019, that it had received numerous new calls alleging sexual abuse by R. Kelly and that it was investigating the claims. Lady Gaga also released a statement saying she regretted working with R. Kelly on their 2013 duet \"Do What U Want\" and said she was working on removing it from online streaming services. \"I stand behind these women 1000%, believe them, know they are suffering and in pain, and feel strongly that their voices should be heard and taken seriously\", she wrote in a statement. \"I think it's clear how explicitly twisted my thinking was at the time...If I could go back and have a talk with my younger self I'd tell her to go through the therapy I have since then.\" However, the single with Christina Aguilera was kept. Other artists that have previously worked and collaborated with Kelly as well, such as Chance the Rapper, Celine Dion, and Ciara, also took down their songs with him from music streaming services and retailers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "The National Sexual Assault Hotline in the United States, operated by the Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (RAINN), experienced a 27% increase in calls during the airing of the documentary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "A documentary series focused on R. Kelly's history of alleged sexual abuse was green-lit by Lifetime in May 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "\"We've been working for over a year to bring forth the stories of these women,\" executive producer Joel Karsberg told \"The Hollywood Reporter\". \"We are proud to team with Lifetime to shed light on these stories as well as an industry that has looked the other way for so many years.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "I Admit",
        "text": "After the January 2019 broadcast of \"Surviving R. Kelly\", Kelly appeared in a \"CBS This Morning\" interview on March 8, 2019, in which Gayle King asked him whether \"I Admit\" was his \"way of confessing\". Kelly responded, \"That question makes no sense, no offense, but what I'm saying is this: 'I Admit' was me expressing my feelings about the things I was going through. If you're listening to it, you can hear exactly what I'm admitting.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Aaliyah",
        "text": "Aaliyah was known to avoid answering questions regarding Kelly following the professional split. During an interview with Christopher John Farley, she was asked if she was still in contact with him and if she would ever work with him again. Farley said Aaliyah responded with a \"firm, frosty 'no'\" to both of the questions. \"Vibe\" magazine said Aaliyah changed the subject anytime \"you bring up the marriage with her\". A spokeswoman for Aaliyah said in 2000 that when \"R. Kelly comes up, she doesn't even speak his name, and nobody's allowed to ask about it at all.\" Kelly later commented that Aaliyah had opportunities to address the pair's relationship after they separated professionally but chose not to. In 2019, Damon Dash revealed to \"Hip Hop Motivation\" that Aaliyah did not even speak of her relationship with Kelly in private; she tried multiple times to discuss it with him, but could only say that Kelly was a \"bad man\". Dash said he was unable to watch \"Surviving R. Kelly\" because its interviews with visibly traumatized girls struggling to discuss their encounters with Kelly reminded him of how Aaliyah behaved when trying to recount her relationship with Kelly. Dash later appeared in \"Surviving R. Kelly, Part 2\" in 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aaliyah",
        "text": "After the documentary \"Surviving R Kelly\" aired in January 2019, pressure from the public using the Mute R. Kelly hashtag escalated and RCA Records dropped Kelly from the label. In February 2019, Kelly was indicted on ten counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse. In July 2019, he was arrested on federal charges alleging sex crimes, human trafficking, child pornography, racketeering, and obstruction of justice. When his trial began in August 2021, Kelly was facing 22 federal criminal charges that involved allegedly abusing 11 girls and women between 1994 and 2018. Aaliyah\u2019s illegal marriage to Kelly was heavily featured in the court case. On September 27, 2021, a federal court jury found R. Kelly guilty on nine counts including racketeering, sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, sex trafficking, and a violation of the Mann Act. The judge ordered that Kelly remain in custody pending sentencing, which was set for May 4, 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In January 2019, Lifetime began airing a six-part documentary series titled Surviving R. Kelly detailing sexual abuse and misconduct allegations against Kelly. Writing for the \"Los Angeles Times\", Loraine Ali observed that the series covered a range of in-depth interviews that \"paint a picture of a predator whose behavior was consistently overlooked by the industry, his peers and the public while his spiritual hit was sung in churches and schools.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Many musicians who worked with R. Kelly refused to participate in the series. \"When it comes to celebrities, it was incredibly difficult to get people who had collaborated (artistically) with Kelly to come forward,\" Hampton said. \"We asked Lady Gaga. We asked Erykah Badu. We asked Celine Dion. We asked Jay-Z. We asked Dave Chappelle. (They're) people who have been critical of him. That makes John Legend even more of a hero for me.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Hampton said that Simmons would call prospective interviewees late into the night. \"She was handling and had the relationships with, not just the women and girls who survived R. Kelly, but also the families,\" Hampton said. \"We had three families who were trying to get their daughters back. So she in particular, she and Jesse, had been caring for those relationships. And then I came on as showrunner and made it a show.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Surviving R. Kelly\n--Production.\n--Reception.\n----Critical response.\n----Ratings.\n------Season 1.\n----Impact.\n----Awards.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "\"Surviving R. Kelly\" won a Peabody Award in the Documentary category."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly's record label, RCA Records, dropped him shortly after the docuseries aired. On February 22, 2019, R. Kelly was formally charged with 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse. On March 6, 2019, in a \"CBS This Morning\" interview with Gayle King, R. Kelly broke down crying while strongly denying all allegations and charges made against him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 95% approval rating for the first season with an average rating of 8.19/10, based on 21 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, \"By unearthing previously suppressed histories, \"Surviving R. Kelly\" exposes the dangers of enabling predatory behavior and gives necessary voice to its survivors.\" Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 86 out of 100 based on 9 critics, indicating \"universal acclaim.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Shortly after the docuseries aired, Kelly's final record label, RCA Records, dissolved its working relationship with him. In February 2019, Kelly was formally charged with 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Legend",
        "text": "Legend was one of the few celebrities to appear and speak out in the Lifetime documentary \"Surviving R. Kelly\". The six-part docuseries details sex abuse allegations spread over four decades against acclaimed R&B singer R. Kelly. It focuses on women who allege that the musician and record producer used his status and influence to sexually and physically abuse women and young girls for decades. Legend lambasted R. Kelly during his interview in the final episode of the series, asserting that \"R. Kelly has brought so much pain to so many people. Time's up for R. Kelly.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard A. Devine",
        "text": "Devine appeared in \"Surviving R. Kelly\", a 2019 Lifetime documentary series about sexual abuse allegations against musician R. Kelly. Though the 2008 trial of Kelly occurred at the end of Devine's tenure, he did not participate in the trial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Hampton was invited onto the project by an executive at Bunim/Murray Productions. \"[...] That executive, Jesse Daniels, and Tamara Simmons, another co-EP on this project, have been holding these relationships with some of his survivors for months before I came on board,\" Hampton said in an interview with NPR. \"I remember talking to them early on, kind of figuring out if we were going to work together...Having been adjacent in some ways to the music industry, when there was one, I knew that it took dozens, if not hundreds of people, for R. Kelly to operate as long as he has in the way that he has.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In a January 2019 BBC News article, a woman named Asante McGee whom Kelly had met in 2014 and taken to live with him some months later, said that she lived with not only Kelly alone, but with other women. She said: \"He controlled every aspect of my life, while I lived with him.\" McGee later moved out on her own accord."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "After Kelly's 2021 conviction, Modarressy-Tehrani tweeted: \"Now, with this verdict, hopefully, his survivors get some peace and feel this justice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dream Hampton",
        "text": "\"Surviving R. Kelly\" received a Peabody Award. It received an MTV Movie Award for Best Documentary. It received a Rockies Award for \"Program of the Year\" at the Banff World Media Festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phoenix Rising (American TV series)",
        "text": "Writing for the Salon, reviewer Melanie McFarland cast the film as another useful piece of the puzzle formed by recent documentaries about alleged serial sexual predators, saying \"But if \"\"Surviving R. Kelly\" demonstrates how cavalierly Black women are dismissed by the justice system, and W. Kamau Bell's \"We Need to Talk About Cosby\"\" dissects the ways its subject carefully exploited his fatherly image to operate for decades as a serial rapist without suffering any consequences, \"Phoenix Rising\" explains why survivors can take years to come forward.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "I Am Your Woman",
        "text": "On January 31, 2019, Johnson announced that she will no longer be performing the song after the airing of a television documentary, \"Surviving R. Kelly\", exposed new allegations of sexual misconduct and assault by Kelly, who had previously been charged regarding similar accusations in 2002 but was acquitted in 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dream Hampton",
        "text": "Hampton was executive producer of \"Surviving R. Kelly\", a 2019 documentary series about the decades of sexual-abuse allegations against R. Kelly. Page six reported that a Homeland Security agent had watched the series and started a federal investigation into the victims' allegations. After its release, Kelly was charged with aggravated criminal sexual abuse and other crimes for an eventual total of 18 federal charges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "The January 3 premiere episode was Lifetime's highest-rated program in more than two years, with 1.9\u00a0million total viewers."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Following airing of the \"Surviving R. Kelly\" documentary, Kelly was listed in \"Guinness World Records\" as the most searched for male musician on Google in 2019. He ranked 8th overall on Google's list of the 10 most search for people for the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Since the 1990s, Kelly has been repeatedly accused of sexual abuse, often with underage girls. He has faced multiple civil suits and has been charged by criminal courts in Chicago, New York, Illinois, and Minnesota. He repeatedly denied the charges. In June 2002, he was indicted on 21 counts of making child pornography. He was acquitted six years later in 2008. In January 2019, a widely viewed Lifetime docuseries titled \"Surviving R. Kelly\" detailed allegations of sexual abuse by multiple women, allegations that Kelly continued to deny. Facing pressure from the public using the Mute R. Kelly hashtag, RCA Records dropped Kelly."
      },
      {
        "title": "XHamster",
        "text": "Following the airing of a Lifetime Network documentary-style film, \"Surviving R.Kelly\", xHamster reported a 388% increase in R.Kelly related searches since January 2019. The Lifetime film presents R.Kelly's arrest, trial, and acquittal on child pornography charges between 2002 and 2008. Censored from xHamster's website, the \"infamous\" sex tape features the hip-hop artist engaged in sexual relations with and urinating on, an underage girl. In a bid to reprimand viewers who search for the sex tape, xHamster denounced seeking the tape as both \"illegal\" and \"immoral\". xHamster emphasized in their public statement that searching for the video may even be \"re-victimizing a minor who could not consent\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "U Saved Me",
        "text": "Kelly narrates four real-life stories based on trials and tribulations of individuals and how they turned it over to God so that He can save them. The first verse describes a drunk driver who nearly lost his life in a car accident, the second verse describes a person on unemployment and has trouble looking for work, the third verse describes an 18-year-old drug dealer who was involved in a shootout when a drug deal went bad, and the fourth verse describes a person diagnosed with cancer who reached out to his mother to pray for him. In each situation, they were thankful to be given a second chance at life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "On December 11, 2019, it was announced that there would be a second season titled \"Surviving R. Kelly Part II: The Reckoning\", which premiered on January 2, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "MeToo movement",
        "text": "In January 2019, the Lifetime documentary \"Surviving R. Kelly\" aired, describing several women's accusations of sexual, emotional, mental, and physical abuse by singer R. Kelly. The documentary questioned the \"ecosystem\" that \"supports and enables\" powerful individuals in the music industry. In February 2019, Kelly was arrested for ten alleged counts of sexual abuse against four women, three of whom were minors at the time of the incidents. His former wife Andrea Kelly has also accused him of domestic violence and filed a restraining order against him in 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joanne N. Smith",
        "text": "Smith spoke out and organized in support of survivors in response to allegations of sexual abuse against rapper and hip hop artist R. Kelly. Smith was featured in Lifetime's documentary series Surviving R. Kelly as well as a panel discussion following the premier, and Girls for Gender Equity published a viewer guide for the show. The show and Smith's activism, alongside others, shifted the conversation about Black survivorship and increased awareness around the prevalence and impact of sexual abuse."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "After a July 1996 brawl at a Lafayette, Louisiana health club involving Kelly and his entourage, Kelly was placed on a year's unsupervised probation starting August 13, 1997, after being found guilty of battery. One of the victims needed 110 facial stitches. Also that year, a 20-year-old accused Kelly in civil court of having sexual relations with her when he was 24 and she was 15. Kelly settled the lawsuit in 1998 for $250,000, according to the \"Chicago Sun-Times\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Within two weeks, Kelly launched a Facebook page where he sought to discredit the accusers who appeared in the docuseries. Facebook removed the page for violating their standards as it appeared to contain personal contact information for his accusers. The second season titled \"Surviving R. Kelly Part II: The Reckoning\" premiered on January 2, 2020."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kelly Bruno",
        "text": "Kelly Bruno\n--Biography.\n----\"Survivor\".\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Out of This Club",
        "text": "The release of \"Out Of This Club\" follows Kelly's acquittal of possessing child pornography in 2002 a couple of months earlier. In January 2019, the television documentary \"Surviving R. Kelly\" exposed new allegations of sexual misconduct and assault. In response, the Pussycat Dolls asked their former label, Interscope Records to remove the song from all digital and streaming platforms, meaning neither artist could profit from the song. Beginning April of that year, the song was also excluded from subsequent CD pressings of \"Doll Domination\". During an interview with \"Heat\" magazine member Kimberly Wyatt explained that the collaboration was out of the group's hands. \"When it came to the music, and when it came to R. Kelly, that was completely out of my hands. I had nothing to do with the song or the choice. I never met the man, I was never in the studio with him. If I had had more power I probably would have made it a bit different.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Aaliyah",
        "text": "In his 2011 book \"The Man Behind the Man: Looking From the Inside Out\", Demetrius Smith Sr., Kelly's former tour manager, revealed that Kelly married Aaliyah after she told him that she was pregnant. In the 2019 documentary \"Surviving R. Kelly\", Smith described how he helped Aaliyah forge the necessary documents to show she was 18 in order to marry Kelly. Smith also stated that he is \"not proud\" of his role in facilitating their marriage. Additionally, the documentary revealed that Jovante Cunningham, a former backup dancer, claimed to have witnessed Kelly having sex with Aaliyah on his tour bus."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In 2011, Kelly worked with writer David Ritz on an autobiography entitled \"Soulacoaster: The Diary of Me\", which was later released in the summer of 2012."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shaggy defense",
        "text": "According to Josh Levin of \"Slate\", \"As Kelly's lawyers mentioned multiple times, the alleged victim in this case\u2014now a 23-year-old woman\u2014told a grand jury that it wasn't her. While 15 friends and relatives testified that the girl in question was indeed on the video, neither the alleged victim nor her parents showed up in court to testify for either side.\" The prosecution witness Lisa Van Allen was easily impeached as a witness due to her clearly sordid history with R. Kelly, others, and even soliciting a bribe from an investigator in the case. One juror told the \"Chicago Tribune\", \"At some point we said there was a lack of evidence.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Erykah Badu",
        "text": "In a January 2019 concert, Badu elicited boos from fans after giving support of musician R. Kelly, saying \"I dunno how everybody else feel about it but I'm putting up a prayer right now for R. ... I love you. Unconditionally\". Badu has been criticized for her perceived support of R. Kelly following the release of Lifetime's \"Surviving R. Kelly\". In 2019 R. Kelly was accused of running a \"sex cult\" and was arrested and charged with several counts of sex trafficking and prostitution."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly's mother, Joanne, died from cancer in 1993. He has given conflicting accounts of where he was during his mother's passing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Nielsen SoundScan has reported that after the initial airing of the series, Kelly's music saw a two-fold increase in streaming popularity. But, in contrast, after the series aired, many urban contemporary radio stations \u2013 where R. Kelly was a mainstay \u2013 in various markets have decided they would no longer play his music. Stations like KKDA-FM and KRNB in Dallas, KJLH in Los Angeles, WBLS in New York City, and WAMJ in Atlanta have made the announcement they will not play R. Kelly anymore, while other radio stations that quietly banned his music did not make a public announcement on their decision."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mute R. Kelly",
        "text": "Over two decades, R. Kelly has faced allegations of sexual abuse of minors, including marrying a 15-year-old girl (which was found to be factual), R&B singer Aaliyah, by listing her age as 18 on the marriage certificate that had falsified documents which supported the false age. The singer has also been sued and accused of supposed sex with an underage girl. On one count it is apparent Kelly videotaped one of these encounters. The singer then went on to face more charges of underage sex charges, child pornography charges and sex cult claims. The singer denies all of these allegations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Palladino",
        "text": "In 2002, singer, songwriter, and record producer R. Kelly was charged with videotaping himself having sex with an underage teenage girl. An investigation by Palladino that lasted six years culminated in Palladino's testimony at trial challenging the principal prosecution witness, and the acquittal of Kelly in less than a day."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On February 3, 2002, a video circulated that allegedly showed Kelly engaging in sex with, and urinating on, an underage girl. After the video was released by an unknown source and sent to the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", the publisher broke the story on February 8, 2002, the same day Kelly performed at the opening ceremony of the 2002 Winter Olympics. Kelly said in interviews that he was not the man in the video."
      },
      {
        "title": "Age Ain't Nothing but a Number",
        "text": "R. Kelly would have other allegations made about him regarding underage girls in the years following her death, and his marriage to Aaliyah was used to evidence his involvement with them. He has refused to discuss his relationship with her, citing her death. \"Out of respect for her, and her mom and her dad, I will not discuss Aaliyah. That was a whole other situation, a whole other time, it was a whole other thing, and I'm sure that people also know that.\" Aaliyah's mother, Diane Haughton, reflected that everything \"that went wrong in her life\" began with her relationship with Kelly. However, the allegations have been said to have done \"little to taint Aaliyah's image or prevent her from becoming a reliable '90s hitmaker with viable sidelines in movies and modeling.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Age Ain't Nothing but a Number",
        "text": "Aaliyah was known to avoid answering questions regarding Kelly following the professional split. During an interview with Christopher John Farley, she was asked if she was still in contact with him and if she would ever work with him again. Farley said Aaliyah responded with a \"firm, frosty 'no'\" to both of the questions. \"Vibe\" magazine said Aaliyah changed the subject any time \"you bring up the marriage with her\". A spokeswoman for Aaliyah said in 2000 that when \"R. Kelly comes up, she doesn't even speak his name, and nobody's allowed to ask about it at all\". Kelly later commented that Aaliyah had opportunities to address the pair's relationship after they separated professionally but chose not to."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On February 8, 2002, Kelly performed at the closing ceremony of the 2002 Winter Olympics at the same time a news scandal broke of a sex tape that appeared to show Kelly with an underage girl."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sticks & Stones (2019 film)",
        "text": "Surviving R. Kelly producer Dream Hampton disputed Chappelle's claim that she approached him at a performance in Detroit to ask him to appear in the documentary: \"I didn\u2019t personally (or casually) invite Chappelle [...] The producer responsible for celeb outreach officially asked him, more than once. I haven\u2019t seen or talked to him in about 8 years\", Hampton tweeted. Chappelle declined to appear in the documentary as he didn't know Kelly personally. Hampton also accused Chappelle of misquoting her: \"I [...] have never in my life said the words 'too hot for TV'\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "R. Kelly\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n----1990\u20131996: \"Born into the 90's\", \"12 Play\" and \"R. Kelly\".\n----1997\u20132001: Basketball, \"R.\", \"TP-2.COM,\" and Rockland Records.\n------Rockland Records.\n----2002\u20132003: \"The Best of Both Worlds\" and \"Chocolate Factory\".\n----2004\u20132005: \"Unfinished Business, Happy People/U Saved Me\" and \"TP.3 Reloaded\".\n----2006\u20132009: \"Double Up\" and \"Untitled\", Africa.\n----2010\u20132012: \"Epic\", \"Love Letter\", throat surgery, and \"Write Me Back\".\n----2013\u20132016: \"Black Panties\", \"The Buffet\", and \"12 Nights of Christmas\".\n--Artistry.\n----Musical style and influences.\n----Vocal style and lyrical themes.\n--Sexual abuse allegations.\n----Early reports of sexual abuse (1990s).\n----Illegal marriage (1994).\n----Sex tape circulates (2002).\n----First criminal indictment (2002).\n----Allegations of preteen girl molestation (2009).\n----Huffington Post Live Interview (2015).\n----Alleged sex cult (2010s).\n----Boycott and industry response.\n------Allegations of music industry complicity.\n----Musical response to allegations.\n----\"Surviving R. Kelly\" (2019\u20132020).\n----Second series of criminal charges (2019\u20132021).\n----Criminal conviction (2021).\n----Other legal issues.\n--Influence.\n--Personal life.\n----Charity and donations.\n--Honors and awards.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Story of the Kelly Gang",
        "text": "The restoration is now 17 minutes long and includes the key scene of Kelly's last stand and capture."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Need an Angel",
        "text": "A version performed by R. Kelly himself was included on advance copies of his 2004 double album, \"Happy People/U Saved Me\", but was replaced with the song \"I Surrender\" on the final release."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "As of October 2021, following his New York conviction, Kelly's YouTube channel was terminated, but his catalogue remains available on YouTube Music."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly described having a girlfriend, Lulu, at age eight, in his autobiography. He stated that their last play date turned tragic when, after fighting with older children over a play area by a creek, she was pushed into the water, swept downstream by a fast-moving current, and drowned. Kelly called Lulu his first musical inspiration."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Admit",
        "text": "R. Kelly's brother, Carey Killa Kelly, released a diss track named \"I Confess\" on YouTube on August 3, 2018. Replying to R. Kelly's claim on \"I Admit\" that Carey abandoned him, Carey echoes an April 2018 sexual misconduct allegation in which a woman accused R. Kelly of intentionally giving her a sexually transmitted infection. In \"I Confess\", Carey also implies that R. Kelly had sex with other men."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ne-Yo",
        "text": "In 2019, in wake of the television documentary, \"Surviving R. Kelly\", Ne-Yo confirmed his support for the Mute R. Kelly campaign, for the protection of his own daughter."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On March 6, 2019, Gayle King interviewed Kelly on \"CBS This Morning\", where he insisted on his innocence and blamed social media for the allegations. During the interview, Kelly had an emotional outburst where he stood up, pounded his chest, and yelled. Two women who described themselves as a Kelly's girlfriends and whose parents say are brainwashed captives, declared their love for Kelly and defended him during the broadcast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kelly Bruno",
        "text": "In August 2010, it was announced that Kelly would be one of the contestants on \"\", the 21st season of American reality show \"Survivor\". She was a member of the La Flor tribe, a tribe originally consisting of players aged 30 and under. When a tribe switch occurred in the season's fifth episode, she remained on La Flor. She was voted out during the season's sixth episode where she placed 15th."
      },
      {
        "title": "You Are Not Alone",
        "text": "R. Kelly recorded his own version of the song and put it on his 2010 album \"Love Letter\", he recorded it as a tribute to Jackson following his death. The song was a hidden bonus song on the album, shown as the final song on the album's track list. The song starts with Kelly paying tribute to Jackson, saying \"In loving memories of my hero... MJ\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Are You Ready (Aaliyah song)",
        "text": "Brendan Frederick from Complex felt that the song was \"The first sign that Aaliyah would survive the scandal\" with R.Kelly and that it proved that Aaliyah \"had a distinctive sound and an identity that was bigger than any one producer\". According to Frederick Aaliyah taunts the critics who counted her out on the hook of the song by saying \"You know I'm comin' back\u2014tell me if you're ready.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly said members of his household would act differently when his mother and grandparents were not home. From age eight to 14, he was sexually abused by an older female family member. Kelly's younger brother Carey stated that he suffered from years of sexual abuse at the hands of his older sister, Theresa, who was entrusted with babysitting her siblings. Carey stated that although their older brother was spared and allowed to play outside, both he and Kelly were punished at separate times indoors by Theresa, who refused to acknowledge the abuse when confronted years later. Explaining why he never told anyone, Kelly wrote in his 2012 autobiography \"Soulacoaster\" that he was \"too afraid and too ashamed\". Around age 10, Kelly was also sexually abused by an older male who was a friend of the family. In his autobiography, Kelly described being shot in the shoulder, at age 11, by boys who were attempting to steal his bike, although a family friend later stated that Kelly had shot himself while attempting suicide."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shaggy defense",
        "text": "On February 3, 2002, a video surfaced showing popular R&B musician R. Kelly statutorily raping, and urinating on, an underage girl. The story, which was released by an unknown source, was sent to the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", the newspaper that broke the story on February 8, 2002. This news surfaced as Kelly was to perform at the opening ceremony of the 2002 Winter Olympics. In interviews with WMAQ television of Chicago and MTV News, Kelly said that he was not the man in the video. In June 2002, Kelly was indicted in Chicago on 21 counts of child pornography. That same month, Kelly was apprehended by the Miami Police Department on a Chicago arrest warrant."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly had been introduced to a promising young singer from Detroit named Aaliyah by her uncle, Barry Hankerson, when she was 12 years old. During Kelly's 2021 criminal trial for sex trafficking and racketeering, a witness testified that Kelly had sexual contact with Aaliyah starting when she was 13 or 14 years old. Kelly wrote and produced Aaliyah's first album, \"Age Ain't Nothing but a Number\", in 1994. On August 31, 1994, Kelly, then 27, illegally married Aaliyah, then 15, in a secret ceremony in Cook County, Illinois. Kelly's tour manager, Demetrius Smith, admitted he facilitated the wedding by obtaining falsified identification for Aaliyah which listed her as 18 years old. In 2019, a contemporaneous video surfaced showing Kelly stating\u2014less than a year before the marriage took place\u2014that Aaliyah was 14 years old. The marriage was annulled in February 1995 at the behest of Aaliyah's family by a Michigan judge. Kelly and Aaliyah, however, both denied that the marriage occurred and even denied that their relationship had ever moved beyond friendship. In May 1997, Aaliyah filed a lawsuit in Cook County to have the marriage record expunged, stating that she was underage at the time of marriage, had lied by signing the marriage certificate as an 18-year-old, and that she could not legally enter into marriage without parental consent. The expungement request was included in a lawsuit filed by Tiffany Hawkins, who sought to use the marriage documents in her case against Kelly. Hawkins later accepted a settlement of $250,000 from Kelly, subject to a confidentiality agreement, in 1998. In 2019, federal prosecutors in New York charged Kelly with bribery related to the 1994 purchase of a fake ID for Aaliyah in order to obtain a marriage license. Kelly, through his lawyers, admitted in 2021 to having had 'underage sexual contact' with Aaliyah."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kathy Kelly",
        "text": "As documented in a 2012 Al Jazeera documentary, in January 2010 Kelly was arrested in the rotunda of the US Capitol building while taking part in a mock funeral, organized by Witness Against Torture, remembering Mani al-Utaybi, Yasser al-Zahrani, and Ali Abdullah Ahmed, three men then recently alleged to have been tortured to death in the US Guantanamo Bay prison complex. All participants of the protest were acquitted in court the following June."
      },
      {
        "title": "My Story (R. Kelly song)",
        "text": "30 August 2013 the documentary music video was uploaded on YouTube, a fan video was expected, but was never released. No official music video has or will be made for this song."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. (R. Kelly album)",
        "text": "R. is the third solo album by American singer R. Kelly, released as a double album on November 10, 1998 by Jive Records. It marked the first time Kelly worked with other producers as opposed to producing the entire album himself, as well as his first to feature guest artists. Its cover artwork uses the same image of Kelly from his 1993 debut \"12 Play\", only in silhouette form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blackfriars Massacre",
        "text": "Maurice Lewis, a lifelong friend of Kelly, stated,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Dying for It",
        "text": "\"All songs written by Kelly and McKee.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In December 2000, the \"Chicago Sun-Times\" first reported that police had made two investigations that Kelly was having sex with an underage female but had to drop the investigations due to lack of cooperation by the girls accusing him. A civil suit filed in 1996 by Tiffany Hawkins detailed allegations that, starting in 1991 when she was age 15, Kelly had sex with her as an underage high school student, encouraged her to recruit her school friends, and pressured her into engaging in group sex with other underage girls. In 1998, Kelly settled the lawsuit with Hawkins for $250,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In November 2010, Kelly collaborated with several African musicians forming a supergroup known as One8. The group featured 2Face from Nigeria, Ali Kiba from Tanzania, Congolese singer Fally Ipupa, 4X4 from Ghana, hip-hop artist Movaizhaleine from Gabon, Zambia's JK, Ugandan hip-hop star Navio and Kenya's Amani, the only female in the group. The first release from the group was \"Hands Across the World\" written and produced by Kelly."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Jim DeRogatis reported for \"BuzzFeed News\" on July 17, 2017, that Kelly was accused by three sets of parents of holding their daughters in an \"abusive cult\". Kelly and the alleged victims deny the allegations."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Admit",
        "text": "In \"I Admit\", Kelly admits to various acts, including dropping out of high school and not attending church. Kelly claims to be dyslexic, and asserts that his inability to read his recording contract caused him to forfeit publishing rights to his music, which contributed to Kelly's financial troubles, including his $20million tax debt to the Internal Revenue Service. In the song, Kelly confesses that he was sexually unfaithful and frequented strip clubs. Kelly reveals that he lost his virginity in his childhood when he was raped by an older female family member, elaborating on the disclosures from his 2012 autobiography, \"Soulacoaster: The Diary of Me\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guess What (song)",
        "text": "An accompanying music video was directed by Fab Five Freddy. The video depicts Johnson's conflict with her unfaithful lover. A remix entitled \"Guess What (Guess Again)\" was released as a single and featured R. Kelly's vocals as well as production and writing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kelly Oubre Jr.",
        "text": "[[Category:Living people]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Black women filmmakers",
        "text": "Dream hampton in 2019 produced \"Surviving R. Kelly\", which received a Peabody Award, an MTV Movie Award for \"Best Documentary,\" and a Rockies Award for \"Program of the Year\" at the Banff World Media Festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. (R. Kelly album)",
        "text": "All songs written and produced by R. Kelly, except where noted."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Kelly (murderer)",
        "text": "Kelly returned in 1927, almost forty years after his initial escape, to the psychiatric hospital. He was aged and sickly, and said that during his long stay in the United States he devoted himself to \"fighting against evil\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "The federal trial began on August 18, 2021. After weeks of testimony and two days of deliberations, on September 27, 2021, the jury found Kelly guilty on nine counts including racketeering, sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, sex trafficking, and a violation of the Mann Act. The judge ordered that Kelly remain in custody pending sentencing, which was set for May 4, 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kelly (musical)",
        "text": "Kelly is a musical with a book and lyrics by Eddie Lawrence and music by Moose Charlap. It was inspired by Steve Brodie, who in 1886 claimed to have jumped off the Brooklyn Bridge and survived. The story centers around Hop Kelly, a daredevil busboy. Some Bowery gamblers try to prevent him from surviving a jump from the Brooklyn Bridge."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly stated his intention to tour with R&B singer Mary J. Blige on \"The King & Queen Tour\" prior to the Black Panties Tour while continuing to create segments of the hip hopera \"Trapped in the Closet\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Do What U Want",
        "text": "I've been living in Chicago and spending a lot of time there, and that's where R. Kelly hails from. I was working on \"Artpop\" and I wrote ['Do What U Want'] on tour. It was about my obsession with the way people view me. I have always been an R. Kelly fan and actually it is like an epic pastime in the Haus of Gaga that we just get fucked up and play R. Kelly. This is a real R&B song and I [said 'I] have to call the king of R&B and I need his blessing.' It was a mutual love."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "During 2013, Kelly continued his \"The Single Ladies Tour\". He performed at music festivals across North America, including Bonnaroo, Pitchfork, and Macy's Music Festival. On June 30, 2013, R. Kelly performed live at BET Awards Show singing hits as well as his new track \"My Story\" featuring Atlanta rapper 2 Chainz. The song was the lead single for Kelly's twelfth studio album \"Black Panties\". released on December 10, 2013. Writing for \"New York\" magazine, David Marchese stated that Black Panties \"was like a dare to the world: After all that he\u2019d been accused of, after avoiding conviction, could R. Kelly still get away with making sex-obsessed music?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "American Wrestlers (album)",
        "text": "The track, \"Kelly\", is partly written about Kelly Thomas, an American homeless man that was beaten to death by the police, in 2011. Gary McClure noted, \"It concerns some other things too: parts of America. Parts of people. Artless strips of neon over a trough that spreads further than any animal could ever walk.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "R.L. Kelly",
        "text": "R.L. Kelly (born Rachel Levy) is an American electropop musician from Los Angeles, California."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly discography",
        "text": "R. Kelly discography\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Robert Sylvester Kelly was born at Chicago Lying-in Hospital in the Hyde Park neighborhood on the South Side of Chicago, Illinois, on January 8, 1967. He has three half-siblings, an older sister and brother, along with a younger brother. His mother, Joanne Kelly, was a schoolteacher and devout Baptist. She was born in Arkansas. The identity of his father, who was absent from Kelly's life, is not known. His family lived in the Ida B. Wells Homes public housing project in Chicago's Bronzeville neighborhood. Around the time he was five years old, Kelly's mother married his stepfather, Lucious, who reportedly worked for an airline. Kelly began singing in the church choir at age eight."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly released the 19-minute long \"I Admit\" on SoundCloud on July 23, 2018, as a response to his accusers. The song does not contain any criminal admissions despite its title and chorus, which repeats the lyric \"I admit it, I did it\". In \"I Admit\", Kelly denies allegations of domestic violence and pedophilia, asserting that they are matters of opinion. Kelly also denounces Jim DeRogatis and repudiates his investigative report's claim of Kelly operating a \"sex cult\". Addressing the Mute R. Kelly social media campaign, Kelly sings, \"only God can mute me\". The song was criticized by reviewers, who described it as an act of trolling. Andrea Kelly and Carey Killa Kelly, R. Kelly's ex-wife and brother, responded to \"I Admit\" with a remix and a diss track respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kelly + Victor",
        "text": "After returning from a party, Victor finds Kelly bleeding in the street after she has been attacked by her ex-boyfriend. He takes her to A&E and the two return home again together. Kelly again strangles Victor with a tie, him insisting that he will tap her when he has had enough. However, Kelly gets carried away and does not notice that Victor is unable to tap her. He dies from asphyxiation, leaving Kelly distraught and listening to a CD mixtape that he made for her."
      },
      {
        "title": "Without Remorse (film)",
        "text": "Healed from his injuries, Kelly tracks down the Russian diplomat, who issued the passports to the FSB operatives, and forces him to give up the name of the surviving assassin before killing him. Incarcerated for murder, Kelly bargains his way out by revealing the escaped operative is Victor Rykov, an ex-Spetznaz officer who is hiding in Murmansk, Russia. Despite Greer's objections, Clay allows Kelly to participate in Rykov's capture on the condition that Kelly serves his sentence after the mission."
      },
      {
        "title": "Guess What (song)",
        "text": "R. Kelly wrote \"Guess What\" around the theme of infidelity. Like other R. Kelly-written songs, the song had a similar pattern of people complaining and expressing their unhappiness in relationships, with a threat of leaving the romance. The song was believed to have been written about Johnson's relationship with her then husband Marcus Betts. \"God. Now, \"Guess What\", unfortunately, I think that was written about Marcus\", Johnson explained to Jamie Foster Brown, the publisher of \"Sister 2 Sister\" magazine. \"I ain't write it, though. I think because of the conversation I had with Robert [R. Kelly], he wrote it because of that.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Untitled (R. Kelly album)",
        "text": "In 2008, the album's title was initially supposed to be released under the name \"\", however, that version of this project leaked before release and so it was decided that the whole project should be re-recorded."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mute R. Kelly",
        "text": "The movement has sparked some celebrity attention. Some of R. Kelly's music collaborations received backlash and have been removed from streaming services as the \"Surviving R. Kelly\" documentary series aired on Lifetime in January 2019 and the #MuteRKelly movement has grown. Artists such as Lady Gaga, Celine Dion and The Pussycat Dolls have apologised and taken down their collaborations with Kelly from streaming services. Despite this, Kelly has managed to work with Bryson Tiller, Chance the Rapper, Justin Bieber, Erykah Badu and Mary J. Blige."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Following his throat surgery, Kelly released \"Shut Up\" to generally favorable reviews: \"Spin\" magazine said, \"Kelly taking aim at the haters who said \"he's washed up, he's lost it.\" He hasn't. Dude's voice is in prime smooth R&B form\". On December 21, 2011, Kelly made a live appearance on \"The X Factor\" and gave his first performance after the surgery. Kelly revealed to \"Rolling Stone\" that he felt like he was \"just starting out\" and how the performance was a \"wake up call\" for him."
      },
      {
        "title": "J Roland Kelly",
        "text": "[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kelly Goldsmith",
        "text": "Kelly Goldsmith\n--Career.\n--\"Survivor\".\n--Personal life.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "\"The Washington Post\" ran a lengthy article in May 2018, alleging that music industry executives had been aware of Kelly's sexually abusive behavior toward underage girls for years but did little or nothing about them due to his success as a performer and songwriter. As early as 1994, the newspaper reported, his tour manager had urged Jive Records' founder Clive Calder to tell Kelly he would not release the singer's records if he continued to have \"incidents\" with young women after every concert he gave. Calder told the \"Post\" that he regretted not having done more at the time, saying \"Clearly, we missed something.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Trapped in the Closet",
        "text": "R. Kelly stated in an interview with Rap-Up TV that he was, at the time, working on a movie version of \"Trapped in the Closet\" that would have been released to theaters. The movie was rumored to be called \"Trapped in the Closet: The Movie\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "He Is We",
        "text": "After Kelly left with Stevie Scott in 2012, Rachel continued to pursue the project herself. She said that she planned to release new music and tour in 2013. In 2013, their song \"All About Us\", with Aaron Gillespie, was included on \"\" soundtrack. Despite rumors surfaced of her changing the name of He Is We and moving in a new direction, she insisted that the rumors were completely untrue and she would do no such thing. However, on June 23, 2014, Rachel Taylor broke away as a solo artist with her debut EP, \"Come Alive\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why did R. Kelly become a sex offender?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Since the 1990s, R. Kelly has been repeatedly accused of sexual abuse, often with underage girls.  Do you want to know more about why did R. Kelly become a sex offender on early reports of sexual abuse (1990s), first criminal indictment (2002), second series of criminal charges (2019\u20132021) or criminal conviction (2021)?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to hear about the early reports of sexual abuse."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In December 2000, the Chicago Sun-Times first reported that police had made two investigations that Kelly was having sex with an underage female but had to drop the investigations due to lack of cooperation by the girls accusing him. In the 2021 criminal trial for sex trafficking and racketeering, a witness testified that Kelly had sexual contact with Aaliyah starting when she was 13 or 14 years old."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about Surviving R. Kelly and what it is about?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Surviving R. Kelly is a Lifetime documentary detailing sexual abuse allegations against American singer Robert \"R.\" Kelly.Would you like to know more about the production, critical response, or the impact of the documentary?",
      "Surviving R. Kelly is a Lifetime documentary detailing sexual abuse allegations against American singer Robert \"R.\" Kelly (of which he was convicted after release of the documentary). It aired over three nights, from January 3 to January 5, 2019."
    ],
    "topic": "R. Kelly",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Surviving R. Kelly:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Surviving R. Kelly"
        ],
        "ctx": "Surviving R. Kelly is a Lifetime documentary detailing sexual abuse allegations against American singer Robert \"R.\" Kelly (of which he was convicted after release of the documentary). It aired over three nights, from January 3 to January 5, 2019. Filmmaker and music critic Dream Hampton served as executive producer together with Joel Karsberg, Jesse Daniels and Tamra Simmons. Musicians Chance the Rapper, John Legend and Stephanie \"Sparkle\" Edwards appeared in the documentary. Its premiere episode on January 3, 2019, was Lifetime's highest-rated program in more than two years, with 1.9 million total viewers. It received critical acclaim, with a 95% positive rating on Rotten Tomatoes. The documentary also spurred several musicians who previously collaborated with Kelly on projects, including Lady Gaga and Ciara, to condemn Kelly and remove their works with him from streaming services."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Surviving R. Kelly:4",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Surviving R. Kelly",
          "Production"
        ],
        "ctx": "A documentary series focused on R. Kelly's history of alleged sexual abuse was green-lit by Lifetime in May 2018."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Surviving R. Kelly:9",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Surviving R. Kelly",
          "Reception",
          "Critical response"
        ],
        "ctx": "The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 95% approval rating for the first season with an average rating of 8.19/10, based on 21 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, \"By unearthing previously suppressed histories, \"Surviving R. Kelly\" exposes the dangers of enabling predatory behavior and gives necessary voice to its survivors.\" Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 86 out of 100 based on 9 critics, indicating \"universal acclaim.\""
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Surviving R. Kelly:11",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Surviving R. Kelly",
          "Reception",
          "Impact"
        ],
        "ctx": "The National Sexual Assault Hotline in the United States, operated by the Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (RAINN), experienced a 27% increase in calls during the airing of the documentary."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Surviving R. Kelly:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Surviving R. Kelly"
        ],
        "ctx": "Surviving R. Kelly is a Lifetime documentary detailing sexual abuse allegations against American singer Robert \"R.\" Kelly (of which he was convicted after release of the documentary). It aired over three nights, from January 3 to January 5, 2019. Filmmaker and music critic Dream Hampton served as executive producer together with Joel Karsberg, Jesse Daniels and Tamra Simmons. Musicians Chance the Rapper, John Legend and Stephanie \"Sparkle\" Edwards appeared in the documentary. Its premiere episode on January 3, 2019, was Lifetime's highest-rated program in more than two years, with 1.9 million total viewers. It received critical acclaim, with a 95% positive rating on Rotten Tomatoes. The documentary also spurred several musicians who previously collaborated with Kelly on projects, including Lady Gaga and Ciara, to condemn Kelly and remove their works with him from streaming services."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Surviving R. Kelly is a Lifetime documentary detailing sexual abuse allegations against American singer Robert \"R.\" Kelly (of which he was convicted after release of the documentary). It aired over three nights, from January 3 to January 5, 2019. Filmmaker and music critic Dream Hampton served as executive producer together with Joel Karsberg, Jesse Daniels and Tamra Simmons. Musicians Chance the Rapper, John Legend and Stephanie \"Sparkle\" Edwards appeared in the documentary. Its premiere episode on January 3, 2019, was Lifetime's highest-rated program in more than two years, with 1.9 million total viewers. It received critical acclaim, with a 95% positive rating on Rotten Tomatoes. The documentary also spurred several musicians who previously collaborated with Kelly on projects, including Lady Gaga and Ciara, to condemn Kelly and remove their works with him from streaming services."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "The National Sexual Assault Hotline in the United States, operated by the Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (RAINN), experienced a 27% increase in calls during the airing of the documentary."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Legend",
        "text": "Legend was one of the few celebrities to appear and speak out in the Lifetime documentary \"Surviving R. Kelly\". The six-part docuseries details sex abuse allegations spread over four decades against acclaimed R&B singer R. Kelly. It focuses on women who allege that the musician and record producer used his status and influence to sexually and physically abuse women and young girls for decades. Legend lambasted R. Kelly during his interview in the final episode of the series, asserting that \"R. Kelly has brought so much pain to so many people. Time's up for R. Kelly.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Surviving R. Kelly\n--Production.\n--Reception.\n----Critical response.\n----Ratings.\n------Season 1.\n----Impact.\n----Awards.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Following the documentary, the office of Cook County, Illinois, State's Attorney Kim Foxx said on January 10, 2019, that it had received numerous new calls alleging sexual abuse by R. Kelly and that it was investigating the claims. Lady Gaga also released a statement saying she regretted working with R. Kelly on their 2013 duet \"Do What U Want\" and said she was working on removing it from online streaming services. \"I stand behind these women 1000%, believe them, know they are suffering and in pain, and feel strongly that their voices should be heard and taken seriously\", she wrote in a statement. \"I think it's clear how explicitly twisted my thinking was at the time...If I could go back and have a talk with my younger self I'd tell her to go through the therapy I have since then.\" However, the single with Christina Aguilera was kept. Other artists that have previously worked and collaborated with Kelly as well, such as Chance the Rapper, Celine Dion, and Ciara, also took down their songs with him from music streaming services and retailers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "\"We've been working for over a year to bring forth the stories of these women,\" executive producer Joel Karsberg told \"The Hollywood Reporter\". \"We are proud to team with Lifetime to shed light on these stories as well as an industry that has looked the other way for so many years.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "A documentary series focused on R. Kelly's history of alleged sexual abuse was green-lit by Lifetime in May 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dream Hampton",
        "text": "\"Surviving R. Kelly\" received a Peabody Award. It received an MTV Movie Award for Best Documentary. It received a Rockies Award for \"Program of the Year\" at the Banff World Media Festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "\"Surviving R. Kelly\" won a Peabody Award in the Documentary category."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In January 2019, Lifetime began airing a six-part documentary series titled Surviving R. Kelly detailing sexual abuse and misconduct allegations against Kelly. Writing for the \"Los Angeles Times\", Loraine Ali observed that the series covered a range of in-depth interviews that \"paint a picture of a predator whose behavior was consistently overlooked by the industry, his peers and the public while his spiritual hit was sung in churches and schools.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "XHamster",
        "text": "Following the airing of a Lifetime Network documentary-style film, \"Surviving R.Kelly\", xHamster reported a 388% increase in R.Kelly related searches since January 2019. The Lifetime film presents R.Kelly's arrest, trial, and acquittal on child pornography charges between 2002 and 2008. Censored from xHamster's website, the \"infamous\" sex tape features the hip-hop artist engaged in sexual relations with and urinating on, an underage girl. In a bid to reprimand viewers who search for the sex tape, xHamster denounced seeking the tape as both \"illegal\" and \"immoral\". xHamster emphasized in their public statement that searching for the video may even be \"re-victimizing a minor who could not consent\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Many musicians who worked with R. Kelly refused to participate in the series. \"When it comes to celebrities, it was incredibly difficult to get people who had collaborated (artistically) with Kelly to come forward,\" Hampton said. \"We asked Lady Gaga. We asked Erykah Badu. We asked Celine Dion. We asked Jay-Z. We asked Dave Chappelle. (They're) people who have been critical of him. That makes John Legend even more of a hero for me.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Dream Hampton",
        "text": "Hampton was executive producer of \"Surviving R. Kelly\", a 2019 documentary series about the decades of sexual-abuse allegations against R. Kelly. Page six reported that a Homeland Security agent had watched the series and started a federal investigation into the victims' allegations. After its release, Kelly was charged with aggravated criminal sexual abuse and other crimes for an eventual total of 18 federal charges."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Admit",
        "text": "After the January 2019 broadcast of \"Surviving R. Kelly\", Kelly appeared in a \"CBS This Morning\" interview on March 8, 2019, in which Gayle King asked him whether \"I Admit\" was his \"way of confessing\". Kelly responded, \"That question makes no sense, no offense, but what I'm saying is this: 'I Admit' was me expressing my feelings about the things I was going through. If you're listening to it, you can hear exactly what I'm admitting.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "MeToo movement",
        "text": "In January 2019, the Lifetime documentary \"Surviving R. Kelly\" aired, describing several women's accusations of sexual, emotional, mental, and physical abuse by singer R. Kelly. The documentary questioned the \"ecosystem\" that \"supports and enables\" powerful individuals in the music industry. In February 2019, Kelly was arrested for ten alleged counts of sexual abuse against four women, three of whom were minors at the time of the incidents. His former wife Andrea Kelly has also accused him of domestic violence and filed a restraining order against him in 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black women filmmakers",
        "text": "Dream hampton in 2019 produced \"Surviving R. Kelly\", which received a Peabody Award, an MTV Movie Award for \"Best Documentary,\" and a Rockies Award for \"Program of the Year\" at the Banff World Media Festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "The January 3 premiere episode was Lifetime's highest-rated program in more than two years, with 1.9\u00a0million total viewers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard A. Devine",
        "text": "Devine appeared in \"Surviving R. Kelly\", a 2019 Lifetime documentary series about sexual abuse allegations against musician R. Kelly. Though the 2008 trial of Kelly occurred at the end of Devine's tenure, he did not participate in the trial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Hampton said that Simmons would call prospective interviewees late into the night. \"She was handling and had the relationships with, not just the women and girls who survived R. Kelly, but also the families,\" Hampton said. \"We had three families who were trying to get their daughters back. So she in particular, she and Jesse, had been caring for those relationships. And then I came on as showrunner and made it a show.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Hampton was invited onto the project by an executive at Bunim/Murray Productions. \"[...] That executive, Jesse Daniels, and Tamara Simmons, another co-EP on this project, have been holding these relationships with some of his survivors for months before I came on board,\" Hampton said in an interview with NPR. \"I remember talking to them early on, kind of figuring out if we were going to work together...Having been adjacent in some ways to the music industry, when there was one, I knew that it took dozens, if not hundreds of people, for R. Kelly to operate as long as he has in the way that he has.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Taking Chance",
        "text": "Former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates wrote in his 2014 memoir \"\" that the film had an \"important impact\" on his decision to allow the media access to the transfer of fallen service members at Dover Air Force Base in February 2009. During a White House press conference in 2017, former White House Chief of Staff and Retired Marine Corps General John F. Kelly, who was next to Chance when he was killed and is the father of First Lieutenant Robert Kelly who was killed in action in Afghanistan, recommended that the Washington press corps watch the film in order to understand the solemnity and dignity of the process of returning fallen military service members to their families."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joanne N. Smith",
        "text": "Smith spoke out and organized in support of survivors in response to allegations of sexual abuse against rapper and hip hop artist R. Kelly. Smith was featured in Lifetime's documentary series Surviving R. Kelly as well as a panel discussion following the premier, and Girls for Gender Equity published a viewer guide for the show. The show and Smith's activism, alongside others, shifted the conversation about Black survivorship and increased awareness around the prevalence and impact of sexual abuse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Phoenix Rising (American TV series)",
        "text": "Writing for the Salon, reviewer Melanie McFarland cast the film as another useful piece of the puzzle formed by recent documentaries about alleged serial sexual predators, saying \"But if \"\"Surviving R. Kelly\" demonstrates how cavalierly Black women are dismissed by the justice system, and W. Kamau Bell's \"We Need to Talk About Cosby\"\" dissects the ways its subject carefully exploited his fatherly image to operate for decades as a serial rapist without suffering any consequences, \"Phoenix Rising\" explains why survivors can take years to come forward.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sticks & Stones (2019 film)",
        "text": "Surviving R. Kelly producer Dream Hampton disputed Chappelle's claim that she approached him at a performance in Detroit to ask him to appear in the documentary: \"I didn\u2019t personally (or casually) invite Chappelle [...] The producer responsible for celeb outreach officially asked him, more than once. I haven\u2019t seen or talked to him in about 8 years\", Hampton tweeted. Chappelle declined to appear in the documentary as he didn't know Kelly personally. Hampton also accused Chappelle of misquoting her: \"I [...] have never in my life said the words 'too hot for TV'\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Shortly after the docuseries aired, Kelly's final record label, RCA Records, dissolved its working relationship with him. In February 2019, Kelly was formally charged with 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Kelly (editor)",
        "text": "Kelly's legacy remains divided. On one side, he is remembered as a journalist who \"stood for truth, and died for his beliefs.\" But he has been criticized for his vocal support for the invasion of Iraq (which ended in an eight-year insurgency against American troops and the reformed Iraqi forces), an event partially attributed by some to a press perceived as being not critical enough."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "R. Kelly\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n----1990\u20131996: \"Born into the 90's\", \"12 Play\" and \"R. Kelly\".\n----1997\u20132001: Basketball, \"R.\", \"TP-2.COM,\" and Rockland Records.\n------Rockland Records.\n----2002\u20132003: \"The Best of Both Worlds\" and \"Chocolate Factory\".\n----2004\u20132005: \"Unfinished Business, Happy People/U Saved Me\" and \"TP.3 Reloaded\".\n----2006\u20132009: \"Double Up\" and \"Untitled\", Africa.\n----2010\u20132012: \"Epic\", \"Love Letter\", throat surgery, and \"Write Me Back\".\n----2013\u20132016: \"Black Panties\", \"The Buffet\", and \"12 Nights of Christmas\".\n--Artistry.\n----Musical style and influences.\n----Vocal style and lyrical themes.\n--Sexual abuse allegations.\n----Early reports of sexual abuse (1990s).\n----Illegal marriage (1994).\n----Sex tape circulates (2002).\n----First criminal indictment (2002).\n----Allegations of preteen girl molestation (2009).\n----Huffington Post Live Interview (2015).\n----Alleged sex cult (2010s).\n----Boycott and industry response.\n------Allegations of music industry complicity.\n----Musical response to allegations.\n----\"Surviving R. Kelly\" (2019\u20132020).\n----Second series of criminal charges (2019\u20132021).\n----Criminal conviction (2021).\n----Other legal issues.\n--Influence.\n--Personal life.\n----Charity and donations.\n--Honors and awards.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In March 2018, BBC World Service aired a documentary entitled \"R Kelly: Sex, Girls and Videotapes\" presented by reporter Ben Zand that explored the 2017 allegations. This was followed up in May with the BBC Three documentary \"R Kelly: The Sex Scandal Continues\" which included interviews with the parents of the Savage daughters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Out of This Club",
        "text": "The release of \"Out Of This Club\" follows Kelly's acquittal of possessing child pornography in 2002 a couple of months earlier. In January 2019, the television documentary \"Surviving R. Kelly\" exposed new allegations of sexual misconduct and assault. In response, the Pussycat Dolls asked their former label, Interscope Records to remove the song from all digital and streaming platforms, meaning neither artist could profit from the song. Beginning April of that year, the song was also excluded from subsequent CD pressings of \"Doll Domination\". During an interview with \"Heat\" magazine member Kimberly Wyatt explained that the collaboration was out of the group's hands. \"When it came to the music, and when it came to R. Kelly, that was completely out of my hands. I had nothing to do with the song or the choice. I never met the man, I was never in the studio with him. If I had had more power I probably would have made it a bit different.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Captive State",
        "text": "Machine Gun Kelly sustained a hairline fracture on set toward the end of filming, reportedly from repeated punches to the chest from an unnamed person playing a police officer. The actor stated that when he complained to a crew member about the incident, he was told to \"suck it up.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Mute R. Kelly",
        "text": "The movement has sparked some celebrity attention. Some of R. Kelly's music collaborations received backlash and have been removed from streaming services as the \"Surviving R. Kelly\" documentary series aired on Lifetime in January 2019 and the #MuteRKelly movement has grown. Artists such as Lady Gaga, Celine Dion and The Pussycat Dolls have apologised and taken down their collaborations with Kelly from streaming services. Despite this, Kelly has managed to work with Bryson Tiller, Chance the Rapper, Justin Bieber, Erykah Badu and Mary J. Blige."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 95% approval rating for the first season with an average rating of 8.19/10, based on 21 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, \"By unearthing previously suppressed histories, \"Surviving R. Kelly\" exposes the dangers of enabling predatory behavior and gives necessary voice to its survivors.\" Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 86 out of 100 based on 9 critics, indicating \"universal acclaim.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On February 8, 2002, Kelly performed at the closing ceremony of the 2002 Winter Olympics at the same time a news scandal broke of a sex tape that appeared to show Kelly with an underage girl."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Nielsen SoundScan has reported that after the initial airing of the series, Kelly's music saw a two-fold increase in streaming popularity. But, in contrast, after the series aired, many urban contemporary radio stations \u2013 where R. Kelly was a mainstay \u2013 in various markets have decided they would no longer play his music. Stations like KKDA-FM and KRNB in Dallas, KJLH in Los Angeles, WBLS in New York City, and WAMJ in Atlanta have made the announcement they will not play R. Kelly anymore, while other radio stations that quietly banned his music did not make a public announcement on their decision."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "\"The Washington Post\" also suggested the labels were complicit in the sex-cult allegations from the previous summer's \"BuzzFeed\" piece. Employees at the studios where Kelly recorded were required to sign non-disclosure agreements and not enter certain rooms, which they said they believed were where Kelly made the young women and underage girls stay while he worked. Despite the agreements, the newspaper was able to publish screenshots of text exchanges where young women and underage girls in the rooms asked Kelly's assistants to let them out so they could go to the bathroom or get food. The newspaper also published pictures taken after Kelly had concluded a six-week session at a Los Angeles studio, paid for by his then-current label, RCA Records, showing a cup of urine sitting on a piano and urine stains on the wooden floor of another room."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly's record label, RCA Records, dropped him shortly after the docuseries aired. On February 22, 2019, R. Kelly was formally charged with 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse. On March 6, 2019, in a \"CBS This Morning\" interview with Gayle King, R. Kelly broke down crying while strongly denying all allegations and charges made against him."
      },
      {
        "title": "My Story (R. Kelly song)",
        "text": "30 August 2013 the documentary music video was uploaded on YouTube, a fan video was expected, but was never released. No official music video has or will be made for this song."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On March 6, 2019, Gayle King interviewed Kelly on \"CBS This Morning\", where he insisted on his innocence and blamed social media for the allegations. During the interview, Kelly had an emotional outburst where he stood up, pounded his chest, and yelled. Two women who described themselves as a Kelly's girlfriends and whose parents say are brainwashed captives, declared their love for Kelly and defended him during the broadcast."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Following his throat surgery, Kelly released \"Shut Up\" to generally favorable reviews: \"Spin\" magazine said, \"Kelly taking aim at the haters who said \"he's washed up, he's lost it.\" He hasn't. Dude's voice is in prime smooth R&B form\". On December 21, 2011, Kelly made a live appearance on \"The X Factor\" and gave his first performance after the surgery. Kelly revealed to \"Rolling Stone\" that he felt like he was \"just starting out\" and how the performance was a \"wake up call\" for him."
      },
      {
        "title": "After It Happened",
        "text": "When \"After It Happened\" went into production in San Francisco in October 1988, the script originally ended with Kelly shooting Mike to death. This script was leaked to AIDS activist groups, who were outraged. They contended that the script as written increased the likelihood of vigilante violence against LGBT people and people with AIDS. Series executive producer Bob Singer disagreed, saying, \"The hero says that the murder is absolutely the wrong solution. No one watching it could think we were condoning this by any stretch of the imagination.\" Three groups took the lead in organizing the protests: the San Francisco AIDS Foundation; ACT UP San Francisco; and Mobilization Against AIDS. On October 20 about 60 ACT UP demonstrators shut down outdoor filming by chanting, blowing whistles and disabling lighting equipment. This was the first time that a gay-related disruption caused a production to be suspended since the 1979 protests against the film \"Cruising\" in New York City. \"Midnight Caller\" production company Lorimar Television agreed to alter the script. The ending was changed so that Kelly would still kill Mike but would be shown being arrested. Activists still considered this unacceptable and swore to continue disrupting the filming. Lorimar obtained temporary restraining orders against two of the protest groups on October 24, requiring them to stay at least 100 feet away from filming; the activists promptly announced that they would ignore the orders. Demonstrators shut down production again on October 25. Singer announced that day that the ending would be changed again, to eliminate Mike's killing entirely. Some additional changes were made, such as including a scene in which the bartender at a gay bar denounces Mike's behaviour as \"irresponsible\", but Lorimar refused to meet another demand, that Mike be unaware of his HIV status. Lorimar executive Leslie Moonves denied that the changes were politically motivated, saying simply \"we were concerned about being responsible.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Alex Kelly (filmmaker)",
        "text": "From 2013 to 2015 Kelly worked at the Global Impact & Distribution Producer on Naomi Klein and Avi Lewis' \"This Changes Everything\" project. The documentary film premiered at Toronto International Film Festival and was released globally in the lead up to the COP21 Climate Change meeting in Paris in December 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Palladino",
        "text": "In 2002, singer, songwriter, and record producer R. Kelly was charged with videotaping himself having sex with an underage teenage girl. An investigation by Palladino that lasted six years culminated in Palladino's testimony at trial challenging the principal prosecution witness, and the acquittal of Kelly in less than a day."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On February 3, 2002, a video circulated that allegedly showed Kelly engaging in sex with, and urinating on, an underage girl. After the video was released by an unknown source and sent to the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", the publisher broke the story on February 8, 2002, the same day Kelly performed at the opening ceremony of the 2002 Winter Olympics. Kelly said in interviews that he was not the man in the video."
      },
      {
        "title": "Partner violence in hip hop",
        "text": "\"Surviving R. Kelly\", a three-part television documentary which aired in January 2019, described R. Kelly's history of sexual assault. Kelly was charged with 10 counts of sexual assault in the Chicago metropolitan area from 1998 to 2010. Three of the 10 victims were between the ages of 13 and 16. During the 1990s, Kelly was found to be married to 15-year-old Aaliyah. The marriage was annulled, and Kelly said that he thought Aaliyah was 18."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard Kelly (filmmaker)",
        "text": "Kelly spoke of viewing the film \"Brazil\" with author Robert K. Elder in an interview for \"The Film That Changed My Life\":"
      },
      {
        "title": "I Am Your Woman",
        "text": "On January 31, 2019, Johnson announced that she will no longer be performing the song after the airing of a television documentary, \"Surviving R. Kelly\", exposed new allegations of sexual misconduct and assault by Kelly, who had previously been charged regarding similar accusations in 2002 but was acquitted in 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kelly Duda",
        "text": "In 2012, Kelly accompanied actor and civil rights activist George Takei on a pilgrimage to the Rohwer War Relocation Center site and cemetery, marking the 70th anniversary of Executive Order 9066 signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Takei and his family were Japanese Americans interned at Rohwer during World War II. He was also a photographer on the 2014 documentary To Be Takei."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas J. Kelly III",
        "text": "The series of photos, titled \"Tragedy on Sanatoga Road,\" were featured in a TNT documentary, \"Moment of Impact: Stories of the Pulitzer Prize Photographs,\" and have been included in multiple exhibitions around the country."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black women in American politics",
        "text": "The related campaign, #MuteRKelly was founded by Kenyette Barnes and Oronike Odeleye three months before Tarana Burke's \"Me Too\" message began to proliferate on Twitter in October 2017. Oronike stated, \"Someone had to stand up for Black women, and if I wasn't willing to do my part\u200a\u2014\u200ano matter how small\u200a\u2014\u200athen I couldn't continue to complain.\" While it took some time for #MuteRKelly to resonate with the public, on January 3, 2019, Lifetime Network aired a 6-part series titled, \"Surviving R. Kelly\", produced by filmmaker and music critic, dream hampton, together with Joel Karsberg, Jesse Daniels and Tamra Simmons. The first season was a critical success and the premiere episode was Lifetime's highest-rated program in more than two years, with 1.9\u00a0million total viewers. Rotten Tomatoes reads, \"By unearthing previously suppressed histories, \"Surviving R. Kelly\" exposes the dangers of enabling predatory behavior and gives necessary voice to its survivors.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Following airing of the \"Surviving R. Kelly\" documentary, Kelly was listed in \"Guinness World Records\" as the most searched for male musician on Google in 2019. He ranked 8th overall on Google's list of the 10 most search for people for the year."
      },
      {
        "title": "On the Record (film)",
        "text": "\"On the Record\" is the fourth documentary released since the beginning of #MeToo that highlights allegations of sexual abuse against men in power, including \"Untouchable\" and the \"Surviving R. Kelly\" series. It is the third film directed by Kirby Dick and Amy Ziering about sexual assault, including \"The Invisible War\" and \"The Hunting Ground\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ne-Yo",
        "text": "In 2019, in wake of the television documentary, \"Surviving R. Kelly\", Ne-Yo confirmed his support for the Mute R. Kelly campaign, for the protection of his own daughter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kelly Duda",
        "text": "The American Film Institute remarked, \"Kelly Duda's dedication to the truth is an inspiration\u2014this expos\u00e9 wears his heart on its sleeve, refusing to let the victims die in vain.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly videography",
        "text": "This is a chronologically-ordered list of films and television shows in which R. Kelly has appeared."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In 2007, Kelly released the song \"Rise Up\" for Virginia Tech after the 2007 school shooting, and donated the net proceeds to the families of the victims."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On July 19, 2011, Kelly was admitted to the Northwestern Memorial Hospital in Chicago to undergo emergency throat surgery to drain an abscess on one of his tonsils, and was released on July 21, 2011. He cancelled his performance at the Reggae Sumfest in Jamaica that was scheduled for the following Friday. Johnny Gourzong, Sumfest Productions executive director, commented, \"We are truly going to miss his presence on the festival.\" On September 23, 2011, \"Variety\" confirmed that Kelly had signed on to write original music for the \"Sparkle\" soundtrack."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blackfriars Massacre",
        "text": "Kelly, as a Channel 7 investigative reporter, in a November 1976 interview, said,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Kelly (Australian musician)",
        "text": "\"\" (1 October 2012) is an Australian documentary by Shark Island Productions. The film is an intimate portrait of Kelly that follows his 40-year career as Australia's foremost singer-songwriter. The film won the Film Critics Circle Award in 2012 for Best Documentary, and the ASE Award in 2013 for Best Documentary Editing. Nominations include the ADG Award in 2013 for Best Documentary Feature and AACTA Award 2013 for Best Sound in a Documentary. The film was part of the Official Selection at the Melbourne International Film Festival 2012 and the Canberra International Film Festival in that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "That's That",
        "text": "The song was performed live at the MTV Europe Music Awards 2006, although R. Kelly wasn't present. The curiosity of the live act was that the intro of the song was the same cut as in the movie with the Victoria Dillard skit at the end, which was left unedited in the direct broadcast, though in the later reruns of the program, \"penis\" was censored. Though R. Kelly wasn't present here either, the song was also performed live at the 2006 BET Hip Hop Awards and at the 2006 American Music Awards. R. Kelly's part was playback in the events."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "\"The Washington Post\" ran a lengthy article in May 2018, alleging that music industry executives had been aware of Kelly's sexually abusive behavior toward underage girls for years but did little or nothing about them due to his success as a performer and songwriter. As early as 1994, the newspaper reported, his tour manager had urged Jive Records' founder Clive Calder to tell Kelly he would not release the singer's records if he continued to have \"incidents\" with young women after every concert he gave. Calder told the \"Post\" that he regretted not having done more at the time, saying \"Clearly, we missed something.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Emmett Kelly",
        "text": "The fire affected Kelly deeply and for the remainder of his life; according to his grandson, Joey Kelly, he \"rarely spoke of the fire to anyone other than family.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Kelly (political analyst)",
        "text": "Kelly and his family returned to television on March 14 for an interview about the incident. In December 2017 he said that \"for two weeks we were the most famous family on earth\" but he thought it could be \"the end of my career as a talking head.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Gene Kelly",
        "text": "Gene Kelly\n--Early life.\n--Stage career.\n--Film career.\n----1941\u20131945: Becoming established in Hollywood.\n----1946\u20131952: MGM.\n----1953\u20131957: The decline of the Hollywood musical.\n----1958\u20131996: After MGM.\n--Working methods and influence on filmed dance.\n--Personal life.\n----Marriages.\n----Political and religious views.\n--Illness and death.\n--Work.\n----Musical films.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lyda Roberti",
        "text": "According to her friend and co-star Patsy Kelly, Roberti died from a heart attack while bending to tie her shoelace. In an interview with Leonard Maltin for Film Fan Monthly, Kelly said, \"As a child, her father was in the circus, and he used to throw her on bareback, and we never knew it had affected her heart, and one day \u2013 boom!\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Grace Kelly (musician)",
        "text": "Kelly is a featured performer in the 2014 documentary \"\", co-produced by author Michael Connelly and directed by N.C. Heikin. In the documentary, she performs \"Somewhere Over the Rainbow\" as part of a tribute concert held in San Quentin State Prison, where Frank Morgan was incarcerated at different times in his life. The documentary had its world premiere at the Los Angeles Film Festival on June 14, 2014 and was followed the next day by a tribute concert at the Grammy Museum, featuring Kelly, George Cables, Ron Carter, Mark Gross, and Roy McCurdy. The documentary was selected for multiple additional film festivals, including the 2014 Hot Springs Documentary Film Festival, the 2014 Maine International Film Festival, the 2014 Virginia Film Festival, the 2014 Atlanta Film Festival, the 2015 Palm Springs International Film Festival, and the 2015 Vancouver International Film Festival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Patsy Kelly",
        "text": "Shortly after filming wrapped on \"Beauty and the Bus\", in August 1933, Kelly was injured as a passenger in a car driven by Gene Malin, the prominent drag performer. Malin apparently confused the gears and reversed off a pier into the water, after performing at the Ship Cafe, a club in Venice, Los Angeles. Malin was killed; Kelly and fellow passenger Jimmy Forlenza suffered serious injuries. She was told by the doctors that she had only ten years left to live based on the amount of sandy water that got into her lungs, but actually survived for decades after the accident. Kelly once said that \"I overheard a jury of grave-faced doctors nodding their heads over my supposedly unconscious body. They were giving me a maximum of ten years to live. Maybe they're right. When I heard that scientific verdict, I was plenty scared. But I pulled myself together and said, \u2018Kelly, there\u2019s only one way to beat this rap: don\u2019t worry \u2014 and have fun out of the remaining years.\u2019\""
      },
      {
        "title": "John Legend",
        "text": "Despite countless public allegations and controversies concerning Kelly, Legend stands as the only major recording artist willing to come forward and speak against him in the documentary. In response to fans who labeled him as \"brave\" for his actions, Legend stated the following on Twitter ahead of the program's debut: \"To everyone telling me how courageous I am for appearing in the doc, it didn't feel risky at all. I believe these women and don't give a fuck about protecting a serial child rapist. Easy decision.\" Executive producer Dream Hampton revealed that it was \"incredibly difficult\" to get men and women who had artistically collaborated with Kelly to come forward, including those who had criticized him. During an interview with \"Detroit Free Press\" she said, \"We asked Lady Gaga. We asked Erykah Badu. We asked C\u00e9line Dion. We asked Jay-Z. We asked Dave Chappelle. [They're] people who have been critical of him. That makes John Legend even more of a hero for me.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Injury",
        "text": "During Michael's seminar on famous disabled people, two pictures on the wall are of Tom Hanks: one from the 1994 film \"Forrest Gump\", and one from the 1988 film \"Big\", which Michael confuses for the 1993 film \"Philadelphia\". During the scene, Kelly also name-drops Robert Loggia. In an attempt to get Dwight into Meredith's van, Jim tells him that they are going to Chuck E. Cheese, to which Michael replies that he is \"so sick of\" the restaurant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neve Campbell",
        "text": "Campbell revealed during an interview on the \"Kelly Clarkson Show\" in 2021 that she survived a bear attack at the age of 17, an incident that occurred while filming an unnamed project. Describing the attack, she said \"I dipped my hand in honey and I run to this rock, and I turn around and I put my hand out and the bear is not slowing down and he's not coming for my hand, he grabs me by the leg and he pulls me through the forest. My mother was visiting set and she's screaming. The whole crew is frozen because nobody can believe what's happening. All I can think to say is, \u2018He's biting me,\u2019 like it's not obvious.\" Neither she, nor the rest of the personnel present, suffered any life-threatening injuries."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly's music took root in R&B, hip hop and soul. He was influenced by listening to his mother, Joanne Kelly, sing. She played records by Donny Hathaway and Marvin Gaye, inspirations for Kelly. In reference to Hathaway, Kelly stated: \"A guy like Donny Hathaway had a focused, sexual texture in his voice that I always wanted in mine. He had smooth, soulful tones, but he was spiritual at the same time.\" In his autobiography, Kelly stated that he was heavily influenced by Marvin Gaye's R&B Lothario image. \"I had to make a 'baby-makin' album. If Marvin Gaye did it, I wanted to do it\", Kelly said."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly described having a girlfriend, Lulu, at age eight, in his autobiography. He stated that their last play date turned tragic when, after fighting with older children over a play area by a creek, she was pushed into the water, swept downstream by a fast-moving current, and drowned. Kelly called Lulu his first musical inspiration."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly videography",
        "text": "R. Kelly videography\n--Filmography.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Live with Kelly and Ryan",
        "text": "\"Live! with Regis and Kelly's\" young-audience demographics increased by 80 percent, with Ripa credited for bringing \"a new life to the show.\" Seven months into Philbin and Ripa's run, the September 11 attacks on New York occurred, with coverage beginning twelve minutes before that day's episode would have started. The show was pre-empted for a week following the attacks and returned September 18, 2001."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Story of the Kelly Gang",
        "text": "Film historians Andrew Pike and Ross Cooper have noted that at the time, the filmmakers were unaware of the historical importance of the film they were making, and only much later \"poured forth their memories.\" Unfortunately, \"with the passage of time and the desire to make a good story of it\" they \"created a maze of contradictory information.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Executives at Epic Records also took a similarly relaxed attitude towards allegations of Kelly's sexual misconduct, the \"Post\" claimed. In 2002, after he signed with the label, executive David McPherson allegedly avoided viewing a copy of a tape purportedly showing the singer having sex with an underage girl, even as he had warned Kelly's assistant that if it turned out to be Kelly on that tape, the label would drop him. McPherson did not respond to the \"Post\"s requests for comment. An intern with the label whose work suffered after she began a relationship with Kelly, ultimately costing her the position, settled with Epic for $250,000; Cathy Carroll, the executive she worked for, regularly rebuked her former subordinate for having an affair with a married man whenever the two met at social functions for years afterwards, and the damage to the woman's reputation led her to abandon her career in the music industry. Carroll told the newspaper the woman was \"starstruck ... A lot of times it's not really the men.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Geoff Hoon",
        "text": "In an April 2004 interview, Hoon said that more could have been done to help Kelly, who committed suicide on 17 July 2003 after being named as the source of Andrew Gilligan's disputed \"Today\" programme contribution."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly's success continued with the November 14, 1995 release of \"R. Kelly\", his eponymous second studio album. Critics praised him for his departure from salacious bedroom songs to embracing vulnerability. \"New York Times\" contributor Stephen Holden described Kelly as \"The reigning king of pop-soul sex talks a lot tougher than Barry White, the father of such fluffed-up pillow talk and along with Marvin Gaye and Donny Hathaway, [both] major influences for Kelly.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Son of the Mask",
        "text": "When asked in a 2012 interview about whether the film's negative critical reaction had damaged his morale in wanting do another project like this, Kennedy replied to the interviewer, \"Yes. You got me right after a batch of bad interviews so I'm going to be honest with you about this. It does because I'm just being killed, absolutely killed... But honestly, doing this movie is an interesting experience because I just came off my show and \"Malibu's Most Wanted\" where I had a good amount of control. And then in this movie I didn't have any control. I just can't do that. I have to have my voice in there. If I can't, I'm just going to be like I'm doing someone else's thing. I have to have some of my voice because I have my own experiences that I lived through. All I can do is just try to make things independently. That's the only way you can do it. The only way you can do that is if you're a huge, huge, huge star. I'm not there yet. I'm just like a working actor.\" The poor reception of \"Son of the Mask\", which affected Kennedy personally, inspired him to co-create the documentary film \"Heckler\", an examination of both hecklers and professional critics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gigot (film)",
        "text": "Kelly later said \"\"the people I wanted to like it didn't; it was not my picture when it ended up. Seven Arts made 40 and more cuts or changes without telling Jackie Gleason or me; we were both very unhappy about it.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Avant (singer)",
        "text": "Avant has cited Kelly as his biggest influence and inspiration. \"Being compared to R. Kelly is a compliment in itself. He's been in the game for about twelve years. He is Mr. R&B. To be in the game, and to be named in the same sentence as that man is truly a privilege\", Avant said."
      },
      {
        "title": "Trapped in the Closet",
        "text": "R. Kelly stated in an interview with Rap-Up TV that he was, at the time, working on a movie version of \"Trapped in the Closet\" that would have been released to theaters. The movie was rumored to be called \"Trapped in the Closet: The Movie\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Admit",
        "text": "Ann-Derrick Gaillot of \"The Outline\" considered \"I Admit\" a \"bad song\" and \"a 20-minute long plea to save his dying career\", and stated that the release of the song demonstrated that Kelly was \"no longer invincible\". In \"Rolling Stone\", Michael Arcenaux lambasted Kelly for attempting to \"invoke his own trauma to excuse the grief he is alleged to have caused in so many women and girls\". \"Broadly\"s Leila Ettachfini labeled the song as \"a bizarre attempt to garner some sympathy from the public in hopes that it could somehow absolve Kelly for his alleged crimes against women and girls\", but remarked that \"the song doesn't seem to be achieving Kelly's desired effect\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Murder of Kelly Anne Bates",
        "text": "The murder has been the subject of at least one television documentary:"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Story of the Kelly Gang",
        "text": "As of 2020, approximately 17 minutes of the film are known to have survived, which, together with stills and other fragments, have undergone restoration for theatrical and home video releases. In 2007, \"The Story of the Kelly Gang\" was inscribed on the UNESCO Memory of the World Register for being the world's first full-length narrative feature film."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Admit",
        "text": "In \"I Admit\", Kelly admits to various acts, including dropping out of high school and not attending church. Kelly claims to be dyslexic, and asserts that his inability to read his recording contract caused him to forfeit publishing rights to his music, which contributed to Kelly's financial troubles, including his $20million tax debt to the Internal Revenue Service. In the song, Kelly confesses that he was sexually unfaithful and frequented strip clubs. Kelly reveals that he lost his virginity in his childhood when he was raped by an older female family member, elaborating on the disclosures from his 2012 autobiography, \"Soulacoaster: The Diary of Me\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "5B (film)",
        "text": "David Rooney wrote in \"The Hollywood Reporter\": \"As much as \"5B\" is defined by the still-resonating sorrow of so many deaths, and the conflicted feelings of survivors from decimated communities left with few friends their own age, it's also an uplifting film about profound human decency and generosity of spirit.\" Guy Lodge of \"Variety\" called the film a \"straight-for-the-tear-ducts documentary, which seeks first-hand inspiration and optimism amid the wreckage of an unavoidably bleak chapter in recent American history.\"\n* Alison Moed Paolercio\n* Cliff Morrison\n* David Denmark\n* Mary Magee\n* Sasha Cuttler\n* Guy Vandenberg\n* Dr. Paul Volberding\n* Dr. Lorraine Day\n* Rita Rockett\n* Hank Plante\n* Steve Williams\n* Mary Asbury\n* Leah Cleveland\n* Harry Breaux\n* George Kelly"
      },
      {
        "title": "102 Minutes That Changed America",
        "text": "The documentary film attracted 5.2 million viewers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grace Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly left a lasting legacy as a theater artist, television actress, and iconic Hollywood film star. Kelly has been cited as one of the \"classic Hitchcock blondes\", and as one of the most elegant women in cinematic and world history. One author describes her as the \"elegant glamour girl of the screen\". In 1999, Kelly was listed by Joan McIver as one of \"30 Irish-American Women Who Changed Our World.\" In a 2019 edition of the \"American Journal of Irish Studies\", she was described as \"Irish America's poster girl\" and \"an understated Irish-American icon.\" Katherine Boyle of \"The Washington Post\" claimed that Kelly \"had dramatic effects on views of Irish Catholic immigrants in the 1950s. Indeed, America seemed to pardon her tainted blood, tuning into her televised nuptial Mass in droves despite aversion to the religious spectacle.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "After Kelly's 2021 conviction, Modarressy-Tehrani tweeted: \"Now, with this verdict, hopefully, his survivors get some peace and feel this justice."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Since the 1990s, Kelly has been repeatedly accused of sexual abuse, often with underage girls. He has faced multiple civil suits and has been charged by criminal courts in Chicago, New York, Illinois, and Minnesota. He repeatedly denied the charges. In June 2002, he was indicted on 21 counts of making child pornography. He was acquitted six years later in 2008. In January 2019, a widely viewed Lifetime docuseries titled \"Surviving R. Kelly\" detailed allegations of sexual abuse by multiple women, allegations that Kelly continued to deny. Facing pressure from the public using the Mute R. Kelly hashtag, RCA Records dropped Kelly."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly's mother, Joanne, died from cancer in 1993. He has given conflicting accounts of where he was during his mother's passing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter Jennings",
        "text": "e.The immense scope of \"The Century\" caused headaches for those developing it. It survived three major changes in narrative approach, three different executive producers, and various attempts to axe the entire project. By the time it aired, all of the people interviewed for their anecdotes of World War I had died. Jennings, though, downplayed criticism of the program's rocky history. \"Name me a news organization that doesn't have some degree of turmoil on a major project,\" he said. \"What people care about in \"The New York Times\" is what gets in the paper. It's the same with us. There are people out there who think their job is to set the bar for us, but the bar for me is set by the audience, and I think there is a real hunger out there from everyone I encounter to relive and experience and learn from what's gone on over the last 100 years.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Charles L. Kelly",
        "text": "In 2002, the documentary film crew of \"In the Shadow of the Blade\" honored Kelly's story at their landing zone near Columbus, Georgia. After hearing the story of his father's courage from Vietnam Dustoff colleague Ernest Sylvester, Charles Kelly Jr. flew in the left seat of the documentary's restored UH-1 Iroquois, emulating his father's wartime experience."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nelson Sullivan",
        "text": "\u201cWhat Nelson was doing was entirely unique,\u201d Richards said in 2013. \u201cWhen you watch the tapes, you\u2019ll search in vain to find another person who\u2019s videotaping these events. With AIDS ravaging the community and changing it forever, his was basically the only personal video testimony of a scene that was rapidly disintegrating.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim DeRogatis",
        "text": "DeRogatis and Abdon Pallasch reported for the \"Chicago Sun-Times\" in December 2000 that court records and interviews alleged that musician R. Kelly had used his position of fame and influence to meet and have sex with underage girls. DeRogatis and Pallasch reported in February 2002 that a videotape had surfaced allegedly featuring Kelly engaging in sex with a 14-year-old girl. As a \"Sun-Times\" music critic, DeRogatis had received the videotape and subsequently turned it over to police."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freda Kelly",
        "text": "After leaving the Beatles' employ, Kelly took other secretarial jobs. She resisted repeated offers to write a book about her experiences, gave away most of her Beatles memorabilia to fans in the mid-1970s, and rarely \u2013 if ever \u2013 spoke of her time with the band. Following the death of her son and the birth of her grandson, however, she agreed to allow a documentary to be filmed, and turned to filmmaker and family friend Ryan White. At the crowdfunding platform Kickstarter, they raised almost $60,000 for production costs."
      },
      {
        "title": "When Pop Culture Saved America",
        "text": "Highlighted in the documentary is Alan Jackson's performance of his post-9/11 song, \"Where Were You (When the World Stopped Turning)\". The documentary also featured how pop culture was changed and influenced by the events of 9/11, such as the creation of the play \"110 Stories\", a \"docu-play\" which follows the course of the day as seen through the lives of ordinary people who lived through it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ron Kelly",
        "text": "Ron Kelly (born June 11, 1929 in Vancouver, British Columbia) is a Canadian film director and screenwriter. He began his career with the CBC film unit, directing many short and documentary films between 1952 and 1964. He traveled to France, Spain and Mexico producing and directing documentaries independently from 1956 to 1958. From 1959 to 1962 he studied at Pinewood Studios, England, on a Canadian Arts Council fellowship and while there produced and directed documentaries for the BBC, CBC and National Office of Film, UK. In 1967 he co-wrote and directed the feature film Waiting for Caroline, as a commemoration of Canada's centennial year. \"Waiting for Caroline\" was distributed internationally by United Artists, Hollywood. In Hollywood in 1968, Kelly directed for Twentieth Century Fox Studios and Disney Studio. In 1970 he returned to Canada, writing, directing and producing dramas and documentaries for the NFB and CBC. His most recent film is \"Victims of Victims\" (2004), a documentary exploration of the Palestinian-Israeli conflict."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. J. Huggins",
        "text": "The documentary aired on TVOntario on February 25, 2018, and made its PBS Detroit debut on May 4, 2018. It was also shown at some small screenings in Ottawa, and had a large theatre debut to over 600 students across two screenings at the Capitol Theatre in Windsor. It won the \"Award of Merit - Special Mention\" at the Impact Doc Awards in January 2016."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Bridge (2006 documentary film)",
        "text": "The documentary also features an interview with Kevin Hines, who survived his suicide attempt at the bridge in 2000. As he fell toward the water, he decided that he wanted to live after all and positioned himself so he hit the water feet first. He suffered serious injuries to his spine, but his life was saved by a black seal swimming below him. He later attributed the seal's presence as a sign from God."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why did R. Kelly become a sex offender?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Since the 1990s, R. Kelly has been repeatedly accused of sexual abuse, often with underage girls.  Do you want to know more about why did R. Kelly become a sex offender on early reports of sexual abuse (1990s), first criminal indictment (2002), second series of criminal charges (2019\u20132021) or criminal conviction (2021)?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to hear about the early reports of sexual abuse."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In December 2000, the Chicago Sun-Times first reported that police had made two investigations that Kelly was having sex with an underage female but had to drop the investigations due to lack of cooperation by the girls accusing him. In the 2021 criminal trial for sex trafficking and racketeering, a witness testified that Kelly had sexual contact with Aaliyah starting when she was 13 or 14 years old."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about Surviving R. Kelly and what it is about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Surviving R. Kelly is a Lifetime documentary detailing sexual abuse allegations against American singer Robert \"R.\" Kelly.Would you like to know more about the production, critical response, or the impact of the documentary?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Could you please tell me more about what impact the documentary had?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "There was a 27% increase in calls to the National Sexual Assault Hotline in the United States, new calls came forward about abuse from R. Kelly and various artists took down singles that featured him. Kelly's music saw streaming popularity during the initial airing but radio stations have decided to end his music and his record label dropped him.",
      "Would you like to know more about the impact related to R. Kelly's music, new calls alleging sexual abuse by R. Kelly or call volume at The National Sexual Assault Hotline ?"
    ],
    "topic": "R. Kelly",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Surviving R. Kelly:11",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Surviving R. Kelly",
          "Reception",
          "Impact"
        ],
        "ctx": "The National Sexual Assault Hotline in the United States, operated by the Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (RAINN), experienced a 27% increase in calls during the airing of the documentary."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Surviving R. Kelly:12",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Surviving R. Kelly",
          "Reception",
          "Impact"
        ],
        "ctx": "Following the documentary, the office of Cook County, Illinois, State's Attorney Kim Foxx said on January 10, 2019, that it had received numerous new calls alleging sexual abuse by R. Kelly and that it was investigating the claims. Lady Gaga also released a statement saying she regretted working with R. Kelly on their 2013 duet \"Do What U Want\" and said she was working on removing it from online streaming services. \"I stand behind these women 1000%, believe them, know they are suffering and in pain, and feel strongly that their voices should be heard and taken seriously\", she wrote in a statement. \"I think it's clear how explicitly twisted my thinking was at the time...If I could go back and have a talk with my younger self I'd tell her to go through the therapy I have since then.\" However, the single with Christina Aguilera was kept. Other artists that have previously worked and collaborated with Kelly as well, such as Chance the Rapper, Celine Dion, and Ciara, also took down their songs with him from music streaming services and retailers."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Surviving R. Kelly:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Surviving R. Kelly",
          "Reception",
          "Impact"
        ],
        "ctx": "Nielsen SoundScan has reported that after the initial airing of the series, Kelly's music saw a two-fold increase in streaming popularity. But, in contrast, after the series aired, many urban contemporary radio stations \u2013 where R. Kelly was a mainstay \u2013 in various markets have decided they would no longer play his music. Stations like KKDA-FM and KRNB in Dallas, KJLH in Los Angeles, WBLS in New York City, and WAMJ in Atlanta have made the announcement they will not play R. Kelly anymore, while other radio stations that quietly banned his music did not make a public announcement on their decision."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Surviving R. Kelly:14",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Surviving R. Kelly",
          "Reception",
          "Impact"
        ],
        "ctx": "Kelly's record label, RCA Records, dropped him shortly after the docuseries aired. On February 22, 2019, R. Kelly was formally charged with 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse. On March 6, 2019, in a \"CBS This Morning\" interview with Gayle King, R. Kelly broke down crying while strongly denying all allegations and charges made against him."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Surviving R. Kelly:11",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Surviving R. Kelly",
          "Reception",
          "Impact"
        ],
        "ctx": "The National Sexual Assault Hotline in the United States, operated by the Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (RAINN), experienced a 27% increase in calls during the airing of the documentary."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Surviving R. Kelly:12",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Surviving R. Kelly",
          "Reception",
          "Impact"
        ],
        "ctx": "Following the documentary, the office of Cook County, Illinois, State's Attorney Kim Foxx said on January 10, 2019, that it had received numerous new calls alleging sexual abuse by R. Kelly and that it was investigating the claims. Lady Gaga also released a statement saying she regretted working with R. Kelly on their 2013 duet \"Do What U Want\" and said she was working on removing it from online streaming services. \"I stand behind these women 1000%, believe them, know they are suffering and in pain, and feel strongly that their voices should be heard and taken seriously\", she wrote in a statement. \"I think it's clear how explicitly twisted my thinking was at the time...If I could go back and have a talk with my younger self I'd tell her to go through the therapy I have since then.\" However, the single with Christina Aguilera was kept. Other artists that have previously worked and collaborated with Kelly as well, such as Chance the Rapper, Celine Dion, and Ciara, also took down their songs with him from music streaming services and retailers."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Surviving R. Kelly:13",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Surviving R. Kelly",
          "Reception",
          "Impact"
        ],
        "ctx": "Nielsen SoundScan has reported that after the initial airing of the series, Kelly's music saw a two-fold increase in streaming popularity. But, in contrast, after the series aired, many urban contemporary radio stations \u2013 where R. Kelly was a mainstay \u2013 in various markets have decided they would no longer play his music. Stations like KKDA-FM and KRNB in Dallas, KJLH in Los Angeles, WBLS in New York City, and WAMJ in Atlanta have made the announcement they will not play R. Kelly anymore, while other radio stations that quietly banned his music did not make a public announcement on their decision."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "The federal trial began on August 18, 2021. After weeks of testimony and two days of deliberations, on September 27, 2021, the jury found Kelly guilty on nine counts including racketeering, sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, sex trafficking, and a violation of the Mann Act. The judge ordered that Kelly remain in custody pending sentencing, which was set for May 4, 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Roz Kelly",
        "text": "On October 27, 2000, she was sentenced to 120 days in jail after pleading \"no contest\" to charges stemming from an August 20, 2000, arrest for hitting a man with her cane. She was given credit for the 98 days that she had already spent in jail awaiting sentencing, thus avoiding having to spend any more time in jail."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Palladino",
        "text": "In 2002, singer, songwriter, and record producer R. Kelly was charged with videotaping himself having sex with an underage teenage girl. An investigation by Palladino that lasted six years culminated in Palladino's testimony at trial challenging the principal prosecution witness, and the acquittal of Kelly in less than a day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aaliyah",
        "text": "After the documentary \"Surviving R Kelly\" aired in January 2019, pressure from the public using the Mute R. Kelly hashtag escalated and RCA Records dropped Kelly from the label. In February 2019, Kelly was indicted on ten counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse. In July 2019, he was arrested on federal charges alleging sex crimes, human trafficking, child pornography, racketeering, and obstruction of justice. When his trial began in August 2021, Kelly was facing 22 federal criminal charges that involved allegedly abusing 11 girls and women between 1994 and 2018. Aaliyah\u2019s illegal marriage to Kelly was heavily featured in the court case. On September 27, 2021, a federal court jury found R. Kelly guilty on nine counts including racketeering, sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, sex trafficking, and a violation of the Mann Act. The judge ordered that Kelly remain in custody pending sentencing, which was set for May 4, 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "James A. Kelly Jr.",
        "text": "Kelly's retrial began on November 15, 1982, and ended on December 22. The next day, the jury found Kelly guilty of extortion. On January 20, 1983, Judge Rya W. Zobel sentenced him to two years in prison. He was allowed to remain out of prison until the outcome of his appeal, which was rejected on December 1, 1983. Kelly then sought to have his sentence delayed until April 1984 so he could complete his studies for a master's degree in business administration at Florida International University. The request was denied and Kelly began his sentence in March 1984. He was incarcerated in Federal Prison Camp, Eglin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly's record label, RCA Records, dropped him shortly after the docuseries aired. On February 22, 2019, R. Kelly was formally charged with 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse. On March 6, 2019, in a \"CBS This Morning\" interview with Gayle King, R. Kelly broke down crying while strongly denying all allegations and charges made against him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stephen Kelly (priest)",
        "text": "For his part in the action, he was sentenced to 33 months in jail, three years probation, and a share of the $33,503.51 in restitution. The judge gave him credit for the 30 months he spent in jail awaiting trial and sentencing."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On July 12, 2019, federal prosecutors from New York and Chicago indicted Kelly on 18 charges, including child sexual exploitation, child pornography production, sex trafficking, kidnapping, forced labor, racketeering, and obstruction of justice. He was first denied bail in October 2019 and denied bail release again in April 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. Superseding indictments were filed in Chicago on February 13, 2020, and in New York on March 13, 2020, raising the total number of charges to 22. He was incarcerated at Metropolitan Correctional Center, Chicago from July 11, 2019, to June 23, 2021. On June 23, 2021, Kelly was transferred to Metropolitan Detention Center, Brooklyn."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In 2019, Kelly was indicted by a Cook County grand jury in Chicago on 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse in February, followed by an additional 11 counts of sexual assault and abuse filed by the same court in May. On July 11, 2019, he was arrested on federal charges alleging sex crimes, human trafficking, child pornography, racketeering, and obstruction of justice. Kelly faced a total of 22 federal criminal charges as of January 29, 2021. A federal judge ordered Kelly jailed pending trial on the charges. On September 27, 2021, a federal jury in New York found Kelly guilty on nine counts including racketeering, sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, sex trafficking, and a violation of the Mann Act. The judge ordered that he remain in custody pending sentencing, set for May 4, 2022. Kelly faces a second trial for producing child pornography set for August 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Since the 1990s, Kelly has been repeatedly accused of sexual abuse, often with underage girls. He has faced multiple civil suits and has been charged by criminal courts in Chicago, New York, Illinois, and Minnesota. He repeatedly denied the charges. In June 2002, he was indicted on 21 counts of making child pornography. He was acquitted six years later in 2008. In January 2019, a widely viewed Lifetime docuseries titled \"Surviving R. Kelly\" detailed allegations of sexual abuse by multiple women, allegations that Kelly continued to deny. Facing pressure from the public using the Mute R. Kelly hashtag, RCA Records dropped Kelly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Kelly (actor)",
        "text": "Mackaye denied claims in court that she had been romantically involved with Kelly before Raymond's death, but Kelly's love letters to her were introduced as evidence. She was charged with felony conspiracy for the attempted coverup, and sentenced to one to three years, but served less than 10 months. Kelly was sentenced to up to 10 years, but served only 25 months in San Quentin prison. Conditions of his release included that he must not marry for 18 months after his release, and that he would have to take a job as a clerk for $30 per week. Kelly found working as a clerk untenable, and convinced the supervisors of his parole to allow him to return to acting on Broadway, with the condition that he continued to be limited to an income of $30 per week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Shortly after the docuseries aired, Kelly's final record label, RCA Records, dissolved its working relationship with him. In February 2019, Kelly was formally charged with 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "After a July 1996 brawl at a Lafayette, Louisiana health club involving Kelly and his entourage, Kelly was placed on a year's unsupervised probation starting August 13, 1997, after being found guilty of battery. One of the victims needed 110 facial stitches. Also that year, a 20-year-old accused Kelly in civil court of having sexual relations with her when he was 24 and she was 15. Kelly settled the lawsuit in 1998 for $250,000, according to the \"Chicago Sun-Times\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "July 2010 R238 traffic collision",
        "text": "Kelly was convicted at trial. His sentence later increased on appeal as 'unduly lenient' for the \u2018worst case of dangerous driving in history of the State\u2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In June 2002, Kelly was indicted in Chicago on 21 counts of child pornography. That same month on June 6, 2002, Kelly was arrested by the Miami Police Department on a Chicago arrest warrant at his Florida vacation home. He was released after one night in jail, the following day after posting bail of $750,000. The alleged victim refused to testify at the trial, and a Chicago jury found Kelly not guilty on all 14 counts of child pornography in June 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alex Kelly (rapist)",
        "text": "Kelly faced two trials in 1997. After the first was declared a mistrial, the second resulted in his conviction for the first rape and a sentence of 10 years in prison. He pleaded no contest to the second rape and was sentenced to an additional 10 years in prison (sentence to run concurrently with the 10-year sentence)."
      },
      {
        "title": "MBM scandal",
        "text": "Kelly was later convicted of extorting $34,500 from a Worcester architectural firm. He was sentenced to two years in prison. After his release he spent many years living in Florida and later moved to Colorado, where he died on August 9, 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kelly Ryan",
        "text": "On May 31, 2008, rather than going through a trial, Ryan and Titus pleaded guilty to reduced charges. Ryan pleaded guilty to one count of arson, entering an Alford plea to one count of battery with a deadly weapon resulting in significant bodily harm. She was sentenced to two consecutive terms of 3\u201313 years in prison."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On April 8, 1998, Kelly was arrested on three misdemeanor charges of disorderly conduct, including one charge on violating noise ordinance for playing his music extremely loud from his car. Prosecutors from the district attorney's office dropped the first two charges on May 7 and the noise charge on July 22 that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nicky Kelly",
        "text": "In 1978, he was sentenced to 12 years in prison for his alleged part in the Sallins Train Robbery. The ensuing campaign to release him became a symbol of the 1980s with 'Free Nicky Kelly' graffiti posted throughout the country. The evidence of torture committed against him and his two co-accused, Osgur Breatnach and Brian McNally, galvanized a campaign for his release. There was a dedication to him in the 1983 Planxty album, \"Words & Music\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "James R. Thompson",
        "text": "On April 17, 2006, Ryan was convicted on all 18 counts, which included racketeering, misusing state resources for political gain, and fraud. He was sentenced to 6\u00bd years in federal prison and began serving his sentence on November 7, 2007. Ryan was released from federal prison on July 3, 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On February 22, 2019, the Cook County State's Attorney's Office in Illinois charged Kelly with 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse. The charges allege that from 1998 to 2010, Kelly sexually abused four females, three of whom were teen minors at the time, with evidence including a video provided by Michael Avenatti of an alleged new crime. After Kelly turned himself in the day the charges were announced, he was arrested by the Chicago Police Department and taken into custody. The judge set bond at $1 million and ordered Kelly to have no contact with any minor under 18 or alleged victim. Kelly pleaded not guilty to all charges, which he called lies. He was released on bail after three nights in jail at Cook County."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Admit",
        "text": "Kelly was convicted of nine criminal counts, including racketeering (involving sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, and sex trafficking) and violations of the Mann Act, on September 28, 2021. A few fans of Kelly played \"I Admit\" beside the courthouse shortly after the judgment was issued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alex Kelly (rapist)",
        "text": "In 2005, after having served eight years of his 10-year sentence, Kelly appeared before a Connecticut parole board; his bid for release was rejected. At the hearing Kelly apologized many times saying he was \"hypercompetitive\" and self-centered, and that he has finally realized that the world is bigger than him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Little Rascals day care sexual abuse trial",
        "text": "Kelly was convicted and sentenced to 12 consecutive life terms in prison. The trial \"included 83 prosecution witnesses and 60 defense witnesses\". The children had testified that Kelly had forced them to have different types of sex. The parents testified that the children exhibited abnormal behavior. \"Twelve children, between the ages of 4 and 7, testified, and the results of physical and psychological tests of them were presented as evidence.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Kelly Ryan",
        "text": "On October 24, 2017 Ryan was released on parole after serving a nearly 12-year prison sentence at a Las Vegas area prison, having pleaded guilty to reduced charges in 2008 in connection with the death of Melissa James."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On July 11, 2019, Kelly was arrested on federal charges alleging sex crimes and obstruction of justice by U.S. Homeland Security investigators and NYPD detectives in Chicago."
      },
      {
        "title": "Patrick Kelly (former RCMP officer)",
        "text": "Kelly was arrested for his wife's murder on March 2, 1983. His trial began in April 1984. He was convicted by a jury and was sentenced to life in prison with parole eligibility after 25 years. The trial was covered extensively by Ontario and Canadian national news outlets. He was imprisoned at the federal inmate intake unit at Millhaven Institution for several years as a security precaution due to his past as an RCMP officer. He was eventually transferred to William Head Institution on Vancouver Island in British Columbia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ann Donnelly",
        "text": "She also tried the singer R. Kelly in his sex trafficking trial, where he was convicted of all charges and is scheduled to be sentenced on May 4, 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "XHamster",
        "text": "Following the airing of a Lifetime Network documentary-style film, \"Surviving R.Kelly\", xHamster reported a 388% increase in R.Kelly related searches since January 2019. The Lifetime film presents R.Kelly's arrest, trial, and acquittal on child pornography charges between 2002 and 2008. Censored from xHamster's website, the \"infamous\" sex tape features the hip-hop artist engaged in sexual relations with and urinating on, an underage girl. In a bid to reprimand viewers who search for the sex tape, xHamster denounced seeking the tape as both \"illegal\" and \"immoral\". xHamster emphasized in their public statement that searching for the video may even be \"re-victimizing a minor who could not consent\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black women in American politics",
        "text": "On September 27, 2021, Kelly was found guilty on nine counts including racketeering, sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, sex trafficking, and a violation of the Mann Act. The judge ordered that Kelly remain in custody pending sentencing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kelly Rees",
        "text": "On 3 September 2021, Justice Rees ordered the arrest and jailing for 10-months of independent journalist Shane Dowling for repeated criminal contempt. The decision to jail Dowling was controversial in light of his public interest journalism, the alternative of imposing a fine and the fact the order arose in the context of a civil, rather than criminal, matter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eamon Kelly (criminal)",
        "text": "In 1988, Kelly was charged and sentenced (after an appeal) for three years in prison for assault near Gardiner Place in Dublin. In 1993, he was convicted of smuggling nearly 1 kilogram of cocaine worth \u20ac50,000 from his Miami, Florida and Cuban contacts. He was sentenced to fourteen years. He was known for his interactions with Ireland's most dangerous criminals."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On March 6, 2019, Kelly was taken back to the Cook County Jail after failing to pay $161,633 in child support. On March 9, 2019, he was released after someone, who did not want to be identified, paid off the child support. His lawyer says he could not discuss the payment due to a gag order."
      },
      {
        "title": "Partner violence in hip hop",
        "text": "\"Surviving R. Kelly\", a three-part television documentary which aired in January 2019, described R. Kelly's history of sexual assault. Kelly was charged with 10 counts of sexual assault in the Chicago metropolitan area from 1998 to 2010. Three of the 10 victims were between the ages of 13 and 16. During the 1990s, Kelly was found to be married to 15-year-old Aaliyah. The marriage was annulled, and Kelly said that he thought Aaliyah was 18."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bursley Hall",
        "text": "A veteran of the United States Air Force and an honor student from a Detroit high school, Kelly had no previous criminal record prior to the shootings. Kelly was a member of Omega Psi Phi fraternity, which had been implicated in a non-fatal shooting at Bursley the month prior. Kelly was arraigned on April 18, 1981 in Washtenaw County's 14th District Court where he entered a plea of not guilty by reason of insanity. Although Kelly's motive remained unclear throughout his trial, his lawyer indicated that he had been taking medication to treat an infection at the time of the shooting. On June 21, 1982, after a week-long trial, a jury sentenced Kelly to life in prison, and he is currently serving his term at Carson City Correctional Facility."
      },
      {
        "title": "Galen Kelly",
        "text": "In 1993, Kelly was convicted to a seven-year three-month sentence in federal prison for the 1992 kidnapping of Debra Dobkowski, the head of the Washington cell of a group called \"The Circle of Friends\". Kelly had mistaken the victim for her roommate Beth Bruckert, who had been the intended target. During the trial it was also established that the Cult Awareness Network, contrary to its publicly stated policy, in which it dissociated itself from deprogramming, had for many months during the 1990s paid Kelly a monthly stipend for preparing a pamphlet on Lyndon LaRouche."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Eugene Kelly",
        "text": "In December 2012, he was sentenced to 5 years in prison with a $10-million bond to secure lenient periods of house arrest for treatment of colorectal cancer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard Kelly (politician)",
        "text": "Kelley was convicted of taking $25,000 in bribes. He claimed he had conducted his own undercover operation and spent part of the money to maintain that cover, but was convicted and served thirteen months of a 6 to 18 month sentence at the federal prison camp at Eglin Air Force Base. During his third term, he also divorced his wife and married his secretary. He was released from a halfway house in 1986."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shaggy defense",
        "text": "On February 3, 2002, a video surfaced showing popular R&B musician R. Kelly statutorily raping, and urinating on, an underage girl. The story, which was released by an unknown source, was sent to the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", the newspaper that broke the story on February 8, 2002. This news surfaced as Kelly was to perform at the opening ceremony of the 2002 Winter Olympics. In interviews with WMAQ television of Chicago and MTV News, Kelly said that he was not the man in the video. In June 2002, Kelly was indicted in Chicago on 21 counts of child pornography. That same month, Kelly was apprehended by the Miami Police Department on a Chicago arrest warrant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Donald Ross, Lord Ross",
        "text": "He sentenced paedophile Bill Kelly, who pleaded guilty to 14 charges of indecent sexual assault on children, to a custodial sentence of 12 months as he deemed the victims to \"not have suffered long term damage\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "As of October 2021, following his New York conviction, Kelly's YouTube channel was terminated, but his catalogue remains available on YouTube Music."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "After Kelly's 2021 conviction, Modarressy-Tehrani tweeted: \"Now, with this verdict, hopefully, his survivors get some peace and feel this justice."
      },
      {
        "title": "It Wasn't Me",
        "text": "Levin repeated the term on NPR. The term describes a strategy of flatly denying guilt and refusing to engage with the evidence against the defendant, no matter how overwhelming. R. Kelly was ultimately found not guilty on all charges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sean Kelly (Irish republican)",
        "text": "Kelly was arrested after being picked up by rescuers searching for survivors in the wreckage. Kelly was sentenced to nine terms of life imprisonment at his trial in January 1995."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alex Kelly (rapist)",
        "text": "On November 24, 2007, Kelly was released from prison on good behavior. He is required to serve 10 years probation, perform 200 hours of community service, pay a $10,000 fine, and register with the Connecticut sex offender registry. Kelly has claimed that, while in prison, he earned a bachelor's degree in economics and third-world development."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greg Miskiw",
        "text": "He pleaded guilty at R v Coulson, Brooks and others and was sentenced to six months in prison."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kelly Gissendaner",
        "text": "Before trial, prosecutors offered both Owen and Gissendaner a plea deal of life in prison and no chance of parole for twenty-five years. Gissendaner, however, rejected the plea deal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stoke Newington Road lorry bomb",
        "text": "In October 1993, Kelly was convicted and sentenced to 25 years in prison for conspiracy to cause explosions, and for the attempted murder of Hall. Kelly was suffering from skin cancer whilst in prison, but was denied medical treatment during his time in three prisons in England and Northern Ireland. Campaigners - which included MP Jeremy Corbyn - won a case in 1996 to transfer him to a prison in Portlaoise in the Republic of Ireland, where under Irish jurisdiction he received medical treatment for his serious illness. Despite treatment Kelly died on 11 June 1997. He was buried in County Laois in the Republic and his funeral attended by many people from South Armagh."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Surviving R. Kelly is a Lifetime documentary detailing sexual abuse allegations against American singer Robert \"R.\" Kelly (of which he was convicted after release of the documentary). It aired over three nights, from January 3 to January 5, 2019. Filmmaker and music critic Dream Hampton served as executive producer together with Joel Karsberg, Jesse Daniels and Tamra Simmons. Musicians Chance the Rapper, John Legend and Stephanie \"Sparkle\" Edwards appeared in the documentary. Its premiere episode on January 3, 2019, was Lifetime's highest-rated program in more than two years, with 1.9 million total viewers. It received critical acclaim, with a 95% positive rating on Rotten Tomatoes. The documentary also spurred several musicians who previously collaborated with Kelly on projects, including Lady Gaga and Ciara, to condemn Kelly and remove their works with him from streaming services."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bridget Anne Kelly",
        "text": "On November 4, 2016, Kelly was convicted for her involvement in the \"Bridgegate\" affair. She was sentenced to 18 months imprisonment (later reduced to 13 months) on March 29, 2017. On May 7, 2020, the United States Supreme Court, in a rare unanimous decision, overturned her conviction."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In July 2021, Federal prosecutors asked the court to include alleged evidence of bribes, recordings of threats and more allegations of sexual abuse of minors, including an underaged boy he met at McDonald's, as pattern evidence in his trial."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "R. Kelly\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n----1990\u20131996: \"Born into the 90's\", \"12 Play\" and \"R. Kelly\".\n----1997\u20132001: Basketball, \"R.\", \"TP-2.COM,\" and Rockland Records.\n------Rockland Records.\n----2002\u20132003: \"The Best of Both Worlds\" and \"Chocolate Factory\".\n----2004\u20132005: \"Unfinished Business, Happy People/U Saved Me\" and \"TP.3 Reloaded\".\n----2006\u20132009: \"Double Up\" and \"Untitled\", Africa.\n----2010\u20132012: \"Epic\", \"Love Letter\", throat surgery, and \"Write Me Back\".\n----2013\u20132016: \"Black Panties\", \"The Buffet\", and \"12 Nights of Christmas\".\n--Artistry.\n----Musical style and influences.\n----Vocal style and lyrical themes.\n--Sexual abuse allegations.\n----Early reports of sexual abuse (1990s).\n----Illegal marriage (1994).\n----Sex tape circulates (2002).\n----First criminal indictment (2002).\n----Allegations of preteen girl molestation (2009).\n----Huffington Post Live Interview (2015).\n----Alleged sex cult (2010s).\n----Boycott and industry response.\n------Allegations of music industry complicity.\n----Musical response to allegations.\n----\"Surviving R. Kelly\" (2019\u20132020).\n----Second series of criminal charges (2019\u20132021).\n----Criminal conviction (2021).\n----Other legal issues.\n--Influence.\n--Personal life.\n----Charity and donations.\n--Honors and awards.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Kelly (fighter)",
        "text": "Kelly was sentenced to thirteen years in prison for heroin trafficking in 2013. He was released in 2019."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vincent Michael Gaughan",
        "text": "In May and June 2008, he presided over the jury trial of the American singer and record producer, R. Kelly, in which Kelly was acquitted on all counts of child pornography charges. The men found guilty in the Brown's Chicken massacre case in 2007 and 2009, were convicted in Gaughan's courtroom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sallins Train robbery",
        "text": "After a campaign by the Irish Council for Civil Liberties, Amnesty International and others (including a song, \"Wicklow Boy\", by the popular folk singer Christy Moore), Kelly was eventually released on \"humanitarian grounds\" in 1984. He was given a presidential pardon in 1992 and received \u00a31,000,000 in compensation. Breatnach and McNally were also given compensation."
      },
      {
        "title": "James Kelly (murderer)",
        "text": "For five years, Kelly was regarded as a model inmate. On 23 January 1888, he escaped from Broadmoor, using a key he fabricated himself by modelling a piece of metal. A fugitive arrest warrant to return him to the hospital was distributed. On 10 November 1888, the day following Mary Jane Kelly's murder, police searched the house of Sarah Brider's parents, which was Kelly's last home address before his sentencing, but Kelly was not there."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Eugene Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly attempted to avoid indictment by arranging a plea agreement that included paying restitution to the victims. On 14 May 2008, he pleaded not guilty to 14 counts of fraud and was remanded in custody. On April 14, 2009, a court permanently enjoined him from violating sections of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934. On June 30, 2012, he remained in prison as the court liquidated assets with a view to providing partial restitution to victims of the Ponzi scheme."
      },
      {
        "title": "Patrick Kelly (former RCMP officer)",
        "text": "In November 2012, Kelly's federal parole was revoked, mainly because he had too many secretive relationships with women. He was returned to federal prison. In 2016, he was given day parole and allowed to reside in Victoria, B.C."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sean Kelly (Irish republican)",
        "text": "Kelly was returned to prison on 18 June 2005 when his early release was suspended amid allegations that he had been involved in rioting. Sinn F\u00e9in stated he was trying to calm tensions. Peter Hain, Northern Ireland Secretary, said that he had directed the arrest and return to prison of Kelly on the basis of \u2018security information\u2019 available to him. He said he was satisfied that Kelly \"had become re-involved in terrorism\". He was re-released on 28 July later the same year. The next day the IRA ordered an end to its armed campaign."
      },
      {
        "title": "P. J. Kelly",
        "text": "He was jailed several times for Fenian and Irish Republican Brotherhood activities, in prisons such as Ballykinlough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kathy Kelly",
        "text": "As documented in a 2012 Al Jazeera documentary, in January 2010 Kelly was arrested in the rotunda of the US Capitol building while taking part in a mock funeral, organized by Witness Against Torture, remembering Mani al-Utaybi, Yasser al-Zahrani, and Ali Abdullah Ahmed, three men then recently alleged to have been tortured to death in the US Guantanamo Bay prison complex. All participants of the protest were acquitted in court the following June."
      },
      {
        "title": "MeToo movement",
        "text": "In January 2019, the Lifetime documentary \"Surviving R. Kelly\" aired, describing several women's accusations of sexual, emotional, mental, and physical abuse by singer R. Kelly. The documentary questioned the \"ecosystem\" that \"supports and enables\" powerful individuals in the music industry. In February 2019, Kelly was arrested for ten alleged counts of sexual abuse against four women, three of whom were minors at the time of the incidents. His former wife Andrea Kelly has also accused him of domestic violence and filed a restraining order against him in 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "The National Sexual Assault Hotline in the United States, operated by the Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (RAINN), experienced a 27% increase in calls during the airing of the documentary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Little Rascals day care sexual abuse trial",
        "text": "In January 1994, Betsy Kelly had been in prison for two years awaiting trial. She accepted a plea of \"no contest\", and a sentence of seven years in prison. She served an additional year in prison and was released in 1995."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Wildstein",
        "text": "Sentencing of Wildstein was originally scheduled for August 2015, but it was delayed until January 2016\u2014after the trials of Baroni and Kelly, who have pleaded not guilty and were set to be tried in November 2015. In January 2016, sentencing was delayed again. The trial finally began on September 19, 2016. Baroni and Kelly were convicted on all counts on November 14, 2016, and later sentenced to 2 years in prison (Baroni) and 18 months (Kelly), with both maintaining their innocence and stating their intention to appeal. As part of the plea agreement, Wildstein testified against Baroni and Kelly at their trial, becoming a \"key witness\" in the proceeding. According to the Bergen County \"Record\", \"Federal prosecutors routinely postpone sentencing of government cooperators who have pleaded guilty until after the trial for which they are a potential witness so that the extent of their cooperation may be considered by the judge\" at their own sentencing. In opening arguments in the trial federal prosecutors said that Wildstein would testify that Christie and Baroni were aware of the plan as the closures were taking place. On June 5, 2017, Wildstein's sentencing was rescheduled for July 12, 2017 where he received three years of probation."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly has repeatedly faced allegations of sexual abuse that have resulted in multiple civil suits and criminal trials."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sallins Train robbery",
        "text": "Medical evidence of beatings was presented to the court, both during the initial trial and the second trial. The court rejected this evidence, finding that the beatings had been self-inflicted or inflicted by the co-accused. Anticipating a conviction, Kelly fled before the conclusion of the second trial. The three were found guilty, solely on the basis of their confessions, and sentenced to between nine and 12 years' prison (Kelly was sentenced \"in absentia\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ryan Idol",
        "text": "A Sacramento Superior Court jury convicted Idol on September 20, 2011, of attempted murder for smashing his girlfriend over the head with a toilet tank lid. He was also convicted of battery, assault with a deadly weapon and \"corporal injury on a spouse or cohabitant\". Sentencing was scheduled for December 9, 2011; however when he appeared, his attorney requested to withdraw from the case. The request was granted. Idol then appeared in court on January 13, 2012, requesting a retrial \"citing ineffective assistance of counsel\". He was sentenced to 12 years in state prison September 27, 2012. He is housed at the California inmate Medical Facility (CMF)in Vacaville, California, a medical facility for mentally ill prisoners, due to bad behavior, fighting, and drugs. Marc Anthony lost all his good time, and must complete his full sentence of 12 years. Due to his 3 strike record, he is eligible for a 25 years to life sentence if convicted for certain felonies, so he chose a deal to do his entire sentence instead of getting a new charge. His release date is September 2021 (protective custody)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death of Thomas Kelly",
        "text": "The initial sentence was met with frustration from Kelly's parents, who branded the punishment \"an absolute joke\". Loveridge was remanded in custody up until the lodging of an appeal in 2014 by the Director of Public Prosecutions."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Least Among You",
        "text": "In the opening minutes of the film, Richard Kelly (played by Cedric Sanders), is behind bars, having been arrested during the infamous Watts Riots for allegedly assaulting a police officer. Though he maintains that he is innocent, Kelly is convicted. At his sentencing he is presented with a choice between serving jail time and serving probation for one year as a student at an all-white Christian theological seminary."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joseph Kelly (crimper)",
        "text": "Kelly was never arrested for crimping because it was not illegal at the time. He was however arrested for murder in 1894. He was convicted in March 1895, and sent to the Oregon State Penitentiary in Salem, Oregon. He was released in 1908. Afterwards, he wrote a book entitled \"Thirteen Years In The Oregon Penitentiary\", about the conditions there. He was identified as an inmate of the Oregon State Penitentiary in the 1900 Federal Census. His entry in the census record indicates he was born in Connecticut, not the United Kingdom."
      },
      {
        "title": "Machine Gun Kelly",
        "text": "On October 12, 1933, George and Kathryn Kelly were convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment. The trial was held at the Post Office, Courthouse, and Federal Office Building in Oklahoma City."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ryan Ackroyd",
        "text": "Ackroyd served a 30-month prison sentence in England."
      },
      {
        "title": "R v Cuerrier",
        "text": "In 2003, Edward Kelly was charged, and convicted of knowingly exposing four women to HIV, and sentenced to three years in prison. In 2004, Jennifer Murphy became the first woman charged in Canada with failing to disclose her HIV status to a sexual partner. She spent one year under house arrest before the charge was withdrawn in 2007, mainly because she had insisted on condom use during the incident."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sallins Train robbery",
        "text": "In May 1980 Breatnach and McNally were acquitted on appeal on the grounds that their statements had been taken under duress. The same month, the Provisional IRA claimed responsibility for the robbery. Kelly returned to Ireland from the USA in June 1980, expecting to be acquitted. Instead he was incarcerated in the maximum-security Portlaoise Prison and spent the next four years proclaiming his innocence, including a 38-day period on hunger strike."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abscam",
        "text": "In 1982 the conviction of Richard Kelly was overturned on the grounds of entrapment. Kelly, the sole Republican, said that he was only pretending to be involved with the bribery from Abdul Enterprises. He claimed that he was conducting his own operation dealing with corruption and that the FBI was ruining his own investigation. However, an appeals court upheld the conviction and Kelly served 13 months in prison."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ronald Carroll McDonald",
        "text": "During his conviction, both he and his family would ask for the maximum possible sentence as penance for his crimes. Throughout the sentencing process, McDonald was apologetic, emotional and would openly express love for his wife. On January 9, 1998, McDonald was ultimately given the maximum sentence of the crimes he was convicted of, 26\u00bd years in confinement at the state's treatment center for sexual offenders, a location which would make McDonald available to researchers studying the causes of sexual deviancy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Death of Thomas Kelly",
        "text": "At the conclusion of the hearing, the judge sentenced Loveridge to a total of seven years and two months, with parole eligibility after five years and two months. The sentences for the four other assaults amounted to a fixed term of eighteen months imprisonment. The individual sentence for the death of Thomas Kelly consisted of a non-parole period of four years, with an additional two-year term. Loveridge would be eligible for release on parole on November 18, 2017."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kelly v. United States",
        "text": "As the emails suggested there was a potential federal crime, several investigations were launched in 2014 by the New Jersey Legislature, the Port Authority, United States Attorney for the District of New Jersey Paul J. Fishman and the United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation. Fishman's investigation led to the indictments issued against Kelly and Baroni in May 2015 on charges of conspiracy and fraud; Wildstein, who had been convicted earlier, had agreed to testify against the two as part of a plea bargain. The jury trial concluded in November 2016 with Kelly and Baroni found guilty on all nine charges of fraud and conspiracy. Kelly was sentenced to 18 months of prison while Baroni to 24 months, with both serving 500 hours of community service. Wildstein, in a separate trial, was also convicted and sentenced to three years in prison and 500 hours of community service."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kate Kelly (Kelly Gang sympathiser)",
        "text": "Ned had asked the prison photographer, just before he died, to take his photo 'so his mother would have something to remember him by'. The handsome intelligent Ned has a quiet dignity, hiding his massive injuries, his broken hand posed on his hip, for the photo. During the hanging of Ned Kelly, his mother, incarcerated for three years sentence on the fake charge of being an accessory to \"attempted murder\" (trying to defend her 14 year old daughter from the ravages of Fitzpatrick), was forced to work as usual in the prison laundry next door while her son was hanged. A day or so beforehand she had been allowed to see him through a prison grille for a few minutes only. She quietly said \"See that you die like a Kelly, my beloved son\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stacey Koon",
        "text": "In 1993, the four officers were tried in a federal court in Los Angeles; Koon and Powell were convicted of violating King's civil rights. The United States Federal Sentencing Guidelines recommended the offenders serve up to ten years in prison. Instead, U.S. District Judge John Davies sentenced the offenders to 30 months. The sentencing was vacated by the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in August 1994 for violating the guidelines. In February 1996, that judgment was itself reversed by the Supreme Court of the United States, which found that the shortened sentences were within the district court's discretion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dream Hampton",
        "text": "Hampton was executive producer of \"Surviving R. Kelly\", a 2019 documentary series about the decades of sexual-abuse allegations against R. Kelly. Page six reported that a Homeland Security agent had watched the series and started a federal investigation into the victims' allegations. After its release, Kelly was charged with aggravated criminal sexual abuse and other crimes for an eventual total of 18 federal charges."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "While investigating the photographs reported in the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", Polk County Sheriff's Office conducted a search of Kelly's residence in Davenport, Florida. During the search, officers recovered 12 images of an alleged underage girl on a digital camera\u00a0\u2013 wrapped in a towel in a duffel bag \u2013 which allegedly depicted Kelly \"involved in sexual conduct with the female minor.\" According to the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", the girl in the images obtained from Kelly's Florida home also appears in the videotape which got Kelly indicted in Chicago. Kelly was arrested on January 22, 2003, by Police investigators from Polk County and Miami-Dade County, at Miami's Wyndham Grand Bay Hotel on those charges of 12 counts of possession of child pornography. Kelly was later released from Miami-Dade county jail hours after on a bond posted of $12,000. In March 2004, these charges were dropped due to a lack of probable cause for the search warrants."
      },
      {
        "title": "Murder of Olivia Gant",
        "text": "Kelly Turner-Gant pleaded guilty in January 2022 to a felony charge of child abuse that negligently caused her daughter's death. As part of Kelly's plea agreement, first-degree murder charges against her were dismissed and the prosecution and defense agreed to a 16-year prison term. Kelly also pleaded guilty to felony theft and fraud charges, for which she received a combined 13-year prison sentence to be served concurrently. Kelly later claimed that she was innocent of all of the charges, and that she had only pleaded guilty to spare her family the stress of a lengthier trial. Judge Patricia Herron stated that the sentence would not be reduced or reconsidered, noting that it is highly likely that Kelly will be released on parole within a short time anyway, owing to her concurrent sentences and her plea deal protecting her from a murder conviction. Kelly's two other daughters, who have not been named by the media, are no longer in Kelly's care. The oldest daughter, who had been brought into Children's Hospital Colorado in early 2018 for what Kelly had claimed was bone pain, had no further symptoms since October 2018 when Kelly was no longer involved in her care."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In January 2019, Lifetime began airing a six-part documentary series titled Surviving R. Kelly detailing sexual abuse and misconduct allegations against Kelly. Writing for the \"Los Angeles Times\", Loraine Ali observed that the series covered a range of in-depth interviews that \"paint a picture of a predator whose behavior was consistently overlooked by the industry, his peers and the public while his spiritual hit was sung in churches and schools.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cameo murder",
        "text": "Kelly was tried first and, despite a spirited defence by Rose Heilbron KC, he was found guilty and sentenced to death. The judge was Mr. Justice Cassels. Connolly was then offered the chance to plead guilty to conspiracy and being an accessory. Faced with the almost certainty that he would otherwise be convicted of murder and share the fate of his co-accused if he refused, he had little choice other than to accept the offer and plead accordingly. Contrary to popular belief, Connolly did not turn King's Evidence but simply pleaded guilty to the charges laid before him. His plea however, destroyed Kelly's assertions of his own innocence and despite an appeal against his conviction, Kelly was executed at Walton Prison, Liverpool by Albert Pierrepoint and his assistant Harry Allen on 28 March 1950. He continued to assert his innocence, even on the scaffold. Connolly was released from prison in 1957 and died in 1997. Shortly before his death, he took part in an interview on BBC Radio Merseyside, during which he reaffirmed both his and Kelly's innocence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rae Carruth",
        "text": "Van Brett Watkins, Sr., was sentenced to prison for a minimum of 40 years, 8 months and a maximum 50 years, 8 months for the murder of Cherica Adams."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shaggy defense",
        "text": "The case earned media attention, and Kelly's insistence that he was not the man on the video as his only line of defense earned mockery. As comedian Chris Rock commented on the case during his 2004 stand up special \"Never Scared\", \"What the fuck is wrong with R. Kelly? He's got a lot of balls, ok? Talkin' about 'it ain't me'. Got a damn sex tape out, 'it ain't me'. Motherfucker we know what you look like!\" When the case went to trial in 2007, Kelly based his defense on denying that it was him in the video, which led \"Slate\" writer Josh Levin to coin the term the \"Shaggy defense\" in reference to the song to describe Kelly's strategy: \"I predict that in the decades to come, law schools will teach this as the 'Shaggy defense'. You allege that I was caught on camera, butt naked, banging on the log cabin floor? It wasn't me.\" Levin repeated the term on NPR. Ultimately, Kelly was found not guilty on all charges."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brenda Cherry",
        "text": "Hart was given a new trial on appeal. Hart ultimately accepted a plea deal and was sentenced to 10 years in prison where he remains."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outcry (miniseries)",
        "text": "Into Greg Kelley's senior year in Leander, Texas, he was arrested, convicted, and jailed for sexual assault of a four-year-old boy, and later for a second child, who both attended day care in the home where Kelley was living. Kelley was sentenced to 25 years in prison with no possibility for parole. In support of Kelley, a supporting groundswell emerged that called into question the small-town police force, their investigation, the prosecution's tactics, and ultimately the validity of the conviction in one of the most controversial cases the county had ever seen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outcry (miniseries)",
        "text": "\"This does not feel like freedom at all,\" said Kelley who was convicted of child sexual assault in 2014 to be exonerated in 2019 though it is exceedingly rare for the state's highest criminal court to overturn a conviction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Kelly (fighter)",
        "text": "In May 2013, Kelly was found guilty of heroin trafficking in the United Kingdom and was sentenced to 13 years in prison. However, Kelly was put on work release in 2017 and had completed his sentence and thus released in May 2019. During his work release, Kelly started a healthy eating restaurant in Liverpool."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael Conahan",
        "text": "Shortly after his indictment in January 2009, Conahan pleaded guilty. He later withdrew his plea, intending to take the case to trial. Eventually he pleaded guilty once more. On September 23, 2011, he was sentenced to 17.5 years in prison and ordered to pay over $900,000 in fines and restitution. He is being held in the low-security complex component of the Federal Correctional Institution, Coleman, in Florida with an anticipated release date of 2026."
      },
      {
        "title": "Larry Bright",
        "text": "As part of his plea bargain and full confession, Bright was spared the death penalty. On May 30, 2006, he was sentenced to eight terms of life in prison, without the possibility of parole."
      },
      {
        "title": "Chantal McCorkle",
        "text": "She and her husband, both represented by F. Lee Bailey, were each originally sentenced to over 24 years in federal prison, under mandatory sentencing laws. After two appeals, the McCorkles' sentences were reduced, in 2006, to 18 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "After the jury delivered their verdict, women's rights attorney Gloria Allred, who represented several victims, stated that Kelly was the worst sexual predator she had pursued in her 47-year career of practicing law."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ned Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly survived to stand trial on 19 October 1880 in Melbourne before Sir Redmond Barry, the judge who had earlier sentenced Kelly's mother to three years in prison for the attempted murder of Fitzpatrick. Mr Smyth and Mr Chomley appeared for the crown and Mr Bindon for the prisoner. The trial was adjourned to 28 October, when Kelly was presented on the charge murdering Constable Lonigan and Const. Scanlan. He was never charged with the murder of Sgt. Kennedy. He was charged with the various bank robberies, the murder of Sherritt, resisting arrest at Glenrowan and with a long list of minor charges. He was convicted of the wilful murder of Lonigan and sentenced to death by hanging. After handing down the sentence, Barry concluded with the customary words, \"May God have mercy on your soul\", to which Kelly replied, \"I will go a little further than that, and say I will see you there where I go\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Murray Riley",
        "text": "Similarly, Alfred W. McCoy (1980) has noted that Riley was not without friends during and after the Anoa episode. Nine months after his conviction, Riley was still being held in the more comfortable remand section of Long Bay Jail. A further seven years was added to his sentence when he was subsequently convicted of other major offences including conspiracy to defraud American Express of $274,000. Nevertheless, his continued privileges allowed him the run of Long Bay Jail and excursions outside. Only a protest from the Prison Officers Association forced the cancellation of his transfer to a minimum-security prison at Emu Plains."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kieran Patrick Kelly",
        "text": "In June 1984, Kelly was convicted of the 1983 manslaughter of William Boyd, and the murder of another homeless man in 1975, Hector Fisher. He was sentenced to life imprisonment. Kelly died in 2001 in HM Prison Durham."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why did R. Kelly become a sex offender?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Since the 1990s, R. Kelly has been repeatedly accused of sexual abuse, often with underage girls.  Do you want to know more about why did R. Kelly become a sex offender on early reports of sexual abuse (1990s), first criminal indictment (2002), second series of criminal charges (2019\u20132021) or criminal conviction (2021)?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to hear about the early reports of sexual abuse."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In December 2000, the Chicago Sun-Times first reported that police had made two investigations that Kelly was having sex with an underage female but had to drop the investigations due to lack of cooperation by the girls accusing him. In the 2021 criminal trial for sex trafficking and racketeering, a witness testified that Kelly had sexual contact with Aaliyah starting when she was 13 or 14 years old."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about Surviving R. Kelly and what it is about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Surviving R. Kelly is a Lifetime documentary detailing sexual abuse allegations against American singer Robert \"R.\" Kelly.Would you like to know more about the production, critical response, or the impact of the documentary?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Could you please tell me more about what impact the documentary had?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There was a 27% increase in calls to the National Sexual Assault Hotline in the United States, new calls came forward about abuse from R. Kelly and various artists took down singles that featured him. Kelly's music saw streaming popularity during the initial airing but radio stations have decided to end his music and his record label dropped him."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was R. Kelly's sentence for his crimes?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "On September 27, 2021, a federal jury in New York found Kelly guilty on nine counts including racketeering, sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, sex trafficking, and a violation of the Mann Act. The judge ordered that he remain in custody pending sentencing, set for May 4, 2022."
    ],
    "topic": "R. Kelly",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "R. Kelly:5",
        "passage_titles": [
          "R. Kelly"
        ],
        "ctx": "In 2019, Kelly was indicted by a Cook County grand jury in Chicago on 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse in February, followed by an additional 11 counts of sexual assault and abuse filed by the same court in May. On July 11, 2019, he was arrested on federal charges alleging sex crimes, human trafficking, child pornography, racketeering, and obstruction of justice. Kelly faced a total of 22 federal criminal charges as of January 29, 2021. A federal judge ordered Kelly jailed pending trial on the charges. On September 27, 2021, a federal jury in New York found Kelly guilty on nine counts including racketeering, sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, sex trafficking, and a violation of the Mann Act. The judge ordered that he remain in custody pending sentencing, set for May 4, 2022. Kelly faces a second trial for producing child pornography set for August 2022."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Jim DeRogatis reported for \"BuzzFeed News\" on July 17, 2017, that Kelly was accused by three sets of parents of holding their daughters in an \"abusive cult\". Kelly and the alleged victims deny the allegations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim DeRogatis",
        "text": "On July 17, 2017, DeRogatis reported for \"BuzzFeed News\" that Kelly had been accused by three sets of parents of holding their daughters in an \"abusive cult\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Galen Kelly",
        "text": "In 1993, Kelly was convicted to a seven-year three-month sentence in federal prison for the 1992 kidnapping of Debra Dobkowski, the head of the Washington cell of a group called \"The Circle of Friends\". Kelly had mistaken the victim for her roommate Beth Bruckert, who had been the intended target. During the trial it was also established that the Cult Awareness Network, contrary to its publicly stated policy, in which it dissociated itself from deprogramming, had for many months during the 1990s paid Kelly a monthly stipend for preparing a pamphlet on Lyndon LaRouche."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Since the 1990s, Kelly has been repeatedly accused of sexual abuse, often with underage girls. He has faced multiple civil suits and has been charged by criminal courts in Chicago, New York, Illinois, and Minnesota. He repeatedly denied the charges. In June 2002, he was indicted on 21 counts of making child pornography. He was acquitted six years later in 2008. In January 2019, a widely viewed Lifetime docuseries titled \"Surviving R. Kelly\" detailed allegations of sexual abuse by multiple women, allegations that Kelly continued to deny. Facing pressure from the public using the Mute R. Kelly hashtag, RCA Records dropped Kelly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim DeRogatis",
        "text": "DeRogatis and Abdon Pallasch reported for the \"Chicago Sun-Times\" in December 2000 that court records and interviews alleged that musician R. Kelly had used his position of fame and influence to meet and have sex with underage girls. DeRogatis and Pallasch reported in February 2002 that a videotape had surfaced allegedly featuring Kelly engaging in sex with a 14-year-old girl. As a \"Sun-Times\" music critic, DeRogatis had received the videotape and subsequently turned it over to police."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In July 2021, Federal prosecutors asked the court to include alleged evidence of bribes, recordings of threats and more allegations of sexual abuse of minors, including an underaged boy he met at McDonald's, as pattern evidence in his trial."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "\"The Washington Post\" also suggested the labels were complicit in the sex-cult allegations from the previous summer's \"BuzzFeed\" piece. Employees at the studios where Kelly recorded were required to sign non-disclosure agreements and not enter certain rooms, which they said they believed were where Kelly made the young women and underage girls stay while he worked. Despite the agreements, the newspaper was able to publish screenshots of text exchanges where young women and underage girls in the rooms asked Kelly's assistants to let them out so they could go to the bathroom or get food. The newspaper also published pictures taken after Kelly had concluded a six-week session at a Los Angeles studio, paid for by his then-current label, RCA Records, showing a cup of urine sitting on a piano and urine stains on the wooden floor of another room."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jack Palladino",
        "text": "In 2002, singer, songwriter, and record producer R. Kelly was charged with videotaping himself having sex with an underage teenage girl. An investigation by Palladino that lasted six years culminated in Palladino's testimony at trial challenging the principal prosecution witness, and the acquittal of Kelly in less than a day."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "The federal trial began on August 18, 2021. After weeks of testimony and two days of deliberations, on September 27, 2021, the jury found Kelly guilty on nine counts including racketeering, sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, sex trafficking, and a violation of the Mann Act. The judge ordered that Kelly remain in custody pending sentencing, which was set for May 4, 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Benjamin Zand",
        "text": "Zand explored allegations surrounding the sex life of R&B legend R Kelly, including accusations of holding women against their will in his home in Atlanta and running a degrading sex cult\u2009\u2014\u2009allegations he denies."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On February 3, 2002, a video circulated that allegedly showed Kelly engaging in sex with, and urinating on, an underage girl. After the video was released by an unknown source and sent to the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", the publisher broke the story on February 8, 2002, the same day Kelly performed at the opening ceremony of the 2002 Winter Olympics. Kelly said in interviews that he was not the man in the video."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mute R. Kelly",
        "text": "Over two decades, R. Kelly has faced allegations of sexual abuse of minors, including marrying a 15-year-old girl (which was found to be factual), R&B singer Aaliyah, by listing her age as 18 on the marriage certificate that had falsified documents which supported the false age. The singer has also been sued and accused of supposed sex with an underage girl. On one count it is apparent Kelly videotaped one of these encounters. The singer then went on to face more charges of underage sex charges, child pornography charges and sex cult claims. The singer denies all of these allegations."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Admit",
        "text": "In July 2017, Jim DeRogatis contributed an article to \"BuzzFeed News\" detailing legal investigations from three families regarding their daughters' alleged kidnappings after they established relationships with Kelly. The article characterized Kelly's operations as a \"cult\", and included interviews with three of Kelly's former associates. However, both Kelly and the daughters refuted the claims."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In 2019, Kelly was indicted by a Cook County grand jury in Chicago on 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse in February, followed by an additional 11 counts of sexual assault and abuse filed by the same court in May. On July 11, 2019, he was arrested on federal charges alleging sex crimes, human trafficking, child pornography, racketeering, and obstruction of justice. Kelly faced a total of 22 federal criminal charges as of January 29, 2021. A federal judge ordered Kelly jailed pending trial on the charges. On September 27, 2021, a federal jury in New York found Kelly guilty on nine counts including racketeering, sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, sex trafficking, and a violation of the Mann Act. The judge ordered that he remain in custody pending sentencing, set for May 4, 2022. Kelly faces a second trial for producing child pornography set for August 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Admit",
        "text": "\"I Admit\" is a 19-minute song by American singer R. Kelly. Released on SoundCloud on July 23, 2018, the song addresses the singer's sexual abuse scandals. \"I Admit\" was written by Kelly and Raphael Ramos Oliveira, and produced by Kelly and Noc. The release of \"I Admit\" followed a 2017 \"BuzzFeed News\" investigative report that alleged that Kelly operated a \"sex cult\", and a 2018 boycott of Kelly backed by Time's Up. In \"I Admit\", Kelly makes a number of confessions, including that he is dyslexic, that he has been sexually unfaithful, and that he was raped. Kelly does not make any criminal admissions, but instead denies allegations of domestic violence and pedophilia. The lyrics rebuke Jim DeRogatis for his \"BuzzFeed News\" report, and disavow the report's allegations that Kelly is in charge of a \"sex cult\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly was again accused of misconduct on April 17, 2018, by a former partner of his who claimed that Kelly \"intentionally\" infected her with a sexually transmitted disease. A representative for Kelly stated that he \"categorically denies all claims and allegations\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On March 6, 2019, Gayle King interviewed Kelly on \"CBS This Morning\", where he insisted on his innocence and blamed social media for the allegations. During the interview, Kelly had an emotional outburst where he stood up, pounded his chest, and yelled. Two women who described themselves as a Kelly's girlfriends and whose parents say are brainwashed captives, declared their love for Kelly and defended him during the broadcast."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ann Donnelly",
        "text": "She also tried the singer R. Kelly in his sex trafficking trial, where he was convicted of all charges and is scheduled to be sentenced on May 4, 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On July 11, 2019, Kelly was arrested on federal charges alleging sex crimes and obstruction of justice by U.S. Homeland Security investigators and NYPD detectives in Chicago."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In June 2002, Kelly was indicted in Chicago on 21 counts of child pornography. That same month on June 6, 2002, Kelly was arrested by the Miami Police Department on a Chicago arrest warrant at his Florida vacation home. He was released after one night in jail, the following day after posting bail of $750,000. The alleged victim refused to testify at the trial, and a Chicago jury found Kelly not guilty on all 14 counts of child pornography in June 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "During 2013, Kelly continued his \"The Single Ladies Tour\". He performed at music festivals across North America, including Bonnaroo, Pitchfork, and Macy's Music Festival. On June 30, 2013, R. Kelly performed live at BET Awards Show singing hits as well as his new track \"My Story\" featuring Atlanta rapper 2 Chainz. The song was the lead single for Kelly's twelfth studio album \"Black Panties\". released on December 10, 2013. Writing for \"New York\" magazine, David Marchese stated that Black Panties \"was like a dare to the world: After all that he\u2019d been accused of, after avoiding conviction, could R. Kelly still get away with making sex-obsessed music?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Timothy J. Kelly",
        "text": "On December 28, 2021, Kelly refused to dismiss an indictment against four members of the Proud Boys who were charged with conspiracy in the 2021 United States Capitol attack."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shaggy defense",
        "text": "According to Josh Levin of \"Slate\", \"As Kelly's lawyers mentioned multiple times, the alleged victim in this case\u2014now a 23-year-old woman\u2014told a grand jury that it wasn't her. While 15 friends and relatives testified that the girl in question was indeed on the video, neither the alleged victim nor her parents showed up in court to testify for either side.\" The prosecution witness Lisa Van Allen was easily impeached as a witness due to her clearly sordid history with R. Kelly, others, and even soliciting a bribe from an investigator in the case. One juror told the \"Chicago Tribune\", \"At some point we said there was a lack of evidence.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly has repeatedly faced allegations of sexual abuse that have resulted in multiple civil suits and criminal trials."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly's record label, RCA Records, dropped him shortly after the docuseries aired. On February 22, 2019, R. Kelly was formally charged with 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse. On March 6, 2019, in a \"CBS This Morning\" interview with Gayle King, R. Kelly broke down crying while strongly denying all allegations and charges made against him."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On July 12, 2019, federal prosecutors from New York and Chicago indicted Kelly on 18 charges, including child sexual exploitation, child pornography production, sex trafficking, kidnapping, forced labor, racketeering, and obstruction of justice. He was first denied bail in October 2019 and denied bail release again in April 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. Superseding indictments were filed in Chicago on February 13, 2020, and in New York on March 13, 2020, raising the total number of charges to 22. He was incarcerated at Metropolitan Correctional Center, Chicago from July 11, 2019, to June 23, 2021. On June 23, 2021, Kelly was transferred to Metropolitan Detention Center, Brooklyn."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly released the 19-minute long \"I Admit\" on SoundCloud on July 23, 2018, as a response to his accusers. The song does not contain any criminal admissions despite its title and chorus, which repeats the lyric \"I admit it, I did it\". In \"I Admit\", Kelly denies allegations of domestic violence and pedophilia, asserting that they are matters of opinion. Kelly also denounces Jim DeRogatis and repudiates his investigative report's claim of Kelly operating a \"sex cult\". Addressing the Mute R. Kelly social media campaign, Kelly sings, \"only God can mute me\". The song was criticized by reviewers, who described it as an act of trolling. Andrea Kelly and Carey Killa Kelly, R. Kelly's ex-wife and brother, responded to \"I Admit\" with a remix and a diss track respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aaliyah",
        "text": "After the documentary \"Surviving R Kelly\" aired in January 2019, pressure from the public using the Mute R. Kelly hashtag escalated and RCA Records dropped Kelly from the label. In February 2019, Kelly was indicted on ten counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse. In July 2019, he was arrested on federal charges alleging sex crimes, human trafficking, child pornography, racketeering, and obstruction of justice. When his trial began in August 2021, Kelly was facing 22 federal criminal charges that involved allegedly abusing 11 girls and women between 1994 and 2018. Aaliyah\u2019s illegal marriage to Kelly was heavily featured in the court case. On September 27, 2021, a federal court jury found R. Kelly guilty on nine counts including racketeering, sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, sex trafficking, and a violation of the Mann Act. The judge ordered that Kelly remain in custody pending sentencing, which was set for May 4, 2022."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rulo, Nebraska",
        "text": "During the early 1980s, a small group of Christian Identity survivalists, led by Michael W. Ryan, began living in a religious cult located on a farm two miles north of Rulo, along the Missouri River. The farm was converted into a compound and the members of the cult would commit thefts throughout the Nebraska-Missouri-Kansas area. The stolen property would be sold in order to buy weapons and survival equipment for the group. Ryan was ultimately convicted and sentenced to death after the Nebraska State Patrol discovered that he was responsible for the torture murders of a 26-year-old cult member and a five-year-old boy. Ryan died of natural causes in prison in 2015."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Admit",
        "text": "R. Kelly's brother, Carey Killa Kelly, released a diss track named \"I Confess\" on YouTube on August 3, 2018. Replying to R. Kelly's claim on \"I Admit\" that Carey abandoned him, Carey echoes an April 2018 sexual misconduct allegation in which a woman accused R. Kelly of intentionally giving her a sexually transmitted infection. In \"I Confess\", Carey also implies that R. Kelly had sex with other men."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In December 2000, the \"Chicago Sun-Times\" first reported that police had made two investigations that Kelly was having sex with an underage female but had to drop the investigations due to lack of cooperation by the girls accusing him. A civil suit filed in 1996 by Tiffany Hawkins detailed allegations that, starting in 1991 when she was age 15, Kelly had sex with her as an underage high school student, encouraged her to recruit her school friends, and pressured her into engaging in group sex with other underage girls. In 1998, Kelly settled the lawsuit with Hawkins for $250,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kidwelly sex cult",
        "text": "The cult's leader, Colin Batley, three female members, and a second man, received prison sentences totaling 36 years, with the possibility of Colin Batley remaining in prison for life. They were found guilty on 47 charges including rape and other sexual crimes against children after a five-week trial in February and March of 2011. A fourth female member was acquitted after facing a single charge of child indecency."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "While investigating the photographs reported in the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", Polk County Sheriff's Office conducted a search of Kelly's residence in Davenport, Florida. During the search, officers recovered 12 images of an alleged underage girl on a digital camera\u00a0\u2013 wrapped in a towel in a duffel bag \u2013 which allegedly depicted Kelly \"involved in sexual conduct with the female minor.\" According to the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", the girl in the images obtained from Kelly's Florida home also appears in the videotape which got Kelly indicted in Chicago. Kelly was arrested on January 22, 2003, by Police investigators from Polk County and Miami-Dade County, at Miami's Wyndham Grand Bay Hotel on those charges of 12 counts of possession of child pornography. Kelly was later released from Miami-Dade county jail hours after on a bond posted of $12,000. In March 2004, these charges were dropped due to a lack of probable cause for the search warrants."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Admit",
        "text": "Despite the song's title and Kelly's repetition of the lyric \"I admit it, I did it\" in the chorus, \"I Admit\" does not contain any criminal admissions. Kelly denies accusations of domestic violence, involvement in a \"sex cult\", and pedophilia in his lyrics, dismissing them as matters of opinion. Kelly does not admit guilt regarding the 2008 acquittal of his sex tape allegations, but maintains that he has been \"falsely accused\" and sings that his lawyer advised him to \"don't say noth'\". Although Kelly admits to casual sex with \"both older and young ladies\", he states that all of them were \"over age\". The lyrics denounce DeRogatis for profiting from his reports of Kelly's scandals, and John Legend, Steve Harvey, and Tom Joyner for refusing to publicly defend Kelly from his accusers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Shaggy defense",
        "text": "On February 3, 2002, a video surfaced showing popular R&B musician R. Kelly statutorily raping, and urinating on, an underage girl. The story, which was released by an unknown source, was sent to the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", the newspaper that broke the story on February 8, 2002. This news surfaced as Kelly was to perform at the opening ceremony of the 2002 Winter Olympics. In interviews with WMAQ television of Chicago and MTV News, Kelly said that he was not the man in the video. In June 2002, Kelly was indicted in Chicago on 21 counts of child pornography. That same month, Kelly was apprehended by the Miami Police Department on a Chicago arrest warrant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Black women in American politics",
        "text": "On September 27, 2021, Kelly was found guilty on nine counts including racketeering, sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, sex trafficking, and a violation of the Mann Act. The judge ordered that Kelly remain in custody pending sentencing."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Legend",
        "text": "Legend was one of the few celebrities to appear and speak out in the Lifetime documentary \"Surviving R. Kelly\". The six-part docuseries details sex abuse allegations spread over four decades against acclaimed R&B singer R. Kelly. It focuses on women who allege that the musician and record producer used his status and influence to sexually and physically abuse women and young girls for decades. Legend lambasted R. Kelly during his interview in the final episode of the series, asserting that \"R. Kelly has brought so much pain to so many people. Time's up for R. Kelly.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "After a July 1996 brawl at a Lafayette, Louisiana health club involving Kelly and his entourage, Kelly was placed on a year's unsupervised probation starting August 13, 1997, after being found guilty of battery. One of the victims needed 110 facial stitches. Also that year, a 20-year-old accused Kelly in civil court of having sexual relations with her when he was 24 and she was 15. Kelly settled the lawsuit in 1998 for $250,000, according to the \"Chicago Sun-Times\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Partner violence in hip hop",
        "text": "\"Surviving R. Kelly\", a three-part television documentary which aired in January 2019, described R. Kelly's history of sexual assault. Kelly was charged with 10 counts of sexual assault in the Chicago metropolitan area from 1998 to 2010. Three of the 10 victims were between the ages of 13 and 16. During the 1990s, Kelly was found to be married to 15-year-old Aaliyah. The marriage was annulled, and Kelly said that he thought Aaliyah was 18."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Admit",
        "text": "Kelly was convicted of nine criminal counts, including racketeering (involving sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, and sex trafficking) and violations of the Mann Act, on September 28, 2021. A few fans of Kelly played \"I Admit\" beside the courthouse shortly after the judgment was issued."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pastel QAnon",
        "text": "QAnon is an ongoing, American far-right, political conspiracy theory and mass political movement centering around false claims made by an anonymous individual or individuals known as \"Q\" that a cabal of Satanic, cannibalistic sexual abusers of children operate a global child sex trafficking ring that conspired against the former U.S. President Donald Trump during his term in office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim Watkins (businessman)",
        "text": "QAnon is a discredited far-right conspiracy theory alleging that a cabal of Satan-worshiping pedophiles running a global child sex-trafficking ring is plotting against former President Donald Trump, who is battling them. The theory has been promulgated by a mysterious person or group of people called \"Q\", who originally posted on 4chan but later moved to posting on 8chan. Q has said they will never post outside of 8chan."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In a divorce court filing unsealed in 2020, R. Kelly's former wife Andrea claims that R. Kelly was accused of molesting a preteen girl in 2009."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On February 22, 2019, the Cook County State's Attorney's Office in Illinois charged Kelly with 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse. The charges allege that from 1998 to 2010, Kelly sexually abused four females, three of whom were teen minors at the time, with evidence including a video provided by Michael Avenatti of an alleged new crime. After Kelly turned himself in the day the charges were announced, he was arrested by the Chicago Police Department and taken into custody. The judge set bond at $1 million and ordered Kelly to have no contact with any minor under 18 or alleged victim. Kelly pleaded not guilty to all charges, which he called lies. He was released on bail after three nights in jail at Cook County."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vincent Michael Gaughan",
        "text": "In May and June 2008, he presided over the jury trial of the American singer and record producer, R. Kelly, in which Kelly was acquitted on all counts of child pornography charges. The men found guilty in the Brown's Chicken massacre case in 2007 and 2009, were convicted in Gaughan's courtroom."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "As of October 2021, following his New York conviction, Kelly's YouTube channel was terminated, but his catalogue remains available on YouTube Music."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rachel Starr",
        "text": "In an interview with Power 98.3 radio in Phoenix, Arizona, Machine Gun Kelly stated that he and Starr made a sex tape, although it was never released to the public."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oronike Odeleye",
        "text": "In 2017, after allegations that singer R. Kelly was maintaining a sex cult involving young black women, Odeleye created a petition to ban Kelly's music from Atlanta radio stations. Soon after, Kenyette Tisha Barnes reached out to Odeleye to invite her to collaborate on the creation of a grassroots digital campaign to boycott his music, which became #MuteRKelly. Odeleye also appeared in the 2019 documentary series \"Surviving R. Kelly\" to discuss the campaign."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "R. Kelly\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n----1990\u20131996: \"Born into the 90's\", \"12 Play\" and \"R. Kelly\".\n----1997\u20132001: Basketball, \"R.\", \"TP-2.COM,\" and Rockland Records.\n------Rockland Records.\n----2002\u20132003: \"The Best of Both Worlds\" and \"Chocolate Factory\".\n----2004\u20132005: \"Unfinished Business, Happy People/U Saved Me\" and \"TP.3 Reloaded\".\n----2006\u20132009: \"Double Up\" and \"Untitled\", Africa.\n----2010\u20132012: \"Epic\", \"Love Letter\", throat surgery, and \"Write Me Back\".\n----2013\u20132016: \"Black Panties\", \"The Buffet\", and \"12 Nights of Christmas\".\n--Artistry.\n----Musical style and influences.\n----Vocal style and lyrical themes.\n--Sexual abuse allegations.\n----Early reports of sexual abuse (1990s).\n----Illegal marriage (1994).\n----Sex tape circulates (2002).\n----First criminal indictment (2002).\n----Allegations of preteen girl molestation (2009).\n----Huffington Post Live Interview (2015).\n----Alleged sex cult (2010s).\n----Boycott and industry response.\n------Allegations of music industry complicity.\n----Musical response to allegations.\n----\"Surviving R. Kelly\" (2019\u20132020).\n----Second series of criminal charges (2019\u20132021).\n----Criminal conviction (2021).\n----Other legal issues.\n--Influence.\n--Personal life.\n----Charity and donations.\n--Honors and awards.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Erykah Badu",
        "text": "In a January 2019 concert, Badu elicited boos from fans after giving support of musician R. Kelly, saying \"I dunno how everybody else feel about it but I'm putting up a prayer right now for R. ... I love you. Unconditionally\". Badu has been criticized for her perceived support of R. Kelly following the release of Lifetime's \"Surviving R. Kelly\". In 2019 R. Kelly was accused of running a \"sex cult\" and was arrested and charged with several counts of sex trafficking and prostitution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ruth Kelly",
        "text": "On 9 January 2006, it came to light that Kelly's department had granted permission for a man who had been cautioned by police for viewing child pornography images and who was on a sex offenders register to be employed at a school, on the basis that he had not been convicted of an offence. He, and an unknown number of others on the sex offenders register, were not on the DfES prohibited list, \"List 99\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aidan A. Kelly",
        "text": "Shortly after moving to Mill Valley, Kelly experienced what he described as a \"spontaneous mystical experience,\" when a vision of the Goddess first appeared to him at the age of 15. Although Kelly was raised as a Roman Catholic, his vision of the Goddess in Mill Valley triggered a lifelong interest in alternative religions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kate Kelly (feminist)",
        "text": "In December 2019, Kelly led a group of ERA activists in a demonstration on Temple Square in Salt Lake City. The group sang new-twists on Christmas carols with lyrics about equality outside the Salt Lake Temple and then proceeded to project an \"ERA YES\" symbol, which was over three stories tall, on the LDS Church's Conference Center."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Kelly stated his intention to tour with R&B singer Mary J. Blige on \"The King & Queen Tour\" prior to the Black Panties Tour while continuing to create segments of the hip hopera \"Trapped in the Closet\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rhodium Nights",
        "text": "\"Rhodium Nights\" was partially inspired by a woman who claimed to be raped by New York City FOX 5 news reporter, Greg Kelly, who is the son of the actual NYPD Police Commissioner Raymond Kelly. Kelly was accused by this woman who said Kelly took advantage of her after she had too much to drink. The case was handed to the district attorney's office, which later decided not to charge Kelly, based on insufficient evidence that a rape had occurred."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In January 2019, Lifetime began airing a six-part documentary series titled Surviving R. Kelly detailing sexual abuse and misconduct allegations against Kelly. Writing for the \"Los Angeles Times\", Loraine Ali observed that the series covered a range of in-depth interviews that \"paint a picture of a predator whose behavior was consistently overlooked by the industry, his peers and the public while his spiritual hit was sung in churches and schools.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jim DeRogatis",
        "text": "DeRogatis was named as a witness in Kelly's 2008 child pornography trial. The defense lawyers charged that DeRogatis should be charged with child pornography for allegedly making a copy of the tape and showing it to another person after turning the original over to police."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Robert Sylvester Kelly (born January 8, 1967) is an American singer, songwriter, record producer, and convicted sex offender. He has been credited with helping to redefine R&B and hip hop, earning nicknames such as \"the King of R&B\", \"the King of Pop-Soul\", and the \"Pied Piper of R&B\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Darkey Kelly",
        "text": "Various legends grew up around Kelly after her execution. The most common story is that she became pregnant with the child of Dublin's Sheriff Simon Luttrell, 1st Earl of Carhampton, a member of the Hellfire Club and probable client of Kelly's Maiden Tower. She demanded financial support from him. He responded by accusing her of witchcraft and of having killed their baby in a Satanic ritual. The body was never found. Darkey was then burnt at the stake."
      },
      {
        "title": "Capital D (rapper)",
        "text": "Kelly converted to Islam in 2000. He is married and has three children."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Admit",
        "text": "In \"I Admit\", Kelly admits to various acts, including dropping out of high school and not attending church. Kelly claims to be dyslexic, and asserts that his inability to read his recording contract caused him to forfeit publishing rights to his music, which contributed to Kelly's financial troubles, including his $20million tax debt to the Internal Revenue Service. In the song, Kelly confesses that he was sexually unfaithful and frequented strip clubs. Kelly reveals that he lost his virginity in his childhood when he was raped by an older female family member, elaborating on the disclosures from his 2012 autobiography, \"Soulacoaster: The Diary of Me\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "A documentary series focused on R. Kelly's history of alleged sexual abuse was green-lit by Lifetime in May 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "MeToo movement",
        "text": "In January 2019, the Lifetime documentary \"Surviving R. Kelly\" aired, describing several women's accusations of sexual, emotional, mental, and physical abuse by singer R. Kelly. The documentary questioned the \"ecosystem\" that \"supports and enables\" powerful individuals in the music industry. In February 2019, Kelly was arrested for ten alleged counts of sexual abuse against four women, three of whom were minors at the time of the incidents. His former wife Andrea Kelly has also accused him of domestic violence and filed a restraining order against him in 2005."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sheela na gig",
        "text": "Weir and Jerman relate a story from \"The Irish Times\" (23 September 1977) in which a potentially violent incident involving several men was averted by a woman exposing her genitals to them. They doubt, however, whether the story was true. Weir and Jerman go on to suggest that the apotropaic function seems to have been gradually ascribed to the figures over time. While this theory seems to apply to most of the secular and some of the religious figures, it does not apply to all of them."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly (album)",
        "text": "\"R. Kelly\" received mostly positive reviews from music critics. Jim Derogatis of \"Rolling Stone\" wrote, Kelly \"has grown out of his unthinking misogyny to the point where he makes a plea in 'As I Look Into My Life' to 'brothers in the ghetto' to 'love and respect that woman and bring her happiness.' Make love not war is an old message, but Kelly delivers it with sincerity. By spreading it in the hood in these violent times, he believes he's doing God's work, and who's to say he is wrong? Predecessors like Marvin Gaye and Prince have shown that great sex is spiritual, and Kelly's make-out music ranks with the best.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Dream Hampton",
        "text": "Hampton was executive producer of \"Surviving R. Kelly\", a 2019 documentary series about the decades of sexual-abuse allegations against R. Kelly. Page six reported that a Homeland Security agent had watched the series and started a federal investigation into the victims' allegations. After its release, Kelly was charged with aggravated criminal sexual abuse and other crimes for an eventual total of 18 federal charges."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "After the jury delivered their verdict, women's rights attorney Gloria Allred, who represented several victims, stated that Kelly was the worst sexual predator she had pursued in her 47-year career of practicing law."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. B. D. Blakeney",
        "text": "Blakeney was a strong believer in Christianity and was also noted for his somewhat prudish attitudes towards what he dubbed \"nasty sex nonsense\" amongst the young, which he largely blamed on left-wing subversives attempting to destroy the moral rectitude of the British Empire, views he largely shared with BF ideologue Nesta Webster. Strongly interested in Theosophy, Blakeney was a member of the Liberal Catholic Church and close friend of Edith Starr Miller."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kelly Ryan",
        "text": "On December 14, 2005 the burnt corpse of Melissa James, a woman who was in a sexual relationship with Titus and lived in Ryan and Titus' home, was discovered inside a Jaguar car belonging to Kelly Ryan. The couple went into hiding together and were arrested along with suspected accomplice, Anthony Gross, after a nine-day investigation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lauren Witzke",
        "text": "Witzke has voiced support for the far-right conspiracy theory QAnon, which centers on false claims that a cabal of Satanic, cannibalistic sexual abusers of children operating a global child sex trafficking ring conspired against former U.S. President Donald Trump during his term in office."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harbhajan Singh Khalsa",
        "text": "In March 2020, anti-cult activist Be Scofield published an article in her magazine \"The Guru\" reporting sexual abuse and rape of female followers and assistants including Dyson by Harbhajan Singh, based on \"over a dozen original interviews\". That same month, the Siri Singh Sahib Corporation commissioned An Olive Branch (AOB) to look into the allegations. The AOB report, published in August, found that it was \"more likely than not\" that Yogi Bhajan raped three women, injured eight women during sex, engaged in nonconsensual touching of nine people, showed pornography to minors, used sexually offensive language, directed women to shave their pubic hair, directed women to have sex with other women, that his followers' claims that he was celibate were inaccurate, and that he \"employed a variety of methods to control his students including compartmentalization, quid pro quo, promises, threats, slander, phone calls, guarding, and/or telling women they were his wife.\" The report acknowledged \"the convictions of Yogi Bhajan's Supporters as accurate representations of their beliefs\" rather than deliberate falsehoods. Soon after, other media published stories based on the report that considered the allegations to be true."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "Former Jive president Barry Weiss told the newspaper that during 20 years with the label he never concerned himself with Kelly's private life and was unaware of two lawsuits filed against Kelly and the label by young women alleging sexual misconduct while they were minors, suits in which the label had successfully argued it was not liable. Larry Khan, another Jive executive who worked closely with the singer even after viewing the sex tape, likewise implied it was not the label's responsibility, and pointed to Chuck Berry and Jerry Lee Lewis as musicians whose labels continued to release and promote their records despite public awareness that they were involved with underage girls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Providence (religious movement)",
        "text": "Jung denied the charges, his followers said. In 2008, in response to the rape allegations, Providence pastor Bae Jae-yong said that it was a \"distorted rumor that was created by the people who have slandered [Jung]\" and that \"all fundamental truth will be clarified by [Jung] at the prosecutor's office\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Richard A. Devine",
        "text": "Devine appeared in \"Surviving R. Kelly\", a 2019 Lifetime documentary series about sexual abuse allegations against musician R. Kelly. Though the 2008 trial of Kelly occurred at the end of Devine's tenure, he did not participate in the trial."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pete Davidson",
        "text": "The Roman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn demanded an apology from Davidson in March 2019, after an \"SNL\" sketch where he compared the Catholic Church to R. Kelly, an entertainer who had been accused of pedophilia. In the sketch, Davidson said, \"[Kelly] is a monster and he should go to jail forever. But if you support the Catholic Church, isn't that like the same thing as being an R. Kelly fan? I don't really see the difference, except for one's music is significantly better.\" In a statement posted on its website, the diocese criticized the \"disgraceful and offensive skit\" and added, \"The faithful of our Church are disgusted by the harassment by those in news and entertainment, and this sketch offends millions. The mockery of this difficult time in the Church's history serves no purpose.\" Davidson's comments came after the Diocese of Brooklyn and Queens agreed to a record $27.5\u00a0million settlement for sex abuse allegations in September 2018."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barack Obama religion conspiracy theories",
        "text": "A chain e-mail circulating during the presidential campaign claimed that Obama took his oath of office as a U.S. Senator in 2005 while placing his hand on a Qur'an rather than a Bible. This claim is false, as Obama was sworn into office using a Bible that he owned. The claim may have been inspired by a photo-op re-enactment of the 2007 swearing-in of U.S. Representative Keith Ellison of Minnesota, who used a Qur'an that had belonged to Thomas Jefferson."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kee MacFarlane",
        "text": "MacFarlane went on to testify in front of the United States Congress that she believed there was an organized, nationwide conspiracy of individuals and \"orthodox satanic groups\" sexually abusing children, although she never presented evidence of who any of the individuals are nor proof of any orthodox satanic groups."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alex Kelly (rapist)",
        "text": "Kelly faced two trials in 1997. After the first was declared a mistrial, the second resulted in his conviction for the first rape and a sentence of 10 years in prison. He pleaded no contest to the second rape and was sentenced to an additional 10 years in prison (sentence to run concurrently with the 10-year sentence)."
      },
      {
        "title": "XHamster",
        "text": "Following the airing of a Lifetime Network documentary-style film, \"Surviving R.Kelly\", xHamster reported a 388% increase in R.Kelly related searches since January 2019. The Lifetime film presents R.Kelly's arrest, trial, and acquittal on child pornography charges between 2002 and 2008. Censored from xHamster's website, the \"infamous\" sex tape features the hip-hop artist engaged in sexual relations with and urinating on, an underage girl. In a bid to reprimand viewers who search for the sex tape, xHamster denounced seeking the tape as both \"illegal\" and \"immoral\". xHamster emphasized in their public statement that searching for the video may even be \"re-victimizing a minor who could not consent\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sean Reinert",
        "text": "As of May 2014, he publicly revealed his homosexuality along with fellow Cynic member Paul Masvidal."
      },
      {
        "title": "David Berg",
        "text": "David Berg has been accused of leading a cult which promoted assaults on children and sexual abuse of women and children for decades. Former members have told their stories in widely disseminated media reports, though official inquiries at the time found no evidence of child abuse. Berg was also personally accused of pedophilia. He recalled in his letters how he was taught to masturbate in church by another boy his age. When his mother caught him, he was forced to masturbate in front of his father. Oftentimes Berg would explicitly describe his sexual preferences and recalled that one thing he regretted was that he never slept with his mother."
      },
      {
        "title": "Machine Gun Kelly (musician)",
        "text": "In a 2012 interview, he stated that he identifies politically as an anarchist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Darkey Kelly",
        "text": "This story may have its origin in one told about Luttrell's son Henry, who supposedly raped a girl in a brothel, and then had the girl and her family imprisoned under false charges."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Feigley",
        "text": "George Feigley (June 23, 1940 \u2013 April 13, 2009) was an American church leader. He has been described as a sex cult leader. Feigley served over 32 years in prison for sex crimes against children, from 1975 to 2008."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kelly McGillis",
        "text": "She played the suspect in the disappearance of a young woman starring Susie Porter in \"The Monkey's Mask\", an international lesbian cult film from 2000. The film is based on the verse novel of the same name by Australian poet Dorothy Porter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Surviving R. Kelly",
        "text": "Shortly after the docuseries aired, Kelly's final record label, RCA Records, dissolved its working relationship with him. In February 2019, Kelly was formally charged with 10 counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Buddhafield (cult)",
        "text": "Many allegations have been made against Jaime Gomez, most notably sexual abuse of his male followers. His victims have said that they had their confessions in their weekly hypnotherapy sessions used against them. Gomez also used the AIDS crisis to instill fear in his gay male followers to frighten them into staying."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alex Kelly (rapist)",
        "text": "Kelly was charged with committing two rapes within a four-day period in Darien, Connecticut, in February 1986. He was charged first with the rape of a 16-year-old Stamford girl, and then of a teenager in Darien. In one of the rapes, according to the police, he encountered a girl who lived near him and offered her a ride home from a party. He was later also charged with drug possession and two counts of kidnapping."
      },
      {
        "title": "Se\u00e1n T. O'Kelly",
        "text": "O'Kelly's most famous faux pas occurred during a state visit to the Vatican City, when in a breach with standard protocol, he told the media of Pope Pius XII's personal opinions on communism. The resulting row strained relationships between Pope Pius XII and Joseph Stalin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gene Kelly",
        "text": "He was raised as a Roman Catholic and was a member of the Good Shepherd Parish and the Catholic Motion Picture Guild in Beverly Hills, California. However, after becoming disenchanted by the Roman Catholic Church's support for Francisco Franco against the Second Spanish Republic during the Spanish Civil War, he officially severed his ties with the church in September 1939. This separation was prompted, in part, by a trip Kelly made to Mexico in which he became convinced that the church had failed to help the poor in that country. After his departure from the Catholic Church, Kelly became an agnostic, as he had previously described himself."
      },
      {
        "title": "David E. Kelley",
        "text": "Kelley has incorporated religious subject matter from the beginning, including issues involving Protestantism, Judaism, Scientology and Catholicism among others. With the widespread media coverage of child sexual abuse cases in the Roman Catholic Church during the mid-to-late 1990s, Kelley began to introduce this controversy into his scripts. For instance, the character Bobby Donnell on \"The Practice\", a Catholic, became personally estranged from the Church over the issue of sexually abusive priests. While the conservative Catholic League did not object to this episode, they frequently complained of anti-Catholic bias in Kelley's shows because of his references to this subject."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alex Kelly (rapist)",
        "text": "In addition to those cases, five other women have told prosecutors and an author that Kelly raped them when he was a teen, although he has never been charged with those attacks."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Circle of Friends",
        "text": "Galen Kelly worked as a deprogrammer against the group starting in 1978, by offering \"voluntary interventions\" during which he would approach a member as they entered or left work and offer them the opportunity to see and talk to a trusted family member. In November 1978 the group filed a suit against Galen, asking for a court order forbidding \"kidnappings such as the alleged abduction\" of a member. In 1990 he was convicted of kidnapping a member of Washington D.C. cell, Debra Dobkowski, and spent 16 months in prison before his conviction was overturned on appeal. Galen claimed Dobkowski and the cult had set him up by having Dobkowski switch guard shifts with her roommate, Beth Bruckert, the actual target of the intervention, that he'd offered a voluntary intervention, and that Dobkowski had accompanied him willingly. Dobkowski later pleaded guilty for money laundering crimes associated with her membership in the group and served a 21-month prison sentence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Colin Murray",
        "text": "Murray stated on his R5 show on 21 December 2020, following a reference to paganism, that he was an atheist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greg Kelly",
        "text": "In January\u2013February 2012 Kelly was investigated by the Manhattan District Attorney's office upon an accusation of rape. Kelly was never arrested nor charged with a crime. After an investigation, the District Attorney issued a letter stating that under NY state criminal law, the incident did not constitute a crime. Kelly returned to work February 13, 2012. On June 9, 2014, Kelly's accuser spoke publicly for the first time about her 2012 allegations against Kelly."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "In a January 2019 BBC News article, a woman named Asante McGee whom Kelly had met in 2014 and taken to live with him some months later, said that she lived with not only Kelly alone, but with other women. She said: \"He controlled every aspect of my life, while I lived with him.\" McGee later moved out on her own accord."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "On August 5, 2019, the State's Attorney Office in Hennepin County, Minnesota charged Kelly with soliciting a minor and prostitution; prosecutors alleged that in July 2001, following a concert in Minneapolis, Kelly had invited a girl up to his hotel room and paid her $200 to remove her clothing and dance with him."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. Kelly",
        "text": "\"The Washington Post\" ran a lengthy article in May 2018, alleging that music industry executives had been aware of Kelly's sexually abusive behavior toward underage girls for years but did little or nothing about them due to his success as a performer and songwriter. As early as 1994, the newspaper reported, his tour manager had urged Jive Records' founder Clive Calder to tell Kelly he would not release the singer's records if he continued to have \"incidents\" with young women after every concert he gave. Calder told the \"Post\" that he regretted not having done more at the time, saying \"Clearly, we missed something.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Kathy Kelly",
        "text": "As documented in a 2012 Al Jazeera documentary, in January 2010 Kelly was arrested in the rotunda of the US Capitol building while taking part in a mock funeral, organized by Witness Against Torture, remembering Mani al-Utaybi, Yasser al-Zahrani, and Ali Abdullah Ahmed, three men then recently alleged to have been tortured to death in the US Guantanamo Bay prison complex. All participants of the protest were acquitted in court the following June."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barack Obama religion conspiracy theories",
        "text": "According to the \"Los Angeles Times\", false rumors saying that Obama was secretly a Muslim started during his campaign for the United States Senate in 2004 and had expanded through viral e-mails by 2006. The \"Times\" compared these rumors to earlier false rumors about 2000 presidential candidate John McCain fathering a dark-skinned child out of wedlock. The rumors were subsequently promoted by conservative talk show hosts, including Michael Savage."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why did R. Kelly become a sex offender?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Since the 1990s, R. Kelly has been repeatedly accused of sexual abuse, often with underage girls.  Do you want to know more about why did R. Kelly become a sex offender on early reports of sexual abuse (1990s), first criminal indictment (2002), second series of criminal charges (2019\u20132021) or criminal conviction (2021)?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I'd like to hear about the early reports of sexual abuse."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "In December 2000, the Chicago Sun-Times first reported that police had made two investigations that Kelly was having sex with an underage female but had to drop the investigations due to lack of cooperation by the girls accusing him. In the 2021 criminal trial for sex trafficking and racketeering, a witness testified that Kelly had sexual contact with Aaliyah starting when she was 13 or 14 years old."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about Surviving R. Kelly and what it is about?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Surviving R. Kelly is a Lifetime documentary detailing sexual abuse allegations against American singer Robert \"R.\" Kelly.Would you like to know more about the production, critical response, or the impact of the documentary?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Could you please tell me more about what impact the documentary had?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "There was a 27% increase in calls to the National Sexual Assault Hotline in the United States, new calls came forward about abuse from R. Kelly and various artists took down singles that featured him. Kelly's music saw streaming popularity during the initial airing but radio stations have decided to end his music and his record label dropped him."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was R. Kelly's sentence for his crimes?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "On September 27, 2021, a federal jury in New York found Kelly guilty on nine counts including racketeering, sexual exploitation of a child, kidnapping, bribery, sex trafficking, and a violation of the Mann Act. The judge ordered that he remain in custody pending sentencing, set for May 4, 2022."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Can you tell me about his alleged sex cult?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Jim DeRogatis reported for BuzzFeed News on July 17, 2017, that Kelly was accused by three sets of parents of holding their daughters in an \"abusive cult\". Kelly and the alleged victims deny the allegations.",
      "Jim DeRogatis reported for BuzzFeed News on July 17, 2017, that Kelly was accused by three sets of parents of holding their daughters in an \"abusive cult\"; Kelly was again accused of misconduct on April 17, 2018, by a former partner of his who claimed that Kelly \"intentionally\" infected her with a sexually transmitted disease; in a January 2019 BBC News article, a woman named Asante McGee whom Kelly had met in 2014 and taken to live with him some months later, said that she lived with not only Kelly alone, but with other women."
    ],
    "topic": "R. Kelly",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "R. Kelly:73",
        "passage_titles": [
          "R. Kelly",
          "Sexual abuse allegations",
          "Alleged sex cult (2010s)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Jim DeRogatis reported for \"BuzzFeed News\" on July 17, 2017, that Kelly was accused by three sets of parents of holding their daughters in an \"abusive cult\". Kelly and the alleged victims deny the allegations."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "R. Kelly:73",
        "passage_titles": [
          "R. Kelly",
          "Sexual abuse allegations",
          "Alleged sex cult (2010s)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Jim DeRogatis reported for \"BuzzFeed News\" on July 17, 2017, that Kelly was accused by three sets of parents of holding their daughters in an \"abusive cult\". Kelly and the alleged victims deny the allegations."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "R. Kelly:75",
        "passage_titles": [
          "R. Kelly",
          "Sexual abuse allegations",
          "Alleged sex cult (2010s)"
        ],
        "ctx": "Kelly was again accused of misconduct on April 17, 2018, by a former partner of his who claimed that Kelly \"intentionally\" infected her with a sexually transmitted disease. A representative for Kelly stated that he \"categorically denies all claims and allegations\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "R. Kelly:76",
        "passage_titles": [
          "R. Kelly",
          "Sexual abuse allegations",
          "Alleged sex cult (2010s)"
        ],
        "ctx": "In a January 2019 BBC News article, a woman named Asante McGee whom Kelly had met in 2014 and taken to live with him some months later, said that she lived with not only Kelly alone, but with other women. She said: \"He controlled every aspect of my life, while I lived with him.\" McGee later moved out on her own accord."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Beatlemania",
        "text": "The Beatles' success established the popularity of British musical acts for the first time in the US. By mid 1964, several more UK acts came to the US, including the Dave Clark Five, the Rolling Stones, Billy J. Kramer, and Gerry & the Pacemakers. Completing what commentators termed the British Invasion of the US pop market, one-third of all top ten hits there in 1964 were performed by British acts. The Beatles' chart domination was repeated in countries around the world during 1964, as were the familiar displays of mania wherever the band played. Fans besieged their hotels, where sheets and pillowcases were stolen for souvenirs. As the phenomenon escalated over 1964\u201365, travelling to concert venues involved a journey via helicopter and armoured car. These arrangements came to resemble military operations, with decoy vehicles and a level of security normally afforded a head of state. Contrary to the presentable image the Beatles maintained for reporters covering the tours, their evening parties often descended into orgies with female admirers, which Lennon later likened to the scenes of Roman decadence in Frederico Fellini's film \"Satyricon\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ringo Starr",
        "text": "During 1963, the Beatles enjoyed increasing popularity in Britain. In January, their second single, \"Please Please Me\", followed \"Love Me Do\" into the UK charts and a successful television appearance on \"Thank Your Lucky Stars\" earned favourable reviews, leading to a boost in sales and radio play. By the end of the year, the phenomenon known as Beatlemania had spread throughout the country, and by February 1964 the Beatles had become an international success when they performed in New York City on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\" to a record 73\u00a0million viewers. Starr commented: \"In the States I know I went over well. It knocked me out to see and hear the kids waving for me. I'd made it as a personality ... Our appeal ... is that we're ordinary lads.\" He was a source of inspiration for several songs written at the time, including Penny Valentine's \"I Want To Kiss Ringo Goodbye\" and Rolf Harris's \"Ringo for President\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' 1964 North American tour",
        "text": "Following the Beatles two week appearance in the United States in February 1964, the band became the most well known group in America. In the six months that followed they achieved 17 Top 40 singles \u2013 including six number ones. Their US only LPs \"A Hard Day's Night\" and \"Something New\" topped the charts for nine weeks. Their first film \"A Hard Day's Night\" earned $1.3 million () in its first week. Fans in the United States excitedly anticipated a country-wide tour."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "By early 1964, the Beatles were international stars and had achieved unprecedented levels of critical and commercial success. They became a leading force in Britain's cultural resurgence, ushering in the British Invasion of the United States pop market, and soon made their film debut with \"A Hard Day's Night\" (1964). From 1965 onwards, they produced records of greater sophistication, including the albums \"Rubber Soul\" (1965), \"Revolver\" (1966) and \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band\" (1967), and enjoyed further commercial success with \"The Beatles\" (also known as \"the White Album\", 1968) and \"Abbey Road\" (1969). Heralding the album era, their success elevated the album to be the dominant form of record consumption over singles; they also inspired a greater public interest in psychedelic drugs and Eastern spirituality, and furthered advancements in electronic music, album art and music videos. In 1968, they founded Apple Corps, a multi-armed multimedia corporation that continues to oversee projects related to the band's legacy. After the group's break-up in 1970, all principal members enjoyed success as solo artists and some partial reunions have occurred. Lennon was murdered in 1980 and Harrison died of lung cancer in 2001. McCartney and Starr remain musically active."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles were an English rock band, formed in Liverpool in 1960, that comprised John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr. They are regarded as the most influential band of all time and were integral to the development of 1960s counterculture and popular music's recognition as an art form. Rooted in skiffle, beat and 1950s rock and roll, their sound incorporated elements of classical music and traditional pop in innovative ways; the band later explored music styles ranging from ballads and Indian music to psychedelia and hard rock. As pioneers in recording, songwriting and artistic presentation, the Beatles revolutionised many aspects of the music industry and were often publicised as leaders of the era's youth and sociocultural movements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Teen idol",
        "text": "The Beatles soon became the most successful and influential band in modern musical history, staying at the top of Billboard charts for a grand total of 58 weeks between 1964 and 1970. Adolescent hysteria was so loud that the band had trouble performing at concerts. The level of stardom they achieved in the U.S.\u2014dubbed Beatlemania\u2014was never before seen in that country, not even during the heyday of Elvis Presley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles' international success created an export market for British pop for the first time and provided a boon to the UK government's balance of payments deficit. This unexpected development led to approval from politicians and an eagerness on their part to be associated with the band. In the run-up to the 1964 general election, the Beatles became a political football for the two major political parties; the \"New Statesman\" reported that Conservative candidates were told to \"mention the Beatles whenever possible in their speeches\", while a cartoon in the \"Daily Express\" showed the Conservative prime minister, Alec Douglas-Home, and Labour's leader of the opposition, Harold Wilson, consulting the Beatles over the Profumo affair. During the election campaign, both parties accused the other of trying to use the band's popularity for political gain. In March 1964, Wilson, who was contesting the outer Liverpool seat of Huyton, engineered a photo opportunity with the group as they received their Variety Club \"Show Business Personality of the Year\" awards. The association endured in the public's mind, securing Wilson the youth vote and aiding in his election win.<ref name=\"Harris/PollPosition\"></ref>"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles' 1964 arrival in the US is credited with initiating the album era; the music historian Joel Whitburn says that LP sales soon \"exploded and eventually outpaced the sales and releases of singles\" in the music industry. They not only sparked the British Invasion of the US, they became a globally influential phenomenon as well. From the 1920s, the US had dominated popular entertainment culture throughout much of the world, via Hollywood films, jazz, the music of Broadway and Tin Pan Alley and, later, the rock and roll that first emerged in Memphis, Tennessee. The Beatles are regarded as British cultural icons, with young adults from abroad naming the band among a group of people whom they most associated with UK culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "The group's popularity generated unprecedented interest in British music, and many other UK acts subsequently made their American debuts, successfully touring over the next three years in what was termed the British Invasion. The Beatles' success in the US opened the door for a successive string of British beat groups and pop acts such as the Dave Clark Five, the Animals, Petula Clark, the Kinks, and the Rolling Stones to achieve success in America. During the week of 4 April 1964, the Beatles held twelve positions on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 singles chart, including the top five."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "Many cultural movements of the 1960s were assisted or inspired by the Beatles. In Britain, their rise to national prominence signalled the youth-driven changes in postwar society, with respect to social mobility, teenagers' commercial influence, and informality. They spearheaded the shift from American artists' global dominance of rock and roll to British acts (known in the US as the British Invasion) and inspired many young people to pursue music careers. From 1964 to 1970, the group had the top-selling US single one out of every six weeks, and the top-selling US album one out of every three weeks. In 1965, they were awarded MBEs, the first time such an honour was bestowed on a British pop act. A year later, Lennon controversially remarked that the band were \"more popular than Jesus now\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "The English rock band the Beatles are commonly regarded as the foremost and most influential band in popular music history. With a line-up comprising John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, they sparked the \"Beatlemania\" phenomenon in 1963, gained international superstardom in 1964, and remained active until their break-up in 1970. Over the latter half of the decade, they were often viewed as orchestrators of society's developments. Their recognition concerns their effect on the era's youth and counterculture, British identity, popular music's evolution into an art form, and their unprecedented following."
      },
      {
        "title": "Liverpool",
        "text": "In the 1960s Liverpool was the centre of the \"Merseybeat\" sound, which became synonymous with the Beatles and fellow Liverpudlian rock bands. Influenced by American rhythm and blues and rock music, they also in turn strongly affected American music for years and were internationally popular. The Beatles became internationally known in the early 1960s and performed for years together; they were the most commercially successful and musically influential band in popular history. Their co-founder, singer, and composer John Lennon was killed in New York City in 1980. Liverpool airport was renamed after him in 2002, the first British airport to be named in honour of an individual."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' North American releases",
        "text": "It was nearly a year before the Beatles became widely popular in America. \"CBS Evening News\" aired a five-minute news story about Beatlemania in the UK on 10 December 1963; this led to a teenage girl making an airplay request of a local radio station, which in turn sparked a sequence of events leading to the rush-release of the single \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" and the group's commercial breakthrough."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "Starting in 1963, according to music historian David Simonelli, the Beatles initiated the \"original golden age\" of British rock 'n' roll and reversed a tradition whereby domestic acts were a \"pale imitation\" of the original American purveyors of the style. During the first half of that year, the band usurped American acts including Roy Orbison to become the headline performers on their joint UK tours, something no previous British act accomplished while touring with artists from the US. Their initial success opened the way for many other Liverpool groups to achieve national success and encouraged the country's four main, London-based record companies to seek out talent in other areas of northern England. As a result, the Beatles and other British acts dominated the charts in 1963 at the expense of American artists."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Lennon",
        "text": "The Beatles achieved mainstream success in the UK early in 1963. Lennon was on tour when his first son, Julian, was born in April. During their Royal Variety Show performance, which was attended by the Queen Mother and other British royalty, Lennon poked fun at the audience: \"For our next song, I'd like to ask for your help. For the people in the cheaper seats, clap your hands... and the rest of you, if you'll just rattle your jewellery.\" After a year of Beatlemania in the UK, the group's historic February 1964 US debut appearance on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\" marked their breakthrough to international stardom. A two-year period of constant touring, filmmaking, and songwriting followed, during which Lennon wrote two books, \"In His Own Write\" and \"A Spaniard in the Works\". The Beatles received recognition from the British establishment when they were appointed Members of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 1965 Queen's Birthday Honours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Birth of the Beatles",
        "text": "After their success, Cynthia announces to John that she is pregnant and the two decide to wed. The Beatles release their first single, \"Love Me Do\" and in 1963 release their first No. 1 hit single, \"Please Please Me\". They become the most famous group in Britain. In 1964, they are heading to America for the first time, after already encountering massive success across Europe. The film ends when the group arrives in America and performs on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\" to a mass of screaming fans, singing \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\".\n*Stephen MacKenna as John Lennon\n*Rod Culbertson as Paul McCartney\n*John Altman as George Harrison\n*Ray Ashcroft as Ringo Starr\n*Ryan Michael as Pete Best\n*David Nicholas Wilkinson as Stuart Sutcliffe\n*Brian Jameson as Brian Epstein\n*Wendy Morgan as Cynthia Lennon\n*Gary Olsen as Rory Storm\n*Linal Haft as Agent\n*Eileen Kennally as Mimi Smith\n*Richard Marner as Bruno Koschmider\n*Alyson Spiro as Astrid Kirchherr\n*Nigel Havers as George Martin\n*Paula Jacobs as Mrs Flemming"
      },
      {
        "title": "Beatlemania",
        "text": "In February 1964, the Beatles arrived in the United States and their televised performances on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\" were viewed by approximately 73 million people. There, the band's instant popularity established their international stature, and their unprecedented domination of the national sales charts was mirrored in numerous other countries. Their August 1965 concert at New York's Shea Stadium marked the first time that a large outdoor stadium was used for such a purpose, and with an audience of 55,000, set records for attendance and revenue generation. To protect them from their fans, the Beatles typically travelled to these concerts by armoured car. From the end of that year, the band embraced promo clips for their singles to avoid the difficulties of making personal appearances on television programmes. Their December 1965 album \"Rubber Soul\" marked a profound change in the dynamic between fans and artists, as many Beatles fans sought to appreciate the progressive quality in the band's look, lyrics and sound."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mimi Smith",
        "text": "After John Lennon became famous, Smith berated him for speaking in a Liverpudlian accent, but Lennon replied: \"That's show business. They want me to speak more Liverpool.\u201d Despite the talk of Lennon being working class \u2013 as were Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr \u2013 he later rejected the idea, saying, \"I was a nice clean-cut suburban boy.\" Later comparing his pre-fame living circumstances at Mendips with those of the other Beatles, he said, \"In the class system it was about a half an inch in a higher class than Paul, George and Ringo, who lived in subsidised government houses. We owned our own house, had our own garden. They didn't have anything like that\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' North American releases",
        "text": "The Beatles experienced huge popularity on the British record charts in early 1963, but record companies in the United States did not immediately follow up with releases of their own, and the Beatles' commercial success in the US continued to be hampered by other obstacles, including issues with royalties and public derision toward the \"Beatle haircut\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beatlemania",
        "text": "In 1966, John Lennon controversially remarked that the group had become \"more popular than Jesus\". Soon afterwards, when the Beatles toured Japan, the Philippines and the US, they were entangled in mob revolt, violence, political backlash and threats of assassination. Frustrated by the restrictions of Beatlemania and unable to hear themselves play above their fans' screams, the group stopped touring and became a studio-only band. Their popularity and influence expanded in various social and political arenas, while Beatlemania continued on a reduced scale from then and into the members' solo careers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nowhere Man (EP)",
        "text": "On the day of the EP's release, the Beatles arrived back in London after the end of their 1966 tour of West Germany and the Far East, and having decided to quit touring at the end of the year. Referring to the hostility they had just received in the Philippines, from militia and citizens loyal to the Marcos regime, and the outrage in the United States over John Lennon's remark that the Beatles had become \"more popular than Jesus\", George Harrison told reporters at Heathrow Airport: \"We're going to have a couple of weeks to recuperate before we go and get beaten up by the Americans.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "The success brought increased media exposure, to which the Beatles responded with an irreverent and comical attitude that defied the expectations of pop musicians at the time, inspiring even more interest. The band toured the UK three times in the first half of the year: a four-week tour that began in February, the Beatles' first nationwide, preceded three-week tours in March and May\u2013June. As their popularity spread, a frenzied adulation of the group took hold. Greeted with riotous enthusiasm by screaming fans, the press dubbed the phenomenon \"Beatlemania\". Although not billed as tour leaders, the Beatles overshadowed American acts Tommy Roe and Chris Montez during the February engagements and assumed top billing \"by audience demand\", something no British act had previously accomplished while touring with artists from the US. A similar situation arose during their May\u2013June tour with Roy Orbison."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Collection of Beatles Oldies",
        "text": "The Beatles made the decision to retire from live performance in 1966, dissatisfied at playing to audiences of screaming fans, and following a series of controversies that had tarnished the band's image throughout the year. Those controversies included the unfavourable reaction to the butcher cover originally used for the band's American album \"Yesterday and Today\", death threats and political incidents during their visits to Japan and the Philippines, and condemnation from some religious groups in America in response to John Lennon's comment that the Beatles had become more popular than Christ. After completing their world tour on 29 August, the four band members took a break from group activities for three months. Due to the attention that their individual activities received, by early November, rumours in the press claimed that the band were breaking up. Alternatively, according to a report in \"The Sunday Telegraph\", the Beatles were to sever ties with their longtime manager, Brian Epstein, and instead be represented by Allen Klein. Fans of the band were disappointed by the announcement that, in a break from the tradition established in 1963, the Beatles were not playing any UK shows over the Christmas period. On 10 November, four days after 200 fans had demonstrated outside Epstein's home in central London, newspapers reported that there would be no further concert tours by the Beatles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "In 1964, the Beatles starred in the film \"A Hard Day's Night\" as fictionalised versions of themselves, which created a lasting impression of their individual personas. Lennon became known as \"the smart one\", McCartney \"the cute one\", Harrison \"the quiet one\", and Starr \"the lucky one\". Starr's personality as the band's affable, self-deprecating drummer proved especially popular with fans and the press in the US. In 1964, as coverage of the Beatles matched that of the Johnson\u2013Goldwater presidential race, Starr was the subject of bumper stickers proclaiming \"Ringo for President\", as well as several tribute songs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maureen Cleave",
        "text": "On 4 March 1966 her \"Standard\" interview with Lennon, titled \"How does a Beatle live?\", quoted him as saying that the Beatles were \"more popular than Jesus now\". Five months later, on the eve of a 14-city US tour, an American magazine reproduced the remark, which led to a wave of anti-Beatle sentiment in many parts of the US, especially the South and Midwest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Seltaeb",
        "text": "Before the Beatles achieved nationwide success in Britain, Epstein had permitted a small company (run by his cousins, and which initially catered only to fan club members) to produce Beatles' sweaters for 30 shillings and badges for six pence, eventually selling 15,000 sweaters and 50,000 badges as the Beatles' popularity grew. When Beatlemania stormed the UK in 1963, Epstein was besieged by novelty goods companies wanting to use The Beatles' name and images on plastic guitars, drums, disc racks, badges, belts and a huge variety of assorted merchandise. Epstein was adamant that the Beatles would not directly endorse any product, but through NEMS Enterprises he would grant discretionary licences to companies who were able to produce a quality product at a fair price, although many companies were already selling products without a licence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Religious views of the Beatles",
        "text": "In August 1966, on the eve of The Beatles' 1966 US tour, American teen magazine \"Datebook\" published Lennon's remark that the Beatles had become \"more popular than Jesus\". Lennon had, in fact, originally made the remark to the British newspaper \"London Evening Standard\" and when it was first published in the United Kingdom, in March 1966, his words had provoked no public reaction. After \"Datebook\" quoted his comments five months later, however, vociferous protests broke out in the United States. The Beatles' records were publicly burned, threats were made and some radio stations refused to play their music. The protest also spread to other countries including Mexico, South Africa and Spain."
      },
      {
        "title": "American rock",
        "text": "British rock broke through to mainstream popularity in the United States in January 1964 with the success of the Beatles. \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" was the band's first number 1 hit on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart, starting the British Invasion of the American music charts. The song entered the chart on January 18, 1964, at number 45 before it became the number 1 single for 7 weeks and went on to last a total of 15 weeks in the chart. Their first appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show February 9 is considered a milestone in American pop culture. The broadcast drew an estimated 73 million viewers, at the time a record for an American television program. The Beatles went on to become the biggest selling rock band of all time and they were followed by numerous British bands, particularly those influenced by blues music including The Rolling Stones, The Animals and The Yardbirds."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "According to Gould, the Beatles changed the way people listened to popular music and experienced its role in their lives. From what began as the Beatlemania fad, the group's popularity grew into what was seen as an embodiment of sociocultural movements of the decade. As icons of the 1960s counterculture, Gould continues, they became a catalyst for bohemianism and activism in various social and political arenas, fuelling movements such as women's liberation, gay liberation and environmentalism. According to Peter Lavezzoli, after the \"more popular than Jesus\" controversy in 1966, the Beatles felt considerable pressure to say the right things and \"began a concerted effort to spread a message of wisdom and higher consciousness\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "The proliferation of new groups was evident in many other countries. In Spain, Los Estudiantes and Los Brincos modelled themselves on the Beatles, as did the Uruguayan band Los Shakers, who were one of many groups around the world that formed as a result of \"A Hard Day's Night\". Following the Beatles' concerts there on the 1964 world tour, new bands sprung up in Australia, New Zealand and Hong Kong, while some existing acts, such as the Bee Gees, instantly changed their style to match the Beatles'."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' 1966 US tour",
        "text": "Plans for the tour were jeopardised in late July by the reaction to John Lennon's comments that the Beatles had become \"more popular than Jesus\".<ref name=\"Fricke/MojoSpecial\">Fricke, David. \"The Holy War\". In: .</ref> Lennon made the remark to Maureen Cleave of the London \"Evening Standard\" in February, during his interview for the newspaper's \"How Does a Beatle Live?\" series. Cleave noted Lennon's interest in Christianity and religions, to which he replied:"
      },
      {
        "title": "1960s in music",
        "text": "British rock broke through to mainstream popularity in the United States in January 1964 with the success of the Beatles. \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" was the band's first No. 1 hit on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart, starting the British Invasion of the American music charts. The song entered the chart on January 18, 1964, at No. 45 before it became the No. 1 single for 7 weeks and went on to last a total of 15 weeks in the chart. Their first appearance on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\" February 9 is considered a milestone in American pop culture. The broadcast drew an estimated 73 million viewers, at the time a record for an American television program. The Beatles went on to become the biggest selling rock band of all time and they were followed by numerous British bands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "Before the Beatles achieved nationwide success in Britain, Epstein had permitted a company (run by his cousins and initially catering to fan club members), to produce Beatles sweaters for 30 shillings (\u00a31.50) and badges for 6 pence (6d) (2\u00bdp). It sold 15,000 sweaters and 50,000 badges as the group's popularity grew. When Beatlemania swept the UK in November 1963, Epstein was besieged by novelty-goods companies desperate to use the Beatles name on plastic guitars, drums, disc racks, badges, belts and other merchandise. Epstein refused to allow the Beatles to endorse any product directly, but through NEMS Enterprises he granted discretionary licences to companies who were able to produce good-quality products at a fair price, even though many companies were already selling products without a licence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rock music and the fall of communism",
        "text": "The Beatles sparked the love of rock in the Soviet youth, and its popularity spread in the early 1960s. Their impact on fashion was one of the more obvious external signs of their popularity. \"Collarless Beatles jackets, known as 'Bitlovka', were assembled from cast-offs; clumsy army boots were refashioned in Beatles style.\" In addition to their influence in fashion, they also helped drive the expansion of music in the black market. Illicit music albums were created by recording copies onto discarded X-ray emulsion plates. The music itself was acquired either by smuggling copies from the west, or recording it from western radio. The latter became easier and more common after United States president Lyndon Johnson made international broadcasting a priority in the mid-1960s."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "Led by primary songwriters Lennon and McCartney, the Beatles evolved from Lennon's previous group, the Quarrymen, and built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg over three years from 1960, initially with Stuart Sutcliffe playing bass. The core trio of Lennon, McCartney and Harrison, together since 1958, went through a succession of drummers, including Pete Best, before asking Starr to join them in 1962. Manager Brian Epstein moulded them into a professional act, and producer George Martin guided and developed their recordings, greatly expanding their domestic success after their first hit, \"Love Me Do\", in late 1962. As their popularity grew into the intense fan frenzy dubbed \"Beatlemania\", the band acquired the nickname \"the Fab Four\", with Epstein, Martin and other members of the band's entourage sometimes given the informal title of \"fifth Beatle\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "The music and enduring fame of the Beatles were commercially exploited in various other ways, again often outside their creative control. In April 1974, the musical \"John, Paul, George, Ringo ... and Bert\", written by Willy Russell and featuring singer Barbara Dickson, opened in London. It included, with permission from Northern Songs, eleven Lennon-McCartney compositions and one by Harrison, \"Here Comes the Sun\". Displeased with the production's use of his song, Harrison withdrew his permission to use it. Later that year, the off-Broadway musical \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band on the Road\" opened. \"All This and World War II\" (1976) was an unorthodox nonfiction film that combined newsreel footage with covers of Beatles songs by performers ranging from Elton John and Keith Moon to the London Symphony Orchestra. The Broadway musical \"Beatlemania\", an unauthorised nostalgia revue, opened in early 1977 and proved popular, spinning off five separate touring productions. In 1979, the band sued the producers, settling for several million dollars in damages. \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band\" (1978), a musical film starring the Bee Gees and Peter Frampton, was a commercial failure and an \"artistic fiasco\", according to Ingham."
      },
      {
        "title": "Record collecting",
        "text": "The pop music scene changed with the rise in popularity of The Beatles between 1962 and 1964. In their wake, thousands of musical bands inspired by their fresh, lively take on rock music with a sharp British sensibility, picked up guitars, and many released records. Many of these acolytes released 45\u2013rpm records in small batches to sell at local concerts and to their friends and families. Due to their relatively small pressings, these obscure local records became highly prized and valuable."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "For decades, the US had dominated popular entertainment culture throughout much of the world, via Hollywood films, jazz, and the music of Broadway and Tin Pan Alley. In early 1964, \"Life\" magazine declared: \"In [1776] England lost her American colonies. Last week the Beatles took them back.\" The Beatles subsequently sparked the British Invasion of the US and became a globally influential phenomenon. Recalling the Beatles' sudden popularity, Brian Wilson of the Beach Boys felt that the Beatles had \"eclipsed\u00a0... the whole music world\". Bob Dylan recalled that, by April 1964, \"a definite line was being drawn. This was something that had never happened before\u00a0... I knew they were pointing the direction of where music had to go.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of the Beatles' live performances",
        "text": "From 1961 to 1966, the English rock band the Beatles performed all over the Western world. They began performing live in England in 1961 and continued in various clubs during their visit to Hamburg, West Germany, until 1962, with a lineup of John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, Stuart Sutcliffe and Pete Best. Following Sutcliffe's departure (and subsequent death of a brain hemorrhage), the Beatles continued performing throughout 1962, most notably at The Cavern Club in Liverpool, where they were discovered by Brian Epstein and George Martin. After firing Best and hiring Ringo Starr, the Beatles performed a series of concert tours throughout the UK in 1963, before they left for the US in early 1964. As Beatlemania and the British Invasion came into full force, they began a world tour and continued to perform in the UK and US throughout 1965, including a well-known performance at Shea Stadium in New York City."
      },
      {
        "title": "1960s",
        "text": "In the UK, the Beatles played raucous rock 'n' roll \u2013 as well as doo wop, girl-group songs, show tunes \u2013 and wore leather jackets. Their manager Brian Epstein encouraged the group to wear suits. Beatlemania abruptly exploded after the group's appearance on the \"Ed Sullivan Show\" in 1964. Late in 1965, the Beatles released the album \"Rubber Soul\" which marked the beginning of their transition to a sophisticated power pop group with elaborate studio arrangements and production, and a year after that, they gave up touring entirely to focus only on albums. A host of imitators followed the Beatles in the so-called British Invasion, including groups like the Rolling Stones and the Kinks who would become legends in their own right."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "According to Gould, the Beatles served as the \"archetype\" of a rock band, in contrast to the vocal and harmony groups with which listeners were most familiar in 1964. In the US, thousands of bands sought to imitate the Beatles, some adopting English-sounding names to capitalise on the British Invasion. While the country already had a vibrant garage rock scene, the movement surged following the Beatles' first appearance on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\". Commentator Bill Dean writes that the exact figures are impossible to determine, but \"the anecdotal evidence suggests thousands\u00a0\u2013 if not hundreds of thousands or even more\u00a0\u2013 young musicians across the country\" responded by forming bands. This was sometimes to the chagrin of their parents and other adults."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "The group's third US tour opened with a performance before a world-record crowd of 55,600 at New York's Shea Stadium on 15 August \u2013 \"perhaps the most famous of all Beatles' concerts\", in Lewisohn's description. A further nine successful concerts followed in other American cities. At a show in Atlanta, the Beatles gave one of the first live performances ever to make use of a foldback system of on-stage monitor speakers. Towards the end of the tour, they met with Elvis Presley, a foundational musical influence on the band, who invited them to his home in Beverly Hills. September 1965 saw the launch of an American Saturday-morning cartoon series, \"The Beatles\", that echoed \"A Hard Day's Night\" slapstick antics over its two-year original run. The series was a historical milestone as the first weekly television series to feature animated versions of real, living people."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles' first visit to the US took place when the nation was still mourning the assassination of President John F. Kennedy the previous November.<ref name=\"Gimore (RS Beatles/Dylan/60s)\"></ref> Commentators often suggest that for many, particularly the young, the Beatles' performances reignited the sense of excitement and possibility that momentarily faded in the wake of the assassination, and helped pave the way for the revolutionary social changes to come later in the decade. Their hairstyle, unusually long for the era and mocked by many adults, became an emblem of rebellion to the burgeoning youth culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rock music",
        "text": "\"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" was the Beatles' first number one hit on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, spending seven weeks at the top and a total of 15 weeks on the chart. Their first appearance on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\" on 9 February 1964, drawing an estimated 73\u00a0million viewers (at the time a record for an American television program) is considered a milestone in American pop culture. During the week of 4 April 1964, the Beatles held 12 positions on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 singles chart, including the entire top five. The Beatles went on to become the biggest selling rock band of all time and they were followed into the US charts by numerous British bands. During the next two years British acts dominated their own and the US charts with Peter and Gordon, the Animals, Manfred Mann, Petula Clark, Freddie and the Dreamers, Wayne Fontana and the Mindbenders, Herman's Hermits, the Rolling Stones, the Troggs, and Donovan all having one or more number one singles. Other major acts that were part of the invasion included the Kinks and the Dave Clark Five."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles formed in Liverpool in 1960; as a foursome comprising John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, they gained international stardom in 1964, and remained active until their break-up in 1970. Throughout the band's career, they expanded collective notions regarding the limits of commercial and artistic achievement. In \"Rolling Stone\" magazine's \"Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll\" (2001), the editors define their \"incalculable\" influence as encompassing \"all of Western culture\". The writers state that the group's discography held the precedent for \"virtually every rock experiment\u00a0... Although many of their sales and attendance records have since been surpassed, no group has so radically transformed the sound and significance of rock & roll.\" Writing for AllMusic, critic Richie Unterberger recognises the Beatles as both \"the greatest and most influential act of the rock era\" and a group that \"introduced more innovations into popular music than any other rock band of the 20th century\". He adds:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Beatlesque",
        "text": "Notable acts described as \"Beatlesque\"\n*Badfinger \u2013 The first artists to sign with the Beatles' Apple Records. Their songs \"Come and Get It\" (1969), \"No Matter What\" (1970) and \"Day After Day\" (1971) were produced by McCartney, Beatles road manager Mal Evans, and George Harrison, respectively.\n*Big Star \u2013 Although the American band attracted critical acclaim for its Beatles-influenced work in the 1970s, its life proved contentious and short. They earned critical acclaim and a cult following despite the lack of commercial success.\n*The Byrds \u2013 Sometimes regarded as the \"American Beatles\". While their long-term influence has proven to be comparable to that of the Beatles in terms of sound and style, the Byrds failed to match their contemporaries' record sales.\n*Cheap Trick \u2013 Also sometimes known as the \"American Beatles\". In addition, the group's 1980 album \"All Shook Up\" was produced by longtime Beatles producer George Martin, and the group's live performance of Beatles songs culminated with a full orchestra-backed live album, titled \"Sgt. Pepper Live\" (2009).\n*Electric Light Orchestra \u2013 Formed explicitly with the intention of \"picking up where the Beatles left off\", the outfit has proved one of the few Beatlesque groups to achieve sustained commercial success. In addition, frontman Jeff Lynne began a musical collaboration with George Harrison in the late 1980s that led to him working on several projects related to the Beatles. In the early 1970s, John Lennon praised ELO as \"sons of Beatles\" and cited their 1973 song \"Showdown\" as a personal favourite.\n*Harry Nilsson \u2013 During a 1968 press conference, the Beatles were asked what their favorite American group was and answered \"Nilsson\". Sometimes known as \"The American Beatle\", he was close friends with both John Lennon and Ringo Starr.\n*Klaatu \u2013 Falsely rumoured to be the Beatles themselves, re-formed. The band are sometimes known as the \"Canadian Beatles\".\n*Oasis \u2013 Their Beatles influence was labelled as an \"obsession\" by British media. During their 1991 to 2009 career, the band's widespread success in terms of culture and social reach caused it to be possibly the most popular band since the Beatles.\n*Panic! at the Disco \u2013 Their album \"Pretty. Odd.\" is thought to be remarkably similar to the Beatles, most notably their song \"Nine in the Afternoon\".\n*Squeeze \u2013 The British band's songwriting pair Chris Difford and Glenn Tilbrook have attracted comparisons to the Lennon\u2013McCartney partnership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neil Aspinall",
        "text": "The Beatles played at the opening of the Casbah Coffee Club on 29 August 1959, which was in the cellar of Mona Best's house. Aspinall later rented a room in the house and became very good friends with then-Beatle Pete Best. The Beatles had previously used public transport to travel to local bookings, however by February 1961, they were playing two or three shows per night at different locations needing their own transportation. Best asked Aspinall to be a part-time road manager for the band, so Aspinall bought an \"old, grey and maroon Commer van\" for \u00a380, and charged each of the group five shillings (25p) per concert. Harrison later said: \"Our early van became the centre of attention every time it pulled up. It was brush-painted red and grey and from head to foot was covered in graffiti \u2013 girls' names, and things like 'I love you, John'. It looked interesting, but the moment anybody saw it they would feel free to write all over it.\" The Beatles returned from their second trip to Hamburg in July 1961, and Aspinall left his job to become their permanent road manager, as he was earning more money driving them around than he was earning by being an accountant."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles in film",
        "text": "The Beatles were an English rock band formed in Liverpool in 1960. With a line-up comprising John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, they are commonly regarded as the most influential band of all time. Between 1964 and 1970, they appeared in five major motion pictures, beginning with \"A Hard Day's Night\" (1964) and ending with \"Let It Be\" (1970). From late 1965 to 1969, the group also appeared in several promotional films for their singles, which have been credited with anticipating music videos and the rise of MTV in the 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles introduced new methods of artistic presentation for pop musicians. They were the first band to be fully marketed through television and continued to find new ways to disseminate their music through the medium. As live performers, they pioneered the world tour and stadium concerts, as sports stadiums became the primary venues for rock tours. Gould says that, aside from their influence on pop songwriting, the Beatles played \"a leading role in revolutionizing the way that popular records were made, the way that popular records were listened to\u00a0... and the role that popular music itself would play in people's lives\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "From 1963 to 1967, the Beatles increasingly broke with established rock and pop conventions. Adding to their sophistication as composers was the application of modal mixture, wider chord palettes, and extended form. One of the hallmarks of the Beatles' experimental period is their use of the flattened subtonic chord (VII). Although it was already a staple of rock 'n' roll, the Beatles further developed and popularised the chord's function in popular music. Another is their subversions of pop's standard AABA form. Few electric beat artists wrote songs with bridge sections until the group's breakthrough, after which the practice became ubiquitous."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles in popular culture",
        "text": "The Beatles in popular culture\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "What'd I Say",
        "text": "The song was also influential in the United Kingdom. Paul McCartney was immediately struck by the song and knew when he heard it that he wanted to be involved in making music. George Harrison remembered an all-night party he attended in 1959 where the song was played for eight hours non-stop: \"It was one of the best records I ever heard.\" While the Beatles were developing their sound in Hamburg, they played \"What'd I Say\" at every show, trying to see how long they could make the song last and using the audience in the call and response, with which they found immense popularity. The opening electric piano in the song was the first John Lennon had ever heard, and he tried to replicate it with his guitar. Lennon later credited Charles' opening of \"What'd I Say\" to the birth of songs dominated by guitar riffs."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of the Beatles' live performances",
        "text": "In 1966, following a controversial tour of Germany, Japan and the Philippines and a tour of the US (which was plagued with backlash due to Lennon's \"more popular than Jesus\" comment), the Beatles ceased performing live due to being fed up with touring and became a studio-only band. Their last commercial performance was at San Francisco's Candlestick Park on 29 August. It marked the end of a four-year period dominated by almost nonstop touring that included over 1,400 concert appearances internationally. The group made no more public appearances until 30 January 1969, when they performed an unannounced rooftop concert at their Apple Corps headquarters in London. Numerous documentaries about their live performances have been made before and after their break-up, including \"The Beatles at Shea Stadium\" (1965) and \"\" (2016)."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "After the Beatles completed their second Hamburg residency, they enjoyed increasing popularity in Liverpool with the growing Merseybeat movement. However, they were growing tired of the monotony of numerous appearances at the same clubs night after night. In November 1961, during one of the group's frequent performances at The Cavern Club, they encountered Brian Epstein, a local record-store owner and music columnist. He later recalled: \"I immediately liked what I heard. They were fresh, and they were honest, and they had what I thought was a sort of presence\u00a0... [a] star quality.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "1962 in British music",
        "text": "Popular music in the UK continues to be dominated by American acts, but a homegrown style of pop music has begun to evolve, led by performers such as Cliff Richard and The Shadows. The Hollies, The Swinging Blue Jeans, The Merseybeats, The Nashville Teens and The Rolling Stones all form during this year. The Beatles begin to be known outside Merseyside. Novelty records with a British flavour, such as Mike Sarne's \"Come Outside\" and Anthony Newley's \"That Noise\", continue to be successful."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles\n--History.\n----1956\u20131963: Formation.\n------The Quarrymen and name changes.\n------Early residencies and UK popularity.\n------First EMI recordings.\n----1963\u20131966: Beatlemania and touring years.\n------\"Please Please Me\" and \"With the Beatles\".\n------First visit to the United States and the British Invasion.\n------\"A Hard Day's Night\".\n------1964 world tour, meeting Bob Dylan, and stand on civil rights.\n------\"Beatles for Sale\", \"Help!\" and \"Rubber Soul\".\n------Controversies, \"Revolver\" and final tour.\n----1966\u20131970: Studio years.\n------\"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band\".\n------\"Magical Mystery Tour\" and \"Yellow Submarine\".\n------India retreat, Apple Corps and the White Album.\n------\"Abbey Road\", \"Let It Be\" and separation.\n----1970\u2013present: After the break-up.\n------1970s.\n------1980s.\n------1990s.\n------2000s.\n------2010s.\n------2020s.\n--Musical style and development.\n----Influences.\n----Genres.\n----Contribution of George Martin.\n----In the studio.\n--Legacy.\n--Awards and achievements.\n--Personnel.\n--Discography.\n--Song catalogue.\n--Selected filmography.\n--Concert tours.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' 1966 tour of Germany, Japan and the Philippines",
        "text": "The band members had a mixed experience in Hamburg. Harrison later said that \"a lot of ghosts materialised out of the woodwork \u2013 people you didn't necessarily want to see again, who had been your best friend one drunken Preludin night back in 1960.\" McCartney commented: \"It was as if we'd mutated into something different \"and yet\" we were still just the boys. But \"we\" knew and \"they\" knew that we'd got famous in the meantime \u2026\" The Beatles had also tired of the generally inane questions put to them at press conferences throughout the German tour, with only McCartney attempting to humour the local reporters. At the between-shows press conference in Hamburg, Lennon's impatience was palpable, leading a female reporter to ask why the band had become \"so horrid and snobby\". On 27 June, the Beatles and their entourage flew from Hamburg to London's Heathrow Airport, where they boarded a Japan Airlines (JAL) flight over the North Pole to Tokyo."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beatlemania",
        "text": "On 2 February 1963, the Beatles opened their first nationwide tour at a show in Bradford featuring Helen Shapiro, Danny Williams, Kenny Lynch, Kestrels, and the Red Price Orchestra. Heading the tour bill was 16-year-old Shapiro followed by the other five acts \u2013 the last of which was the Beatles. The band proved immensely popular during the tour, however, as journalist Gordon Sampson observed. His report did not use the word \"Beatlemania\", but the phenomenon was evident. Sampson wrote that \"a great reception went to the colourfully dressed Beatles, who almost stole the show, for the audience repeatedly called for them while other artists were performing!\" The Beatles' second nationwide tour began on 9 March at the Granada Cinema in London, where the group appeared on a bill headed by American stars Tommy Roe and Chris Montez, both of whom had firmly established themselves in the UK singles charts. Throughout the tour, the crowds repeatedly screamed for the Beatles, and the American stars were less popular than a homegrown act for the first time. The Beatles enjoyed the overwhelming enthusiasm, but they also felt embarrassment for the American performers at this unexpected turn of events, which persisted at every show on the tour."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' 1966 tour of Germany, Japan and the Philippines",
        "text": "The English rock group the Beatles toured Germany, Japan and the Philippines between 24 June and 4 July 1966. The thirteen concerts comprised the first stage of a world tour that ended with the band's final tour of the United States, in August 1966. The shows in what was then West Germany represented a return to the country where the Beatles had developed as a group before achieving fame in 1963. The return flight from the Philippines to England included a stopover in Delhi in India. There, the Beatles indulged in two days of sightseeing and shopping for musical instruments while still under the attention of the press and local fans."
      },
      {
        "title": "More popular than Jesus",
        "text": "Lennon repeated his opinion that the Beatles were more influential on young people than Christ during a trip to Canada in 1969, adding that some ministers had agreed with him. He called the American protestors \"fascist Christians\", saying that he was \"very big on Christ\" and \"I've always fancied him. He was right.\" In 1977, Lennon briefly converted to Christianity after becoming a fan of several televangelists. He also corresponded with some, including Oral Roberts and Pat Robertson. In 1978, Lennon said that, if he had not made the \"more popular\" comment, \"I might still be up there with all the other performing fleas! God bless America. Thank you, Jesus.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Beatles for Sale",
        "text": "When \"Beatles for Sale\" was being recorded, Beatlemania was at its peak. In early 1964, the Beatles had made waves with their television appearances in the US, sparking unprecedented demand for their records there. Over June and July, the band played concerts in Denmark, the Netherlands and Hong Kong, toured Australia and New Zealand, and then returned to Britain for a series of radio and television engagements and to promote their first feature film, \"A Hard Day's Night\". After performing further concerts in Sweden, they began recording the new album in London in mid August, only to then depart for a month-long tour of North America. While in New York, the Beatles met American folk singer Bob Dylan, who introduced the band members to cannabis. Through Dylan's example, the Beatles, particularly John Lennon, were encouraged to write more introspective lyrics than before. For his part, Dylan said he recognised that the Beatles \"were pointing the direction that music had to go\", and he soon began writing songs that embraced youth culture and recording with a rock backing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ringo Starr",
        "text": "By November 1962, Starr had been accepted by Beatles fans, who were now calling for him to sing. He began receiving an amount of fan mail equal to that of the others, which helped to secure his position within the band. Starr considered himself fortunate to be on the same \"wavelength\" as the other Beatles: \"I had to be, or I wouldn't have lasted. I had to join them as people as well as a drummer.\" He was given a small percentage of Lennon and McCartney's publishing company, Northern Songs, but derived his primary income during this period from a one-quarter share of Beatles Ltd, a corporation financed by the band's net concert earnings. He commented on the nature of his lifestyle after having achieved success with the Beatles: \"I lived in nightclubs for three years. It used to be a non-stop party.\" Like his father, Starr became well known for his late-night dancing and he received praise for his skills."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "In Britain, music journalists started including pop and rock music in serious discussion as a direct consequence of the Beatles' 1964 breakthrough. Pop gained its first exposure in the arts section of one of the country's broadsheet newspapers when William Mann, \"The Times\"s classical music critic, wrote an appreciation of the Beatles in December 1963. In the United States, the Beatles were the main beneficiaries of a new widespread appreciation for pop and rock over 1966\u201367 among journalists and intellectuals, coinciding with the emergence there of a dedicated rock press and serious coverage of the genre in the cultural mainstream. Music critic Tim Riley identifies the Beatles as pop music's \"first recording \"artists\"\", whose body of work represents \"very intricate art\". Luhrssen and Larson say the Beatles \"[made] it mandatory that serious rock bands aspire to be artists, not merely entertainers\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Faster (George Harrison song)",
        "text": "George Harrison located the start of his enthusiasm for car and motorbike racing to his attending local events in Liverpool as a boy. He especially recalled the 1955 British Grand Prix, held at Aintree, and the dominance of Mercedes teammates Juan Manuel Fangio and Stirling Moss. He said that when the Beatles achieved fame in the 1960s, he was conscious of other celebrities, like Formula 1 driver Jackie Stewart, who had long hair; he was also drawn to reading Stewart say that amid his international racing commitments, he would search out the latest Beatles record. Along with his bandmates, Harrison attended the Monaco Grand Prix in May 1966 and met Stewart. He was also present for the 1971 event, a year after the Beatles' break-up, by which time Stewart had become a dominant competitor, soon to win his second world championship."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "Originating as a skiffle group, the Beatles quickly embraced 1950s rock and roll and helped pioneer the Merseybeat genre, and their repertoire ultimately expanded to include a broad variety of pop music. Reflecting the range of styles they explored, Lennon said of \"Beatles for Sale\", \"You could call our new one a Beatles country-and-western LP\", while Gould credits \"Rubber Soul\" as \"the instrument by which legions of folk-music enthusiasts were coaxed into the camp of pop\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "1970s",
        "text": "During the early 1970s, popular music continued to be dominated by musicians who had achieved fame during the 1960s such as the Rolling Stones, The Who, Elvis Presley, Bob Dylan, The Grateful Dead, and Eric Clapton. In addition, many newcomer rock groups such as Black Sabbath and Led Zeppelin appeared. The Beatles disbanded in 1970, but each member of the band immediately released a highly successful solo album, and Paul McCartney especially would remain extremely popular throughout the decade. Singer-songwriters such as Elton John, James Taylor and Jackson Browne also came into vogue during the early 1970s."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of awards and nominations received by the Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles were an English rock band formed in Liverpool in 1960. With a lineup that consisted of John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, the group has been regarded as the foremost and most influential music band in popular music history. The group received various awards and nominations during their career as a band, and has received more since their break-up."
      },
      {
        "title": "British rock music",
        "text": "The Beatles themselves were less influenced by blues music than the music of later American genres such as soul and Motown. Their popular success in Britain in the early 1960s was matched by their new and highly influential emphases on their own song writing, and on technical production values, some of which were shared by other British beat groups. On 7 February 1964, the CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite ran a story about the Beatles' United States arrival in which the correspondent said \"The British Invasion this time goes by the code name Beatlemania\". A few days later, they appeared on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\". Seventy five percent of Americans watching television that night viewed their appearance thus \"launching\" the invasion with a massive wave of chart success that would continue until the Beatles broke up in 1970. On 4 April 1964, the Beatles held the top 5 positions on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 singles chart, the only time to date that any act has accomplished this. During the next two years, Peter and Gordon, The Animals, Manfred Mann, Petula Clark, Freddie and the Dreamers, Wayne Fontana and the Mindbenders, Herman's Hermits, The Rolling Stones, The Troggs, and Donovan would have one or more number one singles in the US. Other acts that were part of the \"invasion\" included The Who, The Kinks, and The Dave Clark Five; these acts were also successful within the UK, although clearly the term \"British Invasion\" itself was not applied there except as a description of what was happening in the USA. So-called \"British Invasion\" acts influenced fashion, haircuts and manners of the 1960s of what was to be known as the \"Counterculture\". In particular, the Beatles' movie \"A Hard Day's Night\" and fashions from Carnaby Street led American media to proclaim England as the centre of the music and fashion world. The success of British acts of the time, particularly that of the Beatles themselves, has been seen as revitalising rock music in the US and influenced many American bands to develop their sound and style. The growth of the British music industry itself, and its increasingly prominent global role in the forefront of changing popular culture, also enabled it to discover and first establish the success of new rock artists from elsewhere in the world, notably Jimi Hendrix and, in the early 1970s, Bob Marley."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "In his book on the 1960s, social historian Arthur Marwick identifies the Beatles' US breakthrough as the \"single critical event\" that established \"the hegemony of youth-inspired British popular culture\". With other countries succumbing to the Beatles' influence, according to Simonelli, the band \"virtually redefined what it meant to be British\", and British culture became \"the most exciting culture on earth\" for the first time since the start of the industrial age. The surge in exports revenue extended to film and other commercial artistic pursuits, and recognition of London as the \"Swinging City\" of international culture."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freddie Ryder",
        "text": "After relocating to London in December 1963, the band was spotted by Billy Fury's manager and Pop impresario Larry Parnes who signed them as The Trends in January 1964. As their following gained momentum, The Trends became regulars at some of the major venues in London. As part of the Merseybeat movement they were regularly watched by The Beatles often watching and supporting them at gigs and vice-versa. Upon The Beatles\u2019 return from their first US tour, Brian Epstein hosted an exclusive welcome home celebration at the Kensington home of pop star Alma Cogan and The Trends were invited to perform."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "The band enjoyed what Epstein termed a \"special relationship\" with the US until late July 1966, when \"Datebook\" magazine published an interview that Lennon gave for the London \"Evening Standard\" \"How Does a Beatle Live?\" series. In the interview, Lennon said the Beatles were \"more popular than Jesus\", such was the decline of Christianity. His comments caused no significant reaction in the UK, but radio stations in the US Bible Belt soon launched a boycott of Beatles music and organised bonfires of the band's records and merchandise. For some Southern commentators, the furore over Lennon's alleged blasphemy allowed them to air their suppressed grievances regarding the Beatles' long hair and the group's support for African-American musicians. Spain and South Africa joined in the radio ban, as did other stations in the US, and the Vatican issued a statement condemning Lennon's remark."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Lennon",
        "text": "In March 1966, during an interview with \"Evening Standard\" reporter Maureen Cleave, Lennon remarked, \"Christianity will go. It will vanish and shrink... We're more popular than Jesus now \u2013 I don't know which will go first, rock and roll or Christianity.\" The comment went virtually unnoticed in England but caused great offence in the US when quoted by a magazine there five months later. The furore that followed, which included the burning of Beatles records, Ku Klux Klan activity and threats against Lennon, contributed to the band's decision to stop touring."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stories (band)",
        "text": "The two set about becoming a Beatlesque band. They recruited New Yorkers Love and Madey and located an interested record label in Kama Sutra. A self-titled album and a single \u2013 \"I'm Coming Home\" (No. 42, 1972) \u2013 followed."
      },
      {
        "title": "More popular than Jesus",
        "text": "At press conferences later in the tour, Lennon attempted to avoid the subject of his \"Jesus\" comments, reasoning that no further discussion was necessary. Rather than shying away from controversy, however, the Beatles became increasingly vocal about topical issues such as the Vietnam War. In Toronto on 17 August, Lennon expressed his approval of Americans who evaded the draft by crossing the border into Canada. At their New York press conference on 22 August, the Beatles shocked reporters by emphatically condemning the Vietnam War as \"wrong\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Komm, gib mir deine Hand / Sie liebt dich",
        "text": "The beginning of 1964 saw the Beatles reaching international levels of fame. On 14 and 15 January, the Beatles arrived in Paris for a 19-day residency at the Olympia Theatre. On 25 January 1964, after returning to the hotel from a show, Beatles manager Brian Epstein informed them that \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" reached number one in the United States on the \"Cashbox\" Top 100 chart. On 1 February, it went to number one on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100. From this point forward, Epstein focused on promoting the Beatles to the international market. Otto Demmlar, a producer of the German sub-label of EMI, , conceived the Beatles recording songs in German. Odeon Records insisted with Epstein and Beatles producer George Martin that if they wanted to sell more records in West Germany, the band would need to rerecord their biggest songs in German. At that time, recording unique versions for foreign markets was a standard practice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cynthia Lennon",
        "text": "Around the time of Julian's birth, the Beatles became a pop sensation across Britain, a phenomenon which became known as Beatlemania. That one of the members was married and had a son was not publicly known at the time; a 1963 \"Lifelines of the Beatles\" page in the \"New Musical Express\" detailed over 25 biographical facts about each member of the group, but never gave any hint Lennon was married, even reporting \"girls\" as one of his hobbies."
      },
      {
        "title": "J-pop",
        "text": "The Ventures visited Japan in 1962, causing the widespread embrace of the electric guitar called the \"\"Ereki\" boom\". Y\u016bz\u014d Kayama and Takeshi Terauchi became famous players of electric guitar. In 1966, the Beatles came to Japan and sang their songs at the Nippon Budokan, becoming the first rock music band to perform a concert there. The public believed that the Beatles would cause juvenile delinquency. The Japanese government deployed riot police against young rock fans at the Nippon Budokan. John Lennon felt that they were not well regarded in Japan, but Beatlemania has never really died there. The Beatles inspired Japanese bands, creating the group sounds genre in Japan."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "By January 1959, Lennon's Quarry Bank friends had left the group, and he began his studies at the Liverpool College of Art. The three guitarists, billing themselves as Johnny and the Moondogs, were playing rock and roll whenever they could find a drummer. Lennon's art school friend Stuart Sutcliffe, who had just sold one of his paintings and was persuaded to purchase a bass guitar with the proceeds, joined in January 1960. He suggested changing the band's name to \"Beatals\", as a tribute to Buddy Holly and the Crickets. They used this name until May, when they became the Silver Beetles, before undertaking a brief tour of Scotland as the backing group for pop singer and fellow Liverpudlian Johnny Gentle. By early July, they had refashioned themselves as the Silver Beatles, and by the middle of August simply \"the Beatles\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' 1966 tour of Germany, Japan and the Philippines",
        "text": "On 6 July, the band managed to evade the fans camped out in front of the hotel and go to Connaught Place. There, they shopped for Indian musical instruments at Lahore Music House and the prestigious instrument-makers Rikhi Ram & Sons. Since their presence had soon attracted a crowd of fans, the Beatles arranged for the Rikhi Ram staff to visit them later at the Oberoi Hotel with a sitar for Harrison, as well as a sarod, tambura and tabla. The entourage were also given a tour of Delhi, during which their Cadillacs were chased by a vehicle carrying the head of the local Associated Press bureau. Once the journalist had received a comment from McCartney about the controversy in Manila, the tour continued on to villages outside the city. The primitiveness and poverty they saw there was a shock to the band. Starr described India as the first genuinely \"foreign\" country he had visited; Harrison found it sobering to realise that their Nikon cameras, which were a gift to the group from their Japanese promoter, \"were worth more money than the whole village would earn in a lifetime\". Other locations they visited while in Delhi included the historic Red Fort and Qutb Minar."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "Towards the end of 1966, by which point the Beatles' artistic maturity had left many younger listeners yearning for their innocent, \"mop-top\" image, the Monkees were assembled by a pair of Hollywood-based television executives as a four-piece band in the Beatles' mould. An immediate commercial success, the Monkees' self-titled television show evoked the Beatles' personalities from Dick Lester's feature films \"A Hard Day's Night\" and \"Help!\", with the characters of the individual Monkees developed to reflect those of the Beatles. In Marwick's view, the Monkees' creation represented \"the most remarkable sign of direct British influence\" on American pop culture during the 1960s. At this time, the Beatles grew moustaches, a look that defied pop convention by implying maturation and artistry over youthfulness. Their appearance was the source of confusion for some of their young fans.<ref name=\"Wawzenek/UCR\"></ref> A \"Daily Mail\" writer complained that after emerging as \"heroes of a social revolution\" in 1963 and \"the boys whom everybody could identify with\", the Beatles had become austere and exclusive."
      },
      {
        "title": "Super Duper Alice Cooper",
        "text": "During this time, the Beatles were becoming a huge sensation, both Furnier and Dunaway became what they call \"Beatles maniacs\". They state that they loved everything about them, including their style, sound, look and especially the fact that parents did not understand them. Furnier and Dunaway decided that they wanted to do a spoof of the Beatles at their school talent show, however, at the time they did not know how to play any instruments. Dunaway knew a guitar player, Glen Buxton, who he approached and asked if he would be willing to play in the show with them. Buxton agreed and they performed the show, which received a big reaction. This began the start of their career as a band, which they originally named, the Earwigs. The following summer, they focused on becoming a real band, where they purchased instruments, learned how to play them and started songwriting. Dunaway focused his time learning the bass, where Furnier focused on vocals. They went to play for the owner of a teenage rock and roll dance hall known as the VIP Club, who suggested they come up with a new name. From there, they soon renamed themselves as the Spiders and ended up being the house band at the VIP Club. They focused their time on playing loud rock music, such as songs from the Yardbirds, the Rolling Stones and the Who. They started to become more well known, they opened for the Yardbirds, and the audience actually left after The Spiders were done playing. They also got their record to #2 on the charts, while still in high school. Music became the priority, they wanted to become rock stars and Furnier grew out his hair to fit the part. Furnier claims that church became the last thing on his mind, and the people at his church thought he was going off the deep end."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "With \"A Hard Day's Night\" in July 1964, the band became the first pop act since Buddy Holly to issue an album consisting entirely of original compositions. The accompanying feature film endeared the Beatles to intellectuals in Britain. Lennon's artistic standing was furthered by the critical and commercial success of his book of prose \"In His Own Write\" and its 1965 sequel, \"A Spaniard in the Works\". Now feted by London society, Lennon and McCartney found inspiration among a network of non-mainstream writers, poets, comedians, film-makers and other arts-related individuals. According to Doggett, their social milieu in 1964 represented \"new territory for pop\" and a challenge to British class delineation as the Beatles introduced an \"arty middle-class\" sensibility to pop music. The albums \"Beatles for Sale\" and \"Help!\" (issued in December 1964 and August 1965, respectively) each marked a progression in the band's development, in terms of lyrical content and recording sophistication. With \"Help!\", the Beatles became the first rock group to be nominated for a Grammy Award for Album of the Year."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles are the best-selling music act of all time, with estimated sales of 600\u00a0million units worldwide. They hold the record for most number-one albums on the UK Albums Chart (15), most number-one hits on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart (20), and most singles sold in the UK (21.9 million). The band received many accolades, including seven Grammy Awards, four Brit Awards, an Academy Award (for Best Original Song Score for the 1970 documentary film \"Let It Be\") and fifteen Ivor Novello Awards. They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988, and each principal member was inducted individually between 1994 and 2015. In 2004 and 2011, the group topped \"Rolling Stone\"s lists of the greatest artists in history. \"Time\" magazine named them among the ."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Cavern Club",
        "text": "The Beatles made their first appearance at the club on 9 February 1961 after returning to Liverpool from Hamburg, Germany where they had been playing at the Indra and the Kaiserkeller clubs. Their stage show had been through a lot of changes, with some in the audience thinking they were watching a German band, as they were billed from Hamburg. From 1961 to 1963 the Beatles made 292 appearances at the club, with their last occurring on 3 August 1963, a month after the band recorded \"She Loves You\" and just six months before the Beatles' first trip to the U.S. By this time \"Beatlemania\" was sprouting across England, and with girls demanding to see the Beatles and screaming just to get a glimpse of them, the group had to hide or sneak into concerts, and the small club could no longer satisfy audience demand. After the Beatles' farewell gig on 3 August 1963, Bob Wooler gave their future dates to The Mastersounds, a local R & B band, led by Mal Jefferson. The Beatles had graduated from the club and had been signed to EMI's Parlophone label by producer George Martin. The amount of musical activity in Liverpool and Manchester caused record producers who had previously never ventured very far from London to start looking to the north."
      },
      {
        "title": "Glenn Tipton",
        "text": "\"As do many people, I think The Beatles were a great band. We were all lucky that fate put these guys together in our time. It totally amazes me that they came up with such an abundance of classic songs in such a relatively short amount of time. The Beatles changed everything. To start with they were the first band to write their own material. They were so prolific and the endless melodies they invented will live forever\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "More popular than Jesus",
        "text": "In response to the furore in the US, a \"Melody Maker\" editorial stated that the \"fantastically unreasoned reaction\" supported Lennon's statement regarding Christ's disciples being \"thick and ordinary\". \"Daily Express\" columnist Robert Pitman wrote, \"It seems a nerve for Americans to hold up shocked hands, when week in, week out, America is exporting to us [in Britain] a subculture that makes the Beatles seem like four stern old churchwardens.\" The reaction was also criticised within the US; a Kentucky radio station announced that it would give the Beatles music airplay to show its \"contempt for hypocrisy personified\", and the Jesuit magazine \"America\" wrote that \"Lennon was simply stating what many a Christian educator would readily admit.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles' interest in Eastern religions is described by MacDonald as arguably the \"most striking example\" of the band's ability to transform a minor social trend into a world-wide phenomenon and thereby \"magnify\" cultural developments during the second half of the 1960s. From 1967 to 1968, the group were promoters of Transcendental Meditation and the teachings of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, which resulted in Transcendental Meditation becoming a worldwide phenomenon. As a result of the coverage given to the Beatles' interest, words such as \"mantra\" and \"guru\" became commonly used in the West for the first time. While the band's new, anti-LSD message was met with approval, their championing of the Maharishi and his TM technique was often the subject of confusion and ridicule in the mainstream press, particularly in Britain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beatlemania",
        "text": "EMI owned Capitol Records, but Capitol had declined to issue any of the band's singles in the US for most of the year. The American press regarded the phenomenon of Beatlemania in the UK with amusement. Newspaper and magazine articles about the Beatles began to appear in the US towards the end of 1963, and they cited the English stereotype of eccentricity, reporting that the UK had finally developed an interest in rock and roll, which had come and gone a long time previously in the US. Headlines included \"The New Madness\" and \"Beatle Bug Bites Britain\", and writers employed word-play linking \"beetle\" with the \"infestation\" afflicting the UK. \"The Baltimore Sun\" reflected the dismissive view of most adults: \"America had better take thought as to how it will deal with the invasion. Indeed a restrained 'Beatles go home' might be just the thing.\" Rather than dissuading American teenagers, such disapproval from adults strengthened their connection with the band."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "On 7 February 1964, the Beatles departed from Heathrow with an estimated 4,000 fans waving and screaming as the aircraft took off. Upon landing at New York's John F. Kennedy Airport, an uproarious crowd estimated at 3,000 greeted them. They gave their first live US television performance two days later on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\", watched by approximately 73\u00a0million viewers in over 23\u00a0million households, or 34 percent of the American population. Biographer Jonathan Gould writes that, according to the Nielsen rating service, it was \"the largest audience that had ever been recorded for an American television \". The next morning, the Beatles awoke to a largely negative critical consensus in the US, but a day later at their first US concert, Beatlemania erupted at the Washington Coliseum. Back in New York the following day, the Beatles met with another strong reception during two shows at Carnegie Hall. The band flew to Florida, where they appeared on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\" a second time, again before 70\u00a0million viewers, before returning to the UK on 22 February."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles' success in the US established the popularity of British groups and affected the musical style of American bands. In doing so, however, the Beatles inadvertently caused a sharp decrease in sales for black artists and the decline of many of the girl groups they admired. By mid 1964, several more UK acts arrived in the US, including the Dave Clark Five, the Rolling Stones, Billy J. Kramer and Gerry & the Pacemakers. Confirming the British Invasion of the US pop market, one-third of all top ten hits there in 1964 were performed by British acts. The depth of the Beatles' US impact was also reflected in a wave of easy listening adaptations of their songs, aimed at the adult market. This trend was led by the Boston Pops Orchestra recording \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" and the Hollyridge Strings covering \"All My Loving\", after which the latter orchestra released the 1964 album \"The Beatles Song Book\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamburg",
        "text": "Hamburg was an important center of rock music in the early 1960s. The Beatles lived and played in Hamburg from August 1960 to December 1962. They proved popular and gained local acclaim. Prior to the group's initial recording and widespread fame, Hamburg provided residency and performing venues for the band during the time they performed there. One of the venues they performed at was the Star Club on St. Pauli."
      },
      {
        "title": "Liverpool",
        "text": "[[File:The Beatles Statues.jpg|thumb|right|[[The Beatles]] statue in their home city Liverpool. The group are the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed [[musical ensemble|band]] in popular music.]]"
      },
      {
        "title": "Religious views of the Beatles",
        "text": "In March 1966, Lennon remarked to a journalist from the \"Evening Standard\" that the Beatles had become \"more popular than Jesus\". The comment went unnoticed until in August the same year, the American magazine \"Datebook\" published it, inciting protests against the Beatles. The band was threatened, their records were publicly burned, and radio stations refused to play their songs."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' 1966 tour of Germany, Japan and the Philippines",
        "text": "Writing two weeks after the Beatles' visit, Joaquin commented that the Philippines had been attracted to the band's image without appreciating that, behind the image, their message was one advocating individuality, adventurousness and originality over tradition and order. Joaquin cited this underestimation as the cause of the Beatles' recent problems and likened the group's presence in Manila to Batman being transplanted to Thebes in Ancient Greece."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles' influence on the more radicalised sectors of the counterculture and the New Left declined as the band refused to engage in direct activism against the establishment. Lennon furthered his stance by campaigning for world peace with Ono in 1969 and, in Simonelli's description, remained the \"most popular political voice in rock music\" until 1972. The Beatles retained their social influence through to the band's break-up, and their idealism continued to resonate in the politics of the Vietnam War era. Released in September 1969, \"Abbey Road\" included \"Come Together\", which Lennon began writing as a campaign song for Timothy Leary's bid to become governor of California. Harrison's \"Here Comes the Sun\" was adopted by George McGovern in his campaign for the US presidency, the initial success of which, according to Schaffner, was a \"triumph for the counterculture's attempt to wield power via conventional electoral politics\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beatlemania",
        "text": "The Beatles returned to the US on 11 August, shortly after the release of \"Revolver\", for what became their last tour. It coincided with a storm of American public protest caused by Lennon's remark that the Beatles had become more popular than Christ. Epstein had considered cancelling the 14-concert tour, fearing for their lives because of the severity of the protests, which included Beatles' records publicly burned and claims that the Beatles were \"anti-Christ\". There were disturbances on the tour, and one performance was brought to a temporary halt when a member of the audience threw a firecracker, leading the Beatles to believe that they were being shot at. They received telephone threats, and the Ku Klux Klan picketed some concerts. An ITN news team sent from London to cover the controversy reported that many teenagers in the US Bible Belt were among those offended by the Beatles. Lennon's comments had caused no upset when originally published in the UK, in March. However, John Grigg, in his column for \"The Guardian\", had applied Lennon's description of Christ's disciples as \"thick and ordinary\" to the band's fans, saying: \"Beatle maniacs are a distinct obstacle to higher appreciation of the Beatles.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "Their musical innovations and commercial success inspired musicians worldwide. Many artists have acknowledged the Beatles' influence and enjoyed chart success with covers of their songs. On radio, their arrival marked the beginning of a new era; in 1968 the programme director of New York's WABC radio station forbade his DJs from playing any \"pre-Beatles\" music, marking the defining line of what would be considered oldies on American radio. They helped to redefine the album as something more than just a few hits padded out with \"filler\", and they were primary innovators of the modern music video. The Shea Stadium show with which they opened their 1965 North American tour attracted an estimated 55,600 people, then the largest audience in concert history; Spitz describes the event as a \"major breakthrough\u00a0... a giant step toward reshaping the concert business\". Emulation of their clothing and especially their hairstyles, which became a mark of rebellion, had a global impact on fashion."
      },
      {
        "title": "More popular than Jesus",
        "text": "The Beatles hated the tour, partly due to the controversy and adverse reaction to Lennon's comments, and they were unhappy about Epstein continuing to organise live performances that were increasingly at odds with their studio work. The controversy had also overshadowed the American release of their 1966 album \"Revolver\", which the band considered to be their best and most mature musical work yet. Following the tour, Harrison contemplated leaving the group, but he decided to remain on the condition that the Beatles would focus solely on studio recording."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "As the Beatles rose in popularity in 1963, the terms \"Mersey sound\" and \"Merseybeat\" were applied to bands and singers from Liverpool, making it the first time in British pop music that a sound and a location were linked together. The city had the cultural advantages of being the UK's main transatlantic port and having an ethnically diverse population; local musicians were able to access records by American musicians through the Cunard Yanks working on the shipping routes. Like many Liverpool bands, the Beatles formed their sound from skiffle and a combination of American influences, especially rhythm and blues and girl groups, and honed their live act through seasons performing in the red-light district of Hamburg in West Germany. The music was performed with an emphasis on beat and guitars, at the expense of saxophones or other instruments commonly heard on the American records. Under pressure from Liverpool venues such as the Cavern, manager Brian Epstein persuaded the Beatles to swap their favoured look of black leather jackets and pants for more presentable stage suits. The group's emergence as leaders of the Liverpool beat scene represented a departure from the London-focused tradition of the UK music industry."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beatles (disambiguation)",
        "text": "The Beatles were an English rock band of the 1960s."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did The Beatles become famous in their home country?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I could not find the specific cause, but the Beatles built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg and were helped by guidance from manager Brian Epstein and producer George Martin. Success also brought increased media exposure which played a role."
    ],
    "topic": "The Beatles",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "The Beatles:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "The Beatles"
        ],
        "ctx": "Led by primary songwriters Lennon and McCartney, the Beatles evolved from Lennon's previous group, the Quarrymen, and built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg over three years from 1960, initially with Stuart Sutcliffe playing bass. The core trio of Lennon, McCartney and Harrison, together since 1958, went through a succession of drummers, including Pete Best, before asking Starr to join them in 1962. Manager Brian Epstein moulded them into a professional act, and producer George Martin guided and developed their recordings, greatly expanding their domestic success after their first hit, \"Love Me Do\", in late 1962. As their popularity grew into the intense fan frenzy dubbed \"Beatlemania\", the band acquired the nickname \"the Fab Four\", with Epstein, Martin and other members of the band's entourage sometimes given the informal title of \"fifth Beatle\"."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "The Beatles:18",
        "passage_titles": [
          "The Beatles",
          "History",
          "1963\u20131966: Beatlemania and touring years",
          "\"Please Please Me\" and \"With the Beatles\""
        ],
        "ctx": "The success brought increased media exposure, to which the Beatles responded with an irreverent and comical attitude that defied the expectations of pop musicians at the time, inspiring even more interest. The band toured the UK three times in the first half of the year: a four-week tour that began in February, the Beatles' first nationwide, preceded three-week tours in March and May\u2013June. As their popularity spread, a frenzied adulation of the group took hold. Greeted with riotous enthusiasm by screaming fans, the press dubbed the phenomenon \"Beatlemania\". Although not billed as tour leaders, the Beatles overshadowed American acts Tommy Roe and Chris Montez during the February engagements and assumed top billing \"by audience demand\", something no British act had previously accomplished while touring with artists from the US. A similar situation arose during their May\u2013June tour with Roy Orbison."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Fifth Beatle",
        "text": "Brian Epstein, the band's manager from 1961 until his death in 1967, was instrumental in the Beatles' rise to global fame. Epstein \"discovered\" the band in Liverpool, saw their potential, and never wavered in his faith and commitment to them. He purposefully restricted his oversight of the band, limiting himself to business matters and public image, and gave the band free creative rein in their music. Epstein also doggedly sought a recording contract for the band in London at a crucial moment in their career, fighting their perception as provincial \"northern\" musicians."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "Lennon resisted wearing suits and ties, but later said, \"I'll wear a suit; I'll wear a bloody balloon if somebody's going to pay me.\" Epstein began seeking publicity by \"charming and smarming\u00a0... the newspaper people\", as Lennon said in 1972. According to McCartney, \"The gigs went up in stature and though the pay went up only a little bit, it did go up\"; they were \"now playing better places\". The group was now far more organised, having one single diary in which to record bookings, rather than using whoever's diary was at hand. The group usually called Epstein \"Mr. Epstein\" or \"Brian\" in interviews, but in private the group abbreviated his name to \"Eppy\" or \"Bri\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "Epstein also successfully managed Gerry and the Pacemakers, Billy J. Kramer and the Dakotas (who had four hits with Lennon\u2013McCartney songs), the Fourmost (Lennon wrote their first two singles), the Cyrkle (Epstein's first American group), and Cilla Black (who was Epstein's only female artist), as well as Tommy Quickly and Sounds Incorporated (later known as Sounds Inc.). He sent his roster of artists on \"package tours\" around the UK, a common practice at the time. This involved short sets by each act, alternating with a comp\u00e8re or a comedian. Epstein once revealed that even though he was entitled to be reimbursed by acts for expenses incurred, he paid for his own flights to and from the United States, as he did not see himself as being part of a touring group. Photographs, transport, and international telephone calls were paid from his own 25 percent share in profits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "Epstein made numerous trips to London to visit record companies in the hope of securing a record contract, but many rejected him, including Columbia, Pye, Philips, Oriole, and most notoriously Decca. On 13 December 1961, at Epstein's invitation, Mike Smith of Decca travelled from London to Liverpool to watch the group at the Cavern, which led to an audition in London on 1 January 1962 (see The Beatles' Decca audition). Decca informed Epstein one month later that the audition tapes had been rejected. The Beatles later found out that Epstein had paid Decca producer Tony Meehan (ex-drummer of the Shadows) to produce the studio recordings. While Epstein was negotiating with Decca he also approached Ron White, an EMI marketing executive, who contacted EMI producers Norrie Paramor, Walter Ridley, and Norman Newell, but they all declined to record the group. White could not contact EMI's fourth staff producer George Martin, as he was on holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "The Beatles signed a five-year contract with Epstein on 24 January 1962 giving Epstein 10 to 15 per cent of their income. They signed a new contract in October 1962 which gave Epstein 15, 20, or 25 per cent of revenues, depending on how much he helped the band earn. The Beatles would then share any income after various expenses had been deducted. Epstein then formed a management company, NEMS Enterprises, telling his parents that managing the group was only a part-time occupation and would not interfere with the family business."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "The Beatles played at The Cavern Club over the next three weeks, and Epstein was always there to watch them. He contacted Allan Williams (their previous promoter/manager) to confirm that Williams no longer had any ties to the group, but Williams advised Epstein \"not to touch them with a fucking barge pole\" because of a Hamburg concert percentage that the group had refused to pay."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "Epstein was born into a family of successful retailers in Liverpool, who put him in charge of their music shop, where he displayed a gift for talent-spotting. He first met the Beatles in 1961 at a lunchtime concert at Liverpool's Cavern Club. Although he had no experience of artist management, Epstein put them under contract and insisted that they abandon their scruff-image in favour of a new clean-cut style. He then persuaded George Martin of EMI group to produce their records."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "Supposedly, Martin had no intention of signing the Beatles after listening to the Decca recordings, but he offered a contract after learning that Epstein would cancel all his substantial NEMS business with EMI. Martin denied this account by saying that Epstein's conviction that the Beatles would become internationally famous finally convinced him to offer a recording contract. He also later admitted that EMI had \"nothing to lose\" by signing a contract with the Beatles, as the terms of payment were negligible. At this point, almost every other British record company had rejected the group, and Martin had never heard the group live. The Beatles were eventually signed to EMI's small Parlophone label, which had very little experience with pop or rock artists. Upon signing the contract, Epstein immediately sent a telegram to the Beatles (who were in Hamburg) and to the \"Mersey Beat\" music journal in Liverpool."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Lennon",
        "text": "Brian Epstein managed the Beatles from 1962 until his death in 1967. He had no previous experience managing artists, but he had a strong influence on the group's dress code and attitude on stage. Lennon initially resisted his attempts to encourage the band to present a professional appearance, but eventually complied, saying \"I'll wear a bloody balloon if somebody's going to pay me.\" McCartney took over on bass after Sutcliffe decided to stay in Hamburg, and Best was replaced with drummer Ringo Starr; this completed the four-piece line-up that would remain until the group's break-up in 1970. The band's first single, \"Love Me Do\", was released in October 1962 and reached No. 17 on the British charts. They recorded their debut album, \"Please Please Me\", in under 10 hours on 11 February 1963, a day when Lennon was suffering the effects of a cold, which is evident in the vocal on the last song to be recorded that day, \"Twist and Shout\". The Lennon\u2013McCartney songwriting partnership yielded eight of its fourteen tracks. With a few exceptions, one being the album title itself, Lennon had yet to bring his love of wordplay to bear on his song lyrics, saying: \"We were just writing songs... pop songs with no more thought of them than that \u2013 to create a sound. And the words were almost irrelevant\". In a 1987 interview, McCartney said that the other Beatles idolised Lennon: \"He was like our own little Elvis... We all looked up to John. He was older and he was very much the leader; he was the quickest wit and the smartest.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "Epstein initially offered the vacant position to Johnny Hutchinson of the Big Three, a group that Epstein managed at that time as well. Hutchinson turned down the offer, saying, \"Pete Best is a very good friend of mine. I couldn't do the dirty on him\"\u2014although Hutchinson did play for The Beatles at short notice when Best did not turn up on the evening of his dismissal and for two subsequent bookings, until Ringo Starr was able to join. Starr was well known to the group, as he was then playing with Rory Storm and the Hurricanes, the resident group at Butlins' holiday complex in Skegness. He had also occasionally replaced Best when the drummer was ill, and had performed at a recording session with Lennon, McCartney, and Harrison in Hamburg."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "After the Beatles completed their second Hamburg residency, they enjoyed increasing popularity in Liverpool with the growing Merseybeat movement. However, they were growing tired of the monotony of numerous appearances at the same clubs night after night. In November 1961, during one of the group's frequent performances at The Cavern Club, they encountered Brian Epstein, a local record-store owner and music columnist. He later recalled: \"I immediately liked what I heard. They were fresh, and they were honest, and they had what I thought was a sort of presence\u00a0... [a] star quality.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Bill Harry",
        "text": "Harry arranged for the future Beatles' manager, Brian Epstein, to see them perform a lunchtime concert at the Cavern Club on 9 November 1961. Epstein subsequently asked Harry to create a national music paper, the \"Music Echo\". After disagreements with Epstein about editorial control, he decided to become a public relations agent, and went on to work for artists such as Pink Floyd, Jethro Tull, Procol Harum, David Bowie, Led Zeppelin and the Beach Boys."
      },
      {
        "title": "Terry Doran",
        "text": "After leaving school, Doran started working for a car dealership in Warrington, near Liverpool. He met Brian Epstein, who was then managing the Epstein family's NEMS record stores, in a Liverpool pub in 1959 and the pair became close friends. Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn describes Doran as \"a car salesman with a sharp mind and a ready Liverpool wit\". He met the Beatles in the early 1960s, shortly after Epstein had become the band's manager."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "In the wake of the Beatles' success Epstein was asked to appear on several music-based TV programmes in Britain. He also hosted a regular part of the US television show \"Hullabaloo\", filming his appearances in the UK."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "Before the Beatles achieved nationwide success in Britain, Epstein had permitted a company (run by his cousins and initially catering to fan club members), to produce Beatles sweaters for 30 shillings (\u00a31.50) and badges for 6 pence (6d) (2\u00bdp). It sold 15,000 sweaters and 50,000 badges as the group's popularity grew. When Beatlemania swept the UK in November 1963, Epstein was besieged by novelty-goods companies desperate to use the Beatles name on plastic guitars, drums, disc racks, badges, belts and other merchandise. Epstein refused to allow the Beatles to endorse any product directly, but through NEMS Enterprises he granted discretionary licences to companies who were able to produce good-quality products at a fair price, even though many companies were already selling products without a licence."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "NEMS had a staff of twenty-five at the time of its move from Liverpool to London in 1964. NEMS booked the Beatles' concerts, and it also presented groups as an opening act. It accrued money as promoter, booking agent, and manager for all concerts. The Beatles were constantly in demand by concert promoters, and Epstein took advantage of the situation to avoid paying some taxes by accepting \"hidden\" fees on the night of a performance, which he always kept in a brown paper bag."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "The Beatles' hectic schedule kept Epstein very busy between 1963 and 1965 with touring plus television and film work. Their last live concert was at Candlestick Park in San Francisco on 29 August 1966, and Epstein's management duties then changed to reflect the changing nature of their career. He pressured them to continue touring, but they steadfastly refused."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "Within months, the Beatles were international stars. Epstein accompanied them to America, where he was besieged by merchandising offers, but had signed away 90 percent of the rights in advance. This is viewed as his one miscalculation. Some of Epstein's other young discoveries had also prospered under his management. They included Gerry and the Pacemakers, Billy J. Kramer and the Dakotas, Tommy Quickly, Cilla Black and The Big Three. In 1967, he died of a sedative overdose, ruled as accidental, at the age of 32."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Big Three (English band)",
        "text": "Epstein arranged for them to audition for Decca Records, for which audition they recorded \"Some Other Guy\". The song was a minor chart hit, and later it became a standard in the Merseybeat scene."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "Led by primary songwriters Lennon and McCartney, the Beatles evolved from Lennon's previous group, the Quarrymen, and built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg over three years from 1960, initially with Stuart Sutcliffe playing bass. The core trio of Lennon, McCartney and Harrison, together since 1958, went through a succession of drummers, including Pete Best, before asking Starr to join them in 1962. Manager Brian Epstein moulded them into a professional act, and producer George Martin guided and developed their recordings, greatly expanding their domestic success after their first hit, \"Love Me Do\", in late 1962. As their popularity grew into the intense fan frenzy dubbed \"Beatlemania\", the band acquired the nickname \"the Fab Four\", with Epstein, Martin and other members of the band's entourage sometimes given the informal title of \"fifth Beatle\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Big Three (English band)",
        "text": "The Big Three and Epstein terminated their partnership in July 1963. Gustafson and Griffiths quit in November 1963, and with drummer Ian Broad from Rory Storm and the Hurricanes formed the Seniors and left for Germany. Hutchinson replaced them with Faron Ruffley (born William Faron Ruffley, 8 January 1942, Walton, Liverpool) and Paddy Chambers (born Patrick John Chambers, 3 April 1944, Liverpool, died 18 September 2000) from Faron's Flamingos."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles in Hamburg",
        "text": "Mersey Beat founder Bill Harry later repudiated the story about Epstein not knowing who the Beatles were, as Harry had been talking to Epstein about the band for a long time (being the group he promoted the most in \"Mersey Beat\") and by McCartney saying, \"Brian [Epstein] knew perfectly well who the Beatles were, they were on the front page of the second issue of \"Mersey Beat\".\" Regardless, the interest in the record eventually led Epstein to make his way to the Cavern with Taylor, during lunch hour on 9 November 1961. He was initially repelled by the dark, damp club, but he congratulated them on their performance."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles at The Cavern Club",
        "text": "McCartney was the first to agree with Epstein's ideas, believing it was due to Epstein's RADA training. Lennon was against the idea of suits and ties, but later said, \"Yeah, man, all right, I'll wear a suit. I'll wear a bloody balloon if somebody's going to pay me\". According to McCartney, \"The gigs went up in stature and though the pay went up only a little bit, it did go up\", and that the group was \"now playing better places\". Epstein pushed McFall to raise the group's fee for a concert at the club from the previous \u00a33, 15 shillings, to \u00a310. Another improvement was that the group was now far more organised; having a single concert diary in which to record bookings, rather than using whoever's diary was to hand."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "Epstein courted the band over the next couple of months, and they appointed him as their manager in January 1962. Throughout early and mid-1962, Epstein sought to free the Beatles from their contractual obligations to Bert Kaempfert Productions. He eventually negotiated a one-month early release in exchange for one last recording session in Hamburg. On their return to Germany in April, a distraught Kirchherr met them at the airport with news of Sutcliffe's death the previous day from a brain haemorrhage. Epstein began negotiations with record labels for a recording contract. To secure a UK record contract, Epstein negotiated an early end to the band's contract with Polydor, in exchange for more recordings backing Tony Sheridan. After a New Year's Day audition, Decca Records rejected the band, saying, \"Guitar groups are on the way out, Mr. Epstein.\" However, three months later, producer George Martin signed the Beatles to EMI's Parlophone label."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' Decca audition",
        "text": "Manager Brian Epstein met with record companies in London to secure a record contract for the Beatles and was rejected by many, including Columbia, HMV, Pye, Philips, and Oriole. After Epstein had meetings with both EMI and Decca at the start of December 1961, Decca A&R executive Mike Smith travelled to Liverpool to see the Beatles perform at the Cavern Club, and was impressed enough to ask Epstein to bring the band down to London for a test in Decca's recording studios, scheduled for 1 January 1962. (New Year's Day was not a public holiday in England at the time.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jimmie Nicol",
        "text": "Although John Lennon and Paul McCartney quickly accepted the idea of using an understudy, George Harrison threatened to pull out of the tour telling Epstein and Martin: \"If Ringo's not going, then neither am I. You can find two replacements.\" Martin recalled: \"They nearly didn't do the Australia tour. George is a very loyal person. It took all of Brian's and my persuasion to tell George that if he didn't do it he was letting everybody down.\" Tony Barrow, who was the Beatles' press officer at the time, later commented: \"Brian saw it as the lesser of two evils; cancel the tour and upset thousands of fans or continue and upset the Beatles.\" Ringo stated that \"it was very strange, them going off without me. They'd taken Jimmie Nicol and I thought they didn't love me any more \u2013 all that stuff went through my head.\" The arrangements were made very quickly, from a telephone call to Nicol at his home in West London inviting him to attend an audition/rehearsal at Abbey Road Studios, to packing his bags, all in the same day. At a press conference a reporter mischievously asked John Lennon why Pete Best, who had been the Beatles' previous drummer for two years but dismissed by the group on the eve of stardom, was not being given the opportunity of replacing Ringo, to which Lennon replied: \"He's got his own group [Pete Best & the All Stars], and it might have looked as if we were taking him back, which is not good for him.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Jimmie Nicol",
        "text": "Nicol played a total of eight shows until Starr rejoined the group in Melbourne, Australia, on 14 June. He was unable to say goodbye to the Beatles as they were still asleep when he left, and he did not want to disturb them. At Melbourne Airport, Epstein presented him with a cheque for \u00a3500 and a gold Eterna-matic wrist watch inscribed: \"From the Beatles and Brian Epstein to Jimmy \u2013 with appreciation and gratitude.\" George Martin later paid tribute to Nicol whilst recognising the problems he experienced in trying to readjust to a normal life again: \"Jimmie Nicol was a very good drummer who came along and learnt Ringo's parts very well. He did the job excellently, and faded into obscurity immediately afterwards.\" Paul McCartney acknowledged: \"It wasn't an easy thing for Jimmy to stand in for Ringo, and have all that fame thrust upon him. And the minute his tenure was over, he wasn't famous any more.\" Nicol himself expressed his disillusionment several years later: \"Standing in for Ringo was the worst thing that ever happened to me. Until then I was quite happy earning \u00a330 or \u00a340 a week. After the headlines died, I began dying too.\" He resisted the temptation to sell his story, stating in a rare 1987 interview: \"After the money ran low, I thought of cashing-in in some way or other. But the timing wasn't right. And I didn't want to step on the Beatles' toes. They had been damn good for me and to me.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles at The Cavern Club",
        "text": "The Beatles were scheduled to play at the club over the next three weeks, and Epstein was always there to watch them. Epstein contacted Allan Williams (their previous promoter/manager), to confirm that Williams no longer had any ties to them, but Williams advised Epstein \"not to touch them with a fucking barge pole [to stay away]\", because of a concert percentage the group had refused to pay him while playing in Hamburg. Epstein later signed singer Cilla Black, who had been working as a hat-check girl in the club. The Beatles were recorded playing live at the club on 22 August 1962, by Granada Television, and their producer at EMI, George Martin, later thought of recording them live there, calling the projected album \"Off The Beatle Track\", but soon realised the club had terrible acoustics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tony Barrow",
        "text": "At the beginning of the 1960s, while the Beatles worked in the Hamburg clubs, Barrow moved from Crosby to London to work for the Decca Record Company, where he wrote the liner notes that appeared on the back of LP album covers. From his new London base, he continued to contribute his weekly record column to the \"Liverpool Echo\", and when Liverpool record retailer Brian Epstein signed the Beatles to a management deal at the end of 1961, he contacted Barrow for professional advice. In a 1968 interview, Barrow recounted that Epstein asked him to write a column about the band. Barrow then arranged to get the Beatles an audition with Decca, who rejected them. That led to an informal arrangement whereby Barrow became the Beatles' part-time press-publicity consultant, which involved promoting the launch of the new EMI band from behind a desk at rival London record company Decca. His earliest task for Epstein was to co-ordinate a media publicity campaign to surround the release of the group's first UK single, \"Love Me Do\", on EMI's Parlophone label in October 1962. He was paid a one-off freelance fee of \u00a320 to compile the Beatles' initial press kit."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Cyrkle",
        "text": "The band was formed by guitarists and lead singers Don Dannemann and Tom Dawes (who also played bass guitar), and Jim Maiella (the original drummer), who all met while studying at Lafayette College in Easton, Pennsylvania. Dannemann enlisted in the US Coast Guard in 1966. The other members were Earle Pickens on keyboards and Marty Fried on drums. They were originally a \"frat rock\" band called The Rhondells but were later discovered and managed by Brian Epstein, who was best known as manager of the Beatles. Epstein found out about the band when his business partner, New York attorney Nathan Weiss, heard them in Atlantic City, New Jersey, on Labor Day of 1965. Epstein became their manager and renamed them, as a reference to the circular roundabout known as Centre Square, located in downtown Easton. John Lennon provided the unique spelling of their new name. They were produced by John Simon."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "Epstein had no prior experience of artist management, yet he had a strong influence on the band's early dress code and stage demeanour. They had previously worn blue jeans and leather jackets, and they would stop and start songs when they felt like it or when an audience member requested a certain song. David Pomerran Szatmary states that when Epstein first saw them at the Cavern Club he thought, \"They were a scruffy crowd in leather, and they were not very tidy and not very clean. They smoked as they played and they ate and talked and pretended to hit each other.\" Epstein encouraged them to wear suits and ties, insisted that they stop swearing, smoking, drinking, or eating on stage, and also suggested the famous synchronised bow at the end of their performances. McCartney was the first to agree with Epstein's suggestions, believing that they reflected Epstein's RADA training. Epstein explained that the process from leather jackets and jeans to suits took some time: \"I encouraged them, at first, to get out of the leather jackets and jeans, and I wouldn't allow them to appear in jeans after a short time, and then, after that step, I got them to wear sweaters on stage, and then, very reluctantly, eventually, suits.\" Epstein took the group to Wirral to see his friend, master tailor Beno Dorn, who made them their first suits based on a design they had previously seen, but which Epstein approved of: \"I thought it was an excellent design at the time.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Lemmy",
        "text": "At school, Lemmy noticed a pupil who had brought a guitar to school and had been \"surrounded by chicks.\" His mother had a guitar, which he then took to school, and was himself surrounded by girls even though he could not play. By the time he left school, he had moved with his family to Conwy. He went on to work several odd jobs, including one at the local Hotpoint electric appliance factory, while also playing guitar for local bands such as the Sundowners and spending time at a horse-riding school. He saw the Beatles perform at the Cavern Club in Liverpool when he was 16, and then learned to play along on guitar to their first album \"Please Please Me\". He also admired the sarcastic attitude of the group, particularly that of John Lennon, and later said of the group, \"Brian Epstein cleaned them up for mass consumption, but they were anything but sissies. They were from Liverpool [...] a hard, sea-farin' town, all these dockers and sailors around all the time who would beat the piss out of you if you so much as winked at them. [...] The Rolling Stones were the mummy's boys\u2014they were all college students from the outskirts of London. [...] The Stones made great records, but they were always shit on stage, whereas the Beatles were the gear.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' 1964 North American tour",
        "text": "Journalist Larry Kane of WFUN in Miami joined the Beatles on their tour. Then 20 years old, Kane sent a letter to Beatles manager Brian Epstein requesting a one-time interview. Epstein responded by inviting him to travel with the group as part of the press party. Kane speculated that Epstein included him because he thought he was a well-known American personality that owned several radio stations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doug Gillard",
        "text": "The group covers songs from the formative 1960\u20131962 pre-celebrity era of The Beatles in Hamburg and at the Cavern Club. The band took its name from the Bambi Kino, a squalid movie theater in Hamburg where the Beatles lived in cramped storerooms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "McCartney summarised the importance of Epstein when he was interviewed in 1997 for a BBC documentary about Epstein, saying, \"If anyone was the Fifth Beatle, it was Brian.\" In his 1970 \"Rolling Stone\" interview, Lennon commented that Epstein's death marked the beginning of the end for the group: \"I knew that we were in trouble then\u00a0... I thought, 'We've f**king had it now.'\" In 2006 Cynthia Lennon said: \"I think Brian's one of the forgotten people. It's almost as if he's been written out of the [Beatles] story. I don't think they'd have got anywhere without Brian.\" The first contract between the Beatles and Epstein was auctioned in London in 2008, fetching \u00a3240,000."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fifth Beatle",
        "text": "Epstein's death in essence marked the beginning of the Beatles' dissolution, as Lennon admitted later. Because he was not creatively involved with the band, Epstein was only infrequently called the \"fifth Beatle\", but over the years he and producer George Martin have been recognised as the two inner-circle members who most profoundly affected the band's career. In an interview in the 1990s describing Epstein's involvement in the band's rise to fame, Martin declared, \"He's the fifth Beatle, if there ever was one.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Roy Young (musician)",
        "text": "In 1961, he began working at the Top Ten Club in Hamburg, where he played with Tony Sheridan and the Beat Brothers, who briefly included Ringo Starr, and recorded with Sheridan. He then won a contract to play at the rival Star-Club, where he met the Beatles, and began performing with them in spring 1962. According to Young, Brian Epstein offered him a place in the group once they had returned to England and signed a record contract, but Young turned down the offer because he had a contract with the Star-Club."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pete Best",
        "text": "Epstein ultimately decided that \"If the group was to remain happy, Pete Best must go.\" Epstein summoned Best to his office and dismissed him on Thursday, 16 August, ten weeks and one day after the first recording session. Epstein asked Best to continue to play with the band until Ringo Starr joined on Saturday 18 August. Best played his last two gigs with the Beatles on 15 August at the Cavern Club, Liverpool. He was due to play his last show on 16 August at the Riverpark Ballroom, Chester, but never turned up; Johnny Hutchinson of the Big Three was rushed in as a substitute. \"Mersey Beat\" magazine's editor, Bill Harry, claimed that Epstein initially offered the vacant drummer position in the group to Hutchinson, whom he also managed. Hutchinson refused the job, saying, \"Pete Best is a very good friend of mine. I couldn't do the dirty on him.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pete Best",
        "text": "When Lennon, McCartney, and Harrison learned that Martin and the engineers preferred replacing Best with a session drummer for their upcoming recording session on 4 September 1962, they considered using it as a pretext to permanently dismiss Best from the group. Eventually, after a very long delay, they asked Epstein to dismiss Best from the band. Epstein agonised over the decision. As he wrote in his autobiography, \"A Cellarful of Noise\", he \"wasn't sure\" about Martin's assessment of Best's drumming and \"was not anxious to change the membership of the Beatles at a time when they were developing as personalities \u2026 I asked the Beatles to leave the group as it was\". Epstein also asked Liverpool DJ Bob Wooler, who knew the Beatles intimately, for advice, to which Wooler replied that it was not a good idea, as Best was very popular with the fans. Part of the dilemma for Epstein that arose at that time (when the band had not yet achieved national success, but rather local status as a good band with limited income), was that Best was an asset at gigs, popular with the girl fans, and put on a good show, ensuring venues would have a solid audience. The counter-argument, however, was the larger consideration of the band's having the best music producible for record sales. John, Paul and George ultimately decided that record production was more important than having a drummer for live stage performances who was more image than substance. In the meantime, Epstein refrained from telling Best that EMI had made a recording contract with the band (orally since June and in writing at the end of July 1962), which meant that a new drummer was now inevitable. There might have been legal issues had Best known."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "In an afternoon meeting with the group at NEMS on 3 December 1961, Epstein proposed the idea of managing the Beatles. John Lennon, George Harrison, and Pete Best arrived late for the meeting, as they had been drinking at The Grapes pub in Mathew Street. McCartney also did not arrive on time because he had just got up and was \"taking a bath\", as Harrison explained. Epstein was upset, but Harrison placated him by saying, \"He may be late, but he'll be very \"clean\".\" Lennon had invited Wooler to be at the meeting so that he could give his opinion of Epstein, but he introduced Wooler by saying, \"This is me dad.\" Epstein was reticent throughout the short meeting, only asking if they had a manager. After learning that they had not, he said, \"It seems to me that with everything going on, someone ought to be looking after you.\" He had further meetings with the group on 6 and 10 December 1961."
      },
      {
        "title": "Terry Doran",
        "text": "Doran co-owned (with Epstein) and ran the car dealership Brydor, based in Hounslow, west of London. The company name was an amalgamation of Epstein's first name and Doran's surname. His customers included the Beatles, who acquired their Minis through Brydor.<ref name=\"Harding/TSC\"></ref> He also supplied the group with luxury cars as the band members showed an increasing interest in expensive automobiles. These cars included a Ferrari, a Lamborghini, a Mercedes-Benz stretch limousine and a Rolls-Royce Phantom V, all for Lennon; a Jaguar E-type for Harrison when he turned 21 in February 1964, followed by a white Aston Martin DB5; an Aston Martin DB6 for McCartney; and a Mercedes and a Facel Vega for Ringo Starr."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Fifth Beatle (graphic novel)",
        "text": "Despite being turned down by several record companies, Epstein believed the group would be \"bigger than Elvis.\" To that end, Epstein seriously cleans up the band's public image, such as having them wear suits and ties as well encouraging them to continue their distinctive mop-top hairdos. So prepared, Epstein is able to masterfully promote their careers, with a major triumph being negotiating a series of headline appearances on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\" by offering to cover the band's travelling expenses and accepting an unusually low payment for the appearances, which produced spectacular publicity for the band's first American concert tour. As the group grew in popularity, Epstein struggled with his sexuality, being gay at a time when it was still criminalized, and there were few options for gay men to meet publicly, and his drug addictions. After The Beatles ceased touring in 1966, he feared about their future, and his role with the group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pete Best",
        "text": "Brian Epstein, who had been unofficially managing the Beatles for less than a month, arranged a recording audition at Decca Records in London on New Year's Day, 1962. The group recorded 15 songs, mostly cover versions with three Lennon\u2013McCartney songs. Best also recorded the song \"Going Back Manchester\" with Lennon at this time, which would later feature as a bonus track on the special edition of his album \"Best of the Beatles\", the rights of the song belonging to Best due to a legal technicality. A month later, Decca informed Epstein the group had been rejected. The band members were informed of the rejection except for Best. Epstein officially became the manager of the Beatles on 24 January 1962 with the contract signed in Best's house."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fifth Beatle",
        "text": "Jimmie Nicol played drums for the first eight shows of The Beatles' 1964 world tour. Starr became ill and the opening part of the tour was almost canceled. Instead of canceling, the Beatles' manager Brian Epstein hired Nicol to stand in until Starr recovered. Nicol played with the band in early June, in Denmark, the Netherlands, Hong Kong and Australia. Nicol made the most of his time, signing autographs and giving interviews. Starr rejoined the band on 14 June, in Melbourne."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "Epstein was upset that he was not honoured along with Lennon, McCartney, Harrison, and Starr when they received the MBE in 1965, though Harrison once said that the MBE stood for \"Mister Brian Epstein\"; The Beatles were among the earliest entrants into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, but Epstein was not included in the Hall's \"Non-Performers' Section\" until 2014, and not without controversy as he was inducted alongside Rolling Stones manager Andrew Loog Oldham who refused to attend, in part in protest at what he perceived as the indignity of a joint induction. Martin Lewis, previously Taylor's assistant, created the official Brian Epstein website, which included a petition that Epstein be inducted into the Hall of Fame. Lewis also organised the 1998 re-publication, in the United States, of Epstein's 1964 autobiography \"A Cellarful of Noise\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band",
        "text": "On the Beatles' return to England, rumours began to circulate that they had decided to break up. George Harrison informed Epstein that he was leaving the band, but was persuaded to stay on the assurance that there would be no more tours. The group took a three-month break, during which they focused on individual interests. Harrison travelled to India for six weeks to study the sitar under the instruction of Ravi Shankar and develop his interest in Hindu philosophy. Having been the last of the Beatles to concede that their live performances had become futile, Paul McCartney collaborated with Beatles producer George Martin on the soundtrack for the film \"The Family Way\" and holidayed in Kenya with Mal Evans, one of the Beatles' tour managers. Lennon acted in the film \"How I Won the War\" and attended art showings, such as one at the Indica Gallery where he met his future wife Yoko Ono. Ringo Starr used the break to spend time with his wife Maureen and son Zak."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' Decca audition",
        "text": "While Epstein was negotiating with Decca, he also approached EMI marketing executive Ron White. White was not a record producer, but he contacted EMI producers Norrie Paramor, Walter Ridley, and Norman Newell, all of whom declined to record the Beatles. They eventually signed with EMI subsidiary Parlophone, after producer George Martin heard the Decca demos and decided to meet the band."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neville Chesters",
        "text": "Later on, he also worked for Brian Epstein at NEMS Enterprises, which involved various projects with The Beatles and other NEMS artists (Sunday Night At The Saville Theatre)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "Brian Epstein\n--Ancestry.\n--Early life.\n--The Beatles.\n----Management contract.\n----The Beatles' appearance on stage.\n----Record contract.\n----Dismissal of Pete Best.\n----Beatles last official live appearance in the UK.\n----After Candlestick Park.\n--Business dealings.\n----Merchandising.\n----Lenmac.\n----Publishing.\n----Promoter and presenter.\n--Personal life.\n----Sexual orientation.\n----Drug use.\n----Gambling.\n--Death.\n--Legacy.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Apple Corps",
        "text": "In December 1967, shortly after Epstein's death, Lennon asked Alistair Taylor to work as General Manager for Apple. It was during this period that Taylor appeared in the famous advertisement to promote Apple asking for new artists. Designed by McCartney, it showed him disguised as a one-man band, claiming: \"This man has talent...\" The publication in the \"New Musical Express\" and \"Rolling Stone\" brought an avalanche of applicants. The mail room, telephone switchboard, and conference rooms became jammed at all hours with \"artists\" begging the Beatles to give them money. George Harrison would later lament that \"We had every freak in the world coming in there\". Many of these supplicants received the investments they sought and were never heard from again."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dick Rowe",
        "text": "He is historically presented in popular musical history as the man who did not sign the Beatles. In Brian Epstein's 1964 autobiography, Rowe is quoted as having rejected them with the words: \"Guitar groups are on their way out, Mr. Epstein\", although he denied ever having said this. He later signed the Rolling Stones after their audition, thanks to an introduction and encouragement from George Harrison."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles at The Cavern Club",
        "text": "The Cavern Club at 10 Mathew Street, in Liverpool was the venue where the Beatles' UK popularity started. John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Pete Best were first seen by Brian Epstein at the club. Epstein eventually became their manager, going on to secure them a record contract. Best was replaced by Ringo Starr on 16 August 1962, which upset many Beatles fans. After taunts of, \"Pete forever, Ringo never!\", one agitated fan headbutted Harrison in the club."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "During the 1970s, the band members occasionally collaborated, but never with all four Beatles simultaneously. In a 1971 interview, Lennon stated that he could not foresee working with McCartney again, however, \"Maybe about a year or two after all the money thing's settled, we might have dinner or forget about it.\" He was nonetheless willing to collaborate with Harrison and Starr; Harrison and Starr often performed on each other's records and separately on Lennon's. McCartney opted against using the pool of session musicians favoured by his bandmates and commented: \"I felt that it was a bit too predictable, that everyone would leave the Beatles and go with old Phil Spector, or the drummer Jim Keltner. It was like a clique, and I just didn't want to join that clique.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of the Beatles' live performances",
        "text": "From 1961 to 1966, the English rock band the Beatles performed all over the Western world. They began performing live in England in 1961 and continued in various clubs during their visit to Hamburg, West Germany, until 1962, with a lineup of John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, Stuart Sutcliffe and Pete Best. Following Sutcliffe's departure (and subsequent death of a brain hemorrhage), the Beatles continued performing throughout 1962, most notably at The Cavern Club in Liverpool, where they were discovered by Brian Epstein and George Martin. After firing Best and hiring Ringo Starr, the Beatles performed a series of concert tours throughout the UK in 1963, before they left for the US in early 1964. As Beatlemania and the British Invasion came into full force, they began a world tour and continued to perform in the UK and US throughout 1965, including a well-known performance at Shea Stadium in New York City."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Harrison",
        "text": "In 1960, promoter Allan Williams arranged for the band, now calling themselves the Beatles, to play at the Indra and Kaiserkeller clubs in Hamburg, both owned by Bruno Koschmider. Their first residency in Hamburg ended prematurely when Harrison was deported for being too young to work in nightclubs. When Brian Epstein became their manager in December 1961, he polished up their image and later secured them a recording contract with EMI. The group's first single, \"Love Me Do\", peaked at number 17 on the \"Record Retailer\" chart, and by the time their debut album, \"Please Please Me\", was released in early 1963, Beatlemania had arrived. Often serious and focused while on stage with the band, Harrison was known as \"the quiet Beatle\". That moniker arose when the Beatles arrived in the United States in early 1964, and Harrison was ill with a case of Strep throat and a fever and was medically advised to limit speaking as much as possible until he performed on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\" as scheduled. As such, the press noticed Harrison's apparent laconic nature in public appearances on that tour and the subsequent nickname stuck, much to Harrison's amusement. He had two lead vocal credits on the LP, including the Lennon\u2013McCartney song \"Do You Want to Know a Secret?\", and three on their second album, \"With the Beatles\" (1963). The latter included \"Don't Bother Me\", Harrison's first solo writing credit."
      },
      {
        "title": "1960s",
        "text": "In the UK, the Beatles played raucous rock 'n' roll \u2013 as well as doo wop, girl-group songs, show tunes \u2013 and wore leather jackets. Their manager Brian Epstein encouraged the group to wear suits. Beatlemania abruptly exploded after the group's appearance on the \"Ed Sullivan Show\" in 1964. Late in 1965, the Beatles released the album \"Rubber Soul\" which marked the beginning of their transition to a sophisticated power pop group with elaborate studio arrangements and production, and a year after that, they gave up touring entirely to focus only on albums. A host of imitators followed the Beatles in the so-called British Invasion, including groups like the Rolling Stones and the Kinks who would become legends in their own right."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles continued to absorb influences long after their initial success, often finding new musical and lyrical avenues by listening to their contemporaries, including Bob Dylan, the Who, Frank Zappa, the Lovin' Spoonful, the Byrds and the Beach Boys, whose 1966 album \"Pet Sounds\" amazed and inspired McCartney. Referring to the Beach Boys' creative leader, Martin later stated: \"No one made a greater impact on the Beatles than Brian [Wilson].\" Ravi Shankar, with whom Harrison studied for six weeks in India in late 1966, had a significant effect on his musical development during the band's later years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tony Barrow",
        "text": "When Epstein promised to double his Decca salary, Barrow left the record company in May 1963 to join Epstein's new artists' management company, NEMS Enterprises, on a full-time basis. Barrow opened Epstein's first London office and, as head of the Press and Public Relations Division, began to promote the careers of not only the Beatles but also Epstein's other artists, such as Cilla Black, Gerry & The Pacemakers, Billy J Kramer with the Dakotas and The Fourmost. In view of his previous employment as a liner-note writer with Decca, it was taken for granted that he would do the same job for the Beatles and Epstein's other acts."
      },
      {
        "title": "Freddie Ryder",
        "text": "After relocating to London in December 1963, the band was spotted by Billy Fury's manager and Pop impresario Larry Parnes who signed them as The Trends in January 1964. As their following gained momentum, The Trends became regulars at some of the major venues in London. As part of the Merseybeat movement they were regularly watched by The Beatles often watching and supporting them at gigs and vice-versa. Upon The Beatles\u2019 return from their first US tour, Brian Epstein hosted an exclusive welcome home celebration at the Kensington home of pop star Alma Cogan and The Trends were invited to perform."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "The recording contract gave the Beatles one penny (1d) for each record sold, which was split among the four members, meaning that each earned one farthing per copy. The royalty rate was further reduced for singles sold outside the UK; the group received half of one penny per single, which was again split amongst the whole group. Martin scheduled the first recording session to be on 6 June 1962 at Abbey Road Studios. Epstein later renegotiated EMI's royalty rate and, on 27 January 1967 the Beatles signed a new nine-year contract with EMI. The contract stipulated that 25 per cent would be paid to NEMS for the full nine years even if the Beatles decided not to renew their management contract with Epstein, which was up for renewal later that year."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles in Hamburg",
        "text": "\"My Bonnie\" was to bring the Beatles to the attention of a key figure in their subsequent development and commercial success, Brian Epstein. In September 1961, Harrison had a German copy of the record, which Sutcliffe had sent to him, as he was still in Hamburg. Harrison loaned it to Bob Wooler (The Cavern Club DJ) who played it at various venues, when the members of the group lent it to him. On 28 October 1961, the 27-year-old Epstein, manager of the record department in his father's NEMS music store in Whitechapel Street, Liverpool, was asked for the record by an 18-year-old boy, Raymond Jones (Epstein's record department sales manager subsequently stated in a 2000s TV documentary the name 'Raymond Jones' was made up by him as part of his standard practice of ordering in foreign records that NEMS would not have ordinarily ordered due to selling risks and supplier's minimum order quantity (25 units). He also stated upon receipt of the records from Germany he himself paid for the record under that name when it came in. Several teenagers had pestered him about the record and they kept coming back asking, and he got tired of having to tell them they didn't have it in stock, so he initiated the order himself). Epstein could find nothing on his files about the Beatles or the record, but the following day it was requested again by two girls, this time mentioning that the Beatles had been seen playing at the Cavern, a club in nearby Mathew Street. Alistair Taylor (Epstein's assistant) later said that the story had been invented and that he had used the name Jones to order copies of the record himself."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles in Hamburg",
        "text": "The original lineup of the Beatles, John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, Stuart Sutcliffe and Pete Best regularly performed at different clubs in Hamburg, West Germany, during the period from August 1960 to December 1962; a chapter in the group's history which honed their performance skills, widened their reputation, and led to their first recording, which brought them to the attention of Brian Epstein."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bill Harry",
        "text": "Epstein saw numerous posters around Liverpool advertising concerts by the Beatles as well as in the second issue of \"Mersey Beat\", which had \"Beatles sign Recording Contract!\" on the front cover, as the Beatles had recorded the \"My Bonnie\" single with Tony Sheridan in Germany. Some months after its release, Epstein supposedly (as stated in his biography), asked his assistant Alistair Taylor about the single, because a customer, one Raymond Jones, had asked Epstein for the single on 28 October 1961, which made Epstein curious about the group. Harry and McCartney repudiated this story, as Harry had been talking to Epstein about the Beatles for a long time (being the group he promoted the most in \"Mersey Beat\"), and by McCartney saying, \"Brian [Epstein] knew perfectly well who the Beatles were, they were on the front page of the second issue of \"Mersey Beat\".\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "Brian Samuel Epstein (; 19 September 1934\u00a0\u2013 27 August 1967) was a British music entrepreneur who managed the Beatles from 1962 until his death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "The Beatles entered into a publishing agreement with Dick James Music (DJM), so James set up a company called Northern Songs. James and his financial partner and accountant, Charles Silver, would each receive 25 per cent of the shares. Lennon and McCartney received 20 per cent each, with Epstein receiving the remaining 10 per cent. The Beatles' PRS income increased rapidly, so Epstein asked Isherwood to devise a way of avoiding the tax that Lennon and McCartney would owe. Isherwood suggested a stock market flotation for Northern Songs. He also suggested to Epstein that during the flotation Lennon and McCartney should move to houses near Isherwood's own in Esher. Lennon, Harrison and Starr agreed, while Epstein and McCartney remained in London."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "The Beatles were on a retreat in Bangor in northern Wales at the time, with the Indian guru Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. Epstein had previously agreed to travel to Bangor after the August Bank Holiday. The second of two shows by Jimi Hendrix at Epstein's Saville Theatre was cancelled on the evening of Epstein's death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tony Stratton-Smith",
        "text": "Later on he began being influenced by The Beatles, in particular their manager Brian Epstein and decided to enter the music business. One of the earliest bands he managed were the Liverpool-based The Koobas, taking over from Epstein. He subsequently took over management of The Nice in 1968 from Andrew Loog Oldham and, frustrated with the workings of Oldham's Immediate Records label, decided to form his own."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mike McGear",
        "text": "At the time the Beatles became successful, Mike McCartney was working as an apprentice hairdresser. Mike worked in the hairdressers alongside future actor Lewis Collins. However, he was also a member of the Liverpool comedy-poetry-music group The Scaffold, which included Roger McGough and John Gorman, and had formed in 1962 (the year of the Beatles' first hit). Mike decided to use a stage name, so as not to appear to be riding his brother's coattails. After first dubbing himself \"Mike Blank\", he settled on \"Mike McGear\", \"gear\" being the Liverpudlian equivalent of \"fab\". The band was subsequently signed to Parlophone."
      },
      {
        "title": "Birth of the Beatles",
        "text": "Back in Britain, the owner of the NEMS Records Shop, Brian Epstein, is alerted that the Beatles are causing quite a stir in Liverpool with their performances at the Cavern Club. He is impressed with what he sees and asks to be the group's manager. They accept and the Beatles have an audition for Decca Records, but are turned down. They keep searching for a record company to accept them, but are turned down time after time. They are beginning to lose all hope. Around this time, they learn that Epstein is a homosexual and that he was attacked by a Teddy boy in Liverpool because of it. However, they hold no prejudices and accept. Also, the Beatles finally get accepted by record producer George Martin, but decide to sack Pete from the group. In his place is Ringo, and now the classic foursome is complete. However, before the first show with Ringo, the fans react angrily to Pete's firing; they later become overly excited after hearing Ringo's drumming abilities and listen to \"I Saw Her Standing There\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bill Harry",
        "text": "Lennon had once given Harry a collection of photos taken in Hamburg, showing Lennon standing on the Reeperbahn reading a newspaper and wearing nothing but his underpants, performing on stage with a toilet seat around his neck, and one of McCartney sitting on a toilet. After Epstein became the Beatles' manager, Lennon rushed into Harry's office and asked for them back, saying, \"Brian [Epstein] insists I've got to get them back\u2014the pictures, everything you've got. I must take it all with me now.\" When Epstein finally secured a recording contract with EMI, he sent Harry a telegram from London to the \"Mersey Beat\" office to announce the news."
      },
      {
        "title": "Church of Saint John the Baptist, Liverpool",
        "text": "Thanks to the research by Gerry Murphy, a Beatles historian and graduate of Liverpool Hope University's Popular Music and Society it can be confirmed that The Beatles played at the Brockman Hall Tuebrook a dozen times in 1961. He also maintains that Brian Epstein discovered them at the Brockman Hall and not at the Cavern as has always been believed. Epstein was identified by several members of the audience who recognised him from Nems music store."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Harrison and Ravi Shankar's 1974 North American tour",
        "text": "At the same press conference, in reply to questions about a rumoured Beatles reunion, he said that his former band \"[weren't] that good\", relative to musicians he had worked with since, and he dismissed the idea of ever being in a group with Paul McCartney again. According to author Peter Doggett, these remarks created \"the same sense of shock\" as John Lennon's 1970 lyric \"I don't believe in Beatles\" (from the song \"God\"). Harrison biographer Simon Leng writes that the ensuing tour represented \"a whirlwind of pent-up Beatlemania\" in North America, \"where the group had a status way beyond that of mere icons\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "In 1964, after having been introduced to cannabis by Bob Dylan in New York, Epstein was observed by McCartney standing in front of a mirror, pointing at himself and repeatedly saying \"Jew!\", while laughing loudly, which McCartney found hilarious and \"very liberating\". Epstein later became heavily involved in the 1960s drug scene. During the four months when the Beatles' album \"Sgt. Pepper\" was being recorded, Epstein spent his time on holiday, or at the Priory Clinic in Putney, where he tried unsuccessfully to curb his drug use. He left the Priory to attend the \"Sgt. Pepper\" launch party at his house on 24\u00a0Chapel Street, but returned to the Priory immediately after."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Collection of Beatles Oldies",
        "text": "The Beatles made the decision to retire from live performance in 1966, dissatisfied at playing to audiences of screaming fans, and following a series of controversies that had tarnished the band's image throughout the year. Those controversies included the unfavourable reaction to the butcher cover originally used for the band's American album \"Yesterday and Today\", death threats and political incidents during their visits to Japan and the Philippines, and condemnation from some religious groups in America in response to John Lennon's comment that the Beatles had become more popular than Christ. After completing their world tour on 29 August, the four band members took a break from group activities for three months. Due to the attention that their individual activities received, by early November, rumours in the press claimed that the band were breaking up. Alternatively, according to a report in \"The Sunday Telegraph\", the Beatles were to sever ties with their longtime manager, Brian Epstein, and instead be represented by Allen Klein. Fans of the band were disappointed by the announcement that, in a break from the tradition established in 1963, the Beatles were not playing any UK shows over the Christmas period. On 10 November, four days after 200 fans had demonstrated outside Epstein's home in central London, newspapers reported that there would be no further concert tours by the Beatles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geoff Workman",
        "text": "Geoffrey Workman was born in a small household in Liverpool, Lancashire, United Kingdom. Geoff's father was Thomas Arthur Rose Workman, a drummer and a Naval Architect for the British. John Lennon, who was perhaps one of the more influential person(s) in his future music career, would occasionally eat dinner at his family's house in Liverpool. Geoff created a band during his early education called the \"Feelgoods,\" who would play at small local venues. John, who was at that point a part of the Beatles, invited him to tour with them as the opening act. After asking his father, Geoff remembered Thomas saying, \"If you don't do it, you'll regret it.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "The Beatles were due to perform a lunchtime concert at The Cavern Club on 9 November 1961. According to club owner Sytner, Epstein had visited the club quite a few times previously on Saturday nights, once asking Sytner to book a group for his twenty-first birthday party. Epstein asked Harry to arrange for Epstein and his assistant Taylor to watch the Beatles perform. The club allowed Epstein and Taylor to enter without queuing. They bypassed the line of fans at the door and heard Bob Wooler, the resident disc jockey, announce a welcome message over the club's public address system: \"We have someone rather famous in the audience today. Mr Brian Epstein, the owner of NEMS\u00a0...\" Epstein later talked about the performance: \"I was immediately struck by their music, their beat and their sense of humour on stage\u2014and, even afterwards, when I met them, I was struck again by their personal charm. And it was there that, really, it all started\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beatlesque",
        "text": "Notable acts described as \"Beatlesque\"\n*Badfinger \u2013 The first artists to sign with the Beatles' Apple Records. Their songs \"Come and Get It\" (1969), \"No Matter What\" (1970) and \"Day After Day\" (1971) were produced by McCartney, Beatles road manager Mal Evans, and George Harrison, respectively.\n*Big Star \u2013 Although the American band attracted critical acclaim for its Beatles-influenced work in the 1970s, its life proved contentious and short. They earned critical acclaim and a cult following despite the lack of commercial success.\n*The Byrds \u2013 Sometimes regarded as the \"American Beatles\". While their long-term influence has proven to be comparable to that of the Beatles in terms of sound and style, the Byrds failed to match their contemporaries' record sales.\n*Cheap Trick \u2013 Also sometimes known as the \"American Beatles\". In addition, the group's 1980 album \"All Shook Up\" was produced by longtime Beatles producer George Martin, and the group's live performance of Beatles songs culminated with a full orchestra-backed live album, titled \"Sgt. Pepper Live\" (2009).\n*Electric Light Orchestra \u2013 Formed explicitly with the intention of \"picking up where the Beatles left off\", the outfit has proved one of the few Beatlesque groups to achieve sustained commercial success. In addition, frontman Jeff Lynne began a musical collaboration with George Harrison in the late 1980s that led to him working on several projects related to the Beatles. In the early 1970s, John Lennon praised ELO as \"sons of Beatles\" and cited their 1973 song \"Showdown\" as a personal favourite.\n*Harry Nilsson \u2013 During a 1968 press conference, the Beatles were asked what their favorite American group was and answered \"Nilsson\". Sometimes known as \"The American Beatle\", he was close friends with both John Lennon and Ringo Starr.\n*Klaatu \u2013 Falsely rumoured to be the Beatles themselves, re-formed. The band are sometimes known as the \"Canadian Beatles\".\n*Oasis \u2013 Their Beatles influence was labelled as an \"obsession\" by British media. During their 1991 to 2009 career, the band's widespread success in terms of culture and social reach caused it to be possibly the most popular band since the Beatles.\n*Panic! at the Disco \u2013 Their album \"Pretty. Odd.\" is thought to be remarkably similar to the Beatles, most notably their song \"Nine in the Afternoon\".\n*Squeeze \u2013 The British band's songwriting pair Chris Difford and Glenn Tilbrook have attracted comparisons to the Lennon\u2013McCartney partnership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Wilson is a genius",
        "text": "In the meantime, the Beatles' former press agent Derek Taylor had left the UK and moved to California, where he started his own public relations company. By 1966, he had quickly assimilated into what was then an expanding coterie of Wilson's worldly-minded friends, musicians, mystics, and business advisers. In the description of music journalist Nick Kent, \"Derek Taylor was at that time the single most prestigious figure with whom to have one's name linked in matters of promotion.\u00a0... he knew the Beatles and had actually worked with them and Brian Epstein. There could be no more spectacular recommendation.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles in Bangor",
        "text": "The Beatles' intention was to attend the entire ten-day seminar, but their stay was cut short by the death of their manager in London on 27 August. Epstein had arranged to entertain friends at his property in Sussex over the bank holiday weekend, but had said that he might join the band towards the end of the seminar. The Maharishi consoled them by saying that Epstein's spirit was still with them, and their good thoughts would help him \"to have an easy passage\" and journey to his \"next evolution\". The Beatles held a press conference, during which Lennon and Harrison explained the Maharishi's views on death. According to McCartney, the Maharishi \"was great to us when Brian died\". Cynthia Lennon later wrote: \"it was as though, with Brian gone, the four needed someone new to give them direction and the Maharishi was in the right place at the right time.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "More popular than Jesus",
        "text": "The Beatles hated the tour, partly due to the controversy and adverse reaction to Lennon's comments, and they were unhappy about Epstein continuing to organise live performances that were increasingly at odds with their studio work. The controversy had also overshadowed the American release of their 1966 album \"Revolver\", which the band considered to be their best and most mature musical work yet. Following the tour, Harrison contemplated leaving the group, but he decided to remain on the condition that the Beatles would focus solely on studio recording."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ringo Starr",
        "text": "Starr quit Rory Storm and the Hurricanes in January 1962 and briefly joined Sheridan in Hamburg before returning to the Hurricanes for a third season at Butlins. On 14 August, Starr accepted Lennon's invitation to join the Beatles. On 16 August, Beatles manager Brian Epstein fired their drummer, Pete Best, who recalled: \"He said 'I've got some bad news for you. The boys want you out and Ringo in.' He said [Beatles producer] George Martin wasn't too pleased with my playing [and] the boys thought I didn't fit in.\" Starr first performed as a member of the Beatles on 18 August 1962, at a horticultural society dance at Port Sunlight. After his appearance at the Cavern Club the following day, Best fans, upset by his firing, held vigils outside his house and at the club shouting \"Pete forever! Ringo never!\" Harrison received a black eye from one upset fan, and Epstein, whose car tyres they had flattened in anger, temporarily hired a bodyguard."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "Epstein's death left the Beatles disoriented and fearful about the future. McCartney sought to initiate projects for the group, although his bandmates grew perturbed by his growing domination in musical as well as other group ventures. Lennon later reflected that McCartney's efforts were important for the survival of the band, but he still believed that McCartney's desire to help came from his own misgivings about pursuing a solo career. McCartney felt that the four members' evolution from musicians to businessmen was central to the band's disintegration. Epstein's role as band manager was never replaced, and ultimately the lack of strong managerial leadership contributed significantly to the break-up."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allan Williams",
        "text": "In August 1960, with Best joining as the group's new drummer, Williams and the Beatles left Liverpool in a small, crowded van which took them to Hamburg for the first time. He continued to get them bookings, until he fell out with the Beatles in 1961 over the payment of his 10% commission in a later trip to Hamburg. Williams had no further business dealings with the group and was especially disappointed that Sutcliffe, of whom he was especially fond, was the one who told him the band would not pay. In 1962, before Brian Epstein became the band's manager, he contacted Williams to make sure there were no remaining contractual ties. There was none, but Williams forthrightly told Epstein: \"Don't touch them with a fucking bargepole, they will let you down.\" Williams is briefly seen in Peter Jackson's 2021 documentary constructed from unused footage originally shot by Michael Lindsay-Hogg while making the Let It Be film in 1969."
      },
      {
        "title": "Geoff Emerick",
        "text": "Following the Beatles' break-up in 1970, Emerick continued to work with McCartney. He served as recording engineer on McCartney albums such as \"Band on the Run\" (1973), which netted Emerick another Grammy, \"London Town\" (1978), \"Tug of War\" (1982) and \"Flaming Pie\" (1997). Emerick later said that he had always been perceived by the other ex-Beatles as \"Paul's guy\". As a result, for their solo recordings, Lennon and George Harrison chose to work instead with Phil McDonald, another former EMI engineer."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "Epstein once offered all four Beatles a fixed wage of \u00a350 a week for life (). Harrison remembered that he was earning \u00a325 a week at the time (), which was more than the \u00a310 a week that his father was earning (). The group declined Epstein's offer, believing that they were worth much more than \u00a350 a week."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Fab Faux",
        "text": "The group was featured in a full-length profile on CNN that was broadcast worldwide. They also participated in a CD of original material by Beatles tribute bands, recorded in London at Abbey Road Studios and engineered and produced by Will Schillinger. The group has performed multiple times in Liverpool, England, where they played three shows each year from 1999 to 2005 for that city's annual \"Beatle Week\" festivities, including outdoor concerts for over 35,000 people on the Yellow Submarine and Let It Be stages."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "In 1963, Epstein advised the creation of Northern Songs, a publishing company that would control the copyrights of all Lennon\u2013McCartney compositions recorded between 1963 and 1973. Music publisher Dick James and his partner Charles Silver owned 51 per cent of the company, Lennon and McCartney 20 per cent each, and Epstein 9 per cent. By 1969, Lennon and McCartney had lost control of all publishing rights to ATV Music Publishing. Epstein's death in 1967 marked the beginning of the group's dissolution and had a profound effect on each Beatle."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of members of bands featuring members of the Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles began in 1957, when John Lennon formed a skiffle group with his friends called the Quarrymen. The band underwent many name and membership changes, culminating in 1962 with the famous line-up of Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr. After the Beatles disbanded in 1970, each of the four members went on to have success, both as solo acts and with their own groups. Although Lennon died in 1980, the remaining Beatles re-united in 1994 to record new songs for the \"Anthology\" project. Since Harrison's death in 2001, the two remaining members have not reunited as the Beatles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holme (band)",
        "text": "Although the members' musical influences vary, most credit the Beatles as an important musical influence. Frank Sementa (drums), was influenced by watching Arthur Godfrey's TV show and listening to his parents' Glenn Miller and McGuire Sisters records. Keyboardist Danny Gralick, from Belmar and Philadelphia, who had played for Jim Croce for a time, was inspired by Buddy Greco. Guitarist Joel Krauss, who was from Brooklyn, originally played the French Horn, but switched to guitar because it was more popular with his peers. Krauss was a cab driver when he saw the ad for a guitarist. Krauss later quit the band for a while, but rejoined the band later."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles in Hamburg",
        "text": "The Beatles in Hamburg\n--Hamburg in the 1960s.\n----Leaving Liverpool.\n--Hamburg clubs.\n----The Indra and Kaiserkeller.\n------Performances.\n------Violence and conflict.\n------Performance skills.\n----The Top Ten.\n----The Star-Club.\n----Debauchery.\n--Record release.\n----Brian Epstein.\n--Associates and social circle.\n--Later years.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles at The Cavern Club",
        "text": "Although Epstein had had no prior experience of artist management, he made it clear that he wanted to change the Beatles\u2019 early dress-code and attitude on stage, as they wore blue jeans and leather jackets, smoked, ate and swore, stopped and started songs when they felt like it, pretended to hit each other, and turned their backs to the audience. Epstein put a stop to their behaviour, insisting they wear more suitable clothes, and later suggested the famous synchronised bow at the end of their performances. Epstein: \"I encouraged them, at first, to get out of the leather jackets and jeans, and I wouldn't allow them to appear in jeans after a short time, and then, after that step, I got them to wear sweaters on stage, and then, very reluctantly, eventually, suits\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alistair Taylor",
        "text": "According to Taylor, following Epstein's death from a drug overdose in August 1967, NEMS was plagued by \"dreadful in-fighting\", as \"everybody \u2013 Vic Lewis, Robert Stigwood \u2013 struggled to take control of The Beatles\". In December 1967, Taylor and his fellow NEMS employees Peter Brown and Terry Doran left the company to work directly for the Beatles. At Lennon's invitation, he became general manager of the band's business empire, Apple Corps."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "Epstein first noticed the Beatles in issues of \"Mersey Beat\" and on numerous posters around Liverpool created by his commercial artist associate Tony Booth, before he asked \"Mersey Beat\" editor Bill Harry who they were. Harry had previously convinced Epstein to sell the magazine at NEMS, with the Beatles featured on the front page of its second issue. The Beatles had recorded the \"My Bonnie\" single with Tony Sheridan in Germany, and some months after its release Epstein asked his personal assistant Alistair Taylor about it in NEMS. Epstein's version of the story was that customer Raymond Jones walked into the NEMS shop and asked him for the \"My Bonnie\" single, which made Epstein curious about the group. Taylor later claimed that he had used the name of Jones (a regular customer) to order the single and paid the deposit, knowing that Epstein would notice it and order further copies. Harry and McCartney later repudiated Epstein's story, as Harry had been talking to Epstein for a long time about the Beatles\u2014the group that he promoted the most in \"Mersey Beat\"\u2014with McCartney saying, \"Brian knew perfectly well who the Beatles were; they were on the front page of the second issue of \"Mersey Beat\"\". On 3 August 1961, Epstein started a regular music column in the \"Mersey Beat\" called \"Stop the World\u2014And Listen To Everything in It: Brian Epstein of NEMS\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of songs recorded by the Beatles",
        "text": "Following their signing with EMI in 1962, each member of the Beatles contributed to songwriting. Their primary songwriters were the partnership of John Lennon and Paul McCartney, who composed most of the group's songs; lead guitarist George Harrison wrote 22 songs, including \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\", \"Something\" and \"Here Comes the Sun\", while drummer Ringo Starr wrote two songs (\"Don't Pass Me By\" and \"Octopus's Garden\"), and was credited as co-writer for four others. While songs written by Lennon or McCartney were always credited to \"Lennon\u2013McCartney\", the pair wrote many songs completely separately. These include \"Come Together\", \"Strawberry Fields Forever\" and \"Nowhere Man\" (Lennon) and \"Hey Jude\", \"Let It Be\" and \"Yesterday\" (McCartney), the last of which is one of the most covered songs of all time. Artists the band covered while together included Chuck Berry (\"Roll Over Beethoven\", \"Rock and Roll Music\"), Carl Perkins (\"Matchbox\", \"Honey Don't\"), Larry Williams (\"Slow Down\", \"Dizzy Miss Lizzy\") and Little Richard (\"Long Tall Sally\"). Cover songs were included on five of the band's core albums: \"Please Please Me\" and \"With the Beatles\" (both 1963), \"Beatles for Sale\" (1964), \"Help!\" (1965) and \"Let It Be\" (1970). Lead vocals were also shared by the group, with Starr usually contributing vocals to one song per album. The group were known for their harmonies, mostly two-part, but sang intricate three-part harmonies on \"This Boy\", \"Yes It Is\" and \"Because\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "The Beatles made their last official live appearance in Britain on 1 May 1966, at the NME Annual Poll-Winners' All-Star Concert at the Empire Pool, Wembley Park. Although the concert was televised, the cameras were switched off while the Beatles played, because Brian Epstein and ABC TV had failed to agree over terms. They were filmed receiving their awards, however."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tony Sheridan",
        "text": "While performing in Hamburg between 1960 and 1963, Sheridan employed various backup bands, most of which were really \"pickup bands\", or simply an amalgam of various musicians, rather than a group proper (though almost always including now bassist Colin \"Melander\" Crawley and usually top-pianist Roy Young). However, in 1961, the young Beatles (with their line-up at the time of John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, Stuart Sutcliffe and Pete Best) who had met and admired Sheridan during their first visit to Hamburg in 1960, and who worked with him on their second visit, became even closer. The Beatles sometimes backed Sheridan, who, in turn, often joined the Beatles during their own sets backing them on guitar. They even visited Sheridan's home and had jamming sessions in the back garden."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cellarful of Noise",
        "text": "They named themselves after Beatles manager Brian Epstein's biography book of the same name."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "On 24 August, the group were introduced to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in London. The next day, they travelled to Bangor for his Transcendental Meditation retreat. On 27 August, their manager's assistant, Peter Brown, phoned to inform them that Epstein had died. The coroner ruled the death an accidental carbitol overdose, although it was widely rumoured to be a suicide. His death left the group disoriented and fearful about the future. Lennon recalled: \"We collapsed. I knew that we were in trouble then. I didn't really have any misconceptions about our ability to do anything other than play music, and I was scared. I thought, 'We've fuckin' had it now.'\" Harrison's then-wife Pattie Boyd remembered that \"Paul and George were in complete shock. I don't think it could have been worse if they had heard that their own fathers had dropped dead.\" During a band meeting in September, McCartney recommended that the band proceed with \"Magical Mystery Tour\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "After the start of his management career, Epstein started taking stimulants, usually Preludin, which did not require a prescription at the time. Lennon, McCartney, Harrison, and Starr had also taken it since their days in Hamburg. Epstein explained his use of the drug as the only means of staying awake at night during numerous concert tours. In 1964 Peter Brown suspected that Epstein was taking too many pills, as he would often cough at parties, which Brown realised was Epstein's way of secretly putting pills into his mouth without anyone noticing. McCartney often met Epstein at late night clubs in London, and remembered that Epstein would often grind his jaws (possibly due to bruxism), once saying to him, \"Ugghhh, the pills\". Epstein also developed dependencies on the drug carbromal, a barbiturate-like sedative/hypnotic drug."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neil Aspinall",
        "text": "The Beatles played at the opening of the Casbah Coffee Club on 29 August 1959, which was in the cellar of Mona Best's house. Aspinall later rented a room in the house and became very good friends with then-Beatle Pete Best. The Beatles had previously used public transport to travel to local bookings, however by February 1961, they were playing two or three shows per night at different locations needing their own transportation. Best asked Aspinall to be a part-time road manager for the band, so Aspinall bought an \"old, grey and maroon Commer van\" for \u00a380, and charged each of the group five shillings (25p) per concert. Harrison later said: \"Our early van became the centre of attention every time it pulled up. It was brush-painted red and grey and from head to foot was covered in graffiti \u2013 girls' names, and things like 'I love you, John'. It looked interesting, but the moment anybody saw it they would feel free to write all over it.\" The Beatles returned from their second trip to Hamburg in July 1961, and Aspinall left his job to become their permanent road manager, as he was earning more money driving them around than he was earning by being an accountant."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did The Beatles become famous in their home country?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I could not find the specific cause, but the Beatles built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg and were helped by guidance from manager Brian Epstein and producer George Martin. Success also brought increased media exposure which played a role."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did Brian Epstein work with any other bands?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "He's managed a number of other bands and singers such as Gerry and the Pacemakers, Billy J. Kramer and the Dakotas, Tommy Quickly, Cilla Black and The Big Three.",
      "Some of Epstein's other young discoveries had also prospered under his management including Gerry and the Pacemakers, Billy J. Kramer and the Dakotas, Tommy Quickly, Cilla Black and The Big Three."
    ],
    "topic": "The Beatles",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Brian Epstein:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Brian Epstein"
        ],
        "ctx": "Within months, the Beatles were international stars. Epstein accompanied them to America, where he was besieged by merchandising offers, but had signed away 90 percent of the rights in advance. This is viewed as his one miscalculation. Some of Epstein's other young discoveries had also prospered under his management. They included Gerry and the Pacemakers, Billy J. Kramer and the Dakotas, Tommy Quickly, Cilla Black and The Big Three. In 1967, he died of a sedative overdose, ruled as accidental, at the age of 32."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Brian Epstein:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Brian Epstein"
        ],
        "ctx": "Within months, the Beatles were international stars. Epstein accompanied them to America, where he was besieged by merchandising offers, but had signed away 90 percent of the rights in advance. This is viewed as his one miscalculation. Some of Epstein's other young discoveries had also prospered under his management. They included Gerry and the Pacemakers, Billy J. Kramer and the Dakotas, Tommy Quickly, Cilla Black and The Big Three. In 1967, he died of a sedative overdose, ruled as accidental, at the age of 32."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "Within months, the Beatles were international stars. Epstein accompanied them to America, where he was besieged by merchandising offers, but had signed away 90 percent of the rights in advance. This is viewed as his one miscalculation. Some of Epstein's other young discoveries had also prospered under his management. They included Gerry and the Pacemakers, Billy J. Kramer and the Dakotas, Tommy Quickly, Cilla Black and The Big Three. In 1967, he died of a sedative overdose, ruled as accidental, at the age of 32."
      },
      {
        "title": "(Just Like) Starting Over",
        "text": "In 2013, \"Billboard\" ranked it as the 62nd biggest hit of all time on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart.\n* John Lennon \u2013 vocals, rhythm guitar\n* Earl Slick, Hugh McCracken \u2013 lead guitar\n* Tony Levin \u2013 bass guitar\n* George Small \u2013 keyboards\n*Andy Newmark \u2013 drums\n*Arthur Jenkins \u2013 percussion\n* Michelle Simpson, Cassandra Wooten, Cheryl Manson Jacks, Eric Troyer \u2013 backing vocals"
      },
      {
        "title": "20 Greatest Hits (Beatles album)",
        "text": "All songs written by Lennon\u2013McCartney"
      },
      {
        "title": "20 Greatest Hits (Beatles album)",
        "text": "For the US LP, catalogue number SV 12245, a five-minute edited version of \"Hey Jude\" was used due to time constraints."
      },
      {
        "title": "1968 in the United States",
        "text": "In popular culture, \"\" was the most profitable film of the year, earning $56.7 million, while \"Oliver!\" won the Academy Award for Best Picture. \"Hey Jude\" by the Beatles was the hottest single of 1968 in the U.S. according to Billboard, demonstrating the continued popularity of bands associated with the British Invasion that began in 1964."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles are the best-selling music act of all time, with estimated sales of 600\u00a0million units worldwide. They hold the record for most number-one albums on the UK Albums Chart (15), most number-one hits on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart (20), and most singles sold in the UK (21.9 million). The band received many accolades, including seven Grammy Awards, four Brit Awards, an Academy Award (for Best Original Song Score for the 1970 documentary film \"Let It Be\") and fifteen Ivor Novello Awards. They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988, and each principal member was inducted individually between 1994 and 2015. In 2004 and 2011, the group topped \"Rolling Stone\"s lists of the greatest artists in history. \"Time\" magazine named them among the ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hey Jude",
        "text": "At over seven minutes in length, \"Hey Jude\" was the longest single to top the British charts up to that time. Its arrangement and extended coda encouraged many imitative works through to the early 1970s. In 2013, \"Billboard\" magazine named it the 11th \"biggest\" song of all time in terms of chart success. McCartney has continued to perform \"Hey Jude\" in concert since Lennon's death in 1980, leading audiences in singing the coda. Julian Lennon and McCartney have each bid successfully at auction for items of memorabilia related to the song's creation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rock music",
        "text": "\"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" was the Beatles' first number one hit on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, spending seven weeks at the top and a total of 15 weeks on the chart. Their first appearance on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\" on 9 February 1964, drawing an estimated 73\u00a0million viewers (at the time a record for an American television program) is considered a milestone in American pop culture. During the week of 4 April 1964, the Beatles held 12 positions on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 singles chart, including the entire top five. The Beatles went on to become the biggest selling rock band of all time and they were followed into the US charts by numerous British bands. During the next two years British acts dominated their own and the US charts with Peter and Gordon, the Animals, Manfred Mann, Petula Clark, Freddie and the Dreamers, Wayne Fontana and the Mindbenders, Herman's Hermits, the Rolling Stones, the Troggs, and Donovan all having one or more number one singles. Other major acts that were part of the invasion included the Kinks and the Dave Clark Five."
      },
      {
        "title": "American rock",
        "text": "British rock broke through to mainstream popularity in the United States in January 1964 with the success of the Beatles. \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" was the band's first number 1 hit on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart, starting the British Invasion of the American music charts. The song entered the chart on January 18, 1964, at number 45 before it became the number 1 single for 7 weeks and went on to last a total of 15 weeks in the chart. Their first appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show February 9 is considered a milestone in American pop culture. The broadcast drew an estimated 73 million viewers, at the time a record for an American television program. The Beatles went on to become the biggest selling rock band of all time and they were followed by numerous British bands, particularly those influenced by blues music including The Rolling Stones, The Animals and The Yardbirds."
      },
      {
        "title": "They Could Have Been Bigger than the Beatles",
        "text": "In 2011, it was included in \"NME's\" \"The 100 Greatest Albums You've Never Heard\" list. It was chosen by Andrew VanWyngarden of MGMT."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "The music and enduring fame of the Beatles were commercially exploited in various other ways, again often outside their creative control. In April 1974, the musical \"John, Paul, George, Ringo ... and Bert\", written by Willy Russell and featuring singer Barbara Dickson, opened in London. It included, with permission from Northern Songs, eleven Lennon-McCartney compositions and one by Harrison, \"Here Comes the Sun\". Displeased with the production's use of his song, Harrison withdrew his permission to use it. Later that year, the off-Broadway musical \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band on the Road\" opened. \"All This and World War II\" (1976) was an unorthodox nonfiction film that combined newsreel footage with covers of Beatles songs by performers ranging from Elton John and Keith Moon to the London Symphony Orchestra. The Broadway musical \"Beatlemania\", an unauthorised nostalgia revue, opened in early 1977 and proved popular, spinning off five separate touring productions. In 1979, the band sued the producers, settling for several million dollars in damages. \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band\" (1978), a musical film starring the Bee Gees and Peter Frampton, was a commercial failure and an \"artistic fiasco\", according to Ingham."
      },
      {
        "title": "British Invasion",
        "text": "The Beatles also held the top five positions on \"Cash Box\"s singles chart that same week, with the first two positions reversed from the Hot 100. The group's massive chart success, which included at least two of their singles holding the top spot on the Hot 100 during each of the seven consecutive years starting with 1964, continued until they broke up in 1970."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' Hits",
        "text": "All songs were written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney and feature either Lennon or McCartney on lead vocals."
      },
      {
        "title": "1960s in music",
        "text": "British rock broke through to mainstream popularity in the United States in January 1964 with the success of the Beatles. \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" was the band's first No. 1 hit on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart, starting the British Invasion of the American music charts. The song entered the chart on January 18, 1964, at No. 45 before it became the No. 1 single for 7 weeks and went on to last a total of 15 weeks in the chart. Their first appearance on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\" February 9 is considered a milestone in American pop culture. The broadcast drew an estimated 73 million viewers, at the time a record for an American television program. The Beatles went on to become the biggest selling rock band of all time and they were followed by numerous British bands."
      },
      {
        "title": "20 Greatest Hits (Beatles album)",
        "text": "The New Zealand version was the same as the American one although originally EMI (NZ) was going to issue the UK version. The covers were printed in New Zealand but the inner sleeve was imported from the U.S."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time",
        "text": "12 songs\n* The Beatles"
      },
      {
        "title": "Glad All Over",
        "text": "In January 1964, it became the British group's first big hit, reaching No.1 on the UK Singles Chart and promptly kicked off the DC5 vs Beatles rivalry, removing the massively successful I Want To Hold Your Hand from the UK No.1. In April 1964, it reached No.6 on the American US \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart, becoming the first British Invasion hit by a group other than The Beatles. It was also No.1 in Ireland, No.3 in Australia and No.2 in Canada. It reached No.4 in the Netherlands and No.16 in Germany."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Big Three (English band)",
        "text": "Epstein arranged for them to audition for Decca Records, for which audition they recorded \"Some Other Guy\". The song was a minor chart hit, and later it became a standard in the Merseybeat scene."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joshua Bartholomew",
        "text": "Bartholomew states that The Beatles played a major part in his childhood and considers them to be \"the greatest band of all time.\" Bartholomew has also named producer, Dave Sardy as his most important modern production influence."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "The best-selling band in history, the Beatles have sold more than 600\u00a0million units . They have had more number-one albums on the UK charts, fifteen, and sold more singles in the UK, 21.9\u00a0million, than any other act. In 2004, \"Rolling Stone\" ranked the Beatles as the most significant and influential rock music artists of the last 50 years. They ranked number one on \"Billboard\" magazine's list of the all-time most successful Hot 100 artists, released in 2008 to celebrate the US singles chart's 50th anniversary. , they hold the record for most number-one hits on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, with twenty. The Recording Industry Association of America certifies that the Beatles have sold 183\u00a0million units in the US, more than any other artist. They were collectively included in \"Time\" magazine's compilation of the . In 2014, they received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award."
      },
      {
        "title": "20 Greatest Hits (Beatles album)",
        "text": "This single-disc compilation was supplanted by the later single-CD album \"1\" with all 27 of the 28 Beatles songs that were number one on either side of the Atlantic including George Harrison's \"Something\" that was absent from the original collection. Harrison's \"For You Blue\", the B-Side of \"The Long and Winding Road\", which was also charted in the top spot by Billboard, was not included on that album."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "The Beatles made their last official live appearance in Britain on 1 May 1966, at the NME Annual Poll-Winners' All-Star Concert at the Empire Pool, Wembley Park. Although the concert was televised, the cameras were switched off while the Beatles played, because Brian Epstein and ABC TV had failed to agree over terms. They were filmed receiving their awards, however."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "Epstein also successfully managed Gerry and the Pacemakers, Billy J. Kramer and the Dakotas (who had four hits with Lennon\u2013McCartney songs), the Fourmost (Lennon wrote their first two singles), the Cyrkle (Epstein's first American group), and Cilla Black (who was Epstein's only female artist), as well as Tommy Quickly and Sounds Incorporated (later known as Sounds Inc.). He sent his roster of artists on \"package tours\" around the UK, a common practice at the time. This involved short sets by each act, alternating with a comp\u00e8re or a comedian. Epstein once revealed that even though he was entitled to be reimbursed by acts for expenses incurred, he paid for his own flights to and from the United States, as he did not see himself as being part of a touring group. Photographs, transport, and international telephone calls were paid from his own 25 percent share in profits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Massachusetts (Bee Gees song)",
        "text": "On 27 August 1967, Beatles' manager Brian Epstein told Maurice Gibb that \"'Massachusetts' is a great song that would be very successful.\" Epstein died later that night."
      },
      {
        "title": "I'm the Greatest",
        "text": "The Beatles broke up in April 1970, having achieved an unprecedented level of international fame for a musical act, and after helping to inspire many of the musical and cultural changes of the 1960s. In the eyes of the media and the public, the band members were divided into two factions: John Lennon, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, all of whom had opted to engage the services of Allen Klein to manage the group's Apple organisation in 1969; and Paul McCartney, whose isolationist stance had been interpreted as the reason for the break-up. On 28 December 1970, a week after learning that McCartney intended to sue his bandmates in the British High Court, Lennon began writing \"I'm the Greatest\". He was inspired to write the song after watching the first UK television broadcast of the Beatles' 1964 film \"A Hard Day's Night\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "Over the 1960s as a whole, the Beatles were the dominant youth-centred pop act on the sales charts. They broke numerous sales and attendance records, many of which they have or had maintained for decades, and continue to enjoy a canonised status unprecedented for popular musicians. Their songs are among the most recorded in history, with cover versions of \"Yesterday\" exceeding thousands. As of 2009, they were the best-selling band in history, with estimated sales of over 600\u00a0million records worldwide.<ref name=\"RooneySmith/CNN\"></ref> \"Time\" included them in ."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beatlemania",
        "text": "The Beatles' success established the popularity of British musical acts for the first time in the US. By mid 1964, several more UK acts came to the US, including the Dave Clark Five, the Rolling Stones, Billy J. Kramer, and Gerry & the Pacemakers. Completing what commentators termed the British Invasion of the US pop market, one-third of all top ten hits there in 1964 were performed by British acts. The Beatles' chart domination was repeated in countries around the world during 1964, as were the familiar displays of mania wherever the band played. Fans besieged their hotels, where sheets and pillowcases were stolen for souvenirs. As the phenomenon escalated over 1964\u201365, travelling to concert venues involved a journey via helicopter and armoured car. These arrangements came to resemble military operations, with decoy vehicles and a level of security normally afforded a head of state. Contrary to the presentable image the Beatles maintained for reporters covering the tours, their evening parties often descended into orgies with female admirers, which Lennon later likened to the scenes of Roman decadence in Frederico Fellini's film \"Satyricon\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul McCartney",
        "text": "\"Yesterday\" is one of the most covered songs in history with more than 2,200 recorded versions, and according to the BBC, \"the track is the only one by a UK writer to have been aired more than seven\u00a0million times on American TV and radio and is third in the all-time list\u00a0... [and] is the most played song by a British writer [last] century in the US\". His 1968 Beatles composition \"Hey Jude\" achieved the highest sales in the UK that year and topped the US charts for nine weeks, which is longer than any other Beatles single. It was also the longest single released by the band and, at seven minutes eleven seconds, was at that time the longest number one. \"Hey Jude\" is the best-selling Beatles single, achieving sales of over five\u00a0million copies soon after its release."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ken Mansfield",
        "text": "At the time of the Apple debut, everyone agreed that the Beatles first single on the new label had to be a smash. The group was stymied on whether to release \u201cHey Jude\u201d or \u201cRevolution\u201d as Apple's first single. \u201cHey Jude,\u201d which clocked in at an unprecedented 7:11, was the obvious choice. However, it was still the era of the less than three-minute record and Top 40 stations gained listeners by playing the most hits in an hour. Mansfield came up with the solution by bringing an advance copy of the two songs from the UK to America and playing them to a few trusted radio station managers, who were unanimous in their decision that \u201cHey Jude\u201d was the hit. They were right. When the song was released in September 1968, it topped the \"Billboard\" charts for nine weeks and became the Beatles' best selling single of all time."
      },
      {
        "title": "20 Greatest Hits (Beatles album)",
        "text": "Note: On the US Cassette (EMI-Capitol C4-12245) \"Penny Lane\" is track 13, but appears at the end of Side 1, rather than the beginning of Side 2. On the original United States LP and Canadian cassette versions of the album \"Hey Jude\" was edited 5:09 due to time constraints. The United States cassette edition contains the full version of the song."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' North American releases",
        "text": "The Beatles experienced huge popularity on the British record charts in early 1963, but record companies in the United States did not immediately follow up with releases of their own, and the Beatles' commercial success in the US continued to be hampered by other obstacles, including issues with royalties and public derision toward the \"Beatle haircut\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "20 Greatest Hits (Beatles album)",
        "text": "20 Greatest Hits (Beatles album)\n--Releases.\n----UK edition.\n----US edition.\n----Other versions.\n--Track listing.\n----US edition.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "20 Greatest Hits (Beatles album)",
        "text": "In 1979 and 1980, a similar album called \"20 Golden Hits\" was issued in many countries outside Britain and the U.S."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "The group's popularity generated unprecedented interest in British music, and many other UK acts subsequently made their American debuts, successfully touring over the next three years in what was termed the British Invasion. The Beatles' success in the US opened the door for a successive string of British beat groups and pop acts such as the Dave Clark Five, the Animals, Petula Clark, the Kinks, and the Rolling Stones to achieve success in America. During the week of 4 April 1964, the Beatles held twelve positions on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 singles chart, including the top five."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Big Three (English band)",
        "text": "The Big Three and Epstein terminated their partnership in July 1963. Gustafson and Griffiths quit in November 1963, and with drummer Ian Broad from Rory Storm and the Hurricanes formed the Seniors and left for Germany. Hutchinson replaced them with Faron Ruffley (born William Faron Ruffley, 8 January 1942, Walton, Liverpool) and Paddy Chambers (born Patrick John Chambers, 3 April 1944, Liverpool, died 18 September 2000) from Faron's Flamingos."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hey Jude",
        "text": "The single was a highly successful debut for Apple Records, a result that contrasted with the public embarrassment the band faced after the recent closure of their short-lived retail venture, Apple Boutique. In the description of music journalist Paul Du Noyer, the song's \"monumental quality ... amazed the public in 1968\"; in addition, the release silenced detractors in the British mainstream press who had relished the opportunity to criticise the band for their December 1967 television special, \"Magical Mystery Tour\", and their trip to Rishikesh in early 1968. In the US, the single similarly brought an end to speculation that the Beatles' popularity might be diminishing, after \"Lady Madonna\" had peaked at number 4."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "By early 1964, the Beatles were international stars and had achieved unprecedented levels of critical and commercial success. They became a leading force in Britain's cultural resurgence, ushering in the British Invasion of the United States pop market, and soon made their film debut with \"A Hard Day's Night\" (1964). From 1965 onwards, they produced records of greater sophistication, including the albums \"Rubber Soul\" (1965), \"Revolver\" (1966) and \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band\" (1967), and enjoyed further commercial success with \"The Beatles\" (also known as \"the White Album\", 1968) and \"Abbey Road\" (1969). Heralding the album era, their success elevated the album to be the dominant form of record consumption over singles; they also inspired a greater public interest in psychedelic drugs and Eastern spirituality, and furthered advancements in electronic music, album art and music videos. In 1968, they founded Apple Corps, a multi-armed multimedia corporation that continues to oversee projects related to the band's legacy. After the group's break-up in 1970, all principal members enjoyed success as solo artists and some partial reunions have occurred. Lennon was murdered in 1980 and Harrison died of lung cancer in 2001. McCartney and Starr remain musically active."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barnston, Merseyside",
        "text": "On 24 March 1962, The Beatles performed at the Barnston Women's Institute. It is noted that this was the first time that Brian Epstein put The Beatles into suits for their performances. John Lennon regarded this as the first, and perhaps the ultimate, sellout of their career. The Beatles played here again on Saturday 30 June and Tuesday 25 September 1962."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles formed in Liverpool in 1960; as a foursome comprising John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, they gained international stardom in 1964, and remained active until their break-up in 1970. Throughout the band's career, they expanded collective notions regarding the limits of commercial and artistic achievement. In \"Rolling Stone\" magazine's \"Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll\" (2001), the editors define their \"incalculable\" influence as encompassing \"all of Western culture\". The writers state that the group's discography held the precedent for \"virtually every rock experiment\u00a0... Although many of their sales and attendance records have since been surpassed, no group has so radically transformed the sound and significance of rock & roll.\" Writing for AllMusic, critic Richie Unterberger recognises the Beatles as both \"the greatest and most influential act of the rock era\" and a group that \"introduced more innovations into popular music than any other rock band of the 20th century\". He adds:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul is dead",
        "text": "In November 1969, Capitol Records sales managers reported a significant increase in sales of Beatles catalogue albums, attributed to the rumour. Rocco Catena, Capitol's vice-president of national merchandising, estimated that \"this is going to be the biggest month in history in terms of Beatles sales\".<ref name=\"Burks/RS\"></ref> The rumour benefited the commercial performance of \"Abbey Road\" in the US, where it comfortably outsold all of the band's previous albums. \"Sgt. Pepper\" and \"Magical Mystery Tour\", both of which had been off the charts since February, re-entered the \"Billboard\" Top LPs chart, peaking at number 101 and number 109, respectively."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles in film",
        "text": "The Beatles were an English rock band formed in Liverpool in 1960. With a line-up comprising John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, they are commonly regarded as the most influential band of all time. Between 1964 and 1970, they appeared in five major motion pictures, beginning with \"A Hard Day's Night\" (1964) and ending with \"Let It Be\" (1970). From late 1965 to 1969, the group also appeared in several promotional films for their singles, which have been credited with anticipating music videos and the rise of MTV in the 1980s."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tommy Roe",
        "text": "However, in March 1963, the UK music magazine \"NME\" reported that he and Chris Montez had both been upstaged by the Beatles and their fans on a 21-day UK tour. Late that year, Roe scored a Top 10 hit with \"Everybody\", which reached US number 3 and UK number 9, and \"The Folk Singer\" (number 4 UK) written by Merle Kilgore was also popular."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "The Beatles signed a five-year contract with Epstein on 24 January 1962 giving Epstein 10 to 15 per cent of their income. They signed a new contract in October 1962 which gave Epstein 15, 20, or 25 per cent of revenues, depending on how much he helped the band earn. The Beatles would then share any income after various expenses had been deducted. Epstein then formed a management company, NEMS Enterprises, telling his parents that managing the group was only a part-time occupation and would not interfere with the family business."
      },
      {
        "title": "Midas Man",
        "text": "The film tracks how Brian Epstein shot to fame at the age of 25 by discovering a series of artists including The Beatles, Cilla Black and Gerry and the Pacemakers before he died at the age of 32.\n* Jacob Fortune-Lloyd as Brian Epstein\n* Emily Watson as Malka, Epstein's mother\n* Eddie Marsan as Harry, Epstein's father\n* Omari Douglas as Lonnie Trimble\n* Rosie Day as Cilla Black\n* Lukas Gage as Tex Ellington\n* Charley Palmer Rothwell as George Martin\n* Bill Milner as Clive, Epstein's brother\n* Jay Leno as Ed Sullivan\n* Jonah Lees as John Lennon\n* Blake Richardson as Paul McCartney\n* Leo Harvey Elledge as George Harrison\n* Campbell Wallace as Ringo Starr\n* Adam Lawrence as Pete Best\n* Jordan Kelly as Gerry Marsden"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "In the UK, the Beatles are beaten only by Presley for their amount of number-one singles and combined weeks at number one. As of December 2018, the Beatles held the record for the most Christmas number-one hits there, with four, of which three were achieved in successive years between 1963 and 1965. In the list of the UK's top sellers for the decade, the band's albums filled the top ten, apart from the soundtracks to \"The Sound of Music\", \"South Pacific\" and \"West Side Story\". The Beatles took the next three positions, meaning that all ten of their UK number-one albums were among the thirteen best-selling albums of the 1960s.<ref name=\"Mawer/OCC\"></ref> In the case of US sales for the 1960s, the Beatles were the top artist, ahead of Presley, in both singles and albums. Between February 1964 and July 1970, the band maintained the number-one single on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 for a total of 59 weeks and topped \"Billboard\"s LPs chart for 116 weeks. In other words, they had the top-selling single one out of every six weeks, and the top-selling album one out of every three weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Most Famous Hits",
        "text": "Most Famous Hits is a live concert DVD by Ringo Starr and His All-Starr Band release April 14, 2003. The concert features accompaniments by Joe Walsh, Clarence Clemons and others. Running time is 111 Minutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of UK top-ten singles in 1968",
        "text": "Until 1970 there was no universally recognised year-end best-sellers list. However in 2011 the Official Charts Company released a list of the best-selling single of each year in chart history from 1952 to date. According to the list, \"Hey Jude\" by The Beatles is officially recorded as the biggest-selling single of 1968.\n;Key"
      },
      {
        "title": "20 Greatest Hits (Beatles album)",
        "text": "The UK version of the album comprised all 19 tracks from the 17 Beatles singles to top the UK Singles Chart (including both sides of the double A-sides \"Day Tripper\"/\"We Can Work It Out\" and \"Yellow Submarine\"/\"Eleanor Rigby\") plus the Beatles' first chart hit \"Love Me Do\", which peaked at number 17 in the UK."
      },
      {
        "title": "They Could Have Been Bigger than the Beatles",
        "text": "All tracks composed by Daniel Treacy; except where indicated"
      },
      {
        "title": "Peter Wheat and the Breadmen",
        "text": "Thanks to Carlos's marketing and scheduling, Peter Wheat and the Breadmen soon began opening for prominent music acts such as the Byrds, the Animals, and frequently were paired with Paul Revere & the Raiders. In March 1966, the band recorded \"Baby, What's New?\" and \"All the Time\" for their lone single, which was released on the Amber label and met with regional success. With all the good fortune the band was enjoying, they were scheduled to open for the Beatles' August 29, 1966 performance at Candlestick Park, however conflicts with labor unions limited the group to being spectators to the Fab Four's final live act. In September 1966, Birdwell and Kennedy were met with controversary when their school district refused enrollment by reasoning that their hair was too long. The opposition received brief national media attention until Birdwell and Kennedy conceded and trimmed their hair. In late 1966, Peter Wheat and the Breadmen, as a result of Carlos's encouragement and inspiration from the Beatles' song \"Got to Get You into My Life\", added a horn section to their live act. However, the professionalism of the horn players clashed with the band's free-form instrumentals, and consequently caused the group's disbandment in early 1967."
      },
      {
        "title": "My Sweet Lord",
        "text": "In Britain, \"My Sweet Lord\" entered the charts at number 7, before hitting number 1 on 30 January and staying there for five weeks. It was the biggest-selling single of 1971 in the UK and performed similarly well around the world, particularly in France and Germany, where it held the top spot for nine and ten weeks, respectively. In his 2001 appraisal of Harrison's Apple recordings, for \"Record Collector\", Doggett described Harrison as \"arguably the most successful rock star on the planet\" over this period, adding: My Sweet Lord' and \"All Things Must Pass\" topped charts all over the world, easily outstripping other solo Beatles projects later in the year, such as \"Ram\" and \"Imagine\".\"<ref name=\"Doggett/RecColl p 37\">Doggett, p. 37.</ref>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles' success in the US established the popularity of British groups and affected the musical style of American bands. In doing so, however, the Beatles inadvertently caused a sharp decrease in sales for black artists and the decline of many of the girl groups they admired. By mid 1964, several more UK acts arrived in the US, including the Dave Clark Five, the Rolling Stones, Billy J. Kramer and Gerry & the Pacemakers. Confirming the British Invasion of the US pop market, one-third of all top ten hits there in 1964 were performed by British acts. The depth of the Beatles' US impact was also reflected in a wave of easy listening adaptations of their songs, aimed at the adult market. This trend was led by the Boston Pops Orchestra recording \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" and the Hollyridge Strings covering \"All My Loving\", after which the latter orchestra released the 1964 album \"The Beatles Song Book\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bigger Than the Beatles",
        "text": "Alanna Nash of \"Entertainment Weekly\" gave the song a C-minus rating, with her review calling it a \"lighthearted tale of an amateur rocker and his shopgirl squeeze\" and \"just a lame device to evoke the names of beloved rock heroes.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles at The Cavern Club",
        "text": "The Cavern Club at 10 Mathew Street, in Liverpool was the venue where the Beatles' UK popularity started. John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Pete Best were first seen by Brian Epstein at the club. Epstein eventually became their manager, going on to secure them a record contract. Best was replaced by Ringo Starr on 16 August 1962, which upset many Beatles fans. After taunts of, \"Pete forever, Ringo never!\", one agitated fan headbutted Harrison in the club."
      },
      {
        "title": "20 Greatest Hits (Beatles album)",
        "text": "The original issues of this album accidentally indicates the running time of \"Yesterday\" as being 1:04 in length. Later issues have the correct 2:04 running time."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Big Three (English band)",
        "text": "Brian Epstein signed them to his agency and sent them over to Hamburg's Star-Club. It was during that trip in July 1962 that Brian Griffiths (born 27 August 1943, Liverpool) joined the group, and the best-known line-up of the Big Three was established. Barber would subsequently emigrate to the United States, where he would later become known as an in-house recording engineer and producer at Atlantic Records, where he produced the Allman Brothers Band's debut album in 1969."
      },
      {
        "title": "What'd I Say",
        "text": "The song was also influential in the United Kingdom. Paul McCartney was immediately struck by the song and knew when he heard it that he wanted to be involved in making music. George Harrison remembered an all-night party he attended in 1959 where the song was played for eight hours non-stop: \"It was one of the best records I ever heard.\" While the Beatles were developing their sound in Hamburg, they played \"What'd I Say\" at every show, trying to see how long they could make the song last and using the audience in the call and response, with which they found immense popularity. The opening electric piano in the song was the first John Lennon had ever heard, and he tried to replicate it with his guitar. Lennon later credited Charles' opening of \"What'd I Say\" to the birth of songs dominated by guitar riffs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Big Time Movie Soundtrack",
        "text": "All songs were written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney, as part of their Lennon\u2013McCartney partnership. All songs were originally recorded by The Beatles spanning over their 8-year recording career as a group."
      },
      {
        "title": "They Could Have Been Bigger than the Beatles",
        "text": "They Could Have Been Bigger than the Beatles\n--Track listing.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Penny Lane",
        "text": "The Beatles' low public profile since completing their 1966 US tour in late August caused concern for Brian Epstein, their manager, who feared that the band's popularity might suffer. Wary also of the threat presented by the Monkees, an American television and recording act formed in the Beatles' image, Epstein conceded to pressure from EMI in January 1967 and approached Martin for a new single by the band. Martin told him that they had recorded \"Strawberry Fields Forever\" and \"Penny Lane\", which he considered to be the group's best songs up to that point."
      },
      {
        "title": "I'm the Greatest",
        "text": "\"I'm the Greatest\" is a song written by English musician John Lennon that was released as the opening track of the 1973 album \"Ringo\" by Ringo Starr. With Starr, Lennon and George Harrison appearing on the track, it marks the only time that three former Beatles recorded together between the band's break-up in 1970 and Lennon's death in 1980. Lennon wrote the song in December 1970 as a wry comment on his rise to fame, and later tailored the lyrics for Starr to sing. Named after one of Muhammad Ali's catchphrases, the song partly evokes the stage-show concept of the Beatles' 1967 album \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Fabulous Counts",
        "text": "The band's biggest hit came in 1972 under a pseudonym: \"Mr. Penguin - Pt. 1\" by Lunar Funk, recorded and released on Bell Records while they were still signed to Westbound. It reached #29 R&B and #63 on the Hot 100."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Collection of Beatles Oldies",
        "text": "At this time, the Beatles came second in the World Vocal Group category in the \"NME\"s annual readers poll, finishing with 5221 votes to the Beach Boys' 5321 \u2013 marking the only year between 1963 and 1969 that the Beatles failed to win in that category. Reports in \"Billboard\" and \"KRLA Beat\" attributed this result partly to the lack of new music from the band, and the fact that they had not toured the UK in 1966. According to author Jonathan Gould, Epstein's concern was the Monkees, whose rise influenced his decision to cede to EMI's demands and release \"Strawberry Fields Forever\" and \"Penny Lane\" as a single in February 1967."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cilla Black",
        "text": "In her autobiography \"What's It All About?\" she wrote:I'd chosen to do \"Summertime\", but at the very last moment I wished I hadn't. I adored this song, and had sung it when I came to Birkenhead with the Big Three, but I hadn't rehearsed it with the Beatles and it had just occurred to me that they would play it in the wrong key. It was too late for second thoughts, though. With one last wicked wink at me, John set the group off playing. I'd been right to worry. The music was not in my key and any adjustments that the boys were now trying to make were too late to save me. My voice sounded awful. Destroyed\u2014and wanting to die\u2014I struggled on to the end.But after seeing her another day, at the Blue Angel jazz club, Epstein contracted with Black as his only female client on 6 September 1963. Epstein introduced Black to George Martin who signed her to Parlophone Records and produced her d\u00e9but single, \"Love of the Loved\" (written by Lennon and McCartney), which was released only three weeks after she joined Epstein. Despite an appearance on ABC Television's popular \"Thank Your Lucky Stars\", the single peaked at a modest No. 35 in the UK, a relative failure compared to the d\u00e9buts of Epstein's most successful artists (the Beatles, Gerry and the Pacemakers and Billy J. Kramer with the Dakotas)."
      },
      {
        "title": "It's All Too Much",
        "text": "\"It's All Too Much\" was remixed for inclusion on the \"Yellow Submarine\" album on 16 October 1968. The vocals and handclaps were processed using automatic double tracking, so allowing these parts to be split across the stereo image. For this version, the song was edited down from the original eight minutes to a running time of 6:28, making it the longest officially released Beatles track written by Harrison. The edit was achieved by cutting a 35-second portion from around the three-minute mark, thereby removing the third chorus and the fourth verse (the last of which, beginning with the line \"Time for me to look at you and you to look at me\", had appeared in the film), and by fading out before the final minute of the coda."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles continue to be viewed as representing the ideals of the 1960s. In Inglis's description, \"their voices and faces were the most recognized symbols of the 'swinging sixties' and they became \u2013 and remain \u2013 the iconic images of the decade.\" In 2004, the band were the most-represented act in \"Rolling Stone\"s list of the \"500 Greatest Songs of All Time\", with seven out of 23 Beatles songs making the top 30. In 2009, Global Beatles Day was founded as an international celebration of the band's music and social message.<ref name=\"GBD/IndianExpress\"></ref> The event takes place on 25 June each year in memory of the \"Our World\" performance of \"All You Need Is Love\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "It's All Too Much",
        "text": "Writing for \"Rolling Stone\" in 2002, Greg Kot admired the song, saying: \"once again, a raga-flavored groove brings out Harrison's best in the walloping 'It's All Too Much.'\" That same year, Nigel Williamson of \"Uncut\" described it as \"a psychedelic classic\" that, had it been recorded earlier in 1967, \"would have made \"Sgt Pepper\" an even better album\". In the 2004 edition of \"The Rolling Stone Album Guide\", Rob Sheffield wrote: \"\"Yellow Submarine\" was a flat soundtrack rather than a real album, but here's a question: Why is George's 'It's All Too Much' not heralded as one of the top five all-time psychedelic freakouts in rock history?\" Sheffield features the track in his 2017 book \"Dreaming the Beatles\", where he refers to it as \"the great lost Beatle song \u2013 the one that deserves to be infinitely more famous than it is\", adding: \"It's where they really nailed the \"Sgt. Pepper\" sound \u2013 that combination of acid-rock momentum and brass-band frippery. 'It's All Too Much' would have been the second or third best song on \"Sgt. Pepper\" ...\" Richie Unterberger of AllMusic similarly considers \"Yellow Submarine\" to be \"inessential\" and describes the track as \"the jewel of the new songs\u00a0... resplendent in swirling [organ], larger-than-life percussion, and tidal waves of feedback guitar\" and \"a virtuoso excursion into otherwise hazy psychedelia\".<ref name=\"Unterberger/AM\"></ref>"
      },
      {
        "title": "I'm the Greatest",
        "text": "The press soon learned of the March 1973 collaboration, leading to heightened rumours regarding a full Beatles reunion, particularly in the UK. That same month, Starr announced that any such reunion was \"absolutely out of the question\". In October, by which point he had separated from Ono, Lennon told Chris Charlesworth of \"Melody Maker\" that the four ex-Beatles were \"closer now than we have been for a long time\" and there was \"always a chance\" of a temporary reunion.<ref name=\"Charlesworth/MM\"></ref> He added that McCartney would probably have played on \"I'm the Greatest\" also, had he been in Los Angeles at the time. Recognising the importance of the session with Lennon and Harrison, Starr decided to record McCartney's contribution to \"Ringo\", \"Six O'Clock\", in London, to ensure that McCartney also appeared on the album."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "\"Sgt. Pepper\" topped the UK charts for 23 consecutive weeks, with a further four weeks at number one in the period through to February 1968. With 2.5\u00a0million copies sold within three months of its release, \"Sgt. Pepper\"s initial commercial success exceeded that of all previous Beatles albums. It sustained its immense popularity into the 21st century while breaking numerous sales records. In 2003, \"Rolling Stone\" ranked \"Sgt. Pepper\" at number one on its list of the greatest albums of all time."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of songs covered by the Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles were an English rock band from Liverpool. With members John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, the group is often considered the most influential band of the rock era. While active between 1960 and 1970, the group recorded hundreds of songs, with their \"main catalogue\" consisting of 213 songs, which include 188 originals and 25 covers. Since their break-up, a further 41 covers the Beatles recorded as a group have been released.\n* \"Blue Suede Shoes\" \u2013 \"Live Peace in Toronto 1969\" - Plastic Ono Band, 1969\n* \"Dizzy Miss Lizzy\" \u2013 \"Live Peace in Toronto 1969\" - Plastic Ono Band, 1969\n* \"Ya Ya\" (Lee Dorsey) \u2013 \"Walls and Bridges\", 1974; \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Be-Bop-A-Lula\" (Gene Vincent) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Stand by Me\" (Ben E. King) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Rip It Up\"/\"Ready Teddy\" (Little Richard) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"You Can't Catch Me\" (Chuck Berry) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Ain't That a Shame\" (Fats Domino) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Do You Wanna Dance?\" (Bobby Freeman) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Sweet Little Sixteen\" (Chuck Berry) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Slippin' and Slidin'\" (Little Richard) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Peggy Sue\" (Buddy Holly) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Bring It On Home to Me\"/\"Send Me Some Lovin'\" (Sam Cooke/Lloyd Price) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Bony Moronie\" (Larry Williams) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Just Because\" (Lloyd Price) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Hound Dog\" (Big Mama Thornton) \u2013 \"Live in New York City\", 1986\n* \"Baby Please Don't Go\" (Walter Ward) \u2013 \"John Lennon Anthology\", 1998\n* \"Ain't She Sweet\" (Yellen/Ager) \u2013 \"John Lennon Anthology\", 1998\n* \"Be My Baby\" (Phil Spector) \u2013 \"John Lennon Anthology\", 1998\n* \"Only You\" (Ande Rand/Buck Ram) \u2013 \"John Lennon Anthology\", 1998\n* \"Mucho Mungo\" (Harry Nilsson) \u2013 \"John Lennon Anthology\", 1998\n* \"Angel Baby\" (Rosie Hamlin) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 2004 reissue\n* \"To Know Her Is to Love Her\" (Phil Spector) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 2004 reissue\n* \"Since My Baby Left Me\" (Arthur Crudup) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 2004 reissue\n* \"Just Because (Reprise)\" \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 2004 reissue\n* \"Ain't No Sunshine\" \u2013 (Bill Withers)\n* \"All Shook Up\" \u2013 (Elvis Presley)\n* \"Be Bop a Lula\" \u2013 (Gene Vincent)\n* \"Blue Jean Bop\" \u2013 (Gene Vincent)\n* \"Blue Moon of Kentucky\" \u2013 (Bill Monroe)\n* \"Brown Eyed Handsome Man\" \u2013 (Chuck Berry)\n* \"Go Now\" \u2013 (The Moody Blues)\n* \"Good Rocking Tonight\" \u2013 (Roy Brown)\n* \"Hi-Heel Sneakers\" \u2013 (Tommy Tucker)\n* \"Lonesome Town\" \u2013 (Ricky Nelson)\n* \"Love is Strange\" \u2013 (Mickey and Sylvia)\n* \"Richard Cory\" \u2013 (Simon & Garfunkel)\n* \"San Francisco Bay Blues\" \u2013 (Jesse Fuller)\n* \"Singing The Blues\" \u2013 (Marty Robbins)\n* \"Twenty Flight Rock\" \u2013 (Eddie Cochran)"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' Hits",
        "text": "The Beatles' Hits\n--Track listing.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bigger Than the Beatles",
        "text": "\"Bigger Than the Beatles\" debuted at number 58 on the U.S. \"Billboard\" Hot Country Singles & Tracks for the week of December 2, 1995."
      },
      {
        "title": "Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)",
        "text": "\"Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)\" replaced Wings' \"My Love\" at number 1 on the Hot 100 singles chart, and in turn was replaced by \"Will It Go Round in Circles\",<ref name=\"Mapes/Billboard\">Jillian Mapes, \"George Harrison's 10 Biggest Billboard Hits\", billboard.com, 29 November 2011 (retrieved 19 July 2016).</ref> by Harrison's former Apple Records prot\u00e9g\u00e9 Billy Preston. For the week ending 30 June that year, the Harrison, McCartney and Preston songs were ranked numbers 1, 2 and 3, respectively, on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, marking the first time since 25 April 1964 that the Beatles occupied the top two positions on that chart. Schaffner described this period as \"reminiscent of the golden age of Beatlemania\", due to the amount of Beatles-related product dominating the charts in America. As of October 2013, the week of 30 June 1973 remained the only time that two former members of the Beatles held the first and second positions on a US singles chart."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dick Rowe",
        "text": "He was one of the most important producers and record executives in the United Kingdom in the 1950s and early 1960s and is the man who signed the Rolling Stones, Them (Van Morrison), the Moody Blues, the Tremeloes, the Zombies, John Mayall's Bluesbreakers, the Brumbeats, the Tornados, Tom Jones, the Small Faces, the Marmalade, Billy Fury, Tommy Steele, The Animals, Cat Stevens, Procol Harum, Kathy Kirby, Gilbert O Sullivan, and the Circus amongst others. Rowe rejected The Beatles (in fact one of his A&R team Mike Smith, brought two deals to Rowe, his boss; Brian Poole and the Tremeloes and the Beatles, and unfortunately he only allowed him to sign one deal, the group that lived near London, who actually had more initial success than the Beatles). However, the Beatles went on to land a recording contract with EMI/Parlophone and become the biggest selling and most influential rock band of all time."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' North American releases",
        "text": "These record releases led to a new dimension of chart success for the Beatles, and they held the top five positions on the \"Billboard\" magazine Hot 100 chart and the \"Cashbox\" magazine Top 100 chart for April 1964. A record 14 Beatle records were on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart the following week."
      },
      {
        "title": "20 Greatest Hits (Beatles album)",
        "text": "20 Greatest Hits is a compilation album featuring a selection of songs by The Beatles that were number one singles in the UK and US. It was released on 11 October 1982 in the United States and 18 October in the United Kingdom and marked the 20th anniversary of The Beatles' first record release, \"Love Me Do\", in the UK in October 1962. \"20 Greatest Hits\" was the last Beatles album to be released with variations between the U.S. and UK versions (some Beatles hits in the US were not released as singles in the UK, such as \"Eight Days a Week\" and \"Yesterday\"). There is an extremely rare 8 track tape version of this album, which approximately 10 to 15 copies still exist today. Legend has it that Capitol Records decided to pull the plug on the release at the last minute, as 8 tracks were not selling well in late 1982, and all copies were to be destroyed. However, there were a few that survived."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "Epstein once offered all four Beatles a fixed wage of \u00a350 a week for life (). Harrison remembered that he was earning \u00a325 a week at the time (), which was more than the \u00a310 a week that his father was earning (). The group declined Epstein's offer, believing that they were worth much more than \u00a350 a week."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Lennon",
        "text": "In late June, the Beatles performed Lennon's \"All You Need Is Love\" as Britain's contribution to the \"Our World\" satellite broadcast, before an international audience estimated at up to 400\u00a0million. Intentionally simplistic in its message, the song formalised his pacifist stance and provided an anthem for the Summer of Love. After the Beatles were introduced to the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, the group attended an August weekend of personal instruction at his Transcendental Meditation seminar in Bangor, Wales. During the seminar, they were informed of Epstein's death. \"I knew we were in trouble then\", Lennon said later. \"I didn't have any misconceptions about our ability to do anything other than play music. I was scared \u2013 I thought, 'We've fucking had it now.'\" McCartney organised the group's first post-Epstein project, the self-written, -produced and -directed television film \"Magical Mystery Tour\", which was released in December that year. While the film itself proved to be their first critical flop, its soundtrack release, featuring Lennon's Lewis Carroll-inspired \"I Am the Walrus\", was a success."
      },
      {
        "title": "All Things Must Pass",
        "text": "The extent of Harrison's success surprised the music industry and largely overshadowed Lennon's concurrently released \"Plastic Ono Band\" album, which Spector also co-produced. Writing in the April 2001 issue of \"Record Collector\", Peter Doggett described Harrison as \"arguably the most successful rock star on the planet\" at the start of 1971, with \"All Things Must Pass\" \"easily outstripping other solo Beatles projects later in the year, such as [McCartney's] \"Ram\" and [Lennon's] \"Imagine\"\". Harrison's so-called \"\"Billboard\" double\" \u2013 whereby one artist simultaneously holds the top positions on the magazine's albums and singles listings \u2013 was a feat that none of his former bandmates equalled until Paul McCartney and Wings repeated the achievement in June 1973. At the 1972 Grammy Awards, \"All Things Must Pass\" was nominated for Album of the Year and \"My Sweet Lord\" for Record of the Year, but Harrison lost out in both categories to Carole King."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bigger Than the Beatles",
        "text": "Bigger Than the Beatles\n--Content.\n--Critical reception.\n--Music video.\n--Chart history.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' Million Sellers",
        "text": "All songs written and composed by Lennon\u2013McCartney."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Songs Lennon and McCartney Gave Away",
        "text": "With the exception of \"I'm the Greatest\", a Ringo Starr album track written for him by John Lennon in 1973, all songs were recorded and released as singles during the active Beatles years in the 1960s."
      },
      {
        "title": "I'm the Greatest",
        "text": "Helped by the speculation surrounding Starr's collaborations with his former bandmates, and by the interest generated by the two Beatles compilations, \"Ringo\" was a commercial success, overshadowing Lennon's concurrently released \"Mind Games\". Acknowledging Starr's achievement, Lennon sent him a telegram that read: \"Congratulations. How dare you? And please write me a hit song.\" Lennon pushed for \"I'm the Greatest\" to be issued as the third single off the album in the United States, but \"Oh My My\", written by Starr and Vini Poncia, was chosen instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "Principally through McCartney's melody writing, the Beatles created many songs that became the most widely recorded of all time, including \"And I Love Her\", \"Yesterday\", \"Michelle\", \"Eleanor Rigby\", \"Here, There and Everywhere\", \"The Fool on the Hill\", \"Hey Jude\", \"Blackbird\", \"Let It Be\" and \"The Long and Winding Road\". According to Doggett, these mainly McCartney-written songs provided contemporary relevance for \"light orchestras and crooners\" in the easy listening category, persuaded adults that the new generation's musical tastes had merit, and \"ensured that Lennon and McCartney would become the highest-earning composers in history\". Harrison's songwriting widened the Beatles' range further, although his level of contribution remained limited by Lennon and McCartney's dominance throughout the band's career. His song \"Something\" was also widely covered, and earned rare praise from Sinatra, who described it as \"the greatest love song of the past fifty years\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' 1966 US tour",
        "text": "This tour compares phenomenally well with last year's. It's much better all round this year, from the point of view of increased interest and we are actually playing to bigger audiences. Here in Los Angeles, for example, 36,000 people saw the Beatles at the Hollywood Bowl [in August 1965]. Today's concert at Dodger Stadium is attracting 10,000 more. People have been saying things about diminishing popularity, but all one can go by is attendances, which are absolutely huge. By the time we leave, 400,000 people will have seen this series of shows ..."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles at The Cavern Club",
        "text": "The Beatles' name was first noticed by Epstein in the first issue of Bill Harry's \"Mersey Beat\" magazine (which Epstein successfully sold in his NEMS music store), on numerous posters around Liverpool, and on the front page of the second issue of \"Mersey Beat\". before asking journalist Harry who they were."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles at The Cavern Club",
        "text": "After the performance, Epstein and Taylor went into the dressing room, which he later called \"as big as a broom cupboard\", to talk to them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bill Harry",
        "text": "The results were announced on 4 January 1962, with the Beatles in first place. The results were printed in issue 13 of \"Mersey Beat\" on 4 January 1962, with the now famous front page announcing, \"Beatles Top Poll!\" Such was the popularity of the poll, Rushworth's music store manager, Bob Hobbs, presented Lennon and George Harrison with new guitars. At the time, many groups in Liverpool complained to Harry that his newspaper should be called \"Mersey Beatles\", as he featured them so often."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of UK top-ten singles in 1968",
        "text": "Nineteen artists scored multiple entries in the top 10 in 1968. The Beatles secured the record for most top 10 hits in 1968 with four hit singles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pete Best",
        "text": "Brian Epstein, who had been unofficially managing the Beatles for less than a month, arranged a recording audition at Decca Records in London on New Year's Day, 1962. The group recorded 15 songs, mostly cover versions with three Lennon\u2013McCartney songs. Best also recorded the song \"Going Back Manchester\" with Lennon at this time, which would later feature as a bonus track on the special edition of his album \"Best of the Beatles\", the rights of the song belonging to Best due to a legal technicality. A month later, Decca informed Epstein the group had been rejected. The band members were informed of the rejection except for Best. Epstein officially became the manager of the Beatles on 24 January 1962 with the contract signed in Best's house."
      },
      {
        "title": "Birth of the Beatles",
        "text": "After their success, Cynthia announces to John that she is pregnant and the two decide to wed. The Beatles release their first single, \"Love Me Do\" and in 1963 release their first No. 1 hit single, \"Please Please Me\". They become the most famous group in Britain. In 1964, they are heading to America for the first time, after already encountering massive success across Europe. The film ends when the group arrives in America and performs on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\" to a mass of screaming fans, singing \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\".\n*Stephen MacKenna as John Lennon\n*Rod Culbertson as Paul McCartney\n*John Altman as George Harrison\n*Ray Ashcroft as Ringo Starr\n*Ryan Michael as Pete Best\n*David Nicholas Wilkinson as Stuart Sutcliffe\n*Brian Jameson as Brian Epstein\n*Wendy Morgan as Cynthia Lennon\n*Gary Olsen as Rory Storm\n*Linal Haft as Agent\n*Eileen Kennally as Mimi Smith\n*Richard Marner as Bruno Koschmider\n*Alyson Spiro as Astrid Kirchherr\n*Nigel Havers as George Martin\n*Paula Jacobs as Mrs Flemming"
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "The Beatles' hectic schedule kept Epstein very busy between 1963 and 1965 with touring plus television and film work. Their last live concert was at Candlestick Park in San Francisco on 29 August 1966, and Epstein's management duties then changed to reflect the changing nature of their career. He pressured them to continue touring, but they steadfastly refused."
      },
      {
        "title": "Enormous (band)",
        "text": "Enormous cite their influences as Ray Davies, Difford & Tilbrook, Burt Bacharach, The Beatles, Nick Lowe and Elvis Costello. Their classic pop songs are reminiscent of Buzzcocks, The Kinks, Squeeze, Madness, The Smiths, The Wonder Stuff, Blur, The Cure, The Divine Comedy, The Teardrop Explodes, and The Clash."
      },
      {
        "title": "Teen idol",
        "text": "The Beatles soon became the most successful and influential band in modern musical history, staying at the top of Billboard charts for a grand total of 58 weeks between 1964 and 1970. Adolescent hysteria was so loud that the band had trouble performing at concerts. The level of stardom they achieved in the U.S.\u2014dubbed Beatlemania\u2014was never before seen in that country, not even during the heyday of Elvis Presley."
      },
      {
        "title": "I'm the Greatest",
        "text": "\"I'm the Greatest\" is the only recording to feature the line-up known as the Ladders. Until Harrison's tribute to Lennon after the latter's murder in December 1980, \"All Those Years Ago\", and the surviving Beatles' reunion for their 1995 \"Anthology\" project, it was also the only song to feature more than two former members of the band after the group's break-up in 1970. In their 1975 book \"\", Roy Carr and Tony Tyler said that together Lennon, Harrison, Starr, Voormann and Preston constituted what had been considered \"the New Beatles\" around the time of the break-up. With regard to \"I'm the Greatest\", they added: \"Not surprisingly, it is the most Beatlesque cut on the album, with economical bass figures, jangling guitar arpeggios (and a wicked little flashback to 'Sgt Pepper' therein).\" Peter Doggett writes that whereas Lennon's 1970 version had reflected his emotional pain and bitterness, once given to Starr the song became \"a sardonic tribute to the Beatles\" that \"sounded like a lost gem from the \"Abbey Road\" sessions\". While identifying Harrison's guitar arrangement as the main reason for its Beatle sound, Simon Leng cites \"I'm the Greatest\" as \"the most compelling example\" of the transformative effect that Harrison's contributions had on a Lennon or McCartney song."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "Epstein made numerous trips to London to visit record companies in the hope of securing a record contract, but many rejected him, including Columbia, Pye, Philips, Oriole, and most notoriously Decca. On 13 December 1961, at Epstein's invitation, Mike Smith of Decca travelled from London to Liverpool to watch the group at the Cavern, which led to an audition in London on 1 January 1962 (see The Beatles' Decca audition). Decca informed Epstein one month later that the audition tapes had been rejected. The Beatles later found out that Epstein had paid Decca producer Tony Meehan (ex-drummer of the Shadows) to produce the studio recordings. While Epstein was negotiating with Decca he also approached Ron White, an EMI marketing executive, who contacted EMI producers Norrie Paramor, Walter Ridley, and Norman Newell, but they all declined to record the group. White could not contact EMI's fourth staff producer George Martin, as he was on holiday."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beatles '65",
        "text": "In the United States, \"Beatles '65\" jumped from number 98 straight to number 1, making the biggest jump to the top position in the history of the \"Billboard\" album charts up to that time. It remained at number 1 for nine straight weeks from 9 January 1965. The album was the top selling non-soundtrack LP based on \"Billboard\"s year-end chart for 1965. By 31 December 1964, the album had sold 1,967,261 copies in the US; by the end of the 1960s, sales there were up to 2,327,186."
      },
      {
        "title": "Billy J. Kramer",
        "text": "The three hits penned by Lennon and McCartney suggested that Kramer would always remain in the Beatles' shadow, unless he tried something different. Despite being advised against it, he turned down the offer of another Lennon/McCartney song, \"One and One Is Two\", and insisted on recording the Stateside chart hit \"Little Children\". It became his second chart topper and biggest hit. In the United States, \"Little Children\" was backed with \"Bad to Me\". This was the only debut single of an act on the Hot 100, each of whose sides separately reached that chart's The Top 10 (No. 7 and No. 9, respectively). \"From a Window\", a Lennon/McCartney composition, was his second and last UK single of 1964, and became a Top Ten hit."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul Saltzman",
        "text": "One of the most memorable things Saltzman absorbed during his conversations and life-changing stay with The Beatles was George Harrison's words: \"Like we're The Beatles, after all, aren't we? We have all the money you could ever dream of. We have all the fame you could ever wish for. But it isn't love. It isn't health. It isn't peace inside, is it?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Epstein",
        "text": "In the wake of the Beatles' success Epstein was asked to appear on several music-based TV programmes in Britain. He also hosted a regular part of the US television show \"Hullabaloo\", filming his appearances in the UK."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did The Beatles become famous in their home country?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I could not find the specific cause, but the Beatles built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg and were helped by guidance from manager Brian Epstein and producer George Martin. Success also brought increased media exposure which played a role."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did Brian Epstein work with any other bands?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Some of Epstein's other young discoveries had also prospered under his management including Gerry and the Pacemakers, Billy J. Kramer and the Dakotas, Tommy Quickly, Cilla Black and The Big Three."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was The Beatles biggest hit of all time?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "In November 2004, Rolling Stone ranked \"She Loves You\" number 64 on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. It remains the band's best-selling single in the United Kingdom and the top-selling single of the 1960s there by any artist.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I was not able to discover that specific information, but as of 2009, \"She Loves You\" was the Beatles' all-time best-selling single in the UK."
    ],
    "topic": "The Beatles",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "She Loves You:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "She Loves You"
        ],
        "ctx": "In November 2004, \"Rolling Stone\" ranked \"She Loves You\" number 64 on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. In August 2009, at the end of its \"Beatles Weekend\", BBC Radio 2 announced that \"She Loves You\" was the Beatles' all-time best-selling single in the UK based on information compiled by the Official Charts Company."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "She Loves You:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "She Loves You"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"She Loves You\" is a song written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney and recorded by English rock band the Beatles for release as a single in 1963. The single set and surpassed several sales records in the United Kingdom charts, and set a record in the United States as one of the five Beatles songs that held the top five positions in the charts simultaneously, on 4 April 1964. It remains the band's best-selling single in the United Kingdom and the top-selling single of the 1960s there by any artist."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "She Loves You:2",
        "passage_titles": [
          "She Loves You"
        ],
        "ctx": "In November 2004, \"Rolling Stone\" ranked \"She Loves You\" number 64 on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. In August 2009, at the end of its \"Beatles Weekend\", BBC Radio 2 announced that \"She Loves You\" was the Beatles' all-time best-selling single in the UK based on information compiled by the Official Charts Company."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "\"She Loves You\" is a song written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney and recorded by English rock band the Beatles for release as a single in 1963. The single set and surpassed several sales records in the United Kingdom charts, and set a record in the United States as one of the five Beatles songs that held the top five positions in the charts simultaneously, on 4 April 1964. It remains the band's best-selling single in the United Kingdom and the top-selling single of the 1960s there by any artist."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "\"She Loves You\" was the best-selling single of 1963, and is the Beatles' all-time best-selling single in the UK. It was the best-selling single of any artist in the UK for 14 years until it was surpassed by Wings' \"Mull of Kintyre\" (written by McCartney and Denny Laine). As of December 2018, \"She Loves You\" was the ninth best-selling single of all time in the UK, with sales of 1.92 million copies.<ref name=\"Myers/OCC\"></ref>"
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "In November 2004, \"Rolling Stone\" ranked \"She Loves You\" number 64 on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. In August 2009, at the end of its \"Beatles Weekend\", BBC Radio 2 announced that \"She Loves You\" was the Beatles' all-time best-selling single in the UK based on information compiled by the Official Charts Company."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "Personnel per Ian MacDonald\n*John Lennon \u2013 vocal, rhythm guitar\n*Paul McCartney \u2013 vocal, bass\n*George Harrison \u2013 harmony vocal, lead guitar\n*Ringo Starr \u2013 drums\n*George Martin \u2013 producer\n*Norman Smith \u2013 engineer"
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "\"She Loves You\" is the song that thrust the Beatles full-scale into the British national spotlight. Part of this was the effectiveness of the song's hook; author Eric Starr wrote in retrospect, \"Each chorus or refrain pounds the hook into your head until it's imprinted in your brain.\" As Nicholas Schaffner later wrote, it was \"'yeah, yeah, yeah' chanted repeatedly and emphatically enough to drive any listener out of his mind, one way or the other.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "List of UK Singles Chart number ones of the 1960s",
        "text": "In terms of number-one singles, The Beatles were the most successful group of the decade having seventeen singles reach the top spot. The longest duration of a single at number-one was eight weeks and this was achieved on three occasions: \"It's Now or Never\" by Elvis Presley in 1960; \"Wonderful Land\" by The Shadows in 1962 and \"Sugar, Sugar\" by The Archies in 1969. The Beatles' song \"She Loves You\" became the best-selling single of all time in 1963, a record it held until 1977 when band member Paul McCartney's new band, Wings, surpassed it with \"Mull of Kintyre\". \"She Loves You\" was the best-selling song of the decade and one of fourteen songs believed to have sold over one million copies in the 1960s."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "\"She Loves You\" was a staple of the set list of early Beatles tours, and appeared on \"The Beatles at the Hollywood Bowl\". By late 1964, it had been dropped in favour of newer songs and the other artists' material that remained in their show. It did not appear in the group's 1965 or 1966 concert performances."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "Many artists recorded versions of \"She Loves You\" in the early 1960s including Brenda Lee, for whom the Beatles had acted as a support act when she headlined a gig at the Star Club in Hamburg, West Germany, in 1962. Renamed \"He Loves You\", it appeared on her 1965 album, \"Top Teen Hits\" (also known as \"Brenda Lee Sings Top Teen Hits\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "Several recording artists included the song on albums made up of nothing but Beatles covers: Mary Wells in 1965 on her album \"Love Songs to The Beatles\", where it was also renamed \"He Loves You\"; bandleader Count Basie on 1966 album \"Basie's Beatle Bag\"; and the cartoon group The Chipmunks, whose \"The Chipmunks Sing the Beatles Hits\" included \"She Loves You\". (The Chipmunks covered the song again on the album \"\".)"
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You (disambiguation)",
        "text": "\"She Loves You\" is a song by the Beatles."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "On 23 August 1963, the \"She Loves You\" single was released in the United Kingdom with \"I'll Get You\" as the B-side. The songwriting credit on the label was switched to \"Lennon\u2013McCartney\" for this release \u2013 a switch from the \"McCartney\u2013Lennon\" order of nearly all previous Beatles releases \u2013 and would remain this way during the remainder of their songwriting partnership."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "Lennon and McCartney started composing \"She Loves You\" on 26 June 1963 after a concert at the Majestic Ballroom in Newcastle upon Tyne during their tour with Roy Orbison and Gerry and the Pacemakers. They began writing the song on the tour bus, and continued later that night at their hotel in Newcastle eventually completing it the following day at McCartney's family home in Forthlin Road, Liverpool."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "On 27 July 2012, a portion of \"She Loves You\" as well as footage of the band performing the song was included in a montage of British music during the opening ceremony of the London 2012 Olympic Games. In 2018, the music staff of \"Time Out London\" ranked the song at number 8 on their list of the best Beatles songs."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "\"She Loves You\" became the first Beatles record to sell well in continental Europe and led to a Beatles tour of Sweden in late October 1963. Before the Beatles' breakthrough with \"She Loves You\", British acts had only managed sporadic successes in continental European markets."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "The Beatles later sang the chorus of \"She Loves You\" in the long fade-out of \"All You Need Is Love\", and a carnival-styled organ version of the song is featured in their 1967 television film \"Magical Mystery Tour\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Beatlemania",
        "text": "There was tremendous anticipation ahead of the release of the Beatles' fourth single, \"She Loves You\". Thousands of fans ordered the single as early as June 1963, well before its title had been known. In July, the band convened at EMI Studios for the song's recording session, an occasion that was publicised in advance by the weekly pop papers. More than a hundred fans congregated outside the studios, and dozens broke through a police blockade, swarming the building in search of the band. By the day before the single went on sale in August, some 500,000 advanced orders had been placed for it. \"She Loves You\" topped the charts and set several UK sales records. The song included a \"Yeah, yeah, yeah\" refrain that became a signature hook for their European audiences; in addition, the song's falsetto \"Ooh!\"s elicited further fan delirium when accompanied by the vocalists' exaggerated shaking of their moptop hair."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "\"She Loves You\" was included on Capitol Records' US album \"The Beatles' Second Album\", which overtook \"Meet the Beatles!\" on 2 May 1964, reaching the top spot in the album charts. It was the first time an artist had replaced themselves at the summit of the American album charts, and this provided a hint of the successes the Beatles would continue to achieve."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "\"Yeah, yeah, yeah\" was to have a great effect on the Beatles' image \u2013 in some parts of Europe, they became known as the Yeah-Yeahs."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "In 1975, authors Roy Carr and Tony Tyler wrote in \"\" that \"If a future archivist were to select one single tune to characterise the Beatles' appeal and the stylistic devices for which they became world famous, he would be forced to choose 'She Loves You'.\" In 1979, author Greil Marcus included \"She Loves You\" in his \"Stranded: Rock and Roll for a Desert Island\" list of essential rock records. Even more fundamentally, Marcus posed the question of what one would tell a Martian who landed and asked the meaning of rock and roll? The first answer would be \"She Loves You\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "On 10 December 1980, following the murder of John Lennon in Manhattan two nights previously, British tabloid newspaper \"The Sun\" printed the front-page headline \"They Loved Him Yeah Yeah Yeah\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "Unlike Capitol Records' reluctance to proceed with the Beatles in the US, its Canadian subsidiary, Capitol of Canada, went ahead with the group, and \"She Loves You\" was released there in September 1963. It was played by Ontario radio station CKWS the next month, and entered the national CHUM Chart on 2 December 1963. It reached the top five on 23 December, a full month before any Beatles single would do the same in the US charts. It then spent nine weeks at No. 1 in the early part of 1964."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tom\u00e1\u0161 Bezdeda",
        "text": "Top 5: \"She Loves You\" by The Beatles"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bobby Rydell",
        "text": "In 2000, in the book \"The Beatles Anthology\" (p. 96), Paul McCartney said: John [Lennon] and I wrote \"She Loves You\" together. There was a Bobby Rydell song out at the time and, as often happens, you think of one song when you write another. We'd planned an \"answering song\" where a couple of us would sing \"she loves you\" and the other ones would answer \"yeah yeah\". We decided that was a crummy idea but at least we then had the idea of a song called \"She Loves You\". So we sat in the hotel bedroom for a few hours and wrote it\u2014John and I, sitting on twin beds with guitars."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jesmond",
        "text": "The Beatles began writing their second hit single She Loves You in the Imperial Hotel in Jesmond, Newcastle upon Tyne on 27 June 1963."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "The 2009 CD rerelease of the Beatles' catalog included \"She Loves You\" and \"Sie Liebt Dich\" on \"Past Masters\" (mono and stereo, respectively) and on \"Mono Masters\" (mono)."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "George Martin, the Beatles' producer, questioned the validity of the major sixth chord that ends the song, an idea suggested by George Harrison. \"They sort of finished on this curious singing chord which was a major sixth, with George [Harrison] doing the sixth and the others doing the third and fifth in the chord. It was just like a Glenn Miller arrangement.\" The device had also been used by country music-influenced artists in the 1950s. McCartney later reflected: \"We took it to George Martin and sang 'She loves you, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeeeeeaah ...' and that tight little sixth cluster we had at the end. George [Martin] said: 'It's very corny, I would never end on a sixth'. But we said 'It's such a great sound, it doesn't matter'.\" \"The Beatles: Complete Scores\" shows only the notes D (the fifth) and E (the sixth) sung for the final chord, while on the recording McCartney sang G (the root) as Harrison sang E and Lennon sang D."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "Moreover, it became the signature phrase for the group at the time. The \"Daily Mirror\"s approving editorial of 5 November 1963, following the Beatles' acclaimed appearance at the Royal Variety Performance the night before, was entitled \"Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!\" \"The New York Times\" lengthy article of 8 February 1964, describing the frenzy accompanying the group's arrival at John F. Kennedy International Airport and in New York City, made reference to \"Yeah, yeah, yeah\" in its first paragraph, continuation headline, and closing paragraph. An Associated Press story describing the positive critical reaction to the group's film \"A Hard Day's Night\" was headlined \"'Yeah, Yeah, Yeah' For Beatles' Film\" and labelled \"She Loves You\" as \"the original 'Yeah, Yeah, Yeah,' song\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "The group's lack of success in the US puzzled the Beatles' producer George Martin and manager Brian Epstein, given their huge hits in the UK. Their only US release that had charted was \"From Me to You\", which lasted three weeks in August 1963, never going higher than No. 116 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100. Capitol Records had been stubborn in turning down the chance to become their record label in the US, and consequently the Beatles had been with Vee-Jay Records until that label failed to pay their royalties on time. Transglobal Music, an affiliate of EMI, held the licences to their output in the US, and promptly ordered Vee-Jay to halt their manufacturing and distribution of Beatles records. Epstein, who needed a record label to release \"She Loves You\" in the US, asked Transglobal to find another label for him, and Transglobal came up with Swan Records. To avoid potential disagreements and lawsuits, the contract signed with Swan licensed to them only \"She Loves You\" and \"I'll Get You\", enough only for the A- and B-sides of a single \u2013 and only for two years."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "She Loves You\n--Composition.\n--Recording.\n--Release.\n----United Kingdom.\n----United States.\n----Other countries.\n--Cultural impact and legacy.\n--Later Beatles use.\n--Personnel.\n--Cover versions.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "The song was recorded on 1 July 1963, less than a week after it was written, using a two-track recording machine. Documentation regarding the number of takes required and other recording details does not exist. Mixing was carried out on 4 July. Standard procedure at EMI Studios at the time was to erase the original two-track session tape for singles once they had been mixed down to the (usually monaural) master tape used to press records. This was the fate of four Beatles songs that were released as two singles: \"Love Me Do\", \"P.S. I Love You\", \"She Loves You\" and \"I'll Get You \". These tracks only exist as a mono master, although several mock-stereo remixes have been made by EMI affiliates worldwide, including a few made in 1966 by Abbey Road engineer Geoff Emerick."
      },
      {
        "title": "Love of the Loved",
        "text": "\"Love of the Loved\" is a song written mainly by Paul McCartney, credited to Lennon\u2013McCartney. It is one of his earliest compositions and featured in the Beatles live act in their early days. The group recorded the song at their 1962 audition for Decca Records, but never issued it on any of their official releases. Instead, Cilla Black recorded it for her debut single, which was produced by George Martin. The single reached No. 35 on the UK Singles Chart in October 1963."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' Million Sellers",
        "text": "\"Side one\"\n#\"She Loves You\" \u2013 2:19\n#\"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" \u2013 2:24"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles on The Ed Sullivan Show",
        "text": "On the evening of the television show, a crush of people nearly prevented the band from making it onstage. A wedge of policemen were needed and the band began playing \"She Loves You\" only seconds after reaching their instruments. They continued with \"This Boy\" and \"All My Loving\", then returned later to close the show with \"I Saw Her Standing There\", \"From Me to You\", and \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Andy White (drummer)",
        "text": "In the early 1960s White lived in Thames Ditton and was married to the British Decca artist Lyn Cornell, who later became a member of the Vernons Girls, the Pearls, and also the Carefrees, who had the biggest selling Beatles novelty single ever with \"We Love You Beatles,\" peaking in the U.S. at No. 39 and staying on the \"Billboard\" charts for five weeks."
      },
      {
        "title": "We Love You Beatles",
        "text": "The song was based on \"We Love You Conrad\" from the musical \"Bye Bye Birdie\" and has simple lyrics (\"We love you Beatles, oh yes we do!\"). Individual verses also have \"We love you _____ (replace with \"Ringo\", \"John\", \"Paul\", and \"George\", in that order) along with reasons why the group loves that particular Beatle. It also includes at least three different vocal and instrumental quotations from the Beatles' 1963 hit song \"She Loves You\", suggesting the fact that \"We Love You Beatles\" was a reply to it."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "In Canada, the song was included on the album \"Twist and Shout\". In the US, it was the final song on \"The Beatles' Second Album\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of UK top-ten singles in 1963",
        "text": "Until 1970 there was no universally recognised year-end best-sellers list. However in 2011 the Official Charts Company released a list of the best-selling single of each year in chart history from 1952 to date. According to the list, \"She Loves You\" by The Beatles is officially recorded as the biggest-selling single of 1963. \"She Loves You\" (1) was also ranked as the best-selling single of the decade, while \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" (2) also ranked in the top 10 best-selling singles of the 1960s. \"She Loves You\" also stands as the 8th biggest-selling single of all time in the UK (as of December 2017).\n;Key"
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "Lennon, being mindful of Elvis Presley's \"All Shook Up\", wanted something equally stirring: \"I don't know where the 'yeah yeah yeah' came from [but] I remember when Elvis did 'All Shook Up' it was the first time in my life that I had heard 'uh huh', 'oh yeah', and 'yeah yeah' all sung in the same song\". The song also included a number of falsetto \"wooooo\"s, which Lennon acknowledged as being inspired by the Isley Brothers' recording of \"Twist and Shout\", which the Beatles had earlier recorded, and which had also been inserted into the group's previous single, \"From Me to You\". As Lennon later said: \"We stuck it in everything\". McCartney recalls them playing the finished song on acoustic guitars to his father Jim at home immediately after the song was completed: \"We went into the living room and said 'Dad, listen to this. What do you think? And he said 'That's very nice son, but there's enough of these Americanisms around. Couldn't you sing 'She loves you, yes, yes, yes!' At which point we collapsed in a heap and said 'No, Dad, you don't quite get it!'\" EMI recording engineer Norman Smith had a somewhat similar reaction, later recounting, \"I was setting up the microphone when I first saw the lyrics on the music stand, 'She loves you, yeah, yeah, yeah, She loves you, yeah, yeah, yeah, She loves you, yeah, yeah, yeah, Yeah!' I thought, Oh my God, what a lyric! This is going to be one that I \"do not\" like. But when they started to sing it \u2013 bang, wow, terrific, I was up at the mixer jogging around.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "\"She Loves You\" was included in the Beatles compilation albums \"A Collection of Beatles Oldies\" (1966, not released in the US), \"1962\u20131966\" (1973), \"20 Greatest Hits\" (1982), \"Past Masters, Volume One\" (1988), and \"1\" (2000). The song was also included on the American promotional version of the \"Rarities\" album, issued as the bonus disc in the limited edition boxed set \"The Beatles Collection\", in November 1978. The Capitol Records' US album, \"The Beatles' Second Album\", on which the song had been featured, was included in the 2004 CD release \"The Capitol Albums, Volume 1\" and rereleased in 2014, individually and in the boxed set \"The US Albums\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' 1964 North American tour",
        "text": "According to Walter Everett (lead singers appear in parenthesis):\n#\"Twist and Shout\" (abbreviated) (John Lennon) or \"I Saw Her Standing There\" (Paul McCartney)\n#\"You Can't Do That\" (Lennon)\n#\"All My Loving\" (McCartney)\n#\"She Loves You\" (Lennon and McCartney)\n#\"Things We Said Today\" (abbreviated) (McCartney)\n#\"Roll Over Beethoven\" (George Harrison)\n#\"Can't Buy Me Love\" (McCartney)\n#\"If I Fell\" (Lennon)\n#\"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" (Lennon and McCartney)\n#\"Boys\" (Ringo Starr)\n#\"A Hard Day's Night\" (Lennon with McCartney)\n#\"Long Tall Sally\" (McCartney) or \"Twist and Shout\" (Lennon)"
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "The phrase became synonymous not just with the Beatles but with the associated kind of popular music overall. A \"New York Times\" account describing the Animals' introductory concert in the city later that year repeated the phrase in description of the group."
      },
      {
        "title": "P.S. I Love You (Beatles song)",
        "text": "John Lennon commented:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Bigger Than the Beatles",
        "text": "The \"yeah yeah yeah yeah\" background chorus at the end of the song is a reference to The Beatles' \"She Loves You\", as well as a reference to \"All You Need is Love\" in the last line of the bridge, while the title is a pun on John Lennon's controversial \"bigger than Jesus\" claim."
      },
      {
        "title": "We Love You Beatles",
        "text": "\"We Love You Beatles\" is a song by the Carefrees. It was a 1964 novelty record about The Beatles and the song peaked at number 39 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100; it was the only Beatles novelty record to reach the Top 40. It was released in the UK on the Oriole label #CB1916 and in the USA on the London International label #10614."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lyn Cornell",
        "text": "In 1964, she joined The Carefrees, who became best known for their song \"We Love You Beatles\". The track was The Carefrees first recording and only charted single, reaching No. 39 on the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100 and staying on the \"Billboard\" chart for five weeks. After one further single and an album, the group disbanded later in the same year."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "Like many early Beatles songs, the title of \"She Loves You\" was framed around the use of personal pronouns. But unusually for a love song, the lyrics are not about the narrator's love for someone else; instead the narrator functions as a helpful go-between for estranged lovers:"
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles (TV series)",
        "text": "22. Komm Gib Mir Deine Hand* / She Loves You:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Samantha Jones (singer)",
        "text": "Jean Owen started her career in 1961 as part of popular English vocal group The Vernons Girls. During her time with the group, the line-up went from sixteen members to just three girls. The Vernons Girls enjoyed a couple of top 40 hits, including \"Lover Please\", \"Only You Can Do It,\" (also released by Fran\u00e7oise Hardy) and recorded one of the first Beatles tribute songs, \"We Love The Beatles\". They also opened for The Beatles several times and appeared with them in a 1964 TV special, \"Around The Beatles\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of best-selling singles of the 1960s in the United Kingdom",
        "text": "Between 1960 and 1969, fourteen singles sold more than one million copies in the UK, of which the biggest-selling was \"She Loves You\" by the Beatles. Released on 23 August 1963, the single spent six non-consecutive weeks at number one and sold more than 1.89\u00a0million copies, approximately 140,000 more than its nearest rival, \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\", also by the Beatles. The biggest-selling record not to top the UK Singles Chart was Acker Bilk's 1961 instrumental \"Stranger on the Shore\" \u2013 it sold more than 1.13\u00a0million copies and peaked at number two, being kept off the top by \"The Young Ones\" by Cliff Richard and the Shadows, another million-seller."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "The arrangement starts with a two-count from Ringo on the drums, and his fills are an important part of the record throughout. The electric instruments are mixed higher than before, especially McCartney's bass, adding to the sense of musical power that the record provides. The lead vocal is sung by Lennon and McCartney, switching between unison and harmony."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "In 2000, McCartney said the initial idea for the song began with Bobby Rydell's hit \"Forget Him\" with its call and response pattern, and that \"as often happens, you think of one song when you write another ... I'd planned an 'answering song' where a couple of us would sing 'she loves you' and the other ones would answer 'yeah yeah'. We decided that was a crummy idea but at least we then had the idea of a song called 'She Loves You'. So we sat in the hotel bedroom for a few hours and wrote it \u2013 John and I, sitting on twin beds with guitars.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "All You Need Is Love",
        "text": "The Beatles\n*John Lennon \u2013 lead and backing vocals, harpsichord, banjo\n*Paul McCartney \u2013 bass, double bass, backing vocals\n*George Harrison \u2013 lead guitar, violin, backing vocals\n*Ringo Starr \u2013 drums"
      },
      {
        "title": "Love You To",
        "text": "The Beatles\n*George Harrison \u2013 lead and backing vocals, acoustic guitar, sitar, rhythm guitar, fuzz-tone lead guitar\n*Paul McCartney \u2013 backing vocal\n*Ringo Starr \u2013 tambourine"
      },
      {
        "title": "And I Love Her",
        "text": "\"And I Love Her\" is a song recorded by English rock band the Beatles, written primarily by Paul McCartney and credited to the Lennon\u2013McCartney partnership. It is the fifth track of their third UK album \"A Hard Day's Night\" and was released 20 July 1964, along with \"If I Fell\", as a single release by Capitol Records in the United States, reaching No. 12 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100."
      },
      {
        "title": "P.S. I Love You (Beatles song)",
        "text": "For the Beatles' BBC session recorded 17 June 1963 and released on the album \"On Air \u2013 Live at the BBC Volume 2\" (2013), Starr plays drums."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Poole",
        "text": "The band quickly embraced their new name. Their diverse musical talents meant that as well as producing their own singles, they also performed as backing for other recording artists. Their first chart entry was \"Twist and Shout\" in June 1963 (a cover version of a song by The Isley Brothers that was also covered by The Beatles). \"Twist and Shout\" reached number four in the UK singles chart, selling over one million copies, and other chart hits were soon to follow. In September 1963, they released \"Do You Love Me\". It reached number one in the UK charts, famously knocking The Beatles\u2019 second number one hit, \"She Loves You\", from the top slot. \"Do You Love Me\" remained at the top of the charts for three weeks. 'Brian Poole and the Tremeloes' continued to produce hits and thrive in the UK charts, with tracks such as \"Candy Man\" (which reached number six) and the popular ballad \"Someone, Someone\" (which reached number two)."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' Million Sellers",
        "text": "The Beatles' Million Sellers is an EP by the Beatles, released on 6 December 1965. The EP was only issued in mono, with the catalogue number Parlophone GEP 8946. It was also released in New Zealand. The EP consists of songs that had sold over 1 million copies each as singles, the highest being \"She Loves You\", which sold 1.89 million copies."
      },
      {
        "title": "P.S. I Love You (Beatles song)",
        "text": "On its 20th anniversary, Parlophone re-issued \"P.S. I Love You\" as a picture disc, and shortly afterwards as a 12-inch disc.\n*Paul McCartney\u00a0\u2013 vocals, bass\n*John Lennon\u00a0\u2013 acoustic rhythm guitar, backing vocals\n*George Harrison\u00a0\u2013 acoustic guitar, backing vocals\n*Ringo Starr\u00a0\u2013 maracas\n*Andy White\u00a0\u2013 drums"
      },
      {
        "title": "California Sun / She Loves You",
        "text": "Spurred by minor hit singles in 1963, \"My Little Girl\" and \"Don't Ever Change\", the Crickets next release sought to capitalize upon the rise of Beatlemania and the Beatles' vocal appreciation of the Crickets' records. The album contains five Lennon-McCartney songs and another song the Fab Four famously covered. Throughout this period The Crickets would enjoy greater popularity in the UK."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles (TV series)",
        "text": "Sing Alongs: I Feel Fine / She Loves You"
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "On 22 November 1963, the \"CBS Morning News\" ran a five-minute feature on Beatlemania in the UK which heavily featured \"She Loves You\". The evening's scheduled repeat was cancelled following the assassination of John\u00a0F. Kennedy the same day and the four days' worth of news coverage that followed. Coincidental with the song\u2019s climb up the Canadian charts on 10 December, Walter Cronkite decided to transmit the piece again on the \"CBS Evening News\", and the resulting interest led to the rush-release of \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" - only weeks before the Beatles' arrival - on 26 December 1963."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greatest Hits Volume 1 (Beatles album)",
        "text": "The mono editions of the album feature fold-down mono mixes, with only \"She Loves You\" and \"I'll Get You\" appearing in true mono, due to the unavailability of stereo mixes at the time of the compilation. The cover art was borrowed from the U.S. Beatles album, \"Beatles VI\" with the back cover using elements from the German album \"The Beatles Beat\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "The German division of EMI (the parent of the Beatles' British record label Parlophone Records) decided that the only way to sell Beatles records in Germany would be to re-record them in the German language. The band thought it unnecessary, but were asked by George Martin to comply, recording \"Sie Liebt Dich\" on 29 January 1964, along with \"Komm, Gib Mir Deine Hand\", at the Pathe Marconi Studios in Paris. They recorded new vocals over the original backing track to \"I Want to Hold Your Hand;\" \"Sie Liebt Dich\" was recorded entirely from scratch. Both songs were translated by Luxembourger musician Camillo Felgen, under the pseudonym of \"Jean Nicolas\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beeb's Lost Beatles Tapes",
        "text": "Episode 2: Bill Toppers - 8 October 1988\n# I Saw Her Standing There (Saturday Club, 25 May 1963)\n# Brian Matthew Interview\n# Long Tall Sally (Saturday Club, 25 May 1963)\n# Bernie Andrews Interview\n# Some Other Guy (Easy Beat, 23 June 1963)\n# A Taste Of Honey (Easy Beat, 23 June 1963)\n# Boys (Saturday Club, 25 May 1963)\n# Bernie Andrews Interview\n# Memphis (Saturday Club, 29 June 1963)\n# Happy Birthday (Saturday Club, 5 October 1963)\n# Ill Get You (Saturday Club, 5 October 1963)\n# She Loves You (Saturday Club, 5 October 1963)\n# Lucille (Saturday Club, 5 October 1963)"
      },
      {
        "title": "She's Leaving Home",
        "text": "\"She's Leaving Home\" is a song by the English rock band the Beatles, written by Paul McCartney and John Lennon, and released on their 1967 album \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band\". Paul McCartney wrote and sang the verse and John Lennon wrote the chorus, which they sang together. Neither George Harrison nor Ringo Starr was involved in the recording. The song's instrumental background was performed entirely by a small string orchestra arranged by Mike Leander, and was one of only a handful of Beatles recordings in which none of the members played a musical instrument."
      },
      {
        "title": "It Won't Be Long",
        "text": "John Lennon claimed this song in 1971 and 1980. In about 1995 Paul McCartney described the song as dominated by John, but written in collaboration. \u201cJohn mainly sang it so I expect that it was his original idea but we both sat down and wrote it together.\" The chorus is a play on the words \"be long\" and \"belong\". The song features early Beatles trademarks such as call-and-response yeah-yeahs and scaling guitar riffs. Typical also of this phase of Beatles songwriting is the melodramatic ending (similar to \"She Loves You\", which had just been recorded and was about to be released) where the music stops, allowing Lennon a brief solo vocal improvisation before the song finishes on a \"barber shop\" major seventh (\"She Loves You\" ends on a major sixth). The middle eight uses chromatically descending chords over which Lennon, McCartney and Harrison sing in counterpoint."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "In the 22 January 1965 \"Flintstones\" episode \"The Hatrocks and The Gruesomes\", as new hillbilly neighbors, the \"Hatrocks\" (who, it is revealed early on, hate 'Bug Music' by 'The Four Insects' - an obvious dig at the Beatles at the time), outgrow their welcome, The Flintstones and Rubbles rig their radio and phone and, wearing Beatle wigs, broadcast a performance of \"She Said 'Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!'\", driving them out of their house and over to the Gruesomes, who are also performing the song while wearing Beatle wigs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Forget Him (Bobby Rydell song)",
        "text": "The song first charted in the United Kingdom on May 29, 1963. It received significant airplay, began to rise in the charts and was noticed by Paul McCartney. In 2000, McCartney said the initial idea for \"She Loves You\" came from a Bobby Rydell hit that was popular at the time (mid-1963). Lennon and McCartney started composing \"She Loves You\" after a concert on June 26, 1963 (about four weeks after the release of \"Forget Him\" in the UK). They began writing the song on the tour bus, and continued later that night at their hotel in Newcastle. \"She Loves You\" was completed the following day at McCartney's family home in Forthlin Road, Liverpool."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "\"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" climbed to No. 1 by the end of January, 1964, launching the \"British invasion\" of the American music scene and paving the way for more Beatles records and releases by other British artists. In the wake of that success, the Swan \"She Loves You\" single re-emerged, and entered the \"Billboard\" chart on 25 January 1964. Beatlemania took hold of America, spurred by the group's appearances on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\" in February, where they performed this among other songs. \"She Loves You\" spent four weeks at No. 2, behind \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\", then replaced it for two weeks at No. 1 beginning on 21 March. The Beatles are one of only two artists ever whose first two Hot 100 singles held the top two positions simultaneously on that chart. During its fifteen-week run on the American charts, \"She Loves You\" was joined by four other Beatles songs at the top five in the American charts and became part of the group setting several all-time records for the Hot 100. \"Billboard\" ranked the record as the No. 2 song of 1964, behind \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\", making the Beatles the second act to hold the top two-year-end record positions since Elvis Presley did it in 1956 with \"Heartbreak Hotel\" and \"Don't Be Cruel\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "Released in March 1963, \"Please Please Me\" was the first of eleven consecutive Beatles albums released in the United Kingdom to reach number one. The band's third single, \"From Me to You\", came out in April and began an almost unbroken string of seventeen British number-one singles, including all but one of the eighteen they released over the next six years. Issued in August, their fourth single, \"She Loves You\", achieved the fastest sales of any record in the UK up to that time, selling three-quarters of a million copies in under four weeks. It became their first single to sell a million copies, and remained the biggest-selling record in the UK until 1978."
      },
      {
        "title": "20 Greatest Hits (Beatles album)",
        "text": "The songs were presented in their original stereo mixes except for \"Love Me Do\" and \"She Loves You\", which used the Duophonic versions \u2013 the last time a new Beatles release would use such mixes."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Carefrees",
        "text": "\"We Love You Beatles\" was The Carefrees' first recording and only charted single, reaching #39 on the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100. After one further single and an album (consisting of the singles, plus numerous covers of current British Invasion hits), the group disbanded in 1964, the year they were formed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dan Lacksman",
        "text": "He then discovered the music of the Beatles with their huge hit \"She Loves You\", and started composing more intensely, recording demo songs in his parent's dining room, which gradually became his first home studio, with the purchase of a second tape recorder and more instruments like a drumkit and a second-hand Fender Jazz Bass."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "In the opinion of Roger McGuinn of the Byrds, writers who attempt to define the origins of folk rock \"don't realise that the Beatles were responsible as far back as 1963\". He cites \"She Loves You\" as one of the first examples where the Beatles introduced folk chord changes into rock music and so initiated the new genre. These songs were all influential in providing a template for successfully assimilating folk-based chord progressions and melodies into pop music."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul McCartney",
        "text": "In 1961, Sutcliffe left the band and McCartney reluctantly became their bass player. While in Hamburg, they recorded professionally for the first time and were credited as the Beat Brothers, who were the backing band for English singer Tony Sheridan on the single \"My Bonnie\". This resulted in attention from Brian Epstein, who was a key figure in their subsequent development and success. He became their manager in January 1962. Ringo Starr replaced Best in August, and the band had their first hit, \"Love Me Do\", in October, becoming popular in the UK in 1963, and in the US a year later. The fan hysteria became known as \"Beatlemania\", and the press sometimes referred to McCartney as the \"cute Beatle\". McCartney co-wrote (with Lennon) several of their early hits, including \"I Saw Her Standing There\", \"She Loves You\", \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" (1963) and \"Can't Buy Me Love\" (1964)."
      },
      {
        "title": "I Want to Hold Your Hand",
        "text": "It was also the group's first American number-one hit, entering the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart on 18 January 1964 at number 45 and starting the British Invasion of the American music industry. By 1 February it topped the Hot 100, and stayed there for seven weeks before being replaced by \"She Loves You\". It remained on the \"Billboard\" chart for 15 weeks. \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" became the Beatles' best-selling single worldwide selling more than 12 million copies. In 2018, \"Billboard\" magazine named it the 48th biggest hit of all time on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100. In the UK, it was the second highest selling single of the 1960s, behind \"She Loves You\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "We Love You Beatles",
        "text": "We Love You Beatles\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "There was tremendous anticipation ahead of the release. Thousands of fans had ordered the group's next single as early as June, well before a title had been known. By the day before it went on sale, some 500,000 advanced orders had been placed for it. The single set several British sales records. It entered the charts on 31 August and remained in the charts for 31 consecutive weeks, 18 of those weeks in the top three (including every week of the months of September, October, November and December 1963). During that period, it claimed the ranking of number one on 14 September, stayed number one for four weeks, dropped back to the top three, then regained the top spot for two weeks starting on 30 November. This regaining of the top spot was very unusual at the time. It then made its way back into the charts for two weeks on 11 April 1964, peaking at No. 42. It passed sales of a half million copies by early June and a million by late November, whereupon it was awarded a gold record. The song's run on the charts coincided with the 13 October 1963 performance of the group on \"Sunday Night at the London Palladium\" and the emergence of full-blown Beatlemania in the United Kingdom."
      },
      {
        "title": "P.S. I Love You (Beatles song)",
        "text": "With Starr playing drums, the Beatles recorded the song at the BBC on 25 October 1962, 27 November 1962 and 17 June 1963 for subsequent broadcast on the BBC radio programmes \"Here We Go\", \"Talent Spot\" and \"Pop Go the Beatles\", respectively. The 17 June 1963 recording was officially published on the \"On Air \u2013 Live at the BBC Volume 2\" album (2013)."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' recording sessions",
        "text": "2.30\u20135.30, 7\u201310\u00a0pm\n*\"She Loves You\"\u00a0\u2013 destroyed\n**Edited and mono mixed (from unknown takes) (4\u00a0July 1963)\u00a0\u2013 released as a single on 23\u00a0August 1963; included on \"Past Masters\" (2:21) and \"Mono Masters\" (2:21)\n*\"Get You in the End\"\u00a0\u2013 destroyed\n**Mono mixed (from an unknown take) (4\u00a0July 1963)\u00a0\u2013 released as the B-side to \"She Loves You\"; included on \"Past Masters\" (2:06) and \"Mono Masters\" (2:06)\n;Personnel"
      },
      {
        "title": "Love of the Loved",
        "text": "Recordings of \"Love of the Loved\" as the Beatles may have performed it were released as singles by US band The Poppees (1975) and Dutch band RollerCoaster (1980). Other cover versions are available on the 1989 album by Bas Muys entitled \"Secret Songs: Lennon & McCartney\" and on the 1998 release \"It's Four You\" by the Australian Beatles tribute band The Beatnix. It has also been covered by Seattle-based Beatles cover band Apple Jam on their album \"Off the Beatle Track\" and on The Weeklings' 2016 release \"Studio 2\", which was recorded at Abbey Road Studios along with three other unreleased Lennon/McCartney/Harrison compositions."
      },
      {
        "title": "And I Love Her",
        "text": "It can currently be found on \"The Beatles in Mono\" box set."
      },
      {
        "title": "And I Love Her",
        "text": "Recorded by the Beatles over three days, in Abbey Road Studio Two, the sessions were produced by George Martin and engineered by Norman Smith. The second engineer was Richard Langham."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beeb's Lost Beatles Tapes",
        "text": "Episode 13: A Chrimble Mudley - 24 December 1988\n# This Boy (Saturday Club, 21 December 1963)\n# All I Want For Christmas (Saturday Club, 21 December 1963)\n# Roll Over Beethoven (Saturday Club, 21 December 1963)\n# From Us To You (From Us To You (1), 26 December 1963)\n# She Loves You (From Us To You (1), 26 December 1963)\n# Tie Me Kangaroo Down (From Us To You (1), 26 December 1963)\n# I Want To Hold Your Hand (From Us To You (1), 26 December 1963)\n# From Us To You (From Us To You, 26 December 1963)\n# We Can Work It Out (cv)\n# Drive My Car (cv)\n# Saturday Club Interview (Saturday Club, 25 December 1965)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ringo, I Love You",
        "text": "\"Ringo, I Love You\" is a rock song performed by American singer-actress Cher released under the pseudonym Bonnie Jo Mason, the name she used at the start of her career when based in Los Angeles. The song was released as a promotional single in 1964 during the height of Beatlemania. It was a tribute to The Beatles. The original vinyl is now a valuable rarity. In 1999 the song was covered by German electronic duo Stereo Total and released on their studio album \"My Melody\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "All You Need Is Love",
        "text": "\"Our World\" coincided with the height of the Beatles' popularity and influence, following the release of their album \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band\". Rather than perform the song entirely live, the group played to a pre-recorded backing track. With an orchestral arrangement by George Martin, the song begins with a portion of the French national anthem and ends with musical quotations from works such as Glenn Miller's \"In the Mood\", \"Greensleeves\", Bach's Invention No. 8 in F major, and the Beatles' 1963 hit \"She Loves You\". Adding to the broadcast's festive atmosphere, the studio was adorned with signs and streamers, and filled with guests dressed in psychedelic attire, including members of the Rolling Stones, the Who and the Small Faces. Brian Epstein, the Beatles' manager, described the performance as the band's \"finest\" moment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "Over the 1960s as a whole, the Beatles were the dominant youth-centred pop act on the sales charts. \"She Loves You\", the band's second number-one single on the \"Record Retailer\" chart (subsequently adopted as the UK Singles Chart), became the best-selling single in UK chart history, a position it retained until 1978. The band's first two albums, \"Please Please Me\" and \"With the Beatles\", each topped \"Record Retailer\"s LPs chart, for a combined run of 51 consecutive weeks. Beginning with \"From Me to You\" in 1963, the Beatles had a four-year run of eleven consecutive chart-topping singles in \"Record Retailer\", ending when the double A-side single \"Strawberry Fields Forever\" / \"Penny Lane\" peaked at number two."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beeb's Lost Beatles Tapes",
        "text": "Episode 14: No More She Loves Yous - 31 December 1988\n# The Kenny Everett Show Interview (The Kenny Everett Show, 9 June 1968)\n# Top Of The Pops Interview (Top Of The Pops, 20 March 1967)\n# Scene And Heard Interview (Scene And Heard, 30 September/7 October 1967)\n# Flying (cv)\n# Where Its At Interview (Where It's At, 24 November 1967)\n# Pop Profile Interview (Pop Profile, 30 November 1965)\n# If I Needed Someone (cv)\n# The Kenny Everett Show Interview (The Kenny Everett Show, 9 June 1968)\n# George Harrison Interview\n# Crying Waiting Hoping (Pop Go The Beatles (8), 6 August 1963)\n# George Harrison Interview\n# Pop Goes The Beatles"
      },
      {
        "title": "Love Me Do",
        "text": "The song was the fourth of six songs by the Beatles to hit number one in a one-year period; an all-time record for the US charts. In order, these were \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\", \"She Loves You\", \"Can't Buy Me Love\", \"Love Me Do\", \"A Hard Day's Night\", and \"I Feel Fine\". It was also the fourth of seven songs written by Lennon\u2013McCartney to hit number one in 1964 (the other being \"A World Without Love\", recorded by Peter and Gordon). That remains an all-time record on the US charts for writing the most songs to hit number one in the same calendar year."
      },
      {
        "title": "Real Love (Beatles song)",
        "text": "According to Ian MacDonald and Mark Lewisohn:\n*John Lennon \u2013 double-tracked lead vocals, piano\n*Paul McCartney \u2013 backing vocals, acoustic guitar, piano, bass guitar, double bass, harmonium, harpsichord, percussion\n*George Harrison \u2013 backing vocals, electric guitars, acoustic guitar, percussion\n*Ringo Starr \u2013 backing vocals, drums, percussion\n*Jeff Lynne \u2013 backing vocals, guitar"
      },
      {
        "title": "Love (Beatles album)",
        "text": "All tracks written by Lennon\u2013McCartney, except where noted.\n#\"Because\"\u00a0 \u2013 2:44\n#\"Get Back\"\u00a0 \u2013 2:05\n#\"Glass Onion\"\u00a0 \u2013 1:20\n#\"Eleanor Rigby\" (with \"Julia\" transition)\u00a0 \u2013 3:05\n#\"I Am the Walrus\"\u00a0 \u2013 4:28\n#\"I Want to Hold Your Hand\"\u00a0 \u2013 1:22\n#\"Drive My Car/The Word/What You're Doing\"\u00a0 \u2013 1:54\n#\"Gnik Nus\"\u00a0 \u2013 0:55\n#\"Something\" (with \"Blue Jay Way\" transition) (George Harrison)\u00a0 \u2013 3:29\n#\"Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!/I Want You (She's So Heavy)/Helter Skelter\"\u00a0 \u2013 3:22\n#\"Help!\"\u00a0 \u2013 2:18\n#\"Blackbird/Yesterday\"\u00a0 \u2013 2:31\n#\"Strawberry Fields Forever\" \u00a0 \u2013 4:31\n#\"Within You Without You/Tomorrow Never Knows\" (Harrison/Lennon\u2013McCartney)\u00a0 \u2013 3:07\n#\"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\"\u00a0 \u2013 4:10\n#\"Octopus's Garden\" (Richard Starkey) \u00a0 \u2013 3:18\n#\"Lady Madonna\" \u00a0 \u2013 2:56\n#\"Here Comes the Sun\" (with \"The Inner Light\" transition) (Harrison)\u00a0 \u2013 4:18\n#\"Come Together/Dear Prudence\" (with \"Cry Baby Cry\" transition)\u00a0 \u2013 4:45\n#\"Revolution\"\u00a0 \u2013 2:14 (CD version) / 3:23 (DVD and iTunes version)\n#\"Back in the U.S.S.R.\"\u00a0 \u2013 1:53 (CD version) / 2:34 (DVD and iTunes version)\n#\"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\" (Harrison)\u00a0 \u2013 3:46\n#\"A Day in the Life\"\u00a0 \u2013 5:08\n#\"Hey Jude\"\u00a0 \u2013 3:58\n#\"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (Reprise)\"\u00a0 \u2013 1:22\n#\"All You Need Is Love\"\u00a0 \u2013 3:39"
      },
      {
        "title": "Rarities (Beatles compilations)",
        "text": "All songs written by Lennon\u2013McCartney except where indicated. All songs are in mono unless indicated as stereo.\n;Side one\n#\"Across the Universe\" (\"Wildlife\" version from a British various artists charity album titled \"No One's Gonna Change Our World\") stereo\n#\"Yes It Is\" (B-side)\n#\"This Boy\" (B-side)\n#\"The Inner Light\" (Harrison) (B-side)\n#\"I'll Get You\" (B-side)\n#\"Thank You Girl\" (B-side)\n#\"Komm Gib Mir Deine Hand\" (German version of \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\") stereo\n#\"You Know My Name (Look Up The Number)\" (B-side)\n#\"Sie liebt dich\" (German version of \"She Loves You\") stereo"
      },
      {
        "title": "Swan Records",
        "text": "Swan Records had enjoyed chart success with several U.S. artists but came into the spotlight after EMI, a prestigious British music company headquartered in London, leased the Beatles' recording of \"She Loves You\" backed with \"I'll Get You\" and, as catalogue number Swan 4152, it became an American number 1 hit on March 21, 1964. This followed the decision made by EMI's American subsidiary Capitol Records not to exercise its option to release the Beatles singles in the U.S."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bobby Rydell",
        "text": "No specific song title is given in \"The Beatles Anthology\", but Bob Spitz writes in \"\" that McCartney originally modeled \"She Loves You\" on the Rydell \"answering song\" called \"Swingin' School\" (and not \"Forget Him\", as is commonly cited)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bobby Rydell",
        "text": "Rydell left Cameo-Parkway Records later in 1964 and signed with Capitol Records. By this point, the British Invasion had arrived and acts such as Rydell suffered a dramatic decline in popularity. Bands such as \"The Beatles\" became more popular, and Rydell unwittingly contributed to his own downfall by inspiring John Lennon and Paul McCartney to write \"\"She Loves You\",\" a song which catapulted their success way beyond his."
      },
      {
        "title": "British Invasion",
        "text": "The Beatles soon incited contrasting reactions and, in the process, generated more novelty records than anyone\u2014at least 200 during 1964\u20131965 and more inspired by the \"Paul is dead\" rumour in 1969. Among the many reactions, favouring the hysteria were British girl group the Carefrees' \"We Love You Beatles\" (No. 39 on 11 April 1964) and the Patty Cakes' \"I Understand Them\", subtitled \"A Love Song to the Beatles\". Disapproving the pandemonium were US group the Four Preps' \"A Letter to the Beatles\" (No. 85 on 4 April 1964) and US comedian Allan Sherman's \"Pop Hates the Beatles\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sonia (singer)",
        "text": "In 2008, Sonia recorded a cover of The Beatles' classic \"She Loves You\" for the \"Liverpool \u2013 The Number Ones Album\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Love Me Do",
        "text": "On the version released on the original UK single, the US album \"Rarities\", \"Past Masters\", and \"Mono Masters\":\n*Paul McCartney \u2013 vocals, bass guitar\n*John Lennon \u2013 vocals, harmonica\n*George Harrison \u2013 acoustic guitar\n*Ringo Starr \u2013 drums"
      },
      {
        "title": "P.S. I Love You (Beatles song)",
        "text": "\"P.S. I Love You\" is a song recorded by English rock band the Beatles in 1962. It was composed principally by Paul McCartney (credited to Lennon\u2013McCartney), and produced by Ron Richards. The song was released in the UK on 5 October 1962 as the B-side of their debut single \"Love Me Do\" and is also included on their debut album \"Please Please Me\" (1963). It was later included on the American release \"Introducing... The Beatles\" (1964), its reissue \"The Early Beatles\" (1965), and the Beatles compilation album \"Love Songs\" (1977)."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles' 1965 European tour",
        "text": "The typical set list for the shows was as follows (with lead singers noted):\n#\"Twist and Shout\" \"(short version)\" (John Lennon)\n#\"She's a Woman\" (Paul McCartney)\n#\"I'm a Loser\" (John Lennon)\n#\"Can't Buy Me Love\" (Paul McCartney)\n#\"Baby's in Black\" (John Lennon and Paul McCartney)\n#\"I Wanna Be Your Man\" (Ringo Starr)\n#\"A Hard Day's Night\" (John Lennon)\n#\"Everybody's Trying to Be My Baby\" (George Harrison)\n#\"Rock and Roll Music\" (John Lennon)\n#\"I Feel Fine\" (John Lennon)\n#\"Ticket to Ride\" (John Lennon)\n#\"Long Tall Sally\" (Paul McCartney)"
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did The Beatles become famous in their home country?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I could not find the specific cause, but the Beatles built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg and were helped by guidance from manager Brian Epstein and producer George Martin. Success also brought increased media exposure which played a role."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did Brian Epstein work with any other bands?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Some of Epstein's other young discoveries had also prospered under his management including Gerry and the Pacemakers, Billy J. Kramer and the Dakotas, Tommy Quickly, Cilla Black and The Big Three."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was The Beatles biggest hit of all time?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I was not able to discover that specific information, but as of 2009, \"She Loves You\" was the Beatles' all-time best-selling single in the UK."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who wrote \"She Loves You\", was it one of the Beatles members?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "\"She Loves You\" is a song written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney and recorded by English rock band the Beatles for release as a single in 1963.",
      "\"She Loves You\" is a song written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney and recorded by English rock band the Beatles for release as a single in 1963."
    ],
    "topic": "The Beatles",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "She Loves You:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "She Loves You"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"She Loves You\" is a song written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney and recorded by English rock band the Beatles for release as a single in 1963. The single set and surpassed several sales records in the United Kingdom charts, and set a record in the United States as one of the five Beatles songs that held the top five positions in the charts simultaneously, on 4 April 1964. It remains the band's best-selling single in the United Kingdom and the top-selling single of the 1960s there by any artist."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "She Loves You:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "She Loves You"
        ],
        "ctx": "\"She Loves You\" is a song written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney and recorded by English rock band the Beatles for release as a single in 1963. The single set and surpassed several sales records in the United Kingdom charts, and set a record in the United States as one of the five Beatles songs that held the top five positions in the charts simultaneously, on 4 April 1964. It remains the band's best-selling single in the United Kingdom and the top-selling single of the 1960s there by any artist."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "The band's earliest influences include Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins, Little Richard and Chuck Berry. During the Beatles' co-residency with Little Richard at the Star-Club in Hamburg, from April to May 1962, he advised them on the proper technique for performing his songs. Of Presley, Lennon said, \"Nothing really affected me until I heard Elvis. If there hadn't been Elvis, there would not have been the Beatles.\" Other early influences include Buddy Holly, Eddie Cochran, Roy Orbison and the Everly Brothers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "MacDonald describes Lennon and McCartney's growing articulacy and ambition from 1962 to 1967 as \"quite vertiginous\" and says that, with Harrison and Starr's collaboration in the recording studio, they \"led a revolution in the very ethos of songwriting which consisted in seeing the song as a part of something larger: the record\". Luhrssen and Larson describe the pair's songwriting as \"more melodically and harmonically unpredictable than that of their peers\", and say that the Beatles' sound \"struck many ears as outrageous, especially the falsetto leaps in songs such as 'She Loves You,' which might have been inspired by Little Richard but sounded unprecedented\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles continued to absorb influences long after their initial success, often finding new musical and lyrical avenues by listening to their contemporaries, including Bob Dylan, the Who, Frank Zappa, the Lovin' Spoonful, the Byrds and the Beach Boys, whose 1966 album \"Pet Sounds\" amazed and inspired McCartney. Referring to the Beach Boys' creative leader, Martin later stated: \"No one made a greater impact on the Beatles than Brian [Wilson].\" Ravi Shankar, with whom Harrison studied for six weeks in India in late 1966, had a significant effect on his musical development during the band's later years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Queen (band)",
        "text": "Queen drew artistic influence from British rock acts of the 1960s and early 1970s, such as the Beatles, the Kinks, Cream, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, the Who, Black Sabbath, Slade, Deep Purple, David Bowie, Genesis and Yes, with Mercury also inspired by the rock and roll singers Little Richard, Elvis Presley and the gospel singer Aretha Franklin. On the Beatles, Brian May stated they \"built our bible as far as musical composition, arrangement and production went. \"The White Album\" is a complete catalogue of how you should use a studio to build songs.\" Mercury said, \"John Lennon was larger than life, and an absolute genius. Even at a very early stage when they were the Beatles, I always preferred John Lennon's things. I don't know why. He just had that magic.\" May and Mercury were influenced by Jimi Hendrix, with Mercury saying \"he really had everything any rock 'n' roll star should have\", and May saying \"Jimi is, of course, my number one. And I've always said that [...] I never stop learning from Jimi.\" Mercury's thesis for his Ealing College degree was on Hendrix, and Mercury and Taylor closed their Kensington Market stall on 18 September 1970 to commemorate his death."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ain't She Sweet",
        "text": "The Beatles regularly performed the song live from 1957 to 1962. According to Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn, \"John [Lennon] may have known the song through his mother; he certainly knew it from Gene Vincent's 1956 recording on the LP \"Bluejean Bop!\"\" In \"The Beatles as Musicians\", Walter Everett offers a similar assessment, writing simply that it was \"based on Gene Vincent's record.\" Musicologist and writer Ian MacDonald also agrees with this view. Lewisohn further notes that, \"John Lennon's vocal rendition was different from Vincent's, it would seem that he arranged his own unique version... He may have also been influenced by Duffy Power's 1959 version\". In the Beatles' \"Anthology\" book, McCartney recalls that \"Songs like 'Till There Was You' and 'Ain't She Sweet' would be the late-night cabaret material. They showed that we weren't just another rock'n'roll group.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "John Lennon",
        "text": "Brian Epstein managed the Beatles from 1962 until his death in 1967. He had no previous experience managing artists, but he had a strong influence on the group's dress code and attitude on stage. Lennon initially resisted his attempts to encourage the band to present a professional appearance, but eventually complied, saying \"I'll wear a bloody balloon if somebody's going to pay me.\" McCartney took over on bass after Sutcliffe decided to stay in Hamburg, and Best was replaced with drummer Ringo Starr; this completed the four-piece line-up that would remain until the group's break-up in 1970. The band's first single, \"Love Me Do\", was released in October 1962 and reached No. 17 on the British charts. They recorded their debut album, \"Please Please Me\", in under 10 hours on 11 February 1963, a day when Lennon was suffering the effects of a cold, which is evident in the vocal on the last song to be recorded that day, \"Twist and Shout\". The Lennon\u2013McCartney songwriting partnership yielded eight of its fourteen tracks. With a few exceptions, one being the album title itself, Lennon had yet to bring his love of wordplay to bear on his song lyrics, saying: \"We were just writing songs... pop songs with no more thought of them than that \u2013 to create a sound. And the words were almost irrelevant\". In a 1987 interview, McCartney said that the other Beatles idolised Lennon: \"He was like our own little Elvis... We all looked up to John. He was older and he was very much the leader; he was the quickest wit and the smartest.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Gene Simmons",
        "text": "The Beatles had a significant influence on Simmons. \"There is no way I'd be doing what I do now if it wasn't for the Beatles. I was watching \"The Ed Sullivan Show\" and I saw them. Those skinny little boys, kind of androgynous, with long hair like girls. It blew me away that these four boys [from] the middle of nowhere could make that music.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul McCartney",
        "text": "Born in Liverpool, McCartney taught himself piano, guitar and songwriting as a teenager, having been influenced by his father, a jazz player, and rock 'n' roll performers such as Little Richard and Buddy Holly. He began his career as a member of the Quarrymen in 1957, which evolved into the Beatles in 1960. Sometimes called \"the cute Beatle\", McCartney later involved himself with the London avant-garde and spearheaded the incorporation of experimental aesthetics into the Beatles' studio productions. Starting with the 1967 album \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band\", he gradually became the band's \"de facto\" leader, providing the creative impetus for most of their music and film projects. Many of his Beatles songs, including \"And I Love Her\", \"Yesterday\", \"Eleanor Rigby\", and \"Blackbird\", rank among the most covered songs in history."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul McCartney",
        "text": "McCartney's earliest musical influences include Elvis Presley, Little Richard, Buddy Holly, Carl Perkins, and Chuck Berry. When asked why the Beatles did not include Presley on the \"Sgt. Pepper\" cover, McCartney replied, \"Elvis was too important and too far above the rest even to mention ... so we didn't put him on the list because he was more than merely a ... pop singer, he was Elvis the King.\" McCartney stated that for his bassline for \"I Saw Her Standing There\", he directly quoted Berry's \"I'm Talking About You\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lennon (musical)",
        "text": "I just thought it was phenomenal. It reminded me of what an influence John was \u2014 how strong an influence he was not only in popular music but in culture, and how much we miss him. He was a remarkable writer. He'd do catchy so you loved the song right away, then the second time you would hear more of it. Let's face it: the more you listen to his music, the more you hear. I'm still learning things when I hear his songs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Wilson",
        "text": "Although it is often reported that the Beach Boys and the Beatles reciprocated each other's musical developments, Wilson rebuked the suggestion that he had been influenced by his rivals. \"The Beatles \"inspired\" me. They didn't influence me.\" Carl Wilson supported that his brother preferred the music of Phil Spector over the Beatles. \"He loved the Beatles' later music when they evolved and started making intelligent, masterful music, but before that Phil was it.\" In a 1969 interview, Mike Love rejected the notion of Brian being influenced by the Beatles, adding that \"Brian was in his own world, believe me.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul McCartney",
        "text": "Paul McCartney\n--Early life.\n--Career.\n----1957\u20131960: The Quarrymen.\n----1960\u20131970: The Beatles.\n----1970\u20131981: Wings.\n----1982\u20131990.\n----1991\u20131999.\n----2000\u20132009.\n----2010\u2013present.\n--Musicianship.\n----Early influences.\n----Bass guitar.\n----Acoustic guitar.\n----Electric guitar.\n----Vocals.\n----Keyboards.\n----Drums.\n----Tape loops.\n--Personal life.\n----Creative outlets.\n----Business.\n----Drugs.\n----Vegetarianism and activism.\n----Meditation.\n----Football.\n----Relationships.\n------Girlfriends.\n--------Dot Rhone.\n--------Jane Asher.\n------Wives.\n--------Linda Eastman.\n--------Heather Mills.\n--------Nancy Shevell.\n------Beatles.\n--------John Lennon.\n----------Reaction to Lennon's murder.\n--------George Harrison.\n--------Ringo Starr.\n--Legacy.\n----Achievements.\n--Discography.\n--Tours.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "Discussing Lennon's \"I Want You (She's So Heavy)\", \"Guitar World\"s Josh Hart and Damien Fanelli called the song a \"bluesy rocker\" that \"might have inadvertently started doom metal\". Jo Kendall of \"Classic Rock\" magazine similarly commented that the song predated \"Black Sabbath's creation of doom rock by several months\" and noted the \"Santana-like Latin blues section\" in the song. James Manning, of \"Time Out London\", describes the song as the foundation for stoner rock."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lennon\u2013McCartney",
        "text": "Lennon\u2013McCartney, as well as other British Invasion songwriters, inspired changes to the music industry because they were bands that wrote and performed their own music. This trend threatened the professional songwriters that dominated the American music industry. Ellie Greenwich, a Brill Building songwriter, said, \u201cWhen the Beatles and the entire British Invasion came in, we were all ready to say, \u2018Look, it\u2019s been nice, there\u2019s no more room for us\u2026 It\u2019s now the self-contained group- makes, certain type of material. What do we do?\" In 1963, \"The Sunday Times\" called Lennon and McCartney the greatest composers since Ludwig van Beethoven."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "\"She Loves You\" is a song written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney and recorded by English rock band the Beatles for release as a single in 1963. The single set and surpassed several sales records in the United Kingdom charts, and set a record in the United States as one of the five Beatles songs that held the top five positions in the charts simultaneously, on 4 April 1964. It remains the band's best-selling single in the United Kingdom and the top-selling single of the 1960s there by any artist."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Who",
        "text": "Pink Floyd began to use feedback from their early shows in 1966, inspired by the Who, whom they considered a formative influence. Shortly after arriving in London in 1966, Jimi Hendrix visited Marshall's music shop demanding an amp setup like Townshend's and manipulated electronic noises in ways that Townshend had pioneered. The Beatles were fans and socialised with Moon in particular during the mid-1960s. In 1965, Paul McCartney said the Who \"are the most exciting thing around\" and was inspired to write \"Helter Skelter\" in the group's \"heavy\" style; John Lennon borrowed the acoustic guitar style in \"Pinball Wizard\" for \"Polythene Pam\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "British Invasion",
        "text": "The Beatles soon incited contrasting reactions and, in the process, generated more novelty records than anyone\u2014at least 200 during 1964\u20131965 and more inspired by the \"Paul is dead\" rumour in 1969. Among the many reactions, favouring the hysteria were British girl group the Carefrees' \"We Love You Beatles\" (No. 39 on 11 April 1964) and the Patty Cakes' \"I Understand Them\", subtitled \"A Love Song to the Beatles\". Disapproving the pandemonium were US group the Four Preps' \"A Letter to the Beatles\" (No. 85 on 4 April 1964) and US comedian Allan Sherman's \"Pop Hates the Beatles\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles in India",
        "text": "Saltzman recalls that the Beatles were \"very close and tight\" during his time at the ashram.<ref name=\"Kilachand/LiveMint\"></ref> According to Damodara, however, at times McCartney \"talk[ed] mean with George\" and appeared to want to be the Beatles' \"boss\". Donovan taught Lennon a guitar finger-picking technique that McCartney partly mastered also. The technique was subsequently implemented by Lennon on the Beatles songs \"Julia\" and \"Dear Prudence\". The latter was composed by Lennon to lure Prudence Farrow out of her intense meditation. Lennon later said: \"She'd been locked in for three weeks and was trying to reach God quicker than anyone else.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Beat Generation",
        "text": "The Beats had a pervasive influence on rock and roll and popular music, including the Beatles, Bob Dylan and Jim Morrison. The Beatles spelled their name with an \"a\" partly as a Beat Generation reference, and John Lennon was a fan of Jack Kerouac. The Beatles even put Beat writer William S. Burroughs on the cover of their album \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band.\" Ginsberg later met and became friends of members of the Beatles, and Paul McCartney played guitar on Ginsberg's album \"Ballad of the Skeletons.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "Lennon and McCartney started composing \"She Loves You\" on 26 June 1963 after a concert at the Majestic Ballroom in Newcastle upon Tyne during their tour with Roy Orbison and Gerry and the Pacemakers. They began writing the song on the tour bus, and continued later that night at their hotel in Newcastle eventually completing it the following day at McCartney's family home in Forthlin Road, Liverpool."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "Released in October 1962, \"Love Me Do\", the band's debut single as EMI recording artists, contrasted with the polished style of contemporary UK hit songs. According to author Peter Doggett, the January 1963 follow-up, \"Please Please Me\", represented \"the real birth of the new\" as, aided by Lennon's impassioned vocal, the song was \"more driven than any previous British pop record\". As musicians and songwriters, the Beatles established working-class authenticity and informality as key aspects in British rock 'n' roll. Doggett adds that \"Most of all, the Beatles sounded like a gang: forceful, persuasive and sexually potent.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "In 1975, authors Roy Carr and Tony Tyler wrote in \"\" that \"If a future archivist were to select one single tune to characterise the Beatles' appeal and the stylistic devices for which they became world famous, he would be forced to choose 'She Loves You'.\" In 1979, author Greil Marcus included \"She Loves You\" in his \"Stranded: Rock and Roll for a Desert Island\" list of essential rock records. Even more fundamentally, Marcus posed the question of what one would tell a Martian who landed and asked the meaning of rock and roll? The first answer would be \"She Loves You\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "Clothing styles were similarly influenced, firstly by the band's Pierre Cardin suits and Cuban-heeled Beatle boots, and later by the Carnaby Street mod fashions they wore. Along with the Rolling Stones, Dylan and the Who, the Beatles inspired thousands of young men to wear pop art-themed designs. In the late 1960s, the band's adoption of Nehru jackets and other Indian-style clothing was highly influential on Western fashion. In his 1970 \"Lennon Remembers\" interview, Lennon complained: \"When we got here [to the US], you were all walking around in fuckin' Bermuda shorts with Boston crew cuts and stuff on your teeth\u00a0... The chicks looked like 1940's horses. There was no conception of dress or any of that jazz.\" Writing in 2002, music journalist David Fricke said Lennon was \"right\" in his withering assessment of American youth, adding that Americans were \"psychologically stuck in the surface white-bread calm of the 1950s\" and \"ripe for blindsiding\".<ref name=\"Fricke/MojoSpecial\"></ref>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "Principally through McCartney's melody writing, the Beatles created many songs that became the most widely recorded of all time, including \"And I Love Her\", \"Yesterday\", \"Michelle\", \"Eleanor Rigby\", \"Here, There and Everywhere\", \"The Fool on the Hill\", \"Hey Jude\", \"Blackbird\", \"Let It Be\" and \"The Long and Winding Road\". According to Doggett, these mainly McCartney-written songs provided contemporary relevance for \"light orchestras and crooners\" in the easy listening category, persuaded adults that the new generation's musical tastes had merit, and \"ensured that Lennon and McCartney would become the highest-earning composers in history\". Harrison's songwriting widened the Beatles' range further, although his level of contribution remained limited by Lennon and McCartney's dominance throughout the band's career. His song \"Something\" was also widely covered, and earned rare praise from Sinatra, who described it as \"the greatest love song of the past fifty years\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kurt Cobain",
        "text": "The Beatles were an early and lasting influence on Cobain; his aunt Mari remembers him singing \"Hey Jude\" at the age of two. \"My aunts would give me Beatles records\", Cobain told Jon Savage in 1993, \"so for the most part [I listened to] the Beatles [as a child], and if I was lucky, I'd be able to buy a single.\" Cobain expressed a particular fondness for John Lennon, whom he called his \"idol\" in his posthumously released journals, and he said that he wrote the song \"About a Girl\", from Nirvana's 1989 debut album \"Bleach\", after spending three hours listening to \"Meet the Beatles!\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "Author Dominic Pedler describes the way they crossed musical styles: \"Far from moving sequentially from one genre to another (as is sometimes conveniently suggested) the group maintained \"in parallel\" their mastery of the traditional, catchy chart hit while simultaneously forging rock and dabbling with a wide range of peripheral influences from country to vaudeville. One of these threads was their take on folk music, which would form such essential groundwork for their later collisions with Indian music and philosophy.\" As the personal relationships between the band members grew increasingly strained, their individual tastes became more apparent. The minimalistic cover artwork for the White Album contrasted with the complexity and diversity of its music, which encompassed Lennon's \"Revolution 9\" (whose musique concr\u00e8te approach was influenced by Yoko Ono), Starr's country song \"Don't Pass Me By\", Harrison's rock ballad \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\", and the \" roar\" of McCartney's \"Helter Skelter\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "If The Beatles Had Read Hunter...The Singles",
        "text": "The title referred to a quote (that) \u201cif the writer Hunter S. Thompson had been a presiding influence over The Beatles, then they might have looked and sounded like The Wonder Stuff\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Recording practices of the Beatles",
        "text": "The studio practices of the Beatles evolved during the 1960s and, in some cases, influenced the way popular music was recorded. Some of the effects they employed were sampling, artificial double tracking (ADT) and the elaborate use of multitrack recording machines. They also used classical instruments on their recordings and guitar feedback. The group's attitude towards the recording process was summed up by Paul McCartney: \"We would say, 'Try it. Just try it for us. If it sounds crappy, OK, we'll lose it. But it might just sound good.' We were always pushing ahead: Louder, further, longer, more, different.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "In his role as the Beatles' record producer, George Martin is generally credited with helping to popularise the idea of the recording studio as an instrument used for in-studio composition. Although he was nominally the Beatles' producer, however, from 1964 he ceded control to the band, allowing them to use the studio as a workshop for their ideas and later as a sound laboratory. Musicologist Olivier Julien writes that the Beatles' \"gradual integration of arranging and recording into one and the same process\" began as early as 1963, but developed in earnest during the sessions for \"Rubber Soul\" and \"Revolver\" and \"ultimately blossomed\" during the sessions for \"Sgt. Pepper\". In acquiring control over the recording process, whereby Martin and his engineers became facilitators of the musicians' ideas, the Beatles reversed the strict hierarchy that had long been in place at EMI. In addition to inspiring other artists, their example helped break the hold that EMI and Decca Records had on the British recording industry, leading to the growth of independent studios there, including the Beatles' own Apple Studio."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "\"Yeah, yeah, yeah\" was to have a great effect on the Beatles' image \u2013 in some parts of Europe, they became known as the Yeah-Yeahs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "According to Gould, the Beatles served as the \"archetype\" of a rock band, in contrast to the vocal and harmony groups with which listeners were most familiar in 1964. In the US, thousands of bands sought to imitate the Beatles, some adopting English-sounding names to capitalise on the British Invasion. While the country already had a vibrant garage rock scene, the movement surged following the Beatles' first appearance on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\". Commentator Bill Dean writes that the exact figures are impossible to determine, but \"the anecdotal evidence suggests thousands\u00a0\u2013 if not hundreds of thousands or even more\u00a0\u2013 young musicians across the country\" responded by forming bands. This was sometimes to the chagrin of their parents and other adults."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Lennon",
        "text": "Music historians Schinder and Schwartz wrote of the transformation in popular music styles that took place between the 1950s and the 1960s. They said that the Beatles' influence cannot be overstated: having \"revolutionised the sound, style, and attitude of popular music and opened rock and roll's doors to a tidal wave of British rock acts\", the group then \"spent the rest of the 1960s expanding rock's stylistic frontiers\". On National Poetry Day in 1999, the BBC conducted a poll to identify the UK's favourite song lyric and announced \"Imagine\" as the winner."
      },
      {
        "title": "We Love You Beatles",
        "text": "The song was based on \"We Love You Conrad\" from the musical \"Bye Bye Birdie\" and has simple lyrics (\"We love you Beatles, oh yes we do!\"). Individual verses also have \"We love you _____ (replace with \"Ringo\", \"John\", \"Paul\", and \"George\", in that order) along with reasons why the group loves that particular Beatle. It also includes at least three different vocal and instrumental quotations from the Beatles' 1963 hit song \"She Loves You\", suggesting the fact that \"We Love You Beatles\" was a reply to it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Greg Kihn",
        "text": "His early influence was The Beatles and their appearance on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\". \"Just about every rock and roll musician my age can point to one cultural event that inspired him to take up music in the first place: The Beatles on Ed Sullivan. If you were a shy 14-year-old kid who already had a guitar, it was a life-altering event. ... In a single weekend everything had changed. I'd come home from school the previous Friday looking like Dion. I went back to class on Monday morning with my hair dry and brushed forward. That's how quickly it happened.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "She Said She Said",
        "text": "The song was an early example of acid rock, a genre that came to the fore in Britain and America in the wake of \"Revolver\". In his book on the Swinging London phenomenon, Shawn Levy identifies the album's \"trio of tuned-in, blissed-out, spiked and spaced tunes\" by Lennon \u2013 \"Tomorrow Never Knows\", \"She Said She Said\" and \"I'm Only Sleeping\" \u2013 as especially indicative of the Beatles' transformation into \"the world's first household psychedelics, avatars of something wilder and more revolutionary than anything pop culture had ever delivered before\". \"Rolling Stone\" attributes the development of the Los Angeles and San Francisco music scenes, including subsequent releases by the Beach Boys, Love and the Grateful Dead, to the influence of \"Revolver\", particularly the \"conjunction of melodic immediacy and acid-fueled mind games\" in \"She Said She Said\". The song was much admired by American composer and conductor Leonard Bernstein. In his 1967 television special \"\", he described it as a \"remarkable song\" and demonstrated its shift in time signature as an example of the Beatles' talent for inventive and unexpected musical devices in their work."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "In the opinion of Roger McGuinn of the Byrds, writers who attempt to define the origins of folk rock \"don't realise that the Beatles were responsible as far back as 1963\". He cites \"She Loves You\" as one of the first examples where the Beatles introduced folk chord changes into rock music and so initiated the new genre. These songs were all influential in providing a template for successfully assimilating folk-based chord progressions and melodies into pop music."
      },
      {
        "title": "Think for Yourself",
        "text": "The song reflects the influence of Bob Dylan, with whom the Beatles had spent time socialising in May 1965, in London, and then in mid August, following the band's concert at Shea Stadium in New York. Just as their songs had encouraged Dylan to embrace rock music, Dylan's work inspired the Beatles, and particularly Harrison, as a nascent songwriter, to address more sophisticated concepts than the standard love song. In addition, since March that year, Harrison's outlook had been transformed by his and John Lennon's experiences with the hallucinogenic drug LSD; in a 1987 interview, he said that the drug had revealed to him the futility of the band's widespread fame. Author George Case groups \"Think for Yourself\" with two Lennon\u2013McCartney compositions from the Beatles' \"Rubber Soul\" album \u2013 \"I'm Looking Through You\" and \"The Word\" \u2013 as examples of how the band's focus had progressed \"from excited songs of juvenile love to adult meditations on independence, estrangement and brotherhood\". In Ringo Starr's later recollection, \"Rubber Soul\" was the Beatles' \"departure record\", written and recorded during a period when, largely through the influence of marijuana, \"We were expanding in all areas of our lives, opening up to a lot of different attitudes.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "From 1966, the Beatles began to promulgate a world view espousing LSD-inspired higher consciousness, led by Lennon and Harrison defying Epstein's insistence that the group refrain from commenting on political issues such as the Vietnam War. The controversy surrounding Lennon's \"more popular than Jesus\" remark reinforced their determination to speak out and furthered their standing in the emerging counterculture. Cultural commentator Mark Hertsgaard writes that the band did not directly address racism, war or social justice in their songs from this period, yet a \"sensibility\u00a0... permeated their music\" and \"The essence of the Beatles' message was not simply that the world \"had\" to change, but, more importantly, that it \"could\" change.\" He sees this best exemplified in \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band\" and says that Harrison's song \"Within You Without You\" \"contained the album's most overt expression of the Beatles' shared belief in spiritual awareness and social change\". Abbie Hoffman likened \"Sgt. Pepper\" to \"Beethoven coming to the supermarket\", adding: \"It summed up so much of what we were saying politically, culturally, artistically, expressing our inner feelings and our view of the world in a way that was so revolutionary.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Maurice Gibb",
        "text": "Gibb's influences were the Beatles, the Everly Brothers, Cliff Richard, Paul Anka and the Mills Brothers. According to Gibb he listened to the Beatles' early records when he was a child and was later influenced by Paul McCartney's bass guitar-playing. Talking about the song \"Have You Heard the Word\" by the Fut, on which Gibb sang and played bass, he said that \"We were just getting ready to do some tracks and we were just doing nothing and I was fartin' around on the bass. I was a big Paul freak. He was a great teacher for me.\" Gibb added that \"I could play every bass lick he [McCartney] played\", especially \"Michelle\", saying that its bass-line was \"really tasteful stuff, and way ahead, way ahead of his time\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ann Marston",
        "text": "In late 1963, like millions of American young people, she became an enthusiastic fan of The Beatles. She wrote a lengthy letter to George Harrison, bought all their albums, and compiled a scrap book with photos of each of them and details about their individual quirks and personal lives. The Beatles first performed in Detroit on September 6, 1964. Due to her local celebrity status, she had a half hour phone conversation with John Lennon, attended their press conference and saw the concert. Thst day represented a turning point in her life, and she shifted from professional archer to rock band promoter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Little Richard",
        "text": "The origins of Cliff Richard's name change from Harry Webb was seen as a partial tribute to his musical hero Richard and singer Rick Richards. The members of the Beatles were heavily influenced by Richard, including Paul McCartney and George Harrison. McCartney idolized him in school and later used his recordings as inspiration for his uptempo rockers, such as \"I'm Down\". \"Long Tall Sally\" was the first song McCartney performed in public. McCartney would later state, \"I could do Little Richard's voice, which is a wild, hoarse, screaming thing. It's like an out-of-body experience. You have to leave your current sensibilities and go about a foot above your head to sing it.\" During the Beatles' Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction, Harrison commented, \"thank you all very much, especially the rock 'n' rollers, an' Little Richard there, if it wasn't for (gesturing to Little Richard), it was all his fault, really.\" Upon hearing \"Long Tall Sally\" in 1956, John Lennon later commented that he was so impressed that he \"couldn't speak\". Rolling Stones members Mick Jagger and Keith Richards were also profoundly influenced by Richard, with Jagger citing him as his introduction to R&B music and referring to him as \"the originator and my first idol\". Late 1960s hard rock and heavy metal pioneer John Kay of Steppenwolf, as a young teen who did not understand the English language in East Prussia in the mid-1950s, was first inspired by rock 'n' roll music upon hearing Little Richard's 'Tutti Frutti' on a U.S. Armed Forces station on a homemade radio in 1956. Kay would later state, \"it was unlike anything I ever heard before and it was instant 'chicken skin time' - I mean goosebumps from head to toe. From that time on my focus was to hear as much of that stuff as possible, and after a while it became a kind of adolescent dream that someday would be on the other side of the ocean, would learn how to speak English, and this music is something that I would play.\" Richard was also the first rock n roll influence on Rod Stewart, Peter Wolf, and Robert Plant. Plant was not interested in listening to music until he heard Little Richard on record, later stating, \"I was a 13-year-old boy in Kidderminster when I heard Little Richard for the first time. My parents shielded me from anything that was worldly. I spent my time searching feverishly through my stamp collection or working on my Meccano, and then someone played me Good Golly, Miss Molly. The sound! It was fantastic, indescribable.\" David Bowie called Richard his \"inspiration\" stating upon listening to \"Tutti Frutti\" that he \"heard God\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bernie LaBarge",
        "text": "Most noteworthy, his real inspiration was seeing The Beatles on The Ed Sullivan Show with hundreds of girls screaming. He recalls, \u201cI was no different than a million other guys when I saw The Beatles\u2014 the band blew our minds. But my desire to become a musician was really George Harrison\u2019s fault. I loved the way he hung back and played all the interesting parts\u2014a guitar solo and the little licks here and there. That's when I knew I wanted to be a guitarist and make a career of it. Even though I'd never picked up a guitar, I wanted to be just like George Harrison.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "Lennon, being mindful of Elvis Presley's \"All Shook Up\", wanted something equally stirring: \"I don't know where the 'yeah yeah yeah' came from [but] I remember when Elvis did 'All Shook Up' it was the first time in my life that I had heard 'uh huh', 'oh yeah', and 'yeah yeah' all sung in the same song\". The song also included a number of falsetto \"wooooo\"s, which Lennon acknowledged as being inspired by the Isley Brothers' recording of \"Twist and Shout\", which the Beatles had earlier recorded, and which had also been inserted into the group's previous single, \"From Me to You\". As Lennon later said: \"We stuck it in everything\". McCartney recalls them playing the finished song on acoustic guitars to his father Jim at home immediately after the song was completed: \"We went into the living room and said 'Dad, listen to this. What do you think? And he said 'That's very nice son, but there's enough of these Americanisms around. Couldn't you sing 'She loves you, yes, yes, yes!' At which point we collapsed in a heap and said 'No, Dad, you don't quite get it!'\" EMI recording engineer Norman Smith had a somewhat similar reaction, later recounting, \"I was setting up the microphone when I first saw the lyrics on the music stand, 'She loves you, yeah, yeah, yeah, She loves you, yeah, yeah, yeah, She loves you, yeah, yeah, yeah, Yeah!' I thought, Oh my God, what a lyric! This is going to be one that I \"do not\" like. But when they started to sing it \u2013 bang, wow, terrific, I was up at the mixer jogging around.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Lennon Remembers",
        "text": "Lennon dismisses producer George Martin's contribution to the Beatles' music, saying that Martin was merely a \"translator\". He pairs Martin with the Beatles' former music publisher, Dick James, as two associates who took credit for the band's success when in fact it was only the four Beatles who were responsible. Lennon says: \"I'd like to hear Dick James' music and I'd like to hear George Martin's music, please, just play me some ... People are under a delusion that \"they\" made \"us\", when in fact \"we\" made \"them\".\" He then attacks the Beatles' long-serving aides Peter Brown, Derek Taylor and Neil Aspinall as having believed they too were part of the Beatles. According to Lennon, these individuals represented a false illusion among the staff at Apple, whereby the Beatles provided a \"portable Rome\" in which Brown, Taylor and Aspinall felt entitled to a position beside \"the Caesars\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "The \"Daily Express\" reported in 1965 that a band known as the Candid Lads had started in the Soviet Union, with a sound and look identical to the Beatles'. Bands there were forced to play in secret due to the communist authorities' ban on rock music, and Beatles records had to be smuggled into the country.<ref name=\"Walsh/NYDailyNews\"></ref> Russian musician Sasha Lipnitsky later recalled: \"The Beatles brought us the idea of democracy\u00a0... For many of us, it was the first hole in the Iron Curtain.\" In Japan, the Beatles influenced what was dubbed the \"Group Sounds\" era, before which Japanese bands were mainly imitations of acts such as Presley and Pat Boone. According to music-industry executive Aki Tanaka, the Beatles' 1966 concerts in Tokyo inspired \"the birth of a real Japanese rock music scene\", in which local artists wrote their material rather than merely covering Western rock songs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Swingin' School",
        "text": "Paul McCartney reportedly credited \u201cSwinging School\u201d as the inspiration behind the Beatles\u2019 \u201cShe Loves You\u201d \u2014 specifically the lyric \u201cyeah yeah yeah\u201d."
      },
      {
        "title": "All You Need Is Love",
        "text": "On the Beatles' recording, the song starts with the first few bars of the French national anthem, \"La Marseillaise\", and contains elements from other musical works, such as Glenn Miller's 1939 hit \"In the Mood\". This use of musical quotations follows an approach first adopted by the Beatles in Harrison's composition \"It's All Too Much\", which similarly reflects the ideology behind the hippie movement during the 1967 Summer of Love. George Martin recalled that in \"All You Need Is Love\" \"the boys\u00a0... wanted to freak out at the end, and just go mad\". During the long coda, elements of other musical works can be heard, including \"Greensleeves\", Invention No. 8 in F major (BWV 779) by J.\u00a0S. Bach, \"In the Mood\", and the Beatles' own songs \"She Loves You\" and \"Yesterday\". The first of these three pieces had been included in the arrangement by Martin, while \"She Loves You\" and \"Yesterday\" were the result of improvisation by Lennon during rehearsals."
      },
      {
        "title": "What'd I Say",
        "text": "The song was also influential in the United Kingdom. Paul McCartney was immediately struck by the song and knew when he heard it that he wanted to be involved in making music. George Harrison remembered an all-night party he attended in 1959 where the song was played for eight hours non-stop: \"It was one of the best records I ever heard.\" While the Beatles were developing their sound in Hamburg, they played \"What'd I Say\" at every show, trying to see how long they could make the song last and using the audience in the call and response, with which they found immense popularity. The opening electric piano in the song was the first John Lennon had ever heard, and he tried to replicate it with his guitar. Lennon later credited Charles' opening of \"What'd I Say\" to the birth of songs dominated by guitar riffs."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "George Martin, the Beatles' producer, questioned the validity of the major sixth chord that ends the song, an idea suggested by George Harrison. \"They sort of finished on this curious singing chord which was a major sixth, with George [Harrison] doing the sixth and the others doing the third and fifth in the chord. It was just like a Glenn Miller arrangement.\" The device had also been used by country music-influenced artists in the 1950s. McCartney later reflected: \"We took it to George Martin and sang 'She loves you, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeeeeeaah ...' and that tight little sixth cluster we had at the end. George [Martin] said: 'It's very corny, I would never end on a sixth'. But we said 'It's such a great sound, it doesn't matter'.\" \"The Beatles: Complete Scores\" shows only the notes D (the fifth) and E (the sixth) sung for the final chord, while on the recording McCartney sang G (the root) as Harrison sang E and Lennon sang D."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "Writing in \"The New York Times Magazine\" in 2016, cultural commentator Chuck Klosterman said that the group were \"only slightly less popular now\" than they were in the 1960s. He wrote that the group were \"arguably\" responsible for everything related to rock music, \"including the very notion of a band's breaking up\", and noted that no other rock group had faced unrelated assassination attempts against half its members. Klosterman concluded that, \"In any reasonable world, the Beatles are the answer to the question \"Who will be the Sousa of rock?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "Over the 1960s as a whole, the Beatles were the dominant youth-centred pop act on the sales charts. \"She Loves You\", the band's second number-one single on the \"Record Retailer\" chart (subsequently adopted as the UK Singles Chart), became the best-selling single in UK chart history, a position it retained until 1978. The band's first two albums, \"Please Please Me\" and \"With the Beatles\", each topped \"Record Retailer\"s LPs chart, for a combined run of 51 consecutive weeks. Beginning with \"From Me to You\" in 1963, the Beatles had a four-year run of eleven consecutive chart-topping singles in \"Record Retailer\", ending when the double A-side single \"Strawberry Fields Forever\" / \"Penny Lane\" peaked at number two."
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "\"She Loves You\" is the song that thrust the Beatles full-scale into the British national spotlight. Part of this was the effectiveness of the song's hook; author Eric Starr wrote in retrospect, \"Each chorus or refrain pounds the hook into your head until it's imprinted in your brain.\" As Nicholas Schaffner later wrote, it was \"'yeah, yeah, yeah' chanted repeatedly and emphatically enough to drive any listener out of his mind, one way or the other.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "She Loves You",
        "text": "Personnel per Ian MacDonald\n*John Lennon \u2013 vocal, rhythm guitar\n*Paul McCartney \u2013 vocal, bass\n*George Harrison \u2013 harmony vocal, lead guitar\n*Ringo Starr \u2013 drums\n*George Martin \u2013 producer\n*Norman Smith \u2013 engineer"
      },
      {
        "title": "She Said She Said",
        "text": "Lennon began working on \"She Said She Said\" in March 1966, shortly before the Beatles started recording \"Revolver\". On the home recordings he made at this time, the song was titled \"He Said\" and performed on acoustic guitar. Lennon said that the episode with Fonda had stuck with him, and when writing the song, \"I changed it to 'she' instead of 'he.'\" Harrison recalled helping Lennon construct the song from \"maybe three\" separate segments that Lennon had. Harrison described the process as \"a real weld\". In his 2017 book \"Who Wrote the Beatle Songs?\", author Todd Compton credits Lennon and Harrison as the song's true composers."
      },
      {
        "title": "I'll Get You",
        "text": "The song's opening line \"Imagine I'm in love with you\" was innovative, drawing the listener immediately into the story. McCartney would cite this as an early example of Lewis Carroll's influence on Lennon's lyrics\u2014a ploy explored again in later compositions such as \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\", \"Strawberry Fields Forever\" and Lennon's solo \"Imagine\". Reiterating its A-side's catchphrase (\"Yeah\"), and assuming the heavy scouse accents conspicuous on their early records, Lennon and McCartney \"drawl their way through a mock-na\u00efve love lyric\". McCartney later singled out the chord change underneath \"It's not like me to \"pretend\"\" as unusual (moving from a D major to A minor), and crediting the Joan Baez rendition of the folk song \"All My Trials\" as inspiration. \"I [also] liked that slightly faggy way we sang: 'Oh yeah, oh yeah', which was very distinctive, very Beatley.\" Looking back in 1967, Lennon said: \"Ever heard anyone from Liverpool singing 'yes'? It\u2019s \"yeah!\"\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles' success in the US established the popularity of British groups and affected the musical style of American bands. In doing so, however, the Beatles inadvertently caused a sharp decrease in sales for black artists and the decline of many of the girl groups they admired. By mid 1964, several more UK acts arrived in the US, including the Dave Clark Five, the Rolling Stones, Billy J. Kramer and Gerry & the Pacemakers. Confirming the British Invasion of the US pop market, one-third of all top ten hits there in 1964 were performed by British acts. The depth of the Beatles' US impact was also reflected in a wave of easy listening adaptations of their songs, aimed at the adult market. This trend was led by the Boston Pops Orchestra recording \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" and the Hollyridge Strings covering \"All My Loving\", after which the latter orchestra released the 1964 album \"The Beatles Song Book\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Holme (band)",
        "text": "Although the members' musical influences vary, most credit the Beatles as an important musical influence. Frank Sementa (drums), was influenced by watching Arthur Godfrey's TV show and listening to his parents' Glenn Miller and McGuire Sisters records. Keyboardist Danny Gralick, from Belmar and Philadelphia, who had played for Jim Croce for a time, was inspired by Buddy Greco. Guitarist Joel Krauss, who was from Brooklyn, originally played the French Horn, but switched to guitar because it was more popular with his peers. Krauss was a cab driver when he saw the ad for a guitarist. Krauss later quit the band for a while, but rejoined the band later."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "In late 1963, the British press coined the term \"Beatlemania\" to describe the phenomenal and increasingly hysterical interest in the Beatles. The word was first widely used following the band's 13 October appearance on \"Sunday Night at the London Palladium\"; amid reports of wild crowd scenes outside the venue, and after 15\u00a0million viewers watched the broadcast, Britain was said to be \"in the grip of Beatlemania\". The \"yeah, yeah, yeah!\" refrain of \"She Loves You\" was a signature hook for their European audiences. Its falsetto \"ooh!\"s elicited further fan delirium when accompanied by McCartney and Harrison's exaggerated shaking of their moptop hair. Once it became an international phenomenon in 1964, Beatlemania surpassed in its intensity and reach any previous examples of fan worship, including those afforded to Presley and Frank Sinatra."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles (album)",
        "text": "Lennon wrote \"Yer Blues\" in India. Despite meditating and the tranquil atmosphere, he still felt unhappy, as reflected in the lyrics. The style was influenced by the British Blues Boom of 1968, which included Fleetwood Mac, Cream, the Jimi Hendrix Experience, Jeff Beck and Chicken Shack. The backing track was recorded in a small room next to the Studio 2 control room. Unusually for a Beatles recording, the four-track source tape was edited directly, resulting in an abrupt cut-off at 3'17\" into the start of another take (which ran into the fadeout)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Komm, gib mir deine Hand / Sie liebt dich",
        "text": "The recording of \" and \" came at a time when it was standard practice for artists to record unique versions of songs for foreign markets. Executives from Odeon insisted with George Martin and Brian Epstein that in order for them to penetrate the German market, the Beatles would need to record German versions of their biggest songs. The Beatles opposed the idea until Martin convinced them to record. On 29 January 1964, during their only group recording session outside of the United Kingdom, the Beatles recorded the songs at EMI's Path\u00e9 Marconi Studios in Paris, France. For \"\", they overdubbed German vocals onto the original backing track of \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\". The two-track tapes of \"She Loves You\" from July 1963 were erased after the mono master was made, forcing the Beatles to record \" entirely from scratch. The English and German versions contain differences, the most prominent being Lennon's rhythm guitar; on the former he plays his Gibson J-160E while on the latter he plays his Rickenbacker 325 Capri."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dan Lacksman",
        "text": "He then discovered the music of the Beatles with their huge hit \"She Loves You\", and started composing more intensely, recording demo songs in his parent's dining room, which gradually became his first home studio, with the purchase of a second tape recorder and more instruments like a drumkit and a second-hand Fender Jazz Bass."
      },
      {
        "title": "Birth of the Beatles",
        "text": "The film features many songs known for being performed by the Beatles, with some written by the band themselves, and some by other artists:\n# \"She Loves You\" (John Lennon/Paul McCartney) - opening titles version\n# \"My Bonnie (Lies Over the Ocean)\" (traditional, arr. Tony Sheridan)\n# \"Oh Baby Doll\" - performed by a different group at the Liverpool audition, not by the Beatles themselves\n# \"Dizzy Miss Lizzy\" (Larry Williams)\n# \"Blue Suede Shoes\" (Carl Perkins) - performed by Rory Storm and the Hurricanes\n# \"I Saw Her Standing There\" (John Lennon/Paul McCartney) - featuring Pete Best on drums\n# \"Don't Bother Me\" (George Harrison) - shown being performed by The Beatles in Hamburg in 1961; this is an anachronism, as George Harrison did not write the song until 1963\n# \"Johnny B. Goode\" (Chuck Berry)\n# \"Lawdy Miss Clawdy\" (Lloyd Price) - performed by Rory Storm and the Hurricanes\n# \"Roll Over Beethoven\" (Chuck Berry)\n# \"Kansas City\" (Jerry Leiber/Mike Stoller)\n# \"Hey! Hey! Hey! Hey!\" (Richard Penniman)\n# \"Shake, Rattle and Roll!\" (Charles F. Calhoun)\n# \"Ask Me Why\" (John Lennon/Paul McCartney)\n# \"Love Me Tender\" (music: George R. Poulton/lyrics: Ken Darby; however, the lyrics were officially credited to Elvis Presley and Darby's wife, Vera Matson)\n# \"Twist and Shout\" (Phil Medley/Bert Berns)\n# \"P.S. I Love You\" (John Lennon/Paul McCartney)\n# \"Dizzy Miss Lizzy\" (Larry Williams) - reprise, a different recording featuring heavier drums and a more raw-sounding guitar\n# \"Cry for a Shadow\" (John Lennon/George Harrison)\n# \"Please Mr. Postman\" (Georgia Dobbins/William Garrett/Freddie Gorman/Brian Holland/Robert Bateman)\n# \"Long Tall Sally\" (Enotris Johnson/Robert Blackwell/Richard Penniman)\n# \"Love Me Do\" (John Lennon/Paul McCartney)\n# \"Rock and Roll Music\" (Chuck Berry)\n# \"I Saw Her Standing There\" (John Lennon/Paul McCartney) - reprise, featuring Ringo Starr on drums; the drumming styles differ between versions for story reasons\n# \"Please Please Me\" (John Lennon/Paul McCartney)\n# \"Thank You Girl\" (John Lennon/Paul McCartney)\n# \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" (John Lennon/Paul McCartney)\n# \"She Loves You\" (John Lennon/Paul McCartney) - ending titles version"
      },
      {
        "title": "She Said She Said",
        "text": "The track incorporates a change of metre, following Harrison's introduction of such a musical device into the Beatles' work with his Indian-styled composition \"Love You To\". \"She Said She Said\" uses both 3/4 and 4/4 time, shifting to 3/4 on the line \"No, no, no, you're wrong\" and back again on \"I said \u2026\" The middle part consists of another song fragment that Lennon had penned. At Harrison's suggestion, Lennon used this fragment in the middle of \"She Said She Said\". In this section, the subject of Lennon's lyrics changes from his recollection of the LSD episode with Fonda to a reminiscence of childhood, as Lennon sings: \"When I was a boy everything was right / Everything was right\". According to musicologist Walter Everett, this abstraction is Lennon's refuge from the disturbing sensation that he's \"never been born\", and the change in time signature to 3/4 serves as an appropriate device for the shift in lyrical focus back in time. Musicologist Alan Pollack comments that, typically of the Beatles' work, the song's experimental qualities \u2013 rhythm, meter, lyrics, and sound treatment on the official recording \u2013 are tempered effectively by the band's adherence to a recognisable musical form. In this case, the structure comprises two verses, two bridge sections separated by a single verse, followed by a final verse and an outro (or coda).<ref name=\"Pollack/Notes\"></ref>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "In the description of \"Rolling Stone\"s editors, the Beatles \"defined and incarnated Sixties style: smart, idealistic, playful, irreverent, eclectic\". They helped popularise Northern English accents on British radio and television, reversing the preference for BBC English, and their humour and irreverence combined to mock social conventions. Writer Sean O'Hagan recalled in 2016: \"Everything about them\u00a0\u2013 the clothes they wore, the way they spoke, the songs they created with an effortlessness that seemed almost alchemical\u00a0\u2013 suggested new ways of being. More than any of their contemporaries, they challenged the tired conventions that defined class-bound, insular, early-60s Britain.\" According to author Jonathan Gould, in conveying \"Youthfulness, stylishness, unpretentiousness, and nonchalance\", their early image defied the widely held stereotype of Britishness, and through their presentation as Liverpudlians, \"the Beatles personified an iconoclastic version of their national character that proved to be as compelling to the youth of North America, Europe, Australia and parts of Asia as it was to their British fans.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Komm, gib mir deine Hand / Sie liebt dich",
        "text": "The Beatles recorded \" and \", along with McCartney's new song \"Can't Buy Me Love\", at EMI's Path\u00e9 Marconi Studios in Paris. This was their first recording session outside Abbey Road and the band's only one outside of the United Kingdom. \"\" was the first of three songs recorded that day. Martin produced it, being supported by engineers Smith and Jacques Esmenjaud. Smith recalled, \"I found the studio very odd to work in, the equipment was alien to anything we were used to\", and, \"[There] was absolutely no atmosphere!\" The original rhythm track was mixed down from four-track to two-track. The Beatles overdubbed German vocals and handclaps across 11 takes, as well as George Harrison's Country Gent. Takes five and seven were marked \"best\" and edited together, along with a handclap overdub. The original two-track tape of \"She Loves You\", recorded on 1 July 1963, had been erased after the mono master was finished, meaning the Beatles needed to record \"\" entirely from scratch. They recorded a new rhythm track in 13 takes. John Lennon's rhythm guitar distinguishes the German and English backing tracks from one another. In July 1963 on \"She Loves You\", he plays his Gibson J-160E, a guitar later stolen in early January 1964 during the Beatles' 1963\u201364 Christmas show. For \"\", he instead plays his Rickenbacker 325 Capri. The Beatles overdubbed German vocals in a single take \u2013 take 14. Smith recalled, \"They were extremely pleased to get it over with... we all were.\" The Beatles worked quicker than anticipated and so cancelled a second session booked for two days later on 31 January 1964. They used their remaining studio time to record four takes of \"Can't Buy Me Love\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Donovan",
        "text": "In early 1968 he was part of the group that traveled to the ashram of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in Rishikesh. The visit gained worldwide attention thanks to the presence of all four Beatles as well as Beach Boys lead singer Mike Love, as well as actress Mia Farrow and her sister Prudence (who inspired Lennon to write \"Dear Prudence\"). According to a 1968 Paul McCartney interview with Radio Luxembourg, it was during this time that Donovan taught Lennon and McCartney finger-picking guitar styles including the clawhammer, which he had learned from Mac MacLeod. Lennon used this technique on songs including \"Dear Prudence\", \"Julia\", \"Happiness is a Warm Gun\" and \"Look at Me\", and McCartney with \"Blackbird\" and \"Mother Nature's Son\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "Music journalist Mark Kemp credits the Beatles with leading pop music's expansion into styles such as world music, psychedelia, avant-pop and electronica, and attracting a bohemian audience that had previously focused on jazz and folk. According to Luhrssen and Larson, the Beatles affected every genre of rock music except jazz rock. Together with the Byrds, they are commonly credited with launching the popularity of the \"jangly\" sound that defined jangle pop. Harrison was one of the first people to own a Rickenbacker 360/12, an electric guitar with twelve strings. His use of this guitar during the recording of \"A Hard Day's Night\" helped to popularise the model, and the jangly sound became so prominent that \"Melody Maker\" termed it the Beatles' \"secret weapon\". Roger McGuinn liked the effect so much that he made it his signature guitar sound with the Byrds."
      },
      {
        "title": "In His Own Write",
        "text": "Despite Lennon's love of literature, he was a chronic misspeller, saying in a 1968 interview that he \"never got the idea of spelling\", finding it less important than conveying an idea or story. Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn raises the possibility that Lennon had dyslexia \u2013 a condition that often went undiagnosed in the 1940s and 1950s \u2013 but counters that he exhibited no other related symptoms. Lennon's mother, Julia Lennon, similarly wrote with uncertain spelling and displayed weak grammar in her writing. American professor James Sauceda contends that Unwin's use of fractured English was the foremost influence on Lennon's writing style, and in a 1980 interview with \"Playboy\", Lennon stated that the main influences on his writing \"were always Lewis Carroll and \"The Goon Show\", a combination of that\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "With the Beatles having moved to London in 1963, in Simonelli's description, they served as the \"maypole\" at the centre of the city's cultural influence throughout the 1960s. Marwick says they represented the popular image of a phenomenon in which \"hitherto invisible swathes of British society became visible and assertive\" and their 1966 single \"Paperback Writer\" was the song that best conveyed \"the new class-defying tide of individualistic enterprise\". Liverpool poet Roger McGough credited the Beatles with establishing the \"mythology of Liverpool\" through their 1967 songs \"Strawberry Fields Forever\" and \"Penny Lane\", in the manner that American rock 'n' roll songs had traditionally done for US cities and roads."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jeff Lynne and the Beatles",
        "text": "Jeff Lynne and the Beatles\n--Beatles influence.\n--With George Harrison.\n--With Ringo Starr.\n--With the Beatles.\n--With Paul McCartney.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Ain't She Sweet",
        "text": "In a 1975 radio interview, Lennon explained that Gene Vincent's cover was \"very mellow and very high pitched, and I used to do it like that, but they said \"harder, harder\"\u2014you know, Germans all want it a bit more like a march\u2014so we ended up doing a harder version of it.\" Lewisohn remarks that Lennon \"gives it a good and powerful go, but there's a strange timbre to his voice, as if he was suffering from 'Hamburg throat' while also straining to deliver Kaempfert's brittle sound on a song that didn't suit it.\" Everett describes Lennon's singing style as \"very detached, slightly hiccuping\" and notes his use of a mordent for emphasis. Lewisohn further evaluated that Pete Best's drumming \"lacks imagination\" and McCartney's \"bass is accomplished.\" Harrison's guitar solo \"judged even in its place and time... wasn't good.\" Everett comments that, \"as a whole, these recordings are hardly representative of the future Beatles.\" MacDonald judges it similarly, writing, \"...it [\"Ain't She Sweet\"] made little sense as a choice for the Beatles' first professional recording and fails to reward attention in hindsight.\" In \"The Cambridge Companion to the Beatles\", Howard Kramer writes that the session was \"musically unspectacular\" and \"the Beatles' instrumental backing shows competence, but little more.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles were an English rock band, formed in Liverpool in 1960, that comprised John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr. They are regarded as the most influential band of all time and were integral to the development of 1960s counterculture and popular music's recognition as an art form. Rooted in skiffle, beat and 1950s rock and roll, their sound incorporated elements of classical music and traditional pop in innovative ways; the band later explored music styles ranging from ballads and Indian music to psychedelia and hard rock. As pioneers in recording, songwriting and artistic presentation, the Beatles revolutionised many aspects of the music industry and were often publicised as leaders of the era's youth and sociocultural movements."
      },
      {
        "title": "I'm the Greatest",
        "text": "The Beatles broke up in April 1970, having achieved an unprecedented level of international fame for a musical act, and after helping to inspire many of the musical and cultural changes of the 1960s. In the eyes of the media and the public, the band members were divided into two factions: John Lennon, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, all of whom had opted to engage the services of Allen Klein to manage the group's Apple organisation in 1969; and Paul McCartney, whose isolationist stance had been interpreted as the reason for the break-up. On 28 December 1970, a week after learning that McCartney intended to sue his bandmates in the British High Court, Lennon began writing \"I'm the Greatest\". He was inspired to write the song after watching the first UK television broadcast of the Beatles' 1964 film \"A Hard Day's Night\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "All You Need Is Love",
        "text": "\"Our World\" coincided with the height of the Beatles' popularity and influence, following the release of their album \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band\". Rather than perform the song entirely live, the group played to a pre-recorded backing track. With an orchestral arrangement by George Martin, the song begins with a portion of the French national anthem and ends with musical quotations from works such as Glenn Miller's \"In the Mood\", \"Greensleeves\", Bach's Invention No. 8 in F major, and the Beatles' 1963 hit \"She Loves You\". Adding to the broadcast's festive atmosphere, the studio was adorned with signs and streamers, and filled with guests dressed in psychedelic attire, including members of the Rolling Stones, the Who and the Small Faces. Brian Epstein, the Beatles' manager, described the performance as the band's \"finest\" moment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Long, Long, Long",
        "text": "Donovan, the Scottish singer-songwriter who joined in the Beatles' musical activities in Rishikesh, recalled that Harrison played both sitar and guitar at the ashram and was developing a style of music that became \"the finest spiritual sound\". Harrison completed the lyrics to \"Long, Long, Long\" in August that year, at which point the Beatles were part-way through the recording of their eponymous double album, also known as \"the White Album\". In his autobiography, \"I, Me, Mine\", he states that \"the 'you' in 'Long Long Long' is God.\" He also says that his musical inspiration for the composition was Bob Dylan's \"Sad Eyed Lady of the Lowlands\" \u2013 specifically, \"D to E minor, A and D \u2013 those three chords and the way they moved\". As a further influence in \"Long, Long, Long\", Leng cites the release of the Band's debut album, \"Music from Big Pink\", which \"signaled the rebirth of 'the song as an alternative to the excesses of 1967-era psychedelia."
      },
      {
        "title": "You Like Me Too Much",
        "text": "The Beatles\n*George Harrison \u2013 double-tracked vocal, lead guitar, tambourine\n*John Lennon \u2013 acoustic rhythm guitar, electric piano\n*Paul McCartney \u2013 backing vocal, bass, piano\n*Ringo Starr \u2013 drums"
      },
      {
        "title": "Revolution 9",
        "text": "Another influence on Lennon was his relationship with Yoko Ono. Lennon and Ono had recently recorded their own avant-garde album, \"\". Lennon said: \"Once I heard her stuff \u2013 not just the screeching and howling but her sort of word pieces and talking and breathing and all this strange stuff ... I got intrigued, so I wanted to do one.\" Ono attended the recording sessions and, according to Lennon, helped him select which tape loops to use."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "Since the early 2000s, historian Mark Lewisohn has been writing \"\", a three-part set of Beatles biographies whose first volume exceeds 1,700 pages. The impetus for the project was his disappointment that none of the group's biographies had approached a depth or breadth comparable to Robert A. Caro's ongoing book series, \"The Years of Lyndon Johnson\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Help!",
        "text": "The Beatles\n*John Lennon\u00a0\u2013 lead, harmony and background vocals; rhythm and acoustic guitars; electric piano, organ on \"Dizzy Miss Lizzy\"; tambourine on \"Tell Me What You See\"; snare drum on \"I Need You\"\n*Paul McCartney\u00a0\u2013 lead, harmony and background vocals; bass, acoustic and lead guitars; piano, electric piano\n*George Harrison\u00a0\u2013 harmony and background vocals; lead, acoustic and rhythm guitars; lead vocals on \"I Need You\" and \"You Like Me Too Much\"; guiro on \"Tell Me What You See\"\n*Ringo Starr\u00a0\u2013 drums and miscellaneous percussion; claves on \"Tell Me What You See\"; lead vocals on \"Act Naturally\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "MacDonald cites Manson's Helter Skelter scenario as an example of the many \"crackpot fixations\" that the Beatles inspired in their drug-influenced audience, and a dangerous escalation of the otherwise harmless obsession that encouraged rumours such as the \"Paul is dead\" conspiracy theory. Schaffner described the latter as \"the most monumental hoax since Orson Welles' \"War of the Worlds\" broadcast persuaded thousands of panicky New Jerseyites that Martian invaders were in the vicinity\". Its escalation in 1969, particularly in the US, was informed by the counterculture's disillusionment with society and, according to American broadcaster Vin Scelsa, indicative of how songs by the Beatles, Dylan and the Rolling Stones were received as \"personal message[s], worthy of endless scrutiny\" and \"guidelines on how to live your life\".<ref name=\"Noden/MojoSpecialRevolution\"></ref>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Amiri and Rahiem Taylor",
        "text": "Compared to his brother, Rahiem says that he is \"the tech nerd\" and \"the mixing guy\", being drawn to audio mixing and engineering more than Amiri, \"the songwriting guy\", who \"has developed a great ear for chords\". Artists the twins credit as influences (besides the Beatles) include Tame Impala, Radiohead, Toro y Moi, Mac DeMarco, the Police, Talk Talk, and Michael Jackson. The music of Blac Rabbit, their psychedelic rock band, incorporates elements of funk, surf music, and psychedelia. With the band, they perform both Beatles covers and original songs."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Formby",
        "text": "Shortly after Formby's death a small group of fans formed the George Formby Society, which had its inaugural meeting at the Imperial Hotel Blackpool. George Harrison was a fan of Formby, a member of the Society and an advocate of the ukulele. The rest of the Beatles were also fans\u2014they improvised with ukuleles during the recording breaks on \"Let It Be\"\u2014and Formby's influence can be heard in the song \"Her Majesty\". The Beatles' penultimate song, \"Free as a Bird\", ends with a slight coda including a strummed ukulele by Harrison and the voice of John Lennon played backwards, saying \"Turned out nice again\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kyle Falconer",
        "text": "In interviews Falconer frequently cites Oasis, The Beatles, The Clash, Fleetwood Mac and Squeeze as influences. Although all members of The View are said to be fans of The Beatles, Falconer is deemed to be the most infatuated. In 2008 he claimed that the band were the first thing he thought about in the morning. The following year, he admitted that when he met Paul McCartney he was so overwhelmed that he \"had to run to the toilet and just burst into tears\". He further added, \"I love The Beatles. I wanted to ask him to collaborate with us.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Eleanor Rigby",
        "text": "David Simonelli cites the chamber-orchestrated \"Eleanor Rigby\" as an example of the Beatles' influence being such that, whatever the style of song, their progressiveness defined the parameters of rock music. Music academics Michael Campbell and James Brody highlight the track's melodic shape and imaginative backing to illustrate how, paired with similarly synergistic elements in \"A Day in the Life\", the Beatles' use of music and lyrics made them one of the two acts in 1960s rock, along with Bob Dylan, who were \"most responsible for elevating its level of discourse and expanding its horizons\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Everly Brothers",
        "text": "The music of the Everly Brothers influenced the Beatles, who referred to themselves as \"the British Everly Brothers\" when Paul McCartney and John Lennon went hitchhiking south to win a talent competition. They based the vocal arrangement of \"Please Please Me\" on \"Cathy's Clown\". McCartney also referred to 'Phil and Don' in the lyrics to Let 'Em In from the 1976 album Wings at the Speed of Sound."
      },
      {
        "title": "Buddy Holly",
        "text": "John Lennon and Paul McCartney saw Holly for the first time when he appeared on \"Sunday Night at the London Palladium\". The two had recently met and begun their musical association. They studied Holly's records, learned his performance style and lyricism, and based their act around his persona. Inspired by Holly's insect-themed Crickets, they chose to name their band \"The Beatles\". Lennon and McCartney later cited Holly as one of their main influences."
      },
      {
        "title": "You Like Me Too Much",
        "text": "\"You Like Me Too Much\" is a song by the English rock band the Beatles. It was written by George Harrison, the group's lead guitarist, and released in August 1965 on the \"Help!\" album, except in North America, where it appeared on \"Beatles VI\". The band recorded the track on 17 February that year at EMI Studios in London."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "The producers of the 1967 Disney animated film \"The Jungle Book\" hoped to include the Beatles in a scene featuring four vultures with mop-top hairstyles singing \"That's What Friends Are For\". After the band declined to take part, the scene was voiced by actors adopting Liverpudlian accents and the song was given a barbershop quartet arrangement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dear Prudence",
        "text": "The inspiration and ostensible subject of the song is Prudence Farrow, the sister of actress Mia Farrow, both of whom were present when the Beatles went to India to study with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi at his ashram in Rishikesh, in the foothills of the Himalayas. Farrow came to Transcendental Meditation and the Maharishi's teachings as a result of a highly disturbing experience with the hallucinogenic drug LSD. While in Rishikesh in early 1968, Farrow became intensely serious about meditating, refusing to venture out of her bungalow for days on end. Of all the Beatles, Farrow felt closest to John Lennon and George Harrison,<ref name=\"Chiu/RS\"></ref> who were assigned by the Maharishi to act as her \"team buddies\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of songs covered by the Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles were an English rock band from Liverpool. With members John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, the group is often considered the most influential band of the rock era. While active between 1960 and 1970, the group recorded hundreds of songs, with their \"main catalogue\" consisting of 213 songs, which include 188 originals and 25 covers. Since their break-up, a further 41 covers the Beatles recorded as a group have been released.\n* \"Blue Suede Shoes\" \u2013 \"Live Peace in Toronto 1969\" - Plastic Ono Band, 1969\n* \"Dizzy Miss Lizzy\" \u2013 \"Live Peace in Toronto 1969\" - Plastic Ono Band, 1969\n* \"Ya Ya\" (Lee Dorsey) \u2013 \"Walls and Bridges\", 1974; \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Be-Bop-A-Lula\" (Gene Vincent) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Stand by Me\" (Ben E. King) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Rip It Up\"/\"Ready Teddy\" (Little Richard) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"You Can't Catch Me\" (Chuck Berry) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Ain't That a Shame\" (Fats Domino) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Do You Wanna Dance?\" (Bobby Freeman) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Sweet Little Sixteen\" (Chuck Berry) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Slippin' and Slidin'\" (Little Richard) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Peggy Sue\" (Buddy Holly) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Bring It On Home to Me\"/\"Send Me Some Lovin'\" (Sam Cooke/Lloyd Price) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Bony Moronie\" (Larry Williams) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Just Because\" (Lloyd Price) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 1975\n* \"Hound Dog\" (Big Mama Thornton) \u2013 \"Live in New York City\", 1986\n* \"Baby Please Don't Go\" (Walter Ward) \u2013 \"John Lennon Anthology\", 1998\n* \"Ain't She Sweet\" (Yellen/Ager) \u2013 \"John Lennon Anthology\", 1998\n* \"Be My Baby\" (Phil Spector) \u2013 \"John Lennon Anthology\", 1998\n* \"Only You\" (Ande Rand/Buck Ram) \u2013 \"John Lennon Anthology\", 1998\n* \"Mucho Mungo\" (Harry Nilsson) \u2013 \"John Lennon Anthology\", 1998\n* \"Angel Baby\" (Rosie Hamlin) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 2004 reissue\n* \"To Know Her Is to Love Her\" (Phil Spector) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 2004 reissue\n* \"Since My Baby Left Me\" (Arthur Crudup) \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 2004 reissue\n* \"Just Because (Reprise)\" \u2013 \"Rock 'n' Roll\", 2004 reissue\n* \"Ain't No Sunshine\" \u2013 (Bill Withers)\n* \"All Shook Up\" \u2013 (Elvis Presley)\n* \"Be Bop a Lula\" \u2013 (Gene Vincent)\n* \"Blue Jean Bop\" \u2013 (Gene Vincent)\n* \"Blue Moon of Kentucky\" \u2013 (Bill Monroe)\n* \"Brown Eyed Handsome Man\" \u2013 (Chuck Berry)\n* \"Go Now\" \u2013 (The Moody Blues)\n* \"Good Rocking Tonight\" \u2013 (Roy Brown)\n* \"Hi-Heel Sneakers\" \u2013 (Tommy Tucker)\n* \"Lonesome Town\" \u2013 (Ricky Nelson)\n* \"Love is Strange\" \u2013 (Mickey and Sylvia)\n* \"Richard Cory\" \u2013 (Simon & Garfunkel)\n* \"San Francisco Bay Blues\" \u2013 (Jesse Fuller)\n* \"Singing The Blues\" \u2013 (Marty Robbins)\n* \"Twenty Flight Rock\" \u2013 (Eddie Cochran)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Booker T. & the M.G.'s",
        "text": "In 1969, Dunn and Jones, in particular, had become admirers of the Beatles, especially their work on \"Abbey Road\". The appreciation was mutual, as the Beatles had been musically influenced by the M.G.'s. John Lennon was a Stax fan, who fondly called the group \"Book a Table and the Maitre d's\" (in 1974, Lennon facetiously credited himself and his studio band as \"Dr. Winston and Booker Table and the Maitre d's\" on his original R&B-inspired instrumental, \"Beef Jerky\"). Paul McCartney, like Dunn, played bass melodically, without straying from the rhythm or the groove. The Beatles had even floated the possibility of recording their 1966 album \"Revolver\" at Stax, but backed out when fans besieged the Memphis studio."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dover (band)",
        "text": "Both sisters insist they were strongly influenced by The Beatles and grunge music, especially Nirvana. These influences are evident in the music. Thus, referring to Paul McCartney in \"King George\" (\"I need to McCartney's song\"). In \"27 Years\", they make reference to a famous album of his: \"Band on the Run\", and in their album \"Follow the City Lights\", one of the songs which is called \"Dear McCartney\". In this album, they have said that their influences have been artists like Madonna and Peaches. Also, their song \"The Weak Hour of the Rooster\" quotes the last sentence from the suicide note of Kurt Cobain, lead singer of Nirvana: \"It's better to burn out than to fade away\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tomorrow Never Knows",
        "text": "When writing the song, Lennon drew inspiration from his experiences with the hallucinogenic drug LSD and from the 1964 book \"The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead\" by Timothy Leary, Richard Alpert and Ralph Metzner. The Beatles' recording employed musical elements foreign to pop music, including musique concr\u00e8te, avant-garde composition and electro-acoustic sound manipulation. It features an Indian-inspired modal backing of tambura and sitar drone and bass guitar, with minimal harmonic deviation from a single chord, underpinned by a constant but non-standard drum pattern; added to this, tape loops prepared by the band were overdubbed \"live\" onto the rhythm track. Part of Lennon's vocal was fed through a Leslie speaker cabinet, normally used for a Hammond organ. The song's backwards guitar parts and effects marked the first use of reversed sounds in a pop recording, although the Beatles' 1966 B-side \"Rain\", which they recorded soon afterwards using the same technique, was issued over three months before \"Revolver\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "For decades, the US had dominated popular entertainment culture throughout much of the world, via Hollywood films, jazz, and the music of Broadway and Tin Pan Alley. In early 1964, \"Life\" magazine declared: \"In [1776] England lost her American colonies. Last week the Beatles took them back.\" The Beatles subsequently sparked the British Invasion of the US and became a globally influential phenomenon. Recalling the Beatles' sudden popularity, Brian Wilson of the Beach Boys felt that the Beatles had \"eclipsed\u00a0... the whole music world\". Bob Dylan recalled that, by April 1964, \"a definite line was being drawn. This was something that had never happened before\u00a0... I knew they were pointing the direction of where music had to go.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Steve Tilston",
        "text": "In August 2010, it was reported that John Lennon had penned a letter of support to Tilston in 1971, though it was never delivered. Lennon had been inspired to write to the then 21-year-old folk singer after having read an interview in \"ZigZag\" magazine in which Tilston admitted he feared wealth and fame might negatively affect his songwriting. Tilston did not become aware of the letter's existence until a collector contacted him in 2005 to verify its authenticity. \"Being rich doesn't change your experience in the way you think\", Lennon wrote. It was signed \"Love John and Yoko.\" This letter was the inspiration behind the 2015 film \"Danny Collins\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "She's a Woman",
        "text": "In a retrospective review for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine says the song demonstrates the Beatles' ability to \"rock really, really hard\". MacDonald describes the track as \"the most extreme sound the Beatles had manufactured to date\". Writing that it is the first Beatles song to feature a high profile bass line, he opines that it foreshadows McCartney's later \"striving to get his instrument 'up' in volume, tone, and octave\". He further characterises the recording as outr\u00e9, and groups it with \"What You're Doing\" and \"Eight Days a Week\" as one of McCartney's late-1964 recording experiments. Everett writes that his piano playing on the song \"[took] his keyboard work to a new level\", while describing Harrison's guitar solo as rockabilly in style, heavily influenced by guitarist Carl Perkins. \"Rolling Stone\" critic Rob Sheffield opines that the song's \"power-chord thud\" anticipates the sound of the heavy metal band Black Sabbath."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles' influence on the more radicalised sectors of the counterculture and the New Left declined as the band refused to engage in direct activism against the establishment. Lennon furthered his stance by campaigning for world peace with Ono in 1969 and, in Simonelli's description, remained the \"most popular political voice in rock music\" until 1972. The Beatles retained their social influence through to the band's break-up, and their idealism continued to resonate in the politics of the Vietnam War era. Released in September 1969, \"Abbey Road\" included \"Come Together\", which Lennon began writing as a campaign song for Timothy Leary's bid to become governor of California. Harrison's \"Here Comes the Sun\" was adopted by George McGovern in his campaign for the US presidency, the initial success of which, according to Schaffner, was a \"triumph for the counterculture's attempt to wield power via conventional electoral politics\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "Progressive soul artists at the turn of the 1970s, such as Stevie Wonder, George Clinton, and War, drew on the Beatles' album-oriented approach and experimentation with non-traditional music influences. As bandleader for Parliament and Funkadelic, Clinton specifically pointed to how the Beatles \"made an art out of nonsense\" on songs such as \"I Am the Walrus\", alongside other influences from Bob Dylan's music and \"Black Power\" literature."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of songs recorded by the Beatles",
        "text": "Following their signing with EMI in 1962, each member of the Beatles contributed to songwriting. Their primary songwriters were the partnership of John Lennon and Paul McCartney, who composed most of the group's songs; lead guitarist George Harrison wrote 22 songs, including \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\", \"Something\" and \"Here Comes the Sun\", while drummer Ringo Starr wrote two songs (\"Don't Pass Me By\" and \"Octopus's Garden\"), and was credited as co-writer for four others. While songs written by Lennon or McCartney were always credited to \"Lennon\u2013McCartney\", the pair wrote many songs completely separately. These include \"Come Together\", \"Strawberry Fields Forever\" and \"Nowhere Man\" (Lennon) and \"Hey Jude\", \"Let It Be\" and \"Yesterday\" (McCartney), the last of which is one of the most covered songs of all time. Artists the band covered while together included Chuck Berry (\"Roll Over Beethoven\", \"Rock and Roll Music\"), Carl Perkins (\"Matchbox\", \"Honey Don't\"), Larry Williams (\"Slow Down\", \"Dizzy Miss Lizzy\") and Little Richard (\"Long Tall Sally\"). Cover songs were included on five of the band's core albums: \"Please Please Me\" and \"With the Beatles\" (both 1963), \"Beatles for Sale\" (1964), \"Help!\" (1965) and \"Let It Be\" (1970). Lead vocals were also shared by the group, with Starr usually contributing vocals to one song per album. The group were known for their harmonies, mostly two-part, but sang intricate three-part harmonies on \"This Boy\", \"Yes It Is\" and \"Because\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul McCartney",
        "text": "In 1961, Sutcliffe left the band and McCartney reluctantly became their bass player. While in Hamburg, they recorded professionally for the first time and were credited as the Beat Brothers, who were the backing band for English singer Tony Sheridan on the single \"My Bonnie\". This resulted in attention from Brian Epstein, who was a key figure in their subsequent development and success. He became their manager in January 1962. Ringo Starr replaced Best in August, and the band had their first hit, \"Love Me Do\", in October, becoming popular in the UK in 1963, and in the US a year later. The fan hysteria became known as \"Beatlemania\", and the press sometimes referred to McCartney as the \"cute Beatle\". McCartney co-wrote (with Lennon) several of their early hits, including \"I Saw Her Standing There\", \"She Loves You\", \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" (1963) and \"Can't Buy Me Love\" (1964)."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did The Beatles become famous in their home country?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I could not find the specific cause, but the Beatles built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg and were helped by guidance from manager Brian Epstein and producer George Martin. Success also brought increased media exposure which played a role."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did Brian Epstein work with any other bands?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Some of Epstein's other young discoveries had also prospered under his management including Gerry and the Pacemakers, Billy J. Kramer and the Dakotas, Tommy Quickly, Cilla Black and The Big Three."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was The Beatles biggest hit of all time?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I was not able to discover that specific information, but as of 2009, \"She Loves You\" was the Beatles' all-time best-selling single in the UK."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who wrote \"She Loves You\", was it one of the Beatles members?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "\"She Loves You\" is a song written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney and recorded by English rock band the Beatles for release as a single in 1963."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who influenced the Beatles' music?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "The band's earliest influences include Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins, Little Richard and Chuck Berry. The Beatles continued to absorb influences long after their initial success, often finding new musical and lyrical avenues by listening to their contemporaries, including Bob Dylan, the Who, Frank Zappa, the Lovin' Spoonful, the Byrds and the Beach Boys, whose 1966 album Pet Sounds amazed and inspired McCartney."
    ],
    "topic": "The Beatles",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "The Beatles:94",
        "passage_titles": [
          "The Beatles",
          "Musical style and development",
          "Influences"
        ],
        "ctx": "The band's earliest influences include Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins, Little Richard and Chuck Berry. During the Beatles' co-residency with Little Richard at the Star-Club in Hamburg, from April to May 1962, he advised them on the proper technique for performing his songs. Of Presley, Lennon said, \"Nothing really affected me until I heard Elvis. If there hadn't been Elvis, there would not have been the Beatles.\" Other early influences include Buddy Holly, Eddie Cochran, Roy Orbison and the Everly Brothers."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "The Beatles:95",
        "passage_titles": [
          "The Beatles",
          "Musical style and development",
          "Influences"
        ],
        "ctx": "The Beatles continued to absorb influences long after their initial success, often finding new musical and lyrical avenues by listening to their contemporaries, including Bob Dylan, the Who, Frank Zappa, the Lovin' Spoonful, the Byrds and the Beach Boys, whose 1966 album \"Pet Sounds\" amazed and inspired McCartney. Referring to the Beach Boys' creative leader, Martin later stated: \"No one made a greater impact on the Beatles than Brian [Wilson].\" Ravi Shankar, with whom Harrison studied for six weeks in India in late 1966, had a significant effect on his musical development during the band's later years."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "From August 1962 to September 1969, the Beatles had a lineup that consisted of John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr. Their break-up was a cumulative process attributed to numerous factors. These include the strain of the Beatlemania phenomenon, the death of manager Brian Epstein in 1967, resentment towards McCartney from his bandmates for his perceived domineering role, Lennon's heroin use and his relationship with Yoko Ono, Harrison's prolific songwriting output, the floundering of Apple Corps and the \"Get Back\" project (later renamed \"Let It Be\" in 1970) as well as managerial disputes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "Later in 1973, McCartney attempted to organise a reunion as a means of mitigating their collective legal burden. In February 1974, it was widely reported that the Beatles would soon reform, but although all four members were present in Los Angeles the next month, they chose not to meet. During the promotional run for his December album \"Dark Horse\", Harrison remarked: \"It's all a fantasy, putting the Beatles back together. If we ever do that, it's because everybody is broke. ... Having played with other musicians, I don't think the Beatles were that good ... I'd join a band with John Lennon any day, but I couldn't join a band with Paul. That's not personal, but from a musical point of view.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "With the release of \"The Beatles\" in November, the band no longer gave collective interviews or recorded appearances, and public relations were carried out individually. Other evidence of the group's collective alienation came with the release of their 1968 Christmas fan club recording; the contributions were entirely individual and Lennon made disparaging remarks about his bandmates' apparent disdain for Ono."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "[The Beatles] do not want to split up, but the present rift seems to be part of their growing up ... at the moment they seem to cramp each other's styles. Paul has called a halt to the Beatles' activities. They could be dormant for years ... It is no secret that Klein and Paul have never hit it off ... He opposed the appointment of Klein and wanted to make his father-in-law [Lee] Eastman, a New York lawyer, manager."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "Epstein's death left the Beatles disoriented and fearful about the future. McCartney sought to initiate projects for the group, although his bandmates grew perturbed by his growing domination in musical as well as other group ventures. Lennon later reflected that McCartney's efforts were important for the survival of the band, but he still believed that McCartney's desire to help came from his own misgivings about pursuing a solo career. McCartney felt that the four members' evolution from musicians to businessmen was central to the band's disintegration. Epstein's role as band manager was never replaced, and ultimately the lack of strong managerial leadership contributed significantly to the break-up."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "During the latter half of the 1960s, the members began to assert individual artistic agendas. Their disunity became most evident on \"The Beatles\" (also known as \"the White Album\", 1968), and quarrels and disharmony over musical matters soon permeated their business discussions. Starr left the group for two weeks during the White Album sessions, and Harrison quit for five days during the \"Get Back\" rehearsals. Starting in 1969, the group split into two camps regarding who should handle their business affairs. McCartney lobbied for entertainment lawyers Lee and John Eastman, but was outvoted by his bandmates in favour of businessman Allen Klein."
      },
      {
        "title": "I'm the Greatest",
        "text": "The Beatles broke up in April 1970, having achieved an unprecedented level of international fame for a musical act, and after helping to inspire many of the musical and cultural changes of the 1960s. In the eyes of the media and the public, the band members were divided into two factions: John Lennon, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, all of whom had opted to engage the services of Allen Klein to manage the group's Apple organisation in 1969; and Paul McCartney, whose isolationist stance had been interpreted as the reason for the break-up. On 28 December 1970, a week after learning that McCartney intended to sue his bandmates in the British High Court, Lennon began writing \"I'm the Greatest\". He was inspired to write the song after watching the first UK television broadcast of the Beatles' 1964 film \"A Hard Day's Night\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "Soon after the sessions for \"Abbey Road\", Lennon's heroin use inspired him to record \"Cold Turkey\" with his and Ono's conceptual group, the Plastic Ono Band, after the Beatles had rejected the song for release as a single. The formation of the Plastic Ono Band was conceived as an artistic outlet for Lennon and Ono, but the enthusiastic reception afforded their performance at the Toronto Rock and Roll Revival on 13 September 1969 ostensibly crystallised Lennon's decision to leave the Beatles, which he made on the flight back to London. During a band meeting at Apple on 20 September, he informed McCartney, Starr and Klein of his decision (Harrison was not present at the meeting), telling them he wanted a \"divorce\". That same day, the band signed a renegotiated recording contract with Capitol Records, guaranteeing them a higher royalty rate. The sensitivity of the negotiations with Capitol led to Klein and McCartney urging Lennon to keep his announcement private, which Lennon agreed to do."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "The final time that the four members recorded together collectively was the session for \"Abbey Road\"s closing track \"The End\" on 18 August 1969. Lennon privately informed his bandmates that he was leaving the Beatles on 20 September, although it was unclear to the other members whether his departure was permanent. On 10 April 1970, McCartney issued a press release that stated he was no longer working with the group, which sparked a widespread media reaction and worsened the tensions between him and his bandmates. Legal disputes continued long after his announcement, and the dissolution was not formalised until 29 December 1974."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "On 25 November, Lennon's comments from a recent radio interview were reported in an \"NME\" article titled \"The Beatles on the Brink of Splitting\". Among his remarks, Lennon said that the running of Apple had superseded the band's music-making and he went \"off and on\" the idea of the group recording together again. McCartney later recalled that in the three or four months after Lennon's announcement, he, Harrison and Starr would phone each other asking, \"Well, is this it, then?\" McCartney said that they suspected that it might be \"one of John's little flings\" and that Lennon might change his mind, since he \"did kind of leave the door open\". In early January 1970, while visiting Denmark with Ono, Lennon told a journalist that \"we\u2019re not breaking up the band, but we\u2019re breaking its image\" and added that none of the Beatles were millionaires, which is why before long they would record a new album."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "By the end of 1968, the Beatles' status as a group entity was in limbo. McCartney suggested a group project involving rehearsing, recording and then performing a set of songs for a live concert. The project soon adopted a working title of \"Get Back\". Although the sessions for their double album had involved a degree of ensemble playing, the band were ill-prepared to settle comfortably back into this mode; in particular, Lennon had descended into heroin addiction, leaving him variously incommunicative or highly critical of the venture. On 10 January 1969, eight days after filmed rehearsals commenced at Twickenham Film Studios, Harrison's frustration and resentment peaked and he informed his bandmates that he was leaving. Having enjoyed rewarding collaborations outside the Beatles during much of 1968, particularly with Eric Clapton, Bob Dylan and the Band, Harrison began to feel stifled by the combined patronising by McCartney and estrangement from Lennon. The band were at an impasse and on the verge of collapse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "In March 1973, Harrison joined Lennon, Starr and bassist Klaus Voormann for the recording of \"I'm the Greatest\", released on Starr's 1973 album \"Ringo\". To Lennon's distaste, Harrison suggested that they form a group with this line-up. Amid the numerous financial and legal disputes plaguing the foursome, Lennon stated: \"The only talk about Beatle reunions comes from people at the side of the Beatles who want to put us together and make millions and millions of dollars. And I'm not interested in that, or in playing with the old team again.\" However, he also said, \"There's always a chance [of us reuniting]. As far as I can gather from talking to them all, nobody would mind doing some work together again. But if we did do something, I'm sure it wouldn't be permanent. We'd do it just for that moment.\" At Starr's request, McCartney also appears on \"Ringo\", for the song \"Six O'Clock\". This made it the only album to include compositions and performances by all four ex-Beatles after the break-up, albeit on separate songs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "The case opened in the Chancery Division of the High Court on 19 January 1971. McCartney's counsel, David Hirst, told the court that the Beatles' finances were in a \"grave state\" and outlined the three reasons behind McCartney's claim for dissolution: the group had long ceased working together; in appointing Klein as the band's exclusive business manager, the other Beatles had acted in breach of the partnership deed; and throughout the four years of its existence, McCartney had yet to receive audited accounts of the partnership. On 18 February, the day before proceedings began, the press announced three further reasons: Klein's attempt to postpone the release of \"McCartney\"; Klein and ABKCO's altering of \"The Long and Winding Road\" without first consulting McCartney; and ABKCO's transferral of the \"Let It Be\" film rights from Apple to United Artists without McCartney's approval."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "When the group convened to record \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band\" in November 1966, there was still a camaraderie and desire to collaborate as musicians; however, their individual differences were becoming more apparent. To a greater extent than the others, McCartney maintained a deep interest in the pop musical trends and styles emerging both in Britain and the United States, whereas Harrison developed an interest in Indian music and religion, and John Lennon's compositions became more introspective and experimental. In Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn's opinion, \"Sgt. Pepper\" represented the group's last unified effort, displaying a cohesion that deteriorated immediately after the album's completion and entirely disappeared by 1968."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "Epstein's management style was to let the group pursue their musical notions and projects, while often mediating when there was a conflict. This role began to diminish after the band stopped touring in 1966, although Epstein still exercised a strong influence, settling disputes among members and, most importantly, handling the group's finances. In mid-1967, Apple Corps was initiated under Epstein's oversight as a tax shelter endeavour. On 27 August, Epstein died of a medical drug overdose; the consequences of his absence, combined with the Beatles' inexperience as businessmen, led to an unexpectedly chaotic venture that added stress for the band during the coming months."
      },
      {
        "title": "A Collection of Beatles Oldies",
        "text": "The Beatles made the decision to retire from live performance in 1966, dissatisfied at playing to audiences of screaming fans, and following a series of controversies that had tarnished the band's image throughout the year. Those controversies included the unfavourable reaction to the butcher cover originally used for the band's American album \"Yesterday and Today\", death threats and political incidents during their visits to Japan and the Philippines, and condemnation from some religious groups in America in response to John Lennon's comment that the Beatles had become more popular than Christ. After completing their world tour on 29 August, the four band members took a break from group activities for three months. Due to the attention that their individual activities received, by early November, rumours in the press claimed that the band were breaking up. Alternatively, according to a report in \"The Sunday Telegraph\", the Beatles were to sever ties with their longtime manager, Brian Epstein, and instead be represented by Allen Klein. Fans of the band were disappointed by the announcement that, in a break from the tradition established in 1963, the Beatles were not playing any UK shows over the Christmas period. On 10 November, four days after 200 fans had demonstrated outside Epstein's home in central London, newspapers reported that there would be no further concert tours by the Beatles."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles (album)",
        "text": "At the end of May 1968, the Beatles returned to EMI Studios in London to commence recording sessions that lasted until mid-October. During these sessions, arguments broke out among the foursome over creative differences and John Lennon's new partner, Yoko Ono, whose constant presence subverted the Beatles' policy of excluding wives and girlfriends from the studio. After a series of various problems, including producer George Martin taking an unannounced holiday and engineer Geoff Emerick suddenly quitting during a session, Ringo Starr left the band for two weeks in August. The same tensions continued throughout the following year and led to the band's break-up."
      },
      {
        "title": "Yoko Ono",
        "text": "The English press dubbed Ono \"the woman who broke up the Beatles\", which had been foreseen by Paul McCartney in 1969 during the group's rehearsals for their film and album \"Let It Be\", when he said \"It's going to be such an incredible sort of comical thing, like, in fifty years' time, you know: 'They broke up 'cause Yoko sat on an amp.'\" In an interview with Dick Cavett, Lennon explicitly denied that Ono broke up the Beatles, and Harrison said during an interview with Cavett that the problems within the group began long before Ono came onto the scene. Ono herself has said that the Beatles broke up without any direct involvement from her, adding \"I don't think I could have tried even to break them up.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "In the 18 April issue of \"Melody Maker\", Richard Williams commented that, since the Q&A did not categorically state that McCartney had left the Beatles or would never record with them again, \"What else is new? All these facts existed at the time of \"Abbey Road\", but it didn't stop that album being made.\" Williams dismissed the news as \"possibly the non-event of the year\", since he believed the Beatles would continue as before. In an interview for \"Rolling Stone\" that week, Lennon said that it was merely McCartney \"causing chaos\" in the same way that he used to \"sulk\" if Epstein would not let him have his way. Lennon also said: \"The cartoon is this \u2013 four guys on a stage with a spotlight on them; second picture, three guys on stage breezing out of the spotlight; third picture, one guy standing there shouting 'I'm leaving.'\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "With the troubled \"Get Back\" project put on hold, the group continued to record together sporadically during the spring and early summer of 1969. Otherwise, the band members became increasingly involved in activities outside the band; among these, Lennon launched an international peace campaign with Ono, spearheaded by their single \"Give Peace a Chance\"; Harrison continued to focus on producing Apple Records signings, including Jackie Lomax, Billy Preston and devotees from the London Radha Krishna Temple; and Starr began to establish himself as a film actor. Their occasional sessions together over the first half of the year ultimately paved the way for the Beatles' last studio recording project, \"Abbey Road\". The 18 August session for \"The End\" marked the final occasion that all four members recorded collectively. The last time the foursome were together in the same studio was for the completion and mixing of \"I Want You (She's So Heavy)\" two days later."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "In 1994 and 1995, the remaining three reunited for the \"Anthology\" project, using the unfinished Lennon demos \"Free as a Bird\" and \"Real Love\" as a basis for new songs recorded and released as the Beatles. Also attempted were \"Grow Old with Me\" and \"Now and Then\", by Lennon, and the McCartney/Harrison collaboration \"All for Love\". These sessions were marked by tension, particularly between Harrison and McCartney. At the time, Harrison wryly commented that he felt the sessions were \"just like being back in the Beatles\", while McCartney later said: \"George had some business problems and it didn't do a lot for his moods over the last couple of years. He's not been that easy to get on with.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "During the 1970s, the band members occasionally collaborated, but never with all four Beatles simultaneously. In a 1971 interview, Lennon stated that he could not foresee working with McCartney again, however, \"Maybe about a year or two after all the money thing's settled, we might have dinner or forget about it.\" He was nonetheless willing to collaborate with Harrison and Starr; Harrison and Starr often performed on each other's records and separately on Lennon's. McCartney opted against using the pool of session musicians favoured by his bandmates and commented: \"I felt that it was a bit too predictable, that everyone would leave the Beatles and go with old Phil Spector, or the drummer Jim Keltner. It was like a clique, and I just didn't want to join that clique.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "From 10 April, reporters and some of the band's fans began gathering outside the Apple Corps offices at 3 Savile Row. A CBS News team reported that \"The event is so momentous that historians may, one day, view it as a landmark in the decline of the British Empire ... The Beatles are breaking up.\" Inside Apple, where he was being filmed for an episode of the BBC1 program \"Fact or Fantasy?\", Harrison refused to speak to the media; after completing the filming, he watched an early edit of the documentary film \"The Long and Winding Road\" (later expanded into the 1995 series \"The Beatles Anthology\"). Asked for their response to McCartney's comments, Starr said, \"This is all news to me\", and Lennon said: \"It was nice to find that he was still alive. Anyway, you can say I said jokingly, 'He didn't quit, I sacked him!'\" Taylor issued a press release, which stated in part:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "McCartney's wish to dissolve the partnership was problematic, since it would expose them all to enormous tax liability, and his pleas to be released from Apple were ignored by Lennon, Harrison and Starr. McCartney said he struggled all through the summer of 1970 with the idea of having to sue his bandmates in order to be free of Apple and Klein. Anticipating the suit, Klein suggested that the other Beatles invite McCartney to a recording session in October where Lennon and Harrison were due to work on Starr's song \"Early 1970\". Klein reasoned that if McCartney attended, it would show that the Beatles' musical partnership was still active and undermine McCartney's case. McCartney did not accept the invitation. In December, Harrison and McCartney met in New York to discuss their differences but the meeting went badly. The press nevertheless interpreted the meeting as a truce between the two parties and, since Lennon was also in New York that month, reports insisted that the Beatles would soon re-form."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "Another factor in the split was Harrison's growth as a composer during the second half of their career. Many of his song ideas were rejected by Lennon and McCartney, especially from 1968 onwards. While this was partly indicative of the increased competition for space on album sides, with three songwriters in the band, Harrison's frustration fostered in him a sense of alienation from the Beatles. He later reflected that at first he was content to make occasional contributions as a composer, and he only came to resent Lennon and McCartney's domination when he offered songs \"that were better than some of theirs and we'd have to record maybe eight of theirs before they'd \"listen\" to mine\". Harrison became the first member of the group to release a solo album, with \"Wonderwall Music\", much of which was recorded in Bombay in January 1968."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "In early 1969, Apple Corps was plagued by mismanagement and was losing money. On 26 January, Lennon and Ono met with Allen Klein, the founder of ABKCO Records, regarding managerial advice. Lennon requested that Klein represent his business interests in the band. McCartney, however, chose to be represented by American entertainment lawyers Lee and John Eastman, the father and brother of his girlfriend Linda Eastman, whom he married on 12 March. In April, after a series of rancorous meetings between Klein, the Eastmans and the Beatles, Klein was appointed as the band's business manager on an interim basis, with the Eastmans as the Beatles' lawyers. However, the band members' quarrels and disharmony over musical matters soon permeated their business discussions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "By late 1965, the Beatles had grown weary of live performance. George Harrison was the first to tire of Beatlemania, while Paul McCartney supported the idea of maintaining regular touring schedules and live shows. McCartney finally ceded to his bandmates' insistence that the group stop touring towards the end of their August tour of the United States. Afterwards, Harrison informed manager Brian Epstein that he was leaving the band, but was persuaded to stay on the assurance that there would be no more tours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "During the subsequent proceedings, McCartney's legal team focused on portraying Klein as a disreputable businessman, and McCartney took the stand to state the case that the Beatles had long ceased to be a functioning band and their differences were irreconcilable. The court heard affidavits from Lennon, Harrison and Starr in which they stated their past difficulties of working with McCartney but said that these had largely been surmounted and there was no reason that the band could not continue. On 12 March, High Court judge Blanshard Stamp found in McCartney's favour and a receiver was appointed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "Both the Manson murders and the Beatles' break-up are often cited as marking the decade's closure. According to Burns, the break-up in April 1970 was \"like the Kennedy assassination all over again, or one's parents divorcing\". The event was afforded the attention of a presidential assassination or the 1969 Moon landing, as commentators analysed the causes and speculated about the possibilities of a reunion. Burns writes that, throughout the 1970s, there persisted a sense that if the Beatles re-formed, it might revive \"the 'era' that had seemed to have passed. When Lennon died, that truly was the end of\u00a0... the innocent, comforting, naive belief that the world at large could, somehow, be 'together' in the 1960s sense of the term.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Isn't It a Pity",
        "text": "While no longer the \"really tight\" social unit they had been throughout the chaos of Beatlemania \u2013 or the \"four-headed monster\", as Mick Jagger famously called them \u2013 the individual Beatles were still bonded by genuine friendship during their final, troubled years as a band, even if it was now more of a case of being locked together at a deep psychological level after such a sustained period of heightened experience. Eric Clapton has described this bond as being just like that of a typical family, \"with all the difficulties that entails\". When the band finally split, in April 1970 \u2013 a \"terrible surprise\" for the outside world, in the words of author Mark Hertsgaard, \"like the sudden death of a beloved young uncle\" \u2013 even the traditionally most disillusioned Beatle, George Harrison, suffered a mild bereavement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lennon Remembers",
        "text": "Lennon had arranged to meet with McCartney while they were both in New York, in order to discuss their differences regarding the Beatles' company Apple Corps, but McCartney cancelled the meeting. Lennon said that he was planning on not showing up anyway. Since making his announcement in April, McCartney had told London's \"Evening Standard\" newspaper that he wanted to leave the Beatles' record label, Apple Records, and reiterated his opposition to Klein's appointment as the band's business manager. With no further explanation on the break-up, media speculation had instead focused on the possibility of the band members solving their differences and reuniting."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "Rumours of a full-fledged reunion persisted throughout the 1970s, as the members occasionally reunited for collaboration, but never with all four simultaneously. Starr's \"I'm the Greatest\" (1973) and Harrison's \"All Those Years Ago\" (1981) are the only tracks that feature three ex-Beatles. After Lennon's murder in 1980, the surviving members reunited for the \"Anthology\" project in 1994, using the unfinished Lennon demos \"Free as a Bird\" and \"Real Love\" as the basis for new songs recorded and released as the Beatles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "Lennon's and McCartney's artistic avenues became more disparate, with McCartney disapproving of Lennon and Ono's experimental sound collage \"Revolution 9\", and Lennon contemptuous of light-hearted McCartney songs such as \"Martha My Dear\" and \"Honey Pie\". Harrison continued to develop as a songwriter, yet he received little support from within the band during the sessions. Feeling resentment from Lennon and McCartney for his role in leading the Beatles to the Maharishi, Harrison's composition \"Not Guilty\" reflected his state of mind after their return from India. Ringo Starr became increasingly dissatisfied with the standard of his drumming. According to author Mark Hertsgaard, this was \"a feeling that [McCartney] in particular had done much to encourage\". Distressed also by the sour and tense atmosphere that was characteristic of the recording sessions, Starr felt so isolated that he left the band for several weeks and holidayed with his family in Sardinia. He returned in early September to find his drum kit decorated with flowers, which were a gift from Harrison."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "Given a choice between Klein and the Eastmans, Harrison and Starr opted for Klein. The Eastmans were dismissed as the Beatles' legal representation, and on 8 May, Lennon, Harrison and Starr signed a contract with Klein to be the band's business manager. This further aggravated the underlying mistrust and antipathy experienced within the band. \"Rolling Stone\" magazine states that \"Klein is easily the least famous of the four [new people in the Beatles' lives], but arguably the one who played the biggest role in their demise.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "On 31 December, McCartney filed a lawsuit against the other three Beatles in London's High Court of Justice for dissolution of the band's contractual partnership. For Beatles fans, news of McCartney's legal action and the publication of Lennon's two-part \"Lennon Remembers\" interview in \"Rolling Stone\" increased the distasteful atmosphere surrounding the group's demise. \"Time\" magazine dubbed the confrontation \"Beatled\u00e4mmerung\", in reference to Wagner's opera about a war among the gods. By contrast, according to \"Guardian\" journalist Kitty Empire, writing in 2011, Harrison's \"All Things Must Pass\" triple album \"functioned as a kind of repository for grief\" for the band's fans. In Doggett's description, the Beatles-related songs on Harrison's album \"offered a teasing glimpse into an intimate world that had previously been off-limits to the public\", and they introduced a self-referential trait in the ex-Beatles' songwriting that, for fans and the press, came to represent episodes in a public soap opera."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "Break-up of the Beatles\n--Background.\n--White Album and \"Get Back\" rehearsals.\n--Business difficulties.\n--\"Abbey Road\" and Lennon's departure.\n--Announcement.\n----Release of \"McCartney\" and \"Let It Be\".\n----Aftermath and reaction.\n--High Court suit and public sparring.\n--Legal dissolution.\n--Partial and attempted reunions in the 1970s.\n--Entrepreneurial offers.\n--Lennon's murder and \"Anthology\".\n--Related songs.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "In 1971, Harrison invited his former bandmates to perform with him at the Concert for Bangladesh in August. Starr accepted, but Lennon and McCartney did not. McCartney refused because he was wary of Klein potentially taking the credit for having organised a Beatles reunion. Lennon agreed on the condition that Ono could also participate, but Harrison refused to invite Ono on the grounds that the concert was intended as an exclusive gathering of rock stars, not an avant-garde festival. Following the concert, much of the media attention was focused on the ostensible reunion of Starr and Harrison."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "Newspapers around the world interpreted McCartney's remarks as an announcement that the band had broken up. On 10 April, having been among the recipients of the Q&A, Don Short of \"The Daily Mirror\" reported on McCartney's departure from the Beatles under the front-page headline \"Paul Quits The Beatles\". McCartney's bandmates viewed his announcement as a betrayal, particularly since he had used it to promote his solo album. He was vilified by the group's fans and the press for his perceived role in the break-up. McCartney later said that he did not view his comments in the self-interview as an official announcement. According to Beatles confidant Ray Connolly, McCartney was \"devastated\" at the reaction his words had caused."
      },
      {
        "title": "Music publisher",
        "text": "A large factor in the Beatles' breakup was when their publisher Dick James sold his share of Northern Songs, the company they'd formed with him in 1963 (then taken public in 1967, with shares trading on the London Stock Exchange), to Britain's Associated TeleVision (ATV) in 1969. Neither the Beatles nor managers Lee Eastman and Allen Klein were able to prevent ATV from becoming majority stockholders in Northern Songs, whose assets included virtually all the group's song copyrights. Losing control of the company, John Lennon and Paul McCartney elected to sell their share of Northern Songs (and thus their own copyrights), while retaining their writer's royalties. (George Harrison and Ringo Starr retained minority holdings in the company.)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "Songs by Lennon, McCartney, Harrison, and Starr that reference or are inspired by the break-up:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "In May 1968, the band met at Harrison's home in Esher to record demos of songs later recorded for their November 1968 release \"The Beatles\" (also known as \"the White Album\"). Contemporaneous reviews and retrospective commentary by the Beatles acknowledged that the double album reflected the development of autonomous composers, musicians and artists. \"Rolling Stone\" later described it as \"four solo albums under one roof\". McCartney described the sessions as a turning point for the group because \"there was a lot of friction during that album. We were just about to break up, and that was tense in itself\", while Lennon said that \"the break-up of the Beatles can be heard on that album\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "With Klein no longer managing Apple, the four former bandmates were able to work cooperatively towards a settlement. This document, known as \"The Beatles Agreement\", was signed by the four in December 1974. Photographer Bob Gruen recalled Lennon's bemusement at the length and intricacy of the settlement document, saying: \"He told me that the original agreement between Klein and the Beatles had been two or three paragraphs on a single piece of paper. Now it was going to take an eighty-seven-page document to dissolve.\" The formal dissolution of the partnership took place in London on 9 January 1975."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "Having long attempted to maintain cohesiveness within the Beatles, McCartney secluded himself with his new family at his Scottish farm, distraught at Lennon's departure. After being tracked down by reporters from \"Life\" magazine in late October 1969 to quell rumors that he had died, McCartney said that \"the Beatle thing is over\", although the full meaning of this remark was ignored. Effectively estranged from his bandmates and deeply depressed, McCartney had begun making a series of home recordings in London during December. Operating under strict secrecy, McCartney privately agreed on a release date for this proposed solo album, titled \"McCartney\", with Apple Records executive Neil Aspinall."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "McCartney's announcement came via a press release distributed to select UK journalists on 9 April, with advance copies of \"McCartney\". The press release took the form of a Q&A in which McCartney discussed his album and, with Lennon's exit still being withheld from the public (for business reasons), matters pertaining to the Beatles' immediate future. McCartney did not state that the group had broken up, but he talked of his \"break with the Beatles\" and having no plans to work with the band in the future; he also emphasised his distance from Klein's management and ruled out the likelihood of ever writing songs with Lennon again. Although McCartney said that Apple's press officer, Derek Taylor, submitted the questions, Taylor said that those concerning the Beatles were added by McCartney."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "The sessions marked the first appearance in the studio of Lennon's new domestic and artistic partner, Yoko Ono, who accompanied him to EMI Studios to work on \"Revolution 1\" and who would thereafter be a more or less constant presence at all Beatles sessions. Ono's presence was highly unorthodox, as prior to that point, the Beatles had generally worked in isolation, rarely inviting wives and girlfriends to recording sessions. Lennon's devotion to Ono over the other Beatles made working conditions difficult by impeding the intuitive aspect that had previously been essential to the band's music. Ono's presence was regarded as intrusive, and became a particular source of rancour with Harrison because, since 1965, he and Lennon had bonded over their experimentation with LSD and Indian spirituality \u2013 two experiences that McCartney had approached with a level of caution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "In an interview he gave in New York in late April, Harrison stated that, even though he was about to record a solo album with Spector as his producer, it would be \"very selfish\" if the Beatles did not put aside their differences and record together again soon, given how much their music meant to listeners around the world. Harrison said that, from its launch in 1968, McCartney had led Apple into financial problems and the others had then had to step in and try to remedy the situation. McCartney was unable to accept that he had less control than before, Harrison continued, and that, with their appointment of Klein, the others were putting the Beatles and Apple first rather than \"trying to do what's best for Paul and his in-laws\". Harrison's message that the Beatles would regroup after each member had completed their solo projects was syndicated internationally. Lennon also suggested that he was interested in recording again with the Beatles, saying of the current turn of events: \"It could be a rebirth or a death. We'll see what it is. It'll probably be a rebirth.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band",
        "text": "On the Beatles' return to England, rumours began to circulate that they had decided to break up. George Harrison informed Epstein that he was leaving the band, but was persuaded to stay on the assurance that there would be no more tours. The group took a three-month break, during which they focused on individual interests. Harrison travelled to India for six weeks to study the sitar under the instruction of Ravi Shankar and develop his interest in Hindu philosophy. Having been the last of the Beatles to concede that their live performances had become futile, Paul McCartney collaborated with Beatles producer George Martin on the soundtrack for the film \"The Family Way\" and holidayed in Kenya with Mal Evans, one of the Beatles' tour managers. Lennon acted in the film \"How I Won the War\" and attended art showings, such as one at the Indica Gallery where he met his future wife Yoko Ono. Ringo Starr used the break to spend time with his wife Maureen and son Zak."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dizzy Mizz Lizzy",
        "text": "A crisis ensued when Christensen was going through a palette of emotions while recording at the Abbey Road Studios. Christensen could not share these feelings with the other band members as they neither shared Christensen's enthusiasm, nor could appreciate the unique symbolism of recording in these legendary studios as much as Christensen did. This caused Christensen to turn to his long-time girlfriend Pernille Rosendahl in and out of the studio, while becoming increasingly estranged from the band. Nielsen and Friis even went as far as labeling the couple as \"John and Yoko\", referring to the supposed detrimental influence of Yoko Ono on John Lennon, which is said to have contributed to the break-up of the Beatles. This period also showed the first signs of the band members heading in different musical directions, about which Christensen explained in 2000: \"I needed change while the others wanted to continue in the same style, and that was actually the most important reason we split up.\" This is especially evident from the final song on the album \"Rise and Fall\"; although songs were usually a collaborative effort by the band, Christensen requested Nielsen and Friis to allow him to be in full control over this song, and as a result it is distinctly different from all other songs on the album."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abbey Road",
        "text": "Producer George Martin returned on the condition that the Beatles adhere to the discipline of their earlier records. They found the album's recording more enjoyable than the preceding \"Get Back\" sessions, but personal and business issues still affected the working environment. Production lasted from February to August 1969, and the closing track \"The End\" marked the final occasion that all four members recorded together. John Lennon privately left the group six days before the album's release; Paul McCartney publicly declared the band's break-up the following April."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "Dick James, the managing director of Northern Songs (publisher of the Lennon\u2013McCartney song catalogue) became increasingly concerned over the band's dissension and resentment towards him due to his refusal to renegotiate their royalty rate. Without informing Lennon or McCartney, James and Northern Songs' chairman Emmanuel Silver accepted a bid from the British entertainment conglomerate Associated Television (ATV) to sell their 32% stake in the company and recommended other shareholders do the same, which would give ATV a controlling interest. Lennon and McCartney, who together owned 26% of the stock, made a bid to gain a controlling interest in Northern Songs but were unsuccessful. The Eastmans and Klein soon developed an adversarial relationship given their disparate advice and counsel. Conflicting advice regarding an offer to purchase Brian Epstein's NEMS Enterprises, which still collected 25% of the Beatles' income, resulted in a missed opportunity and the Epstein family sold their 90% stake to Triumph Investment Trust instead."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maureen Starkey Tigrett",
        "text": "When the Beatles broke up in 1970, so did the Starrs' marriage, as Ringo's infidelities were becoming more frequent, and his alcoholism was escalating. When the Harrisons were visiting the Starrs, Harrison confessed how much he loved Maureen, which led to an affair. Ringo threatened divorce when he was told by Harrison's wife Pattie that she had found the pair in bed together. Lennon was equally angry with Harrison, describing the affair as being \"virtual incest\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "After Lennon's murder in 1980, Harrison tailored the lyrics to his song \"All Those Years Ago\" to serve as a personal tribute to Lennon. The song was originally offered to Starr, who played drums on the basic track, which was recorded prior to Lennon's death. McCartney (along with his Wings bandmates Linda McCartney and Denny Laine) overdubbed backing vocals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "With their business quarrels settled in early 1975, Lennon found himself keen to approach songwriting with McCartney again. McCartney, according to his wife Linda, was likewise \"desperate to write with John again\" and invited Lennon to a recording session in New Orleans. By this time, Lennon had separated from Ono and had entered a romantic partnership with May Pang. According to Pang, Ono phoned Lennon at the end of January and \"told him ... that he should come over to the Dakota. I told him I didn't like him going over there, and he said, 'Stop it!'. He was yelling at me, 'What's your problem? I'll be home by dinner; we'll go have a late dinner, and then we'll make plans to go to New Orleans and see Paul and Linda.'\" Pang said that when he returned that night, \"He was a different person about Paul. It wasn't the same. He was saying, 'Oh, you know when Paul and Linda used to visit us? Well, I couldn't stand it.'\" Lennon subsequently stayed with Ono until his death; he later told Derek Taylor that Linda was repeatedly suggesting that he work with McCartney again, but \"I can't really see it myself.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "McCartney (album)",
        "text": "That same day, McCartney called Lennon at the clinic where he was undergoing primal scream therapy with his wife, Yoko Ono. McCartney told him that he was following Lennon's example and leaving the Beatles, but he made no mention of making his departure public. Doggett suggests that McCartney's intention was not necessarily to break up the band, and cites Beatles confidant Ray Connolly's recollection that McCartney was \"devastated\" by the media's interpretation of his self-interview. The first reaction from the press was a piece by Don Short of the \"Daily Mirror\", on 10 April, titled \"PAUL IS QUITTING THE BEATLES\". From there, in author Mark Hertsgaard's description, \"newspaper headlines around the world reduced the story to screaming variations of PAUL BREAKS UP THE BEATLES\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Early 1970",
        "text": "As the Beatles' drummer, and only a nascent songwriter, Ringo Starr felt lost when the band broke up. Although the official announcement came on 10 April 1970, the group's demise was initiated by John Lennon's statement during a September 1969 band meeting that he wanted a \"divorce\" from his fellow Beatles. In a February 1970 interview in \"Look\" magazine, midway through sessions for his first solo album, \"Sentimental Journey\", Starr explained his disorientation: \"I keep looking around and thinking where are they? What are they doing? When will they come back and talk to me?\" Beatles historian Bruce Spizer writes that these sentiments \"form the basis\" of Starr's composition \"Early 1970\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "On 8 September, while Starr was in hospital, Lennon, McCartney and Harrison met to discuss recording a follow-up to \"Abbey Road\". In the meeting Lennon and Harrison expressed frustration with having to compete with McCartney to get their songs recorded. Lennon proposed a different approach to songwriting by ending the Lennon\u2013McCartney pretence and having four compositions apiece from Lennon, McCartney and Harrison, with two from Starr and a lead single around Christmas.<ref name=\"Williams/Guardian\"></ref> Harrison referred to the possibility of a new Beatles album in an interview he gave in November, and he called this songwriting arrangement \"an equal rights thing\". McCartney later dismissed the new division of songwriting, saying it \"wasn't the right balance\" and was \"too democratic for its own good\". Speaking to \"Melody Maker\" in September, Lennon said: \"The trouble is we've got too much material. Now that George is writing a lot, we could put out a double album every month\u00a0...\" During the 8 September meeting, McCartney expressed that, before \"Abbey Road\", he \"thought that George's songs weren't that good\", to which Lennon reacted by saying none of the other Beatles liked McCartney's \"Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da\" and \"Maxwell's Silver Hammer\" and that those types of songs should be given to other artists to record."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wedding Bells Are Breaking Up That Old Gang of Mine",
        "text": "The Beatles, for whom Gene Vincent was an influence, were fans of the song. On separate occasions while being interviewed, both John Lennon and Paul McCartney referred to the song as a commentary on the way the group had grown apart during the years before their break-up \u2014 Lennon in his \"Lennon Remembers\" interview for \"Rolling Stone\" in 1971, and McCartney in the final episode of \"The Beatles Anthology\" in 1995. George Harrison performed a cover of the song during a jam session while recording his 1970 album \"All Things Must Pass\"; the recording was eventually released as part of the 50th anniversary reissue of the album in 2021."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "McCartney filed suit for the dissolution of the Beatles' contractual partnership on 31 December 1970. Legal disputes continued long after their break-up, and the dissolution was not formalised until 29 December 1974, when Lennon signed the paperwork terminating the partnership while on vacation with his family at Walt Disney World Resort in Florida."
      },
      {
        "title": "George Martin",
        "text": "In the immediate aftermath of the Beatles' break-up, a time when he made many angry utterances, John Lennon trivialised Martin's importance to the Beatles' music. In his 1970 interview with Jann Wenner, Lennon said, \"[Dick James] is another one of those people, who think they made us. They didn't. I'd like to hear Dick James' music and I'd like to hear George Martin's music, please, just play me some.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "George Harrison",
        "text": "Harrison and McCartney were the first of the Beatles to meet, having shared a school bus, and often learned and rehearsed new guitar chords together. McCartney said that he and Harrison usually shared a bedroom while touring. McCartney has referred to Harrison as his \"baby brother\". In a 1974 BBC radio interview with Alan Freeman, Harrison stated: \"[McCartney] ruined me as a guitar player\". Perhaps the most significant obstacle to a Beatles reunion after the death of Lennon was Harrison and McCartney's personal relationship, as both men admitted that they often got on each other's nerves. Rodriguez commented: \"Even to the end of George's days, theirs was a volatile relationship\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cultural impact of the Beatles",
        "text": "Writing in \"The New York Times Magazine\" in 2016, cultural commentator Chuck Klosterman said that the group were \"only slightly less popular now\" than they were in the 1960s. He wrote that the group were \"arguably\" responsible for everything related to rock music, \"including the very notion of a band's breaking up\", and noted that no other rock group had faced unrelated assassination attempts against half its members. Klosterman concluded that, \"In any reasonable world, the Beatles are the answer to the question \"Who will be the Sousa of rock?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "All Things Must Pass",
        "text": "Another factor behind the album's first weeks of release was Harrison's meeting with McCartney in New York, the failure of which led to McCartney filing suit in London's High Court to dissolve the Beatles' legal partnership. Songs such as \"Wah-Wah\", \"Apple Scruffs\", \"Isn't It a Pity\" and \"Run of the Mill\" resonated with listeners as documents of the group's dysfunction. In the fallout to the break-up, according to journalist Kitty Empire, Harrison's triple album \"functioned as a kind of repository for grief\" for the band's fans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "The subsequent negotiations were lengthy as McCartney continued to demand his freedom from the Beatles and Apple, yet his own advisors were now giving him the same warnings regarding the potential tax liability as Klein had identified. The other Beatles soon came to doubt Klein's ability to negotiate a successful settlement with McCartney, given the pair's ongoing antipathy; they were also disillusioned with Klein for his mismanagement of Harrison's Bangladesh aid project, and Lennon felt betrayed by Klein's lack of support for his and Ono's increasingly political music. Lennon, Harrison and Starr formally severed their ties with Klein in March 1973, initiating a wave of lawsuits in London and New York. In November, they sued Klein for misrepresentation and breach of fiduciary duty. Klein then countersued Apple for $19\u00a0million in unpaid fees. The cases were settled out of court in January 1977 with Apple paying Klein $5,009,200, equivalent to approximately \u00a32.9\u00a0million at the time. Klein credited the \"tireless efforts and Kissinger-like negotiating brilliance of Yoko Ono Lennon\" in achieving a settlement to his satisfaction."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles (album)",
        "text": "During the recording sessions for \"The Beatles\", each member of the band began to increasingly assert themselves as individual artists who frequently found themselves at odds. McCartney described the sessions as a turning point for the group because \"there was a lot of friction during that album. We were just about to break up, and that was tense in itself\"; Lennon said, \"the break-up of the Beatles can be heard on that album\". Recording engineer Geoff Emerick had worked with the group since \"Revolver\", but became disillusioned with the sessions. He overheard Martin criticising McCartney's vocal performance while recording \"Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da\", to which McCartney replied, \"Well you come down and sing it\". On 16 July, Emerick announced that because of the frequent bickering and tension, he was no longer willing to work with the Beatles and left the studio in the midst of a session."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "From late May to mid-October 1968, the group recorded what became \"The Beatles\", a double LP commonly known as \"the White Album\" for its virtually featureless cover. During this time, relations between the members grew openly divisive. Starr quit for two weeks, leaving his bandmates to record \"Back in the U.S.S.R.\" and \"Dear Prudence\" as a trio, with McCartney filling in on drums. Lennon had lost interest in collaborating with McCartney, whose contribution \"Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da\" he scorned as \"granny music shit\". Tensions were further aggravated by Lennon's romantic preoccupation with avant-garde artist Yoko Ono, whom he insisted on bringing to the sessions despite the group's well-established understanding that girlfriends were not allowed in the studio. McCartney has recalled that the album \"wasn't a pleasant one to make\". He and Lennon identified the sessions as the start of the band's break-up."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "On 3 and 4 January 1970, McCartney, Harrison and Starr reconvened at Abbey Road Studios to record Harrison's \"I Me Mine\" and complete work on McCartney's song \"Let It Be\". Both tracks were needed for the \"Let It Be\" album, as the threat of legal action by American film company United Artists led to a decision to finally prepare the \"Get Back\" recordings and footage for release. In March, producer Phil Spector was invited to work on the tapes. Although McCartney has claimed that he was unaware of Spector's involvement until receiving an acetate of the \"Let It Be\" album in April, Peter Doggett writes of work being delayed for \"several weeks\" until McCartney returned \"a string of messages\" requesting his approval for Spector to start working on the tapes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul McCartney",
        "text": "As the Beatles were breaking up in 1969\u201370, McCartney fell into a depression. His wife helped him pull out of that condition by praising his work as a songwriter and convincing him to continue writing and recording. In her honour, he wrote \"Maybe I'm Amazed\", explaining that with the Beatles breaking up, \"that was my feeling: Maybe I'm amazed at what's going on ... Maybe I'm a man and maybe you're the only woman who could ever help me; Baby won't you help me understand ... Maybe I'm amazed at the way you pulled me out of time, hung me on the line, Maybe I'm amazed at the way I really need you.\" He added that \"every love song I write is for Linda.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Derek Taylor",
        "text": "Taylor left the company in late 1970, having outlasted most of the other senior employees there, thanks to the affection and high regard in which he was held by Lennon, Harrison and Starr. In April that year, Taylor had confirmed The Beatles' break-up using deliberately vague terms, partly to mask his sadness:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "Ultimately, complicated negotiations brought Harrison back into the group's activities. At Harrison's insistence, McCartney's plans for a full concert were abandoned and the project was relocated to the band's Apple Studio in Savile Row, with the focus now on merely completing a new album of some of the songs rehearsed at Twickenham. The Beatles gave their last public performance on the rooftop of Apple's headquarters on 30 January 1969, as a substitute for an audience-based concert."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "A wave of Beatles nostalgia and persistent reunion rumours in the US during the 1970s led several entrepreneurs to make public offers to the Beatles for a reunion concert.\n* 1974 \u2013 Promoter Bill Sargent first offered the Beatles $10\u00a0million for a reunion concert. He raised his offer to $30\u00a0million in January 1976 and then to $50\u00a0million the following month.\n* 24 April 1976 \u2013 During a broadcast of \"Saturday Night Live\", producer Lorne Michaels offered the Beatles $3,000 to reunite on the show. Lennon and McCartney were watching the live broadcast at Lennon's apartment at the Dakota in New York, which was within walking distance of the NBC studio where the show was being broadcast. The former bandmates briefly entertained the idea of going to the studio and surprising Michaels by accepting his offer, but decided not to.\n* June 1976 \u2013 Entrepreneur Alan Amron created the International Committee to Reunite the Beatles, asking Beatles fans worldwide to send in one dollar to then offer the money to the Beatles to reunite.\n* September 1976 \u2013 Concert promoter Sid Bernstein ran full-page newspaper advertisements inviting the Beatles to reunite for a concert that would raise $230\u00a0million for charity.\n* January 1977 \u2013 Amron partnered with boxer Muhammad Ali for a proposal to the Beatles to reunite to help create a $200\u00a0million charity fund.\n* March 1978 \u2013 An environmental group called Project Interspeak announced to the media that they were planning a concert to raise money for anti-whaling efforts and suggested the Beatles would participate.\n* September 1979 \u2013 Bernstein again appealed to the Beatles with a full-page newspaper advertisement asking them to perform three concerts to benefit the Vietnamese boat people. At the same time another effort to reunite the Beatles for the same cause was sponsored by United Nations Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim. Those discussions led to the Concerts for the People of Kampuchea in December featuring McCartney and his band Wings but not the rumoured Beatles reunion."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Lennon",
        "text": "Along with his estrangement from McCartney, Lennon always felt a musical competitiveness with him and kept an ear on his music. During his career break from 1975 until shortly before his death, according to Fred Seaman, Lennon and Ono's assistant at the time, Lennon was content to sit back as long as McCartney was producing what Lennon saw as mediocre material. Lennon took notice when McCartney released \"Coming Up\" in 1980, which was the year Lennon returned to the studio. \"It's driving me crackers!\" he jokingly complained, because he could not get the tune out of his head. That same year, Lennon was asked whether the group were dreaded enemies or the best of friends, and he replied that they were neither, and that he had not seen any of them in a long time. But he also said, \"I still love those guys. The Beatles are over, but John, Paul, George and Ringo go on.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Paul McCartney",
        "text": "John Lennon privately left the Beatles in September 1969, though agreed to not go public with the information so as to not jeopardize ongoing business negotiations. McCartney was in the midst of business disagreements with his bandmates, largely concerning Allen Klein's management of the group, when he announced his own departure from the group on 10 April 1970. He filed a suit for the band's formal dissolution on 31 December 1970, and in March 1971 the court appointed a receiver to oversee the finances of the Beatles' company Apple Corps. An English court legally dissolved the Beatles' partnership on 9 January 1975, though sporadic lawsuits against their record company EMI, Klein, and each other persisted until 1989."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allen Klein",
        "text": "The judge ruled in McCartney's favor in March 1971. He decided that the combined financial affairs of the former Beatles should be placed in the care of a receiver until mutually acceptable terms for their break-up could be found. Klein thereby retained a position in the post-breakup solo careers of Harrison, Starr, and Lennon, but was no longer in charge of their affairs as a partnership."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "Amid the uproar that ensued, McCartney returned to the issue of Spector's work on \"Let It Be\". McCartney had conceived of \"The Long and Winding Road\" as a simple piano ballad, but Spector overdubbed orchestral and female choral accompaniment. On 14 April, McCartney sent a letter to Klein demanding that the new instrumentation be reduced, the harp part removed, and added: \"Don't ever do it again.\" Arriving twelve days after Spector had distributed the acetates with a request for any of the Beatles to contact him immediately with proposed changes, McCartney's demands went unheeded. Klein claimed to have sent McCartney a telegram in reply to the 14 April letter (McCartney having changed his telephone number without informing Apple), but he received no response. Klein therefore went ahead with the manufacturing of the new Beatles album. McCartney blamed Klein for Spector's involvement, since Klein had brought the producer over to London to work with the Beatles. McCartney resolved to end his ties to Apple and the Beatles as the only means to extricate himself from Klein."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "Once Lennon, Harrison and Starr became aware that McCartney intended to release his solo album on 17 April 1970, the date was immediately deemed an issue, due to the existing items on the Apple release schedule \u2013 \"Let It Be\" and Starr's own solo debut, \"Sentimental Journey\". On 31 March, Starr went to McCartney's house to tell him personally of the decision to delay the release of \"McCartney\", news to which he reacted badly, dismissing Starr from his home and refusing to cede the date agreed to with Aspinall. Stunned at his bandmate's outburst, Starr relayed the situation to Harrison and Lennon, and McCartney's album was reinstated on the release schedule for 17 April. McCartney's bitterness over this episode contributed to him publicly announcing his departure from the Beatles. He also cited Spector's treatment of some songs on the \"Let It Be\" album, particularly \"The Long and Winding Road\", as another factor. The chronological relevance of the latter claim is disputed by Starr, however, who stated that, when acetates of the album were sent out for each of the Beatles' approval, on 2 April: \"We all said yes. Even at the beginning Paul said yes. I spoke to him on the phone, and said, 'Did you like it?' and he said, 'Yeah, it's OK.' He didn't put it down.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "The Soviettes",
        "text": "\"I don't know why we broke up,\" said Danny Henry in 2007, \"It was pretty natural. Bands are relationships, they're just more complicated because it's a four-way deal.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Ringo Starr",
        "text": "Despite a temporary return to congeniality during the completion of the White Album, production of the Beatles' fourth feature film, \"Let It Be\", and its accompanying LP, further strained band relationships. On 20 August 1969, the Beatles gathered for the final time at Abbey Road Studios for a mixing session for \"I Want You\". At a business meeting on 20 September, Lennon told the others that he had quit the Beatles, although the band's break-up would not become public knowledge until McCartney's announcement on 10 April 1970 that he was also leaving."
      },
      {
        "title": "Abbey Road",
        "text": "In mid-1969, Lennon formed a new group, the Plastic Ono Band, in part because the Beatles had rejected his song \"Cold Turkey\". While Harrison worked with such artists as Leon Russell, Doris Troy, Preston and Delaney & Bonnie through to the end of the year, McCartney took a hiatus from the group after his daughter Mary was born on 28 August. On 20 September, Lennon told McCartney, Starr, and business manager Allen Klein (Harrison was not present) he was leaving the group, (or in his words, he wanted a divorce) six days before \"Abbey Road\" was released. Apple released \"Something\" backed with \"Come Together\" in the US on 6 October 1969. Release of the single in the UK followed on 31 October, while Lennon released the Plastic Ono Band's \"Cold Turkey\" the same month."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dale Houston",
        "text": "The popularity of The Beatles, combined with personal problems between the two performers, Broussard's homesickness, and a serious illness which landed Houston in the hospital, caused the duo to separate in 1965. Grace returned to singing with her brother."
      },
      {
        "title": "Break-up of the Beatles",
        "text": "McCartney released his second album, \"Ram\", in May. It included a riposte to \"Lennon Remembers\" with the song \"Too Many People\", in which, he told \"Playboy\" in 1984, he addressed Lennon's \"preaching\". Lennon detected other examples of McCartney attacking him within the album's lyrics and responded with the song \"How Do You Sleep?\" Harrison and Starr (the latter a non-participant) joined Lennon for the recording of \"How Do You Sleep?\", which was released on Lennon's \"Imagine\" album in September. Lennon and McCartney continued their public feud through the letters page of \"Melody Maker\", with some of Lennon's correspondence requiring censorship by the magazine's editor. McCartney later wrote \"Dear Friend\", a truce offering to Lennon, and included it on the album \"Wild Life\" with his band, Wings, in December."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rotator (album)",
        "text": "While recording at the Abbey Road Studios, it turned out the other band members did not share Christensen's enthusiasm, nor could they appreciate the unique symbolism recording in these legendary studios as much as Christensen. This meant Christensen had no one to share his palette of emotions with, causing him to turn to Pernille Rosendahl, his girlfriend since 1995, in and out of the studio. This further added to the crisis and caused Christensen to become increasingly estranged from the band. Nielsen and Friis even went as far as labeling the couple as \"John and Yoko\", referring to the supposed detrimental influence of Yoko Ono on John Lennon that contributed to the break-up of the Beatles. This period furthermore showed the first signs of the band members heading in different musical directions, about which Christensen explained in 2000: \"I needed change while the others wanted to continue in the same style, and that was actually the most important reason we split up.\" This can especially be heard in the song \"Rise and Fall\"; although songs were always a collaborative effort by the band, Christensen requested Nielsen and Friis to allow him to be in full control over this song, and as a result it is distinctly different from all other songs on the album."
      },
      {
        "title": "Save Rock and Roll",
        "text": "Rumors and misquotes led to confusion as to what such a break truly meant; Wentz preferred to not refer to the break as a \"hiatus\", instead explaining that the band was just \"decompressing\". Fall Out Boy played its last show at Madison Square Garden on October 4, 2009. Near the end, Blink-182's Mark Hoppus shaved Wentz's head in a move \"Rolling Stone\" would later describe as a \"symbolic cleansing of the past, but also the beginning of a very dark chapter for the band.\" By the time the break began, Stump was the heaviest he had ever been and loathed the band's image as an \"emo\" band. Drummer Andy Hurley \"went through the darkest depression [I've] ever felt. I looked at my calendar and it was just empty.\" Wentz, who had been abusing Xanax and Klonopin, was divorced by his wife Ashlee Simpson and returned to therapy. Wentz recalled: \"I'd basically gone from being the guy in Fall Out Boy to being the guy who, like, hangs out all day\". Previously known as the \"overexposed, despised\" leader of the band, Wentz \"simply grew up\", sharing custody of his son and embracing maturity: \"There was a jump-cut in my life. I started thinking \u2013 like, being old would be cool.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "McCartney (album)",
        "text": "McCartney's former bandmates viewed his making the band's break-up public as a betrayal in light of how Lennon had acquiesced to the group's interests by staying silent about his departure the previous year, and as McCartney using the end of the Beatles as a way to promote his solo album. When asked for his opinion of the album shortly after its release, Harrison described \"Maybe I'm Amazed\" and \"That Would Be Something\" as \"great\", but the rest, he said, \"just don't do much for me\". Harrison added that, unlike Lennon, Starr and himself, McCartney was probably too \"isolated\" from other musicians, such that: \"The only person he's got to tell him if the song's good or bad is Linda.\" In a December 1970 interview with \"Rolling Stone\" editor Jann Wenner, which was re-published the following year as the book \"Lennon Remembers\", Lennon dismissed \"McCartney\" as \"rubbish\" and \"Engelbert Humperdinck music\"; he said that his primal therapy-inspired album \"John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band\" would \"probably scare [McCartney] into doing something decent\". Lennon rejected Wenner's interpretation of the back cover portrait as a possible reference to Ono's recent miscarriage; instead, he read it as an example of the McCartneys slavishly following his and Ono's lead by releasing a family-oriented album."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allen Klein",
        "text": "Suspected for their motives, hated for their disruptive power, they all arrived from America and were all regarded as suspects for the crime of breaking up the Beatles, on the assumption that without them the group would have continued happily in each other's company until their dying days. The first of these intruders was Yoko Ono; the second was Linda Eastman; and the third was Allen Klein."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Long and Winding Road",
        "text": "McCartney asked Klein to dissolve the Beatles' partnership, but was refused. Exasperated, he took the case to the High Court in London in early 1971, naming Klein and the other Beatles as defendants. Among the six reasons McCartney gave for dissolving the Beatles was that Klein's company, ABKCO, had imposed changes to \"The Long and Winding Road\" without consulting McCartney. In his written affidavit, Starr countered this statement by saying that when Spector had sent acetates of \"Let It Be\" to each of the Beatles for their approval, with a request also for feedback: \"We all said yes. Even at the beginning Paul said yes. I spoke to him on the phone, and said, 'Did you like it?' and he said, 'Yeah, it's OK.' He didn't put it down.\" Starr added: \"And then suddenly he didn't want it to go out. Two weeks after that, he wanted to cancel it.\" Author Nicholas Schaffner commented that, in light of McCartney's contention in the High Court, it was surprising that he personally accepted the band's Grammy Award for \"Let It Be\" in March 1971 \u2013 when the album won in the category Best Original Score Written for a Motion Picture or Television Special \u2013 and that he chose to feature his wife Linda's voice so prominently on his post-Beatles recordings."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Beatles",
        "text": "By early 1964, the Beatles were international stars and had achieved unprecedented levels of critical and commercial success. They became a leading force in Britain's cultural resurgence, ushering in the British Invasion of the United States pop market, and soon made their film debut with \"A Hard Day's Night\" (1964). From 1965 onwards, they produced records of greater sophistication, including the albums \"Rubber Soul\" (1965), \"Revolver\" (1966) and \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band\" (1967), and enjoyed further commercial success with \"The Beatles\" (also known as \"the White Album\", 1968) and \"Abbey Road\" (1969). Heralding the album era, their success elevated the album to be the dominant form of record consumption over singles; they also inspired a greater public interest in psychedelic drugs and Eastern spirituality, and furthered advancements in electronic music, album art and music videos. In 1968, they founded Apple Corps, a multi-armed multimedia corporation that continues to oversee projects related to the band's legacy. After the group's break-up in 1970, all principal members enjoyed success as solo artists and some partial reunions have occurred. Lennon was murdered in 1980 and Harrison died of lung cancer in 2001. McCartney and Starr remain musically active."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allen Klein",
        "text": "Klein contacted John Lennon after reading his press comment that the Beatles would be \"broke in six months\" if things continued as they were. On January\u00a026, 1969, he met with Lennon, who retained Klein as his financial representative, and the next day met with the other Beatles. Paul McCartney preferred to be represented by Lee and John Eastman, the father and brother respectively of McCartney's girlfriend Linda, whom he married on March\u00a012. Given a choice between Klein and the Eastmans, George Harrison and Ringo Starr preferred Klein. Following rancorous London meetings with both Eastmans, in April, Klein was appointed as the Beatles' manager on an interim basis, with the Eastmans being appointed as their attorneys. Continued conflict between Klein and the Eastmans made this arrangement unworkable. The Eastmans were dismissed as the Beatles' attorneys, and on May\u00a08 Klein was given a three-year contract as business manager of the Beatles. McCartney refused to sign the contract but was outvoted by the other Beatles."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Lennon",
        "text": "While Lennon remained consistently friendly with Starr during the years that followed the Beatles' break-up in 1970, his relationships with McCartney and Harrison varied. He was initially close to Harrison, but the two drifted apart after Lennon moved to the US in 1971. When Harrison was in New York for his December 1974 \"Dark Horse\" tour, Lennon agreed to join him on stage but failed to appear after an argument over Lennon's refusal to sign an agreement that would finally dissolve the Beatles' legal partnership. Harrison later said that when he visited Lennon during his five years away from music, he sensed that Lennon was trying to communicate, but his bond with Ono prevented him. Harrison offended Lennon in 1980 when he published an autobiography that Lennon felt made little mention of him. Lennon told \"Playboy\", \"I was hurt by it. By glaring omission... my influence on his life is absolutely zilch... he remembers every two-bit sax player or guitarist he met in subsequent years. I'm not in the book.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Let It Be (Beatles album)",
        "text": "The atmosphere in the film studios, the early start each day, and the intrusive cameras and microphones of Lindsay-Hogg's film crew combined to heighten the Beatles' discontent. When the band rehearsed McCartney's \"Two of Us\" on 6 January, a tense exchange ensued between McCartney and Harrison about the latter's lead guitar part. During lunch on 10 January, Lennon and Harrison had a heated disagreement in which Harrison berated Lennon for his lack of engagement with the project. Harrison was also angry with Lennon for telling a music journalist that the Beatles' Apple organisation was in financial ruin. According to journalist Michael Housego's report in the \"Daily Sketch\", Harrison and Lennon's exchange descended into violence with the pair allegedly throwing punches at each other. Harrison denied this in a 16 January interview for the \"Daily Express\", saying: \"There was no punch-up. We just fell out.\" After lunch on 10 January, Harrison announced that he was leaving the band and told the others, \"See you round the clubs.\" Starr attributed Harrison's exit to McCartney \"dominating\" him."
      },
      {
        "title": "Run of the Mill (George Harrison song)",
        "text": "The financial problems within the Beatles' Apple business empire became another divisive issue at this time. From summer 1968 until the appointment of Allen Klein as business manager in March 1969, McCartney was a regular presence at Apple's central London headquarters, calling staff meetings and urging financial restraint. While noting that all the individual Beatles were demanding employers, Apple press officer Derek Taylor later described McCartney as \"the bossiest of the bossy\"; according to Tony Bramwell, Apple Records' head of promotions, Lennon and partner Yoko Ono inflicted \"their own reign of terror\". On 18 January, \"Disc\" magazine published what author Peter Doggett describes as \"a heroin-fuelled monologue\" by Lennon in which he said of Apple's finances: \"If it carries on like this, all of us will be broke in the next few months.\" While McCartney sought to appoint his in-laws, New York lawyers Lee and John Eastman, as the band's business advisors, Lennon's outburst attracted the attention of the less conservative Klein. The latter effectively became the Beatles' manager when Harrison and Ringo Starr also chose to put their faith in his tough approach to business. Refusing to acknowledge Klein as his representative, McCartney later cited this division as the first \"irreconcilable difference\" among the four Beatles, leading to the band's break-up in April 1970."
      },
      {
        "title": "Collaborations between ex-Beatles",
        "text": "Following the break-up of the Beatles in April 1970, John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr enjoyed success as solo artists and collaborated with each other on numerous occasions, including on both studio and live recordings. However, none of these collaborations included all four members, with the exception of \"Free as a Bird\" (1994) and \"Real Love\" (1995)."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band",
        "text": "Following the break-up of the Beatles in April 1970, John Lennon and his wife Yoko Ono undertook primal therapy with the guidance of Arthur Janov for four weeks at his London offices. The three then flew to Los Angeles to continue the therapy for four months. Janov's therapy technique emphasised emotionally reliving repressed childhood traumas rather than analytical discussion."
      },
      {
        "title": "You Never Give Me Your Money (book)",
        "text": "\"You Never Give Me Your Money\" discusses the events leading up to the Beatles' break-up in April 1970, starting with the death of the band's manager, Brian Epstein, in August 1967. It tells of the confusion inherent in their Apple Corps business enterprise and how, within a year, the company's precarious financial position attracted the interest of Allen Klein, whose managerial appointment further divided the band members."
      },
      {
        "title": "It Was Twenty Years Ago Today (film)",
        "text": "The film includes footage from ITN's report from outside EMI Studios on 20 December 1966, early in the recording sessions for \"Sgt. Pepper\". Each of the Beatles is asked to comment on rumours that the band are splitting up in the wake of an announcement that they had retired from live performance. Recalling the inspiration behind the album twenty years later, Paul McCartney says: \"we started to incorporate more of the crazy life that we were living at the time into the music. We started to believe there weren't that many frontiers, not too many barriers, really \u2026\""
      },
      {
        "title": "John Lennon",
        "text": "Lennon left the Beatles in September 1969, but agreed not to inform the media while the group renegotiated their recording contract. He was outraged that McCartney publicised his own departure on releasing his debut solo album in April 1970. Lennon's reaction was, \"Jesus Christ! He gets all the credit for it!\" He later wrote, \"I started the band. I disbanded it. It's as simple as that.\" In a December 1970 interview with Jann Wenner of \"Rolling Stone\" magazine, he revealed his bitterness towards McCartney, saying, \"I was a fool not to do what Paul did, which was use it to sell a record.\" Lennon also spoke of the hostility he perceived the other members had towards Ono, and of how he, Harrison and Starr \"got fed up with being sidemen for Paul\u00a0... After Brian Epstein died we collapsed. Paul took over and supposedly led us. But what is leading us when we went round in circles?\""
      },
      {
        "title": "McCartney (album)",
        "text": "On 9 April, McCartney released a Q&A package to the British press, in which he explained his reasons for making his solo album and described its overall theme as \"Home, Family, Love\". Compiled with the help of Apple executives Derek Taylor and Peter Brown, the self-interview also contained questions McCartney imagined he would be asked regarding the possibility of the Beatles splitting up. While stopping short of saying that the band was finished, McCartney stated that he did not know whether his \"break with the Beatles\" would be temporary or permanent and that it was based on business, personal and creative differences. He also said that he had not missed Starr's drumming, nor any of his bandmates' contributions, when making the album, and could not envisage a time when he and Lennon would write together again. When asked whether Klein and his company ABKCO would be \"in any way involved with the production, manufacturing, distribution or promotion of this new album\", McCartney said, \"Not if I can help it\", and he stressed that Klein was in no way his business representative. Although McCartney later recalled that he was responding to questions put to him, Brown said that McCartney wrote all the questions, as did Taylor."
      },
      {
        "title": "Maxwell's Silver Hammer",
        "text": "Among Beatles biographers, Ian MacDonald said that \"If any single recording shows why The Beatles broke up, it's 'Maxwell's Silver Hammer'.\" He continued: Author Jonathan Gould cites \"Maxwell's Silver Hammer\" as an example of the selfishness inherent in the Beatles' creative partnership, whereby a composition by McCartney or Lennon would be given preference over a more substantial song by Harrison. He also rues McCartney's penchant for a light entertainment style that the Beatles had sought to render obsolete, and concludes:"
      },
      {
        "title": "McCartney (album)",
        "text": "McCartney recorded the album during a period of depression and confusion, following John Lennon's private departure from the Beatles in September 1969. Conflicts over the release of McCartney's album further estranged him from his bandmates, as he refused to delay the album's release to allow for Apple's previously scheduled titles, notably the Beatles' album \"Let It Be\". A press release in the form of a self-interview supplied with UK promotional copies of \"McCartney\" led to the Beatles' break-up."
      },
      {
        "title": "List of members of bands featuring members of the Beatles",
        "text": "The Beatles began in 1957, when John Lennon formed a skiffle group with his friends called the Quarrymen. The band underwent many name and membership changes, culminating in 1962 with the famous line-up of Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr. After the Beatles disbanded in 1970, each of the four members went on to have success, both as solo acts and with their own groups. Although Lennon died in 1980, the remaining Beatles re-united in 1994 to record new songs for the \"Anthology\" project. Since Harrison's death in 2001, the two remaining members have not reunited as the Beatles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Apple scruffs",
        "text": "The scruffs began drifting apart as they grew older and also because several objected to McCartney's actions in dissolving the Beatles as a legal partnership. When Harrison attended the opening of the refurbished Apple Studio at 3 Savile Row, in October 1971, the \"NME\" reported that the scruffs were \"still around in force\"."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How did The Beatles become famous in their home country?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I could not find the specific cause, but the Beatles built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg and were helped by guidance from manager Brian Epstein and producer George Martin. Success also brought increased media exposure which played a role."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Did Brian Epstein work with any other bands?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Some of Epstein's other young discoveries had also prospered under his management including Gerry and the Pacemakers, Billy J. Kramer and the Dakotas, Tommy Quickly, Cilla Black and The Big Three."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What was The Beatles biggest hit of all time?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I was not able to discover that specific information, but as of 2009, \"She Loves You\" was the Beatles' all-time best-selling single in the UK."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who wrote \"She Loves You\", was it one of the Beatles members?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "\"She Loves You\" is a song written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney and recorded by English rock band the Beatles for release as a single in 1963."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Who influenced the Beatles' music?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "The band's earliest influences include Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins, Little Richard and Chuck Berry. The Beatles continued to absorb influences long after their initial success, often finding new musical and lyrical avenues by listening to their contemporaries, including Bob Dylan, the Who, Frank Zappa, the Lovin' Spoonful, the Byrds and the Beach Boys, whose 1966 album Pet Sounds amazed and inspired McCartney."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Why did The Beatles break up?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Their break-up was a cumulative process attributed to numerous factors. These include the strain of the Beatlemania phenomenon, the death of manager Brian Epstein in 1967, resentment towards McCartney from his bandmates for his perceived domineering role, Lennon's heroin use and his relationship with Yoko Ono, Harrison's prolific songwriting output, the floundering of Apple Corps and the Get Back project (later renamed Let It Be in 1970) as well as managerial disputes.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I don't know the direct reasons, but Martin said Abbey road was recorded in a time when relations between the Beatles were at their lowest ebb, and new strains developed between the band members regarding the appointment of a financial adviser. McCartney refused to sign the management contract with Klein, but he was out-voted, and McCartney filed suit for the dissolution of the Beatles' contractual partnership on 31 December 1970."
    ],
    "topic": "The Beatles",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Break-up of the Beatles:1",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Break-up of the Beatles"
        ],
        "ctx": "From August 1962 to September 1969, the Beatles had a lineup that consisted of John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr. Their break-up was a cumulative process attributed to numerous factors. These include the strain of the Beatlemania phenomenon, the death of manager Brian Epstein in 1967, resentment towards McCartney from his bandmates for his perceived domineering role, Lennon's heroin use and his relationship with Yoko Ono, Harrison's prolific songwriting output, the floundering of Apple Corps and the \"Get Back\" project (later renamed \"Let It Be\" in 1970) as well as managerial disputes."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "The Beatles:61",
        "passage_titles": [
          "The Beatles",
          "History",
          "1966\u20131970: Studio years",
          "\"Abbey Road\", \"Let It Be\" and separation"
        ],
        "ctx": "Although \"Let It Be\" was the Beatles' final album release, it was largely recorded before \"Abbey Road\". The project's impetus came from an idea Martin attributes to McCartney, who suggested they \"record an album of new material and rehearse it, then perform it before a live audience for the very first time \u2013 on record and on film\". Originally intended for a one-hour television programme to be called \"Beatles at Work\", in the event much of the album's content came from studio work beginning in January 1969, many hours of which were captured on film by director Michael Lindsay-Hogg. Martin said that the project was \"not at all a happy recording experience. It was a time when relations between the Beatles were at their lowest ebb.\" Lennon described the largely impromptu sessions as \"hell\u00a0... the most miserable\u00a0... on Earth\", and Harrison, \"the low of all-time\". Irritated by McCartney and Lennon, Harrison walked out for five days. Upon returning, he threatened to leave the band unless they \"abandon[ed] all talk of live performance\" and instead focused on finishing a new album, initially titled \"Get Back\", using songs recorded for the TV special. He also demanded they cease work at Twickenham Film Studios, where the sessions had begun, and relocate to the newly finished Apple Studio. His bandmates agreed, and it was decided to salvage the footage shot for the TV production for use in a feature film."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "The Beatles:63",
        "passage_titles": [
          "The Beatles",
          "History",
          "1966\u20131970: Studio years",
          "\"Abbey Road\", \"Let It Be\" and separation"
        ],
        "ctx": "New strains developed between the band members regarding the appointment of a financial adviser, the need for which had become evident without Epstein to manage business affairs. Lennon, Harrison and Starr favoured Allen Klein, who had managed the Rolling Stones and Sam Cooke; McCartney wanted Lee and John Eastman \u2013 father and brother, respectively, of Linda Eastman, whom McCartney married on 12 March. Agreement could not be reached, so both Klein and the Eastmans were temporarily appointed: Klein as the Beatles' business manager and the Eastmans as their lawyers. Further conflict ensued, however, and financial opportunities were lost. On 8 May, Klein was named sole manager of the band, the Eastmans having previously been dismissed as the Beatles' lawyers. McCartney refused to sign the management contract with Klein, but he was out-voted by the other Beatles."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "The Beatles:69",
        "passage_titles": [
          "The Beatles",
          "History",
          "1966\u20131970: Studio years",
          "\"Abbey Road\", \"Let It Be\" and separation"
        ],
        "ctx": "McCartney filed suit for the dissolution of the Beatles' contractual partnership on 31 December 1970. Legal disputes continued long after their break-up, and the dissolution was not formalised until 29 December 1974, when Lennon signed the paperwork terminating the partnership while on vacation with his family at Walt Disney World Resort in Florida."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Understanding the effect of exercise involves studying specific changes in muscular, cardiovascular, and neurohumoral systems that lead to changes in functional capacity and strength due to endurance training or strength training. The effect of training on the body has been defined as the reaction to the adaptive responses of the body arising from exercise or as \"an elevation of metabolism produced by exercise\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Exercise physiology\n--History.\n--Energy expenditure.\n--Metabolic changes.\n----Rapid energy sources.\n----Plasma glucose.\n----Oxygen.\n----Dehydration.\n--Brain.\n----Cerebral oxygen.\n----Glucose.\n----Hyperthermia.\n--Fatigue.\n----Intense activity.\n----Endurance failure.\n----Central governor.\n----Other factors.\n--Cardiac biomarkers.\n--Human adaptations.\n--Selective breeding experiments with rodents.\n--Exercise-induced muscle pain.\n--Education in exercise physiology.\n----Curriculum.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "At rest, the human brain receives 15% of total cardiac output, and uses 20% of the body's energy consumption. The brain is normally dependent for its high energy expenditure upon aerobic metabolism. The brain as a result is highly sensitive to failure of its oxygen supply with loss of consciousness occurring within six to seven seconds, with its EEG going flat in 23 seconds. Therefore, the brain's function would be disrupted if exercise affected its supply of oxygen and glucose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Exercise physiologists study the effect of exercise on pathology, and the mechanisms by which exercise can reduce or reverse disease progression."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Dehydration refers both to hypohydration (dehydration induced prior to exercise) and to exercise-induced dehydration (dehydration that develops during exercise). The latter reduces aerobic endurance performance and results in increased body temperature, heart rate, perceived exertion, and possibly increased reliance on carbohydrate as a fuel source. Although the negative effects of exercise-induced dehydration on exercise performance were clearly demonstrated in the 1940s, athletes continued to believe for years thereafter that fluid intake was not beneficial. More recently, negative effects on performance have been demonstrated with modest (<2%) dehydration, and these effects are exacerbated when the exercise is performed in a hot environment. The effects of hypohydration may vary, depending on whether it is induced through diuretics or sauna exposure, which substantially reduce plasma volume, or prior exercise, which has much less impact on plasma volume. Hypohydration reduces aerobic endurance, but its effects on muscle strength and endurance are not consistent and require further study. Intense prolonged exercise produces metabolic waste heat, and this is removed by sweat-based thermoregulation. A male marathon runner loses each hour around 0.83 L in cool weather and 1.2 L in warm (losses in females are about 68 to 73% lower). People doing heavy exercise may lose two and half times as much fluid in sweat as urine. This can have profound physiological effects. Cycling for 2 hours in the heat (35\u00a0\u00b0C) with minimal fluid intake causes body mass decline by 3 to 5%, blood volume likewise by 3 to 6%, body temperature to rise constantly, and in comparison with proper fluid intake, higher heart rates, lower stroke volumes and cardiac outputs, reduced skin blood flow, and higher systemic vascular resistance. These effects are largely eliminated by replacing 50 to 80% of the fluid lost in sweat.\n* Plasma catecholamine concentrations increase 10-fold in whole body exercise.\n* Ammonia is produced by exercised skeletal muscles from ADP (the precursor of ATP) by purine nucleotide deamination and amino acid catabolism of myofibrils.\n* interleukin-6 (IL-6) increases in blood circulation due to its release from working skeletal muscles. This release is reduced if glucose is taken, suggesting it is related to energy depletion stresses.\n* Sodium absorption is affected by the release of interleukin-6 as this can cause the secretion of arginine vasopressin which, in turn, can lead to exercise-associated dangerously low sodium levels (hyponatremia). This loss of sodium in blood plasma can result in swelling of the brain. This can be prevented by awareness of the risk of drinking excessive amounts of fluids during prolonged exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Negative repetition",
        "text": "Eccentric training is often associated with the terms \"muscles soreness\" and \"muscle damage\". In 1902, Theodore Hough discovered and developed the term DOMS (delayed onset muscle soreness), after he found that exercises containing negative repetitions caused athletes to have sore muscles. Hough believed this was causing a rupture within the muscle; when he looked further into the subject, he found that when performing eccentric exercise that exhibited soreness, the muscle \"quickly adapts and becomes accustomed to the increase in applied stress\". The result of this was that the muscles' soreness not only decreased, but the muscular damage did too."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of health articles",
        "text": "\u2013 Exercise physiology"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "Exercise\n--Classification.\n--Health effects.\n----Fitness.\n----Cardiovascular system.\n----Immune system.\n----Cancer.\n----Neurobiological.\n------Depression.\n----Sleep.\n----Libido.\n--Mechanism of effects.\n----Skeletal muscle.\n----Other peripheral organs.\n----Central nervous system.\n--Public health measures.\n--Exercise trends.\n----Social and cultural variation.\n--Nutrition and recovery.\n--Excessive exercise.\n--History.\n--Other animals.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "Aerobic exercise induces short- and long-term effects on mood and emotional states by promoting positive affect, inhibiting negative affect, and decreasing the biological response to acute psychological stress. Over the short-term, aerobic exercise functions as both an antidepressant and euphoriant, whereas consistent exercise produces general improvements in mood and self-esteem."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "As a physical stressor, aerobic exercise stimulates cortisol secretion in an intensity-dependent manner; however, it does not result in long-term increases in cortisol production since this exercise-induced effect on cortisol is a response to transient negative energy balance. Individuals who have recently exercised exhibit improvements in stress coping behaviors. Aerobic exercise increases physical fitness and lowers neuroendocrine (i.e., ) reactivity and therefore reduces the biological response to psychological stress in humans (e.g., reduced cortisol release and attenuated heart rate response). Exercise also reverses stress-induced decreases in expression and signaling in the brain, thereby acting as a buffer against stress-related diseases like depression."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Physical exercise may cause pain both as an immediate effect that may result from stimulation of free nerve endings by low pH, as well as a delayed onset muscle soreness. The delayed soreness is fundamentally the result of ruptures within the muscle, although apparently not involving the rupture of whole muscle fibers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports science",
        "text": "Sports science\n--Origins of exercise physiology.\n--Study of sports science.\n--Reproducibility.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Jane Elliott",
        "text": "Academic research into Elliott's exercise shows moderate results in reducing long-term prejudice but is inconclusive on the question of whether the possible psychological harm outweighs the potential benefits. Two professors of education in England, Ivor Goodson and Pat Sikes, argue that what Elliott did was unethical, calling the exercise psychologically and emotionally damaging. They also stated ethical concerns pertaining to the fact that the children were not told of the purpose of the exercise beforehand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Epigenetics of physical exercise",
        "text": "MicroRNAs (miRNAs) interfere with mRNA that is present and render it unusable and therefore decrease the product of that mRNA. MiRNAs regulate many physiological processes, such as inflammation, angiogenesis (the creation of blood vessels), as well as ischemia (the restriction of blood flow within the vessels) prevention. Aerobic exercise reduces the overall number of various miRNAs within the skeletal muscle that produce negative effects. Stimuli that cause the body to enter an anabolic, or constructive, phase, such as resistance training as well as the correct diet, has also shown a reduction of miRNAs. This reduction may actually play a role in the growth of the muscle cell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Tim Noakes, based on an earlier idea by the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winner Archibald Hill has proposed the existence of a central governor. In this, the brain continuously adjusts the power output by muscles during exercise in regard to a safe level of exertion. These neural calculations factor in prior length of strenuous exercise, the planned duration of further exertion, and the present metabolic state of the body. This adjusts the number of activated skeletal muscle motor units, and is subjectively experienced as fatigue and exhaustion. The idea of a central governor rejects the earlier idea that fatigue is only caused by mechanical failure of the exercising muscles (\"peripheral fatigue\"). Instead, the brain models the metabolic limits of the body to ensure that whole body homeostasis is protected, in particular that the heart is guarded from hypoxia, and an emergency reserve is always maintained. The idea of the central governor has been questioned since \u2018physiological catastrophes\u2019 can and do occur suggesting that if it did exist, athletes (such as Dorando Pietri, Jim Peters and Gabriela Andersen-Schiess) can override it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenneth H. Cooper",
        "text": "The physiological effects of training have received much further study since Cooper's original work. It is now generally considered that effects of exercise on general metabolic rate (post-exercise) are comparatively small and the greatest effect occurs for only a few hours. Though endurance training does increase the VO2 max of many people, there is considerable variation in the degree to which it increases VO2 max between individuals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Exercise for diabetes:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cardiovascular physiology",
        "text": "In turn, this can have a significant impact upon several other variables:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Colorado Experiment",
        "text": "It is of interest due to its claims that incredible results can be achieved with a small number of sessions using single sets of high intensity repetitions to momentary muscle failure focusing on negative or lowering multi-joint exercises. The first subject, Casey Viator, gained 63 pounds of muscle in 28 days and the second, Arthur Jones, gained 15 pounds in 22 days."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kinesiology",
        "text": "The study of the physiological responses to physical exercise and their therapeutic applications is known as exercise physiology, which is an important area of research within kinesiology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strength training",
        "text": "Strength training causes endocrine responses that could have positive effects. It also reduces blood pressure (SBP and DBP) and alters body composition, reducing body fat percentage, body fat mass and visceral fat, which is usually beneficial as obesity predisposes towards several chronic diseases and e.g. body fat distribution is one predictor of insulin resistance and related complications.\n;Neurobiological effects"
      },
      {
        "title": "Eccentric training",
        "text": "Eccentric training\n--Negative movement.\n--History.\n--Energy.\n----Heat.\n----Elastic recoil.\n--Physiological mechanisms.\n--Muscle injury.\n--Findings.\n--Eccentric exercise.\n--Sports and rehabilitation.\n--Anterior cruciate ligament damage.\n--Sarcopenia.\n--Muscle tendon injuries.\n--Osteopenia.\n--Tendinoses.\n--Chronic patellar tendonitis.\n--Cardiovascular changes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of exercise",
        "text": "Exercise physiology\n* Aerobic exercise\n* Anaerobic exercise\n* Exercise induced nausea\n* Grip strength\n* Muscle hypertrophy\n* Overtraining\n* Stretching\n* Supercompensation\n* Warming up\n* Weight cutting\n* Weight loss"
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiological effects in space",
        "text": "However, since the mean fiber size was also reduced, the number of capillaries per unit of CSA of skeletal muscle tissue remained the same."
      },
      {
        "title": "Epistasis",
        "text": "Conversely, when two mutations together lead to a less fit phenotype than expected from their effects when alone, it is called negative epistasis. Negative epistasis between beneficial mutations causes smaller than expected fitness improvements, whereas negative epistasis between deleterious mutations causes greater-than-additive fitness drops."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "Animal studies have also shown that exercise can impact brain development early on in life. Mice that had access to running wheels and other such exercise equipment had better neuronal growth in the neural systems involved in learning and memory. Neuroimaging of the human brain has yielded similar results, where exercise leads to changes in brain structure and function. Some investigations have linked low levels of aerobic fitness in children with impaired executive function in older adults, but there is mounting evidence it may also be associated with a lack of selective attention, response inhibition, and interference control."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ice Maiden Expedition",
        "text": "The Ice Maiden team took part in medical research studies with University of Edinburgh and the University of Minnesota, feeding into a NASA study researching the psychological impact of teams operating on Mars. The Edinburgh University physiological study compared the reaction of the female body undertaking extreme endurance in extreme environments, with the male physiological reaction. They found that, unlike the men, the women lost fat but no muscle mass. Dr Rob Gifford of Edinburgh University said: \u201cOur findings contain some potentially myth-busting data on the impact of extreme physical activity on women. We have shown that with appropriate training and preparation, many of the previously reported negative health effects can be avoided.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Harvard Fatigue Laboratory",
        "text": "Of the 300 peer-reviewed research studies originating from the laboratory, topics ranged from the general; work capacity and fatigue, to the more specific; cardiovascular and haemodynamic responses to exercise. This was a direct result of Henderson and Mayo's holistic approach to physiology as opposed to a systems- or organ-oriented approach, which was novel in their time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Humans are specifically adapted to engage in prolonged strenuous muscular activity (such as efficient long distance bipedal running). This capacity for endurance running may have evolved to allow the running down of game animals by persistent slow but constant chase over many hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gene flow",
        "text": "While gene flow can greatly enhance the fitness of a population, it can also have negative consequences depending on the population and the environment in which they reside. The effects of gene flow are context-dependent."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harvard Fatigue Laboratory",
        "text": "The Fatigue Laboratory was seen as an instigator of exercise physiology as an academic discipline in part due to the legacy of the researchers that were once employed at the facility - forming and leading other exercise laboratories around the country after its closure. Its academic output also contributed to this legacy, with researchers publishing over 300 peer-reviewed research studies during its 20 years of operation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Protecting the brain from even minor disruption is important since exercise depends upon motor control. Because humans are bipeds, motor control is needed for keeping balance. For this reason, brain energy consumption is increased during intense physical exercise due to the demands in the motor cognition needed to control the body."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bulgarian Bag",
        "text": "For general information about the effects of physical exercise on human body and the physiological processes involved, see exercise physiology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Exercise physiology is the physiology of physical exercise. It is one of the allied health professions that involves the study of the acute responses and chronic adaptations to exercise. Exercise Physiologists are the highest qualified exercise professionals and utilise education, lifestyle intervention and specific forms of exercise to rehabilitate and manage acute and chronic injuries and conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hill\u2013Robertson effect",
        "text": "Joe Felsenstein (1974) showed this effect to be mathematically identical to the Fisher\u2013Muller model proposed by R. A. Fisher (1930) and H. J. Muller (1932), although the verbal arguments were substantially different. Although the Hill-Robertson effect is usually thought of as describing a disproportionate build up of fitness-reducing (relative to fitness increasing) LD over time, these effects also have immediate consequences for mean population fitness."
      },
      {
        "title": "PRNP",
        "text": "PrP-null mice provide clues to a role in muscular physiology when subjected to a forced swimming test, which showed reduced locomotor activity. Aging mice with an overexpression of PRNP showed significant degradation of muscle tissue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiological effects in space",
        "text": "The inference of these findings is that there is indeed a propensity for muscle injury secondary to the atrophic process that weakens the muscle, and given the instability of the animal after spaceflight as described above, there is most likely a potential for injury if stressful stimuli are imposed on the muscle system before it can regain its proper structural and functional capability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Endurance training",
        "text": "The potential for negative health effects from long-term, high-volume endurance training have begun to emerge in the scientific literature in recent years. The known risks are primarily associated with training for and participation in extreme endurance events, and affect the cardiovascular system through adverse structural remodeling of the heart and the associated arteries, with heart-rhythm abnormalities perhaps being the most common resulting symptom. Endurance exercise can also reduce testosterone levels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "The various functions of the brain structures that show exercise-induced increases in gray matter volume include:\n* Prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortices\u00a0\u2013 required for the cognitive control of behavior, particularly: working memory, attentional control, decision-making, cognitive flexibility, social cognition, and inhibitory control of behavior; implicated in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and addiction\n* Nucleus accumbens\u00a0\u2013 responsible for incentive salience (\"wanting\" or desire, the form of motivation associated with reward) and positive reinforcement; implicated in addiction\n* Hippocampus\u00a0\u2013 responsible for storage and consolidation of declarative memory and spatial memory; implicated in depression\n* Cerebellum\u00a0\u2013 responsible for motor coordination and motor learning\n* Caudate nucleus\u00a0\u2013 responsible for stimulus-response learning and inhibitory control; implicated in Parkinson's disease and ADHD\n* Parietal cortex\u00a0\u2013 responsible for sensory perception, working memory, and attention"
      },
      {
        "title": "David C. Poole",
        "text": "His models of capillary function, oxygen uptake kinetics and Critical Power have become de rigueur in exercise physiology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenneth H. Cooper",
        "text": "Cooper studied the effect of exercise in the late 1960s and popularized the term \"training effect\" although that term had been used before. The measured effects were that muscles of respiration were strengthened, the heart was strengthened, blood pressure was sometimes lowered and the total amount of blood and number of red blood cells increased, making the blood a more efficient carrier of oxygen. VO2 Max was increased. He published his ideas in a book, \"Aerobics\" in 1968."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiological effects in space",
        "text": "However, the data depicted in table 6-1 may be somewhat misleading because in some cases there were tremendous differences in strength between crewmembers who exercised during flight versus those who did not. For example, some crewmembers who exercised during flight actually gained in isokinetically measured strength in the ankle extensor/flexor muscles (anterior versus posterior calf muscles, that is \"m. tibialis anterior\" versus the gastrocnemius/soleus complex) compared to crewmembers who did not exercise and who actually showed a decrease in isokinetically measured strength in these muscles (figure 6-6)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "glucose control:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "\u03b2-Endorphin (contracted from \"endogenous morphine\") is an endogenous opioid neuropeptide that binds to \u03bc-opioid receptors, in turn producing euphoria and pain relief. A meta-analytic review found that exercise significantly increases the secretion of and that this secretion is correlated with improved mood states. Moderate intensity exercise produces the greatest increase in synthesis, while higher and lower intensity forms of exercise are associated with smaller increases in synthesis. A review on and exercise noted that an individual's mood improves for the remainder of the day following physical exercise and that one's mood is positively correlated with overall daily physical activity level."
      },
      {
        "title": "Detleff Neumann-Neurode",
        "text": "He joined the Prussian military and served in a grenadier regiment. During an assignment at the Military Exercise Academy in Berlin, where he taught physical training, Neumann-Neurode observed that regular exercise produced extraordinarily positive physical changes in himself and his students. He concludes that treatment involving active physical therapy at the earliest ages should be able to influence developmental defects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bengt Saltin",
        "text": "His overall contributions to exercise physiology are among the greater attained in history,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cardiac muscle",
        "text": "However, other teams were unable to replicate these findings, and many of the original studies were later retracted for scientific fraud."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiological effects in space",
        "text": "Another problem was exercise hardware that was built and launched but failed to meet science requirements. (The Resistive Exercise Device [RED] science requirement was to provide a load of up to an equivalent of 600\u00a0lbs., but the Interim Resistive Exercise Device (iRED) provides only half of that amount. Ground-based studies have shown that it does produce a positive training effect similar to equivalent free weights when used in a high-intensity program, but it will likely not provide sufficient load in a zero-gravity environment to prevent loss of muscle and bone tissue, as determined from parabolic flight studies.) Other problems were failure at one time or another of each piece of onboard exercise hardware with reduced utilization at other times, and other limitations imposed because transmission of forces to the space frame have confounded inflight exercise sessions. In fact, during the first eleven ISS Expeditions, only for 2 short periods during Expeditions 3 and 4 were all three U.S. onboard exercise devices (Cycle Egometer with Vibration Isolation System [CEVIS], Treadmill with Vibration Isolation System, and iRED) capable of being used under nominal conditions (Figure 6-10). The almost continuously suboptimal availability of exercise equipment likely has reduced maintenance of crew physical fitness."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Vigorous physical activity (such as exercise or hard labor) increases the body's demand for oxygen. The first-line physiologic response to this demand is an increase in heart rate, breathing rate, and depth of breathing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Alois P. Swoboda",
        "text": "Swoboda throughout his career advertised his pseudoscientific ideas under the names \"System of Physiological Exercise\", \"Swoboda's System\" and \"Conscious Evolution\". He described conscious evolution as \"based upon a discovery in the cells of the body which I made, and which has revolutionized the effect of exercise.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Reverse psychology",
        "text": "Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer characterized the effect of the culture industry as \"psychoanalysis in reverse\". Their analysis began with the dialectic which operated in Germany when heirs of the Romantic movement became seekers of \"Strength through Joy\", only to have their movement co-opted by a combination of the mass media and National Socialism. A modern example begins with the \"fitness and jogging\" boom in the United States in the 1970s. The \"running craze\" at the Boston Marathon and in California, dialectically, was the thesis that one did not have to be \"Rocky\" in a sweaty gym to be physically fit, and that body acceptance was the key to effective aerobic training. The culture industry responded to the thesis with major advertising campaigns from Calvin Klein and others, using images featuring exceptionally toned models. People compared themselves to these models, which created a sense of competition, and many high school students avoid jogging because of the resultant body shame."
      },
      {
        "title": "Faculty of Sport and Exercise Medicine UK",
        "text": "Dr Paul D Jackson,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Big-fish\u2013little-pond effect",
        "text": "In sports psychology, physical self-concept is considered both a valued outcome variable and a mediating variable that facilitates the attainment of other valued outcomes like physical skills, health-related physical fitness, physical activity, exercise adherence in non-elite settings, and improved performance in elite sports. Marsh, Morin, and Parker (2015) demonstrated that the BFLPE exists with regard to physical concept. The study showed that class-average physical ability in physical fitness was negatively associated with physical self-concept."
      },
      {
        "title": "Obesity",
        "text": "Although the negative health consequences of obesity in the general population are well supported by the available evidence, health outcomes in certain subgroups seem to be improved at an increased BMI, a phenomenon known as the obesity survival paradox. The paradox was first described in 1999 in overweight and obese people undergoing hemodialysis, and has subsequently been found in those with heart failure and peripheral artery disease (PAD)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Experiments of Rayleigh and Brace",
        "text": "To explain the negative outcome of the Michelson\u2013Morley experiment, George FitzGerald (1889) and Hendrik Lorentz (1892) introduced the contraction hypothesis, according to which a body is contracted during its motion through the stationary aether."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "The effects of exercise training appear to be heterogeneous across non-mammalian species. As examples, exercise training of salmon showed minor improvements of endurance, and a forced swimming regimen of yellowtail amberjack and rainbow trout accelerated their growth rates and altered muscle morphology favorable for sustained swimming. Crocodiles, alligators, and ducks showed elevated aerobic capacity following exercise training. No effect of endurance training was found in most studies of lizards, although one study did report a training effect. In lizards, sprint training had no effect on maximal exercise capacity, and muscular damage from over-training occurred following weeks of forced treadmill exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiological effects in space",
        "text": "In this section, only the historical highlights of some highly relevant skeletal muscle investigations have been included and discussed. A complete treatment of all data would cover several volumes. However, from this brief historical overview it is possible to see how initial indications of losses in skeletal muscle function led to attempts to provide exercise countermeasures. Such countermeasures were utilized during spaceflight, crewmembers were tested upon return, and exercise regimens and equipment were modified for use in future missions. In the subsequent sections, human spaceflight and ground-based analog studies and experimental animal studies are reviewed that contribute to the evidence base on the alterations in skeletal muscle form and function that occur with the muscle unloading associated with the microgravity environment. It is this knowledge base on which future operational countermeasures and investigations into the fundamental changes in muscle physiology will be based."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "However, data from rodents and humans have shown that pharmacological blockade of endogenous endorphins does not prevent the development of a runner's high, while blockade of endocannabinoids does."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiology of decompression",
        "text": "Blood flow to the muscles is lower in cold water, but exercise keeps the muscle warm and flow elevated even when the skin is chilled. Blood flow to fat normally increases during exercise, but this is inhibited by immersion in cold water. Adaptation to cold reduces the extreme vasoconstriction which usually occurs with cold water immersion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Scholastic wrestling",
        "text": "In the aforementioned section, training habits developed by collegiate wrestlers counteract the stereotypical notion that male athletes are not at risk for eating disorders, as they use extreme methods of cutting weight, such as diuretics and self-induced vomiting (Garner et al., 2018). According to a study on 42 collegiate wrestlers, these male athletes tested higher in standardized measures of possessing eating disorders than any of their female counterparts or other athletes that do not have any weight requirement (Garner et al., 2018). With roughly 63 percent of collegiate wrestlers found to partake in consistent fasting as a means of losing weight, it is key to understand the negative outcomes that arise from unhealthy nutritional imbalances (Garner et al., 2018). One negative outcome as a result of rapid weight loss can be a significant fluid loss, potentially having lethal consequences such as an imbalanced core temperature, risk of cardiac arrhythmia and renal damage (Garner et al., 2018). The stress placed on these student athletes to maintain peak physical shape at all costs and the weight and body ideals dictated by society also play a key role in the overall development of a wrestler's unhealthy habits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "British physiologist Archibald Hill introduced the concepts of maximal oxygen uptake and oxygen debt in 1922. Hill and German physician Otto Meyerhof shared the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their independent work related to muscle energy metabolism. Building on this work, scientists began measuring oxygen consumption during exercise. Notable contributions were made by Henry Taylor at the University of Minnesota, Scandinavian scientists Per-Olof \u00c5strand and Bengt Saltin in the 1950s and 60s, the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory, German universities, and the Copenhagen Muscle Research Centre among others."
      },
      {
        "title": "Defence Institute of Physiology and Allied Sciences",
        "text": "Exercise Physiology"
      },
      {
        "title": "Fear appeal",
        "text": "Physiological arousal has been predicted to have both positive and negative effects on beneficial or negative coping behaviors. A positive perception of an aroused state may energize, while a negative perception of an aroused state may inhibit coping behaviors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Exercise fatigue has also been suggested to be affected by:\n* brain hyperthermia\n* glycogen depletion in brain cells\n* reactive oxygen species impairing skeletal muscle function\n* reduced level of glutamate secondary to uptake of ammonia in the brain\n* Fatigue in diaphragm and abdominal respiratory muscles limiting breathing\n* Impaired oxygen supply to muscles\n* Ammonia effects upon the brain\n* Serotonin pathways in the brain"
      },
      {
        "title": "American Society of Exercise Physiologists",
        "text": "ASEP has created a Code of Ethics and a Board of Accreditation that has accredited seven academic institutions. Its Board of Certification has certified over 200 EPCs in the United States. ASEP leaders believe that exercise physiology is not defined by research, but by the power of exercise as medicine. They believe exercise physiology is the recognition of the physiology that underpins activity; the delivery of health and fitness analysis, improvement and maintenance; the rehabilitation of heart disease and other chronic diseases and disabilities; and the supervision of athletes and people with an interest in athletics and sports training."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiological effects in space",
        "text": "In the Skylab 4 Commander, the loss in leg volume appears to be nearly 300 cc. (figure 6-2, topmost graph). Because the complement of exercise equipment for this mission was the largest (consisting of a cycle ergometer, passive treadmill, and the \"Mini gym\", modified commercial devices that provided the capability for low-load resistive exercises) losses in muscle mass and strength were less than in the previous two missions of shorter duration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "After intense prolonged exercise, there can be a collapse in body homeostasis. Some famous examples include:\n* Dorando Pietri in the 1908 Summer Olympic men's marathon ran the wrong way and collapsed several times.\n* Jim Peters in the marathon of the 1954 Commonwealth Games staggered and collapsed several times, and though he had a five-kilometre (three-mile) lead, failed to finish. Though it was formerly believed that this was due to severe dehydration, more recent research suggests it was the combined effects upon the brain of hyperthermia, hypertonic hypernatraemia associated with dehydration, and possibly hypoglycaemia.\n* Gabriela Andersen-Schiess in the woman's marathon at the Los Angeles 1984 Summer Olympics in the race's final 400 meters, stopping occasionally and shown signs of heat exhaustion. Though she fell across the finish line, she was released from medical care only two hours later."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mental health",
        "text": "Moreover, cessation of physical exercise may have adverse effects on some mental health conditions, such as depression and anxiety. This could lead to many different negative outcomes such as obesity, skewed body image, lower levels of certain hormones, and many more health risks associated with mental illnesses."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Physiological Society",
        "text": "Named for R Jean Banister. Awarded to an early-career physiologist and delivered at various institutions.\n* - \"Getting excited about pacemaking in the athletic heart: interplay of transcription factors and microRNAs in pacemaker electrophysiology.\"\n* - \"Decoding the visual cortex\"\n* - \"Physiological adaptations to traditional and novel exercise interventions as a function of age\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Disordered eating",
        "text": "These habits were found to be worse in athletes that were weighed in front of their peers than those weighed in private. In addition, especially in gymnasts, preoccupation and anxiety about gaining weight and being weighed, and viewing food as the enemy were prevalent mindsets. This harmful mindset continued even after the gymnasts were retired from their sport: \"Although retired, these gymnasts were still afraid to step onto a scale, were anxious about gaining weight\u2026suggesting that the negative effects of being weighed can linger\u2026[and] suggest[ing] that the weight/ fitness requirements acted as a socio-cultural pressure that would substantially increase the women\u2019s risk of developing an eating disorder in the future.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Kinesiogenomics",
        "text": "Within the field of kinesiogenomics, several research studies have been conducted in recent years. This increase in research has led to advancements of knowledge in associating how genes and gene sequencing effects a person's exercise habits and health. One study focusing on twins looked to see the effect of genes on exercise ability, the effects of exercise on mood, and the ability to lose weight. The research concluded that genetics had a significant impact of the likelihood an individual would participate in exercise. An increase in participation can be linked to personality factors such as self-motivation and self-discipline, while a lower participation in exercise can be influenced by factors such as anxiety and depression. These personality trait, both positive and negative, can be associated to one's genetic makeup."
      },
      {
        "title": "Negative repetition",
        "text": "Negative reps are used to improve both muscular strength and power in subjects, this is commonly known as hypertrophy training."
      },
      {
        "title": "Faculty of Sport and Exercise Medicine UK",
        "text": "Dr Roderick D Jaques,"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Total energy expenditure (TEE) due to muscular expended energy is much higher and depends upon the average level of physical work and exercise done during a day. Thus exercise, particularly if sustained for very long periods, dominates the energy metabolism of the body. Physical activity energy expenditure correlates strongly with the gender, age, weight, heart rate, and VO2 max of an individual, during physical activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "Continuous exercise can produce a transient state of euphoria\u00a0\u2013 a positively-valenced affective state involving the experience of pleasure and feelings of profound contentment, elation, and well-being\u00a0\u2013 which is colloquially known as a \"runner's high\" in distance running or a \"rower's high\" in rowing. Current medical reviews indicate that several endogenous euphoriants are responsible for producing exercise-related euphoria, specifically phenethylamine (an endogenous psychostimulant), (an endogenous opioid), and anandamide (an endogenous cannabinoid)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiological effects in space",
        "text": "Additionally, subjects who did exercise during flight compared to those who did not had significantly greater (\"p\" < 0.05) losses within 5 hours of landing in concentric strength of the back, concentric and eccentric strength of the quadriceps (30\u00b0 per second), and eccentric strength of the hamstrings, relative to the respective preflight values (data not shown here). According to Greenisen et al., non-exercisers also had significantly less concentric strength of the quadriceps at 75\u00b0 per second and lower total work extension, work first-third flexion, and work last-third extension, immediately after landing, than before flight. The conclusions reached by the investigators were that the data indicate that muscles are less able to maintain endurance and resist fatigue after spaceflight, and that exercise may avert decrements in these aspects of endurance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "In mice it was demonstrated that certain features of a runner's high depend on cannabinoid receptors. Pharmacological or genetic disruption of cannabinoid signaling via cannabinoid receptors prevents the analgesic and anxiety-reducing effects of running."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports science",
        "text": "A number of key figures have made significant contributions to the study of sports science:\n* Austin Flint, Jr., (1836\u20131915) One of the first American pioneer physicians, studied physiological responses to exercise in his influential medical textbooks.\n* Edward Hitchcock, Jr., (1828\u20131911) Amherst College Professor of Hygiene and Physical Education, devoted his academic career to the scientific study of physical exercise, training and the body. Coauthored 1860 text on exercise physiology.\n* George Wells Fitz, M.D. (1860\u20131934) Created the first departmental major in Anatomy, Physiology, and Physical Training at Harvard University in 1891.\n* August Krogh (1874\u20131949) Won the 1920 Nobel prize in physiology for discovering the mechanism that controlled capillary blood flow in resting or active muscle.\n* Per-Olof \u00c5strand (1922\u20132015) Professor at the Department of Physiology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm. Wrote a seminal paper which evaluated the physical working capacity of men and women aged 4\u201333 years."
      },
      {
        "title": "Claude Gordon Douglas",
        "text": "After 1920 the work of Douglas and his research students dealt mainly with the effects of exercise on respiration, metabolism, and the circulatory system. One of his last three research students was Roger Bannister. After 1920 Douglas also devoted more time to government committee work."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise addiction",
        "text": "The Obligatory Exercise Questionnaire was created by Thompson and Pasman in 1991, consisting of 20 questions on exercise habits and attitudes toward exercise and body image. Patients respond to statements on a scale of 1 (never) to 4 (always). This questionnaire aided in the development of another assessment tool, the Exercise Addiction Inventory."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ken Hutchins",
        "text": "Hutchins's major accomplishments during the Nautilus Osteoporosis Project were:\n* Composing the Exercise vs. Recreation Philosophy.\n* Discovering the principle of the variable counterbalance applied to counterbalance human bodytorque.\n* Identifying friction as a major issue in exercise equipment and motor control.\n* Identifying four major considerations for the first comprehensive definition of exercise.\n* Evolving photographic standardization for comparing the results of exercise and diet programs.\n* Discovering that all human muscular functions are negative-cam effects.\n* Identifying the conflict between assumed and real objective as a major psychological challenge in exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thomas Louis Hanna",
        "text": "He proposed that most negative health effects are due to what he called Sensory Motor Amnesia. He claimed that many common age-related ailments are not simply a matter of time but the result of poor movement habits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Vertebrate",
        "text": "As a result of the negative fitness consequences of inbreeding, vertebrate species have evolved mechanisms to avoid inbreeding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cirrhosis",
        "text": "According to a 2018 systematic review based on studies that implemented 8 to 14 week-long exercise programs, there is currently insufficient scientific evidence regarding either the beneficial or harmful effects of physical exercise in people with cirrhosis on all-cause mortality, morbidity (including both serious and non-serious adverse events), health-related quality of life, exercise capacity and anthropomorphic measures. These conclusions were based on low to very low quality research, which imposes the need to develop further research with higher quality, especially to evaluate its effects on clinical outcomes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiological effects in space",
        "text": "An indication of the importance of individual baseline performance is obtained from an illustrative example from the EDOMP program. Losses in trunk flexor and extensor strength were greater for the crewmembers who exercised on the Shuttle treadmill during flight than for the crewmembers who did not exercise during their mission (see Figure 6-7). Although at first this seems counterintuitive, simple logic provides the explanation. Crewmembers who chose to exercise during flight did so because they exercised regularly as part of their daily routine before flight. Since they were at a higher level of fitness than their non-exercising crewmember cohorts, they lost more strength during flight. However, what cannot be ascertained from % change data are absolute strength levels. For instance, exercising crewmembers who lost twice as much abdominal and back muscle strength as their non-exercising counterparts could still have greater strength in those muscles if they started off three times stronger than their non-exercising colleagues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "The Caerphilly Prospective study followed 2,375\u00a0male subjects over 30\u00a0years and examined the association between healthy lifestyles and dementia, among other factors. Analyses of the Caerphilly study data have found that exercise is associated with a lower incidence of dementia and a reduction in cognitive impairment. A subsequent systematic review of longitudinal studies also found higher levels of physical activity to be associated with a reduction in the risk of dementia and cognitive decline; this review further asserted that increased physical activity appears to be causally related with these reduced risks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Harvard Fatigue Laboratory",
        "text": "The formation of an academic discipline is outlined by Tipton (1998), and includes the argument that formal courses and PhD research must be undertaken in the field in order for the discipline to separate itself from others. Due to the structure of the Harvard fatigue laboratory, PhD students weren't able to complete research there, so this was described as an impediment to the progression of exercise physiology as a discipline. As no formal courses in exercise physiology were offered to undergraduates from the laboratory, the formation of the academic discipline was left to other institutions. However, the legacy of the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory as a facility that published an enormous amount of literature surrounding the topics of exercise and exercise physiology is one of the compounding factors that started the discipline. When the laboratory was closed in 1947, the researchers who gained experience under Henderson and Dill were employed in other institutions more equipped to propel exercise physiology as a discipline. The laboratory is noted as stimulating the birth of exercise physiology as a result of the staff forming and leading exercise laboratory's all over the nation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "A meta-analysis from July 2016 concluded that physical exercise improves overall quality of life in individuals with depression relative to controls."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "Another study found that sixth-graders who participated in vigorous physical activity at least three times a week had the highest scores compared to those who participated in moderate or no physical activity at all. The kids who participated in vigorous physical activity scored three points higher, on average, on their academic test, which consisted of math, science, English, and world studies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sports science",
        "text": "A 2018 study took the field of exercise and sports science to task for insufficient replication studies, limited reporting of both null and trivial results, and insufficient research transparency. Statisticians have criticized sports science for common use of magnitude-based inference, a controversial statistical method which has allowed sports scientists to extract apparently significant results from noisy data where ordinary hypothesis testing would have found none."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Smyth Macdonald",
        "text": "He continued to research this topic at Liverpool, publishing a series of papers in the \"Journal of Physiology\" and the \"Proceedings of the Royal Society\". He studied nerve electrical currents, potassium and chloride ions, among other topics. In around 1908, he began to research the mechanism of contraction in striated muscle, publishing an influential paper on the topic in the \"Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology\". In around 1912, his attention turned to the problem of measuring muscular work in humans. He built a human calorimeter, now in the Wellcome Medical Museum, with which he studied how the heat produced was related to factors such as the intensity of exercise and the subject's weight. With F. A. Duffield, he also studied respiratory gas exchange."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "is a neurotrophic and angiogenic (i.e., blood vessel growth-promoting) signaling protein that binds to two receptor tyrosine kinases, VEGFR1 and VEGFR2, which are expressed in neurons and glial cells in the brain. Hypoxia, or inadequate cellular oxygen supply, strongly upregulates VEGF expression and VEGF exerts a neuroprotective effect in hypoxic neurons. Like and , aerobic exercise has been shown to increase VEGF biosynthesis in peripheral tissue which subsequently crosses the blood\u2013brain barrier and promotes neurogenesis and blood vessel formation in the central nervous system. Exercise-induced increases in VEGF signaling have been shown to improve cerebral blood volume and contribute to exercise-induced neurogenesis in the hippocampus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Humans use sweat thermoregulation for body heat removal, particularly to remove the heat produced during exercise. Moderate dehydration as a consequence of exercise and heat is reported to impair cognition. These impairments can start after body mass lost that is greater than 1%. Cognitive impairment, particularly due to heat and exercise is likely to be due to loss of integrity to the blood brain barrier. Hyperthermia also can lower cerebral blood flow, and raise brain temperature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "In adults, exercise depletes the plasma glucose available to the brain: short intense exercise (35 min ergometer cycling) can reduce brain glucose uptake by 32%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elin Ekblom Bak",
        "text": "She also works as a scientist, publishing research in the British Journal of Sports Medicine which posited that sedentary behaviour such as sitting at a desk is harmful even for people who exercise regularly."
      },
      {
        "title": "Social influences on fitness behavior",
        "text": "Inactivity can contribute to a range of health related problems including: obesity, heart disease, metabolic syndrome, and other disorders. Researches have shown, \"49 percent of heart disease in sedentary patients is due to lack of exercise\" (Perkins, Whitehead, Steptoe 725) and the relative risk of metabolic syndrome was, \"1.7 (95% CI 0.9\u20132.8) for lack of exercise, 1.5 (95% CI 1.1\u20132.1) for a positive family history and 2.0 (95% CI 1.2\u20133.4) in individuals with none or only an elementary school education versus university graduation\" (Lee et al. 48)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise trends",
        "text": "A 2005 population study in south Brazil showed physical inactivity during leisure time to be more prevalent among females and those living with a partner; with a positive correlation associated with age and number of cigarettes smoked, and a negative correlation (decreased levels of physical inactivity) associated with years of formal education, body mass index, and increasing socioeconomic status."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. T. Claridge",
        "text": "The \"British Medical Journal\" concurred with this writer on all counts, noting that there were \"simple generalisations\" that could be deduced regarding the effects of heat and cold on physiological processes, and lamenting the lack of such generalisations by \"therapeutical authorities\", let alone scientific investigations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of physiology",
        "text": "History of physiology"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction",
        "text": "Treadmill or ergometer-based testing in lung function laboratories are effective methods for diagnosing exercise-induced bronchoconstriction, but may result in false negatives if the exercise stimulus is not intense enough."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What negative consequences has exercise physiology discovered?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Are you inquiring about negative consequences relating to dehydration, hyperthermia, or endurance failure?",
      "That's a really broad question! Would you like me to narrow it down to the negative consequences it discovered about dehydration, Cerebral autoregulation, hyperthermia, fatigue, or something else?"
    ],
    "topic": "Exercise physiology",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise physiology:19",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise physiology",
          "Metabolic changes",
          "Dehydration"
        ],
        "ctx": "Dehydration refers both to hypohydration (dehydration induced prior to exercise) and to exercise-induced dehydration (dehydration that develops during exercise). The latter reduces aerobic endurance performance and results in increased body temperature, heart rate, perceived exertion, and possibly increased reliance on carbohydrate as a fuel source. Although the negative effects of exercise-induced dehydration on exercise performance were clearly demonstrated in the 1940s, athletes continued to believe for years thereafter that fluid intake was not beneficial. More recently, negative effects on performance have been demonstrated with modest (<2%) dehydration, and these effects are exacerbated when the exercise is performed in a hot environment. The effects of hypohydration may vary, depending on whether it is induced through diuretics or sauna exposure, which substantially reduce plasma volume, or prior exercise, which has much less impact on plasma volume. Hypohydration reduces aerobic endurance, but its effects on muscle strength and endurance are not consistent and require further study. Intense prolonged exercise produces metabolic waste heat, and this is removed by sweat-based thermoregulation. A male marathon runner loses each hour around 0.83 L in cool weather and 1.2 L in warm (losses in females are about 68 to 73% lower). People doing heavy exercise may lose two and half times as much fluid in sweat as urine. This can have profound physiological effects. Cycling for 2 hours in the heat (35\u00a0\u00b0C) with minimal fluid intake causes body mass decline by 3 to 5%, blood volume likewise by 3 to 6%, body temperature to rise constantly, and in comparison with proper fluid intake, higher heart rates, lower stroke volumes and cardiac outputs, reduced skin blood flow, and higher systemic vascular resistance. These effects are largely eliminated by replacing 50 to 80% of the fluid lost in sweat.\n* Plasma catecholamine concentrations increase 10-fold in whole body exercise.\n* Ammonia is produced by exercised skeletal muscles from ADP (the precursor of ATP) by purine nucleotide deamination and amino acid catabolism of myofibrils.\n* interleukin-6 (IL-6) increases in blood circulation due to its release from working skeletal muscles. This release is reduced if glucose is taken, suggesting it is related to energy depletion stresses.\n* Sodium absorption is affected by the release of interleukin-6 as this can cause the secretion of arginine vasopressin which, in turn, can lead to exercise-associated dangerously low sodium levels (hyponatremia). This loss of sodium in blood plasma can result in swelling of the brain. This can be prevented by awareness of the risk of drinking excessive amounts of fluids during prolonged exercise."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise physiology:26",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise physiology",
          "Brain",
          "Hyperthermia"
        ],
        "ctx": "Humans use sweat thermoregulation for body heat removal, particularly to remove the heat produced during exercise. Moderate dehydration as a consequence of exercise and heat is reported to impair cognition. These impairments can start after body mass lost that is greater than 1%. Cognitive impairment, particularly due to heat and exercise is likely to be due to loss of integrity to the blood brain barrier. Hyperthermia also can lower cerebral blood flow, and raise brain temperature."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise physiology:29",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise physiology",
          "Fatigue",
          "Endurance failure"
        ],
        "ctx": "After intense prolonged exercise, there can be a collapse in body homeostasis. Some famous examples include:\n* Dorando Pietri in the 1908 Summer Olympic men's marathon ran the wrong way and collapsed several times.\n* Jim Peters in the marathon of the 1954 Commonwealth Games staggered and collapsed several times, and though he had a five-kilometre (three-mile) lead, failed to finish. Though it was formerly believed that this was due to severe dehydration, more recent research suggests it was the combined effects upon the brain of hyperthermia, hypertonic hypernatraemia associated with dehydration, and possibly hypoglycaemia.\n* Gabriela Andersen-Schiess in the woman's marathon at the Los Angeles 1984 Summer Olympics in the race's final 400 meters, stopping occasionally and shown signs of heat exhaustion. Though she fell across the finish line, she was released from medical care only two hours later."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise physiology:19",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise physiology",
          "Metabolic changes",
          "Dehydration"
        ],
        "ctx": "Dehydration refers both to hypohydration (dehydration induced prior to exercise) and to exercise-induced dehydration (dehydration that develops during exercise). The latter reduces aerobic endurance performance and results in increased body temperature, heart rate, perceived exertion, and possibly increased reliance on carbohydrate as a fuel source. Although the negative effects of exercise-induced dehydration on exercise performance were clearly demonstrated in the 1940s, athletes continued to believe for years thereafter that fluid intake was not beneficial. More recently, negative effects on performance have been demonstrated with modest (<2%) dehydration, and these effects are exacerbated when the exercise is performed in a hot environment. The effects of hypohydration may vary, depending on whether it is induced through diuretics or sauna exposure, which substantially reduce plasma volume, or prior exercise, which has much less impact on plasma volume. Hypohydration reduces aerobic endurance, but its effects on muscle strength and endurance are not consistent and require further study. Intense prolonged exercise produces metabolic waste heat, and this is removed by sweat-based thermoregulation. A male marathon runner loses each hour around 0.83 L in cool weather and 1.2 L in warm (losses in females are about 68 to 73% lower). People doing heavy exercise may lose two and half times as much fluid in sweat as urine. This can have profound physiological effects. Cycling for 2 hours in the heat (35\u00a0\u00b0C) with minimal fluid intake causes body mass decline by 3 to 5%, blood volume likewise by 3 to 6%, body temperature to rise constantly, and in comparison with proper fluid intake, higher heart rates, lower stroke volumes and cardiac outputs, reduced skin blood flow, and higher systemic vascular resistance. These effects are largely eliminated by replacing 50 to 80% of the fluid lost in sweat.\n* Plasma catecholamine concentrations increase 10-fold in whole body exercise.\n* Ammonia is produced by exercised skeletal muscles from ADP (the precursor of ATP) by purine nucleotide deamination and amino acid catabolism of myofibrils.\n* interleukin-6 (IL-6) increases in blood circulation due to its release from working skeletal muscles. This release is reduced if glucose is taken, suggesting it is related to energy depletion stresses.\n* Sodium absorption is affected by the release of interleukin-6 as this can cause the secretion of arginine vasopressin which, in turn, can lead to exercise-associated dangerously low sodium levels (hyponatremia). This loss of sodium in blood plasma can result in swelling of the brain. This can be prevented by awareness of the risk of drinking excessive amounts of fluids during prolonged exercise."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise physiology:23",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise physiology",
          "Brain",
          "Cerebral oxygen"
        ],
        "ctx": "Cerebral autoregulation usually ensures the brain has priority to cardiac output, though this is impaired slightly by exhaustive exercise. During submaximal exercise, cardiac output increases and cerebral blood flow increases beyond the brain's oxygen needs. However, this is not the case for continuous maximal exertion: \"Maximal exercise is, despite the increase in capillary oxygenation [in the brain], associated with a reduced mitochondrial O2 content during whole body exercise\" The autoregulation of the brain's blood supply is impaired particularly in warm environments"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise physiology:26",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise physiology",
          "Brain",
          "Hyperthermia"
        ],
        "ctx": "Humans use sweat thermoregulation for body heat removal, particularly to remove the heat produced during exercise. Moderate dehydration as a consequence of exercise and heat is reported to impair cognition. These impairments can start after body mass lost that is greater than 1%. Cognitive impairment, particularly due to heat and exercise is likely to be due to loss of integrity to the blood brain barrier. Hyperthermia also can lower cerebral blood flow, and raise brain temperature."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise physiology:28",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise physiology",
          "Fatigue",
          "Intense activity"
        ],
        "ctx": "Each muscle contraction involves an action potential that activates voltage sensors, and so releases Ca2+ ions from the muscle fibre\u2019s sarcoplasmic reticulum. The action potentials that cause this also require ion changes: Na influxes during the depolarization phase and K effluxes for the repolarization phase. Cl\u2212 ions also diffuse into the sarcoplasm to aid the repolarization phase. During intense muscle contraction, the ion pumps that maintain homeostasis of these ions are inactivated and this (with other ion related disruption) causes ionic disturbances. This causes cellular membrane depolarization, inexcitability, and so muscle weakness. Ca2+ leakage from type 1 ryanodine receptor) channels has also been identified with fatigue."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Cerebral autoregulation usually ensures the brain has priority to cardiac output, though this is impaired slightly by exhaustive exercise. During submaximal exercise, cardiac output increases and cerebral blood flow increases beyond the brain's oxygen needs. However, this is not the case for continuous maximal exertion: \"Maximal exercise is, despite the increase in capillary oxygenation [in the brain], associated with a reduced mitochondrial O2 content during whole body exercise\" The autoregulation of the brain's blood supply is impaired particularly in warm environments"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Humans use sweat thermoregulation for body heat removal, particularly to remove the heat produced during exercise. Moderate dehydration as a consequence of exercise and heat is reported to impair cognition. These impairments can start after body mass lost that is greater than 1%. Cognitive impairment, particularly due to heat and exercise is likely to be due to loss of integrity to the blood brain barrier. Hyperthermia also can lower cerebral blood flow, and raise brain temperature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerebral autoregulation",
        "text": "Metabolic regulation is driven by the difference between cerebral metabolism (demand) and oxygen delivery through cerebral blood flow (supply) and acts by means of a vasoactive substance. In principle, this is a negative feedback control system that seeks to balance blood flow to its demand."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "At rest, the human brain receives 15% of total cardiac output, and uses 20% of the body's energy consumption. The brain is normally dependent for its high energy expenditure upon aerobic metabolism. The brain as a result is highly sensitive to failure of its oxygen supply with loss of consciousness occurring within six to seven seconds, with its EEG going flat in 23 seconds. Therefore, the brain's function would be disrupted if exercise affected its supply of oxygen and glucose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerebral autoregulation",
        "text": "Cerebral autoregulation refers to the physiological mechanisms that maintain blood flow at an appropriate level during changes in blood pressure. However, due to the important influences of arterial carbon dioxide levels, cerebral metabolic rate, neural activation, activity of the sympathetic nervous system, posture, as well as other physiological variables, cerebral autoregulation is often interpreted as encompassing the wider field of cerebral blood flow regulation. This field includes areas such as CO2 reactivity, neurovascular coupling and other aspects of cerebral haemodynamics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Autoregulation",
        "text": "More so than most other organs, the brain is very sensitive to increased or decreased blood flow, and several mechanisms (metabolic, myogenic, and neurogenic) are involved in maintaining an appropriate cerebral blood pressure. Brain blood flow autoregulation is abolished in several disease states such as traumatic brain injury, stroke, brain tumors, or persistent abnormally high levels."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerebral autoregulation",
        "text": "Cerebral autoregulation\n--Physiological mechanisms.\n----Metabolic regulation.\n----Myogenic regulation.\n----Neurogenic regulation.\n--Assessment of cerebral autoregulation.\n----Measuring arterial blood pressure.\n----Measuring cerebral blood flow.\n----Quantification of cerebral autoregulation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerebral autoregulation",
        "text": "The quantification of cerebral autoregulation always involves variation seen in cerebral blood flow in relation to changes in blood pressure. This blood pressure variation can either be evoked or spontaneous. Evoked blood pressure changes can be the result of:\n* releasing leg cuffs that were inflated above systolic pressure\n* breathing at a fixed rate\n* performing a Valsalva maneuver\n* performing squat-stand or sit-stand maneuvers\n* lower body negative pressure\n* pharmaceutical methods to raise or lower blood pressure"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerebral autoregulation",
        "text": "This regulation of cerebral blood flow is achieved primarily by small arteries, arterioles, which either dilate or contract under the influence of multiple complex physiological control systems. Impairment of these systems may occur e.g. following stroke, trauma or anaesthesia, in premature babies and has been implicated in the development of subsequent brain injury. The non-invasive measurement of relevant physiological signals like cerebral blood flow, intracranial pressure, blood pressure, CO2 levels, cerebral oxygen consumption, etc. is challenging. Even more so is the subsequent assessment of the control systems. Much remains unknown about the physiology of blood flow control and the best clinical interventions to optimize patient outcome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerebral autoregulation",
        "text": "Measuring and understanding cerebral autoregulation remains a big challenge. Despite great clinical interest and much research effort, benefit to patients has so far been limited."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pressure reactivity index",
        "text": "Under normal conditions, cerebral autoregulation ensures that cerebral blood flow is unchanged despite variations in blood pressure by regulating the cerebral vessels. For example, if the blood pressure increases, the cerebral vessels vasoconstrict to keep cerebral blood flow normal, whereas a decrease in blood pressure would lead to vasodilation of the cerebral vessels to increase blood flow. The cerebrovascular reactions to changes in blood pressure generates a corresponding effect on the intracranial pressure. When the blood pressure increases and the vessels vasoconstrict, the cerebral blood volume is reduced. According to the Monro-Kellie doctrine, less cerebral blood volume leads to a reduction in the intracranial pressure. If the blood pressure instead would decrease, the cerebral vessels would vasodilatate, with a resulting increase in cerebral blood volume."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "In adults, exercise depletes the plasma glucose available to the brain: short intense exercise (35 min ergometer cycling) can reduce brain glucose uptake by 32%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Protecting the brain from even minor disruption is important since exercise depends upon motor control. Because humans are bipeds, motor control is needed for keeping balance. For this reason, brain energy consumption is increased during intense physical exercise due to the demands in the motor cognition needed to control the body."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerebral autoregulation",
        "text": "The effect of transmural blood pressure changes is directly detected by the vascular smooth muscle in arterioles, probably via a stress sensing mechanism. Then, the calibers are adjusted accordingly to keep blood flow constant."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerebral autoregulation",
        "text": "Cerebral autoregulation is a process in mammals, which aims to maintain adequate and stable cerebral blood flow. While most systems of the body show some degree of autoregulation, the brain is very sensitive to over- and underperfusion. Cerebral autoregulation plays an important role in maintaining an appropriate blood flow to that region. Brain perfusion is essential for life since the brain has a high metabolic demand. By means of cerebral autoregulation the body is able to deliver sufficient blood containing oxygen and nutrients to the brain tissue for this metabolic need, and remove CO2 and other waste products."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerebral autoregulation",
        "text": "In order to assess cerebral autoregulation one must at least continuously measure arterial blood pressure and cerebral blood flow. Because CO2 levels are of great influence to cerebral autoregulation it is recommended to also continuously measure CO2."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerebral autoregulation",
        "text": "The quantification depends on the experimental setup and can involve methods such as regression, cross-correlation, transfer function analysis or fitting mathematical models."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hypertensive encephalopathy",
        "text": "The impairment of cerebral blood flow that underlies hypertensive encephalopathy is still controversial. Normally, cerebral blood flow is maintained by an autoregulation mechanism that dilates arterioles in response to blood pressure decreases and constricts arterioles in response to blood pressure increases. This autoregulation falters when hypertension becomes excessive. According to the \"over-regulation\" conception, brain vessels spasm in response to acute hypertension, which results in cerebral ischemia and cytotoxic edema. According to the \"autoregulation breakthrough\" conception, cerebral arterioles are forced to dilate, leading to vasogenic edema."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Dehydration refers both to hypohydration (dehydration induced prior to exercise) and to exercise-induced dehydration (dehydration that develops during exercise). The latter reduces aerobic endurance performance and results in increased body temperature, heart rate, perceived exertion, and possibly increased reliance on carbohydrate as a fuel source. Although the negative effects of exercise-induced dehydration on exercise performance were clearly demonstrated in the 1940s, athletes continued to believe for years thereafter that fluid intake was not beneficial. More recently, negative effects on performance have been demonstrated with modest (<2%) dehydration, and these effects are exacerbated when the exercise is performed in a hot environment. The effects of hypohydration may vary, depending on whether it is induced through diuretics or sauna exposure, which substantially reduce plasma volume, or prior exercise, which has much less impact on plasma volume. Hypohydration reduces aerobic endurance, but its effects on muscle strength and endurance are not consistent and require further study. Intense prolonged exercise produces metabolic waste heat, and this is removed by sweat-based thermoregulation. A male marathon runner loses each hour around 0.83 L in cool weather and 1.2 L in warm (losses in females are about 68 to 73% lower). People doing heavy exercise may lose two and half times as much fluid in sweat as urine. This can have profound physiological effects. Cycling for 2 hours in the heat (35\u00a0\u00b0C) with minimal fluid intake causes body mass decline by 3 to 5%, blood volume likewise by 3 to 6%, body temperature to rise constantly, and in comparison with proper fluid intake, higher heart rates, lower stroke volumes and cardiac outputs, reduced skin blood flow, and higher systemic vascular resistance. These effects are largely eliminated by replacing 50 to 80% of the fluid lost in sweat.\n* Plasma catecholamine concentrations increase 10-fold in whole body exercise.\n* Ammonia is produced by exercised skeletal muscles from ADP (the precursor of ATP) by purine nucleotide deamination and amino acid catabolism of myofibrils.\n* interleukin-6 (IL-6) increases in blood circulation due to its release from working skeletal muscles. This release is reduced if glucose is taken, suggesting it is related to energy depletion stresses.\n* Sodium absorption is affected by the release of interleukin-6 as this can cause the secretion of arginine vasopressin which, in turn, can lead to exercise-associated dangerously low sodium levels (hyponatremia). This loss of sodium in blood plasma can result in swelling of the brain. This can be prevented by awareness of the risk of drinking excessive amounts of fluids during prolonged exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerebral autoregulation",
        "text": "Three different mechanisms are thought to contribute to the process of cerebral autoregulation. These are metabolic, myogenic and neurogenic."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decerebration",
        "text": "As a result, the animal loses certain reflexes that are integrated in different parts of the brain. Furthermore, the reflexes which are functional will be hyperreactive (and therefore very accentuated) due to the removal of inhibiting higher- brain centers (e.g. the facilitatory area of the reticular formation will not receive regulating input from cerebellum, basal ganglia and the cortex)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerebral autoregulation",
        "text": "The vascular smooth muscle actuators in the resistance arterioles are controlled via sympathetic innervation, receiving the input from the appropriate brainstem autonomous control center. Nitric oxide released by parasympathetic fibers may also play a role."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Exercise fatigue has also been suggested to be affected by:\n* brain hyperthermia\n* glycogen depletion in brain cells\n* reactive oxygen species impairing skeletal muscle function\n* reduced level of glutamate secondary to uptake of ammonia in the brain\n* Fatigue in diaphragm and abdominal respiratory muscles limiting breathing\n* Impaired oxygen supply to muscles\n* Ammonia effects upon the brain\n* Serotonin pathways in the brain"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Exercise physiology\n--History.\n--Energy expenditure.\n--Metabolic changes.\n----Rapid energy sources.\n----Plasma glucose.\n----Oxygen.\n----Dehydration.\n--Brain.\n----Cerebral oxygen.\n----Glucose.\n----Hyperthermia.\n--Fatigue.\n----Intense activity.\n----Endurance failure.\n----Central governor.\n----Other factors.\n--Cardiac biomarkers.\n--Human adaptations.\n--Selective breeding experiments with rodents.\n--Exercise-induced muscle pain.\n--Education in exercise physiology.\n----Curriculum.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerebral perfusion pressure",
        "text": "Within the autoregulatory range, as CPP falls there is, within seconds, vasodilatation of the cerebral resistance vessels, a fall in cerebrovascular resistance and a rise in cerebral-blood volume (CBV), and therefore CBF will return to baseline value within seconds (see as ref. Aaslid, Lindegaard, Sorteberg, and Nornes 1989: http://stroke.ahajournals.org/cgi/reprint/20/1/45.pdf). These adaptations to rapid changes in blood pressure (in contrast with changes that occur over periods of hours or days) are known as dynamic cerebral autoregulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central governor",
        "text": "Exercise fatigue has also been attributed to the direct effects of exercise upon the brain such as increased cerebral levels of serotonin, reduced level of glutamate secondary to uptake of ammonia in the brain, brain hyperthermia, and glycogen depletion in brain cells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adenosine monophosphate deaminase deficiency type 1",
        "text": "If a large group of muscles is still actively drawing fuels from blood after the most recent continuous exercise, in order to replenish the ATP and the phosphocreatine reserve, it may become sour without any additional exercise by the time the carbohydrate meal is finished."
      },
      {
        "title": "Craniosynostosis",
        "text": "A compensatory mechanism involves the movement of cerebrospinal fluid from the cranial vault towards the spinal cord. The volume of blood in the cranial vault is auto-regulated by the brain, and will therefore not decrease that easily."
      },
      {
        "title": "Autophagy",
        "text": "Negative regulators of autophagy, such as mTOR, cFLIP, EGFR, and (GAPR-1) are orchestrated to function within different stages of the autophagy cascade. The end-products of autophagic digestion may also serve as a negative-feedback regulatory mechanism to stop prolonged activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Tim Noakes, based on an earlier idea by the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winner Archibald Hill has proposed the existence of a central governor. In this, the brain continuously adjusts the power output by muscles during exercise in regard to a safe level of exertion. These neural calculations factor in prior length of strenuous exercise, the planned duration of further exertion, and the present metabolic state of the body. This adjusts the number of activated skeletal muscle motor units, and is subjectively experienced as fatigue and exhaustion. The idea of a central governor rejects the earlier idea that fatigue is only caused by mechanical failure of the exercising muscles (\"peripheral fatigue\"). Instead, the brain models the metabolic limits of the body to ensure that whole body homeostasis is protected, in particular that the heart is guarded from hypoxia, and an emergency reserve is always maintained. The idea of the central governor has been questioned since \u2018physiological catastrophes\u2019 can and do occur suggesting that if it did exist, athletes (such as Dorando Pietri, Jim Peters and Gabriela Andersen-Schiess) can override it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Autoregulation",
        "text": "Autoregulation\n--Cerebral autoregulation.\n--Homeometric and heterometric autoregulation of the heart.\n--Coronary circulatory autoregulation.\n--Renal autoregulation.\n--Autoregulation of genes.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Autoregulation",
        "text": "Autoregulation is a process within many biological systems, resulting from an internal adaptive mechanism that works to adjust (or mitigate) that system's response to stimuli. While most systems of the body show some degree of autoregulation, it is most clearly observed in the kidney, the heart, and the brain. Perfusion of these organs is essential for life, and through autoregulation the body can divert blood (and thus, oxygen) where it is most needed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central nervous system fatigue",
        "text": "Central nervous system fatigue is a key component in preventing peripheral muscle injury. The brain has numerous receptors, such as osmoreceptors, to track dehydration, nutrition, and body temperature. With that information as well as peripheral muscle fatigue information, the brain can reduce the quantity of motor commands sent from the central nervous system. This is crucial in order to protect the homeostasis of the body and to keep it in a proper physiological state capable of full recovery. The reduction of motor commands sent from the brain increases the amount of perceived effort an individual experiences. By forcing the body through a higher perceived intensity, the individual becomes more likely to cease exercise by means of exhaustion. Perceived effort is greatly influenced by the intensity of corollary discharge from the motor cortex that affects the primary somatosensory cortex. Endurance athletes learn to listen to their body. Protecting organs from potentially dangerous core temperatures and nutritional lows is an important brain function. Central nervous system fatigue alerts the athlete when physiological conditions are not optimal so either rest or refueling can occur. It is important to avoid hyperthermia and dehydration, as they are detrimental to athletic performance and can be fatal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Boosting (doping)",
        "text": "Any deliberate attempt to induce Autonomic Dysreflexia is forbidden and will be reported to the Technical Delegate. The athlete will be disqualified from the particular competition regardless of the systolic blood pressure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Postictal state",
        "text": "Cerebral autoregulation typically ensures that the correct amount of blood reaches the various regions of the brain to match the activity of the cells in that region. In other words, perfusion typically matches metabolism in all organs; especially in the brain, which gets the highest priority. However, following a seizure it has been shown that sometimes cerebral blood flow is not proportionate to metabolism. While cerebral blood flow didn\u2019t change in the mouse hippocampus (the foci of seizures in this model) during or after seizures, increases in relative glucose uptake were observed in the region during the ictal and early postictal periods. Animal models are difficult for this type of study because each type of seizure model produces a unique pattern of perfusion and metabolism. Thus, in different models of epilepsy, researchers have had differing results as to whether or not metabolism and perfusion become uncoupled. Hosokawa\u2019s model used EL mice, in which seizures begin in the hippocampus and present similarly to the behaviors observed in human epileptic patients. If humans show similar uncoupling of perfusion and metabolism, this would result in hypoperfusion in the affected area, a possible explanation for the confusion and \u2018fog\u2019 patients experience following a seizure. It is possible that these changes in blood flow could be a result of poor autoregulation following a seizure, or it could, in fact, be yet another factor involved in stopping seizures."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "After intense prolonged exercise, there can be a collapse in body homeostasis. Some famous examples include:\n* Dorando Pietri in the 1908 Summer Olympic men's marathon ran the wrong way and collapsed several times.\n* Jim Peters in the marathon of the 1954 Commonwealth Games staggered and collapsed several times, and though he had a five-kilometre (three-mile) lead, failed to finish. Though it was formerly believed that this was due to severe dehydration, more recent research suggests it was the combined effects upon the brain of hyperthermia, hypertonic hypernatraemia associated with dehydration, and possibly hypoglycaemia.\n* Gabriela Andersen-Schiess in the woman's marathon at the Los Angeles 1984 Summer Olympics in the race's final 400 meters, stopping occasionally and shown signs of heat exhaustion. Though she fell across the finish line, she was released from medical care only two hours later."
      },
      {
        "title": "Autogenic training",
        "text": "There is a lack of neurophysiological investigations addressing this topic; however, one EEG study from 1963 suggests that the decrease in afferent stimulation induces:\n* A reduction in reticulo-cortical activity\n* A decrease in thalamo-cortical activity\n* Functional changes in the structures connected to reticular system (hypothalamus, limbic system, red nucleus, globus pallidus)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Boosting (doping)",
        "text": "Athletes with spinal injuries can have difficulties with autonomic functions and their bodies may be unable to control blood pressure and heart rate. Because of this their bodies do not adapt to the increased demand of physical activity. Without these changes the athlete can become fatigued and suffer from a lower level of endurance. Boosting works by tricking the body into a state of high blood pressure and heart rate, with an increased utilization of oxygen improving the athlete's performance."
      },
      {
        "title": "Counterregulatory hormone",
        "text": "As an example, the exercise-induced reduction in blood glucose is counterregulated by increases in levels of epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol, and growth hormone. The rise in blood concentrations of these counterregulatory hormones is dependent upon both exercise intensity and duration, and is proportional to the rate of glucose uptake by the contracting skeletal muscle."
      },
      {
        "title": "Concussion",
        "text": "Concurrently with these processes, the activity of mitochondria may be reduced, which causes cells to rely on anaerobic metabolism to produce energy, increasing levels of the byproduct lactate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Thermoregulation",
        "text": "However, too high a temperature speeds up the metabolism of different tissues to such a rate that their metabolic capital is soon exhausted. Blood that is too warm produces dyspnea by exhausting the metabolic capital of the respiratory centre; heart rate is increased; the beats then become arrhythmic and eventually cease. The central nervous system is also profoundly affected by hyperthermia and delirium, and convulsions may set in. Consciousness may also be lost, propelling the person into a comatose condition. These changes can sometimes also be observed in patients suffering from an acute fever. Mammalian muscle becomes rigid with heat rigor at about 50\u00a0\u00b0C, with the sudden rigidity of the whole body rendering life impossible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Present bias",
        "text": "Furthermore, there appears to be a decrease in functional correspondence between the following brain areas: Between VMPC and DLPFC, dACC and caudate and in the right VLPFC. They posited that self-regulatory failure is associated with procrastination, although a body of replicated results would lend more credibility to this hypothesis."
      },
      {
        "title": "F1 (classification)",
        "text": "People with spinal injuries at T6 or higher are more likely to develop Autonomic dysreflexia (AD). It also sometimes rarely effects people with injuries at T7 and T8. The condition causes over-activity of the autonomic nervous system, and can suddenly onset when people are playing sports. Some of the symptoms include nausea, high blood pressure, a pounding headache, flushed face, profuse sweating, a lower heart rate or a nasal congestion. If left untreated, it can cause a stroke. Players in some sports like wheelchair rugby are encouraged to be particularly on guard for AD symptoms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Contingent negative variation",
        "text": "In related studies, researchers have also shown that the larger the motoric response needed, the larger the CNV. Studies with subjects that have a lack of sleep tend to show a reduced CNV. This provides further evidence that lack of attention might decrease the CNV amplitude."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adenosine monophosphate deaminase deficiency type 1",
        "text": "Most of the AMP probably spills into blood unchanged, and is gradually returned to the muscle cell, if its concentration there falls due to gradual recharge to ATP. The blood thus plays a role of a big AMP buffer. Idle muscles may also take up some free AMP. The spillover also limits, how much the residual AMPD activity can be amplified in this state. Thus, it may take the residual AMPD activity less time to build up citric acid cycle intermediates, when the whole body is warmed up for an exercise at the same time, rather than a specific group of muscles needed in the exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ulegyria",
        "text": "Another serious result of inefficient blood flow is that cells do not receive adequate amounts of glucose. An immediate effect of low intracellular glucose is reduced ATP production in the cell. This effectively inactivates the Na-K pump, leading to the uptake of calcium ions by the cell. Continued influx of calcium serves to constitutively activate downstream effectors, including lipases, proteases, and endonucleases, whose actions eventually destroy the cell skeleton. Intracellular calcium concentrations are increased further due to the opening of glutamate-regulated ion channels. Ischemia causes anoxic cell depolarizations and it is this increase in membrane potential at the presynaptic cell that triggers the release of glutamate, an excitatory neurotransmitter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "is a neurotrophic and angiogenic (i.e., blood vessel growth-promoting) signaling protein that binds to two receptor tyrosine kinases, VEGFR1 and VEGFR2, which are expressed in neurons and glial cells in the brain. Hypoxia, or inadequate cellular oxygen supply, strongly upregulates VEGF expression and VEGF exerts a neuroprotective effect in hypoxic neurons. Like and , aerobic exercise has been shown to increase VEGF biosynthesis in peripheral tissue which subsequently crosses the blood\u2013brain barrier and promotes neurogenesis and blood vessel formation in the central nervous system. Exercise-induced increases in VEGF signaling have been shown to improve cerebral blood volume and contribute to exercise-induced neurogenesis in the hippocampus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central chemoreceptors",
        "text": "This system utilizes a negative feedback system, therefore if the pH of the cerebral spinal fluid does not compare to an ideal \u201cset\u201d level, then the receptor will send an error signal to the effectors and appropriate action may be executed."
      },
      {
        "title": "Remote ischemic conditioning",
        "text": "Reduced cerebral blood flow is an early finding in vascular cognitive impairment (VCI). Cardiovascular risk factor control is currently the only management option for VCI, but observational studies suggest that exercise slows down cognitive decline. In a mouse model that reproduced the damage seen in patients with VCI (white matter damage, cerebral hypoperfusion, inflammation, blood\u2013brain barrier damage, and cognitive deficits), daily RIC for two weeks increased cerebral blood flow, and this increase persisted for one week after cessation of conditioning. Moreover, mice that underwent RIC had less inflammation, less white and gray matter damage, less \u03b2\u2011amyloid deposition, and improved cognition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central governor",
        "text": "The existence of a central governor over physiology has been questioned since \u2018physiological catastrophes\u2019 can and do occur in athletes (important examples in marathons have been Dorando Pietri, Jim Peters and Gabriela Andersen-Schiess). This suggests that humans can over-ride \u2018the central governor\u2019. Moreover, a variety of peripheral factors in addition to those such as lactic acid build up can impair muscle power and might act to protect against \"catastrophe\". Another objection is that models incorporating conscious control also provide an alternative explanation (see Noakes\u2019 reply)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Equine exertional rhabdomyolysis",
        "text": "The excess glycogen within the muscle cells that lack oxygen begin to function anaerobically to produce the needed Adenosine Triphosphate. The anaerobic work creates a buildup of waste products, lactic acid, and heat. This subsequently alters the cell by preventing the cell's enzymes from functioning and the myofilaments from contracting efficiently. The cell membranes may then be damaged if the horse is forced to continue work, which allows muscle enzymes and myoglobin to leak into the bloodstream."
      },
      {
        "title": "Carboxypeptidase E",
        "text": "In obesity, high levels of circulating free fatty acids have been reported to cause a decrease in the amount of carboxypeptidase E protein in pancreatic beta-cells, leading to beta-cell dysfunction (hyperproinsulinemia) and increased beta-cell apoptosis (via an increase in ER stress). However, because CPE is not a rate-limiting enzyme for the production of most neuropeptides and peptide hormones, it is not clear how relatively modest decreases in CPE activity can cause physiological effects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiology of marathons",
        "text": "Uncertainty exists about how lactate threshold effects endurance performance. Contribution of blood lactate levels accumulating is attributed to potential skeletal muscle hypoxemia but also to the production of more glucose that can be used as energy. The inability to establish a singular set of physiological contributions to blood lactate accumulation's effect on the exercising individual creates a correlative role for lactate threshold in marathon performance as opposed to a causal role."
      },
      {
        "title": "Autophagy",
        "text": "Another study demonstrated that skeletal muscle fibers of collagen VI knockout mice showed signs of degeneration due to an insufficiency of autophagy which led to an accumulation of damaged mitochondria and excessive cell death. Exercise-induced autophagy was unsuccessful however; but when autophagy was induced artificially post-exercise, the accumulation of damaged organelles in collagen VI deficient muscle fibres was prevented and cellular homeostasis was maintained. Both studies demonstrate that autophagy induction may contribute to the beneficial metabolic effects of exercise and that it is essential in the maintaining of muscle homeostasis during exercise, particularly in collagen VI fibers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "The various functions of the brain structures that show exercise-induced increases in gray matter volume include:\n* Prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortices\u00a0\u2013 required for the cognitive control of behavior, particularly: working memory, attentional control, decision-making, cognitive flexibility, social cognition, and inhibitory control of behavior; implicated in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and addiction\n* Nucleus accumbens\u00a0\u2013 responsible for incentive salience (\"wanting\" or desire, the form of motivation associated with reward) and positive reinforcement; implicated in addiction\n* Hippocampus\u00a0\u2013 responsible for storage and consolidation of declarative memory and spatial memory; implicated in depression\n* Cerebellum\u00a0\u2013 responsible for motor coordination and motor learning\n* Caudate nucleus\u00a0\u2013 responsible for stimulus-response learning and inhibitory control; implicated in Parkinson's disease and ADHD\n* Parietal cortex\u00a0\u2013 responsible for sensory perception, working memory, and attention"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "At rest, energy for the adult brain is normally provided by glucose but the brain has a compensatory capacity to replace some of this with lactate. Research suggests that this can be raised, when a person rests in a brain scanner, to about 17%, with a higher percentage of 25% occurring during hypoglycemia. During intense exercise, lactate has been estimated to provide a third of the brain's energy needs. There is evidence that the brain might, however, in spite of these alternative sources of energy, still suffer an energy crisis since IL-6 (a sign of metabolic stress) is released during exercise from the brain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Autoregulation",
        "text": "Since the heart is a very aerobic organ, needing oxygen for the efficient production of ATP & Creatine Phosphate from fatty acids (and to a smaller extent, glucose & very little lactate), the coronary circulation is auto regulated so that the heart receives the right flow of blood & hence sufficient supply of oxygen. If a sufficient flow of oxygen is met and the resistance in the coronary circulation rises (perhaps due to vasoconstriction), then the coronary perfusion pressure (CPP) increases proportionally, to maintain the same flow. In this way, the same flow through the coronary circulation is maintained over a range of pressures. This part of coronary circulatory regulation is known as auto regulation and it occurs over a plateau, reflecting the constant blood flow at varying CPP & resistance. The slope of a CBF (coronary blood flow) vs. CPP graph gives 1/Resistance. Autoregulation maintains a normal blood flow within the pressure range of 70\u2013110\u00a0mm Hg. Blood flow is independent of bp. However autoregulation of blood flow in the heart is not so well developed like that in brain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Autonomic dysreflexia",
        "text": "Supraspinal vasomotor neurons send projections to the intermediolateral cell column, which is composed of sympathetic preganglionic neurons (SPN) through the T1-L2 segments. The supraspinal neurons act on the SPN and its tonic firing, modulating its action on the peripheral sympathetic chain ganglia and the adrenal medulla. The sympathetic ganglia act directly on the blood vessels they innervate throughout the body, controlling vessel diameter and resistance, while the adrenal medulla indirectly controls the same action through the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine. The descending autonomic pathways, which are responsible for the supraspinal communication with the SPN, are interrupted resulting in decreased sympathetic outflow below the level of the injury. In this circumstance, the SPN is controlled only by spinal influences. The first couple of weeks after a spinal injury, the decreased sympathetic outflow causes reduced blood pressure and sympathetic reflex. Eventually, synaptic reorganization and plasticity of SPN develops into an overly sensitive state, which results in abnormal reflex activation of SPN due to afferent stimuli, such as bowel or bladder distension. Reflex activation results in systemic vasoconstriction below the spinal cord disruption. The peripheral arterial vasoconstriction and hypertension activates the baroreceptors, resulting in a parasympathetic surge originating in the central nervous system, which inhibits the sympathetic outflow; however, the parasympathetic signal is unable to transmit below the level of the spinal cord lesion. This results in vasodilation, flushing, pupillary constriction and nasal stuffiness above the spinal lesion, while there's piloerection, pale and cool skin below the lesion due to the prevailing sympathetic outflow."
      },
      {
        "title": "F4 (classification)",
        "text": "People with spinal injuries at T6 or higher are more likely to develop Autonomic dysreflexia (AD). It also sometimes rarely effects people with injuries at T7 and T8. The condition causes over-activity of the autonomic nervous system, and can suddenly onset when people are playing sports. Some of the symptoms include nausea, high blood pressure, a pounding headache, flushed face, profuse sweating, a lower heart rate or a nasal congestion. If left untreated, it can cause a stroke. Players in some sports like wheelchair rugby are encouraged to be particularly on guard for AD symptoms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cardiorespiratory fitness",
        "text": "Another important issue is the regulation of blood flow during exercise. Blood flow must increase in order to provide the working muscle with more oxygenated blood which can be accomplished through neural and chemical regulation. Blood vessels are under sympathetic tone; therefore, the release of noradrenaline and adrenaline will cause vasoconstriction of non-essential tissues such as the liver, intestines, and kidneys, and decrease neurotransmitter release to the active muscles promoting vasodilatation. Also, chemical factors such as a decrease in oxygen concentration and an increase in carbon dioxide or lactic acid concentration in the blood promote vasodilatation to increase blood flow. As a result of increased vascular resistance, blood pressure rises throughout exercise and stimulates baroreceptors in the carotid arteries and aortic arch. \u201cThese pressure receptors are important since they regulate arterial blood pressure around an elevated systemic pressure during exercise\u201d."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central governor",
        "text": "In contrast to this idea is the one that fatigue is due to peripheral \"limitation\" or \"catastrophe\". In this view, regulation by fatigue occurs as a consequence of a failure of homeostasis directly in muscles."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adenosine monophosphate deaminase deficiency type 1",
        "text": "Eventually, all glycogen is exhausted, and the muscle cell enters another semi-stable state. During this transition, up-regulation of the citric acid cycle due to abundance of pyruvate is reversed, and a substantial part of the ATP pool is necessarily discharged down to AMP, which allows the citric acid cycle to be sped up by some other mechanism (perhaps by the allosteric mechanism that reacts to the lower concentration of ATP, or by amplification of the residual AMPD activity by the bloated AMP pool), until ATP production is balanced with ATP consumption. AMP conversion to adenosine, excretion to the blood (as AMP and its various metabolites), further conversion to uric acid and excretion to urine becomes significant for some time, until all AMP is eliminated from the muscle cell. The muscle movements become noticeably less precise. Breathing slows down, and from this moment reacts very weakly to the load and not at all to the perceived effort. It becomes hard to rapidly increase the load on a muscle, as in McArdle's disease, and such a rapid load increase will dump even more purines into blood and urine (looking like translucent or rust-colored sharp shiny crystals and being highly irritating). The same situation would occur if blood flow to muscle cells becomes insufficient (except that somewhat less AMP is spilled over, and somewhat more of it is metabolized inside the muscle cell). On the other hand, there will be no lasting muscle pain from lactate, and continuous aerobic activity is possible. Oxidation of odd-numbered saturated fatty acids may provide another mechanism, although very gradual, to up-regulate citric acid cycle during exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerebral circulation",
        "text": "Because the brain would quickly suffer damage from any stoppage in blood supply, the cerebral circulatory system has safeguards including autoregulation of the blood vessels. The failure of these safeguards may result in a stroke. The volume of blood in circulation is called the cerebral blood flow. Sudden intense accelerations change the gravitational forces perceived by bodies and can severely impair cerebral circulation and normal functions to the point of becoming serious life-threatening conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bioenergetic systems",
        "text": "When H+ ions accumulate in the muscles causing the blood pH level to reach low levels, temporary muscle fatigue results. Another limitation of the lactic acid system that relates to its anaerobic quality is that only a few moles of ATP can be resynthesized from the breakdown of sugar as compared to the yield possible when high-energy oxygen is consumed. This system cannot be relied on for extended periods of time."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stereotype embodiment theory",
        "text": "The physiological mechanism operates via the autonomic nervous system. Cardiovascular reactivity, a measure of the autonomic nervous system's response to stress, is heightened in the presence of subliminally primed negative age stereotypes and reduced in the presence of subliminally primed positive age stereotypes. While occasional stress is not harmful, repeated elevation of cardiovascular response to stress can be quite detrimental to cardiac health. In fact, Levy and colleagues (2009) found that possessing negative age stereotypes in younger life can double the risk of having an adverse cardiovascular event after the age of 60."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dynapenia",
        "text": "Possible biological contributors to dynapenia include the nervous system\u2019s deteriorating control of voluntary skeletal muscle activation and a decreased number of functioning motor units. The nervous system's lowered ability to stimulate a full muscle contraction subsequently leads to loss of muscle strength and power. A study by Harridge et al. also showed that all dynapenic subjects had incomplete voluntary activation during a maximum contraction (69-93%), suggesting that loss of voluntary muscle activation plays an important role in the loss of muscle strength. Studies involving the dissection of cadavers have uncovered a 43% decrease in the cell body size of neurons found in the premotor cortex compared to those of younger adults. New studies have recently verified this finding in living subjects using high resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerebral peduncle",
        "text": "Damage to the cerebral peduncles results in unrefined motor skills, imbalance, and lack of proprioception."
      },
      {
        "title": "Erythropoietin in neuroprotection",
        "text": "Erythropoietin exerts its neuroprotective role directly by activating transmitter molecules that play a role in erythrogenesis and indirectly by restoring blood flow. Subcutaneous administration of RhEpo on cerebral blood flow autoregulation after experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage was studied. In different groups of male Sprague-Dawley Rats, the injection of Epo after induction of hemorrhage normalized the autoregulation of cerebral blood flow, while those treated with a vehicle showed no autoregulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Epigenetics of physical exercise",
        "text": "MicroRNAs (miRNAs) interfere with mRNA that is present and render it unusable and therefore decrease the product of that mRNA. MiRNAs regulate many physiological processes, such as inflammation, angiogenesis (the creation of blood vessels), as well as ischemia (the restriction of blood flow within the vessels) prevention. Aerobic exercise reduces the overall number of various miRNAs within the skeletal muscle that produce negative effects. Stimuli that cause the body to enter an anabolic, or constructive, phase, such as resistance training as well as the correct diet, has also shown a reduction of miRNAs. This reduction may actually play a role in the growth of the muscle cell."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease",
        "text": "Autophagy dysfunction in Parkinson's disease has also been shown to lead to dysregulated mitochondria degradation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Autoregulation",
        "text": "Homeometric autoregulation, in the context of the circulatory system, is the heart's ability to increase contractility and restore stroke volume when afterload increases. Homeometric autoregulation occurs independently of cardiomyocyte fiber length, via the Bowditch and/or Anrep effects.\n* Via the Bowditch effect, positive inotropy occurs secondary to an increased cardiac frequency. The exact mechanism for this remains unknown, but it appears to be the result of an increased exposure of the heart to contractile substances arising from the increased flow caused by an increased cardiac frequency.\n* Via the Anrep effect, positive inotropy occurs secondary to increased ventricular pressure."
      },
      {
        "title": "Anrep effect",
        "text": "The Anrep effect is an autoregulation method in which myocardial contractility increases with afterload. It was experimentally determined that increasing afterload caused a proportional linear increase in ventricular inotropy. This effect is found in denervated heart preparations, such as the Starling Preparation, and represents an intrinsic autoregulation mechanism."
      },
      {
        "title": "Psychophysiology",
        "text": "Pediatrics 124, e921-e92\n* Effects of Low-Intensity Exercise Conditioning on Blood Pressure, Heart Rate, and Autonomic Modulation of Heart Rate in Men and Women with Hypertension."
      },
      {
        "title": "Autoregulation",
        "text": "This is in contrast to heterometric regulation, governed by the Frank-Starling law, which results from a more favorable positioning of actin and myosin filaments in cardiomyocytes as a result of changing fiber lengths."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central neurogenic hyperventilation",
        "text": "Postmortem examination of the nine patients\u2019 brains reported by Plum and Swanson, revealed necrosis of the central pons in five of the nine patients, and indirect compression of the pons in one additional patient. Their initial findings suggested that lesions in the medial pontine tegmentum leads to a disruption of cortical inhibitory effects of medullar respiratory center. Plum and Swanson suggested that failure to inhibit the activity of this particular region of the brain results in continuous stimulation of the respiratory center by the lateral pontile reticular formulation and laterally located descending neural pathway. The destruction of this required negative feedback mechanism causes the uncontrollable hyperventilation associated with CNH."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiological effects in space",
        "text": "In contrast to the contractile apparatus, studies on various rodent skeletal muscle metabolic enzymes have revealed a variety of responses with no clear-cut adaptive changes in oxidative enzyme expression. These observations are consistent with the results of studies focusing on mitochondrial function after 9 days of spaceflight in which no reduction in the capacity of skeletal muscle mitochondria to metabolize pyruvate (a carbohydrate derivative) was observed. These analyses were carried out under state 3 metabolic conditions, that is, non-limiting amounts of substrate and cofactors to simulate an energy turnover demand similar to that of high-intensity exercise. However, when a fatty acid substrate was tested, a reduction in the capacity of different muscle types to oxidize the long-chain fatty acid, palmitate, was observed. This latter finding is in agreement with the observation that muscles exposed to spaceflight increase the level of stored lipid within their myofibers. Additionally, use of the metabolic pathway for glucose uptake is increased in muscles undergoing HS. Thus, while the enzyme data are equivocal, it appears that in response to states of unloading, some shift in substrate preference may occur whereby carbohydrates are preferentially utilized based on utilization capability. If this is indeed the case, it could result in a greater tendency for muscle fatigue, should the carbohydrate stores become limited during prolonged bouts of EVA activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "L-arabinose operon",
        "text": "AraC can also negatively autoregulate its own expression when the concentration of AraC becomes too high. AraC synthesis is repressed through binding of dimeric AraC to the operator region (\"araO1\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "F3 (classification)",
        "text": "People with spinal injuries at T6 or higher are more likely to develop Autonomic dysreflexia (AD). It also sometimes rarely effects people with injuries at T7 and T8. The condition causes over-activity of the autonomic nervous system, and can suddenly onset when people are playing sports. Some of the symptoms include nausea, high blood pressure, a pounding headache, flushed face, profuse sweating, a lower heart rate or a nasal congestion. If left untreated, it can cause a stroke. Players in some sports like wheelchair rugby are encouraged to be particularly on guard for AD symptoms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Orchestrated objective reduction",
        "text": "Other biology-based criticisms have been offered, including a lack of explanation for the probabilistic release of neurotransmitter from presynaptic axon terminals and an error in the calculated number of the tubulin dimers per cortical neuron."
      },
      {
        "title": "Autonomic dysreflexia",
        "text": "The uncontrolled hypertension in AD may result in mild symptoms, such as sweating above the lesion level, goosebumps, blurred vision, or headache; However, severe hypertension may result in potentially life-threatening complications including seizure, intracranial bleed, or retinal detachment."
      },
      {
        "title": "F2 (classification)",
        "text": "People with spinal injuries at T6 or higher are more likely to develop Autonomic dysreflexia (AD). It also sometimes rarely effects people with injuries at T7 and T8. The condition causes over-activity of the autonomic nervous system, and can suddenly onset when people are playing sports. Some of the symptoms include nausea, high blood pressure, a pounding headache, flushed face, profuse sweating, a lower heart rate or a nasal congestion. If left untreated, it can cause a stroke. Players in some sports like wheelchair rugby are encouraged to be particularly on guard for AD symptoms."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerebrovascular disease",
        "text": "When a reduction in blood flow lasting seconds occurs, the brain tissue suffers ischemia, or inadequate blood supply. If the interruption of blood flow is not restored in minutes, the tissue suffers infarction followed by tissue death. When the low cerebral blood flow persists for a longer duration, this may develop into an infarction in the border zones (areas of poor blood flow between the major cerebral artery distributions). In more severe instances, global hypoxia-ischemia causes widespread brain injury leading to a severe cognitive sequelae called \"hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise addiction",
        "text": "In addition, excessive training may cause exhaustion of the autonomic nervous system. Some symptoms include decreased total testosterone level, an imbalance between testosterone and cortisol, decreased sympathetic tone, and decreased exercise-induced lactate. These chemical balances can lead to premature osteoporosis, where the lack of testosterone accelerates bone loss, and elevated levels of cortisol alters calcium and bone metabolism by \u201cincreasing bone reabsorption and decreasing bone formation or intestinal absorption of calcium\u201d. Calcium undernutrition may eventually occur, accelerating premature osteoporosis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Concussion",
        "text": "At the same time, cerebral blood flow is relatively reduced for unknown reasons, though the reduction in blood flow is not as severe as it is in ischemia. Thus cells get less glucose than they normally do, which causes an \"energy crisis\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "CMAH",
        "text": "The functional loss of \"CMAH\" after the divergence of humans from the great apes has several implications for its role in human development, including less constrained brain growth and increased running endurance, two traits thought to be important to human evolution. In most mammals, \"CMAH\" expression is down-regulated in the brain, and experimental up-regulation of \"CMAH\" is lethal in mice. Experimental \"CMAH\" loss in mice increases running endurance and decreases muscle fatigue, which could have been beneficial to ancestral \"Homo\" during the gene's fixation."
      },
      {
        "title": "R. T. Claridge",
        "text": "The \"British Medical Journal\" concurred with this writer on all counts, noting that there were \"simple generalisations\" that could be deduced regarding the effects of heat and cold on physiological processes, and lamenting the lack of such generalisations by \"therapeutical authorities\", let alone scientific investigations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "As a physical stressor, aerobic exercise stimulates cortisol secretion in an intensity-dependent manner; however, it does not result in long-term increases in cortisol production since this exercise-induced effect on cortisol is a response to transient negative energy balance. Individuals who have recently exercised exhibit improvements in stress coping behaviors. Aerobic exercise increases physical fitness and lowers neuroendocrine (i.e., ) reactivity and therefore reduces the biological response to psychological stress in humans (e.g., reduced cortisol release and attenuated heart rate response). Exercise also reverses stress-induced decreases in expression and signaling in the brain, thereby acting as a buffer against stress-related diseases like depression."
      },
      {
        "title": "Central governor",
        "text": "In his approach, the power output by muscles during exercise is continuously adjusted in regard to calculations made by the brain in regard to a safe level of exertion. These neural calculations factor in earlier experience with strenuous exercise, the planning duration of the exercise, and the present metabolic state of the body. These brain models ensure that body homeostasis is protected, and an emergency reserve margin is maintained. This neural control adjusts the number of activated skeletal muscle motor units, a control which is subjectively experienced as fatigue. This process, though occurring in the brain, is outside conscious control."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adrenaline",
        "text": "During exercise, the adrenaline blood concentration rises partially from the increased secretion of the adrenal medulla and partly from the decreased metabolism of adrenaline due to reduced blood flow to the liver. Infusion of adrenaline to reproduce exercise circulating concentrations of adrenaline in subjects at rest has little haemodynamic effect, other than a small \u03b22-mediated fall in diastolic blood pressure. Infusion of adrenaline well within the physiological range suppresses human airway hyper-reactivity sufficiently to antagonize the constrictor effects of inhaled histamine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adrenaline",
        "text": "Low, or absent, concentrations of adrenaline can be seen in autonomic neuropathy or following adrenalectomy. Failure of the adrenal cortex, as with Addison's disease, can suppress adrenaline secretion as the activity of the synthesing enzyme, phenylethanolamine-\"N\"-methyltransferase, depends on the high concentration of cortisol that drains from the cortex to the medulla."
      },
      {
        "title": "Haemodynamic response",
        "text": "A decrease in circulation in the brain vasculature due to stroke or injury can lead to a condition known as ischemia. In general, decrease in blood flow to the brain can be a result of thrombosis causing a partial or full blockage of blood vessels, hypotension in systemic circulation (and consequently the brain), or cardiac arrest. This decrease in blood flow in the cerebral vascular system can result in a buildup of metabolic wastes generated by neurons and glial cells and a decrease in oxygen and glucose delivery to them. As a result, cellular energy failure, depolarization of neuronal and glial membranes, edema, and excess neurotransmitter and calcium ion release can occur. This ultimately ends with cell death, as cells succumb to a lack of nutrients to power their metabolism and to a toxic brain environment, full of free radicals and excess ions that damage normal cell organelle function."
      },
      {
        "title": "Allostasis",
        "text": "Allostatic (predictive) regulation allows the brain to prioritize needs, for example, by sending more oxygen and nutrients to organs that need it most. For this example, during peak exercise muscle requires an 18-fold increase in oxygenated blood, but the heart can increase its capacity only 3.5-fold. Therefore, the brain temporarily borrows blood from the digestive system and kidney rerouting it to muscle. It later repays the debt when muscle's increased need subsides. Without the ability to prioritize trade-offs between organ systems, the heart and lungs would need to be far larger while much of this costly extra capacity would go unused."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise intolerance",
        "text": "Individuals with elevated levels of cerebrospinal fluid can experience increased head pain, throbbing, pulsatile tinnitus, nausea and vomiting, faintness and weakness and even loss of consciousness after exercise or exertion."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hypertensive emergency",
        "text": "In the brain, hypertensive encephalopathy - characterized by hypertension, altered mental status, and swelling of the optic disc - is a manifestation of the dysfunction of cerebral autoregulation. Cerebral autoregulation is the ability of the blood vessels in the brain to maintain a constant blood flow. People who suffer from chronic hypertension can tolerate higher arterial pressure before their autoregulation system is disrupted. Hypertensives also have an increased cerebrovascular resistance which puts them at greater risk of developing cerebral ischemia if the blood flow decreases into a normotensive range. On the other hand, sudden or rapid rises in blood pressure may cause hyperperfusion and increased cerebral blood flow, causing increased intracranial pressure and cerebral edema, with increased risk of intracranial bleeding."
      },
      {
        "title": "The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential",
        "text": "IAHP recommends dietary restrictions, including reduced fluid intake for brain-injured children in an attempt to prevent \"the possible overaccumulation of cerebrospinal fluid\". Alongside fluid restriction, IAHP recommends a diet low in salt, sweets, and other \"thirst provoking\" foods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hypercalcaemia",
        "text": "The neuromuscular symptoms of hypercalcaemia are caused by a negative bathmotropic effect due to the increased interaction of calcium with sodium channels. Since calcium blocks sodium channels and inhibits depolarization of nerve and muscle fibers, increased calcium raises the threshold for depolarization. This results in diminished deep tendon reflexes (hyporeflexia), and skeletal muscle weakness."
      },
      {
        "title": "LCHN",
        "text": "LCHN expression has been reported to be unregulated following ischemic stroke, chronic alcoholism, and cell culture responses of immature and mature dendrites to prolonged hypoxia. Additionally, decreased expression as a result of CpG methylation has been implicated to be pathogenic in patients with FTD-ALS. Within the predicted promoter of KIAA1147, there are predicted binding sites for hypoxia response elements that would accompany ischemic stroke, heat shock proteins, factors related to the glucocorticoid mediated stress response, and cAMP responsive factors related to the ER stress response. Due to the reported evidence of LCHN upregulation following ischemic stroke, which often results in neuronal damage or death, as well presence of several binding sites for factors induced by rapid trauma to the brain, it is likely that KIAA1147 plays a role in the brain\u2019s response to sudden stress and injury."
      },
      {
        "title": "Negative feedback",
        "text": "Some biological systems exhibit negative feedback such as the baroreflex in blood pressure regulation and erythropoiesis. Many biological processes (e.g., in the human anatomy) use negative feedback. Examples of this are numerous, from the regulating of body temperature, to the regulating of blood glucose levels. The disruption of feedback loops can lead to undesirable results: in the case of blood glucose levels, if negative feedback fails, the glucose levels in the blood may begin to rise dramatically, thus resulting in diabetes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cardiovascular physiology",
        "text": "In turn, this can have a significant impact upon several other variables:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Calcium in biology",
        "text": "Substantial decreases in extracellular Ca2+ ion concentrations may result in a condition known as hypocalcemic tetany, which is marked by spontaneous motor neuron discharge. In addition, severe hypocalcaemia will begin to affect aspects of blood coagulation and signal transduction."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What negative consequences has exercise physiology discovered?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "That's a really broad question! Would you like me to narrow it down to the negative consequences it discovered about dehydration, Cerebral autoregulation, hyperthermia, fatigue, or something else?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Could you tell me about the negative consequences found for the cerebral autoregulation?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I don't have an specific example of the negative consequences of cerebral autoregulation, but the brain's priority to cardiac output can be impaired slightly by exhaustive exercise.",
      "During submaximal exercise, cardiac output increases and cerebral blood flow increases beyond the brain's oxygen needs. However, this is not the case for continuous maximal exertion: \"Maximal exercise is, despite the increase in capillary oxygenation [in the brain], associated with a reduced mitochondrial O2 content during whole body exercise\" and the autoregulation of the brain's blood supply is impaired particularly in warm environments."
    ],
    "topic": "Exercise physiology",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise physiology:23",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise physiology",
          "Brain",
          "Cerebral oxygen"
        ],
        "ctx": "Cerebral autoregulation usually ensures the brain has priority to cardiac output, though this is impaired slightly by exhaustive exercise. During submaximal exercise, cardiac output increases and cerebral blood flow increases beyond the brain's oxygen needs. However, this is not the case for continuous maximal exertion: \"Maximal exercise is, despite the increase in capillary oxygenation [in the brain], associated with a reduced mitochondrial O2 content during whole body exercise\" The autoregulation of the brain's blood supply is impaired particularly in warm environments"
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise physiology:23",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise physiology",
          "Brain",
          "Cerebral oxygen"
        ],
        "ctx": "Cerebral autoregulation usually ensures the brain has priority to cardiac output, though this is impaired slightly by exhaustive exercise. During submaximal exercise, cardiac output increases and cerebral blood flow increases beyond the brain's oxygen needs. However, this is not the case for continuous maximal exertion: \"Maximal exercise is, despite the increase in capillary oxygenation [in the brain], associated with a reduced mitochondrial O2 content during whole body exercise\" The autoregulation of the brain's blood supply is impaired particularly in warm environments"
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Rodents have been specifically bred for exercise behavior or performance in several different studies. For example, laboratory rats have been bred for high or low performance on a motorized treadmill with electrical stimulation as motivation. The high-performance line of rats also exhibits increased voluntary wheel-running behavior as compared with the low-capacity line. In an experimental evolution approach, four replicate lines of laboratory mice have been bred for high levels of voluntary exercise on wheels, while four additional control lines are maintained by breeding without regard to the amount of wheel running. These selected lines of mice also show increased endurance capacity in tests of forced endurance capacity on a motorized treadmill. However, in neither selection experiment have the precise causes of fatigue during either forced or voluntary exercise been determined."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Cerebral autoregulation usually ensures the brain has priority to cardiac output, though this is impaired slightly by exhaustive exercise. During submaximal exercise, cardiac output increases and cerebral blood flow increases beyond the brain's oxygen needs. However, this is not the case for continuous maximal exertion: \"Maximal exercise is, despite the increase in capillary oxygenation [in the brain], associated with a reduced mitochondrial O2 content during whole body exercise\" The autoregulation of the brain's blood supply is impaired particularly in warm environments"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Exercise physiology\n--History.\n--Energy expenditure.\n--Metabolic changes.\n----Rapid energy sources.\n----Plasma glucose.\n----Oxygen.\n----Dehydration.\n--Brain.\n----Cerebral oxygen.\n----Glucose.\n----Hyperthermia.\n--Fatigue.\n----Intense activity.\n----Endurance failure.\n----Central governor.\n----Other factors.\n--Cardiac biomarkers.\n--Human adaptations.\n--Selective breeding experiments with rodents.\n--Exercise-induced muscle pain.\n--Education in exercise physiology.\n----Curriculum.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "Mice having access to activity wheels engaged in voluntary exercise and increased their propensity to run as adults. Artificial selection of mice exhibited significant heritability in voluntary exercise levels, with \"high-runner\" breeds having enhanced aerobic capacity, hippocampal neurogenesis, and skeletal muscle morphology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parabiosis",
        "text": "In each pair, one rat became obese and exhibited hyperphagia. The weight of the rat with the surgical lesion rose rapidly for a few months, then reached a plateau as a direct result of the surgical procedure. After the procedure, the rat with the impaired hypothalamus ate voraciously while the paired rat's appetite decreased. The paired rat became obviously thin throughout the experiment, even rejecting food when it was offered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabeth Quinlan (neuroscientist)",
        "text": "In 1999, Quinlan alongside Benjamin D. Philpot, Richard L. Huganir, and Mark F. Bear conducted several experiments on the visual cortexes of rats in vivo. Their work has shown that the regulation of postsynaptic glutamate receptors is a mechanism of synaptic plasticity in the brain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brian Christie (neuroscientist)",
        "text": "His most cited peer-reviewed publications are (updated August 2021):\n*van Praag, H., Schinder, AF., Christie, BR., Toni, N., Palmer, TD., Gage, FH. Functional neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus. (2002) \" \"Nature\"\", 415 (6875), pp.\u00a01030\u20131034. Cited 3300 times. HVP, AFS, BRC = Co-first authors.\n*Van Praag, H., Christie, B.R., Sejnowski, T.J., Gage, F.H. Running enhances neurogenesis, learning, and long-term potentiation in mice (1999)\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\", 96 (23), pp.\u00a013427\u201313431. Cited 3409 times. HVP, BRC = Co-first authors\n*Farmer, J., Zhao, X., Van Praag, H., Wodtke, K., Gage, F.H., Christie, B.R. Effects of voluntary exercise on synaptic plasticity and gene expression in the dentate gyrus of adult male sprague-dawley rats in vivo (2004) \"Neuroscience\", 124 (1), pp.\u00a071\u201379. Cited 974 times.\n* AK Olson, BD Eadie, C Ernst, BR Christie. Environmental enrichment and voluntary exercise massively increase neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus via dissociable pathways. (2006) Hippocampus 18(3):250-260. Cited 653 times.\n*Johnston, D., Magee, J.C., Colbert, C.M., Christie, B.R. Active properties of neuronal dendrites (1996)\" Annual Review of Neuroscience,\" 19, pp.\u00a0165\u2013186. Cited 644 times.\n*BD Eadie, VA Redila, BR Christie.Voluntary exercise alters the cytoarchitecture of the adult dentate gyrus by increasing cellular proliferation, dendritic complexity, and spine density. Journal of Comparative Neurology 486 (1), 39-47. Cited 506 times.\n*Seamans, J.K., Durstewitz, D., Christie, B.R., Stevens, C.F., Sejnowski, T.J. Dopamine D1/D5 receptor modulation of excitatory synaptic inputs to layer V prefrontal cortex neurons (2001) \"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\", 98 (1), pp.\u00a0301\u2013306. Cited 445 times."
      },
      {
        "title": "PRNP",
        "text": "PrP-null mice provide clues to a role in muscular physiology when subjected to a forced swimming test, which showed reduced locomotor activity. Aging mice with an overexpression of PRNP showed significant degradation of muscle tissue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Myo-inositol trispyrophosphate",
        "text": "Rodent studies \"in vivo\" demonstrated increased tissue oxygenation and dose-dependent increases in endurance during physical exercise, in both healthy mice and transgenic mice expressing a heart failure phenotype."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emotion in animals",
        "text": "In 1998, Jaak Panksepp proposed that all mammalian species are equipped with brains capable of generating emotional experiences. Subsequent work examined studies on rodents to provide foundational support for this claim. One of these studies examined whether rats would work to alleviate the distress of a conspecific. Rats were trained to press a lever to avoid the delivery of an electric shock, signaled by a visual cue, to a conspecific. They were then tested in a situation in which either a conspecific or a Styrofoam block was hoisted into the air and could be lowered by pressing a lever. Rats that had previous experience with conspecific distress demonstrated greater than ten-fold more responses to lower a distressed conspecific compared to rats in the control group, while those who had never experienced conspecific distress expressed greater than three-fold more responses to lower a distressed conspecific relative to the control group. This suggests that rats will actively work to reduce the distress of a conspecific, a phenomenon related to empathy. Comparable results have also been found in similar experiments designed for monkeys."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dentate gyrus",
        "text": "Some evidence seen in the mouse suggests that neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus increases in response to aerobic exercise. Several experiments have shown neurogenesis (the development of nerve tissues) often increases in the dentate gyrus of adult rodents when they are exposed to an enriched environment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adult neurogenesis",
        "text": "Scientists have shown that physical activity in the form of voluntary exercise results in an increase in the number of newborn neurons in the hippocampus of mice and rats. These and other studies have shown that learning in both species can be enhanced by physical exercise. Recent research has shown that brain-derived neurotrophic factor and insulin-like growth factor 1 are key mediators of exercise-induced neurogenesis. Exercise increases the production of BDNF, as well as the NR2B subunit of the NMDA receptor. Exercise increases the uptake of IGF-1 from the bloodstream into various brain regions, including the hippocampus. In addition, IGF-1 alters c-fos expression in the hippocampus. When IGF-1 is blocked, exercise no longer induces neurogenesis. Other research demonstrated that exercising mice that did not produce beta-endorphin, a mood-elevating hormone, had no change in neurogenesis. Yet, mice that did produce this hormone, along with exercise, exhibited an increase in newborn cells and their rate of survival."
      },
      {
        "title": "Experimental evolution",
        "text": "The HR mice exhibit an elevated maximal aerobic capacity when tested on a motorized treadmill. They also exhibit alterations in motivation and the reward system of the brain. Pharmacological studies point to alterations in dopamine function and the endocannabinoid system. The High Runner lines have been proposed as a model to study human attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and administration of Ritalin reduces their wheel running approximately to the levels of control mice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "At rest, the human brain receives 15% of total cardiac output, and uses 20% of the body's energy consumption. The brain is normally dependent for its high energy expenditure upon aerobic metabolism. The brain as a result is highly sensitive to failure of its oxygen supply with loss of consciousness occurring within six to seven seconds, with its EEG going flat in 23 seconds. Therefore, the brain's function would be disrupted if exercise affected its supply of oxygen and glucose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Four Fs (evolution)",
        "text": "In order to explore the influences of the hypothalamus as a drive on the four Fs, researchers lesioned the lateral areas of the hypothalamus of rats. This resulted in a reduction in the interest of eating (\"feeding\"). If these animals were not fed or cared for, they starved to death, even when enough food was present around them. The influence of the hypothalamus is also clear when researchers overstimulated the hypothalamus. When the lateral areas of the hypothalamus were treated with electrical brain stimulation (EBS), the animals would start eating uncontrollably, which resulted in gaining excess weight rapidly."
      },
      {
        "title": "JNJ-7925476",
        "text": "This is consistent with the results cited earlier for rat brains (see SAR table dated 1987)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Molecular neuroscience",
        "text": "Animal models such as rodents, \"Drosophila melanogaster\", and \"Caenorhabditis elegans\", have been used to observe the origins and/or extent of sex bias in the brain versus the hormone-producing gonads of an animal. With the rodents, studies on genetic manipulation of sex chromosomes resulted in an effect on one sex that was completely opposite of the effect in the other sex. For example, a knockout of a particular gene only resulted in anxiety-like effects in males. With studies on \"D. menlanogaster\" it was found that a large brain sex bias of expression occurred even after the gonads were removed, suggesting that sex bias could be independent of hormonal control in certain aspects."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cognitive neuroscience",
        "text": "Pierre Flourens, a French experimental psychologist, challenged the localizationist view by using animal experiments. He discovered that removing the cerebellum in rabbits and pigeons affected their sense of muscular coordination, and that all cognitive functions were disrupted in pigeons when the cerebral hemispheres were removed. From this he concluded that the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and brainstem functioned together as a whole. His approach has been criticised on the basis that the tests were not sensitive enough to notice selective deficits had they been present."
      },
      {
        "title": "Barnes maze",
        "text": "Due to the spatial nature of the Barnes Maze, damage to the hippocampus leads to deficits in performance of the task. An experiment done on degu, a specific rodent species, showed that there can be sex differences in performance on the Barnes Maze. During the task training where encoding would occur, females used more frequently a spatial strategy, while males preferably applied either serial, random or opposite strategies. In addition, it was noted that the spatial retention ability of female rats was largely dependent on the phase of their estrus cycle. The differences between males and females are found during the encoding period but not during the storage, indicating that acquisition and consolidation are differently influenced by sex in the Degu species."
      },
      {
        "title": "Decerebration",
        "text": "As a result, the animal loses certain reflexes that are integrated in different parts of the brain. Furthermore, the reflexes which are functional will be hyperreactive (and therefore very accentuated) due to the removal of inhibiting higher- brain centers (e.g. the facilitatory area of the reticular formation will not receive regulating input from cerebellum, basal ganglia and the cortex)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Psychological nativism",
        "text": "Scientists ran tests on the neuronal circuits of several rats and ascertained that if the neuronal circuits had only been formed based on an individual's experience, the tests would bring about very different characteristics for each rat. However, the rats all displayed similar characteristics which suggest that their neuronal circuits must have been established previously to their experiences. The Blue Brain Project research suggests that some of the \"building blocks\" of knowledge are genetic and present at birth."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emotion in animals",
        "text": "Several studies have also shown rodents can respond to a conditioned stimulus that has been associated with the distress of a conspecific, as if it were paired with the direct experience of an unconditioned stimulus. These studies suggest that rodents are capable of shared affect, a concept critical to empathy."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamster wheel",
        "text": "In rodents, voluntary exercise is almost always measured by the use of wheels. This makes running wheels the tool of choice in research on the effects of exercise and voluntary activity on metabolism, obesity, and pain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brain-to-body mass ratio",
        "text": "It is a trend that the larger the animal gets, the smaller the brain-to-body mass ratio is. Large whales have very small brains compared to their weight, and small rodents like mice have a relatively large brain, giving a brain-to-body mass ratio similar to humans. One explanation could be that as an animal's brain gets larger, the size of the neural cells remains the same, and more nerve cells will cause the brain to increase in size to a lesser degree than the rest of the body. This phenomenon can be described by an equation of the form E = CSr, where \"E\" and \"S\" are brain and body weights, \"r\" a constant that depends on animal family (but close to 2/3 in many vertebrates), and \"C\" is the cephalization factor. It has been argued that the animal's ecological niche, rather than its evolutionary family, is the main determinant of its encephalization factor \"C\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Zajonc",
        "text": "This finding was also replicated in rats who had their hypothalamus experimentally cooled or warmed via a small probe."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiological effects in space",
        "text": "This section summarizes the studies that have been conducted on animal subjects (such as rodents and non-human primates) that have been exposed either to spaceflight or (in the case of rodents) to the well accepted ground-based analog of hind-limb suspension (HS) to ascertain the effects of unloading states on the properties of muscle mass, strength, and endurance. The results presented herein overwhelmingly corroborate the body of evidence that has been reported on human subjects in the preceding sections of this report. Importantly, through the use of more cellular and molecular analyses, greater insights have been obtained into the underlying mechanisms associated with these alterations in muscle structure and function. Since the majority of evidence concerning the effects of spaceflight on mammalian skeletal muscle has been derived from rodent studies, the information provided here is focused mostly on the rodent model. It is important to point out that the structure and function of rodent skeletal muscle are nearly identical to those of human skeletal muscle. For example, rodent muscle is composed of the same general fiber-type profile and is sensitive to the same environmental (mechanical, hormonal, metabolic) cues observed for human muscle. Thus, the information summarized below provides credence to the data base derived from human subjects. However, it is important to point out that one primary advantage of the rodent model is that adaptive changes that occur in both species unfold in a much shorter time frame in rodents than in humans (hours to days versus days to weeks), making it possible to predict long-term changes in human skeletal muscle based on the shorter absolute time frame of the studies performed on rodents. Another important consideration in the context of animal research during spaceflight is that one can perform a straightforward experiment in which there is no requirement to provide some type of countermeasure intervention as there is for humans, and can thereby avoid the introduction of a confounding variable in ascertaining the true effects of spaceflight on a wide range of physiological variables. Also, given the remarkable agreement in the quantitative and qualitative nature of the findings observed in the spaceflight studies versus those obtained from ground-based HS studies, we have chosen to combine and integrate significant portions of the data that have been gathered in the last 25 years. This rodent data base in space life sciences research includes 14 flight experiments with 8 sponsored by the Russian Cosmos Program and 6 sponsored by NASA Space Life Sciences (SLS) and Space Transportation System (STS) missions. These flight experiments are complemented by numerous ground-based research studies that focused collectively on the topics described below. Most importantly, all of the data reported in this summary are derived from animal cohorts in which the control animals were studied from a synchronous vivarium group of the same age, strain, and gender, and the analyses were performed at the same time as that of the experimental groups. The provided information is based entirely on peer-reviewed experiments as detailed in the bibliography provided."
      },
      {
        "title": "Spatial cognition",
        "text": "In a study of two congeneric rodent species, sex differences in hippocampal size were predicted by sex-specific patterns of spatial cognition. Hippocampal size is known to correlate positively with maze performance in laboratory mouse strains and with selective pressure for spatial memory among passerine bird species. In polygamous vole species (Rodentia: Microtus), males range more widely than females in the field and perform better on laboratory measures of spatial ability; both of these differences are absent in monogamous vole species. Ten females and males were taken from natural populations of two vole species, the polygamous meadow vole, M. pennsylvanicus, and the monogamous pine vole, M. pinetorum. Only in the polygamous species do males have larger hippocampi relative to the entire brain than do females. This study shows that spatial cognition can vary depending on your gender."
      },
      {
        "title": "Animal psychopathology",
        "text": "Activity anorexia (AA) is a condition where rats begin to exercise excessively while simultaneously cutting down on their food intake, similar to human anorexia nervosa or hypergymnasia. When given free access to food and an exercise wheel, rats normally develop a balanced routine between exercise and food intake, which turns them into fit rats. However, if food intake is restricted and wheel access is unrestricted, rats begin to exercise more and eat less, resulting in excessive weight loss and, ultimately, death. The running cycles shift so that most of the running is done in hours before feeding is scheduled. In other conditions, AA does not develop. Unrestricted food access and restricted wheel access will not cause any significant change in either feeding or exercise routine. Also, if rats are restricted both in food intake and wheel access, they will adjust accordingly. In fact, if rats are first trained to the feeding schedule and then given unrestricted access to a running wheel, they will not develop AA behavior. Results support the notion that the running interferes with adaptation to the new feeding schedule and is associated with the reward system in the brain. One theory is that running simulates foraging, a natural behavior in wild rats. Laboratory rats therefore run (forage) more in response to food shortages. The effect of semi-starvation on activity has also been studied in primates. Rhesus macaque males become hyperactive in response to long-term chronic food restriction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catherine S. Woolley",
        "text": "The study showed that estradiol increased the number and density of excitatory synapses of CA1 pyramidal cells in the rat hippocampus, as well as the density of dendritic spines. Both estradiol and spine density fluctuated dramatically during the estrous cycle. Woolley recognized that this suggested that the adult brain was subject to change, at least in rats; this was surprising because it was accepted at that time that the adult brain was structurally stable. Woolley's 1990 work is considered a pioneering study in hormones and synaptic plasticity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Coolidge effect",
        "text": "Though there is not just a single reason for why males will choose a novel partner, there have been experiments that show that the major determining factor for detecting a novel partner is through olfactory preference. An experiment using Long-Evans rats, showed that odour played a major role in distinguishing the difference between a novel partner and familiar partner. In their experiment, Carr et al. paired each male rat with a female rat and allowed them to mate. Male rats were then tested for preference through the use of an apparatus which had two cylinders that were attached to their home cage, and contained the familiar female and the novel female in each cylinder. Caps at the end of these cylinders prevented access to the females, but had a hole in them to allow their odours to pass through to the male's cage. Before the testing phase, the females were removed, and then the caps were removed to allow the male to explore both cylinders. From this experiment, they found that males preferred the scent of the novel female. While these males did not have access to these females to demonstrate mating preferences, this odour preference is believed to reflect promiscuous behaviour, and therefore be important to the male mating strategy. In an earlier experiment, also conducted by Carr et al., they found that unlike male rats, female rats preferred the odour of a familiar partner rather than the odour of a novel partner. Another study also examined not only olfactory preference, but what part of the brain targeted the olfactory preference. In this study, male hamsters were given lesions to either the hippocampus or the perirhinal-entorhinal cortex, or received a sham treatment. Then the hamsters were allowed to mate with a female hamster until they became satiated. All subjects were then presented with two anesthetized females, one of whom was the female they had previously copulated with, while the other was a novel female. Hamsters with sham and hippocampal lesions investigated the anogenital region of the novel females for a significantly longer period of time in comparison to the familiar female. Males with lesions to the perirhinal-entorhinal cortex did not show a preference for either a familiar or novel female, and spent a similar amount of time investigating the anogenital region of both females. The results from this study revealed that the perirhinal-entorhinal cortex region of the brain in golden hamsters is crucial for the recognition of familiar conspecifics and certain social behaviors. The conclusion from this experiment was also consistent in rats and monkeys, since damage to this region of the brain impaired standard recognition memory, which would suggest that the hippocampal region of the brain is not crucial in social behavior memory, but rather, the perirhinal-entorhinal cortex."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diet-induced obesity model",
        "text": "Furthermore, the strain and sex of the rodent impacts the response to the model. Some common mouse strains show large variations in their level of resistance to obesity. Further variation is seen when the sex is also factored in; males of the S5B/P1 strain showed 12% weight gain, while females gained no weight at all. Even within a single strain, large amounts of variation in the phenotype can be seen, despite each mouse having identical genetic backgrounds, which greatly hinders reproducibility."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ordinal numerical competence",
        "text": "Experiments have shown that rats are able to be trained to press one lever after hearing two bursts of white noise, then press another lever after four bursts of white noise. The interburst interval is varied between trials so the discrimination is based on number of bursts and not time duration of the sequence. Studies show that rats as well as pigeons learned to make different responses to both short and long durations of signals. During testing, rats exhibited a pattern called \"break-run-break\"; when it came to responding after a stint of little to no response, they would suddenly respond in high frequency, then return to little or no response activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hey-Kyoung Lee",
        "text": "Lee trained as a postdoc in the lab of Richard Huganir at Johns Hopkins University, with whom she had previously collaborated as a graduate student. She found that older rats with uncompromised memory formation and cognition were still able to adjust the strength of synapses as opposed to those with compromised cognition, due to the utilization of a different mechanism than younger rats. Huganir and Lee ultimately devised with a three-stage model of AMPA receptor phosphorylation in synaptic plasticity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Gr\u00e9goire Courtine",
        "text": "Using targeted spinal cord stimulation neurotechnologies, Courtine and colleagues significantly contributed to the field of neurorehabilitation by publishing a number of studies successively reporting the restoration of voluntary locomotion in rats with partial and complete spinal cord injuries, in primates and in paralyzed human patients."
      },
      {
        "title": "Michael E. Greenberg",
        "text": "The Greenberg lab is also studying activity-dependent gene expression in human neurons, and is comparing this program of gene expression to other mammals and other primates. In 2016, he and his colleagues identified a gene that is selectively induced in human and primate brains following stimulation. They found that the gene, called osteocrin, while expressed in mouse bone and muscle, is not detected in rodent brains, and that its inducible expression in primate neurons is conferred by the evolution of DNA regulatory elements that bind the activity-dependent transcription factor, MEF2."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neuropeptide Y",
        "text": "In obesity chronically elevated levels of NPY can be seen, this has been seen in rats fed on a high fat diet for 22 weeks and resulted in a hormonal derangement that increased NPY release, due to a defective leptin signal compared to control rats. In humans increased levels of free NPY were found in obese women and not in their leaner counterparts, analysing human hypothalamus' for NPY concentration however is more difficult than rats. During weaning in rats there is an early expression of gene mutations that increase hypothalamic release of NPY in rats, however in humans multiple genes are commonly associated with the results of obesity and metabolic syndrome. In most obesity cases the increased secretion of NPY is a central / hypothalamic resistance to energy excess hormone signals such as leptin, that can be a result of a variety of reasons in the CNS. In rodents resistant to obesity when fed on an obesogenic diet they had a significantly lower amount of NPY receptor in the hypothalamus suggesting an increased activity of NPY neurons in obese rats meaning that the reduction in the release of NPY may be beneficial to the reduction of obesity incidence alongside the consumption of a healthy diet and exercise. This would need to be seen in human research before looking at this avenue of weight loss although currently there is some evidence that suggests NPY is a significant predictor in weight regain after weight loss to maintain old levels of energy storage."
      },
      {
        "title": "Benjamin Weiss (scientist)",
        "text": "31. Strada, S.J. and Weiss, B.: Increased response to catecholamines of the cyclic AMP system of rat pineal gland induced by decreased sympathetic activity. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 160:197- 204, 1974."
      },
      {
        "title": "Bryan Kolb",
        "text": "While working with Mike Warren at Penn State, Kolb became interested in the prefrontal cortex. Warren was doing work comparing the prefrontal cortex of cats and monkeys, which led Kolb to wonder if rodents had a prefrontal cortex. A seminal paper by Christiana Leonard provided an anatomical basis for this possibility, leading to Kolb's demonstration that rodents have frontal areas that appear homologous to prefrontal areas in the primate. Although the rodent prefrontal cortex is millions of evolutionary years removed from that of primates, including humans, his work showed that laboratory rodents could provide a useful model for studying cognitive, motor, and emotional functions of the prefrontal cortex. In parallel, Kolb began to study the role of age in understanding the effects of early brain injury and he published seminal papers showing that the effects of early brain injury varied exquisitely with the precise age and that at certain ages there was remarkable neuronal plasticity leading to functional restitution whereas at other ages the outcome was abysmal. Later studies with longtime colleague Robbin Gibb showed that both pre- and post brain injury treatments at all ages could enhance functional recovery. Kolb was the first to show that some treatments stimulate neurogenesis in the neocortex, which underlies some of the recovery."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cognitive bias in animals",
        "text": "Using the cognitive bias approach, it has been found that rats which are subjected to either handling or playful, experimenter-administered manual stimulation (tickling) showed different responses to the intermediate stimulus: rats exposed to tickling were more optimistic. The authors stated that they had demonstrated \"...for the first time a link between the directly measured positive affective state and decision making under uncertainty in an animal model\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert Zajonc",
        "text": "Zajonc was also interested in manipulation of hypothalamic temperature to see if the attractiveness to stimuli could be moderated by changes in cephalic blood temperature. He created two experiments to examine the attractiveness and pleasure of food in rats during hypothalamic cooling or hypothalamic eating."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pavan Ramdya",
        "text": "Ramdya's research is focused on reverse-engineering biological neuromechanical control to inspire the development of artificial systems that can mimic the flexibility and agility of animal behaviors. Specifically, he studies limb-dependent behaviors in \"Drosophila melanogaster\", employing an interdisciplinary approach which draws on genetic manipulations, neural and behavioral recordings, and physics-based neural network models and simulations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Calorie restriction",
        "text": "Calorie restriction preserves muscle tissue in nonhuman primates and rodents. Mechanisms include reduced muscle cell apoptosis and inflammation; protection against or adaptation to age-related mitochondrial abnormalities; and preserved muscle stem cell function. Muscle tissue grows when stimulated, so it has been suggested that the calorie-restricted test animals exercised more than their companions on higher calories, perhaps because animals enter a foraging state during calorie restriction. However, studies show that overall activity levels are no higher in calorie restriction than ad libitum animals in youth. Laboratory rodents placed on a calorie restriction diet tend to exhibit increased activity levels (particularly when provided with exercise equipment) at feeding time. Monkeys undergoing calorie restriction also appear more restless immediately before and after meals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Animal testing on rodents",
        "text": "For example, researchers have found that many rats and mice in laboratories are obese from excess food and minimal exercise which alters their physiology and drug metabolism. Many laboratory animals, including mice and rats, are chronically stressed which can also negatively affect research outcomes and the ability to accurately extrapolate findings to humans. Researchers have also noted that many studies involving mice, rats and other rodents are poorly designed, leading to questionable findings. One explanation for deficiencies in studies of rodents housed in laboratory cages is that they lack access to environmental agency and thus the ongoing freedom to make decisions and experience their consequences. By housing rodents under extreme impoverished conditions, these captive animals bear diminished resemblance to humans or their wild conspecifics."
      },
      {
        "title": "Altitude training",
        "text": "In a study comparing rats active at high altitude versus rats active at sea level, with two sedentary control groups, it was observed that muscle fiber types changed according to homeostatic challenges which led to an increased metabolic efficiency during the beta oxidative cycle and citric acid cycle, showing an increased utilization of ATP for aerobic performance."
      },
      {
        "title": "John Walsh (American scientist)",
        "text": "Kintz N, Petzinger G, Akopian G, Ptasnik S, Williams C, Jakowec M, Walsh J. Exercise modifies \u00e1-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic-acid receptor (AMPAR) expression in striatopallidal neurons in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-(MPTP)-Lesioned Mouse. J Nsci Res, 91:1492-1507, 2013."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "In July 2020 scientists reported that after mice exercise their livers secrete the protein GPLD1, which is also elevated in elderly humans who exercise regularly, that this is associated with improved cognitive function in aged mice and that increasing the amount of GPLD1 produced by the mouse liver in old mice via genetic engineering could yield many benefits of regular exercise for their brains \u2013 such as increased BDNF-levels, neurogenesis, and improved cognitive functioning in tests."
      },
      {
        "title": "ANA-12",
        "text": "ANA-12 blocks the cognitive-enhancing effects of environmental enrichment and calorie restriction in rodents, which are mediated by BDNF signaling through TrkB in the hippocampus. It also blocks hippocampal neurogenesis induced by physical exercise in rodents, and may block the cognitive-enhancing effects of exercise as well."
      },
      {
        "title": "Selective amnesia",
        "text": "In an experiment investigating the functional role of the entorhinal cortex entorhinal cortex pars medialis in memory formation, H\u00f6lscher and Schmidt (1994) found that they could produce selective amnesia for specific types of memories by creating lesions that is painful in the brains of rats. In this experiment, both lesioned and non-lesioned rats were placed in an eight-armed maze with food in one of the arms. The rats had to orientate themselves to their surroundings to find the food. Rats with lesions showed significant memory problems, including memory failure and increased memory retrieval times, during trials in which they had to orient themselves using distal cues, the most distant cues. The researcher labeled these memory problems as selective amnesia. They also found that lesion-ed rats had a more difficult time finding the food when it was moved to a different arm. When the lesion-ed rats had to orient themselves in an egocentric egocentric test using proprioceptive proprioceptive cue, there were no detectable memory defects. This finding suggests that the type of memory a subject is trying to remember may influence the subject's susceptibility to selective amnesia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Large irregular activity",
        "text": "EEG signals picked up in the human (or any large mammalian) cerebral cortex are quite small and diffuse and from the deeper smaller hippocampus they are much more difficult to register. This has meant the study of hippocampal activity has been largely restricted to that of the rat and less often the mouse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Number sense in animals",
        "text": "The experimental setup for the study of numerical cognition in animals was further enriched by the work of Francis and Platt and Johnson. In their experiments, the researchers deprived rats of food and then taught them to press a lever a specific number of times to obtain food. The rats learned to press the lever approximately the number of times specified by the researchers. Additionally, the researchers showed that rats' behavior was dependent on the number of required presses, and not for example on the time of pressing, as they varied the experiment to include faster and slower behavior on the rat's part by controlling how hungry the animal was."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neuroethology",
        "text": "Ewert and coworkers adopted a variety of methods to study the predator versus prey behavior response. They conducted recording experiments where they inserted electrodes into the brain, while the toad was presented with worm or anti-worm stimuli. This technique was repeated at different levels of the visual system and also allowed feature detectors to be identified. In focus was the discovery of prey-selective neurons in the optic tectum, whose axons could be traced towards the snapping pattern generating cells in the hypoglossal nucleus. The discharge patterns of prey-selective tectal neurons in response to prey objects \u2013 in freely moving toads \u2013 \"predicted\" prey-catching reactions such as snapping. Another approach, called stimulation experiment, was carried out in freely moving toads. Focal electrical stimuli were applied to different regions of the brain, and the toad's response was observed. When the thalamic-pretectal region was stimulated, the toad exhibited escape responses, but when the tectum was stimulated in an area close to prey-selective neurons, the toad engaged in prey catching behavior (Carew 2000). Furthermore, neuroanatomical experiments were carried out where the toad's thalamic-pretectal/tectal connection was lesioned and the resulting deficit noted: the prey-selective properties were abolished both in the responses of prey-selective neurons and in the prey catching behavior. These and other experiments suggest that prey selectivity results from pretecto-tectal influences."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "However, data from rodents and humans have shown that pharmacological blockade of endogenous endorphins does not prevent the development of a runner's high, while blockade of endocannabinoids does."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus",
        "text": "Researchers looked at a series of twenty-one animals of various degrees of adiposity, with respect to growth appearance, fat distribution, general physical condition, and the correlation between the level of adiposity attained and the correlation of the hypothalamic lesion. Lesions in the hypothalamic area, particularly the region of the ventromedial hypothalamus interrupts a large number of the descending fibers from the hypothalamic cell groups that were found to contribute to obesity in rats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiological effects in space",
        "text": "Thus, it is apparent that skeletal muscle fibers of humans, monkeys, and rodents share similar patterns of myofiber alterations that, in the case of monkeys and humans, are also linked to altered motor performance in response to different states of unloading, reduced usage, and return to an Earth gravitational environment."
      },
      {
        "title": "AMP-activated protein kinase",
        "text": "A seemingly paradoxical role of AMPK occurs when we take a closer look at the energy-sensing enzyme in relation to exercise and long-term training. Similar to short-term acute training scale, long-term endurance training studies also reveal increases in oxidative metabolic enzymes, GLUT-4, mitochondrial size and quantity, and an increased dependency on the oxidation of fatty acids; however, Winder et al. reported in 2002 that despite observing these increased oxidative biochemical adaptations to long-term endurance training (similar to those mentioned above), the AMPK response (activation of AMPK with the onset of exercise) to acute bouts of exercise decreased in red quadriceps (RQ) with training (3 \u2013 see Fig.1). Conversely, the study did not observe the same results in white quadriceps (WQ) and soleus (SOL) muscles that they did in RQ. The trained rats used for that endurance study ran on treadmills 5 days/wk in two 1-h sessions, morning and afternoon. The rats were also running up to 31m/min (grade 15%). Finally, following training, the rats were sacrificed either at rest or following 10 minutes of exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Humans are specifically adapted to engage in prolonged strenuous muscular activity (such as efficient long distance bipedal running). This capacity for endurance running may have evolved to allow the running down of game animals by persistent slow but constant chase over many hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "D. James Surmeier",
        "text": "Aa a graduate student, Surmeier characterized the physiological and anatomic heterogeneity in the slowly adapting proprioceptive neurons in the cat cuneate nucleus before going on to study the primate spinothalamic neurons and the effect of noxious thermal stimulation on their physiology. It was in Kitai's lab that he first became interested in the basal ganglia and started investigating the effects of dopamine in the brain, a fundamental question that has driven a lot of his subsequent research as an independent scientist."
      },
      {
        "title": "Nutritional neuroscience",
        "text": "In an experiment by Chongqing Medical University pregnant rats were either plentiful in vitamin A or were of a vitamin A deficiency (VAD) due to their diet. The offspring of these rats were then tested in a water maze at 8 weeks old and it was found the VAD offspring had a harder time finishing the maze which helps show that these rats, even while having a deficiency from \"in utero\", have more problems with learning memory. Young rats in a separate study by the same university also showed impaired long-term potentiation in the hippocampus when they were VAD which shows neuronal impairment. When the patient is VAD for too long, the effects of the damage to the hippocampus can be irreversible."
      },
      {
        "title": "Postpartum depression",
        "text": "More robust studies on neural activation regarding PPD have been conducted with rodents than humans. These studies have allowed for greater isolation of specific brain regions, neurotransmitters, hormones, and steroids."
      },
      {
        "title": "Entorhinal cortex",
        "text": "In rodents, neurons in the lateral entorhinal cortex exhibit little spatial selectivity, whereas neurons of the medial entorhinal cortex (MEC), exhibit multiple \"place fields\" that are arranged in a hexagonal pattern, and are, therefore, called \"grid cells\". These fields and spacing between fields increase from the dorso-lateral MEA to the ventro-medial MEA."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adult neurogenesis",
        "text": "Studies show that rats with inhibited adult neurogenesis demonstrate difficulty in differentiating and learning contextualized fear conditioning. Rats with blocked adult neurogenesis also show impaired differential freezing when they are required to differentiate between similar contexts. This also affects their spatial recognition in radial arm maze tests when the arms are closer together rather than when they are further apart. A meta-analysis of behavioral studies evaluating the effect of neurogenesis in different pattern separation tests has shown a consistent effect of neurogenesis ablation on performance, although there are exceptions in the literature. \""
      },
      {
        "title": "Brain stimulation reward",
        "text": "Rats will perform lever-pressing at rates of several thousand responses per hour for days in exchange for direct electrical stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus. Multiple studies have demonstrated that rats will perform reinforced behaviors at the exclusion of all other behaviors. Experiments have shown rats will forgo food to the point of starvation in exchange for brain stimulation or intravenous cocaine when both food and stimulation are offered concurrently for a limited time each day. Rats will also cross electrified grids to press a lever, and they are willing to withstand higher levels of shock to obtain electrical stimulation than to obtain food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Encephalization quotient",
        "text": "Brain size usually increases with body size in animals (is positively correlated), i.e. large animals usually have larger brains than smaller animals. The relationship is not linear, however. Generally, small mammals have relatively larger brains than big ones. Mice have a direct brain/body size ratio similar to humans (), while elephants have a comparatively small brain/body size (), despite being quite intelligent animals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiological effects in space",
        "text": "When animals return from spaceflight of even short duration (days), their basic activity patterns are altered. The center of gravity in rats is much lower than normal. They no longer support their body weight and initiate movement off the balls of their feet, and the ankle joint assumes an exaggerated dorsiflexed position. Movement for most voluntary activities is much slower and more deliberate (the animals cover smaller distances per unit time), and the animals spend significantly less time in bipedal stances. Furthermore, the rodents use their tails for basic support to a greater degree, based on observations by the investigators. Thus, rodent motor skills and basic locomotor capability have less fidelity and capacity during posture maintenance and locomotion during the early stages of recovery; however, by 9 days after flight the activity properties return to those seen in normal conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Catherine S. Woolley",
        "text": "Her earliest work included a pioneering study demonstrating that estrogen caused structural changes to cells in the rat hippocampus. She has also shown that neuronal mechanisms in the rat brain differ in males and females. Her work has broad significance for drug development and women's health, and for the studies of epilepsy, anxiety and depression."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neuropeptide Y",
        "text": "A study in genetically obese rats demonstrated the role of NPY in obesity. Four underlying factors that contribute to obesity in rats are:\n* an increase in glucocorticosteroid concentrations in plasma;\n* insensitivity or resistance to insulin;\n* mutation of leptin receptor; and\n* an increase in NPY mRNA and NPY release."
      },
      {
        "title": "Environmental enrichment",
        "text": "Though environmental enrichment research has been mostly done upon rodents, similar effects occur in primates, and are likely to affect the human brain. However, direct research upon human synapses and their numbers is limited since this requires histological study of the brain. A link, however, has been found between educational level and greater dendritic branch complexity following autopsy removal of the brain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerebral autoregulation",
        "text": "The vascular smooth muscle actuators in the resistance arterioles are controlled via sympathetic innervation, receiving the input from the appropriate brainstem autonomous control center. Nitric oxide released by parasympathetic fibers may also play a role."
      },
      {
        "title": "Animal disease model",
        "text": "Many animal models serving as test subjects in biomedical research, such as rats and mice, may be selectively sedentary, obese and glucose intolerant. This may confound their use to model human metabolic processes and diseases as these can be affected by dietary energy intake and exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis",
        "text": "Depending on the antigen used and the genetic make-up of the animal, rodents can display a monophasic bout of EAE, a relapsing-remitting form, or chronic EAE. The typical susceptible rodent will debut with clinical symptoms around two weeks after immunization and present with a relapsing-remitting disease. The archetypical first clinical symptom is weakness of tail tonus that progresses to paralysis of the tail, followed by a progression up the body to affect the hind limbs and finally the forelimbs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Domestication of animals",
        "text": "The sustained selection for lowered reactivity among mammal domesticates has resulted in profound changes in brain form and function. The larger the size of the brain to begin with and the greater its degree of folding, the greater the degree of brain-size reduction under domestication. Foxes that had been selectively bred for tameness over 40 years had experienced a significant reduction in cranial height and width and by inference in brain size, which supports the hypothesis that brain-size reduction is an early response to the selective pressure for tameness and lowered reactivity that is the universal feature of animal domestication. The most affected portion of the brain in domestic mammals is the limbic system, which in domestic dogs, pigs, and sheep show a 40% reduction in size compared with their wild species. This portion of the brain regulates endocrine function that influences behaviors such as aggression, wariness, and responses to environmentally induced stress, all attributes which are dramatically affected by domestication."
      },
      {
        "title": "Elizabeth Gould (psychologist)",
        "text": "Gould\u2019s team has observed that many new cells in the hippocampus of adult rats and monkeys do not survive in animals living under standard laboratory conditions. In rodents, they discovered that these cells can be rescued by exposing the animals to more complex environments. These results they believe reflect the deprived laboratory conditions in which experimental animals live. This they also suspect is a phenomenon, that is probably, even more pronounced in primates with higher social needs than in rodents. The Gould team is continuing to explore this issue by examining the brains of adult rats living in a visible burrow system and adult monkeys living in semi-naturalistic conditions with opportunities for foraging and other natural activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Wendy Chung",
        "text": "Her research \"relates to the molecular genetics of obesity and diabetes in rodents and humans, the genetic basis of congenital heart disease, cardiomyopathies, arrhythmias, long QT Syndrome, pulmonary hypertension, endocrinopathies, congenital diaphragmatic hernias, cleft lip/cleft palate, seizures, mental retardation, inherited metabolic conditions and breast and pancreatic cancer susceptibility.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Psychological dependence",
        "text": "Another study tested whether swimming exercises affected the intensity of perceivable psychological symptoms in rodents during morphine withdrawal. It concluded that the anxious and depressive states of the withdrawal were reduced in rats from the exercise group."
      },
      {
        "title": "JNJ-7925476",
        "text": "However, there is relatively poor correlation between the in vitro data presented for rats brains vs what was reported at the human transporters."
      },
      {
        "title": "Ventral tegmental area",
        "text": "All studies since 1964 have emphasized the impressive general similarity between the VTA of all mammals from rodents to humans. These studies have focused their efforts on rats, rabbits, dogs, cats, opossum, non-human primates, and humans. There have been slight differences noted, such as changes in the dorsal extent of the A10 cells. To be specific, the dorsal peak of A10 cells is more extensive in primates when compared to other mammals. Furthermore, the number of dopaminergic cells in the VTA increases with phylogenetic progression; for instance, the VTA of the mouse contains approximately 25,000 neurons, while the VTA of a 33-year-old man contains around 450,000 cell bodies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Jesper Mogensen",
        "text": "Some of his new research conducted on rats suggests that a combination of stress and exercise could shorten rehabilitation time after a potential stroke. Summarized by Niels Ebdrup: \"Professor Mogensen's research in rats can explain the mystery of how human beings can relearn how to talk and find their way around despite damage to a significant part of the brain.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Yale Interdisciplinary Center for Bioethics",
        "text": "Director Stephen Latham was contacted by a Croatian neuroscience team led by Dr. Nenad Sestan that had restored circulation and cellular function in a pig's brain \"ex vivo\". The YICB ultimately agreed that there was no legal precedent against Sestan's team, but that it was in an ethical gray area. Latham further remarked that guidelines regarding such practices must be established before more, similar experiments are carried out."
      },
      {
        "title": "Testosterone",
        "text": "Studies conducted in rats have indicated that their degree of sexual arousal is sensitive to reductions in testosterone. When testosterone-deprived rats were given medium levels of testosterone, their sexual behaviours (copulation, partner preference, etc.) resumed, but not when given low amounts of the same hormone. Therefore, these mammals may provide a model for studying clinical populations among humans suffering from sexual arousal deficits such as hypoactive sexual desire disorder."
      },
      {
        "title": "Angela Grippo",
        "text": "Grippo uses animal models to identify significant associations between stress, mood, and cardiovascular dysregulation. Several of her studies have used rats to explore how mood influences autonomic nervous system activity and immune response, and its potential impact on cardiovascular functioning. In one of her studies with Sprague\u2212Dawley rats, exposure to unpredictable stress led to anhedonia, operationally defined as a reduction in the animal's intake of sucrose without any associated change in its intake of water and used as an indicator of depression in the animal model. Of potential clinical relevance, the researchers identified links between the occurrence of anhedonia and significant changes in levels of cytokine and stress hormones (e.g., corticosterone) in the rats' blood plasma."
      },
      {
        "title": "Marc Breedlove",
        "text": "Breedlove examined the sex differences in animals to gain an understanding of the sex differences in humans. It was found in rats that the males had more cell numbers in the spinal nucleus of the bulbocavernosus (SNB) than the female rats. These motor neurons appear in both male and female rats, but fade with age in the female rats. Testosterone was also found as the key hormone that is responsible for the differences between males and females."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hailan Hu",
        "text": "Hu and her team study the neural circuit mechanisms driving depression in rodent models. They found in 2013 that the lateral habenula (LHb) circuits play a role in depression through neuronal adaptations associated with the enzyme BCamKII upregulation. Increases in BCamKII lead to increased excitatory synaptic transmission and action potential firing through increased expression of a specific subtype of glutamate receptors. Overall habenular hyperactivity was associated with depressive phenotypes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reactive oxygen species",
        "text": "In 2016 Halder et al. using mice, and in 2017 Duke et al. using rats, subjected the rodents to contextual fear conditioning, causing an especially strong long-term memory to form. At 24 hours after the conditioning, in the hippocampus of rats, the expression of 1,048 genes was down-regulated (usually associated with hypermethylated gene promoters) and the expression of 564 genes was up-regulated (often associated with hypomethylated gene promoters). At 24 hours after training, 9.2% of the genes in the rat genome of hippocampus neurons were differentially methylated. However while the hippocampus is essential for learning new information it does not store information itself. In the mouse experiments of Halder, 1,206 differentially methylated genes were seen in the hippocampus one hour after contextual fear conditioning but these were reversed and not seen after four weeks. In contrast with the absence of long-term methylation changes in the hippocampus, substantial differential methylation could be detected in cortical neurons during memory maintenance. There were 1,223 differentially methylated genes in the anterior cingulate cortex of mice four weeks after contextual fear conditioning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rodent",
        "text": "Metabolism of thyroid hormones and iodine in the mediobasal hypothalamus changes in response to photoperiod. Thyroid hormones in turn induce reproductive changes. This is found by Watanabe et al 2004 and 2007, Barrett et al 2007, Freeman et al 2007, and Herwig et al 2009 in Siberian hamsters, Revel et al 2006 and Yasuo et al 2007 in Syrian hamsters, Yasuo et al 2007 and Ross et al 2011 in rats, and Ono et al 2008 in mice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Non-reproductive sexual behavior in animals",
        "text": "Recent studies using positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has provided evidence proving that chemical changes that occur with emotions are similar between humans and non-human animals. In a study comparing guinea pigs and humans, it was determined that the distress experienced by offspring separation in a guinea pig and a human going through depression activates the same region of the brain. The opiate receptor was also examined, allowing observation of the pleasure stimuli. In the procedure both a human and a rat had their receptors blocked with a certain drug. Once receptors were blocked, both the rat and the human were exposed to pleasurable food, but both were disinclined to eat the food."
      },
      {
        "title": "Danielle Reed",
        "text": "Danielle Reed began her training as a scientist in the laboratory of Stephen Woods at the University of Washington, studying the role of hormonal signals on food intake in rodents. She did her doctoral dissertation with Judith Rodin at Yale University and Mark Friedman (scientist) at the Monell Chemical Senses Center, focusing on how rodent metabolism changes in response to short term exposure to high-fat diets. As a postdoctoral fellow in the laboratory of Arlen Price at the University of Pennsylvania, she learned human genetics, focusing on mapping of genes for human obesity and taste using family-based linkage methods."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fear conditioning",
        "text": "As shown in the rodent brain, neuronal gene expression is dynamically changed in response to fear conditioning. In particular, the expressions of immediate early genes (IEGs) such as \"Egr1\", \"c-Fos\", and \"Arc\" are rapidly and selectively up-regulated in subsets of neurons in specific brain regions associated with learning and memory formation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Parabiosis",
        "text": "One limitation of the experiments is that outbred rats cannot be used because it can lead to a significant loss of pairs due to intoxication of the blood supply from a dissimilar rat."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rajiv Ratan",
        "text": "Ratan's scientific efforts primarily focus on understanding how neurons respond to physiological stresses, particularly oxidative stress, adaptively and maladaptively at a transcriptional level, and how the balance of these activities leads to neuronal death and impairment, or cell survival and recovery or resistance. He has published over 160 articles and has edited and contributed chapters to books. Ratan's studies have identified novel transcriptional and epigenetic strategies for limiting neuronal ferroptosis which have identified novel small molecule approach which have been validated in numerous neurological disease models."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiological effects in space",
        "text": "To our knowledge the only other species besides the rat that has been involved in spaceflight studies on skeletal muscle is the rhesus monkey. Two monkeys were flown in space for 14 days on the Bion 11 satellite. They were compared to ground-based vivarium control animals as well as a chair- restricted group that involved immobilization of the upper arm and shoulder. The results from these studies provided the following insights. Individual fibers (slow and fast) of the monkey displayed functional properties that were more closely aligned to those of human fibers than to those of rodents, in that the fibers were larger but less powerful per unit cross-sectional area than rodent fibers. However, in pre- versus postflight analyses of single fibers, slow fibers in both the slow-twitch soleus and triceps muscles underwent greater atrophy and reductions in force and power production than fast-twitch fibers. Also, transformations in the myosin heavy chain profile indicated that there was a greater level of hybrid slow/fast fibers in the two different muscle groups. Immobilization of the triceps muscle group produced similar responses, but the magnitude of change was much less than that in the spaceflight animals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Sex differences in human physiology",
        "text": "Selective pressures of evolution can cause innate biological brain differences before a child is even born. Research done on vervet monkeys showed that male and female monkeys gravitated towards sex-typical preferred toys. This study controls for external societal influence by using monkeys as the subject and projects results to humans, the closest animal relative. A separate study was done on one-day-old infants to see if infants diverted attention differently between the sexes. Results showed that there must be some innate mechanism that differs between the sexes. This innate mechanism is evolutionary in the sense that the hormones for females are concurrently passed down to other females, and the same with males."
      },
      {
        "title": "Remote ischemic conditioning",
        "text": "Reduced cerebral blood flow is an early finding in vascular cognitive impairment (VCI). Cardiovascular risk factor control is currently the only management option for VCI, but observational studies suggest that exercise slows down cognitive decline. In a mouse model that reproduced the damage seen in patients with VCI (white matter damage, cerebral hypoperfusion, inflammation, blood\u2013brain barrier damage, and cognitive deficits), daily RIC for two weeks increased cerebral blood flow, and this increase persisted for one week after cessation of conditioning. Moreover, mice that underwent RIC had less inflammation, less white and gray matter damage, less \u03b2\u2011amyloid deposition, and improved cognition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiological effects in space",
        "text": "While recorded observations during spaceflight are less extensive in rodents (due to fewer flight missions with opportunities for astronauts or payload specialists to observe them), the available data suggest that rodents rely less on the hindlimbs for executing most movement patterns (as is the case for humans). During spaceflight, their ankles appear to assume a plantar flexed position that may reduce the passive tension (force) imposed on the triceps surae group, of which the anti-gravity slow-twitch soleus muscle is a chief component. A similar posture has been observed in the ground-based analog of HS. This posture is thought to affect the residual tension placed on this muscle group in the absence of a normal weight-bearing state, that is, the ankle plantar flexor muscle group becomes truly unloaded. While electromyographic studies on adult rodents have not been conducted during spaceflight, studies performed on rodents during chronic HS indicate that only a transient reduction occurs in electrical activity of the ankle plantar flexor muscles (soleus and medial gastrocnemius). This pattern of activity is consistent with the posture of the muscle and the maintenance of muscle mass during the 28-day time frame of the experiment. That is, the EMG activity was well maintained, while the ongoing atrophy was maintained. These findings reinforce the notion that it is the mechanical activity rather than the electrical activity imposed on the muscle that is essential to maintaining physiological homeostasis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Erica Glasper",
        "text": "In 2004, while completing her doctoral degree, she worked with Courtney DeVries and Brian Pendergast to investigate the effect of social contact on animal wound healing. Their results demonstrated that stressed hamsters showed accelerated healing of skin wounds when paired with a sibling. Alternatively, in another study, they found that non-monogamous male deer mice who mated with multiple females during a breeding season did not show a difference in wound healing rate compared to when they were alone. Further work published in the European Journal of Neuroscience showed that mice with a history of cardiac arrest were hindered in learning a new spatial task compared to healthy mice. This was reflected structurally as an 18% decrease in hippocampal dendritic spine density in cardiac arrest mice compared to controls. While collaborating with Elizabeth Gould in July 2010, Glasper and fellow postdoctoral student Benedetta Leuner found that sexually active rodents were less anxious than rats without sexual experience and showed a comparative increase in hippocampal neurons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Conditioned place preference",
        "text": "When rats experience stress in the form of foot-shock or noise, changes occur in the norepinephrine system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. These changes have a high impact on the reinstatement conditioned place preference. Stress stimulates the release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) from the rat's hypothalamus which leads to a series of changes through the pituitary gland in the brain to release glucocorticoids from the adrenal glands. CRH also stimulates the release of neurotransmitter in the hypothalamic regions of the brain to mediate stress-induced changes in brain activity This system plays a key role in the reinstatement of conditioned place preference. CRH acts as a neurotransmitter in regions of the brain including the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and the amygdala. Reinstatement of conditioned place preference has shown to be blocked when antagonists for CRH receptors are injected into the BNST. In other words, the effects of stress on reinstatement can be inhibited by blocking the receptor sites for CRH in certain areas of the brain. The neurotransmitter noradrenaline also plays a role in stress-induced reinstatement. Blockage of certain noradrenergic receptors inhibit stress-induced reinstatement. Furthermore, disinhibition of areas of the brain which inhibit the release of noradrenaline also nullifies the effect of stress-induced reinstatement. Together, the noradrenaline and CRH systems play a key role in the stress-induced reinstatement of conditioned place preference and provide knowledge of the neurochemical basis of stress-induced relapse."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rat",
        "text": "Multiple studies have explored the thermoregulatory capacity of rodent tails by subjecting test organisms to varying levels of physical activity and quantifying heat conduction via the animals' tails. One study demonstrated a significant disparity in heat dissipation from a rat's tail relative to its abdomen. This observation was attributed to the higher proportion of vascularity in the tail, as well as its higher surface-area-to-volume ratio, which directly relates to heat's ability to dissipate via the skin. These findings were confirmed in a separate study analyzing the relationships of heat storage and mechanical efficiency in rodents that exercise in warm environments. In this study, the tail was a focal point in measuring heat accumulation and modulation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Susana Lima",
        "text": "During her postdoctoral training in Anthony Zador\u2019s lab, Lima used optogenetic tools to develop a new method to identify neuronal subtypes in vivo on the rodent auditory cortex. This technique was called optotagging. After her accomplishments at Cold Spring Harbor, she returned to Portugal in 2008 and became part of the Champalimaud Neuroscience Program."
      },
      {
        "title": "Organisms at high altitude",
        "text": "Other physiological changes that occur in rodents at high altitude include increased breathing rate and altered morphology of the lungs and heart, allowing more efficient gas exchange and delivery. Lungs of high-altitude mice are larger, with more capillaries, and their hearts have a heavier right ventricle (the latter applies to rats too), which pumps blood to the lungs."
      },
      {
        "title": "External inhibition",
        "text": "The 1941 study by Gagn\u00e9 attempted to identify the effect of two different external stimuli (buzzer, and scratching on the back of the starting box) on rats, while applied during acquisition and extinction, to identify the effect on the strength of the conditioned operant response. Five groups of rats were used, however the differences in the latent period were hypothesized to be observed in the following conditions if it existed in comparison to a control group that did not introduce any external stimuli, 1) buzzer on the first trial of acquisition, 2) scratch on the first trial of acquisition, 3) buzzer on the fourth trial of acquisition, 4) scratch on the fourth trial of acquisition, 5) buzzer on the fifth trial of extinction, and 6) scratch on the fifth trial of extinction. For each experimental procedure, the buzzer was sounded for four seconds and stopped for two seconds before the beginning of the next trial; the scratching continued until the rat turned around to face the back of the starting box."
      },
      {
        "title": "Betty Twarog",
        "text": "as a place to continue her study of her hypothesis that invertebrate neurotransmitters would also be found in mammals."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What negative consequences has exercise physiology discovered?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "That's a really broad question! Would you like me to narrow it down to the negative consequences it discovered about dehydration, Cerebral autoregulation, hyperthermia, fatigue, or something else?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Could you tell me about the negative consequences found for the cerebral autoregulation?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I don't have an specific example of the negative consequences of cerebral autoregulation, but the brain's priority to cardiac output can be impaired slightly by exhaustive exercise."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What selective breeding experiments have been done with rodents to study Exercise physiology?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Laboratory rats have been bred for high or low performance on a motorized treadmill with electrical stimulation as motivation, and in an experimental evolution approach, four replicate lines of laboratory mice have been bred for high levels of voluntary exercise on wheels, while four additional control lines are maintained by breeding without regard to the amount of wheel running.",
      "Laboratory rats have been bred for high or low performance on motorized treadmills and electrical stimulation is the motivation. An experimental evolution approach was done as well where  four replicate lines of laboratory mice were bred for high levels of voluntary exercise while another four were not, the selected lines showed increased endurance capacity but the cause of fatigue was not determined in either of the mentioned experiments."
    ],
    "topic": "Exercise physiology",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise physiology:35",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise physiology",
          "Selective breeding experiments with rodents"
        ],
        "ctx": "Rodents have been specifically bred for exercise behavior or performance in several different studies. For example, laboratory rats have been bred for high or low performance on a motorized treadmill with electrical stimulation as motivation. The high-performance line of rats also exhibits increased voluntary wheel-running behavior as compared with the low-capacity line. In an experimental evolution approach, four replicate lines of laboratory mice have been bred for high levels of voluntary exercise on wheels, while four additional control lines are maintained by breeding without regard to the amount of wheel running. These selected lines of mice also show increased endurance capacity in tests of forced endurance capacity on a motorized treadmill. However, in neither selection experiment have the precise causes of fatigue during either forced or voluntary exercise been determined."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise physiology:35",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise physiology",
          "Selective breeding experiments with rodents"
        ],
        "ctx": "Rodents have been specifically bred for exercise behavior or performance in several different studies. For example, laboratory rats have been bred for high or low performance on a motorized treadmill with electrical stimulation as motivation. The high-performance line of rats also exhibits increased voluntary wheel-running behavior as compared with the low-capacity line. In an experimental evolution approach, four replicate lines of laboratory mice have been bred for high levels of voluntary exercise on wheels, while four additional control lines are maintained by breeding without regard to the amount of wheel running. These selected lines of mice also show increased endurance capacity in tests of forced endurance capacity on a motorized treadmill. However, in neither selection experiment have the precise causes of fatigue during either forced or voluntary exercise been determined."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Exercise physiology\n--History.\n--Energy expenditure.\n--Metabolic changes.\n----Rapid energy sources.\n----Plasma glucose.\n----Oxygen.\n----Dehydration.\n--Brain.\n----Cerebral oxygen.\n----Glucose.\n----Hyperthermia.\n--Fatigue.\n----Intense activity.\n----Endurance failure.\n----Central governor.\n----Other factors.\n--Cardiac biomarkers.\n--Human adaptations.\n--Selective breeding experiments with rodents.\n--Exercise-induced muscle pain.\n--Education in exercise physiology.\n----Curriculum.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Physical exercise may cause pain both as an immediate effect that may result from stimulation of free nerve endings by low pH, as well as a delayed onset muscle soreness. The delayed soreness is fundamentally the result of ruptures within the muscle, although apparently not involving the rupture of whole muscle fibers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Rodents have been specifically bred for exercise behavior or performance in several different studies. For example, laboratory rats have been bred for high or low performance on a motorized treadmill with electrical stimulation as motivation. The high-performance line of rats also exhibits increased voluntary wheel-running behavior as compared with the low-capacity line. In an experimental evolution approach, four replicate lines of laboratory mice have been bred for high levels of voluntary exercise on wheels, while four additional control lines are maintained by breeding without regard to the amount of wheel running. These selected lines of mice also show increased endurance capacity in tests of forced endurance capacity on a motorized treadmill. However, in neither selection experiment have the precise causes of fatigue during either forced or voluntary exercise been determined."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Muscle pain can range from a mild soreness to a debilitating injury depending on intensity of exercise, level of training, and other factors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Tail flick test",
        "text": "Both laboratory mice and rats are a common model organism for these tests. These rodents are usually given analgesics, which are responsible for weakening the response to pain. Under these weakened responses to pain, with effectiveness often peaking about 30 minutes after ingestion, researchers test the effectiveness of the drugs by exposing the tail to constant heat and measuring how long it takes to flick, signaling its response to the pain. Naloxone and naltrexone, two opioid antagonists, have been used to study pain sensitivity in relation to exercise in mice."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in animals",
        "text": "According to the U.S. National Research Council Committee on Recognition and Alleviation of Pain in Laboratory Animals, pain is experienced by many animal species, including mammals and possibly all vertebrates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in invertebrates",
        "text": "To examine the gill and siphon withdrawal response to a putatively painful stimulus, \"Aplysia\" were tested in pairs. During the initial training period, the experimental animal received a siphon shock each time its gill relaxed below a criterion level, and the yoked control animal received a shock whenever the experimental animal did, regardless of its own gill position. The experimental animals spent more time with their gills contracted above the criterion level than did the control animals during each period, demonstrating operant conditioning."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in invertebrates",
        "text": "In vertebrates, potentially painful stimuli typically produce vegetative modifications such as tachycardia, pupil dilation, defecation, arteriole blood gases, fluid and electrolyte imbalance, and changes in blood flow, respiratory patterns, and endocrine."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hamster wheel",
        "text": "In rodents, voluntary exercise is almost always measured by the use of wheels. This makes running wheels the tool of choice in research on the effects of exercise and voluntary activity on metabolism, obesity, and pain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Dendrocnide excelsa",
        "text": "which researchers named \"gympietides\", similar to toxins found in spiders and cone snails, and not previously seen in plants. It was postulated that the long-term pain from the gympietides may be due to permanent changes in the sodium channels in sensory neurons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in animals",
        "text": "Some criteria that may indicate the potential of another species to feel pain include:\n# Has a suitable nervous system and sensory receptors\n# Physiological changes to noxious stimuli\n# Displays protective motor reactions that might include reduced use of an affected area such as limping, rubbing, holding or autotomy\n# Has opioid receptors and shows reduced responses to noxious stimuli when given analgesics and local anaesthetics\n# Shows trade-offs between stimulus avoidance and other motivational requirements\n# Shows avoidance learning\n# High cognitive ability and sentience"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain and pleasure",
        "text": "A great deal of what is known about pain and pleasure today primarily comes from studies conducted with rats and primates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stimulus (physiology)",
        "text": "Hindlimb withdrawal time is another method. Sorin Barac et al. in a recent paper published in the Journal of Reconstructive Microsurgery monitored the response of test rats to pain stimuli by inducing an acute, external heat stimulus and measuring hindlimb withdrawal times (HLWT)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in invertebrates",
        "text": "Criteria that may indicate a potential for experiencing pain include:\n# Has a suitable nervous system and receptors\n# Physiological changes to noxious stimuli\n# Displays protective motor reactions that might include reduced use of an affected area such as limping, rubbing, holding or autotomy\n# Has opioid receptors and shows reduced responses to noxious stimuli when given analgesics and local anaesthetics\n# Shows trade-offs between stimulus avoidance and other motivational requirements\n# Shows avoidance learning\n# Exhibits high cognitive ability and sentience"
      },
      {
        "title": "Autophagia",
        "text": "Contrary to rats, in humans, there need not be a sensation of physical pain which leads to autophagia. Emotional pain and feelings of self isolation have been reported by human patients of autophagia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in invertebrates",
        "text": "Many invertebrate species learn to withdraw from, or alter their behaviour in response to, a conditioned stimulus when this has been previously paired with an electric shock\u2014cited by Sherwin\u2014and include snails, leeches, locusts, bees and various marine molluscs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in amphibians",
        "text": "In 2014, the veterinary \"Journal of Small Animal Practice\" published an article on the recognition of pain which started \u2013 \"The ability to experience pain is universally shared by all mammals...\" and in 2015, it was reported in the science journal \"Pain\", that several mammalian species (rat, mouse, rabbit, cat and horse) adopt a facial expression in response to a noxious stimulus that is consistent with the expression of pain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in invertebrates",
        "text": "A fly-controlled heat-box has been designed to study operant conditioning in several studies of \"Drosophila\". Each time a fly walks into the designated half of the tiny dark chamber, the whole space is heated. As soon as the animal leaves the punished half, the chamber temperature reverts to normal. After a few minutes, the animals restrict their movements to one-half of the chamber, even if the heat is switched off."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in animals",
        "text": "Many animals also exhibit more complex behavioural and physiological changes indicative of the ability to experience pain: they eat less food, their normal behaviour is disrupted, their social behaviour is suppressed, they may adopt unusual behaviour patterns, they may emit characteristic distress calls, experience respiratory and cardiovascular changes, as well as inflammation and release of stress hormones."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in cephalopods",
        "text": "In 2014, the veterinary \"Journal of Small Animal Practice\" published an article on the recognition of pain which started \u2013 \"The ability to experience pain is universally shared by all mammals...\" and in 2015, it was reported in the science journal \"Pain\", that several mammalian species (rat, mouse, rabbit, cat and horse) adopt a facial expression in response to a noxious stimulus that is consistent with the expression of humans in pain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in animals",
        "text": "One suggested reason for rejecting a pain experience in invertebrates is that invertebrate brains are too small. However, brain size does not necessarily equate to complexity of function. Moreover, weight for body-weight, the cephalopod brain is in the same size bracket as the vertebrate brain, smaller than that of birds and mammals, but as big as or bigger than most fish brains."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in invertebrates",
        "text": "If vertebrate species are used in studies on protective or motor behaviour and they respond in similar ways to those described above, it is usually assumed that the learning process is based on the animal experiencing a sensation of pain or discomfort from the stimulus, e.g. an electric shock. Argument-by-analogy suggests an analogous experience occurs in invertebrates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of exercise",
        "text": "Exercise physiology\n* Aerobic exercise\n* Anaerobic exercise\n* Exercise induced nausea\n* Grip strength\n* Muscle hypertrophy\n* Overtraining\n* Stretching\n* Supercompensation\n* Warming up\n* Weight cutting\n* Weight loss"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "There is some preliminary evidence to suggest that moderate intensity continuous training has the ability to increase someone's pain threshold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "At rest, the human brain receives 15% of total cardiac output, and uses 20% of the body's energy consumption. The brain is normally dependent for its high energy expenditure upon aerobic metabolism. The brain as a result is highly sensitive to failure of its oxygen supply with loss of consciousness occurring within six to seven seconds, with its EEG going flat in 23 seconds. Therefore, the brain's function would be disrupted if exercise affected its supply of oxygen and glucose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in amphibians",
        "text": "At the same time as the investigations using arthritic rats, studies were published showing that birds with gait abnormalities self-select for a diet that contains carprofen, an analgesic. In 2005, it was written \"Avian pain is likely analogous to pain experienced by most mammals\" and in 2014, \"...it is accepted that birds perceive and respond to noxious stimuli and that birds feel pain.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in amphibians",
        "text": "Sometimes a distinction is made between \"physical pain\" and \"emotional\" or \"psychological pain\". Emotional pain is the pain experienced in the absence of physical trauma, e.g. the pain experienced after the loss of a loved one, or the break-up of a relationship. It has been argued that only primates can feel \"emotional pain\", because they are the only animals that have a neocortex \u2013 a part of the brain's cortex considered to be the \"thinking area\". However, research has provided evidence that monkeys, dogs, cats and birds can show signs of emotional pain and display behaviours associated with depression during painful experience, i.e. lack of motivation, lethargy, anorexia, unresponsiveness to other animals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Journal of Musculoskeletal Pain",
        "text": "Journal of Musculoskeletal Pain\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in animals",
        "text": "The ability to experience pain in an animal, or another human for that matter, cannot be determined directly but it may be inferred through analogous physiological and behavioral reactions. Although many animals share similar mechanisms of pain detection to those of humans, have similar areas of the brain involved in processing pain, and show similar pain behaviours, it is notoriously difficult to assess how animals actually experience pain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in animals",
        "text": "Animals are kept in laboratories for a wide range of reasons, some of which may involve pain, suffering or distress, whilst others (e.g. many of those involved in breeding) will not. The extent to which animal testing causes pain and suffering in laboratory animals is the subject of much debate. Marian Stamp Dawkins defines \"suffering\" in laboratory animals as the experience of one of \"a wide range of extremely unpleasant subjective (mental) states.\" The U.S. National Research Council has published guidelines on the care and use of laboratory animals, as well as a report on recognizing and alleviating pain in vertebrates. The United States Department of Agriculture defines a \"painful procedure\" in an animal study as one that would \"reasonably be expected to cause more than slight or momentary pain or distress in a human being to which that procedure was applied.\" Some critics argue that, paradoxically, researchers raised in the era of increased awareness of animal welfare may be inclined to deny that animals are in pain simply because they do not want to see themselves as people who inflict it. PETA however argues that there is no doubt about animals in laboratories being inflicted with pain. In the UK, animal research likely to cause \"pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm\" is regulated by the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 and research with the potential to cause pain is regulated by the Animal Welfare Act of 1966 in the US."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in amphibians",
        "text": "Early electrophysiological studies in frogs report that noxious mechanical, thermal and chemical stimuli excite primary afferent fibres with slowly conducting axons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in amphibians",
        "text": "The nerve impulses of the nociception response may be conducted to the brain thereby registering the location, intensity, quality and unpleasantness of the stimulus. This subjective component of pain involves conscious awareness of both the sensation and the unpleasantness (the aversive, negative affect). The brain processes underlying conscious awareness of the unpleasantness (suffering), are not well understood."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in cephalopods",
        "text": "Sometimes a distinction is made between \"physical pain\" and \"emotional\" or \"psychological pain\". Emotional pain is the pain experienced in the absence of physical trauma, e.g. the pain experienced by humans after the loss of a loved one, or the break-up of a relationship. It has been argued that only primates and humans can feel \"emotional pain\", because they are the only animals that have a neocortex \u2013 a part of the brain's cortex considered to be the \"thinking area\". However, research has provided evidence that monkeys, dogs, cats and birds can show signs of emotional pain and display behaviours associated with depression during painful experience, i.e. lack of motivation, lethargy, anorexia, unresponsiveness to other animals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Stephen Brendan McMahon",
        "text": "Commanding a large range of techniques ranging from molecular biology, \"in vivo\" and \"ex vivo\" electrophysiology and behavioural studies in animal models, \"in vivo\" imaging, cell sorting and RNAseq, to genome profiling in patients and human psychophysics, the McMahon laboratory contributed greatly to understanding of basic pain physiology on both a systemic (pain pathways) and molecular (pain mediators and receptors) level. Additionally, a large body of Professor McMahon's research worked to translate basic pain mechanisms towards the clinic - contributing to research on GDNF, NGF and P2X3 receptors resulting in several phase I, II and III clinical trials for pain treatment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain",
        "text": "Specialists believe that all vertebrates can feel pain, and that certain invertebrates, like the octopus, may also. The presence of pain in animals is unknown, but can be inferred through physical and behavioral reactions, such as paw withdrawal from various noxious mechanical stimuli in rodents."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise-induced collapse",
        "text": "Research into the condition has been done at the Western College of Veterinary Medicine at the University of Saskatchewan, the College of Veterinary Medicine at the University of Minnesota, and the Comparative Neuromuscular Laboratory at the School of Medicine of the University of California. The cause has been identified as a mutation is in the gene for dynamin-1 (DNM1). This gene is a protein that plays a key role in repackaging synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitters. The action of DNM1 is only triggered with a high level of sustained exercise when it is needed for synaptic transmission in the brain and spinal cord."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in amphibians",
        "text": "There have been several published lists of criteria for establishing whether non-human animals experience pain, e.g. Some criteria that may indicate the potential of another species, including amphibians, to feel pain include:\n# Has a suitable nervous system and sensory receptors\n# Has opioid receptors and shows reduced responses to noxious stimuli when given analgesics and local anaesthetics\n# Physiological changes to noxious stimuli\n# Displays protective motor reactions that might include reduced use of an affected area such as limping, rubbing, holding or autotomy\n# Shows avoidance learning\n# Shows trade-offs between noxious stimulus avoidance and other motivational requirements\n# High cognitive ability and sentience"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in fish",
        "text": "In 2014, the veterinary \"Journal of Small Animal Practice\" published an article on the recognition of pain which started \u2013 \"The ability to experience pain is universally shared by all mammals...\" and in 2015, it was reported in the science journal \"Pain\", that several mammalian species (rat, mouse, rabbit, cat and horse) adopt a facial expression in response to a noxious stimulus that is consistent with the expression of pain in humans."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in animals",
        "text": "Nerve impulses from nociceptors may reach the brain, where information about the stimulus (e.g. quality, location, and intensity), and affect (unpleasantness) are registered. Though the brain activity involved has been studied, the brain processes underlying conscious awareness are not well known."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in invertebrates",
        "text": "Operant studies using vertebrates have been conducted for many years. In such studies, an animal operates or changes some part of the environment to gain a positive reinforcement or avoid a punishment one. In this way, animals learn from the consequence of their own actions, i.e. they use an internal predictor. Operant responses indicate a voluntary act; the animal exerts control over the frequency or intensity of its responses, making these distinct from reflexes and complex fixed action patterns. A number of studies have revealed surprising similarities between vertebrates and invertebrates in their capacity to use operant responses to gain positive reinforcements, but also to avoid positive punishment that in vertebrates would be described as 'pain'."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Central to the success of this is the ability of the human body, unlike that of the animals they hunt, to effectively remove muscle heat waste. In most animals, this is stored by allowing a temporary increase in body temperature. This allows them to escape from animals that quickly speed after them for a short duration (the way nearly all predators catch their prey). Humans, unlike other animals that catch prey, remove heat with a specialized thermoregulation based on sweat evaporation. One gram of sweat can remove 2,598 J of heat energy. Another mechanism is increased skin blood flow during exercise that allows for greater convective heat loss that is aided by our upright posture. This skin based cooling has resulted in humans acquiring an increased number of sweat glands, combined with a lack of body fur that would otherwise stop air circulation and efficient evaporation. Because humans can remove exercise heat, they can avoid the fatigue from heat exhaustion that affects animals chased in a persistent manner, and so eventually catch them."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in amphibians",
        "text": "Scientists have also proposed that in conjunction with argument-by-analogy, criteria of physiology or behavioural responses can be used to assess the possibility of non-human animals perceiving pain. The following is a table of criteria suggested by Sneddon \"et al.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in invertebrates",
        "text": "When a tactile stimulus is applied to the skin of \"Aplysia californica\", the animal withdraws the siphon and gill between the parapodia. This defensive withdrawal, known as the \"Aplysia\" gill and siphon withdrawal reflex, has been the subject of much study on learning behaviour. Generally, these studies have involved only weak, tactile stimulation and are therefore more relevant to the question of whether invertebrates can experience nociception, however, some studies have used electric shocks to examine this response (See sections on \"Electrical stimulation\" and \"Operant conditioning\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in amphibians",
        "text": "At the turn of the century, studies were published showing that arthritic rats self-select analgesic opiates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in amphibians",
        "text": "Pain in amphibians\n--Background.\n----Philosophy.\n----Scientific investigation.\n------Mammals.\n------Birds.\n------Reptiles.\n------Fish.\n------Argument by analogy.\n----Notes.\n--Experiencing pain.\n----Nociception.\n----Emotional pain.\n----Physical pain.\n--Adaptive value.\n--Research findings.\n----Nervous system.\n------Receptors.\n------Nerve fibres.\n------Brain.\n----Opioid system and effects of analgesics.\n------Effects of morphine and other opioids.\n------Effects of opioid antagonists.\n------Effects of other analgesics.\n----Physiological changes.\n----Protective motor responses.\n----Avoidance learning.\n----Trade-offs in motivation.\n----Cognitive ability and sentience.\n------Habituation.\n------Associative learning.\n------Numeracy.\n------Spatial orientation.\n------Social learning.\n--Criteria for pain perception.\n--Scientific statements.\n--Societal implications.\n----Culinary.\n----Legislation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Epigenetics of physical exercise",
        "text": "Exercise causes acetylation of histone H3 in the exon IV promoter region of the \"Bdnf\" gene essential for memory formation. This acetylation contributes to upregulation of \"Bdnf\" in the brain hippocampi of rats. Two weeks of treadmill exercise improves memory performance in an inhibitory avoidance task."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in amphibians",
        "text": "Early studies showed that African clawed frogs (\"Xenopus laevis\") learn to avoid electric shocks in an aquatic shuttle-box test and similarly, cane toads (\"Bufo marinus\") learn to avoid electric shocks in a T-maze. Furthermore, American bullfrogs (\"Rana catesbiana\") learn to inhibit their high-priority, biologically adaptive righting reflex to avoid electric shock; after training, they remain passively on their backs rather than exhibiting the normal short-latency, righting response."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in invertebrates",
        "text": "This is a particularly important criterion for assessing whether an animal has the capacity to experience pain rather than only nociception. Nociceptive responses do not require consciousness or higher neural processing; this results in relatively fixed, reflexive actions. However, the experience of pain does involve higher neural centres which also take into account other factors of relevance to the animal, i.e. competing motivations. This means that a response to the experience of pain is likely to be more plastic than a nociceptive response when there are competing factors for the animal to consider."
      },
      {
        "title": "Referred pain",
        "text": "Hyperexcitability hypothesizes that referred pain has no central mechanism. However, it does say that there is one central characteristic that predominates. Experiments involving noxious stimuli and recordings from the dorsal horn of animals revealed that referred pain sensations began minutes after muscle stimulation. Pain was felt in a receptive field that was some distance away from the original receptive field. According to hyperexcitability, new receptive fields are created as a result of the opening of latent convergent afferent fibers in the dorsal horn. This signal could then be perceived as referred pain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Reticular formation",
        "text": "Direct electrical stimulation of the ARAS produces pain responses in cats and elicits verbal reports of pain in humans. Ascending reticular activation in cats can produce mydriasis, which can result from prolonged pain. These results suggest some relationship between ARAS circuits and physiological pain pathways."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of health articles",
        "text": "\u2013 Exercise physiology"
      },
      {
        "title": "Zona incerta",
        "text": "Central pain syndrome is pain initiated or caused by injury or dysfunction in the central nervous system. Recent research suggests that the development and maintenance of such pain could link to abnormal inhibitory regulation by the zona incerta of the posterior thalamus. It has been suggested that there exists a significant suppression of both spontaneous and evoked activity in inhibitory neurons in zona incerta and abnormally high spontaneous and evoked activity of neurons in posterior thalamus in animals with central pain syndrome. The positive association between behavioral and neurophysiological thresholds in rats with central pain syndrome is consistent with a causal role for suppressed incerto-thalamic inputs in central pain syndrome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exaptation",
        "text": "Some of the chemical pathways for physical pain and pain from social exclusion overlap. The physical pain system may have been co-opted to motivate social animals to respond to threats to their inclusion in the group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in amphibians",
        "text": "Amphibians, particularly anurans, fulfill several physiological and behavioural criteria proposed as indicating that non-human animals may experience pain. These fulfilled criteria include a suitable nervous system and sensory receptors, opioid receptors and reduced responses to noxious stimuli when given analgesics and local anaesthetics, physiological changes to noxious stimuli, displaying protective motor reactions, exhibiting avoidance learning and making trade-offs between noxious stimulus avoidance and other motivational requirements."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in animals",
        "text": "Pain in animals\n--The experience of pain.\n----Reflex response to painful stimuli.\n----Awareness of pain.\n--Adaptive value.\n--Argument-by-analogy.\n--History.\n--In different species.\n----Nociception.\n----Pain.\n--Vertebrates.\n----Fish.\n--Invertebrates.\n--In medicine and research.\n----Veterinary medicine.\n----Dolorimetry.\n----Laboratory animals.\n------Severity scales.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hans Kraus",
        "text": "Books\n* Hypokinetic Disease: Diseases Caused by Lack of Exercise' (1965; with Wilhelm Raab)\n* Backache, Stress, and Tension, Their Cause, Prevention, and Treatment (1965)\n* The Cause, Prevention and Treatment of Backache (1969)\n* Clinical Treatment of Back and Neck Pain (1970)\n* The Causes, Prevention and Treatment of Sports Injuries (1981)\n* The Sports Injury Handbook (1987)\n* Diagnosis and Treatment of Muscle Pain (1988)\n* Backache, Stress, and Tension: Understanding Why You Have Back Pain and Simple Exercises to Prevent and Treat It (2015; updated edition)\n* Clinical Treatment of Back and Neck Pain (1970)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in invertebrates",
        "text": "Pain in invertebrates\n--Suitable nervous system.\n----Central nervous system.\n----Nociceptors.\n--Physiological changes.\n--Protective motor reactions.\n----Mechanical stimulation.\n----Autotomy.\n----Thermal stimulation.\n----Chemical stimulation.\n----Electrical stimulation.\n--Opioid receptors, effects of local anaesthetics or analgesics.\n----Nematodes.\n----Molluscs.\n----Crustaceans.\n----Insects.\n--Trade-offs between stimulus avoidance and other motivational requirements.\n--Learned avoidance.\n----Habituation and sensitization.\n----Location avoidance.\n----Conditioned suppression.\n----Operant conditioning.\n------Snail.\n------\"Aplysia\".\n------\"Drosophila\".\n--Cognitive abilities.\n----Non-stereotyped behavior.\n----Social interaction.\n--Protective legislation.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Mirror neuron",
        "text": "A number of studies have shown that rats and mice show signs of distress while witnessing another rodent receive footshocks. The group of Christian Keysers recorded from neurons while rats experienced pain or witnessed the pain of others, and has revealed the presence of pain mirror neurons in the rat's anterior cingulate cortex, i.e. neurons that respond both while an animal experiences pain and while witnessing the pain of others. Deactivating this region of the cingulate cortex led to reduced emotional contagion in the rats, so that observer rats showed reduced distress while witnessing another rat experience pain. The homologous part of the anterior cingulate cortex has been associated with empathy for pain in humans, suggesting a homology between the systems involved in emotional contagion in rodents and empathy for pain in humans."
      },
      {
        "title": "AMP-activated protein kinase",
        "text": "A seemingly paradoxical role of AMPK occurs when we take a closer look at the energy-sensing enzyme in relation to exercise and long-term training. Similar to short-term acute training scale, long-term endurance training studies also reveal increases in oxidative metabolic enzymes, GLUT-4, mitochondrial size and quantity, and an increased dependency on the oxidation of fatty acids; however, Winder et al. reported in 2002 that despite observing these increased oxidative biochemical adaptations to long-term endurance training (similar to those mentioned above), the AMPK response (activation of AMPK with the onset of exercise) to acute bouts of exercise decreased in red quadriceps (RQ) with training (3 \u2013 see Fig.1). Conversely, the study did not observe the same results in white quadriceps (WQ) and soleus (SOL) muscles that they did in RQ. The trained rats used for that endurance study ran on treadmills 5 days/wk in two 1-h sessions, morning and afternoon. The rats were also running up to 31m/min (grade 15%). Finally, following training, the rats were sacrificed either at rest or following 10 minutes of exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Grimace scale",
        "text": "The GS method of pain assessment is highly applicable to laboratory rodents as these are usually prey species which tend to inhibit the expression of pain to prevent appearing vulnerable to predators. For this reason, behavioural changes in these species are mainly observed with acute pain (hours) but are less pronounced in longer-lasting pain (days)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in cephalopods",
        "text": "Veterinary articles have been published stating both reptiles and amphibians experience pain in a way analogous to humans, and that analgesics are effective in these two classes of vertebrates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neuralgia",
        "text": "When assessing neuralgia to find the underlying mechanism, a history of the pain, description of pain, physical examination, and experimental examination are required. Pain is subjective to the patient, but pain assessment questionnaires, such as the McGill Pain Questionnaire can be useful for evaluation. Physical examinations usually involve testing responses to stimuli such as touch, temperature, and vibration. Neuralgia can be further classified by the type of stimuli that elicits a response: mechanical, thermal, or chemical. Response to the course of treatment is the final tool used to determine the mechanism of the pain. Additional tools may be used, predominantly in research settings including Laser Evoked Potentials and Quantitative Sensory testing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain",
        "text": "In pain science, thresholds are measured by gradually increasing the intensity of a stimulus in a procedure called quantitative sensory testing which involves such stimuli as electric current, thermal (heat or cold), mechanical (pressure, touch, vibration), ischemic, or chemical stimuli applied to the subject to evoke a response. The \"pain perception threshold\" is the point at which the subject begins to feel pain, and the \"pain threshold intensity\" is the stimulus intensity at which the stimulus begins to hurt. The \"pain tolerance threshold\" is reached when the subject acts to stop the pain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Emotion in animals",
        "text": "Langford et al. examined empathy in rodents using an approach based in neuroscience. They reported that (1) if two mice experienced pain together, they expressed greater levels of pain-related behavior than if pain was experienced individually, (2) if experiencing different levels of pain together, the behavior of each mouse was modulated by the level of pain experienced by its social partner, and (3) sensitivity to a noxious stimulus was experienced to the same degree by the mouse observing a conspecific in pain as it was by the mouse directly experiencing the painful stimulus. The authors suggest this responsiveness to the pain of others demonstrated by mice is indicative of emotional contagion, a phenomenon associated with empathy, which has also been reported in pigs. One behaviour associated with fear in rats is freezing. If female rats experience electric shocks to the feet and then witness another rat experiencing similar footshocks, they freeze more than females without any experience of the shocks. This suggests empathy in experienced rats witnessing another individual being shocked. Furthermore, the demonstrator's behaviour was changed by the behaviour of the witness; demonstrators froze more following footshocks if their witness froze more creating an empathy loop."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in fish",
        "text": "At the same time as the investigations using arthritic rats, studies were published showing that birds with gait abnormalities self-select for a diet that contains carprofen, a human analgesic. In 2005, it was written \"Avian pain is likely analogous to pain experienced by most mammals\" and in 2014, \"...it is accepted that birds perceive and respond to noxious stimuli and that birds feel pain\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in animals",
        "text": "Nociception usually involves the transmission of a signal along nerve fibers from the site of a noxious stimulus at the periphery to the spinal cord. Although this signal is also transmitted on to the brain, a reflex response, such as flinching or withdrawal of a limb, is produced by return signals originating in the spinal cord. Thus, both physiological and behavioral responses to nociception can be detected, and no reference need be made to a conscious experience of pain. Based on such criteria, nociception has been observed in all major animal taxa."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in amphibians",
        "text": "Veterinary articles have been published stating reptiles experience pain in a way analogous to mammals, and that analgesics are effective in this class of vertebrates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in invertebrates",
        "text": "These animals can voluntarily shed appendages when necessary for survival. Autotomy can occur in response to chemical, thermal and electrical stimulation, but is perhaps most frequently a response to mechanical stimulation during capture by a predator. Autotomy serves either to improve the chances of escape or to reduce further damage occurring to the remainder of the animal such as the spread of a chemical toxin after being stung, but the 'decision' to shed a limb or part of a body and the considerable costs incurred by this suggests a pain response rather than simply a nociceptive reflex."
      },
      {
        "title": "Leigh Hale",
        "text": "Hale has run large research projects related to persistent pain and community exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "However, data from rodents and humans have shown that pharmacological blockade of endogenous endorphins does not prevent the development of a runner's high, while blockade of endocannabinoids does."
      },
      {
        "title": "PRNP",
        "text": "PrP-null mice provide clues to a role in muscular physiology when subjected to a forced swimming test, which showed reduced locomotor activity. Aging mice with an overexpression of PRNP showed significant degradation of muscle tissue."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in invertebrates",
        "text": "At the cellular level, injury or wounding of invertebrates leads to the directed migration and accumulation of haematocytes (defence cells) and neuronal plasticity, much the same as the responses of human patients undergoing surgery or after injury. In one study, heart rate in the crayfish, \"Procambarus clarkii,\" decreased following claw autotomy during an aggressive encounter."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in animals",
        "text": "A typical human cutaneous nerve contains 83% C type trauma receptors (the type responsible for transmitting signals described by humans as excruciating pain); the same nerves in humans with congenital insensitivity to pain have only 24-28% C type receptors. The rainbow trout has about 5% C type fibres, while sharks and rays have 0%. Nevertheless, fish have been shown to have sensory neurons that are sensitive to damaging stimuli and are physiologically identical to human nociceptors. Behavioural and physiological responses to a painful event appear comparable to those seen in amphibians, birds, and mammals, and administration of an analgesic drug reduces these responses in fish."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in animals",
        "text": "To assess the capacity of other species to consciously suffer pain we resort to argument-by-analogy. That is, if an animal responds to a stimulus the way a human does, it is likely to have had an analogous experience. If we stick a pin in a chimpanzee's finger and she rapidly withdraws her hand, we use argument-by-analogy and infer that like us, she felt pain. It might be argued that consistency requires us infer, also, that a cockroach experiences conscious pain when it writhes after being stuck with a pin. The usual counter-argument is that although the physiology of consciousness is not understood, it clearly involves complex brain processes not present in relatively simple organisms. Other analogies have been pointed out. For example, when given a choice of foods, rats and chickens with clinical symptoms of pain will consume more of an analgesic-containing food than animals not in pain. Additionally, the consumption of the analgesic carprofen in lame chickens was positively correlated to the severity of lameness, and consumption resulted in an improved gait. Such anthropomorphic arguments face the criticism that physical reactions indicating pain may be neither the cause nor result of conscious states, and the approach is subject to criticism of anthropomorphic interpretation. For example, a single-celled organism such as an amoeba may writhe after being exposed to noxious stimuli despite the absence of nociception."
      },
      {
        "title": "Psychological dependence",
        "text": "Another study tested whether swimming exercises affected the intensity of perceivable psychological symptoms in rodents during morphine withdrawal. It concluded that the anxious and depressive states of the withdrawal were reduced in rats from the exercise group."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in amphibians",
        "text": "A painful experience may change the motivation for normal behavioural responses. American bullfrogs learn to inhibit their high-priority, biologically adaptive righting reflex to avoid electric shock. After repeated exposure, they remain passively on their backs rather than exhibiting the normal, short-latency, righting response, thereby showing a trade-off in motivation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain tolerance",
        "text": "Nociceptive pathways are pathways in the brain that send and receive pain signals and are responsible for how we perceive pain. They develop before a baby is born and continue to develop during the critical period of development. It was once thought that because infants\u2019 nociceptive pathways in the brain were still developing, they could not feel pain. However, infants \"can\" feel pain and infant surgeries providing early pain experiences can alter the brain\u2019s tolerance for pain later so by increasing number of A fibers and C fibers\u2014two types of pain receptors\u2014located in the area where injury occurred and by reducing pain tolerance in the areas where incision has occurred. This reduction in pain tolerance is seen in male rats even when they are adolescents. In those rats, the area of their brain where an incision was made as an infant remains hypersensitive to pain thereafter. This effect was not seen as prominently in female rats."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in cephalopods",
        "text": "There have been several published lists of criteria for establishing whether non-human animals are capable of perceiving pain, e.g. Some criteria that may indicate the potential of another species, including cephalopods, to feel pain include:\n# Has a suitable nervous system and sensory receptors\n# Has opioid receptors and shows reduced responses to noxious stimuli when given analgesics and local anaesthetics\n# Physiological changes to noxious stimuli\n# Displays protective motor reactions that might include reduced use of an affected area such as limping, rubbing, holding or autotomy\n# Shows avoidance learning\n# Shows trade-offs between noxious stimulus avoidance and other motivational requirements\n# High cognitive ability and sentience"
      },
      {
        "title": "Myofascial trigger point",
        "text": "Physical exercise aimed at controlling posture, stretching, and proprioception have all been studied with no conclusive results. However, exercise proved beneficial to help reduce pain and severity of symptoms that one felt. Muscular contractions that occur during exercise favor blood flow to areas that may be experiencing less than normal flow. This also causes a localized stretching effect on the fascia and may help relieve the abnormally tight fascia. Evidence that supports these exercises for a treatment is scarce, but physical exercise can be beneficial in reducing the intensity of pain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Middle back pain",
        "text": "Detailed physiologic testing proving what percentage of pain in the thoracic spine is caused by disc, facet, rib or muscle are yet to be completed so the answer to the question what is causing the pain often is left unanswered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in amphibians",
        "text": "Pain is a complex mental state, with a distinct perceptual quality but also associated with suffering, which is an emotional state. Because of this complexity, the presence of pain in non-human animals cannot be determined unambiguously using observational methods, but the conclusion that animals experience pain is often inferred on the basis of likely presence of phenomenal consciousness which is deduced from comparative brain physiology as well as physical and behavioural reactions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Humans are specifically adapted to engage in prolonged strenuous muscular activity (such as efficient long distance bipedal running). This capacity for endurance running may have evolved to allow the running down of game animals by persistent slow but constant chase over many hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Naomi Eisenberger",
        "text": "Her most cited work explores social rejection and the neural regions it activates. According to Eisenberger, the same neural regions that are activated in response to physical pain are also activated when one feels socially excluded. The feeling of social exclusion can be caused by exclusion from one person or a group of people. Her paper \"Does Rejection Hurt? An fMRI study of social exclusion\", tested the hypothesis that the brain bases of social pain are similar to those of physical pain by examining the brain activity of participants who were excluded while playing a virtual ball tossing game. Participants were subject to FMRI scans while playing the virtual ball game and experiencing social exclusion, with analyses focusing on activity in the anterior cingulate cortex. The anterior cingulate cortex is activated when an automatic response is \"inappropriate\". The automatic response caused by physical pain is a frequent activator of the anterior cingulate cortex. The participants' scans showed that the anterior cingulate cortex was more active during the game when they were excluded than when they were included. The study also showed that the right ventral prefrontal cortex was active during exclusion and regulated the distress of social exclusion by disrupting activity in the anterior cingulate cortex. Almost identical results were found in studying brain activity associated with self-regulation of physical pain, suggesting a correlation between the neural mechanisms underlying social pain and physical pain, in support of Eisenberger's hypothesis."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Exercise fatigue has also been suggested to be affected by:\n* brain hyperthermia\n* glycogen depletion in brain cells\n* reactive oxygen species impairing skeletal muscle function\n* reduced level of glutamate secondary to uptake of ammonia in the brain\n* Fatigue in diaphragm and abdominal respiratory muscles limiting breathing\n* Impaired oxygen supply to muscles\n* Ammonia effects upon the brain\n* Serotonin pathways in the brain"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in cephalopods",
        "text": "At the same time as the investigations using arthritic rats, studies were published showing that birds with gait abnormalities self-select for a diet that contains the painkiller carprofen. In 2005, it was written \"Avian pain is likely analogous to pain experienced by most mammals\" and in 2014, \"...it is accepted that birds perceive and respond to noxious stimuli and that birds feel pain\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "In mice it was demonstrated that certain features of a runner's high depend on cannabinoid receptors. Pharmacological or genetic disruption of cannabinoid signaling via cannabinoid receptors prevents the analgesic and anxiety-reducing effects of running."
      },
      {
        "title": "Naked mole-rat",
        "text": "The skin of naked mole-rats lacks neurotransmitters in their cutaneous sensory fibers. As a result, the naked mole-rats feel no pain when they are exposed to acid or capsaicin. When they are injected with substance P, a type of neurotransmitter, the pain signaling works as it does in other mammals but only with capsaicin and not with acids. This is proposed to be an adaptation to the animal living in high levels of carbon dioxide due to poorly ventilated living spaces which would cause acid to build up in their body tissues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "After intense prolonged exercise, there can be a collapse in body homeostasis. Some famous examples include:\n* Dorando Pietri in the 1908 Summer Olympic men's marathon ran the wrong way and collapsed several times.\n* Jim Peters in the marathon of the 1954 Commonwealth Games staggered and collapsed several times, and though he had a five-kilometre (three-mile) lead, failed to finish. Though it was formerly believed that this was due to severe dehydration, more recent research suggests it was the combined effects upon the brain of hyperthermia, hypertonic hypernatraemia associated with dehydration, and possibly hypoglycaemia.\n* Gabriela Andersen-Schiess in the woman's marathon at the Los Angeles 1984 Summer Olympics in the race's final 400 meters, stopping occasionally and shown signs of heat exhaustion. Though she fell across the finish line, she was released from medical care only two hours later."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in amphibians",
        "text": "Amphibians exhibit classic wiping and withdrawal protective motor responses to noxious chemical, heat and mechanical stimuli."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in fish",
        "text": "Veterinary articles have been published stating both reptiles and amphibians experience pain in a way analogous to humans, and that analgesics are effective in these two classes of vertebrates."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in invertebrates",
        "text": "There have been numerous studies of learning and memory using nociceptors in the sea hare, \"Aplysia.\" Many of these have focused on mechanosensory neurons innervating the siphon and having their somata (bulbous end) in the abdominal ganglion (LE cells). These LE cells display increasing discharge to increasing pressures, with maximal activation by crushing or tearing stimuli that cause tissue injury. Therefore, they satisfy accepted definitions of nociceptors. They also show similarities to vertebrate A\u03b4 nociceptors, including a property apparently unique (among primary afferents) to nociceptors \u2014 sensitization by noxious stimulation. Either pinching or pinning the siphon decreased the threshold of the LE cells firing and enhanced soma excitability."
      },
      {
        "title": "Musculoskeletal causes of back pain",
        "text": "following:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain assessment",
        "text": "posture"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in invertebrates",
        "text": "In 2001, Walters and colleagues published a report that described the escape responses of the tobacco hornworm caterpillar (\"Manduca sexta\") to mechanical stimulation. These responses, particularly their plasticity, were remarkably similar to vertebrate escape responses."
      },
      {
        "title": "Joan Livingstone",
        "text": "1999\n* James Elkins, Pictures of the Body: Pain and Metamorphosis, CA: Stanford University Press, pp.\u00a0148\u2013149."
      },
      {
        "title": "La Question",
        "text": "I felt a difference in quality. Instead of sharp and quick bites that seemed to rip my body apart, it was now a larger pain that sank more deeply into all my muscles and twisted them for longer ()"
      },
      {
        "title": "Parabiosis",
        "text": "In each pair, one rat became obese and exhibited hyperphagia. The weight of the rat with the surgical lesion rose rapidly for a few months, then reached a plateau as a direct result of the surgical procedure. After the procedure, the rat with the impaired hypothalamus ate voraciously while the paired rat's appetite decreased. The paired rat became obviously thin throughout the experiment, even rejecting food when it was offered."
      },
      {
        "title": "Musculoskeletal causes of back pain",
        "text": "Musculoskeletal causes of back pain\n--Description.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain in fish",
        "text": "Scientists have also proposed that in conjunction with argument-by-analogy, criteria of physiology or behavioural responses can be used to assess the possibility of non-human animals perceiving pain. The following is a table of criteria suggested by Sneddon \"et al.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Weight training",
        "text": "An exercise should be halted if marked or sudden pain is felt, to prevent further injury. However, not all discomfort indicates injury. Weight training exercises are brief but very intense, and many people are unaccustomed to this level of effort. The expression \"no pain, no gain\" refers to working through the discomfort expected from such vigorous effort, rather than to willfully ignore extreme pain, which may indicate serious soft tissue injuries. The focus must be proper form, not the amount of weight lifted."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What negative consequences has exercise physiology discovered?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "That's a really broad question! Would you like me to narrow it down to the negative consequences it discovered about dehydration, Cerebral autoregulation, hyperthermia, fatigue, or something else?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Could you tell me about the negative consequences found for the cerebral autoregulation?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I don't have an specific example of the negative consequences of cerebral autoregulation, but the brain's priority to cardiac output can be impaired slightly by exhaustive exercise."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What selective breeding experiments have been done with rodents to study Exercise physiology?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Laboratory rats have been bred for high or low performance on a motorized treadmill with electrical stimulation as motivation, and in an experimental evolution approach, four replicate lines of laboratory mice have been bred for high levels of voluntary exercise on wheels, while four additional control lines are maintained by breeding without regard to the amount of wheel running."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I want to learn about the body pain caused by exercise please."
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Pain can be both an immediate effect from stimulation of free nerve endings by low pH as well as delayed onset muscle soreness. That is from ruptures within the muscle but not the whole muscle fibers and pain can range from mild soreness to debilitating injury.",
      "Physical exercise may cause pain both as an immediate effect that may result from stimulation of free nerve endings by low pH, as well as a delayed onset muscle soreness. Muscle pain can range from a mild soreness to a debilitating injury depending on intensity of exercise, level of training, and other factors; preliminary evidence suggests that moderate intensity continuous training may increase someone's pain threshold."
    ],
    "topic": "Exercise physiology",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise physiology:36",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise physiology",
          "Exercise-induced muscle pain"
        ],
        "ctx": "Physical exercise may cause pain both as an immediate effect that may result from stimulation of free nerve endings by low pH, as well as a delayed onset muscle soreness. The delayed soreness is fundamentally the result of ruptures within the muscle, although apparently not involving the rupture of whole muscle fibers."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise physiology:37",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise physiology",
          "Exercise-induced muscle pain"
        ],
        "ctx": "Muscle pain can range from a mild soreness to a debilitating injury depending on intensity of exercise, level of training, and other factors."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise physiology:36",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise physiology",
          "Exercise-induced muscle pain"
        ],
        "ctx": "Physical exercise may cause pain both as an immediate effect that may result from stimulation of free nerve endings by low pH, as well as a delayed onset muscle soreness. The delayed soreness is fundamentally the result of ruptures within the muscle, although apparently not involving the rupture of whole muscle fibers."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise physiology:37",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise physiology",
          "Exercise-induced muscle pain"
        ],
        "ctx": "Muscle pain can range from a mild soreness to a debilitating injury depending on intensity of exercise, level of training, and other factors."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise physiology:38",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise physiology",
          "Exercise-induced muscle pain"
        ],
        "ctx": "There is some preliminary evidence to suggest that moderate intensity continuous training has the ability to increase someone's pain threshold."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Physical exercise may cause pain both as an immediate effect that may result from stimulation of free nerve endings by low pH, as well as a delayed onset muscle soreness. The delayed soreness is fundamentally the result of ruptures within the muscle, although apparently not involving the rupture of whole muscle fibers."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Muscle pain can range from a mild soreness to a debilitating injury depending on intensity of exercise, level of training, and other factors."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical education",
        "text": "According to the World Health Organization, it is suggested that young children should be participating in 60 minutes of exercise per day at least 3 times per week in order to maintain a healthy body."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Physical Activity Guidelines",
        "text": "Overweight and obese \u2013 Begin slowly, working up to 60 minutes per day of moderate to vigorous activity, being sure to not overdo it to cause injury, then increase to 60\u201390 minutes to avoid weight gain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans",
        "text": "Aerobic: Most of the 60 minutes or more per day should be either moderate- or vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity and should include vigorous intensity physical activity on at least 3 days a week.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Humans have a high capacity to expend energy for many hours during sustained exertion. For example, one individual cycling at a speed of through over 50 consecutive days expended a total of 1,145 MJ (273,850 kcal; 273,850 dieter calories) with an average power output of 182.5 W."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical fitness",
        "text": "To achieve some of these benefits, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention suggests at least 30\u201360 minutes of exercise 3-5 times a week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Total energy expenditure (TEE) due to muscular expended energy is much higher and depends upon the average level of physical work and exercise done during a day. Thus exercise, particularly if sustained for very long periods, dominates the energy metabolism of the body. Physical activity energy expenditure correlates strongly with the gender, age, weight, heart rate, and VO2 max of an individual, during physical activity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "The American Academy of Neurology's January 2018 update of their clinical practice guideline for mild cognitive impairment states that clinicians should recommend regular exercise (two times per week) to individuals who have been diagnosed with this condition. This guidance is based upon a moderate amount of high-quality evidence which supports the efficacy of regular physical exercise (twice weekly over a 6-month period) for improving cognitive symptoms in individuals with mild cognitive impairment."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lack of physical education",
        "text": "The European Physical Education Association recommends daily physical education in elementary grades up to 11 or 12 years of age and 3 hours per week in post-elementary and high school grades.\n* Physical education\n*Active design\n*Exercise\n*Exercise trends\n* Sedentary lifestyle\n* Fitness professional\n* Sport psychology\n* Gym\n* ParticipACTION"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of health articles",
        "text": "\u2013 Physical exercise"
      },
      {
        "title": "National Physical Activity Guidelines",
        "text": "Children (5\u201312) \u2013 At least 60 minutes (up to several hours is recommended) of moderate to vigorous physical activity per day, with focus on developing motor skills and having fun \u2013 no more than two hours per day surfing the net, watching TV or playing video games."
      },
      {
        "title": "Rudolph E. Tanzi",
        "text": "E - Exercise - 20\u201330 minutes of moderate exercise a day"
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans",
        "text": "Muscle-strengthening: As part of their 60 minutes or more of daily physical activity, children and adolescents should include muscle-strengthening physical activity on at least 3 days a week.<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Exercise physiology\n--History.\n--Energy expenditure.\n--Metabolic changes.\n----Rapid energy sources.\n----Plasma glucose.\n----Oxygen.\n----Dehydration.\n--Brain.\n----Cerebral oxygen.\n----Glucose.\n----Hyperthermia.\n--Fatigue.\n----Intense activity.\n----Endurance failure.\n----Central governor.\n----Other factors.\n--Cardiac biomarkers.\n--Human adaptations.\n--Selective breeding experiments with rodents.\n--Exercise-induced muscle pain.\n--Education in exercise physiology.\n----Curriculum.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of health articles",
        "text": "\u2013 Exercise physiology"
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of exercise",
        "text": "Exercise physiology\n* Aerobic exercise\n* Anaerobic exercise\n* Exercise induced nausea\n* Grip strength\n* Muscle hypertrophy\n* Overtraining\n* Stretching\n* Supercompensation\n* Warming up\n* Weight cutting\n* Weight loss"
      },
      {
        "title": "No pain, no gain",
        "text": "In the phrase, Franklin's central thesis was that everyone should exercise 45 minutes each day."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Exercise physiology is the physiology of physical exercise. It is one of the allied health professions that involves the study of the acute responses and chronic adaptations to exercise. Exercise Physiologists are the highest qualified exercise professionals and utilise education, lifestyle intervention and specific forms of exercise to rehabilitate and manage acute and chronic injuries and conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lack of physical education",
        "text": "The Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology also recommends that children ages 5 to 17 limit their sedentary activities, such as television and video games, sedentary transport, and extensive sitting. It is advised that children limit their recreational screen time to a maximum of 120 minutes a day."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Physical Activity Guidelines",
        "text": "Youth (12\u201318) \u2013 At least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity per day and no more than two hours using electronic media (unless educational)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical activity",
        "text": "4. Muscle-strengthening activities should be done involving major muscle groups on 2 or more days a week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical activity",
        "text": "5. Muscle-strengthening activities should be done involving major muscle groups, on 2 or more days a week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "The curriculum for exercise physiology includes biology, chemistry, and applied sciences. The purpose of the classes selected for this major is to have a proficient understanding of human anatomy, human physiology, and exercise physiology. Includes instruction in muscular and skeletal anatomy; molecular and cellular basis of muscle contraction; fuel utilization; neurophysiology of motor mechanics; systemic physiological responses (respiration, blood flow, endocrine secretions, and others); fatigue and exhaustion; muscle and body training; physiology of specific exercises and activities; physiology of injury; and the effects of disabilities and disease. Not only is a full class schedule needed to complete a degree in Exercise Physiology, but a minimum amount of practicum experience is required and internships are recommended."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Physical Activity Guidelines",
        "text": "2.\" Be active every day in as many ways as possible. \""
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of exercise",
        "text": "Remote physiological monitoring"
      },
      {
        "title": "Metabolic equivalent of task",
        "text": "The American College of Sports Medicine and American Heart Association guidelines count periods of at least 10 minutes of moderate MET level activity towards their recommended daily amounts of exercise. For healthy adults aged 18 to 65, the guidelines recommend moderate exercise for 30 minutes five days a week, or vigorous aerobic exercise for 20 minutes three days a week."
      },
      {
        "title": "National Physical Activity Guidelines",
        "text": "3.\" Put together at least 30 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity on most, preferably all days.\""
      },
      {
        "title": "Dysmenorrhea",
        "text": "There is some evidence that exercises performed 3 times a week for about 45 to 60 minutes, without particular intensity, reduces menstrual pain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Myofascial trigger point",
        "text": "Physical exercise aimed at controlling posture, stretching, and proprioception have all been studied with no conclusive results. However, exercise proved beneficial to help reduce pain and severity of symptoms that one felt. Muscular contractions that occur during exercise favor blood flow to areas that may be experiencing less than normal flow. This also causes a localized stretching effect on the fascia and may help relieve the abnormally tight fascia. Evidence that supports these exercises for a treatment is scarce, but physical exercise can be beneficial in reducing the intensity of pain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "There is some preliminary evidence to suggest that moderate intensity continuous training has the ability to increase someone's pain threshold."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiotherapy (journal)",
        "text": "Physiotherapy (journal)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical education",
        "text": "In England, pupils in years 7, 8, and 9 are expected to do two hours of exercise per week. Pupils in years 10 and 11 are expected to do one hour of exercise per week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "Children who are overweight and participate in physical exercise experience a greater loss of body fat and increased cardiovascular fitness. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States, children and adolescents should do 60 minutes or more of physical activity each day. Implementing physical exercise in the school system and ensuring an environment in which children can reduce barriers to maintain a healthy lifestyle is essential."
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenneth H. Cooper",
        "text": "Cooper instead recommended a \"12-minute test\" (the Cooper test) followed by adherence to the appropriate starting-up schedule in his book. As always, he recommends that a physical exam should precede any exercise program."
      },
      {
        "title": "American Society of Exercise Physiologists",
        "text": "American Society of Exercise Physiologists\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "This energy expenditure is very large compared to the basal resting metabolic rate of the adult human body. This rate varies somewhat with size, gender and age but is typically between 45 W and 85 W."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical activity",
        "text": "The World Health Organization recommend the following:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Pain assessment",
        "text": "Intramuscular: 30 minutes."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans",
        "text": "Bone-strengthening: As part of their 60 minutes or more of daily physical activity, children and adolescents should include bone-strengthening physical activity on at least 3 days a week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Journal of Physiotherapy",
        "text": "Journal of Physiotherapy\n--History.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Skeletal muscle",
        "text": "Delayed onset muscle soreness is pain or discomfort that may be felt one to three days after exercising and generally subsides two to three days later. Once thought to be caused by lactic acid build-up, a more recent theory is that it is caused by tiny tears in the muscle fibers caused by eccentric contraction, or unaccustomed training levels. Since lactic acid disperses fairly rapidly, it could not explain pain experienced days after exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical fitness",
        "text": "Physical fitness\n--Overview.\n--Activity guidelines.\n--Exercise.\n----Aerobic exercise.\n----Anaerobic exercise.\n--Training.\n----High intensity interval training.\n--Effects.\n----Controlling blood pressure.\n----Cancer prevention.\n----Inflammation.\n----Immune system.\n----Weight control.\n----Menopause and physical fitness.\n----Mental health.\n--History.\n--Education.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "BASFI",
        "text": "9. Doing physically demanding activities (e.g. physiotherapy exercises, gardening or sports)?"
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of exercise",
        "text": "Stretching \u2013\n* Ballistic stretching\n* Dynamic stretching\n* PNF stretching\n* Static stretching\n** Passive stretching\n* Altitude training\n* Ballistic training\n* Boxing training\n* Circuit training\n* Complex training\n* Cross training\n* Endurance training\n** Long slow distance\n* Grip strength training\n* Interval training\n* Plyometrics (jump training)\n* Power training\n* Strength training\n** High intensity training\n** Suspension training\n** Weight training\n*** Resistance training\n*** Training to failure\n* Physical therapy\n* Pilates\n* Yoga\n* Exercise trends\n* Aerobic conditioning\n* Neurobiological effects of physical exercise - improves:\n** Executive function\n** Memory\n** Stress management\n* Physical fitness, including improving and maintaining these aspects of it:\n** Accuracy\n** Agility\n** Balance\n** Coordination\n** Endurance\n** Flexibility\n** Power\n** Speed\n** Stamina\n** Strength\n* Prevention \u2013 exercise helps prevent:\n** Cancer\n** Drug addiction\n** Hypertension\n** Major depressive disorder\n** Neurodegenerative disorders\n** Obesity\n** Osteoporosis\n** Type 2 Diabetes\n* Cramps\n* Dehydration\n* Heat stroke\n* Overtraining\n* Sports injury\n** Sprain \u2013 pull or rupture ligaments\n** Strain \u2013 pull or rupture muscles\n** Tendon rupture\n*** Achilles tendon rupture\n* Reps \u2013\n* Sets \u2013\n* Workout \u2013\n* Warm up \u2013\n* Ripped \u2013\n* Buff \u2013\n* Recovery \u2013\n;Nutritional\n* Formula \u2013\n* Dietary supplement \u2013\n* Protein \u2013\n* Whey protein \u2013\n* Energy drink \u2013\n* Snack bar \u2013\n* Amino acid \u2013\n* Creatine\n* Vitamin B2\n* Vitamin B6\n* Vitamin B12\n;Biological\n* Muscle\n* Muscle tissue\n* Muscle fiber\n* Joint\n* Tendon\n* Aerobic exercise \u00a7 History\n* Bodybuilding \u00a7 History\n* Exercise \u00a7 History\n* Exercise physiology \u00a7 History\n* Exercise trends\n* Fitness boot camp \u00a7 History\n* Fitness culture\n* Physical culture\n* Outdoor fitness \u00a7 History"
      },
      {
        "title": "Skeletal muscle",
        "text": "Physical exercise is often recommended as a means of improving motor skills, fitness, muscle and bone strength, and joint function. Exercise has several effects upon muscles, connective tissue, bone, and the nerves that stimulate the muscles. One such effect is muscle hypertrophy, an increase in size of muscle due to an increase in the number of muscle fibers or cross-sectional area of myofibrils. Muscle changes depend on the type of exercise used."
      },
      {
        "title": "Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy",
        "text": "Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical activity",
        "text": "4. Adults of this age group, with poor mobility, should perform physical activity to enhance balance and prevent falls on 3 or more days per week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Exercise for diabetes:"
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert J. T. Joy",
        "text": "American Physiological Society<br>"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kinesiology",
        "text": "The study of the physiological responses to physical exercise and their therapeutic applications is known as exercise physiology, which is an important area of research within kinesiology."
      },
      {
        "title": "Frenkel exercises",
        "text": "Although the technique is simple, needs virtually no exercise equipment, and can be done on one's own, concentration and some degree of perseverance is required. Research has shown that 20,000 to 30,000 repetitions may be required to produce results. A simple calculation will show that this can be achieved by doing 60 repetitions every hour for six weeks in a 16-hour daily waking period. The repetitions will take just a few minutes every hour."
      },
      {
        "title": "SAID principle",
        "text": "In physical rehabilitation and sports training, the SAID principle asserts that the human body adapts specifically to imposed demands. It demonstrates that, given stressors on the human system, whether biomechanical or neurological, there will be a \"Specific Adaptation to Imposed Demands\" (SAID). For example, by only doing pull-ups on the same regular pull-up bar, the body becomes adapted to this specific physical demand, but not necessarily to other climbing patterns or environments."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of health articles",
        "text": "\u2013 Physical fitness"
      },
      {
        "title": "Schofield equation",
        "text": "These are as follows:\n*Sedentary people of both genders should multiply by 1.3. Sedentary is very physically inactive, inactive in both work and leisure.\n*Lightly active men should multiply by 1.6 and women by 1.5. Lightly active means the daily routine includes some walking, or intense exercise once or twice per week. Most students are in this category.\n*Moderately active men should multiply by 1.7 and women by 1.6. Moderately active means intense exercise lasting 20\u201345 minutes at least three time per week, or a job with a lot of walking, or a moderate intensity job.\n*Very Active men should multiply by 2.1 and women by 1.9. Very active means intense exercise lasting at least an hour per day, or a heavy physical job, such as a mail carrier or an athlete in training.\n*Extremely active men should multiply by 2.4 and women by 2.2. Extremely active means an athlete on an unstoppable training schedule or a very demanding job, such as working in the armed forces or shoveling coal."
      },
      {
        "title": "Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise",
        "text": "Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Sun Salutation",
        "text": "The energy cost of exercise is measured in units of metabolic equivalent of task (MET). Less than 3 METs counts as light exercise; 3 to 6 METs is moderate; 6 or over is vigorous. American College of Sports Medicine and American Heart Association guidelines count periods of at least 10 minutes of moderate MET level activity towards their recommended daily amounts of exercise. For healthy adults aged 18 to 65, the guidelines recommend moderate exercise for 30 minutes five days a week, or vigorous aerobic exercise for 20 minutes three days a week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neijia",
        "text": "Much time may nevertheless be spent on basic physical training, such as stance training (\"zhan zhuang\"), stretching and strengthening of muscles, as well as on empty hand and weapon forms which can be quite demanding."
      },
      {
        "title": "Robert W. Smith (writer)",
        "text": "\u201cIf you exercise, make sure you do it consistently, whether twice a day or twice a week.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Christopher Reeve",
        "text": "Reeve exercised for up to four or five hours a day, using specialized exercise machines to stimulate his muscles and prevent muscle atrophy and osteoporosis. He believed that intense physical therapy could regenerate the nervous system, and also wanted his body to be strong enough to support itself if a cure for paralysis were found. Starting in 2000, he started to regain the ability to make small movements in his fingers and other parts of his body, and by 2002 reported that he could sense hot and cold temperatures on 65% of his body. Reeve's doctors were shocked by his improvements, which they attributed to his intensive exercise regimen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical activity",
        "text": "1. Children and youth aged 5\u201317 should accumulate at least 60 minutes of moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity daily."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Skeletal muscle burns 90\u00a0mg (0.5 mmol) of glucose each minute during continuous activity (such as when repetitively extending the human knee), generating \u224824 W of mechanical energy, and since muscle energy conversion is only 22\u201326% efficient, \u224876 W of heat energy. Resting skeletal muscle has a basal metabolic rate (resting energy consumption) of 0.63 W/kg making a 160 fold difference between the energy consumption of inactive and active muscles. For short duration muscular exertion, energy expenditure can be far greater: an adult human male when jumping up from a squat can mechanically generate 314 W/kg. Such rapid movement can generate twice this amount in nonhuman animals such as bonobos, and in some small lizards."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exertion",
        "text": "Exertion\n--Physical.\n--Physiological.\n--Psychological.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Skeletal muscle",
        "text": "At rest it consumes 54.4 kJ/kg\u00a0(13.0\u00a0kcal/kg) per day. This is larger than adipose tissue (fat) at 18.8\u00a0kJ/kg (4.5\u00a0kcal/kg), and bone at 9.6\u00a0kJ/kg (2.3\u00a0kcal/kg)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "Exercise\n--Classification.\n--Health effects.\n----Fitness.\n----Cardiovascular system.\n----Immune system.\n----Cancer.\n----Neurobiological.\n------Depression.\n----Sleep.\n----Libido.\n--Mechanism of effects.\n----Skeletal muscle.\n----Other peripheral organs.\n----Central nervous system.\n--Public health measures.\n--Exercise trends.\n----Social and cultural variation.\n--Nutrition and recovery.\n--Excessive exercise.\n--History.\n--Other animals.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical fitness",
        "text": "The WCRF/AICR recommendations include the following:\n* Be as lean as possible without becoming underweight.\n* Each week, adults should engage in at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity or 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity physical activity.\n* Children should engage in at least one hour of moderate or vigorous physical activity each week.\n* Be physically active for at least thirty minutes every day.\n* Avoid sugar, and limit the consumption of energy-packed foods.\n* Balance one's diet with a variety of vegetables, grains, fruits, legumes, etc.\n* Limit sodium intake and the consumption of red meats and processed meats.\n* Limit alcoholic drinks to two for men and one for women a day."
      },
      {
        "title": "COVID-19",
        "text": "Consistently meeting scientific guidelines of 150+ minutes per week of exercise or similar physical activity was shown to be associated with a smaller risk of hospitalisation and death due to COVID\u201119, even when considering likely risk factors such as elevated Body mass index (BMI)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Exercise physiologists study the effect of exercise on pathology, and the mechanisms by which exercise can reduce or reverse disease progression."
      },
      {
        "title": "Strength training",
        "text": "A wide spectrum of regimens can be adopted to achieve different results, but the classic formula recommended by the American College of Sports Medicine is:\n* 8 to 12 repetitions of a resistance training exercise for each major muscle group at an intensity of 40% to 80% of a one-repetition max (RM) depending on the training level of the participant.\n* Two to three minutes of rest is recommended between exercise sets to allow for proper recovery.\n* Two to four sets are recommended for each muscle group"
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical education",
        "text": "In Wales, pupils are expected to do two hours of PE a week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Colleges and universities offer exercise physiology as a program of study on various different levels, including undergraduate, graduate degrees and certificates, and doctoral programs. The basis of Exercise Physiology as a major is to prepare students for a career in field of health sciences. A program that focuses on the scientific study of the physiological processes involved in physical or motor activity, including sensorimotor interactions, response mechanisms, and the effects of injury, disease, and disability. Includes instruction in muscular and skeletal anatomy; molecular and cellular basis of muscle contraction; fuel utilization; neurophysiology of motor mechanics; systemic physiological responses (respiration, blood flow, endocrine secretions, and others); fatigue and exhaustion; muscle and body training; physiology of specific exercises and activities; physiology of injury; and the effects of disabilities and disease. Careers available with a degree in Exercise Physiology can include: non-clinical, client-based work; strength and conditioning specialists; cardiopulmonary treatment; and clinical-based research."
      },
      {
        "title": "Lack of physical education",
        "text": "The Canadian Physical Activity guidelines for children ages 5 to 17 consist of at least 1 hour of daily physical activity. Their exercise should range in intensity from moderate (inducing light perspiration and harder breathing) to vigorous (inducing heavy perspiration and heavy breathing). Examples of moderate exercise include bike riding and playground activities, and examples of vigorous exercise include running and swimming. It is recommended that they engage in both vigorous activities and activities strengthening bone and muscles at least three times a week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Defence Institute of Physiology and Allied Sciences",
        "text": "Exercise Physiology"
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical fitness",
        "text": "For physical fitness activity to benefit an individual, the exertion must trigger a sufficient amount of stimuli. Exercise with the correct amount of intensity, duration, and frequency can produce a significant amount of improvement. The person may overall feel better, but the physical effects on the human body take weeks or months to notice\u2014and possibly years for full development. For training purposes, exercise must provide a stress or demand on either a function or tissue. To continue improvements, this demand must eventually increase little over an extended period of time. This sort of exercise training has three basic principles: overload, specificity, and progression. These principles are related to health but also enhancement of physical working capacity."
      },
      {
        "title": "N. Kesavan",
        "text": "College of Physiotherapy"
      },
      {
        "title": "Yoga as exercise",
        "text": "The energy cost of exercise is measured in units of metabolic equivalent of task (MET). Less than 3 METs counts as light exercise; 3 to 6 METs is moderate; 6 or over is vigorous. American College of Sports Medicine and American Heart Association guidelines count periods of at least 10 minutes of moderate MET level activity towards their recommended daily amounts of exercise. For healthy adults aged 18 to 65, the guidelines recommend moderate exercise for 30 minutes five days a week, or vigorous aerobic exercise for 20 minutes three days a week."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiology of decompression",
        "text": "Blood flow to skin and fat are affected by skin and core temperature, and resting muscle perfusion is controlled by the temperature of the muscle itself. During exercise increased flow to the working muscles is often balanced by reduced flow to other tissues, such as kidneys, spleen, and liver."
      },
      {
        "title": "Doctor of Physiotherapy",
        "text": "Doctor of Physiotherapy\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Exercise Physiologists treat a range of neurological conditions including (but not limited to): Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, Traumatic Brain Injury, Spinal Cord Injury, Cerebral Palsy and mental health conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cognition",
        "text": "Physical exercise"
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical fitness",
        "text": "The 2018 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans were released by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to provide science-based guidance for people ages 3 years and older to improve their health by participating in regular physical activity. These guidelines recommend that all adults should move more and sit less throughout the day to improve health-related quality of life including mental, emotional, and physical health. For substantial health benefits, adults should perform at least 150 to 300 minutes of moderate-intensity, or 75 to 150 minutes per week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or an equivalent combination of both spread throughout the week. The recommendation for physical activity to occur in bouts of at least 10 minutes has been eliminated, as new research suggests that bouts of any length contribute to the health benefits linked to the accumulated volume of physical activity. Additional health benefits may be achieved by engaging in more than 300 minutes (5 hours) of moderate-intensity physical activity per week. Adults should also do muscle-strengthening activities that are of moderate or greater intensity and involve all major muscle groups on two or more days a week, as these activities provide additional health benefits."
      },
      {
        "title": "Meniscus tear",
        "text": "Patients begin exercises in phase III 14 to 22 weeks after surgery. Phase III's goal and final criterion is to perform sport/work specific movements with no pain or swelling (Fowler, PJ and D. Pompan, 1993). Drills for maximal muscle control, strength, flexibility, movements specific to patient's work/sport, low to high rate exercises, and abdominal and back strengthening exercises are all recommended exercises (Ulrich G.S., and S Aroncyzk, 1993). Exercises to increase cardiovascular fitness are also applied to fully prepare the patients to return to their desired activities."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of physiology",
        "text": "By approach\n* Applied physiology\n** Clinical physiology\n** Exercise physiology\n** Nutrition physiology\n* Comparative physiology\n* Mathematical physiology\n* Yoga physiology"
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of health articles",
        "text": "\u2013 Physical therapy"
      },
      {
        "title": "American Society of Exercise Physiologists",
        "text": "ASEP has created a Code of Ethics and a Board of Accreditation that has accredited seven academic institutions. Its Board of Certification has certified over 200 EPCs in the United States. ASEP leaders believe that exercise physiology is not defined by research, but by the power of exercise as medicine. They believe exercise physiology is the recognition of the physiology that underpins activity; the delivery of health and fitness analysis, improvement and maintenance; the rehabilitation of heart disease and other chronic diseases and disabilities; and the supervision of athletes and people with an interest in athletics and sports training."
      },
      {
        "title": "Journal of Musculoskeletal Pain",
        "text": "Journal of Musculoskeletal Pain\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiological effects in space",
        "text": "Evidence exists that exercise strategies are effective in attenuating muscle strength loss in bed rest. Bamman et al. preserved pre-bed rest muscle strength of the thigh and calf in subjects who performed resistive exercise with loads equivalent to 80\u201385% of their pre-bed rest strength (Repetition maximum test). Protection of muscle volume occurred through the maintenance of protein synthesis, which also likely influenced muscle strength. Similarly, Akima et al. were able to maintain isometric peak torque in subjects who performed daily maximal isometric contractions of the knee extensors during 20 days of bed rest. Using an aggressive resistive exercise training protocol, Shackelford et al. preserved isokinetic muscle strength and observed substantial increases in isotonic muscle strength over the course of 89 days of bed rest in exercising subjects. Using a flywheel resistive exercise device, Alkner and Tesch prevented the loss of muscle mass and strength in the thigh and attenuated the losses in the calf."
      },
      {
        "title": "Fran\u00e7oise Brochard-Wyart",
        "text": "Prix Jean Ricard from the French Physical Society (Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 fran\u00e7aise de physique) in 1998."
      },
      {
        "title": "Delayed onset muscle soreness",
        "text": "The soreness is felt most strongly 24 to 72 hours after the exercise. It is thought to be caused by eccentric (lengthening) exercise, which causes small-scale damage (microtrauma) to the muscle fibers. After such exercise, the muscle adapts rapidly to prevent muscle damage, and thereby soreness, if the exercise is repeated."
      },
      {
        "title": "History of physical training and fitness",
        "text": "Calisthenics\n*Marching 25Km in 5 hours\n*Marching 12K with 20\u00a0kg of weight\n*Running\n*Horse riding including the specific practicing of mounting and dismounting techniques.\n*Hunting\n*Swimming"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Humans are specifically adapted to engage in prolonged strenuous muscular activity (such as efficient long distance bipedal running). This capacity for endurance running may have evolved to allow the running down of game animals by persistent slow but constant chase over many hours."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical Therapy (journal)",
        "text": "Physical Therapy (journal)\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Delayed onset muscle soreness",
        "text": "Although there is variance among exercises and individuals, the soreness usually increases in intensity in the first 24 hours after exercise. It peaks from 24 to 72 hours, then subsides and disappears up to seven days after exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical activity",
        "text": "2. Aerobic activity should be performed in bouts of at least 10 minutes duration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical activity",
        "text": "2. Aerobic activity should be performed in bouts of at least 10 minutes duration."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of health articles",
        "text": "\u2013 Physical education"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "At rest, the human brain receives 15% of total cardiac output, and uses 20% of the body's energy consumption. The brain is normally dependent for its high energy expenditure upon aerobic metabolism. The brain as a result is highly sensitive to failure of its oxygen supply with loss of consciousness occurring within six to seven seconds, with its EEG going flat in 23 seconds. Therefore, the brain's function would be disrupted if exercise affected its supply of oxygen and glucose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Society of General Physiologists",
        "text": "2009 Muscle in Health and Disease"
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiological Reviews",
        "text": "Physiological Reviews\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Physical activity epidemiology",
        "text": "Physical activity is defined as any voluntary body movement requiring energy expenditure produced by skeletal muscles. Insufficient physical activity is defined as physical inactivity. Sufficient physical activity is defined as adults having at least 150 minutes of moderate physical activity, or at least 75 minutes of vigorous physical activity per week, or any combination of the two. Insufficient physical activity would hence be defined as the inability to meet the aforementioned WHO recommendations. Insufficient physical activity has been linked to prevention of several chronic diseases and premature deaths as compared to sufficient physical activity."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What negative consequences has exercise physiology discovered?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "That's a really broad question! Would you like me to narrow it down to the negative consequences it discovered about dehydration, Cerebral autoregulation, hyperthermia, fatigue, or something else?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Could you tell me about the negative consequences found for the cerebral autoregulation?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I don't have an specific example of the negative consequences of cerebral autoregulation, but the brain's priority to cardiac output can be impaired slightly by exhaustive exercise."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What selective breeding experiments have been done with rodents to study Exercise physiology?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Laboratory rats have been bred for high or low performance on a motorized treadmill with electrical stimulation as motivation, and in an experimental evolution approach, four replicate lines of laboratory mice have been bred for high levels of voluntary exercise on wheels, while four additional control lines are maintained by breeding without regard to the amount of wheel running."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I want to learn about the body pain caused by exercise please."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Pain can be both an immediate effect from stimulation of free nerve endings by low pH as well as delayed onset muscle soreness. That is from ruptures within the muscle but not the whole muscle fibers and pain can range from mild soreness to debilitating injury."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How much physical exercise is recommended per day?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "There is no clear answer as in terms of health benefits, the amount of recommended exercise depends upon the goal, the type of exercise, and the age of the person.",
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I couldn't find a definitive answer, but I did learn that In terms of health benefits, the amount of recommended exercise depends upon the goal, the type of exercise, and the age of the person. Even doing a small amount of exercise is healthier than doing none."
    ],
    "topic": "Exercise physiology",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise"
        ],
        "ctx": "In terms of health benefits, the amount of recommended exercise depends upon the goal, the type of exercise, and the age of the person. Even doing a small amount of exercise is healthier than doing none."
      },
      {
        "passage_id": "Exercise:3",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Exercise"
        ],
        "ctx": "In terms of health benefits, the amount of recommended exercise depends upon the goal, the type of exercise, and the age of the person. Even doing a small amount of exercise is healthier than doing none."
      }
    ]
  },
  {
    "ctxs": [
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "At rest, the human brain receives 15% of total cardiac output, and uses 20% of the body's energy consumption. The brain is normally dependent for its high energy expenditure upon aerobic metabolism. The brain as a result is highly sensitive to failure of its oxygen supply with loss of consciousness occurring within six to seven seconds, with its EEG going flat in 23 seconds. Therefore, the brain's function would be disrupted if exercise affected its supply of oxygen and glucose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Vigorous physical activity (such as exercise or hard labor) increases the body's demand for oxygen. The first-line physiologic response to this demand is an increase in heart rate, breathing rate, and depth of breathing."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Cerebral autoregulation usually ensures the brain has priority to cardiac output, though this is impaired slightly by exhaustive exercise. During submaximal exercise, cardiac output increases and cerebral blood flow increases beyond the brain's oxygen needs. However, this is not the case for continuous maximal exertion: \"Maximal exercise is, despite the increase in capillary oxygenation [in the brain], associated with a reduced mitochondrial O2 content during whole body exercise\" The autoregulation of the brain's blood supply is impaired particularly in warm environments"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hemoencephalography",
        "text": "A large group of researchers headed up by Dr. Hershel Toomim and his wife Marjorie have repeatedly found that NIR HEG training can consciously enhance regional cerebral oxygenation to specific areas of the brain and result in increased performance on cognitive tasks. It is widely known that regular cardiovascular exercise results in increased cerebral blood flow due to increased vascularization of the capillaries feeding neuronal tissue. Toomim, Mize, Kwong \"et al.\" found that after only ten 30-minute sessions of HEG brain exercise training, participants with various neurological disorders showed increases in attention and decreases in impulsivity to within normal levels. A subset of participants also experienced increases in cerebral vascularization similar to those witnessed upon increasing physical activity. More importantly, degree of improvement was found to be reliably related to the initial TOVA score of each participant, with the lowest initial TOVA scores exhibiting the greatest improvement."
      },
      {
        "title": "Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption",
        "text": "The EPOC effect clearly increases with the intensity of the exercise, and (at least in the case of aerobic exercise, perhaps also for anaerobic) the duration of the exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Exercise physiology\n--History.\n--Energy expenditure.\n--Metabolic changes.\n----Rapid energy sources.\n----Plasma glucose.\n----Oxygen.\n----Dehydration.\n--Brain.\n----Cerebral oxygen.\n----Glucose.\n----Hyperthermia.\n--Fatigue.\n----Intense activity.\n----Endurance failure.\n----Central governor.\n----Other factors.\n--Cardiac biomarkers.\n--Human adaptations.\n--Selective breeding experiments with rodents.\n--Exercise-induced muscle pain.\n--Education in exercise physiology.\n----Curriculum.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Arteriovenous oxygen difference",
        "text": "Physical exercise leads to an increase in the arteriovenous oxygen difference in all individuals. As exercise intensities increase, the muscles increase the amount of oxygen they extract from the blood, and this therefore results in further increases in a-vO2 diff."
      },
      {
        "title": "Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption",
        "text": "Studies comparing intermittent and continuous exercise consistently show a greater EPOC response for higher intensity, intermittent exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Exercise fatigue has also been suggested to be affected by:\n* brain hyperthermia\n* glycogen depletion in brain cells\n* reactive oxygen species impairing skeletal muscle function\n* reduced level of glutamate secondary to uptake of ammonia in the brain\n* Fatigue in diaphragm and abdominal respiratory muscles limiting breathing\n* Impaired oxygen supply to muscles\n* Ammonia effects upon the brain\n* Serotonin pathways in the brain"
      },
      {
        "title": "Aerospace physiology",
        "text": "Hypoxia is the principal stimulus that increases the number of erythrocytes, increasing the hematocrit from 40 up to 60%, with an increase of the hemoglobin concentration in blood from 15 g/dl up to 20\u201321 g/dl. Also the blood volume increases 20% producing an increase of the corporal hemoglobin up 15% or more. A person that stays for a period of time at higher altitudes acclimates, producing fewer effects over the human body. There are several mechanisms that help with acclimation, which are an increase of pulmonary ventilation, higher erythrocytes levels, increase of the pulmonary diffusion capacity and increase of the vascularization of the peripheral tissues."
      },
      {
        "title": "Respiratory adaptation",
        "text": "Exercise increases the vascularization of the lungs. This allows the more blood flow in and out of the lungs. This enhances the uptake of oxygen, since there is greater surface area for blood to bind with haemoglobin."
      },
      {
        "title": "Remote ischemic conditioning",
        "text": "Reduced cerebral blood flow is an early finding in vascular cognitive impairment (VCI). Cardiovascular risk factor control is currently the only management option for VCI, but observational studies suggest that exercise slows down cognitive decline. In a mouse model that reproduced the damage seen in patients with VCI (white matter damage, cerebral hypoperfusion, inflammation, blood\u2013brain barrier damage, and cognitive deficits), daily RIC for two weeks increased cerebral blood flow, and this increase persisted for one week after cessation of conditioning. Moreover, mice that underwent RIC had less inflammation, less white and gray matter damage, less \u03b2\u2011amyloid deposition, and improved cognition."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Oxygen consumption (VO2) during exercise is best described by the Fick Equation: VO2=Q x (a-vO2diff), which states that the amount of oxygen consumed is equal to cardiac output (Q) multiplied by the difference between arterial and venous oxygen concentrations. More simply put, oxygen consumption is dictated by the quantity of blood distributed by the heart as well as the working muscle's ability to take up the oxygen within that blood; however, this is a bit of an oversimplification. Although cardiac output is thought to be the limiting factor of this relationship in healthy individuals, it is not the only determinant of VO2 max. That is, factors such as the ability of the lung to oxygenate the blood must also be considered. Various pathologies and anomalies cause conditions such as diffusion limitation, ventilation/perfusion mismatch, and pulmonary shunts that can limit oxygenation of the blood and therefore oxygen distribution. In addition, the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood is also an important determinant of the equation. Oxygen carrying capacity is often the target of exercise (ergogenic aids) aids used in endurance sports to increase the volume percentage of red blood cells (hematocrit), such as through blood doping or the use of erythropoietin (EPO). Furthermore, peripheral oxygen uptake is reliant on a rerouting of blood flow from relatively inactive viscera to the working skeletal muscles, and within the skeletal muscle, capillary to muscle fiber ratio influences oxygen extraction."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "is a neurotrophic and angiogenic (i.e., blood vessel growth-promoting) signaling protein that binds to two receptor tyrosine kinases, VEGFR1 and VEGFR2, which are expressed in neurons and glial cells in the brain. Hypoxia, or inadequate cellular oxygen supply, strongly upregulates VEGF expression and VEGF exerts a neuroprotective effect in hypoxic neurons. Like and , aerobic exercise has been shown to increase VEGF biosynthesis in peripheral tissue which subsequently crosses the blood\u2013brain barrier and promotes neurogenesis and blood vessel formation in the central nervous system. Exercise-induced increases in VEGF signaling have been shown to improve cerebral blood volume and contribute to exercise-induced neurogenesis in the hippocampus."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Humans use sweat thermoregulation for body heat removal, particularly to remove the heat produced during exercise. Moderate dehydration as a consequence of exercise and heat is reported to impair cognition. These impairments can start after body mass lost that is greater than 1%. Cognitive impairment, particularly due to heat and exercise is likely to be due to loss of integrity to the blood brain barrier. Hyperthermia also can lower cerebral blood flow, and raise brain temperature."
      },
      {
        "title": "Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption",
        "text": "Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption\n--Duration of the effect.\n--Size of the EPOC effect.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "The effects of physical exercise on the central nervous system are mediated in part by specific neurotrophic factor hormones that are released into the blood stream by muscles, including BDNF, IGF-1, and VEGF."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Protecting the brain from even minor disruption is important since exercise depends upon motor control. Because humans are bipeds, motor control is needed for keeping balance. For this reason, brain energy consumption is increased during intense physical exercise due to the demands in the motor cognition needed to control the body."
      },
      {
        "title": "Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure",
        "text": "There is much more information available regarding aerobic exercise and ICP. The only known study to examine ICP during aerobic exercise by invasive means showed that ICP decreased in patients with intracranial hypertension and those with normal ICP. They suggested that because aerobic exercise is generally done without Valsalva maneuvers, it is unlikely that ICP will increase during exercise. Other studies show global brain blood flow increases 20\u201330% during the transition from rest to moderate exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure",
        "text": "More recent work has shown that an increase in exercise intensity up to 60% VO2max results in an increase in CBF, after which CBF decreases towards (and sometimes below) baseline values with increasing exercise intensity."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "Reviews of neuroimaging studies indicate that consistent aerobic exercise increases gray matter volume in nearly all regions of the brain, with more pronounced increases occurring in brain regions associated with memory processing, cognitive control, motor function, and reward; the most prominent gains in gray matter volume are seen in the prefrontal cortex, caudate nucleus, and hippocampus, which support cognitive control and memory processing, among other cognitive functions. Moreover, the left and right halves of the prefrontal cortex, the hippocampus, and the cingulate cortex appear to become more functionally interconnected in response to consistent aerobic exercise. Three reviews indicate that marked improvements in prefrontal and hippocampal gray matter volume occur in healthy adults that regularly engage in medium intensity exercise for several months. Other regions of the brain that demonstrate moderate or less significant gains in gray matter volume during neuroimaging include the anterior cingulate cortex, parietal cortex, cerebellum, and nucleus accumbens."
      },
      {
        "title": "Arteriovenous oxygen difference",
        "text": "Research has shown that following the commencement of exercise there is a delay in the increase of the a-vO2 diff, and that a-vO2 diff only has a marginal impact in the total change in VO2 in the early stages of exercise. The bulk of the early increase in oxygen consumption after a sudden change in exercise levels results from increased cardiac output. However it has also been found that the increase in the maximal a-vO2 diff resulting from adaptations to a physical training program can account for most of the difference in VO2 max in subjects participating in sub-maximal exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Blood doping",
        "text": "The body undergoes aerobic respiration in order to provide sufficient delivery of O2 to the exercising skeletal muscles and the main determining factors are shown in figure 1. The rate of maximum O2 uptake (O2max) depends on cardiac output, O2 extraction and hemoglobin mass. The cardiac output of an athlete is difficult to manipulate during competitions and the distribution of cardiac output is at the maximum rate (i.e. 80%) during competitions. In addition, the O2 extraction is approximately 90% at maximal exercise. Therefore, the only method to enhance the physical performance left is to increase the O2 content in the artery by enhancing the hemoglobin mass. In other words, hemoglobin concentration and blood volume contribute to hemoglobin mass."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "The are numerous and involve a wide range of interrelated effects on brain structure, brain function, and cognition. A large body of research in humans has demonstrated that consistent aerobic exercise (e.g., 30\u00a0minutes every day) induces persistent improvements in certain cognitive functions, healthy alterations in gene expression in the brain, and beneficial forms of neuroplasticity and behavioral plasticity; some of these long-term effects include: increased neuron growth, increased neurological activity (e.g., and BDNF signaling), improved stress coping, enhanced cognitive control of behavior, improved declarative, spatial, and working memory, and structural and functional improvements in brain structures and pathways associated with cognitive control and memory. The effects of exercise on cognition have important implications for improving academic performance in children and college students, improving adult productivity, preserving cognitive function in old age, preventing or treating certain neurological disorders, and improving overall quality of life."
      },
      {
        "title": "Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption",
        "text": "The EPOC effect is greatest soon after the exercise is completed and decays to a lower level over time. One experiment, involving exertion above baseline, found EPOC increasing metabolic rate to an excess level that decays to 13% three hours after exercise, and 4% after 16 hours, for the studied exercise dose. Another study, specifically designed to test whether the effect existed for more than 16 hours, conducted tests for 48 hours after the conclusion of the exercise and found measurable effects existed up to the 38-hour post-exercise measurement, for the studied exercise dose."
      },
      {
        "title": "Peripheral chemoreceptors",
        "text": "Several studies suggest peripheral chemoreceptors play a role in ventilation during exercise. However, there is disagreement about whether they perform an excitatory or inhibitory role. Several studies point to increased circulation of catecholamine or potassium during exercise as a potential effector on peripheral chemoreceptors; however, the specifics of this effect are not yet understood. All suggestions of peripheral chemoreceptor involvement conclude that they are not solely accountable for this response, emphasizing that these receptors are only one in a suite of oxygen-sensing cells that can respond in times of stress. Collecting information on carotid and aortic body activity in live, exercising humans is fraught with difficulty and often only indicates indirect evidence, so it is hard to draw expansive conclusions until more evidence has been amassed, and hopefully with more advanced techniques."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "Animal studies have also shown that exercise can impact brain development early on in life. Mice that had access to running wheels and other such exercise equipment had better neuronal growth in the neural systems involved in learning and memory. Neuroimaging of the human brain has yielded similar results, where exercise leads to changes in brain structure and function. Some investigations have linked low levels of aerobic fitness in children with impaired executive function in older adults, but there is mounting evidence it may also be associated with a lack of selective attention, response inhibition, and interference control."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "The various functions of the brain structures that show exercise-induced increases in gray matter volume include:\n* Prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortices\u00a0\u2013 required for the cognitive control of behavior, particularly: working memory, attentional control, decision-making, cognitive flexibility, social cognition, and inhibitory control of behavior; implicated in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and addiction\n* Nucleus accumbens\u00a0\u2013 responsible for incentive salience (\"wanting\" or desire, the form of motivation associated with reward) and positive reinforcement; implicated in addiction\n* Hippocampus\u00a0\u2013 responsible for storage and consolidation of declarative memory and spatial memory; implicated in depression\n* Cerebellum\u00a0\u2013 responsible for motor coordination and motor learning\n* Caudate nucleus\u00a0\u2013 responsible for stimulus-response learning and inhibitory control; implicated in Parkinson's disease and ADHD\n* Parietal cortex\u00a0\u2013 responsible for sensory perception, working memory, and attention"
      },
      {
        "title": "Hypoventilation training",
        "text": "When exercise is being performed, if the exhale-hold technique is properly applied, a decrease in O2 concentrations and an increase in CO2 concentrations occur in the lungs, the blood and the muscles. The combined effect of hypoxia and hypercapnia act as a strong stimulus whose main consequence is to increase lactic acid and hydrogen ions production, and therefore to provoke a strong acidosis in the body. Thus, during exercise with hypoventilation, the blood and muscle acid\u2013base homeostasis is highly disturbed. The studies have also reported an increase in all heart activity when hypoventilation is carried out in terrestrial sports. Cardiac output, heart rate, stroke volume and sympathetic modulation to the heart are greater when exercise with hypoventilation is performed in running or cycling. A slightly higher blood pressure has also been recorded. In swimming on the other hand, no significant change in the heart activity has been found."
      },
      {
        "title": "Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption",
        "text": "In recovery, oxygen (EPOC) is used in the processes that restore the body to a resting state and adapt it to the exercise just performed. These include: hormone balancing, replenishment of fuel stores, cellular repair, innervation, and anabolism. Post-exercise oxygen consumption replenishes the phosphagen system. New ATP is synthesized and some of this ATP donates phosphate groups to creatine until ATP and creatine levels are back to resting state levels again. Another use of EPOC is to fuel the body\u2019s increased metabolism from the increase in body temperature which occurs during exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Index of health articles",
        "text": "\u2013 Exercise physiology"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Understanding the effect of exercise involves studying specific changes in muscular, cardiovascular, and neurohumoral systems that lead to changes in functional capacity and strength due to endurance training or strength training. The effect of training on the body has been defined as the reaction to the adaptive responses of the body arising from exercise or as \"an elevation of metabolism produced by exercise\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "In adults, exercise depletes the plasma glucose available to the brain: short intense exercise (35 min ergometer cycling) can reduce brain glucose uptake by 32%."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aquatic respiration",
        "text": "The respiratory rhythm is modulated to adapt to the oxygen consumption of the body. As observed in mammals, fish \u201cbreathe\u201d faster and heavier when they do physical exercise. The mechanisms by which these changes occur have been subject to debate . The views can be classified as either that the major part of the respiratory changes are pre-programmed in the brain, which would imply that neurons from locomotion centers of the brain connect to respiratory centers in anticipation of movements, or that the major part of the respiratory changes result from the detection of muscle contraction, and that respiration is adapted as a consequence of muscular contraction and oxygen consumption. The latter view would imply that the brain possesses some kind of detection mechanisms that would trigger a respiratory response when muscular contraction occurs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diving reflex",
        "text": "Aerobic diving capacity is limited by available oxygen and the rate at which it is consumed. Diving mammals and birds have a considerably greater blood volume than terrestrial animals of similar size, and in addition have a far greater concentration of haemoglobin and myoglobin, and this haemoglobin and myoglobin is also capable of carrying a higher oxygen load. During diving, the hematocrit and hemoglobin are temporarily increased by reflex splenic contraction, which discharges a large additional amount of red blood cells. The brain tissue of diving mammals also contains higher levels of neuroglobin and cytoglobin than terrestrial animals."
      },
      {
        "title": "Benefits of physical activity",
        "text": "Exercise affects the brain on multiple fronts. It increases heart rate, which pumps more oxygen to the brain. It also aids the bodily release of a plethora of hormones, all of which participate in aiding and providing a nourishing environment for the growth of brain cells."
      },
      {
        "title": "Respiratory adaptation",
        "text": "Respiratory adaptation begins almost immediately after the initiation of the physical stress associated with exercise. This triggers signals from the motor cortex that stimulate the respiratory center of the brain stem, in conjunction with feedback from the proprioreceptors in the muscles and joints of the active limbs."
      },
      {
        "title": "Type 3 diabetes",
        "text": "Physical exercise increases the amount of blood flow through the brain while simultaneously causing the growth of brain cells known as neurogenesis. One hundred and twenty minutes of aerobic exercise and multiple strength sessions a week are suggested to maintain and increase memory function in the patient. Mental stimulation is also recommended for patients. Brain aerobic activities such as reading and puzzles are endorsed to test and stimulate cognitive functioning while creative activities like painting and viewing art also activate the conditioning of the brain"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise-associated hyponatremia",
        "text": "In addition to the above treatments, athletes experiencing EAH encephalopathy may also receive high-flow oxygen and a rapid infusion of 100 ml of 3% NaCl to reduce brain edema."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aerospace physiology",
        "text": "Arterial chemical receptors are stimulated by exposure to a low partial pressure and hence increase alveolar ventilation, up to a maximum of 1.65 times. Almost immediately, compensation for the higher altitude begins with an increase of pulmonary ventilation eliminating a large amount CO2. Carbon dioxide partial pressure reduces and corporal fluids pH increase. These actions inhibit the respiratory center of the encephalic trunk, but later this inhibition disappears and the respiratory center responds to the stimulation of the peripheral chemical receptors because of the hypoxia increasing ventilation up to six times."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oxygen therapy",
        "text": "Decreased cerebral blood flow and ICP have been reported in hyperoxic conditions, with mixed results regarding impact on cognition. Hyperoxia as also been associated with seizures, cataract formation, and reversible myopia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diving reflex",
        "text": "Aquatic mammals seldom dive beyond their aerobic diving limit, which is related to the myoglobin oxygen stored. The muscle mass of aquatic mammals is relatively large, so the high myoglobin content of their skeletal muscles provides a large reserve. Myoglobin-bound oxygen is only released in relatively hypoxic muscle tissue, so the peripheral vasoconstriction due to the diving reflex makes the muscles ischaemic and promotes early use of myoglobin bound oxygen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Altitude training",
        "text": "Possible physiological advantages from RSH include compensatory vasodilation and regeneration of phosphocreatine (PCr). The body's tissues have the ability to sense hypoxia and induce vasodilation. The higher blood flow helps the skeletal muscles maximize oxygen delivery. A greater level of PCr resynthesis augments the muscles power production during the initial stages of high-intensity exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerebral hypoxia",
        "text": "The brain requires approximately 3.3\u00a0ml of oxygen per 100\u00a0g of brain tissue per minute. Initially the body responds to lowered blood oxygen by redirecting blood to the brain and increasing cerebral blood flow. Blood flow may increase up to twice the normal flow but no more. If the increased blood flow is sufficient to supply the brain's oxygen needs then no symptoms will result."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "In July 2020 scientists reported that after mice exercise their livers secrete the protein GPLD1, which is also elevated in elderly humans who exercise regularly, that this is associated with improved cognitive function in aged mice and that increasing the amount of GPLD1 produced by the mouse liver in old mice via genetic engineering could yield many benefits of regular exercise for their brains \u2013 such as increased BDNF-levels, neurogenesis, and improved cognitive functioning in tests."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "Neuroplasticity is the process by which neurons adapt to a disturbance over time, and most often occurs in response to repeated exposure to stimuli. Aerobic exercise increases the production of neurotrophic factors (e.g., BDNF, IGF-1, VEGF) which mediate improvements in cognitive functions and various forms of memory by promoting blood vessel formation in the brain, adult neurogenesis, and other forms of neuroplasticity. Consistent aerobic exercise over a period of several months induces clinically significant improvements in executive functions and increased gray matter volume in nearly all regions of the brain, with the most marked increases occurring in brain regions that give rise to executive functions. The brain structures that show the greatest improvements in gray matter volume in response to aerobic exercise are the prefrontal cortex, caudate nucleus, and hippocampus; less significant increases in gray matter volume occur in the anterior cingulate cortex, parietal cortex, cerebellum, and nucleus accumbens. The prefrontal cortex, caudate nucleus, and anterior cingulate cortex are among the most significant brain structures in the dopamine and norepinephrine systems that give rise to cognitive control. Exercise-induced neurogenesis (i.e., the increases in gray matter volume) in the hippocampus is associated with measurable improvements in spatial memory. Higher physical fitness scores, as measured by VO2 max, are associated with better executive function, faster information processing speed, and greater gray matter volume of the hippocampus, caudate nucleus, and nucleus accumbens. Long-term aerobic exercise is also associated with persistent beneficial epigenetic changes that result in improved stress coping, improved cognitive function, and increased neuronal activity ( and BDNF signaling)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerebral edema",
        "text": "Additionally, ventilation with use of positive pressure (PEEP) can improve oxygenation with the negative effect of decreasing cerebral venous drainage and increasing intracranial pressure (ICP), and thus, must be used with caution."
      },
      {
        "title": "Oxygen cascade",
        "text": "Table 1 gives the example of a typical oxygen cascade for a skeletal muscle of healthy, adult male at rest who is breathing air at atmospheric pressure. Actual values in a person may vary widely due to ambient conditions, health status, tissue type, and metabolic demands."
      },
      {
        "title": "Control of ventilation",
        "text": "The concentration of CO2 rises in the blood when the metabolic use of O2, and the production of CO2 is increased during, for example, exercise. The CO2 in the blood is transported largely as bicarbonate (HCO3\u2212) ions, by conversion first to carbonic acid (H2CO3), by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, and then by disassociation of this acid to H+ and HCO3\u2212. Build-up of CO2 therefore causes an equivalent build-up of the disassociated hydrogen ions, which, by definition, decreases the pH of the blood. The pH sensors on the brain stem immediately respond to this fall in pH, causing the respiratory center to increase the rate and depth of breathing. The consequence is that the partial pressure of CO (PCO2) does not change from rest going into exercise. During very short-term bouts of intense exercise the release of lactic acid into the blood by the exercising muscles causes a fall in the blood plasma pH, independently of the rise in the PCO2, and this will stimulate pulmonary ventilation sufficiently to keep the blood pH constant at the expense of a lowered PCO2."
      },
      {
        "title": "Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure",
        "text": "Although the exact cause is not known, it is suspected that microgravity-induced cephalad fluid shift and comparable physiological changes play a significant role in these changes. Other contributing factors may include pockets of increased CO2 and an increase in sodium intake. It seems unlikely that resistive or aerobic exercise are contributing factors, but they may be potential countermeasures to reduce intraocular pressure (IOP) or intracranial pressure (ICP) in-flight."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "In healthy adults, aerobic exercise has been shown to induce transient effects on cognition after a single exercise session and persistent effects on cognition following regular exercise over the course of several months. People who regularly perform aerobic exercise (e.g., running, jogging, brisk walking, swimming, and cycling) have greater scores on neuropsychological function and performance tests that measure certain cognitive functions, such as attentional control, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, working memory updating and capacity, declarative memory, spatial memory, and information processing speed. The transient effects of exercise on cognition include improvements in most executive functions (e.g., attention, working memory, cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, problem solving, and decision making) and information processing speed for a period of up to 2\u00a0hours after exercising."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hypoxemia",
        "text": "Exercise-induced arterial hypoxemia occurs during exercise when a trained individual exhibits an arterial oxygen saturation below 93%. It occurs in fit, healthy individuals of varying ages and genders. Adaptations due to training include an increased cardiac output from cardiac hypertrophy, improved venous return, and metabolic vasodilation of muscles, and an increased VO2 max. There must be a corresponding increase in VCO2 thus a necessity to clear the carbon dioxide to prevent a metabolic acidosis. Hypoxemia occurs in these individuals due to increased pulmonary blood flow causing:\n*Reduced capillary transit time due to an increased blood flow within the pulmonary capillary. Capillary transit time (tc), at rest is around 0.8s, allowing plenty of time for the diffusion of oxygen into the circulation and the diffusion of CO2 out of the circulation. After training, the capillary volume is still the same however cardiac output is increased, resulting in a decreased capillary transit time, reducing to around 0.16s in trained individuals at maximal work rates. This does not give sufficient time for gas diffusion and results in a hypoxemia.\n*Intrapulmonary arteriovenous shunts are dormant capillaries within the lungs that become recruited when venous pressures become too high. They are normally located within deadspace area where gas diffusion does not occur, thus the blood passing through does not become oxygenated resulting in a hypoxemia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Entorhinal cortex",
        "text": "A study finds that regardless of gender, young adults who have greater aerobic fitness also have greater volume of their entorhinal cortex. It suggests that aerobic exercise may have a positive effect on the medial temporal lobe memory system (which includes the entorhinal cortex) in healthy young adults. This also suggests that exercise training, when designed to increase aerobic fitness, might have a positive effect on the brain in healthy young adults"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cardiac output",
        "text": "With a resting cardiac output of 5 L/min, a 'normal' oxygen delivery is around 1 L/min. The amount/percentage of the circulated oxygen consumed (VO2) per minute through metabolism varies depending on the activity level but at rest is circa 25% of the DO2. Physical exercise requires a higher than resting-level of oxygen consumption to support increased muscle activity. In the case of heart failure, actual CO may be insufficient to support even simple activities of daily living; nor can it increase sufficiently to meet the higher metabolic demands stemming from even moderate exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiology of decompression",
        "text": "Variations in perfusion distribution do not necessarily affect respiratory inert gas exchange, though some gas may be locally trapped by changes in perfusion. Rest in a cold environment will reduce inert gas exchange from skin, fat and muscle, whereas exercise will increase gas exchange. Exercise during decompression can reduce decompression time and risk, providing bubbles are not present, but can increase risk if bubbles are present."
      },
      {
        "title": "Cardiorespiratory fitness",
        "text": "Another important issue is the regulation of blood flow during exercise. Blood flow must increase in order to provide the working muscle with more oxygenated blood which can be accomplished through neural and chemical regulation. Blood vessels are under sympathetic tone; therefore, the release of noradrenaline and adrenaline will cause vasoconstriction of non-essential tissues such as the liver, intestines, and kidneys, and decrease neurotransmitter release to the active muscles promoting vasodilatation. Also, chemical factors such as a decrease in oxygen concentration and an increase in carbon dioxide or lactic acid concentration in the blood promote vasodilatation to increase blood flow. As a result of increased vascular resistance, blood pressure rises throughout exercise and stimulates baroreceptors in the carotid arteries and aortic arch. \u201cThese pressure receptors are important since they regulate arterial blood pressure around an elevated systemic pressure during exercise\u201d."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "At rest, energy for the adult brain is normally provided by glucose but the brain has a compensatory capacity to replace some of this with lactate. Research suggests that this can be raised, when a person rests in a brain scanner, to about 17%, with a higher percentage of 25% occurring during hypoglycemia. During intense exercise, lactate has been estimated to provide a third of the brain's energy needs. There is evidence that the brain might, however, in spite of these alternative sources of energy, still suffer an energy crisis since IL-6 (a sign of metabolic stress) is released during exercise from the brain."
      },
      {
        "title": "Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption",
        "text": "EPOC is accompanied by an elevated consumption of fuel. In response to exercise, fat stores are broken down and free fatty acids (FFA) are released into the blood stream. In recovery, the direct oxidation of free fatty acids as fuel and the energy consuming re-conversion of FFAs back into fat stores both take place."
      },
      {
        "title": "Respiratory system",
        "text": "Exercise increases the breathing rate due to the extra carbon dioxide produced by the enhanced metabolism of the exercising muscles. In addition passive movements of the limbs also reflexively produce an increase in the breathing rate."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise",
        "text": "Exercise\n--Classification.\n--Health effects.\n----Fitness.\n----Cardiovascular system.\n----Immune system.\n----Cancer.\n----Neurobiological.\n------Depression.\n----Sleep.\n----Libido.\n--Mechanism of effects.\n----Skeletal muscle.\n----Other peripheral organs.\n----Central nervous system.\n--Public health measures.\n--Exercise trends.\n----Social and cultural variation.\n--Nutrition and recovery.\n--Excessive exercise.\n--History.\n--Other animals.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Athletic heart syndrome",
        "text": "The level of physical activity in a person determines what physiological changes the heart makes. The two types of exercise are static (strength-training) and dynamic (endurance-training). Static exercise consists of weight lifting and is mostly anaerobic, meaning the body does not rely on oxygen for performance. It also moderately increases heart rate and stroke volume (oxygen debt). Dynamic exercises include running, swimming, skiing, rowing, and cycling, which rely on oxygen from the body. This type of exercise also increases both heart rate and stroke volume of the heart. Both static and dynamic exercises involve the thickening of the left ventricular wall due to increased cardiac output, which leads to physiologic hypertrophy of the heart. Once athletes stop training, the heart returns to its normal size."
      },
      {
        "title": "Eccentric training",
        "text": "With lower cost of oxygen how would eccentric exercise affect the heart?"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerebral hypoxia",
        "text": "Brain damage can occur both during and after oxygen deprivation. During oxygen deprivation, cells die due to an increasing acidity in the brain tissue (acidosis). Additionally, during the period of oxygen deprivation, materials that can easily create free radicals build up. When oxygen enters the tissue these materials interact with oxygen to create high levels of oxidants. Oxidants interfere with the normal brain chemistry and cause further damage (this is known as \"reperfusion injury\")."
      },
      {
        "title": "Myokine",
        "text": "\"BDNF appears to play a role in both neurobiology and metabolism. Studies have demonstrated that physical exercise may increase circulating BDNF levels in humans. To identify whether the brain is a source of BDNF during exercise, eight volunteers rowed for 4 h while simultaneous blood samples were obtained from the radial artery and the internal jugular vein. To further identify the putative cerebral region(s) responsible for BDNF release, mouse brains were dissected and analysed for BDNF mRNA expression following treadmill exercise. In humans, a BDNF release from the brain was observed at rest and increased 2- to 3-fold during exercise. Both at rest and during exercise, the brain contributed 70\u201380% of the circulating BDNF, while this contribution decreased following 1 h of recovery. In mice, exercise induced a 3- to 5-fold increase in BDNF mRNA expression in the hippocampus and cortex, peaking 2 h after the termination of exercise. These results suggest that the brain is a major but not the sole contributor to circulating BDNF. Moreover, the importance of the cortex and hippocampus as sources of plasma BDNF becomes even more prominent in the response to exercise.\u201d"
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Exercise Physiologists treat a range of neurological conditions including (but not limited to): Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, Traumatic Brain Injury, Spinal Cord Injury, Cerebral Palsy and mental health conditions."
      },
      {
        "title": "Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption",
        "text": "Studies show that the EPOC effect exists after both aerobic exercise and anaerobic exercise. In a 1992 Purdue study, results showed that high intensity, anaerobic type exercise resulted in a significantly greater magnitude of EPOC than aerobic exercise of equal work output. For exercise regimens of comparable duration and intensity, aerobic exercise burns more calories during the exercise itself, but the difference is partly offset by the higher increase in caloric expenditure that occurs during the EPOC phase after anaerobic exercise. Anaerobic exercise in the form of high-intensity interval training was also found in one study to result in greater loss of subcutaneous fat, even though the subjects expended fewer than half as many calories during exercise. Whether this result was caused by the EPOC effect has not been established, and the caloric content of the participants' diet was not controlled during this particular study period."
      },
      {
        "title": "Incremental exercise",
        "text": "Incremental exercise\n--Physiological effects.\n----Contributions of the energy systems.\n----Ventilation threshold.\n--Methods and training plans.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Kenneth H. Cooper",
        "text": "Cooper studied the effect of exercise in the late 1960s and popularized the term \"training effect\" although that term had been used before. The measured effects were that muscles of respiration were strengthened, the heart was strengthened, blood pressure was sometimes lowered and the total amount of blood and number of red blood cells increased, making the blood a more efficient carrier of oxygen. VO2 Max was increased. He published his ideas in a book, \"Aerobics\" in 1968."
      },
      {
        "title": "Remote ischemic conditioning",
        "text": "The procedure involves repeated, temporary cessation of blood flow to a limb to create ischemia (lack of oxygen and glucose) in the tissue. This \"conditioning\" activates the body's natural protective physiology against reperfusion injury and the tissue damage caused by low oxygen levels\u2014a protection present in many mammals. RIC essentially mimics the cardio-protective effects of exercise; in fact, exercise can be considered a form of RIC in which the stimulus is distant from the organ being protected. RIC has been termed \"exercise in a device\", especially suited for patients who are unable or unwilling to work out."
      },
      {
        "title": "1952 British Cho Oyu expedition",
        "text": "According to Pugh and Wood in 1953, the principal findings from experiments carried out on Menlung La at in 1952 were:\n* The more oxygen breathed the greater the subjective benefit\n* The weight to a large extent offset increased performance\n* The minimum required was a flow rate of 4 litres/minute; prewar 1, 2 or 2.25 litres/minute had been used\n* There was a great reduction in pulmonary ventilation\n* There was a great relief in the feeling of heaviness and fatigue in the legs (although it was not tested whether endurance was improved)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Diving reflex",
        "text": "During sustained breath-holding while submerged, blood oxygen levels decline while carbon dioxide and acidity levels rise, stimuli that collectively act upon chemoreceptors located in the bilateral carotid bodies. As sensory organs, the carotid bodies convey the chemical status of the circulating blood to brain centers regulating neural outputs to the heart and circulation. Preliminary evidence in ducks and humans indicates that the carotid bodies are essential for these integrated cardiovascular responses of the diving response, establishing a \"chemoreflex\" characterized by parasympathetic (slowing) effects on the heart and sympathetic (vasoconstrictor) effects on the vascular system."
      },
      {
        "title": "Adolescence",
        "text": "Pubertal development also affects circulatory and respiratory systems as an adolescents' heart and lungs increase in both size and capacity. These changes lead to increased strength and tolerance for exercise. Sex differences are apparent as males tend to develop \"larger hearts and lungs, higher systolic blood pressure, a lower resting heart rate, a greater capacity for carrying oxygen to the blood, a greater power for neutralizing the chemical products of muscular exercise, higher blood hemoglobin and more red blood cells\"."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiological effects in space",
        "text": "As in spaceflight, adaptations to unloading can be observed after short-duration bed rest. For example, after 20 d of bed rest, volume of quadriceps muscle decreased by 8%, hamstrings decreased by 10%, and plantar flexor muscles were reduced by 14%. During a longer, 89-d bed rest, greater reductions in muscle volume in the quadriceps (\u221215%), hamstrings (\u221213%), soleus (\u221229%), and gastrocnemius (\u221228%) were reported. In a 90-day bed rest trial, a 26% \u00b1 7 decline in the CSA of the calf muscle was observed. This rate of decline is consistent with earlier measurements in which after 90 days of bed rest, a roughly 15% decline in quadriceps and hamstring muscle volume measured by MRI scans were noted in two subjects. Reductions in muscle strength were also demonstrated in these studies."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hemoencephalography",
        "text": "Both approaches to hemoencephalography, near infrared and passive infrared, are indirect measures of neural activity based on neurovascular coupling. Neurovascular coupling is the mechanism by which cerebral blood flow is matched to metabolic activity. When a region of the cortex is used in a specific cognitive task, neuronal activity in that region increases, consequently increasing local metabolic rate. To keep up with the nutritional and waste removal demands of a higher metabolic rate, cerebral blood flow to the cortical area in use must increase proportionally. Along with the increase in flow, hemoglobin molecules in the blood, which are responsible for the transport and transference of oxygen to tissue throughout the body, must increase the amount of oxygen they deliver to the activated region of the cortex, resulting in a greater local blood oxygenation level. This is also referred to as the haemodynamic response."
      },
      {
        "title": "Outline of exercise",
        "text": "Exercise physiology\n* Aerobic exercise\n* Anaerobic exercise\n* Exercise induced nausea\n* Grip strength\n* Muscle hypertrophy\n* Overtraining\n* Stretching\n* Supercompensation\n* Warming up\n* Weight cutting\n* Weight loss"
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiology of underwater diving",
        "text": "Diving vertebrates have increased the amount of oxygen stored in their internal tissues. This oxygen store has three components, oxygen contained in the air in the lungs, oxygen stored by haemoglobin in the blood, and by myoglobin, in muscle tissue, The muscle and blood of diving vertebrates have greater concentrations of haemoglobin and myoglobin than terrestrial animals. Myoglobin concentration in locomotor muscles of diving vertebrates is up to 30 times more than in terrestrial relatives. Haemoglobin is increased by both a relatively larger amount of blood and a larger proportion of red blood cells in the blood compared with terrestrial animals. The highest values are found in the mammals which dive deepest and longest."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiological effects in space",
        "text": "However, since the mean fiber size was also reduced, the number of capillaries per unit of CSA of skeletal muscle tissue remained the same."
      },
      {
        "title": "Exercise physiology",
        "text": "Tim Noakes, based on an earlier idea by the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winner Archibald Hill has proposed the existence of a central governor. In this, the brain continuously adjusts the power output by muscles during exercise in regard to a safe level of exertion. These neural calculations factor in prior length of strenuous exercise, the planned duration of further exertion, and the present metabolic state of the body. This adjusts the number of activated skeletal muscle motor units, and is subjectively experienced as fatigue and exhaustion. The idea of a central governor rejects the earlier idea that fatigue is only caused by mechanical failure of the exercising muscles (\"peripheral fatigue\"). Instead, the brain models the metabolic limits of the body to ensure that whole body homeostasis is protected, in particular that the heart is guarded from hypoxia, and an emergency reserve is always maintained. The idea of the central governor has been questioned since \u2018physiological catastrophes\u2019 can and do occur suggesting that if it did exist, athletes (such as Dorando Pietri, Jim Peters and Gabriela Andersen-Schiess) can override it."
      },
      {
        "title": "Aerospace physiology",
        "text": "Cardiac output increases up to 30% after a person rises to a high altitude, but it will decrease back to normal levels, depending on the increase of the hematocrit. The quantity of oxygen that goes to the peripheral tissues its relatively normal. Also a disease called \"angiogenia\" appears."
      },
      {
        "title": "Entorhinal cortex",
        "text": "Entorhinal cortex\n--Structure.\n----Connections.\n--Function.\n----Neuron information processing.\n--Clinical significance.\n----Alzheimer's disease.\n----Effect of aerobic exercise.\n"
      },
      {
        "title": "Epigenetics of physical exercise",
        "text": "Physical exercise causes four types of epigenetic alterations that affect cognition. An extensive 2017 review describes effects of exercise on the brain due to (1) DNA methylation, (2) histone acetylation, (3) histone methylation and (4) microRNA expression, and the consequences of these alterations on learning and memory (cognition)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Supravalvular aortic stenosis",
        "text": "With increased metabolic demands (e.g. exercise) such individuals may develop subendocardial or myocardial ischemia due to increased myocardial oxygen demand and seek medical help with symptoms of exercise induced angina."
      },
      {
        "title": "Pulmonary rehabilitation",
        "text": "Exercise is the cornerstone of pulmonary rehabilitation programs. Although exercise training does not \"directly\" improve lung function, it causes several physiological adaptations to exercise that can improve physical condition. There are three basic types of exercises to be considered. Aerobic exercise tends to improve the body's ability to use oxygen by decreasing the heart rate and blood pressure. Strengthening or resistance exercises can help build strength in the respiratory muscles. Stretching and flexibility exercises like yoga and Pilates can enhance breathing coordination. As exercise can trigger shortness of breath, it is important to build up the level of exercise gradually under the supervision of health care professionals (e.g., respiratory therapist, physiotherapist, exercise physiologist). Additionally pursed lip breathing can be used to increase oxygen level in patient's body. Breathing games can be used to motivate patients to learn pursed lip breathing technique."
      },
      {
        "title": "Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure",
        "text": "Thus, data from the Nutrition SMO 016E provide evidence for an alternative hypothesis: that individuals with alterations in this metabolic pathway may be predisposed to anatomic and/or physiologic changes that render them susceptible to ophthalmologic damage during space flight. A follow-up project has been initiated (the \"One Carbon\" study) to follow up and clarify these preliminary findings."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human physiology of underwater diving",
        "text": "Diving vertebrates have increased the amount of oxygen stored in their internal tissues. This oxygen store has three components, oxygen contained in the air in the lungs, oxygen stored by hemoglobin in the blood, and by myoglobin in muscle tissue The muscle and blood of diving vertebrates have greater concentrations of haemoglobin and myoglobin than terrestrial animals. Myoglobin concentration in locomotor muscles of diving vertebrates is up to 30 times more than in terrestrial relatives. Haemoglobin is increased by both a relatively larger amount of blood and a larger proportion of red blood cells in the blood compared with terrestrial animals. The highest values are found in the mammals which dive deepest and longest. Volume of blood is generally relatively large in proportion to body mass, and blood haemoglobin content can be increased during a dive from red blood cells stored in the spleen."
      },
      {
        "title": "Human physiology of underwater diving",
        "text": "The minimum tissue and venous partial pressure of oxygen which will maintain consciousness is about . This is equivalent to approximately in the lungs. Approximately 46\u00a0ml/min oxygen is required for brain function. This equates to a minimum arterial partial pressure of oxygen (formula_1) of at 868\u00a0ml/min cerebral flow."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiology of marathons",
        "text": "An individual running a marathon experiences appropriation of blood to the skeletal muscles. This distribution of blood maximizes oxygen extraction by the skeletal muscles to aerobically produce as much ATP needed to meet demand. To achieve this, blood volume increases. The initial increase in blood volume during marathon running can later lead to decreased blood volume as a result of increased core body temperature, pH changes in skeletal muscles, and the increased dehydration associated with cooling during such exercise. Oxygen affinity of the blood depends on blood plasma volume and an overall decrease in blood volume. Dehydration, temperature and pH differences between the lungs and the muscle capillaries can limit one's ability to fractionally use their aerobic capacity (%VO2Max)."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiology of marathons",
        "text": "The primary components of an individual's VO2Max are the properties of aerobic capacity that influence the fractional use (%VO2Max) of this ability to take up and consume oxygen during exhaustive exercise. The transportation of large amounts of blood to and from the lungs to reach all bodily tissues depends on a high cardiac output and sufficient levels of total body hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is the oxygen carrying protein within blood cells that transports oxygen from the lungs to other bodily tissues via the circulatory system. For effective transportation of oxygen in blood during a marathon, distribution of blood must be efficient. The mechanism that allows for this distribution of oxygen to the muscle cells is muscle blood flow. A 20 fold increase of local blood flow within skeletal muscle is necessary for endurance athletes, like marathon runners, to meet their muscles' oxygen demands at maximal exercise that are up to 50 times greater than at rest. Upon successful transportation and distribution of oxygen in the blood, the extraction and use of the blood within skeletal muscle are what give effect to a marathoner's increased aerobic capacity and the overall improvement of an individual's marathon performance. Extraction of oxygen from the blood is performed by myoglobin within the skeletal muscle cells that accept and store oxygen. These components of aerobic capacity help define the maximal uptake and consumption of oxygen in bodily tissues during exhaustive exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "T43 (classification)",
        "text": "The nature of a person's amputations in this class can effect their physiology and sports performance. People in this class use around 7% more oxygen to walk or run the same distance as someone without a lower limb amputation."
      },
      {
        "title": "Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure",
        "text": "While exercise is used to maintain muscle, bone and cardiac health during spaceflight, its effects on ICP and IOP have yet to be determined. The effects of resistive exercise on the development of ICP remains controversial. An early investigation showed that the brief intrathoracic pressure increase during a Valsalva maneuver resulted in an associated rise in ICP. Two other investigations using transcranial Doppler ultrasound techniques showed that resistive exercise without a Valsalva maneuver resulted in no change in peak systolic pressure or ICP. The effects of resistive exercise in IOP are less controversial. Several different studies have shown a significant increase in IOP during or immediately after resistive exercise."
      },
      {
        "title": "Neurobiological effects of physical exercise",
        "text": "The Caerphilly Prospective study followed 2,375\u00a0male subjects over 30\u00a0years and examined the association between healthy lifestyles and dementia, among other factors. Analyses of the Caerphilly study data have found that exercise is associated with a lower incidence of dementia and a reduction in cognitive impairment. A subsequent systematic review of longitudinal studies also found higher levels of physical activity to be associated with a reduction in the risk of dementia and cognitive decline; this review further asserted that increased physical activity appears to be causally related with these reduced risks."
      },
      {
        "title": "Mouth breathing",
        "text": "A 2018 study suggests that nasal breathing offers a greater advantage over mouth breathing during exercise. Breathing heavily through the mouth instead of through the nose while doing high intensity training will cause an excessive loss of CO2, which is necessary to keep cells oxygenated."
      },
      {
        "title": "Hypoxemia",
        "text": "Respiration is controlled by centers in the medulla, which influence the rate of breathing and the depth of each breath. This is influenced by the blood level of carbon dioxide, as determined by central and peripheral chemoreceptors located in the central nervous system and carotid and aortic bodies, respectively. Hypoxia occurs when the breathing center doesn't function correctly or when the signal is not appropriate:\n* Strokes, epilepsy and cervical neck fractures can all damage the medullary respiratory centres that generates rhythmic impulses and transmit them along the phrenic nerve to the diaphragm, the muscle that is responsible for breathing.\n* A decreased respiratory drive can also be the result of metabolic alkalosis, a state of decreased carbon dioxide in the blood\n* Central sleep apnea. During sleep, the breathing centers of the brain can pause their activity, leading to prolonged periods of apnea with potentially serious consequences.\n* Hyperventilation followed by prolonged breath-holding. This hyperventilation, attempted by some swimmers, reduces the amount of carbon dioxide in the lungs. This reduces the urge to breathe. However, it also means that falling blood oxygen levels are not sensed, and can result in hypoxemia."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiology of underwater diving",
        "text": "Cerebral integrity in Weddell seals is maintained down to an arterial oxygen tension of 10\u00a0mmHg, which is much lower than the critical arterial oxygen tension of 25 to 40\u00a0mmHg at which impairment due to adenosine triphosphate production limitations are detected in brains of terrestrial mammals. Cerebral blood supply is well maintained to the end of a long dive, and glucose supply is fairly well maintained. Endogenous glycogen supplies are greater than in terrestrial mammals, but not large. In the deep-diving hooded seal neuroglobin levels are much the same as in terrestrial animals but are distributed differently, having greater concentrations in glial cells than in neurons, suggesting that glial cells may be more dependent on aerobic metabolism than neurons."
      },
      {
        "title": "Myokine",
        "text": "Physical exercise rapidly triggers substantial changes at the organismal level, including the secretion of myokines and metabolites by muscle cells. For instance, aerobic exercise in humans leads to significant structural alterations in the brain, while wheel-running in rodents promotes neurogenesis and improves synaptic transmission in particular in the hippocampus. Moreover, physical exercise triggers histone modifications and protein synthesis which ultimately positively influence mood and cognitive abilities. Notably, regular exercise is somewhat associated with a better sleep quality, which could be mediated by the muscle secretome."
      },
      {
        "title": "Physiology of underwater diving",
        "text": "On an intentionally long dive, circulation will be shut off to the muscles and viscera from the start of the dive, with profound bradycardia, and the blood oxygen is effectively reserved for the brain. The muscles use the oxygen from myoglobin, then switch to anaerobic metabolism, the same system used by seals on forced dives."
      },
      {
        "title": "Plethysmograph",
        "text": "Cerebral venous blood flow has been recently studied trying to establish a connection between Chronic cerebrospinal venous insufficiency and multiple sclerosis. The small study is not big enough to establish a conclusion, but some association has been shown.\n* Optoelectronic plethysmography\n* Photoplethysmograph\n* Respiratory inductance plethysmography\n* Glaab T, Taube C, Braun A, Mitzner W (2007) Invasive and noninvasive methods for studying pulmonary function in mice. \"Respiratory Research\" 8:63 (free full text article)"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cerebral circulation",
        "text": "For example, assuming a person with an arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2) of 40 mmHg (normal range of 38\u201342 mmHg) and a CBF of 50 ml per 100g per min. If the PaCO2 dips to 30 mmHg, this represents a 10 mmHg decrease from the initial value of PaCO2. Consequently, the CBF decreases by 1ml per 100g per min for each 1mmHg decrease in PaCO2, resulting in a new CBF of 40ml per 100g of brain tissue per minute. In fact, for each 1 mmHg increase or decrease in PaCO2, between the range of 20\u201360 mmHg, there is a corresponding CBF change in the same direction of approximately 1\u20132 ml/100g/min, or 2\u20135% of the CBF value. This is why small alterations in respiration pattern can cause significant changes in global CBF, specially through PaCO2 variations."
      },
      {
        "title": "Myo-inositol trispyrophosphate",
        "text": "Rodent studies \"in vivo\" demonstrated increased tissue oxygenation and dose-dependent increases in endurance during physical exercise, in both healthy mice and transgenic mice expressing a heart failure phenotype."
      },
      {
        "title": "Brain-derived neurotrophic factor",
        "text": "Certain types of physical exercise have been shown to markedly (threefold) increase BDNF synthesis in the human brain, a phenomenon which is partly responsible for exercise-induced neurogenesis and improvements in cognitive function. Niacin appears to upregulate BDNF and tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) expression as well."
      }
    ],
    "messages": [
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What negative consequences has exercise physiology discovered?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "That's a really broad question! Would you like me to narrow it down to the negative consequences it discovered about dehydration, Cerebral autoregulation, hyperthermia, fatigue, or something else?"
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "Could you tell me about the negative consequences found for the cerebral autoregulation?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I don't have an specific example of the negative consequences of cerebral autoregulation, but the brain's priority to cardiac output can be impaired slightly by exhaustive exercise."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What selective breeding experiments have been done with rodents to study Exercise physiology?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Laboratory rats have been bred for high or low performance on a motorized treadmill with electrical stimulation as motivation, and in an experimental evolution approach, four replicate lines of laboratory mice have been bred for high levels of voluntary exercise on wheels, while four additional control lines are maintained by breeding without regard to the amount of wheel running."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "I want to learn about the body pain caused by exercise please."
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "Pain can be both an immediate effect from stimulation of free nerve endings by low pH as well as delayed onset muscle soreness. That is from ruptures within the muscle but not the whole muscle fibers and pain can range from mild soreness to debilitating injury."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "How much physical exercise is recommended per day?"
      },
      {
        "role": "assistant",
        "content": "I couldn't find a definitive answer, but I did learn that In terms of health benefits, the amount of recommended exercise depends upon the goal, the type of exercise, and the age of the person. Even doing a small amount of exercise is healthier than doing none."
      },
      {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "What effects does exercise have on cerebral oxygen?"
      }
    ],
    "answers": [
      "Sorry. I cannot find the answer based on the context.",
      "I don't have any direct information on what exercise does to cerebral oxygen, but cerebral hypoxia can be caused by intense exercise at high altitudes prior to acclimatization."
    ],
    "topic": "Exercise physiology",
    "ground_truth_ctx": [
      {
        "passage_id": "Cerebral hypoxia:7",
        "passage_titles": [
          "Cerebral hypoxia",
          "Causes"
        ],
        "ctx": "Cerebral hypoxia can be caused by any event that severely interferes with the brain's ability to receive or process oxygen. This event may be internal or external to the body. Mild and moderate forms of cerebral hypoxia may be caused by various diseases that interfere with breathing and blood oxygenation. Severe asthma and various sorts of anemia can cause some degree of diffuse cerebral hypoxia. Other causes include status epilepticus, work in nitrogen-rich environments, ascent from a deep-water dive, flying at high altitudes in an unpressurized cabin without supplemental oxygen, and intense exercise at high altitudes prior to acclimatization."
      }
    ]
  }
]